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     Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation

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Python
******

     Python 3.12.12, Ekim 15, 2025

     Author name not set

     Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation

* Menu:

* What’s New in Python::
* Python Öğreticisi::
* Python Setup and Usage::
* Python Dil Referansı::
* Python Standart Kütüphanesi::
* Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme::
* Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu::
* Python Modüllerini Kurmak::
* Python NASIL’ları::
* Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular::
* Deprecations::
* Sözlük::
* About this documentation::
* Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak::
* Telif Hakkı::
* Tarihçe ve Lisans::
* Python Modül Dizini::
* Dizin::

 -- The Detailed Node Listing --

What’s New in Python

* What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12.
* What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11.
* What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10.
* Python 3.9’daki Yenilikler: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler.
* Python 3.8’deki Yenilikler: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler.
* What’s New In Python 3.7: What’s New In Python 3 7.
* What’s New In Python 3.6: What’s New In Python 3 6.
* What’s New In Python 3.5: What’s New In Python 3 5.
* What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4.
* What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3.
* What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2.
* What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1.
* What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0.
* What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7.
* What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6.
* What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5.
* What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4.
* What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3.
* What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2.
* What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1.
* What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0.
* Changelog::

What’s New In Python 3.12

* Summary – Release highlights::
* New Features::
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* Other Language Changes::
* New Modules::
* Improved Modules::
* Optimizations::
* CPython bytecode changes::
* Demos and Tools::
* Deprecated::
* Removed::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Build Changes::
* C API Changes::
* Notable changes in 3.12.4: Notable changes in 3 12 4.
* Notable changes in 3.12.5: Notable changes in 3 12 5.
* Notable changes in 3.12.6: Notable changes in 3 12 6.
* Notable changes in 3.12.8: Notable changes in 3 12 8.
* Notable changes in 3.12.10: Notable changes in 3 12 10.

New Features

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

Improved Modules

* array::
* asyncio::
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis::
* fractions::
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools::
* math::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* platform::
* pdb::
* random::
* shutil::
* sqlite3::
* statistics::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* threading::
* tkinter::
* tokenize::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* unittest::
* uuid::

Deprecated

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.16: Pending Removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions::

Removed

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser::
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum::
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib::
* imp::
* io::
* locale::
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* ssl::
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* webbrowser::
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport::
* Others::

Porting to Python 3.12

* Changes in the Python API::

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<2>.
* Removed: Removed<2>.

Deprecated

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>.

Notable changes in 3.12.4

* ipaddress::

Notable changes in 3.12.5

* email::

Notable changes in 3.12.6

* email: email<2>.

Notable changes in 3.12.8

* sys: sys<2>.

Notable changes in 3.12.10

* os.path: os path<2>.
* tarfile::

What’s New In Python 3.11

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* New Modules: New Modules<2>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* Faster CPython::
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Removed: Removed<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<2>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<2>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.

New Features

* PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
* PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements.

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

Improved Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<2>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* logging::
* math: math<2>.
* operator::
* os: os<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re::
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* string::
* sys: sys<3>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* traceback::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* venv::
* warnings::
* zipfile::

Faster CPython

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* About::

Faster Startup

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::

Faster Runtime

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.

FAQ

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::

CPython bytecode changes

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::

Deprecated

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Standard Library::

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Removed: Removed<4>.

Notable changes in 3.11.4

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.

Notable changes in 3.11.5

* OpenSSL::

What’s New In Python 3.10

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>.
* New Modules: New Modules<3>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<5>.
* Removed: Removed<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<3>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<3>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.

New Features

* Parenthesized context managers::
* Better error messages::
* PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.
* PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching.
* Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option::

Better error messages

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::

PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching

* Syntax and operations::
* Declarative approach::
* Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal.
* Patterns with a literal and variable::
* Patterns and classes::
* Nested patterns::
* Complex patterns and the wildcard::
* Guard::
* Other Key Features::

Simple pattern: match to a literal

* Behavior without the wildcard::

Patterns and classes

* Patterns with positional parameters::

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
* PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
* PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.

Improved Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* argparse::
* array: array<2>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64::
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest::
* encodings::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob::
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* linecache::
* os: os<3>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* site::
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* sys: sys<4>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml::
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.

dataclasses

* __slots__::
* Keyword-only fields::

Porting to Python 3.10

* Changes in the Python syntax::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.
* Changes in the C API::

C API Changes

* PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
* New Features: New Features<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<6>.
* Removed: Removed<6>.

Notable changes in 3.10.12

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.

Python 3.9’daki Yenilikler

* Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları::
* Kodunuzda DeprecationWarning olup olmadığını kontrol etmelisiniz::
* Yeni Özellikler::
* Başka Dil Değişiklikleri::
* Yeni Modüller::
* Geliştirilen Modüller::
* Optimizasyonlar::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<7>.
* Kaldırılanlar::
* Python 3.9’a Taşıma: Python 3 9’a Taşıma.
* Yapı Değişiklikleri::
* C API’sindeki değişiklikler: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>.
* Python 3.9.1’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 9 1’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Python 3.9.2’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 9 2’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

Yeni Özellikler

* Sözlük Birleştirme ve Güncelleme Operatörleri::
* Önekleri ve Sonekleri Kaldırmak için Yeni Dize Yöntemleri::
* Standart Koleksiyonlardaki Tür Dayatma Jenerikleri::
* Yeni Ayrıştırıcı::

Yeni Modüller

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::

Geliştirilen Modüller

* ast::
* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE ve idlelib::
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<3>.
* multiprocessing::
* nntplib::
* os: os<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<2>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<2>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* xml: xml<2>.

Python 3.9’a Taşıma

* Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler::
* C API’sindeki değişiklikler::
* CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri::

C API’sindeki değişiklikler

* Yeni Özellikler: Yeni Özellikler<2>.
* Python 3.9’a Taşıma: Python 3 9’a Taşıma<2>.
* Kaldırılanlar: Kaldırılanlar<2>.

Python 3.9.1’deki önemli değişiklikler

* typing: typing<5>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) ve Apple Silicon Mac desteği: macOS 11 0 Big Sur ve Apple Silicon Mac desteği.

Python 3.9.2’deki önemli değişiklikler

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.

Notable changes in Python 3.9.5

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.

Notable changes in 3.9.17

* tarfile: tarfile<4>.

Python 3.8’deki Yenilikler

* Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları<2>.
* Yeni Özellikler: Yeni Özellikler<3>.
* Diğer Dil Değişiklikleri::
* Yeni Modüller: Yeni Modüller<2>.
* Geliştirilmiş Modüller::
* Optimizasyonlar: Optimizasyonlar<2>.
* Derleme ve C API Değişiklikleri::
* Kullanımdan kaldırıldı::
* API ve Özellik Kaldırmaları::
* Python 3.8’e Taşıma: Python 3 8’e Taşıma.
* Python 3.8.1’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 8 1’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3.
* Python 3.8.8’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 8 8’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>.
* Python 3.8.12’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 8 12’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.

Yeni Özellikler

* Atama ifadeleri::
* Yalnızca konumsal parametreler::
* Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği::
* Hata ayıklama derlemesi, yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır: Hata ayıklama derlemesi yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır.
* kendi kendini belgeleyen ifadeler ve hata ayıklama için f-dizeleri = desteği::
* PEP 578; Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları: PEP 578 Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları.
* PEP 587; Python Başlatma Yapılandırması: PEP 587 Python Başlatma Yapılandırması.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; CPython için hızlı arama protokolü: PEP 590 Vectorcall CPython için hızlı arama protokolü.
* Bant dışı veri tamponlarıyla Pickle protokolü 5::

Geliştirilmiş Modüller

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* builtins::
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes::
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE ve idlelib: IDLE ve idlelib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<2>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* kayıt tutma::
* math: math<4>.
* mmap::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* os: os<5>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* tarfile: tarfile<5>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<3>.
* xmlrpc::

Python 3.8’e Taşıma

* Python davranışındaki değişiklikler::
* Python API’sindeki değişiklikler::
* C API’sindeki değişiklikler: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<3>.
* CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri<2>.
* Demolar ve Araçlar::

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.

Python 3.8.12’deki önemli değişiklikler

* Python API’sindeki değişiklikler: Python API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>.

Notable changes in 3.8.17

* tarfile: tarfile<6>.

What’s New In Python 3.7

* Summary – Release Highlights::
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>.
* New Modules: New Modules<4>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<4>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<4>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals::
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.

New Features

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.

New Modules

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.

Improved Modules

* argparse: argparse<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm::
* decimal::
* dis: dis<2>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<4>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* io: io<3>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<5>.
* mimetypes::
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue::
* re: re<2>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess::
* sys: sys<7>.
* time: time<4>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* xml: xml<4>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<8>.
* wave::

Porting to Python 3.7

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<4>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::

What’s New In Python 3.6

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
* New Features: New Features<8>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>.
* New Modules: New Modules<5>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<8>.
* Removed: Removed<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14.

New Features

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::

New Modules

* secrets::

Improved Modules

* array: array<3>.
* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<3>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<6>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<3>.
* re: re<3>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<9>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<5>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<4>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::

Deprecated

* New Keywords::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* os: os<8>.
* re: re<4>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* venv: venv<5>.

Removed

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.

Porting to Python 3.6

* Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<5>.

Notable changes in Python 3.6.2

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::

What’s New In Python 3.5

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
* New Features: New Features<9>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>.
* New Modules: New Modules<6>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>.
* Other module-level changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<9>.
* Removed: Removed<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4.

New Features

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.

New Modules

* typing: typing<8>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.

Improved Modules

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* email: email<4>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<2>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* logging: logging<4>.
* lzma::
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<6>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib::
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.

ssl

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::

Deprecated

* New Keywords: New Keywords<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.

Removed

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.

Porting to Python 3.5

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<4>.

Notable changes in Python 3.5.4

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.

What’s New In Python 3.4

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<10>.
* New Modules: New Modules<7>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<7>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<10>.
* Removed: Removed<9>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

New Features

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>.

PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::

New Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.

Improved Modules

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<4>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<2>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* dis: dis<3>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>.
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* marshal::
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<10>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<6>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* venv: venv<6>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.

CPython Implementation Changes

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>.
* Significant Optimizations::

Deprecated

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Deprecated Features::

Removed

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.
* Code Cleanups::

Porting to Python 3.4

* Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<5>.

Changed in 3.4.3

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.

What’s New In Python 3.3

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* New Modules: New Modules<8>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<8>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<11>.
* Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3.

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

* Features::
* API changes::

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

* SimpleNamespace::

Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

New Modules

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.

Improved Modules

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<4>.
* base64: base64<3>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<6>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<5>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* math: math<8>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<7>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<7>.
* types: types<6>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.

decimal

* Features: Features<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

email

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::

Deprecated

* Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>.
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
* Deprecated features::

Porting to Python 3.3

* Porting Python code::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::

What’s New In Python 3.2

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* email: email<7>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<9>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<6>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<7>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<10>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* os: os<12>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* random: random<4>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::

What’s New In Python 3.1

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.

What’s New In Python 3.0

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.

Common Stumbling Blocks

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.

Overview Of Syntax Changes

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::

Miscellaneous Other Changes

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::

What’s New in Python 2.7

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Acknowledgements::

Other Language Changes

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.

New and Improved Modules

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

Build and C API Changes

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.

PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

What’s New in Python 2.6

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>.

Changes to the Development Process

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.

PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

* Writing Context Managers::
* The contextlib module::

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

* The fractions Module::

Other Language Changes

* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

New and Improved Modules

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

What’s New in Python 2.5

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The ‘__index__’ method: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>.

PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>.

Other Language Changes

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.

New, Improved, and Removed Modules

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes::

What’s New in Python 2.4

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<14>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>.

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::

Other Language Changes

* Optimizations: Optimizations<13>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<4>.

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.

What’s New in Python 2.3

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<15>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>.

Other Language Changes

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<14>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.

What’s New in Python 2.2

* Introduction::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>.

PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::

What’s New in Python 2.1

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>.

What’s New in Python 2.0

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* List Comprehensions::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML Modules::
* Module changes::
* New modules::
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>.

Other Core Changes

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::

XML Modules

* SAX2 Support::
* DOM Support::
* Relationship to PyXML::

Changelog

* Python 3.12.12 final: Python 3 12 12 final.
* Python 3.12.11 final: Python 3 12 11 final.
* Python 3.12.10 final: Python 3 12 10 final.
* Python 3.12.9 final: Python 3 12 9 final.
* Python 3.12.8 final: Python 3 12 8 final.
* Python 3.12.7 final: Python 3 12 7 final.
* Python 3.12.6 final: Python 3 12 6 final.
* Python 3.12.5 final: Python 3 12 5 final.
* Python 3.12.4 final: Python 3 12 4 final.
* Python 3.12.3 final: Python 3 12 3 final.
* Python 3.12.2 final: Python 3 12 2 final.
* Python 3.12.1 final: Python 3 12 1 final.
* Python 3.12.0 final: Python 3 12 0 final.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 4: Python 3 12 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 3: Python 3 12 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 2: Python 3 12 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.

Python 3.12.12 final

* Tools/Demos::
* Security::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::

Python 3.12.11 final

* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<2>.

Python 3.12.10 final

* macOS::
* Windows::
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests::
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* C API::
* Build::

Python 3.12.9 final

* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* C API: C API<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.

Python 3.12.8 final

* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.

Python 3.12.7 final

* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<6>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.

Python 3.12.6 final

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Security: Security<7>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* Build: Build<5>.

Python 3.12.5 final

* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Security: Security<8>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* Build: Build<6>.

Python 3.12.4 final

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* macOS: macOS<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* C API: C API<5>.

Python 3.12.3 final

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Build: Build<7>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* C API: C API<6>.

Python 3.12.2 final

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Build: Build<8>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* macOS: macOS<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.

Python 3.12.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Build: Build<9>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* macOS: macOS<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* C API: C API<7>.

Python 3.12.0 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.

Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<10>.

Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<8>.

Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<9>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 4

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<10>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* C API: C API<11>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* C API: C API<12>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<13>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<14>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* C API: C API<15>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<16>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<17>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* C API: C API<18>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<19>.

Python 3.11.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<20>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<21>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* C API: C API<22>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* C API: C API<23>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* C API: C API<24>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* C API: C API<25>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* C API: C API<26>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<27>.

Python 3.10.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<28>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 7

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* C API: C API<29>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<30>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<31>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<32>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<33>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<34>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* C API: C API<35>.

Python 3.9.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<36>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<37>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<38>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* C API: C API<39>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* C API: C API<40>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* C API: C API<41>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<42>.

Python 3.8.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<43>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<44>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<45>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<46>.

Python 3.7.0 final

* Library: Library<56>.
* C API: C API<47>.

Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 3

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<48>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* C API: C API<49>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<50>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<51>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* C API: C API<52>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<53>.

Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<54>.

Python 3.6.5 final

* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<60>.

Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.
* C API: C API<55>.

Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* C API: C API<56>.

Python 3.6.3 final

* Library: Library<70>.
* Build: Build<63>.

Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2

* Security: Security<46>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* C API: C API<57>.
* Build: Build<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.

Python 3.6.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Build: Build<66>.

Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* C API: C API<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<67>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* Build: Build<68>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* C API: C API<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Build: Build<69>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.
* C API: C API<60>.
* Build: Build<71>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* C API: C API<61>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.
* Build: Build<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* Build: Build<73>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* C API: C API<62>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* C API: C API<63>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Build: Build<76>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.
* C API: C API<64>.

Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<51>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Library: Library<83>.

Python 3.5.4 final

* Library: Library<84>.

Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<85>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* C API: C API<65>.

Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<86>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Build: Build<78>.

Python 3.5.2 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.

Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<54>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<87>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Build: Build<79>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.

Python 3.5.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.

Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<88>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Build: Build<80>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.

Python 3.5.0 final

* Build: Build<81>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4

* Library: Library<89>.
* Build: Build<82>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Library: Library<90>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<91>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<92>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<93>.
* Build: Build<83>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Documentation: Documentation<78>.
* Build: Build<84>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<95>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<79>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<97>.
* Build: Build<85>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* C API: C API<67>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* Build: Build<86>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<51>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<99>.
* Build: Build<87>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<100>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Build: Build<88>.
* C API: C API<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<80>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<52>.
* Windows: Windows<76>.

Python Öğreticisi

* İştahınızı Kabartma::
* Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma::
* Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş::
* Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı::
* Veri Yapıları::
* Modüller::
* Girdi ve Çıktı::
* Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar::
* Sınıflar::
* Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti::
* Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II::
* Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler::
* Sırada Ne Var?::
* Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame::
* Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations.
* Ek Bölüm::

Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma

* Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma::
* Yorumlayıcı ve Çevresi::

Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma

* Değişken Geçirme::
* Etkileşimli Mod::

Yorumlayıcı ve Çevresi

* Kaynak Kodu Şeması::

Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş

* Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak::
* Programlamaya Doğru İlk Adımlar::

Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak

* Sayılar::
* Metin::
* Listeler::

Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

* if İfadeleri::
* for İfadeleri::
* range() Fonksiyonu: range Fonksiyonu.
* break and continue Statements::
* else Clauses on Loops::
* pass İfadeleri::
* pass İfadeleri: pass İfadeleri<2>.
* Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması::
* İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi::
* Intermezzo; Kodlama Stili: Intermezzo Kodlama Stili.

İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

* Varsayılan Değişken Değerleri::
* Anahtar Kelime Değişkenleri::
* Özel parametreler::
* Keyfi Argüman Listeleri::
* Argüman Listelerini Açma::
* Lambda İfadeleri::
* Dokümantasyon Stringler’i::
* Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları::

Özel parametreler

* Konumsal veya Anahtar Kelime Argümanları::
* Yalnızca Konumsal Parametreler::
* Yalnızca Anahtar Sözcük İçeren Değişkenler::
* Fonksiyon Örnekleri::
* Özet::

Veri Yapıları

* Listeler Üzerine::
* del ifadesi::
* Veri Grupları ve Diziler::
* Kümeler::
* Sözlükler::
* Döngü Teknikleri::
* Koşullar Üzerine::
* Diziler ile Diğer Veri Tiplerinin Karşılaştırılması::

Listeler Üzerine

* Listeleri Yığın Olarak Kullanma::
* Listeleri Kuyruk Olarak Kullanma::
* Liste Kavramaları::
* İç İçe Liste Kavramaları::

Modüller

* Modüller hakkında daha fazla::
* Standart modüller::
* dir() Fonksiyonu: dir Fonksiyonu.
* Paketler::

Modüller hakkında daha fazla

* Modülleri komut dosyası olarak yürütme::
* Modül Arama Yolu::
* “Derlenmiş” Python dosyaları::

Paketler

* Bir Paketten * İçe Aktarma::
* Paket İçi Referanslar::
* Birden Çok Dizindeki Paketler::

Girdi ve Çıktı

* Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi::
* Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma::

Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi

* Biçimlendirilmiş Dize Değişmezleri::
* String format() Metodu: String format Metodu.
* Manuel Dize Biçimlendirmesi::
* Eski dize biçimlendirmesi::

Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma

* Dosya Nesnelerinin Metotları::
* Yapılandırılmış verileri json ile kaydetme::

Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

* Söz Dizimi Hataları::
* Özel Durumlar::
* Özel Durumları İşleme::
* Hata Yükseltme::
* İstisna Zincirleme::
* Kullanıcı Tanımlı İstisnalar::
* Temizleme Eylemlerini Tanımlama::
* Önceden Tanımlanmış Temizleme Eylemleri::
* Birden Fazla Alakasız İstisna Oluşturma ve İşleme::
* İstisnaları Notlarla Zenginleştirme::

Sınıflar

* İsim ve Nesneler Hakkında Birkaç Şey::
* Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları::
* Sınıflara İlk Bakış::
* Rastgele Açıklamalar::
* Kalıtım::
* Özel Değişkenler::
* Oranlar ve Bitişler::
* Yineleyiciler::
* Üreteçler::
* Üreteç İfadeleri::

Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları

* Kapsamlar ve Ad Alanları Örneği::

Sınıflara İlk Bakış

* Sınıf Tanımlama Söz Dizimi::
* Sınıf Nesneleri::
* Örnek Nesneleri::
* Metot Nesneleri::
* Sınıf ve Örnek Değişkenleri::

Kalıtım

* Çoklu Kalıtım::

Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

* İşletim Sistemi Arayüzü::
* Dosya Joker Karakterleri::
* Komut Satırı Argümanları::
* Hata Çıktısının Yeniden Yönlendirilmesi ve Programın Sonlandırılması::
* String Örüntü Eşlemesi::
* Matematik::
* İnternet Erişimi::
* Tarihler ve Saatler::
* Veri Sıkıştırma::
* Performans Ölçümü::
* Kalite Kontrolü::
* Bataryalar Dahildir::

Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

* Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi::
* Şablonlamak::
* İkili Veri Kaydı Düzenleriyle Çalışma::
* Çoklu iş parçacığı::
* Günlükleme::
* Zayıf Başvurular::
* Listelerle Çalışma Araçları::
* Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic::

Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler

* Tanıtım::
* Sanal Ortamlar Oluşturma::
* Paketleri pip ile Yönetme::

Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame

* Tab Tamamlama ve Geçmiş Düzenleme::
* Etkileşimli Yorumlayıcıya Alternatifler::

Floating-Point Arithmetic:  Issues and Limitations

* Temsil Hatası::

Ek Bölüm

* Etkileşimli Mod: Etkileşimli Mod<2>.

Etkileşimli Mod

* Hata İşleme::
* Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları::
* Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası::
* Özelliştirme Modülleri::

Python Setup and Usage

* Command line and environment::
* Using Python on Unix platforms::
* Configure Python::
* Using Python on Windows::
* Using Python on a Mac::
* Editors and IDEs::

Command line and environment

* Command line::
* Environment variables::

Command line

* Interface options::
* Generic options::
* Miscellaneous options::
* Options you shouldn’t use::

Environment variables

* Debug-mode variables::

Using Python on Unix platforms

* Getting and installing the latest version of Python::
* Building Python::
* Python-related paths and files::
* Miscellaneous::
* Custom OpenSSL::

Getting and installing the latest version of Python

* On Linux::
* On FreeBSD and OpenBSD::

On Linux

* Installing IDLE::

Configure Python

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Configure Options::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::

Generated files

* configure script::

Configure Options

* General Options::
* WebAssembly Options::
* Install Options::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options::
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::

Python Build System

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::

Compiler and linker flags

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::

Using Python on Windows

* The full installer::
* The Microsoft Store package::
* The nuget.org packages: The nuget org packages.
* The embeddable package::
* Alternative bundles::
* Configuring Python::
* UTF-8 mode::
* Python Launcher for Windows::
* Finding modules::
* Additional modules::
* Compiling Python on Windows::
* Other Platforms::

The full installer

* Installation steps::
* Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation::
* Installing Without UI::
* Installing Without Downloading::
* Modifying an install::

The Microsoft Store package

* Known issues::

Known issues

* Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.

The embeddable package

* Python Application::
* Embedding Python::

Configuring Python

* Excursus; Setting environment variables: Excursus Setting environment variables.
* Finding the Python executable::

Python Launcher for Windows

* Getting started::
* Shebang Lines::
* Arguments in shebang lines::
* Customization::
* Diagnostics::
* Dry Run::
* Install on demand::
* Return codes::

Getting started

* From the command-line::
* Virtual environments::
* From a script::
* From file associations::

Customization

* Customization via INI files::
* Customizing default Python versions::

Additional modules

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::

Using Python on a Mac

* Getting and Installing Python::
* The IDE::
* Installing Additional Python Packages::
* GUI Programming::
* Distributing Python Applications::
* Other Resources::

Getting and Installing Python

* How to run a Python script::
* Running scripts with a GUI::
* Configuration::

Editors and IDEs

* IDLE — Python editor and shell::
* Other Editors and IDEs::

Python Dil Referansı

* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* Lexical analysis::
* Data model::
* Execution model::
* The import system::
* Expressions::
* Simple statements::
* Compound statements::
* Top-level components::
* Full Grammar specification::

Introduction

* Alternate Implementations::
* Notation::

Lexical analysis

* Line structure::
* Other tokens::
* Identifiers and keywords::
* Literals::
* Operators::
* Delimiters::

Line structure

* Logical lines::
* Physical lines::
* Comments::
* Encoding declarations::
* Explicit line joining::
* Implicit line joining::
* Blank lines::
* Indentation::
* Whitespace between tokens::

Identifiers and keywords

* Keywords::
* Soft Keywords::
* Reserved classes of identifiers::

Literals

* String and Bytes literals::
* String literal concatenation::
* f-strings::
* Numeric literals::
* Integer literals::
* Floating-point literals::
* Imaginary literals::

String and Bytes literals

* Escape sequences::

Data model

* Objects, values and types: Objects values and types.
* The standard type hierarchy::
* Special method names::
* Coroutines::

The standard type hierarchy

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Sequences::
* Set types::
* Mappings::
* Callable types::
* Modules: Modules<2>.
* Custom classes::
* Class instances::
* I/O objects (also known as file objects): I/O objects also known as file objects.
* Internal types::

numbers.Number

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.

Sequences

* Immutable sequences::
* Mutable sequences::

Mappings

* Dictionaries::

Callable types

* User-defined functions::
* Instance methods::
* Generator functions::
* Coroutine functions::
* Asynchronous generator functions::
* Built-in functions::
* Built-in methods::
* Classes::
* Class Instances::

User-defined functions

* Special read-only attributes::
* Special writable attributes::

Modules

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::

Custom classes

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::

Class instances

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.

Internal types

* Code objects::
* Frame objects::
* Traceback objects::
* Slice objects::
* Static method objects::
* Class method objects::

Code objects

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<2>.
* Methods on code objects::

Frame objects

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<3>.
* Special writable attributes: Special writable attributes<2>.
* Frame object methods::

Special method names

* Basic customization::
* Customizing attribute access::
* Customizing class creation::
* Customizing instance and subclass checks::
* Emulating generic types::
* Emulating callable objects::
* Emulating container types::
* Emulating numeric types::
* With Statement Context Managers::
* Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching::
* Emulating buffer types::
* Special method lookup::

Customizing attribute access

* Customizing module attribute access::
* Implementing Descriptors::
* Invoking Descriptors::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.

Customizing class creation

* Metaclasses::
* Resolving MRO entries::
* Determining the appropriate metaclass::
* Preparing the class namespace::
* Executing the class body::
* Creating the class object::
* Uses for metaclasses::

Emulating generic types

* The purpose of __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__::

Coroutines

* Awaitable Objects::
* Coroutine Objects::
* Asynchronous Iterators::
* Asynchronous Context Managers::

Execution model

* Structure of a program::
* Naming and binding::
* Exceptions::

Naming and binding

* Binding of names::
* Resolution of names::
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* Builtins and restricted execution::
* Interaction with dynamic features::

The import system

* importlib: importlib<9>.
* Packages::
* Searching::
* Loading::
* The Path Based Finder::
* Replacing the standard import system::
* Package Relative Imports::
* Special considerations for __main__::
* References::

Packages

* Regular packages::
* Namespace packages::

Searching

* The module cache::
* Finders and loaders::
* Import hooks::
* The meta path::

Loading

* Loaders::
* Submodules::
* Module specs::
* __path__ attributes on modules::
* Module reprs::
* Cached bytecode invalidation::

The Path Based Finder

* Path entry finders::
* Path entry finder protocol::

Special considerations for __main__

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.

Expressions

* Arithmetic conversions::
* Atoms::
* Primaries::
* Await expression::
* The power operator::
* Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations::
* Binary arithmetic operations::
* Shifting operations::
* Binary bitwise operations::
* Comparisons::
* Boolean operations::
* Assignment expressions::
* Conditional expressions::
* Lambdas::
* Expression lists::
* Evaluation order::
* Operator precedence::

Atoms

* Identifiers (Names): Identifiers Names.
* Literals: Literals<2>.
* Parenthesized forms::
* Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
* List displays::
* Set displays::
* Dictionary displays::
* Generator expressions::
* Yield expressions::

Identifiers (Names)

* Private name mangling::

Yield expressions

* Generator-iterator methods::
* Examples::
* Asynchronous generator functions: Asynchronous generator functions<2>.
* Asynchronous generator-iterator methods::

Primaries

* Attribute references::
* Subscriptions::
* Slicings::
* Calls::

Comparisons

* Value comparisons::
* Membership test operations::
* Identity comparisons::

Simple statements

* Expression statements::
* Assignment statements::
* The assert statement::
* The pass statement::
* The del statement::
* The return statement::
* The yield statement::
* The raise statement::
* The break statement::
* The continue statement::
* The import statement::
* The global statement::
* The nonlocal statement::
* The type statement::

Assignment statements

* Augmented assignment statements::
* Annotated assignment statements::

The import statement

* Future statements::

Compound statements

* The if statement::
* The while statement::
* The for statement::
* The try statement::
* The with statement::
* The match statement::
* Function definitions::
* Class definitions::
* Coroutines: Coroutines<2>.
* Type parameter lists::

The try statement

* except clause::
* except* clause::
* else clause::
* finally clause::

The match statement

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

Patterns

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::

Coroutines

* Coroutine function definition::
* The async for statement::
* The async with statement::

Type parameter lists

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

Top-level components

* Complete Python programs::
* File input::
* Interactive input::
* Expression input::

Python Standart Kütüphanesi

* Giriş::
* Gömülü Fonksiyonlar::
* Built-in Constants::
* Gömülü Türler::
* Gömülü İstisnalar::
* Text Processing Services::
* Binary Data Services::
* Data Types::
* Numeric and Mathematical Modules::
* Functional Programming Modules::
* File and Directory Access::
* Data Persistence::
* Data Compression and Archiving::
* File Formats::
* Cryptographic Services::
* Generic Operating System Services::
* Concurrent Execution::
* Networking and Interprocess Communication::
* Internet Data Handling::
* Structured Markup Processing Tools::
* Internet Protocols and Support::
* Multimedia Services::
* Internationalization::
* Program Frameworks::
* Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri::
* Development Tools::
* Debugging and Profiling::
* Software Packaging and Distribution::
* Python Runtime Services::
* Custom Python Interpreters::
* Importing Modules::
* Python Language Services::
* MS Windows Specific Services::
* Unix Specific Services::
* Modules command-line interface (CLI): Modules command-line interface CLI.
* Superseded Modules::
* Removed Modules::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<3>.

Giriş

* Kullanılabilirlik hakkında notlar::

Kullanılabilirlik hakkında notlar

* WebAssembly platformları::

Built-in Constants

* Constants added by the site module::

Gömülü Türler

* Doğruluk Değeri Testi::
* Boolean İşlemleri — and, or, not: Boolean İşlemleri — and or not.
* Karşılaştırmalar::
* Sayısal Türler — int, float, complex: Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
* Boolean Type - bool::
* Yineleyici Türleri::
* Dizi Tipleri — list, tuple, range: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range.
* Metin Sırası Türü — str::
* Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview.
* Set Türleri — set, frozenset: Set Türleri — set frozenset.
* Mapping Types — dict::
* Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri::
* Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union.
* Diğer Yerleşik Tipler::
* Özel Özellikler::
* Integer string conversion length limitation::

Sayısal Türler — int, float, complex

* Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler::
* Integer (Tam sayı) Türlerinde Ek Metotlar: Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
* Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar::
* Sayısal türlerin hashlemesi::

Yineleyici Türleri

* Oluşturucu Tipleri::

Dizi Tipleri — list, tuple, range

* Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri::
* Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri::
* Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri::
* Listeler: Listeler<2>.
* Demetler::
* Aralıklar::

Metin Sırası Türü — str

* String (Dize) Metotları: String Dize Metotları.
* printf-style String Formatting::

Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview

* Bytes Objects::
* Bytearray Objects::
* Bytes and Bytearray Operations::
* printf-style Bytes Formatting::
* Memory Views::

Mapping Types — dict

* Dictionary view objects::

Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union

* Genel Takma Ad Türü::
* Sendika Türü::

Genel Takma Ad Türü

* Standart Jenerik Sınıflar::
* GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri::

Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

* Modüller: Modüller<2>.
* Sınıflar ve Sınıf Örnekleri::
* Fonksiyonlar::
* Yöntemler::
* Kod Nesneleri::
* Type Objects::
* Null Nesne::
* Üç Nokta Nesnesi::
* NotImplemented Nesnesi::
* İç Nesneler::

Integer string conversion length limitation

* Affected APIs::
* Configuring the limit::
* Recommended configuration::

Gömülü İstisnalar

* İstisna bağlamı::
* Gömülü istisnalardan miras alma::
* Temel sınıflar::
* Somut istisnalar (Concrete exceptions): Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
* Uyarılar::
* İstisna grupları::
* İstisna hiyerarşisi::

Somut istisnalar (Concrete exceptions)

* İşletim sistemi istisnaları(ES exceptions): İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.

Text Processing Services

* string — Common string operations::
* re — Regular expression operations::
* difflib — Helpers for computing deltas::
* textwrap — Text wrapping and filling::
* unicodedata — Unicode Database::
* stringprep — Internet String Preparation::
* readline — GNU readline interface::
* rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline::

string — Common string operations

* String constants::
* Custom String Formatting::
* Format String Syntax::
* Template strings::
* Helper functions::

Format String Syntax

* Format Specification Mini-Language::
* Format examples::

re — Regular expression operations

* Regular Expression Syntax::
* Module Contents::
* Regular Expression Objects::
* Match Objects::
* Regular Expression Examples::

Module Contents

* Flags::
* Functions::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.

Regular Expression Examples

* Checking for a Pair::
* Simulating scanf(): Simulating scanf.
* search() vs. match(): search vs match.
* Making a Phonebook::
* Text Munging::
* Finding all Adverbs::
* Finding all Adverbs and their Positions::
* Raw String Notation::
* Writing a Tokenizer::

difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

* SequenceMatcher Objects::
* SequenceMatcher Examples::
* Differ Objects::
* Differ Example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff example::

readline — GNU readline interface

* Init file::
* Line buffer::
* History file::
* History list::
* Startup hooks::
* Completion::
* Example::

Binary Data Services

* struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data::
* codecs — Codec registry and base classes::

struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data

* Functions and Exceptions::
* Format Strings::
* Applications::
* Classes: Classes<2>.

Format Strings

* Byte Order, Size, and Alignment: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
* Format Characters::
* Examples: Examples<2>.

Applications

* Native Formats::
* Standard Formats::

codecs — Codec registry and base classes

* Codec Base Classes::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
* encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage.
* encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.

Codec Base Classes

* Error Handlers::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::

Incremental Encoding and Decoding

* IncrementalEncoder Objects::
* IncrementalDecoder Objects::

Stream Encoding and Decoding

* StreamWriter Objects::
* StreamReader Objects::
* StreamReaderWriter Objects::
* StreamRecoder Objects::

Python Specific Encodings

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Text Transforms::

Data Types

* datetime — Basic date and time types::
* zoneinfo — IANA time zone support::
* calendar — General calendar-related functions::
* collections — Container datatypes::
* collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers.
* heapq — Heap queue algorithm::
* bisect — Array bisection algorithm::
* array — Efficient arrays of numeric values::
* weakref — Weak references::
* types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types::
* copy — Shallow and deep copy operations::
* pprint — Data pretty printer::
* reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
* enum — Support for enumerations::
* graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures::

datetime — Basic date and time types

* Bilinçli ve Bilinçsiz Nesneler::
* Sabitler::
* Mevcut Türler::
* timedelta Nesneleri::
* date Objects::
* datetime Objects::
* time Objects::
* tzinfo Objects::
* timezone Objects::
* strftime() and strptime() Behavior: strftime and strptime Behavior.

Mevcut Türler

* Ortak Özellikler::
* Bir Nesnenin Bilinçli veya Bilinçsiz Olduğunu Belirleme::

timedelta Nesneleri

* Examples of usage; timedelta: Examples of usage timedelta.

date Objects

* Examples of Usage; date: Examples of Usage date.

datetime Objects

* Examples of Usage; datetime: Examples of Usage datetime.

time Objects

* Examples of Usage; time: Examples of Usage time.

strftime() and strptime() Behavior

* strftime() and strptime() Format Codes: strftime and strptime Format Codes.
* Technical Detail::

zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

* Using ZoneInfo::
* Data sources::
* The ZoneInfo class::
* Functions: Functions<2>.
* Globals::
* Exceptions and warnings::

Data sources

* Configuring the data sources::

Configuring the data sources

* Compile-time configuration::
* Environment configuration::
* Runtime configuration::

The ZoneInfo class

* String representations::
* Pickle serialization::

calendar — General calendar-related functions

* Command-Line Usage::

collections — Container datatypes

* ChainMap objects::
* Counter objects::
* deque objects::
* defaultdict objects::
* namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
* OrderedDict objects::
* UserDict objects::
* UserList objects::
* UserString objects::

ChainMap objects

* ChainMap Examples and Recipes::

deque objects

* deque Recipes::

defaultdict objects

* defaultdict Examples::

OrderedDict objects

* OrderedDict Examples and Recipes::

collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers

* Collections Abstract Base Classes::
* Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions::
* Examples and Recipes::

heapq — Heap queue algorithm

* Basic Examples::
* Priority Queue Implementation Notes::
* Theory::

bisect — Array bisection algorithm

* Performance Notes::
* Searching Sorted Lists::
* Examples: Examples<3>.

weakref — Weak references

* Weak Reference Objects::
* Example: Example<2>.
* Finalizer Objects::
* Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods.

types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

* Dynamic Type Creation::
* Standard Interpreter Types::
* Additional Utility Classes and Functions::
* Coroutine Utility Functions::

pprint — Data pretty printer

* Functions: Functions<3>.
* PrettyPrinter Objects::
* Example: Example<3>.

reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation

* Repr Objects::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

enum — Support for enumerations

* Module Contents: Module Contents<2>.
* Data Types: Data Types<2>.
* Utilities and Decorators::
* Notes::

Data Types

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::

graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.

Numeric and Mathematical Modules

* numbers — Numeric abstract base classes::
* math — Mathematical functions::
* cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers::
* decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic::
* fractions — Rational numbers::
* random — Generate pseudo-random numbers::
* statistics — Mathematical statistics functions::

numbers — Numeric abstract base classes

* The numeric tower::
* Notes for type implementers::

Notes for type implementers

* Adding More Numeric ABCs::
* Implementing the arithmetic operations::

math — Mathematical functions

* Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları::
* Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar::
* Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar::
* Açısal dönüşüm::
* Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar::
* Özel fonksiyonlar::
* Sabitler: Sabitler<2>.

cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

* Conversions to and from polar coordinates::
* Power and logarithmic functions::
* Trigonometric functions::
* Hyperbolic functions::
* Classification functions::
* Constants::

decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

* Quick-start Tutorial::
* Decimal objects::
* Context objects::
* Constants: Constants<2>.
* Rounding modes::
* Signals::
* Floating-Point Notes::
* Working with threads::
* Recipes::
* Decimal FAQ::

Decimal objects

* Logical operands::

Floating-Point Notes

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* Special values::

random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

* Bookkeeping functions::
* Functions for bytes::
* Functions for integers::
* Functions for sequences::
* Discrete distributions::
* Real-valued distributions::
* Alternative Generator::
* Notes on Reproducibility::
* Examples: Examples<4>.
* Recipes: Recipes<2>.

statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

* Averages and measures of central location::
* Measures of spread::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* Function details::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<4>.
* NormalDist objects::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<2>.

Examples and Recipes

* Classic probability problems::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::
* Kernel density estimation::

Functional Programming Modules

* itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping::
* functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects::
* operator — Standard operators as functions::

itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

* Itertool Functions::
* Itertools Recipes::

functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

* partial Objects::

operator — Standard operators as functions

* Mapping Operators to Functions::
* In-place Operators::

File and Directory Access

* pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths::
* os.path — Common pathname manipulations: os path — Common pathname manipulations.
* fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams::
* stat — Interpreting stat() results: stat — Interpreting stat results.
* filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons::
* tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories::
* glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı::
* fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching::
* linecache — Random access to text lines::
* shutil — High-level file operations::

pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

* Basic use::
* Pure paths::
* Concrete paths::
* Correspondence to tools in the os module::

Pure paths

* General properties::
* Operators: Operators<2>.
* Accessing individual parts::
* Methods and properties::

Concrete paths

* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* Reading directories::
* Creating files and directories::
* Renaming and deleting::
* Permissions and ownership::

filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons

* The dircmp class::

tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories

* Examples: Examples<5>.
* Deprecated functions and variables::

shutil — High-level file operations

* Directory and files operations::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

Directory and files operations

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree example::

Archiving operations

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

Data Persistence

* pickle — Python object serialization::
* copyreg — Register pickle support functions::
* shelve — Python object persistence::
* marshal — Internal Python object serialization::
* dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”::
* sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.

pickle — Python object serialization

* Relationship to other Python modules::
* Data stream format::
* Module Interface::
* What can be pickled and unpickled?::
* Pickling Class Instances::
* Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects.
* Out-of-band Buffers::
* Restricting Globals::
* Performance: Performance<2>.
* Examples: Examples<6>.

Relationship to other Python modules

* Comparison with marshal::
* Comparison with json::

Pickling Class Instances

* Persistence of External Objects::
* Dispatch Tables::
* Handling Stateful Objects::

Out-of-band Buffers

* Provider API::
* Consumer API::
* Example: Example<4>.

copyreg — Register pickle support functions

* Example: Example<5>.

shelve — Python object persistence

* Restrictions::
* Example: Example<6>.

dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”

* dbm.gnu — GNU database manager: dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
* dbm.ndbm — New Database Manager: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
* dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.

sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

* Tutorial::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

Reference

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<5>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface::

How-to guides

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::

Explanation

* Transaction control::

Transaction control

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::

Data Compression and Archiving

* zlib — Compression compatible with gzip::
* gzip — Support for gzip files::
* bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression::
* lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm::
* zipfile — Work with ZIP archives::
* tarfile — Read and write tar archive files::

gzip — Support for gzip files

* Examples of usage::
* Command Line Interface::

Command Line Interface

* Command line options::

bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

* (De)compression of files: De compression of files.
* Incremental (de)compression: Incremental de compression.
* One-shot (de)compression: One-shot de compression.
* Examples of usage: Examples of usage<2>.

lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

* Reading and writing compressed files::
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<2>.
* Specifying custom filter chains::
* Examples: Examples<7>.

zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

* ZipFile Objects::
* Path Objects::
* PyZipFile Objects::
* ZipInfo Objects::
* Command-Line Interface::
* Decompression pitfalls::

Command-Line Interface

* Command-line options::

Decompression pitfalls

* From file itself::
* File System limitations::
* Resources limitations::
* Interruption::
* Default behaviors of extraction::

tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

* TarFile Objects::
* TarInfo Objects::
* Extraction filters::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<2>.
* Examples: Examples<8>.
* Supported tar formats::
* Unicode issues::

Extraction filters

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

Command-Line Interface

* Command-line options: Command-line options<2>.

File Formats

* csv — CSV File Reading and Writing::
* configparser — Configuration file parser::
* tomllib — Parse TOML files::
* netrc — netrc file processing::
* plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.

csv — CSV File Reading and Writing

* Module Contents: Module Contents<3>.
* Dialects and Formatting Parameters::
* Reader Objects::
* Writer Objects::
* Examples: Examples<9>.

configparser — Configuration file parser

* Quick Start::
* Supported Datatypes::
* Fallback Values::
* Supported INI File Structure::
* Interpolation of values::
* Mapping Protocol Access::
* Customizing Parser Behaviour::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser Objects::
* RawConfigParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<6>.

tomllib — Parse TOML files

* Examples: Examples<10>.
* Conversion Table::

netrc — netrc file processing

* netrc Objects::

plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files

* Examples: Examples<11>.

Cryptographic Services

* hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests::
* hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication::
* secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets::

hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

* Hash algorithms::
* Usage::
* Constructors::
* Attributes::
* Hash Objects::
* SHAKE variable length digests::
* File hashing::
* Key derivation::
* BLAKE2::

BLAKE2

* Creating hash objects::
* Constants: Constants<3>.
* Examples: Examples<12>.
* Credits::

Examples

* Simple hashing::
* Using different digest sizes::
* Keyed hashing::
* Randomized hashing::
* Personalization::
* Tree mode::

secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

* Random numbers::
* Generating tokens::
* Other functions::
* Recipes and best practices::

Generating tokens

* How many bytes should tokens use?::

Generic Operating System Services

* os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces::
* io — Core tools for working with streams::
* time — Time access and conversions::
* argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
* getopt — C-style parser for command line options::
* logging — Logging facility for Python::
* logging.config — Logging configuration: logging config — Logging configuration.
* logging.handlers — Logging handlers: logging handlers — Logging handlers.
* getpass — Portable password input::
* curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays::
* curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
* curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
* curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses.
* platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data::
* errno — Standard errno system symbols::
* ctypes — A foreign function library for Python::

os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

* File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables.
* Python UTF-8 Mode::
* Process Parameters::
* File Object Creation::
* File Descriptor Operations::
* Files and Directories::
* Process Management::
* Interface to the scheduler::
* Miscellaneous System Information::
* Random numbers: Random numbers<2>.

File Descriptor Operations

* Querying the size of a terminal::
* Inheritance of File Descriptors::

Files and Directories

* Linux extended attributes::

io — Core tools for working with streams

* Overview: Overview<2>.
* Text Encoding::
* High-level Module Interface::
* Class hierarchy::
* Performance: Performance<3>.

Overview

* Text I/O::
* Binary I/O::
* Raw I/O::

Text Encoding

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

Class hierarchy

* I/O Base Classes::
* Raw File I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* Text I/O: Text I/O<2>.

Performance

* Binary I/O: Binary I/O<2>.
* Text I/O: Text I/O<3>.
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<2>.
* Reentrancy::

time — Time access and conversions

* Fonksiyonlar: Fonksiyonlar<2>.
* Saat Kimliği Sabitleri::
* Saat dilimi Sabitleri::

argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

* ArgumentParser objects::
* The add_argument() method: The add_argument method.
* The parse_args() method: The parse_args method.
* Other utilities::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<7>.

ArgumentParser objects

* prog::
* usage::
* description::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::

The add_argument() method

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* help::
* metavar::
* dest::
* Action classes::

The parse_args() method

* Option value syntax::
* Invalid arguments::
* Arguments containing -::
* Argument abbreviations (prefix matching): Argument abbreviations prefix matching.
* Beyond sys.argv: Beyond sys argv.
* The Namespace object::

Other utilities

* Sub-commands::
* FileType objects::
* Argument groups::
* Mutual exclusion::
* Parser defaults::
* Printing help::
* Partial parsing::
* Customizing file parsing::
* Exiting methods::
* Intermixed parsing::
* Registering custom types or actions::

Exceptions

* Argparse Tutorial::
* Upgrading optparse code::

Argparse Tutorial

* Concepts::
* The basics::
* Introducing Positional arguments::
* Introducing Optional arguments::
* Combining Positional and Optional arguments::
* Getting a little more advanced::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* Conclusion::

Introducing Optional arguments

* Short options::

Getting a little more advanced

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* Conflicting options::

logging — Logging facility for Python

* Logger Objects::
* Logging Levels::
* Handler Objects::
* Formatter Objects::
* Filter Objects::
* LogRecord Objects::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter Objects::
* Thread Safety::
* Module-Level Functions::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

logging.config — Logging configuration

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

Configuration dictionary schema

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::

logging.handlers — Logging handlers

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

* Functions: Functions<4>.
* Window Objects::
* Constants: Constants<4>.

curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs

* Textbox objects::

curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses

* Functions: Functions<5>.
* Panel Objects::

platform —  Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

* Cross Platform::
* Java Platform::
* Windows Platform::
* macOS Platform::
* Unix Platforms::
* Linux Platforms::

ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

* ctypes tutorial::
* ctypes reference::

ctypes tutorial

* Loading dynamic link libraries::
* Accessing functions from loaded dlls::
* Calling functions::
* Fundamental data types::
* Calling functions, continued: Calling functions continued.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Calling functions with your own custom data types::
* Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes): Specifying the required argument types function prototypes.
* Return types::
* Passing pointers (or; passing parameters by reference): Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference.
* Structures and unions::
* Structure/union alignment and byte order::
* Bit fields in structures and unions::
* Arrays::
* Pointers::
* Type conversions::
* Incomplete Types::
* Callback functions::
* Accessing values exported from dlls::
* Surprises::
* Variable-sized data types::

ctypes reference

* Finding shared libraries::
* Loading shared libraries::
* Foreign functions::
* Function prototypes::
* Utility functions::
* Data types::
* Fundamental data types: Fundamental data types<2>.
* Structured data types::
* Arrays and pointers::

Concurrent Execution

* threading — Thread-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing.shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
* The concurrent package::
* concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks.
* subprocess — Subprocess management::
* sched — Event scheduler::
* queue — A synchronized queue class::
* contextvars — Context Variables::
* _thread — Low-level threading API::

threading — Thread-based parallelism

* Thread-Local Data::
* Thread Objects::
* Lock Objects::
* RLock Objects::
* Condition Objects::
* Semaphore Objects::
* Event Objects::
* Timer Objects::
* Barrier Objects::
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.

Semaphore Objects

* Semaphore Example::

multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* Programming guidelines::
* Examples: Examples<13>.

Introduction

* The Process class::
* Contexts and start methods::
* Exchanging objects between processes::
* Synchronization between processes::
* Sharing state between processes::
* Using a pool of workers::

Reference

* Process and exceptions::
* Pipes and Queues::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<3>.
* Connection Objects::
* Synchronization primitives::
* Shared ctypes Objects::
* Managers::
* Proxy Objects::
* Process Pools::
* Listeners and Clients::
* Authentication keys::
* Logging::
* The multiprocessing.dummy module: The multiprocessing dummy module.

Shared ctypes Objects

* The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.

Managers

* Customized managers::
* Using a remote manager::

Proxy Objects

* Cleanup::

Listeners and Clients

* Address Formats::

Programming guidelines

* All start methods::
* The spawn and forkserver start methods::

concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks

* Executor Objects::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future Objects::
* Module Functions::
* Exception classes::

ThreadPoolExecutor

* ThreadPoolExecutor Example::

ProcessPoolExecutor

* ProcessPoolExecutor Example::

subprocess — Subprocess management

* Using the subprocess Module::
* Security Considerations::
* Popen Objects::
* Windows Popen Helpers::
* Older high-level API::
* Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module::
* Legacy Shell Invocation Functions::
* Notes: Notes<2>.

Using the subprocess Module

* Frequently Used Arguments::
* Popen Constructor::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<8>.

Windows Popen Helpers

* Windows Constants::

Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

* Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution::
* Replacing shell pipeline::
* Replacing os.system(): Replacing os system.
* Replacing the os.spawn family: Replacing the os spawn family.
* Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3(): Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3.
* Replacing functions from the popen2 module::

Notes

* Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows::
* Disabling use of vfork() or posix_spawn(): Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn.

sched — Event scheduler

* Scheduler Objects::

queue — A synchronized queue class

* Queue Objects::
* SimpleQueue Objects::

contextvars — Context Variables

* Context Variables::
* Manual Context Management::
* asyncio support::

Networking and Interprocess Communication

* asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O::
* socket — Low-level networking interface::
* ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects::
* select — Waiting for I/O completion::
* selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing::
* signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events::
* mmap — Memory-mapped file support::

asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

* Runners::
* Coroutines and Tasks::
* Streams::
* Synchronization Primitives::
* Subprocesses::
* Queues::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<10>.
* Event Loop::
* Futures::
* Transports and Protocols::
* Policies::
* Platform Support::
* Extending::
* High-level API Index::
* Low-level API Index::
* Developing with asyncio::

Runners

* Running an asyncio Program::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

Coroutines and Tasks

* Coroutines: Coroutines<3>.
* Awaitables::
* Creating Tasks::
* Task Cancellation::
* Task Groups::
* Sleeping::
* Running Tasks Concurrently::
* Eager Task Factory::
* Shielding From Cancellation::
* Timeouts::
* Waiting Primitives::
* Running in Threads::
* Scheduling From Other Threads::
* Introspection::
* Task Object::

Task Groups

* Terminating a Task Group::

Streams

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* Examples: Examples<14>.

Examples

* TCP echo client using streams::
* TCP echo server using streams::
* Get HTTP headers::
* Register an open socket to wait for data using streams::

Synchronization Primitives

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

Subprocesses

* Creating Subprocesses::
* Constants: Constants<5>.
* Interacting with Subprocesses::

Interacting with Subprocesses

* Subprocess and Threads::
* Examples: Examples<15>.

Queues

* Queue::
* Priority Queue::
* LIFO Queue::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<9>.
* Examples: Examples<16>.

Event Loop

* Event Loop Methods::
* Callback Handles::
* Server Objects::
* Event Loop Implementations::
* Examples: Examples<17>.

Event Loop Methods

* Running and stopping the loop::
* Scheduling callbacks::
* Scheduling delayed callbacks::
* Creating Futures and Tasks::
* Opening network connections::
* Creating network servers::
* Transferring files::
* TLS Upgrade::
* Watching file descriptors::
* Working with socket objects directly::
* DNS::
* Working with pipes::
* Unix signals::
* Executing code in thread or process pools::
* Error Handling API::
* Enabling debug mode::
* Running Subprocesses::

Examples

* Hello World with call_soon(): Hello World with call_soon.
* Display the current date with call_later(): Display the current date with call_later.
* Watch a file descriptor for read events::
* Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM::

Futures

* Future Functions::
* Future Object::

Transports and Protocols

* Transports::
* Protocols::
* Examples: Examples<18>.

Transports

* Transports Hierarchy::
* Base Transport::
* Read-only Transports::
* Write-only Transports::
* Datagram Transports::
* Subprocess Transports::

Protocols

* Base Protocols::
* Base Protocol::
* Streaming Protocols::
* Buffered Streaming Protocols::
* Datagram Protocols::
* Subprocess Protocols::

Examples

* TCP Echo Server::
* TCP Echo Client::
* UDP Echo Server::
* UDP Echo Client::
* Connecting Existing Sockets::
* loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol.

Policies

* Getting and Setting the Policy::
* Policy Objects::
* Process Watchers::
* Custom Policies::

Platform Support

* All Platforms::
* Windows: Windows<77>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.

Windows

* Subprocess Support on Windows::

Extending

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::

High-level API Index

* Tasks::
* Queues: Queues<2>.
* Subprocesses: Subprocesses<2>.
* Streams: Streams<2>.
* Synchronization::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<11>.

Low-level API Index

* Obtaining the Event Loop::
* Event Loop Methods: Event Loop Methods<2>.
* Transports: Transports<2>.
* Protocols: Protocols<2>.
* Event Loop Policies::

Developing with asyncio

* Debug Mode::
* Concurrency and Multithreading::
* Running Blocking Code::
* Logging: Logging<2>.
* Detect never-awaited coroutines::
* Detect never-retrieved exceptions::

socket — Low-level networking interface

* Socket families::
* Module contents::
* Socket Objects::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* Example: Example<7>.

Module contents

* Exceptions: Exceptions<12>.
* Constants: Constants<6>.
* Functions: Functions<6>.

Functions

* Creating sockets::
* Other functions: Other functions<2>.

Notes on socket timeouts

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::

ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

* Functions, Constants, and Exceptions: Functions Constants and Exceptions.
* SSL Sockets::
* SSL Contexts::
* Certificates::
* Examples: Examples<19>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO Support: Memory BIO Support<2>.
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

Functions, Constants, and Exceptions

* Socket creation::
* Context creation::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<13>.
* Random generation::
* Certificate handling::
* Constants: Constants<7>.

Certificates

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

Examples

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::

Security considerations

* Best defaults::
* Manual settings::
* Multi-processing::

Manual settings

* Verifying certificates::
* Protocol versions::
* Cipher selection::

select — Waiting for I/O completion

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

* Introduction: Introduction<6>.
* Classes: Classes<3>.
* Examples: Examples<20>.

signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

* General rules::
* Module contents: Module contents<2>.
* Examples: Examples<21>.
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

General rules

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::

mmap — Memory-mapped file support

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* Constants::

Internet Data Handling

* email — An email and MIME handling package::
* json — JSON encoder and decoder::
* mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats::
* mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types::
* base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
* binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII::
* quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data::

email — An email and MIME handling package

* email.message; Representing an email message: email message Representing an email message.
* email.parser; Parsing email messages: email parser Parsing email messages.
* email.generator; Generating MIME documents: email generator Generating MIME documents.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors; Exception and Defect classes: email errors Exception and Defect classes.
* email.headerregistry; Custom Header Objects: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
* email.contentmanager; Managing MIME Content: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
* email; Examples: email Examples.
* email.message.Message; Representing an email message using the compat32 API: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
* email.mime; Creating email and MIME objects from scratch: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
* email.header; Internationalized headers: email header Internationalized headers.
* email.charset; Representing character sets: email charset Representing character sets.
* email.encoders; Encoders: email encoders Encoders.
* email.utils; Miscellaneous utilities: email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
* email.iterators; Iterators: email iterators Iterators.

email.parser: Parsing email messages

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* Additional notes::

email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content

* Content Manager Instances::

json — JSON encoder and decoder

* Basic Usage::
* Encoders and Decoders::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<14>.
* Standard Compliance and Interoperability::
* Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<2>.

Standard Compliance and Interoperability

* Character Encodings::
* Infinite and NaN Number Values::
* Repeated Names Within an Object::
* Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
* Implementation Limitations::

Command Line Interface

* Command line options: Command line options<2>.

mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

* Mailbox objects::
* Message objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<15>.
* Examples: Examples<22>.

Mailbox objects

* Maildir objects::
* mbox objects::
* MH objects::
* Babyl objects::
* MMDF objects::

Message objects

* MaildirMessage objects::
* mboxMessage objects::
* MHMessage objects::
* BabylMessage objects::
* MMDFMessage objects::

mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types

* MimeTypes Objects::

base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<2>.

Structured Markup Processing Tools

* html — HyperText Markup Language support::
* html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
* html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
* XML Processing Modules::
* xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API.
* xml.dom — The Document Object Model API: xml dom — The Document Object Model API.
* xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
* xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
* xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
* xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
* xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
* xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.

html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

* Example HTML Parser Application::
* HTMLParser Methods::
* Examples: Examples<23>.

XML Processing Modules

* XML vulnerabilities::
* The defusedxml Package::

xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

* Tutorial: Tutorial<2>.
* XPath support::
* Reference: Reference<3>.
* XInclude support::
* Reference: Reference<4>.

Tutorial

* XML tree and elements::
* Parsing XML::
* Pull API for non-blocking parsing::
* Finding interesting elements::
* Modifying an XML File::
* Building XML documents::
* Parsing XML with Namespaces::

XPath support

* Example: Example<8>.
* Supported XPath syntax::

Reference

* Functions: Functions<7>.

XInclude support

* Example: Example<9>.

Reference

* Functions: Functions<8>.
* Element Objects::
* ElementTree Objects::
* QName Objects::
* TreeBuilder Objects::
* XMLParser Objects::
* XMLPullParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<16>.

xml.dom — The Document Object Model API

* Module Contents: Module Contents<4>.
* Objects in the DOM::
* Conformance::

Objects in the DOM

* DOMImplementation Objects::
* Node Objects::
* NodeList Objects::
* DocumentType Objects::
* Document Objects::
* Element Objects: Element Objects<2>.
* Attr Objects::
* NamedNodeMap Objects::
* Comment Objects::
* Text and CDATASection Objects::
* ProcessingInstruction Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<17>.

Conformance

* Type Mapping::
* Accessor Methods::

xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

* DOM Objects::
* DOM Example::
* minidom and the DOM standard::

xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees

* DOMEventStream Objects::

xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers

* SAXException Objects::

xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers

* ContentHandler Objects::
* DTDHandler Objects::
* EntityResolver Objects::
* ErrorHandler Objects::
* LexicalHandler Objects::

xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

* XMLReader Objects::
* IncrementalParser Objects::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource Objects::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat

* XMLParser Objects: XMLParser Objects<2>.
* ExpatError Exceptions::
* Example: Example<10>.
* Content Model Descriptions::
* Expat error constants::

Internet Protocols and Support

* webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller::
* wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation::
* urllib — URL handling modules::
* urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
* urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
* http — HTTP modules::
* http.client — HTTP protocol client: http client — HTTP protocol client.
* ftplib — FTP protocol client::
* poplib — POP3 protocol client::
* imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client::
* smtplib — SMTP protocol client::
* uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122::
* socketserver — A framework for network servers::
* http.server — HTTP servers: http server — HTTP servers.
* http.cookies — HTTP state management: http cookies — HTTP state management.
* http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
* xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules::
* xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
* ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library::

webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller

* Browser Controller Objects::

wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

* wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
* wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.types – WSGI types for static type checking: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
* Examples: Examples<24>.

urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector Objects::
* BaseHandler Objects::
* HTTPRedirectHandler Objects::
* HTTPCookieProcessor Objects::
* ProxyHandler Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgr Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPHandler Objects::
* HTTPSHandler Objects::
* FileHandler Objects::
* DataHandler Objects::
* FTPHandler Objects::
* CacheFTPHandler Objects::
* UnknownHandler Objects::
* HTTPErrorProcessor Objects::
* Examples: Examples<25>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

http — HTTP modules

* HTTP status codes::
* HTTP status category::
* HTTP methods::

http.client — HTTP protocol client

* HTTPConnection Objects::
* HTTPResponse Objects::
* Examples: Examples<26>.
* HTTPMessage Objects::

ftplib — FTP protocol client

* Reference: Reference<5>.

Reference

* FTP objects::
* FTP_TLS objects::
* Module variables::

poplib — POP3 protocol client

* POP3 Objects::
* POP3 Example::

imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client

* IMAP4 Objects::
* IMAP4 Example::

smtplib — SMTP protocol client

* SMTP Objects::
* SMTP Example::

uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122

* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.
* Example: Example<11>.
* Command-Line Example::

socketserver — A framework for network servers

* Server Creation Notes::
* Server Objects: Server Objects<2>.
* Request Handler Objects::
* Examples: Examples<27>.

Examples

* socketserver.TCPServer Example: socketserver TCPServer Example.
* socketserver.UDPServer Example: socketserver UDPServer Example.
* Asynchronous Mixins::

http.server — HTTP servers

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.
* Security considerations: Security considerations<3>.

http.cookies — HTTP state management

* Cookie Objects::
* Morsel Objects::
* Example: Example<12>.

http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

* CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy Objects::
* DefaultCookiePolicy Objects::
* Cookie Objects: Cookie Objects<2>.
* Examples: Examples<28>.

xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access

* ServerProxy Objects::
* DateTime Objects::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError Objects::
* MultiCall Objects::
* Convenience Functions::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer Objects::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Example::

ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

* Convenience factory functions::
* IP Addresses::
* IP Network definitions::
* Interface objects::
* Other Module Level Functions::
* Custom Exceptions::

IP Addresses

* Address objects::
* Conversion to Strings and Integers::
* Operators: Operators<3>.

Operators

* Comparison operators::
* Arithmetic operators::

IP Network definitions

* Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask.
* Network objects::
* Operators: Operators<4>.

Operators

* Logical operators::
* Iteration::
* Networks as containers of addresses::

Interface objects

* Operators: Operators<5>.

Operators

* Logical operators: Logical operators<2>.

Multimedia Services

* wave — Read and write WAV files::
* colorsys — Conversions between color systems::

wave — Read and write WAV files

* Wave_read Objects::
* Wave_write Objects::

Internationalization

* gettext — Multilingual internationalization services::
* locale — Internationalization services::

gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

* GNU gettext API::
* Class-based API::
* Internationalizing your programs and modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<9>.

Class-based API

* The NullTranslations class::
* The GNUTranslations class::
* Solaris message catalog support::
* The Catalog constructor::

Internationalizing your programs and modules

* Localizing your module::
* Localizing your application::
* Changing languages on the fly::
* Deferred translations::

locale — Internationalization services

* Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats.
* For extension writers and programs that embed Python::
* Access to message catalogs::

Program Frameworks

* turtle — Turtle graphics::
* cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters::
* shlex — Simple lexical analysis::

turtle — Turtle graphics

* Introduction: Introduction<7>.
* Tutorial: Tutorial<3>.
* How to…::
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions::
* Public classes::
* Explanation: Explanation<2>.
* Help and configuration::
* turtledemo — Demo scripts::
* Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6.
* Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0.

Tutorial

* Starting a turtle environment::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::

Basic drawing

* Pen control::
* The turtle’s position::

How to…

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::

Turtle graphics reference

* Turtle methods::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen::

Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

* Turtle motion::
* Tell Turtle’s state::
* Settings for measurement::
* Pen control: Pen control<2>.
* Turtle state::
* Using events::
* Special Turtle methods::
* Compound shapes::

Pen control

* Drawing state::
* Color control::
* Filling::
* More drawing control::

Turtle state

* Visibility::
* Appearance::

Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

* Window control::
* Animation control::
* Using screen events::
* Input methods::
* Settings and special methods::
* Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.

Help and configuration

* How to use help::
* Translation of docstrings into different languages::
* How to configure Screen and Turtles::

cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

* Cmd Objects::
* Cmd Example::

shlex — Simple lexical analysis

* shlex Objects::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

* tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk::
* tkinter.colorchooser — Color choosing dialog: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
* tkinter.font — Tkinter font wrapper: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
* Tkinter Dialogs::
* tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter message prompts: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
* tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
* tkinter.dnd — Drag and drop support: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
* tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
* tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk.
* IDLE — Python editor and shell: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>.

tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

* Architecture::
* Tkinter Modules::
* Tkinter Life Preserver::
* Threading model::
* Handy Reference::
* File Handlers::

Tkinter Life Preserver

* A Hello World Program::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I…? What option does…?::
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::

Handy Reference

* Setting Options::
* The Packer::
* Packer Options::
* Coupling Widget Variables::
* The Window Manager::
* Tk Option Data Types::
* Bindings and Events::
* The index Parameter::
* Images::

Tkinter Dialogs

* tkinter.simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
* tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs.
* tkinter.commondialog — Dialog window templates: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.

tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs

* Native Load/Save Dialogs::

tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets

* Using Ttk::
* Ttk Widgets::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk Styling::

Widget

* Standard Options::
* Scrollable Widget Options::
* Label Options::
* Compatibility Options::
* Widget States::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.

Combobox

* Options::
* Virtual events::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.

Spinbox

* Options: Options<2>.
* Virtual events: Virtual events<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.

Notebook

* Options: Options<3>.
* Tab Options::
* Tab Identifiers::
* Virtual Events::
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.

Progressbar

* Options: Options<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.

Separator

* Options: Options<5>.

Sizegrip

* Platform-specific notes::
* Bugs::

Treeview

* Options: Options<6>.
* Item Options::
* Tag Options::
* Column Identifiers::
* Virtual Events: Virtual Events<2>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.

Ttk Styling

* Layouts::

tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk

* Using Tix::
* Tix Widgets::
* Tix Commands::

Tix Widgets

* Basic Widgets::
* File Selectors::
* Hierarchical ListBox::
* Tabular ListBox::
* Manager Widgets::
* Image Types::
* Miscellaneous Widgets::
* Form Geometry Manager::

IDLE — Python editor and shell

* Menus::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib — implementation of IDLE application::

Menus

* File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor.
* Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor.
* Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only.
* Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only.
* Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only.
* Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only.
* Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor.
* Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor.
* Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor.
* Context menus::

Editing and Navigation

* Editor windows::
* Key bindings::
* Automatic indentation::
* Search and Replace::
* Completions::
* Calltips::
* Code Context::
* Shell window::
* Text colors::

Startup and Code Execution

* Command line usage::
* Startup failure::
* Running user code::
* User output in Shell::
* Developing tkinter applications::
* Running without a subprocess::

Help and Preferences

* Help sources::
* Setting preferences::
* IDLE on macOS::
* Extensions::

Development Tools

* typing — Support for type hints::
* pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system::
* Python Development Mode::
* doctest — Test interactive Python examples::
* unittest — Unit testing framework::
* unittest.mock — mock object library: unittest mock — mock object library.
* unittest.mock — getting started: unittest mock — getting started.
* 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation::
* test — Regression tests package for Python::
* test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
* test.support.socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
* test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
* test.support.bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
* test.support.threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
* test.support.os_helper — Utilities for os tests: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
* test.support.import_helper — Utilities for import tests: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.

typing — Support for type hints

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* Type aliases::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* Generics::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* User-defined generic types::
* The Any type::
* Nominal vs structural subtyping::
* Module contents: Module contents<3>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

Module contents

* Special typing primitives::
* Protocols: Protocols<3>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* Functions and decorators::
* Introspection helpers::
* Constant::
* Deprecated aliases::

Special typing primitives

* Special types::
* Special forms::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::

Deprecated aliases

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

Python Development Mode

* Effects of the Python Development Mode::
* ResourceWarning Example::
* Bad file descriptor error example::

doctest — Test interactive Python examples

* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings.
* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File.
* Command-line Usage::
* How It Works::
* Basic API::
* Unittest API::
* Advanced API::
* Debugging::
* Soapbox::

How It Works

* Which Docstrings Are Examined?::
* How are Docstring Examples Recognized?::
* What’s the Execution Context?::
* What About Exceptions?::
* Option Flags::
* Directives::
* Warnings::

Advanced API

* DocTest Objects::
* Example Objects::
* DocTestFinder objects::
* DocTestParser objects::
* DocTestRunner objects::
* OutputChecker objects::

unittest — Unit testing framework

* Basic example::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>.
* Test Discovery::
* Organizing test code::
* Re-using old test code::
* Skipping tests and expected failures::
* Distinguishing test iterations using subtests::
* Classes and functions::
* Class and Module Fixtures::
* Signal Handling::

Command-Line Interface

* Command-line options: Command-line options<3>.

Classes and functions

* Test cases::
* Grouping tests::
* Loading and running tests::

Loading and running tests

* load_tests Protocol::

Class and Module Fixtures

* setUpClass and tearDownClass::
* setUpModule and tearDownModule::

unittest.mock — mock object library

* Quick Guide::
* The Mock Class::
* The patchers::
* MagicMock and magic method support::
* Helpers::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

The Mock Class

* Calling::
* Deleting Attributes::
* Mock names and the name attribute::
* Attaching Mocks as Attributes::

The patchers

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop.
* patch builtins::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* Nesting Patch Decorators::
* Where to patch::
* Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects::

MagicMock and magic method support

* Mocking Magic Methods::
* Magic Mock::

Helpers

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing::
* Sealing mocks::

unittest.mock — getting started

* Using Mock::
* Patch Decorators::
* Further Examples::

Using Mock

* Mock Patching Methods::
* Mock for Method Calls on an Object::
* Mocking Classes::
* Naming your mocks::
* Tracking all Calls::
* Setting Return Values and Attributes::
* Raising exceptions with mocks::
* Side effect functions and iterables::
* Mocking asynchronous iterators::
* Mocking asynchronous context manager::
* Creating a Mock from an Existing Object::
* Using side_effect to return per file content::

Further Examples

* Mocking chained calls::
* Partial mocking::
* Mocking a Generator Method::
* Applying the same patch to every test method::
* Mocking Unbound Methods::
* Checking multiple calls with mock::
* Coping with mutable arguments::
* Nesting Patches::
* Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock::
* Mock subclasses and their attributes::
* Mocking imports with patch.dict: Mocking imports with patch dict.
* Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions::
* More complex argument matching::

2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

* Using 2to3::
* Fixers::
* lib2to3 — 2to3’s library::

test — Regression tests package for Python

* Writing Unit Tests for the test package::
* Running tests using the command-line interface::

Debugging and Profiling

* Audit events table::
* bdb — Debugger framework::
* faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback::
* pdb — The Python Debugger::
* The Python Profilers::
* timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets::
* trace — Trace or track Python statement execution::
* tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations::

faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

* Dumping the traceback::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* Example: Example<13>.

pdb — The Python Debugger

* Debugger Commands::

The Python Profilers

* Introduction to the profilers::
* Instant User’s Manual::
* profile and cProfile Module Reference::
* The Stats Class::
* What Is Deterministic Profiling?::
* Limitations::
* Calibration::
* Using a custom timer::

timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets

* Basic Examples: Basic Examples<2>.
* Python Interface::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<4>.
* Examples: Examples<29>.

trace — Trace or track Python statement execution

* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<3>.
* Programmatic Interface::

Command-Line Usage

* Main options::
* Modifiers::
* Filters::

tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations

* Examples: Examples<30>.
* API::

Examples

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::

Pretty top

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::

API

* Functions: Functions<9>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::

Software Packaging and Distribution

* ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer::
* venv — Creation of virtual environments::
* zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives::

ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer

* Command line interface::
* Module API::

venv — Creation of virtual environments

* Creating virtual environments::
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* An example of extending EnvBuilder::

zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

* Basic Example::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<5>.
* Python API::
* Examples: Examples<31>.
* Specifying the Interpreter::
* Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp::
* The Python Zip Application Archive Format::

Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp

* Caveats::

Python Runtime Services

* sys — System-specific parameters and functions::
* sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
* sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information::
* builtins — Built-in objects::
* __main__ — Top-level code environment::
* warnings — Warning control::
* dataclasses — Data Classes::
* contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts::
* abc — Abstract Base Classes::
* atexit — Exit handlers::
* traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback::
* __future__ — Future statement definitions::
* gc — Garbage Collector interface::
* inspect — Inspect live objects::
* site — Site-specific configuration hook::

sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::

Tool identifiers

* Registering and using tools::

Events

* Local events::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::

Turning events on and off

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::

Registering callback functions

* Callback function arguments::

sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* Installation path functions::
* Other functions: Other functions<3>.
* Using sysconfig as a script::

User scheme

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::

Home scheme

* posix_home::

Prefix scheme

* posix_prefix::
* nt::

__main__ — Top-level code environment

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages.
* import __main__::

__name__ == '__main__'

* What is the “top-level code environment”?::
* Idiomatic Usage::
* Packaging Considerations::

__main__.py in Python Packages

* Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>.

warnings — Warning control

* Warning Categories::
* The Warnings Filter::
* Temporarily Suppressing Warnings::
* Testing Warnings::
* Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies::
* Available Functions::
* Available Context Managers::

The Warnings Filter

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* Describing Warning Filters::
* Default Warning Filter::
* Overriding the default filter::

dataclasses — Data Classes

* Module contents: Module contents<4>.
* Post-init processing::
* Class variables::
* Init-only variables::
* Frozen instances::
* Inheritance::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* Default factory functions::
* Mutable default values::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

* Utilities::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<3>.
* Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers.

Examples and Recipes

* Supporting a variable number of context managers::
* Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods::
* Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation::
* Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables::
* Using a context manager as a function decorator::

Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers

* Reentrant context managers::
* Reusable context managers::

atexit — Exit handlers

* atexit Example::

traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>.
* TracebackException Objects::
* StackSummary Objects::
* FrameSummary Objects::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

__future__ — Future statement definitions

* Module Contents: Module Contents<5>.

inspect — Inspect live objects

* Types and members::
* Retrieving source code::
* Introspecting callables with the Signature object::
* Classes and functions: Classes and functions<2>.
* The interpreter stack::
* Fetching attributes statically::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Code Objects Bit Flags::
* Buffer flags::
* Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<3>.

site — Site-specific configuration hook

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* Module contents: Module contents<5>.
* Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<4>.

Custom Python Interpreters

* code — Interpreter base classes::
* codeop — Compile Python code::

code — Interpreter base classes

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

Importing Modules

* zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives::
* pkgutil — Package extension utility::
* modulefinder — Find modules used by a script::
* runpy — Locating and executing Python modules::
* importlib — The implementation of import::
* importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
* importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
* importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata.
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.

zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives

* zipimporter Objects::
* Examples: Examples<32>.

modulefinder — Find modules used by a script

* Example usage of ModuleFinder::

importlib — The implementation of import

* Introduction: Introduction<8>.
* Functions: Functions<10>.
* importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
* importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
* importlib.util – Utility code for importers: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
* Examples: Examples<33>.

Examples

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.

importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access

* Functional API::

importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata

* Overview: Overview<3>.
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Extending the search algorithm::

Functional API

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

* Virtual environments: Virtual environments<2>.
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::

Python Language Services

* ast — Abstract Syntax Trees::
* symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables::
* token — Constants used with Python parse trees::
* keyword — Testing for Python keywords::
* tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source::
* tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation::
* pyclbr — Python module browser support::
* py_compile — Compile Python source files::
* compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries::
* dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode::
* pickletools — Tools for pickle developers::

ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

* Abstract Grammar::
* Node classes::
* ast Helpers::
* Compiler Flags::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<4>.

Node classes

* Root nodes::
* Literals: Literals<3>.
* Variables::
* Expressions: Expressions<2>.
* Statements::
* Control flow::
* Pattern matching::
* Type parameters::
* Function and class definitions::
* Async and await::

Expressions

* Subscripting::
* Comprehensions::

Statements

* Imports::

symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

* Generating Symbol Tables::
* Examining Symbol Tables::

tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

* Tokenizing Input::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<5>.
* Examples: Examples<34>.

pyclbr — Python module browser support

* Function Objects::
* Class Objects::

py_compile — Compile Python source files

* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<6>.

compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries

* Command-line use::
* Public functions::

dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* Bytecode analysis::
* Analysis functions::
* Python Bytecode Instructions::
* Opcode collections::

pickletools — Tools for pickle developers

* Command line usage: Command line usage<2>.
* Programmatic Interface: Programmatic Interface<2>.

Command line usage

* Command line options: Command line options<3>.

MS Windows Specific Services

* msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime::
* winreg — Windows registry access::
* winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows::

msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

* File Operations::
* Console I/O::
* Other Functions::

winreg — Windows registry access

* Functions: Functions<11>.
* Constants: Constants<8>.
* Registry Handle Objects::

Constants

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::

Access Rights

* 64-bit Specific::

Unix Specific Services

* posix — The most common POSIX system calls::
* pwd — The password database::
* grp — The group database::
* termios — POSIX style tty control::
* tty — Terminal control functions::
* pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities::
* fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls::
* resource — Resource usage information::
* syslog — Unix syslog library routines::

posix — The most common POSIX system calls

* Large File Support::
* Notable Module Contents::

termios — POSIX style tty control

* Example: Example<14>.

pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities

* Example: Example<15>.

resource — Resource usage information

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

syslog — Unix syslog library routines

* Examples: Examples<35>.

Examples

* Simple example::

Superseded Modules

* aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files::
* audioop — Manipulate raw audio data::
* cgi — Common Gateway Interface support::
* cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts::
* chunk — Read IFF chunked data::
* crypt — Function to check Unix passwords::
* imghdr — Determine the type of an image::
* mailcap — Mailcap file handling::
* msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files::
* nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages): nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
* nntplib — NNTP protocol client::
* optparse — Parser for command line options::
* ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices::
* pipes — Interface to shell pipelines::
* sndhdr — Determine type of sound file::
* spwd — The shadow password database::
* sunau — Read and write Sun AU files::
* telnetlib — Telnet client::
* uu — Encode and decode uuencode files::
* xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data::

cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

* Introduction: Introduction<9>.
* Using the cgi module::
* Higher Level Interface::
* Functions: Functions<12>.
* Caring about security::
* Installing your CGI script on a Unix system::
* Testing your CGI script::
* Debugging CGI scripts::
* Common problems and solutions::

crypt — Function to check Unix passwords

* Hashing Methods::
* Module Attributes::
* Module Functions: Module Functions<2>.
* Examples: Examples<36>.

msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

* Database Objects::
* View Objects::
* Summary Information Objects::
* Record Objects::
* Errors::
* CAB Objects::
* Directory Objects::
* Features: Features<3>.
* GUI classes::
* Precomputed tables::

nntplib — NNTP protocol client

* NNTP Objects::
* Utility functions: Utility functions<2>.

NNTP Objects

* Attributes: Attributes<2>.
* Methods::

optparse — Parser for command line options

* Background::
* Tutorial: Tutorial<4>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<18>.

Background

* Terminology::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::

Tutorial

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Default values::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::

Generating help

* Grouping Options::

Reference Guide

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* Parsing arguments::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Cleanup: Cleanup<2>.
* Other methods::

Option Callbacks

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.

Extending optparse

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::

ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

* Audio Device Objects::
* Mixer Device Objects::

pipes — Interface to shell pipelines

* Template Objects::

sunau — Read and write Sun AU files

* AU_read Objects::
* AU_write Objects::

telnetlib — Telnet client

* Telnet Objects::
* Telnet Example::

xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data

* Packer Objects::
* Unpacker Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<19>.

Removed Modules

* asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler::
* asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler::
* distutils — Building and installing Python modules::
* imp — Access the import internals::
* smtpd — SMTP Server::

Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme

* Önerilen üçüncü taraf araçları::
* Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma::
* CPython çalışma zamanını daha büyük bir uygulamaya gömme::

Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma

* Extending Python with C or C++::
* Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial.
* Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics.
* Building C and C++ Extensions::
* Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak::

Extending Python with C or C++

* A Simple Example::
* Intermezzo; Errors and Exceptions: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions.
* Back to the Example::
* The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function::
* Compilation and Linkage::
* Calling Python Functions from C::
* Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions::
* Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions::
* Building Arbitrary Values::
* Reference Counts::
* Writing Extensions in C++::
* Providing a C API for an Extension Module::

Reference Counts

* Reference Counting in Python::
* Ownership Rules::
* Thin Ice::
* NULL Pointers::

Defining Extension Types: Tutorial

* The Basics::
* Adding data and methods to the Basic example::
* Providing finer control over data attributes::
* Supporting cyclic garbage collection::
* Subclassing other types::

Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics

* Finalization and De-allocation::
* Object Presentation::
* Attribute Management::
* Object Comparison::
* Abstract Protocol Support::
* Weak Reference Support::
* More Suggestions::

Attribute Management

* Generic Attribute Management::
* Type-specific Attribute Management::

Building C and C++ Extensions

* Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools::

Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak

* Bir Yemek Kitabı Yaklaşımı::
* Unix ve Windows Arasındaki Farklar::
* DLL’leri Uygulamada Kullanma::

CPython çalışma zamanını daha büyük bir uygulamaya gömme

* Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme::

Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme

* Çok Üst Düzey Gömme::
* Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde; Genel Bir Bakış: Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde Genel Bir Bakış.
* Saf Gömme::
* Gömülü Python’u Genişletme::
* Python’u C++’a Gömmek::
* Unix benzeri sistemler altında Derleme ve Bağlama::

Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

* Introduction: Introduction<10>.
* C API Stability::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* Reference Counting::
* Exception Handling::
* Utilities: Utilities<2>.
* Abstract Objects Layer::
* Concrete Objects Layer::
* Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads.
* Python Initialization Configuration::
* Memory Management::
* Object Implementation Support::
* API and ABI Versioning::

Introduction

* Coding standards::
* Include Files::
* Useful macros::
* Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<20>.
* Embedding Python: Embedding Python<2>.
* Debugging Builds::

Objects, Types and Reference Counts

* Reference Counts: Reference Counts<2>.
* Types::

Reference Counts

* Reference Count Details::

C API Stability

* Unstable C API::
* Stable Application Binary Interface::
* Platform Considerations::
* Contents of Limited API::

Stable Application Binary Interface

* Limited C API::
* Stable ABI::
* Limited API Scope and Performance::
* Limited API Caveats::

Exception Handling

* Printing and clearing::
* Raising exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>.
* Exception Classes::
* Exception Objects::
* Unicode Exception Objects::
* Recursion Control::
* Standard Exceptions::
* Standard Warning Categories::

Utilities

* Operating System Utilities::
* System Functions::
* Process Control::
* Importing Modules: Importing Modules<2>.
* Data marshalling support::
* Parsing arguments and building values::
* String conversion and formatting::
* PyHash API::
* Reflection::
* Codec registry and support functions::
* Support for Perf Maps::

Parsing arguments and building values

* Parsing arguments: Parsing arguments<2>.
* Building values::

Parsing arguments

* Strings and buffers::
* Numbers::
* Other objects::
* API Functions::

Codec registry and support functions

* Codec lookup API::
* Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers::

Abstract Objects Layer

* Object Protocol::
* Call Protocol::
* Number Protocol::
* Sequence Protocol::
* Mapping Protocol::
* Iterator Protocol::
* Buffer Protocol::
* Old Buffer Protocol::

Call Protocol

* The tp_call Protocol::
* The Vectorcall Protocol::
* Object Calling API::
* Call Support API::

The Vectorcall Protocol

* Recursion Control: Recursion Control<2>.
* Vectorcall Support API::

Buffer Protocol

* Buffer structure::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Buffer-related functions::

Buffer request types

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::

Complex arrays

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.

Concrete Objects Layer

* Fundamental Objects::
* Numeric Objects::
* Sequence Objects::
* Container Objects::
* Function Objects: Function Objects<2>.
* Other Objects::

Fundamental Objects

* Type Objects: Type Objects<2>.
* The None Object::

Type Objects

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::

Numeric Objects

* Integer Objects::
* Boolean Objects::
* Floating-Point Objects::
* Complex Number Objects::

Floating-Point Objects

* Pack and Unpack functions::

Pack and Unpack functions

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::

Complex Number Objects

* Complex Numbers as C Structures::
* Complex Numbers as Python Objects::

Sequence Objects

* Bytes Objects: Bytes Objects<2>.
* Byte Array Objects::
* Unicode Objects and Codecs::
* Tuple Objects::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List Objects::

Byte Array Objects

* Type check macros::
* Direct API functions::
* Macros::

Unicode Objects and Codecs

* Unicode Objects::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::

Unicode Objects

* Unicode Type::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t Support::

Built-in Codecs

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 Codecs::
* UTF-32 Codecs::
* UTF-16 Codecs::
* UTF-7 Codecs::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 Codecs::
* ASCII Codecs::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::
* Methods & Slots::

Container Objects

* Dictionary Objects::
* Set Objects::

Function Objects

* Function Objects: Function Objects<3>.
* Instance Method Objects::
* Method Objects::
* Cell Objects::
* Code Objects::
* Extra information::

Other Objects

* File Objects::
* Module Objects::
* Iterator Objects::
* Descriptor Objects::
* Slice Objects::
* MemoryView objects::
* Weak Reference Objects: Weak Reference Objects<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Frame Objects::
* Generator Objects::
* Coroutine Objects: Coroutine Objects<2>.
* Context Variables Objects::
* DateTime Objects: DateTime Objects<2>.
* Objects for Type Hinting::

Module Objects

* Initializing C modules::
* Module lookup::

Initializing C modules

* Single-phase initialization::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Low-level module creation functions::
* Support functions::

Slice Objects

* Ellipsis Object::

Frame Objects

* Internal Frames::

Initialization, Finalization, and Threads

* Before Python Initialization::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Process-wide parameters::
* Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock::
* Sub-interpreter support::
* Asynchronous Notifications::
* Profiling and Tracing::
* Advanced Debugger Support::
* Thread Local Storage Support::

Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

* Releasing the GIL from extension code::
* Non-Python created threads::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* High-level API::
* Low-level API::

Sub-interpreter support

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::

Thread Local Storage Support

* Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
* Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: Thread Local Storage TLS API.

Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API

* Dynamic Allocation::
* Methods: Methods<2>.

Python Initialization Configuration

* Example: Example<16>.
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_RunMain(): Py_RunMain.
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::

Memory Management

* Overview: Overview<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* Memory Interface::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* Examples: Examples<37>.

The pymalloc allocator

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::

Object Implementation Support

* Allocating Objects on the Heap::
* Common Object Structures::
* Type Object Structures::
* Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection::

Common Object Structures

* Base object types and macros::
* Implementing functions and methods::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::

Accessing attributes of extension types

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::

Type Object Structures

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* Examples: Examples<38>.

Quick Reference

* “tp slots”::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::

Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::

Python Modüllerini Kurmak

* Anahtar terimler::
* Temel kullanım::
* Nasıl yapabilirim …?::
* Genel yükleme sorunları::

Nasıl yapabilirim …?

* … pip ‘i Python 3.4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?: … pip ‘i Python 3 4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?.
* … sadece mevcut kullanıcı için paketler kurabilirim?::
* … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?::
* … paralel olarak yüklenmiş birden çok Python sürümüyle çalışabilirim?::

Genel yükleme sorunları

* Python’u Linux’te sisteme kurmak::
* Pip yüklü değil::
* İkili uzantıları yükleme::

Python NASIL’ları

* Porting Extension Modules to Python 3::
* Curses Programming with Python::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Enum HOWTO::
* Functional Programming HOWTO::
* Logging HOWTO::
* Logging Cookbook::
* Regular Expression HOWTO::
* Socket Programming HOWTO::
* Sorting Techniques::
* Unicode HOWTO::
* HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package::
* An introduction to the ipaddress module::
* Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap::
* Python support for the Linux perf profiler::
* Annotations Best Practices::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.

Curses Programming with Python

* What is curses?::
* Starting and ending a curses application::
* Windows and Pads::
* Displaying Text::
* User Input::
* For More Information::

What is curses?

* The Python curses module::

Displaying Text

* Attributes and Color::

Descriptor Guide

* Primer::
* Complete Practical Example::
* Technical Tutorial::
* Pure Python Equivalents::

Primer

* Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant.
* Dynamic lookups::
* Managed attributes::
* Customized names::
* Closing thoughts::

Complete Practical Example

* Validator class::
* Custom validators::
* Practical application::

Technical Tutorial

* Abstract::
* Definition and introduction::
* Descriptor protocol::
* Overview of descriptor invocation::
* Invocation from an instance::
* Invocation from a class::
* Invocation from super::
* Summary of invocation logic::
* Automatic name notification::
* ORM example::

Pure Python Equivalents

* Properties::
* Functions and methods::
* Kinds of methods::
* Static methods::
* Class methods::
* Member objects and __slots__::

Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

Prerequisites

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::

Using the python-gdb extension

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::

Enum HOWTO

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration: Iteration<2>.
* Comparisons: Comparisons<2>.
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<3>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::

Derived Enumerations

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Others: Others<2>.

When to use __new__() vs. __init__()

* Finer Points::

Finer Points

* Supported __dunder__ names: Supported __dunder__ names<2>.
* Supported _sunder_ names: Supported _sunder_ names<2>.
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::

How are Enums and Flags different?

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::

Enum Cookbook

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::

Omitting values

* Using auto::
* Using object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.

Functional Programming HOWTO

* Introduction: Introduction<11>.
* Iterators::
* Generator expressions and list comprehensions::
* Generators::
* Built-in functions: Built-in functions<2>.
* The itertools module::
* The functools module::
* Small functions and the lambda expression::
* Revision History and Acknowledgements::
* References: References<2>.

Introduction

* Formal provability::
* Modularity::
* Ease of debugging and testing::
* Composability::

Iterators

* Data Types That Support Iterators::

Generators

* Passing values into a generator::

The itertools module

* Creating new iterators::
* Calling functions on elements::
* Selecting elements::
* Combinatoric functions::
* Grouping elements::

The functools module

* The operator module::

References

* General::
* Python-specific::
* Python documentation::

Logging HOWTO

* Basic Logging Tutorial::
* Advanced Logging Tutorial::
* Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>.
* Useful Handlers::
* Exceptions raised during logging::
* Using arbitrary objects as messages::
* Optimization::
* Other resources::

Basic Logging Tutorial

* When to use logging::
* A simple example::
* Logging to a file::
* Logging variable data::
* Changing the format of displayed messages::
* Displaying the date/time in messages::
* Next Steps::

Advanced Logging Tutorial

* Logging Flow::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuring Logging::
* What happens if no configuration is provided::
* Configuring Logging for a Library::

Logging Levels

* Custom Levels::

Logging Cookbook

* Using logging in multiple modules::
* Logging from multiple threads::
* Multiple handlers and formatters::
* Logging to multiple destinations::
* Custom handling of levels::
* Configuration server example::
* Dealing with handlers that block::
* Sending and receiving logging events across a network::
* Adding contextual information to your logging output::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* Logging to a single file from multiple processes::
* Using file rotation::
* Use of alternative formatting styles::
* Customizing LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* An example dictionary-based configuration::
* Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing::
* A more elaborate multiprocessing example::
* Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler::
* Implementing structured logging::
* Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources: Other resources<2>.

Sending and receiving logging events across a network

* Running a logging socket listener in production::

Adding contextual information to your logging output

* Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information::
* Using Filters to impart contextual information::

Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

* Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information::

Logging to a single file from multiple processes

* Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::

Patterns to avoid

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::

Regular Expression HOWTO

* Introduction: Introduction<12>.
* Simple Patterns::
* Using Regular Expressions::
* More Pattern Power::
* Modifying Strings::
* Common Problems::
* Feedback::

Simple Patterns

* Matching Characters::
* Repeating Things::

Using Regular Expressions

* Compiling Regular Expressions::
* The Backslash Plague::
* Performing Matches::
* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<3>.
* Compilation Flags::

More Pattern Power

* More Metacharacters::
* Grouping::
* Non-capturing and Named Groups::
* Lookahead Assertions::

Modifying Strings

* Splitting Strings::
* Search and Replace: Search and Replace<2>.

Common Problems

* Use String Methods::
* match() versus search(): match versus search.
* Greedy versus Non-Greedy::
* Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE.

Socket Programming HOWTO

* Sockets::
* Creating a Socket::
* Using a Socket::
* Disconnecting::
* Non-blocking Sockets::

Sockets

* History::

Creating a Socket

* IPC::

Using a Socket

* Binary Data::

Disconnecting

* When Sockets Die::

Sorting Techniques

* Sıralama Temelleri::
* Anahtar Fonksiyonları::
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* Yükselen ve Alçalan::
* Sıralama Kararlılığı ve Karmaşık Sıralamalar::
* Süsle-Sırala-Boz::
* Karşılaştırma Fonksiyonları::
* Tuhaflıklar ve Sonlar::
* Partial Sorts::

Unicode HOWTO

* Introduction to Unicode::
* Python’s Unicode Support::
* Reading and Writing Unicode Data::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<10>.

Introduction to Unicode

* Definitions::
* Encodings::
* References: References<3>.

Python’s Unicode Support

* The String Type::
* Converting to Bytes::
* Unicode Literals in Python Source Code::
* Unicode Properties::
* Comparing Strings::
* Unicode Regular Expressions::
* References: References<4>.

Reading and Writing Unicode Data

* Unicode filenames::
* Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs::
* References: References<5>.

Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

* Converting Between File Encodings::
* Files in an Unknown Encoding::

HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

* Introduction: Introduction<13>.
* Fetching URLs::
* Handling Exceptions::
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* Footnotes::

Fetching URLs

* Data::
* Headers::

Handling Exceptions

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::

HTTPError

* Error Codes::

Wrapping it Up

* Number 1::
* Number 2::

An introduction to the ipaddress module

* Creating Address/Network/Interface objects::
* Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects::
* Networks as lists of Addresses::
* Comparisons: Comparisons<3>.
* Using IP Addresses with other modules::
* Getting more detail when instance creation fails::

Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

* A Note on IP Versions::
* IP Host Addresses::
* Defining Networks::
* Host Interfaces::

Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

* Enabling the static markers::
* Static DTrace probes::
* Static SystemTap markers::
* Available static markers::
* SystemTap Tapsets::
* Examples: Examples<39>.

Python support for the Linux perf profiler

* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::

Annotations Best Practices

* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer.
* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older.
* Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations::
* Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version::
* __annotations__ Quirks::

Isolating Extension Modules

* Who should read this::
* Background: Background<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::

Background

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::

Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::

Heap Types

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::

Garbage-Collection Protocol

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::

Open Issues

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Examples: Examples<40>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

* General Python FAQ::
* Programming FAQ::
* Design and History FAQ::
* Library and Extension FAQ::
* Genişletme/Ekleme SSS::
* Python on Windows FAQ::
* Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS::
* “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS::

General Python FAQ

* General Information::
* Python in the real world::

General Information

* What is Python?::
* What is the Python Software Foundation?::
* Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?::
* Why was Python created in the first place?::
* What is Python good for?::
* How does the Python version numbering scheme work?::
* How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?::
* How do I get documentation on Python?::
* I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?.
* Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?::
* How do I get a beta test version of Python?::
* How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?::
* Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?::
* Are there any books on Python?::
* Where in the world is www.python.org located?: Where in the world is www python org located?.
* Why is it called Python?::
* Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?::

Python in the real world

* How stable is Python?::
* How many people are using Python?::
* Have any significant projects been done in Python?::
* What new developments are expected for Python in the future?::
* Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?::
* Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?::

Programming FAQ

* General Questions::
* Core Language::
* Numbers and strings::
* Performance: Performance<4>.
* Sequences (Tuples/Lists): Sequences Tuples/Lists.
* Objects::
* Modules: Modules<3>.

General Questions

* Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?.
* Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?::
* How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?::
* Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?::

Core Language

* Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?::
* What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?::
* Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?::
* How do I share global variables across modules?::
* What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?::
* Why are default values shared between objects?::
* How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?::
* What is the difference between arguments and parameters?::
* Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?::
* How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?.
* How do you make a higher order function in Python?::
* How do I copy an object in Python?::
* How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?::
* How can my code discover the name of an object?::
* What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?::
* Is there an equivalent of C’s “?;” ternary operator?: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?.
* Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?::
* What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?.

Numbers and strings

* How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?::
* Why does -22 // 10 return -3?::
* How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?::
* How do I convert a string to a number?::
* How do I convert a number to a string?::
* How do I modify a string in place?::
* How do I use strings to call functions/methods?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::

Performance

* My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?.
* What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?::

Sequences (Tuples/Lists)

* How do I convert between tuples and lists?::
* What’s a negative index?::
* How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?::
* How do you remove duplicates from a list?::
* How do you remove multiple items from a list::
* How do you make an array in Python?::
* How do I create a multidimensional list?::
* How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?::
* Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?::
* I want to do a complicated sort; can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?.
* How can I sort one list by values from another list?::

Objects

* What is a class?::
* What is a method?::
* What is self?::
* How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?::
* What is delegation?::
* How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?::
* How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?::
* How do I create static class data and static class methods?::
* How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?.
* I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.
* My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
* How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?::
* Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?.
* When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?::
* How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?::
* How do I cache method calls?::

Modules

* How do I create a .pyc file?: How do I create a pyc file?.
* How do I find the current module name?::
* How can I have modules that mutually import each other?::
* __import__(‘x.y.z’) returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?.
* When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen?: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?.

Design and History FAQ

* Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?::
* Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?::
* Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?::
* Why are Python strings immutable?::
* Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?::
* Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?::
* Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?.
* Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?.
* How fast are exceptions?::
* Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?::
* Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?::
* Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?::
* Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?.
* How does Python manage memory?::
* Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?::
* Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?::
* Why are there separate tuple and list data types?::
* How are lists implemented in CPython?::
* How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?::
* Why must dictionary keys be immutable?::
* Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?.
* How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?::
* Why is there no goto?::
* Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?.
* Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?::
* Why don’t generators support the with statement?::
* Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?::
* Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?::

Library and Extension FAQ

* General Library Questions::
* Common tasks::
* Threads::
* Input and Output::
* Network/Internet Programming::
* Databases::
* Mathematics and Numerics::

General Library Questions

* How do I find a module or application to perform task X?::
* Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?.
* How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?::
* Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?::
* Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python?: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?.
* Why don’t my signal handlers work?::

Common tasks

* How do I test a Python program or component?::
* How do I create documentation from doc strings?::
* How do I get a single keypress at a time?::

Threads

* How do I program using threads?::
* None of my threads seem to run; why?: None of my threads seem to run why?.
* How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?::
* What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?::
* Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?::

Input and Output

* How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…): How do I delete a file? And other file questions….
* How do I copy a file?::
* How do I read (or write) binary data?: How do I read or write binary data?.
* I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?.
* How do I access the serial (RS232) port?: How do I access the serial RS232 port?.
* Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?.

Network/Internet Programming

* What WWW tools are there for Python?::
* How can I mimic CGI form submission (METHOD=POST)?: How can I mimic CGI form submission METHOD=POST ?.
* What module should I use to help with generating HTML?::
* How do I send mail from a Python script?::
* How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?.

Databases

* Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?::
* How do you implement persistent objects in Python?::

Mathematics and Numerics

* How do I generate random numbers in Python?::

Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

* C’de kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?::
* C++’da kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?::
* C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?::
* C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl çalıştırabilirim?::
* C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl değerlendirebilirim?::
* Bir Python nesnesinden C değerlerini nasıl çıkarabilirim?::
* İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue() işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?: İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?.
* C’de bir nesnenin metodunu nasıl çağırabilirim?::
* PyErr_Print() işlevinden (veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden) gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?: PyErr_Print işlevinden veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?.
* Python’da yazılmış bir modüle C’den nasıl erişebilirim?::
* Python’dan C++ nesnelerine nasıl arayüz oluşturabilirim?::
* Kurulum dosyasını kullanarak bir modül ekledim ve derleme başarısız oldu; neden?::
* Bir uzantıda nasıl hata ayıklayabilirim?::
* Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum, ancak bazı dosyalar eksik. Neden?: Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum ancak bazı dosyalar eksik Neden?.
* “Eksik girdi” ile “geçersiz girdi’yi nasıl ayırt edebilirim?::
* Tanımlanmamış g++ sembolleri __builtin_new veya __pure_virtual’ı nasıl bulabilirim?::
* Bazı yöntemleri C’de, bazı yöntemleri Python’da (örneğin miras yoluyla) uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?: Bazı yöntemleri C’de bazı yöntemleri Python’da örneğin miras yoluyla uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?.

Python on Windows FAQ

* How do I run a Python program under Windows?::
* How do I make Python scripts executable?::
* Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?::
* How do I make an executable from a Python script?::
* Is a *.pyd file the same as a DLL?: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?.
* How can I embed Python into a Windows application?::
* How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?::
* How do I check for a keypress without blocking?::
* How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?.

Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS

* Genel GKA Soruları::
* Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?::
* Tkinter soruları::

Tkinter soruları

* Tkinter uygulamalarını nasıl dondurabilirim?::
* G/Ç’yi beklerken Tk olaylarını işleyebilir miyim?::
* Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum; neden?: Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum neden?.

“Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS

* Python nedir?::
* Python makinemde neden yüklü?::
* Python’u silebilir miyim?::

Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.16: Pending Removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>.
* C API Deprecations::

C API Deprecations

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>.

About this documentation

* Contributors to the Python documentation::

Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak

* Dokümantasyon hataları::
* Python hata takipçisini kullanmak::
* Python’a kendiniz katkıda bulunmaya başlayın::

Tarihçe ve Lisans

* Yazılımın tarihçesi::
* Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar::
* Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar::

Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* PYTHON 2.0 İÇİN BEOPEN.COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ: PYTHON 2 0 İÇİN BEOPEN COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ.
* PYTHON 1.6.1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI: PYTHON 1 6 1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI.
* 0.9.0 ARASI 1.2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ: 0 9 0 ARASI 1 2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION::

Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

* Mersenne Twister’ı::
* Soketler::
* Asenkron soket hizmetleri::
* Çerez yönetimi::
* Çalıştırma izleme::
* UUencode ve UUdecode fonksiyonları::
* XML Uzaktan Yordam Çağrıları::
* test_epoll::
* kqueue seçin::
* SipHash24::
* strtod ve dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N test paketi::
* Audioop::
* asyncio: asyncio<11>.



File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python,  Next: Python Öğreticisi,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 What’s New in Python
**********************

The “What’s New in Python” series of essays takes tours through the most
important changes between major Python versions.  They are a “must read”
for anyone wishing to stay up-to-date after a new release.

* Menu:

* What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12.
* What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11.
* What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10.
* Python 3.9’daki Yenilikler: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler.
* Python 3.8’deki Yenilikler: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler.
* What’s New In Python 3.7: What’s New In Python 3 7.
* What’s New In Python 3.6: What’s New In Python 3 6.
* What’s New In Python 3.5: What’s New In Python 3 5.
* What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4.
* What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3.
* What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2.
* What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1.
* What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0.
* What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7.
* What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6.
* What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5.
* What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4.
* What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3.
* What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2.
* What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1.
* What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0.
* Changelog::


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.1 What’s New In Python 3.12
=============================


Editor: Adam Turner

This article explains the new features in Python 3.12, compared to 3.11.
Python 3.12 was released on October 2, 2023.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 693(1) – Python 3.12 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights::
* New Features::
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* Other Language Changes::
* New Modules::
* Improved Modules::
* Optimizations::
* CPython bytecode changes::
* Demos and Tools::
* Deprecated::
* Removed::
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Build Changes::
* C API Changes::
* Notable changes in 3.12.4: Notable changes in 3 12 4.
* Notable changes in 3.12.5: Notable changes in 3 12 5.
* Notable changes in 3.12.6: Notable changes in 3 12 6.
* Notable changes in 3.12.8: Notable changes in 3 12 8.
* Notable changes in 3.12.10: Notable changes in 3 12 10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0693/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights,  Next: New Features,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with
a mix of changes to the language and the standard library.  The library
changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and
correctness.  Of note, the ‘distutils’ package has been removed from the
standard library.  Filesystem support in *note os: a0. and *note
pathlib: a3. has seen a number of improvements, and several modules have
better performance.

The language changes focus on usability, as *note f-strings: 13e. have
had many limitations removed and ‘Did you mean …’ suggestions continue
to improve.  The new *note type parameter syntax: 13f. and *note type:
140. statement improve ergonomics for using *note generic types: 141.
and *note type aliases: 142. with static type checkers.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation, such as the *note
Library Reference: 143. and *note Language Reference: 144.  If you want
to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a
change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that
PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

__________________________________________________________________

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 695: 13f, type parameter syntax and the *note type: 140.
     statement

New grammar features:

   * *note PEP 701: 145, *note f-strings: 13e. in the grammar

Interpreter improvements:

   * *note PEP 684: 146, a unique per-interpreter *note GIL: 147.

   * *note PEP 669: 148, low impact monitoring

   * *note Improved 'Did you mean ...'  suggestions: 149.for *note
     NameError: 14a, *note ImportError: 14b, and *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     exceptions

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 688: 14d, using the *note buffer protocol: 14e. from
     Python

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note pathlib.Path: 14f. class now supports subclassing

   * The *note os: a0. module received several improvements for Windows
     support

   * A *note command-line interface: 150. has been added to the *note
     sqlite3: ce. module

   * *note isinstance(): 151. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 152. enjoy a speed up of between two and 20 times

   * The *note asyncio: a. package has had a number of performance
     improvements, with some benchmarks showing a 75% speed up.

   * A *note command-line interface: 153. has been added to the *note
     uuid: 110. module

   * Due to the changes in *note PEP 701: 145, producing tokens via the
     *note tokenize: fb. module is up to 64% faster.

Security improvements:

   * Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 66. implementations of SHA1,
     SHA3, SHA2-384, SHA2-512, and MD5 with formally verified code from
     the HACL*(1) project.  These builtin implementations remain as
     fallbacks that are only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

C API improvements:

   * *note PEP 697: 154, unstable C API tier

   * *note PEP 683: 155, immortal objects

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note PEP 709: 156, comprehension inlining

   * *note CPython support: 157. for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler

   * Implement stack overflow protection on supported platforms

New typing features:

   * *note PEP 692: 158, using *note TypedDict: 159. to annotate *note
     **kwargs: 15a.

   * *note PEP 698: 15b, *note typing.override(): 15c. decorator

Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:

   * PEP 623(2): Remove ‘wstr’ from Unicode objects in Python’s C API,
     reducing the size of every *note str: 15d. object by at least 8
     bytes.

   * PEP 632(3): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  See the migration
     guide(4) for advice replacing the APIs it provided.  The
     third-party Setuptools(5) package continues to provide ‘distutils’,
     if you still require it in Python 3.12 and beyond.

   * gh-95299(6): Do not pre-install ‘setuptools’ in virtual
     environments created with *note venv: 111.  This means that
     ‘distutils’, ‘setuptools’, ‘pkg_resources’, and ‘easy_install’ will
     no longer available by default; to access these run ‘pip install
     setuptools’ in the *note activated: 15e. virtual environment.

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’, and ‘imp’ modules have been removed,
     along with several *note unittest.TestCase: 15f. *note method
     aliases: 160..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (5) 
https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/deprecated/distutils-legacy.html

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: New Features,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Next: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.1 PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax
......................................

Generic classes and functions under PEP 484(1) were declared using a
verbose syntax that left the scope of type parameters unclear and
required explicit declarations of variance.

PEP 695(2) introduces a new, more compact and explicit way to create
*note generic classes: 163. and *note functions: 164.:

     def max[T](args: Iterable[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class list[T]:
         def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T:
             ...

         def append(self, element: T) -> None:
             ...

In addition, the PEP introduces a new way to declare *note type aliases:
165. using the *note type: 140. statement, which creates an instance of
*note TypeAliasType: 166.:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

Type aliases can also be *note generic: 167.:

     type Point[T] = tuple[T, T]

The new syntax allows declaring *note TypeVarTuple: 168. and *note
ParamSpec: 169. parameters, as well as *note TypeVar: 16a. parameters
with bounds or constraints:

     type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]  # ParamSpec
     type LabeledTuple[*Ts] = tuple[str, *Ts]  # TypeVarTuple
     type HashableSequence[T: Hashable] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with bound
     type IntOrStrSequence[T: (int, str)] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with constraints

The value of type aliases and the bound and constraints of type
variables created through this syntax are evaluated only on demand (see
*note lazy evaluation: 16b.).  This means type aliases are able to refer
to other types defined later in the file.

Type parameters declared through a type parameter list are visible
within the scope of the declaration and any nested scopes, but not in
the outer scope.  For example, they can be used in the type annotations
for the methods of a generic class or in the class body.  However, they
cannot be used in the module scope after the class is defined.  See
*note Type parameter lists: 16c. for a detailed description of the
runtime semantics of type parameters.

In order to support these scoping semantics, a new kind of scope is
introduced, the *note annotation scope: 16d.  Annotation scopes behave
for the most part like function scopes, but interact differently with
enclosing class scopes.  In Python 3.13, *note annotations: 16e. will
also be evaluated in annotation scopes.

See PEP 695(3) for more details.

(PEP written by Eric Traut.  Implementation by Jelle Zijlstra, Eric
Traut, and others in gh-103764(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Next: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Prev: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.2 PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings
.....................................................

PEP 701(1) lifts some restrictions on the usage of *note f-strings: 13e.
Expression components inside f-strings can now be any valid Python
expression, including strings reusing the same quote as the containing
f-string, multi-line expressions, comments, backslashes, and unicode
escape sequences.  Let’s cover these in detail:

   * Quote reuse: in Python 3.11, reusing the same quotes as the
     enclosing f-string raises a *note SyntaxError: 14c, forcing the
     user to either use other available quotes (like using double quotes
     or triple quotes if the f-string uses single quotes).  In Python
     3.12, you can now do things like this:

          >>> songs = ['Take me back to Eden', 'Alkaline', 'Ascensionism']
          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join(songs)}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

     Note that before this change there was no explicit limit in how
     f-strings can be nested, but the fact that string quotes cannot be
     reused inside the expression component of f-strings made it
     impossible to nest f-strings arbitrarily.  In fact, this is the
     most nested f-string that could be written:

          >>> f"""{f'''{f'{f"{1+1}"}'}'''}"""
          '2'

     As now f-strings can contain any valid Python expression inside
     expression components, it is now possible to nest f-strings
     arbitrarily:

          >>> f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{1+1}"}"}"}"}"}"
          '2'

   * Multi-line expressions and comments: In Python 3.11, f-string
     expressions must be defined in a single line, even if the
     expression within the f-string could normally span multiple lines
     (like literal lists being defined over multiple lines), making them
     harder to read.  In Python 3.12 you can now define f-strings
     spanning multiple lines, and add inline comments:

          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join([
          ...     'Take me back to Eden',  # My, my, those eyes like fire
          ...     'Alkaline',              # Not acid nor alkaline
          ...     'Ascensionism'           # Take to the broken skies at last
          ... ])}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

   * Backslashes and unicode characters: before Python 3.12 f-string
     expressions couldn’t contain any ‘\’ character.  This also affected
     unicode *note escape sequences: 170. (such as ‘\N{snowman}’) as
     these contain the ‘\N’ part that previously could not be part of
     expression components of f-strings.  Now, you can define
     expressions like this:

          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\n".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden
          Alkaline
          Ascensionism
          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\N{BLACK HEART SUIT}".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden♥Alkaline♥Ascensionism

See PEP 701(2) for more details.

As a positive side-effect of how this feature has been implemented (by
parsing f-strings with the PEG parser(3)), now error messages for
f-strings are more precise and include the exact location of the error.
For example, in Python 3.11, the following f-string raises a *note
SyntaxError: 14c.:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         (x z y)
          ^^^
     SyntaxError: f-string: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

but the error message doesn’t include the exact location of the error
within the line and also has the expression artificially surrounded by
parentheses.  In Python 3.12, as f-strings are parsed with the PEG
parser, error messages can be more precise and show the entire line:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
                        ^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou,
Cristián Maureira-Fredes and Marta Gómez in gh-102856(4).  PEP written
by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou and Marta Gómez).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Prev: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.3 PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL
......................................

PEP 684(1) introduces a per-interpreter *note GIL: 147, so that
sub-interpreters may now be created with a unique GIL per interpreter.
This allows Python programs to take full advantage of multiple CPU
cores.  This is currently only available through the C-API, though a
Python API is anticipated for 3.13(2).

Use the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 172. function to create
an interpreter with its own GIL:

     PyInterpreterConfig config = {
         .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
         .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
     };
     PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
     PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         return -1;
     }
     /* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */

For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a
per-interpreter GIL, see Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c(3).

(Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104210(4), etc.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104210


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Next: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Prev: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.4 PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython
..................................................

PEP 669(1) defines a new *note API: d9. for profilers, debuggers, and
other tools to monitor events in CPython.  It covers a wide range of
events, including calls, returns, lines, exceptions, jumps, and more.
This means that you only pay for what you use, providing support for
near-zero overhead debuggers and coverage tools.  See *note
sys.monitoring: d9. for details.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Next: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Prev: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.5 PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python
................................................................

PEP 688(1) introduces a way to use the *note buffer protocol: 14e. from
Python code.  Classes that implement the *note __buffer__(): 175. method
are now usable as buffer types.

The new *note collections.abc.Buffer: 176. ABC provides a standard way
to represent buffer objects, for example in type annotations.  The new
*note inspect.BufferFlags: 177. enum represents the flags that can be
used to customize buffer creation.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
gh-102500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Next: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.6 PEP 709: Comprehension inlining
.......................................

Dictionary, list, and set comprehensions are now inlined, rather than
creating a new single-use function object for each execution of the
comprehension.  This speeds up execution of a comprehension by up to two
times.  See PEP 709(1) for further details.

Comprehension iteration variables remain isolated and don’t overwrite a
variable of the same name in the outer scope, nor are they visible after
the comprehension.  Inlining does result in a few visible behavior
changes:

   * There is no longer a separate frame for the comprehension in
     tracebacks, and tracing/profiling no longer shows the comprehension
     as a function call.

   * The *note symtable: d7. module will no longer produce child symbol
     tables for each comprehension; instead, the comprehension’s locals
     will be included in the parent function’s symbol table.

   * Calling *note locals(): 179. inside a comprehension now includes
     variables from outside the comprehension, and no longer includes
     the synthetic ‘.0’ variable for the comprehension “argument”.

   * A comprehension iterating directly over ‘locals()’ (e.g.  ‘[k for k
     in locals()]’) may see “RuntimeError: dictionary changed size
     during iteration” when run under tracing (e.g.  code coverage
     measurement).  This is the same behavior already seen in e.g.  ‘for
     k in locals():’.  To avoid the error, first create a list of keys
     to iterate over: ‘keys = list(locals()); [k for k in keys]’.

(Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in PEP 709(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Up: New Features

1.1.2.7 Improved Error Messages
...............................

   * Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as
     part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when a
     *note NameError: 14a. is raised to the top level.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo in gh-98254(1).)

          >>> sys.version_info
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          NameError: name 'sys' is not defined. Did you forget to import 'sys'?

   * Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError: 14a. exceptions
     for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 14a. is raised in a
     method and the instance has an attribute that’s exactly equal to
     the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-99139(2).)

          >>> class A:
          ...    def __init__(self):
          ...        self.blech = 1
          ...
          ...    def foo(self):
          ...        somethin = blech
          ...
          >>> A().foo()
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              somethin = blech
                         ^^^^^
          NameError: name 'blech' is not defined. Did you mean: 'self.blech'?

   * Improve the *note SyntaxError: 14c. error message when the user
     types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.  (Contributed
     by Pablo Galindo in gh-98931(3).)

          >>> import a.y.z from b.y.z
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              import a.y.z from b.y.z
              ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?

   * *note ImportError: 14b. exceptions raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ statements now include suggestions for the
     value of ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-91058(4).)

          >>> from collections import chainmap
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ImportError: cannot import name 'chainmap' from 'collections'. Did you mean: 'ChainMap'?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Next: Other Language Changes,  Prev: New Features,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting type hints(1) and the *note
typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Next: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.1.3.1 PEP 692: Using ‘TypedDict’ for more precise ‘**kwargs’ typing
.....................................................................

Typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature as introduced by PEP 484(1)
allowed for valid annotations only in cases where all of the ‘**kwargs’
were of the same type.

PEP 692(2) specifies a more precise way of typing ‘**kwargs’ by relying
on typed dictionaries:

     from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

     class Movie(TypedDict):
       name: str
       year: int

     def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

See PEP 692(3) for more details.

(Contributed by Franek Magiera in gh-103629(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Prev: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.1.3.2 PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing
.....................................................

A new decorator *note typing.override(): 15c. has been added to the
*note typing: 104. module.  It indicates to type checkers that the
method is intended to override a method in a superclass.  This allows
type checkers to catch mistakes where a method that is intended to
override something in a base class does not in fact do so.

Example:

     from typing import override

     class Base:
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "blue"

     class GoodChild(Base):
       @override  # ok: overrides Base.get_color
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "yellow"

     class BadChild(Base):
       @override  # type checker error: does not override Base.get_color
       def get_colour(self) -> str:
         return "red"

See PEP 698(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Steven Troxler in gh-101561(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes,  Next: New Modules,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 14c. when parsing source
     code containing null bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-96670(1).)

   * A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
     generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence, use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’).  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 14c. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 17e.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-98401(2).)

   * Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex: ‘"\477"’),
     deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e,
     instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  In a future Python
     version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401(3).)

   * Variables used in the target part of comprehensions that are not
     stored to can now be used in assignment expressions (‘:=’).  For
     example, in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’, the assignment
     to ‘b’ is now allowed.  Note that assigning to variables stored to
     in the target part of comprehensions (like ‘a’) is still
     disallowed, as per PEP 572(4).  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-100581(5).)

   * Exceptions raised in a class or type’s ‘__set_name__’ method are no
     longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 180.  Context information
     is added to the exception as a PEP 678(6) note.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-77757(7).)

   * When a ‘try-except*’ construct handles the entire *note
     ExceptionGroup: 181. and raises one other exception, that exception
     is no longer wrapped in an *note ExceptionGroup: 181.  Also changed
     in version 3.11.4.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103590(8).)

   * The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism
     of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead of object
     allocations.  The GC can also run when *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     182. is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time
     without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the
     GC periodically.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-97922(9).)

   * All builtin and extension callables expecting boolean parameters
     now accept arguments of any type instead of just *note bool: 183.
     and *note int: 184.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-60203(10).)

   * *note memoryview: 185. now supports the half-float type (the “e”
     format code).  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou in
     gh-90751(11).)

   * *note slice: 186. objects are now hashable, allowing them to be
     used as dict keys and set items.  (Contributed by Will Bradshaw,
     Furkan Onder, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-101264(12).)

   * *note sum(): 187. now uses Neumaier summation to improve accuracy
     and commutativity when summing floats or mixed ints and floats.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100425(13).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 188. now raises *note SyntaxError: 14c. instead
     of *note ValueError: 189. when parsing source code containing null
     bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670(14).)

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note tarfile extraction filters: 18b. for details.  In Python
     3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in PEP 706(15).)

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. instances are now hashable if
     the underlying mapping is hashable.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-87995(16).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 157. through the new
     environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 18d. and command-line
     option *note -X perf: 18e, as well as the new *note
     sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 18f, *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 190, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 191. functions.  (Design by Pablo
     Galindo.  Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with
     contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in
     gh-96123(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100581

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60203

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101264

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules,  Next: Improved Modules,  Prev: Other Language Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.5 New Modules
-----------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules,  Next: Optimizations,  Prev: New Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.6 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* array::
* asyncio::
* calendar::
* csv::
* dis::
* fractions::
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* inspect::
* itertools::
* math::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pathlib::
* platform::
* pdb::
* random::
* shutil::
* sqlite3::
* statistics::
* sys::
* tempfile::
* threading::
* tkinter::
* tokenize::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* unittest::
* uuid::


File: python.info,  Node: array,  Next: asyncio,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.1 array
.............

   * The *note array.array: 195. class now supports subscripting, making
     it a *note generic type: 141.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-98658(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio,  Next: calendar,  Prev: array,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.2 asyncio
...............

   * The performance of writing to sockets in *note asyncio: a. has been
     significantly improved.  ‘asyncio’ now avoids unnecessary copying
     when writing to sockets and uses *note sendmsg(): 197. if the
     platform supports it.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-91166(1).)

   * Add *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 198. and *note
     asyncio.create_eager_task_factory(): 199. functions to allow opting
     an event loop in to eager task execution, making some use-cases 2x
     to 5x faster.  (Contributed by Jacob Bower & Itamar Oren in
     gh-102853(2), gh-104140(3), and gh-104138(4))

   * On Linux, *note asyncio: a. uses *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher:
     19a. by default if *note os.pidfd_open(): 19b. is available and
     functional instead of *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 19c.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-98024(5).)

   * The event loop now uses the best available child watcher for each
     platform (*note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 19a. if supported and
     *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 19c. otherwise), so manually
     configuring a child watcher is not recommended.  (Contributed by
     Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(6).)

   * Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run(): 19d. to allow
     specifying a custom event loop factory.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-99388(7).)

   * Add C implementation of *note asyncio.current_task(): 19e. for
     4x-6x speedup.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren and Pranav Thulasiram
     Bhat in gh-100344(8).)

   * *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 19f. now returns ‘False’ for
     generators as *note asyncio: a. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-102748(9).)

   * *note asyncio.wait(): 1a0. and *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1a1.
     now accepts generators yielding tasks.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-78530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102853

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104140

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104138

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98024

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530


File: python.info,  Node: calendar,  Next: csv,  Prev: asyncio,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.3 calendar
................

   * Add enums *note calendar.Month: 1a3. and *note calendar.Day: 1a4.
     defining months of the year and days of the week.  (Contributed by
     Prince Roshan in gh-103636(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636


File: python.info,  Node: csv,  Next: dis,  Prev: calendar,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.4 csv
...........

   * Add *note csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL: 1a6. and *note csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 1a7.
     flags to provide finer grained control of ‘None’ and empty strings
     by *note csv.writer: 1a8. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: dis,  Next: fractions,  Prev: csv,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.5 dis
...........

   * Pseudo instruction opcodes (which are used by the compiler but do
     not appear in executable bytecode) are now exposed in the *note
     dis: 37. module.  *note HAVE_ARGUMENT: 1aa. is still relevant to
     real opcodes, but it is not useful for pseudo instructions.  Use
     the new *note dis.hasarg: 1ab. collection instead.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-94216(1).)

   * Add the *note dis.hasexc: 1ac. collection to signify instructions
     that set an exception handler.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-94216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216


File: python.info,  Node: fractions,  Next: importlib resources,  Prev: dis,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.6 fractions
.................

   * Objects of type *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. now support
     float-style formatting.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     gh-100161(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100161


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources,  Next: inspect,  Prev: fractions,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.7 importlib.resources
...........................

   * *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 1b0. now supports resource
     directories.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-97930(1).)

   * Rename first parameter of *note importlib.resources.files(): 1b1.
     to 'anchor'.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-100598(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100598


File: python.info,  Node: inspect,  Next: itertools,  Prev: importlib resources,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.8 inspect
...............

   * Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 1b3. to mark sync
     functions that return a *note coroutine: 1b4. for use with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1b5.  (Contributed by Carlton Gibson
     in gh-99247(1).)

   * Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 1b6. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 1b7. for determining the current state
     of asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Thomas Krennwallner in
     gh-79940(2).)

   * The performance of *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8. has been
     considerably improved.  Most calls to the function should be at
     least 2x faster than they were in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by
     Alex Waygood in gh-103193(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99247

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193


File: python.info,  Node: itertools,  Next: math,  Prev: inspect,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.9 itertools
.................

   * Add *note itertools.batched(): 1ba. for collecting into even-sized
     tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-98363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363


File: python.info,  Node: math,  Next: os,  Prev: itertools,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.10 math
.............

   * Add *note math.sumprod(): 1bc. for computing a sum of products.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100485(1).)

   * Extend *note math.nextafter(): 1bd. to include a 'steps' argument
     for moving up or down multiple steps at a time.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Goergens, Mark Dickinson, and Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-94906(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906


File: python.info,  Node: os,  Next: os path,  Prev: math,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.11 os
...........

   * Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 1bf. to open a file descriptor for a
     process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 19b. in non-blocking mode.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93312(1).)

   * *note os.DirEntry: 1c0. now includes an *note
     os.DirEntry.is_junction(): 1c1. method to check if the entry is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(2).)

   * Add *note os.listdrives(): 1c2, *note os.listvolumes(): 1c3. and
     *note os.listmounts(): 1c4. functions on Windows for enumerating
     drives, volumes and mount points.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-102519(3).)

   * *note os.stat(): 1c5. and *note os.lstat(): 1c6. are now more
     accurate on Windows.  The ‘st_birthtime’ field will now be filled
     with the creation time of the file, and ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated
     but still contains the creation time (but in the future will return
     the last metadata change, for consistency with other platforms).
     ‘st_dev’ may be up to 64 bits and ‘st_ino’ up to 128 bits depending
     on your file system, and ‘st_rdev’ is always set to zero rather
     than incorrect values.  Both functions may be significantly faster
     on newer releases of Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-99726(4).)

   * As of 3.12.4, *note os.mkdir(): 1c7. and *note os.makedirs(): 1c8.
     on Windows now support passing a 'mode' value of ‘0o700’ to apply
     access control to the new directory.  This implicitly affects *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9. and is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030(5).
     Other values for 'mode' continue to be ignored.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in gh-118486(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486


File: python.info,  Node: os path,  Next: pathlib,  Prev: os,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.12 os.path
................

   * Add *note os.path.isjunction(): 1cb. to check if a given path is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(1).)

   * Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 1cc. to split a path into a triad
     ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-101000(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib,  Next: platform,  Prev: os path,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.13 pathlib
................

   * Add support for subclassing *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. and *note
     pathlib.Path: 14f, plus their Posix- and Windows-specific variants.
     Subclasses may override the *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments():
     1cf. method to pass information between path instances.

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 1d0. for walking the directory trees
     and generating all file or directory names within them, similar to
     *note os.walk(): 1d1.  (Contributed by Stanislav Zmiev in
     gh-90385(1).)

   * Add 'walk_up' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1d2. to allow the insertion of ‘..’
     entries in the result; this behavior is more consistent with *note
     os.path.relpath(): 1d3.  (Contributed by Domenico Ragusa in
     gh-84538(2).)

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.is_junction(): 1d4. as a proxy to *note
     os.path.isjunction(): 1cb.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-99547(3).)

   * Add 'case_sensitive' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5, *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 1d6. and
     *note pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d7. for matching the path’s case
     sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching
     process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84538

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547


File: python.info,  Node: platform,  Next: pdb,  Prev: pathlib,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.14 platform
.................

   * Add support for detecting Windows 11 and Windows Server releases
     past 2012.  Previously, lookups on Windows Server platforms newer
     than Windows Server 2012 and on Windows 11 would return
     ‘Windows-10’.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-89545(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545


File: python.info,  Node: pdb,  Next: random,  Prev: platform,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.15 pdb
............

   * Add convenience variables to hold values temporarily for debug
     session and provide quick access to values like the current frame
     or the return value.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-103693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693


File: python.info,  Node: random,  Next: shutil,  Prev: pdb,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.16 random
...............

   * Add *note random.binomialvariate(): 1db.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-81620(1).)

   * Add a default of ‘lambd=1.0’ to *note random.expovariate(): 1dc.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100234(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234


File: python.info,  Node: shutil,  Next: sqlite3,  Prev: random,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.17 shutil
...............

   * *note shutil.make_archive(): 1de. now passes the 'root_dir'
     argument to custom archivers which support it.  In this case it no
     longer temporarily changes the current working directory of the
     process to 'root_dir' to perform archiving.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-74696(1).)

   * *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. now accepts a new argument 'onexc'
     which is an error handler like 'onerror' but which expects an
     exception instance rather than a '(typ, val, tb)' triplet.
     'onerror' is deprecated.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102828(2).)

   * *note shutil.which(): 1e0. now consults the 'PATHEXT' environment
     variable to find matches within 'PATH' on Windows even when the
     given 'cmd' includes a directory component.  (Contributed by
     Charles Machalow in gh-103179(3).)

     *note shutil.which(): 1e0. will call
     ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ when querying for executables on
     Windows to determine if the current working directory should be
     prepended to the search path.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(4).)

     *note shutil.which(): 1e0. will return a path matching the 'cmd'
     with a component from ‘PATHEXT’ prior to a direct match elsewhere
     in the search path on Windows.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3,  Next: statistics,  Prev: shutil,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.18 sqlite3
................

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 150.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
     Aasland in gh-77617(1).)

   * Add the *note sqlite3.Connection.autocommit: 1e2. attribute to
     *note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. and the 'autocommit' parameter to
     *note sqlite3.connect(): 1e4. to control PEP 249(2)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 1e5.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-83638(3).)

   * Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1e6, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-103015(4).)

   * Add *note sqlite3.Connection.getconfig(): 1e7. and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.setconfig(): 1e8. to *note sqlite3.Connection:
     1e3. to make configuration changes to a database connection.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103489(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489


File: python.info,  Node: statistics,  Next: sys,  Prev: sqlite3,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.19 statistics
...................

   * Extend *note statistics.correlation(): 1ea. to include as a
     ‘ranked’ method for computing the Spearman correlation of ranked
     data.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-95861(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861


File: python.info,  Node: sys,  Next: tempfile,  Prev: statistics,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.20 sys
............

   * Add the *note sys.monitoring: d9. namespace to expose the new *note
     PEP 669: 148. monitoring API. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(1).)

   * Add *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 18f. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 190. for activating and
     deactivating stack profiler trampolines, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 191. for querying if stack
     profiler trampolines are active.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
     Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google]
     and Mark Shannon in gh-96123(2).)

   * Add *note sys.last_exc: 1ec. which holds the last unhandled
     exception that was raised (for post-mortem debugging use cases).
     Deprecate the three fields that have the same information in its
     legacy form: *note sys.last_type: 1ed, *note sys.last_value: 1ee.
     and *note sys.last_traceback: 1ef.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(3).)

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 1f0. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(4).)

   * *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 1f1. and *note
     sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1f2.  The recursion limit now applies only
     to Python code.  Builtin functions do not use the recursion limit,
     but are protected by a different mechanism that prevents recursion
     from causing a virtual machine crash.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile,  Next: threading,  Prev: sys,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.21 tempfile
.................

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 1f4. function has a new
     optional parameter 'delete_on_close' (Contributed by Evgeny Zorin
     in gh-58451(1).)

   * *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9. now always returns an absolute path,
     even if the argument provided to the 'dir' parameter is a relative
     path.

   * As of 3.12.4 on Windows, the default mode ‘0o700’ used by *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9. now limits access to the new directory due
     to changes to *note os.mkdir(): 1c7.  This is a mitigation for CVE
     2024-4030(2).  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58451

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486


File: python.info,  Node: threading,  Next: tkinter,  Prev: tempfile,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.22 threading
..................

   * Add *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 1f6. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 1f7. that allow to set tracing
     and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter,  Next: tokenize,  Prev: threading,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.23 tkinter
................

   * ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’ now flattens its arguments.  It now
     accepts not only coordinates as separate arguments (‘x1, y1, x2,
     y2, ...’) and a sequence of coordinates (‘[x1, y1, x2, y2, ...]’),
     but also coordinates grouped in pairs (‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’
     and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...]’), like ‘create_*()’ methods.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-94473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize,  Next: types,  Prev: tkinter,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.24 tokenize
.................

   * The *note tokenize: fb. module includes the changes introduced in
     PEP 701(1).  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo
     in gh-102856(2).)  See *note Porting to Python 3.12: 1fa. for more
     information on the changes to the *note tokenize: fb. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: types,  Next: typing,  Prev: tokenize,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.25 types
..............

   * Add *note types.get_original_bases(): 1fc. to allow for further
     introspection of *note User-defined generic types: 1fd. when
     subclassed.  (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe and Alex Waygood in
     gh-101827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101827


File: python.info,  Node: typing,  Next: unicodedata,  Prev: types,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.26 typing
...............

   * *note isinstance(): 151. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 152. now use *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8. rather
     than *note hasattr(): 200. to lookup whether attributes exist.
     This means that descriptors and *note __getattr__(): 201. methods
     are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.  However, it may also mean
     that some objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood in gh-102433(1).)

   * The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered
     “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has been created.
     Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will
     still work, but will have no impact on *note isinstance(): 151.
     checks comparing objects to the protocol.  For example:

          >>> from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable
          >>> @runtime_checkable
          ... class HasX(Protocol):
          ...     x = 1
          ...
          >>> class Foo: ...
          ...
          >>> f = Foo()
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          False
          >>> f.x = 1
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          True
          >>> HasX.y = 2
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)  # unchanged, even though HasX now also has a "y" attribute
          True

     This change was made in order to speed up ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.

   * The performance profile of *note isinstance(): 151. checks against
     *note runtime-checkable protocols: 152. has changed significantly.
     Most ‘isinstance()’ checks against protocols with only a few
     members should be at least 2x faster than in 3.11, and some may be
     20x faster or more.  However, ‘isinstance()’ checks against
     protocols with many members may be slower than in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-74690(2) and gh-103193(3).)

   * All *note typing.TypedDict: 159. and *note typing.NamedTuple: 202.
     classes now have the ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute.  (Contributed by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco in gh-103699(4).)

   * Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 203.  (Contributed by Erik De Bonte
     in gh-99957(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata,  Next: unittest,  Prev: typing,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.27 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 15.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in gh-96734(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734


File: python.info,  Node: unittest,  Next: uuid,  Prev: unicodedata,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.28 unittest
.................

Add a ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the N slowest test
cases:

     python3 -m unittest --durations=3 lib.tests.test_threading
     .....
     Slowest test durations
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     1.210s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     1.003s     test_default_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     0.518s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.EventTests)

     (0.000 durations hidden.  Use -v to show these durations.)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 158 tests in 9.869s

     OK (skipped=3)

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in gh-48330(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330


File: python.info,  Node: uuid,  Prev: unittest,  Up: Improved Modules

1.1.6.29 uuid
.............

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 153.  (Contributed by Adam
     Chhina in gh-88597(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations,  Next: CPython bytecode changes,  Prev: Improved Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Remove ‘wstr’ and ‘wstr_length’ members from Unicode objects.  It
     reduces object size by 8 or 16 bytes on 64bit platform.  ( PEP
     623(1)) (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-92536(2).)

   * Add experimental support for using the BOLT binary optimizer in the
     build process, which improves performance by 1-5%.  (Contributed by
     Kevin Modzelewski in gh-90536(3) and tuned by Donghee Na in
     gh-101525(4))

   * Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions *note
     re.sub(): 208. and *note re.subn(): 209. and corresponding
     ‘re.Pattern’ methods) for replacement strings containing group
     references by 2–3 times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-91524(5).)

   * Speed up *note asyncio.Task: 20a. creation by deferring expensive
     string formatting.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-103793(6).)

   * The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 20b. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 20c. functions are up to 64% faster as
     a side effect of the changes required to cover PEP 701(7) in the
     *note tokenize: fb. module.  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and
     Pablo Galindo in gh-102856(8).)

   * Speed up *note super(): 20d. method calls and attribute loads via
     the new *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 20e. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes,  Next: Demos and Tools,  Prev: Optimizations,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.8 CPython bytecode changes
------------------------------

   * Remove the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction.  It has been merged into
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 210.  *note LOAD_ATTR: 210. will now behave like
     the old ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction if the low bit of its oparg is
     set.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-93429(1).)

   * Remove the ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’
     instructions.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102859(2).)

   * Remove the ‘PRECALL’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-92925(3).)

   * Add the *note BINARY_SLICE: 211. and *note STORE_SLICE: 212.
     instructions.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-94163(4).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 213. instructions.  (Contributed by
     Mark Shannon in gh-99005(5).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 214. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-101799(6).)

   * Add the *note CLEANUP_THROW: 215. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in gh-90997(7).)

   * Add the ‘END_SEND’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(8).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR: 216. instruction as part of the
     implementation of PEP 709(9).  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in
     gh-101441(10).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK: 217. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Dennis Sweeney in gh-93143(11).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 218, *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS: 219, and *note LOAD_LOCALS: 21a. opcodes
     as part of the implementation of PEP 695(12).  Remove the
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’ opcode, which can be replaced with *note
     LOAD_LOCALS: 21a. plus *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 218.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-103764(13).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 20e. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(14).)

   * Add the *note RETURN_CONST: 21b. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Wenyang Wang in gh-101632(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101441

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools,  Next: Deprecated,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.9 Demos and Tools
---------------------

   * Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old demo
     scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(1).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97681(2).)

   * Remove outdated example scripts of the ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.
     A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-97669(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated,  Next: Removed,  Prev: Demos and Tools,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.10 Deprecated
-----------------

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following *note ast: 8. features have been
     deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 21e. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher:
          21f, *note asyncio.FastChildWatcher: 220, *note
          asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 221. and *note
          asyncio.SafeChildWatcher: 222. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 223, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 224, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 225. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          226. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 227. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     228. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 229.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(6).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note
     collections.abc.ByteString: 22a.  Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 176.  For use in typing, prefer a union,
     like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 176.
     (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   * *note datetime: 30.: *note datetime.datetime: 22b.’s *note
     utcnow(): 22c. and *note utcfromtimestamp(): 22d. are deprecated
     and will be removed in a future version.  Instead, use
     timezone-aware objects to represent datetimes in UTC: respectively,
     call *note now(): 22e. and *note fromtimestamp(): 22f. with the
     'tz' parameter set to *note datetime.UTC: 230.  (Contributed by
     Paul Ganssle in gh-103857(8).)

   * *note email: 3a.: Deprecate the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 231.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(9).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 76.: Deprecated the following classes,
     scheduled for removal in Python 3.14:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7a. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 232.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 233.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(10).)

   * *note itertools: 7f.: Deprecate the support for copy, deepcopy, and
     pickle operations, which is undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a
     significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(11).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: In Python 3.14, the default *note
     multiprocessing: 93. start method will change to a safer one on
     Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is
     currently the default (gh-84559(12)).  Adding a runtime warning
     about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not
     expected to care.  Use the *note get_context(): 234. or *note
     set_start_method(): 235. APIs to explicitly specify when your code
     'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note contexts and start methods: 236.

   * *note pkgutil: a8.: *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 237. and *note
     pkgutil.get_loader(): 238. are deprecated and will be removed in
     Python 3.14; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 239. instead.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(13).)

   * *note pty: b0.: The module has two undocumented ‘master_open()’ and
     ‘slave_open()’ functions that have been deprecated since Python 2
     but only gained a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. in 3.12.
     Remove them in 3.14.  (Contributed by Soumendra Ganguly and Gregory
     P. Smith in gh-85984(14).)

   * *note os: a0.:

        * The ‘st_ctime’ fields return by *note os.stat(): 1c5. and
          *note os.lstat(): 1c6. on Windows are deprecated.  In a future
          release, they will contain the last metadata change time,
          consistent with other platforms.  For now, they still contain
          the creation time, which is also available in the new
          ‘st_birthtime’ field.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
          gh-99726(15).)

        * On POSIX platforms, *note os.fork(): 23a. can now raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. when it can detect being called
          from a multithreaded process.  There has always been a
          fundamental incompatibility with the POSIX platform when doing
          so.  Even if such code 'appeared' to work.  We added the
          warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing
          this are becoming more frequent.  See the *note os.fork():
          23a. documentation for more details along with this discussion
          on fork being incompatible with threads(16) for 'why' we’re
          now surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem
          to developers.

     When this warning appears due to usage of *note multiprocessing:
     93. or *note concurrent.futures: 21. the fix is to use a different
     *note multiprocessing: 93. start method such as ‘"spawn"’ or
     ‘"forkserver"’.

   * *note shutil: c4.: The 'onerror' argument of *note shutil.rmtree():
     1df. is deprecated; use 'onexc' instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102828(17).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * *note default adapters and converters: 23b. are now
          deprecated.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter
          recipes: 23c. and tailor them to your needs.  (Contributed by
          Erlend E. Aasland in gh-90016(18).)

        * In *note execute(): 23d, *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is now
          emitted when *note named placeholders: 23e. are used together
          with parameters supplied as a *note sequence: 23f. instead of
          as a *note dict: 240.  Starting from Python 3.14, using named
          placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise
          a *note ProgrammingError: 241.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-101698(19).)

   * *note sys: d8.: The *note sys.last_type: 1ed, *note sys.last_value:
     1ee. and *note sys.last_traceback: 1ef. fields are deprecated.  Use
     *note sys.last_exc: 1ec. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(20).)

   * *note tarfile: dd.: Extracting tar archives without specifying
     'filter' is deprecated until Python 3.14, when ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default.  See *note Extraction filters: 18b. for
     details.

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * *note typing.Hashable: 242. and *note typing.Sized: 243,
          aliases for *note collections.abc.Hashable: 244. and *note
          collections.abc.Sized: 245. respectively, are deprecated.
          (gh-94309(21).)

        * *note typing.ByteString: 246, deprecated since Python 3.9, now
          causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. to be emitted when it
          is used.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-91896(22).)

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: The module now emits *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. when testing the truth value of an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 247.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 248, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.  (Contributed by Jacob Walls in
     gh-83122(23).)

   * The 3-arg signatures (type, value, traceback) of *note coroutine
     throw(): 249, *note generator throw(): 24a. and *note async
     generator throw(): 24b. are deprecated and may be removed in a
     future version of Python.  Use the single-arg versions of these
     functions instead.  (Contributed by Ofey Chan in gh-89874(24).)

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is now raised when *note
     __package__: 24c. on a module differs from *note __spec__.parent:
     24d. (previously it was *note ImportWarning: 24e.).  (Contributed
     by Brett Cannon in gh-65961(25).)

   * Setting *note __package__: 24c. or *note __cached__: 24f. on a
     module is deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into
     consideration by the import system in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in gh-65961(26).)

   * The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is deprecated.  It
     will throw an error in Python 3.16.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation
     of bools instead.  In the rare case that you really need the
     bitwise inversion of the underlying ‘int’, convert to int
     explicitly: ‘~int(x)’.  (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann in
     gh-103487(27).)

   * Accessing *note co_lnotab: 250. on code objects was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 via PEP 626(28), but it only got a proper *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(29).)

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.16: Pending Removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726

   (16) 
https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101698

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83122

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103487

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 13,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 14,  Up: Deprecated

1.1.10.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.13
.......................................

Modules (see PEP 594(1)):

   * *note aifc: 5.

   * *note audioop: d.

   * *note cgi: 15.

   * *note cgitb: 16.

   * *note chunk: 17.

   * *note crypt: 28.

   * *note imghdr: 73.

   * *note mailcap: 8b.

   * *note msilib: 91.

   * *note nis: 9b.

   * *note nntplib: 9c.

   * *note ossaudiodev: a2.

   * *note pipes: a7.

   * *note sndhdr: ca.

   * *note spwd: cd.

   * *note sunau: d6.

   * *note telnetlib: de.

   * *note uu: 10f.

   * *note xdrlib: 11f.

Other modules:

   * ‘lib2to3’, and the ‘2to3’ program (gh-84540(2))

APIs:

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3))

   * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4))

   * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5))

   * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6))

   * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7))

   * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8))

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9))

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10))

   * *note classmethod: 252. descriptor chaining (gh-89519(11))

   * *note importlib.resources: 79. deprecated methods:

        * ‘contents()’

        * ‘is_resource()’

        * ‘open_binary()’

        * ‘open_text()’

        * ‘path()’

        * ‘read_binary()’

        * ‘read_text()’

     Use *note importlib.resources.files(): 1b1. instead.  Refer to
     importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy(12) (gh-106531(13))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (12) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html#migrating-from-legacy

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 13,  Up: Deprecated

1.1.10.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 21e. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 21f,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 220, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 221.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 222. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 223, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 224, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 225. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          226. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 227. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 22a.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 176.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     176.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3a.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 231.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib: 75.: ‘__package__’ and ‘__cached__’ will cease to
     be set or taken into consideration by the import system
     (gh-97879(8)).

   * *note importlib.abc: 76. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7a. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 232.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 233.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(9).)

   * *note itertools: 7f. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(10).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(11)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 234. or *note set_start_method(): 235. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     Contexts and start methods: 236.

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note is_relative_to(): 254. and *note
     relative_to(): 1d2.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a8.: *note find_loader(): 237. and *note
     get_loader(): 238. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 239. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(12).)

   * *note pty: b0.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 255.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 255.

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * *note version: 256. and *note version_info: 257.

        * *note execute(): 23d. and *note executemany(): 258. if *note
          named placeholders: 23e. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 240.

   * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 246, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 16,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14,  Up: Deprecated

1.1.10.3 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * *note http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 25a. will be removed along
     with its related ‘--cgi’ flag to ‘python -m http.server’.  It was
     obsolete and rarely used.  No direct replacement exists.
     'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a
     request handler.

   * *note importlib: 75.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 85.: *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 25b. was
     deprecated in Python 3.11 and originally planned for removal in
     Python 3.13 (gh-90817(1)), but removal has been postponed to Python
     3.15.  Use *note locale.setlocale(): 25c, *note
     locale.getencoding(): 25d. and *note locale.getlocale(): 25e.
     instead.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(2).)

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved(): 25f. is
     deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.15.  From Python
     3.13 onwards, use ‘os.path.isreserved’ to detect reserved paths on
     Windows.

   * *note platform: a9.: *note java_ver(): 260. is deprecated and will
     be removed in 3.15.  It was largely untested, had a confusing API,
     and was only useful for Jython support.  (Contributed by Nikita
     Sobolev in gh-116349(3).)

   * *note sysconfig: da.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 261. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ec.: Passing any arguments to *note
     threading.RLock(): 262. is now deprecated.  C version allows any
     numbers of args and kwargs, but they are just ignored.  Python
     version does not allow any arguments.  All arguments will be
     removed from *note threading.RLock(): 262. in Python 3.15.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-102029(4).)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 202.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating
          ‘NamedTuple’ classes (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)’) is
          deprecated, and will be disallowed in 3.15.  Use the
          class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

   * *note types: 103.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 263.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 250.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 17f. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * When using the functional syntax to create a ‘NamedTuple’
          class, failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘NT
          = NamedTuple("NT")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’ to the
          'fields' parameter (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)’) is also
          deprecated.  Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To
          create a ‘NamedTuple’ class with 0 fields, use ‘class
          NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’.

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 159.: When using the functional syntax to
     create a ‘TypedDict’ class, failing to pass a value to the 'fields'
     parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’
     to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) is also
     deprecated.  Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a
     ‘TypedDict’ class with 0 fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or
     ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’.

   * *note wave: 113.: Deprecate the ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and
     ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the *note wave.Wave_read: 264. and *note
     wave.Wave_write: 265. classes.  They will be removed in Python
     3.15.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105096(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 16,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15,  Up: Deprecated

1.1.10.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 267. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 268. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.: *note array.array: 195. ‘'u'’ type (‘wchar_t’):
     use the ‘'w'’ type instead (‘Py_UCS4’).

   * *note builtins: 12.: ‘~bool’, bitwise inversion on bool.

   * *note symtable: d7.: Deprecate *note symtable.Class.get_methods():
     269. due to the lack of interest.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-119698(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 16,  Up: Deprecated

1.1.10.5 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note array: 7.’s ‘'u'’ format code (gh-57281(1))

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          26b, *note else: 26c, *note for: 26d, *note if: 26e, *note in:
          26f, *note is: 270. and *note or: 271.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(2))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 184.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 272.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 272.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 273.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 273.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 273. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     228. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 229.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(4).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 250.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 274. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 22c.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 22d.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 61.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 75.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 275. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 78.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note mailbox: 8a.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a0.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 276. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b8.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c4.: *note rmtree(): 1df.’s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: cf. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 278.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ec. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          279.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 27a.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 27b.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 27c. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 27d.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 27e. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 27f.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          280.

   * *note typing.Text: 281. (gh-92332(6)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     283. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 284. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 285. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 286. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 247. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 287. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 288. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57281

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: Removed,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12,  Prev: Deprecated,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.11 Removed
--------------

* Menu:

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser::
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum::
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib::
* importlib::
* imp::
* io::
* locale::
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* ssl::
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* webbrowser::
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport::
* Others::


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat and asyncore,  Next: configparser,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.1 asynchat and asyncore
..............................

   * These two modules have been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.6.  Use *note
     asyncio: a. instead.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-96580(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96580


File: python.info,  Node: configparser,  Next: distutils,  Prev: asynchat and asyncore,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.2 configparser
.....................

   * Several names deprecated in the *note configparser: 22. way back in
     3.2 have been removed per gh-89336(1):

        * *note configparser.ParsingError: 28d. no longer has a
          ‘filename’ attribute or argument.  Use the ‘source’ attribute
          and argument instead.

        * *note configparser: 22. no longer has a ‘SafeConfigParser’
          class.  Use the shorter *note ConfigParser: 28e. name instead.

        * *note configparser.ConfigParser: 28e. no longer has a ‘readfp’
          method.  Use *note read_file(): 28f. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336


File: python.info,  Node: distutils,  Next: ensurepip,  Prev: configparser,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.3 distutils
..................

   * Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in Python 3.10
     by PEP 632(1) “Deprecate distutils module”.  For projects still
     using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something else, the
     ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip,  Next: enum,  Prev: distutils,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.4 ensurepip
..................

   * Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from *note ensurepip: 53, and
     stop installing setuptools in environments created by *note venv:
     111.

     ‘pip (>= 22.1)’ does not require setuptools to be installed in the
     environment.  ‘setuptools’-based (and ‘distutils’-based) packages
     can still be used with ‘pip install’, since pip will provide
     ‘setuptools’ in the build environment it uses for building a
     package.

     ‘easy_install’, ‘pkg_resources’, ‘setuptools’ and ‘distutils’ are
     no longer provided by default in environments created with ‘venv’
     or bootstrapped with ‘ensurepip’, since they are part of the
     ‘setuptools’ package.  For projects relying on these at runtime,
     the ‘setuptools’ project should be declared as a dependency and
     installed separately (typically, using pip).

     (Contributed by Pradyun Gedam in gh-95299(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: enum,  Next: ftplib,  Prev: ensurepip,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.5 enum
.............

   * Remove *note enum: 54.’s ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’, which is no longer
     needed for enum attribute access.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
     gh-95083(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95083


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib,  Next: gzip,  Prev: enum,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.6 ftplib
...............

   * Remove *note ftplib: 5c.’s ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’ class attribute:
     use the 'context' parameter instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94172(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172


File: python.info,  Node: gzip,  Next: hashlib,  Prev: ftplib,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.7 gzip
.............

   * Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of *note gzip: 65.’s *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 296, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the *note
     name: 297. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94196(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib,  Next: importlib,  Prev: gzip,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.8 hashlib
................

   * Remove the pure Python implementation of *note hashlib: 66.’s *note
     hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 299, deprecated in Python 3.10.  Python 3.10
     and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP 644(1)): this OpenSSL
     version provides a C implementation of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 299.
     which is faster.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: importlib,  Next: imp,  Prev: hashlib,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.9 importlib
..................

   * Many previously deprecated cleanups in *note importlib: 75. have
     now been completed:

        * References to, and support for ‘module_repr()’ has been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-97850(1).)

        * ‘importlib.util.set_package’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader’ and
          ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader’ have all been removed.
          (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Nikita Sobolev in gh-65961(2)
          and gh-97850(3).)

        * Support for ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ APIs have been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(4).)

        * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
          ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have been removed.  (Contributed by Barry
          Warsaw in gh-98040(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: imp,  Next: io,  Prev: importlib,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.10 imp
.............

   * The ‘imp’ module has been removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
     gh-98040(1).)

     To migrate, consult the following correspondence table:

          imp                                   importlib
                                                
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
          ‘imp.NullImporter’                    Insert ‘None’ into ‘sys.path_importer_cache’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.cache_from_source()’             *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 275.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.find_module()’                   *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 239.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_magic()’                     *note importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER: 29d.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_suffixes()’                  *note importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES: 29e, *note importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 29f, and
                                                *note importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 2a0.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_tag()’                       *note sys.implementation.cache_tag: 2a1.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_module()’                   *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.new_module(name)’                ‘types.ModuleType(name)’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.reload()’                        *note importlib.reload(): 2a3.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.source_from_cache()’             *note importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 2a4.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_source()’                   'See below'
                                                

     Replace ‘imp.load_source()’ with:

          import importlib.util
          import importlib.machinery

          def load_source(modname, filename):
              loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(modname, filename)
              spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(modname, filename, loader=loader)
              module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
              # The module is always executed and not cached in sys.modules.
              # Uncomment the following line to cache the module.
              # sys.modules[module.__name__] = module
              loader.exec_module(module)
              return module

   * Remove ‘imp’ functions and attributes with no replacements:

        * Undocumented functions:

             * ‘imp.init_builtin()’

             * ‘imp.load_compiled()’

             * ‘imp.load_dynamic()’

             * ‘imp.load_package()’

        * ‘imp.lock_held()’, ‘imp.acquire_lock()’, ‘imp.release_lock()’:
          the locking scheme has changed in Python 3.3 to per-module
          locks.

        * ‘imp.find_module()’ constants: ‘SEARCH_ERROR’, ‘PY_SOURCE’,
          ‘PY_COMPILED’, ‘C_EXTENSION’, ‘PY_RESOURCE’, ‘PKG_DIRECTORY’,
          ‘C_BUILTIN’, ‘PY_FROZEN’, ‘PY_CODERESOURCE’, ‘IMP_HOOK’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: io,  Next: locale,  Prev: imp,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.11 io
............

   * Remove *note io: 7d.’s ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 2a6. instead.
     The *note open(): 2a6. (*note io.open(): 2a7.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94169(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169


File: python.info,  Node: locale,  Next: smtpd,  Prev: io,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.12 locale
................

   * Remove *note locale: 85.’s ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 2a9. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94226(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd,  Next: sqlite3<2>,  Prev: locale,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.13 smtpd
...............

   * The ‘smtpd’ module has been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  Use
     the aiosmtpd(2) PyPI module or any other *note asyncio: a.-based
     server instead.  (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin in gh-93243(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<2>,  Next: ssl,  Prev: smtpd,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.14 sqlite3
.................

   * The following undocumented *note sqlite3: ce. features, deprecated
     in Python 3.10, are now removed:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using
     the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.

     The ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ text factory has been an alias for
     *note str: 15d. since Python 3.3.  Code that previously set the
     text factory to ‘OptimizedUnicode’ can either use ‘str’ explicitly,
     or rely on the default value which is also ‘str’.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-92548(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92548


File: python.info,  Node: ssl,  Next: unittest<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<2>,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.15 ssl
.............

   * Remove *note ssl: cf.’s ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 2ad. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 2ae. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94199(1).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.7.  OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7,
     Python no longer uses the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.7:
     instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object and call its
     *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 2af. method.  Any package that
     still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.  The
     function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates the server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(3) (Improper Certificate
     Validation).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (3) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<2>,  Next: webbrowser,  Prev: ssl,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.16 unittest
..................

   * Remove many long-deprecated *note unittest: 106. features:

        * A number of *note TestCase: 15f. method aliases:

          Deprecated alias                 Method Name                         Deprecated in
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 2b1.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 2b2.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 2b3.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 2b4.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2b5.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2b6.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 2b7.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 2b1.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 2b3.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 2b4.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2b5.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2b6.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 2b8.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 2b9.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 2ba.        3.5
                                                                               

          You can use ‘https://github.com/isidentical/teyit’ to
          automatically modernise your unit tests.

        * Undocumented and broken *note TestCase: 15f. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

        * Undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 2bb.
          parameter 'use_load_tests' (deprecated and ignored since
          Python 3.5).

        * An alias of the *note TextTestResult: 2bc. class:
          ‘_TextTestResult’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89325(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser,  Next: xml etree ElementTree,  Prev: unittest<2>,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.17 webbrowser
....................

   * Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note webbrowser: 115.
     The removed browsers include: Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
     Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below
     (gh-102871(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree,  Next: zipimport,  Prev: webbrowser,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.18 xml.etree.ElementTree
...............................

   * Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’ method of the pure Python
     implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the *note
     copy.copy(): 2bf. function instead.  The C implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94383(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport,  Next: Others,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.19 zipimport
...................

   * Remove *note zipimport: 132.’s ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the ‘find_spec()’ method
     instead.  See PEP 451(1) for the rationale.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94379(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379


File: python.info,  Node: Others,  Prev: zipimport,  Up: Removed

1.1.11.20 Others
................

   * Remove the ‘suspicious’ rule from the documentation ‘Makefile’ and
     ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’, both in favor of sphinx-lint(1).
     (Contributed by Julien Palard in gh-98179(2).)

   * Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from the *note
     ftplib: 5c, *note imaplib: 72, *note poplib: ab. and *note smtplib:
     c9. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and 'check_hostname'
     parameters from the *note http.client: 6d. module, all deprecated
     since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter ('ssl_context' in
     *note imaplib: 72.) instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94172(3).)

   * Remove ‘Jython’ compatibility hacks from several stdlib modules and
     tests.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99482(4).)

   * Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’ flag from
     *note ctypes: 2a. module.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-99285(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98179

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99285


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12,  Next: Build Changes,  Prev: Removed,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.12 Porting to Python 3.12
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API,  Up: Porting to Python 3 12

1.1.12.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references
     and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence of ASCII
     digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The group name in
     bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII
     letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-91760(1).)

   * Remove ‘randrange()’ functionality deprecated since Python 3.10.
     Formerly, ‘randrange(10.0)’ losslessly converted to
     ‘randrange(10)’.  Now, it raises a *note TypeError: 2c4.  Also, the
     exception raised for non-integer values such as ‘randrange(10.5)’
     or ‘randrange('10')’ has been changed from *note ValueError: 189.
     to *note TypeError: 2c4.  This also prevents bugs where
     ‘randrange(1e25)’ would silently select from a larger range than
     ‘randrange(10**25)’.  (Originally suggested by Serhiy Storchaka
     gh-86388(2).)

   * *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2c5. changed encoding and error
     handler for reading arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option) from default text encoding (e.g.
     *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 2c6.) to *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 2c7.  Argument files should be encoded
     in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.

   * Remove the ‘asyncore’-based ‘smtpd’ module deprecated in Python
     3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  A recommended replacement is the *note asyncio:
     a.-based aiosmtpd(3) PyPI module.

   * *note shlex.split(): 2c8.: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now
     raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 2c9.  The
     feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94352(4).)

   * The *note os: a0. module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like
     *note bytearray: 2ca. and *note memoryview: 185. types: only the
     exact *note bytes: 2cb. type is accepted for bytes strings.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * *note syslog.openlog(): 2cc. and *note syslog.closelog(): 2cd. now
     fail if used in subinterpreters.  *note syslog.syslog(): 2ce. may
     still be used in subinterpreters, but now only if *note
     syslog.openlog(): 2cc. has already been called in the main
     interpreter.  These new restrictions do not apply to the main
     interpreter, so only a very small set of users might be affected.
     This change helps with interpreter isolation.  Furthermore, *note
     syslog: db. is a wrapper around process-global resources, which are
     best managed from the main interpreter.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in gh-99127(6).)

   * The undocumented locking behavior of *note cached_property(): 2cf.
     is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class,
     leading to high lock contention.  This means that a cached property
     getter function could now run more than once for a single instance,
     if two threads race.  For most simple cached properties (e.g.
     those that are idempotent and simply calculate a value based on
     other attributes of the instance) this will be fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement locking within the cached
     property getter function or around multi-threaded access points.

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 1f0. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(7).)

   * When extracting tar files using *note tarfile: dd. or *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a, pass the 'filter' argument to limit
     features that may be surprising or dangerous.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 18b. for details.

   * The output of the *note tokenize.tokenize(): 20b. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 20c. functions is now changed due to
     the changes introduced in PEP 701(8).  This means that ‘STRING’
     tokens are not emitted any more for f-strings and the tokens
     described in PEP 701(9) are now produced instead: ‘FSTRING_START’,
     ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ and ‘FSTRING_END’ are now emitted for f-string
     “string” parts in addition to the appropriate tokens for the
     tokenization in the expression components.  For example for the
     f-string ‘f"start {1+1} end"’ the old version of the tokenizer
     emitted:

          1,0-1,18:           STRING         'f"start {1+1} end"'

     while the new version emits:

          1,0-1,2:            FSTRING_START  'f"'
          1,2-1,8:            FSTRING_MIDDLE 'start '
          1,8-1,9:            OP             '{'
          1,9-1,10:           NUMBER         '1'
          1,10-1,11:          OP             '+'
          1,11-1,12:          NUMBER         '1'
          1,12-1,13:          OP             '}'
          1,13-1,17:          FSTRING_MIDDLE ' end'
          1,17-1,18:          FSTRING_END    '"'

     Additionally, there may be some minor behavioral changes as a
     consequence of the changes required to support PEP 701(10).  Some
     of these changes include:

        * The ‘type’ attribute of the tokens emitted when tokenizing
          some invalid Python characters such as ‘!’ has changed from
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ to ‘OP’.

        * Incomplete single-line strings now also raise *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 2d0. as incomplete multiline strings do.

        * Some incomplete or invalid Python code now raises *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 2d0. instead of returning arbitrary
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ tokens when tokenizing it.

        * Mixing tabs and spaces as indentation in the same file is not
          supported anymore and will raise a *note TabError: 2d1.

   * The *note threading: ec. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter’ attribute.  It is a function with no
     arguments that returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the
     main interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     should provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’.  (See gh-112826(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes,  Next: C API Changes,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.13 Build Changes
--------------------

   * Python no longer uses ‘setup.py’ to build shared C extension
     modules.  Build parameters like headers and libraries are detected
     in ‘configure’ script.  Extensions are built by ‘Makefile’.  Most
     extensions use ‘pkg-config’ and fall back to manual detection.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-93939(1).)

   * ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like ‘va_start(args, format),’ is
     now required to build Python.  ‘va_start()’ is no longer called
     with a single parameter.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-93207(2).)

   * CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default link time
     optimization policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-89536(3).)

   * Add ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in ‘Makefile’ to override *note
     compileall: 20. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make install’.  Also
     merged the 3 ‘compileall’ commands into a single command to build
     .pyc files for all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-99289(4).)

   * Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     (Contributed by Zhang Na in gh-90656(5).)

   * ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate
     ‘!configure’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886(6).)

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes,  Next: Notable changes in 3 12 4,  Prev: Build Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.14 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<2>.
* Removed: Removed<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.14.1 New Features
.....................

   * PEP 697(1): Introduce the *note Unstable C API tier: 2d5, intended
     for low-level tools like debuggers and JIT compilers.  This API may
     change in each minor release of CPython without deprecation
     warnings.  Its contents are marked by the ‘PyUnstable_’ prefix in
     names.

     Code object constructors:

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_New()’ (renamed from ‘PyCode_New’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ (renamed from
          ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’)

     Extra storage for code objects ( PEP 523(2)):

        - ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex()’ (renamed from
          ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’)

     The original names will continue to be available until the
     respective API changes.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-101101(3).)

   * PEP 697(4): Add an API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque:

        - *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6. can be zero or negative to
          specify inheriting or extending the base class size.

        - *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2d7. and *note
          PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 2d8. added to allow access to
          subclass-specific instance data.

        - *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2d9. and *note
          PyObject_GetItemData(): 2da. added to allow safely extending
          certain variable-sized types, including *note PyType_Type:
          2db.

        - *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 2dc. added to allow defining *note
          members: 2dd. in terms of a subclass-specific struct.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-103509(5).)

   * Add the new *note limited C API: 2de. function *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-93012(6).)

   * API for creating objects that can be called using *note the
     vectorcall protocol: 2e1. was added to the *note Limited API: 2e2.:

        * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3.

        * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2e4.

        * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2e5.

        * *note vectorcallfunc: 2e6.

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag is now removed from
     a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 2e7. method is
     reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types
     (i.e.  heap types without the immutable flag, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8.).  Mutable types that do not
     override *note tp_call: 2e9. now inherit the
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ flag.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin
     in gh-93274(7).)

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea. and *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2eb. flags have been added.  This
     allows extensions classes to support object *note __dict__: 2ec.
     and weakrefs with less bookkeeping, using less memory and with
     faster access.

   * API for performing calls using *note the vectorcall protocol: 2e1.
     was added to the *note Limited API: 2e2.:

        * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2ed.

        * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2ee.

        * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2ef.

     This means that both the incoming and outgoing ends of the vector
     call protocol are now available in the *note Limited API: 2e2.
     (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-98586(8).)

   * Add two new public functions, *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads():
     2f0. and *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 2f1, that allow to set
     tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition
     to the calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(9).)

   * Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall(): 2f2. to the C
     API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 2f3.  (Contributed by Andrew Frost in
     gh-92257(10).)

   * The C API now permits registering callbacks via *note
     PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2f4, *note PyDict_Watch(): 2f5. and related
     APIs to be called whenever a dictionary is modified.  This is
     intended for use by optimizing interpreters, JIT compilers, or
     debuggers.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91052(11).)

   * Add *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 2f6. and *note PyType_Watch(): 2f7.
     API to register callbacks to receive notification on changes to a
     type.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91051(12).)

   * Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 2f8. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 2f9. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.
     (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-91054(13).)

   * Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 2fa. and *note PyFrame_GetVarString():
     2fb. functions to get a frame variable by its name.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-91248(14).)

   * Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2fd. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     2ff.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(15).)

   * Add ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’, which takes an exception instance,
     to replace the legacy-API ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’, which is now
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(16).)

   * Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 300. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 301. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 302. passed to the exception’s
     constructor.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(17).)

   * Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 303, which takes an exception
     instance, to replace the legacy-api ‘PyErr_Display()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755(18)).

   * PEP 683(19): Introduce 'Immortal Objects', which allows objects to
     bypass reference counts, and related changes to the C-API:

        - 
          ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’: The reference count that defines an object

               as immortal.

        - ‘_Py_IsImmortal’ Checks if an object has the immortal
          reference count.

        - 
          ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ This will now initialize reference count to

               ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’ when used with ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ An identifier for interned unicode objects

               that are immortal.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL_STATIC’ An identifier for interned unicode

               objects that are immortal and static

        - 
          ‘sys.getunicodeinternedsize’ This returns the total number of unicode

               objects that have been interned.  This is now needed for
               ‘refleak.py’ to correctly track reference counts and
               allocated blocks

     (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in gh-84436(20).)

   * PEP 684(21): Add the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 172.
     function and *note PyInterpreterConfig: 304, which may be used to
     create sub-interpreters with their own GILs.  (See *note PEP 684; A
     Per-Interpreter GIL: 146. for more info.)  (Contributed by Eric
     Snow in gh-104110(22).)

   * In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF(): 305. and
     *note Py_DECREF(): 306. functions are now implemented as opaque
     function calls to hide implementation details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105387(23).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101101

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92257

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104110

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Deprecated<2>,  Prev: New Features<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.14.2 Porting to Python 3.12
...............................

   * Legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation has been
     removed.  Please migrate to APIs based on UTF-8 or ‘wchar_t*’.

   * Argument parsing functions like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.
     doesn’t support ‘Py_UNICODE*’ based format (e.g.  ‘u’, ‘Z’)
     anymore.  Please migrate to other formats for Unicode like ‘s’,
     ‘z’, ‘es’, and ‘U’.

   * ‘tp_weaklist’ for all static builtin types is always ‘NULL’.  This
     is an internal-only field on ‘PyTypeObject’ but we’re pointing out
     the change in case someone happens to be accessing the field
     directly anyway.  To avoid breakage, consider using the existing
     public C-API instead, or, if necessary, the (internal-only)
     ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro.

   * This internal-only *note PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses: 309. may now
     not be a valid object pointer.  Its type was changed to void* to
     reflect this.  We mention this in case someone happens to be
     accessing the internal-only field directly.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 30a. (using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 30b, for
     example).

   * Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals,
     uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’, ‘wchar_t’ C
     strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     30d.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-98836(1).)

   * An unrecognized format character in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     30c. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 30d. now sets a *note
     SystemError: 30e.  In previous versions it caused all the rest of
     the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any
     extra arguments discarded.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-95781(2).)

   * Fix wrong sign placement in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. and
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 30d.  (Contributed by Philip Georgi
     in gh-95504(3).)

   * Extension classes wanting to add a *note __dict__: 2ec. or weak
     reference slot should use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2eb. instead of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’, respectively.  The use of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ is still supported, but does not fully
     support multiple inheritance (gh-95589(4)), and performance may be
     worse.  Classes declaring *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea.
     should call ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’ to traverse and clear their
     instance’s dictionaries.  To clear weakrefs, call *note
     PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 30f, as before.

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 310. function no longer accepts
     bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 2ca. and *note memoryview:
     185. types: only the exact *note bytes: 2cb. type is accepted for
     bytes strings.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * The *note Py_CLEAR: 311, *note Py_SETREF: 312. and *note
     Py_XSETREF: 313. macros now only evaluate their arguments once.  If
     an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer
     duplicated.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98724(6).)

   * The interpreter’s error indicator is now always normalized.  This
     means that *note PyErr_SetObject(): 314, *note PyErr_SetString():
     315. and the other functions that set the error indicator now
     normalize the exception before storing it.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(7).)

   * ‘_Py_RefTotal’ is no longer authoritative and only kept around for
     ABI compatibility.  Note that it is an internal global and only
     available on debug builds.  If you happen to be using it then
     you’ll need to start using ‘_Py_GetGlobalRefTotal()’.

   * The following functions now select an appropriate metaclass for the
     newly created type:

        * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316.

        * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317.

        * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0.

     Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 318. is
     deprecated, and in Python 3.14+ it will be disallowed.  Note that
     these functions ignore ‘tp_new’ of the metaclass, possibly allowing
     incomplete initialization.

     Note that *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df. (added in Python 3.12)
     already disallows creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     ‘tp_new’ (*note __new__(): 319. in Python).

     Since ‘tp_new’ overrides almost everything ‘PyType_From*’ functions
     do, the two are incompatible with each other.  The existing
     behavior – ignoring the metaclass for several steps of type
     creation – is unsafe in general, since (meta)classes assume that
     ‘tp_new’ was called.  There is no simple general workaround.  One
     of the following may work for you:

        - If you control the metaclass, avoid using ‘tp_new’ in it:

             - If initialization can be skipped, it can be done in *note
               tp_init: 31a. instead.

             - If the metaclass doesn’t need to be instantiated from
               Python, set its ‘tp_new’ to ‘NULL’ using the *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 31b. flag.  This makes
               it acceptable for ‘PyType_From*’ functions.

        - Avoid ‘PyType_From*’ functions: if you don’t need C-specific
          features (slots or setting the instance size), create types by
          *note calling: 31c. the metaclass.

        - If you 'know' the ‘tp_new’ can be skipped safely, filter the
          deprecation warning out using *note warnings.catch_warnings():
          31d. from Python.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 31e. and *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer:
     31f. are no longer called in *note subinterpreters: 320.  This is
     because clients generally rely on process-wide global state (since
     these callbacks have no way of recovering extension module state).

     This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves
     running in a subinterpreter that they don’t support (or haven’t yet
     been loaded in).  See gh-104668(8) for more info.

   * *note PyLongObject: 321. has had its internals changed for better
     performance.  Although the internals of *note PyLongObject: 321.
     are private, they are used by some extension modules.  The internal
     fields should no longer be accessed directly, instead the API
     functions beginning ‘PyLong_...’ should be used instead.  Two new
     'unstable' API functions are provided for efficient access to the
     value of *note PyLongObject: 321.s which fit into a single machine
     word:

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 322.

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 323.

   * Custom allocators, set via *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 324, are now
     required to be thread-safe, regardless of memory domain.
     Allocators that don’t have their own state, including “hooks”, are
     not affected.  If your custom allocator is not already thread-safe
     and you need guidance then please create a new GitHub issue and CC
     ‘@ericsnowcurrently’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<2>,  Next: Removed<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.14.3 Deprecated
...................

   * In accordance with PEP 699(1), the ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note
     PyDictObject: 326. is deprecated for extension modules.  Accessing
     this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time.  This
     field will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Ramvikrams
     and Kumar Aditya in gh-101193(2).  PEP by Ken Jin.)

   * Deprecate global configuration variable:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 327.: use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          328.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 329.: use *note PyConfig.verbose: 32a.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 32b.: use *note PyConfig.quiet: 32c.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 32d.: use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 32e.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 32f.: use *note PyConfig.inspect: 330.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 331.: use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 332.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 333.: use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          334.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 335.: use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 336.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 337.: use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 338.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 339.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 33a.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 33b.: use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 33c.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 33d.: use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 33e.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 33f.: use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 340.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 341.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 342. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          343.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 344.: use *note PyConfig.isolated: 345.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 346.: use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 348.: use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 349.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 34a.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 34a.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 34b.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 34c. (see
          *note Py_PreInitialize(): 34d.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 34f. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-77782(3).)

   * Creating *note immutable types: 2e8. with mutable bases is
     deprecated and will be disabled in Python 3.14.  (gh-95388(4))

   * The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated, though it continues to
     be available and there are no plans to remove it.

     Its contents are now available just by including ‘Python.h’, with a
     ‘Py’ prefix added if it was missing:

        - *note PyMemberDef: 2dd, *note PyMember_GetOne(): 350. and
          *note PyMember_SetOne(): 351.

        - Type macros like *note Py_T_INT: 352, *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 353,
          etc.  (previously ‘T_INT’, ‘T_DOUBLE’, etc.)

        - The flags *note Py_READONLY: 354. (previously ‘READONLY’) and
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 355. (previously all uppercase)

     Several items are not exposed from ‘Python.h’:

        - *note T_OBJECT: 356. (use *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 357.)

        - *note T_NONE: 358. (previously undocumented, and pretty
          quirky)

        - The macro ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ which does nothing.

        - The macros ‘RESTRICTED’ and ‘READ_RESTRICTED’, equivalents of
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 355.

        - In some configurations, ‘<stddef.h>’ is not included from
          ‘Python.h’.  It should be included manually when using
          ‘offsetof()’.

     The deprecated header continues to provide its original contents
     under the original names.  Your old code can stay unchanged, unless
     the extra include and non-namespaced macros bother you greatly.

     (Contributed in gh-47146(5) by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work
     by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.)

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 2ff. are
     deprecated.  Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2fd. instead.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(6).)

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
     PyErr_DisplayException(): 303. instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102755(7)).

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ is deprecated.  Use
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’ instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102192(8).)

   * Using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316, *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317. or *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. to create a class whose metaclass
     overrides *note tp_new: 318. is deprecated.  Call the metaclass
     instead.

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.1.14.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 326. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 2e8. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 35a. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 35a. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 35b.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 35c. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 34f. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 327.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          328. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 329.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 32a.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 32b.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 32c.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 32d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 32e. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 32f.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 330.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 331.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 332. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 333.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          334. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 335.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 336. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 337.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 338. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 339.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 33a. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 33b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 33c. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 33d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 33e. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 33f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 340. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 341.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 342. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          343. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 344.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 345.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 346.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 348.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 349. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 34a. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 34a. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 34b. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 34c. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 34d.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 34f. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.1.14.5 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’.

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 35e.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 360. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     361.: Use ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 362. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 363.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 364. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 365.: Get *note sys.exec_prefix:
          366. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 367.: Get *note sys.path: 368. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 369.: Get *note sys.prefix: 36a.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b.: Get *note sys.executable:
          36c. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d.: Get *note sys.executable:
          36c. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 36e.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 35c.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.1.14.6 Pending Removal in Future Versions
...........................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 371.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     2fc. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 372.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 2ff.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     2fd. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 373.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 374. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 375.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     376. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 377.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     378. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 379. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 37a.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 37a.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 37b.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 37b.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 37c.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 303.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 37d.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 37e.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 37f. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 380.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 381. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 382.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 383. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 384.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 385. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 386.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 387. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 388.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<2>,  Prev: Deprecated<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.1.14.7 Removed
................

   * Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never any public
     tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only designed to be
     used by Python internals.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-92651(1).)

   * Legacy Unicode APIs have been removed.  See PEP 623(2) for detail.

        * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function macro.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85858(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 12 4,  Next: Notable changes in 3 12 5,  Prev: C API Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.15 Notable changes in 3.12.4
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* ipaddress::


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress,  Up: Notable changes in 3 12 4

1.1.15.1 ipaddress
..................

   * Fixed ‘is_global’ and ‘is_private’ behavior in ‘IPv4Address’,
     ‘IPv6Address’, ‘IPv4Network’ and ‘IPv6Network’.


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 12 5,  Next: Notable changes in 3 12 6,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 12 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.16 Notable changes in 3.12.5
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* email::


File: python.info,  Node: email,  Up: Notable changes in 3 12 5

1.1.16.1 email
..............

   * Headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output.

     The *note generator: 3f. will now refuse to serialize (write)
     headers that are improperly folded or delimited, such that they
     would be parsed as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.
     If you need to turn this safety feature off, set *note
     verify_generated_headers: 38e.  (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and
     Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 12 6,  Next: Notable changes in 3 12 8,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 12 5,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.17 Notable changes in 3.12.6
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* email: email<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: email<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 12 6

1.1.17.1 email
..............

   * *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 391. and *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 392. now return ‘('', '')’ 2-tuples in
     more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered,
     instead of potentially inaccurate values.  An optional 'strict'
     parameter was added to these two functions: use ‘strict=False’ to
     get the old behavior, accepting malformed inputs.
     ‘getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be
     used to check if the 'strict' paramater is available.  (Contributed
     by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner for gh-102988(1) to improve the
     CVE-2023-27043 fix.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 12 8,  Next: Notable changes in 3 12 10,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 12 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.18 Notable changes in 3.12.8
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* sys: sys<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: sys<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 12 8

1.1.18.1 sys
............

   * The previously undocumented special function *note
     sys.getobjects(): 395, which only exists in specialized builds of
     Python, may now return objects from other interpreters than the one
     it’s called in.


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 12 10,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 12 8,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.1.19 Notable changes in 3.12.10
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* os.path: os path<2>.
* tarfile::


File: python.info,  Node: os path<2>,  Next: tarfile,  Up: Notable changes in 3 12 10

1.1.19.1 os.path
................

   * The 'strict' parameter to *note os.path.realpath(): 398. accepts a
     new value, *note os.path.ALLOW_MISSING: 399.  If used, errors other
     than *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. will be re-raised; the resulting
     path can be missing but it will be free of symlinks.  (Contributed
     by Petr Viktorin for CVE 2025-4517(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile,  Prev: os path<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 12 10

1.1.19.2 tarfile
................

   * *note data_filter(): 39c. now normalizes symbolic link targets in
     order to avoid path traversal attacks.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in gh-127987(1) and CVE 2025-4138(2).)

   * *note extractall(): 39d. now skips fixing up directory attributes
     when a directory was removed or replaced by another kind of file.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987(3) and CVE
     2024-12718(4).)

   * *note extract(): 39e. and *note extractall(): 39d. now (re-)apply
     the extraction filter when substituting a link (hard or symbolic)
     with a copy of another archive member, and when fixing up directory
     attributes.  The former raises a new exception, *note
     LinkFallbackError: 39f.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE
     2025-4330(5) and CVE 2024-12718(6).)

   * *note extract(): 39e. and *note extractall(): 39d. no longer
     extract rejected members when *note errorlevel(): 3a0. is zero.
     (Contributed by Matt Prodani and Petr Viktorin in gh-112887(7) and
     CVE 2025-4435(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112887

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4435


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.2 What’s New In Python 3.11
=============================


Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.11, compared to 3.10.
Python 3.11 was released on October 24, 2022.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* New Modules: New Modules<2>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* Faster CPython::
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Removed: Removed<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<2>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<2>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<2>,  Next: New Features<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

   * Python 3.11 is between 10-60% faster than Python 3.10.  On average,
     we measured a 1.25x speedup on the standard benchmark suite.  See
     *note Faster CPython: 3a5. for details.

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: 3a6.

New built-in features:

   * *note PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: 3a7.

New standard library modules:

   * PEP 680(1): *note tomllib: fc. — Support for parsing TOML(2) in the
     Standard Library

Interpreter improvements:

   * *note PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: 3a8.

   * New *note -P: 3a9. command line option and *note PYTHONSAFEPATH:
     3aa. environment variable to *note disable automatically prepending
     potentially unsafe paths: 3ab. to *note sys.path: 368.

New typing features:

   * *note PEP 646; Variadic generics: 3ac.

   * *note PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or
     not-required: 3ad.

   * *note PEP 673; Self type: 3ae.

   * *note PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: 3af.

   * *note PEP 681; Data class transforms: 3b0.

Important deprecations, removals and restrictions:

   * PEP 594(3): *note Many legacy standard library modules have been
     deprecated: 3b1. and will be removed in Python 3.13

   * PEP 624(4): *note Py_UNICODE encoder APIs have been removed: 3b2.

   * PEP 670(5): *note Macros converted to static inline functions: 3b3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (2) https://toml.io/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<3>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
* PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks,  Next: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.1 PEP 657: Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks
...........................................................

When printing tracebacks, the interpreter will now point to the exact
expression that caused the error, instead of just the line.  For
example:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "distance.py", line 11, in <module>
         print(manhattan_distance(p1, p2))
               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "distance.py", line 6, in manhattan_distance
         return abs(point_1.x - point_2.x) + abs(point_1.y - point_2.y)
                                ^^^^^^^^^
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x'

Previous versions of the interpreter would point to just the line,
making it ambiguous which object was ‘None’.  These enhanced errors can
also be helpful when dealing with deeply nested *note dict: 240. objects
and multiple function calls:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "query.py", line 37, in <module>
         magic_arithmetic('foo')
       File "query.py", line 18, in magic_arithmetic
         return add_counts(x) / 25
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 24, in add_counts
         return 25 + query_user(user1) + query_user(user2)
                     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 32, in query_user
         return 1 + query_count(db, response['a']['b']['c']['user'], retry=True)
                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^
     TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable

As well as complex arithmetic expressions:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "calculation.py", line 54, in <module>
         result = (x / y / z) * (a / b / c)
                   ~~~~~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Additionally, the information used by the enhanced traceback feature is
made available via a general API, that can be used to correlate *note
bytecode: 3b7. *note instructions: 3b8. with source code location.  This
information can be retrieved using:

   - The *note codeobject.co_positions(): 3b9. method in Python.

   - The *note PyCode_Addr2Location(): 3ba. function in the C API.

See PEP 657(1) for more details.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan
Taskaya and Ammar Askar in bpo-43950(2).)

     Not: This feature requires storing column positions in *note Code
     Objects: 3bb, which may result in a small increase in interpreter
     memory usage and disk usage for compiled Python files.  To avoid
     storing the extra information and deactivate printing the extra
     traceback information, use the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 18e.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3bc.
     environment variable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Next: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Prev: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.2 PEP 654: Exception Groups and ‘except*’
...............................................

PEP 654(1) introduces language features that enable a program to raise
and handle multiple unrelated exceptions simultaneously.  The builtin
types *note ExceptionGroup: 181. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be. make
it possible to group exceptions and raise them together, and the new
*note except*: 3bf. syntax generalizes *note except: 3c0. to match
subgroups of exception groups.

See PEP 654(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45292(3).  PEP written by Irit
Katriel, Yury Selivanov and Guido van Rossum.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Next: Windows py exe launcher improvements,  Prev: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.3 PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes
......................................................

The *note add_note(): 3c2. method is added to *note BaseException: 3c3.
It can be used to enrich exceptions with context information that is not
available at the time when the exception is raised.  The added notes
appear in the default traceback.

See PEP 678(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45607(2).  PEP written by Zac
Hatfield-Dodds.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607


File: python.info,  Node: Windows py exe launcher improvements,  Prev: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Up: New Features<3>

1.2.2.4 Windows ‘py.exe’ launcher improvements
..............................................

The copy of the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. included with
Python 3.11 has been significantly updated.  It now supports company/tag
syntax as defined in PEP 514(1) using the ‘-V:<COMPANY>/<TAG>’ argument
instead of the limited ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’.  This allows launching
distributions other than ‘PythonCore’, the one hosted on python.org(2).

When using ‘-V:’ selectors, either company or tag can be omitted, but
all installs will be searched.  For example, ‘-V:OtherPython/’ will
select the “best” tag registered for ‘OtherPython’, while ‘-V:3.11’ or
‘-V:/3.11’ will select the “best” distribution with tag ‘3.11’.

When using the legacy ‘-<MAJOR>’, ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’,
‘-<MAJOR>-<BITNESS>’ or ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>-<BITNESS>’ arguments, all
existing behaviour should be preserved from past versions, and only
releases from ‘PythonCore’ will be selected.  However, the ‘-64’ suffix
now implies “not 32-bit” (not necessarily x86-64), as there are multiple
supported 64-bit platforms.  32-bit runtimes are detected by checking
the runtime’s tag for a ‘-32’ suffix.  All releases of Python since 3.5
have included this in their 32-bit builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (2) https://www.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Next: Other Language Changes<2>,  Prev: New Features<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and
the *note typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Next: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.2.3.1 PEP 646: Variadic generics
..................................

PEP 484(1) previously introduced *note TypeVar: 16a, enabling creation
of generics parameterised with a single type.  PEP 646(2) adds *note
TypeVarTuple: 168, enabling parameterisation with an 'arbitrary' number
of types.  In other words, a *note TypeVarTuple: 168. is a 'variadic'
type variable, enabling 'variadic' generics.

This enables a wide variety of use cases.  In particular, it allows the
type of array-like structures in numerical computing libraries such as
NumPy and TensorFlow to be parameterised with the array 'shape'.  Static
type checkers will now be able to catch shape-related bugs in code that
uses these libraries.

See PEP 646(3) for more details.

(Contributed by Matthew Rahtz in bpo-43224(4), with contributions by
Serhiy Storchaka and Jelle Zijlstra.  PEP written by Mark Mendoza,
Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, and Vincent Siles.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Next: PEP 673 Self type,  Prev: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.2.3.2 PEP 655: Marking individual ‘TypedDict’ items as required or not-required
.................................................................................

*note Required: 3cc. and *note NotRequired: 3cd. provide a
straightforward way to mark whether individual items in a *note
TypedDict: 159. must be present.  Previously, this was only possible
using inheritance.

All fields are still required by default, unless the 'total' parameter
is set to ‘False’, in which case all fields are still not-required by
default.  For example, the following specifies a ‘TypedDict’ with one
required and one not-required key:

     class Movie(TypedDict):
        title: str
        year: NotRequired[int]

     m1: Movie = {"title": "Black Panther", "year": 2018}  # OK
     m2: Movie = {"title": "Star Wars"}  # OK (year is not required)
     m3: Movie = {"year": 2022}  # ERROR (missing required field title)

The following definition is equivalent:

     class Movie(TypedDict, total=False):
        title: Required[str]
        year: int

See PEP 655(1) for more details.

(Contributed by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47087(2).  PEP
written by David Foster.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 673 Self type,  Next: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Prev: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.2.3.3 PEP 673: ‘Self’ type
............................

The new *note Self: 3cf. annotation provides a simple and intuitive way
to annotate methods that return an instance of their class.  This
behaves the same as the *note TypeVar: 16a.-based approach specified in
PEP 484(1), but is more concise and easier to follow.

Common use cases include alternative constructors provided as *note
classmethod: 252.s, and *note __enter__(): 3d0. methods that return
‘self’:

     class MyLock:
         def __enter__(self) -> Self:
             self.lock()
             return self

         ...

     class MyInt:
         @classmethod
         def fromhex(cls, s: str) -> Self:
             return cls(int(s, 16))

         ...

*note Self: 3cf. can also be used to annotate method parameters or
attributes of the same type as their enclosing class.

See PEP 673(2) for more details.

(Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe in bpo-46534(3).  PEP written by
Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and James Hilton-Balfe.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/#annotating-instance-and-class-methods

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Next: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Prev: PEP 673 Self type,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.2.3.4 PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type
..............................................

The new *note LiteralString: 3d2. annotation may be used to indicate
that a function parameter can be of any literal string type.  This
allows a function to accept arbitrary literal string types, as well as
strings created from other literal strings.  Type checkers can then
enforce that sensitive functions, such as those that execute SQL
statements or shell commands, are called only with static arguments,
providing protection against injection attacks.

For example, a SQL query function could be annotated as follows:

     def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> ...
         ...

     def caller(
         arbitrary_string: str,
         query_string: LiteralString,
         table_name: LiteralString,
     ) -> None:
         run_query("SELECT * FROM students")       # ok
         run_query(query_string)                   # ok
         run_query("SELECT * FROM " + table_name)  # ok
         run_query(arbitrary_string)               # type checker error
         run_query(                                # type checker error
             f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
         )

See PEP 675(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47088(2).  PEP written by Pradeep
Kumar Srinivasan and Graham Bleaney.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Next: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.2.3.5 PEP 681: Data class transforms
......................................

*note dataclass_transform: 203. may be used to decorate a class,
metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the decorated
object performs runtime “magic” that transforms a class, giving it *note
dataclass: 3d4.-like behaviors.

For example:

     # The create_model decorator is defined by a library.
     @typing.dataclass_transform()
     def create_model(cls: Type[T]) -> Type[T]:
         cls.__init__ = ...
         cls.__eq__ = ...
         cls.__ne__ = ...
         return cls

     # The create_model decorator can now be used to create new model classes:
     @create_model
     class CustomerModel:
         id: int
         name: str

     c = CustomerModel(id=327, name="Eric Idle")

See PEP 681(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-91860(2).  PEP written by Erik De
Bonte and Eric Traut.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.2.3.6 PEP 563 may not be the future
.....................................

PEP 563(1) Postponed Evaluation of Annotations (the ‘from __future__
import annotations’ *note future statement: 3d7.) that was originally
planned for release in Python 3.10 has been put on hold indefinitely.
See this message from the Steering Council(2) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<2>,  Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * Starred unpacking expressions can now be used in *note for: 26d.
     statements.  (See bpo-46725(1) for more details.)

   * Asynchronous *note comprehensions: 3da. are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in *note asynchronous functions: 3db.  Outer
     comprehensions implicitly become asynchronous in this case.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33346(2).)

   * A *note TypeError: 2c4. is now raised instead of an *note
     AttributeError: 3dc. in *note with: 3dd. statements and *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 3de. for objects that do not
     support the *note context manager: 3df. protocol, and in *note
     async with: 3e0. statements and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 3e1. for objects
     not supporting the *note asynchronous context manager: 3e2.
     protocol.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12022(3) and
     bpo-44471(4).)

   * Added *note object.__getstate__(): 3e3, which provides the default
     implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.  *note copy: 25.ing
     and *note pickle: a5.ing instances of subclasses of builtin types
     *note bytearray: 2ca, *note set: 3e4, *note frozenset: 3e5, *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 3e6, *note collections.deque: 3e7, *note
     weakref.WeakSet: 3e8, and *note datetime.tzinfo: 3e9. now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as *note slots: 3ea.
     This change has an unintended side effect: It trips up a small
     minority of existing Python projects not expecting *note
     object.__getstate__(): 3e3. to exist.  See the later comments on
     gh-70766(5) for discussions of what workarounds such code may need.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26579(6).)

   * Added a *note -P: 3a9. command line option and a *note
     PYTHONSAFEPATH: 3aa. environment variable, which disable the
     automatic prepending to *note sys.path: 368. of the script’s
     directory when running a script, or the current directory when
     using *note -c: 3eb. and *note -m: 3ec.  This ensures only stdlib
     and installed modules are picked up by *note import: 3ed, and
     avoids unintentionally or maliciously shadowing modules with those
     in a local (and typically user-writable) directory.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-57684(7).)

   * A ‘"z"’ option was added to the *note Format Specification
     Mini-Language: 3ee. that coerces negative to positive zero after
     rounding to the format precision.  See PEP 682(8) for more details.
     (Contributed by John Belmonte in gh-90153(9).)

   * Bytes are no longer accepted on *note sys.path: 368.  Support broke
     sometime between Python 3.2 and 3.6, with no one noticing until
     after Python 3.10.0 was released.  In addition, bringing back
     support would be problematic due to interactions between *note -b:
     3ef. and *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. when there is a
     mixture of *note str: 15d. and *note bytes: 2cb. keys.
     (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-91181(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46725

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70766

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91181


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: New Modules<2>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.5 Other CPython Implementation Changes
------------------------------------------

   * The special methods *note __complex__(): 3f3. for *note complex:
     273. and *note __bytes__(): 3f4. for *note bytes: 2cb. are
     implemented to support the *note typing.SupportsComplex: 3f5. and
     *note typing.SupportsBytes: 3f6. protocols.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson and Donghee Na in bpo-24234(1).)

   * ‘siphash13’ is added as a new internal hashing algorithm.  It has
     similar security properties as ‘siphash24’, but it is slightly
     faster for long inputs.  *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb, and some
     other types now use it as the default algorithm for *note hash():
     3f7.  PEP 552(2) *note hash-based .pyc files: 3f8. now use
     ‘siphash13’ too.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-29410(3).)

   * When an active exception is re-raised by a *note raise: 3f9.
     statement with no parameters, the traceback attached to this
     exception is now always ‘sys.exc_info()[1].__traceback__’.  This
     means that changes made to the traceback in the current *note
     except: 3c0. clause are reflected in the re-raised exception.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * The interpreter state’s representation of handled exceptions (aka
     ‘exc_info’ or ‘_PyErr_StackItem’) now only has the ‘exc_value’
     field; ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed, as they
     can be derived from ‘exc_value’.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     bpo-45711(5).)

   * A new *note command line option: 3fa, ‘AppendPath’, has been added
     for the Windows installer.  It behaves similarly to ‘PrependPath’,
     but appends the install and scripts directories instead of
     prepending them.  (Contributed by Bastian Neuburger in
     bpo-44934(6).)

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3fb. field must now be
     set to ‘1’ for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3fc. to initialize *note sys.path:
     368.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * The output of the *note -help: 3fd. option now fits in 50 lines/80
     columns.  Information about *note Python environment variables:
     3fe. and *note -X: 18e. options is now available using the
     respective *note -help-env: 3ff. and *note -help-xoptions: 400.
     flags, and with the new *note -help-all: 401.  (Contributed by Éric
     Araujo in bpo-46142(7).)

   * Converting between *note int: 184. and *note str: 15d. in bases
     other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such
     as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 189. if the
     number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential
     denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This
     is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(8).  This limit can be
     configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag,
     or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 402. documentation.  The default limit is 4300
     digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<2>,  Next: Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.6 New Modules
-----------------

   * *note tomllib: fc.: For parsing TOML(1). See PEP 680(2) for more
     details.  (Contributed by Taneli Hukkinen in bpo-40059(3).)

   * *note wsgiref.types: 11c.: WSGI(4)-specific types for static type
     checking.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-42012(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://toml.io/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<2>,  Prev: New Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.7 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* datetime::
* enum: enum<2>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* functools::
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* locale: locale<2>.
* logging::
* math: math<2>.
* operator::
* os: os<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* re::
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* socket::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* string::
* sys: sys<3>.
* sysconfig::
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* time::
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* traceback::
* typing: typing<2>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* venv::
* warnings::
* zipfile::


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<2>,  Next: contextlib,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.1 asyncio
...............

   * Added the *note TaskGroup: 409. class, an *note asynchronous
     context manager: 40a. holding a group of tasks that will wait for
     all of them upon exit.  For new code this is recommended over using
     *note create_task(): 40b. and *note gather(): 40c. directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and others in gh-90908(1).)

   * Added *note timeout(): 40d, an asynchronous context manager for
     setting a timeout on asynchronous operations.  For new code this is
     recommended over using *note wait_for(): 40e. directly.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-90927(2).)

   * Added the *note Runner: 40f. class, which exposes the machinery
     used by *note run(): 19d.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     gh-91218(3).)

   * Added the *note Barrier: 410. class to the synchronization
     primitives in the asyncio library, and the related *note
     BrokenBarrierError: 411. exception.  (Contributed by Yves Duprat
     and Andrew Svetlov in gh-87518(4).)

   * Added keyword argument 'all_errors' to *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 412. so that multiple connection
     errors can be raised as an *note ExceptionGroup: 181.

   * Added the *note asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 413. method for
     upgrading existing stream-based connections to TLS. (Contributed by
     Ian Good in bpo-34975(5).)

   * Added raw datagram socket functions to the event loop: *note
     sock_sendto(): 414, *note sock_recvfrom(): 415. and *note
     sock_recvfrom_into(): 416.  These have implementations in *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 417. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 418.
     (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-46805(6).)

   * Added *note cancelling(): 419. and *note uncancel(): 41a. methods
     to *note Task: 20a.  These are primarily intended for internal use,
     notably by *note TaskGroup: 409.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90908

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90927

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87518

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib,  Next: dataclasses,  Prev: asyncio<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.2 contextlib
..................

   * Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 41d. context manager to
     change the current working directory and then restore it on exit.
     Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 41e.  (Contributed by Filipe
     Laíns in bpo-25625(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses,  Next: datetime,  Prev: contextlib,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.3 dataclasses
...................

   * Change field default mutability check, allowing only defaults which
     are *note hashable: 421. instead of any object which is not an
     instance of *note dict: 240, *note list: 422. or *note set: 3e4.
     (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-44674(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674


File: python.info,  Node: datetime,  Next: enum<2>,  Prev: dataclasses,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.4 datetime
................

   * Add *note datetime.UTC: 230, a convenience alias for *note
     datetime.timezone.utc: 425.  (Contributed by Kabir Kwatra in
     gh-91973(1).)

   * *note datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 426, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 427. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 428. can now be used to parse
     most ISO 8601 formats (barring only those that support fractional
     hours and minutes).  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-80010(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010


File: python.info,  Node: enum<2>,  Next: fcntl,  Prev: datetime,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.5 enum
............

   * Renamed ‘EnumMeta’ to *note EnumType: 42b. (‘EnumMeta’ kept as an
     alias).

   * Added *note StrEnum: 42c, with members that can be used as (and
     must be) strings.

   * Added *note ReprEnum: 42d, which only modifies the *note
     __repr__(): 42e. of members while returning their literal values
     (rather than names) for *note __str__(): 42f. and *note
     __format__(): 430. (used by *note str(): 15d, *note format(): 431.
     and *note f-string: 13e.s).

   * Changed *note Enum.__format__(): 432. (the default for *note
     format(): 431, *note str.format(): 433. and *note f-string: 13e.s)
     to always produce the same result as *note Enum.__str__(): 434.:
     for enums inheriting from *note ReprEnum: 42d. it will be the
     member’s value; for all other enums it will be the enum and member
     name (e.g.  ‘Color.RED’).

   * Added a new 'boundary' class parameter to *note Flag: 435. enums
     and the *note FlagBoundary: 436. enum with its options, to control
     how to handle out-of-range flag values.

   * Added the *note verify(): 437. enum decorator and the *note
     EnumCheck: 438. enum with its options, to check enum classes
     against several specific constraints.

   * Added the *note member(): 439. and *note nonmember(): 43a.
     decorators, to ensure the decorated object is/is not converted to
     an enum member.

   * Added the *note property(): 43b. decorator, which works like *note
     property(): 43c. except for enums.  Use this instead of *note
     types.DynamicClassAttribute(): 43d.

   * Added the *note global_enum(): 43e. enum decorator, which adjusts
     *note __repr__(): 42e. and *note __str__(): 42f. to show values as
     members of their module rather than the enum class.  For example,
     ‘'re.ASCII'’ for the *note ASCII: 43f. member of *note
     re.RegexFlag: 440. rather than ‘'RegexFlag.ASCII'’.

   * Enhanced *note Flag: 435. to support *note len(): 441, iteration
     and *note in: 26f./*note not in: 442. on its members.  For example,
     the following now works: ‘len(AFlag(3)) == 2 and list(AFlag(3)) ==
     (AFlag.ONE, AFlag.TWO)’

   * Changed *note Enum: 443. and *note Flag: 435. so that members are
     now defined before *note __init_subclass__(): 444. is called; *note
     dir(): 445. now includes methods, etc., from mixed-in data types.

   * Changed *note Flag: 435. to only consider primary values (power of
     two) canonical while composite values (‘3’, ‘6’, ‘10’, etc.)  are
     considered aliases; inverted flags are coerced to their positive
     equivalent.


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl,  Next: fractions<2>,  Prev: enum<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.6 fcntl
.............

   * On FreeBSD, the ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ flags
     respectively are supported, the former equals to ‘dup2’ usage while
     the latter set the ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<2>,  Next: functools,  Prev: fcntl,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.7 fractions
.................

   * Support PEP 515(1)-style initialization of *note Fraction: 1ae.
     from string.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in bpo-44258(2).)

   * *note Fraction: 1ae. now implements an ‘__int__’ method, so that an
     ‘isinstance(some_fraction, typing.SupportsInt)’ check passes.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44547(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547


File: python.info,  Node: functools,  Next: gzip<2>,  Prev: fractions<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.8 functools
.................

   * *note functools.singledispatch(): 44c. now supports *note
     types.UnionType: 44d. and *note typing.Union: 44e. as annotations
     to the dispatch argument.:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-46014(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<2>,  Next: hashlib<2>,  Prev: functools,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.9 gzip
............

   * The *note gzip.compress(): 451. function is now faster when used
     with the 'mtime=0' argument as it delegates the compression
     entirely to a single *note zlib.compress(): 452. operation.  There
     is one side effect of this change: The gzip file header contains an
     “OS” byte in its header.  That was traditionally always set to a
     value of 255 representing “unknown” by the *note gzip: 65. module.
     Now, when using *note compress(): 451. with 'mtime=0', it may be
     set to a different value by the underlying zlib C library Python
     was linked against.  (See gh-112346(1) for details on the side
     effect.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112346


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<2>,  Next: IDLE and idlelib,  Prev: gzip<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.10 hashlib
................

   * *note hashlib.blake2b(): 455. and *note hashlib.blake2s(): 456. now
     prefer libb2(1) over Python’s vendored copy.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in bpo-47095(2).)

   * The internal ‘_sha3’ module with SHA3 and SHAKE algorithms now uses
     'tiny_sha3' instead of the 'Keccak Code Package' to reduce code and
     binary size.  The *note hashlib: 66. module prefers optimized SHA3
     and SHAKE implementations from OpenSSL. The change affects only
     installations without OpenSSL support.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-47098(3).)

   * Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 457, a helper function for
     efficient hashing of files or file-like objects.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in gh-89313(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89313


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib,  Next: inspect<2>,  Prev: hashlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.11 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

   * Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(1).)

   * Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.
     (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<2>,  Next: locale<2>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.12 inspect
................

   * Add *note getmembers_static(): 45c. to return all members without
     triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol.
     (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-30533(1).)

   * Add *note ismethodwrapper(): 45d. for checking if the type of an
     object is a *note MethodWrapperType: 45e.  (Contributed by Hakan
     Çelik in bpo-29418(2).)

   * Change the frame-related functions in the *note inspect: 7c. module
     to return new *note FrameInfo: 45f. and *note Traceback: 460. class
     instances (backwards compatible with the previous *note named
     tuple: 461.-like interfaces) that includes the extended PEP 657(3)
     position information (end line number, column and end column).  The
     affected functions are:

        * *note inspect.getframeinfo(): 462.

        * *note inspect.getouterframes(): 463.

        * *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 464,

        * *note inspect.stack(): 465.

        * *note inspect.trace(): 466.

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88116(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116


File: python.info,  Node: locale<2>,  Next: logging,  Prev: inspect<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.13 locale
...............

   * Add *note locale.getencoding(): 25d. to get the current locale
     encoding.  It is similar to ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’
     but ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.


File: python.info,  Node: logging,  Next: math<2>,  Prev: locale<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.14 logging
................

   * Added *note getLevelNamesMapping(): 46c. to return a mapping from
     logging level names (e.g.  ‘'CRITICAL'’) to the values of their
     corresponding *note Logging Levels: 46d. (e.g.  ‘50’, by default).
     (Contributed by Andrei Kulakovin in gh-88024(1).)

   * Added a *note createSocket(): 46e. method to *note SysLogHandler:
     46f, to match *note SocketHandler.createSocket(): 470.  It is
     called automatically during handler initialization and when
     emitting an event, if there is no active socket.  (Contributed by
     Kirill Pinchuk in gh-88457(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88024

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88457


File: python.info,  Node: math<2>,  Next: operator,  Prev: logging,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.15 math
.............

   * Add *note math.exp2(): 473.: return 2 raised to the power of x.
     (Contributed by Gideon Mitchell in bpo-45917(1).)

   * Add *note math.cbrt(): 474.: return the cube root of x.
     (Contributed by Ajith Ramachandran in bpo-44357(2).)

   * The behaviour of two *note math.pow(): 475. corner cases was
     changed, for consistency with the IEEE 754 specification.  The
     operations ‘math.pow(0.0, -math.inf)’ and ‘math.pow(-0.0,
     -math.inf)’ now return ‘inf’.  Previously they raised *note
     ValueError: 189.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44339(3).)

   * The *note math.nan: 476. value is now always available.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917


File: python.info,  Node: operator,  Next: os<2>,  Prev: math<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.16 operator
.................

   * A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such that
     ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.
     (Contributed by Antony Lee in bpo-44019(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019


File: python.info,  Node: os<2>,  Next: pathlib<2>,  Prev: operator,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.17 os
...........

   * On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 2ad. now uses ‘BCryptGenRandom()’,
     instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-44611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<2>,  Next: re,  Prev: os<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.18 pathlib
................

   * *note glob(): 1d5. and *note rglob(): 1d6. return only directories
     if 'pattern' ends with a pathname components separator: *note sep:
     47d. or *note altsep: 47e.  (Contributed by Eisuke Kawasima in
     bpo-22276(1) and bpo-33392(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33392


File: python.info,  Node: re,  Next: shutil<2>,  Prev: pathlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.19 re
...........

   * Atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’,
     ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) are now supported in regular expressions.
     (Contributed by Jeffrey C. Jacobs and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-433030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<2>,  Next: socket,  Prev: re,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.20 shutil
...............

   * Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-46245(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245


File: python.info,  Node: socket,  Next: sqlite3<3>,  Prev: shutil<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.21 socket
...............

   * Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD. (Contributed by Thomas Klausner
     in bpo-30512(1).)

   * *note create_connection(): 485. has an option to raise, in case of
     failure to connect, an *note ExceptionGroup: 181. containing all
     errors instead of only raising the last error.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-29980(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29980


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<3>,  Next: string,  Prev: socket,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.22 sqlite3
................

   * You can now disable the authorizer by passing *note None: 488. to
     *note set_authorizer(): 489.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-44491(1).)

   * Collation name *note create_collation(): 48a. can now contain any
     Unicode character.  Collation names with invalid characters now
     raise *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b. instead of *note
     sqlite3.ProgrammingError: 241.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland
     in bpo-44688(2).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. exceptions now include the SQLite extended error
     code as *note sqlite_errorcode: 48c. and the SQLite error name as
     *note sqlite_errorname: 48d.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel
     Shahaf, and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-16379(3) and bpo-24139(4).)

   * Add *note setlimit(): 48e. and *note getlimit(): 48f. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. for setting and getting SQLite limits by
     connection basis.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-45243(5).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. now sets *note sqlite3.threadsafety: 490. based
     on the default threading mode the underlying SQLite library has
     been compiled with.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-45613(6).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions if
     callback tracebacks are enabled.  Users can now register an *note
     unraisable hook handler: 491. to improve their debug experience.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45828(7).)

   * Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note InterfaceError: 492.
     Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to handle these cases.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44092(8).)

   * Add *note serialize(): 493. and *note deserialize(): 494. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. for serializing and deserializing
     databases.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-41930(9).)

   * Add *note create_window_function(): 495. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. for creating aggregate window functions.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-34916(10).)

   * Add *note blobopen(): 496. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3.  *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 497. allows incremental I/O operations on blobs.
     (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-24905(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34916

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: string,  Next: sys<3>,  Prev: sqlite3<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.23 string
...............

   * Add *note get_identifiers(): 49a. and *note is_valid(): 49b. to
     *note string.Template: 49c, which respectively return all valid
     placeholders, and whether any invalid placeholders are present.
     (Contributed by Ben Kehoe in gh-90465(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90465


File: python.info,  Node: sys<3>,  Next: sysconfig,  Prev: string,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.24 sys
............

   * *note sys.exc_info(): 49f. now derives the ‘type’ and ‘traceback’
     fields from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to ‘exc_info()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(1).)

   * Add *note sys.exception(): 4a0. which returns the active exception
     instance (equivalent to ‘sys.exc_info()[1]’).  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in bpo-46328(2).)

   * Add the *note sys.flags.safe_path: 4a1. flag.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig,  Next: tempfile<2>,  Prev: sys<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.25 sysconfig
..................

   * Three new *note installation schemes: 4a4. ('posix_venv', 'nt_venv'
     and 'venv') were added and are used when Python creates new virtual
     environments or when it is running from a virtual environment.  The
     first two schemes ('posix_venv' and 'nt_venv') are OS-specific for
     non-Windows and Windows, the 'venv' is essentially an alias to one
     of them according to the OS Python runs on.  This is useful for
     downstream distributors who modify *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 4a5.  Third party code that
     creates new virtual environments should use the new 'venv'
     installation scheme to determine the paths, as does *note venv:
     111.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<2>,  Next: threading<2>,  Prev: sysconfig,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.26 tempfile
.................

   * *note SpooledTemporaryFile: 4a8. objects now fully implement the
     methods of *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. or *note io.TextIOBase:
     4aa. (depending on file mode).  This lets them work correctly with
     APIs that expect file-like objects, such as compression modules.
     (Contributed by Carey Metcalfe in gh-70363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70363


File: python.info,  Node: threading<2>,  Next: time,  Prev: tempfile<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.27 threading
..................

   * On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is available in the C
     library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     4ad. method now uses the monotonic clock (*note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 4ae.) for the timeout, rather than using the
     system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 4af.), to not be affected
     by system clock changes.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-41710(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710


File: python.info,  Node: time,  Next: tkinter<2>,  Prev: threading<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.28 time
.............

   * On Unix, *note time.sleep(): 4b2. now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’
     or ‘nanosleep()’ function, if available, which has a resolution of
     1 nanosecond (10^-9 seconds), rather than using ‘select()’ which
     has a resolution of 1 microsecond (10^-6 seconds).  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner in bpo-21302(1).)

   * On Windows 8.1 and newer, *note time.sleep(): 4b2. now uses a
     waitable timer based on high-resolution timers(2) which has a
     resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7 seconds).  Previously, it had
     a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3 seconds).  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Szőke, Donghee Na, Eryk Sun and Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21302(3) and bpo-45429(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<2>,  Next: traceback,  Prev: time,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.29 tkinter
................

   * Added method ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of
     the Tcl library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info:
     4b5.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827


File: python.info,  Node: traceback,  Next: typing<2>,  Prev: tkinter<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.30 traceback
..................

   * Add *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 4b8. to
     allow users to override which frames appear in the traceback, and
     how they are formatted.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in
     bpo-44569(1).)

   * Add *note traceback.TracebackException.print(): 4b9, which prints
     the formatted *note TracebackException: 4ba. instance to a file.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-33809(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809


File: python.info,  Node: typing<2>,  Next: unicodedata<2>,  Prev: traceback,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.31 typing
...............

For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: 3c7.

   * Add *note typing.assert_never(): 4bd. and *note typing.Never: 4be.
     *note typing.assert_never(): 4bd. is useful for asking a type
     checker to confirm that a line of code is not reachable.  At
     runtime, it raises an *note AssertionError: 4bf.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90633(1).)

   * Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 4c0.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker what type it has inferred for a given expression.  At
     runtime it prints the type of the received value.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90572(2).)

   * Add *note typing.assert_type(): 4c1.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker to confirm that the type it has inferred for a given
     expression matches the given type.  At runtime it simply returns
     the received value.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-90638(3).)

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 159. types can now be generic.
     (Contributed by Samodya Abeysiriwardane in gh-89026(4).)

   * *note NamedTuple: 202. types can now be generic.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43923(5).)

   * Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 4c2.  This is useful for
     avoiding type checker errors related to highly dynamic class, such
     as mocks.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91154(6).)

   * The *note typing.final(): 4c3. decorator now sets the ‘__final__’
     attributed on the decorated object.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra
     in gh-90500(7).)

   * The *note typing.get_overloads(): 4c4. function can be used for
     introspecting the overloads of a function.  *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): 4c5. can be used to clear all registered
     overloads of a function.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-89263(8).)

   * The *note __init__(): 4c6. method of *note Protocol: 4c7.
     subclasses is now preserved.  (Contributed by Adrian Garcia
     Badarasco in gh-88970(9).)

   * The representation of empty tuple types (‘Tuple[()]’) is
     simplified.  This affects introspection, e.g.
     ‘get_args(Tuple[()])’ now evaluates to ‘()’ instead of ‘((),)’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91137(10).)

   * Loosen runtime requirements for type annotations by removing the
     callable check in the private ‘typing._type_check’ function.
     (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90802(11).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. now supports evaluating strings
     as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic aliases: 4c9.
     (Contributed by Niklas Rosenstein in gh-85542(12).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. no longer adds *note Optional:
     4ca. to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-90353(13).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. now supports evaluating bare
     stringified *note ClassVar: 4cb. annotations.  (Contributed by
     Gregory Beauregard in gh-90711(14).)

   * *note typing.no_type_check(): 4cc. no longer modifies external
     classes and functions.  It also now correctly marks classmethods as
     not to be type checked.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-90729(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90572

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43923

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91154

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90500

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89263

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88970

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91137

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85542

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90353

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90711

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90729


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<2>,  Next: unittest<3>,  Prev: typing<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.32 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 14.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-45190(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<3>,  Next: venv,  Prev: unicodedata<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.33 unittest
.................

   * Added methods *note enterContext(): 4d1. and *note
     enterClassContext(): 4d2. of class *note TestCase: 15f, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): 4d3. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): 4d4.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-45046(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046


File: python.info,  Node: venv,  Next: warnings,  Prev: unittest<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.34 venv
.............

   * When new Python virtual environments are created, the 'venv' *note
     sysconfig installation scheme: 4a4. is used to determine the paths
     inside the environment.  When Python runs in a virtual environment,
     the same installation scheme is the default.  That means that
     downstream distributors can change the default sysconfig install
     scheme without changing behavior of virtual environments.  Third
     party code that also creates new virtual environments should do the
     same.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: warnings,  Next: zipfile,  Prev: venv,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.35 warnings
.................

   * *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 31d. now accepts arguments for
     *note warnings.simplefilter(): 4d9, providing a more concise way to
     locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.  (Contributed by
     Zac Hatfield-Dodds in bpo-47074(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47074


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile,  Prev: warnings,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.2.7.36 zipfile
................

   * Added support for specifying member name encoding for reading
     metadata in a *note ZipFile: 4dc.’s directory and file headers.
     (Contributed by Stephen J. Turnbull and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28080(1).)

   * Added *note ZipFile.mkdir(): 4dd. for creating new directories
     inside ZIP archives.  (Contributed by Sam Ezeh in gh-49083(2).)

   * Added *note stem: 4de, *note suffix: 4df. and *note suffixes: 4e0.
     to *note zipfile.Path: 4e1.  (Contributed by Miguel Brito in
     gh-88261(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49083

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88261


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<2>,  Next: Faster CPython,  Prev: Improved Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.8 Optimizations
-------------------

This section covers specific optimizations independent of the *note
Faster CPython: 3a5. project, which is covered in its own section.

   * The compiler now optimizes simple *note printf-style % formatting:
     4e4. on string literals containing only the format codes ‘%s’, ‘%r’
     and ‘%a’ and makes it as fast as a corresponding *note f-string:
     13e. expression.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28307(1).)

   * Integer division (‘//’) is better tuned for optimization by
     compilers.  It is now around 20% faster on x86-64 when dividing an
     *note int: 184. by a value smaller than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by
     Gregory P. Smith and Tim Peters in gh-90564(2).)

   * *note sum(): 187. is now nearly 30% faster for integers smaller
     than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in gh-68264(3).)

   * Resizing lists is streamlined for the common case, speeding up
     ‘list.append()’ by ≈15% and simple *note list comprehension: 4e5.s
     by up to 20-30% (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in gh-91165(4).)

   * Dictionaries don’t store hash values when all keys are Unicode
     objects, decreasing *note dict: 240. size.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ is reduced from 352 bytes
     to 272 bytes (23% smaller) on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-46845(5).)

   * Using *note asyncio.DatagramProtocol: 4e6. is now orders of
     magnitude faster when transferring large files over UDP, with
     speeds over 100 times higher for a ≈60 MiB file.  (Contributed by
     msoxzw in gh-91487(6).)

   * *note math: 8d. functions *note comb(): 4e7. and *note perm(): 4e8.
     are now ≈10 times faster for large arguments (with a larger speedup
     for larger 'k').  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-37295(7).)

   * The *note statistics: d1. functions *note mean(): 4e9, *note
     variance(): 4ea. and *note stdev(): 4eb. now consume iterators in
     one pass rather than converting them to a *note list: 422. first.
     This is twice as fast and can save substantial memory.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-90415(8).)

   * *note unicodedata.normalize(): 4ec. now normalizes pure-ASCII
     strings in constant time.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-44987(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90564

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68264

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91165

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90415

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987


File: python.info,  Node: Faster CPython,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Prev: Optimizations<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.9 Faster CPython
--------------------

CPython 3.11 is an average of 25% faster(1) than CPython 3.10 as
measured with the pyperformance(2) benchmark suite, when compiled with
GCC on Ubuntu Linux.  Depending on your workload, the overall speedup
could be 10-60%.

This project focuses on two major areas in Python: *note Faster Startup:
4ee. and *note Faster Runtime: 4ef.  Optimizations not covered by this
project are listed separately under *note Optimizations: 4e3.

* Menu:

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* About::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas#published-results

   (2) https://github.com/python/pyperformance


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Startup,  Next: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.2.9.1 Faster Startup
......................

* Menu:

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen imports / Static code objects,  Up: Faster Startup

1.2.9.2 Frozen imports / Static code objects
............................................

Python caches *note bytecode: 3b7. in the *note __pycache__: 4f3.
directory to speed up module loading.

Previously in 3.10, Python module execution looked like this:

     Read __pycache__ -> Unmarshal -> Heap allocated code object -> Evaluate

In Python 3.11, the core modules essential for Python startup are
“frozen”.  This means that their *note Code Objects: 3bb. (and bytecode)
are statically allocated by the interpreter.  This reduces the steps in
module execution process to:

     Statically allocated code object -> Evaluate

Interpreter startup is now 10-15% faster in Python 3.11.  This has a big
impact for short-running programs using Python.

(Contributed by Eric Snow, Guido van Rossum and Kumar Aditya in many
issues.)


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Runtime,  Next: Misc,  Prev: Faster Startup,  Up: Faster CPython

1.2.9.3 Faster Runtime
......................

* Menu:

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Next: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.2.9.4 Cheaper, lazy Python frames
...................................

Python frames, holding execution information, are created whenever
Python calls a Python function.  The following are new frame
optimizations:

   - Streamlined the frame creation process.

   - Avoided memory allocation by generously re-using frame space on the
     C stack.

   - Streamlined the internal frame struct to contain only essential
     information.  Frames previously held extra debugging and memory
     management information.

Old-style *note frame objects: 4f7. are now created only when requested
by debuggers or by Python introspection functions such as *note
sys._getframe(): 4f8. and *note inspect.currentframe(): 4f9.  For most
user code, no frame objects are created at all.  As a result, nearly all
Python functions calls have sped up significantly.  We measured a 3-7%
speedup in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-44590(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590


File: python.info,  Node: Inlined Python function calls,  Next: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.2.9.5 Inlined Python function calls
.....................................

During a Python function call, Python will call an evaluating C function
to interpret that function’s code.  This effectively limits pure Python
recursion to what’s safe for the C stack.

In 3.11, when CPython detects Python code calling another Python
function, it sets up a new frame, and “jumps” to the new code inside the
new frame.  This avoids calling the C interpreting function altogether.

Most Python function calls now consume no C stack space, speeding them
up.  In simple recursive functions like fibonacci or factorial, we
observed a 1.7x speedup.  This also means recursive functions can
recurse significantly deeper (if the user increases the recursion limit
with *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 1f1.).  We measured a 1-3%
improvement in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Mark Shannon in bpo-45256(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.2.9.6 PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter
..................................................

PEP 659(1) is one of the key parts of the Faster CPython project.  The
general idea is that while Python is a dynamic language, most code has
regions where objects and types rarely change.  This concept is known as
'type stability'.

At runtime, Python will try to look for common patterns and type
stability in the executing code.  Python will then replace the current
operation with a more specialized one.  This specialized operation uses
fast paths available only to those use cases/types, which generally
outperform their generic counterparts.  This also brings in another
concept called 'inline caching', where Python caches the results of
expensive operations directly in the *note bytecode: 3b7.

The specializer will also combine certain common instruction pairs into
one superinstruction, reducing the overhead during execution.

Python will only specialize when it sees code that is “hot” (executed
multiple times).  This prevents Python from wasting time on run-once
code.  Python can also de-specialize when code is too dynamic or when
the use changes.  Specialization is attempted periodically, and
specialization attempts are not too expensive, allowing specialization
to adapt to new circumstances.

(PEP written by Mark Shannon, with ideas inspired by Stefan Brunthaler.
See PEP 659(2) for more information.  Implementation by Mark Shannon and
Brandt Bucher, with additional help from Irit Katriel and Dennis
Sweeney.)

Operation           Form                     Specialization                                              Operation speedup (up   Contributor(s)
                                                                                                         to)                     
                                                                                                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                 
Binary operations   ‘x + x’                  Binary add, multiply and subtract for common types such     10%                     Mark Shannon, Donghee
                                             as *note int: 184, *note float: 272. and *note str: 15d.                            Na, Brandt Bucher,
                    ‘x - x’                  take custom fast paths for their underlying types.                                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                    ‘x * x’
                    
                                                                                                                                 
Subscript           ‘a[i]’                   Subscripting container types such as *note list: 422,       10-25%                  Irit Katriel, Mark
                                             *note tuple: 4ff. and *note dict: 240. directly index the                           Shannon
                                             underlying data structures.                                                         
                                             
                                             Subscripting custom *note __getitem__(): 500. is also
                                             inlined similar to
                                             *note Inlined Python function calls: 4fa.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store subscript     ‘a[i] = z’               Similar to subscripting specialization above.               10-25%                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Calls               ‘f(arg)’                 Calls to common builtin (C) functions and types such as     20%                     Mark Shannon, Ken Jin
                                             *note len(): 441. and *note str: 15d. directly call their                           
                    ‘C(arg)’                 underlying C version.  This avoids going through the
                                             internal calling convention.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load global         ‘print’                  The object’s index in the globals/builtins namespace is     (3)                     Mark Shannon
variable                                     cached.  Loading globals and builtins require zero                                  
                    ‘len’                    namespace lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load attribute      ‘o.attr’                 Similar to loading global variables.  The attribute’s       (4)                     Mark Shannon
                                             index inside the class/object’s namespace is cached.  In                            
                                             most cases, attribute loading will require zero namespace
                                             lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load methods for    ‘o.meth()’               The actual address of the method is cached.  Method         10-20%                  Ken Jin, Mark Shannon
call                                         loading now has no namespace lookups – even for classes                             
                                             with long inheritance chains.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store attribute     ‘o.attr = z’             Similar to load attribute optimization.                     2% in pyperformance     Mark Shannon
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Unpack Sequence     ‘*seq’                   Specialized for common containers such as                   8%                      Brandt Bucher
                                             *note list: 422. and *note tuple: 4ff.  Avoids internal                             
                                             calling convention.
                                             

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (3) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.8.  3.11
specializes for more forms and reduces some overhead.

   (4) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.10.  3.11
specializes for more forms.  Furthermore, all attribute loads should be
sped up by bpo-45947
(https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947).


File: python.info,  Node: Misc,  Next: FAQ,  Prev: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.2.9.7 Misc
............

   * Objects now require less memory due to lazily created object
     namespaces.  Their namespace dictionaries now also share keys more
     freely.  (Contributed Mark Shannon in bpo-45340(1) and
     bpo-40116(2).)

   * “Zero-cost” exceptions are implemented, eliminating the cost of
     *note try: 503. statements when no exception is raised.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(3).)

   * A more concise representation of exceptions in the interpreter
     reduced the time required for catching an exception by about 10%.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note re: b8.’s regular expression matching engine has been
     partially refactored, and now uses computed gotos (or “threaded
     code”) on supported platforms.  As a result, Python 3.11 executes
     the pyperformance regular expression benchmarks(5) up to 10% faster
     than Python 3.10.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-91404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/benchmarks.html#regex-dna

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ,  Next: About,  Prev: Misc,  Up: Faster CPython

1.2.9.8 FAQ
...........

* Menu:

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::


File: python.info,  Node: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Next: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.9 How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?
.............................................................

Write Pythonic code that follows common best practices; you don’t have
to change your code.  The Faster CPython project optimizes for common
code patterns we observe.


File: python.info,  Node: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Next: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Prev: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.10 Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?
...........................................

Maybe not; we don’t expect memory use to exceed 20% higher than 3.10.
This is offset by memory optimizations for frame objects and object
dictionaries as mentioned above.


File: python.info,  Node: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Next: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.11 I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?
......................................................

Certain code won’t have noticeable benefits.  If your code spends most
of its time on I/O operations, or already does most of its computation
in a C extension library like NumPy, there won’t be significant
speedups.  This project currently benefits pure-Python workloads the
most.

Furthermore, the pyperformance figures are a geometric mean.  Even
within the pyperformance benchmarks, certain benchmarks have slowed down
slightly, while others have sped up by nearly 2x!


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Up: FAQ

1.2.9.12 Is there a JIT compiler?
.................................

No.  We’re still exploring other optimizations.


File: python.info,  Node: About,  Prev: FAQ,  Up: Faster CPython

1.2.9.13 About
..............

Faster CPython explores optimizations for *note CPython: 510.  The main
team is funded by Microsoft to work on this full-time.  Pablo Galindo
Salgado is also funded by Bloomberg LP to work on the project part-time.
Finally, many contributors are volunteers from the community.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Next: Deprecated<3>,  Prev: Faster CPython,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.10 CPython bytecode changes
-------------------------------

The bytecode now contains inline cache entries, which take the form of
the newly-added *note CACHE: 513. instructions.  Many opcodes expect to
be followed by an exact number of caches, and instruct the interpreter
to skip over them at runtime.  Populated caches can look like arbitrary
instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying
raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data.

* Menu:

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::


File: python.info,  Node: New opcodes,  Next: Replaced opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<2>

1.2.10.1 New opcodes
....................

   * ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’, *note RETURN_GENERATOR: 516. and *note SEND: 517,
     used in generators and co-routines.

   * *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 518, which avoids needing special caller-side
     code for closures.

   * *note JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 519, for use in certain loops
     where handling interrupts is undesirable.

   * *note MAKE_CELL: 51a, to create *note Cell Objects: 51b.

   * *note CHECK_EG_MATCH: 51c. and ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’, to handle the
     *note new exception groups and except*: 3a6. added in PEP 654(1).

   * *note PUSH_EXC_INFO: 51d, for use in exception handlers.

   * *note RESUME: 51e, a no-op, for internal tracing, debugging and
     optimization checks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/


File: python.info,  Node: Replaced opcodes,  Next: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: New opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<2>

1.2.10.2 Replaced opcodes
.........................

Replaced Opcode(s)                       New Opcode(s)                            Notes
                                                                                  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     ‘BINARY_*’                          *note BINARY_OP: 521.                    Replaced all numeric binary/in-place
     ‘INPLACE_*’                                                                  opcodes with a single opcode
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’                          *note CALL: 522.                    Decouples argument shifting for methods
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’                       ‘KW_NAMES’                          from handling of keyword arguments; allows
     ‘CALL_METHOD’                            ‘PRECALL’                           better specialization of calls
                                              *note PUSH_NULL: 523.               
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘DUP_TOP’                                *note COPY: 524.                    Stack manipulation instructions
     ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’                            *note SWAP: 525.                    
     ‘ROT_TWO’                           
     ‘ROT_THREE’
     ‘ROT_FOUR’
     ‘ROT_N’

     ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’                  *note CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 526.         Now performs check but doesn’t jump
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’                          *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 527.           See (1); ‘TRUE’, ‘FALSE’, ‘NONE’ and
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE’                      ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_*’            ‘NOT_NONE’ variants for each direction
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE’                       ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_*’             
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘SETUP_WITH’                        *note BEFORE_WITH: 528.                  *note with: 3dd. block setup
     ‘SETUP_ASYNC_WITH’                                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) All jump opcodes are now relative, including the existing
‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’.  The argument is now
an offset from the current instruction rather than an absolute location.


File: python.info,  Node: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: Replaced opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<2>

1.2.10.3 Changed/removed opcodes
................................

   * Changed *note MATCH_CLASS: 52d. and *note MATCH_KEYS: 52e. to no
     longer push an additional boolean value to indicate
     success/failure.  Instead, ‘None’ is pushed on failure in place of
     the tuple of extracted values.

   * Changed opcodes that work with exceptions to reflect them now being
     represented as one item on the stack instead of three (see
     gh-89874(1)).

   * Removed ‘COPY_DICT_WITHOUT_KEYS’, ‘GEN_START’, ‘POP_BLOCK’,
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’ and ‘YIELD_FROM’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.11 Deprecated
-----------------

This section lists Python APIs that have been deprecated in Python 3.11.

Deprecated C APIs are *note listed separately: 532.
* Menu:

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Standard Library::


File: python.info,  Node: Language/Builtins,  Next: Modules,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.2.11.1 Language/Builtins
..........................

   * Chaining *note classmethod: 252. descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(1)) is now deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as *note property: 43c.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems.
     To “pass-through” a *note classmethod: 252, consider using the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519(2).)

   * Octal escapes in string and bytes literals with values larger than
     ‘0o377’ (255 in decimal) now produce a *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f.  In a future Python version, they will raise a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 17e. and eventually a *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-81548(3).)

   * The delegation of *note int(): 184. to *note __trunc__(): 536. is
     now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not *note __int__(): 537. or *note __index__():
     538. now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  (Contributed by
     Zackery Spytz in bpo-44977(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977


File: python.info,  Node: Modules,  Next: Standard Library,  Prev: Language/Builtins,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.2.11.2 Modules
................

   * PEP 594(1) led to the deprecations of the following modules slated
     for removal in Python 3.13:

     *note aifc: 5.            *note chunk: 17.          *note msilib: 91.         *note pipes: a7.          *note telnetlib: de.
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     *note audioop: d.         *note crypt: 28.          *note nis: 9b.            *note sndhdr: ca.         *note uu: 10f.
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     *note cgi: 15.            *note imghdr: 73.         *note nntplib: 9c.        *note spwd: cd.           *note xdrlib: 11f.
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     *note cgitb: 16.          *note mailcap: 8b.        *note ossaudiodev: a2.    *note sunau: d6.
                                                                                   

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-47061(2) and Victor Stinner in
     gh-68966(3).)

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have been deprecated
     since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and deprecation
     warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-47022(4).)

   * The *note lib2to3: 83. package and *note 2to3: 53b. tool are now
     deprecated and may not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See
     PEP 617(5), introducing the new PEG parser, for details.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40360(6).)

   * Undocumented modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’
     are now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-47152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Library,  Prev: Modules,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.2.11.3 Standard Library
.........................

   * The following have been deprecated in *note configparser: 22. since
     Python 3.2.  Their deprecation warnings have now been updated to
     note they will be removed in Python 3.12:

        * the ‘configparser.SafeConfigParser’ class

        * the ‘configparser.ParsingError.filename’ property

        * the ‘configparser.RawConfigParser.readfp()’ method

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45173(1).)

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ has been deprecated in the
     docstring since Python 3.2, and is not listed in the *note
     configparser: 22. documentation.  It now emits a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     *note configparser.BasicInterpolation: 53e. or *note
     configparser.ExtendedInterpolation: 53f. instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-46607(2).)

   * The older set of *note importlib.resources: 79. functions were
     deprecated in favor of the replacements added in Python 3.9 and
     will be removed in a future Python version, due to not supporting
     resources located within package subdirectories:

        * *note importlib.resources.contents(): 540.

        * *note importlib.resources.is_resource(): 541.

        * *note importlib.resources.open_binary(): 542.

        * *note importlib.resources.open_text(): 543.

        * *note importlib.resources.read_binary(): 544.

        * *note importlib.resources.read_text(): 545.

        * *note importlib.resources.path(): 546.

   * The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 25b. function is deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.15.  Use *note locale.setlocale():
     25c, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 2c6. and *note
     locale.getlocale(): 25e. functions instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-90817(3).)

   * The *note locale.resetlocale(): 547. function is deprecated and
     will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-90817(4).)

   * Stricter rules will now be applied for numerical group references
     and group names in *note regular expressions: 548.  Only sequences
     of ASCII digits will now be accepted as a numerical reference, and
     the group name in *note bytes: 2cb. patterns and replacement
     strings can only contain ASCII letters, digits and underscores.
     For now, a deprecation warning is raised for syntax violating these
     rules.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * In the *note re: b8. module, the ‘re.template()’ function and the
     corresponding ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are deprecated, as
     they were undocumented and lacked an obvious purpose.  They will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Miro
     Hrončok in gh-92728(6).)

   * *note turtle.settiltangle(): 549. has been deprecated since Python
     3.1; it now emits a deprecation warning and will be removed in
     Python 3.13.  Use *note turtle.tiltangle(): 54a. instead (it was
     earlier incorrectly marked as deprecated, and its docstring is now
     corrected).  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45837(7).)

   * *note typing.Text: 281, which exists solely to provide
     compatibility support between Python 2 and Python 3 code, is now
     deprecated.  Its removal is currently unplanned, but users are
     encouraged to use *note str: 15d. instead wherever possible.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-92332(8).)

   * The keyword argument syntax for constructing *note
     typing.TypedDict: 159. types is now deprecated.  Support will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Jingchen Ye in
     gh-90224(9).)

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.13.  It is untested, undocumented, and not used by *note
     webbrowser: 115. itself.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-42255(10).)

   * The behavior of returning a value from a *note TestCase: 15f. and
     *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. test methods (other than the
     default ‘None’ value) is now deprecated.

   * Deprecated the following not-formally-documented *note unittest:
     106. functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 54b. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2bb.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 54c.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 54d.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-5846(11).)

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked deprecated, to be
     removed in 3.13.  (Contributed by Carlos Damázio in gh-67048(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90224

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Next: Removed<3>,  Prev: Deprecated<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.12 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
-------------------------------------

The following Python APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python
releases, and will be removed in Python 3.12.

C APIs pending removal are *note listed separately: 551.

   * The ‘asynchat’ module

   * The ‘asyncore’ module

   * The *note entire distutils package: 552.

   * The ‘imp’ module

   * The *note typing.io: 553. namespace

   * The *note typing.re: 554. namespace

   * ‘cgi.log()’

   * ‘importlib.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’

   * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode()’

   * ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable

   * The following deprecated aliases in *note unittest: 106.:

          Deprecated alias                 Method Name                         Deprecated in
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 2b1.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 2b2.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 2b3.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 2b4.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2b5.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2b6.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 2b7.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 2b1.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 2b3.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 2b4.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2b5.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2b6.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 2b8.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 2b9.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 2ba.        3.5
                                                                               


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<3>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 11,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.13 Removed
--------------

This section lists Python APIs that have been removed in Python 3.11.

Removed C APIs are *note listed separately: 558.

   * Removed the ‘@asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 559. enabling
     legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible with *note
     async: 55a. / *note await: 55b. code.  The function has been
     deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was initially scheduled
     for Python 3.10.  Use *note async def: 3db. instead.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(1).)

   * Removed ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used for wrapping legacy
     generator-based coroutine objects in the debug mode.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(2).)

   * Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter
     of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c, disabled in
     Python 3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the
     behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. (Contributed
     by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45129(3).)

   * Removed the ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9.  Also
     removed the related, similarly-deprecated *note binascii: 10.
     functions:

        * ‘binascii.a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.b2a_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rlecode_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rldecode_hqx()’

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 55d. function remains available.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45085(4).)

   * Removed the ‘distutils’ ‘bdist_msi’ command deprecated in Python
     3.9.  Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45124(5).)

   * Removed the *note __getitem__(): 500. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 55e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 55f. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in
     bpo-45132(6).)

   * Removed the deprecated *note gettext: 61. functions ‘lgettext()’,
     ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and ‘ldngettext()’.  Also removed the
     ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ function, the
     ‘NullTranslations.output_charset()’ and
     ‘NullTranslations.set_output_charset()’ methods, and the 'codeset'
     parameter of ‘translation()’ and ‘install()’, since they are only
     used for the ‘l*gettext()’ functions.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44235(7).)

   * Removed from the *note inspect: 7c. module:

        * The ‘getargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0; use
          *note inspect.signature(): 561. or *note
          inspect.getfullargspec(): 562. instead.

        * The ‘formatargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5;
          use the *note inspect.signature(): 561. function or the *note
          inspect.Signature: 563. object directly.

        * The undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin()’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function()’ methods, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 564. method
          instead.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45320(8).)

   * Removed the *note __class_getitem__(): 565. method from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 1ce, because it was not used and added by mistake
     in previous versions.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     bpo-46483(9).)

   * Removed the ‘MailmanProxy’ class in the ‘smtpd’ module, as it is
     unusable without the external ‘mailman’ package.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-35800(10).)

   * Removed the deprecated ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-38371(11).)

   * Removed namespace package support from *note unittest: 106.
     discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken
     since Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-23882(12).)

   * Removed the undocumented private ‘float.__set_format__()’ method,
     previously known as ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its
     docstring said: “You probably don’t want to use this function.  It
     exists mainly to be used in Python’s test suite.” (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46852(13).)

   * The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’ configure flag (and
     corresponding ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro) have
     been removed.

   * Pynche(14) — The Pythonically Natural Color and Hue Editor — has
     been moved out of ‘Tools/scripts’ and is being developed
     independently(15) from the Python source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (14) https://pypi.org/project/Pynche/

   (15) https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche/-/tree/main


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 11,  Next: Build Changes<2>,  Prev: Removed<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.14 Porting to Python 3.11
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes in
the Python API that may require changes to your Python code.

Porting notes for the C API are *note listed separately: 569.

   * *note open(): 2a6, *note io.open(): 2a7, *note codecs.open(): 56a.
     and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560. no longer accept ‘'U'’
     (“universal newline”) in the file mode.  In Python 3, “universal
     newline” mode is used by default whenever a file is opened in text
     mode, and the ‘'U'’ flag has been deprecated since Python 3.3.  The
     *note newline parameter: 56b. to these functions controls how
     universal newlines work.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37330(1).)

   * *note ast.AST: 56c. node positions are now validated when provided
     to *note compile(): 56d. and other related functions.  If invalid
     positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 189. will be raised.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93351(2))

   * Prohibited passing non-*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     56e. executors to *note asyncio.loop.set_default_executor(): 56f.
     following a deprecation in Python 3.8.  (Contributed by Illia
     Volochii in bpo-43234(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 570.
     and *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 571. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 25e, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 25b, if no locale is specified.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46659(4).)

   * The *note pdb: a4. module now reads the ‘.pdbrc’ configuration file
     with the ‘'UTF-8'’ encoding.  (Contributed by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy (శ్రీనివాస్ రెడ్డి తాటిపర్తి) in bpo-41137(5).)

   * The 'population' parameter of *note random.sample(): 572. must be a
     sequence, and automatic conversion of *note set: 3e4.s to *note
     list: 422.s is no longer supported.  Also, if the sample size is
     larger than the population size, a *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(6).)

   * The 'random' optional parameter of *note random.shuffle(): 573. was
     removed.  It was previously an arbitrary random function to use for
     the shuffle; now, *note random.random(): 574. (its previous
     default) will always be used.

   * In *note re: b8. *note Regular Expression Syntax: 548, global
     inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be used at the start of
     regular expressions.  Using them elsewhere has been deprecated
     since Python 3.6.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-47066(7).)

   * In the *note re: b8. module, several long-standing bugs where fixed
     that, in rare cases, could cause capture groups to get the wrong
     result.  Therefore, this could change the captured output in these
     cases.  (Contributed by Ma Lin in bpo-35859(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<2>,  Next: C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 11,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.15 Build Changes
--------------------

   * CPython now has PEP 11(1) Tier 3 support(2) for cross compiling to
     the WebAssembly(3) platforms Emscripten(4)
     (‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, i.e.  Python in the browser) and
     WebAssembly System Interface (WASI)(5) (‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’).
     The effort is inspired by previous work like Pyodide(6).  These
     platforms provide a limited subset of POSIX APIs; Python standard
     libraries features and modules related to networking, processes,
     threading, signals, mmap, and users/groups are not available or
     don’t work.  (Emscripten contributed by Christian Heimes and Ethan
     Smith in gh-84461(7) and WASI contributed by Christian Heimes in
     gh-90473(8); platforms promoted in gh-95085(9))

   * Building CPython now requires:

        * A C11(10) compiler and standard library.  Optional C11
          features(11) are not required.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
          in bpo-46656(12), bpo-45440(13) and bpo-46640(14).)

        * Support for IEEE 754(15) floating-point numbers.  (Contributed
          by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(16).)

   * The ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro has been removed.  Since CPython now requires
     IEEE 754 floats, NaN values are always available.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46656(17).)

   * The *note tkinter: ef. package now requires Tcl/Tk(18) version
     8.5.12 or newer.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-46996(19).)

   * Build dependencies, compiler flags, and linker flags for most
     stdlib extension modules are now detected by ‘configure’.  libffi,
     libnsl, libsqlite3, zlib, bzip2, liblzma, libcrypt, Tcl/Tk, and
     uuid flags are detected by pkg-config(20) (when available).  *note
     tkinter: ef. now requires a pkg-config command to detect
     development settings for Tcl/Tk(21) headers and libraries.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Erlend Egeberg Aasland in
     bpo-45847(22), bpo-45747(23), and bpo-45763(24).)

   * libpython is no longer linked against libcrypt.  (Contributed by
     Mike Gilbert in bpo-45433(25).)

   * CPython can now be built with the ThinLTO(26) option via passing
     ‘thin’ to *note -with-lto: 577, i.e.  ‘--with-lto=thin’.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na and Brett Holman in bpo-44340(27).)

   * Freelists for object structs can now be disabled.  A new
     ‘configure’ option *note -without-freelists: 578. can be used to
     disable all freelists except empty tuple singleton.  (Contributed
     by Christian Heimes in bpo-45522(28).)

   * ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been improved and tied
     up.  Extension modules can now be built through ‘makesetup’.  All
     except some test modules can be linked statically into a main
     binary or library.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Christian
     Heimes in bpo-45548(29), bpo-45570(30), bpo-45571(31), and
     bpo-43974(32).)

          Not: Use the environment variables ‘TCLTK_CFLAGS’ and
          ‘TCLTK_LIBS’ to manually specify the location of Tcl/Tk
          headers and libraries.  The ‘configure’ options
          ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ have been
          removed.

          On RHEL 7 and CentOS 7 the development packages do not provide
          ‘tcl.pc’ and ‘tk.pc’; use ‘TCLTK_LIBS="-ltk8.5 -ltkstub8.5
          -ltcl8.5"’.  The directory ‘Misc/rhel7’ contains ‘.pc’ files
          and instructions on how to build Python with RHEL 7’s and
          CentOS 7’s Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL.

   * CPython will now use 30-bit digits by default for the Python *note
     int: 184. implementation.  Previously, the default was to use
     30-bit digits on platforms with ‘SIZEOF_VOID_P >= 8’, and 15-bit
     digits otherwise.  It’s still possible to explicitly request use of
     15-bit digits via either the *note -enable-big-digits: 579. option
     to the configure script or (for Windows) the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’
     variable in ‘PC/pyconfig.h’, but this option may be removed at some
     point in the future.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     bpo-45569(33).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (3) https://webassembly.org/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://pyodide.org/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (10) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (11) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (15) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (18) https://www.tcl.tk

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (20) https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/

   (21) https://www.tcl.tk

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433

   (26) https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ThinLTO.html

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<2>,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Prev: Build Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.16 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Removed: Removed<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<4>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.16.1 New Features
.....................

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 57e. function to get type’s short
     name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(1).)

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 57f. function to get type’s
     qualified name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(2).)

   * Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 580. and *note
     PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 581. functions to the limited C API
     to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43760(3).)

   * Added the *note Py_Version: 582. constant which bears the same
     value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 583.  (Contributed by Gabriele N.
     Tornetta in bpo-43931(4).)

   * *note Py_buffer: 584. and APIs are now part of the limited API and
     the stable ABI:

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 585.

        * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586.

        * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 587.

        * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 588.

        * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 589.

        * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 58a.

        * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 58b.

        * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 58c.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 58d.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 58e.

        * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f.

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 590.

        * *note bf_getbuffer: 591. and *note bf_releasebuffer: 592. type
          slots

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45459(5).)

   * Added the *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 593. function, used to get
     the module in which a method was defined, in cases where this
     information is not available directly (via *note PyCMethod: 594.).
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-46613(6).)

   * Add new functions to pack and unpack C double (serialize and
     deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 595, *note PyFloat_Pack4():
     596, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 597, *note PyFloat_Unpack2(): 598,
     *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 599. and *note PyFloat_Unpack8(): 59a.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46906(7).)

   * Add new functions to get frame object attributes: *note
     PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 59b, *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 59c,
     *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 59d, *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 59e.

   * Added two new functions to get and set the active exception
     instance: *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 59f. and *note
     PyErr_SetHandledException(): 5a0.  These are alternatives to *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 5a1. and *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 5a2. which
     work with the legacy 3-tuple representation of exceptions.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-46343(8).)

   * Added the *note PyConfig.safe_path: 5a3. member.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Next: Deprecated<4>,  Prev: New Features<4>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.16.2 Porting to Python 3.11
...............................

   * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions to avoid
     macro pitfalls(1).  The change should be mostly transparent to
     users, as the replacement functions will cast their arguments to
     the expected types to avoid compiler warnings due to static type
     checks.  However, when the limited C API is set to >=3.11, these
     casts are not done, and callers will need to cast arguments to
     their expected types.  See PEP 670(2) for more details.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-89653(3).)

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 5a1. no longer uses the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments, the interpreter now derives those values
     from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function
     still steals references of all three arguments.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 5a2. now derives the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields of the result from the exception instance (the
     ‘value’ field).  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(5).)

   * *note _frozen: 5a5. has a new ‘is_package’ field to indicate
     whether or not the frozen module is a package.  Previously, a
     negative value in the ‘size’ field was the indicator.  Now only
     non-negative values be used for ‘size’.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in bpo-46608(6).)

   * *note _PyFrameEvalFunction(): 5a6. now takes ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’
     as its second parameter, instead of ‘PyFrameObject*’.  See PEP
     523(7) for more details of how to use this function pointer type.

   * ‘PyCode_New()’ and ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ now take an
     additional ‘exception_table’ argument.  Using these functions
     should be avoided, if at all possible.  To get a custom code
     object: create a code object using the compiler, then get a
     modified version with the ‘replace’ method.

   * *note PyCodeObject: 5a7. no longer has the ‘co_code’,
     ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’ fields.  Instead,
     use *note PyCode_GetCode(): 5a8, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 5a9,
     *note PyCode_GetCellvars(): 5aa. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars():
     5ab. respectively to access them via the C API. (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in bpo-46841(8) and Ken Jin in gh-92154(9) and
     gh-94936(10).)

   * The old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’) are now
     deprecated.  They should be replaced by the new macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

     A tp_dealloc function that has the old macros, such as:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     should migrate to the new macros as follows:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be
     the deallocation function it is in.

     To support older Python versions in the same codebase, you can
     define the following macros and use them throughout the code
     (credit: these were copied from the ‘mypy’ codebase):

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_END
          #else
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(op)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END(op)
          #endif

   * The *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. function now raises an error if a
     type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag set
     but has no traverse function (*note PyTypeObject.tp_traverse:
     5ae.).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44263(11).)

   * Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8. flag can
     now inherit the PEP 590(12) vectorcall protocol.  Previously, this
     was only possible for *note static types: 5af.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(13))

   * Since *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_TYPE(obj) = new_type’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_TYPE(obj,
     new_type)’: see the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 5b1. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_TYPE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *ob, PyTypeObject *type)
          { ob->ob_type = type; }
          #define Py_SET_TYPE(ob, type) _Py_SET_TYPE((PyObject*)(ob), type)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(14).)

   * Since *note Py_SIZE(): 5b2. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = new_size’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_SIZE(obj,
     new_size)’: see the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 5b3. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_SIZE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *ob, Py_ssize_t size)
          { ob->ob_size = size; }
          #define Py_SET_SIZE(ob, size) _Py_SET_SIZE((PyVarObject*)(ob), size)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(15).)

   * ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files ‘<stdlib.h>’,
     ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or higher.  C extensions
     should explicitly include the header files after ‘#include
     <Python.h>’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(16).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’, ‘classobject.h’,
     ‘code.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 5b4.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(17).)

   * The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been excluded from the
     limited C API. It was never usable there, because it used internal
     structures which are not available in the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46007(18).)

   * The following frame functions and type are now directly available
     with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it’s no longer needed to add ‘#include
     <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 5b5.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 5b6.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 59b.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 59c.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 59d.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 59e.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 5b7.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 5b8.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-93937(19).)

   * The *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. structure members have been removed
     from the public C API.

     While the documentation notes that the *note PyFrameObject: 5ba.
     fields are subject to change at any time, they have been stable for
     a long time and were used in several popular extensions.

     In Python 3.11, the frame struct was reorganized to allow
     performance optimizations.  Some fields were removed entirely, as
     they were details of the old implementation.

     *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. fields:

        * ‘f_back’: use *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 5b6.

        * ‘f_blockstack’: removed.

        * ‘f_builtins’: use *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 59b.

        * ‘f_code’: use *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5bb.

        * ‘f_gen’: use *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 59c.

        * ‘f_globals’: use *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 59d.

        * ‘f_iblock’: removed.

        * ‘f_lasti’: use *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 59e.  Code using
          ‘f_lasti’ with ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ should use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5bc. instead; it may be faster.

        * ‘f_lineno’: use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5bc.

        * ‘f_locals’: use *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 5b7.

        * ‘f_stackdepth’: removed.

        * ‘f_state’: no public API (renamed to ‘f_frame.f_state’).

        * ‘f_trace’: no public API.

        * ‘f_trace_lines’: use ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame,
          "f_trace_lines")’.

        * ‘f_trace_opcodes’: use
          ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_opcodes")’.

        * ‘f_localsplus’: no public API (renamed to
          ‘f_frame.localsplus’).

        * ‘f_valuestack’: removed.

     The Python frame object is now created lazily.  A side effect is
     that the *note f_back: 5bd. member must not be accessed directly,
     since its value is now also computed lazily.  The *note
     PyFrame_GetBack(): 5b6. function must be called instead.

     Debuggers that accessed the *note f_locals: 5be. directly 'must'
     call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 5b7. instead.  They no longer need
     to call ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ or
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’, in fact they should not call those
     functions.  The necessary updating of the frame is now managed by
     the virtual machine.

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetCode()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyCodeObject* PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_INCREF(frame->f_code);
              return frame->f_code;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetBack()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(frame->f_back);
              return frame->f_back;
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi_compat project(20) to get these two functions
     on older Python versions.

   * Changes of the *note PyThreadState: 5bf. structure members:

        * ‘frame’: removed, use *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5c0.
          (function added to Python 3.9 by bpo-40429(21)).  Warning: the
          function returns a *note strong reference: 5c1, need to call
          *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2.

        * ‘tracing’: changed, use *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing():
          580. and *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 581. (functions
          added to Python 3.11 by bpo-43760(22)).

        * ‘recursion_depth’: removed, use ‘(tstate->recursion_limit -
          tstate->recursion_remaining)’ instead.

        * ‘stackcheck_counter’: removed.

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_GetFrame()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame);
              return tstate->frame;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_EnterTracing()’ and
     ‘PyThreadState_LeaveTracing()’ on Python 3.10 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030B00A2
          static inline void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              tstate->tracing++;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = 0;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = 0;
          #endif
          }

          static inline void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              int use_tracing = (tstate->c_tracefunc != NULL || tstate->c_profilefunc != NULL);
              tstate->tracing--;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #endif
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi-compat project(23) to get these functions on
     old Python functions.

   * Distributors are encouraged to build Python with the optimized
     Blake2 library libb2(24).

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3fb. field must now be
     set to 1 for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3fc. to initialize *note sys.path:
     368.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. no longer calculates the initial search
     path, and will not fill any values into *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3fc.  To calculate default paths and
     then modify them, finish initialization and use *note
     PySys_GetObject(): 5c4. to retrieve *note sys.path: 368. as a
     Python list object and modify it directly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Macro-Pitfalls.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89653

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (20) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (24) https://www.blake2.net/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.16.3 Deprecated
...................

   * Deprecate the following functions to configure the Python
     initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 34f. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6. instead ( PEP 587(1)).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88279(2).)

   * Deprecate the ‘ob_shash’ member of the *note PyBytesObject: 5c7.
     Use *note PyObject_Hash(): 37d. instead.  (Contributed by Inada
     Naoki in bpo-46864(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Removed<4>,  Prev: Deprecated<4>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.16.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
.......................................

The following C APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases,
and will be removed in Python 3.12.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_READY()’

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 37c.

   * ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH()’

   * ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

   * *note PyUnicodeObject: 5c9.

   * ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.2.16.5 Removed
................

   * ‘PyFrame_BlockSetup()’ and ‘PyFrame_BlockPop()’ have been removed.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(1).)

   * Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’ variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(2).)

   * Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’ macros,
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or
     ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41123(3).)

   * Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only contains private
     functions.  C extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’
     header file.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(4).)

   * Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by the
     ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-45440(5).)

   * The following items are no longer available when *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 5cb. is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 5cc.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 5cd.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 5ce.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 5cf.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 5d0.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45474(6).)

   * Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 361. from the limited C API.
     It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’ structure is opaque in
     the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(7).)

   * Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was exposed in the
     public C API by mistake, it must only be used by Python internally.
     Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40170(8).)

   * Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved to the
     internal C API). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(9).)

   * Remove the *note Py_UNICODE: 362. encoder APIs, as they have been
     deprecated since Python 3.3, are little used and are inefficient
     relative to the recommended alternatives.

     The removed functions are:

        * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

     See PEP 624(10) for details and migration guidance(11).
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-44029(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/#alternative-apis

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: C API Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.17 Notable changes in 3.11.4
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<2>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 4

1.2.17.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 18b. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.2.18 Notable changes in 3.11.5
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 5

1.2.18.1 OpenSSL
................

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Next: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.3 What’s New In Python 3.10
=============================


Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.10, compared to 3.9.
Python 3.10 was released on October 4, 2021.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>.
* New Modules: New Modules<3>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<5>.
* Removed: Removed<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<3>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<3>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<3>,  Next: New Features<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * PEP 634(1), Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 635(2), Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale

   * PEP 636(3), Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

   * bpo-12782(4), Parenthesized context managers are now officially
     allowed.

New features in the standard library:

   * PEP 618(5), Add Optional Length-Checking To zip.

Interpreter improvements:

   * PEP 626(6), Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

New typing features:

   * PEP 604(7), Allow writing union types as X | Y

   * PEP 612(8), Parameter Specification Variables

   * PEP 613(9), Explicit Type Aliases

   * PEP 647(10), User-Defined Type Guards

Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:

   * PEP 644(11), Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer

   * PEP 632(12), Deprecate distutils module.

   * PEP 623(13), Deprecate and prepare for the removal of the wstr
     member in PyUnicodeObject.

   * PEP 624(14), Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs

   * PEP 597(15), Add optional EncodingWarning

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<5>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* Parenthesized context managers::
* Better error messages::
* PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.
* PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching.
* Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option::


File: python.info,  Node: Parenthesized context managers,  Next: Better error messages,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.1 Parenthesized context managers
......................................

Using enclosing parentheses for continuation across multiple lines in
context managers is now supported.  This allows formatting a long
collection of context managers in multiple lines in a similar way as it
was previously possible with import statements.  For instance, all these
examples are now valid:

     with (CtxManager() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1(),
         CtxManager2()
     ):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1() as example,
           CtxManager2()):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1(),
           CtxManager2() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2
     ):
         ...

it is also possible to use a trailing comma at the end of the enclosed
group:

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2,
         CtxManager3() as example3,
     ):
         ...

This new syntax uses the non LL(1) capacities of the new parser.  Check
PEP 617(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou
in bpo-12782(2) and bpo-40334(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: Better error messages,  Next: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Prev: Parenthesized context managers,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.2 Better error messages
.............................

* Menu:

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::


File: python.info,  Node: SyntaxErrors,  Next: IndentationErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.3.2.3 SyntaxErrors
....................

When parsing code that contains unclosed parentheses or brackets the
interpreter now includes the location of the unclosed bracket of
parentheses instead of displaying 'SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while
parsing' or pointing to some incorrect location.  For instance, consider
the following code (notice the unclosed ‘{‘):

     expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                 38: 4, 39: 4, 45: 5, 46: 5, 47: 5, 48: 5, 49: 5, 54: 6,
     some_other_code = foo()

Previous versions of the interpreter reported confusing places as the
location of the syntax error:

     File "example.py", line 3
         some_other_code = foo()
                         ^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

but in Python 3.10 a more informative error is emitted:

     File "example.py", line 1
         expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                    ^
     SyntaxError: '{' was never closed

In a similar way, errors involving unclosed string literals (single and
triple quoted) now point to the start of the string instead of reporting
EOF/EOL.

These improvements are inspired by previous work in the PyPy
interpreter.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42864(1) and Batuhan Taskaya in
bpo-40176(2).)

*note SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions raised by the interpreter will now
highlight the full error range of the expression that constitutes the
syntax error itself, instead of just where the problem is detected.  In
this way, instead of displaying (before Python 3.10):

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

now Python 3.10 will display the exception as:

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

This improvement was contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(3).

A considerable amount of new specialized messages for *note SyntaxError:
14c. exceptions have been incorporated.  Some of the most notable ones
are as follows:

   * Missing ‘:’ before blocks:

          >>> if rocket.position > event_horizon
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position > event_horizon
                                                ^
          SyntaxError: expected ':'

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42997(4).)

   * Unparenthesised tuples in comprehensions targets:

          >>> {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
               ^
          SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43017(5).)

   * Missing commas in collection literals and between expressions:

          >>> items = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2
          ... z: 3,
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              y: 2
                 ^
          SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43822(6).)

   * Multiple Exception types without parentheses:

          >>> try:
          ...     build_dyson_sphere()
          ... except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
                     ^
          SyntaxError: multiple exception types must be parenthesized

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43149(7).)

   * Missing ‘:’ and values in dictionary literals:

          >>> values = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2,
          ... z:
          ... }
            File "<stdin>", line 4
              z:
               ^
          SyntaxError: expression expected after dictionary key and ':'

          >>> values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
                                  ^
          SyntaxError: ':' expected after dictionary key

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43823(8).)

   * ‘try’ blocks without ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks:

          >>> try:
          ...     x = 2
          ... something = 3
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              something  = 3
              ^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: expected 'except' or 'finally' block

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-44305(9).)

   * Usage of ‘=’ instead of ‘==’ in comparisons:

          >>> if rocket.position = event_horizon:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position = event_horizon:
                                 ^
          SyntaxError: cannot assign to attribute here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43797(10).)

   * Usage of ‘*’ in f-strings:

          >>> f"Black holes {*all_black_holes} and revelations"
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              (*all_black_holes)
               ^
          SyntaxError: f-string: cannot use starred expression here

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41064(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064


File: python.info,  Node: IndentationErrors,  Next: AttributeErrors,  Prev: SyntaxErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.3.2.4 IndentationErrors
.........................

Many *note IndentationError: 5de. exceptions now have more context
regarding what kind of block was expecting an indentation, including the
location of the statement:

     >>> def foo():
     ...    if lel:
     ...    x = 2
       File "<stdin>", line 3
         x = 2
         ^
     IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement in line 2


File: python.info,  Node: AttributeErrors,  Next: NameErrors,  Prev: IndentationErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.3.2.5 AttributeErrors
.......................

When printing *note AttributeError: 3dc, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer
suggestions of similar attribute names in the object that the exception
was raised from:

     >>> collections.namedtoplo
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'collections' has no attribute 'namedtoplo'. Did you mean: namedtuple?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).)

     Uyarı: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not called to
     display the error which can happen if some other custom error
     display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some REPLs
     like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: NameErrors,  Prev: AttributeErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.3.2.6 NameErrors
..................

When printing *note NameError: 14a. raised by the interpreter,
‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar variable names in
the function that the exception was raised from:

     >>> schwarzschild_black_hole = None
     >>> schwarschild_black_hole
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'schwarschild_black_hole' is not defined. Did you mean: schwarzschild_black_hole?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).)

     Uyarı: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not called to
     display the error, which can happen if some other custom error
     display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some REPLs
     like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Next: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Prev: Better error messages,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.7 PEP 626: Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools
...................................................................

PEP 626 brings more precise and reliable line numbers for debugging,
profiling and coverage tools.  Tracing events, with the correct line
number, are generated for all lines of code executed and only for lines
of code that are executed.

The *note f_lineno: 5e2. attribute of frame objects will always contain
the expected line number.

The *note co_lnotab: 250. attribute of *note code objects: 5e3. is
deprecated and will be removed in 3.12.  Code that needs to convert from
offset to line number should use the new *note co_lines(): 274. method
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Next: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option,  Prev: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.8 PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching
............................................

Structural pattern matching has been added in the form of a 'match
statement' and 'case statements' of patterns with associated actions.
Patterns consist of sequences, mappings, primitive data types as well as
class instances.  Pattern matching enables programs to extract
information from complex data types, branch on the structure of data,
and apply specific actions based on different forms of data.

* Menu:

* Syntax and operations::
* Declarative approach::
* Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal.
* Patterns with a literal and variable::
* Patterns and classes::
* Nested patterns::
* Complex patterns and the wildcard::
* Guard::
* Other Key Features::


File: python.info,  Node: Syntax and operations,  Next: Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.9 Syntax and operations
.............................

The generic syntax of pattern matching is:

     match subject:
         case <pattern_1>:
             <action_1>
         case <pattern_2>:
             <action_2>
         case <pattern_3>:
             <action_3>
         case _:
             <action_wildcard>

A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to
successive patterns given as one or more case blocks.  Specifically,
pattern matching operates by:

  1. using data with type and shape (the ‘subject’)

  2. evaluating the ‘subject’ in the ‘match’ statement

  3. comparing the subject with each pattern in a ‘case’ statement from
     top to bottom until a match is confirmed.

  4. executing the action associated with the pattern of the confirmed
     match

  5. If an exact match is not confirmed, the last case, a wildcard ‘_’,
     if provided, will be used as the matching case.  If an exact match
     is not confirmed and a wildcard case does not exist, the entire
     match block is a no-op.


File: python.info,  Node: Declarative approach,  Next: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Prev: Syntax and operations,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.10 Declarative approach
.............................

Readers may be aware of pattern matching through the simple example of
matching a subject (data object) to a literal (pattern) with the switch
statement found in C, Java or JavaScript (and many other languages).
Often the switch statement is used for comparison of an
object/expression with case statements containing literals.

More powerful examples of pattern matching can be found in languages
such as Scala and Elixir.  With structural pattern matching, the
approach is “declarative” and explicitly states the conditions (the
patterns) for data to match.

While an “imperative” series of instructions using nested “if”
statements could be used to accomplish something similar to structural
pattern matching, it is less clear than the “declarative” approach.
Instead the “declarative” approach states the conditions to meet for a
match and is more readable through its explicit patterns.  While
structural pattern matching can be used in its simplest form comparing a
variable to a literal in a case statement, its true value for Python
lies in its handling of the subject’s type and shape.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Next: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Prev: Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.11 Simple pattern: match to a literal
...........................................

Let’s look at this example as pattern matching in its simplest form: a
value, the subject, being matched to several literals, the patterns.  In
the example below, ‘status’ is the subject of the match statement.  The
patterns are each of the case statements, where literals represent
request status codes.  The associated action to the case is executed
after a match:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 418, “I’m a teapot” is
returned.  If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 500, the case
statement with ‘_’ will match as a wildcard, and “Something’s wrong with
the internet” is returned.  Note the last block: the variable name, ‘_’,
acts as a 'wildcard' and insures the subject will always match.  The use
of ‘_’ is optional.

You can combine several literals in a single pattern using ‘|’ (“or”):

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

* Menu:

* Behavior without the wildcard::


File: python.info,  Node: Behavior without the wildcard,  Up: Simple pattern match to a literal

1.3.2.12 Behavior without the wildcard
......................................

If we modify the above example by removing the last case block, the
example becomes:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"

Without the use of ‘_’ in a case statement, a match may not exist.  If
no match exists, the behavior is a no-op.  For example, if ‘status’ of
500 is passed, a no-op occurs.


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Next: Patterns and classes,  Prev: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.13 Patterns with a literal and variable
.............................................

Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and a pattern may be used
to bind variables.  In this example, a data point can be unpacked to its
x-coordinate and y-coordinate:

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

The first pattern has two literals, ‘(0, 0)’, and may be thought of as
an extension of the literal pattern shown above.  The next two patterns
combine a literal and a variable, and the variable 'binds' a value from
the subject (‘point’).  The fourth pattern captures two values, which
makes it conceptually similar to the unpacking assignment ‘(x, y) =
point’.


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns and classes,  Next: Nested patterns,  Prev: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.14 Patterns and classes
.............................

If you are using classes to structure your data, you can use as a
pattern the class name followed by an argument list resembling a
constructor.  This pattern has the ability to capture class attributes
into variables:

     class Point:
         x: int
         y: int

     def location(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin is the point's location.")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y} and the point is on the y-axis.")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x} and the point is on the x-axis.")
             case Point():
                 print("The point is located somewhere else on the plane.")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

* Menu:

* Patterns with positional parameters::


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns with positional parameters,  Up: Patterns and classes

1.3.2.15 Patterns with positional parameters
............................................

You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide
an ordering for their attributes (e.g.  dataclasses).  You can also
define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the
‘__match_args__’ special attribute in your classes.  If it’s set to
(“x”, “y”), the following patterns are all equivalent (and all bind the
‘y’ attribute to the ‘var’ variable):

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Nested patterns,  Next: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Prev: Patterns and classes,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.16 Nested patterns
........................

Patterns can be arbitrarily nested.  For example, if our data is a short
list of points, it could be matched like this:

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points in the list.")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin is the only point in the list.")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"A single point {x}, {y} is in the list.")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two points on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2} are in the list.")
         case _:
             print("Something else is found in the list.")


File: python.info,  Node: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Next: Guard,  Prev: Nested patterns,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.17 Complex patterns and the wildcard
..........................................

To this point, the examples have used ‘_’ alone in the last case
statement.  A wildcard can be used in more complex patterns, such as
‘('error', code, _)’.  For example:

     match test_variable:
         case ('warning', code, 40):
             print("A warning has been received.")
         case ('error', code, _):
             print(f"An error {code} occurred.")

In the above case, ‘test_variable’ will match for (‘error’, code, 100)
and (‘error’, code, 800).


File: python.info,  Node: Guard,  Next: Other Key Features,  Prev: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.18 Guard
..............

We can add an ‘if’ clause to a pattern, known as a “guard”.  If the
guard is false, ‘match’ goes on to try the next case block.  Note that
value capture happens before the guard is evaluated:

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"The point is located on the diagonal Y=X at {x}.")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Point is not on the diagonal.")


File: python.info,  Node: Other Key Features,  Prev: Guard,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.3.2.19 Other Key Features
...........................

Several other key features:

   - Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly
     the same meaning and actually match arbitrary sequences.
     Technically, the subject must be a sequence.  Therefore, an
     important exception is that patterns don’t match iterators.  Also,
     to prevent a common mistake, sequence patterns don’t match strings.

   - Sequence patterns support wildcards: ‘[x, y, *rest]’ and ‘(x, y,
     *rest)’ work similar to wildcards in unpacking assignments.  The
     name after ‘*’ may also be ‘_’, so ‘(x, y, *_)’ matches a sequence
     of at least two items without binding the remaining items.

   - Mapping patterns: ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ captures the
     ‘"bandwidth"’ and ‘"latency"’ values from a dict.  Unlike sequence
     patterns, extra keys are ignored.  A wildcard ‘**rest’ is also
     supported.  (But ‘**_’ would be redundant, so is not allowed.)

   - Subpatterns may be captured using the ‘as’ keyword:

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     This binds x1, y1, x2, y2 like you would expect without the ‘as’
     clause, and p2 to the entire second item of the subject.

   - Most literals are compared by equality.  However, the singletons
     ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are compared by identity.

   - Named constants may be used in patterns.  These named constants
     must be dotted names to prevent the constant from being interpreted
     as a capture variable:

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 0
              GREEN = 1
              BLUE = 2

          color = Color.GREEN
          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

For the full specification see PEP 634(1).  Motivation and rationale are
in PEP 635(2), and a longer tutorial is in PEP 636(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option,  Prev: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Up: New Features<5>

1.3.2.20 Optional ‘EncodingWarning’ and ‘encoding="locale"’ option
..................................................................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. and *note open(): 2a6.
is platform and locale dependent.  Since UTF-8 is used on most Unix
platforms, omitting ‘encoding’ option when opening UTF-8 files (e.g.
JSON, YAML, TOML, Markdown) is a very common bug.  For example:

     # BUG: "rb" mode or encoding="utf-8" should be used.
     with open("data.json") as f:
         data = json.load(f)

To find this type of bug, an optional ‘EncodingWarning’ is added.  It is
emitted when *note sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 4a1. is true and
locale-specific default encoding is used.

‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option and *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:
5f3. are added to enable the warning.

See *note Text Encoding: 5f4. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Next: Other Language Changes<3>,  Prev: New Features<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and
the *note typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
* PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
* PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator,  Next: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.3.3.1 PEP 604: New Type Union Operator
........................................

A new type union operator was introduced which enables the syntax ‘X |
Y’.  This provides a cleaner way of expressing ‘either type X or type Y’
instead of using *note typing.Union: 44e, especially in type hints.

In previous versions of Python, to apply a type hint for functions
accepting arguments of multiple types, *note typing.Union: 44e. was
used:

     def square(number: Union[int, float]) -> Union[int, float]:
         return number ** 2

Type hints can now be written in a more succinct manner:

     def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
         return number ** 2

This new syntax is also accepted as the second argument to *note
isinstance(): 151. and *note issubclass(): 5f8.:

     >>> isinstance(1, int | str)
     True

See *note Sendika Türü: 5f9. and PEP 604(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Maggie Moss and Philippe Prados in bpo-41428(2), with
additions by Yurii Karabas and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44490(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Next: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Prev: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.3.3.2 PEP 612: Parameter Specification Variables
..................................................

Two new options to improve the information provided to static type
checkers for PEP 484(1)‘s ‘Callable’ have been added to the *note
typing: 104. module.

The first is the parameter specification variable.  They are used to
forward the parameter types of one callable to another callable – a
pattern commonly found in higher order functions and decorators.
Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.ParamSpec: 169.
Previously, there was no easy way to type annotate dependency of
parameter types in such a precise manner.

The second option is the new ‘Concatenate’ operator.  It’s used in
conjunction with parameter specification variables to type annotate a
higher order callable which adds or removes parameters of another
callable.  Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.Concatenate:
5fb.

See *note typing.Callable: 5fc, *note typing.ParamSpec: 169, *note
typing.Concatenate: 5fb, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5fd, *note
typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 5fe, and PEP 612(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-41559(3), with minor enhancements by
Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-43783(4).  PEP written by Mark Mendoza.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43783


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Next: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards,  Prev: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.3.3.3 PEP 613: TypeAlias
..........................

PEP 484(1) introduced the concept of type aliases, only requiring them
to be top-level unannotated assignments.  This simplicity sometimes made
it difficult for type checkers to distinguish between type aliases and
ordinary assignments, especially when forward references or invalid
types were involved.  Compare:

     StrCache = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

Now the *note typing: 104. module has a special value *note TypeAlias:
600. which lets you declare type aliases more explicitly:

     StrCache: TypeAlias = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

See PEP 613(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Mikhail Golubev in bpo-41923(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards,  Prev: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.3.3.4 PEP 647: User-Defined Type Guards
.........................................

*note TypeGuard: 602. has been added to the *note typing: 104. module to
annotate type guard functions and improve information provided to static
type checkers during type narrowing.  For more information, please see
*note TypeGuard: 602.‘s documentation, and PEP 647(1).

(Contributed by Ken Jin and Guido van Rossum in bpo-43766(2).  PEP
written by Eric Traut.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<3>,  Next: New Modules<3>,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The *note int: 184. type has a new method *note int.bit_count():
     604, returning the number of ones in the binary expansion of a
     given integer, also known as the population count.  (Contributed by
     Niklas Fiekas in bpo-29882(1).)

   * The views returned by *note dict.keys(): 605, *note dict.values():
     606. and *note dict.items(): 607. now all have a ‘mapping’
     attribute that gives a *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. object
     wrapping the original dictionary.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney
     in bpo-40890(2).)

   * PEP 618(3): The *note zip(): 608. function now has an optional
     ‘strict’ flag, used to require that all the iterables have an equal
     length.

   * Builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments no
     longer accept *note Decimal: 609.s, *note Fraction: 1ae.s and other
     objects that can be converted to integers only with a loss (e.g.
     that have the *note __int__(): 537. method but do not have the
     *note __index__(): 538. method).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-37999(4).)

   * If *note object.__ipow__(): 60a. returns *note NotImplemented: 60b,
     the operator will correctly fall back to *note object.__pow__():
     60c. and *note object.__rpow__(): 60d. as expected.  (Contributed
     by Alex Shkop in bpo-38302(5).)

   * Assignment expressions can now be used unparenthesized within set
     literals and set comprehensions, as well as in sequence indexes
     (but not slices).

   * Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which is used to look
     for builtin symbols when a function is executed, instead of looking
     into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  The attribute is initialized
     from ‘__globals__["__builtins__"]’ if it exists, else from the
     current builtins.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-42990(6).)

   * Two new builtin functions – *note aiter(): 60e. and *note anext():
     60f. have been added to provide asynchronous counterparts to *note
     iter(): 610. and *note next(): 611, respectively.  (Contributed by
     Joshua Bronson, Daniel Pope, and Justin Wang in bpo-31861(7).)

   * Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 612.) and class methods (*note
     @classmethod: 252.) now inherit the method attributes
     (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.
     Moreover, static methods are now callable as regular functions.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43682(8).)

   * Annotations for complex targets (everything beside ‘simple name’
     targets defined by PEP 526(9)) no longer cause any runtime effects
     with ‘from __future__ import annotations’.  (Contributed by Batuhan
     Taskaya in bpo-42737(10).)

   * Class and module objects now lazy-create empty annotations dicts on
     demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in the object’s
     ‘__dict__’ for backwards compatibility.  This improves the best
     practices for working with ‘__annotations__’; for more information,
     please see *note Annotations Best Practices: 613.  (Contributed by
     Larry Hastings in bpo-43901(11).)

   * Annotations consist of ‘yield’, ‘yield from’, ‘await’ or named
     expressions are now forbidden under ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ due to their side effects.  (Contributed by Batuhan
     Taskaya in bpo-42725(12).)

   * Usage of unbound variables, ‘super()’ and other expressions that
     might alter the processing of symbol table as annotations are now
     rendered effectless under ‘from __future__ import annotations’.
     (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-42725(13).)

   * Hashes of NaN values of both *note float: 272. type and *note
     decimal.Decimal: 609. type now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to ‘0’ even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  This caused potentially quadratic runtime
     behavior due to excessive hash collisions when creating
     dictionaries and sets containing multiple NaNs.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in bpo-43475(14).)

   * A *note SyntaxError: 14c. (instead of a *note NameError: 14a.) will
     be raised when deleting the *note __debug__: 614. constant.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-45000(15).)

   * *note SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions now have ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes.  They will be ‘None’ if not determined.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<3>,  Next: Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.5 New Modules
-----------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<3>,  Next: Optimizations<3>,  Prev: New Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.6 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* argparse::
* array: array<2>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64::
* bdb::
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* curses::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest::
* encodings::
* enum: enum<3>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler::
* gc::
* glob::
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* hmac::
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* linecache::
* os: os<3>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pprint::
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve::
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* site::
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* sys: sys<4>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<3>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* xml::
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<3>,  Next: argparse,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.1 asyncio
...............

Add missing ‘connect_accepted_socket()’ method.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-41332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332


File: python.info,  Node: argparse,  Next: array<2>,  Prev: asyncio<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.2 argparse
................

Misleading phrase “optional arguments” was replaced with “options” in
argparse help.  Some tests might require adaptation if they rely on
exact output match.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9694(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694


File: python.info,  Node: array<2>,  Next: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Prev: argparse,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.3 array
.............

The *note index(): 61a. method of *note array.array: 195. now has
optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.  (Contributed by Anders
Lorentsen and Zackery Spytz in bpo-31956(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Next: base64,  Prev: array<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.4 asynchat, asyncore, smtpd
.................................

These modules have been marked as deprecated in their module
documentation since Python 3.6.  An import-time *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f. has now been added to all three of these
modules.


File: python.info,  Node: base64,  Next: bdb,  Prev: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.5 base64
..............

Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 61d. and *note base64.b32hexdecode():
61e. to support the Base32 Encoding with Extended Hex Alphabet.


File: python.info,  Node: bdb,  Next: bisect,  Prev: base64,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.6 bdb
...........

Add ‘clearBreakpoints()’ to reset all set breakpoints.  (Contributed by
Irit Katriel in bpo-24160(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160


File: python.info,  Node: bisect,  Next: codecs,  Prev: bdb,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.7 bisect
..............

Added the possibility of providing a 'key' function to the APIs in the
*note bisect: 11. module.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-4356(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356


File: python.info,  Node: codecs,  Next: collections abc,  Prev: bisect,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.8 codecs
..............

Add a *note codecs.unregister(): 622. function to unregister a codec
search function.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc,  Next: contextlib<2>,  Prev: codecs,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.9 collections.abc
.......................

The ‘__args__’ of the *note parameterized generic: 4c9. for *note
collections.abc.Callable: 624. are now consistent with *note
typing.Callable: 5fc.  *note collections.abc.Callable: 624. generic now
flattens type parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 5fc.
currently does.  This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str],
str]’ will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was
‘([int, str], str)’.  To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias:
625. can now be subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when
subscripting the *note collections.abc.Callable: 624. type.  Note that a
*note TypeError: 2c4. may be raised for invalid forms of parameterizing
*note collections.abc.Callable: 624. which may have passed silently in
Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<2>,  Next: curses,  Prev: collections abc,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.10 contextlib
...................

Add a *note contextlib.aclosing(): 627. context manager to safely close
async generators and objects representing asynchronously released
resources.  (Contributed by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte in
bpo-41229(1).)

Add asynchronous context manager support to *note
contextlib.nullcontext(): 628.  (Contributed by Tom Gringauz in
bpo-41543(2).)

Add *note AsyncContextDecorator: 629, for supporting usage of async
context managers as decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543


File: python.info,  Node: curses,  Next: dataclasses<2>,  Prev: contextlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.11 curses
...............

The extended color functions added in ncurses 6.1 will be used
transparently by *note curses.color_content(): 62b, *note
curses.init_color(): 62c, *note curses.init_pair(): 62d, and *note
curses.pair_content(): 62e.  A new function, *note
curses.has_extended_color_support(): 62f, indicates whether extended
color support is provided by the underlying ncurses library.
(Contributed by Jeffrey Kintscher and Hans Petter Jansson in
bpo-36982(1).)

The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the *note curses: 2b.
module if they are provided by the underlying curses library.
(Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-39273(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<2>,  Next: distutils<2>,  Prev: curses,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.12 dataclasses
....................

* Menu:

* __slots__::
* Keyword-only fields::


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__,  Next: Keyword-only fields,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.3.6.13 __slots__
..................

Added ‘slots’ parameter in *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 3d4.
decorator.  (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42269(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269


File: python.info,  Node: Keyword-only fields,  Prev: __slots__,  Up: dataclasses<2>

1.3.6.14 Keyword-only fields
............................

dataclasses now supports fields that are keyword-only in the generated
__init__ method.  There are a number of ways of specifying keyword-only
fields.

You can say that every field is keyword-only:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass(kw_only=True)
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date

Both ‘name’ and ‘birthday’ are keyword-only parameters to the generated
__init__ method.

You can specify keyword-only on a per-field basis:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field

     @dataclass
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date = field(kw_only=True)

Here only ‘birthday’ is keyword-only.  If you set ‘kw_only’ on
individual fields, be aware that there are rules about re-ordering
fields due to keyword-only fields needing to follow non-keyword-only
fields.  See the full dataclasses documentation for details.

You can also specify that all fields following a KW_ONLY marker are
keyword-only.  This will probably be the most common usage:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, KW_ONLY

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         _: KW_ONLY
         z: float = 0.0
         t: float = 0.0

Here, ‘z’ and ‘t’ are keyword-only parameters, while ‘x’ and ‘y’ are
not.  (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-43532(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<2>,  Next: doctest,  Prev: dataclasses<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.15 distutils
..................

The entire ‘distutils’ package is deprecated, to be removed in Python
3.12.  Its functionality for specifying package builds has already been
completely replaced by third-party packages ‘setuptools’ and
‘packaging’, and most other commonly used APIs are available elsewhere
in the standard library (such as *note platform: a9, *note shutil: c4,
*note subprocess: d5. or *note sysconfig: da.).  There are no plans to
migrate any other functionality from ‘distutils’, and applications that
are using other functions should plan to make private copies of the
code.  Refer to PEP 632(1) for discussion.

The ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in Python 3.8 has been removed.
The ‘bdist_wheel’ command is now recommended to distribute binary
packages on Windows.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42802(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802


File: python.info,  Node: doctest,  Next: encodings,  Prev: distutils<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.16 doctest
................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: encodings,  Next: enum<3>,  Prev: doctest,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.17 encodings
..................

‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’ now ignores non-ASCII characters.
(Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-39337(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337


File: python.info,  Node: enum<3>,  Next: fileinput,  Prev: encodings,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.18 enum
.............

*note Enum: 443. *note __repr__(): 42e. now returns
‘enum_name.member_name’ and *note __str__(): 42f. now returns
‘member_name’.  Stdlib enums available as module constants have a *note
repr(): 637. of ‘module_name.member_name’.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman
in bpo-40066(1).)

Add *note enum.StrEnum: 42c. for enums where all members are strings.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-41816(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput,  Next: faulthandler,  Prev: enum<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.19 fileinput
..................

Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters in *note fileinput.input(): 639.
and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
bpo-43712(1).)

*note fileinput.hook_compressed(): 63a. now returns *note TextIOWrapper:
5f2. object when 'mode' is “r” and file is compressed, like uncompressed
files.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-5758(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5758


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler,  Next: gc,  Prev: fileinput,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.20 faulthandler
.....................

The *note faulthandler: 56. module now detects if a fatal error occurs
during a garbage collector collection.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-44466(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466


File: python.info,  Node: gc,  Next: glob,  Prev: faulthandler,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.21 gc
...........

Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): 63d, *note
gc.get_referrers(): 63e. and *note gc.get_referents(): 63f.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43439(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: glob,  Next: hashlib<3>,  Prev: gc,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.22 glob
.............

Add the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in *note glob(): 641. and
*note iglob(): 642. which allow to specify the root directory for
searching.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38144(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<3>,  Next: hmac,  Prev: glob,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.23 hashlib
................

The hashlib module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).)

The hashlib module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-38820(3) and other issues.)

The pure-Python fallback of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 299. is deprecated.  In
the future PBKDF2-HMAC will only be available when Python has been built
with OpenSSL support.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-43880(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880


File: python.info,  Node: hmac,  Next: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Prev: hashlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.24 hmac
.............

The hmac module now uses OpenSSL’s HMAC implementation internally.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-40645(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Next: importlib metadata,  Prev: hmac,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.25 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 646. (when started without
‘-n’).  User hooks were previously ignored.  (Contributed by Ken Hilton
in bpo-43008(1).)

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(2).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(3).)

The changes above were backported to a 3.9 maintenance release.

Add a Shell sidebar.  Move the primary prompt (‘>>>’) to the sidebar.
Add secondary prompts (’…’) to the sidebar.  Left click and optional
drag selects one or more lines of text, as with the editor line number
sidebar.  Right click after selecting text lines displays a context menu
with ‘copy with prompts’.  This zips together prompts from the sidebar
with lines from the selected text.  This option also appears on the
context menu for the text.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-37903(4).)

Use spaces instead of tabs to indent interactive code.  This makes
interactive code entries ‘look right’.  Making this feasible was a major
motivation for adding the shell sidebar.  (Contributed by Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-37892(5).)

Highlight the new *note soft keywords: 647. *note match: 648, *note
case: 648, and *note _: 649. in pattern-matching statements.  However,
this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare
cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.  (Contributed by Tal
Einat in bpo-44010(6).)

New in 3.10 maintenance releases.

Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood
and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).)

Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.  (Contributed
by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata,  Next: inspect<3>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.26 importlib.metadata
...........................

Feature parity with ‘importlib_metadata’ 4.6 (history(1)).

*note importlib.metadata entry points: 64b. now provide a nicer
experience for selecting entry points by group and name through a new
*note importlib.metadata.EntryPoints: 64b. class.  See the Compatibility
Note in the docs for more info on the deprecation and usage.

Added *note importlib.metadata.packages_distributions(): 64c. for
resolving top-level Python modules and packages to their *note
importlib.metadata.Distribution: 64d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<3>,  Next: itertools<2>,  Prev: importlib metadata,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.27 inspect
................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f, which safely computes the
annotations defined on an object.  It works around the quirks of
accessing the annotations on various types of objects, and makes very
few assumptions about the object it examines.  *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. can also correctly un-stringize
stringized annotations.  *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. is now
considered best practice for accessing the annotations dict defined on
any Python object; for more information on best practices for working
with annotations, please see *note Annotations Best Practices: 613.
Relatedly, *note inspect.signature(): 561, *note
inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 564, and
‘inspect.Signature.from_function()’ now call *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. to retrieve annotations.  This means
*note inspect.signature(): 561. and *note
inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 564. can also now un-stringize
stringized annotations.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in
bpo-43817(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<2>,  Next: linecache,  Prev: inspect<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.28 itertools
..................

Add *note itertools.pairwise(): 651.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
in bpo-38200(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200


File: python.info,  Node: linecache,  Next: os<3>,  Prev: itertools<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.29 linecache
..................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: os<3>,  Next: os path<3>,  Prev: linecache,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.30 os
...........

Add *note os.cpu_count(): 654. support for VxWorks RTOS. (Contributed by
Peixing Xin in bpo-41440(1).)

Add a new function *note os.eventfd(): 655. and related helpers to wrap
the ‘eventfd2’ syscall on Linux.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-41001(2).)

Add *note os.splice(): 656. that allows to move data between two file
descriptors without copying between kernel address space and user
address space, where one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41625(3).)

Add *note O_EVTONLY: 657, *note O_FSYNC: 658, *note O_SYMLINK: 659. and
*note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 65a. for macOS. (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-43106(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106


File: python.info,  Node: os path<3>,  Next: pathlib<3>,  Prev: os<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.31 os.path
................

*note os.path.realpath(): 398. now accepts a 'strict' keyword-only
argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError: 65c. is raised if a path
doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is encountered.  (Contributed by Barney
Gale in bpo-43757(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43757


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<3>,  Next: platform<2>,  Prev: os path<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.32 pathlib
................

Add slice support to *note PurePath.parents: 65e.  (Contributed by
Joshua Cannon in bpo-35498(1).)

Add negative indexing support to *note PurePath.parents: 65e.
(Contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych in bpo-21041(2).)

Add *note Path.hardlink_to: 65f. method that supersedes ‘link_to()’.
The new method has the same argument order as *note symlink_to(): 660.
(Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(3).)

*note pathlib.Path.stat(): 661. and *note chmod(): 662. now accept a
'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for consistency with
corresponding functions in the *note os: a0. module.  (Contributed by
Barney Gale in bpo-39906(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906


File: python.info,  Node: platform<2>,  Next: pprint,  Prev: pathlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.33 platform
.................

Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 664. to retrieve operation
system identification from freedesktop.org os-release(1) standard file.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28468(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468


File: python.info,  Node: pprint,  Next: py_compile,  Prev: platform<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.34 pprint
...............

*note pprint.pprint(): 666. now accepts a new ‘underscore_numbers’
keyword argument.  (Contributed by sblondon in bpo-42914(1).)

*note pprint: ad. can now pretty-print *note dataclasses.dataclass: 3d4.
instances.  (Contributed by Lewis Gaul in bpo-43080(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile,  Next: pyclbr,  Prev: pprint,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.35 py_compile
...................

Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of *note py_compile: b2.
(Contributed by Gregory Schevchenko in bpo-38731(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr,  Next: shelve,  Prev: py_compile,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.36 pyclbr
...............

Add an ‘end_lineno’ attribute to the ‘Function’ and ‘Class’ objects in
the tree returned by *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 669. and *note
pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 66a.  It matches the existing (start) ‘lineno’.
(Contributed by Aviral Srivastava in bpo-38307(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307


File: python.info,  Node: shelve,  Next: statistics<2>,  Prev: pyclbr,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.37 shelve
...............

The *note shelve: c2. module now uses *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
66c. by default instead of *note pickle: a5. protocol ‘3’ when creating
shelves.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34204(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<2>,  Next: site,  Prev: shelve,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.38 statistics
...................

Add *note covariance(): 66e, Pearson’s *note correlation(): 1ea, and
simple *note linear_regression(): 66f. functions.  (Contributed by
Tymoteusz Wołodźko in bpo-38490(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490


File: python.info,  Node: site,  Next: socket<2>,  Prev: statistics<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.39 site
.............

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: socket<2>,  Next: ssl<2>,  Prev: site,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.40 socket
...............

The exception *note socket.timeout: 672. is now an alias of *note
TimeoutError: 673.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42413(1).)

Add option to create MPTCP sockets with ‘IPPROTO_MPTCP’ (Contributed by
Rui Cunha in bpo-43571(2).)

Add ‘IP_RECVTOS’ option to receive the type of service (ToS) or DSCP/ECN
fields (Contributed by Georg Sauthoff in bpo-44077(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44077


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<2>,  Next: sqlite3<4>,  Prev: socket<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.41 ssl
............

The ssl module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).)

The ssl module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0 and new option
*note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 675.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-38820(3), bpo-43794(4), bpo-43788(5), bpo-43791(6), bpo-43799(7),
bpo-43920(8), bpo-43789(9), and bpo-43811(10).)

Deprecated function and use of deprecated constants now result in a
*note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  *note ssl.SSLContext.options: 676. has
*note OP_NO_SSLv2: 677. and *note OP_NO_SSLv3: 678. set by default and
therefore cannot warn about setting the flag again.  The *note
deprecation section: 679. has a list of deprecated features.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43880(11).)

The ssl module now has more secure default settings.  Ciphers without
forward secrecy or SHA-1 MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2
prohibits weak RSA, DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of
security.  *note SSLContext: 277. defaults to minimum protocol version
TLS 1.2.  Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack’s research.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43998(12).)

The deprecated protocols SSL 3.0, TLS 1.0, and TLS 1.1 are no longer
officially supported.  Python does not block them actively.  However
OpenSSL build options, distro configurations, vendor patches, and cipher
suites may prevent a successful handshake.

Add a 'timeout' parameter to the *note ssl.get_server_certificate():
67a. function.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-31870(13).)

The ssl module uses heap-types and multi-phase initialization.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42333(14).)

A new verify flag *note VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 67b. has been added.
(Contributed by l0x in bpo-40849(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<4>,  Next: sys<4>,  Prev: ssl<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.42 sqlite3
................

Add audit events for ‘connect/handle()’, *note enable_load_extension():
67d, and *note load_extension(): 1e6.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland
in bpo-43762(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762


File: python.info,  Node: sys<4>,  Next: _thread,  Prev: sqlite3<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.43 sys
............

Add *note sys.orig_argv: 67f. attribute: the list of the original
command line arguments passed to the Python executable.  (Contributed by
Victor Stinner in bpo-23427(1).)

Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 680, containing the list of the
standard library module names.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-42955(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955


File: python.info,  Node: _thread,  Next: threading<3>,  Prev: sys<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.44 _thread
................

*note _thread.interrupt_main(): 682. now takes an optional signal number
to simulate (the default is still *note signal.SIGINT: 683.).
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-43356(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356


File: python.info,  Node: threading<3>,  Next: traceback<2>,  Prev: _thread,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.45 threading
..................

Add *note threading.gettrace(): 685. and *note threading.getprofile():
686. to retrieve the functions set by *note threading.settrace(): 687.
and *note threading.setprofile(): 688. respectively.  (Contributed by
Mario Corchero in bpo-42251(1).)

Add *note threading.__excepthook__: 689. to allow retrieving the
original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 68a. in case it is set
to a broken or a different value.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in
bpo-42308(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<2>,  Next: types<2>,  Prev: threading<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.46 traceback
..................

The *note format_exception(): 68c, *note format_exception_only(): 68d,
and *note print_exception(): 68e. functions can now take an exception
object as a positional-only argument.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and
Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-26389(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389


File: python.info,  Node: types<2>,  Next: typing<3>,  Prev: traceback<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.47 types
..............

Reintroduce the *note types.EllipsisType: 690, *note types.NoneType:
691. and *note types.NotImplementedType: 692. classes, providing a new
set of types readily interpretable by type checkers.  (Contributed by
Bas van Beek in bpo-41810(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810


File: python.info,  Node: typing<3>,  Next: unittest<4>,  Prev: types<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.48 typing
...............

For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: 5f5.

The behavior of *note typing.Literal: 694. was changed to conform with
PEP 586(1) and to match the behavior of static type checkers specified
in the PEP.

  1. ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.

  2. Equality comparisons between ‘Literal’ objects are now order
     independent.

  3. ‘Literal’ comparisons now respect types.  For example, ‘Literal[0]
     == Literal[False]’ previously evaluated to ‘True’.  It is now
     ‘False’.  To support this change, the internally used type cache
     now supports differentiating types.

  4. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception
     during equality comparisons if any of their parameters are not
     *note hashable: 421.  Note that declaring ‘Literal’ with unhashable
     parameters will not throw an error:

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42345(2).)

Add new function *note typing.is_typeddict(): 695. to introspect if an
annotation is a *note typing.TypedDict: 159.  (Contributed by Patrick
Reader in bpo-41792(3).)

Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have data variables declared
will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked with ‘isinstance’ unless they
are decorated with *note runtime_checkable(): 152.  Previously, these
checks passed silently.  Users should decorate their subclasses with the
‘runtime_checkable()’ decorator if they want runtime protocols.
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-38908(4).)

Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now emit
*note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  These submodules have been deprecated
since Python 3.8 and will be removed in a future version of Python.
Anything belonging to those submodules should be imported directly from
*note typing: 104. instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in
bpo-38291(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<4>,  Next: urllib parse,  Prev: typing<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.49 unittest
.................

Add new method *note assertNoLogs(): 697. to complement the existing
*note assertLogs(): 698.  (Contributed by Kit Yan Choi in bpo-39385(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse,  Next: xml,  Prev: unittest<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.50 urllib.parse
.....................

Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’
as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 69a. and
*note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 69b.  Due to security concerns, and to
conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow
only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also
affects *note cgi.parse(): 69c. and *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 69d. as
they use the affected functions internally.  For more details, please
see their respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt,
Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(2), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: xml,  Next: zipimport<2>,  Prev: urllib parse,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.51 xml
............

Add a *note LexicalHandler: 69f. class to the *note xml.sax.handler:
12a. module.  (Contributed by Jonathan Gossage and Zackery Spytz in
bpo-35018(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<2>,  Prev: xml,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.3.6.52 zipimport
..................

Add methods related to PEP 451(1): *note find_spec(): 6a1, *note
zipimport.zipimporter.create_module(): 6a2, and *note
zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 288.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon
in bpo-42131(2).)

Add *note invalidate_caches(): 6a3. method.  (Contributed by Desmond
Cheong in bpo-14678(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<3>,  Next: Deprecated<5>,  Prev: Improved Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Constructors *note str(): 15d, *note bytes(): 2cb. and *note
     bytearray(): 2ca. are now faster (around 30–40% for small objects).
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-41334(1).)

   * The *note runpy: bd. module now imports fewer modules.  The
     ‘python3 -m module-name’ command startup time is 1.4x faster in
     average.  On Linux, ‘python3 -I -m module-name’ imports 69 modules
     on Python 3.9, whereas it only imports 51 modules (-18) on Python
     3.10.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41006(2) and
     bpo-41718(3).)

   * The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new “per opcode cache”
     mechanism.  It is about 36% faster now for regular attributes and
     44% faster for slots.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-42093(4) and Guido van Rossum in bpo-42927(5),
     based on ideas implemented originally in PyPy and MicroPython.)

   * When building Python with *note -enable-optimizations: 6a5. now
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ is added to both the compile and link
     line.  This speeds builds of the Python interpreter created with
     *note -enable-shared: 6a6. with ‘gcc’ by up to 30%.  See this
     article(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and
     Pablo Galindo in bpo-38980(7).)

   * Use a new output buffer management code for *note bz2: 13. / *note
     lzma: 89. / *note zlib: 133. modules, and add ‘.readall()’ function
     to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.  bz2 decompression is now
     1.09x ~ 1.17x faster, lzma decompression 1.20x ~ 1.32x faster,
     ‘GzipFile.read(-1)’ 1.11x ~ 1.18x faster.  (Contributed by Ma Lin,
     reviewed by Gregory P. Smith, in bpo-41486(8))

   * When using stringized annotations, annotations dicts for functions
     are no longer created when the function is created.  Instead, they
     are stored as a tuple of strings, and the function object lazily
     converts this into the annotations dict on demand.  This
     optimization cuts the CPU time needed to define an annotated
     function by half.  (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in
     bpo-42202(9).)

   * Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’ and
     ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use Crochemore & Perrin’s “Two-Way”
     string searching algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long
     strings.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in bpo-41972(10))

   * Add micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to improve type
     attribute cache lookup performance in the common case of cache
     hits.  This makes the interpreter 1.04 times faster on average.
     (Contributed by Dino Viehland in bpo-43452(11).)

   * The following built-in functions now support the faster PEP 590(12)
     vectorcall calling convention: *note map(): 6a7, *note filter():
     6a8, *note reversed(): 6a9, *note bool(): 183. and *note float():
     272.  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Jeroen Demeyer in
     bpo-43575(13), bpo-43287(14), bpo-41922(15), bpo-41873(16) and
     bpo-41870(17).)

   * *note BZ2File: 6aa. performance is improved by removing internal
     ‘RLock’.  This makes ‘BZ2File’ thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 65. and *note lzma: 89. have always been.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-43785(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41718

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (6) 
https://developers.redhat.com/blog/2020/06/25/red-hat-enterprise-linux-8-2-brings-faster-python-3-8-run-speeds/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<5>,  Next: Removed<5>,  Prev: Optimizations<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.8 Deprecated
----------------

   * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by
     keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It allows
     confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which
     can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’).
     Starting in this release, a deprecation warning is raised if the
     numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note
     and: 26b, *note else: 26c, *note for: 26d, *note if: 26e, *note in:
     26f, *note is: 270. and *note or: 271.  In future releases it will
     be changed to syntax warning, and finally to syntax error.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   * Starting in this release, there will be a concerted effort to begin
     cleaning up old import semantics that were kept for Python 2.7
     compatibility.  Specifically, ‘find_loader()’/‘find_module()’
     (superseded by *note find_spec(): 6ac.), *note load_module(): 6ad.
     (superseded by *note exec_module(): 6ae.), ‘module_repr()’ (which
     the import system takes care of for you), the ‘__package__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.parent’), the ‘__loader__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.loader’), and the ‘__cached__’
     attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.cached’) will slowly be removed
     (as well as other classes and methods in *note importlib: 75.).
     *note ImportWarning: 24e. and/or *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     will be raised as appropriate to help identify code which needs
     updating during this transition.

   * The entire ‘distutils’ namespace is deprecated, to be removed in
     Python 3.12.  Refer to the *note module changes: 552. section for
     more information.

   * Non-integer arguments to *note random.randrange(): 6af. are
     deprecated.  The *note ValueError: 189. is deprecated in favor of a
     *note TypeError: 2c4.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-37319(2).)

   * The various ‘load_module()’ methods of *note importlib: 75. have
     been documented as deprecated since Python 3.6, but will now also
     trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  Use *note exec_module():
     6ae. instead.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(3).)

   * ‘zimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated in
     preference for *note exec_module(): 288.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-26131(4).)

   * The use of *note load_module(): 6ad. by the import system now
     triggers an *note ImportWarning: 24e. as *note exec_module(): 6ae.
     is preferred.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(5).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ by the import system
     now trigger an *note ImportWarning: 24e. as *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 6ac. and *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 6b0. are preferred,
     respectively.  You can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader():
     6b1. to help in porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42134(6).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ by the
     import system now triggers an *note ImportWarning: 24e. as *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 6b0. is preferred.  You
     can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 6b1. to help in
     porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43672(7).)

   * The various implementations of
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ ),
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’ ), and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’ ) now raise *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. and are slated for removal in Python 3.12
     (previously they were documented as deprecated in Python 3.4).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135(8).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is deprecated (including its sole method,
     ‘find_module()’).  Both *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2.
     and *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 6b3. no longer inherit
     from the class.  Users should inherit from one of these two classes
     as appropriate instead.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42135(9).)

   * The deprecations of ‘imp’, ‘importlib.find_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
     ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have all been updated to list Python 3.12 as
     the slated version of removal (they began raising *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. in previous versions of Python).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43720(10).)

   * The import system now uses the ‘__spec__’ attribute on modules
     before falling back on ‘module_repr()’ for a module’s ‘__repr__()’
     method.  Removal of the use of ‘module_repr()’ is scheduled for
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42137(11).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’, and
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’ are deprecated
     and slated for removal in Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-42136(12).)

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and obsolete since
     Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str: 15d.  It is now
     deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42264(13).)

   * The undocumented built-in function ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is
     now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is
     strongly discouraged by the SQLite3 documentation.  See the SQLite3
     docs(14) for more details.  If a shared cache must be used, open
     the database in URI mode using the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-24464(15).)

   * The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated:

        * ‘threading.currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread():
          27f.

        * ‘threading.activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count():
          280.

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 279.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set():
          27a.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          27e.

        * ‘threading.thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          27e.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          27c.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          27c.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-87889(16).)

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in
     Python 3.12.  Use *note pathlib.Path.hardlink_to(): 65f. instead.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(17).)

   * ‘cgi.log()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41139(18).)

   * The following *note ssl: cf. features have been deprecated since
     Python 3.6, Python 3.7, or OpenSSL 1.1.0 and will be removed in
     3.11:

        * ‘OP_NO_SSLv2’, ‘OP_NO_SSLv3’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_1’,
          ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_2’, and ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_3’ are replaced by *note
          minimum_version: 6b4. and *note maximum_version: 6b5.

        * ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv2’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv3’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv23’,
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’, and
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLS’ are deprecated in favor of *note
          PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7.

        * ‘wrap_socket()’ is replaced by *note
          ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af.

        * ‘match_hostname()’

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’, ‘RAND_egd()’

        * NPN features like *note ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol():
          6b8. and *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 278. are
          replaced by ALPN.

   * The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable) is
     deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in Python 3.12.  This
     feature requires a *note debug build of Python: 6b9.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-44584(19).)

   * Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now
     emit *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  These submodules will be
     removed in a future version of Python.  Anything belonging to these
     submodules should be imported directly from *note typing: 104.
     instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37319

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (14) https://sqlite.org/c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87889

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<5>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 10,  Prev: Deprecated<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.9 Removed
-------------

   * Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’, ‘__floordiv__’,
     ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’, ‘__rmod__’ and
     ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 273. class.  They always raised
     a *note TypeError: 2c4.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-41974(1).)

   * The ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private and undocumented
     ‘_markupbase’ module has been removed.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was already removed in Python 3.5.
     (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-31844(2).)

   * Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute which was an
     internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(3).)

   * Removed the ‘parser’ module, which was deprecated in 3.9 due to the
     switch to the new PEG parser, as well as all the C source and
     header files that were only being used by the old parser, including
     ‘node.h’, ‘parser.h’, ‘graminit.h’ and ‘grammar.h’.

   * Removed the Public C API functions
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ and ‘PyNode_Compile’ that were
     deprecated in 3.9 due to the switch to the new PEG parser.

   * Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated in Python 3.4.
     It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not tested.  It was
     originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6, but such removals
     were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing users should copy
     whatever classes they use into their code.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na and Terry J. Reedy in bpo-42299(4).)

   * Removed the ‘PyModule_GetWarningsModule()’ function that was
     useless now due to the ‘_warnings’ module was converted to a
     builtin module in 2.6.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42599(5).)

   * Remove deprecated aliases to *note Collections Abstract Base
     Classes: 6bd. from the *note collections: 1d. module.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-37324(6).)

   * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio:
     a.‘s *note high-level API: 6be. following deprecation in Python
     3.8.  The motivation behind this change is multifold:

       1. This simplifies the high-level API.

       2. The functions in the high-level API have been implicitly
          getting the current thread’s running event loop since Python
          3.7.  There isn’t a need to pass the event loop to the API in
          most normal use cases.

       3. Event loop passing is error-prone especially when dealing with
          loops running in different threads.

     Note that the low-level API will still accept ‘loop’.  See *note
     Changes in the Python API: 6bf. for examples of how to replace
     existing code.

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and
     Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42599

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 10,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Prev: Removed<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.10 Porting to Python 3.10
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python syntax::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.
* Changes in the C API::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python syntax,  Next: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.3.10.1 Changes in the Python syntax
.....................................

   * Deprecation warning is now emitted when compiling previously valid
     syntax if the numeric literal is immediately followed by a keyword
     (like in ‘0in x’).  In future releases it will be changed to syntax
     warning, and finally to a syntax error.  To get rid of the warning
     and make the code compatible with future releases just add a space
     between the numeric literal and the following keyword.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Next: Changes in the C API,  Prev: Changes in the Python syntax,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.3.10.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * The 'etype' parameters of the *note format_exception(): 68c, *note
     format_exception_only(): 68d, and *note print_exception(): 68e.
     functions in the *note traceback: fe. module have been renamed to
     'exc'.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Matthias Bussonnier in
     bpo-26389(1).)

   * *note atexit: c.: At Python exit, if a callback registered with
     *note atexit.register(): 6c3. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-42639(2).)

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: 624. generic now flattens type
     parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 5fc. currently
     does.  This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’
     will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was
     ‘([int, str], str)’.  Code which accesses the arguments via *note
     typing.get_args(): 6c4. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this
     change.  Furthermore, *note TypeError: 2c4. may be raised for
     invalid forms of parameterizing *note collections.abc.Callable:
     624. which may have passed silently in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by
     Ken Jin in bpo-42195(3).)

   * *note socket.htons(): 6c5. and *note socket.ntohs(): 6c6. now raise
     *note OverflowError: 6c7. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     if the given parameter will not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42393(4).)

   * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio:
     a.‘s *note high-level API: 6be. following deprecation in Python
     3.8.

     A coroutine that currently looks like this:

          async def foo(loop):
              await asyncio.sleep(1, loop=loop)

     Should be replaced with this:

          async def foo():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)

     If ‘foo()’ was specifically designed 'not' to run in the current
     thread’s running event loop (e.g.  running in another thread’s
     event loop), consider using *note
     asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6c8. instead.

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and
     Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(5).)

   * The *note types.FunctionType: 6c9. constructor now inherits the
     current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 6ca. and *note exec():
     6cb. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-42990(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.3.10.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * The C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’, ‘PyNode_Compile’ and the type used
     by these functions, ‘struct _node’, were removed due to the switch
     to the new PEG parser.

     Source should be now be compiled directly to a code object using,
     for example, *note Py_CompileString(): 6cd.  The resulting code
     object can then be evaluated using, for example, *note
     PyEval_EvalCode(): 6ce.

     Specifically:

        * A call to ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’ followed by
          ‘PyNode_Compile’ can be replaced by calling *note
          Py_CompileString(): 6cd.

        * There is no direct replacement for
          ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’.  To compile code from a ‘FILE
          *’ argument, you will need to read the file in C and pass the
          resulting buffer to *note Py_CompileString(): 6cd.

        * To compile a file given a ‘char *’ filename, explicitly open
          the file, read it and compile the result.  One way to do this
          is using the *note io: 7d. module with *note
          PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f, *note PyObject_CallMethod():
          30b, *note PyBytes_AsString(): 6cf. and *note
          Py_CompileString(): 6cd, as sketched below.  (Declarations and
          error handling are omitted.)

               io_module = Import_ImportModule("io");
               fileobject = PyObject_CallMethod(io_module, "open", "ss", filename, "rb");
               source_bytes_object = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "read", "");
               result = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "close", "");
               source_buf = PyBytes_AsString(source_bytes_object);
               code = Py_CompileString(source_buf, filename, Py_file_input);

        * For ‘FrameObject’ objects, the *note f_lasti: 6d0. member now
          represents a wordcode offset instead of a simple offset into
          the bytecode string.  This means that this number needs to be
          multiplied by 2 to be used with APIs that expect a byte offset
          instead (like *note PyCode_Addr2Line(): 6d1. for example).
          Notice as well that the ‘f_lasti’ member of ‘FrameObject’
          objects is not considered stable: please use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5bc. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Next: Build Changes<3>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.11 CPython bytecode changes
-------------------------------

   * The ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction now accepts either a dict or a
     tuple of strings as the function’s annotations.  (Contributed by
     Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<3>,  Next: C API Changes<3>,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.12 Build Changes
--------------------

   * PEP 644(1): Python now requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  OpenSSL
     1.0.2 is no longer supported.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-43669(2).)

   * The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are now required
     to build Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36020(3).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. requires SQLite 3.7.15 or higher.  (Contributed
     by Sergey Fedoseev and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-40744(4) and
     bpo-40810(5).)

   * The *note atexit: c. module must now always be built as a built-in
     module.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42639(6).)

   * Add *note -disable-test-modules: 6d4. option to the ‘configure’
     script: don’t build nor install test modules.  (Contributed by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin in bpo-27640(7).)

   * Add *note -with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH option: 6d5. to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 53.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42856(8).)

   * Add a new *note configure -without-static-libpython option: 6d6. to
     not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and not
     install the ‘python.o’ object file.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43103(9).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now uses the ‘pkg-config’ utility, if
     available, to detect the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries.
     As before, those locations can be explicitly specified with the
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ configuration
     options.  (Contributed by Manolis Stamatogiannakis in
     bpo-42603(10).)

   * Add *note -with-openssl-rpath: 6d7. option to ‘configure’ script.
     The option simplifies building Python with a custom OpenSSL
     installation, e.g.  ‘./configure --with-openssl=/path/to/openssl
     --with-openssl-rpath=auto’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-43466(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<3>,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Prev: Build Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.13 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
* New Features: New Features<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<6>.
* Removed: Removed<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI,  Next: New Features<6>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.13.1 PEP 652: Maintaining the Stable ABI
............................................

The Stable ABI (Application Binary Interface) for extension modules or
embedding Python is now explicitly defined.  *note C API Stability: 2e2.
describes C API and ABI stability guarantees along with best practices
for using the Stable ABI.

(Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 652(1) and bpo-43795(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<6>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Prev: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.13.2 New Features
.....................

   * The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): 6db. now always has exact
     type *note int: 184.  Previously, the result could have been an
     instance of a subclass of ‘int’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-40792(1).)

   * Add a new *note orig_argv: 6dc. member to the *note PyConfig: 34f.
     structure: the list of the original command line arguments passed
     to the Python executable.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-23427(2).)

   * The *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 6dd. and *note
     PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 6de. macros have been added for
     accessing the ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 22b.
     and *note datetime.time: 6df. objects.  (Contributed by Zackery
     Spytz in bpo-30155(3).)

   * Add a *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6e0. function to unregister a
     codec search function.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(4).)

   * The *note PyIter_Send(): 6e1. function was added to allow sending
     value into iterator without raising ‘StopIteration’ exception.
     (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in bpo-41756(5).)

   * Add *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6e2. to the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-41784(6).)

   * Add *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3. function: similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObject(): 6e4. but don’t steal a reference to the value
     on success.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-1635741(7).)

   * Add *note Py_NewRef(): 6e5. and *note Py_XNewRef(): 6e6. functions
     to increment the reference count of an object and return the
     object.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42262(8).)

   * The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-42423(9).)

   * The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. function now accepts
     NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41832(10).)

   * The *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6e7. function can accept *note static
     types: 5af.  (Contributed by Hai Shi and Petr Viktorin in
     bpo-41073(11).)

   * Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): 6e8. function to the C-API to
     check if an object is an instance of *note set: 3e4. but not an
     instance of a subtype.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-43277(12).)

   * Add *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 6e9. which allows passing a
     signal number to simulate.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-43356(13).)

   * The limited C API is now supported if *note Python is built in
     debug mode: 6b9. (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the
     limited C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 305. and *note Py_DECREF():
     306. functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather
     than accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 6ea. member,
     if Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 6eb.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(14)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the *note
     -with-trace-refs: 6ec. special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43688(15).)

   * Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): 6ed. function to test if the 'x' object
     is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.  Add also the
     *note Py_IsNone(): 6ee, *note Py_IsTrue(): 6ef, *note Py_IsFalse():
     6f0. functions to test if an object is, respectively, the ‘None’
     singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’ singleton.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43753(16).)

   * Add new functions to control the garbage collector from C code:
     *note PyGC_Enable(): 6f1, *note PyGC_Disable(): 6f2, *note
     PyGC_IsEnabled(): 6f3.  These functions allow to activate,
     deactivate and query the state of the garbage collector from C code
     without having to import the *note gc: 5e. module.

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 31b. type flag
     to disallow creating type instances.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-43916(17).)

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8. type flag for
     creating immutable type objects: type attributes cannot be set nor
     deleted.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-43908(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Next: Deprecated<6>,  Prev: New Features<6>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.13.3 Porting to Python 3.10
...............................

   * The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to use *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. formats
     which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’ and ‘Z#’.
     See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 6f6. and PEP
     353(1).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40943(2).)

   * Since *note Py_REFCNT(): 6f7. is changed to the inline static
     function, ‘Py_REFCNT(obj) = new_refcnt’ must be replaced with
     ‘Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, new_refcnt)’: see *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6f8.
     (available since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this
     macro can be used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4
          #  define Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, refcnt) ((Py_REFCNT(obj) = (refcnt)), (void)0)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(3).)

   * Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6f9. without *note GIL: 6fa. held
     had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no longer allowed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40839(4).)

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ raise
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ now.  Use *note PyUnicode_New(): 6fb. to
     allocate Unicode object without initial data.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(5).)

   * The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the PyCapsule API
     ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the internal C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(6).)

   * *note Py_GetPath(): 367, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 369, *note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 365, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b, *note
     Py_GetPythonHome(): 36e. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d.
     functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc. (before Python is initialized).  Use the new *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6. API to get the *note Python Path
     Configuration: 6fd.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-42260(7).)

   * *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 6fe, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 6ff. and
     *note PyCell_SET(): 700. macros can no longer be used as l-value or
     r-value.  For example, ‘x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and
     ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now fail with a compiler error.  It
     prevents bugs like ‘if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.
     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner in bpo-30459(8).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘odictobject.h’, ‘parser_interface.h’,
     ‘picklebufobject.h’, ‘pyarena.h’, ‘pyctype.h’, ‘pydebug.h’,
     ‘pyfpe.h’, and ‘pytime.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’
     directory.  These files must not be included directly, as they are
     already included in ‘Python.h’; see *note Include Files: 5b4.  If
     they have been included directly, consider including ‘Python.h’
     instead.  (Contributed by Nicholas Sim in bpo-35134(9).)

   * Use the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8. type flag to create
     immutable type objects.  Do not rely on *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     701. to decide if a type object is mutable or not; check if *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8. is set instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(10).)

   * The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain’ has been removed from the
     limited API. The function is mainly useful for custom builds of
     Python.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-26241(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26241


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<6>,  Next: Removed<6>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.13.4 Deprecated
...................

   * The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now deprecated and
     will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 703. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-41692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<6>,  Prev: Deprecated<6>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.3.13.5 Removed
................

   * Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating ‘Py_UNICODE*’
     strings.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41123(1).)

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 705. or
          *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 706.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters():
          707. or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy’: use *note
          PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 707. or *note
          PyUnicode_Substring(): 708.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 709.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 70a.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr’: use *note
          PyUnicode_FindChar(): 70b.

   * Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.  Please migrate to new ( PEP 393(2))
     APIs.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(3).)

   * Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.  Please migrate to *note
     PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(): 70c.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-41103(4).)

   * Removed ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’.  Please use *note
     PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 70d. or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString():
     70e. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(5).)

   * Removed ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has been replaced by
     ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note PyInterpreterState: 70f.
     structure.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41834(6).)

   * Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. structure.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-41936(7).)

   * Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’ function.
     Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal handlers:
     see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 710.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-41713(8).)

   * Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no longer possible
     to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the public C API. The
     function was already excluded from the limited C API ( PEP 384(9)).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(10).)

   * Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     Use Python *note symtable: d7. module instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(11).)

   * Remove *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 31f. from the limited
     C API headers and from ‘python3.dll’, the library that provides the
     stable ABI on Windows.  Since the function takes a ‘FILE*’
     argument, its ABI stability cannot be guaranteed.  (Contributed by
     Petr Viktorin in bpo-43868(12).)

   * Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header files.  These
     functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C API.
     Most names defined by these header files were not prefixed by ‘Py’
     and so could create names conflicts.  For example, ‘Python-ast.h’
     defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the ‘Yield’ name
     used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the Python *note
     ast: 8. module instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-43244(13).)

   * Remove the compiler and parser functions using ‘struct _mod’ type,
     because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(14).)

   * Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(15).)

   * The ‘PyThreadState.use_tracing’ member has been removed to optimize
     Python.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-43760(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Prev: C API Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.14 Notable security feature in 3.10.7
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 184. and *note str: 15d. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 189. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 402. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Next: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.15 Notable security feature in 3.10.8
-----------------------------------------

The deprecated ‘mailcap’ module now refuses to inject unsafe text
(filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands.  Instead of
using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or
for test commands, as if the test failed).  (Contributed by Petr
Viktorin in gh-98966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.3.16 Notable changes in 3.10.12
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<3>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 10 12

1.3.16.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 18b. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler,  Next: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.4 Python 3.9’daki Yenilikler
==============================


Editör: Łukasz Langa

This article explains the new features in Python 3.9, compared to 3.8.
Python 3.9 was released on October 5, 2020.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 596(1) - Python 3.9 Yayınlama Takvimi

* Menu:

* Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları::
* Kodunuzda DeprecationWarning olup olmadığını kontrol etmelisiniz::
* Yeni Özellikler::
* Başka Dil Değişiklikleri::
* Yeni Modüller::
* Geliştirilen Modüller::
* Optimizasyonlar::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<7>.
* Kaldırılanlar::
* Python 3.9’a Taşıma: Python 3 9’a Taşıma.
* Yapı Değişiklikleri::
* C API’sindeki değişiklikler: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>.
* Python 3.9.1’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 9 1’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Python 3.9.2’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 9 2’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0596/


File: python.info,  Node: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları,  Next: Kodunuzda DeprecationWarning olup olmadığını kontrol etmelisiniz,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.1 Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları
----------------------------------

Yeni sözdizimi özellikleri:

   * PEP 584(1) , ‘dict’ için birleşim işleçleri eklendi;

   * PEP 585(2) , standart koleksiyonlarda tür ipuçlama (type hinting)
     jenerikleri;

   * PEP 614(3) , dekoratörlerde gramer kısıtlamaları gevşetildi.

Yeni gömülü özellikler:

   * PEP 616(4) , önekleri ve sonekleri kaldırmak için dize yöntemleri.

Standart kütüphanedeki yeni özellikler:

   * PEP 593(5) esnek fonksiyon ve değişken açıklamaları;

   * Yarışlar ve sinyaller olmadan süreç yönetimine izin veren *note
     os.pidfd_open(): 19b. eklendi.

Tercüman geliştirmeleri:

   * PEP 573(6), C uzantı türlerinin yöntemlerinden modül durumuna hızlı
     erişim;

   * PEP 617(7), CPython artık PEG tabanlı yeni bir çözümleyici
     kullanıyor;

   * bir dizi python gömülüleri (range, tuple, set, frozenset, list,
     dict) PEP 590(8) vectorcall kullanılarak hızlandırıldı;

   * çöp toplama, dirilen nesnelerde engellemez;

   * a number of Python modules (‘_abc’, *note audioop: d, ‘_bz2’,
     ‘_codecs’, ‘_contextvars’, ‘_crypt’, ‘_functools’, ‘_json’,
     ‘_locale’, *note math: 8d, *note operator: 9e, *note resource: bb,
     *note time: ed, ‘_weakref’) now use multiphase initialization as
     defined by PEP 489;

   * a number of standard library modules (*note audioop: d, *note ast:
     8, *note grp: 64, ‘_hashlib’, *note pwd: b1, ‘_posixsubprocess’,
     *note random: b7, *note select: c0, *note struct: d4, *note
     termios: e0, *note zlib: 133.) are now using the stable ABI defined
     by PEP 384.

Standart kütüphanedeki yeni özellikler:

   * PEP 615(9), IANA Zaman Dilimi Veritabanı artık *note zoneinfo: 134.
     modülündeki standart kitaplıkta mevcuttur;

   * topolojik türde bir grafik uygulaması artık yeni *note graphlib:
     63. modülünde sağlanmaktadır.

Yayın süreci değişiklikleri:

   * PEP 602(10), CPython yıllık bir yayın döngüsü benimser.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: Kodunuzda DeprecationWarning olup olmadığını kontrol etmelisiniz,  Next: Yeni Özellikler,  Prev: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.2 Kodunuzda DeprecationWarning olup olmadığını kontrol etmelisiniz
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Python 2.7 hala desteklendiğinde, Python 2.7 ile geriye dönük uyumluluk
için Python 3’teki birçok işlevsellik korunmuştur.  Python 2 desteğinin
sona ermesiyle bu geriye dönük uyumluluk katmanları kaldırıldı veya
yakında kaldırılacak.  Çoğu, birkaç yıl boyunca bir *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f. uyarısı yayınladı.  Örneğin,
‘collections.abc.Mapping’ yerine ‘collections.Mappin’ kullanmak, 2012’de
yayınlanan Python 3.3’ten bu yana bir *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
yayar.

*note DeprecationWarning: 17f. ve *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.
öğelerini görmek için *note -W: 71a. ‘default’ komut satırı seçeneğiyle
veya bunları hata olarak değerlendirmek için *note -W: 71a. ‘error’ ile
uygulamanızı test edin.  *note Uyarı Filtresi: 71b, üçüncü taraf
kodundan gelen uyarıları yok saymak için kullanılabilir.

Python 3.9, Python proje yöneticilerine Python 2 desteğinin
kaldırılmasını organize etmeleri ve Python 3.9 için destek eklemeleri
için daha fazla zaman vermek üzere Python 2 geriye dönük uyumluluk
katmanlarını sağlayan son sürümdür.

*note collections: 1d. modülünde *note Soyut Temel Sınıflar: 6bd. için
takma adlar, *note collections.abc.Mapping: 71c. için
‘collections.Mapping’ takma adı gibi, geriye dönük uyumluluk için son
bir sürüm için saklanır.  Python 3.10’dan kaldırılacaklar.

Daha genel olarak, kodunuzu bir sonraki Python sürümüyle uyumlu hale
getirmek için hazırlamanıza yardımcı olan *note Python Development Mode:
71d. testlerinizi çalıştırmayı deneyin.

Not: Python’un bu sürümünde önceden var olan bazı kullanımdan
kaldırmalar da kaldırılmıştır.  *note Kaldırılanlar: 71e. bölümüne
bakınız.


File: python.info,  Node: Yeni Özellikler,  Next: Başka Dil Değişiklikleri,  Prev: Kodunuzda DeprecationWarning olup olmadığını kontrol etmelisiniz,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.3 Yeni Özellikler
---------------------

* Menu:

* Sözlük Birleştirme ve Güncelleme Operatörleri::
* Önekleri ve Sonekleri Kaldırmak için Yeni Dize Yöntemleri::
* Standart Koleksiyonlardaki Tür Dayatma Jenerikleri::
* Yeni Ayrıştırıcı::


File: python.info,  Node: Sözlük Birleştirme ve Güncelleme Operatörleri,  Next: Önekleri ve Sonekleri Kaldırmak için Yeni Dize Yöntemleri,  Up: Yeni Özellikler

1.4.3.1 Sözlük Birleştirme ve Güncelleme Operatörleri
.....................................................

Gömülü *note dict: 240. sınıfına birleştirme (‘|’) ve güncelleme (‘|=’)
operatörleri eklendi.  Bunlar, sözlükleri birleştirmenin mevcut
‘dict.update’ ve ‘{**d1, **d2}’ yöntemlerini tamamlar.

Örnek:

     >>> x = {"key1": "value1 from x", "key2": "value2 from x"}
     >>> y = {"key2": "value2 from y", "key3": "value3 from y"}
     >>> x | y
     {'key1': 'value1 from x', 'key2': 'value2 from y', 'key3': 'value3 from y'}
     >>> y | x
     {'key2': 'value2 from x', 'key3': 'value3 from y', 'key1': 'value1 from x'}

Tam açıklama için PEP 584(1) sayfasına bakınız.  (Brandt Bucher
tarafından bpo-36144(2) ile katkıda bulunulmuştur)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144


File: python.info,  Node: Önekleri ve Sonekleri Kaldırmak için Yeni Dize Yöntemleri,  Next: Standart Koleksiyonlardaki Tür Dayatma Jenerikleri,  Prev: Sözlük Birleştirme ve Güncelleme Operatörleri,  Up: Yeni Özellikler

1.4.3.2 Önekleri ve Sonekleri Kaldırmak için Yeni Dize Yöntemleri
.................................................................

*note str.removeprefix(prefix): 722. ve *note str.removesuffix(suffix):
723, gereksiz bir öneki veya bir soneki bir dizeden kolayca kaldırmak
için eklenmiştir.  Karşılık gelen ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’ ve
‘collections.UserString’ yöntemleri de eklenmiştir.  Tam açıklama için
PEP 616(1) ‘ya bakın.  (Dennis Sweeney tarafından bpo-39939(2) ‘da
katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939


File: python.info,  Node: Standart Koleksiyonlardaki Tür Dayatma Jenerikleri,  Next: Yeni Ayrıştırıcı,  Prev: Önekleri ve Sonekleri Kaldırmak için Yeni Dize Yöntemleri,  Up: Yeni Özellikler

1.4.3.3 Standart Koleksiyonlardaki Tür Dayatma Jenerikleri
..........................................................

Yazım ek açıklamalarında, artık ‘typing’ ‘den karşılık gelen büyük
harfli türleri (örnek olarak ‘List’ veya ‘Dict’) içe aktarmak yerine
‘list’ ve ‘dict’ gibi yerleşik koleksiyon türlerini genel türler olarak
kullanabilirsiniz.  Standart kitaplıktaki diğer bazı türler de artık
geneldir, örneğin ‘queue.Queue’.

Örnek:

     def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None:
         for name in names:
             print("Hello", name)

Daha fazla ayrıntı için bkz.  PEP 585(1).  (Guido van Rossum, Ethan
Smith ve Batuhan Taşkaya’nın katkılarıyla bpo-39481(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481


File: python.info,  Node: Yeni Ayrıştırıcı,  Prev: Standart Koleksiyonlardaki Tür Dayatma Jenerikleri,  Up: Yeni Özellikler

1.4.3.4 Yeni Ayrıştırıcı
........................

Python 3.9, LL(1)(1) yerine PEG(2) tabanlı yeni bir ayrıştırıcı
kullanır.  Yeni ayrıştırıcının performansı kabaca eski
ayrıştırıcınınkiyle karşılaştırılabilir, ancak iş yeni dil özellikleri
tasarlamaya geldiğinde PEG biçimciliği LL(1)’den daha esnektir.  Bu
esnekliği Python 3.10 ve sonrasında kullanmaya başlayacağız.

*note ast: 8. modülü yeni ayrıştırıcıyı kullanır ve eski ayrıştırıcı ile
aynı AST’yi üretir.

In Python 3.10, the old parser will be deleted and so will all
functionality that depends on it (primarily the ‘parser’ module, which
has long been deprecated).  In Python 3.9 'only', you can switch back to
the LL(1) parser using a command line switch (‘-X oldparser’) or an
environment variable (‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’).

Daha fazla ayrıntı için bkz.  PEP 617(3).  ( bpo-40334(4) içinde Guido
van Rossum, Pablo Galindo ve Lysandros Nikolaou tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LL_parser

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: Başka Dil Değişiklikleri,  Next: Yeni Modüller,  Prev: Yeni Özellikler,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.4 Başka Dil Değişiklikleri
------------------------------

   * *note __import__(): 727. artık *note ImportError: 14b. değerini,
     eskiden göreli bir içe aktarma üst düzey paketini geçtiğinde oluşan
     *note ValueError: 189. yerine yükseltiyor.  ( bpo-37444(1) içinde
     Ngalim Siregar tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * Python artık komut satırında belirtilen betik dosya adının mutlak
     yolunu alıyor (örn: ‘python3 script.py’): *note __main__: 1.
     modülünün ‘__file__’ özniteliği, mutlak bir yol haline geldi.
     göreceli bir yoldan daha.  Bu yollar, geçerli dizin *note
     os.chdir(): 41e. tarafından değiştirildikten sonra artık
     geçerliliğini koruyor.  Bir yan etki olarak geri izleme, bu durumda
     *note __main__: 1. modül çerçeveleri için mutlak yolu da
     görüntüler.  (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-20443(2) ‘de
     katılmıştır.)

   * *note Python Development Mode: 71d. ve *note debug build: 6b9.
     içinde, 'encoding' ve 'errors' argümanları artık dize kodlama ve
     kod çözme işlemleri için kontrol ediliyor.  Örnekler: *note open():
     2a6, *note str.encode(): 728. ve *note bytes.decode(): 729.

     Varsayılan olarak, en iyi performans için 'errors' bağımsız
     değişkeni yalnızca ilk kodlama/kod çözme hatasında kontrol edilir
     ve 'encoding' bağımsız değişkeni bazen boş dizeler için yoksayılır.
     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-37388(3) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ artık sıfır olmayan tüm ‘n’ için boş bir
     dize yerine ‘s’ döndürür.  Artık ‘"".replace("", s)’ ile
     tutarlıdır.  *note bytes: 2cb. ve *note bytearray: 2ca. nesneleri
     için benzer değişiklikler vardır.  (Serhiy Storchaka tarafından
     bpo-28029(4) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * Artık herhangi bir geçerli ifade *note dekoratör: 559. olarak
     kullanılabilir.  Önceden, gramer çok daha kısıtlayıcıydı.
     Ayrıntılar için bkz.  PEP 614(5).  (Brandt Bucher tarafından
     bpo-39702(6) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * *note typing: 104. modülü için yardım iyileştirildi.  doküman
     dizeleri artık tüm özel formlar ve özel genel takma adlar (‘Union’
     ve ‘List’ gibi) için gösteriliyor.  *note help(): 72a. öğesini
     ‘List[int]’ gibi genel takma adla kullanmak, karşılık gelen somut
     tür için yardımı gösterir (bu durumda ‘list’).  ( bpo-40257(7)
     içinde Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * *note aclose(): 72b. / *note asend(): 72c. / *note athrow(): 24b.
     ‘nın paralel çalışması artık yasaklanmıştır ve ‘ag_running’ artık
     zaman uyumsuz oluşturucunun gerçek çalışma durumunu yansıtmaktadır.
     (Yury Selivanov tarafından bpo-30773(8) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * ‘__iter__’ yöntemini çağırmadaki beklenmeyen hatalar artık *note
     in: 26f. operatöründe ve *note operator: 9e. modülünün *note
     contains(): 72d, *note indexOf(): 72e. ve *note countOf(): 72f.
     fonksiyonlarında ‘TypeError’ tarafından maskelenmiyor.  (
     bpo-40824(9) içinde Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * Parantezsiz lambda ifadeleri artık kavramalarda ve üreteç
     ifadelerinde bir ‘if’ yan tümcesinde ifade parçası olamaz.
     Ayrıntılar için bpo-41848(10) ve bpo-43755(11) ‘e bakın.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41848

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755


File: python.info,  Node: Yeni Modüller,  Next: Geliştirilen Modüller,  Prev: Başka Dil Değişiklikleri,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.5 Yeni Modüller
-------------------

* Menu:

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib::


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo,  Next: graphlib,  Up: Yeni Modüller

1.4.5.1 zoneinfo
................

*note zoneinfo: 134. modülü, standart kitaplığa IANA saat dilimi
veritabanı desteği getirir.  Sistemin saat dilimi verileri tarafından
desteklenen somut bir *note datetime.tzinfo: 3e9. uygulaması olan *note
zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 732. ekler.

Örnek:

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> # Daylight saving time
     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00
     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

     >>> # Standard time
     >>> dt += timedelta(days=7)
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-07 12:00:00-08:00
     >>> print(dt.tzname())
     PST

As a fall-back source of data for platforms that don’t ship the IANA
database, the tzdata(1) module was released as a first-party package –
distributed via PyPI and maintained by the CPython core team.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 615(2) – Standart Kitaplıkta IANA Saat Dilimi Veritabanı Desteği

     Paul Ganssle tarafından yazılan ve uygulanan PEP

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib,  Prev: zoneinfo,  Up: Yeni Modüller

1.4.5.2 graphlib
................

Grafiklerin topolojik sıralamasını gerçekleştirmek üzere işlevsellik
sunmak için *note graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 734. sınıfını içeren *note
graphlib: 63. adlı yeni bir modül eklendi.  ( bpo-17005(1) içinde Pablo
Galindo, Tim Peters ve Larry Hastings’in katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005


File: python.info,  Node: Geliştirilen Modüller,  Next: Optimizasyonlar,  Prev: Yeni Modüller,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.6 Geliştirilen Modüller
---------------------------

* Menu:

* ast::
* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* curses: curses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* http::
* IDLE ve idlelib::
* imaplib::
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<3>.
* multiprocessing::
* nntplib::
* os: os<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* pydoc::
* random: random<2>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<3>.
* time: time<2>.
* sys: sys<5>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* xml: xml<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: ast,  Next: asyncio<4>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.1 ast
...........

*note dump(): 737. dosyasına 'indent' seçeneği eklendi, bu da çok
satırlı girintili bir çıktı üretmesini sağlar.  ( bpo-37995(1) içinde
Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

*note ast: 8. modülüne, bir *note ast.AST: 56c. nesnesini ayrıştırmak ve
ayrıştırıldığında eşdeğer bir *note ast.AST: 56c. nesnesi üretecek kod
içeren bir dize üretmek için kullanılabilen bir fonksiyon olarak *note
ast.unparse(): 738. eklendi.  ( bpo-38870(2) ‘de Pablo Galindo ve
Batuhan Taskaya’nın katkısıyla.)

AST düğümlerine, o düğümü oluşturmak için kullanılan ASDL imzasını
içeren doküman dizeleri eklendi.  (Batuhan Taşkaya bpo-39638(3) ‘de
katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<4>,  Next: compileall,  Prev: ast,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.2 asyncio
...............

Önemli güvenlik kaygıları nedeniyle, *note
asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. ‘in 'reuse_address'
parametresi artık desteklenmemektedir.  Bunun nedeni, UDP’deki
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ soket seçeneğinin davranışıdır.  Daha fazla ayrıntı için
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’ belgelerine bakın.  (Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou ve Yury Selivanov’un katkılarıyla bpo-37228(1).)

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. üzerinde kapanışı bitirmeyi bekleyen
varsayılan yürütücü için bir kapatma programlayan yeni bir *note
coroutine: 1b4. *note shutdown_default_executor(): 73a. eklendi.
Ayrıca, *note asyncio.run(): 19d. yeni *note coroutine: 1b4. kelimesini
kullanacak şekilde güncellendi.  (Kyle Stanley tarafından bpo-34037(2)
‘de katılmıştır.)

İşlem dosyası tanımlayıcılarını yoklayan, Linux’a özgü bir çocuk
izleyici uygulaması olan *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 19a. eklendi.
(bpo-38692(3))

Yeni bir *note coroutine: 1b4. *note asyncio.to_thread(): 73b. eklendi.
Olay döngüsünü engellemekten kaçınmak için GÇ’ye bağlı işlevleri ayrı
bir iş parçacığında çalıştırmak için kullanılır ve temel olarak *note
run_in_executor(): 73c. öğesinin doğrudan anahtar sözcük bağımsız
değişkenlerini alabilen üst düzey bir sürümü olarak çalışır.  (
bpo-32309(4) ‘da Kyle Stanley ve Yuri Selivanov tarafından katılmıştır.)

Bir zaman aşımı nedeniyle görevi iptal ederken, *note
asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. şimdi, pozitif zaman aşımlarında olduğu gibi
'timeout' <= 0 olduğunda da iptalin tamamlanmasını bekleyecek.  (
bpo-32751(5) ‘de Elvis Pranskevichus tarafından katılmıştır.)

*note asyncio: a. now raises *note TypeError: 2c4. when calling
incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 73d. socket.
(Contributed by Ido Michael in bpo-37404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404


File: python.info,  Node: compileall,  Next: concurrent futures,  Prev: asyncio<4>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.3 compileall
..................

Yinelenen ‘.pyc’ dosyaları için hardlink kullanma olanağı eklendi:
'hardlink_dupes' parametresi ve –hardlink-dupes komut satırı seçeneği.
(Lumír ‘Frenzy’ Balhar’ın bpo-40495(1) içinde katkısı.)

Ortaya çıkan ‘.pyc’ dosyalarında yol işleme için yeni seçenekler
eklendi: 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' parametreleri ve -s,
-p, -e komut satırı seçenekleri.  Optimizasyon düzeyi seçeneğini birden
çok kez belirleme olanağı eklendi.  (Lumír ‘Frenzy’ Balhar’ın
katkılarıyla bpo-38112(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures,  Next: curses<2>,  Prev: compileall,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.4 concurrent.futures
..........................

*note concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 740. öğesine, yürütücüyü
kapatmadan önce tamamlanmalarını beklemek yerine çalışmaya başlamamış
bekleyen tüm vadeli işlemleri iptal eden yeni bir 'cancel_futures'
parametresi eklendi.  (Kyle Stanley tarafından bpo-39349(1) ‘da
katılmıştır.)

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. ve *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. ‘dan
arka plan programı konuları kaldırıldı.  Bu, alt yorumlayıcılarla
uyumluluğu ve kapatma süreçlerinde öngörülebilirliği geliştirir.  (Kyle
Stanley tarafından bpo-39812(2) ‘de katılmıştır.)

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. içindeki çalışanlar artık talep üzerine,
yalnızca yeniden kullanılacak boş çalışan olmadığında ortaya çıkıyor.
Bu, başlatma yükünü optimize eder ve boşta kalan çalışanlar için
kaybedilen CPU süresini azaltır.  (Kyle Stanley tarafından bpo-39207(3)
‘de katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207


File: python.info,  Node: curses<2>,  Next: datetime<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.5 curses
..............

*note curses.get_escdelay(): 743, *note curses.set_escdelay(): 744,
*note curses.get_tabsize(): 745. ve *note curses.set_tabsize(): 746.
işlevleri eklendi.  (Anthony Sottile tarafından bpo-38312(1) ‘de
katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<2>,  Next: distutils<3>,  Prev: curses<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.6 datetime
................

The *note isocalendar(): 748. of *note datetime.date: 749. and *note
isocalendar(): 74a. of *note datetime.datetime: 22b. methods now returns
a *note namedtuple(): 74b. instead of a *note tuple: 4ff.  (Contributed
by Donghee Na in bpo-24416(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<3>,  Next: fcntl<2>,  Prev: datetime<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.7 distutils
.................

‘upload’ komutu artık SHA2-256 ve Blake2b-256 hash özetleri oluşturuyor.
MD5 özetini engelleyen platformlarda MD5’i atlar.  ( bpo-40698(1) içinde
Christian Heimes tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl<2>,  Next: ftplib<2>,  Prev: distutils<3>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.8 fcntl
.............

Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38602(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<2>,  Next: gc<2>,  Prev: fcntl<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.9 ftplib
..............

*note FTP: 74f. and *note FTP_TLS: 750. now raise a *note ValueError:
189. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: gc<2>,  Next: hashlib<4>,  Prev: ftplib<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.10 gc
...........

Çöp toplayıcı, bazı nesnelerin diriltildiği bir koleksiyon
oluşturduğunda (sonlandırıcılar yürütüldükten sonra yalıtılmış
döngülerin dışından erişilebilirler), hala erişilemeyen tüm nesnelerin
toplanmasını engellemeyin.  ( bpo-38379(1) ‘da Pablo Galindo ve Tim
Peters tarafıdnan eklendi.)

Bir nesnenin çöp toplayıcı tarafından sonlandırılıp sonlandırılmadığını
kontrol etmek için *note gc.is_finalized(): 752. adlı yeni bir işlev
eklendi.  (Pablo Galindo tarafından bpo-39322(2) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<4>,  Next: http,  Prev: gc<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.11 hashlib
................

*note hashlib: 66. modülü artık mevcut olduğunda OpenSSL’den SHA3
karmalarını ve SHAKE XOF’u kullanabilir.  (Christian Heimes tarafından
bpo-37630(1) ‘da katılmıştır.)

Yerleşik karma modüller, OpenSSL tabanlı uygulamanın kullanımını
zorlamak için artık ‘./configure --without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’ ile
devre dışı bırakılabilir veya e.g.  ‘./configure
--with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake2’ ile seçici olarak
etkinleştirilebilir.  (Christian Heimes tarafından bpo-40479(2) ‘da
katılmıştır)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479


File: python.info,  Node: http,  Next: IDLE ve idlelib,  Prev: hashlib<4>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.12 http
.............

HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ and ‘425
TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 755.  (Contributed by
Donghee Na in bpo-39509(1) and Ross Rhodes in bpo-39507(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE ve idlelib,  Next: imaplib,  Prev: http,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.13 IDLE ve idlelib
........................

İmlecin yanıp sönmesini kapatmak için seçenek eklendi.  ( bpo-4603(1)
içinde Zackery Spytz tarafından katılmıştır.)

Escape tuşu artık IDLE tamamlama pencerelerini kapatıyor.  (
bpo-38944(2) içinde Johnny Najera tarafından katılmıştır.)

Modül adı tamamlama listesine anahtar kelimeler eklendi.  ( bpo-37765(3)
içinde Terry J. Reedy tarafından katılmıştır.)

3.9 bakım sürümlerinde yenilikler

IDLE’yi başlatın *note sys.excepthook(): 646. (‘-n’ olmadan
başlatıldığında).  Kullanıcı kancaları daha önce yok sayılırdı.  (
bpo-43008(4) ‘de Ken Hilton tarafından katılmıştır.)

Yukarıdaki değişiklikler 3.8 bakım sürümlerine geri aktarılmıştır.

Ayarlar iletişim kutusunu yeniden düzenleyin.  Genel sekmesini Windows
ve Kabuk/Ed sekmelerine ayırın.  Yardım menüsünü genişleten yardım
kaynaklarını Uzantılar sekmesine taşıyın.  Yeni seçenekler için yer açın
ve iletişim kutusunu kısaltın.  İkincisi, iletişim kutusunu küçük
ekranlara daha iyi sığdırır.  ( bpo-40468(5) içinde Terry Jan Reedy
tarafından katılmıştır.)  Girinti alanı ayarını Yazı Tipi sekmesinden
yeni Windows sekmesine taşıyın.  (Mark Roseman ve Terry Jan Reedy
tarafından bpo-33962(6) ‘de katılmıştır.)

‘.pyi’ dosyalarına vurgulama sözdizimi uygulayın.  ( bpo-45447(7) içinde
Alex Waygood ve Terry Jan Reedy tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib,  Next: importlib<2>,  Prev: IDLE ve idlelib,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.14 imaplib
................

*note IMAP4: 758. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 759. now have an optional
'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the *note open():
75a. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter with this change.
The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 759. and *note IMAP4_stream:
75b. were applied to this change.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-38615(1).)

*note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 75c. is added.  *note
imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 75c. frees server’s resources associated with
the selected mailbox and returns the server to the authenticated state.
This command performs the same actions as *note imaplib.IMAP4.close():
75d, except that no messages are permanently removed from the currently
selected mailbox.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40375(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<2>,  Next: inspect<4>,  Prev: imaplib,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.15 importlib
..................

İçe aktarma ifadeleriyle tutarlılığı artırmak için *note
importlib.util.resolve_name(): 75f. artık geçersiz göreli içe aktarma
girişimleri için *note ValueError: 189. yerine *note ImportError: 14b.
değerini yükseltiyor.  ( bpo-37444(1) içinde Ngalim Siregar tarafından
katılmıştır.)

Değişmez modül nesnelerini yayınlayan içe aktarma yükleyicileri artık
bağımsız modüllere ek olarak değişmez paketleri de yayınlayabilir.
(Dino Viehland tarafından bpo-39336(2) ‘da katılmıştır.)

Paket verilerindeki alt dizinleri destekleyen, ‘importlib_resources’
sürüm 1.5’te backport ile eşleşen *note importlib.resources.files():
1b1. işlevi eklendi.  (Jason R. Coombs’un bpo-39791(3) ‘deki
katkılarıyla.)

‘importlib_metadata’ sürüm 1.6.1’den ‘importlib.metadata’ yenilendi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<4>,  Next: ipaddress<2>,  Prev: importlib<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.16 inspect
................

*note inspect.BoundArguments.arguments: 761, ‘OrderedDict’ yerine normal
dict olarak değiştirildi.  ( bpo-36350(1) ve bpo-39775(2) içinde Inada
Naoki tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<2>,  Next: math<3>,  Prev: inspect<4>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.17 ipaddress
..................

‘ipadresi’ artık IPv6 Kapsamlı Adresleri (‘%<scope_id>’ sonekine sahip
IPv6 adresi) desteklemektedir.

Kapsamlı IPv6 adresleri *note ipaddress.IPv6Address: 763. kullanılarak
ayrıştırılabilir.  Varsa, kapsam bölgesi kimliği *note scope_id: 764.
özelliği aracılığıyla kullanılabilir.  (Oleksandr Pavliuk tarafından
bpo-34788(1) ‘de katılmıştır.)

Python 3.9.5’ten itibaren *note ipaddress: 7e. modülü artık IPv4 adres
dizelerinde baştaki sıfırları kabul etmemektedir.  ( bpo-36384(2) içinde
Christian Heimes tarafından katılmıştır).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: math<3>,  Next: multiprocessing,  Prev: ipaddress<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.18 math
.............

Birden çok argümanı işlemek için *note math.gcd(): 766. işlevi
genişletildi.  Önceden, yalnızca iki argümanı destekliyordu.  (
bpo-39648(1) içinde Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

*note math.lcm(): 767. eklendi: belirtilen bağımsız değişkenlerin en
küçük ortak katını döndürür.  ( bpo-39479(2) ve bpo-39648(3) ‘de Mark
Dickinson, Ananthakrishnan ve Serhiy Storchaka’nın katkılarıyla.)

Eklenen *note math.nextafter(): 1bd.: 'x'’ten sonra 'y'’ye doğru bir
sonraki kayan nokta değerini döndürür.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
bpo-39288(4) ‘de katılmıştır.)

Eklenen *note math.ulp(): 768.: bir kayan noktanın en önemsiz bitinin
değerini döndürür.  (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-39310(5) ‘da
katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing,  Next: nntplib,  Prev: math<3>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.19 multiprocessing
........................

*note multiprocessing.SimpleQueue: 76a. sınıfı, kuyruğu açıkça kapatmak
için yeni bir *note close(): 76b. yöntemine sahiptir.  (Victor Stinner
tarafından bpo-30966(1) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib,  Next: os<4>,  Prev: multiprocessing,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.20 nntplib
................

*note NNTP: 76d. and *note NNTP_SSL: 76e. now raise a *note ValueError:
189. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: os<4>,  Next: pathlib<4>,  Prev: nntplib,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.21 os
...........

Added *note CLD_KILLED: 770. and *note CLD_STOPPED: 771. for ‘si_code’.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38493(1).)

Exposed the Linux-specific *note os.pidfd_open(): 19b. (bpo-38692(2))
and *note os.P_PIDFD: 772. (bpo-38713(3)) for process management with
file descriptors.

*note os.unsetenv(): 773. işlevi artık Windows’ta da mevcuttur.  (Victor
Stinner tarafından bpo-39413(4) ‘de katılmıştır.)

*note os.putenv(): 774. ve *note os.unsetenv(): 773. fonksiyonları artık
her zaman kullanılabilir.  (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-39395(5) ‘de
katılmıştır.)

*note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. fonksiyonu eklendi: bekleme
durumunu çıkış koduna dönüştürün.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
bpo-40094(6) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<4>,  Next: pdb<2>,  Prev: os<4>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.22 pathlib
................

Added *note pathlib.Path.readlink(): 777. which acts similarly to *note
os.readlink(): 778.  (Contributed by Girts Folkmanis in bpo-30618(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<2>,  Next: poplib,  Prev: pathlib<4>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.23 pdb
............

Artık Windows’ta *note Pdb: 77a. ‘~/.pdbrc’ desteklemektedir.  (
bpo-20523(1) içinde Tim Hopper ve Dan Lidral-Porter tarafından
katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523


File: python.info,  Node: poplib,  Next: pprint<2>,  Prev: pdb<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.24 poplib
...............

*note POP3: 77c. and *note POP3_SSL: 77d. now raise a *note ValueError:
189. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<2>,  Next: pydoc,  Prev: poplib,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.25 pprint
...............

*note pprint: ad. artık *note types.SimpleNamespace: 77f. güzel
yazdırabilir.  (Carl Bordum Hansen tarafından bpo-37376(1) ‘da
katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc,  Next: random<2>,  Prev: pprint<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.26 pydoc
..............

The documentation string is now shown not only for class, function,
method etc, but for any object that has its own *note __doc__: 781.
attribute.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257


File: python.info,  Node: random<2>,  Next: signal,  Prev: pydoc,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.27 random
...............

Yeni bir ‘random.Random.randbytes’ yöntemi eklendi: rastgele baytlar
oluştur.  (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-40286(1) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286


File: python.info,  Node: signal,  Next: smtplib,  Prev: random<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.28 signal
...............

Bir pid yerine bir dosya tanımlayıcı kullanarak bir işleme sinyal
göndermek için Linux’a özgü *note signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 784.
ortaya çıktı.  (bpo-38712(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib,  Next: socket<3>,  Prev: signal,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.29 smtplib
................

*note SMTP: 786. and *note SMTP_SSL: 787. now raise a *note ValueError:
189. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

*note LMTP: 788. constructor now has an optional 'timeout' parameter.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39329(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329


File: python.info,  Node: socket<3>,  Next: time<2>,  Prev: smtplib,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.30 socket
...............

The *note socket: cb. module now exports the *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS:
78a. constant on Linux 4.1 and greater.  (Contributed by Stefan
Tatschner and Zackery Spytz in bpo-25780(1).)

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_J1939: 78b. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Karl Ding in bpo-40291(2).)

Soket modülü artık *note socket.send_fds(): 78c. ve *note
socket.recv_fds(): 78d. fonksiyonlarına sahiptir.  (Joannah Nanjekye,
Shinya Okano ve Victor Stinner’ın katkılarıyla bpo-28724(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724


File: python.info,  Node: time<2>,  Next: sys<5>,  Prev: socket<3>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.31 time
.............

AIX üzerinde *note thread_time(): 78f. artık 10 milisaniye çözünürlüğe
sahip ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ yerine nanosaniye
çözünürlüğe sahip ‘thread_cputime()’ ile uygulanmaktadır.  (Batuhan
Taşkaya bpo-40192(1) ‘de katılmıştır)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192


File: python.info,  Node: sys<5>,  Next: tracemalloc,  Prev: time<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.32 sys
............

Added a new *note sys.platlibdir: 791. attribute: name of the
platform-specific library directory.  It is used to build the path of
standard library and the paths of installed extension modules.  It is
equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to
‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl,
Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

Previously, *note sys.stderr: 792. was block-buffered when
non-interactive.  Now ‘stderr’ defaults to always being line-buffered.
(Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc,  Next: typing<4>,  Prev: sys<5>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.33 tracemalloc
....................

İzlenen bellek bloklarının tepe boyutunu geçerli boyuta ayarlamak ve
belirli kod parçalarının zirvesini ölçmek için *note
tracemalloc.reset_peak(): 794. eklendi.  (Huon Wilson tarafından
bpo-40630(1) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40630


File: python.info,  Node: typing<4>,  Next: unicodedata<3>,  Prev: tracemalloc,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.34 typing
...............

PEP 593(1), mevcut türleri bağlama özel meta verilerle süslemek için bir
*note typing.Annotated: 796. tipi ve çalışma zamanında meta verilere
erişmek için *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. için yeni
‘include_extras’ parametresini tanıttı.  (Till Varoquaux ve Konstantin
Kashin’in katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<3>,  Next: venv<2>,  Prev: typing<4>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.35 unicodedata
....................

Unicode veritabanı 13.0.0 sürümüne güncellendi.  (bpo-39926(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926


File: python.info,  Node: venv<2>,  Next: xml<2>,  Prev: unicodedata<3>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.36 venv
.............

*note venv: 111. tarafından sağlanan aktivasyon betiklerinin tümü artık
istem özelleştirmelerini her zaman ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ tarafından
belirtilen değeri kullanarak tutarlı bir şekilde belirtiyor.  Önceden
bazı komut dosyaları koşulsuz olarak ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ kullandı,
diğerleri yalnızca ayarlandıysa (varsayılan durum buydu) ve biri bunun
yerine ‘__VENV_NAME__’ kullanıyordu.  ( bpo-37663(1) içinde Brett Cannon
tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663


File: python.info,  Node: xml<2>,  Prev: venv<2>,  Up: Geliştirilen Modüller

1.4.6.37 xml
............

Nitelikler içindeki boşluk karakterleri artık *note
xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. XML dosyasına serileştirilirken korunur.
EOLN’ler artık “n” olarak normalleştirilmez.  Bu, XML spesifikasyonunun
2.11 bölümünün nasıl yorumlanacağına ilişkin tartışmanın sonucudur.  (
bpo-39011(1) içinde Mefistotelis tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizasyonlar,  Next: Deprecated<7>,  Prev: Geliştirilen Modüller,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.7 Optimizasyonlar
---------------------

   * Kavramalarda geçici bir değişken atamak için deyim optimize edildi.
     Şimdi ‘for y in [expr]’, basit bir ‘y = expr’ ataması kadar
     hızlıdır.  Örneğin:

          sums = [s for s in [0] for x in data for s in [s + x]]

     ‘:=’ operatörünün aksine bu deyim, dış kapsama bir değişken
     sızdırmaz.

     ( bpo-32856(1) içinde Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * Çok iş parçacıklı uygulamalarda optimize edilmiş sinyal işleme.
     Ana iş parçacığından farklı bir iş parçacığı bir sinyal alırsa,
     işlenemeyen bekleyen sinyalleri kontrol etmek için bayt kodu
     değerlendirme döngüsü artık her bayt kodu talimatında kesintiye
     uğramaz.  Yalnızca ana yorumlayıcının ana iş parçacığı sinyalleri
     işleyebilir.

     Önceden, bayt kodu değerlendirme döngüsü, ana iş parçacığı
     sinyalleri işleyene kadar her komutta kesintiye uğruyordu.  (Victor
     Stinner tarafından bpo-40010(2) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * *note subprocess: d5. modülünü FreeBSD’de ‘closefrom()’ kullanarak
     optimize etti.  ( bpo-38061(3) ‘de Ed Maste, Conrad Meyer, Kyle
     Evans, Kubilay Koçak ve Victor Stinner’ın katkılarıyla.)

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 79b, long değerine uyan değerler için
     artık 1,87 kata kadar daha hızlı.  (Sergey Fedoseev tarafından
     bpo-37986(4) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * A number of Python builtins (*note range: 79c, *note tuple: 4ff,
     *note set: 3e4, *note frozenset: 3e5, *note list: 422, *note dict:
     240.) are now sped up by using PEP 590(5) vectorcall protocol.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na, Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer and Petr
     Viktorin in bpo-37207(6).)

   * Diğer kümenin temel kümeden çok daha büyük olduğu durumlar için
     ‘difference_update()’ optimize edildi.  ( bpo-8425(7) içinde
     Michele Orrù tarafından sağlanan kodla Evgeny Kapun tarafından
     önerilmiştir.)

   * Python’un küçük nesne ayırıcısı (‘obmalloc.c’) artık (1’den fazla
     değil) bir boş arenanın işletim sistemine döndürmeden anında
     yeniden kullanım için kullanılabilir kalmasına izin veriyor.  Bu,
     her yinelemede bir arenanın yeniden yaratılıp yok edilebileceği
     basit döngülerde çarpışmayı önler.  ( bpo-37257(8) içinde Tim
     Peters tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * *note floor division: 79d. of float operation now has a better
     performance.  Also the message of *note ZeroDivisionError: 79e. for
     this operation is updated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-39434(9).)

   * UTF-8 ve ascii codec’leriyle kısa ASCII dizilerinin kodunu çözmek
     artık yaklaşık %15 daha hızlı.  (Inada Naoki tarafından
     bpo-37348(10) ‘de katılmıştır.)

İşte Python 3.4’ten Python 3.9’a kadar olan performans
iyileştirmelerinin bir özeti:

     Python version                       3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8    3.9
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---    ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9    3.9
         read_nonlocal                    7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4    4.5
         read_global                     15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6    7.8
         read_builtin                    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5    7.8
         read_classvar_from_class        25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4   17.9
         read_classvar_from_instance     22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4   16.9
         read_instancevar                32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4   25.3
         read_instancevar_slots          27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2   20.5
         read_namedtuple                 73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4   18.7
         read_boundmethod                37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7   41.1

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3    4.3
         write_nonlocal                  10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7    4.8
         write_global                    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8   16.7
         write_classvar                  92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2   39.8
         write_instancevar               44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5   37.4
         write_instancevar_slots         35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7   25.8

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0   19.5
         read_deque                      24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8   20.2
         read_dict                       24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0   22.4
         read_strdict                    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9   21.5

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0   20.0
         write_deque                     28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5   21.7
         write_dict                      31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7   25.4
         write_strdict                   28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1   24.5

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                 93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8   50.6
         deque_append_pop                43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5   44.2
         deque_append_popleft            43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8   46.4

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3    0.3

These results were generated from the variable access benchmark script
at: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  The benchmark script
displays timings in nanoseconds.  The benchmarks were measured on an
Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(11) running the macOS 64-bit builds
found at python.org(12).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (11) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (12) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<7>,  Next: Kaldırılanlar,  Prev: Optimizasyonlar,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.8 Deprecated
----------------

   * Distutils ‘bdist_msi’ komutu artık kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır,
     bunun yerine ‘bdist_wheel’ (tekerlek paketleri) kullanın.  (
     bpo-39586(1) içinde Hugo van Kemenade tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * Şu anda *note math.factorial(): 7a0, negatif olmayan tamsayı
     değerleri olan (‘5.0’ gibi) *note float: 272. örneklerini kabul
     eder.  İntegral olmayan ve negatif dalgalanmalar için bir *note
     ValueError: 189. oluşturur.  Artık kullanımdan kaldırıldı.
     Gelecekteki Python sürümlerinde, tüm değişkenler için bir *note
     TypeError: 2c4. oluşturacaktır.  ( bpo-37315(2) içinde Serhiy
     Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * The ‘parser’ and ‘symbol’ modules are deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.  For the majority of use
     cases, users can leverage the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generation
     and compilation stage, using the *note ast: 8. module.

   * The Public C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags()’ and ‘PyNode_Compile()’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.10 together with the old
     parser.

   * Bir boole bağlamında *note NotImplemented: 60b. kullanmak,
     neredeyse tamamen yanlış zengin karşılaştırıcı uygulamalarının bir
     sonucu olduğu için kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.  Python’un
     gelecekteki bir sürümünde *note TypeError: 2c4. haline
     getirilecektir.  ( bpo-35712(3) içinde Josh Rosenberg tarafından
     katılmıştır.)

   * *note random: b7. modülü şu anda herhangi bir hashable türünü olası
     bir tohum değeri olarak kabul ediyor.  Ne yazık ki, bu türlerden
     bazılarının deterministik bir hash değerine sahip olduğu garanti
     edilmiyor.  Python 3.9’dan sonra, modül tohumlarını *note None:
     488, *note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note str: 15d, *note bytes:
     2cb. ve *note bytearray: 2ca. ilesınırlayacaktır.

   * *note GzipFile: 296. dosyasının 'mode' bağımsız değişkeni
     belirtilmeden yazmak için açılması kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.
     Gelecekteki Python sürümlerinde, her zaman varsayılan olarak okumak
     için açılacaktır.  Bir uyarı yazmak ve susturmak için açmak için
     'mode' argümanını belirtin.  ( bpo-28286(4) içinde Serhiy Storchaka
     tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * Deprecated the ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour
     of the ‘splitlist()’ method which has more consistent and
     predictable behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-38371(5).)

   * Eşyordam nesnelerinin açıkça *note asyncio.wait(): 1a0. öğesine
     iletilmesi kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır ve sürüm 3.11’de
     kaldırılacaktır.  (Yury Selivanov ve Kyle Stanley tarafından
     bpo-34790(6) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * binhex4 and hexbin4 standards are now deprecated.  The ‘binhex’
     module and the following *note binascii: 10. functions are now
     deprecated:

        * ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’

     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-39353(7) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * *note ast: 8. sınıfları ‘slice’, ‘Index’ ve ‘ExtSlice’ kullanımdan
     kaldırılmış kabul edilir ve gelecekteki Python sürümlerinde
     kaldırılacaktır.  ‘Index(value)’ yerine ‘value’ kullanılmalıdır.
     ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ yerine ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’ kullanılmalıdır.
     ( bpo-34822(8) içinde Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * *note ast: 8. sınıfları ‘Suite’, ‘Param’, ‘AugLoad’ ve ‘AugStore’
     kullanımdan kaldırılmış kabul edilir ve gelecekteki Python
     sürümlerinde kaldırılacaktır.  Ayrıştırıcı tarafından
     üretilmemişler ve Python 3’teki kod üreteci tarafından kabul
     edilmemişler.  (bpo-39639(9) ve bpo-39969(10) ‘da Batuhan
     Taşkaya’nın ve bpo-39988(11) ‘deki Serhiy Storchaka’nın
     katkılarıyla.)

   * The ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’
     functions are now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.11.
     Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now does nothing.  The *note GIL:
     6fa. is initialized by *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. since Python
     3.7.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39877(12).)

   * *note shlex.split(): 2c8. işlevine ilk bağımsız değişken olarak
     ‘None’ geçirmek kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.  ( bpo-33262(13) içinde
     Zackery Spytz tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy()’ is now deprecated as it is unusable without
     an external module, ‘mailman’.  (Contributed by Samuel Colvin in
     bpo-35800(14).)

   * *note lib2to3: 83. modülü artık bir *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. yayar.  Python 3.9, bir PEG
     ayrıştırıcısına geçti (bkz.  PEP 617(15)) ve Python 3.10,
     lib2to3’ün LL(1) ayrıştırıcısı tarafından ayrıştırılamayan yeni dil
     sözdizimini içerebilir.  ‘lib2to3’ modülü, gelecekteki bir Python
     sürümünde standart kitaplıktan kaldırılabilir.  LibCST(16) veya
     parso(17) gibi üçüncü taraf alternatiflerini göz önünde bulundurun.
     (Carl Meyer tarafından bpo-40360(18) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * *note random.shuffle(): 573. öğesinin 'random' parametresi
     kullanımdan kaldırıldı.  (Katkı:Raymond Hettinger tarafından
     bpo-40465(19))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (16) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (17) https://parso.readthedocs.io/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465


File: python.info,  Node: Kaldırılanlar,  Next: Python 3 9’a Taşıma,  Prev: Deprecated<7>,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.9 Kaldırılanlar
-------------------

   * The erroneous version at ‘unittest.mock.__version__’ has been
     removed.

   * *note nntplib.NNTP: 76d.: ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’ methods have
     been removed.  These methods are deprecated since Python 3.3.
     Generally, these extensions are not supported or not enabled by
     NNTP server administrators.  For ‘xgtitle()’, please use *note
     nntplib.NNTP.descriptions(): 7a2. or *note
     nntplib.NNTP.description(): 7a3. instead.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na in bpo-39366(1).)

   * *note array.array: 195.: ‘tostring()’ ve ‘fromstring()’ yöntemleri
     kaldırıldı.  Bunlar, Python 3.2’den beri kullanımda olmayan
     ‘tobytes()’ ve ‘frombytes()’ takma adlarıydı.  (Victor Stinner
     tarafından bpo-38916(2) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * Belgelenmemiş ‘sys.callstats()’ fonksiyonu kaldırıldı.  Python
     3.7’den beri kullanımdan kaldırıldı ve her zaman *note None: 488.
     döndürdü.  Python 3.7’de zaten kaldırılmış olan ‘CALL_PROFILE’ adlı
     özel bir derleme seçeneği gerektiriyordu.  (Victor Stinner
     tarafından bpo-37414(3) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ ve ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ işlevleri
     kaldırıldı.  Python 3.2’den beri kullanımdan kaldırıldılar.  Bunun
     yerine *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 7a4. ve *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): 7a5. kullanın.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
     bpo-37392(4) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * ‘PyImport_Cleanup()’ C işlevi kaldırıldı.  Şu şekilde
     belgelenmiştir: “Modül tablosunu boşaltın.  Yalnızca dahili
     kullanım için.” (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-36710(5) ‘da
     katılmıştır.)

   * ‘_dummy_thread’ ve ‘dummy_threading’ modülleri kaldırıldı.  Bu
     modüller, iş parçacığı desteği gerektiren Python 3.7’den beri
     kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
     bpo-37312(6) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’, ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to
     ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias to *note wave.open():
     7a6. have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37320(7).)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 7a7. has been
     removed.  It was deprecated since Python 3.8.  Use *note
     is_alive(): 7a8. instead.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-37804(8).)

   * *note ElementTree: 125. modülündeki *note ElementTree: 7a9. ve
     *note Element: 247. sınıflarının ‘getchildren()’ ve ‘getiterator()’
     yöntemleri kaldırıldı .  Python 3.2’de kullanımdan kaldırıldılar.
     ‘x.getchildren()’ yerine ‘iter(x)’ ve ‘x.getiterator()’ yerine
     ‘x.iter()’ veya ‘list(x.iter())’ kullanın.  ( bpo-36543(9) içinde
     Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * Eski *note plistlib: aa. API’si kaldırıldı, Python 3.4’ten beri
     kullanımdan kaldırıldı.  *note load(): 7aa, *note loads(): 7ab,
     *note dump(): 7ac. ve *note dumps(): 7ad. işlevlerini kullanın.  Ek
     olarak, 'use_builtin_types' parametresi kaldırıldı, bunun yerine
     her zaman standart *note bytes: 2cb. nesneleri kullanıldı.  (Jon
     Janzen tarafından bpo-36409(10) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ C işlevi kaldırıldı.  PEP 442(11)
     uygulandıktan sonra CPython içinde herhangi bir yerde belgelenmedi,
     test edilmedi veya kullanılmadı.  Yama Joannah Nanjekye tarafından.
     (Joannah Nanjekye tarafından bpo-15088(12) ‘de katılmıştır)

   * Python 3.1’den beri kullanımdan kaldırılan ‘base64.encodestring()’
     ve ‘base64.decodestring()’ takma adları kaldırıldı: bunun yerine
     *note base64.encodebytes(): 7ae. ve *note base64.decodebytes():
     7af. kullanın.  (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-39351(13) ‘de
     katılmıştır.)

   * ‘fractions.gcd()’ işlevi kaldırıldı, Python 3.5’ten beri
     kullanımdan kaldırıldı (bpo-22486(14)): bunun yerine *note
     math.gcd(): 766. kullanın.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
     bpo-39350(15) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. öğesinin 'buffering' parametresi
     kaldırıldı.  Python 3.0’dan bu yana yok sayıldı ve kullanıldığında
     bir *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. yaydı.  Dosyanın nasıl
     açılacağını kontrol etmek için bir açık dosya nesnesi iletin.
     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-39357(16) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * *note json.loads(): 7b0. öğesinin 'encoding' parametresi
     kaldırıldı.  Python 3.1’den itibaren kullanımdan kaldırıldı ve göz
     ardı edildi; onu kullanmak Python 3.8’den beri bir *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. yayınladı.  (Inada Naoki’nin katkılarıyla
     bpo-39377(17))

   * ‘with (awat asyncio.lock):’ ve ‘with (get from asyncio.lock):’
     ifadeleri artık desteklenmemektedir, bunun yerine ‘async with lock’
     kullanın.  Aynı şey ‘asyncio.Condition’ ve ‘asyncio.Semaphore’ için
     de geçerlidir.  (Andrew Svetlov tarafından bpo-34793(18) ‘de
     katılmıştır.)

   * The ‘sys.getcounts()’ function, the ‘-X showalloccount’ command
     line option and the ‘show_alloc_count’ field of the C structure
     *note PyConfig: 34f. have been removed.  They required a special
     Python build by defining ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ macro.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(19).)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 202. sınıfının ‘_field_types’ özniteliği
     kaldırıldı.  Python 3.8’den beri kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.  Bunun
     yerine ‘__annotations__’ özelliğini kullanın.  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-40182(20) ‘deki katkısıyla)

   * The ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’ method has been removed.  It
     was deprecated since 2006, and only returning ‘False’ when it’s
     called.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40208(21))

   * The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’
     have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7 and you
     can use *note asyncio.current_task(): 19e. and *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 7b1. instead.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in
     bpo-40967(22))

   * *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc. sınıfındaki ‘unescape()’ metodu
     kaldırıldı (Python 3.4’ten beri kullanımdan kaldırıldı).  *note
     html.unescape(): 7b2, karakter referanslarını karşılık gelen
     unicode karakterlere dönüştürmek için kullanılmalıdır.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36710

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36409

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9’a Taşıma,  Next: Yapı Değişiklikleri,  Prev: Kaldırılanlar,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.10 Python 3.9’a Taşıma
--------------------------

Bu bölüm, daha önce açıklanan değişiklikleri ve kodunuzda değişiklik
gerektirebilecek diğer hata düzeltmelerini listeler.

* Menu:

* Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler::
* C API’sindeki değişiklikler::
* CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri::


File: python.info,  Node: Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler,  Next: C API’sindeki değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 9’a Taşıma

1.4.10.1 Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler
.........................................

   * *note __import__(): 727. ve *note importlib.util.resolve_name():
     75f. şimdi daha önce *note ValueError: 189. oluşturduğu yerde *note
     ImportError: 14b. ‘u yükseltiyor.  Belirli istisna türünü yakalayan
     ve hem Python 3.9 hem de önceki sürümleri destekleyen arayanların,
     ‘except (ImportError, ValueError):’ kullanarak her ikisini de
     yakalaması gerekir.

   * *note venv: 111. etkinleştirme betikleri, ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ ‘""’
     olarak ayarlandığında artık özel durum değildir.

   * The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 7b5. method no longer ignores
     the *note EBADF: 7b6. error.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39239(1).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. öğesinin 'compresslevel' parametresi,
     'buffering' parametresi kaldırıldığı için yalnızca anahtar kelime
     haline geldi.  (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-39357(2) ‘de
     katılmıştır.)

   * Abonelik için basitleştirilmiş AST. Basit indeksler değerleri ile
     temsil edilecek, genişletilmiş dilimler demetler olarak temsil
     edilecektir.  ‘Index(value)’, bir ‘value’ döndürür,
     ‘ExtSlice(slices)’, ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’ döndürür.  (
     bpo-34822(3) ile Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * *note importlib: 75. modülü artık *note -E: 7b7. veya *note -I:
     7b8. komut satırı seçenekleri kullanılırken *note PYTHONCASEOK:
     7b9. ortam değişkenini yok sayar.

   * 'kodlama' parametresi *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. ve *note
     ftplib.FTP_TLS: 750. sınıflarına yalnızca anahtar kelime
     parametresi olarak eklendi ve varsayılan kodlama Latin-1’den
     UTF-8’e değiştirilerek RFC 2640(4) olarak değiştirildi .

   * *note asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 73a, *note
     AbstractEventLoop: 7ba. öğesine eklendi, yani ondan devralan
     alternatif olay döngülerinde bu yöntem tanımlanmalıdır.  (Kyle
     Stanley tarafından bpo-34037(5) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * *note __future__: 0. modülündeki gelecek bayraklarının sabit
     değerleri, derleyici bayraklarıyla çarpışmayı önlemek için
     güncellenir.  Daha önce ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’,
     ‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’ ile çakışıyordu.  (Batuhan Taskaya
     bpo-39562(6) ‘de katılmıştır)

   * ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C type instead of ‘Py_UNICODE’.
     This change doesn’t affect to its behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is
     alias of ‘wchar_t’ since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-34538(7).)

   * *note logging.getLogger(): 7bb. API’si artık ‘root'’ adı
     iletildiğinde kök kaydediciyi döndürürken, daha önce ‘'root'’ adlı
     kök olmayan bir günlükçü döndürdü.  Bu, kullanıcı kodunun ‘'root'’
     adlı kök olmayan bir günlükçüyü açıkça istediği veya ‘'root.py'’
     adlı bazı üst düzey modüllerde ‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’
     kullanarak bir günlükçü başlattığı durumları etkileyebilir.  (
     bpo-37742(8) içinde Vinay Sajip tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * Division handling of *note PurePath: 1ce. now returns *note
     NotImplemented: 60b. instead of raising a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     when passed something other than an instance of ‘str’ or *note
     PurePath: 1ce.  This allows creating compatible classes that don’t
     inherit from those mentioned types.  (Contributed by Roger Aiudi in
     bpo-34775(9)).

   * Python 3.9.5’ten itibaren *note ipaddress: 7e. modülü artık IPv4
     adres dizilerinde baştaki sıfırları kabul etmemektedir.  Öndeki
     sıfırlar belirsizdir ve bazı kitaplıklar tarafından sekizli
     gösterim olarak yorumlanır.  Örneğin, eski işlev *note
     socket.inet_aton(): 7bc. baştaki sıfırları sekizli gösterim olarak
     ele alır.  Modern *note inet_pton(): 7bd. glibc uygulaması baştaki
     sıfırları kabul etmez.  ( bpo-36384(10) içinde Christian Heimes
     tarafından katılmıştır).

   * *note codecs.lookup(): 7be. artık kodlama adını
     ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’ ile aynı şekilde normalleştirir,
     ancak *note codecs.lookup(): 7be. ayrıca adı küçük harfe
     dönüştürür.  Örneğin, ‘"latex+latin1"’ kodlama adı artık
     ‘"latex_latin1"’ olarak normalleştirildi.  ( bpo-37751(11) ‘de
     Jordon Xu tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34538

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751


File: python.info,  Node: C API’sindeki değişiklikler,  Next: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri,  Prev: Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 9’a Taşıma

1.4.10.2 C API’sindeki değişiklikler
....................................

   * *note heap-allocated type: 7c0. örnekleri ( *note
     PyType_FromSpec(): 316. ve benzer API’ler ile oluşturulanlar gibi),
     Python 3.8’den bu yana tür nesnesine bir başvuru içerir.  Python
     3.8’in “C API’sindeki Değişiklikler” bölümünde belirtildiği gibi,
     vakaların büyük çoğunluğu için herhangi bir yan etki olmamalıdır,
     ancak özel bir *note tp_traverse: 5ae. ‘ya sahip türler için tüm
     özel ‘tp_traverse’ yığın işlevlerinin yapıldığından emin olun.
     tahsis edilen tipler, nesnenin tipini ziyaret eder.

          Örnek:

               int
               foo_traverse(foo_struct *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) {
               // Rest of the traverse function
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (Python issue 35810 and 40217)
                   Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
               #endif
               }

     Geçiş işleviniz, temel sınıfının (veya başka bir türün)
     ‘tp_traverse’ için yetkisini veriyorsa, ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ öğesinin
     yalnızca bir kez ziyaret edildiğinden emin olun.  Yalnızca *note
     heap type: 7c0. ‘ın ‘tp_traverse’ içindeki tipi ziyaret etmesinin
     beklendiğini unutmayın.

          Örneğin, ‘tp_traverse’ işleviniz aşağıdakileri içeriyorsa:

               base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

          then add:

               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (bpo-35810 and bpo-40217)
                   if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
                       // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
                   } else {
                       Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
                   }
               #else

     (Daha fazla bilgi için bkz.  bpo-35810(1) ve bpo-40217(2).)

   * ‘PyEval_CallObject’, ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ ve
     ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ işlevleri kullanımdan
     kaldırılmıştır.  Bunun yerine *note PyObject_Call(): 7c1. ve
     türevlerini kullanın.  (Daha fazla ayrıntı için bpo-29548(3)
     konusuna bakın.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri,  Prev: C API’sindeki değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 9’a Taşıma

1.4.10.3 CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri
.........................................

   * *note LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR: 7c3. işlem kodu, *note assert: 7c4.
     ifadesini işlemek için eklendi.  Önceden, *note AssertionError:
     4bf. istisnası gölgeleniyorsa, iddia ifadesi düzgün çalışmıyordu.
     ( bpo-34880(1) içinde Zackery Spytz tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * *note COMPARE_OP: 7c5. işlem kodu dört farklı talimata bölünmüştür:

        * Zengin karşılaştırmalar için ‘COMPARE_OP’

        * ‘-dir’ ve ‘değildir’ testleri için ‘IS_OP’

        * ‘İçeride’ ve ‘içeride değil’ testleri için ‘CONTAINS_OP’

        * ‘try-except’ ifadelerindeki istisnaları kontrol etmek için
          ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’.

     (Mark Shannon tarafından bpo-39156(2) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156


File: python.info,  Node: Yapı Değişiklikleri,  Next: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>,  Prev: Python 3 9’a Taşıma,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.11 Yapı Değişiklikleri
--------------------------

   * Added ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the ‘configure’ script: name of
     the platform-specific library directory, stored in the new *note
     sys.platlibdir: 791. attribute.  See *note sys.platlibdir: 791.
     attribute for more information.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj
     Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

   * ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ özel yapı makrosu kaldırıldı.  (Victor Stinner
     tarafından bpo-39489(2) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and ‘unsetenv()’ functions
     are now required to build Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-39395(3).)

   * Windows dışı platformlarda, ‘bdist_wininst’ yükleyicilerin
     oluşturulması artık resmi olarak desteklenmemektedir.  (Daha fazla
     ayrıntı için bkz.  bpo-10945(4).)

   * Python’u macOS’ta kaynaktan derlerken, ‘_tkinter’, macOS’un eski
     sürümlerinde olduğu gibi, ‘/Library/Frameworks’ içine
     yüklenmişlerse artık sistem dışı Tcl ve Tk çerçeveleriyle bağlantı
     kuruyor.  Bir macOS SDK, *note -enable-universalsdk: 7c7. veya
     ‘-isysroot’ kullanılarak açıkça yapılandırılmışsa, yalnızca SDK’nın
     kendisi aranır.  Varsayılan davranış yine de
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ ve ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ ile geçersiz
     kılınabilir.  ( bpo-34956(5) içinde Ned Deily tarafından
     katılmıştır.)

   * Python can now be built for Windows 10 ARM64.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in bpo-33125(6).)

   * ‘--pgo’ kullanıldığında bazı bireysel testler artık atlanıyor.  Söz
     konusu testler, PGO görev süresini önemli ölçüde artırdı ve
     muhtemelen nihai yürütülebilir dosyanın optimizasyonunun
     iyileştirilmesine yardımcı olmadı.  Bu, görevi yaklaşık 15 kat
     hızlandırır.  Tam birim test paketini çalıştırmak yavaştır.  Bu
     değişiklik, çok fazla kod dalı yürütülmeyeceğinden biraz daha az
     optimize edilmiş bir yapıya neden olabilir.  Çok daha yavaş olan
     yapıyı beklemek istiyorsanız, ‘./configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m
     test --pgo-extended"’ kullanılarak eski davranış geri yüklenebilir.
     Hangi PGO görev setinin daha hızlı bir yapı oluşturduğuna dair
     hiçbir garanti vermiyoruz.  Sonuçlar ortama, iş yüküne ve derleyici
     araç zincirine bağlı olabileceğinden, önemseyen kullanıcılar kendi
     ilgili kıyaslamalarını çalıştırmalıdır.  (Daha fazla ayrıntı için
     bkz.  bpo-36044(7) ve bpo-37707(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707


File: python.info,  Node: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>,  Next: Python 3 9 1’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Prev: Yapı Değişiklikleri,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.12 C API’sindeki değişiklikler
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Yeni Özellikler: Yeni Özellikler<2>.
* Python 3.9’a Taşıma: Python 3 9’a Taşıma<2>.
* Kaldırılanlar: Kaldırılanlar<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Yeni Özellikler<2>,  Next: Python 3 9’a Taşıma<2>,  Up: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>

1.4.12.1 Yeni Özellikler
........................

   * PEP 573(1): Added *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. to
     associate a module with a class; *note PyType_GetModule(): 7ca. and
     *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7cb. to retrieve the module and its
     state; and *note PyCMethod: 594. and *note METH_METHOD: 7cc. to
     allow a method to access the class it was defined in.  (Contributed
     by Marcel Plch and Petr Viktorin in bpo-38787(2).)

   * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5bb. işlevi eklendi: bir çerçeve kodu
     alın.  *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 5b6. işlevi eklendi: sonraki dış
     çerçeveyi alın.  (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-40421(3) ‘de
     katılmıştır.)

   * Sınırlı C API’sine *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5bc. eklendi.
     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-40421(4) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * Yorumlayıcıyı almak için *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 7cd.
     ve *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 7ce. işlevleri eklendi.  Python
     iş parçacığı durumunun geçerli çerçevesini almak için *note
     PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5c0. işlevi eklendi.  *note
     PyThreadState_GetID(): 7cf. işlevi eklendi: Python iş parçacığı
     durumunun benzersiz tanımlayıcısını alın.  (Victor Stinner
     tarafından bpo-39947(5) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * C API’ye herhangi bir bağımsız değişken olmadan çağrılabilir bir
     Python nesnesi çağıran yeni bir genel *note PyObject_CallNoArgs():
     7d0. işlevi eklendi.  Herhangi bir argüman olmadan çağrılabilir bir
     Python nesnesini çağırmanın en etkili yolu budur.  (Victor Stinner
     tarafından bpo-37194(6) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * Sınırlı C API’sindeki değişiklikler (eğer ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ makrosu
     tanımlanmışsa):

        * Sınırlı API için normal işlevler olarak *note
          Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7d1. ve *note
          Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7d2. sağlayın.  Önceden, makrolar
          olarak tanımlanmıştı, ancak bu makrolar,
          ‘PyThreadState.recursion_Definition’ alanına erişemeyen
          sınırlı C API’si ile derlenmiyordu (sınırlı C API’sinde yapı
          opaktır).

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’ ve ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’, uygulama
          ayrıntılarını gizlemek için normal “opak” fonksiyon haline
          gelir.

     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-38644(7) ve bpo-39542(8) ‘de
     katılmıştır.)

   * The *note PyModule_AddType(): 7d3. function is added to help adding
     a type to a module.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40024(9).)

   * Genel API’ye *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 7d4. ve *note
     PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 7d5. işlevleri, Python nesnelerinin şu
     anda izlenip izlenmediğini veya çöp toplayıcı tarafından
     halihazırda sonlandırılıp sonlandırılmadığını sorgulamaya izin
     vermek için eklendi.  (Pablo Galindo Salgado tarafından
     bpo-40241(10) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * Added ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly string
     representation of a function-like object.  (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer
     in bpo-37645(11).)

   * Tek bir konum bağımsız değişkeni olan bir nesneyi çağırmak için
     *note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 7d6. eklendi (Yama Jeroen Demeyer
     tarafından bpo-37483(12) içinde.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9’a Taşıma<2>,  Next: Kaldırılanlar<2>,  Prev: Yeni Özellikler<2>,  Up: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>

1.4.12.2 Python 3.9’a Taşıma
............................

   * ‘PyInterpreterState.eval_frame’ ( PEP 523(1)) artık yeni bir
     zorunlu 'tstate' parametresi (‘PyThreadState*’) gerektiriyor.
     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-38500(2) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * Genişletme modülleri: *note m_traverse: 7d8, *note m_clear: 7d9.
     and *note m_free: 7da. functions of *note PyModuleDef: 7db, modül
     durumu talep edilmiş ancak henüz tahsisedilmemişse artık çağrılmaz.
     Bu, modül oluşturulduktan hemen sonra vemodül çalıştırılmadan
     önceki durumdur (*note Py_mod_exec: 7dc. işlevi).Daha kesin olarak,
     bu işlevler *note m_size: 7dd. 0’dan büyükse ve modül durumu (
     *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de. tarafından döndürülen) ‘NULL’ ise
     çağrılmaz.

     Modül durumuna sahip olmayan genişletme modülleri (‘m_size <= 0’)
     etkilenmez.

   * Bir alt yorumlayıcıda *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7df. çağrılırsa,
     işlev artık ana yorumlayıcıdan çağrılmak yerine alt yorumlayıcıdan
     çağrılacak şekilde programlanır.  Her yardımcı tercüman artık kendi
     planlanmış çağrılar listesine sahiptir.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
     bpo-39984(3)’de katılmıştır.)

   * Windows kayıt defteri ‘-E’ seçeneği kullanıldığında ( *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 33a. ‘0’ olarak ayarlanmışsa) *note
     sys.path: 368. öğesini başlatmak için artık kullanılmaz.  Bu,
     Python’u Windows’a yerleştirirken önemlidir.  ( bpo-8901(4) içinde
     Zackery Spytz tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7e0. genel değişkeni artık bir
     sabittir ve sabit bir dizeye başvurur.  ( bpo-38650(5) içinde
     Serhiy Storchaka tarafından katılmıştır.)

   * The ‘PyGC_Head’ structure is now opaque.  It is only defined in the
     internal C API (‘pycore_gc.h’).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-40241(6).)

   * The ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’, ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’,
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’ are
     marked as deprecated in C. They have been deprecated by PEP 393(7)
     since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(8).)

   * *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1. fonksiyonu, ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ makrosu
     tanımlanmadığı sürece geçerli fonksiyonun adını otomatik olarak
     kaydeden bir makro ile değiştirilir.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
     bpo-39882(9) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * Vectorcall protokolü artık arayan kişinin anahtar kelime adları
     olarak yalnızca dizeleri iletmesini gerektirir.  (Daha fazla bilgi
     için bkz.  bpo-37540(10).)

   * Bir dizi makro ve fonksiyonların uygulama ayrıntıları artık
     gizlenmiştir:

        * *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 7e2. makrosu bir fonksiyona
          dönüştürüldü.

        * The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the *note
          PyObject_New: 7e3. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’ macro
          becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4. macro.
          They no longer access directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 7e5. member.

        * ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro was converted to a
          function: the macro accessed directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6. member.

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 585. makrosu bir fonksiyona
          dönüştürüldü: makro *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 7e7.
          üyesine doğrudan erişti.

        * *note PyIndex_Check(): 7e8. artık uygulama ayrıntılarını
          gizlemek için her zaman opak bir fonksiyon olarak
          bildiriliyor: ‘PyIndex_Check()’ makrosu kaldırıldı.  Makro,
          *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 7e9. üyesine doğrudan erişti.

     (Daha fazla ayrıntı için bkz.  bpo-40170(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170


File: python.info,  Node: Kaldırılanlar<2>,  Prev: Python 3 9’a Taşıma<2>,  Up: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>

1.4.12.3 Kaldırılanlar
......................

   * ‘pyfpe.h’ dosyasının ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ ve
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ makroları sınırlı C API’sinden hariç tutuldu.
     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-38835(1) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * *note PyTypeObject: 7eb. öğesinin ‘tp_print’ yuvası kaldırıldı.
     Python 2.7 ve öncesindeki dosyalara nesneleri yazdırmak için
     kullanılıyordu.  Python 3.0’dan beri göz ardı edildi ve
     kullanılmadı.  ( bpo-36974(2) içinde Jeroen Demeyer tarafından
     katılmıştır.)

   * Sınırlı C API’sindeki değişiklikler (eğer ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ makrosu
     tanımlanmışsa):

        * Aşağıdaki fonksiyonlar sınırlı C API’sinden çıkarıldı:

             * ‘PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()’ (Joannah Nanjekye
               tarafından bpo-37878(3) ‘de katılmıştır.)

             * ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’

             * ‘_Py_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’

             * ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’

             * Sınırlı C API’sinde hiçbir zaman çalışmayan çöp tenekesi
               mekanizması.

             * ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’

        * Aşağıdaki fonksiyonlar ve tanımlar dahili C API’sine taşındı:

             * ‘_PyDebug_PrintTotalRefs()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferences()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferenceAddresses()’

             * ‘_Py_tracemalloc_config’

             * ‘_Py_AddToAllObjects()’ (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ yapısına özel)

     (Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-38644(4) ve bpo-39542(5) ‘de
     katılmıştır.)

   * ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ kancası kaldırıldı ve ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’
     için takma ad olan ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ makrosu kaldırıldı.
     Yalnızca dahili C API’si tarafından açığa çıkarıldılar.  Ayrıca
     ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ türü kaldırıldı.  (Victor Stinner tarafından
     bpo-39946(6) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * Aşağıdaki fonksiyonlar C API’sinden kaldırıldı.  Tüm ücretsiz
     listeleri temizlemek için *note PyGC_Collect(): 7ec. çağırın.
     (Inada Naoki ve Victor Stinner tarafından bpo-37340(7) ,
     bpo-38896(8) ve bpo-40428(9) ‘de katkıda bulunmuştur.)

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ ve ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’:
          bağlı yöntem nesnelerinin serbest listeleri kaldırıldı.

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’: Python 3.4’te setsiz liste
          kaldırıldı.

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’: Unicode ücretsiz listesi Python
          3.3’te kaldırılmıştır.

   * ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ fonksiyonu kaldırıldı.  (Victor
     Stinner tarafından bpo-39465(10) ‘de katılmıştır.)

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’ kaldırıldı.  PEP 393(11) tarafından kullanımdan
     kaldırıldı ve Python 3.3’ten beri bozuldu.  Bunun yerine *note
     PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 70a. fonksiyonu kullanılabilir.  (Inada
     Naoki tarafından bpo-36346(12) ‘da katılmıştır.)

   * Tanımlanan ancak uygulama içermeyen arabirimlerin başlık dosyaları
     temizlendi.  Kaldırılmakta olan genel API sembolleri şunlardır: :
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.  ( bpo-39372(13) içinde
     Pablo Galindo Salgado tarafından sağlanmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 1’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Next: Python 3 9 2’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Prev: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.13 Python 3.9.1’deki önemli değişiklikler
---------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<5>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) ve Apple Silicon Mac desteği: macOS 11 0 Big Sur ve Apple Silicon Mac desteği.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<5>,  Next: macOS 11 0 Big Sur ve Apple Silicon Mac desteği,  Up: Python 3 9 1’deki önemli değişiklikler

1.4.13.1 typing
...............

*note typing.Literal: 694. davranışı, PEP 586(1) ile uyumlu olacak ve
PEP’de belirtilen statik tip denetleyicilerin davranışıyla eşleşecek
şekilde değiştirildi.

  1. ‘Literal’ artık parametrelerin yinelemelerini kaldırıyor.

  2. ‘Literal’ nesneleri arasındaki eşitlik karşılaştırmaları artık
     sıradan bağımsızdır.

  3. ‘Literal’ karşılaştırmaları artık türlere göre yapılıyor.  Örneğin,
     ‘Literal[0] == Literal[False]’ daha önce ‘True’ olarak
     değerlendirildi.  Artık ‘False’.  Bu değişikliği desteklemek için
     dahili olarak kullanılan tür önbelleği artık farklılaşan türleri
     desteklemektedir.

  4. ‘Literal’ nesneler, parametrelerinden herhangi biri *note hashable:
     421. değilse eşitlik karşılaştırmaları sırasında artık bir *note
     TypeError: 2c4. istisnası oluşturacak.  Değişken parametrelerle
     ‘Literal’ tanımlamanın bir hata atmayacağına dikkat edin:

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

( bpo-42345(2) sayısında Yurii Karabas tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur ve Apple Silicon Mac desteği,  Prev: typing<5>,  Up: Python 3 9 1’deki önemli değişiklikler

1.4.13.2 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) ve Apple Silicon Mac desteği
..........................................................

3.9.1’den itibaren Python artık macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) ve Apple Silicon
Mac’lerde (‘ARM64’ yapısına dayalı) oluşturmayı ve çalıştırmayı tam
olarak desteklemektedir.  Yeni bir evrensel yapı varyantı olan
‘universal2’, artık hem ‘ARM64’ hem de ‘Intel 64’ ‘ü tek bir
yürütülebilir dosya setinde yerel olarak desteklemek için
kullanılabilir.  İkili dosyalar, artık bir dizi eski macOS sürümüne
(10.9’a göre test edilmiştir) dağıtılmak üzere macOS’in mevcut sürümleri
üzerine inşa edilebilirken, çalışma zamanında kullanılan işletim sistemi
sürümüne bağlı olarak bazı yeni işletim sistemi fonksiyonları ve
seçenekleri koşullu olarak kullanılabilir hale getirilir (“weaklinking”
).

( bpo-41100(1) içinde Ronald Oussoren ve Lawrence D’Anna tarafından
katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 2’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Prev: Python 3 9 1’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.14 Python 3.9.2’deki önemli değişiklikler
---------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<2>,  Next: urllib parse<2>,  Up: Python 3 9 2’deki önemli değişiklikler

1.4.14.1 collections.abc
........................

*note collections.abc.Callable: 624. jenerik artık tip parametrelerini
düzleştiriyor, şu anda *note typing.Callable: 5fc. ‘ın yaptığına benzer.
Bu, ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ öğesinin ‘__args__’ veya
‘(int, str, str)’; olacağı anlamına gelir önceden bu ‘([int, str], str)’
idi.  Bu değişikliğe izin vermek için, *note types.GenericAlias: 625.
artık alt sınıflara ayrılabilir ve *note collections.abc.Callable: 624.
tipi abone olurken bir alt sınıf döndürülür.  Bağımsız değişkenlere
*note typing.get_args(): 6c4. veya ‘__args__’ aracılığıyla erişen kodun
bu değişikliği hesaba katması gerekir.  Python 3.9.1’de sessizce geçmiş
olabilecek *note collections.abc.Callable: 624. parametreleştirmenin
geçersiz biçimleri için bir *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
yayınlanabilir.  Python 3.10’da bu *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. bir
*note TypeError: 2c4. olacaktır.  ( bpo-42195(1) içinde Ken Jin
tarafından katılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<2>,  Prev: collections abc<2>,  Up: Python 3 9 2’deki önemli değişiklikler

1.4.14.2 urllib.parse
.....................

Önceki Python sürümleri, *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 69a. ve *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 69b. içinde sorgu parametresi ayırıcıları
olarak hem ‘;’ hem de ‘&’ kullanılmasına izin veriyordu.  Güvenlik
endişeleri nedeniyle ve daha yeni W3C tavsiyelerine uymak için bu,
varsayılan olarak ‘&’ ile yalnızca tek bir ayırıcı anahtara izin verecek
şekilde değiştirildi.  Bu değişiklik, etkilenen fonksiyonlar dahili
olarak kullandıkları için *note cgi.parse(): 69c. ve *note
cgi.parse_multipart(): 69d. ‘ı da etkiler.  Daha fazla ayrıntı için
lütfen ilgili belgelere bakın.  (Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran ve
Ken Jin’in katkılarıyla bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Prev: Python 3 9 2’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.15 Notable changes in Python 3.9.3
--------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.16 Notable changes in Python 3.9.5
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<3>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5

1.4.16.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.17 Notable security feature in 3.9.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 184. and *note str: 15d. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 189. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 402. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Up: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler

1.4.18 Notable changes in 3.9.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<4>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 9 17

1.4.18.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 18b. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 7,  Prev: Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.5 Python 3.8’deki Yenilikler
==============================


Editör: Raymond Hettinger

Bu makale, 3.7 ile karşılaştırıldığında Python 3.8 ‘deki yeni
özellikleri açıklamaktadır.  Tüm ayrıntılar için *note Changelog: 13c.
‘a bakın.

* Menu:

* Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları<2>.
* Yeni Özellikler: Yeni Özellikler<3>.
* Diğer Dil Değişiklikleri::
* Yeni Modüller: Yeni Modüller<2>.
* Geliştirilmiş Modüller::
* Optimizasyonlar: Optimizasyonlar<2>.
* Derleme ve C API Değişiklikleri::
* Kullanımdan kaldırıldı::
* API ve Özellik Kaldırmaları::
* Python 3.8’e Taşıma: Python 3 8’e Taşıma.
* Python 3.8.1’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 8 1’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3.
* Python 3.8.8’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 8 8’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>.
* Python 3.8.12’deki önemli değişiklikler: Python 3 8 12’deki önemli değişiklikler.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.


File: python.info,  Node: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları<2>,  Next: Yeni Özellikler<3>,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.1 Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları
----------------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: Yeni Özellikler<3>,  Next: Diğer Dil Değişiklikleri,  Prev: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları<2>,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.2 Yeni Özellikler
---------------------

* Menu:

* Atama ifadeleri::
* Yalnızca konumsal parametreler::
* Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği::
* Hata ayıklama derlemesi, yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır: Hata ayıklama derlemesi yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır.
* kendi kendini belgeleyen ifadeler ve hata ayıklama için f-dizeleri = desteği::
* PEP 578; Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları: PEP 578 Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları.
* PEP 587; Python Başlatma Yapılandırması: PEP 587 Python Başlatma Yapılandırması.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; CPython için hızlı arama protokolü: PEP 590 Vectorcall CPython için hızlı arama protokolü.
* Bant dışı veri tamponlarıyla Pickle protokolü 5::


File: python.info,  Node: Atama ifadeleri,  Next: Yalnızca konumsal parametreler,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.1 Atama ifadeleri
.......................

Daha büyük bir ifadenin parçası olarak değişkenlere değerler atayan yeni
sözdizimi ‘:=’ var.  Bir morsun gözlerine ve dişlerine benzerliği
nedeniyle "mors operatörü" olarak bilinir(1).

Bu örnekte, atama ifadesi *note len(): 441. öğesini iki kez çağırmaktan
kaçınmaya yardımcı olur:

     if (n := len(a)) > 10:
         print(f"List is too long ({n} elements, expected <= 10)")

Benzer bir fayda, eşleştirme nesnelerine iki kez ihtiyaç duyulan normal
ifade eşleştirme sırasında ortaya çıkar; bir kez bir eşleşme olup
olmadığını test etmek ve başka bir kez bir alt grup çıkarmak için:

     discount = 0.0
     if (mo := re.search(r'(\d+)% discount', advertisement)):
         discount = float(mo.group(1)) / 100.0

Operatör, döngü sonlandırmasını test etmek için bir değer hesaplayan ve
ardından döngü gövdesinde aynı değere tekrar ihtiyaç duyan while
döngülerinde de kullanışlıdır:

     # Loop over fixed length blocks
     while (block := f.read(256)) != '':
         process(block)

Başka bir motive edici kullanım durumu, bir filtreleme koşulunda
hesaplanan bir değerin ifade gövdesinde de gerekli olduğu liste
üreteçlerinde ortaya çıkar:

     [clean_name.title() for name in names
      if (clean_name := normalize('NFC', name)) in allowed_names]

Karmaşıklığı azaltan ve okunabilirliği artıran vakaları temizlemek için
mors operatörünün kullanımını sınırlamaya çalışın.

Tam açıklama için PEP 572(2) konusuna bakın.

(Emily Morehouse’un bpo-35224(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus#/media/File:Pacific_Walrus_-_Bull_(8247646168).jpg

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Yalnızca konumsal parametreler,  Next: Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği,  Prev: Atama ifadeleri,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.2 Yalnızca konumsal parametreler
......................................

There is a new function parameter syntax ‘/’ to indicate that some
function parameters must be specified positionally and cannot be used as
keyword arguments.  This is the same notation shown by ‘help()’ for C
functions annotated with Larry Hastings’ Argument Clinic(1) tool.

Aşağıdaki örnekte, 'a' ve 'b' parametreleri yalnızca konumsaldır, 'c'
veya 'd' konumsal veya anahtar sözcük olabilir ve 'e' veya 'f'’nin
anahtar sözcük olması gerekir:

     def f(a, b, /, c, d, *, e, f):
         print(a, b, c, d, e, f)

Aşağıdaki geçerli bir çağrıdır:

     f(10, 20, 30, d=40, e=50, f=60)

Ancak, bunlar geçersiz çağrılardır:

     f(10, b=20, c=30, d=40, e=50, f=60)   # b cannot be a keyword argument
     f(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, f=60)           # e must be a keyword argument

Bu gösterim için bir kullanım durumu, saf Python fonksiyonlarının mevcut
C kodlu fonksiyonlarının davranışlarını tam olarak taklit etmesine izin
vermesidir.  Örneğin, yerleşik *note divmod(): 7ff. fonksiyonu, anahtar
kelime bağımsız değişkenlerini kabul etmez:

     def divmod(a, b, /):
         "Emulate the built in divmod() function"
         return (a // b, a % b)

Başka bir kullanım durumu, parametre adı yardımcı olmadığında anahtar
kelime bağımsız değişkenlerini engellemektir.  Örneğin, yerleşik *note
len(): 441. işlevi ‘len(obj, /)’ imzasına sahiptir.  Bu, aşağıdaki gibi
garip çağrıları engeller:

     len(obj='hello')  # The "obj" keyword argument impairs readability

Bir parametreyi yalnızca konumsal olarak işaretlemenin başka bir yararı
da, parametre adının gelecekte yerel kodunu kırma riski olmadan
değiştirilmesine izin vermesidir.  Örneğin, *note statistics: d1.
modülünde, 'dist' parametre adı gelecekte değiştirilebilir.  Bu,
aşağıdaki fonksiyon belirtimi ile mümkün olmuştur:

     def quantiles(dist, /, *, n=4, method='exclusive')
         ...

‘/’ öğesinin solundaki parametreler olası anahtar kelimeler olarak
gösterilmediğinden, parametre adları ‘**kwargs’ içinde kullanılmaya
devam eder:

     >>> def f(a, b, /, **kwargs):
     ...     print(a, b, kwargs)
     ...
     >>> f(10, 20, a=1, b=2, c=3)         # a and b are used in two ways
     10 20 {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

Bu, rasgele anahtar kelime bağımsız değişkenlerini kabul etmesi gereken
fonksiyonlarının ve yöntemlerin uygulanmasını büyük ölçüde
basitleştirir.  Örneğin, *note collections: 1d. modülündeki koddan bir
alıntı:

     class Counter(dict):

         def __init__(self, iterable=None, /, **kwds):
             # Note "iterable" is a possible keyword argument

Tam açıklama için PEP 570(2) ‘e bakın.

(Pablo Galindo’nun bpo-36540(3) ‘taki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540


File: python.info,  Node: Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği,  Next: Hata ayıklama derlemesi yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır,  Prev: Yalnızca konumsal parametreler,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.3 Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği
..........................................................................

Yeni *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 801. ayarı ( *note -X: 18e.
‘pycache_prefix’ olarak da mevcuttur), örtük bayt kodu önbelleğini,
içindeki varsayılan ‘__pycache__’ alt dizinleri yerine ayrı bir paralel
dosya sistemi ağacı kullanacak şekilde yapılandırır.

Önbelleğin konumu *note sys.pycache_prefix: 802. içinde rapor edilir
(*note None: 488, ‘__pycache__’ alt dizinlerindeki varsayılan konumu
belirtir).

(Carl Meyer’ın bpo-33499(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499


File: python.info,  Node: Hata ayıklama derlemesi yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır,  Next: kendi kendini belgeleyen ifadeler ve hata ayıklama için f-dizeleri = desteği,  Prev: Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.4 Hata ayıklama derlemesi, yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır
........................................................................

Python artık sürüm veya hata ayıklama modunda oluşturulduğunda aynı
ABI’yi kullanıyor.  Unix’te, Python hata ayıklama modunda
oluşturulduğunda, artık sürüm modunda oluşturulmuş C uzantılarını ve
kararlı ABI kullanılarak oluşturulmuş C uzantılarını yüklemek mümkündür.

Release ve *note hata ayıklama derlemeleri: 6b9. artık ABI ile
uyumludur: ‘Py_DEBUG’ makrosunu tanımlamak artık tek ABI uyumsuzluğunu
ortaya çıkaran ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ makrosunu gerektirmez.  *note
sys.getobjects(): 395. fonksiyonunu ve *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 804. ortam
değişkenini ekleyen ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ makrosu, yeni *note ./configure
-with-trace-refs: 6ec. derleme seçeneği kullanılarak
ayarlanabilir.(Victor Stinner’ın’ bpo-36465(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

Unix’te, Android ve Cygwin dışında C uzantıları artık libpython’a bağlı
değildir.  Statik olarak bağlı bir Python’un, paylaşılan bir Python
kitaplığı kullanılarak oluşturulmuş bir C uzantısını yüklemesi artık
mümkün.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-21536(2) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

Unix’te, Python hata ayıklama modunda oluşturulduğunda, import artık
yayın modunda derlenen C uzantılarını ve kararlı ABI ile derlenen C
uzantılarını da arar.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-36722(3) ‘deki
katkısıyla.)

Python’u bir uygulamaya gömmek için, ‘-lpython3.8’ (uygulamayı
libpython’a bağlamak) elde etmek için ‘python3-config --libs --embed’
seçeneğine yeni bir ‘--embed’ seçeneği aktarılmalıdır.  Hem 3.8 hem de
daha eski sürümleri desteklemek için, önce ‘python3-config --libs
--embed’ seçeneğini deneyin ve önceki komut başarısız olursa
‘python3-config --libs’ (‘--embed’ olmadan) seçeneğine geri dönün.

Python’u bir uygulamaya gömmek için bir pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’
modülü ekleyin: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ ‘-lpython3.8’
içerir.  Hem 3.8 hem de daha eski sürümleri desteklemek için, önce
‘pkg-config python-X.Y-embed --libs’ komutunu deneyin ve önceki komut
başarısız olursa ‘pkg-config python-X.Y --libs’ (‘--embed’ olmadan)
komutuna geri dönün (‘X.Y’ yerine Python sürümünü yazın).

Öte yandan, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ artık ‘-lpython3.8’ içermiyor.
C uzantıları libpython’a bağlanmamalıdır (durumları dize tarafından
işlenen Android ve Cygwin hariç); bu değişiklik kasıtlı olarak geriye
dönük uyumsuzdur.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-36721(4) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721


File: python.info,  Node: kendi kendini belgeleyen ifadeler ve hata ayıklama için f-dizeleri = desteği,  Next: PEP 578 Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları,  Prev: Hata ayıklama derlemesi yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.5 kendi kendini belgeleyen ifadeler ve hata ayıklama için f-dizeleri ‘=’ desteği
......................................................................................

*note f-string: 13e.s için bir ‘=’ tanımlayıcısı eklendi.  ‘f'{expr=}'’
gibi bir f-dizesi, ifade metnine, eşittir işaretine ve ardından
değerlendirilen ifadenin temsiline genişler.  Örneğin:

     >>> user = 'eric_idle'
     >>> member_since = date(1975, 7, 31)
     >>> f'{user=} {member_since=}'
     "user='eric_idle' member_since=datetime.date(1975, 7, 31)"

Her zamanki *note f-string biçim belirleyicileri: 807, ifadenin
sonucunun nasıl görüntülendiği üzerinde daha fazla kontrol sağlar:

     >>> delta = date.today() - member_since
     >>> f'{user=!s}  {delta.days=:,d}'
     'user=eric_idle  delta.days=16,075'

‘=’ belirleyicisi, hesaplamaların gösterilebilmesi için ifadenin
tamamını görüntüler:

     >>> print(f'{theta=}  {cos(radians(theta))=:.3f}')
     theta=30  cos(radians(theta))=0.866

(Eric V. Smith ve Larry Hastings’in bpo-36817(1) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 578 Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları,  Next: PEP 587 Python Başlatma Yapılandırması,  Prev: kendi kendini belgeleyen ifadeler ve hata ayıklama için f-dizeleri = desteği,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.6 PEP 578: Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları
........................................................

PEP, Denetim Kancası ve Doğrulanmış Açık Kanca ekler.  Her ikisi de
Python ve yerel koddan edinilebilir, saf Python kodunda yazılmış
uygulamaların ve çerçevelerin ekstra bildirimlerden yararlanmasına izin
verirken, aynı zamanda gömücülerin veya sistem yöneticilerinin denetimin
her zaman etkin olduğu Python yapılarını dağıtmasına izin verir.

Tüm ayrıntılar için bkz.  PEP 578(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 587 Python Başlatma Yapılandırması,  Next: PEP 590 Vectorcall CPython için hızlı arama protokolü,  Prev: PEP 578 Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.7 PEP 587: Python Başlatma Yapılandırması
...............................................

PEP 587(1), tüm yapılandırma üzerinde daha hassas kontrol ve daha iyi
hata raporlama sağlayan Python Başlatmayı yapılandırmak için yeni bir C
API ekler.

Yeni yapılar:

   * *note PyConfig: 34f.

   * *note PyPreConfig: 80a.

   * *note PyStatus: 80b.

   * *note PyWideStringList: 80c.

Yeni fonksiyonlar:

   * *note PyConfig_Clear(): 80d.

   * *note PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 80e.

   * *note PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 80f.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3.

   * *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 810.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 811.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 812.

   * *note PyConfig_SetString(): 813.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 814.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 815.

   * *note PyStatus_Error(): 816.

   * *note PyStatus_Exception(): 817.

   * *note PyStatus_Exit(): 818.

   * *note PyStatus_IsError(): 819.

   * *note PyStatus_IsExit(): 81a.

   * *note PyStatus_NoMemory(): 81b.

   * *note PyStatus_Ok(): 81c.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Append(): 81d.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Insert(): 81e.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 81f.

   * *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 820.

   * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e.

   * *note Py_PreInitialize(): 34d.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 821.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 822.

   * *note Py_RunMain(): 823.

Bu PEP ayrıca bu iç yapılara ‘_PyRuntimeState.preconfig’ (*note
PyPreConfig: 80a. type) ve ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ (*note PyConfig:
34f. type) alanlarını ekler.  ‘PyInterpreterState.config’, global
yapılandırma değişkenlerinin ve diğer özel değişkenlerin yerini alarak
yeni referans yapılandırması haline gelir.

Belgeler için *note Python Başlatma Yapılandırması: 5c6. konusuna bakın.

Tam açıklama için PEP 587(2) konusuna bakın.

(Victor Stinner’ın bpo-36763(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 590 Vectorcall CPython için hızlı arama protokolü,  Next: Bant dışı veri tamponlarıyla Pickle protokolü 5,  Prev: PEP 587 Python Başlatma Yapılandırması,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.8 PEP 590: Vectorcall: CPython için hızlı arama protokolü
...............................................................

Python/C API’sine *note The Vectorcall Protocol: 2e1. eklendi.  Çeşitli
sınıflar için zaten yapılmış olan mevcut optimizasyonları
resmileştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır.  Bir çağrılabilir uygulayan herhangi bir
*note static type: 5af. bu protokolü kullanabilir.

Bu şu anda geçicidir.  Amaç, Python 3.9 ‘da tamamen halka açık hale
getirmektir.

Tam açıklama için PEP 590(1) ‘a bakın.

(Jeroen Demeyer, Mark Shannon ve Petr Viktorin’in katkılarıyla
bpo-36974(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974


File: python.info,  Node: Bant dışı veri tamponlarıyla Pickle protokolü 5,  Prev: PEP 590 Vectorcall CPython için hızlı arama protokolü,  Up: Yeni Özellikler<3>

1.5.2.9 Bant dışı veri tamponlarıyla Pickle protokolü 5
.......................................................

Çok çekirdekli veya çok makineli işlemeden yararlanmak amacıyla Python
süreçleri arasında büyük verileri aktarmak için *note pickle: a5.
kullanıldığında, bellek kopyalarını azaltarak ve muhtemelen veriye bağlı
sıkıştırma gibi özel teknikler uygulayarak aktarımı optimize etmek
önemlidir.

*note pickle: a5. protokolü 5, PEP 3118(1) uyumlu verilerin iletişim
katmanının takdirine bağlı olarak ana pickle akışından ayrı olarak
iletilebildiği bant dışı tamponlar için destek sunar.

Tam açıklama için PEP 574(2) ‘e bakın.

(Antoine Pitrou’nun bpo-36785(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785


File: python.info,  Node: Diğer Dil Değişiklikleri,  Next: Yeni Modüller<2>,  Prev: Yeni Özellikler<3>,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.3 Diğer Dil Değişiklikleri
------------------------------

   * Bir *note continue: 827. ifadesi, uygulamadaki bir sorun nedeniyle
     *note finally: 828. cümlesinde yasadışı idi.  Python 3.8’de bu
     kısıtlama kaldırıldı.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-32489(1) ‘daki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note bool: 183, *note int: 184. ve *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae.
     türleri artık *note float: 272. ve *note decimal.Decimal: 609.
     türlerinde olduğu gibi bir *note as_integer_ratio(): 829. yöntemine
     sahiptir.  Bu küçük API uzantısı ‘numerator, denominator =
     x.as_integer_ratio()’ yazmayı ve bunun birden fazla sayısal türde
     çalışmasını mümkün kılmaktadır.  (Lisa Roach tarafından
     bpo-33073(2) ve Raymond Hettinger tarafından bpo-37819(3) ile
     katkıda bulunulmuştur)

   * *note int: 184, *note float: 272. ve *note complex: 273. kurucuları
     artık *note __index__(): 538. özel yöntemini kullanacak, eğer
     mevcutsa ve ilgili yöntem *note __int__(): 537, *note __float__():
     82a. veya mevcut değilse *note __complex__(): 3f3. .  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-20092(4) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Added support of ‘\N{NAME}’ escapes in *note regular expressions:
     b8.:

          >>> notice = 'Copyright © 2019'
          >>> copyright_year_pattern = re.compile(r'\N{copyright sign}\s*(\d{4})')
          >>> int(copyright_year_pattern.search(notice).group(1))
          2019

     (Jonathan Eunice ve Serhiy Storchaka tarafından bpo-30688(5) ‘de
     katkıda bulunulmuştur.)

   * Dict ve dictviews artık *note reversed(): 6a9. kullanılarak tersine
     çevrilmiş ekleme sırasına göre yinelenebilir.  (Rémi Lapeyre’nin
     bpo-33462(6) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Fonksiyon çağrılarında anahtar kelime isimleri için izin verilen
     sözdizimi daha da kısıtlandı.  Özellikle, ‘f((keyword)=arg)’
     ifadesine artık izin verilmemektedir.  Bir anahtar kelime argüman
     atama teriminin sol tarafında çıplak bir isimden daha fazlasına
     izin verilmesi asla amaçlanmamıştır.  (Benjamin Peterson’un
     bpo-34641(7) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note yield: 82b. ve *note return: 82c. ifadelerinde
     genelleştirilmiş yinelenebilir paket açma artık parantez içine alma
     gerektirmez.  Bu, 'yield' ve 'return' sözdizimini normal atama
     sözdizimiyle daha iyi uyumlu hale getirir:

          >>> def parse(family):
                  lastname, *members = family.split()
                  return lastname.upper(), *members

          >>> parse('simpsons homer marge bart lisa maggie')
          ('SIMPSONS', 'homer', 'marge', 'bart', 'lisa', 'maggie')

     (David Cuthbert ve Jordan Chapman’ın bpo-32117(8) ‘deki
     katkılarıyla.)

   * ‘[(10, 20) (30, 40)]’ gibi bir kodda virgül atlandığında, derleyici
     yardımcı bir öneriyle birlikte bir *note SyntaxWarning: 17e.
     görüntüler.  Bu, sadece ilk tuple’ın çağrılabilir olmadığını
     belirten bir *note TypeError: 2c4. olmasıyla gelişir.  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-15248(9) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note datetime.date: 749. veya *note datetime.datetime: 22b. ve
     *note datetime.timedelta: 82d. nesnelerinin alt sınıfları
     arasındaki aritmetik işlemler artık temel sınıf yerine alt sınıfın
     bir örneğini döndürmektedir.  Bu, *note astimezone(): 82e. gibi
     uygulaması (doğrudan veya dolaylı olarak) *note datetime.timedelta:
     82d. aritmetiğini kullanan işlemlerin dönüş türünü de etkiler.
     (Paul Ganssle tarafından bpo-32417(10) ile katkıda bulunulmuştur)

   * Python yorumlayıcısı Ctrl-C (SIGINT) tarafından kesintiye
     uğradığında ve ortaya çıkan *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. istisnası
     yakalanmadığında, Python işlemi artık bir SIGINT sinyali ile veya
     çağıran işlemin Ctrl-C nedeniyle öldüğünü algılayabileceği şekilde
     doğru çıkış koduyla çıkar.  POSIX ve Windows üzerindeki kabuklar,
     etkileşimli oturumlardaki komut dosyalarını düzgün bir şekilde
     sonlandırmak için bunu kullanır.  (Google tarafından Gregory P.
     Smith aracılığıyla bpo-1054041(11) ‘de katkıda bulunulmuştur)

   * Bazı gelişmiş programlama stilleri, mevcut bir fonksiyon için *note
     types.CodeType: 263. nesnesinin güncellenmesini gerektirir.  Kod
     nesneleri değişmez olduğundan, mevcut kod nesnesini model alan yeni
     bir kod nesnesi oluşturulması gerekir.  19 parametre ile bu biraz
     sıkıcıydı.  Şimdi, yeni ‘replace()’ yöntemi, birkaç değiştirilmiş
     parametre ile bir klon oluşturmayı mümkün kılıyor.

     İşte *note statistics.mean(): 4e9. fonksiyonunu değiştirerek 'data'
     parametresinin bir anahtar kelime argümanı olarak kullanılmasını
     engelleyen bir örnek:

          >>> from statistics import mean
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          40
          >>> mean.__code__ = mean.__code__.replace(co_posonlyargcount=1)
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: mean() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'data'

     (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-37032(12) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Tamsayılar için, *note pow(): 830. fonksiyonunun üç argümanlı formu
     artık tabanın modüle göre asal olduğu durumda üssün negatif
     olmasına izin vermektedir.  Daha sonra, üs ‘-1’ olduğunda tabanın
     modüler bir tersini ve diğer negatif üsler için bu tersin uygun bir
     kuvvetini hesaplar.  Örneğin, 38 modulo 137'nin modüler çarpımsal
     tersini(13) hesaplamak için şunu yazın:

          >>> pow(38, -1, 137)
          119
          >>> 119 * 38 % 137
          1

     Modüler tersler, lineer Diophantine denklemlerinin(14) çözümünde
     ortaya çıkar.  Örneğin, ‘4258𝑥 + 147𝑦 = 369’ tamsayı çözümlerini
     bulmak için, önce ‘4258𝑥 ≡ 369 (mod 147)’ olarak yeniden yazın ve
     sonra çözün:

          >>> x = 369 * pow(4258, -1, 147) % 147
          >>> y = (4258 * x - 369) // -147
          >>> 4258 * x + 147 * y
          369

     (Mark Dickinson’ın tarafından bpo-36027(15) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Dict kavramaları dict değişmezleri ile senkronize edilmiştir,
     böylece anahtar ilk olarak ve değer ikinci olarak hesaplanır:

          >>> # Dict comprehension
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ') for i in range(2)}
          role? King Arthur
          actor? Chapman
          role? Black Knight
          actor? Cleese

          >>> # Dict literal
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ')}
          role? Sir Robin
          actor? Eric Idle

     Garantili yürütme sırası atama ifadelerinde yardımcı olur çünkü
     anahtar ifadesinde atanan değişkenler değer ifadesinde
     kullanılabilir olacaktır:

          >>> names = ['Martin von Löwis', 'Łukasz Langa', 'Walter Dörwald']
          >>> {(n := normalize('NFC', name)).casefold() : n for name in names}
          {'martin von löwis': 'Martin von Löwis',
           'łukasz langa': 'Łukasz Langa',
           'walter dörwald': 'Walter Dörwald'}

     (Jörn Heissler’ın bpo-35224(16) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * *note object.__reduce__(): 831. yöntemi artık iki ila altı eleman
     uzunluğunda bir tuple döndürebilir.  Eskiden sınır beşti.  Yeni,
     isteğe bağlı altıncı eleman ‘(obj, state)’ imzasına sahip bir
     çağrılabilirdir.  Bu, belirli bir nesnenin durum güncelleme
     davranışı üzerinde doğrudan kontrol sağlar.  Eğer 'None' değilse,
     bu çağrılabilir öğe nesnenin ‘__setstate__()’ yöntemine göre
     önceliğe sahip olacaktır.  (Pierre Glaser ve Olivier Grisel’in
     bpo-35900(17) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (13) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse

   (14) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: Yeni Modüller<2>,  Next: Geliştirilmiş Modüller,  Prev: Diğer Dil Değişiklikleri,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.4 Yeni Modüller
-------------------

   * Yeni *note importlib.metadata: 78. modülü, üçüncü taraf paketlerden
     meta verileri okumak için (geçici) destek sağlar.  Örneğin, yüklü
     bir paketin sürüm numarasını, giriş noktalarının listesini ve daha
     fazlasını çıkarabilir:

          >>> # Note following example requires that the popular "requests"
          >>> # package has been installed.
          >>>
          >>> from importlib.metadata import version, requires, files
          >>> version('requests')
          '2.22.0'
          >>> list(requires('requests'))
          ['chardet (<3.1.0,>=3.0.2)']
          >>> list(files('requests'))[:5]
          [PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/INSTALLER'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/LICENSE'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/METADATA'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/RECORD'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/WHEEL')]

     (Barry Warsaw ve Jason R. Coombs’un bpo-34632(1) ‘deki
     katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632


File: python.info,  Node: Geliştirilmiş Modüller,  Next: Optimizasyonlar<2>,  Prev: Yeni Modüller<2>,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.5 Geliştirilmiş Modüller
----------------------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* builtins::
* collections::
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<2>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* ctypes::
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc: gc<3>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE ve idlelib: IDLE ve idlelib<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* io: io<2>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* kayıt tutma::
* math: math<4>.
* mmap::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* os: os<5>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* pickle::
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* tarfile: tarfile<5>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* time: time<3>.
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<3>.
* xmlrpc::


File: python.info,  Node: ast<2>,  Next: asyncio<5>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.1 ast
...........

AST düğümleri artık düğümün sonunun kesin konumunu veren ‘end_lineno’ ve
‘end_col_offset’ niteliklerine sahiptir.  (Bu sadece ‘lineno’ ve
‘col_offset’ niteliklerine sahip düğümler için geçerlidir)

Yeni fonksiyon *note ast.get_source_segment(): 835. belirli bir AST
düğümü için kaynak kodunu döndürür.

(Ivan Levkivskyi’nin bpo-33416(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

*note ast.parse(): 188. fonksiyonu bazı yeni bayraklara sahiptir:

   * ‘type_comments=True’ , belirli AST düğümleriyle ilişkili PEP 484(2)
     ve PEP 526(3) tipi yorumların metnini döndürmesine neden olur;

   * ‘mode='func_type'’, PEP 484(4) “imza tipi yorumlarını” (fonksiyon
     tanımı AST düğümleri için döndürülür) ayrıştırmak için
     kullanılabilir;

   * ‘feature_version=(3, N)’ daha önceki bir Python 3 sürümünü
     belirtmeye izin verir.  Örneğin, ‘feature_version=(3, 4)’, *note
     async: 55a. ve *note await: 55b. sözcüklerini rezerve edilmemiş
     sözcükler olarak ele alacaktır.

(Guido van Rossum’un bpo-35766(5) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<5>,  Next: builtins,  Prev: ast<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.2 asyncio
...............

*note asyncio.run(): 19d. geçici API’den kararlı API’ye geçiş yaptı.  Bu
fonksiyon, bir *note coroutine: 1b4. yürütmek ve olay döngüsünü otomatik
olarak yönetirken sonucu döndürmek için kullanılabilir.  Örneğin:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     asyncio.run(main())

Bu, 'kabaca' şuna eşdeğerdir:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(main())
     finally:
         asyncio.set_event_loop(None)
         loop.close()

Gerçek uygulama önemli ölçüde daha karmaşıktır.  Bu nedenle, *note
asyncio.run(): 19d. asyncio programlarını çalıştırmak için tercih edilen
yol olmalıdır.

(Yury Selivanov’un bpo-32314(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

‘python -m asyncio’ çalıştırıldığında yerel bir async REPL başlatılır.
Bu, üst düzey bir *note await: 55b. içeren kodla hızlı denemeler
yapılmasına olanak tanır.  Artık her çağrıda yeni bir olay döngüsü
oluşturacak ‘asyncio.run()’ fonksiyonunu doğrudan çağırmaya gerek
yoktur:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL 3.8.0
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     hello

(Yury Selivanov’un bpo-37028(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

İstisna *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. artık *note Exception: 838.
yerine *note BaseException: 3c3. ‘dan miras alıyor ve artık *note
concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 839. ‘dan miras almıyor.  (Yury
Selivanov’un bpo-32528(3) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

Windows’ta, varsayılan olay döngüsü artık *note ProactorEventLoop: 418.
şeklindedir.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-34687(4) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 418. artık UDP’yi de destekliyor.  (Adam Meily
ve Andrew Svetlov’ın bpo-29883(5) ‘teki katkılarıyla.)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 418. artık *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.
(“CTRL+C”) ile kesilebilir.  (Vladimir Matveev’in bpo-23057(6) ‘deki
katkısıyla.)

Bir *note asyncio.Task: 20a. içindeki sarılmış korutini almak için *note
asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 83a. eklendi.  (Alex Grönholm’ın bpo-36999(7)
‘daki katkısıyla.)

Asyncio görevleri artık *note asyncio.create_task(): 40b. veya *note
create_task(): 83b. olay döngüsü yöntemine ‘name’ anahtar sözcük
argümanı geçirilerek ya da görev nesnesi üzerinde *note set_name(): 83c.
yöntemi çağrılarak adlandırılabilir.  Görev adı *note asyncio.Task: 20a.
metodunun ‘repr()’ çıktısında görülebilir ve *note get_name(): 83d.
metodu kullanılarak da alınabilir.  (Alex Grönholm’ın bpo-34270(8) ‘teki
katkısıyla.)

*note asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 412. ‘a Happy Eyeballs(9)
desteği eklendi.  Davranışı belirtmek için iki yeni parametre eklendi:
'happy_eyeballs_delay' ve 'interleave'.  Happy Eyeballs algoritması,
IPv4 ve IPv6’yı destekleyen uygulamalarda, her ikisini de kullanarak
aynı anda bağlanmaya çalışarak yanıt verebilirliği artırır.  (twisteroid
ambassador’un bpo-33530(10) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530


File: python.info,  Node: builtins,  Next: collections,  Prev: asyncio<5>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.3 builtins
................

*note compile(): 56d. yerleşik yapısı ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’
bayrağını kabul edecek şekilde geliştirilmiştir.  Bu yeni bayrak
geçildiğinde, *note compile(): 56d. genellikle geçersiz sözdizimi olarak
kabul edilen üst düzey ‘await’, ‘async for’ ve ‘async with’ yapılarına
izin verecektir.  Daha sonra ‘CO_COROUTINE’ bayrağı ile işaretlenmiş
asenkron kod nesnesi döndürülebilir.  (Matthias Bussonnier’ın
bpo-34616(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616


File: python.info,  Node: collections,  Next: cProfile,  Prev: builtins,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.4 collections
...................

*note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. için *note _asdict(): 840. yöntemi
artık *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. yerine bir *note dict: 240.
döndürüyor.  Bu işe yarıyor çünkü normal dictler Python 3.7’den beri
garantili sıralamaya sahip.  Eğer ‘OrderedDict’ ‘in ekstra özellikleri
gerekiyorsa, önerilen çözüm sonucu istenen türe dönüştürmektir:
‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.  (Raymond Hettinger’ın bpo-35864(1) ‘teki
katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile,  Next: csv<2>,  Prev: collections,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.5 cProfile
................

*note cProfile.Profile: 842. sınıfı artık bir bağlam yöneticisi olarak
kullanılabilir.  Çalıştırarak bir kod bloğunun profilini oluşturun:

     import cProfile

     with cProfile.Profile() as profiler:
           # code to be profiled
           ...

(Scott Sanderson’ın bpo-29235(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235


File: python.info,  Node: csv<2>,  Next: curses<3>,  Prev: cProfile,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.6 csv
...........

*note csv.DictReader: 844. artık *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6.
yerine *note dict: 240. örneklerini döndürüyor.  Araç artık daha hızlı
ve alan sırasını korurken daha az bellek kullanıyor.  (Michael Selik’ in
bpo-34003(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003


File: python.info,  Node: curses<3>,  Next: ctypes,  Prev: csv<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.7 curses
..............

Temel ncurses kütüphanesi için yapılandırılmış sürüm bilgilerini tutan
yeni bir değişken eklendi: *note ncurses_version: 846.  (Serhiy
Storchaka’nın bpo-31680(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes,  Next: datetime<3>,  Prev: curses<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.8 ctypes
..............

Windows üzerinde, *note CDLL: 848. ve alt sınıfları artık temel
‘LoadLibraryEx’ çağrısı için bayrakları belirtmek üzere bir 'winmode'
parametresi kabul etmektedir.  Varsayılan bayraklar, DLL’nin depolandığı
yol (ilk DLL’yi yüklemek için tam veya kısmi bir yol kullanılmışsa) ve
*note add_dll_directory(): 849. tarafından eklenen yollar dahil olmak
üzere, yalnızca güvenilir konumlardan DLL bağımlılıklarını yükleyecek
şekilde ayarlanmıştır.  (Steve Dower’ın bpo-36085(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<3>,  Next: functools<2>,  Prev: ctypes,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.9 datetime
................

Added new alternate constructors *note datetime.date.fromisocalendar():
84b. and *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 84c, which construct
*note date: 749. and *note datetime: 22b. objects respectively from ISO
year, week number, and weekday; these are the inverse of each class’s
‘isocalendar’ method.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-36004(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004


File: python.info,  Node: functools<2>,  Next: gc<3>,  Prev: datetime<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.10 functools
..................

*note functools.lru_cache(): 84e. artık bir dekoratör döndüren bir
fonksiyon yerine düz bir dekoratör olarak kullanılabilir.  Yani bunların
ikisi de artık destekleniyor:

     @lru_cache
     def f(x):
         ...

     @lru_cache(maxsize=256)
     def f(x):
         ...

(Raymond Hettinger’ın bpo-36772(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

Örneğin ömrü boyunca önbelleğe alınan hesaplanmış özellikler için yeni
bir *note functools.cached_property(): 2cf. dekoratörü eklendi:

     import functools
     import statistics

     class Dataset:
        def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
           self.data = sequence_of_numbers

        @functools.cached_property
        def variance(self):
           return statistics.variance(self.data)

(Carl Meyer’ın bpo-21145(2) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

Metotları *note single dispatch: 84f. kullanarak *note generic
functions: 850. haline dönüştüren yeni bir *note
functools.singledispatchmethod(): 851. dekoratörü eklendi:

     from functools import singledispatchmethod
     from contextlib import suppress

     class TaskManager:

         def __init__(self, tasks):
             self.tasks = list(tasks)

         @singledispatchmethod
         def discard(self, value):
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 self.tasks.remove(value)

         @discard.register(list)
         def _(self, tasks):
             targets = set(tasks)
             self.tasks = [x for x in self.tasks if x not in targets]

(Ethan Smith’in bpo-32380(3) ‘deki katkısıyla)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380


File: python.info,  Node: gc<3>,  Next: gettext,  Prev: functools<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.11 gc
...........

*note get_objects(): 63d. artık nesnelerin alınacağı nesli belirten
isteğe bağlı bir 'nesil' parametresi alabilir.  (Pablo Galindo’nun
bpo-36016(1) ‘daki katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016


File: python.info,  Node: gettext,  Next: gzip<3>,  Prev: gc<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.12 gettext
................

*note pgettext(): 854. ve varyantları eklendi.  (Franz Glasner, Éric
Araujo ve Cheryl Sabella’nın bpo-2504(1) ‘teki katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<3>,  Next: IDLE ve idlelib<2>,  Prev: gettext,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.13 gzip
.............

Tekrarlanabilir çıktı için *note gzip.compress(): 451. dosyasına 'mtime'
parametresi eklendi.  (Guo Ci Teo’nun bpo-34898(1) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

Belirli türdeki geçersiz veya bozuk gzip dosyaları için *note OSError:
65c. yerine artık *note BadGzipFile: 856. istisnası oluşturulmaktadır.
(Filip Gruszczyński, Michele Orrù ve Zackery Spytz’in bpo-6584(2) ‘teki
katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE ve idlelib<2>,  Next: inspect<5>,  Prev: gzip<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.14 IDLE ve idlelib
........................

N satırın üzerindeki çıktı (varsayılan olarak 50) bir düğmeye
sıkıştırılır.  N, Ayarlar iletişim kutusunun Genel sayfasının PyShell
bölümünde değiştirilebilir.  Daha az, ancak muhtemelen ekstra uzun
satırlar, çıktıya sağ tıklanarak sıkıştırılabilir.  Sıkıştırılmış çıktı,
düğmeye çift tıklanarak yerinde veya düğmeye sağ tıklanarak panoya veya
ayrı bir pencereye genişletilebilir.  (Tal Einat’ın bpo-1529353(1) ‘teki
katkısıyla.)

Bir modülü özelleştirilmiş ayarlarla çalıştırmak için Çalıştır menüsüne
“Özelleştirilmiş Çalıştır” seçeneğini ekleyin.  Girilen tüm komut satırı
argümanları sys.argv’ye eklenir.  Ayrıca bir sonraki özelleştirilmiş
çalıştırma için kutuda yeniden görünürler.  Ayrıca normal Shell ana
modülünün yeniden başlatılması da engellenebilir.  (Cheryl Sabella,
Terry Jan Reedy ve diğerleri tarafından bpo-5680(2) ve bpo-37627(3) ‘de
katkıda bulunulmuştur)

IDLE düzenleyici pencereleri için isteğe bağlı satır numaraları eklendi.
Yapılandırma iletişim kutusunun Genel sekmesinde aksi ayarlanmadığı
sürece pencereler satır numaraları olmadan açılır.  Mevcut bir pencere
için satır numaraları Seçenekler menüsünde gösterilir ve gizlenir.  (Tal
Einat ve Saimadhav Heblikar’ın bpo-17535(4) ‘teki katkılarıyla.)

OS yerel kodlaması artık Python dizeleri ve Tcl nesneleri arasında
dönüştürme yapmak için kullanılıyor.  Bu, IDLE’ın emoji ve diğer BMP
olmayan karakterlerle çalışmasını sağlar.  Bu karakterler
görüntülenebilir veya kopyalanıp panoya veya panodan yapıştırılabilir.
Dizeleri Tcl’den Python’a ve geri dönüştürmek artık asla başarısız
olmuyor.  (Birçok kişi sekiz yıl boyunca bunun üzerinde çalıştı ancak
sorun sonunda Serhiy Storchaka tarafından bpo-13153(5) ‘de çözüldü)

3.8.1’deki yenilikler:

İmleç yanıp sönmesini kapatmak için seçenek ekleyin.  (Zackery Spytz’in
bpo-4603(6) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

Escape tuşu artık IDLE tamamlama pencerelerini kapatıyor.  (Johnny
Najera’nın bpo-38944(7) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

Yukarıdaki değişiklikler 3.7 bakım sürümlerine geri aktarılmıştır.

Modül adı tamamlama listesine anahtar kelimeler ekleyin.  (Terry J.
Reedy’nin bpo-37765(8) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<5>,  Next: io<2>,  Prev: IDLE ve idlelib<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.15 inspect
................

*note inspect.getdoc(): 859. fonksiyonu artık ‘__slots__’ için doktrin
bulabilir, eğer bu nitelik değerlerin doktrin olduğu bir *note dict:
240. ise.  Bu, *note property(): 43c, *note classmethod(): 252. ve *note
staticmethod(): 612. için zaten sahip olduğumuza benzer doktrin
seçenekleri sağlar:

     class AudioClip:
         __slots__ = {'bit_rate': 'expressed in kilohertz to one decimal place',
                      'duration': 'in seconds, rounded up to an integer'}
         def __init__(self, bit_rate, duration):
             self.bit_rate = round(bit_rate / 1000.0, 1)
             self.duration = ceil(duration)

(Raymond Hettinger’ın bpo-36326(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326


File: python.info,  Node: io<2>,  Next: itertools<3>,  Prev: inspect<5>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.16 io
...........

Geliştirme modunda (*note -X: 18e. ‘env’) ve *note debug build: 6b9.
içinde, *note io.IOBase: 85b. sonlandırıcısı artık ‘close()’ yöntemi
başarısız olursa istisnayı kaydeder.  Sürüm derlemesinde istisna
varsayılan olarak sessizce yok sayılır.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-18748(1)
‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<3>,  Next: json tool,  Prev: io<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.17 itertools
..................

*note itertools.accumulate(): 85d. fonksiyonuna bir başlangıç değeri
belirtmek için 'initial' anahtar kelime argümanı seçeneği eklendi:

     >>> from itertools import accumulate
     >>> list(accumulate([10, 5, 30, 15], initial=1000))
     [1000, 1010, 1015, 1045, 1060]

(Lisa Roach’un bpo-34659(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659


File: python.info,  Node: json tool,  Next: kayıt tutma,  Prev: itertools<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.18 json.tool
..................

Her girdi satırını ayrı bir JSON nesnesi olarak ayrıştırmak için
‘--json-lines’ seçeneğini ekleyin.  (Weipeng Hong’un bpo-31553(1) ‘teki
katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553


File: python.info,  Node: kayıt tutma,  Next: math<4>,  Prev: json tool,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.19 kayıt tutma
....................

Added a 'force' keyword argument to *note logging.basicConfig(): 860.
When set to true, any existing handlers attached to the root logger are
removed and closed before carrying out the configuration specified by
the other arguments.

Bu, uzun süredir devam eden bir sorunu çözmektedir.  Bir kaydedici veya
'basicConfig()' çağrıldıktan sonra, 'basicConfig()' ‘e yapılan sonraki
çağrılar sessizce yok sayılıyordu.  Bu durum, etkileşimli komut istemini
veya Jupyter not defterini kullanarak çeşitli kaydedici yapılandırma
seçeneklerini güncellemeyi, denemeyi veya öğretmeyi zorlaştırıyordu.

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger, implemented by Donghee Na, and reviewed
by Vinay Sajip in bpo-33897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897


File: python.info,  Node: math<4>,  Next: mmap,  Prev: kayıt tutma,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.20 math
.............

İki nokta arasındaki Öklid mesafesini hesaplamak için yeni *note
math.dist(): 862. fonksiyonu eklendi.  (Raymond Hettinger’ın
bpo-33089(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

*note math.hypot(): 863. fonksiyonu çoklu boyutları işleyecek şekilde
genişletildi.  Önceden sadece 2 boyutlu durumu destekliyordu.  (Raymond
Hettinger’ın bpo-33089(2) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

Yeni *note math.prod(): 864. fonksiyonu eklendi, *note sum(): 187.
fonksiyonuna benzer bir fonksiyon olarak, bir ‘başlangıç’ değeri
(varsayılan: 1) ile bir sayı yinelenebilirinin çarpımını döndürür:

     >>> prior = 0.8
     >>> likelihoods = [0.625, 0.84, 0.30]
     >>> math.prod(likelihoods, start=prior)
     0.126

(Pablo Galindo’nun bpo-35606(3) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

İki yeni kombinatorik fonksiyon eklendi *note math.perm(): 4e8. ve *note
math.comb(): 4e7.:

     >>> math.perm(10, 3)    # Permutations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     720
     >>> math.comb(10, 3)    # Combinations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     120

(Yash Aggarwal, Keller Fuchs, Serhiy Storchaka ve Raymond Hettinger’ın
bpo-37128(4), bpo-37178(5) ve bpo-35431(6) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

Kayan noktaya dönüştürmeden doğru tamsayı kareköklerini hesaplamak için
yeni bir *note math.isqrt(): 865. fonksiyonu eklendi.  Yeni fonksiyon
keyfi olarak büyük tamsayıları destekler.  Bu fonksiyon ‘floor(sqrt(n))’
fonksiyonundan daha hızlıdır ancak *note math.sqrt(): 866.:
fonksiyonundan daha yavaştır:

     >>> r = 650320427
     >>> s = r ** 2
     >>> isqrt(s - 1)         # correct
     650320426
     >>> floor(sqrt(s - 1))   # incorrect
     650320427

(Mark Dickinson’ın bpo-36887(7) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

Fonksiyon *note math.factorial(): 7a0. artık int benzeri olmayan
argümanları kabul etmiyor.  (Pablo Galindo’nun bpo-33083(8) ‘deki
katkısıyla)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083


File: python.info,  Node: mmap,  Next: multiprocessing<2>,  Prev: math<4>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.21 mmap
.............

*note mmap.mmap: 868. sınıfı artık ‘madvise()’ sistem çağrısına erişmek
için bir *note madvise(): 869. yöntemine sahiptir.  (Zackery Spytz’in
bpo-32941(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<2>,  Next: os<5>,  Prev: mmap,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.22 multiprocessing
........................

Yeni *note multiprocessing.shared_memory: 98. modülü eklendi.  (Davin
Potts’un bpo-35813(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

macOS’ta 'spawn' başlatma yöntemi artık varsayılan olarak
kullanılmaktadır.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-33725(2) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: os<5>,  Next: os path<4>,  Prev: multiprocessing<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.23 os
...........

Eklenti modüllerini içe aktarırken veya *note ctypes: 2a. kullanarak
DLL’leri yüklerken yerel bağımlılıklar için ek arama yolları sağlamak
için Windows’ta yeni *note add_dll_directory(): 849. fonksiyonu eklendi.
(Steve Dower’ın bpo-36085(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

Yeni bir *note os.memfd_create(): 86c. fonksiyonu ‘memfd_create()’
sistem çağrısını sarmak için eklendi.  (Zackery Spytz ve Christian
Heimes tarafından bpo-26836(2) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

Windows’ta, yeniden ayrıştırma noktalarını (sembolik bağlantılar ve
dizin bağlantıları dahil) işlemek için manuel mantığın çoğu işletim
sistemine devredilmiştir.  Özellikle, *note os.stat(): 1c5. artık
işletim sistemi tarafından desteklenen her şeyi geçerken, *note
os.lstat(): 1c6. yalnızca “isim vekilleri” olarak tanımlanan yeniden
ayrıştırma noktalarını açacak, diğerleri ise *note os.stat(): 1c5. için
olduğu gibi açılacaktır.  Her durumda, ‘stat_result.st_mode’ sadece
sembolik bağlantılar için ‘S_IFLNK’ ayarına sahip olacak, diğer türdeki
ayrıştırma noktaları için olmayacaktır.  Diğer yeniden ayrıştırma
noktası türlerini tanımlamak için yeni ‘stat_result.st_reparse_tag’
niteliğini kontrol edin.

Windows üzerinde, *note os.readlink(): 778. artık dizin bağlantılarını
okuyabilmektedir.  *note islink(): 86d. dizin bağlantıları için ‘False’
döndürecektir ve bu nedenle önce ‘islink’ kontrol eden kod bağlantıları
dizin olarak ele almaya devam ederken, *note os.readlink(): 778.
hatalarını işleyen kod artık bağlantıları linkler olarak ele alabilir.

(Steve Dower’ın bpo-37834(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: os path<4>,  Next: pathlib<5>,  Prev: os<5>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.24 os.path
................

*note exists(): 86f, *note lexists(): 870, *note isdir(): 871, *note
isfile(): 872, *note islink(): 86d. ve ‘ ismount()’ gibi boolean sonuç
döndüren *note os.path: a1. fonksiyonları artık işletim sistemi
düzeyinde temsil edilemeyen karakterler veya baytlar içeren yollar için
*note ValueError: 189. veya alt sınıfları *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b.
ve *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873. yerine ‘False’ döndürüyor.  (Serhiy
Storchaka’nın bpo-33721(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

Windows üzerinde *note expanduser(): 874. artık ‘USERPROFILE’ ortam
değişkenini tercih ediyor ve normalde normal kullanıcı hesapları için
ayarlanmamış olan ‘HOME’ değişkenini kullanmıyor.  (Anthony Sottile’nin
bpo-36264(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

*note isdir(): 871. Windows üzerinde artık var olmayan bir dizine
bağlantı için ‘True’ döndürmüyor.

Windows üzerinde *note realpath(): 398. artık ortak bağlantılar ve dizin
birleşimleri de dahil olmak üzere yeniden ayrıştırma noktalarını
çözümlüyor.

(Steve Dower’ın bpo-37834(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<5>,  Next: pickle,  Prev: os path<4>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.25 pathlib
................

*note pathlib.Path: 14f. methods that return a boolean result like *note
exists(): 876, *note is_dir(): 877, *note is_file(): 878, *note
is_mount(): 879, *note is_symlink(): 87a, *note is_block_device(): 87b,
*note is_char_device(): 87c, *note is_fifo(): 87d, *note is_socket():
87e. now return ‘False’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 189. or its
subclass *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b. for paths that contain
characters unrepresentable at the OS level.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).)

Added ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ which creates a hard link pointing to a
path.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-26978(2)) Note that
‘link_to’ was deprecated in 3.10 and removed in 3.12 in favor of a
‘hardlink_to’ method added in 3.10 which matches the semantics of the
existing ‘symlink_to’ method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978


File: python.info,  Node: pickle,  Next: plistlib,  Prev: pathlib<5>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.26 pickle
...............

C-optimized *note Pickler: 880. alt sınıfını kullanan *note pickle: a5.
uzantıları artık özel *note reducer_override(): 881. yöntemini
tanımlayarak fonksiyon ve sınıfların pickling mantığını geçersiz
kılabilir.  (Pierre Glaser ve Olivier Grisel’ın bpo-35900(1) ‘deki
katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib,  Next: pprint<3>,  Prev: pickle,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.27 plistlib
.................

Yeni *note plistlib.UID: 883. eklendi ve NSKeyedArchiver ile kodlanmış
ikili plistleri okuma ve yazma desteği etkinleştirildi.  (Jon Janzen
tarafından bpo-26707(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<3>,  Next: py_compile<2>,  Prev: plistlib,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.28 pprint
...............

*note pprint: ad. modülü çeşitli fonksiyonlara 'sort_dicts' parametresi
ekledi.  Varsayılan olarak, bu fonksiyonlar sözlükleri oluşturmadan veya
yazdırmadan önce sıralamaya devam eder.  Ancak, 'sort_dicts' yanlış
olarak ayarlanırsa, sözlükler anahtarların eklendiği sırayı korur.  Bu,
hata ayıklama sırasında JSON girdileriyle karşılaştırma yapmak için
yararlı olabilir.

In addition, there is a convenience new function, *note pprint.pp():
885. that is like *note pprint.pprint(): 666. but with 'sort_dicts'
defaulting to ‘False’:

     >>> from pprint import pprint, pp
     >>> d = dict(source='input.txt', operation='filter', destination='output.txt')
     >>> pp(d, width=40)                  # Original order
     {'source': 'input.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'destination': 'output.txt'}
     >>> pprint(d, width=40)              # Keys sorted alphabetically
     {'destination': 'output.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'source': 'input.txt'}

(Rémi Lapeyre’nin bpo-30670(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<2>,  Next: shlex,  Prev: pprint<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.29 py_compile
...................

*note py_compile.compile(): 887. artık sessiz modu destekliyor.
(Joannah Nanjekye’nin bpo-22640(1) ‘taki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640


File: python.info,  Node: shlex,  Next: shutil<3>,  Prev: py_compile<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.30 shlex
..............

Yeni *note shlex.join(): 889. fonksiyonu *note shlex.split(): 2c8.
fonksiyonunun tersi gibi davranır.  (Bo Bayles’in bpo-32102(1) ‘deki
katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<3>,  Next: socket<4>,  Prev: shlex,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.31 shutil
...............

*note shutil.copytree(): 88b. artık yeni bir ‘dirs_exist_ok’ anahtar
kelime argümanını kabul ediyor.  (Josh Bronson’ın bpo-20849(1) ‘daki
katkısıyla.)

*note shutil.make_archive(): 1de. artık taşınabilirliği ve standartlara
uygunluğu artırmak için yeni arşivler için modern pax (POSIX.1-2001)
formatını varsayılan olarak kullanmaktadır, *note tarfile: dd.
modülündeki ilgili değişiklikten miras alınmıştır.  (C.A.M. Gerlach’ın
bpo-30661(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

windows üzerinde *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. artık dizin bağlantılarını
önce içeriklerini özyinelemeli olarak kaldırmadan kaldırıyor.  (Steve
Dower’ın bpo-37834(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: socket<4>,  Next: ssl<3>,  Prev: shutil<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.32 socket
...............

Added *note create_server(): 88d. and *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): 88e.
convenience functions to automate the necessary tasks usually involved
when creating a server socket, including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6
connections on the same socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
bpo-17561(1).)

The *note socket.if_nameindex(): 88f, *note socket.if_nametoindex():
890, and *note socket.if_indextoname(): 891. functions have been
implemented on Windows.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-37007(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<3>,  Next: statistics<3>,  Prev: socket<4>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.33 ssl
............

TLS 1.3 post-handshake kimlik doğrulamasını başlatmak için *note
post_handshake_auth: 893. etkinleştirildi ve *note
verify_client_post_handshake(): 894. eklendi.  (Christian Heimes’in
bpo-34670(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<3>,  Next: sys<6>,  Prev: ssl<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.34 statistics
...................

Added *note statistics.fmean(): 896. as a faster, floating-point variant
of *note statistics.mean(): 4e9.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and
Steven D’Aprano in bpo-35904(1).)

Added *note statistics.geometric_mean(): 897. (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-27181(2).)

En yaygın değerlerin bir listesini döndüren *note
statistics.multimode(): 898. eklendi.  (Raymond Hettinger’ın
bpo-35892(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

Verileri veya bir dağılımı eşitlenebilir aralıklara (örneğin çeyrekler,
ondalıklar veya yüzdelikler) bölen *note statistics.quantiles(): 899.
eklendi.  (Raymond Hettinger’ın bpo-36546(4) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

Rastgele bir değişkenin normal dağılımlarını oluşturmak ve işlemek için
bir araç olan *note statistics.NormalDist: 89a. eklendi.  (Raymond
Hettinger’ın bpo-36018(5) ‘deki katkısıyla.  )

     >>> temperature_feb = NormalDist.from_samples([4, 12, -3, 2, 7, 14])
     >>> temperature_feb.mean
     6.0
     >>> temperature_feb.stdev
     6.356099432828281

     >>> temperature_feb.cdf(3)            # Chance of being under 3 degrees
     0.3184678262814532
     >>> # Relative chance of being 7 degrees versus 10 degrees
     >>> temperature_feb.pdf(7) / temperature_feb.pdf(10)
     1.2039930378537762

     >>> el_niño = NormalDist(4, 2.5)
     >>> temperature_feb += el_niño        # Add in a climate effect
     >>> temperature_feb
     NormalDist(mu=10.0, sigma=6.830080526611674)

     >>> temperature_feb * (9/5) + 32      # Convert to Fahrenheit
     NormalDist(mu=50.0, sigma=12.294144947901014)
     >>> temperature_feb.samples(3)        # Generate random samples
     [7.672102882379219, 12.000027119750287, 4.647488369766392]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018


File: python.info,  Node: sys<6>,  Next: tarfile<5>,  Prev: statistics<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.35 sys
............

Yeni *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491. fonksiyonunu ekleyin, bu fonksiyon
“kaldırılamayan istisnaların” nasıl işleneceğini kontrol etmek için
geçersiz kılınabilir.  Bir istisna oluştuğunda çağrılır, ancak Python’un
bunu ele almasının bir yolu yoktur.  Örneğin, bir yıkıcı bir istisna
ortaya çıkardığında veya çöp toplama sırasında (*note gc.collect():
89c.).  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-36829(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<5>,  Next: threading<4>,  Prev: sys<6>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.36 tarfile
................

*note tarfile: dd. modülü artık yeni arşivler için önceki GNU’ya özgü
format yerine modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) formatını varsayılan olarak
kullanmaktadır.  Bu, standartlaştırılmış ve genişletilebilir bir
formatta tutarlı bir kodlama (UTF-8) ile platformlar arası
taşınabilirliği geliştirir ve başka avantajlar da sunar.  (C.A.M.
Gerlach’ın bpo-36268(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268


File: python.info,  Node: threading<4>,  Next: tokenize<2>,  Prev: tarfile<5>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.37 threading
..................

Yakalanmamış *note threading.Thread.run(): 89f. istisnalarını işleyen
yeni bir *note threading.excepthook(): 68a. fonksiyonu ekleyin.
Yakalanmamış *note threading.Thread.run(): 89f. istisnalarının nasıl
işleneceğini kontrol etmek için geçersiz kılınabilir.  (Victor
Stinner’ın bpo-1230540(1) ‘taki katkısıyla.)

Yeni bir *note threading.get_native_id(): 8a0. fonksiyonu ve *note
native_id: 8a1. niteliğini *note threading.Thread: 7a7. sınıfına
ekleyin.  Bunlar, çekirdek tarafından atanan geçerli iş parçacığının
yerel integral İş Parçacığı Kimliğini döndürür.  Bu özellik yalnızca
belirli platformlarda kullanılabilir, daha fazla bilgi için *note
get_native_id: 8a0. bölümüne bakın.  (Jake Tesler’ın bpo-36084(2) ‘teki
katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize<2>,  Next: tkinter<3>,  Prev: threading<4>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.38 tokenize
.................

*note tokenize: fb. modülü artık sonda yeni bir satır olmayan girdi
sağlandığında örtük olarak bir ‘NEWLINE’ belirteci yayar.  Bu davranış
artık C tokenizer’ın dahili olarak yaptığı ile eşleşiyor.  (Ammar
Askar’ın bpo-33899(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<3>,  Next: time<3>,  Prev: tokenize<2>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.39 tkinter
................

‘tkinter.Spinbox’ sınıfına ‘selection_from()’, ‘selection_present()’,
‘selection_range()’ ve ‘selection_to()’ yöntemleri eklendi.  (Juliette
Monsel’ın bpo-34829(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

‘tkinter.Canvas’ sınıfına ‘moveto()’ metodu eklendi.  (Juliette
Monsel’ın bpo-23831(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

‘tkinter.PhotoImage’ sınıfı artık ‘transparency_get()’ ve
‘transparency_set()’ yöntemlerine sahiptir.  (Zackery Spytz’in
bpo-25451(3) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451


File: python.info,  Node: time<3>,  Next: typing<6>,  Prev: tkinter<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.40 time
.............

Added new clock *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: 8a5. for macOS 10.12.
(Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-35702(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702


File: python.info,  Node: typing<6>,  Next: unicodedata<4>,  Prev: time<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.41 typing
...............

*note typing: 104. modülü birkaç yeni özellik içerir:

   * Anahtar başına türleri olan bir sözlük türü.  Bakınız PEP 589(1) ve
     *note typing.TypedDict: 159.  TypedDict yalnızca dize anahtarları
     kullanır.  Varsayılan olarak, her anahtarın mevcut olması gerekir.
     Anahtarların isteğe bağlı olmasına izin vermek için “total=False”
     belirtin:

          class Location(TypedDict, total=False):
              lat_long: tuple
              grid_square: str
              xy_coordinate: tuple

   * Değişmez tipler.  Bakınız PEP 586(2) ve *note typing.Literal: 694.
     Değişmez tipler, bir parametrenin veya dönüş değerinin bir veya
     daha fazla belirli değişmez değerle sınırlandırıldığını gösterir:

          def get_status(port: int) -> Literal['connected', 'disconnected']:
              ...

   * “Final” değişkenler, fonksiyonlar, metotlar ve sınıflar.  Bakınız
     PEP 591(3), *note typing.Final: 8a7. ve *note typing.final(): 4c3.
     Final niteleyicisi statik tip denetleyicisine alt sınıflamayı,
     geçersiz kılmayı veya yeniden atamayı kısıtlama talimatı verir:

          pi: Final[float] = 3.1415926536

   * Protokol tanımları.  Bakınız PEP 544(4), *note typing.Protocol:
     4c7. ve *note typing.runtime_checkable(): 152.  *note
     typing.SupportsInt: 8a8. gibi basit ABC’ler artık ‘Protocol’ alt
     sınıflarıdır.

   * Yeni protokol sınıfı *note typing.SupportsIndex: 8a9.

   * Yeni fonksiyonlar *note typing.get_origin(): 8aa. ve *note
     typing.get_args(): 6c4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<4>,  Next: unittest<5>,  Prev: typing<6>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.42 unicodedata
....................

*note unicodedata: 105. modülü Unicode 12.1.0(1) sürümünü kullanacak
şekilde yükseltildi.

Yeni *note is_normalized(): 8ac. fonksiyonu, bir dizenin belirli bir
normal formda olduğunu doğrulamak için kullanılabilir, genellikle dizeyi
gerçekten normalleştirmekten çok daha hızlıdır.  (Max Belanger, David
Euresti ve Greg Price’ın bpo-32285(2) ve bpo-37966(3) ‘daki
katkılarıyla).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<5>,  Next: venv<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<4>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.43 unittest
.................

Eklenen *note AsyncMock: 8ae, *note Mock: 8af. ‘un asenkron versiyonunu
desteklemektedir.  Test için uygun yeni savunma fonksiyonları da
eklenmiştir.  (Lisa Roach’ın bpo-26467(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

Added *note addModuleCleanup(): 8b0. and *note addClassCleanup(): 8b1.
to unittest to support cleanups for ‘setUpModule()’ and *note
setUpClass(): 8b2.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-24412(2).)

Birkaç sahte savunma fonksiyonu artık başarısızlık durumunda gerçek
çağrıların bir listesini de yazdırıyor.  (Petter Strandmark’ın
bpo-35047(3) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

*note unittest: 106. modülü, *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase:
282. ile test durumları olarak kullanılacak korutinler için destek
kazandı.  (Andrew Svetlov’un bpo-32972(4) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

Örnek:

     import unittest


     class TestRequest(unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):

         async def asyncSetUp(self):
             self.connection = await AsyncConnection()

         async def test_get(self):
             response = await self.connection.get("https://example.com")
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)

         async def asyncTearDown(self):
             await self.connection.close()


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         unittest.main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972


File: python.info,  Node: venv<3>,  Next: weakref,  Prev: unittest<5>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.44 venv
.............

*note venv: 111. artık PowerShell Core 6.1 altında sanal ortamları
etkinleştirmek için tüm platformlarda bir ‘Activate.ps1’ dizesi içeriyor
(Brett Cannon’un bpo-32718(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718


File: python.info,  Node: weakref,  Next: xml<3>,  Prev: venv<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.45 weakref
................

*note weakref.proxy(): 8b5. tarafından döndürülen proxy nesneleri artık
diğer sayısal operatörlere ek olarak ‘@’ ve ‘@=’ matris çarpma
operatörlerini de desteklemektedir.  (Mark Dickinson’ın bpo-36669(1)
‘daki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669


File: python.info,  Node: xml<3>,  Next: xmlrpc,  Prev: weakref,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.46 xml
............

DTD ve harici varlık alımına karşı hafifletme olarak, *note
xml.dom.minidom: 122. ve *note xml.sax: 129. modülleri artık varsayılan
olarak harici varlıkları işlememektedir.  (Christian Heimes’ın
bpo-17239(1) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. modülündeki ‘.find*()’ yöntemleri, ad
alanını yok sayan ‘{*}tag’ ve verilen ad alanındaki tüm etiketleri
döndüren ‘{namespace}*’ gibi joker karakter aramalarını destekler.
(Stefan Behnel’ın bpo-28238(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module provides a new function
‘–xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize()’ that implements C14N 2.0.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-13611(3).)

*note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: 8b7. hedef nesnesi, yeni
‘start_ns()’ ve ‘end_ns()’ geri çağırma yöntemleri aracılığıyla ad alanı
bildirimi olaylarını alabilir.  Ek olarak, *note
xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: 8b8. hedefi, yorumlarla ilgili
olayları ve bunları oluşturulan ağaca dahil etmek için işleme
talimatlarını işlemek üzere yapılandırılabilir.  (Stefan Behnel’ın
bpo-36676(4) ve bpo-36673(5) ‘teki katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc,  Prev: xml<3>,  Up: Geliştirilmiş Modüller

1.5.5.47 xmlrpc
...............

*note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: 8ba. artık her istekle birlikte
gönderilecek bir dizi HTTP başlığı için isteğe bağlı bir 'headers'
anahtar kelime argümanını destekliyor.  Diğer şeylerin yanı sıra, bu,
varsayılan temel kimlik doğrulamasından daha hızlı oturum kimlik
doğrulamasına yükseltmeyi mümkün kılar.  (Cédric Krier’ın bpo-35153(1)
‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizasyonlar<2>,  Next: Derleme ve C API Değişiklikleri,  Prev: Geliştirilmiş Modüller,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.6 Optimizasyonlar
---------------------

   * *note subprocess: d5. modülü artık daha iyi performans için bazı
     durumlarda *note os.posix_spawn(): 8bc. fonksiyonunu kullanabilir.
     Şu anda, yalnızca macOS ve Linux’ta (glibc 2.24 veya daha yenisini
     kullanan) tüm bu koşullar yerine getirilirse kullanılmaktadır:

        * 'close_fds' yanlıştır;

        * 'preexec_fn', 'pass_fds', 'cwd' ve 'start_new_session'
          parametreleri ayarlanmamış;

        * 'yürütülebilir' yol bir dizin içerir.

     (Victor Stinner ve Joannah Nanjekye’nin bpo-35537(1) ‘deki
     katkılarıyla.)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd, *note shutil.copy(): 8be, *note
     shutil.copy2(): 8bf, *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. ve *note
     shutil.move(): 8c0, dosyayı daha verimli bir şekilde kopyalamak
     için Linux ve macOS’ta platforma özgü “fast-copy” sistem
     çağrılarını kullanır.  “fast-copy”, kopyalama işleminin çekirdek
     içinde gerçekleştiği ve Python’da “‘outfd.write(infd.read())’” gibi
     kullanıcı alanı tamponlarının kullanılmasından kaçınıldığı anlamına
     gelir.  Windows üzerinde *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd. daha büyük
     bir varsayılan tampon boyutu kullanır (16 KiB yerine 1 MiB) ve
     *note shutil.copyfileobj(): 8c1. ‘nin *note memoryview(): 185.
     tabanlı bir çeşidi kullanılır.  Aynı bölüm içinde 512 MiB’lık bir
     dosyayı kopyalamak için hızlanma yaklaşık olarak Linux’te +26%,
     macOS’da +50% ve Windows’ta +40%’tır.  Ayrıca, çok daha az CPU
     döngüsü tüketilir.  Bkz *note Platform-dependent efficient copy
     operations: 8c2. bölümü.  (Giampaolo Rodolà’nın bpo-33671(2) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. *note os.scandir(): 8c3. fonksiyonunu
     kullanır ve buna bağlı tüm kopyalama fonksiyonları önbelleğe
     alınmış *note os.stat(): 1c5. değerlerini kullanır.  Linux’ta 8000
     dosyalık bir dizini kopyalama hız değişimi +9% o, Windows’ta +20%
     ve Windows SMB paylaşımında +30% civarındadır.  Ayrıca *note
     os.stat(): 1c5. sistem çağrılarının sayısı %38 oranında azaltılarak
     *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. özellikle ağ dosya sistemlerinde daha
     hızlı hale getirilmiştir.  (Giampaolo Rodolà’nın bpo-33695(3) ‘teki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note pickle: a5. modülündeki varsayılan protokol artık ilk olarak
     Python 3.4’te tanıtılan Protokol 4’tür.  Python 3.0’dan beri mevcut
     olan Protokol 3’e kıyasla daha iyi performans ve daha küçük boyut
     sunar.

   * Bir *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. üyesi ‘PyGC_Head’ ‘den kaldırıldı.  Tüm
     GC izlenen nesnelerin (örn.  tuple, list, dict) boyutu 4 veya 8
     bayt azaltıldı.  (Inada Naoki’nin bpo-33597(4) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note uuid.UUID: 8c5. artık bellek ayak izini azaltmak için
     ‘__slots__’ kullanıyor.  (Wouter Bolsterlee ve Tal Einat’ın
     bpo-30977(5) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   * *note operator.itemgetter(): 8c6. fonksiyonunun performansı %33
     oranında artırıldı.  Argüman işleme optimize edildi ve bir tuple
     içine negatif olmayan tek bir tamsayı indeksinin yaygın durumu için
     hızlı bir yol eklendi (standart kütüphanedeki tipik kullanım durumu
     budur).  (Raymond Hettinger’ın bpo-35664(6) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. içindeki alan aramaları
     hızlandırıldı.  Artık iki kattan daha hızlılar, bu da onları
     Python’daki en hızlı örnek değişken arama biçimi haline getiriyor.
     (Raymond Hettinger, Pablo Galindo ve Joe Jevnik, Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-32492(7) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   * *note list: 422. kurucusu, girdi yinelenebilirinin bilinen bir
     uzunluğu varsa (girdi ‘__len__’ uygular) dahili öğe arabelleğini
     genel olarak ayırmaz.  Bu, oluşturulan listenin ortalama %12 daha
     küçük olmasını sağlar.  (Raymond Hettinger ve Pablo Galindo’nun
     bpo-33234(8) ‘teki katkılarıyla.)

   * Sınıf değişkeni yazma hızı iki katına çıkarıldı.  Dunder olmayan
     bir nitelik güncellendiğinde, yuvaları güncellemek için gereksiz
     bir çağrı vardı.  (Stefan Behnel, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond
     Hettinger, Neil Schemenauer ve Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-36012(9)
     ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   * Birçok yerleşik fonksiyon ve metoda aktarılan argümanları
     dönüştürme yükü azaltıldı.  Bu, bazı basit yerleşik fonksiyonların
     ve yöntemlerin çağrılmasını %20–50’ye kadar hızlandırdı.  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-23867(10), bpo-35582(11) ve bpo-36127(12) ‘deki
     katkılarıyla.)

   * ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ komutu artık yeni “işlem kodu başına önbellek”
     mekanizmasını kullanıyor.  Şimdi yaklaşık 40% daha hızlı.  (Yury
     Selivanov ve Inada Naoki’nin bpo-26219(13) ‘daki katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35582

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219


File: python.info,  Node: Derleme ve C API Değişiklikleri,  Next: Kullanımdan kaldırıldı,  Prev: Optimizasyonlar<2>,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.7 Derleme ve C API Değişiklikleri
-------------------------------------

   * Varsayılan *note sys.abiflags: 8c8. boş bir dize haline geldi:
     pymalloc için ‘m’ bayrağı işe yaramaz hale geldi (hem pymalloc
     içeren hem de içermeyen derlemeler ABI uyumludur) ve bu nedenle
     kaldırıldı.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-36707(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

     Değişikliklerin örneği:

        * Sadece ‘python3.8’ programı kurulur, ‘python3.8m’ programı
          kaldırılır.

        * Yalnızca ‘python3.8-config’ dizesi yüklendi,
          ‘python3.8m-config’ dizesi gitti.

        * Dinamik kütüphane dosya adlarının son ekinden ‘m’ bayrağı
          kaldırıldı: standart kütüphanedeki uzantı modüllerinin yanı
          sıra PyPI’dan indirilenler gibi üçüncü taraf paketleri
          tarafından üretilen ve yüklenenler.  Örneğin Linux’ta Python
          3.7 soneki ‘.cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ Python 3.8’de
          ‘.cpython-38-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ oldu.

   * Başlık dosyaları, farklı API türlerini daha iyi ayırmak için
     yeniden düzenlenmiştir:

        * ‘Include/*.h’, taşınabilir genel kararlı C API’si olmalıdır.

        * ‘Include/cpython/*.h’, CPython’a özgü kararsız C API’si
          olmalıdır; ‘_Py’ veya ‘_PY’ ile ön eklenmiş bazı özel API ile
          genel API.

        * ‘Include/internal/*.h’ CPython’a özgü özel dahili C API’sidir.
          Bu API geriye dönük uyumluluk garantisi olmadan gelir ve
          CPython dışında kullanılmamalıdır.  Sadece hata ayıklayıcılar
          ve fonksiyonları çağırmadan CPython içlerine erişmek zorunda
          olan profiller gibi çok özel ihtiyaçlar için açığa çıkar.  Bu
          API artık ‘make install’ tarafından yüklenmektedir.

     (Eric Snow tarafından Python 3.7’de başlatılan çalışmaya
     bpo-35134(2) ve bpo-35081(3) ‘de Victor Stinner tarafından katkı
     sağlanmıştır.)

   * Bazı makrolar statik satır içi fonksiyonlara dönüştürülmüştür:
     parametre türleri ve dönüş türü iyi tanımlanmıştır, makrolara özgü
     sorunları yoktur, değişkenlerin yerel kapsamları vardır.  Örnekler:

        * *note Py_INCREF(): 305, *note Py_DECREF(): 306.

        * *note Py_XINCREF(): 8c9, *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2.

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’

        * Private functions: ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’,
          ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’, ‘_Py_Dealloc()’

     (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-35059(4) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’ functions have
     been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4 and Python
     3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI), and were
     not documented.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35713(5).)

   * ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ sonucu artık ‘char *’ yerine ‘const char
     *’ türündedir.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-33818(6) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ ve ‘Modules/Setup’ ikiliği kaldırıldı.
     Önceden, CPython kaynak ağacını güncellerken, yukarı akıştaki
     değişiklikleri yansıtmak için ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ dosyasını
     (kaynak ağacının içinde) ‘Modules/Setup’ dosyasına (derleme
     ağacının içinde) manuel olarak kopyalamak gerekiyordu.  Bu, CPython
     geliştirmesini takip eden geliştiriciler için sık sık can sıkıntısı
     pahasına paketleyicilere küçük bir fayda sağlıyordu, çünkü dosyayı
     kopyalamayı unutmak derleme hatalarına neden olabiliyordu.

     Artık derleme sistemi her zaman kaynak ağacının içindeki
     ‘Modules/Setup’ dosyasını okuyor.  Bu dosyayı özelleştirmek isteyen
     kişilerin, değişikliklerini CPython’un bir git çatalında veya
     kaynak ağacındaki diğer değişiklikler için yapacakları gibi yama
     dosyaları olarak sürdürmeleri teşvik edilir.

     (Antoine Pitrou’nun bpo-32388(7) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 8ca. gibi Python sayısını C tamsayısına
     dönüştüren fonksiyonlar ve *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. gibi
     ‘'i'’ gibi tamsayı dönüştürme format birimlerine sahip argüman
     ayrıştırma fonksiyonları artık mümkünse *note __int__(): 537.
     yerine *note __index__(): 538. özel metodunu kullanacaktır.
     Kullanımdan kaldırma uyarısı, ‘__int__()’ yöntemi olan ancak
     ‘index__()’ yöntemi olmayan nesneler (*note Decimal: 609. ve *note
     Fraction: 1ae. gibi) için verilecektir.  *note PyNumber_Check():
     8cb. artık ‘__index__()’ yöntemini uygulayan nesneler için ‘1’
     değerini döndürecektir.  *note PyNumber_Long(): 8cc, *note
     PyNumber_Float(): 8cd. ve *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): 8ce. artık
     mümkünse ‘__index__()’ yöntemini de kullanmaktadır.  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-36048(8) ve bpo-20092(9) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   * Yığın tahsisli tip nesneleri artık referans sayılarını *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8cf. yerine *note PyObject_Init(): 8d0. (ve
     paralel makrosu ‘PyObject_INIT’) içinde artıracaktır.  Örnek
     paylaştırma veya serbest bırakma işlemini değiştiren türlerin
     ayarlanması gerekebilir.  (Eddie Elizondo’nun bpo-35810(10) ‘daki
     katkısıyla.)

   * The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ allows to create
     code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an extra
     'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positional-only arguments.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-37221(11).)

   * ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 36c. to the program
     full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b.) rather than to the
     program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d.).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38234(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234


File: python.info,  Node: Kullanımdan kaldırıldı,  Next: API ve Özellik Kaldırmaları,  Prev: Derleme ve C API Değişiklikleri,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.8 Kullanımdan kaldırıldı
----------------------------

   * Distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ komutu artık kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır,
     bunun yerine ‘bdist_wheel’ (tekerlek paketleri) kullanın.  (Victor
     Stinner’ın bpo-37481(1) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note ElementTree: 125. modülündeki kullanımdan kaldırılan
     ‘getchildren()’ ve ‘getiterator()’ yöntemleri artık *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. yerine bir *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. yayıyor.  Python 3.9’da kaldırılacaklar.
     (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-29209(2) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * Bir *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. örneği
     olmayan bir nesneyi *note loop.set_default_executor(): 56f. ‘a
     geçirmek kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır ve Python 3.9’da
     yasaklanacaktır.  (Elvis Pranskevichus’un bpo-34075(3) ‘teki
     katkısıyla.)

   * The *note __getitem__(): 500. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 55e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 55f. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560.
     have been deprecated.

     Bu yöntemlerin uygulamaları 'index' parametresini yok saymakta ve
     bunun yerine bir sonraki öğeyi döndürmektedir.  (Berker Peksag’ın
     bpo-9372(4) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 202. sınıfı, aynı bilgileri içeren
     ‘__annotations__’ niteliği lehine ‘_field_types’ niteliğini
     kullanımdan kaldırmıştır.  (Raymond Hettinger’ın bpo-36320(5) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note ast: 8. sınıfları ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ ve
     ‘Ellipsis’ kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır ve gelecek Python
     sürümlerinde kaldırılacaktır.  Yerine *note Constant: 21e.
     kullanılmalıdır.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-32892(6) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note ast.NodeVisitor: 8d2. metotları ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’,
     ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ ve ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ artık
     kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır ve gelecekteki Python sürümlerinde
     çağrılmayacaktır.  Tüm sabit düğümleri işlemek için *note
     visit_Constant(): 8d3. yöntemini ekleyin.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın
     bpo-36917(7) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * ‘asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 559. kullanımdan
     kaldırılmıştır ve 3.10 sürümünde kaldırılacaktır.
     ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ yerine *note async def: 3db. kullanın.
     (Andrew Svetlov’un bpo-36921(8) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note asyncio: a. içinde, bir 'loop' argümanının açıkça geçilmesi
     kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır ve 3.10 sürümünde aşağıdakiler için
     kaldırılacaktır: *note asyncio.sleep(): 8d4, *note
     asyncio.gather(): 40c, *note asyncio.shield(): 8d5, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 40e, *note asyncio.wait(): 1a0, *note
     asyncio.as_completed(): 1a1, *note asyncio.Task: 20a, *note
     asyncio.Lock: 8d6, *note asyncio.Event: 8d7, *note
     asyncio.Condition: 8d8, *note asyncio.Semaphore: 8d9, *note
     asyncio.BoundedSemaphore: 8da, *note asyncio.Queue: 8db, *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc, ve *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): 8dd.

   * Korutin nesnelerinin *note asyncio.wait(): 1a0. ‘e açık bir şekilde
     aktarılması kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır ve 3.11 sürümünde
     kaldırılacaktır (Yury Selivanov’un bpo-34790(9) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * Aşağıdaki fonksiyonlar ve yöntemler *note gettext: 61. modülünde
     kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır: ‘lgettext()’, ‘ldgettext()’,
     ‘lngettext()’ ve ‘ldngettext()’.  Bunlar kodlanmış baytlar döndürür
     ve çevrilen dizelerde kodlama sorunları varsa Unicode ile ilgili
     beklenmedik istisnalar almanız olasıdır.  Python 3’te Unicode
     dizgileri döndüren alternatifleri kullanmak çok daha iyidir.  Bu
     fonksiyonlar uzun süredir bozuk.

     ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ fonksiyonu, ‘output_charset()’ ve
     ‘set_output_charset()’ yöntemleri ve *note translation(): 8de. ve
     *note install(): 8df. fonksiyonlarının 'codeset' parametresi de
     yalnızca ‘l*gettext()’ fonksiyonları için kullanıldığından
     kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-33710(10)
     ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 7a7. has been
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35283(11).)

   * Tamsayı argümanları alan birçok yerleşik ve uzantı fonksiyonu artık
     *note Decimal: 609, *note Fraction: 1ae. ve yalnızca bir kayıpla
     tamsayılara dönüştürülebilen diğer nesneler (örneğin *note
     __int__(): 537. yöntemine sahip olan ancak *note __index__(): 538.
     yöntemine sahip olmayan) için bir kullanımdan kaldırma uyarısı
     verecektir.  Gelecek sürümde bunlar hata olacaktır.  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-36048(12) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Aşağıdaki bağımsız değişkenlerin anahtar sözcük bağımsız
     değişkenleri olarak iletilmesi kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır:

        - 'func' in *note functools.partialmethod(): 8e0, *note
          weakref.finalize(): 8e1, *note profile.Profile.runcall(): 8e2,
          ‘cProfile.Profile.runcall()’, *note bdb.Bdb.runcall(): 8e3,
          *note trace.Trace.runfunc(): 8e4. and *note curses.wrapper():
          8e5.

        - *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): 8e6. içindeki
          'fonksiyon'.

        - 'fn' içinde *note submit(): 8e7. yöntemi *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. ve *note
          concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741.

        - *note contextlib.ExitStack.callback(): 8e8,
          ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack.callback()’ ve *note
          contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback(): 8e9. içinde
          'geri arama'.

        - 'c' ve 'typeid' öğeleri ‘multiprocessing.managers.Server’ ve
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryServer’ öğelerinin
          ‘create()’ yönteminde yer alır.

        - *note weakref.finalize(): 8e1. içindeki 'obj'.

     Python’un gelecekteki sürümlerinde, bunlar *note positional-only:
     8ea. olacaktır.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-36492(13) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492


File: python.info,  Node: API ve Özellik Kaldırmaları,  Next: Python 3 8’e Taşıma,  Prev: Kullanımdan kaldırıldı,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.9 API ve Özellik Kaldırmaları
---------------------------------

Aşağıdaki özellikler ve API’ler Python 3.8’den kaldırılmıştır:

   * Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note collections:
     1d. was deprecated, and importing should be done from *note
     collections.abc: 1e.  Being able to import from collections was
     marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed to 3.9.  (See
     gh-81134(1).)

   * Python 3.7’de kullanımdan kaldırılan ‘macpath’ modülü kaldırıldı.
     (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-35471(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Python 3.3’ten beri kullanımda olmayan ‘platform.popen()’
     fonksiyonu kaldırıldı: bunun yerine *note os.popen(): 8ec.
     kullanın.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-35345(3) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * Python 3.3’ten beri kullanımdan kaldırılan ‘time.clock()’
     fonksiyonu kaldırıldı: iyi tanımlanmış davranışa sahip olmak için
     gereksinimlerinize bağlı olarak bunun yerine *note
     time.perf_counter(): 8ed. veya *note time.process_time(): 8ee.
     kullanın.  (Matthias Bussonnier’ın bpo-36895(4) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * ‘pyvenv’ betiğinin hangi Python yorumlayıcısına bağlı olduğu
     konusundaki karışıklığı ortadan kaldırmak için ‘python3.8 -m venv’
     betiği lehine ‘pyvenv’ betiği kaldırıldı.  (Brett Cannon’ın
     bpo-25427(5) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * ‘parse_qs’, ‘parse_qsl’ ve ‘escape’ *note cgi: 15. modülünden
     kaldırılmıştır.  Python 3.2 veya daha eski sürümlerde kullanımdan
     kaldırılmışlardır.  Bunun yerine ‘urllib.parse’ ve ‘html’
     modüllerinden içe aktarılmalıdırlar.

   * ‘filemode’ fonksiyonu *note tarfile: dd. modülünden kaldırılmıştır.
     Python 3.3’ten beri belgelenmemiştir ve kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.

   * *note XMLParser: 8b7. yapıcısı artık 'html' argümanını kabul
     etmiyor.  Hiçbir zaman bir etkisi olmadı ve Python 3.4’te
     kullanımdan kaldırıldı.  Diğer tüm parametreler artık *note
     keyword-only: 8ef. şeklindedir.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-29209(6)
     ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * *note XMLParser: 8b7. metodunun ‘doctype()’ metodu kaldırıldı.
     (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-29209(7) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * “unicode_internal” codec’i kaldırıldı.  (Inada Naoki’nin
     bpo-36297(8) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. modülünün ‘Cache’ ve ‘Statement’ nesneleri
     kullanıcıya açık değildir.  (Aviv Palivoda’nın bpo-30262(9) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * Python 3.6’dan beri göz ardı edilen ve kullanımdan kaldırılan *note
     fileinput.input(): 639. ve *note fileinput.FileInput(): 560.
     anahtar kelime argümanı ‘bufsize’ kaldırıldı.  bpo-36952(10)
     (Matthias Bussonnier’ın katkısıyla.)

   * Python 3.7’de kullanımdan kaldırılan ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’
     ve ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’ fonksiyonları kaldırıldı;
     bpo-36933(11) (Matthias Bussonnier’ın katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81134

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8’e Taşıma,  Next: Python 3 8 1’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Prev: API ve Özellik Kaldırmaları,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.10 Python 3.8’e Taşıma
--------------------------

Bu bölüm, daha önce açıklanan değişiklikleri ve kodunuzda değişiklik
gerektirebilecek diğer hata düzeltmelerini listeler.

* Menu:

* Python davranışındaki değişiklikler::
* Python API’sindeki değişiklikler::
* C API’sindeki değişiklikler: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<3>.
* CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri<2>.
* Demolar ve Araçlar::


File: python.info,  Node: Python davranışındaki değişiklikler,  Next: Python API’sindeki değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 8’e Taşıma

1.5.10.1 Python davranışındaki değişiklikler
............................................

   * Yield ifadelerine (hem ‘yield’ hem de ‘yield from’ cümleleri) artık
     anlamalarda ve oluşturucu ifadelerinde (en soldaki ‘for’
     cümlesindeki yinelenebilir ifadesi dışında) izin verilmemektedir.
     (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-10544(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * Derleyici artık kimlik kontrolleri (‘is’ ve ‘is not’) belirli
     türdeki değişmezlerle (örneğin dizeler, sayılar) kullanıldığında
     bir *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. üretiyor.  Bunlar CPython’da
     genellikle kazara çalışabilir, ancak dil özellikleri tarafından
     garanti edilmez.  Uyarı, kullanıcılara bunun yerine eşitlik
     testlerini (‘==’ ve ‘!=’) kullanmalarını önerir.  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-34850(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * CPython yorumlayıcısı bazı durumlarda istisnaları yutabilir.
     Python 3.8’de bu daha az durumda gerçekleşir.  Özellikle, tip
     sözlüğünden öznitelik alınırken ortaya çıkan istisnalar artık göz
     ardı edilmiyor.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-35459(3) ‘daki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note bool: 183, *note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note complex:
     273. yerleşik türlerinden ve standart kütüphanedeki birkaç sınıftan
     ‘__str__’ uygulamaları kaldırıldı.  Bunlar artık *note object: 8f2.
     türünden ‘__str__()’ miras almaktadır.  Sonuç olarak, bu sınıfların
     alt sınıflarında ‘__repr__()’ metodunu tanımlamak onların string
     gösterimlerini etkileyecektir.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-36793(4)
     ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * On AIX, *note sys.platform: 8f3. doesn’t contain the major version
     anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’ ..  ‘'aix7'’.
     Since older Python versions include the version number, so it is
     recommended to always use ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.
     (Contributed by M. Felt in bpo-36588(5).)

   * ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’ now terminate
     the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing,
     making them consistent with *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4,
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8f5, and *note PyGILState_Ensure():
     8f6.  If this behavior is not desired, guard the call by checking
     ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8f7.
     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-36475(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475


File: python.info,  Node: Python API’sindeki değişiklikler,  Next: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<3>,  Prev: Python davranışındaki değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 8’e Taşıma

1.5.10.2 Python API’sindeki değişiklikler
.........................................

   * *note os.getcwdb(): 8f9. fonksiyonu artık Windows’ta ANSI kod
     sayfası yerine UTF-8 kodlamasını kullanıyor: gerekçe için bkz.  PEP
     529(1).  İşlev artık Windows’ta kullanımdan kaldırılmamıştır.
     (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-37412(2) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. artık daha iyi performans için bazı
     durumlarda *note os.posix_spawn(): 8bc. kullanabilir.  Linux ve
     QEMU Kullanıcı Emülasyonu için Windows Alt Sisteminde, *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 8bc. kullanan ‘Popen’ kurucusu artık “eksik
     program” gibi hatalarda bir istisna oluşturmuyor.  Bunun yerine alt
     süreç sıfır olmayan bir ‘returncode’ ile başarısız olur.  (Joannah
     Nanjekye ve Victor Stinner’ın bpo-35537(3) ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   * *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. parametresinin 'preexec_fn' argümanı
     artık alt yorumlayıcılarla uyumlu değildir.  Parametrenin bir alt
     yorumlayıcıda kullanılması artık *note RuntimeError: 180. uyarısı
     veriyor.  (Eric Snow tarafından bpo-34651(4) ‘de katkıda
     bulunulmuş, Christian Heimes tarafından bpo-37951(5) ‘de
     değiştirilmiştir.)

   * ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ yöntemi artık keyfi istisnaları sessizce yok
     saymaz.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-36348(6) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Python 3.3’ten beri kullanımda olmayan ‘platform.popen()’
     fonksiyonu kaldırıldı: bunun yerine *note os.popen(): 8ec.
     kullanın.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-35345(7) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * *note statistics.mode(): 8fb. fonksiyonu artık çok modlu veriler
     verildiğinde bir istisna oluşturmuyor.  Bunun yerine, girdi
     verilerinde karşılaşılan ilk modu döndürür.  (Raymond Hettinger’ın
     bpo-35892(8) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note tkinter.ttk.Treeview: 8fc. sınıfının *note selection(): 8fd.
     yöntemi artık argüman almıyor.  Seçimi değiştirmek için
     argümanlarla kullanılması Python 3.6’da kullanımdan kaldırılmıştır.
     Seçimi değiştirmek için *note selection_set(): 8fe. gibi özel
     yöntemler kullanın.  (Serhiy Storchaka’ın bpo-31508(9) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. metodunun ‘writexml()’, ‘toxml()’ ve
     ‘toprettyxml()’ metotları ve ‘xml.etree’ metodunun ‘write()’ metodu
     artık kullanıcı tarafından belirtilen öznitelik sırasını
     korumaktadır.  (Diego Rojas ve Raymond Hettinger’ın bpo-34160(10)
     ‘daki katkılarıyla.)

   * Bir *note dbm.dumb: 32. veritabanı ‘'r'’ bayraklarıyla açıldığında
     artık salt okunurdur.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): 8ff, ‘'r'’ ve ‘'w'’
     bayraklarıyla artık mevcut değilse bir veritabanı oluşturmaz.
     (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-32749(11) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * *note XMLParser: 8b7. alt sınıfında tanımlanan ‘doctype()’ yöntemi
     artık çağrılmayacak ve bir *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. yerine
     bir *note RuntimeWarning: 900. yayacaktır.  Bir XML doctype
     bildirimini işlemek için bir hedef üzerinde *note doctype(): 901.
     yöntemini tanımlayın.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-29209(12) ‘daki
     katkısıyla.)

   * Özel metaclass, ‘type.__new__’ ‘e aktarılan ad alanında
     ‘__classcell__’ girdisini sağlamadığında artık bir *note
     RuntimeError: 180. ortaya çıkıyor.  Bir *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f. Python 3.6–3.7' ‘de yayınlandı (Serhiy Storchaka’nın
     bpo-23722(13) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * ‘cProfile.Profile’ sınıfı artık bir bağlam yöneticisi olarak
     kullanılabilir.  (Scott Sanderson’ın bpo-29235(14) ‘teki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd, *note shutil.copy(): 8be, *note
     shutil.copy2(): 8bf, *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. ve *note
     shutil.move(): 8c0. platforma özgü “fast-copy” sistem çağrılarını
     kullanır (bkz.  *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations:
     8c2. bölümü).

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd. Windows üzerindeki varsayılan tampon
     boyutu 16 KiB’den 1 MiB’ye değiştirildi.

   * ‘PyGC_Head’ yapısı tamamen değişti.  Bu yapı üyesine dokunan tüm
     kodlar yeniden yazılmalıdır.  (Bkz bpo-33597(15).)

   * *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. yapısı “dahili” başlık dosyalarına
     taşınmıştır (özellikle Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h).  Opak
     bir ‘PyInterpreterState’ hala genel API’nin (ve kararlı ABI’nin)
     bir parçası olarak mevcuttur.  Dokümanlar, yapının hiçbir alanının
     herkese açık olmadığını belirtmektedir, bu nedenle kimsenin bunları
     kullanmadığını umuyoruz.  Ancak, bu özel alanlardan birine veya
     daha fazlasına güveniyorsanız ve alternatifiniz yoksa, lütfen bir
     BPO sorunu açın.  Ayarlama yapmanıza yardımcı olmak için
     çalışacağız (muhtemelen genel API’ye erişim fonksiyonları eklemek
     dahil).  (Bkz.  bpo-35886(16).)

   * *note mmap.flush(): 902. yöntemi artık başarı durumunda ‘None’
     değerini döndürmekte ve tüm platformlarda hata durumunda bir
     istisna oluşturmaktadır.  Önceden metodun davranışı platforma
     bağlıydı: başarı durumunda sıfır olmayan bir değer döndürülüyordu;
     Windows altında hata durumunda sıfır döndürülüyordu.  Unix altında
     başarı durumunda sıfır değeri döndürülürken hata durumunda bir
     istisna ortaya çıkıyordu.  (Berker Peksağ’ın bpo-2122(17) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. ve *note xml.sax: 129. modülleri artık
     varsayılan olarak harici varlıkları işlemiyor.  (Christian
     Heimes’in bpo-17239(18) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * Salt okunur *note dbm: 31. veritabanından bir anahtar silindiğinde
     (*note dbm.dumb: 32, *note dbm.gnu: 33. veya *note dbm.ndbm: 34.)
     *note KeyError: 903. yerine ‘error’ (*note dbm.dumb.error: 904,
     *note dbm.gnu.error: 905. veya *note dbm.ndbm.error: 906.) ortaya
     çıkar.  (Xiang Zhang’ın bpo-33106(19) ‘teki katkılarıyla.)

   * Değişmezler için basitleştirilmiş AST. Tüm sabitler *note
     ast.Constant: 21e. örnekleri olarak temsil edilecektir.  Eski
     ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ ve ‘Ellipsis’ sınıflarını
     örneklemek bir ‘Constant’ örneği döndürecektir.  (Serhiy
     Storchaka’nın bpo-32892(20) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * Windows üzerinde *note expanduser(): 874. artık ‘USERPROFILE’ ortam
     değişkenini tercih ediyor ve normalde normal kullanıcı hesapları
     için ayarlanmamış olan ‘HOME’ değişkenini kullanmıyor.  (Anthony
     Sottile’nin bpo-36264(21) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * İstisna *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. artık *note Exception:
     838. yerine *note BaseException: 3c3. ‘dan miras alıyor ve artık
     *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 839. ‘dan miras almıyor.
     (Yury Selivanov’un bpo-32528(22) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * *note asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. fonksiyonu artık *note asyncio.Task:
     20a. örneğini kullanırken iptal için doğru şekilde bekliyor.
     Önceden, 'zaman aşımına' ulaşıldığında iptal ediliyor ve hemen geri
     dönüyordu.  (Elvis Pranskevichus’un bpo-32751(23) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * Fonksiyon *note asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): 907. artık
     'name' parametresine ‘socket’ geçildiğinde kullanımı güvenli bir
     soket nesnesi döndürüyor.  (Yury Selivanov’un bpo-37027(24) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note asyncio.BufferedProtocol: 908. kararlı API’ye geçiş yaptı.

   * Windows üzerinde *note ctypes: 2a. ile yüklenen uzantı modülleri ve
     DLL’ler için DLL bağımlılıkları artık daha güvenli bir şekilde
     çözümlenmektedir.  Yükleme zamanı bağımlılıkları için yalnızca
     sistem yolları, DLL veya PYD dosyasını içeren dizin ve *note
     add_dll_directory(): 849. ile eklenen dizinler aranır.  Özellikle,
     ‘PATH’ ve geçerli çalışma dizini artık kullanılmamaktadır ve
     bunlarda yapılan değişikliklerin normal DLL çözümlemesi üzerinde
     herhangi bir etkisi olmayacaktır.  Uygulamanız bu mekanizmalara
     güveniyorsa, *note add_dll_directory(): 849. dosyasını kontrol
     etmeli ve varsa, kütüphanenizi yüklerken DLL’lerinizin dizinini
     eklemek için kullanmalısınız.  Windows 7 kullanıcılarının Windows
     Update KB2533623’ün yüklendiğinden emin olmaları gerektiğini
     unutmayın (bu aynı zamanda yükleyici tarafından da doğrulanır).
     (Steve Dower’ın bpo-36085(25) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * Pgen ile ilgili başlık dosyaları ve fonksiyonlar, saf bir Python
     uygulamasıyla değiştirildikten sonra kaldırılmıştır.  (Pablo
     Galindo’nun bpo-36623(26) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * *note types.CodeType: 263, PEP 570(27) ‘te tanımlanan sadece
     pozisyonel argümanları desteklemek için kurucunun ikinci
     pozisyonunda ('posonlyargcount') yeni bir parametreye sahiptir.
     İlk argüman ('argcount') artık toplam konumsal argüman sayısını
     (sadece konumsal argümanlar dahil) temsil etmektedir.  *note
     types.CodeType: 263. ‘ın yeni ‘replace()’ yöntemi, kodu geleceğe
     hazır hale getirmek için kullanılabilir.

   * *note hmac.new(): 90a. için ‘digestmod’ parametresi artık
     varsayılan olarak MD5 özetini kullanmıyor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/


File: python.info,  Node: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<3>,  Next: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri<2>,  Prev: Python API’sindeki değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 8’e Taşıma

1.5.10.3 C API’sindeki değişiklikler
....................................

   * *note PyCompilerFlags: 90c. yapısı yeni bir 'cf_feature_version'
     alanına sahiptir.  Bu alan ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’ olarak
     başlatılmalıdır.  Bu alan varsayılan olarak yok sayılır ve yalnızca
     'cf_flags' içinde ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ bayrağı ayarlanmışsa kullanılır.
     (Guido van Rossum’un bpo-35766(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been removed from the C
     API. It should not be called explicitly: use *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-36728(2).)

   * Unix’te, Android ve Cygwin dışında C uzantıları artık libpython’a
     bağlı değildir.  Python gömülü olduğunda, ‘libpython’ ‘RTLD_LOCAL’
     ile değil, bunun yerine ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ ile yüklenmelidir.  Önceden
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’ kullanıldığında, ‘Modules/Setup’ bölümünün ‘*shared*’
     bölümü tarafından oluşturulan standart kütüphanenin C uzantıları
     gibi ‘libpython’ ile bağlantılı olmayan C uzantılarını yüklemek
     zaten mümkün değildi.  (Victor Stinner’ın bpo-21536(3) ‘daki
     katkısıyla.)

   * Ayrıştırma veya değer oluşturmada biçimlerin ‘#’ varyantlarının
     kullanımı (örneğin *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308, *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 6f5, *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 90d, vb.)
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ tanımlanmadan artık ‘DeprecationWarning’ verir.
     Bu uyarı 3.10 veya 4.0’da kaldırılacaktır.  Ayrıntılar için *note
     Parsing arguments and building values: 6f6. sayfasını okuyun.
     (Inada Naoki’nin bpo-36381(4) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   * Yığın tahsisli tiplerin örnekleri (örneğin *note PyType_FromSpec():
     316. ile oluşturulanlar) tip nesnelerine bir referans tutar.  Bu
     tip nesnelerinin referans sayısının artırılması *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8cf. fonksiyonundan daha düşük seviyeli
     *note PyObject_Init(): 8d0. ve ‘PyObject_INIT()’ fonksiyonlarına
     taşınmıştır.  Bu, *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316. aracılığıyla
     oluşturulan türlerin yönetilen koddaki diğer sınıflar gibi
     davranmasını sağlar.

     *note Statically allocated types: 5af. etkilenmez.

     Durumların büyük çoğunluğu için herhangi bir yan etki olmamalıdır.
     Ancak, bir örnek tahsis ettikten sonra referans sayısını manuel
     olarak artıran türler (belki de hatanın etrafında çalışmak için)
     artık ölümsüz hale gelebilir.  Bundan kaçınmak için, bu sınıfların
     örnek ayırma sırasında tür nesnesi üzerinde Py_DECREF’i çağırması
     gerekir.

     Bu türleri 3.8 ‘e doğru bir şekilde taşımak için lütfen aşağıdaki
     değişiklikleri uygulayın:

        * Remove *note Py_INCREF: 305. on the type object after
          allocating an instance - if any.  This may happen after
          calling *note PyObject_New: 7e3, *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4,
          *note PyObject_GC_New(): 90e, *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): 90f,
          or any other custom allocator that uses *note PyObject_Init():
          8d0. or ‘PyObject_INIT()’.

          Örnek:

               static foo_struct *
               foo_new(PyObject *type) {
                   foo_struct *foo = PyObject_GC_New(foo_struct, (PyTypeObject *) type);
                   if (foo == NULL)
                       return NULL;
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000
                   // Workaround for Python issue 35810; no longer necessary in Python 3.8
                   PY_INCREF(type)
               #endif
                   return foo;
               }

        * Yığın tahsisli türlerin tüm özel ‘tp_dealloc’
          fonksiyonlarının, türün referans sayısını azalttığından emin
          olun.

          Örnek:

               static void
               foo_dealloc(foo_struct *instance) {
                   PyObject *type = Py_TYPE(instance);
                   PyObject_GC_Del(instance);
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.8 (Python issue 35810)
                   Py_DECREF(type);
               #endif
               }

     (Eddie Elizondo’nun bpo-35810(5) ‘daki katkısıyla.)

   * *note Py_DEPRECATED(): 910. makrosu MSVC için uygulanmıştır.  Makro
     artık sembol adından önce yerleştirilmelidir.

     Örnek:

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     (Zackery Spytz’in bpo-33407(6) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * The interpreter does not pretend to support binary compatibility of
     extension types across feature releases, anymore.  A *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. exported by a third-party extension module is
     supposed to have all the slots expected in the current Python
     version, including *note tp_finalize: 912. (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 371. is not checked anymore before
     reading *note tp_finalize: 912.).

     (Antoine Pitrou’nun bpo-32388(7) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   * The functions ‘PyNode_AddChild()’ and ‘PyParser_AddToken()’ now
     accept two additional ‘int’ arguments 'end_lineno' and
     'end_col_offset'.

   * MinGW araçlarının doğrudan ‘python38.dll’ dosyasına bağlanmasını
     sağlayan ‘libpython38.a’ dosyası artık normal Windows dağıtımına
     dahil değildir.  Bu dosyaya ihtiyacınız varsa, MinGW binutils
     paketinin bir parçası olan ‘gendef’ ve ‘dlltool’ araçları ile
     oluşturulabilir:

          gendef - python38.dll > tmp.def
          dlltool --dllname python38.dll --def tmp.def --output-lib libpython38.a

     Yüklü bir ‘pythonXY.dll’ dosyasının konumu, kurulum seçeneklerine
     ve Windows’un sürümüne ve diline bağlı olacaktır.  Daha fazla bilgi
     için *note Windows’ta kullanma: 913. konusuna bakın.  Ortaya çıkan
     kitaplık, genellikle Python kurulumunuzun altındaki ‘libs’ dizini
     olan ‘pythonXY.lib’ ile aynı dizine yerleştirilmelidir.

     (Steve Dower’ın bpo-37351(8) ‘deki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri<2>,  Next: Demolar ve Araçlar,  Prev: C API’sindeki değişiklikler<3>,  Up: Python 3 8’e Taşıma

1.5.10.4 CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri
.........................................

   * Yorumlayıcı döngüsü, blok yığınını açma mantığı derleyiciye
     taşınarak basitleştirilmiştir.  Derleyici artık değer yığınını
     ayarlamak ve *note break: 915, *note continue: 827. ve *note
     return: 82c. için temizleme kodunu çağırmak için açık talimatlar
     yayınlar.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’,
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

     (Mark Shannon, Antoine Pitrou ve Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-17611(1)
     ‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   * Bir *note async for: 916. döngüsünde bir sonraki öğe beklenirken
     ortaya çıkan istisnaları işlemek için yeni *note END_ASYNC_FOR:
     917. kodu eklendi.  (Serhiy Storchaka’nın bpo-33041(2) ‘deki
     katkısıyla.)

   * *note MAP_ADD: 918. artık değeri yığının ilk elemanı ve anahtarı da
     ikinci eleman olarak beklemektedir.  Bu değişiklik, PEP 572(3)
     tarafından önerildiği gibi, sözlük kavramalarında anahtarın her
     zaman değerden önce değerlendirilmesi için yapılmıştır.  (Jörn
     Heissler’ın bpo-35224(4) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Demolar ve Araçlar,  Prev: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri<2>,  Up: Python 3 8’e Taşıma

1.5.10.5 Demolar ve Araçlar
...........................

Değişkenlere erişmenin çeşitli yollarını zamanlamak için bir kıyaslama
dizesi eklendi: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  (Raymond
Hettinger’ın bpo-35884(1) ‘teki katkısıyla.)

İşte Python 3.3’ten bu yana performans iyileştirmelerinin bir özeti:

     Python version                       3.3     3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---     ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       4.0     7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9
         read_nonlocal                    5.3     7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4
         read_global                     13.3    15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6
         read_builtin                    20.0    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5
         read_classvar_from_class        20.5    25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4
         read_classvar_from_instance     18.5    22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4
         read_instancevar                26.8    32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4
         read_instancevar_slots          23.7    27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2
         read_namedtuple                 68.5    73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4
         read_boundmethod                29.8    37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      4.6     8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3
         write_nonlocal                   7.3    10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7
         write_global                    15.9    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8
         write_classvar                  81.9    92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2
         write_instancevar               36.4    44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5
         write_instancevar_slots         28.7    35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       19.2    24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0
         read_deque                      19.9    24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8
         read_dict                       19.7    24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0
         read_strdict                    17.9    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      21.2    27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0
         write_deque                     23.8    28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5
         write_dict                      25.9    31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7
         write_strdict                   22.9    28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                144.2    93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8
         deque_append_pop                30.4    43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5
         deque_append_popleft            30.8    43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.3     0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3

The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(2)
running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org(3).  The benchmark
script displays timings in nanoseconds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (3) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 1’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Prev: Python 3 8’e Taşıma,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.11 Python 3.8.1’deki önemli değişiklikler
---------------------------------------------

Önemli güvenlik endişeleri nedeniyle, *note
asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. parametresinin
'reuse_address' parametresi artık desteklenmemektedir.  Bunun nedeni
UDP’deki ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ soket seçeneğinin davranışıdır.  Daha fazla
ayrıntı için ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’ belgelerine bakın.  (Kyle
Stanley, Antoine Pitrou ve Yury Selivanov’un bpo-37228(1) ‘deki
katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Prev: Python 3 8 1’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.12 Notable changes in Python 3.8.2
--------------------------------------

Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of *note
shutil.copytree(): 88b.  The argument types are now str and List[str]
again.  (Contributed by Manuel Barkhau and Giampaolo Rodola in
gh-83571(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83571


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Next: Python 3 8 8’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.13 Notable changes in Python 3.8.3
--------------------------------------

The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0. module
are updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags.
Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with
‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in gh-83743(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83743


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 8’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.14 Python 3.8.8’deki önemli değişiklikler
---------------------------------------------

Daha önceki Python sürümleri *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 69a. ve
*note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 69b. içinde sorgu parametresi
ayırıcıları olarak hem ‘;’ hem de ‘&’ kullanılmasına izin veriyordu.
Güvenlik endişeleri nedeniyle ve daha yeni W3C önerilerine uymak için,
bu, varsayılan olarak ‘&’ ile yalnızca tek bir ayırıcı anahtara izin
verecek şekilde değiştirildi.  Bu değişiklik aynı zamanda *note
cgi.parse(): 69c. ve *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 69d. fonksiyonlarını
da etkilemektedir.  Daha fazla ayrıntı için lütfen ilgili belgelere
bakın.  (Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran ve Ken Jin’in bpo-42967(1)
‘deki katkılarıyla.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Prev: Python 3 8 8’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.15 Notable changes in Python 3.8.9
--------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.16 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10

1.5.16.1 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
...........................................................

As of 3.8.10, Python now supports building and running on macOS 11 (Big
Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’ architecture).  A
new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now available to natively
support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of executables.  Note
that support for “weaklinking”, building binaries targeted for newer
versions of macOS that will also run correctly on older versions by
testing at runtime for missing features, is not included in this
backport from Python 3.9; to support a range of macOS versions, continue
to target for and build on the oldest version in the range.

(Originally contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D’Anna in
gh-85272(1), with fixes by FX Coudert and Eli Rykoff, and backported to
3.8 by Maxime Bélanger and Ned Deily)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85272


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Next: Python 3 8 12’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.17 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<4>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>

1.5.17.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
bpo-43882(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 12’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.18 Python 3.8.12’deki önemli değişiklikler
----------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Python API’sindeki değişiklikler: Python API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Python API’sindeki değişiklikler<2>,  Up: Python 3 8 12’deki önemli değişiklikler

1.5.18.1 Python API’sindeki değişiklikler
.........................................

Python 3.8.12’den itibaren *note ipaddress: 7e. modülü artık IPv4 adres
dizilerinde baştaki sıfırları kabul etmemektedir.  Öndeki sıfırlar
belirsizdir ve bazı kitaplıklar tarafından sekizli gösterim olarak
yorumlanır.  Örneğin, eski fonksiyon *note socket.inet_aton(): 7bc.
baştaki sıfırları sekizli gösterim olarak ele alır.  Modern *note
inet_pton(): 7bd. glibc uygulaması baştaki sıfırları kabul etmez.

(Aslen bpo-36384(1) içinde Christian Heimes tarafından katkıda
bulunulmuştur ve Achraf Merzouki tarafından 3.8’e geri aktarılmıştır.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Python 3 8 12’deki önemli değişiklikler,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.19 Notable security feature in 3.8.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 184. and *note str: 15d. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 189. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 402. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Up: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler

1.5.20 Notable changes in 3.8.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<6>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 8 17

1.5.20.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 18b. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 7,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 6,  Prev: Python 3 8’deki Yenilikler,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.6 What’s New In Python 3.7
============================


Editor: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6.
Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 13c.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release Highlights::
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>.
* New Modules: New Modules<4>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<4>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<4>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals::
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release Highlights,  Next: New Features<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.1 Summary – Release Highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 563: 92b, postponed evaluation of type annotations.

Backwards incompatible syntax changes:

   * *note async: 55a. and *note await: 55b. are now reserved keywords.

New library modules:

   * *note contextvars: 24.: *note PEP 567 – Context Variables: 92c.

   * *note dataclasses: 2f.: *note PEP 557 – Data Classes: 92d.

   * *note importlib.resources: 92e.

New built-in features:

   * *note PEP 553: 92f, the new *note breakpoint(): 930. function.

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 562: 931, customization of access to module attributes.

   * *note PEP 560: 932, core support for typing module and generic
     types.

   * the insertion-order preservation nature of *note dict: 933. objects
     has been declared(1) to be an official part of the Python language
     spec.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: a. module has received new features, significant
     *note usability and performance improvements: 934.

   * The *note time: ed. module gained support for *note functions with
     nanosecond resolution: 935.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding:

        * *note PEP 538: 936, legacy C locale coercion

        * *note PEP 540: 937, forced UTF-8 runtime mode

   * *note PEP 552: 938, deterministic .pycs

   * *note New Python Development Mode: 939.

   * *note PEP 565: 93a, improved *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     handling

C API improvements:

   * *note PEP 539: 93b, new C API for thread-local storage

Documentation improvements:

   * *note PEP 545: 93c, Python documentation translations

   * New documentation translations: Japanese(2), French(3), and
     Korean(4).

This release features notable performance improvements in many areas.
The *note Optimizations: 93d. section lists them in detail.

For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python
releases please refer to the *note Porting to Python 3.7: 93e. section.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ja/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/fr/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/ko/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<7>,  Next: Other Language Changes<4>,  Prev: Summary – Release Highlights,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Next: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.1 PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations
....................................................

The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability
issues with the functionality of annotations added in PEP 3107(1) and
refined further in PEP 526(2):

   * annotations could only use names which were already available in
     the current scope, in other words they didn’t support forward
     references of any kind; and

   * annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of
     Python programs.

Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of
annotations.  Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in
annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation
in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question.
If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using *note
typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8.  In the common case where this is not
required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings are
interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster.

Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the
following syntax valid:

     class C:
         @classmethod
         def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C:
             ...

         def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool:
             ...

     class B:
         ...

Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be
enabled on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a *note __future__: 0.
import:

     from __future__ import annotations

It will become the default in Python 3.10.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 563(3) – Postponed evaluation of annotations

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Next: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Prev: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.2 PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion
.........................................

An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a
sensible default strategy for handling the “7-bit ASCII” text encoding
assumption currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale
on non-Windows platforms.

PEP 538(1) updates the default interpreter command line interface to
automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as
described in the documentation of the new *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:
942. environment variable.  Automatically setting ‘LC_CTYPE’ this way
means that both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such
as *note readline: b9.) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text
encoding, rather than ASCII.

The platform support definition in PEP 11(2) has also been updated to
limit full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based
locales.

As part of this change, the default error handler for *note stdin: 2c9.
and *note stdout: 943. is now ‘surrogateescape’ (rather than ‘strict’)
when using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently
‘C.UTF-8’, ‘C.utf8’, and ‘UTF-8’).  The default error handler for *note
stderr: 792. continues to be ‘backslashreplace’, regardless of locale.

Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging
potentially locale related integration problems, explicit warnings
(emitted directly on *note stderr: 792.) can be requested by setting
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’.  This setting will also cause the Python
runtime to emit a warning if the legacy C locale remains active when the
core interpreter is initialized.

While PEP 538(3)’s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting
extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), as well as child processes
(including those running non-Python applications and older versions of
Python), it has the downside of requiring that a suitable target locale
be present on the running system.  To better handle the case where no
suitable target locale is available (as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for
example), Python 3.7 also implements *note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime
Mode: 937.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 538(4) – Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Next: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Prev: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.3 PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode
..........................................

The new *note -X: 18e. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8:
945. environment variable can be used to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: 469.

When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the
UTF-8 encoding by default.  The error handlers for *note sys.stdin: 2c9.
and *note sys.stdout: 943. streams are set to ‘surrogateescape’.

The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior
in an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings
of an embedding application.

While PEP 540(1)’s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of
which locales are available on the running system, it has the downside
of having no effect on extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), child
processes running non-Python applications, and child processes running
older versions of Python.  To reduce the risk of corrupting text data
when communicating with such components, Python 3.7 also implements
*note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: 937.).

The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’,
and the PEP 538(2) locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8
based alternative (whether that failure is due to
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0’ being set, ‘LC_ALL’ being set, or the lack of a
suitable target locale).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 540(3) – Add a new UTF-8 mode

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Next: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Prev: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.4 PEP 553: Built-in ‘breakpoint()’
........................................

Python 3.7 includes the new built-in *note breakpoint(): 930. function
as an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger.

Built-in ‘breakpoint()’ calls *note sys.breakpointhook(): 947.  By
default, the latter imports *note pdb: a4. and then calls
‘pdb.set_trace()’, but by binding ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to the function
of your choosing, ‘breakpoint()’ can enter any debugger.  Additionally,
the environment variable *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 948. can be set to the
callable of your debugger of choice.  Set ‘PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0’ to
completely disable built-in ‘breakpoint()’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 553(1) – Built-in breakpoint()

     PEP written and implemented by Barry Warsaw

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Next: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Prev: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.5 PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage
...................................................

While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the
existing *note Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: 94a. has used int to
represent TLS keys across all platforms.  This has not generally been a
problem for officially support platforms, but that is neither
POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense.

PEP 539(1) changes this by providing a new *note Thread Specific Storage
(TSS) API: 94b. to CPython which supersedes use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. The
TSS API uses a new type *note Py_tss_t: 94c. instead of int to represent
TSS keys–an opaque type the definition of which may depend on the
underlying TLS implementation.  Therefore, this will allow to build
CPython on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int.

Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int, all functions of the existing TLS API will
be no-op and immediately return failure.  This indicates clearly that
the old API is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used
reliably, and that no effort will be made to add such support.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 539(2) – A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython

     PEP written by Erik M. Bray; implementation by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Next: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Prev: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.6 PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes
.............................................................

Python 3.7 allows defining ‘__getattr__()’ on modules and will call it
whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found.  Defining
‘__dir__()’ on modules is now also allowed.

A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute
deprecation and lazy loading.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 562(1) – Module ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’

     PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Next: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Prev: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.7 PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution
..............................................................

The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited
precision of a floating-point number returned by the *note time.time():
94f. function and its variants.  To avoid loss of precision, PEP 564(1)
adds six new “nanosecond” variants of the existing timer functions to
the *note time: ed. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): 950.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): 951.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): 952.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): 953.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): 954.

   * *note time.time_ns(): 955.

The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value.

Measurements(2) show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of *note
time.time_ns(): 955. is approximately 3 times better than that of *note
time.time(): 94f.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 564(3) – Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Next: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Prev: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.8 PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’
......................................................

The default handling of *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. has been changed
such that these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when
the code triggering them is running directly in the *note __main__: 1.
module.  As a result, developers of single file scripts and those using
Python interactively should once again start seeing deprecation warnings
for the APIs they use, but deprecation warnings triggered by imported
application, library and framework modules will continue to be hidden by
default.

As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers
to choose between three different deprecation warning behaviours:

   * *note FutureWarning: 248.: always displayed by default, recommended
     for warnings intended to be seen by application end users (e.g.
     for deprecated application configuration settings).

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.: displayed by default only in *note
     __main__: 1. and when running tests, recommended for warnings
     intended to be seen by other Python developers where a version
     upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an error.

   * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.: displayed by default only
     when running tests, intended for cases where a future version
     upgrade will change the warning category to *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. or *note FutureWarning: 248.

Previously both *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. were only visible when running tests,
which meant that developers primarily writing single file scripts or
using Python interactively could be surprised by breaking changes in the
APIs they used.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 565(1) – Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Next: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Prev: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.9 PEP 560: Core Support for ‘typing’ module and Generic Types
...................................................................

Initially PEP 484(1) was designed in such way that it would not
introduce 'any' changes to the core CPython interpreter.  Now type hints
and the *note typing: 104. module are extensively used by the community,
so this restriction is removed.  The PEP introduces two special methods
‘__class_getitem__()’ and ‘__mro_entries__’, these methods are now used
by most classes and special constructs in *note typing: 104.  As a
result, the speed of various operations with types increased up to 7
times, the generic types can be used without metaclass conflicts, and
several long standing bugs in *note typing: 104. module are fixed.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 560(2) – Core support for typing module and generic types

     PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Next: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Prev: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.10 PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files
.......................................

Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache
files (i.e., ‘.pyc’ files) by comparing the source metadata
(last-modified timestamp and size) with source metadata saved in the
cache file header when it was generated.  While effective, this
invalidation method has its drawbacks.  When filesystem timestamps are
too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to user confusion.
Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is problematic for
build reproducibility(1) and content-based build systems.

PEP 552(2) extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file
to be used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp.  Such
‘.pyc’ files are called “hash-based”.  By default, Python still uses
timestamp-based invalidation and does not generate hash-based ‘.pyc’
files at runtime.  Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files may be generated with *note
py_compile: b2. or *note compileall: 20.

Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files come in two variants: checked and unchecked.
Python validates checked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files against the
corresponding source files at runtime but doesn’t do so for unchecked
hash-based pycs.  Unchecked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are a useful
performance optimization for environments where a system external to
Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for keeping ‘.pyc’ files
up-to-date.

See *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 3f8. for more information.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 552(3) – Deterministic pycs

     PEP written and implemented by Benjamin Peterson

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Next: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.11 PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations
...................................................

PEP 545(1) describes the process of creating and maintaining Python
documentation translations.

Three new translations have been added:

   - Japanese: ‘https://docs.python.org/ja/’

   - French: ‘https://docs.python.org/fr/’

   - Korean: ‘https://docs.python.org/ko/’

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 545(2) – Python Documentation Translations

     PEP written and implemented by Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, and
     Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Up: New Features<7>

1.6.2.12 Python Development Mode (-X dev)
.........................................

The new *note -X: 18e. ‘dev’ command line option or the new *note
PYTHONDEVMODE: 95b. environment variable can be used to enable *note
Python Development Mode: 71d.  When in development mode, Python performs
additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by
default.  See *note Python Development Mode: 71d. documentation for the
full description.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<4>,  Next: New Modules<4>,  Prev: New Features<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.3 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * An *note await: 55b. expression and comprehensions containing an
     *note async for: 916. clause were illegal in the expressions in
     *note formatted string literals: 807. due to a problem with the
     implementation.  In Python 3.7 this restriction was lifted.

   * More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a
     function can now have more than 255 parameters.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12844(1) and bpo-18896(2).)

   * *note bytes.fromhex(): 95d. and *note bytearray.fromhex(): 95e. now
     ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  (Contributed by
     Robert Xiao in bpo-28927(3).)

   * *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb, and *note bytearray: 2ca. gained
     support for the new *note isascii(): 95f. method, which can be used
     to test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters.
     (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32677(4).)

   * *note ImportError: 14b. now displays module name and module
     ‘__file__’ path when ‘from ... import ...’ fails.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29546(5).)

   * Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a
     submodule to a name are now supported.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-30024(6).)

   * ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to ‘str(x)’ rather
     than ‘format(str(self), '')’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28974(7).)

   * In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces, *note
     types.TracebackType: 960. can now be instantiated from Python code,
     and the *note tb_next: 961. attribute on *note tracebacks: 962. is
     now writable.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30579(8).)

   * When using the *note -m: 3ec. switch, ‘sys.path[0]’ is now eagerly
     expanded to the full starting directory path, rather than being
     left as the empty directory (which allows imports from the
     'current' working directory at the time when an import occurs)
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-33053(9).)

   * The new *note -X: 18e. ‘importtime’ option or the *note
     PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 963. environment variable can be used to
     show the timing of each module import.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-31415(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<4>,  Next: Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.4 New Modules
-----------------

* Menu:

* contextvars::
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars,  Next: dataclasses<3>,  Up: New Modules<4>

1.6.4.1 contextvars
...................

The new *note contextvars: 24. module and a set of *note new C APIs:
966. introduce support for 'context variables'.  Context variables are
conceptually similar to thread-local variables.  Unlike TLS, context
variables support asynchronous code correctly.

The *note asyncio: a. and *note decimal: 35. modules have been updated
to use and support context variables out of the box.  Particularly the
active decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows
decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous
code.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 567(1) – Context Variables

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<3>,  Next: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: contextvars,  Up: New Modules<4>

1.6.4.2 dataclasses
...................

The new *note dataclass(): 3d4. decorator provides a way to declare
'data classes'.  A data class describes its attributes using class
variable annotations.  Its constructor and other magic methods, such as
*note __repr__(): 42e, *note __eq__(): 968, and *note __hash__(): 969.
are generated automatically.

Example:

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         z: float = 0.0

     p = Point(1.5, 2.5)
     print(p)   # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)"

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 557(1) – Data Classes

     PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: dataclasses<3>,  Up: New Modules<4>

1.6.4.3 importlib.resources
...........................

The new *note importlib.resources: 79. module provides several new APIs
and one new ABC for access to, opening, and reading 'resources' inside
packages.  Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but
they needn’t be actual files on the physical file system.  Module
loaders can provide a ‘get_resource_reader()’ function which returns a
*note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 96b. instance to support this new
API. Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this.

Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

importlib_resources(2) – a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<4>,  Next: C API Changes<4>,  Prev: New Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.5 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<2>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* binascii::
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* dbm::
* decimal::
* dis: dis<2>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<4>.
* functools: functools<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* io: io<3>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<5>.
* mimetypes::
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* os: os<6>.
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* queue::
* re: re<2>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<5>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess::
* sys: sys<7>.
* time: time<4>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* xml: xml<4>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<2>,  Next: asyncio<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.1 argparse
................

The new *note ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): 96e. method allows
intermixing options and positional arguments.  (Contributed by paul.j3
in bpo-14191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<6>,  Next: binascii,  Prev: argparse<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.2 asyncio
...............

The *note asyncio: a. module has received many new features, usability
and *note performance improvements: 970.  Notable changes include:

   * The new *note provisional: 971. *note asyncio.run(): 19d. function
     can be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by
     automatically creating and destroying the event loop.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).)

   * asyncio gained support for *note contextvars: 24.  *note
     loop.call_soon(): 972, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 973,
     *note loop.call_later(): 974, *note loop.call_at(): 975, and *note
     Future.add_done_callback(): 976. have a new optional keyword-only
     'context' parameter.  *note Tasks: 20a. now track their context
     automatically.  See PEP 567(2) for more details.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-32436(3).)

   * The new *note asyncio.create_task(): 40b. function has been added
     as a shortcut to ‘asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()’.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32311(4).)

   * The new *note loop.start_tls(): 977. method can be used to upgrade
     an existing connection to TLS. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-23749(5).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_recv_into(): 978. method allows reading
     data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making it
     possible to reduce data copies.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-31819(6).)

   * The new *note asyncio.current_task(): 19e. function returns the
     currently running *note Task: 20a. instance, and the new *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 7b1. function returns a set of all existing
     ‘Task’ instances in a given loop.  The ‘Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘Task.all_tasks()’ methods have been deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(7).)

   * The new 'provisional' *note BufferedProtocol: 908. class allows
     implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the
     receive buffer.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32251(8).)

   * The new *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): 979. function returns the
     currently running loop, and raises a *note RuntimeError: 180. if no
     loop is running.  This is in contrast with *note
     asyncio.get_event_loop(): 227, which will 'create' a new event loop
     if none is running.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32269(9).)

   * The new *note StreamWriter.wait_closed(): 97a. coroutine method
     allows waiting until the stream writer is closed.  The new *note
     StreamWriter.is_closing(): 97b. method can be used to determine if
     the writer is closing.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32391(10).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_sendfile(): 97c. coroutine method allows
     sending files using *note os.sendfile: 97d. when possible.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32410(11).)

   * The new *note Future.get_loop(): 97e. and ‘Task.get_loop()’ methods
     return the instance of the loop on which a task or a future were
     created.  *note Server.get_loop(): 97f. allows doing the same for
     *note asyncio.Server: 980. objects.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     in bpo-32415(12) and Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in bpo-32418(13).)

   * It is now possible to control how instances of *note
     asyncio.Server: 980. begin serving.  Previously, the server would
     start serving immediately when created.  The new 'start_serving'
     keyword argument to *note loop.create_server(): 981. and *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 982, as well as *note
     Server.start_serving(): 983, and *note Server.serve_forever(): 984.
     can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving.  The new
     *note Server.is_serving(): 985. method returns ‘True’ if the server
     is serving.  *note Server: 980. objects are now asynchronous
     context managers:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(14).)

   * Callback objects returned by *note loop.call_later(): 974. gained
     the new *note when(): 986. method which returns an absolute
     scheduled callback timestamp.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32741(15).)

   * The *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. method gained
     support for Unix sockets.  (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in
     bpo-31245(16).)

   * The *note asyncio.open_connection(): 987, *note
     asyncio.start_server(): 988. functions, *note
     loop.create_connection(): 412, *note loop.create_server(): 981,
     *note loop.create_accepted_socket(): 989. methods and their
     corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the
     'ssl_handshake_timeout' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Neil
     Aspinall in bpo-29970(17).)

   * The new *note Handle.cancelled(): 98a. method returns ‘True’ if the
     callback was cancelled.  (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in
     bpo-31943(18).)

   * The asyncio source has been converted to use the *note async:
     55a./*note await: 55b. syntax.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32193(19).)

   * The new *note ReadTransport.is_reading(): 98b. method can be used
     to determine the reading state of the transport.  Additionally,
     calls to *note ReadTransport.resume_reading(): 98c. and *note
     ReadTransport.pause_reading(): 98d. are now idempotent.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32356(20).)

   * Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing *note
     path-like objects: 98e.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32066(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: a. TCP sockets on Linux are now created with
     ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag set by default.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     and Victor Stinner in bpo-27456(22).)

   * Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30508(23).)

   * New ‘WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy’ and
     ‘WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy’ classes.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-33792(24).)

Several ‘asyncio’ APIs have been *note deprecated: 98f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792


File: python.info,  Node: binascii,  Next: calendar<2>,  Prev: asyncio<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.3 binascii
................

The *note b2a_uu(): 991. function now accepts an optional 'backtick'
keyword argument.  When it’s true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’
instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: calendar<2>,  Next: collections<2>,  Prev: binascii,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.4 calendar
................

The *note HTMLCalendar: 993. class has new class attributes which ease
the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar.
(Contributed by Oz Tiram in bpo-30095(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30095


File: python.info,  Node: collections<2>,  Next: compileall<2>,  Prev: calendar<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.5 collections
...................

‘collections.namedtuple()’ now supports default values.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<2>,  Next: concurrent futures<2>,  Prev: collections<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.6 compileall
..................

*note compileall.compile_dir(): 996. learned the new 'invalidation_mode'
parameter, which can be used to enable *note hash-based .pyc
invalidation: 938.  The invalidation mode can also be specified on the
command line using the new ‘--invalidation-mode’ argument.  (Contributed
by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-31650(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<2>,  Next: contextlib<3>,  Prev: compileall<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. and *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. now
support the new 'initializer' and 'initargs' constructor arguments.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-21423(1).)

The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. can now take the multiprocessing
context via the new 'mp_context' argument.  (Contributed by Thomas
Moreau in bpo-31540(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<3>,  Next: cProfile<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.8 contextlib
..................

The new *note nullcontext(): 628. is a simpler and faster no-op context
manager than *note ExitStack: 999.  (Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in
bpo-10049(1).)

The new *note asynccontextmanager(): 99a, *note
AbstractAsyncContextManager: 99b, and *note AsyncExitStack: 99c. have
been added to complement their synchronous counterparts.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-29679(2) and bpo-30241(3), and by Alexander
Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in bpo-29302(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29679

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile<2>,  Next: crypt,  Prev: contextlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.9 cProfile
................

The *note cProfile: 27. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script path.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in
bpo-21862(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862


File: python.info,  Node: crypt,  Next: datetime<4>,  Prev: cProfile<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.10 crypt
..............

The *note crypt: 28. module now supports the Blowfish hashing method.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31664(1).)

The *note mksalt(): 99f. function now allows specifying the number of
rounds for hashing.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31702(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<4>,  Next: dbm,  Prev: crypt,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.11 datetime
.................

The new *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 428. method constructs a *note
datetime: 22b. object from a string in one of the formats output by
*note datetime.isoformat(): 9a1.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in
bpo-15873(1).)

The *note tzinfo: 3e9. class now supports sub-minute offsets.
(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-5288(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288


File: python.info,  Node: dbm,  Next: decimal,  Prev: datetime<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.12 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 32. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal,  Next: dis<2>,  Prev: dbm,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.13 decimal
................

The *note decimal: 35. module now uses *note context variables: 92c. to
store the decimal context.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630


File: python.info,  Node: dis<2>,  Next: distutils<4>,  Prev: decimal,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.14 dis
............

The *note dis(): 9a5. function is now able to disassemble nested code
objects (the code of comprehensions, generator expressions and nested
functions, and the code used for building nested classes).  The maximum
depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by the new 'depth'
parameter.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-11822(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<4>,  Next: enum<4>,  Prev: dis<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.15 distutils
..................

‘README.rst’ is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs
and therefore included in source distributions.  (Contributed by Ryan
Gonzalez in bpo-11913(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913


File: python.info,  Node: enum<4>,  Next: functools<3>,  Prev: distutils<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.16 enum
.............

The *note Enum: 443. learned the new ‘_ignore_’ class property, which
allows listing the names of properties which should not become enum
members.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-31801(1).)

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’
classes will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member
will raise *note TypeError: 2c4. (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both
operations return *note False: 9a8. instead and are deprecated.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: functools<3>,  Next: gc<4>,  Prev: enum<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.17 functools
..................

*note functools.singledispatch(): 44c. now supports registering
implementations using type annotations.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in
bpo-32227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<4>,  Next: hmac<2>,  Prev: functools<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.18 gc
...........

The new *note gc.freeze(): 9ab. function allows freezing all objects
tracked by the garbage collector and excluding them from future
collections.  This can be used before a POSIX ‘fork()’ call to make the
GC copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection.  The new *note
gc.unfreeze(): 9ac. functions reverses this operation.  Additionally,
*note gc.get_freeze_count(): 9ad. can be used to obtain the number of
frozen objects.  (Contributed by Li Zekun in bpo-31558(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<2>,  Next: http client,  Prev: gc<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.19 hmac
.............

The *note hmac: 68. module now has an optimized one-shot *note digest():
9af. function, which is up to three times faster than ‘HMAC()’.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32433(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433


File: python.info,  Node: http client,  Next: http server,  Prev: hmac<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.20 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection: 9b1. and *note HTTPSConnection: 9b2. now support
the new 'blocksize' argument for improved upload throughput.
(Contributed by Nir Soffer in bpo-31945(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945


File: python.info,  Node: http server,  Next: idlelib and IDLE,  Prev: http client,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.21 http.server
....................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. now supports the HTTP
‘If-Modified-Since’ header.  The server returns the 304 response status
if the target file was not modified after the time specified in the
header.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29654(1).)

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. accepts the new 'directory'
argument, in addition to the new ‘--directory’ command line argument.
With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by
default it uses the current working directory.  (Contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel and Julien Palard in bpo-28707(2).)

The new *note ThreadingHTTPServer: 9b5. class uses threads to handle
requests using ‘ThreadingMixin’.  It is used when ‘http.server’ is run
with ‘-m’.  (Contributed by Julien Palard in bpo-31639(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28707

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE,  Next: importlib<3>,  Prev: http server,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.22 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(1).)

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(2).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(3).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(4).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(5).)

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(6), bpo-33768(7), and bpo-33679(8).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(9).)

New in 3.7.1:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(10).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases.

NEW in 3.7.4:

Add “Run Customized” to the Run menu to run a module with customized
settings.  Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv.
They re-appear in the box for the next customized run.  One can also
suppress the normal Shell main module restart.  (Contributed by Cheryl
Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(11) and bpo-37627(12).)

New in 3.7.5:

Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.  Windows open without
line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the
configuration dialog.  Line numbers for an existing window are shown and
hidden in the Options menu.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav
Heblikar in bpo-17535(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<3>,  Next: io<3>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.23 importlib
..................

The *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 96b. ABC was introduced to
support the loading of resources from packages.  See also *note
importlib.resources: 92e.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in
bpo-32248(1).)

*note importlib.reload(): 2a3. now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError:
9b8. if the module lacks a spec.  (Contributed by Garvit Khatri in
bpo-29851(2).)

‘importlib.find_spec()’ now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8.
instead of *note AttributeError: 3dc. if the specified parent module is
not a package (i.e.  lacks a ‘__path__’ attribute).  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-30436(3).)

The new ‘importlib.source_hash()’ can be used to compute the hash of the
passed source.  A *note hash-based .pyc file: 938. embeds the value
returned by this function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436


File: python.info,  Node: io<3>,  Next: ipaddress<3>,  Prev: importlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.24 io
...........

The new *note TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): 9ba. method can be used to
reconfigure the text stream with the new settings.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30526(1) and INADA Naoki in bpo-15216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<3>,  Next: itertools<4>,  Prev: io<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.25 ipaddress
..................

The new ‘subnet_of()’ and ‘supernet_of()’ methods of *note
ipaddress.IPv6Network: 9bc. and *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 9bd. can be
used for network containment tests.  (Contributed by Michel Albert and
Cheryl Sabella in bpo-20825(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<4>,  Next: locale<3>,  Prev: ipaddress<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.26 itertools
..................

*note itertools.islice(): 9bf. now accepts *note integer-like objects:
538. as start, stop, and slice arguments.  (Contributed by Will Roberts
in bpo-30537(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537


File: python.info,  Node: locale<3>,  Next: logging<2>,  Prev: itertools<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.27 locale
...............

The new 'monetary' argument to *note locale.format_string(): 2a9. can be
used to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and
grouping strings.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

The *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 2c6. function now always
returns ‘'UTF-8'’ on Android or when in the *note forced UTF-8 mode:
937.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: logging<2>,  Next: math<5>,  Prev: locale<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.28 logging
................

*note Logger: 9c2. instances can now be pickled.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30520(1).)

The new *note StreamHandler.setStream(): 9c3. method can be used to
replace the logger stream after handler creation.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30522(2).)

It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors
in configuration passed to *note logging.config.fileConfig(): 9c4.
(Contributed by Preston Landers in bpo-31080(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080


File: python.info,  Node: math<5>,  Next: mimetypes,  Prev: logging<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.29 math
.............

The new *note math.remainder(): 9c6. function implements the IEEE
754-style remainder operation.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-29962(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes,  Next: msilib,  Prev: math<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.30 mimetypes
..................

The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from ‘'image/x-ms-bmp'’ to
‘'image/bmp'’.  (Contributed by Nitish Chandra in bpo-22589(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589


File: python.info,  Node: msilib,  Next: multiprocessing<3>,  Prev: mimetypes,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.31 msilib
...............

The new *note Database.Close(): 9c9. method can be used to close the MSI
database.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20486(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<3>,  Next: os<6>,  Prev: msilib,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.32 multiprocessing
........................

The new *note Process.close(): 9cb. method explicitly closes the process
object and releases all resources associated with it.  *note ValueError:
189. is raised if the underlying process is still running.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30596(1).)

The new *note Process.kill(): 9cc. method can be used to terminate the
process using the ‘SIGKILL’ signal on Unix.  (Contributed by Vitor
Pereira in bpo-30794(2).)

Non-daemonic threads created by *note Process: 9cd. are now joined on
process exit.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18966(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966


File: python.info,  Node: os<6>,  Next: pathlib<6>,  Prev: multiprocessing<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.33 os
...........

*note os.fwalk(): 9cf. now accepts the 'path' argument as *note bytes:
2cb.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28682(1).)

*note os.scandir(): 8c3. gained support for *note file descriptors: 9d0.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996(2).)

The new *note register_at_fork(): 276. function allows registering
Python callbacks to be executed at process fork.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(3).)

Added *note os.preadv(): 9d1. (combine the functionality of *note
os.readv(): 9d2. and *note os.pread(): 9d3.) and *note os.pwritev():
9d4. functions (combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): 9d5. and
*note os.pwrite(): 9d6.).  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
bpo-31368(4).)

The mode argument of *note os.makedirs(): 1c8. no longer affects the
file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930(5).)

*note os.dup2(): 9d7. now returns the new file descriptor.  Previously,
‘None’ was always returned.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-32441(6).)

The structure returned by *note os.stat(): 1c5. now contains the *note
st_fstype: 9d8. attribute on Solaris and its derivatives.  (Contributed
by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-32659(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<6>,  Next: pdb<3>,  Prev: os<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.34 pathlib
................

The new *note Path.is_mount(): 879. method is now available on POSIX
systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point.
(Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in bpo-30897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<3>,  Next: py_compile<3>,  Prev: pathlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.35 pdb
............

*note pdb.set_trace(): 9db. now takes an optional 'header' keyword-only
argument.  If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging
begins.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31389(1).)

*note pdb: a4. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script file.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in
bpo-32206(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<3>,  Next: pydoc<2>,  Prev: pdb<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.36 py_compile
...................

*note py_compile.compile(): 887. – and by extension, *note compileall:
20. – now respects the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable by
unconditionally creating ‘.pyc’ files for hash-based validation.  This
allows for guaranteeing reproducible builds(1) of ‘.pyc’ files when they
are created eagerly.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-29708(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<2>,  Next: queue,  Prev: py_compile<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.37 pydoc
..............

The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the
new ‘-n’ command-line argument.  (Contributed by Feanil Patel in
bpo-31128(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128


File: python.info,  Node: queue,  Next: re<2>,  Prev: pydoc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.38 queue
..............

The new *note SimpleQueue: 9df. class is an unbounded FIFO queue.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14976(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: re<2>,  Next: signal<2>,  Prev: queue,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.39 re
...........

The flags *note re.ASCII: 43f, *note re.LOCALE: 9e1. and *note
re.UNICODE: 9e2. can be set within the scope of a group.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31690(1).)

*note re.split(): 9e3. now supports splitting on a pattern like ‘r'\b'’,
‘'^$'’ or ‘(?=-)’ that matches an empty string.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-25054(2).)

Regular expressions compiled with the *note re.LOCALE: 9e1. flag no
longer depend on the locale at compile time.  Locale settings are
applied only when the compiled regular expression is used.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30215(3).)

*note FutureWarning: 248. is now emitted if a regular expression
contains character set constructs that will change semantically in the
future, such as nested sets and set operations.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-30349(4).)

Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied using
*note copy.copy(): 2bf. and *note copy.deepcopy(): 9e4.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10076(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076


File: python.info,  Node: signal<2>,  Next: socket<5>,  Prev: re<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.40 signal
...............

The new 'warn_on_full_buffer' argument to the *note
signal.set_wakeup_fd(): 9e6. function makes it possible to specify
whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup buffer
overflows.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30050(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050


File: python.info,  Node: socket<5>,  Next: socketserver,  Prev: signal<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.41 socket
...............

The new *note socket.getblocking(): 9e8. method returns ‘True’ if the
socket is in blocking mode and ‘False’ otherwise.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-32373(1).)

The new *note socket.close(): 9e9. function closes the passed socket
file descriptor.  This function should be used instead of *note
os.close(): 9ea. for better compatibility across platforms.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32454(2).)

The *note socket: cb. module now exposes the ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’
(Linux 2.6.13), ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37), and
‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12) constants.  (Contributed by Omar
Sandoval in bpo-26273(3) and Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29728(4).)

Support for *note socket.AF_VSOCK: 9eb. sockets has been added to allow
communication between virtual machines and their hosts.  (Contributed by
Cathy Avery in bpo-27584(5).)

Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28134(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver,  Next: sqlite3<5>,  Prev: socket<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.42 socketserver
.....................

‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
non-daemon threads complete.  ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’
now waits until all child processes complete.

Add a new ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to
*note socketserver.ForkingMixIn: 9ed. and *note
socketserver.ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. classes.  Set the class attribute to
‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<5>,  Next: ssl<4>,  Prev: socketserver,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.43 sqlite3
................

*note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. now exposes the *note backup(): 9f0.
method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or
higher.  (Contributed by Lele Gaifax in bpo-27645(1).)

The 'database' argument of *note sqlite3.connect(): 1e4. now accepts any
*note path-like object: 98e, instead of just a string.  (Contributed by
Anders Lorentsen in bpo-31843(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<4>,  Next: string<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.44 ssl
............

The *note ssl: cf. module now uses OpenSSL’s builtin API instead of
‘match_hostname()’ to check a host name or an IP address.  Values are
validated during TLS handshake.  Any certificate validation error
including failing the host name check now raises *note
SSLCertVerificationError: 9f2. and aborts the handshake with a proper
TLS Alert message.  The new exception contains additional information.
Host name validation can be customized with *note
SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: 9f3.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-31399(1).)

     Not: The improved host name check requires a 'libssl'
     implementation compatible with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.  Consequently,
     OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported (see *note Platform
     Support Removals: 9f4. for more details).  The ssl module is mostly
     compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer.

The ‘ssl’ module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32185(2).)

‘match_hostname()’ no longer supports partial wildcards like
‘www*.example.org’.  (Contributed by Mandeep Singh in bpo-23033(3) and
Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(4).)

The default cipher suite selection of the ‘ssl’ module now uses a
blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.  Python no longer
re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates.
Default cipher suite selection can be configured at compile time.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31429(5).)

Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain
names (IDNs) is now supported.  As part of this change, the *note
SSLSocket.server_hostname: 9f5. attribute now stores the expected
hostname in A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’), rather than the
U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’).  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith and
Christian Heimes in bpo-28414(6).)

The ‘ssl’ module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3
and OpenSSL 1.1.1.  At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1
is still under development and TLS 1.3 hasn’t been finalized yet.  The
TLS 1.3 handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2
and earlier, see *note TLS 1.3: 9f6.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-32947(7), bpo-20995(8), bpo-29136(9), bpo-30622(10) and
bpo-33618(11))

*note SSLSocket: 73d. and *note SSLObject: 9f7. no longer have a public
constructor.  Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported
feature.  Instances must be created with *note SSLContext: 277. methods
*note wrap_socket(): 2af. and *note wrap_bio(): 9f8.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(12))

OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol
version are available as *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 6b4. and
*note SSLContext.maximum_version: 6b5.  Supported protocols are
indicated by several new flags, such as *note HAS_TLSv1_1: 9f9.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32609(13).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: 893. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): 894. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32609

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: string<2>,  Next: subprocess,  Prev: ssl<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.45 string
...............

*note string.Template: 49c. now lets you to optionally modify the
regular expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced
placeholders separately.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-1198569(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess,  Next: sys<7>,  Prev: string<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.46 subprocess
...................

The *note subprocess.run(): 9fc. function accepts the new
'capture_output' keyword argument.  When true, stdout and stderr will be
captured.  This is equivalent to passing *note subprocess.PIPE: 9fd. as
'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-32102(1).)

The ‘subprocess.run’ function and the *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa.
constructor now accept the 'text' keyword argument as an alias to
'universal_newlines'.  (Contributed by Andrew Clegg in bpo-31756(2).)

On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was changed from ‘False’ to
‘True’ when redirecting the standard handles.  It’s now possible to set
'close_fds' to true when redirecting the standard handles.  See *note
subprocess.Popen: 8fa.  This means that 'close_fds' now defaults to
‘True’ on all supported platforms.  (Contributed by Segev Finer in
bpo-19764(3).)

The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. during *note subprocess.call(): 9fe, *note
subprocess.run(): 9fc, or in a *note Popen: 8fa. context manager.  It
now waits a short amount of time for the child to exit, before
continuing the handling of the ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ exception.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-25942(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942


File: python.info,  Node: sys<7>,  Next: time<4>,  Prev: subprocess,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.47 sys
............

The new *note sys.breakpointhook(): 947. hook function is called by the
built-in *note breakpoint(): 930.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-31353(1).)

On Android, the new *note sys.getandroidapilevel(): a00. returns the
build-time Android API version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-28740(2).)

The new *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): a01. function
returns the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by the new
*note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): a02.  *note asyncio: a.
has been converted to use this new API instead of the deprecated
‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in
bpo-32591(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591


File: python.info,  Node: time<4>,  Next: tkinter<4>,  Prev: sys<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.48 time
.............

PEP 564(1) adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the
*note time: ed. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): 950.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): 951.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): 952.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): 953.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): 954.

   * *note time.time_ns(): 955.

New clock identifiers have been added:

   * *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: a04. (Linux): Identical to *note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 4ae, except it also includes any time that
     the system is suspended.

   * *note time.CLOCK_PROF: a05. (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD):
     High-resolution per-process CPU timer.

   * *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME: a06. (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose
     absolute value is the time the system has been running and not
     suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement.

The new *note time.thread_time(): 78f. and *note time.thread_time_ns():
a07. functions can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32025(2).)

The new *note time.pthread_getcpuclockid(): a08. function returns the
clock ID of the thread-specific CPU-time clock.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<4>,  Next: tracemalloc<2>,  Prev: time<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.49 tkinter
................

The new *note tkinter.ttk.Spinbox: a0a. class is now available.
(Contributed by Alan Moore in bpo-32585(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<2>,  Next: types<3>,  Prev: tkinter<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.50 tracemalloc
....................

*note tracemalloc.Traceback: a0c. behaves more like regular tracebacks,
sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.  *note
Traceback.format(): a0d. now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old behaviour, use
the new 'most_recent_first' argument to ‘Traceback.format()’.
(Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121


File: python.info,  Node: types<3>,  Next: unicodedata<5>,  Prev: tracemalloc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.51 types
..............

The new *note WrapperDescriptorType: a0f, *note MethodWrapperType: 45e,
*note MethodDescriptorType: a10, and *note ClassMethodDescriptorType:
a11. classes are now available.  (Contributed by Manuel Krebber and
Guido van Rossum in bpo-29377(1), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32265(2).)

The new *note types.resolve_bases(): a12. function resolves MRO entries
dynamically as specified by PEP 560(3).  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-32717(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32717


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<5>,  Next: unittest<6>,  Prev: types<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.52 unicodedata
....................

The internal *note unicodedata: 105. database has been upgraded to use
Unicode 11(1).  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<6>,  Next: unittest mock,  Prev: unicodedata<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.53 unittest
.................

The new ‘-k’ command-line option allows filtering tests by a name
substring or a Unix shell-like pattern.  For example, ‘python -m
unittest -k foo’ runs ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not
‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’.  (Contributed by Jonas Haag in
bpo-32071(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock,  Next: urllib parse<5>,  Prev: unittest<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

The *note sentinel: a16. attributes now preserve their identity when
they are *note copied: 25. or *note pickled: a5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-20804(1).)

The new *note seal(): a17. function allows sealing *note Mock: 8af.
instances, which will disallow further creation of attribute mocks.  The
seal is applied recursively to all attributes that are themselves mocks.
(Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-30541(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<5>,  Next: uu,  Prev: unittest mock,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.55 urllib.parse
.....................

*note urllib.parse.quote(): a19. has been updated from RFC 2396(1) to
RFC 3986(2), adding ‘~’ to the set of characters that are never quoted
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in
bpo-16285(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285


File: python.info,  Node: uu,  Next: uuid<2>,  Prev: urllib parse<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.56 uu
...........

The *note uu.encode(): a1b. function now accepts an optional 'backtick'
keyword argument.  When it’s true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’
instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: uuid<2>,  Next: warnings<2>,  Prev: uu,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.57 uuid
.............

The new *note UUID.is_safe: a1d. attribute relays information from the
platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a
multiprocessing-safe method.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-22807(1).)

*note uuid.getnode(): a1e. now prefers universally administered MAC
addresses over locally administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better
guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from *note
uuid.uuid1(): a1f.  If only locally administered MAC addresses are
available, the first such one found is returned.  (Contributed by Barry
Warsaw in bpo-32107(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<2>,  Next: xml<4>,  Prev: uuid<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.58 warnings
.................

The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as
follows:

   * warnings enabled via command line options (including those for
     *note -b: 3ef. and the new CPython-specific *note -X: 18e. ‘dev’
     option) are always passed to the warnings machinery via the *note
     sys.warnoptions: 364. attribute.

   * warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment
     now have the following order of precedence:

        * the ‘BytesWarning’ filter for *note -b: 3ef. (or ‘-bb’)

        * any filters specified with the *note -W: 71a. option

        * any filters specified with the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21.
          environment variable

        * any other CPython specific filters (e.g.  the ‘default’ filter
          added for the new ‘-X dev’ mode)

        * any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings
          machinery

   * in *note CPython debug builds: 6b9, all warnings are now displayed
     by default (the implicit filter list is empty)

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in bpo-20361(1),
bpo-32043(2), and bpo-32230(3).)

Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file
scripts and at the interactive prompt.  See *note PEP 565; Show
DeprecationWarning in __main__: 93a. for details.  (Contributed by Nick
Coghlan in bpo-31975(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975


File: python.info,  Node: xml<4>,  Next: xml etree,  Prev: warnings<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.59 xml
............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree,  Next: xmlrpc server,  Prev: xml<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.60 xml.etree
..................

*note ElementPath: a24. predicates in the ‘find()’ methods can now
compare text of the current node with ‘[. = "text"]’, not only text in
children.  Predicates also allow adding spaces for better readability.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-31648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server,  Next: zipapp,  Prev: xml etree,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.61 xmlrpc.server
......................

‘SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function’ can now be used as a
decorator.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-7769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp,  Next: zipfile<2>,  Prev: xmlrpc server,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.62 zipapp
...............

Function *note create_archive(): a27. now accepts an optional 'filter'
argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in
the archive.  (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in bpo-31072(1).)

Function *note create_archive(): a27. now accepts an optional
'compressed' argument to generate a compressed archive.  A command line
option ‘--compress’ has also been added to support compression.
(Contributed by Zhiming Wang in bpo-31638(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<2>,  Prev: zipapp,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.6.5.63 zipfile
................

*note ZipFile: 4dc. now accepts the new 'compresslevel' parameter to
control the compression level.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-21417(1).)

Subdirectories in archives created by ‘ZipFile’ are now stored in
alphabetical order.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-30693(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<4>,  Next: Build Changes<4>,  Prev: Improved Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.6 C API Changes
-------------------

A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented.  See *note PEP
539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: 93b. for an overview and *note
Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: 94b. for a complete reference.
(Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in bpo-25658(1).)

The new *note context variables: 92c. functionality exposes a number of
*note new C APIs: 966.

The new *note PyImport_GetModule(): a2a. function returns the previously
imported module with the given name.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in
bpo-28411(2).)

The new *note Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE: a2b. macro eases writing rich
comparison functions.  (Contributed by Petr Victorin in bpo-23699(3).)

The new *note Py_UNREACHABLE: a2c. macro can be used to mark unreachable
code paths.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31338(4).)

The *note tracemalloc: ff. now exposes a C API through the new *note
PyTraceMalloc_Track(): a2d. and *note PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(): a2e.
functions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30054(5).)

The new ‘import__find__load__start()’ and ‘import__find__load__done()’
static markers can be used to trace module imports.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-31574(6).)

The fields ‘name’ and ‘doc’ of structures *note PyMemberDef: 2dd, *note
PyGetSetDef: a2f, *note PyStructSequence_Field: a30, *note
PyStructSequence_Desc: a31, and ‘wrapperbase’ are now of type ‘const
char *’ rather of ‘char *’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-28761(7).)

The result of *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6e2. and *note
PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): a32. is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
*’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28769(8).)

The result of *note PyMapping_Keys(): a33, *note PyMapping_Values():
a34. and *note PyMapping_Items(): a35. is now always a list, rather than
a list or a tuple.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28280(9).)

Added functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 378. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 379.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(10).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 375. is deprecated in favour of the new
functions *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): a36, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent():
a37. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-16500(11).)

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(12) and bpo-30697(13).

Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors *note
PyTimeZone_FromOffset(): a38. and *note PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName():
a39, and access to the UTC singleton with *note PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC:
a3a.  Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-10381(14).

The type of results of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’ and
‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’, and the 'id' parameter of *note
PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): a3b. changed from long to unsigned long.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-6532(15).)

*note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 70e. now raises a *note ValueError:
189. if the second argument is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains
null characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30708(16).)

Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory
allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call *note
Py_Initialize(): 6fc. before calling most C API functions is now relied
on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in
embedding applications.  See the *note Porting to Python 3.7: 93e.
section in this document and the *note Before Python Initialization:
a3c. section in the C API documentation for more details.

The new *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): a3d. returns the unique ID for
a given interpreter.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-29102(17).)

*note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f. now use the
UTF-8 encoding when the *note UTF-8 mode: 937. is enabled.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240(18).)

*note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a40. and *note
PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a41. now use the current locale encoding for
‘surrogateescape’ error handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29240(19).)

The 'start' and 'end' parameters of *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 70b. are
now adjusted to behave like string slices.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang
in bpo-28822(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30054

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<4>,  Next: Optimizations<4>,  Prev: C API Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.7 Build Changes
-------------------

Support for building ‘--without-threads’ has been removed.  The *note
threading: ec. module is now always available.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-31370(1).).

A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the
*note _ctypes: 2a. module on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
of libffi is now required when building ‘_ctypes’ on such platforms.
(Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-27979(2).)

The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in
external sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from
GitHub instead.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py
-3.6’), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python for this
purpose.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-30450(3).)

The *note ssl: cf. module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible
libssl.  OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is
no longer supported.  LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well.
LibreSSL releases up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2
APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<4>,  Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>,  Prev: Build Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.8 Optimizations
-------------------

The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes
implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code to
use the ‘METH_FASTCALL’ convention.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29300(1), bpo-29507(2), bpo-29452(3), and bpo-29286(4).)

Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux
and up to 30% on macOS. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in
bpo-29585(5), and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-31333(6).)

Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which
avoid creating bound method instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(7).)  The *note asyncio: a. module received
a number of notable optimizations for commonly used functions:

   * The *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 227. function has been
     reimplemented in C to make it up to 15 times faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32296(8).)

   * *note asyncio.Future: a44. callback management has been optimized.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32348(9).)

   * *note asyncio.gather(): 40c. is now up to 15% faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32355(10).)

   * *note asyncio.sleep(): 8d4. is now up to 2 times faster when the
     'delay' argument is zero or negative.  (Contributed by Andrew
     Svetlov in bpo-32351(11).)

   * The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced.
     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31970(12).)

As a result of *note PEP 560 work: 932, the import time of *note typing:
104. has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations are
now faster.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32226(13).)

*note sorted(): a45. and *note list.sort(): a46. have been optimized for
common cases to be up to 40-75% faster.  (Contributed by Elliot
Gorokhovsky in bpo-28685(14).)

*note dict.copy(): a47. is now up to 5.5 times faster.  (Contributed by
Yury Selivanov in bpo-31179(15).)

*note hasattr(): 200. and *note getattr(): a48. are now about 4 times
faster when 'name' is not found and 'obj' does not override *note
object.__getattr__(): 201. or *note object.__getattribute__(): a49.
(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32544(16).)

Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital “Є”) in
a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters.
It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-24821(17).)

The *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. factory has been reimplemented
to make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(18).)

‘date.fromordinal()’ and ‘date.fromtimestamp()’ are now up to 30% faster
in the common case.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(19).)

The *note os.fwalk(): 9cf. function is now up to 2 times faster thanks
to the use of *note os.scandir(): 8c3.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-25996(20).)

The speed of the *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. function has been improved
by 20–40% thanks to the use of the *note os.scandir(): 8c3. function.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28564(21).)

Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of *note regular
expressions: b8.  Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times
faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30285(22).)

*note re.compile(): a4a. now converts ‘flags’ parameter to int object if
it is ‘RegexFlag’.  It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than
Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern.  (Contributed by INADA
Naoki in bpo-31671(23).)

The *note modify(): a4b. methods of classes *note
selectors.EpollSelector: a4c, *note selectors.PollSelector: a4d. and
*note selectors.DevpollSelector: a4e. may be around 10% faster under
heavy loads.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-30014(24))

Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new
AST optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently.
(Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in bpo-29469(25) and
bpo-11549(26).)

Most functions and methods in *note abc: 4. have been rewritten in C.
This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling *note
isinstance(): 151. and *note issubclass(): 5f8. on them 1.5x faster.
This also reduces Python start-up time by up to 10%.  (Contributed by
Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki in bpo-31333(27))

Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for *note
datetime.date: 749. and *note datetime.datetime: 22b. by using fast-path
constructors when not constructing subclasses.  (Contributed by Paul
Ganssle in bpo-32403(28))

The speed of comparison of *note array.array: 195. instances has been
improved considerably in certain cases.  It is now from 10x to 70x
faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.
(Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in bpo-24700(29).)

The *note math.erf(): a4f. and *note math.erfc(): a50. functions now use
the (faster) C library implementation on most platforms.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26121(30).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29300

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11549

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Prev: Optimizations<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.9 Other CPython Implementation Changes
------------------------------------------

   * Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the ‘line’ and opt into
     receiving the ‘opcode’ events from the interpreter by setting the
     corresponding new *note f_trace_lines: a52. and *note
     f_trace_opcodes: a53. attributes on the frame being traced.
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31344(1).)

   * Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module
     attributes.  Namespace module objects now have an ‘__file__’ that
     is set to ‘None’ (previously unset), and their ‘__spec__.origin’ is
     also set to ‘None’ (previously the string ‘"namespace"’).  See
     bpo-32305(2).  Also, the namespace module object’s
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is set to the same value as ‘__loader__’
     (previously, the former was set to ‘None’).  See bpo-32303(3).

   * The *note locals(): 179. dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     undefined.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32690(4).)

   * The ‘distutils’ ‘upload’ command no longer tries to change CR
     end-of-line characters to CRLF. This fixes a corruption issue with
     sdists that ended with a byte equivalent to CR. (Contributed by Bo
     Bayles in bpo-32304(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.10 Deprecated Python Behavior
---------------------------------

Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now
deprecated in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the
iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause).  This ensures that
comprehensions always immediately return a container of the appropriate
type (rather than potentially returning a *note generator iterator: a55.
object), while generator expressions won’t attempt to interleave their
implicit output with the output from any explicit yield expressions.  In
Python 3.7, such expressions emit *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. when
compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a *note SyntaxError: 14c.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

Returning a subclass of *note complex: 273. from *note
object.__complex__(): 3f3. is deprecated and will be an error in future
Python versions.  This makes ‘__complex__()’ consistent with *note
object.__int__(): 537. and *note object.__float__(): 82a.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28894


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.11 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
-------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<5>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<8>.
* wave::


File: python.info,  Node: aifc,  Next: asyncio<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.1 aifc
.............

‘aifc.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note aifc.open(): a58. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<7>,  Next: collections<3>,  Prev: aifc,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.2 asyncio
................

Support for directly ‘await’-ing instances of *note asyncio.Lock: 8d6.
and other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated.  An
asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and
release the synchronization resource.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
bpo-32253(1).)

The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’ methods
have been deprecated.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250


File: python.info,  Node: collections<3>,  Next: dbm<2>,  Prev: asyncio<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.3 collections
....................

In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in *note collections.abc: 1e.
will no longer be exposed in the regular *note collections: 1d. module.
This will help create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes
and the abstract base classes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25988(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<2>,  Next: enum<5>,  Prev: collections<3>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.4 dbm
............

*note dbm.dumb: 32. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.  A deprecation warning is
now emitted if the index file is missing and recreated in the ‘'r'’ and
‘'w'’ modes (this will be an error in future Python releases).
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28847(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847


File: python.info,  Node: enum<5>,  Next: gettext<2>,  Prev: dbm<2>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.5 enum
.............

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’
classes will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member
will raise *note TypeError: 2c4. (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both
operations return *note False: 9a8. instead.  (Contributed by Ethan
Furman in bpo-33217(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: gettext<2>,  Next: importlib<4>,  Prev: enum<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.6 gettext
................

Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in *note gettext:
61. is now deprecated.  It never correctly worked.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<4>,  Next: locale<4>,  Prev: gettext<2>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.7 importlib
..................

Methods ‘MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (replaced by *note
MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 6ac.) and ‘PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’
(replaced by *note PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 6b0.) both deprecated in
Python 3.4 now emit *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  (Contributed by
Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29576(1).)

The *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: a5f. ABC has been deprecated in
favour of *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 96b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576


File: python.info,  Node: locale<4>,  Next: macpath,  Prev: importlib<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.8 locale
...............

‘locale.format()’ has been deprecated, use *note locale.format_string():
2a9. instead.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: macpath,  Next: threading<5>,  Prev: locale<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.9 macpath
................

The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8.
(Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in bpo-9850(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850


File: python.info,  Node: threading<5>,  Next: socket<6>,  Prev: macpath,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.10 threading
...................

‘dummy_threading’ and ‘_dummy_thread’ have been deprecated.  It is no
longer possible to build Python with threading disabled.  Use *note
threading: ec. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-31370(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370


File: python.info,  Node: socket<6>,  Next: ssl<5>,  Prev: threading<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.11 socket
................

The silent argument value truncation in *note socket.htons(): 6c5. and
*note socket.ntohs(): 6c6. has been deprecated.  In future versions of
Python, if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will
be raised.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<5>,  Next: sunau,  Prev: socket<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.12 ssl
.............

‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af. instead.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-28124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124


File: python.info,  Node: sunau,  Next: sys<8>,  Prev: ssl<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.13 sunau
...............

‘sunau.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note sunau.open(): a66. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: sys<8>,  Next: wave,  Prev: sunau,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.14 sys
.............

Deprecated ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and
‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’.

The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been deprecated and will
be removed in a future Python version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-28799(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799


File: python.info,  Node: wave,  Prev: sys<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.6.11.15 wave
..............

‘wave.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note wave.open(): 7a6. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Next: Platform Support Removals,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.12 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
--------------------------------------------------

Function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 377. is deprecated and replaced
with a macro if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to a value in the
range between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not inclusive), or is
‘0x03060100’ or higher.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 375. has been deprecated.  Use *note
PyOS_BeforeFork(): a36, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a37. or *note
PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-16500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Support Removals,  Next: API and Feature Removals,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.13 Platform Support Removals
--------------------------------

   * FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported.

   * For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, *nix
     platforms are now expected to provide at least one of ‘C.UTF-8’
     (full locale), ‘C.utf8’ (full locale) or ‘UTF-8’ (‘LC_CTYPE’-only
     locale) as an alternative to the legacy ‘ASCII’-based ‘C’ locale.

   * OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means
     building CPython 3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still
     using these versions requires custom build options that link to a
     more recent version of OpenSSL.

     Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka “jessie”) and Ubuntu
     14.04 (aka “Trusty”) LTS Linux distributions, as they still use
     OpenSSL 1.0.1 by default.

     Debian 9 (“stretch”) and Ubuntu 16.04 (“xenial”), as well as recent
     releases of other LTS Linux releases (e.g.  RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES
     12-SP3), use OpenSSL 1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the
     default build configuration.

     CPython’s own CI configuration file(1) provides an example of using
     the SSL compatibility testing infrastructure(2) in CPython’s test
     suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an
     outdated system provided OpenSSL.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.7.13/.travis.yml

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals,  Next: Module Removals,  Prev: Platform Support Removals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.14 API and Feature Removals
-------------------------------

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7:

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function has been removed.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in
     replacement templates for *note re.sub(): 208. were deprecated in
     Python 3.5, and will now cause an error.

   * Removed support of the 'exclude' argument in *note
     tarfile.TarFile.add(): a6c.  It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and
     3.2.  Use the 'filter' argument instead.

   * The ‘ntpath.splitunc()’ function was deprecated in Python 3.1, and
     has now been removed.  Use *note splitdrive(): a6d. instead.

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. no longer supports the
     'verbose' parameter or ‘_source’ attribute which showed the
     generated source code for the named tuple class.  This was part of
     an optimization designed to speed-up class creation.  (Contributed
     by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(1).)

   * Functions *note bool(): 183, *note float(): 272, *note list(): 422.
     and *note tuple(): 4ff. no longer take keyword arguments.  The
     first argument of *note int(): 184. can now be passed only as
     positional argument.

   * Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes ‘Plist’, ‘Dict’
     and ‘_InternalDict’ in the *note plistlib: aa. module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions ‘readPlist()’ and ‘readPlistFromBytes()’
     are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to
     access items of these dictionaries.

   * The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has been removed.
     Use the *note socket.socketpair(): a6e. function instead, it is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5.
     ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair’ was just an alias to
     ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   * *note asyncio: a. no longer exports the *note selectors: c1. and
     ‘_overlapped’ modules as ‘asyncio.selectors’ and
     ‘asyncio._overlapped’.  Replace ‘from asyncio import selectors’
     with ‘import selectors’.

   * Direct instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSocket: 73d. and *note
     ssl.SSLObject: 9f7. objects is now prohibited.  The constructors
     were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors.
     Users were supposed to use ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ or *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 277.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-32951(2).)

   * The unused ‘distutils’ ‘install_misc’ command has been removed.
     (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in bpo-29218(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218


File: python.info,  Node: Module Removals,  Next: Windows-only Changes,  Prev: API and Feature Removals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.15 Module Removals
----------------------

The ‘fpectl’ module has been removed.  It was never enabled by default,
never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python ABI in ways
that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.  (Contributed by
Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes,  Next: Porting to Python 3 7,  Prev: Module Removals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.16 Windows-only Changes
---------------------------

The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 & 64 bit specifiers
'without' having to specify a minor version as well.  So ‘py -3-32’ and
‘py -3-64’ become valid as well as ‘py -3.7-32’, also the -'m'-64 and
-'m.n'-64 forms are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit
would have otherwise been used.  If the specified version is not
available py.exe will error exit.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in
bpo-30291(1).)

The launcher can be run as ‘py -0’ to produce a list of the installed
pythons, 'with default marked with an asterisk'.  Running ‘py -0p’ will
include the paths.  If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be
matched it will also print the 'short form' list of available
specifiers.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30362(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 7,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Prev: Windows-only Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.17 Porting to Python 3.7
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<4>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python Behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.1 Changes in Python Behavior
...................................

   * *note async: 55a. and *note await: 55b. names are now reserved
     keywords.  Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a
     *note SyntaxError: 14c.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     bpo-30406(1).)

   * PEP 479(2) is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that
     *note StopIteration: a73. exceptions raised directly or indirectly
     in coroutines and generators are transformed into *note
     RuntimeError: 180. exceptions.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32670(3).)

   * *note object.__aiter__(): a74. methods can no longer be declared as
     asynchronous.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31709(4).)

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1],)

          class C(1 for x in [1]):
              pass

     Python 3.7 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 14c, as a
     generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of
     parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side, and the
     duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on calls.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32012(5) and bpo-32023(6).)

   * When using the *note -m: 3ec. switch, the initial working directory
     is now added to *note sys.path: 368, rather than an empty string
     (which dynamically denoted the current working directory at the
     time of each import).  Any programs that are checking for the empty
     string, or otherwise relying on the previous behaviour, will need
     to be updated accordingly (e.g.  by also checking for ‘os.getcwd()’
     or ‘os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)’, depending on why the code
     was checking for the empty string in the first place).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Next: Changes in the C API<2>,  Prev: Changes in Python Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
     non-daemon threads complete.  Set the new *note
     socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close: a76. class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31233(1) and bpo-33540(2).)

   * ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all
     child processes complete.  Set the new
     ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31151(3) and bpo-33540(4).)

   * The *note locale.localeconv(): a77. function now temporarily sets
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the value of ‘LC_NUMERIC’ in some cases.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(5).)

   * *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): a78. now raises a *note ValueError:
     189. if 'path' is a string.  Previously an empty list was returned.
     (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-24744(6).)

   * A format string argument for *note string.Formatter.format(): a79.
     is now *note positional-only: 8ea.  Passing it as a keyword
     argument was deprecated in Python 3.5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29193(7).)

   * Attributes *note key: a7a, *note value: a7b. and *note coded_value:
     a7c. of class *note http.cookies.Morsel: a7d. are now read-only.
     Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5.  Use the *note
     set(): a7e. method for setting them.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29192(8).)

   * The 'mode' argument of *note os.makedirs(): 1c8. no longer affects
     the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level
     directories.  To set their file permission bits you can set the
     umask before invoking ‘makedirs()’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19930(9).)

   * The *note struct.Struct.format: a7f. type is now *note str: 15d.
     instead of *note bytes: 2cb.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(10).)

   * *note parse_multipart(): 69d. now accepts the 'encoding' and
     'errors' arguments and returns the same results as ‘FieldStorage’:
     for non-file fields, the value associated to a key is a list of
     strings, not bytes.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in
     bpo-29979(11).)

   * Due to internal changes in *note socket: cb, calling *note
     socket.fromshare(): a80. on a socket created by *note socket.share:
     a81. in older Python versions is not supported.

   * ‘repr’ for *note BaseException: 3c3. has changed to not include the
     trailing comma.  Most exceptions are affected by this change.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30399(12).)

   * ‘repr’ for *note datetime.timedelta: 82d. has changed to include
     the keyword arguments in the output.  (Contributed by Utkarsh
     Upadhyay in bpo-30302(13).)

   * Because *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. is now implemented using the
     *note os.scandir(): 8c3. function, the user specified handler
     'onerror' is now called with the first argument ‘os.scandir’
     instead of ‘os.listdir’ when listing the directory is failed.

   * Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions
     as in Unicode Technical Standard #18(14) might be added in the
     future.  This would change the syntax.  To facilitate this future
     change a *note FutureWarning: 248. will be raised in ambiguous
     cases for the time being.  That include sets starting with a
     literal ‘'['’ or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’,
     ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’.  To avoid a warning, escape them with a
     backslash.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(15).)

   * The result of splitting a string on a *note regular expression: b8.
     that could match an empty string has been changed.  For example
     splitting on ‘r'\s*'’ will now split not only on whitespaces as it
     did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace
     characters and just before the end of the string.  The previous
     behavior can be restored by changing the pattern to ‘r'\s+'’.  A
     *note FutureWarning: 248. was emitted for such patterns since
     Python 3.5.

     For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the
     result of searching for all matches may also be changed in other
     cases.  For example in the string ‘'a\n\n'’, the pattern
     ‘r'(?m)^\s*?$'’ will not only match empty strings at positions 2
     and 3, but also the string ‘'\n'’ at positions 2–3.  To match only
     blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten as
     ‘r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'’.

     *note re.sub(): 208. now replaces empty matches adjacent to a
     previous non-empty match.  For example ‘re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’
     returns now ‘'-a-b--d-'’ instead of ‘'-a-b-d-'’ (the first minus
     between ‘b’ and ‘d’ replaces ‘x’, and the second minus replaces an
     empty string between ‘x’ and ‘d’).

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054(16) and
     bpo-32308(17).)

   * Change *note re.escape(): a82. to only escape regex special
     characters instead of escaping all characters other than ASCII
     letters, numbers, and ‘'_'’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29995(18).)

   * *note tracemalloc.Traceback: a0c. frames are now sorted from oldest
     to most recent to be more consistent with *note traceback: fe.
     (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(19).)

   * On OSes that support *note socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK: a83. or *note
     socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC: a84. bit flags, the *note socket.type: a85. no
     longer has them applied.  Therefore, checks like ‘if sock.type ==
     socket.SOCK_STREAM’ work as expected on all platforms.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32331(20).)

   * On Windows the default for the 'close_fds' argument of *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8fa. was changed from *note False: 9a8. to *note
     True: a86. when redirecting the standard handles.  If you
     previously depended on handles being inherited when using *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8fa. with standard io redirection, you will have
     to pass ‘close_fds=False’ to preserve the previous behaviour, or
     use *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: a87.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): a88. –
     which implicitly affects *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a89.
     – now deletes entries in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. which
     are set to ‘None’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-33169(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: a, *note loop.sock_recv(): a8a, *note
     loop.sock_sendall(): a8b, *note loop.sock_accept(): a8c, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): a8d, *note loop.getnameinfo(): a8e. have been
     changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their
     documentation.  Previously, these methods returned *note
     asyncio.Future: a44. instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32327(22).)

   * *note asyncio.Server.sockets: a8f. now returns a copy of the
     internal list of server sockets, instead of returning it directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(23).)

   * *note Struct.format: a7f. is now a *note str: 15d. instance instead
     of a *note bytes: 2cb. instance.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(24).)

   * *note argparse: 6. subparsers can now be made mandatory by passing
     ‘required=True’ to *note ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(): a90.
     (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-26510(25).)

   * *note ast.literal_eval(): a91. is now stricter.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31778(26).)

   * *note Calendar.itermonthdates: a92. will now consistently raise an
     exception when a date falls outside of the ‘0001-01-01’ through
     ‘9999-12-31’ range.  To support applications that cannot tolerate
     such exceptions, the new *note Calendar.itermonthdays3: a93. and
     *note Calendar.itermonthdays4: a94. can be used.  The new methods
     return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by
     *note datetime.date: 749.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
     bpo-28292(27).)

   * *note collections.ChainMap: a95. now preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-32792(28).)

   * The ‘submit()’ method of *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. and *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 180. if called during interpreter shutdown.
     (Contributed by Mark Nemec in bpo-33097(29).)

   * The *note configparser.ConfigParser: 28e. constructor now uses
     ‘read_dict()’ to process the default values, making its behavior
     consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys and values
     in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly converted to
     strings.  (Contributed by James Tocknell in bpo-23835(30).)

   * Several undocumented internal imports were removed.  One example is
     that ‘os.errno’ is no longer available; use ‘import errno’ directly
     instead.  Note that such undocumented internal imports may be
     removed any time without notice, even in micro version releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302

   (14) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<2>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<4>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

The function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 377. is considered unsafe for
resizable sequences.  If the slice indices are not instances of *note
int: 184, but objects that implement the ‘__index__()’ method, the
sequence can be resized after passing its length to
‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’.  This can lead to returning indices out of the
length of the sequence.  For avoiding possible problems use new
functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 378. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 379.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<4>,  Next: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Prev: Changes in the C API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.4 CPython bytecode changes
.................................

There are two new opcodes: *note LOAD_METHOD: a98. and ‘CALL_METHOD’.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(1).)

The ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ opcode has been removed.  (Contributed by Mark
Shannon in bpo-32550(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Next: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.5 Windows-only Changes
.............................

The file used to override *note sys.path: 368. is now called
‘<python-executable>._pth’ instead of ‘'sys.path'’.  See *note Finding
modules: a9a. for more information.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-28137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.6.17.6 Other CPython implementation changes
.............................................

In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython
runtime initialization API (see PEP 432(1) for an initial, but somewhat
outdated, draft), CPython’s internal startup and configuration
management logic has been significantly refactored.  While these updates
are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding applications
and users of the regular CPython CLI, they’re being mentioned here as
the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations during
interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects,
either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself.  (Initially
contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of bpo-22257(2), and
further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a number of other
issues).  Some known details affected:

   * *note PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode(): a9c. is not currently usable by
     embedding applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode
     object prior to calling ‘Py_Initialize’.  Use *note
     PySys_AddWarnOption(): a9d. instead.

   * warnings filters added by an embedding application with *note
     PySys_AddWarnOption(): a9d. should now more consistently take
     precedence over the default filters set by the interpreter

Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured,
setting *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 335. to a value greater than one is
no longer sufficient to both emit *note BytesWarning: a9e. messages and
have them converted to exceptions.  Instead, the flag must be set (to
cause the warnings to be emitted in the first place), and an explicit
‘error::BytesWarning’ warnings filter added to convert them to
exceptions.

Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the
implicit ‘return None’ in a function body consisting solely of a
docstring is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring,
not on the function’s header line.

The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the
co-routine.  This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of
obscure bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or
exiting a generator.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-25612(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 7,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.18 Notable changes in Python 3.7.1
--------------------------------------

Starting in 3.7.1, *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. now consistently reads
and respects all of the same environment settings as *note Py_Main():
aa0. (in earlier Python versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of
those environment variables, while in Python 3.7.0 it didn’t read any of
them due to bpo-34247(1)).  If this behavior is unwanted, set *note
Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 339. to 1 before calling *note
Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables *note was updated: aa1. to use
*note PyObject: 6eb. pointers.  See also bpo-34762(2).

In 3.7.1 the *note tokenize: fb. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’
token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.
This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
(Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.19 Notable changes in Python 3.7.2
--------------------------------------

In 3.7.2, *note venv: 111. on Windows no longer copies the original
binaries, but creates redirector scripts named ‘python.exe’ and
‘pythonw.exe’ instead.  This resolves a long standing issue where all
virtual environments would have to be upgraded or recreated with each
Python update.  However, note that this release will still require
recreation of virtual environments in order to get the new scripts.


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.20 Notable changes in Python 3.7.6
--------------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.21 Notable changes in Python 3.7.10
---------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 69a. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 69b.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
*note cgi.parse(): 69c. and *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 69d. as they
use the affected functions internally.  For more details, please see
their respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt,
Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.22 Notable changes in Python 3.7.11
---------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 10a. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.6.23 Notable security feature in 3.7.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 184. and *note str: 15d. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 189. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d8. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 402. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 6,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 5,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 7,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.7 What’s New In Python 3.6
============================


Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5.
Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016.   See the changelog(1) for
a full list of changes.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 494(2) - Python 3.6 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
* New Features: New Features<8>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>.
* New Modules: New Modules<5>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<8>.
* Removed: Removed<7>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0494/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<4>,  Next: New Features<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 498: aaa, formatted string literals.

   * *note PEP 515: aab, underscores in numeric literals.

   * *note PEP 526: aac, syntax for variable annotations.

   * *note PEP 525: aad, asynchronous generators.

   * *note PEP 530: aae.: asynchronous comprehensions.

New library modules:

   * *note secrets: bf.: *note PEP 506 – Adding A Secrets Module To The
     Standard Library: aaf.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * The *note dict: 933. type has been reimplemented to use a *note
     more compact representation: ab0. based on a proposal by Raymond
     Hettinger(1) and similar to the PyPy dict implementation(2).  This
     resulted in dictionaries using 20% to 25% less memory when compared
     to Python 3.5.

   * Customization of class creation has been simplified with the *note
     new protocol: ab1.

   * The class attribute definition order is *note now preserved: ab2.

   * The order of elements in ‘**kwargs’ now *note corresponds to the
     order: ab3. in which keyword arguments were passed to the function.

   * DTrace and SystemTap *note probing support: ab4. has been added.

   * The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: ab5. environment variable can now be
     used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access errors.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: a. module has received new features, significant
     usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug
     fixes.  Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer
     provisional and its API is considered stable.

   * A new *note file system path protocol: ab6. has been implemented to
     support *note path-like objects: 98e.  All standard library
     functions operating on paths have been updated to work with the new
     protocol.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module has gained support for *note Local
     Time Disambiguation: ab7.

   * The *note typing: 104. module received a number of *note
     improvements: ab8.

   * The *note tracemalloc: ff. module has been significantly reworked
     and is now used to provide better output for *note ResourceWarning:
     ab9. as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation
     errors.  See the *note PYTHONMALLOC section: ab5. for more
     information.

Security improvements:

   * The new *note secrets: bf. module has been added to simplify the
     generation of cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers
     suitable for managing secrets such as account authentication,
     tokens, and similar.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2ad. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See
     the PEP 524(3) for the rationale.

   * The *note hashlib: 66. and *note ssl: cf. modules now support
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   * The default settings and feature set of the *note ssl: cf. module
     have been improved.

   * The *note hashlib: 66. module received support for the BLAKE2,
     SHA-3 and SHAKE hash algorithms and the *note scrypt(): aba. key
     derivation function.

Windows improvements:

   * *note PEP 528: abb. and *note PEP 529: abc, Windows filesystem and
     console encoding changed to UTF-8.

   * The ‘py.exe’ launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers
     Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn’t specify a version (via
     command line arguments or a config file).  Handling of shebang
     lines remains unchanged - “python” refers to Python 2 in that case.

   * ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ have been marked as long-path aware,
     which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply.
     See *note removing the MAX_PATH limitation: abd. for details.

   * A ‘._pth’ file can be added to force isolated mode and fully
     specify all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup.
     See *note the documentation: a9a. for more information.

   * A ‘python36.zip’ file now works as a landmark to infer *note
     PYTHONHOME: 36f.  See *note the documentation: a9a. for more
     information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<8>,  Next: Other Language Changes<5>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Next: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.1 PEP 498: Formatted string literals
..........................................

PEP 498(1) introduces a new kind of string literals: 'f-strings', or
*note formatted string literals: 807.

Formatted string literals are prefixed with ‘'f'’ and are similar to the
format strings accepted by *note str.format(): 433.  They contain
replacement fields surrounded by curly braces.  The replacement fields
are expressions, which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted
using the *note format(): 431. protocol:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name}."
     'He said his name is Fred.'
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
     'result:      12.35'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 498(2) – Literal String Interpolation.

     PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith.

*note Feature documentation: 807.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Next: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Prev: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.2 PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations
................................................

PEP 484(1) introduced the standard for type annotations of function
parameters, a.k.a.  type hints.  This PEP adds syntax to Python for
annotating the types of variables including class variables and instance
variables:

     primes: List[int] = []

     captain: str  # Note: no initial value!

     class Starship:
         stats: Dict[str, int] = {}

Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach
any particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in
the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class or module.

In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages, the
goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify
structured type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the
abstract syntax tree and the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 526(2) – Syntax for variable annotations.

     PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa
     Roach, and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

Tools that use or will use the new syntax: mypy(3), pytype(4), PyCharm,
etc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://www.mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Next: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.3 PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals
................................................

PEP 515(1) adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for
improved readability.  For example:

     >>> 1_000_000_000_000_000
     1000000000000000
     >>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF
     4294967295

Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base
specifier.  Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not
allowed.

The *note string formatting: 3ee. language also now has support for the
‘'_'’ option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands
separator for floating-point presentation types and for integer
presentation type ‘'d'’.  For integer presentation types ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’,
‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores will be inserted every 4 digits:

     >>> '{:_}'.format(1000000)
     '1_000_000'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF)
     'ffff_ffff'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 515(2) – Underscores in Numeric Literals

     PEP written by Georg Brandl and Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Next: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Prev: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.4 PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators
........................................

PEP 492(1) introduced support for native coroutines and ‘async’ /
‘await’ syntax to Python 3.5.  A notable limitation of the Python 3.5
implementation is that it was not possible to use ‘await’ and ‘yield’ in
the same function body.  In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted,
making it possible to define 'asynchronous generators':

     async def ticker(delay, to):
         """Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds."""
         for i in range(to):
             yield i
             await asyncio.sleep(delay)

The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 525(2) – Asynchronous Generators

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Next: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Prev: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.5 PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions
............................................

PEP 530(1) adds support for using ‘async for’ in list, set, dict
comprehensions and generator expressions:

     result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2]

Additionally, ‘await’ expressions are supported in all kinds of
comprehensions:

     result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()]

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 530(2) – Asynchronous Comprehensions

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Next: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.6 PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation
........................................................

It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a
metaclass.  The new ‘__init_subclass__’ classmethod will be called on
the base class whenever a new subclass is created:

     class PluginBase:
         subclasses = []

         def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
             super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
             cls.subclasses.append(cls)

     class Plugin1(PluginBase):
         pass

     class Plugin2(PluginBase):
         pass

In order to allow zero-argument *note super(): 20d. calls to work
correctly from *note __init_subclass__(): 444. implementations, custom
metaclasses must ensure that the new ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry is
propagated to ‘type.__new__’ (as described in *note Creating the class
object: ac6.).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 487(1) – Simpler customization of class creation

     PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

*note Feature documentation: ac7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Next: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Prev: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.7 PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements
.................................................

PEP 487(1) extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional
*note __set_name__(): aca. method.  Whenever a new class is defined, the
new method will be called on all descriptors included in the definition,
providing them with a reference to the class being defined and the name
given to the descriptor within the class namespace.  In other words,
instances of descriptors can now know the attribute name of the
descriptor in the owner class:

     class IntField:
         def __get__(self, instance, owner):
             return instance.__dict__[self.name]

         def __set__(self, instance, value):
             if not isinstance(value, int):
                 raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}')
             instance.__dict__[self.name] = value

         # this is the new initializer:
         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.name = name

     class Model:
         int_field = IntField()

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 487(2) – Simpler customization of class creation

     PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

*note Feature documentation: acb.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Next: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Prev: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.8 PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol
...................................................

File system paths have historically been represented as *note str: 15d.
or *note bytes: 2cb. objects.  This has led to people who write code
which operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only
one of those two types (an *note int: 184. representing a file
descriptor does not count as that is not a file path).  Unfortunately
that assumption prevents alternative object representations of file
system paths like *note pathlib: a3. from working with pre-existing
code, including Python’s standard library.

To fix this situation, a new interface represented by *note os.PathLike:
acd. has been defined.  By implementing the *note __fspath__(): ace.
method, an object signals that it represents a path.  An object can then
provide a low-level representation of a file system path as a *note str:
15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. object.  This means an object is considered
*note path-like: 98e. if it implements *note os.PathLike: acd. or is a
*note str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. object which represents a file
system path.  Code can use *note os.fspath(): acf, *note os.fsdecode():
ad0, or *note os.fsencode(): ad1. to explicitly get a *note str: 15d.
and/or *note bytes: 2cb. representation of a path-like object.

The built-in *note open(): 2a6. function has been updated to accept
*note os.PathLike: acd. objects, as have all relevant functions in the
*note os: a0. and *note os.path: a1. modules, and most other functions
and classes in the standard library.  The *note os.DirEntry: 1c0. class
and relevant classes in *note pathlib: a3. have also been updated to
implement *note os.PathLike: acd.

The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating on
file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly support
all *note path-like objects: 98e. without any code changes, or at least
very minimal ones (e.g.  calling *note os.fspath(): acf. at the
beginning of code before operating on a path-like object).

Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for *note
pathlib.Path: 14f. to be used more easily and transparently with
pre-existing code:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f:
     ...     contents = f.read()
     ...
     >>> import os.path
     >>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     ('some_file', '.txt')
     >>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c"))
     '/a/b/c'
     >>> import os
     >>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     'some_file.txt'

(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle
Zijlstra.)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 519(1) – Adding a file system path protocol

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Koos Zevenhoven.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Next: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.9 PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation
..........................................

In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local
clocks are moved back.  In those times, intervals are introduced in
which local clocks show the same time twice in the same day.  In these
situations, the information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a
Python datetime instance) is insufficient to identify a particular
moment in time.

PEP 495(1) adds the new 'fold' attribute to instances of *note
datetime.datetime: 22b. and *note datetime.time: 6df. classes to
differentiate between two moments in time for which local times are the
same:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

The values of the *note fold: ad3. attribute have the value ‘0’ for all
instances except those that represent the second (chronologically)
moment in time in an ambiguous case.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 495(2) – Local Time Disambiguation

     PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation
     by Alexander Belopolsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.10 PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8
.............................................................

Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode)
rather than bytes.  However, there are some situations where using bytes
is sufficient and correct.

Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on
Windows.  With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now
supported on Windows, provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding
returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5, which now defaults
to ‘'utf-8'’.

Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use *note
os.fsencode(): ad1. and *note os.fsdecode(): ad0. to ensure their bytes
are correctly encoded.  To revert to the previous behaviour, set *note
PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ad6. or call *note
sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): ad7.

See PEP 529(1) for more information and discussion of code modifications
that may be required.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Prev: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.11 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
..........................................................

The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters
and provide correctly read str objects to Python code.  ‘sys.stdin’,
‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ now default to utf-8 encoding.

This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when
redirecting files or pipes.  To revert to the previous behaviour for
interactive console use, set *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ad9.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 528(1) – Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

     PEP written and implemented by Steve Dower.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Next: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Prev: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.12 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
.............................................................

Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same
order in which the names appear in the source.  This order is now
preserved in the new class’s *note __dict__: adb. attribute.

Also, the effective default class 'execution' namespace (returned from
*note type.__prepare__(): adc.) is now an insertion-order-preserving
mapping.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 520(1) – Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0520/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Next: New dict implementation,  Prev: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.13 PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order
...................................................

‘**kwargs’ in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an
insertion-order-preserving mapping.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 468(1) – Preserving Keyword Argument Order

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/


File: python.info,  Node: New dict implementation,  Next: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Prev: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.14 New dict implementation
................................

The *note dict: 933. type now uses a “compact” representation based on a
proposal by Raymond Hettinger(1) which was first implemented by PyPy(2).
The memory usage of the new *note dict(): 240. is between 20% and 25%
smaller compared to Python 3.5.

The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an
implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in
the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in
the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to
mandate order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python
implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility with
older versions of the language where random iteration order is still in
effect, e.g.  Python 3.5).

(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-27350(3).  Idea originally suggested
by Raymond Hettinger(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (4) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Next: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Prev: New dict implementation,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.15 PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
..........................................................

While Python provides extensive support to customize how code executes,
one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame objects.  If
you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in Python there really
wasn’t any way without directly manipulating function pointers for
defined functions.

PEP 523(1) changes this by providing an API to make frame evaluation
pluggable at the C level.  This will allow for tools such as debuggers
and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the execution of Python
code begins.  This enables the use of alternative evaluation
implementations for Python code, tracking frame evaluation, etc.

This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to
signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only
applicable to very select, low-level use-cases.  Semantics of the API
will change with Python as necessary.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 523(2) – Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Dino Viehland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Next: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.16 PYTHONMALLOC environment variable
..........................................

The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable allows setting the
Python memory allocators and installing debug hooks.

It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on
Python compiled in release mode using ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’.  Effects of
debug hooks:

   * Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ‘0xCB’

   * Freed memory is filled with the byte ‘0xDB’

   * Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example,
     *note PyObject_Free(): ae3. called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.

   * Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows)

   * Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows)

   * Check that the *note GIL: 147. is held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.)
     domains are called.

Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6.

See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. function for debug hooks on
Python memory allocators.

It is now also possible to force the usage of the ‘malloc()’ allocator
of the C library for all Python memory allocations using
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’.  This is helpful when using external memory
debuggers like Valgrind on a Python compiled in release mode.

On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the *note
tracemalloc: ff. module to get the traceback where a memory block was
allocated.

Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using ‘python3.6 -X
tracemalloc=5’ (store 5 frames in traces):

     Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o'
         4 bytes originally requested
         The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected.
         The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb):
             at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH
             at tail+1: 0xfb
             at tail+2: 0xfb
             at tail+3: 0xfb
             at tail+4: 0xfb
             at tail+5: 0xfb
             at tail+6: 0xfb
             at tail+7: 0xfb
         The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.
         Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00

     Memory block allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84

     Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte

     Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       ...

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26516(1) and bpo-26564(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564


File: python.info,  Node: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Up: New Features<8>

1.7.2.17 DTrace and SystemTap probing support
.............................................

Python can now be built ‘--with-dtrace’ which enables static markers for
the following events in the interpreter:

   * function call/return

   * garbage collection started/finished

   * line of code executed.

This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production,
without the need to recompile specific *note debug builds: 6b9. or
providing application-specific profiling/debugging code.

More details in *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap:
aea.

The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS. Additional
markers may be added in the future.

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-21590(1), based on patches by Jesús
Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<5>,  Next: New Modules<5>,  Prev: New Features<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.3 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * A ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ statement must now textually appear before
     the first use of the affected name in the same scope.  Previously
     this was a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e.

   * It is now possible to set a *note special method: aec. to ‘None’ to
     indicate that the corresponding operation is not available.  For
     example, if a class sets ‘__iter__()’ to ‘None’, the class is not
     iterable.  (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-25958(1).)

   * Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as
     ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’ (see *note
     traceback: aed. for an example).  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in
     bpo-26823(2).)

   * Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8.
     (subclass of *note ImportError: 14b.) when it cannot find a module.
     Code that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will
     still work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(3).)

   * Class methods relying on zero-argument ‘super()’ will now work
     correctly when called from metaclass methods during class creation.
     (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in bpo-23722(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<5>,  Next: Improved Modules<5>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.4 New Modules
-----------------

* Menu:

* secrets::


File: python.info,  Node: secrets,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.7.4.1 secrets
...............

The main purpose of the new *note secrets: bf. module is to provide an
obvious way to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random
values suitable for managing secrets, such as account authentication,
tokens, and similar.

     Uyarı: Note that the pseudo-random generators in the *note random:
     b7. module should 'NOT' be used for security purposes.  Use *note
     secrets: bf. on Python 3.6+ and *note os.urandom(): 2ad. on Python
     3.5 and earlier.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 506(1) – Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<5>,  Next: Optimizations<5>,  Prev: New Modules<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.5 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* array: array<3>.
* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<3>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* json::
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<6>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* pickletools::
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* random: random<3>.
* re: re<3>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* struct::
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<9>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<5>.
* timeit::
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<4>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.
* zlib::


File: python.info,  Node: array<3>,  Next: ast<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.1 array
.............

Exhausted iterators of *note array.array: 195. will now stay exhausted
even if the iterated array is extended.  This is consistent with the
behavior of other mutable sequences.

Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26492(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492


File: python.info,  Node: ast<3>,  Next: asyncio<8>,  Prev: array<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.2 ast
...........

The new *note ast.Constant: 21e. AST node has been added.  It can be
used by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding.

Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26146(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<8>,  Next: binascii<2>,  Prev: ast<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.3 asyncio
...............

Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer provisional
and its API is considered stable.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: a. module since Python 3.5.0 (all
backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status):

   * The *note get_event_loop(): 227. function has been changed to
     always return the currently running loop when called from
     coroutines and callbacks.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-28613(1).)

   * The *note ensure_future(): af4. function and all functions that use
     it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): af5, now accept all
     kinds of *note awaitable objects: af6.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6c8. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): af7. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): 981. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

   * New *note loop.create_future(): af8. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(2), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: a44.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27041(3).)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): af9. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-27040(4).)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): afa. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The performance of *note StreamReader.readexactly(): afb. has been
     improved.  (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in bpo-28370(5).)

   * The *note loop.getaddrinfo(): a8d. method is optimized to avoid
     calling the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.stop(): afc. method has been changed to stop the
     loop immediately after the current iteration.  Any new callbacks
     scheduled as a result of the last iteration will be discarded.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-25593(6).)

   * ‘Future.set_exception’ will now raise *note TypeError: 2c4. when
     passed an instance of the *note StopIteration: a73. exception.
     (Contributed by Chris Angelico in bpo-26221(7).)

   * New *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): 989. method to be used by
     servers that accept connections outside of asyncio, but that use
     asyncio to handle them.  (Contributed by Jim Fulton in
     bpo-27392(8).)

   * ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag is now set for all TCP transports by default.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27456(9).)

   * New *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): afd. to properly close pending
     asynchronous generators before closing the loop.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-28003(10).)

   * *note Future: a44. and *note Task: 20a. classes now have an
     optimized C implementation which makes asyncio code up to 30%
     faster.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(11) and bpo-28544(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (2) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26221

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<2>,  Next: cmath,  Prev: asyncio<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.4 binascii
................

The *note b2a_base64(): aff. function now accepts an optional 'newline'
keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to
the return value.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25357(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357


File: python.info,  Node: cmath,  Next: collections<4>,  Prev: binascii<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.5 cmath
.............

The new *note cmath.tau: b01. ('τ') constant has been added.
(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for details.)

New constants: *note cmath.inf: b02. and *note cmath.nan: b03. to match
*note math.inf: b04. and *note math.nan: 476, and also *note cmath.infj:
b05. and *note cmath.nanj: b06. to match the format used by complex
repr.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23229(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229


File: python.info,  Node: collections<4>,  Next: concurrent futures<3>,  Prev: cmath,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.6 collections
...................

The new *note Collection: b08. abstract base class has been added to
represent sized iterable container classes.  (Contributed by Ivan
Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in bpo-27598(1).)

The new *note Reversible: b09. abstract base class represents iterable
classes that also provide the ‘__reversed__()’ method.  (Contributed by
Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25987(2).)

The new *note AsyncGenerator: b0a. abstract base class represents
asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-28720(3).)

The *note namedtuple(): 74b. function now accepts an optional keyword
argument 'module', which, when specified, is used for the *note
__module__: b0b. attribute of the returned named tuple class.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-17941(4).)

The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 74b. are
now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628(5).)

Recursive *note collections.deque: 3e7. instances can now be pickled.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26482(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25987

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<3>,  Next: contextlib<4>,  Prev: collections<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

The *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. class constructor now accepts an
optional 'thread_name_prefix' argument to make it possible to customize
the names of the threads created by the pool.  (Contributed by Gregory
P.  Smith in bpo-27664(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<4>,  Next: datetime<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.8 contextlib
..................

The *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: b0e. class has been added
to provide an abstract base class for context managers.  It provides a
sensible default implementation for ‘__enter__()’ which returns ‘self’
and leaves ‘__exit__()’ an abstract method.  A matching class has been
added to the *note typing: 104. module as *note typing.ContextManager:
b0f.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<5>,  Next: decimal<2>,  Prev: contextlib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.9 datetime
................

The *note datetime: 22b. and *note time: 6df. classes have the new
‘fold’ attribute used to disambiguate local time when necessary.  Many
functions in the *note datetime: 30. have been updated to support local
time disambiguation.  See *note Local Time Disambiguation: ab7. section
for more information.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
bpo-24773(1).)

The *note datetime.strftime(): b11. and *note date.strftime(): b12.
methods now support ISO 8601 date directives ‘%G’, ‘%u’ and ‘%V’.
(Contributed by Ashley Anderson in bpo-12006(2).)

The *note datetime.isoformat(): 9a1. function now accepts an optional
'timespec' argument that specifies the number of additional components
of the time value to include.  (Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and
Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-19475(3).)

The *note datetime.combine(): b13. now accepts an optional 'tzinfo'
argument.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-27661(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<2>,  Next: distutils<5>,  Prev: datetime<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.10 decimal
................

New *note Decimal.as_integer_ratio(): b15. method that returns a pair
‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given *note Decimal: 609.
instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and with a positive denominator:

     >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
     (-157, 50)

(Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in bpo-25928(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<5>,  Next: email<3>,  Prev: decimal<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.11 distutils
..................

The ‘default_format’ attribute has been removed from
‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’ and the ‘formats’ attribute defaults to
‘['gztar']’.  Although not anticipated, any code relying on the presence
of ‘default_format’ may need to be adapted.  See bpo-27819(1) for more
details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819


File: python.info,  Node: email<3>,  Next: encodings<2>,  Prev: distutils<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.12 email
..............

The new email API, enabled via the 'policy' keyword to various
constructors, is no longer provisional.  The *note email: 3a.
documentation has been reorganized and rewritten to focus on the new
API, while retaining the old documentation for the legacy API.
(Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24277(1).)

The *note email.mime: 44. classes now all accept an optional 'policy'
keyword.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-27331(2).)

The *note DecodedGenerator: b18. now supports the 'policy' keyword.

There is a new *note policy: 4e. attribute, *note message_factory: b19,
that controls what class is used by default when the parser creates new
message objects.  For the *note email.policy.compat32: b1a. policy this
is *note Message: b1b, for the new policies it is *note EmailMessage:
b1c.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-20476(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20476


File: python.info,  Node: encodings<2>,  Next: enum<6>,  Prev: email<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.13 encodings
..................

On Windows, added the ‘'oem'’ encoding to use ‘CP_OEMCP’, and the
‘'ansi'’ alias for the existing ‘'mbcs'’ encoding, which uses the
‘CP_ACP’ code page.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959


File: python.info,  Node: enum<6>,  Next: faulthandler<2>,  Prev: encodings<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.14 enum
.............

Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the *note enum: 54.
module: *note Flag: 435. and ‘IntFlags’.  Both are used to define
constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-23591(1).)

Many standard library modules have been updated to use the ‘IntFlags’
class for their constants.

The new *note enum.auto: b1f. value can be used to assign values to enum
members automatically:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     red = auto()
     ...     blue = auto()
     ...     green = auto()
     ...
     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.red: 1>, <Color.blue: 2>, <Color.green: 3>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<2>,  Next: fileinput<2>,  Prev: enum<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.15 faulthandler
.....................

On Windows, the *note faulthandler: 56. module now installs a handler
for Windows exceptions: see *note faulthandler.enable(): b21.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23848(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput<2>,  Next: hashlib<5>,  Prev: faulthandler<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.16 fileinput
..................

*note hook_encoded(): b23. now supports the 'errors' argument.
(Contributed by Joseph Hackman in bpo-25788(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<5>,  Next: http client<2>,  Prev: fileinput<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.17 hashlib
................

*note hashlib: 66. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend
version is 1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module.  *note blake2b(): 455.
and *note blake2s(): 456. are always available and support the full
feature set of BLAKE2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26798(2)
based on code by Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves.  Documentation
written by Dmitry Chestnykh.)

The SHA-3 hash functions *note sha3_224(): b25, *note sha3_256(): b26,
*note sha3_384(): b27, *note sha3_512(): b28, and SHAKE hash functions
*note shake_128(): b29. and *note shake_256(): b2a. were added.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16113(3).  Keccak Code Package
by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and
Ronny Van Keer.)

The password-based key derivation function *note scrypt(): aba. is now
available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27928(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928


File: python.info,  Node: http client<2>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Prev: hashlib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.18 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.request(): b2c. and *note endheaders(): b2d. both
now support chunked encoding request bodies.  (Contributed by Demian
Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Next: importlib<5>,  Prev: http client<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.19 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look
and work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and
improve.  Part of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac,
is using ttk widgets, mostly in the dialogs.  As a result, IDLE no
longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4.  It now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6.  We
recommend running the latest release of either.

‘Modernizing’ includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules.
The renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the
renaming of, for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and
tkinter.font in 3.0.  As a result, imports of idlelib files that worked
in 3.5 will usually not work in 3.6.  At least a module name change will
be needed (see idlelib/README.txt), sometimes more.  (Name changes
contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in bpo-24225(1).  Most
idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the process.)

In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes
will be easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them.
Additional useful information will be added to idlelib when available.

New in 3.6.2:

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(2).)

New in 3.6.3:

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(3).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(4).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

New in 3.6.4:

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(5).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(6).)

New in 3.6.6:

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(7), bpo-33768(8), and bpo-33679(9).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(10).)

New in 3.6.7:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<5>,  Next: inspect<6>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.20 importlib
..................

Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8.
(subclass of *note ImportError: 14b.) when it cannot find a module.
Code that current checks for ‘ImportError’ (in try-except) will still
work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(1).)

*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: b30. now calls *note create_module():
b31. on the wrapped loader, removing the restriction that *note
importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: b32. and *note
importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b33. couldn’t be used with
*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: b30.

*note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 275, *note
importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 2a4, and *note
importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(): b34. now accept a *note
path-like object: 98e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<6>,  Next: json,  Prev: importlib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.21 inspect
................

The *note inspect.signature(): 561. function now reports the implicit
‘.0’ parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters
called ‘implicit0’.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-19611(1).)

To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy
‘inspect.getargspec()’ API, the previously documented deprecation of
*note inspect.getfullargspec(): 562. has been reversed.  While this
function is convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the
richer *note inspect.signature(): 561. interface remains the recommended
approach for new code.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-27172(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172


File: python.info,  Node: json,  Next: logging<3>,  Prev: inspect<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.22 json
.............

*note json.load(): b37. and *note json.loads(): 7b0. now support binary
input.  Encoded JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16,
or UTF-32.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17909(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909


File: python.info,  Node: logging<3>,  Next: math<6>,  Prev: json,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.23 logging
................

The new *note WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded(): b39. method has been
added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to be reopened.
(Contributed by Marian Horban in bpo-24884(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24884


File: python.info,  Node: math<6>,  Next: multiprocessing<4>,  Prev: logging<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.24 math
.............

The tau ('τ') constant has been added to the *note math: 8d. and *note
cmath: 18. modules.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP
628(2) for details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<4>,  Next: os<7>,  Prev: math<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.25 multiprocessing
........................

*note Proxy Objects: b3c. returned by *note multiprocessing.Manager():
b3d. can now be nested.  (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-6766(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766


File: python.info,  Node: os<7>,  Next: pathlib<7>,  Prev: multiprocessing<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.26 os
...........

See the summary of *note PEP 519: ab6. for details on how the *note os:
a0. and *note os.path: a1. modules now support *note path-like objects:
98e.

*note scandir(): 8c3. now supports *note bytes: 2cb. paths on Windows.

A new *note close(): b3f. method allows explicitly closing a *note
scandir(): 8c3. iterator.  The *note scandir(): 8c3. iterator now
supports the *note context manager: 3df. protocol.  If a ‘scandir()’
iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a *note
ResourceWarning: ab9. will be emitted in its destructor.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25994(1).)

On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2ad. now blocks until the system urandom
entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See the PEP
524(2) for the rationale.

The Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the
new *note os.getrandom(): b40. function.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner, part of the PEP 524(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<7>,  Next: pdb<4>,  Prev: os<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.27 pathlib
................

*note pathlib: a3. now supports *note path-like objects: 98e.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(1).)

See the summary of *note PEP 519: ab6. for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<4>,  Next: pickle<2>,  Prev: pathlib<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.28 pdb
............

The *note Pdb: 77a. class constructor has a new optional 'readrc'
argument to control whether ‘.pdbrc’ files should be read.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<2>,  Next: pickletools,  Prev: pdb<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.29 pickle
...............

Objects that need ‘__new__’ called with keyword arguments can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: b44. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports this case.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24164(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools,  Next: pydoc<3>,  Prev: pickle<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.30 pickletools
....................

*note pickletools.dis(): b46. now outputs the implicit memo index for
the ‘MEMOIZE’ opcode.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<3>,  Next: random<3>,  Prev: pickletools,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.31 pydoc
..............

The *note pydoc: b4. module has learned to respect the ‘MANPAGER’
environment variable.  (Contributed by Matthias Klose in bpo-8637(1).)

*note help(): 72a. and *note pydoc: b4. can now list named tuple fields
in the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-24879(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879


File: python.info,  Node: random<3>,  Next: re<3>,  Prev: pydoc<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.32 random
...............

The new *note choices(): b49. function returns a list of elements of
specified size from the given population with optional weights.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18844(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844


File: python.info,  Node: re<3>,  Next: readline,  Prev: random<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.33 re
...........

Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.  Examples:
‘'(?i:p)ython'’ matches ‘'python'’ and ‘'Python'’, but not ‘'PYTHON'’;
‘'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'’ matches ‘'GvR'’ and ‘'gvr'’, but not ‘'GVR'’.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433028(1).)

Match object groups can be accessed by ‘__getitem__’, which is
equivalent to ‘group()’.  So ‘mo['name']’ is now equivalent to
‘mo.group('name')’.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-24454(2).)

*note Match: b4b. objects now support *note index-like objects: 538. as
group indices.  (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in
bpo-27177(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177


File: python.info,  Node: readline,  Next: rlcompleter,  Prev: re<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.34 readline
.................

Added *note set_auto_history(): b4d. to enable or disable automatic
addition of input to the history list.  (Contributed by Tyler Crompton
in bpo-26870(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter,  Next: shlex<2>,  Prev: readline,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.35 rlcompleter
....................

Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix
starts with underscores.  A space or a colon is added after some
completed keywords.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25011(1)
and bpo-25209(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<2>,  Next: site<2>,  Prev: rlcompleter,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.36 shlex
..............

The *note shlex: b50. has much *note improved shell compatibility: b51.
through the new 'punctuation_chars' argument to control which characters
are treated as punctuation.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-1521950(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1521950


File: python.info,  Node: site<2>,  Next: sqlite3<6>,  Prev: shlex<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.37 site
.............

When specifying paths to add to *note sys.path: 368. in a ‘.pth’ file,
you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g.  zip files).
(Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in bpo-26587(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<6>,  Next: socket<7>,  Prev: site<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.38 sqlite3
................

*note sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid: b54. now supports the ‘REPLACE’
statement.  (Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in bpo-16864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864


File: python.info,  Node: socket<7>,  Next: socketserver<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.39 socket
...............

The *note ioctl(): b56. function now supports the *note
SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH: b57. control code.  (Contributed by Daniel
Stokes in bpo-26536(1).)

The *note getsockopt(): b58. constants ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’,
‘SO_PEERSEC’, and ‘SO_PASSSEC’ are now supported.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-26907(2).)

The *note setsockopt(): b59. now supports the ‘setsockopt(level,
optname, None, optlen: int)’ form.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(3).)

The socket module now supports the address family *note AF_ALG: b5a. to
interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. ‘ALG_*’, ‘SOL_ALG’ and *note
sendmsg_afalg(): b5b. were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(4) with support from Victor Stinner.)

New Linux constants ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ and ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added.
(Contributed by Omar Sandoval, bpo-26273(5)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26907

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<2>,  Next: ssl<6>,  Prev: socket<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.40 socketserver
.....................

Servers based on the *note socketserver: cc. module, including those
defined in *note http.server: 70, *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. and *note
wsgiref.simple_server: 11b, now support the *note context manager: 3df.
protocol.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26404(1).)

The ‘wfile’ attribute of *note StreamRequestHandler: b5d. classes now
implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. writable interface.  In
particular, calling *note write(): b5e. is now guaranteed to send the
data in full.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<6>,  Next: statistics<4>,  Prev: socketserver<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.41 ssl
............

*note ssl: cf. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is
1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20
Poly1305 cipher suites have been added.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27850(2) and bpo-27766(3).)

*note SSLContext: 277. has better default configuration for options and
ciphers.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28043(4).)

SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another
with the new *note SSLSession: b60. class.  TLS session resumption can
speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19500(5) based on a draft by
Alex Warhawk.)

The new *note get_ciphers(): b61. method can be used to get a list of
enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority.

All constants and flags have been converted to *note IntEnum: b62. and
‘IntFlags’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28025(6).)

Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for *note SSLContext: 277.
were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28085(7).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: 893. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): 894. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28085

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<4>,  Next: struct,  Prev: ssl<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.42 statistics
...................

A new *note harmonic_mean(): b64. function has been added.  (Contributed
by Steven D’Aprano in bpo-27181(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181


File: python.info,  Node: struct,  Next: subprocess<2>,  Prev: statistics<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.43 struct
...............

*note struct: d4. now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the
‘'e'’ format specifier.  (Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in
bpo-11734(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<2>,  Next: sys<9>,  Prev: struct,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.44 subprocess
...................

*note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. destructor now emits a *note
ResourceWarning: ab9. warning if the child process is still running.
Use the context manager protocol (‘with proc: ...’) or explicitly call
the *note wait(): b67. method to read the exit status of the child
process.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26741(1).)

The *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. constructor and all functions that pass
arguments through to it now accept 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments.
Specifying either of these will enable text mode for the 'stdin',
'stdout' and 'stderr' streams.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-6135(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135


File: python.info,  Node: sys<9>,  Next: telnetlib,  Prev: subprocess<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.45 sys
............

The new *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b69. function returns the
name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and
bytes filenames.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27781(1).)

On Windows the return value of the *note getwindowsversion(): b6a.
function now includes the 'platform_version' field which contains the
accurate major version, minor version and build number of the current
operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the
process (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27932(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib,  Next: time<5>,  Prev: sys<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.46 telnetlib
..................

*note Telnet: b6c. is now a context manager (contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel in bpo-25485(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485


File: python.info,  Node: time<5>,  Next: timeit,  Prev: telnetlib,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.47 time
.............

The *note struct_time: b6e. attributes ‘tm_gmtoff’ and ‘tm_zone’ are now
available on all platforms.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit,  Next: tkinter<5>,  Prev: time<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.48 timeit
...............

The new *note Timer.autorange(): b70. convenience method has been added
to call *note Timer.timeit(): b71. repeatedly so that the total run time
is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Steven
D’Aprano in bpo-6422(1).)

*note timeit: ee. now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance
between best and worst times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23552(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<5>,  Next: traceback<3>,  Prev: timeit,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.49 tkinter
................

Added methods ‘trace_add()’, ‘trace_remove()’ and ‘trace_info()’ in the
‘tkinter.Variable’ class.  They replace old methods ‘trace_variable()’,
‘trace()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ and ‘trace_vinfo()’ that use obsolete Tcl
commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22115(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<3>,  Next: tracemalloc<3>,  Prev: tkinter<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.50 traceback
..................

Both the traceback module and the interpreter’s builtin exception
display now abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as
shown in the following example:

     >>> def f(): f()
     ...
     >>> f()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       [Previous line repeated 995 more times]
     RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<3>,  Next: typing<7>,  Prev: traceback<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.51 tracemalloc
....................

The *note tracemalloc: ff. module now supports tracing memory
allocations in multiple different address spaces.

The new *note DomainFilter: b75. filter class has been added to filter
block traces by their address space (domain).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26588(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588


File: python.info,  Node: typing<7>,  Next: unicodedata<6>,  Prev: tracemalloc<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.52 typing
...............

Since the *note typing: 104. module is *note provisional: 971, all
changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been backported to Python
3.5.x.

The *note typing: 104. module has a much improved support for generic
type aliases.  For example ‘Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]]’ is now a valid type
annotation.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #195(1).)

The *note typing.ContextManager: b0f. class has been added for
representing *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: b0e.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(2).)

The *note typing.Collection: b77. class has been added for representing
*note collections.abc.Collection: b08.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-27598(3).)

The *note typing.ClassVar: 4cb. type construct has been added to mark
class variables.  As introduced in PEP 526(4), a variable annotation
wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be
used as a class variable and should not be set on instances of that
class.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #280(5).)

A new *note TYPE_CHECKING: b78. constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by
the static type checkers, but is ‘False’ at runtime.  (Contributed by
Guido van Rossum in Github #230(6).)

A new *note NewType(): b79. helper function has been added to create
lightweight distinct types for annotations:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
of the original type.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github
#189(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (5) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280

   (6) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230

   (7) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<6>,  Next: unittest mock<2>,  Prev: typing<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.53 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 105. module now uses data from Unicode 9.0.0(1).
(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<2>,  Next: urllib request,  Prev: unicodedata<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.54 unittest.mock
......................

The *note Mock: 8af. class has the following improvements:

   * Two new methods, *note Mock.assert_called(): b7c. and *note
     Mock.assert_called_once(): b7d. to check if the mock object was
     called.  (Contributed by Amit Saha in bpo-26323(1).)

   * The *note Mock.reset_mock(): b7e. method now has two optional
     keyword only arguments: 'return_value' and 'side_effect'.
     (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21271(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser,  Prev: unittest mock<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.55 urllib.request
.......................

If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a bytes
object) but no ‘Content-Length’ header, rather than throwing an error,
‘AbstractHTTPHandler’ now falls back to use chunked transfer encoding.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser,  Next: venv<4>,  Prev: urllib request,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.56 urllib.robotparser
...........................

*note RobotFileParser: b81. now supports the ‘Crawl-delay’ and
‘Request-rate’ extensions.  (Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in
bpo-16099(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099


File: python.info,  Node: venv<4>,  Next: warnings<3>,  Prev: urllib robotparser,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.57 venv
.............

*note venv: 111. accepts a new parameter ‘--prompt’.  This parameter
provides an alternative prefix for the virtual environment.  (Proposed
by Łukasz Balcerzak and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in
bpo-22829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22829


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<3>,  Next: winreg,  Prev: venv<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.58 warnings
.................

A new optional 'source' parameter has been added to the *note
warnings.warn_explicit(): b84. function: the destroyed object which
emitted a *note ResourceWarning: ab9.  A 'source' attribute has also
been added to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’ (contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-26568(1) and bpo-26567(2)).

When a *note ResourceWarning: ab9. warning is logged, the *note
tracemalloc: ff. module is now used to try to retrieve the traceback
where the destroyed object was allocated.

Example with the script ‘example.py’:

     import warnings

     def func():
         return open(__file__)

     f = func()
     f = None

Output of the command ‘python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py’:

     example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       f = None
     Object allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "example.py", lineno 4
         return open(__file__)
       File "example.py", lineno 6
         f = func()

The “Object allocated at” traceback is new and is only displayed if
*note tracemalloc: ff. is tracing Python memory allocations and if the
*note warnings: 112. module was already imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26568

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567


File: python.info,  Node: winreg,  Next: winsound,  Prev: warnings<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.59 winreg
...............

Added the 64-bit integer type *note REG_QWORD: b86.  (Contributed by
Clement Rouault in bpo-23026(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026


File: python.info,  Node: winsound,  Next: xmlrpc client,  Prev: winreg,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.60 winsound
.................

Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to *note Beep: b88, *note
MessageBeep: b89, and *note PlaySound: b8a. (bpo-27982(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client,  Next: zipfile<3>,  Prev: winsound,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.61 xmlrpc.client
......................

The *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. module now supports unmarshalling
additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation for
numerics and ‘None’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<3>,  Next: zlib,  Prev: xmlrpc client,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.62 zipfile
................

A new *note ZipInfo.from_file(): b8d. class method allows making a *note
ZipInfo: b8e. instance from a filesystem file.  A new *note
ZipInfo.is_dir(): b8f. method can be used to check if the *note ZipInfo:
b8e. instance represents a directory.  (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-26039(1).)

The *note ZipFile.open(): b90. method can now be used to write data into
a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  (Contributed by Thomas
Kluyver in bpo-26039(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039


File: python.info,  Node: zlib,  Prev: zipfile<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.7.5.63 zlib
.............

The *note compress(): 452. and *note decompress(): b92. functions now
accept keyword arguments.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26243(1)
and Xiang Zhang in bpo-16764(2) respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<5>,  Next: Build and C API Changes,  Prev: Improved Modules<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.6 Optimizations
-------------------

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode which made a number of opcode optimizations possible.
     (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy
     Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and bpo-28050(2).)

   * The *note asyncio.Future: a44. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(3).)

   * The *note asyncio.Task: 20a. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28544(4).)

   * Various implementation improvements in the *note typing: 104.
     module (such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times
     performance improvements and reduced memory footprint.

   * The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘surrogateescape’, ‘ignore’ and ‘replace’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-24870(5)).

   * The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for
     the error handler ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-25227(6)).

   * The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’, ‘surrogatepass’
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25267(7)).

   * The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25301(8)).

   * ‘bytes % args’ is now up to 2 times faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25349(9)).

   * ‘bytearray % args’ is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25399(10)).

   * Optimize *note bytes.fromhex(): 95d. and *note bytearray.fromhex():
     95e.: they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25401(11)).

   * Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and ‘bytearray.replace(b'',
     b'.')’: up to 80% faster.  (Contributed by Josh Snider in
     bpo-26574(12)).

   * Allocator functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4. domain (*note
     PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7.) now use the *note pymalloc memory
     allocator: b94. instead of ‘malloc()’ function of the C library.
     The pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to
     512 bytes with a short lifetime, and use ‘malloc()’ for larger
     memory blocks.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26249(13)).

   * *note pickle.load(): b95. and *note pickle.loads(): b96. are now up
     to 10% faster when deserializing many small objects (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-27056(14)).

   * Passing *note keyword arguments: b97. to a function has an overhead
     in comparison with passing *note positional arguments: b98.  Now in
     extension functions implemented with using Argument Clinic this
     overhead is significantly decreased.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-27574(15)).

   * Optimized *note glob(): 641. and *note iglob(): 642. functions in
     the *note glob: 62. module; they are now about 3–6 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25596(16)).

   * Optimized globbing in *note pathlib: a3. by using *note
     os.scandir(): 8c3.; it is now about 1.5–4 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26032(17)).

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. parsing, iteration and deepcopy
     performance has been significantly improved.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25638(18), bpo-25873(19), and
     bpo-25869(20).)

   * Creation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. instances from floats
     and decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-25971(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24870

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes,  Next: Other Improvements,  Prev: Optimizations<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.7 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

   * Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build.
     Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in
     place of custom macros like ‘PY_LONG_LONG’.  For more information,
     see PEP 7(1) and bpo-17884(2).

   * Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API
     level set to 21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs
     successfully.  While Android is not yet a supported platform, the
     Python test suite runs on the Android emulator with only about 16
     tests failures.  See the Android meta-issue bpo-26865(3).

   * The ‘--enable-optimizations’ configure flag has been added.
     Turning it on will activate expensive optimizations like PGO.
     (Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in bpo-26359(4).)

   * The *note GIL: 147. must now be held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.)
     domains are called.

   * New *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. API which indicates if flushing
     buffered data failed.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-5319(5).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. now supports *note
     positional-only parameters: 8ea.  Positional-only parameters are
     defined by empty names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-26282(6)).

   * ‘PyTraceback_Print’ method now abbreviates long sequences of
     repeated lines as ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’.
     (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(7).)

   * The new *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): b9c. function allows
     for specifying a subclass of *note ImportError: 14b. to raise.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(8).)

   * The new *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): b9d. function can be used to
     generate a *note ResourceWarning: ab9. providing the source of the
     resource allocation.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-26567(9).)

   * The new *note PyOS_FSPath(): b9e. function returns the file system
     representation of a *note path-like object: 98e.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(10).)

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b9f. and *note
     PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 310. functions will now accept *note
     path-like objects: 98e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26865

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: Other Improvements,  Next: Deprecated<8>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.8 Other Improvements
------------------------

   * When *note -version: ba1. (short form: *note -V: ba2.) is supplied
     twice, Python prints *note sys.version: ba3. for detailed
     information.

          $ ./python -VV
          Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)
          [GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<8>,  Next: Removed<7>,  Prev: Other Improvements,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.9 Deprecated
----------------

* Menu:

* New Keywords::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<5>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::


File: python.info,  Node: New Keywords,  Next: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.7.9.1 New Keywords
....................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.  Starting in Python 3.6, the
use of ‘async’ or ‘await’ as names will generate a *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Prev: New Keywords,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.7.9.2 Deprecated Python behavior
..................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: a73. exception inside a generator will
now generate a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f, and will trigger a *note
RuntimeError: 180. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: ba7. for details.

The ‘__aiter__()’ method is now expected to return an asynchronous
iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as previously.
Doing the former will trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  Backward
compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-27243(1).)

A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
generates a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  Although this will
eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 14c, that will not be for several
Python releases.  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-27364(2).)

When performing a relative import, falling back on ‘__name__’ and
‘__path__’ from the calling module when ‘__spec__’ or ‘__package__’ are
not defined now raises an *note ImportWarning: 24e.  (Contributed by
Rose Ames in bpo-25791(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Next: xml<5>,  Prev: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.7.9.3 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
........................................................

* Menu:

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* os: os<8>.
* re: re<4>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* venv: venv<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat,  Next: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.4 asynchat
................

The ‘asynchat’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: a.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore,  Next: dbm<3>,  Prev: asynchat,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.5 asyncore
................

The ‘asyncore’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: a.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<3>,  Next: distutils<6>,  Prev: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.6 dbm
...........

Unlike other *note dbm: 31. implementations, the *note dbm.dumb: 32.
module creates databases with the ‘'rw'’ mode and allows modifying the
database opened with the ‘'r'’ mode.  This behavior is now deprecated
and will be removed in 3.8.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21708(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<6>,  Next: grp,  Prev: dbm<3>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.7 distutils
.................

The undocumented ‘extra_path’ argument to the ‘distutils.Distribution’
constructor is now considered deprecated and will raise a warning if
set.  Support for this parameter will be removed in a future Python
release.  See bpo-27919(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919


File: python.info,  Node: grp,  Next: importlib<6>,  Prev: distutils<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.8 grp
...........

The support of non-integer arguments in *note getgrgid(): bae. has been
deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26129(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<6>,  Next: os<8>,  Prev: grp,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.9 importlib
.................

The *note importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module(): bb0. and
*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module(): bb1.
methods are now deprecated.  They were the only remaining
implementations of *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 6ad. in
*note importlib: 75. that had not been deprecated in previous versions
of Python in favour of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 6ae.

The *note importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: bb2. class is now
deprecated.  As of 3.6.0, it is still added to *note sys.meta_path: bb3.
by default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.


File: python.info,  Node: os<8>,  Next: re<4>,  Prev: importlib<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.10 os
...........

Undocumented support of general *note bytes-like objects: bb5. as paths
in *note os: a0. functions, *note compile(): 56d. and similar functions
is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25791(1) and
bpo-26754(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: re<4>,  Next: ssl<7>,  Prev: os<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.11 re
...........

Support for inline flags ‘(?letters)’ in the middle of the regular
expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python
version.  Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22493(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<7>,  Next: tkinter<6>,  Prev: re<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.12 ssl
............

OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
In the future the *note ssl: cf. module will require at least OpenSSL
1.0.2 or 1.1.0.

SSL-related arguments like ‘certfile’, ‘keyfile’ and ‘check_hostname’ in
*note ftplib: 5c, *note http.client: 6d, *note imaplib: 72, *note
poplib: ab, and *note smtplib: c9. have been deprecated in favor of
‘context’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(1).)

A couple of protocols and functions of the *note ssl: cf. module are now
deprecated.  Some features will no longer be available in future
versions of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a
different API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(2) and
bpo-26470(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<6>,  Next: venv<5>,  Prev: ssl<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.13 tkinter
................

The *note tkinter.tix: f8. module is now deprecated.  *note tkinter: ef.
users should use *note tkinter.ttk: f9. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: venv<5>,  Prev: tkinter<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.7.9.14 venv
.............

The ‘pyvenv’ script has been deprecated in favour of ‘python3 -m venv’.
This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter ‘pyvenv’ is
connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the
virtual environment.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25154(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: xml<5>,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.7.9.15 xml
............

   * As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer
     process external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Next: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: xml<5>,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.7.9.16 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
....................................................

Undocumented functions ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’,
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ and
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’ are deprecated now.  Use the *note
generic codec based API: bbd. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Up: Deprecated<8>

1.7.9.17 Deprecated Build Options
.................................

The ‘--with-system-ffi’ configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS
UNIX platforms.  It may be disabled by using ‘--without-system-ffi’, but
using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7.
macOS is unaffected by this change.  Note that many OS distributors
already use the ‘--with-system-ffi’ flag when building their system
Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<7>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 6,  Prev: Deprecated<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.10 Removed
--------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Up: Removed<7>

1.7.10.1 API and Feature Removals
.................................

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in regular
     expressions will now cause an error.  In replacement templates for
     *note re.sub(): 208. they are still allowed, but deprecated.  The
     *note re.LOCALE: 9e1. flag can now only be used with binary
     patterns.

   * ‘inspect.getmoduleinfo()’ was removed (was deprecated since CPython
     3.3).  *note inspect.getmodulename(): bc1. should be used for
     obtaining the module name for a given path.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-13248(1).)

   * ‘traceback.Ignore’ class and ‘traceback.usage’,
     ‘traceback.modname’, ‘traceback.fullmodname’,
     ‘traceback.find_lines_from_code’, ‘traceback.find_lines’,
     ‘traceback.find_strings’, ‘traceback.find_executable_lines’ methods
     were removed from the *note traceback: fe. module.  They were
     undocumented methods deprecated since Python 3.2 and equivalent
     functionality is available from private methods.

   * The ‘tk_menuBar()’ and ‘tk_bindForTraversal()’ dummy methods in
     *note tkinter: ef. widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk
     commands were obsolete since Tk 4.0).

   * The *note open(): b90. method of the *note zipfile.ZipFile: 4dc.
     class no longer supports the ‘'U'’ mode (was deprecated since
     Python 3.4).  Use *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. for reading
     compressed text files in *note universal newlines: bc2. mode.

   * The undocumented ‘IN’, ‘CDROM’, ‘DLFCN’, ‘TYPES’, ‘CDIO’, and
     ‘STROPTS’ modules have been removed.  They had been available in
     the platform specific ‘Lib/plat-*/’ directories, but were
     chronically out of date, inconsistently available across platforms,
     and unmaintained.  The script that created these modules is still
     available in the source distribution at Tools/scripts/h2py.py(2).

   * The deprecated ‘asynchat.fifo’ class has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.6.15/Tools/scripts/h2py.py


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 6,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Prev: Removed<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.11 Porting to Python 3.6
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.1 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior
.............................................

   * The output of a special Python build with defined ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’,
     ‘SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT’ or ‘SHOW_TRACK_COUNT’ macros is now off by
     default.  It can be re-enabled using the ‘-X showalloccount’
     option.  It now outputs to ‘stderr’ instead of ‘stdout’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23034(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Next: Changes in the C API<3>,  Prev: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * *note open(): 2a6. will no longer allow combining the ‘'U'’ mode
     flag with ‘'+'’.  (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O’Connor in
     bpo-2091(1).)

   * *note sqlite3: ce. no longer implicitly commits an open transaction
     before DDL statements.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2ad. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.

   * When *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 6ae. is defined,
     *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(): b31. must also be
     defined.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): bc6. now sets *note TypeError: 2c4.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned.

   * The format of the *note co_lnotab: 250. attribute of code objects
     changed to support a negative line number delta.  By default,
     Python does not emit bytecode with a negative line number delta.
     Functions using *note frame.f_lineno: 5e2,
     ‘PyFrame_GetLineNumber()’ or ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ are not affected.
     Functions directly decoding ‘co_lnotab’ should be updated to use a
     signed 8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is
     only required to support applications using a negative line number
     delta.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for the ‘co_lnotab’ format
     and how to decode it, and see the PEP 511(2) for the rationale.

   * The functions in the *note compileall: 20. module now return
     booleans instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’ to represent success or failure,
     respectively.  Thanks to booleans being a subclass of integers,
     this should only be an issue if you were doing identity checks for
     ‘1’ or ‘0’.  See bpo-25768(3).

   * Reading the ‘port’ attribute of *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bc7.
     and *note urlparse(): 283. results now raises *note ValueError:
     189. for out-of-range values, rather than returning *note None:
     488.  See bpo-20059(4).

   * The ‘imp’ module now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.

   * The following modules have had missing APIs added to their
     ‘__all__’ attributes to match the documented APIs: *note calendar:
     14, *note cgi: 15, *note csv: 29, *note ElementTree: 125, *note
     enum: 54, *note fileinput: 59, *note ftplib: 5c, *note logging: 86,
     *note mailbox: 8a, *note mimetypes: 8e, *note optparse: 9f, *note
     plistlib: aa, ‘smtpd’, *note subprocess: d5, *note tarfile: dd,
     *note threading: ec. and *note wave: 113.  This means they will
     export new symbols when ‘import *’ is used.  (Contributed by Joel
     Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in bpo-23883(5).)

   * When performing a relative import, if ‘__package__’ does not
     compare equal to ‘__spec__.parent’ then *note ImportWarning: 24e.
     is raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25791(6).)

   * When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known,
     then *note ImportError: 14b. will be raised.  Previously, *note
     SystemError: 30e. could be raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18018(7).)

   * Servers based on the *note socketserver: cc. module, including
     those defined in *note http.server: 70, *note xmlrpc.server: 12f.
     and *note wsgiref.simple_server: 11b, now only catch exceptions
     derived from *note Exception: 838.  Therefore if a request handler
     raises an exception like *note SystemExit: bc8. or *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 82f, *note handle_error(): bc9. is no longer
     called, and the exception will stop a single-threaded server.
     (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-23430(8).)

   * *note spwd.getspnam(): bca. now raises a *note PermissionError:
     bcb. instead of *note KeyError: 903. if the user doesn’t have
     privileges.

   * The *note socket.socket.close(): bcc. method now raises an
     exception if an error (e.g.  ‘EBADF’) was reported by the
     underlying system call.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-26685(9).)

   * The 'decode_data' argument for the ‘smtpd.SMTPChannel’ and
     ‘smtpd.SMTPServer’ constructors is now ‘False’ by default.  This
     means that the argument passed to ‘process_message()’ is now a
     bytes object by default, and ‘process_message()’ will be passed
     keyword arguments.  Code that has already been updated in
     accordance with the deprecation warning generated by 3.5 will not
     be affected.

   * All optional arguments of the *note dump(): bcd, *note dumps():
     bce, *note load(): b37. and *note loads(): 7b0. functions and *note
     JSONEncoder: bcf. and *note JSONDecoder: bd0. class constructors in
     the *note json: 80. module are now *note keyword-only: 8ef.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18726(10).)

   * Subclasses of *note type: bd1. which don’t override ‘type.__new__’
     may no longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an
     object.

   * As part of PEP 487(11), the handling of keyword arguments passed to
     *note type: bd1. (other than the metaclass hint, ‘metaclass’) is
     now consistently delegated to *note object.__init_subclass__():
     444.  This means that ‘type.__new__()’ and ‘type.__init__()’ both
     now accept arbitrary keyword arguments, but *note
     object.__init_subclass__(): 444. (which is called from
     ‘type.__new__()’) will reject them by default.  Custom metaclasses
     accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their
     calls to ‘type.__new__()’ (whether direct or via *note super: 20d.)
     accordingly.

   * In ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’, the ‘default_format’ attribute
     has been removed and is no longer honored.  Instead, the gzipped
     tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no
     platform-specific selection is made.  In environments where
     distributions are built on Windows and zip distributions are
     required, configure the project with a ‘setup.cfg’ file containing
     the following:

          [sdist]
          formats=zip

     This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions
     by Setuptools 26.0.0.

   * In the *note urllib.request: 10b. module and the *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.request(): b2c. method, if no
     Content-Length header field has been specified and the request body
     is a file object, it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding.
     If a file object has to be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the
     Content-Length value now has to be specified by the caller.
     (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from
     Martin Panter in bpo-12319(12).)

   * The *note DictReader: 844. now returns rows of type *note
     OrderedDict: 3e6.  (Contributed by Steve Holden in bpo-27842(13).)

   * The *note crypt.METHOD_CRYPT: bd2. will no longer be added to
     ‘crypt.methods’ if unsupported by the platform.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25287(14).)

   * The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 74b.
     are now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-25628(15).)

   * On Linux, *note ctypes.util.find_library(): bd3. now looks in
     ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ for shared libraries.  (Contributed by Vinay
     Sajip in bpo-9998(16).)

   * The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 758. class now handles flags containing
     the ‘']'’ character in messages sent from the server to improve
     real-world compatibility.  (Contributed by Lita Cho in
     bpo-21815(17).)

   * The ‘mmap.write()’ function now returns the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in
     bpo-26335(18).)

   * The *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): bd4. and *note
     pkgutil.walk_packages(): a78. functions now return *note
     ModuleInfo: bd5. named tuples.  (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in
     bpo-17211(19).)

   * *note re.sub(): 208. now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group references in replacement templates even if the pattern is
     not found in the string.  The error message for invalid group
     references now includes the group index and the position of the
     reference.  (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-25953(20).)

   * *note zipfile.ZipFile: 4dc. will now raise *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6. for unrecognized compression values.
     Previously a plain *note RuntimeError: 180. was raised.
     Additionally, calling *note ZipFile: 4dc. methods on a closed
     ZipFile or calling the *note write(): bd7. method on a ZipFile
     created with mode ‘'r'’ will raise a *note ValueError: 189.
     Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 180. was raised in those
     scenarios.

   * when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument *note
     super(): 20d. or direct references from methods to the implicit
     ‘__class__’ closure variable, the implicit ‘__classcell__’
     namespace entry must now be passed up to ‘type.__new__’ for
     initialisation.  Failing to do so will result in a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. in Python 3.6 and a *note RuntimeError:
     180. in Python 3.8.

   * With the introduction of *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8, import
     system consumers may start expecting import system replacements to
     raise that more specific exception when appropriate, rather than
     the less-specific *note ImportError: 14b.  To provide future
     compatibility with such consumers, implementers of alternative
     import systems that completely replace *note __import__(): 727.
     will need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass
     when a module can’t be found at all.  Implementers of compliant
     plugins to the default import system shouldn’t need to make any
     changes, as the default import system will raise the new subclass
     when appropriate.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0511/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<3>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<5>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * The *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4. allocator family now uses the *note
     pymalloc allocator: b94. rather than the system ‘malloc()’.
     Applications calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4. without holding the
     GIL can now crash.  Set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment
     variable to ‘debug’ to validate the usage of memory allocators in
     your application.  See bpo-26249(1).

   * *note Py_Exit(): bd9. (and the main interpreter) now override the
     exit status with 120 if flushing buffered data failed.  See
     bpo-5319(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<5>,  Prev: Changes in the C API<3>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.7.11.4 CPython bytecode changes
.................................

There have been several major changes to the *note bytecode: 3b7. in
Python 3.6.

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode.  (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
     Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and
     bpo-28050(2).)

   * The new *note FORMAT_VALUE: bdb. and *note BUILD_STRING: bdc.
     opcodes as part of the *note formatted string literal: aaa.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-25483(3) and
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27078(4).)

   * The new *note BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP: bdd. opcode to optimize the
     creation of dictionaries with constant keys.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27140(5).)

   * The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better
     performance and simpler implementation.  The *note MAKE_FUNCTION:
     bde, ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’ and
     ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ opcodes have been modified, the new
     *note CALL_FUNCTION_EX: bdf. and ‘BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’
     have been added, and ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW’
     and ‘MAKE_CLOSURE’ opcodes have been removed.  (Contributed by
     Demur Rumed in bpo-27095(6), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27213(7),
     bpo-28257(8).)

   * The new *note SETUP_ANNOTATIONS: be0. and ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’
     opcodes have been added to support the new *note variable
     annotation: be1. syntax.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-27985(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25483

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.12 Notable changes in Python 3.6.2
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target,  Next: Removal of make touch build target,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2

1.7.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
..........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 3.6.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target,  Prev: New make regen-all build target,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2

1.7.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
.............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

3.6.2 sürümünde değişti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.13 Notable changes in Python 3.6.4
--------------------------------------

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(1) and bpo-30697(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.14 Notable changes in Python 3.6.5
--------------------------------------

The *note locale.localeconv(): a77. function now sets temporarily the
‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.15 Notable changes in Python 3.6.7
--------------------------------------

*note xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer
process external entities by default.  See also gh-61441(1).

In 3.6.7 the *note tokenize: fb. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’
token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.
This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
(Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.16 Notable changes in Python 3.6.10
---------------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.17 Notable changes in Python 3.6.13
---------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 69a. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 69b.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
*note cgi.parse(): 69c. and *note cgi.parse_multipart(): 69d. as they
use the affected functions internally.  For more details, please see
their respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt,
Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.7.18 Notable changes in Python 3.6.14
---------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 10a. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 5,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 6,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.8 What’s New In Python 3.5
============================


Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4.
Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015.   See the changelog(1)
for a full list of changes.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 478(2) - Python 3.5 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
* New Features: New Features<9>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>.
* New Modules: New Modules<6>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>.
* Other module-level changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<9>.
* Removed: Removed<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0478/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<5>,  Next: New Features<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 492: bee, coroutines with async and await syntax.

   * *note PEP 465: bef, a new matrix multiplication operator: ‘a @ b’.

   * *note PEP 448: bf0, additional unpacking generalizations.

New library modules:

   * *note typing: 104.: *note PEP 484 – Type Hints: bf1.

   * *note zipapp: 130.: *note PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application
     Support: bf2.

New built-in features:

   * ‘bytes % args’, ‘bytearray % args’: *note PEP 461: bf3. – Adding
     ‘%’ formatting to bytes and bytearray.

   * New *note bytes.hex(): bf4, *note bytearray.hex(): bf5. and *note
     memoryview.hex(): bf6. methods.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in
     bpo-9951(1).)

   * *note memoryview: 185. now supports tuple indexing (including
     multi-dimensional).  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-23632(2).)

   * Generators have a new ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attribute, which returns the
     object being iterated by ‘yield from’ expressions.  (Contributed by
     Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in bpo-24450(3).)

   * A new *note RecursionError: bf7. exception is now raised when
     maximum recursion depth is reached.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl
     in bpo-19235(4).)

CPython implementation improvements:

   * When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’ locale), *note
     sys.stdin: 2c9. and *note sys.stdout: 943. now use the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’ error
     handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-19977(5).)

   * ‘.pyo’ files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more
     flexible scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in
     ‘.pyc’ name.  (See *note PEP 488 overview: bf8.)

   * Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase
     process, which is similar to how Python modules are loaded.  (See
     *note PEP 489 overview: bf9.)

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. is now *note implemented in C:
     bfa, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster.

   * The *note ssl: cf. module gained *note support for Memory BIO: bfb,
     which decouples SSL protocol handling from network IO.

   * The new *note os.scandir(): 8c3. function provides a *note better
     and significantly faster way: bfc. of directory traversal.

   * *note functools.lru_cache(): 84e. has been mostly *note
     reimplemented in C: bfd, yielding much better performance.

   * The new *note subprocess.run(): 9fc. function provides a *note
     streamlined way to run subprocesses: bfe.

   * The *note traceback: fe. module has been significantly *note
     enhanced: bff. for improved performance and developer convenience.

Security improvements:

   * SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library.  It can
     still be enabled by instantiating a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.
     manually.  (See bpo-22638(6) for more details; this change was
     backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.)

   * HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect against
     potential injection attacks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-22796(7).)

Windows improvements:

   * A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI. See *note
     Using Python on Windows: 913. for more information.

   * Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension
     modules should use the same.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<9>,  Next: Other Language Changes<6>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Next: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.1 PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
........................................................

PEP 492(1) greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in
Python by adding *note awaitable objects: af6, *note coroutine
functions: c02, *note asynchronous iteration: c03, and *note
asynchronous context managers: 3e2.

Coroutine functions are declared using the new *note async def: 3db.
syntax:

     >>> async def coro():
     ...     return 'spam'

Inside a coroutine function, the new *note await: 55b. expression can be
used to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available.  Any
object can be 'awaited', as long as it implements the *note awaitable:
af6. protocol by defining the ‘__await__()’ method.

PEP 492 also adds *note async for: 916. statement for convenient
iteration over asynchronous iterables.

An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax:

     import asyncio

     async def http_get(domain):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80)

         writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([
             b'GET / HTTP/1.1',
             b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'),
             b'Connection: close',
             b'', b''
         ]))

         async for line in reader:
             print('>>>', line)

         writer.close()

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com'))
     finally:
         loop.close()

Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for
asynchronous context managers.  The following script:

     import asyncio

     async def coro(name, lock):
         print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name))
         async with lock:
             print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name))
             await asyncio.sleep(1)
             print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name))

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     lock = asyncio.Lock()
     coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock))
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(coros)
     finally:
         loop.close()

will output:

     coro 2: waiting for lock
     coro 2: holding the lock
     coro 1: waiting for lock
     coro 2: releasing the lock
     coro 1: holding the lock
     coro 1: releasing the lock

Note that both *note async for: 916. and *note async with: 3e0. can only
be used inside a coroutine function declared with *note async def: 3db.

Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event
loop, such as the *note asyncio loop: c04.

     Not: 
     3.5.2 sürümünde değişti: Starting with CPython 3.5.2, ‘__aiter__’
     can directly return *note asynchronous iterators: c05.  Returning
     an *note awaitable: af6. object will result in a *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.

     See more details in the *note Asynchronous Iterators: c06.
     documentation section.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 492(2) – Coroutines with async and await syntax

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Next: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Prev: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.2 PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
......................................................................

PEP 465(1) adds the ‘@’ infix operator for matrix multiplication.
Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however,
it can be implemented by defining ‘__matmul__()’, ‘__rmatmul__()’, and
‘__imatmul__()’ for regular, reflected, and in-place matrix
multiplication.  The semantics of these methods is similar to that of
methods defining other infix arithmetic operators.

Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of
mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of ‘@’ allows
writing cleaner code:

     S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r)

instead of:

     S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T,
             dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r))

NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator:

     >>> import numpy

     >>> x = numpy.ones(3)
     >>> x
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

     >>> m = numpy.eye(3)
     >>> m
     array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
            [ 0., 1., 0.],
            [ 0., 0., 1.]])

     >>> x @ m
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 465(2) – A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication

     PEP written by Nathaniel J. Smith; implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Next: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Prev: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.3 PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
......................................................

PEP 448(1) extends the allowed uses of the ‘*’ iterable unpacking
operator and ‘**’ dictionary unpacking operator.  It is now possible to
use an arbitrary number of unpackings in *note function calls: c09.:

     >>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5])
     1 2 3 4 5

     >>> def fn(a, b, c, d):
     ...     print(a, b, c, d)
     ...

     >>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4})
     1 2 3 4

Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple
unpackings (see *note Expression lists: c0a. and *note Dictionary
displays: c0b.):

     >>> *range(4), 4
     (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

     >>> [*range(4), 4]
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

     >>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)}
     {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

     >>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}}
     {'x': 1, 'y': 2}

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 448(2) – Additional Unpacking Generalizations

     PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar, Thomas
     Wouters, and Joshua Landau.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Next: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Prev: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.4 PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
....................................................................

PEP 461(1) adds support for the ‘%’ *note interpolation operator: c0d.
to *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca.

While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there
are cases where interpolation on ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearrays’ makes sense,
and the work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts
from the overall readability of the code.  This issue is particularly
important when dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a
mixture of binary and ASCII compatible text.

Examples:

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World'
     b'Hello World!'

     >>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5)
     b'x=1 y=2.500000'

Unicode is not allowed for ‘%b’, but it is accepted by ‘%a’ (equivalent
of ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’):

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str'

     >>> b'price: %a' % '10€'
     b"price: '10\\u20ac'"

Note that ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ conversion types, although supported, should
only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 461(2) – Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and
     Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Next: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator,  Prev: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.5 PEP 484 - Type Hints
............................

Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0 (
PEP 3107(1)), however the semantics of annotations has been left
undefined.

Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation uses were
to provide type hints to function parameters and return values.  It
became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the
standard library included the base definitions and tools for type
annotations.

PEP 484(2) introduces a *note provisional module: 971. to provide these
standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions for
situations where annotations are not available.

For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type
are declared in the annotations:

     def greeting(name: str) -> str:
         return 'Hello ' + name

While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual
‘__annotations__’ attribute, 'no automatic type checking happens at
runtime'.  Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker
(e.g.  mypy(3)) will be used for on-demand source code analysis.

The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type named
*note Any: 4c2. which is consistent with (i.e.  assignable to and from)
all types.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * *note typing: 104. module documentation

   * 
     PEP 484(4) – Type Hints

          PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz
          Langa; implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   * 
     PEP 483(5) – The Theory of Type Hints

          PEP written by Guido van Rossum

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator,  Next: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Prev: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.6 PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator
................................................................................

PEP 471(1) adds a new directory iteration function, *note os.scandir():
8c3, to the standard library.  Additionally, *note os.walk(): 1d1. is
now implemented using ‘scandir’, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster on
POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems.  This is
largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to *note
os.stat(): 1c5. required to walk a directory tree.

Additionally, ‘scandir’ returns an iterator, as opposed to returning a
list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating over
very large directories.

The following example shows a simple use of *note os.scandir(): 8c3. to
display all the files (excluding directories) in the given 'path' that
don’t start with ‘'.'’.  The *note entry.is_file(): c10. call will
generally not make an additional system call:

     for entry in os.scandir(path):
         if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
             print(entry.name)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 471(2) – os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator

     PEP written and implemented by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Next: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Prev: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.7 PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
......................................................

An *note errno.EINTR: c13. error code is returned whenever a system
call, that is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal.  Previously,
Python would raise *note InterruptedError: c14. in such cases.  This
meant that, when writing a Python application, the developer had two
choices:

  1. Ignore the ‘InterruptedError’.

  2. Handle the ‘InterruptedError’ and attempt to restart the
     interrupted system call at every call site.

The first option makes an application fail intermittently.  The second
option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the code nearly
unreadable.  Compare:

     print("Hello World")

and:

     while True:
         try:
             print("Hello World")
             break
         except InterruptedError:
             continue

PEP 475(1) implements automatic retry of system calls on ‘EINTR’.  This
removes the burden of dealing with ‘EINTR’ or *note InterruptedError:
c14. in user code in most situations and makes Python programs,
including the standard library, more robust.  Note that the system call
is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an exception.

Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted by a
signal:

   * *note open(): 2a6. and *note io.open(): 2a7.;

   * functions of the *note faulthandler: 56. module;

   * *note os: a0. functions: *note fchdir(): c15, *note fchmod(): c16,
     *note fchown(): c17, *note fdatasync(): c18, *note fstat(): c19,
     *note fstatvfs(): c1a, *note fsync(): c1b, *note ftruncate(): c1c,
     *note mkfifo(): c1d, *note mknod(): c1e, *note open(): c1f, *note
     posix_fadvise(): c20, *note posix_fallocate(): c21, *note pread():
     9d3, *note pwrite(): 9d6, *note read(): c22, *note readv(): 9d2,
     *note sendfile(): 97d, *note wait3(): c23, *note wait4(): c24,
     *note wait(): c25, *note waitid(): c26, *note waitpid(): c27, *note
     write(): c28, *note writev(): 9d5.;

   * special cases: *note os.close(): 9ea. and *note os.dup2(): 9d7. now
     ignore *note EINTR: c13. errors; the syscall is not retried (see
     the PEP for the rationale);

   * *note select: c0. functions: *note devpoll.poll(): c29, *note
     epoll.poll(): c2a, *note kqueue.control(): c2b, *note poll.poll():
     c2c, *note select(): c2d.;

   * methods of the *note socket: c2e. class: *note accept(): c2f, *note
     connect(): c30. (except for non-blocking sockets), *note recv():
     c31, *note recvfrom(): c32, *note recvmsg(): c33, *note send():
     c34, *note sendall(): c35, *note sendmsg(): 197, *note sendto():
     c36.;

   * *note signal.sigtimedwait(): c37. and *note signal.sigwaitinfo():
     c38.;

   * *note time.sleep(): 4b2.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 475(2) – Retry system calls failing with EINTR

     PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and
     Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French
     connection).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Next: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Prev: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.8 PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
................................................................

The interaction of generators and *note StopIteration: a73. in Python
3.4 and earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure
bugs.  Previously, ‘StopIteration’ raised accidentally inside a
generator function was interpreted as the end of the iteration by the
loop construct driving the generator.

PEP 479(1) changes the behavior of generators: when a ‘StopIteration’
exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a *note
RuntimeError: 180. before it exits the generator frame.  The main goal
of this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded
*note next(): 611. call raises ‘StopIteration’ and causes the iteration
controlled by the generator to terminate silently.  This is particularly
pernicious in combination with the ‘yield from’ construct.

This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior,
a *note __future__: c3a. import is necessary:

     >>> from __future__ import generator_stop

     >>> def gen():
     ...     next(iter([]))
     ...     yield
     ...
     >>> next(gen())
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in gen
     StopIteration

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration

Without a ‘__future__’ import, a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.
will be raised whenever a *note StopIteration: a73. exception is raised
inside a generator.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 479(2) – Change StopIteration handling inside generators

     PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by
     Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Next: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Prev: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.9 PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
............................................................

PEP 485(1) adds the *note math.isclose(): c3d. and *note
cmath.isclose(): c3e. functions which tell whether two values are
approximately equal or “close” to each other.  Whether or not two values
are considered close is determined according to given absolute and
relative tolerances.  Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed
difference between ‘isclose’ arguments, relative to the larger absolute
value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6)
     False

It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance,
which must be a non-negative value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001)
     False

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 485(2) – A function for testing approximate equality

     PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and
     Tal Einat.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Next: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Prev: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.10 PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
........................................................................

PEP 486(1) makes the Windows launcher (see PEP 397(2)) aware of an
active virtual environment.  When the default interpreter would be used
and the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ environment variable is set, the interpreter in
the virtual environment will be used.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 486(3) – Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments

     PEP written and implemented by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Next: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.11 PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
..........................................

PEP 488(1) does away with the concept of ‘.pyo’ files.  This means that
‘.pyc’ files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode.  To
prevent the need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, ‘.pyc’ files
now have an optional ‘opt-’ tag in their name when the bytecode is
optimized.  This has the side-effect of no more bytecode file name
clashes when running under either *note -O: c42. or *note -OO: c43.
Consequently, bytecode files generated from *note -O: c42, and *note
-OO: c43. may now exist simultaneously.  *note
importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 275. has an updated API to help with
this change.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 488(2) – Elimination of PYO files

     PEP written and implemented by Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.2.12 PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
.............................................................

PEP 489(1) updates extension module initialization to take advantage of
the two step module loading mechanism introduced by PEP 451(2) in Python
3.4.

This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in
to using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and
bytecode modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a
module name, rather than being restricted to ASCII.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 489(3) – Multi-phase extension module initialization

     PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan;
     implemented by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<6>,  Next: New Modules<6>,  Prev: New Features<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.3 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added the ‘"namereplace"’ error handlers.  The ‘"backslashreplace"’
     error handlers now work with decoding and translating.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676(1) and bpo-22286(2).)

   * The *note -b: 3ef. option now affects comparisons of *note bytes:
     2cb. with *note int: 184.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23681(3).)

   * New Kazakh ‘kz1048’ and Tajik ‘koi8_t’ *note codecs: c46.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22682(4) and bpo-22681(5).)

   * Property docstrings are now writable.  This is especially useful
     for *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. docstrings.  (Contributed
     by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(6).)

   * Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17636(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<6>,  Next: Improved Modules<6>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.4 New Modules
-----------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<8>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<8>,  Next: zipapp<2>,  Up: New Modules<6>

1.8.4.1 typing
..............

The new *note typing: 104. *note provisional: 971. module provides
standard definitions and tools for function type annotations.  See *note
Type Hints: bf1. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp<2>,  Prev: typing<8>,  Up: New Modules<6>

1.8.4.2 zipapp
..............

The new *note zipapp: 130. module (specified in PEP 441(1)) provides an
API and command line tool for creating executable Python Zip
Applications, which were introduced in Python 2.6 in bpo-1739468(2), but
which were not well publicized, either at the time or since.

With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting
all the files, including a ‘__main__.py’ file, into a directory ‘myapp’
and running:

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz

The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23491(3).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 441(4) – Improving Python ZIP Application Support

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<6>,  Next: Other module-level changes,  Prev: New Modules<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.5 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<5>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* difflib::
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* email: email<4>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* glob: glob<2>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq::
* http: http<2>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<2>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* logging: logging<4>.
* lzma::
* math: math<7>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<5>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<10>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* tarfile: tarfile<7>.
* threading: threading<6>.
* time: time<6>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* types: types<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib::
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<3>,  Next: asyncio<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.1 argparse
................

The *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. class now allows disabling *note
abbreviated usage: c4c. of long options by setting *note allow_abbrev:
c4d. to ‘False’.  (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul
j3 and Daniel Eriksson in bpo-14910(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<9>,  Next: bz2,  Prev: argparse<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.2 asyncio
...............

Since the *note asyncio: a. module is *note provisional: 971, all
changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python
3.4.x.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: a. module since Python 3.4.0:

   * New debugging APIs: *note loop.set_debug(): c4f. and *note
     loop.get_debug(): c50. methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The proactor event loop now supports SSL. (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou and Victor Stinner in bpo-22560(1).)

   * A new *note loop.is_closed(): c51. method to check if the event
     loop is closed.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21326(2).)

   * A new *note loop.create_task(): 83b. to conveniently create and
     schedule a new *note Task: 20a. for a coroutine.  The ‘create_task’
     method is also used by all asyncio functions that wrap coroutines
     into tasks, such as *note asyncio.wait(): 1a0, *note
     asyncio.gather(): 40c, etc.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * A new *note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): c52. method to
     inquire for 'high-' and 'low-' water limits of the flow control.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
     ensure_future(): af4.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.set_task_factory(): c53. and *note
     loop.get_task_factory(): c54. methods to customize the task factory
     that *note loop.create_task(): 83b. method uses.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note Queue.join(): c55. and *note Queue.task_done(): c56.
     queue methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘JoinableQueue’ class was removed, in favor of the *note
     asyncio.Queue: 8db. class.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

Updates in 3.5.1:

   * The *note ensure_future(): af4. function and all functions that use
     it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): af5, now accept all
     kinds of *note awaitable objects: af6.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6c8. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): af7. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): 981. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

Updates in 3.5.2:

   * New *note loop.create_future(): af8. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(3), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: a44.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): af9. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): afa. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The *note loop.create_connection(): 412. and *note
     loop.create_server(): 981. methods are optimized to avoid calling
     the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.sock_connect(sock, address): c57. no longer requires
     the 'address' to be resolved prior to the call.  (Contributed by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326

   (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop


File: python.info,  Node: bz2,  Next: cgi,  Prev: asyncio<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.3 bz2
...........

The *note BZ2Decompressor.decompress: c59. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: cgi,  Next: cmath<2>,  Prev: bz2,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.4 cgi
...........

The ‘FieldStorage’ class now supports the *note context manager: 3df.
protocol.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20289(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289


File: python.info,  Node: cmath<2>,  Next: code,  Prev: cgi,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.5 cmath
.............

A new function *note isclose(): c3e. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270


File: python.info,  Node: code,  Next: collections<5>,  Prev: cmath<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.6 code
............

The *note InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback(): c5d. method now prints
the full chained traceback, just like the interactive interpreter.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17442(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442


File: python.info,  Node: collections<5>,  Next: collections abc<3>,  Prev: code,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.7 collections
...................

The *note OrderedDict: 3e6. class is now implemented in C, which makes
it 4 to 100 times faster.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-16991(1).)

‘OrderedDict.items()’, ‘OrderedDict.keys()’, ‘OrderedDict.values()’
views now support *note reversed(): 6a9. iteration.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19505(2).)

The *note deque: 3e7. class now defines *note index(): c5f, *note
insert(): c60, and *note copy(): c61, and supports the ‘+’ and ‘*’
operators.  This allows deques to be recognized as a *note
MutableSequence: c62. and improves their substitutability for lists.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-23704(3).)

Docstrings produced by *note namedtuple(): 74b. can now be updated:

     Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coordinate'
     Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa'
     Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(4).)

The *note UserString: c63. class now implements the ‘__getnewargs__()’,
‘__rmod__()’, *note casefold(): c64, *note format_map(): c65, *note
isprintable(): c66, and *note maketrans(): c67. methods to match the
corresponding methods of *note str: 15d.  (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in
bpo-22189(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<3>,  Next: compileall<3>,  Prev: collections<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.8 collections.abc
.......................

The ‘Sequence.index()’ method now accepts 'start' and 'stop' arguments
to match the corresponding methods of *note tuple: 4ff, *note list: 422,
etc.  (Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in bpo-23086(1).)

A new *note Generator: c69. abstract base class.  (Contributed by Stefan
Behnel in bpo-24018(2).)

New *note Awaitable: c6a, *note Coroutine: c6b, *note AsyncIterator:
c6c, and *note AsyncIterable: c6d. abstract base classes.  (Contributed
by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24184(3).)

For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in
an external PyPI package(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc/


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<3>,  Next: concurrent futures<4>,  Prev: collections abc<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.9 compileall
..................

A new *note compileall: 20. option, ‘-j N’, allows running 'N' workers
simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation.  The *note
compile_dir(): 996. function has a corresponding ‘workers’ parameter.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-16104(1).)

Another new option, ‘-r’, allows controlling the maximum recursion level
for subdirectories.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19628(2).)

The ‘-q’ command line option can now be specified more than once, in
which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed.  The
corresponding ‘quiet’ parameter in *note compile_dir(): 996, *note
compile_file(): c6f, and *note compile_path(): c70. can now accept an
integer value indicating the level of output suppression.  (Contributed
by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-21338(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16104

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<4>,  Next: configparser<2>,  Prev: compileall<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.10 concurrent.futures
...........................

The *note Executor.map(): c72. method now accepts a 'chunksize' argument
to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when *note
ProcessPoolExecutor(): 741. is used.  (Contributed by Dan O’Reilly in
bpo-11271(1).)

The number of workers in the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. constructor
is optional now.  The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-21527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<2>,  Next: contextlib<5>,  Prev: concurrent futures<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.11 configparser
.....................

*note configparser: 22. now provides a way to customize the conversion
of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the *note
ConfigParser: 28e. constructor, or by defining them as methods in
‘ConfigParser’ subclasses.  Converters defined in a parser instance are
inherited by its section proxies.

Example:

     >>> import configparser
     >>> conv = {}
     >>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()]
     >>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv)
     >>> cfg.read_string("""
     ... [s]
     ... list = a b c d e f g
     ... """)
     >>> cfg.get('s', 'list')
     'a b c d e f g'
     >>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> section = cfg['s']
     >>> section.getlist('list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-18159(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18159


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<5>,  Next: csv<3>,  Prev: configparser<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.12 contextlib
...................

The new *note redirect_stderr(): c75. *note context manager: 3df.
(similar to *note redirect_stdout(): c76.) makes it easier for utility
scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to *note
sys.stderr: 792. and don’t provide any options to redirect it:

     >>> import contextlib, io, logging
     >>> f = io.StringIO()
     >>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f):
     ...     logging.warning('warning')
     ...
     >>> f.getvalue()
     'WARNING:root:warning\n'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-22389(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389


File: python.info,  Node: csv<3>,  Next: curses<4>,  Prev: contextlib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.13 csv
............

The *note writerow(): c78. method now supports arbitrary iterables, not
just sequences.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23171(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171


File: python.info,  Node: curses<4>,  Next: dbm<4>,  Prev: csv<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.14 curses
...............

The new *note update_lines_cols(): c7a. function updates the ‘LINES’ and
‘COLS’ module variables.  This is useful for detecting manual screen
resizing.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-4254(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<4>,  Next: difflib,  Prev: curses<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.15 dbm
............

*note dumb.open: 8ff. always creates a new database when the flag has
the value ‘"n"’.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18039(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039


File: python.info,  Node: difflib,  Next: distutils<7>,  Prev: dbm<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.16 difflib
................

The charset of HTML documents generated by *note HtmlDiff.make_file():
c7d. can now be customized by using a new 'charset' keyword-only
argument.  The default charset of HTML document changed from
‘"ISO-8859-1"’ to ‘"utf-8"’.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-2052(1).)

The *note diff_bytes(): c7e. function can now compare lists of byte
strings.  This fixes a regression from Python 2.  (Contributed by Terry
J. Reedy and Greg Ward in bpo-17445(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<7>,  Next: doctest<2>,  Prev: difflib,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.17 distutils
..................

Both the ‘build’ and ‘build_ext’ commands now accept a ‘-j’ option to
enable parallel building of extension modules.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-5309(1).)

The ‘distutils’ module now supports ‘xz’ compression, and can be enabled
by passing ‘xztar’ as an argument to ‘bdist --format’.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16314(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<2>,  Next: email<4>,  Prev: distutils<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.18 doctest
................

The *note DocTestSuite(): c81. function returns an empty *note
unittest.TestSuite: c82. if 'module' contains no docstrings, instead of
raising *note ValueError: 189.  (Contributed by Glenn Jones in
bpo-15916(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916


File: python.info,  Node: email<4>,  Next: enum<7>,  Prev: doctest<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.19 email
..............

A new policy option *note Policy.mangle_from_: c84. controls whether or
not lines that start with ‘"From "’ in email bodies are prefixed with a
‘">"’ character by generators.  The default is ‘True’ for *note
compat32: b1a. and ‘False’ for all other policies.  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-20098(1).)

A new *note Message.get_content_disposition(): c85. method provides easy
access to a canonical value for the ‘Content-Disposition’ header.
(Contributed by Abhilash Raj in bpo-21083(2).)

A new policy option *note EmailPolicy.utf8: c86. can be set to ‘True’ to
encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead of using encoded
words.  This allows ‘Messages’ to be formatted according to RFC 6532(3)
and used with an SMTP server that supports the RFC 6531(4) ‘SMTPUTF8’
extension.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24211(5).)

The *note mime.text.MIMEText: c87. constructor now accepts a *note
charset.Charset: c88. instance.  (Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker
Peksag in bpo-16324(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21083

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324


File: python.info,  Node: enum<7>,  Next: faulthandler<3>,  Prev: email<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.20 enum
.............

The *note Enum: 443. callable has a new parameter 'start' to specify the
initial number of enum values if only 'names' are provided:

     >>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10)
     >>> Animal.cat
     <Animal.cat: 10>
     >>> Animal.dog
     <Animal.dog: 11>

(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-21706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21706


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<3>,  Next: functools<4>,  Prev: enum<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.21 faulthandler
.....................

The *note enable(): b21, *note register(): c8b, *note dump_traceback():
c8c. and *note dump_traceback_later(): c8d. functions now accept file
descriptors in addition to file-like objects.  (Contributed by Wei Wu in
bpo-23566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566


File: python.info,  Node: functools<4>,  Next: glob<2>,  Prev: faulthandler<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.22 functools
..................

Most of the *note lru_cache(): 84e. machinery is now implemented in C,
making it significantly faster.  (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey
Kachayev, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14373(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373


File: python.info,  Node: glob<2>,  Next: gzip<4>,  Prev: functools<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.23 glob
.............

The *note iglob(): 642. and *note glob(): 641. functions now support
recursive search in subdirectories, using the ‘"**"’ pattern.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13968(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<4>,  Next: heapq,  Prev: glob<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.24 gzip
.............

The 'mode' argument of the *note GzipFile: 296. constructor now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Tim Heaney in
bpo-19222(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222


File: python.info,  Node: heapq,  Next: http<2>,  Prev: gzip<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.25 heapq
..............

Element comparison in *note merge(): c92. can now be customized by
passing a *note key function: c93. in a new optional 'key' keyword
argument, and a new optional 'reverse' keyword argument can be used to
reverse element comparison:

     >>> import heapq
     >>> a = ['9', '777', '55555']
     >>> b = ['88', '6666']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len))
     ['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True))
     ['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13742(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742


File: python.info,  Node: http<2>,  Next: http client<3>,  Prev: heapq,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.26 http
.............

A new *note HTTPStatus: 755. enum that defines a set of HTTP status
codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793


File: python.info,  Node: http client<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Prev: http<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.27 http.client
....................

*note HTTPConnection.getresponse(): c96. now raises a *note
RemoteDisconnected: c97. exception when a remote server connection is
closed unexpectedly.  Additionally, if a *note ConnectionError: c98. (of
which ‘RemoteDisconnected’ is a subclass) is raised, the client socket
is now closed automatically, and will reconnect on the next request:

     import http.client
     conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
     for retries in range(3):
         try:
             conn.request('GET', '/')
             resp = conn.getresponse()
         except http.client.RemoteDisconnected:
             pass

(Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-3566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3566


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Next: imaplib<2>,  Prev: http client<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.28 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<2>,  Next: imghdr,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.29 imaplib
................

The *note IMAP4: 758. class now supports the *note context manager: 3df.
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 3dd. statement, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’
command will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-4972(1).)

The *note imaplib: 72. module now supports RFC 5161(2) (ENABLE
Extension) and RFC 6855(3) (UTF-8 Support) via the *note IMAP4.enable():
c9b. method.  A new *note IMAP4.utf8_enabled: c9c. attribute tracks
whether or not RFC 6855(4) support is enabled.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in bpo-21800(5).)

The *note imaplib: 72. module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string
usernames and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21800(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr,  Next: importlib<7>,  Prev: imaplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.30 imghdr
...............

The *note what(): c9e. function now recognizes the OpenEXR(1) format
(contributed by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20295(2)), and
the WebP(3) format (contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in
bpo-20197(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openexr.com

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<7>,  Next: inspect<7>,  Prev: imghdr,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.31 importlib
..................

The *note util.LazyLoader: b30. class allows for lazy loading of modules
in applications where startup time is important.  (Contributed by Brett
Cannon in bpo-17621(1).)

The *note abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): ca0. method is now a
static method.  This makes it easier to initialize a module object with
code compiled from a string by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-21156(2).)

The new *note util.module_from_spec(): ca1. function is now the
preferred way to create a new module.  As opposed to creating a *note
types.ModuleType: ca2. instance directly, this new function will set the
various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in spec object.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-20383(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<7>,  Next: io<4>,  Prev: importlib<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.32 inspect
................

Both the *note Signature: 563. and *note Parameter: ca4. classes are now
picklable and hashable.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20726(1)
and bpo-20334(2).)

A new *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): ca5. method provides a way
to set default values for missing arguments:

     >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
     >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
     >>> ba.apply_defaults()
     >>> ba.arguments
     OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24190(3).)

A new class method *note Signature.from_callable(): 564. makes
subclassing of *note Signature: 563. easier.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov and Eric Snow in bpo-17373(4).)

The *note signature(): 561. function now accepts a 'follow_wrapped'
optional keyword argument, which, when set to ‘False’, disables
automatic following of ‘__wrapped__’ links.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-20691(5).)

A set of new functions to inspect *note coroutine functions: c02. and
*note coroutine objects: 1b4. has been added: *note iscoroutine(): ca6,
*note iscoroutinefunction(): 1b5, *note isawaitable(): ca7, *note
getcoroutinelocals(): ca8, and *note getcoroutinestate(): ca9.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(6) and bpo-24400(7).)

The *note stack(): 465, *note trace(): 466, *note getouterframes(): 463,
and *note getinnerframes(): 464. functions now return a list of named
tuples.  (Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in bpo-16808(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808


File: python.info,  Node: io<4>,  Next: ipaddress<4>,  Prev: inspect<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.33 io
...........

A new *note BufferedIOBase.readinto1(): cab. method, that uses at most
one call to the underlying raw stream’s *note RawIOBase.read(): cac. or
*note RawIOBase.readinto(): cad. methods.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath
in bpo-20578(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20578


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<4>,  Next: json<2>,  Prev: io<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.34 ipaddress
..................

Both the *note IPv4Network: 9bd. and *note IPv6Network: 9bc. classes now
accept an ‘(address, netmask)’ tuple argument, so as to easily construct
network objects from existing addresses:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0'))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')

(Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16531(1).)

A new ‘reverse_pointer’ attribute for the *note IPv4Network: 9bd. and
*note IPv6Network: 9bc. classes returns the name of the reverse DNS PTR
record:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     >>> addr.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')
     >>> addr6.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa'

(Contributed by Leon Weber in bpo-20480(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480


File: python.info,  Node: json<2>,  Next: linecache<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.35 json
.............

The *note json.tool: 81. command line interface now preserves the order
of keys in JSON objects passed in input.  The new ‘--sort-keys’ option
can be used to sort the keys alphabetically.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-21650(1).)

JSON decoder now raises *note JSONDecodeError: cb0. instead of *note
ValueError: 189. to provide better context information about the error.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19361(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361


File: python.info,  Node: linecache<2>,  Next: locale<5>,  Prev: json<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.36 linecache
..................

A new *note lazycache(): cb2. function can be used to capture
information about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines
later via *note getline(): cb3.  This avoids doing I/O until a line is
actually needed, without having to carry the module globals around
indefinitely.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911


File: python.info,  Node: locale<5>,  Next: logging<4>,  Prev: linecache<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.37 locale
...............

A new *note delocalize(): cb5. function can be used to convert a string
into a normalized number string, taking the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ settings into
account:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
     'de_DE.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56')
     '1234.56'
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8')
     'en_US.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56')
     '1234.56'

(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-13918(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918


File: python.info,  Node: logging<4>,  Next: lzma,  Prev: locale<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.38 logging
................

All logging methods (*note Logger: 9c2. *note log(): cb7, *note
exception(): cb8, *note critical(): cb9, *note debug(): cba, etc.), now
accept exception instances as an 'exc_info' argument, in addition to
boolean values and exception tuples:

     >>> import logging
     >>> try:
     ...     1/0
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as ex:
     ...     logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex)
     ERROR:root:exception

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20537(1).)

The *note handlers.HTTPHandler: cbb. class now accepts an optional *note
ssl.SSLContext: 277. instance to configure SSL settings used in an HTTP
connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22788(2).)

The *note handlers.QueueListener: cbc. class now takes a
'respect_handler_level' keyword argument which, if set to ‘True’, will
pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788


File: python.info,  Node: lzma,  Next: math<7>,  Prev: logging<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.39 lzma
.............

The *note LZMADecompressor.decompress(): cbe. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: math<7>,  Next: multiprocessing<5>,  Prev: lzma,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.40 math
.............

Two new constants have been added to the *note math: 8d. module: *note
inf: b04. and *note nan: 476.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-23185(1).)

A new function *note isclose(): c3d. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(2).)

A new *note gcd(): 766. function has been added.  The ‘fractions.gcd()’
function is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-22486(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<5>,  Next: operator<2>,  Prev: math<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.41 multiprocessing
........................

*note sharedctypes.synchronized(): cc1. objects now support the *note
context manager: 3df. protocol.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali
in bpo-21565(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21565


File: python.info,  Node: operator<2>,  Next: os<9>,  Prev: multiprocessing<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.42 operator
.................

*note attrgetter(): cc3, *note itemgetter(): 8c6, and *note
methodcaller(): cc4. objects now support pickling.  (Contributed by Josh
Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22955(1).)

New *note matmul(): cc5. and *note imatmul(): cc6. functions to perform
matrix multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-21176(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176


File: python.info,  Node: os<9>,  Next: pathlib<8>,  Prev: operator<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.43 os
...........

The new *note scandir(): 8c3. function returning an iterator of *note
DirEntry: 1c0. objects has been added.  If possible, *note scandir():
8c3. extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the
need to perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or
attributes, which may significantly improve performance.  (Contributed
by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner in bpo-22524(1).)

On Windows, a new *note stat_result.st_file_attributes: cc8. attribute
is now available.  It corresponds to the ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of
the ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in
bpo-21719(2).)

The *note urandom(): 2ad. function now uses the ‘getrandom()’ syscall on
Linux 3.17 or newer, and ‘getentropy()’ on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer,
removing the need to use ‘/dev/urandom’ and avoiding failures due to
potential file descriptor exhaustion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-22181(3).)

New *note get_blocking(): cc9. and *note set_blocking(): cca. functions
allow getting and setting a file descriptor’s blocking mode (*note
O_NONBLOCK: ccb.)  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22054(4).)

The *note truncate(): ccc. and *note ftruncate(): c1c. functions are now
supported on Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-23668(5).)

There is a new *note os.path.commonpath(): ccd. function returning the
longest common sub-path of each passed pathname.  Unlike the *note
os.path.commonprefix(): cce. function, it always returns a valid path:

     >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr/l'

     >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr'

(Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10395(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<8>,  Next: pickle<3>,  Prev: os<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.44 pathlib
................

The new *note Path.samefile(): cd0. method can be used to check whether
the path points to the same file as another path, which can be either
another *note Path: 14f. object, or a string:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts')
     >>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts')
     >>> p1.samefile(p2)
     True

(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19775(1).)

The *note Path.mkdir(): cd1. method now accepts a new optional
'exist_ok' argument to match ‘mkdir -p’ and *note os.makedirs(): 1c8.
functionality.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21539(2).)

There is a new *note Path.expanduser(): cd2. method to expand ‘~’ and
‘~user’ prefixes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19776(3).)

A new *note Path.home(): cd3. class method can be used to get a *note
Path: 14f. instance representing the user’s home directory.
(Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in bpo-19777(4).)

New *note Path.write_text(): cd4, *note Path.read_text(): cd5, *note
Path.write_bytes(): cd6, *note Path.read_bytes(): cd7. methods to
simplify read/write operations on files.

The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file
‘~/spam42’:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42')
     >>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham')
     3

(Contributed by Christopher Welborn in bpo-20218(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<3>,  Next: poplib<2>,  Prev: pathlib<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.45 pickle
...............

Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: b44. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports these cases.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<2>,  Next: re<5>,  Prev: pickle<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.46 poplib
...............

A new *note POP3.utf8(): cda. command enables RFC 6856(1)
(Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it.
(Contributed by Milan OberKirch in bpo-21804(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804


File: python.info,  Node: re<5>,  Next: readline<2>,  Prev: poplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.47 re
...........

References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are
now allowed in lookbehind assertions:

     >>> import re
     >>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c')
     >>> pat.match('aac')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'>
     >>> pat.match('bbc')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'>

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-9179(1).)

The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer
limited to 100.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22437(2).)

The *note sub(): 208. and *note subn(): 209. functions now replace
unmatched groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1519638(3).)

The *note re.error: cdc. exceptions have new attributes, *note msg: cdd,
*note pattern: cde, *note pos: cdf, *note lineno: ce0, and *note colno:
ce1, that provide better context information about the error:

     >>> re.compile("""
     ...     (?x)
     ...     .++
     ... """)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22578(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578


File: python.info,  Node: readline<2>,  Next: selectors,  Prev: re<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.48 readline
.................

A new *note append_history_file(): ce3. function can be used to append
the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file.
(Contributed by Bruno Cauet in bpo-22940(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940


File: python.info,  Node: selectors,  Next: shutil<4>,  Prev: readline<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.49 selectors
..................

The new *note DevpollSelector: a4e. supports efficient ‘/dev/poll’
polling on Solaris.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-18931(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<4>,  Next: signal<3>,  Prev: selectors,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.50 shutil
...............

The *note move(): 8c0. function now accepts a 'copy_function' argument,
allowing, for example, the *note copy(): 8be. function to be used
instead of the default *note copy2(): 8bf. if there is a need to ignore
file metadata when moving.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19840(1).)

The *note make_archive(): 1de. function now supports the 'xztar' format.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5411(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411


File: python.info,  Node: signal<3>,  Next: smtpd<2>,  Prev: shutil<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.51 signal
...............

On Windows, the *note set_wakeup_fd(): 9e6. function now also supports
socket handles.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22018(1).)

Various ‘SIG*’ constants in the *note signal: c5. module have been
converted into *note Enums: 54.  This allows meaningful names to be
printed during debugging, instead of integer “magic numbers”.
(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-21076(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<2>,  Next: smtplib<2>,  Prev: signal<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.52 smtpd
..............

Both the ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a
'decode_data' keyword argument to determine if the ‘DATA’ portion of the
SMTP transaction is decoded using the ‘"utf-8"’ codec or is instead
provided to the ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ method as a byte string.
The default is ‘True’ for backward compatibility reasons, but will
change to ‘False’ in Python 3.6.  If 'decode_data' is set to ‘False’,
the ‘process_message’ method must be prepared to accept keyword
arguments.  (Contributed by Maciej Szulik in bpo-19662(1).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now advertises the ‘8BITMIME’ extension ( RFC
6152(2)) if 'decode_data' has been set ‘True’.  If the client specifies
‘BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, it is passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-21795(3).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now also supports the ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension ( RFC
6531(4): Internationalized Email).  If the client specified ‘SMTPUTF8
BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, they are passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.  It is
the responsibility of the ‘process_message’ method to correctly handle
the ‘SMTPUTF8’ data.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21725(5).)

It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6
addresses in the ‘SMTPServer’ constructor, and have it successfully
connect.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-14758(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19662

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6152.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14758


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<2>,  Next: sndhdr,  Prev: smtpd<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.53 smtplib
................

A new *note SMTP.auth(): ce9. method provides a convenient way to
implement custom authentication mechanisms.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch in bpo-15014(1).)

The *note SMTP.set_debuglevel(): cea. method now accepts an additional
debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug messages.
(Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in bpo-16914(2).)

Both the *note SMTP.sendmail(): ceb. and *note SMTP.send_message(): cec.
methods now support RFC 6531(3) (SMTPUTF8).  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-22027(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr,  Next: socket<8>,  Prev: smtplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.54 sndhdr
...............

The *note what(): cee. and *note whathdr(): cef. functions now return a
*note namedtuple(): 74b.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18615(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615


File: python.info,  Node: socket<8>,  Next: ssl<8>,  Prev: sndhdr,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.55 socket
...............

Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system
clock.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

A new *note socket.sendfile(): cf1. method allows sending a file over a
socket by using the high-performance *note os.sendfile(): 97d. function
on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when
using plain *note socket.send(): c34.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’
in bpo-17552(2).)

The *note socket.sendall(): c35. method no longer resets the socket
timeout every time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is
now the maximum total duration to send all data.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-23853(3).)

The 'backlog' argument of the *note socket.listen(): cf2. method is now
optional.  By default it is set to *note SOMAXCONN: cf3. or to ‘128’,
whichever is less.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in
bpo-21455(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<8>,  Next: sqlite3<7>,  Prev: socket<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.56 ssl
............

* Menu:

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO Support,  Next: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<8>

1.8.5.57 Memory BIO Support
...........................

(Contributed by Geert Jansen in bpo-21965(1).)

The new *note SSLObject: 9f7. class has been added to provide SSL
protocol support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of *note
SSLSocket: 73d. are not necessary or are suboptimal.  ‘SSLObject’
represents an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network
I/O methods, and instead provides a memory buffer interface.  The new
*note MemoryBIO: cf6. class can be used to pass data between Python and
an SSL protocol instance.

The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in
frameworks implementing asynchronous I/O for which *note SSLSocket:
73d.’s readiness model (“select/poll”) is inefficient.

A new *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): 9f8. method can be used to create a
new ‘SSLObject’ instance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965


File: python.info,  Node: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Next: Other Changes,  Prev: Memory BIO Support,  Up: ssl<8>

1.8.5.58 Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support
.......................................................

(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-20188(1).)

Where OpenSSL support is present, the *note ssl: cf. module now
implements the 'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as
described in RFC 7301(2).

The new *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): cf8. can be used to
specify which protocols a socket should advertise during the TLS
handshake.

The new *note SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): cf9. returns the
protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  The *note
HAS_ALPN: cfa. flag indicates whether ALPN support is present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes,  Prev: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<8>

1.8.5.59 Other Changes
......................

There is a new *note SSLSocket.version(): cfc. method to query the
actual protocol version in use.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-20421(1).)

The *note SSLSocket: 73d. class now implements a ‘SSLSocket.sendfile()’
method.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-17552(2).)

The ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either the *note
ssl.SSLWantReadError: cfd. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: cfe.
exception on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.
Previously, it would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in
bpo-20951(3).)

The *note cert_time_to_seconds(): cff. function now interprets the input
time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(4).  Additionally, the
return value is always an *note int: 184.  (Contributed by Akira Li in
bpo-19940(5).)

New ‘SSLObject.shared_ciphers()’ and *note SSLSocket.shared_ciphers():
d00. methods return the list of ciphers sent by the client during the
handshake.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-23186(6).)

The *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): d01, *note SSLSocket.read(): d02,
‘SSLSocket.shutdown()’, and *note SSLSocket.write(): d03. methods of the
*note SSLSocket: 73d. class no longer reset the socket timeout every
time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
total duration of the method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-23853(7).)

The ‘match_hostname()’ function now supports matching of IP addresses.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23239(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<7>,  Next: subprocess<3>,  Prev: ssl<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.60 sqlite3
................

The *note Row: d05. class now fully supports the sequence protocol, in
particular *note reversed(): 6a9. iteration and slice indexing.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-10203(1); by Lucas Sinclair, Jessica
McKellar, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13583(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<3>,  Next: sys<10>,  Prev: sqlite3<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.61 subprocess
...................

The new *note run(): 9fc. function has been added.  It runs the
specified command and returns a *note CompletedProcess: d07. object,
which describes a finished process.  The new API is more consistent and
is the recommended approach to invoking subprocesses in Python code that
does not need to maintain compatibility with earlier Python versions.
(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-23342(1).)

Examples:

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

     >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
     stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342


File: python.info,  Node: sys<10>,  Next: sysconfig<2>,  Prev: subprocess<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.62 sys
............

A new ‘set_coroutine_wrapper()’ function allows setting a global hook
that will be called whenever a *note coroutine object: 1b4. is created
by an *note async def: 3db. function.  A corresponding
‘get_coroutine_wrapper()’ can be used to obtain a currently set wrapper.
Both functions are *note provisional: 971, and are intended for
debugging purposes only.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-24017(1).)

A new *note is_finalizing(): 8f7. function can be used to check if the
Python interpreter is *note shutting down: d09.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-22696(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<2>,  Next: tarfile<7>,  Prev: sys<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.63 sysconfig
..................

The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first
two components of the Python version.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23437(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<7>,  Next: threading<6>,  Prev: sysconfig<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.64 tarfile
................

The 'mode' argument of the *note open(): d0c. function now accepts ‘"x"’
to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-21717(1).)

The *note TarFile.extractall(): 39d. and *note TarFile.extract(): 39e.
methods now take a keyword argument 'numeric_owner'.  If set to ‘True’,
the extracted files and directories will be owned by the numeric ‘uid’
and ‘gid’ from the tarfile.  If set to ‘False’ (the default, and the
behavior in versions prior to 3.5), they will be owned by the named user
and group in the tarfile.  (Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith
in bpo-23193(2).)

The *note TarFile.list(): d0d. now accepts an optional 'members' keyword
argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned by *note
TarFile.getmembers(): d0e.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21549(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549


File: python.info,  Node: threading<6>,  Next: time<6>,  Prev: tarfile<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.65 threading
..................

Both the *note Lock.acquire(): 4ad. and *note RLock.acquire(): d10.
methods now use a monotonic clock for timeout management.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: time<6>,  Next: timeit<2>,  Prev: threading<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.66 time
.............

The *note monotonic(): d12. function is now always available.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: timeit<2>,  Next: tkinter<7>,  Prev: time<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.67 timeit
...............

A new command line option ‘-u’ or ‘--unit=U’ can be used to specify the
time unit for the timer output.  Supported options are ‘usec’, ‘msec’,
or ‘sec’.  (Contributed by Julian Gindi in bpo-18983(1).)

The *note timeit(): d14. function has a new 'globals' parameter for
specifying the namespace in which the code will be running.
(Contributed by Ben Roberts in bpo-2527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<7>,  Next: traceback<4>,  Prev: timeit<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.68 tkinter
................

The ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment on
Windows has been replaced by a private function in the ‘_tkinter’ module
which makes no permanent changes to environment variables.  (Contributed
by Zachary Ware in bpo-20035(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<4>,  Next: types<4>,  Prev: tkinter<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.69 traceback
..................

New *note walk_stack(): d17. and *note walk_tb(): d18. functions to
conveniently traverse frame and *note traceback objects: 962.
(Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

New lightweight classes: *note TracebackException: 4ba, *note
StackSummary: d19, and *note FrameSummary: d1a.  (Contributed by Robert
Collins in bpo-17911(2).)

Both the *note print_tb(): d1b. and *note print_stack(): d1c. functions
now support negative values for the 'limit' argument.  (Contributed by
Dmitry Kazakov in bpo-22619(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619


File: python.info,  Node: types<4>,  Next: unicodedata<7>,  Prev: traceback<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.70 types
..............

A new *note coroutine(): d1e. function to transform *note generator:
a55. and *note generator-like: c69. objects into *note awaitables: af6.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).)

A new type called *note CoroutineType: d1f, which is used for *note
coroutine: 1b4. objects created by *note async def: 3db. functions.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24400(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<7>,  Next: unittest<7>,  Prev: types<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.71 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 105. module now uses data from Unicode 8.0.0(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<7>,  Next: unittest mock<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.72 unittest
.................

The *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2bb. method now accepts a
keyword-only argument 'pattern' which is passed to ‘load_tests’ as the
third argument.  Found packages are now checked for ‘load_tests’
regardless of whether their path matches 'pattern', because it is
impossible for a package name to match the default pattern.
(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662(1).)

Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the *note
TestLoader.errors: d22. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 54b.
instance.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-19746(2).)

A new command line option ‘--locals’ to show local variables in
tracebacks.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-22936(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<3>,  Next: urllib,  Prev: unittest<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.73 unittest.mock
......................

The *note Mock: 8af. class has the following improvements:

   * The class constructor has a new 'unsafe' parameter, which causes
     mock objects to raise *note AttributeError: 3dc. on attribute names
     starting with ‘"assert"’.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21238(1).)

   * A new *note Mock.assert_not_called(): d24. method to check if the
     mock object was called.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21262(2).)

The *note MagicMock: d25. class now supports ‘__truediv__()’,
‘__divmod__()’ and ‘__matmul__()’ operators.  (Contributed by Johannes
Baiter in bpo-20968(3), and Håkan Lövdahl in bpo-23581(4) and
bpo-23568(5).)

It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass ‘create=True’ to the *note
patch(): d26. function when patching builtin names.  (Contributed by
Kushal Das in bpo-17660(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17660


File: python.info,  Node: urllib,  Next: wsgiref,  Prev: unittest mock<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.74 urllib
...............

A new *note request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth: d28. class allows HTTP
Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to eliminate
unnecessary ‘401’ response handling, or to unconditionally send
credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers
that return a ‘404’ response instead of a ‘401’ if the ‘Authorization’
header is not sent.  (Contributed by Matej Cepl in bpo-19494(1) and
Akshit Khurana in bpo-7159(2).)

A new 'quote_via' argument for the *note parse.urlencode(): d29.
function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if
needed.  (Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in bpo-13866(3).)

The *note request.urlopen(): 286. function accepts an *note
ssl.SSLContext: 277. object as a 'context' argument, which will be used
for the HTTPS connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22366(4).)

The *note parse.urljoin(): d2a. was updated to use the RFC 3986(5)
semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFC 1808(6)
and RFC 2396(7).  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in
bpo-22118(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref,  Next: xmlrpc<2>,  Prev: urllib,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.75 wsgiref
................

The 'headers' argument of the *note headers.Headers: d2c. class
constructor is now optional.  (Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and
SilentGhost in bpo-5800(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc<2>,  Next: xml sax,  Prev: wsgiref,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.76 xmlrpc
...............

The *note client.ServerProxy: 8ba. class now supports the *note context
manager: 3df. protocol.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-20627(1).)

The *note client.ServerProxy: 8ba. constructor now accepts an optional
*note ssl.SSLContext: 277. instance.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
bpo-22960(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax,  Next: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xmlrpc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.77 xml.sax
................

SAX parsers now support a character stream of the *note
xmlreader.InputSource: d2f. object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-2175(1).)

*note parseString(): d30. now accepts a *note str: 15d. instance.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10590(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<4>,  Prev: xml sax,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.8.5.78 zipfile
................

ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23252(1).)

The 'mode' argument of *note ZipFile.open(): b90. method now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-21717(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717


File: python.info,  Node: Other module-level changes,  Next: Optimizations<6>,  Prev: Improved Modules<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.6 Other module-level changes
--------------------------------

Many functions in the *note mmap: 8f, *note ossaudiodev: a2, *note
socket: cb, *note ssl: cf, and *note codecs: 1b. modules now accept
writable *note bytes-like objects: bb5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-23001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<6>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Other module-level changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.7 Optimizations
-------------------

The *note os.walk(): 1d1. function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on
POSIX systems, and by 7 to 20 times on Windows.  This was done using the
new *note os.scandir(): 8c3. function, which exposes file information
from the underlying ‘readdir’ or ‘FindFirstFile’/‘FindNextFile’ system
calls.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in
bpo-23605(1).)

Construction of ‘bytes(int)’ (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses
less memory for large objects.  ‘calloc()’ is used instead of ‘malloc()’
to allocate memory for these objects.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-21233(2).)

Some operations on *note ipaddress: 7e. *note IPv4Network: 9bd. and
*note IPv6Network: 9bc. have been massively sped up, such as *note
subnets(): d34, *note supernet(): d35, *note summarize_address_range():
d36, *note collapse_addresses(): d37.  The speed up can range from 3 to
15 times.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in
bpo-21486(3), bpo-21487(4), bpo-20826(5), bpo-23266(6).)

Pickling of *note ipaddress: 7e. objects was optimized to produce
significantly smaller output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23133(7).)

Many operations on *note io.BytesIO: d38. are now 50% to 100% faster.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15381(8) and David Wilson in
bpo-22003(9).)

The *note marshal.dumps(): d39. function is now faster: 65–85% with
versions 3 and 4, 20–25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to
5 times in best cases.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-20416(10) and bpo-23344(11).)

The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-15027(12).)

Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19380(13).)

The *note json.dumps(): bce. function was optimized to run with
‘ensure_ascii=False’ as fast as with ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  (Contributed
by Naoki Inada in bpo-23206(14).)

The *note PyObject_IsInstance(): d3a. and *note PyObject_IsSubclass():
d3b. functions have been sped up in the common case that the second
argument has *note type: bd1. as its metaclass.  (Contributed Georg
Brandl by in bpo-22540(15).)

Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance
improvement in some benchmarks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-22847(16).)

Objects from the *note random: b7. module now use 50% less memory on
64-bit builds.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23488(17).)

The *note property(): 43c. getter calls are up to 25% faster.
(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-23910(18).)

Instantiation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. is now up to 30% faster.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-22464(19).)

String methods *note find(): d3c, *note rfind(): d3d, *note split():
d3e, *note partition(): d3f. and the *note in: 26f. string operator are
now significantly faster for searching 1-character substrings.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23573(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22464

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Next: Deprecated<9>,  Prev: Optimizations<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.8 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

New ‘calloc’ functions were added:

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d41,

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): d42,

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): d43.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21233(1).)

New encoding/decoding helper functions:

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. (replaced ‘_Py_char2wchar()’),

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f. (replaced ‘_Py_wchar2char()’).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18395(2).)

A new *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): d44. function to replace the
unicode encode error with ‘\N{...}’ escapes.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19676(3).)

A new *note PyErr_FormatV(): d45. function similar to *note
PyErr_Format(): d46, but accepts a ‘va_list’ argument.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18711(4).)

A new ‘PyExc_RecursionError’ exception.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl in
bpo-19235(5).)

New *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): d47, *note
PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): d48, and *note PyModule_ExecDef(): d49.
functions introduced by PEP 489(6) – multi-phase extension module
initialization.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-24268(7).)

New *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): d4a. and *note
PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): d4b. functions to perform matrix
multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(8).  See
also PEP 465(9) for details.)

The *note PyTypeObject.tp_finalize: 912. slot is now part of the stable
ABI.

Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which is available
as part of Visual Studio 2015(10).

Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their
filename on some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import
extensions without it, although if the tag is present and mismatched,
the extension won’t be loaded):

   * On Linux, extension module filenames end with
     ‘.cpython-<major><minor>m-<architecture>-<os>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<architecture>’ is the hardware architecture the extension
          module was built to run on.  It’s most commonly either ‘i386’
          for 32-bit Intel platforms or ‘x86_64’ for 64-bit Intel (and
          AMD) platforms.

        * ‘<os>’ is always ‘linux-gnu’, except for extensions built to
          talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it
          is ‘linux-gnu32’ (and ‘<architecture>’ will be ‘x86_64’).

   * On Windows, extension module filenames end with
     ‘<debug>.cp<major><minor>-<platform>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<platform>’ is the platform the extension module was built
          for, either ‘win32’ for Win32, ‘win_amd64’ for Win64,
          ‘win_ia64’ for Windows Itanium 64, and ‘win_arm’ for Windows
          on ARM.

        * If built in debug mode, ‘<debug>’ will be ‘_d’, otherwise it
          will be blank.

   * On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with
     ‘-darwin.so’.

   * On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as
     they were with Python 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (10) 
https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/en/vs/older-downloads/#visual-studio-2015-and-other-products


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<9>,  Next: Removed<8>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.9 Deprecated
----------------

* Menu:

* New Keywords: New Keywords<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Keywords<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: Deprecated<9>

1.8.9.1 New Keywords
....................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Next: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Prev: New Keywords<2>,  Up: Deprecated<9>

1.8.9.2 Deprecated Python Behavior
..................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: a73. exception inside a generator will
now generate a silent *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719, which will
become a non-silent deprecation warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a
*note RuntimeError: 180. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: ba7. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: Deprecated<9>

1.8.9.3 Unsupported Operating Systems
.....................................

Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per PEP 11(1),
CPython 3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Up: Deprecated<9>

1.8.9.4 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
........................................................

The ‘formatter’ module has now graduated to full deprecation and is
still slated for removal in Python 3.6.

The ‘asyncio.async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
ensure_future(): af4.

The ‘smtpd’ module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of
email messages using the ‘utf-8’ codec.  This can now be controlled by
the new 'decode_data' keyword to ‘SMTPServer’.  The default value is
‘True’, but this default is deprecated.  Specify the 'decode_data'
keyword with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning.

Directly assigning values to the *note key: a7a, *note value: a7b. and
*note coded_value: a7c. of *note http.cookies.Morsel: a7d. objects is
deprecated.  Use the *note set(): a7e. method instead.  In addition, the
undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): a7e. is deprecated,
and is now ignored.

Passing a format string as keyword argument 'format_string' to the *note
format(): a79. method of the *note string.Formatter: d51. class has been
deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23671(1).)

The ‘platform.dist()’ and ‘platform.linux_distribution()’ functions are
now deprecated.  Linux distributions use too many different ways of
describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package.
(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in bpo-1322(2).)

The previously undocumented ‘from_function’ and ‘from_builtin’ methods
of *note inspect.Signature: 563. are deprecated.  Use the new *note
Signature.from_callable(): 564. method instead.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-24248(3).)

The ‘inspect.getargspec()’ function is deprecated and scheduled to be
removed in Python 3.6.  (See bpo-20438(4) for details.)

The *note inspect: 7c. *note getfullargspec(): 562, *note getcallargs():
d52, and ‘formatargspec()’ functions are deprecated in favor of the
*note inspect.signature(): 561. API. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-20438(5).)

*note getargvalues(): d53. and *note formatargvalues(): d54. functions
were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python
3.5.0.

Use of *note re.LOCALE: 9e1. flag with str patterns or *note re.ASCII:
43f. is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-22407(6).)

Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
letter in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now
raises a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23622(7).)

The undocumented and unofficial 'use_load_tests' default argument of the
*note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2bb. method now is
deprecated and ignored.  (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A.
Warsaw in bpo-16662(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 5,  Prev: Deprecated<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.10 Removed
--------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<3>,  Up: Removed<8>

1.8.10.1 API and Feature Removals
.................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The ‘__version__’ attribute has been dropped from the email
     package.  The email code hasn’t been shipped separately from the
     stdlib for a long time, and the ‘__version__’ string was not
     updated in the last few releases.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 5c. module was
     deprecated in 3.4, and has now been removed.  (Contributed by Matt
     Chaput in bpo-6623(1).)

   * The concept of ‘.pyo’ files has been removed.

   * The JoinableQueue class in the provisional *note asyncio: a. module
     was deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed.  (Contributed by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis in bpo-23464(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 5,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4,  Prev: Removed<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.11 Porting to Python 3.5
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.8.11.1 Changes in Python behavior
...................................

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1], *args)
          f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs)

     Python 3.5 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 14c, as
     generator expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole
     argument to a function.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Next: Changes in the C API<4>,  Prev: Changes in Python behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.8.11.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * PEP 475(1): System calls are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal instead of raising *note InterruptedError: c14. if the
     Python signal handler does not raise an exception.

   * Before Python 3.5, a *note datetime.time: 6df. object was
     considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This
     behavior was considered obscure and error-prone and has been
     removed in Python 3.5.  See bpo-13936(2) for full details.

   * The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either *note
     ssl.SSLWantReadError: cfd. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: cfe. on
     a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.  Previously, it
     would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951(3).)

   * The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function
     name, instead of being set from the code name.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to retrieve the code name.  Generators also
     have a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute, the qualified name, which is
     now used for the representation of a generator (‘repr(gen)’).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21205(4).)

   * The deprecated “strict” mode and argument of *note HTMLParser: 6bc,
     ‘HTMLParser.error()’, and the ‘HTMLParserError’ exception have been
     removed.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(5).)  The
     'convert_charrefs' argument of *note HTMLParser: 6bc. is now ‘True’
     by default.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21047(6).)

   * Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for
     porting purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were
     previously of the form “‘sometype’ does not support the buffer
     protocol” are now of the form “a *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     required, not ‘sometype’”.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-16518(7).)

   * If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer
     exists then *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. will no longer be raised
     and instead *note find_spec(): d5a. will return ‘None’ 'without'
     caching ‘None’ in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0, which is
     different than the typical case (bpo-22834(8)).

   * HTTP status code and messages from *note http.client: 6d. and *note
     http.server: 70. were refactored into a common *note HTTPStatus:
     755. enum.  The values in *note http.client: 6d. and *note
     http.server: 70. remain available for backwards compatibility.
     (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(9).)

   * When an import loader defines
     ‘importlib.machinery.Loader.exec_module()’ it is now expected to
     also define ‘create_module()’ (raises a *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f. now, will be an error in Python 3.6).  If the loader inherits
     from *note importlib.abc.Loader: d5b. then there is nothing to do,
     else simply define ‘create_module()’ to return ‘None’.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-23014(10).)

   * The *note re.split(): 9e3. function always ignored empty pattern
     matches, so the ‘"x*"’ pattern worked the same as ‘"x+"’, and the
     ‘"\b"’ pattern never worked.  Now *note re.split(): 9e3. raises a
     warning if the pattern could match an empty string.  For
     compatibility, use patterns that never match an empty string (e.g.
     ‘"x+"’ instead of ‘"x*"’).  Patterns that could only match an empty
     string (such as ‘"\b"’) now raise an error.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-22818(11).)

   * The *note http.cookies.Morsel: a7d. dict-like interface has been
     made self consistent: morsel comparison now takes the *note key:
     a7a. and *note value: a7b. into account, *note copy(): d5c. now
     results in a *note Morsel: a7d. instance rather than a *note dict:
     240, and *note update(): d5d. will now raise an exception if any of
     the keys in the update dictionary are invalid.  In addition, the
     undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): a7e. is
     deprecated and is now ignored.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in
     bpo-2211(12).)

   * PEP 488(13) has removed ‘.pyo’ files from Python and introduced the
     optional ‘opt-’ tag in ‘.pyc’ file names.  The *note
     importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 275. has gained an
     'optimization' parameter to help control the ‘opt-’ tag.  Because
     of this, the 'debug_override' parameter of the function is now
     deprecated.  ‘.pyo’ files are also no longer supported as a file
     argument to the Python interpreter and thus serve no purpose when
     distributed on their own (i.e.  sourceless code distribution).  Due
     to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed in
     Python 3.5, all old ‘.pyo’ files from previous versions of Python
     are invalid regardless of this PEP.

   * The *note socket: cb. module now exports the *note
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES: d5e. constant on linux 3.6 and greater.

   * The *note ssl.cert_time_to_seconds(): cff. function now interprets
     the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(14).
     Additionally, the return value is always an *note int: 184.
     (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940(15).)

   * The ‘pygettext.py’ Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for
     timezones in the POT-Creation-Date header.

   * The *note smtplib: c9. module now uses *note sys.stderr: 792.
     instead of the previous module-level ‘stderr’ variable for debug
     output.  If your (test) program depends on patching the
     module-level variable to capture the debug output, you will need to
     update it to capture sys.stderr instead.

   * The *note str.startswith(): d5f. and *note str.endswith(): d60.
     methods no longer return ‘True’ when finding the empty string and
     the indexes are completely out of range.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-24284(16).)

   * The *note inspect.getdoc(): 859. function now returns documentation
     strings inherited from base classes.  Documentation strings no
     longer need to be duplicated if the inherited documentation is
     appropriate.  To suppress an inherited string, an empty string must
     be specified (or the documentation may be filled in).  This change
     affects the output of the *note pydoc: b4. module and the *note
     help(): 72a. function.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-15582(17).)

   * Nested *note functools.partial(): d61. calls are now flattened.  If
     you were relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add
     an attribute to a *note functools.partial(): d61. object or you can
     create a subclass of *note functools.partial(): d61.  (Contributed
     by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-7830(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23014

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<4>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.8.11.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * The undocumented ‘format’ member of the (non-public)
     ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ structure has been removed.  All extensions
     relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed to *note
     PyMemAllocatorEx: d63. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added.

   * Removed non-documented macro ‘PyObject_REPR()’ which leaked
     references.  Use format character ‘%R’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c.-like functions to format the *note
     repr(): 637. of the object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-22453(1).)

   * Because the lack of the *note __module__: b0b. attribute breaks
     pickling and introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for
     builtin types without the *note __module__: b0b. attribute.  This
     will be an *note AttributeError: 3dc. in the future.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20204(2).)

   * As part of the PEP 492(3) implementation, the ‘tp_reserved’ slot of
     *note PyTypeObject: 911. was replaced with a *note tp_as_async:
     d64. slot.  Refer to *note Coroutine Objects: d65. for new types,
     structures and functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 5,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.8.12 Notable changes in Python 3.5.4
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4

1.8.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
..........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 3.5.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4

1.8.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
.............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

3.5.4 sürümünde değişti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 5,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.9 What’s New In Python 3.4
============================


Author: R. David Murray <<rdmurray@bitdance.com>> (Editor)

This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3.
Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014.  For full details, see the
changelog(1).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 429(2) – Python 3.4 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<10>.
* New Modules: New Modules<7>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<7>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<10>.
* Removed: Removed<9>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0429/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release Highlights<2>,  Next: New Features<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.1 Summary – Release Highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.

Other new features:

   * *note pip should always be available: d6c. ( PEP 453(1)).

   * *note Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable: d6d. (
     PEP 446(2)).

   * command line option for *note isolated mode: d6e. (bpo-16499(3)).

   * *note improvements in the handling of codecs: d6f. that are not
     text encodings (multiple issues).

   * *note A ModuleSpec Type: d70. for the Import System ( PEP 451(4)).
     (Affects importer authors.)

   * The *note marshal: 8c. format has been made *note more compact and
     efficient: d71. (bpo-16475(5)).

New library modules:

   * *note asyncio: a.: *note New provisional API for asynchronous IO:
     d72. ( PEP 3156(6)).

   * *note ensurepip: 53.: *note Bootstrapping the pip installer: d73. (
     PEP 453(7)).

   * *note enum: 54.: *note Support for enumeration types: d74. ( PEP
     435(8)).

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note Object-oriented filesystem paths: d75. (
     PEP 428(9)).

   * *note selectors: c1.: *note High-level and efficient I/O
     multiplexing: d76, built upon the *note select: c0. module
     primitives (part of PEP 3156(10)).

   * *note statistics: d1.: A basic *note numerically stable statistics
     library: d77. ( PEP 450(11)).

   * *note tracemalloc: ff.: *note Trace Python memory allocations: d78.
     ( PEP 454(12)).

Significantly improved library modules:

   * *note Single-dispatch generic functions: d79. in *note functools:
     5d. ( PEP 443(13)).

   * New *note pickle: a5. *note protocol 4: d7a. ( PEP 3154(14)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 93. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: d7b. (bpo-8713(15)).

   * *note email: 3a. has a new submodule, *note contentmanager: 3c, and
     a new *note Message: b1b. subclass (‘EmailMessage’) that *note
     simplify MIME handling: d7c. (bpo-18891(16)).

   * The *note inspect: 7c. and *note pydoc: b4. modules are now capable
     of correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable
     objects, which improves the output of the Python *note help(): 72a.
     system.

   * The *note ipaddress: 7e. module API has been declared stable

Security improvements:

   * *note Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm: d7d. ( PEP
     456(17)).

   * *note Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable: d6d. (
     PEP 446(18)) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.

   * New command line option for *note isolated mode: d6e,
     (bpo-16499(19)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 93. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: d7b.  'spawn' and 'forkserver' are more secure
     because they avoid sharing data with child processes.

   * *note multiprocessing: 93. child processes on Windows no longer
     inherit all of the parent’s inheritable handles, only the necessary
     ones.

   * A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 299. function provides the
     PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2(20).

   * *note TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support: d7e. for *note ssl: cf.

   * *note Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store
     support: d7f. for *note ssl: cf.

   * *note Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support: d80. for
     *note ssl: cf.

   * The *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. class has a *note lot of
     improvements: d81.

   * All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support
     server certificate verification, including hostname matching
     (‘ssl.match_hostname()’) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists,
     see *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d82.).

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note Safe object finalization: d83. ( PEP 442(21)).

   * Leveraging PEP 442(22), in most cases *note module globals are no
     longer set to None during finalization: d83. (bpo-18214(23)).

   * *note Configurable memory allocators: d84. ( PEP 445(24)).

   * *note Argument Clinic: d85. ( PEP 436(25)).

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (20) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18214

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<10>,  Next: New Modules<7>,  Prev: Summary – Release Highlights<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Next: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<10>

1.9.2.1 PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
......................................................................

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Next: Documentation Changes,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.9.2.2 Bootstrapping pip By Default
....................................

The new *note ensurepip: 53. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations and virtual environments.  The version of ‘pip’
included with Python 3.4.0 is ‘pip’ 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance
releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’
that is available at the time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on all
platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.  On Windows
and in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned ‘pip’
command will also be installed.  On other platforms, the system wide
unversioned ‘pip’ command typically refers to the separately installed
Python 2 version.

The ‘pyvenv’ command line utility and the *note venv: 111. module make
use of the *note ensurepip: 53. module to make ‘pip’ readily available
in virtual environments.  When using the command line utility, ‘pip’ is
installed by default, while when using the *note venv: 111. module *note
API: d89. installation of ‘pip’ must be requested explicitly.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: d8a, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands bootstrap ‘pip’ by default.
This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2) platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

     Not: To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3
     installations, only the versioned ‘pip3’ and ‘pip3.4’ commands are
     bootstrapped by default when ‘ensurepip’ is invoked directly - the
     ‘--default-pip’ option is needed to also request the unversioned
     ‘pip’ command.  ‘pyvenv’ and the Windows installer ensure that the
     unqualified ‘pip’ command is made available in those environments,
     and ‘pip’ can always be invoked via the ‘-m’ switch rather than
     directly to avoid ambiguity on systems with multiple Python
     installations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.9.2.3 Documentation Changes
.............................

As part of this change, the *note Python Modüllerini Kurmak: d8c. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: d8d. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions
with setuptools: d8e.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Next: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Prev: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Up: New Features<10>

1.9.2.4 PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
...................................................................

PEP 446(1) makes newly created file descriptors *note non-inheritable:
d90.  In general, this is the behavior an application will want: when
launching a new process, having currently open files also open in the
new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs, and potentially
to security issues.

However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired.  To support
these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:

   * *note os.get_inheritable(): d91, *note os.set_inheritable(): d92.

   * *note os.get_handle_inheritable(): d93, *note
     os.set_handle_inheritable(): d94.

   * *note socket.socket.get_inheritable(): d95, *note
     socket.socket.set_inheritable(): d96.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 446(2) – Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/


File: python.info,  Node: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Next: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Prev: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<10>

1.9.2.5 Improvements to Codec Handling
......................................

Since it was first introduced, the *note codecs: 1b. module has always
been intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding
system.  However, its close coupling with the Python text model,
especially the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin *note
str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. types, has
historically obscured that fact.

As a key step in clarifying the situation, the *note codecs.encode():
d98. and *note codecs.decode(): d99. convenience functions are now
properly documented in Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4.  These functions have
existed in the *note codecs: 1b. module (and have been covered by the
regression test suite) since Python 2.4, but were previously only
discoverable through runtime introspection.

Unlike the convenience methods on *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb. and
*note bytearray: 2ca, the *note codecs: 1b. convenience functions
support arbitrary codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than
being limited to Unicode text encodings (in Python 3) or ‘basestring’
<-> ‘basestring’ conversions (in Python 2).

In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text
encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards
these general purpose convenience functions when appropriate:

     >>> b"abcdef".decode("hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> "hello".encode("rot13")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs

In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards
compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations
are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the
name of the codec responsible for producing the error:

     >>> import codecs

     >>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode
         return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input))
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)

     >>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode
         return (bz2.compress(input), len(input))
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress
         return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush()
     TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface)

Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted
the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs
that were themselves restored in Python 3.2.  This means that encoding
binary data to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can
now be written as:

     >>> from codecs import encode, decode
     >>> encode(b"hello", "hex")
     b'68656c6c6f'
     >>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex")
     b'hello'

The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are
detailed in *note Binary Transforms: d9a. and *note Text Transforms:
d9b.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-7475(1), bpo-17827(2), bpo-17828(3)
and bpo-19619(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17827

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17828

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19619


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Next: Other Language Changes<7>,  Prev: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Up: New Features<10>

1.9.2.6 PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
........................................................

PEP 451(1) provides an encapsulation of the information about a module
that the import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module
specification).  This helps simplify both the import implementation and
several import-related APIs.  The change is also a stepping stone for
several future import-related improvements(2).

The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible.
Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer
authors.  Key finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they
will continue working.  New importers should use the new methods
described in the PEP. Existing importers should be updated to implement
the new methods.  See the *note Deprecated: d9d. section for a list of
methods that should be replaced and their replacements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<7>,  Prev: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Up: New Features<10>

1.9.2.7 Other Language Changes
..............................

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.

   * *note min(): d9f. and *note max(): da0. now accept a 'default'
     keyword-only argument that can be used to specify the value they
     return if the iterable they are evaluating has no elements.
     (Contributed by Julian Berman in bpo-18111(1).)

   * Module objects are now *note weakly referenceable: da1.

   * Module ‘__file__’ attributes (and related values) should now always
     contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of
     ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using
     a relative path.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(2).)

   * All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during
     both encoding and decoding unless the ‘surrogatepass’ error handler
     is used, with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts
     valid surrogate pairs) and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them
     while encoding non-BMP characters).  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12892(3).)

   * New German EBCDIC *note codec: c46. ‘cp273’.  (Contributed by
     Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1097797(4).)

   * New Ukrainian *note codec: c46. ‘cp1125’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19668(5).)

   * *note bytes: 2cb.join() and *note bytearray: 2ca.join() now accept
     arbitrary buffer objects as arguments.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-15958(6).)

   * The *note int: 184. constructor now accepts any object that has an
     ‘__index__’ method for its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in bpo-16772(7).)

   * Frame objects now have a *note clear(): da2. method that clears all
     references to local variables from the frame.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17934(8).)

   * *note memoryview: 185. is now registered as a *note Sequence: 1e,
     and supports the *note reversed(): 6a9. builtin.  (Contributed by
     Nick Coghlan and Claudiu Popa in bpo-18690(9) and bpo-19078(10).)

   * Signatures reported by *note help(): 72a. have been modified and
     improved in several cases as a result of the introduction of
     Argument Clinic and other changes to the *note inspect: 7c. and
     *note pydoc: b4. modules.

   * *note __length_hint__(): da3. is now part of the formal language
     specification (see PEP 424(11)).  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
     bpo-16148(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18111

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1097797

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15958

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18690

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19078

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<7>,  Next: Improved Modules<7>,  Prev: New Features<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.3 New Modules
-----------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<10>,  Next: ensurepip<2>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.9.3.1 asyncio
...............

The new *note asyncio: a. module (defined in PEP 3156(1)) provides a
standard pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid
asynchronous IO support in the standard library, and making it easier
for other event loop implementations to interoperate with the standard
library and each other.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: 971.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3156(2) – Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module

     PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip<2>,  Next: enum<8>,  Prev: asyncio<10>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.9.3.2 ensurepip
.................

The new *note ensurepip: 53. module is the primary infrastructure for
the PEP 453(1) implementation.  In the normal course of events end users
will not need to interact with this module, but it can be used to
manually bootstrap ‘pip’ if the automated bootstrapping into an
installation or virtual environment was declined.

*note ensurepip: 53. includes a bundled copy of ‘pip’, up-to-date as of
the first release candidate of the release of CPython with which it
ships (this applies to both maintenance releases and feature releases).
‘ensurepip’ does not access the internet.  If the installation has
internet access, after ‘ensurepip’ is run the bundled ‘pip’ can be used
to upgrade ‘pip’ to a more recent release than the bundled one.  (Note
that such an upgraded version of ‘pip’ is considered to be a separately
installed package and will not be removed if Python is uninstalled.)

The module is named 'ensure'pip because if called when ‘pip’ is already
installed, it does nothing.  It also has an ‘--upgrade’ option that will
cause it to install the bundled copy of ‘pip’ if the existing installed
version of ‘pip’ is older than the bundled copy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: enum<8>,  Next: pathlib<9>,  Prev: ensurepip<2>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.9.3.3 enum
............

The new *note enum: 54. module (defined in PEP 435(1)) provides a
standard implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules
(such as *note socket: cb.) to provide more informative error messages
and better debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with
backwards compatible enumeration values.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 435(2) – Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman,
     implemented by Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<9>,  Next: selectors<2>,  Prev: enum<8>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.9.3.4 pathlib
...............

The new *note pathlib: a3. module offers classes representing filesystem
paths with semantics appropriate for different operating systems.  Path
classes are divided between 'pure paths', which provide purely
computational operations without I/O, and 'concrete paths', which
inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: 971.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 428(1) – The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: selectors<2>,  Next: statistics<5>,  Prev: pathlib<9>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.9.3.5 selectors
.................

The new *note selectors: c1. module (created as part of implementing PEP
3156(1)) allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: c0. module primitives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<5>,  Next: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: selectors<2>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.9.3.6 statistics
..................

The new *note statistics: d1. module (defined in PEP 450(1)) offers some
core statistics functionality directly in the standard library.  This
module supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and
standard deviation of a data series.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 450(2) – Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: statistics<5>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.9.3.7 tracemalloc
...................

The new *note tracemalloc: ff. module (defined in PEP 454(1)) is a debug
tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python.  It provides the
following information:

   * Trace where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 454(2) – Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<7>,  Next: CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: New Modules<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.4 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<4>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<2>.
* collections: collections<6>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* dis: dis<3>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* html::
* http: http<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>.
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* marshal::
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<10>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* pty::
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* re: re<6>.
* resource::
* select::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* textwrap::
* threading: threading<7>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<5>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* venv: venv<6>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc,  Next: aifc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.1 abc
...........

New function *note abc.get_cache_token(): dae. can be used to know when
to invalidate caches that are affected by changes in the object graph.
(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-16832(1).)

New class *note ABC: daf. has *note ABCMeta: db0. as its meta class.
Using ‘ABC’ as a base class has essentially the same effect as
specifying ‘metaclass=abc.ABCMeta’, but is simpler to type and easier to
read.  (Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in bpo-16049(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16832

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16049


File: python.info,  Node: aifc<2>,  Next: argparse<4>,  Prev: abc,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.2 aifc
............

The *note getparams(): db2. method now returns a namedtuple rather than
a plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17818(1).)

*note aifc.open(): a58. now supports the context management protocol:
when used in a *note with: 3dd. block, the *note close(): db3. method of
the returned object will be called automatically at the end of the
block.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchacha in bpo-16486(2).)

The *note writeframesraw(): db4. and *note writeframes(): db5. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: bb5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17818

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16486

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<4>,  Next: audioop,  Prev: aifc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.3 argparse
................

The *note FileType: db7. class now accepts 'encoding' and 'errors'
arguments, which are passed through to *note open(): 2a6.  (Contributed
by Lucas Maystre in bpo-11175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11175


File: python.info,  Node: audioop,  Next: base64<2>,  Prev: argparse<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.4 audioop
...............

*note audioop: d. now supports 24-bit samples.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-12866(1).)

New *note byteswap(): db9. function converts big-endian samples to
little-endian and vice versa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-19641(2).)

All *note audioop: d. functions now accept any *note bytes-like object:
bb5.  Strings are not accepted: they didn’t work before, now they raise
an error right away.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16685(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12866

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685


File: python.info,  Node: base64<2>,  Next: collections<6>,  Prev: audioop,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.5 base64
..............

The encoding and decoding functions in *note base64: e. now accept any
*note bytes-like object: bb5. in cases where it previously required a
*note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca. instance.  (Contributed by
Nick Coghlan in bpo-17839(1).)

New functions *note a85encode(): dbb, *note a85decode(): dbc, *note
b85encode(): dbd, and *note b85decode(): dbe. provide the ability to
encode and decode binary data from and to ‘Ascii85’ and the
git/mercurial ‘Base85’ formats, respectively.  The ‘a85’ functions have
options that can be used to make them compatible with the variants of
the ‘Ascii85’ encoding, including the Adobe variant.  (Contributed by
Martin Morrison, the Mercurial project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-17618(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17839

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17618


File: python.info,  Node: collections<6>,  Next: colorsys,  Prev: base64<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.6 collections
...................

The *note ChainMap.new_child(): dc0. method now accepts an 'm' argument
specifying the child map to add to the chain.  This allows an existing
mapping and/or a custom mapping type to be used for the child.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16613(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16613


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys,  Next: contextlib<6>,  Prev: collections<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.7 colorsys
................

The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB — YIQ conversions
have been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions.  The change
in results should be less than 1% and may better match results found
elsewhere.  (Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-14323(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14323


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<6>,  Next: dbm<5>,  Prev: colorsys,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.8 contextlib
..................

The new *note contextlib.suppress: dc3. context manager helps to clarify
the intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single
statement.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15806(1) and Zero
Piraeus in bpo-19266(2).)

The new *note contextlib.redirect_stdout(): c76. context manager makes
it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their
output to *note sys.stdout: 943. and don’t provide any options to
redirect it.  Using the context manager, the *note sys.stdout: 943.
output can be redirected to any other stream or, in conjunction with
*note io.StringIO: dc4, to a string.  The latter can be especially
useful, for example, to capture output from a function that was written
to implement a command line interface.  It is recommended only for
utility scripts because it affects the global state of *note sys.stdout:
943.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15805(3).)

The *note contextlib: 23. documentation has also been updated to include
a *note discussion: dc5. of the differences between single use, reusable
and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15806

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15805


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<5>,  Next: dis<3>,  Prev: contextlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.9 dbm
...........

*note dbm.open(): dc7. objects now support the context management
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 3dd. statement, the ‘close’ method
of the database object will be called automatically at the end of the
block.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-19282(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19282


File: python.info,  Node: dis<3>,  Next: doctest<3>,  Prev: dbm<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.10 dis
............

Functions *note show_code(): dc9, *note dis(): 9a5, *note distb(): dca,
and *note disassemble(): dcb. now accept a keyword-only 'file' argument
that controls where they write their output.

The *note dis: 37. module is now built around an *note Instruction: dcc.
class that provides object oriented access to the details of each
individual bytecode operation.

A new method, *note get_instructions(): dcd, provides an iterator that
emits the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code.  Thus it
is now possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a
bytecode object in ways different from those provided by the *note dis:
37. module itself.  For example:

     >>> import dis
     >>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1):
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     LOAD_FAST
     LOAD_CONST
     BINARY_ADD
     RETURN_VALUE

The various display tools in the *note dis: 37. module have been
rewritten to use these new components.

In addition, a new application-friendly class *note Bytecode: dce.
provides an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in
human-readable form and for iterating over instructions.  The *note
Bytecode: dce. constructor takes the same arguments that
‘get_instruction()’ does (plus an optional 'current_offset'), and the
resulting object can be iterated to produce *note Instruction: dcc.
objects.  But it also has a *note dis: dcf. method, equivalent to
calling *note dis: 9a5. on the constructor argument, but returned as a
multi-line string:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode))
     LOAD_FAST (124)
     LOAD_CONST (100)
     BINARY_ADD (23)
     RETURN_VALUE (83)
     >>> bytecode.dis().splitlines()
     ['  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)',
      '      -->     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)',
      '              6 BINARY_ADD',
      '              7 RETURN_VALUE']

*note Bytecode: dce. also has a class method, *note from_traceback():
dd0, that provides the ability to manipulate a traceback (that is,
‘print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())’ is equivalent to
‘distb(tb)’).

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-11816(1) and Claudiu Popa in bpo-17916(2).)

New function *note stack_effect(): dd1. computes the effect on the
Python stack of a given opcode and argument, information that is not
otherwise available.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19722(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11816

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19722


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<3>,  Next: email<5>,  Prev: dis<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.11 doctest
................

A new *note option flag: dd3, *note FAIL_FAST: dd4, halts test running
as soon as the first failure is detected.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray and Daniel Urban in bpo-16522(1).)

The *note doctest: 39. command line interface now uses *note argparse:
6, and has two new options, ‘-o’ and ‘-f’.  ‘-o’ allows *note doctest
options: dd3. to be specified on the command line, and ‘-f’ is a
shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’ (to parallel the similar option supported
by the *note unittest: 106. CLI). (Contributed by R. David Murray in
bpo-11390(2).)

*note doctest: 39. will now find doctests in extension module ‘__doc__’
strings.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-3158(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16522

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11390

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158


File: python.info,  Node: email<5>,  Next: filecmp,  Prev: doctest<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.12 email
..............

*note as_string(): dd6. now accepts a 'policy' argument to override the
default policy of the message when generating a string representation of
it.  This means that ‘as_string’ can now be used in more circumstances,
instead of having to create and use a *note generator: 3f. in order to
pass formatting parameters to its ‘flatten’ method.  (Contributed by R.
David Murray in bpo-18600(1).)

New method *note as_bytes(): dd7. added to produce a bytes
representation of the message in a fashion similar to how ‘as_string’
produces a string representation.  It does not accept the 'maxheaderlen'
argument, but does accept the 'unixfrom' and 'policy' arguments.  The
*note Message: b1b. *note __bytes__(): dd8. method calls it, meaning
that ‘bytes(mymsg)’ will now produce the intuitive result: a bytes
object containing the fully formatted message.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray in bpo-18600(2).)

The *note Message.set_param(): dd9. message now accepts a 'replace'
keyword argument.  When specified, the associated header will be updated
without changing its location in the list of headers.  For backward
compatibility, the default is ‘False’.  (Contributed by R. David Murray
in bpo-18891(3).)  A pair of new subclasses of *note Message: b1b. have
been added (*note EmailMessage: b1c. and *note MIMEPart: dda.), along
with a new sub-module, *note contentmanager: 3c. and a new *note policy:
4e. attribute *note content_manager: ddb.  All documentation is
currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email’s new
*note provisional API: 971.  These classes provide a number of new
methods that make extracting content from and inserting content into
email messages much easier.  For details, see the *note contentmanager:
3c. documentation and the *note email; Examples: ddc.  These API
additions complete the bulk of the work that was planned as part of the
email6 project.  The currently provisional API is scheduled to become
final in Python 3.5 (possibly with a few minor additions in the area of
error handling).  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp,  Next: functools<5>,  Prev: email<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.13 filecmp
................

A new *note clear_cache(): dde. function provides the ability to clear
the *note filecmp: 58. comparison cache, which uses *note os.stat():
1c5. information to determine if the file has changed since the last
compare.  This can be used, for example, if the file might have been
changed and re-checked in less time than the resolution of a particular
filesystem’s file modification time field.  (Contributed by Mark Levitt
in bpo-18149(1).)

New module attribute *note DEFAULT_IGNORES: ddf. provides the list of
directories that are used as the default value for the 'ignore'
parameter of the *note dircmp(): de0. function.  (Contributed by Eli
Bendersky in bpo-15442(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18149

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15442


File: python.info,  Node: functools<5>,  Next: gc<5>,  Prev: filecmp,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.14 functools
..................

The new *note partialmethod(): 8e0. descriptor brings partial argument
application to descriptors, just as *note partial(): d61. provides for
normal callables.  The new descriptor also makes it easier to get
arbitrary callables (including *note partial(): d61. instances) to
behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition.
(Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in bpo-4331(1).)  The new
*note singledispatch(): 44c. decorator brings support for
single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library.  Where
object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a
common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping
multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with
'different' kinds of data.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 443(2) – Single-dispatch generic functions

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

*note total_ordering(): de2. now supports a return value of *note
NotImplemented: 60b. from the underlying comparison function.
(Contributed by Katie Miller in bpo-10042(3).)

A pure-python version of the *note partial(): d61. function is now in
the stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version,
but it is available for other implementations to use.  (Contributed by
Brian Thorne in bpo-12428(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4331

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10042

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12428


File: python.info,  Node: gc<5>,  Next: glob<3>,  Prev: functools<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.15 gc
...........

New function *note get_stats(): de4. returns a list of three
per-generation dictionaries containing the collections statistics since
interpreter startup.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16351(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16351


File: python.info,  Node: glob<3>,  Next: hashlib<6>,  Prev: gc<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.16 glob
.............

A new function *note escape(): de6. provides a way to escape special
characters in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing
expansion but are instead matched literally.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8402(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8402


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<6>,  Next: hmac<3>,  Prev: glob<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.17 hashlib
................

A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 299. function provides the PKCS#5
password-based key derivation function 2(1).  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-18582(2).)

The *note name: de8. attribute of *note hashlib: 66. hash objects is now
a formally supported interface.  It has always existed in CPython’s
*note hashlib: 66. (although it did not return lower case names for all
supported hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other
Python implementations have not previously supported it.  (Contributed
by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-18532(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18582

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<3>,  Next: html,  Prev: hashlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.18 hmac
.............

*note hmac: 68. now accepts ‘bytearray’ as well as ‘bytes’ for the 'key'
argument to the *note new(): 90a. function, and the 'msg' parameter to
both the *note new(): 90a. function and the *note update(): dea. method
now accepts any type supported by the *note hashlib: 66. module.
(Contributed by Jonas Borgström in bpo-18240(1).)

The 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): 90a. function may now
be any hash digest name recognized by *note hashlib: 66.  In addition,
the current behavior in which the value of 'digestmod' defaults to ‘MD5’
is deprecated: in a future version of Python there will be no default
value.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17276(2).)

With the addition of *note block_size: deb. and *note name: dec.
attributes (and the formal documentation of the *note digest_size: ded.
attribute), the *note hmac: 68. module now conforms fully to the PEP
247(3) API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18775(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18240

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0247/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18775


File: python.info,  Node: html,  Next: http<3>,  Prev: hmac<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.19 html
.............

New function *note unescape(): 7b2. function converts HTML5 character
references to the corresponding Unicode characters.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-2927(1).)

*note HTMLParser: 6bc. accepts a new keyword argument 'convert_charrefs'
that, when ‘True’, automatically converts all character references.  For
backward-compatibility, its value defaults to ‘False’, but it will
change to ‘True’ in a future version of Python, so you are invited to
set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13633(2).)

The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 6bc. is now deprecated.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2927

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114


File: python.info,  Node: http<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Prev: html,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.20 http
.............

*note send_error(): df0. now accepts an optional additional 'explain'
parameter which can be used to provide an extended error description,
overriding the hardcoded default if there is one.  This extended error
description will be formatted using the ‘error_message_format’ attribute
and sent as the body of the error response.  (Contributed by Karl Cow in
bpo-12921(1).)

The *note http.server: 70. *note command line interface: df1. now has a
‘-b/--bind’ option that causes the server to listen on a specific
address.  (Contributed by Malte Swart in bpo-17764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12921

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17764


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Next: importlib<8>,  Prev: http<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.21 idlelib and IDLE
.........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<8>,  Next: inspect<8>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.22 importlib
..................

The *note InspectLoader: df4. ABC defines a new method, *note
source_to_code(): ca0. that accepts source data and a path and returns a
code object.  The default implementation is equivalent to ‘compile(data,
path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True)’.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett
Cannon in bpo-15627(1).)

*note InspectLoader: df4. also now has a default implementation for the
*note get_code(): df5. method.  However, it will normally be desirable
to override the default implementation for performance reasons.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18072(2).)

The *note reload(): 2a3. function has been moved from ‘imp’ to *note
importlib: 75. as part of the ‘imp’ module deprecation.  (Contributed by
Berker Peksag in bpo-18193(3).)

*note importlib.util: 7b. now has a *note MAGIC_NUMBER: 29d. attribute
providing access to the bytecode version number.  This replaces the
‘get_magic()’ function in the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-18192(4).)

New *note importlib.util: 7b. functions *note cache_from_source(): 275.
and *note source_from_cache(): 2a4. replace the same-named functions in
the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
bpo-18194(5).)

The *note importlib: 75. bootstrap *note NamespaceLoader: df6. now
conforms to the *note InspectLoader: df4. ABC, which means that ‘runpy’
and ‘python -m’ can now be used with namespace packages.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-18058(6).)

*note importlib.util: 7b. has a new function *note decode_source(): df7.
that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing.  This
is useful for implementing *note InspectLoader.get_source(): df8.
methods.

*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b33. now has a *note
get_filename(): df9. method.  This was inadvertently omitted in the
original implementation.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-19152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18072

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18193

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18192

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18194

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18058

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19152


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<8>,  Next: ipaddress<5>,  Prev: importlib<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.23 inspect
................

The *note inspect: 7c. module now offers a basic *note command line
interface: dfb. to quickly display source code and other information for
modules, classes and functions.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick
Coghlan in bpo-18626(1).)

*note unwrap(): dfc. makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains
created by *note functools.wraps(): dfd. (and any other API that sets
the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute on a wrapper function).  (Contributed by
Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13266(2).)

As part of the implementation of the new *note enum: 54. module, the
*note inspect: 7c. module now has substantially better support for
custom ‘__dir__’ methods and dynamic class attributes provided through
metaclasses.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-18929(3) and
bpo-19030(4).)

*note getfullargspec(): 562. and ‘getargspec()’ now use the *note
signature(): 561. API. This allows them to support a much broader range
of callables, including those with ‘__signature__’ attributes, those
with metadata provided by argument clinic, *note functools.partial():
d61. objects and more.  Note that, unlike *note signature(): 561, these
functions still ignore ‘__wrapped__’ attributes, and report the already
bound first argument for bound methods, so it is still necessary to
update your code to use *note signature(): 561. directly if those
features are desired.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-17481(5).)

*note signature(): 561. now supports duck types of CPython functions,
which adds support for functions compiled with Cython.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in bpo-17159(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17481

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17159


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<5>,  Next: logging<5>,  Prev: inspect<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.24 ipaddress
..................

*note ipaddress: 7e. was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as
a *note provisional API: 971.  With the release of Python 3.4, this
qualification has been removed: *note ipaddress: 7e. is now considered a
stable API, covered by the normal standard library requirements to
maintain backwards compatibility.

A new *note is_global: dff. property is ‘True’ if an address is globally
routeable.  (Contributed by Peter Moody in bpo-17400(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17400


File: python.info,  Node: logging<5>,  Next: marshal,  Prev: ipaddress<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.25 logging
................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01. has a new 'atTime' parameter
that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should happen.
(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in bpo-9556(1).)

*note SocketHandler: e02. and *note DatagramHandler: e03. now support
Unix domain sockets (by setting 'port' to ‘None’).  (Contributed by
Vinay Sajip in commit ce46195b56a9.)

*note fileConfig(): 9c4. now accepts a *note
configparser.RawConfigParser: e04. subclass instance for the 'fname'
parameter.  This facilitates using a configuration file when logging
configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration,
or where the application modifies the configuration before passing it to
*note fileConfig(): 9c4.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16110(2).)

Logging configuration data received from a socket via the *note
logging.config.listen(): e05. function can now be validated before being
processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the
new 'verify' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-15452(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15452


File: python.info,  Node: marshal,  Next: mmap<2>,  Prev: logging<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.26 marshal
................

The default *note marshal: 8c. version has been bumped to 3.  The code
implementing the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording
only one copy of interned strings and preserving the interning on
deserialization, and extends this “one copy” ability to any object type
(including handling recursive references).  This reduces both the size
of ‘.pyc’ files and the amount of memory a module occupies in memory
when it is loaded from a ‘.pyc’ (or ‘.pyo’) file.  (Contributed by
Kristján Valur Jónsson in bpo-16475(1), with additional speedups by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19219(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<2>,  Next: multiprocessing<6>,  Prev: marshal,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.27 mmap
.............

mmap objects are now *note weakly referenceable: da1.  (Contributed by
Valerie Lambert in bpo-4885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4885


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<6>,  Next: operator<3>,  Prev: mmap<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.28 multiprocessing
........................

On Unix two new *note start methods: 236, ‘spawn’ and ‘forkserver’, have
been added for starting processes using *note multiprocessing: 93.
These make the mixing of processes with threads more robust, and the
‘spawn’ method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has always
used on Windows.  New function *note get_all_start_methods(): e09.
reports all start methods available on the platform, *note
get_start_method(): e0a. reports the current start method, and *note
set_start_method(): 235. sets the start method.  (Contributed by Richard
Oudkerk in bpo-8713(1).)

*note multiprocessing: 93. also now has the concept of a ‘context’,
which determines how child processes are created.  New function *note
get_context(): 234. returns a context that uses a specified start
method.  It has the same API as the *note multiprocessing: 93. module
itself, so you can use it to create *note Pool: e0b.s and other objects
that will operate within that context.  This allows a framework and an
application or different parts of the same application to use
multiprocessing without interfering with each other.  (Contributed by
Richard Oudkerk in bpo-18999(2).)

Except when using the old 'fork' start method, child processes no longer
inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of
bpo-8713(3)).

*note multiprocessing: 93. now relies on *note runpy: bd. (which
implements the ‘-m’ switch) to initialise ‘__main__’ appropriately in
child processes when using the ‘spawn’ or ‘forkserver’ start methods.
This resolves some edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the ‘-m’
command line switch, and explicit relative imports could cause obscure
failures in child processes.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19946(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18999

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19946


File: python.info,  Node: operator<3>,  Next: os<10>,  Prev: multiprocessing<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.29 operator
.................

New function *note length_hint(): e0d. provides an implementation of the
specification for how the *note __length_hint__(): da3. special method
should be used, as part of the PEP 424(1) formal specification of this
language feature.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(2).)

There is now a pure-python version of the *note operator: 9e. module
available for reference and for use by alternate implementations of
Python.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-16694(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16694


File: python.info,  Node: os<10>,  Next: pdb<5>,  Prev: operator<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.30 os
...........

There are new functions to get and set the *note inheritable flag: d90.
of a file descriptor (*note os.get_inheritable(): d91, *note
os.set_inheritable(): d92.) or a Windows handle (*note
os.get_handle_inheritable(): d93, *note os.set_handle_inheritable():
d94.).

New function *note cpu_count(): 654. reports the number of CPUs
available on the platform on which Python is running (or ‘None’ if the
count can’t be determined).  The *note multiprocessing.cpu_count(): e0f.
function is now implemented in terms of this function).  (Contributed by
Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari, Victor Stinner, and Charles-François
Natali in bpo-17914(1).)

*note os.path.samestat(): e10. is now available on the Windows platform
(and the *note os.path.samefile(): e11. implementation is now shared
between Unix and Windows).  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-11939(2).)

*note os.path.ismount(): e12. now recognizes volumes mounted below a
drive root on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-9035(3).)

*note os.open(): c1f. supports two new flags on platforms that provide
them, *note O_PATH: e13. (un-opened file descriptor), and *note
O_TMPFILE: e14. (unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available
only on Linux systems with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have
uapi headers).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18673(4) and
Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11939

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9035

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18673


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<5>,  Next: pickle<4>,  Prev: os<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.31 pdb
............

*note pdb: a4. has been enhanced to handle generators, *note yield: 82b,
and ‘yield from’ in a more useful fashion.  This is especially helpful
when debugging *note asyncio: a. based programs.  (Contributed by Andrew
Svetlov and Xavier de Gaye in bpo-16596(1).)

The ‘print’ command has been removed from *note pdb: a4, restoring
access to the Python *note print(): e16. function from the pdb command
line.  Python2’s ‘pdb’ did not have a ‘print’ command; instead, entering
‘print’ executed the ‘print’ statement.  In Python3 ‘print’ was
mistakenly made an alias for the pdb *note p: e17. command.  ‘p’,
however, prints the ‘repr’ of its argument, not the ‘str’ like the
Python2 ‘print’ command did.  Worse, the Python3 ‘pdb print’ command
shadowed the Python3 ‘print’ function, making it inaccessible at the
‘pdb’ prompt.  (Contributed by Connor Osborn in bpo-18764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18764


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<4>,  Next: plistlib<2>,  Prev: pdb<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.32 pickle
...............

*note pickle: a5. now supports (but does not use by default) a new
pickle protocol, protocol 4.  This new protocol addresses a number of
issues that were present in previous protocols, such as the
serialization of nested classes, very large strings and containers, and
classes whose ‘__new__()’ method takes keyword-only arguments.  It also
provides some efficiency improvements.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3154(1) – Pickle protocol 4

     PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre
     Vassalotti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib<2>,  Next: poplib<3>,  Prev: pickle<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.33 plistlib
.................

*note plistlib: aa. now has an API that is similar to the standard
pattern for stdlib serialization protocols, with new *note load(): 7aa,
*note dump(): 7ac, *note loads(): 7ab, and *note dumps(): 7ad.
functions.  (The older API is now deprecated.)  In addition to the
already supported XML plist format (*note FMT_XML: e1a.), it also now
supports the binary plist format (*note FMT_BINARY: e1b.).  (Contributed
by Ronald Oussoren and others in bpo-14455(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14455


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<3>,  Next: pprint<4>,  Prev: plistlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.34 poplib
...............

Two new methods have been added to *note poplib: ab.: *note capa(): e1d,
which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and
*note stls(): e1e, which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an
encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it.  (Contributed by
Lorenzo Catucci in bpo-4473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4473


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<4>,  Next: pty,  Prev: poplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.35 pprint
...............

The *note pprint: ad. module’s *note PrettyPrinter: e20. class and its
*note pformat(): e21, and *note pprint(): 666. functions have a new
option, 'compact', that controls how the output is formatted.  Currently
setting 'compact' to ‘True’ means that sequences will be printed with as
many sequence elements as will fit within 'width' on each (indented)
line.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19132(1).)

Long strings are now wrapped using Python’s normal line continuation
syntax.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17150(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17150


File: python.info,  Node: pty,  Next: pydoc<4>,  Prev: pprint<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.36 pty
............

*note pty.spawn(): e23. now returns the status value from *note
os.waitpid(): c27. on the child process, instead of ‘None’.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<4>,  Next: re<6>,  Prev: pty,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.37 pydoc
..............

The *note pydoc: b4. module is now based directly on the *note
inspect.signature(): 561. introspection API, allowing it to provide
signature information for a wider variety of callable objects.  This
change also means that ‘__wrapped__’ attributes are now taken into
account when displaying help information.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-19674(1).)

The *note pydoc: b4. module no longer displays the ‘self’ parameter for
already bound methods.  Instead, it aims to always display the exact
current signature of the supplied callable.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-20710(2).)

In addition to the changes that have been made to *note pydoc: b4.
directly, its handling of custom ‘__dir__’ methods and various
descriptor behaviours has also been improved substantially by the
underlying changes in the *note inspect: 7c. module.

As the *note help(): 72a. builtin is based on *note pydoc: b4, the above
changes also affect the behaviour of *note help(): 72a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19674

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20710


File: python.info,  Node: re<6>,  Next: resource,  Prev: pydoc<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.38 re
...........

New *note fullmatch(): e26. function and ‘regex.fullmatch()’ method
anchor the pattern at both ends of the string to match.  This provides a
way to be explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of
subtle bugs where ‘$’ characters get lost during code changes or the
addition of alternatives to an existing regular expression.
(Contributed by Matthew Barnett in bpo-16203(1).)

The repr of *note regex objects: e27. now includes the pattern and the
flags; the repr of *note match objects: e28. now includes the start,
end, and the part of the string that matched.  (Contributed by Hugo
Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13592(2) and bpo-17087(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13592

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17087


File: python.info,  Node: resource,  Next: select,  Prev: re<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.39 resource
.................

New *note prlimit(): e2a. function, available on Linux platforms with a
kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides
the ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than
the one making the call.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-16595(1).)

On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new Linux
specific constants: *note RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE: e2b, *note RLIMIT_NICE: e2c,
*note RLIMIT_RTPRIO: e2d, *note RLIMIT_RTTIME: e2e, and *note
RLIMIT_SIGPENDING: e2f.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-19324(2).)

On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific
constants: *note RLIMIT_SBSIZE: e30, *note RLIMIT_SWAP: e31, and *note
RLIMIT_NPTS: e32.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19343(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16595

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19324

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19343


File: python.info,  Node: select,  Next: shelve<2>,  Prev: resource,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.40 select
...............

*note epoll: e34. objects now support the context management protocol.
When used in a *note with: 3dd. statement, the *note close(): e35.
method will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16488(1).)

*note devpoll: e36. objects now have *note fileno(): e37. and *note
close(): e38. methods, as well as a new attribute *note closed: e39.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18794


File: python.info,  Node: shelve<2>,  Next: shutil<5>,  Prev: select,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.41 shelve
...............

*note Shelf: e3b. instances may now be used in *note with: 3dd.
statements, and will be automatically closed at the end of the ‘with’
block.  (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13896(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13896


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<5>,  Next: smtpd<3>,  Prev: shelve<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.42 shutil
...............

*note copyfile(): 8bd. now raises a specific *note Error: e3d. subclass,
*note SameFileError: e3e, when the source and destination are the same
file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this
specific error.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in
bpo-1492704(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1492704


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<3>,  Next: smtplib<3>,  Prev: shutil<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.43 smtpd
..............

The ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a 'map' keyword
argument which, if specified, is passed in to ‘asynchat.async_chat’ as
its 'map' argument.  This allows an application to avoid affecting the
global socket map.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-11959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11959


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<3>,  Next: socket<9>,  Prev: smtpd<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.44 smtplib
................

*note SMTPException: e41. is now a subclass of *note OSError: 65c, which
allows both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be
caught in one try/except statement by code that only cares whether or
not an error occurred.  (Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in
bpo-2118(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2118


File: python.info,  Node: socket<9>,  Next: sqlite3<8>,  Prev: smtplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.45 socket
...............

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_BCM: e43. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in
bpo-15359(1).)

Socket objects have new methods to get or set their *note inheritable
flag: d90, *note get_inheritable(): d95. and *note set_inheritable():
d96.

The ‘socket.AF_*’ and ‘socket.SOCK_*’ constants are now enumeration
values using the new *note enum: 54. module.  This allows meaningful
names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer “magic
numbers”.

The *note AF_LINK: e44. constant is now available on BSD and OSX.

*note inet_pton(): 7bd. and *note inet_ntop(): e45. are now supported on
Windows.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in bpo-7171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15359

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7171


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<8>,  Next: ssl<9>,  Prev: socket<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.46 sqlite3
................

A new boolean parameter to the *note connect(): 1e4. function, 'uri',
can be used to indicate that the 'database' parameter is a ‘uri’ (see
the SQLite URI documentation(1)).  (Contributed by poq in bpo-13773(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13773


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<9>,  Next: stat,  Prev: sqlite3<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.47 ssl
............

*note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1: e48. and *note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2: e49. (TLSv1.1
and TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is
only available if Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later.
(Contributed by Michele Orrù and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16692(1).)  New
function *note create_default_context(): e4a. provides a standard way to
obtain an *note SSLContext: 277. whose settings are intended to be a
reasonable balance between compatibility and security.  These settings
are more stringent than the defaults provided by the *note SSLContext:
277. constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior
deprecation, if best-practice security requirements change.  The new
recommended best practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is
to use *note create_default_context(): e4a. to obtain an *note
SSLContext: 277. object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the
'context' argument of the appropriate stdlib API. (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-19689(2).)

*note SSLContext: 277. method *note load_verify_locations(): d82.
accepts a new optional argument 'cadata', which can be used to provide
PEM or DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes,
respectively.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18138(3).)

New function *note get_default_verify_paths(): e4b. returns a named
tuple of the paths and environment variables that the *note
set_default_verify_paths(): e4c. method uses to set OpenSSL’s default
‘cafile’ and ‘capath’.  This can be an aid in debugging default
verification issues.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18143(4).)

*note SSLContext: 277. has a new method, *note cert_store_stats(): e4d,
that reports the number of loaded ‘X.509’ certs, ‘X.509 CA’ certs, and
certificate revocation lists (‘crl’s), as well as a *note
get_ca_certs(): e4e. method that returns a list of the loaded ‘CA’
certificates.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18147(5).)

If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, *note SSLContext: 277. has a new
attribute *note verify_flags: e4f. that can be used to control the
certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of
the new constants *note VERIFY_DEFAULT: e50, *note
VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: e51, *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN: e52, or *note
VERIFY_X509_STRICT: e53.  OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by
default.  (Contributed by Christien Heimes in bpo-8813(6).)

New *note SSLContext: 277. method *note load_default_certs(): e54. loads
a set of default “certificate authority” (CA) certificates from default
locations, which vary according to the platform.  It can be used to load
both TLS web server authentication certificates (‘purpose=’*note
SERVER_AUTH: e55.) for a client to use to verify a server, and
certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates
(‘purpose=’*note CLIENT_AUTH: e56.).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-19292(7).)  Two new windows-only functions, *note
enum_certificates(): e57. and *note enum_crls(): e58. provide the
ability to retrieve certificates, certificate information, and CRLs from
the Windows cert store.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17134(8).)  Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication)
using the new *note ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): e59.
method.  (Contributed by Daniel Black in bpo-8109(9).)

The dictionary returned by *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e5a. contains
additional ‘X509v3’ extension items: ‘crlDistributionPoints’,
‘calIssuers’, and ‘OCSP’ URIs.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-18379(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18143

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18147

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8813

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19292

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17134

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8109

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18379


File: python.info,  Node: stat,  Next: struct<2>,  Prev: ssl<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.48 stat
.............

The *note stat: d0. module is now backed by a C implementation in
‘_stat’.  A C implementation is required as most of the values aren’t
standardized and are platform-dependent.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-11016(1).)

The module supports new *note ST_MODE: e5c. flags, *note S_IFDOOR: e5d,
*note S_IFPORT: e5e, and *note S_IFWHT: e5f.  (Contributed by Christian
Hiemes in bpo-11016(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016


File: python.info,  Node: struct<2>,  Next: subprocess<4>,  Prev: stat,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.49 struct
...............

New function *note iter_unpack: e61. and a new *note
struct.Struct.iter_unpack(): e62. method on compiled formats provide
streamed unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given
format of data.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17804(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17804


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<4>,  Next: sunau<2>,  Prev: struct<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.50 subprocess
...................

*note check_output(): e64. now accepts an 'input' argument that can be
used to provide the contents of ‘stdin’ for the command that is run.
(Contributed by Zack Weinberg in bpo-16624(1).)

‘getstatus()’ and *note getstatusoutput(): e65. now work on Windows.
This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4.  (Contributed by
Tim Golden in bpo-10197(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10197


File: python.info,  Node: sunau<2>,  Next: sys<11>,  Prev: subprocess<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.51 sunau
..............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18901(1).)

*note sunau.open(): a66. now supports the context management protocol:
when used in a *note with: 3dd. block, the ‘close’ method of the
returned object will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18878(2).)

*note AU_write.setsampwidth(): e67. now supports 24 bit samples, thus
adding support for writing 24 sample using the module.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19261(3).)

The *note writeframesraw(): e68. and *note writeframes(): e69. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: bb5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18878

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19261

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: sys<11>,  Next: tarfile<8>,  Prev: sunau<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.52 sys
............

New function *note sys.getallocatedblocks(): e6b. returns the current
number of blocks allocated by the interpreter.  (In CPython with the
default ‘--with-pymalloc’ setting, this is allocations made through the
*note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6. API.) This can be useful for tracking
memory leaks, especially if automated via a test suite.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390(1).)

When the Python interpreter starts in *note interactive mode: e6c, it
checks for an *note __interactivehook__: e6d. attribute on the *note
sys: d8. module.  If the attribute exists, its value is called with no
arguments just before interactive mode is started.  The check is made
after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e. file is read, so it can be set
there.  The *note site: c6. module *note sets it: e6f. to a function
that enables tab completion and history saving (in ‘~/.python-history’)
if the platform supports *note readline: b9.  If you do not want this
(new) behavior, you can override it in *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e, *note
sitecustomize: c7, or *note usercustomize: 10e. by deleting this
attribute from *note sys: d8. (or setting it to some other callable).
(Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5845(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<8>,  Next: textwrap,  Prev: sys<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.53 tarfile
................

The *note tarfile: dd. module now supports a simple *note Command-Line
Interface: e71. when called as a script directly or via ‘-m’.  This can
be used to create and extract tarfile archives.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-13477(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13477


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap,  Next: threading<7>,  Prev: tarfile<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.54 textwrap
.................

The *note TextWrapper: e73. class has two new attributes/constructor
arguments: *note max_lines: e74, which limits the number of lines in the
output, and *note placeholder: e75, which is a string that will appear
at the end of the output if it has been truncated because of
'max_lines'.  Building on these capabilities, a new convenience function
*note shorten(): e76. collapses all of the whitespace in the input to
single spaces and produces a single line of a given 'width' that ends
with the 'placeholder' (by default, ‘[...]’).  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18585(1) and bpo-18725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18585

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18725


File: python.info,  Node: threading<7>,  Next: traceback<5>,  Prev: textwrap,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.55 threading
..................

The *note Thread: 7a7. object representing the main thread can be
obtained from the new *note main_thread(): e78. function.  In normal
conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was
started.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-18882(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18882


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<5>,  Next: types<5>,  Prev: threading<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.56 traceback
..................

A new *note traceback.clear_frames(): e7a. function takes a traceback
object and clears the local variables in all of the frames it
references, reducing the amount of memory consumed.  (Contributed by
Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1565525(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1565525


File: python.info,  Node: types<5>,  Next: urllib<2>,  Prev: traceback<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.57 types
..............

A new *note DynamicClassAttribute(): 43d. descriptor provides a way to
define an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an
instance object, but which is routed to the 'class' ‘__getattr__’ when
looked up through the class.  This allows one to have properties active
on a class, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name
(see ‘Enum’ for an example).  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
bpo-19030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<2>,  Next: unittest<8>,  Prev: types<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.58 urllib
...............

*note urllib.request: 10b. now supports ‘data:’ URLs via the *note
DataHandler: e7d. class.  (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck in
bpo-16423(1).)

The http method that will be used by a *note Request: e7e. class can now
be specified by setting a *note method: e7f. class attribute on the
subclass.  (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in bpo-18978(2).)

*note Request: e7e. objects are now reusable: if the *note full_url:
e80. or *note data: e81. attributes are modified, all relevant internal
properties are updated.  This means, for example, that it is now
possible to use the same *note Request: e7e. object in more than one
*note OpenerDirector.open(): e82. call with different 'data' arguments,
or to modify a *note Request: e7e.‘s ‘url’ rather than recomputing it
from scratch.  There is also a new *note remove_header(): e83. method
that can be used to remove headers from a *note Request: e7e.
(Contributed by Alexey Kachayev in bpo-16464(3), Daniel Wozniak in
bpo-17485(4), and Damien Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-17272(5).)

*note HTTPError: e84. objects now have a *note headers: e85. attribute
that provides access to the HTTP response headers associated with the
error.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-15701(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18978

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16464

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17485

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17272

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15701


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<8>,  Next: venv<6>,  Prev: urllib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.59 unittest
.................

The *note TestCase: 15f. class has a new method, *note subTest(): e87,
that produces a context manager whose *note with: 3dd. block becomes a
“sub-test”.  This context manager allows a test method to dynamically
generate subtests by, say, calling the ‘subTest’ context manager inside
a loop.  A single test method can thereby produce an indefinite number
of separately identified and separately counted tests, all of which will
run even if one or more of them fail.  For example:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_even(self):
             for i in range(6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose
output with a label consisting of the variable name ‘i’ and a particular
value for that variable (‘i=0’, ‘i=1’, etc).  See *note Distinguishing
test iterations using subtests: e88. for the full version of this
example.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16997(1).)

*note unittest.main(): e89. now accepts an iterable of test names for
'defaultTest', where previously it only accepted a single test name as a
string.  (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in bpo-15132(2).)

If *note SkipTest: e8a. is raised during test discovery (that is, at the
module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of
an error.  (Contributed by Zach Ware in bpo-16935(3).)

*note discover(): e8b. now sorts the discovered files to provide
consistent test ordering.  (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani
in bpo-16709(4).)

*note TestSuite: c82. now drops references to tests as soon as the test
has been run, if the test is successful.  On Python interpreters that do
garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if
nothing else is holding a reference to the test.  It is possible to
override this behavior by creating a *note TestSuite: c82. subclass that
defines a custom ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method.  (Contributed by Tom
Wardill, Matt McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-11798(5).)

A new test assertion context-manager, *note assertLogs(): 698, will
ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the *note
logging: 86. module.  By default the message can come from any logger
and have a priority of ‘INFO’ or higher, but both the logger name and an
alternative minimum logging level may be specified.  The object returned
by the context manager can be queried for the *note LogRecord: e8c.s
and/or formatted messages that were logged.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-18937(6).)

Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu
Popa in bpo-17457(7).)

*note unittest.mock: 107. objects now inspect their specification
signatures when matching calls, which means an argument can now be
matched by either position or name, instead of only by position.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17015(8).)

‘mock_open()’ objects now have ‘readline’ and ‘readlines’ methods.
(Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in bpo-17467(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16997

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15132

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16935

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18937

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17015

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17467


File: python.info,  Node: venv<6>,  Next: wave<2>,  Prev: unittest<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.60 venv
.............

*note venv: 111. now includes activation scripts for the ‘csh’ and
‘fish’ shells.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-15417(1).)

*note EnvBuilder: e8e. and the *note create(): e8f. convenience function
take a new keyword argument 'with_pip', which defaults to ‘False’, that
controls whether or not *note EnvBuilder: e8e. ensures that ‘pip’ is
installed in the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19552(2) as part of the PEP 453(3) implementation.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: wave<2>,  Next: weakref<2>,  Prev: venv<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.61 wave
.............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17487(1).)

*note wave.open(): 7a6. now supports the context management protocol.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17616(2).)

*note wave: 113. can now *note write output to unseekable files: e91.
(Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-5202(3).)

The *note writeframesraw(): e92. and *note writeframes(): e93. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: bb5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17487

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: weakref<2>,  Next: xml etree<2>,  Prev: wave<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.62 weakref
................

New *note WeakMethod: e95. class simulates weak references to bound
methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14631(1).)

New *note finalize: 8e1. class makes it possible to register a callback
to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to
carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15528(2).)

The callback, if any, associated with a *note ref: e96. is now exposed
via the *note __callback__: e97. attribute.  (Contributed by Mark
Dickinson in bpo-17643(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15528

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17643


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree<2>,  Next: zipfile<5>,  Prev: weakref<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.63 xml.etree
..................

A new parser, *note XMLPullParser: e99, allows a non-blocking
applications to parse XML documents.  An example can be seen at *note
Pull API for non-blocking parsing: e9a.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
in bpo-17741(1).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. *note tostring(): e9b. and *note
tostringlist(): e9c. functions, and the *note ElementTree: 7a9. *note
write(): e9d. method, now have a 'short_empty_elements' *note
keyword-only parameter: 8ef. providing control over whether elements
with no content are written in abbreviated (‘<tag />’) or expanded
(‘<tag></tag>’) form.  (Contributed by Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-14377(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14377


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<5>,  Prev: xml etree<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.9.4.64 zipfile
................

The *note writepy(): e9f. method of the *note PyZipFile: ea0. class has
a new 'filterfunc' option that can be used to control which directories
and files are added to the archive.  For example, this could be used to
exclude test files from the archive.  (Contributed by Christian Tismer
in bpo-19274(1).)

The 'allowZip64' parameter to *note ZipFile: 4dc. and ‘PyZipfile’ is now
‘True’ by default.  (Contributed by William Mallard in bpo-17201(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19274

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17201


File: python.info,  Node: CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: Deprecated<10>,  Prev: Improved Modules<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.5 CPython Implementation Changes
------------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>.
* Significant Optimizations::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Next: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.9.5.1 PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
...........................................................

PEP 445(1) adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in
the CPython interpreter.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 445(2) – Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Next: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Prev: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.9.5.2 PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
.........................................

PEP 442(1) removes the current limitations and quirks of object
finalization in CPython.  With it, objects with ‘__del__()’ methods, as
well as generators with *note finally: 828. clauses, can be finalized
when they are part of a reference cycle.

As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to
*note None: 488. during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead
relying on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector.  This
avoids a whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually
involving ‘__del__’ methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic
GC was first introduced.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 442(2) – Safe object finalization

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Next: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Prev: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.9.5.3 PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
..........................................................

PEP 456(1) follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python’s hash
algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs
backed by dictionary lookups may be subject.  (See bpo-14621(2) for the
start of the current round of improvements.)  The PEP unifies CPython’s
hash code to make it easier for a packager to substitute a different
hash algorithm, and switches Python’s default implementation to a
SipHash implementation on platforms that have a 64 bit data type.  Any
performance differences in comparison with the older FNV algorithm are
trivial.

The PEP adds additional fields to the *note sys.hash_info: ea5. named
tuple to describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing
binary.  Otherwise, the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14621


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Next: Other Build and C API Changes,  Prev: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.9.5.4 PEP 436: Argument Clinic
................................

“Argument Clinic” ( PEP 436(1)) is now part of the CPython build process
and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining
accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules
implemented in C.

Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use
Argument Clinic in Python 3.4, and *note pydoc: b4. and *note inspect:
7c. have been updated accordingly.

It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection
will be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python
3.4 maintenance releases.

     Not: The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the state
     of the implementation.  This has been deemed acceptable by the
     release manager and core development team in this case, as Argument
     Clinic will not be made available as a public API for third party
     use in Python 3.4.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 436(2) – The Argument Clinic DSL

     PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Build and C API Changes,  Next: Other Improvements<2>,  Prev: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.9.5.5 Other Build and C API Changes
.....................................

   * The new *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6e7. function has been added to the
     stable ABI, allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type
     slots when using the limited API. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis
     in bpo-17162(1).)

   * The new *note Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): ea8.
     pre-initialization API allows applications embedding the CPython
     interpreter to reliably force a particular encoding and error
     handler for the standard streams.  (Contributed by Bastien Montagne
     and Nick Coghlan in bpo-16129(2).)

   * Most Python C APIs that don’t mutate string arguments are now
     correctly marked as accepting ‘const char *’ rather than ‘char *’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1772673(3).)

   * A new shell version of ‘python-config’ can be used even when a
     python interpreter is not available (for example, in cross
     compilation scenarios).

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. now supports width and precision
     specifications for ‘%s’, ‘%A’, ‘%U’, ‘%V’, ‘%S’, and ‘%R’.
     (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in bpo-7330(4).)

   * New function *note PyStructSequence_InitType2(): ea9. supplements
     the existing *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): eaa. function.  The
     difference is that it returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure.

   * The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity
     checking features of recent versions of GCC and clang: the false
     alarms in the small object allocator have been silenced.
     (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in bpo-18596(5).)

   * The Windows build now uses Address Space Layout Randomization(6)
     and Data Execution Prevention(7).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16632(8).)

   * New function *note PyObject_LengthHint(): eab. is the C API
     equivalent of *note operator.length_hint(): e0d.  (Contributed by
     Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17162

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16129

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7330

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18596

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16632

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: Other Improvements<2>,  Next: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Other Build and C API Changes,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.9.5.6 Other Improvements
..........................

   * The *note python: eae. command has a new *note option: eaf, ‘-I’,
     which causes it to run in “isolated mode”, which means that *note
     sys.path: 368. contains neither the script’s directory nor the
     user’s ‘site-packages’ directory, and all ‘PYTHON*’ environment
     variables are ignored (it implies both ‘-s’ and ‘-E’).  Other
     restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being
     to isolate the execution of a script from the user’s environment.
     This is appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a
     system script.  On most POSIX systems it can and should be used in
     the ‘#!’ line of system scripts.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16499(1).)

   * Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive
     interpreter on systems that support *note readline: b9.  History is
     also enabled by default, and is written to (and read from) the file
     ‘~/.python-history’.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric
     Araujo in bpo-5845(2).)

   * Invoking the Python interpreter with ‘--version’ now outputs the
     version to standard output instead of standard error
     (bpo-18338(3)).  Similar changes were made to *note argparse: 6.
     (bpo-18920(4)) and other modules that have script-like invocation
     capabilities (bpo-18922(5)).

   * The CPython Windows installer now adds ‘.py’ to the ‘PATHEXT’
     variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a
     python script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name
     without the ‘.py’ extension.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
     bpo-18569(6).)

   * A new ‘make’ target coverage-report(7) will build python, run the
     test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report for the C codebase
     using ‘gcov’ and lcov(8).

   * The ‘-R’ option to the *note python regression test suite: eb0. now
     also checks for memory allocation leaks, using *note
     sys.getallocatedblocks(): e6b.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-13390(9).)

   * ‘python -m’ now works with namespace packages.

   * The *note stat: d0. module is now implemented in C, which means it
     gets the values for its constants from the C header files, instead
     of having the values hard-coded in the python module as was
     previously the case.

   * Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (‘.so’,
     ‘.dll’) now works correctly (previously it silently returned the
     first python module in the file).  (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer
     in bpo-16421(10).)

   * A new opcode, ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’, has been added to fix a bug in the
     loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered
     by certain uses of *note __prepare__: adc.  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Peterson in bpo-17853(11).)

   * A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed
     by Victor Stinner using his PEP 445(12)-based ‘pyfailmalloc’ tool
     (bpo-18408(13), bpo-18520(14)).

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command now accepts a ‘--copies’ option to use copies
     rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the
     default.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-18807(15).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command also accepts a ‘--without-pip’ option to
     suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into the
     virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(16)
     as part of the PEP 453(17) implementation.)

   * The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. environment variable.  This makes it
     possible to set just the error handler, without changing the
     default encoding.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-18818(18).)

   * The *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 89, and *note gzip: 65. module
     ‘open’ functions now support ‘x’ (exclusive creation) mode.
     (Contributed by Tim Heaney and Vajrasky Kok in bpo-19201(19),
     bpo-19222(20), and bpo-19223(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18338

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18922

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18569

   (7) 
https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov

   (8) https://github.com/linux-test-project/lcov

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17853

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18408

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18520

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18818

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19201

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19223


File: python.info,  Node: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Other Improvements<2>,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.9.5.7 Significant Optimizations
.................................

   * The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-14625(1).)

   * The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced.  Each hash
     table probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash
     pairs before continuing to make random probes through the hash
     table.  This exploits cache locality to make collision resolution
     less expensive.  The collision resolution scheme can be described
     as a hybrid of linear probing and open addressing.  The number of
     additional linear probes defaults to nine.  This can be changed at
     compile-time by defining LINEAR_PROBES to be any value.  Set
     LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off linear probing entirely.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18771(2).)

   * The interpreter starts about 30% faster.  A couple of measures lead
     to the speedup.  The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup,
     e.g.  the *note re: b8, *note collections: 1d. and *note locale:
     85. modules and their dependencies are no longer imported by
     default.  The marshal module has been improved to load compiled
     Python code faster.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian
     Heimes and Victor Stinner in bpo-19219(3), bpo-19218(4),
     bpo-19209(5), bpo-19205(6) and bpo-9548(7).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. is now as fast or faster than the Python2
     version for most cases.  *note lzma.LZMAFile: eb3. has also been
     optimized.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in
     bpo-16034(8).)

   * *note random.getrandbits(): eb4. is 20%-40% faster for small
     integers (the most common use case).  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-16674(9).)

   * By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling
     of strings is now significantly faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15596(10).)

   * A performance issue in ‘io.FileIO.readall()’ has been solved.  This
     particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case
     of piping significant amounts of data through *note subprocess: d5.
     (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15758(11).)

   * *note html.escape(): eb5. is now 10x faster.  (Contributed by Matt
     Bryant in bpo-18020(12).)

   * On Windows, the native ‘VirtualAlloc’ is now used instead of the
     CRT ‘malloc’ in ‘obmalloc’.  Artificial benchmarks show about a 3%
     memory savings.

   * *note os.urandom(): 2ad. now uses a lazily opened persistent file
     descriptor so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in
     parallel from multiple threads.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-18756(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18771

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19218

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19205

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9548

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16034

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15596

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15758

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18020

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18756


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<10>,  Next: Removed<9>,  Prev: CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.6 Deprecated
----------------

This section covers various APIs and other features that have been
deprecated in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later.
In most (but not all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a
*note DeprecationWarning: 17f. when the interpreter is run with
deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by using ‘-Wd’).

* Menu:

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Deprecated Features::


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations in the Python API,  Next: Deprecated Features,  Up: Deprecated<10>

1.9.6.1 Deprecations in the Python API
......................................

   * As mentioned in *note PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import
     System: d70, a number of *note importlib: 75. methods and functions
     are deprecated: ‘importlib.find_loader()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 239.;
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): eb8.;
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 6ac.;
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     are replaced by *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec():
     6b0.; all of the ‘XXXLoader’ ABC ‘load_module’ methods
     (‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module()’) should no longer be
     implemented, instead loaders should implement an ‘exec_module’
     method (*note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 6ae, *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module(): eb9. *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module(): eba.) and let the import
     system take care of the rest; and
     ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’, and ‘importlib.util.set_package()’
     are no longer needed because their functions are now handled
     automatically by the import system.

   * The ‘imp’ module is pending deprecation.  To keep compatibility
     with Python 2/3 code bases, the module’s removal is currently not
     scheduled.

   * The ‘formatter’ module is pending deprecation and is slated for
     removal in Python 3.6.

   * ‘MD5’ as the default 'digestmod' for the *note hmac.new(): 90a.
     function is deprecated.  Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest
     name or constructor as 'digestmod' argument.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 5c. module has been
     documented as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time.  It
     now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and will be removed
     completely in Python 3.5.

   * The undocumented 'endtime' argument to *note
     subprocess.Popen.wait(): b67. should not have been exposed and is
     hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and will mostly likely be
     removed in Python 3.5.

   * The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 6bc. is deprecated.

   * The *note plistlib: aa. ‘readPlist()’, ‘writePlist()’,
     ‘readPlistFromBytes()’, and ‘writePlistToBytes()’ functions are
     deprecated in favor of the corresponding new functions *note
     load(): 7aa, *note dump(): 7ac, *note loads(): 7ab, and *note
     dumps(): 7ad.  ‘Data()’ is deprecated in favor of just using the
     *note bytes: 2cb. constructor.

   * The *note sysconfig: da. key ‘SO’ is deprecated, it has been
     replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’.

   * The ‘U’ mode accepted by various ‘open’ functions is deprecated.
     In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced
     by appropriate uses of *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. (if needed) and
     its 'newline' argument.

   * The 'parser' argument of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse():
     ebb. has been deprecated, as has the 'html' argument of *note
     XMLParser(): 8b7.  To prepare for the removal of the latter, all
     arguments to ‘XMLParser’ should be passed by keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Features,  Prev: Deprecations in the Python API,  Up: Deprecated<10>

1.9.6.2 Deprecated Features
...........................

   * Running *note IDLE — Python editor and shell: ebd. with the ‘-n’
     flag (no subprocess) is deprecated.  However, the feature will not
     be removed until bpo-18823(1) is resolved.

   * The site module adding a “site-python” directory to sys.path, if it
     exists, is deprecated (bpo-19375(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19375


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<9>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 4,  Prev: Deprecated<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.7 Removed
-------------

* Menu:

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.
* Code Cleanups::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Next: API and Feature Removals<4>,  Up: Removed<9>

1.9.7.1 Operating Systems No Longer Supported
.............................................

Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the
source and build tools:

   * OS/2 (bpo-16135(1)).

   * Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).

   * Windows systems where ‘COMSPEC’ points to ‘command.com’
     (bpo-14470(2)).

   * VMS (bpo-16136(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16135

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14470

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16136


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<4>,  Next: Code Cleanups,  Prev: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Up: Removed<9>

1.9.7.2 API and Feature Removals
................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The unmaintained ‘Misc/TextMate’ and ‘Misc/vim’ directories have
     been removed (see the devguide(1) for suggestions on what to use
     instead).

   * The ‘SO’ makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the
     ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’ and ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ macros) (bpo-16754(2)).

   * The ‘PyThreadState.tick_counter’ field has been removed; its value
     has been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the “new GIL” was
     introduced (bpo-19199(3)).

   * ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’ have been removed from *note
     importlib: 75.  (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in bpo-15641(4).)

   * The 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: 9b1. and *note
     HTTPSConnection: 9b2. has been removed.  HTTP 0.9-style “Simple
     Responses” are no longer supported.

   * The deprecated *note urllib.request.Request: e7e. getter and setter
     methods ‘add_data’, ‘has_data’, ‘get_data’, ‘get_type’, ‘get_host’,
     ‘get_selector’, ‘set_proxy’, ‘get_origin_req_host’, and
     ‘is_unverifiable’ have been removed (use direct attribute access
     instead).

   * Support for loading the deprecated ‘TYPE_INT64’ has been removed
     from *note marshal: 8c.  (Contributed by Dan Riti in bpo-15480(5).)

   * *note inspect.Signature: 563.: positional-only parameters are now
     required to have a valid name.

   * *note object.__format__(): 430. no longer accepts non-empty format
     strings, it now raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. instead.  Using a
     non-empty string has been deprecated since Python 3.2.  This change
     has been made to prevent a situation where previously working (but
     incorrect) code would start failing if an object gained a
     __format__ method, which means that your code may now raise a *note
     TypeError: 2c4. if you are using an ‘'s'’ format code with objects
     that do not have a __format__ method that handles it.  See
     bpo-7994(6) for background.

   * ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk()’ and
     ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular()’ were deprecated in 3.2, and
     have now been removed: use ‘x in sm.bjunk’ and ‘x in sm.bpopular’,
     where 'sm' is a *note SequenceMatcher: ec1. object (bpo-13248(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19199

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15480

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248


File: python.info,  Node: Code Cleanups,  Prev: API and Feature Removals<4>,  Up: Removed<9>

1.9.7.3 Code Cleanups
.....................

   * The unused and undocumented internal ‘Scanner’ class has been
     removed from the *note pydoc: b4. module.

   * The private and effectively unused ‘_gestalt’ module has been
     removed, along with the private *note platform: a9. functions
     ‘_mac_ver_lookup’, ‘_mac_ver_gstalt’, and ‘_bcd2str’, which would
     only have ever been called on badly broken OSX systems (see
     bpo-18393(1)).

   * The hardcoded copies of certain *note stat: d0. constants that were
     included in the *note tarfile: dd. module namespace have been
     removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18393


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 4,  Next: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Removed<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.8 Porting to Python 3.4
---------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>,  Next: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.9.8.1 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior
............................................

   * In a posix shell, setting the ‘PATH’ environment variable to an
     empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all.  However,
     setting *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. to an empty value was 'not'
     equivalent to not setting it at all: setting *note PYTHONPATH: ec5.
     to an empty value was equivalent to setting it to ‘.’, which leads
     to confusion when reasoning by analogy to how ‘PATH’ works.  The
     behavior now conforms to the posix convention for ‘PATH’.

   * The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (‘--with-pydebug’) build
     of the CPython interpreter is now off by default.  It can be
     re-enabled using the ‘-X showrefcount’ option.  (Contributed by
     Ezio Melotti in bpo-17323(1).)

   * The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as *note
     argparse: 6.) now output ‘--version’ information to ‘stdout’
     instead of ‘stderr’ (for issue list see *note Other Improvements:
     ead. above).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17323


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Next: Changes in the C API<5>,  Prev: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.9.8.2 Changes in the Python API
.................................

   * The ABCs defined in *note importlib.abc: 76. now either raise the
     appropriate exception or return a default value instead of raising
     *note NotImplementedError: bd6. blindly.  This will only affect
     code calling *note super(): 20d. and falling through all the way to
     the ABCs.  For compatibility, catch both *note NotImplementedError:
     bd6. or the appropriate exception as needed.

   * The module type now initializes the *note __package__: 24c. and
     *note __loader__: 267. attributes to ‘None’ by default.  To
     determine if these attributes were set in a backwards-compatible
     fashion, use e.g.  ‘getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not
     None’.  (bpo-17115(1).)

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ now sets ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ unconditionally to properly support reloading.  If
     this is not desired then you will need to set these attributes
     manually.  You can use ‘importlib.util.module_to_load()’ for module
     management.

   * Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g.  ‘__name__’,
     ‘__loader__’, ‘__package__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’)
     unconditionally when reloading.  Note that this restores a pre-3.3
     behavior in that it means a module is re-found when re-loaded
     (bpo-19413(2)).

   * Frozen packages no longer set ‘__path__’ to a list containing the
     package name, they now set it to an empty list.  The previous
     behavior could cause the import system to do the wrong thing on
     submodule imports if there was also a directory with the same name
     as the frozen package.  The correct way to determine if a module is
     a package or not is to use ‘hasattr(module, '__path__')’
     (bpo-18065(3)).

   * Frozen modules no longer define a ‘__file__’ attribute.  It’s
     semantically incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as
     they are not loaded from any explicit location.  If you must know
     that a module comes from frozen code then you can see if the
     module’s ‘__spec__.location’ is set to ‘'frozen'’, check if the
     loader is a subclass of *note importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter:
     ec7, or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use
     ‘imp.is_frozen()’.

   * *note py_compile.compile(): 887. now raises *note FileExistsError:
     ec8. if the file path it would write to is a symlink or a
     non-regular file.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     overwrite those files with a regular file regardless of what type
     of file path they were originally.

   * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source(): ec9. no longer
     raises *note ImportError: 14b. when the source code being loaded
     triggers a *note SyntaxError: 14c. or *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     873.  As *note ImportError: 14b. is meant to be raised only when
     source code cannot be found but it should, it was felt to be
     over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is
     found but improperly structured.  If you were catching ImportError
     before and wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues,
     catch all three exceptions now.

   * *note functools.update_wrapper(): eca. and *note functools.wraps():
     dfd. now correctly set the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute to the function
     being wrapped, even if that function also had its ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute set.  This means ‘__wrapped__’ attributes now correctly
     link a stack of decorated functions rather than every ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute in the chain referring to the innermost function.
     Introspection libraries that assumed the previous behaviour was
     intentional can use *note inspect.unwrap(): dfc. to access the
     first function in the chain that has no ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

   * *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 562. has been reimplemented on top
     of *note inspect.signature(): 561. and hence handles a much wider
     variety of callable objects than it did in the past.  It is
     expected that additional builtin and extension module callables
     will gain signature metadata over the course of the Python 3.4
     series.  Code that assumes that *note inspect.getfullargspec():
     562. will fail on non-Python callables may need to be adjusted
     accordingly.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: ecb. now passes on the
     current working directory to objects in *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.
     for the empty string.  This results in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. never containing ‘''’, thus iterating
     through *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. based on *note
     sys.path: 368. will not find all keys.  A module’s ‘__file__’ when
     imported in the current working directory will also now have an
     absolute path, including when using ‘-m’ with the interpreter
     (except for ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed
     directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18416(4)).  is specified on the command-line) (bpo-18416(5)).

   * The removal of the 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: 9b1.
     and *note HTTPSConnection: 9b2. changes the meaning of the
     remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather
     than by keyword.  If you’ve been paying attention to deprecation
     warnings your code should already be specifying any additional
     arguments via keywords.

   * Strings between ‘from __future__ import ...’ statements now
     'always' raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c.  Previously if there was
     no leading docstring, an interstitial string would sometimes be
     ignored.  This brings CPython into compliance with the language
     spec; Jython and PyPy already were.  (bpo-17434(6)).

   * *note ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e5a. and *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake(): d01. now raise an *note OSError: 65c.
     with ‘ENOTCONN’ when the ‘SSLSocket’ is not connected, instead of
     the previous behavior of raising an *note AttributeError: 3dc.  In
     addition, *note getpeercert(): e5a. will raise a *note ValueError:
     189. if the handshake has not yet been done.

   * *note base64.b32decode(): ecd. now raises a *note binascii.Error:
     ece. when the input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters,
     instead of a *note TypeError: 2c4.  This particular *note
     TypeError: 2c4. was missed when the other *note TypeError: 2c4.s
     were converted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18011(7).)
     Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python 3.3.3.

   * The ‘file’ attribute is now automatically closed when the creating
     ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage collected.  If you were
     pulling the file object out separately from the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’
     instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either
     store the entire ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance or read the contents
     of the file before the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage
     collected.

   * Calling ‘read’ or ‘write’ on a closed SSL socket now raises an
     informative *note ValueError: 189. rather than the previous more
     mysterious *note AttributeError: 3dc. (bpo-9177(8)).

   * *note slice.indices(): ecf. no longer produces an *note
     OverflowError: 6c7. for huge values.  As a consequence of this fix,
     *note slice.indices(): ecf. now raises a *note ValueError: 189. if
     given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense values
     (bpo-14794(9)).

   * The *note complex: 273. constructor, unlike the *note cmath: 18.
     functions, was incorrectly accepting *note float: 272. values if an
     object’s ‘__complex__’ special method returned one.  This now
     raises a *note TypeError: 2c4.  (bpo-16290(10).)

   * The *note int: 184. constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts
     *note float: 272. values for the 'base' parameter.  It is unlikely
     anyone was doing this, but if so, it will now raise a *note
     TypeError: 2c4. (bpo-16772(11)).

   * Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated 'after'
     defaults for regular keyword arguments, instead of before.
     Hopefully no one wrote any code that depends on the previous buggy
     behavior (bpo-16967(12)).

   * Stale thread states are now cleared after *note fork(): 23a.  This
     may cause some system resources to be released that previously were
     incorrectly kept perpetually alive (for example, database
     connections kept in thread-local storage).  (bpo-17094(13).)

   * Parameter names in ‘__annotations__’ dicts are now mangled
     properly, similarly to *note __kwdefaults__: ed0.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-20625(14).)

   * *note hashlib.hash.name: de8. now always returns the identifier in
     lower case.  Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names,
     but now that it is a formal public interface the naming has been
     made consistent (bpo-18532(15)).

   * Because *note unittest.TestSuite: c82. now drops references to
     tests after they are run, test harnesses that reuse a *note
     TestSuite: c82. to re-run a set of tests may fail.  Test suites
     should not be re-used in this fashion since it means state is
     retained between test runs, breaking the test isolation that *note
     unittest: 106. is designed to provide.  However, if the lack of
     isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be
     restored by creating a *note TestSuite: c82. subclass that defines
     a ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method that does nothing (see *note
     TestSuite.__iter__(): ed1.) (bpo-11798(16)).

   * *note unittest: 106. now uses *note argparse: 6. for command line
     parsing.  There are certain invalid command forms that used to work
     that are no longer allowed; in theory this should not cause
     backward compatibility issues since the disallowed command forms
     didn’t make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.

   * The *note re.split(): 9e3, *note re.findall(): ed2, and *note
     re.sub(): 208. functions, and the ‘group()’ and ‘groups()’ methods
     of ‘match’ objects now always return a 'bytes' object when the
     string to be matched is a *note bytes-like object: bb5.  Previously
     the return type matched the input type, so if your code was
     depending on the return value being, say, a ‘bytearray’, you will
     need to change your code.

   * *note audioop: d. functions now raise an error immediately if
     passed string input, instead of failing randomly later on
     (bpo-16685(17)).

   * The new 'convert_charrefs' argument to *note HTMLParser: 6bc.
     currently defaults to ‘False’ for backward compatibility, but will
     eventually be changed to default to ‘True’.  It is recommended that
     you add this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any *note
     HTMLParser: 6bc. calls in your code (bpo-13633(18)).

   * Since the 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): 90a.
     function will in the future have no default, all calls to *note
     hmac.new(): 90a. should be changed to explicitly specify a
     'digestmod' (bpo-17276(19)).

   * Calling *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): ed3. with the ‘SO’ key,
     or looking ‘SO’ up in the results of a call to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): ed4. is deprecated.  This key should
     be replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ or ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’, depending on the
     context (bpo-19555(20)).

   * Any calls to ‘open’ functions that specify ‘U’ should be modified.
     ‘U’ is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if
     used.  Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2
     behavior can be achieved using either a 'newline' argument, or if
     necessary by wrapping the stream in *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. to
     use its 'newline' argument (bpo-15204(21)).

   * If you use ‘pyvenv’ in a script and desire that pip 'not' be
     installed, you must add ‘--without-pip’ to your command invocation.

   * The default behavior of *note json.dump(): bcd. and *note
     json.dumps(): bce. when an indent is specified has changed: it no
     longer produces trailing spaces after the item separating commas at
     the ends of lines.  This will matter only if you have tests that
     are doing white-space-sensitive comparisons of such output
     (bpo-16333(22)).

   * *note doctest: 39. now looks for doctests in extension module
     ‘__doc__’ strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes
     extension modules that have things that look like doctests in them
     you may see test failures you’ve never seen before when running
     your tests (bpo-3158(23)).

   * The *note collections.abc: 1e. module has been slightly refactored
     as part of the Python startup improvements.  As a consequence of
     this, it is no longer the case that importing *note collections:
     1d. automatically imports *note collections.abc: 1e.  If your
     program depended on the (undocumented) implicit import, you will
     need to add an explicit ‘import collections.abc’ (bpo-20784(24)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18065

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17434

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18011

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9177

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14794

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16290

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16967

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17094

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20625

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19555

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15204

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16333

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20784


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<5>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.9.8.3 Changes in the C API
............................

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ed6, *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7, and
     *note PyObject_Str(): ed8, along with some other internal C APIs,
     now include a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in
     situations where they may silently discard a currently active
     exception.  In cases where discarding the active exception is
     expected and desired (for example, because it has already been
     saved locally with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe. or is being
     deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit
     *note PyErr_Clear(): ed9. call will be needed to avoid triggering
     the assertion when invoking these operations (directly or
     indirectly) and running against a version of Python that is
     compiled with assertions enabled.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): bc6. now sets *note TypeError: 2c4.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned with no exception set.

   * The result of the *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 31f. callback
     must now be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda. or
     *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred,
     instead of a string allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4. or
     *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc. (bpo-16742(1))

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 382. now always set the value.  In
     Python 3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if
     the current value is a non-‘NULL’ pointer).

   * The ‘f_tstate’ (thread state) field of the *note PyFrameObject:
     5ba. structure has been removed to fix a bug: see bpo-14432(2) for
     the rationale.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14432


File: python.info,  Node: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.9.9 Changed in 3.4.3
----------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients,  Up: Changed in 3 4 3

1.9.9.1 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
.....................................................................................

*note http.client: 6d. and modules which use it, such as *note
urllib.request: 10b. and *note xmlrpc.client: 12e, will now verify that
the server presents a certificate which is signed by a CA in the
platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being
requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib.request
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.10 What’s New In Python 3.3
=============================

This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2.
Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012.  For full details, see
the changelog(1).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 398(2) - Python 3.3 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* New Modules: New Modules<8>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<8>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<11>.
* Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0398/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<6>,  Next: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.1 Summary – Release highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * New ‘yield from’ expression for *note generator delegation: ee3.

   * The ‘u'unicode'’ syntax is accepted again for *note str: 15d.
     objects.

New library modules:

   * *note faulthandler: 56. (helps debugging low-level crashes)

   * *note ipaddress: 7e. (high-level objects representing IP addresses
     and masks)

   * *note lzma: 89. (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)

   * *note unittest.mock: 107. (replace parts of your system under test
     with mock objects)

   * *note venv: 111. (Python *note virtual environments: ee4, as in the
     popular ‘virtualenv’ package)

New built-in features:

   * Reworked *note I/O exception hierarchy: ee5.

Implementation improvements:

   * Rewritten *note import machinery: ee6. based on *note importlib:
     75.

   * More compact *note unicode strings: ee7.

   * More compact *note attribute dictionaries: ee8.

Significantly Improved Library Modules:

   * C Accelerator for the *note decimal: ee9. module.

   * Better unicode handling in the *note email: eea. module (*note
     provisional: eeb.).

Security improvements:

   * Hash randomization is switched on by default.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Next: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.2 PEP 405: Virtual Environments
------------------------------------

Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance.  Virtual environments
have their own set of private site packages (i.e.  locally installed
libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
packages.  Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
‘virtualenv’ third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
with the interpreter core.

This PEP adds the *note venv: 111. module for programmatic access, and
the ‘pyvenv’ script for command-line access and administration.  The
Python interpreter checks for a ‘pyvenv.cfg’, file whose existence
signals the base of a virtual environment’s directory tree.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 405(1) - Python Virtual Environments

     PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay
     Sajip

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Next: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Prev: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.3 PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
-------------------------------------------

Native support for package directories that don’t require ‘__init__.py’
marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired
by various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
PEP 420(1))

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 420(2) - Implicit Namespace Packages

     PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith and
     Barry Warsaw

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Next: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Prev: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.4 PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The implementation of PEP 3118(1) has been significantly improved.

The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership
and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer
struct that led to multiple crash reports.  Additionally, several
functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous
or multi-dimensional input have been fixed.

The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that
checks the consumer’s request type.  Many new features have been added,
most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and
arrays with suboffsets.

The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out
responsibilities for both exporters and consumers.  Buffer request flags
are grouped into basic and compound flags.  The memory layout of
non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.

* Menu:

* Features::
* API changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Features,  Next: API changes,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.10.4.1 Features
.................

   * All native single character format specifiers in struct module
     syntax (optionally prefixed with ‘@’) are now supported.

   * With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format
     and shape of C-contiguous arrays.

   * Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array
     type.

   * Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.

   * One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with
     formats B, b or c are now hashable.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
     in bpo-13411(1).)

   * Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported.  For
     example, it is now possible to reverse a memoryview in 'O'(1) by
     using a negative step.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13411


File: python.info,  Node: API changes,  Prev: Features,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.10.4.2 API changes
....................

   * The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.

   * The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now an
     empty tuple instead of ‘None’.

   * Accessing a memoryview element with format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes) now
     returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax).
     For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to ‘c’ first.

   * memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the
     operands and compare all array elements by value.  All format
     strings in struct module syntax are supported.  Views with
     unrecognised format strings are still permitted, but will always
     compare as unequal, regardless of view contents.

   * For further changes see *note Build and C API Changes: ef2. and
     *note Porting C code: ef3.

(Contributed by Stefan Krah in bpo-10181(1).)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3118(2) - Revising the Buffer Protocol

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10181

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Next: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Prev: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.5 PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
----------------------------------------------

The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal
representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode
ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string.  This allows a
space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full
UCS-4 on all systems.  For compatibility with existing APIs, several
representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility
should be phased out.

On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.

On the C API side, PEP 393(1) is fully backward compatible.  The legacy
API should remain available at least five years.  Applications using the
legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse -
may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two
versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient
storage).

* Menu:

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Functionality,  Next: Performance and resource usage,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.10.5.1 Functionality
......................

Changes introduced by PEP 393(1) are the following:

   * Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points,
     including non-BMP ones (i.e.  from ‘U+0000’ to ‘U+10FFFF’).  The
     distinction between narrow and wide builds no longer exists and
     Python now behaves like a wide build, even under Windows.

   * With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow
     builds have also been fixed, for example:

        * *note len(): 441. now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
          so ‘len('\U0010FFFF') == 1’;

        * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, so
          ‘'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'’;

        * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected
          value, so ‘'\U0010FFFF'[0]’ now returns ‘'\U0010FFFF'’ and not
          ‘'\uDBFF'’;

        * all other functions in the standard library now correctly
          handle non-BMP code points.

   * The value of *note sys.maxunicode: ef6. is now always ‘1114111’
     (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).  The ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’ function
     still returns either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’ for backward
     compatibility, and it should not be used with the new Unicode API
     (see bpo-13054(2)).

   * The ‘./configure’ flag ‘--with-wide-unicode’ has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13054


File: python.info,  Node: Performance and resource usage,  Prev: Functionality,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.10.5.2 Performance and resource usage
.......................................

The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in
the string:

   * pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (‘U+0000-U+00FF’) use 1 byte per code
     point;

   * BMP strings (‘U+0000-U+FFFF’) use 2 bytes per code point;

   * non-BMP strings (‘U+10000-U+10FFFF’) use 4 bytes per code point.

The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string
storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former
wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even
in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language
data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.).  We
also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache
efficiency on non-trivial applications.  The memory usage of Python 3.3
is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better
than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 393(1) - Flexible String Representation

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker
     and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Next: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Prev: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.6 PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
-------------------------------------------

The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a ‘py’ launcher
application that can be used to launch Python applications in a version
independent fashion.

This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking ‘*.py’ files.
If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
will be used to run the file.  If multiple versions are installed, the
most recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by
including a Unix-style “shebang line” in the Python script.

The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the
‘py’ application.  Running ‘py’ follows the same version selection rules
as implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be
selected by passing appropriate arguments (such as ‘-3’ to request
Python 3 when Python 2 is also installed, or ‘-2.6’ to specifically
request an earlier Python version when a more recent version is
installed).

In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an
option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH.
(Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561(1).)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 397(2) - Python Launcher for Windows

     PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v.  Löwis; implementation by
     Vinay Sajip.

Launcher documentation: *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6.

Installer PATH modification: *note Finding the Python executable: efa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3561

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Next: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Prev: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.7 PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
------------------------------------------------------------

The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now
both simplified and finer-grained.

You don’t have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
type between *note OSError: 65c, *note IOError: efc, *note
EnvironmentError: efd, *note WindowsError: efe, ‘mmap.error’, *note
socket.error: eff. or *note select.error: f00.  All these exception
types are now only one: *note OSError: 65c.  The other names are kept as
aliases for compatibility reasons.

Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition.  Instead of
inspecting the ‘errno’ attribute (or ‘args[0]’) for a particular
constant from the *note errno: 55. module, you can catch the adequate
*note OSError: 65c. subclass.  The available subclasses are the
following:

   * *note BlockingIOError: f01.

   * *note ChildProcessError: f02.

   * *note ConnectionError: c98.

   * *note FileExistsError: ec8.

   * *note FileNotFoundError: 39a.

   * *note InterruptedError: c14.

   * *note IsADirectoryError: f03.

   * *note NotADirectoryError: f04.

   * *note PermissionError: bcb.

   * *note ProcessLookupError: f05.

   * *note TimeoutError: 673.

And the *note ConnectionError: c98. itself has finer-grained subclasses:

   * *note BrokenPipeError: f06.

   * *note ConnectionAbortedError: f07.

   * *note ConnectionRefusedError: f08.

   * *note ConnectionResetError: f09.

Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the *note errno: 55. can
now be avoided.  For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:

     from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except IOError as err:
         if err.errno == ENOENT:
             print("document.txt file is missing")
         elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
             print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
         else:
             raise

can now be written without the *note errno: 55. import and without
manual inspection of exception attributes:

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         print("document.txt file is missing")
     except PermissionError:
         print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3151(1) - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Next: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Prev: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.8 PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
-------------------------------------------------------

PEP 380 adds the ‘yield from’ expression, allowing a *note generator:
f0b. to delegate part of its operations to another generator.  This
allows a section of code containing *note yield: 82b. to be factored out
and placed in another generator.  Additionally, the subgenerator is
allowed to return with a value, and the value is made available to the
delegating generator.

While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the
‘yield from’ expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary
subiterators.

For simple iterators, ‘yield from iterable’ is essentially just a
shortened form of ‘for item in iterable: yield item’:

     >>> def g(x):
     ...     yield from range(x, 0, -1)
     ...     yield from range(x)
     ...
     >>> list(g(5))
     [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

However, unlike an ordinary loop, ‘yield from’ allows subgenerators to
receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
return a final value to the outer generator:

     >>> def accumulate():
     ...     tally = 0
     ...     while 1:
     ...         next = yield
     ...         if next is None:
     ...             return tally
     ...         tally += next
     ...
     >>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
     ...     while 1:
     ...         tally = yield from accumulate()
     ...         tallies.append(tally)
     ...
     >>> tallies = []
     >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
     >>> next(acc)  # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the first tally
     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the second tally
     >>> tallies
     [6, 10]

The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that
are designed to be used with the ‘send’ and ‘throw’ methods to be split
into multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be
split into multiple subfunctions.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 380(1) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

     PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated
     into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan;
     documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Next: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Prev: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.9 PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
---------------------------------------------

PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained
exception context to be disabled.  This allows cleaner error messages in
applications that convert between exception types:

     >>> class D:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr) from None
     ...
     >>> D({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

Without the ‘from None’ suffix to suppress the cause, the original
exception would be displayed by default:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr)
     ...
     >>> C({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
     KeyError: 'x'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context
remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has
incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details):

     >>> try:
     ...     D({}).x
     ... except AttributeError as exc:
     ...     print(repr(exc.__context__))
     ...
     KeyError('x',)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 409(1) - Suppressing exception context

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick
     Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0409/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Next: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Prev: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.10 PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
------------------------------------------

To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python
applications that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once
again supports the “‘u’” prefix for string literals.  This prefix has no
semantic significance in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the
number of purely mechanical changes in migrating to Python 3, making it
easier for developers to focus on the more significant semantic changes
(such as the stricter default separation of binary and text data).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 414(1) - Explicit Unicode literals

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Next: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Prev: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.11 PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
----------------------------------------------------------

Functions and class objects have a new *note __qualname__: f0f.
attribute representing the “path” from the module top-level to their
definition.  For global functions and classes, this is the same as *note
__name__: f10.  For other functions and classes, it provides better
information about where they were actually defined, and how they might
be accessible from the global scope.

Example with (non-bound) methods:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def meth(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> C.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.meth.__qualname__
     'C.meth'

Example with nested classes:

     >>> class C:
     ...     class D:
     ...         def meth(self):
     ...             pass
     ...
     >>> C.D.__name__
     'D'
     >>> C.D.__qualname__
     'C.D'
     >>> C.D.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
     'C.D.meth'

Example with nested functions:

     >>> def outer():
     ...     def inner():
     ...         pass
     ...     return inner
     ...
     >>> outer().__name__
     'inner'
     >>> outer().__qualname__
     'outer.<locals>.inner'

The string representation of those objects is also changed to include
the new, more precise information:

     >>> str(C.D)
     "<class '__main__.C.D'>"
     >>> str(C.D.meth)
     '<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3155(1) - Qualified name for classes and functions

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Next: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Prev: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.12 PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
---------------------------------------

Dictionaries used for the storage of objects’ attributes are now able to
share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the
part which stores the keys and their respective hashes).  This reduces
the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of
non-builtin types.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 412(1) - Key-Sharing Dictionary

     PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Next: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Prev: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.13 PEP 362: Function Signature Object
------------------------------------------

A new function *note inspect.signature(): 561. makes introspection of
python callables easy and straightforward.  A broad range of callables
is supported: python functions, decorated or not, classes, and *note
functools.partial(): d61. objects.  New classes *note inspect.Signature:
563, *note inspect.Parameter: ca4. and *note inspect.BoundArguments:
f13. hold information about the call signatures, such as, annotations,
default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, which
considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
or amends calling signatures or arguments.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 362(1): - Function Signature Object

     PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon
     Seo; implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Next: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Prev: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.14 PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
------------------------------------------

A new attribute on the *note sys: d8. module exposes details specific to
the implementation of the currently running interpreter.  The initial
set of attributes on *note sys.implementation: 2a1. are ‘name’,
‘version’, ‘hexversion’, and ‘cache_tag’.

The intention of ‘sys.implementation’ is to consolidate into one
namespace the implementation-specific data used by the standard library.
This allows different Python implementations to share a single standard
library code base much more easily.  In its initial state,
‘sys.implementation’ holds only a small portion of the
implementation-specific data.  Over time that ratio will shift in order
to make the standard library more portable.

One example of improved standard library portability is ‘cache_tag’.  As
of Python 3.3, ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is used by *note
importlib: 75. to support PEP 3147(1) compliance.  Any Python
implementation that uses ‘importlib’ for its built-in import system may
use ‘cache_tag’ to control the caching behavior for modules.

* Menu:

* SimpleNamespace::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleNamespace,  Up: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation

1.10.14.1 SimpleNamespace
.........................

The implementation of ‘sys.implementation’ also introduces a new type to
Python: *note types.SimpleNamespace: 77f.  In contrast to a
mapping-based namespace, like *note dict: 240, ‘SimpleNamespace’ is
attribute-based, like *note object: 8f2.  However, unlike ‘object’,
‘SimpleNamespace’ instances are writable.  This means that you can add,
remove, and modify the namespace through normal attribute access.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 421(1) - Adding sys.implementation

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/


File: python.info,  Node: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Next: Other Language Changes<8>,  Prev: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.15 Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
-------------------------------------------------------

bpo-2377(1) - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ bpo-13959(2) -
Re-implement parts of ‘imp’ in pure Python bpo-14605(3) - Make import
machinery explicit bpo-14646(4) - Require loaders set __loader__ and
__package__

The *note __import__(): 727. function is now powered by *note
importlib.__import__(): f17.  This work leads to the completion of
“phase 2” of PEP 302(5).  There are multiple benefits to this change.
First, it has allowed for more of the machinery powering import to be
exposed instead of being implicit and hidden within the C code.  It also
provides a single implementation for all Python VMs supporting Python
3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in import
semantics.  And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
future growth to occur.

For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics.
For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import
programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are
covered in the *note Porting Python code: f18. section of this document.

* Menu:

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13959

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14605

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14646

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: New APIs,  Next: Visible Changes,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.10.15.1 New APIs
..................

One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
making the import statement work.  That means the various importers that
were once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the *note importlib:
75. package.

The abstract base classes defined in *note importlib.abc: 76. have been
expanded to properly delineate between *note meta path finders: f1a. and
*note path entry finders: f1b. by introducing *note
importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2. and *note
importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 6b3, respectively.  The old ABC of
‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
and does not enforce any method requirements.

In terms of finders, *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: f1c. exposes
the mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module.
Previously this class was an implicit member of *note sys.path_hooks:
ecc.

For loaders, the new abstract base class *note importlib.abc.FileLoader:
f1d. helps write a loader that uses the file system as the storage
mechanism for a module’s code.  The loader for source files (*note
importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader: f1e.), sourceless bytecode files
(*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader: f1f.), and extension
modules (*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b33.) are now
available for direct use.

*note ImportError: 14b. now has ‘name’ and ‘path’ attributes which are
set when there is relevant data to provide.  The message for failed
imports will also provide the full name of the module now instead of
just the tail end of the module’s name.

The *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a89. function will now call the
method with the same name on all finders cached in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. to help clean up any stored state as
necessary.


File: python.info,  Node: Visible Changes,  Prev: New APIs,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.10.15.2 Visible Changes
.........................

For potential required changes to code, see the *note Porting Python
code: f18. section.

Beyond the expanse of what *note importlib: 75. now exposes, there are
other visible changes to import.  The biggest is that *note
sys.meta_path: bb3. and *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. now store all of the
meta path finders and path entry hooks used by import.  Previously the
finders were implicit and hidden within the C code of import instead of
being directly exposed.  This means that one can now easily remove or
change the order of the various finders to fit one’s needs.

Another change is that all modules have a ‘__loader__’ attribute,
storing the loader used to create the module.  PEP 302(1) has been
updated to make this attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in
the future once 3rd-party loaders have been updated people will be able
to rely on the existence of the attribute.  Until such time, though,
import is setting the module post-load.

Loaders are also now expected to set the ‘__package__’ attribute from
PEP 366(2).  Once again, import itself is already setting this on all
loaders from *note importlib: 75. and import itself is setting the
attribute post-load.

‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. when no
finder can be found on *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.  Since
‘imp.NullImporter’ is not directly exposed on *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.
it could no longer be relied upon to always be available to use as a
value representing no finder found.

All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into
consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read
about in the *note Porting Python code: f18. section of this document.

(Implementation by Brett Cannon)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<8>,  Next: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Prev: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.16 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.  Both
     *note unicodedata.lookup(): f22. and ‘'\N{...}'’ now resolve name
     aliases, and *note unicodedata.lookup(): f22. resolves named
     sequences too.

     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-12753(1).)

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0

   * Equality comparisons on *note range(): 79c. objects now return a
     result reflecting the equality of the underlying sequences
     generated by those range objects.  (bpo-13201(2))

   * The ‘count()’, ‘find()’, ‘rfind()’, ‘index()’ and ‘rindex()’
     methods of *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. objects now
     accept an integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.

     (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12170(3).)

   * The ‘rjust()’, ‘ljust()’, and ‘center()’ methods of *note bytes:
     2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. now accept a *note bytearray: 2ca.
     for the ‘fill’ argument.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in
     bpo-12380(4).)

   * New methods have been added to *note list: 422. and *note
     bytearray: 2ca.: ‘copy()’ and ‘clear()’ (bpo-10516(5)).
     Consequently, *note MutableSequence: c62. now also defines a
     ‘clear()’ method (bpo-11388(6)).

   * Raw bytes literals can now be written ‘rb"..."’ as well as
     ‘br"..."’.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13748(7).)

   * *note dict.setdefault(): f23. now does only one lookup for the
     given key, making it atomic when used with built-in types.

     (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13521(8).)

   * The error messages produced when a function call does not match the
     function signature have been significantly improved.

     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12753

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13201

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12170

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10516

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11388

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13748

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13521


File: python.info,  Node: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Next: Builtin functions and types,  Prev: Other Language Changes<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.17 A Finer-Grained Import Lock
-----------------------------------

Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a
module would trigger code execution in a different thread as a
side-effect.  Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
*note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 35e. C API function.

In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock.  This
correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads
(preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while
eliminating the aforementioned annoyances.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9260(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9260


File: python.info,  Node: Builtin functions and types,  Next: New Modules<8>,  Prev: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.18 Builtin functions and types
-----------------------------------

   * *note open(): 2a6. gets a new 'opener' parameter: the underlying
     file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling
     'opener' with ('file', 'flags').  It can be used to use custom
     flags like *note os.O_CLOEXEC: f26. for example.  The ‘'x'’ mode
     was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already
     exists.

   * *note print(): e16.: added the 'flush' keyword argument.  If the
     'flush' keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

   * *note hash(): 3f7.: hash randomization is enabled by default, see
     *note object.__hash__(): 969. and *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27.

   * The *note str: 15d. type gets a new *note casefold(): c64. method:
     return a casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be
     used for caseless matching.  For example, ‘'ß'.casefold()’ returns
     ‘'ss'’.

   * The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to
     better explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide
     specific documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence
     types (bpo-4966(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4966


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<8>,  Next: Improved Modules<8>,  Prev: Builtin functions and types,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.19 New Modules
-------------------

* Menu:

* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<4>,  Next: ipaddress<6>,  Up: New Modules<8>

1.10.19.1 faulthandler
......................

This new debug module *note faulthandler: 56. contains functions to dump
Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault (a crash like a segmentation
fault), after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): b21. to install fault handlers for the ‘SIGSEGV’,
‘SIGFPE’, ‘SIGABRT’, ‘SIGBUS’, and ‘SIGILL’ signals.  You can also
enable them at startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f2a.
environment variable or by using *note -X: 18e. ‘faulthandler’ command
line option.

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<6>,  Next: lzma<2>,  Prev: faulthandler<4>,  Up: New Modules<8>

1.10.19.2 ipaddress
...................

The new *note ipaddress: 7e. module provides tools for creating and
manipulating objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and
interfaces (i.e.  an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).

(Contributed by Google and Peter Moody in PEP 3144(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3144/


File: python.info,  Node: lzma<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<6>,  Up: New Modules<8>

1.10.19.3 lzma
..............

The newly added *note lzma: 89. module provides data compression and
decompression using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ‘.xz’
and ‘.lzma’ file formats.

(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in bpo-6715(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6715


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<8>,  Next: Optimizations<7>,  Prev: New Modules<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.20 Improved Modules
------------------------

* Menu:

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<4>.
* base64: base64<3>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* email: email<6>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* http: http<4>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<5>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* math: math<8>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<11>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<7>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<10>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<8>.
* time: time<7>.
* types: types<6>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc<2>,  Next: array<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.1 abc
.............

Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors
composed with abstract methods.  The recommended approach to declaring
abstract descriptors is now to provide ‘__isabstractmethod__’ as a
dynamically updated property.  The built-in descriptors have been
updated accordingly.

   * *note abc.abstractproperty: f2f. has been deprecated, use *note
     property: 43c. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): f30. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: f31. has been deprecated, use *note
     classmethod: 252. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): f30. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: f32. has been deprecated, use *note
     staticmethod: 612. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): f30. instead.

(Contributed by Darren Dale in bpo-11610(1).)

*note abc.ABCMeta.register(): f33. now returns the registered subclass,
which means it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10868


File: python.info,  Node: array<4>,  Next: base64<3>,  Prev: abc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.2 array
...............

The *note array: 7. module supports the long long type using ‘q’ and ‘Q’
type codes.

(Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in bpo-1172711(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1172711


File: python.info,  Node: base64<3>,  Next: binascii<3>,  Prev: array<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.3 base64
................

ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of
the *note base64: e. modern interface.  For example,
‘base64.b64decode('YWJj')’ returns ‘b'abc'’.  (Contributed by Catalin
Iacob in bpo-13641(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13641


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<3>,  Next: bz2<2>,  Prev: base64<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.4 binascii
..................

In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the ‘a2b_’
functions now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13637(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13637


File: python.info,  Node: bz2<2>,  Next: codecs<2>,  Prev: binascii<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.5 bz2
.............

The *note bz2: 13. module has been rewritten from scratch.  In the
process, several new features have been added:

   * New *note bz2.open(): f38. function: open a bzip2-compressed file
     in binary or text mode.

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. can now read from and write to arbitrary
     file-like objects, by means of its constructor’s 'fileobj'
     argument.

     (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-5863(1).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. and *note bz2.decompress(): f39. can now
     decompress multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the
     ‘pbzip2’ tool).  *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. can now also be used to
     create this type of file, using the ‘'a'’ (append) mode.

     (Contributed by Nir Aides in bpo-1625(2).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. now implements all of the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. API, except for the ‘detach()’ and
     ‘truncate()’ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5863

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1625


File: python.info,  Node: codecs<2>,  Next: collections<7>,  Prev: bz2<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.6 codecs
................

The *note mbcs: 51. codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
‘replace’ and ‘ignore’ error handlers on all Windows versions.  The
*note mbcs: 51. codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only
‘replace’ to encode and ‘ignore’ to decode.

A new Windows-only codec has been added: ‘cp65001’ (bpo-13216(1)).  It
is the Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ‘CP_UTF8’).  For example,
it is used by ‘sys.stdout’ if the console output code page is set to
cp65001 (e.g., using ‘chcp 65001’ command).

Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster.  They only ignore the
first byte of an invalid byte sequence.  For example,
‘b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', 'replace')’ now returns a ‘\n’ after the
replacement character.

(bpo-12016(2))

Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their
encode() methods.  For example:

     >>> import codecs
     >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
     >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
     b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'

This example gives ‘b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'’ with older
Python versions.

(bpo-12100(3))

The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12016

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12100


File: python.info,  Node: collections<7>,  Next: contextlib<7>,  Prev: codecs<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.7 collections
.....................

Addition of a new *note ChainMap: a95. class to allow treating a number
of mappings as a single unit.  (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
bpo-11089(1), made public in bpo-11297(2).)

The abstract base classes have been moved in a new *note
collections.abc: 1e. module, to better differentiate between the
abstract and the concrete collections classes.  Aliases for ABCs are
still present in the *note collections: 1d. module to preserve existing
imports.  (bpo-11085(3))

The *note Counter: f3c. class now supports the unary ‘+’ and ‘-’
operators, as well as the in-place operators ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘|=’, and ‘&=’.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11297

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11085

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13121


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<7>,  Next: crypt<2>,  Prev: collections<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.8 contextlib
....................

*note ExitStack: 999. now provides a solid foundation for programmatic
manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup functionality.
Unlike the previous ‘contextlib.nested’ API (which was deprecated and
removed), the new API is designed to work correctly regardless of
whether context managers acquire their resources in their ‘__init__’
method (for example, file objects) or in their ‘__enter__’ method (for
example, synchronisation objects from the *note threading: ec. module).

(bpo-13585(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13585


File: python.info,  Node: crypt<2>,  Next: curses<5>,  Prev: contextlib<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.9 crypt
...............

Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the *note
mksalt(): 99f. function to the *note crypt: 28. module.

(bpo-10924(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10924


File: python.info,  Node: curses<5>,  Next: datetime<6>,  Prev: crypt<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.10 curses
.................

   * If the *note curses: 2b. module is linked to the ncursesw library,
     use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed
     (e.g.  ‘waddwstr()’), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g.
     ‘waddstr()’).

   * Use the locale encoding instead of ‘utf-8’ to encode Unicode
     strings.

   * ‘curses.window’ has a new *note curses.window.encoding: f40.
     attribute.

   * The ‘curses.window’ class has a new *note get_wch(): f41. method to
     get a wide character

   * The *note curses: 2b. module has a new *note unget_wch(): f42.
     function to push a wide character so the next *note get_wch(): f41.
     will return it

(Contributed by Iñigo Serna in bpo-6755(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6755


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<6>,  Next: decimal<3>,  Prev: curses<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.11 datetime
...................

   * Equality comparisons between naive and aware *note datetime: 22b.
     instances now return *note False: 9a8. instead of raising *note
     TypeError: 2c4. (bpo-15006(1)).

   * New *note datetime.datetime.timestamp(): f44. method: Return POSIX
     timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 22b. instance.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): b11. method supports
     formatting years older than 1000.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 82e. method can now be
     called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system
     timezone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15006


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<3>,  Next: email<6>,  Prev: datetime<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.12 decimal
..................

bpo-7652(1) - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.

     C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah.

The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed
libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal
floating-point arithmetic.  libmpdec conforms to IBM’s General Decimal
Arithmetic Specification.

Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for
numerically intensive applications.  These numbers are expected gains
for standard precisions used in decimal floating-point arithmetic.
Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary.
For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be
significantly higher.

The following table is meant as an illustration.  Benchmarks are
available at ‘https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html’.

                   decimal.py        _decimal           speedup
                                                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
     pi            42.02s            0.345s             120x
                                                        
                                                        
     telco         172.19s           5.68s              30x
                                                        
                                                        
     psycopg       3.57s             0.29s              12x
                                                        

* Menu:

* Features: Features<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7652


File: python.info,  Node: Features<2>,  Next: API changes<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.10.20.13 Features
...................

   * The *note FloatOperation: f47. signal optionally enables stricter
     semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

   * If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically
     disables the expensive thread local context machinery.  In this
     case, the variable *note HAVE_THREADS: f48. is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: API changes<2>,  Prev: Features<2>,  Up: decimal<3>

1.10.20.14 API changes
......................

   * The C module has the following context limits, depending on the
     machine architecture:

                                  32-bit               64-bit
                                                       
          ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
          ‘MAX_PREC’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MAX_EMAX’              ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                       
                                                       
          ‘MIN_EMIN’              ‘-425000000’         ‘-999999999999999999’
                                                       

   * In the context templates (*note DefaultContext: f4a, *note
     BasicContext: f4b. and *note ExtendedContext: f4c.) the magnitude
     of ‘Emax’ and ‘Emin’ has changed to ‘999999’.

   * The *note Decimal: 609. constructor in decimal.py does not observe
     the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or
     precision exactly.  Since the C version has internal limits, the
     following scheme is used: If possible, values are converted
     exactly, otherwise *note InvalidOperation: f4d. is raised and the
     result is NaN. In the latter case it is always possible to use
     *note create_decimal(): f4e. in order to obtain a rounded or
     inexact value.

   * The power function in decimal.py is always correctly rounded.  In
     the C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly rounded
     *note exp(): f4f. and *note ln(): f50. functions, but the final
     result is only “almost always correctly rounded”.

   * In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is
     a *note MutableMapping: f51.  For speed reasons, ‘flags’ and
     ‘traps’ always refer to the same *note MutableMapping: f51. that
     the context was initialized with.  If a new signal dictionary is
     assigned, ‘flags’ and ‘traps’ are updated with the new values, but
     they do not reference the RHS dictionary.

   * Pickling a *note Context: f52. produces a different output in order
     to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions.

   * The order of arguments in the *note Context: f52. constructor has
     been changed to match the order displayed by *note repr(): 637.

   * The ‘watchexp’ parameter in the *note quantize(): f53. method is
     deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: email<6>,  Next: ftplib<3>,  Prev: decimal<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.15 email
................

* Menu:

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Framework,  Next: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<6>

1.10.20.16 Policy Framework
...........................

The email package now has a *note policy: 4e. framework.  A *note
Policy: f56. is an object with several methods and properties that
control how the email package behaves.  The primary policy for Python
3.3 is the *note Compat32: f57. policy, which provides backward
compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2.  A ‘policy’ can be
specified when an email message is parsed by a *note parser: 4d, or when
a *note Message: b1b. object is created, or when an email is serialized
using a *note generator: 3f.  Unless overridden, a policy passed to a
‘parser’ is inherited by all the ‘Message’ object and sub-objects
created by the ‘parser’.  By default a ‘generator’ will use the policy
of the ‘Message’ object it is serializing.  The default policy is *note
compat32: b1a.

The minimum set of controls implemented by all ‘policy’ objects are:

max_line_length     The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s),
                    individual lines may have when a ‘Message’ is serialized.
                    Defaults to 78.
                    
                    
linesep             The character used to separate individual lines when a
                    ‘Message’ is serialized.  Defaults to ‘\n’.
                    
                    
cte_type            ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’.  ‘8bit’ applies only to a ‘Bytes’
                    ‘generator’, and means that non-ASCII may be used where
                    allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the
                    original input).
                    
                    
raise_on_defect     Causes a ‘parser’ to raise error when defects are
                    encountered instead of adding them to the ‘Message’
                    object’s ‘defects’ list.
                    

A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the *note
clone(): f58. method of policy objects.  ‘clone’ takes any of the above
controls as keyword arguments.  Any control not specified in the call
retains its default value.  Thus you can create a policy that uses
‘\r\n’ linesep characters like this:

     mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')

Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format
needed by your application simpler.  Instead of having to remember to
specify ‘linesep='\r\n'’ in all the places you call a ‘generator’, you
can specify it once, when you set the policy used by the ‘parser’ or the
‘Message’, whichever your program uses to create ‘Message’ objects.  On
the other hand, if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you
can still specify the parameters in the appropriate ‘generator’ call.
Or you can have custom policy instances for your different cases, and
pass those in when you create the ‘generator’.


File: python.info,  Node: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Next: Other API Changes,  Prev: Policy Framework,  Up: email<6>

1.10.20.17 Provisional Policy with New Header API
.................................................

While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main
motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies
that implement new features for the email package in a way that
maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new
policies.  Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are
releasing them in Python 3.3 as a *note provisional policy: eeb.
Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code)
may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.

The new policies are instances of *note EmailPolicy: f5a, and add the
following additional controls:

refold_source       Controls whether or not headers parsed by a
                    *note parser: 4d. are refolded by the
                    *note generator: 3f.  It can be ‘none’, ‘long’, or ‘all’.
                    The default is ‘long’, which means that source headers
                    with a line longer than ‘max_line_length’ get refolded.
                    ‘none’ means no line get refolded, and ‘all’ means that
                    all lines get refolded.
                    
                    
header_factory      A callable that take a ‘name’ and ‘value’ and produces a
                    custom header object.
                    

The ‘header_factory’ is the key to the new features provided by the new
policies.  When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved
from a ‘Message’ object is an object produced by the ‘header_factory’,
and any time you set a header on a ‘Message’ it becomes an object
produced by ‘header_factory’.  All such header objects have a ‘name’
attribute equal to the header name.  Address and Date headers have
additional attributes that give you access to the parsed data of the
header.  This means you can now do things like this:

     >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
     >>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
     'foo'
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
     'Éric'
     >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
     >>> m['Date'].datetime
     datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
     >>> m['Date']
     'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400

You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
‘utf-8’ when the message is serialized, but that when the header is
accessed directly, you get the unicode version.  This eliminates any
need to deal with the *note email.header: 40. *note decode_header():
f5b. or *note make_header(): f5c. functions.

You can also create addresses from parts:

     >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
     ...                           Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
     ...            Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
     cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>

Decoding to unicode is done automatically:

     >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
     >>> m2['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'

When you parse a message, you can use the ‘addresses’ and ‘groups’
attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
addresses:

     >>> m2['cc'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
     >>> m2['cc'].groups
     (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))

In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation
works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings,
and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to
and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.


File: python.info,  Node: Other API Changes,  Prev: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<6>

1.10.20.18 Other API Changes
............................

New *note BytesHeaderParser: f5e, added to the *note parser: 4d. module
to complement *note HeaderParser: f5f. and complete the Bytes API.

New utility functions:

   * *note format_datetime(): f60.: given a *note datetime: 22b, produce
     a string formatted for use in an email header.

   * *note parsedate_to_datetime(): f61.: given a date string from an
     email header, convert it into an aware *note datetime: 22b, or a
     naive *note datetime: 22b. if the offset is ‘-0000’.

   * *note localtime(): 231.: With no argument, returns the current
     local time as an aware *note datetime: 22b. using the local *note
     timezone: f62.  Given an aware *note datetime: 22b, converts it
     into an aware *note datetime: 22b. using the local *note timezone:
     f62.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<3>,  Next: functools<6>,  Prev: email<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.19 ftplib
.................

   * *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. now accepts a ‘source_address’ keyword
     argument to specify the ‘(host, port)’ to use as the source address
     in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8594(1).)

   * The *note FTP_TLS: 750. class now provides a new *note ccc(): f64.
     function to revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be
     useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
     with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139(2).)

   * Added *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): f65. method which provides a
     parsable directory listing format and deprecates *note
     ftplib.FTP.nlst(): f66. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): f67.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8594

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11072


File: python.info,  Node: functools<6>,  Next: gc<6>,  Prev: ftplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.20 functools
....................

The *note functools.lru_cache(): 84e. decorator now accepts a ‘typed’
keyword argument (that defaults to ‘False’ to ensure that it caches
values of different types that compare equal in separate cache slots.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<6>,  Next: hmac<4>,  Prev: functools<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.21 gc
.............

It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage
collector before and after collection using the new *note callbacks:
f6a. list.


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<4>,  Next: http<4>,  Prev: gc<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.22 hmac
...............

A new *note compare_digest(): f6c. function has been added to prevent
side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis.  (Contributed
by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15061


File: python.info,  Node: http<4>,  Next: html<2>,  Prev: hmac<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.23 http
...............

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. now buffers the headers
and writes them all at once when *note end_headers(): f6f. is called.  A
new method *note flush_headers(): f70. can be used to directly manage
when the accumulated headers are sent.  (Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in
bpo-3709(1).)

*note http.server: 70. now produces valid ‘HTML 4.01 strict’ output.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295(2).)

*note http.client.HTTPResponse: f71. now has a *note readinto(): f72.
method, which means it can be used as an *note io.RawIOBase: f73. class.
(Contributed by John Kuhn in bpo-13464(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13464


File: python.info,  Node: html<2>,  Next: imaplib<3>,  Prev: http<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.24 html
...............

*note html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc. is now able to parse broken markup
without raising errors, therefore the 'strict' argument of the
constructor and the ‘HTMLParseError’ exception are now deprecated.  The
ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes
that are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python
2.7/3.2.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(1), and
bpo-14538(2), bpo-13993(3), bpo-13960(4), bpo-13358(5), bpo-1745761(6),
bpo-755670(7), bpo-13357(8), bpo-12629(9), bpo-1200313(10),
bpo-670664(11), bpo-13273(12), bpo-12888(13), bpo-7311(14).)

A new *note html5: f75. dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g.  ‘html5['gt;']
== '>'’) has been added to the *note html.entities: 6a. module.  The
dictionary is now also used by *note HTMLParser: 6bc.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-11113(15) and bpo-15156(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13993

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13960

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13358

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1745761

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=755670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12629

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1200313

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=670664

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13273

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12888

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7311

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11113

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15156


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<3>,  Next: inspect<9>,  Prev: html<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.25 imaplib
..................

The *note IMAP4_SSL: 759. constructor now accepts an SSLContext
parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.

(Contributed by Sijin Joseph in bpo-8808(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8808


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<9>,  Next: io<5>,  Prev: imaplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.26 inspect
..................

A new *note getclosurevars(): f78. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of all names referenced from the
function body and where those names were resolved, making it easier to
verify correct internal state when testing code that relies on stateful
closures.

(Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13062(1).)

A new *note getgeneratorlocals(): f79. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of local variables in the
generator’s stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal
state when testing generators.

(Contributed by Meador Inge in bpo-15153(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13062

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15153


File: python.info,  Node: io<5>,  Next: itertools<5>,  Prev: inspect<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.27 io
.............

The *note open(): 2a7. function has a new ‘'x'’ mode that can be used to
exclusively create a new file, and raise a *note FileExistsError: ec8.
if the file already exists.  It is based on the C11 ‘x’ mode to fopen().

(Contributed by David Townshend in bpo-12760(1).)

The constructor of the *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. class has a new
'write_through' optional argument.  If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls
to ‘write()’ are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the
*note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. object is immediately handled to its
underlying binary buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12760


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<5>,  Next: logging<6>,  Prev: io<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.28 itertools
....................

*note accumulate(): 85d. now takes an optional ‘func’ argument for
providing a user-supplied binary function.


File: python.info,  Node: logging<6>,  Next: math<8>,  Prev: itertools<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.29 logging
..................

The *note basicConfig(): 860. function now supports an optional
‘handlers’ argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the
root logger.

A class level attribute ‘append_nul’ has been added to *note
SysLogHandler: 46f. to allow control of the appending of the ‘NUL’
(‘\000’) byte to syslog records, since for some daemons it is required
while for others it is passed through to the log.


File: python.info,  Node: math<8>,  Next: mmap<3>,  Prev: logging<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.30 math
...............

The *note math: 8d. module has a new function, *note log2(): f7e, which
returns the base-2 logarithm of 'x'.

(Written by Mark Dickinson in bpo-11888(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11888


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<3>,  Next: multiprocessing<7>,  Prev: math<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.31 mmap
...............

The *note read(): f80. method is now more compatible with other
file-like objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as ‘None’, it
returns the bytes from the current file position to the end of the
mapping.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12021


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<7>,  Next: nntplib<2>,  Prev: mmap<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.32 multiprocessing
..........................

The new *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f82. function allows
polling multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a
timeout.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328(1).)

‘multiprocessing.Connection’ objects can now be transferred over
multiprocessing connections.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in
bpo-4892(2).)

*note multiprocessing.Process: 9cd. now accepts a ‘daemon’ keyword
argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ‘daemon’
flag from the parent process (bpo-6064(3)).

New attribute *note multiprocessing.Process.sentinel: f83. allows a
program to wait on multiple *note Process: 9cd. objects at one time
using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, *note select: c0. on
posix systems).

New methods *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap(): f84. and *note
starmap_async(): f85. provide *note itertools.starmap(): f86.
equivalents to the existing *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map(): f87.
and *note map_async(): f88. functions.  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack
in bpo-12708(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12328

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4892

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12708


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib<2>,  Next: os<11>,  Prev: multiprocessing<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.33 nntplib
..................

The *note nntplib.NNTP: 76d. class now supports the context management
protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: eff. exceptions
and to close the NNTP connection when done:

     >>> from nntplib import NNTP
     >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
     ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
     ...
     ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
     >>>

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-9795(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9795


File: python.info,  Node: os<11>,  Next: pdb<6>,  Prev: nntplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.34 os
.............

   * The *note os: a0. module has a new *note pipe2(): f8b. function
     that makes it possible to create a pipe with *note O_CLOEXEC: f26.
     or *note O_NONBLOCK: ccb. flags set atomically.  This is especially
     useful to avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.

   * The *note os: a0. module has a new *note sendfile(): 97d. function
     which provides an efficient “zero-copy” way for copying data from
     one file (or socket) descriptor to another.  The phrase “zero-copy”
     refers to the fact that all of the copying of data between the two
     descriptors is done entirely by the kernel, with no copying of data
     into userspace buffers.  *note sendfile(): 97d. can be used to
     efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, e.g.
     for downloading a file.

     (Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-10882(1).)

   * To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with
     temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also
     faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names.
     Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions
     to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761(2), bpo-10755(3) and
     bpo-14626(4)).

        - The *note os: a0. module has a new *note fwalk(): 9cf.
          function similar to *note walk(): 1d1. except that it also
          yields file descriptors referring to the directories visited.
          This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.

        - The following functions get new optional 'dir_fd' (*note paths
          relative to directory descriptors: f8c.) and/or
          'follow_symlinks' (*note not following symlinks: f8d.): *note
          access(): f8e, *note chflags(): f8f, *note chmod(): f90, *note
          chown(): f91, *note link(): f92, *note lstat(): 1c6, *note
          mkdir(): 1c7, *note mkfifo(): c1d, *note mknod(): c1e, *note
          open(): c1f, *note readlink(): 778, *note remove(): f93, *note
          rename(): f94, *note replace(): f95, *note rmdir(): f96, *note
          stat(): 1c5, *note symlink(): f97, *note unlink(): f98, *note
          utime(): f99.  Platform support for using these parameters can
          be checked via the sets *note os.supports_dir_fd: f9a. and
          ‘os.supports_follows_symlinks’.

        - The following functions now support a file descriptor for
          their path argument: *note chdir(): 41e, *note chmod(): f90,
          *note chown(): f91, *note execve(): f9b, *note listdir(): f9c,
          *note pathconf(): f9d, *note exists(): 86f, *note stat(): 1c5,
          *note statvfs(): f9e, *note utime(): f99.  Platform support
          for this can be checked via the *note os.supports_fd: f9f.
          set.

   * *note access(): f8e. accepts an ‘effective_ids’ keyword argument to
     turn on using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid in
     the access check.  Platform support for this can be checked via the
     *note supports_effective_ids: fa0. set.

   * The *note os: a0. module has two new functions: *note
     getpriority(): fa1. and *note setpriority(): fa2.  They can be used
     to get or set process niceness/priority in a fashion similar to
     *note os.nice(): fa3. but extended to all processes instead of just
     the current one.

     (Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10784(5).)

   * The new *note os.replace(): f95. function allows cross-platform
     renaming of a file with overwriting the destination.  With *note
     os.rename(): f94, an existing destination file is overwritten under
     POSIX, but raises an error under Windows.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-8828(6).)

   * The stat family of functions (*note stat(): 1c5, *note fstat():
     c19, and *note lstat(): 1c6.) now support reading a file’s
     timestamps with nanosecond precision.  Symmetrically, *note
     utime(): f99. can now write file timestamps with nanosecond
     precision.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(7).)

   * The new *note os.get_terminal_size(): fa4. function queries the
     size of the terminal attached to a file descriptor.  See also *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): fa5.  (Contributed by Zbigniew
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(8).)

   * New functions to support Linux extended attributes (bpo-12720(9)):
     *note getxattr(): fa6, *note listxattr(): fa7, *note removexattr():
     fa8, *note setxattr(): fa9.

   * New interface to the scheduler.  These functions control how a
     process is allocated CPU time by the operating system.  New
     functions: *note sched_get_priority_max(): faa, *note
     sched_get_priority_min(): fab, *note sched_getaffinity(): fac,
     *note sched_getparam(): fad, *note sched_getscheduler(): fae, *note
     sched_rr_get_interval(): faf, *note sched_setaffinity(): fb0, *note
     sched_setparam(): fb1, *note sched_setscheduler(): fb2, *note
     sched_yield(): fb3,

   * New functions to control the file system:

        * *note posix_fadvise(): c20.: Announces an intention to access
          data in a specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make
          optimizations.

        * *note posix_fallocate(): c21.: Ensures that enough disk space
          is allocated for a file.

        * *note sync(): fb4.: Force write of everything to disk.

   * Additional new posix functions:

        * *note lockf(): fb5.: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an
          open file descriptor.

        * *note pread(): 9d3.: Read from a file descriptor at an offset,
          the file offset remains unchanged.

        * *note pwrite(): 9d6.: Write to a file descriptor from an
          offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.

        * *note readv(): 9d2.: Read from a file descriptor into a number
          of writable buffers.

        * *note truncate(): ccc.: Truncate the file corresponding to
          'path', so that it is at most 'length' bytes in size.

        * *note waitid(): c26.: Wait for the completion of one or more
          child processes.

        * *note writev(): 9d5.: Write the contents of 'buffers' to a
          file descriptor, where 'buffers' is an arbitrary sequence of
          buffers.

        * *note getgrouplist(): fb6. (bpo-9344(10)): Return list of
          group ids that specified user belongs to.

   * *note times(): fb7. and *note uname(): fb8.: Return type changed
     from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.

   * Some platforms now support additional constants for the *note
     lseek(): fb9. function, such as ‘os.SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘os.SEEK_DATA’.

   * New constants *note RTLD_LAZY: fba, *note RTLD_NOW: fbb, *note
     RTLD_GLOBAL: fbc, *note RTLD_LOCAL: fbd, *note RTLD_NODELETE: fbe,
     *note RTLD_NOLOAD: fbf, and *note RTLD_DEEPBIND: fc0. are available
     on platforms that support them.  These are for use with the *note
     sys.setdlopenflags(): fc1. function, and supersede the similar
     constants defined in *note ctypes: 2a. and ‘DLFCN’.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-13226(11).)

   * *note os.symlink(): f97. now accepts (and ignores) the
     ‘target_is_directory’ keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to
     ease cross-platform support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4761

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10755

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10784

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8828

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12720

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9344

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13226


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<6>,  Next: pickle<5>,  Prev: os<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.35 pdb
..............

Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also
their arguments.  For example, for the ‘break’ command, function and
file names are completed.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-14210(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14210


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<5>,  Next: pydoc<5>,  Prev: pdb<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.36 pickle
.................

*note pickle.Pickler: 880. objects now have an optional *note
dispatch_table: fc4. attribute allowing per-pickler reduction functions
to be set.

(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-14166(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14166


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<5>,  Next: re<7>,  Prev: pickle<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.37 pydoc
................

The Tk GUI and the ‘serve()’ function have been removed from the *note
pydoc: b4. module: ‘pydoc -g’ and ‘serve()’ have been deprecated in
Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: re<7>,  Next: sched,  Prev: pydoc<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.38 re
.............

*note str: 15d. regular expressions now support ‘\u’ and ‘\U’ escapes.

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-3665(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3665


File: python.info,  Node: sched,  Next: select<2>,  Prev: re<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.39 sched
................

   * *note run(): fc8. now accepts a 'blocking' parameter which when set
     to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to
     expire soonest (if any) and then return immediately.  This is
     useful in case you want to use the *note scheduler: fc9. in
     non-blocking applications.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-13449(1).)

   * *note scheduler: fc9. class can now be safely used in
     multi-threaded environments.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8684(2).)

   * 'timefunc' and 'delayfunct' parameters of *note scheduler: fc9.
     class constructor are now optional and defaults to *note
     time.time(): 94f. and *note time.sleep(): 4b2. respectively.
     (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(3).)

   * *note enter(): fca. and *note enterabs(): fcb. 'argument' parameter
     is now optional.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(4).)

   * *note enter(): fca. and *note enterabs(): fcb. now accept a
     'kwargs' parameter.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245


File: python.info,  Node: select<2>,  Next: shlex<3>,  Prev: sched,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.40 select
.................

Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class *note select.devpoll:
e36. for high performance asynchronous sockets via ‘/dev/poll’.
(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6397


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<3>,  Next: shutil<6>,  Prev: select<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.41 shlex
................

The previously undocumented helper function ‘quote’ from the *note
pipes: a7. modules has been moved to the *note shlex: c3. module and
documented.  *note quote(): fce. properly escapes all characters in a
string that might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<6>,  Next: signal<4>,  Prev: shlex<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.42 shutil
.................

   * New functions:

        * *note disk_usage(): fd0.: provides total, used and free disk
          space statistics.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
          bpo-12442(1).)

        * *note chown(): fd1.: allows one to change user and/or group of
          the given path also specifying the user/group names and not
          only their numeric ids.  (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in
          bpo-12191(2).)

        * *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): fa5.: returns the size of
          the terminal window to which the interpreter is attached.
          (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(3).)

   * *note copy2(): 8bf. and *note copystat(): fd2. now preserve file
     timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
     They also preserve file “extended attributes” on Linux.
     (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(4) and bpo-15238(5).)

   * Several functions now take an optional ‘symlinks’ argument: when
     that parameter is true, symlinks aren’t dereferenced and the
     operation instead acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if
     relevant).  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715(6).)

   * When copying files to a different file system, *note move(): 8c0.
     now handles symlinks the way the posix ‘mv’ command does,
     recreating the symlink rather than copying the target file
     contents.  (Contributed by Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993(7).)  *note
     move(): 8c0. now also returns the ‘dst’ argument as its result.

   * *note rmtree(): 1df. is now resistant to symlink attacks on
     platforms which support the new ‘dir_fd’ parameter in *note
     os.open(): c1f. and *note os.unlink(): f98.  (Contributed by Martin
     von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-4489(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12442

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12191

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15238

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12715

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4489


File: python.info,  Node: signal<4>,  Next: smtpd<4>,  Prev: shutil<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.43 signal
.................

   * The *note signal: c5. module has new functions:

        * *note pthread_sigmask(): fd4.: fetch and/or change the signal
          mask of the calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone
          in bpo-8407(1));

        * *note pthread_kill(): fd5.: send a signal to a thread;

        * *note sigpending(): fd6.: examine pending functions;

        * *note sigwait(): fd7.: wait a signal;

        * *note sigwaitinfo(): c38.: wait for a signal, returning
          detailed information about it;

        * *note sigtimedwait(): c37.: like *note sigwaitinfo(): c38. but
          with a timeout.

   * The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte
     instead of a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor.  So it is
     possible to wait more than one signal and know which signals were
     raised.

   * *note signal.signal(): fd8. and *note signal.siginterrupt(): fd9.
     raise an OSError, instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno
     attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8407


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<4>,  Next: smtplib<4>,  Prev: signal<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.44 smtpd
................

The ‘smtpd’ module now supports RFC 5321(1) (extended SMTP) and RFC
1870(2) (size extension).  Per the standard, these extensions are
enabled if and only if the client initiates the session with an ‘EHLO’
command.

(Initial ‘ELHO’ support by Alberto Trevino.  Size extension by Juhana
Jauhiainen.  Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by
Michele Orrù and Dan Boswell.  bpo-8739(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1870.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8739


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<4>,  Next: socket<10>,  Prev: smtpd<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.45 smtplib
..................

The *note SMTP: 786, *note SMTP_SSL: 787, and *note LMTP: 788. classes
now accept a ‘source_address’ keyword argument to specify the ‘(host,
port)’ to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the
outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in bpo-11281(1).)

*note SMTP: 786. now supports the context management protocol, allowing
an ‘SMTP’ instance to be used in a ‘with’ statement.  (Contributed by
Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11289(2).)

The *note SMTP_SSL: 787. constructor and the *note starttls(): fdc.
method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the
secure channel.  (Contributed by Kasun Herath in bpo-8809(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8809


File: python.info,  Node: socket<10>,  Next: socketserver<3>,  Prev: smtplib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.46 socket
.................

   * The *note socket: c2e. class now exposes additional methods to
     process ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:

        * *note sendmsg(): 197.

        * *note recvmsg(): c33.

        * *note recvmsg_into(): fde.

     (Contributed by David Watson in bpo-6560(1), based on an earlier
     patch by Heiko Wundram)

   * The *note socket: c2e. class now supports the PF_CAN protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan’), on Linux
     (‘https://lwn.net/Articles/253425’).

     (Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in
     bpo-10141(2).)

   * The *note socket: c2e. class now supports the PF_RDS protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets’
     and https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds(3)).

   * The *note socket: c2e. class now supports the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ protocol
     family on OS X. (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in
     bpo-13777(4).)

   * New function *note sethostname(): fdf. allows the hostname to be
     set on Unix systems if the calling process has sufficient
     privileges.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10141

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130115155505/https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10866


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<3>,  Next: sqlite3<9>,  Prev: socket<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.47 socketserver
.......................

*note BaseServer: fe1. now has an overridable method *note
service_actions(): fe2. that is called by the *note serve_forever():
fe3. method in the service loop.  *note ForkingMixIn: 9ed. now uses this
to clean up zombie child processes.  (Contributed by Justin Warkentin in
bpo-11109(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11109


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<9>,  Next: ssl<10>,  Prev: socketserver<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.48 sqlite3
..................

New *note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. method *note set_trace_callback():
fe5. can be used to capture a trace of all sql commands processed by
sqlite.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-11688(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11688


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<10>,  Next: stat<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.49 ssl
..............

   * The *note ssl: cf. module has two new random generation functions:

        * *note RAND_bytes(): 2ae.: generate cryptographically strong
          pseudo-random bytes.

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’: generate pseudo-random bytes.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-12049(1).)

   * The *note ssl: cf. module now exposes a finer-grained exception
     hierarchy in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds
     of errors.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183(2).)

   * *note load_cert_chain(): fe7. now accepts a 'password' argument to
     be used if the private key is encrypted.  (Contributed by Adam
     Simpkins in bpo-12803(3).)

   * Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based,
     is now supported through the *note load_dh_params(): fe8. and *note
     set_ecdh_curve(): fe9. methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-13626(4) and bpo-13627(5).)

   * SSL sockets have a new *note get_channel_binding(): fea. method
     allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms
     such as SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in
     bpo-12551(6).)

   * You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket,
     thanks to its new *note compression(): feb. method.  The new
     attribute *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: fec. can be used to disable
     compression.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634(7).)

   * Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension
     using the *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 278. method.
     (Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204(8).)

   * SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to *note
     library: fed. and *note reason: fee. attributes.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837(9).)

   * The *note get_server_certificate(): 67a. function now supports
     IPv6.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811(10).)

   * New attribute *note OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: fef. allows
     setting SSLv3 server sockets to use the server’s cipher ordering
     preference rather than the client’s (bpo-13635(11)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11183

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13627

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12551

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14837

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13635


File: python.info,  Node: stat<2>,  Next: struct<3>,  Prev: ssl<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.50 stat
...............

The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to *note
stat.filemode(): ff1.  It can be used to convert a file’s mode to a
string of the form ‘-rwxrwxrwx’.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-14807(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14807


File: python.info,  Node: struct<3>,  Next: subprocess<5>,  Prev: stat<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.51 struct
.................

The *note struct: d4. module now supports ‘ssize_t’ and ‘size_t’ via the
new codes ‘n’ and ‘N’, respectively.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-3163(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3163


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<5>,  Next: sys<12>,  Prev: struct<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.52 subprocess
.....................

Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513(1).)

A new constant *note DEVNULL: ff4. allows suppressing output in a
platform-independent fashion.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
bpo-5870(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8513

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5870


File: python.info,  Node: sys<12>,  Next: tarfile<9>,  Prev: subprocess<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.53 sys
..............

The *note sys: d8. module has a new *note thread_info: ff6. *note named
tuple: 461. holding information about the thread implementation
(bpo-11223(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11223


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<9>,  Next: tempfile<3>,  Prev: sys<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.54 tarfile
..................

*note tarfile: dd. now supports ‘lzma’ encoding via the *note lzma: 89.
module.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-5689(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5689


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<3>,  Next: textwrap<2>,  Prev: tarfile<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.55 tempfile
...................

*note tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 4a8.'s ‘truncate()’ method now
accepts a ‘size’ parameter.  (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9957


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap<2>,  Next: threading<8>,  Prev: tempfile<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.56 textwrap
...................

The *note textwrap: eb. module has a new *note indent(): ffa. that makes
it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
of text (bpo-13857(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13857


File: python.info,  Node: threading<8>,  Next: time<7>,  Prev: textwrap<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.57 threading
....................

*note threading.Condition: ffc, *note threading.Semaphore: ffd, *note
threading.BoundedSemaphore: ffe, *note threading.Event: fff, and *note
threading.Timer: 1000, all of which used to be factory functions
returning a class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed.
(Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-10968(1).)

The *note threading.Thread: 7a7. constructor now accepts a ‘daemon’
keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the
‘daemon’ flag value from the parent thread (bpo-6064(2)).

The formerly private function ‘_thread.get_ident’ is now available as
the public function *note threading.get_ident(): 1001.  This eliminates
several cases of direct access to the ‘_thread’ module in the stdlib.
Third party code that used ‘_thread.get_ident’ should likewise be
changed to use the new public interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10968

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064


File: python.info,  Node: time<7>,  Next: types<6>,  Prev: threading<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.58 time
...............

The PEP 418(1) added new functions to the *note time: ed. module:

   * *note get_clock_info(): 1003.: Get information on a clock.

   * *note monotonic(): d12.: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not
     affected by system clock updates.

   * *note perf_counter(): 8ed.: Performance counter with the highest
     available resolution to measure a short duration.

   * *note process_time(): 8ee.: Sum of the system and user CPU time of
     the current process.

Other new functions:

   * *note clock_getres(): 1004, *note clock_gettime(): 1005. and *note
     clock_settime(): 1006. functions with ‘CLOCK_XXX’ constants.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-10278(2).)

To improve cross platform consistency, *note sleep(): 4b2. now raises a
*note ValueError: 189. when passed a negative sleep value.  Previously
this was an error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0418/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10278


File: python.info,  Node: types<6>,  Next: unittest<9>,  Prev: time<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.59 types
................

Add a new *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. class: Read-only proxy of a
mapping.  (bpo-14386(1))

The new functions *note types.new_class(): 1008. and *note
types.prepare_class(): 1009. provide support for PEP 3115(2) compliant
dynamic type creation.  (bpo-14588(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14386

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14588


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<9>,  Next: urllib<3>,  Prev: types<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.60 unittest
...................

*note assertRaises(): 2b7, *note assertRaisesRegex(): 2b9, *note
assertWarns(): 100b, and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 100c. now accept a
keyword argument 'msg' when used as context managers.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in bpo-10775(1).)

*note unittest.TestCase.run(): 100d. now returns the *note TestResult:
100e. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10775


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<3>,  Next: webbrowser<2>,  Prev: unittest<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.61 urllib
.................

The *note Request: e7e. class, now accepts a 'method' argument used by
*note get_method(): 1010. to determine what HTTP method should be used.
For example, this will send a ‘'HEAD'’ request:

     >>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))

(bpo-1673007(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1673007


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<2>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Prev: urllib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.62 webbrowser
.....................

The *note webbrowser: 115. module supports more “browsers”: Google
Chrome (named ‘chrome’, ‘chromium’, ‘chrome-browser’ or
‘chromium-browser’ depending on the version and operating system), and
the generic launchers ‘xdg-open’, from the FreeDesktop.org project, and
‘gvfs-open’, which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3.  (The former
contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620(1), the latter by Matthias
Klose in bpo-14493(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14493


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Next: zlib<2>,  Prev: webbrowser<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.63 xml.etree.ElementTree
................................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module now imports its C
accelerator by default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
but is now deprecated).  In addition, the ‘iter’ family of methods of
*note Element: 247. has been optimized (rewritten in C). The module’s
documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples and a
more detailed reference.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<2>,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.10.20.64 zlib
...............

New attribute *note zlib.Decompress.eof: 1014. makes it possible to
distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream and an
incomplete or truncated one.  (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in
bpo-12646(1).)

New attribute *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1015. reports the version
string of the underlying ‘zlib’ library that is loaded at runtime.
(Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12306


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<7>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Prev: Improved Modules<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.21 Optimizations
---------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * Thanks to PEP 393(1), some operations on Unicode strings have been
     optimized:

        * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the
          text

        * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn’t need to encode
          characters anymore, the UTF-8 representation is shared with
          the ASCII representation

        * the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized

        * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an
          ASCII string is 4 times faster

   * UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster.  UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x
     faster.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, bpo-14624(2), bpo-14738(3) and
     bpo-15026(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14624

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14738

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15026


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Next: Deprecated<11>,  Prev: Optimizations<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.22 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * New PEP 3118(1) related function:

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1017.

   * PEP 393(2) added new Unicode types, macros and functions:

        * High-level API:

             * *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 707.

             * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 70b.

             * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 705, *note
               PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 706.

             * *note PyUnicode_New(): 6fb.

             * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 708.

             * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1018, *note
               PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1019.

        * Low-level API:

             * *note Py_UCS1: 101a, *note Py_UCS2: 101b, *note Py_UCS4:
               101c. types

             * *note PyASCIIObject: 101d. and *note
               PyCompactUnicodeObject: 101e. structures

             * *note PyUnicode_READY: 37c.

             * *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 101f.

             * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 1020, *note
               PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 70d.

             * *note PyUnicode_DATA: 1021, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA:
               1022, *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA: 1023, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA: 1024.

             * *note PyUnicode_KIND: 1025. with ‘PyUnicode_Kind’ enum:
               ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1026,
               *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: 1027, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1028.

             * *note PyUnicode_READ: 1029, *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR:
               102a, *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 102b.

             * *note PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE: 102c.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple: 308. now accepts a *note bytearray: 2ca.
     for the ‘c’ format (bpo-12380(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<11>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.23 Deprecated
------------------

* Menu:

* Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>.
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
* Deprecated features::


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Up: Deprecated<11>

1.10.23.1 Unsupported Operating Systems
.......................................

OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.

Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ‘COMSPEC’ to ‘command.com’
are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.

OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>,  Up: Deprecated<11>

1.10.23.2 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
..........................................................

   * Passing a non-empty string to ‘object.__format__()’ is deprecated,
     and will produce a *note TypeError: 2c4. in Python 3.4
     (bpo-9856(1)).

   * The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated because of the PEP
     393(2), use UTF-8, UTF-16 (‘utf-16-le’ or ‘utf-16-be’), or UTF-32
     (‘utf-32-le’ or ‘utf-32-be’)

   * *note ftplib.FTP.nlst(): f66. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): f67.: use
     *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): f65.

   * ‘platform.popen()’: use the *note subprocess: d5. module.  Check
     especially the *note Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess
     Module: 1030. section (bpo-11377(3)).

   * bpo-13374(4): The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the
     *note os: a0. module.  Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes
     filenames, to not depend on the ANSI code page anymore and to
     support any filename.

   * bpo-13988(5): The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is deprecated.
     The accelerator is used automatically whenever available.

   * The behaviour of ‘time.clock()’ depends on the platform: use the
     new *note time.perf_counter(): 8ed. or *note time.process_time():
     8ee. function instead, depending on your requirements, to have a
     well defined behaviour.

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function is deprecated.

   * *note abc: 4. module:

        * *note abc.abstractproperty: f2f. has been deprecated, use
          *note property: 43c. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): f30.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: f31. has been deprecated, use
          *note classmethod: 252. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): f30.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: f32. has been deprecated, use
          *note staticmethod: 612. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): f30.
          instead.

   * *note importlib: 75. package:

        * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime(): 1031. is now
          deprecated in favour of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 1032. as bytecode
          files now store both the modification time and size of the
          source file the bytecode file was compiled from.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9856

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13374

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13988


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Next: Deprecated features,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Up: Deprecated<11>

1.10.23.3 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
.....................................................

The *note Py_UNICODE: 362. has been deprecated by PEP 393(1) and will be
removed in Python 4.  All functions using this type are deprecated:

Unicode functions and methods using *note Py_UNICODE: 362. and *note
Py_UNICODE: 362.* types:

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’: use *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1034.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 101f.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 70e.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA’: use *note PyUnicode_DATA: 1021. with *note
     PyUnicode_READ: 1029. and *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 102b.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE’, ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 706. or *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 705.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE’: use ‘PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) *
     PyUnicode_KIND(str)’ (only work on ready strings)

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 70d.
     or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 70e.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’

Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen()’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 705. or
     *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 706.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat()’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 707.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’:
     use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 707. or *note
     PyUnicode_Substring(): 708.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 709.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 70a.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_FindChar(): 70b.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’: use *note PyUnicode_Fill(): 1035.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’

Encoders:

   * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’: use ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): a32. or
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1036.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1037.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1038.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String():
     1039.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString():
     103a.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 103b.
     or *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 103c. (with ‘CP_ACP’
     code_page)

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’, ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated features,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Up: Deprecated<11>

1.10.23.4 Deprecated features
.............................

The *note array: 7. module’s ‘'u'’ format code is now deprecated and
will be removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (*note
Py_UNICODE: 362.) API.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 3,  Prev: Deprecated<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.10.24 Porting to Python 3.3
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Porting Python code::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Porting Python code,  Next: Porting C code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.10.24.1 Porting Python code
.............................

   * Hash randomization is enabled by default.  Set the *note
     PYTHONHASHSEED: f27. environment variable to ‘0’ to disable hash
     randomization.  See also the *note object.__hash__(): 969. method.

   * bpo-12326(1): On Linux, sys.platform doesn’t contain the major
     version anymore.  It is now always ‘linux’, instead of ‘linux2’ or
     ‘linux3’ depending on the Linux version used to build Python.
     Replace sys.platform == ‘linux2’ with
     sys.platform.startswith(‘linux’), or directly sys.platform ==
     ‘linux’ if you don’t need to support older Python versions.

   * bpo-13847(2), bpo-14180(3): *note time: ed. and *note datetime:
     30.: *note OverflowError: 6c7. is now raised instead of *note
     ValueError: 189. if a timestamp is out of range.  *note OSError:
     65c. is now raised if C functions ‘gmtime()’ or ‘localtime()’
     failed.

   * The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is
     contained within a specific directory.  If you create a Python
     source file or sourceless bytecode file, make sure to call *note
     importlib.invalidate_caches(): a89. to clear out the cache for the
     finders to notice the new file.

   * *note ImportError: 14b. now uses the full name of the module that
     was attempted to be imported.  Doctests that check ImportErrors’
     message will need to be updated to use the full name of the module
     instead of just the tail of the name.

   * The 'index' argument to *note __import__(): 727. now defaults to 0
     instead of -1 and no longer support negative values.  It was an
     oversight when PEP 328(4) was implemented that the default value
     remained -1.  If you need to continue to perform a relative import
     followed by an absolute import, then perform the relative import
     using an index of 1, followed by another import using an index of
     0.  It is preferred, though, that you use *note
     importlib.import_module(): 2a2. rather than call *note
     __import__(): 727. directly.

   * *note __import__(): 727. no longer allows one to use an index value
     other than 0 for top-level modules.  E.g.  ‘__import__('sys',
     level=1)’ is now an error.

   * Because *note sys.meta_path: bb3. and *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.
     now have finders on them by default, you will most likely want to
     use ‘list.insert()’ instead of ‘list.append()’ to add to those
     lists.

   * Because ‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache:
     3f0, if you are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths
     that do not have a finder, you will need to remove keys paired with
     values of ‘None’ 'and' ‘imp.NullImporter’ to be
     backwards-compatible.  This will lead to extra overhead on older
     versions of Python that re-insert ‘None’ into *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. where it represents the use of
     implicit finders, but semantically it should not change anything.

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ no longer specifies a ‘find_module()’
     abstract method that must be implemented.  If you were relying on
     subclasses to implement that method, make sure to check for the
     method’s existence first.  You will probably want to check for
     ‘find_loader()’ first, though, in the case of working with *note
     path entry finders: f1b.

   * *note pkgutil: a8. has been converted to use *note importlib: 75.
     internally.  This eliminates many edge cases where the old
     behaviour of the PEP 302(5) import emulation failed to match the
     behaviour of the real import system.  The import emulation itself
     is still present, but is now deprecated.  The *note
     pkgutil.iter_importers(): 1040. and *note pkgutil.walk_packages():
     a78. functions special case the standard import hooks so they are
     still supported even though they do not provide the non-standard
     ‘iter_modules()’ method.

   * A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (bpo-1079(6)) in the parsing done
     by *note email.header.decode_header(): f5b. has been fixed.  Code
     that uses the standard idiom to convert encoded headers into
     unicode (‘str(make_header(decode_header(h))’) will see no change,
     but code that looks at the individual tuples returned by
     decode_header will see that whitespace that precedes or follows
     ‘ASCII’ sections is now included in the ‘ASCII’ section.  Code that
     builds headers using ‘make_header’ should also continue to work
     without change, since ‘make_header’ continues to add whitespace
     between ‘ASCII’ and non-‘ASCII’ sections if it is not already
     present in the input strings.

   * *note email.utils.formataddr(): 1041. now does the correct content
     transfer encoding when passed non-‘ASCII’ display names.  Any code
     that depended on the previous buggy behavior that preserved the
     non-‘ASCII’ unicode in the formatted output string will need to be
     changed (bpo-1690608(7)).

   * *note poplib.POP3.quit(): 1042. may now raise protocol errors like
     all other ‘poplib’ methods.  Code that assumes ‘quit’ does not
     raise *note poplib.error_proto: 1043. errors may need to be changed
     if errors on ‘quit’ are encountered by a particular application
     (bpo-11291(8)).

   * The ‘strict’ argument to *note email.parser.Parser: 1044,
     deprecated since Python 2.4, has finally been removed.

   * The deprecated method ‘unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements’ has
     been removed.

   * The deprecated variable ‘time.accept2dyear’ has been removed.

   * The deprecated ‘Context._clamp’ attribute has been removed from the
     *note decimal: 35. module.  It was previously replaced by the
     public attribute ‘clamp’.  (See bpo-8540(9).)

   * The undocumented internal helper class ‘SSLFakeFile’ has been
     removed from *note smtplib: c9, since its functionality has long
     been provided directly by *note socket.socket.makefile(): 1045.

   * Passing a negative value to *note time.sleep(): 4b2. on Windows now
     raises an error instead of sleeping forever.  It has always raised
     an error on posix.

   * The ‘ast.__version__’ constant has been removed.  If you need to
     make decisions affected by the AST version, use *note
     sys.version_info: 4b5. to make the decision.

   * Code that used to work around the fact that the *note threading:
     ec. module used factory functions by subclassing the private
     classes will need to change to subclass the now-public classes.

   * The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has
     been removed, simplifying the code.  This should have no effect on
     production code, but is mentioned here in case any application
     debug frameworks were interacting with it (bpo-13550(10)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12326

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14180

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1079

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1690608

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13550


File: python.info,  Node: Porting C code,  Next: Building C extensions,  Prev: Porting Python code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.10.24.2 Porting C code
........................

   * In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
     ‘smalltable’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 584. structure has been
     removed and the layout of the ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ has changed.

     All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ or
     ‘object.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * Due to *note PEP 393: ee7, the *note Py_UNICODE: 362. type and all
     functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available
     for at least five years).  If you were using low-level Unicode APIs
     to construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of
     the memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393(1), you have to
     convert your code to the new *note Unicode API: 1046.

     However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
     *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1047, *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1048. or
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c, your code will automatically
     take advantage of the new unicode representations.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1049. now returns ‘-1’ upon
     failure.

   * As a negative value for the 'level' argument to *note __import__():
     727. is no longer valid, the same now holds for *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 104a.  This also means that the value
     of 'level' used by *note PyImport_ImportModuleEx(): 104b. is now
     ‘0’ instead of ‘-1’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Building C extensions,  Next: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Porting C code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.10.24.3 Building C extensions
...............................

   * The range of possible file names for C extensions has been
     narrowed.  Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under
     POSIX, files named ‘xxxmodule.so’, ‘xxxmodule.abi3.so’ and
     ‘xxxmodule.cpython-*.so’ are no longer recognized as implementing
     the ‘xxx’ module.  If you had been generating such files, you have
     to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ‘module’ string
     from the file names).

     (implemented in bpo-14040(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14040


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Building C extensions,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.10.24.4 Command Line Switch Changes
.....................................

   * The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed.
     Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.

     (bpo-10998(1), contributed by Éric Araujo.)

   * When ‘python’ is started with *note -S: 104e, ‘import site’ will no
     longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths.  In
     previous versions, it did.

     (bpo-11591(2), contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric
     Araujo.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11591


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.11 What’s New In Python 3.2
=============================


Author: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1.
Python 3.2 was released on February 20, 2011.  It focuses on a few
highlights and gives a few examples.  For full details, see the
Misc/NEWS(1) file.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 392(2) - Python 3.2 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0392/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Next: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.1 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
-------------------------------------

In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often
not usable with other Python versions.  Particularly on Windows, every
feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that
one wanted to use.  This requirement was the result of the free access
to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.

With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension
modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining
Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to
a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several
releases.  As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that
mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on.  Extension modules that
make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will
need to be recompiled for every feature release.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 384(1) - Defining a Stable ABI

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Prev: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.2 PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
----------------------------------------------------

A new module for command line parsing, *note argparse: 6, was introduced
to overcome the limitations of *note optparse: 9f. which did not provide
support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands,
required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating
options.

This module has already had widespread success in the community as a
third-party module.  Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the
*note argparse: 6. module is now the preferred module for command-line
processing.  The older module is still being kept available because of
the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.

Here’s an annotated example parser showing features like limiting
results to a set of choices, specifying a 'metavar' in the help screen,
validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making
a required option:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                 description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
                 epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
     parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
                 choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
                 help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
     parser.add_argument('targets',
                 metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
                 nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
                 help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
                 required = True,                        # make it a required argument
                 help = 'login as user')

Example of calling the parser on a command string:

     >>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
     >>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
     >>> result.action
     'deploy'
     >>> result.targets
     ['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
     >>> result.user
     'skycaptain'

Example of the parser’s automatically generated help:

     >>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())

     usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
                            {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]

     Manage servers

     positional arguments:
       {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
       HOSTNAME              url for target machines

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -u USER, --user USER  login as user

     Tested on Solaris and Linux

An especially nice *note argparse: 6. feature is the ability to define
subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
     subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()

     parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
     parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
     parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')

     parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
                                      aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
     parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
     parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)

     $ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
     $ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
     $ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
     $ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 389(1) - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written by Steven Bethard.

*note Upgrading optparse code: 1053. for details on the differences from
*note optparse: 9f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Next: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Prev: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.3 PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 86. module provided two kinds of configuration, one
style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an
external file saved in a *note configparser: 22. format.  Those options
did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or
YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is
needed for specifying logger options from a command line.

To support a more flexible style, the module now offers *note
logging.config.dictConfig(): 1055. for specifying logging configuration
with plain Python dictionaries.  The configuration options include
formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers.  Here’s a working example of
a configuration dictionary:

     {"version": 1,
      "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
                     "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
                     },
      "handlers": {"console": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "brief",
                        "level": "INFO",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
                   "console_priority": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "full",
                        "level": "ERROR",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
                   },
      "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}

If that dictionary is stored in a file called ‘conf.json’, it can be
loaded and called with code like this:

     >>> import json, logging.config
     >>> with open('conf.json') as f:
     ...     conf = json.load(f)
     ...
     >>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
     >>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
     INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
     >>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
     2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

     PEP written by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Next: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.4 PEP 3148: The ‘concurrent.futures’ module
------------------------------------------------

Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new
top-level namespace, 'concurrent'.  Its first member is a 'futures'
package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing
threads and processes.

The design for *note concurrent.futures: 21. was inspired by the
'java.util.concurrent' package.  In that model, a running call and its
result are represented by a *note Future: 1057. object that abstracts
features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls.  That
object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts,
cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.

The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for
launching and managing calls.  The goal of the executors is to make it
easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls.  They save the
effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a
results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of
threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.

Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple
components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed.
This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its
own competing strategy for resource management.

Both classes share a common interface with three methods: *note
submit(): 8e7. for scheduling a callable and returning a *note Future:
1057. object; *note map(): c72. for scheduling many asynchronous calls
at a time, and *note shutdown(): 740. for freeing resources.  The class
is a *note context manager: 3df. and can be used in a *note with: 3dd.
statement to assure that resources are automatically released when
currently pending futures are done executing.

A simple of example of *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. is a launch of
four parallel threads for copying files:

     import concurrent.futures, shutil
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3148(1) - Futures – Execute Computations Asynchronously

     PEP written by Brian Quinlan.

*note Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads: 1058, an example using
threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.

*note Code for computing prime numbers in parallel: 1059, an example
demonstrating *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Next: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Prev: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.5 PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
-------------------------------------------

Python’s scheme for caching bytecode in '.pyc' files did not work well
in environments with multiple Python interpreters.  If one interpreter
encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would
recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the
benefits of caching.

The issue of “pyc fights” has become more pronounced as it has become
commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of
Python.  These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as
Unladen Swallow.

To solve this problem, Python’s import machinery has been extended to
use distinct filenames for each interpreter.  Instead of Python 3.2 and
Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called
“mymodule.pyc”, they will now look for “mymodule.cpython-32.pyc”,
“mymodule.cpython-33.pyc”, and “mymodule.unladen10.pyc”.  And to prevent
all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the 'pyc'
files are now collected in a “__pycache__” directory stored under the
package directory.

Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a
few aspects that are visible to the programmer:

   * Imported modules now have a *note __cached__: 24f. attribute which
     stores the name of the actual file that was imported:

          >>> import collections
          >>> collections.__cached__
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the
     ‘imp’ module:

          >>> import imp
          >>> imp.get_tag()
          'cpython-32'

   * Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file
     now need to be smarter.  It is no longer sufficient to simply strip
     the “c” from a “.pyc” filename.  Instead, use the new functions in
     the ‘imp’ module:

          >>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc')
          'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
          >>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py')
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The *note py_compile: b2. and *note compileall: 20. modules have
     been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target
     directory.  The command-line invocation of 'compileall' has new
     options: ‘-i’ for specifying a list of files and directories to
     compile and ‘-b’ which causes bytecode files to be written to their
     legacy location rather than '__pycache__'.

   * The *note importlib.abc: 76. module has been updated with new *note
     abstract base classes: 105b. for loading bytecode files.  The
     obsolete ABCs, ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’, have been deprecated
     (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included
     with the documentation).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3147(1) - PYC Repository Directories

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Next: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Prev: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.6 PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
---------------------------------------------

The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be
co-located.  This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object
files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each
version.

The common directory is “pyshared” and the file names are made distinct
by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython,
etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags
(such as “d” for debug, “m” for pymalloc, “u” for wide-unicode).  For an
arbitrary package “foo”, you may see these files when the distribution
package is installed:

     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so
     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so

In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the *note
sysconfig: da. module:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # find the version tag
     'cpython-32mu'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # find the full filename extension
     '.cpython-32mu.so'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3149(1) - ABI Version Tagged .so Files

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Next: Other Language Changes<9>,  Prev: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.7 PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
-----------------------------------------------------------

This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled
by the WSGI protocol.  The challenge is that string handling in Python 3
is most conveniently handled with the *note str: 15d. type even though
the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.

The PEP differentiates so-called 'native strings' that are used for
request/response headers and metadata versus 'byte strings' which are
used for the bodies of requests and responses.

The 'native strings' are always of type *note str: 15d. but are
restricted to code points between 'U+0000' through 'U+00FF' which are
translatable to bytes using 'Latin-1' encoding.  These strings are used
for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response
headers and statuses in the ‘start_response()’ function.  They must
follow RFC 2616(1) with respect to encoding.  That is, they must either
be 'ISO-8859-1' characters or use RFC 2047(2) MIME encoding.

For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the
salient points:

   * If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change
     is needed.

   * If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input
     headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1.
     For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using
     ‘h.encode('utf-8')’ now needs to convert from bytes to native
     strings using ‘h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')’.

   * Values yielded by an application or sent using the ‘write()’ method
     must be byte strings.  The ‘start_response()’ function and environ
     must use native strings.  The two cannot be mixed.

For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style
protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native
strings even though the underlying platform may have a different
convention.  To bridge this gap, the *note wsgiref: 118. module has a
new function, *note wsgiref.handlers.read_environ(): 105e. for
transcoding CGI variables from *note os.environ: 105f. into native
strings and returning a new dictionary.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3333(3) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

     PEP written by Phillip Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<9>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.8 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * String formatting for *note format(): 431. and *note str.format():
     433. gained new capabilities for the format character '#'.
     Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it
     caused the output to be prefixed with ‘0b’, ‘0o’, or ‘0x’
     respectively.  Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal,
     causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no
     digits follow it.

          >>> format(20, '#o')
          '0o24'
          >>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
          '  12.'

     (Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-7094(1).)

   * There is also a new *note str.format_map(): c65. method that
     extends the capabilities of the existing *note str.format(): 433.
     method by accepting arbitrary *note mapping: 1061. objects.  This
     new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of
     Python’s many dictionary-like objects such as *note defaultdict:
     1062, *note Shelf: e3b, *note ConfigParser: 28e, or *note dbm: 31.
     It is also useful with custom *note dict: 240. subclasses that
     normalize keys before look-up or that supply a ‘__missing__()’
     method for unknown keys:

          >>> import shelve
          >>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
          >>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
          'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'

          >>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
          ...
          >>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
          >>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
          'There are 10 widgets in stock'

          >>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
          ...
          >>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
          'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-6081(2).)

   * The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, ‘-q’, to
     prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed
     in the interactive mode.  The option can be introspected using the
     *note sys.flags: 4a1. attribute:

          $ python -q
          >>> sys.flags
          sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
          optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
          ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)

     (Contributed by Marcin Wojdyr in bpo-1772833(3)).

   * The *note hasattr(): 200. function works by calling *note
     getattr(): a48. and detecting whether an exception is raised.  This
     technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by *note
     __getattr__(): 201. or *note __getattribute__(): a49. which would
     otherwise be absent from the class dictionary.  Formerly, 'hasattr'
     would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors.  Now,
     'hasattr' has been tightened to only catch *note AttributeError:
     3dc. and let other exceptions pass through:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         return 1 // 0
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> hasattr(a, 'f')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

     (Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-9666(4).)

   * The *note str(): 15d. of a float or complex number is now the same
     as its *note repr(): 637.  Previously, the *note str(): 15d. form
     was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed
     now that the shortest possible *note repr(): 637. is displayed by
     default:

          >>> import math
          >>> repr(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'
          >>> str(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'

     (Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-9337(5).)

   * *note memoryview: 185. objects now have a *note release(): 1063.
     method and they also now support the context management protocol.
     This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when
     requesting a buffer from the original object.

          >>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
          ...     print(v.tolist())
          [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9757(6).)

   * Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace
     if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:

          def outer(x):
              def inner():
                  return x
              inner()
              del x

     This is now allowed.  Remember that the target of an *note except:
     3c0. clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python
     2.6, raised a *note SyntaxError: 14c. with Python 3.1 and now works
     again:

          def f():
              def print_error():
                  print(e)
              try:
                  something
              except Exception as e:
                  print_error()
                  # implicit "del e" here

     (See bpo-4617(7).)

   * *note Struct sequence types: 1064. are now subclasses of tuple.
     This means that C structures like those returned by *note
     os.stat(): 1c5, *note time.gmtime(): 1065, and *note
     sys.version_info: 4b5. now work like a *note named tuple: 461. and
     now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an
     argument.  This is a big step forward in making the C structures as
     flexible as their pure Python counterparts:

          >>> import sys
          >>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
          True
          >>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info
          'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'

     (Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented
     by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413(8).)

   * Warnings are now easier to control using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     a21. environment variable as an alternative to using ‘-W’ at the
     command line:

          $ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'

     (Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in
     bpo-7301(9).)

   * A new warning category, *note ResourceWarning: ab9, has been added.
     It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or
     cleanup are detected.  It is silenced by default in normal release
     builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the *note
     warnings: 112. module, or on the command line.

     A *note ResourceWarning: ab9. is issued at interpreter shutdown if
     the *note gc.garbage: 1066. list isn’t empty, and if *note
     gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 1067. is set, all uncollectable objects are
     printed.  This is meant to make the programmer aware that their
     code contains object finalization issues.

     A *note ResourceWarning: ab9. is also issued when a *note file
     object: 1068. is destroyed without having been explicitly closed.
     While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the
     underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor),
     the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues,
     especially under Windows.  Here is an example of enabling the
     warning from the command line:

          $ python -q -Wdefault
          >>> f = open("foo", "wb")
          >>> del f
          __main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093(10) and
     bpo-477863(11).)

   * *note range: 79c. objects now support 'index' and 'count' methods.
     This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the
     *note collections.Sequence: 1069. *note abstract base class: 105b.
     As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In
     addition, *note range: 79c. objects now support slicing and
     negative indices, even with values larger than *note sys.maxsize:
     106a.  This makes 'range' more interoperable with lists:

          >>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
          1
          >>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
          5
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
          10
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
          range(0, 10, 2)

     (Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9213(12), by Alexander
     Belopolsky in bpo-2690(13), and by Nick Coghlan in bpo-10889(14).)

   * The *note callable(): 106b. builtin function from Py2.x was
     resurrected.  It provides a concise, readable alternative to using
     an *note abstract base class: 105b. in an expression like
     ‘isinstance(x, collections.Callable)’:

          >>> callable(max)
          True
          >>> callable(20)
          False

     (See bpo-10518(15).)

   * Python’s import mechanism can now load modules installed in
     directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name.  This
     solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with
     non-ASCII characters in their usernames.

     (Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in bpo-9425(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7094

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772833

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9666

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9337

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9757

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4617

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8413

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=477863

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9213

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2690

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10889

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10518

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9425


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Multi-threading,  Prev: Other Language Changes<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.9 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

Python’s standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts
and quality improvements.

The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the *note email: 3a. package,
*note mailbox: 8a. module, and *note nntplib: 9c. modules now work
correctly with the bytes/text model in Python 3.  For the first time,
there is correct handling of messages with mixed encodings.

Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention
to encodings and text versus bytes issues.  In particular, interactions
with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data
using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.

Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support
for 'SSL' connections and security certificates.

In addition, more classes now implement a *note context manager: 3df. to
support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a *note with:
3dd. statement.

* Menu:

* email: email<7>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<7>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<9>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<6>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<7>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<10>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* os: os<12>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* random: random<4>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::


File: python.info,  Node: email<7>,  Next: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.1 email
..............

The usability of the *note email: 3a. package in Python 3 has been
mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray.  The problem
was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of *note
bytes: 2cb. rather than *note str: 15d. text, and they may contain
multiple encodings within a single email.  So, the email package had to
be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.

   * New functions *note message_from_bytes(): 106e. and *note
     message_from_binary_file(): 106f, and new classes *note
     BytesFeedParser: 1070. and *note BytesParser: 1071. allow binary
     message data to be parsed into model objects.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note get_payload(): 1072. will by
     default decode a message body that has a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' using the charset specified
     in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note Generator: 1073. will convert
     message bodies that have a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' to
     instead have a '7bit' ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.

     Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC
     2047(1)-encoded using the 'unknown-8bit' character set.

   * A new class *note BytesGenerator: 1074. produces bytes as output,
     preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the
     input used to build the model, including message bodies with a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit'.

   * The *note smtplib: c9. *note SMTP: 786. class now accepts a byte
     string for the 'msg' argument to the *note sendmail(): ceb. method,
     and a new method, *note send_message(): cec. accepts a *note
     Message: b1b. object and can optionally obtain the 'from_addr' and
     'to_addrs' addresses directly from the object.

(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661(2) and
bpo-10321(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10321


File: python.info,  Node: elementtree,  Next: functools<7>,  Prev: email<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.2 elementtree
....................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. package and its
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.

Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist(): 1076. which builds an
     XML document from a sequence of fragments

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace(): 1077. for
     registering a global namespace prefix

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist(): e9c. for string
     representation including all sublists

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 1078. for appending a
     sequence of zero or more elements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind(): 1079. searches an
     element and subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext(): 107a. creates a
     text iterator over an element and its subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end(): 107b. closes the
     current element

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype(): 901. handles a
     doctype declaration

Two methods have been deprecated:

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()’ use ‘list(elem)’ instead.

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()’ use ‘Element.iter’ instead.

For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree(1) on Fredrik
Lundh’s website.

(Contributed by Florent Xicluna and Fredrik Lundh, bpo-6472(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: functools<7>,  Next: itertools<6>,  Prev: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.3 functools
..................

   * The *note functools: 5d. module includes a new decorator for
     caching function calls.  *note functools.lru_cache(): 84e. can save
     repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are
     expected to be the same.

     For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query
     function can save database accesses for popular searches:

          >>> import functools
          >>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
          ... def get_phone_number(name):
          ...     c = conn.cursor()
          ...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
          ...     return c.fetchone()[0]

          >>> for name in user_requests:
          ...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup

     To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function
     is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)

     If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the
     cache can be cleared with:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas
     from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe
     498245(1), recipe 577479(2), bpo-10586(3), and bpo-10593(4).)

   * The *note functools.wraps(): dfd. decorator now adds a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute pointing to the original callable function.
     This allows wrapped functions to be introspected.  It also copies
     *note __annotations__: 107d. if defined.  And now it also
     gracefully skips over missing attributes such as *note __doc__:
     107e. which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.

     In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the
     original function:

          >>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function

     (By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; bpo-9567(5), bpo-3445(6), and
     bpo-8814(7).)

   * To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator
     *note functools.total_ordering(): de2. will use existing equality
     and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods.

     For example, supplying '__eq__' and '__lt__' will enable *note
     total_ordering(): de2. to fill-in '__le__', '__gt__' and '__ge__':

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

              def __lt__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

     With the 'total_ordering' decorator, the remaining comparison
     methods are filled in automatically.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the *note
     functools.cmp_to_key(): 107f. function converts an old-style
     comparison function to modern *note key function: c93.:

          >>> # locale-aware sort order
          >>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting
     HowTo(8) tutorial.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245-lru-and-lfu-cache-decorators/

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479-simple-caching-decorator/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10586

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10593

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9567

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3445

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8814

   (8) https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<6>,  Next: collections<8>,  Prev: functools<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.4 itertools
..................

   * The *note itertools: 7f. module has a new *note accumulate(): 85d.
     function modeled on APL’s 'scan' operator and Numpy’s 'accumulate'
     function:

          >>> from itertools import accumulate
          >>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
          [8, 10, 60]

          >>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
          >>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
          [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]

     For an example using *note accumulate(): 85d, see the *note
     examples for the random module: 1081.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design
     suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)


File: python.info,  Node: collections<8>,  Next: threading<9>,  Prev: itertools<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.5 collections
....................

   * The *note collections.Counter: f3c. class now has two forms of
     in-place subtraction, the existing '-=' operator for saturating
     subtraction(1) and the new *note subtract(): 1083. method for
     regular subtraction.  The former is suitable for multisets(2) which
     only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use
     cases that allow negative counts:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3})

          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. class has a new method
     *note move_to_end(): 1084. which takes an existing key and moves it
     to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.

     The default is to move an item to the last position.  This is
     equivalent of renewing an entry with ‘od[k] = od.pop(k)’.

     A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries.
     For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of
     access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently
     accessed.

          >>> from collections import OrderedDict
          >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
          >>> d.move_to_end('X')
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.deque: 3e7. class grew two new methods *note
     count(): 1085. and *note reverse(): 1086. that make them more
     substitutable for *note list: 422. objects:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('simsalabim')
          >>> d.count('s')
          2
          >>> d.reverse()
          >>> d
          deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset


File: python.info,  Node: threading<9>,  Next: datetime and time,  Prev: collections<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.6 threading
..................

The *note threading: ec. module has a new *note Barrier: 1088.
synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them
have reached a common barrier point.  Barriers are useful for making
sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of
the predecessor tasks are complete.

Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads.  This is a
generalization of a Rendezvous(1) which is defined for only two threads.

Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, *note Barrier: 1088. objects
are suitable for use in loops.  The separate 'filling' and 'draining'
phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of
them can loop back and re-enter the barrier.  The barrier fully resets
after each cycle.

Example of using barriers:

     from threading import Barrier, Thread

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
         totals = summarize(ballots)
         publish(site, totals)

     all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
     for site in sites:
         Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()

In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be
counted at any polling site until all polls are closed.  Notice how a
solution with a barrier is similar to one with *note
threading.Thread.join(): 1089, but the threads stay alive and continue
to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.

If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be
created with an optional 'timeout' parameter.  Then if the timeout
period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point,
all waiting threads are released and a *note BrokenBarrierError: 108a.
exception is raised:

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         try:
             all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
         except BrokenBarrierError:
             lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
             queue.put(lockbox)
         else:
             totals = summarize(ballots)
             publish(site, totals)

In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule.  If some
election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and
the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.

See Barrier Synchronization Patterns(2) for more examples of how
barriers can be used in parallel computing.  Also, there is a simple but
thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores(3),
'section 3.6'.

(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey
Yasskin in bpo-8777(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous

   (2) 
https://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf

   (3) https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8777


File: python.info,  Node: datetime and time,  Next: math<9>,  Prev: threading<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.7 datetime and time
..........................

   * The *note datetime: 30. module has a new type *note timezone: f62.
     that implements the *note tzinfo: 3e9. interface by returning a
     fixed UTC offset and timezone name.  This makes it easier to create
     timezone-aware datetime objects:

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone

          >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
          datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

          >>> datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
          datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

   * Also, *note timedelta: 82d. objects can now be multiplied by *note
     float: 272. and divided by *note float: 272. and *note int: 184.
     objects.  And *note timedelta: 82d. objects can now divide one
     another.

   * The *note datetime.date.strftime(): b12. method is no longer
     restricted to years after 1900.  The new supported year range is
     from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.

   * Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the
     interpretation has been governed by ‘time.accept2dyear’.  The
     default is ‘True’ which means that for a two-digit year, the
     century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the ‘%y’
     strptime format.

     Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will
     emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  Instead, it is recommended
     that ‘time.accept2dyear’ be set to ‘False’ so that large date
     ranges can be used without guesswork:

          >>> import time, warnings
          >>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters

          >>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          Warning (from warnings module):
            ...
          DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'

          >>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'

     Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges.
     When ‘time.accept2dyear’ is false, the *note time.asctime(): 108c.
     function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the *note
     time.mktime(): 108d. and *note time.strftime(): 108e. functions
     will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating
     system functions.

(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in
bpo-1289118(1), bpo-5094(2), bpo-6641(3), bpo-2706(4), bpo-1777412(5),
bpo-8013(6), and bpo-10827(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1289118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2706

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1777412

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8013

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10827


File: python.info,  Node: math<9>,  Next: abc<3>,  Prev: datetime and time,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.8 math
.............

The *note math: 8d. module has been updated with six new functions
inspired by the C99 standard.

The *note isfinite(): 1090. function provides a reliable and fast way to
detect special values.  It returns ‘True’ for regular numbers and
‘False’ for 'Nan' or 'Infinity':

     >>> from math import isfinite
     >>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
     [True, True, False, False]

The *note expm1(): 1091. function computes ‘e**x-1’ for small values of
'x' without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the
subtraction of nearly equal quantities:

     >>> from math import expm1
     >>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
     0.013765762467652909

The *note erf(): a4f. function computes a probability integral or
Gaussian error function(1).  The complementary error function, *note
erfc(): a50, is ‘1 - erf(x)’:

     >>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
     0.682689492137086
     >>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
     0.31731050786291404
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
     1.0

The *note gamma(): 1092. function is a continuous extension of the
factorial function.  See ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function’
for details.  Because the function is related to factorials, it grows
large even for small values of 'x', so there is also a *note lgamma():
1093. function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma
function:

     >>> from math import gamma, lgamma
     >>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
     720.0
     >>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
     4551.950730698041

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function


File: python.info,  Node: abc<3>,  Next: io<6>,  Prev: math<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.9 abc
............

The *note abc: 4. module now supports *note abstractclassmethod(): f31.
and *note abstractstaticmethod(): f32.

These tools make it possible to define an *note abstract base class:
105b. that requires a particular *note classmethod(): 252. or *note
staticmethod(): 612. to be implemented:

     class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
             ...
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_celsius(cls, t):
             ...

(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5867


File: python.info,  Node: io<6>,  Next: reprlib,  Prev: abc<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.10 io
............

The *note io.BytesIO: d38. has a new method, *note getbuffer(): 1096,
which provides functionality similar to *note memoryview(): 185.  It
creates an editable view of the data without making a copy.  The
buffer’s random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to
in-place editing:

     >>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11

     >>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
     ...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
     ...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location

     >>> import io

     >>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
     ...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
     ...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
     ...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
     ... )
     >>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
     >>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
     >>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
     >>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
     b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
     b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5506(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5506


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib,  Next: logging<7>,  Prev: io<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.11 reprlib
.................

When writing a *note __repr__(): 42e. method for a custom container, it
is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the
container itself.  Python’s builtin objects such as *note list: 422. and
*note set: 3e4. handle self-reference by displaying “…” in the recursive
part of the representation string.

To help write such *note __repr__(): 42e. methods, the *note reprlib:
ba. module has a new decorator, *note recursive_repr(): 1098, for
detecting recursive calls to ‘__repr__()’ and substituting a placeholder
string instead:

     >>> class MyList(list):
     ...     @recursive_repr()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
     ...
     >>> m = MyList('abc')
     >>> m.append(m)
     >>> m.append('x')
     >>> print(m)
     <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9826(1) and bpo-9840(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9826

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9840


File: python.info,  Node: logging<7>,  Next: csv<4>,  Prev: reprlib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.12 logging
.................

In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the *note
logging: 86. package has many other improvements.

The logging documentation has been augmented by a *note basic tutorial:
109a, an *note advanced tutorial: 109b, and a *note cookbook: 109c. of
logging recipes.  These documents are the fastest way to learn about
logging.

The *note logging.basicConfig(): 860. set-up function gained a 'style'
argument to support three different types of string formatting.  It
defaults to “%” for traditional %-formatting, can be set to “{” for the
new *note str.format(): 433. style, or can be set to “$” for the
shell-style formatting provided by *note string.Template: 49c.  The
following three configurations are equivalent:

     >>> from logging import basicConfig
     >>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
     >>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
     >>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")

If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is
now a default configuration using a *note StreamHandler: 109d. directed
to *note sys.stderr: 792. for events of ‘WARNING’ level or higher.
Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would
either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the
value of *note logging.raiseExceptions: 109e.  The new default handler
is stored in *note logging.lastResort: 109f.

The use of filters has been simplified.  Instead of creating a *note
Filter: 10a0. object, the predicate can be any Python callable that
returns ‘True’ or ‘False’.

There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and
simplify configuration.  See the module documentation for a full listing
of changes in Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: csv<4>,  Next: contextlib<8>,  Prev: logging<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.13 csv
.............

The *note csv: 29. module now supports a new dialect, *note
unix_dialect: 10a2, which applies quoting for all fields and a
traditional Unix style with ‘'\n'’ as the line terminator.  The
registered dialect name is ‘unix’.

The *note csv.DictWriter: 10a3. has a new method, *note writeheader():
10a4. for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:

     >>> import csv, sys
     >>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
     >>> w.writeheader()
     "name","dept"
     >>> w.writerows([
     ...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
     ...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
     "tom","accounting"
     "susan","sales"

(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975(1), and the new method
suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537721


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<8>,  Next: decimal and fractions,  Prev: csv<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.14 contextlib
....................

There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool *note ContextDecorator:
10a6. that is helpful for creating a *note context manager: 3df. that
does double duty as a function decorator.

As a convenience, this new functionality is used by *note
contextmanager(): 10a7. so that no extra effort is needed to support
both roles.

The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can
be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers.  Context managers wrap
a group of statements using a *note with: 3dd. statement, and function
decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function.  So,
occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action
wrapper that can be used in either role.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, the *note contextmanager(): 10a7. provides both
capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import contextmanager
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     @contextmanager
     def track_entry_and_exit(name):
         logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
         yield
         logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)

Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the
technique.  Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an
argument usable by a *note with: 3dd. statement, but there is no
parallel for function decorators.

In the above example, there is not a clean way for the
'track_entry_and_exit' context manager to return a logging instance for
use in the body of enclosed statements.

(Contributed by Michael Foord in bpo-9110(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9110


File: python.info,  Node: decimal and fractions,  Next: ftp,  Prev: contextlib<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.15 decimal and fractions
...............................

Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that
different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their
actual values are equal (bpo-8188(1)):

     assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
            hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))

Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, *note
sys.hash_info: ea5, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the
prime modulus, the hash values for 'infinity' and 'nan', and the
multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:

     >>> sys.hash_info
     sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)

An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types
has been relaxed.  It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have
implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as ‘Decimal('1.1') +
float('1.1')’ because the latter loses information in the process of
constructing the binary float.  However, since existing floating-point
value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational
representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to
support mixed-type comparisons.

   * The *note decimal.Decimal: 609. constructor now accepts *note
     float: 272. objects directly so there in no longer a need to use
     the *note from_float(): 10a9. method (bpo-8257(2)).

   * Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that *note
     Decimal: 609. objects can be directly compared with *note float:
     272. and *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. (bpo-2531(3) and
     bpo-8188(4)).

Similar changes were made to *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. so that the
*note from_float(): 10aa. and *note from_decimal(): 10ab. methods are no
longer needed (bpo-8294(5)):

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> Decimal(1.1)
     Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
     >>> Fraction(1.1)
     Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)

Another useful change for the *note decimal: 35. module is that the
‘Context.clamp’ attribute is now public.  This is useful in creating
contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in
IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540(6)).

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540


File: python.info,  Node: ftp,  Next: popen,  Prev: decimal and fractions,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.16 ftp
.............

The *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. class now supports the context management
protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: eff. exceptions
and to close the FTP connection when done:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
             ftp.login()
             ftp.dir()

     '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
     dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
     dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora

Other file-like objects such as *note mmap.mmap: 868. and *note
fileinput.input(): 639. also grew auto-closing context managers:

     with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
         for line in f:
             process(line)

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-4972(1), and by
Georg Brandl in bpo-8046(2) and bpo-1286(3).)

The *note FTP_TLS: 750. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which
is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object allowing bundling SSL
configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
(potentially long-lived) structure.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8806(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8046

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8806


File: python.info,  Node: popen,  Next: select<3>,  Prev: ftp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.17 popen
...............

The *note os.popen(): 8ec. and *note subprocess.Popen(): 8fa. functions
now support *note with: 3dd. statements for auto-closing of the file
descriptors.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Brian Curtin in bpo-7461(1) and
bpo-10554(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7461

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10554


File: python.info,  Node: select<3>,  Next: gzip and zipfile,  Prev: popen,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.18 select
................

The *note select: c0. module now exposes a new, constant attribute,
*note PIPE_BUF: 10af, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are
guaranteed not to block when *note select.select(): c2d. says a pipe is
ready for writing.

     >>> import select
     >>> select.PIPE_BUF
     512

(Available on Unix systems.  Patch by Sébastien Sablé in bpo-9862(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9862


File: python.info,  Node: gzip and zipfile,  Next: tarfile<10>,  Prev: select<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.19 gzip and zipfile
..........................

*note gzip.GzipFile: 296. now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
4a9. *note abstract base class: 105b. (except for ‘truncate()’).  It
also has a *note peek(): 10b1. method and supports unseekable as well as
zero-padded file objects.

The *note gzip: 65. module also gains the *note compress(): 451. and
*note decompress(): 10b2. functions for easier in-memory compression and
decompression.  Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as *note
bytes: 2cb. before compressing and decompressing:

     >>> import gzip
     >>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
     >>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
     >>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
     >>> len(b)
     89
     >>> c = gzip.compress(b)
     >>> len(c)
     77
     >>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
     'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'

(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in bpo-3488(1); and by Antoine Pitrou,
Nir Aides and Brian Curtin in bpo-9962(2), bpo-1675951(3), bpo-7471(4)
and bpo-2846(5).)

Also, the *note zipfile.ZipExtFile: b90. class was reworked internally
to represent files stored inside an archive.  The new implementation is
significantly faster and can be wrapped in an *note io.BufferedReader:
10b3. object for more speedups.  It also solves an issue where
interleaved calls to 'read' and 'readline' gave the wrong results.

(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in bpo-7610(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9962

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<10>,  Next: hashlib<7>,  Prev: gzip and zipfile,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.20 tarfile
.................

The *note TarFile: 10b5. class can now be used as a context manager.  In
addition, its *note add(): a6c. method has a new option, 'filter', that
controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file
metadata to be edited.

The new 'filter' option replaces the older, less flexible 'exclude'
parameter which is now deprecated.  If specified, the optional 'filter'
parameter needs to be a *note keyword argument: b97.  The user-supplied
filter function accepts a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object and returns an
updated *note TarInfo: 10b6. object, or if it wants the file to be
excluded, the function can return ‘None’:

     >>> import tarfile, glob

     >>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
     ...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
     ...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
     ...         return tarinfo

     >>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
     ...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
     ...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
     ...     tf.list()
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt

(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in
bpo-6856(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<7>,  Next: ast<4>,  Prev: tarfile<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.21 hashlib
.................

The *note hashlib: 66. module has two new constant attributes listing
the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations
and those available on the current implementation:

     >>> import hashlib

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
     {'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_available
     {'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
     'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
     'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
     'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}

(Suggested by Carl Chenet in bpo-7418(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418


File: python.info,  Node: ast<4>,  Next: os<12>,  Prev: hashlib<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.22 ast
.............

The *note ast: 8. module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for
safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax.
The *note ast.literal_eval(): a91. function serves as a secure
alternative to the builtin *note eval(): 6ca. function which is easily
abused.  Python 3.2 adds *note bytes: 2cb. and *note set: 3e4. literals
to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists,
dicts, sets, booleans, and ‘None’.

     >>> from ast import literal_eval

     >>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     {'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}

     >>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>

(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: os<12>,  Next: shutil<7>,  Prev: ast<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.23 os
............

Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and
environment variables.  The *note os: a0. module provides two new
functions, *note fsencode(): ad1. and *note fsdecode(): ad0, for
encoding and decoding filenames:

     >>> import os
     >>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
     >>> os.fsencode(filename)
     b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'

Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the
environment.  If so, the *note os.supports_bytes_environ: 10ba. constant
will be true.

For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use
the new *note os.getenvb(): 10bb. function or use *note os.environb:
10bc. which is a bytes version of *note os.environ: 105f.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<7>,  Next: sqlite3<10>,  Prev: os<12>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.24 shutil
................

The *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. function has two new options:

   * 'ignore_dangling_symlinks': when ‘symlinks=False’ so that the
     function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink
     itself.  This option will silence the error raised if the file
     doesn’t exist.

   * 'copy_function': is a callable that will be used to copy files.
     *note shutil.copy2(): 8bf. is used by default.

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)

In addition, the *note shutil: c4. module now supports *note archiving
operations: 10be. for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles,
and bzipped tarfiles.  And there are functions for registering
additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or
custom formats).

The principal functions are *note make_archive(): 1de. and *note
unpack_archive(): 18a.  By default, both operate on the current
directory (which can be set by *note os.chdir(): 41e.) and on any
sub-directories.  The archive filename needs to be specified with a full
pathname.  The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are
left unchanged).

     >>> import shutil, pprint

     >>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
     >>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
     ...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
     >>> f                                   # show the name of archive
     '/var/backup/mydata.zip'
     >>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
     >>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data

     >>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
     [('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
      ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
      ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
      ('zip', 'ZIP file')]

     >>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
     ...     name='xz',
     ...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
     ...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
     ...     description='xz compression'
     ... )

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<10>,  Next: html<3>,  Prev: shutil<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.25 sqlite3
.................

The *note sqlite3: ce. module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0.  It
has two new capabilities.

   * The ‘sqlite3.Connection.in_transit’ attribute is true if there is
     an active transaction for uncommitted changes.

   * The *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 67d. and
     *note sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1e6. methods allows you
     to load SQLite extensions from “.so” files.  One well-known
     extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; bpo-8845(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8845


File: python.info,  Node: html<3>,  Next: socket<11>,  Prev: sqlite3<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.26 html
..............

A new *note html: 69. module was introduced with only a single function,
*note escape(): eb5, which is used for escaping reserved characters from
HTML markup:

     >>> import html
     >>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
     'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'


File: python.info,  Node: socket<11>,  Next: ssl<11>,  Prev: html<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.27 socket
................

The *note socket: cb. module has two new improvements.

   * Socket objects now have a *note detach(): 10c2. method which puts
     the socket into closed state without actually closing the
     underlying file descriptor.  The latter can then be reused for
     other purposes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524(1).)

   * *note socket.create_connection(): 485. now supports the context
     management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error:
     eff. exceptions and to close the socket when done.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9794


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<11>,  Next: nntp,  Prev: socket<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.28 ssl
.............

The *note ssl: cf. module added a number of features to satisfy common
requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:

   * A new class, *note SSLContext: 277, serves as a container for
     persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates,
     private keys, and various other options.  It includes a *note
     wrap_socket(): 2af. for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.

   * A new function, ‘ssl.match_hostname()’, supports server identity
     verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules
     of HTTPS (from RFC 2818(1)) which are also suitable for other
     protocols.

   * The *note ssl.wrap_socket(): 2af. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument.  The 'ciphers' string lists the allowed
     encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL
     documentation(2).

   * When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the *note ssl: cf.
     module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS
     protocol, allowing multiple “virtual hosts” using different
     certificates on a single IP port.  This extension is only supported
     in client mode, and is activated by passing the 'server_hostname'
     argument to *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af.

   * Various options have been added to the *note ssl: cf. module, such
     as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 677. which disables the insecure and obsolete
     SSLv2 protocol.

   * The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest
     algorithms.  If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are
     reported as an “unknown algorithm” error.

   * The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the
     module attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 10c4. (a string),
     *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 10c5. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 10c6. (an integer).

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8850(3), bpo-1589(4), bpo-8322(5),
bpo-5639(6), bpo-4870(7), bpo-8484(8), and bpo-8321(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2818.html

   (2) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1589

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4870

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321


File: python.info,  Node: nntp,  Next: certificates,  Prev: ssl<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.29 nntp
..............

The *note nntplib: 9c. module has a revamped implementation with better
bytes and text semantics as well as more practical APIs.  These
improvements break compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1,
which was partly dysfunctional in itself.

Support for secure connections through both implicit (using *note
nntplib.NNTP_SSL: 76e.) and explicit (using *note
nntplib.NNTP.starttls(): 10c8.) TLS has also been added.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9360(1) and Andrew Vant in
bpo-1926(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1926


File: python.info,  Node: certificates,  Next: imaplib<4>,  Prev: nntp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.30 certificates
......................

*note http.client.HTTPSConnection: 9b2, *note
urllib.request.HTTPSHandler: 10ca. and *note urllib.request.urlopen():
286. now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate
checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in
public uses of HTTPS.

(Added by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9003


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<4>,  Next: http client<4>,  Prev: certificates,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.31 imaplib
.................

Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added
through the new *note imaplib.IMAP4.starttls: 10cc. method.

(Contributed by Lorenzo M. Catucci and Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4471(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4471


File: python.info,  Node: http client<4>,  Next: unittest<10>,  Prev: imaplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.32 http.client
.....................

There were a number of small API improvements in the *note http.client:
6d. module.  The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer
supported and the 'strict' parameter is deprecated in all classes.

The *note HTTPConnection: 9b1. and *note HTTPSConnection: 9b2. classes
now have a 'source_address' parameter for a (host, port) tuple
indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.

Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to
*note HTTPSConnection: 9b2.

The *note request(): b2c. method on connection objects allowed an
optional 'body' argument so that a *note file object: 1068. could be
used to supply the content of the request.  Conveniently, the 'body'
argument now also accepts an *note iterable: 10ce. object so long as it
includes an explicit ‘Content-Length’ header.  This extended interface
is much more flexible than before.

To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new
*note set_tunnel(): 10cf. method that sets the host and port for HTTP
Connect tunneling.

To match the behavior of *note http.server: 70, the HTTP client library
now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding.  It was
already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is
consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic.  (See work by Armin
Ronacher in bpo-10980(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10980


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<10>,  Next: random<4>,  Prev: http client<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.33 unittest
..................

The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test
discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive
prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test
failures, and better method names.

   * The command-line call ‘python -m unittest’ can now accept file
     paths instead of module names for running specific tests
     (bpo-10620(1)).  The new test discovery can find tests within
     packages, locating any test importable from the top-level
     directory.  The top-level directory can be specified with the ‘-t’
     option, a pattern for matching files with ‘-p’, and a directory to
     start discovery with ‘-s’:

          $ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the
     *note unittest.TestCase: 15f. class can now be instantiated without
     arguments:

          >>> from unittest import TestCase
          >>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note unittest: 106. module has two new methods, *note
     assertWarns(): 100b. and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 100c. to verify
     that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:

          with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
              legacy_function('XYZ')

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9754(2).)

     Another new method, *note assertCountEqual(): 10d1. is used to
     compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are
     equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number
     of occurrences regardless of order):

          def test_anagram(self):
              self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce
     meaningful diagnostics when a test fails.  When possible, the
     failure is recorded along with a diff of the output.  This is
     especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs.
     However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new
     *note maxDiff: 10d2. attribute that sets maximum length of diffs
     displayed.

   * In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number
     of clean-ups.

     For example, *note assertRegex(): 2b8. is the new name for
     ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ which was misnamed because the test uses
     *note re.search(): 10d3, not *note re.match(): 10d4.  Other methods
     using regular expressions are now named using short form “Regex” in
     preference to “Regexp” – this matches the names used in other
     unittest implementations, matches Python’s old name for the *note
     re: b8. module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)

   * To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being
     deprecated in favor of the preferred names:

          Old Name                            Preferred Name
                                              
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
          ‘assert_()’                         *note assertTrue(): 2b1.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertEquals()’                    *note assertEqual(): 2b3.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotEquals()’                 *note assertNotEqual(): 2b4.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertAlmostEquals()’              *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2b5.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals()’           *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2b6.
                                              

     Likewise, the ‘TestCase.fail*’ methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are
     expected to be removed in Python 3.3.

     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti; bpo-9424(3).)

   * The ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ method was deprecated because it
     was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order.  This
     created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like
     ‘TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1})’
     would fail.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9424


File: python.info,  Node: random<4>,  Next: poplib<4>,  Prev: unittest<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.34 random
................

The integer methods in the *note random: b7. module now do a better job
of producing uniform distributions.  Previously, they computed
selections with ‘int(n*random())’ which had a slight bias whenever 'n'
was not a power of two.  Now, multiple selections are made from a range
up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls
within the range ‘0 <= x < n’.  The functions and methods affected are
*note randrange(): 6af, *note randint(): 10d6, *note choice(): 10d7,
*note shuffle(): 573. and *note sample(): 572.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9025(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9025


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<4>,  Next: asyncore<2>,  Prev: random<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.35 poplib
................

*note POP3_SSL: 77d. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which is a
*note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object allowing bundling SSL configuration
options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
long-lived) structure.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8807(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8807


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore<2>,  Next: tempfile<4>,  Prev: poplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.36 asyncore
..................

‘asyncore.dispatcher’ now provides a ‘handle_accepted()’ method
returning a ‘(sock, addr)’ pair which is called when a connection has
actually been established with a new remote endpoint.  This is supposed
to be used as a replacement for old ‘handle_accept()’ and avoids the
user to call ‘accept()’ directly.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-6706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<4>,  Next: inspect<10>,  Prev: asyncore<2>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.37 tempfile
..................

The *note tempfile: df. module has a new context manager, *note
TemporaryDirectory: 10db. which provides easy deterministic cleanup of
temporary directories:

     with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
         print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)

(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Nick Coghlan; bpo-5178(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5178


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<10>,  Next: pydoc<6>,  Prev: tempfile<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.38 inspect
.................

   * The *note inspect: 7c. module has a new function *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 10dd. to easily identify the current state of
     a generator-iterator:

          >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
          >>> def gen():
          ...     yield 'demo'
          ...
          >>> g = gen()
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CREATED'
          >>> next(g)
          'demo'
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_SUSPENDED'
          >>> next(g, None)
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CLOSED'

     (Contributed by Rodolpho Eckhardt and Nick Coghlan, bpo-10220(1).)

   * To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic
     attribute, the *note inspect: 7c. module has a new function, *note
     getattr_static(): 1b8.  Unlike *note hasattr(): 200, this is a true
     read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is
     searching:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         print('Running')
          ...         return 10
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> getattr(a, 'f')
          Running
          10
          >>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
          <property object at 0x1022bd788>

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10220


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<6>,  Next: dis<4>,  Prev: inspect<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.39 pydoc
...............

The *note pydoc: b4. module now provides a much-improved web server
interface, as well as a new command-line option ‘-b’ to automatically
open a browser window to display that server:

     $ pydoc3.2 -b

(Contributed by Ron Adam; bpo-2001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2001


File: python.info,  Node: dis<4>,  Next: dbm<6>,  Prev: pydoc<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.40 dis
.............

The *note dis: 37. module gained two new functions for inspecting code,
*note code_info(): 10e0. and *note show_code(): dc9.  Both provide
detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
source code string or code object.  The former returns a string and the
latter prints it:

     >>> import dis, random
     >>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
     Name:              choice
     Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py
     Argument count:    2
     Kw-only arguments: 0
     Number of locals:  3
     Stack size:        11
     Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
     Constants:
        0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
        1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
     Names:
        0: _randbelow
        1: len
        2: ValueError
        3: IndexError
     Variable names:
        0: self
        1: seq
        2: i

In addition, the *note dis(): 9a5. function now accepts string arguments
so that the common idiom ‘dis(compile(s, '', 'eval'))’ can be shortened
to ‘dis(s)’:

     >>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
       1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                   3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                   6 BINARY_MODULO
                   7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
                  13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
                  16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
                  19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
                  23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  26 BINARY_ADD
                  27 RETURN_VALUE
             >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                  34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
                  35 RETURN_VALUE

Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython
is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does
under-the-hood.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-9147(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9147


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<6>,  Next: ctypes<2>,  Prev: dis<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.41 dbm
.............

All database modules now support the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods.

(Suggested by Ray Allen in bpo-9523(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9523


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<2>,  Next: site<3>,  Prev: dbm<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.42 ctypes
................

A new type, *note ctypes.c_ssize_t: 10e3. represents the C ‘ssize_t’
datatype.


File: python.info,  Node: site<3>,  Next: sysconfig<3>,  Prev: ctypes<2>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.43 site
..............

The *note site: c6. module has three new functions useful for reporting
on the details of a given Python installation.

   * *note getsitepackages(): 10e5. lists all global site-packages
     directories.

   * *note getuserbase(): 10e6. reports on the user’s base directory
     where data can be stored.

   * *note getusersitepackages(): 10e7. reveals the user-specific
     site-packages directory path.

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getsitepackages()
     ['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',
      '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',
      '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']
     >>> site.getuserbase()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'

Conveniently, some of site’s functionality is accessible directly from
the command-line:

     $ python -m site --user-base
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local
     $ python -m site --user-site
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé in bpo-6693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<3>,  Next: pdb<7>,  Prev: site<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.44 sysconfig
...................

The new *note sysconfig: da. module makes it straightforward to discover
installation paths and configuration variables that vary across
platforms and installations.

The module offers access simple access functions for platform and
version information:

   * *note get_platform(): 10e9. returning values like 'linux-i586' or
     'macosx-10.6-ppc'.

   * *note get_python_version(): 10ea. returns a Python version string
     such as “3.2”.

It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one
of seven named schemes used by ‘distutils’.  Those include
'posix_prefix', 'posix_home', 'posix_user', 'nt', 'nt_user', 'os2',
'os2_home':

   * *note get_paths(): 10eb. makes a dictionary containing installation
     paths for the current installation scheme.

   * *note get_config_vars(): ed4. returns a dictionary of platform
     specific variables.

There is also a convenient command-line interface:

     C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "win32"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "nt"

     Paths:
             data = "C:\Python32"
             include = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"
             stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"

     Variables:
             BINDIR = "C:\Python32"
             BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             EXE = ".exe"
             INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"
             LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             SO = ".pyd"
             VERSION = "32"
             abiflags = ""
             base = "C:\Python32"
             exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"
             platbase = "C:\Python32"
             prefix = "C:\Python32"
             projectbase = "C:\Python32"
             py_version = "3.2"
             py_version_nodot = "32"
             py_version_short = "3.2"
             srcdir = "C:\Python32"
             userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"

(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<7>,  Next: configparser<3>,  Prev: sysconfig<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.45 pdb
.............

The *note pdb: a4. debugger module gained a number of usability
improvements:

   * ‘pdb.py’ now has a ‘-c’ option that executes commands as given in a
     ‘.pdbrc’ script file.

   * A ‘.pdbrc’ script file can contain ‘continue’ and ‘next’ commands
     that continue debugging.

   * The *note Pdb: 77a. class constructor now accepts a 'nosigint'
     argument.

   * New commands: ‘l(list)’, ‘ll(long list)’ and ‘source’ for listing
     source code.

   * New commands: ‘display’ and ‘undisplay’ for showing or hiding the
     value of an expression if it has changed.

   * New command: ‘interact’ for starting an interactive interpreter
     containing the global and local names found in the current scope.

   * Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<3>,  Next: urllib parse<6>,  Prev: pdb<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.46 configparser
......................

The *note configparser: 22. module was modified to improve usability and
predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax.  The
old ‘ConfigParser’ class was removed in favor of ‘SafeConfigParser’
which has in turn been renamed to *note ConfigParser: 28e.  Support for
inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option
duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.

Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser()
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [DEFAULT]
     ... location = upper left
     ... visible = yes
     ... editable = no
     ... color = blue
     ...
     ... [main]
     ... title = Main Menu
     ... color = green
     ...
     ... [options]
     ... title = Options
     ... """)
     >>> parser['main']['color']
     'green'
     >>> parser['main']['editable']
     'no'
     >>> section = parser['options']
     >>> section['title']
     'Options'
     >>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)'
     >>> section['title']
     'Options (editable: no)'

The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser
subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.

The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized.
Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment
prefixes, change the name of the 'DEFAULT' section or switch the
interpolation syntax.

There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional
interpolation handler *note ExtendedInterpolation: 53f.:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
     >>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'},
     ...                   'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}})
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [buildout]
     ... parts =
     ...   zope9
     ...   instance
     ... find-links =
     ...   ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist
     ...
     ... [zope9]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install
     ... location = /opt/zope
     ...
     ... [instance]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance
     ... zope9-location = ${zope9:location}
     ... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf
     ... """)
     >>> parser['buildout']['find-links']
     '\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'
     >>> parser['instance']['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance = parser['instance']
     >>> instance['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance['zope9-location']
     '/opt/zope'

A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for
specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for
get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings.

(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<6>,  Next: mailbox,  Prev: configparser<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.47 urllib.parse
......................

A number of usability improvements were made for the *note urllib.parse:
10a. module.

The *note urlparse(): 283. function now supports IPv6(1) addresses as
described in RFC 2732(2):

     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/')
     ParseResult(scheme='http',
                 netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',
                 path='/foo/',
                 params='',
                 query='',
                 fragment='')

The *note urldefrag(): 10ef. function now returns a *note named tuple:
461.:

     >>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target')
     >>> r
     DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')
     >>> r[0]
     'http://python.org/about/'
     >>> r.fragment
     'target'

And, the *note urlencode(): d29. function is now much more flexible,
accepting either a string or bytes type for the 'query' argument.  If it
is a string, then the 'safe', 'encoding', and 'error' parameters are
sent to *note quote_plus(): 10f0. for encoding:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlencode([
     ...      ('type', 'telenovela'),
     ...      ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')],
     ...      encoding='latin-1')
     'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'

As detailed in *note Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes: 10f1, all the *note
urllib.parse: 10a. functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as
input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings.  If
ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types
will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/')
     ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',
                      path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')

(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-2987(3),
bpo-5468(4), and bpo-9873(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9873


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox,  Next: turtledemo,  Prev: urllib parse<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.48 mailbox
.................

Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the *note mailbox: 8a.
module has been fixed for Python 3.2.  The challenge was that mailbox
had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages
are best represented with *note bytes: 2cb. because various parts of a
message may have different encodings.

The solution harnessed the *note email: 3a. package’s binary support for
parsing arbitrary email messages.  In addition, the solution required a
number of API changes.

As expected, the *note add(): 10f3. method for *note mailbox.Mailbox:
10f4. objects now accepts binary input.

*note StringIO: dc4. and text file input are deprecated.  Also, string
input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used.  Previously it
would fail when the email was processed in a later step.

There is also support for binary output.  The *note get_file(): 10f5.
method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to
incorrectly set the file to text-mode).  There is also a new *note
get_bytes(): 10f6. method that returns a *note bytes: 2cb.
representation of a message corresponding to a given 'key'.

It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API’s *note
get_string(): 10f7. method, but that approach is not very useful.
Instead, it is best to extract messages from a *note Message: 10f8.
object or to load them from binary input.

(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode
Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in bpo-9124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9124


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo,  Prev: mailbox,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.11.9.49 turtledemo
....................

The demonstration code for the *note turtle: 101. module was moved from
the 'Demo' directory to main library.  It includes over a dozen sample
scripts with lively displays.  Being on *note sys.path: 368, it can now
be run directly from the command-line:

     $ python -m turtledemo

(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-10199(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10199


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading,  Next: Optimizations<8>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.10 Multi-threading
-----------------------

   * The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running
     Python threads (generally known as the *note GIL: 6fa. or Global
     Interpreter Lock) has been rewritten.  Among the objectives were
     more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to
     lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls.  The notion
     of a “check interval” to allow thread switches has been abandoned
     and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds.  This
     parameter is tunable through *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 7a5.
     It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.

     Additional details about the implementation can be read from a
     python-dev mailing-list message(1) (however, “priority requests” as
     exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)

   * Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional 'timeout'
     argument to their *note acquire(): 4ad. method.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7316(2).)

   * Similarly, *note threading.Semaphore.acquire(): 10fb. also gained a
     'timeout' argument.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff;
     bpo-850728(3).)

   * Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by
     signals on platforms using Pthreads.  This means that Python
     programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully
     killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing
     ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ in most shells).  (Contributed by Reid Kleckner;
     bpo-8844(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7316

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=850728

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8844


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<8>,  Next: Unicode,  Prev: Multi-threading,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.11 Optimizations
---------------------

A number of small performance enhancements have been added:

   * Python’s peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such ‘x in {1,
     2, 3}’ as being a test for membership in a set of constants.  The
     optimizer recasts the *note set: 3e4. as a *note frozenset: 3e5.
     and stores the pre-built constant.

     Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start
     writing membership tests using set-notation.  This style is both
     semantically clear and operationally fast:

          extension = name.rpartition('.')[2]
          if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}:
              handle(name)

     (Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm;
     bpo-6690(1)).

   * Serializing and unserializing data using the *note pickle: a5.
     module is now several times faster.

     (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou and the
     Unladen Swallow team in bpo-9410(2) and bpo-3873(3).)

   * The Timsort algorithm(4) used in *note list.sort(): a46. and *note
     sorted(): a45. now runs faster and uses less memory when called
     with a *note key function: c93.  Previously, every element of a
     list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key
     value associated with each element.  Now, two arrays of keys and
     values are sorted in parallel.  This saves the memory consumed by
     the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating
     comparisons.

     (Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9915(5).)

   * JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is
     reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys.
     Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the ‘sort_keys’
     argument is true.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-7451(6) and by Raymond
     Hettinger and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-10314(7).)

   * Recursive locks (created with the *note threading.RLock(): 262.
     API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast
     as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their
     previous pure Python implementation.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3001(8).)

   * The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the *note
     split(): d3e, *note rsplit(): 10fd, *note splitlines(): 10fe. and
     *note replace(): 10ff. methods on *note bytes: 2cb, *note
     bytearray: 2ca. and *note str: 15d. objects.  Likewise, the
     algorithm is also used by *note rfind(): d3d, *note rindex(): 1100,
     *note rsplit(): 10fd. and *note rpartition(): 1101.

     (Patch by Florent Xicluna in bpo-7622(9) and bpo-7462(10).)

   * Integer to string conversions now work two “digits” at a time,
     reducing the number of division and modulo operations.

     (bpo-6713(11) by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor
     Stinner.)

There were several other minor optimizations.  Set differencing now runs
faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress
Bennetts in bpo-8685(12)).  The ‘array.repeat()’ method has a faster
implementation (bpo-1569291(13) by Alexander Belopolsky).  The *note
BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. has more efficient buffering (bpo-3709(14)
by Andrew Schaaf).  The *note operator.attrgetter(): cc3. function has
been sped-up (bpo-10160(15) by Christos Georgiou).  And *note
ConfigParser: 28e. loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (bpo-7113(16)
by Łukasz Langa).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9410

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3873

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7451

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10314

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3001

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8685

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1569291

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10160

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7113


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode,  Next: Codecs,  Prev: Optimizations<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.12 Unicode
---------------

Python has been updated to Unicode 6.0.0(1).  The update to the standard
adds over 2,000 new characters including emoji(2) symbols which are
important for mobile phones.

In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties
for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric
character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers
while disqualifying the latter.  For more information, see Unicode
Character Database Changes(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes


File: python.info,  Node: Codecs,  Next: Documentation,  Prev: Unicode,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.13 Codecs
--------------

Support was added for 'cp720' Arabic DOS encoding (bpo-1616979(1)).

MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument.  In the
default strict mode, it raises an *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873. when it
encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an *note UnicodeEncodeError:
48b. for an unencodable character.

The MBCS codec supports ‘'strict'’ and ‘'ignore'’ error handlers for
decoding, and ‘'strict'’ and ‘'replace'’ for encoding.

To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the ‘'ignore'’ handler for
decoding and the ‘'replace'’ handler for encoding.

On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with ‘'utf-8'’ rather
than the locale encoding.

By default, *note tarfile: dd. uses ‘'utf-8'’ encoding on Windows
(instead of ‘'mbcs'’) and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler on all
operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation,  Next: IDLE,  Prev: Codecs,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.14 Documentation
---------------------

The documentation continues to be improved.

   * A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy
     sections such as *note Gömülü Fonksiyonlar: 1105.  In the case of
     *note itertools: 7f, the links are accompanied by tables of
     cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and memory jog
     without having to read all of the docs.

   * In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct
     to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links
     to the latest version of the source code.  For example, the *note
     functools: 5d. module documentation has a quick link at the top
     labeled:

          'Source code' Lib/functools.py(1).

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see rationale(2).)

   * The docs now contain more examples and recipes.  In particular,
     *note re: b8. module has an extensive section, *note Regular
     Expression Examples: 1106.  Likewise, the *note itertools: 7f.
     module continues to be updated with new *note Itertools Recipes:
     1107.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module now has an auxiliary implementation
     in pure Python.  No functionality was changed.  This just provides
     an easier-to-read alternate implementation.

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-9528(3).)

   * The unmaintained ‘Demo’ directory has been removed.  Some demos
     were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the
     ‘Tools/demo’ directory, and others were removed altogether.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-7962(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/functools.py

   (2) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7962


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE,  Next: Code Repository,  Prev: Documentation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.15 IDLE
------------

   * The format menu now has an option to clean source files by
     stripping trailing whitespace.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5150(1).)

   * IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa
     AquaTk.

     (Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren;
     bpo-6075(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6075


File: python.info,  Node: Code Repository,  Next: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Prev: IDLE,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.16 Code Repository
-----------------------

In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at
‘https://svn.python.org’ there is now a Mercurial(1) repository at
‘https://hg.python.org/’.

After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the
primary repository.  This distributed version control system should make
it easier for members of the community to create and share external
changesets.  See PEP 385(2) for details.

To learn to use the new version control system, see the Quick Start(3)
or the Guide to Mercurial Workflows(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0385/

   (3) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart

   (4) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Code Repository,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.17 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The 'idle', 'pydoc' and '2to3' scripts are now installed with a
     version-specific suffix on ‘make altinstall’ (bpo-10679(1)).

   * The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and
     return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow
     unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and
     others).  A visible difference in Python is that *note
     unicodedata.numeric(): 110b. now returns the correct value for
     large code points, and *note repr(): 637. may consider more
     characters as printable.

     (Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc;
     bpo-5127(2).)

   * Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers
     (which are detected by the configure script).  They can still be
     disabled selectively by specifying ‘--without-computed-gotos’.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9203(3).)

   * The option ‘--with-wctype-functions’ was removed.  The built-in
     unicode database is now used for all functions.

     (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; bpo-9210(4).)

   * Hash values are now values of a new type, *note Py_hash_t: 110c,
     which is defined to be the same size as a pointer.  Previously they
     were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still
     only 32 bits long.  As a result of this fix, *note set: 3e4. and
     *note dict: 240. can now hold more than ‘2**32’ entries on builds
     with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but
     their performance degraded catastrophically).

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-9778(5).)

   * A new macro ‘Py_VA_COPY’ copies the state of the variable argument
     list.  It is equivalent to C99 'va_copy' but available on all
     Python platforms (bpo-2443(6)).

   * A new C API function ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ allows an embedded
     interpreter to set *note sys.argv: 110d. without also modifying
     *note sys.path: 368. (bpo-5753(7)).

   * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available in macro form.  The
     function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility
     reasons, is now removed – the macro was introduced in 1997
     (bpo-8276(8)).

   * There is a new function *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 110e.
     which is analogous to *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 110f.  They
     both serve to convert Python *note int: 184. into a native
     fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the
     conversion won’t fit (bpo-7767(9)).

   * The *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 1110. function now
     returns 'not equal' if the Python string is 'NUL' terminated.

   * There is a new function *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1111.
     that is like *note PyErr_NewException(): 1112. but allows a
     docstring to be specified.  This lets C exceptions have the same
     self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts
     (bpo-7033(10)).

   * When compiled with the ‘--with-valgrind’ option, the pymalloc
     allocator will be automatically disabled when running under
     Valgrind.  This gives improved memory leak detection when running
     under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times
     (bpo-2422(11)).

   * Removed the ‘O?’ format from the 'PyArg_Parse' functions.  The
     format is no longer used and it had never been documented
     (bpo-8837(12)).

There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the
Misc/NEWS(13) file for a complete list.

Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see
Mac/BuildScript/README.txt(14) for details.  For users running a
32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac
OS X 10.6.  Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative
such as ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9(15).  See
‘https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/’ for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5127

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9203

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9210

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8837

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Misc/NEWS

   (14) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt

   (15) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20101208191259/https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.11.18 Porting to Python 3.2
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note configparser: 22. module has a number of clean-ups.  The
     major change is to replace the old ‘ConfigParser’ class with
     long-standing preferred alternative ‘SafeConfigParser’.  In
     addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities:

        * The interpolation syntax is now validated on *note get():
          1114. and *note set(): 1115. operations.  In the default
          interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are
          valid: ‘%(name)s’ and ‘%%’, the latter being an escaped
          percent sign.

        * The *note set(): 1115. and *note add_section(): 1116. methods
          now verify that values are actual strings.  Formerly,
          unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally.

        * Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise
          either *note DuplicateSectionError: 1117. or *note
          DuplicateOptionError: 1118.  Formerly, duplicates would
          silently overwrite a previous entry.

        * Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the ';'
          character can be safely used in values.

        * Comments now can be indented.  Consequently, for ';' or '#' to
          appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to
          be interpolated.  This keeps comment prefix characters in
          values from being mistaken as comments.

        * ‘""’ is now a valid value and is no longer automatically
          converted to an empty string.  For empty strings, use ‘"option
          ="’ in a line.

   * The *note nntplib: 9c. module was reworked extensively, meaning
     that its APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.

   * *note bytearray: 2ca. objects can no longer be used as filenames;
     instead, they should be converted to *note bytes: 2cb.

   * The ‘array.tostring()’ and ‘array.fromstring()’ have been renamed
     to *note array.tobytes(): 1119. and *note array.frombytes(): 111a.
     for clarity.  The old names have been deprecated.  (See
     bpo-8990(1).)

   * ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions:

        * “t#” format has been removed: use “s#” or “s*” instead

        * “w” and “w#” formats has been removed: use “w*” instead

   * The ‘PyCObject’ type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed.  To wrap
     opaque C pointers in Python objects, the *note PyCapsule: 111b. API
     should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface
     for passing typing safety information and a less complicated
     signature for calling a destructor.

   * The ‘sys.setfilesystemencoding()’ function was removed because it
     had a flawed design.

   * The *note random.seed(): 111c. function and method now salt string
     seeds with an sha512 hash function.  To access the previous version
     of 'seed' in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the
     'version' argument to '1', ‘random.seed(s, version=1)’.

   * The previously deprecated ‘string.maketrans()’ function has been
     removed in favor of the static methods *note bytes.maketrans():
     111d. and *note bytearray.maketrans(): 111e.  This change solves
     the confusion around which types were supported by the *note
     string: d2. module.  Now, *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb, and
     *note bytearray: 2ca. each have their own 'maketrans' and
     'translate' methods with intermediate translation tables of the
     appropriate type.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(2).)

   * The previously deprecated ‘contextlib.nested()’ function has been
     removed in favor of a plain *note with: 3dd. statement which can
     accept multiple context managers.  The latter technique is faster
     (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing
     multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception:

          with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
              for line in infile:
                  if '<critical>' in line:
                      outfile.write(line)

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(3).)

   * *note struct.pack(): 111f. now only allows bytes for the ‘s’ string
     pack code.  Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly
     encode them to bytes using UTF-8.  This was problematic because it
     made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a
     variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length
     segment of a structure.

     Code such as ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y)’ should be
     rewritten with to use bytes instead of text,
     ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y)’.

     (Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner;
     bpo-10783(4).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. class now raises an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError: 1120. when a parse fails.
     Previously it raised an *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 1121.

   * The new, longer *note str(): 15d. value on floats may break
     doctests which rely on the old output format.

   * In *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa, the default value for 'close_fds'
     is now ‘True’ under Unix; under Windows, it is ‘True’ if the three
     standard streams are set to ‘None’, ‘False’ otherwise.  Previously,
     'close_fds' was always ‘False’ by default, which produced difficult
     to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would
     leak into the child process.

   * Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from *note
     urllib.request: 10b. and *note http.client: 6d.  Such support is
     still present on the server side (in *note http.server: 70.).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10711(5).)

   * SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise *note socket.timeout: 672.
     when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic *note SSLError: 1122.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10272(6).)

   * The misleading functions ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ have been officially deprecated.  The
     thread-state aware APIs (such as *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 1123.
     and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4.) should be used instead.

   * Due to security risks, ‘asyncore.handle_accept()’ has been
     deprecated, and a new function, ‘asyncore.handle_accepted()’, was
     added to replace it.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-6706(7).)

   * Due to the new *note GIL: 6fa. implementation,
     ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6fc. anymore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (3) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10272

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.12 What’s New In Python 3.1
=============================


Author: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.
Python 3.1 was released on June 27, 2009.

* Menu:

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, a new
*note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. class has been introduced.

The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
when a key was first inserted.  If a new entry overwrites an existing
entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged.  Deleting an
entry and reinserting it will move it to the end.

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.  The *note configparser: 22. module uses them by default.  This
lets configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in
their original order.  The '_asdict()' method for *note
collections.namedtuple(): 74b. now returns an ordered dictionary with
the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.
The *note json: 80. module is being built-out with an
'object_pairs_hook' to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 372(2) - Ordered Dictionaries

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger.
     Implementation written by Raymond Hettinger.

Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be
used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary:

     >>> # regular unsorted dictionary
     >>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple':4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2}

     >>> # dictionary sorted by key
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0]))
     OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by value
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0])))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)])

The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are
deleted.  But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end
and the sort is not maintained.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Next: Other Language Changes<10>,  Prev: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.2 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

The built-in *note format(): 431. function and the *note str.format():
433. method use a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale
aware way to format a number with a thousands separator.  That provides
a way to humanize a program’s output, improving its professional
appearance and readability:

     >>> format(1234567, ',d')
     '1,234,567'
     >>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
     '1,234,567.89'
     >>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
     '12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
     >>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
     '1,234,567.89'

The supported types are *note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note complex:
273. and *note decimal.Decimal: 609.

Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores.  Locale-aware
applications should use the existing 'n' format specifier which already
has some support for thousands separators.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
     Mark Dickinson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<10>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.3 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the first entry
     in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu; revised
     patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note int(): 184. type gained a ‘bit_length’ method that
     returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in
     binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(37)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond
     Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-3439(2).)

   * The fields in *note format(): 431. strings can now be automatically
     numbered:

          >>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
          'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'

     Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
     ‘'Sir {0} of {1}'’.

     (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(3).)

   * The ‘string.maketrans()’ function is deprecated and is replaced by
     new static methods, *note bytes.maketrans(): 111d. and *note
     bytearray.maketrans(): 111e.  This change solves the confusion
     around which types were supported by the *note string: d2. module.
     Now, *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb, and *note bytearray: 2ca.
     each have their own 'maketrans' and 'translate' methods with
     intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(4).)

   * The syntax of the *note with: 3dd. statement now allows multiple
     context managers in a single statement:

          >>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
          ...     for line in infile:
          ...         if '<critical>' in line:
          ...             outfile.write(line)

     With the new syntax, the ‘contextlib.nested()’ function is no
     longer needed and is now deprecated.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(5).)

   * ‘round(x, n)’ now returns an integer if 'x' is an integer.
     Previously it returned a float:

          >>> round(1123, -2)
          1100

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4707(6).)

   * Python now uses David Gay’s algorithm for finding the shortest
     floating-point representation that doesn’t change its value.  This
     should help mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary
     floating-point numbers.

     The significance is easily seen with a number like ‘1.1’ which does
     not have an exact equivalent in binary floating point.  Since there
     is no exact equivalent, an expression like ‘float('1.1')’ evaluates
     to the nearest representable value which is ‘0x1.199999999999ap+0’
     in hex or ‘1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625’
     in decimal.  That nearest value was and still is used in subsequent
     floating-point calculations.

     What is new is how the number gets displayed.  Formerly, Python
     used a simple approach.  The value of ‘repr(1.1)’ was computed as
     ‘format(1.1, '.17g')’ which evaluated to ‘'1.1000000000000001'’.
     The advantage of using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754
     guarantees to assure that ‘eval(repr(1.1))’ would round-trip
     exactly to its original value.  The disadvantage is that many
     people found the output to be confusing (mistaking intrinsic
     limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a
     problem with Python itself).

     The new algorithm for ‘repr(1.1)’ is smarter and returns ‘'1.1'’.
     Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations
     (ones that get stored with the same underlying float value) and
     returns the shortest representation.

     The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when
     possible, but it does not change the underlying values.  So, it is
     still the case that ‘1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3’ even though the
     representations may suggest otherwise.

     The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying
     floating-point implementation.  If the required features are not
     found, the old algorithm will continue to be used.  Also, the text
     pickle protocols assure cross-platform portability by using the old
     algorithm.

     (Contributed by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson; bpo-1580(7))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (5) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4707

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1580


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<9>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.4 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

   * Added a *note collections.Counter: f3c. class to support convenient
     counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable:

          >>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
          Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(1).)

   * Added a new module, *note tkinter.ttk: f9. for access to the Tk
     themed widget set.  The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the
     extent possible, the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the
     code implementing its appearance.

     (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2983(2).)

   * The *note gzip.GzipFile: 296. and *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. classes
     now support the context management protocol:

          >>> # Automatically close file after writing
          >>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
          ...     f.write(b"xxx")

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)

   * The *note decimal: 35. module now supports methods for creating a
     decimal object from a binary *note float: 272.  The conversion is
     exact but can sometimes be surprising:

          >>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
          Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')

     The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
     stored for '1.1'.  The fraction has many digits because '1.1'
     cannot be exactly represented in binary.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)

   * The *note itertools: 7f. module grew two new functions.  The *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 112a. function is one of
     four for generating combinatorics including permutations and
     Cartesian products.  The *note itertools.compress(): 112b. function
     mimics its namesake from APL. Also, the existing *note
     itertools.count(): 112c. function now has an optional 'step'
     argument and can accept any type of counting sequence including
     *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. and *note decimal.Decimal: 609.:

          >>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
          ['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']

          >>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
          [2, 3, 5, 7]

          >>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
          >>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
          [Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. now supports a keyword
     argument 'rename' which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically
     converted to positional names in the form _0, _1, etc.  This is
     useful when the field names are being created by an external source
     such as a CSV header, SQL field list, or user input:

          >>> query = input()
          SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept

          >>> cursor.execute(query)
          >>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
          >>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
          >>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
          [UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
           UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
           UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(3).)

   * The *note re.sub(): 208, *note re.subn(): 209. and *note
     re.split(): 9e3. functions now accept a flags parameter.

     (Contributed by Gregory Smith.)

   * The *note logging: 86. module now implements a simple *note
     logging.NullHandler: 112d. class for applications that are not
     using logging but are calling library code that does.  Setting-up a
     null handler will suppress spurious warnings such as “No handlers
     could be found for logger foo”:

          >>> h = logging.NullHandler()
          >>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)

     (Contributed by Vinay Sajip; bpo-4384(4)).

   * The *note runpy: bd. module which supports the ‘-m’ command line
     switch now supports the execution of packages by looking for and
     executing a ‘__main__’ submodule when a package name is supplied.

     (Contributed by Andi Vajda; bpo-4195(5).)

   * The *note pdb: a4. module can now access and display source code
     loaded via *note zipimport: 132. (or any other conformant PEP
     302(6) loader).

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-4201(7).)

   * *note functools.partial: d61. objects can now be pickled.

     (Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller.  Implemented by Jack
     Diederich; bpo-5228(8).)

   * Add *note pydoc: b4. help topics for symbols so that ‘help('@')’
     works as expected in the interactive environment.

     (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(9).)

   * The *note unittest: 106. module now supports skipping individual
     tests or classes of tests.  And it supports marking a test as an
     expected failure, a test that is known to be broken, but shouldn’t
     be counted as a failure on a TestResult:

          class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):

              @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
              def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
                  ...

              @unittest.expectedFailure
              def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
                  ...

     Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context
     managers using the *note with: 3dd. statement:

          def test_division_by_zero(self):
              with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                  x / 0

     In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
     *note assertSetEqual(): 112e, *note assertDictEqual(): 112f,
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’, *note assertListEqual(): 1130, *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 1131, *note assertSequenceEqual(): 1132, *note
     assertRaisesRegexp(): 2b9, *note assertIsNone(): 1133, and *note
     assertIsNotNone(): 1134.

     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson and Antoine Pitrou.)

   * The *note io: 7d. module has three new constants for the *note
     seek(): 1135. method: *note SEEK_SET: 1136, *note SEEK_CUR: 1137,
     and *note SEEK_END: 1138.

   * The *note sys.version_info: 4b5. tuple is now a named tuple:

          >>> sys.version_info
          sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)

     (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(10).)

   * The *note nntplib: 9c. and *note imaplib: 72. modules now support
     IPv6.

     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(11) and bpo-1664(12).)

   * The *note pickle: a5. module has been adapted for better
     interoperability with Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or
     lower.  The reorganization of the standard library changed the
     formal reference for many objects.  For example, ‘__builtin__.set’
     in Python 2 is called ‘builtins.set’ in Python 3.  This change
     confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
     Python.  But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler
     will automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and
     dumping.  This remapping is turned-on by default but can be
     disabled with the 'fix_imports' option:

          >>> s = {1, 2, 3}
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
          b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
          b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'

     An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that
     protocol 2 pickles produced by Python 3.1 won’t be readable with
     Python 3.0.  The latest pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used
     when migrating data between Python 3.x implementations, as it
     doesn’t attempt to remain compatible with Python 2.x.

     (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti and Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6137(13).)

   * A new module, *note importlib: 75. was added.  It provides a
     complete, portable, pure Python reference implementation of the
     *note import: 3ed. statement and its counterpart, the *note
     __import__(): 727. function.  It represents a substantial step
     forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place
     during imports.

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4384

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4195

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4201

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5228

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6137


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<9>,  Next: IDLE<2>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.5 Optimizations
--------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * The new I/O library (as defined in PEP 3116(1)) was mostly written
     in Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in
     Python 3.0.  In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely
     rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at
     hand.  The pure Python version is still available for
     experimentation purposes through the ‘_pyio’ module.

     (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Antoine Pitrou.)

   * Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only
     untrackable objects are not tracked by the garbage collector.  This
     can reduce the size of collections and therefore the garbage
     collection overhead on long-running programs, depending on their
     particular use of datatypes.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4688(2).)

   * Enabling a configure option named ‘--with-computed-gotos’ on
     compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
     evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which
     gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler,
     and the benchmark.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou along with a number of other
     participants, bpo-4753(3)).

   * The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
     faster.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc,
     bpo-4868(4).)

   * The *note json: 80. module now has a C extension to substantially
     improve its performance.  In addition, the API was modified so that
     json works only with *note str: 15d, not with *note bytes: 2cb.
     That change makes the module closely match the JSON
     specification(5) which is defined in terms of Unicode.

     (Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine
     Pitrou and Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4136(6).)

   * Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects.
     This saves memory and allows pickles to be smaller.

     (Contributed by Jake McGuire and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5084(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4753

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4868

   (5) https://json.org/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<2>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Prev: Optimizations<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.6 IDLE
-----------

   * IDLE’s format menu now provides an option to strip trailing
     whitespace from a source file.

     (Contributed by Roger D. Serwy; bpo-5150(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: IDLE<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.7 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * Integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or in
     base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.  Previously,
     they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base ‘2**30’ gives
     significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
     benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
     the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines and base
     ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new configure option
     ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there’s a new *note sys.int_info: 113c. that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.int_info
          sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(1).)

   * The *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 113d. function now handles a
     negative 'pylong' by raising *note OverflowError: 6c7. instead of
     *note TypeError: 2c4.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Lisandro Dalcrin; bpo-5175(2).)

   * Deprecated ‘PyNumber_Int()’.  Use *note PyNumber_Long(): 8cc.
     instead.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4910(3).)

   * Added a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 113e. function to
     replace the deprecated functions ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and
     ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5914(4).)

   * Added *note PyCapsule: 111b. as a replacement for the ‘PyCObject’
     API. The principal difference is that the new type has a well
     defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less
     complicated signature for calling a destructor.  The old type had a
     problematic API and is now deprecated.

     (Contributed by Larry Hastings; bpo-5630(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5175

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4910

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5914

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.12.8 Porting to Python 3.1
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The new floating-point string representations can break existing
     doctests.  For example:

          def e():
              '''Compute the base of natural logarithms.

              >>> e()
              2.7182818284590451

              '''
              return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))

          doctest.testmod()

          **********************************************************************
          Failed example:
              e()
          Expected:
              2.7182818284590451
          Got:
              2.718281828459045
          **********************************************************************

   * The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or
     lower can make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0.  One
     solution is to use protocol 3.  Another solution is to set the
     'fix_imports' option to ‘False’.  See the discussion above for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.13 What’s New In Python 3.0
=============================


Author: Guido van Rossum

This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6.
Python 3.0, also known as “Python 3000” or “Py3K”, is the first ever
'intentionally backwards incompatible' Python release.  Python 3.0 was
released on December 3, 2008.  There are more changes than in a typical
release, and more that are important for all Python users.
Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you’ll find that Python
really hasn’t changed all that much – by and large, we’re mostly fixing
well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of old cruft.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 3.0, and/or
the many PEPs referenced in the text.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale for a particular feature,
PEPs usually have more details than the regular documentation; but note
that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should
have been.  As always for a new release, the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about
every small thing that was changed.

* Menu:

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Next: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.1 Common Stumbling Blocks
------------------------------

This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you up
if you’re used to Python 2.5.

* Menu:

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.


File: python.info,  Node: Print Is A Function,  Next: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.1 Print Is A Function
............................

The ‘print’ statement has been replaced with a *note print(): e16.
function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax
of the old ‘print’ statement ( PEP 3105(1)).  Examples:

     Old: print "The answer is", 2*2
     New: print("The answer is", 2*2)

     Old: print x,           # Trailing comma suppresses newline
     New: print(x, end=" ")  # Appends a space instead of a newline

     Old: print              # Prints a newline
     New: print()            # You must call the function!

     Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error"
     New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr)

     Old: print (x, y)       # prints repr((x, y))
     New: print((x, y))      # Not the same as print(x, y)!

You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.:

     print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="")

which produces:

     There are <4294967296> possibilities!

Note:

   * The *note print(): e16. function doesn’t support the “softspace”
     feature of the old ‘print’ statement.  For example, in Python 2.x,
     ‘print "A\n", "B"’ would write ‘"A\nB\n"’; but in Python 3.0,
     ‘print("A\n", "B")’ writes ‘"A\n B\n"’.

   * Initially, you’ll be finding yourself typing the old ‘print x’ a
     lot in interactive mode.  Time to retrain your fingers to type
     ‘print(x)’ instead!

   * When using the ‘2to3’ source-to-source conversion tool, all ‘print’
     statements are automatically converted to *note print(): e16.
     function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for larger projects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Next: Ordering Comparisons,  Prev: Print Is A Function,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.2 Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
.............................................

Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:

   * *note dict: 240. methods *note dict.keys(): 605, *note
     dict.items(): 607. and *note dict.values(): 606. return “views”
     instead of lists.  For example, this no longer works: ‘k =
     d.keys(); k.sort()’.  Use ‘k = sorted(d)’ instead (this works in
     Python 2.5 too and is just as efficient).

   * Also, the ‘dict.iterkeys()’, ‘dict.iteritems()’ and
     ‘dict.itervalues()’ methods are no longer supported.

   * *note map(): 6a7. and *note filter(): 6a8. return iterators.  If
     you really need a list and the input sequences are all of equal
     length, a quick fix is to wrap *note map(): 6a7. in *note list():
     422, e.g.  ‘list(map(...))’, but a better fix is often to use a
     list comprehension (especially when the original code uses *note
     lambda: 1145.), or rewriting the code so it doesn’t need a list at
     all.  Particularly tricky is *note map(): 6a7. invoked for the side
     effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a
     regular *note for: 26d. loop (since creating a list would just be
     wasteful).

     If the input sequences are not of equal length, *note map(): 6a7.
     will stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences.  For
     full compatibility with *note map(): 6a7. from Python 2.x, also
     wrap the sequences in *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1146, e.g.
     ‘map(func, *sequences)’ becomes ‘list(map(func,
     itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))’.

   * *note range(): 79c. now behaves like ‘xrange()’ used to behave,
     except it works with values of arbitrary size.  The latter no
     longer exists.

   * *note zip(): 608. now returns an iterator.


File: python.info,  Node: Ordering Comparisons,  Next: Integers,  Prev: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.3 Ordering Comparisons
.............................

Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:

   * The ordering comparison operators (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise a
     TypeError exception when the operands don’t have a meaningful
     natural ordering.  Thus, expressions like ‘1 < ''’, ‘0 > None’ or
     ‘len <= len’ are no longer valid, and e.g.  ‘None < None’ raises
     *note TypeError: 2c4. instead of returning ‘False’.  A corollary is
     that sorting a heterogeneous list no longer makes sense – all the
     elements must be comparable to each other.  Note that this does not
     apply to the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators: objects of different
     incomparable types always compare unequal to each other.

   * *note sorted(): a45. and *note list.sort(): a46. no longer accept
     the 'cmp' argument providing a comparison function.  Use the 'key'
     argument instead.  N.B. the 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are now
     “keyword-only”.

   * The ‘cmp()’ function should be treated as gone, and the ‘__cmp__()’
     special method is no longer supported.  Use *note __lt__(): 1148.
     for sorting, *note __eq__(): 968. with *note __hash__(): 969, and
     other rich comparisons as needed.  (If you really need the ‘cmp()’
     functionality, you could use the expression ‘(a > b) - (a < b)’ as
     the equivalent for ‘cmp(a, b)’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Integers,  Next: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Ordering Comparisons,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.4 Integers
.................

   * PEP 237(1): Essentially, ‘long’ renamed to *note int: 184.  That
     is, there is only one built-in integral type, named *note int:
     184.; but it behaves mostly like the old ‘long’ type.

   * PEP 238(2): An expression like ‘1/2’ returns a float.  Use ‘1//2’
     to get the truncating behavior.  (The latter syntax has existed for
     years, at least since Python 2.2.)

   * The ‘sys.maxint’ constant was removed, since there is no longer a
     limit to the value of integers.  However, *note sys.maxsize: 106a.
     can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
     index.  It conforms to the implementation’s “natural” integer size
     and is typically the same as ‘sys.maxint’ in previous releases on
     the same platform (assuming the same build options).

   * The *note repr(): 637. of a long integer doesn’t include the
     trailing ‘L’ anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that
     character will chop off the last digit instead.  (Use *note str():
     15d. instead.)

   * Octal literals are no longer of the form ‘0720’; use ‘0o720’
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Integers,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.13.1.5 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
...................................................

Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has
changed.

   * Python 3.0 uses the concepts of 'text' and (binary) 'data' instead
     of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings.  All text is Unicode; however
     'encoded' Unicode is represented as binary data.  The type used to
     hold text is *note str: 15d, the type used to hold data is *note
     bytes: 2cb.  The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is that
     any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises *note
     TypeError: 2c4, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit
     strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened
     to contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 873. if it contained non-ASCII values.  This
     value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the
     years.

   * As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code
     that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
     change.  The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
     were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
     text.  To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using ‘unicode’ for all
     unencoded text, and *note str: 15d. for binary or encoded data
     only.  Then the ‘2to3’ tool will do most of the work for you.

   * You can no longer use ‘u"..."’ literals for Unicode text.  However,
     you must use ‘b"..."’ literals for binary data.

   * As the *note str: 15d. and *note bytes: 2cb. types cannot be mixed,
     you must always explicitly convert between them.  Use *note
     str.encode(): 728. to go from *note str: 15d. to *note bytes: 2cb,
     and *note bytes.decode(): 729. to go from *note bytes: 2cb. to
     *note str: 15d.  You can also use ‘bytes(s, encoding=...)’ and
     ‘str(b, encoding=...)’, respectively.

   * Like *note str: 15d, the *note bytes: 2cb. type is immutable.
     There is a separate 'mutable' type to hold buffered binary data,
     *note bytearray: 2ca.  Nearly all APIs that accept *note bytes:
     2cb. also accept *note bytearray: 2ca.  The mutable API is based on
     *note collections.MutableSequence: c62.

   * All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
     This means that ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’ escapes in raw strings are not
     treated specially.  For example, ‘r'\u20ac'’ is a string of 6
     characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ‘ur'\u20ac'’ was the
     single “euro” character.  (Of course, this change only affects raw
     string literals; the euro character is ‘'\u20ac'’ in Python 3.0.)

   * The built-in ‘basestring’ abstract type was removed.  Use *note
     str: 15d. instead.  The *note str: 15d. and *note bytes: 2cb. types
     don’t have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base
     class.  The ‘2to3’ tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
     ‘basestring’ with *note str: 15d.

   * Files opened as text files (still the default mode for *note
     open(): 2a6.) always use an encoding to map between strings (in
     memory) and bytes (on disk).  Binary files (opened with a ‘b’ in
     the mode argument) always use bytes in memory.  This means that if
     a file is opened using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will
     likely fail loudly, instead of silently producing incorrect data.
     It also means that even Unix users will have to specify the correct
     mode (text or binary) when opening a file.  There is a
     platform-dependent default encoding, which on Unixy platforms can
     be set with the ‘LANG’ environment variable (and sometimes also
     with some other platform-specific locale-related environment
     variables).  In many cases, but not all, the system default is
     UTF-8; you should never count on this default.  Any application
     reading or writing more than pure ASCII text should probably have a
     way to override the encoding.  There is no longer any need for
     using the encoding-aware streams in the *note codecs: 1b. module.

   * The initial values of *note sys.stdin: 2c9, *note sys.stdout: 943.
     and *note sys.stderr: 792. are now unicode-only text files (i.e.,
     they are instances of *note io.TextIOBase: 4aa.).  To read and
     write bytes data with these streams, you need to use their *note
     io.TextIOBase.buffer: 114b. attribute.

   * Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode)
     strings.  This can present platform-specific problems because on
     some platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings.  (On the other
     hand, on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.)  As a
     work-around, most APIs (e.g.  *note open(): 2a6. and many functions
     in the *note os: a0. module) that take filenames accept *note
     bytes: 2cb. objects as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way
     to ask for a *note bytes: 2cb. return value.  Thus, *note
     os.listdir(): f9c. returns a list of *note bytes: 2cb. instances if
     the argument is a *note bytes: 2cb. instance, and *note
     os.getcwdb(): 8f9. returns the current working directory as a *note
     bytes: 2cb. instance.  Note that when *note os.listdir(): f9c.
     returns a list of strings, filenames that cannot be decoded
     properly are omitted rather than raising *note UnicodeError: 114c.

   * Some system APIs like *note os.environ: 105f. and *note sys.argv:
     110d. can also present problems when the bytes made available by
     the system is not interpretable using the default encoding.
     Setting the ‘LANG’ variable and rerunning the program is probably
     the best approach.

   * PEP 3138(1): The *note repr(): 637. of a string no longer escapes
     non-ASCII characters.  It still escapes control characters and code
     points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.

   * PEP 3120(2): The default source encoding is now UTF-8.

   * PEP 3131(3): Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers.
     (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the
     exception of contributor names in comments.)

   * The ‘StringIO’ and ‘cStringIO’ modules are gone.  Instead, import
     the *note io: 7d. module and use *note io.StringIO: dc4. or *note
     io.BytesIO: d38. for text and data respectively.

   * See also the *note Unicode HOWTO: 114d, which was updated for
     Python 3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3138/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Next: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Prev: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.2 Overview Of Syntax Changes
---------------------------------

This section gives a brief overview of every 'syntactic' change in
Python 3.0.

* Menu:

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::


File: python.info,  Node: New Syntax,  Next: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.13.2.1 New Syntax
...................

   * PEP 3107(1): Function argument and return value annotations.  This
     provides a standardized way of annotating a function’s parameters
     and return value.  There are no semantics attached to such
     annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
     the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.  The intent is to encourage
     experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks.

   * PEP 3102(2): Keyword-only arguments.  Named parameters occurring
     after ‘*args’ in the parameter list 'must' be specified using
     keyword syntax in the call.  You can also use a bare ‘*’ in the
     parameter list to indicate that you don’t accept a variable-length
     argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.

   * Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a
     class definition.  This is used by the new convention for
     specifying a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for
     other purposes as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.

   * PEP 3104(3): *note nonlocal: 1150. statement.  Using ‘nonlocal x’
     you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but
     non-global) scope.  ‘nonlocal’ is a new reserved word.

   * PEP 3132(4): Extended Iterable Unpacking.  You can now write things
     like ‘a, b, *rest = some_sequence’.  And even ‘*rest, a = stuff’.
     The ‘rest’ object is always a (possibly empty) list; the right-hand
     side may be any iterable.  Example:

          (a, *rest, b) = range(5)

     This sets 'a' to ‘0’, 'b' to ‘4’, and 'rest' to ‘[1, 2, 3]’.

   * Dictionary comprehensions: ‘{k: v for k, v in stuff}’ means the
     same thing as ‘dict(stuff)’ but is more flexible.  (This is PEP
     274(5) vindicated.  :-)

   * Set literals, e.g.  ‘{1, 2}’.  Note that ‘{}’ is an empty
     dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.  Set comprehensions are
     also supported; e.g., ‘{x for x in stuff}’ means the same thing as
     ‘set(stuff)’ but is more flexible.

   * New octal literals, e.g.  ‘0o720’ (already in 2.6).  The old octal
     literals (‘0720’) are gone.

   * New binary literals, e.g.  ‘0b1010’ (already in 2.6), and there is
     a new corresponding built-in function, *note bin(): 1151.

   * Bytes literals are introduced with a leading ‘b’ or ‘B’, and there
     is a new corresponding built-in function, *note bytes(): 2cb.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3102/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0274/


File: python.info,  Node: Changed Syntax,  Next: Removed Syntax,  Prev: New Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.13.2.2 Changed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3109(1) and PEP 3134(2): new *note raise: 3f9. statement
     syntax: ‘raise [EXPR [from EXPR]]’.  See below.

   * ‘as’ and *note with: 3dd. are now reserved words.  (Since 2.6,
     actually.)

   * ‘True’, ‘False’, and ‘None’ are reserved words.  (2.6 partially
     enforced the restrictions on ‘None’ already.)

   * Change from *note except: 3c0. 'exc', 'var' to ‘except’ 'exc' ‘as’
     'var'.  See PEP 3110(3).

   * PEP 3115(4): New Metaclass Syntax.  Instead of:

          class C:
              __metaclass__ = M
              ...

     you must now use:

          class C(metaclass=M):
              ...

     The module-global ‘__metaclass__’ variable is no longer supported.
     (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to new-style classes
     without deriving every class from *note object: 8f2.)

   * List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form ‘[... for
     VAR in ITEM1, ITEM2, ...]’.  Use ‘[... for VAR in (ITEM1, ITEM2,
     ...)]’ instead.  Also note that list comprehensions have different
     semantics: they are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator
     expression inside a *note list(): 422. constructor, and in
     particular the loop control variables are no longer leaked into the
     surrounding scope.

   * The 'ellipsis' (‘...’) can be used as an atomic expression
     anywhere.  (Previously it was only allowed in slices.)  Also, it
     'must' now be spelled as ‘...’.  (Previously it could also be
     spelled as ‘. . .’, by a mere accident of the grammar.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Syntax,  Prev: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.13.2.3 Removed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3113(1): Tuple parameter unpacking removed.  You can no longer
     write ‘def foo(a, (b, c)): ...’.  Use ‘def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c’
     instead.

   * Removed backticks (use *note repr(): 637. instead).

   * Removed ‘<>’ (use ‘!=’ instead).

   * Removed keyword: *note exec(): 6cb. is no longer a keyword; it
     remains as a function.  (Fortunately the function syntax was also
     accepted in 2.x.)  Also note that *note exec(): 6cb. no longer
     takes a stream argument; instead of ‘exec(f)’ you can use
     ‘exec(f.read())’.

   * Integer literals no longer support a trailing ‘l’ or ‘L’.

   * String literals no longer support a leading ‘u’ or ‘U’.

   * The *note from: 1154. 'module' *note import: 3ed. ‘*’ syntax is
     only allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.

   * The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is ‘from .[MODULE]
     import NAME’.  All *note import: 3ed. forms not starting with ‘.’
     are interpreted as absolute imports.  ( PEP 328(2))

   * Classic classes are gone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3113/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Next: Library Changes,  Prev: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.3 Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
--------------------------------------------

Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to
Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were
originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python
2.6.  The corresponding sections in *note What’s New in Python 2.6:
1156. should be consulted for longer descriptions.

   * *note PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: 1157.  The *note with: 3dd.
     statement is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be
     imported from the *note __future__: 0.  Also check out *note
     Writing Context Managers: 1158. and *note The contextlib module:
     1159.

   * *note PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: 115a.
     This enhances the usefulness of the *note -m: 3ec. option when the
     referenced module lives in a package.

   * *note PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: 115b.

   * *note PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: 115c.

   * *note PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: 115d.  Note: the 2.6
     description mentions the *note format(): 431. method for both 8-bit
     and Unicode strings.  In 3.0, only the *note str: 15d. type (text
     strings with Unicode support) supports this method; the *note
     bytes: 2cb. type does not.  The plan is to eventually make this the
     only API for string formatting, and to start deprecating the ‘%’
     operator in Python 3.1.

   * *note PEP 3105; print As a Function: 115e.  This is now a standard
     feature and no longer needs to be imported from *note __future__:
     0.  More details were given above.

   * *note PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: 115f.  The *note
     except: 3c0. 'exc' ‘as’ 'var' syntax is now standard and ‘except’
     'exc', 'var' is no longer supported.  (Of course, the ‘as’ 'var'
     part is still optional.)

   * *note PEP 3112; Byte Literals: 1160.  The ‘b"..."’ string literal
     notation (and its variants like ‘b'...'’, ‘b"""..."""’, and
     ‘br"..."’) now produces a literal of type *note bytes: 2cb.

   * *note PEP 3116; New I/O Library: 1161.  The *note io: 7d. module is
     now the standard way of doing file I/O. The built-in *note open():
     2a6. function is now an alias for *note io.open(): 2a7. and has
     additional keyword arguments 'encoding', 'errors', 'newline' and
     'closefd'.  Also note that an invalid 'mode' argument now raises
     *note ValueError: 189, not *note IOError: efc.  The binary file
     object underlying a text file object can be accessed as ‘f.buffer’
     (but beware that the text object maintains a buffer of itself in
     order to speed up the encoding and decoding operations).

   * *note PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: 1162.  The old builtin
     ‘buffer()’ is now really gone; the new builtin *note memoryview():
     185. provides (mostly) similar functionality.

   * *note PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: 1163.  The *note abc: 4.
     module and the ABCs defined in the *note collections: 1d. module
     plays a somewhat more prominent role in the language now, and
     built-in collection types like *note dict: 240. and *note list:
     422. conform to the *note collections.MutableMapping: f51. and
     *note collections.MutableSequence: c62. ABCs, respectively.

   * *note PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: 1164.  As
     mentioned above, the new octal literal notation is the only one
     supported, and binary literals have been added.

   * *note PEP 3129; Class Decorators: 1165.

   * *note PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: 1166.  The *note
     numbers: 9d. module is another new use of ABCs, defining Python’s
     “numeric tower”.  Also note the new *note fractions: 5b. module
     which implements *note numbers.Rational: 1167.


File: python.info,  Node: Library Changes,  Next: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Prev: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.4 Library Changes
----------------------

Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the
very extensive changes to the standard library.  PEP 3108(1) is the
reference for the major changes to the library.  Here’s a capsule
review:

   * Many old modules were removed.  Some, like ‘gopherlib’ (no longer
     used) and ‘md5’ (replaced by *note hashlib: 66.), were already
     deprecated by PEP 4(2).  Others were removed as a result of the
     removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS and Mac
     OS 9 (see PEP 11(3)).  Some modules were also selected for removal
     in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better replacement
     exists.  See PEP 3108(4) for an exhaustive list.

   * The ‘bsddb3’ package was removed because its presence in the core
     standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden for
     the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB’s
     release schedule.  However, the package is alive and well,
     externally maintained at
     ‘https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm’.

   * Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed PEP
     8(5), or for various other reasons.  Here’s the list:

     Old Name                    New Name
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     _winreg                     winreg
                                 
                                 
     ConfigParser                configparser
                                 
                                 
     copy_reg                    copyreg
                                 
                                 
     Queue                       queue
                                 
                                 
     SocketServer                socketserver
                                 
                                 
     markupbase                  _markupbase
                                 
                                 
     repr                        reprlib
                                 
                                 
     test.test_support           test.support
                                 

   * A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module
     implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version
     implemented as a C extension; for example, *note pickle: a5. and
     ‘cPickle’.  This places the burden of importing the accelerated
     version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of
     these modules.  In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are
     considered implementation details of the pure Python versions.
     Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to
     import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python
     version.  The *note pickle: a5. / ‘cPickle’ pair received this
     treatment.  The *note profile: ae. module is on the list for 3.1.
     The ‘StringIO’ module has been turned into a class in the *note io:
     7d. module.

   * Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually
     the submodule names have been simplified.  The resulting new
     packages are:

        * *note dbm: 31. (‘anydbm’, ‘dbhash’, ‘dbm’, ‘dumbdbm’, ‘gdbm’,
          ‘whichdb’).

        * *note html: 69. (‘HTMLParser’, ‘htmlentitydefs’).

        * *note http: 6c. (‘httplib’, ‘BaseHTTPServer’, ‘CGIHTTPServer’,
          ‘SimpleHTTPServer’, ‘Cookie’, ‘cookielib’).

        * *note tkinter: ef. (all ‘Tkinter’-related modules except *note
          turtle: 101.).  The target audience of *note turtle: 101.
          doesn’t really care about *note tkinter: ef.  Also note that
          as of Python 2.6, the functionality of *note turtle: 101. has
          been greatly enhanced.

        * *note urllib: 108. (‘urllib’, ‘urllib2’, ‘urlparse’,
          ‘robotparse’).

        * *note xmlrpc: 12d. (‘xmlrpclib’, ‘DocXMLRPCServer’,
          ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’).

Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by PEP
3108(6):

   * Killed ‘sets’.  Use the built-in *note set(): 3e4. class.

   * Cleanup of the *note sys: d8. module: removed ‘sys.exitfunc()’,
     ‘sys.exc_clear()’, ‘sys.exc_type’, ‘sys.exc_value’,
     ‘sys.exc_traceback’.  (Note that *note sys.last_type: 1ed. etc.
     remain.)

   * Cleanup of the *note array.array: 195. type: the ‘read()’ and
     ‘write()’ methods are gone; use *note fromfile(): 1169. and *note
     tofile(): 116a. instead.  Also, the ‘'c'’ typecode for array is
     gone – use either ‘'b'’ for bytes or ‘'u'’ for Unicode characters.

   * Cleanup of the *note operator: 9e. module: removed
     ‘sequenceIncludes()’ and ‘isCallable()’.

   * Cleanup of the ‘thread’ module: ‘acquire_lock()’ and
     ‘release_lock()’ are gone; use *note acquire(): 4ad. and *note
     release(): 116b. instead.

   * Cleanup of the *note random: b7. module: removed the ‘jumpahead()’
     API.

   * The ‘new’ module is gone.

   * The functions ‘os.tmpnam()’, ‘os.tempnam()’ and ‘os.tmpfile()’ have
     been removed in favor of the *note tempfile: df. module.

   * The *note tokenize: fb. module has been changed to work with bytes.
     The main entry point is now *note tokenize.tokenize(): 20b, instead
     of generate_tokens.

   * ‘string.letters’ and its friends (‘string.lowercase’ and
     ‘string.uppercase’) are gone.  Use *note string.ascii_letters:
     116c. etc.  instead.  (The reason for the removal is that
     ‘string.letters’ and friends had locale-specific behavior, which is
     a bad idea for such attractively named global “constants”.)

   * Renamed module ‘__builtin__’ to *note builtins: 12. (removing the
     underscores, adding an ‘s’).  The ‘__builtins__’ variable found in
     most global namespaces is unchanged.  To modify a builtin, you
     should use *note builtins: 12, not ‘__builtins__’!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Next: Changes To Exceptions,  Prev: Library Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

'PEP 3101': A New Approach To String Formatting

   * A new system for built-in string formatting operations replaces the
     ‘%’ string formatting operator.  (However, the ‘%’ operator is
     still supported; it will be deprecated in Python 3.1 and removed
     from the language at some later time.)  Read PEP 3101(1) for the
     full scoop.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes To Exceptions,  Next: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.6 Changes To Exceptions
----------------------------

The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and new
powerful features added:

   * PEP 352(1): All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly)
     from *note BaseException: 3c3.  This is the root of the exception
     hierarchy.  This is not new as a recommendation, but the
     'requirement' to inherit from *note BaseException: 3c3. is new.
     (Python 2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed
     no restriction on what you can catch.)  As a consequence, string
     exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.

   * Almost all exceptions should actually derive from *note Exception:
     838.; *note BaseException: 3c3. should only be used as a base class
     for exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such
     as *note SystemExit: bc8. or *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.  The
     recommended idiom for handling all exceptions except for this
     latter category is to use *note except: 3c0. *note Exception: 838.

   * ‘StandardError’ was removed.

   * Exceptions no longer behave as sequences.  Use the *note args: 302.
     attribute instead.

   * PEP 3109(2): Raising exceptions.  You must now use ‘raise
     EXCEPTION(ARGS)’ instead of ‘raise EXCEPTION, ARGS’.  Additionally,
     you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback; instead, if you
     'have' to do this, you can assign directly to the *note
     __traceback__: 116f. attribute (see below).

   * PEP 3110(3): Catching exceptions.  You must now use ‘except
     SOMEEXCEPTION as VARIABLE’ instead of ‘except SOMEEXCEPTION,
     VARIABLE’.  Moreover, the 'variable' is explicitly deleted when the
     *note except: 3c0. block is left.

   * PEP 3134(4): Exception chaining.  There are two cases: implicit
     chaining and explicit chaining.  Implicit chaining happens when an
     exception is raised in an *note except: 3c0. or *note finally: 828.
     handler block.  This usually happens due to a bug in the handler
     block; we call this a 'secondary' exception.  In this case, the
     original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the *note
     __context__: 1170. attribute of the secondary exception.  Explicit
     chaining is invoked with this syntax:

          raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception

     (where 'primary_exception' is any expression that produces an
     exception object, probably an exception that was previously
     caught).  In this case, the primary exception is stored on the
     *note __cause__: 1171. attribute of the secondary exception.  The
     traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the
     chain of ‘__cause__’ and *note __context__: 1170. attributes and
     prints a separate traceback for each component of the chain, with
     the primary exception at the top.  (Java users may recognize this
     behavior.)

   * PEP 3134(5): Exception objects now store their traceback as the
     *note __traceback__: 116f. attribute.  This means that an exception
     object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception,
     and there are fewer reasons to use *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.
     (though the latter is not removed).

   * A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an
     extension module.  For example, ‘error code 193’ is now ‘%1 is not
     a valid Win32 application’.  Strings now deal with non-English
     locales.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Next: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Prev: Changes To Exceptions,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.7 Miscellaneous Other Changes
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::


File: python.info,  Node: Operators And Special Methods,  Next: Builtins,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.13.7.1 Operators And Special Methods
......................................

   * ‘!=’ now returns the opposite of ‘==’, unless ‘==’ returns *note
     NotImplemented: 60b.

   * The concept of “unbound methods” has been removed from the
     language.  When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now
     get a plain function object.

   * ‘__getslice__()’, ‘__setslice__()’ and ‘__delslice__()’ were
     killed.  The syntax ‘a[i:j]’ now translates to
     ‘a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))’ (or *note __setitem__(): 1174. or
     *note __delitem__(): 1175, when used as an assignment or deletion
     target, respectively).

   * PEP 3114(1): the standard *note next(): 611. method has been
     renamed to *note __next__(): 1176.

   * The ‘__oct__()’ and ‘__hex__()’ special methods are removed – *note
     oct(): 1177. and *note hex(): 1178. use *note __index__(): 538. now
     to convert the argument to an integer.

   * Removed support for ‘__members__’ and ‘__methods__’.

   * The function attributes named ‘func_X’ have been renamed to use the
     ‘__X__’ form, freeing up these names in the function attribute
     namespace for user-defined attributes.  To wit, ‘func_closure’,
     ‘func_code’, ‘func_defaults’, ‘func_dict’, ‘func_doc’,
     ‘func_globals’, ‘func_name’ were renamed to *note __closure__:
     1179, *note __code__: 117a, *note __defaults__: 117b, *note
     __dict__: 117c, *note __doc__: 107e, *note __globals__: 117d, *note
     __name__: 117e, respectively.

   * ‘__nonzero__()’ is now *note __bool__(): 117f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3114/


File: python.info,  Node: Builtins,  Prev: Operators And Special Methods,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.13.7.2 Builtins
.................

   * PEP 3135(1): New *note super(): 20d.  You can now invoke *note
     super(): 20d. without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular
     instance method defined inside a *note class: 1181. statement) the
     right class and instance will automatically be chosen.  With
     arguments, the behavior of *note super(): 20d. is unchanged.

   * PEP 3111(2): ‘raw_input()’ was renamed to *note input(): 1182.
     That is, the new *note input(): 1182. function reads a line from
     *note sys.stdin: 2c9. and returns it with the trailing newline
     stripped.  It raises *note EOFError: 1183. if the input is
     terminated prematurely.  To get the old behavior of *note input():
     1182, use ‘eval(input())’.

   * A new built-in function *note next(): 611. was added to call the
     *note __next__(): 1176. method on an object.

   * The *note round(): 1184. function rounding strategy and return type
     have changed.  Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest
     even result instead of away from zero.  (For example, ‘round(2.5)’
     now returns ‘2’ rather than ‘3’.)  ‘round(x[, n])’ now delegates to
     ‘x.__round__([n])’ instead of always returning a float.  It
     generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and
     a value of the same type as ‘x’ when called with two arguments.

   * Moved ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 1185.

   * Removed: ‘apply()’.  Instead of ‘apply(f, args)’ use ‘f(*args)’.

   * Removed *note callable(): 106b.  Instead of ‘callable(f)’ you can
     use ‘isinstance(f, collections.Callable)’.  The
     ‘operator.isCallable()’ function is also gone.

   * Removed ‘coerce()’.  This function no longer serves a purpose now
     that classic classes are gone.

   * Removed ‘execfile()’.  Instead of ‘execfile(fn)’ use
     ‘exec(open(fn).read())’.

   * Removed the ‘file’ type.  Use *note open(): 2a6.  There are now
     several different kinds of streams that open can return in the
     *note io: 7d. module.

   * Removed ‘reduce()’.  Use *note functools.reduce(): 1186. if you
     really need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit *note
     for: 26d. loop is more readable.

   * Removed ‘reload()’.  Use ‘imp.reload()’.

   * Removed.  ‘dict.has_key()’ – use the *note in: 26f. operator
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3111/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Next: Performance,  Prev: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.8 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Due to time constraints, here is a 'very' incomplete list of changes to
the C API.

   * Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not
     limited to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.

   * PEP 3118(1): New Buffer API.

   * PEP 3121(2): Extension Module Initialization & Finalization.

   * PEP 3123(3): Making *note PyObject_HEAD: 1188. conform to standard
     C.

   * No more C API support for restricted execution.

   * ‘PyNumber_Coerce()’, ‘PyNumber_CoerceEx()’, ‘PyMember_Get()’, and
     ‘PyMember_Set()’ C APIs are removed.

   * New C API *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 35e, works like
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f. but won’t block on the import
     lock (returning an error instead).

   * Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method:
     ‘nb_nonzero’ is now ‘nb_bool’.

   * Removed ‘METH_OLDARGS’ and ‘WITH_CYCLE_GC’ from the C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3123/


File: python.info,  Node: Performance,  Next: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.9 Performance
------------------

The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the
pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5.  Most likely the
biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers.
There’s room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is released!


File: python.info,  Node: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Performance,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.13.10 Porting To Python 3.0
-----------------------------

For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the
best strategy is the following:

  0. (Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.

  1. Port to Python 2.6.  This should be no more work than the average
     port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1).  Make sure all your tests
     pass.

  2. (Still using 2.6:) Turn on the ‘-3’ command line switch.  This
     enables warnings about features that will be removed (or change) in
     3.0.  Run your test suite again, and fix code that you get warnings
     about until there are no warnings left, and all your tests still
     pass.

  3. Run the ‘2to3’ source-to-source translator over your source code
     tree.  (See *note 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation:
     53b. for more on this tool.)  Run the result of the translation
     under Python 3.0.  Manually fix up any remaining issues, fixing
     problems until all tests pass again.

It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged
under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you’d have to use a very contorted coding
style, e.g.  avoiding ‘print’ statements, metaclasses, and much more.
If you are maintaining a library that needs to support both Python 2.6
and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3 above by editing
the 2.6 version of the source code and running the ‘2to3’ translator
again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the source code.

For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see *note Porting
Extension Modules to Python 3: 118b.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.14 What’s New in Python 2.7
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.7.  Python 2.7 was
released on July 3, 2010.

Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both floating-point
numbers and for the *note Decimal: 609. class.  There are some useful
additions to the standard library, such as a greatly enhanced *note
unittest: 106. module, the *note argparse: 6. module for parsing
command-line options, convenient *note OrderedDict: 3e6. and *note
Counter: f3c. classes in the *note collections: 1d. module, and many
other improvements.

Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked
on making it a good release for the long term.  To help with porting to
Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been
included in 2.7.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at
‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the rationale for
the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new
feature or the issue on ‘https://bugs.python.org’ in which a change was
discussed.  Whenever possible, “What’s New in Python” links to the
bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Acknowledgements::


File: python.info,  Node: The Future for Python 2 x,  Next: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.1 The Future for Python 2.x
--------------------------------

Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python
maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development
efforts to the Python 3.x series.  This means that while Python 2
continues to receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on
new hardware and versions of supported operated systems, there will be
no new full feature releases for the language or standard library.

However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and
Python 3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common
subset, or directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other
changes (notably those associated with Unicode handling) may require
careful consideration, and preferably robust automated regression test
suites, to migrate effectively.

This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time,
providing a stable and supported base platform for production systems
that have not yet been ported to Python 3.  The full expected lifecycle
of the Python 2.7 series is detailed in PEP 373(1).

Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:

   * As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of
     maintenance when compared to earlier 2.x versions.  Python 2.7 is
     currently expected to remain supported by the core development team
     (receiving security updates and other bug fixes) until at least
     2020 (10 years after its initial release, compared to the more
     typical support period of 18–24 months).

   * As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of
     the Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor)
     becomes more important for Python 2 users.  In addition to a wide
     variety of third party packages for various tasks, the available
     packages include backports of new modules and features from the
     Python 3 standard library that are compatible with Python 2, as
     well as various tools and libraries that can make it easier to
     migrate to Python 3.  The Python Packaging User Guide(2) provides
     guidance on downloading and installing software from the Python
     Package Index.

   * While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the
     publication of new packages on the Python Package Index, this
     approach doesn’t necessarily work in all cases, especially those
     related to network security.  In exceptional cases that cannot be
     handled adequately by publishing new or updated packages on PyPI,
     the Python Enhancement Proposal process may be used to make the
     case for adding new features directly to the Python 2 standard
     library.  Any such additions, and the maintenance releases where
     they were added, will be noted in the *note New Features Added to
     Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: 1190. section below.

For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for
library and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python
2 and Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to
help decide on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical
details involved.  The recommended starting point is the pyporting-howto
HOWTO guide.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Next: Python 3 1 Features,  Prev: The Future for Python 2 x,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.2 Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
------------------------------------------------------

For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of
interest to developers by default.  *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and
its descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing
users from seeing warnings triggered by an application.  This change was
also made in the branch that became Python 3.2.  (Discussed on
stdlib-sig and carried out in bpo-7319(1).)

In previous releases, *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. messages were
enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear indication
of where their code may break in a future major version of Python.

However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based applications
who are not directly involved in the development of those applications.
*note DeprecationWarning: 17f. messages are irrelevant to such users,
making them worry about an application that’s actually working correctly
and burdening application developers with responding to these concerns.

You can re-enable display of *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. messages by
running Python with the *note -Wdefault: 71a. (short form: *note -Wd:
71a.) switch, or by setting the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21. environment
variable to ‘"default"’ (or ‘"d"’) before running Python.  Python code
can also re-enable them by calling ‘warnings.simplefilter('default')’.

The ‘unittest’ module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings
when running tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7319


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 1 Features,  Next: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Prev: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.3 Python 3.1 Features
--------------------------

Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7
incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1.  The 2.x series
continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series.

A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:

   * The syntax for set literals (‘{1,2,3}’ is a mutable set).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions (‘{i: i*2 for i in range(3)}’).

   * Multiple context managers in a single *note with: 3dd. statement.

   * A new version of the *note io: 7d. library, rewritten in C for
     performance.

   * The ordered-dictionary type described in *note PEP 372; Adding an
     Ordered Dictionary to collections: 1193.

   * The new ‘","’ format specifier described in *note PEP 378; Format
     Specifier for Thousands Separator: 1194.

   * The *note memoryview: 185. object.

   * A small subset of the *note importlib: 75. module, *note described
     below: 1195.

   * The *note repr(): 637. of a float ‘x’ is shorter in many cases:
     it’s now based on the shortest decimal string that’s guaranteed to
     round back to ‘x’.  As in previous versions of Python, it’s
     guaranteed that ‘float(repr(x))’ recovers ‘x’.

   * Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly
     rounded.  The *note round(): 1184. function is also now correctly
     rounded.

   * The *note PyCapsule: 111b. type, used to provide a C API for
     extension modules.

   * The *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 110f. C API function.

Other new Python3-mode warnings include:

   * ‘operator.isCallable()’ and ‘operator.sequenceIncludes()’, which
     are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.

   * The ‘-3’ switch now automatically enables the ‘-Qwarn’ switch that
     causes warnings about using classic division with integers and long
     integers.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Prev: Python 3 1 Features,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.4 PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
-----------------------------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, 2.7
introduces a new *note OrderedDict: 3e6. class in the *note collections:
1d. module.

The *note OrderedDict: 3e6. API provides the same interface as regular
dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order
depending on when a key was first inserted:

     >>> from collections import OrderedDict
     >>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                  ('second', 2),
     ...                  ('third', 3)])
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)]

If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion
position is left unchanged:

     >>> d['second'] = 4
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)]

Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end:

     >>> del d['second']
     >>> d['second'] = 5
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)]

The *note popitem(): 1197. method has an optional 'last' argument that
defaults to ‘True’.  If 'last' is true, the most recently added key is
returned and removed; if it’s false, the oldest key is selected:

     >>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)])
     >>> od.popitem()
     (19, 0)
     >>> od.popitem()
     (18, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (0, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (1, 0)

Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values, and
requires that the insertion order was the same:

     >>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2),
     ...                    ('third', 3)])
     >>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3),
     ...                    ('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2)])
     >>> od1 == od2
     False
     >>> # Move 'third' key to the end
     >>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3
     >>> od1 == od2
     True

Comparing an *note OrderedDict: 3e6. with a regular dictionary ignores
the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.

How does the *note OrderedDict: 3e6. work?  It maintains a doubly linked
list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they’re inserted.  A
secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so
deletion doesn’t have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore
remains 'O'(1).

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.

   * The *note ConfigParser: 22. module uses them by default, meaning
     that configuration files can now be read, modified, and then
     written back in their original order.

   * The *note _asdict(): 840. method for *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 74b. now returns an ordered dictionary
     with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple
     indices.

   * The *note json: 80. module’s *note JSONDecoder: bd0. class
     constructor was extended with an 'object_pairs_hook' parameter to
     allow ‘OrderedDict’ instances to be built by the decoder.  Support
     was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 372(2) - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger; implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Next: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Prev: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.5 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add separators
to large numbers, rendering them as 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead
of 18446744073709551616.

The fully general solution for doing this is the *note locale: 85.
module, which can use different separators (“,” in North America, “.” in
Europe) and different grouping sizes, but *note locale: 85. is
complicated to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where
different threads are producing output for different locales.

Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the
mini-language used by the *note str.format(): 433. method.  When
formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the
width and the precision:

     >>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00'

When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:

     >>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616'

This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the
separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups.  The
comma-formatting mechanism isn’t as general as the *note locale: 85.
module, but it’s easier to use.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.6 PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
-------------------------------------------------------------

The *note argparse: 6. module for parsing command-line arguments was
added as a more powerful replacement for the *note optparse: 9f. module.

This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing
command-line arguments: *note getopt: 5f, *note optparse: 9f, and *note
argparse: 6.  The *note getopt: 5f. module closely resembles the C
library’s ‘getopt()’ function, so it remains useful if you’re writing a
Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C. *note optparse:
9f. becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it because there
are many scripts still using it, and there’s no automated way to update
these scripts.  (Making the *note argparse: 6. API consistent with *note
optparse: 9f.’s interface was discussed but rejected as too messy and
difficult.)

In short, if you’re writing a new script and don’t need to worry about
compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use *note argparse: 6.
instead of *note optparse: 9f.

Here’s an example:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.')

     # Add optional switches
     parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose',
                         help='produce verbose output')
     parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output',
                         metavar='FILE',
                         help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout')
     parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context',
                         metavar='NUM', default=0,
                         help='display NUM lines of added context')

     # Allow any number of additional arguments.
     parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs',
                         help='input filenames (default is stdin)')

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print args.__dict__

Unless you override it, ‘-h’ and ‘--help’ switches are automatically
added, and produce neatly formatted output:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help
     usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]]

     Command-line example.

     positional arguments:
       inputs      input filenames (default is stdin)

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       -v          produce verbose output
       -o FILE     direct output to FILE instead of stdout
       -C NUM      display NUM lines of added context

As with *note optparse: 9f, the command-line switches and arguments are
returned as an object with attributes named by the 'dest' parameters:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v
     {'output': None,
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 0,
      'inputs': []}

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2
     {'output': '/tmp/output',
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 4,
      'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']}

*note argparse: 6. has much fancier validation than *note optparse: 9f.;
you can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more
arguments by passing ‘'*'’, 1 or more by passing ‘'+'’, or an optional
argument with ‘'?'’.  A top-level parser can contain sub-parsers to
define subcommands that have different sets of switches, as in ‘svn
commit’, ‘svn checkout’, etc.  You can specify an argument’s type as
*note FileType: db7, which will automatically open files for you and
understands that ‘'-'’ means standard input or output.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note argparse: 6. documentation

     The documentation page of the argparse module.

*note Upgrading optparse code: 1053.

     Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert code
     that uses *note optparse: 9f.

PEP 389(1) - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Next: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Prev: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.7 PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 86. module is very flexible; applications can define
a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter
out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to a
varying number of handlers.

All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration.  You can write
Python statements to create objects and set their properties, but a
complex set-up requires verbose but boring code.  *note logging: 86.
also supports a *note fileConfig(): 9c4. function that parses a file,
but the file format doesn’t support configuring filters, and it’s
messier to generate programmatically.

Python 2.7 adds a *note dictConfig(): 1055. function that uses a
dictionary to configure logging.  There are many ways to produce a
dictionary from different sources: construct one with code; parse a file
containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is installed.  For
more information see *note Configuration functions: 119b.

The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a
logger named “network”.  Messages sent to the root logger will be sent
to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages to the
“network” logger will be written to a ‘network.log’ file that will be
rotated once the log reaches 1MB.

     import logging
     import logging.config

     configdict = {
      'version': 1,    # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now
      'formatters': {
          'standard': {
              'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s '
                         '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}},

      'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10,
                          'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler',
                          'filename': '/logs/network.log',
                          'formatter': 'standard',
                          'level': 'INFO',
                          'maxBytes': 1000000},
                   'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler',
                              'formatter': 'standard',
                              'level': 'ERROR'}},

      # Specify all the subordinate loggers
      'loggers': {
                  'network': {
                              'handlers': ['netlog']
                  }
      },
      # Specify properties of the root logger
      'root': {
               'handlers': ['syslog']
      },
     }

     # Set up configuration
     logging.config.dictConfig(configdict)

     # As an example, log two error messages
     logger = logging.getLogger('/')
     logger.error('Database not found')

     netlogger = logging.getLogger('network')
     netlogger.error('Connection failed')

Three smaller enhancements to the *note logging: 86. module, all
implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:

   * The *note SysLogHandler: 46f. class now supports syslogging over
     TCP. The constructor has a 'socktype' parameter giving the type of
     socket to use, either *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 119c. for UDP or
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 119d. for TCP. The default protocol
     remains UDP.

   * *note Logger: 9c2. instances gained a *note getChild(): 119e.
     method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path.
     For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing ‘log =
     getLogger('app')’, calling ‘log.getChild('network.listen')’ is
     equivalent to ‘getLogger('app.network.listen')’.

   * The *note LoggerAdapter: 119f. class gained an *note
     isEnabledFor(): 11a0. method that takes a 'level' and returns
     whether the underlying logger would process a message of that level
     of importance.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

     PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Next: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.8 PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
---------------------------------

The dictionary methods *note keys(): 605, *note values(): 606, and *note
items(): 607. are different in Python 3.x.  They return an object called
a 'view' instead of a fully materialized list.

It’s not possible to change the return values of *note keys(): 605,
*note values(): 606, and *note items(): 607. in Python 2.7 because too
much code would break.  Instead the 3.x versions were added under the
new names ‘viewkeys()’, ‘viewvalues()’, and ‘viewitems()’.

     >>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d
     {0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'}
     >>> d.viewkeys()
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])

Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave like
sets.  The ‘&’ operator performs intersection, and ‘|’ performs a union:

     >>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000))
     >>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys()
     set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])
     >>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30)
     set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])

The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the
dictionary is modified:

     >>> vk = d.viewkeys()
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])
     >>> d[260] = '&'
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])

However, note that you can’t add or remove keys while you’re iterating
over the view:

     >>> for k in vk:
     ...     d[k*2] = k
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration

You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3 converter
will change them to the standard *note keys(): 605, *note values(): 606,
and *note items(): 607. methods.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3106(1) - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre
     Vassalotti; bpo-1967(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3106/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1967


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Next: Other Language Changes<11>,  Prev: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.9 PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
--------------------------------------

The *note memoryview: 185. object provides a view of another object’s
memory content that matches the *note bytes: 2cb. type’s interface.

     >>> import string
     >>> m = memoryview(string.letters)
     >>> m
     <memory at 0x37f850>
     >>> len(m)           # Returns length of underlying object
     52
     >>> m[0], m[25], m[26]   # Indexing returns one byte
     ('a', 'z', 'A')
     >>> m2 = m[0:26]         # Slicing returns another memoryview
     >>> m2
     <memory at 0x37f080>

The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or a list
of integers:

     >>> m2.tobytes()
     'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
     >>> m2.tolist()
     [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]
     >>>

*note memoryview: 185. objects allow modifying the underlying object if
it’s a mutable object.

     >>> m2[0] = 75
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
     >>> b = bytearray(string.letters)  # Creating a mutable object
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ')
     >>> mb = memoryview(b)
     >>> mb[0] = '*'         # Assign to view, changing the bytearray.
     >>> b[0:5]              # The bytearray has been changed.
     bytearray(b'*bcde')
     >>>

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3137(1) - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Travis Oliphant,
     Antoine Pitrou and others.  Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-2396(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3137/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2396


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<11>,  Next: New and Improved Modules,  Prev: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.10 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x.
     Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting
     mutable set; set literals are distinguished from dictionaries by
     not containing colons and values.  ‘{}’ continues to represent an
     empty dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.

          >>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
          set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
          >>> set() # empty set
          set([])
          >>> {}    # empty dict
          {}

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2335(1).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported
     from 3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use the
     literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.

          >>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)}
          {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
          >>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)}
          set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa'])

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2333(2).

   * The *note with: 3dd. statement can now use multiple context
     managers in one statement.  Context managers are processed from
     left to right and each one is treated as beginning a new ‘with’
     statement.  This means that:

          with A() as a, B() as b:
              ... suite of statements ...

     is equivalent to:

          with A() as a:
              with B() as b:
                  ... suite of statements ...

     The ‘contextlib.nested()’ function provides a very similar
     function, so it’s no longer necessary and has been deprecated.

     (Proposed in ‘https://codereview.appspot.com/53094’; implemented by
     Georg Brandl.)

   * Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are now
     correctly rounded on most platforms.  These conversions occur in
     many different places: *note str(): 15d. on floats and complex
     numbers; the *note float: 272. and *note complex: 273.
     constructors; numeric formatting; serializing and deserializing
     floats and complex numbers using the *note marshal: 8c, *note
     pickle: a5. and *note json: 80. modules; parsing of float and
     imaginary literals in Python code; and *note Decimal: 609.-to-float
     conversion.

     Related to this, the *note repr(): 637. of a floating-point number
     'x' now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string
     that’s guaranteed to round back to 'x' under correct rounding (with
     round-half-to-even rounding mode).  Previously it gave a string
     based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.

     The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on
     Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc
     compilers.  There may be a small number of platforms where correct
     operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not
     used on such systems.  You can find out which code is being used by
     checking *note sys.float_repr_style: 11a4, which will be ‘short’ if
     the new code is in use and ‘legacy’ if it isn’t.

     Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay’s
     ‘dtoa.c’ library; bpo-7117(3).

   * Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating
     point now round differently, returning the floating-point number
     closest to the number.  This doesn’t matter for small integers that
     can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will
     unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more
     closely.  For example, Python 2.6 computed the following:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935283e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          65535L

     Python 2.7’s floating-point result is larger, but much closer to
     the true value:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935289e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          -1L

     (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-3166(4).)

     Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours.
     (Also implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1811(5).)

   * Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the
     interpreter will no longer ever attempt to call a ‘__coerce__()’
     method on complex objects.  (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-5211(6).)

   * The *note str.format(): 433. method now supports automatic
     numbering of the replacement fields.  This makes using *note
     str.format(): 433. more closely resemble using ‘%s’ formatting:

          >>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'
          >>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'

     The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the
     first ‘{...}’ specifier will use the first argument to *note
     str.format(): 433, the next specifier will use the next argument,
     and so on.  You can’t mix auto-numbering and explicit numbering –
     either number all of your specifier fields or none of them – but
     you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second
     example above.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(7).)

     Complex numbers now correctly support usage with *note format():
     431, and default to being right-aligned.  Specifying a precision or
     comma-separation applies to both the real and imaginary parts of
     the number, but a specified field width and alignment is applied to
     the whole of the resulting ‘1.5+3j’ output.  (Contributed by Eric
     Smith; bpo-1588(8) and bpo-7988(9).)

     The ‘F’ format code now always formats its output using uppercase
     characters, so it will now produce ‘INF’ and ‘NAN’.  (Contributed
     by Eric Smith; bpo-3382(10).)

     A low-level change: the *note object.__format__(): 430. method now
     triggers a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. if it’s passed a
     format string, because the ‘__format__()’ method for *note object:
     8f2. converts the object to a string representation and formats
     that.  Previously the method silently applied the format string to
     the string representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python
     code.  If you’re supplying formatting information such as an
     alignment or precision, presumably you’re expecting the formatting
     to be applied in some object-specific way.  (Fixed by Eric Smith;
     bpo-7994(11).)

   * The *note int(): 184. and ‘long()’ types gained a ‘bit_length’
     method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its
     argument in binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner;
     bpo-3439(12).)

   * The *note import: 3ed. statement will no longer try an absolute
     import if a relative import (e.g.  ‘from .os import sep’) fails.
     This fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain ‘import’
     statements that were only working by accident.  (Fixed by Meador
     Inge; bpo-7902(13).)

   * It’s now possible for a subclass of the built-in ‘unicode’ type to
     override the ‘__unicode__()’ method.  (Implemented by Victor
     Stinner; bpo-1583863(14).)

   * The *note bytearray: 2ca. type’s *note translate(): 11a5. method
     now accepts ‘None’ as its first argument.  (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
     bpo-4759(15).)

   * When using *note @classmethod: 252. and *note @staticmethod: 612.
     to wrap methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
     exposes the wrapped function as their *note __func__: 11a6.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, after a
     suggestion by George Sakkis; bpo-5982(16).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     3dc. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(17).)

   * Two new encodings are now supported: “cp720”, used primarily for
     Arabic text; and “cp858”, a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro
     symbol.  (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury
     Forgeot d’Arc in bpo-1616979(18); CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in
     bpo-8016(19).)

   * The ‘file’ object will now set the ‘filename’ attribute on the
     *note IOError: efc. exception when trying to open a directory on
     POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; bpo-4764(20)), and now
     explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects
     instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error
     (fixed by Stefan Krah; bpo-5677(21)).

   * The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the
     *note compile(): 56d. built-in function now accepts code using any
     line-ending convention.  Additionally, it no longer requires that
     the code end in a newline.

   * Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python
     3.x, meaning that you get a syntax error from ‘def f((x)): pass’.
     In Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd
     usage.  (Noted by James Lingard; bpo-7362(22).)

   * It’s now possible to create weak references to old-style class
     objects.  New-style classes were always weak-referenceable.  (Fixed
     by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8268(23).)

   * When a module object is garbage-collected, the module’s dictionary
     is now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the
     dictionary (bpo-7140(24)).

* Menu:

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2335

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7117

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3166

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1811

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5211

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1588

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7988

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3382

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7902

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583863

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5982

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8016

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4764

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5677

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7362

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8268

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7140


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes,  Next: Optimizations<10>,  Up: Other Language Changes<11>

1.14.10.1 Interpreter Changes
.............................

A new environment variable, *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21, allows
controlling warnings.  It should be set to a string containing warning
settings, equivalent to those used with the *note -W: 71a. switch,
separated by commas.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7301(1).)

For example, the following setting will print warnings every time they
occur, but turn warnings from the *note Cookie: 6f. module into an
error.  (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies
across operating systems and shells.)

     export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<10>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<11>

1.14.10.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several performance enhancements have been added:

   * A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for *note with:
     3dd. statements, looking up the *note __enter__(): 3d0. and *note
     __exit__(): 11aa. methods.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   * The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage
     pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating
     any of them.  This would previously take quadratic time for garbage
     collection, but now the number of full garbage collections is
     reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows.  The new logic
     only performs a full garbage collection pass when the middle
     generation has been collected 10 times and when the number of
     survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of the
     number of objects in the oldest generation.  (Suggested by Martin
     von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4074(1).)

   * The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
     which can’t be part of a cycle.  In Python 2.7, this is now true
     for tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints,
     strings, etc.).  Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic
     types won’t be tracked either.  This helps reduce the cost of each
     garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
     considered and traversed by the collector.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-4688(2).)

   * Long integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or
     in base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.
     Previously, they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base
     ‘2**30’ gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit
     machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.
     Therefore, the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines
     and base ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new
     configure option ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override
     this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there’s a new structseq ‘sys.long_info’ that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.long_info
          sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(3).)

     Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2
     bytes smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5260(4).)

   * The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster by
     tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
     and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.  Various benchmarks show
     speedups of between 50% and 150% for long integer divisions and
     modulo operations.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5512(5).)
     Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by
     Gregory Smith; bpo-1087418(6)).

   * The implementation of ‘%’ checks for the left-side operand being a
     Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1–3%
     performance increase for applications that frequently use ‘%’ with
     strings, such as templating libraries.  (Implemented by Collin
     Winter; bpo-5176(7).)

   * List comprehensions with an ‘if’ condition are compiled into faster
     bytecode.  (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7 by Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-4715(8).)

   * Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made
     faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized
     conversion function that supports arbitrary bases.  (Patch by
     Gawain Bolton; bpo-6713(9).)

   * The ‘split()’, ‘replace()’, ‘rindex()’, ‘rpartition()’, and
     ‘rsplit()’ methods of string-like types (strings, Unicode strings,
     and *note bytearray: 2ca. objects) now use a fast reverse-search
     algorithm instead of a character-by-character scan.  This is
     sometimes faster by a factor of 10.  (Added by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7462(10) and bpo-7622(11).)

   * The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules now automatically
     intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage
     of the objects resulting from unpickling.  (Contributed by Jake
     McGuire; bpo-5084(12).)

   * The ‘cPickle’ module now special-cases dictionaries, nearly halving
     the time required to pickle them.  (Contributed by Collin Winter;
     bpo-5670(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4074

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5512

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1087418

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5176

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4715

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5670


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<11>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.11 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The *note bdb: f. module’s base debugging class *note Bdb: 11ac.
     gained a feature for skipping modules.  The constructor now takes
     an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as ‘django.*’; the
     debugger will not step into stack frames from a module that matches
     one of these patterns.  (Contributed by Maru Newby after a
     suggestion by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-5142(1).)

   * The *note binascii: 10. module now supports the buffer API, so it
     can be used with *note memoryview: 185. instances and other similar
     buffer objects.  (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7703(2).)

   * Updated module: the ‘bsddb’ module has been updated from
     4.7.2devel9 to version 4.8.4 of the pybsddb package(3).  The new
     version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug
     fixes, and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.  (Updated
     by Jesús Cea Avión; bpo-8156(4).  The pybsddb changelog can be read
     at ‘https://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog’.)

   * The *note bz2: 13. module’s *note BZ2File: 6aa. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(5).)

   * New class: the *note Counter: f3c. class in the *note collections:
     1d. module is useful for tallying data.  *note Counter: f3c.
     instances behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for
     missing keys instead of raising a *note KeyError: 903.:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> c = Counter()
          >>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text':
          ...   c[letter] += 1
          ...
          >>> c
          Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2,
          'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1,
          'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1})
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c['z']
          0

     There are three additional *note Counter: f3c. methods.  *note
     most_common(): 11ad. returns the N most common elements and their
     counts.  *note elements(): 11ae. returns an iterator over the
     contained elements, repeating each element as many times as its
     count.  *note subtract(): 1083. takes an iterable and subtracts one
     for each element instead of adding; if the argument is a dictionary
     or another ‘Counter’, the counts are subtracted.

          >>> c.most_common(5)
          [(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)]
          >>> c.elements() ->
             'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
             'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i',
             'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's',
             's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x'
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e')
          >>> c['e']    # Count is now lower
          -1

     Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(6).

     New class: *note OrderedDict: 3e6. is described in the earlier
     section *note PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections:
     1193.

     New method: The *note deque: 3e7. data type now has a *note
     count(): 1085. method that returns the number of contained elements
     equal to the supplied argument 'x', and a *note reverse(): 1086.
     method that reverses the elements of the deque in-place.  *note
     deque: 3e7. also exposes its maximum length as the read-only *note
     maxlen: 11af. attribute.  (Both features added by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     The *note namedtuple: 74b. class now has an optional 'rename'
     parameter.  If 'rename' is true, field names that are invalid
     because they’ve been repeated or aren’t legal Python identifiers
     will be renamed to legal names that are derived from the field’s
     position within the list of fields:

          >>> from collections import namedtuple
          >>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
          >>> T._fields
          ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')

     (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(7).)

     Finally, the *note Mapping: 71c. abstract base class now returns
     *note NotImplemented: 60b. if a mapping is compared to another type
     that isn’t a ‘Mapping’.  (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; bpo-8729(8).)

   * Constructors for the parsing classes in the *note ConfigParser: 22.
     module now take an 'allow_no_value' parameter, defaulting to false;
     if true, options without values will be allowed.  For example:

          >>> import ConfigParser, StringIO
          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ... user = mysql
          ... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ... skip-bdb
          ... """
          >>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config))
          >>> config.get('mysqld', 'user')
          'mysql'
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb')
          None
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld'

     (Contributed by Mats Kindahl; bpo-7005(9).)

   * Deprecated function: ‘contextlib.nested()’, which allows handling
     more than one context manager with a single *note with: 3dd.
     statement, has been deprecated, because the ‘with’ statement now
     supports multiple context managers.

   * The *note cookielib: 6e. module now ignores cookies that have an
     invalid version field, one that doesn’t contain an integer value.
     (Fixed by John J. Lee; bpo-3924(10).)

   * The *note copy: 25. module’s *note deepcopy(): 9e4. function will
     now correctly copy bound instance methods.  (Implemented by Robert
     Collins; bpo-1515(11).)

   * The *note ctypes: 2a. module now always converts ‘None’ to a C
     ‘NULL’ pointer for arguments declared as pointers.  (Changed by
     Thomas Heller; bpo-4606(12).)  The underlying libffi library(13)
     has been updated to version 3.0.9, containing various fixes for
     different platforms.  (Updated by Matthias Klose; bpo-8142(14).)

   * New method: the *note datetime: 30. module’s *note timedelta: 82d.
     class gained a *note total_seconds(): 11b0. method that returns the
     number of seconds in the duration.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan;
     bpo-5788(15).)

   * New method: the *note Decimal: 609. class gained a *note
     from_float(): 10a9. class method that performs an exact conversion
     of a floating-point number to a ‘Decimal’.  This exact conversion
     strives for the closest decimal approximation to the floating-point
     representation’s value; the resulting decimal value will therefore
     still include the inaccuracy, if any.  For example,
     ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ returns
     ‘Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')’.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4796(16).)

     Comparing instances of *note Decimal: 609. with floating-point
     numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values
     of the operands.  Previously such comparisons would fall back to
     Python’s default rules for comparing objects, which produced
     arbitrary results based on their type.  Note that you still cannot
     combine ‘Decimal’ and floating point in other operations such as
     addition, since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert
     between float and ‘Decimal’.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-2531(17).)

     The constructor for *note Decimal: 609. now accepts floating-point
     numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-8257(18)) and non-European
     Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits (contributed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6595(19)).

     Most of the methods of the *note Context: f52. class now accept
     integers as well as *note Decimal: 609. instances; the only
     exceptions are the *note canonical(): 11b1. and *note
     is_canonical(): 11b2. methods.  (Patch by Juan José Conti;
     bpo-7633(20).)

     When using *note Decimal: 609. instances with a string’s *note
     format(): 433. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which is
     more sensible for numeric types.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-6857(21).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: f4d. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(22).)

   * The *note difflib: 36. module now produces output that is more
     compatible with modern ‘diff’/‘patch’ tools through one small
     change, using a tab character instead of spaces as a separator in
     the header giving the filename.  (Fixed by Anatoly Techtonik;
     bpo-7585(23).)

   * The Distutils ‘sdist’ command now always regenerates the ‘MANIFEST’
     file, since even if the ‘MANIFEST.in’ or ‘setup.py’ files haven’t
     been modified, the user might have created some new files that
     should be included.  (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-8688(24).)

   * The *note doctest: 39. module’s *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL:
     11b3. flag will now ignore the name of the module containing the
     exception being tested.  (Patch by Lennart Regebro; bpo-7490(25).)

   * The *note email: 3a. module’s *note Message: b1b. class will now
     accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the
     payload to the encoding specified by ‘output_charset’.  (Added by
     R.  David Murray; bpo-1368247(26).)

   * The *note Fraction: 1ae. class now accepts a single float or *note
     Decimal: 609. instance, or two rational numbers, as arguments to
     its constructor.  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; rationals added
     in bpo-5812(27), and float/decimal in bpo-8294(28).)

     Ordering comparisons (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’) between fractions and
     complex numbers now raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.  This fixes an
     oversight, making the *note Fraction: 1ae. match the other numeric
     types.

   * New class: *note FTP_TLS: 750. in the *note ftplib: 5c. module
     provides secure FTP connections using TLS encapsulation of
     authentication as well as subsequent control and data transfers.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-2054(29).)

     The *note storbinary(): 11b4. method for binary uploads can now
     restart uploads thanks to an added 'rest' parameter (patch by Pablo
     Mouzo; bpo-6845(30).)

   * New class decorator: *note total_ordering(): de2. in the *note
     functools: 5d. module takes a class that defines an *note __eq__():
     968. method and one of *note __lt__(): 1148, *note __le__(): 11b5,
     *note __gt__(): 11b6, or *note __ge__(): 11b7, and generates the
     missing comparison methods.  Since the ‘__cmp__()’ method is being
     deprecated in Python 3.x, this decorator makes it easier to define
     ordered classes.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5479(31).)

     New function: *note cmp_to_key(): 107f. will take an old-style
     comparison function that expects two arguments and return a new
     callable that can be used as the 'key' parameter to functions such
     as *note sorted(): a45, *note min(): d9f. and *note max(): da0,
     etc.  The primary intended use is to help with making code
     compatible with Python 3.x.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * New function: the *note gc: 5e. module’s *note is_tracked(): 11b8.
     returns true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage
     collector, false otherwise.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-4688(32).)

   * The *note gzip: 65. module’s *note GzipFile: 296. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     gzip.GzipFile(...) as f:’ (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(33)), and it now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     4a9. ABC, so you can wrap it with *note io.BufferedReader: 10b3.
     for faster processing (contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7471(34)).
     It’s also now possible to override the modification time recorded
     in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; bpo-4272(35).)

     Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the
     *note gzip: 65. module will now consume these trailing bytes.
     (Fixed by Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; bpo-2846(36).)

   * New attribute: the *note hashlib: 66. module now has an
     ‘algorithms’ attribute containing a tuple naming the supported
     algorithms.  In Python 2.7, ‘hashlib.algorithms’ contains ‘('md5',
     'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512')’.  (Contributed by
     Carl Chenet; bpo-7418(37).)

   * The default *note HTTPResponse: f71. class used by the *note
     httplib: 6c. module now supports buffering, resulting in much
     faster reading of HTTP responses.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur
     Jónsson; bpo-4879(38).)

     The *note HTTPConnection: 9b1. and *note HTTPSConnection: 9b2.
     classes now support a 'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’
     2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the
     connection.  (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(39).)

   * The ‘ihooks’ module now supports relative imports.  Note that
     ‘ihooks’ is an older module for customizing imports, superseded by
     the ‘imputil’ module added in Python 2.0.  (Relative import support
     added by Neil Schemenauer.)

   * The *note imaplib: 72. module now supports IPv6 addresses.
     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(40).)

   * New function: the *note inspect: 7c. module’s *note getcallargs():
     d52. takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments, and
     figures out which of the callable’s parameters will receive each
     argument, returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their
     values.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
          {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}}
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
          {'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}}
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)

     Contributed by George Sakkis; bpo-3135(41).

   * Updated module: The *note io: 7d. library has been upgraded to the
     version shipped with Python 3.1.  For 3.1, the I/O library was
     entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on
     the task being performed.  The original Python version was renamed
     to the ‘_pyio’ module.

     One minor resulting change: the *note io.TextIOBase: 4aa. class now
     has an *note errors: 11b9. attribute giving the error setting used
     for encoding and decoding errors (one of ‘'strict'’, ‘'replace'’,
     ‘'ignore'’).

     The *note io.FileIO: 11ba. class now raises an *note OSError: 65c.
     when passed an invalid file descriptor.  (Implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-4991(42).)  The *note truncate(): 11bb. method now
     preserves the file position; previously it would change the file
     position to the end of the new file.  (Fixed by Pascal Chambon;
     bpo-6939(43).)

   * New function: ‘itertools.compress(data, selectors)’ takes two
     iterators.  Elements of 'data' are returned if the corresponding
     value in 'selectors' is true:

          itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
            A, C, E, F

     New function: ‘itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r)’
     returns all the possible 'r'-length combinations of elements from
     the iterable 'iter'.  Unlike *note combinations(): 11bc, individual
     elements can be repeated in the generated combinations:

          itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
            ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
            ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')

     Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their
     position in the input, not their actual values.

     The *note itertools.count(): 112c. function now has a 'step'
     argument that allows incrementing by values other than 1.  *note
     count(): 112c. also now allows keyword arguments, and using
     non-integer values such as floats or *note Decimal: 609. instances.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5032(44).)

     *note itertools.combinations(): 11bc. and *note
     itertools.product(): 11bd. previously raised *note ValueError: 189.
     for values of 'r' larger than the input iterable.  This was deemed
     a specification error, so they now return an empty iterator.
     (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4816(45).)

   * Updated module: The *note json: 80. module was upgraded to version
     2.0.9 of the simplejson package, which includes a C extension that
     makes encoding and decoding faster.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito;
     bpo-4136(46).)

     To support the new *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. type, *note
     json.load(): b37. now has an optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter
     that will be called with any object literal that decodes to a list
     of pairs.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5381(47).)

   * The *note mailbox: 8a. module’s *note Maildir: 11be. class now
     records the timestamp on the directories it reads, and only
     re-reads them if the modification time has subsequently changed.
     This improves performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans.
     (Fixed by A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1607951(48),
     bpo-6896(49).)

   * New functions: the *note math: 8d. module gained *note erf(): a4f.
     and *note erfc(): a50. for the error function and the complementary
     error function, *note expm1(): 1091. which computes ‘e**x - 1’ with
     more precision than using *note exp(): 11bf. and subtracting 1,
     *note gamma(): 1092. for the Gamma function, and *note lgamma():
     1093. for the natural log of the Gamma function.  (Contributed by
     Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; bpo-3366(50).)

   * The *note multiprocessing: 93. module’s ‘Manager*’ classes can now
     be passed a callable that will be called whenever a subprocess is
     started, along with a set of arguments that will be passed to the
     callable.  (Contributed by lekma; bpo-5585(51).)

     The *note Pool: e0b. class, which controls a pool of worker
     processes, now has an optional 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.
     Worker processes will perform the specified number of tasks and
     then exit, causing the ‘Pool’ to start a new worker.  This is
     useful if tasks may leak memory or other resources, or if some
     tasks will cause the worker to become very large.  (Contributed by
     Charles Cazabon; bpo-6963(52).)

   * The *note nntplib: 9c. module now supports IPv6 addresses.
     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1664(53).)

   * New functions: the *note os: a0. module wraps the following POSIX
     system calls: *note getresgid(): 11c0. and *note getresuid(): 11c1,
     which return the real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs; *note
     setresgid(): 11c2. and *note setresuid(): 11c3, which set real,
     effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values; *note
     initgroups(): 11c4, which initialize the group access list for the
     current process.  (GID/UID functions contributed by Travis H.;
     bpo-6508(54).  Support for initgroups added by Jean-Paul Calderone;
     bpo-7333(55).)

     The *note os.fork(): 23a. function now re-initializes the import
     lock in the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when
     *note fork(): 23a. is called from a thread.  (Fixed by Zsolt
     Cserna; bpo-7242(56).)

   * In the *note os.path: a1. module, the *note normpath(): 11c5. and
     *note abspath(): 11c6. functions now preserve Unicode; if their
     input path is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode
     string.  (*note normpath(): 11c5. fixed by Matt Giuca in
     bpo-5827(57); *note abspath(): 11c6. fixed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-3426(58).)

   * The *note pydoc: b4. module now has help for the various symbols
     that Python uses.  You can now do ‘help('<<')’ or ‘help('@')’, for
     example.  (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(59).)

   * The *note re: b8. module’s *note split(): 9e3, *note sub(): 208,
     and *note subn(): 209. now accept an optional 'flags' argument, for
     consistency with the other functions in the module.  (Added by
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * New function: *note run_path(): 11c7. in the *note runpy: bd.
     module will execute the code at a provided 'path' argument.  'path'
     can be the path of a Python source file (‘example.py’), a compiled
     bytecode file (‘example.pyc’), a directory (‘./package/’), or a zip
     archive (‘example.zip’).  If a directory or zip path is provided,
     it will be added to the front of ‘sys.path’ and the module *note
     __main__: 1. will be imported.  It’s expected that the directory or
     zip contains a ‘__main__.py’; if it doesn’t, some other
     ‘__main__.py’ might be imported from a location later in
     ‘sys.path’.  This makes more of the machinery of *note runpy: bd.
     available to scripts that want to mimic the way Python’s command
     line processes an explicit path name.  (Added by Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-6816(60).)

   * New function: in the *note shutil: c4. module, *note
     make_archive(): 1de. takes a filename, archive type (zip or
     tar-format), and a directory path, and creates an archive
     containing the directory’s contents.  (Added by Tarek Ziadé.)

     *note shutil: c4.’s *note copyfile(): 8bd. and *note copytree():
     88b. functions now raise a ‘SpecialFileError’ exception when asked
     to copy a named pipe.  Previously the code would treat named pipes
     like a regular file by opening them for reading, and this would
     block indefinitely.  (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3002(61).)

   * The *note signal: c5. module no longer re-installs the signal
     handler unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that
     could make it impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly.
     (Fixed by Charles-Francois Natali; bpo-8354(62).)

   * New functions: in the *note site: c6. module, three new functions
     return various site- and user-specific paths.  *note
     getsitepackages(): 10e5. returns a list containing all global
     site-packages directories, *note getusersitepackages(): 10e7.
     returns the path of the user’s site-packages directory, and *note
     getuserbase(): 10e6. returns the value of the *note USER_BASE:
     11c8. environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can
     be used to store data.  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693(63).)

     The *note site: c6. module now reports exceptions occurring when
     the *note sitecustomize: c7. module is imported, and will no longer
     catch and swallow the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. exception.
     (Fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3137(64).)

   * The *note create_connection(): 485. function gained a
     'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’ 2-tuple giving the
     source address that will be used for the connection.  (Contributed
     by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(65).)

     The *note recv_into(): 11c9. and *note recvfrom_into(): 11ca.
     methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API,
     most usefully the *note bytearray: 2ca. and *note memoryview: 185.
     objects.  (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8104(66).)

   * The *note SocketServer: cc. module’s *note TCPServer: 11cb. class
     now supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm.
     The ‘disable_nagle_algorithm’ class attribute defaults to ‘False’;
     if overridden to be true, new request connections will have the
     TCP_NODELAY option set to prevent buffering many small sends into a
     single TCP packet.  The *note timeout: 11cc. class attribute can
     hold a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request
     socket; if no request is received within that time, *note
     handle_timeout(): 11cd. will be called and *note handle_request():
     11ce. will return.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson;
     bpo-6192(67) and bpo-6267(68).)

   * Updated module: the *note sqlite3: ce. module has been updated to
     version 2.6.0 of the pysqlite package(69).  Version 2.6.0 includes
     a number of bugfixes, and adds the ability to load SQLite
     extensions from shared libraries.  Call the
     ‘enable_load_extension(True)’ method to enable extensions, and then
     call *note load_extension(): 1e6. to load a particular shared
     library.  (Updated by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note ssl: cf. module’s *note SSLSocket: 73d. objects now
     support the buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7133(70)) and automatically set OpenSSL’s
     ‘SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY’, which will prevent an error code being
     returned from ‘recv()’ operations that trigger an SSL renegotiation
     (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8222(71)).

     The *note wrap_socket(): 2af. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument that’s a string listing the encryption
     algorithms to be allowed; the format of the string is described in
     the OpenSSL documentation(72).  (Added by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8322(73).)

     Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL’s ciphers
     and digest algorithms so that they’re all available.  Some SSL
     certificates couldn’t be verified, reporting an “unknown algorithm”
     error.  (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8484(74).)

     The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module
     attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 10c4. (a string), *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 10c5. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 10c6. (an integer).  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-8321(75).)

   * The *note struct: d4. module will no longer silently ignore
     overflow errors when a value is too large for a particular integer
     format code (one of ‘bBhHiIlLqQ’); it now always raises a *note
     struct.error: 11cf. exception.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1523(76).)  The *note pack(): 111f. function will also attempt
     to use *note __index__(): 538. to convert and pack non-integers
     before trying the *note __int__(): 537. method or reporting an
     error.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-8300(77).)

   * New function: the *note subprocess: d5. module’s *note
     check_output(): e64. runs a command with a specified set of
     arguments and returns the command’s output as a string when the
     command runs without error, or raises a *note CalledProcessError:
     11d0. exception otherwise.

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.'])
          'Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n
          /dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n'

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus'])
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

     The *note subprocess: d5. module will now retry its internal system
     calls on receiving an *note EINTR: c13. signal.  (Reported by
     several people; final patch by Gregory P. Smith in
     bpo-1068268(78).)

   * New function: *note is_declared_global(): 11d1. in the *note
     symtable: d7. module returns true for variables that are explicitly
     declared to be global, false for ones that are implicitly global.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The *note syslog: db. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(79).)

   * The *note sys.version_info: 4b5. value is now a named tuple, with
     attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘micro’, ‘releaselevel’, and
     ‘serial’.  (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(80).)

     *note sys.getwindowsversion(): b6a. also returns a named tuple,
     with attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘build’, ‘platform’,
     ‘service_pack’, ‘service_pack_major’, ‘service_pack_minor’,
     ‘suite_mask’, and ‘product_type’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-7766(81).)

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module’s default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(82).)

     *note tarfile: dd. now supports filtering the *note TarInfo: 10b6.
     objects being added to a tar file.  When you call *note add(): a6c,
     you may supply an optional 'filter' argument that’s a callable.
     The 'filter' callable will be passed the *note TarInfo: 10b6. for
     every file being added, and can modify and return it.  If the
     callable returns ‘None’, the file will be excluded from the
     resulting archive.  This is more powerful than the existing
     'exclude' argument, which has therefore been deprecated.  (Added by
     Lars Gustäbel; bpo-6856(83).)  The *note TarFile: 10b5. class also
     now supports the context management protocol.  (Added by Lars
     Gustäbel; bpo-7232(84).)

   * The *note wait(): 11d2. method of the *note threading.Event: fff.
     class now returns the internal flag on exit.  This means the method
     will usually return true because *note wait(): 11d2. is supposed to
     block until the internal flag becomes true.  The return value will
     only be false if a timeout was provided and the operation timed
     out.  (Contributed by Tim Lesher; bpo-1674032(85).)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 105. module
     is now used internally to determine which characters are numeric,
     whitespace, or represent line breaks.  The database also includes
     information from the ‘Unihan.txt’ data file (patch by Anders
     Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-1571184(86)) and has been
     updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-8024(87)).

   * The *note urlparse: 10a. module’s *note urlsplit(): bc7. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(88): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

     The *note urlparse: 10a. module also supports IPv6 literal
     addresses as defined by RFC 2732(89) (contributed by Senthil
     Kumaran; bpo-2987(90)).

          >>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]',
                      path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='')

   * New class: the *note WeakSet: 3e8. class in the *note weakref: 114.
     module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements;
     elements will be removed once there are no references pointing to
     them.  (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger,
     and backported to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. library, no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(91).)

   * The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the *note xmlrpclib:
     12e. and *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. modules, have improved
     performance by supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally
     using gzip encoding to compress the XML being exchanged.  The gzip
     compression is controlled by the ‘encode_threshold’ attribute of
     *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 11d3, which contains a size in
     bytes; responses larger than this will be compressed.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6267(92).)

   * The *note zipfile: 131. module’s *note ZipFile: 4dc. now supports
     the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-5511(93).)

     *note zipfile: 131. now also supports archiving empty directories
     and extracts them correctly.  (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek;
     bpo-4710(94).)  Reading files out of an archive is faster, and
     interleaving *note read(): 11d4. and *note readline(): 11d5. now
     works correctly.  (Contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7610(95).)

     The *note is_zipfile(): 11d6. function now accepts a file object,
     in addition to the path names accepted in earlier versions.
     (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4756(96).)

     The *note writestr(): 11d7. method now has an optional
     'compress_type' parameter that lets you override the default
     compression method specified in the *note ZipFile: 4dc.
     constructor.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6003(97).)

* Menu:

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5142

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7703

   (3) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8156

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8729

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7005

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3924

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4606

   (13) https://sourceware.org/libffi/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8142

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5788

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4796

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6595

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7633

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7585

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8688

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7490

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1368247

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5812

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2054

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6845

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5479

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4272

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4879

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3135

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4991

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6939

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5032

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4816

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5381

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1607951

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6896

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3366

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5585

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6963

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   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6192

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267

   (69) https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7133

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8222

   (72) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321

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   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1571184

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8024

   (88) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (89) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

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File: python.info,  Node: New module importlib,  Next: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.1 New module: importlib
...............................

Python 3.1 includes the *note importlib: 75. package, a
re-implementation of the logic underlying Python’s *note import: 3ed.
statement.  *note importlib: 75. is useful for implementers of Python
interpreters and to users who wish to write new importers that can
participate in the import process.  Python 2.7 doesn’t contain the
complete *note importlib: 75. package, but instead has a tiny subset
that contains a single function, *note import_module(): 2a2.

‘import_module(name, package=None)’ imports a module.  'name' is a
string containing the module or package’s name.  It’s possible to do
relative imports by providing a string that begins with a ‘.’ character,
such as ‘..utils.errors’.  For relative imports, the 'package' argument
must be provided and is the name of the package that will be used as the
anchor for the relative import.  *note import_module(): 2a2. both
inserts the imported module into ‘sys.modules’ and returns the module
object.

Here are some examples:

     >>> from importlib import import_module
     >>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm')  # Standard absolute import
     >>> anydbm
     <module 'anydbm' from '/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py'>
     >>> # Relative import
     >>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command')
     >>> file_util
     <module 'distutils.file_util' from '/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc'>

*note importlib: 75. was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in
Python 3.1.


File: python.info,  Node: New module sysconfig,  Next: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Prev: New module importlib,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.2 New module: sysconfig
...............................

The *note sysconfig: da. module has been pulled out of the Distutils
package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right.  *note
sysconfig: da. provides functions for getting information about Python’s
build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the platform name,
and whether Python is running from its source directory.

Some of the functions in the module are:

   * *note get_config_var(): ed3. returns variables from Python’s
     Makefile and the ‘pyconfig.h’ file.

   * *note get_config_vars(): ed4. returns a dictionary containing all
     of the configuration variables.

   * *note get_path(): 11da. returns the configured path for a
     particular type of module: the standard library, site-specific
     modules, platform-specific modules, etc.

   * *note is_python_build(): 261. returns true if you’re running a
     binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.

Consult the *note sysconfig: da. documentation for more details and for
a complete list of functions.

The Distutils package and *note sysconfig: da. are now maintained by
Tarek Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source
repository at ‘https://hg.python.org/distutils2/’) for developing a
next-generation version of Distutils.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Next: Updated module unittest,  Prev: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.3 ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
....................................

Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk
widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more
closely resemble the native platform’s widgets.  This widget set was
originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for “themed Tk”) on
being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.

To learn more, read the *note ttk: f9. module documentation.  You may
also wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the Ttk theme
engine, available at
‘https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html’.  Some screenshots
of the Python/Ttk code in use are at
‘https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki’.

The *note tkinter.ttk: f9. module was written by Guilherme Polo and
added in bpo-2983(1).  An alternate version called ‘Tile.py’, written by
Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for
inclusion in bpo-2618(2), but the authors argued that Guilherme Polo’s
work was more comprehensive.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2618


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module unittest,  Next: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.4 Updated module: unittest
..................................

The *note unittest: 106. module was greatly enhanced; many new features
were added.  Most of these features were implemented by Michael Foord,
unless otherwise noted.  The enhanced version of the module is
downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6,
packaged as the ‘unittest2’ package, from unittest2(1).

When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover
tests.  It’s not as fancy as py.test(2) or nose(3), but provides a
simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories.  For
example, the following command will search the ‘test/’ subdirectory for
any importable test files named ‘test*.py’:

     python -m unittest discover -s test

Consult the *note unittest: 106. module documentation for more details.
(Developed in bpo-6001(4).)

The *note main(): e89. function supports some other new options:

   * *note -b: 11de. or ‘--buffer’ will buffer the standard output and
     standard error streams during each test.  If the test passes, any
     resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered output
     will be displayed.

   * *note -c: 11df. or ‘--catch’ will cause the control-C interrupt to
     be handled more gracefully.  Instead of interrupting the test
     process immediately, the currently running test will be completed
     and then the partial results up to the interruption will be
     reported.  If you’re impatient, a second press of control-C will
     cause an immediate interruption.

     This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the
     code being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal
     handler of their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already
     set and calling it.  If this doesn’t work for you, there’s a *note
     removeHandler(): 11e0. decorator that can be used to mark tests
     that should have the control-C handling disabled.

   * *note -f: 11e1. or ‘--failfast’ makes test execution stop
     immediately when a test fails instead of continuing to execute
     further tests.  (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and implemented by Michael
     Foord; bpo-8074(5).)

The progress messages now show ‘x’ for expected failures and ‘u’ for
unexpected successes when run in verbose mode.  (Contributed by Benjamin
Peterson.)

Test cases can raise the *note SkipTest: e8a. exception to skip a test
(bpo-1034053(6)).

The error messages for *note assertEqual(): 2b3, *note assertTrue():
2b1, and *note assertFalse(): 2b2. failures now provide more
information.  If you set the *note longMessage: 11e2. attribute of your
*note TestCase: 15f. classes to true, both the standard error message
and any additional message you provide will be printed for failures.
(Added by Michael Foord; bpo-5663(7).)

The *note assertRaises(): 2b7. method now returns a context handler when
called without providing a callable object to run.  For example, you can
write this:

     with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
         {}['foo']

(Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4444(8).)

Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported.
Modules can contain ‘setUpModule()’ and ‘tearDownModule()’ functions.
Classes can have *note setUpClass(): 8b2. and *note tearDownClass():
11e3. methods that must be defined as class methods (using
‘@classmethod’ or equivalent).  These functions and methods are invoked
when the test runner switches to a test case in a different module or
class.

The methods *note addCleanup(): 8e6. and *note doCleanups(): 11e4. were
added.  *note addCleanup(): 8e6. lets you add cleanup functions that
will be called unconditionally (after *note setUp(): 11e5. if *note
setUp(): 11e5. fails, otherwise after *note tearDown(): 11e6.).  This
allows for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during
tests (bpo-5679(9)).

A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized tests.
Many of these methods were written by Google engineers for use in their
test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and GvR worked on merging
them into Python’s version of *note unittest: 106.

   * *note assertIsNone(): 1133. and *note assertIsNotNone(): 1134. take
     one expression and verify that the result is or is not ‘None’.

   * *note assertIs(): 11e7. and *note assertIsNot(): 11e8. take two
     values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object
     or not.  (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-2578(10).)

   * *note assertIsInstance(): 11e9. and *note assertNotIsInstance():
     11ea. check whether the resulting object is an instance of a
     particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes.  (Added by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-7031(11).)

   * *note assertGreater(): 11eb, *note assertGreaterEqual(): 11ec,
     *note assertLess(): 11ed, and *note assertLessEqual(): 11ee.
     compare two quantities.

   * *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 11ef. compares two strings, and if
     they’re not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights
     the differences in the two strings.  This comparison is now used by
     default when Unicode strings are compared with *note assertEqual():
     2b3.

   * *note assertRegexpMatches(): 2b8. and *note
     assertNotRegexpMatches(): 2ba. checks whether the first argument is
     a string matching or not matching the regular expression provided
     as the second argument (bpo-8038(12)).

   * *note assertRaisesRegexp(): 2b9. checks whether a particular
     exception is raised, and then also checks that the string
     representation of the exception matches the provided regular
     expression.

   * *note assertIn(): 11f0. and *note assertNotIn(): 11f1. tests
     whether 'first' is or is not in 'second'.

   * *note assertItemsEqual(): 10d1. tests whether two provided
     sequences contain the same elements.

   * *note assertSetEqual(): 112e. compares whether two sets are equal,
     and only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.

   * Similarly, *note assertListEqual(): 1130. and *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 1131. compare the specified types and explain
     any differences without necessarily printing their full values;
     these methods are now used by default when comparing lists and
     tuples using *note assertEqual(): 2b3.  More generally, *note
     assertSequenceEqual(): 1132. compares two sequences and can
     optionally check whether both sequences are of a particular type.

   * *note assertDictEqual(): 112f. compares two dictionaries and
     reports the differences; it’s now used by default when you compare
     two dictionaries using *note assertEqual(): 2b3.
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ checks whether all of the key/value
     pairs in 'first' are found in 'second'.

   * *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2b5. and *note assertNotAlmostEqual():
     2b6. test whether 'first' and 'second' are approximately equal.
     This method can either round their difference to an optionally
     specified number of 'places' (the default is 7) and compare it to
     zero, or require the difference to be smaller than a supplied
     'delta' value.

   * *note loadTestsFromName(): 11f2. properly honors the *note
     suiteClass: 11f3. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 54b.  (Fixed
     by Mark Roddy; bpo-6866(13).)

   * A new hook lets you extend the *note assertEqual(): 2b3. method to
     handle new data types.  The *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 11f4.
     method takes a type object and a function.  The function will be
     used when both of the objects being compared are of the specified
     type.  This function should compare the two objects and raise an
     exception if they don’t match; it’s a good idea for the function to
     provide additional information about why the two objects aren’t
     matching, much as the new sequence comparison methods do.

*note unittest.main(): e89. now takes an optional ‘exit’ argument.  If
false, *note main(): e89. doesn’t call *note sys.exit(): 11f5, allowing
*note main(): e89. to be used from the interactive interpreter.
(Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; bpo-3379(14).)

*note TestResult: 100e. has new *note startTestRun(): 11f6. and *note
stopTestRun(): 11f7. methods that are called immediately before and
after a test run.  (Contributed by Robert Collins; bpo-5728(15).)

With all these changes, the ‘unittest.py’ was becoming awkwardly large,
so the module was turned into a package and the code split into several
files (by Benjamin Peterson).  This doesn’t affect how the module is
imported or used.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210619163128/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml’

     Describes the new features, how to use them, and the rationale for
     various design decisions.  (By Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/unittest2/

   (2) https://pytest.org

   (3) https://nose.readthedocs.io/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6001

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1034053

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5663

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4444

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2578

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7031

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6866

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3379

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5728


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: Updated module unittest,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.14.11.5 Updated module: ElementTree 1.3
.........................................

The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated
to version 1.3.  Some of the new features are:

   * The various parsing functions now take a 'parser' keyword argument
     giving an *note XMLParser: 8b7. instance that will be used.  This
     makes it possible to override the file’s internal encoding:

          p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8')
          t = ET.XML("""<root/>""", parser=p)

     Errors in parsing XML now raise a *note ParseError: 1120.
     exception, whose instances have a ‘position’ attribute containing a
     ('line', 'column') tuple giving the location of the problem.

   * ElementTree’s code for converting trees to a string has been
     significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many
     cases.  The *note ElementTree.write(): e9d. and ‘Element.write()’
     methods now have a 'method' parameter that can be “xml” (the
     default), “html”, or “text”.  HTML mode will output empty elements
     as ‘<empty></empty>’ instead of ‘<empty/>’, and text mode will skip
     over elements and only output the text chunks.  If you set the
     *note tag: 11fa. attribute of an element to ‘None’ but leave its
     children in place, the element will be omitted when the tree is
     written out, so you don’t need to do more extensive rearrangement
     to remove a single element.

     Namespace handling has also been improved.  All ‘xmlns:<whatever>’
     declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered
     throughout the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for
     a tree by setting the ‘default_namespace’ attribute and can
     register new prefixes with *note register_namespace(): 1077.  In
     XML mode, you can use the true/false 'xml_declaration' parameter to
     suppress the XML declaration.

   * New *note Element: 247. method: *note extend(): 1078. appends the
     items from a sequence to the element’s children.  Elements
     themselves behave like sequences, so it’s easy to move children
     from one element to another:

          from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")
          new = ET.XML('<root/>')
          new.extend(t)

          # Outputs <root><item>1</item>...</root>
          print ET.tostring(new)

   * New *note Element: 247. method: *note iter(): 11fb. yields the
     children of the element as a generator.  It’s also possible to
     write ‘for child in elem:’ to loop over an element’s children.  The
     existing method ‘getiterator()’ is now deprecated, as is
     ‘getchildren()’ which constructs and returns a list of children.

   * New *note Element: 247. method: *note itertext(): 107a. yields all
     chunks of text that are descendants of the element.  For example:

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")

          # Outputs ['\n  ', '1', ' ', '2', '  ', '3', '\n']
          print list(t.itertext())

   * Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., ‘if elem:’) would
     return true if the element had any children, or false if there were
     no children.  This behaviour is confusing – ‘None’ is false, but so
     is a childless element?  – so it will now trigger a *note
     FutureWarning: 248.  In your code, you should be explicit: write
     ‘len(elem) != 0’ if you’re interested in the number of children, or
     ‘elem is not None’.

Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version; you can
read his article describing 1.3 at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm’.
Florent Xicluna updated the version included with Python, after
discussions on python-dev and in bpo-6472(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes,  Prev: New and Improved Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.12 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be scripted
     using Python(1).  When you begin debugging an executable program P,
     GDB will look for a file named ‘P-gdb.py’ and automatically read
     it.  Dave Malcolm contributed a ‘python-gdb.py’ that adds a number
     of commands useful when debugging Python itself.  For example,
     ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ go up or down one Python stack frame, which
     usually corresponds to several C stack frames.  ‘py-print’ prints
     the value of a Python variable, and ‘py-bt’ prints the Python stack
     trace.  (Added as a result of bpo-8032(2).)

   * If you use the ‘.gdbinit’ file provided with Python, the “pyo”
     macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being
     debugged doesn’t hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before
     printing.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3632(3).)

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7df. is now thread-safe, letting any
     worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread.  This
     is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
     (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4293(4).)

   * New function: *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 11fd. creates an empty code
     object; only the filename, function name, and first line number are
     required.  This is useful for extension modules that are attempting
     to construct a more useful traceback stack.  Previously such
     extensions needed to call ‘PyCode_New()’, which had many more
     arguments.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New function: *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1111. creates a
     new exception class, just as the existing *note
     PyErr_NewException(): 1112. does, but takes an extra ‘char *’
     argument containing the docstring for the new exception class.
     (Added by ‘lekma’ on the Python bug tracker; bpo-7033(5).)

   * New function: *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5bc. takes a frame
     object and returns the line number that the frame is currently
     executing.  Previously code would need to get the index of the
     bytecode instruction currently executing, and then look up the line
     number corresponding to that address.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New functions: *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 110f. and *note
     PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 110e. approximates a Python long
     integer as a C long or long long.  If the number is too large to
     fit into the output type, an 'overflow' flag is set and returned to
     the caller.  (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; bpo-7528(6) and
     bpo-7767(7).)

   * New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float
     conversion, a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 113e. function was
     added.  The old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’
     functions are now deprecated.

   * New function: *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe. sets the value of
     ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include the
     directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’ depending on
     the value of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11ff,
     would always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the
     current directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application
     embedding Python in a directory controlled by someone else,
     attackers could put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a
     file named ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and
     run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you’re calling *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11ff. and carefully
     consider whether the application should be using *note
     PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe. with 'updatepath' set to false.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(8); discussed in
     bpo-5753(9), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * New macros: the Python header files now define the following
     macros: ‘Py_ISALNUM’, ‘Py_ISALPHA’, ‘Py_ISDIGIT’, ‘Py_ISLOWER’,
     ‘Py_ISSPACE’, ‘Py_ISUPPER’, ‘Py_ISXDIGIT’, ‘Py_TOLOWER’, and
     ‘Py_TOUPPER’.  All of these functions are analogous to the C
     standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current
     locale setting, because in several places Python needs to analyze
     characters in a locale-independent way.  (Added by Eric Smith;
     bpo-5793(10).)

   * Removed function: ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available as a
     macro.  A function version was being kept around to preserve ABI
     linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
     deleted by now.  (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8276(11).)

   * New format codes: the ‘PyString_FromFormat()’,
     ‘PyString_FromFormatV()’, and *note PyErr_Format(): d46. functions
     now accept ‘%lld’ and ‘%llu’ format codes for displaying C’s long
     long types.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7228(12).)

   * The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has
     been changed.  Previously, the child process created by *note
     os.fork(): 23a. might fail because the child is created with only a
     single thread running, the thread performing the *note os.fork():
     23a.  If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python’s import
     lock, when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked
     as “held” in the new process.  But in the child process nothing
     would ever release the lock, since the other threads weren’t
     replicated, and the child process would no longer be able to
     perform imports.

     Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an *note
     os.fork(): 23a, and will also clean up any locks created using the
     *note threading: ec. module.  C extension modules that have
     internal locks, or that call ‘fork()’ themselves, will not benefit
     from this clean-up.

     (Fixed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1590864(13).)

   * The *note Py_Finalize(): 1200. function now calls the internal
     ‘threading._shutdown()’ function; this prevents some exceptions
     from being raised when an interpreter shuts down.  (Patch by Adam
     Olsen; bpo-1722344(14).)

   * When using the *note PyMemberDef: 2dd. structure to define
     attributes of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete
     or set a ‘T_STRING_INPLACE’ attribute.

   * Global symbols defined by the *note ctypes: 2a. module are now
     prefixed with ‘Py’, or with ‘_ctypes’.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Heller; bpo-3102(15).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-system-expat’ switch allows
     building the *note pyexpat: 126. module to use the system Expat
     library.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-7609(16).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-valgrind’ option will now disable
     the pymalloc allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind
     memory-error detector to analyze correctly.  Valgrind will
     therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and overruns.
     (Contributed by James Henstridge; bpo-2422(17).)

   * New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to
     ‘--with-dbmliborder=’ in order to disable all of the various DBM
     modules.  (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-6491(18).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
     on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a ‘X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING’
     preprocessor definition.  No code currently uses this definition,
     but it’s available if anyone wishes to use it.  (Added by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-2937(19).)

     ‘configure’ also now sets a ‘LDCXXSHARED’ Makefile variable for
     supporting C++ linking.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis; bpo-1222585(20).)

   * The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config
     support.  (Contributed by Clinton Roy; bpo-3585(21).)

   * The build process now supports Subversion 1.7.  (Contributed by
     Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6094(22).)

* Menu:

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20110715084810/http://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3632

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7528

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5793

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7228

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1590864

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1722344

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3102

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7609

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6491

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2937

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1222585

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3585

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6094


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.1 Capsules
..................

Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, *note PyCapsule: 111b, for providing a
C API to an extension module.  A capsule is essentially the holder of a
C ‘void *’ pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for
example, the *note socket: cb. module’s API is exposed as ‘socket.CAPI’,
and *note unicodedata: 105. exposes ‘ucnhash_CAPI’.  Other extensions
can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule object,
and then get the ‘void *’ pointer, which will usually point to an array
of pointers to the module’s various API functions.

There is an existing data type already used for this, ‘PyCObject’, but
it doesn’t provide type safety.  Evil code written in pure Python could
cause a segmentation fault by taking a ‘PyCObject’ from module A and
somehow substituting it for the ‘PyCObject’ in module B. Capsules know
their own name, and getting the pointer requires providing the name:

     void *vtable;

     if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid");
             return NULL;
     }

     vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI");

You are assured that ‘vtable’ points to whatever you’re expecting.  If a
different capsule was passed in, *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1203. would
detect the mismatched name and return false.  Refer to *note Providing a
C API for an Extension Module: 1204. for more information on using these
objects.

Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various
extension-module APIs, but the ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ was modified to
handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility with the
‘PyCObject’ interface.  Use of ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ will signal a
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719, which is silent by default.

Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings;
discussed in bpo-5630(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Prev: Capsules,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.2 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The *note msvcrt: 92. module now contains some constants from the
     ‘crtassem.h’ header file: *note CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION: 1206, *note
     VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN: 1207, and *note
     LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX: 1208.  (Contributed by David
     Cournapeau; bpo-4365(1).)

   * The *note _winreg: 116. module for accessing the registry now
     implements the *note CreateKeyEx(): 1209. and *note DeleteKeyEx():
     120a. functions, extended versions of previously supported
     functions that take several extra arguments.  The *note
     DisableReflectionKey(): 120b, *note EnableReflectionKey(): 120c,
     and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 120d. were also tested and
     documented.  (Implemented by Brian Curtin: bpo-7347(2).)

   * The new ‘_beginthreadex()’ API is used to start threads, and the
     native thread-local storage functions are now used.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-3582(3).)

   * The *note os.kill(): 120e. function now works on Windows.  The
     signal value can be the constants *note CTRL_C_EVENT: 120f, *note
     CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 1210, or any integer.  The first two constants
     will send ‘Control’-‘C’ and ‘Control’-‘Break’ keystroke events to
     subprocesses; any other value will use the ‘TerminateProcess()’
     API.  (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; bpo-1220212(4).)

   * The *note os.listdir(): f9c. function now correctly fails for an
     empty path.  (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-5913(5).)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8e. module will now read the MIME database
     from the Windows registry when initializing.  (Patch by Gabriel
     Genellina; bpo-4969(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4365

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3582

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1220212

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5913

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4969


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Next: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.3 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * The path ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’ is now appended to
     ‘sys.path’, in order to share added packages between the system
     installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
     (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-4865(1).)

     2.7.13 sürümünde değişti: As of 2.7.13, this change was removed.
     ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’, the site-packages directory
     used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended
     to ‘sys.path’ for user-installed Pythons such as from the
     python.org installers.  As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the
     system site-packages directory is configured, which could cause
     installation of pip components, like setuptools, to fail.  Packages
     installed for the system Python will no longer be shared with
     user-installed Pythons.  (bpo-28440(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4865

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Up: Build and C API Changes<7>

1.14.12.4 Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
........................................

   * FreeBSD 7.1’s ‘SO_SETFIB’ constant, used with the *note socket():
     c2e. methods *note getsockopt(): b58./*note setsockopt(): b59. to
     select an alternate routing table, is now available in the *note
     socket: cb. module.  (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; bpo-8235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8235


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes,  Next: Porting to Python 2 7,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.13 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

   * Two benchmark scripts, ‘iobench’ and ‘ccbench’, were added to the
     ‘Tools’ directory.  ‘iobench’ measures the speed of the built-in
     file I/O objects returned by *note open(): 2a6. while performing
     various operations, and ‘ccbench’ is a concurrency benchmark that
     tries to measure computing throughput, thread switching latency,
     and IO processing bandwidth when performing several tasks using a
     varying number of threads.

   * The ‘Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py’ script now understands plural forms in
     ‘.po’ files.  (Fixed by Martin von Löwis; bpo-5464(1).)

   * When importing a module from a ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ file with an
     existing ‘.py’ counterpart, the *note co_filename: 1214. attributes
     of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the original
     filename is obsolete.  This can happen if the file has been
     renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths.  (Patch by
     Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-1180193(2).)

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now takes a ‘--randseed=’ switch that
     takes an integer that will be used as the random seed for the ‘-r’
     option that executes tests in random order.  The ‘-r’ option also
     reports the seed that was used (Added by Collin Winter.)

   * Another ‘regrtest.py’ switch is ‘-j’, which takes an integer
     specifying how many tests run in parallel.  This allows reducing
     the total runtime on multi-core machines.  This option is
     compatible with several other options, including the ‘-R’ switch
     which is known to produce long runtimes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6152(3).)  This can also be used with a new ‘-F’ switch that
     runs selected tests in a loop until they fail.  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-7312(4).)

   * When executed as a script, the ‘py_compile.py’ module now accepts
     ‘'-'’ as an argument, which will read standard input for the list
     of filenames to be compiled.  (Contributed by Piotr Ożarowski;
     bpo-8233(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5464

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1180193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7312

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8233


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 7,  Next: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.14 Porting to Python 2.7
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note range(): 79c. function processes its arguments more
     consistently; it will now call *note __int__(): 537. on non-float,
     non-integer arguments that are supplied to it.  (Fixed by Alexander
     Belopolsky; bpo-1533(1).)

   * The string *note format(): 431. method changed the default
     precision used for floating-point and complex numbers from 6
     decimal places to 12, which matches the precision used by *note
     str(): 15d.  (Changed by Eric Smith; bpo-5920(2).)

   * Because of an optimization for the *note with: 3dd. statement, the
     special methods *note __enter__(): 3d0. and *note __exit__(): 11aa.
     must belong to the object’s type, and cannot be directly attached
     to the object’s instance.  This affects new-style classes (derived
     from *note object: 8f2.) and C extension types.  (bpo-6101(3).)

   * Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the 'exc_value' parameter to *note
     __exit__(): 11aa. methods was often the string representation of
     the exception, not an instance.  This was fixed in 2.7, so
     'exc_value' will be an instance as expected.  (Fixed by Florent
     Xicluna; bpo-7853(4).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     3dc. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(5).)

In the standard library:

   * Operations with *note datetime: 22b. instances that resulted in a
     year falling outside the supported range didn’t always raise *note
     OverflowError: 6c7.  Such errors are now checked more carefully and
     will now raise the exception.  (Reported by Mark Leander, patch by
     Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-7150(6).)

   * When using *note Decimal: 609. instances with a string’s *note
     format(): 431. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which
     might change the output of your programs.  (Changed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6857(7).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: f4d. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(8).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. library no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(9).)

   * The ‘readline()’ method of *note StringIO: dc4. objects now does
     nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like
     objects do.  (bpo-7348(10)).

   * The *note syslog: db. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(11).)

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module’s default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(12).)

   * The *note urlparse: 10a. module’s *note urlsplit(): bc7. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(13): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

For C extensions:

   * C extensions that use integer format codes with the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     family of functions will now raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     exception instead of triggering a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     (bpo-5080(14)).

   * Use the new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 113e. function instead
     of the old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’ functions,
     which are now deprecated.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe. function was added, letting
     applications close a security hole when the existing *note
     PySys_SetArgv(): 11ff. function was used.  Check whether you’re
     calling *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11ff. and carefully consider whether
     the application should be using *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe. with
     'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6101

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7150

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7348

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5080


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Next: Acknowledgements,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 7,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.15 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
-------------------------------------------------------------

New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the
situation genuinely calls for it.  Any such additions must go through
the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for
why they can’t be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature
solely to Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package
Index.

In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general
exemption allowing new ‘-3’ warnings to be added in any Python 2.7
maintenance release.

* Menu:

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Next: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.1 Two new environment variables for debug mode
......................................................

In debug mode, the ‘[xxx refs]’ statistic is not written by default, the
‘PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT’ environment variable now must also be set.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31733(1).)

When Python is compiled with ‘COUNT_ALLOC’ defined, allocation counts
are no longer dumped by default anymore: the ‘PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT’
environment variable must now also be set.  Moreover, allocation counts
are now dumped into stderr, rather than stdout.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner; bpo-31692(2).)

Added in version 2.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31733

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31692


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Next: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Prev: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.2 PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
..............................................................

PEP 434(1) describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE
development environment shipped along with Python.  This exemption makes
it possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user
experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.

For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific
release.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.3 PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
...............................................................

PEP 466(1) describes a number of network security enhancement proposals
that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance
releases, with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7
release.

PEP 466(2) related features added in Python 2.7.7:

   * *note hmac.compare_digest(): f6c. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a timing attack resistant comparison operation available to
     Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21306(3).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware;
     bpo-21462(4).)

PEP 466(5) related features added in Python 2.7.8:

   * *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 299. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a hashing algorithm suitable for secure password storage
     broadly available to Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor; bpo-21304(6).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in
     bpo-21671(7) for CVE 2014-0224(8).)

PEP 466(9) related features added in Python 2.7.9:

   * Most of Python 3.4’s *note ssl: cf. module was backported.  This
     means *note ssl: cf. now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x
     settings, access to the platform certificate store, the *note
     SSLContext: 277. class, and other features.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor and David Reid; bpo-21308(10).)

     Refer to the “Version added: 2.7.9” notes in the module
     documentation for specific details.

   * *note os.urandom(): 2ad. was changed to cache a file descriptor to
     ‘/dev/urandom’ instead of reopening ‘/dev/urandom’ on every call.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21305(11).)

   * *note hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed: 121a. and *note
     hashlib.algorithms_available: 121b. were backported from Python 3
     to make it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest
     available hash algorithm.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
     bpo-21307(12))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21462

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21304

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21671

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-0224

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21308

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21305

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21307


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Prev: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.4 PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
.............................................................

PEP 477(1) approves the inclusion of the PEP 453(2) ensurepip module and
the improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7
maintenance releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Next: Documentation Changes<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.14.15.5 Bootstrapping pip By Default
......................................

The new *note ensurepip: 53. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations.  The version of ‘pip’ included with Python 2.7.9
is ‘pip’ 1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the
bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’ that is available at the
time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pip’, ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on
all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python
installation), along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: d8a, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands do not bootstrap ‘pip’ by
default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options,
and overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2), platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes<2>,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.14.15.6 Documentation Changes
...............................

As part of this change, the *note Python Modüllerini Kurmak: d8c. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++
Extensions with setuptools: d8d. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions
with setuptools: d8e.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Next: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.7 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
.......................................................................................

PEP 476(1) updated *note httplib: 6c. and modules which use it, such as
*note urllib2: 10b. and *note xmlrpclib: 12e, to now verify that the
server presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority
in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname
being requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.  This change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib2
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0476/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Next: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.8 PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
....................................................................

PEP 493(1) provides additional migration tools to support a more
incremental infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing
applications and services relying on the historically permissive
processing of server certificates when establishing client HTTPS
connections.  These additions were made in the Python 2.7.12 release.

These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications
and services can’t be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL
context when establishing the connection.

For applications and services which can’t be modified at all, the new
‘PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY’ environment variable may be set to ‘0’ to revert an
entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python
2.7.8 and earlier.

For cases where the connection establishment code can’t be modified, but
the overall application can be, the new
‘ssl._https_verify_certificates()’ function can be used to adjust the
default behaviour at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0493/


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.9 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
...........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 2.7.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.14.15.10 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
...............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

2.7.14 sürümünde değişti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements,  Prev: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.14.16 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray, Hugh
Secker-Walker.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.15 What’s New in Python 2.6
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on
October 1, 2008.  The release schedule is described in PEP 361(1).

The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to Python
3.0, a major redesign of the language.  Whenever possible, Python 2.6
incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while remaining compatible
with existing code by not removing older features or syntax.  When it’s
not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do what it can, adding
compatibility functions in a ‘future_builtins’ module and a ‘-3’ switch
to warn about usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.

Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
such as the *note multiprocessing: 93. and *note json: 80. modules, but
there aren’t many new features that aren’t related to Python 3.0 in some
way.

Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout
the source.  A search through the change logs finds there were 259
patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6.  Both
figures are likely to be underestimates.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6.  If you
want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.  Whenever possible,
“What’s New in Python” links to the bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0361/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 0,  Next: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.1 Python 3.0
-----------------

The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was synchronized,
with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being made on the
same days.  The development of 3.0 has influenced many features in 2.6.

Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks compatibility
with the 2.x series.  This means that existing Python code will need
some conversion in order to run on Python 3.0.  However, not all the
changes in 3.0 necessarily break compatibility.  In cases where new
features won’t cause existing code to break, they’ve been backported to
2.6 and are described in this document in the appropriate place.  Some
of the 3.0-derived features are:

   * A ‘__complex__()’ method for converting objects to a complex
     number.

   * Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ‘except TypeError as
     exc’.

   * The addition of *note functools.reduce(): 1186. as a synonym for
     the built-in ‘reduce()’ function.

Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the semantics
of some existing builtins.  Functions that are new in 3.0 such as *note
bin(): 1151. have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing builtins
haven’t been changed; instead, the ‘future_builtins’ module has versions
with the new 3.0 semantics.  Code written to be compatible with 3.0 can
do ‘from future_builtins import hex, map’ as necessary.

A new command-line switch, ‘-3’, enables warnings about features that
will be removed in Python 3.0.  You can run code with this switch to see
how much work will be necessary to port code to 3.0.  The value of this
switch is available to Python code as the boolean variable
‘sys.py3kwarning’, and to C extension code as ‘Py_Py3kWarningFlag’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The 3'xxx' series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0.  PEP
3000(1) describes the development process for Python 3.0.  Start with
PEP 3100(2) that describes the general goals for Python 3.0, and then
explore the higher-numbered PEPs that propose specific features.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3000/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3100/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Development Process,  Next: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement,  Prev: Python 3 0,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.2 Changes to the Development Process
-----------------------------------------

While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process underwent
two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge’s issue tracker to
a customized Roundup installation, and the documentation was converted
from LaTeX to reStructuredText.

* Menu:

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.


File: python.info,  Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Next: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.15.2.1 New Issue Tracker: Roundup
...................................

For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly
annoyed by SourceForge’s bug tracker.  SourceForge’s hosted solution
doesn’t permit much customization; for example, it wasn’t possible to
customize the life cycle of issues.

The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation therefore
posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set up different
products and import some of the bugs and patches from SourceForge.  Four
different trackers were examined: Jira(1), Launchpad(2), Roundup(3), and
Trac(4).  The committee eventually settled on Jira and Roundup as the
two candidates.  Jira is a commercial product that offers no-cost hosted
instances to free-software projects; Roundup is an open-source project
that requires volunteers to administer it and a server to host it.

After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was set
up at ‘https://bugs.python.org’.  One installation of Roundup can host
multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers for
Jython and for the Python web site.  It will surely find other uses in
the future.  Where possible, this edition of “What’s New in Python”
links to the bug/patch item for each change.

Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by Upfront
Systems(5) of Stellenbosch, South Africa.  Martin von Löwis put a lot of
effort into importing existing bugs and patches from SourceForge; his
scripts for this import operation are at
‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’ and may be useful to
other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://bugs.python.org’

     The Python bug tracker.

‘https://bugs.jython.org’:

     The Jython bug tracker.

‘https://roundup.sourceforge.io/’

     Roundup downloads and documentation.

‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’

     Martin von Löwis’s conversion scripts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/

   (2) https://launchpad.net/

   (3) https://roundup.sourceforge.io/

   (4) https://trac.edgewall.org/

   (5) https://upfrontsoftware.co.za


File: python.info,  Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Prev: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.15.2.2 New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
................................................................

The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project
started around 1989.  In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation
was printed out for later study, not viewed online.  LaTeX was widely
used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining
straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were
learned.

Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for
printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted.  We no
longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it
online and HTML has become the most important format to support.
Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred
L.  Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot of
time maintaining the conversion process.  Occasionally people would
suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but
performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed
the time required to finish the job.

During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort into
building a new toolchain for processing the documentation.  The
resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
‘https://www.sphinx-doc.org/’.

Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
LaTeX. The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax supporting
custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in the Python
community.

Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and almost
two dozen other projects (listed on the Sphinx web site(1)) have adopted
Sphinx as their documentation tool.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Documenting Python(2)

     Describes how to write for Python’s documentation.

Sphinx(3)

     Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.

Docutils(4)

     The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/documenting/

   (3) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (4) https://docutils.sourceforge.io


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement,  Next: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Prev: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.3 PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
------------------------------------

The previous version, Python 2.5, added the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement
as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import
with_statement’ directive.  In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to be
specially enabled; this means that ‘with’ is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding section from the
“What’s New in Python 2.5” document; if you’re familiar with the
‘‘with’’ statement from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.

The ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement is a control-flow structure whose basic
structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 3d0. and *note __exit__(): 11aa. methods).

The object’s *note __enter__(): 3d0. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note
__exit__(): 11aa. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 26d. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     Not: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     2a6, because *note __enter__(): 3d0. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: ec. module’s locks and condition variables also
support the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 35. module makes it
easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates
the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers::
* The contextlib module::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers,  Next: The contextlib module,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement

1.15.3.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use ‘‘with’’ in company with existing objects and
don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     “context manager”.  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 3d0. and *note __exit__(): 11aa. methods.

   * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 3d0. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘as VAR’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the context manager’s *note
     __exit__(): 11aa. method is called with three arguments, the
     exception details (‘type, value, traceback’, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f, which can also be ‘None’ if
     no exception occurred).  The method’s return value controls whether
     an exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception,
     and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.  You’ll only rarely want
     to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code
     containing the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement will never realize
     anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 11aa.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception.  Here’s the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor(self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit(self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback(self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 3d0. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__(self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 11aa. method is the most complicated because it’s
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 82c. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__(self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: The contextlib module,  Prev: Writing Context Managers,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement

1.15.3.2 The contextlib module
..............................

The *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a decorator
that are useful when writing objects for use with the ‘*note with: 3dd.’
statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 82b.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 3d0. method, and the value
yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound to the
variable in the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the ‘yield’ will be executed in the *note __exit__(): 11aa.
method.  Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the ‘yield’
statement.

Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
could be written as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction(connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to
write nested ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statements.  In this example, the single
‘‘with’’ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing()’ function returns its argument so that it can be
bound to a variable, and calls the argument’s ‘.close()’ method at the
end of the block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Next: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Prev: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.4 PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
------------------------------------------------------------

Python’s *note -m: 3ec. switch allows running a module as a script.
When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
imports didn’t work correctly.

The fix for Python 2.6 adds a *note module.__package__: 24c. attribute.
When this attribute is present, relative imports will be relative to the
value of this attribute instead of the *note __name__: 122f. attribute.

PEP 302-style importers can then set *note __package__: 24c. as
necessary.  The *note runpy: bd. module that implements the *note -m:
3ec. switch now does this, so relative imports will now work correctly
in scripts running from inside a package.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Next: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Prev: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.5 PEP 370: Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory
--------------------------------------------------

When you run Python, the module search path ‘sys.path’ usually includes
a directory whose path ends in ‘"site-packages"’.  This directory is
intended to hold locally installed packages available to all users using
a machine or a particular site installation.

Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories.
The directory varies depending on the platform:

   * Unix and Mac OS X: ‘~/.local/’

   * Windows: ‘%APPDATA%/Python’

Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories,
such as ‘lib/python2.6/site-packages’ on Unix/Mac OS and
‘Python26/site-packages’ on Windows.

If you don’t like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
environment variable.  *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1231. sets the root
directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature.  On
Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
setting the ‘APPDATA’ environment variable.  You can also modify the
‘site.py’ file for your Python installation.

The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the *note
-s: 1232. option or setting the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1233.
environment variable.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 370(1) - Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory

     PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Next: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Prev: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.6 PEP 371: The ‘multiprocessing’ Package
---------------------------------------------

The new *note multiprocessing: 93. package lets Python programs create
new processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the
parent.  The parent and child processes can communicate using queues and
pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores, and can
share simple arrays of data.

The *note multiprocessing: 93. module started out as an exact emulation
of the *note threading: ec. module using processes instead of threads.
That goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
approach of the module is still similar.  The fundamental class is the
‘Process’, which is passed a callable object and a collection of
arguments.  The ‘start()’ method sets the callable running in a
subprocess, after which you can call the ‘is_alive()’ method to check
whether the subprocess is still running and the ‘join()’ method to wait
for the process to exit.

Here’s a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a factorial.
The function doing the calculation is written strangely so that it takes
significantly longer when the input argument is a multiple of 4.

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue


     def factorial(queue, N):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.
         if (N % 4) == 0:
             time.sleep(.05 * N/4)

         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Put the result on the queue
         queue.put(fact)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         queue = Queue()

         N = 5

         p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         result = queue.get()
         print 'Factorial', N, '=', result

A *note Queue: 1235. is used to communicate the result of the factorial.
The *note Queue: 1235. object is stored in a global variable.  The child
process will use the value of the variable when the child was created;
because it’s a *note Queue: 1235, parent and child can use the object to
communicate.  (If the parent were to change the value of the global
variable, the child’s value would be unaffected, and vice versa.)

Two other classes, ‘Pool’ and ‘Manager’, provide higher-level
interfaces.  ‘Pool’ will create a fixed number of worker processes, and
requests can then be distributed to the workers by calling ‘apply()’ or
‘apply_async()’ to add a single request, and *note map(): 6a7. or
‘map_async()’ to add a number of requests.  The following code uses a
‘Pool’ to spread requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list
of results:

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         ...
     p = Pool(5)
     result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10))
     for v in result:
         print v

This produces the following output:

     1
     39916800
     51090942171709440000
     8222838654177922817725562880000000
     33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     ...

The other high-level interface, the ‘Manager’ class, creates a separate
server process that can hold master copies of Python data structures.
Other processes can then access and modify these data structures using
proxy objects.  The following example creates a shared dictionary by
calling the *note dict(): 240. method; the worker processes then insert
values into the dictionary.  (Locking is not done for you automatically,
which doesn’t matter in this example.  ‘Manager’’s methods also include
‘Lock()’, ‘RLock()’, and ‘Semaphore()’ to create shared locks.)

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Store result in dictionary
         dictionary[N] = fact

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Pool(5)
         mgr = Manager()
         d = mgr.dict()         # Create shared dictionary

         # Run tasks using the pool
         for N in range(1, 1000, 10):
             p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d))

         # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.
         p.close()

         # Wait for tasks to exit
         p.join()

         # Output results
         for k, v in sorted(d.items()):
             print k, v

This will produce the output:

     1 1
     11 39916800
     21 51090942171709440000
     31 8222838654177922817725562880000000
     41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000...

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The documentation for the *note multiprocessing: 93. module.

PEP 371(1) - Addition of the multiprocessing package

     PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk; implemented by
     Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0371/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Next: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Prev: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.7 PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
-------------------------------------------

In Python 3.0, the ‘%’ operator is supplemented by a more powerful
string formatting method, *note format(): 431.  Support for the *note
str.format(): 433. method has been backported to Python 2.6.

In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a ‘.format()’ method that
treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted.
The formatting template uses curly brackets (‘{’, ‘}’) as special
characters:

     >>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.
     >>> "User ID: {0}".format("root")
     'User ID: root'
     >>> # Use the named keyword arguments
     >>> "User ID: {uid}   Last seen: {last_login}".format(
     ...    uid="root",
     ...    last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20")
     'User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20'

Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them:

     >>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format()
     "Empty dict: {}"

Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as
‘{0}’, ‘{1}’, etc.  or names of keyword arguments.  You can also supply
compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys:

     >>> import sys
     >>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys)
     Platform: darwin
     Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)
     [GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]'

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map)
     'Content-type: video/mp4'

Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as ‘[.mp4]’, you
don’t need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look up
the value using ‘.mp4’ as the key.  Strings beginning with a number will
be converted to an integer.  You can’t write more complicated
expressions inside a format string.

So far we’ve shown how to specify which field to substitute into the
resulting string.  The precise formatting used is also controllable by
adding a colon followed by a format specifier.  For example:

     >>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters
     >>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters
     >>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}'
     >>> fmt.format('Registration', 35)
     'Registration    $    35'
     >>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50)
     'Tutorial        $    50'
     >>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125)
     'Banquet         $   125'

Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting:

     >>> fmt = '{0:{1}}'
     >>> width = 15
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234  '
     >>> width = 35
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234                      '

The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:

Character            Effect
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
< (default)          Left-align
                     
                     
>                    Right-align
                     
                     
^                    Center
                     
                     
=                    (For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.
                     

Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which controls
how the value is formatted.  For example, floating-point numbers can be
formatted as a general number or in exponential notation:

     >>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75)
     '3.75'
     >>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75)
     '3.750000e+00'

A variety of presentation types are available.  Consult the 2.6
documentation for a *note complete list: 1237.; here’s a sample:

‘b’       Binary.  Outputs the number in base 2.
          
          
‘c’       Character.  Converts the integer to the corresponding Unicode character
          before printing.
          
          
‘d’       Decimal Integer.  Outputs the number in base 10.
          
          
‘o’       Octal format.  Outputs the number in base 8.
          
          
‘x’       Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case letters for
          the digits above 9.
          
          
‘e’       Exponent notation.  Prints the number in scientific notation using the
          letter ‘e’ to indicate the exponent.
          
          
‘g’       General format.  This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless
          the number is too large, in which case it switches to ‘e’ exponent
          notation.
          
          
‘n’       Number.  This is the same as ‘g’ (for floats) or ‘d’ (for integers),
          except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
          number separator characters.
          
          
‘%’       Percentage.  Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed (‘f’)
          format, followed by a percent sign.
          

Classes and types can define a ‘__format__()’ method to control how
they’re formatted.  It receives a single argument, the format specifier:

     def __format__(self, format_spec):
         if isinstance(format_spec, unicode):
             return unicode(str(self))
         else:
             return str(self)

There’s also a *note format(): 431. builtin that will format a single
value.  It calls the type’s ‘__format__()’ method with the provided
specifier:

     >>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
     '75.66'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Format String Syntax: 1237.

     The reference documentation for format fields.

PEP 3101(1) - Advanced String Formatting

     PEP written by Talin.  Implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Next: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.8 PEP 3105: ‘print’ As a Function
--------------------------------------

The ‘print’ statement becomes the *note print(): e16. function in Python
3.0.  Making *note print(): e16. a function makes it possible to replace
the function by doing ‘def print(...)’ or importing a new function from
somewhere else.

Python 2.6 has a ‘__future__’ import that removes ‘print’ as language
syntax, letting you use the functional form instead.  For example:

     >>> from __future__ import print_function
     >>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr)

The signature of the new function is:

     def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None)

The parameters are:

   * 'args': positional arguments whose values will be printed out.

   * 'sep': the separator, which will be printed between arguments.

   * 'end': the ending text, which will be printed after all of the
     arguments have been output.

   * 'file': the file object to which the output will be sent.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3105(1) - Make print a function

     PEP written by Georg Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Next: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Prev: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.9 PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
-------------------------------------------

One error that Python programmers occasionally make is writing the
following code:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError, ValueError:  # Wrong!
         ...

The author is probably trying to catch both *note TypeError: 2c4. and
*note ValueError: 189. exceptions, but this code actually does something
different: it will catch *note TypeError: 2c4. and bind the resulting
exception object to the local name ‘"ValueError"’.  The *note
ValueError: 189. exception will not be caught at all.  The correct code
specifies a tuple of exceptions:

     try:
         ...
     except (TypeError, ValueError):
         ...

This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous: does
it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single node
that’s a tuple?

Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word
“as”.  To catch an exception and store the exception object in the
variable ‘exc’, you must write:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError as exc:
         ...

Python 3.0 will only support the use of “as”, and therefore interprets
the first example as catching two different exceptions.  Python 2.6
supports both the comma and “as”, so existing code will continue to
work.  We therefore suggest using “as” when writing new Python code that
will only be executed with 2.6.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3110(1) - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000

     PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Next: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Prev: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.10 PEP 3112: Byte Literals
-------------------------------

Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language’s fundamental string type and
denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as ‘b'string'’ or using a
*note bytes: 2cb. constructor.  For future compatibility, Python 2.6
adds *note bytes: 2cb. as a synonym for the *note str: 15d. type, and it
also supports the ‘b''’ notation.

The 2.6 *note str: 15d. differs from 3.0’s *note bytes: 2cb. type in
various ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different.  In
3.0, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ is 3 elements long, containing the bytes
representing ‘ABC’; in 2.6, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ returns the 12-byte
string representing the *note str(): 15d. of the list.

The primary use of *note bytes: 2cb. in 2.6 will be to write tests of
object type such as ‘isinstance(x, bytes)’.  This will help the 2to3
converter, which can’t tell whether 2.x code intends strings to contain
either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now use either *note bytes:
2cb. or *note str: 15d. to represent your intention exactly, and the
resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0.

There’s also a ‘__future__’ import that causes all string literals to
become Unicode strings.  This means that ‘\u’ escape sequences can be
used to include Unicode characters:

     from __future__ import unicode_literals

     s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054'
          '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054')

     print len(s)               # 12 Unicode characters

At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit string type,
called ‘PyStringObject’ in Python 2.x, to *note PyBytesObject: 5c7.
Python 2.6 uses ‘#define’ to support using the names *note
PyBytesObject(): 5c7, *note PyBytes_Check(): 123b, *note
PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 123c, and all the other functions and
macros used with strings.

Instances of the *note bytes: 2cb. type are immutable just as strings
are.  A new *note bytearray: 2ca. type stores a mutable sequence of
bytes:

     >>> bytearray([65, 66, 67])
     bytearray(b'ABC')
     >>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8')
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> b[0] = '\xe3'
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8')
     u'\u31ef \u3244'

Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as
‘startswith()’/‘endswith()’, ‘find()’/‘rfind()’, and some of the methods
of lists, such as ‘append()’, ‘pop()’, and ‘reverse()’.

     >>> b = bytearray('ABC')
     >>> b.append('d')
     >>> b.append(ord('e'))
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'ABCde')

There’s also a corresponding C API, with *note PyByteArray_FromObject():
123d, *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 123e, and various other
functions.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3112(1) - Bytes literals in Python 3000

     PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian
     Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Next: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Prev: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.11 PEP 3116: New I/O Library
---------------------------------

Python’s built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
file-like objects don’t necessarily support all of them.  Objects that
imitate files usually support ‘read()’ and ‘write()’, but they may not
support *note readline(): b9, for example.  Python 3.0 introduces a
layered I/O library in the *note io: 7d. module that separates buffering
and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write
operations.

There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by the *note
io: 7d. module:

   * ‘RawIOBase’ defines raw I/O operations: ‘read()’, ‘readinto()’,
     ‘write()’, ‘seek()’, ‘tell()’, ‘truncate()’, and ‘close()’.  Most
     of the methods of this class will often map to a single system
     call.  There are also ‘readable()’, ‘writable()’, and ‘seekable()’
     methods for determining what operations a given object will allow.

     Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
     sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn’t restructured its file and socket
     objects in this way.

   * ‘BufferedIOBase’ is an abstract base class that buffers data in
     memory to reduce the number of system calls used, making I/O
     processing more efficient.  It supports all of the methods of
     ‘RawIOBase’, and adds a ‘raw’ attribute holding the underlying raw
     object.

     There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC.
     ‘BufferedWriter’ and ‘BufferedReader’ are for objects that support
     write-only or read-only usage that have a ‘seek()’ method for
     random access.  ‘BufferedRandom’ objects support read and write
     access upon the same underlying stream, and ‘BufferedRWPair’ is for
     objects such as TTYs that have both read and write operations
     acting upon unconnected streams of data.  The ‘BytesIO’ class
     supports reading, writing, and seeking over an in-memory buffer.

   * ‘TextIOBase’: Provides functions for reading and writing strings
     (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0), and supporting
     *note universal newlines: bc2.  ‘TextIOBase’ defines the *note
     readline(): b9. method and supports iteration upon objects.

     There are two concrete implementations.  ‘TextIOWrapper’ wraps a
     buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for text I/O and
     adding a ‘buffer’ attribute for access to the underlying object.
     ‘StringIO’ simply buffers everything in memory without ever writing
     anything to disk.

     (In Python 2.6, *note io.StringIO: dc4. is implemented in pure
     Python, so it’s pretty slow.  You should therefore stick with the
     existing ‘StringIO’ module or ‘cStringIO’ for now.  At some point
     Python 3.0’s *note io: 7d. module will be rewritten into C for
     speed, and perhaps the C implementation will be backported to the
     2.x releases.)

In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven’t been restructured
to build on top of the *note io: 7d. module’s classes.  The module is
being provided to make it easier to write code that’s forward-compatible
with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing their own
implementations of buffering and text I/O.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3116(1) - New I/O

     PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van
     Rossum.  Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald,
     Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Next: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.12 PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
-----------------------------------------

The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types exchange
pointers into their internal representations.  A memory-mapped file can
be viewed as a buffer of characters, for example, and this lets another
module such as *note re: b8. treat memory-mapped files as a string of
characters to be searched.

The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing packages
such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation of arrays so
that callers can write data directly into an array instead of going
through a slower API. This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of
experience from NumPy development, adding a number of new features such
as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.

The most important new C API function is ‘PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject
*obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)’, which takes an object and a set of
flags, and fills in the ‘Py_buffer’ structure with information about the
object’s memory representation.  Objects can use this operation to lock
memory in place while an external caller could be modifying the
contents, so there’s a corresponding ‘PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)’
to indicate that the external caller is done.

The 'flags' argument to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. specifies
constraints upon the memory returned.  Some examples are:

   * *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241. indicates that the memory must be
     writable.

   * ‘PyBUF_LOCK’ requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.

   * *note PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS: 1242. and *note PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS: 1243.
     requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
     Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array
     layout.

Two new argument codes for *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308, ‘s*’ and ‘z*’,
return locked buffer objects for a parameter.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3118(1) - Revising the buffer protocol

     PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by
     Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Next: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Prev: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.13 PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
---------------------------------------

Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
access protocol.  Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
feature for Python.  The ABC support consists of an *note abc: 4. module
containing a metaclass called ‘ABCMeta’, special handling of this
metaclass by the *note isinstance(): 151. and *note issubclass(): 5f8.
builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
think will be widely useful.  Future versions of Python will probably
add more ABCs.

Let’s say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it
supports dictionary-style access.  The phrase “dictionary-style” is
vague, however.  It probably means that accessing items with ‘obj[1]’
works.  Does it imply that setting items with ‘obj[2] = value’ works?
Or that the object will have ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’
methods?  What about the iterative variants such as ‘iterkeys()’?  *note
copy(): 25. and ‘update()’?  Iterating over the object with *note
iter(): 610.?

The Python 2.6 *note collections: 1d. module includes a number of
different ABCs that represent these distinctions.  ‘Iterable’ indicates
that a class defines ‘__iter__()’, and ‘Container’ means the class
defines a ‘__contains__()’ method and therefore supports ‘x in y’
expressions.  The basic dictionary interface of getting items, setting
items, and ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’, is defined by the
‘MutableMapping’ ABC.

You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC to indicate they
support that ABC’s interface:

     import collections

     class Storage(collections.MutableMapping):
         ...

Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from the
desired ABC and instead register the class by calling the ABC’s
‘register()’ method:

     import collections

     class Storage:
         ...

     collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)

For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
The ‘register()’ method is useful when you’ve written a new ABC that can
describe an existing type or class, or if you want to declare that some
third-party class implements an ABC. For example, if you defined a
‘PrintableType’ ABC, it’s legal to do:

     # Register Python's types
     PrintableType.register(int)
     PrintableType.register(float)
     PrintableType.register(str)

Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but Python can’t
check this; it’s up to the class author to understand the ABC’s
requirements and to implement the code accordingly.

To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can now
write:

     def func(d):
         if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping):
             raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d)

Don’t feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the
above example.  Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where
explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on an
object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an
exception if they aren’t.  Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only do
it where it’s absolutely necessary.

You can write your own ABCs by using ‘abc.ABCMeta’ as the metaclass in a
class definition:

     from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

     class Drawable():
         __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

         @abstractmethod
         def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0):
             pass

         def draw_doubled(self, x, y):
             self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0)


     class Square(Drawable):
         def draw(self, x, y, scale):
             ...

In the ‘Drawable’ ABC above, the ‘draw_doubled()’ method renders the
object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms of other
methods described in ‘Drawable’.  Classes implementing this ABC
therefore don’t need to provide their own implementation of
‘draw_doubled()’, though they can do so.  An implementation of ‘draw()’
is necessary, though; the ABC can’t provide a useful generic
implementation.

You can apply the ‘@abstractmethod’ decorator to methods such as
‘draw()’ that must be implemented; Python will then raise an exception
for classes that don’t define the method.  Note that the exception is
only raised when you actually try to create an instance of a subclass
lacking the method:

     >>> class Circle(Drawable):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = Circle()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw
     >>>

Abstract data attributes can be declared using the ‘@abstractproperty’
decorator:

     from abc import abstractproperty
     ...

     @abstractproperty
     def readonly(self):
        return self._x

Subclasses must then define a ‘readonly()’ property.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3119(1) - Introducing Abstract Base Classes

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum.  Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex
     Martelli.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Next: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Prev: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.14 PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
----------------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals,
prefixing them with “0o” or “0O” instead of a leading zero, and adds
support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a “0b” or
“0B” prefix.

Python 2.6 doesn’t drop support for a leading 0 signalling an octal
number, but it does add support for “0o” and “0b”:

     >>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1
     (17, 17)
     >>> 0b101111
     47

The *note oct(): 1177. builtin still returns numbers prefixed with a
leading zero, and a new *note bin(): 1151. builtin returns the binary
representation for a number:

     >>> oct(42)
     '052'
     >>> future_builtins.oct(42)
     '0o52'
     >>> bin(173)
     '0b10101101'

The *note int(): 184. and ‘long()’ builtins will now accept the “0o” and
“0b” prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the 'base'
argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be determined
from the string):

     >>> int ('0o52', 0)
     42
     >>> int('1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 0)
     13

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3127(1) - Integer Literal Support and Syntax

     PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3127/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Next: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Prev: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.15 PEP 3129: Class Decorators
----------------------------------

Decorators have been extended from functions to classes.  It’s now legal
to write:

     @foo
     @bar
     class A:
       pass

This is equivalent to:

     class A:
       pass

     A = foo(bar(A))

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3129(1) - Class Decorators

     PEP written by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Next: Other Language Changes<12>,  Prev: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.16 PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
----------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types inspired
by Scheme’s numeric tower.  These classes were backported to 2.6 as the
*note numbers: 9d. module.

The most general ABC is ‘Number’.  It defines no operations at all, and
only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by doing
‘isinstance(obj, Number)’.

‘Complex’ is a subclass of ‘Number’.  Complex numbers can undergo the
basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
exponentiation, and you can retrieve the real and imaginary parts and
obtain a number’s conjugate.  Python’s built-in complex type is an
implementation of ‘Complex’.

‘Real’ further derives from ‘Complex’, and adds operations that only
work on real numbers: ‘floor()’, ‘trunc()’, rounding, taking the
remainder mod N, floor division, and comparisons.

‘Rational’ numbers derive from ‘Real’, have ‘numerator’ and
‘denominator’ properties, and can be converted to floats.  Python 2.6
adds a simple rational-number class, ‘Fraction’, in the *note fractions:
5b. module.  (It’s called ‘Fraction’ instead of ‘Rational’ to avoid a
name clash with *note numbers.Rational: 1167.)

‘Integral’ numbers derive from ‘Rational’, and can be shifted left and
right with ‘<<’ and ‘>>’, combined using bitwise operations such as ‘&’
and ‘|’, and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.

In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins *note
round(): 1184, *note math.floor(): 1248, *note math.ceil(): 1249, and
adds a new one, *note math.trunc(): 124a, that’s been backported to
Python 2.6.  *note math.trunc(): 124a. rounds toward zero, returning the
closest ‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3141(1) - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

     PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin.

Scheme's numerical tower(2), from the Guile manual.

Scheme's number datatypes(3) from the R5RS Scheme specification.

* Menu:

* The fractions Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower

   (3) 
https://conservatory.scheme.org/schemers/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2


File: python.info,  Node: The fractions Module,  Up: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

1.15.16.1 The ‘fractions’ Module
................................

To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the *note fractions: 5b.
module provides a rational-number class.  Rational numbers store their
values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
exactly represent numbers such as ‘2/3’ that floating-point numbers can
only approximate.

The ‘Fraction’ constructor takes two ‘Integral’ values that will be the
numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction.

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> a = Fraction(2, 3)
     >>> b = Fraction(2, 5)
     >>> float(a), float(b)
     (0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)
     >>> a+b
     Fraction(16, 15)
     >>> a/b
     Fraction(5, 3)

For converting floating-point numbers to rationals, the float type now
has an ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method that returns the numerator and
denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same floating-point
value:

     >>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio()
     (5, 2)
     >>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio()
     (7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)
     >>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio()
     (6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)

Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point
numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being
approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value
'exactly'.

The *note fractions: 5b. module is based upon an implementation by
Sjoerd Mullender that was in Python’s ‘Demo/classes/’ directory for a
long time.  This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey
Yasskin.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<12>,  Next: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.17 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted as the first
     entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu,
     subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note hasattr(): 200. function was catching and ignoring all
     errors, under the assumption that they meant a ‘__getattr__()’
     method was failing somehow and the return value of *note hasattr():
     200. would therefore be ‘False’.  This logic shouldn’t be applied
     to *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. and *note SystemExit: bc8,
     however; Python 2.6 will no longer discard such exceptions when
     *note hasattr(): 200. encounters them.  (Fixed by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-2196(2).)

   * When calling a function using the ‘**’ syntax to provide keyword
     arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary;
     any mapping will now work:

          >>> def f(**kw):
          ...    print sorted(kw)
          ...
          >>> ud=UserDict.UserDict()
          >>> ud['a'] = 1
          >>> ud['b'] = 'string'
          >>> f(**ud)
          ['a', 'b']

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1686487(3).)

     It’s also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a ‘*args’
     argument to a function call.

          >>> def f(*args, **kw):
          ...     print args, kw
          ...
          >>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13)
          (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13}

     Previously this would have been a syntax error.  (Contributed by
     Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-3473(4).)

   * A new builtin, ‘next(iterator, [default])’ returns the next item
     from the specified iterator.  If the 'default' argument is
     supplied, it will be returned if 'iterator' has been exhausted;
     otherwise, the *note StopIteration: a73. exception will be raised.
     (Backported in bpo-2719(5).)

   * Tuples now have ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods matching the list
     type’s ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods:

          >>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
          >>> t.index(3)
          3
          >>> t.count(0)
          2

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger)

   * The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing
     syntax, accepting various combinations of ‘(start, stop, step)’.
     Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases
     wouldn’t work.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

   * Properties now have three attributes, ‘getter’, ‘setter’ and
     ‘deleter’, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts for
     adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
     property.  You would use them like this:

          class C(object):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  return self._x

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              @x.deleter
              def x(self):
                  del self._x

          class D(C):
              @C.x.getter
              def x(self):
                  return self._x * 2

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value / 2

   * Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple
     iterables: ‘intersection()’, ‘intersection_update()’, ‘union()’,
     ‘update()’, ‘difference()’ and ‘difference_update()’.

          >>> s=set('1234567890')
          >>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246')  # Intersection between all inputs
          set(['2'])
          >>> s.difference('246', '789')
          set(['1', '0', '3', '5'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Many floating-point features were added.  The *note float(): 272.
     function will now turn the string ‘nan’ into an IEEE 754 Not A
     Number value, and ‘+inf’ and ‘-inf’ into positive or negative
     infinity.  This works on any platform with IEEE 754 semantics.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(6).)

     Other functions in the *note math: 8d. module, ‘isinf()’ and
     ‘isnan()’, return true if their floating-point argument is infinite
     or Not A Number.  (bpo-1640(7))

     Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
     into hexadecimal strings (bpo-3008(8)).  These functions convert
     floats to and from a string representation without introducing
     rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and binary.
     Floats have a *note hex(): 1178. method that returns a string
     representation, and the ‘float.fromhex()’ method converts a string
     back into a number:

          >>> a = 3.75
          >>> a.hex()
          '0x1.e000000000000p+1'
          >>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1')
          3.75
          >>> b=1./3
          >>> b.hex()
          '0x1.5555555555555p-2'

   * A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats
     on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the *note
     complex(): 273. constructor will now preserve the sign of the zero.
     (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; bpo-1507(9).)

   * Classes that inherit a ‘__hash__()’ method from a parent class can
     set ‘__hash__ = None’ to indicate that the class isn’t hashable.
     This will make ‘hash(obj)’ raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. and the
     class will not be indicated as implementing the ‘Hashable’ ABC.

     You should do this when you’ve defined a ‘__cmp__()’ or ‘__eq__()’
     method that compares objects by their value rather than by
     identity.  All objects have a default hash method that uses
     ‘id(obj)’ as the hash value.  There’s no tidy way to remove the
     ‘__hash__()’ method inherited from a parent class, so assigning
     ‘None’ was implemented as an override.  At the C level, extensions
     can set ‘tp_hash’ to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 124d.
     (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-2235(10).)

   * The *note GeneratorExit: 124e. exception now subclasses *note
     BaseException: 3c3. instead of *note Exception: 838.  This means
     that an exception handler that does ‘except Exception:’ will not
     inadvertently catch *note GeneratorExit: 124e.  (Contributed by
     Chad Austin; bpo-1537(11).)

   * Generator objects now have a ‘gi_code’ attribute that refers to the
     original code object backing the generator.  (Contributed by Collin
     Winter; bpo-1473257(12).)

   * The *note compile(): 56d. built-in function now accepts keyword
     arguments as well as positional parameters.  (Contributed by Thomas
     Wouters; bpo-1444529(13).)

   * The *note complex(): 273. constructor now accepts strings
     containing parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that
     ‘complex(repr(cplx))’ will now round-trip values.  For example,
     ‘complex('(3+4j)')’ now returns the value (3+4j).
     (bpo-1491866(14))

   * The string ‘translate()’ method now accepts ‘None’ as the
     translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
     transformation.  This makes it easier to carry out operations that
     only delete characters.  (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
     implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1193128(15).)

   * The built-in *note dir(): 445. function now checks for a
     ‘__dir__()’ method on the objects it receives.  This method must
     return a list of strings containing the names of valid attributes
     for the object, and lets the object control the value that *note
     dir(): 445. produces.  Objects that have ‘__getattr__()’ or
     ‘__getattribute__()’ methods can use this to advertise
     pseudo-attributes they will honor.  (bpo-1591665(16))

   * Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and
     function comprising the method; the new synonym for ‘im_self’ is
     *note __self__: 124f, and ‘im_func’ is also available as *note
     __func__: 11a6.  The old names are still supported in Python 2.6,
     but are gone in 3.0.

   * An obscure change: when you use the *note locals(): 179. function
     inside a *note class: 1181. statement, the resulting dictionary no
     longer returns free variables.  (Free variables, in this case, are
     variables referenced in the ‘class’ statement that aren’t
     attributes of the class.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2196

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1686487

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3473

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2719

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3008

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1507

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1473257

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1444529

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1491866

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193128

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1591665


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<11>,  Next: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Up: Other Language Changes<12>

1.15.17.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The *note warnings: 112. module has been rewritten in C. This makes
     it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also make
     the interpreter’s startup faster.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and
     Brett Cannon; bpo-1631171(1).)

   * Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce the work
     required to find the correct method implementation for a particular
     class; once cached, the interpreter doesn’t need to traverse base
     classes to figure out the right method to call.  The cache is
     cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified, so the
     cache should remain correct even in the face of Python’s dynamic
     nature.  (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated
     for Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; bpo-1700288(2).)

     By default, this change is only applied to types that are included
     with the Python core.  Extension modules may not necessarily be
     compatible with this cache, so they must explicitly add
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ to the module’s ‘tp_flags’ field to
     enable the method cache.  (To be compatible with the method cache,
     the extension module’s code must not directly access and modify the
     ‘tp_dict’ member of any of the types it implements.  Most modules
     don’t do this, but it’s impossible for the Python interpreter to
     determine that.  See bpo-1878(3) for some discussion.)

   * Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster
     by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a
     full string comparison.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after
     an initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1819(4).)

   * All of the functions in the *note struct: d4. module have been
     rewritten in C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type
     objects.  This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass
     of one of these types.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)

   * Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting whitespace and
     line breaks; this speeds up the ‘split()’ method by about 25% and
     ‘splitlines()’ by 35%.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)  Memory
     usage is reduced by using pymalloc for the Unicode string’s data.

   * The ‘with’ statement now stores the *note __exit__(): 11aa. method
     on the stack, producing a small speedup.  (Implemented by Jeffrey
     Yasskin.)

   * To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear
     internal free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation
     of objects.  This may return memory to the operating system sooner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1700288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1819


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Prev: Optimizations<11>,  Up: Other Language Changes<12>

1.15.17.2 Interpreter Changes
.............................

Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
implementations.  The *note -J: 1253. switch has been reserved for use
by Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed
to the underlying JVM. *note -X: 18e. has been reserved for options
specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython,
Jython, or IronPython.  If either option is used with Python 2.6, the
interpreter will report that the option isn’t currently used.

Python can now be prevented from writing ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files by
supplying the *note -B: 1254. switch to the Python interpreter, or by
setting the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1255. environment variable
before running the interpreter.  This setting is available to Python
programs as the ‘sys.dont_write_bytecode’ variable, and Python code can
change the value to modify the interpreter’s behaviour.  (Contributed by
Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can be
specified by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. environment
variable before running the interpreter.  The value should be a string
in the form ‘<encoding>’ or ‘<encoding>:<errorhandler>’.  The 'encoding'
part specifies the encoding’s name, e.g.  ‘utf-8’ or ‘latin-1’; the
optional 'errorhandler' part specifies what to do with characters that
can’t be handled by the encoding, and should be one of “error”,
“ignore”, or “replace”.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Deprecations and Removals,  Prev: Other Language Changes<12>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.18 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’ modules are being actively maintained
     again, and a number of patches and bugfixes were applied.
     (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see bpo-1736190(1) for one patch.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and
     the package is now available as a standalone package.  The web page
     for the package is www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm(2).  The
     plan is to remove the package from the standard library in Python
     3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
     Python’s.

     The ‘bsddb.dbshelve’ module now uses the highest pickling protocol
     available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
     (Contributed by W. Barnes.)

   * The *note cgi: 15. module will now read variables from the query
     string of an HTTP POST request.  This makes it possible to use form
     actions with URLs that include query strings such as
     “/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1”.  (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
     Nubis; bpo-1817(3).)

     The ‘parse_qs()’ and ‘parse_qsl()’ functions have been relocated
     from the *note cgi: 15. module to the *note urlparse: 10a. module.
     The versions still available in the ‘cgi’ module will trigger *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. messages in 2.6 (bpo-600362(4)).

   * The *note cmath: 18. module underwent extensive revision,
     contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.  Five new
     functions were added:

        * ‘polar()’ converts a complex number to polar form, returning
          the modulus and argument of the complex number.

        * ‘rect()’ does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
          back into the corresponding complex number.

        * ‘phase()’ returns the argument (also called the angle) of a
          complex number.

        * ‘isnan()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is a NaN.

        * ‘isinf()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is infinite.

     The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the *note
     cmath: 18. module.  For all functions, the real and imaginary parts
     of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
     precision (ulps) whenever possible.  See bpo-1381(5) for the
     details.  The branch cuts for ‘asinh()’, ‘atanh()’: and ‘atan()’
     have also been corrected.

     The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000
     new test cases exercise the algebraic functions.

     On IEEE 754 platforms, the *note cmath: 18. module now handles IEEE
     754 special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner
     consistent with Annex ‘G’ of the C99 standard.

   * A new data type in the *note collections: 1d. module:
     ‘namedtuple(typename, fieldnames)’ is a factory function that
     creates subclasses of the standard tuple whose fields are
     accessible by name as well as index.  For example:

          >>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable',
          ...             'id name type size')
          >>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas.
          >>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work.
          >>> var_type._fields
          ('id', 'name', 'type', 'size')

          >>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4)
          >>> print var[0], var.id    # Equivalent
          1 1
          >>> print var[2], var.type  # Equivalent
          int int
          >>> var._asdict()
          {'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'}
          >>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude')
          >>> v2
          variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)

     Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
     been modified to return ‘namedtuple()’ instances.  For example, the
     ‘Decimal.as_tuple()’ method now returns a named tuple with ‘sign’,
     ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Another change to the *note collections: 1d. module is that the
     ‘deque’ type now supports an optional 'maxlen' parameter; if
     supplied, the deque’s size will be restricted to no more than
     'maxlen' items.  Adding more items to a full deque causes old items
     to be discarded.

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> dq=deque(maxlen=3)
          >>> dq
          deque([], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3)
          >>> dq
          deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(4)
          >>> dq
          deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note Cookie: 6f. module’s *note Morsel: a7d. objects now
     support an *note httponly: 1257. attribute.  In some browsers.
     cookies with this attribute set cannot be accessed or manipulated
     by JavaScript code.  (Contributed by Arvin Schnell;
     bpo-1638033(6).)

   * A new window method in the *note curses: 2b. module, ‘chgat()’,
     changes the display attributes for a certain number of characters
     on a single line.  (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)

          # Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21
          # and affecting the rest of the line.
          stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)

     The ‘Textbox’ class in the *note curses.textpad: 2e. module now
     supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.  Insert
     mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the 'insert_mode'
     parameter when creating the ‘Textbox’ instance.

   * The *note datetime: 30. module’s ‘strftime()’ methods now support a
     ‘%f’ format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
     object, zero-padded on the left to six places.  (Contributed by
     Skip Montanaro; bpo-1158(7).)

   * The *note decimal: 35. module was updated to version 1.66 of the
     General Decimal Specification(8).  New features include some
     methods for some basic mathematical functions such as ‘exp()’ and
     ‘log10()’:

          >>> Decimal(1).exp()
          Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
          >>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln()
          Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436")
          >>> Decimal(1000).log10()
          Decimal("3")

     The ‘as_tuple()’ method of ‘Decimal’ objects now returns a named
     tuple with ‘sign’, ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson.  Named tuple
     support added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note difflib: 36. module’s ‘SequenceMatcher’ class now returns
     named tuples representing matches, with ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘size’
     attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. class constructor
     as well as the ‘connect()’ method.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
     Also, the ‘FTP’ class’s ‘storbinary()’ and ‘storlines()’ now take
     an optional 'callback' parameter that will be called with each
     block of data after the data has been sent.  (Contributed by Phil
     Schwartz; bpo-1221598(9).)

   * The ‘reduce()’ built-in function is also available in the *note
     functools: 5d. module.  In Python 3.0, the builtin has been dropped
     and ‘reduce()’ is only available from *note functools: 5d.;
     currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.
     (Patched by Christian Heimes; bpo-1739906(10).)

   * When possible, the *note getpass: 60. module will now use
     ‘/dev/tty’ to print a prompt message and read the password, falling
     back to standard error and standard input.  If the password may be
     echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before the prompt is
     displayed.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

   * The *note glob.glob(): 641. function can now return Unicode
     filenames if a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are
     matched within the directory.  (bpo-1001604(11))

   * A new function in the *note heapq: 67. module, ‘merge(iter1, iter2,
     ...)’, takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted
     order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all
     the iterators, also in sorted order.  For example:

          >>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16]))
          [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]

     Another new function, ‘heappushpop(heap, item)’, pushes 'item' onto
     'heap', then pops off and returns the smallest item.  This is more
     efficient than making a call to ‘heappush()’ and then ‘heappop()’.

     *note heapq: 67. is now implemented to only use less-than
     comparison, instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it
     previously used.  This makes *note heapq: 67.’s usage of a type
     match the *note list.sort(): a46. method.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note httplib.HTTPConnection: 9b1. and
     *note HTTPSConnection: 9b2. class constructors.  (Added by Facundo
     Batista.)

   * Most of the *note inspect: 7c. module’s functions, such as
     ‘getmoduleinfo()’ and ‘getargs()’, now return named tuples.  In
     addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value
     can also be accessed as attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     Some new functions in the module include ‘isgenerator()’,
     ‘isgeneratorfunction()’, and ‘isabstract()’.

   * The *note itertools: 7f. module gained several new functions.

     ‘izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue])’ makes tuples from
     each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than
     others, the missing values are set to 'fillvalue'.  For example:

          >>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5]))
          ((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))

     ‘product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N])’ returns the Cartesian
     product of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing every
     possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6]))
          [(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),
           (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
           (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]

     The optional 'repeat' keyword argument is used for taking the
     product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves,
     repeated 'N' times.  With a single iterable argument, 'N'-tuples
     are returned:

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3))
          [(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),
           (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]

     With two iterables, '2N'-tuples are returned.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2))
          [(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),
           (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),
           (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),
           (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]

     ‘combinations(iterable, r)’ returns sub-sequences of length 'r'
     from the elements of 'iterable'.

          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2))
          [('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'),
           ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')]

     ‘permutations(iter[, r])’ returns all the permutations of length
     'r' of the iterable’s elements.  If 'r' is not specified, it will
     default to the number of elements produced by the iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2))
          [(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
           (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
           (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
           (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]

     ‘itertools.chain(*iterables)’ is an existing function in *note
     itertools: 7f. that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
     ‘itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)’ takes a single iterable
     that should return other iterables.  ‘chain()’ will then return all
     the elements of the first iterable, then all the elements of the
     second, and so on.

          >>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

     (All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note logging: 86. module’s ‘FileHandler’ class and its
     subclasses ‘WatchedFileHandler’, ‘RotatingFileHandler’, and
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ now have an optional 'delay' parameter
     to their constructors.  If 'delay' is true, opening of the log file
     is deferred until the first ‘emit()’ call is made.  (Contributed by
     Vinay Sajip.)

     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ also has a 'utc' constructor parameter.
     If the argument is true, UTC time will be used in determining when
     midnight occurs and in generating filenames; otherwise local time
     will be used.

   * Several new functions were added to the *note math: 8d. module:

        * *note isinf(): 1258. and *note isnan(): 1259. determine
          whether a given float is a (positive or negative) infinity or
          a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.

        * *note copysign(): 125a. copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754
          number, returning the absolute value of 'x' combined with the
          sign bit of 'y'.  For example, ‘math.copysign(1, -0.0)’
          returns -1.0.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

        * *note factorial(): 7a0. computes the factorial of a number.
          (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-2138(12).)

        * *note fsum(): 125b. adds up the stream of numbers from an
          iterable, and is careful to avoid loss of precision through
          using partial sums.  (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond
          Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-2819(13).)

        * *note acosh(): 125c, *note asinh(): 125d. and *note atanh():
          125e. compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.

        * *note log1p(): 125f. returns the natural logarithm of '1+x'
          (base 'e').

        * ‘trunc()’ rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
          ‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero.
          Added as part of the backport of *note PEP 3141's type
          hierarchy for numbers: 1166.

   * The *note math: 8d. module has been improved to give more
     consistent behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to
     handling of floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.

     Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the
     C99 standard about 754’s special values.  For example, ‘sqrt(-1.)’
     should now give a *note ValueError: 189. across almost all
     platforms, while ‘sqrt(float('NaN'))’ should return a NaN on all
     IEEE 754 platforms.  Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling ‘divide-by-zero’ or ‘invalid’, Python will raise *note
     ValueError: 189.  Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling ‘overflow’, Python will raise *note OverflowError: 6c7.
     (See bpo-711019(14) and bpo-1640(15).)

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)

   * *note mmap: 868. objects now have a ‘rfind()’ method that searches
     for a substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
     backwards.  The ‘find()’ method also gained an 'end' parameter
     giving an index at which to stop searching.  (Contributed by John
     Lenton.)

   * The *note operator: 9e. module gained a ‘methodcaller()’ function
     that takes a name and an optional set of arguments, returning a
     callable that will call the named function on any arguments passed
     to it.  For example:

          >>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new')
          >>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new')
          >>> replacer('old wine in old bottles')
          'new wine in new bottles'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory
     Petrosyan.)

     The ‘attrgetter()’ function now accepts dotted names and performs
     the corresponding attribute lookups:

          >>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
          ...        '__class__.__name__')
          >>> inst_name('')
          'str'
          >>> inst_name(help)
          '_Helper'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note os: a0. module now wraps several new system calls.
     ‘fchmod(fd, mode)’ and ‘fchown(fd, uid, gid)’ change the mode and
     ownership of an opened file, and ‘lchmod(path, mode)’ changes the
     mode of a symlink.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
     Heimes.)

     ‘chflags()’ and ‘lchflags()’ are wrappers for the corresponding
     system calls (where they’re available), changing the flags set on a
     file.  Constants for the flag values are defined in the *note stat:
     d0. module; some possible values include ‘UF_IMMUTABLE’ to signal
     the file may not be changed and ‘UF_APPEND’ to indicate that data
     can only be appended to the file.  (Contributed by M. Levinson.)

     ‘os.closerange(low, high)’ efficiently closes all file descriptors
     from 'low' to 'high', ignoring any errors and not including 'high'
     itself.  This function is now used by the *note subprocess: d5.
     module to make starting processes faster.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-1663329(16).)

   * The ‘os.environ’ object’s ‘clear()’ method will now unset the
     environment variables using *note os.unsetenv(): 773. in addition
     to clearing the object’s keys.  (Contributed by Martin Horcicka;
     bpo-1181(17).)

   * The *note os.walk(): 1d1. function now has a ‘followlinks’
     parameter.  If set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to
     directories and visit the directory’s contents.  For backward
     compatibility, the parameter’s default value is false.  Note that
     the function can fall into an infinite recursion if there’s a
     symlink that points to a parent directory.  (bpo-1273829(18))

   * In the *note os.path: a1. module, the ‘splitext()’ function has
     been changed to not split on leading period characters.  This
     produces better results when operating on Unix’s dot-files.  For
     example, ‘os.path.splitext('.ipython')’ now returns ‘('.ipython',
     '')’ instead of ‘('', '.ipython')’.  (bpo-1115886(19))

     A new function, ‘os.path.relpath(path, start='.')’, returns a
     relative path from the ‘start’ path, if it’s supplied, or from the
     current working directory to the destination ‘path’.  (Contributed
     by Richard Barran; bpo-1339796(20).)

     On Windows, *note os.path.expandvars(): 1260. will now expand
     environment variables given in the form “%var%”, and “~user” will
     be expanded into the user’s home directory path.  (Contributed by
     Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650(21).)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a4. module gained a
     new command: “run” restarts the Python program being debugged and
     can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program.
     (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; bpo-1393667(22).)

   * The *note pdb.post_mortem(): 1261. function, used to begin
     debugging a traceback, will now use the traceback returned by *note
     sys.exc_info(): 49f. if no traceback is supplied.  (Contributed by
     Facundo Batista; bpo-1106316(23).)

   * The *note pickletools: a6. module now has an ‘optimize()’ function
     that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
     opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data
     structure.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A ‘get_data()’ function was added to the *note pkgutil: a8. module
     that returns the contents of resource files included with an
     installed Python package.  For example:

          >>> import pkgutil
          >>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt')
          BaseException
           +-- SystemExit
           +-- KeyboardInterrupt
           +-- GeneratorExit
           +-- Exception
                +-- StopIteration
                +-- StandardError
           ...

     (Contributed by Paul Moore; bpo-2439(24).)

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module’s ‘Parser’ objects now allow setting their
     ‘buffer_size’ attribute to change the size of the buffer used to
     hold character data.  (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; bpo-1137(25).)

   * The ‘Queue’ module now provides queue variants that retrieve
     entries in different orders.  The ‘PriorityQueue’ class stores
     queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order, and
     ‘LifoQueue’ retrieves the most recently added entries first,
     meaning that it behaves like a stack.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note random: b7. module’s ‘Random’ objects can now be pickled
     on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit system, and vice
     versa.  Unfortunately, this change also means that Python 2.6’s
     ‘Random’ objects can’t be unpickled correctly on earlier versions
     of Python.  (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; bpo-1727780(26).)

     The new ‘triangular(low, high, mode)’ function returns random
     numbers following a triangular distribution.  The returned values
     are between 'low' and 'high', not including 'high' itself, and with
     'mode' as the most frequently occurring value in the distribution.
     (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and Raymond Hettinger;
     bpo-1681432(27).)

   * Long regular expression searches carried out by the *note re: b8.
     module will check for signals being delivered, so time-consuming
     searches can now be interrupted.  (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and
     Ralf Schmitt; bpo-846388(28).)

     The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes
     for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine.  Untrusted code could
     create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes, so
     Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
     bpo-3487(29).)

   * The *note rlcompleter: bc. module’s ‘Completer.complete()’ method
     will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
     (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; bpo-2250(30).)

   * The *note sched: be. module’s ‘scheduler’ instances now have a
     read-only *note queue: b5. attribute that returns the contents of
     the scheduler’s queue, represented as a list of named tuples with
     the fields ‘(time, priority, action, argument)’.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1861(31).)

   * The *note select: c0. module now has wrapper functions for the
     Linux ‘epoll()’ and BSD ‘kqueue()’ system calls.  ‘modify()’ method
     was added to the existing ‘poll’ objects; ‘pollobj.modify(fd,
     eventmask)’ takes a file descriptor or file object and an event
     mask, modifying the recorded event mask for that file.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1657(32).)

   * The *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. function now has an optional
     'ignore' argument that takes a callable object.  This callable will
     receive each directory path and a list of the directory’s contents,
     and returns a list of names that will be ignored, not copied.

     The *note shutil: c4. module also provides an ‘ignore_patterns()’
     function for use with this new parameter.  ‘ignore_patterns()’
     takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
     callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
     of these patterns.  The following example copies a directory tree,
     but skips both ‘.svn’ directories and Emacs backup files, which
     have names ending with ‘~’:

          shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library',
                          ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn'))

     (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-2663(33).)

   * Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops like
     those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most
     software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to
     check if any GUI events have occurred.  The *note signal: c5.
     module can now make this more efficient.  Calling
     ‘signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)’ sets a file descriptor to be used; when
     a signal is received, a byte is written to that file descriptor.
     There’s also a C-level function, *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd():
     1262, for setting the descriptor.

     Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two
     descriptors, one for reading and one for writing.  The writable
     descriptor will be passed to ‘set_wakeup_fd()’, and the readable
     descriptor will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by
     the event loop via ‘select()’ or ‘poll()’.  On receiving a signal,
     a byte will be written and the main event loop will be woken up,
     avoiding the need to poll.

     (Contributed by Adam Olsen; bpo-1583(34).)

     The ‘siginterrupt()’ function is now available from Python code,
     and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or
     not.  (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)

     The ‘setitimer()’ and ‘getitimer()’ functions have also been added
     (where they’re available).  ‘setitimer()’ allows setting interval
     timers that will cause a signal to be delivered to the process
     after a specified time, measured in wall-clock time, consumed
     process time, or combined process+system time.  (Contributed by
     Guilherme Polo; bpo-2240(35).)

   * The *note smtplib: c9. module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to
     the addition of the ‘SMTP_SSL’ class.  This class supports an
     interface identical to the existing ‘SMTP’ class.  (Contributed by
     Monty Taylor.)  Both class constructors also have an optional
     ‘timeout’ parameter that specifies a timeout for the initial
     connection attempt, measured in seconds.  (Contributed by Facundo
     Batista.)

     An implementation of the LMTP protocol ( RFC 2033(36)) was also
     added to the module.  LMTP is used in place of SMTP when
     transferring e-mail between agents that don’t manage a mail queue.
     (LMTP implemented by Leif Hedstrom; bpo-957003(37).)

     ‘SMTP.starttls()’ now complies with RFC 3207(38) and forgets any
     knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
     negotiation itself.  (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
     bpo-829951(39).)

   * The *note socket: cb. module now supports TIPC
     (‘https://tipc.sourceforge.net/’), a high-performance non-IP-based
     protocol designed for use in clustered environments.  TIPC
     addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.  (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli;
     bpo-1646(40).)

     A new function, ‘create_connection()’, takes an address and
     connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
     connected socket object.  This function also looks up the address’s
     type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate.
     Changing your code to use ‘create_connection()’ instead of
     ‘socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)’ may be all that’s required to make
     your code work with IPv6.

   * The base classes in the *note SocketServer: cc. module now support
     calling a *note handle_timeout(): 11cd. method after a span of
     inactivity specified by the server’s *note timeout: 11cc.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Michael Pomraning.)  The *note
     serve_forever(): fe3. method now takes an optional poll interval
     measured in seconds, controlling how often the server will check
     for a shutdown request.  (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-742598(41), bpo-1193577(42).)

   * The *note sqlite3: ce. module, maintained by Gerhard Häring, has
     been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to version 2.4.1.

   * The *note struct: d4. module now supports the C99 _Bool type, using
     the format character ‘'?'’.  (Contributed by David Remahl.)

   * The *note Popen: 8fa. objects provided by the *note subprocess: d5.
     module now have *note terminate(): 1263, *note kill(): 1264, and
     *note send_signal(): 1265. methods.  On Windows, ‘send_signal()’
     only supports the *note SIGTERM: 1266. signal, and all these
     methods are aliases for the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * A new variable in the *note sys: d8. module, ‘float_info’, is an
     object containing information derived from the ‘float.h’ file about
     the platform’s floating-point support.  Attributes of this object
     include ‘mant_dig’ (number of digits in the mantissa), ‘epsilon’
     (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value
     representable), and several others.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes; bpo-1534(43).)

     Another new variable, ‘dont_write_bytecode’, controls whether
     Python writes any ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files on importing a module.  If
     this variable is true, the compiled files are not written.  The
     variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the *note -B:
     1254. switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1255. environment variable before running
     the interpreter.  Python code can subsequently change the value of
     this variable to control whether bytecode files are written or not.
     (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

     Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
     interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named tuple
     available as ‘sys.flags’.  For example, the ‘verbose’ attribute is
     true if Python was executed in verbose mode, ‘debug’ is true in
     debugging mode, etc.  These attributes are all read-only.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

     A new function, ‘getsizeof()’, takes a Python object and returns
     the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes.
     Built-in objects return correct results; third-party extensions may
     not, but can define a ‘__sizeof__()’ method to return the object’s
     size.  (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; bpo-2898(44).)

     It’s now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer
     functions by calling *note sys.getprofile(): 1267. and *note
     sys.gettrace(): 1268.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1648(45).)

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax)
     tarfiles in addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar
     formats that were already supported.  The default format is GNU
     tar; specify the ‘format’ parameter to open a file using a
     different format:

          tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w",
                             format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT)

     The new ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters specify an encoding and
     an error handling scheme for character conversions.  ‘'strict'’,
     ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ are the three standard ways Python can
     handle errors,; ‘'utf-8'’ is a special value that replaces bad
     characters with their UTF-8 representation.  (Character conversions
     occur because the PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting
     to UTF-8 encoding.)

     The ‘TarFile.add()’ method now accepts an ‘exclude’ argument that’s
     a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from an
     archive.  The function must take a filename and return true if the
     file should be excluded or false if it should be archived.  The
     function is applied to both the name initially passed to ‘add()’
     and to the names of files in recursively added directories.

     (All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note
     telnetlib.Telnet: b6c. class constructor, specifying a timeout
     measured in seconds.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 1f4. class usually deletes
     the temporary file it created when the file is closed.  This
     behaviour can now be changed by passing ‘delete=False’ to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Damien Miller; bpo-1537850(46).)

     A new class, ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’, behaves like a temporary file
     but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is exceeded.  On
     reaching that limit, the contents will be written to an on-disk
     temporary file.  (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)

     The ‘NamedTemporaryFile’ and ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’ classes both
     work as context managers, so you can write ‘with
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...’.  (Contributed by
     Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-2021(47).)

   * The *note test.test_support: e3. module gained a number of context
     managers useful for writing tests.  *note EnvironmentVarGuard():
     1269. is a context manager that temporarily changes environment
     variables and automatically restores them to their old values.

     Another context manager, ‘TransientResource’, can surround calls to
     resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
     ignore a specified list of exceptions.  For example, a network test
     may ignore certain failures when connecting to an external web
     site:

          with test_support.TransientResource(IOError,
                                          errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT):
              f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
              ...

     Finally, ‘check_warnings()’ resets the ‘warning’ module’s warning
     filters and returns an object that will record all warning messages
     triggered (bpo-3781(48)):

          with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
              warnings.simplefilter("always")
              # ... code that triggers a warning ...
              assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated"
              assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised"

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * The *note textwrap: eb. module can now preserve existing whitespace
     at the beginnings and ends of the newly created lines by specifying
     ‘drop_whitespace=False’ as an argument:

          >>> S = """This  sentence  has a bunch   of
          ...   extra   whitespace."""
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15)
          This  sentence
          has a bunch
          of    extra
          whitespace.
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15)
          This  sentence
            has a bunch
             of    extra
             whitespace.
          >>>

     (Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; bpo-1581073(49).)

   * The *note threading: ec. module API is being changed to use
     properties such as ‘daemon’ instead of ‘setDaemon()’ and
     ‘isDaemon()’ methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
     underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the ‘activeCount()’
     method is renamed to ‘active_count()’.  Both the 2.6 and 3.0
     versions of the module support the same properties and renamed
     methods, but don’t remove the old methods.  No date has been set
     for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs
     won’t be removed in any 2.x version.  (Carried out by several
     people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)

     The *note threading: ec. module’s ‘Thread’ objects gained an
     ‘ident’ property that returns the thread’s identifier, a nonzero
     integer.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-2871(50).)

   * The *note timeit: ee. module now accepts callables as well as
     strings for the statement being timed and for the setup code.  Two
     convenience functions were added for creating ‘Timer’ instances:
     ‘repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)’ and ‘timeit(stmt,
     setup, time, number)’ create an instance and call the corresponding
     method.  (Contributed by Erik Demaine; bpo-1533909(51).)

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
     separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting
     value to Tcl/Tk.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2906(52).)

   * The *note turtle: 101. module for turtle graphics was greatly
     enhanced by Gregor Lingl.  New features in the module include:

        * Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.

        * Control over turtle movement using the new ‘delay()’,
          ‘tracer()’, and ‘speed()’ methods.

        * The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to define a
          new coordinate system.

        * Turtles now have an ‘undo()’ method that can roll back
          actions.

        * Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and
          keyboard activity, making it possible to write simple games.

        * A ‘turtle.cfg’ file can be used to customize the starting
          appearance of the turtle’s screen.

        * The module’s docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that
          have been translated into another language.

     (bpo-1513695(53))

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note
     urllib.urlopen: 286. function and the ‘urllib.ftpwrapper’ class
     constructor, as well as the *note urllib2.urlopen: 286. function.
     The parameter specifies a timeout measured in seconds.  For
     example:

          >>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com",
                                  timeout=3)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          urllib2.URLError: <urlopen error timed out>
          >>>

     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 105. module
     has been updated to version 5.1.0.  (Updated by Martin von Löwis;
     bpo-3811(54).)

   * The *note warnings: 112. module’s ‘formatwarning()’ and
     ‘showwarning()’ gained an optional 'line' argument that can be used
     to supply the line of source code.  (Added as part of
     bpo-1631171(55), which re-implemented part of the *note warnings:
     112. module in C code.)

     A new function, ‘catch_warnings()’, is a context manager intended
     for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the warning
     filters and then restore their original values (bpo-3781(56)).

   * The XML-RPC *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 12f. classes can now be prevented from immediately
     opening and binding to their socket by passing ‘False’ as the
     'bind_and_activate' constructor parameter.  This can be used to
     modify the instance’s ‘allow_reuse_address’ attribute before
     calling the ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ methods to open
     the socket and begin listening for connections.  (Contributed by
     Peter Parente; bpo-1599845(57).)

     ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’ also has a ‘_send_traceback_header’ attribute;
     if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned as HTTP
     headers “X-Exception” and “X-Traceback”.  This feature is for
     debugging purposes only and should not be used on production
     servers because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other
     sensitive information.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of
     his project for Google’s Summer of Code 2007.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 749. and *note datetime.time: 6df. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 126a. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 6df. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(58)) The code can also handle dates before 1900
     (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; bpo-2014(59)) and 64-bit integers
     represented by using ‘<i8>’ in XML-RPC responses (contributed by
     Riku Lindblad; bpo-2985(60)).

   * The *note zipfile: 131. module’s ‘ZipFile’ class now has
     ‘extract()’ and ‘extractall()’ methods that will unpack a single
     file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
     to a specified directory:

          z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip')

          # Unpack a single file, writing it relative
          # to the /tmp directory.
          z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp')

          # Unpack all the files in the archive.
          z.extractall()

     (Contributed by Alan McIntyre; bpo-467924(61).)

     The *note open(): 2a6, ‘read()’ and ‘extract()’ methods can now
     take either a filename or a ‘ZipInfo’ object.  This is useful when
     an archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
     (Contributed by Graham Horler; bpo-1775025(62).)

     Finally, *note zipfile: 131. now supports using Unicode filenames
     for archived files.  (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov;
     bpo-1734346(63).)

* Menu:

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1736190

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1817

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=600362

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1381

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1638033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1158

   (8) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1221598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739906

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1001604

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2138

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2819

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=711019

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1663329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1181

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1273829

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1115886

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1339796

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1393667

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1106316

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2439

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1727780

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1681432

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=846388

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3487

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1861

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1657

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2663

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2240

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2033.html

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957003

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3207.html

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=829951

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1646

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=742598

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193577

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2898

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1648

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537850

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2021

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1581073

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2871

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533909

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2906

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1513695

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3811

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1599845

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2014

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2985

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=467924

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1775025

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1734346


File: python.info,  Node: The ast module,  Next: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.1 The ‘ast’ module
..........................

The *note ast: 8. module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree representation
of Python code, and Armin Ronacher contributed a set of helper functions
that perform a variety of common tasks.  These will be useful for HTML
templating packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
Python code.

The ‘parse()’ function takes an expression and returns an AST. The
‘dump()’ function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable for
debugging:

     import ast

     t = ast.parse("""
     d = {}
     for i in 'abcdefghijklm':
         d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1
     print d
     """)
     print ast.dump(t)

This outputs a deeply nested tree:

     Module(body=[
       Assign(targets=[
         Name(id='d', ctx=Store())
        ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[]))
       For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
           iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[
         Assign(targets=[
           Subscript(value=
             Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
               slice=
               Index(value=
                 BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store())
          ], value=
          BinOp(left=
           BinOp(left=
            Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Name(id='i', ctx=Load())
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None),
            op=Sub(), right=Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Str(s='a')
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)),
            op=Add(), right=Num(n=1)))
         ], orelse=[])
        Print(dest=None, values=[
          Name(id='d', ctx=Load())
        ], nl=True)
      ])

The ‘literal_eval()’ method takes a string or an AST representing a
literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and returns the resulting
value.  A literal expression is a Python expression containing only
strings, numbers, dictionaries, etc.  but no statements or function
calls.  If you need to evaluate an expression but cannot accept the
security risk of using an *note eval(): 6ca. call, ‘literal_eval()’ will
handle it safely:

     >>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
     >>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
     ('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})
     >>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed string

The module also includes ‘NodeVisitor’ and ‘NodeTransformer’ classes for
traversing and modifying an AST, and functions for common
transformations such as changing line numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: The future_builtins module,  Next: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Prev: The ast module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.2 The ‘future_builtins’ module
......................................

Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in functions,
and most of the changes can’t be introduced in the Python 2.x series
because they would break compatibility.  The ‘future_builtins’ module
provides versions of these built-in functions that can be imported when
writing 3.0-compatible code.

The functions in this module currently include:

   * ‘ascii(obj)’: equivalent to *note repr(): 637.  In Python 3.0,
     *note repr(): 637. will return a Unicode string, while *note
     ascii(): 126d. will return a pure ASCII bytestring.

   * ‘filter(predicate, iterable)’, ‘map(func, iterable1, ...)’: the 3.0
     versions return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return
     lists.

   * ‘hex(value)’, ‘oct(value)’: instead of calling the ‘__hex__()’ or
     ‘__oct__()’ methods, these versions will call the ‘__index__()’
     method and convert the result to hexadecimal or octal.  *note
     oct(): 1177. will use the new ‘0o’ notation for its result.


File: python.info,  Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Next: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Prev: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.3 The ‘json’ module: JavaScript Object Notation
.......................................................

The new *note json: 80. module supports the encoding and decoding of
Python types in JSON (Javascript Object Notation).  JSON is a
lightweight interchange format often used in web applications.  For more
information about JSON, see ‘http://www.json.org’.

*note json: 80. comes with support for decoding and encoding most
built-in Python types.  The following example encodes and decodes a
dictionary:

     >>> import json
     >>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
     >>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data
     >>> in_json
     '{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}'
     >>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object
     {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}

It’s also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support
more types.  Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.

*note json: 80. (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob
Ippolito.


File: python.info,  Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Next: ctypes Enhancements,  Prev: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.4 The ‘plistlib’ module: A Property-List Parser
.......................................................

The ‘.plist’ format is commonly used on Mac OS X to store basic data
types (numbers, strings, lists, and dictionaries) by serializing them
into an XML-based format.  It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of
data types.

Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format has nothing
Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works on any
platform that Python supports, so the *note plistlib: aa. module has
been promoted to the standard library.

Using the module is simple:

     import sys
     import plistlib
     import datetime

     # Create data structure
     data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=datetime.datetime.now(),
                        version=1,
                        categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))

     # Create string containing XML.
     plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct)
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str)
     print data_struct
     print new_struct

     # Write data structure to a file and read it back.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist')
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist')

     # read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes Enhancements,  Next: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.5 ctypes Enhancements
.............................

Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the *note ctypes: 2a.
module.

*note ctypes: 2a. now supports a ‘c_bool’ datatype that represents the
C99 ‘bool’ type.  (Contributed by David Remahl; bpo-1649190(1).)

The *note ctypes: 2a. string, buffer and array types have improved
support for extended slicing syntax, where various combinations of
‘(start, stop, step)’ are supplied.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

All *note ctypes: 2a. data types now support ‘from_buffer()’ and
‘from_buffer_copy()’ methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
provided buffer object.  ‘from_buffer_copy()’ copies the contents of the
object, while ‘from_buffer()’ will share the same memory area.

A new calling convention tells *note ctypes: 2a. to clear the ‘errno’ or
Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
(Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-1798(2).)

You can now retrieve the Unix ‘errno’ variable after a function call.
When creating a wrapped function, you can supply ‘use_errno=True’ as a
keyword parameter to the ‘DLL()’ function and then call the module-level
methods ‘set_errno()’ and ‘get_errno()’ to set and retrieve the error
value.

The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by the ‘DLL()’,
‘OleDLL()’, and ‘WinDLL()’ functions.  You supply ‘use_last_error=True’
as a keyword parameter and then call the module-level methods
‘set_last_error()’ and ‘get_last_error()’.

The ‘byref()’ function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes instance,
now has an optional 'offset' parameter that is a byte count that will be
added to the returned pointer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1649190

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1798


File: python.info,  Node: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: ctypes Enhancements,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.15.18.6 Improved SSL Support
..............................

Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6’s support for the
Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, *note ssl: cf, that’s built
atop the OpenSSL(1) library.  This new module provides more control over
the protocol negotiated, the X.509 certificates used, and has better
support for writing SSL servers (as opposed to clients) in Python.  The
existing SSL support in the *note socket: cb. module hasn’t been removed
and continues to work, though it will be removed in Python 3.0.

To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
usual way and then pass it to the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function.  It’s
possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to obtain
certificate info by calling the ‘getpeercert()’ method.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The documentation for the *note ssl: cf. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openssl.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations and Removals,  Next: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.19 Deprecations and Removals
---------------------------------

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 2c4.

   * Changes to the *note Exception: 838. interface as dictated by PEP
     352(1) continue to be made.  For 2.6, the ‘message’ attribute is
     being deprecated in favor of the *note args: 302. attribute.

   * (3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard
     library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others.
     Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these
     modules when they are imported.

     The list of deprecated modules is: ‘audiodev’, ‘bgenlocations’,
     ‘buildtools’, ‘bundlebuilder’, ‘Canvas’, ‘compiler’, ‘dircache’,
     ‘dl’, ‘fpformat’, ‘gensuitemodule’, ‘ihooks’, ‘imageop’, ‘imgfile’,
     ‘linuxaudiodev’, ‘mhlib’, ‘mimetools’, ‘multifile’, ‘new’, ‘pure’,
     ‘statvfs’, ‘sunaudiodev’, ‘test.testall’, and ‘toaiff’.

   * The ‘gopherlib’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘MimeWriter’ module and ‘mimify’ module have been deprecated;
     use the *note email: 3a. package instead.

   * The ‘md5’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 66.
     module instead.

   * The ‘posixfile’ module has been deprecated; *note fcntl.lockf():
     1273. provides better locking.

   * The ‘popen2’ module has been deprecated; use the *note subprocess:
     d5. module.

   * The ‘rgbimg’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘sets’ module has been deprecated; it’s better to use the
     built-in *note set: 3e4. and *note frozenset: 3e5. types.

   * The ‘sha’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 66.
     module instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 6,  Prev: Deprecations and Removals,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.20 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19 years!).
     This means that the Python source tree has dropped its own
     implementations of ‘memmove()’ and ‘strerror()’, which are in the
     C89 standard library.

   * Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0), and this is the new default compiler.  See the ‘PCbuild’
     directory for the build files.  (Implemented by Christian Heimes.)

   * On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build.
     The ‘configure’ script can take a
     ‘--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]’ switch, controlling
     whether the binaries are built for 32-bit architectures (x86,
     PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both.  (Contributed by
     Ronald Oussoren.)

   * A new function added in Python 2.6.6, ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, sets the
     value of ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include
     the directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’
     depending on the value of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.  Note that using this function will
     break compatibility with Python versions 2.6.5 and earlier; if you
     have to continue working with earlier versions, you can leave the
     call to ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ alone and call
     ‘PyRun_SimpleString("sys.path.pop(0)\n")’ afterwards to discard the
     first ‘sys.path’ component.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(1); discussed in
     gh-50003(2), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
     ‘bsddb.db.api’.  This object can be used by other C extensions that
     wish to use the ‘bsddb’ module for their own purposes.
     (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)

   * The new buffer interface, previously described in *note the PEP
     3118 section: 1240, adds *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 58f, as well as a few other functions.

   * Python’s use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least
     as thread-safe as the underlying library is.  A long-standing
     potential bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while
     another thread was reading from or writing to the object.  In 2.6
     file objects have a reference count, manipulated by the
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ functions.  File
     objects can’t be closed unless the reference count is zero.
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ should be called while the GIL is still
     held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the ‘FILE *’
     pointer, and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ should be called immediately
     after the GIL is re-acquired.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer
     deadlocks; it will now raise an *note ImportError: 14b.  A new API
     function, *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 35e, will look for
     a module in ‘sys.modules’ first, then try to import it after
     acquiring an import lock.  If the import lock is held by another
     thread, an *note ImportError: 14b. is raised.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

   * Several functions return information about the platform’s
     floating-point support.  *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 1275. returns the
     maximum representable floating-point value, and *note
     PyFloat_GetMin(): 1276. returns the minimum positive value.  *note
     PyFloat_GetInfo(): 1277. returns an object containing more
     information from the ‘float.h’ file, such as ‘"mant_dig"’ (number
     of digits in the mantissa), ‘"epsilon"’ (smallest difference
     between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several
     others.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534(3).)

   * C functions and methods that use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex():
     1278. will now accept arguments that have a ‘__complex__()’ method.
     In particular, the functions in the *note cmath: 18. module will
     now accept objects with this method.  This is a backport of a
     Python 3.0 change.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1675423(4).)

   * Python’s C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive
     string comparisons, ‘PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*)’ and
     ‘PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t)’.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(5).)

   * Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding integers
     and strings to the module’s dictionary in the ‘init*’ function.
     Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros for adding values to a
     module, *note PyModule_AddStringMacro: 1279. and *note
     PyModule_AddIntMacro(): 127a.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer
     that they are macros, not functions.  ‘Py_Size()’ became *note
     Py_SIZE(): 5b2, ‘Py_Type()’ became *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0, and
     ‘Py_Refcnt()’ became *note Py_REFCNT(): 6f7.  The mixed-case macros
     are still available in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility.
     (bpo-1629(6))

   * Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a different
     directory when running on a debug version of Python.  (Contributed
     by Collin Winter; bpo-1530959(7).)

   * Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain
     internal free lists of objects that can be re-used.  The data
     structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the
     variable is always named ‘free_list’, the counter is always named
     ‘numfree’, and a macro ‘Py<typename>_MAXFREELIST’ is always
     defined.

   * A new Makefile target, “make patchcheck”, prepares the Python
     source tree for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all
     modified ‘.py’ files, checks whether the documentation has been
     changed, and reports whether the ‘Misc/ACKS’ and ‘Misc/NEWS’ files
     have been updated.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

     Another new target, “make profile-opt”, compiles a Python binary
     using GCC’s profile-guided optimization.  It compiles Python with
     profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling
     results, and then compiles using these results for optimization.
     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50003

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675423

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1629

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1530959


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.20.1 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
     Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.

   * The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0).  The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1)
     and 2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory.  The new
     ‘PCbuild’ directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug
     builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are
     roughly 10% faster than normal builds.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes with help from Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note msvcrt: 92. module now supports both the normal and wide
     char variants of the console I/O API. The *note getwch(): 127c.
     function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode value, as does the
     *note getwche(): 127d. function.  The *note putwch(): 127e.
     function takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * *note os.path.expandvars(): 1260. will now expand environment
     variables in the form “%var%”, and “~user” will be expanded into
     the user’s home directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson;
     bpo-957650(1).)

   * The *note socket: cb. module’s socket objects now have an *note
     ioctl(): b56. method that provides a limited interface to the
     ‘WSAIoctl()’ system interface.

   * The *note _winreg: 116. module now has a function, *note
     ExpandEnvironmentStrings(): 127f, that expands environment variable
     references such as ‘%NAME%’ in an input string.  The handle objects
     provided by this module now support the context protocol, so they
     can be used in *note with: 3dd. statements.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

     *note _winreg: 116. also has better support for x64 systems,
     exposing the *note DisableReflectionKey(): 120b, *note
     EnableReflectionKey(): 120c, and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 120d.
     functions, which enable and disable registry reflection for 32-bit
     processes running on 64-bit systems.  (bpo-1753245(2))

   * The *note msilib: 91. module’s ‘Record’ object gained *note
     GetInteger(): 1280. and *note GetString(): 1281. methods that
     return field values as an integer or a string.  (Contributed by
     Floris Bruynooghe; bpo-2125(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1753245

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2125


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.20.2 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
     framework name to be used by providing the ‘--with-framework-name=’
     option to the ‘configure’ script.

   * The ‘macfs’ module has been removed.  This in turn required the
     ‘macostools.touched()’ function to be removed because it depended
     on the ‘macfs’ module.  (bpo-1490190(1))

   * Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.0: ‘_builtinSuites’, ‘aepack’, ‘aetools’, ‘aetypes’,
     ‘applesingle’, ‘appletrawmain’, ‘appletrunner’, ‘argvemulator’,
     ‘Audio_mac’, ‘autoGIL’, ‘Carbon’, ‘cfmfile’, ‘CodeWarrior’,
     ‘ColorPicker’, ‘EasyDialogs’, ‘Explorer’, ‘Finder’, ‘FrameWork’,
     ‘findertools’, ‘ic’, ‘icglue’, ‘icopen’, ‘macerrors’, ‘MacOS’,
     ‘macfs’, ‘macostools’, ‘macresource’, ‘MiniAEFrame’, ‘Nav’,
     ‘Netscape’, ‘OSATerminology’, ‘pimp’, ‘PixMapWrapper’, ‘StdSuites’,
     ‘SystemEvents’, ‘Terminal’, and ‘terminalcommand’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1490190


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.15.20.3 Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
.....................................

A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will be
removed in Python 3.0: ‘al’ and ‘AL’, ‘cd’, ‘cddb’, ‘cdplayer’, ‘CL’ and
‘cl’, ‘DEVICE’, ‘ERRNO’, ‘FILE’, ‘FL’ and ‘fl’, ‘flp’, ‘fm’, ‘GET’,
‘GLWS’, ‘GL’ and ‘gl’, ‘IN’, ‘IOCTL’, ‘jpeg’, ‘panelparser’, ‘readcd’,
‘SV’ and ‘sv’, ‘torgb’, ‘videoreader’, and ‘WAIT’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 6,  Next: Acknowledgements<2>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.21 Porting to Python 2.6
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * Classes that aren’t supposed to be hashable should set ‘__hash__ =
     None’ in their definitions to indicate the fact.

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 2c4.

   * The ‘__init__()’ method of *note collections.deque: 3e7. now clears
     any existing contents of the deque before adding elements from the
     iterable.  This change makes the behavior match ‘list.__init__()’.

   * *note object.__init__(): 4c6. previously accepted arbitrary
     arguments and keyword arguments, ignoring them.  In Python 2.6,
     this is no longer allowed and will result in a *note TypeError:
     2c4.  This will affect ‘__init__()’ methods that end up calling the
     corresponding method on *note object: 8f2. (perhaps through using
     *note super(): 20d.).  See bpo-1683368(1) for discussion.

   * The ‘Decimal’ constructor now accepts leading and trailing
     whitespace when passed a string.  Previously it would raise an
     ‘InvalidOperation’ exception.  On the other hand, the
     ‘create_decimal()’ method of ‘Context’ objects now explicitly
     disallows extra whitespace, raising a ‘ConversionSyntax’ exception.

   * Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to the
     built-in *note __import__(): 727. function, it would actually
     import the specified file.  This was never intended to work,
     however, and the implementation now explicitly checks for this case
     and raises an *note ImportError: 14b.

   * C API: the *note PyImport_Import(): 1285. and *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f. functions now default to absolute
     imports, not relative imports.  This will affect C extensions that
     import other modules.

   * C API: extension data types that shouldn’t be hashable should
     define their ‘tp_hash’ slot to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented():
     124d.

   * The *note socket: cb. module exception *note socket.error: eff. now
     inherits from *note IOError: efc.  Previously it wasn’t a subclass
     of ‘StandardError’ but now it is, through *note IOError: efc.
     (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-1706815(2).)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 749. and *note datetime.time: 6df. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 126a. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 6df. instances.
     (bpo-1330538(3))

   * (3.0-warning mode) The *note Exception: 838. class now warns when
     accessed using slicing or index access; having *note Exception:
     838. behave like a tuple is being phased out.

   * (3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries
     or two objects that don’t implement comparison methods are reported
     as warnings.  ‘dict1 == dict2’ still works, but ‘dict1 < dict2’ is
     being phased out.

     Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of
     Python’s scoping rules, also cause warnings because such
     comparisons are forbidden entirely in 3.0.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added in Python 2.6.6, letting
     applications close a security hole when the existing
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function was used.  Check whether you’re calling
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application
     should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1683368

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1706815

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 6,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.15.22 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy, Jim
Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher, Martin Michlmayr, Antoine Pitrou,
Brian Warner.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.16 What’s New in Python 2.5
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.5.  The final release
of Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; PEP 356(1) describes the
planned release schedule.  Python 2.5 was released on September 19,
2006.

The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
improvements.  The library enhancements will be more important to
Python’s user community, I think, because several widely useful packages
were added.  New modules include ElementTree for XML processing
(‘xml.etree’), the SQLite database module (‘sqlite’), and the *note
ctypes: 2a. module for calling C functions.

The language changes are of middling significance.  Some pleasant new
features were added, but most of them aren’t features that you’ll use
every day.  Conditional expressions were finally added to the language
using a novel syntax; see section *note PEP 308; Conditional
Expressions: 128a.  The new ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement will make
writing cleanup code easier (section *note PEP 343; The ‘with’
statement: 128b.).  Values can now be passed into generators (section
*note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 128c.).  Imports are now visible
as either absolute or relative (section *note PEP 328; Absolute and
Relative Imports: 128d.).  Some corner cases of exception handling are
handled better (section *note PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally:
128e.).  All these improvements are worthwhile, but they’re improvements
to one specific language feature or another; none of them are broad
modifications to Python’s semantics.

As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and
bugfixes were made throughout the source tree.  A search through the SVN
change logs finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed
between Python 2.4 and 2.5.  (Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.)

This article doesn’t try to be a complete specification of the new
features; instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples.
For full details, you should always refer to the documentation for
Python 2.5 at ‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature.

Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome;
please e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug
tracker.

* Menu:

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The ‘__index__’ method: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0356/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Next: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.1 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
---------------------------------------

For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional
expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B
depending on whether a Boolean value is true or false.  A conditional
expression lets you write a single assignment statement that has the
same effect as the following:

     if condition:
         x = true_value
     else:
         x = false_value

There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev
and comp.lang.python.  A vote was even held that found the majority of
voters wanted conditional expressions in some form, but there was no
syntax that was preferred by a clear majority.  Candidates included C’s
‘cond ? true_v : false_v’, ‘if cond then true_v else false_v’, and 16
other variations.

Guido van Rossum eventually chose a surprising syntax:

     x = true_value if condition else false_value

Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the
order of evaluation jumps around a bit.  The 'condition' expression in
the middle is evaluated first, and the 'true_value' expression is
evaluated only if the condition was true.  Similarly, the 'false_value'
expression is only evaluated when the condition is false.

This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in
the 'middle' of the expression, and not in the front as in C’s ‘c ? x :
y’?  The decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules
in the standard library and seeing how the resulting code read.  In many
cases where a conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the
‘common case’ and one value is an ‘exceptional case’, used only on rarer
occasions when the condition isn’t met.  The conditional syntax makes
this pattern a bit more obvious:

     contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '')

I read the above statement as meaning “here 'contents' is usually
assigned a value of ‘doc+'\n'’; sometimes 'doc' is empty, in which
special case an empty string is returned.” I doubt I will use
conditional expressions very often where there isn’t a clear common and
uncommon case.

There was some discussion of whether the language should require
surrounding conditional expressions with parentheses.  The decision was
made to 'not' require parentheses in the Python language’s grammar, but
as a matter of style I think you should always use them.  Consider these
two statements:

     # First version -- no parens
     level = 1 if logging else 0

     # Second version -- with parens
     level = (1 if logging else 0)

In the first version, I think a reader’s eye might group the statement
into ‘level = 1’, ‘if logging’, ‘else 0’, and think that the condition
decides whether the assignment to 'level' is performed.  The second
version reads better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the
assignment is always performed and the choice is being made between two
values.

Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of
list comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional
expressions.  See PEP 308(1) for some examples.  If you put parentheses
around your conditional expressions, you won’t run into this case.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 308(2) - Conditional Expressions

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Raymond D. Hettinger;
     implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Next: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Prev: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.2 PEP 309: Partial Function Application
--------------------------------------------

The *note functools: 5d. module is intended to contain tools for
functional-style programming.

One useful tool in this module is the ‘partial()’ function.  For
programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you
could create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that was equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’.  This is called “partial function application”.

‘partial()’ takes the arguments ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ...
kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The resulting object is callable, so
you can just call it to invoke 'function' with the filled-in arguments.

Here’s a small but realistic example:

     import functools

     def log (message, subsystem):
         "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."
         print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

Here’s another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a
context-sensitive pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically.  The
callback provided for the menu option is a partially applied version of
the ‘open_item()’ method, where the first argument has been provided.

     ...
     class Application:
         def open_item(self, path):
            ...
         def init (self):
             open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path)
             popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) )

Another function in the *note functools: 5d. module is the
‘update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)’ function that helps you write
well-behaved decorators.  ‘update_wrapper()’ copies the name, module,
and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside
the wrapped function are easier to understand.  For example, you might
write:

     def my_decorator(f):
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
         return wrapper

‘wraps()’ is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to
copy the wrapped function’s information.  An alternate version of the
previous example would be:

     def my_decorator(f):
         @functools.wraps(f)
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         return wrapper

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 309(1) - Partial Function Application

     PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik
     Chang and Nick Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0309/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Next: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Prev: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.3 PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
----------------------------------------------------------

Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils.  The ‘setup()’
function now has ‘requires’, ‘provides’, and ‘obsoletes’ keyword
parameters.  When you build a source distribution using the ‘sdist’
command, the dependency information will be recorded in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.

Another new keyword parameter is ‘download_url’, which should be set to
a URL for the package’s source code.  This means it’s now possible to
look up an entry in the package index, determine the dependencies for a
package, and download the required packages.

     VERSION = '1.0'
     setup(name='PyPackage',
           version=VERSION,
           requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'],
           obsoletes=['OldPackage']
           download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz'
                         % VERSION),
          )

Another new enhancement to the Python package index at
‘https://pypi.org’ is storing source and binary archives for a package.
The new ‘upload’ Distutils command will upload a package to the
repository.

Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a
distribution using the ‘sdist’ Distutils command.  Once that works, you
can run ‘python setup.py upload’ to add your package to the PyPI
archive.  Optionally you can GPG-sign the package by supplying the
‘--sign’ and ‘--identity’ options.

Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 314(1) - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

     PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred
     Drake; implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0314/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Next: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Prev: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.4 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
---------------------------------------------

The simpler part of PEP 328(1) was implemented in Python 2.4:
parentheses could now be used to enclose the names imported from a
module using the ‘from ... import ...’ statement, making it easier to
import many different names.

The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing
a module can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports.
The plan is to move toward making absolute imports the default in future
versions of Python.

Let’s say you have a package directory like this:

     pkg/
     pkg/__init__.py
     pkg/main.py
     pkg/string.py

This defines a package named ‘pkg’ containing the ‘pkg.main’ and
‘pkg.string’ submodules.

Consider the code in the ‘main.py’ module.  What happens if it executes
the statement ‘import string’?  In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first
look in the package’s directory to perform a relative import, finds
‘pkg/string.py’, imports the contents of that file as the ‘pkg.string’
module, and that module is bound to the name ‘string’ in the ‘pkg.main’
module’s namespace.

That’s fine if ‘pkg.string’ was what you wanted.  But what if you wanted
Python’s standard *note string: d2. module?  There’s no clean way to
ignore ‘pkg.string’ and look for the standard module; generally you had
to look at the contents of ‘sys.modules’, which is slightly unclean.
Holger Krekel’s ‘py.std’ package provides a tidier way to perform
imports from the standard library, ‘import py; py.std.string.join()’,
but that package isn’t available on all Python installations.

Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear,
because a reader may be confused about which module, *note string: d2.
or ‘pkg.string’, is intended to be used.  Python users soon learned not
to duplicate the names of standard library modules in the names of their
packages’ submodules, but you can’t protect against having your
submodule’s name being used for a new module added in a future version
of Python.

In Python 2.5, you can switch *note import: 3ed.’s behaviour to absolute
imports using a ‘from __future__ import absolute_import’ directive.
This absolute-import behaviour will become the default in a future
version (probably Python 2.7).  Once absolute imports are the default,
‘import string’ will always find the standard library’s version.  It’s
suggested that users should begin using absolute imports as much as
possible, so it’s preferable to begin writing ‘from pkg import string’
in your code.

Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period to the
module name when using the ‘from ... import’ form:

     # Import names from pkg.string
     from .string import name1, name2
     # Import pkg.string
     from . import string

This imports the *note string: d2. module relative to the current
package, so in ‘pkg.main’ this will import 'name1' and 'name2' from
‘pkg.string’.  Additional leading periods perform the relative import
starting from the parent of the current package.  For example, code in
the ‘A.B.C’ module can do:

     from . import D                 # Imports A.B.D
     from .. import E                # Imports A.E
     from ..F import G               # Imports A.F.G

Leading periods cannot be used with the ‘import modname’ form of the
import statement, only the ‘from ... import’ form.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 328(2) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters.

‘https://pylib.readthedocs.io/’

     The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the ‘py.std’
     package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Next: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Prev: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.5 PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
--------------------------------------------

The *note -m: 3ec. switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a
script gained a few more abilities.  Instead of being implemented in C
code inside the Python interpreter, the switch now uses an
implementation in a new module, *note runpy: bd.

The *note runpy: bd. module implements a more sophisticated import
mechanism so that it’s now possible to run modules in a package such as
‘pychecker.checker’.  The module also supports alternative import
mechanisms such as the *note zipimport: 132. module.  This means you can
add a .zip archive’s path to ‘sys.path’ and then use the *note -m: 3ec.
switch to execute code from the archive.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 338(1) - Executing modules as scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Next: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Prev: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.6 PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
------------------------------------------

Until Python 2.5, the *note try: 503. statement came in two flavours.
You could use a *note finally: 828. block to ensure that code is always
executed, or one or more *note except: 3c0. blocks to catch specific
exceptions.  You couldn’t combine both ‘except’ blocks and a ‘finally’
block, because generating the right bytecode for the combined version
was complicated and it wasn’t clear what the semantics of the combined
statement should be.

Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support
the equivalent of combining *note except: 3c0. blocks and a *note
finally: 828. block, and this clarified what the statement should mean.
In Python 2.5, you can now write:

     try:
         block-1 ...
     except Exception1:
         handler-1 ...
     except Exception2:
         handler-2 ...
     else:
         else-block
     finally:
         final-block

The code in 'block-1' is executed.  If the code raises an exception, the
various *note except: 3c0. blocks are tested: if the exception is of
class ‘Exception1’, 'handler-1' is executed; otherwise if it’s of class
‘Exception2’, 'handler-2' is executed, and so forth.  If no exception is
raised, the 'else-block' is executed.

No matter what happened previously, the 'final-block' is executed once
the code block is complete and any raised exceptions handled.  Even if
there’s an error in an exception handler or the 'else-block' and a new
exception is raised, the code in the 'final-block' is still run.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 341(1) - Unifying try-except and try-finally

     PEP written by Georg Brandl; implementation by Thomas Lee.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0341/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Next: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>,  Prev: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.7 PEP 342: New Generator Features
--------------------------------------

Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values 'into' a generator.  As
introduced in Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a
generator’s code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  Sometimes the ability to pass in some information would be
useful.  Hackish solutions to this include making the generator’s code
look at a global variable and then changing the global variable’s value,
or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.

To refresh your memory of basic generators, here’s a simple example:

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             yield i
             i += 1

When you call ‘counter(10)’, the result is an iterator that returns the
values from 0 up to 9.  On encountering the *note yield: 82b. statement,
the iterator returns the provided value and suspends the function’s
execution, preserving the local variables.  Execution resumes on the
following call to the iterator’s *note next(): 611. method, picking up
after the ‘yield’ statement.

In Python 2.3, *note yield: 82b. was a statement; it didn’t return any
value.  In 2.5, ‘yield’ is now an expression, returning a value that can
be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you always put parentheses around a *note yield: 82b.
expression when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they’re
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a *note yield:
82b.-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there’s an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its ‘send(value)’ method.
The generator’s code is then resumed and the *note yield: 82b.
expression returns the specified 'value'.  If the regular *note next():
611. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns *note None: 488.

Here’s the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the
internal counter.

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here’s an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> print it.next()
     0
     >>> print it.next()
     1
     >>> print it.send(8)
     8
     >>> print it.next()
     9
     >>> print it.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in ?
         print it.next()
     StopIteration

*note yield: 82b. will usually return *note None: 488, so you should
always check for this case.  Don’t just use its value in expressions
unless you’re sure that the ‘send()’ method will be the only method used
to resume your generator function.

In addition to ‘send()’, there are two other new methods on generators:

   * ‘throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)’ is used to raise an
     exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
     *note yield: 82b. expression where the generator’s execution is
     paused.

   * ‘close()’ raises a new *note GeneratorExit: 124e. exception inside
     the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator’s code must either raise *note
     GeneratorExit: 124e. or *note StopIteration: a73.  Catching the
     *note GeneratorExit: 124e. exception and returning a value is
     illegal and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 180.; if the
     function raises some other exception, that exception is propagated
     to the caller.  ‘close()’ will also be called by Python’s garbage
     collector when the generator is garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 124e.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching *note GeneratorExit: 124e.

The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from
one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a *note return: 82c. statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the *note yield: 82b. statements).  We’ll have to figure out patterns
for using coroutines effectively in Python.

The addition of the ‘close()’ method has one side effect that isn’t
obvious.  ‘close()’ is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so
this means the generator’s code gets one last chance to run before the
generator is destroyed.  This last chance means that ‘try...finally’
statements in generators can now be guaranteed to work; the *note
finally: 828. clause will now always get a chance to run.  The syntactic
restriction that you couldn’t mix *note yield: 82b. statements with a
‘try...finally’ suite has therefore been removed.  This seems like a
minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and ‘try...finally’
is actually necessary in order to implement the *note with: 3dd.
statement described by PEP 343(2).  I’ll look at this new statement in
the following section.

Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a frame object.  It’s now
possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’ once the generator has been
exhausted.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 342(3) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by
     Phillip J. Eby.  Includes examples of some fancier uses of
     generators as coroutines.

     Earlier versions of these features were proposed in PEP 288(4) by
     Raymond Hettinger and PEP 325(5) by Samuele Pedroni.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’

     The Wikipedia entry for coroutines.

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160321211320/http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html’

     An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by
     Dan Sugalski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0288/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0325/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>,  Next: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Prev: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.8 PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
------------------------------------

The ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement is a new control-flow structure whose
basic structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 3d0. and *note __exit__(): 11aa. methods.

The object’s *note __enter__(): 3d0. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note
__exit__(): 11aa. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following
directive to your module:

     from __future__ import with_statement

The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 26d. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     Not: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open():
     2a6, because *note __enter__(): 3d0. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: ec. module’s locks and condition variables also
support the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The new ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 35. module makes
it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which
encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for
computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Next: The contextlib module<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>

1.16.8.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use ‘‘with’’ in company with existing objects and
don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     “context manager”.  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 3d0. and *note __exit__(): 11aa. methods.

   * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 3d0. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘'as VAR'’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the ‘__exit__(type, value,
     traceback)’ is called with the exception details, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.  The method’s return value
     controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value
     re-raises the exception, and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.
     You’ll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you
     do the author of the code containing the ‘*note with: 3dd.’
     statement will never realize anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 11aa.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception.  Here’s the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor (self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit (self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback (self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 3d0. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__ (self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 11aa. method is the most complicated because it’s
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 82c. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: The contextlib module<2>,  Prev: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>

1.16.8.2 The contextlib module
..............................

The new *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a
decorator that are useful for writing objects for use with the ‘*note
with: 3dd.’ statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: 82b.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 3d0. method, and the value
yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound to the
variable in the ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the *note yield: 82b. will be executed in the *note
__exit__(): 11aa. method.  Any exception raised in the block will be
raised by the ‘yield’ statement.

Our database example from the previous section could be written using
this decorator as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction (connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to
write nested ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statements.  In this example, the single
‘‘with’’ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing(object)’ function returns 'object' so that it can
be bound to a variable, and calls ‘object.close’ at the end of the
block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Next: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Prev: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.9 PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
-----------------------------------------------

Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic
classes, and the built-in *note Exception: 838. class and all the
standard built-in exceptions (*note NameError: 14a, *note ValueError:
189, etc.)  are now new-style classes.

The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit.  In
2.5, the inheritance relationships are:

     BaseException       # New in Python 2.5
     |- KeyboardInterrupt
     |- SystemExit
     |- Exception
        |- (all other current built-in exceptions)

This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all
exceptions that indicate program errors.  *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.
and *note SystemExit: bc8. aren’t errors, though, and usually represent
an explicit action such as the user hitting ‘Control’-‘C’ or code
calling *note sys.exit(): 11f5.  A bare ‘except:’ will catch all
exceptions, so you commonly need to list *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.
and *note SystemExit: bc8. in order to re-raise them.  The usual pattern
is:

     try:
         ...
     except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit):
         raise
     except:
         # Log error...
         # Continue running program...

In Python 2.5, you can now write ‘except Exception’ to achieve the same
result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors but
leaving *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. and *note SystemExit: bc8. alone.
As in previous versions, a bare ‘except:’ still catches all exceptions.

The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception
to derive from *note BaseException: 3c3. or some descendant of *note
BaseException: 3c3, and future releases in the Python 2.x series may
begin to enforce this constraint.  Therefore, I suggest you begin making
all your exception classes derive from *note Exception: 838. now.  It’s
been suggested that the bare ‘except:’ form should be removed in Python
3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn’t decided whether to do this or not.

Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement ‘raise "Error
occurred"’, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning.  The
aim is to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few
releases.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 352(1) - Required Superclass for Exceptions

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by
     Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Next: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method,  Prev: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.10 PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
------------------------------------------------

A wide-ranging change to Python’s C API, using a new *note Py_ssize_t:
8c4. type definition instead of int, will permit the interpreter to
handle more data on 64-bit platforms.  This change doesn’t affect
Python’s capacity on 32-bit platforms.

Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C’s int type to store
sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple
were stored in an int.  The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still
define int as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up
to ‘2**31 - 1’ = 2147483647 items.  (There are actually a few different
programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use – see
‘https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html’ for a discussion – but
the most commonly available model leaves int as 32 bits.)

A limit of 2147483647 items doesn’t really matter on a 32-bit platform
because you’ll run out of memory before hitting the length limit.  Each
list item requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for
a *note PyObject: 6eb. representing the item.  2147483647*4 is already
more bytes than a 32-bit address space can contain.

It’s possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however.
The pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so
it’s not unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that
large.  Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some
type other than int, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms.
The change will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was
deemed worth making the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users
is still relatively small.  (In 5 or 10 years, we may 'all' be on 64-bit
machines, and the transition would be more painful then.)

This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules.
Python strings and container types such as lists and tuples now use
*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. to store their size.  Functions such as *note
PyList_Size(): 12a2. now return *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.  Code in
extension modules may therefore need to have some variables changed to
*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5.
functions have a new conversion code, ‘n’, for *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.’s ‘s#’ and ‘t#’ still output int by
default, but you can define the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
including ‘Python.h’ to make them return *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

PEP 353(1) has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors
should read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 353(2) - Using ssize_t as the index type

     PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method,  Next: Other Language Changes<13>,  Prev: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.11 PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
---------------------------------------

The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a
new special method, ‘__index__()’.  When using slice notation, as in
‘[start:stop:step]’, the values of the 'start', 'stop', and 'step'
indexes must all be either integers or long integers.  NumPy defines a
variety of specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and
signed integers of 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to
signal that these types could be used as slice indexes.

Slicing can’t just use the existing ‘__int__()’ method because that
method is also used to implement coercion to integers.  If slicing used
‘__int__()’, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice
indexes and that’s clearly an undesirable behaviour.

Instead, a new special method called ‘__index__()’ was added.  It takes
no arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use.  For
example:

     class C:
         def __index__ (self):
             return self.value

The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer.  The
interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
*note TypeError: 2c4. if this requirement isn’t met.

A corresponding *note nb_index: 12a5. slot was added to the C-level
*note PyNumberMethods: 12a6. structure to let C extensions implement
this protocol.  ‘PyNumber_Index(obj)’ can be used in extension code to
call the ‘__index__()’ function and retrieve its result.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 357(1) - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing

     PEP written and implemented by Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0357/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<13>,  Next: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Prev: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.12 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note dict: 240. type has a new hook for letting subclasses
     provide a default value when a key isn’t contained in the
     dictionary.  When a key isn’t found, the dictionary’s
     ‘__missing__(key)’ method will be called.  This hook is used to
     implement the new ‘defaultdict’ class in the *note collections: 1d.
     module.  The following example defines a dictionary that returns
     zero for any missing key:

          class zerodict (dict):
              def __missing__ (self, key):
                  return 0

          d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2})
          print d[1], d[2]   # Prints 1, 2
          print d[3], d[4]   # Prints 0, 0

   * Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ‘partition(sep)’ and
     ‘rpartition(sep)’ methods that simplify a common use case.

     The ‘find(S)’ method is often used to get an index which is then
     used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and
     after the separator.  ‘partition(sep)’ condenses this pattern into
     a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the
     substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the
     substring after the separator.  If the separator isn’t found, the
     first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two
     elements are empty.  ‘rpartition(sep)’ also returns a 3-tuple but
     starts searching from the end of the string; the ‘r’ stands for
     ‘reverse’.

     Some examples:

          >>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://')
          ('http', '://', 'www.python.org')
          >>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://')
          ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '')
          >>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':')
          (u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.')
          ('www.python', '.', 'org')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':')
          ('', '', 'www.python.org')

     (Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The ‘startswith()’ and ‘endswith()’ methods of string types now
     accept tuples of strings to check for.

          def is_image_file (filename):
              return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff'))

     (Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.)

   * The *note min(): d9f. and *note max(): da0. built-in functions
     gained a ‘key’ keyword parameter analogous to the ‘key’ argument
     for ‘sort()’.  This parameter supplies a function that takes a
     single argument and is called for every value in the list; *note
     min(): d9f./*note max(): da0. will return the element with the
     smallest/largest return value from this function.  For example, to
     find the longest string in a list, you can do:

          L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short']
          # Prints 'longest'
          print max(L, key=len)
          # Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value
          print max(L)

     (Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new built-in functions, *note any(): 12a9. and *note all():
     12aa, evaluate whether an iterator contains any true or false
     values.  *note any(): 12a9. returns *note True: a86. if any value
     returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return *note
     False: 9a8.  *note all(): 12aa. returns *note True: a86. only if
     all of the values returned by the iterator evaluate as true.
     (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The result of a class’s ‘__hash__()’ method can now be either a
     long integer or a regular integer.  If a long integer is returned,
     the hash of that value is taken.  In earlier versions the hash
     value was required to be a regular integer, but in 2.5 the *note
     id(): 12ab. built-in was changed to always return non-negative
     numbers, and users often seem to use ‘id(self)’ in ‘__hash__()’
     methods (though this is discouraged).

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn’t have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.  See PEP 263(1) for how to
     declare a module’s encoding; for example, you might add a line like
     this near the top of the source file:

          # -*- coding: latin1 -*-

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 12ac, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.  The
     result of the comparison is false:

          >>> chr(128) == unichr(128)   # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode
          __main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed
            to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them
            as being unequal
          False
          >>> chr(127) == unichr(127)   # chr(127) can be converted
          True

     Previously this would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873.
     exception, but in 2.5 this could result in puzzling problems when
     accessing a dictionary.  If you looked up ‘unichr(128)’ and
     ‘chr(128)’ was being used as a key, you’d get a *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 873. exception.  Other changes in 2.5 resulted
     in this exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in
     ‘dictobject.c’ that implements dictionaries.

     Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but
     the change might have broken code, so instead *note UnicodeWarning:
     12ac. was introduced.

     (Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to
     include an ‘__init__.py’ module in a package directory.  Debugging
     this mistake can be confusing, and usually requires running Python
     with the *note -v: 12ad. switch to log all the paths searched.  In
     Python 2.5, a new *note ImportWarning: 24e. warning is triggered
     when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no
     ‘__init__.py’ was found.  This warning is silently ignored by
     default; provide the *note -Wd: 71a. option when running the Python
     executable to display the warning message.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Wouters.)

   * The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty.
     As an example, this is now legal:

          class C():
              pass

     (Implemented by Brett Cannon.)

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Next: Optimizations<12>,  Up: Other Language Changes<13>

1.16.12.1 Interactive Interpreter Changes
.........................................

In the interactive interpreter, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ have long been strings
so that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit:

     >>> quit
     'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.'

In Python 2.5, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ are now objects that still produce
string representations of themselves, but are also callable.  Newbies
who try ‘quit()’ or ‘exit()’ will now exit the interpreter as they
expect.  (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)

The Python executable now accepts the standard long options *note -help:
3fd. and *note -version: ba1.; on Windows, it also accepts the *note /?:
12b0. option for displaying a help message.  (Implemented by Georg
Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<12>,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<13>

1.16.12.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint,
an event held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21–28 2006.  The sprint
focused on speed enhancements to the CPython implementation and was
funded by EWT LLC with local support from CCP Games.  Those
optimizations added at this sprint are specially marked in the following
list.

   * When they were introduced in Python 2.4, the built-in *note set:
     3e4. and *note frozenset: 3e5. types were built on top of Python’s
     dictionary type.  In 2.5 the internal data structure has been
     customized for implementing sets, and as a result sets will use a
     third less memory and are somewhat faster.  (Implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings,
     string splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been
     improved.  (Substring search and splitting improvements were added
     by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint.
     Character maps were improved by Walter Dörwald and Martin von
     Löwis.)

   * The ‘long(str, base)’ function is now faster on long digit strings
     because fewer intermediate results are calculated.  The peak is for
     strings of around 800–1000 digits where the function is 6 times
     faster.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * It’s now illegal to mix iterating over a file with ‘for line in
     file’ and calling the file object’s ‘read()’/*note readline():
     b9./‘readlines()’ methods.  Iteration uses an internal buffer and
     the ‘read*()’ methods don’t use that buffer.  Instead they would
     return the data following the buffer, causing the data to appear
     out of order.  Mixing iteration and these methods will now trigger
     a *note ValueError: 189. from the ‘read*()’ method.  (Implemented
     by Thomas Wouters.)

   * The *note struct: d4. module now compiles structure format strings
     into an internal representation and caches this representation,
     yielding a 20% speedup.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The *note re: b8. module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to
     Python’s allocator functions instead of the system’s ‘malloc()’ and
     ‘free()’.  (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed
     sprint.)

   * The code generator’s peephole optimizer now performs simple
     constant folding in expressions.  If you write something like ‘a =
     2+3’, the code generator will do the arithmetic and produce code
     corresponding to ‘a = 5’.  (Proposed and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep the
     most recently finished frame (a “zombie frame”) in an internal
     field of the code object, reusing it the next time the code object
     is invoked.  (Original patch by Michael Hudson, modified by Armin
     Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
     Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache
     locality and reduce memory usage a bit.  (Contributed by Neal
     Norwitz.)

   * Python’s built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change
     that speeds up instantiation considerably.  Exception handling in
     Python 2.5 is therefore about 30% faster than in 2.4.  (Contributed
     by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and Sean Reifschneider at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist
     or not so that the interpreter makes fewer ‘open()’ and ‘stat()’
     calls on startup.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg
     Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<13>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.13 New, Improved, and Removed Modules
------------------------------------------

The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python
2.5.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted
alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the SVN
logs for all the details.

   * The *note audioop: d. module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and
     the code for u-LAW encoding has been improved.  (Contributed by
     Lars Immisch.)

   * The *note codecs: 1b. module gained support for incremental codecs.
     The ‘codec.lookup()’ function now returns a ‘CodecInfo’ instance
     instead of a tuple.  ‘CodecInfo’ instances behave like a 4-tuple to
     preserve backward compatibility but also have the attributes
     ‘encode’, ‘decode’, ‘incrementalencoder’, ‘incrementaldecoder’,
     ‘streamwriter’, and ‘streamreader’.  Incremental codecs can receive
     input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same
     as if the entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec.  See
     the *note codecs: 1b. module documentation for details.  (Designed
     and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note collections: 1d. module gained a new type, ‘defaultdict’,
     that subclasses the standard *note dict: 240. type.  The new type
     mostly behaves like a dictionary but constructs a default value
     when a key isn’t present, automatically adding it to the dictionary
     for the requested key value.

     The first argument to ‘defaultdict’’s constructor is a factory
     function that gets called whenever a key is requested but not
     found.  This factory function receives no arguments, so you can use
     built-in type constructors such as *note list(): 422. or *note
     int(): 184.  For example, you can make an index of words based on
     their initial letter like this:

          words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
          mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
          che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split()

          index = defaultdict(list)

          for w in words:
              init_letter = w[0]
              index[init_letter].append(w)

     Printing ‘index’ results in the following output:

          defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'],
                  'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'],
                  'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'],
                  'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'],
                  'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']}

     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum.)

   * The ‘deque’ double-ended queue type supplied by the *note
     collections: 1d. module now has a ‘remove(value)’ method that
     removes the first occurrence of 'value' in the queue, raising *note
     ValueError: 189. if the value isn’t found.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * New module: The *note contextlib: 23. module contains helper
     functions for use with the new ‘*note with: 3dd.’ statement.  See
     section *note The contextlib module: 129c. for more about this
     module.

   * New module: The *note cProfile: 27. module is a C implementation of
     the existing *note profile: ae. module that has much lower
     overhead.  The module’s interface is the same as *note profile:
     ae.: you run ‘cProfile.run('main()')’ to profile a function, can
     save profile data to a file, etc.  It’s not yet known if the
     Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn’t match the
     *note profile: ae. module’s interface, will continue to be
     maintained in future versions of Python.  (Contributed by Armin
     Rigo.)

     Also, the *note pstats: af. module for analyzing the data measured
     by the profiler now supports directing the output to any file
     object by supplying a 'stream' argument to the ‘Stats’ constructor.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * The *note csv: 29. module, which parses files in comma-separated
     value format, received several enhancements and a number of
     bugfixes.  You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by
     calling the ‘csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)’ function; omitting
     the 'new_limit' argument will return the currently set limit.  The
     ‘reader’ class now has a ‘line_num’ attribute that counts the
     number of physical lines read from the source; records can span
     multiple physical lines, so ‘line_num’ is not the same as the
     number of records read.

     The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields.
     Previously, if a line ended within a quoted field without a
     terminating newline character, a newline would be inserted into the
     returned field.  This behavior caused problems when reading files
     that contained carriage return characters within fields, so the
     code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines.
     As a consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important,
     the input should be split into lines in a manner that preserves the
     newline characters.

     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.)

   * The *note datetime: 22b. class in the *note datetime: 30. module
     now has a ‘strptime(string, format)’ method for parsing date
     strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri.  It uses the same format
     characters as *note time.strptime(): 12b5. and *note
     time.strftime(): 108e.:

          from datetime import datetime

          ts = datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
                                 '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')

   * The ‘SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()’ method in the *note
     difflib: 36. module now guarantees to return a minimal list of
     blocks describing matching subsequences.  Previously, the algorithm
     would occasionally break a block of matching elements into two list
     entries.  (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)

   * The *note doctest: 39. module gained a ‘SKIP’ option that keeps an
     example from being executed at all.  This is intended for code
     snippets that are usage examples intended for the reader and aren’t
     actually test cases.

     An 'encoding' parameter was added to the ‘testfile()’ function and
     the ‘DocFileSuite’ class to specify the file’s encoding.  This
     makes it easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained
     within a docstring.  (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)

   * The *note email: 3a. package has been updated to version 4.0.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note fileinput: 59. module was made more flexible.  Unicode
     filenames are now supported, and a 'mode' parameter that defaults
     to ‘"r"’ was added to the *note input(): 1182. function to allow
     opening files in binary or *note universal newlines: bc2. mode.
     Another new parameter, 'openhook', lets you use a function other
     than *note open(): 2a6. to open the input files.  Once you’re
     iterating over the set of files, the ‘FileInput’ object’s new *note
     fileno(): 12b6. returns the file descriptor for the currently
     opened file.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * In the *note gc: 5e. module, the new ‘get_count()’ function returns
     a 3-tuple containing the current collection counts for the three GC
     generations.  This is accounting information for the garbage
     collector; when these counts reach a specified threshold, a garbage
     collection sweep will be made.  The existing *note gc.collect():
     89c. function now takes an optional 'generation' argument of 0, 1,
     or 2 to specify which generation to collect.  (Contributed by Barry
     Warsaw.)

   * The ‘nsmallest()’ and ‘nlargest()’ functions in the *note heapq:
     67. module now support a ‘key’ keyword parameter similar to the one
     provided by the *note min(): d9f./*note max(): da0. functions and
     the ‘sort()’ methods.  For example:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L)  # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically
          ['longer still', 'longest']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len)   # Return two shortest elements
          ['short', 'medium']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note itertools.islice(): 9bf. function now accepts ‘None’ for
     the start and step arguments.  This makes it more compatible with
     the attributes of slice objects, so that you can now write the
     following:

          s = slice(5)     # Create slice object
          itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note format(): 431. function in the *note locale: 85. module
     has been modified and two new functions were added,
     ‘format_string()’ and ‘currency()’.

     The *note format(): 431. function’s 'val' parameter could
     previously be a string as long as no more than one %char specifier
     appeared; now the parameter must be exactly one %char specifier
     with no surrounding text.  An optional 'monetary' parameter was
     also added which, if ‘True’, will use the locale’s rules for
     formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three
     digits.

     To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
     ‘format_string()’ function that works like *note format(): 431. but
     also supports mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.

     A new ‘currency()’ function was also added that formats a number
     according to the current locale’s settings.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note mailbox: 8a. module underwent a massive rewrite to add
     the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them.  A
     new set of classes that include ‘mbox’, ‘MH’, and ‘Maildir’ are
     used to read mailboxes, and have an ‘add(message)’ method to add
     messages, ‘remove(key)’ to remove messages, and ‘lock()’/‘unlock()’
     to lock/unlock the mailbox.  The following example converts a
     maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one:

          import mailbox

          # 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing
          # individual messages.
          src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)
          dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')

          for msg in src:
              dest.add(msg)

     (Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson.  Funding was provided by
     Google’s 2005 Summer of Code.)

   * New module: the *note msilib: 91. module allows creating Microsoft
     Installer ‘.msi’ files and CAB files.  Some support for reading the
     ‘.msi’ database is also included.  (Contributed by Martin von
     Löwis.)

   * The *note nis: 9b. module now supports accessing domains other than
     the system default domain by supplying a 'domain' argument to the
     *note nis.match(): 12b7. and *note nis.maps(): 12b8. functions.
     (Contributed by Ben Bell.)

   * The *note operator: 9e. module’s ‘itemgetter()’ and ‘attrgetter()’
     functions now support multiple fields.  A call such as
     ‘operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')’ will return a function that
     retrieves the ‘a’ and ‘b’ attributes.  Combining this new feature
     with the ‘sort()’ method’s ‘key’ parameter lets you easily sort
     lists using multiple fields.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: 9f. module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the
     Optik library.  The ‘OptionParser’ class gained an ‘epilog’
     attribute, a string that will be printed after the help message,
     and a ‘destroy()’ method to break reference cycles created by the
     object.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The *note os: a0. module underwent several changes.  The
     ‘stat_float_times’ variable now defaults to true, meaning that
     *note os.stat(): 1c5. will now return time values as floats.  (This
     doesn’t necessarily mean that *note os.stat(): 1c5. will return
     times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems
     support such precision.)

     Constants named *note os.SEEK_SET: 1136, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1137,
     and *note os.SEEK_END: 1138. have been added; these are the
     parameters to the *note os.lseek(): fb9. function.  Two new
     constants for locking are *note os.O_SHLOCK: 12b9. and *note
     os.O_EXLOCK: 12ba.

     Two new functions, ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’, were added.  They’re
     similar the ‘waitpid()’ function which waits for a child process to
     exit and returns a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but
     ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’ return additional information.  ‘wait3()’
     doesn’t take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child
     process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of 'process-id',
     'exit-status', 'resource-usage' as returned from the *note
     resource.getrusage(): 12bb. function.  ‘wait4(pid)’ does take a
     process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)

     On FreeBSD, the *note os.stat(): 1c5. function now returns times
     with nanosecond resolution, and the returned object now has
     ‘st_gen’ and ‘st_birthtime’.  The ‘st_flags’ attribute is also
     available, if the platform supports it.  (Contributed by Antti
     Louko and Diego Pettenò.)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a4. module can now
     store lists of commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and
     execution stops.  Once breakpoint #1 has been created, enter
     ‘commands 1’ and enter a series of commands to be executed,
     finishing the list with ‘end’.  The command list can include
     commands that resume execution, such as ‘continue’ or ‘next’.
     (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)

   * The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer accept a
     return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 831. method;
     the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The ability
     to return ‘None’ was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes
     the removal of the feature.

   * The *note pkgutil: a8. module, containing various utility functions
     for finding packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302(1)’s import
     hooks and now also works for packages stored in ZIP-format
     archives.  (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)

   * The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included
     in the ‘Tools/pybench’ directory.  The pybench suite is an
     improvement on the commonly used ‘pystone.py’ program because
     pybench provides a more detailed measurement of the interpreter’s
     speed.  It times particular operations such as function calls,
     tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of
     performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
     single number as ‘pystone.py’ does.

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
     (Contributed by Trent Mick.)

   * The *note Queue: 1235. class provided by the ‘Queue’ module gained
     two new methods.  ‘join()’ blocks until all items in the queue have
     been retrieved and all processing work on the items have been
     completed.  Worker threads call the other new method,
     ‘task_done()’, to signal that processing for an item has been
     completed.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The old ‘regex’ and ‘regsub’ modules, which have been deprecated
     ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted.  Other deleted
     modules: ‘statcache’, ‘tzparse’, ‘whrandom’.

   * Also deleted: the ‘lib-old’ directory, which includes ancient
     modules such as ‘dircmp’ and ‘ni’, was removed.  ‘lib-old’ wasn’t
     on the default ‘sys.path’, so unless your programs explicitly added
     the directory to ‘sys.path’, this removal shouldn’t affect your
     code.

   * The *note rlcompleter: bc. module is no longer dependent on
     importing the *note readline: b9. module and therefore now works on
     non-Unix platforms.  (Patch from Robert Kiendl.)

   * The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note DocXMLRPCServer: 12f.
     classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC
     operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow
     only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an
     empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * The *note socket: cb. module now supports ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets on
     Linux, thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi.  Netlink sockets are
     a Linux-specific mechanism for communications between a user-space
     process and kernel code; an introductory article about them is at
     ‘https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356’.  In Python code,
     netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, ‘(pid,
     group_mask)’.

     Two new methods on socket objects, ‘recv_into(buffer)’ and
     ‘recvfrom_into(buffer)’, store the received data in an object that
     supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a
     string.  This means you can put the data directly into an array or
     a memory-mapped file.

     Socket objects also gained ‘getfamily()’, ‘gettype()’, and
     ‘getproto()’ accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and
     protocol values for the socket.

   * New module: the *note spwd: cd. module provides functions for
     accessing the shadow password database on systems that support
     shadow passwords.

   * The *note struct: d4. is now faster because it compiles format
     strings into ‘Struct’ objects with ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ methods.
     This is similar to how the *note re: b8. module lets you create
     compiled regular expression objects.  You can still use the
     module-level ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ functions; they’ll create
     ‘Struct’ objects and cache them.  Or you can use ‘Struct’ instances
     directly:

          s = struct.Struct('ih3s')

          data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')
          year, number, name = s.unpack(data)

     You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects
     directly using the ‘pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)’ and
     ‘unpack_from(buffer, offset)’ methods.  This lets you store data
     directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

     (‘Struct’ objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.  Support for buffer objects was added by
     Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the
     2.5 development process.  Information about the exact build version
     is available as the ‘sys.subversion’ variable, a 3-tuple of
     ‘(interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-range)’.  For example, at
     the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting ‘('CPython',
     'trunk', '45313:45315')’.

     This information is also available to C extensions via the *note
     Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12bc. function that returns a string of build
     information like this: ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006,
     07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * Another new function, *note sys._current_frames(): 12bd, returns
     the current stack frames for all running threads as a dictionary
     mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack frame currently
     active in that thread at the time the function is called.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘TarFile’ class in the *note tarfile: dd. module now has an
     ‘extractall()’ method that extracts all members from the archive
     into the current working directory.  It’s also possible to set a
     different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a
     subset of the archive’s members.

     The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be
     autodetected using the mode ‘'r|*'’.  (Contributed by Lars
     Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: ec. module now lets you set the stack size
     used when new threads are created.  The ‘stack_size([*size*])’
     function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying
     the optional 'size' parameter sets a new value.  Not all platforms
     support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and
     OS/2 all do.  (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

   * The *note unicodedata: 105. module has been updated to use version
     4.1.0 of the Unicode character database.  Version 3.2.0 is required
     by some specifications, so it’s still available as *note
     unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0: 12be.

   * New module: the *note uuid: 110. module generates universally
     unique identifiers (UUIDs) according to RFC 4122(2).  The RFC
     defines several different UUID versions that are generated from a
     starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly.  This
     module contains a ‘UUID’ class and functions named ‘uuid1()’,
     ‘uuid3()’, ‘uuid4()’, and ‘uuid5()’ to generate different versions
     of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in RFC 4122(3) and are
     not supported by this module.)

          >>> import uuid
          >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
          >>> uuid.uuid1()
          UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

          >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

          >>> # make a random UUID
          >>> uuid.uuid4()
          UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

          >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     (Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)

   * The *note weakref: 114. module’s ‘WeakKeyDictionary’ and
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’ types gained new methods for iterating over
     the weak references contained in the dictionary.  ‘iterkeyrefs()’
     and ‘keyrefs()’ methods were added to ‘WeakKeyDictionary’, and
     ‘itervaluerefs()’ and ‘valuerefs()’ were added to
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note webbrowser: 115. module received a number of
     enhancements.  It’s now usable as a script with ‘python -m
     webbrowser’, taking a URL as the argument; there are a number of
     switches to control the behaviour (‘-n’ for a new browser window,
     ‘-t’ for a new tab).  New module-level functions, ‘open_new()’ and
     ‘open_new_tab()’, were added to support this.  The module’s *note
     open(): 2a6. function supports an additional feature, an
     'autoraise' parameter that signals whether to raise the open window
     when possible.  A number of additional browsers were added to the
     supported list such as Firefox, Opera, Konqueror, and elinks.
     (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module now supports returning *note
     datetime: 22b. objects for the XML-RPC date type.  Supply
     ‘use_datetime=True’ to the *note loads(): 12bf. function or the
     ‘Unmarshaller’ class to enable this feature.  (Contributed by Skip
     Montanaro.)

   * The *note zipfile: 131. module now supports the ZIP64 version of
     the format, meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4
     GiB and can contain individual files larger than 4 GiB.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

   * The *note zlib: 133. module’s ‘Compress’ and ‘Decompress’ objects
     now support a *note copy(): 25. method that makes a copy of the
     object’s internal state and returns a new ‘Compress’ or
     ‘Decompress’ object.  (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)

* Menu:

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: The ctypes package,  Next: The ElementTree package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.1 The ctypes package
............................

The *note ctypes: 2a. package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added
to the standard library.  *note ctypes: 2a. lets you call arbitrary
functions in shared libraries or DLLs.  Long-time users may remember the
‘dl’ module, which provides functions for loading shared libraries and
calling functions in them.  The *note ctypes: 2a. package is much
fancier.

To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
‘CDLL’ class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
Once that’s done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
attributes of the ‘CDLL’ object.

     import ctypes

     libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
     result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")

Type constructors for the various C types are provided: ‘c_int()’,
‘c_float()’, ‘c_double()’, ‘c_char_p()’ (equivalent to char*), and so
forth.  Unlike Python’s types, the C versions are all mutable; you can
assign to their ‘value’ attribute to change the wrapped value.  Python
integers and strings will be automatically converted to the
corresponding C types, but for other types you must call the correct
type constructor.  (And I mean 'must'; getting it wrong will often
result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.)

You shouldn’t use ‘c_char_p()’ with a Python string when the C function
will be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed
to be immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs.  When you
need a modifiable memory area, use ‘create_string_buffer()’:

     s = "this is a string"
     buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
     libc.strfry(buf)

C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the
‘restype’ attribute of the function object to change this:

     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     -1783957616
     >>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double
     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     2.71828

*note ctypes: 2a. also provides a wrapper for Python’s C API as the
‘ctypes.pythonapi’ object.  This object does 'not' release the global
interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be
held when calling into the interpreter’s code.  There’s a *note
py_object: 12c2. type constructor that will create a *note PyObject:
6eb.* pointer.  A simple usage:

     import ctypes

     d = {}
     ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),
               ctypes.py_object("abc"),  ctypes.py_object(1))
     # d is now {'abc', 1}.

Don’t forget to use *note py_object(): 12c2.; if it’s omitted you end up
with a segmentation fault.

*note ctypes: 2a. has been around for a while, but people still write
and distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can’t rely on
*note ctypes: 2a. being present.  Perhaps developers will begin to write
Python wrappers atop a library accessed through *note ctypes: 2a.
instead of extension modules, now that *note ctypes: 2a. is included
with core Python.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180410025338/http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/’

     The pre-stdlib ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and
     FAQ.

The documentation for the *note ctypes: 2a. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The ElementTree package,  Next: The hashlib package,  Prev: The ctypes package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.2 The ElementTree package
.................................

A subset of Fredrik Lundh’s ElementTree library for processing XML has
been added to the standard library as ‘xml.etree’.  The available
modules are ‘ElementTree’, ‘ElementPath’, and ‘ElementInclude’ from
ElementTree 1.2.6.  The ‘cElementTree’ accelerator module is also
included.

The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using
ElementTree.  Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’.

ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes.  The
text content of the document is stored as the ‘text’ and ‘tail’
attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree
and the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types
of node, including ‘TextNode’.)

The most commonly used parsing function is ‘parse()’, that takes either
a string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and
returns an ‘ElementTree’ instance:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

     tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml')

     feed = urllib.urlopen(
               'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
     tree = ET.parse(feed)

Once you have an ‘ElementTree’ instance, you can call its ‘getroot()’
method to get the root ‘Element’ node.

There’s also an ‘XML()’ function that takes a string literal and returns
an ‘Element’ node (not an ‘ElementTree’).  This function provides a tidy
way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
literal:

     svg = ET.XML("""<svg width="10px" version="1.0">
                  </svg>""")
     svg.set('height', '320px')
     svg.append(elem1)

Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access
methods.  Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute
values, and list-like operations are used to access child nodes.

Operation                           Result
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘elem[n]’                           Returns n’th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem[m:n]’                         Returns list of m’th through n’th child
                                    elements.
                                    
                                    
‘len(elem)’                         Returns number of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘list(elem)’                        Returns list of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.append(elem2)’                Adds 'elem2' as a child.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.insert(index, elem2)’         Inserts 'elem2' at the specified location.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem[n]’                       Deletes n’th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.keys()’                       Returns list of attribute names.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.get(name)’                    Returns value of attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.set(name, value)’             Sets new value for attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.attrib’                       Retrieves the dictionary containing
                                    attributes.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem.attrib[name]’             Deletes attribute 'name'.
                                    

Comments and processing instructions are also represented as ‘Element’
nodes.  To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions:

     if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
         ...
     elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
         ...

To generate XML output, you should call the ‘ElementTree.write()’
method.  Like ‘parse()’, it can take either a string or a file-like
object:

     # Encoding is US-ASCII
     tree.write('output.xml')

     # Encoding is UTF-8
     f = open('output.xml', 'w')
     tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8')

(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII. For general XML
work, where an element’s name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters,
ASCII isn’t a very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if
an element’s name contains any characters with values greater than 127.
Therefore, it’s best to specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that
can handle any Unicode character.)

This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree
interfaces.  Please read the package’s official documentation for more
details.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’

     Official documentation for ElementTree.


File: python.info,  Node: The hashlib package,  Next: The sqlite3 package,  Prev: The ElementTree package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.3 The hashlib package
.............................

A new *note hashlib: 66. module, written by Gregory P. Smith, has been
added to replace the ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules.  *note hashlib: 66. adds
support for additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and
SHA-512).  When available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform
optimized implementations of algorithms.

The old ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib
to preserve backwards compatibility.  The new module’s interface is very
close to that of the old modules, but not identical.  The most
significant difference is that the constructor functions for creating
new hashing objects are named differently.

     # Old versions
     h = md5.md5()
     h = md5.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.md5()

     # Old versions
     h = sha.sha()
     h = sha.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.sha1()

     # Hash that weren't previously available
     h = hashlib.sha224()
     h = hashlib.sha256()
     h = hashlib.sha384()
     h = hashlib.sha512()

     # Alternative form
     h = hashlib.new('md5')          # Provide algorithm as a string

Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
‘update(string)’ hashes the specified string into the current digest
state, ‘digest()’ and ‘hexdigest()’ return the digest value as a binary
string or a string of hex digits, and *note copy(): 25. returns a new
hashing object with the same digest state.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The documentation for the *note hashlib: 66. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The sqlite3 package,  Next: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The hashlib package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.4 The sqlite3 package
.............................

The pysqlite module (‘https://www.pysqlite.org’), a wrapper for the
SQLite embedded database, has been added to the standard library under
the package name *note sqlite3: ce.

SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database
that doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the
database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language.  Some
applications can use SQLite for internal data storage.  It’s also
possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code
to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface
compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249(1).

If you’re compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source
tree doesn’t include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module.  You’ll
need to have the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling
Python, and the build process will compile the module when the necessary
headers are available.

To use the module, you must first create a ‘Connection’ object that
represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
‘/tmp/example’ file:

     conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example')

You can also supply the special name ‘:memory:’ to create a database in
RAM.

Once you have a ‘Connection’, you can create a ‘Cursor’ object and call
its ‘execute()’ method to perform SQL commands:

     c = conn.cursor()

     # Create table
     c.execute('''create table stocks
     (date text, trans text, symbol text,
      qty real, price real)''')

     # Insert a row of data
     c.execute("""insert into stocks
               values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")

Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python
variables.  You shouldn’t assemble your query using Python’s string
operations because doing so is insecure; it makes your program
vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  Put ‘?’ as a
placeholder wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple
of values as the second argument to the cursor’s ‘execute()’ method.
(Other database modules may use a different placeholder, such as ‘%s’ or
‘:1’.)  For example:

     # Never do this -- insecure!
     symbol = 'IBM'
     c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol)

     # Do this instead
     t = (symbol,)
     c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t)

     # Larger example
     for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
               ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00),
               ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
              ):
         c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)

To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either
treat the cursor as an iterator, call the cursor’s ‘fetchone()’ method
to retrieve a single matching row, or call ‘fetchall()’ to get a list of
the matching rows.

This example uses the iterator form:

     >>> c = conn.cursor()
     >>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price')
     >>> for row in c:
     ...    print row
     ...
     (u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001)
     (u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
     (u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0)
     (u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0)
     >>>

For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see
‘https://www.sqlite.org’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://www.pysqlite.org’

     The pysqlite web page.

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
     available data types for the supported SQL dialect.

The documentation for the *note sqlite3: ce. module.

PEP 249(2) - Database API Specification 2.0

     PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The sqlite3 package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.16.13.5 The wsgiref package
.............................

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard
interface between web servers and Python web applications and is
described in PEP 333(1).  The *note wsgiref: 118. package is a reference
implementation of the WSGI specification.

The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI
application; this server is useful for debugging but isn’t intended for
production use.  Setting up a server takes only a few lines of code:

     from wsgiref import simple_server

     wsgi_app = ...

     host = ''
     port = 8000
     httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app)
     httpd.serve_forever()

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160331090247/http://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/’

     A central web site for WSGI-related resources.

PEP 333(2) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0

     PEP written by Phillip J. Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 5,  Prev: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.14 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion, in a
     complex migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly
     carried out by Martin von Löwis.  The procedure was developed as
     PEP 347(1).

   * Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called
     Prevent, provided the results of their examination of the Python
     source code.  The analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly
     fixed.  Many of the bugs were refcounting problems, often occurring
     in error-handling code.  See ‘https://scan.coverity.com’ for the
     statistics.

   * The largest change to the C API came from PEP 353(2), which
     modifies the interpreter to use a *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. type
     definition instead of int.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353;
     Using ssize_t as the index type: 12a0. for a discussion of this
     change.

   * The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal, no
     longer generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree.  Instead
     the parse tree is converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST),
     and it is the abstract syntax tree that’s traversed to produce the
     bytecode.

     It’s possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the
     *note compile(): 56d. built-in and specifying ‘_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     as the value of the 'flags' parameter:

          from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST
          ast = compile("""a=0
          for i in range(10):
              a += i
          """, "<string>", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST)

          assignment = ast.body[0]
          for_loop = ast.body[1]

     No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet,
     but PEP 339(3) discusses the design.  To start learning about the
     code, read the definition of the various AST nodes in
     ‘Parser/Python.asdl’.  A Python script reads this file and
     generates a set of C structure definitions in
     ‘Include/Python-ast.h’.  The ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ and
     ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’, defined in ‘Include/pythonrun.h’, take
     Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing
     the contents.  This AST can then be turned into a code object by
     ‘PyAST_Compile()’.  For more information, read the source code, and
     then ask questions on python-dev.

     The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton’s management, and
     implemented by (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan,
     Grant Edwards, John Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim
     Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil Schemenauer, plus the participants in
     a number of AST sprints at conferences such as PyCon.

   * Evan Jones’s patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon
     DC 2005, was applied.  Python 2.4 allocated small objects in
     256K-sized arenas, but never freed arenas.  With this patch, Python
     will free arenas when they’re empty.  The net effect is that on
     some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python’s memory
     usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be
     returned to the operating system.  (Implemented by Evan Jones, and
     reworked by Tim Peters.)

     Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful
     when allocating memory.  Python’s API has many different functions
     for allocating memory that are grouped into families.  For example,
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4, *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc, and *note
     PyMem_Free(): 12cd. are one family that allocates raw memory, while
     *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12ce, and
     *note PyObject_Free(): ae3. are another family that’s supposed to
     be used for creating Python objects.

     Previously these different families all reduced to the platform’s
     ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ functions.  This meant it didn’t matter if
     you got things wrong and allocated memory with the ‘PyMem’ function
     but freed it with the ‘PyObject’ function.  With 2.5’s changes to
     obmalloc, these families now do different things and mismatches
     will probably result in a segfault.  You should carefully test your
     C extension modules with Python 2.5.

   * The built-in set types now have an official C API. Call *note
     PySet_New(): 12cf. and *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 12d0. to create a
     new set, *note PySet_Add(): 12d1. and *note PySet_Discard(): 12d2.
     to add and remove elements, and *note PySet_Contains(): 12d3. and
     *note PySet_Size(): 12d4. to examine the set’s state.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the
     Python interpreter by calling the *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12bc.
     function that returns a string of build information like this:
     ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by
     Barry Warsaw.)

   * Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local
     to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be
     used.  ‘Py_LOCAL(type)’ declares the function as returning a value
     of the specified 'type' and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
     ‘Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)’ does the same thing and also requests the
     function be inlined.  If macro ‘PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE’ is defined
     before ‘python.h’ is included, a set of more aggressive
     optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the
     results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code
     faster.  (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * ‘PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)’ can now accept a tuple of
     base classes as its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl.)

   * The ‘PyErr_Warn()’ function for issuing warnings is now deprecated
     in favour of ‘PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)’ which
     lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this
     function and the caller.  A 'stacklevel' of 1 is the function
     calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 12d5, 2 is the function above that,
     and so forth.  (Added by Neal Norwitz.)

   * The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but the code can now
     be compiled with a C++ compiler without errors.  (Implemented by
     Anthony Baxter, Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)

   * The ‘PyRange_New()’ function was removed.  It was never documented,
     never used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error
     checking.  In the unlikely case that your extensions were using it,
     you can replace it by something like the following:

          range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll",
                                        start, stop, step);

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0347/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0339/


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.16.14.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the
     ‘dlopen()’ function instead of MacOS-specific functions.

   * MacOS X: an ‘--enable-universalsdk’ switch was added to the
     ‘configure’ script that compiles the interpreter as a universal
     binary able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-2573(1).)

   * Windows: ‘.dll’ is no longer supported as a filename extension for
     extension modules.  ‘.pyd’ is now the only filename extension that
     will be searched for.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2573


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 5,  Next: Acknowledgements<3>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.15 Porting to Python 2.5
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn’t have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.

   * Previously, the ‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a
     frame object.  Because of the PEP 342(1) changes described in
     section *note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 128c, it’s now
     possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’.

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 12ac, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.
     Previously such comparisons would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     873. exception.

   * Library: the *note csv: 29. module is now stricter about multi-line
     quoted fields.  If your files contain newlines embedded within
     fields, the input should be split into lines in a manner which
     preserves the newline characters.

   * Library: the *note locale: 85. module’s *note format(): 431.
     function’s would previously accept any string as long as no more
     than one %char specifier appeared.  In Python 2.5, the argument
     must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.

   * Library: The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer
     accept a return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 831.
     method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The
     modules also no longer accept the deprecated 'bin' keyword
     parameter.

   * Library: The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 12f. classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that
     constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the
     default is to allow only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’
     to ‘None’ or an empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * C API: Many functions now use *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. instead of int
     to allow processing more data on 64-bit machines.  Extension code
     may need to make the same change to avoid warnings and to support
     64-bit machines.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353; Using
     ssize_t as the index type: 12a0. for a discussion of this change.

   * C API: The obmalloc changes mean that you must be careful to not
     mix usage of the ‘PyMem_*’ and ‘PyObject_*’ families of functions.
     Memory allocated with one family’s ‘*_Malloc’ must be freed with
     the corresponding family’s ‘*_Free’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<3>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 5,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.16.16 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel,
Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe,
Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike Rovner, Scott Weikart,
Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.17 What’s New in Python 2.4
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on
March 30, 2005.

Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release.  It doesn’t introduce as many
changes as the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the
conservative 2.3 release.  The most significant new language features
are function decorators and generator expressions; most other changes
are to the standard library.

According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502
bugs fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4.  Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of
every single new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to
each feature.  For full details, you should refer to the documentation
for Python 2.4, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python
Reference Manual.  Often you will be referred to the PEP for a
particular new feature for explanations of the implementation and design
rationale.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<14>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.1 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
------------------------------------

Python 2.3 introduced the ‘sets’ module.  C implementations of set data
types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
‘set(iterable)’ and ‘frozenset(iterable)’.  They provide high speed
operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from
sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections,
differences, and symmetric differences.

     >>> a = set('abracadabra')              # form a set from a string
     >>> 'z' in a                            # fast membership testing
     False
     >>> a                                   # unique letters in a
     set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
     >>> ''.join(a)                          # convert back into a string
     'arbcd'

     >>> b = set('alacazam')                 # form a second set
     >>> a - b                               # letters in a but not in b
     set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
     >>> a | b                               # letters in either a or b
     set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
     >>> a & b                               # letters in both a and b
     set(['a', 'c'])
     >>> a ^ b                               # letters in a or b but not both
     set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])

     >>> a.add('z')                          # add a new element
     >>> a.update('wxy')                     # add multiple new elements
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])
     >>> a.remove('x')                       # take one element out
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z'])

The *note frozenset(): 3e5. type is an immutable version of *note set():
3e4.  Since it is immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary
key or as a member of another set.

The ‘sets’ module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if
you wish to subclass the ‘Set’ or ‘ImmutableSet’ classes.  There are
currently no plans to deprecate the module.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Next: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Prev: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.2 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes
another step forward in Python 2.4.  In 2.3, certain integer operations
that would behave differently after int/long unification triggered *note
FutureWarning: 248. warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64
bits (depending on your platform).  In 2.4, these expressions no longer
produce a warning and instead produce a different result that’s usually
a long integer.

The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy
hexadecimal and octal constants.  For example, ‘2 << 32’ results in a
warning in 2.3, evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms.  In Python 2.4,
this expression now returns the correct answer, 8589934592.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR. The changes for 2.4
     were implemented by Kalle Svensson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Next: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.3 PEP 289: Generator Expressions
-------------------------------------

The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the *note itertools:
7f. module make it easier to write programs that loop through large data
sets without having the entire data set in memory at one time.  List
comprehensions don’t fit into this picture very well because they
produce a Python list object containing all of the items.  This
unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which can be a problem
if your data set is very large.  When trying to write a functionally
styled program, it would be natural to write something like:

     links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed]
     for link in links:
         ...

instead of

     for link in get_all_links():
         if link.followed:
             continue
         ...

The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you’re
dealing with a large number of link objects you’d have to write the
second form to avoid having all link objects in memory at the same time.

Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don’t
materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will
return elements one by one.  The above example could be written as:

     links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
     for link in links:
         ...

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as
in the above example.  The parentheses signalling a function call also
count, so if you want to create an iterator that will be immediately
passed to a function you could write:

     print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small
ways.  Most notably, the loop variable ('obj' in the above example) is
not accessible outside of the generator expression.  List comprehensions
leave the variable assigned to its last value; future versions of Python
will change this, making list comprehensions match generator expressions
in this respect.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 289(1) - Generator Expressions

     Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with
     early efforts steered by Hye-Shik Chang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Next: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Prev: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.4 PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
--------------------------------------------

Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative
mechanism for substituting variables into strings; this style of
substitution may be better for applications where untrained users need
to edit templates.

The usual way of substituting variables by name is the ‘%’ operator:

     >>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}
     '2: The Best of Times'

When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the ‘i’ or
‘s’ after the closing parenthesis.  This isn’t a big problem if the
template is in a Python module, because you run the code, get an
“Unsupported format character” *note ValueError: 189, and fix the
problem.  However, consider an application such as Mailman where
template strings or translations are being edited by users who aren’t
aware of the Python language.  The format string’s syntax is complicated
to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it’s difficult to
provide helpful feedback to them.

PEP 292 adds a ‘Template’ class to the *note string: d2. module that
uses ‘$’ to indicate a substitution:

     >>> import string
     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
     '2: The Best of Times'

If a key is missing from the dictionary, the ‘substitute()’ method will
raise a *note KeyError: 903.  There’s also a ‘safe_substitute()’ method
that ignores missing keys:

     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
     '3: $title'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 292(1) - Simpler String Substitutions

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Next: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Prev: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.5 PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
----------------------------------------------------

Python 2.2 extended Python’s object model by adding static methods and
class methods, but it didn’t extend Python’s syntax to provide any new
way of defining static or class methods.  Instead, you had to write a
*note def: 12e2. statement in the usual way, and pass the resulting
method to a *note staticmethod(): 612. or *note classmethod(): 252.
function that would wrap up the function as a method of the new type.
Your code would look like this:

     class C:
        def meth (cls):
            ...

        meth = classmethod(meth)   # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method

If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the
*note classmethod(): 252. invocation after the function body.

The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions
more readable, but at the time of 2.2’s release a good syntax was not
obvious.  Today a good syntax 'still' isn’t obvious but users are asking
for easier access to the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added
to meet this need.

The new feature is called “function decorators”.  The name comes from
the idea that *note classmethod(): 252, *note staticmethod(): 612, and
friends are storing additional information on a function object; they’re
'decorating' functions with more details.

The notation borrows from Java and uses the ‘'@'’ character as an
indicator.  Using the new syntax, the example above would be written:

     class C:

        @classmethod
        def meth (cls):
            ...

The ‘@classmethod’ is shorthand for the ‘meth=classmethod(meth)’
assignment.  More generally, if you have the following:

     @A
     @B
     @C
     def f ():
         ...

It’s equivalent to the following pre-decorator code:

     def f(): ...
     f = A(B(C(f)))

Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one
decorator per line, and can’t be on the same line as the def statement,
meaning that ‘@A def f(): ...’ is illegal.  You can only decorate
function definitions, either at the module level or inside a class; you
can’t decorate class definitions.

A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated
as an argument and returns either the same function or some new object.
The return value of the decorator need not be callable (though it
typically is), unless further decorators will be applied to the result.
It’s easy to write your own decorators.  The following simple example
just sets an attribute on the function object:

     >>> def deco(func):
     ...    func.attr = 'decorated'
     ...    return func
     ...
     >>> @deco
     ... def f(): pass
     ...
     >>> f
     <function f at 0x402ef0d4>
     >>> f.attr
     'decorated'
     >>>

As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks
that the supplied argument is an integer:

     def require_int (func):
         def wrapper (arg):
             assert isinstance(arg, int)
             return func(arg)

         return wrapper

     @require_int
     def p1 (arg):
         print arg

     @require_int
     def p2(arg):
         print arg*2

An example in PEP 318(1) contains a fancier version of this idea that
lets you both specify the required type and check the returned type.

Decorator functions can take arguments.  If arguments are supplied, your
decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a
new decorator function; this function must take a single function and
return a function, as previously described.  In other words, ‘@A @B
@C(args)’ becomes:

     def f(): ...
     _deco = C(args)
     f = A(B(_deco(f)))

Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it’s not too
difficult.

A small related change makes the *note func_name: 117e. attribute of
functions writable.  This attribute is used to display function names in
tracebacks, so decorators should change the name of any new function
that’s constructed and returned.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 318(2) - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes

     Written by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro.  Several
     people wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one
     that was actually checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark
     Russell.

‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary’

     This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Next: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Prev: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.6 PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
---------------------------------

A new built-in function, ‘reversed(seq)’, takes a sequence and returns
an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse
order.

     >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)):
     ...    print i
     ...
     3
     2
     1

Compared to extended slicing, such as ‘range(1,4)[::-1]’, *note
reversed(): 6a9. is easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially
less memory.

Note that *note reversed(): 6a9. only accepts sequences, not arbitrary
iterators.  If you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to a
list with *note list(): 422.

     >>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
     >>> for line in reversed(list(input)):
     ...   print line
     ...
     root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh
       ...

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 322(1) - Reverse Iteration

     Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Next: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Prev: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.7 PEP 324: New subprocess Module
-------------------------------------

The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess,
offering different features and different levels of complexity.
‘os.system(command)’ is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process
which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about
escaping the shell’s metacharacters).  The ‘popen2’ module offers
classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the
subprocess, but the naming is confusing.  The *note subprocess: d5.
module cleans this up, providing a unified interface that offers all the
features you might need.

Instead of ‘popen2’’s collection of classes, *note subprocess: d5.
contains a single class called *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. whose
constructor supports a number of different keyword arguments.

     class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None,
                 stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,
                 preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False,
                 cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False,
                 startupinfo=None, creationflags=0):

'args' is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to
the program executed as the subprocess.  (If the 'shell' argument is
true, 'args' can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell
for interpretation, just as *note os.system(): 12e5. does.)

'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' specify what the subprocess’s input,
output, and error streams will be.  You can provide a file object or a
file descriptor, or you can use the constant ‘subprocess.PIPE’ to create
a pipe between the subprocess and the parent.

The constructor has a number of handy options:

   * 'close_fds' requests that all file descriptors be closed before
     running the subprocess.

   * 'cwd' specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will
     be executed (defaulting to whatever the parent’s working directory
     is).

   * 'env' is a dictionary specifying environment variables.

   * 'preexec_fn' is a function that gets called before the child is
     started.

   * 'universal_newlines' opens the child’s input and output using
     Python’s *note universal newlines: bc2. feature.

Once you’ve created the ‘Popen’ instance, you can call its ‘wait()’
method to pause until the subprocess has exited, ‘poll()’ to check if
it’s exited without pausing, or ‘communicate(data)’ to send the string
'data' to the subprocess’s standard input.  ‘communicate(data)’ then
reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or
standard error, returning a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

‘call()’ is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the ‘Popen’
constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status
code of the subprocess.  It can serve as a safer analog to *note
os.system(): 12e5.:

     sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb'])
     if sts == 0:
         # Success
         ...
     else:
         # dpkg returned an error
         ...

The command is invoked without use of the shell.  If you really do want
to use the shell, you can add ‘shell=True’ as a keyword argument and
provide a string instead of a sequence:

     sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True)

The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how
they’d be translated into Python code that uses *note subprocess: d5.
Reading this section of the PEP is highly recommended.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 324(1) - subprocess - New process module

     Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from
     Fredrik Lundh and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Next: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Prev: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.8 PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
---------------------------------

Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the
underlying C double type, as a data type.  However, while most
programming languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even
programmers) are unaware that floating-point numbers don’t represent
certain decimal fractions accurately.  The new ‘Decimal’ type can
represent these fractions accurately, up to a user-specified precision
limit.

* Menu:

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::


File: python.info,  Node: Why is Decimal needed?,  Next: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.17.8.1 Why is Decimal needed?
...............................

The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point
numbers.  FP numbers are made up of three components:

   * The sign, which is positive or negative.

   * The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number followed by a
     fractional part.  For example, ‘1.01’ in base-2 notation is ‘1 +
     0/2 + 1/4’, or 1.25 in decimal notation.

   * The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the
     number represented.

For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01
(in binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn’t need to be
shifted).  The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent
is 2 because the mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the
exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals 5.

Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a
standard called IEEE 754.  C’s double type is usually implemented as a
64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa.
This means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision.
If you’re trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly,
the expansion is cut off after 52 bits.  Unfortunately, most software
needs to produce output in base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are
often repeating decimals in binary.  For example, 1.1 decimal is binary
‘1.0001100110011 ...’; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256 plus an infinite number
of additional terms.  IEEE 754 has to chop off that infinitely repeated
decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is slightly inaccurate.

Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed:

     >>> 1.1
     1.1000000000000001

The inaccuracy isn’t always visible when you print the number because
the FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and
most C libraries try to produce sensible output.  Even if it’s not
displayed, however, the inaccuracy is still there and subsequent
operations can magnify the error.

For many applications this doesn’t matter.  If I’m plotting points and
displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and
1.1000000000000001 is too small to be visible.  Reports often limit
output to a certain number of decimal places, and if you round the
number to two or three or even eight decimal places, the error is never
apparent.  However, for applications where it does matter, it’s a lot of
work to implement your own custom arithmetic routines.

Hence, the ‘Decimal’ type was created.


File: python.info,  Node: The Decimal type,  Next: The Context type,  Prev: Why is Decimal needed?,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.17.8.2 The ‘Decimal’ type
...........................

A new module, *note decimal: 35, was added to Python’s standard library.
It contains two classes, ‘Decimal’ and ‘Context’.  ‘Decimal’ instances
represent numbers, and ‘Context’ instances are used to wrap up various
settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.

‘Decimal’ instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
numbers; once it’s been created, you can’t change the value an instance
represents.  ‘Decimal’ instances can be created from integers or
strings:

     >>> import decimal
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1972)
     Decimal("1972")
     >>> decimal.Decimal("1.1")
     Decimal("1.1")

You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa
represented as a tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent:

     >>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2))
     Decimal("-14.75")

Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1
is negative.

Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should
the FP number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly
1.1, or for 1.1 plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced?  The decision
was to dodge the issue and leave such a conversion out of the API.
Instead, you should convert the floating-point number into a string
using the desired precision and pass the string to the ‘Decimal’
constructor:

     >>> f = 1.1
     >>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
     Decimal("1.1")
     >>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
     Decimal("1.100000000000")

Once you have ‘Decimal’ instances, you can perform the usual
mathematical operations on them.  One limitation: exponentiation
requires an integer exponent:

     >>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72')
     >>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73')
     >>> a+b
     Decimal("37.45")
     >>> a-b
     Decimal("33.99")
     >>> a*b
     Decimal("61.7956")
     >>> a/b
     Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902")
     >>> a ** 2
     Decimal("1275.9184")
     >>> a**b
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)

You can combine ‘Decimal’ instances with integers, but not with
floating-point numbers:

     >>> a + 4
     Decimal("39.72")
     >>> a + 4.5
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
     >>>

‘Decimal’ numbers can be used with the *note math: 8d. and *note cmath:
18. modules, but note that they’ll be immediately converted to
floating-point numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a
possible loss of precision and accuracy.  You’ll also get back a regular
floating-point number and not a ‘Decimal’.

     >>> import math, cmath
     >>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
     >>> math.sqrt(d)
     351364.18288201344
     >>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
     351364.18288201344j

‘Decimal’ instances have a ‘sqrt()’ method that returns a ‘Decimal’, but
if you need other things such as trigonometric functions you’ll have to
implement them.

     >>> d.sqrt()
     Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")


File: python.info,  Node: The Context type,  Prev: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.17.8.3 The ‘Context’ type
...........................

Instances of the ‘Context’ class encapsulate several settings for
decimal operations:

   * ‘prec’ is the precision, the number of decimal places.

   * ‘rounding’ specifies the rounding mode.  The *note decimal: 35.
     module has constants for the various possibilities: ‘ROUND_DOWN’,
     ‘ROUND_CEILING’, ‘ROUND_HALF_EVEN’, and various others.

   * ‘traps’ is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering
     certain error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value
     is returned.  Some examples of error conditions are division by
     zero, loss of precision, and overflow.

There’s a thread-local default context available by calling
‘getcontext()’; you can change the properties of this context to alter
the default precision, rounding, or trap handling.  The following
example shows the effect of changing the precision of the default
context:

     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec
     28
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429")
     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.142857143")

The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can
either return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or
exceptions can be raised:

     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0
     >>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Decimal("Infinity")
     >>>

The ‘Context’ instance also has various methods for formatting numbers
such as ‘to_eng_string()’ and ‘to_sci_string()’.

For more information, see the documentation for the *note decimal: 35.
module, which includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 327(1) - Decimal Data Type

     Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric
     Price, Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.

http://www.lahey.com/float.htm(2)

     The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems
     that floating-point inaccuracy can cause.

‘https://speleotrove.com/decimal/’

     A description of a decimal-based representation.  This
     representation is being proposed as a standard, and underlies the
     new Python decimal type.  Much of this material was written by Mike
     Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0327/

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072523/http://www.lahey.com/float.htm


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Next: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Prev: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.9 PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
----------------------------------

One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier
to import many names from a module.  In a ‘from module import names’
statement, 'names' is a sequence of names separated by commas.  If the
sequence is very long, you can either write multiple imports from the
same module, or you can use backslashes to escape the line endings like
this:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\
                 SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 resolve_dotted_attribute

The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names
within parentheses.  Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized
expression, so the backslashes are no longer needed:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer,
                                     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     resolve_dotted_attribute)

The PEP also proposes that all *note import: 3ed. statements be absolute
imports, with a leading ‘.’ character to indicate a relative import.
This part of the PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was
completed for Python 2.5.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 328(1) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     Written by Aahz.  Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima
     Dorfman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Next: Other Language Changes<14>,  Prev: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.10 PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
------------------------------------------------------------

The *note locale: 85. modules lets Python software select various
conversions and display conventions that are localized to a particular
country or language.  However, the module was careful to not change the
numeric locale because various functions in Python’s implementation
required that the numeric locale remain set to the ‘'C'’ locale.  Often
this was because the code was using the C library’s ‘atof()’ function.

Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used
third-party C libraries, however, because they wouldn’t have the correct
locale set.  The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface
widgets weren’t displaying numbers in the current locale.

The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the
Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale
setting:

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)’ both
     convert a string to a C double.

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)’ converts a double
     to an ASCII string.

The code for these functions came from the GLib library
(https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/(1)), whose developers kindly
relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python
Software Foundation.  The *note locale: 85. module can now change the
numeric locale, letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct
results.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 331(2) - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

     Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
http://web.archive.org/web/20210306104320/https://developer.gnome.org/glib/2.26/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0331/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<14>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Prev: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.11 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python
language.

   * Decorators for functions and methods were added ( PEP 318(1)).

   * Built-in *note set(): 3e4. and *note frozenset(): 3e5. types were
     added ( PEP 218(2)).  Other new built-ins include the
     ‘reversed(seq)’ function ( PEP 322(3)).

   * Generator expressions were added ( PEP 289(4)).

   * Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to
     32 or 64 bits ( PEP 237(5)).

   * You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a ‘from
     module import names’ statement ( PEP 328(6)).

   * The *note dict.update(): 12ed. method now accepts the same argument
     forms as the *note dict: 240. constructor.  This includes any
     mapping, any iterable of key/value pairs, and keyword arguments.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The string methods ‘ljust()’, ‘rjust()’, and ‘center()’ now take an
     optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a
     space.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Strings also gained an ‘rsplit()’ method that works like the
     ‘split()’ method but splits from the end of the string.
     (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)

          >>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1)
          ['www', 'python.org']
          'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1)
          ['www.python', 'org']

   * Three keyword parameters, 'cmp', 'key', and 'reverse', were added
     to the ‘sort()’ method of lists.  These parameters make some common
     usages of ‘sort()’ simpler.  All of these parameters are optional.

     For the 'cmp' parameter, the value should be a comparison function
     that takes two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how
     the parameters compare.  This function will then be used to sort
     the list.  Previously this was the only parameter that could be
     provided to ‘sort()’.

     'key' should be a single-parameter function that takes a list
     element and returns a comparison key for the element.  The list is
     then sorted using the comparison keys.  The following example sorts
     a list case-insensitively:

          >>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> L.sort()                 # Case-sensitive sort
          >>> L
          ['A', 'D', 'b', 'c']
          >>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list
          >>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower())
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> # Old-fashioned way
          >>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower()))
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     The last example, which uses the 'cmp' parameter, is the old way to
     perform a case-insensitive sort.  It works but is slower than using
     a 'key' parameter.  Using 'key' calls ‘lower()’ method once for
     each element in the list while using 'cmp' will call it twice for
     each comparison, so using 'key' saves on invocations of the
     ‘lower()’ method.

     For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often
     possible to avoid a *note lambda: 1145. expression by using an
     unbound method instead.  For example, the above case-insensitive
     sort is best written as:

          >>> L.sort(key=str.lower)
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     Finally, the 'reverse' parameter takes a Boolean value.  If the
     value is true, the list will be sorted into reverse order.  Instead
     of ‘L.sort(); L.reverse()’, you can now write
     ‘L.sort(reverse=True)’.

     The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable.  This means
     that two entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order
     as they were input.  For example, you can sort a list of people by
     name, and then sort the list by age, resulting in a list sorted by
     age where people with the same age are in name-sorted order.

     (All changes to ‘sort()’ contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * There is a new built-in function ‘sorted(iterable)’ that works like
     the in-place *note list.sort(): a46. method but can be used in
     expressions.  The differences are:

   * the input may be any iterable;

   * a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and

   * the expression returns the new sorted copy

          >>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)]       # usable in a list comprehension
          [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
          >>> L                               # original is left unchanged
          [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> sorted('Monty Python')          # any iterable may be an input
          [' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y']

          >>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values
          >>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5)
          >>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()):
          ...     print k, v
          ...
          black 4
          blue 2
          green 3
          red 1
          yellow 5

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The interpreter gained a new switch, *note -m: 3ec, that takes a
     name, searches for the corresponding module on ‘sys.path’, and runs
     the module as a script.  For example, you can now run the Python
     profiler with ‘python -m profile’.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * The ‘eval(expr, globals, locals)’ and ‘execfile(filename, globals,
     locals)’ functions and the ‘exec’ statement now accept any mapping
     type for the 'locals' parameter.  Previously this had to be a
     regular Python dictionary.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note zip(): 608. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list if called with no arguments.  Previously they
     raised a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception.  This makes them more
     suitable for use with variable length argument lists:

          >>> def transpose(array):
          ...    return zip(*array)
          ...
          >>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
          [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
          >>> transpose([])
          []

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.  The
     incomplete module object left behind would fool further imports of
     the same module into succeeding, leading to confusing errors.
     (Fixed by Tim Peters.)

   * *note None: 488. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<13>,  Up: Other Language Changes<14>

1.17.11.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now
     run about one-third faster.  The inner loops for dictionaries were
     also optimized, resulting in performance boosts for ‘keys()’,
     ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘iterkeys()’, ‘itervalues()’, and
     ‘iteritems()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for
     speed and for space efficiency.  Appending and popping from lists
     now runs faster due to more efficient code paths and less frequent
     use of the underlying system ‘realloc()’.  List comprehensions also
     benefit.  ‘list.extend()’ was also optimized and no longer converts
     its argument into a temporary list before extending the base list.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note list(): 422, *note tuple(): 4ff, *note map(): 6a7, *note
     filter(): 6a8, and *note zip(): 608. now run several times faster
     with non-sequence arguments that supply a ‘__len__()’ method.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The methods ‘list.__getitem__()’, ‘dict.__getitem__()’, and
     ‘dict.__contains__()’ are now implemented as ‘method_descriptor’
     objects rather than ‘wrapper_descriptor’ objects.  This form of
     access doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for
     use as arguments to functionals: ‘map(mydict.__getitem__,
     keylist)’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Added a new opcode, ‘LIST_APPEND’, that simplifies the generated
     bytecode for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a
     third.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to produce
     shorter, faster bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is
     more readable.  (Enhanced by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * String concatenations in statements of the form ‘s = s + "abc"’ and
     ‘s += "abc"’ are now performed more efficiently in certain
     circumstances.  This optimization won’t be present in other Python
     implementations such as Jython, so you shouldn’t rely on it; using
     the ‘join()’ method of strings is still recommended when you want
     to efficiently glue a large number of strings together.
     (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the
pystone benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than
Python 2.2.  (pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it’s the
most commonly used measurement of Python’s performance.  Your own
applications may show greater or smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<14>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.12 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ module’s ‘loop()’ function now has a 'count'
     parameter that lets you perform a limited number of passes through
     the polling loop.  The default is still to loop forever.

   * The *note base64: e. module now has more complete RFC 3548(1)
     support for Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding,
     including optional case folding and optional alternative alphabets.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note bisect: 11. module now has an underlying C implementation
     for improved performance.  (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)

   * The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by
     Hye-Shik Chang, was integrated into 2.4.  The new encodings are:

   * Chinese (PRC): gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz

   * Chinese (ROC): big5, cp950

   * 
     Japanese: cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp,

          iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext,
          iso-2022-jp-2004, shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004

   * Korean: cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr

   * Some other new encodings were added: HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11,
     ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, and TIS-620.

   * The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial
     input.  Previously the ‘StreamReader’ class would try to read more
     data, making it impossible to resume decoding from the stream.  The
     ‘read()’ method will now return as much data as it can and future
     calls will resume decoding where previous ones left off.
     (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * There is a new *note collections: 1d. module for various
     specialized collection datatypes.  Currently it contains just one
     type, ‘deque’, a double-ended queue that supports efficiently
     adding and removing elements from either end:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('ghi')        # make a new deque with three items
          >>> d.append('j')           # add a new entry to the right side
          >>> d.appendleft('f')       # add a new entry to the left side
          >>> d                       # show the representation of the deque
          deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
          >>> d.pop()                 # return and remove the rightmost item
          'j'
          >>> d.popleft()             # return and remove the leftmost item
          'f'
          >>> list(d)                 # list the contents of the deque
          ['g', 'h', 'i']
          >>> 'h' in d                # search the deque
          True

     Several modules, such as the ‘Queue’ and *note threading: ec.
     modules, now take advantage of *note collections.deque: 3e7. for
     improved performance.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note ConfigParser: 22. classes have been enhanced slightly.
     The *note read(): 12f0. method now returns a list of the files that
     were successfully parsed, and the *note set(): 1115. method raises
     *note TypeError: 2c4. if passed a 'value' argument that isn’t a
     string.  (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)

   * The *note curses: 2b. module now supports the ncurses extension
     ‘use_default_colors()’.  On platforms where the terminal supports
     transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent
     background.  (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)

   * The *note difflib: 36. module now includes an ‘HtmlDiff’ class that
     creates an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two
     versions of a text.  (Contributed by Dan Gass.)

   * The *note email: 3a. package was updated to version 3.0, which
     dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python
     versions earlier than 2.3.  The 3.0 version of the package uses a
     new incremental parser for MIME messages, available in the
     ‘email.FeedParser’ module.  The new parser doesn’t require reading
     the entire message into memory, and doesn’t raise exceptions if a
     message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the
     ‘defect’ attribute of the message.  (Developed by Anthony Baxter,
     Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters, and others.)

   * The *note heapq: 67. module has been converted to C. The resulting
     tenfold improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling
     high volumes of data.  In addition, the module has two new
     functions ‘nlargest()’ and ‘nsmallest()’ that use heaps to find the
     N largest or smallest values in a dataset without the expense of a
     full sort.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note httplib: 6c. module now contains constants for HTTP
     status codes defined in various HTTP-related RFC documents.
     Constants have names such as ‘OK’, ‘CREATED’, ‘CONTINUE’, and
     ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’; use pydoc to get a full list.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Eland.)

   * The *note imaplib: 72. module now supports IMAP’s THREAD command
     (contributed by Yves Dionne) and new ‘deleteacl()’ and ‘myrights()’
     methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin).

   * The *note itertools: 7f. module gained a ‘groupby(iterable[,
     *func*])’ function.  'iterable' is something that can be iterated
     over to return a stream of elements, and the optional 'func'
     parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key
     value; if omitted, the key is simply the element itself.
     ‘groupby()’ then groups the elements into subsequences which have
     matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples
     containing the key value and an iterator over the subsequence.

     Here’s an example to make this clearer.  The 'key' function simply
     returns whether a number is even or odd, so the result of
     ‘groupby()’ is to return consecutive runs of odd or even numbers.

          >>> import itertools
          >>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14]
          >>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2):
          ...    print key_val, list(it)
          ...
          0 [2, 4, 6]
          1 [7]
          0 [8]
          1 [9, 11]
          0 [12, 14]
          >>>

     ‘groupby()’ is typically used with sorted input.  The logic for
     ‘groupby()’ is similar to the Unix ‘uniq’ filter which makes it
     handy for eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements:

          >>> word = 'abracadabra'
          >>> letters = sorted(word)   # Turn string into a sorted list of letters
          >>> letters
          ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r']
          >>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters):
          ...    print k, list(g)
          ...
          a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a']
          b ['b', 'b']
          c ['c']
          d ['d']
          r ['r', 'r']
          >>> # List unique letters
          >>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']
          >>> # Count letter occurrences
          >>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)]

     (Contributed by Hye-Shik Chang.)

   * *note itertools: 7f. also gained a function named ‘tee(iterator,
     N)’ that returns 'N' independent iterators that replicate
     'iterator'.  If 'N' is omitted, the default is 2.

          >>> L = [1,2,3]
          >>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L)
          >>> i1,i2
          (<itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080>, <itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090>)
          >>> list(i1)               # Run the first iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]
          >>> list(i2)               # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]

     Note that ‘tee()’ has to keep copies of the values returned by the
     iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them.  This
     should therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run
     far ahead of the trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs.  If
     the separation is large, then you might as well use *note list():
     422. instead.  When the iterators track closely with one another,
     ‘tee()’ is ideal.  Possible applications include bookmarking,
     windowing, or lookahead iterators.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * A number of functions were added to the *note locale: 85. module,
     such as ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ to specify a particular
     encoding and a family of ‘l*gettext()’ functions that return
     messages in the chosen encoding.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * Some keyword arguments were added to the *note logging: 86.
     package’s ‘basicConfig()’ function to simplify log configuration.
     The default behavior is to log messages to standard error, but
     various keyword arguments can be specified to log to a particular
     file, change the logging format, or set the logging level.  For
     example:

          import logging
          logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log',
              level=0,  # Log all messages
              format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')

     Other additions to the *note logging: 86. package include a
     ‘log(level, msg)’ convenience method, as well as a
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ class that rotates its log files at a
     timed interval.  The module already had ‘RotatingFileHandler’,
     which rotated logs once the file exceeded a certain size.  Both
     classes derive from a new ‘BaseRotatingHandler’ class that can be
     used to implement other rotating handlers.

     (Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.)

   * The *note marshal: 8c. module now shares interned strings on
     unpacking a data structure.  This may shrink the size of certain
     pickle strings, but the primary effect is to make ‘.pyc’ files
     significantly smaller.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note nntplib: 9c. module’s ‘NNTP’ class gained ‘description()’
     and ‘descriptions()’ methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for
     a single group or for a range of groups.  (Contributed by Jürgen A.
     Erhard.)

   * Two new functions were added to the *note operator: 9e. module,
     ‘attrgetter(attr)’ and ‘itemgetter(index)’.  Both functions return
     callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding
     attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors
     when used with *note map(): 6a7. or *note sorted(): a45.  For
     example:

          >>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)]
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L)
          ['c', 'd', 'a', 'b']
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L)
          [2, 1, 4, 3]
          >>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item
          [('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: 9f. module was updated in various ways.  The
     module now passes its messages through *note gettext.gettext():
     12f1, making it possible to internationalize Optik’s help and error
     messages.  Help messages for options can now include the string
     ‘'%default'’, which will be replaced by the option’s default value.
     (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The long-term plan is to deprecate the ‘rfc822’ module in some
     future Python release in favor of the *note email: 3a. package.  To
     this end, the *note email.Utils.formatdate: 12f2. function has been
     changed to make it usable as a replacement for
     ‘rfc822.formatdate()’.  You may want to write new e-mail processing
     code with this in mind.  (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)

   * A new ‘urandom(n)’ function was added to the *note os: a0. module,
     returning a string containing 'n' bytes of random data.  This
     function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness
     such as ‘/dev/urandom’ on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI.
     (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)

   * Another new function: ‘os.path.lexists(path)’ returns true if the
     file specified by 'path' exists, whether or not it’s a symbolic
     link.  This differs from the existing ‘os.path.exists(path)’
     function, which returns false if 'path' is a symlink that points to
     a destination that doesn’t exist.  (Contributed by Beni
     Cherniavsky.)

   * A new ‘getsid()’ function was added to the *note posix: ac. module
     that underlies the *note os: a0. module.  (Contributed by J.
     Raynor.)

   * The *note poplib: ab. module now supports POP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Hector Urtubia.)

   * The *note profile: ae. module can now profile C extension
     functions.  (Contributed by Nick Bastin.)

   * The *note random: b7. module has a new method called
     ‘getrandbits(N)’ that returns a long integer 'N' bits in length.
     The existing ‘randrange()’ method now uses ‘getrandbits()’ where
     appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers
     more efficient.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The regular expression language accepted by the *note re: b8.
     module was extended with simple conditional expressions, written as
     ‘(?(group)A|B)’.  'group' is either a numeric group ID or a group
     name defined with ‘(?P<group>...)’ earlier in the expression.  If
     the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern 'A'
     will be tested against the string; if the group didn’t match, the
     pattern 'B' will be used instead.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * The *note re: b8. module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a
     massive amount of work by Gustavo Niemeyer.  In a recursive regular
     expression engine, certain patterns result in a large amount of C
     stack space being consumed, and it was possible to overflow the
     stack.  For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string of ‘a’
     characters against the expression ‘(a|b)+’, one stack frame was
     consumed per character.  Python 2.3 tried to check for stack
     overflow and raise a *note RuntimeError: 180. exception, but
     certain patterns could sidestep the checking and if you were
     unlucky Python could segfault.  Python 2.4’s regular expression
     engine can match this pattern without problems.

   * The *note signal: c5. module now performs tighter error-checking on
     the parameters to the *note signal.signal(): fd8. function.  For
     example, you can’t set a handler on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal; previous
     versions of Python would quietly accept this, but 2.4 will raise a
     *note RuntimeError: 180. exception.

   * Two new functions were added to the *note socket: cb. module.
     ‘socketpair()’ returns a pair of connected sockets and
     ‘getservbyport(port)’ looks up the service name for a given port
     number.  (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.)

   * The ‘sys.exitfunc()’ function has been deprecated.  Code should be
     using the existing *note atexit: c. module, which correctly handles
     calling multiple exit functions.  Eventually ‘sys.exitfunc()’ will
     become a purely internal interface, accessed only by *note atexit:
     c.

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: ec. module now has an elegantly simple way to
     support thread-local data.  The module contains a ‘local’ class
     whose attribute values are local to different threads.

          import threading

          data = threading.local()
          data.number = 42
          data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)

     Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the
     ‘number’ and ‘url’ attributes.  You can subclass ‘local’ to
     initialize attributes or to add methods.  (Contributed by Jim
     Fulton.)

   * The *note timeit: ee. module now automatically disables periodic
     garbage collection during the timing loop.  This change makes
     consecutive timings more comparable.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note weakref: 114. module now supports a wider variety of
     objects including Python functions, class instances, sets,
     frozensets, deques, arrays, files, sockets, and regular expression
     pattern objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module now supports a multi-call
     extension for transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP
     operation.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * The ‘mpz’, ‘rotor’, and ‘xreadlines’ modules have been removed.

* Menu:

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html


File: python.info,  Node: cookielib,  Next: doctest<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.17.12.1 cookielib
...................

The *note cookielib: 6e. library supports client-side handling for HTTP
cookies, mirroring the *note Cookie: 6f. module’s server-side cookie
support.  Cookies are stored in cookie jars; the library transparently
stores cookies offered by the web server in the cookie jar, and fetches
the cookie from the jar when connecting to the server.  As in web
browsers, policy objects control whether cookies are accepted or not.

In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie
jars are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so
applications can use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that
stores cookies in the same format as the Perl libwww library.

*note urllib2: 10b. has been changed to interact with *note cookielib:
6e.: ‘HTTPCookieProcessor’ manages a cookie jar that is used when
accessing URLs.

This module was contributed by John J. Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<4>,  Prev: cookielib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.17.12.2 doctest
.................

The *note doctest: 39. module underwent considerable refactoring thanks
to Edward Loper and Tim Peters.  Testing can still be as simple as
running *note doctest.testmod(): 12f5, but the refactorings allow
customizing the module’s operation in various ways

The new ‘DocTestFinder’ class extracts the tests from a given object’s
docstrings:

     def f (x, y):
         """>>> f(2,2)
     4
     >>> f(3,2)
     6
         """
         return x*y

     finder = doctest.DocTestFinder()

     # Get list of DocTest instances
     tests = finder.find(f)

The new ‘DocTestRunner’ class then runs individual tests and can produce
a summary of the results:

     runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
     for t in tests:
         tried, failed = runner.run(t)

     runner.summarize(verbose=1)

The above example produces the following output:

     1 items passed all tests:
        2 tests in f
     2 tests in 1 items.
     2 passed and 0 failed.
     Test passed.

‘DocTestRunner’ uses an instance of the ‘OutputChecker’ class to compare
the expected output with the actual output.  This class takes a number
of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can
also write a completely new subclass of ‘OutputChecker’.

The default output checker provides a number of handy features.  For
example, with the *note doctest.ELLIPSIS: 12f6. option flag, an ellipsis
(‘...’) in the expected output matches any substring, making it easier
to accommodate outputs that vary in minor ways:

     def o (n):
         """>>> o(1)
     <__main__.C instance at 0x...>
     >>>
     """

Another special string, ‘<BLANKLINE>’, matches a blank line:

     def p (n):
         """>>> p(1)
     <BLANKLINE>
     >>>
     """

Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output
by specifying the *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF: 12f7. (unified diffs),
*note doctest.REPORT_CDIFF: 12f8. (context diffs), or *note
doctest.REPORT_NDIFF: 12f9. (delta-style) option flags.  For example:

     def g (n):
         """>>> g(4)
     here
     is
     a
     lengthy
     >>>"""
         L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split()
         for word in L[:n]:
             print word

Running the above function’s tests with *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF:
12f7. specified, you get the following output:

     **********************************************************************
     File "t.py", line 15, in g
     Failed example:
         g(4)
     Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
         @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
          is
          a
         -lengthy
         +rather
     **********************************************************************


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 4,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.13 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Some of the changes to Python’s build process and to the C API are:

   * Three new convenience macros were added for common return values
     from extension functions: *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 12fb, *note
     Py_RETURN_TRUE: 12fc, and *note Py_RETURN_FALSE: 12fd.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * Another new macro, *note Py_CLEAR: 311, decreases the reference
     count of 'obj' and sets 'obj' to the null pointer.  (Contributed by
     Jim Fulton.)

   * A new function, ‘PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)’,
     constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python
     objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A new function, ‘PyDict_Contains(d, k)’, implements fast dictionary
     lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up
     process.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The Py_IS_NAN(X) macro returns 1 if its float or double argument
     'X' is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function to tell if any thread
     operations have been performed.  If this function returns false, no
     lock operations are needed.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * A new function, *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 12fe, is the
     same as *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. but takes a
     ‘va_list’ instead of a number of arguments.  (Contributed by Greg
     Chapman.)

   * A new method flag, *note METH_COEXIST: 12ff, allows a function
     defined in slots to co-exist with a *note PyCFunction: 1300. having
     the same name.  This can halve the access time for a method such as
     ‘set.__contains__()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Python can now be built with additional profiling for the
     interpreter itself, intended as an aid to people developing the
     Python core.  Providing ‘--enable-profiling’ to the ‘configure’
     script will let you profile the interpreter with ‘gprof’, and
     providing the ‘--with-tsc’ switch enables profiling using the
     Pentium’s Time-Stamp-Counter register.  Note that the ‘--with-tsc’
     switch is slightly misnamed, because the profiling feature also
     works on the PowerPC platform, though that processor architecture
     doesn’t call that register “the TSC register”.  (Contributed by
     Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The ‘tracebackobject’ type has been renamed to ‘PyTracebackObject’.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<10>

1.17.13.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6.
     (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 4,  Next: Acknowledgements<4>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.14 Porting to Python 2.4
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too large no
     longer trigger a *note FutureWarning: 248. and return a value
     limited to 32 or 64 bits; instead they return a long integer.

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The *note zip(): 608. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list instead of raising a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     exception if called with no arguments.

   * You can no longer compare the ‘date’ and *note datetime: 22b.
     instances provided by the *note datetime: 30. module.  Two
     instances of different classes will now always be unequal, and
     relative comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’) will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.

   * ‘dircache.listdir()’ now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
     returning empty lists.

   * ‘LexicalHandler.startDTD()’ used to receive the public and system
     IDs in the wrong order.  This has been corrected; applications
     relying on the wrong order need to be fixed.

   * *note fcntl.ioctl(): 1303. now warns if the 'mutate' argument is
     omitted and relevant.

   * The *note tarfile: dd. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.

   * *note None: 488. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.

   * The ‘signals.signal()’ function now raises a *note RuntimeError:
     180. exception for certain illegal values; previously these errors
     would pass silently.  For example, you can no longer set a handler
     on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<4>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 4,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.17.15 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Koray Can, Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger,
Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson, Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin
Rejeb.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.18 What’s New in Python 2.3
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.3.  Python 2.3 was
released on July 29, 2003.

The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added
in 2.2, adding various small but useful enhancements to the core
language, and expanding the standard library.  The new object model
introduced in the previous version has benefited from 18 months of
bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have improved the
performance of new-style classes.  A few new built-in functions have
been added such as *note sum(): 187. and *note enumerate(): 1308.  The
*note in: 26f. operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g.
‘"ab" in "abc"’ returns *note True: a86.).

Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and
date/time data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format
archives, metadata support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an
updated version of IDLE, and modules for logging messages, wrapping
text, parsing CSV files, processing command-line options, using
BerkeleyDB databases… the list of new and enhanced modules is lengthy.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as
the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  If you
want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<15>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.1 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
---------------------------------------

The new ‘sets’ module contains an implementation of a set datatype.  The
‘Set’ class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and
removed.  The ‘ImmutableSet’ class is for sets that can’t be modified,
and instances of ‘ImmutableSet’ can therefore be used as dictionary
keys.  Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a
set must be hashable.

Here’s a simple example:

     >>> import sets
     >>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 3])
     >>> 1 in S
     True
     >>> 0 in S
     False
     >>> S.add(5)
     >>> S.remove(3)
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 5])
     >>>

The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the *note
union(): 130a. and *note intersection(): 130b. methods; an alternative
notation uses the bitwise operators ‘&’ and ‘|’.  Mutable sets also have
in-place versions of these methods, ‘union_update()’ and *note
intersection_update(): 130c.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
     >>> S1.union(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 | S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1.intersection(S2)
     Set([])
     >>> S1 & S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([])
     >>> S1.union_update(S2)
     >>> S1
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>>

It’s also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets.  This
is the set of all elements in the union that aren’t in the intersection.
Another way of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all
elements that are in exactly one set.  Again, there’s an alternative
notation (‘^’), and an in-place version with the ungainly name *note
symmetric_difference_update(): 130d.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
     >>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 ^ S2
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>>

There are also ‘issubset()’ and ‘issuperset()’ methods for checking
whether one set is a subset or superset of another:

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3])
     >>> S2.issubset(S1)
     True
     >>> S1.issubset(S2)
     False
     >>> S1.issuperset(S2)
     True
     >>>

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     PEP written by Greg V. Wilson.  Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex
     Martelli, and GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Next: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Prev: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.2 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be
enabled by a ‘from __future__ import generators’ directive.  In 2.3
generators no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always
present; this means that *note yield: 82b. is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the description of generators from the
“What’s New in Python 2.2” document; if you read it back when Python 2.2
came out, you can skip the rest of this section.

You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 82c.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 82b, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 82b. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 82c. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s
‘.next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn’t allowed inside the *note try: 503. block of a ‘try’…‘finally’
statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the interaction
between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in ?
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 82c. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator’s results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: a73. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 611. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from “An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language” at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
“or” is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 26e. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered part of the core Python
language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they don’t
solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One novel
feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a
generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Next: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.3 PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
-------------------------------------

Python source files can now be declared as being in different character
set encodings.  Encodings are declared by including a specially
formatted comment in the first or second line of the source file.  For
example, a UTF-8 file can be declared with:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit
ASCII. Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with
8-bit characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f. being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will
be a syntax error.

The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which
will be converted to Unicode using the specified encoding.  Note that
Python identifiers are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you
can’t have variable names that use characters outside of the usual
alphanumerics.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 263(1) - Defining Python Source Code Encodings

     Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by
     Suzuki Hisao and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Next: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Prev: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.4 PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
---------------------------------------------------

The new *note zipimport: 132. module adds support for importing modules
from a ZIP-format archive.  You don’t need to import the module
explicitly; it will be automatically imported if a ZIP archive’s
filename is added to ‘sys.path’.  For example:

     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
     Archive:  /tmp/example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     '/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
     >>>

An entry in ‘sys.path’ can now be the filename of a ZIP archive.  The
ZIP archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named ‘*.py’,
‘*.pyc’, or ‘*.pyo’ can be imported.  If an archive only contains ‘*.py’
files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘*.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t
contain ‘*.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a
subdirectory; for example, the path ‘/tmp/example.zip/lib/’ would only
import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within the archive.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 273(1) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(2), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(3).  See section *note PEP 302; New
     Import Hooks: 1313. for a description of the new import hooks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Next: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Prev: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.5 PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
--------------------------------------------------------

On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode
strings.  Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte
strings, which is inadequate because it renders some file names
inaccessible.

Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the
limitations of the file system) for all functions that expect file
names, most notably the *note open(): 2a6. built-in function.  If a
Unicode string is passed to *note os.listdir(): f9c, Python now returns
a list of Unicode strings.  A new function, ‘os.getcwdu()’, returns the
current directory as a Unicode string.

Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will
transparently convert them to Unicode using the ‘mbcs’ encoding.

Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them
to byte strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a
*note UnicodeError: 114c. to be raised.  Applications can test whether
arbitrary Unicode strings are supported as file names by checking *note
os.path.supports_unicode_filenames: 1315, a Boolean value.

Under MacOS, *note os.listdir(): f9c. may now return Unicode filenames.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 277(1) - Unicode file name support for Windows NT

     Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von
     Löwis, and Mark Hammond.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0277/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Next: PEP 279 enumerate,  Prev: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.6 PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
-----------------------------------------

The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows,
Apple’s Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives.  A minor
irritation of cross-platform work is that these three platforms all use
different characters to mark the ends of lines in text files.  Unix uses
the linefeed (ASCII character 10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII
character 13), and Windows uses a two-character sequence of a carriage
return plus a newline.

Python’s file objects can now support end of line conventions other than
the one followed by the platform on which Python is running.  Opening a
file with the mode ‘'U'’ or ‘'rU'’ will open a file for reading in *note
universal newlines: bc2. mode.  All three line ending conventions will
be translated to a ‘'\n'’ in the strings returned by the various file
methods such as ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’.

Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when
executing a file with the ‘execfile()’ function.  This means that Python
modules can be shared between all three operating systems without
needing to convert the line-endings.

This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the
‘--without-universal-newlines’ switch when running Python’s ‘configure’
script.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 278(1) - Universal Newline Support

     Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 279 enumerate,  Next: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Prev: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.7 PEP 279: enumerate()
---------------------------

A new built-in function, *note enumerate(): 1308, will make certain
loops a bit clearer.  ‘enumerate(thing)’, where 'thing' is either an
iterator or a sequence, returns an iterator that will return ‘(0,
thing[0])’, ‘(1, thing[1])’, ‘(2, thing[2])’, and so forth.

A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this:

     for i in range(len(L)):
         item = L[i]
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

This can be rewritten using *note enumerate(): 1308. as:

     for i, item in enumerate(L):
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 279(1) - The enumerate() built-in function

     Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0279/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Next: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Prev: PEP 279 enumerate,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.8 PEP 282: The logging Package
-----------------------------------

A standard package for writing logs, *note logging: 86, has been added
to Python 2.3.  It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for
generating logging output which can then be filtered and processed in
various ways.  A configuration file written in a standard format can be
used to control the logging behavior of a program.  Python includes
handlers that will write log records to standard error or to a file or
socket, send them to the system log, or even e-mail them to a particular
address; of course, it’s also possible to write your own handler
classes.

The *note Logger: 9c2. class is the primary class.  Most application
code will deal with one or more *note Logger: 9c2. objects, each one
used by a particular subsystem of the application.  Each *note Logger:
9c2. is identified by a name, and names are organized into a hierarchy
using ‘.’ as the component separator.  For example, you might have *note
Logger: 9c2. instances named ‘server’, ‘server.auth’ and
‘server.network’.  The latter two instances are below ‘server’ in the
hierarchy.  This means that if you turn up the verbosity for ‘server’ or
direct ‘server’ messages to a different handler, the changes will also
apply to records logged to ‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’.  There’s
also a root *note Logger: 9c2. that’s the parent of all other loggers.

For simple uses, the *note logging: 86. package contains some
convenience functions that always use the root log:

     import logging

     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

This produces the following output:

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are
suppressed and the output is sent to standard error.  You can enable the
display of informational and debugging messages by calling the *note
setLevel(): 131a. method on the root logger.

Notice the *note warning(): 131b. call’s use of string formatting
operators; all of the functions for logging messages take the arguments
‘(msg, arg1, arg2, ...)’ and log the string resulting from ‘msg % (arg1,
arg2, ...)’.

There’s also an *note exception(): 131c. function that records the most
recent traceback.  Any of the other functions will also record the
traceback if you specify a true value for the keyword argument
'exc_info'.

     def f():
         try:    1/0
         except: logging.exception('Problem recorded')

     f()

This produces the following output:

     ERROR:root:Problem recorded
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 6, in f
         1/0
     ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root
logger.  The ‘getLogger(name)’ function is used to get a particular log,
creating it if it doesn’t exist yet.  ‘getLogger(None)’ returns the root
logger.

     log = logging.getLogger('server')
      ...
     log.info('Listening on port %i', port)
      ...
     log.critical('Disk full')
      ...

Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged
to ‘server.auth’ is also seen by ‘server’ and ‘root’, but a *note
Logger: 9c2. can prevent this by setting its *note propagate: 131d.
attribute to *note False: 9a8.

There are more classes provided by the *note logging: 86. package that
can be customized.  When a *note Logger: 9c2. instance is told to log a
message, it creates a *note LogRecord: e8c. instance that is sent to any
number of different *note Handler: 131e. instances.  Loggers and
handlers can also have an attached list of filters, and each filter can
cause the *note LogRecord: e8c. to be ignored or can modify the record
before passing it along.  When they’re finally output, *note LogRecord:
e8c. instances are converted to text by a *note Formatter: 131f. class.
All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially written
classes.

With all of these features the *note logging: 86. package should provide
enough flexibility for even the most complicated applications.  This is
only an incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package’s
reference documentation for all of the details.  Reading PEP 282(1) will
also be helpful.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 282(2) - A Logging System

     Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Next: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Prev: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.9 PEP 285: A Boolean Type
------------------------------

A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3.  Two new constants were added to
the ‘__builtin__’ module, *note True: a86. and *note False: 9a8.  (*note
True: a86. and *note False: 9a8. constants were added to the built-ins
in Python 2.2.1, but the 2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values
of 1 and 0 and aren’t a different type.)

The type object for this new type is named *note bool: 183.; the
constructor for it takes any Python value and converts it to *note True:
a86. or *note False: 9a8.

     >>> bool(1)
     True
     >>> bool(0)
     False
     >>> bool([])
     False
     >>> bool( (1,) )
     True

Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been
changed to return Booleans.

     >>> obj = []
     >>> hasattr(obj, 'append')
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, list)
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, tuple)
     False

Python’s Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code
clearer.  For example, if you’re reading a function and encounter the
statement ‘return 1’, you might wonder whether the ‘1’ represents a
Boolean truth value, an index, or a coefficient that multiplies some
other quantity.  If the statement is ‘return True’, however, the meaning
of the return value is quite clear.

Python’s Booleans were 'not' added for the sake of strict type-checking.
A very strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing
arithmetic with Booleans, and would require that the expression in an
*note if: 26e. statement always evaluate to a Boolean result.  Python is
not this strict and never will be, as PEP 285(1) explicitly says.  This
means you can still use any expression in an ‘if’ statement, even ones
that evaluate to a list or tuple or some random object.  The Boolean
type is a subclass of the *note int: 184. class so that arithmetic using
a Boolean still works.

     >>> True + 1
     2
     >>> False + 1
     1
     >>> False * 75
     0
     >>> True * 75
     75

To sum up *note True: a86. and *note False: 9a8. in a sentence: they’re
alternative ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single
difference that *note str(): 15d. and *note repr(): 637. return the
strings ‘'True'’ and ‘'False'’ instead of ‘'1'’ and ‘'0'’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 285(2) - Adding a bool type

     Written and implemented by GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Next: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Prev: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.10 PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
-----------------------------------------------

When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable
characters may be encountered.  So far, Python has allowed specifying
the error processing as either “strict” (raising *note UnicodeError:
114c.), “ignore” (skipping the character), or “replace” (using a
question mark in the output string), with “strict” being the default
behavior.  It may be desirable to specify alternative processing of such
errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML entity
reference into the converted string.

Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing
strategies.  New error handlers can be added with *note
codecs.register_error(): 1323, and codecs then can access the error
handler with *note codecs.lookup_error(): 1324.  An equivalent C API has
been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary
state information such as the string being converted, the position in
the string where the error was detected, and the target encoding.  The
handler can then either raise an exception or return a replacement
string.

Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this
framework: “backslashreplace” uses Python backslash quoting to represent
unencodable characters and “xmlcharrefreplace” emits XML character
references.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 293(1) - Codec Error Handling Callbacks

     Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0293/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Next: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Prev: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.11 PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
---------------------------------------------------------

Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance
in 2.3.

The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils ‘register’ command.
Running ‘python setup.py register’ will collect the metadata describing
a package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and
send it to a central catalog server.  The resulting catalog is available
from ‘https://pypi.org’.

To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional 'classifiers'
keyword argument has been added to the Distutils ‘setup()’ function.  A
list of Trove(1)-style strings can be supplied to help classify the
software.

Here’s an example ‘setup.py’ with classifiers, written to be compatible
with older versions of the Distutils:

     from distutils import core
     kw = {'name': "Quixote",
           'version': "0.5.1",
           'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework",
           # ...
           }

     if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and
         'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords):
         kw['classifiers'] = \
             ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content',
              'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)',
              'Intended Audience :: Developers'],

     core.setup(**kw)

The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running ‘python setup.py
register --list-classifiers’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 301(2) - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

     Written and implemented by Richard Jones.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://catb.org/~esr/trove/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0301/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Next: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Prev: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.12 PEP 302: New Import Hooks
---------------------------------

While it’s been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the
‘ihooks’ module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been
really happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and
messy.  There have been various proposed alternatives such as the
‘imputil’ and ‘iu’ modules, but none of them has ever gained much
acceptance, and none of them were easily usable from C code.

PEP 302(1) borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon
McMillan’s ‘iu’ module.  Three new items are added to the *note sys: d8.
module:

   * ‘sys.path_hooks’ is a list of callable objects; most often they’ll
     be classes.  Each callable takes a string containing a path and
     either returns an importer object that will handle imports from
     this path or raises an *note ImportError: 14b. exception if it
     can’t handle this path.

   * ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ caches importer objects for each path, so
     ‘sys.path_hooks’ will only need to be traversed once for each path.

   * ‘sys.meta_path’ is a list of importer objects that will be
     traversed before ‘sys.path’ is checked.  This list is initially
     empty, but user code can add objects to it.  Additional built-in
     and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list.

Importer objects must have a single method, ‘find_module(fullname,
path=None)’.  'fullname' will be a module or package name, e.g.
‘string’ or ‘distutils.core’.  ‘find_module()’ must return a loader
object that has a single method, ‘load_module(fullname)’, that creates
and returns the corresponding module object.

Pseudo-code for Python’s new import logic, therefore, looks something
like this (simplified a bit; see PEP 302(2) for the full details):

     for mp in sys.meta_path:
         loader = mp(fullname)
         if loader is not None:
             <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     for path in sys.path:
         for hook in sys.path_hooks:
             try:
                 importer = hook(path)
             except ImportError:
                 # ImportError, so try the other path hooks
                 pass
             else:
                 loader = importer.find_module(fullname)
                 <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     # Not found!
     raise ImportError

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 302(3) - New Import Hooks

     Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore.  Implemented by Just van
     Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Next: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.13 PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
--------------------------------------

Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data
from databases and spreadsheets.  Python 2.3 adds a parser for
comma-separated files.

Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance:

     Costs,150,200,3.95

Read a line and call ‘line.split(',')’: what could be simpler?  But toss
in string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated:

     "Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items"

A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new *note
csv: 29. package is much simpler:

     import csv

     input = open('datafile', 'rb')
     reader = csv.reader(input)
     for line in reader:
         print line

The *note reader(): 132a. function takes a number of different options.
The field separator isn’t limited to the comma and can be changed to any
character, and so can the quoting and line-ending characters.

Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and
registered; currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft
Excel.  A separate *note csv.writer: 1a8. class will generate
comma-separated files from a succession of tuples or lists, quoting
strings that contain the delimiter.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 305(1) - CSV File API

     Written and implemented by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara,
     Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Next: Extended Slices,  Prev: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.14 PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
------------------------------------

The *note pickle: a5. and ‘cPickle’ modules received some attention
during the 2.3 development cycle.  In 2.2, new-style classes could be
pickled without difficulty, but they weren’t pickled very compactly; PEP
307(1) quotes a trivial example where a new-style class results in a
pickled string three times longer than that for a classic class.

The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol.  The *note
pickle.dumps(): 132d. function has supported a text-or-binary flag for a
long time.  In 2.3, this flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer:
0 is the old text-mode pickle format, 1 is the old binary format, and
now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format.  A new constant, *note
pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 132e, can be used to select the fanciest
protocol available.

Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation.  2.2’s *note
pickle: a5. provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from
being unpickled (specifically, a ‘__safe_for_unpickling__’ attribute),
but none of this code was ever audited and therefore it’s all been
ripped out in 2.3.  You should not unpickle untrusted data in any
version of Python.

To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface
for customizing pickling was added using three special methods: *note
__getstate__(): 3e3, *note __setstate__(): 132f, and *note
__getnewargs__(): 1330.  Consult PEP 307(2) for the full semantics of
these methods.

As a way to compress pickles yet further, it’s now possible to use
integer codes instead of long strings to identify pickled classes.  The
Python Software Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes;
there’s also a range of codes for private use.  Currently no codes have
been specified.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 307(3) - Extensions to the pickle protocol

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/


File: python.info,  Node: Extended Slices,  Next: Other Language Changes<15>,  Prev: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.15 Extended Slices
-----------------------

Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional
third “step” or “stride” argument.  For example, these are all legal
Python syntax: ‘L[1:10:2]’, ‘L[:-1:1]’, ‘L[::-1]’.  This was added to
Python at the request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses
the third argument extensively.  However, Python’s built-in list, tuple,
and string sequence types have never supported this feature, raising a
*note TypeError: 2c4. if you tried it.  Michael Hudson contributed a
patch to fix this shortcoming.

For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have
even indexes:

     >>> L = range(10)
     >>> L[::2]
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse
order:

     >>> L[::-1]
     [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings:

     >>> s='abcd'
     >>> s[::2]
     'ac'
     >>> s[::-1]
     'dcba'

If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign
to or delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between
assignment to extended and regular slices.  Assignment to a regular
slice can be used to change the length of the sequence:

     >>> a = range(3)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2]
     >>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6]
     >>> a
     [0, 4, 5, 6]

Extended slices aren’t this flexible.  When assigning to an extended
slice, the list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the
same number of items as the slice it is replacing:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> a[::2] = [0, -1]
     >>> a
     [0, 1, -1, 3]
     >>> a[::2] = [0,1,2]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2

Deletion is more straightforward:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> del a[::2]
     >>> a
     [1, 3]

One can also now pass slice objects to the *note __getitem__(): 500.
methods of the built-in sequences:

     >>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2))
     [0, 2, 4]

Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:

     >>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)]
     [0, 2, 4]

To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice
objects now have a method ‘indices(length)’ which, given the length of a
sequence, returns a ‘(start, stop, step)’ tuple that can be passed
directly to *note range(): 79c.  ‘indices()’ handles omitted and
out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and
this innocuous phrase hides a welter of confusing details!).  The method
is intended to be used like this:

     class FakeSeq:
         ...
         def calc_item(self, i):
             ...
         def __getitem__(self, item):
             if isinstance(item, slice):
                 indices = item.indices(len(self))
                 return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)])
             else:
                 return self.calc_item(i)

From this example you can also see that the built-in *note slice: 186.
object is now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a
function.  This is consistent with Python 2.2, where *note int: 184,
*note str: 15d, etc., underwent the same change.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<15>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Prev: Extended Slices,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.16 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note yield: 82b. statement is now always a keyword, as
     described in section *note PEP 255; Simple Generators: 130f. of
     this document.

   * A new built-in function *note enumerate(): 1308. was added, as
     described in section *note PEP 279; enumerate(): 1318. of this
     document.

   * Two new constants, *note True: a86. and *note False: 9a8. were
     added along with the built-in *note bool: 183. type, as described
     in section *note PEP 285; A Boolean Type: 1321. of this document.

   * The *note int(): 184. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 6c7. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.  This can lead to the paradoxical result that
     ‘isinstance(int(expression), int)’ is false, but that seems
     unlikely to cause problems in practice.

   * Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as
     described in section *note Extended Slices: 1332. of this document.

   * A new built-in function, ‘sum(iterable, start=0)’, adds up the
     numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum.  *note
     sum(): 187. only accepts numbers, meaning that you can’t use it to
     concatenate a bunch of strings.  (Contributed by Alex Martelli.)

   * ‘list.insert(pos, value)’ used to insert 'value' at the front of
     the list when 'pos' was negative.  The behaviour has now been
     changed to be consistent with slice indexing, so when 'pos' is -1
     the value will be inserted before the last element, and so forth.

   * ‘list.index(value)’, which searches for 'value' within the list and
     returns its index, now takes optional 'start' and 'stop' arguments
     to limit the search to only part of the list.

   * Dictionaries have a new method, ‘pop(key[, *default*])’, that
     returns the value corresponding to 'key' and removes that key/value
     pair from the dictionary.  If the requested key isn’t present in
     the dictionary, 'default' is returned if it’s specified and *note
     KeyError: 903. raised if it isn’t.

          >>> d = {1:2}
          >>> d
          {1: 2}
          >>> d.pop(4)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 4
          >>> d.pop(1)
          2
          >>> d.pop(1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty'
          >>> d
          {}
          >>>

     There’s also a new class method, ‘dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)’,
     that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied
     iterator 'iterable' and all values set to 'value', defaulting to
     ‘None’.

     (Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

     Also, the *note dict(): 240. constructor now accepts keyword
     arguments to simplify creating small dictionaries:

          >>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4)
          {'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1}

     (Contributed by Just van Rossum.)

   * The *note assert: 7c4. statement no longer checks the ‘__debug__’
     flag, so you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to
     ‘__debug__’.  Running Python with the *note -O: c42. switch will
     still generate code that doesn’t execute any assertions.

   * Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create
     new objects such as functions, classes, and modules.  (This means
     that the ‘new’ module can be deprecated in a future Python version,
     because you can now use the type objects available in the *note
     types: 103. module.)  For example, you can create a new module
     object with the following code:

          >>> import types
          >>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring')
          >>> m
          <module 'abc' (built-in)>
          >>> m.__doc__
          'docstring'

   * A new warning, *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. was added to
     indicate features which are in the process of being deprecated.
     The warning will 'not' be printed by default.  To check for use of
     features that will be deprecated in the future, supply *note
     -Walways;;PendingDeprecationWarning;;: 71a. on the command line or
     use *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 1334.

   * The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in ‘raise
     "Error occurred"’, has begun.  Raising a string will now trigger
     *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 17e. warning.  In a future version of Python, ‘None’
     may finally become a keyword.

   * The ‘xreadlines()’ method of file objects, introduced in Python
     2.1, is no longer necessary because files now behave as their own
     iterator.  ‘xreadlines()’ was originally introduced as a faster way
     to loop over all the lines in a file, but now you can simply write
     ‘for line in file_obj’.  File objects also have a new read-only
     ‘encoding’ attribute that gives the encoding used by the file;
     Unicode strings written to the file will be automatically converted
     to bytes using the given encoding.

   * The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed,
     though you’ll only notice the difference if you have a really
     complicated inheritance hierarchy.  Classic classes are unaffected
     by this change.  Python 2.2 originally used a topological sort of a
     class’s ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the C3 algorithm as described
     in the paper "A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan"(1).
     To understand the motivation for this change, read Michele
     Simionato’s article *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order:
     1335, or read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’.
     Samuele Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented
     the fix by coding the C3 algorithm.

   * Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads
     after executing N bytecodes.  The default value for N has been
     increased from 10 to 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded
     applications by reducing the switching overhead.  Some
     multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but
     that’s easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number
     using ‘sys.setcheckinterval(N)’.  The limit can be retrieved with
     the new ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ function.

   * One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension
     types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the
     module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type name.  For example, in
     Python 2.2, if you created a socket and printed its ‘__class__’,
     you’d get this output:

          >>> s = socket.socket()
          >>> s.__class__
          <type 'socket'>

     In 2.3, you get this:

          >>> s.__class__
          <type '_socket.socket'>

   * One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style
     classes has been removed: you can now assign to the *note __name__:
     1336. and *note __bases__: 1337. attributes of new-style classes.
     There are some restrictions on what can be assigned to ‘__bases__’
     along the lines of those relating to assigning to an instance’s
     *note __class__: 1338. attribute.

* Menu:

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910


File: python.info,  Node: String Changes,  Next: Optimizations<14>,  Up: Other Language Changes<15>

1.18.16.1 String Changes
........................

   * The *note in: 26f. operator now works differently for strings.
     Previously, when evaluating ‘X in Y’ where 'X' and 'Y' are strings,
     'X' could only be a single character.  That’s now changed; 'X' can
     be a string of any length, and ‘X in Y’ will return *note True:
     a86. if 'X' is a substring of 'Y'. If 'X' is the empty string, the
     result is always *note True: a86.

          >>> 'ab' in 'abcd'
          True
          >>> 'ad' in 'abcd'
          False
          >>> '' in 'abcd'
          True

     Note that this doesn’t tell you where the substring starts; if you
     need that information, use the *note find(): d3c. string method.

   * The *note strip(): 133a, *note lstrip(): 133b, and *note rstrip():
     133c. string methods now have an optional argument for specifying
     the characters to strip.  The default is still to remove all
     whitespace characters:

          >>> '   abc '.strip()
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>'.strip('<>')
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>\n'.strip('<>')
          'abc<><><>\n'
          >>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000')
          u'\u4001abc'
          >>>

     (Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note startswith(): d5f. and *note endswith(): d60. string
     methods now accept negative numbers for the 'start' and 'end'
     parameters.

   * Another new string method is *note zfill(): 133d, originally a
     function in the *note string: d2. module.  *note zfill(): 133d.
     pads a numeric string with zeros on the left until it’s the
     specified width.  Note that the ‘%’ operator is still more flexible
     and powerful than *note zfill(): 133d.

          >>> '45'.zfill(4)
          '0045'
          >>> '12345'.zfill(4)
          '12345'
          >>> 'goofy'.zfill(6)
          '0goofy'

     (Contributed by Walter Dörwald.)

   * A new type object, ‘basestring’, has been added.  Both 8-bit
     strings and Unicode strings inherit from this type, so
     ‘isinstance(obj, basestring)’ will return *note True: a86. for
     either kind of string.  It’s a completely abstract type, so you
     can’t create ‘basestring’ instances.

   * Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be
     garbage-collected in the usual way when the only reference to them
     is from the internal dictionary of interned strings.  (Implemented
     by Oren Tirosh.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<14>,  Prev: String Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<15>

1.18.16.2 Optimizations
.......................

   * The creation of new-style class instances has been made much
     faster; they’re now faster than classic classes!

   * The *note sort(): a46. method of list objects has been extensively
     rewritten by Tim Peters, and the implementation is significantly
     faster.

   * Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to
     an implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that
     scales better than the 'O'('n'^2) required for the grade-school
     multiplication algorithm.  (Original patch by Christopher A. Craig,
     and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode is now gone.  This may provide a small
     speed increase, depending on your compiler’s idiosyncrasies.  See
     section *note Other Changes and Fixes: 133f. for a longer
     explanation.  (Removed by Michael Hudson.)

   * ‘xrange()’ objects now have their own iterator, making ‘for i in
     xrange(n)’ slightly faster than ‘for i in range(n)’.  (Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots
     to improve performance, such as inlining a function or removing
     some code.  (Implemented mostly by GvR, but lots of people have
     contributed single changes.)

The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the
pystone benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Next: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Prev: Other Language Changes<15>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.17 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The *note array: 7. module now supports arrays of Unicode
     characters using the ‘'u'’ format character.  Arrays also now
     support using the ‘+=’ assignment operator to add another array’s
     contents, and the ‘*=’ assignment operator to repeat an array.
     (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the
     PyBSDDB(1) package, providing a more complete interface to the
     transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.

     The old version of the module has been renamed to ‘bsddb185’ and is
     no longer built automatically; you’ll have to edit ‘Modules/Setup’
     to enable it.  Note that the new ‘bsddb’ package is intended to be
     compatible with the old module, so be sure to file bugs if you
     discover any incompatibilities.  When upgrading to Python 2.3, if
     the new interpreter is compiled with a new version of the
     underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to
     convert your database files to the new version.  You can do this
     fairly easily with the new scripts ‘db2pickle.py’ and
     ‘pickle2db.py’ which you will find in the distribution’s
     ‘Tools/scripts’ directory.  If you’ve already been using the
     PyBSDDB package and importing it as ‘bsddb3’, you will have to
     change your ‘import’ statements to import it as ‘bsddb’.

   * The new *note bz2: 13. module is an interface to the bz2 data
     compression library.  bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than
     corresponding *note zlib: 133.-compressed data.  (Contributed by
     Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new *note
     datetime: 30. module.  See the following section for more details.

   * The Distutils ‘Extension’ class now supports an extra constructor
     argument named 'depends' for listing additional source files that
     an extension depends on.  This lets Distutils recompile the module
     if any of the dependency files are modified.  For example, if
     ‘sampmodule.c’ includes the header file ‘sample.h’, you would
     create the ‘Extension’ object like this:

          ext = Extension("samp",
                          sources=["sampmodule.c"],
                          depends=["sample.h"])

     Modifying ‘sample.h’ would then cause the module to be recompiled.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the *note CC:
     1341, *note CFLAGS: 1342, ‘CPP’, *note LDFLAGS: 1343, and *note
     CPPFLAGS: 1344. environment variables, using them to override the
     settings in Python’s configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).

   * Previously the *note doctest: 39. module would only search the
     docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it
     now also examines private ones as well.  The *note DocTestSuite():
     c81. function creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: c82. object from
     a set of *note doctest: 39. tests.

   * The new ‘gc.get_referents(object)’ function returns a list of all
     the objects referenced by 'object'.

   * The *note getopt: 5f. module gained a new function, *note
     gnu_getopt(): 1345, that supports the same arguments as the
     existing *note getopt(): 1346. function but uses GNU-style scanning
     mode.  The existing *note getopt(): 1346. stops processing options
     as soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style
     mode processing continues, meaning that options and arguments can
     be mixed.  For example:

          >>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v'])
          >>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output'])

     (Contributed by Peter Åstrand.)

   * The *note grp: 64, *note pwd: b1, and *note resource: bb. modules
     now return enhanced tuples:

          >>> import grp
          >>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk')
          >>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid
          ('amk', 500)

   * The *note gzip: 65. module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.

   * The new *note heapq: 67. module contains an implementation of a
     heap queue algorithm.  A heap is an array-like data structure that
     keeps items in a partially sorted order such that, for every index
     'k', ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’.  This
     makes it quick to remove the smallest item, and inserting a new
     item while maintaining the heap property is 'O'(log 'n').  (See
     ‘https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html’ for more
     information about the priority queue data structure.)

     The *note heapq: 67. module provides *note heappush(): 1347. and
     *note heappop(): 1348. functions for adding and removing items
     while maintaining the heap property on top of some other mutable
     Python sequence type.  Here’s an example that uses a Python list:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> heap = []
          >>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]:
          ...    heapq.heappush(heap, item)
          ...
          >>> heap
          [1, 3, 5, 11, 7]
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          1
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          3
          >>> heap
          [5, 7, 11]

     (Contributed by Kevin O’Connor.)

   * The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using
     the code from the IDLEfork project
     (‘https://idlefork.sourceforge.net’).  The most notable feature is
     that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess,
     meaning that there’s no longer any need for manual ‘reload()’
     operations.  IDLE’s core code has been incorporated into the
     standard library as the *note idlelib: 71. package.

   * The *note imaplib: 72. module now supports IMAP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Piers Lauder and Tino Lange.)

   * The *note itertools: 7f. contains a number of useful functions for
     use with iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the
     ML and Haskell languages.  For example,
     ‘itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator)’ returns all elements in
     the iterator for which the function ‘predicate()’ returns *note
     True: a86, and ‘itertools.repeat(obj, N)’ returns ‘obj’ 'N' times.
     There are a number of other functions in the module; see the
     package’s reference documentation for details.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new functions in the *note math: 8d. module, ‘degrees(rads)’
     and ‘radians(degs)’, convert between radians and degrees.  Other
     functions in the *note math: 8d. module such as *note math.sin():
     1349. and *note math.cos(): 134a. have always required input values
     measured in radians.  Also, an optional 'base' argument was added
     to *note math.log(): 134b. to make it easier to compute logarithms
     for bases other than ‘e’ and ‘10’.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Several new POSIX functions (‘getpgid()’, ‘killpg()’, ‘lchown()’,
     ‘loadavg()’, ‘major()’, ‘makedev()’, ‘minor()’, and ‘mknod()’) were
     added to the *note posix: ac. module that underlies the *note os:
     a0. module.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and
     Denis S. Otkidach.)

   * In the *note os: a0. module, the ‘*stat()’ family of functions can
     now report fractions of a second in a timestamp.  Such time stamps
     are represented as floats, similar to the value returned by *note
     time.time(): 94f.

     During testing, it was found that some applications will break if
     time stamps are floats.  For compatibility, when using the tuple
     interface of the *note stat_result: 134c. time stamps will be
     represented as integers.  When using named fields (a feature first
     introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still represented as
     integers, unless ‘os.stat_float_times()’ is invoked to enable float
     return values:

          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200
          >>> os.stat_float_times(True)
          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200.6335014

     In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.

     Application developers should enable this feature only if all their
     libraries work properly when confronted with floating-point time
     stamps, or if they use the tuple API. If used, the feature should
     be activated on an application level instead of trying to enable it
     on a per-use basis.

   * The *note optparse: 9f. module contains a new parser for
     command-line arguments that can convert option values to a
     particular Python type and will automatically generate a usage
     message.  See the following section for more details.

   * The old and never-documented ‘linuxaudiodev’ module has been
     deprecated, and a new version named *note ossaudiodev: a2. has been
     added.  The module was renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be
     used on platforms other than Linux, and the interface has also been
     tidied and brought up to date in various ways.  (Contributed by
     Greg Ward and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)

   * The new *note platform: a9. module contains a number of functions
     that try to determine various properties of the platform you’re
     running on.  There are functions for getting the architecture, CPU
     type, the Windows OS version, and even the Linux distribution
     version.  (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * The parser objects provided by the *note pyexpat: 126. module can
     now optionally buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to
     your character data handler and therefore faster performance.
     Setting the parser object’s *note buffer_text: 134d. attribute to
     *note True: a86. will enable buffering.

   * The ‘sample(population, k)’ function was added to the *note random:
     b7. module.  'population' is a sequence or ‘xrange’ object
     containing the elements of a population, and *note sample(): 572.
     chooses 'k' elements from the population without replacing chosen
     elements.  'k' can be any value up to ‘len(population)’.  For
     example:

          >>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 3)      # Choose 3 elements
          ['St', 'Sn', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 elements
          ['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 again
          ['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 8)      # Can't choose eight
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
            File "random.py", line 414, in sample
                raise ValueError, "sample larger than population"
          ValueError: sample larger than population
          >>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10)   # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000
          [3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]

     The *note random: b7. module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne
     Twister, implemented in C. It’s faster and more extensively studied
     than the previous algorithm.

     (All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note readline: b9. module also gained a number of new
     functions: *note get_history_item(): 134e, *note
     get_current_history_length(): 134f, and *note redisplay(): 1350.

   * The ‘rexec’ and ‘Bastion’ modules have been declared dead, and
     attempts to import them will fail with a *note RuntimeError: 180.
     New-style classes provide new ways to break out of the restricted
     execution environment provided by ‘rexec’, and no one has interest
     in fixing them or time to do so.  If you have applications using
     ‘rexec’, rewrite them to use something else.

     (Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications
     any safer because there are known bugs in the ‘rexec’ module in
     those versions.  To repeat: if you’re using ‘rexec’, stop using it
     immediately.)

   * The ‘rotor’ module has been deprecated because the algorithm it
     uses for encryption is not believed to be secure.  If you need
     encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are
     available separately.

   * The *note shutil: c4. module gained a ‘move(src, dest)’ function
     that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.

   * Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the
     *note signal: c5. but then removed again as it proved impossible to
     make it work reliably across platforms.

   * The *note socket: cb. module now supports timeouts.  You can call
     the ‘settimeout(t)’ method on a socket object to set a timeout of
     't' seconds.  Subsequent socket operations that take longer than
     't' seconds to complete will abort and raise a *note
     socket.timeout: 672. exception.

     The original timeout implementation was by Tim O’Malley.  Michael
     Gilfix integrated it into the Python *note socket: cb. module and
     shepherded it through a lengthy review.  After the code was checked
     in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts of it.  (This is a good example
     of a collaborative development process in action.)

   * On Windows, the *note socket: cb. module now ships with Secure
     Sockets Layer (SSL) support.

   * The value of the C ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’ macro is now exposed at the
     Python level as ‘sys.api_version’.  The current exception can be
     cleared by calling the new ‘sys.exc_clear()’ function.

   * The new *note tarfile: dd. module allows reading from and writing
     to ‘tar’-format archive files.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The new *note textwrap: eb. module contains functions for wrapping
     strings containing paragraphs of text.  The ‘wrap(text, width)’
     function takes a string and returns a list containing the text
     split into lines of no more than the chosen width.  The ‘fill(text,
     width)’ function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into
     lines no longer than the chosen width.  (As you can guess, *note
     fill(): 1351. is built on top of *note wrap(): 1352.  For example:

          >>> import textwrap
          >>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..."
          >>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60)
          ["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in",
           "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it",
           ...]
          >>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35)
          Not a whit, we defy augury: there's
          a special providence in the fall of
          a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not
          to come; if it be not to come, it
          will be now; if it be not now, yet
          it will come: the readiness is all.
          >>>

     The module also contains a *note TextWrapper: e73. class that
     actually implements the text wrapping strategy.  Both the *note
     TextWrapper: e73. class and the *note wrap(): 1352. and *note
     fill(): 1351. functions support a number of additional keyword
     arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module’s
     documentation for details.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The ‘thread’ and *note threading: ec. modules now have companion
     modules, ‘dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’, that provide a
     do-nothing implementation of the ‘thread’ module’s interface for
     platforms where threads are not supported.  The intention is to
     simplify thread-aware modules (ones that 'don’t' rely on threads to
     run) by putting the following code at the top:

          try:
              import threading as _threading
          except ImportError:
              import dummy_threading as _threading

     In this example, ‘_threading’ is used as the module name to make it
     clear that the module being used is not necessarily the actual
     *note threading: ec. module.  Code can call functions and use
     classes in ‘_threading’ whether or not threads are supported,
     avoiding an *note if: 26e. statement and making the code slightly
     clearer.  This module will not magically make multithreaded code
     run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return
     or to do something will simply hang forever.

   * The *note time: ed. module’s *note strptime(): 12b5. function has
     long been an annoyance because it uses the platform C library’s
     *note strptime(): 12b5. implementation, and different platforms
     sometimes have odd bugs.  Brett Cannon contributed a portable
     implementation that’s written in pure Python and should behave
     identically on all platforms.

   * The new *note timeit: ee. module helps measure how long snippets of
     Python code take to execute.  The ‘timeit.py’ file can be run
     directly from the command line, or the module’s *note Timer: 1353.
     class can be imported and used directly.  Here’s a short example
     that figures out whether it’s faster to convert an 8-bit string to
     Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or by using the
     ‘unicode()’ function:

          import timeit

          timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")')
          timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""')

          # Run three trials
          print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
          print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)

          # On my laptop this outputs:
          # [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]
          # [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]

   * The ‘Tix’ module has received various bug fixes and updates for the
     current version of the Tix package.

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now works with a thread-enabled version of
     Tcl.  Tcl’s threading model requires that widgets only be accessed
     from the thread in which they’re created; accesses from another
     thread can cause Tcl to panic.  For certain Tcl interfaces,
     ‘Tkinter’ will now automatically avoid this when a widget is
     accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing
     it to the correct thread, and waiting for the results.  Other
     interfaces can’t be handled automatically but ‘Tkinter’ will now
     raise an exception on such an access so that you can at least find
     out about the problem.  See
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html’
     for a more detailed explanation of this change.  (Implemented by
     Martin von Löwis.)

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.
     This behavior can be controlled through the ‘wantobjects()’ method
     of ‘tkapp’ objects.

     When using ‘_tkinter’ through the ‘Tkinter’ module (as most Tkinter
     applications will), this feature is always activated.  It should
     not cause compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always
     convert string results to Python types where possible.

     If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be
     restored by setting the ‘wantobjects’ variable in the ‘Tkinter’
     module to false before creating the first ‘tkapp’ object.

          import Tkinter
          Tkinter.wantobjects = 0

     Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.

   * The ‘UserDict’ module has a new ‘DictMixin’ class which defines all
     dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping
     interface.  This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be
     substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in the *note
     shelve: c2. module.

     Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary
     interface whenever the class defines *note __getitem__(): 500,
     *note __setitem__(): 1174, *note __delitem__(): 1175, and ‘keys()’.
     For example:

          >>> import UserDict
          >>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin):
          ...     """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists."""
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self.keylist = []
          ...         self.valuelist = []
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         return self.valuelist[i]
          ...     def __setitem__(self, key, value):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...             self.valuelist[i] = value
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             self.keylist.append(key)
          ...             self.valuelist.append(value)
          ...     def __delitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         self.keylist.pop(i)
          ...         self.valuelist.pop(i)
          ...     def keys(self):
          ...         return list(self.keylist)
          ...
          >>> s = SeqDict()
          >>> dir(s)      # See that other dictionary methods are implemented
          ['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__',
           '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__',
           '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems',
           'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem',
           'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The DOM implementation in *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. can now
     generate XML output in a particular encoding by providing an
     optional encoding argument to the *note toxml(): 1354. and *note
     toprettyxml(): 1355. methods of DOM nodes.

   * The ‘xmlrpclib’ module now supports an XML-RPC extension for
     handling nil data values such as Python’s ‘None’.  Nil values are
     always supported on unmarshalling an XML-RPC response.  To generate
     requests containing ‘None’, you must supply a true value for the
     'allow_none' parameter when creating a ‘Marshaller’ instance.

   * The new ‘DocXMLRPCServer’ module allows writing self-documenting
     XML-RPC servers.  Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in
     action.  Pointing the web browser to the RPC server produces
     pydoc-style documentation; pointing xmlrpclib to the server allows
     invoking the actual methods.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491,
     and 3492) has been added.  The “idna” encoding can be used to
     convert between a Unicode domain name and the ASCII-compatible
     encoding (ACE) of that name.

          >{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna")
          'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu'

     The *note socket: cb. module has also been extended to
     transparently convert Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before
     passing them to the C library.  Modules that deal with hostnames
     such as ‘httplib’ and *note ftplib: 5c.) also support Unicode host
     names; ‘httplib’ also sends HTTP ‘Host’ headers using the ACE
     version of the domain name.  *note urllib: 108. supports Unicode
     URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the ‘path’ part of the
     URL is ASCII only.

     To implement this change, the *note stringprep: d3. module, the
     ‘mkstringprep’ tool and the ‘punycode’ encoding have been added.

* Menu:

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pybsddb.sourceforge.net


File: python.info,  Node: Date/Time Type,  Next: The optparse Module,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.18.17.1 Date/Time Type
........................

Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the
*note datetime: 30. module.  The types don’t support different calendars
or many fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing
time.

The three primary types are: *note date: 749, representing a day, month,
and year; *note time: 6df, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and
*note datetime: 22b, which contains all the attributes of both *note
date: 749. and *note time: 6df.  There’s also a *note timedelta: 82d.
class representing differences between two points in time, and time zone
logic is implemented by classes inheriting from the abstract *note
tzinfo: 3e9. class.

You can create instances of *note date: 749. and *note time: 6df. by
either supplying keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g.
‘datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15)’, or by using one of a
number of class methods.  For example, the *note today(): 1357. class
method returns the current local date.

Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable.
There are a number of methods for producing formatted strings from
objects:

     >>> import datetime
     >>> now = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> now.isoformat()
     '2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
     >>> now.ctime()  # Only available on date, datetime
     'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002'
     >>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b')
     '2002 30 Dec'

The *note replace(): 1358. method allows modifying one or more fields of
a *note date: 749. or *note datetime: 22b. instance, returning a new
instance:

     >>> d = datetime.datetime.now()
     >>> d
     datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour = 12)
     datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>>

Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result
is the same as that of *note isoformat(): 9a1.).  *note date: 749. and
*note datetime: 22b. instances can be subtracted from each other, and
added to *note timedelta: 82d. instances.  The largest missing feature
is that there’s no standard library support for parsing strings and
getting back a *note date: 749. or *note datetime: 22b.

For more information, refer to the module’s reference documentation.
(Contributed by Tim Peters.)


File: python.info,  Node: The optparse Module,  Prev: Date/Time Type,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.18.17.2 The optparse Module
.............................

The *note getopt: 5f. module provides simple parsing of command-line
arguments.  The new *note optparse: 9f. module (originally named Optik)
provides more elaborate command-line parsing that follows the Unix
conventions, automatically creates the output for ‘--help’, and can
perform different actions for different options.

You start by creating an instance of *note OptionParser: 135a. and
telling it what your program’s options are.

     import sys
     from optparse import OptionParser

     op = OptionParser()
     op.add_option('-i', '--input',
                   action='store', type='string', dest='input',
                   help='set input filename')
     op.add_option('-l', '--length',
                   action='store', type='int', dest='length',
                   help='set maximum length of output')

Parsing a command line is then done by calling the *note parse_args():
135b. method.

     options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:])
     print options
     print args

This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list
of strings containing the remaining arguments.

Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you’d expect
it to.  Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an
integer.

     $ ./python opt.py -i data arg1
     <Values at 0x400cad4c: {'input': 'data', 'length': None}>
     ['arg1']
     $ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4
     <Values at 0x400cad2c: {'input': 'data', 'length': 4}>
     []
     $

The help message is automatically generated for you:

     $ ./python opt.py --help
     usage: opt.py [options]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -iINPUT, --input=INPUT
                             set input filename
       -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH
                             set maximum length of output
     $

See the module’s documentation for more details.

Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the
Getopt SIG.


File: python.info,  Node: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Next: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.18 Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
------------------------------------------------

Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov,
was a feature added to Python 2.1.  Pymalloc is intended to be faster
than the system ‘malloc()’ and to have less memory overhead for
allocation patterns typical of Python programs.  The allocator uses C’s
‘malloc()’ function to get large pools of memory and then fulfills
smaller memory requests from these pools.

In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn’t enabled
by default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by
providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’ option to the ‘configure’ script.  In
2.3, pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by
default; you’ll have to supply ‘--without-pymalloc’ to disable it.

This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc
may expose bugs in C extensions.  Authors of C extension modules should
test their code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may
cause core dumps at runtime.

There’s one particularly common error that causes problems.  There are a
number of memory allocation functions in Python’s C API that have
previously just been aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions
the error wouldn’t be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more, and
calling the wrong function to free memory may get you a core dump.  For
example, if memory was allocated using *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6, it
has to be freed using *note PyObject_Free(): ae3, not ‘free()’.  A few
modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed;
doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same
problem.

As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating
memory have been consolidated down into two API families.  Memory
allocated with one family must not be manipulated with functions from
the other family.  There is one family for allocating chunks of memory
and another family of functions specifically for allocating Python
objects.

   * To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the
     “raw memory” family: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4, *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): edc, and *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd.

   * The “object memory” family is the interface to the pymalloc
     facility described above and is biased towards a large number of
     “small” allocations: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6, *note
     PyObject_Realloc(): 12ce, and *note PyObject_Free(): ae3.

   * To allocate and free Python objects, use the “object” family *note
     PyObject_New: 7e3, *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4, and *note
     PyObject_Del(): 135e.

Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides
debugging features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both
extension modules and in the interpreter itself.  To enable this
support, compile a debugging version of the Python interpreter by
running ‘configure’ with ‘--with-pydebug’.

To aid extension writers, a header file ‘Misc/pymemcompat.h’ is
distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions
to use the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against
any version of Python since 1.5.2.  You would copy the file from
Python’s source distribution and bundle it with the source of your
extension.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c’

     For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the
     comments at the top of the file ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ in the Python
     source code.  The above link points to the file within the
     python.org SVN browser.


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Prev: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.19 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection
     has proven to be stable, so it’s now been made mandatory.  You can
     no longer compile Python without it, and the ‘--with-cycle-gc’
     switch to ‘configure’ has been removed.

   * Python can now optionally be built as a shared library
     (‘libpython2.3.so’) by supplying ‘--enable-shared’ when running
     Python’s ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)

   * The ‘DL_EXPORT’ and ‘DL_IMPORT’ macros are now deprecated.
     Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be
     declared using the new macro *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1360, while the
     Python core will generally use the ‘PyAPI_FUNC’ and ‘PyAPI_DATA’
     macros.

   * The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the
     built-in functions and modules by supplying ‘--without-doc-strings’
     to the ‘configure’ script.  This makes the Python executable about
     10% smaller, but will also mean that you can’t get help for
     Python’s built-ins.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * The ‘PyArg_NoArgs()’ macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it
     should be changed.  For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition
     table can specify the *note METH_NOARGS: 1361. flag, signalling
     that there are no arguments, and the argument checking can then be
     removed.  If compatibility with pre-2.2 versions of Python is
     important, the code could use ‘PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "")’ instead,
     but this will be slower than using *note METH_NOARGS: 1361.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. accepts new format characters for
     various sizes of unsigned integers: ‘B’ for unsigned char, ‘H’ for
     unsigned short int, ‘I’ for unsigned int, and ‘K’ for unsigned long
     long.

   * A new function, ‘PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)’ was
     added as shorthand for ‘PyObject_DelItem(mapping,
     PyString_New(key))’.

   * File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently,
     increasing it exponentially when needed.  This results in the
     benchmark tests in ‘Lib/test/test_bufio.py’ speeding up
     considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7 seconds, according to one
     measurement).

   * It’s now possible to define class and static methods for a C
     extension type by setting either the *note METH_CLASS: 1362. or
     *note METH_STATIC: 1363. flags in a method’s *note PyMethodDef:
     1364. structure.

   * Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser’s source code,
     removing any dependence on a system version or local installation
     of Expat.

   * If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you
     should be aware of a change in the rules relating to the *note
     __module__: b0b. and *note __name__: 1336. attributes.  In summary,
     you will want to ensure the type’s dictionary contains a
     ‘'__module__'’ key; making the module name the part of the type
     name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
     effect.  For more detail, read the API reference documentation or
     the source.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<3>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<11>

1.18.19.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

Support for a port to IBM’s OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was
merged into the main Python source tree.  EMX is a POSIX emulation layer
over the OS/2 system APIs.  The Python port for EMX tries to support all
the POSIX-like capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly
succeeds; ‘fork()’ and *note fcntl(): 57. are restricted by the
limitations of the underlying emulation layer.  The standard OS/2 port,
which uses IBM’s Visual Age compiler, also gained support for
case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of the EMX
port into CVS. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward
compatibility.  This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a
single routine is missing on the current OS version.  Instead calling
the missing routine will raise an exception.  (Contributed by Jack
Jansen.)

The RPM spec files, found in the ‘Misc/RPM/’ directory in the Python
source distribution, were updated for 2.3.  (Contributed by Sean
Reifschneider.)

Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
(‘http://www.atheos.cx/’), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.20 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes
scattered throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change
logs finds there were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between
Python 2.2 and 2.3.  Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * If the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1367. environment variable is set, the
     Python interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running
     a Python program, as if Python had been invoked with the *note -i:
     1368. option.  The environment variable can be set before running
     the Python interpreter, or it can be set by the Python program as
     part of its execution.

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now provides a way to allow “all resources
     except 'foo'.” A resource name passed to the ‘-u’ option can now be
     prefixed with a hyphen (‘'-'’) to mean “remove this resource.” For
     example, the option ‘‘-uall,-bsddb’’ could be used to enable the
     use of all resources except ‘bsddb’.

   * The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as
     well as Unix.

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode has been removed.  Back in the mists of
     time, this opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks
     and support trace functions (for, e.g., *note pdb: a4.).  Since
     Python 1.5, the line numbers in tracebacks have been computed using
     a different mechanism that works with “python -O”.  For Python 2.3
     Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to determine when to
     call the trace function, removing the need for ‘SET_LINENO’
     entirely.

     It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from
     Python code, apart from a slight speed up when Python is run
     without *note -O: c42.

     C extensions that access the *note f_lineno: 5e2. field of frame
     objects should instead call ‘PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code,
     f->f_lasti)’.  This will have the added effect of making the code
     work as desired under “python -O” in earlier versions of Python.

     A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the
     *note f_lineno: 5e2. attribute of frame objects, changing the line
     that will be executed next.  A ‘jump’ command has been added to the
     *note pdb: a4. debugger taking advantage of this new feature.
     (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 3,  Next: Acknowledgements<5>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.21 Porting to Python 2.3
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * *note yield: 82b. is now always a keyword; if it’s used as a
     variable name in your code, a different name must be chosen.

   * For strings 'X' and 'Y', ‘X in Y’ now works if 'X' is more than one
     character long.

   * The *note int(): 184. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 6c7. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.

   * If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must
     declare the file’s encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding
     a comment to the top of the file.  See section *note PEP 263;
     Source Code Encodings: 1311. for more information.

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.

   * Large octal and hex literals such as ‘0xffffffff’ now trigger a
     *note FutureWarning: 248.  Currently they’re stored as 32-bit
     numbers and result in a negative value, but in Python 2.4 they’ll
     become positive long integers.

     There are a few ways to fix this warning.  If you really need a
     positive number, just add an ‘L’ to the end of the literal.  If
     you’re trying to get a 32-bit integer with low bits set and have
     previously used an expression such as ‘~(1 << 31)’, it’s probably
     clearest to start with all bits set and clear the desired upper
     bits.  For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could
     write ‘0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31)’.

   * You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ‘__debug__’.

   * The Distutils ‘setup()’ function has gained various new keyword
     arguments such as 'depends'.  Old versions of the Distutils will
     abort if passed unknown keywords.  A solution is to check for the
     presence of the new ‘get_distutil_options()’ function in your
     ‘setup.py’ and only uses the new keywords with a version of the
     Distutils that supports them:

          from distutils import core

          kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...}
          if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'):
              kw['depends'] = ['foo.h']
          ext = Extension(**kw)

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 17e. warning.

   * Names of extension types defined by the modules included with
     Python now contain the module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type
     name.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<5>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 3,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.18.22 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Jeff Bauer, Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside,
Andrew Dalke, Scott David Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser,
Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger, Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef
Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco
Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman Suzi, Jason Tishler,
Just van Rossum.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.19 What’s New in Python 2.2
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction,  Next: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on
October 14, 2002.  Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2,
originally released on December 21, 2001.

Python 2.2 can be thought of as the “cleanup release”.  There are some
features such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but
most of the changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be,
are aimed at cleaning up irregularities and dark corners of the language
design.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as
the Python Library Reference(1) and the Python Reference Manual(2).  If
you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale
for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Next: PEP 234 Iterators,  Prev: Introduction,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.2 PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
-----------------------------------------------

The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python’s
model of objects and classes.  The changes should be backward
compatible, so it’s likely that your code will continue to run
unchanged, but the changes provide some amazing new capabilities.
Before beginning this, the longest and most complicated section of this
article, I’ll provide an overview of the changes and offer some
comments.

A long time ago I wrote a web page listing flaws in Python’s design.
One of the most significant flaws was that it’s impossible to subclass
Python types implemented in C. In particular, it’s not possible to
subclass built-in types, so you can’t just subclass, say, lists in order
to add a single useful method to them.  The ‘UserList’ module provides a
class that supports all of the methods of lists and that can be
subclassed further, but there’s lots of C code that expects a regular
Python list and won’t accept a *note UserList: 1370. instance.

Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new
capabilities.  A brief summary:

   * You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers,
     and your subclasses should work in every place that requires the
     original type.

   * It’s now possible to define static and class methods, in addition
     to the instance methods available in previous versions of Python.

   * It’s also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or
     setting an instance attribute by using a new mechanism called
     'properties'.  Many uses of *note __getattr__(): 201. can be
     rewritten to use properties instead, making the resulting code
     simpler and faster.  As a small side benefit, attributes can now
     have docstrings, too.

   * The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a
     particular set using 'slots', making it possible to safeguard
     against typos and perhaps make more optimizations possible in
     future versions of Python.

Some users have voiced concern about all these changes.  Sure, they say,
the new features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks
that weren’t possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make
the language more complicated.  Some people have said that they’ve
always recommended Python for its simplicity, and feel that its
simplicity is being lost.

Personally, I think there’s no need to worry.  Many of the new features
are quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever
needed to be aware of them.  Writing a simple class is no more difficult
than it ever was, so you don’t need to bother learning or teaching them
unless they’re actually needed.  Some very complicated tasks that were
previously only possible from C will now be possible in pure Python, and
to my mind that’s all for the better.

I’m not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small
change that were required to make the new features work.  Instead this
section will paint only the broad strokes.  See section *note Related
Links: 1371, “Related Links”, for further sources of information about
Python 2.2’s new object model.

* Menu:

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::


File: python.info,  Node: Old and New Classes,  Next: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.1 Old and New Classes
............................

First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes:
classic or old-style classes, and new-style classes.  The old-style
class model is exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions
of Python.  All the new features described in this section apply only to
new-style classes.  This divergence isn’t intended to last forever;
eventually old-style classes will be dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.

So how do you define a new-style class?  You do it by subclassing an
existing new-style class.  Most of Python’s built-in types, such as
integers, lists, dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes
now.  A new-style class named *note object: 8f2, the base class for all
built-in types, has also been added so if no built-in type is suitable,
you can just subclass *note object: 8f2.:

     class C(object):
         def __init__ (self):
             ...
         ...

This means that *note class: 1181. statements that don’t have any base
classes are always classic classes in Python 2.2.  (Actually you can
also change this by setting a module-level variable named
‘__metaclass__’ — see PEP 253(1) for the details — but it’s easier to
just subclass *note object: 8f2.)

The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins,
named using a clever trick.  Python has always had built-in functions
named *note int(): 184, *note float(): 272, and *note str(): 15d.  In
2.2, they aren’t functions any more, but type objects that behave as
factories when called.

     >>> int
     <type 'int'>
     >>> int('123')
     123

To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as *note
dict(): 240. and ‘file()’ have been added.  Here’s a more interesting
example, adding a ‘lock()’ method to file objects:

     class LockableFile(file):
         def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0):
             import fcntl
             return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation,
                                length, start, whence)

The now-obsolete ‘posixfile’ module contained a class that emulated all
of a file object’s methods and also added a ‘lock()’ method, but this
class couldn’t be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in
file, something which is possible with our new ‘LockableFile’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptors,  Next: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Prev: Old and New Classes,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.2 Descriptors
....................

In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover
what attributes and methods were supported by an object.  There were
some informal conventions, such as defining ‘__members__’ and
‘__methods__’ attributes that were lists of names, but often the author
of an extension type or a class wouldn’t bother to define them.  You
could fall back on inspecting the *note __dict__: 2ec. of an object, but
when class inheritance or an arbitrary ‘__getattr__()’ hook were in use
this could still be inaccurate.

The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for
describing the attributes of an object using 'descriptors' has been
formalized.  Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating
whether it’s a method or a field.  With the descriptor API, static
methods and class methods become possible, as well as more exotic
constructs.

Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and
have a few attributes of their own:

   * *note __name__: f10. is the attribute’s name.

   * *note __doc__: 781. is the attribute’s docstring.

   * ‘__get__(object)’ is a method that retrieves the attribute value
     from 'object'.

   * ‘__set__(object, value)’ sets the attribute on 'object' to 'value'.

   * ‘__delete__(object, value)’ deletes the 'value' attribute of
     'object'.

For example, when you write ‘obj.x’, the steps that Python actually
performs are:

     descriptor = obj.__class__.x
     descriptor.__get__(obj)

For methods, *note descriptor.__get__: 1374. returns a temporary object
that’s callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called
on it.  This is also why static methods and class methods are now
possible; they have descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the
method and the class.  As a brief explanation of these new kinds of
methods, static methods aren’t passed the instance, and therefore
resemble regular functions.  Class methods are passed the class of the
object, but not the object itself.  Static and class methods are defined
like this:

     class C(object):
         def f(arg1, arg2):
             ...
         f = staticmethod(f)

         def g(cls, arg1, arg2):
             ...
         g = classmethod(g)

The *note staticmethod(): 612. function takes the function ‘f()’, and
returns it wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class
object.  You might expect there to be special syntax for creating such
methods (‘def static f’, ‘defstatic f()’, or something like that) but no
such syntax has been defined yet; that’s been left for future versions
of Python.

More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as
new kinds of descriptors, and it’s not difficult to write a descriptor
class that does something novel.  For example, it would be possible to
write a descriptor class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style
preconditions and postconditions for a method.  A class that used this
feature might be defined like this:

     from eiffel import eiffelmethod

     class C(object):
         def f(self, arg1, arg2):
             # The actual function
             ...
         def pre_f(self):
             # Check preconditions
             ...
         def post_f(self):
             # Check postconditions
             ...

         f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f)

Note that a person using the new ‘eiffelmethod()’ doesn’t have to
understand anything about descriptors.  This is why I think the new
features don’t increase the basic complexity of the language.  There
will be a few wizards who need to know about it in order to write
‘eiffelmethod()’ or the ZODB or whatever, but most users will just write
code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore the implementation
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Next: Attribute Access,  Prev: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.3 Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
...............................................

Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the
rules under which names are resolved.  Consider this set of classes
(diagram taken from PEP 253(1) by Guido van Rossum):

           class A:
             ^ ^  def save(self): ...
            /   \
           /     \
          /       \
         /         \
     class B     class C:
         ^         ^  def save(self): ...
          \       /
           \     /
            \   /
             \ /
           class D

The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the
base classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right.  A
reference to ‘D.save()’ will search the classes ‘D’, ‘B’, and then ‘A’,
where ‘save()’ would be found and returned.  ‘C.save()’ would never be
found at all.  This is bad, because if ‘C’’s ‘save()’ method is saving
some internal state specific to ‘C’, not calling it will result in that
state never getting saved.

New-style classes follow a different algorithm that’s a bit more
complicated to explain, but does the right thing in this situation.
(Note that Python 2.3 changes this algorithm to one that produces the
same results in most cases, but produces more useful results for really
complicated inheritance graphs.)

  1. List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and
     include a class multiple times if it’s visited repeatedly.  In the
     above example, the list of visited classes is [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘A’, ‘C’,
     ‘A’].

  2. Scan the list for duplicated classes.  If any are found, remove all
     but one occurrence, leaving the 'last' one in the list.  In the
     above example, the list becomes [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘A’] after dropping
     duplicates.

Following this rule, referring to ‘D.save()’ will return ‘C.save()’,
which is the behaviour we’re after.  This lookup rule is the same as the
one followed by Common Lisp.  A new built-in function, *note super():
20d, provides a way to get at a class’s superclasses without having to
reimplement Python’s algorithm.  The most commonly used form will be
‘super(class, obj)’, which returns a bound superclass object (not the
actual class object).  This form will be used in methods to call a
method in the superclass; for example, ‘D’’s ‘save()’ method would look
like this:

     class D (B,C):
         def save (self):
             # Call superclass .save()
             super(D, self).save()
             # Save D's private information here
             ...

*note super(): 20d. can also return unbound superclass objects when
called as ‘super(class)’ or ‘super(class1, class2)’, but this probably
won’t often be useful.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Access,  Next: Related Links,  Prev: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.4 Attribute Access
.........................

A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute
access using *note __getattr__(): 201.; most commonly this is done for
convenience, to make code more readable by automatically mapping an
attribute access such as ‘obj.parent’ into a method call such as
‘obj.get_parent’.  Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling
attribute access.

First, ‘__getattr__(attr_name)’ is still supported by new-style classes,
and nothing about it has changed.  As before, it will be called when an
attempt is made to access ‘obj.foo’ and no attribute named ‘foo’ is
found in the instance’s dictionary.

New-style classes also support a new method,
‘__getattribute__(attr_name)’.  The difference between the two methods
is that *note __getattribute__(): a49. is 'always' called whenever any
attribute is accessed, while the old *note __getattr__(): 201. is only
called if ‘foo’ isn’t found in the instance’s dictionary.

However, Python 2.2’s support for 'properties' will often be a simpler
way to trap attribute references.  Writing a ‘__getattr__()’ method is
complicated because to avoid recursion you can’t use regular attribute
accesses inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents
of *note __dict__: 2ec.  *note __getattr__(): 201. methods also end up
being called by Python when it checks for other methods such as *note
__repr__(): 42e. or ‘__coerce__()’, and so have to be written with this
in mind.  Finally, calling a function on every attribute access results
in a sizable performance loss.

*note property: 43c. is a new built-in type that packages up three
functions that get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring.  For
example, if you want to define a ‘size’ attribute that’s computed, but
also settable, you could write:

     class C(object):
         def get_size (self):
             result = ... computation ...
             return result
         def set_size (self, size):
             ... compute something based on the size
             and set internal state appropriately ...

         # Define a property.  The 'delete this attribute'
         # method is defined as None, so the attribute
         # can't be deleted.
         size = property(get_size, set_size,
                         None,
                         "Storage size of this instance")

That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of
‘__getattr__()’/‘__setattr__()’ methods that check for the ‘size’
attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes
from the instance’s *note __dict__: 2ec.  Accesses to ‘size’ are also
the only ones which have to perform the work of calling a function, so
references to other attributes run at their usual speed.

Finally, it’s possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be
referenced on an object using the new *note __slots__: 1377. class
attribute.  Python objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it’s
possible to define a new attribute on an instance by just doing
‘obj.new_attr=1’.  A new-style class can define a class attribute named
*note __slots__: 1377. to limit the legal attributes to a particular set
of names.  An example will make this clear:

     >>> class C(object):
     ...     __slots__ = ('template', 'name')
     ...
     >>> obj = C()
     >>> print obj.template
     None
     >>> obj.template = 'Test'
     >>> print obj.template
     Test
     >>> obj.newattr = None
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr'

Note how you get an *note AttributeError: 3dc. on the attempt to assign
to an attribute not listed in *note __slots__: 1377.


File: python.info,  Node: Related Links,  Prev: Attribute Access,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.19.2.5 Related Links
......................

This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving
enough of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have
been simplified or ignored.  Where should you go to get a more complete
picture?

The *note Descriptor Guide: 1379. is a lengthy tutorial introduction to
the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum.  If my description
has whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes
into much more detail about the new features while still remaining quite
easy to read.

Next, there are two relevant PEPs, PEP 252(1) and PEP 253(2).  PEP
252(3) is titled “Making Types Look More Like Classes”, and covers the
descriptor API. PEP 253(4) is titled “Subtyping Built-in Types”, and
describes the changes to type objects that make it possible to subtype
built-in objects.  PEP 253(5) is the more complicated PEP of the two,
and at a few points the necessary explanations of types and meta-types
may cause your head to explode.  Both PEPs were written and implemented
by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance from the rest of the
Zope Corp.  team.

Finally, there’s the ultimate authority: the source code.  Most of the
machinery for the type handling is in ‘Objects/typeobject.c’, but you
should only resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted,
including posting a question to python-list or python-dev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 234 Iterators,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Prev: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.3 PEP 234: Iterators
-------------------------

Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both
the C and Python levels.  Objects can define how they can be looped over
by callers.

In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make ‘for item in obj’
work is to define a *note __getitem__(): 500. method that looks
something like this:

     def __getitem__(self, index):
         return <next item>

*note __getitem__(): 500. is more properly used to define an indexing
operation on an object so that you can write ‘obj[5]’ to retrieve the
sixth element.  It’s a bit misleading when you’re using this only to
support *note for: 26d. loops.  Consider some file-like object that
wants to be looped over; the 'index' parameter is essentially
meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a series of *note
__getitem__(): 500. calls will be made with 'index' incrementing by one
each time.  In other words, the presence of the *note __getitem__():
500. method doesn’t mean that using ‘file[5]’ to randomly access the
sixth element will work, though it really should.

In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and *note
__getitem__(): 500. methods can be limited to classes that really do
support random access.  The basic idea of iterators is simple.  A new
built-in function, ‘iter(obj)’ or ‘iter(C, sentinel)’, is used to get an
iterator.  ‘iter(obj)’ returns an iterator for the object 'obj', while
‘iter(C, sentinel)’ returns an iterator that will invoke the callable
object 'C' until it returns 'sentinel' to signal that the iterator is
done.

Python classes can define an ‘__iter__()’ method, which should create
and return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own
iterator, this method can just return ‘self’.  In particular, iterators
will usually be their own iterators.  Extension types implemented in C
can implement a *note tp_iter: 137b. function in order to return an
iterator, and extension types that want to behave as iterators can
define a *note tp_iternext: 137c. function.

So, after all this, what do iterators actually do?  They have one
required method, *note next(): 611, which takes no arguments and returns
the next value.  When there are no more values to be returned, calling
*note next(): 611. should raise the *note StopIteration: a73. exception.

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> print i
     <iterator object at 0x8116870>
     >>> i.next()
     1
     >>> i.next()
     2
     >>> i.next()
     3
     >>> i.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     StopIteration
     >>>

In 2.2, Python’s *note for: 26d. statement no longer expects a sequence;
it expects something for which *note iter(): 610. will return an
iterator.  For backward compatibility and convenience, an iterator is
automatically constructed for sequences that don’t implement
‘__iter__()’ or a *note tp_iter: 137b. slot, so ‘for i in [1,2,3]’ will
still work.  Wherever the Python interpreter loops over a sequence, it’s
been changed to use the iterator protocol.  This means you can do things
like this:

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> a,b,c = i
     >>> a,b,c
     (1, 2, 3)

Iterator support has been added to some of Python’s basic types.
Calling *note iter(): 610. on a dictionary will return an iterator which
loops over its keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m: print key, m[key]
     ...
     Mar 3
     Feb 2
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Jan 1
     Apr 4
     Nov 11
     Dec 12
     Oct 10

That’s just the default behaviour.  If you want to iterate over keys,
values, or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the ‘iterkeys()’,
‘itervalues()’, or ‘iteritems()’ methods to get an appropriate iterator.
In a minor related change, the *note in: 26f. operator now works on
dictionaries, so ‘key in dict’ is now equivalent to ‘dict.has_key(key)’.

Files also provide an iterator, which calls the *note readline(): b9.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
now read each line of a file using code like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.  An
iterator object could provide such additional capabilities, but the
iterator protocol only requires a *note next(): 611. method.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 234(1) - Iterators

     Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented by the Python Labs
     crew, mostly by GvR and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Prev: PEP 234 Iterators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.4 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the
introduction of iterators.

You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 82c.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: 82b, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.  Because a new keyword was introduced, generators
must be explicitly enabled in a module by including a ‘from __future__
import generators’ statement near the top of the module’s source code.
In Python 2.3 this statement will become unnecessary.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: 82b. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 82c. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s
‘next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn’t allowed inside the ‘try’ block of a *note try: 503.…*note finally:
828. statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the
interaction between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 82c. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator’s results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: a73. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 611. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from “An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language” at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
“or” is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 26e. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered a new part of the core
Python language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they
don’t solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One
novel feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a
generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Next: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.5 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are
32-bit values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of
arbitrary size, was becoming an annoyance.  For example, on platforms
that support files larger than ‘2**32’ bytes, the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects has to return a long integer.  However, there were various
bits of Python that expected plain integers and would raise an error if
a long integer was provided instead.  For example, in Python 1.5, only
regular integers could be used as a slice index, and ‘'abc'[1L:]’ would
raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception with the message ‘slice index
must be int’.

Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required.
The ‘L’ suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal,
as now the compiler will choose the appropriate type.  (Using the ‘L’
suffix will be discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering
a warning in Python 2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.)  Many
operations that used to raise an *note OverflowError: 6c7. will now
return a long integer as their result.  For example:

     >>> 1234567890123
     1234567890123L
     >>> 2 ** 64
     18446744073709551616L

In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated
identically.  You can still distinguish them with the *note type(): bd1.
built-in function, but that’s rarely needed.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented mostly by
     Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Next: Unicode Changes,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.6 PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
----------------------------------------------

The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an
effort to fix an old design flaw that’s been in Python from the
beginning.  Currently Python’s division operator, ‘/’, behaves like C’s
division operator when presented with two integer arguments: it returns
an integer result that’s truncated down when there would be a fractional
part.  For example, ‘3/2’ is 1, not 1.5, and ‘(-1)/2’ is -1, not -0.5.
This means that the results of division can vary unexpectedly depending
on the type of the two operands and because Python is dynamically typed,
it can be difficult to determine the possible types of the operands.

(The controversy is over whether this is 'really' a design flaw, and
whether it’s worth breaking existing code to fix this.  It’s caused
endless discussions on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm
of acidly sarcastic postings on ‘comp.lang.python’.  I won’t argue for
either side here and will stick to describing what’s implemented in 2.2.
Read PEP 238(1) for a summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)

Because this change might break code, it’s being introduced very
gradually.  Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won’t be
complete until Python 3.0.

First, I’ll borrow some terminology from PEP 238(2).  “True division” is
the division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5,
1/4 is 0.25, and so forth.  “Floor division” is what Python’s ‘/’
operator currently does when given integer operands; the result is the
floor of the value returned by true division.  “Classic division” is the
current mixed behaviour of ‘/’; it returns the result of floor division
when the operands are integers, and returns the result of true division
when one of the operands is a floating-point number.

Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:

   * A new operator, ‘//’, is the floor division operator.  (Yes, we
     know it looks like C++’s comment symbol.)  ‘//’ 'always' performs
     floor division no matter what the types of its operands are, so ‘1
     // 2’ is 0 and ‘1.0 // 2.0’ is also 0.0.

     ‘//’ is always available in Python 2.2; you don’t need to enable it
     using a ‘__future__’ statement.

   * By including a ‘from __future__ import division’ in a module, the
     ‘/’ operator will be changed to return the result of true division,
     so ‘1/2’ is 0.5.  Without the ‘__future__’ statement, ‘/’ still
     means classic division.  The default meaning of ‘/’ will not change
     until Python 3.0.

   * Classes can define methods called *note __truediv__(): 1380. and
     *note __floordiv__(): 1381. to overload the two division operators.
     At the C level, there are also slots in the *note PyNumberMethods:
     12a6. structure so extension types can define the two operators.

   * Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether
     code will work with the changed division semantics.  Running python
     with ‘-Q warn’ will cause a warning to be issued whenever division
     is applied to two integers.  You can use this to find code that’s
     affected by the change and fix it.  By default, Python 2.2 will
     simply perform classic division without a warning; the warning will
     be turned on by default in Python 2.3.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 238(3) - Changing the Division Operator

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Changes,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Prev: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.7 Unicode Changes
----------------------

Python’s Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2.  Unicode
strings are usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers.
Python 2.2 can also be compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers,
as its internal encoding by supplying ‘--enable-unicode=ucs4’ to the
configure script.  (It’s also possible to specify ‘--disable-unicode’ to
completely disable Unicode support.)

When built to use UCS-4 (a “wide Python”), the interpreter can natively
handle Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of
legal values for the ‘unichr()’ function is expanded accordingly.  Using
an interpreter compiled to use UCS-2 (a “narrow Python”), values greater
than 65535 will still cause ‘unichr()’ to raise a *note ValueError: 189.
exception.  This is all described in PEP 261(1), “Support for ‘wide’
Unicode characters”; consult it for further details.

Another change is simpler to explain.  Since their introduction, Unicode
strings have supported an ‘encode()’ method to convert the string to a
selected encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1.  A symmetric
‘decode([*encoding*])’ method has been added to 8-bit strings (though
not to Unicode strings) in 2.2.  ‘decode()’ assumes that the string is
in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned
by the codec.

Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly
related to Unicode.  For example, codecs have been added for
uu-encoding, MIME’s base64 encoding, and compression with the *note
zlib: 133. module:

     >>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,
     ... and repetitive text.
     ... """
     >>> data = s.encode('zlib')
     >>> data
     'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...'
     >>> data.decode('zlib')
     'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n'
     >>> print s.encode('uu')
     begin 666 <data>
     M2&5R92!I<R!A(&QE;F=T:'D@<&EE8V4@;V8@<F5D=6YD86YT+"!O=F5R;'D@
     >=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X*

     end
     >>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13')
     'furrfu'

To convert a class instance to Unicode, a ‘__unicode__()’ method can be
defined by a class, analogous to ‘__str__()’.

‘encode()’, ‘decode()’, and ‘__unicode__()’ were implemented by
Marc-André Lemburg.  The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were
implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 261(2) - Support for ‘wide’ Unicode characters

     Written by Paul Prescod.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Next: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Unicode Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.8 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional
feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import nested_scopes’
directive.  In 2.2 nested scopes no longer need to be specially enabled,
and are now always present.  The rest of this section is a copy of the
description of nested scopes from my “What’s New in Python 2.1”
document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can skip the rest of
this section.

The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2,
is to Python’s scoping rules.  In Python 2.0, at any given time there
are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local,
module-level, and the built-in namespace.  This often surprised people
because it didn’t match their intuitive expectations.  For example, a
nested recursive function definition doesn’t work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 14a. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 1145. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses
‘lambda’ you can often find local variables being copied by passing them
as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 12e2, *note class: 1181,
or *note import: 3ed. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 1145. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 14c. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 227(1) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Next: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.9 New and Improved Modules
-------------------------------

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module was contributed to the standard
     library by Fredrik Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC
     clients.  XML-RPC is a simple remote procedure call protocol built
     on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the following snippet
     retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O’Reilly Network, and
     then lists the recent headlines for one channel:

          import xmlrpclib
          s = xmlrpclib.Server(
                'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php')
          channels = s.meerkat.getChannels()
          # channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'}
          #  {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'},
          #  {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ]

          # Get the items for one channel
          items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} )

          # 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/',
          #   'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.',
          #   'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ]

     The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. module makes it easy to create
     straightforward XML-RPC servers.  See
     ‘http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/’ for more information about XML-RPC.

   * The new *note hmac: 68. module implements the HMAC algorithm
     described by RFC 2104(1).  (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now
     return pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have
     mnemonic attributes such as ‘memberst_mtime’ or *note tm_year:
     1385.  The enhanced functions include *note stat(): 1c5, *note
     fstat(): c19, *note statvfs(): f9e, and *note fstatvfs(): c1a. in
     the *note os: a0. module, and *note localtime(): 1386, *note
     gmtime(): 1065, and *note strptime(): 12b5. in the *note time: ed.
     module.

     For example, to obtain a file’s size using the old tuples, you’d
     end up writing something like ‘file_size =
     os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]’, but now this can be written more
     clearly as ‘file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size’.

     The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick
     Mathewson.

   * The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various
     errors in its output have been corrected.  (Contributed by Fred L.
     Drake, Jr.  and Tim Peters.)

   * The *note socket: cb. module can be compiled to support IPv6;
     specify the ‘--enable-ipv6’ option to Python’s configure script.
     (Contributed by Jun-ichiro “itojun” Hagino.)

   * Two new format characters were added to the *note struct: d4.
     module for 64-bit integers on platforms that support the C long
     long type.  ‘q’ is for a signed 64-bit integer, and ‘Q’ is for an
     unsigned one.  The value is returned in Python’s long integer type.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * In the interpreter’s interactive mode, there’s a new built-in
     function *note help(): 72a. that uses the *note pydoc: b4. module
     introduced in Python 2.1 to provide interactive help.
     ‘help(object)’ displays any available help text about 'object'.
     *note help(): 72a. with no argument puts you in an online help
     utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or
     modules to read their help text.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
     using Ka-Ping Yee’s *note pydoc: b4. module.)

   * Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the
     SRE engine underlying the *note re: b8. module.  For example, the
     *note re.sub(): 208. and *note re.split(): 9e3. functions have been
     rewritten in C. Another contributed patch speeds up certain Unicode
     character ranges by a factor of two, and a new *note finditer():
     1387. method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping
     matches in a given string.  (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh.
     The BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note smtplib: c9. module now supports RFC 2487(2), “Secure
     SMTP over TLS”, so it’s now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic
     between a Python program and the mail transport agent being handed
     a message.  *note smtplib: c9. also supports SMTP authentication.
     (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note imaplib: 72. module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has
     support for several new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined
     in RFC 2342(3), SORT, GETACL and SETACL. (Contributed by Anthony
     Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)

   * The ‘rfc822’ module’s parsing of email addresses is now compliant
     with RFC 2822(4), an update to RFC 822(5).  (The module’s name is
     'not' going to be changed to ‘rfc2822’.)  A new package, *note
     email: 3a, has also been added for parsing and generating e-mail
     messages.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and arising out of his
     work on Mailman.)

   * The *note difflib: 36. module now contains a new ‘Differ’ class for
     producing human-readable lists of changes (a “delta”) between two
     sequences of lines of text.  There are also two generator
     functions, ‘ndiff()’ and ‘restore()’, which respectively return a
     delta from two sequences, or one of the original sequences from a
     delta.  (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger, from ndiff.py
     code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)

   * New constants ‘ascii_letters’, ‘ascii_lowercase’, and
     ‘ascii_uppercase’ were added to the *note string: d2. module.
     There were several modules in the standard library that used
     ‘string.letters’ to mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is
     incorrect when locales are in use, because ‘string.letters’ varies
     depending on the set of legal characters defined by the current
     locale.  The buggy modules have all been fixed to use
     ‘ascii_letters’ instead.  (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by
     Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note mimetypes: 8e. module now makes it easier to use
     alternative MIME-type databases by the addition of a *note
     MimeTypes: 1388. class, which takes a list of filenames to be
     parsed.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * A *note Timer: 1000. class was added to the *note threading: ec.
     module that allows scheduling an activity to happen at some future
     time.  (Contributed by Itamar Shtull-Trauring.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2487.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.10 Interpreter Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------------

Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python
interpreter at the C level because they’re writing Python extension
modules, embedding the interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter
itself.  If you only write Python code, none of the changes described
here will affect you very much.

   * Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which
     can operate at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and
     should reduce the overhead of profiling and tracing.  This will be
     of interest to authors of development environments for Python.  Two
     new C functions were added to Python’s API, *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 138a. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 138b.  The
     existing *note sys.setprofile(): 138c. and *note sys.settrace():
     138d. functions still exist, and have simply been changed to use
     the new C-level interface.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of
     Python debuggers and development tools, was added.  *note
     PyInterpreterState_Head(): 138e. and *note
     PyInterpreterState_Next(): 138f. let a caller walk through all the
     existing interpreter objects; *note
     PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(): 1390. and *note
     PyThreadState_Next(): 1391. allow looping over all the thread
     states for a given interpreter.  (Contributed by David Beazley.)

   * The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to
     make it easier to write extension types that support garbage
     collection and to debug misuses of the functions.  Various
     functions have slightly different semantics, so a bunch of
     functions had to be renamed.  Extensions that use the old API will
     still compile but will 'not' participate in garbage collection, so
     updating them for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.

     To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the
     following steps:

   * Rename ‘Py_TPFLAGS_GC’ to *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad.

   * 
     Use *note PyObject_GC_New(): 90e. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): 90f. to allocate

          objects, and *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 1392. to deallocate
          them.

   * Rename ‘PyObject_GC_Init()’ to *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 1393. and
     ‘PyObject_GC_Fini()’ to *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394.

   * Remove ‘PyGC_HEAD_SIZE’ from object size calculations.

   * Remove calls to ‘PyObject_AS_GC()’ and ‘PyObject_FROM_GC()’.

   * A new ‘et’ format sequence was added to *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     308.; ‘et’ takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and
     converts the parameter to the given encoding if the parameter turns
     out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it alone if it’s an 8-bit
     string, assuming it to already be in the desired encoding.  This
     differs from the ‘es’ format character, which assumes that 8-bit
     strings are in Python’s default ASCII encoding and converts them to
     the specified new encoding.  (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and
     used for the MBCS support on Windows described in the following
     section.)

   * A different argument parsing function, *note PyArg_UnpackTuple():
     1395, has been added that’s simpler and presumably faster.  Instead
     of specifying a format string, the caller simply gives the minimum
     and maximum number of arguments expected, and a set of pointers to
     *note PyObject: 6eb.* variables that will be filled in with
     argument values.

   * Two new flags *note METH_NOARGS: 1361. and *note METH_O: 1396. are
     available in method definition tables to simplify implementation of
     methods with no arguments or a single untyped argument.  Calling
     such methods is more efficient than calling a corresponding method
     that uses *note METH_VARARGS: 1397.  Also, the old ‘METH_OLDARGS’
     style of writing C methods is now officially deprecated.

   * Two new wrapper functions, *note PyOS_snprintf(): 1398. and *note
     PyOS_vsnprintf(): 1399. were added to provide cross-platform
     implementations for the relatively new ‘snprintf()’ and
     ‘vsnprintf()’ C lib APIs.  In contrast to the standard ‘sprintf()’
     and ‘vsprintf()’ functions, the Python versions check the bounds of
     the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns.  (Contributed
     by M.-A. Lemburg.)

   * The *note _PyTuple_Resize(): 139a. function has lost an unused
     parameter, so now it takes 2 parameters instead of 3.  The third
     argument was never used, and can simply be discarded when porting
     code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Next: Acknowledgements<6>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.11 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds
there were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and
2.2; 2.2.1 applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106
patches and fixed 82 bugs.  These figures are likely to be
underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen,
     is now kept in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been
     made to support MacOS X.

     The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a
     framework, enabled by supplying the ‘--enable-framework’ option to
     the configure script when compiling Python.  According to Jack
     Jansen, “This installs a self-contained Python installation plus
     the OS X framework “glue” into
     ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ (or another location of
     choice).  For now there is little immediate added benefit to this
     (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to change your
     PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for creating a
     full-blown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE, possibly
     using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much more.”

     Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS
     APIs such as windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc.  have been
     ported to OS X, but they’ve been left commented out in ‘setup.py’.
     People who want to experiment with these modules can uncomment them
     manually.

   * Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don’t take them
     now cause a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception to be raised, with the
     message “'function' takes no keyword arguments”.

   * Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are
     now part of the core because they’re used in the implementation of
     new-style classes.  The *note ReferenceError: 139c. exception has
     therefore moved from the *note weakref: 114. module to become a
     built-in exception.

   * A new script, ‘Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py’ by Tim Peters,
     automatically removes obsolete ‘__future__’ statements from Python
     source code.

   * An additional 'flags' argument has been added to the built-in
     function *note compile(): 56d, so the behaviour of ‘__future__’
     statements can now be correctly observed in simulated shells, such
     as those presented by IDLE and other development environments.
     This is described in PEP 264(1).  (Contributed by Michael Hudson.)

   * The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn’t GPL-compatible.
     This is fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so
     it’s now legal to embed Python inside a GPLed program again.  Note
     that Python itself is not GPLed, but instead is under a license
     that’s essentially equivalent to the BSD license, same as it always
     was.  The license changes were also applied to the Python 2.0.1 and
     2.1.1 releases.

   * When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now
     convert it to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file
     APIs.  As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python’s choice
     of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance.  On
     Unix, the locale’s character set is used if
     ‘locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ is available.  (Windows support was
     contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André
     Lemburg.  Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.)

   * Large file support is now enabled on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim
     Peters.)

   * The ‘Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py’ script now parses a ‘.netrc’ file,
     if you have one.  (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)

   * Some features of the object returned by the ‘xrange()’ function are
     now deprecated, and trigger warnings when they’re accessed; they’ll
     disappear in Python 2.3.  ‘xrange’ objects tried to pretend they
     were full sequence types by supporting slicing, sequence
     multiplication, and the *note in: 26f. operator, but these features
     were rarely used and therefore buggy.  The ‘tolist()’ method and
     the ‘start’, ‘stop’, and ‘step’ attributes are also being
     deprecated.  At the C level, the fourth argument to the
     ‘PyRange_New()’ function, ‘repeat’, has also been deprecated.

   * There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation,
     mostly to fix potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects
     that sneakily changed their hash value, or mutated the dictionary
     they were contained in.  For a while python-dev fell into a gentle
     rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that dumped core, Tim
     Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round and
     round it went.

   * On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a
     number of patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result
     isn’t fully functional yet.  (But this 'is' progress…)

   * Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered
     PythonLabs use of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system.  Earlier
     PythonLabs Windows installers used Wise 5.0a, which was beginning
     to show its age.  (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)

   * Files ending in ‘.pyw’ can now be imported on Windows.  ‘.pyw’ is a
     Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run
     using PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS
     console from popping up to display the output.  This patch makes it
     possible to import such scripts, in case they’re also usable as
     modules.  (Implemented by David Bolen.)

   * On platforms where Python uses the C ‘dlopen()’ function to load
     extension modules, it’s now possible to set the flags used by
     ‘dlopen()’ using the *note sys.getdlopenflags(): 139d. and *note
     sys.setdlopenflags(): fc1. functions.  (Contributed by Bram Stolk.)

   * The *note pow(): 830. built-in function no longer supports 3
     arguments when floating-point numbers are supplied.  ‘pow(x, y, z)’
     returns ‘(x**y) % z’, but this is never useful for floating-point
     numbers, and the final result varies unpredictably depending on the
     platform.  A call such as ‘pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)’ will now raise a
     *note TypeError: 2c4. exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0264/


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<6>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.19.12 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Fred Bremmer, Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr.,
Carel Fellinger, David Goodger, Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael
Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik
Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore, Gustavo Niemeyer, Don
O’Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom Reinhardt, Neil
Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.20 What’s New in Python 2.1
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<2>,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.1.  While there
aren’t as many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are
still some pleasant surprises in store.  2.1 is the first release to be
steered through the use of Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so
most of the sizable changes have accompanying PEPs that provide more
complete documentation and a design rationale for the change.  This
article doesn’t attempt to document the new features completely, but
simply provides an overview of the new features for Python programmers.
Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific PEP, for more
details about any new feature that particularly interests you.

One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate
the pace of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months.
2.1 is the first release to come out at this faster pace, with the first
alpha appearing in January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was
released.

The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Next: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Prev: Introduction<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.2 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python’s scoping rules.  In
Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to
look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace.
This often surprised people because it didn’t match their intuitive
expectations.  For example, a nested recursive function definition
doesn’t work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 14a. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 1145. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses *note
lambda: 1145. you can often find local variables being copied by passing
them as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 12e2, *note class: 1181,
or *note import: 3ed. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 1145. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 14c. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced
gradually; in Python 2.1, they aren’t enabled by default, but can be
turned on within a module by using a future statement as described in
PEP 236(1).  (See the following section for further discussion of PEP
236(2).)  In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become the default and there
will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had all of 2.1’s
lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 227(3) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Next: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.3 PEP 236: __future__ Directives
-------------------------------------

The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers
of breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make
the Pythoneers take a more conservative approach.  This approach
consists of introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality
in release N that will become compulsory in release N+1.

The syntax uses a ‘from...import’ statement using the reserved module
name *note __future__: 0.  Nested scopes can be enabled by the following
statement:

     from __future__ import nested_scopes

While it looks like a normal *note import: 3ed. statement, it’s not;
there are strict rules on where such a future statement can be put.
They can only be at the top of a module, and must precede any Python
code or regular ‘import’ statements.  This is because such statements
can affect how the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates
bytecode, so they must precede any statement that will result in
bytecodes being produced.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 236(1) - Back to the *note __future__: 0.

     Written by Tim Peters, and primarily implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Next: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Prev: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.4 PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
--------------------------------

In earlier versions, Python’s support for implementing comparisons on
user-defined classes and extension types was quite simple.  Classes
could implement a ‘__cmp__()’ method that was given two instances of a
class, and could only return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they
weren’t; the method couldn’t raise an exception or return anything other
than a Boolean value.  Users of Numeric Python often found this model
too weak and restrictive, because in the number-crunching programs that
numeric Python is used for, it would be more useful to be able to
perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning a matrix
containing the results of a given comparison for each element.  If the
two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to
raise an exception to signal the error.

In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this
need.  Python classes can now individually overload each of the ‘<’,
‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘==’, and ‘!=’ operations.  The new magic method names
are:

Operation       Method name
                
---------------------------------------------
                
‘<’             *note __lt__(): 1148.
                
                
‘<=’            *note __le__(): 11b5.
                
                
‘>’             *note __gt__(): 11b6.
                
                
‘>=’            *note __ge__(): 11b7.
                
                
‘==’            *note __eq__(): 968.
                
                
‘!=’            *note __ne__(): 13a5.
                

(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators
‘.LT.’.  ‘.LE.’, &c.  Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite
familiar with these names and will find them easy to remember.)

Each of these magic methods is of the form ‘method(self, other)’, where
‘self’ will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while
‘other’ will be the object on the right-hand side.  For example, the
expression ‘A < B’ will cause ‘A.__lt__(B)’ to be called.

Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a
matrix, a list, or any other Python object.  Alternatively they can
raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or
otherwise meaningless.

The built-in ‘cmp(A,B)’ function can use the rich comparison machinery,
and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison
operation to use; this is given as one of the strings ‘"<"’, ‘"<="’,
‘">"’, ‘">="’, ‘"=="’, or ‘"!="’.  If called without the optional third
argument, ‘cmp()’ will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions
of Python; otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return
any Python object.

There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers;
there’s a new slot ‘tp_richcmp’ in type objects and an API for
performing a given rich comparison.  I won’t cover the C API here, but
will refer you to PEP 207(1), or to 2.1’s C API documentation, for the
full list of related functions.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 207(2) - Rich Comparisons

     Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David
     Ascher, and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Next: PEP 229 New Build System,  Prev: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.5 PEP 230: Warning Framework
---------------------------------

Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number
of obsolete modules and features along the way.  It’s difficult to know
when a feature is safe to remove, since there’s no way of knowing how
much code uses it — perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or
perhaps many do.  To enable removing old features in a more structured
way, a warning framework was added.  When the Python developers want to
get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a warning in the next
version of Python.  The following Python version can then drop the
feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of
the old feature.

Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme.  It
adds a *note warnings: 112. module that provide functions to issue
warnings, and to filter out warnings that you don’t want to be
displayed.  Third-party modules can also use this framework to deprecate
old features that they no longer wish to support.

For example, in Python 2.1 the ‘regex’ module is deprecated, so
importing it causes a warning to be printed:

     >>> import regex
     __main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module
              is deprecated; please use the re module
     >>>

Warnings can be issued by calling the *note warnings.warn(): 13a7.
function:

     warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported")

The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional
parameters can be used to specify a particular warning category.

Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression
pattern can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to
suppress a warning.  For example, you may have a program that uses the
‘regex’ module and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the
*note re: b8. module right now.  The warning can be suppressed by
calling

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore',
                             message='.*regex module is deprecated',
                             category=DeprecationWarning,
                             module = '__main__')

This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f. triggered in the *note __main__: 1. module, and
applies a regular expression to only match the message about the ‘regex’
module being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored.
Warnings can also be printed only once, printed every time the offending
code is executed, or turned into exceptions that will cause the program
to stop (unless the exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).

Functions were also added to Python’s C API for issuing warnings; refer
to PEP 230 or to Python’s API documentation for the details.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 5(1) - Guidelines for Language Evolution

     Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when
     removing old features from Python.  The policy described in this
     PEP hasn’t been officially adopted, but the eventual policy
     probably won’t be too different from Prescod’s proposal.

PEP 230(2) - Warning Framework

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0230/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 229 New Build System,  Next: PEP 205 Weak References,  Prev: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.6 PEP 229: New Build System
--------------------------------

When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the
‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable various additional modules; the
default set is relatively small and limited to modules that compile on
most Unix platforms.  This means that on Unix platforms with many more
features, most notably Linux, Python installations often don’t contain
all useful modules they could.

Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and
installing extensions.  In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile
much of the standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which
ones are supported on the current machine.  It’s hoped that this will
make Python installations easier and more featureful.

Instead of having to edit the ‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable
modules, a ‘setup.py’ script in the top directory of the Python source
distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which
modules can be enabled by examining the modules and header files on the
system.  If a module is configured in ‘Modules/Setup’, the ‘setup.py’
script won’t attempt to compile that module and will defer to the
‘Modules/Setup’ file’s contents.  This provides a way to specific any
strange command-line flags or libraries that are required for a specific
platform.

In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer
restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn’t
recursive, instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the
‘Python/’, ‘Parser/’, ‘Objects/’, and ‘Modules/’ subdirectories.  This
makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles
clearer and simpler.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 229(1) - Using Distutils to Build Python

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0229/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 205 Weak References,  Next: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Prev: PEP 229 New Build System,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.7 PEP 205: Weak References
-------------------------------

Weak references, available through the *note weakref: 114. module, are a
minor but useful new data type in the Python programmer’s toolbox.

Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has
the side effect of keeping that object alive forever.  There are a few
specific cases where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being
the most common one, and another being circular references in data
structures such as trees.

For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of
another function ‘f(x)’ by storing the function’s argument and its
result in a dictionary:

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             return _cache[x]

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache the returned object
         _cache[x] = retval

         return retval

This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side
effect; the ‘_cache’ dictionary holds a reference to the return values,
so they’ll never be deallocated until the Python process exits and
cleans up.  This isn’t very noticeable for integers, but if ‘f()’
returns an object, or a data structure that takes up a lot of memory,
this can be a problem.

Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won’t keep
objects alive beyond their time.  If an object is only accessible
through weak references, the object will be deallocated and the weak
references will now indicate that the object it referred to no longer
exists.  A weak reference to an object 'obj' is created by calling ‘wr =
weakref.ref(obj)’.  The object being referred to is returned by calling
the weak reference as if it were a function: ‘wr()’.  It will return the
referenced object, or ‘None’ if the object no longer exists.

This makes it possible to write a ‘memoize()’ function whose cache
doesn’t keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache.

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             obj = _cache[x]()
             # If weak reference object still exists,
             # return it
             if obj is not None: return obj

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache a weak reference
         _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval)

         return retval

The *note weakref: 114. module also allows creating proxy objects which
behave like weak references — an object referenced only by proxy objects
is deallocated – but instead of requiring an explicit call to retrieve
the object, the proxy transparently forwards all operations to the
object as long as the object still exists.  If the object is
deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a
‘weakref.ReferenceError’ exception to be raised.

     proxy = weakref.proxy(obj)
     proxy.attr   # Equivalent to obj.attr
     proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth()
     del obj
     proxy.attr   # raises weakref.ReferenceError

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 205(1) - Weak References

     Written and implemented by Fred L. Drake, Jr.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Next: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Prev: PEP 205 Weak References,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.8 PEP 232: Function Attributes
-----------------------------------

In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to
them.  People were often using docstrings to hold information about
functions and methods, because the *note __doc__: 107e. attribute was
the only way of attaching any information to a function.  For example,
in the Zope web application server, functions are marked as safe for
public access by having a docstring, and in John Aycock’s SPARK parsing
framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar to be parsed.  This
overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really intended to hold
a function’s documentation; for example, it means you can’t properly
document functions intended for private use in Zope.

Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the
regular Python syntax:

     def f(): pass

     f.publish = 1
     f.secure = 1
     f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"

The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function’s
*note __dict__: 117c.  Unlike the *note __dict__: adb. attribute of
class instances, in functions you can actually assign a new dictionary
to *note __dict__: 117c, though the new value is restricted to a regular
Python dictionary; you 'can’t' be tricky and set it to a ‘UserDict’
instance, or any other random object that behaves like a mapping.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 232(1) - Function Attributes

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0232/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Next: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Prev: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.9 PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
---------------------------------------------------------------

Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS
and Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it’s
impossible to distinguish the filenames ‘FILE.PY’ and ‘file.py’, even
though they do store the file’s name in its original case (they’re
case-preserving, too).

In Python 2.1, the *note import: 3ed. statement will work to simulate
case-sensitivity on case-insensitive platforms.  Python will now search
for the first case-sensitive match by default, raising an *note
ImportError: 14b. if no such file is found, so ‘import file’ will not
import a module named ‘FILE.PY’.  Case-insensitive matching can be
requested by setting the *note PYTHONCASEOK: 7b9. environment variable
before starting the Python interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Next: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Prev: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.10 PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
-----------------------------------------

When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands
is displayed using the built-in *note repr(): 637. function.  In Python
2.1, the variable *note sys.displayhook(): 13ad. can be set to a
callable object which will be called instead of *note repr(): 637.  For
example, you can set it to a special pretty-printing function:

     >>> # Create a recursive data structure
     ... L = [1,2,3]
     >>> L.append(L)
     >>> L # Show Python's default output
     [1, 2, 3, [...]]
     >>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function
     ... import sys, pprint
     >>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
     >>> L
     [1, 2, 3,  <Recursion on list with id=135143996>]
     >>>

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 217(1) - Display Hook for Interactive Use

     Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0217/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Next: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Prev: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.11 PEP 208: New Coercion Model
-----------------------------------

How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified.
This will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing
them more flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric
operations.

Extension types can now set the type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES’ in
their ‘PyTypeObject’ structure to indicate that they support the new
coercion model.  In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can
no longer assume that they’ll be passed two arguments of the same type;
instead they may be passed two arguments of differing types, and can
then perform their own internal coercion.  If the slot function is
passed a type it can’t handle, it can indicate the failure by returning
a reference to the ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singleton value.  The numeric
functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can
handle the operation; if the other type also returns
‘Py_NotImplemented’, then a *note TypeError: 2c4. will be raised.
Numeric methods written in Python can also return ‘Py_NotImplemented’,
causing the interpreter to act as if the method did not exist (perhaps
raising a *note TypeError: 2c4, perhaps trying another object’s numeric
methods).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 208(1) - Reworking the Coercion Model

     Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon
     earlier work by Marc-André Lemburg.  Read this to understand the
     fine points of how numeric operations will now be processed at the
     C level.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0208/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Next: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.12 PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
--------------------------------------------

A common complaint from Python users is that there’s no single catalog
of all the Python modules in existence.  T. Middleton’s Vaults of
Parnassus at ‘www.vex.net/parnassus/’ (retired in February 2009,
available in the Internet Archive Wayback Machine(1)) was the largest
catalog of Python modules, but registering software at the Vaults is
optional, and many people did not bother.

As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software
packaged using the Distutils ‘sdist’ command will include a file named
‘PKG-INFO’ containing information about the package such as its name,
version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology).  PEP 241(2)
contains the full list of fields that can be present in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.  As people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more
and more packages will include metadata, making it possible to build
automated cataloguing systems and experiment with them.  With the result
experience, perhaps it’ll be possible to design a really good catalog
and then build support for it into Python 2.2.  For example, the
Distutils ‘sdist’ and ‘bdist_*’ commands could support an ‘upload’
option that would automatically upload your package to a catalog server.

You can start creating packages containing ‘PKG-INFO’ even if you’re not
using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for
users of earlier Python versions.  Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils
includes the changes described in PEP 241(3), as well as various
bugfixes and enhancements.  It will be available from the Distutils SIG
at ‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 241(4) - Metadata for Python Software Packages

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

PEP 243(5) - Module Repository Upload Mechanism

     Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed
     mechanism for uploading Python packages to a central server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20090130140102/http://www.vex.net/parnassus/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0243/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Prev: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.13 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

   * Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: ‘inspect.py’, a module for
     getting information about live Python code, and ‘pydoc.py’, a
     module for interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text.  As
     a bonus, ‘Tools/scripts/pydoc’, which is now automatically
     installed, uses ‘pydoc.py’ to display documentation given a Python
     module, package, or class name.  For example, ‘pydoc xml.dom’
     displays the following:

          Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml

          NAME
              xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python.

          FILE
              /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc

          DESCRIPTION
              The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the
              Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package.

              This package contains the following modules:
                ...

     ‘pydoc’ also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser.  ‘pydoc’
     quickly becomes addictive; try it out!

   * Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard
     library.  The *note doctest: 39. module, contributed by Tim Peters,
     provides a testing framework based on running embedded examples in
     docstrings and comparing the results against the expected output.
     PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a unit testing framework
     inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of Kent Beck’s
     Smalltalk testing framework.  See ‘https://pyunit.sourceforge.net/’
     for more information about PyUnit.

   * The *note difflib: 36. module contains a class, *note
     SequenceMatcher: ec1, which compares two sequences and computes the
     changes required to transform one sequence into the other.  For
     example, this module can be used to write a tool similar to the
     Unix ‘diff’ program, and in fact the sample program
     ‘Tools/scripts/ndiff.py’ demonstrates how to write such a script.

   * *note curses.panel: 2d, a wrapper for the panel library, part of
     ncurses and of SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum.
     The panel library provides windows with the additional feature of
     depth.  Windows can be moved higher or lower in the depth ordering,
     and the panel library figures out where panels overlap and which
     sections are visible.

   * The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0,
     and Python 2.1 includes an updated version of the *note xml: 120.
     package.  Some of the noteworthy changes include support for Expat
     1.2 and later versions, the ability for Expat parsers to handle
     files in any encoding supported by Python, and various bugfixes for
     SAX, DOM, and the ‘minidom’ module.

   * Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught
     exceptions.  *note sys.excepthook(): 646. can be set to a callable
     object.  When an exception isn’t caught by any *note try:
     503.…*note except: 3c0. blocks, the exception will be passed to
     *note sys.excepthook(): 646, which can then do whatever it likes.
     At the Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application
     for this hook: printing an extended traceback that not only lists
     the stack frames, but also lists the function arguments and the
     local variables for each frame.

   * Various functions in the *note time: ed. module, such as *note
     asctime(): 108c. and *note localtime(): 1386, require a
     floating-point argument containing the time in seconds since the
     epoch.  The most common use of these functions is to work with the
     current time, so the floating-point argument has been made
     optional; when a value isn’t provided, the current time will be
     used.  For example, log file entries usually need a string
     containing the current time; in Python 2.1, ‘time.asctime()’ can be
     used, instead of the lengthier
     ‘time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))’ that was previously
     required.

     This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   * The *note ftplib: 5c. module now defaults to retrieving files in
     passive mode, because passive mode is more likely to work from
     behind a firewall.  This request came from the Debian bug tracking
     system, since other Debian packages use *note ftplib: 5c. to
     retrieve files and then don’t work from behind a firewall.  It’s
     deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because
     Netscape defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if
     passive mode is unsuitable for your application or network setup,
     call ‘set_pasv(0)’ on FTP objects to disable passive mode.

   * Support for raw socket access has been added to the *note socket:
     cb. module, contributed by Grant Edwards.

   * The *note pstats: af. module now contains a simple interactive
     statistics browser for displaying timing profiles for Python
     programs, invoked when the module is run as a script.  Contributed
     by Eric S. Raymond.

   * A new implementation-dependent function, ‘sys._getframe([depth])’,
     has been added to return a given frame object from the current call
     stack.  *note sys._getframe(): 4f8. returns the frame at the top of
     the call stack; if the optional integer argument 'depth' is
     supplied, the function returns the frame that is 'depth' calls
     below the top of the stack.  For example, ‘sys._getframe(1)’
     returns the caller’s frame object.

     This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET
     implementation.  Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to
     put it into production code.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Next: Acknowledgements<7>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.14 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the
shorter release cycle.  A search through the CVS change logs turns up
117 patches applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be
underestimates.  Some of the more notable changes are:

   * A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that
     should be faster than the system ‘malloc()’ and have less memory
     overhead.  The allocator uses C’s ‘malloc()’ function to get large
     pools of memory, and then fulfills smaller memory requests from
     these pools.  It can be enabled by providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’
     option to the ‘configure’ script; see ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ for the
     implementation details.

     Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the
     object allocator enabled, because some incorrect code may break,
     causing core dumps at runtime.  There are a bunch of memory
     allocation functions in Python’s C API that have previously been
     just aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, meaning
     that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the error
     wouldn’t be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
     these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more,
     and calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core
     dump.  For example, if memory was allocated using *note PyMem_New:
     13b2, it has to be freed using *note PyMem_Del(): 13b3, not
     ‘free()’.  A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this
     and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules
     that will have the same problem.

     The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.

   * The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because
     people often complain about its lack of speed, and because it’s
     often been used as a naïve benchmark.  The *note readline(): b9.
     method of file objects has therefore been rewritten to be much
     faster.  The exact amount of the speedup will vary from platform to
     platform depending on how slow the C library’s ‘getc()’ was, but is
     around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular
     operating systems.  Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and
     coding for this change, motivated by a discussion in
     comp.lang.python.

     A new module and method for file objects was also added,
     contributed by Jeff Epler.  The new method, ‘xreadlines()’, is
     similar to the existing ‘xrange()’ built-in.  ‘xreadlines()’
     returns an opaque sequence object that only supports being iterated
     over, reading a line on every iteration but not reading the entire
     file into memory as the existing ‘readlines()’ method does.  You’d
     use it like this:

          for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines():
              # ... do something for each line ...
              ...

     For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev
     summary for January 1–15, 2001 at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/’.

   * A new method, *note popitem(): 13b4, was added to dictionaries to
     enable destructively iterating through the contents of a
     dictionary; this can be faster for large dictionaries because
     there’s no need to construct a list containing all the keys or
     values.  ‘D.popitem()’ removes a random ‘(key, value)’ pair from
     the dictionary ‘D’ and returns it as a 2-tuple.  This was
     implemented mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a
     suggestion and preliminary patch by Moshe Zadka.

   * Modules can now control which names are imported when ‘from module
     import *’ is used, by defining an ‘__all__’ attribute containing a
     list of names that will be imported.  One common complaint is that
     if the module imports other modules such as *note sys: d8. or *note
     string: d2, ‘from module import *’ will add them to the importing
     module’s namespace.  To fix this, simply list the public names in
     ‘__all__’:

          # List public names
          __all__ = ['Database', 'open']

     A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and
     implemented by Ben Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a
     weaker final version was checked in.

   * Applying *note repr(): 637. to strings previously used octal
     escapes for non-printable characters; for example, a newline was
     ‘'\012'’.  This was a vestigial trace of Python’s C ancestry, but
     today octal is of very little practical use.  Ka-Ping Yee suggested
     using hex escapes instead of octal ones, and using the ‘\n’, ‘\t’,
     ‘\r’ escapes for the appropriate characters, and implemented this
     new formatting.

   * Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions
     containing the filename and line number of the error, a pleasant
     side effect of the compiler reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.

   * C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f, which means that they will use
     any import hooks that have been installed.  This is also encouraged
     for third-party extensions that need to import some other module
     from C code.

   * The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another
     340K thanks to Fredrik Lundh.

   * Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski),
     Cygwin (by Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger);
     Unixware 7 (by Billy G. Allie).

And there’s the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks,
docstring edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing;
see the CVS logs for the full details if you want them.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<7>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.20.15 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David
Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh,
Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Next: Changelog,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.21 What’s New in Python 2.0
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling and Moshe Zadka

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* List Comprehensions::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML Modules::
* Module changes::
* New modules::
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<3>,  Next: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.1 Introduction
-------------------

A new release of Python, version 2.0, was released on October 16, 2000.
This article covers the exciting new features in 2.0, highlights some
other useful changes, and points out a few incompatible changes that may
require rewriting code.

Python’s development never completely stops between releases, and a
steady flow of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted.  A
host of minor fixes, a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and
better error messages went into 2.0; to list them all would be
impossible, but they’re certainly significant.  Consult the publicly
available CVS logs if you want to see the full list.  This progress is
due to the five developers working for PythonLabs are now getting paid
to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved
communication resulting from moving to SourceForge.


File: python.info,  Node: What About Python 1 6?,  Next: New Development Process,  Prev: Introduction<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.2 What About Python 1.6?
-----------------------------

Python 1.6 can be thought of as the Contractual Obligations Python
release.  After the core development team left CNRI in May 2000, CNRI
requested that a 1.6 release be created, containing all the work on
Python that had been performed at CNRI. Python 1.6 therefore represents
the state of the CVS tree as of May 2000, with the most significant new
feature being Unicode support.  Development continued after May, of
course, so the 1.6 tree received a few fixes to ensure that it’s
forward-compatible with Python 2.0.  1.6 is therefore part of Python’s
evolution, and not a side branch.

So, should you take much interest in Python 1.6?  Probably not.  The
1.6final and 2.0beta1 releases were made on the same day (September 5,
2000), the plan being to finalize Python 2.0 within a month or so.  If
you have applications to maintain, there seems little point in breaking
things by moving to 1.6, fixing them, and then having another round of
breakage within a month by moving to 2.0; you’re better off just going
straight to 2.0.  Most of the really interesting features described in
this document are only in 2.0, because a lot of work was done between
May and September.


File: python.info,  Node: New Development Process,  Next: Unicode<2>,  Prev: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.3 New Development Process
------------------------------

The most important change in Python 2.0 may not be to the code at all,
but to how Python is developed: in May 2000 the Python developers began
using the tools made available by SourceForge for storing source code,
tracking bug reports, and managing the queue of patch submissions.  To
report bugs or submit patches for Python 2.0, use the bug tracking and
patch manager tools available from Python’s project page, located at
‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/’.

The most important of the services now hosted at SourceForge is the
Python CVS tree, the version-controlled repository containing the source
code for Python.  Previously, there were roughly 7 or so people who had
write access to the CVS tree, and all patches had to be inspected and
checked in by one of the people on this short list.  Obviously, this
wasn’t very scalable.  By moving the CVS tree to SourceForge, it became
possible to grant write access to more people; as of September 2000
there were 27 people able to check in changes, a fourfold increase.
This makes possible large-scale changes that wouldn’t be attempted if
they’d have to be filtered through the small group of core developers.
For example, one day Peter Schneider-Kamp took it into his head to drop
K&R C compatibility and convert the C source for Python to ANSI C. After
getting approval on the python-dev mailing list, he launched into a
flurry of checkins that lasted about a week, other developers joined in
to help, and the job was done.  If there were only 5 people with write
access, probably that task would have been viewed as “nice, but not
worth the time and effort needed” and it would never have gotten done.

The shift to using SourceForge’s services has resulted in a remarkable
increase in the speed of development.  Patches now get submitted,
commented on, revised by people other than the original submitter, and
bounced back and forth between people until the patch is deemed worth
checking in.  Bugs are tracked in one central location and can be
assigned to a specific person for fixing, and we can count the number of
open bugs to measure progress.  This didn’t come without a cost:
developers now have more e-mail to deal with, more mailing lists to
follow, and special tools had to be written for the new environment.
For example, SourceForge sends default patch and bug notification e-mail
messages that are completely unhelpful, so Ka-Ping Yee wrote an HTML
screen-scraper that sends more useful messages.

The ease of adding code caused a few initial growing pains, such as code
was checked in before it was ready or without getting clear agreement
from the developer group.  The approval process that has emerged is
somewhat similar to that used by the Apache group.  Developers can vote
+1, +0, -0, or -1 on a patch; +1 and -1 denote acceptance or rejection,
while +0 and -0 mean the developer is mostly indifferent to the change,
though with a slight positive or negative slant.  The most significant
change from the Apache model is that the voting is essentially advisory,
letting Guido van Rossum, who has Benevolent Dictator For Life status,
know what the general opinion is.  He can still ignore the result of a
vote, and approve or reject a change even if the community disagrees
with him.

Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and
is usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good
design.  Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy
mailing list threads, making the discussion hard to follow, and no one
can read every posting to python-dev.  Therefore, a relatively formal
process has been set up to write Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs),
modelled on the internet RFC process.  PEPs are draft documents that
describe a proposed new feature, and are continually revised until the
community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting the
proposal.  Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1(1), “PEP Purpose and
Guidelines”:

     PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.  A PEP is a design
     document providing information to the Python community, or
     describing a new feature for Python.  The PEP should provide a
     concise technical specification of the feature and a rationale for
     the feature.

     We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing new
     features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for
     documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python.  The
     PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the
     community and documenting dissenting opinions.

Read the rest of PEP 1(2) for the details of the PEP editorial process,
style, and format.  PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge,
though they’re not part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also
available in HTML form from ‘https://peps.python.org/’.  As of September
2000, there are 25 PEPs, ranging from PEP 201(3), “Lockstep Iteration”,
to PEP 225, “Elementwise/Objectwise Operators”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0201/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode<2>,  Next: List Comprehensions,  Prev: New Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.4 Unicode
--------------

The largest new feature in Python 2.0 is a new fundamental data type:
Unicode strings.  Unicode uses 16-bit numbers to represent characters
instead of the 8-bit number used by ASCII, meaning that 65,536 distinct
characters can be supported.

The final interface for Unicode support was arrived at through countless
often-stormy discussions on the python-dev mailing list, and mostly
implemented by Marc-André Lemburg, based on a Unicode string type
implementation by Fredrik Lundh.  A detailed explanation of the
interface was written up as PEP 100(1), “Python Unicode Integration”.
This article will simply cover the most significant points about the
Unicode interfaces.

In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as ‘u"string"’.
Arbitrary Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence,
‘\uHHHH’, where 'HHHH' is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to
FFFF.  The existing ‘\xHH’ escape sequence can also be used, and octal
escapes can be used for characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by
‘\777’.

Unicode strings, just like regular strings, are an immutable sequence
type.  They can be indexed and sliced, but not modified in place.
Unicode strings have an ‘encode( [encoding] )’ method that returns an
8-bit string in the desired encoding.  Encodings are named by strings,
such as ‘'ascii'’, ‘'utf-8'’, ‘'iso-8859-1'’, or whatever.  A codec API
is defined for implementing and registering new encodings that are then
available throughout a Python program.  If an encoding isn’t specified,
the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII, though it can be changed
for your Python installation by calling the
‘sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)’ function in a customized version of
‘site.py’.

Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the
default ASCII encoding; the result of ‘'a' + u'bc'’ is ‘u'abc'’.

New built-in functions have been added, and existing built-ins modified
to support Unicode:

   * ‘unichr(ch)’ returns a Unicode string 1 character long, containing
     the character 'ch'.

   * ‘ord(u)’, where 'u' is a 1-character regular or Unicode string,
     returns the number of the character as an integer.

   * ‘unicode(string [, encoding] [, errors] )’ creates a Unicode string
     from an 8-bit string.  ‘encoding’ is a string naming the encoding
     to use.  The ‘errors’ parameter specifies the treatment of
     characters that are invalid for the current encoding; passing
     ‘'strict'’ as the value causes an exception to be raised on any
     encoding error, while ‘'ignore'’ causes errors to be silently
     ignored and ‘'replace'’ uses U+FFFD, the official replacement
     character, in case of any problems.

   * The ‘exec’ statement, and various built-ins such as ‘eval()’,
     ‘getattr()’, and ‘setattr()’ will also accept Unicode strings as
     well as regular strings.  (It’s possible that the process of fixing
     this missed some built-ins; if you find a built-in function that
     accepts strings but doesn’t accept Unicode strings at all, please
     report it as a bug.)

A new module, *note unicodedata: 105, provides an interface to Unicode
character properties.  For example, ‘unicodedata.category(u'A')’ returns
the 2-character string ‘Lu’, the ‘L’ denoting it’s a letter, and ‘u’
meaning that it’s uppercase.  ‘unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')’
returns ‘AN’, meaning that U+0660 is an Arabic number.

The *note codecs: 1b. module contains functions to look up existing
encodings and register new ones.  Unless you want to implement a new
encoding, you’ll most often use the ‘codecs.lookup(encoding)’ function,
which returns a 4-element tuple: ‘(encode_func, decode_func,
stream_reader, stream_writer)’.

   * 'encode_func' is a function that takes a Unicode string, and
     returns a 2-tuple ‘(string, length)’.  'string' is an 8-bit string
     containing a portion (perhaps all) of the Unicode string converted
     into the given encoding, and 'length' tells you how much of the
     Unicode string was converted.

   * 'decode_func' is the opposite of 'encode_func', taking an 8-bit
     string and returning a 2-tuple ‘(ustring, length)’, consisting of
     the resulting Unicode string 'ustring' and the integer 'length'
     telling how much of the 8-bit string was consumed.

   * 'stream_reader' is a class that supports decoding input from a
     stream.  'stream_reader(file_obj)' returns an object that supports
     the ‘read()’, ‘readline()’, and ‘readlines()’ methods.  These
     methods will all translate from the given encoding and return
     Unicode strings.

   * 'stream_writer', similarly, is a class that supports encoding
     output to a stream.  'stream_writer(file_obj)' returns an object
     that supports the ‘write()’ and ‘writelines()’ methods.  These
     methods expect Unicode strings, translating them to the given
     encoding on output.

For example, the following code writes a Unicode string into a file,
encoding it as UTF-8:

     import codecs

     unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...'

     (UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode,
      UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8')

     output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') )
     output.write( unistr )
     output.close()

The following code would then read UTF-8 input from the file:

     input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') )
     print repr(input.read())
     input.close()

Unicode-aware regular expressions are available through the *note re:
b8. module, which has a new underlying implementation called SRE written
by Fredrik Lundh of Secret Labs AB.

A ‘-U’ command line option was added which causes the Python compiler to
interpret all string literals as Unicode string literals.  This is
intended to be used in testing and future-proofing your Python code,
since some future version of Python may drop support for 8-bit strings
and provide only Unicode strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0100/


File: python.info,  Node: List Comprehensions,  Next: Augmented Assignment,  Prev: Unicode<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.5 List Comprehensions
--------------------------

Lists are a workhorse data type in Python, and many programs manipulate
a list at some point.  Two common operations on lists are to loop over
them, and either pick out the elements that meet a certain criterion, or
apply some function to each element.  For example, given a list of
strings, you might want to pull out all the strings containing a given
substring, or strip off trailing whitespace from each line.

The existing *note map(): 6a7. and *note filter(): 6a8. functions can be
used for this purpose, but they require a function as one of their
arguments.  This is fine if there’s an existing built-in function that
can be passed directly, but if there isn’t, you have to create a little
function to do the required work, and Python’s scoping rules make the
result ugly if the little function needs additional information.  Take
the first example in the previous paragraph, finding all the strings in
the list containing a given substring.  You could write the following to
do it:

     # Given the list L, make a list of all strings
     # containing the substring S.
     sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S:
                          string.find(s, substring) != -1,
                       L)

Because of Python’s scoping rules, a default argument is used so that
the anonymous function created by the *note lambda: 1145. expression
knows what substring is being searched for.  List comprehensions make
this cleaner:

     sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ]

List comprehensions have the form:

     [ expression for expr in sequence1
                  for expr2 in sequence2 ...
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if condition ]

The ‘for’…‘in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are 'not'
iterated over in parallel, but from left to right; this is explained
more clearly in the following paragraphs.  The elements of the generated
list will be the successive values of 'expression'.  The final ‘if’
clause is optional; if present, 'expression' is only evaluated and added
to the result if 'condition' is true.

To make the semantics very clear, a list comprehension is equivalent to
the following Python code:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         for expr2 in sequence2:
         ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                  if (condition):
                       # Append the value of
                       # the expression to the
                       # resulting list.

This means that when there are multiple ‘for’…‘in’ clauses, the
resulting list will be equal to the product of the lengths of all the
sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9
elements long:

     seq1 = 'abc'
     seq2 = (1,2,3)
     >>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1),
     ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if 'expression'
is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first
list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is
correct:

     # Syntax error
     [ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # Correct
     [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]

The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional
programming language Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org’).  Greg Ewing
argued most effectively for adding them to Python and wrote the initial
list comprehension patch, which was then discussed for a seemingly
endless time on the python-dev mailing list and kept up-to-date by Skip
Montanaro.


File: python.info,  Node: Augmented Assignment,  Next: String Methods,  Prev: List Comprehensions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.6 Augmented Assignment
---------------------------

Augmented assignment operators, another long-requested feature, have
been added to Python 2.0.  Augmented assignment operators include ‘+=’,
‘-=’, ‘*=’, and so forth.  For example, the statement ‘a += 2’
increments the value of the variable ‘a’ by 2, equivalent to the
slightly lengthier ‘a = a + 2’.

The full list of supported assignment operators is ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’,
‘/=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’, ‘&=’, ‘|=’, ‘^=’, ‘>>=’, and ‘<<=’.  Python classes
can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods
named ‘__iadd__()’, ‘__isub__()’, etc.  For example, the following
‘Number’ class stores a number and supports using += to create a new
instance with an incremented value.

     class Number:
         def __init__(self, value):
             self.value = value
         def __iadd__(self, increment):
             return Number( self.value + increment)

     n = Number(5)
     n += 3
     print n.value

The ‘__iadd__()’ special method is called with the value of the
increment, and should return a new instance with an appropriately
modified value; this return value is bound as the new value of the
variable on the left-hand side.

Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C
programming language, and most C-derived languages, such as ‘awk’, C++,
Java, Perl, and PHP also support them.  The augmented assignment patch
was implemented by Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: String Methods,  Next: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Prev: Augmented Assignment,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.7 String Methods
---------------------

Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the *note string: d2.
module, which was usually a front-end for the ‘strop’ module written in
C. The addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the ‘strop’ module,
because the functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept
either 8-bit or Unicode strings.  For functions such as
‘string.replace()’, which takes 3 string arguments, that means eight
possible permutations, and correspondingly complicated code.

Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making
string manipulation functionality available through methods on both
8-bit strings and Unicode strings.

     >>> 'andrew'.capitalize()
     'Andrew'
     >>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux')
     'hlinuxtname'
     >>> 'moshe'.find('sh')
     2

One thing that hasn’t changed, a noteworthy April Fools’ joke
notwithstanding, is that Python strings are immutable.  Thus, the string
methods return new strings, and do not modify the string on which they
operate.

The old *note string: d2. module is still around for backwards
compatibility, but it mostly acts as a front-end to the new string
methods.

Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they
did exist in JPython for quite some time, are ‘startswith()’ and
‘endswith()’.  ‘s.startswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[:len(t)] == t’,
while ‘s.endswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[-len(t):] == t’.

One other method which deserves special mention is ‘join()’.  The
‘join()’ method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of
strings, and is equivalent to the ‘string.join()’ function from the old
*note string: d2. module, with the arguments reversed.  In other words,
‘s.join(seq)’ is equivalent to the old ‘string.join(seq, s)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Next: Other Core Changes,  Prev: String Methods,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.8 Garbage Collection of Cycles
-----------------------------------

The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement
garbage collection.  Every Python object maintains a count of the number
of references pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references
are created or destroyed.  Once the reference count reaches zero, the
object is no longer accessible, since you need to have a reference to an
object to access it, and if the count is zero, no references exist any
longer.

Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it’s easy to understand
and implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly
fast, and reacts well with other libraries that implement their own
memory handling schemes.  The major problem with reference counting is
that it sometimes doesn’t realise that objects are no longer accessible,
resulting in a memory leak.  This happens when there are cycles of
references.

Consider the simplest possible cycle, a class instance which has a
reference to itself:

     instance = SomeClass()
     instance.myself = instance

After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference
count of ‘instance’ is 2; one reference is from the variable named
‘'instance'’, and the other is from the ‘myself’ attribute of the
instance.

If the next line of code is ‘del instance’, what happens?  The reference
count of ‘instance’ is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1;
the reference in the ‘myself’ attribute still exists.  Yet the instance
is no longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted.
Several objects can participate in a cycle if they have references to
each other, causing all of the objects to be leaked.

Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle
detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the
objects involved.  A new *note gc: 5e. module provides functions to
perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tuning
the collector’s parameters.

Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore
will result in some additional overhead.  It is hoped that after we’ve
gotten experience with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1
will be able to minimize the overhead with careful tuning.  It’s not yet
obvious how much performance is lost, because benchmarking this is
tricky and depends crucially on how often the program creates and
destroys objects.  The detection of cycles can be disabled when Python
is compiled, if you can’t afford even a tiny speed penalty or suspect
that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the
‘--without-cycle-gc’ switch when running the ‘configure’ script.

Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution.  An
early implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby
Kelsey.  The current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a
visit to CNRI, and Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two
different implementations, which were later integrated by Neil.  Lots of
other people offered suggestions along the way; the March 2000 archives
of the python-dev mailing list contain most of the relevant discussion,
especially in the threads titled “Reference cycle collection for Python”
and “Finalization again”.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Core Changes,  Next: Porting to 2 0,  Prev: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.9 Other Core Changes
-------------------------

Various minor changes have been made to Python’s syntax and built-in
functions.  None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they’re handy
conveniences.

* Menu:

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Minor Language Changes,  Next: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.21.9.1 Minor Language Changes
...............................

A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a
tuple of arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments.  In Python
1.5 and earlier, you’d use the ‘apply()’ built-in function: ‘apply(f,
args, kw)’ calls the function ‘f()’ with the argument tuple 'args' and
the keyword arguments in the dictionary 'kw'.  ‘apply()’ is the same in
2.0, but thanks to a patch from Greg Ewing, ‘f(*args, **kw)’ is a
shorter and clearer way to achieve the same effect.  This syntax is
symmetrical with the syntax for defining functions:

     def f(*args, **kw):
         # args is a tuple of positional args,
         # kw is a dictionary of keyword args
         ...

The ‘print’ statement can now have its output directed to a file-like
object by following the ‘print’ with ‘>> file’, similar to the
redirection operator in Unix shells.  Previously you’d either have to
use the ‘write()’ method of the file-like object, which lacks the
convenience and simplicity of ‘print’, or you could assign a new value
to ‘sys.stdout’ and then restore the old value.  For sending output to
standard error, it’s much easier to write this:

     print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied"

Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax ‘import
module as name’ or ‘from module import name as othername’.  The patch
was submitted by Thomas Wouters.

A new format style is available when using the ‘%’ operator; ‘%r’ will
insert the *note repr(): 637. of its argument.  This was also added from
symmetry considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing ‘%s’
format style, which inserts the *note str(): 15d. of its argument.  For
example, ‘'%r %s' % ('abc', 'abc')’ returns a string containing ‘'abc'
abc’.

Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python’s
built-in *note in: 26f. operator and implemented a custom version.  ‘obj
in seq’ returns true if 'obj' is present in the sequence 'seq'; Python
computes this by simply trying every index of the sequence until either
'obj' is found or an *note IndexError: 13c2. is encountered.  Moshe
Zadka contributed a patch which adds a ‘__contains__()’ magic method for
providing a custom implementation for ‘in’.  Additionally, new built-in
objects written in C can define what ‘in’ means for them via a new slot
in the sequence protocol.

Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting
objects.  Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to
fill up the C stack and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion
logic to fix this problem.  On a related note, comparing recursive
objects recursed infinitely and crashed; Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code
to no longer crash, producing a useful result instead.  For example,
after this code:

     a = []
     b = []
     a.append(a)
     b.append(b)

The comparison ‘a==b’ returns true, because the two recursive data
structures are isomorphic.  See the thread “trashcan and PR#7” in the
April 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list for the discussion
leading up to this implementation, and some useful relevant links.  Note
that comparisons can now also raise exceptions.  In earlier versions of
Python, a comparison operation such as ‘cmp(a,b)’ would always produce
an answer, even if a user-defined ‘__cmp__()’ method encountered an
error, since the resulting exception would simply be silently swallowed.

Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium
processor, mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState.  (Confusingly,
‘sys.platform’ is still ‘'win32'’ on Win64 because it seems that for
ease of porting, MS Visual C++ treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.)
PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the Python CE page at
‘https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/’ for more information.

Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in
Python 2.0.  Dynamic loading works, if you specify “configure –with-dyld
–with-suffix=.x”.  Consult the README in the Python source distribution
for more instructions.

An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python’s warts, the
often-confusing *note NameError: 14a. exception when code refers to a
local variable before the variable has been assigned a value.  For
example, the following code raises an exception on the ‘print’ statement
in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a *note NameError: 14a. exception is
raised, while 2.0 raises a new *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. exception.
*note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. is a subclass of *note NameError: 14a, so
any existing code that expects *note NameError: 14a. to be raised should
still work.

     def f():
         print "i=",i
         i = i + 1
     f()

Two new exceptions, *note TabError: 2d1. and *note IndentationError:
5de, have been introduced.  They’re both subclasses of *note
SyntaxError: 14c, and are raised when Python code is found to be
improperly indented.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Prev: Minor Language Changes,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.21.9.2 Changes to Built-in Functions
......................................

A new built-in, ‘zip(seq1, seq2, ...)’, has been added.  *note zip():
608. returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element
from each of the argument sequences.  The difference between *note
zip(): 608. and ‘map(None, seq1, seq2)’ is that *note map(): 6a7. pads
the sequences with ‘None’ if the sequences aren’t all of the same
length, while *note zip(): 608. truncates the returned list to the
length of the shortest argument sequence.

The *note int(): 184. and ‘long()’ functions now accept an optional
“base” parameter when the first argument is a string.  ‘int('123', 10)’
returns 123, while ‘int('123', 16)’ returns 291.  ‘int(123, 16)’ raises
a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception with the message “can’t convert
non-string with explicit base”.

A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added
to the *note sys: d8. module.  ‘sys.version_info’ is a tuple ‘(major,
minor, micro, level, serial)’ For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1,
‘sys.version_info’ would be ‘(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)’.  'level' is a string
such as ‘"alpha"’, ‘"beta"’, or ‘"final"’ for a final release.

Dictionaries have an odd new method, ‘setdefault(key, default)’, which
behaves similarly to the existing ‘get()’ method.  However, if the key
is missing, ‘setdefault()’ both returns the value of 'default' as
‘get()’ would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value
for 'key'.  Thus, the following lines of code:

     if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key]
     else:
         dict[key] = []
         return dict[key]

can be reduced to a single ‘return dict.setdefault(key, [])’ statement.

The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway
recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF..
Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the
maximum recursion depth can be read and modified using *note
sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1f2. and *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 1f1.
The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum value for a given
platform can be found by running a new script,
‘Misc/find_recursionlimit.py’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to 2 0,  Next: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Prev: Other Core Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.10 Porting to 2.0
----------------------

New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases,
and the record has been pretty good.  However, some changes are
considered useful enough, usually because they fix initial design
decisions that turned out to be actively mistaken, that breaking
backward compatibility can’t always be avoided.  This section lists the
changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to break.

The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
arguments accepted by some methods.  Some methods would take multiple
arguments and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods
such as ‘append()’ and ‘insert()’.  In earlier versions of Python, if
‘L’ is a list, ‘L.append( 1,2 )’ appends the tuple ‘(1,2)’ to the list.
In Python 2.0 this causes a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception to be
raised, with the message: ‘append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given’.
The fix is to simply add an extra set of parentheses to pass both values
as a tuple: ‘L.append( (1,2) )’.

The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they
used an old function in Python’s C interface to parse their arguments;
2.0 modernizes them to use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308, the current
argument parsing function, which provides more helpful error messages
and treats multi-argument calls as errors.  If you absolutely must use
2.0 but can’t fix your code, you can edit ‘Objects/listobject.c’ and
define the preprocessor symbol ‘NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND’ to preserve the
old behaviour; this isn’t recommended.

Some of the functions in the *note socket: cb. module are still
forgiving in this way.  For example, ‘socket.connect( ('hostname', 25)
)’ is the correct form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but
‘socket.connect('hostname', 25)’ also works.  *note socket.connect_ex:
13c6. and *note socket.bind: 13c7. are similarly easy-going.  2.0alpha1
tightened these functions up, but because the documentation actually
used the erroneous multiple argument form, many people wrote code which
would break with the stricter checking.  GvR backed out the changes in
the face of public reaction, so for the *note socket: cb. module, the
documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked
as deprecated; it 'will' be tightened up again in a future Python
version.

The ‘\x’ escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits.
Previously it would consume all the hex digits following the ‘x’ and
take the lowest 8 bits of the result, so ‘\x123456’ was equivalent to
‘\x56’.

The *note AttributeError: 3dc. and *note NameError: 14a. exceptions have
a more friendly error message, whose text will be something like ‘'Spam'
instance has no attribute 'eggs'’ or ‘name 'eggs' is not defined’.
Previously the error message was just the missing attribute name ‘eggs’,
and code written to take advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.

Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more
interchangeable.  In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to
allow reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer.  Some
code would subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to
multiply a sequence or slice a string, but this raised a *note
TypeError: 2c4.  In 2.0, long integers can be used to multiply or slice
a sequence, and it’ll behave as you’d intuitively expect it to; ‘3L *
'abc'’ produces ‘abcabcabc’, and ‘(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]’ produces (2,3).
Long integers can also be used in various contexts where previously only
integers were accepted, such as in the ‘seek()’ method of file objects,
and in the formats supported by the ‘%’ operator (‘%d’, ‘%i’, ‘%x’,
etc.).  For example, ‘"%d" % 2L**64’ will produce the string
‘18446744073709551616’.

The subtlest long integer change of all is that the *note str(): 15d. of
a long integer no longer has a trailing ‘L’ character, though *note
repr(): 637. still includes it.  The ‘L’ annoyed many people who wanted
to print long integers that looked just like regular integers, since
they had to go out of their way to chop off the character.  This is no
longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does ‘str(longval)[:-1]’ and
assumes the ‘L’ is there, will now lose the final digit.

Taking the *note repr(): 637. of a float now uses a different formatting
precision than *note str(): 15d.  *note repr(): 637. uses ‘%.17g’ format
string for C’s ‘sprintf()’, while *note str(): 15d. uses ‘%.12g’ as
before.  The effect is that *note repr(): 637. may occasionally show
more decimal places than *note str(): 15d, for certain numbers.  For
example, the number 8.1 can’t be represented exactly in binary, so
‘repr(8.1)’ is ‘'8.0999999999999996'’, while str(8.1) is ‘'8.1'’.

The ‘-X’ command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into
strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions
will now always be classes.  The ‘exceptions’ module containing the
standard exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module,
written by Barry Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Next: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Prev: Porting to 2 0,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.11 Extending/Embedding Changes
-----------------------------------

Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to
people writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in
a larger application.  If you aren’t dealing with Python’s C API, you
can safely skip this section.

The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions
compiled for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0.  On
Windows, it’s not possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party
extension built for Python 1.5.x due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python
will raise an exception and the import will fail.

Users of Jim Fulton’s ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out
that hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by
*note isinstance(): 151. and *note issubclass(): 5f8.  This means you no
longer have to remember to write code such as ‘if type(obj) ==
myExtensionClass’, but can use the more natural ‘if isinstance(obj,
myExtensionClass)’.

The ‘Python/importdl.c’ file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support
dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and
reorganised by Greg Stein.  ‘importdl.c’ is now quite small, and
platform-specific code has been moved into a bunch of
‘Python/dynload_*.c’ files.  Another cleanup: there were also a number
of ‘my*.h’ files in the Include/ directory that held various portability
hacks; they’ve been merged into a single file, ‘Include/pyport.h’.

Vladimir Marangozov’s long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed,
to make it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator
instead of C’s standard ‘malloc()’.  For documentation, read the
comments in ‘Include/pymem.h’ and ‘Include/objimpl.h’.  For the lengthy
discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the web
archives of the ‘patches’ and ‘python-dev’ lists at python.org.

Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support
POSIX threads.  Therefore, Python’s POSIX threading support now works on
the Macintosh.  Threading support using the user-space GNU ‘pth’ library
was also contributed.

Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too.  Windows supports thread
locks that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common
case when there’s no contention, they use simpler functions which are an
order of magnitude faster.  A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is
twice as slow as an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the
difference is only 10%.  These improvements were contributed by Yakov
Markovitch.

Python 2.0’s source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python
now requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a
compiler that only supports K&R C.

Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its
bytecode, limiting the size of source files.  In particular, this
affected the maximum size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python
source; occasionally people who are generating Python code would run
into this limit.  A patch by Charles G. Waldman raises the limit from
‘2**16’ to ‘2**32’.

Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a
module’s dictionary at module initialization time were added: *note
PyModule_AddObject(): 6e4, *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 13c9, and
*note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 13ca.  Each of these functions takes
a module object, a null-terminated C string containing the name to be
added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the name.
This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C
string.

A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers.  *note
PyOS_getsig(): 13cb. gets a signal handler and *note PyOS_setsig():
13cc. will set a new handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Next: XML Modules,  Prev: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.12 Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
-------------------------------------------------

Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair – there was
no way to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what
compiler options to use for extension modules.  Software authors had to
go through an arduous ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration
files, which only really work on Unix and leave Windows and MacOS
unsupported.  Python users faced wildly differing installation
instructions which varied between different extension packages, which
made administering a Python installation something of a chore.

The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created
the Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier.  They
form the ‘distutils’ package, a new part of Python’s standard library.
In the best case, installing a Python module from source will require
the same steps: first you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive,
and the run “‘python setup.py install’”.  The platform will be
automatically detected, the compiler will be recognized, C extension
modules will be compiled, and the distribution installed into the proper
directory.  Optional command-line arguments provide more control over
the installation process, the distutils package offers many places to
override defaults – separating the build from the install, building or
installing in non-default directories, and more.

In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a ‘setup.py’ script.
For the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a
minimal ‘setup.py’ can be just a few lines long:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            py_modules = ["module1", "module2"])

The ‘setup.py’ file isn’t much more complicated if the software consists
of a few packages:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"])

A C extension can be the most complicated case; here’s an example taken
from the PyXML package:

     from distutils.core import setup, Extension

     expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat',
          define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)],
          include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok',
                           'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ],
          sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ]
            )
     setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4",
            ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] )

The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary
distributions.  The “sdist” command, run by “‘python setup.py sdist’’,
builds a source distribution such as ‘foo-1.0.tar.gz’.  Adding new
commands isn’t difficult, “bdist_rpm” and “bdist_wininst” commands have
already been contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows
installer for the software, respectively.  Commands to create other
distribution formats such as Debian packages and Solaris ‘.pkg’ files
are in various stages of development.

All this is documented in a new manual, 'Distributing Python Modules',
that joins the basic set of Python documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: XML Modules,  Next: Module changes,  Prev: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.13 XML Modules
-------------------

Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the ‘xmllib’
module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender.  Since 1.5.2’s release, two
different interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2
(version 2 of the Simple API for XML) provides an event-driven interface
with some similarities to ‘xmllib’, and the DOM (Document Object Model)
provides a tree-based interface, transforming an XML document into a
tree of nodes that can be traversed and modified.  Python 2.0 includes a
SAX2 interface and a stripped-down DOM interface as part of the *note
xml: 120. package.  Here we will give a brief overview of these new
interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source code for
complete details.  The Python XML SIG is also working on improved
documentation.

* Menu:

* SAX2 Support::
* DOM Support::
* Relationship to PyXML::


File: python.info,  Node: SAX2 Support,  Next: DOM Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.21.13.1 SAX2 Support
......................

SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML. To use SAX, you
must write a SAX handler class.  Handler classes inherit from various
classes provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be
called by the XML parser.  For example, the *note startElement(): 13d0.
and *note endElement(): 13d1. methods are called for every starting and
end tag encountered by the parser, the *note characters(): 13d2. method
is called for every chunk of character data, and so forth.

The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document
doesn’t have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if
you are processing really huge documents.  However, writing the SAX
handler class can get very complicated if you’re trying to modify the
document structure in some elaborate way.

For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a
message for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file
‘hamlet.xml’ using it:

     from xml import sax

     class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler):
         def startElement(self, name, attrs):
             print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys()

         def endElement(self, name):
             print 'End of element:', name

     # Create a parser object
     parser = sax.make_parser()

     # Tell it what handler to use
     handler = SimpleHandler()
     parser.setContentHandler( handler )

     # Parse a file!
     parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' )

For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO
at ‘https://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html’.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM Support,  Next: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: SAX2 Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.21.13.2 DOM Support
.....................

The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML
document.  A top-level ‘Document’ instance is the root of the tree, and
has a single child which is the top-level ‘Element’ instance.  This
‘Element’ has children nodes representing character data and any
sub-elements, which may have further children of their own, and so
forth.  Using the DOM you can traverse the resulting tree any way you
like, access element and attribute values, insert and delete nodes, and
convert the tree back into XML.

The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a
DOM tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and
then produce a new XML document as output.  You can also construct a DOM
tree manually and convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of
producing XML output than simply writing ‘<tag1>’…‘</tag1>’ to a file.

The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 122. module.  It’s a lightweight implementation of the
Level 1 DOM with support for XML namespaces.  The ‘parse()’ and
‘parseString()’ convenience functions are provided for generating a DOM
tree:

     from xml.dom import minidom
     doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml')

‘doc’ is a ‘Document’ instance.  ‘Document’, like all the other DOM
classes such as ‘Element’ and ‘Text’, is a subclass of the ‘Node’ base
class.  All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain common
methods, such as ‘toxml()’ which returns a string containing the XML
representation of the node and its children.  Each class also has
special methods of its own; for example, ‘Element’ and ‘Document’
instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag
name.  Continuing from the previous 2-line example:

     perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' )
     print perslist[0].toxml()
     print perslist[1].toxml()

For the 'Hamlet' XML file, the above few lines output:

     <PERSONA>CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. </PERSONA>
     <PERSONA>HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king.</PERSONA>

The root element of the document is available as ‘doc.documentElement’,
and its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing
nodes:

     root = doc.documentElement

     # Remove the first child
     root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Move the new first child to the end
     root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Insert the new first child (originally,
     # the third child) before the 20th child.
     root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] )

Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete
listing of the different ‘Node’ classes and their various methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: DOM Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.21.13.3 Relationship to PyXML
...............................

The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python
code for a while.  Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available
from the SIG’s web pages at
‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig’.  The PyXML
distribution also used the package name ‘xml’.  If you’ve written
programs that used PyXML, you’re probably wondering about its
compatibility with the 2.0 *note xml: 120. package.

The answer is that Python 2.0’s *note xml: 120. package isn’t compatible
with PyXML, but can be made compatible by installing a recent version
PyXML. Many applications can get by with the XML support that is
included with Python 2.0, but more complicated applications will require
that the full PyXML package will be installed.  When installed, PyXML
versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the *note xml: 120. package
shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the standard
package, adding a bunch of additional features.  Some of the additional
features in PyXML include:

   * 4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.

   * The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.

   * The ‘sgmlop’ parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Module changes,  Next: New modules,  Prev: XML Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.14 Module changes
----------------------

Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python’s extensive
standard library; some of the affected modules include *note readline:
b9, *note ConfigParser: 22, *note cgi: 15, *note calendar: 14, *note
posix: ac, *note readline: b9, ‘xmllib’, *note aifc: 5, *note chunk: 17.
*note wave: 113, *note random: b7, *note shelve: c2, and *note nntplib:
9c.  Consult the CVS logs for the exact patch-by-patch details.

Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the *note socket: cb.
module.  OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which
encrypts the data being sent over a socket.  When compiling Python, you
can edit ‘Modules/Setup’ to include SSL support, which adds an
additional function to the *note socket: cb. module: ‘socket.ssl(socket,
keyfile, certfile)’, which takes a socket object and returns an SSL
socket.  The *note httplib: 6c. and *note urllib: 108. modules were also
changed to support ‘https://’ URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or
SMTP over SSL.

The *note httplib: 6c. module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to
support HTTP/1.1.

Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of ‘httplib’ is provided,
though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting
code to use a different set of interfaces.

The ‘Tkinter’ module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and
support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped.  The Tkinter module
now supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets.  Also, Fredrik
Lundh contributed an optimization which makes operations like
‘create_line’ and ‘create_polygon’ much faster, especially when using
lots of coordinates.

The *note curses: 2b. module has been greatly extended, starting from
Oliver Andrich’s enhanced version, to provide many additional functions
from ncurses and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set
support, pads, and mouse support.  This means the module is no longer
compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there
don’t seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this
category.

As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0’s Unicode support, the
underlying implementation of the regular expressions provided by the
*note re: b8. module has been changed.  SRE, a new regular expression
engine written by Fredrik Lundh and partially funded by Hewlett Packard,
supports matching against both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.


File: python.info,  Node: New modules,  Next: IDLE Improvements,  Prev: Module changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.15 New modules
-------------------

A number of new modules were added.  We’ll simply list them with brief
descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a
particular module.

   * *note atexit: c.: For registering functions to be called before the
     Python interpreter exits.  Code that currently sets ‘sys.exitfunc’
     directly should be changed to use the *note atexit: c. module
     instead, importing *note atexit: c. and calling *note
     atexit.register(): 6c3. with the function to be called on exit.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note codecs: 1b, ‘encodings’, *note unicodedata: 105.: Added as
     part of the new Unicode support.

   * *note filecmp: 58.: Supersedes the old ‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’ and
     ‘dircmp’ modules, which have now become deprecated.  (Contributed
     by Gordon MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)

   * *note gettext: 61.: This module provides internationalization
     (I18N) and localization (L10N) support for Python programs by
     providing an interface to the GNU gettext message catalog library.
     (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate contributions by Martin
     von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)

   * ‘linuxaudiodev’: Support for the ‘/dev/audio’ device on Linux, a
     twin to the existing ‘sunaudiodev’ module.  (Contributed by Peter
     Bosch, with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * *note mmap: 8f.: An interface to memory-mapped files on both
     Windows and Unix.  A file’s contents can be mapped directly into
     memory, at which point it behaves like a mutable string, so its
     contents can be read and modified.  They can even be passed to
     functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the *note re: b8.
     module.  (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M.
     Kuchling.)

   * ‘pyexpat’: An interface to the Expat XML parser.  (Contributed by
     Paul Prescod.)

   * *note robotparser: 10d.: Parse a ‘robots.txt’ file, which is used
     for writing web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a web
     site.  The parser accepts the contents of a ‘robots.txt’ file,
     builds a set of rules from it, and can then answer questions about
     the fetchability of a given URL. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note tabnanny: dc.: A module/script to check Python source code
     for ambiguous indentation.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * ‘UserString’: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave
     like strings.

   * *note webbrowser: 115.: A module that provides a platform
     independent way to launch a web browser on a specific URL. For each
     platform, various browsers are tried in a specific order.  The user
     can alter which browser is launched by setting the 'BROWSER'
     environment variable.  (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond’s
     patch to *note urllib: 108. which added similar functionality, but
     the final module comes from code originally implemented by Fred
     Drake as ‘Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py’, and adapted for the
     standard library by Fred.)

   * *note _winreg: 116.: An interface to the Windows registry.
     ‘_winreg’ is an adaptation of functions that have been part of
     PythonWin since 1995, but has now been added to the core
     distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode.  ‘_winreg’ was
     written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.

   * *note zipfile: 131.: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format
     archives.  These are archives produced by ‘PKZIP’ on DOS/Windows or
     ‘zip’ on Unix, not to be confused with ‘gzip’-format files (which
     are supported by the *note gzip: 65. module) (Contributed by James
     C. Ahlstrom.)

   * ‘imputil’: A module that provides a simpler way for writing
     customized import hooks, in comparison to the existing ‘ihooks’
     module.  (Implemented by Greg Stein, with much discussion on
     python-dev along the way.)


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE Improvements,  Next: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: New modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.16 IDLE Improvements
-------------------------

IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter.
Python 2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and
improvements.  A partial list:

   * UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax
     highlighting and auto-indentation.

   * The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level
     functions in a module.

   * Tab width is now a user settable option.  When opening an existing
     Python file, IDLE automatically detects the indentation
     conventions, and adapts.

   * There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms,
     used to open the Python documentation in a browser.

   * IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to the
     vanilla Python interpreter.

   * Call tips were added in many places.

   * IDLE can now be installed as a package.

   * In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.

   * Three new keystroke commands: Check module (‘Alt’-‘F5’), Import
     module (‘F5’) and Run script (‘Ctrl’-‘F5’).


File: python.info,  Node: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Acknowledgements<8>,  Prev: IDLE Improvements,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.17 Deleted and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------

A few modules have been dropped because they’re obsolete, or because
there are now better ways to do the same thing.  The ‘stdwin’ module is
gone; it was for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that’s no
longer developed.

A number of modules have been moved to the ‘lib-old’ subdirectory:
‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’, ‘dircmp’, ‘dump’, ‘find’, ‘grep’, ‘packmail’, ‘poly’,
‘util’, ‘whatsound’, ‘zmod’.  If you have code which relies on a module
that’s been moved to ‘lib-old’, you can simply add that directory to
‘sys.path’ to get them back, but you’re encouraged to update any code
that uses these modules.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<8>,  Prev: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.21.18 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The authors would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark
Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert,
Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido
van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.

The “Changelog” is an HTML version of the file built(1) from the
contents of the Misc/NEWS.d(2) directory tree, which contains 'all'
nontrivial changes to Python for the current version.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/blurb/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Misc/NEWS.d


File: python.info,  Node: Changelog,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Up: What’s New in Python

1.22 Changelog
==============

* Menu:

* Python 3.12.12 final: Python 3 12 12 final.
* Python 3.12.11 final: Python 3 12 11 final.
* Python 3.12.10 final: Python 3 12 10 final.
* Python 3.12.9 final: Python 3 12 9 final.
* Python 3.12.8 final: Python 3 12 8 final.
* Python 3.12.7 final: Python 3 12 7 final.
* Python 3.12.6 final: Python 3 12 6 final.
* Python 3.12.5 final: Python 3 12 5 final.
* Python 3.12.4 final: Python 3 12 4 final.
* Python 3.12.3 final: Python 3 12 3 final.
* Python 3.12.2 final: Python 3 12 2 final.
* Python 3.12.1 final: Python 3 12 1 final.
* Python 3.12.0 final: Python 3 12 0 final.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 4: Python 3 12 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 3: Python 3 12 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 2: Python 3 12 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 12 final,  Next: Python 3 12 11 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.1 Python 3.12.12 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2025-10-09'

* Menu:

* Tools/Demos::
* Security::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos,  Next: Security,  Up: Python 3 12 12 final

1.22.1.1 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-139330(1): SBOM generation tool didn’t cross-check the version
     and checksum values against the ‘Modules/expat/refresh.sh’ script,
     leading to the values becoming out-of-date during routine updates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139330


File: python.info,  Node: Security,  Next: Library,  Prev: Tools/Demos,  Up: Python 3 12 12 final

1.22.1.2 Security
.................

   - gh-139700(1): Check consistency of the zip64 end of central
     directory record.  Support records with “zip64 extensible data” if
     there are no bytes prepended to the ZIP file.

   - gh-139400(2): *note xml.parsers.expat: 126.: Make sure that parent
     Expat parsers are only garbage-collected once they are no longer
     referenced by subparsers created by *note
     ExternalEntityParserCreate(): 13df.  Patch by Sebastian Pipping.

   - gh-135661(3): Fix parsing start and end tags in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc. according to the HTML5 standard.

        * Whitespaces no longer accepted between ‘</’ and the tag name.
          E.g.  ‘</ script>’ does not end the script section.

        * Vertical tabulation (‘\v’) and non-ASCII whitespaces no longer
          recognized as whitespaces.  The only whitespaces are
          ‘\t\n\r\f’ and space.

        * Null character (U+0000) no longer ends the tag name.

        * Attributes and slashes after the tag name in end tags are now
          ignored, instead of terminating after the first ‘>’ in quoted
          attribute value.  E.g.  ‘</script/foo=">"/>’.

        * Multiple slashes and whitespaces between the last attribute
          and closing ‘>’ are now ignored in both start and end tags.
          E.g.  ‘<a foo=bar/ //>’.

        * Multiple ‘=’ between attribute name and value are no longer
          collapsed.  E.g.  ‘<a foo==bar>’ produces attribute “foo” with
          value “=bar”.

   - gh-135661(4): Fix CDATA section parsing in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc. according to the HTML5 standard: ‘]
     ]>’ and ‘]] >’ no longer end the CDATA section.  Add private method
     ‘_set_support_cdata()’ which can be used to specify how to parse
     ‘<[CDATA[’ — as a CDATA section in foreign content (SVG or MathML)
     or as a bogus comment in the HTML namespace.

   - gh-102555(5): Fix comment parsing in *note html.parser.HTMLParser:
     6bc. according to the HTML5 standard.  ‘--!>’ now ends the comment.
     ‘-- >’ no longer ends the comment.  Support abnormally ended empty
     comments ‘<-->’ and ‘<--->’.

   - gh-135462(6): Fix quadratic complexity in processing specially
     crafted input in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc.  End-of-file
     errors are now handled according to the HTML5 specs – comments and
     declarations are automatically closed, tags are ignored.

   - gh-118350(7): Fix support of escapable raw text mode (elements
     “textarea” and “title”) in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc.

   - gh-86155(8): *note html.parser.HTMLParser.close(): 13e0. no longer
     loses data when the ‘<script>’ tag is not closed.  Patch by Waylan
     Limberg.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139700

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139400

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102555

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135462

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118350

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86155


File: python.info,  Node: Library,  Next: Core and Builtins,  Prev: Security,  Up: Python 3 12 12 final

1.22.1.3 Library
................

   - gh-139312(1): Upgrade bundled libexpat to 2.7.3

   - gh-138998(2): Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.2

   - gh-130577(3): *note tarfile: dd. now validates archives to ensure
     member offsets are non-negative.  (Contributed by Alexander Enrique
     Urieles Nieto in gh-130577(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139312

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138998

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins,  Prev: Library,  Up: Python 3 12 12 final

1.22.1.4 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-130077(1): Properly raise custom syntax errors when incorrect
     syntax containing names that are prefixes of soft keywords is
     encountered.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130077


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 11 final,  Next: Python 3 12 10 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 12 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.2 Python 3.12.11 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2025-06-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<2>.
* Library: Library<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<2>,  Next: Library<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 11 final

1.22.2.1 Security
.................

   - gh-135034(1): Fixes multiple issues that allowed ‘tarfile’
     extraction filters (‘filter="data"’ and ‘filter="tar"’) to be
     bypassed using crafted symlinks and hard links.

     Addresses CVE 2024-12718(2), CVE 2025-4138(3), CVE 2025-4330(4),
     and CVE 2025-4517(5).

   - gh-133767(6): Fix use-after-free in the “unicode-escape” decoder
     with a non-“strict” error handler.

   - gh-128840(7): Short-circuit the processing of long IPv6 addresses
     early in *note ipaddress: 7e. to prevent excessive memory
     consumption and a minor denial-of-service.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135034

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133767

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840


File: python.info,  Node: Library<2>,  Prev: Security<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 11 final

1.22.2.2 Library
................

   - gh-128840(1): Fix parsing long IPv6 addresses with embedded IPv4
     address.

   - gh-134062(2): *note ipaddress: 7e.: fix collisions in *note
     __hash__(): 969. for *note IPv4Network: 9bd. and *note IPv6Network:
     9bc. objects.

   - gh-123409(3): Fix *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer:
     13e6. output according to RFC 3596, §2.5(4).  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - bpo-43633(5): Improve the textual representation of IPv4-mapped
     IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(6) Sections 2.2, 2.5.5.2) in *note
     ipaddress: 7e.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134062

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123409

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3596.html#section-2.5

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43633

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 10 final,  Next: Python 3 12 9 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 11 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.3 Python 3.12.10 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2025-04-08'

* Menu:

* macOS::
* Windows::
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests::
* Security: Security<3>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* C API::
* Build::


File: python.info,  Node: macOS,  Next: Windows,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-124111(1): Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.16.

   - gh-131423(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.16.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-131025(3): Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   - gh-91132(4): Update macOS installer to use ncurses 6.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91132


File: python.info,  Node: Windows,  Next: Tools/Demos<2>,  Prev: macOS,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.2 Windows
................

   - gh-131423(1): Update bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.16.  The new
     build also disables uplink support, which may be relevant to
     embedders but has no impact on normal use.

   - gh-131025(2): Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   - gh-131020(3): pylauncher(4) correctly detects a BOM when searching
     for the shebang.  Fix by Chris Eibl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131020

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/PC/launcher2.c


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<2>,  Next: Tests,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-131852(1): ‘msgfmt’ no longer adds the ‘POT-Creation-Date’ to
     generated ‘.mo’ files for consistency with GNU ‘msgfmt’.

   - gh-85012(2): Correctly reset ‘msgctxt’ when compiling messages in
     ‘msgfmt’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131852

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85012


File: python.info,  Node: Tests,  Next: Security<3>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-131050(1): ‘test_ssl.test_dh_params’ is skipped if the
     underlying TLS library does not support finite-field ephemeral
     Diffie-Hellman.

   - gh-119727(2): Add ‘--single-process’ command line option to Python
     test runner (regrtest).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131050

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119727


File: python.info,  Node: Security<3>,  Next: Library<3>,  Prev: Tests,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.5 Security
.................

   - gh-131809(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.1

   - gh-131261(2): Upgrade to libexpat 2.7.0

   - gh-127371(3): Avoid unbounded buffering for
     ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.writelines()’.  Previously, disk
     spillover was only checked after the lines iterator had been
     exhausted.  This is now done after each line is written.

   - gh-121284(4): Fix bug in the folding of rfc2047 encoded-words when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when an encoded-word was too long for a line, it would
     be decoded, split across lines, and re-encoded.  But commas and
     other special characters in the original text could be left
     unencoded and unquoted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof
     header lines using a carefully constructed encoded-word if the
     resulting rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131809

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131261

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127371

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121284


File: python.info,  Node: Library<3>,  Next: IDLE<3>,  Prev: Security<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.6 Library
................

   - gh-116608(1): undeprecate functional API for ‘importlib.resources’

   - gh-132075(2): Fix possible use of *note socket: cb. address
     structures with uninitialized members.  Now all structure members
     are initialized with zeroes by default.

   - gh-132002(3): Fix crash when deallocating *note
     contextvars.ContextVar: 13ee. with weird unahashable string names.

   - gh-131668(4): *note socket: cb.: Fix code parsing AF_BLUETOOTH
     socket addresses.

   - gh-131492(5): Fix a resource leak when constructing a *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 296. with a filename fails, for example when passing
     an invalid ‘compresslevel’.

   - gh-131325(6): Fix sendfile fallback implementation to drain data
     after writing to transport in *note asyncio: a.

   - gh-129843(7): Fix incorrect argument passing in *note
     warnings.warn_explicit(): b84.

   - gh-131204(8): Use monospace font from System Font Stack for
     cross-platform support in *note difflib.HtmlDiff: 13ef.

   - gh-131045(9): Fix issue with ‘__contains__’, values, and
     pseudo-members for *note enum.Flag: 435.

   - gh-130959(10): Fix pure-Python implementation of *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 427. to reject times with spaces in
     fractional part (for example, ‘12:34:56.400 +02:00’), matching the
     C implementation.  Patch by Michał Gorny.

   - gh-130637(11): Add validation for numeric response data in
     poplib.POP3.stat() method

   - gh-130461(12): Remove ‘.. index::’ directives from the *note uuid:
     110. module documentation.  These directives previously created
     entries in the general index for *note getnode(): a1e. as well as
     the *note uuid1(): a1f, *note uuid3(): 13f0, *note uuid4(): 13f1,
     and *note uuid5(): 13f2. constructor functions.

   - gh-130285(13): Fix corner case for *note random.sample(): 572.
     allowing the 'counts' parameter to specify an empty population.  So
     now, ‘sample([], 0, counts=[])’ and ‘sample('abc', k=0, counts=[0,
     0, 0])’ both give the same result as ‘sample([], 0)’.

   - gh-130250(14): Fix regression in ‘traceback.print_last()’.

   - gh-118761(15): Reverts a change in the previous release attempting
     to make some stdlib imports used within the *note subprocess: d5.
     module lazy as this was causing errors during ‘__del__’ finalizers
     calling methods such as ‘terminate’, or ‘kill’, or ‘send_signal’.

   - gh-130164(16): Fixed failure to raise *note TypeError: 2c4. in
     *note inspect.Signature.bind(): 13f3. for positional-only arguments
     provided by keyword when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.
     ‘**kwargs’) is present.

   - gh-130151(17): Fix reference leaks in ‘_hashlib.hmac_new()’ and
     ‘_hashlib.hmac_digest()’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-129726(18): Fix *note gzip.GzipFile: 296. raising an unraisable
     exception during garbage collection when referring to a temporary
     object by breaking the reference loop with *note weakref: 114.

   - gh-129583(19): Update bundled pip to 25.0.1

   - gh-97850(20): Update the deprecation warning of *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 6ad.

   - gh-129603(21): Fix bugs where *note sqlite3.Row: d05. objects could
     segfault if their inherited *note description: 13f4. was set to
     ‘None’.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-117779(22): Fix reading duplicated entries in *note zipfile:
     131. by name.  Reading duplicated entries (except the last one) by
     ‘ZipInfo’ now emits a warning instead of raising an exception.

   - gh-128772(23): Fix *note pydoc: b4. for methods with the
     ‘__module__’ attribute equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-92897(24): Scheduled the deprecation of the ‘check_home’
     argument of *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 261. to Python 3.15.

   - gh-128703(25): Fix *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 13f5. to use
     default mapping for empty ‘Content-Type’ in registry.

   - gh-126037(26): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.find: 13f6, *note Element.findtext: 13f7. and *note
     Element.findall: 13f8. when the tag to find implements an *note
     __eq__(): 968. method mutating the element being queried.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127712(27): Fix handling of the ‘secure’ argument of *note
     logging.handlers.SMTPHandler: 13f9.

   - gh-126033(28): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.remove: 13fa. when the element is concurrently
     mutated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125553(29): Fix round-trip invariance for backslash
     continuations in *note tokenize.untokenize(): 13fb.

   - gh-101137(30): Mime type ‘text/x-rst’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 8e.

   - gh-113238(31): Add ‘Anchor’ to ‘importlib.resources’ (in order for
     the code to comply with the documentation)

   - gh-89039(32): When replace() method is called on a subclass of
     datetime, date or time, properly call derived constructor.
     Previously, only the base class’s constructor was called.

     Also, make sure to pass non-zero fold values when creating
     subclasses in various methods.  Previously, fold was silently
     ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132075

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132002

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131668

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131492

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131325

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129843

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131204

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131045

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130959

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130637

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130461

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130285

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130250

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130164

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130151

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129726

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129583

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129603

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117779

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128772

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92897

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128703

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126037

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127712

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126033

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125553

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101137

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113238

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89039


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<3>,  Next: Documentation<2>,  Prev: Library<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-129873(1): Simplify displaying the IDLE doc by only copying the
     text section of idle.html to idlelib/help.html.  Patch by Stan
     Ulbrych.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129873


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<2>,  Next: Core and Builtins<2>,  Prev: IDLE<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.8 Documentation
......................

   - gh-131417(1): Mention *note asyncio.Future: a44. and *note
     asyncio.Task: 20a. in generic classes list.

   - gh-125722(2): Require Sphinx 8.2.0 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-129712(3): The wheel tags supported by each macOS universal SDK
     option are now documented.

   - gh-46236(4): C API: Document *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 13fe, *note
     PyUnicode_Partition(): 13ff. and *note PyUnicode_RPartition():
     1400.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129712

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46236


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<2>,  Next: C API,  Prev: Documentation<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.9 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-131670(1): Fix *note anext(): 60f. failing on sync *note
     __anext__(): 1402. raising an exception.

   - gh-130809(2): Fixed an issue where ‘_PyFrame_LocalsToFast’ tries to
     write module level values to hidden fasts.

   - gh-130775(3): Do not crash on negative ‘column’ and ‘end_column’ in
     *note ast: 8. locations.

   - gh-130618(4): Fix a bug that was causing ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or
     ‘SystemError’ to be raised when using f-strings with ‘lambda’
     expressions with non-ASCII characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-130163(5): Fix possible crashes related to concurrent change and
     use of the *note sys: d8. module attributes.

   - gh-88887(6): Fixing multiprocessing Resource Tracker process
     leaking, usually observed when running Python as PID 1.

   - gh-116042(7): Fix location for SyntaxErrors of invalid escapes in
     the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-128632(8): Disallow ‘__classdict__’ as the name of a type
     parameter.  Using this name would previously crash the interpreter
     in some circumstances.

   - gh-125331(9): ‘from __future__ import barry_as_FLUFL’ now works in
     more contexts, including when it is used in files, with the ‘-c’
     flag, and in the REPL when there are multiple statements on the
     same line.  Previously, it worked only on subsequent lines in the
     REPL, and when the appropriate flags were passed directly to *note
     compile(): 56d.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-107526(10): Revert converting ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’,
     and ‘iter’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-107674(11): Fixed performance regression in ‘sys.settrace’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131670

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130809

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130775

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130618

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130163

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88887

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116042

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128632

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125331

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107526

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674


File: python.info,  Node: C API,  Next: Build,  Prev: Core and Builtins<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.10 C API
...............

   - gh-131740(1): Update PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects to traverse perm
     gen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131740


File: python.info,  Node: Build,  Prev: C API,  Up: Python 3 12 10 final

1.22.3.11 Build
...............

   - gh-131865(1): The DTrace build now properly passes the ‘CC’ and
     ‘CFLAGS’ variables to the ‘dtrace’ command when utilizing SystemTap
     on Linux.

   - gh-130740(2): Ensure that ‘Python.h’ is included before ‘stdbool.h’
     unless ‘pyconfig.h’ is included before or in some platform-specific
     contexts.

   - gh-129838(3): Don’t redefine ‘_Py_NO_SANITIZE_UNDEFINED’ when
     compiling with a recent GCC version and undefined sanitizer
     enabled.

   - gh-129660(4): Drop ‘test_embed’ from PGO training, whose
     contribution in recent versions is considered to be ignorable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131865

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130740

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129838

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129660


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 9 final,  Next: Python 3 12 8 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 10 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.4 Python 3.12.9 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2025-02-04'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* C API: C API<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<2>,  Next: Security<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 9 final

1.22.4.1 Tests
..............

   - gh-127906(1): Test the limited C API in test_cppext.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127906(2): Backport test_cext from the main branch.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127637(3): Add tests for the *note dis: 37. command-line
     interface.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127906

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127906

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127637


File: python.info,  Node: Security<4>,  Next: Library<4>,  Prev: Tests<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 9 final

1.22.4.2 Security
.................

   - gh-105704(1): When using *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bc7. and
     *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 283. host parsing would not reject
     domain names containing square brackets (‘[’ and ‘]’).  Square
     brackets are only valid for IPv6 and IPvFuture hosts according to
     RFC 3986 Section 3.2.2(2).

   - gh-127655(3): Fixed the
     ‘asyncio.selector_events._SelectorSocketTransport’ transport not
     pausing writes for the protocol when the buffer reaches the high
     water mark when using *note asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines():
     1408.

   - gh-126108(4): Fix a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’.

   - gh-80222(5): Fix bug in the folding of quoted strings when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when a quoted string was folded so that it spanned more
     than one line, the surrounding quotes and internal escapes would be
     omitted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof header lines
     using a carefully constructed quoted string if the resulting
     rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   - gh-119511(6): Fix a potential denial of service in the *note
     imaplib: 72. module.  When connecting to a malicious server, it
     could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated.  On many
     systems this is harmless as unused virtual memory is only a
     mapping, but if this hit a virtual address size limit it could lead
     to a *note MemoryError: 1409. or other process crash.  On unusual
     systems or builds where all allocated memory is touched and backed
     by actual ram or storage it could’ve consumed resources doing so
     until similarly crashing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105704

   (2) https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3986#section-3.2.2

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127655

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126108

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80222

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119511


File: python.info,  Node: Library<4>,  Next: Documentation<3>,  Prev: Security<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 9 final

1.22.4.3 Library
................

   - gh-129502(1): Unlikely errors in preparing arguments for *note
     ctypes: 2a. callback are now handled in the same way as errors
     raised in the callback of in converting the result of the callback
     – using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491. instead of *note
     sys.excepthook(): 646. and not setting *note sys.last_exc: 1ec. and
     other variables.

   - gh-129403(2): Corrected *note ValueError: 189. message for *note
     asyncio.Barrier: 410. and *note threading.Barrier: 1088.

   - gh-129409(3): Fix an integer overflow in the *note csv: 29. module
     when writing a data field larger than 2GB.

   - gh-118761(4): Improve import time of *note subprocess: d5. by lazy
     importing ‘locale’ and ‘signal’.  Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

   - gh-129346(5): In *note sqlite3: ce, handle out-of-memory when
     creating user-defined SQL functions.

   - gh-128550(6): Removed an incorrect optimization relating to eager
     tasks in *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. that resulted in
     cancellations being missed.

   - gh-128991(7): Release the enter frame reference within *note bdb:
     f. callback

   - gh-128961(8): Fix a crash when setting state on an exhausted *note
     array.array: 195. iterator.

   - gh-128916(9): Do not attempt to set ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ on sockets of
     address families other than ‘AF_INET’ and ‘AF_INET6’, as it is
     meaningless with these address families, and the call with fail
     with Linux kernel 6.12.9 and newer.

   - gh-128679(10): Fix *note tracemalloc.stop(): 140b. race condition.
     Fix *note tracemalloc: ff. to support calling *note
     tracemalloc.stop(): 140b. in one thread, while another thread is
     tracing memory allocations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128562(11): Fix possible conflicts in generated *note tkinter:
     ef. widget names if the widget class name ends with a digit.

   - gh-128552(12): Fix cyclic garbage introduced by *note
     asyncio.loop.create_task(): 83b. and *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 140c. holding a reference to the
     created task if it is eager.

   - gh-128479(13): Fix ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ leaking
     tasks and issuing an unhandled exception.

   - gh-88834(14): Unify the instance check for *note typing.Union: 44e.
     and *note types.UnionType: 44d.: ‘Union’ now uses the instance
     checks against its parameters instead of the subclass checks.

   - gh-128302(15): Fix
     ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMEntityResolver.resolveEntity()’, which was
     broken by the Python 3.0 transition.

   - gh-128302(16): Allow ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMParser.parse()’ to
     correctly handle ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMInputSource’ instances that
     only have a ‘systemId’ attribute set.

   - gh-112064(17): Fix incorrect handling of negative read sizes in
     *note HTTPResponse.read: 140d.  Patch by Yury Manushkin.

   - gh-58956(18): Fixed a frame reference leak in *note bdb: f.

   - gh-128131(19): Completely support random access of uncompressed
     unencrypted read-only zip files obtained by *note ZipFile.open:
     b90.

   - gh-127975(20): Avoid reusing quote types in *note ast.unparse():
     738. if not needed.

   - gh-128014(21): Fix resetting the default window icon by passing
     ‘default=''’ to the *note tkinter: ef. method ‘wm_iconbitmap()’.

   - gh-115514(22): Fix exceptions and incomplete writes after
     ‘asyncio._SelectorTransport’ is closed before writes are completed.

   - gh-41872(23): Fix quick extraction of module docstrings from a file
     in *note pydoc: b4.  It now supports docstrings with single quotes,
     escape sequences, raw string literals, and other Python syntax.

   - gh-126742(24): Fix support of localized error messages reported by
     ‘dlerror(3)(25)’ and ‘gdbm_strerror(26)’ in *note ctypes: 2a. and
     *note dbm.gnu: 33. functions respectively.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127870(27): Detect recursive calls in ctypes ‘_as_parameter_’
     handling.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127847(28): Fix the position when doing interleaved seeks and
     reads in uncompressed, unencrypted zip files returned by *note
     zipfile.ZipFile.open(): b90.

   - gh-127732(29): The *note platform: a9. module now correctly detects
     Windows Server 2025.

   - gh-93312(30): Include ‘<sys/pidfd.h>’ to get ‘os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK’
     constant.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83662(31): Add missing ‘__class_getitem__’ method to the Python
     implementation of *note functools.partial(): d61, to make it
     compatible with the C version.  This is mainly relevant for
     alternative Python implementations like PyPy and GraalPy, because
     CPython will usually use the C-implementation of that function.

   - gh-127586(32): *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool: e0b. now properly
     restores blocked signal handlers of the parent thread when creating
     processes via either 'spawn' or 'forkserver'.

   - gh-98188(33): Fix an issue in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 1072. where data cannot be
     decoded if the Content Transfer Encoding mechanism contains
     trailing whitespaces or additional junk text.  Patch by Hui Liu.

   - gh-127257(34): In *note ssl: cf, system call failures that OpenSSL
     reports using ‘ERR_LIB_SYS’ are now raised as *note OSError: 65c.

   - gh-126775(35): Make *note linecache.checkcache(): 140e. thread safe
     and GC re-entrancy safe.

   - gh-58956(36): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: a4. where sometimes the
     breakpoint won’t trigger if it was set on a function which is
     already in the call stack.

   - gh-123401(37): The *note http.cookies: 6f. module now supports
     parsing obsolete RFC 850(38) date formats, in accordance with RFC
     9110(39) requirements.  Patch by Nano Zheng.

   - gh-123085(40): In a bare call to *note importlib.resources.files():
     1b1, ensure the caller’s frame is properly detected when
     ‘importlib.resources’ is itself available as a compiled module only
     (no source).

   - gh-122431(41): *note readline.append_history_file(): ce3. now
     raises a *note ValueError: 189. when given a negative value.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129502

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129403

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129409

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129346

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128550

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128991

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128961

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128916

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128679

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128562

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128552

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128479

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88834

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112064

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128131

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127975

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128014

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115514

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41872

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126742

   (25) https://manpages.debian.org/dlerror(3)

   (26) https://manpages.debian.org/gdbm(3)

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127870

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127847

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127732

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83662

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127586

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98188

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127257

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126775

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123401

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc850.html

   (39) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123085

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122431


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<3>,  Next: Core and Builtins<3>,  Prev: Library<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 9 final

1.22.4.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-125722(1): Require Sphinx 8.1.3 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-67206(2): Document that *note string.printable: 1410. is not
     printable in the POSIX sense.  In particular, *note
     string.printable.isprintable(): c66. returns *note False: 9a8.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67206


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<3>,  Next: C API<2>,  Prev: Documentation<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 9 final

1.22.4.5 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-129345(1): Fix null pointer dereference in *note
     syslog.openlog(): 2cc. when an audit hook raises an exception.

   - gh-129093(2): Fix f-strings such as ‘f'{expr=}'’ sometimes not
     displaying the full expression when the expression contains ‘!=’.

   - gh-124363(3): Treat debug expressions in f-string as raw strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-128799(4): Add frame of ‘except*’ to traceback when it wraps a
     naked exception.

   - gh-128078(5): Fix a *note SystemError: 30e. when using *note
     anext(): 60f. with a default tuple value.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128079(6): Fix a bug where *note except*: 3bf. does not properly
     check the return value of an *note ExceptionGroup: 181.’s *note
     split(): 1412. function, leading to a crash in some cases.  Now
     when *note split(): 1412. returns an invalid object, *note except*:
     3bf. raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. with the original raised *note
     ExceptionGroup: 181. object chained to it.

   - gh-127903(7): ‘Objects/unicodeobject.c’: fix a crash on DEBUG
     builds in ‘_copy_characters’ when there is nothing to copy.

   - gh-127599(8): Fix statistics for increments of object reference
     counts (in particular, when a reference count was increased by more
     than 1 in a single operation).

   - gh-111609(9): Respect 'end_offset' in *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     subclasses.

   - gh-126862(10): Fix a possible overflow when a class inherits from
     an absurd number of super-classes.  Reported by Valery Fedorenko.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-117195(11): Avoid assertion failure for debug builds when
     calling ‘object.__sizeof__(1)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129093

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124363

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128799

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128078

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128079

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127903

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127599

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111609

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126862

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117195


File: python.info,  Node: C API<2>,  Next: Build<2>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 9 final

1.22.4.6 C API
..............

   - gh-126554(1): Fix error handling in *note ctypes.CDLL: 848. objects
     which could result in a crash in rare situations.

   - gh-107249(2): Implement the *note Py_UNUSED: 1414. macro for
     Windows MSVC compiler.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126554

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107249


File: python.info,  Node: Build<2>,  Prev: C API<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 9 final

1.22.4.7 Build
..............

   - gh-129539(1): Don’t redefine ‘EX_OK’ when the system has the
     ‘sysexits.h’ header.

   - gh-128472(2): Skip BOLT optimization of functions using computed
     gotos, fixing errors on build with LLVM 19.

   - gh-123925(3): Fix building the *note curses: 2b. module on
     platforms with libncurses but without libncursesw.

   - gh-128321(4): Set ‘LIBS’ instead of ‘LDFLAGS’ when checking if
     *note sqlite3: ce. library functions are available.  This fixes the
     ordering of linked libraries during checks, which was incorrect
     when using a statically linked ‘libsqlite3’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129539

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128472

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128321


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 8 final,  Next: Python 3 12 7 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 9 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.5 Python 3.12.8 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-12-03'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Windows: Windows<2>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<2>,  Next: Windows<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-124448(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk in macOS installer to 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<2>,  Next: Tools/Demos<3>,  Prev: macOS<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.2 Windows
................

   - gh-126911(1): Update credits command output.

   - gh-125315(2): Avoid crashing in *note platform: a9. due to slow WMI
     calls on some Windows machines.

   - gh-125550(3): Enable the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. to
     detect Python 3.14 installs from the Windows Store.

   - gh-124448(4): Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126911

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125315

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125550

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<3>,  Next: Tests<3>,  Prev: Windows<2>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-126807(1): Fix extraction warnings in ‘pygettext.py’ caused by
     mistaking function definitions for function calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126807


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<3>,  Next: Security<5>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-126909(1): Fix test_os extended attribute tests to work on
     filesystems with 1 KiB xattr size limit.

   - gh-125041(2): Re-enable skipped tests for *note zlib: 133. on the
     s390x architecture: only skip checks of the compressed bytes, which
     can be different between zlib’s software implementation and the
     hardware-accelerated implementation.

   - gh-124295(3): Add translation tests to the *note argparse: 6.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126909

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125041

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124295


File: python.info,  Node: Security<5>,  Next: Library<5>,  Prev: Tests<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.5 Security
.................

   - gh-126623(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.4

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126623


File: python.info,  Node: Library<5>,  Next: IDLE<4>,  Prev: Security<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.6 Library
................

   - gh-127303(1): Publicly expose *note EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES: 141d. in
     ‘token.__all__’.

   - gh-123967(2): Fix faulthandler for trampoline frames.  If the
     top-most frame is a trampoline frame, skip it.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-127182(3): Fix ‘io.StringIO.__setstate__()’ crash, when *note
     None: 488. was passed as the first value.

   - gh-127217(4): Fix *note urllib.request.pathname2url(): 141e. for
     paths starting with multiple slashes on Posix.

   - gh-127035(5): Fix *note shutil.which: 1e0. on Windows.  Now it
     looks at direct match if and only if the command ends with a
     PATHEXT extension or X_OK is not in mode.  Support extensionless
     files if “.” is in PATHEXT. Support PATHEXT extensions that end
     with a dot.

   - gh-127078(6): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     141f. failed to discard an extra slash before a UNC drive in the
     URL path on Windows.

   - gh-126766(7): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     141f. failed to discard any ‘localhost’ authority present in the
     URL.

   - gh-126997(8): Fix support of STRING and GLOBAL opcodes with
     non-ASCII arguments in *note pickletools: a6.  *note
     pickletools.dis(): b46. now outputs non-ASCII bytes in STRING,
     BINSTRING and SHORT_BINSTRING arguments as escaped (‘\xXX’).

   - gh-126618(9): Fix the representation of *note itertools.count:
     112c. objects when the count value is *note sys.maxsize: 106a.

   - gh-85168(10): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     141f. and *note pathname2url(): 141e. always used UTF-8 when
     quoting and unquoting file URIs.  They now use the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 2c7.

   - gh-67877(11): Fix memory leaks when *note regular expression: b8.
     matching terminates abruptly, either because of a signal or because
     memory allocation fails.

   - gh-126789(12): Fixed the values of *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): ed4, *note sysconfig.get_paths():
     10eb, and their siblings when the *note site: c6. initialization
     happens after *note sysconfig: da. has built a cache for *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): ed4.

   - gh-126188(13): Update bundled pip to 24.3.1

   - gh-126766(14): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     141f. failed to discard two leading slashes introducing an empty
     authority section.

   - gh-126727(15): ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ERA)’ now returns
     multiple era description segments separated by semicolons.
     Previously it only returned the first segment on platforms with
     Glibc.

   - gh-126699(16): Allow *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: c6c. to
     be a base for Protocols.

   - gh-104745(17): Limit starting a patcher (from *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): d26. or *note unittest.mock.patch.object():
     1420.) more than once without stopping it

   - gh-126595(18): Fix a crash when instantiating *note
     itertools.count: 112c. with an initial count of *note sys.maxsize:
     106a. on debug builds.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120423(19): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     141e. mishandled Windows paths with embedded forward slashes.

   - gh-126565(20): Improve performances of *note zipfile.Path.open():
     1421. for non-reading modes.

   - gh-126505(21): Fix bugs in compiling case-insensitive *note regular
     expressions: b8. with character classes containing non-BMP
     characters: upper-case non-BMP character did was ignored and the
     ASCII flag was ignored when matching a character range whose upper
     bound is beyond the BMP region.

   - gh-117378(22): Fixed the *note multiprocessing: 93. ‘"forkserver"’
     start method forkserver process to correctly inherit the parent’s
     *note sys.path: 368. during the importing of *note
     multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload(): 1422. modules in the same
     manner as *note sys.path: 368. is configured in workers before
     executing work items.

     This bug caused some forkserver module preloading to silently fail
     to preload.  This manifested as a performance degration in child
     processes when the ‘sys.path’ was required due to additional
     repeated work in every worker.

     It could also have a side effect of ‘""’ remaining in *note
     sys.path: 368. during forkserver preload imports instead of the
     absolute path from *note os.getcwd(): 1423. at multiprocessing
     import time used in the worker ‘sys.path’.

     The ‘sys.path’ differences between phases in the child process
     could potentially have caused preload to import incorrect things
     from the wrong location.  We are unaware of that actually having
     happened in practice.

   - gh-125679(23): The *note multiprocessing.Lock: 1424. and *note
     multiprocessing.RLock: 1425. ‘repr’ values no longer say “unknown”
     on macOS.

   - gh-126476(24): Raise *note calendar.IllegalMonthError: 1426. (now a
     subclass of *note IndexError: 13c2.) for *note calendar.month():
     1427. when the input month is not correct.

   - gh-126489(25): The Python implementation of *note pickle: a5. no
     longer calls *note pickle.Pickler.persistent_id(): 1428. for the
     result of ‘persistent_id()’.

   - gh-126303(26): Fix pickling and copying of *note os.sched_param:
     1429. objects.

   - gh-126138(27): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     20a. objects whose underlying coroutine yields an object that
     implements an evil *note __getattribute__(): a49.  Patch by Nico
     Posada.

   - gh-126220(28): Fix crash in ‘cProfile.Profile’ and
     ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ when their callbacks were directly called with 0
     arguments.

   - gh-126212(29): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     141e. and *note url2pathname(): 141f. removed slashes from Windows
     DOS drive paths and URLs.

   - gh-126205(30): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     141e. generated URLs beginning with four slashes (rather than two)
     when given a Windows UNC path.

   - gh-126105(31): Fix a crash in *note ast: 8. when the *note
     ast.AST._fields: 142a. attribute is deleted.

   - gh-126106(32): Fixes a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in *note
     ssl: cf.

   - gh-126080(33): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     20a. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): a49.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126083(34): Fixed a reference leak in *note asyncio.Task: 20a.
     objects when reinitializing the same object with a non-‘None’
     context.  Patch by Nico Posada.

   - gh-125984(35): Fix use-after-free crashes on *note asyncio.Future:
     a44. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): a49.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125969(36): Fix an out-of-bounds crash when an evil *note
     asyncio.loop.call_soon(): 972. mutates the length of the internal
     callbacks list.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125966(37): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 142b.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-125789(38): Fix possible crash when mutating list of callbacks
     returned by ‘asyncio.Future._callbacks’.  It now always returns a
     new copy in C implementation ‘_asyncio’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-124452(39): Fix an issue in *note
     email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse(): 142c. and *note
     email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse(): 142d. that introduced
     spurious leading whitespaces into header values when the header
     includes a newline character after the header name delimiter (‘:’)
     and before the value.

   - gh-125884(40): Fixed the bug for *note pdb: a4. where it can’t set
     breakpoints on functions with certain annotations.

   - gh-125355(41): Fix several bugs in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): 96e.

        * The parser no longer changes temporarily during parsing.

        * Default values are not processed twice.

        * Required mutually exclusive groups containing positional
          arguments are now supported.

        * The missing arguments report now includes the names of all
          required optional and positional arguments.

        * Unknown options can be intermixed with positional arguments in
          parse_known_intermixed_args().

   - gh-125682(42): Reject non-ASCII digits in the Python implementation
     of *note json.loads(): 7b0. conforming to the JSON specification.

   - gh-125660(43): Reject invalid unicode escapes for Python
     implementation of *note json.loads(): 7b0.

   - gh-125259(44): Fix the notes removal logic for errors thrown in
     enum initialization.

   - gh-125519(45): Improve traceback if *note importlib.reload(): 2a3.
     is called with an object that is not a module.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-125451(46): Fix deadlock when *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. shuts down
     concurrently with an error when feeding a job to a worker process.

   - gh-125422(47): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a4. and *note bdb: f.
     can step into the bottom caller frame.

   - gh-100141(48): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: a4. will be stuck in
     an infinite loop when debugging an empty file.

   - gh-53203(49): Fix *note time.strptime(): 12b5. for ‘%c’, ‘%x’ and
     ‘%X’ formats in many locales that use non-ASCII digits, like
     Persian, Burmese, Odia and Shan.

   - gh-125254(50): Fix a bug where ArgumentError includes the incorrect
     ambiguous option in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-61011(51): Fix inheritance of nested mutually exclusive groups
     from parent parser in *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2c5.
     Previously, all nested mutually exclusive groups lost their
     connection to the group containing them and were displayed as
     belonging directly to the parser.

   - gh-52551(52): Fix encoding issues in *note time.strftime(): 108e,
     the *note strftime(): b11. method of the *note datetime: 30.
     classes *note datetime: 22b, *note date: 749. and *note time: 6df.
     and formatting of these classes.  Characters not encodable in the
     current locale are now acceptable in the format string.  Surrogate
     pairs and sequence of surrogatescape-encoded bytes are no longer
     recombinated.  Embedded null character no longer terminates the
     format string.

   - gh-125118(53): Don’t copy arbitrary values to _Bool in the *note
     struct: d4. module.

   - gh-125069(54): Fix an issue where providing a *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. object as an initializer argument to a
     second *note PurePath: 1ce. object with a different flavour
     resulted in arguments to the former object’s initializer being
     joined by the latter object’s flavour.

   - gh-124969(55): Fix ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS)’ on
     platforms with glibc.  Now it returns a string consisting of up to
     100 semicolon-separated symbols (an empty string in most locales)
     on all Posix platforms.  Previously it only returned the first
     symbol or an empty string.

   - gh-124958(56): Fix refcycles in exceptions raised from *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. and the python implementation of *note
     asyncio.Future: a44.

   - gh-53203(57): Fix *note time.strptime(): 12b5. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’
     formats in many locales: Arabic, Bislama, Breton, Bodo, Kashubian,
     Chuvash, Estonian, French, Irish, Ge’ez, Gurajati, Manx Gaelic,
     Hebrew, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, Haitian Kreyol, Japanese, Kannada,
     Korean, Marathi, Malay, Norwegian, Nynorsk, Punjabi, Rajasthani,
     Tok Pisin, Yoruba, Yue Chinese, Yau/Nungon and Chinese.

   - gh-124917(58): Allow calling *note os.path.exists(): 86f. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): 870. with keyword arguments on Windows.  Fixes a
     regression in 3.12.4.

   - gh-124653(59): Fix detection of the minimal Queue API needed by the
     *note logging: 86. module.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124858(60): Fix reference cycles left in tracebacks in *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 987. when used with
     ‘happy_eyeballs_delay’

   - gh-124390(61): Fixed *note AssertionError: 4bf. when using
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ with *note
     asyncio.eager_task_factory: 198.

   - gh-124651(62): Properly quote template strings in *note venv: 111.
     activation scripts.

   - gh-124594(63): All *note asyncio: a. REPL prompts run in the same
     *note context: 142e.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-120378(64): Fix a crash related to an integer overflow in *note
     curses.resizeterm(): 142f. and *note curses.resize_term(): 1430.

   - gh-123884(65): Fixed bug in itertools.tee() handling of other tee
     inputs (a tee in a tee).  The output now has the promised 'n'
     independent new iterators.  Formerly, the first iterator was
     identical (not independent) to the input iterator.  This would
     sometimes give surprising results.

   - gh-123978(66): Remove broken *note time.thread_time(): 78f. and
     *note time.thread_time_ns(): a07. on NetBSD.

   - gh-124008(67): Fix possible crash (in debug build), incorrect
     output or returning incorrect value from raw binary ‘write()’ when
     writing to console on Windows.

   - gh-123370(68): Fix the canvas not clearing after running turtledemo
     clock.

   - gh-120754(69): Update unbounded ‘read’ calls in *note zipfile: 131.
     to specify an explicit ‘size’ putting a limit on how much data they
     may read.  This also updates handling around ZIP max comment size
     to match the standard instead of reading comments that are one byte
     too long.

   - gh-70764(70): Fixed an issue where *note inspect.getclosurevars():
     f78. would incorrectly classify an attribute name as a global
     variable when the name exists both as an attribute name and a
     global variable.

   - gh-119826(71): Always return an absolute path for *note
     os.path.abspath(): 11c6. on Windows.

   - gh-117766(72): Always use *note str(): 15d. to print ‘choices’ in
     *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-101955(73): Fix SystemError when match regular expression
     pattern containing some combination of possessive quantifier,
     alternative and capture group.

   - gh-88110(74): Fixed *note multiprocessing.Process: 9cd. reporting a
     ‘.exitcode’ of 1 even on success when using the ‘"fork"’ start
     method while using a *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     56e.

   - gh-71936(75): Fix a race condition in *note
     multiprocessing.pool.Pool: e0b.

   - bpo-46128(76): Strip *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282.
     stack frames from reported stacktraces.

   - bpo-14074(77): Fix *note argparse: 6. metavar processing to allow
     positional arguments to have a tuple metavar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127303

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123967

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127182

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127217

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127035

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127078

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126997

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126618

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85168

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67877

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126789

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126188

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126727

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126699

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104745

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126595

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120423

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126565

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126505

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117378

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125679

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126476

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126489

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126303

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126138

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126220

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126212

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126205

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126105

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126106

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126080

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126083

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125984

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125969

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125966

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125789

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124452

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125884

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125355

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125682

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125660

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125259

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125519

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125451

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125422

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100141

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125254

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61011

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125118

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125069

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124958

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124917

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124653

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124858

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124390

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124651

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124594

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120378

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123884

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123978

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124008

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123370

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70764

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119826

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117766

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101955

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88110

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71936

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46128

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14074


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<4>,  Next: Documentation<4>,  Prev: Library<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-122392(1): Increase currently inadequate vertical spacing for
     the IDLE browsers (path, module, and stack) on high-resolution
     monitors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122392


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<4>,  Prev: IDLE<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.8 Documentation
......................

   - gh-125277(1): Require Sphinx 7.2.6 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-125018(2): The *note importlib.metadata: 78. documentation now
     includes semantic cross-reference targets for the significant
     documented APIs.  This means intersphinx references like *note
     importlib.metadata.version(): 1433. will now work as expected.

   - gh-121277(3): Writers of CPython’s documentation can now use ‘next’
     as the version for the ‘versionchanged’, ‘versionadded’,
     ‘deprecated’ directives.

   - gh-60712(4): Include the *note object: 8f2. type in the lists of
     documented types.  Change by Furkan Onder and Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125277

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125018

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121277

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60712


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<4>,  Next: C API<3>,  Prev: Documentation<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.9 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-113841(1): Fix possible undefined behavior division by zero in
     *note complex: 273.’s *note _Py_c_pow(): 1435.

   - gh-126341(2): Now *note ValueError: 189. is raised instead of *note
     SystemError: 30e. when trying to iterate over a released *note
     memoryview: 185. object.

   - gh-126066(3): Fix *note importlib: 75. to not write an incomplete
     .pyc files when a ulimit or some other operating system mechanism
     is preventing the write to go through fully.

   - gh-126139(4): Provide better error location when attempting to use
     a *note future statement: c3a. with an unknown future feature.

   - gh-125008(5): Fix *note tokenize.untokenize(): 13fb. producing
     invalid syntax for double braces preceded by certain escape
     characters.

   - gh-123378(6): Fix a crash in the *note __str__(): 42f. method of
     *note UnicodeError: 114c. objects when the *note
     UnicodeError.start: 1436. and *note UnicodeError.end: 1437. values
     are invalid or out-of-range.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-116510(7): Fix a crash caused by immortal interned strings being
     shared between sub-interpreters that use basic single-phase init.
     In that case, the string can be used by an interpreter that
     outlives the interpreter that created and interned it.  For
     interpreters that share obmalloc state, also share the interned
     dict with the main interpreter.

   - gh-118950(8): Fix bug where SSLProtocol.connection_lost wasn’t
     getting called when OSError was thrown on writing to socket.

   - gh-113570(9): Fixed a bug in ‘reprlib.repr’ where it incorrectly
     called the repr method on shadowed Python built-in types.

   - gh-109746(10): If ‘_thread.start_new_thread()’ fails to start a new
     thread, it deletes its state from interpreter and thus avoids its
     repeated cleanup on finalization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113841

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126341

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126066

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126139

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125008

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118950

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113570

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109746


File: python.info,  Node: C API<3>,  Next: Build<3>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.10 C API
...............

   - gh-113601(1): Removed debug build assertions related to interning
     strings, which were falsely triggered by stable ABI extensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601


File: python.info,  Node: Build<3>,  Prev: C API<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 8 final

1.22.5.11 Build
...............

   - gh-89640(1): Hard-code float word ordering as little endian on
     WASM.

   - gh-89640(2): Improve detection of float word ordering on Linux when
     link-time optimizations are enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 7 final,  Next: Python 3 12 6 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 8 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.6 Python 3.12.7 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-10-01'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<6>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<3>,  Next: Tests<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.1 Windows
................

   - gh-123915(1): Ensure that ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ uses
     different directories for AMD64 and ARM64 builds.

   - gh-117505(2): Fixes an issue with the Windows installer not running
     ensurepip in a fully isolated environment.  This could cause
     unexpected interactions with the user site-packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123915

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117505


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<4>,  Next: Security<6>,  Prev: Windows<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-124378(1): Updated ‘test_ttk’ to pass with Tcl/Tk 8.6.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124378


File: python.info,  Node: Security<6>,  Next: Library<6>,  Prev: Tests<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.3 Security
.................

   - gh-122792(1): Changed IPv4-mapped ‘ipaddress.IPv6Address’ to
     consistently use the mapped IPv4 address value for deciding
     properties.  Properties which have their behavior fixed are
     ‘is_multicast’, ‘is_reserved’, ‘is_link_local’, ‘is_global’, and
     ‘is_unspecified’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122792


File: python.info,  Node: Library<6>,  Next: IDLE<5>,  Prev: Security<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.4 Library
................

   - gh-116850(1): Fix *note argparse: 6. for namespaces with not
     directly writable dict (e.g.  classes).

   - gh-58573(2): Fix conflicts between abbreviated long options in the
     parent parser and subparsers in *note argparse: 6.

   - gh-61181(3): Fix support of *note choices: 143f. with string value
     in *note argparse: 6.  Substrings of the specified string no longer
     considered valid values.

   - gh-80259(4): Fix *note argparse: 6. support of positional arguments
     with ‘nargs='?'’, ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ and specified ‘type’.

   - gh-124498(5): Fix *note typing.TypeAliasType: 166. not to be
     generic, when ‘type_params’ is an empty tuple.

   - gh-124345(6): *note argparse: 6. vim supports abbreviated
     single-dash long options separated by ‘=’ from its value.

   - gh-104860(7): Fix disallowing abbreviation of single-dash long
     options in *note argparse: 6. with ‘allow_abbrev=False’.

   - gh-63143(8): Fix parsing mutually exclusive arguments in *note
     argparse: 6.  Arguments with the value identical to the default
     value (e.g.  booleans, small integers, empty or 1-character
     strings) are no longer considered “not present”.

   - gh-72795(9): Positional arguments with *note nargs: 1440. equal to
     ‘'*'’ or ‘argparse.REMAINDER’ are no longer required.  This allows
     to use positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’ and without ‘default’
     in mutually exclusive group and improves error message about
     required arguments.

   - gh-59317(10): Fix parsing positional argument with *note nargs:
     1440. equal to ‘'?'’ or ‘'*'’ if it is preceded by an option and
     another positional argument.

   - gh-53780(11): *note argparse: 6. now ignores the first ‘"--"’
     (double dash) between an option and command.

   - gh-124217(12): Add RFC 9637 reserved IPv6 block ‘3fff::/20’ in
     *note ipaddress: 7e. module.

   - gh-124248(13): Fixed potential crash when using *note struct: d4.
     to process zero-width ‘Pascal string’ fields (‘0p’).

   - gh-81691(14): Fix handling of multiple ‘"--"’ (double dashes) in
     *note argparse: 6.  Only the first one has now been removed, all
     subsequent ones are now taken literally.

   - gh-87041(15): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where lengthy
     subparser argument help is incorrectly indented.

   - gh-124171(16): Add workaround for broken ‘fmod()’ implementations
     on Windows, that loose zero sign (e.g.  ‘fmod(-10, 1)’ returns
     ‘0.0’).  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123934(17): Fix *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: d25. reseting
     magic methods return values after ‘.reset_mock(return_value=True)’
     was called.

   - gh-123935(18): Fix parent slots detection for dataclasses that
     inherit from classes with ‘__dictoffset__’.

   - gh-123892(19): Add ‘"_wmi"’ to *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 680.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116810(20): Resolve a memory leak introduced in CPython 3.10’s
     *note ssl: cf. when the *note ssl.SSLSocket.session: 1441. property
     was accessed.  Speeds up read and write access to said property by
     no longer unnecessarily cloning session objects via serialization.

   - gh-121735(21): When working with zip archives, importlib.resources
     now properly honors module-adjacent references (e.g.
     ‘files(pkg.mod)’ and not just ‘files(pkg)’).

   - gh-119004(22): Fix a crash in *note OrderedDict.__eq__: 1442. when
     operands are mutated during the check.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - bpo-44864(23): Do not translate user-provided strings in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 2c5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116850

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58573

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61181

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80259

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124498

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124345

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104860

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63143

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72795

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59317

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53780

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124217

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124248

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81691

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87041

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124171

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123934

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123935

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123892

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116810

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121735

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119004

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44864


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<5>,  Next: Core and Builtins<5>,  Prev: Library<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.5 IDLE
.............

   - gh-112938(1): Fix uninteruptable hang when Shell gets rapid
     continuous output.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112938


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<5>,  Next: C API<4>,  Prev: IDLE<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.6 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-116510(1): Fix a bug that can cause a crash when
     sub-interpreters use “basic” single-phase extension modules.
     Shared objects could refer to PyGC_Head nodes that had been freed
     as part of interpreter cleanup.

   - gh-124188(2): Fix reading and decoding a line from the source file
     witn non-UTF-8 encoding for syntax errors raised in the compiler.

   - gh-77894(3): Fix possible crash in the garbage collector when it
     tries to break a reference loop containing a *note memoryview: 185.
     object.  Now a ‘memoryview’ object can only be cleared if there are
     no buffers that refer it.

   - gh-98442(4): Fix too wide source locations of the cleanup
     instructions of a with statement.

   - gh-113993(5): Strings interned with *note sys.intern(): 1185. are
     again garbage-collected when no longer used, as per the
     documentation.  Strings interned with the C function *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 703. are still immortal.  Internals of
     the string interning mechanism have been changed.  This may affect
     performance and identities of *note str: 15d. objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124188

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77894

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98442

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993


File: python.info,  Node: C API<4>,  Next: Build<4>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.7 C API
..............

   - gh-113993(1): *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 703. no longer
     prevents its argument from being garbage collected.

     Several functions that take ‘char *’ are now documented as possibly
     preventing string objects from being garbage collected; refer to
     their documentation for details: *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1446, *note PyDict_SetItemString():
     1447, *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1448, *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1449, *note PyUnicode_InternFromString():
     1446, and ‘PyModule_Add*’ convenience functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993


File: python.info,  Node: Build<4>,  Prev: C API<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 7 final

1.22.6.8 Build
..............

   - gh-124487(1): Windows builds now use Windows 8.1 as their API
     baseline (installation already required Windows 8.1).

   - gh-123917(2): Fix the check for the ‘crypt()’ function in the
     configure script.  Patch by Paul Smith and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124487

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123917


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 6 final,  Next: Python 3 12 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 7 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.7 Python 3.12.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-09-06'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Security: Security<7>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* Build: Build<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<3>,  Next: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-123418(1): Updated macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<4>,  Next: Tools/Demos<4>,  Prev: macOS<3>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.2 Windows
................

   - gh-123418(1): Updated Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-100256(2): *note mimetypes: 8e. no longer fails when it
     encounters an inaccessible registry key.

   - gh-79846(3): Makes ‘ssl.create_default_context()’ ignore invalid
     certificates in the Windows certificate store

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100256

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79846


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<4>,  Next: Tests<5>,  Prev: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.3 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-123418(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.15 and
     multissltests to use 3.0.15, 3.1.7, and 3.2.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<5>,  Next: Security<7>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.4 Tests
..............

   - gh-101525(1): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if the binary is relocated by BOLT.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525


File: python.info,  Node: Security<7>,  Next: Library<7>,  Prev: Tests<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.5 Security
.................

   - gh-123678(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.3

   - gh-121285(2): Remove backtracking from tarfile header parsing for
     ‘hdrcharset’, PAX, and GNU sparse headers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123678

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<7>,  Next: IDLE<6>,  Prev: Security<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.6 Library
................

   - gh-123270(1): Applied a more surgical fix for malformed payloads in
     *note zipfile.Path: 4e1. causing infinite loops (gh-122905(2))
     without breaking contents using legitimate characters.

   - gh-123213(3): *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 1078.
     and *note Element: 247. assignment no longer hide the internal
     exception if an erronous generator is passed.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-85110(4): Preserve relative path in URL without netloc in *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 1452. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 1453.

   - gh-123067(5): Fix quadratic complexity in parsing ‘"’-quoted cookie
     values with backslashes by *note http.cookies: 6f.

   - gh-122903(6): ‘zipfile.Path.glob’ now correctly matches directories
     instead of silently omitting them.

   - gh-122905(7): *note zipfile.Path: 4e1. objects now sanitize names
     from the zipfile.

   - gh-122695(8): Fixed double-free when using *note
     gc.get_referents(): 63f. with a freed *note asyncio.Future: a44.
     iterator.

   - gh-116263(9): *note logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1454. no
     longer rolls over empty log files.

   - gh-118814(10): Fix the *note typing.TypeVar: 16a. constructor when
     name is passed by keyword.

   - gh-122478(11): Remove internal frames from tracebacks shown in
     *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 1455. with non-default *note
     sys.excepthook(): 646.  Save correct tracebacks in *note
     sys.last_traceback: 1ef. and update ‘__traceback__’ attribute of
     *note sys.last_value: 1ee. and *note sys.last_exc: 1ec.

   - gh-113785(12): *note csv: 29. now correctly parses numeric fields
     (when used with *note csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1456.) which start with
     an escape character.

   - gh-112182(13): ‘asyncio.futures.Future.set_exception()’ now
     transforms *note StopIteration: a73. into *note RuntimeError: 180.
     instead of hanging or other misbehavior.  Patch contributed by
     Jamie Phan.

   - gh-108172(14): ‘webbrowser’ honors OS preferred browser on Linux
     when its desktop entry name contains the text of a known browser
     name.

   - gh-102988(15): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 391. and *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 392. now return ‘('', '')’ 2-tuples in
     more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered
     instead of potentially inaccurate values.  Add optional 'strict'
     parameter to these two functions: use ‘strict=False’ to get the old
     behavior, accept malformed inputs.  ‘getattr(email.utils,
     'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be use to check if the
     'strict' paramater is available.  Patch by Thomas Dwyer and Victor
     Stinner to improve the CVE-2023-27043 fix.

   - gh-99437(16): *note runpy.run_path(): 11c7. now decodes path-like
     objects, making sure __file__ and sys.argv[0] of the module being
     run are always strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123270

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123213

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85110

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123067

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122903

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122905

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122695

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116263

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118814

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122478

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113785

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112182

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108172

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99437


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<6>,  Next: Core and Builtins<6>,  Prev: Library<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.7 IDLE
.............

   - gh-120083(1): Add explicit black IDLE Hovertip foreground color
     needed for recent macOS. Fixes Sonoma showing unreadable white on
     pale yellow.  Patch by John Riggles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120083


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<6>,  Next: Build<5>,  Prev: IDLE<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.8 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-123321(1): Prevent Parser/myreadline race condition from
     segfaulting on multi-threaded use.  Patch by Bar Harel and Amit
     Wienner.

   - gh-122982(2): Extend the deprecation period for bool inversion
     (‘~’) by two years.

   - gh-123229(3): Fix valgrind warning by initializing the f-string
     buffers to 0 in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123142(4): Fix too-wide source location in exception tracebacks
     coming from broken iterables in comprehensions.

   - gh-123048(5): Fix a bug where pattern matching code could emit a
     *note JUMP_FORWARD: 1459. with no source location.

   - gh-123083(6): Fix a potential use-after-free in
     ‘STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT’.

   - gh-122527(7): Fix a crash that occurred when a ‘PyStructSequence’
     was deallocated after its type’s dictionary was cleared by the GC.
     The type’s *note tp_basicsize: 7e5. now accounts for non-sequence
     fields that aren’t included in the *note Py_SIZE: 5b2. of the
     sequence.

   - gh-93691(8): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     with statements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123321

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122982

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123229

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123142

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123048

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123083

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122527

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691


File: python.info,  Node: Build<5>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 6 final

1.22.7.9 Build
..............

   - gh-123297(1): Propagate the value of ‘LDFLAGS’ to ‘LDCXXSHARED’ in
     *note sysconfig: da.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123297


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 5 final,  Next: Python 3 12 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 6 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.8 Python 3.12.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-08-06'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Security: Security<8>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.
* Build: Build<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<5>,  Next: Tests<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.1 Windows
................

   - gh-122573(1): The Windows build of CPython now requires 3.10 or
     newer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122573


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<6>,  Next: Security<8>,  Prev: Windows<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-59022(1): Add tests for *note pkgutil.extend_path(): 145e.
     Patch by Andreas Stocker.

   - gh-99242(2): *note os.getloadavg(): 145f. may throw *note OSError:
     65c. when running regression tests under certain conditions (e.g.
     chroot).  This error is now caught and ignored, since reporting
     load average is optional.

   - gh-121084(3): Fix test_typing random leaks.  Clear typing ABC
     caches when running tests for refleaks (‘-R’ option): call
     ‘_abc_caches_clear()’ on typing abstract classes and their
     subclasses.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121160(4): Add a test for *note readline.set_history_length():
     1460.  Note that this test may fail on readline libraries.

   - gh-121200(5): Fix ‘test_expanduser_pwd2()’ of ‘test_posixpath’.
     Call ‘getpwnam()’ to get ‘pw_dir’, since it can be different than
     ‘getpwall()’ ‘pw_dir’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121188(6): When creating the JUnit XML file, regrtest now
     escapes characters which are invalid in XML, such as the chr(27)
     control character used in ANSI escape sequences.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59022

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99242

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121084

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121160

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121200

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121188


File: python.info,  Node: Security<8>,  Next: Library<8>,  Prev: Tests<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.3 Security
.................

   - gh-121957(1): Fixed missing audit events around interactive use of
     Python, now also properly firing for ‘python -i’, as well as for
     ‘python -m asyncio’.  The event in question is ‘cpython.run_stdin’.

   - gh-122133(2): Authenticate the socket connection for the
     ‘socket.socketpair()’ fallback on platforms where ‘AF_UNIX’ is not
     available like Windows.

     Patch by Gregory P. Smith <<greg@krypto.org>> and Seth Larson
     <<seth@python.org>>.  Reported by Ellie <<el@horse64.org>>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121957

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122133


File: python.info,  Node: Library<8>,  Next: IDLE<7>,  Prev: Security<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.4 Library
................

   - gh-122744(1): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 24.2.

   - gh-122334(2): Fix crash when importing *note ssl: cf. after the
     main interpreter restarts.

   - gh-87320(3): In *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 1455, handle
     exceptions caused by calling a non-default *note sys.excepthook():
     646.  Before, the exception bubbled up to the caller, ending the
     REPL.

   - gh-122400(4): Handle *note ValueError: 189.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 1c5. in *note filecmp.dircmp: de0. and *note
     filecmp.cmpfiles(): 1463.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122311(5): Fix some error messages in *note pickle: a5.

   - gh-121650(6): *note email: 3a. headers with embedded newlines are
     now quoted on output.  The *note generator: 3f. will now refuse to
     serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited;
     see *note verify_generated_headers: 38e.  (Contributed by Bas
     Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(7).)

   - gh-122332(8): Fixed segfault with *note asyncio.Task.get_coro():
     83a. when using an eager task factory.

   - gh-122170(9): Handle *note ValueError: 189.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 1c5. in *note linecache: 84.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121723(10): Make *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1055. accept
     any object implementing the Queue public API. See the *note queue
     configuration: 1464. section for details.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-82951(11): Serializing objects with complex ‘__qualname__’ (such
     as unbound methods and nested classes) by name no longer involves
     serializing parent objects by value in pickle protocols < 4.

   - gh-120930(12): Fixed a bug introduced by gh-92081(13) that added an
     incorrect extra blank to encoded words occurring in wrapped
     headers.

   - gh-121474(14): Fix missing sanity check for ‘parties’ arg in *note
     threading.Barrier: 1088. constructor.  Patch by Clinton Christian
     (pygeek).

   - gh-121025(15): Improve the *note __repr__(): 42e. of *note
     functools.partialmethod: 8e0.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121018(16): Fixed issues where
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args()’ did not honor
     ‘exit_on_error=False’.  Based on patch by Ben Hsing.

   - gh-119614(17): Fix truncation of strings with embedded null
     characters in some internal operations in *note tkinter: ef.

   - gh-120910(18): When reading installed files from an egg, use
     ‘relative_to(walk_up=True)’ to honor files installed outside of the
     installation root.

   - gh-101830(19): Accessing the *note tkinter: ef. object’s string
     representation no longer converts the underlying Tcl object to a
     string on Windows.

   - gh-120811(20): Fix possible memory leak in *note
     contextvars.Context.run(): 1465.

   - gh-120769(21): Make empty line in *note pdb: a4. repeats the last
     command even when the command is from ‘cmdqueue’.

   - gh-120732(22): Fix ‘name’ passing to *note unittest.mock.Mock: 8af.
     object when using *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1466.

   - gh-120495(23): Fix incorrect exception handling in Tab Nanny.
     Patch by Wulian233.

   - gh-120343(24): Fix column offset reporting for tokens that come
     after multiline f-strings in the *note tokenize: fb. module.

   - gh-119600(25): Fix *note unittest.mock.patch(): d26. to not read
     attributes of the target when ‘new_callable’ is set.  Patch by
     Robert Collins.

   - gh-120289(26): Fixed the use-after-free issue in *note cProfile:
     27. by disallowing ‘disable()’ and ‘clear()’ in external timers.

   - gh-114053(27): Fix edge-case bug where *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. would produce incorrect results if
     type parameters in a class scope were overridden by assignments in
     a class scope and ‘from __future__ import annotations’ semantics
     were enabled.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-114053(28): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 14a. when calling
     *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. with ‘eval_str=True`’ on a
     class that made use of PEP 695(29) type parameters in a module that
     had ‘from __future__ import annotations’ at the top of the file.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120268(30): Prohibit passing ‘None’ to pure-Python *note
     datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 1467. to achieve consistency with
     C-extension implementation.

   - gh-120244(31): Fix memory leak in *note re.sub(): 208. when the
     replacement string contains backreferences.

   - gh-120211(32): Fix *note tkinter.ttk: f9. with Tcl/Tk 9.0.

   - gh-71587(33): Fix crash in C version of *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1468. when called again on the
     restarted interpreter.

   - gh-117983(34): Defer the ‘threading’ import in ‘importlib.util’
     until lazy loading is used.

   - gh-119698(35): Fix *note symtable.Class.get_methods(): 269. and
     document its behaviour.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120121(36): Add *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError:
     1469. to module’s ‘__all__’.

   - gh-112672(37): Support building *note tkinter: ef. with Tcl 9.0.

   - gh-65454(38): *note unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock(): 146a. no
     longer triggers a call to a ‘PropertyMock’ being attached.

   - gh-81936(39): ‘help()’ and ‘showtopic()’ methods now respect a
     configured 'output' argument to ‘pydoc.Helper’ and not use the
     pager in such cases.  Patch by Enrico Tröger.

   - gh-119577(40): The *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. emitted when
     testing the truth value of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     247. now describes unconditionally returning ‘True’ in a future
     version rather than raising an exception in Python 3.14.

   - gh-119506(41): Fix ‘io.TextIOWrapper.write()’ method breaks
     internal buffer when the method is called again during flushing
     internal buffer.

   - gh-119189(42): When using the ‘**’ operator or *note pow(): 830.
     with *note Fraction: 1ae. as the base and an exponent that is not
     rational, a float, or a complex, the fraction is no longer
     converted to a float.

   - gh-105623(43): Fix performance degradation in *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1454.  Patch by Craig Robson.

   - bpo-39324(44): Add mime type mapping for .md <-> text/markdown

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122744

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122334

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87320

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122400

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122311

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122332

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122170

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121723

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82951

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120930

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121474

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121025

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121018

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119614

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120910

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101830

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120811

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120769

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120732

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120495

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120343

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119600

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120289

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120268

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120244

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120211

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71587

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117983

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120121

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112672

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65454

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81936

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119577

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119506

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119189

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105623

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39324


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<7>,  Next: Documentation<5>,  Prev: Library<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.5 IDLE
.............

   - gh-122482(1): Change About IDLE to direct users to
     discuss.python.org instead of the now unused idle-dev email and
     mailing list.

   - gh-78889(2): Stop Shell freezes by blocking user access to
     non-method sys.stdout.shell attributes, which are all private.

   - gh-120104(3): Fix padding in config and search dialog windows in
     IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122482

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78889

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120104


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<5>,  Next: Core and Builtins<7>,  Prev: IDLE<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.6 Documentation
......................

   - gh-121749(1): Fix documentation for *note PyModule_AddObjectRef():
     6e3.

   - gh-120012(2): Clarify the behaviours of *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.empty(): 146d. and *note
     multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty(): 146e. on closed queues.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121749

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120012


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<7>,  Next: Build<6>,  Prev: Documentation<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.7 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-122208(1): Dictionary watchers now only deliver the
     PyDict_EVENT_ADDED event when the insertion is in a known good
     state to succeed.

   - gh-122300(2): Preserve AST nodes for f-string with single-element
     format specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-122029(3): Emit ‘c_call’ events in *note sys.setprofile(): 138c.
     when a ‘PyMethodObject’ pointing to a ‘PyCFunction’ is called.

   - gh-122026(4): Fix a bug that caused the tokenizer to not correctly
     identify mismatched parentheses inside f-strings in some
     situations.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121657(5): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 14c. message if the
     user tries to use *note yield from: 82b. outside a function.

   - gh-117482(6): Unexpected slot wrappers are no longer created for
     builtin static types in subinterpreters.

   - gh-121439(7): Allow tuples of length 20 in the freelist to be
     reused.

   - gh-121130(8): Fix f-strings with debug expressions in format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120722(9): Correctly set the bytecode position on return
     instructions within lambdas.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-120384(10): Fix an array out of bounds crash in
     ‘list_ass_subscript’, which could be invoked via some specificly
     tailored input: including concurrent modification of a list object,
     where one thread assigns a slice and another clears it.

   - gh-120380(11): Fix Python implementation of *note pickle.Pickler:
     880. for *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. objects when
     using protocol version 5.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-93691(12): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     the iterator of a for statement.

   - gh-120198(13): Fix a crash when multiple threads read and write to
     the same ‘__class__’ of an object concurrently.

   - gh-120298(14): Fix use-after free in ‘list_richcompare_impl’ which
     can be invoked via some specificly tailored evil input.

   - gh-119666(15): Fix a compiler crash in the case where two
     comprehensions in class scope both reference ‘__class__’.

   - bpo-24766(16): Fix handling of ‘doc’ argument to subclasses of
     ‘property’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122208

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122300

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122026

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121657

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117482

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121439

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121130

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120722

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120384

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120380

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120198

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120298

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119666

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24766


File: python.info,  Node: Build<6>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 5 final

1.22.8.8 Build
..............

   - gh-120671(1): Fix failing configure tests due to a missing space
     when appending to CFLAGS.

   - gh-115983(2): Skip building test modules that must be built as
     shared under WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120671

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115983


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 4 final,  Next: Python 3 12 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.9 Python 3.12.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2024-06-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Windows: Windows<6>.
* macOS: macOS<4>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* C API: C API<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<9>,  Next: Core and Builtins<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.1 Security
.................

   - gh-118486(1): *note os.mkdir(): 1c7. on Windows now accepts 'mode'
     of ‘0o700’ to restrict the new directory to the current user.  This
     fixes CVE 2024-4030(2) affecting *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9. in
     scenarios where the base temporary directory is more permissive
     than the default.

   - gh-116741(3): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.2

   - gh-117233(4): Detect BLAKE2, SHA3, Shake, & truncated SHA512
     support in the OpenSSL-ish libcrypto library at build time.  This
     allows *note hashlib: 66. to be used with libraries that do not to
     support every algorithm that upstream OpenSSL does.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116741

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117233


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<8>,  Next: Library<9>,  Prev: Security<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.2 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-119821(1): Fix execution of *note annotation scopes: 16d. within
     classes when ‘globals’ is set to a non-dict.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-119311(2): Fix bug where names are unexpectedly mangled in the
     bases of generic classes.

   - gh-119395(3): Fix bug where names appearing after a generic class
     are mangled as if they are in the generic class.

   - gh-119213(4): Non-builtin modules built with argument clinic were
     crashing if used in a subinterpreter before the main interpreter.
     The objects that were causing the problem by leaking between
     interpreters carelessly have been fixed.

   - gh-119011(5): Fixes ‘type.__type_params__’ to return an empty tuple
     instead of a descriptor.

   - gh-118997(6): Fix _Py_ClearImmortal() assertion: use
     _Py_IsImmortal() to tolerate reference count lower than
     _Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT. Fix the assertion for the stable ABI, when a C
     extension is built with Python 3.11 or lower.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-118513(7): Fix incorrect *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. when two
     comprehensions in the same function both reference the same name,
     and in one comprehension the name is bound while in the other it’s
     an implicit global.

   - gh-118164(8): Break a loop between the Python implementation of the
     *note decimal: 35. module and the Python code for integer to string
     conversion.  Also optimize integer to string conversion for values
     in the range from 9_000 to 135_000 decimal digits.

   - gh-118272(9): Fix bug where ‘generator.close’ does not free the
     generator frame’s locals.

   - gh-116767(10): Fix crash in compiler on ‘async with’ that has many
     context managers.

   - gh-117894(11): Prevent ‘agen.aclose()’ objects being re-used after
     ‘.throw()’.

   - gh-117881(12): prevent concurrent access to an async generator via
     athrow().throw() or asend().throw()

   - gh-115874(13): Fixed a possible segfault during garbage collection
     of ‘_asyncio.FutureIter’ objects

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119821

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119311

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119395

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119213

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119011

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118997

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118513

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118272

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116767

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117894

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117881

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115874


File: python.info,  Node: Library<9>,  Next: Documentation<6>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.3 Library
................

   - gh-119819(1): Fix regression to allow logging configuration with
     multiprocessing queue types.

   - gh-89727(2): Fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. where a
     *note RecursionError: bf7. is raised on deep directory trees.

   - gh-89727(3): Partially fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df.
     where a *note RecursionError: bf7. is raised on deep directory
     trees.  A recursion error is no longer raised when
     ‘rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks’ is false.

   - gh-119118(4): Fix performance regression in the *note tokenize: fb.
     module by caching the ‘line’ token attribute and calculating the
     column offset more efficiently.

   - gh-89727(5): Fix issue with *note os.fwalk(): 9cf. where a *note
     RecursionError: bf7. was raised on deep directory trees by
     adjusting the implementation to be iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-118263(6): Speed up *note os.path.normpath(): 11c5. with a
     direct C call.

   - gh-113892(7): Now, the method ‘sock_connect’ of *note
     asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 418. raises a *note ValueError: 189. if
     given socket is not in non-blocking mode, as well as in other loop
     implementations.

   - gh-118507(8): Fix *note os.path.isfile(): 872. on Windows for
     pipes.

   - gh-119174(9): Fix high DPI causes turtledemo(turtle-graphics
     examples) windows blurry Patch by Wulian233 and Terry Jan Reedy

   - gh-118643(10): Fix an AttributeError in the *note email: 3a. module
     when re-fold a long address list.  Also fix more cases of incorrect
     encoding of the address separator in the address list.

   - gh-58933(11): Make *note pdb: a4. return to caller frame correctly
     when ‘f_trace’ of the caller frame is not set

   - gh-118868(12): Fixed issue where kwargs were no longer passed to
     the logging handler QueueHandler

   - gh-118164(13): The Python implementation of the ‘decimal’ module
     could appear to hang in relatively small power cases (like
     ‘2**117’) if context precision was set to a very high value.  A
     different method to check for exactly representable results is used
     now that doesn’t rely on computing ‘10**precision’ (which could be
     effectively too large to compute).

   - gh-118404(14): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 561. for
     non-comparable callables.

   - gh-118314(15): Fix an edge case in *note binascii.a2b_base64():
     1475. strict mode, where excessive padding is not detected when no
     padding is necessary.

   - gh-118042(16): Fix an unraisable exception in
     ‘telnetlib.Telnet.__del__()’ when the ‘__init__()’ method was not
     called.

   - gh-118221(17): Fix a bug where ‘sqlite3.iterdump()’ could fail if a
     custom *note row factory: 1476. was used.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-118013(18): Fix regression introduced in gh-103193(19) that
     meant that calling *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8. on an
     instance would cause a strong reference to that instance’s class to
     persist in an internal cache in the *note inspect: 7c. module.
     This caused unexpected memory consumption if the class was
     dynamically created, the class held strong references to other
     objects which took up a significant amount of memory, and the cache
     contained the sole strong reference to the class.  The fix for the
     regression leads to a slowdown in ‘getattr_static()’, but the
     function should still be significantly faster than it was in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-90848(20): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1466. to
     configure parent mock with keyword arguments.

   - gh-118168(21): Fix incorrect argument substitution when *note
     typing.Unpack: 1477. is used with the builtin *note tuple: 4ff.
     ‘typing.Unpack’ now raises *note TypeError: 2c4. when used with
     certain invalid types.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-118033(22): Fix *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 3d4. not creating
     a ‘__weakref__’ slot when subclassing *note typing.Generic: 1478.

   - gh-117535(23): Do not try to get the source line for made up file
     name “sys” in *note warnings: 112.

   - gh-114053(24): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 14a. when calling
     *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. on a class that made use of PEP
     695(25) type parameters in a module that had ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ at the top of the file.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-117995(26): Don’t raise *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. when a
     *note sequence: 23f. of parameters is used to bind indexed,
     nameless placeholders.  See also gh-100668(27).

   - gh-80361(28): Fix TypeError in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 1072. when the charset is RFC
     2231(29) encoded.

   - gh-86650(30): Fix IndexError when parse some emails with invalid
     Message-ID (including one-off addresses generated by Microsoft
     Outlook).

   - gh-117691(31): Improve the error messages emitted by *note tarfile:
     dd. deprecation warnings relating to PEP 706.  If a ‘filter’
     argument is not provided to ‘extract()’ or ‘extractall’, the
     deprecation warning now points to the line in the user’s code where
     the relevant function was called.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-77102(32): *note site: c6. module now parses ‘.pth’ file with
     UTF-8 first, and *note locale encoding: 1479. if
     ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ happened.  It supported only locale encoding
     before.

   - gh-117692(33): Fixes a bug when *note doctest.DocTestFinder: 147a.
     was failing on wrapped ‘builtin_function_or_method’.

   - gh-117566(34): *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback(): 147b.
     will now return ‘True’ for IPv4-mapped loopback addresses, i.e.
     addresses in the ‘::ffff:127.0.0.0/104’ address space.

   - gh-117503(35): Fix support of non-ASCII user names in bytes paths
     in *note os.path.expanduser(): 874. on Posix.

   - gh-117313(36): Only treat ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\r\n'’ as line
     separators in re-folding the *note email: 3a. messages.  Preserve
     control characters ‘'\v'’, ‘'\f'’, ‘'\x1c'’, ‘'\x1d'’ and ‘'\x1e'’
     and Unicode line separators ‘'\x85'’, ‘'\u2028'’ and ‘'\u2029'’ as
     is.

   - gh-113171(37): Fixed various false positives and false negatives in

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private: 147c. (see these docs
          for details)

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global: dff.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 147d.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global: 147e.

     Also in the corresponding *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 9bd. and
     *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 9bc. attributes.

   - gh-103956(38): Fix lack of newline characters in *note trace: fd.
     module output when line tracing is enabled but source code line for
     current frame is not available.

   - gh-92081(39): Fix missing spaces in email headers when the spaces
     are mixed with encoded 8-bit characters.

   - gh-103194(40): Prepare Tkinter for C API changes in Tcl 8.7/9.0 to
     avoid ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ being unexpectedly returned instead of
     *note bool: 183, *note str: 15d, *note bytearray: 2ca, or *note
     int: 184.

   - gh-87106(41): Fixed handling in *note inspect.Signature.bind():
     13f3. of keyword arguments having the same name as positional-only
     arguments when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.  ‘**kwargs’) is
     present.

   - bpo-45767(42): Fix integer conversion in *note os.major(): 147f,
     *note os.minor(): 1480, and *note os.makedev(): 1481.  Support
     device numbers larger than ‘2**63-1’.  Support non-existent device
     number (‘NODEV’).

   - bpo-40943(43): Fix several IndexError when parse emails with
     truncated Message-ID, address, routes, etc, e.g.  ‘example@’.

   - bpo-30988(44): Fix parsing of emails with invalid address headers
     having a leading or trailing dot.  Patch by tsufeki.

   - gh-67693(45): Fix *note urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 1453. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 1452. for URIs with path starting with
     multiple slashes and no authority.  Based on patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami.

   - bpo-15010(46): *note unittest.TestLoader.discover(): e8b. now saves
     the original value of ‘unittest.TestLoader._top_level_dir’ and
     restores it at the end of the call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119819

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119118

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118263

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113892

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118507

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119174

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118643

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58933

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118868

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118404

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118314

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118042

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118221

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118013

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90848

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118168

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118033

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117535

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117995

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100668

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80361

   (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86650

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117691

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77102

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117692

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117566

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117503

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117313

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103956

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103194

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87106

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45767

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30988

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67693

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15010


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<6>,  Next: Tests<7>,  Prev: Library<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-117928(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 6.2.1.

   - gh-91565(2): Changes to documentation files and config outputs to
     reflect the new location for reporting bugs - i.e.  GitHub rather
     than bugs.python.org.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117928

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91565


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<7>,  Next: Windows<6>,  Prev: Documentation<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.5 Tests
..............

   - gh-119050(1): regrtest test runner: Add XML support to the refleak
     checker (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119050


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<6>,  Next: macOS<4>,  Prev: Tests<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.6 Windows
................

   - gh-119690(1): Adds Unicode support and fixes audit events for
     ‘_winapi.CreateNamedPipe’.

   - gh-119070(2): Fixes ‘py.exe’ handling of shebangs like
     ‘/usr/bin/env python3.12’, which were previously interpreted as
     ‘python3.exe’ instead of ‘python3.12.exe’.

   - gh-118347(3): Fixes launcher updates not being installed.

   - gh-115009(4): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-90329(5): Suppress the warning displayed on virtual environment
     creation when the requested and created paths differ only by a
     short (8.3 style) name.  Warnings will continue to be shown if a
     junction or symlink in the path caused the venv to be created in a
     different location than originally requested.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119690

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119070

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118347

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90329


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<4>,  Next: IDLE<8>,  Prev: Windows<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.7 macOS
..............

   - gh-115009(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-116145(2): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<8>,  Next: C API<5>,  Prev: macOS<4>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.8 IDLE
.............

   - bpo-34774(1): Use user-selected color theme for Help => IDLE Doc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34774


File: python.info,  Node: C API<5>,  Prev: IDLE<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 4 final

1.22.9.9 C API
..............

   - gh-119585(1): Fix crash when a thread state that was created by
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6. calls a destructor that during
     *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1488. that calls back into *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 1489.
     This might occur when in the free-threaded build or when using
     thread-local variables whose destructors call *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6.

   - gh-117534(2): Improve validation logic in the C implementation of
     ‘datetime.fromisoformat()’ to better handle invalid years.  Patch
     by Vlad Efanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119585

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117534


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 3 final,  Next: Python 3 12 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.10 Python 3.12.3 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2024-04-09'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Build: Build<7>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* C API: C API<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<10>,  Next: Core and Builtins<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.1 Security
..................

   - gh-115398(1): Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral (
     CVE 2023-52425(2)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 148c.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 148d.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          148e.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          148f.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

   - gh-115399(3): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.0

   - gh-115243(4): Fix possible crashes in *note
     collections.deque.index(): c5f. when the deque is concurrently
     modified.

   - gh-114572(5): *note ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats(): e4d. and
     *note ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs(): e4e. now correctly lock access
     to the certificate store, when the *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. is
     shared across multiple threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115398

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115243

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114572


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<9>,  Next: Library<10>,  Prev: Security<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-109120(1): Added handle of incorrect star expressions, e.g ‘f(3,
     *)’.  Patch by Grigoryev Semyon

   - gh-99108(2): Updated the *note hashlib: 66. built-in HACL*
     project(3) C code from upstream that we use for many
     implementations when they are not present via OpenSSL in a given
     build.  This also avoids the rare potential for a C symbol name one
     definition rule linking issue.

   - gh-116735(4): For ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’, set ‘arg0’ to
     ‘sys.monitoring.MISSING’ instead of ‘None’ for *note CALL: 1491.
     event.

   - gh-113964(5): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 23a. are now only prevented once all non-daemon
     threads exit.

   - gh-116604(6): Respect the status of the garbage collector when
     indirect calls are made via *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 182. and
     the evaluation breaker.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-116626(7): Ensure ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ always emits
     *note CALL: 1491.

   - gh-116296(8): Fix possible refleak in ‘object.__reduce__()’
     internal error handling.

   - gh-116034(9): Fix location of the error on a failed assertion.

   - gh-115823(10): Properly calculate error ranges in the parser when
     raising *note SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions caused by invalid byte
     sequences.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112087(11): For an empty reverse iterator for list will be
     reduced to *note reversed(): 6a9.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-115154(12): Fix a bug that was causing the *note
     tokenize.untokenize(): 13fb. function to handle unicode named
     literals incorrectly.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-114828(13): Fix compilation crashes in uncommon code examples
     using *note super(): 20d. inside a comprehension in a class body.

   - gh-115011(14): Setters for members with an unsigned integer type
     now support the same range of valid values for objects that has a
     *note __index__(): 538. method as for *note int: 184.

   - gh-112215(15): Change the C recursion limits to more closely
     reflect the underlying platform limits.

   - gh-96497(16): Fix incorrect resolution of mangled class variables
     used in assignment expressions in comprehensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109120

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (3) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116735

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113964

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116604

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116626

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116296

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116034

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115823

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115154

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114828

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115011

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112215

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96497


File: python.info,  Node: Library<10>,  Next: Documentation<7>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.3 Library
.................

   - gh-117467(1): Preserve mailbox ownership when rewriting in
     ‘mailbox.mbox.flush()’.  Patch by Tony Mountifield.

   - gh-117310(2): Fixed an unlikely early & extra ‘Py_DECREF’ triggered
     crash in *note ssl: cf. when creating a new ‘_ssl._SSLContext’ if
     CPython was built implausibly such that the default cipher list is
     empty 'or' the SSL library it was linked against reports a failure
     from its C ‘SSL_CTX_set_cipher_list()’ API.

   - gh-117178(3): Fix regression in lazy loading of self-referential
     modules, introduced in gh-114781(4).

   - gh-117084(5): Fix *note zipfile: 131. extraction for directory
     entries with the name containing backslashes on Windows.

   - gh-117110(6): Fix a bug that prevents subclasses of *note
     typing.Any: 4c2. to be instantiated with arguments.  Patch by Chris
     Fu.

   - gh-90872(7): On Windows, *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): b67. no
     longer calls ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ with a negative timeout: pass
     ‘0’ ms if the timeout is negative.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116957(8): configparser: Don’t leave ConfigParser values in an
     invalid state (stored as a list instead of a str) after an earlier
     read raised DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError.

   - gh-90095(9): Ignore empty lines and comments in ‘.pdbrc’

   - gh-116764(10): Restore support of ‘None’ and other false values in
     *note urllib.parse: 10a. functions *note parse_qs(): 69a. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 69b.  Also, they now raise a TypeError for non-zero
     integers and non-empty sequences.

   - gh-116811(11): In ‘PathFinder.invalidate_caches’, delegate to
     ‘MetadataPathFinder.invalidate_caches’.

   - gh-116600(12): Fix *note repr(): 637. for global *note Flag: 435.
     members.

   - gh-116484(13): Change automatically generated ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’
     widget names to avoid collisions with automatically generated
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Checkbutton’ widget names within the same parent
     widget.

   - gh-116401(14): Fix blocking *note os.fwalk(): 9cf. and *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 1df. on opening named pipe.

   - gh-116143(15): Fix a race in pydoc ‘_start_server’, eliminating a
     window in which ‘_start_server’ can return a thread that is
     “serving” but without a ‘docserver’ set.

   - gh-116325(16): *note typing: 104.: raise *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 3dc. on forward references as
     empty strings.

   - gh-90535(17): Fix support of 'interval' values > 1 in
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ for ‘when='MIDNIGHT'’ and
     ‘when='Wx'’.

   - gh-115978(18): Disable preadv(), readv(), pwritev(), and writev()
     on WASI.

     Under wasmtime for WASI 0.2, these functions don’t pass test_posix
     (‘https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/issues/7830’).

   - gh-88352(19): Fix the computation of the next rollover time in the
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ handler.  ‘computeRollover()’
     now always returns a timestamp larger than the specified time and
     works correctly during the DST change.  ‘doRollover()’ no longer
     overwrite the already rolled over file, saving from data loss when
     run at midnight or during repeated time at the DST change.

   - gh-87115(20): Set ‘__main__.__spec__’ to ‘None’ when running a
     script with *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-76511(21): Fix UnicodeEncodeError in ‘email.Message.as_string()’
     that results when a message that claims to be in the ascii
     character set actually has non-ascii characters.  Non-ascii
     characters are now replaced with the U+FFFD replacement character,
     like in the ‘replace’ error handler.

   - gh-116040(22): [Enum] fix by-value calls when second value is
     falsey; e.g.  Cardinal(1, 0)

   - gh-75988(23): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1466. to
     pass the call through to the wrapped object to return the real
     result.

   - gh-115881(24): Fix issue where *note ast.parse(): 188. would
     incorrectly flag conditional context managers (such as ‘with (x()
     if y else z()): ...’) as invalid syntax if ‘feature_version=(3, 8)’
     was passed.  This reverts changes to the grammar made as part of
     gh-94949(25).

   - gh-115886(26): Fix silent truncation of the name with an embedded
     null character in *note multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory:
     1493.

   - gh-115809(27): Improve algorithm for computing which rolled-over
     log files to delete in ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’.  It is
     now reliable for handlers without ‘namer’ and with arbitrary
     deterministic ‘namer’ that leaves the datetime part in the file
     name unmodified.

   - gh-74668(28): *note urllib.parse: 10a. functions *note parse_qs():
     69a. and *note parse_qsl(): 69b. now support bytes arguments
     containing raw and percent-encoded non-ASCII data.

   - gh-67044(29): *note csv.writer(): 1a8. now always quotes or escapes
     ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\n'’, regardless of 'lineterminator' value.

   - gh-115712(30): *note csv.writer(): 1a8. now quotes empty fields if
     delimiter is a space and skipinitialspace is true and raises
     exception if quoting is not possible.

   - gh-112364(31): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 738. to handle
     format_spec with ‘"’, ‘'’ or ‘\\’.  Patched by Frank Hoffmann.

   - gh-111358(32): Fix a bug in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.shutdown_default_executor()’ to ensure the
     timeout passed to the coroutine behaves as expected.

   - gh-115618(33): Fix improper decreasing the reference count for
     ‘None’ argument in *note property: 43c. methods *note getter():
     1494, *note setter(): 1495. and *note deleter(): 1496.

   - gh-115570(34): A *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is no longer
     omitted on access to the ‘__doc__’ attributes of the deprecated
     ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ pseudo-modules.

   - gh-112006(35): Fix *note inspect.unwrap(): dfc. for types with the
     ‘__wrapper__’ data descriptor.

   - gh-101293(36): Support callables with the ‘__call__()’ method and
     types with ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods set to class
     methods, static methods, bound methods, partial functions, and
     other types of methods and descriptors in *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 564.

   - gh-115392(37): Fix a bug in *note doctest: 39. where incorrect line
     numbers would be reported for decorated functions.

   - gh-114563(38): Fix several *note format(): 431. bugs when using the
     C implementation of *note Decimal: 609.: * memory leak in some rare
     cases when using the ‘z’ format option (coerce negative 0) *
     incorrect output when applying the ‘z’ format option to type ‘F’
     (fixed-point with capital ‘NAN’ / ‘INF’) * incorrect output when
     applying the ‘#’ format option (alternate form)

   - gh-115197(39): ‘urllib.request’ no longer resolves the hostname
     before checking it against the system’s proxy bypass list on macOS
     and Windows.

   - gh-115165(40): Most exceptions are now ignored when attempting to
     set the ‘__orig_class__’ attribute on objects returned when calling
     *note typing: 104. generic aliases (including generic aliases
     created using *note typing.Annotated: 796.).  Previously only *note
     AttributeError: 3dc. was ignored.  Patch by Dave Shawley.

   - gh-115133(41): Fix tests for *note XMLPullParser: e99. with Expat
     2.6.0.

   - gh-115059(42): ‘io.BufferedRandom.read1()’ now flushes the
     underlying write buffer.

   - gh-79382(43): Trailing ‘**’ no longer allows to match files and
     non-existing paths in recursive *note glob(): 641.

   - gh-114071(44): Support tuple subclasses using auto() for enum
     member value.

   - gh-114763(45): Protect modules loaded with *note
     importlib.util.LazyLoader: b30. from race conditions when multiple
     threads try to access attributes before the loading is complete.

   - gh-97959(46): Fix rendering class methods, bound methods, method
     and function aliases in *note pydoc: b4.  Class methods no longer
     have “method of builtins.type instance” note.  Corresponding notes
     are now added for class and unbound methods.  Method and function
     aliases now have references to the module or the class where the
     origin was defined if it differs from the current.  Bound methods
     are now listed in the static methods section.  Methods of builtin
     classes are now supported as well as methods of Python classes.

   - gh-112281(47): Allow creating *note union of types: 5f9. for *note
     typing.Annotated: 796. with unhashable metadata.

   - gh-111775(48): Fix
     ‘importlib.resources.simple.ResourceHandle.open()’ for text mode,
     added missed ‘stream’ argument.

   - gh-90095(49): Make .pdbrc and -c work with any valid pdb commands.

   - gh-107155(50): Fix incorrect output of ‘help(x)’ where ‘x’ is a
     *note lambda: 1145. function, which has an ‘__annotations__’
     dictionary attribute with a ‘"return"’ key.

   - gh-105866(51): Fixed ‘_get_slots’ bug which caused error when
     defining dataclasses with slots and a weakref_slot.

   - gh-60346(52): Fix ArgumentParser inconsistent with
     parse_known_args.

   - gh-100985(53): Update HTTPSConnection to consistently wrap IPv6
     Addresses when using a proxy.

   - gh-100884(54): email: fix misfolding of comma in address-lists over
     multiple lines in combination with unicode encoding.

   - gh-95782(55): Fix ‘io.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedReader.seek()’, ‘_pyio.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedRandom.tell()’, ‘io.BufferedRandom.seek()’ and
     ‘_pyio.BufferedRandom.tell()’ being able to return negative
     offsets.

   - gh-96310(56): Fix a traceback in *note argparse: 6. when all
     options in a mutually exclusive group are suppressed.

   - gh-93205(57): Fixed a bug in *note
     logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01. where multiple
     rotating handler instances pointing to files with the same name but
     different extensions would conflict and not delete the correct
     files.

   - bpo-44865(58): Add missing call to localization function in *note
     argparse: 6.

   - bpo-43952(59): Fix *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept(): 1497. to accept empty
     bytes as authkey.  Not accepting empty bytes as key causes it to
     hang indefinitely.

   - bpo-42125(60): linecache: get module name from ‘__spec__’ if
     available.  This allows getting source code for the ‘__main__’
     module when a custom loader is used.

   - gh-66543(61): Make *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 13f5. properly
     parsing of URLs with only a host name, URLs containing fragment or
     query, and filenames with only a UNC sharepoint on Windows.  Based
     on patch by Dong-hee Na.

   - bpo-33775(62): Add ‘default’ and ‘version’ help text for
     localization in argparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117467

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117310

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117178

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114781

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117084

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117110

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90872

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116957

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116764

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116811

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116600

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116484

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116401

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116143

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116325

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90535

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115978

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88352

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87115

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76511

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116040

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75988

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115881

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115886

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115809

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74668

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67044

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115712

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112364

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111358

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115618

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115570

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112006

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101293

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115392

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114563

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115197

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115165

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115133

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115059

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79382

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114071

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114763

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97959

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112281

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111775

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107155

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105866

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60346

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100985

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100884

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95782

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96310

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93205

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44865

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43952

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42125

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33775


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<7>,  Next: Tests<8>,  Prev: Library<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115399(1): Document CVE 2023-52425(2) of Expat <2.6.0 under “XML
     vulnerabilities”.

   - gh-115233(3): Fix an example for *note LoggerAdapter: 119f. in the
     Logging Cookbook.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115233


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<8>,  Next: Build<7>,  Prev: Documentation<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-83434(1): Disable JUnit XML output (‘--junit-xml=FILE’ command
     line option) in regrtest when hunting for reference leaks (‘-R’
     option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117187(2): Fix XML tests for vanilla Expat <2.6.0.

   - gh-116333(3): Tests of TLS related things (error codes, etc) were
     updated to be more lenient about specific error message strings and
     behaviors as seen in the BoringSSL and AWS-LC forks of OpenSSL.

   - gh-115979(4): Update test_importlib so that it passes under WASI
     SDK 21.

   - gh-112536(5): Add –tsan to test.regrtest for running TSAN tests in
     reasonable execution times.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-116307(6): Added import helper ‘isolated_modules’ as
     ‘CleanImport’ does not remove modules imported during the context.
     Use it in importlib.resources tests to avoid leaving ‘mod’ around
     to impede importlib.metadata tests.

   - gh-115720(7): Leak tests (‘-R’, ‘--huntrleaks’) now show a summary
     of the number of leaks found in each iteration.

   - gh-115122(8): Add ‘--bisect’ option to regrtest test runner: run
     failed tests with ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to identify failing tests.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115596(9): Fix ‘ProgramPriorityTests’ in ‘test_os’ permanently
     changing the process priority.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83434

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116333

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115979

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116307

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115720

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115122

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115596


File: python.info,  Node: Build<7>,  Next: Windows<7>,  Prev: Tests<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.6 Build
...............

   - gh-116313(1): Get WASI builds to work under wasmtime 18 w/ WASI
     0.2/preview2 primitives.

   - gh-116117(2): Backport ‘libb2’’s PR #42 to fix compiling CPython on
     32-bit Windows with ‘clang-cl’.

   - gh-115167(3): Avoid vendoring ‘vcruntime140_threads.dll’ when
     building with Visual Studio 2022 version 17.8.

   - gh-112536(4): Add support for thread sanitizer (TSAN)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116313

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116117

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115167

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<7>,  Next: IDLE<9>,  Prev: Build<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-117267(1): Ensure ‘DirEntry.stat().st_ctime’ behaves
     consistently with *note os.stat(): 1c5. during the deprecation
     period of ‘st_ctime’ by containing the same value as
     ‘st_birthtime’.  After the deprecation period, ‘st_ctime’ will be
     the metadata change time (or unavailable through ‘DirEntry’), and
     only ‘st_birthtime’ will contain the creation time.

   - gh-116773(2): Fix instances of ‘<_overlapped.Overlapped object at
     0xXXX> still has pending operation at deallocation, the process may
     crash’.

   - gh-91227(3): Fix the asyncio ProactorEventLoop implementation so
     that sending a datagram to an address that is not listening does
     not prevent receiving any more datagrams.

   - gh-115554(4): The installer now has more strict rules about
     updating the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6.  In general,
     most users only have a single launcher installed and will see no
     difference.  When multiple launchers have been installed, the
     option to install the launcher is disabled until all but one have
     been removed.  Downgrading the launcher (which was never allowed)
     is now more obviously blocked.

   - gh-115543(5): *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. can now
     detect Python 3.13 when installed from the Microsoft Store, and
     will install Python 3.12 by default when ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’
     is set.

   - gh-115049(6): Fixes ‘py.exe’ launcher failing when run as users
     without user profiles.

   - gh-115009(7): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117267

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116773

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91227

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115554

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115543

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115049

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<9>,  Next: Tools/Demos<5>,  Prev: Windows<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.8 IDLE
..............

   - gh-88516(1): On macOS show a proxy icon in the title bar of editor
     windows to match platform behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88516


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<5>,  Next: C API<6>,  Prev: IDLE<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-113516(1): Don’t set ‘LDSHARED’ when building for WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113516


File: python.info,  Node: C API<6>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 3 final

1.22.10.10 C API
................

   - gh-117021(1): Fix integer overflow in ‘PyLong_AsPid()’ on
     non-Windows 64-bit platforms.

   - gh-116869(2): Make the C API compatible with
     ‘-Werror=declaration-after-statement’ compiler flag again.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117021

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 2 final,  Next: Python 3 12 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.11 Python 3.12.2 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2024-02-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Build: Build<8>.
* Windows: Windows<8>.
* macOS: macOS<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<11>,  Next: Core and Builtins<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.1 Security
..................

   - gh-113659(1): Skip ‘.pth’ files with names starting with a dot or
     hidden file attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113659


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<10>,  Next: Library<11>,  Prev: Security<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-114887(1): Changed socket type validation in *note
     create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. to accept all non-stream sockets.
     This fixes a regression in compatibility with raw sockets.

   - gh-114388(2): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 900. emitted when assign
     an integer-like value that is not an instance of *note int: 184. to
     an attribute that corresponds to a C struct member of *note type:
     14a2. T_UINT and T_ULONG. Fix a double *note RuntimeWarning: 900.
     emitted when assign a negative integer value to an attribute that
     corresponds to a C struct member of type T_UINT.

   - gh-113703(3): Fix a regression in the *note codeop: 1c. module that
     was causing it to incorrectly identify incomplete f-strings.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89811(4): Check for a valid ‘tp_version_tag’ before performing
     bytecode specializations that rely on this value being usable.

   - gh-113602(5): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite existing errors and crashing in the process.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-113297(6): Fix segfault in the compiler on with statement with
     19 context managers.

   - gh-106905(7): Use per AST-parser state rather than global state to
     track recursion depth within the AST parser to prevent potential
     race condition due to simultaneous parsing.

     The issue primarily showed up in 3.11 by multithreaded users of
     *note ast.parse(): 188.  In 3.12 a change to when garbage
     collection can be triggered prevented the race condition from
     occurring.

   - gh-112943(8): Correctly compute end column offsets for multiline
     tokens in the *note tokenize: fb. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112716(9): Fix SystemError in the ‘import’ statement and in
     ‘__reduce__()’ methods of builtin types when ‘__builtins__’ is not
     a dict.

   - gh-94606(10): Fix UnicodeEncodeError when
     ‘email.message.get_payload()’ reads a message with a Unicode
     surrogate character and the message content is not well-formed for
     surrogateescape encoding.  Patch by Sidney Markowitz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114887

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114388

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113703

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89811

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113602

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113297

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112943

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112716

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94606


File: python.info,  Node: Library<11>,  Next: Documentation<8>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.3 Library
.................

   - gh-114965(1): Update bundled pip to 24.0

   - gh-114959(2): *note tarfile: dd. no longer ignores errors when
     trying to extract a directory on top of a file.

   - gh-109475(3): Fix support of explicit option value “–” in *note
     argparse: 6. (e.g.  ‘--option=--’).

   - gh-110190(4): Fix ctypes structs with array on Windows ARM64
     platform by setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by
     Diego Russo

   - gh-113280(5): Fix a leak of open socket in rare cases when error
     occurred in *note ssl.SSLSocket: 73d. creation.

   - gh-77749(6): *note email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold(): 14a4. now
     always encodes non-ASCII characters in headers if *note utf8: c86.
     is false.

   - gh-114492(7): Make the result of *note termios.tcgetattr(): 14a5.
     reproducible on Alpine Linux.  Previously it could leave a random
     garbage in some fields.

   - gh-113267(8): Revert changes in gh-106584(9) which made calls of
     ‘TestResult’ methods ‘startTest()’ and ‘stopTest()’ unbalanced.

   - gh-75128(10): Ignore an *note OSError: 65c. in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.create_server()’ when IPv6 is available but
     the interface cannot actually support it.

   - gh-114257(11): Dismiss the ‘FileNotFound’ error in *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): bd3. and just return ‘None’ on Linux.

   - gh-114328(12): The *note tty.setcbreak(): 14a6. and new *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 14a7. no longer clears the terminal input ICRLF
     flag.  This fixes a regression introduced in 3.12 that no longer
     matched how OSes define cbreak mode in their ‘stty(1)’ manual
     pages.

   - gh-101438(13): Avoid reference cycle in ElementTree.iterparse.  The
     iterator returned by ‘ElementTree.iterparse’ may hold on to a file
     descriptor.  The reference cycle prevented prompt clean-up of the
     file descriptor if the returned iterator was not exhausted.

   - gh-104522(14): *note OSError: 65c. raised when run a subprocess now
     only has 'filename' attribute set to 'cwd' if the error was caused
     by a failed attempt to change the current directory.

   - gh-114149(15): Enum: correctly handle tuple subclasses in custom
     ‘__new__’.

   - gh-109534(16): Fix a reference leak in
     ‘asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop’ when SSL handshakes
     fail.  Patch contributed by Jamie Phan.

   - gh-114077(17): Fix possible *note OverflowError: 6c7. in *note
     socket.socket.sendfile(): cf1. when pass 'count' larger than 2 GiB
     on 32-bit platform.

   - gh-114014(18): Fixed a bug in *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. where
     an invalid string using ‘d’ in the decimals part creates a
     different error compared to other invalid letters/characters.
     Patch by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual.

   - gh-113951(19): Fix the behavior of ‘tag_unbind()’ methods of
     ‘tkinter.Text’ and ‘tkinter.Canvas’ classes with three arguments.
     Previously, ‘widget.tag_unbind(tag, sequence, funcid)’ destroyed
     the current binding for 'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and
     deleted the 'funcid' command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from
     the binding for 'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the
     'funcid' command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid'
     was the last bound command.

   - gh-113877(20): Fix *note tkinter: ef. method ‘winfo_pathname()’ on
     64-bit Windows.

   - gh-113661(21): unittest runner: Don’t exit 5 if tests were skipped.
     The intention of exiting 5 was to detect issues where the test
     suite wasn’t discovered at all.  If we skipped tests, it was
     correctly discovered.

   - gh-113781(22): Silence unraisable AttributeError when warnings are
     emitted during Python finalization.

   - gh-112932(23): Restore the ability for *note zipfile: 131. to
     ‘extractall’ from zip files with a “/” directory entry in them as
     is commonly added to zips by some wiki or bug tracker data
     exporters.

   - gh-113594(24): Fix *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b. in *note email:
     3a. when re-fold lines that contain unknown-8bit encoded part
     followed by non-unknown-8bit encoded part.

   - gh-113538(25): In ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol.connection_made()’,
     there is callback that logs an error if the task wrapping the
     “connected callback” fails.  This callback would itself fail if the
     task was cancelled.  Prevent this by checking whether the task was
     cancelled first.  If so, close the transport but don’t log an
     error.

   - gh-85567(26): Fix resource warnings for unclosed files in *note
     pickle: a5. and *note pickletools: a6. command line interfaces.

   - gh-101225(27): Increase the backlog for *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener: 14a8. objects created by
     ‘multiprocessing.manager’ and ‘multiprocessing.resource_sharer’ to
     significantly reduce the risk of getting a connection refused error
     when creating a *note multiprocessing.connection.Connection: 14a9.
     to them.

   - gh-113543(28): Make sure that ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ sends
     ‘webbrowser.open’ audit event.

   - gh-113028(29): When a second reference to a string appears in the
     input to *note pickle: a5, and the Python implementation is in use,
     we are guaranteed that a single copy gets pickled and a single
     object is shared when reloaded.  Previously, in protocol 0, when a
     string contained certain characters (e.g.  newline) it resulted in
     duplicate objects.

   - gh-113421(30): Fix multiprocessing logger for ‘%(filename)s’.

   - gh-111784(31): Fix segfaults in the ‘_elementtree’ module.  Fix
     first segfault during deallocation of ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’
     instances by keeping strong reference to ‘pyexpat’ module in module
     state for capsule lifetime.  Fix second segfault which happens in
     the same deallocation process by keeping strong reference to
     ‘_elementtree’ module in ‘XMLParser’ structure for ‘_elementtree’
     module lifetime.

   - gh-113407(32): Fix import of *note unittest.mock: 107. when CPython
     is built without docstrings.

   - gh-113320(33): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where *note Protocol:
     4c7. classes that were not marked as *note runtime-checkable: 152.
     would be unnecessarily introspected, potentially causing exceptions
     to be raised if the protocol had problematic members.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-113358(34): Fix rendering tracebacks for exceptions with a
     broken ‘__getattr__’.

   - gh-113214(35): Fix an ‘AttributeError’ during asyncio SSL protocol
     aborts in SSL-over-SSL scenarios.

   - gh-113246(36): Update bundled pip to 23.3.2.

   - gh-113199(37): Make ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read1’ and
     ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.readline’ close IO after reading all data
     when content length is known.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-113188(38): Fix *note shutil.copymode(): 14aa. and *note
     shutil.copystat(): fd2. on Windows.  Previously they worked
     differenly if 'dst' is a symbolic link: they modified the
     permission bits of 'dst' itself rather than the file it points to
     if 'follow_symlinks' is true or 'src' is not a symbolic link, and
     did not modify the permission bits if 'follow_symlinks' is false
     and 'src' is a symbolic link.

   - gh-61648(39): Detect line numbers of properties in doctests.

   - gh-112559(40): *note signal.signal(): fd8. and *note
     signal.getsignal(): 14ab. no longer call ‘repr’ on callable
     handlers.  *note asyncio.run(): 19d. and *note
     asyncio.Runner.run(): 14ac. no longer call ‘repr’ on the task
     results.  Patch by Yilei Yang.

   - gh-110190(41): Fix ctypes structs with array on PPC64LE platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 64 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-79429(42): Ignore FileNotFoundError when remove a temporary
     directory in the multiprocessing finalizer.

   - gh-81194(43): Fix a crash in *note socket.if_indextoname(): 891.
     with specific value (UINT_MAX). Fix an integer overflow in *note
     socket.if_indextoname(): 891. on 64-bit non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-112343(44): Improve handling of pdb convenience variables to
     avoid replacing string contents.

   - gh-111615(45): Fix a regression caused by a fix to gh-93162(46)
     whereby you couldn’t configure a ‘QueueHandler’ without specifying
     handlers.

   - gh-111049(47): Fix crash during garbage collection of the *note
     io.BytesIO: d38. buffer object.

   - gh-110345(48): Show the Tcl/Tk patchlevel (rather than version) in
     ‘tkinter._test()’.

   - gh-109858(49): Protect *note zipfile: 131. from “quoted-overlap”
     zipbomb.  It now raises BadZipFile when try to read an entry that
     overlaps with other entry or central directory.

   - gh-114440(50): On Windows, closing the connection writer when
     cleaning up a broken *note multiprocessing.Queue: 14ad. queue is
     now done for all queues, rather than only in *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. manager thread.  This can prevent a
     deadlock when a ‘multiprocessing’ worker process terminates without
     cleaning up.  This completes the backport of patches by Victor
     Stinner and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - gh-38807(51): Fix race condition in *note trace: fd.  Instead of
     checking if a directory exists and creating it, directly call *note
     os.makedirs(): 1c8. with the kwarg ‘exist_ok=True’.

   - gh-75705(52): Set unixfrom envelope in *note mailbox.mbox: 14ae.
     and *note mailbox.MMDF: 14af.

   - gh-106233(53): Fix stacklevel in ‘InvalidTZPathWarning’ during
     *note zoneinfo: 134. module import.

   - gh-105102(54): Allow *note ctypes.Union: 14b0. to be nested in
     *note ctypes.Structure: 14b1. when the system endianness is the
     opposite of the classes.

   - gh-104282(55): Fix null pointer dereference in
     ‘lzma._decode_filter_properties()’ due to improper handling of BCJ
     filters with properties of zero length.  Patch by Radislav
     Chugunov.

   - gh-102512(56): When *note os.fork(): 23a. is called from a foreign
     thread (aka ‘_DummyThread’), the type of the thread in a child
     process is changed to ‘_MainThread’.  Also changed its name and
     daemonic status, it can be now joined.

   - bpo-35928(57): *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. now correctly handles
     the decoding buffer after ‘read()’ and ‘write()’.

   - bpo-26791(58): *note shutil.move(): 8c0. now moves a symlink into a
     directory when that directory is the target of the symlink.  This
     provides the same behavior as the mv shell command.  The previous
     behavior raised an exception.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-36959(59): Fix some error messages for invalid ISO format
     string combinations in ‘strptime()’ that referred to directives not
     contained in the format string.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-18060(60): Fixed a class inheritance issue that can cause
     segfaults when deriving two or more levels of subclasses from a
     base class of Structure or Union.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114965

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114959

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109475

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113280

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77749

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114492

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113267

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75128

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114257

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114328

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101438

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104522

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114149

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109534

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114077

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114014

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113951

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113877

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113661

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113781

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112932

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113594

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85567

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101225

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113543

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113028

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113421

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111784

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113407

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113320

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113358

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113214

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113246

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113199

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113188

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61648

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112559

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79429

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81194

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112343

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111615

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111049

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110345

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109858

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114440

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/38807

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75705

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106233

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105102

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104282

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102512

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35928

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26791

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36959

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18060


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<8>,  Next: Tests<9>,  Prev: Library<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-110746(1): Improved markup for valid options/values for methods
     ttk.treeview.column and ttk.treeview.heading, and for Layouts.

   - gh-95649(2): Document that the *note asyncio: a. module contains
     code taken from v0.16.0 of the uvloop project(3), as well as the
     required MIT licensing information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110746

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95649

   (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<9>,  Next: Build<8>,  Prev: Documentation<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-109980(1): Fix ‘test_tarfile_vs_tar’ in ‘test_shutil’ for macOS,
     where system tar can include more information in the archive than
     *note shutil.make_archive: 1de.

   - gh-105089(2): Fix
     ‘test.test_zipfile.test_core.TestWithDirectory.test_create_directory_with_write’
     test in AIX by doing a bitwise AND of 0xFFFF on mode , so that it
     will be in sync with ‘zinfo.external_attr’

   - bpo-40648(3): Test modes that file can get with chmod() on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109980

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40648


File: python.info,  Node: Build<8>,  Next: Windows<8>,  Prev: Tests<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.6 Build
...............

   - gh-112305(1): Fixed the ‘check-clean-src’ step performed on out of
     tree builds to detect errant ‘$(srcdir)/Python/frozen_modules/*.h’
     files and recommend appropriate source tree cleanup steps to get a
     working build again.

   - gh-112867(2): Fix the build for the case that
     WITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0 set.

   - bpo-11102(3): The *note os.major(): 147f, *note os.makedev(): 1481,
     and *note os.minor(): 1480. functions are now available on HP-UX
     v3.

   - bpo-36351(4): Do not set ipv6type when cross-compiling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112305

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112867

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11102

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36351


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<8>,  Next: macOS<5>,  Prev: Build<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-109991(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-111239(2): Update Windows builds to use zlib v1.3.1.

   - gh-100107(3): The ‘py.exe’ launcher will no longer attempt to run
     the Microsoft Store redirector when launching a script containing a
     ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang

   - gh-114096(4): Process privileges that are activated for creating
     directory junctions are now restored afterwards, avoiding behaviour
     changes in other parts of the program.

   - gh-111877(5): *note os.stat(): 1c5. calls were returning incorrect
     time values for files that could not be accessed directly.

   - gh-113009(6): *note multiprocessing: 93.: On Windows, fix a race
     condition in ‘Process.terminate()’: no longer set the ‘returncode’
     attribute to always call ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ in
     ‘Process.wait()’.  Previously, sometimes the process was still
     running after ‘TerminateProcess()’ even if ‘GetExitCodeProcess()’
     is not ‘STILL_ACTIVE’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-87868(7): Correctly sort and remove duplicate environment
     variables in ‘_winapi.CreateProcess()’.

   - bpo-37308(8): Fix mojibake in *note mmap.mmap: 868. when using a
     non-ASCII 'tagname' argument on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111239

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100107

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114096

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111877

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113009

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87868

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37308


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<5>,  Next: IDLE<10>,  Prev: Windows<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-115009(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-110459(3): Running ‘configure ... --with-openssl-rpath=X/Y/Z’ no
     longer fails to detect OpenSSL on macOS.

   - gh-74573(4): Document that *note dbm.ndbm: 34. can silently corrupt
     DBM files on updates when exceeding undocumented platform limits,
     and can crash (segmentation fault) when reading such a corrupted
     file.  (FB8919203)

   - gh-65701(5): The ‘freeze’ tool doesn’t work with framework builds
     of Python.  Document this and bail out early when running the tool
     with such a build.

   - gh-108269(6): Set ‘CFBundleAllowMixedLocalizations’ to true in the
     Info.plist for the framework, embedded Python.app and IDLE.app with
     framework installs on macOS. This allows applications to pick up
     the user’s preferred locale when that’s different from english.

   - gh-102362(7): Make sure the result of ‘sysconfig.get_plaform()’
     includes at least a major and minor versions, even if
     ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’ is set to only a major version during
     build to match the format expected by pip.

   - gh-110017(8): Disable a signal handling stress test on macOS due to
     a bug in macOS (FB13453490).

   - gh-110820(9): Make sure the preprocessor definitions for
     ‘ALIGNOF_MAX_ALIGN_T’, ‘SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE’ and
     ‘HAVE_GCC_ASM_FOR_X64’ are correct for Universal 2 builds on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110459

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74573

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65701

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108269

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102362

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110017

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110820


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<10>,  Next: Tools/Demos<6>,  Prev: macOS<5>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-96905(1): In idlelib code, stop redefining built-ins ‘dict’ and
     ‘object’.

   - gh-72284(2): Improve the lists of features, editor key bindings,
     and shell key bingings in the IDLE doc.

   - gh-113903(3): Fix rare failure of test.test_idle, in
     test_configdialog.

   - gh-113729(4): Fix the “Help -> IDLE Doc” menu bug in 3.11.7 and
     3.12.1.

   - gh-113269(5): Fix test_editor hang on macOS Catalina.

   - gh-112898(6): Fix processing unsaved files when quitting IDLE on
     macOS.

   - gh-103820(7): Revise IDLE bindings so that events from mouse button
     4/5 on non-X11 windowing systems (i.e.  Win32 and Aqua) are not
     mistaken for scrolling.

   - bpo-13586(8): Enter the selected text when opening the “Replace”
     dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96905

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72284

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113903

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113729

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113269

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112898

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103820

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13586


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<6>,  Prev: IDLE<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 2 final

1.22.11.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-109991(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.13 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.13, 3.1.5, and 3.2.1.

   - gh-115015(2): Fix a bug in Argument Clinic that generated incorrect
     code for methods with no parameters that use the *note METH_METHOD
     | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 14b9. calling convention.  Only
     the positional parameter count was checked; any keyword argument
     passed would be silently accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115015


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 1 final,  Next: Python 3 12 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 12 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.12 Python 3.12.1 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2023-12-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Build: Build<9>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* macOS: macOS<6>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* C API: C API<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<11>,  Next: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112125(1): Fix None.__ne__(None) returning NotImplemented
     instead of False

   - gh-112625(2): Fixes a bug where a bytearray object could be cleared
     while iterating over an argument in the ‘bytearray.join()’ method
     that could result in reading memory after it was freed.

   - gh-105967(3): Workaround a bug in Apple’s macOS platform zlib
     library where *note zlib.crc32(): 14bc. and *note binascii.crc32():
     14bd. could produce incorrect results on multi-gigabyte inputs.
     Including when using *note zipfile: 131. on zips containing large
     data.

   - gh-112356(4): Stopped erroneously deleting a ‘LOAD_NULL’ bytecode
     instruction when optimized twice.

   - gh-111058(5): Change coro.cr_frame/gen.gi_frame to return ‘None’
     after the coroutine/generator has been closed.  This fixes a bug
     where *note getcoroutinestate(): ca9. and *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 10dd. return the wrong state for a closed
     coroutine/generator.

   - gh-112388(6): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite tokenizer errors.  Patch by pablo Galindo

   - gh-112387(7): Fix error positions for decoded strings with
     backwards tokenize errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112367(8): Avoid undefined behaviour when using the perf
     trampolines by not freeing the code arenas until shutdown.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112243(9): Don’t include comments in f-string debug expressions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112266(10): Change docstrings of *note __dict__: 2ec. and
     ‘__weakref__’.

   - gh-111654(11): Fix runtime crash when some error happens in opcode
     ‘LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF’.

   - gh-109181(12): Speed up ‘Traceback’ object creation by lazily
     compute the line number.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-102388(13): Fix a bug where ‘iso2022_jp_3’ and ‘iso2022_jp_2004’
     codecs read out of bounds

   - gh-111366(14): Fix an issue in the *note codeop: 1c. that was
     causing *note SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions raised in the presence
     of invalid syntax to not contain precise error messages.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111380(15): Fix a bug that was causing *note SyntaxWarning: 17e.
     to appear twice when parsing if invalid syntax is encountered
     later.  Patch by Pablo galindo

   - gh-94438(16): Fix a regression that prevented jumping across ‘is
     None’ and ‘is not None’ when debugging.  Patch by Savannah
     Ostrowski.

   - gh-110938(17): Fix error messages for indented blocks with
     functions and classes with generic type parameters.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-109894(18): Fixed crash due to improperly initialized static
     *note MemoryError: 1409. in subinterpreter.

   - gh-110782(19): Fix crash when *note typing.TypeVar: 16a. is
     constructed with a keyword argument.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110696(20): Fix incorrect error message for invalid argument
     unpacking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110543(21): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where
     ‘types.CodeType.replace()’ would produce a broken code object if
     called on a module or class code object that contains a
     comprehension.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110514(22): Add ‘PY_THROW’ to *note sys.setprofile(): 138c.
     events

   - gh-110455(23): Guard ‘assert(tstate->thread_id > 0)’ with ‘#ifndef
     HAVE_PTHREAD_STUBS’.  This allows for for pydebug builds to work
     under WASI which (currently) lacks thread support.

   - gh-110259(24): Correctly identify the format spec in f-strings
     (with single or triple quotes) that have multiple lines in the
     expression part and include a formatting spec.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-110237(25): Fix missing error checks for calls to
     ‘PyList_Append’ in ‘_PyEval_MatchClass’.

   - gh-109889(26): Fix the compiler’s redundant NOP detection algorithm
     to skip over NOPs with no line number when looking for the next
     instruction’s lineno.

   - gh-109853(27): ‘sys.path[0]’ is now set correctly for
     subinterpreters.

   - gh-105716(28): Subinterpreters now correctly handle the case where
     they have threads running in the background.  Before, such threads
     would interfere with cleaning up and destroying them, as well as
     prevent running another script.

   - gh-109793(29): The main thread no longer exits prematurely when a
     subinterpreter is cleaned up during runtime finalization.  The bug
     was a problem particularly because, when triggered, the Python
     process would always return with a 0 exitcode, even if it failed.

   - gh-109596(30): Fix some tokens in the grammar that were incorrectly
     marked as soft keywords.  Also fix some repeated rule names and
     ensure that repeated rules are not allowed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109351(31): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     named (walrus) expression.

   - gh-109216(32): Fix possible memory leak in *note BUILD_MAP: 14be.

   - gh-109207(33): Fix a SystemError in ‘__repr__’ of symtable entry
     object.

   - gh-109179(34): Fix bug where the C traceback display drops notes
     from *note SyntaxError: 14c.

   - gh-109052(35): Use the base opcode when comparing code objects to
     avoid interference from instrumentation

   - gh-88943(36): Improve syntax error for non-ASCII character that
     follows a numerical literal.  It now points on the invalid
     non-ASCII character, not on the valid numerical literal.

   - gh-106931(37): Statically allocated string objects are now interned
     globally instead of per-interpreter.  This fixes a situation where
     such a string would only be interned in a single interpreter.
     Normal string objects are unaffected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112125

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112625

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105967

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112356

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111058

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112388

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112387

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112367

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112243

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112266

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111654

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109181

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102388

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111366

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111380

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110938

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109894

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110782

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110696

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110543

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110514

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110455

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110259

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110237

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109889

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109853

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105716

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109793

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109596

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109351

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109216

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109207

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109179

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109052

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88943

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106931


File: python.info,  Node: Library<12>,  Next: Documentation<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.2 Library
.................

   - gh-79325(1): Fix an infinite recursion error in *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 10db. cleanup on Windows.

   - gh-112645(2): Remove deprecation error on passing ‘onerror’ to
     *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df.

   - gh-112618(3): Fix a caching bug relating to *note typing.Annotated:
     796.  ‘Annotated[str, True]’ is no longer identical to
     ‘Annotated[str, 1]’.

   - gh-112334(4): Fixed a performance regression in 3.12’s *note
     subprocess: d5. on Linux where it would no longer use the fast-path
     ‘vfork()’ system call when it should have due to a logic bug,
     instead always falling back to the safe but slower ‘fork()’.

     Also fixed a related 3.12 security regression: If a value of
     ‘extra_groups=[]’ was passed to *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. or
     related APIs, the underlying ‘setgroups(0, NULL)’ system call to
     clear the groups list would not be made in the child process prior
     to ‘exec()’.  This has been assigned CVE 2023-6507(5).

     This was identified via code inspection in the process of fixing
     the first bug.

   - gh-110190(6): Fix ctypes structs with array on Arm platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-112578(7): Fix a spurious *note RuntimeWarning: 900. when
     executing the *note zipfile: 131. module.

   - gh-112509(8): Fix edge cases that could cause a key to be present
     in both the ‘__required_keys__’ and ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes
     of a *note typing.TypedDict: 159.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-112414(9): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where calling *note
     repr(): 637. on a module that had been imported using a custom
     *note loader: 14c0. could fail with *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112358(10): Revert change to *note struct.Struct: 14c1.
     initialization that broke some cases of subclassing.

   - gh-94722(11): Fix bug where comparison between instances of *note
     DocTest: 14c2. fails if one of them has ‘None’ as its lineno.

   - gh-112105(12): Make *note readline.set_completer_delims(): 14c3.
     work with libedit

   - gh-111942(13): Fix SystemError in the TextIOWrapper constructor
     with non-encodable “errors” argument in non-debug mode.

   - gh-109538(14): Issue warning message instead of having *note
     RuntimeError: 180. be displayed when event loop has already been
     closed at ‘StreamWriter.__del__()’.

   - gh-111942(15): Fix crashes in *note io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure():
     9ba. when pass invalid arguments, e.g.  non-string encoding.

   - gh-111460(16): *note curses: 2b.: restore wide character support
     (including *note curses.unget_wch(): f42. and *note get_wch():
     f41.) on macOS, which was unavailable due to a regression in Python
     3.12.

   - gh-103791(17): *note contextlib.suppress: dc3. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 3be, in addition to the recent support for
     *note ExceptionGroup: 181.

   - gh-111804(18): Remove posix.fallocate() under WASI as the
     underlying posix_fallocate() is not available in WASI preview2.

   - gh-111841(19): Fix truncating arguments on an embedded null
     character in *note os.putenv(): 774. and *note os.unsetenv(): 773.
     on Windows.

   - gh-111541(20): Fix *note doctest: 39. for *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     not-builtin subclasses.

   - gh-110894(21): Call loop exception handler for exceptions in
     ‘client_connected_cb’ of *note asyncio.start_server(): 988. so that
     applications can handle it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-111531(22): Fix reference leaks in ‘bind_class()’ and
     ‘bind_all()’ methods of *note tkinter: ef. widgets.

   - gh-111356(23): Added *note io.text_encoding(): 14c4, *note
     io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 14c5, and *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 14c6. to ‘io.__all__’.

   - gh-111342(24): Fixed typo in *note math.sumprod(): 1bc.

   - gh-68166(25): Remove mention of not supported “vsapi” element type
     in *note tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 14c7.  Add tests for
     ‘element_create()’ and other ‘ttk.Style’ methods.  Add examples for
     ‘element_create()’ in the documentation.

   - gh-75666(26): Fix the behavior of *note tkinter: ef. widget’s
     ‘unbind()’ method with two arguments.  Previously,
     ‘widget.unbind(sequence, funcid)’ destroyed the current binding for
     'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and deleted the 'funcid'
     command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from the binding for
     'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the 'funcid'
     command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid' was the
     last bound command.

   - gh-79033(27): Another attempt at fixing *note
     asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 14c8.  It now blocks until both
     conditions are true: the server is closed, 'and' there are no more
     active connections.  (This means that in some cases where in 3.12.0
     this function would 'incorrectly' have returned immediately, it
     will now block; in particular, when there are no active connections
     but the server hasn’t been closed yet.)

   - gh-111295(28): Fix *note time: ed. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111253(29): Add error checking during ‘_socket’ module init.

   - gh-111251(30): Fix ‘_blake2’ not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111174(31): Fix crash in *note io.BytesIO.getbuffer(): 1096.
     called repeatedly for empty BytesIO.

   - gh-111187(32): Postpone removal version for
     locale.getdefaultlocale() to Python 3.15.

   - gh-111159(33): Fix *note doctest: 39. output comparison for
     exceptions with notes.

   - gh-110910(34): Fix invalid state handling in *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. and *note asyncio.Timeout: 14c9.  They now
     raise proper RuntimeError if they are improperly used and are left
     in consistent state after this.

   - gh-111092(35): Make turtledemo run without default root enabled.

   - gh-110488(36): Fix a couple of issues in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_name(): 14ca.: a single dot was incorrectly
     considered a valid name, and in ‘PureWindowsPath’, a name with an
     NTFS alternate data stream, like ‘a:b’, was incorrectly considered
     invalid.

   - gh-110392(37): Fix *note tty.setraw(): 14cb. and *note
     tty.setcbreak(): 14a6.: previously they returned partially modified
     list of the original tty attributes.  *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 14cc.
     and *note tty.cfmakecbreak(): 14a7. now make a copy of the list of
     special characters before modifying it.

   - gh-110590(38): Fix a bug in ‘_sre.compile()’ where *note TypeError:
     2c4. would be overwritten by *note OverflowError: 6c7. when the
     'code' argument was a list of non-ints.

   - gh-65052(39): Prevent *note pdb: a4. from crashing when trying to
     display undisplayable objects

   - gh-110519(40): Deprecation warning about non-integer number in
     *note gettext: 61. now alwais refers to the line in the user code
     where gettext function or method is used.  Previously it could
     refer to a line in ‘gettext’ code.

   - gh-110395(41): Ensure that *note select.kqueue(): 14cd. objects
     correctly appear as closed in forked children, to prevent
     operations on an invalid file descriptor.

   - gh-110378(42): *note contextmanager(): 10a7. and *note
     asynccontextmanager(): 99a. context managers now close an invalid
     underlying generator object that yields more then one value.

   - gh-110365(43): Fix *note termios.tcsetattr(): 14ce. bug that was
     overwritting existing errors during parsing integers from ‘term’
     list.

   - gh-109653(44): Fix a Python 3.12 regression in the import time of
     *note random: b7.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110196(45): Add ‘__reduce__’ method to ‘IPv6Address’ in order to
     keep ‘scope_id’

   - gh-110036(46): On Windows, multiprocessing ‘Popen.terminate()’ now
     catchs *note PermissionError: bcb. and get the process exit code.
     If the process is still running, raise again the *note
     PermissionError: bcb.  Otherwise, the process terminated as
     expected: store its exit code.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110038(47): Fixed an issue that caused ‘KqueueSelector.select()’
     to not return all the ready events in some cases when a file
     descriptor is registered for both read and write.

   - gh-109631(48): *note re: b8. functions such as *note re.findall():
     ed2, *note re.split(): 9e3, *note re.search(): 10d3. and *note
     re.sub(): 208. which perform short repeated matches can now be
     interrupted by user.

   - gh-109747(49): Improve errors for unsupported look-behind patterns.
     Now re.error is raised instead of OverflowError or RuntimeError for
     too large width of look-behind pattern.

   - gh-109818(50): Fix *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 1098. not
     copying ‘__type_params__’ from decorated function.

   - gh-109047(51): *note concurrent.futures: 21.: The 'executor manager
     thread' now catches exceptions when adding an item to the 'call
     queue'.  During Python finalization, creating a new thread can now
     raise *note RuntimeError: 180.  Catch the exception and call
     ‘terminate_broken()’ in this case.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109782(52): Ensure the signature of *note os.path.isdir(): 871.
     is identical on all platforms.  Patch by Amin Alaee.

   - gh-109590(53): *note shutil.which(): 1e0. will prefer files with an
     extension in ‘PATHEXT’ if the given mode includes ‘os.X_OK’ on
     win32.  If no ‘PATHEXT’ match is found, a file without an extension
     in ‘PATHEXT’ can be returned.  This change will have *note
     shutil.which(): 1e0. act more similarly to previous behavior in
     Python 3.11.

   - gh-109786(54): Fix possible reference leaks and crash when re-enter
     the ‘__next__()’ method of *note itertools.pairwise: 651.

   - gh-109593(55): Avoid deadlocking on a reentrant call to the
     multiprocessing resource tracker.  Such a reentrant call, though
     unlikely, can happen if a GC pass invokes the finalizer for a
     multiprocessing object such as SemLock.

   - gh-109613(56): Fix *note os.stat(): 1c5. and *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 14cf.: check for exceptions.  Previously, on
     Python built in debug mode, these functions could trigger a fatal
     Python error (and abort the process) when a function succeeded with
     an exception set.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109375(57): The *note pdb: a4. ‘alias’ command now prevents
     registering aliases without arguments.

   - gh-107219(58): Fix a race condition in ‘concurrent.futures’.  When
     a process in the process pool was terminated abruptly (while the
     future was running or pending), close the connection write end.  If
     the call queue is blocked on sending bytes to a worker process,
     closing the connection write end interrupts the send, so the queue
     can be closed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-50644(59): Attempts to pickle or create a shallow or deep copy
     of *note codecs: 1b. streams now raise a TypeError.  Previously,
     copying failed with a RecursionError, while pickling produced wrong
     results that eventually caused unpickling to fail with a
     RecursionError.

   - gh-108987(60): Fix *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 14d0. race
     condition.  If a thread is created during Python finalization, the
     newly spawned thread now exits immediately instead of trying to
     access freed memory and lead to a crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108791(61): Improved error handling in *note pdb: a4. command
     line interface, making it produce more concise error messages.

   - gh-105829(62): Fix concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor deadlock

   - gh-106584(63): Fix exit code for ‘unittest’ if all tests are
     skipped.  Patch by Egor Eliseev.

   - gh-102956(64): Fix returning of empty byte strings after seek in
     zipfile module

   - gh-84867(65): *note unittest.TestLoader: 54b. no longer loads test
     cases from exact *note unittest.TestCase: 15f. and *note
     unittest.FunctionTestCase: 14d1. classes.

   - gh-91133(66): Fix a bug in *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory: 10db.
     cleanup, which now no longer dereferences symlinks when working
     around file system permission errors.

   - gh-73561(67): Omit the interface scope from an IPv6 address when
     used as Host header by *note http.client: 6d.

   - gh-86826(68): ‘zipinfo’ now supports the full range of values in
     the TZ string determined by RFC 8536 and detects all invalid
     formats.  Both Python and C implementations now raise exceptions of
     the same type on invalid data.

   - bpo-43153(69): On Windows, ‘tempfile.TemporaryDirectory’ previously
     masked a ‘PermissionError’ with ‘NotADirectoryError’ during
     directory cleanup.  It now correctly raises ‘PermissionError’ if
     errors are not ignored.  Patch by Andrei Kulakov and Ken Jin.

   - bpo-35332(70): The *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. function now ignores
     errors when calling *note os.close(): 9ea. when 'ignore_errors' is
     ‘True’, and *note os.close(): 9ea. no longer retried after error.

   - bpo-41422(71): Fixed memory leaks of *note pickle.Pickler: 880. and
     *note pickle.Unpickler: 14d2. involving cyclic references via the
     internal memo mapping.

   - bpo-40262(72): The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.recv_into()’ method no longer
     requires the 'buffer' argument to implement ‘__len__’ and supports
     buffers with arbitrary item size.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79325

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112645

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112618

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-6507

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112578

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112509

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112414

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112358

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94722

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112105

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109538

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111460

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111804

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111841

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111541

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110894

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111531

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111356

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111342

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75666

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111295

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111253

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111251

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111174

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111159

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110910

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111092

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110488

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110392

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110590

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65052

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110519

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110395

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110378

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110365

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110196

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110036

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110038

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109631

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109747

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109818

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109047

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109782

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109590

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109786

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109593

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109613

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109375

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107219

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50644

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108987

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108791

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105829

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102956

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84867

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91133

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73561

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86826

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43153

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35332

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41422

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40262


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<9>,  Next: Tests<10>,  Prev: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-111699(1): Relocate ‘smtpd’ deprecation notice to its own
     section rather than under ‘locale’ in What’s New in Python 3.12
     document

   - gh-108826(2): *note dis: 37. module command-line interface is now
     mentioned in documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111699

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108826


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<10>,  Next: Build<9>,  Prev: Documentation<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-112769(1): The tests now correctly compare zlib version when
     *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1015. contains non-integer
     suffixes.  For example zlib-ng defines the version as
     ‘1.3.0.zlib-ng’.

   - gh-110367(2): Make regrtest ‘--verbose3’ option compatible with
     ‘--huntrleaks -jN’ options.  The ‘./python -m test -j1 -R 3:3
     --verbose3’ command now works as expected.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111165(3): Remove no longer used functions ‘run_unittest()’ and
     ‘run_doctest()’ from the *note test.support: e3. module.

   - gh-110932(4): Fix regrtest if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined: use the variable value as the random seed.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110995(5): test_gdb: Fix detection of gdb built without Python
     scripting support.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110918(6): Test case matching patterns specified by options
     ‘--match’, ‘--ignore’, ‘--matchfile’ and ‘--ignorefile’ are now
     tested in the order of specification, and the last match determines
     whether the test case be run or ignored.

   - gh-110647(7): Fix test_stress_modifying_handlers() of test_signal.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(8): Fix test_tools.test_freeze on FreeBSD: run “make
     distclean” instead of “make clean” in the copied source directory
     to remove also the “python” program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110167(9): Fix a deadlock in test_socket when server fails with
     a timeout but the client is still running in its thread.  Don’t
     hold a lock to call cleanup functions in doCleanups().  One of the
     cleanup function waits until the client completes, whereas the
     client could deadlock if it called addCleanup() in such situation.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110388(10): Add tests for *note tty: 100.

   - gh-81002(11): Add tests for *note termios: e0.

   - gh-110267(12): Add tests for pickling and copying PyStructSequence
     objects.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110031(13): Skip test_threading tests using thread+fork if
     Python is built with Address Sanitizer (ASAN). Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110088(14): Fix test_asyncio timeouts: don’t measure the maximum
     duration, a test should not measure a CI performance.  Only measure
     the minimum duration when a task has a timeout or delay.  Add
     ‘CLOCK_RES’ to ‘test_asyncio.utils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109974(15): Fix race conditions in test_threading lock tests.
     Wait until a condition is met rather than using *note time.sleep():
     4b2. with a hardcoded number of seconds.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110033(16): Fix ‘test_interprocess_signal()’ of ‘test_signal’.
     Make sure that the ‘subprocess.Popen’ object is deleted before the
     test raising an exception in a signal handler.  Otherwise,
     ‘Popen.__del__()’ can get the exception which is logged as
     ‘Exception ignored in: ...’ and the test fails.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109594(17): Fix test_timeout() of
     test_concurrent_futures.test_wait.  Remove the future which may or
     may not complete depending if it takes longer than the timeout ot
     not.  Keep the second future which does not complete before wait()
     timeout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109972(18): Split test_gdb.py file into a test_gdb package made
     of multiple tests, so tests can now be run in parallel.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(19): Skip test_freeze_simple_script() of
     test_tools.test_freeze if Python is built with ‘./configure
     --enable-optimizations’, which means with Profile Guided
     Optimization (PGO): it just makes the test too slow.  The freeze
     tool is tested by many other CIs with other (faster) compiler
     flags.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109580(20): Skip ‘test_perf_profiler’ if Python is built with
     ASAN, MSAN or UBSAN sanitizer.  Python does crash randomly in this
     test on such build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104736(21): Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on
     Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38).  Search patterns in gdb “bt” command
     output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback.  For
     example, skip a test if ‘Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the
     PC’ is found.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108927(22): Fixed order dependence in running tests in the same
     process when a test that has submodules (e.g.  test_importlib)
     follows a test that imports its submodule (e.g.
     test_importlib.util) and precedes a test (e.g.  test_unittest or
     test_compileall) that uses that submodule.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112769

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111165

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110932

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110995

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110918

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110647

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110167

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110388

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81002

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110267

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110031

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110088

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109974

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110033

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109594

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109972

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109580

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108927


File: python.info,  Node: Build<9>,  Next: Windows<9>,  Prev: Tests<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.5 Build
...............

   - gh-112088(1): Add ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ script to
     regenerate the ‘configure’ with an Ubuntu container image.  The
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:271’ container image
     (tiran/cpython_autoconf(2)) is no longer used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111046(3): For wasi-threads, memory is now exported to fix
     compatibility issues with some wasm runtimes.

   - gh-103053(4): “make check-clean-src” now also checks if the
     “python” program is found in the source directory: fail with an
     error if it does exist.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109191(5): Fix compile error when building with recent versions
     of libedit.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112088

   (2) https://github.com/tiran/cpython_autoconf

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111046

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109191


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<9>,  Next: macOS<6>,  Prev: Build<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-111856(1): Fixes *note fstat(): c19. on file systems that do not
     support file ID requests.  This includes FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-111293(2): Fix *note os.DirEntry.inode: 14d7. dropping higher 64
     bits of a file id on some filesystems on Windows.

   - gh-110913(3): WindowsConsoleIO now correctly chunks large buffers
     without splitting up UTF-8 sequences.

   - gh-110437(4): Allows overriding the source of VC redistributables
     so that releases can be guaranteed to never downgrade between
     updates.

   - gh-109286(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110913

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110437

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<6>,  Next: IDLE<11>,  Prev: Windows<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-109981(1): Use ‘/dev/fd’ on macOS to determine the number of
     open files in ‘test.support.os_helper.fd_count’ to avoid a crash
     with “guarded” file descriptors when probing for open files.

   - gh-110950(2): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘Secure coding is not enabled for restorable state!’
     warning encountered in Tkinter on macOS 14 Sonoma.

   - gh-111015(3): Ensure that IDLE.app and Python Launcher.app are
     installed with appropriate permissions on macOS builds.

   - gh-109286(4): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-71383(5): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘ttk::ThemeChanged’ error encountered in Tkinter.

   - gh-92603(6): Update macOS installer to include a fix accepted by
     upstream Tcl/Tk for a crash encountered after the first *note
     tkinter.Tk(): 14d9. instance is destroyed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110950

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111015

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92603


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<11>,  Next: C API<7>,  Prev: macOS<6>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35668(1): Add docstrings to the IDLE debugger module.  Fix two
     bugs: initialize Idb.botframe (should be in Bdb); in
     Idb.in_rpc_code, check whether prev_frame is None before trying to
     use it.  Greatly expand test_debugger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35668


File: python.info,  Node: C API<7>,  Prev: IDLE<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 1 final

1.22.12.9 C API
...............

   - gh-106560(1): Fix redundant declarations in the public C API.
     Declare PyBool_Type and PyLong_Type only once.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-112438(2): Fix support of format units “es”, “et”, “es#”, and
     “et#” in nested tuples in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.-like
     functions.

   - gh-109521(3): *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 14dc. now sets
     RuntimeError if it fails to get *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. or *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. or they are not list and dict
     correspondingly.  Previously it could return NULL without setting
     error in obscure cases, crash or raise SystemError if these
     attributes have wrong type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106560

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112438

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109521


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 final,  Next: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.13 Python 3.12.0 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2023-10-02'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* macOS: macOS<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<12>,  Next: Library<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.13.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-109823(1): Fix bug where compiler does not adjust labels when
     removing an empty basic block which is a jump target.

   - gh-109719(2): Fix missing jump target labels when compiler reorders
     cold/warm blocks.

   - gh-109627(3): Fix bug where the compiler does not assign a new jump
     target label to a duplicated small exit block.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109823

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109719

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109627


File: python.info,  Node: Library<13>,  Next: Documentation<10>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.13.2 Library
.................

   - gh-110045(1): Update the *note symtable: d7. module to support the
     new scopes introduced by PEP 695(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110045

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<10>,  Next: Windows<10>,  Prev: Library<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.13.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-109209(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 4.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109209


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<10>,  Next: macOS<7>,  Prev: Documentation<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.13.4 Windows
.................

   - gh-109991(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<7>,  Next: Tools/Demos<7>,  Prev: Windows<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.13.5 macOS
...............

   - gh-109991(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<7>,  Prev: macOS<7>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 final

1.22.13.6 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-109991(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.11 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.11, and 3.1.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.14 Python 3.12.0 release candidate 3
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2023-09-18'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Build: Build<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<13>,  Next: Library<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.14.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-109496(1): On a Python built in debug mode, *note Py_DECREF():
     306. now calls ‘_Py_NegativeRefcount()’ if the object is a dangling
     pointer to deallocated memory: memory filled with ‘0xDD’ “dead
     byte” by the debug hook on memory allocators.  The fix is to check
     the reference count 'before' checking for ‘_Py_IsImmortal()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109371(2): Deopted instructions correctly for tool
     initialization and modified the incorrect assertion in
     instrumentation, when a previous tool already sets INSTRUCTION
     events

   - gh-105658(3): Fix bug where the line trace of an except block
     ending with a conditional includes an excess event with the line of
     the conditional expression.

   - gh-109219(4): Fix compiling type param scopes that use a name which
     is also free in an inner scope.

   - gh-109341(5): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     *note ast.TypeAlias: 14e6.

   - gh-109195(6): Fix source location for the ‘LOAD_*’ instruction
     preceding a ‘LOAD_SUPER_ATTR’ to load the ‘super’ global (or
     shadowing variable) so that it encompasses only the name ‘super’
     and not the following parentheses.

   - gh-109118(7): Disallow nested scopes (lambdas, generator
     expressions, and comprehensions) within PEP 695 annotation scopes
     that are nested within classes.

   - gh-109114(8): Relax the detection of the error message for invalid
     lambdas inside f-strings to not search for arbitrary replacement
     fields to avoid false positives.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109118(9): Fix interpreter crash when a NameError is raised
     inside the type parameters of a generic class.

   - gh-108976(10): Fix crash that occurs after de-instrumenting a code
     object in a monitoring callback.

   - gh-108732(11): Make iteration variables of module- and class-scoped
     comprehensions visible to pdb and other tools that use
     ‘frame.f_locals’ again.

   - gh-108959(12): Fix caret placement for error locations for
     subscript and binary operations that involve non-semantic
     parentheses and spaces.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109496

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109371

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105658

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109219

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109341

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109195

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109114

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108976

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108732

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108959


File: python.info,  Node: Library<14>,  Next: Documentation<11>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.14.2 Library
.................

   - gh-108682(1): Enum: require ‘names=()’ or ‘type=...’ to create an
     empty enum using the functional syntax.

   - gh-108843(2): Fix an issue in *note ast.unparse(): 738. when
     unparsing f-strings containing many quote types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108843


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<11>,  Next: Tests<11>,  Prev: Library<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.14.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-102823(1): Document the return type of ‘x // y’ when ‘x’ and ‘y’
     have type *note float: 272.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102823


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<11>,  Next: Build<10>,  Prev: Documentation<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.14.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-109396(1): Fix ‘test_socket.test_hmac_sha1()’ in FIPS mode.  Use
     a longer key: FIPS mode requires at least of at least 112 bits.
     The previous key was only 32 bits.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104736(2): Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on
     Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38).  Search patterns in gdb “bt” command
     output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback.  For
     example, skip a test if ‘Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the
     PC’ is found.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109237(3): Fix ‘test_site.test_underpth_basic()’ when the
     working directory contains at least one non-ASCII character: encode
     the ‘._pth’ file to UTF-8 and enable the UTF-8 Mode to use UTF-8
     for the child process stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109230(4): Fix ‘test_pyexpat.test_exception()’: it can now be
     run from a directory different than Python source code directory.
     Before, the test failed in this case.  Skip the test if
     Modules/pyexpat.c source is not available.  Skip also the test on
     Python implementations other than CPython.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109015(5): Fix test_asyncio, test_imaplib and test_socket tests
     on FreeBSD if the TCP blackhole is enabled (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole’).  Skip the few tests which failed with
     ‘ETIMEDOUT’ which such non standard configuration.  Currently, the
     FreeBSD GCP image enables TCP and UDP blackhole(6) (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole=2’ and ‘sysctl net.inet.udp.blackhole=1’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(7): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if gdb is unable to retrieve Python
     frame objects: if a frame is ‘<optimized out>’.  When Python is
     built with “clang -Og”, gdb can fail to retrive the 'frame'
     parameter of ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’.  In this case, tests
     like ‘py_bt()’ are likely to fail.  Without getting access to
     Python frames, ‘python-gdb.py’ is mostly clueless on retrieving the
     Python traceback.  Moreover, ‘test_gdb’ is no longer skipped on
     macOS if Python is built with Clang.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108962(8): Skip ‘test_tempfile.test_flags()’ if ‘chflags()’
     fails with “OSError: [Errno 45] Operation not supported” (ex: on
     FreeBSD 13).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108851(9): Fix ‘test_tomllib’ recursion tests for WASI
     buildbots: reduce the recursion limit and compute the maximum
     nested array/dict depending on the current available recursion
     limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108851(10): Add ‘get_recursion_available()’ and
     ‘get_recursion_depth()’ functions to the *note test.support: e3.
     module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(11): Add ‘--fail-rerun option’ option to regrtest: if a
     test failed when then passed when rerun in verbose mode, exit the
     process with exit code 2 (error), instead of exit code 0 (success).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(12): Rename regrtest ‘--verbose2’ option (‘-w’) to
     ‘--rerun’.  Keep ‘--verbose2’ as a deprecated alias.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(13): When regrtest reruns failed tests in verbose mode
     (‘./python -m test --rerun’), tests are now rerun in fresh worker
     processes rather than being executed in the main process.  If a
     test does crash or is killed by a timeout, the main process can
     detect and handle the killed worker process.  Tests are rerun in
     parallel if the ‘-jN’ option is used to run tests in parallel.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103186(14): Suppress and assert expected RuntimeWarnings in
     test_sys_settrace.py

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109396

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109237

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109230

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109015

   (6) https://reviews.freebsd.org/D41751

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108962

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186


File: python.info,  Node: Build<10>,  Prev: Tests<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3

1.22.14.5 Build
...............

   - gh-108740(1): Fix a race condition in ‘make regen-all’.  The
     ‘deepfreeze.c’ source and files generated by Argument Clinic are
     now generated or updated before generating “global objects”.
     Previously, some identifiers may miss depending on the order in
     which these files were generated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108740


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.15 Python 3.12.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2023-09-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Build: Build<11>.
* Windows: Windows<11>.
* macOS: macOS<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* C API: C API<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<12>,  Next: Core and Builtins<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.1 Security
..................

   - gh-108310(1): Fixed an issue where instances of *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 73d. were vulnerable to a bypass of the TLS
     handshake and included protections (like certificate verification)
     and treating sent unencrypted data as if it were post-handshake TLS
     encrypted data.  Security issue reported as CVE 2023-40217(2) by
     Aapo Oksman.  Patch by Gregory P. Smith.

   - gh-107774(3): PEP 669 specifies that
     ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ will generate an audit event.
     Pre-releases of Python 3.12 did not generate the audit event.  This
     is now fixed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108310

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-40217

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107774


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<14>,  Next: Library<15>,  Prev: Security<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-108520(1): Fix
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.__setstate__()’ to properly
     initialize ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’.
     This fixes a regression when passing a SemLock accross nested
     processes.

     Rename ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.is_fork_ctx’ to
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’ to avoid
     exposing it as public API.

   - gh-108654(2): Restore locals shadowed by an inlined comprehension
     if the comprehension raises an exception.

   - gh-108487(3): Change an assert that would cause a spurious crash in
     a devious case that should only trigger deoptimization.

   - gh-106176(4): Use a ‘WeakValueDictionary’ to track the lists
     containing the modules each thread is currently importing.  This
     helps avoid a reference leak from keeping the list around longer
     than necessary.  Weakrefs are used as GC can’t interrupt the
     cleanup.

   - gh-107901(5): Fix missing line number on *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 527.
     at the end of a for loop.

   - gh-108390(6): Raise an exception when setting a non-local event
     (‘RAISE’, ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’, etc.)  in
     ‘sys.monitoring.set_local_events’.

     Fixes crash when tracing in recursive calls to Python classes.

   - gh-91051(7): Fix abort / segfault when using all eight type watcher
     slots, on platforms where ‘char’ is signed by default.

   - gh-107724(8): In pre-release versions of 3.12, up to rc1, the
     sys.monitoring callback function for the ‘PY_THROW’ event was
     missing the third, exception argument.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-107080(9): Trace refs builds (‘--with-trace-refs’) were crashing
     when used with isolated subinterpreters.  The problematic global
     state has been isolated to each interpreter.  Other fixing the
     crashes, this change does not affect users.

   - gh-77377(10): Ensure that multiprocessing synchronization objects
     created in a fork context are not sent to a different process
     created in a spawn context.  This changes a segfault into an
     actionable RuntimeError in the parent process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108520

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108654

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108487

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106176

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108390

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107724

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107080

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77377


File: python.info,  Node: Library<15>,  Next: Documentation<12>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.3 Library
.................

   - gh-108469(1): *note ast.unparse(): 738. now supports new *note
     f-string: 13e. syntax introduced in Python 3.12.  Note that the
     *note f-string: 13e. quotes are reselected for simplicity under the
     new syntax.  (Patch by Steven Sun)

   - gh-108682(2): Enum: raise *note TypeError: 2c4. if
     ‘super().__new__()’ is called from a custom ‘__new__’.

   - gh-108295(3): Fix crashes related to use of weakrefs on *note
     typing.TypeVar: 16a.

   - gh-64662(4): Fix support for virtual tables in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 14ef.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - gh-108111(5): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(6) for 3.12,
     resulting in an incorrect offset calculation in
     ‘gzip.GzipFile.seek()’.

   - gh-105736(7): Harmonized the pure Python version of *note
     OrderedDict: 3e6. with the C version.  Now, both versions set up
     their internal state in ‘__new__’.  Formerly, the pure Python
     version did the set up in ‘__init__’.

   - gh-108083(8): Fix bugs in the constructor of *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. and *note sqlite3.Connection.close():
     14f0. where exceptions could be leaked.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-107963(9): Fix *note multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload():
     1422. to check the given list of modules names.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-106242(10): Fixes *note os.path.normpath(): 11c5. to handle
     embedded null characters without truncating the path.

   - gh-107913(11): Fix possible losses of ‘errno’ and ‘winerror’ values
     in *note OSError: 65c. exceptions if they were cleared or modified
     by the cleanup code before creating the exception object.

   - gh-107845(12): *note tarfile.data_filter(): 39c. now takes the
     location of symlinks into account when determining their target, so
     it will no longer reject some valid tarballs with
     ‘LinkOutsideDestinationError’.

   - gh-107805(13): Fix signatures of module-level generated functions
     in *note turtle: 101.

   - gh-107715(14): Fix *note doctest.DocTestFinder.find(): 14f1. in
     presence of class names with special characters.  Patch by Gertjan
     van Zwieten.

   - gh-100814(15): Passing a callable object as an option value to a
     Tkinter image now raises the expected TclError instead of an
     AttributeError.

   - gh-106684(16): Close *note asyncio.StreamWriter: 14f2. when it is
     not closed by application leading to memory leaks.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-107396(17): tarfiles; Fixed use before assignment of
     self.exception for gzip decompression

   - gh-106052(18): *note re: b8. module: fix the matching of possessive
     quantifiers in the case of a subpattern containing backtracking.

   - gh-100061(19): Fix a bug that causes wrong matches for regular
     expressions with possessive qualifier.

   - gh-99203(20): Restore following CPython <= 3.10.5 behavior of *note
     shutil.make_archive(): 1de.: do not create an empty archive if
     ‘root_dir’ is not a directory, and, in that case, raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: 39a. or *note NotADirectoryError: f04.
     regardless of ‘format’ choice.  Beyond the brought-back behavior,
     the function may now also raise these exceptions in ‘dry_run’ mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108469

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108295

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64662

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108111

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105736

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108083

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107913

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107845

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107805

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107715

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100814

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106684

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107396

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106052

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100061

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99203


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<12>,  Next: Tests<12>,  Prev: Library<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-105052(1): Update ‘timeit’ doc to specify that time in seconds
     is just the default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105052


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<12>,  Next: Build<11>,  Prev: Documentation<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-89392(1): Removed support of ‘test_main()’ function in tests.
     They now always use normal unittest test runner.

   - gh-108388(2): Convert test_concurrent_futures to a package of 7
     sub-tests.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108388(3): Split test_multiprocessing_fork,
     test_multiprocessing_forkserver and test_multiprocessing_spawn into
     test packages.  Each package is made of 4 sub-tests: processes,
     threads, manager and misc.  It allows running more tests in
     parallel and so reduce the total test duration.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105776(4): Fix test_cppext when the C compiler command
     ‘-std=c11’ option: remove ‘-std=’ options from the compiler
     command.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107178(5): Add the C API test for functions in the Mapping
     Protocol, the Sequence Protocol and some functions in the Object
     Protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89392

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105776

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107178


File: python.info,  Node: Build<11>,  Next: Windows<11>,  Prev: Tests<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.6 Build
...............

   - gh-63760(1): Fix Solaris build: no longer redefine the
     ‘gethostname()’ function.  Solaris defines the function since 2005.
     Patch by Victor Stinner, original patch by Jakub Kulík.

   - gh-107814(2): When calling ‘find_python.bat’ with ‘-q’ it did not
     properly silence the output of nuget.  That is now fixed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63760

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107814


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<11>,  Next: macOS<8>,  Prev: Build<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-107565(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.10.

   - gh-106242(2): Fixes *note realpath(): 398. to behave consistently
     when passed a path containing an embedded null character on
     Windows.  In strict mode, it now raises *note OSError: 65c. instead
     of the unexpected *note ValueError: 189, and in non-strict mode
     will make the path absolute.

   - gh-106844(3): Fix integer overflow and truncating by the null
     character in ‘_winapi.LCMapStringEx()’ which affects
     ‘ntpath.normcase()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107565

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106844


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<8>,  Next: Tools/Demos<8>,  Prev: Windows<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-107565(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107565


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<8>,  Next: C API<8>,  Prev: macOS<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-107565(1): Update multissltests and GitHub CI workflows to use
     OpenSSL 1.1.1v, 3.0.10, and 3.1.2.

   - gh-95065(2): Argument Clinic now supports overriding automatically
     generated signature by using directive ‘@text_signature’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107565

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065


File: python.info,  Node: C API<8>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<8>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2

1.22.15.10 C API
................

   - gh-107916(1): C API functions *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 14fa, *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14fb. and *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14fc. save now the error
     code before calling *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 14fd.

   - gh-107915(2): Such C API functions as ‘PyErr_SetString()’,
     ‘PyErr_Format()’, ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename()’ and many
     others no longer crash or ignore errors if it failed to format the
     error message or decode the filename.  Instead, they keep a
     corresponding error.

   - gh-107810(3): Improve *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. for uses of
     *note PyType_Spec: 14fe. with metaclasses that have custom
     ‘tp_new’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107916

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107915

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107810


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.16 Python 3.12.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2023-08-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Build: Build<12>.
* Windows: Windows<12>.
* macOS: macOS<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* C API: C API<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<13>,  Next: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.1 Security
..................

   - gh-102988(1): Reverted the *note email.utils: 4f. security
     improvement change released in 3.12beta4 that unintentionally
     caused *note email.utils.getaddresses: 391. to fail to parse email
     addresses with a comma in the quoted name field.  See gh-106669(2).

   - gh-102509(3): Start initializing ‘ob_digit’ during creation of
     *note PyLongObject: 321. objects.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106669

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102509


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<15>,  Next: Library<16>,  Prev: Security<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-107263(1): Increase C recursion limit for functions other than
     the main interpreter from 800 to 1500.  This should allow functions
     like ‘list.__repr__’ and ‘json.dumps’ to handle all the inputs that
     they could prior to 3.12

   - gh-104432(2): Fix potential unaligned memory access on C APIs
     involving returned sequences of ‘char *’ pointers within the *note
     grp: 64. and *note socket: cb. modules.  These were revealed using
     a ‘-fsaniziter=alignment’ build on ARM macOS. Patch by Christopher
     Chavez.

   - gh-106898(3): Add the exception as the third argument to ‘PY_UNIND’
     callbacks in ‘sys.monitoring’.  This makes the ‘PY_UNWIND’ callback
     consistent with the other exception hanlding callbacks.

   - gh-106895(4): Raise a ‘ValueError’ when a monitoring callback
     funtion returns ‘DISABLE’ for events that cannot be disabled
     locally.

   - gh-106897(5): Add a ‘RERAISE’ event to ‘sys.monitoring’, which
     occurs when an exception is reraised, either explicitly by a plain
     ‘raise’ statement, or implicitly in an ‘except’ or ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-104621(6): Unsupported modules now always fail to be imported.

   - gh-106917(7): Fix classmethod-style *note super(): 20d. method
     calls (i.e., where the second argument to *note super(): 20d, or
     the implied second argument drawn from ‘self/cls’ in the case of
     zero-arg super, is a type) when the target of the call is not a
     classmethod.

   - gh-105699(8): Python no longer crashes due an infrequent race when
     initialzing per-interpreter interned strings.  The crash would
     manifest when the interpreter was finalized.

   - gh-105699(9): Python no longer crashes due to an infrequent race in
     setting ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’ and
     ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ (both deprecated), when
     simultaneously initializing two isolated subinterpreters.  Now they
     are only set during runtime initialization.

   - gh-106092(10): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a use-after-free
     bug in ‘frame_dealloc’ when the trashcan delays the deallocation of
     a ‘PyFrameObject’.

   - gh-106719(11): No longer suppress arbitrary errors in the
     ‘__annotations__’ getter and setter in the type and module types.

   - gh-106723(12): Propagate ‘frozen_modules’ to multiprocessing
     spawned process interpreters.

   - gh-105235(13): Prevent out-of-bounds memory access during
     ‘mmap.find()’ calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107263

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104432

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106898

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106895

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106897

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104621

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106917

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106092

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106719

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106723

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105235


File: python.info,  Node: Library<16>,  Next: Documentation<13>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.3 Library
.................

   - gh-107077(1): Seems that in some conditions, OpenSSL will return
     ‘SSL_ERROR_SYSCALL’ instead of ‘SSL_ERROR_SSL’ when a certification
     verification has failed, but the error parameters will still
     contain ‘ERR_LIB_SSL’ and ‘SSL_R_CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  We
     are now detecting this situation and raising the appropiate
     ‘ssl.SSLCertVerificationError’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-107576(2): Fix *note types.get_original_bases(): 1fc. to only
     return ‘__orig_bases__’ if it is present on ‘cls’ directly.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-46376(3): Prevent memory leak and use-after-free when using
     pointers to pointers with ctypes

   - gh-62519(4): Make *note gettext.pgettext(): 854. search plural
     definitions when translation is not found.

   - gh-83006(5): Document behavior of *note shutil.disk_usage(): fd0.
     for non-mounted filesystems on Unix.

   - gh-106186(6): Do not report ‘MultipartInvariantViolationDefect’
     defect when the *note email.parser.Parser: 1044. class is used to
     parse emails with ‘headersonly=True’.

   - gh-105002(7): Fix invalid result from ‘PurePath.relative_to()’
     method when attempting to walk a “‘..’” segment in 'other' with
     'walk_up' enabled.  A *note ValueError: 189. exception is now
     raised in this case.

   - gh-106831(8): Fix potential missing ‘NULL’ check of
     ‘d2i_SSL_SESSION’ result in ‘_ssl.c’.

   - gh-106774(9): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.2.1.

   - gh-106752(10): Fixed several bugs in zipfile.Path, including: in
     ‘Path.match’, Windows separators are no longer honored (and never
     were meant to be); Fixed ‘name’/‘suffix’/‘suffixes’/‘stem’
     operations when no filename is present and the Path is not at the
     root of the zipfile; Reworked glob for performance and more correct
     matching behavior.

   - gh-106602(11): Add __copy__ and __deepcopy__ in *note enum: 54.

   - gh-106530(12): Revert a change to *note colorsys.rgb_to_hls():
     1503. that caused division by zero for certain almost-white inputs.
     Patch by Terry Jan Reedy.

   - gh-106403(13): Instances of *note typing.TypeVar: 16a, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 169, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5fd, *note
     typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 5fe, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 168.
     once again support weak references, fixing a regression introduced
     in Python 3.12.0 beta 1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-106350(14): Detect possible memory allocation failure in the
     libtommath function ‘mp_init()’ used by the ‘_tkinter’ module.

   - gh-106263(15): Fix crash when calling ‘repr’ with a manually
     constructed SignalDict object.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-105626(16): Change the default return value of *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 1504. to
     be ‘None’ and not ‘{}’.

   - bpo-18319(17): Ensure ‘gettext(msg)’ retrieve translations even if
     a plural form exists.  In other words: ‘gettext(msg) ==
     ngettext(msg, '', 1)’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107077

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107576

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46376

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62519

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83006

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106186

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105002

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106831

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106774

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106602

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106530

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106403

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106350

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106263

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105626

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18319


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<13>,  Next: Tests<13>,  Prev: Library<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-107305(1): Add documentation for *note PyInterpreterConfig: 304.
     and *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 172.  Also clarify some of
     the nearby docs relative to per-interpreter GIL.

   - gh-107008(2): Document the *note curses: 2b. module variables *note
     LINES: 1506. and *note COLS: 1507.

   - gh-106948(3): Add a number of standard external names to
     ‘nitpick_ignore’.

   - gh-54738(4): Add documentation on how to localize the *note
     argparse: 6. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107305

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107008

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106948

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54738


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<13>,  Next: Build<12>,  Prev: Documentation<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-107237(1): ‘test_logging’: Fix ‘test_udp_reconnection()’ by
     increasing the timeout from 100 ms to 5 minutes (LONG_TIMEOUT).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106714(2): test_capi: Fix test_no_FatalError_infinite_loop() to
     no longer write a coredump, by using
     test.support.SuppressCrashReport.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104090(3): Avoid creating a reference to the test object in
     *note collectedDurations(): 1509.

   - gh-106752(4): Moved tests for ‘zipfile.Path’ into
     ‘Lib/test/test_zipfile/_path’.  Made ‘zipfile._path’ a package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107237

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106714

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752


File: python.info,  Node: Build<12>,  Next: Windows<12>,  Prev: Tests<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.6 Build
...............

   - gh-106881(1): Check for ‘linux/limits.h’ before including it in
     ‘Modules/posixmodule.c’.

   - gh-106962(2): Detect MPI compilers in ‘configure’.

   - gh-101538(3): Add experimental wasi-threads support.  Patch by
     Takashi Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106881

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106962

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101538


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<12>,  Next: macOS<9>,  Prev: Build<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-99079(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.9

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<9>,  Next: Tools/Demos<9>,  Prev: Windows<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-99079(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<9>,  Next: C API<9>,  Prev: macOS<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-106970(1): Fix bugs in the Argument Clinic ‘destination <name>
     clear’ command; the destination buffers would never be cleared, and
     the ‘destination’ directive parser would simply continue to the
     fault handler after processing the command.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-103186(2): ‘freeze’ now fetches ‘CONFIG_ARGS’ from the original
     CPython instance the Makefile uses to call utility scripts.  Patch
     by Ijtaba Hussain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106970

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186


File: python.info,  Node: C API<9>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<9>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1

1.22.16.10 C API
................

   - gh-107226(1): *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3. is now only
     available in the limited API version 3.10 or later.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107226


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.17 Python 3.12.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-07-11'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Build: Build<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* C API: C API<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<14>,  Next: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.1 Security
..................

   - gh-102988(1): CVE 2023-27043(2): Prevent *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 392. and *note email.utils.getaddresses():
     391. from returning the realname portion of an invalid RFC2822
     email header in the email address portion of the 2-tuple returned
     after being parsed by ‘email._parseaddr.AddressList’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<16>,  Next: Library<17>,  Prev: Security<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-106396(1): When the format specification of an f-string
     expression is empty, the parser now generates an empty *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 1512. node for it instead of an one-element *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 1512. with an empty string *note ast.Constant: 21e.

   - gh-106145(2): Make ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ required on
     ‘type_param’ ast nodes.

   - gh-105979(3): Fix crash in ‘_imp.get_frozen_object()’ due to
     improper exception handling.

   - gh-98931(4): Ensure custom *note SyntaxError: 14c. error messages
     are raised for invalid imports with multiple targets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105908(5): Fixed bug where gh-99111(6) breaks future import
     ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ in the Python REPL.

   - gh-105340(7): Include the comprehension iteration variable in
     ‘locals()’ inside a module- or class-scope comprehension.

   - gh-105486(8): Change the repr of ‘ParamSpec’ list of args in
     ‘types.GenericAlias’.

   - gh-101006(9): Improve error handling when read *note marshal: 8c.
     data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106396

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106145

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105979

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105908

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99111

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105340

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105486

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101006


File: python.info,  Node: Library<17>,  Next: Documentation<14>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.3 Library
.................

   - gh-106524(1): Fix crash in ‘_sre.template()’ with templates
     containing invalid group indices.

   - gh-106510(2): Improve debug output for atomic groups in regular
     expressions.

   - gh-106503(3): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_write_ready’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-105497(4): Fix flag mask inversion when unnamed flags exist.

   - gh-90876(5): Prevent ‘multiprocessing.spawn’ from failing to
     'import' in environments where ‘sys.executable’ is ‘None’.  This
     regressed in 3.11 with the addition of support for path-like
     objects in multiprocessing.

   - gh-106292(6): Check for an instance-dict cached value in the
     ‘__get__()’ method of *note functools.cached_property(): 2cf.  This
     better matches the pre-3.12 behavior and improves compatibility for
     users subclassing *note functools.cached_property(): 2cf. and
     adding a ‘__set__()’ method.

   - gh-106330(7): Fix incorrect matching of empty paths in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d7.  This bug was introduced in Python
     3.12.0 beta 1.

   - gh-102541(8): Make pydoc.doc catch bad module ImportError when
     output stream is not None.

   - gh-106152(9): Added PY_THROW event hook for *note cProfile: 27. for
     generators

   - gh-106075(10): Added ‘asyncio.taskgroups.__all__’ to
     ‘asyncio.__all__’ for export in star imports.

   - gh-105987(11): Fix crash due to improper reference counting in
     *note asyncio: a. eager task factory internal routines.

   - gh-105974(12): Fix bug where a *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. class
     that had one or more non-callable members would raise *note
     TypeError: 2c4. when *note issubclass(): 5f8. was called against
     it, even if it defined a custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method.  The
     behaviour in Python 3.11 and lower – which has now been restored –
     was not to raise *note TypeError: 2c4. in these situations if a
     custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method was defined.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-96145(13): Reverted addition of ‘json.AttrDict’.

   - gh-105497(14): Fix flag inversion when alias/mask members exist.

   - gh-104554(15): Add RTSPS scheme support in urllib.parse

   - gh-94777(16): Fix hanging *note multiprocessing: 93.
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ when a child process crashes while data is
     being written in the call queue.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106524

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106510

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106503

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90876

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106292

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106330

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106152

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106075

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105987

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105974

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104554

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94777


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<14>,  Next: Tests<14>,  Prev: Library<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-106232(1): Make timeit doc command lines compatible with Windows
     by using double quotes for arguments.  This works on linux and
     macOS also.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106232


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<14>,  Next: Build<13>,  Prev: Documentation<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-101634(1): When running the Python test suite with ‘-jN’ option,
     if a worker stdout cannot be decoded from the locale encoding
     report a failed testn so the exitcode is non-zero.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101634


File: python.info,  Node: Build<13>,  Next: Tools/Demos<10>,  Prev: Tests<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.6 Build
...............

   - gh-106118(1): Fix compilation for platforms without ‘O_CLOEXEC’.
     The issue was introduced with Python 3.12b1 in gh-103295(2).  Patch
     by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-104692(3): Include ‘commoninstall’ as a prerequisite for
     ‘bininstall’

     This ensures that ‘commoninstall’ is completed before ‘bininstall’
     is started when parallel builds are used (‘make -j install’), and
     so the ‘python3’ symlink is only installed after all standard
     library modules are installed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106118

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104692


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<10>,  Next: C API<10>,  Prev: Build<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-106359(1): Argument Clinic now explicitly forbids “kwarg splats”
     in function calls used as annotations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106359


File: python.info,  Node: C API<10>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 4

1.22.17.8 C API
...............

   - gh-105227(1): The new *note PyType_GetDict(): 1519. provides the
     dictionary for the given type object that is normally exposed by
     ‘cls.__dict__’.  Normally it’s sufficient to use *note tp_dict:
     151a, but for the static builtin types ‘tp_dict’ is now always
     ‘NULL’.  ‘PyType_GetDict()’ provides the correct dict object
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105227


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.18 Python 3.12.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-06-19'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* C API: C API<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<17>,  Next: Library<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.18.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-105840(1): Fix possible crashes when specializing function calls
     with too many ‘__defaults__’.

   - gh-105831(2): Fix an f-string bug, where using a debug expression
     (the ‘=’ sign) that appears in the last line of a file results to
     the debug buffer that holds the expression text being one character
     too small.

   - gh-105800(3): Correctly issue *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. in
     f-strings if invalid sequences are used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105587(4): The runtime can’t guarantee that immortal objects
     will not be mutated by Extensions.  Thus, this modifies
     _PyStaticObject_CheckRefcnt to warn instead of asserting.

   - gh-105564(5): Don’t include artificil newlines in the ‘line’
     attribute of tokens in the APIs of the *note tokenize: fb. module.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105549(6): Tokenize separately ‘NUMBER’ and ‘NAME’ tokens that
     are not ambiguous.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105588(7): Fix an issue that could result in crashes when
     compiling malformed *note ast: 8. nodes.

   - gh-105375(8): Fix bugs in the *note builtins: 12. module where
     exceptions could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(9): Fix bug in the compiler where an exception could end
     up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(10): Improve error handling in
     ‘PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap()’ where an exception could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105435(11): Fix spurious newline character if file ends on a
     comment without a newline.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105390(12): Correctly raise *note tokenize.TokenError: 2d0.
     exceptions instead of *note SyntaxError: 14c. for tokenize errors
     such as incomplete input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104812(13): The “pending call” machinery now works for all
     interpreters, not just the main interpreter, and runs in all
     threads, not just the main thread.  Some calls are still only done
     in the main thread, ergo in the main interpreter.  This change does
     not affect signal handling nor the existing public C-API
     (‘Py_AddPendingCall()’), which both still only target the main
     thread.  The new functionality is meant strictly for internal use
     for now, since consequences of its use are not well understood yet
     outside some very restricted cases.  This change brings the
     capability in line with the intention when the state was made
     per-interpreter several years ago.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105840

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105831

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105800

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105587

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105564

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105549

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105588

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105435

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105390

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104812


File: python.info,  Node: Library<18>,  Next: Tests<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.18.2 Library
.................

   - gh-105808(1): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(2) for 3.12,
     causing ‘gzip.GzipFile.flush()’ to not flush the compressor (nor
     pass along the ‘zip_mode’ argument).

   - gh-104799(3): Enable *note ast.unparse(): 738. to unparse function
     and class definitions created without the new ‘type_params’ field
     from PEP 695(4).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105745(5): Fix ‘webbrowser.Konqueror.open’ method.

   - gh-105375(6): Fix a bug in ‘_Unpickler_SetInputStream()’ where an
     exception could end up being overwritten in case of failure.

   - gh-105375(7): Fix bugs in *note sys: d8. where exceptions could end
     up being overwritten because of deferred error handling.

   - gh-105605(8): Harden ‘pyexpat’ error handling during module
     initialisation to prevent exceptions from possibly being
     overwritten, and objects from being dereferenced twice.

   - gh-105375(9): Fix bug in *note decimal: 35. where an exception
     could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(10): Fix bugs in ‘_datetime’ where exceptions could be
     overwritten in case of module initialisation failure.

   - gh-105375(11): Fix bugs in ‘_ssl’ initialisation which could lead
     to leaked references and overwritten exceptions.

   - gh-105375(12): Fix a bug in *note array.array: 195. where an
     exception could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(13): Fix bugs in ‘_ctypes’ where exceptions could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(14): Fix a bug in the *note posix: ac. module where an
     exception could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(15): Fix bugs in ‘_elementtree’ where exceptions could be
     overwritten.

   - gh-105375(16): Fix bugs in *note zoneinfo: 134. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(17): Fix bugs in *note errno: 55. where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(18): Fix bugs in *note pickle: a5. where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(19): Fix a bug in *note sqlite3: ce. where an exception
     could be overwritten in the *note collation: 48a. callback.

   - gh-105332(20): Revert pickling method from by-name back to
     by-value.

   - gh-104310(21): In the beta 1 release we added a utility function
     for extension module authors, to use when testing their module for
     support in multiple interpreters or under a per-interpreter GIL.
     The name of that function has changed from
     ‘allowing_all_extensions’ to
     ‘_incompatible_extension_module_restrictions’.  The default for the
     “disable_check” argument has change from ‘True’ to ‘False’, to
     better match the new function name.

   - gh-104996(22): Improve performance of *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce.
     initialisation by deferring joining of paths when multiple
     arguments are given.

   - gh-102541(23): Hide traceback in *note help(): 72a. prompt, when
     import failed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105808

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105745

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105605

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105332

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104996

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<15>,  Next: Windows<13>,  Prev: Library<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.18.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-105084(1): When the Python build is configured
     ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir’, tests requiring the ‘setuptools’ and
     ‘wheel’ wheels will search for the wheels in ‘WHEEL_PKG_DIR’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105084


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<13>,  Next: C API<11>,  Prev: Tests<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.18.4 Windows
.................

   - gh-105436(1): Ensure that an empty environment block is terminated
     by two null characters, as is required by Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105436


File: python.info,  Node: C API<11>,  Prev: Windows<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 3

1.22.18.5 C API
...............

   - gh-105375(1): Fix a bug in *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 1521. where
     an exception could end up being overwritten if the API failed
     internally.

   - gh-105603(2): We’ve renamed the new (in 3.12)
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig.own_gil’ to ‘PyInterpreterConfig.gil’ and
     changed the meaning of the value from “bool” to an integer with
     supported values of ‘PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL’,
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL’, and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL’.  The default is “shared”.

   - gh-105387(3): In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF():
     305. and *note Py_DECREF(): 306. functions are now implemented as
     opaque function calls to hide implementation details.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103968(4): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df. now allows
     metaclasses with ‘tp_new’ set to ‘NULL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105603

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.19 Python 3.12.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-06-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<15>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Build: Build<14>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* C API: C API<12>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<15>,  Next: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.1 Security
..................

   - gh-103142(1): The version of OpenSSL used in our binary builds has
     been upgraded to 1.1.1u to address several CVEs.

   - gh-99108(2): Refresh our new HACL* built-in *note hashlib: 66. code
     from upstream.  Built-in SHA2 should be faster and an issue with
     SHA3 on 32-bit platforms is fixed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103142

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<18>,  Next: Library<19>,  Prev: Security<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-105259(1): Don’t include newline character for trailing
     ‘NEWLINE’ tokens emitted in the *note tokenize: fb. module.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105324(2): Fix the main function of the *note tokenize: fb.
     module when reading from ‘sys.stdin’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98963(3): Restore the ability for a subclass of *note property:
     43c. to define ‘__slots__’ or otherwise be dict-less by ignoring
     failures to set a docstring on such a class.  This behavior had
     regressed in 3.12beta1.  An *note AttributeError: 3dc. where there
     had not previously been one was disruptive to existing code.

   - gh-105194(4): Do not escape with backslashes f-string format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105162(5): Fixed bug in generator.close()/throw() where an inner
     iterator would be ignored when the outer iterator was instrumented.

   - gh-105164(6): Ensure annotations are set up correctly if the only
     annotation in a block is within a *note match: 648. block.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104799(7): Attributes of *note ast: 8. nodes that are lists now
     default to the empty list if omitted.  This means that some code
     that previously raised *note TypeError: 2c4. when the AST node was
     used will now proceed with the empty list instead.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-105035(8): Fix *note super(): 20d. calls on types with custom
     ‘tp_getattro’ implementation (e.g.  meta-types.)

   - gh-105017(9): Show CRLF lines in the tokenize string attribute in
     both NL and NEWLINE tokens.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-105013(10): Fix handling of multiline parenthesized lambdas in
     *note inspect.getsource(): 1525.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105017(11): Do not include an additional final ‘NL’ token when
     parsing files having CRLF lines.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-104976(12): Ensure that trailing ‘DEDENT’ ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’
     objects emitted by the *note tokenize: fb. module are reported as
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104972(13): Ensure that the ‘line’ attribute in
     ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’ objects in the *note tokenize: fb. module are
     always correct.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104955(14): Fix signature for the new *note
     __release_buffer__(): 1526. slot.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104690(15): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 23a. during interpreter shutdown (such as from
     *note atexit: c. handlers) is no longer supported.  It can lead to
     race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing
     thread states while internal *note threading: ec. routines are
     trying to allocate and use the state of just created threads.  Or
     forked children trying to use the mid-shutdown runtime and thread
     state in the child process.

   - gh-104879(16): Fix crash when accessing the ‘__module__’ attribute
     of type aliases defined outside a module.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104825(17): Tokens emitted by the *note tokenize: fb. module do
     not include an implicit ‘\n’ character in the ‘line’ attribute
     anymore.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105259

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105324

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98963

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105194

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105162

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105164

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105035

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105013

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104976

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104972

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104955

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104690

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104879

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104825


File: python.info,  Node: Library<19>,  Next: Documentation<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.3 Library
.................

   - gh-105280(1): Fix bug where ‘isinstance([],
     collections.abc.Mapping)’ could evaluate to ‘True’ if garbage
     collection happened at the wrong time.  The bug was caused by
     changes to the implementation of *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-105239(2): Fix longstanding bug where ‘issubclass(object,
     typing.Protocol)’ would evaluate to ‘True’ in some edge cases.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-105080(3): Fixed inconsistent signature on derived classes for
     *note inspect.signature(): 561.

   - gh-105144(4): Fix a recent regression in the *note typing: 104.
     module.  The regression meant that doing ‘class Foo(X,
     typing.Protocol)’, where ‘X’ was a class that had *note
     abc.ABCMeta: db0. as its metaclass, would then cause subsequent
     ‘isinstance(1, X)’ calls to erroneously raise *note TypeError: 2c4.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-105113(5): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d7. by compiling an *note re.Pattern:
     1528. object for the entire pattern.

   - gh-101588(6): Deprecate undocumented copy/deepcopy/pickle support
     for itertools.

   - gh-103631(7): Fix
     ‘pathlib.PurePosixPath(pathlib.PureWindowsPath(...))’ not
     converting path separators to restore 3.11 compatible behavior.

   - gh-104947(8): Make comparisons between *note
     pathlib.PureWindowsPath: 1529. objects consistent across Windows
     and Posix to match 3.11 behavior.

   - gh-104935(9): Fix bugs with the interaction between *note
     typing.runtime_checkable(): 152. and *note typing.Generic: 1478.
     that were introduced by the PEP 695(10) implementation.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104874(11): Document the ‘__name__’ and ‘__supertype__’
     attributes of *note typing.NewType: b79.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104799(12): Adjust the location of the (see PEP 695(13))
     ‘type_params’ field on *note ast.ClassDef: 152a, *note
     ast.AsyncFunctionDef: 152b, and *note ast.FunctionDef: 152c. to
     better preserve backward compatibility.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra

   - gh-104797(14): Allow *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. classes to inherit
     from *note collections.abc.Buffer: 176.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104372(15): On Linux where *note subprocess: d5. can use the
     ‘vfork()’ syscall for faster spawning, prevent the parent process
     from blocking other threads by dropping the GIL while it waits for
     the vfork’ed child process ‘exec()’ outcome.  This prevents
     spawning a binary from a slow filesystem from blocking the rest of
     the application.

   - gh-99108(16): We now release the GIL around built-in *note hashlib:
     66. computations of reasonable size for the SHA families and MD5
     hash functions, matching what our OpenSSL backed hash computations
     already does.

   - gh-104399(17): Prepare the ‘_tkinter’ module for building with Tcl
     9.0 and future libtommath by replacing usage of deprecated
     functions ‘mp_to_unsigned_bin_n()’ and ‘mp_unsigned_bin_size()’
     when necessary.

   - gh-102024(18): Reduce calls of ‘_idle_semaphore.release()’ in
     ‘concurrent.futures.thread._worker()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105280

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105239

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105080

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105144

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105113

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103631

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104947

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104935

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104874

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104797

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104399

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102024


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<15>,  Next: Build<14>,  Prev: Library<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-89455(1): Add missing documentation for the ‘max_group_depth’
     and ‘max_group_width’ parameters and the ‘exceptions’ attribute of
     the *note traceback.TracebackException: 4ba. class.

   - gh-89412(2): Add missing documentation for the ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes of the *note traceback.TracebackException:
     4ba. class.

   - gh-104943(3): Remove mentions of old Python versions in *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 202.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89412

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104943


File: python.info,  Node: Build<14>,  Next: Windows<14>,  Prev: Documentation<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.5 Build
...............

   - gh-90005(1): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ where we could end up
     unintentionally linking with ‘libbsd’.

   - gh-89886(2): Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to
     regenerate ‘!configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<14>,  Next: macOS<10>,  Prev: Build<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-105146(1): Updated the links at the end of the installer to
     point to Discourse rather than the mailing lists.

   - gh-103646(2): When installed from the Microsoft Store, ‘pip’ no
     longer defaults to per-user installs.  However, as the install
     directory is unwritable, it should automatically decide to do a
     per-user install anyway.  This should resolve issues when ‘pip’ is
     passed an option that conflicts with ‘--user’.

   - gh-88745(3): Improve performance of *note shutil.copy2(): 8bf. by
     using the operating system’s ‘CopyFile2’ function.  This may result
     in subtle changes to metadata copied along with some files,
     bringing them in line with normal OS behavior.

   - gh-104820(4): Fixes *note stat(): 1c5. and related functions on
     file systems that do not support file ID requests.  This includes
     FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-104803(5): Add *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 1530. to detect
     whether a path is on a Windows Dev Drive.  Returns ‘False’ on
     platforms that do not support Dev Drive, and is absent on
     non-Windows platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105146

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103646

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88745

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104820

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<10>,  Next: IDLE<12>,  Prev: Windows<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-103142(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.1u.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103142


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<12>,  Next: C API<12>,  Prev: macOS<10>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.8 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104719(1): Remove IDLE’s modification of tokenize.tabsize and
     test other uses of tokenize data and methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104719


File: python.info,  Node: C API<12>,  Prev: IDLE<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 2

1.22.19.9 C API
...............

   - gh-105115(1): ‘PyTypeObject.tp_bases’ (and ‘tp_mro’) for builtin
     static types are now shared by all interpreters, whereas in
     3.12-beta1 they were stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Also note
     that now the tuples are immortal objects.

   - gh-105071(2): Add ‘PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar’ to the unstable
     C api to expose the implementation of *note except*: 3bf.

   - gh-104668(3): Don’t call *note PyOS_InputHook: 31e. or *note
     PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 31f. in subinterpreters, since it’s
     generally difficult to avoid using global state in their registered
     callbacks.  This also avoids situations where extensions may find
     themselves running in a subinterpreter they don’t support (or
     haven’t yet been loaded in).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105115

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105071

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.20 Python 3.12.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-05-22'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Build: Build<15>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* C API: C API<13>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<16>,  Next: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99889(1): Fixed a security in flaw in *note uu.decode(): 1536.
     that could allow for directory traversal based on the input if no
     ‘out_file’ was specified.

   - gh-104049(2): Do not expose the local on-disk location in directory
     indexes produced by ‘http.client.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’.

   - gh-99108(3): Upgrade built-in *note hashlib: 66. SHA3
     implementation to a verified implementation from the ‘HACL*’
     project.  Used when OpenSSL is not present or lacks SHA3.

   - gh-102153(4): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bc7. now strips
     leading C0 control and space characters following the specification
     for URLs defined by WHATWG in response to CVE 2023-24329(5).  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99889

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104049

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102153

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-24329


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<19>,  Next: Library<20>,  Prev: Security<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102856(1): Implement PEP 701 changes in the *note tokenize: fb.
     module.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo Salgado

   - gh-104615(2): Fix wrong ordering of assignments in code like ‘a, a
     = x, y’.  Contributed by Carl Meyer.

   - gh-104572(3): Improve syntax error message for invalid constructs
     in PEP 695(4) contexts and in annotations when ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ is active.

   - gh-104482(5): Fix three error handling bugs in ast.c’s validation
     of pattern matching statements.

   - gh-102818(6): Do not add a frame to the traceback in the
     ‘sys.setprofile’ and ‘sys.settrace’ trampoline functions.  This
     ensures that frames are not duplicated if an exception is raised in
     the callback function, and ensures that frames are not omitted if a
     C callback is used and that does not add the frame.

   - gh-104405(7): Fix an issue where some *note bytecode: 3b7.
     instructions could ignore PEP 523(8) when “inlining” calls.

   - gh-103082(9): Change behavior of ‘sys.monitoring.events.LINE’
     events in ‘sys.monitoring’: Line events now occur when a new line
     is reached dynamically, instead of using a static approximation, as
     before.  This makes the behavior very similar to that of “line”
     events in ‘sys.settrace’.  This should ease porting of tools from
     3.11 to 3.12.

   - gh-104263(10): Fix ‘float("nan")’ to produce a quiet NaN on
     platforms (like MIPS) where the meaning of the signalling / quiet
     bit is inverted from its usual meaning.  Also introduce a new macro
     ‘Py_INFINITY’ matching C99’s ‘INFINITY’, and refactor internals to
     rely on C99’s ‘NAN’ and ‘INFINITY’ macros instead of hard-coding
     bit patterns for infinities and NaNs.  Thanks Sebastian Berg.

   - gh-99113(11): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     that they support running in subinterpreters that have their own
     GIL. This is done by using ‘Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED’
     as the value for the ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def
     slot.  Otherwise the module, by default, cannot be imported in such
     subinterpreters.  (This does not affect the main interpreter or
     subinterpreters that do not have their own GIL.) In addition to the
     isolation that multi-phase init already normally requires, support
     for per-interpreter GIL involves one additional constraint:
     thread-safety.  If the module has external (linked) dependencies
     and those libraries have any state that isn’t thread-safe then the
     module must do the additional work to add thread-safety.  This
     should be an uncommon case.

   - gh-99113(12): The GIL is now (optionally) per-interpreter.  This is
     the fundamental change for PEP 684.  This is all made possible by
     virtue of the isolated state of each interpreter in the process.
     The behavior of the main interpreter remains unchanged.  Likewise,
     interpreters created using ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’ are not affected.
     To get an interpreter with its own GIL, call
     ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.

   - gh-104108(13): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     whether or not they actually support multiple interpreters.  By
     default such modules are expected to support use in multiple
     interpreters.  In the uncommon case that one does not, it may use
     the new ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def slot.  A value of
     ‘0’ means the module does not support them.  ‘1’ means it does.
     The default is ‘1’.

   - gh-104142(14): Fix an issue where *note list: 422. or *note tuple:
     4ff. repetition could fail to respect PEP 683(15).

   - gh-104078(16): Improve the performance of *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 1538.

   - gh-104066(17): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 200. for
     module objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-104028(18): Reduce object creation while calling callback
     function from gc.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-104018(19): Disallow the “z” format specifier in %-format of
     bytes objects.

   - gh-102213(20): Fix performance loss when accessing an object’s
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-103895(21): Improve handling of edge cases in showing
     ‘Exception.__notes__’.  Ensures that the messages always end with a
     newline and that string/bytes are not exploded over multiple lines.
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-103907(22): Don’t modify the refcounts of known immortal objects
     (*note True: a86, *note False: 9a8, and *note None: 488.) in the
     main interpreter loop.

   - gh-103899(23): Provide a helpful hint in the *note TypeError: 2c4.
     message when accidentally calling a *note module: 1539. object that
     has a callable attribute of the same name (such as *note dis.dis():
     9a5. or *note datetime.datetime: 22b.).

   - gh-103845(24): Remove both line and instruction instrumentation
     before adding new ones for monitoring, to avoid newly added
     instrumentation being removed immediately.

   - gh-103763(25): Implement PEP 695(26), adding syntactic support for
     generic classes, generic functions, and type aliases.

     A new ‘type X = ...’ syntax is added for type aliases, which
     resolves at runtime to an instance of the new class
     ‘typing.TypeAliasType’.  The value is lazily evaluated and is
     accessible through the ‘.__value__’ attribute.  This is implemented
     as a new AST node ‘ast.TypeAlias’.

     New syntax (‘class X[T]: ...’, ‘def func[T](): ...’) is added for
     defining generic functions and classes.  This is implemented as a
     new ‘type_params’ attribute on the AST nodes for classes and
     functions.  This node holds instances of the new AST classes
     ‘ast.TypeVar’, ‘ast.ParamSpec’, and ‘ast.TypeVarTuple’.

     ‘typing.TypeVar’, ‘typing.ParamSpec’, ‘typing.ParamSpecArgs’,
     ‘typing.ParamSpecKwargs’, ‘typing.TypeVarTuple’, and
     ‘typing.Generic’ are now implemented in C rather than Python.

     There are new bytecode instructions ‘LOAD_LOCALS’,
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_GLOBAL’, and ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_DEREF’ to
     support correct resolution of names in class namespaces.

     Patch by Eric Traut, Larry Hastings, and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-103801(27): Adds three minor linting fixes to the wasm module
     caught that were caught by ruff.

   - gh-103793(28): Optimized asyncio Task creation by deferring
     expensive string formatting (task name generation) from Task
     creation to the first time ‘get_name’ is called.  This makes
     asyncio benchmarks up to 5% faster.

   - gh-102310(29): Change the error range for invalid bytes literals.

   - gh-103590(30): Do not wrap a single exception raised from a
     ‘try-except*’ construct in an *note ExceptionGroup: 181.

   - gh-103650(31): Change the perf map format to remove the ‘0x’ prefix
     from the addresses

   - gh-102856(32): Implement the required C tokenizer changes for PEP
     701.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou, Batuhan
     Taskaya, Marta Gómez Macías and sunmy2019.

   - gh-100530(33): Clarify the error message raised when the called
     part of a class pattern isn’t actually a class.

   - gh-101517(34): Fix bug in line numbers of instructions emitted for
     *note except*: 3bf.

   - gh-103492(35): Clarify *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. with literal ‘is’
     comparison by specifying which literal is problematic, since
     comparisons using ‘is’ with e.g.  ‘None’ and bool literals are
     idiomatic.

   - gh-87729(36): Add *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 20e. (and a specialization
     for ‘super().method()’) to speed up ‘super().method()’ and
     ‘super().attr’.  This makes ‘super().method()’ roughly 2.3x faster
     and brings it within 20% of the performance of a simple method
     call.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-103488(37): Change the internal offset distinguishing yield and
     return target addresses, so that the instruction pointer is correct
     for exception handling and other stack unwinding.

   - gh-82012(38): The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is
     deprecated.  It returns the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’ representation such that ‘bool(~True) == True’, which can be
     confusing.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation of bools.  In the rare
     case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’, convert to int explicitly ‘~int(x)’.

   - gh-77757(39): Exceptions raised in a typeobject’s ‘__set_name__’
     method are no longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 180.  Context
     information is added to the exception as a PEP 678(40) note.

   - gh-103333(41): *note AttributeError: 3dc. now retains the ‘name’
     attribute when pickled and unpickled.

   - gh-103242(42): Migrate *note set_ecdh_curve(): fe9. method not to
     use deprecated OpenSSL APIs.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103323(43): We’ve replaced our use of
     ‘_PyRuntime.tstate_current’ with a thread-local variable.  This is
     a fairly low-level implementation detail, and there should be no
     change in behavior.

   - gh-84436(44): The implementation of PEP-683 which adds Immortal
     Objects by using a fixed reference count that skips reference
     counting to make objects truly immutable.

   - gh-102700(45): Allow built-in modules to be submodules.  This
     allows submodules to be statically linked into a CPython binary.

   - gh-103082(46): Implement PEP 669(47) Low Impact Monitoring for
     CPython.

   - gh-88691(48): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 513. entries
     for *note CALL: 522.

   - gh-102500(49): Make the buffer protocol accessible in Python code
     using the new ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’ magic methods.
     See PEP 688(50) for details.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-97933(51): PEP 709(52): inline list, dict and set comprehensions
     to improve performance and reduce bytecode size.

   - gh-99184(53): Bypass instance attribute access of ‘__name__’ in
     ‘repr’ of *note weakref.ref: e96.

   - gh-98003(54): Complex function calls are now faster and consume no
     C stack space.

   - bpo-39610(55): ‘len()’ for 0-dimensional *note memoryview: 185.
     objects (such as ‘memoryview(ctypes.c_uint8(42))’) now raises a
     *note TypeError: 2c4.  Previously this returned ‘1’, which was not
     consistent with ‘mem_0d[0]’ raising an *note IndexError: 13c2.

   - bpo-31821(56): Fix ‘pause_reading()’ to work when called from
     ‘connection_made()’ in *note asyncio: a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104615

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104572

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104482

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102818

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104405

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104263

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104142

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104078

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104066

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104028

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104018

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103895

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103907

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103899

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103845

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103763

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103801

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102310

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103650

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100530

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103492

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87729

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103488

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82012

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103333

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103242

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103323

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102700

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (47) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88691

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97933

   (52) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99184

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98003

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39610

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31821


File: python.info,  Node: Library<20>,  Next: Documentation<16>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.3 Library
.................

   - gh-104600(1): *note functools.update_wrapper(): eca. now sets the
     ‘__type_params__’ attribute (added by PEP 695(2)).

   - gh-104340(3): When an ‘asyncio’ pipe protocol loses its connection
     due to an error, and the caller doesn’t await ‘wait_closed()’ on
     the corresponding ‘StreamWriter’, don’t log a warning about an
     exception that was never retrieved.  After all, according to the
     ‘StreamWriter.close()’ docs, the ‘wait_closed()’ call is optional
     (“not mandatory”).

   - gh-104555(4): Fix issue where an *note issubclass(): 5f8. check
     comparing a class ‘X’ against a *note runtime-checkable protocol:
     152. ‘Y’ with non-callable members would not cause *note TypeError:
     2c4. to be raised if an *note isinstance(): 151. call had
     previously been made comparing an instance of ‘X’ to ‘Y’.  This
     issue was present in edge cases on Python 3.11, but became more
     prominent in 3.12 due to some unrelated changes that were made to
     runtime-checkable protocols.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104372(5): Refactored the ‘_posixsubprocess’ internals to avoid
     Python C API usage between fork and exec when marking ‘pass_fds=’
     file descriptors inheritable.

   - gh-104484(6): Added 'case_sensitive' argument to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 1d7.

   - gh-75367(7): Fix data descriptor detection in *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8.

   - gh-104536(8): Fix a race condition in the internal
     ‘multiprocessing.process’ cleanup logic that could manifest as an
     unintended ‘AttributeError’ when calling ‘process.close()’.

   - gh-103857(9): Update datetime deprecations’ stracktrace to point to
     the calling line

   - gh-101520(10): Move the core functionality of the ‘tracemalloc’
     module in the ‘Python/’ folder, leaving just the module wrapper in
     ‘Modules/’.

   - gh-104392(11): Remove undocumented and unused ‘_paramspec_tvars’
     attribute from some classes in *note typing: 104.

   - gh-102613(12): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5.
     raised *note RecursionError: bf7. when walking deep directory
     trees.

   - gh-103000(13): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.asdict():
     153b. for the common case where 'dict_factory' is ‘dict’.  Patch by
     David C Ellis.

   - gh-104301(14): Allow leading whitespace in disambiguated statements
     in *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-104139(15): Teach ‘urllib.parse.unsplit()’ to retain the ‘"//"’
     when assembling ‘itms-services://?action=generate-bugs’ style Apple
     Platform Deployment(16) URLs.

   - gh-104307(17): *note socket.getnameinfo(): 153c. now releases the
     GIL while contacting the DNS server

   - gh-104310(18): Users may now use
     ‘importlib.util.allowing_all_extensions()’ (a context manager) to
     temporarily disable the strict compatibility checks for importing
     extension modules in subinterpreters.

   - gh-87695(19): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5.
     raised *note OSError: 65c. when it encountered a symlink to an
     overly long path.

   - gh-104265(20): Prevent possible crash by disallowing instantiation
     of the ‘_csv.Reader’ and ‘_csv.Writer’ types.  The regression was
     introduced in 3.10.0a4 with PR 23224 (bpo-14935(21)).  Patch by
     Radislav Chugunov.

   - gh-102613(22): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     1d5. when expanding recursive wildcards (”‘**’”) by merging
     adjacent wildcards and de-duplicating results only when necessary.

   - gh-65772(23): Remove unneeded comments and code in turtle.py.

   - gh-90208(24): Fixed issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5.
     returned incomplete results when it encountered a *note
     PermissionError: bcb.  This method now suppresses all *note
     OSError: 65c. exceptions, except those raised from calling *note
     is_dir(): 877. on the top-level path.

   - gh-104144(25): Optimize *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 198.  Skip scheduling a done
     callback if a TaskGroup task completes eagerly.

   - gh-104144(26): Optimize *note asyncio.gather(): 40c. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 198. to complete eagerly if all
     fututres completed eagerly.  Avoid scheduling done callbacks for
     futures that complete eagerly.

   - gh-104114(27): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5.
     returns paths using the case of non-wildcard segments for
     corresponding path segments, rather than the real filesystem case.

   - gh-104104(28): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     1d5. by using *note re.IGNORECASE: 153d. to implement
     case-insensitive matching.

   - gh-104102(29): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     1d5. when evaluating patterns that contain ‘'../'’ segments.

   - gh-103822(30): Update the return type of ‘weekday’ to the newly
     added Day attribute

   - gh-103629(31): Update the ‘repr’ of *note typing.Unpack: 1477.
     according to PEP 692(32).

   - gh-103963(33): Make *note dis: 37. display the names of the args
     for ‘CALL_INTRINSIC_*’.

   - gh-104035(34): Do not ignore user-defined ‘__getstate__’ and
     ‘__setstate__’ methods for slotted frozen dataclasses.

   - gh-103987(35): In *note mmap: 8f, fix several bugs that could lead
     to access to memory-mapped files after they have been invalidated.

   - gh-103977(36): Improve import time of *note platform: a9. module.

   - gh-88773(37): Added *note turtle.teleport(): 153e. to the *note
     turtle: 101. module to move a turtle to a new point without tracing
     a line, visible or invisible.  Patch by Liam Gersten.

   - gh-103935(38): Use *note io.open_code(): 153f. for files to be
     executed instead of raw *note open(): 2a6.

   - gh-68968(39): Fixed garbled output of *note assertEqual(): 2b3.
     when an input lacks final newline.

   - gh-100370(40): Fix potential *note OverflowError: 6c7. in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.blobopen(): 496. for 32-bit builds.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-102628(41): Substitute CTRL-D with CTRL-Z in *note sqlite3: ce.
     CLI banner when running on Windows.

   - gh-103636(42): Module-level attributes ‘January’ and ‘February’ are
     deprecated from *note calendar: 14.

   - gh-103583(43): Isolate ‘_multibytecodec’ and codecs extension
     modules.  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103848(44): Add checks to ensure that ‘[’ bracketed ‘]’ hosts
     found by *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bc7. are of IPv6 or
     IPvFuture format.

   - gh-103872(45): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.2.

   - gh-99944(46): Make *note dis: 37. display the value of oparg of
     *note KW_NAMES: 1540.

   - gh-74940(47): The C.UTF-8 locale is no longer converted to
     en_US.UTF-8, enabling the use of UTF-8 encoding on systems which
     have no locales installed.

   - gh-103861(48): Fix ‘zipfile.Zipfile’ creating invalid zip files
     when ‘force_zip64’ was used to add files to them.  Patch by Carey
     Metcalfe.

   - gh-103857(49): Deprecated *note datetime.datetime.utcnow(): 22c.
     and *note datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(): 22d.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103839(50): Avoid compilation error due to tommath.h not being
     found when building Tkinter against Tcl 8.7 built with bundled
     libtommath.

   - gh-103791(51): *note contextlib.suppress: dc3. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of an *note ExceptionGroup:
     181.  If other exceptions exist on the group, they are re-raised in
     a group that does not contain the suppressed exceptions.

   - gh-90750(52): Use *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 84c.
     in the implementation of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1468,
     which should now accept only valid ISO dates.  (Patch by Paul
     Ganssle)

   - gh-103685(53): Prepare ‘tkinter.Menu.index()’ for Tk 8.7 so that it
     does not raise ‘TclError: expected integer but got ""’ when it
     should return ‘None’.

   - gh-81403(54): *note urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler: 1541. no longer
     raises ‘URLError’ if a cached FTP instance is reused.  ftplib’s
     endtransfer method calls voidresp to drain the connection to handle
     FTP instance reuse properly.

   - gh-103699(55): Add ‘__orig_bases__’ to non-generic TypedDicts,
     call-based TypedDicts, and call-based NamedTuples.  Other
     TypedDicts and NamedTuples already had the attribute.

   - gh-103693(56): Add convenience variable feature to *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-92248(57): Deprecate ‘type’, ‘choices’, and ‘metavar’ parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’.

   - gh-89415(58): Add *note socket: cb. constants for source-specific
     multicast.  Patch by Reese Hyde.

   - gh-103673(59): *note socketserver: cc. gains
     ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and ‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes.
     Patch by Jay Berry.

   - gh-103636(60): Added Enum for months and days in the calendar
     module.

   - gh-84976(61): Create a new ‘Lib/_pydatetime.py’ file that defines
     the Python version of the ‘datetime’ module, and make ‘datetime’
     import the contents of the new library only if the C implementation
     is missing.  Currently, the full Python implementation is defined
     and then deleted if the C implementation is not available, slowing
     down ‘import datetime’ unnecessarily.

   - gh-103596(62): Attributes/methods are no longer shadowed by
     same-named enum members, although they may be shadowed by
     enum.property’s.

   - gh-103584(63): Updated ‘importlib.metadata’ with changes from
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.2 through 6.5.0, including: Support
     ‘installed-files.txt’ for ‘Distribution.files’ when present.
     ‘PackageMetadata’ now stipulates an additional ‘get’ method
     allowing for easy querying of metadata keys that may not be
     present.  ‘packages_distributions’ now honors packages and modules
     with Python modules that not ‘.py’ sources (e.g.  ‘.pyc’, ‘.so’).
     Expand protocol for ‘PackageMetadata.get_all’ to match the upstream
     implementation of ‘email.message.Message.get_all’ in
     python/typeshed#9620.  Deprecated use of ‘Distribution’ without
     defining abstract methods.  Deprecated expectation that
     ‘PackageMetadata.__getitem__’ will return ‘None’ for missing keys.
     In the future, it will raise a ‘KeyError’.

   - gh-103578(64): Fixed a bug where *note pdb: a4. crashes when
     reading source file with different encoding by replacing *note
     io.open(): 2a7. with *note io.open_code(): 153f.  The new method
     would also call into the hook set by *note
     PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1542.

   - gh-103556(65): Now creating *note inspect.Signature: 563. objects
     with positional-only parameter with a default followed by a
     positional-or-keyword parameter without one is impossible.

   - gh-103559(66): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.1.

   - gh-103548(67): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1543. and *note cwd(): 1544. by joining
     paths only when necessary.  Also improve performance of *note
     pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute(): 1545. on Posix by skipping path
     parsing and normalization.

   - gh-103538(68): Remove ‘_tkinter’ module code guarded by definition
     of the ‘TK_AQUA’ macro which was only needed for Tk 8.4.7 or
     earlier and was never actually defined by any build system or
     documented for manual use.

   - gh-103533(69): Update *note cProfile: 27. to use PEP 669 API

   - gh-103525(70): Fix misleading exception message when mixed ‘str’
     and ‘bytes’ arguments are supplied to *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce.
     and *note Path: 14f.

   - gh-103489(71): Add *note getconfig(): 1e7. and *note setconfig():
     1e8. to *note Connection: 1e3. to make configuration changes to a
     database connection.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103365(72): Set default Flag boundary to ‘STRICT’ and fix
     bitwise operations.

   - gh-103472(73): Avoid a potential *note ResourceWarning: ab9. in
     *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 9b1. by closing the proxy /
     tunnel’s CONNECT response explicitly.

   - gh-103462(74): Fixed an issue with using *note writelines(): 1408.
     in *note asyncio: a. to send very large payloads that exceed the
     amount of data that can be written in one call to *note
     socket.socket.send(): c34. or *note socket.socket.sendmsg(): 197,
     resulting in the remaining buffer being left unwritten.

   - gh-103449(75): Fix a bug in doc string generation in *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 3d4.

   - gh-103092(76): Isolate ‘_collections’ (apply PEP 687(77)).  Patch
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103357(78): Added support for *note logging.Formatter: 131f.
     ‘defaults’ parameter to *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1055.
     and *note logging.config.fileConfig(): 9c4.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-103092(79): Adapt the *note winreg: 116. extension module to PEP
     687(80).

   - gh-74690(81): The performance of *note isinstance(): 151. checks
     against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 152. has been
     considerably improved for protocols that only have a few members.
     To achieve this improvement, several internal implementation
     details of the *note typing: 104. module have been refactored,
     including ‘typing._ProtocolMeta.__instancecheck__’,
     ‘typing._is_callable_members_only’, and
     ‘typing._get_protocol_attrs’.  Patches by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(82): The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now
     considered “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has been
     created.  See *note “What’s new in Python 3.12”: 1ff. for more
     details.

   - gh-103256(83): Fixed a bug that caused *note hmac: 68. to raise an
     exception when the requested hash algorithm was not available in
     OpenSSL despite being available separately as part of ‘hashlib’
     itself.  It now falls back properly to the built-in.  This could
     happen when, for example, your OpenSSL does not include SHA3
     support and you want to compute ‘hmac.digest(b'K', b'M',
     'sha3_256')’.

   - gh-102778(84): Support ‘sys.last_exc’ in *note idlelib: 71.

   - gh-103285(85): Improve performance of *note
     ast.get_source_segment(): 835.

   - gh-103225(86): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a4. when displaying line
     numbers of module-level source code.

   - gh-103092(87): Adapt the *note msvcrt: 92. extension module to PEP
     687(88).

   - gh-103092(89): Adapt the *note winsound: 117. extension module to
     PEP 687(90).

   - gh-93910(91): Remove deprecation of enum ‘member.member’ access.

   - gh-102978(92): Fixes *note unittest.mock.patch(): d26. not
     enforcing function signatures for methods decorated with
     ‘@classmethod’ or ‘@staticmethod’ when patch is called with
     ‘autospec=True’.

   - gh-103092(93): Isolate ‘_socket’ (apply PEP 687(94)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100479(95): Add *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments(): 1cf,
     which creates a path object from arguments.  This method is called
     whenever a derivative path is created, such as from *note
     pathlib.PurePath.parent: 1546.  Subclasses may override this method
     to share information between path objects.

   - gh-103220(96): Fix issue where *note os.path.join(): 1547. added a
     slash when joining onto an incomplete UNC drive with a trailing
     slash on Windows.

   - gh-103204(97): Fixes *note http.server: 70. accepting HTTP requests
     with HTTP version numbers preceded by ‘+’, or ‘-’, or with
     digit-separating ‘_’ characters.  The length of the version numbers
     is also constrained.

   - gh-75586(98): Fix various Windows-specific issues with
     ‘shutil.which’.

   - gh-103193(99): Improve performance of *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103176(100): *note sys._current_exceptions(): 1f0. now returns a
     mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a
     ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ tuple.

   - gh-103143(101): Polish the help messages and docstrings of *note
     pdb: a4.

   - gh-103015(102): Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1e6, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103000(103): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.astuple():
     1548. and *note dataclasses.asdict(): 153b. in cases where the
     contents are common Python types.

   - gh-102953(104): The extraction methods in *note tarfile: dd, and
     *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a, have a new a 'filter' argument
     that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or
     dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination
     directory.  See *note Extraction filters: 18b. for details.

   - gh-97696(105): Implemented an eager task factory in asyncio.  When
     used as a task factory on an event loop, it performs eager
     execution of coroutines.  Coroutines that are able to complete
     synchronously (e.g.  return or raise without blocking) are returned
     immediately as a finished task, and the task is never scheduled to
     the event loop.  If the coroutine blocks, the (pending) task is
     scheduled and returned.

   - gh-81079(106): Add 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5. and *note rglob(): 1d6.

   - gh-101819(107): Isolate the *note io: 7d. extension module by
     applying PEP 687(108).  Patch by Kumar Aditya, Victor Stinner, and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91896(109): Deprecate *note collections.abc.ByteString: 22a.

   - gh-101362(110): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 14f. construction by
     omitting the path anchor from the internal list of path parts.

   - gh-102114(111): Functions in the *note dis: 37. module that accept
     a source code string as argument now print a more concise traceback
     when the string contains a syntax or indentation error.

   - gh-62432(112): The *note unittest: 106. runner will now exit with
     status code 5 if no tests were run.  It is common for test runner
     misconfiguration to fail to find any tests, this should be an
     error.

   - gh-78079(113): Fix incorrect normalization of UNC device path
     roots, and partial UNC share path roots, in *note pathlib.PurePath:
     1ce.  Pathlib no longer appends a trailing slash to such paths.

   - gh-85984(114): Add *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 14cc. and *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 14a7. to *note tty: 100. and modernize, the
     behavior of *note tty.setraw(): 14cb. and *note tty.setcbreak():
     14a6. to use POSIX.1-2017 Chapter 11 “General Terminal Interface”
     flag masks by default.

   - gh-101688(115): Implement *note types.get_original_bases(): 1fc. to
     provide further introspection for types.

   - gh-101640(116): *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2c5. now catches
     errors when writing messages, such as when *note sys.stderr: 792.
     is ‘None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-83861(117): Fix datetime.astimezone method return value when
     invoked on a naive datetime instance that represents local time
     falling in a timezone transition gap.  PEP 495 requires that
     instances with fold=1 produce earlier times than those with fold=0
     in this case.

   - gh-89550(118): Decrease execution time of some *note gzip: 65. file
     writes by 15% by adding more appropriate buffering.

   - gh-95299(119): Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from
     ‘ensurepip’, and stop installing setuptools in environments created
     by ‘venv’.

   - gh-99353(120): Respect the *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 9b1.
     ‘.debuglevel’ flag in ‘urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler’ when its
     constructor parameter ‘debuglevel’ is not set.  And do the same for
     ‘*HTTPS*’.

   - gh-98040(121): Remove the long-deprecated ‘imp’ module.

   - gh-97850(122): Deprecate *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 237. and
     *note pkgutil.get_loader(): 238. in favor of *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 239.

   - gh-94473(123): Flatten arguments in ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’.  It
     now accepts not only ‘x1, y1, x2, y2, ...’ and ‘[x1, y1, x2, y2,
     ...]’, but also ‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’ and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2),
     ...]’.

   - gh-98040(124): Remove more deprecated importlib APIs:
     ‘find_loader()’, ‘find_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.Finder’,
     ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’.

   - gh-96522(125): Fix potential deadlock in pty.spawn()

   - gh-96534(126): Support divert(4) added in FreeBSD 14.

   - gh-87474(127): Fix potential file descriptor leaks in *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8fa.

   - gh-94906(128): Support multiple steps in *note math.nextafter():
     1bd.  Patch by Shantanu Jain and Matthias Gorgens.

   - gh-51574(129): Make *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9. return absolute
     paths when its 'dir' parameter is relative.

   - gh-94518(130): Convert private ‘_posixsubprocess.fork_exec()’ to
     use Argument Clinic.

   - gh-92184(131): When creating zip files using *note zipfile: 131,
     ‘os.altsep’, if not ‘None’, will always be treated as a path
     separator even when it is not ‘/’.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-46797(132): Deprecation warnings are now emitted for ‘ast.Num’,
     ‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’.
     These have been documented as deprecated since Python 3.8, and will
     be removed in Python 3.14.

   - bpo-44844(133): Enables *note webbrowser: 115. to detect and launch
     Microsoft Edge browser.

   - bpo-45606(134): Fixed the bug in *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5. –
     previously a dangling symlink would not be found by this method
     when the pattern is an exact match, but would be found when the
     pattern contains a wildcard or the recursive wildcard (‘**’).  With
     this change, a dangling symlink will be found in both cases.

   - bpo-23041(135): Add *note QUOTE_STRINGS: 1a7. and *note
     QUOTE_NOTNULL: 1a6. to the suite of *note csv: 29. module quoting
     styles.

   - bpo-24964(136): Added *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 1504. that
     provides access to the HTTP headers on a proxy server response to
     the ‘CONNECT’ request.

   - bpo-17258(137): *note multiprocessing: 93. now supports stronger
     HMAC algorithms for inter-process connection authentication rather
     than only HMAC-MD5.

   - bpo-39744(138): Make *note
     asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate(): 1549. close the
     subprocess’s stdin even when called with ‘input=None’.

   - bpo-22708(139): http.client CONNECT method tunnel improvements: Use
     HTTP 1.1 protocol; send a matching Host: header with CONNECT, if
     one is not provided; convert IDN domain names to Punycode.  Patch
     by Michael Handler.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104600

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104340

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104555

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104484

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75367

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101520

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104392

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104301

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104139

   (16) 
https://support.apple.com/en-gb/guide/deployment/depce7cefc4d/web

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104307

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87695

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104265

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14935

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65772

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90208

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104114

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104104

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104102

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103822

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103963

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104035

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103987

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103977

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88773

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103935

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68968

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100370

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102628

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103583

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103848

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103872

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99944

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74940

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103861

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103839

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90750

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103685

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81403

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89415

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103673

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84976

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103596

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103584

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103578

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103556

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103559

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103548

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103538

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103533

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103525

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103365

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103472

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103462

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103449

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (77) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103357

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103256

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103285

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103225

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (88) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102978

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (94) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100479

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103220

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103204

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75586

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103143

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102953

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97696

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81079

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101819

   (108) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102114

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62432

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78079

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101688

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101640

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83861

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89550

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99353

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96522

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96534

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87474

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51574

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92184

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46797

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44844

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45606

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23041

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24964

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39744

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22708


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<16>,  Next: Tests<16>,  Prev: Library<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-67056(1): Document that the effect of registering or
     unregistering an *note atexit: c. cleanup function from within a
     registered cleanup function is undefined.

   - gh-103629(2): Mention the new way of typing ‘**kwargs’ with
     ‘Unpack’ and ‘TypedDict’ introduced in PEP 692(3).

   - gh-48241(4): Clarifying documentation about the url parameter to
     urllib.request.urlopen and urllib.request.Request needing to be
     encoded properly.

   - gh-86094(5): Add support for Unicode Path Extra Field in ZipFile.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim and Andrea Giudiceandrea

   - gh-99202(6): Fix extension type from documentation for compiling in
     C++20 mode

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67056

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48241

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86094

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99202


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<16>,  Next: Build<15>,  Prev: Documentation<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-104494(1): Update ‘test_pack_configure_in’ and
     ‘test_place_configure_in’ for changes to error message formatting
     in Tk 8.7.

   - gh-104461(2): Run test_configure_screen on X11 only, since the
     ‘DISPLAY’ environment variable and ‘-screen’ option for toplevels
     are not useful on Tk for Win32 or Aqua.

   - gh-86275(3): Added property-based tests to the *note zoneinfo: 134.
     tests, along with stubs for the ‘hypothesis’ interface.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103329(4): Regression tests for the behaviour of
     ‘unittest.mock.PropertyMock’ were added.

   - gh-102795(5): fix use of poll in test_epoll’s test_control_and_wait

   - gh-75729(6): Fix the *note os.spawn*: 154c. tests failing on
     Windows when the working directory or interpreter path contains
     spaces.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86275

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103329

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102795

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75729


File: python.info,  Node: Build<15>,  Next: Windows<15>,  Prev: Tests<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): BOLT optimization is now applied to the libpython
     shared library if building a shared library.  BOLT instrumentation
     and application settings can now be influenced via the
     ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ configure variables.

   - gh-99017(2): ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   - gh-104490(3): Define ‘.PHONY’ / virtual make targets consistently
     and properly.

   - gh-104106(4): Add gcc fallback of mkfifoat/mknodat for macOS. Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103532(5): The ‘TKINTER_PROTECT_LOADTK’ macro is no longer
     defined or used in the ‘_tkinter’ module.  It was previously only
     defined when building against Tk 8.4.13 and older, but Tk older
     than 8.5.12 has been unsupported since gh-91152(6).

   - gh-99069(7): Extended workaround defining ‘static_assert’ when
     missing from the libc headers to all clang and gcc builds.  In
     particular, this fixes building on macOS <= 10.10.

   - gh-100220(8): Changed the default value of the ‘SHELL’ Makefile
     variable from ‘/bin/sh’ to ‘/bin/sh -e’ to ensure that complex
     recipes correctly fail after an error.  Previously, ‘make install’
     could fail to install some files and yet return a successful
     result.

   - gh-90656(9): Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     Patch by Zhang Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99017

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104106

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103532

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91152

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99069

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100220

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<15>,  Next: macOS<11>,  Prev: Build<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-104623(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-82814(2): Fix a potential ‘[Errno 13] Permission denied’ when
     using *note shutil.copystat(): fd2. within Windows Subsystem for
     Linux (WSL) on a mounted filesystem by adding ‘errno.EACCES’ to the
     list of ignored errors within the internal implementation.

   - gh-103088(3): Fix virtual environment ‘activate’ script having
     incorrect line endings for Cygwin.

   - gh-103088(4): Fixes venvs not working in bash on Windows across
     different disks

   - gh-102997(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.41.2.

   - gh-88013(6): Fixed a bug where *note TypeError: 2c4. was raised
     when calling ‘ntpath.realpath()’ with a bytes parameter in some
     cases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82814

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88013


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<11>,  Next: IDLE<13>,  Prev: Windows<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-99834(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.13.

   - gh-104623(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-103545(3): Add ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD’,
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS’, ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG’ and
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI’.  These can be used with ‘os.setpriority’ to
     run the process at a lower priority and make use of the efficiency
     cores on Apple Silicon systems.

   - gh-104180(4): Support reading SOCKS proxy configuration from macOS
     System Configuration.  Patch by Sam Schott.

   - gh-60436(5): update curses textbox to additionally handle backspace
     using the ‘curses.ascii.DEL’ key press.

   - gh-102997(6): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.41.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104180

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60436

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<13>,  Next: Tools/Demos<11>,  Prev: macOS<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104499(1): Fix completions for Tk Aqua 8.7 (currently blank).

   - gh-104496(2): About prints both tcl and tk versions if different
     (expected someday).

   - gh-88496(3): Fix IDLE test hang on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104499

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104496

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88496


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<11>,  Next: C API<13>,  Prev: IDLE<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-104389(1): Argument Clinic C converters now accept the ‘unused’
     keyword, for wrapping a parameter with *note Py_UNUSED: 1414.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104389


File: python.info,  Node: C API<13>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<11>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.22.20.11 C API
................

   - gh-101291(1): Added unstable C API for extracting the value of
     “compact” integers: *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 322. and
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 323.

   - gh-104109(2): We’ve added ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’ and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig’ to the public C-API (but not the stable ABI;
     not yet at least).  The new function may be used to create a new
     interpreter with various features configured.  The function was
     added to support PEP 684 (per-interpreter GIL).

   - gh-103968(3): *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316. and its variants now
     allow creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 318.
     The ‘tp_new’ is ignored.  This behavior is deprecated and will be
     disallowed in 3.14+.  The new *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df.
     already disallows it.

   - gh-103743(4): Add *note PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData():
     1553. function that can be used to allocate additional memory after
     an object for data not managed by Python.

   - gh-103295(5): Introduced *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     1554, *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1555. and *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini(): 1556.  These allow extension
     modules (JIT compilers in particular) to write to perf-map files in
     a thread safe manner.  The *note Python support for the Linux perf
     profiler: 1557. also uses these APIs to write entries in the
     perf-map file.

   - gh-103509(6): Added C API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque: *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6. can now be zero
     or negative, *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2d7. can be used to get
     subclass-specific data, and *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2d9. can
     be used to safely extend variable-size objects.  See PEP 697(7) for
     details.

   - gh-103091(8): Add a new C-API function to eagerly assign a version
     tag to a PyTypeObject: ‘PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag()’.

   - gh-101408(9): *note PyObject_GC_Resize: 1558. should calculate
     preheader size if needed.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98836(10): Add support of more formatting options (left
     aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’,
     ‘wchar_t’ C strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     30d.

   - gh-96803(11): Add unstable C-API functions to get the code object,
     lasti and line number from the internal ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ in
     the limited API. The functions are:

        * ‘PyCodeObject * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104109

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103743

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103091

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101408

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96803


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.21 Python 3.12.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-04-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* C API: C API<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<20>,  Next: Library<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102192(1): Deprecated ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ in favour of
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’.

   - gh-89987(2): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: 513. entries
     for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 155b.

   - gh-102859(3): Removed ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ instructions.

   - gh-101975(4): Fixed ‘stacktop’ value on tracing entries to avoid
     corruption on garbage collection.

   - gh-102778(5): Add *note sys.last_exc: 1ec. and deprecate *note
     sys.last_type: 1ed, *note sys.last_value: 1ee. and *note
     sys.last_traceback: 1ef, which hold the same information in its
     legacy form.

   - gh-100982(6): Replace all occurrences of ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ with
     *note COMPARE_OP: 7c5.

   - gh-102701(7): Fix overflow when creating very large dict.

   - gh-102755(8): Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 303. which takes
     just an exception instance, to replace the legacy ‘PyErr_Display()’
     which takes the ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ triplet.

   - gh-102594(9): Add note to exception raised in ‘PyErr_SetObject’
     when normalization fails.

   - gh-90997(10): Shrink the number of inline *note CACHE: 513. entries
     used by *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 155c.

   - gh-102491(11): Improve import time of ‘platform’ by removing
     IronPython version parsing.  The IronPython version parsing was not
     functional (see
     ‘https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3/issues/1667’).

   - gh-101291(12): Rearrage bits in first field (after header) of
     PyLongObject.  * Bits 0 and 1: 1 - sign.  I.e.  0 for positive
     numbers, 1 for zero and 2 for negative numbers.  * Bit 2 reserved
     (probably for the immortal bit) * Bits 3+ the unsigned size.

     This makes a few operations slightly more efficient, and will
     enable a more compact and faster 2s-complement representation of
     most ints in future.

   - gh-102397(13): Fix segfault from race condition in signal handling
     during garbage collection.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102406(14): *note codecs: 1b. encoding/decoding errors now get
     the context information (which operation and which codecs) attached
     as PEP 678(15) notes instead of through chaining a new instance of
     the exception.

   - gh-102281(16): Fix potential nullptr dereference and use of
     uninitialized memory in fileutils.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102300(17): Reuse operands with refcount of 1 in float
     specializations of BINARY_OP.

   - gh-102213(18): Fix performance loss when accessing an object’s
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-102255(19): Improve build support for the Xbox.  Patch by Max
     Bachmann.

   - gh-102027(20): Fix SSE2 and SSE3 detection in ‘_blake2’ internal
     module.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101865(21): Deprecate ‘co_lnotab’ in code objects, schedule it
     for removal in Python 3.14

   - bpo-1635741(22): Adapt ‘_pickle’ to PEP 687(23).  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Erlend Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89987

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101975

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102701

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102594

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102491

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102397

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102406

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102281

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102300

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102255

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101865

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<21>,  Next: Documentation<17>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.2 Library
.................

   - gh-103085(1): Pure python *note locale.getencoding(): 25d. will not
     warn deprecation.

   - gh-103068(2): It’s no longer possible to register conditional
     breakpoints in *note Pdb: 77a. that raise *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102549(3): Don’t ignore exceptions in member type creation.

   - gh-103056(4): Ensure final ‘_generate_next_value_’ is a
     ‘staticmethod’.

   - gh-103046(5): Display current line label correctly in *note dis:
     37. when ‘show_caches’ is False and ‘lasti’ points to a CACHE
     entry.

   - gh-102433(6): *note isinstance(): 151. checks against *note
     runtime-checkable protocols: 152. now use *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8. rather than *note hasattr(): 200. to
     lookup whether attributes exist.  This means that descriptors and
     *note __getattr__(): 201. methods are no longer unexpectedly
     evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks against runtime-checkable
     protocols.  However, it may also mean that some objects which used
     to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no
     longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+,
     and vice versa.  Most users are unlikely to be affected by this
     change.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103023(7): It’s no longer possible to register expressions to
     display in *note Pdb: 77a. that raise *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102947(8): Improve traceback when *note dataclasses.fields():
     155e. is called on a non-dataclass.  Patch by Alex Waygood

   - gh-102780(9): The *note asyncio.Timeout: 14c9. context manager now
     works reliably even when performing cleanup due to task
     cancellation.  Previously it could raise a *note CancelledError:
     837. instead of an *note TimeoutError: 155f. in such cases.

   - gh-102871(10): Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note
     webbrowser: 115.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape,
     Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and
     below.

   - gh-102839(11): Improve performance of *note math.log(): 134b.
     arguments handling by removing the argument clinic.

   - gh-102828(12): Add the ‘onexc’ arg to *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df,
     which is like ‘onerror’ but expects an exception instance rather
     than an exc_info tuple.  Deprecate ‘onerror’.

   - gh-88965(13): typing: Fix a bug relating to substitution in custom
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 169.  Previously, if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ was substituted with a parameters list that itself
     contained a *note TypeVar: 16a, the ‘TypeVar’ in the parameters
     list could not be subsequently substituted.  This is now fixed.

     Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - gh-76846(14): Fix issue where ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods
     of *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. and *note Path: 14f. subclasses
     were not called in some circumstances.

   - gh-78530(15): *note asyncio.wait(): 1a0. now accepts generators
     yielding tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102748(16): *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 19f. now returns
     ‘False’ for generators as *note asyncio: a. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102670(17): Optimized fmean(), correlation(), covariance(), and
     linear_regression() using the new math.sumprod() function.

   - gh-102615(18): Typing: Improve the ‘repr’ of generic aliases for
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 169.  (Use square brackets
     to represent a parameter list.)

   - gh-100112(19): *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 83a. now always
     returns a coroutine when wrapping an awaitable object.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102578(20): Speed up setting or deleting mutable attributes on
     non-dataclass subclasses of frozen dataclasses.  Due to the
     implementation of ‘__setattr__’ and ‘__delattr__’ for frozen
     dataclasses, this previously had a time complexity of 'O'('n').  It
     now has a time complexity of 'O'(1).

   - gh-102519(21): Add *note os.listdrives(): 1c2, *note
     os.listvolumes(): 1c3. and *note os.listmounts(): 1c4. functions on
     Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points

   - gh-74468(22): Attribute name of the extracted *note tarfile: dd.
     file object now holds filename of itself rather than of the archive
     it is contained in.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-102378(23): Private helper method
     ‘inspect._signature_strip_non_python_syntax’ will no longer strip
     ‘/’ from the input string.

   - gh-79940(24): Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 1b6. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 1b7.  Patch by Thomas Krennwallner.

   - gh-102103(25): Add ‘module’ argument to *note
     dataclasses.make_dataclass(): 1560. and make classes produced by it
     pickleable.

   - gh-102069(26): Fix ‘__weakref__’ descriptor generation for custom
     dataclasses.

   - gh-102038(27): Skip a ‘stat’ in *note site: c6. if we have already
     found a ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   - gh-98886(28): Fix issues when defining dataclasses that have fields
     with specific underscore names that aren’t clearly reserved by
     *note dataclasses: 2f.

   - gh-101673(29): Fix a *note pdb: a4. bug where ‘ll’ clears the
     changes to local variables.

   - gh-101313(30): Added -h and –help arguments to the webbrowser CLI

   - gh-100372(31): *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d82.
     no longer incorrectly accepts some cases of trailing data when
     parsing DER.

   - gh-89727(32): Fix pathlib.Path.walk RecursionError on deep
     directory trees by rewriting it using iteration instead of
     recursion.

   - gh-100131(33): Added an optional ‘delete’ keyword argument to *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory: 10db.

   - gh-48330(34): Added ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the
     N slowest test cases.  *note unittest.TextTestRunner: 1561. and
     *note unittest.TextTestResult: 2bc. constructors accept a new
     'durations' keyword argument.  Subclasses should take this into
     account or accept ‘**kwargs’.  Added *note
     unittest.TestResult.addDuration(): 1562. method and *note
     unittest.TestResult.collectedDurations: 1509. attribute.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - gh-98169(35): Fix *note dataclasses.astuple(): 1548. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 1062. is present in the attributes.

   - gh-96931(36): Fix incorrect results from *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers(): d00.

   - gh-95495(37): When built against OpenSSL 3.0, the *note ssl: cf.
     module had a bug where it reported unauthenticated EOFs (i.e.
     without close_notify) as a clean TLS-level EOF. It now raises *note
     SSLEOFError: 1563, matching the behavior in previous versions of
     OpenSSL. The *note options: 676. attribute on *note SSLContext:
     277. also no longer includes *note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 675.
     by default.  This option may be set to specify the previous OpenSSL
     3.0 behavior.

   - gh-94684(38): Now *note uuid.uuid3(): 13f0. and *note uuid.uuid5():
     13f2. functions support *note bytes: 2cb. objects as their 'name'
     argument.

   - gh-94440(39): Fix a ‘concurrent.futures.process’ bug where
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ shutdown could hang after a future has been
     quickly submitted and canceled.

   - gh-72346(40): Added deprecation warning to 'isdst' parameter of
     *note email.utils.localtime(): 231.

   - bpo-36305(41): Fix handling of Windows filenames that resemble
     drives, such as ‘./a:b’, in *note pathlib: a3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103085

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103068

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102549

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103056

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103046

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103023

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102947

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102780

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102839

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88965

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76846

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102670

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102615

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100112

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102578

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74468

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102378

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102069

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102038

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98886

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101673

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101313

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100372

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100131

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98169

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96931

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95495

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94684

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94440

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36305


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<17>,  Next: Tests<17>,  Prev: Library<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-103112(1): Add docstring to *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse.read(): 140d. to fix ‘pydoc’ output.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103112


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<17>,  Next: Build<16>,  Prev: Documentation<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-102980(1): Improve test coverage on *note pdb: a4.

   - gh-102537(2): Adjust the error handling strategy in
     ‘test_zoneinfo.TzPathTest.python_tzpath_context’.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - gh-101377(3): Improved test_locale_calendar_formatweekday of
     calendar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102537

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101377


File: python.info,  Node: Build<16>,  Next: Windows<16>,  Prev: Tests<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.5 Build
...............

   - gh-102973(1): Add a dev container (along with accompanying
     Dockerfile) for development purposes.

   - gh-102711(2): Fix ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ compiler warnings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102711


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<16>,  Next: Tools/Demos<12>,  Prev: Build<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-102690(1): Update *note webbrowser: 115. to fall back to
     Microsoft Edge instead of Internet Explorer.

   - gh-99726(2): Improves correctness of stat results for Windows, and
     uses faster API when available

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102690

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<12>,  Next: C API<14>,  Prev: Windows<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-102809(1): ‘Misc/gdbinit’ was removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102809


File: python.info,  Node: C API<14>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.22.21.8 C API
...............

   - gh-102013(1): Add a new (unstable) C-API function for iterating
     over GC’able objects using a callback: ‘PyUnstable_VisitObjects’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102013


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.22.22 Python 3.12.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-03-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* C API: C API<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<17>,  Next: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace builtin hashlib implementations of MD5 and
     SHA1 with verified ones from the HACL* project.

   - gh-101727(2): Updated the OpenSSL version used in Windows and macOS
     binary release builds to 1.1.1t to address CVE 2023-0286(3), CVE
     2022-4303(4), and CVE 2022-4303(5) per the OpenSSL 2023-02-07
     security advisory(6).

   - gh-99108(7): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 66. implementations
     of SHA2-384 and SHA2-512 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(8) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   - gh-101283(9): *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. now uses a safer
     approach to find ‘cmd.exe’ when launching with ‘shell=True’.  Patch
     by Eryk Sun, based on a patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101727

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-0286

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (6) https://openssl-library.org/news/secadv/20230207.txt

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (8) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101283


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<21>,  Next: Library<22>,  Prev: Security<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102493(1): Fix regression in semantics of normalisation in
     ‘PyErr_SetObject’.

   - gh-102416(2): Do not memoize incorrectly automatically generated
     loop rules in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-102356(3): Fix a bug that caused a crash when deallocating
     deeply nested filter objects.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías.

   - gh-102336(4): Cleanup Windows 7 specific special handling.  Patch
     by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102250(5): Fixed a segfault occurring when the interpreter calls
     a ‘__bool__’ method that raises.

   - gh-102126(6): Fix deadlock at shutdown when clearing thread states
     if any finalizer tries to acquire the runtime head lock.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102027(7): Use ‘GetCurrentProcessId’ on Windows when ‘getpid’ is
     unavailable.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102056(8): Fix error handling bugs in interpreter’s exception
     printing code, which could cause a crash on infinite recursion.

   - gh-100982(9): Restrict the scope of the ‘FOR_ITER_RANGE’
     instruction to the scope of the original *note FOR_ITER: 156d.
     instruction, to allow instrumentation.

   - gh-101967(10): Fix possible segfault in
     ‘positional_only_passed_as_keyword’ function, when new list
     created.

   - gh-101952(11): Fix possible segfault in ‘BUILD_SET’ opcode, when
     new set created.

   - gh-74895(12): *note socket.getaddrinfo: 156e. no longer raises
     *note OverflowError: 6c7. for *note int: 184. 'port' values outside
     of the C long range.  Out of range values are left up to the
     underlying string based C library API to report.  A *note
     socket.gaierror: 156f. ‘SAI_SERVICE’ may occur instead, or no error
     at all as not all platform C libraries generate an error.

   - gh-101799(13): Add *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 214. and use it instead
     of ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’.

   - gh-101857(14): Fix xattr support detection on Linux systems by
     widening the check to linux, not just glibc.  This fixes support
     for musl.

   - gh-84783(15): Make the slice object hashable.  Patch by Will
     Bradshaw and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-87849(16): Change the ‘SEND’ instruction to leave the receiver
     on the stack.  This allows the specialized form of ‘SEND’ to skip
     the chain of C calls and jump directly to the ‘RESUME’ in the
     generator or coroutine.

   - gh-101765(17): Fix SystemError / segmentation fault in iter
     ‘__reduce__’ when internal access of ‘builtins.__dict__’ keys
     mutates the iter object.

   - gh-101430(18): Update *note tracemalloc: ff. to handle presize of
     object properly.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101696(19): Invalidate type version tag in
     ‘_PyStaticType_Dealloc’ for static types, avoiding bug where a
     false cache hit could crash the interpreter.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-101632(20): Adds a new *note RETURN_CONST: 21b. instruction.

   - gh-100719(21): Remove gi_code field from generator (and coroutine
     and async generator) objects as it is redundant.  The frame already
     includes a reference to the code object.

   - gh-98627(22): When an interpreter is configured to check (and only
     then), importing an extension module will now fail when the
     extension does not support multiple interpreters (i.e.  doesn’t
     implement PEP 489 multi-phase init).  This does not apply to the
     main interpreter, nor to subinterpreters created with
     ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102493

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102416

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102356

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102336

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102250

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102126

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102056

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101967

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101952

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74895

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101857

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84783

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87849

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101765

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101430

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101696

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98627


File: python.info,  Node: Library<22>,  Next: Documentation<18>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.3 Library
.................

   - gh-102302(1): Micro-optimise hashing of *note inspect.Parameter:
     ca4, reducing the time it takes to hash an instance by around 40%.

   - gh-101979(2): Fix a bug where parentheses in the ‘metavar’ argument
     to *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 1571. were
     dropped.  Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-91038(3): *note platform.platform(): 1572. now has boolean
     default arguments.

   - gh-81652(4): Add *note mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 1573. FreeBSD and
     *note mmap.MAP_CONCEAL: 1574. OpenBSD constants to *note mmap: 8f.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-102179(5): Fix *note os.dup2(): 9d7. error message for negative
     fds.

   - gh-101961(6): For the binary mode, ‘fileinput.hookcompressed()’
     doesn’t set the ‘encoding’ value even if the value is ‘None’.
     Patch by Gihwan Kim.

   - gh-101936(7): The default value of ‘fp’ becomes *note io.BytesIO:
     d38. if *note HTTPError: e84. is initialized without a designated
     ‘fp’ parameter.  Patch by Long Vo.

   - gh-101566(8): In zipfile, sync Path with zipp 3.14(9), including
     fix for extractall on the underlying zipfile after being wrapped in
     ‘Path’.

   - gh-97930(10): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.12(11),
     including fix for ‘MultiplexedPath’ to support directories in
     multiple namespaces (python/importlib_resources#265).

   - gh-101997(12): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     23.0.1)

   - gh-99108(13): The built-in extension modules for *note hashlib: 66.
     SHA2 algorithms, used when OpenSSL does not provide them, now live
     in a single internal ‘_sha2’ module instead of separate ‘_sha256’
     and ‘_sha512’ modules.

   - gh-101892(14): Callable iterators no longer raise *note
     SystemError: 30e. when the callable object exhausts the iterator
     but forgets to either return a sentinel value or raise *note
     StopIteration: a73.

   - gh-87634(15): Remove locking behavior from *note
     functools.cached_property(): 2cf.

   - gh-97786(16): Fix potential undefined behaviour in corner cases of
     floating-point-to-time conversions.

   - gh-101517(17): Fixed bug where *note bdb: f. looks up the source
     line with *note linecache: 84. with a ‘lineno=None’, which causes
     it to fail with an unhandled exception.

   - gh-101773(18): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. for small
     components.  The private argument ‘_normalize’ of the *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1ae. constructor has been removed.

   - gh-101693(19): In *note sqlite3.Cursor.execute(): 23d, *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. is now emitted when *note named
     placeholders: 23e. are used together with parameters supplied as a
     *note sequence: 23f. instead of as a *note dict: 240.  Starting
     from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied
     as a sequence will raise a *note ProgrammingError: 241.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-101446(20): Change repr of *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6.
     to use regular dictionary formatting instead of pairs of keys and
     values.

   - gh-101362(21): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. construction
     by handling arguments more uniformly.  When a *note pathlib.Path:
     14f. argument is supplied, we use its string representation rather
     than joining its parts with *note os.path.join(): 1547.

   - gh-101362(22): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. construction
     by calling *note os.path.join(): 1547. only when two or more
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101362(23): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 14f. construction by
     running the path flavour compatibility check only when pathlib is
     imported.

   - gh-85984(24): Refactored the implementation of *note pty.fork():
     1575. to use *note os.login_tty(): 1576.

     A *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is now raised by
     ‘pty.master_open()’ and ‘pty.slave_open()’.  They were undocumented
     and deprecated long long ago in the docstring in favor of *note
     pty.openpty(): 255.

   - gh-101561(25): Add a new decorator *note typing.override(): 15c.
     See PEP 698(26) for details.  Patch by Steven Troxler.

   - gh-63301(27): Set exit code when *note tabnanny: dc. CLI exits on
     error.

   - gh-101360(28): Fix anchor matching in
     ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.match()’.  Path and pattern anchors are
     now matched with *note fnmatch: 5a, just like other path parts.
     This allows patterns such as ‘"*:/Users/*"’ to be matched.

   - gh-101277(29): Remove global state from *note itertools: 7f. module
     ( PEP 687(30)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100809(31): Fix handling of drive-relative paths (like ‘C:’ and
     ‘C:foo’) in *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1543.  This method now
     uses the OS API to retrieve the correct current working directory
     for the drive.

   - gh-99138(32): Apply PEP 687(33) to *note zoneinfo: 134.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-96764(34): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. now uses *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 40d. as its underlying implementation.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88233(35): Correctly preserve “extra” fields in ‘zipfile’
     regardless of their ordering relative to a zip64 “extra.”

   - bpo-23224(36): Fix segfaults when creating *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1577. and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1578.
     objects without calling ‘__init__()’, and fix leakage of locks and
     internal buffers when calling the ‘__init__()’ methods of *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 1577, *note lzma.LZMACompressor: 1579, *note
     bz2.BZ2Compressor: 157a, and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 1578.
     objects multiple times.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102302

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101979

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91038

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81652

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101936

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101566

   (9) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-14-0

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (11) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v5-12-0

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101997

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101892

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97786

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101773

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101446

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63301

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101360

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101277

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100809

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99138

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96764

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23224


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<18>,  Next: Tests<18>,  Prev: Library<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85417(1): Update *note cmath: 18. documentation to clarify
     behaviour on branch cuts.

   - gh-97725(2): Fix *note asyncio.Task.print_stack(): 157c.
     description for ‘file=None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97725


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<18>,  Next: Build<17>,  Prev: Documentation<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-102019(1): Fix deadlock on shutdown if
     ‘test_current_{exception,frames}’ fails.  Patch by Jacob Bower.

   - gh-85984(2): Utilize new “winsize” functions from termios in pty
     tests.

   - gh-89792(3): ‘test_tools’ now copies up to 10x less source data to
     a temporary directory during the ‘freeze’ test by ignoring git
     metadata and other artifacts.  It also limits its python build
     parallelism based on os.cpu_count instead of hard coding it as 8
     cores.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102019

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89792


File: python.info,  Node: Build<17>,  Next: Windows<17>,  Prev: Tests<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99942(1): On Android, in a static build, python-config in embed
     mode no longer incorrectly reports a library to link to.

   - gh-99942(2): On Android, python.pc now correctly reports the
     library to link to, the same as python-config.sh.

   - gh-100221(3): Fix creating install directories in ‘make
     sharedinstall’ if they exist outside ‘DESTDIR’ already.

   - gh-96821(4): Explicitly mark C extension modules that need defined
     signed integer overflow, and add a configure option *note
     -with-strict-overflow: 157f.  Patch by Matthias Görgens and
     Shantanu Jain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100221

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<17>,  Next: macOS<12>,  Prev: Build<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-102344(1): Implement ‘winreg.QueryValue’ using ‘QueryValueEx’
     and ‘winreg.SetValue’ using ‘SetValueEx’.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101881(2): Handle read and write operations on non-blocking
     pipes properly on Windows.

   - gh-101881(3): Add support for the os.get_blocking() and
     os.set_blocking() functions on Windows.

   - gh-101849(4): Ensures installer will correctly upgrade existing
     ‘py.exe’ launcher installs.

   - gh-101763(5): Updates copy of libffi bundled with Windows installs
     to 3.4.4.

   - gh-101759(6): Update Windows installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   - gh-101614(7): Correctly handle extensions built against debug
     binaries that reference ‘python3_d.dll’.

   - gh-101196(8): The functions ‘os.path.isdir’, ‘os.path.isfile’,
     ‘os.path.islink’ and ‘os.path.exists’ are now 13% to 28% faster on
     Windows, by making fewer Win32 API calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102344

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101849

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101763

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101614

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101196


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<12>,  Next: C API<15>,  Prev: Windows<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-101759(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759


File: python.info,  Node: C API<15>,  Prev: macOS<12>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.22.22.9 C API
...............

   - gh-101907(1): Removes use of non-standard C++ extension in public
     header files.

   - gh-99293(2): Document that the Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG is an
     internal feature, should not be used, and will be removed.

   - gh-101578(3): Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2fd. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     2ff.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.

     Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 300. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 301. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 302. passed to the exception’s
     constructor.

   - gh-91744(4): Introduced the 'Unstable C API tier', marking APi that
     is allowed to change in minor releases without a deprecation
     period.  See PEP 689(5) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101907

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91744

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0689/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.22.23 Python 3.12.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-02-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<18>,  Next: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.23.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 66. implementations
     of SHA2-224 and SHA2-256 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(2) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<22>,  Next: Library<23>,  Prev: Security<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.23.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-92173(1): Fix the ‘defs’ and ‘kwdefs’ arguments to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1586. and a reference leak in that function.

   - gh-59956(2): The GILState API is now partially compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Previously, ‘PyThreadState_GET()’ and
     ‘PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()’ would get out of sync, causing
     inconsistent behavior and crashes.

   - gh-101400(3): Fix wrong lineno in exception message on *note
     continue: 827. or *note break: 915. which are not in a loop.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101372(4): Fix *note is_normalized(): 8ac. to properly handle
     the UCD 3.2.0 cases.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101266(5): Fix *note sys.getsizeof(): 1587. reporting for *note
     int: 184. subclasses.

   - gh-101291(6): Refactor the ‘PyLongObject’ struct into a normal
     Python object header and a ‘PyLongValue’ struct.

   - gh-101046(7): Fix a possible memory leak in the parser when raising
     *note MemoryError: 1409.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-101037(8): Fix potential memory underallocation issue for
     instances of *note int: 184. subclasses with value zero.

   - gh-100762(9): Record the (virtual) exception block depth in the
     oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 1588.  Use this to avoid the expensive
     ‘throw()’ when closing generators (and coroutines) that can be
     closed trivially.

   - gh-100982(10): Adds a new ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ instruction.  This
     is a bit more efficient when performing a comparison immediately
     followed by a branch, and restores the design intent of PEP 659
     that specializations are local to a single instruction.

   - gh-100942(11): Fixed segfault in property.getter/setter/deleter
     that occurred when a property subclass overrode the ‘__new__’
     method to return a non-property instance.

   - gh-100923(12): Remove the ‘mask’ cache entry for the *note
     COMPARE_OP: 7c5. instruction and embed the mask into the oparg.

   - gh-100892(13): Fix race while iterating over thread states in
     clearing *note threading.local: 1589.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91351(14): Fix a case where re-entrant imports could corrupt the
     import deadlock detection code and cause a *note KeyError: 903. to
     be raised out of ‘importlib/_bootstrap’.  In addition to the
     straightforward cases, this could also happen when garbage
     collection leads to a warning being emitted – as happens when it
     collects an open socket or file)

   - gh-100726(15): Optimize construction of ‘range’ object for medium
     size integers.

   - gh-100712(16): Added option to build cpython with specialization
     disabled, by setting ‘ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION=False’ in ‘opcode’,
     followed by ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-32780(17): Inter-field padding is now inserted into the PEP3118
     format strings obtained from *note ctypes.Structure: 14b1. objects,
     reflecting their true representation in memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59956

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101400

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101372

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101266

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101046

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101037

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100762

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100942

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100923

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100892

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91351

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100726

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100712

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32780


File: python.info,  Node: Library<23>,  Next: Documentation<19>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.23.3 Library
.................

   - gh-101541(1): [Enum] - fix psuedo-flag creation

   - gh-101570(2): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 23.0)

   - gh-101323(3): Fix a bug where errors where not thrown by
     zlib._ZlibDecompressor if encountered during decompressing.

   - gh-101317(4): Add 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter for *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 413.

   - gh-101326(5): Fix regression when passing ‘None’ as second or third
     argument to ‘FutureIter.throw’.

   - gh-92123(6): Adapt the ‘_elementtree’ extension module to
     multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100795(8): Avoid potential unexpected ‘freeaddrinfo’ call
     (double free) in *note socket: cb. when when a libc ‘getaddrinfo()’
     implementation leaves garbage in an output pointer when returning
     an error.  Original patch by Sergey G. Brester.

   - gh-101143(9): Remove unused references to *note TimerHandle: 158b.
     in ‘asyncio.base_events.BaseEventLoop._add_callback’.

   - gh-101144(10): Make *note zipfile.Path.open(): 1421. and *note
     zipfile.Path.read_text(): 158c. also accept ‘encoding’ as a
     positional argument.  This was the behavior in Python 3.9 and
     earlier.  3.10 introduced a regression where supplying it as a
     positional argument would lead to a *note TypeError: 2c4.

   - gh-94518(11): Group-related variables of ‘_posixsubprocess’ module
     are renamed to stress that supplimentary group affinity is added to
     a fork, not replace the inherited ones.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-101015(12): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. on
     ‘'*tuple[...]'’ and ‘*tuple[...]’.  It must not drop the ‘Unpack’
     part.

   - gh-101000(13): Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 1cc, which splits a
     path into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  This new function
     is used by *note pathlib: a3. to improve the performance of path
     construction by up to a third.

   - gh-100573(14): Fix a Windows *note asyncio: a. bug with named pipes
     where a client doing ‘os.stat()’ on the pipe would cause an error
     in the server that disabled serving future requests.

   - gh-39615(15): *note warnings.warn(): 13a7. now has the ability to
     skip stack frames based on code filename prefix rather than only a
     numeric ‘stacklevel’ via the new ‘skip_file_prefixes’ keyword
     argument.

   - gh-100750(16): pass encoding kwarg to subprocess in platform

   - gh-100160(17): Emit a deprecation warning in
     ‘asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop()’ if there is no
     current event loop set and it decides to create one.

   - gh-96290(18): Fix handling of partial and invalid UNC drives in
     ‘ntpath.splitdrive()’, and in ‘ntpath.normpath()’ on non-Windows
     systems.  Paths such as ‘\server’ and ‘\’ are now considered by
     ‘splitdrive()’ to contain only a drive, and consequently are not
     modified by ‘normpath()’ on non-Windows systems.  The behaviour of
     ‘normpath()’ on Windows systems is unaffected, as native OS APIs
     are used.  Patch by Eryk Sun, with contributions by Barney Gale.

   - gh-99952(19): Fix a reference undercounting issue in *note
     ctypes.Structure: 14b1. with ‘from_param()’ results larger than a C
     pointer.

   - gh-67790(20): Add float-style formatting support for *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1ae. instances.

   - gh-99266(21): Preserve more detailed error messages in *note
     ctypes: 2a.

   - gh-86682(22): Ensure runtime-created collections have the correct
     module name using the newly added (internal) *note
     sys._getframemodulename(): 158d.

   - gh-88597(23): *note uuid: 110. now has a command line interface.
     Try ‘python -m uuid -h’.

   - gh-60580(24): ‘ctypes.wintypes.BYTE’ definition changed from *note
     c_byte: 158e. to *note c_ubyte: 158f. to match Windows SDK. Patch
     by Anatoly Techtonik and Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94518(25): ‘_posixsubprocess’ now initializes all UID and GID
     variables using a reserved ‘-1’ value instead of a separate flag.
     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-38941(26): The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module now
     emits *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. when testing the truth value
     of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 247.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 248, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.

   - bpo-40077(27): Convert ‘elementtree’ types to heap types.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-29847(28): Fix a bug where *note pathlib.Path: 14f. accepted
     and ignored keyword arguments.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-77772(29): *note ctypes.CDLL: 848, *note ctypes.OleDLL: 1590,
     *note ctypes.WinDLL: 1591, and *note ctypes.PyDLL: 1592. now accept
     *note path-like objects: 98e. as their ‘name’ argument.  Patch by
     Robert Hoelzl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101541

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101570

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101323

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101317

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101326

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92123

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100795

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101143

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101144

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101015

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100573

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/39615

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100750

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96290

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99952

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99266

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86682

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60580

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38941

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29847

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77772


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<19>,  Next: Tests<19>,  Prev: Library<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.23.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-88324(1): Reword *note subprocess: d5. to emphasize default
     behavior of 'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' arguments.  Remove
     inaccurate statement about child file handle inheritance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88324


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<19>,  Next: Build<18>,  Prev: Documentation<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.23.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-101334(1): ‘test_tarfile’ has been updated to pass when run as a
     high UID.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101334


File: python.info,  Node: Build<18>,  Next: Windows<18>,  Prev: Tests<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.23.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): Update BOLT configuration not to use deprecated usage
     of ‘--split functions’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101522(2): Allow overriding Windows dependencies versions and
     paths using MSBuild properties.

   - gh-77532(3): Minor fixes to allow building with
     ‘PlatformToolset=ClangCL’ on Windows.

   - gh-101152(4): In accordance with PEP 699(5), the ‘ma_version_tag’
     field in *note PyDictObject: 326. is deprecated for extension
     modules.  Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at
     compile time.  This field will be removed in Python 3.14.

   - gh-100340(6): Allows -Wno-int-conversion for wasm-sdk 17 and
     onwards, thus enables building WASI builds once against the latest
     sdk.

   - gh-101060(7): Conditionally add ‘-fno-reorder-blocks-and-partition’
     in configure.  Effectively fixes ‘--enable-bolt’ when using Clang,
     as this appears to be a GCC-only flag.

   - gh-98705(8): ‘__bool__’ is defined in AIX system header files which
     breaks the build in AIX, so undefine it.

   - gh-98636(9): Fix a regression in detecting ‘gdbm_compat’ library
     for the ‘_gdbm’ module build.

   - gh-96305(10): ‘_aix_support’ now uses a simple code to get platform
     details rather than the now non-existent ‘_bootsubprocess’ during
     bootstrap.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101522

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77532

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101152

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100340

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101060

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98705

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98636

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96305


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<18>,  Prev: Build<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.22.23.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-101543(1): Ensure the install path in the registry is only used
     when the standard library hasn’t been located in any other way.

   - gh-101467(2): The ‘py.exe’ launcher now correctly filters when only
     a single runtime is installed.  It also correctly handles prefix
     matches on tags so that ‘-3.1’ does not match ‘3.11’, but would
     still match ‘3.1-32’.

   - gh-99834(3): Updates bundled copy of Tcl/Tk to 8.6.13.0

   - gh-101135(4): Restore ability to launch older 32-bit versions from
     the ‘py.exe’ launcher when both 32-bit and 64-bit installs of the
     same version are available.

   - gh-82052(5): Fixed an issue where writing more than 32K of Unicode
     output to the console screen in one go can result in mojibake.

   - gh-100320(6): Ensures the ‘PythonPath’ registry key from an install
     is used when launching from a different copy of Python that relies
     on an existing install to provide a copy of its modules and
     standard library.

   - gh-100247(7): Restores support for the ‘py.exe’ launcher finding
     shebang commands in its configuration file using the full command
     name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101543

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101467

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101135

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82052

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100320

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100247


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.22.24 Python 3.12.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-01-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* C API: C API<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<23>,  Next: Library<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-100776(1): Fix misleading default value in *note input():
     1182.’s ‘__text_signature__’.

   - gh-99005(2): Remove ‘UNARY_POSITIVE’, ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’ and
     ‘LIST_TO_TUPLE’, replacing them with intrinsics.

   - gh-99005(3): Add new *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 213. instruction.
     Remove ‘IMPORT_STAR’, ‘PRINT_EXPR’ and ‘STOPITERATION_ERROR’,
     replacing them with the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 213. instruction.

   - gh-100288(4): Remove the LOAD_ATTR_METHOD_WITH_DICT specialized
     instruction.  Stats show it is not useful.

   - gh-100720(5): Added ‘_PyFrame_NumSlotsForCodeObject’, which returns
     the number of slots needed in a frame for a given code object.

   - gh-100719(6): Removed the co_nplaincellvars field from the code
     object, as it is redundant.

   - gh-100637(7): Fix ‘int.__sizeof__()’ calculation to include the
     1-element ‘ob_digit’ array for ‘0’ and ‘False’.

   - gh-100649(8): Update the native_thread_id field of PyThreadState
     after fork.

   - gh-100126(9): Fix an issue where “incomplete” frames could be
     briefly visible to C code while other frames are being torn down,
     possibly resulting in corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter
     while running finalizers.

   - gh-87447(10): Fix *note SyntaxError: 14c. on comprehension rebind
     checking with names that are not actually redefined.

     Now reassigning ‘b’ in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’ is
     allowed.  Reassigning ‘a’ is still disallowed as per PEP 572(11).

   - gh-100268(12): Add *note int.is_integer(): 1599. to improve duck
     type compatibility between *note int: 184. and *note float: 272.

   - gh-100425(13): Improve the accuracy of ‘sum()’ with compensated
     summation.

   - gh-100374(14): Fix incorrect result and delay in *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 159a.  Patch by Dominic Socular.

   - gh-100357(15): Convert ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’, and ‘iter’
     to argument clinic.

   - gh-100117(16): Improve the output of *note codeobject.co_lines():
     274. by emitting only one entry for each line range.

   - gh-90043(17): Handle NaNs when specializing *note COMPARE_OP: 7c5.
     for *note float: 272. values.

   - gh-100222(18): Redefine the ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ typedef as a union to
     describe its layout to the C compiler, avoiding type punning and
     improving clarity.

   - gh-99955(19): Internal compiler functions (in compile.c) now
     consistently return -1 on error and 0 on success.

   - gh-100188(20): The ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT’ and
     ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT’ instructions are no longer used for
     negative integers because those instructions always miss when
     encountering negative integers.

   - gh-99110(21): Initialize frame->previous in frameobject.c to fix a
     segmentation fault when accessing frames created by
     ‘PyFrame_New()’.

   - gh-94155(22): Improved the hashing algorithm for code objects,
     mitigating some hash collisions.

   - gh-99540(23): ‘None’ now hashes to a constant value.  This is not a
     requirements change.

   - gh-100143(24): When built with ‘--enable-pystats’, stats collection
     is now off by default.  To enable it early at startup, pass the
     ‘-Xpystats’ flag.  Stats are now always dumped, even if switched
     off.

   - gh-100146(25): Improve ‘BUILD_LIST’ opcode so that it works
     similarly to the ‘BUILD_TUPLE’ opcode, by stealing references from
     the stack rather than repeatedly using stack operations to set list
     elements.  Implementation details are in a new private API
     ‘_PyList_FromArraySteal()’.

   - gh-100110(26): Specialize ‘FOR_ITER’ for tuples.

   - gh-100050(27): Honor existing errors obtained when searching for
     mismatching parentheses in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-92216(28): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 200. for
     type objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-99582(29): Freeze *note zipimport: 132. module into
     ‘_bootstrap_python’.

   - gh-99554(30): Pack debugging location tables more efficiently
     during bytecode compilation.

   - gh-98522(31): Add an internal version number to code objects, to
     give better versioning of inner functions and comprehensions, and
     thus better specialization of those functions.  This change is
     invisible to both Python and C extensions.

   - gh-94603(32): Improve performance of ‘list.pop’ for small lists.

   - gh-89051(33): Add *note ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT: 159b.

   - bpo-32782(34): ‘ctypes’ arrays of length 0 now report a correct
     itemsize when a ‘memoryview’ is constructed from them, rather than
     always giving a value of 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100776

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100720

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100637

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100649

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100126

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87447

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100268

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100374

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100357

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100117

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90043

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100222

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99955

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100188

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99110

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94155

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99540

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100143

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100146

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100110

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100050

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92216

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99582

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99554

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98522

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94603

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32782


File: python.info,  Node: Library<24>,  Next: Documentation<20>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.2 Library
.................

   - gh-100833(1): Speed up *note math.fsum(): 125b. by removing
     defensive ‘volatile’ qualifiers.

   - gh-100805(2): Modify *note random.choice(): 10d7. implementation to
     once again work with NumPy arrays.

   - gh-100813(3): Add ‘socket.IP_PKTINFO’ constant.

   - gh-100792(4): Make *note email.message.Message.__contains__():
     159d. twice as fast.

   - gh-91851(5): Microoptimizations for *note
     fractions.Fraction.__round__(): 159e, *note
     fractions.Fraction.__ceil__(): 159f. and *note
     fractions.Fraction.__floor__(): 15a0.

   - gh-90104(6): Avoid RecursionError on ‘repr’ if a dataclass field
     definition has a cyclic reference.

   - gh-100689(7): Fix crash in ‘pyexpat’ by statically allocating
     ‘PyExpat_CAPI’ capsule.

   - gh-100740(8): Fix ‘unittest.mock.Mock’ not respecting the spec for
     attribute names prefixed with ‘assert’.

   - gh-91219(9): Change ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’ to support
     subclassing to provide a different set of index file names instead
     of using ‘__init__’ parameters.

   - gh-100690(10): ‘Mock’ objects which are not unsafe will now raise
     an ‘AttributeError’ when accessing an attribute that matches the
     name of an assertion but without the prefix ‘assert_’, e.g.
     accessing ‘called_once’ instead of ‘assert_called_once’.  This is
     in addition to this already happening for accessing attributes with
     prefixes ‘assert’, ‘assret’, ‘asert’, ‘aseert’, and ‘assrt’.

   - gh-89727(11): Simplify and optimize *note os.walk(): 1d1. by using
     *note isinstance(): 151. checks to check the top of the stack.

   - gh-100485(12): Add math.sumprod() to compute the sum of products.

   - gh-86508(13): Fix *note asyncio.open_connection(): 987. to skip
     binding to local addresses of different family.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-97930(14): ‘importlib.resources.files’ now accepts a module as
     an anchor instead of only accepting packages.  If a module is
     passed, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same
     package or at the package root).  The parameter was renamed from
     ‘package’ to ‘anchor’ with a compatibility shim for those passing
     by keyword.  Additionally, the new ‘anchor’ parameter is now
     optional and will default to the caller’s module.

   - gh-100585(15): Fixed a bug where importlib.resources.as_file was
     leaving file pointers open

   - gh-100562(16): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1543. by nearly 2x.  This comes at the
     cost of a performance regression in *note pathlib.Path.cwd(): 1544,
     which is generally used less frequently in user code.

   - gh-100519(17): Small simplification of
     ‘http.cookiejar.eff_request_host()’ that improves readability and
     better matches the RFC wording.

   - gh-100287(18): Fix the interaction of *note unittest.mock.seal():
     a17. with *note unittest.mock.AsyncMock: 8ae.

   - gh-100488(19): Add ‘Fraction.is_integer()’ to check whether a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1ae. is an integer.  This improves duck type
     compatibility with *note float: 272. and *note int: 184.

   - gh-100474(20): *note http.server: 70. now checks that an index page
     is actually a regular file before trying to serve it.  This avoids
     issues with directories named ‘index.html’.

   - gh-100363(21): Speed up *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): 979. by
     removing redundant ‘getpid’ checks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78878(22): Fix crash when creating an instance of
     ‘_ctypes.CField’.

   - gh-100348(23): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_read_ready_cb’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-100344(24): Provide C implementation for *note
     asyncio.current_task(): 19e. for a 4x-6x speedup.

   - gh-100272(25): Fix JSON serialization of OrderedDict.  It now
     preserves the order of keys.

   - gh-83076(26): Instantiation of ‘Mock()’ and ‘AsyncMock()’ is now
     3.8x faster.

   - gh-100234(27): Set a default value of 1.0 for the ‘lambd’ parameter
     in random.expovariate().

   - gh-100228(28): A *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. may be raised when
     *note os.fork(): 23a. or *note os.forkpty(): 15a1. is called from
     multi-threaded processes.  Forking with threads is unsafe and can
     cause deadlocks, crashes and subtle problems.  Lack of a warning
     does not indicate that the fork call was actually safe, as Python
     may not be aware of all threads.

   - gh-100039(29): Improve signatures for enums and flags.

   - gh-100133(30): Fix regression in *note asyncio: a. where a
     subprocess would sometimes lose data received from pipe.

   - bpo-44592(31): Fixes inconsistent handling of case sensitivity of
     'extrasaction' arg in *note csv.DictWriter: 10a3.

   - gh-100098(32): Fix ‘tuple’ subclasses being cast to ‘tuple’ when
     used as enum values.

   - gh-85432(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure-Python
     implementation of *note datetime.time.strftime(): 15a2. to
     'format'.  Rename the 't' parameter of *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 22f. to 'timestamp'.  These
     changes mean the parameter names in the pure-Python implementation
     now match the parameter names in the C implementation.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-98778(34): Update *note HTTPError: e84. to be initialized
     properly, even if the ‘fp’ is ‘None’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-99925(35): Unify error messages in JSON serialization between
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False)’ and
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False, indent=<SOMETHING>)’.
     Now both include the representation of the value that could not be
     serialized.

   - gh-89727(36): Fix issue with *note os.walk(): 1d1. where a *note
     RecursionError: bf7. would occur on deep directory structures by
     adjusting the implementation of *note os.walk(): 1d1. to be
     iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-94943(37): Add *note Dataclass support: 15a3. to the *note Enum:
     443. *note __repr__(): 15a4.  When inheriting from a *note
     dataclass: 3d4, only show the field names in the value section of
     the member *note repr(): 637, and not the dataclass’ class name.

   - gh-83035(38): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 1525. handling of
     decorator calls with nested parentheses.

   - gh-99576(39): Fix ‘.save()’ method for ‘LWPCookieJar’ and
     ‘MozillaCookieJar’: saved file was not truncated on repeated save.

   - gh-94912(40): Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 1b3.
     decorator which manually marks a function as a coroutine for the
     benefit of ‘iscoroutinefunction()’.

   - gh-99509(41): Add PEP 585(42) support for
     ‘multiprocessing.queues.Queue’.

   - gh-99482(43): Remove ‘Jython’ partial compatibility code from
     several stdlib modules.

   - gh-99433(44): Fix *note doctest: 39. failure on *note
     types.MethodWrapperType: 45e. in modules.

   - gh-85267(45): Several improvements to *note inspect.signature():
     561.’s handling of ‘__text_signature’.  - Fixes a case where *note
     inspect.signature(): 561. dropped parameters - Fixes a case where
     *note inspect.signature(): 561. raised *note tokenize.TokenError:
     2d0. - Allows *note inspect.signature(): 561. to understand
     defaults involving binary operations of constants - *note
     inspect.signature(): 561. is documented as only raising *note
     TypeError: 2c4. or *note ValueError: 189, but sometimes raised
     *note RuntimeError: 180.  These cases now raise *note ValueError:
     189. - Removed a dead code path

   - gh-91166(46): *note asyncio: a. is optimized to avoid excessive
     copying when writing to socket and use *note sendmsg(): 197. if the
     platform supports it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98030(47): Add missing TCP socket options from Linux:
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG’, ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’, ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’,
     ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’, ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.

   - gh-88500(48): Reduced the memory usage of *note
     urllib.parse.unquote(): 15a5. and *note
     urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(): 15a6. on large values.

   - gh-96127(49): ‘inspect.signature’ was raising ‘TypeError’ on call
     with mock objects.  Now it correctly returns ‘(*args, **kwargs)’ as
     inferred signature.

   - gh-95882(50): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note asynccontextmanager():
     99a, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks and fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     10a7, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks for *note StopIteration: a73.

   - gh-78707(51): Deprecate passing more than one positional argument
     to *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1d2. and *note
     is_relative_to(): 254.

   - gh-92122(52): Fix reStructuredText syntax errors in docstrings in
     the *note enum: 54. module.

   - gh-91851(53): Optimize the *note Fraction: 1ae. arithmetics for
     small components.

   - bpo-24132(54): Make *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. and *note Path:
     14f. subclassable (private to start).  Previously, attempting to
     instantiate a subclass resulted in an *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     being raised.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - bpo-40447(55): Accept *note os.PathLike: acd. (such as *note
     pathlib.Path: 14f.) in the ‘stripdir’ arguments of *note
     compileall.compile_file(): c6f. and *note compileall.compile_dir():
     996.

   - bpo-36880(56): Fix a reference counting issue when a *note ctypes:
     2a. callback with return type *note py_object: 12c2. returns
     ‘None’, which could cause crashes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100833

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100805

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100813

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100792

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90104

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100689

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91219

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100690

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86508

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100585

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100562

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100519

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100287

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100488

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100474

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100363

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78878

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100348

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100272

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83076

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100228

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100039

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100133

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44592

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100098

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85432

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98778

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99925

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94943

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83035

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99576

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94912

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99509

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99433

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85267

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98030

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88500

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96127

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95882

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92122

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24132

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40447

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36880


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<20>,  Next: Tests<20>,  Prev: Library<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.3 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-100616(1): Document existing ‘attr’ parameter to *note
     curses.window.vline(): 15a8. function in *note curses: 2b.

   - gh-100472(2): Remove claim in documentation that the ‘stripdir’,
     ‘prependdir’ and ‘limit_sl_dest’ parameters of *note
     compileall.compile_dir(): 996. and *note compileall.compile_file():
     c6f. could be *note bytes: 2cb.

   - bpo-25377(3): Clarify use of octal format of mode argument in
     help(os.chmod) as well as help(os.fchmod)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<20>,  Next: Build<19>,  Prev: Documentation<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-100454(1): Start running SSL tests with OpenSSL 3.1.0-beta1.

   - gh-100086(2): The Python test runner (libregrtest) now logs Python
     build information like “debug” vs “release” build, or LTO and PGO
     optimizations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93018(3): Make two tests forgiving towards host system libexpat
     with backported security fixes applied.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100454

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100086

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93018


File: python.info,  Node: Build<19>,  Next: Windows<19>,  Prev: Tests<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.5 Build
...............

   - gh-100540(1): Removed the ‘--with-system-ffi’ ‘configure’ option;
     ‘libffi’ must now always be supplied by the system on all
     non-Windows platforms.  The option has had no effect on non-Darwin
     platforms for several releases, and in 3.11 only had the
     non-obvious effect of invoking ‘pkg-config’ to find ‘libffi’ and
     never setting ‘-DUSING_APPLE_OS_LIBFFI’.  Now on Darwin platforms
     ‘configure’ will first check for the OS ‘libffi’ and then fall back
     to the same processing as other platforms if it is not found.

   - gh-88267(2): Avoid exporting Python symbols in linked Windows
     applications when the core is built as static.

   - bpo-41916(3): Allow override of ac_cv_cxx_thread so that cross
     compiled python can set -pthread for CXX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88267

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41916


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<19>,  Next: macOS<13>,  Prev: Build<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.6 Windows
.................

   - gh-100180(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-99191(2): Use ‘_MSVC_LANG >= 202002L’ instead of less-precise
     ‘_MSC_VER >=1929’ to more accurately test for C++20 support in
     ‘PC/_wmimodule.cpp’.

   - gh-79218(3): Define ‘MS_WIN64’ for Mingw-w64 64bit, fix cython
     compilation failure.

   - gh-99941(4): Ensure that *note asyncio.Protocol.data_received():
     15ac. receives an immutable *note bytes: 2cb. object (as
     documented), instead of *note bytearray: 2ca.

   - bpo-43984(5): *note winreg.SetValueEx(): 15ad. now leaves the
     target value untouched in the case of conversion errors.
     Previously, ‘-1’ would be written in case of such errors.

   - bpo-34816(6): ‘hasattr(ctypes.windll, 'nonexistant')’ now returns
     ‘False’ instead of raising *note OSError: 65c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43984

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34816


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<13>,  Next: Tools/Demos<13>,  Prev: Windows<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.7 macOS
...............

   - gh-100180(1): Update macOS installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-100540(2): Removed obsolete ‘dlfcn.h’ shim from the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module, which has not been necessary since Mac OS X 10.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<13>,  Next: C API<16>,  Prev: macOS<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-45256(1): Fix a bug that caused an *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     to be raised in ‘python-gdb.py’ when ‘py-locals’ is used without a
     frame.

   - gh-100342(2): Add missing ‘NULL’ check for possible allocation
     failure in ‘*args’ parsing in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100342


File: python.info,  Node: C API<16>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<13>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.22.24.9 C API
...............

   - gh-99947(1): Raising SystemError on import will now have its cause
     be set to the original unexpected exception.

   - gh-99240(2): In argument parsing, after deallocating newly
     allocated memory, reset its pointer to NULL.

   - gh-98724(3): The *note Py_CLEAR: 311, *note Py_SETREF: 312. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 313. macros now only evaluate their arguments
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99947

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.25 Python 3.12.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-12-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<19>,  Next: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.1 Security
..................

   - gh-100001(1): ‘python -m http.server’ no longer allows terminal
     control characters sent within a garbage request to be printed to
     the stderr server log.

     This is done by changing the *note http.server: 70.
     ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ ‘.log_message’ method to replace control
     characters with a ‘\xHH’ hex escape before printing.

   - gh-87604(2): Avoid publishing list of active per-interpreter audit
     hooks via the *note gc: 5e. module

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87604


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<24>,  Next: Library<25>,  Prev: Security<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-99891(1): Fix a bug in the tokenizer that could cause infinite
     recursion when showing syntax warnings that happen in the first
     line of the source.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-91054(2): Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 2f8. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 2f9. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.

   - gh-99729(3): Fix an issue that could cause frames to be visible to
     Python code as they are being torn down, possibly leading to memory
     corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-99708(4): Fix bug where compiler crashes on an if expression
     with an empty body block.

   - gh-99578(5): Fix a reference bug in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ after
     the creation of the first sub-interpreter for modules ‘builtins’
     and ‘sys’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99581(6): Fixed a bug that was causing a buffer overflow if the
     tokenizer copies a line missing the newline character from a file
     that is as long as the available tokenizer buffer.  Patch by Pablo
     galindo

   - gh-99553(7): Fix bug where an *note ExceptionGroup: 181. subclass
     can wrap a *note BaseException: 3c3.

   - gh-99547(8): Add a function to os.path to check if a path is a
     junction: isjunction.  Add similar functionality to pathlib.Path as
     is_junction.

   - gh-99370(9): Fix zip path for venv created from a non-installed
     python on POSIX platforms.

   - gh-99377(10): Add audit events for thread creation and clear
     operations.

   - gh-98686(11): Remove the ‘BINARY_OP_GENERIC’ and
     ‘COMPARE_OP_GENERIC’ “specializations”.

   - gh-99298(12): Remove the remaining error paths for attribute
     specializations, and refuse to specialize attribute accesses on
     types that haven’t had *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. called on them
     yet.

   - gh-99127(13): Allow some features of *note syslog: db. to the main
     interpreter only.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-91053(14): Optimizing interpreters and JIT compilers may need to
     invalidate internal metadata when functions are modified.  This
     change adds the ability to provide a callback that will be invoked
     each time a function is created, modified, or destroyed.

   - gh-90994(15): Improve error messages when there’s a syntax error
     with call arguments.  The following three cases are covered: - No
     value is assigned to a named argument, eg ‘foo(a=)’.  - A value is
     assigned to a star argument, eg ‘foo(*args=[0])’.  - A value is
     assigned to a double-star keyword argument, eg ‘foo(**kwarg={'a':
     0})’.

   - bpo-45026(16): Optimize the *note range: 79c. object iterator.  It
     is now smaller, faster iteration of ranges containing large
     numbers.  Smaller pickles, faster unpickling.

   - bpo-31718(17): Raise *note ValueError: 189. instead of *note
     SystemError: 30e. when methods of uninitialized *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 14c6. objects are called.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-38031(18): Fix a possible assertion failure in *note io.FileIO:
     11ba. when the opener returns an invalid file descriptor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99891

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99708

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99578

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99581

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99553

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99370

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99377

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91053

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90994

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45026

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31718

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38031


File: python.info,  Node: Library<25>,  Next: Documentation<21>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.3 Library
.................

   - gh-100001(1): Also escape s in the http.server
     BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message so that it is technically
     possible to parse the line and reconstruct what the original data
     was.  Without this a xHH is ambiguious as to if it is a hex
     replacement we put in or the characters r”x” came through in the
     original request line.

   - gh-99957(2): Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 203.

   - gh-79033(3): Fix *note asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 14c8. to
     actually do what the docs promise – wait for all existing
     connections to complete, after closing the server.

   - gh-51524(4): Fix bug when calling trace.CoverageResults with valid
     infile.

   - gh-99645(5): Fix a bug in handling class cleanups in *note
     unittest.TestCase: 15f.  Now ‘addClassCleanup()’ uses separate
     lists for different ‘TestCase’ subclasses, and ‘doClassCleanups()’
     only cleans up the particular class.

   - gh-99508(6): Fix ‘TypeError’ in
     ‘Lib/importlib/_bootstrap_external.py’ while calling
     ‘_imp.source_hash()’.

   - gh-66285(7): Fix *note asyncio: a. to not share event loop and
     signal wakeupfd in forked processes.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97001(8): Release the GIL when calling termios APIs to avoid
     blocking threads.

   - gh-92647(9): Use final status of an enum to determine lookup or
     creation branch of functional API.

   - gh-99388(10): Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run():
     19d. to allow specifying a custom event loop factory.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99341(11): Fix *note ast.increment_lineno(): 15b5. to also cover
     ‘ast.TypeIgnore’ when changing line numbers.

   - gh-99382(12): Check the number of arguments in substitution in user
     generics containing a *note TypeVarTuple: 168. and one or more
     *note TypeVar: 16a.

   - gh-99379(13): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 169. followed by
     *note TypeVarTuple: 168. in generic aliases.

   - gh-99344(14): Fix substitution of *note TypeVarTuple: 168. and
     *note ParamSpec: 169. together in user generics.

   - gh-99284(15): Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’
     old untested and undocumented hack from *note ctypes: 2a.

   - gh-99201(16): Fix *note IndexError: 13c2. when initializing the
     config variables on Windows if ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ is not set.

   - gh-99240(17): Fix double-free bug in Argument Clinic
     ‘str_converter’ by extracting memory clean up to a new
     ‘post_parsing’ section.

   - gh-64490(18): Fix refcount error when arguments are packed to tuple
     in Argument Clinic.

   - gh-99029(19): *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1d2. now treats
     naked Windows drive paths as relative.  This brings its behaviour
     in line with other parts of pathlib.

   - gh-98253(20): The implementation of the typing module is now more
     resilient to reference leaks in binary extension modules.

     Previously, a reference leak in a typed C API-based extension
     module could leak internals of the typing module, which could in
     turn introduce leaks in essentially any other package with typed
     function signatures.  Although the typing package is not the
     original source of the problem, such non-local dependences
     exacerbate debugging of large-scale projects, and the
     implementation was therefore changed to reduce harm by providing
     better isolation.

   - gh-98458(21): Fix infinite loop in unittest when a self-referencing
     chained exception is raised

   - gh-93453(22): *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 227. and many other
     *note asyncio: a. functions like *note asyncio.ensure_future():
     af4, *note asyncio.shield(): 8d5. or *note asyncio.gather(): 40c,
     and also the ‘get_event_loop()’ method of
     ‘asyncio.BaseDefaultEventLoopPolicy’ now raise a *note
     RuntimeError: 180. if called when there is no running event loop
     and the current event loop was not set.  Previously they implicitly
     created and set a new current event loop.  *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. is no longer emitted if there is no
     running event loop but the current event loop was set.

   - gh-97966(23): On ‘uname_result’, restored expectation that
     ‘_fields’ and ‘_asdict’ would include all six properties including
     ‘processor’.

   - gh-98248(24): Provide informative error messages in *note
     struct.pack(): 111f. when its integral arguments are not in range.

   - gh-98108(25): ‘zipfile.Path’ is now pickleable if its
     initialization parameters were pickleable (e.g.  for file system
     paths).

   - gh-98098(26): Created packages from zipfile and test_zipfile
     modules, separating ‘zipfile.Path’ functionality.

   - gh-82836(27): Fix *note is_private: 147c. properties in the *note
     ipaddress: 7e. module.  Previously non-private networks (0.0.0.0/0)
     would return ‘True’ from this method; now they correctly return
     ‘False’.

   - gh-96828(28): Add an *note OP_ENABLE_KTLS: 15b6. option for
     enabling the use of the kernel TLS (kTLS). Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-88863(29): To avoid apparent memory leaks when *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 987. raises, break reference cycles
     generated by local exception and future instances (which has
     exception instance as its member var).  Patch by Dong Uk, Kang.

   - gh-91078(30): ‘TarFile.next()’ now returns ‘None’ when called on an
     empty tarfile.

   - bpo-47220(31): Document the optional 'callback' parameter of
     ‘WeakMethod’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44817(32): Ignore WinError 53 (ERROR_BAD_NETPATH), 65
     (ERROR_NETWORK_ACCESS_DENIED) and 161 (ERROR_BAD_PATHNAME) when
     using ntpath.realpath().

   - bpo-41260(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure Python
     implementation of *note datetime.date.strftime(): b12. to 'format'.

   - bpo-15999(34): All built-in functions now accept arguments of any
     type instead of just ‘bool’ and ‘int’ for boolean parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51524

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99508

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66285

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97001

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92647

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99341

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99382

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99379

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99344

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99284

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99201

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99029

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98253

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98458

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93453

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98248

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98108

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98098

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82836

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96828

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88863

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91078

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47220

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41260

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15999


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<21>,  Next: Tests<21>,  Prev: Library<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-99931(1): Use sphinxext-opengraph(2) to generate OpenGraph
     metadata(3).

   - gh-89682(4): Reworded docstring of the default ‘__contains__’ to
     clarify that it returns a *note bool: 183.

   - gh-88330(5): Improved the description of what a resource is in
     importlib.resources docs.

   - gh-92892(6): Document that calling variadic functions with ctypes
     requires special care on macOS/arm64 (and possibly other
     platforms).

   - bpo-41825(7): Restructured the documentation for the *note
     os.wait*: c25. family of functions, and improved the docs for *note
     os.waitid(): c26. with more explanation of the possible argument
     constants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99931

   (2) https://sphinxext-opengraph.readthedocs.io/

   (3) https://ogp.me/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89682

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88330

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41825


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<21>,  Next: Build<20>,  Prev: Documentation<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-99892(1): Skip test_normalization() of test_unicodedata if it
     fails to download NormalizationTest.txt file from pythontest.net.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99934(2): Correct test_marsh on (32 bit) x86: test_deterministic
     sets was failing.

   - gh-99741(3): We’ve implemented multi-phase init (PEP 489/630/687)
     for the internal (for testing) _xxsubinterpreters module.

   - gh-99659(4): Optional big memory tests in ‘test_sqlite3’ now catch
     the correct ‘sqlite.DataError’ exception type in case of too large
     strings and/or blobs passed.

   - gh-99593(5): Cover the Unicode C API with tests.

   - gh-96002(6): Add functional test for Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99892

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99934

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99741

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99659

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99593

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96002


File: python.info,  Node: Build<20>,  Next: Windows<20>,  Prev: Tests<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’, ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’, and
     ‘-Wimplicit-function-declaration’ compiler warnings in ‘configure’
     checks.

   - gh-99337(2): Fix a compilation issue with GCC 12 on macOS.

   - gh-99289(3): Add a ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in Makefile to
     override *note compileall: 20. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make
     install’.  Also merged the ‘compileall’ commands into a single
     command building .pyc files for the all optimization levels (0, 1,
     2) at once.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98872(4): Fix a possible fd leak in ‘Programs/_freeze_module.c’
     introduced in Python 3.11.

   - gh-88226(5): Always define ‘TARGET_*’ labels in ‘Python/ceval.c’,
     even if ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’ is disabled.  This allows breakpoints
     to be set at those labels in (for instance) ‘gdb’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99337

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98872

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88226


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<20>,  Next: macOS<14>,  Prev: Build<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-99345(1): Use faster initialization functions to detect install
     location for Windows Store package

   - gh-98629(2): Fix initialization of *note sys.version: ba3. and
     ‘sys._git’ on Windows

   - gh-99442(3): Fix handling in *note Python Launcher for Windows:
     3c6. when ‘argv[0]’ does not include a file extension.

   - bpo-40882(4): Fix a memory leak in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1493. on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98629

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99442

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40882


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<14>,  Next: Tools/Demos<14>,  Prev: Windows<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-87235(1): On macOS ‘python3 /dev/fd/9 9</path/to/script.py’
     failed for any script longer than a couple of bytes.

   - gh-98940(2): Fix ‘Mac/Extras.install.py’ file filter bug.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87235

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<14>,  Next: C API<17>,  Prev: macOS<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-64490(1): Argument Clinic varargs bugfixes

        * Fix out-of-bounds error in
          ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg()’.

        * Fix incorrect check which allowed more than one varargs in
          clinic.py.

        * Fix miscalculation of ‘noptargs’ in generated code.

        * Do not generate ‘noptargs’ when there is a vararg argument and
          no optional argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490


File: python.info,  Node: C API<17>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.22.25.10 C API
................

   - gh-98680(1): ‘PyBUF_*’ constants were marked as part of Limited API
     of Python 3.11+.  These were available in 3.11.0 with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 5cb. defined for 3.11, and are necessary to use the
     buffer API.

   - gh-99612(2): Fix *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 15be. for
     ASCII-only data: ‘*consumed’ was not set.

   - gh-47146(3): The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated.  Its
     non-deprecated contents are now available just by including
     ‘Python.h’, with a ‘Py_’ prefix added if it was missing.
     (Deprecated contents are *note T_OBJECT: 356, *note T_NONE: 358,
     and no-op flags.)  Patch by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by
     Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98680

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99612

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.26 Python 3.12.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-11-14'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* C API: C API<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<20>,  Next: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.1 Security
..................

   - gh-98433(1): The IDNA codec decoder used on DNS hostnames by *note
     socket: cb. or *note asyncio: a. related name resolution functions
     no longer involves a quadratic algorithm.  This prevents a
     potential CPU denial of service if an out-of-spec excessive length
     hostname involving bidirectional characters were decoded.  Some
     protocols such as *note urllib: 108. http ‘3XX’ redirects
     potentially allow for an attacker to supply such a name.

     Individual labels within an IDNA encoded DNS name will now raise an
     error early during IDNA decoding if they are longer than 1024
     unicode characters given that each decoded DNS label must be 63 or
     fewer characters and the entire decoded DNS name is limited to 255.
     Only an application presenting a hostname or label consisting
     primarily of RFC 3454(2) section 3.1 “Nothing” characters to be
     removed would run into of this new limit.  See also RFC 5894(3)
     section 6 and RFC 3491(4).

   - gh-98739(5): Update bundled libexpat to 2.5.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98433

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5894.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3491.html

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98739


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<25>,  Next: Library<26>,  Prev: Security<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-81057(1): The docs clearly say that ‘PyImport_Inittab’, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2, and *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     15c3. should not be used after *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. has been
     called.  We now enforce this for the two functions.  Additionally,
     the runtime now uses an internal copy of ‘PyImport_Inittab’, to
     guard against modification.

   - gh-99298(2): Fix an issue that could potentially cause incorrect
     error handling for some bytecode instructions.

   - gh-99254(3): The compiler now removes all unused constants from
     code objects (except the first one, which may be a docstring).

   - gh-99205(4): Fix an issue that prevented *note PyThreadState: 5bf.
     and *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. memory from being freed
     properly.

   - gh-81057(5): The 18 global C variables holding the state of the
     allocators have been moved to ‘_PyRuntimeState’.  This is a
     strictly internal change with no change in behavior.

   - gh-99181(6): Fix failure in *note except*: 3bf. with unhashable
     exceptions.

   - gh-99204(7): Fix calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when inside
     a POSIX virtual environment using copies of the python binary when
     the base installation does not provide the executable name used by
     the venv.  Calculation will fall back to alternative names
     (“python<MAJOR>”, “python<MAJOR>.<MINOR>”).

   - gh-96055(8): Update *note faulthandler: 56. to emit an error
     message with the proper unexpected signal number.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-99153(9): Fix location of *note SyntaxError: 14c. for a *note
     try: 503. block with both *note except: 3c0. and *note except*:
     3bf.

   - gh-98686(10): Merge the adaptive opcode logic into each
     instruction’s unquickened variant, and merge the logic in
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ into *note EXTENDED_ARG: 15c4.  With these
     changes, the quickening that happens at code object creation is now
     only responsible for initializing warmup counters and inserting
     superinstructions.

   - gh-99103(11): Fix the error reporting positions of specialized
     traceback anchors when the source line contains Unicode characters.

   - gh-99139(12): Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError:
     14a. exceptions for instances.  Now if a *note NameError: 14a. is
     raised in a method and the instance has an attribute that’s exactly
     equal to the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98401(13): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex:
     ‘"\477"’), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 17e, instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  In a
     future Python version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError:
     14c.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98401(14): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape
     sequence now generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape
     sequence), use raw strings for regular expression:
     ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’.  In a future Python version, *note
     SyntaxError: 14c. will eventually be raised, instead of *note
     SyntaxWarning: 17e.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96793(15): Handle StopIteration and StopAsyncIteration raised in
     generator or coroutines in the bytecode, rather than in wrapping C
     code.

   - gh-98931(16): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 14c. error message
     when the user types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98852(17): Fix subscription of type aliases containing bare
     generic types or types like *note TypeVar: 16a.: for example
     ‘tuple[A, T][int]’ and ‘tuple[TypeVar, T][int]’, where ‘A’ is a
     generic type, and ‘T’ is a type variable.

   - gh-98925(18): Lower the recursion depth for marshal on WASI to
     support (in-development) wasmtime 2.0.

   - gh-98783(19): Fix multiple crashes in debug mode when ‘str’
     subclasses are used instead of ‘str’ itself.

   - gh-98811(20): Use complete source locations to simplify detection
     of ‘__future__’ imports which are not at the beginning of the file.
     Also corrects the offset in the exception raised in one case, which
     was off by one and impeded highlighting.

   - gh-96793(21): Add specialization of *note FOR_ITER: 156d. for
     generators.  Saves multiple layers of dispatch and checking to get
     from the *note FOR_ITER: 156d. instruction in the caller to the
     *note RESUME: 51e. in the generator.

   - gh-98762(22): Fix source locations of *note match: 648.
     sub-patterns.

   - gh-98586(23): Added the methods *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2ed.
     and *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2ee. to the *note Limited
     API: 2e2. along with the auxiliary macro constant *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2ef.

     The availability of these functions enables more efficient PEP
     590(24) vector calls from binary extension modules that avoid
     argument boxing/unboxing overheads.

   - gh-99257(25): Fix an issue where member descriptors (such as those
     for *note __slots__: 1377.) could behave incorrectly or crash
     instead of raising a *note TypeError: 2c4. when accessed via an
     instance of an invalid type.

   - gh-93143(26): Rather than changing ‘co_code’, the interpreter will
     now display a *note RuntimeWarning: 900. and assign *note None:
     488. to any fast locals that are left unbound after jumps or *note
     del: 15c5. statements executed while tracing.

   - gh-96421(27): When calling into Python code from C code, through
     *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ed6. or a related C-API function, a
     shim frame in inserted into the call stack.  This occurs in the
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function.  The extra frame should be
     invisible to all Python and most C extensions, but out-of-process
     profilers and debuggers need to be aware of it.  These shim frames
     can be detected by checking ‘frame->owner ==
     FRAME_OWNED_BY_CSTACK’.

     Extensions implementing their own interpreters using PEP 523 need
     to be aware of this shim frame and the changes to the semantics of
     *note RETURN_VALUE: 15c6, *note YIELD_VALUE: 1588, and *note
     RETURN_GENERATOR: 516, which now clear the frame.

   - gh-98415(28): Fix detection of MAC addresses for *note uuid: 110.
     on certain OSs.  Patch by Chaim Sanders

   - gh-98686(29): Quicken all code objects, and specialize adaptive
     bytecode instructions more aggressively.

   - gh-92119(30): Print exception class name instead of its string
     representation when raising errors from *note ctypes: 2a. calls.

   - gh-91058(31): *note ImportError: 14b. raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ now include suggestions for the value of
     ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96793(32): The *note FOR_ITER: 156d. now leaves the iterator on
     the stack on termination of the loop.  This is to assist
     specialization of loops for generators.

   - gh-90716(33): Add _pylong.py module.  It includes asymptotically
     faster algorithms that can be used for operations on integers with
     many digits.  It is used by longobject.c to speed up some
     operations.

   - gh-95389(34): Expose *note ETH_P_ALL: 15c7. and some of the *note
     ETHERTYPE_* constants: 15c8. in *note socket: cb.  Patch by Noam
     Cohen.

   - gh-93696(35): Allow *note pdb: a4. to locate source for frozen
     modules in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99254

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99205

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99181

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99204

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96055

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99103

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98852

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98925

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98783

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98811

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98762

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99257

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96421

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98415

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92119

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90716

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95389

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696


File: python.info,  Node: Library<26>,  Next: Documentation<22>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.3 Library
.................

   - gh-99418(1): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 283. that
     causes URL schemes that begin with a digit, a plus sign, or a minus
     sign to be parsed incorrectly.

   - gh-94597(2): Deprecate *note asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 221. to
     be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99305(3): Improve performance of *note secrets.token_hex():
     15ca.

   - gh-74044(4): Fixed bug where *note inspect.signature(): 561.
     reported incorrect arguments for decorated methods.

   - gh-99275(5): Fix ‘SystemError’ in *note ctypes: 2a. when exception
     was not set during ‘__initsubclass__’.

   - gh-99277(6): Remove older version of
     ‘_SSLProtocolTransport.get_write_buffer_limits’ in
     ‘asyncio.sslproto’

   - gh-99248(7): fix negative numbers failing in verify()

   - gh-99155(8): Fix *note statistics.NormalDist: 89a. pickle with ‘0’
     and ‘1’ protocols.

   - gh-93464(9): ‘enum.auto()’ is now correctly activated when combined
     with other assignment values.  E.g.  ‘ONE = auto(), 'some text'’
     will now evaluate as ‘(1, 'some text')’.

   - gh-99134(10): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 22.3.1.

   - gh-92584(11): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 by PEP 632(12) “Deprecate distutils module”.  For
     projects still using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something
     else, the ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98999(13): Now ‘_pyio’ is consistent with ‘_io’ in raising
     ‘ValueError’ when executing methods over closed buffers.

   - gh-83004(14): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_zoneinfo’

   - gh-83004(15): Clean up refleaks on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_pickle’

   - gh-83004(16): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_io’.

   - gh-98897(17): Fix memory leak in *note math.dist(): 862. when both
     points don’t have the same dimension.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98878(18): Use the frame bound builtins when offering a name
     suggestion in *note traceback: fe. to prevent crashing when
     ‘__builtins__’ is not a dict.

   - gh-98139(19): In ‘importlib._bootstrap’, enhance namespace package
     repr to ‘<module 'x' (namespace) from ['path']>’.

   - gh-90352(20): Fix ‘_SelectorDatagramTransport’ to inherit from
     *note DatagramTransport: 15cb. in *note asyncio: a.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-98793(21): Fix argument typechecks in ‘_overlapped.WSAConnect()’
     and ‘_overlapped.Overlapped.WSASendTo()’ functions.

   - gh-98744(22): Prevent crashing in *note traceback: fe. when
     retrieving the byte-offset for some source files that contain
     certain unicode characters.

   - gh-98740(23): Fix internal error in the *note re: b8. module which
     in very rare circumstances prevented compilation of a regular
     expression containing a *note conditional expression: 15cc. without
     the “else” branch.

   - gh-98703(24): Fix *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 15cd. to call
     ‘protocol.connection_lost’ callback only once on Windows.

   - gh-98624(25): Add a mutex to unittest.mock.NonCallableMock to
     protect concurrent access to mock attributes.

   - gh-98658(26): The *note array.array: 195. class now supports
     subscripting, making it a *note generic type: 141.

   - gh-98284(27): Improved *note TypeError: 2c4. message for undefined
     abstract methods of a *note abc.ABC: daf. instance.  The names of
     the missing methods are surrounded by single-quotes to highlight
     them.

   - gh-96151(28): Allow ‘BUILTINS’ to be a valid field name for frozen
     dataclasses.

   - gh-98086(29): Make sure ‘patch.dict()’ can be applied on async
     functions.

   - gh-72719(30): Remove modules ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’, which were
     deprecated by PEP 594(31).

   - gh-96192(32): Fix handling of ‘bytes’ *note path-like objects: 98e.
     in ‘os.ismount()’.

   - gh-94172(33): *note ftplib: 5c.: Remove the ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’
     class attribute: use the 'context' parameter instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner

   - gh-94172(34): Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from
     the *note ftplib: 5c, *note imaplib: 72, *note poplib: ab. and
     *note smtplib: c9. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters from the *note http.client: 6d. module,
     all deprecated since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter
     ('ssl_context' in *note imaplib: 72.) instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-83638(35): Add the *note autocommit: 1e2. attribute to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. and the 'autocommit' parameter to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 1e4. to control PEP 249(36)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 1e5.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92452(37): Fixed a race condition that could cause *note
     sysconfig.get_config_var(): ed3. to incorrectly return *note None:
     488. in multi-threaded programs.

   - gh-91803(38): Fix an error when using a method of objects mocked
     with *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1466. after it was
     sealed with *note unittest.mock.seal(): a17. function.

   - bpo-38523(39): *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. now applies the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument recursively.

   - bpo-40358(40): Add walk_up argument in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 1d2.

   - bpo-36267(41): Fix IndexError in *note argparse.ArgumentParser:
     2c5. when a ‘store_true’ action is given an explicit argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74044

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99275

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99248

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99155

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93464

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99134

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98999

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98897

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98878

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98139

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90352

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98744

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98740

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98703

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98624

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98284

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96151

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98086

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72719

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96192

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92452

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91803

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38523

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40358

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36267


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<22>,  Next: Tests<22>,  Prev: Library<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-98832(1): Changes wording of docstring for *note
     pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 15cf.

   - gh-97966(2): Update uname docs to clarify the special nature of the
     platform attribute and to indicate when it became late-bound.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98832

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<22>,  Next: Build<21>,  Prev: Documentation<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-98903(1): The Python test suite now fails with exit code 4 if no
     tests ran.  It should help detecting typos in test names and test
     methods.

   - gh-98713(2): Fix a bug in the *note typing: 104. tests where a test
     relying on CPython-specific implementation details was not
     decorated with ‘@cpython_only’ and was not skipped on other
     implementations.

   - gh-87390(3): Add tests for star-unpacking with PEP 646, and some
     other miscellaneous PEP 646 tests.

   - gh-96853(4): Added explicit coverage of ‘Py_Initialize’ (and hence
     ‘Py_InitializeEx’) back to the embedding tests (all other embedding
     tests migrated to ‘Py_InitializeFromConfig’ in Python 3.11)

   - bpo-34272(5): Some C API tests were moved into the new
     Lib/test/test_capi/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98903

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98713

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34272


File: python.info,  Node: Build<21>,  Next: Windows<21>,  Prev: Tests<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’ compiler warning in ‘configure’
     check for ‘PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM’.

   - gh-99016(2): Fix build with ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN=python3.8’.

   - gh-97731(3): Specify the full path to the source location for ‘make
     docclean’ (needed for cross-builds).

   - gh-98949(4): Drop unused build dependency on ‘readelf’.

   - gh-98989(5): Use ‘python3.11’, if available, for regeneration and
     freezing.

   - gh-98831(6): Add new tooling, in ‘Tools/cases_generator’, to
     generate the interpreter switch statement from a list of opcode
     definitions.  This only affects adding, modifying or removing
     instruction definitions.  The instruction definitions now live in
     ‘Python/bytecodes.c’, in the form of a custom DSL (under
     development)(7).  The tooling reads this file and writes
     ‘Python/generated_cases.c.h’, which is then included by
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ to provide most of the cases of the main
     interpreter switch.

   - gh-98817(8): Remove PCbuild/lib.pyproj: it’s not used for anything,
     is only a minor convenience for Visual Studio users (who probably
     mostly don’t even know about it), and it takes a lot of maintenance
     effort to keep updated.

   - gh-98776(9): Fix ‘make regen-test-levenshtein’ for out-of-tree
     builds.

   - gh-98707(10): Don’t use vendored ‘libmpdec’ headers if *note
     -with-system-libmpdec: 15d2. is passed to ‘configure’.  Don’t use
     vendored ‘libexpat’ headers if *note -with-system-expat: 15d3. is
     passed to ‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99016

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97731

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98949

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98989

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98831

   (7) 
https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas/blob/main/3.12/interpreter_definition.md

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98817

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98776

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98707


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<21>,  Next: macOS<15>,  Prev: Build<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98689(1): Update Windows builds to zlib v1.2.13.  v1.2.12 has
     CVE 2022-37434(2), but the vulnerable ‘inflateGetHeader’ API is not
     used by Python.

   - gh-98790(3): Assumes that a missing ‘DLLs’ directory means that
     standard extension modules are in the executable’s directory.

   - gh-98745(4): Update ‘py.exe’ launcher to install 3.11 by default
     and 3.12 on request.

   - gh-98692(5): Fix the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6.
     ignoring unrecognized shebang lines instead of treating them as
     local paths

   - gh-94328(6): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98689

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-37434

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98790

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98745

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98692

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<15>,  Next: C API<18>,  Prev: Windows<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-94328(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: C API<18>,  Prev: macOS<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.22.26.9 C API
...............

   - gh-98724(1): The *note Py_CLEAR: 311, *note Py_SETREF: 312. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 313. macros now only evaluate their argument
     once.  If the argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98978(2): Fix use-after-free in ‘Py_SetPythonHome(NULL)’,
     ‘Py_SetProgramName(NULL)’ and ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath(NULL)’
     function calls.  Issue reported by Benedikt Reinartz.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98410(3): Add ‘getbufferproc’ and ‘releasebufferproc’ to the
     stable API.

   - gh-98610(4): Some configurable capabilities of sub-interpreters
     have changed.  They always allow subprocesses (*note subprocess:
     d5.) now, whereas before subprocesses could be optionally
     disallowed for a sub-interpreter.  Instead ‘os.exec()’ can now be
     disallowed.  Disallowing daemon threads is now supported.
     Disallowing all threads is still allowed, but is never done by
     default.  Note that the optional restrictions are only available
     through ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’, which isn’t a public API.
     They do not affect the main interpreter, nor *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 15d7.

   - gh-98608(5): A ‘_PyInterpreterConfig’ has been added and
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreter()’ has been renamed to
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.  The “isolated_subinterpreters”
     argument is now a granular config that captures the previous
     behavior.  Note that this is all “private” API.

   - gh-96853(6): ‘Py_InitializeEx’ now correctly calls ‘PyConfig_Clear’
     after initializing the interpreter (the omission didn’t cause a
     memory leak only because none of the dynamically allocated config
     fields are populated by the wrapper function)

   - gh-91248(7): Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 2fa. and *note
     PyFrame_GetVarString(): 2fb. functions to get a frame variable by
     its name.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98978

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98410

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98610

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98608

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.27 Python 3.12.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-10-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<21>,  Next: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.1 Security
..................

   - gh-97616(1): Fix multiplying a list by an integer (‘list *= int’):
     detect the integer overflow when the new allocated length is close
     to the maximum size.  Issue reported by Jordan Limor.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97514(2): On Linux the *note multiprocessing: 93. module returns
     to using filesystem backed unix domain sockets for communication
     with the 'forkserver' process instead of the Linux abstract socket
     namespace.  Only code that chooses to use the *note “forkserver”
     start method: 236. is affected.

     Abstract sockets have no permissions and could allow any user on
     the system in the same network namespace(3) (often the whole
     system) to inject code into the multiprocessing 'forkserver'
     process.  This was a potential privilege escalation.  Filesystem
     based socket permissions restrict this to the 'forkserver' process
     user as was the default in Python 3.8 and earlier.

     This prevents Linux CVE 2022-42919(4).

   - gh-87389(5): *note http.server: 70.: Fix an open redirection
     vulnerability in the HTTP server when an URI path starts with ‘//’.
     Vulnerability discovered, and initial fix proposed, by Hamza Avvan.

   - gh-79096(6): LWPCookieJar and MozillaCookieJar create files with
     file mode 600 instead of 644 (Microsoft Windows is not affected)

   - gh-92888(7): Fix ‘memoryview’ use after free when accessing the
     backing buffer in certain cases.

   - gh-68966(8): The deprecated mailcap module now refuses to inject
     unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell
     commands.  Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a
     match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514

   (3) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/network_namespaces.7.html

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-42919

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87389

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92888

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<26>,  Next: Library<27>,  Prev: Security<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-98374(1): Suppress ImportError for invalid query for help()
     command.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98461(2): Fix source location in bytecode for list, set and dict
     comprehensions as well as generator expressions.

   - gh-98354(3): Added unicode check for ‘name’ attribute of ‘spec’
     argument passed in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ function.

   - gh-98398(4): Fix source location of ‘assert’ bytecodes.

   - gh-98390(5): Fix location of sub-expressions of boolean
     expressions, by reducing their scope to that of the sub-expression.

   - gh-98254(6): Modules from the standard library are now potentially
     suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the
     interpreter when an *note NameError: 14a. is raised to the top
     level.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-97997(7): Add running column offset to the tokenizer state to
     avoid calculating AST column information with pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-97973(8): Modify the tokenizer to return all necessary
     information the parser needs to set location information in the AST
     nodes, so that the parser does not have to calculate those doing
     pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-96078(9): *note os.sched_yield(): fb3. now release the GIL while
     calling sched_yield(2).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-97955(10): Migrate *note zoneinfo: 134. to Argument Clinic.

   - gh-97912(11): The compiler now avoids quadratic behavior when
     finding which instructions should use the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK:
     217. opcode.

   - gh-97002(12): Fix an issue where several frame objects could be
     backed by the same interpreter frame, possibly leading to corrupted
     memory and hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-97943(13): Bugfix: *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 15db.
     should return a borrowed reference.  It was returning a new
     reference.

   - gh-97922(14): The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval
     breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead on
     object allocations.  The GC can also run when *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 182. is called so C extensions that need to
     run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a
     chance to execute the GC periodically.

   - gh-65961(15): When ‘__package__’ is different than
     ‘__spec__.parent’, raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’ instead of
     ‘ImportWarning’.

     Also remove ‘importlib.util.set_package()’ which was scheduled for
     removal.

   - gh-97850(16): Long deprecated, ‘module_repr()’ should now be
     completely eradicated.

   - gh-86298(17): In cases where ‘warnings.warn_explicit()’ consults
     the module’s loader, an ‘DeprecationWarning’ is issued when
     ‘m.__loader__’ differs from ‘m.__spec__.loader’.

   - gh-97779(18): Ensure that all Python frame objects are backed by
     “complete” frames.

   - gh-91052(19): Add API for subscribing to modification events on
     selected dictionaries.

   - gh-97752(20): Fix possible data corruption or crashes when
     accessing the ‘f_back’ member of newly-created generator or
     coroutine frames.

   - gh-97591(21): Fixed a missing incref/decref pair in
     ‘Exception.__setstate__()’.  Patch by Ofey Chan.

   - gh-97670(22): Remove the ‘sys.getdxp()’ function and the
     ‘Tools/scripts/analyze_dxp.py’ script.  DXP stands for “dynamic
     execution pairs”.  They were related to ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’
     and ‘DXPAIRS’ macros which have been removed in Python 3.11.
     Python can now be built with *note ./configure -enable-pystats:
     15dc. to gather statistics on Python opcodes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94526(23): Fix the Python path configuration used to initialized
     *note sys.path: 368. at Python startup.  Paths are no longer
     encoded to UTF-8/strict to avoid encoding errors if it contains
     surrogate characters (bytes paths are decoded with the
     surrogateescape error handler).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96670(24): The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 14c. when
     parsing source code containing null bytes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96975(25): Fix a crash occurring when *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     15dd. is called while the topmost Python frame is in a
     partially-initialized state.

   - gh-96848(26): Fix command line parsing: reject *note -X
     int_max_str_digits: 18e. option with no value (invalid) when the
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 15de. environment variable is set to a
     valid limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95921(27): Fix overly-broad source position information for
     chained comparisons used as branching conditions.

   - gh-96821(28): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘audioop.c’.

   - gh-96821(29): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘_testcapimodule.c’.

   - gh-95778(30): When *note ValueError: 189. is raised if an integer
     is larger than the limit, mention the *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 15df. function in the error message.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96387(31): At Python exit, sometimes a thread holding the GIL
     can wait forever for a thread (usually a daemon thread) which
     requested to drop the GIL, whereas the thread already exited.  To
     fix the race condition, the thread which requested the GIL drop now
     resets its request before exiting.  Issue discovered and analyzed
     by Mingliang ZHAO. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96864(32): Fix a possible assertion failure, fatal error, or
     *note SystemError: 30e. if a line tracing event raises an exception
     while opcode tracing is enabled.

   - gh-95778(33): The ‘PyLong_FromString’ function was refactored to
     make it more maintainable and extensible.

   - gh-96678(34): Fix undefined behaviour in C code of null pointer
     arithmetic.

   - gh-96754(35): Make sure that all frame objects created are created
     from valid interpreter frames.  Prevents the possibility of invalid
     frames in backtraces and signal handlers.

   - gh-90997(36): Improve the performance of reading and writing inline
     bytecode caches on some platforms.

   - gh-96751(37): Remove dead code from ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode.

   - gh-90751(38): *note memoryview: 185. now supports half-floats.
     Patch by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou.

   - gh-96678(39): Fix case of undefined behavior in ceval.c

   - gh-64373(40): Convert ‘_functools’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-96641(41): Do not expose ‘KeyWrapper’ in ‘_functools’.

   - gh-96636(42): Ensure that tracing, ‘sys.setrace()’, is turned on
     immediately.  In pre-release versions of 3.11, some tracing events
     might have been lost when turning on tracing in a ‘__del__’ method
     or interrupt.

   - gh-96572(43): Fix use after free in trace refs build mode.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96611(44): When loading a file with invalid UTF-8 inside a
     multi-line string, a correct SyntaxError is emitted.

   - gh-96612(45): Make sure that incomplete frames do not show up in
     tracemalloc traces.

   - gh-90230(46): Fix compiler warnings and test failures when building
     with ‘--enable-pystats’.

   - gh-96587(47): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ on exception groups (
     PEP 654(48)) on python versions prior to 3.11

   - gh-96569(49): Remove two cases of undefined behavior, by adding
     NULL checks.

   - gh-96582(50): Fix possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘_PyThread_CurrentFrames’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91079(51): Separate Python recursion checking from C recursion
     checking which reduces the chance of C stack overflow and allows
     the recursion limit to be increased safely.

   - gh-93911(52): Fix an issue that could prevent *note LOAD_ATTR: 210.
     from specializing properly when accessing properties.

   - gh-96348(53): Emit a DeprecationWarning when *note throw(): 24a,
     *note throw(): 249. or *note athrow(): 24b. are called with more
     than one argument.

   - gh-95196(54): Disable incorrect pickling of the C implemented
     classmethod descriptors.

   - gh-96364(55): Fix text signatures of ‘list.__getitem__’ and
     ‘dict.__getitem__’.

   - gh-96352(56): Fix *note AttributeError: 3dc. missing ‘name’ and
     ‘obj’ attributes in *note object.__getattribute__(): a49.  Patch by
     Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93554(57): Change the jump opcodes so that all conditional jumps
     are forward jumps.  Backward jumps are converted by the assembler
     into a conditional forward jump whose target is the fallthrough
     block (and with a reversed condition), followed by an unconditional
     backward jump.  For example:

     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE BACKWARD_TARGET’ becomes ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE
     NEXT_BLOCK; JUMP BACKWARD_TARGET’.

     All the directed conditional jump opcodes were removed:
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_TRUE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_TRUE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_FALSE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_FALSE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NONE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’.

     The corresponding opcodes without direction are no longer
     pseudo-instructions, and they implement the forward conditional
     jumps.

   - gh-96268(58): Loading a file with invalid UTF-8 will now report the
     broken character at the correct location.

   - gh-96237(59): The internal field ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_func’ is
     renamed to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_funcobj’ and may be any object.
     The ‘f_globals’ and ‘f_builtin’ fields may hold junk values.

     It is safest to treat the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ struct as opaque.

   - gh-96187(60): Fixed a bug that caused ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’ to return
     garbage for negative indexes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96143(61): Add a new ‘-X perf’ Python command line option as
     well as *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 18f. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 190. function in the *note sys:
     d8. module that allows to set/unset the interpreter in a way that
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler can detect Python calls.  The new *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 191. function allows to query the
     state of the perf trampoline.  Design by Pablo Galindo.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory
     P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon.

   - gh-96071(62): Fix a deadlock in *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6.
     when allocating new thread state.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96046(63): *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. now initializes
     ‘ht_cached_keys’ and performs additional checks to ensure that type
     objects are properly configured.  This avoids crashes in 3rd party
     packages that don’t use regular API to create new types.

   - gh-96005(64): On WASI *note ENOTCAPABLE: 15e0. is now mapped to
     *note PermissionError: bcb.  The *note errno: 55. modules exposes
     the new error number.  ‘getpath.py’ now ignores *note
     PermissionError: bcb. when it cannot open landmark files
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ and ‘pyenv.cfg’.

   - gh-93678(65): Added test a harness for direct unit tests of the
     compiler’s optimization stage.  The
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg()’ function runs the optimiser on a
     sequence of instructions.  The ‘CfgOptimizationTestCase’ class in
     ‘test.support’ has utilities for invoking the optimizer and
     checking the output.

   - gh-95245(66): Reduces the size of a “simple” Python object from 8
     to 6 words by moving the weakreflist pointer into the pre-header
     directly before the object’s dict/values pointer.

   - gh-90997(67): Compile virtual *note try: 503./*note except: 3c0.
     blocks to handle exceptions raised during *note close(): 15e1. or
     *note throw(): 24a. calls through a suspended frame.

   - gh-95977(68): Optimized calling *note __get__(): 1374. with
     vectorcall.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91210(69): Improve error message when a parameter without a
     default value follows one with a default value, and show the same
     message, even when the non-default/default sequence is preceded by
     positional-only parameters.

   - gh-95922(70): Fixed bug where the compiler’s
     ‘eliminate_empty_basic_blocks’ function ignores the last block of
     the code unit.

   - gh-95818(71): Skip over incomplete frames in *note
     PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5c0.

   - gh-95876(72): Fix format string in
     ‘_PyPegen_raise_error_known_location’ that can lead to memory
     corruption on some 64bit systems.  The function was building a
     tuple with ‘i’ (int) instead of ‘n’ (Py_ssize_t) for Py_ssize_t
     arguments.

   - gh-95605(73): Fix misleading contents of error message when
     converting an all-whitespace string to *note float: 272.

   - gh-95150(74): Update code object hashing and equality to consider
     all debugging and exception handling tables.  This fixes an issue
     where certain non-identical code objects could be “deduplicated”
     during compilation.

   - gh-91146(75): Reduce allocation size of *note list: 422. from *note
     str.split(): d3e. and *note str.rsplit(): 10fd.  Patch by Donghee
     Na and Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87092(76): Create a ‘jump target label’ abstraction in the
     compiler so that the compiler’s codegen stage does not work
     directly with basic blocks.  This prepares the code for changes to
     the underlying CFG generation mechanism.

   - gh-95355(77): ‘_PyPegen_Parser_New’ now properly detects token
     memory allocation errors.  Patch by Honglin Zhu.

   - gh-90081(78): Run Python code in tracer/profiler function at full
     speed.  Fixes slowdown in earlier versions of 3.11.

   - gh-95324(79): Emit a warning in debug mode if an object does not
     call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394. before deallocation.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-95245(80): Merge managed dict and values pointer into a single
     tagged pointer to save one word in the pre-header.

   - gh-93678(81): Add cfg_builder struct and refactor the relevant code
     so that a cfg can be constructed without an instance of the
     compiler struct.

   - gh-95185(82): Prevented crashes in the AST constructor when
     compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: bf7. is now raised instead.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-93351(83): *note ast.AST: 56c. node positions are now validated
     when provided to *note compile(): 56d. and other related functions.
     If invalid positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 189. will be
     raised.

   - gh-94438(84): Fix an issue that caused extended opcode arguments
     and some conditional pops to be ignored when calculating valid jump
     targets for assignments to the ‘f_lineno’ attribute of frame
     objects.  In some cases, this could cause inconsistent internal
     state, resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-95060(85): Undocumented ‘PyCode_Addr2Location’ function now
     properly returns when ‘addrq’ argument is less than zero.

   - gh-95113(86): Replace all ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ instructions with
     basic *note EXTENDED_ARG: 15c4. instructions in unquickened code.
     Consumers of non-adaptive bytecode should be able to handle
     extended arguments the same way they were handled in CPython 3.10
     and older.

   - gh-91409(87): Fix incorrect source location info caused by certain
     optimizations in the bytecode compiler.

   - gh-95023(88): Implement *note os.setns(): 15e2. and *note
     os.unshare(): 15e3. for Linux.  Patch by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-94036(89): Fix incorrect source location info for some
     multi-line attribute accesses and method calls.

   - gh-94938(90): Fix error detection in some builtin functions when
     keyword argument name is an instance of a str subclass with
     overloaded ‘__eq__’ and ‘__hash__’.  Previously it could cause
     SystemError or other undesired behavior.

   - gh-94996(91): *note ast.parse(): 188. will no longer parse function
     definitions with positional-only params when passed
     ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3, 8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94739(92): Allow jumping within, out of, and across exception
     handlers in the debugger.

   - gh-94949(93): *note ast.parse(): 188. will no longer parse
     parenthesized context managers when passed ‘feature_version’ less
     than ‘(3, 9)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94947(94): *note ast.parse(): 188. will no longer parse
     assignment expressions when passed ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3,
     8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-91256(95): Ensures the program name is known for help text
     during interpreter startup.

   - gh-94869(96): Fix the column offsets for some expressions in
     multi-line f-strings *note ast: 8. nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-94893(97): Fix an issue where frame object manipulations could
     corrupt inline bytecode caches.

   - gh-94822(98): Fix an issue where lookups of metaclass descriptors
     may be ignored when an identically-named attribute also exists on
     the class itself.

   - gh-91153(99): Fix an issue where a *note bytearray: 2ca. item
     assignment could crash if it’s resized by the new value’s
     ‘__index__()’ method.

   - gh-90699(100): Fix reference counting bug in ‘bool.__repr__()’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94694(101): Fix an issue that could cause code with multi-line
     method lookups to have misleading or incorrect column offset
     information.  In some cases (when compiling a hand-built AST) this
     could have resulted in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-93252(102): Fix an issue that caused internal frames to outlive
     failed Python function calls, possibly resulting in memory leaks or
     hard interpreter crashes.

   - gh-94215(103): Fix an issue where exceptions raised by line-tracing
     events would cause frames to be left in an invalid state, possibly
     resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-92228(104): Disable the compiler’s inline-small-exit-blocks
     optimization for exit blocks that are associated with source code
     lines.  This fixes a bug where the debugger cannot tell where an
     exception handler ends and the following code block begins.

   - gh-94485(105): Line number of a module’s ‘RESUME’ instruction is
     set to 0 as specified in PEP 626(106).

   - gh-94438(107): Account for instructions that can push NULL to the
     stack when setting line number in a frame.  Prevents some
     (unlikely) crashes.

   - gh-91719(108): Reload ‘opcode’ when raising ‘unknown opcode error’
     in the interpreter main loop, for C compilers to generate
     dispatching code independently.

   - gh-94329(109): Compile and run code with unpacking of extremely
     large sequences (1000s of elements).  Such code failed to compile.
     It now compiles and runs correctly.

   - gh-94360(110): Fixed a tokenizer crash when reading encoded files
     with syntax errors from ‘stdin’ with non utf-8 encoded text.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-88116(111): Fix an issue when reading line numbers from code
     objects if the encoded line numbers are close to ‘INT_MIN’.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-94262(112): Don’t create frame objects for incomplete frames.
     Prevents the creation of generators and closures from being
     observable to Python and C extensions, restoring the behavior of
     3.10 and earlier.

   - gh-94192(113): Fix error for dictionary literals with invalid
     expression as value.

   - gh-87995(114): *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. instances are now
     hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable.

   - gh-93883(115): Revise the display strategy of traceback enhanced
     error locations.  The indicators are only shown when the location
     doesn’t span the whole line.

   - gh-94163(116): Add *note BINARY_SLICE: 211. and *note STORE_SLICE:
     212. instructions for more efficient handling and better
     specialization of slicing operations, where the slice is explicit
     in the source code.

   - gh-94021(117): Fix unreachable code warning in
     ‘Python/specialize.c’.

   - gh-93911(118): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for objects with custom
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - gh-93955(119): Improve performance of attribute lookups on objects
     with custom ‘__getattribute__’ and ‘__getattr__’.  Patch by Ken
     Jin.

   - gh-93911(120): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for ‘property()’ attributes.

   - gh-93678(121): Refactor compiler optimisation code so that it no
     longer needs the ‘struct assembler’ and ‘struct compiler’ passed
     around.  Instead, each function takes the CFG and other data that
     it actually needs.  This will make it possible to test this code
     directly.

   - gh-93841(122): When built with ‘-enable-pystats’,
     ‘sys._stats_on()’, ‘sys._stats_off()’, ‘sys._stats_clear()’ and
     ‘sys._stats_dump()’ functions have been added to enable gathering
     stats for parts of programs.

   - gh-93516(123): Store offset of first traceable instruction in code
     object to avoid having to recompute it for each instruction when
     tracing.

   - gh-93516(124): Lazily create a table mapping bytecode offsets to
     line numbers to speed up calculation of line numbers when tracing.

   - gh-89828(125): *note types.GenericAlias: 625. no longer relays the
     ‘__class__’ attribute.  For example, ‘isinstance(list[int], type)’
     no longer returns ‘True’.

   - gh-93678(126): Refactor the compiler to reduce boilerplate and
     repetition.

   - gh-93671(127): Fix some exponential backtrace case happening with
     deeply nested sequence patterns in match statements.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93662(128): Make sure that the end column offsets are correct in
     multi-line method calls.  Previously, the end column could precede
     the column offset.

   - gh-93461(129): *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a89. now drops
     entries from *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. with a relative
     path as name.  This solves a caching issue when a process changes
     its current working directory.

     ‘FileFinder’ no longer inserts a dot in the path, e.g.
     ‘/egg/./spam’ is now ‘/egg/spam’.

   - gh-93621(130): Change order of bytecode instructions emitted for
     *note with: 3dd. and *note async with: 3e0. to reduce the number of
     entries in the exception table.

   - gh-93533(131): Reduce the size of the inline cache for
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’ by 2 bytes.

   - gh-93444(132): Removed redundant fields from the compiler’s
     basicblock struct: ‘b_nofallthrough’, ‘b_exit’, ‘b_return’.  They
     can be easily calculated from the opcode of the last instruction of
     the block.

   - gh-93429(133): ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction has been removed.  It was
     merged back into ‘LOAD_ATTR’.

   - gh-93418(134): Fixed an assert where an f-string has an equal sign
     ‘=’ following an expression, but there’s no trailing brace.  For
     example, f”{i=”.

   - gh-93382(135): Cache the result of *note PyCode_GetCode(): 5a8.
     function to restore the 'O'(1) lookup of the ‘co_code’ attribute.

   - gh-93359(136): Ensure that custom *note ast: 8. nodes without
     explicit end positions can be compiled.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-93356(137): Code for exception handlers is emitted at the end of
     the code unit’s bytecode.  This avoids one jump when no exception
     is raised.

   - gh-93354(138): Use exponential backoff for specialization counters
     in the interpreter.  Can reduce the number of failed
     specializations significantly and avoid slowdown for those parts of
     a program that are not suitable for specialization.

   - gh-93283(139): Improve error message for invalid syntax of
     conversion character in f-string expressions.

   - gh-93345(140): Fix a crash in substitution of a ‘TypeVar’ in nested
     generic alias after ‘TypeVarTuple’.

   - gh-93223(141): When a bytecode instruction jumps to an
     unconditional jump instruction, the first instruction can often be
     optimized to target the unconditional jump’s target directly.  For
     tracing reasons, this would previously only occur if both
     instructions have the same line number.  This also now occurs if
     the unconditional jump is artificial, i.e., if it has no associated
     line number.

   - gh-84694(142): The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     configure option and ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro
     have been removed.

   - gh-91924(143): Fix ‘__lltrace__’ debug feature if the stdout
     encoding is not UTF-8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93040(144): Wraps unused parameters in ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ with
     ‘Py_UNUSED’.

   - gh-93143(145): Avoid ‘NULL’ checks for uninitialized local
     variables by determining at compile time which variables must be
     initialized.

   - gh-93061(146): Backward jumps after ‘async for’ loops are no longer
     given dubious line numbers.

   - gh-93065(147): Fix contextvars HAMT implementation to handle
     iteration over deep trees.

     The bug was discovered and fixed by Eli Libman.  See
     MagicStack/immutables#84(148) for more details.

   - gh-93012(149): Added the new function *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
     2df, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  This is useful for language binding tools, where it can
     be used to intercept type-related operations like subclassing or
     static attribute access by specifying a metaclass with custom
     slots.

     Importantly, *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df. is available in the
     Limited API, which provides a path towards migrating more binding
     tools onto the Stable ABI.

   - gh-93021(150): Fix the ‘__text_signature__’ for ‘__get__()’ methods
     implemented in C. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89914(151): The operand of the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction is set
     to the stack depth.  This is done to help frame handling on ‘yield’
     and may assist debuggers.

   - gh-92955(152): Fix memory leak in code object’s lines and positions
     iterators as they were not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-92930(153): Fixed a crash in ‘_pickle.c’ from mutating
     collections during ‘__reduce__’ or ‘persistent_id’.

   - gh-90690(154): The PRECALL instruction has been removed.  It
     offered only a small advantage for specialization and is not needed
     in the vast majority of cases.

   - gh-92914(155): Always round the allocated size for lists up to the
     nearest even number.

   - gh-92858(156): Improve error message for some suites with syntax
     error before ‘:’

   - gh-90473(157): Decrease default recursion limit on WASI to address
     limited call stack size.

   - gh-92804(158): Fix memory leak in ‘memoryview’ iterator as it was
     not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92777(159): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for objects with lazy
     dictionaries.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-92658(160): Add support for connecting and binding to Hyper-V
     sockets on Windows Hyper-V hosts and guests.

   - gh-92236(161): Remove spurious “LINE” event when starting a
     generator or coroutine, visible tracing functions implemented in C.

   - gh-91102(162): ‘_warnings.warn_explicit()’ is ported to Argument
     Clinic.

   - gh-92619(163): Make the compiler duplicate an exit block only if
     none of its instructions have a lineno (previously only the first
     instruction in the block was checked, leading to unnecessarily
     duplicated blocks).

   - gh-88750(164): The deprecated debug build only ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’
     environment variable no longer does anything.

   - gh-92261(165): Fix hang when trying to iterate over a
     ‘typing.Union’.

   - gh-91432(166): Specialized the *note FOR_ITER: 156d. opcode using
     the PEP 659 machinery

   - gh-91399(167): Removed duplicate ‘{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}’ entry in
     ‘Objects/unicodetype_db.h’.

   - gh-91578(168): Updates the error message for abstract class.

   - bpo-47091(169): Improve performance of repetition of *note list:
     422. and *note tuple: 4ff. by using ‘memcpy’ to copy data and
     performing the reference increments in one step.

   - bpo-46142(170): Make ‘--help’ output shorter by moving some info to
     the new ‘--help-env’ and ‘--help-xoptions’ command-line options.
     Also add ‘--help-all’ option to print complete usage.

   - bpo-42316(171): Document some places where an assignment expression
     needs parentheses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98374

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98354

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98398

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98390

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97973

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96078

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97955

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97912

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97002

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97943

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86298

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97779

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97752

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97591

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97670

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94526

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96975

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96848

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95921

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96387

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96864

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96754

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96751

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64373

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96641

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96636

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96572

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96611

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96612

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90230

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96587

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96569

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96582

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96348

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95196

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96364

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96352

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93554

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96268

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96237

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96187

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96143

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96071

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96046

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96005

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95977

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91210

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95922

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95818

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95876

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95605

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95150

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91146

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87092

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95355

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90081

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95324

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95185

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95060

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95113

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91409

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95023

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94036

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94938

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94996

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94739

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94947

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91256

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94869

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94893

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94822

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90699

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94694

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93252

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94215

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92228

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94485

   (106) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91719

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94329

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94360

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94262

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94192

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93883

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94021

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93955

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93841

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89828

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93671

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93662

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93461

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93621

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93533

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93444

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93418

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93382

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93359

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93356

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93354

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93283

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93345

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93223

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84694

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91924

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93040

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93061

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93065

   (148) https://github.com/MagicStack/immutables/issues/84

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93021

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89914

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92955

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92930

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90690

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92914

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92858

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92804

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92777

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92658

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92236

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92619

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88750

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92261

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91432

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91399

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91578

   (169) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47091

   (170) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (171) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316


File: python.info,  Node: Library<27>,  Next: Documentation<23>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.3 Library
.................

   - gh-89237(1): Fix hang on Windows in ‘subprocess.wait_closed()’ in
     *note asyncio: a. with *note ProactorEventLoop: 418.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97928(2): ‘tkinter.Text.count()’ raises now an exception for
     options starting with “-” instead of silently ignoring them.

   - gh-98393(3): The *note os: a0. module no longer accepts bytes-like
     paths, like *note bytearray: 2ca. and *note memoryview: 185. types:
     only the exact *note bytes: 2cb. type is accepted for bytes
     strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98363(4): Added itertools.batched() to batch data into lists of
     a given length with the last list possibly being shorter than the
     others.

   - gh-98331(5): Update the bundled copies of pip and setuptools to
     versions 22.3 and 65.5.0 respectively.

   - gh-98307(6): A *note createSocket(): 46e. method was added to *note
     SysLogHandler: 46f.

   - gh-96035(7): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 283. that
     causes certain port numbers containing whitespace, underscores,
     plus and minus signs, or non-ASCII digits to be incorrectly
     accepted.

   - gh-98257(8): Make *note sys.setprofile(): 138c. and *note
     sys.settrace(): 138d. functions reentrant.  They can no long fail
     with: ‘RuntimeError("Cannot install a trace function while another
     trace function is being installed")’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98251(9): Allow *note venv: 111. to pass along ‘PYTHON*’
     variables to ‘ensurepip’ and ‘pip’ when they do not impact path
     resolution

   - gh-94597(10): Deprecated *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 226. and *note
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 225. methods
     to be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98178(11): On macOS, fix a crash in *note syslog.syslog(): 2ce.
     in multi-threaded applications.  On macOS, the libc ‘syslog()’
     function is not thread-safe, so *note syslog.syslog(): 2ce. no
     longer releases the GIL to call it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-44098(12): Release the GIL when creating *note mmap.mmap: 868.
     objects on Unix.

   - gh-87730(13): Wrap network errors consistently in urllib FTP
     support, so the test suite doesn’t fail when a network is available
     but the public internet is not reachable.

   - gh-94597(14): The child watcher classes *note
     MultiLoopChildWatcher: 21f, *note FastChildWatcher: 220. and *note
     SafeChildWatcher: 222. are deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98023(15): Change default child watcher to *note
     PidfdChildWatcher: 19a. on Linux systems which supports it.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90985(16): Earlier in 3.11 we deprecated
     ‘asyncio.Task.cancel("message")’.  We realized we were too harsh,
     and have undeprecated it.

   - gh-65961(17): Do not rely solely on ‘__cached__’ on modules; code
     will also support ‘__spec__.cached’.

   - gh-97646(18): Replace deprecated ‘application/javascript’ with
     ‘text/javascript’ in *note mimetypes: 8e.  See RFC 9239(19).  Patch
     by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-97930(20): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.8 and 5.9:
     ‘Traversable.joinpath’ provides a concrete implementation.
     ‘as_file’ now supports directories of resources.

   - gh-97850(21): Remove deprecated ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’ and
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ from *note importlib.util: 7b.

   - gh-97837(22): Change deprecate warning message in *note unittest:
     106. from

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value!=None’

     to

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test
     case’

   - gh-97825(23): Fixes *note AttributeError: 3dc. when *note
     subprocess.check_output(): e64. is used with argument ‘input=None’
     and either of the arguments 'encoding' or 'errors' are used.

   - gh-97008(24): *note NameError: 14a. and *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     spelling suggestions provided since gh-82711(25) are now also
     emitted by the pure Python *note traceback: fe. module.  Tests for
     those suggestions now exercise both implementations to ensure they
     are equivalent.  Patch by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick and Łukasz
     Langa.

   - gh-97799(26): ‘dataclass’ now uses *note inspect.get_annotations():
     64f. to examine the annotations on class objects.

   - gh-97781(27): Removed deprecated interfaces in ‘importlib.metadata’
     (entry points accessed as dictionary, implicit dictionary
     construction of sequence of ‘EntryPoint’ objects, mutablility of
     ‘EntryPoints’ result, access of entry point by index).
     ‘entry_points’ now has a simpler, more straightforward API
     (returning ‘EntryPoints’).

   - gh-96827(28): Avoid spurious tracebacks from *note asyncio: a. when
     default executor cleanup is delayed until after the event loop is
     closed (e.g.  as the result of a keyboard interrupt).

   - gh-95534(29): ‘gzip.GzipFile.read()’ reads 10% faster.

   - gh-97592(30): Avoid a crash in the C version of *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 142b. when an evil argument
     is passed.

   - gh-97639(31): Remove ‘tokenize.NL’ check from *note tabnanny: dc.

   - gh-97545(32): Make Semaphore run faster.

   - gh-73588(33): Fix generation of the default name of
     ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’.  Previously, checkbuttons in different
     parent widgets could have the same short name and share the same
     state if arguments “name” and “variable” are not specified.  Now
     they are globally unique.

   - gh-96865(34): fix Flag to use boundary CONFORM

     This restores previous Flag behavior of allowing flags with
     non-sequential values to be combined; e.g.

     class Skip(Flag): TWO = 2 EIGHT = 8

     Skip.TWO | Skip.EIGHT -> <Skip.TWO|EIGHT: 10>

   - gh-97005(35): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.9

   - gh-85760(36): Fix race condition in *note asyncio: a. where *note
     process_exited(): 15e5. called before the *note
     pipe_data_received(): 15e6. leading to inconsistent output.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96704(37): Pass the correct ‘contextvars.Context’ when a
     ‘asyncio’ exception handler is called on behalf of a task or
     callback handle.  This adds a new ‘Task’ method, ‘get_context’, and
     also a new ‘Handle’ method with the same name.  If this method is
     not found on a task object (perhaps because it is a third-party
     library that does not yet provide this method), the context
     prevailing at the time the exception handler is called is used.

   - gh-96819(38): Fixed check in ‘multiprocessing.resource_tracker’
     that guarantees that the length of a write to a pipe is not greater
     than ‘PIPE_BUF’.

   - gh-95865(39): Reduce *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 15e7.
     memory use on large values.

     Contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - gh-96741(40): Corrected type annotation for dataclass attribute
     ‘pstats.FunctionProfile.ncalls’ to be ‘str’.

   - gh-96734(41): Update *note unicodedata: 105. database to Unicode
     15.0.0.

   - gh-96735(42): Fix undefined behaviour in *note struct.unpack():
     15e8.

   - gh-46412(43): Improve performance of ‘bool(db)’ for large ndb/gdb
     databases.  Previously this would call ‘len(db)’ which would
     iterate over all keys – the answer (empty or not) is known after
     the first key.

   - gh-96652(44): Fix the faulthandler implementation of
     ‘faulthandler.register(signal, chain=True)’ if the ‘sigaction()’
     function is not available: don’t call the previous signal handler
     if it’s NULL. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-68163(45): Correct conversion of *note numbers.Rational: 1167.’s
     to *note float: 272.

   - gh-96538(46): Speed up ‘bisect.bisect()’ functions by taking
     advantage of type-stability.

   - gh-96465(47): Fraction hashes are now cached.

   - gh-96079(48): In *note typing: 104, fix missing field ‘name’ and
     incorrect ‘__module__’ in _AnnotatedAlias.

   - gh-96415(49): Remove ‘types._cell_factory’ from module namespace.

   - gh-95987(50): Fix ‘repr’ of ‘Any’ subclasses.

   - gh-96388(51): Work around missing socket functions in *note socket:
     c2e.’s ‘__repr__’.

   - gh-96385(52): Fix ‘TypeVarTuple.__typing_prepare_subst__’.
     ‘TypeError’ was not raised when using more than one ‘TypeVarTuple’,
     like ‘[*T, *V]’ in type alias substitutions.

   - gh-96142(53): Add ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, ‘slots’, and
     ‘weakref_slot’ to ‘_DataclassParams’.

   - gh-96073(54): In *note inspect: 7c, fix overeager replacement of
     “‘typing.’” in formatting annotations.

   - gh-89258(55): Added a *note getChildren(): 15e9. method to *note
     logging.Logger: 9c2, to get the immediate child loggers of a
     logger.

   - gh-96346(56): Use double caching for compiled RE patterns.

   - gh-96349(57): Fixed a minor performance regression in
     ‘threading.Event.__init__()’

   - gh-90467(58): Fix ‘asyncio.streams.StreamReaderProtocol’ to keep a
     strong reference to the created task, so that it’s not garbage
     collected

   - gh-96172(59): Fix a bug in ‘unicodedata’: ‘east_asian_width’ used
     to return the wrong value for unassigned characters; and for yet
     unassigned, but reserved characters.

   - gh-96159(60): Fix a performance regression in logging
     TimedRotatingFileHandler.  Only check for special files when the
     rollover time has passed.

   - gh-96175(61): Fix unused ‘localName’ parameter in the ‘Attr’ class
     in *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.

   - gh-96145(62): Add AttrDict to JSON module for use with object_hook.

   - gh-96052(63): Fix handling compiler warnings (SyntaxWarning and
     DeprecationWarning) in *note codeop.compile_command(): 15ea. when
     checking for incomplete input.  Previously it emitted warnings and
     raised a SyntaxError.  Now it always returns ‘None’ for incomplete
     input without emitting any warnings.

   - gh-96125(64): Fix incorrect condition that causes
     ‘sys.thread_info.name’ to be wrong on pthread platforms.

   - gh-96019(65): Fix a bug in the ‘makeunicodedata.py’ script leading
     to about 13 KiB of space saving in the ‘unicodedata’ module,
     specifically the character decomposition data.

   - gh-95463(66): Remove an incompatible change from bpo-28080(67) that
     caused a regression that ignored the utf8 in ‘ZipInfo.flag_bits’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69142(68): Add ‘%:z’ strftime format code (generates tzoffset
     with colons as separator), see *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 15eb.

   - gh-95899(69): Fix *note asyncio.Runner: 40f. to call *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 15ec. only once to avoid calling *note
     attach_loop(): 15ed. multiple times on child watchers.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95736(70): Fix *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. to
     set event loop before calling setup functions.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-95865(71): Speed up *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 15e7.
     by replacing a list comprehension with ‘map()’.

   - gh-95861(72): Add support for computing Spearman’s correlation
     coefficient to the existing statistics.correlation() function.

   - gh-95804(73): Fix ‘logging’ shutdown handler so it respects
     ‘MemoryHandler.flushOnClose’.

   - gh-95704(74): When a task catches *note asyncio.CancelledError:
     837. and raises some other error, the other error should generally
     not silently be suppressed.

   - gh-95149(75): The *note HTTPStatus: 755. enum offers a couple of
     properties to indicate the HTTP status category e.g.
     ‘HTTPStatus.OK.is_success’.

   - gh-95609(76): Update bundled pip to 22.2.2.

   - gh-95289(77): Fix *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. to propagate
     exception when *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. was replaced with
     another exception by a context manager.  Patch by Kumar Aditya and
     Guido van Rossum.

   - gh-94909(78): Fix incorrect joining of relative Windows paths with
     drives in *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. initializer.

   - gh-95385(79): Faster ‘json.dumps()’ when sorting of keys is not
     requested (default).

   - gh-83901(80): Improve *note Signature.bind: 13f3. error message for
     missing keyword-only arguments.

   - gh-95339(81): Update bundled pip to 22.2.1.

   - gh-95045(82): Fix GC crash when deallocating ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ by
     untracking it before calling any callbacks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95231(83): Fail gracefully if *note EPERM: 15ee. or *note
     ENOSYS: 15ef. is raised when loading *note crypt: 28. methods.
     This may happen when trying to load ‘MD5’ on a Linux kernel with
     FIPS (Federal Information Processing Standard) enabled.

   - gh-95097(84): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 19d. for *note asyncio.Task:
     20a. implementations without *note uncancel(): 41a. method.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95087(85): Fix IndexError in parsing invalid date in the *note
     email: 3a. module.

   - gh-95199(86): Upgrade bundled setuptools to 63.2.0.

   - gh-95194(87): Upgrade bundled pip to 22.2.

   - gh-93899(88): Fix check for existence of *note os.EFD_CLOEXEC:
     15f0, *note os.EFD_NONBLOCK: 15f1. and *note os.EFD_SEMAPHORE:
     15f2. flags on older kernel versions where these flags are not
     present.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95166(89): Fix *note concurrent.futures.Executor.map(): c72. to
     cancel the currently waiting on future on an error - e.g.
     TimeoutError or KeyboardInterrupt.

   - gh-95132(90): Fix a *note sqlite3: ce. regression where ‘*args’ and
     ‘**kwds’ were incorrectly relayed from *note connect(): 1e4. to the
     *note Connection: 1e3. factory.  The regression was introduced in
     3.11a1 with PR 24421 (gh-85128(91)).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93157(92): Fix *note fileinput: 59. module didn’t support
     ‘errors’ option when ‘inplace’ is true.

   - gh-91212(93): Fixed flickering of the turtle window when the tracer
     is turned off.  Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

   - gh-95077(94): Add deprecation warning for enum ‘member.member’
     access (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’).  Remove ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’.

   - gh-95109(95): Ensure that timeouts scheduled with *note
     asyncio.Timeout: 14c9. that have already expired are delivered
     promptly.

   - gh-95105(96): ‘wsgiref.types.InputStream.__iter__()’ should return
     ‘Iterator[bytes]’, not ‘Iterable[bytes]’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-95066(97): Replaced assert with exception in *note ast.parse():
     188, when ‘feature_version’ has an invalid major version.  Patch by
     Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-77617(98): Add *note sqlite3: ce. *note command-line interface:
     150.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-95005(99): Replace _PyAccu with _PyUnicodeWriter in JSON encoder
     and StringIO and remove the _PyAccu implementation.

   - gh-90085(100): Remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ CLI options of
     *note timeit: ee.  The options had been deprecated since Python 3.3
     and the functionality was removed in Python 3.7.  Patch by Shantanu
     Jain.

   - gh-94857(101): Fix refleak in ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94821(102): Fix binding of unix socket to empty address on Linux
     to use an available address from the abstract namespace, instead of
     “0”.

   - gh-94736(103): Fix crash when deallocating an instance of a
     subclass of ‘_multiprocessing.SemLock’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-81620(104): Add random.binomialvariate().

   - gh-74116(105): Allow *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 15cd. to
     be awaited concurrently by multiple tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-87822(106): When called with ‘capture_locals=True’, the *note
     traceback: fe. module functions swallow exceptions raised from
     calls to ‘repr()’ on local variables of frames.  This is in order
     to prioritize the original exception over rendering errors.  An
     indication of the failure is printed in place of the missing value.
     (Patch by Simon-Martin Schroeder).

   - gh-88050(107): Fix *note asyncio: a. subprocess transport to kill
     process cleanly when process is blocked and avoid ‘RuntimeError’
     when loop is closed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94637(108): ‘SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()’ now releases
     the GIL around ‘SSL_CTX_set_default_verify_paths’ call.  The
     function call performs I/O and CPU intensive work.

   - gh-94309(109): Deprecate aliases *note typing.Hashable: 242. and
     *note typing.Sized: 243.

   - gh-92546(110): An undocumented ‘python -m pprint’ benchmark is
     moved into ‘pprint’ suite of pyperformance.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94607(111): Fix subclassing complex generics with type variables
     in *note typing: 104.  Previously an error message saying ‘Some
     type variables ... are not listed in Generic[...]’ was shown.
     *note typing: 104. no longer populates ‘__parameters__’ with the
     ‘__parameters__’ of a Python class.

   - gh-94619(112): Remove the long-deprecated ‘module_repr()’ from
     *note importlib: 75.

   - gh-93910(113): The ability to access the other values of an enum on
     an enum (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’) has been restored in order to fix
     a performance regression.

   - gh-93896(114): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 19d. and *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. to always the set event loop
     as it was done in Python 3.10 and earlier.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94343(115): Allow setting the attributes of ‘reprlib.Repr’
     during object initialization

   - gh-94382(116): Port static types of ‘_multiprocessing’ module to
     heap types.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78724(117): Fix crash in *note struct.Struct: 14c1. when it was
     not completely initialized by initializing it in *note __new__():
     319.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94510(118): Re-entrant calls to *note sys.setprofile(): 138c.
     and *note sys.settrace(): 138d. now raise *note RuntimeError: 180.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-92336(119): Fix bug where *note linecache.getline(): cb3. fails
     on bad files with *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873. or *note
     SyntaxError: 14c.  It now returns an empty string as per the
     documentation.

   - gh-94398(120): Once a *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. has started
     shutting down (i.e., at least one task has failed and the task
     group has started cancelling the remaining tasks), it should not be
     possible to add new tasks to the task group.

   - gh-94383(121): ‘xml.etree’: Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’
     method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python
     3.10, use the *note copy.copy(): 2bf. function instead.  The C
     implementation of ‘xml.etree’ has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94379(122): *note zipimport: 132.: Remove ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’ methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the
     ‘find_spec()’ method instead.  See PEP 451(123) for the rationale.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94352(124): *note shlex.split(): 2c8.: Passing ‘None’ for 's'
     argument now raises an exception, rather than reading *note
     sys.stdin: 2c9.  The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94318(125): Strip trailing spaces in *note pydoc: b4. text
     output.

   - gh-89988(126): Fix memory leak in *note pickle.Pickler: 880. when
     looking up ‘dispatch_table’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90016(127): Deprecate *note sqlite3: ce. *note default adapters
     and converters: 23b.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94254(128): Fixed types of *note struct: d4. module to be
     immutable.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93259(129): Now raise ‘ValueError’ when ‘None’ or an empty
     string are passed to ‘Distribution.from_name’ (and other callers).

   - gh-74696(130): *note shutil.make_archive(): 1de. now passes the
     'root_dir' argument to custom archivers which support it.

   - gh-94216(131): The *note dis: 37. module now has the opcodes for
     pseudo instructions (those which are used by the compiler during
     code generation but then removed or replaced by real opcodes before
     the final bytecode is emitted).

   - gh-93096(132): Removed undocumented ‘python -m codecs’.  Use
     ‘python -m unittest test.test_codecs.EncodedFileTest’ instead.

   - gh-94207(133): Made ‘_struct.Struct’ GC-tracked in order to fix a
     reference leak in the ‘_struct’ module.

   - gh-93096(134): Removed undocumented ‘-t’ argument of ‘python -m
     base64’.  Use ‘python -m unittest
     test.test_base64.LegacyBase64TestCase.test_encodebytes’ instead.

   - gh-94226(135): Remove the ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 2a9. instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(136): Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  The
     ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ was deprecated in Python 3.7.  OpenSSL
     performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses
     the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94214(137): Document the ‘context’ object used in the
     ‘venv.EnvBuilder’ class, and add the new environment’s library path
     to it.

   - gh-94199(138): Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object
     and call its *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 2af. method.  Any
     package that still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.
     The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(139) Improper Certificate
     Validation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(140): Remove the ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 2ad. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 2ae. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(141): *note hashlib: 66.: Remove the pure Python
     implementation of *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 299, deprecated in
     Python 3.10.  Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP
     644(142)): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of
     *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 299. which is faster.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94196(143): *note gzip: 65.: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 296, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the
     *note name: 297. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94182(144): run the *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 19a. on the
     running loop, this allows event loops to run subprocesses when
     there is no default event loop running on the main thread

   - gh-94169(145): Remove ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 2a6. instead.
     The *note open(): 2a6. (*note io.open(): 2a7.) function is a
     built-in function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a
     static method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91742(146): Fix *note pdb: a4. crash after jump caused by a null
     pointer dereference.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94101(147): Manual instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSession: b60.
     objects is no longer allowed as it lead to misconfigured instances
     that crashed the interpreter when attributes where accessed on
     them.

   - gh-84753(148): *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1b5, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 15f3, and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 15f4. now properly return ‘True’ for
     duck-typed function-like objects like instances of *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: 8ae.

     This makes *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1b5. consistent
     with the behavior of ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’.  Patch by
     Mehdi ABAAKOUK.

   - gh-94028(149): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: ce. where
     statement objects were not properly cleared and reset after use in
     cursor iters.  The regression was introduced by PR 27884 in Python
     3.11a1.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93973(150): Add keyword argument ‘all_errors’ to
     ‘asyncio.create_connection’ so that multiple connection errors can
     be raised as an ‘ExceptionGroup’.

   - gh-93963(151): Officially deprecate from ‘importlib.abc’ classes
     moved to ‘importlib.resources.abc’.

   - gh-93858(152): Prevent error when activating venv in nested fish
     instances.

   - gh-93820(153): Pickle *note enum.Flag: 435. by name.

   - gh-93847(154): Fix repr of enum of generic aliases.

   - gh-91404(155): Revert the *note re: b8. memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure as the
     implemented fix caused a major performance regression.

   - gh-83499(156): Fix double closing of file description in *note
     tempfile: df.

   - gh-93820(157): Fixed a regression when *note copy.copy(): 2bf.-ing
     *note enum.Flag: 435. with multiple flag members.

   - gh-79512(158): Fixed names and ‘__module__’ value of *note weakref:
     114. classes *note ReferenceType: 15f5, *note ProxyType: 15f6,
     *note CallableProxyType: 15f7.  It makes them pickleable.

   - gh-91389(159): Fix an issue where *note dis: 37. utilities could
     report missing or incorrect position information in the presence of
     ‘CACHE’ entries.

   - gh-93626(160): Set ‘__future__.annotations’ to have a ‘None’
     mandatoryRelease to indicate that it is currently ‘TBD’.

   - gh-90473(161): Emscripten and WASI have no home directory and
     cannot provide PEP 370(162) user site directory.

   - gh-90494(163): *note copy.copy(): 2bf. and *note copy.deepcopy():
     9e4. now always raise a TypeError if ‘__reduce__()’ returns a tuple
     with length 6 instead of silently ignore the 6th item or produce
     incorrect result.

   - gh-90549(164): Fix a multiprocessing bug where a global named
     resource (such as a semaphore) could leak when a child process is
     spawned (as opposed to forked).

   - gh-93521(165): Fixed a case where dataclasses would try to add
     ‘__weakref__’ into the ‘__slots__’ for a dataclass that specified
     ‘weakref_slot=True’ when it was already defined in one of its
     bases.  This resulted in a ‘TypeError’ upon the new class being
     created.

   - gh-79579(166): *note sqlite3: ce. now correctly detects DML queries
     with leading comments.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93421(167): Update *note sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount: 15f8. when a
     DML statement has run to completion.  This fixes the row count for
     SQL queries like ‘UPDATE ... RETURNING’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-93475(168): Expose ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants in
     *note fcntl: 57.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-93370(169): Deprecate *note sqlite3.version: 256. and *note
     sqlite3.version_info: 257.

   - gh-91810(170): Suppress writing an XML declaration in open files in
     ‘ElementTree.write()’ with ‘encoding='unicode'’ and
     ‘xml_declaration=None’.

   - gh-91162(171): Support splitting of unpacked arbitrary-length tuple
     over ‘TypeVar’ and ‘TypeVarTuple’ parameters.  For example:

        * ‘A[T, *Ts][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[int, *tuple[int, ...]]’

        * ‘A[*Ts, T][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[*tuple[int, ...], int]’

   - gh-93353(172): Fix the *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 1b0.
     context manager to remove the temporary file if destroyed late
     during Python finalization: keep a local reference to the *note
     os.remove(): f93. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83658(173): Make ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ raise an exception if
     ‘maxtasksperchild’ is not ‘None’ or a positive int.

   - gh-93312(174): Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 1bf. flag to open a
     file descriptor for a process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 19b. in
     non-blocking mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88123(175): Implement ‘Enum.__contains__’ that returns ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to replace the deprecated behaviour that would sometimes
     raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.

   - gh-93297(176): Make asyncio task groups prevent child tasks from
     being GCed

   - gh-85308(177): Changed *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2c5. to use
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. instead of
     default text encoding to read arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option).  This change affects Windows;
     argument file should be encoded with UTF-8 instead of ANSI
     Codepage.

   - gh-93156(178): Accessing the *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 65e.
     sequence of an absolute path using negative index values produced
     incorrect results.

   - gh-93162(179): Add the ability for *note
     logging.config.dictConfig(): 1055. to usefully configure *note
     QueueHandler: 15f9. and *note QueueListener: cbc. as a pair, and
     add *note logging.getHandlerByName(): 15fa. and *note
     logging.getHandlerNames(): 15fb. APIs to allow access to handlers
     by name.

   - gh-93243(180): The ‘smtpd’ module was removed per the schedule in
     PEP 594(181).

   - gh-92886(182): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     AssertionError()’ in ‘BaseHandler’ so that the tested behaviour is
     maintained running with optimizations ‘(-O)’.

   - gh-90155(183): Fix broken *note asyncio.Semaphore: 8d9. when
     acquire is cancelled.

   - gh-90817(184): The *note locale.resetlocale(): 547. function is
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91513(185): Added ‘taskName’ attribute to *note logging: 86.
     module for use with *note asyncio: a. tasks.

   - gh-74696(186): *note shutil.make_archive(): 1de. no longer
     temporarily changes the current working directory during creation
     of standard ‘.zip’ or tar archives.

   - gh-92728(187): The ‘re.template()’ function and the corresponding
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are restored after they were removed
     in 3.11.0b1, but they are now deprecated, so they might be removed
     from Python 3.13.

   - gh-93033(188): Search in some strings (platform dependent i.e
     [U+0xFFFF, U+0x0100] on Windows or [U+0xFFFFFFFF, U+0x00010000] on
     Linux 64-bit) are now up to 10 times faster.

   - gh-89973(189): Fix *note re.error: cdc. raised in *note fnmatch:
     5a. if the pattern contains a character range with upper bound
     lower than lower bound (e.g.  ‘[c-a]’).  Now such ranges are
     interpreted as empty ranges.

   - gh-93044(190): No longer convert the database argument of *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 1e4. to bytes before passing it to the factory.

   - gh-93010(191): In a very special case, the email package tried to
     append the nonexistent ‘InvalidHeaderError’ to the defect list.  It
     should have been ‘InvalidHeaderDefect’.

   - gh-92986(192): Fix *note ast.unparse(): 738. when
     ‘ImportFrom.level’ is ‘None’

   - gh-92932(193): Now *note dis(): 9a5. and *note get_instructions():
     dcd. handle operand values for instructions prefixed by
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’.  Patch by Sam Gross and Donghee Na.

   - gh-92675(194): Fix ‘venv.ensure_directories()’ to accept *note
     pathlib.Path: 14f. arguments in addition to *note str: 15d. paths.
     Patch by David Foster.

   - gh-87901(195): Removed the ‘encoding’ argument from *note
     os.popen(): 8ec. that was added in 3.11b1.

   - gh-91922(196): Fix function ‘sqlite.connect()’ and the
     ‘sqlite.Connection’ constructor on non-UTF-8 locales.  Also, they
     now support bytes paths non-decodable with the current FS encoding.

   - gh-92869(197): Added *note c_time_t: 15fc. to *note ctypes: 2a,
     which has the same size as the ‘time_t’ type in C.

   - gh-92839(198): Fixed crash resulting from calling bisect.insort()
     or bisect.insort_left() with the key argument not equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-90473(199): *note subprocess: d5. now fails early on Emscripten
     and WASI platforms to work around missing *note os.pipe(): 15fd. on
     WASI.

   - gh-89325(200): Removed many old deprecated *note unittest: 106.
     features: *note TestCase: 15f. method aliases, undocumented and
     broken *note TestCase: 15f. method ‘assertDictContainsSubset’,
     undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 2bb. parameter
     'use_load_tests', and an underscored alias of the *note
     TextTestResult: 2bc. class.

   - gh-92734(201): Allow multi-element reprs emitted by *note reprlib:
     ba. to be pretty-printed using configurable indentation.

   - gh-92671(202): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 738. for empty tuples in
     the assignment target context.

   - gh-91581(203): *note utcfromtimestamp(): 22d. no longer attempts to
     resolve ‘fold’ in the pure Python implementation, since the fold is
     never 1 in UTC. In addition to being slightly faster in the common
     case, this also prevents some errors when the timestamp is close to
     *note datetime.min: 15fe.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-86388(204): Removed randrange() functionality deprecated since
     Python 3.10.  Formerly, randrange(10.0) losslessly converted to
     randrange(10).  Now, it raises a TypeError.  Also, the exception
     raised for non-integral values such as randrange(10.5) or
     randrange(‘10’) has been changed from ValueError to TypeError.

   - gh-90385(205): Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 1d0. as an
     alternative to *note os.walk(): 1d1.

   - gh-92550(206): Fix *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 1d6. for empty
     pattern.

   - gh-92591(207): Allow *note logging: 86. filters to return a *note
     logging.LogRecord: e8c. instance so that filters attached to *note
     logging.Handler: 131e.s can enrich records without side effects on
     other handlers.

   - gh-92445(208): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 6. where ‘nargs="*"’
     would raise an error instead of returning an empty list when 0
     arguments were supplied if choice was also defined in
     ‘parser.add_argument’.

   - gh-92547(209): Remove undocumented *note sqlite3: ce. features
     deprecated in Python 3.10:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92530(210): Fix an issue that occurred after interrupting *note
     threading.Condition.notify(): 15ff.

   - gh-92531(211): The statistics.median_grouped() function now always
     return a float.  Formerly, it did not convert the input type when
     for sequences of length one.

   - gh-84131(212): The *note pathlib.Path: 14f. deprecated method
     ‘link_to’ has been removed.  Use 3.10’s *note hardlink_to(): 65f.
     method instead as its semantics are consistent with that of *note
     symlink_to(): 660.

   - gh-89336(213): Removed *note configparser: 22. module APIs: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class alias, the ‘ParsingError.filename’
     property and parameter, and the ‘ConfigParser.readfp’ method, all
     of which were deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - gh-92391(214): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 565. to *note
     csv.DictReader: 844. and *note csv.DictWriter: 10a3, allowing them
     to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Marc Mueller.

   - gh-91968(215): Add ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’ constants to
     *note socket: cb.

   - gh-91810(216): *note ElementTree: 7a9. method *note write(): e9d.
     and function *note tostring(): e9b. now use the text file’s
     encoding (“UTF-8” if not available) instead of locale encoding in
     XML declaration when ‘encoding="unicode"’ is specified.

   - gh-81790(217): *note os.path.splitdrive(): a6d. now understands DOS
     device paths with UNC links (beginning ‘\\?\UNC\’).  Contributed by
     Barney Gale.

   - gh-91760(218): Apply more strict rules for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence
     of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The
     group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only
     contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.

   - gh-90622(219): Worker processes for *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. are no longer spawned
     on demand (a feature added in 3.9) when the multiprocessing context
     start method is ‘"fork"’ as that can lead to deadlocks in the child
     processes due to a fork happening while threads are running.

   - gh-91577(220): Move imports in ‘SharedMemory’ methods to module
     level so that they can be executed late in python finalization.

   - gh-91581(221): Remove an unhandled error case in the C
     implementation of calls to *note datetime.fromtimestamp: 22f. with
     no time zone (i.e.  getting a local time from an epoch timestamp).
     This should have no user-facing effect other than giving a possibly
     more accurate error message when called with timestamps that fall
     on 10000-01-01 in the local time.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-91539(222): Improve performance of
     ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment’ when there are many
     environment variables

   - gh-91524(223): Speed up the regular expression substitution
     (functions *note re.sub(): 208. and *note re.subn(): 209. and
     corresponding *note re.Pattern: 1528. methods) for replacement
     strings containing group references by 2–3 times.

   - gh-91447(224): Fix findtext in the xml module to only give an empty
     string when the text attribute is set to ‘None’.

   - gh-91456(225): Deprecate current default auto() behavior: In 3.13
     the default will be for for auto() to always return the largest
     member value incremented by 1, and to raise if incompatible value
     types are used.

   - bpo-47231(226): Fixed an issue with inconsistent trailing slashes
     in tarfile longname directories.

   - bpo-39064(227): *note zipfile.ZipFile: 4dc. now raises *note
     zipfile.BadZipFile: 1600. instead of ‘ValueError’ when reading a
     corrupt zip file in which the central directory offset is negative.

   - bpo-41287(228): Fix handling of the ‘doc’ argument in subclasses of
     *note property(): 43c.

   - gh-90005(229): *note ctypes: 2a. dependency ‘libffi’ is now
     detected with ‘pkg-config’.

   - bpo-32547(230): The constructors for *note DictWriter: 10a3. and
     *note DictReader: 844. now coerce the ‘fieldnames’ argument to a
     *note list: 422. if it is an iterator.

   - bpo-35540(231): Fix *note dataclasses.asdict(): 153b. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 1062. is present in the attributes.

   - bpo-47063(232): Add an index_pages parameter to support using
     non-default index page names.

   - bpo-47025(233): Drop support for *note bytes: 2cb. on *note
     sys.path: 368.

   - bpo-46951(234): Order the contents of zipapp archives, to make
     builds more reproducible.

   - bpo-42777(235): Implement *note pathlib.Path.is_mount(): 879. for
     Windows paths.

   - bpo-46755(236): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘stack_info’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent stack trace from being written twice.

   - bpo-45393(237): Fix the formatting for ‘await x’ and ‘not x’ in the
     operator precedence table when using the *note help(): 72a. system.

   - bpo-46642(238): Improve error message when trying to subclass an
     instance of *note typing.TypeVar: 16a, *note typing.ParamSpec: 169,
     *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 168, etc.  Based on patch by Gregory
     Beauregard.

   - bpo-46364(239): Restrict use of sockets instead of pipes for stdin
     of subprocesses created by *note asyncio: a. to AIX platform only.

   - bpo-28249(240): Set *note doctest.DocTest.lineno: 1601. to ‘None’
     when an object does not have *note __doc__: 781.

   - bpo-46197(241): Fix *note ensurepip: 53. environment isolation for
     subprocess running ‘pip’.

   - bpo-45924(242): Fix *note asyncio: a. incorrect traceback when
     future’s exception is raised multiple times.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-45046(243): Add support of context managers in *note unittest:
     106.: methods *note enterContext(): 4d1. and *note
     enterClassContext(): 4d2. of class *note TestCase: 15f, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): 4d3. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): 4d4.

   - bpo-44173(244): Enable fast seeking of uncompressed unencrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’

   - bpo-42627(245): Fix incorrect parsing of Windows registry proxy
     settings

   - bpo-42047(246): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): 8a0. support
     for DragonFly BSD. Patch by David Carlier.

   - bpo-14243(247): The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 1f4.
     function has a new optional parameter 'delete_on_close'

   - bpo-41246(248): Give the same callback function for when the
     overlapped operation is done to the functions ‘recv’, ‘recv_into’,
     ‘recvfrom’, ‘sendto’, ‘send’ and ‘sendfile’ inside ‘IocpProactor’.

   - bpo-39264(249): Fixed ‘collections.UserDict.get()’ to not call
     ‘__missing__()’ when a value is not found.  This matches the
     behavior of *note dict: 240.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38693(250): *note importlib: 75. now uses f-strings internally
     instead of ‘str.format’.

   - bpo-38267(251): Add 'timeout' parameter to *note
     asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 73a.  The default value
     is ‘None’, which means the executor will be given an unlimited
     amount of time.  When called from *note asyncio.Runner: 40f. or
     *note asyncio.run(): 19d, the default timeout is 5 minutes.

   - bpo-34828(252): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 14ef. now
     handles databases that use ‘AUTOINCREMENT’ in one or more tables.

   - bpo-32990(253): Support reading wave files with the
     ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ format in the *note wave: 113. module.

   - bpo-26253(254): Allow adjustable compression level for tarfile
     streams in *note tarfile.open(): d0c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89237

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98331

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98307

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96035

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98257

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98251

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98178

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44098

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87730

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98023

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90985

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97646

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9239.html

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97837

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97825

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97008

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82711

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97799

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97781

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96827

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95534

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97592

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   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73588

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96865

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   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96819

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   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

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   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93899

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   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95132

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   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93157

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   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95077

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95109

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95105

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95066

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   (239) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46364

   (240) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28249

   (241) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46197

   (242) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45924

   (243) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046

   (244) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44173

   (245) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42627

   (246) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42047

   (247) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14243

   (248) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41246

   (249) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39264

   (250) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38693

   (251) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38267

   (252) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34828

   (253) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32990

   (254) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26253


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<23>,  Next: Tests<23>,  Prev: Library<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85525(1): Remove extra row

   - gh-86404(2): Deprecated tools ‘make suspicious’ and ‘rstlint.py’
     are now removed.  They have been replaced by sphinx-lint(3).

   - gh-97741(4): Fix ‘!’ in c domain ref target syntax via a ‘conf.py’
     patch, so it works as intended to disable ref target resolution.

   - gh-96432(5): Fraction literals now support whitespace around the
     forward slash, ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

   - gh-96098(6): Improve discoverability of the higher level
     concurrent.futures module by providing clearer links from the lower
     level threading and multiprocessing modules.

   - gh-95957(7): What’s New 3.11 now has instructions for how to
     provide compiler and linker flags for Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL on RHEL 7
     and CentOS 7.

   - gh-95588(8): Clarified the conflicting advice given in the *note
     ast: 8. documentation about *note ast.literal_eval(): a91. being
     “safe” for use on untrusted input while at the same time warning
     that it can crash the process.  The latter statement is true and is
     deemed unfixable without a large amount of work unsuitable for a
     bugfix.  So we keep the warning and no longer claim that
     ‘literal_eval’ is safe.

   - gh-91207(9): Fix stylesheet not working in Windows CHM htmlhelp
     docs and add warning that they are deprecated.  Contributed by
     C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - gh-95454(10): Replaced incorrectly written true/false values in
     documentation.  Patch by Robert O’Shea

   - gh-95451(11): Update library documentation with *note availability
     information: 1603. on WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - gh-95415(12): Use consistent syntax for platform availability.  The
     directive now supports a content body and emits a warning when it
     encounters an unknown platform.

   - gh-94321(13): Document the PEP 246(14) style protocol type *note
     sqlite3.PrepareProtocol: 1604.

   - gh-86128(15): Document a limitation in ThreadPoolExecutor where its
     exit handler is executed before any handlers in atexit.

   - gh-61162(16): Clarify *note sqlite3: ce. behavior when *note How to
     use the connection context manager: 1605.

   - gh-87260(17): Align *note sqlite3: ce. argument specs with the
     actual implementation.

   - gh-86986(18): The minimum Sphinx version required to build the
     documentation is now 3.2.

   - gh-88831(19): Augmented documentation of asyncio.create_task().
     Clarified the need to keep strong references to tasks and added a
     code snippet detailing how to do this.

   - gh-86438(20): Clarify that *note -W: 71a. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     a21. are matched literally and case-insensitively, rather than as
     regular expressions, in *note warnings: 112.

   - gh-93031(21): Update tutorial introduction output to use 3.10+
     SyntaxError invalid range.

   - gh-92240(22): Added release dates for “What’s New in Python 3.X”
     for 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.8 and 3.10

   - bpo-47161(23): Document that *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. does not
     collapse initial double slashes because they denote UNC paths.

   - bpo-40838(24): Document that *note inspect.getdoc(): 859, *note
     inspect.getmodule(): 1606, and *note inspect.getsourcefile(): 1607.
     might return ‘None’.

   - bpo-43689(25): The ‘Differ’ documentation now also mentions other
     whitespace characters, which make it harder to understand the diff
     output.

   - bpo-38056(26): Overhaul the *note Error Handlers: 1608.
     documentation in *note codecs: 1b.

   - bpo-13553(27): Document tkinter.Tk args.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85525

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86404

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/sphinx-lint/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97741

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96432

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96098

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95588

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91207

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95454

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95451

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95415

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94321

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61162

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87260

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86986

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88831

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86438

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93031

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92240

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47161

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40838

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43689

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38056

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13553


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<23>,  Next: Build<22>,  Prev: Documentation<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-95027(1): On Windows, when the Python test suite is run with the
     ‘-jN’ option, the ANSI code page is now used as the encoding for
     the stdout temporary file, rather than using UTF-8 which can lead
     to decoding errors.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96624(2): Fixed the failure of repeated runs of
     ‘test.test_unittest’ caused by side effects in
     ‘test_dotted_but_module_not_loaded’.

   - gh-95243(3): Mitigate the inherent race condition from using
     find_unused_port() in testSockName() by trying to find an unused
     port a few times before failing.  Patch by Ross Burton.

   - gh-95573(4): Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py(5) exposed a bug in
     the macOS kernel where intense concurrent load on non-blocking
     sockets occasionally causes *note errno.ENOBUFS: 160a. (“No buffer
     space available”) to be emitted.  FB11063974 filed with Apple, in
     the mean time as a workaround buffer size used in tests on macOS is
     decreased to avoid intermittent failures.  Patch by Fantix King.

   - gh-95280(6): Fix problem with ‘test_ssl’ ‘test_get_ciphers’ on
     systems that require perfect forward secrecy (PFS) ciphers.

   - gh-95212(7): Make multiprocessing test case
     ‘test_shared_memory_recreate’ parallel-safe.

   - gh-95218(8): Move tests for importlib.resources into
     test_importlib.resources.

   - gh-93963(9): Updated tests to use preferred location for
     ‘importlib.resources’ ABCs.

   - gh-94675(10): Add a regression test for *note re: b8. exponentional
     slowdown when using rjsmin.

   - gh-91330(11): Added more tests for *note dataclasses: 2f. to cover
     behavior with data descriptor-based fields.

   - gh-94208(12): ‘test_ssl’ is now checking for supported TLS version
     and protocols in more tests.

   - gh-94315(13): Tests now check for DAC override capability instead
     of relying on *note os.geteuid(): 160b.

   - gh-54781(14): Rename test_tk to test_tkinter, and rename
     test_ttk_guionly to test_ttk.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93839(15): Move ‘Lib/ctypes/test/’ to ‘Lib/test/test_ctypes/’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93951(16): In test_bdb.StateTestCase.test_skip, avoid including
     auxiliary importers.

   - gh-93957(17): Provide nicer error reporting from subprocesses in
     test_venv.EnsurePipTest.test_with_pip.

   - gh-93884(18): Add test cases for *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 160c.
     that take a large number or a non-int object as parameter.

   - gh-93852(19): test_asyncio, test_logging, test_socket and
     test_socketserver now create AF_UNIX domains in the current
     directory to no longer fail with ‘OSError("AF_UNIX path too long")’
     if the temporary directory (the ‘TMPDIR’ environment variable) is
     too long.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93353(20): regrtest now checks if a test leaks temporary files
     or directories if run with -jN option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-84461(21): ‘run_tests.py’ now handles cross compiling env vars
     correctly and pass ‘HOSTRUNNER’ to regression tests.

   - gh-93616(22): ‘test_modulefinder’ now creates a temporary directory
     in ‘ModuleFinderTest.setUp()’ instead of module scope.

   - gh-93575(23): Fix issue with test_unicode test_raiseMemError.  The
     test case now use ‘test.support.calcobjsize’ to calculate size of
     PyUnicode structs.  *note sys.getsizeof(): 1587. may return
     different size when string has UTF-8 memory.

   - gh-90473(24): WASI does not have a ‘chmod(2)’ syscall.  *note
     os.chmod(): f90. is now a dummy function on WASI. Skip all tests
     that depend on working *note os.chmod(): f90.

   - gh-90473(25): Skip tests on WASI that require symlinks with
     absolute paths.

   - gh-57539(26): Increase calendar test coverage for
     ‘calendar.LocaleTextCalendar.formatweekday()’.

   - gh-90473(27): Skip symlink tests on WASI. wasmtime uses
     ‘openat2(2)’ with ‘RESOLVE_BENEATH’ flag, which prevents symlinks
     with absolute paths.

   - gh-89858(28): Fix ‘test_embed’ for out-of-tree builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92886(29): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_imaplib.py’.

   - gh-92886(30): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_zipimport.py’

   - gh-92886(31): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_py_compile.py’

   - gh-92886(32): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_sys_settrace.py’.

   - gh-92886(33): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘_test_multiprocessing.py’

   - gh-92670(34): Skip
     ‘test_shutil.TestCopy.test_copyfile_nonexistent_dir’ test on AIX as
     the test uses a trailing slash to force the OS consider the path as
     a directory, but on AIX the trailing slash has no effect and is
     considered as a file.

   - gh-92514(35): Remove unused ‘test.support.BasicTestRunner’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47016(36): Create a GitHub Actions workflow for verifying
     bundled pip and setuptools.  Patch by Illia Volochii and Adam
     Turner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96624

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95243

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95573

   (5) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95280

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95212

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95218

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94675

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91330

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94208

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94315

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54781

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93839

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93951

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93957

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93884

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93852

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93616

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93575

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57539

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89858

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92670

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92514

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47016


File: python.info,  Node: Build<22>,  Next: Windows<22>,  Prev: Tests<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.6 Build
...............

   - gh-96761(1): Fix the build process of clang compiler for
     ‘_bootstrap_python’ if LTO optimization is applied.  Patch by
     Matthias Görgens and Donghee Na.

   - gh-96883(2): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ builds for browsers now include
     *note concurrent.futures: 21. for *note asyncio: a. and *note
     unittest.mock: 107.

   - gh-85936(3): CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default
     policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-96729(4): Ensure that Windows releases built with
     ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ are upgradable to and from official
     Python releases.

   - gh-96269(5): Shared module targets now depend on new ‘MODULE_DEPS’
     variable, which includes ‘EXPORTSYMS’.  This fixes a build order
     issue on unsupported AIX platform.

   - gh-84461(6): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ platform no longer builds *note
     resource: bb. module, *note getresuid(): 11c1, *note getresgid():
     11c0, and their setters.  The APIs are stubs and not functional.

   - gh-95973(7): Add a new ‘--with-dsymutil’ configure option to link
     debug information in macOS. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-90536(8): Use the BOLT post-link optimizer to improve
     performance, particularly on medium-to-large applications.

   - gh-93744(9): Remove the ‘configure --with-cxx-main’ build option:
     it didn’t work for many years.  Remove the ‘MAINCC’ variable from
     ‘configure’ and ‘Makefile’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94801(10): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ script that caused
     some header checks to ignore custom ‘CPPFLAGS’.  The regression was
     introduced in gh-94802(11).

   - gh-95145(12): wasm32-wasi builds no longer depend on WASIX’s
     pthread stubs.  Python now has its own stubbed pthread API.

   - gh-95174(13): Python now detects missing ‘dup’ function in WASI and
     works around some missing *note errno: 55, *note select: c0, and
     *note socket: cb. constants.

   - gh-95174(14): Python now skips missing *note socket: cb. functions
     and methods on WASI. WASI can only create sockets from existing fd
     / accept and has no netdb.

   - gh-95085(15): Platforms ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’ have been promoted to PEP 11(16) tier 3
     platform support.

   - gh-94847(17): Fixed ‘_decimal’ module build issue on GCC when
     compiling with LTO and pydebug.  Debug builds no longer force
     inlining of functions.

   - gh-94841(18): Fix the possible performance regression of *note
     PyObject_Free(): ae3. compiled with MSVC version 1932.

   - gh-94801(19): ‘configure’ now uses custom flags like ‘ZLIB_CFLAGS’
     and ‘ZLIB_LIBS’ when searching for headers and libraries.

   - gh-94773(20): ‘deepfreeze.py’ now supports code object with
     frozensets that contain incompatible, unsortable types.

   - gh-94682(21): Build and test with OpenSSL 1.1.1q

   - gh-90005(22): Dependencies of *note readline: b9. and *note curses:
     2b. module are now detected in ‘configure’ script with
     ‘pkg-config’.  Only ‘ncurses’ / ‘ncursesw’ are detected
     automatically.  The old ‘curses’ library is not configured
     automatically.  Workaround for missing ‘termcap’ or ‘tinfo’ library
     has been removed.

   - gh-90005(23): Fix building ‘_ctypes’ extension without
     ‘pkg-config’.

   - gh-90005(24): ‘_dbm’ module dependencies are now detected by
     configure.

   - gh-94404(25): ‘makesetup’ now works around an issue with sed on
     macOS and uses correct CFLAGS for object files that end up in a
     shared extension.  Module CFLAGS are used before
     PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS to avoid clashes with system headers.

   - gh-93939(26): C extension modules are now built by ‘configure’ and
     ‘make’ instead of ‘distutils’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-93939(27): The ‘2to3’, ‘idle’, and ‘pydoc’ scripts are now
     generated and installed by ‘Makefile’ instead of ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94280(28): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.9 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.9 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - gh-93584(29): Address race condition in ‘Makefile’ when installing
     a PGO build.  All ‘test’ and ‘install’ targets now depend on ‘all’
     target.

   - gh-93491(30): ‘configure’ now detects and reports PEP 11(31)
     support tiers.

   - gh-69093(32): Fix ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib.in’ rule for ‘_sqlite3’
     extension.

   - gh-93207(33): ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like
     ‘va_start(args, format),’ is now required to build Python.
     ‘va_start()’ is no longer called with a single parameter.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93202(34): Python now always use the ‘%zu’ and ‘%zd’ printf
     formats to format a ‘size_t’ or ‘Py_ssize_t’ number.  Building
     Python 3.12 requires a C11 compiler, so these printf formats are
     now always supported.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-90473(35): Disable pymalloc and increase stack size on
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - bpo-34449(36): Drop invalid compiler switch ‘-fPIC’ for HP aCC on
     HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96761

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96883

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85936

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96729

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96269

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93744

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95145

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94847

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94841

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94773

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94682

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94404

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94280

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93584

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93491

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93202

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34449


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<22>,  Next: macOS<16>,  Prev: Build<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-98360(1): Fixes *note multiprocessing: 93. spawning child
     processes on Windows from a virtual environment to ensure that
     child processes that also use *note multiprocessing: 93. to spawn
     more children will recognize that they are in a virtual
     environment.

   - gh-98414(2): Fix ‘py.exe’ launcher handling of ‘-V:<COMPANY>/’
     option when default preferences have been set in environment
     variables or configuration files.

   - gh-97728(3): Fix possible crashes caused by the use of
     uninitialized variables when pass invalid arguments in *note
     os.system(): 12e5. on Windows and in Windows-specific modules (like
     ‘winreg’).

   - gh-90989(4): Made *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. install
     per-user by default (unless an all users install already exists),
     and clarify some text in the installer.

   - gh-97649(5): The ‘Tools’ directory is no longer installed on
     Windows

   - gh-96965(6): Update libffi to 3.4.3

   - gh-96577(7): Fixes a potential buffer overrun in *note msilib: 91.

   - gh-96559(8): Fixes the Windows launcher not using the compatible
     interpretation of default tags found in configuration files when no
     tag was passed to the command.

   - gh-94781(9): Fix ‘pcbuild.proj’ to clean previous instances of
     output files in ‘Python\deepfreeze’ and ‘Python\frozen_modules’
     directories on Windows.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-89545(10): Updates *note platform: a9. code getting the Windows
     version to use native Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI)
     queries to determine OS version, type, and architecture.

   - gh-95733(11): Make certain requirements of the Windows Store
     package optional to allow installing on earlier updates of Windows.

   - gh-95656(12): Enable the *note enable_load_extension(): 67d. *note
     sqlite3: ce. API.

   - gh-95587(13): Fixes some issues where the Windows installer would
     incorrectly detect certain features of an existing install when
     upgrading.

   - gh-94399(14): Restores the behaviour of *note Python Launcher for
     Windows: 3c6. for ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang lines, which will now
     search ‘PATH’ for an executable matching the given command.  If
     none is found, the usual search process is used.

   - gh-95445(15): Fixes the unsuccessful removal of the HTML document
     directory when uninstalling with Windows msi.

   - gh-95359(16): Fix *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. handling
     of ‘py.ini’ commands (it was incorrectly expecting a ‘py_’ prefix
     on keys) and crashes when reading per-user configuration file.

   - gh-95285(17): Fix *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. handling
     of command lines where it is only passed a short executable name.

   - gh-90844(18): Allow virtual environments to correctly launch when
     they have spaces in the path.

   - gh-94772(19): Fix incorrect handling of shebang lines in py.exe
     launcher

   - gh-94018(20): *note zipfile: 131. will now remove trailing spaces
     from path components when extracting files on Windows.

   - gh-93824(21): Drag and drop of files onto Python files in Windows
     Explorer has been enabled for Windows ARM64.

   - gh-43414(22): *note os.get_terminal_size(): fa4. now attempts to
     read the size from any provided handle, rather than only supporting
     file descriptors 0, 1 and 2.

   - gh-92817(23): Ensures that ‘py.exe’ will prefer an active virtual
     environment over default tags specified with environment variables
     or through a ‘py.ini’ file.

   - gh-92984(24): Explicitly disable incremental linking for non-Debug
     builds

   - gh-92841(25): *note asyncio: a. no longer throws ‘RuntimeError:
     Event loop is closed’ on interpreter exit after asynchronous socket
     activity.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46907(26): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.4.

   - gh-91061(27): Accept os.PathLike for the argument to
     winsound.PlaySound

   - bpo-42658(28): Support native Windows case-insensitive path
     comparisons by using ‘LCMapStringEx’ instead of *note str.lower():
     160f. in ‘ntpath.normcase()’.  Add ‘LCMapStringEx’ to the ‘_winapi’
     module.

   - bpo-38704(29): Prevent installation on unsupported Windows
     versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98360

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98414

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97728

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90989

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97649

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96965

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96577

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96559

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94781

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95733

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95656

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95587

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94399

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95445

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95359

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95285

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90844

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94772

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94018

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93824

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43414

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92817

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92841

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91061

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42658

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38704


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<16>,  Next: IDLE<14>,  Prev: Windows<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-97897(1): The macOS 13 SDK includes support for the ‘mkfifoat’
     and ‘mknodat’ system calls.  Using the ‘dir_fd’ option with either
     *note os.mkfifo(): c1d. or *note os.mknod(): c1e. could result in a
     segfault if cpython is built with the macOS 13 SDK but run on an
     earlier version of macOS. Prevent this by adding runtime support
     for detection of these system calls (“weaklinking”) as is done for
     other newer syscalls on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97897


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<14>,  Next: Tools/Demos<15>,  Prev: macOS<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-97527(1): Fix a bug in the previous bugfix that caused IDLE to
     not start when run with 3.10.8, 3.12.0a1, and at least Microsoft
     Python 3.10.2288.0 installed without the Lib/test package.  3.11.0
     was never affected.

   - gh-65802(2): Document handling of extensions in Save As dialogs.

   - gh-95191(3): Include prompts when saving Shell (interactive input
     and output).

   - gh-95511(4): Fix the Shell context menu copy-with-prompts bug of
     copying an extra line when one selects whole lines.

   - gh-95471(5): In the Edit menu, move ‘Select All’ and add a new
     separator.

   - gh-95411(6): Enable using IDLE’s module browser with .pyw files.

   - gh-89610(7): Add .pyi as a recognized extension for IDLE on macOS.
     This allows opening stub files by double clicking on them in the
     Finder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97527

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65802

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95511

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95471

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95411

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89610


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<15>,  Next: C API<19>,  Prev: IDLE<14>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-68686(1): Remove ptags and eptags scripts.

   - gh-97681(2): Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old
     demo scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97669(4): Remove outdated example scripts of the
     ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.  A copy can be found in the old-demos
     project(5).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95853(6): The ‘wasm_build.py’ script now pre-builds Emscripten
     ports, checks for broken EMSDK versions, and warns about pkg-config
     env vars.

   - gh-95853(7): The new tool ‘Tools/wasm/wasm_builder.py’ automates
     configure, compile, and test steps for building CPython on
     WebAssembly platforms.

   - gh-95731(8): Fix handling of module docstrings in
     ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’.

   - gh-93939(9): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/check_modules.py’ to check
     and validate builtin and shared extension modules.  The script also
     handles ‘Modules/Setup’ and will eventually replace ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94538(10): Fix Argument Clinic output to custom file
     destinations.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94430(11): Allow parameters named ‘module’ and ‘self’ with
     custom C names in Argument Clinic.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland

   - gh-86087(12): The ‘Tools/scripts/parseentities.py’ script used to
     parse HTML4 entities has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68686

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669

   (5) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95731

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94538

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94430

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86087


File: python.info,  Node: C API<19>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.22.27.11 C API
................

   - gh-98393(1): The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 310. function no
     longer accepts bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 2ca. and
     *note memoryview: 185. types: only the exact *note bytes: 2cb. type
     is accepted for bytes strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91051(2): Add *note PyType_Watch(): 2f7. and related APIs to
     allow callbacks on *note PyType_Modified(): 1614.

   - gh-95756(3): Lazily create and cache ‘co_’ attributes for better
     performance for code getters.

   - gh-96512(4): Configuration for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 402. now lives in the PyConfig C API struct.

   - gh-95589(5): Extensions classes that set ‘tp_dictoffset’ and
     ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ lose the support for multiple inheritance, but
     are now safe.  Extension classes should use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     2eb. instead.

   - gh-95781(6): An unrecognized format character in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     30d. now sets a *note SystemError: 30e.  In previous versions it
     caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the
     result string, and any extra arguments discarded.

   - gh-92678(7): Restore the 3.10 behavior for multiple inheritance of
     C extension classes that store their dictionary at the end of the
     struct.

   - gh-92678(8): Support C extensions using managed dictionaries by
     setting the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT’ flag.

   - gh-93274(9): API for implementing vectorcall (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3, *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2e4.
     and *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2e5.) was added to the limited API
     and stable ABI.

   - gh-95504(10): Fix sign placement when specifying width or precision
     in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. and *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 30d.  Patch by Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93012(11): The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag is
     now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 2e7.
     method is reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with
     mutable types (i.e.  heap types without the ‘immutable’ flag).
     Mutable types that do not override *note tp_call: 2e9. now inherit
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag.

   - gh-95388(12): Creating *note immutable types: 2e8. with mutable
     bases is deprecated and is planned to be disabled in Python 3.14.

   - gh-92678(13): Adds unstable C-API functions
     ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict’ and ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict’ to
     allow C extensions to allow the VM to manage their object’s
     dictionaries.

   - gh-94936(14): Added *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 5a9, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): 5aa. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 5ab. for
     accessing ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’
     respectively via the C API.

   - gh-94930(15): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. is used with ‘#’ in ‘(...)’ but
     without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - gh-94731(16): Python again uses C-style casts for most casting
     operations when compiled with C++.  This may trigger compiler
     warnings, if they are enabled with e.g.  ‘-Wold-style-cast’ or
     ‘-Wzero-as-null-pointer-constant’ options for ‘g++’.

   - gh-93937(17): The following frame functions and type are now
     directly available with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it’s no longer
     needed to add ‘#include <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): 5b5.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 5b6.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 59b.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 59c.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 59d.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 59e.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 5b7.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: 5b8.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91321(18): Fix the compatibility of the Python C API with C++
     older than C++11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91731(19): Avoid defining the ‘static_assert’ when compiling
     with C++ 11, where this is a keyword and redefining it can lead to
     undefined behavior.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89546(20): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df. (and other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions) now check that offsets and the base
     class’s *note tp_basicsize: 7e5. fit in the new class’s
     ‘tp_basicsize’.

   - gh-93503(21): Add two new public functions to the public C-API,
     *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 2f0. and *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 2f1, that allow to set tracing and
     profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  Also, two analogous functions to the *note threading:
     ec. module (*note threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 1f7. and
     *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 1f6.) that allow to do the
     same from Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93442(22): Add C++ overloads for _Py_CAST_impl() to handle
     0/NULL. This will allow C++ extensions that pass 0 or NULL to
     macros using _Py_CAST() to continue to compile.

   - gh-93466(23): Slot IDs in PyType_Spec may not be repeated.  The
     documentation was updated to mention this.  For some cases of
     repeated slots, PyType_FromSpec and related functions will now
     raise an exception.

   - gh-92898(24): Fix C++ compiler warnings when casting function
     arguments to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Serge Guelton.

   - gh-93103(25): Deprecate global configuration variables, like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 339, in the documentation: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-77782(26): Deprecate global configuration variable like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 339.: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92913(27): Ensures changes to *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3fc. are ignored unless *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3fb. is set

   - gh-92781(28): Avoid mixing declarations and code in the C API to
     fix the compiler warning: “ISO C90 forbids mixed declarations and
     code” [-Werror=declaration-after-statement].  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-92651(29): Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never
     any public tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only
     designed to be used by Python internals.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92536(30): Remove legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’.

   - gh-85858(31): Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function and
     the ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92193(32): Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall():
     2f2. to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 2f3.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered function!

   - gh-59121(33): Fixed an assert that prevented ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’
     from providing tracebacks when parsing from the provided FD.

   - bpo-45383(34): The *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316. API will now find
     and use a metaclass based on the provided bases.  An error will be
     raised if there is a metaclass conflict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95756

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96512

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94930

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94731

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91321

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89546

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93442

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93466

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92898

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92913

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92781

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92193

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59121

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45383


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.28 Python 3.11.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<22>,  Next: Core and Builtins<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.1 Security
..................

   - gh-57684(1): Add the *note -P: 3a9. command line option and the
     *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 3aa. environment variable to not prepend a
     potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 368.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<27>,  Next: Library<28>,  Prev: Security<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-89519(1): Chaining classmethod descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(2)) is deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as property().  The core design of this
     feature was flawed, and it caused a number of downstream problems.

   - gh-92345(3): ‘pymain_run_python()’ now imports ‘readline’ and
     ‘rlcompleter’ before sys.path is extended to include the current
     working directory of an interactive interpreter.  Non-interactive
     interpreters are not affected.

   - bpo-43857(4): Improve the *note AttributeError: 3dc. message when
     deleting a missing attribute.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-92245(5): Make sure that PEP 523 is respected in all cases.  In
     3.11a7, specialization may have prevented Python-to-Python calls
     respecting PEP 523.

   - gh-92203(6): Add a closure keyword-only parameter to *note exec():
     6cb.  It can only be specified when exec-ing a code object that
     uses free variables.  When specified, it must be a tuple, with
     exactly the number of cell variables referenced by the code object.
     closure has a default value of ‘None’, and it must be ‘None’ if the
     code object doesn’t refer to any free variables.

   - gh-91173(7): Disable frozen modules in debug builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92114(8): Improve error message when subscript a type with
     ‘__class_getitem__’ set to ‘None’.

   - gh-92112(9): Fix crash triggered by an evil custom ‘mro()’ on a
     metaclass.

   - gh-92063(10): The ‘PRECALL_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR_FAST_WITH_KEYWORDS’
     instruction now ensures methods are called only on objects of the
     correct type.

   - gh-92031(11): Deoptimize statically allocated code objects during
     ‘Py_FINALIZE()’ so that future ‘_PyCode_Quicken’ calls always start
     with unquickened code.

   - gh-92036(12): Fix a crash in subinterpreters related to the garbage
     collector.  When a subinterpreter is deleted, untrack all objects
     tracked by its GC. To prevent a crash in deallocator functions
     expecting objects to be tracked by the GC, leak a strong reference
     to these objects on purpose, so they are never deleted and their
     deallocator functions are not called.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92032(13): The interpreter can now autocomplete soft keywords,
     as of now ‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ (wildcard pattern) from PEP
     634(14).

   - gh-87999(15): The warning emitted by the Python parser for a
     numeric literal immediately followed by keyword has been changed
     from deprecation warning to syntax warning.

   - gh-91869(16): Fix an issue where specialized opcodes with extended
     arguments could produce incorrect tracing output or lead to
     assertion failures.

   - gh-91603(17): Speed up *note types.UnionType: 44d. instantiation.
     Based on patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-89373(18): If Python is built in debug mode, Python now ensures
     that deallocator functions leave the current exception unchanged.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91632(19): Fix a minor memory leak at exit: release the memory
     of the ‘generic_alias_iterator’ type.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-81548(20): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ now
     produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  In a future Python
     version they will be a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. and eventually a
     *note SyntaxError: 14c.

   - bpo-43950(21): Use a single compact table for line starts, ends and
     column offsets.  Reduces memory consumption for location info by
     half

   - gh-91102(22): Use Argument Clinic for ‘EncodingMap’.  Patch by Oleg
     Iarygin.

   - gh-91636(23): Fixed a crash in a garbage-collection edge-case, in
     which a ‘PyFunction_Type.tp_clear’ function could leave a python
     function object in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-91603(24): Speed up *note isinstance(): 151. and *note
     issubclass(): 5f8. checks for *note types.UnionType: 44d.  Patch by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-91625(25): Fixed a bug in which adaptive opcodes ignored any
     preceding ‘EXTENDED_ARG’s on specialization failure.

   - gh-78607(26): The LLTRACE special build now looks for the name
     ‘__lltrace__’ defined in module globals, rather than the name
     ‘__ltrace__’, which had been introduced as a typo.

   - gh-91576(27): Speed up iteration of ascii strings by 50%.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-89279(28): Improve interpreter performance on Windows by
     inlining a few specific macros.

   - gh-91502(29): Add a new ‘_PyFrame_IsEntryFrame()’ API function, to
     check if a *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. is an entry frame.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-91266(30): Refactor the ‘bytearray’ strip methods ‘strip’,
     ‘lstrip’ and ‘rstrip’ to use a common implementation.

   - gh-91479(31): Replaced the ‘__note__’ field of *note BaseException:
     3c3. (added in an earlier version of 3.11) with the final design of
     PEP 678(32).  Namely, *note BaseException: 3c3. gets an
     ‘add_note()’ method, and its ‘__notes__’ field is created when
     necessary.

   - gh-46055(33): Speed up right shift of negative integers, by
     removing unnecessary creation of temporaries.  Original patch by
     Xinhang Xu, reworked by Mark Dickinson.

   - gh-91462(34): Make the interpreter’s low-level tracing (lltrace)
     feature output more readable by displaying opcode names (rather
     than just numbers), and by displaying stack contents before each
     opcode.

   - gh-89455(35): Fixed an uninitialized bool value in the traceback
     printing code path that was introduced by the initial bpo-45292(36)
     exception groups work.

   - gh-91421(37): Fix a potential integer overflow in _Py_DecodeUTF8Ex.

   - gh-91428(38): Add ‘static const char *const _PyOpcode_OpName[256] =
     {...};’ to ‘opcode.h’ for debug builds to assist in debugging the
     Python interpreter.  It is now more convenient to make various
     forms of debugging output more human-readable by including opcode
     names rather than just the corresponding decimal digits.

   - bpo-47120(39): Make *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 1618, *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 1619, *note POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 161a. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 161b. virtual, mapping to new relative jump
     opcodes.

   - bpo-45317(40): Add internal documentation explaining design of new
     (for 3.11) frame stack.

   - bpo-47197(41): ctypes used to mishandle ‘void’ return types, so
     that for instance a function declared like ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE(None,
     ctypes.c_int)’ would be called with signature ‘int f(int)’ instead
     of ‘void f(int)’.  Wasm targets require function pointers to be
     called with the correct signatures so this led to crashes.  The
     problem is now fixed.

   - bpo-47120(42): Make opcodes ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ relative rather than absolute.

   - bpo-47177(43): Replace the ‘f_lasti’ member of the internal
     ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ structure with a ‘prev_instr’ pointer, which
     reduces overhead in the main interpreter loop.  The ‘f_lasti’
     attribute of Python-layer frame objects is preserved for
     backward-compatibility.

   - bpo-46961(44): Integer mod/remainder operations, including the
     three-argument form of *note pow(): 830, now consistently return
     ints from the global small integer cache when applicable.

   - bpo-46962(45): Classes and functions that unconditionally declared
     their docstrings ignoring the ‘--without-doc-strings’ compilation
     flag no longer do so.

     The classes affected are ‘ctypes.UnionType’, *note
     pickle.PickleBuffer: 161c, ‘testcapi.RecursingInfinitelyError’, and
     *note types.GenericAlias: 625.

     The functions affected are 24 methods in *note ctypes: 2a.

     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46942(46): Use Argument Clinic for the *note types.MethodType:
     161d. constructor.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46764(47): Fix wrapping bound methods with @classmethod

   - bpo-43464(48): Optimize ‘set.intersection()’ for non-set arguments.

   - bpo-46721(49): Optimize ‘set.issuperset()’ for non-set argument.

   - bpo-46509(50): Add type-specialized versions of the ‘Py_DECREF()’,
     and use them for ‘float’, ‘int’, ‘str’, ‘bool’, and ‘None’ to avoid
     pointer-chasing at runtime where types are known at C compile time.

   - bpo-46045(51): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-36819(52): Fix crashes in built-in encoders with error handlers
     that return position less or equal than the starting position of
     non-encodable characters.

   - bpo-34093(53): ‘marshal.dumps()’ uses ‘FLAG_REF’ for all interned
     strings.  This makes output more deterministic and helps
     reproducible build.

   - bpo-26579(54): Added ‘object.__getstate__’ which provides the
     default implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.

     Copying and pickling instances of subclasses of builtin types
     bytearray, set, frozenset, collections.OrderedDict,
     collections.deque, weakref.WeakSet, and datetime.tzinfo now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as slots.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43857

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92245

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92203

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91173

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92114

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92112

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92063

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92031

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92036

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92032

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91869

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89373

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91632

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91625

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78607

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91576

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89279

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91502

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91266

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91479

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46055

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91462

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91421

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91428

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45317

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47197

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47177

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46961

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46764

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43464

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46721

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46509

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36819

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34093

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579


File: python.info,  Node: Library<28>,  Next: Documentation<24>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.3 Library
.................

   - gh-87901(1): Add the 'encoding' parameter to *note os.popen(): 8ec.

   - gh-90997(2): Fix an issue where *note dis: 37. utilities may
     interpret populated inline cache entries as valid instructions.

   - gh-92332(3): Deprecate *note typing.Text: 281. (removal of the
     class is currently not planned).  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-78157(4): Deprecate nested classes in enum definitions becoming
     members – in 3.13 they will be normal classes; add ‘member’ and
     ‘nonmember’ functions to allow control over results now.

   - gh-92356(5): Fixed a performance regression in ctypes function
     calls.

   - gh-90997(6): Show the actual named values stored in inline caches
     when ‘show_caches=True’ is passed to *note dis: 37. utilities.

   - gh-92301(7): Prefer ‘close_range()’ to iterating over procfs for
     file descriptor closing in *note subprocess: d5. for better
     performance.

   - gh-67248(8): Sort the miscellaneous topics in Cmd.do_help()

   - gh-92210(9): Port ‘socket.__init__’ to Argument Clinic.  Patch by
     Cinder.

   - gh-80010(10): Add support for generalized ISO 8601 parsing to *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 428, *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 426. and *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 427.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-92118(11): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     10a7, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks.

   - gh-90887(12): Adding ‘COPYFILE_STAT’, ‘COPYFILE_ACL’ and
     ‘COPYFILE_XATTR’ constants for ‘os.fcopyfile()’ available in macOs.

   - gh-91215(13): For *note @dataclass: 3d4, add 'weakref_slot'.  The
     new parameter defaults to ‘False’.  If true, and if ‘slots=True’,
     add a slot named ‘"__weakref__"’, which will allow instances to be
     weakref’d.  Contributed by Eric V. Smith

   - gh-85984(14): New function os.login_tty() for Unix.

   - gh-92128(15): Add *note __class_getitem__(): 565. to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 119f. and *note logging.StreamHandler: 109d,
     allowing them to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-92049(16): Forbid pickling constants ‘re._constants.SUCCESS’
     etc.  Previously, pickling did not fail, but the result could not
     be unpickled.

   - gh-92062(17): *note inspect.Parameter: ca4. now raises *note
     ValueError: 189. if ‘name’ is a keyword, in addition to the
     existing check that it is an identifier.

   - gh-87390(18): Add an ‘__unpacked__’ attribute to *note
     types.GenericAlias: 625.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-88089(19): Add support for generic *note typing.NamedTuple: 202.

   - gh-91996(20): New http.HTTPMethod enum to represent all the
     available HTTP request methods in a convenient way

   - gh-91984(21): Modified test strings in test_argparse.py to not
     contain trailing spaces before end of line.

   - gh-91952(22): Add ‘encoding="locale"’ support to
     ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’.

   - gh-91954(23): Add 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments to *note
     subprocess.getoutput(): 161f. and *note
     subprocess.getstatusoutput(): e65.

   - bpo-47029(24): Always close the read end of the pipe used by *note
     multiprocessing.Queue: 14ad. 'after' the last write of buffered
     data to the write end of the pipe to avoid *note BrokenPipeError:
     f06. at garbage collection and at *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.close(): 1620. calls.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-91928(25): Add ‘datetime.UTC’ alias for ‘datetime.timezone.utc’.

     Patch by Kabir Kwatra.

   - gh-68966(26): The *note mailcap: 8b. module is now deprecated and
     will be removed in Python 3.13.  See PEP 594(27) for the rationale
     and the *note mimetypes: 8e. module for an alternative.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91401(28): Provide a way to disable *note subprocess: d5. use of
     ‘vfork()’ just in case it is ever needed and document the existing
     mechanism for ‘posix_spawn()’.

   - gh-64783(29): Fix *note signal.NSIG: 1621. value on FreeBSD to
     accept signal numbers greater than 32, like ‘signal.SIGRTMIN’ and
     ‘signal.SIGRTMAX’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91910(30): Add missing f prefix to f-strings in error messages
     from the *note multiprocessing: 93. and *note asyncio: a. modules.

   - gh-91860(31): Add *note typing.dataclass_transform(): 203,
     implementing PEP 681(32).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91832(33): Add ‘required’ attribute to *note argparse.Action:
     1622. repr output.

   - gh-91827(34): In the *note tkinter: ef. module add method
     ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of the Tcl
     library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info: 4b5.

   - gh-84461(35): Add *note -enable-wasm-pthreads: 1623. to enable
     pthreads support for WASM builds.  ‘Emscripten/node’ no longer has
     threading enabled by default.  Include additional file systems.

   - gh-91821(36): Fix unstable ‘test_from_tuple’ test in
     ‘test_decimal.py’.

   - gh-91217(37): Deprecate the xdrlib module.

   - gh-91217(38): Deprecate the uu module.

   - gh-91760(39): More strict rules will be applied for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  For now, a
     deprecation warning is emitted for group references and group names
     which will be errors in future Python versions.

   - gh-84461(40): Add provisional *note sys._emscripten_info: 1624.
     named tuple with build-time and run-time information about
     Emscripten platform.

   - gh-90623(41): *note signal.raise_signal(): 1625. and *note
     os.kill(): 120e. now check immediately for pending signals.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91734(42): Fix OSS audio support on Solaris.

   - gh-90633(43): Include the passed value in the exception thrown by
     *note typing.assert_never(): 4bd.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91700(44): Compilation of regular expression containing a
     conditional expression ‘(?(group)...)’ now raises an appropriate
     *note re.error: cdc. if the group number refers to not defined
     group.  Previously an internal RuntimeError was raised.

   - gh-91231(45): Add an optional keyword 'shutdown_timeout' parameter
     to the ‘multiprocessing.BaseManager’ constructor.  Kill the process
     if terminate() takes longer than the timeout.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91621(46): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 624.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-90568(47): Parsing ‘\N’ escapes of Unicode Named Character
     Sequences in a *note regular expression: b8. raises now *note
     re.error: cdc. instead of ‘TypeError’.

   - gh-91670(48): Remove deprecated ‘SO’ config variable in *note
     sysconfig: da.

   - gh-91217(49): Deprecate the telnetlib module.

   - gh-91217(50): Deprecate the sunau module.

   - gh-91217(51): Deprecate the spwd module.

   - gh-91217(52): Deprecate the sndhdr module, as well as inline needed
     functionality for ‘email.mime.MIMEAudio’.

   - gh-91616(53): *note re: b8. module, fix *note fullmatch(): 1626.
     mismatch when using Atomic Grouping or Possessive Quantifiers.

   - gh-91217(54): Deprecate the ‘pipes’ module.

   - gh-91217(55): Deprecate the ossaudiodev module.

   - bpo-47256(56): *note re: b8. module, limit the maximum capturing
     group to 1,073,741,823 in 64-bit build, this increases the depth of
     backtracking.

   - gh-91217(57): Deprecate the nis module.

   - gh-91595(58): Fix the comparison of character and integer inside
     ‘Tools.gdb.libpython.write_repr()’.  Patch by Yu Liu.

   - gh-74166(59): Add option to raise all errors from *note
     create_connection(): 485. in an *note ExceptionGroup: 181. when it
     fails to create a connection.  The default remains to raise only
     the last error that had occurred when multiple addresses were
     tried.

   - gh-91487(60): Optimize asyncio UDP speed, over 100 times faster
     when transferring a large file.

   - gh-91575(61): Update case-insensitive matching in the *note re: b8.
     module to the latest Unicode version.

   - gh-90622(62): In ‘concurrent.futures.process.ProcessPoolExecutor’
     disallow the “fork” multiprocessing start method when the new
     ‘max_tasks_per_child’ feature is used as the mix of threads+fork
     can hang the child processes.  Default to using the safe “spawn”
     start method in that circumstance if no ‘mp_context’ was supplied.

   - gh-89022(63): In *note sqlite3: ce, ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ result codes
     are now mapped to *note InterfaceError: 492. instead of *note
     ProgrammingError: 241.  Also, more accurate exceptions are raised
     when binding parameters fail.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91526(64): Stop calling ‘os.device_encoding(file.fileno())’ in
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  It was complex, never documented, and didn’t work
     for most cases.  (Patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - gh-88116(65): Change the frame-related functions in the *note
     inspect: 7c. module to return a regular object (that is backwards
     compatible with the old tuple-like interface) that include the
     extended PEP 657(66) position information (end line number, column
     and end column).  The affected functions are: *note
     inspect.getframeinfo(): 462, *note inspect.getouterframes(): 463,
     *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 464, *note inspect.stack(): 465.
     and *note inspect.trace(): 466.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69093(67): Add indexing and slicing support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 497.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-69093(68): Add *note context manager: 3df. support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: 497.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91217(69): Deprecate nntplib.

   - gh-91217(70): Deprecate msilib.

   - gh-91404(71): Improve the performance of *note re: b8. matching by
     using computed gotos (or “threaded code”) on supported platforms
     and removing expensive pointer indirections.

   - gh-91217(72): Deprecate the imghdr module.

   - gh-91217(73): Deprecate the crypt module.

   - gh-91276(74): Make space for longer opcodes in *note dis: 37.
     output.

   - bpo-47000(75): Make ‘TextIOWrapper’ uses locale encoding when
     ‘encoding="locale"’ is specified even in UTF-8 mode.

   - gh-91230(76): *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 31d. now accepts
     arguments for *note warnings.simplefilter(): 4d9, providing a more
     concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.

   - gh-91217(77): Deprecate the chunk module.

   - gh-91498(78): Add the ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’ option (available on
     macOS) to *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-47260(79): Fix ‘os.closerange()’ potentially being a no-op in a
     Linux seccomp sandbox.

   - bpo-47087(80): Implement ‘typing.Required’ and ‘typing.NotRequired’
     ( PEP 655(81)).  Patch by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47061(82): Deprecate cgi and cgitb.

   - bpo-47061(83): Deprecate audioop.

   - bpo-47000(84): Add *note locale.getencoding(): 25d. to get the
     current locale encoding.  It is similar to
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ but ignores the *note Python
     UTF-8 Mode: 469.

   - bpo-42012(85): Add *note wsgiref.types: 11c, containing
     WSGI-specific types for static type checking.

   - bpo-47227(86): Suppress expression chaining for more *note re: b8.
     parsing errors.

   - bpo-47211(87): Remove undocumented and never working function
     ‘re.template()’ and flag ‘re.TEMPLATE’.  This was later reverted in
     3.11.0b2 and deprecated instead.

   - bpo-47135(88): *note decimal.localcontext(): 1627. now accepts
     context attributes via keyword arguments

   - bpo-43323(89): Fix errors in the *note email: 3a. module if the
     charset itself contains undecodable/unencodable characters.

   - bpo-46841(90): Disassembly of quickened code.

   - bpo-46681(91): Forward gzip.compress() compresslevel to zlib.

   - bpo-45100(92): Add *note typing.get_overloads(): 4c4. and *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): 4c5.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44807(93): *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. no longer silently
     replaces ‘__init__()’ methods defined on subclasses.  Patch by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco.

   - bpo-46787(94): Fix *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     741. exception memory leak

   - bpo-46720(95): Add support for path-like objects to *note
     multiprocessing.set_executable(): 1628. for Windows to be on a par
     with Unix-like systems.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-46696(96): Add ‘SO_INCOMING_CPU’ constant to *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-46053(97): Fix OSS audio support on NetBSD.

   - bpo-45639(98): ‘image/avif’ and ‘image/webp’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8e.

   - bpo-46285(99): Add command-line option ‘-p’/‘--protocol’ to module
     *note http.server: 70. which specifies the HTTP version to which
     the server is conformant (HTTP/1.1 conformant servers can now be
     run from the command-line interface of module *note http.server:
     70.).  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44791(100): Accept ellipsis as the last argument of *note
     typing.Concatenate: 5fb.

   - bpo-46547(101): Remove variables leaking into ‘pydoc.Helper’ class
     namespace.

   - bpo-46415(102): Fix ipaddress.ip_{address,interface,network}
     raising TypeError instead of ValueError if given invalid tuple as
     address parameter.

   - bpo-46075(103): ‘CookieJar’ with ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ now can
     process cookies from localhost with domain=localhost explicitly
     specified in Set-Cookie header.

   - bpo-45995(104): Add a “z” option to the string formatting
     specification that coerces negative zero floating-point values to
     positive zero after rounding to the format precision.  Contributed
     by John Belmonte.

   - bpo-26175(105): Fully implement the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9.
     or *note io.TextIOBase: 4aa. interface for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 4a8. objects.  This lets them work
     correctly with higher-level layers (like compression modules).
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-45138(106): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: ce. trace
     callback where bound parameters were not expanded in the passed
     statement string.  The regression was introduced in Python 3.10 by
     bpo-40318(107).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44863(108): Allow *note TypedDict: 159. subclasses to also
     include *note Generic: 1478. as a base class in class based syntax.
     Thereby allowing the user to define a generic ‘TypedDict’, just
     like a user-defined generic but with ‘TypedDict’ semantics.

   - bpo-44587(109): Fix BooleanOptionalAction to not automatically add
     a default string.  If a default string is desired, use a formatter
     to add it.

   - bpo-43827(110): All positional-or-keyword parameters to
     ‘ABCMeta.__new__’ are now positional-only to avoid conflicts with
     keyword arguments to be passed to ‘__init_subclass__()’.

   - bpo-43218(111): Prevent creation of a venv whose path contains the
     PATH separator.  This could affect the usage of the activate
     script.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-38435(112): Add a ‘process_group’ parameter to *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8fa. to help move more things off of the unsafe
     ‘preexec_fn’ parameter.

   - bpo-42066(113): Fix cookies getting sorted in
     ‘CookieJar.__iter__()’ which is an extra behavior and not mentioned
     in RFC 2965 or Netscape cookie protocol.  Now the cookies in
     ‘CookieJar’ follows the order of the ‘Set-Cookie’ header.  Patch by
     Iman Kermani.

   - bpo-40617(114): Add *note create_window_function(): 495. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. for creating aggregate window functions.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40676(115): Convert *note csv: 29. to use Argument Clinic for
     *note csv.field_size_limit(): 1629, *note csv.get_dialect(): 162a,
     *note csv.unregister_dialect(): 162b. and *note
     csv.list_dialects(): 162c.

   - bpo-39716(116): Raise an ‘ArgumentError’ when the same subparser
     name is added twice to an ‘argparse.ArgumentParser’.  This is
     consistent with the (default) behavior when the same option string
     is added twice to an ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-36073(117): Raise *note ProgrammingError: 241. instead of
     segfaulting on recursive usage of cursors in *note sqlite3: ce.
     converters.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34975(118): Adds a ‘start_tls()’ method to ‘StreamWriter’,
     which upgrades the connection with TLS using the given *note
     SSLContext: 277.

   - bpo-22276(119): *note Path: 14f. methods *note glob(): 1d5. and
     *note rglob(): 1d6. return only directories if 'pattern' ends with
     a pathname components separator (‘/’ or *note sep: 47d.).  Patch by
     Eisuke Kawashima.

   - bpo-24905(120): Add *note blobopen(): 496. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 1e3.  *note sqlite3.Blob: 497. allows
     incremental I/O operations on blobs.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78157

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92356

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92301

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67248

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92210

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92118

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90887

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91215

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92049

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92062

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88089

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91996

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91984

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91952

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91954

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47029

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91928

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91401

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64783

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91910

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91832

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91821

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90623

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91734

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91700

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91231

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91621

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90568

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91670

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91616

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47256

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91595

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74166

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89022

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91526

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (66) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91276

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91230

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91498

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47260

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087

   (81) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47227

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47211

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47135

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43323

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46681

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45100

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44807

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46787

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46720

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46696

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46053

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45639

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46285

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46547

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46415

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46075

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45995

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26175

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45138

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44863

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44587

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43827

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43218

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38435

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42066

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40617

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40676

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39716

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36073

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<24>,  Next: Tests<24>,  Prev: Library<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-91888(1): Add a new ‘gh’ role to the documentation to link to
     GitHub issues.

   - gh-91783(2): Document security issues concerning the use of the
     function *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a.

   - gh-91547(3): Remove “Undocumented modules” page.

   - gh-91298(4): In ‘importlib.resources.abc’, refined the
     documentation of the Traversable Protocol, applying changes from
     importlib_resources 5.7.1.

   - bpo-44347(5): Clarify the meaning of 'dirs_exist_ok', a kwarg of
     *note shutil.copytree(): 88b.

   - bpo-36329(6): Remove ‘make -C Doc serve’ in favour of ‘make -C Doc
     htmlview’

   - bpo-47189(7): Add a What’s New in Python 3.11 entry for the Faster
     CPython project.  Documentation by Ken Jin and Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-38668(8): Update the introduction to documentation for *note
     os.path: a1. to remove warnings that became irrelevant after the
     implementations of PEP 383(9) and PEP 529(10).

   - bpo-47115(11): The documentation now lists which members of C
     structs are part of the *note Limited API/Stable ABI: 2e2.

   - bpo-46962(12): All docstrings in code snippets are now wrapped into
     *note PyDoc_STR: 162e. to follow the guideline of PEP 7’s
     Documentation Strings paragraph(13).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-26792(14): Improve the docstrings of *note runpy.run_module():
     162f. and *note runpy.run_path(): 11c7.  Original patch by Andrew
     Brezovsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91888

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91783

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91547

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91298

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44347

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47189

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38668

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47115

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/#documentation-strings

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26792


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<24>,  Next: Build<23>,  Prev: Documentation<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-92169(1): Use ‘warnings_helper.import_deprecated()’ to import
     deprecated modules uniformly in tests.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-84461(2): When multiprocessing is enabled, libregrtest can now
     use a Python executable other than ‘sys.executable’ via the
     ‘--python’ flag.

   - gh-91904(3): Fix initialization of ‘PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD’
     which prevented running regression tests on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - gh-91752(4): Added @requires_zlib to
     test.test_tools.test_freeze.TestFreeze.

   - gh-91607(5): Fix ‘test_concurrent_futures’ to test the correct
     multiprocessing start method context in several cases where the
     test logic mixed this up.

   - bpo-40280(6): Threading tests are now skipped on WASM targets
     without pthread support.

   - bpo-47109(7): Test for ‘ctypes.macholib.dyld’,
     ‘ctypes.macholib.dylib’, and ‘ctypes.macholib.framework’ are
     brought from manual pre-*note unittest: 106. times to ‘ctypes.test’
     location and structure.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-29890(8): Add tests for *note ipaddress.IPv4Interface: 1631.
     and *note ipaddress.IPv6Interface: 1632. construction with tuple
     arguments.  Original patch and tests by louisom.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92169

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91904

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91752

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47109

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29890


File: python.info,  Node: Build<23>,  Next: Windows<23>,  Prev: Tests<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.6 Build
...............

   - gh-89452(1): gdbm-compat is now preferred over ndbm if both are
     available on the system.  This allows avoiding the problematic
     ndbm.h on macOS.

   - gh-91731(2): Python is now built with ‘-std=c11’ compiler option,
     rather than ‘-std=c99’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47152(3): Add script and make target for generating
     ‘sre_constants.h’.

   - bpo-47103(4): Windows ‘PGInstrument’ builds now copy a required DLL
     into the output directory, making it easier to run the profile
     stage of a PGO build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89452

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47103


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<23>,  Next: macOS<17>,  Prev: Build<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46907(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.3.

   - bpo-47239(2): Fixed –list and –list-paths output for *note Python
     Launcher for Windows: 3c6. when used in an active virtual
     environment.

   - bpo-46907(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.2.

   - bpo-46785(4): Fix race condition between *note os.stat(): 1c5. and
     unlinking a file on Windows, by using errors codes returned by
     ‘FindFirstFileW()’ when appropriate in ‘win32_xstat_impl’.

   - bpo-40859(5): Update Windows build to use xz-5.2.5

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47239

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46785

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40859


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<17>,  Next: Tools/Demos<16>,  Prev: Windows<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46907(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<16>,  Next: C API<20>,  Prev: macOS<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-91583(1): Fix regression in the code generated by Argument
     Clinic for functions with the ‘defining_class’ parameter.

   - gh-91575(2): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/generate_re_casefix.py’ and
     the make target ‘regen-re’ for generating additional data for
     case-insensitive matching according to the current Unicode version.

   - gh-91551(3): Remove the ancient Pynche color editor.  It has moved
     to ‘https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91583

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91551


File: python.info,  Node: C API<20>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<16>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.22.28.10 C API
................

   - gh-88279(1): Deprecate the C functions: *note PySys_SetArgv():
     11ff, *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe, *note PySys_SetPath(): 1638.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92154(2): Added the *note PyCode_GetCode(): 5a8. function.  This
     function does the equivalent of the Python code
     ‘getattr(code_object, 'co_code')’.

   - gh-92173(3): Fix the ‘closure’ argument to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1586.

   - gh-91320(4): Fix C++ compiler warnings about “old-style cast” (‘g++
     -Wold-style-cast’) in the Python C API. Use C++
     ‘reinterpret_cast<>’ and ‘static_cast<>’ casts when the Python C
     API is used in C++.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-80527(5): Mark functions as deprecated by PEP 623(6):
     ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’, ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’, ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91768(7): *note Py_REFCNT(): 6f7, *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0, *note
     Py_SIZE(): 5b2. and *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 1639. functions argument
     type is now ‘PyObject*’, rather than ‘const PyObject*’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91020(8): Add ‘PyBytes_Type.tp_alloc’ to initialize
     ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ for bytes subclasses.

   - bpo-40421(9): Add ‘PyFrame_GetLasti’ C-API function to access frame
     object’s ‘f_lasti’ attribute safely from C code.

   - bpo-35134(10): Remove the ‘Include/code.h’ header file.  C
     extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47169(11): *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 163a. is now exported in
     the Stable ABI on Windows.

   - bpo-47169(12): ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’ is excluded from
     the stable ABI on platforms where it doesn’t exist (like Solaris).

   - bpo-46343(13): Added *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 59f. and
     *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 5a0. as simpler alternatives to
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 5a2. and *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 5a1.

     They are included in the stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91320

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80527

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91768

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91020

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.29 Python 3.11.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-04-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<21>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<28>,  Next: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-47212(1): Raise *note IndentationError: 5de. instead of *note
     SyntaxError: 14c. for a bare ‘except’ with no following indent.
     Improve *note SyntaxError: 14c. locations for an un-parenthesized
     generator used as arguments.  Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-47186(2): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EG_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EG_MATCH: 51c. + jump.

   - bpo-47176(3): Emscripten builds cannot handle signals in the usual
     way due to platform limitations.  Python can now handle signals.
     To use, set Module.Py_EmscriptenSignalBuffer to be a single byte
     SharedArrayBuffer and set Py_EMSCRIPTEN_SIGNAL_HANDLING to 1.
     Writing a number into the SharedArrayBuffer will cause the
     corresponding signal to be raised into the Python thread.

   - bpo-47186(4): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 526. + jump.

   - bpo-47120(5): Replace the absolute jump opcode *note
     JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT: 163d. by the relative *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 519.

   - bpo-46841(6): Avoid unnecessary allocations when comparing code
     objects.

   - bpo-47182(7): Fix a crash when using a named unicode character like
     ‘"\N{digit nine}"’ after the main interpreter has been initialized
     a second time.

   - bpo-47162(8): WebAssembly cannot deal with bad function pointer
     casts (different count or types of arguments).  Python can now use
     call trampolines to mitigate the problem.  Define
     ‘PY_CALL_TRAMPOLINE’ to enable call trampolines.

   - bpo-46775(9): Some Windows system error codes(>= 10000) are now
     mapped into the correct errno and may now raise a subclass of *note
     OSError: 65c.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-47129(10): Improve error messages in f-string syntax errors
     concerning empty expressions.

   - bpo-47117(11): Fix a crash if we fail to decode characters in
     interactive mode if the tokenizer buffers are uninitialized.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-47127(12): Speed up calls to c functions with keyword arguments
     by 25% with specialization.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47120(13): Replaced ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ by the relative jump *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD: 527.

   - bpo-42197(14): ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ and
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ are no longer called during profiling nor
     tracing.  C code can access the ‘f_locals’ attribute of *note
     PyFrameObject: 5ba. by calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 5b7.

   - bpo-47070(15): Improve performance of ‘array_inplace_repeat’ by
     reducing the number of invocations of ‘memcpy’.  Refactor the
     ‘repeat’ and inplace ‘repeat’ methods of ‘array’, ‘bytes’,
     ‘bytearray’ and ‘unicodeobject’ to use the common
     ‘_PyBytes_Repeat’.

   - bpo-47053(16): Reduce de-optimization in the specialized
     ‘BINARY_OP_INPLACE_ADD_UNICODE’ opcode.

   - bpo-47045(17): Remove the ‘f_state’ field from the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct.  Add the ‘owner’ field to the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct to make ownership explicit to simplify
     clearing and deallocing frames and generators.

   - bpo-46968(18): Check for the existence of the “sys/auxv.h” header
     in *note faulthandler: 56. to avoid compilation problems in systems
     where this header doesn’t exist.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46329(19): Use low bit of ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ to indicate whether to
     push a ‘NULL’ before the global.  Helps streamline the call
     sequence a bit.

   - bpo-46841(20): Quicken bytecode in-place by storing it as part of
     the corresponding ‘PyCodeObject’.

   - bpo-47012(21): Speed up iteration of *note bytes: 2cb. and *note
     bytearray: 2ca. by 30%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47009(22): Improved the performance of ‘list.append()’ and list
     comprehensions by optimizing for the common case, where no resize
     is needed.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-47005(23): Improve performance of ‘bytearray_repeat’ and
     ‘bytearray_irepeat’ by reducing the number of invocations of
     ‘memcpy’.

   - bpo-46829(24): Deprecate passing a message into *note
     asyncio.Future.cancel(): 163e. and *note asyncio.Task.cancel():
     163f.

   - bpo-46993(25): Speed up *note bytearray: 2ca. creation from *note
     list: 422. and *note tuple: 4ff. by 40%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-39829(26): Removed the ‘__len__()’ call when initializing a
     list and moved initializing to ‘list_extend’.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Pascual.

   - bpo-46944(27): Speed up throwing exception in generator with *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 1640. calling convention.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46841(28): Modify *note STORE_SUBSCR: 1641. to use an inline
     cache entry (rather than its oparg) as an adaptive counter.

   - bpo-46841(29): Use inline caching for ‘PRECALL’ and *note CALL:
     522, and remove the internal machinery for managing the (now
     unused) non-inline caches.

   - bpo-46881(30): Statically allocate and initialize the latin1
     characters.

   - bpo-46838(31): Improve syntax errors for incorrect function
     definitions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43721(32): Fix docstrings of *note getter: 1494, *note setter:
     1495, and *note deleter: 1496. to clarify that they create a new
     copy of the property.

   - bpo-43224(33): Make grammar changes required for PEP 646.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47182

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47129

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42197

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47070

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47053

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47045

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47012

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47009

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47005

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46829

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46993

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39829

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46944

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46881

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46838

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43721

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: Library<29>,  Next: Documentation<25>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-47208(1): Allow vendors to override ‘CTYPES_MAX_ARGCOUNT’.

   - bpo-23689(2): *note re: b8. module: fix memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure.  Patch by Ma
     Lin.

   - bpo-47167(3): Allow overriding a future compliance check in *note
     asyncio.Task: 20a.

   - bpo-47151(4): When subprocess tries to use vfork, it now falls back
     to fork if vfork returns an error.  This allows use in situations
     where vfork isn’t allowed by the OS kernel.

   - bpo-47152(5): Convert the *note re: b8. module into a package.
     Deprecate modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’.

   - bpo-4833(6): Add ‘ZipFile.mkdir()’

   - bpo-27929(7): Fix *note asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): c57. to only
     resolve names for *note socket.AF_INET: 1643. or *note
     socket.AF_INET6: 1644. families.  Resolution may not make sense for
     other families, like ‘socket.AF_BLUETOOTH’ and *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 1645.

   - bpo-14265(8): Adds the fully qualified test name to unittest output

   - bpo-47061(9): Deprecate the aifc module.

   - bpo-39622(10): Handle Ctrl+C in asyncio programs to interrupt the
     main task.

   - bpo-47101(11): *note hashlib.algorithms_available: 121b. now lists
     only algorithms that are provided by activated crypto providers on
     OpenSSL 3.0.  Legacy algorithms are not listed unless the legacy
     provider has been loaded into the default OSSL context.

   - bpo-47099(12): All ‘URLError’ exception messages raised in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener: 284. now contain a colon between ‘ftp
     error’ and the rest of the message.  Previously, ‘open_ftp()’
     missed the colon.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47099(13): Exception chaining is changed from
     ‘Exception.with_traceback()’/*note sys.exc_info(): 49f. to PEP
     3134(14).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47095(15): *note hashlib: 66.’s internal ‘_blake2’ module now
     prefers ‘libb2’ from ‘https://www.blake2.net/’ over Python’s
     vendored copy of blake2.

   - bpo-47098(16): The Keccak Code Package for *note hashlib: 66.’s
     internal ‘_sha3’ module has been replaced with tiny_sha3.  The
     module is used as fallback when Python is built without OpenSSL.

   - bpo-47088(17): Implement *note typing.LiteralString: 3d2, part of
     PEP 675(18).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-42885(19): Optimize *note re.search(): 10d3, *note re.split():
     9e3, *note re.findall(): ed2, *note re.finditer(): 1387. and *note
     re.sub(): 208. for regular expressions starting with ‘\A’ or ‘^’.

   - bpo-23691(20): Protect the *note re.finditer(): 1387. iterator from
     re-entering.

   - bpo-47067(21): Optimize calling ‘GenericAlias’ objects by using PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ and by replacing ‘PyObject_SetAttrString’ with
     ‘PyObject_SetAttr’.

   - bpo-28080(23): Add the 'metadata_encoding' parameter in the *note
     zipfile.ZipFile: 4dc. constructor and the ‘--metadata-encoding’
     option in the *note zipfile: 131. CLI to allow reading zipfiles
     using non-standard codecs to encode the filenames within the
     archive.

   - bpo-47000(24): Make *note io.text_encoding(): 14c4. returns “utf-8”
     when UTF-8 mode is enabled.

   - bpo-42369(25): Fix thread safety of ‘zipfile._SharedFile.tell()’ to
     avoid a “zipfile.BadZipFile: Bad CRC-32 for file” exception when
     reading a ‘ZipFile’ from multiple threads.

   - bpo-38256(26): Fix *note binascii.crc32(): 14bd. when it is
     compiled to use zlib’c crc32 to work properly on inputs 4+GiB in
     length instead of returning the wrong result.  The workaround prior
     to this was to always feed the function data in increments smaller
     than 4GiB or to just call the zlib module function.

     We also have *note binascii.crc32(): 14bd. release the GIL when
     computing on larger inputs as *note zlib.crc32(): 14bc. and *note
     hashlib: 66. do.

     This also boosts performance on Windows as it now uses the zlib
     crc32 implementation for *note binascii.crc32(): 14bd. for a 2-3x
     speedup.

     That the stdlib has a crc32 API in two modules is a known
     historical oddity.  This moves us closer to a single implementation
     behind them.

   - bpo-47066(27): Global inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be
     used at the start of the regular expressions.  Using them not at
     the start of expression was deprecated since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-39394(28): A warning about inline flags not at the start of the
     regular expression now contains the position of the flag.

   - bpo-433030(29): Add support of atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and
     possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) in *note
     regular expressions: b8.

   - bpo-47062(30): Implement *note asyncio.Runner: 40f. context
     manager.

   - bpo-46382(31): *note dataclass(): 3d4. ‘slots=True’ now correctly
     omits slots already defined in base classes.  Patch by Arie
     Bovenberg.

   - bpo-47057(32): Use FASTCALL convention for ‘FutureIter.throw()’

   - bpo-47061(33): Deprecate the various modules listed by PEP 594(34):

     aifc, asynchat, asyncore, audioop, cgi, cgitb, chunk, crypt,
     imghdr, msilib, nntplib, nis, ossaudiodev, pipes, smtpd, sndhdr,
     spwd, sunau, telnetlib, uu, xdrlib

   - bpo-34790(35): Remove passing coroutine objects to *note
     asyncio.wait(): 1a0.

   - bpo-47039(36): Normalize ‘repr()’ of asyncio future and task
     objects.

   - bpo-2604(37): Fix bug where doctests using globals would fail when
     run multiple times.

   - bpo-45150(38): Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 457. helper for
     efficient hashing of file object.

   - bpo-34861(39): Made cumtime the default sorting key for cProfile

   - bpo-45997(40): Fix *note asyncio.Semaphore: 8d9. re-aquiring FIFO
     order.

   - bpo-47022(41): The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have
     been deprecated since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and
     deprecation warnings and have now been updated to note they will
     removed in Python 3.12 ( PEP 594(42)).

   - bpo-43253(43): Fix a crash when closing transports where the
     underlying socket handle is already invalid on the Proactor event
     loop.

   - bpo-40280(44): *note select.select(): c2d. now passes ‘NULL’ to
     ‘select’ for each empty fdset.

   - bpo-47004(45): Apply bugfixes from importlib_metadata 4.11.3,
     including bugfix for EntryPoint.extras, which was returning match
     objects and not the extras strings.

   - bpo-46998(46): Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 4c2.  Patch
     by Shantanu Jain.

   - bpo-46995(47): Deprecate missing *note asyncio.Task.set_name():
     83c. for third-party task implementations, schedule making it
     mandatory in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46994(48): Accept explicit contextvars.Context in *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 40b. and *note asyncio.loop.create_task():
     83b.

   - bpo-46981(49): ‘typing.get_args(typing.Tuple[()])’ now returns ‘()’
     instead of ‘((),)’.

   - bpo-46968(50): Add ‘os.sysconf_names['SC_MINSIGSTKSZ']’.

   - bpo-46985(51): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     22.0.4)

   - bpo-46968(52): *note faulthandler: 56.: On Linux 5.14 and newer,
     dynamically determine size of signal handler stack size CPython
     allocates using ‘getauxval(AT_MINSIGSTKSZ)’.  This changes allows
     for Python extension’s request to Linux kernel to use AMX_TILE
     instruction set on Sapphire Rapids Xeon processor to succeed,
     unblocking use of the ISA in frameworks.

   - bpo-46917(53): The *note math.nan: 476. value is now always
     available.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46955(54): Expose ‘asyncio.base_events.Server’ as *note
     asyncio.Server: 980.  Patch by Stefan Zabka.

   - bpo-23325(55): The *note signal: c5. module no longer assumes that
     *note SIG_IGN: 1646. and *note SIG_DFL: 1647. are small int
     singletons.

   - bpo-46932(56): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.7

   - bpo-46933(57): The *note pwd: b1. module is now optional.  *note
     os.path.expanduser(): 874. returns the path when the *note pwd: b1.
     module is not available.

   - bpo-40059(58): PEP 680(59), the *note tomllib: fc. module.  Adds
     support for parsing TOML.

   - bpo-464471(60): *note asyncio.timeout(): 40d. and *note
     asyncio.timeout_at(): 1648. context managers added.  Patch by Tin
     Tvrtković and Andrew Svetlov.

   - bpo-46805(61): Added raw datagram socket functions for asyncio:
     ‘sock_sendto()’, ‘sock_recvfrom()’ and ‘sock_recvfrom_into()’.

   - bpo-46644(62): No longer require valid typeforms to be callable.
     This allows *note typing.Annotated: 796. to wrap *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5fd. and ‘dataclasses.InitVar’.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46581(63): Brings ‘ParamSpec’ propagation for ‘GenericAlias’ in
     line with ‘Concatenate’ (and others).

   - bpo-45413(64): Define 'posix_venv' and 'nt_venv' *note sysconfig
     installation schemes: 4a4. to be used for bootstrapping new virtual
     environments.  Add 'venv' sysconfig installation scheme to get the
     appropriate one of the above.  The schemes are identical to the
     pre-existing 'posix_prefix' and 'nt' install schemes.  The *note
     venv: 111. module now uses the 'venv' scheme to create new virtual
     environments instead of hardcoding the paths depending only on the
     platform.  Downstream Python distributors customizing the
     'posix_prefix' or 'nt' install scheme in a way that is not
     compatible with the install scheme used in virtual environments are
     encouraged not to customize the 'venv' schemes.  When Python itself
     runs in a virtual environment, *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 1649. and *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 4a5. with ‘key="prefix"’ returns
     'venv'.

   - bpo-43224(65): Implement support for PEP 646 in typing.py.

   - bpo-43224(66): Allow unpacking types.GenericAlias objects, e.g.
     ‘*tuple[int, str]’.

   - bpo-46557(67): Warnings captured by the logging module are now
     logged without a format string to prevent systems that group logs
     by the msg argument from grouping captured warnings together.

   - bpo-41370(68): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. now supports
     evaluating strings as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic
     aliases: 4c9.

   - bpo-46607(69): Add *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. to
     ‘LegacyInterpolation’, deprecated in the docstring since Python
     3.2.  Will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘BasicInterpolation’ or
     ‘ExtendedInterpolation’ instead.

   - bpo-26120(70): *note pydoc: b4. now excludes __future__ imports
     from the module’s data items.

   - bpo-46480(71): Add *note typing.assert_type(): 4c1.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46421(72): Fix a unittest issue where if the command was
     invoked as ‘python -m unittest’ and the filename(s) began with a
     dot (.), a ‘ValueError’ is returned.

   - bpo-46245(73): Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 1df.

   - bpo-22859(74): ‘usageExit()’ is marked deprecated, to be removed in
     3.13.

   - bpo-46170(75): Improve the error message when you try to subclass
     an instance of *note typing.NewType: b79.

   - bpo-40296(76): Fix supporting generic aliases in *note pydoc: b4.

   - bpo-20392(77): Fix inconsistency with uppercase file extensions in
     ‘MimeTypes.guess_type()’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46030(78): Add ‘LOCAL_CREDS’, ‘LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT’ and
     ‘SCM_CREDS2’ FreeBSD constants to the socket module.

   - bpo-44439(79): Fix ‘.write()’ method of a member file in ‘ZipFile’,
     when the input data is an object that supports the buffer protocol,
     the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-45171(80): Fix handling of the ‘stacklevel’ argument to logging
     functions in the *note logging: 86. module so that it is consistent
     across all logging functions and, as advertised, similar to the
     ‘stacklevel’ argument used in *note warn(): 13a7.

   - bpo-24959(81): Fix bug where *note unittest: 106. sometimes drops
     frames from tracebacks of exceptions raised in tests.

   - bpo-44859(82): Raise more accurate and PEP 249(83) compatible
     exceptions in *note sqlite3: ce.

        * Raise *note InterfaceError: 492. instead of *note
          ProgrammingError: 241. for ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ errors.

        * Don’t overwrite *note BufferError: 164a. with *note
          ValueError: 189. when conversion to BLOB fails.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 241. instead of *note Warning:
          164b. if user tries to *note execute(): 23d. more than one SQL
          statement.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 241. instead of *note
          ValueError: 189. if an SQL query contains null characters.

   - bpo-44493(84): Add missing terminated NUL in sockaddr_un’s length

     This was potentially observable when using non-abstract AF_UNIX
     datagram sockets to processes written in another programming
     language.

   - bpo-41930(85): Add *note serialize(): 493. and *note deserialize():
     494. support to *note sqlite3: ce.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-33178(86): Added *note ctypes.BigEndianUnion: 164c. and *note
     ctypes.LittleEndianUnion: 164d. classes, as originally documented
     in the library docs but not yet implemented.

   - bpo-43352(87): Add an Barrier object in synchronization primitives
     of 'asyncio' Lib in order to be consistent with Barrier from
     'threading' and 'multiprocessing' libs*

   - bpo-35859(88): *note re: b8. module, fix a few bugs about capturing
     group.  In rare cases, capturing group gets an incorrect string.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47208

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47167

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47151

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4833

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27929

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14265

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47101

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42885

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23691

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47067

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42369

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38256

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39394

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47062

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46382

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47057

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47039

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45150

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34861

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45997

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43253

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47004

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46998

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46994

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46981

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46985

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46955

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23325

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46932

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46933

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (59) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=464471

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46644

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46581

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46557

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41370

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26120

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46480

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46421

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22859

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46170

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40296

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20392

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46030

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44439

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45171

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24959

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44859

   (83) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44493

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33178

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43352

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<25>,  Next: Tests<25>,  Prev: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45099(1): Document internal *note asyncio: a. API.

   - bpo-47126(2): Update PEP URLs to PEP 676(3)’s new canonical form.

   - bpo-47040(4): Clarified the old Python versions compatibility note
     of *note binascii.crc32(): 14bd. / *note zlib.adler32(): 164f. /
     *note zlib.crc32(): 14bc. functions.

   - bpo-46033(5): Clarify ‘for’ statement execution in its doc.

   - bpo-45790(6): Adjust inaccurate phrasing in *note Defining
     Extension Types; Tutorial: 1650. about the ‘ob_base’ field and the
     macros used to access its contents.

   - bpo-42340(7): Document that in some circumstances *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. may cause the code to enter an inconsistent
     state.  Provided a sample workaround to avoid it if needed.

   - bpo-41233(8): Link the errnos referenced in
     ‘Doc/library/exceptions.rst’ to their respective section in
     ‘Doc/library/errno.rst’, and vice versa.  Previously this was only
     done for EINTR and InterruptedError.  Patch by Yan “yyyyyyyan”
     Orestes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45099

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47126

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0676/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41233


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<25>,  Next: Build<24>,  Prev: Documentation<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-47205(1): Skip test for *note sched_getaffinity(): fac. and
     *note sched_setaffinity(): fb0. error case on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-46126(2): Restore ‘descriptions’ when running tests internally.

   - bpo-47104(3): Rewrite *note asyncio.to_thread(): 73b. tests to use
     *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282.

   - bpo-40280(4): The test suite is now passing on the Emscripten
     platform.  All fork, socket, and subprocess-based tests are
     skipped.

   - bpo-47037(5): Skip ‘strftime("%4Y")’ feature test on Windows.  It
     can cause an assertion error in debug builds.

   - bpo-46587(6): Skip tests if platform’s ‘strftime’ does not support
     non-portable glibc extensions.

   - bpo-47015(7): A test case for *note os.sendfile(): 97d. is
     converted from deprecated ‘asyncore’ (see PEP 594(8)) to *note
     asyncio: a.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47205

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46587

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47015

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: Build<24>,  Next: Windows<24>,  Prev: Tests<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-40280(1): Add configure option *note
     -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: 1653. to enable ‘dlopen’ and
     MAIN_MODULE / SIDE_MODULE on ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

   - bpo-46023(2): ‘makesetup’ now detects and skips all duplicated
     module definitions.  The first entry wins.

   - bpo-40280(3): Add SOABI ‘wasm32-emscripten’ for Emscripten and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’ for WASI on 32bit WASM as well as ‘wasm64’ counter
     parts.

   - bpo-47032(4): Ensure Windows install builds fail correctly with a
     non-zero exit code when part of the build fails.

   - bpo-47024(5): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1n for macOS installers and all
     Windows builds.

   - bpo-46996(6): The *note tkinter: ef. package now requires Tcl/Tk
     version 8.5.12 or newer.

   - bpo-46973(7): Add ‘regen-configure’ make target to regenerate
     configure script with Christian’s container image
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:269’.

   - bpo-46917(8): Building Python now requires support of IEEE 754
     floating-point numbers.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45774(9): ‘configure’ now verifies that all SQLite C APIs
     needed for the *note sqlite3: ce. extension module are found.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47032

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47024

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46973

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<24>,  Next: macOS<18>,  Prev: Build<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-47194(1): Update ‘zlib’ to v1.2.12 to resolve CVE
     2018-25032(2).

   - bpo-47171(3): Enables installing the ‘py.exe’ launcher on Windows
     ARM64.

   - bpo-46566(4): Upgraded *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. to
     support a new ‘-V:company/tag’ argument for full PEP 514(5) support
     and to detect ARM64 installs.  The ‘-64’ suffix on arguments is
     deprecated, but still selects any non-32-bit install.  Setting
     ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ and specifying a version that is not
     installed will attempt to install the requested version from the
     Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-47086(6): The installer for Windows now includes documentation
     as loose HTML files rather than a single compiled ‘.chm’ file.

   - bpo-46907(7): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.1.

   - bpo-44549(8): Update bzip2 to 1.0.8 in Windows builds to mitigate
     CVE 2016-3189(9) and CVE 2019-12900(10).

   - bpo-46948(11): Prevent CVE 2022-26488(12) by ensuring the Add to
     PATH option in the Windows installer uses the correct path when
     being repaired.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47194

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-25032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47171

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46566

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44549

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-3189

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-12900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46948

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-26488


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<18>,  Next: Tools/Demos<17>,  Prev: Windows<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-46890(1): Fix a regression in the setting of
     ‘sys._base_executable’ in framework builds, and thereby fix a
     regression in *note venv: 111. virtual environments with such
     builds.

   - bpo-46907(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<17>,  Next: C API<21>,  Prev: macOS<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40280(1): Replace Emscripten’s limited shell with Katie Bell’s
     browser-ui REPL from python-wasm project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280


File: python.info,  Node: C API<21>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.22.29.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40421(1): Add ‘PyFrame_GetBuiltins’, ‘PyFrame_GetGenerator’ and
     ‘PyFrame_GetGlobals’ C-API functions to access frame object
     attributes safely from C code.

   - bpo-46850(2): Move the private ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ type, and
     private ‘_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc()’ and
     ‘_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc()’ functions to the internal
     C API. The ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ callback function type now uses
     the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(3): Move the private undocumented
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function to the internal C API. The
     function now uses the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of
     the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(4): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_CallTracing()’ from the C API. Call the public *note
     sys.call_tracing(): 1658. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(5): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_GetCoroutineOriginTrackingDepth()’ from the C API. Call
     the public *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): a01.
     function instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(6): Remove the following private undocumented functions
     from the C API:

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

     Call the public *note sys.get_asyncgen_hooks(): 1659. and *note
     sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 165a. functions instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46987(7): Remove private functions ‘_PySys_GetObjectId()’ and
     ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46906(8): Add new functions to pack and unpack C double
     (serialize and deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 595, *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): 596, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 597, *note
     PyFloat_Unpack2(): 598, *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 599. and *note
     PyFloat_Unpack8(): 59a.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46987

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.22.30 Python 3.11.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-03-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* C API: C API<22>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<29>,  Next: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46940(1): Avoid overriding *note AttributeError: 3dc. metadata
     information for nested attribute access calls.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-46927(2): Include the type’s name in the error message for
     subscripting non-generic types.

   - bpo-46921(3): Support vectorcall for ‘super()’.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-46841(4): Fix incorrect handling of inline cache entries when
     specializing *note BINARY_OP: 521.

   - bpo-46841(5): Use an oparg to simplify the construction of helpful
     error messages in *note GET_AWAITABLE: 165d.

   - bpo-46903(6): Make sure that str subclasses can be used as
     attribute names for instances with virtual dictionaries.  Fixes
     regression in 3.11alpha

   - bpo-46841(7): Add more detailed specialization failure stats for
     *note COMPARE_OP: 7c5. followed by *note EXTENDED_ARG: 15c4.

   - bpo-46891(8): Fix bug introduced during 3.11alpha where subclasses
     of ‘types.ModuleType’ with ‘__slots__’ were not initialized
     correctly, resulting in an interpreter crash.

   - bpo-46841(9): Use inline caching for *note LOAD_ATTR: 210, *note
     LOAD_METHOD: a98, and *note STORE_ATTR: 165e.

   - bpo-46841(10): Use inline cache for *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 155b.

   - bpo-46841(11): Use inline caching for *note COMPARE_OP: 7c5.

   - bpo-46864(12): Deprecate ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’.  It will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46841(13): Use inline caching for *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 165f.

   - bpo-46845(14): Reduces dict size by removing hash value from hash
     table when all inserted keys are Unicode.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ becomes 272 bytes from
     352 bytes on 64bit platform.

   - bpo-46841(15): Use inline cache for *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 155c.

   - bpo-46852(16): Rename the private undocumented
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method to ‘float.__setformat__()’ to fix a
     typo introduced in Python 3.7.  The method is only used by
     test_float.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46852(17): Remove the undocumented private
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method, previously known as
     ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its docstring said: “You
     probably don’t want to use this function.  It exists mainly to be
     used in Python’s test suite.” Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40116(18): Fix regression that dict.update(other) may don’t
     respect iterate order of other when other is key sharing dict.

   - bpo-46712(19): Share global string identifiers in deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46430(20): Fix memory leak in interned strings of deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46841(21): Store *note BINARY_OP: 521. caches inline using a
     new *note CACHE: 513. instruction.

   - bpo-45107(22): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for instances with a dict.

   - bpo-44337(23): Reduce the memory usage of specialized *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 210. and *note STORE_ATTR: 165e. instructions.

   - bpo-46729(24): Add number of sub-exceptions to
     ‘BaseException.__str__()’.

   - bpo-45885(25): Don’t un-adapt *note COMPARE_OP: 7c5. when
     collecting specialization stats.

   - bpo-46329(26): Fix specialization stats gathering for ‘PRECALL’
     instructions.

   - bpo-46794(27): Bump up the libexpat version into 2.4.6

   - bpo-46823(28): Implement a specialized combined opcode
     ‘LOAD_FAST__LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46820(29): Fix parsing a numeric literal immediately (without
     spaces) followed by “not in” keywords, like in ‘1not in x’.  Now
     the parser only emits a warning, not a syntax error.

   - bpo-46329(30): Move ‘KW_NAMES’ before ‘PRECALL’ instruction in call
     sequence.  Change ‘operand’ of ‘CALL’ to match ‘PRECALL’ for easier
     specialization.

   - bpo-46808(31): Remove the ‘NEXT_BLOCK’ macro from compile.c, and
     make the compiler automatically generate implicit blocks when they
     are needed.

   - bpo-46329(32): Add ‘PUSH_NULL’ instruction.  This is used as a
     prefix when evaluating a callable, so that the stack has the same
     shape for methods and other calls.  ‘PRECALL_FUNCTION’ and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ are merged into a single ‘PRECALL’ instruction.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46762(33): Fix an assert failure in debug builds when a ‘<’,
     ‘>’, or ‘=’ is the last character in an f-string that’s missing a
     closing right brace.

   - bpo-46730(34): Message of AttributeError caused by getting, setting
     or deleting a property without the corresponding function now
     mentions that the attribute is in fact a property and also
     specifies type of the class that it belongs to.

   - bpo-46724(35): Make sure that all backwards jumps use the
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ instruction, rather than ‘JUMP_FORWARD’ with an
     argument of ‘(2**32)+offset’.

   - bpo-46732(36): Correct the docstring for the *note __bool__():
     117f. method.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46072(37): Add more detailed specialization failure statistics
     for *note BINARY_OP: 521.

   - bpo-46707(38): Avoid potential exponential backtracking when
     producing some syntax errors involving lots of brackets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46323(39): *note ctypes: 2a. now allocates memory on the stack
     instead of on the heap to pass arguments while calling a Python
     callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45923(40): Add a quickened form of *note RESUME: 51e. that
     skips quickening checks.

   - bpo-46702(41): Specialize *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 165f. for *note
     tuple: 4ff. and *note list: 422. unpackings.

   - bpo-46072(42): Opcode pair stats are now gathered with
     ‘--enable-pystats’.  Defining ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’ or
     ‘DXPAIRS’ no longer has any effect.

   - bpo-46675(43): Allow more than 16 items in a split dict before it
     is combined.  The limit is now 254.

   - bpo-40479(44): Add a missing call to ‘va_end()’ in
     ‘Modules/_hashopenssl.c’.

   - bpo-46323(45): Use *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2ed. while calling
     ctypes callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46615(46): When iterating over sets internally in
     ‘setobject.c’, acquire strong references to the resulting items
     from the set.  This prevents crashes in corner-cases of various set
     operations where the set gets mutated.

   - bpo-45828(47): The bytecode compiler now attempts to apply runtime
     stack manipulations at compile-time (whenever it is feasible to do
     so).

   - bpo-30496(48): Fixed a minor portability issue in the
     implementation of *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1660, and added a fast
     path for single-digit integers to *note PyLong_FromLongLong():
     1661.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46940

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46927

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46921

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46891

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46712

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45107

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46729

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46794

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46823

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46808

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46762

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46730

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46732

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46707

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46702

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46675

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46615

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30496


File: python.info,  Node: Library<30>,  Next: Documentation<26>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25707(1): Fixed a file leak in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): ebb. when the iterator is not
     exhausted.  Patch by Jacob Walls.

   - bpo-46877(2): Export *note unittest.doModuleCleanups(): 1663. in
     *note unittest: 106.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46848(3): For performance, use the optimized string-searching
     implementations from *note find(): 1664. and *note rfind(): 1665.
     for ‘find()’ and ‘rfind()’.

   - bpo-46736(4): *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. now uses HTML5
     grammar.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44886(5): Inherit asyncio proactor datagram transport from
     *note asyncio.DatagramTransport: 15cb.

   - bpo-46827(6): Support UDP sockets in *note
     asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): c57. for selector-based event loops.
     Patch by Thomas Grainger.

   - bpo-46811(7): Make test suite support Expat >=2.4.5

   - bpo-46252(8): Raise *note TypeError: 2c4. if *note ssl.SSLSocket:
     73d. is passed to transport-based APIs.

   - bpo-46784(9): Fix libexpat symbols collisions with user dynamically
     loaded or statically linked libexpat in embedded Python.

   - bpo-46786(10): The HTML serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree now
     writes ‘embed’, ‘source’, ‘track’ and ‘wbr’ as empty tags, as
     defined in HTML 5.

   - bpo-39327(11): *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. can now work with
     VirtualBox shared folders when running from the guest
     operating-system.

   - bpo-45390(12): Propagate *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. message
     from inner task to outer awaiter.

   - bpo-46756(13): Fix a bug in *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(): 1666. and
     *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated():
     1667. which allowed to bypass authorization.  For example, access
     to URI ‘example.org/foobar’ was allowed if the user was authorized
     for URI ‘example.org/foo’.

   - bpo-46737(14): *note random.gauss(): 1668. and *note
     random.normalvariate(): 1669. now have default arguments.

   - bpo-46752(15): Add task groups to asyncio (structured concurrency,
     inspired by Trio’s nurseries).  This also introduces a change to
     task cancellation, where a cancelled task can’t be cancelled again
     until it calls .uncancel().

   - bpo-46724(16): Fix *note dis: 37. behavior on negative jump
     offsets.

   - bpo-46333(17): The ‘__repr__()’ method of *note typing.ForwardRef:
     166a. now includes the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 166a. when it is set.

   - bpo-46643(18): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ParamSpecArgs’ and ‘ParamSpecKwargs’
     annotations.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45863(19): When the *note tarfile: dd. module creates a pax
     format archive, it will put an integer representation of timestamps
     in the ustar header (if possible) for the benefit of older
     unarchivers, in addition to the existing full-precision timestamps
     in the pax extended header.

   - bpo-46066(20): Deprecate kwargs-based syntax for *note
     typing.TypedDict: 159. definitions.  It had confusing semantics
     when specifying totality, and was largely unused.  Patch by
     Jingchen Ye.

   - bpo-46676(21): Make *note typing.ParamSpec: 169. args and kwargs
     equal to themselves.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46323(22): ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE()’ and ‘ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE()’ now
     fail to create the type if its ‘_argtypes_’ member contains too
     many arguments.  Previously, the error was only raised when calling
     a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46672(23): Fix ‘NameError’ in *note asyncio.gather(): 40c. when
     initial type check fails.

   - bpo-46659(24): The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 570. and
     *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 571. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 25e, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 25b, if no locale is specified.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46659(25): The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 25b. function
     is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use *note
     locale.setlocale(): 25c, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False):
     2c6. and *note locale.getlocale(): 25e. functions instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46655(26): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘TypeAlias’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45948(27): Fixed a discrepancy in the C implementation of the
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module.  Now, instantiating an
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: 8b7. with a ‘target=None’
     keyword provides a default *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder:
     8b8. target as the Python implementation does.

   - bpo-46626(28): Expose Linux’s ‘IP_BIND_ADDRESS_NO_PORT’ option in
     *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-46521(29): Fix a bug in the *note codeop: 1c. module that was
     incorrectly identifying invalid code involving string quotes as
     valid code.

   - bpo-46571(30): Improve *note typing.no_type_check(): 4cc.

     Now it does not modify external classes and functions.  We also now
     correctly mark classmethods as not to be type checked.

   - bpo-46400(31): expat: Update libexpat from 2.4.1 to 2.4.4

   - bpo-46556(32): Deprecate undocumented support for using a *note
     pathlib.Path: 14f. object as a context manager.

   - bpo-46534(33): Implement PEP 673(34) *note typing.Self: 3cf.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - bpo-46522(35): Make various module ‘__getattr__’ AttributeErrors
     more closely match a typical AttributeError

   - bpo-46475(36): Add *note typing.Never: 4be. and *note
     typing.assert_never(): 4bd.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46333(37): The ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__hash__()’ methods of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 166a. now honor the ‘module’ parameter of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 166a.  Forward references from different modules
     are now differentiated.

   - bpo-46246(38): Add missing ‘__slots__’ to
     ‘importlib.metadata.DeprecatedList’.  Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46232(39): The *note ssl: cf. module now handles certificates
     with bit strings in DN correctly.

   - bpo-46195(40): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. no longer adds
     ‘Optional’ to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  This aligns to
     changes to PEP 484 in ‘https://github.com/python/peps/pull/689’

   - bpo-31369(41): Add *note RegexFlag: 440. to ‘re.__all__’ and
     documented it.  Add ‘NOFLAG’ to indicate no flags being set.

   - bpo-45898(42): *note ctypes: 2a. no longer defines ‘ffi_type_*’
     symbols in ‘cfield.c’.  The symbols have been provided by libffi
     for over a decade.

   - bpo-44953(43): Calling ‘operator.itemgetter’ objects and
     ‘operator.attrgetter’ objects is now faster due to use of the
     vectorcall calling convention.

   - bpo-44289(44): Fix an issue with *note is_tarfile(): 166b. method
     when using 'fileobj' argument: position in the 'fileobj' was
     advanced forward which made it unreadable with *note
     tarfile.TarFile.open(): 166c.

   - bpo-44011(45): Reimplement SSL/TLS support in asyncio, borrow the
     implementation from uvloop library.

   - bpo-41086(46): Make the *note configparser.ConfigParser: 28e.
     constructor raise *note TypeError: 2c4. if the ‘interpolation’
     parameter is not of type ‘configparser.Interpolation’

   - bpo-29418(47): Implement *note inspect.ismethodwrapper(): 45d. and
     fix *note inspect.isroutine(): 166d. for cases where methodwrapper
     is given.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-14156(48): argparse.FileType now supports an argument of ‘-’ in
     binary mode, returning the .buffer attribute of
     sys.stdin/sys.stdout as appropriate.  Modes including ‘x’ and ‘a’
     are treated equivalently to ‘w’ when argument is ‘-’.  Patch
     contributed by Josh Rosenberg

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46877

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44886

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46827

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46252

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46784

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46786

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45390

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46756

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46737

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46752

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46643

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45863

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46066

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46676

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46672

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46655

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45948

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46626

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46571

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46400

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46556

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46522

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46475

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46246

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46232

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46195

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31369

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45898

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44953

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44289

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44011

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41086

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14156


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<26>,  Next: Tests<26>,  Prev: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’ has moved to its own
     repository and is now packaged on PyPI as ‘sphinx-lint’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<26>,  Next: Build<25>,  Prev: Documentation<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46913(1): Fix test_faulthandler.test_sigfpe() if Python is
     built with undefined behavior sanitizer (UBSAN): disable UBSAN on
     the faulthandler_sigfpe() function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46760(2): Remove bytecode offsets from expected values in
     test.test_dis module.  Reduces the obstacles to modifying the VM or
     compiler.

   - bpo-46708(3): Prevent default asyncio event loop policy
     modification warning after ‘test_asyncio’ execution.

   - bpo-46678(4): The function ‘make_legacy_pyc’ in
     ‘Lib/test/support/import_helper.py’ no longer fails when
     ‘PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX’ is set to a directory on a different device
     from where tempfiles are stored.

   - bpo-46623(5): Skip test_pair() and test_speech128() of test_zlib on
     s390x since they fail if zlib uses the s390x hardware accelerator.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46913

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46760

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46678

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46623


File: python.info,  Node: Build<25>,  Next: Windows<25>,  Prev: Tests<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46860(1): Respect ‘--with-suffix’ when building on
     case-insensitive file systems.

   - bpo-46656(2): Building Python now requires a C11 compiler.
     Optional C11 features are not required.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46656(3): Building Python now requires support for
     floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN): remove the ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46640(4): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing a ‘NAN’ constant, or the ‘__builtin_nan()’ built-in
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46608(5): Exclude marshalled-frozen data if deep-freezing to
     save 300 KB disk space.  This includes adding a new ‘is_package’
     field to *note _frozen: 5a5.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-40280(6): Fix wasm32-emscripten test failures and platform
     issues.  - Disable syscalls that are not supported or don’t work,
     e.g.  wait, getrusage, prlimit, mkfifo, mknod, setres[gu]id,
     setgroups.  - Use fd_count to count open fds.  - Add more checks
     for subprocess and fork.  - Add workarounds for missing
     _multiprocessing and failing socket.accept().  - Enable bzip2.  -
     Disable large file support.  - Disable signal.alarm.

   - bpo-46430(7): Intern strings in deep-frozen modules.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46860

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<25>,  Next: IDLE<15>,  Prev: Build<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46744(1): The default all users install directory for ARM64 is
     now under the native ‘Program Files’ folder, rather than ‘Program
     Files (Arm)’ which is intended for ARM (32-bit) files.

   - bpo-46567(2): Adds Tcl and Tk support for Windows ARM64.  This also
     adds IDLE to the installation.

   - bpo-46638(3): Ensures registry virtualization is consistently
     disabled.  For 3.10 and earlier, it remains enabled (some registry
     writes are protected), while for 3.11 and later it is disabled
     (registry modifications affect all applications).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46567

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46638


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<15>,  Next: C API<22>,  Prev: Windows<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-46630(1): Make query dialogs on Windows start with a cursor in
     the entry box.

   - bpo-45447(2): Apply IDLE syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.
     Patch by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: C API<22>,  Prev: IDLE<15>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.22.30.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46748(1): Python’s public headers no longer import
     ‘<stdbool.h>’, leaving code that embeds/extends Python free to
     define ‘bool’, ‘true’ and ‘false’.

   - bpo-46836(2): Move the *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. type definition
     (‘struct _frame’) to the internal C API ‘pycore_frame.h’ header
     file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45459(3): Rename ‘Include/buffer.h’ header file to
     ‘Include/pybuffer.h’ to avoid conflicts with projects having an
     existing ‘buffer.h’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(4): Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved
     to the internal C API). Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46613(5): Added function *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 593,
     which allows access to module state when a method’s defining class
     is not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46748

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.22.31 Python 3.11.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-02-03'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* C API: C API<23>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<30>,  Next: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45773(1): Remove two invalid “peephole” optimizations from the
     bytecode compiler.

   - bpo-46564(2): Do not create frame objects when creating *note
     super: 20d. object.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45885(3): Added more fined-grained specialization failure stats
     regarding the ‘COMPARE_OP’ bytecode.

   - bpo-44977(4): The delegation of *note int(): 184. to ‘__trunc__()’
     is now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not ‘__int__()’ or ‘__index__()’ now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.

   - bpo-46458(5): Reorder code emitted by the compiler for a *note try:
     503.-*note except: 3c0. block so that the *note else: 26c. block’s
     code immediately follows the *note try: 503. body (without a jump).
     This is more optimal for the happy path.

   - bpo-46527(6): Allow passing ‘iterable’ as a keyword argument to
     *note enumerate(): 1308. again.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46528(7): Replace several stack manipulation instructions
     (‘DUP_TOP’, ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’, ‘ROT_TWO’, ‘ROT_THREE’, ‘ROT_FOUR’, and
     ‘ROT_N’) with new *note COPY: 524. and *note SWAP: 525.
     instructions.

   - bpo-46329(8): Use two or three bytecodes to implement most calls.

     Calls without named arguments are implemented as a sequence of two
     instructions: ‘PRECALL; CALL’.  Calls with named arguments are
     implemented as a sequence of three instructions: ‘PRECALL;
     KW_NAMES; CALL’.  There are two different ‘PRECALL’ instructions:
     ‘PRECALL_FUNTION’ and ‘PRECALL_METHOD’.  The latter pairs with
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

     This partition into pre-call and call allows better specialization,
     and thus better performance ultimately.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46503(9): Fix an assert when parsing some invalid N escape
     sequences in f-strings.

   - bpo-46431(10): Improve error message on invalid calls to
     ‘BaseExceptionGroup.__new__()’.

   - bpo-46476(11): Fix memory leak in code objects generated by
     deepfreeze.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46481(12): Speed up calls to ‘weakref.ref.__call__()’ by using
     the PEP 590(13) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-46417(14): Fix a race condition on setting a type ‘__bases__’
     attribute: the internal function ‘add_subclass()’ now gets the
     ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’ member after calling *note
     PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1676. which can trigger a garbage collection
     which can indirectly modify ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46417(15): ‘python -X showrefcount’ now shows the total
     reference count after clearing and destroyed the main Python
     interpreter.  Previously, it was shown before.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43683(16): Add ASYNC_GEN_WRAP opcode to wrap the value to be
     yielded in async generators.  Removes the need to special case
     async generators in the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction.

   - bpo-46407(17): Optimize some modulo operations in
     ‘Objects/longobject.c’.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-46409(18): Add new ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’ bytecode to make
     generators.  Simplifies calling Python functions in the VM, as they
     no longer any need to special case generator functions.

     Also add ‘JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT’ bytecode that acts like
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’, but does not check for interrupts.

   - bpo-46406(19): The integer division ‘//’ implementation has been
     optimized to better let the compiler understand its constraints.
     It can be 20% faster on the amd64 platform when dividing an int by
     a value smaller than ‘2**30’.

   - bpo-46383(20): Fix invalid signature of ‘_zoneinfo’’s ‘module_free’
     function to resolve a crash on wasm32-emscripten platform.

   - bpo-46361(21): Ensure that “small” integers created by *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1677. and *note decimal.Decimal: 609. are
     properly cached.

   - bpo-46161(22): Fix the class building error when the arguments are
     constants and CALL_FUNCTION_EX is used.

   - bpo-46028(23): Fixes calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when
     inside a virtual environment that uses symlinks with different
     binary names than the base environment provides.

   - bpo-46091(24): Correctly calculate indentation levels for lines
     with whitespace character that are ended by line continuation
     characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-30512(25): Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD.

   - bpo-46045(26): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   - bpo-44024(27): Improve the *note TypeError: 2c4. message for
     non-string second arguments passed to the built-in functions *note
     getattr(): a48. and *note hasattr(): 200.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46458

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46527

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46528

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46503

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46431

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46476

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46481

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46407

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46409

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46406

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46383

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46361

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46161

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46091

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44024


File: python.info,  Node: Library<31>,  Next: Documentation<27>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46624(1): Restore support for non-integer arguments of *note
     random.randrange(): 6af. and *note random.randint(): 10d6.

   - bpo-46591(2): Make the IDLE doc URL on the About IDLE dialog
     clickable.

   - bpo-46565(3): Remove loop variables that are leaking into modules’
     namespaces.

   - bpo-46553(4): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘ClassVar’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46544(5): Don’t leak ‘x’ & ‘uspace’ intermediate vars in *note
     textwrap.TextWrapper: e73.

   - bpo-46487(6): Add the ‘get_write_buffer_limits’ method to
     ‘asyncio.transports.WriteTransport’ and to the SSL transport.

   - bpo-45173(7): Note the configparser deprecations will be removed in
     Python 3.12.

   - bpo-45162(8): The deprecated *note unittest: 106. APIs removed in
     3.11a1 have been temporarily restored to be removed in 3.12 while
     cleanups in external projects go in.

   - bpo-46539(9): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ClassVar’ and ‘Final’ annotations inside
     ‘Annotated’.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46510(10): Add missing test for *note types.TracebackType: 960.
     and *note types.FrameType: 1679.  Calculate them directly from the
     caught exception without calling *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.

   - bpo-46491(11): Allow *note typing.Annotated: 796. to wrap *note
     typing.Final: 8a7. and *note typing.ClassVar: 4cb.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46483(12): Remove *note __class_getitem__(): 565. from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. as this class was not supposed to be
     generic.

   - bpo-46436(13): Fix command-line option ‘-d’/‘--directory’ in module
     *note http.server: 70. which is ignored when combined with
     command-line option ‘--cgi’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-41403(14): Make ‘mock.patch()’ raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     with a relevant error message on invalid arg.  Previously it
     allowed a cryptic *note AttributeError: 3dc. to escape.

   - bpo-46474(15): In ‘importlib.metadata.EntryPoint.pattern’, avoid
     potential REDoS by limiting ambiguity in consecutive whitespace.

   - bpo-46474(16): Removed private method from
     ‘importlib.metadata.Path’.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.10.0.

   - bpo-46470(17): Remove unused branch from
     ‘typing._remove_dups_flatten’

   - bpo-46469(18): *note asyncio: a. generic classes now return *note
     types.GenericAlias: 625. in ‘__class_getitem__’ instead of the same
     class.

   - bpo-41906(19): Support passing filter instances in the ‘filters’
     values of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’ in the dictionary passed to
     *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1055.

   - bpo-46422(20): Use ‘dis.Positions’ in ‘dis.Instruction’ instead of
     a regular ‘tuple’.

   - bpo-46434(21): *note pdb: a4. now gracefully handles ‘help’ when
     *note __doc__: 167a. is missing, for example when run with
     pregenerated optimized ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-43869(22): Python uses the same time Epoch on all platforms.
     Add an explicit unit test to ensure that it’s the case.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46414(23): Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 4c0.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-40280(24): *note subprocess: d5. now imports Windows-specific
     imports when ‘msvcrt’ module is available, and POSIX-specific
     imports on all other platforms.  This gives a clean exception when
     ‘_posixsubprocess’ is not available (e.g.  Emscripten browser
     target).

   - bpo-40066(25): ‘IntEnum’, ‘IntFlag’, and ‘StrEnum’ use the mixed-in
     type for their ‘str()’ and ‘format()’ output.

   - bpo-46316(26): Optimize *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 15cf. by
     removing an unnecessary check for special entries.

   - bpo-29688(27): Document *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1543. (which
     has always existed).

   - bpo-43012(28): The pathlib module’s obsolete and internal
     ‘_Accessor’ class has been removed to prepare the terrain for
     upcoming enhancements to the module.

   - bpo-46258(29): Speed up *note math.isqrt(): 865. for small positive
     integers by replacing two division steps with a lookup table.

   - bpo-46242(30): Improve error message when creating a new *note
     enum.Enum: 443. type subclassing an existing ‘Enum’ with
     ‘_member_names_’ using ‘enum.Enum.__call__()’.

   - bpo-43118(31): Fix a bug in *note inspect.signature(): 561. that
     was causing it to fail on some subclasses of classes with a
     ‘__text_signature__’ referencing module globals.  Patch by Weipeng
     Hong.

   - bpo-26552(32): Fixed case where failing *note
     asyncio.ensure_future(): af4. did not close the coroutine.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-21987(33): Fix an issue with *note tarfile.TarFile.getmember():
     167b. getting a directory name with a trailing slash.

   - bpo-46124(34): Update *note zoneinfo: 134. to rely on
     importlib.resources traversable API.

   - bpo-46103(35): Now *note inspect.getmembers(): 167c. only gets
     ‘__bases__’ attribute from class type.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-46080(36): Fix exception in argparse help text generation if a
     *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 167d. argument’s default is
     ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’ and it has ‘help’ specified.  Patch by Felix
     Fontein.

   - bpo-44791(37): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 169. in *note
     Concatenate: 5fb. with different parameter expressions.
     Substitution with a list of types returns now a tuple of types.
     Substitution with ‘Concatenate’ returns now a ‘Concatenate’ with
     concatenated lists of arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46591

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46565

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46553

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46539

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46510

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46491

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41403

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46470

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46469

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41906

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46422

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46434

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43869

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46414

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46316

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29688

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43012

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46258

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46242

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43118

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26552

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21987

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46124

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46103

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46080

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<27>,  Next: Tests<27>,  Prev: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46463(1): Fixes ‘escape4chm.py’ script used when building the
     CHM documentation file

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46463


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<27>,  Next: Build<26>,  Prev: Documentation<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43478(1): Mocks can no longer be provided as the specs for
     other Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot be
     passed to ‘mock.Mock()’.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     isinstance) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-46616(2): Ensures ‘test_importlib.test_windows’ cleans up
     registry keys after completion.

   - bpo-44359(3): test_ftplib now silently ignores socket errors to
     prevent logging unhandled threading exceptions.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46600(4): Fix test_gdb.test_pycfunction() for Python built with
     ‘clang -Og’.  Tolerate inlined functions in the gdb traceback.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46542(5): Fix a Python crash in test_lib2to3 when using Python
     built in debug mode: limit the recursion limit.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46576(6): test_peg_generator now disables compiler optimization
     when testing compilation of its own C extensions to significantly
     speed up the testing on non-debug builds of CPython.

   - bpo-46542(7): Fix ‘test_json’ tests checking for *note
     RecursionError: bf7.: modify these tests to use
     ‘support.infinite_recursion()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13886(8): Skip test_builtin PTY tests on non-ASCII characters
     if the readline module is loaded.  The readline module changes
     input() behavior, but test_builtin is not intended to test the
     readline module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(9): Add ‘test.support.requires_fork()’ decorators to mark
     tests that require a working *note os.fork(): 23a.

   - bpo-40280(10): Add ‘test.support.requires_subprocess()’ decorator
     to mark tests which require working *note subprocess: d5. module or
     ‘os.spawn*’.  The wasm32-emscripten platform has no support for
     processes.

   - bpo-46126(11): Disable ‘descriptions’ when running tests
     internally.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44359

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13886

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126


File: python.info,  Node: Build<26>,  Next: Windows<26>,  Prev: Tests<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46602(1): Tidied up configure.ac so that conftest.c is
     truncated rather than appended.  This assists in the case where the
     ‘rm’ of conftest.c fails to happen between tests.  Downstream
     issues such as a clobbered SOABI can result.

   - bpo-46600(2): Fix the test checking if the C compiler supports
     ‘-Og’ option in the ‘./configure’ script to also use ‘-Og’ on clang
     which supports it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38472(3): Fix GCC detection in setup.py when cross-compiling.
     The C compiler is now run with LC_ALL=C. Previously, the detection
     failed with a German locale.

   - bpo-46513(4): ‘configure’ no longer uses ‘AC_C_CHAR_UNSIGNED’ macro
     and ‘pyconfig.h’ no longer defines reserved symbol
     ‘__CHAR_UNSIGNED__’.

   - bpo-46471(5): Use global singletons for single byte bytes objects
     in deepfreeze.

   - bpo-46443(6): Deepfreeze now uses cached small integers as it saves
     some space for common small integers.

   - bpo-46429(7): Merge all deep-frozen files into one for space
     savings.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45569(8): The build now defaults to using 30-bit digits for
     Python integers.  Previously either 15-bit or 30-bit digits would
     be selected, depending on the platform.  15-bit digits may still be
     selected using the ‘--enable-big-digits=15’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script, or by defining ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ in
     ‘pyconfig.h’.

   - bpo-45925(9): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.37.2.

   - bpo-43112(10): Detect musl libc as a separate SOABI (tagged as
     ‘linux-musl’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38472

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46513

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46471

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46429

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43112


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<26>,  Next: macOS<19>,  Prev: Build<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33125(1): The traditional EXE/MSI based installer for Windows
     is now available for ARM64

   - bpo-46362(2): os.path.abspath(“C:CON”) is now fixed to return
     “\.CON”, not the same path.  The regression was true of all legacy
     DOS devices such as COM1, LPT1, or NUL.

   - bpo-44934(3): The installer now offers a command-line only option
     to add the installation directory to the end of ‘PATH’ instead of
     at the start.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46362

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<19>,  Next: IDLE<16>,  Prev: Windows<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45925(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.37.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<16>,  Next: C API<23>,  Prev: macOS<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): Clarify close, quit, and exit in IDLE. In the File
     menu, ‘Close’ and ‘Exit’ are now ‘Close Window’ (the current one)
     and ‘Exit’ is now ‘Exit IDLE’ (by closing all windows).  In Shell,
     ‘quit()’ and ‘exit()’ mean ‘close Shell’.  If there are no other
     windows, this also exits IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296


File: python.info,  Node: C API<23>,  Prev: IDLE<16>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.22.31.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-40170(1): Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was
     exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by
     Python internally.  Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(2): Move _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks() and
     _PyObject_DebugMallocStats() private functions to the internal C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46433(3): The internal function _PyType_GetModuleByDef now
     correctly handles inheritance patterns involving static types.

   - bpo-45459(4): *note Py_buffer: 584. and various ‘Py_buffer’ related
     functions are now part of the limited API and stable ABI.

   - bpo-14916(5): Fixed bug in the tokenizer that prevented
     ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’ from parsing from the provided FD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46433

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14916


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.22.32 Python 3.11.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-01-13'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* C API: C API<24>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<31>,  Next: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46070(1): *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1687. now explicitly
     untracks all objects currently tracked by the GC. Previously, if an
     object was used later by another interpreter, calling *note
     PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394. on the object crashed if the previous
     or the next object of the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure became a dangling
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46347(2): Fix memory leak in PyEval_EvalCodeEx.

   - bpo-46339(3): Fix a crash in the parser when retrieving the error
     text for multi-line f-strings expressions that do not start in the
     first line of the string.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46331(4): Do not set line number of instruction storing
     doc-string.  Fixes regression introduced in 3.11 alpha.

   - bpo-46314(5): Remove spurious “call” event when creating a lambda
     function that was accidentally introduced in 3.11a4.

   - bpo-46289(6): ASDL declaration of ‘FormattedValue’ has changed to
     reflect ‘conversion’ field is not optional.

   - bpo-46297(7): Fixed an interpreter crash on bootup with multiple
     PythonPaths set in the Windows registry.  Patch by Derzsi Dániel.

   - bpo-46237(8): Fix the line number of tokenizer errors inside
     f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46263(9): We always expect the “use_frozen_modules” config to
     be set, now that getpath.c was rewritten in pure Python and the
     logic improved.

   - bpo-46006(10): Fix a regression when a type method like
     ‘__init__()’ is modified in a subinterpreter.  Fix a regression in
     ‘_PyUnicode_EqualToASCIIId()’ and type ‘update_slot()’.  Revert the
     change which made the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters: the internal interned dictionary
     is shared again by all interpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45923(11): Add RESUME opcode.  This is a logical no-op.  It is
     emitted by the compiler anywhere a Python function can be entered.
     It is used by the interpreter to perform tracing and optimizer
     checks.

   - bpo-46208(12): Fix the regression of os.path.normpath(“A/../../B”)
     not returning expected “../B” but “B”.

   - bpo-46240(13): Correct the error message for unclosed parentheses
     when the tokenizer doesn’t reach the end of the source when the
     error is reported.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46009(14): Remove the ‘GEN_START’ opcode.

   - bpo-46235(15): Certain sequence multiplication operations like ‘[0]
     * 1_000’ are now faster due to reference-counting optimizations.
     Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46221(16): ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’ no longer pushes ‘lasti’ to the
     stack.

   - bpo-46202(17): Remove ‘POP_EXCEPT_AND_RERAISE’ and replace it by an
     equivalent sequence of other opcodes.

   - bpo-46085(18): Fix iterator cache mechanism of ‘OrderedDict’.

   - bpo-46055(19): Speed up shifting operation involving integers less
     than ‘PyLong_BASE’.  Patch by Xinhang Xu.

   - bpo-46110(20): Add a maximum recursion check to the PEG parser to
     avoid stack overflow.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46107(21): Fix bug where ‘ExceptionGroup.split()’ and
     ‘ExceptionGroup.subgroup()’ did not copy the exception group’s
     ‘__note__’ field to the parts.

   - bpo-45711(22): The interpreter state’s representation of handled
     exceptions (a.k.a exc_info, or _PyErr_StackItem) now has only the
     ‘exc_value’ field, ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed
     as their values can be derived from ‘exc_value’.

   - bpo-44525(23): Replace the four call bytecode instructions which
     one pre-call instruction and two call instructions.

     Removes ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’, ‘CALL_METHOD’ and
     ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’.

     Adds ‘CALL_NO_KW’ and ‘CALL_KW’ call instructions, and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ prefix for pairing with ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

   - bpo-46039(24): Remove the ‘YIELD_FROM’ instruction and replace it
     with the ‘SEND’ instruction which performs the same operation, but
     without the loop.

   - bpo-45635(25): The code called from ‘_PyErr_Display()’ was
     refactored to improve error handling.  It now exits immediately
     upon an unrecoverable error.

   - bpo-46054(26): Fix parser error when parsing non-utf8 characters in
     source files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46042(27): Improve the location of the caret in *note
     SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions emitted by the symbol table.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46049(28): Ensure ‘._pth’ files work as intended on platforms
     other than Windows.

   - bpo-46048(29): Fixes parsing of ‘._pth’ files on startup so that
     single-character paths are correctly read.

   - bpo-37971(30): Fix a bug where the line numbers given in a
     traceback when a decorator application raised an exception were
     wrong.

   - bpo-46031(31): Add *note POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 161b. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 161a. opcodes to speed up conditional jumps.

   - bpo-45654(32): Deepfreeze *note runpy: bd, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46025(33): Fix a crash in the *note atexit: c. module involving
     functions that unregister themselves before raising exceptions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46000(34): Improve compatibility of the *note curses: 2b.
     module with NetBSD curses.

   - bpo-44525(35): Specialize the CALL_FUNCTION instruction for calls
     to builtin types with a single argument.  Speeds up ‘range(x)’,
     ‘list(x)’, and specifically ‘type(obj)’.

   - bpo-42918(36): Fix bug where the built-in *note compile(): 56d.
     function did not always raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c. when passed
     multiple statements in ‘single’ mode.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-45953(37): The main interpreter in _PyRuntimeState.interpreters
     is now statically allocated (as part of _PyRuntime).  Likewise for
     the initial thread state of each interpreter.  This means less
     allocation during runtime init, as well as better memory locality
     for these key state objects.

   - bpo-45292(38): Complete the PEP 654(39) implementation: add
     ‘except*’.

   - bpo-43413(40): Revert changes in ‘set.__init__’.  Subclass of *note
     set: 3e4. needs to define a ‘__init__()’ method if it defines a
     ‘__new__()’ method with additional keyword parameters.

   - bpo-43931(41): Added the *note Py_Version: 582. constant which
     bears the same value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 583.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46331

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46314

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46289

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46297

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46237

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46006

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46208

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46240

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46221

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46202

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46085

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46055

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46110

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46107

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46039

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45635

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46042

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46049

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46048

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37971

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46031

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45654

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46000

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42918

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45953

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931


File: python.info,  Node: Library<32>,  Next: Documentation<28>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46342(1): The ‘@typing.final’ decorator now sets the
     ‘__final__’ attribute on the decorated object to allow runtime
     introspection.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46328(2): Added the *note sys.exception(): 4a0. method which
     returns the active exception instance.

   - bpo-46307(3): Add *note string.Template.is_valid(): 49b. and *note
     string.Template.get_identifiers(): 49a. methods.

   - bpo-46306(4): Assume that *note types.CodeType: 263. always has
     ‘types.CodeType.co_firstlineno’ in *note doctest: 39.

   - bpo-40479(5): Fix *note hashlib: 66. 'usedforsecurity' option to
     work correctly with OpenSSL 3.0.0 in FIPS mode.

   - bpo-46070(6): Fix possible segfault when importing the *note
     asyncio: a. module from different sub-interpreters in parallel.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-46244(7): Removed ‘__slots__’ from *note typing.ParamSpec: 169.
     and *note typing.TypeVar: 16a.  They served no purpose.  Patch by
     Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46278(8): Reflect ‘context’ argument in
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.call_*()’ methods.  Loop implementations already
     support it.

   - bpo-46269(9): Remove special-casing of ‘__new__’ in *note
     enum.Enum.__dir__(): 1689.

   - bpo-46266(10): Improve day constants in *note calendar: 14.

     Now all constants (‘MONDAY’ … ‘SUNDAY’) are documented, tested, and
     added to ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-46257(11): Optimized the mean, variance, and stdev functions in
     the statistics module.  If the input is an iterator, it is consumed
     in a single pass rather than eating memory by conversion to a list.
     The single pass algorithm is about twice as fast as the previous
     two pass code.

   - bpo-41011(12): Added two new variables to 'pyvenv.cfg' which is
     generated by *note venv: 111. module: 'executable' for the
     executable and 'command' for the command line used to create the
     environment.

   - bpo-46239(13): Improve error message when importing
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’ on non-Windows.

   - bpo-46238(14): Reuse ‘_winapi’ constants in
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’.

   - bpo-46222(15): Adding ‘SF_NOCACHE’ sendfile constant for FreeBSD
     for the posixmodule.

   - bpo-37295(16): Add fast path for ‘0 <= k <= n <= 67’ for *note
     math.comb(): 4e7.

   - bpo-46176(17): Adding the ‘MAP_STACK’ constant for the mmap module.

   - bpo-43424(18): Deprecate ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ and use
     ‘name’ instead.

   - bpo-45321(19): Added missing error codes to module
     ‘xml.parsers.expat.errors’.

   - bpo-46125(20): Refactor tests to test traversable API directly.
     Includes changes from importlib 5.4.0.

   - bpo-46118(21): Moved importlib.resources and its related
     functionality to a package.

   - bpo-37578(22): Add 'include_hidden' parameter to *note glob(): 641.
     and *note iglob(): 642. to match hidden files and directories when
     using special characters like ‘*’, ‘**’, ‘?’ and ‘[]’.

   - bpo-20369(23): *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 168a. no longer
     blocks forever when given duplicate Futures.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46105(24): Honor spec when generating requirement specs with
     urls and extras (importlib_metadata 4.8.3).

   - bpo-44893(25): EntryPoint objects are no longer tuples.
     Recommended means to access is by attribute (‘.name’, ‘.group’) or
     accessor (‘.load()’).  Access by index is deprecated and will raise
     deprecation warning.

   - bpo-22815(26): Print unexpected successes together with failures
     and errors in summary in *note unittest.TextTestResult: 2bc.

   - bpo-22047(27): Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ on an argument group
     is deprecated.  Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ or
     ‘add_mutually_exclusive_group()’ on a mutually exclusive group is
     deprecated.

     These features were never supported and do not always work
     correctly.  The functions exist on the API by accident through
     inheritance and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-26952(28): *note argparse: 6. raises *note ValueError: 189.
     with clear message when trying to render usage for an empty
     mutually exclusive group.  Previously it raised a cryptic *note
     IndexError: 13c2.

   - bpo-45615(29): Functions in the *note traceback: fe. module raise
     *note TypeError: 2c4. rather than *note AttributeError: 3dc. when
     an exception argument is not of type *note BaseException: 3c3.

   - bpo-16594(30): Add allow allow_reuse_port flag in socketserver.

   - bpo-27718(31): Fix help for the *note signal: c5. module.  Some
     functions (e.g.  ‘signal()’ and ‘getsignal()’) were omitted.

   - bpo-46032(32): The ‘registry()’ method of *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 44c. functions checks now the first
     argument or the first parameter annotation and raises a TypeError
     if it is not supported.  Previously unsupported “types” were
     ignored (e.g.  ‘typing.List[int]’) or caused an error at calling
     time (e.g.  ‘list[int]’).

   - bpo-46014(33): Add ability to use ‘typing.Union’ and
     ‘types.UnionType’ as dispatch argument to
     ‘functools.singledispatch’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-27062(34): Add ‘__all__’ to *note inspect: 7c, patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46018(35): Ensure that *note math.expm1(): 1091. does not raise
     on underflow.

   - bpo-46016(36): Adding ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants
     from FreeBSD into the *note fcntl: 57. module.

   - bpo-45755(37): *note typing: 104. generic aliases now reveal the
     class attributes of the original generic class when passed to
     ‘dir()’.  This was the behavior up to Python 3.6, but was changed
     in 3.7-3.9.

   - bpo-45874(38): The empty query string, consisting of no query
     arguments, is now handled correctly in ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’.
     This caused problems before when strict parsing was enabled.

   - bpo-44674(39): Change how dataclasses disallows mutable default
     values.  It used to use a list of known types (list, dict, set).
     Now it disallows unhashable objects to be defaults.  It’s using
     unhashability as a proxy for mutability.  Patch by Eric V. Smith,
     idea by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-23882(40): Remove namespace package (PEP 420) support from
     unittest discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been
     broken since Python 3.7.

   - bpo-25066(41): Added a ‘__repr__()’ method to *note
     multiprocessing.Event: 168b. objects, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45643(42): Added *note signal.SIGSTKFLT: 168c. on platforms
     where this signal is defined.

   - bpo-44092(43): Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note
     InterfaceError: 492.  Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to
     handle these cases.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42413(44): Replace ‘concurrent.futures.TimeoutError’ and
     ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ with builtin *note TimeoutError: 673, keep
     these names as deprecated aliases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46342

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46307

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46306

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46278

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46266

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41011

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46238

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46176

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43424

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45321

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46125

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46118

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37578

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20369

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44893

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22815

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22047

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26952

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45615

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16594

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27718

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46032

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27062

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46018

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46016

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45755

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45874

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25066

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45643

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<28>,  Next: Tests<28>,  Prev: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46196(1): Document method *note cmd.Cmd.columnize(): 168e.

   - bpo-46120(2): State that ‘|’ is preferred for readability over
     ‘Union’ in the *note typing: 104. docs.

   - bpo-46109(3): Extracted ‘importlib.resources’ and
     ‘importlib.resources.abc’ documentation into separate files.

   - bpo-19737(4): Update the documentation for the *note globals():
     168f. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46196

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46109

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19737


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<28>,  Next: Build<27>,  Prev: Documentation<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-46296(1): Add a test case for *note enum: 54. with ‘_use_args_
     == True’ and ‘_member_type_ == object’.

   - bpo-46205(2): Fix hang in runtest_mp due to race condition

   - bpo-46263(3): Fix test_capi on FreeBSD 14-dev: instruct jemalloc to
     not fill freed memory with junk byte.

   - bpo-46262(4): Cover ‘ValueError’ path in tests for
     ‘enum.Flag._missing_()’.

   - bpo-46150(5): Now ‘fakename’ in
     ‘test_pathlib.PosixPathTest.test_expanduser’ is checked to be
     non-existent.

   - bpo-46129(6): Rewrite ‘asyncio.locks’ tests with *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. usage.

   - bpo-23819(7): Fixed *note asyncio: a. tests in python optimized
     mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46114(8): Fix test case for OpenSSL 3.0.1 version.  OpenSSL 3.0
     uses ‘0xMNN00PP0L’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46205

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46150

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46129

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46114


File: python.info,  Node: Build<27>,  Next: Windows<27>,  Prev: Tests<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44133(1): When Python is configured with *note
     -without-static-libpython: 6d6, the Python static library
     (libpython.a) is no longer built.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44133(2): When Python is built without *note -enable-shared:
     6a6, the ‘python’ program is now linked to object files, rather
     than being linked to the Python static library (libpython.a), to
     make sure that all symbols are exported.  Previously, the linker
     omitted some symbols like the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(3): The ‘configure’ script has a new option
     ‘--with-emscripten-target’ to select browser or node as Emscripten
     build target.

   - bpo-46315(4): Added and fixed ‘#ifdef HAVE_FEATURE’ checks for
     functionality that is not available on WASI platform.

   - bpo-45723(5): Fixed a regression in ‘configure’ check for *note
     select.epoll(): e34.

   - bpo-46263(6): ‘configure’ no longer sets ‘MULTIARCH’ on FreeBSD
     platforms.

   - bpo-46106(7): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1m in Windows builds, macOS
     installer builds, and CI. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46088(8): Automatically detect or install bootstrap Python
     runtime when building from Visual Studio.

   - bpo-46072(9): Add a –with-pystats configure option to turn on
     internal statistics gathering.

   - bpo-40280(10): A new directory ‘Tools/wasm’ contains
     WebAssembly-related helpers like ‘config.site’ override for
     wasm32-emscripten, wasm assets generator to bundle the stdlib, and
     a README.

   - bpo-46023(11): ‘makesetup’ no longer builds extensions that have
     been marked as 'disabled'.  This allows users to disable modules in
     ‘Modules/Setup.local’.

   - bpo-45949(12): Use pure Python ‘freeze_module’ for all but
     importlib bootstrap files.  ‘--with-freeze-module’ ‘configure’
     option is no longer needed for cross builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46315

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46106

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46088

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45949


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<27>,  Next: macOS<20>,  Prev: Build<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46217(1): Removed parameter that is unsupported on Windows 8.1
     and early Windows 10 and may have caused build or runtime failures.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46217


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<20>,  Next: C API<24>,  Prev: Windows<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-40477(1): The Python Launcher app for macOS now properly
     launches scripts and, if necessary, the Terminal app when running
     on recent macOS releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40477


File: python.info,  Node: C API<24>,  Prev: macOS<20>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.22.32.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-46236(1): Fix a bug in *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 15db.
     that caused it to return a ‘tuple’ instead of a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-46140(2): *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 587, *note
     PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 58a, *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 589.
     and *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 590. now take buffer info by
     ‘const Py_buffer *’ instead of ‘Py_buffer *’, as they do not need
     mutability.  *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 58a. also now takes
     the source buffer as ‘const void *’, and similarly *note
     PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 587. takes the strides as ‘const Py_ssize_t
     *’.

   - bpo-45855(3): Document that the 'no_block' argument to *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 1695. is a no-op now.

   - bpo-45855(4): Replaced deprecated usage of *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 35e. with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f. in stdlib modules.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46007(5): The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been
     excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because
     it used internal structures which are not available in the limited
     C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46140

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.33 Python 3.11.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-12-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* C API: C API<25>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<32>,  Next: Library<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46009(1): Restore behavior from 3.9 and earlier when sending
     non-None to newly started generator.  In 3.9 this did not affect
     the state of the generator.  In 3.10.0 and 3.10.1
     ‘gen_func().send(0)’ is equivalent to
     ‘gen_func().throw(TypeError(...)’ which exhausts the generator.  In
     3.10.2 onward, the behavior has been reverted to that of 3.9.

   - bpo-46004(2): Fix the *note SyntaxError: 14c. location for errors
     involving for loops with invalid targets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(3): ‘_PyErr_ChainStackItem()’ no longer normalizes
     ‘exc_info’ (including setting the traceback on the exception
     instance) because ‘exc_info’ is always normalized.

   - bpo-45607(4): The ‘__note__’ field was added to *note
     BaseException: 3c3.  It is ‘None’ by default but can be set to a
     string which is added to the exception’s traceback.

   - bpo-45947(5): Place pointers to dict and values immediately before
     GC header.  This reduces number of dependent memory loads to access
     either dict or values from 3 to 1.

   - bpo-45915(6): ‘is_valid_fd’ now uses faster ‘fcntl(fd, F_GETFD)’ on
     Linux, macOS, and Windows.

   - bpo-44530(7): Reverts a change to the ‘code.__new__’ *note audit
     event: 1698. from an earlier prerelease.

   - bpo-42268(8): Fail the configure step if the selected compiler
     doesn’t support memory sanitizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(9): The three values of ‘exc_info’ are now always
     consistent with each other.  In particular, the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields are now derived from the exception instance.
     This impacts the return values of *note sys.exc_info(): 49f. and
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 5a2. if the exception instance is
     modified while the exception is handled, as well as *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 5a1, which now ignores the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments provided to it.

   - bpo-45727(10): Refine the custom syntax error that suggests that a
     comma may be missing to trigger only when the expressions are
     detected between parentheses or brackets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45885(11): Specialized the ‘COMPARE_OP’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45786(12): Allocate space for the interpreter frame in the
     frame object, to avoid an additional allocation when the frame
     object outlives the frame activation.

   - bpo-45614(13): Fix *note traceback: fe. display for exceptions with
     invalid module name.

   - bpo-45813(14): Fix crash when calling coro.cr_frame.clear() after
     coroutine has been freed.

   - bpo-45811(15): Improve the tokenizer errors when encountering
     invisible control characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45848(16): Allow the parser to obtain error lines directly from
     encoded files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45709(17): Restore behavior from 3.10 when tracing an exception
     raised within a with statement.

   - bpo-44525(18): Adds new *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 518. opcode, to make
     copying of free variables from function to frame explicit.  Helps
     optimization of calls to Python function.

   - bpo-45829(19): Specialize *note BINARY_SUBSCR: 155b. for classes
     with a ‘__getitem__’ method implemented in Python

   - bpo-45826(20): Fixed a crash when calling ‘.with_traceback(None)’
     on ‘NameError’.  This occurs internally in
     ‘unittest.TestCase.assertRaises()’.

   - bpo-45822(21): Fixed a bug in the parser that was causing it to not
     respect PEP 263(22) coding cookies when no flags are provided.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45820(23): Fix a segfault when the parser fails without reading
     any input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45636(24): Simplify the implementation of *note BINARY_OP: 521.
     by indexing into an array of function pointers (rather than
     switching on the oparg).

   - bpo-42540(25): Fix crash when *note os.fork(): 23a. is called with
     an active non-default memory allocator.

   - bpo-45738(26): Fix computation of error location for invalid
     continuation characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45636(27): Remove an existing “fast path” for old-style string
     formatting, since it no longer appears to have any measurable
     impact.

   - bpo-45753(28): Make recursion checks a bit more efficient by
     tracking amount of calls left before overflow.

   - bpo-45773(29): Fix a compiler hang when attempting to optimize
     certain jump patterns.

   - bpo-45764(30): The parser now gives a better error message when
     leaving out the opening parenthesis ‘(’ after a ‘def’-statement:

          >>> def f:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              def f:
                   ^
          SyntaxError: expected '('

   - bpo-45609(31): Specialized the ‘STORE_SUBSCR’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45636(32): Replace all numeric ‘BINARY_*’ and ‘INPLACE_*’
     instructions with a single *note BINARY_OP: 521. implementation.

   - bpo-45582(33): Path calculation (known as ‘getpath’) has been
     reimplemented as a frozen Python module.  This should have no
     visible impact, but may affect calculation of all paths referenced
     in *note sys: d8. and *note sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-45450(34): Improve the syntax error message for parenthesized
     arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46004

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45915

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45786

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45614

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45813

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45811

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45848

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45709

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45829

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45826

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45822

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45820

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42540

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45738

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45753

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45764

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45609

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45582

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45450


File: python.info,  Node: Library<33>,  Next: Documentation<29>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27946(1): Fix possible crash when getting an attribute of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 247. simultaneously with replacing
     the ‘attrib’ dict.

   - bpo-45711(2): Make *note asyncio: a. normalize exceptions as soon
     as they are captured with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe, and before they
     are stored as an exc_info triplet.  This brings *note asyncio: a.
     in line with the rest of the codebase, where an exc_info triplet is
     always normalized.

   - bpo-23819(3): Replaced asserts with exceptions in asyncio, patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-13236(4): *note unittest.TextTestResult: 2bc. and *note
     unittest.TextTestRunner: 1561. flush now the output stream more
     often.

   - bpo-45917(5): Added *note math.exp2(): 473.:, which returns 2
     raised to the power of x.

   - bpo-37658(6): Fix issue when on certain conditions
     ‘asyncio.wait_for()’ may allow a coroutine to complete
     successfully, but fail to return the result, potentially causing
     memory leaks or other issues.

   - bpo-45876(7): Improve the accuracy of stdev() and pstdev() in the
     statistics module.  When the inputs are floats or fractions, the
     output is a correctly rounded float

   - bpo-44649(8): Handle dataclass(slots=True) with a field that has
     default a default value, but for which init=False.

   - bpo-45803(9): Added missing kw_only parameter to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-45837(10): The ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ is deprecated
     since Python 3.1, it now emits a deprecation warning and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

     Use ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ instead.

     ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ was earlier incorrectly marked as
     deprecated, its docstring has been corrected.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45831(11): *note faulthandler: 56. can now write ASCII-only
     strings (like filenames and function names) with a single write()
     syscall when dumping a traceback.  It reduces the risk of getting
     an unreadable dump when two threads or two processes dump a
     traceback to the same file (like stderr) at the same time.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45828(12): ‘sqlite’ C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions
     if callback tracebacks are enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41735(13): Fix thread lock in ‘zlib.Decompress.flush()’ method
     before ‘PyObject_GetBuffer’.

   - bpo-45235(14): Reverted an argparse bugfix that caused regression
     in the handling of default arguments for subparsers.  This
     prevented leaf level arguments from taking precedence over root
     level arguments.

   - bpo-45754(15): Fix a regression in Python 3.11a1 and 3.11a2 where
     *note sqlite3: ce. incorrectly would use ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_LENGTH’ when
     checking SQL statement lengths.  Now, ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH’ is
     used.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45766(16): Added 'proportional' option to *note
     statistics.linear_regression(): 66f.

   - bpo-45765(17): In importlib.metadata, fix distribution discovery
     for an empty path.

   - bpo-45757(18): Fix bug where *note dis: 37. produced an incorrect
     oparg when *note EXTENDED_ARG: 15c4. is followed by an opcode that
     does not use its argument.

   - bpo-45644(19): In-place JSON file formatting using ‘python3 -m
     json.tool infile infile’ now works correctly, previously it left
     the file empty.  Patch by Chris Wesseling.

   - bpo-45703(20): When a namespace package is imported before another
     module from the same namespace is created/installed in a different
     *note sys.path: 368. location while the program is running, calling
     the *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a89. function will now
     also guarantee the new module is noticed.

   - bpo-45535(21): Improve output of ‘dir()’ with Enums.

   - bpo-45664(22): Fix *note types.resolve_bases(): a12. and *note
     types.new_class(): 1008. for *note types.GenericAlias: 625.
     instance as a base.

   - bpo-45663(23): Fix *note dataclasses.is_dataclass(): 169a. for
     dataclasses which are subclasses of *note types.GenericAlias: 625.

   - bpo-45662(24): Fix the repr of ‘dataclasses.InitVar’ with a type
     alias to the built-in class, e.g.  ‘InitVar[list[int]]’.

   - bpo-43137(25): Launch GNOME web browsers via gio tool instead of
     obsolete gvfs-open

   - bpo-45429(26): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 4b2. now uses a
     waitable timer which supports high-resolution timers.  Patch by
     Donghee Na and Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-37295(27): Optimize *note math.comb(): 4e7. and *note
     math.perm(): 4e8.

   - bpo-45514(28): Deprecated legacy functions in *note
     importlib.resources: 79.

   - bpo-45507(29): Add tests for truncated/missing trailers in
     gzip.decompress implementation.

   - bpo-45359(30): Implement PEP 585(31) for *note
     graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 734.

   - bpo-44733(32): Add ‘max_tasks_per_child’ to *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741.  This allows users to
     specify the maximum number of tasks a single process should execute
     before the process needs to be restarted.

   - bpo-28806(33): Improve netrc library.  netrc file no longer needs
     to contain all tokens.  And if the login name is anonymous,
     security check is no longer need.

   - bpo-43498(34): Avoid a possible '“RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration”' when adjusting the process count of
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’.

   - bpo-42158(35): Add MIME types for N-quads, N-triples, Notation3 and
     TriG to ‘mimetypes’.

   - bpo-30533(36): Add *note inspect.getmembers_static(): 45c. , it
     return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27946

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13236

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45876

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44649

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45803

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45831

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45766

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45765

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45757

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45644

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45703

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45535

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45664

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45663

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45662

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45514

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45507

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45359

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44733

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28806

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43498

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<29>,  Next: Tests<29>,  Prev: Library<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘make -C Doc suspicious’ will be removed soon in
     favor of ‘make -C Doc check’, mark it as deprecated.

   - bpo-45840(2): Improve cross-references in the documentation for the
     data model.

   - bpo-45640(3): Properly marked-up grammar tokens in the
     documentation are now clickable and take you to the definition of a
     given piece of grammar.  Patch by Arthur Milchior.

   - bpo-45788(4): Link doc for sys.prefix to sysconfig doc on
     installation paths.

   - bpo-45772(5): ‘socket.socket’ documentation is corrected to a class
     from a function.

   - bpo-45392(6): Update the docstring of the *note type: bd1. built-in
     to remove a redundant line and to mention keyword arguments for the
     constructor.

   - bpo-45250(7): Update the documentation to note that CPython does
     not consistently require iterators to define ‘__iter__’.

   - bpo-25381(8): In the extending chapter of the extending doc, update
     a paragraph about the global variables containing exception
     information.

   - bpo-43905(9): Expanded *note astuple(): 1548. and *note asdict():
     153b. docs, warning about deepcopy being applied and providing a
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45772

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43905


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<29>,  Next: Build<28>,  Prev: Documentation<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45695(1): Out-of-tree builds with a read-only source directory
     are now tested by CI.

   - bpo-19460(2): Add new Test for
     ‘Lib/email/mime/nonmultipart.py::MIMENonMultipart’.

   - bpo-45835(3): Fix race condition in test_queue tests with multiple
     “feeder” threads.

   - bpo-45783(4): The test for the freeze tool now handles file moves
     and deletions.

   - bpo-45745(5): Remove the ‘--findleaks’ command line option of
     regrtest: use the ‘--fail-env-changed’ option instead.  Since
     Python 3.7, it was a deprecated alias to the ‘--fail-env-changed’
     option.

   - bpo-45701(6): Add tests with ‘tuple’ type with *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 84e. to ‘test_functools’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45695

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19460

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45835

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45701


File: python.info,  Node: Build<28>,  Next: Windows<28>,  Prev: Tests<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-44035(1): CI now verifies that autoconf files have been
     regenerated with a current and unpatched autoconf package.

   - bpo-45950(2): The build system now uses a ‘_bootstrap_python’
     interpreter for freezing and deepfreezing again.  To speed up build
     process the build tools ‘_bootstrap_python’ and ‘_freeze_module’
     are no longer build with LTO.

   - bpo-45881(3): The ‘configure’ script now accepts
     ‘--with-build-python’ and ‘--with-freeze-module’ options to make
     cross compiling easier.

   - bpo-40280(4): Emscripten platform now uses ‘.wasm’ suffix by
     default.

   - bpo-40280(5): Disable unusable core extension modules on
     WASM/Emscripten targets.

   - bpo-40280(6): ‘configure’ now checks for socket ‘shutdown’
     function.  The check makes it possible to disable ‘SYS_shutdown’
     with ‘ac_cv_func_shutdown=no’ in CONFIG_SITE.

   - bpo-40280(7): ‘configure’ now checks for functions ‘fork1, getegid,
     geteuid, getgid, getppid, getuid, opendir, pipe, system, wait,
     ttyname’.

   - bpo-33393(8): Update ‘config.guess’ to 2021-06-03 and ‘config.sub’
     to 2021-08-14.  ‘Makefile’ now has an ‘update-config’ target to
     make updating more convenient.

   - bpo-45866(9): ‘make regen-all’ now produces the same output when
     run from a directory other than the source tree: when building
     Python out of the source tree.  pegen now strips directory of the
     “generated by pygen from <FILENAME>” header Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(10): ‘configure’ now accepts machine ‘wasm32’ or ‘wasm64’
     and OS ‘wasi’ or ‘emscripten’ for cross building, e.g.
     ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, ‘wasm32-wasi’, or
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’.

   - bpo-41498(11): Python now compiles on platforms without ‘sigset_t’.
     Several functions in *note signal: c5. are not available when
     ‘sigset_t’ is missing.

     Based on patch by Roman Yurchak for pyodide.

   - bpo-45881(12): ‘setup.py’ now uses ‘CC’ from environment first to
     discover multiarch and cross compile paths.

   - bpo-45886(13): The ‘_freeze_module’ program path can now be
     overridden on the command line, e.g.  ‘make
     FREEZE_MODULE=../x86_64/Program/_freeze_module’.

   - bpo-45873(14): Get rid of the ‘_bootstrap_python’ build step.  The
     deepfreeze.py script is now run using ‘$(PYTHON_FOR_REGEN)’ which
     can be Python 3.7 or newer (on Windows, 3.8 or newer).

   - bpo-45847(15): Port builtin hashlib extensions to ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’
     macro and ‘addext()’.

   - bpo-45723(16): Add ‘autoconf’ helpers for saving and restoring
     environment variables:

        * ‘SAVE_ENV’: Save ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘RESTORE_ENV’: Restore ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘WITH_SAVE_ENV([SCRIPT])’: Run ‘SCRIPT’ wrapped with
          ‘SAVE_ENV’ and ‘RESTORE_ENV’.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45573(17): Mandatory core modules, that are required to
     bootstrap Python, are now in ‘Modules/Setup.bootstrap’.

   - bpo-45573(18): ‘configure’ now creates ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib’ with
     conditionally enabled/disabled extension module lines.  The file is
     not used, yet.

   - bpo-45573(19): ‘configure’ now uses a unified format to set state,
     compiler flags, and linker flags in Makefile.  The new macro
     ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’ sets three variables that are consumed by
     ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - bpo-45816(20): Python now supports building with Visual Studio 2022
     (MSVC v143, VS Version 17.0).  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-45800(21): Settings for ‘pyexpat’ C extension are now detected
     by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘expat’ library is built in
     ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45798(22): Settings for *note decimal: 35. internal C extension
     are now detected by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘libmpdec’ library is
     built in ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45723(23): ‘configure’ has a new option ‘--with-pkg-config’ to
     disable or require pkg-config.

   - bpo-45774(24): The build dependencies for *note sqlite3: ce. are
     now detected by ‘configure’ and ‘pkg-config’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-45763(25): The build dependencies for *note zlib: 133, *note
     bz2: 13, and *note lzma: 89. are now detected by ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45747(26): gdbm and dbm build dependencies are now detected by
     ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45743(27): On macOS, the build system no longer passes
     ‘search_paths_first’ to the linker.  The flag has been the default
     since Xcode 4 / macOS 10.6.

   - bpo-45723(28): ‘configure.ac’ is now compatible with autoconf 2.71.
     Deprecated checks ‘STDC_HEADERS’ and ‘AC_HEADER_TIME’ have been
     removed.

   - bpo-45723(29): ‘configure’ now prints a warning when pkg-config is
     missing.

   - bpo-45731(30): ‘configure --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions’ is
     now handled by new ‘PY_SQLITE_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION’ macro instead
     of logic in setup.py.

   - bpo-45723(31): configure.ac now uses custom helper macros and
     ‘AC_CACHE_CHECK’ to simplify and speed up configure runs.

   - bpo-45696(32): Skip the marshal step for frozen modules by
     generating C code that produces a set of ready-to-use code objects.
     This speeds up startup time by another 10% or more.

   - bpo-45561(33): Run smelly.py tool from $(srcdir).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45950

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45866

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41498

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45873

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45816

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45800

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45798

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45743

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45731

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45696

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45561


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<28>,  Next: macOS<21>,  Prev: Build<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46105(1): Fixed calculation of *note sys.path: 368. in a venv
     on Windows.

   - bpo-45901(2): When installed through the Microsoft Store and set as
     the default app for ‘*.py’ files, command line arguments will now
     be passed to Python when invoking a script without explicitly
     launching Python (that is, ‘script.py args’ rather than ‘python
     script.py args’).

   - bpo-45616(3): Fix Python Launcher’s ability to distinguish between
     versions 3.1 and 3.10 when either one is explicitly requested.
     Previously, 3.1 would be used if 3.10 was requested but not
     installed, and 3.10 would be used if 3.1 was requested but 3.10 was
     installed.

   - bpo-45850(4): Implement changes to build with deep-frozen modules
     on Windows.  Note that we now require Python 3.10 as the
     “bootstrap” or “host” Python.

   - bpo-45732(5): Updates bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.12.

   - bpo-45720(6): Internal reference to ‘shlwapi.dll’ was dropped to
     help improve startup time.  This DLL will no longer be loaded at
     the start of every Python process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45901

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45616

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45720


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<21>,  Next: C API<25>,  Prev: Windows<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45732(1): Update python.org macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk
     8.6.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732


File: python.info,  Node: C API<25>,  Prev: macOS<21>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.22.33.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-39026(1): Fix Python.h to build C extensions with Xcode: remove
     a relative include from ‘Include/cpython/pystate.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39026


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.34 Python 3.11.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-11-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* C API: C API<26>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<33>,  Next: Library<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45716(1): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 14c. message when
     using ‘True’, ‘None’ or ‘False’ as keywords in a function call.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45688(2): *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 680. now contains the
     macOS-specific module ‘_scproxy’.

   - bpo-45379(3): Clarify *note ImportError: 14b. message when we try
     to explicitly import a frozen module but frozen modules are
     disabled.

   - bpo-44525(4): Specialize simple calls to Python functions (no
     starargs, keyword dict, or closure)

   - bpo-45530(5): Cases of sorting using tuples as keys may now be
     significantly faster in some cases.  Patch by Tim Peters.

     The order of the result may differ from earlier releases if the
     tuple elements don’t define a total ordering (see *note Value
     comparisons: 16a3. for information on total ordering).  It’s
     generally true that the result of sorting simply isn’t well-defined
     in the absence of a total ordering on list elements.

   - bpo-45526(6): In obmalloc, set ADDRESS_BITS to not ignore any bits
     (ignored 16 before).  That is safer in the case that the kernel
     gives user-space virtual addresses that span a range greater than
     48 bits.

   - bpo-30570(7): Fixed a crash in ‘issubclass()’ from infinite
     recursion when searching pathological ‘__bases__’ tuples.

   - bpo-45521(8): Fix a bug in the obmalloc radix tree code.  On 64-bit
     machines, the bug causes the tree to hold 46-bits of virtual
     addresses, rather than the intended 48-bits.

   - bpo-45494(9): Fix parser crash when reporting errors involving
     invalid continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45445(10): Python now fails to initialize if it finds an
     invalid *note -X: 18e. option in the command line.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-45340(11): Object attributes are held in an array instead of a
     dictionary.  An object’s dictionary are created lazily, only when
     needed.  Reduces the memory consumption of a typical Python object
     by about 30%.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45408(12): Fix a crash in the parser when reporting tokenizer
     errors that occur at the same time unclosed parentheses are
     detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-29410(13): Add SipHash13 for string hash algorithm and use it
     by default.

   - bpo-45385(14): Fix reference leak from descr_check.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45367(15): Specialized the ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY’ opcode to
     ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_INT’ and ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_FLOAT’ using the PEP 659
     machinery.

   - bpo-21736(16): Frozen stdlib modules now have ‘__file__’ to the .py
     file they would otherwise be loaded from, if possible.  For
     packages, ‘__path__’ now has the correct entry instead of being an
     empty list, which allows unfrozen submodules to be imported.  These
     are set only if the stdlib directory is known when the runtime is
     initialized.  Note that the file at ‘__file__’ is not guaranteed to
     exist.  None of this affects non-stdlib frozen modules nor, for
     now, frozen modules imported using ‘PyImport_ImportFrozenModule()’.
     Also, at the moment ‘co_filename’ is not updated for the module.

   - bpo-45020(17): For frozen stdlib modules, record the original
     module name as ‘module.__spec__.loader_state.origname’.  If the
     value is different than ‘module.__spec__.name’ then the module was
     defined as an alias in Tools/scripts/freeze_modules.py.  If it is
     ‘None’ then the module comes from a source file outside the stdlib.

   - bpo-45324(18): In FrozenImporter.find_spec(), we now preserve the
     information needed in exec_module() to load the module.  This
     change mostly impacts internal details, rather than changing the
     importer’s behavior.

   - bpo-45292(19): Implement PEP 654(20).  Add *note ExceptionGroup:
     181. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be.  Update traceback display
     code.

   - bpo-40116(21): Change to the implementation of split dictionaries.
     Classes where the instances differ either in the exact set of
     attributes, or in the order in which those attributes are set, can
     still share keys.  This should have no observable effect on users
     of Python or the C-API. Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44050(22): Extensions that indicate they use global state (by
     setting ‘m_size’ to -1) can again be used in multiple interpreters.
     This reverts to behavior of Python 3.8.

   - bpo-44525(23): Setup initial specialization infrastructure for the
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’ opcode.  Implemented initial specializations for C
     function calls:

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_O’ for ‘METH_O’ flag.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_FAST’ for ‘METH_FASTCALL’ flag without
          keywords.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_LEN’ for ‘len(o)’.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_ISINSTANCE’ for ‘isinstance(o, t)’.

   - bpo-44511(24): Improve the generated bytecode for class and mapping
     patterns.

   - bpo-43706(25): Speed up calls to ‘enumerate()’ by using the PEP
     590(26) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45716

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45526

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45521

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45494

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45445

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45408

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45385

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45367

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21736

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45324

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44050

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44511

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43706

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<34>,  Next: Documentation<30>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-45679(1): Fix caching of multi-value *note typing.Literal: 694.
     ‘Literal[True, 2]’ is no longer equal to ‘Literal[1, 2]’.

   - bpo-42064(2): Convert *note sqlite3: ce. to multi-phase
     initialisation (PEP 489).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45438(3): Fix typing.Signature string representation for
     generic builtin types.

   - bpo-45613(4): *note sqlite3: ce. now sets *note
     sqlite3.threadsafety: 490. based on the default threading mode the
     underlying SQLite library has been compiled with.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45574(5): Fix warning about ‘print_escape’ being unused.

   - bpo-45581(6): *note sqlite3.connect(): 1e4. now correctly raises
     *note MemoryError: 1409. if the underlying SQLite API signals
     memory error.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45557(7): *note pprint.pprint(): 666. now handles
     'underscore_numbers' correctly.  Previously it was always setting
     it to ‘False’.

   - bpo-44019(8): Add *note operator.call(): 16a5. to
     ‘operator.__all__’.  Patch by Kreusada.

   - bpo-42174(9): *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): fa5. now falls back
     to sane values if the column or line count are 0.

   - bpo-35673(10): Improve the introspectability of the ‘__loader__’
     attribute for namespace packages.  *note
     importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader: df6. is now public, and
     implements the *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: df4. interface.
     ‘_NamespaceLoader’ is kept for backward compatibility.

   - bpo-45515(11): Add references to *note zoneinfo: 134. in the *note
     datetime: 30. documentation, mostly replacing outdated references
     to ‘dateutil.tz’.  Change by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-45475(12): Reverted optimization of iterating *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 296, *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa, and *note
     lzma.LZMAFile: eb3. (see bpo-43787(13)) because it caused
     regression when user iterate them without having reference of them.
     Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-45489(14): Update *note ForwardRef: 166a. to support ‘|’
     operator.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42222(15): Removed deprecated support for float arguments in
     'randrange()'.

   - bpo-45428(16): Fix a regression in py_compile when reading
     filenames from standard input.

   - bpo-45467(17): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     “raw-unicode-escape” codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45461(18): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     “unicode-escape” codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45239(19): Fixed *note email.utils.parsedate_tz(): 16a6.
     crashing with *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. on certain invalid
     input instead of returning ‘None’.  Patch by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-45417(20): Fix quadratic behaviour in the enum module: Creation
     of enum classes with a lot of entries was quadratic.

   - bpo-45249(21): Fix the behaviour of *note traceback.print_exc():
     16a7. when displaying the caret when the ‘end_offset’ in the
     exception is set to 0.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45416(22): Fix use of *note asyncio.Condition: 8d8. with
     explicit *note asyncio.Lock: 8d6. objects, which was a regression
     due to removal of explicit loop arguments.  Patch by Joongi Kim.

   - bpo-20028(23): Empty escapechar/quotechar is not allowed when
     initializing *note csv.Dialect: 16a8.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44904(24): Fix bug in the *note doctest: 39. module that caused
     it to fail if a docstring included an example with a ‘classmethod’
     ‘property’.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45406(25): Make *note inspect.getmodule(): 1606. catch
     ‘FileNotFoundError’ raised by ‘inspect.getabsfile()’, and return
     ‘None’ to indicate that the module could not be determined.

   - bpo-45411(26): Add extensions for files containing subtitles - .srt
     & .vtt - to the mimetypes.py module.

   - bpo-10716(27): Migrated pydoc to HTML5 (without changing the look
     of it).  Side effect is to update xmlrpc’s ‘ServerHTMLDoc’ which
     now uses the CSS too.  cgitb now relies less on pydoc (as it can’t
     use the CSS file).

   - bpo-27580(28): Add support of null characters in *note csv: 29.

   - bpo-45262(29): Prevent use-after-free in asyncio.  Make sure the
     cached running loop holder gets cleared on dealloc to prevent
     use-after-free in get_running_loop

   - bpo-45386(30): Make *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. more robust to C
     runtimes where the underlying C ‘strftime’ function results in a
     ‘ValueError’ when testing for year formatting options.

   - bpo-20028(31): Improve error message of *note csv.Dialect: 16a8.
     when initializing.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45343(32): Update bundled pip to 21.2.4 and setuptools to
     58.1.0

   - bpo-45328(33): Fixed *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 9b1. to work
     properly in OSs that don’t support the ‘TCP_NODELAY’ socket option.

   - bpo-45243(34): Add *note setlimit(): 48e. and *note getlimit():
     48f. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. for setting and getting
     SQLite limits by connection basis.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45320(35): Removed from the *note inspect: 7c. module:

        * 
          the ‘getargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0;

               use *note inspect.signature(): 561. or *note
               inspect.getfullargspec(): 562. instead.

        * the ‘formatargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use
          the *note inspect.signature(): 561. function and ‘Signature’
          object directly.

        * the undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function’ functions, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 564. method
          instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45192(36): Fix the ‘tempfile._infer_return_type’ function so
     that the ‘dir’ argument of the *note tempfile: df. functions
     accepts an object implementing the ‘os.PathLike’ protocol.

     Patch by Kyungmin Lee.

   - bpo-45160(37): When tracing a tkinter variable used by a ttk
     OptionMenu, callbacks are no longer made twice.

   - bpo-25625(38): Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 41d. context
     manager to change the current working directory and then restore it
     on exit.  Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 41e.

   - bpo-24139(39): Add support for SQLite extended result codes in
     *note sqlite3.Error: 16a9.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-24444(40): Fixed an error raised in *note argparse: 6. help
     display when help for an option is set to 1+ blank spaces or when
     'choices' arg is an empty container.

   - bpo-44547(41): Implement ‘Fraction.__int__’, so that a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1ae. instance ‘f’ passes an ‘isinstance(f,
     typing.SupportsInt)’ check.

   - bpo-40321(42): Adds support for HTTP 308 redirects to *note urllib:
     108.  See RFC 7538(43) for details.  Patch by Jochem
     Schulenklopper.

   - bpo-41374(44): Ensure that ‘socket.TCP_*’ constants are exposed on
     Cygwin 3.1.6 and greater.

   - bpo-35970(45): Add help flag to the base64 module’s command line
     interface.  Patch contributed by Robert Kuska.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42064

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45438

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45574

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45581

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45557

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42174

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35673

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45475

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45489

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45428

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45467

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45461

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45239

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45417

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45249

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45416

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44904

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45406

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45411

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10716

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27580

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45386

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45343

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45328

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45192

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45160

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24444

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40321

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7538.html

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41374

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35970


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<30>,  Next: Tests<30>,  Prev: Library<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45726(1): Improve documentation for *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 44c. and *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 851.

   - bpo-45680(2): Amend the docs on ‘GenericAlias’ objects to clarify
     that non-container classes can also implement ‘__class_getitem__’.
     Patch contributed by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45618(3): Update Sphinx version used to build the documentation
     to 4.2.0.  Patch by Maciej Olko.

   - bpo-45655(4): Add a new “relevant PEPs” section to the top of the
     documentation for the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45604(5): Add ‘level’ argument to
     ‘multiprocessing.log_to_stderr’ function docs.

   - bpo-45516(6): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 16ab. documentation.

   - bpo-45464(7): Mention in the documentation of *note Built-in
     Exceptions: 16ac. that inheriting from multiple exception types in
     a single subclass is not recommended due to possible memory layout
     incompatibility.

   - bpo-45449(8): Add note about PEP 585(9) in *note collections.abc:
     1e.

   - bpo-45516(10): Add protocol description to the *note
     importlib.abc.Traversable: 16ad. documentation.

   - bpo-20692(11): Add Programming FAQ entry explaining that int
     literal attribute access requires either a space after or
     parentheses around the literal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45618

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45464

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45449

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20692


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<30>,  Next: Build<29>,  Prev: Documentation<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45678(1): Add tests for scenarios in which *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 851. is stacked on top of a method
     that has already been wrapped by two other decorators.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45578(2): Add tests for *note dis.distb(): dca.

   - bpo-45678(3): Add tests to ensure that
     ‘functools.singledispatchmethod’ correctly wraps the attributes of
     the target function.

   - bpo-45668(4): PGO tests now pass when Python is built without test
     extension modules.

   - bpo-45577(5): Add subtests for all ‘pickle’ protocols in
     ‘test_zoneinfo’.

   - bpo-45566(6): Fix ‘test_frozen_pickle’ in ‘test_dataclasses’ to
     check all ‘pickle’ versions.

   - bpo-43592(7): ‘test.libregrtest’ now raises the soft resource limit
     for the maximum number of file descriptors when the default is too
     low for our test suite as was often the case on macOS.

   - bpo-39679(8): Add more test cases for
     ‘@functools.singledispatchmethod’ when combined with ‘@classmethod’
     or ‘@staticmethod’.

   - bpo-45410(9): When libregrtest spawns a worker process, stderr is
     now written into stdout to keep messages order.  Use a single pipe
     for stdout and stderr, rather than two pipes.  Previously, messages
     were out of order which made analysis of buildbot logs harder Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45402(10): Fix test_tools.test_sundry() when Python is built
     out of tree: fix how the freeze_modules.py tool locates the
     _freeze_module program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45403(11): Fix test_sys.test_stdlib_dir() when Python is built
     outside the source tree: compare normalized paths.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45400(12): Fix
     test_name_error_suggestions_do_not_trigger_for_too_many_locals() of
     test_exceptions if a directory name contains “a1” (like
     “Python-3.11.0a1”): use a stricter regular expression.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-10572(13): Rename *note sqlite3: ce. tests from ‘test_sqlite’
     to ‘test_sqlite3’, and relocate them to ‘Lib/test/test_sqlite3’.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45578

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45577

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45566

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43592

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45403

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45400

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10572


File: python.info,  Node: Build<29>,  Next: Windows<29>,  Prev: Tests<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-43158(1): ‘setup.py’ now uses values from configure script to
     build the ‘_uuid’ extension module.  Configure now detects
     util-linux’s ‘libuuid’, too.

   - bpo-45666(2): Fix warning of ‘swprintf’ and ‘%s’ usage in
     ‘_testembed.c’

   - bpo-45548(3): ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been
     improved.  The ‘Setup’ file now contains working rules for all
     extensions.  Outdated comments have been removed.  Rules defined by
     ‘makesetup’ track dependencies correctly.

   - bpo-45548(4): The *note math: 8d. and *note cmath: 18.
     implementation now require a C99 compatible ‘libm’ and no longer
     ship with workarounds for missing acosh, asinh, atanh, expm1, and
     log1p functions.

   - bpo-45595(5): ‘setup.py’ and ‘makesetup’ now track build
     dependencies on all Python header files and module specific header
     files.

   - bpo-45571(6): ‘Modules/Setup’ now use ‘PY_CFLAGS_NODIST’ instead of
     ‘PY_CFLAGS’ to compile shared modules.

   - bpo-45570(7): ‘pyexpat’ and ‘_elementtree’ no longer define
     obsolete macros ‘HAVE_EXPAT_CONFIG_H’ and ‘USE_PYEXPAT_CAPI’.
     ‘XML_POOR_ENTROPY’ is now defined in ‘expat_config.h’.

   - bpo-43974(8): ‘setup.py’ no longer defines ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’.
     Instead every module, that uses the internal API, defines the
     macro.

   - bpo-45548(9): Fill in missing entries in Modules/Setup.

   - bpo-45532(10): Update *note sys.version: ba3. to use ‘main’ as
     fallback information.  Patch by Jeong YunWon.

   - bpo-45536(11): The ‘configure’ script now checks whether OpenSSL
     headers and libraries provide required APIs.  Most common APIs are
     verified.  The check detects outdated or missing OpenSSL. Failures
     do not stop configure.

   - bpo-45221(12): Fixed regression in handling of ‘LDFLAGS’ and
     ‘CPPFLAGS’ options where ‘argparse.parse_known_args()’ could
     interpret an option as one of the built-in command line argument,
     for example ‘-h’ for help.

   - bpo-45440(13): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing the following functions: ‘copysign()’, ‘hypot()’,
     ‘isfinite()’, ‘isinf()’, ‘isnan()’, ‘round()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45405(14): Prevent ‘internal configure error’ when running
     ‘configure’ with recent versions of non-Apple clang.  Patch by
     David Bohman.

   - bpo-45433(15): Avoid linking libpython with libcrypt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43158

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45595

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45536

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45221

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45405

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<29>,  Next: macOS<22>,  Prev: Build<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43652(1): Update Tcl/Tk to 8.6.11, actually this time.  The
     previous update incorrectly included 8.6.10.

   - bpo-45337(2): venv now warns when the created environment may need
     to be accessed at a different path, due to redirections, links or
     junctions.  It also now correctly installs or upgrades components
     when the alternate path is required.

   - bpo-43851(3): Build SQLite ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on Windows.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45337

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<22>,  Next: IDLE<17>,  Prev: Windows<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-44828(1): Avoid tkinter file dialog failure on macOS 12
     Monterey when using the Tk 8.6.11 provided by python.org macOS
     installers.  Patch by Marc Culler of the Tk project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44828


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<17>,  Next: C API<26>,  Prev: macOS<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45495(1): Add context keywords ‘case’ and ‘match’ to
     completions list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45495


File: python.info,  Node: C API<26>,  Prev: IDLE<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.22.34.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-29103(1): *note PyType_FromSpec*: 2e0. now copies the class
     name from the spec to a buffer owned by the class, so the original
     can be safely deallocated.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-45522(2): The internal freelists for frame, float, list, dict,
     async generators, and context objects can now be disabled.

   - bpo-35134(3): Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 361. from the
     limited C API. It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’
     structure is opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-35081(4): Move the ‘interpreteridobject.h’ header file from
     ‘Include/’ to ‘Include/internal/’.  It only provides private
     functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35134(5): The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’,
     ‘classobject.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 5b4.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45474(6): The following items are no longer available when
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 5cc.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 5cd.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 5ce.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 5cf.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: 5d0.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(7): Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only
     contains private functions.  C extensions should only include the
     main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45440(8): Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by
     the ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(9): ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files
     ‘<stdlib.h>’, ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or
     higher.  C extensions should explicitly include the header files
     after ‘#include <Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’
     macros, deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use
     ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and
     ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(11): Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’
     variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45395(12): Custom frozen modules (the array set to
     ‘PyImport_FrozenModules’) are now treated as additions, rather than
     replacing all the default frozen modules.  Frozen stdlib modules
     can still be disabled by setting the “code” field of the custom
     array entry to NULL.

   - bpo-43760(13): Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 580, and
     *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 581. functions to the limited C
     API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44220(14): *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7e0. is added
     to the Stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45395

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44220


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.35 Python 3.11.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<27>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<23>,  Next: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42278(1): Replaced usage of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 16b6. with
     *note TemporaryDirectory: 10db. to avoid a potential race
     condition.

   - bpo-44600(2): Fix incorrect line numbers while tracing some failed
     patterns in *note match: 648. statements.  Patch by Charles
     Burkland.

   - bpo-41180(3): Add auditing events to the *note marshal: 8c. module,
     and stop raising ‘code.__init__’ events for every unmarshalled code
     object.  Directly instantiated code objects will continue to raise
     an event, and audit event handlers should inspect or collect the
     raw marshal data.  This reduces a significant performance overhead
     when loading from ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-44394(4): Update the vendored copy of libexpat to 2.4.1 (from
     2.2.8) to get the fix for the CVE 2013-0340(5) “Billion Laughs”
     vulnerability.  This copy is most used on Windows and macOS.

   - bpo-43124(6): Made the internal ‘putcmd’ function in *note smtplib:
     c9. sanitize input for presence of ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters to
     avoid (unlikely) command injection.

   - bpo-44022(7): *note http.client: 6d. now avoids infinitely reading
     potential HTTP headers after a ‘100 Continue’ status response from
     the server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41180

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44394

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-0340

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43124

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44022


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<34>,  Next: Library<35>,  Prev: Security<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43760(1): The number of hardware branches per instruction
     dispatch is reduced from two to one by adding a special instruction
     for tracing.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45061(2): Add a deallocator to the bool type to detect refcount
     bugs in C extensions which call Py_DECREF(Py_True) or
     Py_DECREF(Py_False) by mistake.  Detect also refcount bugs when the
     empty tuple singleton or the Unicode empty string singleton is
     destroyed by mistake.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-24076(3): sum() was further optimised for summing up single
     digit integers.

   - bpo-45190(4): Update Unicode databases to Unicode 14.0.0.

   - bpo-45167(5): Fix deepcopying of *note types.GenericAlias: 625.
     objects.

   - bpo-45155(6): *note int.to_bytes(): 16b8. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1677. now take a default value of ‘"big"’ for the
     ‘byteorder’ argument.  *note int.to_bytes(): 16b8. also takes a
     default value of ‘1’ for the ‘length’ argument.

   - bpo-44219(7): Release the GIL while performing ‘isatty’ system
     calls on arbitrary file descriptors.  In particular, this affects
     *note os.isatty(): 16b9, *note os.device_encoding(): 16ba. and
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.  By extension, *note io.open(): 2a7.
     in text mode is also affected.  This change solves a deadlock in
     *note os.isatty(): 16b9.  Patch by Vincent Michel in bpo-44219(8).

   - bpo-44959(9): Added fallback to extension modules with ‘.sl’ suffix
     on HP-UX

   - bpo-45121(10): Fix issue where ‘Protocol.__init__’ raises
     ‘RecursionError’ when it’s called directly or via ‘super()’.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44348(11): The deallocator function of the *note BaseException:
     3c3. type now uses the trashcan mechanism to prevent stack
     overflow.  For example, when a *note RecursionError: bf7. instance
     is raised, it can be linked to another RecursionError through the
     ‘__context__’ attribute or the ‘__traceback__’ attribute, and then
     a chain of exceptions is created.  When the chain is destroyed,
     nested deallocator function calls can crash with a stack overflow
     if the chain is too long compared to the available stack memory.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45123(12): Fix PyAiter_Check to only check for the __anext__
     presence (not for __aiter__).  Rename PyAiter_Check to
     PyAIter_Check, PyObject_GetAiter -> PyObject_GetAIter.

   - bpo-1514420(13): Interpreter no longer attempts to open files with
     names in angle brackets (like “<string>” or “<stdin>”) when
     formatting an exception.

   - bpo-41031(14): Match C and Python code formatting of unprintable
     exceptions and exceptions in the *note __main__: 1. module.

   - bpo-37330(15): *note open(): 2a6, *note io.open(): 2a7, *note
     codecs.open(): 56a. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ (“universal newline”) in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45083(16): When the interpreter renders an exception, its name
     now has a complete qualname.  Previously only the class name was
     concatenated to the module name, which sometimes resulted in an
     incorrect full name being displayed.

     (This issue impacted only the C code exception rendering, the *note
     traceback: fe. module was using qualname already).

   - bpo-34561(17): List sorting now uses the merge-ordering strategy
     from Munro and Wild’s ‘powersort()’.  Unlike the former strategy,
     this is provably near-optimal in the entropy of the distribution of
     run lengths.  Most uses of ‘list.sort()’ probably won’t see a
     significant time difference, but may see significant improvements
     in cases where the former strategy was exceptionally poor.
     However, as these are all fast linear-time approximations to a
     problem that’s inherently at best quadratic-time to solve truly
     optimally, it’s also possible to contrive cases where the former
     strategy did better.

   - bpo-45056(18): Compiler now removes trailing unused constants from
     co_consts.

   - bpo-45020(19): Add a new command line option, “-X
     frozen_modules=[on|off]” to opt out of (or into) using optional
     frozen modules.  This defaults to “on” (or “off” if it’s running
     out of the source tree).

   - bpo-45012(20): In *note posix: ac, release GIL during ‘stat()’,
     ‘lstat()’, and ‘fstatat()’ syscalls made by *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 14cf.  Patch by Stanisław Skonieczny.

   - bpo-45018(21): Fixed pickling of range iterators that iterated for
     over ‘2**32’ times.

   - bpo-45000(22): A *note SyntaxError: 14c. is now raised when trying
     to delete *note __debug__: 614.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44963(23): Implement ‘send()’ and ‘throw()’ methods for
     ‘anext_awaitable’ objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44962(24): Fix a race in WeakKeyDictionary, WeakValueDictionary
     and WeakSet when two threads attempt to commit the last pending
     removal.  This fixes asyncio.create_task and fixes a data loss in
     asyncio.run where shutdown_asyncgens is not run

   - bpo-24234(25): Implement the ‘__bytes__()’ special method on the
     *note bytes: 2cb. type, so a bytes object ‘b’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(b, typing.SupportsBytes)’ check.

   - bpo-24234(26): Implement the ‘__complex__()’ special method on the
     *note complex: 273. type, so a complex number ‘z’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(z, typing.SupportsComplex)’ check.

   - bpo-44954(27): Fixed a corner case bug where the result of
     ‘float.fromhex('0x.8p-1074')’ was rounded the wrong way.

   - bpo-44947(28): Refine the syntax error for trailing commas in
     import statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44945(29): Specialize the BINARY_ADD instruction using the PEP
     659 machinery.  Adds five new instructions:

        * BINARY_ADD_ADAPTIVE

        * BINARY_ADD_FLOAT

        * BINARY_ADD_INT

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE_INPLACE_FAST

   - bpo-44929(30): Fix some edge cases of ‘enum.Flag’ string
     representation in the REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44914(31): Class version tags are no longer recycled.

     This means that a version tag serves as a unique identifier for the
     state of a class.  We rely on this for effective specialization of
     the LOAD_ATTR and other instructions.

   - bpo-44698(32): Restore behaviour of complex exponentiation with
     integer-valued exponent of type *note float: 272. or *note complex:
     273.

   - bpo-44895(33): A debug variable ‘PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE’ is added for
     creating a dump file which is generated by *note -with-trace-refs:
     6ec.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44900(34): Add five superinstructions for PEP 659 quickening:

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_CONST

        * LOAD_CONST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST STORE_FAST

   - bpo-44889(35): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.  The following specialized forms were added:

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CACHED’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_MODULE’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CLASS’

   - bpo-44890(36): Specialization stats are always collected in debug
     builds.

   - bpo-44885(37): Correct the ast locations of f-strings with format
     specs and repeated expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44878(38): Remove the loop from the bytecode interpreter.  All
     instructions end with a DISPATCH macro, so the loop is now
     redundant.

   - bpo-44878(39): Remove switch statement for interpreter loop when
     using computed gotos.  This makes sure that we only have one
     dispatch table in the interpreter.

   - bpo-44874(40): Deprecate the old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’).  They should be
     replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - bpo-44872(41): Use new trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN/END) in
     frameobject.c instead of the old ones (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/END).

   - bpo-33930(42): Fix segmentation fault with deep recursion when
     cleaning method objects.  Patch by Augusto Goulart and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-25782(43): Fix bug where ‘PyErr_SetObject’ hangs when the
     current exception has a cycle in its context chain.

   - bpo-44856(44): Fix reference leaks in the error paths of
     ‘update_bases()’ and ‘__build_class__’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44826(45): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     STORE_ATTR

     Three specialized forms of STORE_ATTR are added:

        * STORE_ATTR_SLOT

        * STORE_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT

   - bpo-44838(46): Fixed a bug that was causing the parser to raise an
     incorrect custom *note SyntaxError: 14c. for invalid ‘if’
     expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44821(47): Create instance dictionaries (__dict__) eagerly, to
     improve regularity of object layout and assist specialization.

   - bpo-44792(48): Improve syntax errors for if expressions.  Patch by
     Miguel Brito

   - bpo-34013(49): Generalize the invalid legacy statement custom error
     message (like the one generated when “print” is called without
     parentheses) to include more generic expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44732(50): Rename ‘types.Union’ to ‘types.UnionType’.

   - bpo-44725(51): Expose specialization stats in python via
     ‘_opcode.get_specialization_stats()’.

   - bpo-44717(52): Improve AttributeError on circular imports of
     submodules.

   - bpo-44698(53): Fix undefined behaviour in complex object
     exponentiation.

   - bpo-44653(54): Support *note typing: 104. types in parameter
     substitution in the union type.

   - bpo-44676(55): Add ability to serialise ‘types.Union’ objects.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44633(56): Parameter substitution of the union type with wrong
     types now raises ‘TypeError’ instead of returning *note
     NotImplemented: 60b.

   - bpo-44661(57): Update ‘property_descr_set’ to use vectorcall if
     possible.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44662(58): Add ‘__module__’ to ‘types.Union’.  This also fixes
     ‘types.Union’ issues with ‘typing.Annotated’.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44655(59): Include the name of the type in unset __slots__
     attribute errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44655(60): Don’t include a missing attribute with the same name
     as the failing one when offering suggestions for missing
     attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44646(61): Fix the hash of the union type: it no longer depends
     on the order of arguments.

   - bpo-44636(62): Collapse union of equal types.  E.g.  the result of
     ‘int | int’ is now ‘int’.  Fix comparison of the union type with
     non-hashable objects.  E.g.  ‘int | str == {}’ no longer raises a
     TypeError.

   - bpo-44611(63): On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 2ad.: uses
     BCryptGenRandom API instead of CryptGenRandom API which is
     deprecated from Microsoft Windows API. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44635(64): Convert ‘None’ to ‘type(None)’ in the union type
     constructor.

   - bpo-26280(65): Implement adaptive specialization for BINARY_SUBSCR

     Three specialized forms of BINARY_SUBSCR are added:

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_DICT

   - bpo-44589(66): Mapping patterns in ‘match’ statements with two or
     more equal literal keys will now raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c. at
     compile-time.

   - bpo-44606(67): Fix ‘__instancecheck__’ and ‘__subclasscheck__’ for
     the union type.

   - bpo-42073(68): The ‘@classmethod’ decorator can now wrap other
     classmethod-like descriptors.

   - bpo-41972(69): Tuned the string-searching algorithm of fastsearch.h
     to have a shorter inner loop for most cases.

   - bpo-44590(70): All necessary data for executing a Python function
     (local variables, stack, etc) is now kept in a per-thread stack.
     Frame objects are lazily allocated on demand.  This increases
     performance by about 7% on the standard benchmark suite.
     Introspection and debugging are unaffected as frame objects are
     always available when needed.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44584(71): The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment
     variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  This feature requires a debug build of Python.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43895(72): An obsolete internal cache of shared object file
     handles added in 1995 that attempted, but did not guarantee, that a
     .so would not be dlopen’ed twice to work around flaws in mid-1990s
     posix-ish operating systems has been removed from dynload_shlib.c.

   - bpo-44490(73): *note typing: 104. now searches for type parameters
     in ‘types.Union’ objects.  ‘get_type_hints’ will also properly
     resolve annotations with nested ‘types.Union’ objects.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-43950(74): Code objects can now provide the column information
     for instructions when available.  This is levaraged during
     traceback printing to show the expressions responsible for errors.

     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya and Ammar Askar as
     part of PEP 657(75).

   - bpo-44562(76): Remove uses of *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 1392. in
     error path when initializing *note types.GenericAlias: 625.

   - bpo-41486(77): Fix a memory consumption and copying performance
     regression in earlier 3.10 beta releases if someone used an output
     buffer larger than 4GiB with zlib.decompress on input data that
     expands that large.

   - bpo-43908(78): Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE:
     2e8. flag can now inherit the PEP 590(79) vectorcall protocol.
     Previously, this was only possible for *note static types: 5af.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44553(80): Implement GC methods for ‘types.Union’ to break
     reference cycles and prevent memory leaks.

   - bpo-44490(81): Add ‘__parameters__’ attribute and ‘__getitem__’
     operator to ‘types.Union’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44523(82): Remove the pass-through for *note hash(): 3f7. of
     *note weakref.proxy: 8b5. objects to prevent unintended
     consequences when the original referred object dies while the proxy
     is part of a hashable object.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44483(83): Fix a crash in ‘types.Union’ objects when creating a
     union of an object with bad ‘__module__’ field.

   - bpo-44486(84): Modules will always have a dictionary, even when
     created by ‘types.ModuleType.__new__()’

   - bpo-44472(85): Fix ltrace functionality when exceptions are raised.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-12022(86): A *note TypeError: 2c4. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 3dc. in *note with: 3dd. and *note async
     with: 3e0. statements for objects which do not support the *note
     context manager: 3df. or *note asynchronous context manager: 3e2.
     protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44297(87): Make sure that the line number is set when entering
     a comprehension scope.  This ensures that backtraces including
     generator expressions show the correct line number.

   - bpo-44456(88): Improve the syntax error when mixing positional and
     keyword patterns.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44409(89): Fix error location information for tokenizer errors
     raised on initialization of the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44396(90): Fix a possible crash in the tokenizer when raising
     syntax errors for unclosed strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44376(91): Exact integer exponentiation (like ‘i**2’ or ‘pow(i,
     2)’) with a small exponent is much faster, due to reducing overhead
     in such cases.

   - bpo-44313(92): Directly imported objects and modules (through
     import and from import statements) don’t generate
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ for directly accessed objects on their
     namespace.  They now use the regular ‘LOAD_ATTR’/‘CALL_FUNCTION’.

   - bpo-44338(93): Implement adaptive specialization for LOAD_GLOBAL

     Two specialized forms of LOAD_GLOBAL are added:

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_MODULE

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_BUILTIN

   - bpo-44368(94): Improve syntax errors for invalid “as” targets.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44349(95): Fix an edge case when displaying text from files
     with encoding in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44337(96): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     LOAD_ATTR

     Four specialized forms of LOAD_ATTR are added:

        * LOAD_ATTR_SLOT

        * LOAD_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * LOAD_ATTR_WITH_HINT

        * LOAD_ATTR_MODULE

   - bpo-44335(97): Fix a regression when identifying incorrect
     characters in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43693(98): Computation of the offsets of cell variables is done
     in the compiler instead of at runtime.  This reduces the overhead
     of handling cell and free variables, especially in the case where a
     variable is both an argument and cell variable.

   - bpo-44317(99): Improve tokenizer error with improved locations.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44304(100): Fix a crash in the *note sqlite3: ce. module that
     happened when the garbage collector clears ‘sqlite.Statement’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44305(101): Improve error message for ‘try’ blocks without
     ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43413(102): Constructors of subclasses of some builtin classes
     (e.g.  *note tuple: 4ff, *note list: 422, *note frozenset: 3e5.) no
     longer accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  [reverted in 3.11a4]
     Subclass of *note set: 3e4. can now define a ‘__new__()’ method
     with additional keyword parameters without overriding also
     ‘__init__()’.

   - bpo-43667(103): Improve Unicode support in non-UTF locales on
     Oracle Solaris.  This issue does not affect other Solaris systems.

   - bpo-43693(104): A new opcode MAKE_CELL has been added that
     effectively moves some of the work done on function entry into the
     compiler and into the eval loop.  In addition to creating the
     required cell objects, the new opcode converts relevant arguments
     (and other locals) to cell variables on function entry.

   - bpo-44232(105): Fix a regression in *note type(): bd1. when a
     metaclass raises an exception.  The C function ‘type_new()’ must
     properly report the exception when a metaclass constructor raises
     an exception and the winner class is not the metaclass.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44201(106): Avoid side effects of checking for specialized
     syntax errors in the REPL that was causing it to ask for extra
     tokens after a syntax error had been detected.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43693(107): ‘PyCodeObject’ gained ‘co_fastlocalnames’ and
     ‘co_fastlocalkinds’ as the authoritative source of fast locals
     info.  Marshaled code objects have changed accordingly.

   - bpo-44184(108): Fix a crash at Python exit when a deallocator
     function removes the last strong reference to a heap type.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44187(109): Implement quickening in the interpreter.  This
     offers no advantages as yet, but is an enabler of future
     optimizations.  See PEP 659 for full explanation.

   - bpo-44180(110): The parser doesn’t report generic syntax errors
     that happen in a position further away that the one it reached in
     the first pass.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44168(111): Fix error message in the parser involving keyword
     arguments with invalid expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44156(112): String caches in ‘compile.c’ are now subinterpreter
     compatible.

   - bpo-44143(113): Fixed a crash in the parser that manifest when
     raising tokenizer errors when an existing exception was present.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44032(114): Move ‘fast’ locals and other variables from the
     frame object to a per-thread datastack.

   - bpo-44114(115): Fix incorrect dictkeys_reversed and
     dictitems_reversed function signatures in C code, which broke
     webassembly builds.

   - bpo-44110(116): Improve ‘str.__getitem__()’ error message

   - bpo-26110(117): Add ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’ opcode to speed up method
     calls with keyword arguments.  Idea originated from PyPy.  A side
     effect is executing ‘CALL_METHOD’ is now branchless in the
     evaluation loop.

   - bpo-28307(118): Compiler now optimizes simple C-style formatting
     with literal format containing only format codes %s, %r and %a by
     converting them to f-string expressions.

   - bpo-43149(119): Correct the syntax error message regarding multiple
     exception types to not refer to “exception groups”.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43822(120): The parser will prioritize tokenizer errors over
     custom syntax errors when raising exceptions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-40222(121): “Zero cost” exception handling.

        * Uses a lookup table to determine how to handle exceptions.

        * Removes SETUP_FINALLY and POP_TOP block instructions,
          eliminating the runtime overhead of try statements.

        * Reduces the size of the frame object by about 60%.

     Patch by Mark Shannon

   - bpo-43918(122): Document the signature and ‘default’ argument in
     the docstring of the new ‘anext’ builtin.

   - bpo-43833(123): Emit a deprecation warning if the numeric literal
     is immediately followed by one of keywords: and, else, for, if, in,
     is, or.  Raise a syntax error with more informative message if it
     is immediately followed by other keyword or identifier.

   - bpo-43879(124): Add native_thread_id to PyThreadState.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   - bpo-43693(125): Compute cell offsets relative to locals in
     compiler.  Allows the interpreter to treats locals and cells a
     single array, which is slightly more efficient.  Also make the
     LOAD_CLOSURE opcode an alias for LOAD_FAST. Preserving LOAD_CLOSURE
     helps keep bytecode a bit more readable.

   - bpo-17792(126): More accurate error messages for access of unbound
     locals or free vars.

   - bpo-28146(127): Fix a confusing error message in *note
     str.format(): 433.

   - bpo-11105(128): When compiling *note ast.AST: 56c. objects with
     recursive references through *note compile(): 56d, the interpreter
     doesn’t crash anymore instead it raises a *note RecursionError:
     bf7.

   - bpo-39091(129): Fix crash when using passing a non-exception to a
     generator’s ‘throw()’ method.  Patch by Noah Oxer

   - bpo-33346(130): Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
     implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45167

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45155

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44959

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45121

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1514420

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41031

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45083

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34561

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   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44890

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44885

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

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   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44874

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44872

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   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44792

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34013

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44732

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44725

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44717

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44653

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44676

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44633

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44661

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44662

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44646

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44636

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44635

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26280

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44589

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44606

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42073

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43895

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (75) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44562

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (79) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<35>,  Next: Documentation<31>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-45371(1): Fix clang rpath issue in ‘distutils’.  The
     UnixCCompiler now uses correct clang option to add a runtime
     library directory (rpath) to a shared library.

   - bpo-45329(2): Fix freed memory access in ‘pyexpat.xmlparser’ when
     building it with an installed expat library <= 2.2.0.

   - bpo-41710(3): On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is
     available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note
     threading.Lock.acquire(): 4ad. method now uses the monotonic clock
     (*note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 4ae.) for the timeout, rather than
     using the system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 4af.), to not be
     affected by system clock changes.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1596321(4): Fix the ‘threading._shutdown()’ function when the
     *note threading: ec. module was imported first from a thread
     different than the main thread: no longer log an error at Python
     exit.

   - bpo-45274(5): Fix a race condition in the *note Thread.join():
     1089. method of the *note threading: ec. module.  If the function
     is interrupted by a signal and the signal handler raises an
     exception, make sure that the thread remains in a consistent state
     to prevent a deadlock.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-21302(6): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 4b2.
     now uses the ‘nanosleep()’ function, if ‘clock_nanosleep()’ is not
     available but ‘nanosleep()’ is available.  ‘nanosleep()’ allows to
     sleep with nanosecond precision.

   - bpo-21302(7): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): 4b2. now uses a
     waitable timer which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7
     seconds).  Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3
     seconds).  Patch by Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45238(8): Fix ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase.debug()’: it
     runs now asynchronous methods and callbacks.

   - bpo-36674(9): *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 16bc. raises now a
     *note unittest.SkipTest: e8a. if the class or the test method are
     decorated with the skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45235(10): Fix an issue where argparse would not preserve
     values in a provided namespace when using a subparser with
     defaults.

   - bpo-45183(11): Have zipimport.zipimporter.find_spec() not raise an
     exception when the underlying zip file has been deleted and the
     internal cache has been reset via invalidate_cache().

   - bpo-45234(12): Fixed a regression in *note copyfile(): 8bd, *note
     copy(): 8be, *note copy2(): 8bf. raising *note FileNotFoundError:
     39a. when source is a directory, which should raise *note
     IsADirectoryError: f03.

   - bpo-45228(13): Fix stack buffer overflow in parsing J1939 network
     address.

   - bpo-45225(14): use map function instead of genexpr in capwords.

   - bpo-42135(15): Fix typo: ‘importlib.find_loader’ is really slated
     for removal in Python 3.12 not 3.10, like the others in PR 25169.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-20524(16): Improves error messages on ‘.format()’ operation for
     ‘str’, ‘float’, ‘int’, and ‘complex’.  New format now shows the
     problematic pattern and the object type.

   - bpo-45168(17): Change *note dis.dis(): 9a5. output to omit op arg
     values that cannot be resolved due to ‘co_consts’, ‘co_names’ etc
     not being provided.  Previously the oparg itself was repeated in
     the value field, which is not useful and can be confusing.

   - bpo-21302(18): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): 4b2.
     now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ function, if available, which
     allows to sleep for an interval specified with nanosecond
     precision.

   - bpo-45173(19): Remove from the *note configparser: 22. module: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class, the ‘filename’ property of the *note
     ParsingError: 28d. class, the ‘readfp()’ method of the *note
     ConfigParser: 28e. class, deprecated since Python 3.2.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-44987(20): Pure ASCII strings are now normalized in constant
     time by *note unicodedata.normalize(): 4ec.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35474(21): Calling *note mimetypes.guess_all_extensions():
     16bd. with ‘strict=False’ no longer affects the result of the
     following call with ‘strict=True’.  Also, mutating the returned
     list no longer affects the global state.

   - bpo-45166(22): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. now works with
     *note Final: 8a7. wrapped in *note ForwardRef: 166a.

   - bpo-45162(23): Remove many old deprecated *note unittest: 106.
     features:

        * “‘fail*’” and “‘assert*’” aliases of *note TestCase: 15f.
          methods.

        * Broken from start *note TestCase: 15f. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’.

        * Ignored ‘<unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule>
          TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ parameter 'use_load_tests'.

        * Old alias ‘_TextTestResult’ of *note TextTestResult: 2bc.

   - bpo-38371(24): Remove the deprecated ‘split()’ method of
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-20499(25): Improve the speed and accuracy of
     statistics.pvariance().

   - bpo-45132(26): Remove *note __getitem__(): 500. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 55e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 55f. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45129(27): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c, disabled in Python
     3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the behavior of
     the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45124(28): The ‘bdist_msi’ command, deprecated in Python 3.9,
     is now removed.

     Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-30856(29): *note unittest.TestResult: 100e. methods *note
     addFailure(): 16be, *note addError(): 16bf, *note addSkip(): 16c0.
     and *note addSubTest(): 16c1. are now called immediately after
     raising an exception in test or finishing a subtest.  Previously
     they were called only after finishing the test clean up.

   - bpo-45034(30): Changes how error is formatted for ‘struct.pack’
     with ‘'H'’ and ‘'h'’ modes and too large / small numbers.  Now it
     shows the actual numeric limits, while previously it was showing
     arithmetic expressions.

   - bpo-25894(31): *note unittest: 106. now always reports skipped and
     failed subtests separately: separate characters in default mode and
     separate lines in verbose mode.  Also the test description is now
     output for errors in test method, class and module cleanups.

   - bpo-45081(32): Fix issue when dataclasses that inherit from
     ‘typing.Protocol’ subclasses have wrong ‘__init__’.  Patch provided
     by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-45085(33): The ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9, is
     now removed.  The following *note binascii: 10. functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.9, are now also removed:

        * ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘b2a_hqx()’;

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’.

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 55d. function remains available.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40360(34): The *note lib2to3: 83. package is now deprecated and
     may not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See the PEP 617(35)
     (New PEG parser for CPython).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45075(36): Rename ‘traceback.StackSummary.format_frame()’ to
     *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 4b8.  This
     method was added for 3.11 so it was not released yet.

     Updated code and docs to better distinguish frame and FrameSummary.

   - bpo-31299(37): Add option to completely drop frames from a
     traceback by returning ‘None’ from a ‘format_frame()’ override.

   - bpo-41620(38): *note run(): 100d. now always return a *note
     TestResult: 100e. instance.  Previously it returned ‘None’ if the
     test class or method was decorated with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45021(39): Fix a potential deadlock at shutdown of forked
     children when using *note concurrent.futures: 21. module

   - bpo-43913(40): Fix bugs in cleaning up classes and modules in *note
     unittest: 106.:

        * Functions registered with *note addModuleCleanup(): 8b0. were
          not called unless the user defines ‘tearDownModule()’ in their
          test module.

        * Functions registered with *note addClassCleanup(): 8b1. were
          not called if ‘tearDownClass’ is set to ‘None’.

        * Buffering in *note TestResult: 100e. did not work with
          functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’.

        * Errors in functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were not handled correctly in buffered
          and debug modes.

        * Errors in ‘setUpModule()’ and functions registered with
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were reported in wrong order.

        * And several lesser bugs.

   - bpo-45030(41): Fix integer overflow in pickling and copying the
     range iterator.

   - bpo-45001(42): Made email date parsing more robust against
     malformed input, namely a whitespace-only ‘Date:’ header.  Patch by
     Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-45010(43): Remove support of special method ‘__div__’ in *note
     unittest.mock: 107.  It is not used in Python 3.

   - bpo-39218(44): Improve accuracy of variance calculations by using
     ‘x*x’ instead of ‘x**2’.

   - bpo-43613(45): Improve the speed of *note gzip.compress(): 451. and
     *note gzip.decompress(): 10b2. by compressing and decompressing at
     once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

   - bpo-37596(46): Ensure that *note set: 3e4. and *note frozenset:
     3e5. objects are always *note marshalled: 8c. reproducibly.

   - bpo-44019(47): A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such
     that ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

   - bpo-42255(48): ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  It is untested and undocumented and also
     not used by webbrowser itself.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44955(49): Method *note stopTestRun(): 11f7. is now always
     called in pair with method *note startTestRun(): 11f6. for *note
     TestResult: 100e. objects implicitly created in *note run(): 100d.
     Previously it was not called for test methods and classes decorated
     with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-39039(50): tarfile.open raises *note ReadError: 16c2. when a
     zlib error occurs during file extraction.

   - bpo-44935(51): *note subprocess: d5. on Solaris now also uses *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 8bc. for better performance.

   - bpo-44911(52): *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. will no longer
     throw an exception while cancelling leaked tasks.  Patch by Bar
     Harel.

   - bpo-41322(53): Added ‘DeprecationWarning’ for tests and async tests
     that return a value!=None (as this may indicate an improperly
     written test, for example a test written as a generator function).

   - bpo-44524(54): Make exception message more useful when subclass
     from typing special form alias.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-38956(55): *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 167d.’s
     default value is no longer printed twice when used with *note
     argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 16c3.

   - bpo-44860(56): Fix the ‘posix_user’ scheme in *note sysconfig: da.
     to not depend on *note sys.platlibdir: 791.

   - bpo-44859(57): Improve error handling in *note sqlite3: ce. and
     raise more accurate exceptions.

        * *note MemoryError: 1409. is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 164b. when memory is not enough for encoding
          a statement to UTF-8 in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and
          ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * ‘UnicodEncodeError’ is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 164b. when the statement contains surrogate
          characters in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * *note TypeError: 2c4. is now raised instead of *note
          ValueError: 189. for non-string script argument in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * *note ValueError: 189. is now raised for script containing the
          null character instead of truncating it in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * Correctly handle exceptions raised when getting boolean value
          of the result of the progress handler.

        * Add many tests covering different corner cases.

   - bpo-44581(58): Upgrade bundled pip to 21.2.3 and setuptools to
     57.4.0

   - bpo-44849(59): Fix the *note os.set_inheritable(): d92. function on
     FreeBSD 14 for file descriptor opened with the *note O_PATH: e13.
     flag: ignore the *note EBADF: 7b6. error on ‘ioctl()’, fallback on
     the ‘fcntl()’ implementation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44605(60): The @functools.total_ordering() decorator now works
     with metaclasses.

   - bpo-44524(61): Fixed an issue wherein the ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ attributes of subscribed specialforms could be
     ‘None’.

   - bpo-44839(62): *note MemoryError: 1409. raised in user-defined
     functions will now produce a ‘MemoryError’ in *note sqlite3: ce.
     *note OverflowError: 6c7. will now be converted to *note DataError:
     16c4.  Previously *note OperationalError: 16c5. was produced in
     these cases.

   - bpo-44822(63): *note sqlite3: ce. user-defined functions and
     aggregators returning *note strings: 15d. with embedded NUL
     characters are no longer truncated.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44801(64): Ensure that the *note ParamSpec: 169. variable in
     Callable can only be substituted with a parameters expression (a
     list of types, an ellipsis, ParamSpec or Concatenate).

   - bpo-44806(65): Non-protocol subclasses of *note typing.Protocol:
     4c7. ignore now the ‘__init__’ method inherited from protocol base
     classes.

   - bpo-27275(66): *note collections.OrderedDict.popitem(): 1197. and
     ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ no longer call ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__delitem__’ methods of the OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-44793(67): Fix checking the number of arguments when subscribe
     a generic type with ‘ParamSpec’ parameter.

   - bpo-44784(68): In importlib.metadata tests, override warnings
     behavior under expected DeprecationWarnings (importlib_metadata
     4.6.3).

   - bpo-44667(69): The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 20b. doesn’t
     incorrectly generate a ‘NEWLINE’ token if the source doesn’t end
     with a new line character but the last line is a comment, as the
     function is already generating a ‘NL’ token.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44771(70): Added ‘importlib.simple’ module implementing
     adapters from a low-level resources reader interface to a
     ‘TraversableResources’ interface.  Legacy API (‘path’, ‘contents’,
     …) is now supported entirely by the ‘.files()’ API with a
     compatibility shim supplied for resource loaders without that
     functionality.  Feature parity with ‘importlib_resources’ 5.2.

   - bpo-44752(71): ‘rcompleter’ does not call *note getattr(): a48. on
     *note property: 43c. objects to avoid the side-effect of evaluating
     the corresponding method.

   - bpo-44747(72): Refactor usage of ‘sys._getframe’ in ‘typing’
     module.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42378(73): Fixes the issue with log file being overwritten when
     *note logging.FileHandler: 16c6. is used in *note atexit: c. with
     'filemode' set to ‘'w'’.  Note this will cause the message in
     'atexit' not being logged if the log stream is already closed due
     to shutdown of logging.

   - bpo-44720(74): ‘weakref.proxy’ objects referencing non-iterators
     now raise ‘TypeError’ rather than dereferencing the null
     ‘tp_iternext’ slot and crashing.

   - bpo-44704(75): The implementation of ‘collections.abc.Set._hash()’
     now matches that of ‘frozenset.__hash__()’.

   - bpo-44666(76): Fixed issue in *note compileall.compile_file(): c6f.
     when ‘sys.stdout’ is redirected.  Patch by Stefan Hölzl.

   - bpo-44688(77): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_collation(): 48a.
     now accepts non-ASCII collation names.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44690(78): Adopt 'binacii.a2b_base64'’s strict mode in
     'base64.b64decode'.

   - bpo-42854(79): Fixed a bug in the ‘_ssl’ module that was throwing
     *note OverflowError: 6c7. when using ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.write()’ and
     ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.read()’ for a big value of the ‘len’ parameter.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44686(80): Replace ‘unittest.mock._importer’ with
     ‘pkgutil.resolve_name’.

   - bpo-44353(81): Make ‘NewType.__call__’ faster by implementing it in
     C. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44682(82): Change the *note pdb: a4. 'commands' directive to
     disallow setting commands for an invalid breakpoint and to display
     an appropriate error.

   - bpo-44353(83): Refactor ‘typing.NewType’ from function into
     callable class.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44678(84): Added a separate error message for discontinuous
     padding in 'binascii.a2b_base64' strict mode.

   - bpo-44524(85): Add missing ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ attributes
     to ‘typing’ module classes.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-40897(86): Give priority to using the current class constructor
     in *note inspect.signature(): 561.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-44638(87): Add a reference to the zipp project and hint as to
     how to use it.

   - bpo-44648(88): Fixed wrong error being thrown by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 1525. when examining a class in the
     interactive session.  Instead of *note TypeError: 2c4, it should be
     *note OSError: 65c. with appropriate error message.

   - bpo-44608(89): Fix memory leak in ‘_tkinter._flatten()’ if it is
     called with a sequence or set, but not list or tuple.

   - bpo-44594(90): Fix an edge case of ‘ExitStack’ and ‘AsyncExitStack’
     exception chaining.  They will now match ‘with’ block behavior when
     ‘__context__’ is explicitly set to ‘None’ when the exception is in
     flight.

   - bpo-42799(91): In *note fnmatch: 5a, the cache size for compiled
     regex patterns (*note functools.lru_cache(): 84e.) was bumped up
     from 256 to 32768, affecting functions: *note fnmatch.fnmatch():
     16c7, *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 16c8, *note fnmatch.filter():
     16c9.

   - bpo-41928(92): Update *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd. to raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: 39a. instead of confusing *note
     IsADirectoryError: f03. when a path ending with a ‘os.path.sep’
     does not exist; *note shutil.copy(): 8be. and *note shutil.copy2():
     8bf. are also affected.

   - bpo-44569(93): Added the ‘StackSummary.format_frame()’ function in
     *note traceback: fe.  This allows users to customize the way
     individual lines are formatted in tracebacks without
     re-implementing logic to handle recursive tracebacks.

   - bpo-44566(94): handle StopIteration subclass raised from
     @contextlib.contextmanager generator

   - bpo-44558(95): Make the implementation consistency of *note
     indexOf(): 72e. between C and Python versions.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-41249(96): Fixes ‘TypedDict’ to work with
     ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ and postponed evaluation of annotations
     across modules.

   - bpo-44554(97): Refactor argument processing in ‘pdb.main()’ to
     simplify detection of errors in input loading and clarify behavior
     around module or script invocation.

   - bpo-34798(98): Break up paragraph about *note pprint.PrettyPrinter:
     e20. construction parameters to make it easier to read.

   - bpo-44539(99): Added support for recognizing JPEG files without
     JFIF or Exif markers.

   - bpo-44461(100): Fix bug with *note pdb: a4.’s handling of import
     error due to a package which does not have a ‘__main__’ module

   - bpo-43625(101): Fix a bug in the detection of CSV file headers by
     *note csv.Sniffer.has_header(): 16ca. and improve documentation of
     same.

   - bpo-44516(102): Update vendored pip to 21.1.3

   - bpo-42892(103): Fixed an exception thrown while parsing a malformed
     multipart email by *note email.message.EmailMessage: b1c.

   - bpo-44468(104): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. now finds
     annotations in classes and base classes with unexpected
     ‘__module__’.  Previously, it skipped those MRO elements.

   - bpo-44491(105): Allow clearing the *note sqlite3: ce. authorizer
     callback by passing *note None: 488. to *note set_authorizer():
     489.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43977(106): Set the proper *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 16cb. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 16cc. flags for subclasses created
     before a parent has been registered as a *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 71c. or *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     1069.

   - bpo-44482(107): Fix very unlikely resource leak in *note glob: 62.
     in alternate Python implementations.

   - bpo-44466(108): The *note faulthandler: 56. module now detects if a
     fatal error occurs during a garbage collector collection.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44471(109): A *note TypeError: 2c4. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 3dc. in *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 3de. and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 3e1. for objects
     which do not support the *note context manager: 3df. or *note
     asynchronous context manager: 3e2. protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44404(110): *note tkinter: ef.’s ‘after()’ method now supports
     callables without the ‘__name__’ attribute.

   - bpo-41546(111): Make *note pprint: ad. (like the builtin ‘print’)
     not attempt to write to ‘stdout’ when it is ‘None’.

   - bpo-44458(112): ‘BUFFER_BLOCK_SIZE’ is now declared static, to
     avoid linking collisions when bz2, lmza or zlib are statically
     linked.

   - bpo-44464(113): Remove exception for flake8 in deprecated
     importlib.metadata interfaces.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.6.

   - bpo-44446(114): Take into account that ‘lineno’ might be ‘None’ in
     *note traceback.FrameSummary: d1a.

   - bpo-44439(115): Fix in ‘bz2.BZ2File.write()’ /
     ‘lzma.LZMAFile.write()’ methods, when the input data is an object
     that supports the buffer protocol, the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-44434(116): _thread.start_new_thread() no longer calls
     PyThread_exit_thread() explicitly at the thread exit, the call was
     redundant.  On Linux with the glibc, pthread_exit() aborts the
     whole process if dlopen() fails to open libgcc_s.so file (ex:
     EMFILE error).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42972(117): The _thread.RLock type now fully implement the GC
     protocol: add a traverse function and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     5ad. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44422(118): The *note threading.enumerate(): 16cd. function now
     uses a reentrant lock to prevent a hang on reentrant call.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38291(119): Importing typing.io or typing.re now prints a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-37880(120): argparse actions store_const and append_const each
     receive a default value of ‘None’ when the ‘const’ kwarg is not
     provided.  Previously, this raised a *note TypeError: 2c4.

   - bpo-44389(121): Fix deprecation of *note ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3: 16ce.

   - bpo-27827(122): ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_reserved()’ now
     identifies a greater range of reserved filenames, including those
     with trailing spaces or colons.

   - bpo-44395(123): Fix ‘as_string()’ to pass unixfrom properly.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-34266(124): Handle exceptions from parsing the arg of *note
     pdb: a4.’s run/restart command.

   - bpo-44362(125): Improve *note ssl: cf. module’s deprecation
     messages, error reporting, and documentation for deprecations.

   - bpo-44342(126): [Enum] Change pickling from by-value to by-name.

   - bpo-44356(127): [Enum] Allow multiple data-type mixins if they are
     all the same.

   - bpo-44351(128): Restore back ‘parse_makefile()’ in
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’ because it behaves differently than the
     similar implementation in *note sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-35800(129): ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ is now removed as it is
     unusable without an external module, ‘mailman’.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-44357(130): Added a function that returns cube root of the
     given number *note math.cbrt(): 474.

   - bpo-44339(131): Change ‘math.pow(±0.0, -math.inf)’ to return ‘inf’
     instead of raising ‘ValueError’.  This brings the special-case
     handling of ‘math.pow’ into compliance with the IEEE 754 standard.

   - bpo-44242(132): Remove missing flag check from Enum creation and
     move into a ‘verify’ decorator.

   - bpo-44246(133): In ‘importlib.metadata’, restore compatibility in
     the result from ‘Distribution.entry_points’ (‘EntryPoints’) to
     honor expectations in older implementations and issuing deprecation
     warnings for these cases: A. ‘EntryPoints’ objects are once again
     mutable, allowing for ‘sort()’ and other list-based mutation
     operations.  Avoid deprecation warnings by casting to a mutable
     sequence (e.g.  ‘list(dist.entry_points).sort()’).  B.
     ‘EntryPoints’ results once again allow for access by index.  To
     avoid deprecation warnings, cast the result to a Sequence first
     (e.g.  ‘tuple(dist.entry_points)[0]’).

   - bpo-44246(134): In importlib.metadata.entry_points, de-duplication
     of distributions no longer requires loading the full metadata for
     PathDistribution objects, improving entry point loading performance
     by ~10x.

   - bpo-43858(135): Added a function that returns a copy of a dict of
     logging levels: *note logging.getLevelNamesMapping(): 46c.

   - bpo-44260(136): The *note random.Random: 16cf. constructor no
     longer reads system entropy without need.

   - bpo-44254(137): On Mac, give turtledemo button text a color that
     works on both light or dark background.  Programmers cannot control
     the latter.

   - bpo-44258(138): Support PEP 515 for Fraction’s initialization from
     string.

   - bpo-44235(139): Remove deprecated functions in the *note gettext:
     61.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38693(140): Prefer f-strings to ‘.format’ in
     importlib.resources.

   - bpo-33693(141): Importlib.metadata now prefers f-strings to
     .format.

   - bpo-44241(142): Incorporate minor tweaks from importlib_metadata
     4.1: SimplePath protocol, support for Metadata 2.2.

   - bpo-43216(143): Remove the ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ *note decorator:
     559. enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible
     with async/await code; remove ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used
     for wrapping legacy coroutine objects in the debug mode.  The
     decorator has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was
     initially scheduled for Python 3.10.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-44210(144): Make importlib.metadata._meta.PackageMetadata
     public.

   - bpo-43643(145): Declare readers.MultiplexedPath.name as a property
     per the spec.

   - bpo-27334(146): The *note sqlite3: ce. context manager now performs
     a rollback (thus releasing the database lock) if commit failed.
     Patch by Luca Citi and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-4928(147): Documented existing behavior on POSIX:
     NamedTemporaryFiles are not deleted when creating process is killed
     with SIGKILL

   - bpo-44154(148): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. pickling
     for large components.

   - bpo-33433(149): For IPv4 mapped IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(150)
     Section 2.5.5.2), the *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 147d.
     check is deferred to the mapped IPv4 address.  This solves a bug
     where public mapped IPv4 addresses were considered private by the
     IPv6 check.

   - bpo-44150(151): Add optional 'weights' argument to
     statistics.fmean().

   - bpo-44142(152): *note ast.unparse(): 738. will now drop the
     redundant parentheses when tuples used as assignment targets (e.g
     in for loops).

   - bpo-44145(153): *note hmac: 68. computations were not releasing the
     GIL while calling the OpenSSL ‘HMAC_Update’ C API (a new feature in
     3.9).  This unintentionally prevented parallel computation as other
     *note hashlib: 66. algorithms support.

   - bpo-44095(154): *note zipfile.Path: 4e1. now supports *note
     zipfile.Path.stem: 4de, *note zipfile.Path.suffixes: 4e0, and *note
     zipfile.Path.suffix: 4df. attributes.

   - bpo-44077(155): It’s now possible to receive the type of service
     (ToS), a.k.a.  differentiated services (DS), a.k.a.  differentiated
     services code point (DSCP) and explicit congestion notification
     (ECN) IP header fields with ‘socket.IP_RECVTOS’.

   - bpo-37788(156): Fix a reference leak when a Thread object is never
     joined.

   - bpo-38908(157): Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have
     data variables declared will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked
     with ‘isinstance’ unless they are decorated with
     ‘runtime_checkable()’.  Previously, these checks passed silently.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44098(158): ‘typing.ParamSpec’ will no longer be found in the
     ‘__parameters__’ of most *note typing: 104. generics except in
     valid use locations specified by PEP 612(159).  This prevents
     incorrect usage like ‘typing.List[P][int]’.  This change means
     incorrect usage which may have passed silently in 3.10 beta 1 and
     earlier will now error.

   - bpo-44089(160): Allow subclassing ‘csv.Error’ in 3.10 (it was
     allowed in 3.9 and earlier but was disallowed in early versions of
     3.10).

   - bpo-44081(161): *note ast.unparse(): 738. now doesn’t use redundant
     spaces to separate ‘lambda’ and the ‘:’ if there are no parameters.

   - bpo-44061(162): Fix regression in previous release when calling
     *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): bd4. with a list of *note
     pathlib.Path: 14f. objects

   - bpo-44059(163): Register the SerenityOS Browser in the *note
     webbrowser: 115. module.

   - bpo-36515(164): The *note hashlib: 66. module no longer does
     unaligned memory accesses when compiled for ARM platforms.

   - bpo-40465(165): Remove random module features deprecated in Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-44018(166): random.seed() no longer mutates bytearray inputs.

   - bpo-38352(167): Add ‘IO’, ‘BinaryIO’, ‘TextIO’, ‘Match’, and
     ‘Pattern’ to ‘typing.__all__’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44002(168): *note urllib.parse: 10a. now uses
     ‘functool.lru_cache()’ for its internal URL splitting and quoting
     caches instead of rolling its own like its the ‘90s.

     The undocumented internal *note urllib.parse: 10a. ‘Quoted’ class
     API is now deprecated, for removal in 3.14.

   - bpo-43972(169): When *note http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler:
     9b4. sends a ‘301 (Moved Permanently)’ for a directory path not
     ending with ‘/’, add a ‘Content-Length: 0’ header.  This improves
     the behavior for certain clients.

   - bpo-28528(170): Fix a bug in *note pdb: a4. where ‘checkline()’
     raises *note AttributeError: 3dc. if it is called after ‘reset()’.

   - bpo-43853(171): Improved string handling for *note sqlite3: ce.
     user-defined functions and aggregates:

        * It is now possible to pass strings with embedded null
          characters to UDFs

        * Conversion failures now correctly raise *note MemoryError:
          1409.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43666(172): AIX: ‘Lib/_aix_support.get_platform()’ may fail in
     an AIX WPAR. The fileset bos.rte appears to have a builddate in
     both LPAR and WPAR so this fileset is queried rather than bos.mp64.
     To prevent a similar situation (no builddate in ODM) a value (9988)
     sufficient for completing a build is provided.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-43650(173): Fix *note MemoryError: 1409. in *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 18a. which fails inside
     ‘shutil._unpack_zipfile()’ on large files.  Patch by Igor
     Bolshakov.

   - bpo-43612(174): *note zlib.compress(): 452. now accepts a wbits
     parameter which allows users to compress data as a raw deflate
     block without zlib headers and trailers in one go.  Previously this
     required instantiating a ‘zlib.compressobj’.  It also provides a
     faster alternative to ‘gzip.compress’ when wbits=31 is used.

   - bpo-43392(175): ‘importlib._bootstrap._find_and_load()’ now
     implements a two-step check to avoid locking when modules have been
     already imported and are ready.  This improves performance of
     repeated calls to *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2. and *note
     importlib.__import__(): f17.

   - bpo-43318(176): Fix a bug where *note pdb: a4. does not always echo
     cleared breakpoints.

   - bpo-43234(177): Prohibit passing non-*note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. executors to
     ‘loop.set_default_executor()’ following a deprecation in Python
     3.8.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-43232(178): Prohibit previously deprecated potentially
     disruptive operations on ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’.  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-30077(179): Added support for Apple’s aifc/sowt
     pseudo-compression

   - bpo-42971(180): Add definition of ‘errno.EQFULL’ for platforms that
     define this constant (such as macOS).

   - bpo-43086(181): Added a new optional ‘strict_mode’ parameter to
     'binascii.a2b_base64'.  When ‘scrict_mode’ is set to ‘True’, the
     'a2b_base64' function will accept only valid base64 content.  More
     details about what “valid base64 content” is, can be found in the
     function’s documentation.

   - bpo-43024(182): Improve the help signature of *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 68e, *note
     traceback.format_exception(): 68c. and *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 68d.

   - bpo-33809(183): Add the *note traceback.TracebackException.print():
     4b9. method which prints the formatted exception information.

   - bpo-42862(184): *note sqlite3: ce. now utilizes *note
     functools.lru_cache(): 84e. to implement the connection statement
     cache.  As a small optimisation, the default statement cache size
     has been increased from 100 to 128.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41818(185): Soumendra Ganguly: add termios.tcgetwinsize(),
     termios.tcsetwinsize().

   - bpo-40497(186): *note subprocess.check_output(): e64. now raises
     *note ValueError: 189. when the invalid keyword argument 'check' is
     passed by user code.  Previously such use would fail later with a
     *note TypeError: 2c4.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37449(187): ‘ensurepip’ now uses ‘importlib.resources.files()’
     traversable APIs

   - bpo-40956(188): Use Argument Clinic in *note sqlite3: ce.  Patches
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41730(189): ‘DeprecationWarning’ is now raised when importing
     *note tkinter.tix: f8, which has been deprecated in documentation
     since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-20684(190): Remove unused ‘_signature_get_bound_param’ function
     from *note inspect: 7c. - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41402(191): Fix *note email.message.EmailMessage.set_content():
     16d0. when called with binary data and ‘7bit’ content transfer
     encoding.

   - bpo-32695(192): The 'compresslevel' and 'preset' keyword arguments
     of *note tarfile.open(): d0c. are now both documented and tested.

   - bpo-41137(193): Use utf-8 encoding while reading .pdbrc files.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy

   - bpo-24391(194): Improved reprs of *note threading: ec.
     synchronization objects: *note Semaphore: ffd, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: ffe, *note Event: fff. and *note Barrier: 1088.

   - bpo-5846(195): Deprecated the following *note unittest: 106.
     functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘findTestCases()’

        * ‘makeSuite()’

        * ‘getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 54b. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2bb.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 54c.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 54d.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40563(196): Support pathlike objects on dbm/shelve.  Patch by
     Hakan Çelik and Henry-Joseph Audéoud.

   - bpo-34990(197): Fixed a Y2k38 bug in the compileall module where it
     would fail to compile files with a modification time after the year
     2038.

   - bpo-39549(198): Whereas the code for reprlib.Repr had previously
     used a hardcoded string value of ‘…’, this PR updates it to use of
     a “fillvalue” attribute, whose value defaults to ‘…’ and can be
     reset in either individual reprlib.Repr instances or in subclasses
     thereof.

   - bpo-37022(199): *note pdb: a4. now displays exceptions from
     ‘repr()’ with its ‘p’ and ‘pp’ commands.

   - bpo-38840(200): Fix ‘test___all__’ on platforms lacking a shared
     memory implementation.

   - bpo-39359(201): Add one missing check that the password is a bytes
     object for an encrypted zipfile.

   - bpo-38741(202): *note configparser: 22.: using ‘]’ inside a section
     header will no longer cut the section name short at the ‘]’

   - bpo-38415(203): Added missing behavior to *note
     contextlib.asynccontextmanager(): 99a. to match *note
     contextlib.contextmanager(): 10a7. so decorated functions can
     themselves be decorators.

   - bpo-30256(204): Pass multiprocessing BaseProxy argument
     ‘manager_owned’ through AutoProxy.

   - bpo-27513(205): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 391. now accepts
     *note email.header.Header: 16d1. objects along with string values.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-16379(206): Add SQLite error code and name to *note sqlite3:
     ce. exceptions.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-26228(207): pty.spawn no longer hangs on FreeBSD, macOS, and
     Solaris.

   - bpo-33349(208): lib2to3 now recognizes async generators everywhere.

   - bpo-29298(209): Fix ‘TypeError’ when required subparsers without
     ‘dest’ do not receive arguments.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45371

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45329

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1596321

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45274

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45238

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45183

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   (192) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32695

   (193) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137

   (194) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24391

   (195) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846

   (196) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40563

   (197) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34990

   (198) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39549

   (199) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37022

   (200) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38840

   (201) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39359

   (202) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38741

   (203) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38415

   (204) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256

   (205) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27513

   (206) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379

   (207) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26228

   (208) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33349

   (209) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29298


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<31>,  Next: Tests<31>,  Prev: Library<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45216(1): Remove extra documentation listing methods in
     ‘difflib’.  It was rendering twice in pydoc and was outdated in
     some places.

   - bpo-45024(2): *note collections.abc: 1e. documentation has been
     expanded to explicitly cover how instance and subclass checks work,
     with additional doctest examples and an exhaustive list of ABCs
     which test membership purely by presence of the right *note special
     method: 16d3.s.  Patch by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-44957(3): Promote PEP 604 union syntax by using it where
     possible.  Also, mention ‘X | Y’ more prominently in section about
     ‘Union’ and mention ‘X | None’ at all in section about ‘Optional’.

   - bpo-16580(4): Added code equivalents for the *note int.to_bytes():
     16b8. and *note int.from_bytes(): 1677. methods, as well as tests
     ensuring that these code equivalents are valid.

   - bpo-44903(5): Removed the ‘othergui.rst’ file, any references to
     it, and the list of GUI frameworks in the FAQ. In their place I’ve
     added links to the Python Wiki page on GUI frameworks(6).

   - bpo-33479(7): Tkinter documentation has been greatly expanded with
     new “Architecture” and “Threading model” sections.

   - bpo-36700(8): *note base64: e. RFC references were updated to point
     to RFC 4648(9); a section was added to point users to the new
     “security considerations” section of the RFC.

   - bpo-44740(10): Replaced occurrences of uppercase “Web” and
     “Internet” with lowercase versions per the 2016 revised Associated
     Press Style Book.

   - bpo-44693(11): Update the definition of __future__ in the glossary
     by replacing the confusing word “pseudo-module” with a more
     accurate description.

   - bpo-35183(12): Add typical examples to os.path.splitext docs

   - bpo-30511(13): Clarify that *note shutil.make_archive(): 1de. is
     not thread-safe due to reliance on changing the current working
     directory.

   - bpo-44561(14): Update of three expired hyperlinks in
     Doc/distributing/index.rst: “Project structure”, “Building and
     packaging the project”, and “Uploading the project to the Python
     Packaging Index”.

   - bpo-44651(15): Delete entry “coercion” in Doc/glossary.rst for its
     outdated definition.

   - bpo-42958(16): Updated the docstring and docs of *note
     filecmp.cmp(): 16d4. to be more accurate and less confusing
     especially in respect to 'shallow' arg.

   - bpo-44631(17): Refactored the ‘repr()’ code of the ‘_Environ’ (os
     module).

   - bpo-44613(18): importlib.metadata is no longer provisional.

   - bpo-44558(19): Match the docstring and python implementation of
     *note countOf(): 72f. to the behavior of its c implementation.

   - bpo-44544(20): List all kwargs for *note textwrap.wrap(): 1352,
     *note textwrap.fill(): 1351, and *note textwrap.shorten(): e76.
     Now, there are nav links to attributes of ‘TextWrap’, which makes
     navigation much easier while minimizing duplication in the
     documentation.

   - bpo-38062(21): Clarify that atexit uses equality comparisons
     internally.

   - bpo-40620(22): Convert examples in tutorial controlflow.rst section
     4.3 to be interpreter-demo style.

   - bpo-43066(23): Added a warning to *note zipfile: 131. docs:
     filename arg with a leading slash may cause archive to be
     un-openable on Windows systems.

   - bpo-39452(24): Rewrote ‘Doc/library/__main__.rst’.  Broadened scope
     of the document to explicitly discuss and differentiate between
     ‘__main__.py’ in packages versus the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
     expression (and the idioms that surround it).

   - bpo-13814(25): In the Design FAQ, answer “Why don’t generators
     support the with statement?”

   - bpo-27752(26): Documentation of csv.Dialect is more descriptive.

   - bpo-44453(27): Fix documentation for the return type of *note
     sysconfig.get_path(): 11da.

   - bpo-44392(28): Added a new section in the C API documentation for
     types used in type hinting.  Documented ‘Py_GenericAlias’ and
     ‘Py_GenericAliasType’.

   - bpo-38291(29): Mark ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ as deprecated since
     Python 3.8 in the documentation.  They were never properly
     supported by type checkers.

   - bpo-44322(30): Document that SyntaxError args have a details tuple
     and that details are adjusted for errors in f-string field
     replacement expressions.

   - bpo-42392(31): Document the deprecation and removal of the ‘loop’
     parameter for many functions and classes in *note asyncio: a.

   - bpo-44195(32): Corrected references to ‘TraversableResources’ in
     docs.  There is no ‘TraversableReader’.

   - bpo-41963(33): Document that ‘ConfigParser’ strips off comments
     when reading configuration files.

   - bpo-44072(34): Correct where in the numeric ABC hierarchy ‘**’
     support is added, i.e., in numbers.Complex, not numbers.Integral.

   - bpo-43558(35): Add the remark to *note dataclasses: 2f.
     documentation that the ‘__init__()’ of any base class has to be
     called in ‘__post_init__()’, along with a code example.

   - bpo-44025(36): Clarify when ‘_’ in match statements is a keyword,
     and when not.

   - bpo-41706(37): Fix docs about how methods like ‘__add__’ are
     invoked when evaluating operator expressions.

   - bpo-41621(38): Document that *note collections.defaultdict: 1062.
     parameter ‘default_factory’ defaults to ‘None’ and is
     positional-only.

   - bpo-41576(39): document BaseException in favor of bare except

   - bpo-21760(40): The description for __file__ fixed.  Patch by Furkan
     Onder

   - bpo-39498(41): Add a “Security Considerations” index which links to
     standard library modules that have explicitly documented security
     considerations.

   - bpo-33479(42): Remove the unqualified claim that tkinter is
     threadsafe.  It has not been true for several years and likely
     never was.  An explanation of what is true may be added later,
     after more discussion, and possibly after patching _tkinter.c,

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45024

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44957

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16580

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44903

   (6) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36700

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44740

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44693

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35183

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30511

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44561

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44651

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42958

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44631

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44613

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44544

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38062

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40620

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43066

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39452

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13814

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27752

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44453

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44392

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44322

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44195

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41963

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44025

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41706

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41621

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41576

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21760

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39498

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<31>,  Next: Build<30>,  Prev: Documentation<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40173(1): Fix *note
     test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module(): 16d6.

   - bpo-45280(2): Add a test case for empty *note typing.NamedTuple:
     202.

   - bpo-45269(3): Cover case when invalid ‘markers’ type is supplied to
     ‘c_make_encoder’.

   - bpo-45128(4): Fix ‘test_multiprocessing_fork’ failure due to
     ‘test_logging’ and ‘sys.modules’ manipulation.

   - bpo-45209(5): Fix ‘UserWarning: resource_tracker’ warning in
     ‘_test_multiprocessing._TestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination’

   - bpo-45185(6): Enables ‘TestEnumerations’ test cases in ‘test_ssl’
     suite.

   - bpo-45195(7): Fix test_readline.test_nonascii(): sometimes, the
     newline character is not written at the end, so don’t expect it in
     the output.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45156(8): Fixes infinite loop on *note unittest.mock.seal():
     a17. of mocks created by ‘create_autospec()’.

   - bpo-45125(9): Improves pickling tests and docs of ‘SharedMemory’
     and ‘SharableList’ objects.

   - bpo-44860(10): Update ‘test_sysconfig.test_user_similar()’ for the
     posix_user scheme: ‘platlib’ doesn’t use *note sys.platlibdir: 791.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45052(11):
     ‘WithProcessesTestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_basics’ test was
     ignored, because ‘self.assertEqual(sms.size, sms2.size)’ line was
     failing.  It is now removed and test is unskipped.

     The main motivation for this line to be removed from the test is
     that the ‘size’ of ‘SharedMemory’ is not ever guaranteed to be the
     same.  It is decided by the platform.

   - bpo-44895(12): libregrtest now clears the type cache later to
     reduce the risk of false alarm when checking for reference leaks.
     Previously, the type cache was cleared too early and libregrtest
     raised a false alarm about reference leaks under very specific
     conditions.  Patch by Irit Katriel and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45042(13): Fixes that test classes decorated with
     ‘@hashlib_helper.requires_hashdigest’ were skipped all the time.

   - bpo-25130(14): Add calls of *note gc.collect(): 89c. in tests to
     support PyPy.

   - bpo-45011(15): Made tests relying on the ‘_asyncio’ C extension
     module optional to allow running on alternative Python
     implementations.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-44949(16): Fix auto history tests of test_readline: sometimes,
     the newline character is not written at the end, so don’t expect it
     in the output.

   - bpo-44891(17): Tests were added to clarify *note id(): 12ab. is
     preserved when ‘obj * 1’ is used on *note str: 15d. and *note
     bytes: 2cb. objects.  Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - bpo-44852(18): Add ability to wholesale silence DeprecationWarnings
     while running the regression test suite.

   - bpo-40928(19): Notify users running test_decimal regression tests
     on macOS of potential harmless “malloc can’t allocate region”
     messages spewed by test_decimal.

   - bpo-44734(20): Fixed floating-point precision issue in turtle
     tests.

   - bpo-44708(21): Regression tests, when run with -w, are now
     re-running only the affected test methods instead of re-running the
     entire test file.

   - bpo-42095(22): Added interop tests for Apple plists: generate plist
     files with Python plistlib and parse with Apple plutil; and the
     other way round.

   - bpo-44647(23): Added a permanent Unicode-valued environment
     variable to regression tests to ensure they handle this use case in
     the future.  If your test environment breaks because of that,
     report a bug to us, and temporarily set
     PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD=0 in your test environment.

   - bpo-44515(24): Adjust recently added contextlib tests to avoid
     assuming the use of a refcounted GC

   - bpo-44287(25): Fix asyncio test_popen() of test_windows_utils by
     using a longer timeout.  Use military grade battle-tested *note
     test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT: 16d7. timeout rather than a hardcoded
     timeout of 10 seconds: it’s 30 seconds by default, but it is made
     longer on slow buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44451(26): Reset ‘DeprecationWarning’ filters in
     ‘test.test_importlib.test_metadata_api.APITests.test_entry_points_by_index’
     to avoid ‘StopIteration’ error if ‘DeprecationWarnings’ are
     ignored.

   - bpo-44363(27): Account for address sanitizer in test_capi.
     test_capi now passes when run GCC address sanitizer.

   - bpo-44364(28): Add non integral tests for *note math.sqrt(): 866.
     function.

   - bpo-43921(29): Fix test_ssl.test_wrong_cert_tls13(): use
     ‘suppress_ragged_eofs=False’, since ‘read()’ can raise *note
     ssl.SSLEOFError: 1563. on Windows.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43921(30): Fix test_pha_required_nocert() of test_ssl: catch
     two more EOF cases (when the ‘recv()’ method returns an empty
     string).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44131(31): Add test_frozenmain to test_embed to test the
     ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ C function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31904(32): Ignore error string case in test_file_not_exists().

   - bpo-42083(33): Add test to check that ‘PyStructSequence_NewType’
     accepts a ‘PyStructSequence_Desc’ with ‘doc’ field set to ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-35753(34): Fix crash in doctest when doctest parses modules
     that include unwrappable functions by skipping those functions.

   - bpo-30256(35): Add test for nested queues when using
     ‘multiprocessing’ shared objects ‘AutoProxy[Queue]’ inside
     ‘ListProxy’ and ‘DictProxy’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45280

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45269

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45185

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45195

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45156

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45125

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44860

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45042

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45011

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44949

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44891

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44852

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40928

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44708

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42095

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44515

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44287

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44451

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44363

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44364

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44131

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42083

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35753

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256


File: python.info,  Node: Build<30>,  Next: Windows<30>,  Prev: Tests<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-45220(1): Avoid building with the Windows 11 SDK previews
     automatically.  This may be overridden by setting the
     ‘DefaultWindowsSDKVersion’ environment variable before building.

   - bpo-45020(2): Freeze stdlib modules that are imported during
     startup.  This provides significant performance improvements to
     startup.  If necessary, use the previously added “-X
     frozen_modules=off” commandline option to force importing the
     source modules.

   - bpo-45188(3): Windows builds now regenerate frozen modules as the
     first part of the build.  Previously the regeneration was later in
     the build, which would require it to be restarted if any modules
     had changed.

   - bpo-45163(4): Fixes Haiku platform build.

   - bpo-45067(5): The ncurses function extended_color_content was
     introduced in 2017

     (‘https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/NEWS.html#index-t20170401’).
     The

     ncurses-devel package in CentOS 7 had a older version ncurses
     resulted in compilation error.  For compiling ncurses with extended
     color support, we verify the version of the ncurses library >=
     20170401.

   - bpo-45019(6): Generate lines in relevant files for frozen modules.
     Up until now each of the files had to be edited manually.  This
     change makes it easier to add to and modify the frozen modules.

   - bpo-44340(7): Add support for building with clang thin lto via
     –with-lto=thin/full.  Patch by Donghee Na and Brett Holman.

   - bpo-44535(8): Enable building using a Visual Studio 2022 install on
     Windows.

   - bpo-43298(9): Improved error message when building without a
     Windows SDK installed.

   - bpo-44381(10): The Windows build now accepts
     ‘EnableControlFlowGuard’ set to ‘guard’ to enable CFG.

   - bpo-41282(11): Fix broken ‘make install’ that caused standard
     library extension modules to be unnecessarily and incorrectly
     rebuilt during the install phase of cpython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45220

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45188

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45067

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45019

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44535

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43298

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44381

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<30>,  Next: macOS<23>,  Prev: Build<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-45375(1): Fixes an assertion failure due to searching for the
     standard library in unnormalised paths.

   - bpo-45022(2): Update Windows release to include libffi 3.4.2

   - bpo-45007(3): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1l in Windows build

   - bpo-44848(4): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44572(5): Avoid consuming standard input in the *note platform:
     a9. module

   - bpo-44582(6): Accelerate speed of *note mimetypes: 8e.
     initialization using a native implementation of the registry scan.

   - bpo-41299(7): Fix 16 milliseconds jitter when using timeouts in
     *note threading: ec, such as with *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     4ad. or *note threading.Condition.wait(): 16da.

   - bpo-42686(8): Build *note sqlite3: ce. with math functions enabled.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40263(9): This is a follow-on bug from
     ‘https://bugs.python.org/issue26903’.  Once that is applied we run
     into an off-by-one assertion problem.  The assert was not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45375

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44572

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44582

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41299

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40263


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<23>,  Next: IDLE<18>,  Prev: Windows<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45007(1): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1l.

   - bpo-34602(2): When building CPython on macOS with ‘./configure
     --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer --with-pydebug’, the stack size
     is now quadrupled to allow for the entire test suite to pass.

   - bpo-44848(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44689(4): *note ctypes.util.find_library(): bd3. now works
     correctly on macOS 11 Big Sur even if Python is built on an older
     version of macOS. Previously, when built on older macOS systems,
     ‘find_library’ was not able to find macOS system libraries when
     running on Big Sur due to changes in how system libraries are
     stored.

   - bpo-41972(5): The framework build’s user header path in sysconfig
     is changed to add a ‘pythonX.Y’ component to match distutils’s
     behavior.

   - bpo-43109(6): Allow –with-lto configure option to work with
     Apple-supplied Xcode or Command Line Tools.

   - bpo-34932(7): Add socket.TCP_KEEPALIVE support for macOS. Patch by
     Shane Harvey.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44689

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43109

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34932


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<18>,  Next: Tools/Demos<18>,  Prev: macOS<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45296(1): On Windows, change exit/quit message to suggest
     Ctrl-D, which works, instead of <Ctrl-Z Return>, which does not
     work in IDLE.

   - bpo-45193(2): Make completion boxes appear on Ubuntu again.

   - bpo-40128(3): Mostly fix completions on macOS when not using tcl/tk
     8.6.11 (as with 3.9).  The added update_idletask call should be
     harmless and possibly helpful otherwise.

   - bpo-33962(4): Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to
     the new Windows tab.  Patch by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-40468(5): Split the settings dialog General tab into Windows
     and Shell/ED tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu,
     to the Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the
     dialog.  The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.

   - bpo-41611(6): Avoid uncaught exceptions in
     ‘AutoCompleteWindow.winconfig_event()’.

   - bpo-41611(7): Fix IDLE sometimes freezing upon tab-completion on
     macOS.

   - bpo-44010(8): Highlight the new *note match: 648. statement’s *note
     soft keywords: 647.: *note match: 648, *note case: 648, and *note
     _: 649.  However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be
     incorrect in some rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’
     patterns.

   - bpo-44026(9): Include interpreter’s typo fix suggestions in message
     line for NameErrors and AttributeErrors.  Patch by E. Paine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44026


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<18>,  Next: C API<27>,  Prev: IDLE<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-44786(1): Fix a warning in regular expression in the c-analyzer
     script.

   - bpo-44967(2): pydoc now returns a non-zero status code when a
     module cannot be found.

   - bpo-44978(3): Allow the Argument Clinic tool to handle
     ‘__complex__’ special methods.

   - bpo-43425(4): Removed the ‘test2to3’ demo project that demonstrated
     using lib2to3 to support Python 2.x and Python 3.x from a single
     source in a distutils package.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-44074(5): Make patchcheck automatically detect the correct base
     branch name (previously it was hardcoded to ‘master’)

   - bpo-20291(6): Added support for variadic positional parameters in
     Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44967

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43425

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20291


File: python.info,  Node: C API<27>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.22.35.11 C API
................

   - bpo-41710(1): The PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() function now clamps
     the timeout if it is too large, rather than aborting the process.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44687(2): ‘BufferedReader.peek()’ no longer raises *note
     ValueError: 189. when the entire file has already been buffered.

   - bpo-45116(3): Add the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE: 16df. macro to ask
     the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decides to not inline the function.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45094(4): Add the *note Py_NO_INLINE: 16e0. macro to disable
     inlining on a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45061(5): Add a deallocator to the *note bool: 183. type to
     detect refcount bugs in C extensions which call
     ‘Py_DECREF(Py_True);’ or ‘Py_DECREF(Py_False);’ by mistake.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42035(6): Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 57f. function
     to get type’s qualified name.

   - bpo-41103(7): Reverts removal of the old buffer protocol because
     they are part of stable ABI.

   - bpo-44751(8): Remove ‘crypt.h’ include from the public ‘Python.h’
     header.

   - bpo-42747(9): The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ type flag now does
     nothing.  The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_AM_SEND’ flag (which was added in
     3.10) is removed.  Both were unnecessary because it is not possible
     to have type objects with the relevant fields missing.

   - bpo-44530(10): Added the ‘co_qualname’ to the ‘PyCodeObject’
     structure to propagate the qualified name from the compiler to code
     objects.

     Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta

   - bpo-44441(11): *note Py_RunMain(): 823. now resets
     ‘PyImport_Inittab’ to its initial value at exit.  It must be
     possible to call *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2. or *note
     PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 15c3. at each Python initialization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39947(12): Remove 4 private trashcan C API functions which were
     only kept for the backward compatibility of the stable ABI with
     Python 3.8 and older, since the trashcan API was not usable with
     the limited C API on Python 3.8 and older.  The trashcan API was
     excluded from the limited C API in Python 3.9.

     Removed functions:

        * _PyTrash_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_destroy_chain()

        * _PyTrash_thread_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_thread_destroy_chain()

     The trashcan C API was never usable with the limited C API, since
     old trashcan macros accessed directly *note PyThreadState: 5bf.
     members like ‘_tstate->trash_delete_nesting’, whereas the *note
     PyThreadState: 5bf. structure is opaque in the limited C API.

     Exclude also the ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’ constant from the C API.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40939(13): Removed documentation for the removed ‘PyParser_*’ C
     API.

   - bpo-43795(14): The list in *note Contents of Limited API: 5d0. now
     shows the public name *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. rather than
     ‘_frame’.  The non-existing entry ‘_node’ no longer appears in the
     list.

   - bpo-44378(15): *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 1639. no longer uses *note
     Py_TYPE(): 5b0. to avoid a compiler warning: no longer cast ‘const
     PyObject*’ to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert the *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0. and *note
     Py_SIZE(): 5b2. macros to static inline functions.  The *note
     Py_SET_TYPE(): 5b1. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 5b3. functions must
     now be used to set an object type and size.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44263(17): The *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. function now raises
     an error if a type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     5ad. flag set but has no traverse function (*note
     PyTypeObject.tp_traverse: 5ae.).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43795(18): The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ is
     removed from the Limited API.

   - bpo-44113(19): Deprecate the following functions to configure the
     Python initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 34f. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6. instead ( PEP 587(20)).

   - bpo-44094(21): Remove ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithUnicodeFilename()’,
     ‘PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’, and
     ‘PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’.  They are not
     documented and have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-43795(22): *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6e0. is now properly
     exported as a function in the Windows Stable ABI DLL.

   - bpo-44029(23): Remove deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’ APIs:
     ‘PyUnicode_Encode’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII’, ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap’,
     ‘PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create’, ‘PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create’.
     See PEP 393(24) and PEP 624(25) for reference.

   - bpo-42035(26): Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 57e. function to
     get type’s short name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44687

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45116

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44751

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42747

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44441

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44378

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44113

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44094

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.36 Python 3.10.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-05-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<28>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<24>,  Next: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-43434(1): Creating *note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. objects now
     also produces ‘sqlite3.connect’ and ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ *note
     auditing events: 16e3.  Previously these events were only produced
     by *note sqlite3.connect(): 1e4. calls.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43998(2): The *note ssl: cf. module sets more secure cipher
     suites defaults.  Ciphers without forward secrecy and with SHA-1
     MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2 prohibits weak RSA,
     DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of security.  *note
     SSLContext: 277. defaults to minimum protocol version TLS 1.2.
     Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack’s research.

   - bpo-43882(3): The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of
     a URL could allow some forms of attacks.

     Following the controlling specification for URLs defined by WHATWG
     *note urllib.parse(): 10a. now removes ASCII newlines and tabs from
     URLs, preventing such attacks.

   - bpo-43472(4): Ensures interpreter-level audit hooks receive the
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ event when called through the
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module.

   - bpo-43362(5): Fix invalid free in _sha3 module.  The issue was
     introduced in 3.10.0a1.  Python 3.9 and earlier are not affected.

   - bpo-43762(6): Add audit events for ‘sqlite3.connect/handle()’,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 67d, and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 1e6.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43756(7): Add new audit event ‘glob.glob/2’ to incorporate the
     new 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' arguments added to *note glob.glob():
     641. and *note glob.iglob(): 642.

   - bpo-36384(8): *note ipaddress: 7e. module no longer accepts any
     leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are ambiguous
     and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For example
     the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 7bc. treats leading
     zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
     inet_pton(): 7bd. does not accept any leading zeros.  For a while
     the *note ipaddress: 7e. module used to accept ambiguous leading
     zeros.

   - bpo-43075(9): Fix Regular Expression Denial of Service (ReDoS)
     vulnerability in *note urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     16e4.  The ReDoS-vulnerable regex has quadratic worst-case
     complexity and it allows cause a denial of service when identifying
     crafted invalid RFCs.  This ReDoS issue is on the client side and
     needs remote attackers to control the HTTP server.

   - bpo-42800(10): Audit hooks are now fired for frame.f_code,
     traceback.tb_frame, and generator code/frame attribute access.

   - bpo-37363(11): Add audit events to the *note http.client: 6d.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43434

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43472

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43362

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43075

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<35>,  Next: Library<36>,  Prev: Security<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43977(1): Prevent classes being both a sequence and a mapping
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43977(2): Use *note tp_flags: 16e6. on the class object to
     determine if the subject is a sequence or mapping when pattern
     matching.  Avoids the need to import *note collections.abc: 1e.
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43892(3): Restore proper validation of complex literal value
     patterns when parsing ‘match’ blocks.

   - bpo-43933(4): Set frame.f_lineno to the line number of the ‘with’
     kweyword when executing the call to ‘__exit__’.

   - bpo-43933(5): If the current position in a frame has no line number
     then set the f_lineno attribute to None, instead of -1, to conform
     to PEP 626.  This should not normally be possible, but might occur
     in some unusual circumstances.

   - bpo-43963(6): Importing the ‘_signal’ module in a subinterpreter
     has no longer side effects.

   - bpo-42739(7): The internal representation of line number tables is
     changed to not use sentinels, and an explicit length parameter is
     added to the out of process API function
     ‘PyLineTable_InitAddressRange’.  This makes the handling of line
     number tables more robust in some circumstances.

   - bpo-43908(8): Make *note re: b8. types immutable.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43908(9): Make the *note array.array: 195. type immutable.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43901(10): Change class and module objects to lazy-create empty
     annotations dicts on demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in
     the object’s __dict__ for backwards compatibility.

   - bpo-43892(11): Match patterns now use new dedicated AST nodes
     (‘MatchValue’, ‘MatchSingleton’, ‘MatchSequence’, ‘MatchStar’,
     ‘MatchMapping’, ‘MatchClass’) rather than reusing expression AST
     nodes.  ‘MatchAs’ and ‘MatchOr’ are now defined as pattern nodes
     rather than as expression nodes.  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42725(12): Usage of ‘await’/‘yield’/‘yield from’ and named
     expressions within an annotation is now forbidden when PEP 563 is
     activated.

   - bpo-43754(13): When performing structural pattern matching ( PEP
     634(14)), captured names are now left unbound until the 'entire'
     pattern has matched successfully.

   - bpo-42737(15): Annotations for complex targets (everything beside
     simple names) no longer cause any runtime effects with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’.

   - bpo-43914(16): *note SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions raised by the
     interpreter will highlight the full error range of the expression
     that consistutes the syntax error itself, instead of just where the
     problem is detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38605(17): Revert making ‘from __future__ import annotations’
     the default.  This follows the Steering Council decision to
     postpone PEP 563 changes to at least Python 3.11.  See the original
     email for more information regarding the decision:
     ‘https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/thread/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43475(18): Hashes of NaN values now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to 0 even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  Having the same hash for unequal values
     caused pile-ups in hash tables.

   - bpo-43859(19): Improve the error message for *note
     IndentationError: 5de. exceptions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41323(20): Constant tuple folding in bytecode optimizer now
     reuses tuple in constant table.

   - bpo-43846(21): Data stack usage is much reduced for large literal
     and call expressions.

   - bpo-38530(22): When printing *note NameError: 14a. raised by the
     interpreter, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar
     variable names in the function that the exception was raised from.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43823(23): Improve syntax errors for invalid dictionary
     literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43822(24): Improve syntax errors in the parser for missing
     commas between expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43798(25): *note ast.alias: 16e7. nodes now include source
     location metadata attributes e.g.  lineno, col_offset.

   - bpo-43797(26): Improve ‘SyntaxError’ error messages for invalid
     comparisons.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43760(27): Move the flag for checking whether tracing is
     enabled to the C stack, from the heap.  Should speed up dispatch in
     the interpreter.

   - bpo-43682(28): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 612.) and class
     methods (*note @classmethod: 252.) now inherit the method
     attributes (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43751(29): Fixed a bug where ‘anext(ait, default)’ would
     erroneously return None.

   - bpo-42128(30): *note __match_args__: 16e8. is no longer allowed to
     be a list.

   - bpo-43683(31): Add GEN_START opcode.  Marks start of generator,
     including async, or coroutine and handles sending values to a newly
     created generator or coroutine.

   - bpo-43105(32): Importlib now resolves relative paths when creating
     module spec objects from file locations.

   - bpo-43682(33): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 612.) are now
     callable as regular functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42609(34): Prevented crashes in the AST validator and optimizer
     when compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: bf7. is now raised instead.

   - bpo-38530(35): When printing *note AttributeError: 3dc,
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar attribute names
     in the object that the exception was raised from.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43963

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42739

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43754

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43859

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43846

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43798

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43751

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43105

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42609

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<36>,  Next: Documentation<32>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-44015(1): In @dataclass(), raise a TypeError if KW_ONLY is
     specified more than once.

   - bpo-25478(2): Added a 'total()' method to collections.Counter() to
     compute the sum of the counts.

   - bpo-43733(3): Change *note netrc.netrc: 16ea. to use UTF-8 encoding
     before using locale encoding.

   - bpo-43979(4): Removed an unnecessary list comprehension before
     looping from *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 69b.  Patch by
     Christoph Zwerschke and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-43993(5): Update bundled pip to 21.1.1.

   - bpo-43957(6): [Enum] Deprecate ‘TypeError’ when non-member is used
     in a containment check; In 3.12 ‘True’ or ‘False’ will be returned
     instead, and containment will return ‘True’ if the value is either
     a member of that enum or one of its members’ value.

   - bpo-42904(7): For backwards compatibility with previous minor
     versions of Python, if *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. receives
     no namespace dictionary arguments, *note typing.get_type_hints():
     4c8. will search through the global then local namespaces during
     evaluation of stringized type annotations (string forward
     references) inside a class.

   - bpo-43945(8): [Enum] Deprecate non-standard mixin format()
     behavior: in 3.12 the enum member, not the member’s value, will be
     used for format() calls.

   - bpo-41139(9): Deprecate undocumented ‘cgi.log()’ API.

   - bpo-43937(10): Fixed the *note turtle: 101. module working with
     non-default root window.

   - bpo-43930(11): Update bundled pip to 21.1 and setuptools to 56.0.0

   - bpo-43907(12): Fix a bug in the pure-Python pickle implementation
     when using protocol 5, where bytearray instances that occur several
     time in the pickled object graph would incorrectly unpickle into
     repeated copies of the bytearray object.

   - bpo-43926(13): In ‘importlib.metadata’, provide a uniform interface
     to ‘Description’, allow for any field to be encoded with multiline
     values, remove continuation lines from multiline values, and add a
     ‘.json’ property for easy access to the PEP 566 JSON-compatible
     form.  Sync with ‘importlib_metadata 4.0’.

   - bpo-43920(14): OpenSSL 3.0.0: *note load_verify_locations(): d82.
     now returns a consistent error message when cadata contains no
     valid certificate.

   - bpo-43607(15): *note urllib: 108. can now convert Windows paths
     with ‘\\?\’ prefixes into URL paths.

   - bpo-43817(16): Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f, which
     safely computes the annotations defined on an object.  It works
     around the quirks of accessing the annotations from various types
     of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object passed
     in.  *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. can also correctly
     un-stringize stringized annotations.

     *note inspect.signature(): 561, ‘inspect.from_callable()’, and
     ‘inspect.from_function()’ now call *note inspect.get_annotations():
     64f. to retrieve annotations.  This means *note
     inspect.signature(): 561. and ‘inspect.from_callable()’ can now
     un-stringize stringized annotations, too.

   - bpo-43284(17): platform.win32_ver derives the windows version from
     sys.getwindowsversion().platform_version which in turn derives the
     version from kernel32.dll (which can be of a different version than
     Windows itself).  Therefore change the platform.win32_ver to
     determine the version using the platform module’s _syscmd_ver
     private function to return an accurate version.

   - bpo-42854(18): The *note ssl: cf. module now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

   - bpo-42333(19): Port ‘_ssl’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-43880(20): *note ssl: cf. now raises DeprecationWarning for
     OP_NO_SSL/TLS* options, old TLS versions, old protocols, and other
     features that have been deprecated since Python 3.6, 3.7, or
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-41559(21): PEP 612(22) is now implemented purely in Python;
     builtin ‘types.GenericAlias’ objects no longer include
     ‘typing.ParamSpec’ in ‘__parameters__’ (with the exception of
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’‘s ‘GenericAlias’).  This means
     previously invalid uses of ‘ParamSpec’ (such as ‘list[P]’) which
     worked in earlier versions of Python 3.10 alpha, will now raise
     ‘TypeError’ during substitution.

   - bpo-43867(23): The *note multiprocessing: 93. ‘Server’ class now
     explicitly catches *note SystemExit: bc8. and closes the client
     connection in this case.  It happens when the
     ‘Server.serve_client()’ method reaches the end of file (EOF).

   - bpo-40443(24): Remove unused imports: pyclbr no longer uses copy,
     and typing no longer uses ast.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43820(25): Remove an unneeded copy of the namespace passed to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-43787(26): Add ‘__iter__()’ method to *note bz2.BZ2File: 6aa,
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 296, and *note lzma.LZMAFile: eb3.  It makes
     iterating them about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43680(27): Deprecate io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper: use
     io.open and _pyio.open instead.  Until Python 3.9, _pyio.open was
     not a static method and builtins.open was set to OpenWrapper to not
     become a bound method when set to a class variable.  _io.open is a
     built-in function whereas _pyio.open is a Python function.  In
     Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is now a static method, and
     builtins.open() is now io.open().

   - bpo-43680(28): The Python ‘_pyio.open()’ function becomes a static
     method to behave as *note io.open(): 2a7. built-in function: don’t
     become a bound method when stored as a class variable.  It becomes
     possible since static methods are now callable in Python 3.10.
     Moreover, ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper()’ becomes a simple alias to
     ‘_pyio.open()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41515(29): Fix *note KeyError: 903. raised in *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. due to synthetic modules that don’t
     appear in ‘sys.modules’.

   - bpo-43776(30): When *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. args are provided
     as a string or as *note pathlib.Path: 14f, the Popen instance repr
     now shows the right thing.

   - bpo-42248(31): [Enum] ensure exceptions raised in ‘_missing__’ are
     released

   - bpo-43744(32): fix issue with enum member name matching the start
     of a private variable name

   - bpo-43772(33): Fixed the return value of ‘TypeVar.__ror__’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43764(34): Add match_args parameter to @dataclass decorator to
     allow suppression of __match_args__ generation.

   - bpo-43799(35): OpenSSL 3.0.0: define ‘OPENSSL_API_COMPAT’ 1.1.1 to
     suppress deprecation warnings.  Python requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 APIs.

   - bpo-43478(36): Mocks can no longer be used as the specs for other
     Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot have an
     attribute mocked using ‘autospec=True’ or be the subject of a
     ‘create_autospec(...)’ call.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     *note isinstance(): 151.) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-43794(37): Add *note ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 675.
     constants (OpenSSL 3.0.0)

   - bpo-43785(38): Improve ‘bz2.BZ2File’ performance by removing the
     RLock from BZ2File.  This makes BZ2File thread unsafe in the face
     of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its
     equivalent classes in *note gzip: 65. and *note lzma: 89. have
     always been.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43789(39): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Don’t call the password callback
     function a second time when first call has signaled an error
     condition.

   - bpo-43788(40): The header files for *note ssl: cf. error codes are
     now OpenSSL version-specific.  Exceptions will now show correct
     reason and library codes.  The ‘make_ssl_data.py’ script has been
     rewritten to use OpenSSL’s text file with error codes.

   - bpo-43766(41): Implement PEP 647(42) in the *note typing: 104.
     module by adding ‘TypeGuard’.

   - bpo-25264(43): *note os.path.realpath(): 398. now accepts a
     'strict' keyword-only argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError:
     65c. is raised if a path doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is
     encountered.

   - bpo-43780(44): In ‘importlib.metadata’, incorporate changes from
     importlib_metadata 3.10: Add mtime-based caching during
     distribution discovery.  Flagged use of dict result from
     ‘entry_points()’ as deprecated.

   - gh-47383(45): The ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ attributes of *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 169. are now instances of the new classes *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: 5fd. and *note typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 5fe,
     which enables a more useful ‘repr()’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43731(46): Add an ‘encoding’ parameter ‘logging.fileConfig()’.

   - bpo-43712(47): Add ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters to *note
     fileinput.input(): 639. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560.

   - bpo-38659(48): A ‘simple_enum’ decorator is added to the ‘enum’
     module to convert a normal class into an Enum.  ‘test_simple_enum’
     added to test simple enums against a corresponding normal Enum.
     Standard library modules updated to use ‘simple_enum’.

   - bpo-43764(49): Fix an issue where *note __match_args__: 16e8.
     generation could fail for some *note dataclasses: 2f.

   - bpo-43752(50): Fix *note sqlite3: ce. regression for zero-sized
     blobs with converters, where ‘b""’ was returned instead of ‘None’.
     The regression was introduced by PR 24723.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43655(51): *note tkinter: ef. dialog windows are now recognized
     as dialogs by window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-43723(52): The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated
     and should be replaced:

        - ‘currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread(): 27f.

        - ‘activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count(): 280.

        - ‘Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 279.

        - ‘Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set(): 27a.

        - ‘Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 27e.

        - ‘thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 27e.

        - ‘Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 27c.

        - ‘Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 27c.

     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-2135(53): Deprecate find_module() and find_loader()
     implementations in importlib and zipimport.

   - bpo-43534(54): *note turtle.textinput(): 16eb. and *note
     turtle.numinput(): 16ec. create now a transient window working on
     behalf of the canvas window.

   - bpo-43532(55): Add the ability to specify keyword-only fields to
     dataclasses.  These fields will become keyword-only arguments to
     the generated __init__.

   - bpo-43522(56): Fix problem with *note hostname_checks_common_name:
     9f3.  OpenSSL does not copy hostflags from 'struct SSL_CTX' to
     'struct SSL'.

   - bpo-8978(57): Improve error message for *note tarfile.open(): d0c.
     when *note lzma: 89. / *note bz2: 13. are unavailable.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42967(58): Allow *note bytes: 2cb. ‘separator’ argument in
     ‘urllib.parse.parse_qs’ and ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’ when parsing
     *note str: 15d. query strings.  Previously, this raised a
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-43296(59): Improve *note sqlite3: ce. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_value_blob()’ errors that set ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’ now raise
     *note MemoryError: 1409.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43312(60): New functions *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 4a5. and *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 1649. are added to query a platform
     for its preferred “user”, “home”, and “prefix” (default) scheme
     names.

   - bpo-43265(61): Improve *note sqlite3.Connection.backup(): 9f0.
     error handling.  The error message for non-existent target database
     names is now ‘unknown database <database name>’ instead of ‘SQL
     logic error’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41282(62): Install schemes in ‘distutils.command.install’ are
     now loaded from *note sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-41282(63): ‘distutils.sysconfig’ has been merged to *note
     sysconfig: da.

   - bpo-43176(64): Fixed processing of a dataclass that inherits from a
     frozen dataclass with no fields.  It is now correctly detected as
     an error.

   - bpo-43080(65): *note pprint: ad. now has support for *note
     dataclasses.dataclass: 3d4.  Patch by Lewis Gaul.

   - bpo-39950(66): Add ‘pathlib.Path.hardlink_to()’ method that
     supersedes ‘link_to()’.  The new method has the same argument order
     as ‘symlink_to()’.

   - bpo-42904(67): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. now checks the
     local namespace of a class when evaluating PEP 563(68) annotations
     inside said class.

   - bpo-42269(69): Add ‘slots’ parameter to ‘dataclasses.dataclass’
     decorator to automatically generate ‘__slots__’ for class.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-39529(70): Deprecated use of *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     227. without running event loop.  Emit deprecation warning for
     *note asyncio: a. functions which implicitly create a *note Future:
     a44. or *note Task: 20a. objects if there is no running event loop
     and no explicit 'loop' argument is passed: *note ensure_future():
     af4, *note wrap_future(): 16ed, *note gather(): 40c, *note
     shield(): 8d5, *note as_completed(): 1a1. and constructors of *note
     Future: a44, *note Task: 20a, *note StreamReader: 16ee,
     ‘StreamReaderProtocol’.

   - bpo-18369(71): Certificate and PrivateKey classes were added to the
     ssl module.  Certificates and keys can now be loaded from memory
     buffer, too.

   - bpo-41486(72): Use a new output buffer management code for *note
     bz2: 13. / *note lzma: 89. / *note zlib: 133. modules, and add
     ‘.readall()’ function to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.
     These bring some performance improvements.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-31870(73): The *note ssl.get_server_certificate(): 67a.
     function now has a 'timeout' parameter.

   - bpo-41735(74): Fix thread locks in zlib module may go wrong in rare
     case.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-36470(75): Fix dataclasses with ‘InitVar’s and *note replace():
     16ef.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-40849(76): Expose X509_V_FLAG_PARTIAL_CHAIN ssl flag

   - bpo-35114(77): *note ssl.RAND_status(): 16f0. now returns a boolean
     value (as documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-39906(78): *note pathlib.Path.stat(): 661. and *note chmod():
     662. now accept a 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for
     consistency with corresponding functions in the *note os: a0.
     module.

   - bpo-39899(79): *note os.path.expanduser(): 874. now refuses to
     guess Windows home directories if the basename of current user’s
     home directory does not match their username.

     *note pathlib.Path.expanduser(): cd2. and *note home(): cd3. now
     consistently raise *note RuntimeError: 180. exception when a home
     directory cannot be resolved.  Previously a *note KeyError: 903.
     exception could be raised on Windows when the ‘"USERNAME"’
     environment variable was unset.

   - bpo-36076(80): Added SNI support to *note
     ssl.get_server_certificate(): 67a.

   - bpo-38490(81): Covariance, Pearson’s correlation, and simple linear
     regression functionality was added to statistics module.  Patch by
     Tymoteusz Wołodźko.

   - bpo-33731(82): Provide a locale.localize() function, which converts
     a normalized number string into a locale format.

   - bpo-32745(83): Fix a regression in the handling of ctypes’ *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 16f1. type: embedded null characters would cause
     a *note ValueError: 189. to be raised.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44015

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25478

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43733

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43979

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43993

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43957

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43945

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43937

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43930

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43907

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43926

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43607

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43284

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42854

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43867

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40443

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43820

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41515

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43776

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42248

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43744

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43772

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25264

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43780

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47383

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43731

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38659

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43752

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43723

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2135

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43534

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43522

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8978

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43296

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43312

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43265

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43176

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (68) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39529

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18369

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36470

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35114

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39899

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36076

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33731

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32745


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<32>,  Next: Tests<32>,  Prev: Library<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43987(1): Add “Annotations Best Practices” document as a new
     HOWTO.

   - bpo-43977(2): Document the new *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 16cb. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 16cc. type flags.

   - bpo-43959(3): The documentation on the PyContextVar C-API was
     clarified.

   - bpo-43938(4): Update dataclasses documentation to express that
     FrozenInstanceError is derived from AttributeError.

   - bpo-43778(5): Fix the Sphinx glossary_search extension: create the
     _static/ sub-directory if it doesn’t exist.

   - bpo-43755(6): Update documentation to reflect that unparenthesized
     lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an ‘if’
     clause in comprehensions and generator expressions since Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-43739(7): Fixing the example code in
     Doc/extending/extending.rst to declare and initialize the pmodule
     variable to be of the right type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43959

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43938

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43739


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<32>,  Next: Build<31>,  Prev: Documentation<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43961(1): Fix test_logging.test_namer_rotator_inheritance() on
     Windows: use *note os.replace(): f95. rather than *note
     os.rename(): f94.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43842(2): Fix a race condition in the SMTP test of
     test_logging.  Don’t close a file descriptor (socket) from a
     different thread while asyncore.loop() is polling the file
     descriptor.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43843(3): ‘test.libregrtest’ now marks a test as ENV_CHANGED
     (altered the execution environment) if a thread raises an exception
     but does not catch it.  It sets a hook on *note
     threading.excepthook(): 68a.  Use ‘--fail-env-changed’ option to
     mark the test as failed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43811(4): Tests multiple OpenSSL versions on GitHub Actions.
     Use ccache to speed up testing.

   - bpo-43791(5): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Disable testing of legacy protocols
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1.  Tests are failing with
     TLSV1_ALERT_INTERNAL_ERROR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43961

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43842

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43843

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791


File: python.info,  Node: Build<31>,  Next: Windows<31>,  Prev: Tests<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43567(1): Improved generated code refresh
     (AST/tokens/opcodes/keywords) on Windows.

   - bpo-43669(2): Implement PEP 644(3).  Python now requires OpenSSL
     1.1.1 or newer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43567

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<31>,  Next: macOS<24>,  Prev: Build<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35306(1): Adds additional arguments to *note os.startfile():
     16f6. function.

   - bpo-43538(2): Avoid raising errors from *note
     pathlib.Path.exists(): 876. when passed an invalid filename.

   - bpo-38822(3): Fixed *note os.stat(): 1c5. failing on inaccessible
     directories with a trailing slash, rather than falling back to the
     parent directory’s metadata.  This implicitly affected *note
     os.path.exists(): 86f. and *note os.path.isdir(): 871.

   - bpo-26227(4): Fixed decoding of host names in *note
     socket.gethostbyaddr(): 16f7. and *note socket.gethostbyname_ex():
     16f8.

   - bpo-40432(5): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.8 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.8 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - bpo-43745(6): Actually updates Windows release to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.
     Earlier releases were mislabelled and actually included 1.1.1i
     again.

   - bpo-43652(7): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.11 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-43492(8): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.35.5.

   - bpo-30555(9): Fix ‘WindowsConsoleIO’ errors in the presence of fd
     redirection.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35306

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38822

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40432

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43745

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30555


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<24>,  Next: IDLE<19>,  Prev: Windows<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42119(1): Fix check for macOS SDK paths when building Python.
     Narrow search to match contents of SDKs, namely only files in
     ‘/System/Library’, ‘/System/IOSSupport’, and ‘/usr’ other than
     ‘/usr/local’.  Previously, anything under ‘/System’ was assumed to
     be in an SDK which causes problems with the new file system layout
     in 10.15+ where user file systems may appear to be mounted under
     ‘/System’.  Paths in ‘/Library’ were also incorrectly treated as
     SDK locations.

   - bpo-43568(2): Drop support for MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET < 10.3

   - bpo-44009(3): Provide “python3.x-intel64” executable to allow
     reliably forcing macOS universal2 framework builds to run under
     Rosetta 2 Intel-64 emulation on Apple Silicon Macs.  This can be
     useful for testing or when universal2 wheels are not yet available.

   - bpo-43851(4): Build SQLite with ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on macOS.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43492(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.35.4.

   - bpo-42235(6): ‘Mac/BuildScript/build-installer.py’ will now use
     “–enable-optimizations” and ‘--with-lto’ when building on macOS
     10.15 or later.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42119

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43568

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44009

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42235


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<19>,  Next: C API<28>,  Prev: macOS<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-37903(1): Add mouse actions to the shell sidebar.  Left click
     and optional drag selects one or more lines, as with the editor
     line number sidebar.  Right click after selecting raises a context
     menu with ‘copy with prompts’.  This zips together prompts from the
     sidebar with lines from the selected text.

   - bpo-43981(2): Fix reference leak in test_sidebar and test_squeezer.
     Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-37892(3): Indent IDLE Shell input with spaces instead of tabs

   - bpo-43655(4): IDLE dialog windows are now recognized as dialogs by
     window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-37903(5): IDLE’s shell now shows prompts in a separate
     side-bar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43981

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<28>,  Prev: IDLE<19>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.22.36.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43916(1): Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION:
     31b. type flag to disallow creating type instances.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43774(2): Remove the now unused ‘PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ macro.  Debug
     hooks on memory allocators are now installed by default if Python
     is built in debug mode (if ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  Moreover,
     they can now be used on Python build in release mode (ex: using
     ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable).

   - bpo-43962(3): _PyInterpreterState_IDIncref() now calls
     _PyInterpreterState_IDInitref() and always increments id_refcount.
     Previously, calling _xxsubinterpreters.get_current() could create
     an id_refcount inconsistency when a
     _xxsubinterpreters.InterpreterID object was deallocated.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-28254(4): Add new C-API functions to control the state of the
     garbage collector: *note PyGC_Enable(): 6f1, *note PyGC_Disable():
     6f2, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 6f3, corresponding to the functions in
     the *note gc: 5e. module.

   - bpo-43908(5): Introduce *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8. flag
     for immutable type objects, and modify *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac.
     to set it for static types.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43795(6): *note PyMem_Calloc(): d42. is now available in the
     limited C API (‘Py_LIMITED_API’).

   - bpo-43868(7): *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 31f. is no
     longer exported by limited C API headers and by ‘python3.dll’ on
     Windows.  Like any function that takes ‘FILE*’, it is not part of
     the stable ABI.

   - bpo-43795(8): Stable ABI and limited API definitions are generated
     from a central manifest ( PEP 652(9)).

   - bpo-43753(10): Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): 6ed. function to test if
     the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.
     Add also the *note Py_IsNone(): 6ee, *note Py_IsTrue(): 6ef, *note
     Py_IsFalse(): 6f0. functions to test if an object is, respectively,
     the ‘None’ singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’
     singleton.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43774

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28254

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.37 Python 3.10.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-04-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* C API: C API<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<25>,  Next: Core and Builtins<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42988(1): CVE 2021-3426(2): Remove the ‘getfile’ feature of the
     *note pydoc: b4. module which could be abused to read arbitrary
     files on the disk (directory traversal vulnerability).  Moreover,
     even source code of Python modules can contain sensitive data like
     passwords.  Vulnerability reported by David Schwörer.

   - bpo-43285(3): *note ftplib: 5c. no longer trusts the IP address
     value returned from the server in response to the PASV command by
     default.  This prevents a malicious FTP server from using the
     response to probe IPv4 address and port combinations on the client
     network.

     Code that requires the former vulnerable behavior may set a
     ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on their *note
     ftplib.FTP: 74f. instances to ‘True’ to re-enable it.

   - bpo-43439(4): Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): 63d,
     *note gc.get_referrers(): 63e. and *note gc.get_referents(): 63f.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42988

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2021-3426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43285

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<36>,  Next: Library<37>,  Prev: Security<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27129(1): Update CPython bytecode magic number.

   - bpo-43672(2): Raise ImportWarning when calling find_loader().

   - bpo-43660(3): Fix crash that happens when replacing ‘sys.stderr’
     with a callable that can remove the object while an exception is
     being printed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-27129(4): The bytecode interpreter uses instruction, rather
     byte, offsets internally.  This reduces the number of EXTENDED_ARG
     instructions needed and streamlines instruction dispatch a bit.

   - bpo-40645(5): Fix reference leak in the ‘_hashopenssl’ extension.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42134(6): Calls to find_module() by the import system now raise
     ImportWarning.

   - bpo-41064(7): Improve the syntax error for invalid usage of double
     starred elements (‘**’) in f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43575(8): Speed up calls to ‘map()’ by using the PEP 590(9)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42137(10): The import system now prefers using ‘__spec__’ for
     ‘ModuleType.__repr__’ over ‘module_repr()’.

   - bpo-43452(11): Added micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to
     improve cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits.

   - bpo-43555(12): Report the column offset for *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     for invalid line continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43517(13): Fix misdetection of circular imports when using
     ‘from pkg.mod import attr’, which caused false positives in
     non-trivial multi-threaded code.

   - bpo-43497(14): Emit SyntaxWarnings for assertions with tuple
     constants, this is a regression introduced in python3.7

   - bpo-39316(15): Tracing now has correct line numbers for attribute
     accesses when the attribute is on a different line from the object.
     Improves debugging and profiling for multi-line method chains.

   - bpo-35883(16): Python no longer fails at startup with a fatal error
     if a command line argument contains an invalid Unicode character.
     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. function now escapes byte
     sequences which would be decoded as Unicode characters outside the
     [U+0000; U+10ffff] range.

   - bpo-43410(17): Fix a bug that was causing the parser to crash when
     emitting syntax errors when reading input from stdin.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43406(18): Fix a possible race condition where
     ‘PyErr_CheckSignals’ tries to execute a non-Python signal handler.

   - bpo-42128(19): Add ‘__match_args__’ to *note struct sequence
     objects: 1064.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43390(20): CPython now sets the ‘SA_ONSTACK’ flag in
     ‘PyOS_setsig’ for the VM’s default signal handlers.  This is
     friendlier to other in-process code that an extension module or
     embedding use could pull in (such as Golang’s cgo) where tiny
     thread stacks are the norm and ‘sigaltstack()’ has been used to
     provide for signal handlers.  This is a no-op change for the vast
     majority of processes that don’t use sigaltstack.

   - bpo-43287(21): Speed up calls to ‘filter()’ by using the PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37448(23): Add a radix tree based memory map to track in-use
     obmalloc arenas.  Use to replace the old implementation of
     address_in_range().  The radix tree approach makes it easy to
     increase pool sizes beyond the OS page size.  Boosting the pool and
     arena size allows obmalloc to handle a significantly higher
     percentage of requests from its ultra-fast paths.

     It also has the advantage of eliminating the memory unsanitary
     behavior of the previous address_in_range().  The old
     address_in_range() was marked with the annotations
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_ADDRESS, _Py_NO_SANITIZE_THREAD, and
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY. Those annotations are no longer needed.

     To disable the radix tree map, set a preprocessor flag as follows:
     ‘-DWITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0’.

     Co-authored-by: Tim Peters <<tim.peters@gmail.com>>

   - bpo-29988(24): Only handle asynchronous exceptions and requests to
     drop the GIL when returning from a call or on the back edges of
     loops.  Makes sure that *note __exit__(): 11aa. is always called in
     with statements, even for interrupts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43497

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39316

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35883

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43410

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43406

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43390

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37448

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29988


File: python.info,  Node: Library<37>,  Next: Documentation<33>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43720(1): Document various stdlib deprecations in imp, pkgutil,
     and importlib.util for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-43433(2): *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: 8ba. no longer
     ignores query and fragment in the URL of the server.

   - bpo-31956(3): The *note index(): 61a. method of *note array.array:
     195. now has optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.

   - bpo-40066(4): Enum: adjust ‘repr()’ to show only enum and member
     name (not value, nor angle brackets) and ‘str()’ to show only
     member name.  Update and improve documentation to match.

   - bpo-42136(5): Deprecate all module_repr() methods found in
     importlib as their use is being phased out by Python 3.12.

   - bpo-35930(6): Raising an exception raised in a “future” instance
     will create reference cycles.

   - bpo-41369(7): Finish updating the vendored libmpdec to version
     2.5.1.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-43422(8): Revert the _decimal C API which was added in
     bpo-41324(9).

   - bpo-43577(10): Fix deadlock when using *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.
     debug callback with *note ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback(): 1700.

   - bpo-43571(11): It’s now possible to create MPTCP sockets with
     IPPROTO_MPTCP

   - bpo-43542(12): ‘image/heic’ and ‘image/heif’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 8e.

   - bpo-40645(13): The *note hmac: 68. module now uses OpenSSL’s HMAC
     implementation when digestmod argument is a hash name or builtin
     hash function.

   - bpo-43510(14): Implement PEP 597(15): Add ‘EncodingWarning’
     warning, ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option, *note
     PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 5f3. environment variable and
     ‘encoding="locale"’ argument value.

   - bpo-43521(16): ‘ast.unparse’ can now render NaNs and empty sets.

   - bpo-42914(17): *note pprint.pprint(): 666. gains a new boolean
     ‘underscore_numbers’ optional argument to emit integers with
     thousands separated by an underscore character for improved
     readability (for example ‘1_000_000’ instead of ‘1000000’).

   - bpo-41361(18): *note rotate(): 1701. calls are now slightly faster
     due to faster argument parsing.

   - bpo-43423(19): ‘subprocess.communicate()’ no longer raises an
     IndexError when there is an empty stdout or stderr IO buffer during
     a timeout on Windows.

   - bpo-27820(20): Fixed long-standing bug of smtplib.SMTP where doing
     AUTH LOGIN with initial_response_ok=False will fail.

     The cause is that SMTP.auth_login _always_ returns a password if
     provided with a challenge string, thus non-compliant with the
     standard for AUTH LOGIN.

     Also fixes bug with the test for smtpd.

   - bpo-43445(21): Add frozen modules to *note sys.stdlib_module_names:
     680.  For example, add ‘"_frozen_importlib"’ and
     ‘"_frozen_importlib_external"’ names.

   - bpo-43245(22): Add keyword arguments support to
     ‘ChainMap.new_child()’.

   - bpo-29982(23): Add optional parameter 'ignore_cleanup_errors' to
     *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 10db. and allow multiple
     ‘cleanup()’ attempts.  Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-43428(24): Include changes from importlib_metadata 3.7(25):

     Performance enhancements to distribution discovery.

     ‘entry_points’ only returns unique distributions.

     Introduces new ‘EntryPoints’ object for containing a set of entry
     points with convenience methods for selecting entry points by group
     or name.  ‘entry_points’ now returns this object if selection
     parameters are supplied but continues to return a dict object for
     compatibility.  Users are encouraged to rely on the selection
     interface.  The dict object result is likely to be deprecated in
     the future.

     Added packages_distributions function to return a mapping of
     packages to the distributions that provide them.

   - bpo-43332(26): Improves the networking efficiency of *note
     http.client: 6d. when using a proxy via ‘set_tunnel()’.  Fewer
     small send calls are made during connection setup.

   - bpo-43420(27): Improve performance of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1ae. arithmetics for large components.  Contributed by Sergey B.
     Kirpichev.

   - bpo-43356(28): Allow passing a signal number to
     ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’.

   - bpo-43399(29): Fix ‘ElementTree.extend’ not working on iterators
     when using the Python implementation

   - bpo-43369(30): Improve *note sqlite3: ce. error handling: If
     ‘sqlite3_column_text()’ and ‘sqlite3_column_blob()’ set
     ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’, *note MemoryError: 1409. is now raised.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43368(31): Fix a regression introduced in PR 24562, where an
     empty bytestring was fetched as ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’ in *note
     sqlite3: ce.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - bpo-41282(32): Fixed stacklevel of ‘DeprecationWarning’ emitted
     from ‘import distutils’.

   - bpo-42129(33): ‘importlib.resources’ now honors namespace packages,
     merging resources from each location in the namespace as introduced
     in ‘importlib_resources’ 3.2 and including incidental changes
     through 5.0.3.

   - bpo-43295(34): *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1468. now raises
     ‘ValueError’ instead of ‘IndexError’ when matching ‘'z'’ with the
     ‘%z’ format specifier.

   - bpo-43125(35): Return empty string if base64mime.body_encode
     receive empty bytes

   - bpo-43084(36): *note curses.window.enclose(): 1702. returns now
     ‘True’ or ‘False’ (as was documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-42994(37): Add MIME types for opus, AAC, 3gpp and 3gpp2

   - bpo-14678(38): Add an invalidate_caches() method to the
     zipimport.zipimporter class to support
     importlib.invalidate_caches().  Patch by Desmond Cheong.

   - bpo-42782(39): Fail fast in *note shutil.move(): 8c0. to avoid
     creating destination directories on failure.

   - bpo-40066(40): Enum’s ‘repr()’ and ‘str()’ have changed: ‘repr()’
     is now 'EnumClass.MemberName' and ‘str()’ is 'MemberName'.
     Additionally, stdlib Enum’s whose contents are available as module
     attributes, such as ‘RegexFlag.IGNORECASE’, have their ‘repr()’ as
     'module.name', e.g.  ‘re.IGNORECASE’.

   - bpo-26053(41): Fixed bug where the *note pdb: a4. interactive run
     command echoed the args from the shell command line, even if those
     have been overridden at the pdb prompt.

   - bpo-24160(42): Fixed bug where breakpoints did not persist across
     multiple debugger sessions in *note pdb: a4.’s interactive mode.

   - bpo-40701(43): When the *note tempfile.tempdir: 1703. global
     variable is set to a value of type bytes, it is now handled
     consistently.  Previously exceptions could be raised from some
     tempfile APIs when the directory did not already exist in this
     situation.  Also ensures that the *note tempfile.gettempdir():
     1704. and *note tempfile.gettempdirb(): 1705. functions 'always'
     return ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ respectively.

   - bpo-39342(44): Expose ‘X509_V_FLAG_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS’ as *note
     VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS: 1706. to allow proxy certificate
     validation as explained in
     ‘https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man7/proxy-certificates/’.

   - bpo-31861(45): Add builtins.aiter and builtins.anext.  Patch by
     Joshua Bronson (@jab), Daniel Pope (@lordmauve), and Justin Wang
     (@justin39).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43433

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35930

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43577

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43542

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43510

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43521

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41361

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43423

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27820

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43445

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43245

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29982

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43428

   (25) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-7-0

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43332

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43420

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43399

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43369

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43368

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42129

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43295

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43125

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43084

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42994

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42782

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26053

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40701

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39342

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<33>,  Next: Tests<33>,  Prev: Library<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43199(1): Answer “Why is there no goto?” in the Design and
     History FAQ.

   - bpo-43407(2): Clarified that a result from *note time.monotonic():
     d12, *note time.perf_counter(): 8ed, *note time.process_time():
     8ee, or *note time.thread_time(): 78f. can be compared with the
     result from any following call to the same function - not just the
     next immediate call.

   - bpo-43354(3): Fix type documentation for ‘Fault.faultCode’; the
     type has to be ‘int’ instead of ‘str’.

   - bpo-41933(4): Clarified wording of s * n in the Common Sequence
     Operations

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43407

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43354

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41933


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<33>,  Next: Build<32>,  Prev: Documentation<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37945(1): Fix test_getsetlocale_issue1813() of test_locale:
     skip the test if ‘setlocale()’ fails.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41561(2): Add workaround for Ubuntu’s custom OpenSSL security
     level policy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561


File: python.info,  Node: Build<32>,  Next: Windows<32>,  Prev: Tests<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43179(1): Introduce and correctly use ALIGNOF_X in place of
     SIZEOF_X for alignment-related code in optimized string routines.
     Patch by Jessica Clarke.

   - bpo-43631(2): Update macOS, Windows, and CI to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.

   - bpo-43617(3): Improve configure.ac: Check for presence of
     autoconf-archive package and remove our copies of M4 macros.

   - bpo-43466(4): The ‘configure’ script now supports
     ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ option.

   - bpo-43372(5): Use ‘_freeze_importlib’ to generate code for the
     ‘__hello__’ module.  This approach ensures the code matches the
     interpreter version.  Previously, PYTHON_FOR_REGEN was used to
     generate the code, which might be wrong.  The marshal format for
     code objects has changed with bpo-42246(6), commit 877df851.
     Update the code and the expected code sizes in ctypes
     test_frozentable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43372

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<32>,  Next: IDLE<20>,  Prev: Build<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43440(1): Build *note sqlite3: ce. with the ‘R*Tree’ module
     enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43440


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<20>,  Next: C API<29>,  Prev: Windows<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42225(1): Document that IDLE can fail on Unix either from
     misconfigured IP masquerade rules or failure displaying complex
     colored (non-ascii) characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42225


File: python.info,  Node: C API<29>,  Prev: IDLE<20>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.22.37.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-43688(1): The limited C API is now supported if Python is built
     in debug mode (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the limited
     C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 305. and *note Py_DECREF(): 306.
     functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather than
     accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 6ea. member, if
     Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 6eb.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(2)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the ‘--with-trace-refs’
     special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(3): Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(4): Remove the compiler and parser functions using
     ‘struct _mod’ type, because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(5): Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header
     files.  These functions were undocumented and excluded from the
     limited C API. Most names defined by these header files were not
     prefixed by ‘Py’ and so could create names conflicts.  For example,
     ‘Python-ast.h’ defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the
     ‘Yield’ name used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the
     Python *note ast: 8. module instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43541(6): Fix a ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx()’ regression: fix reference
     counting on builtins.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(7): Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the
     undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     The Python *note symtable: d7. module remains available and is
     unchanged.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(8): Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no
     longer possible to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the
     public C API. The function was already excluded from the limited C
     API ( PEP 384(9)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43541

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.22.38 Python 3.10.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-03-01'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<30>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<26>,  Next: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42967(1): Fix web cache poisoning vulnerability by defaulting
     the query args separator to ‘&’, and allowing the user to choose a
     custom separator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<37>,  Next: Library<38>,  Prev: Security<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43321(1): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ is
     used with ‘#’ but without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - bpo-36346(2): ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions now emits
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ when ‘u’ or ‘Z’ format is used.  See PEP
     623(3) for detail.

   - bpo-43277(4): Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): 6e8. function to
     the C-API to check if an object is an instance of *note set: 3e4.
     but not an instance of a subtype.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42990(5): The *note types.FunctionType: 6c9. constructor now
     inherits the current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 6ca. and *note exec():
     6cb. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42990(6): Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which
     is used to look for builtin symbols when a function is executed,
     instead of looking into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  Patch by
     Mark Shannon and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43149(7): Improve the error message in the parser for exception
     groups without parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43121(8): Fixed an incorrect *note SyntaxError: 14c. message
     for missing comma in literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42819(9): *note readline: b9.: Explicitly disable bracketed
     paste in the interactive interpreter, even if it’s set in the
     inputrc, is enabled by default (eg GNU Readline 8.1), or a user
     calls ‘readline.read_init_file()’.  The Python REPL has not
     implemented bracketed paste support.  Also, bracketed mode writes
     the ‘"\x1b[?2004h"’ escape sequence into stdout which causes test
     failures in applications that don’t support it.  It can still be
     explicitly enabled by calling ‘readline.parse_and_bind("set
     enable-bracketed-paste on")’.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-42808(10): Simple calls to ‘type(object)’ are now faster due to
     the ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-42217(11): Make the compiler merges same co_code and
     co_linetable objects in a module like already did for co_consts.

   - bpo-41972(12): Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’
     and ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use the “Two-Way” string
     comparison algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long strings.

   - bpo-42128(13): Implement PEP 634(14) (structural pattern matching).
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-40692(15): In the *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     741, validate that ‘multiprocess.synchronize()’ is available on a
     given platform and rely on that check in the *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. test suite so we can run tests that are
     unrelated to ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ on those platforms.

   - bpo-38302(16): If *note object.__ipow__(): 60a. returns *note
     NotImplemented: 60b, the operator will correctly fall back to *note
     object.__pow__(): 60c. and *note object.__rpow__(): 60d. as
     expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43321

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43121

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42819

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42808

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42217

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40692

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302


File: python.info,  Node: Library<38>,  Next: Documentation<34>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43316(1): The ‘python -m gzip’ command line application now
     properly fails when detecting an unsupported extension.  It exits
     with a non-zero exit code and prints an error message to stderr.

   - bpo-43317(2): Set the chunk size for the ‘gzip’ module main
     function to io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE. This is slightly faster than
     the 1024 bytes constant that was used previously.

   - bpo-43146(3): Handle None in single-arg versions of *note
     print_exception(): 68e. and *note format_exception(): 68c.

   - bpo-43260(4): Fix TextIOWrapper can not flush internal buffer
     forever after very large text is written.

   - bpo-43258(5): Prevent needless allocation of *note sqlite3: ce.
     aggregate function context when no rows match an aggregate query.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43251(6): Improve *note sqlite3: ce. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_column_name()’ failures now result in *note MemoryError:
     1409.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40956(7): Fix segfault in *note sqlite3.Connection.backup():
     9f0. if no argument was provided.  The regression was introduced by
     PR 23838.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43172(8): The readline module now passes its tests when built
     directly against libedit.  Existing irreconcilable API differences
     remain in *note readline.get_begidx(): 1711. and *note
     readline.get_endidx(): 1712. behavior based on libreadline vs
     libedit use.

   - bpo-43163(9): Fix a bug in *note codeop: 1c. that was causing it to
     not ask for more input when multi-line snippets have unclosed
     parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43162(10): deprecate unsupported ability to access enum members
     as attributes of other enum members

   - bpo-43146(11): Fix recent regression in None argument handling in
     *note traceback: fe. module functions.

   - bpo-43102(12): The namedtuple __new__ method had its __builtins__
     set to None instead of an actual dictionary.  This created problems
     for introspection tools.

   - bpo-43106(13): Added *note O_EVTONLY: 657, *note O_FSYNC: 658,
     *note O_SYMLINK: 659. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 65a. for macOS.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42960(14): Adds *note resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES: 1713. constant
     from FreeBSD to the *note resource: bb. module.

   - bpo-42151(15): Make the pure Python implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. behave the same as the C implementation
     (‘_elementree’) regarding default attribute values (by not setting
     ‘specified_attributes=1’).

   - bpo-29753(16): In ctypes, now packed bitfields are calculated
     properly and the first item of packed bitfields is now shrank
     correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43316

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43258

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43251

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40956

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43172

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43163

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43162

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43102

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42960

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42151

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29753


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<34>,  Next: Tests<34>,  Prev: Library<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27646(1): Clarify that ‘yield from <expr>’ works with any
     iterable, not just iterators.

   - bpo-36346(2): Update some deprecated unicode APIs which are
     documented as “will be removed in 4.0” to “3.12”.  See PEP 623(3)
     for detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<34>,  Next: Build<33>,  Prev: Documentation<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43288(1): Fix test_importlib to correctly skip Unicode file
     tests if the filesystem does not support them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43288


File: python.info,  Node: Build<33>,  Next: Windows<33>,  Prev: Tests<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43174(1): Windows build now uses ‘/utf-8’ compiler option.

   - bpo-43103(2): Add a new configure ‘--without-static-libpython’
     option to not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and
     not install the ‘python.o’ object file.

   - bpo-13501(3): The configure script can now use 'libedit' instead of
     'readline' with the command line option ‘--with-readline=editline’.

   - bpo-42603(4): Make configure script use pkg-config to detect the
     location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries, used to build tkinter.

     On macOS, a Tcl/Tk configuration provided by pkg-config will be
     preferred over Tcl/Tk frameworks installed in
     ‘/{System/,}Library/Frameworks’.  If both exist and the latter is
     preferred, the appropriate ‘--with-tcltk-*’ configuration options
     need to be explicitly set.

   - bpo-39448(5): Add the “regen-frozen” makefile target that
     regenerates the code for the frozen ‘__hello__’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43174

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13501

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<33>,  Next: macOS<25>,  Prev: Build<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43155(1): *note PyCMethod_New(): 1718. is now present in
     ‘python3.lib’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43155


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<25>,  Next: IDLE<21>,  Prev: Windows<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41837(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<21>,  Next: C API<30>,  Prev: macOS<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43283(1): Document why printing to IDLE’s Shell is often slower
     than printing to a system terminal and that it can be made faster
     by pre-formatting a single string before printing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43283


File: python.info,  Node: C API<30>,  Prev: IDLE<21>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.22.38.10 C API
................

   - bpo-43278(1): Always put compiler and system information on the
     first line of the REPL welcome message.

   - bpo-43270(2): Remove the private ‘_PyErr_OCCURRED()’ macro: use the
     public *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. function instead.

   - bpo-35134(3): Move odictobject.h, parser_interface.h,
     picklebufobject.h, pydebug.h, and pyfpe.h into the cpython/
     directory.  They must not be included directly, as they are already
     included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 5b4.

   - bpo-35134(4): Move pyarena.h, pyctype.h, and pytime.h into the
     cpython/ directory.  They must not be included directly, as they
     are already included by Python.h: *note Include Files: 5b4.

   - bpo-40170(5): ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ is now always declared as a
     function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_name: 171d. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43239(6): The *note PyCFunction_New(): 171e. function is now
     exported in the ABI when compiled with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40170(7): *note PyIter_Check(): 171f. is now always declared as
     a function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_iternext: 137c. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40170(8): Convert *note PyDescr_IsData(): 1720. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: The macro accessed *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set: 1721. directly.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43181(9): Convert *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 1722. macro to a
     static inline function.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43239

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43181


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.22.39 Python 3.10.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-02-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<27>,  Next: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42938(1): Avoid static buffers when computing the repr of *note
     ctypes.c_double: 1725. and *note ctypes.c_longdouble: 1726. values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42938


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<38>,  Next: Library<39>,  Prev: Security<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42990(1): Refactor the ‘PyEval_’ family of functions.

        * An new function ‘_PyEval_Vector’ is added to simplify calls to
          Python from C.

        * ‘_PyEval_EvalCodeWithName’ is removed

        * ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx’ is retained as part of the API, but is not
          used internally

   - bpo-38631(2): Replace *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1. calls in the
     compiler with regular *note SystemError: 30e. exceptions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42997(3): Improve error message for missing “:” before blocks.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43017(4): Improve error message in the parser when using
     un-parenthesised tuples in comprehensions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42986(5): Fix parser crash when reporting syntax errors in
     f-string with newlines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40176(6): Syntax errors for unterminated string literals now
     point to the start of the string instead of reporting EOF/EOL.

   - bpo-42927(7): The inline cache for ‘LOAD_ATTR’ now also optimizes
     access to attributes defined by ‘__slots__’.  This makes reading
     such attribute up to 30% faster.

   - bpo-42864(8): Improve error messages in the parser when parentheses
     are not closed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42924(9): Fix ‘bytearray’ repetition incorrectly copying data
     from the start of the buffer, even if the data is offset within the
     buffer (e.g.  after reassigning a slice at the start of the
     ‘bytearray’ to a shorter byte string).

   - bpo-42882(10): Fix the ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function
     (_Py_IDENTIFIER(var) API) when *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. / *note
     Py_Finalize(): 1200. is called multiple times: preserve
     ‘_PyRuntime.unicode_ids.next_index’ value.

   - bpo-42827(11): Fix a crash when working out the error line of a
     *note SyntaxError: 14c. in some multi-line expressions.

   - bpo-42823(12): frame.f_lineno is correct even if frame.f_trace is
     set to True

   - bpo-37324(13): Remove deprecated aliases to *note Collections
     Abstract Base Classes: 6bd. from the *note collections: 1d. module.

   - bpo-41994(14): Fixed possible leak in ‘import’ when ‘sys.modules’
     is not a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-27772(15): In string formatting, preceding the 'width' field by
     ‘'0'’ no longer affects the default alignment for strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42986

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42924

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42882

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42827

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41994

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27772


File: python.info,  Node: Library<39>,  Next: Documentation<35>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43108(1): Fixed a reference leak in the *note curses: 2b.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43077(2): Update the bundled pip to 21.0.1 and setuptools to
     52.0.0.

   - bpo-41282(3): Deprecate ‘distutils’ in documentation and add
     warning on import.

   - bpo-43014(4): Improve performance of *note tokenize: fb. by 20-30%.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42323(5): Fix *note math.nextafter(): 1bd. for NaN on AIX.

   - bpo-42955(6): Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 680, containing
     the list of the standard library module names.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42944(7): Fix ‘random.Random.sample’ when ‘counts’ argument is
     not ‘None’.

   - bpo-42934(8): Use *note TracebackException: 4ba.’s new ‘compact’
     param in *note TestResult: 100e. to reduce time and memory consumed
     by traceback formatting.

   - bpo-42931(9): Add ‘randbytes()’ to ‘random.__all__’.

   - bpo-38250(10): [Enum] Flags consisting of a single bit are now
     considered canonical, and will be the only flags returned from
     listing and iterating over a Flag class or a Flag member.
     Multi-bit flags are considered aliases; they will be returned from
     lookups and operations that result in their value.  Iteration for
     both Flag and Flag members is in definition order.

   - bpo-42877(11): Added the ‘compact’ parameter to the constructor of
     *note traceback.TracebackException: 4ba. to reduce time and memory
     for use cases that only need to call ‘TracebackException.format()’
     and ‘TracebackException.format_exception_only()’.

   - bpo-42923(12): The *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1. function and the
     *note faulthandler: 56. module now dump the list of extension
     modules on a fatal error.

   - bpo-42848(13): Removed recursion from *note TracebackException:
     4ba. to allow it to handle long exception chains.

   - bpo-42901(14): [Enum] move member creation from ‘EnumMeta.__new__’
     to ‘_proto_member.__set_name__’, allowing members to be created and
     visible in ‘__init_subclass__’.

   - bpo-42780(15): Fix os.set_inheritable() for O_PATH file descriptors
     on Linux.

   - bpo-42866(16): Fix a reference leak in the ‘getcodec()’ function of
     CJK codecs.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42846(17): Convert the 6 CJK codec extension modules
     (_codecs_cn, _codecs_hk, _codecs_iso2022, _codecs_jp, _codecs_kr
     and _codecs_tw) to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP
     489(18)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42851(19): remove __init_subclass__ support for Enum members

   - bpo-42834(20): Make internal caches of the ‘_json’ module
     compatible with subinterpreters.

   - bpo-41748(21): Fix HTMLParser parsing rules for element attributes
     containing commas with spaces.  Patch by Karl Dubost.

   - bpo-40810(22): Require SQLite 3.7.15 or newer.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert the _multibytecodec extension module (CJK
     codecs) to multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42802(25): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in
     Python 3.8 has been removed.  The distutils ‘bdist_wheel’ command
     is now recommended to distribute binary packages on Windows.

   - bpo-24464(26): The undocumented built-in function
     ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is now deprecated, scheduled for
     removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is strongly discouraged by the
     SQLite3 documentation.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42384(27): Make pdb populate sys.path[0] exactly the same as
     regular python execution.

   - bpo-42383(28): Fix pdb: previously pdb would fail to restart the
     debugging target if it was specified using a relative path and the
     current directory changed.

   - bpo-42005(29): Fix CLI of *note cProfile: 27. and *note profile:
     ae. to catch *note BrokenPipeError: f06.

   - bpo-41604(30): Don’t decrement the reference count of the previous
     user_ptr when set_panel_userptr fails.

   - bpo-41149(31): Allow executing callables that have a boolean value
     of ‘False’ when passed to ‘Threading.thread’ as the target.  Patch
     contributed by Barney Stratford.

   - bpo-38307(32): Add an ‘end_lineno’ attribute to the Class and
     Function objects that appear in the tree returned by pyclbr
     functions.  This and the existing ‘lineno’ attribute define the
     extent of class and def statements.  Patch by Aviral Srivastava.

   - bpo-39273(33): The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the
     *note curses: 2b. module if available.

   - bpo-33289(34): Correct call to *note tkinter.colorchooser: f0. to
     return RGB triplet of ints instead of floats.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43108

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43077

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43014

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42323

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42931

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38250

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42923

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42848

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42901

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42780

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42866

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42846

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42851

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42834

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41748

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42384

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42383

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42005

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41149

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33289


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<35>,  Next: Tests<35>,  Prev: Library<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-40304(1): Fix doc for type(name, bases, dict).  Patch by Boris
     Verkhovskiy and Éric Araujo.

   - bpo-42811(2): Updated importlib.util.resolve_name() doc to use
     __spec__.parent instead of __package__.  (Thanks Yair Frid.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42811


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<35>,  Next: Build<34>,  Prev: Documentation<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40823(1): Use ‘unittest.TestLoader().loadTestsFromTestCase()’
     instead of ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ in *note sqlite3: ce. tests.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40810(2): In *note sqlite3: ce, fix ‘CheckTraceCallbackContent’
     for SQLite pre 3.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810


File: python.info,  Node: Build<34>,  Next: Windows<34>,  Prev: Tests<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-43031(1): Pass ‘--timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’ option to the default
     profile task ‘./python -m test --pgo’ command.

   - bpo-36143(2): ‘make regen-all’ now also runs ‘regen-keyword’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42874(3): Removed the grep -q and -E flags in the tzpath
     validation section of the configure script to better accommodate
     users of some platforms (specifically Solaris 10).

   - bpo-31904(4): Add library search path by wr-cc in
     add_cross_compiling_paths() for VxWorks.

   - bpo-42856(5): Add ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH’ option to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 53.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43031

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<34>,  Next: macOS<26>,  Prev: Build<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41837(1): Updated Windows installer to include OpenSSL 1.1.1i

   - bpo-42584(2): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<26>,  Next: IDLE<22>,  Prev: Windows<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Ensure that the value of
     sysconfig.get_config_var(‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’) is always a
     string, even in when the value is parsable as an integer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<22>,  Next: C API<31>,  Prev: macOS<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-43008(1): Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 646. in
     normal, 2-process mode.  Patch by Ken Hilton.

   - bpo-33065(2): Fix problem debugging user classes with __repr__
     method.

   - bpo-23544(3): Disable Debug=>Stack Viewer when user code is running
     or Debugger is active, to prevent hang or crash.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   - bpo-32631(4): Finish zzdummy example extension module: make menu
     entries work; add docstrings and tests with 100% coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33065

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23544

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32631


File: python.info,  Node: C API<31>,  Prev: IDLE<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.22.39.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42979(1): When Python is built in debug mode (with C
     assertions), calling a type slot like ‘sq_length’ (‘__len__()’ in
     Python) now fails with a fatal error if the slot succeeded with an
     exception set, or failed with no exception set.  The error message
     contains the slot, the type name, and the current exception (if an
     exception is set).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43030(2): Fixed a compiler warning in *note
     Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(): 1730. on platforms with signed ‘wchar_t’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42979

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43030


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.22.40 Python 3.10.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-01-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<32>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<39>,  Next: Library<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42814(1): Fix undefined behavior in
     ‘Objects/genericaliasobject.c’.

   - bpo-42806(2): Fix the column offsets for f-strings *note ast: 8.
     nodes surrounded by parentheses and for nodes that spawn multiple
     lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40631(3): Fix regression where a single parenthesized starred
     expression was a valid assignment target.

   - bpo-27794(4): Improve the error message for failed writes/deletes
     to property objects.  When possible, the attribute name is now
     shown.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42745(5): Make the type attribute lookup cache per-interpreter.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42246(6): Jumps to jumps are not eliminated when it would break
     PEP 626.

   - bpo-42246(7): Make sure that the ‘f_lasti’ and ‘f_lineno’
     attributes of a frame are set correctly when an exception is raised
     or re-raised.  Required for PEP 626.

   - bpo-32381(8): The coding cookie (ex: ‘# coding: latin1’) is now
     ignored in the command passed to the *note -c: 3eb. command line
     option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-30858(9): Improve error location in expressions that contain
     assignments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou.

   - bpo-42615(10): Remove jump commands made redundant by the deletion
     of unreachable bytecode blocks

   - bpo-42639(11): Make the *note atexit: c. module state
     per-interpreter.  It is now safe have more than one *note atexit:
     c. module instance.  Patch by Donghee Na and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32381(12): Fix encoding name when running a ‘.pyc’ file on
     Windows: *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 1733. now uses the
     correct encoding to decode the filename.

   - bpo-42195(13): The ‘__args__’ of the parameterized generics for
     *note typing.Callable: 5fc. and *note collections.abc.Callable:
     624. are now consistent.  The ‘__args__’ for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: 624. are now flattened while *note
     typing.Callable: 5fc.’s have not changed.  To allow this change,
     *note types.GenericAlias: 625. can now be subclassed and
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’’s ‘__class_getitem__’ will now return a
     subclass of ‘types.GenericAlias’.  Tests for typing were also
     updated to not subclass things like ‘Callable[..., T]’ as that is
     not a valid base class.  Finally, both ‘Callable’s no longer
     validate their ‘argtypes’, in ‘Callable[[argtypes], resulttype]’ to
     prepare for PEP 612(14).  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-40137(15): Convert functools module to use *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0.

   - bpo-40077(16): Convert *note array: 7. to use heap types, and
     establish module state for these.

   - bpo-42008(17): Fix _random.Random() seeding.

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port the ‘pyexpat’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-40521(20): Make the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39465(21): Make ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Each interpreter now has an array of identifier
     objects (interned strings decoded from UTF-8).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42806

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30858

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42615

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40137

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465


File: python.info,  Node: Library<40>,  Next: Documentation<36>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-42257(1): Handle empty string in variable executable in
     platform.libc_ver()

   - bpo-42772(2): randrange() now raises a TypeError when step is
     specified without a stop argument.  Formerly, it silently ignored
     the step argument.

   - bpo-42759(3): Fixed equality comparison of ‘tkinter.Variable’ and
     *note tkinter.font.Font: 1735.  Objects which belong to different
     Tcl interpreters are now always different, even if they have the
     same name.

   - bpo-42756(4): Configure LMTP Unix-domain socket to use socket
     global default timeout when a timeout is not explicitly provided.

   - bpo-23328(5): Allow / character in username, password fields on
     _PROXY envars.

   - bpo-42740(6): *note typing.get_args(): 6c4. and *note
     typing.get_origin(): 8aa. now support PEP 604(7) union types and
     PEP 612(8) additions to ‘Callable’.

   - bpo-42655(9): *note subprocess: d5. 'extra_groups' is now correctly
     passed into setgroups() system call.

   - bpo-42727(10): ‘EnumMeta.__prepare__’ now accepts ‘**kwds’ to
     properly support ‘__init_subclass__’

   - bpo-38308(11): Add optional 'weights' to
     'statistics.harmonic_mean()'.

   - bpo-42721(12): When simple query dialogs (*note
     tkinter.simpledialog: f7.), message boxes (*note
     tkinter.messagebox: f5.) or color choose dialog (*note
     tkinter.colorchooser: f0.) are created without arguments 'master'
     and 'parent', and the default root window is not yet created, and
     ‘NoDefaultRoot()’ was not called, a new temporal hidden root window
     will be created automatically.  It will not be set as the default
     root window and will be destroyed right after closing the dialog
     window.  It will help to use these simple dialog windows in
     programs which do not need other GUI.

   - bpo-25246(13): Optimized *note collections.deque.remove(): 1736.

   - bpo-35728(14): Added a root parameter to *note
     tkinter.font.nametofont(): 1737.

   - bpo-15303(15): *note tkinter: ef. supports now widgets with boolean
     value False.

   - bpo-42681(16): Fixed range checks for color and pair numbers in
     *note curses: 2b.

   - bpo-42685(17): Improved placing of simple query windows in Tkinter
     (such as *note tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger(): 1738.).  They are
     now centered at the center of the parent window if it is specified
     and shown, otherwise at the center of the screen.

   - bpo-9694(18): Argparse help no longer uses the confusing phrase,
     “optional arguments”.  It uses “options” instead.

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port the ‘_thread’ extension module to the
     multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(20)) and convert its static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-37961(21): Fix crash in ‘tracemalloc.Traceback.__repr__()’
     (regressed in Python 3.9).

   - bpo-42630(22): *note tkinter: ef. functions and constructors which
     need a default root window raise now *note RuntimeError: 180. with
     descriptive message instead of obscure *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     or *note NameError: 14a. if it is not created yet or cannot be
     created automatically.

   - bpo-42639(23): ‘atexit._run_exitfuncs()’ now logs callback
     exceptions using *note sys.unraisablehook: 491, rather than logging
     them directly into *note sys.stderr: 792. and raise the last
     exception.

   - bpo-42644(24): ‘logging.disable’ will now validate the types and
     value of its parameter.  It also now accepts strings representing
     the levels (as does ‘logging.setLevel’) instead of only the
     numerical values.

   - bpo-42639(25): At Python exit, if a callback registered with *note
     atexit.register(): 6c3. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.

   - bpo-36541(26): Fixed lib2to3.pgen2 to be able to parse PEP-570
     positional only argument syntax.

   - bpo-42382(27): In ‘importlib.metadata’: - ‘EntryPoint’ objects now
     expose a ‘.dist’ object referencing the ‘Distribution’ when
     constructed from a ‘Distribution’.  - Add support for package
     discovery under package normalization rules.  - The object returned
     by ‘metadata()’ now has a formally defined protocol called
     ‘PackageMetadata’ with declared support for the ‘.get_all()’
     method.  - Synced with importlib_metadata 3.3.

   - bpo-41877(28): A check is added against misspellings of autospect,
     auto_spec and set_spec being passed as arguments to patch,
     patch.object and create_autospec.

   - bpo-39717(29): [tarfile] update nested exception raising to use
     ‘from None’ or ‘from e’

   - bpo-41877(30): AttributeError for suspected misspellings of
     assertions on mocks are now pointing out that the cause are
     misspelled assertions and also what to do if the misspelling is
     actually an intended attribute name.  The unittest.mock document is
     also updated to reflect the current set of recognised misspellings.

   - bpo-41559(31): Implemented PEP 612(32): added ‘ParamSpec’ and
     ‘Concatenate’ to *note typing: 104.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42385(33): StrEnum: fix _generate_next_value_ to return a str

   - bpo-31904(34): Define THREAD_STACK_SIZE for VxWorks.

   - bpo-34750(35): [Enum] ‘_EnumDict.update()’ is now supported.

   - bpo-42517(36): Enum: private names do not become members / do not
     generate errors – they remain normal attributes

   - bpo-42678(37): ‘Enum’: call ‘__init_subclass__’ after members have
     been added

   - bpo-28964(38): *note ast.literal_eval(): a91. adds line number
     information (if available) in error message for malformed nodes.

   - bpo-42470(39): *note random.sample(): 572. no longer warns on a
     sequence which is also a set.

   - bpo-31904(40): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ returns the input 'path'
     unchanged if user home directory is None on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42388(41): Fix subprocess.check_output(…, input=None) behavior
     when text=True to be consistent with that of the documentation and
     universal_newlines=True.

   - bpo-34463(42): Fixed discrepancy between *note traceback: fe. and
     the interpreter in formatting of SyntaxError with lineno not set
     (*note traceback: fe. was changed to match interpreter).

   - bpo-42393(43): Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. instead of silent
     truncation in *note socket.ntohs(): 6c6. and *note socket.htons():
     6c5.  Silent truncation was deprecated in Python 3.7.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland

   - bpo-42222(44): Harmonized *note random.randrange(): 6af. argument
     handling to match *note range(): 79c.

        * The integer test and conversion in ‘randrange()’ now uses
          *note operator.index(): 1739.

        * Non-integer arguments to ‘randrange()’ are deprecated.

        * The ‘ValueError’ is deprecated in favor of a ‘TypeError’.

        * It now runs a little faster than before.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-42163(45): Restore compatibility for ‘uname_result’ around
     deepcopy and _replace.

   - bpo-42090(46): ‘zipfile.Path.joinpath’ now accepts arbitrary
     arguments, same as ‘pathlib.Path.joinpath’.

   - bpo-1635741(47): Port the _csv module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(48)).

   - bpo-42059(49): *note typing.TypedDict: 159. types created using the
     alternative call-style syntax now correctly respect the ‘total’
     keyword argument when setting their ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ class attributes.

   - bpo-41960(50): Add ‘globalns’ and ‘localns’ parameters to the *note
     inspect.signature(): 561. and *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 564.

   - bpo-41907(51): fix ‘format()’ behavior for ‘IntFlag’

   - bpo-41891(52): Ensure asyncio.wait_for waits for task completion

   - bpo-24792(53): Fixed bug where ‘zipimporter’ sometimes reports an
     incorrect cause of import errors.

   - bpo-31904(54): Fix site and sysconfig modules for VxWorks RTOS
     which has no home directories.

   - bpo-41462(55): Add *note os.set_blocking(): cca. support for
     VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40219(56): Lowered ‘tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale’ dummy widget to
     prevent hiding part of the content label.

   - bpo-37193(57): Fixed memory leak in ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn’
     introduced in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-39068(58): Fix initialization race condition in ‘a85encode()’
     and ‘b85encode()’ in *note base64: e.  Patch by Brandon Stansbury.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42772

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42756

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23328

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42740

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42655

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38308

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42721

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25246

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35728

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15303

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42681

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42630

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42644

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42382

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39717

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42385

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34750

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42517

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42678

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28964

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42470

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42388

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34463

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42163

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42090

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42059

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41960

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41907

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41891

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24792

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41462

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40219

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37193

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39068


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<36>,  Next: Tests<36>,  Prev: Library<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17140(1): Add documentation for the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool: 173b. class.

   - bpo-34398(2): Prominently feature listings from the glossary in
     documentation search results.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17140

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34398


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<36>,  Next: Build<35>,  Prev: Documentation<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-42794(1): Update test_nntplib to use official group name of
     news.aioe.org for testing.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-31904(2): Skip some asyncio tests on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42641(3): Enhance ‘test_select.test_select()’: it now takes 500
     milliseconds rather than 10 seconds.  Use Python rather than a
     shell to make the test more portable.

   - bpo-31904(4): Skip some tests in _test_all_chown_common() on
     VxWorks.

   - bpo-42199(5): Fix bytecode helper assertNotInBytecode.

   - bpo-41443(6): Add more attribute checking in test_posix.py

   - bpo-31904(7): Disable os.popen and impacted tests on VxWorks

   - bpo-41439(8): Port test_ssl and test_uuid to VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42794

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41439


File: python.info,  Node: Build<35>,  Next: macOS<27>,  Prev: Tests<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-42692(1): Fix __builtin_available check on older compilers.
     Patch by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-27640(2): Added ‘--disable-test-modules’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script: don’t build nor install test modules.  Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin.

   - bpo-42604(3): Now all platforms use a value for the “EXT_SUFFIX”
     build variable derived from SOABI (for instance in freeBSD,
     “EXT_SUFFIX” is now “.cpython-310d.so” instead of “.so”).
     Previously only Linux, Mac and VxWorks were using a value for
     “EXT_SUFFIX” that included “SOABI”.

   - bpo-42598(4): Fix implicit function declarations in configure which
     could have resulted in incorrect configuration checks.  Patch
     contributed by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-31904(5): Enable libpython3.so for VxWorks.

   - bpo-29076(6): Add fish shell support to macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42604

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29076


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<27>,  Next: Tools/Demos<19>,  Prev: Build<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42361(1): Update macOS installer build to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.11
     (rc2, expected to be final release).

   - bpo-41837(2): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1i.

   - bpo-42584(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<19>,  Next: C API<32>,  Prev: macOS<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-42726(1): Fixed Python 3 compatibility issue with
     gdb/libpython.py handling of attribute dictionaries.

   - bpo-42613(2): Fix ‘freeze.py’ tool to use the prope config and
     library directories.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42613


File: python.info,  Node: C API<32>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<19>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.22.40.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-42591(1): Export the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function: fix a Python
     3.9.0 regression.  Python 3.9 uses ‘-fvisibility=hidden’ and the
     function was not exported explicitly and so not exported.

   - bpo-32381(2): Remove the private ‘_Py_fopen()’ function which is no
     longer needed.  Use ‘_Py_wfopen()’ or ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’ instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(3): Port *note resource: bb. extension module to module
     state

   - bpo-42111(4): Update the ‘xxlimited’ module to be a better example
     of how to use the limited C API.

   - bpo-40052(5): Fix an alignment build warning/error in function
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’.  Patch by Andreas Schneider, Antoine
     Pitrou and Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42591

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42111

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40052


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.41 Python 3.10.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-12-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<33>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<28>,  Next: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40791(1): Add ‘volatile’ to the accumulator variable in
     ‘hmac.compare_digest’, making constant-time-defeating optimizations
     less likely.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<40>,  Next: Library<41>,  Prev: Security<28>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42576(1): ‘types.GenericAlias’ will now raise a ‘TypeError’
     when attempting to initialize with a keyword argument.  Previously,
     this would cause the interpreter to crash if the interpreter was
     compiled with debug symbols.  This does not affect interpreters
     compiled for release.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42536(2): Several built-in and standard library types now
     ensure that their internal result tuples are always tracked by the
     *note garbage collector: 1744.:

        - *note collections.OrderedDict.items(): 3e6.

        - *note dict.items(): 607.

        - *note enumerate(): 1308.

        - *note functools.reduce(): 1186.

        - *note itertools.combinations(): 11bc.

        - *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 112a.

        - *note itertools.permutations(): 1745.

        - *note itertools.product(): 11bd.

        - *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1146.

        - *note zip(): 608.

     Previously, they could have become untracked by a prior garbage
     collection.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-42500(3): Improve handling of exceptions near recursion limit.
     Converts a number of Fatal Errors in RecursionErrors.

   - bpo-42246(4): PEP 626: After a return, the f_lineno attribute of a
     frame is always the last line executed.

   - bpo-42435(5): Speed up comparison of bytes objects with non-bytes
     objects when option *note -b: 3ef. is specified.  Speed up
     comparison of bytarray objects with non-buffer object.

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port the ‘_warnings’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-41686(8): On Windows, the ‘SIGINT’ event,
     ‘_PyOS_SigintEvent()’, is now created even if Python is configured
     to not install signal handlers (if *note
     PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 710. equals to 0, or
     ‘Py_InitializeEx(0)’).

   - bpo-42381(9): Allow assignment expressions in set literals and set
     comprehensions as per PEP 572.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42202(10): Change function parameters annotations internal
     representation to tuple of strings.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-42374(11): Fix a regression introduced by the new parser, where
     an unparenthesized walrus operator was not allowed within generator
     expressions.

   - bpo-42316(12): Allow an unparenthesized walrus in subscript
     indexes.

   - bpo-42349(13): Make sure that the compiler front-end produces a
     well-formed control flow graph.  Be be more aggressive in the
     compiler back-end, as it is now safe to do so.

   - bpo-42296(14): On Windows, fix a regression in signal handling
     which prevented to interrupt a program using CTRL+C. The signal
     handler can be run in a thread different than the Python thread, in
     which case the test deciding if the thread can handle signals is
     wrong.

   - bpo-42332(15): *note types.GenericAlias: 625. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-42282(16): Optimise constant subexpressions that appear as part
     of named expressions (previously the AST optimiser did not descend
     into named expressions).  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42266(17): Fixed a bug with the LOAD_ATTR opcode cache that was
     not respecting monkey-patching a class-level attribute to make it a
     descriptor.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert *note queue: b5. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42246(19): Improved accuracy of line tracing events and
     f_lineno attribute of Frame objects.  See PEP 626 for details.

   - bpo-40077(20): Convert *note mmap: 8f. to use heap types.

   - bpo-42233(21): Allow ‘GenericAlias’ objects to use *note union type
     expressions: 5f9.  This allows expressions like ‘list[int] |
     dict[float, str]’ where previously a ‘TypeError’ would have been
     thrown.  This also fixes union type expressions not de-duplicating
     ‘GenericAlias’ objects.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42233(22).)

   - bpo-26131(23): The import system triggers a ‘ImportWarning’ when it
     falls back to using ‘load_module()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42576

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42435

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42381

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42374

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42349

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42296

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42332

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42282

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42266

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131


File: python.info,  Node: Library<41>,  Next: Documentation<37>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-5054(1): CGIHTTPRequestHandler.run_cgi() HTTP_ACCEPT improperly
     parsed.  Replace the special purpose getallmatchingheaders with
     generic get_all method and add relevant tests.

     Original Patch by Martin Panter.  Modified by Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-42562(2): Fix issue when dis failed to parse function that has
     no line numbers.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-17735(3): ‘inspect.findsource()’ now raises *note OSError: 65c.
     instead of *note IndexError: 13c2. when ‘co_lineno’ of a code
     object is greater than the file length.  This can happen, for
     example, when a file is edited after it was imported.  PR by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-42116(4): Fix handling of trailing comments by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 1525.

   - bpo-42532(5): Remove unexpected call of ‘__bool__’ when passing a
     ‘spec_arg’ argument to a Mock.

   - bpo-38200(6): Added itertools.pairwise()

   - bpo-41818(7): Fix test_master_read() so that it succeeds on all
     platforms that either raise OSError or return b”” upon reading from
     master.

   - bpo-42487(8): ChainMap.__iter__ no longer calls __getitem__ on
     underlying maps

   - bpo-42482(9): *note TracebackException: 4ba. no longer holds a
     reference to the exception’s traceback object.  Consequently,
     instances of TracebackException for equivalent but non-equal
     exceptions now compare as equal.

   - bpo-41818(10): Make test_openpty() avoid unexpected success due to
     number of rows and/or number of columns being == 0.

   - bpo-42392(11): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.subprocess’ and
     ‘asyncio.tasks’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42392(12): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.open_connection’
     and ‘asyncio.start_server’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-28468(13): Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 664.
     function to parse freedesktop.org ‘os-release’ files.

   - bpo-42299(14): Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated
     in Python 3.4.  It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not
     tested.  It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6,
     but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing
     users should copy whatever classes they use into their code.  Patch
     by Donghee Na and and Terry J. Reedy.

   - bpo-26131(15): Deprecate zipimport.zipimporter.load_module() in
     favour of exec_module().

   - bpo-41818(16): Updated tests for the pty library.  test_basic() has
     been changed to test_openpty(); this additionally checks if slave
     termios and slave winsize are being set properly by pty.openpty().
     In order to add support for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Darwin,
     this also adds test_master_read(), which demonstrates that
     pty.spawn() should not depend on an OSError to exit from its copy
     loop.

   - bpo-42392(17): Remove loop parameter from ‘__init__’ in all
     ‘asyncio.locks’ and ‘asyncio.Queue’ classes.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-15450(18): Make *note filecmp.dircmp: de0. respect subclassing.
     Now the *note filecmp.dircmp.subdirs: 1747. behaves as expected
     when subclassing dircmp.

   - bpo-42413(19): The exception *note socket.timeout: 672. is now an
     alias of *note TimeoutError: 673.

   - bpo-31904(20): Support signal module on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42406(21): We fixed an issue in ‘pickle.whichmodule’ in which
     importing ‘multiprocessing’ could change the how pickle identifies
     which module an object belongs to, potentially breaking the
     unpickling of those objects.

   - bpo-42403(22): Simplify the *note importlib: 75. external bootstrap
     code: ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’ now uses regular imports to
     import builtin modules.  When it is imported, the builtin *note
     __import__(): 727. function is already fully working and so can be
     used to import builtin modules like *note sys: d8.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert _sre module types to heap types (PEP 384).
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42375(24): subprocess module update for DragonFlyBSD support.

   - bpo-41713(25): Port the ‘_signal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(26)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner and Mohamed Koubaa.

   - bpo-37205(27): *note time.time(): 94f, *note time.perf_counter():
     8ed. and *note time.monotonic(): d12. functions can no longer fail
     with a Python fatal error, instead raise a regular Python exception
     on failure.

   - bpo-42328(28): Fixed *note tkinter.ttk.Style.map(): 1748.  The
     function accepts now the representation of the default state as
     empty sequence (as returned by ‘Style.map()’).  The structure of
     the result is now the same on all platform and does not depend on
     the value of ‘wantobjects’.

   - bpo-42345(29): Fix various issues with ‘typing.Literal’ parameter
     handling (flatten, deduplicate, use type to cache key).  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-37205(30): *note time.perf_counter(): 8ed. on Windows and *note
     time.monotonic(): d12. on macOS are now system-wide.  Previously,
     they used an offset computed at startup to reduce the precision
     loss caused by the float type.  Use *note time.perf_counter_ns():
     953. and *note time.monotonic_ns(): 952. added in Python 3.7 to
     avoid this precision loss.

   - bpo-42318(31): Fixed support of non-BMP characters in *note
     tkinter: ef. on macOS.

   - bpo-42350(32): Fix the *note threading.Thread: 7a7. class at fork:
     do nothing if the thread is already stopped (ex: fork called at
     Python exit).  Previously, an error was logged in the child
     process.

   - bpo-42333(33): Port _ssl extension module to heap types.

   - bpo-42014(34): The ‘onerror’ callback from ‘shutil.rmtree’ now
     receives correct function when ‘os.open’ fails.

   - bpo-42237(35): Fix ‘os.sendfile()’ on illumos.

   - bpo-42308(36): Add *note threading.__excepthook__: 689. to allow
     retrieving the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 68a.
     in case it is set to a broken or a different value.  Patch by Mario
     Corchero.

   - bpo-42131(37): Implement PEP 451/spec methods on
     zipimport.zipimporter: find_spec(), create_module(), and
     exec_module().

     This also allows for the documented deprecation of find_loader(),
     find_module(), and load_module().

   - bpo-41877(38): Mock objects which are not unsafe will now raise an
     AttributeError if an attribute with the prefix asert, aseert, or
     assrt is accessed, in addition to this already happening for the
     prefixes assert or assret.

   - bpo-42264(39): ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and
     obsolete since Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str:
     15d.  It is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-42251(40): Added *note threading.gettrace(): 685. and *note
     threading.getprofile(): 686. to retrieve the functions set by *note
     threading.settrace(): 687. and *note threading.setprofile(): 688.
     respectively.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-42249(41): Fixed writing binary Plist files larger than 4 GiB.

   - bpo-42236(42): On Unix, the *note os.device_encoding(): 16ba.
     function now returns ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding if
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. is enabled.

   - bpo-41754(43): webbrowser: Ignore 'NotADirectoryError' when calling
     ‘xdg-settings’.

   - bpo-42183(44): Fix a stack overflow error for asyncio Task or
     Future repr().

     The overflow occurs under some circumstances when a Task or Future
     recursively returns itself.

   - bpo-42140(45): Improve asyncio.wait function to create the futures
     set just one time.

   - bpo-42133(46): Update various modules in the stdlib to fall back on
     ‘__spec__.loader’ when ‘__loader__’ isn’t defined on a module.

   - bpo-26131(47): The ‘load_module()’ methods found in ‘importlib’ now
     trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-39825(48): Windows: Change
     ‘sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')’ to the expected full
     ‘platform_tag.extension’ format.  Previously it was hard-coded to
     ‘.pyd’, now it is compatible with ‘distutils.sysconfig’ and will
     result in something like ‘.cp38-win_amd64.pyd’.  This brings
     windows into conformance with the other platforms.

   - bpo-26389(49): The *note traceback.format_exception(): 68c, *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): 68d, and *note
     traceback.print_exception(): 68e. functions can now take an
     exception object as a positional-only argument.

   - bpo-41889(50): Enum: fix regression involving inheriting a multiply
     inherited enum

   - bpo-41861(51): Convert *note sqlite3: ce. to use heap types (PEP
     384).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40624(52): Added support for the XPath ‘!=’ operator in
     xml.etree

   - bpo-28850(53): Fix *note pprint.PrettyPrinter.format(): 1749.
     overrides being ignored for contents of small containers.  The
     ‘pprint._safe_repr()’ function was removed.

   - bpo-41625(54): Expose the ‘splice()’ as *note os.splice(): 656. in
     the *note os: a0. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-34215(55): Clarify the error message for *note
     asyncio.IncompleteReadError: 174a. when ‘expected’ is ‘None’.

   - bpo-41543(56): Add async context manager support for
     contextlib.nullcontext.

   - bpo-21041(57): *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: 65e. now supports
     negative indexing.  Patch contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych.

   - bpo-41332(58): Added missing connect_accepted_socket() method to
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop’.

   - bpo-12800(59): Extracting a symlink from a tarball should succeed
     and overwrite the symlink if it already exists.  The fix is to
     remove the existing file or symlink before extraction.  Based on
     patch by Chris AtLee, Jeffrey Kintscher, and Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-40968(60): *note urllib.request: 10b. and *note http.client:
     6d. now send ‘http/1.1’ ALPN extension during TLS handshake when no
     custom context is supplied.

   - bpo-41001(61): Add *note os.eventfd(): 655. to provide a low level
     interface for Linux’s event notification file descriptor.

   - bpo-40816(62): Add AsyncContextDecorator to contextlib to support
     async context manager as a decorator.

   - bpo-40550(63): Fix time-of-check/time-of-action issue in
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal.

   - bpo-39411(64): Add an ‘is_async’ identifier to *note pyclbr: b3.’s
     ‘Function’ objects.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-35498(65): Add slice support to *note pathlib.PurePath.parents:
     65e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5054

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42562

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17735

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42116

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42487

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42482

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15450

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42406

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42403

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42375

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42328

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42318

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42350

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42014

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42237

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42249

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41754

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42183

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42140

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39825

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41889

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41861

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40624

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28850

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34215

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12800

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40968

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40816

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40550

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39411

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<37>,  Next: Tests<37>,  Prev: Library<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): Tentative to deprecate ‘make suspicious’ by first
     removing it from the CI and documentation builds, but keeping it
     around for manual uses.

   - bpo-42153(2): Fix the URL for the IMAP protocol documents.

   - bpo-41028(3): Language and version switchers, previously maintained
     in every cpython branches, are now handled by docsbuild-script.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42153

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41028


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<37>,  Next: Build<36>,  Prev: Documentation<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41473(1): Re-enable test_gdb on gdb 9.2 and newer:
     ‘https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1866884’ bug is fixed
     in gdb 10.1.

   - bpo-42553(2): Fix ‘test_asyncio.test_call_later()’ race condition:
     don’t measure asyncio performance in the ‘call_later()’ unit test.
     The test failed randomly on the CI.

   - bpo-31904(3): Fix test_netrc on VxWorks: create temporary
     directories using temp_cwd().

   - bpo-31904(4): skip test_getaddrinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic and
     test_getnameinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(5): skip test_test of test_mailcap on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(6): add shell requirement for test_pipes

   - bpo-31904(7): skip some tests related to fifo on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(8): Fix test_doctest.py failures for VxWorks.

   - bpo-40754(9): Include ‘_testinternalcapi’ module in Windows
     installer for test suite

   - bpo-41561(10): test_ssl: skip test_min_max_version_mismatch when
     TLS 1.0 is not available

   - bpo-31904(11): Fix os module failures for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix fifo test cases for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42553

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40754

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Build<36>,  Next: Windows<35>,  Prev: Tests<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): remove libnet dependency from detect_socket() for
     VxWorks

   - bpo-42398(2): Fix a race condition in “make regen-all” when make
     -jN option is used to run jobs in parallel.  The clinic.py script
     now only use atomic write to write files.  Moveover, generated
     files are now left unchanged if the content does not change, to not
     change the file modification time.

   - bpo-41617(3): Fix building ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ internal header on
     old clang version without ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ (ex: Xcode 4.6.3 on
     Mac OS X 10.7).  Patch by Joshua Root and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38823(4): It is no longer possible to build the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module without ‘wchar_t’ type: remove ‘CTYPES_UNICODE’
     macro.  Anyway, the ‘wchar_t’ type is required to build Python.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42087(5): Support was removed for AIX 5.3 and below.  See
     bpo-40680(6).

   - bpo-40998(7): Addressed three compiler warnings found by undefined
     behavior sanitizer (ubsan).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42398

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38823

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40680

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40998


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<35>,  Next: macOS<28>,  Prev: Build<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-42120(1): Remove macro definition of ‘copysign’ (to
     ‘_copysign’) in headers.

   - bpo-38506(2): The Windows launcher now properly handles Python 3.10
     when listing installed Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42120

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38506


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<28>,  Next: IDLE<23>,  Prev: Windows<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-42504(1): Fix build on macOS Big Sur when
     MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET=11

   - bpo-41116(2): Ensure distutils.unixxcompiler.find_library_file can
     find system provided libraries on macOS 11.

   - bpo-41100(3): Add support for macOS 11 and Apple Silicon systems.

     It is now possible to build “Universal 2” binaries using
     “–enable-universalsdk –with-universal-archs=universal2”.

     Binaries build on later macOS versions can be deployed back to
     older versions (tested up to macOS 10.9), when using the correct
     deployment target.  This is tested using Xcode 11 and later.

   - bpo-42232(4): Added Darwin specific madvise options to mmap module.

   - bpo-38443(5): The ‘--enable-universalsdk’ and
     ‘--with-universal-archs’ options for the configure script now check
     that the specified architectures can be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38443


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<23>,  Next: Tools/Demos<20>,  Prev: macOS<28>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-42508(1): Keep IDLE running on macOS. Remove obsolete
     workaround that prevented running files with shortcuts when using
     new universal2 installers built on macOS 11.

   - bpo-42426(2): Fix reporting offset of the RE error in searchengine.

   - bpo-42415(3): Get docstrings for IDLE calltips more often by using
     inspect.getdoc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42508

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42415


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<20>,  Next: C API<33>,  Prev: IDLE<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-42212(1): The smelly.py script now also checks the Python
     dynamic library and extension modules, not only the Python static
     library.  Make also the script more verbose: explain what it does.

   - bpo-36310(2): Allow ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’ to detect calls to
     ‘gettext’ in f-strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<33>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<20>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.22.41.11 C API
................

   - bpo-42423(1): The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port *note select: c0. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _posixsubprocess extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port _posixshmem extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(7))

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _struct extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9))

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port *note spwd: cd. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(11))

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note gc: 5e. extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13))

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port _queue extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(15))

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0. and *note Py_SIZE():
     5b2. back to macros to allow using them as an l-value.  Many third
     party C extension modules rely on the ability of using Py_TYPE()
     and Py_SIZE() to set an object type and size: ‘Py_TYPE(obj) =
     type;’ and ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = size;’.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port *note symtable: d7. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(18))

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port *note grp: 64. and *note pwd: b1. extension
     modules to multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(20))

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _random extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22))

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port _hashlib extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(24))

   - bpo-41713(25): Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’
     function.  Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal
     handlers: see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 710.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(26): The ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ macro no longer accesses
     PyTypeObject attributes, but now can get the condition by calling
     the new private ‘_PyTrash_cond()’ function which hides
     implementation details.

   - bpo-42260(27): *note Py_GetPath(): 367, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 369,
     *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 365, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b,
     *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 36e. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d.
     functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc. (before Python is initialized).  Use the new *note Python
     Initialization Configuration API: 5c6. to get the *note Python Path
     Configuration.: 6fd.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(28): The *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. function now only
     parses *note PyConfig.argv: 35a. arguments once: *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 1753. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are
     parsed.  Since Python arguments are strippped from *note
     PyConfig.argv: 35a, parsing arguments twice would parse the
     application options as Python options.

   - bpo-42262(29): Added *note Py_NewRef(): 6e5. and *note
     Py_XNewRef(): 6e6. functions to increment the reference count of an
     object and return the object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(30): When *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. is called twice,
     the second call now updates more *note sys: d8. attributes for the
     configuration, rather than only *note sys.argv: 110d.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41832(31): The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. function
     now accepts NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.

   - bpo-1635741(32): Added *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3.
     function: similar to *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6e4. but don’t
     steal a reference to the value on success.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42171(33): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 1640. calling convention is
     added to the limited API. The functions *note PyModule_AddType():
     7d3, *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0, *note
     PyType_GetModule(): 7ca. and *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7cb.
     are added to the limited API on Windows.

   - bpo-42085(34): Add dedicated entry to PyAsyncMethods for sending
     values

   - bpo-41073(35): *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6e7. can now accept static
     types.

   - bpo-30459(36): *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 6fe, *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 6ff. and *note PyCell_SET(): 700. macros can no
     longer be used as l-value or r-value.  For example, ‘x =
     PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now
     fail with a compiler error.  It prevents bugs like ‘if
     (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.  Patch by Zackery Spytz
     and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42171

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42085

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.42 Python 3.10.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-11-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<29>,  Next: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42103(1): Prevented potential DoS attack via CPU and RAM
     exhaustion when processing malformed Apple Property List files in
     binary format.

   - bpo-42051(2): The *note plistlib: aa. module no longer accepts
     entity declarations in XML plist files to avoid XML
     vulnerabilities.  This should not affect users as entity
     declarations are not used in regular plist files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42051


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<41>,  Next: Library<42>,  Prev: Security<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42236(1): If the ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ function returns an
     empty string, Python now uses UTF-8 as the filesystem encoding.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42218(2): Fixed a bug in the PEG parser that was causing
     crashes in debug mode.  Now errors are checked in left-recursive
     rules to avoid cases where such errors do not get handled in time
     and appear as long-distance crashes in other places.

   - bpo-42214(3): Fixed a possible crash in the PEG parser when
     checking for the ‘!=’ token in the ‘barry_as_flufl’ rule.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42206(4): Propagate and raise the errors caused by
     ‘PyAST_Validate()’ in the parser.

   - bpo-41796(5): The *note ast: 8. module internal state is now per
     interpreter.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42143(6): Fix handling of errors during creation of
     ‘PyFunctionObject’, which resulted in operations on uninitialized
     memory.  Patch by Yonatan Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-41659(7): Fix a bug in the parser, where a curly brace
     following a ‘primary’ didn’t fail immediately.  This led to invalid
     expressions like ‘a {b}’ to throw a *note SyntaxError: 14c. with a
     wrong offset, or invalid expressions ending with a curly brace like
     ‘a {’ to not fail immediately in the REPL.

   - bpo-42150(8): Fix possible buffer overflow in the new parser when
     checking for continuation lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42123(9): Run the parser two times.  On the first run, disable
     all the rules that only generate better error messages to gain
     performance.  If there’s a parse failure, run the parser a second
     time with those enabled.

   - bpo-42093(10): The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new “per opcode
     cache” mechanism and it is about 36% faster now.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-42030(11): Support for the legacy AIX-specific shared library
     loading support has been removed.  All versions of AIX since 4.3
     have supported and defaulted to using the common Unix mechanism
     instead.

   - bpo-41984(12): The garbage collector now tracks all user-defined
     classes.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-41993(13): Fixed potential issues with removing not completely
     initialized module from ‘sys.modules’ when import fails.

   - bpo-41979(14): Star-unpacking is now allowed for with item’s
     targets in the PEG parser.

   - bpo-41974(15): Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’,
     ‘__rmod__’ and ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 273. class.
     They always raised a *note TypeError: 2c4.

   - bpo-41902(16): Micro optimization when compute *note sq_item: 1757.
     and *note mp_subscript: 1758. of *note range: 79c.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41894(17): When loading a native module and a load failure
     occurs, prevent a possible UnicodeDecodeError when not running in a
     UTF-8 locale by decoding the load error message using the current
     locale’s encoding.

   - bpo-41902(18): Micro optimization for range.index if step is 1.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41435(19): Add ‘sys._current_exceptions()’ function to retrieve
     a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.

   - bpo-38605(20): Enable ‘from __future__ import annotations’ ( PEP
     563(21)) by default.  The values found in ‘__annotations__’ dicts
     are now strings, for example ‘{"x": "int"}’ instead of ‘{"x":
     int}’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42218

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42214

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42206

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41796

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42143

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41659

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42150

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42123

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42030

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41984

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41993

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41979

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41894

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41435

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<42>,  Next: Documentation<38>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35455(1): On Solaris, *note thread_time(): 78f. is now
     implemented with ‘gethrvtime()’ because
     ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ is not always available.
     Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - bpo-42233(2): The *note repr(): 637. of *note typing: 104. types
     containing *note Generic Alias Types: 4c9. previously did not show
     the parameterized types in the ‘GenericAlias’.  They have now been
     changed to do so.

   - bpo-29566(3): ‘binhex.binhex()’ consistently writes macOS 9 line
     endings.

   - bpo-26789(4): The *note logging.FileHandler: 16c6. class now keeps
     a reference to the builtin *note open(): 2a6. function to be able
     to open or reopen the file during Python finalization.  Fix errors
     like: ‘NameError: name 'open' is not defined’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(5): Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute
     which was an internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(6): Convert the *note unicodedata: 105. extension module
     to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)) and convert the
     ‘unicodedata.UCD’ static type to a heap type.  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42146(8): Fix memory leak in *note subprocess.Popen(): 8fa. in
     case an uid (gid) specified in ‘user’ (‘group’, ‘extra_groups’)
     overflows ‘uid_t’ (‘gid_t’).

   - bpo-42103(9): *note InvalidFileException: 175a. and *note
     RecursionError: bf7. are now the only errors caused by loading
     malformed binary Plist file (previously ValueError and TypeError
     could be raised in some specific cases).

   - bpo-41490(10): In ‘importlib.resources’, ‘.path’ method is more
     aggressive about releasing handles to zipfile objects early,
     enabling use-cases like certifi to leave the context open but
     delete the underlying zip file.

   - bpo-41052(11): Pickling heap types implemented in C with protocols
     0 and 1 raises now an error instead of producing incorrect data.

   - bpo-42089(12): In ‘importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError’, make
     reference to the package metadata being missing to improve the user
     experience.

   - bpo-41491(13): plistlib: fix parsing XML plists with hexadecimal
     integer values

   - bpo-42065(14): Fix an incorrectly formatted error from
     ‘_codecs.charmap_decode()’ when called with a mapped value outside
     the range of valid Unicode code points.  PR by Max Bernstein.

   - bpo-41966(15): Fix pickling pure Python *note datetime.time: 6df.
     subclasses.  Patch by Dean Inwood.

   - bpo-19270(16): *note sched.scheduler.cancel(): 175b. will now
     cancel the correct event, if two events with same priority are
     scheduled for the same time.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-28660(17): *note textwrap.wrap(): 1352. now attempts to break
     long words after hyphens when ‘break_long_words=True’ and
     ‘break_on_hyphens=True’.

   - bpo-35823(18): Use ‘vfork()’ instead of ‘fork()’ for *note
     subprocess.Popen(): 8fa. on Linux to improve performance in cases
     where it is deemed safe.

   - bpo-42043(19): Add support for ‘zipfile.Path’ inheritance.
     ‘zipfile.Path.is_file()’ now returns False for non-existent names.
     ‘zipfile.Path’ objects now expose a ‘.filename’ attribute and rely
     on that to resolve ‘.name’ and ‘.parent’ when the ‘Path’ object is
     at the root of the zipfile.

   - bpo-42021(20): Fix possible ref leaks in *note sqlite3: ce. module
     init.

   - bpo-39101(21): Fixed tests using IsolatedAsyncioTestCase from
     hanging on BaseExceptions.

   - bpo-41976(22): Fixed a bug that was causing *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): bd3. to return ‘None’ when triying to
     locate a library in an environment when gcc>=9 is available and
     ‘ldconfig’ is not.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41943(23): Fix bug where TestCase.assertLogs doesn’t correctly
     filter messages by level.

   - bpo-41923(24): Implement PEP 613(25), introducing *note
     typing.TypeAlias: 600. annotation.

   - bpo-41905(26): A new function in abc: 'update_abstractmethods' to
     re-calculate an abstract class’s abstract status.  In addition,
     'dataclass' has been changed to call this function.

   - bpo-23706(27): Added 'newline' parameter to
     ‘pathlib.Path.write_text()’.

   - bpo-41876(28): Tkinter font class repr uses font name

   - bpo-41831(29): ‘str()’ for the ‘type’ attribute of the
     ‘tkinter.Event’ object always returns now the numeric code returned
     by Tk instead of the name of the event type.

   - bpo-39337(30): ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’ now ignores
     non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-41747(31): Ensure all methods that generated from *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 3d4. objects now have the proper
     ‘__qualname__’ attribute referring to the class they belong to.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-30681(32): Handle exceptions caused by unparsable date headers
     when using email “default” policy.  Patch by Tim Bell, Georges Toth

   - bpo-41586(33): Add F_SETPIPE_SZ and F_GETPIPE_SZ to fcntl module.
     Allow setting pipesize on subprocess.Popen.

   - bpo-41229(34): Add ‘contextlib.aclosing’ for deterministic cleanup
     of async generators which is analogous to ‘contextlib.closing’ for
     non-async generators.  Patch by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte.

   - bpo-16396(35): Allow ‘ctypes.wintypes’ to be imported on
     non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-4356(36): Add a key function to the bisect module.

   - bpo-40592(37): *note shutil.which(): 1e0. now ignores empty entries
     in ‘PATHEXT’ instead of treating them as a match.

   - bpo-40492(38): Fix ‘--outfile’ for *note cProfile: 27. / *note
     profile: ae. not writing the output file in the original directory
     when the program being profiled changes the working directory.  PR
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-34204(39): The *note shelve: c2. module now uses *note
     pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 66c. by default instead of *note pickle:
     a5. protocol ‘3’.

   - bpo-27321(40): Fixed KeyError exception when flattening an email to
     a string attempts to replace a non-existent
     Content-Transfer-Encoding header.

   - bpo-38976(41): The *note http.cookiejar: 6e. module now supports
     the parsing of cookies in CURL-style cookiejar files through
     MozillaCookieJar on all platforms.  Previously, such cookie entries
     would be silently ignored when loading a cookiejar with such
     entries.

     Additionally, the HTTP Only attribute is persisted in the object,
     and will be correctly written to file if the MozillaCookieJar
     object is subsequently dumped.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35455

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29566

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26789

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42146

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41490

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42089

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41491

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42065

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41966

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19270

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28660

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35823

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42043

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42021

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39101

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41976

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41943

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41905

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23706

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41876

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41831

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41747

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30681

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41586

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16396

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40592

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40492

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27321

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<38>,  Next: Tests<38>,  Prev: Library<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42061(1): Document __format__ functionality for IP addresses.

   - bpo-41910(2): Document the default implementation of
     ‘object.__eq__’.

   - bpo-42010(3): Clarify that subscription expressions are also valid
     for certain *note classes: 175d. and *note types: 175e. in the
     standard library, and for user-defined classes and types if the
     classmethod ‘__class_getitem__()’ is provided.

   - bpo-41805(4): Documented *note generic alias type: 4c9. and *note
     types.GenericAlias: 625.  Also added an entry in glossary for *note
     generic types: 141.

   - bpo-39693(5): Fix tarfile’s extractfile documentation

   - bpo-39416(6): Document some restrictions on the default string
     representations of numeric classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42061

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42010

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41805

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39693

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39416


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<38>,  Next: Build<37>,  Prev: Documentation<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41739(1): Fix
     test_logging.test_race_between_set_target_and_flush(): the test now
     waits until all threads complete to avoid leaking running threads.

   - bpo-41970(2): Avoid a test failure in ‘test_lib2to3’ if the module
     has already imported at the time the test executes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41944(3): Tests for CJK codecs no longer call ‘eval()’ on
     content received via HTTP.

   - bpo-41306(4): Fixed a failure in ‘test_tk.test_widgets.ScaleTest’
     happening when executing the test with Tk 8.6.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41739

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41306


File: python.info,  Node: Build<37>,  Next: Windows<36>,  Prev: Tests<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38980(1): Add ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to both the compile
     and link line when building with ‘--enable-optimizations’.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner and Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<36>,  Next: macOS<29>,  Prev: Build<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38439(1): Updates the icons for IDLE in the Windows Store
     package.

   - bpo-38252(2): Use 8-byte step to detect ASCII sequence in 64-bit
     Windows build.

   - bpo-39107(3): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.10 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-41557(4): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-38324(5): Avoid Unicode errors when accessing certain locale
     data on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38252

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39107

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38324


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<29>,  Next: IDLE<24>,  Prev: Windows<36>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41471(1): Ignore invalid prefix lengths in system proxy
     excludes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41471


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<24>,  Next: C API<34>,  Prev: macOS<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33987(1): Mostly finish using ttk widgets, mainly for editor,
     settings, and searches.  Some patches by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-40511(2): Typing opening and closing parentheses inside the
     parentheses of a function call will no longer cause unnecessary
     “flashing” off and on of an existing open call-tip, e.g.  when
     typed in a string literal.

   - bpo-38439(3): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to the Windows .ico
     file.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Remove the low-color gif
     variations from the .ico file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40511

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439


File: python.info,  Node: C API<34>,  Prev: IDLE<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.22.42.10 C API
................

   - bpo-42157(1): The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the
     PyCapsule API ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the
     internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42015(2): Fix potential crash in deallocating method objects
     when dynamically allocated *note PyMethodDef: 1364.’s lifetime is
     managed through the ‘self’ argument of a *note PyCFunction: 1300.

   - bpo-40423(3): The *note subprocess: d5. module and ‘os.closerange’
     will now use the ‘close_range(low, high, flags)’ syscall when it is
     available for more efficient closing of ranges of descriptors.

   - bpo-41845(4): *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1765. is available
     again in the limited API when targeting 3.10 or later.

   - bpo-40422(5): Add ‘_Py_closerange’ function to provide performant
     closing of a range of file descriptors.

   - bpo-41986(6): ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ and ‘Py_UTF8Mode’
     are available again in limited API.

   - bpo-41756(7): Add ‘PyIter_Send’ function to allow sending value
     into generator/coroutine/iterator without raising StopIteration
     exception to signal return.

   - bpo-41784(8): Added ‘PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize’ to the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42015

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40423

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41845

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40422

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.43 Python 3.10.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* C API: C API<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<30>,  Next: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-41304(1): Fixes ‘python3x._pth’ being ignored on Windows,
     caused by the fix for bpo-29778(2) ( CVE 2020-15801(3)).

   - bpo-41162(4): Audit hooks are now cleared later during finalization
     to avoid missing events.

   - bpo-29778(5): Ensure ‘python3.dll’ is loaded from correct locations
     when Python is embedded ( CVE 2020-15523(6)).

   - bpo-41004(7): The __hash__() methods of ipaddress.IPv4Interface and
     ipaddress.IPv6Interface incorrectly generated constant hash values
     of 32 and 128 respectively.  This resulted in always causing hash
     collisions.  The fix uses hash() to generate hash values for the
     tuple of (address, mask length, network address).

   - bpo-39603(8): Prevent http header injection by rejecting control
     characters in http.client.putrequest(…).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15801

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41162

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15523

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41004

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39603


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<42>,  Next: Library<43>,  Prev: Security<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41909(1): Fixed stack overflow in *note issubclass(): 5f8. and
     *note isinstance(): 151. when getting the ‘__bases__’ attribute
     leads to infinite recursion.

   - bpo-41922(2): Speed up calls to ‘reversed()’ by using the PEP
     590(3) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41873(4): Calls to ‘float()’ are now faster due to the
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-41870(5): Speed up calls to ‘bool()’ by using the PEP 590(6)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(7): Port the ‘_bisect’ module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(8)).

   - bpo-39934(9): Correctly count control blocks in ‘except’ in
     compiler.  Ensures that a syntax error, rather a fatal error,
     occurs for deeply nested, named exception handlers.

   - bpo-41780(10): Fix ‘__dir__()’ of *note types.GenericAlias: 625.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port the ‘_lsprof’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-1635741(13): Port the *note cmath: 18. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(14)).

   - bpo-1635741(15): Port the ‘_scproxy’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(16)).

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port the *note termios: e0. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Convert the ‘_sha256’ extension module types to
     heap types.

   - bpo-41690(20): Fix a possible stack overflow in the parser when
     parsing functions and classes with a huge amount of arguments.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port the ‘_overlapped’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port the ‘_curses_panel’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port the ‘_opcode’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-41681(27): Fixes the wrong error description in the error
     raised by using 2 ‘,’ in format string in f-string and *note
     str.format(): 433.

   - bpo-41675(28): The implementation of *note signal.siginterrupt():
     fd9. now uses ‘sigaction()’ (if it is available in the system)
     instead of the deprecated ‘siginterrupt()’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41670(29): Prevent line trace being skipped on platforms not
     compiled with ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’.  Fixes issue where some lines
     nested within a try-except block were not being traced on Windows.

   - bpo-41654(30): Fix a crash that occurred when destroying subclasses
     of *note MemoryError: 1409.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port the *note zlib: 133. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-41631(33): The ‘_ast’ module uses again a global state.  Using
     a module state per module instance is causing subtle practical
     problems.  For example, the Mercurial project replaces the
     ‘__import__()’ function to implement lazy import, whereas Python
     expected that ‘import _ast’ always return a fully initialized
     ‘_ast’ module.

   - bpo-40077(34): Convert ‘_operator’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     316.

   - bpo-1653741(35): Port ‘_sha3’ to multi-phase init.  Convert static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port the ‘_blake2’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-41533(38): Free the stack allocated in ‘va_build_stack’ if
     ‘do_mkstack’ fails and the stack is not a ‘small_stack’.

   - bpo-41531(39): Fix a bug that was dropping keys when compiling dict
     literals with more than 0xFFFF elements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41525(40): The output of ‘python --help’ contains now only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-1635741(41): Port the ‘_sha1’, ‘_sha512’, and ‘_md5’ extension
     modules to multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(42)).

   - bpo-41431(43): Optimize ‘dict_merge()’ for copying dict (e.g.
     ‘dict(d)’ and ‘{}.update(d)’).

   - bpo-41428(44): Implement PEP 604.  This supports (int | str) etc.
     in place of Union[str, int].

   - bpo-41340(45): Removed fallback implementation for ‘strdup’.

   - bpo-38156(46): Handle interrupts that come after EOF correctly in
     ‘PyOS_StdioReadline’.

   - bpo-41342(47): *note round(): 1184. with integer argument is now
     faster (9–60%).

   - bpo-41334(48): Constructors *note str(): 15d, *note bytes(): 2cb.
     and *note bytearray(): 2ca. are now faster (around 30–40% for small
     objects).

   - bpo-41295(49): Resolve a regression in CPython 3.8.4 where defining
     “__setattr__” in a multi-inheritance setup and calling up the
     hierarchy chain could fail if builtins/extension types were
     involved in the base types.

   - bpo-41323(50): Bytecode optimizations are performed directly on the
     control flow graph.  This will result in slightly more compact code
     objects in some circumstances.

   - bpo-41247(51): Always cache the running loop holder when running
     ‘asyncio.set_running_loop’.

   - bpo-41252(52): Fix incorrect refcounting in _ssl.c’s
     ‘_servername_callback()’.

   - bpo-1635741(53): Port *note multiprocessing: 93. to multi-phase
     initialization

   - bpo-1635741(54): Port ‘winapi’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41215(55): Use non-NULL default values in the PEG parser
     keyword list to overcome a bug that was preventing Python from
     being properly compiled when using the XLC compiler.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41218(56): Python 3.8.3 had a regression where compiling with
     ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT would aggressively mark list
     comprehension with CO_COROUTINE. Now only list comprehension making
     use of async/await will tagged as so.

   - bpo-1635741(57): Port *note faulthandler: 56. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(58): Port ‘sha256’ to multiphase initialization

   - bpo-41175(59): Guard against a NULL pointer dereference within
     bytearrayobject triggered by the ‘bytearray() + bytearray()’
     operation.

   - bpo-41100(60): add arm64 to the allowable Mac OS arches in
     mpdecimal.h

   - bpo-41094(61): Fix decoding errors with audit when open files with
     non-ASCII names on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - bpo-39960(62): The “hackcheck” that prevents sneaking around a
     type’s __setattr__() by calling the superclass method was rewritten
     to allow C implemented heap types.

   - bpo-41084(63): Prefix the error message with ‘f-string: ‘, when
     parsing an f-string expression which throws a *note SyntaxError:
     14c.

   - bpo-40521(64): Empty frozensets are no longer singletons.

   - bpo-41076(65): Pre-feed the parser with the location of the
     f-string expression, not the f-string itself, which allows us to
     skip the shifting of the AST node locations after the parsing is
     completed.

   - bpo-41056(66): Fixes a reference to deallocated stack space during
     startup when constructing sys.path involving a relative symlink
     when code was supplied via -c.  (discovered via Coverity)

   - bpo-41061(67): Fix incorrect expressions and asserts in hashtable
     code and tests.

   - bpo-41052(68): Opt out serialization/deserialization for
     _random.Random

   - bpo-40939(69): Rename ‘PyPegen*’ functions to ‘PyParser*’, so that
     we can remove the old set of ‘PyParser*’ functions that were using
     the old parser, but keep everything backwards-compatible.

   - bpo-35975(70): Stefan Behnel reported that cf_feature_version is
     used even when PyCF_ONLY_AST is not set.  This is against the
     intention and against the documented behavior, so it’s been fixed.

   - bpo-40939(71): Remove the remaining files from the old parser and
     the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40077(72): Convert ‘_bz2’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316.

   - bpo-41006(73): The ‘encodings.latin_1’ module is no longer imported
     at startup.  Now it is only imported when it is the filesystem
     encoding or the stdio encoding.

   - bpo-40636(74): *note zip(): 608. now supports PEP 618(75)’s
     ‘strict’ parameter, which raises a *note ValueError: 189. if the
     arguments are exhausted at different lengths.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-1635741(76): Port ‘_gdbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40985(77): Fix a bug that caused the *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     text to be empty when a file ends with a line ending in a line
     continuation character (i.e.  backslash).  The error text should
     contain the text of the last line.

   - bpo-40958(78): Fix a possible buffer overflow in the PEG parser
     when gathering information for emitting syntax errors.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(79): Port ‘_dbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40957(80): Fix refleak in _Py_fopen_obj() when PySys_Audit()
     fails

   - bpo-40950(81): Add a state to the *note nis: 9b. module ( PEP
     3121(82)) and apply the multiphase initialization.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40947(83): The Python *note Path Configuration: 6fd. now takes
     *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1769. in account.

   - bpo-40939(84): Remove the old parser, the ‘parser’ module and all
     associated support code, command-line options and environment
     variables.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40847(85): Fix a bug where a line with only a line continuation
     character is not considered a blank line at tokenizer level.  In
     such cases, more than a single ‘NEWLINE’ token was emitted.  The
     old parser was working around the issue, but the new parser threw a
     *note SyntaxError: 14c. for valid input due to this.  For example,
     an empty line following a line continuation character was
     interpreted as a *note SyntaxError: 14c.

   - bpo-40890(86): Each dictionary view now has a ‘mapping’ attribute
     that provides a *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. wrapping the
     original dictionary.  Patch contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40889(87): Improved the performance of symmetric difference
     operations on dictionary item views.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40904(88): Fix possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     parsing f-string containing yield statements with no value
     (‘f"{yield}"’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40903(89): Fixed a possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     producing error messages for invalid assignments of the form
     ‘p=p=’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40880(90): Fix invalid memory read in the new parser when
     checking newlines in string literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40883(91): Fix memory leak in when parsing f-strings in the new
     parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40870(92): Raise *note ValueError: 189. when validating custom
     AST’s where the constants ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are used
     within a *note ast.Name: 176a. node.

   - bpo-40854(93): Allow overriding *note sys.platlibdir: 791. via a
     new *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 176b. environment variable.

   - bpo-40826(94): Fix GIL usage in ‘PyOS_Readline()’: lock the GIL to
     set an exception and pass the Python thread state when checking if
     there is a pending signal.

   - bpo-1635741(95): Port *note fcntl: 57. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-19468(96): Delete unnecessary instance check in
     importlib.reload().  Patch by Furkan Önder.

   - bpo-40824(97): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 26f. operator
     and functions *note contains(): 72d, *note indexOf(): 72e. and
     *note countOf(): 72f. of the *note operator: 9e. module.

   - bpo-40792(98): Attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘step’ of the *note
     range: 79c. object now always has exact type *note int: 184.
     Previously, they could have been an instance of a subclass of
     ‘int’.

   - bpo-40780(99): Fix a corner case where g-style string formatting of
     a float failed to remove trailing zeros.

   - bpo-38964(100): When there’s a *note SyntaxError: 14c. in the
     expression part of an fstring, the filename attribute of the *note
     SyntaxError: 14c. gets correctly set to the name of the file the
     fstring resides in.

   - bpo-40750(101): Support the “-d” debug flag in the new PEG parser.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40217(102): Instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317. will no longer automatically visit
     their class object when traversing references in the garbage
     collector.  The user is expected to manually visit the object’s
     class.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39573(103): *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0. is changed to the inline
     static function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40696(104): Fix a hang that can arise after *note
     generator.throw(): 24a. due to a cycle in the exception context
     chain.

   - bpo-40521(105): Each interpreter now its has own free lists,
     singletons and caches:

        * Free lists: float, tuple, list, dict, frame, context,
          asynchronous generator, MemoryError.

        * Singletons: empty tuple, empty bytes string, empty Unicode
          string, single byte character, single Unicode (latin1)
          character.

        * Slice cache.

     They are no longer shared by all interpreters.

   - bpo-40679(106): Certain *note TypeError: 2c4. messages about
     missing or extra arguments now include the function’s *note
     qualified name: 176c.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-29590(107): Make the stack trace correct after calling *note
     generator.throw(): 24a. on a generator that has yielded from a
     ‘yield from’.

   - bpo-4022(108): Improve performance of generators by not raising
     internal StopIteration.

   - bpo-1635741(109): Port *note mmap: 8f. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(110): Port ‘_lzma’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-37999(111): Builtin and extension functions that take integer
     arguments no longer accept *note Decimal: 609.s, *note Fraction:
     1ae.s and other objects that can be converted to integers only with
     a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__(): 537. method but do not
     have the *note __index__(): 538. method).

   - bpo-29882(112): Add *note int.bit_count(): 604, counting the number
     of ones in the binary representation of an integer.  Patch by
     Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-36982(113): Use ncurses extended color functions when available
     to support terminals with 256 colors, and add the new function
     *note curses.has_extended_color_support(): 62f. to indicate whether
     extended color support is provided by the underlying ncurses
     library.

   - bpo-19569(114): Add the private macros ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_PUSH’,
     ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_IGNORE_DEPR_DECLS’, and ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_POP’.

   - bpo-26680(115): The int type now supports the x.is_integer() method
     for compatibility with float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41909

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39934

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41780

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41690

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41681

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41675

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41654

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41631

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1653741

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41533

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41531

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41525

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41431

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41340

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38156

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41342

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41295

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41247

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41252

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41215

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41218

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41175

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41094

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39960

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41084

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41076

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41061

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40636

   (75) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40985

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40958

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40957

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40950

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40947

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40847

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40889

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40904

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40903

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40880

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40883

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40870

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40854

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19468

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40780

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38964

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40750

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40696

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29590

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4022

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680


File: python.info,  Node: Library<43>,  Next: Documentation<39>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-41900(1): C14N 2.0 serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree
     failed for unprefixed attributes when a default namespace was
     defined.

   - bpo-41887(2): Strip leading spaces and tabs on *note
     ast.literal_eval(): a91.  Also document stripping of spaces and
     tabs for *note eval(): 6ca.

   - bpo-41773(3): Note in documentation that *note random.choices():
     b49. doesn’t support non-finite weights, raise *note ValueError:
     189. when given non-finite weights.

   - bpo-41840(4): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d7. module that was
     causing module-scope global variables to not be reported as both
     local and global.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41842(5): Add *note codecs.unregister(): 622. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-40564(6): In ‘zipfile.Path’, mutate the passed ZipFile object
     type instead of making a copy.  Prevents issues when both the local
     copy and the caller’s copy attempt to close the same file handle.

   - bpo-40670(7): More reliable validation of statements in *note
     timeit.Timer: 1353.  It now accepts “empty” statements (only
     whitespaces and comments) and rejects misindentent statements.

   - bpo-41833(8): The *note threading.Thread: 7a7. constructor now uses
     the target name if the 'target' argument is specified but the
     'name' argument is omitted.

   - bpo-41817(9): fix ‘tkinter.EventType’ Enum so all members are
     strings, and none are tuples

   - bpo-41810(10): *note types.EllipsisType: 690, *note
     types.NotImplementedType: 692. and *note types.NoneType: 691. have
     been reintroduced, providing a new set of types readily
     interpretable by static type checkers.

   - bpo-41815(11): Fix SQLite3 segfault when backing up closed
     database.  Patch contributed by Peter David McCormick.

   - bpo-41816(12): StrEnum added: it ensures that all members are
     already strings or string candidates

   - bpo-41517(13): fix bug allowing Enums to be extended via multiple
     inheritance

   - bpo-39587(14): use the correct mix-in data type when constructing
     Enums

   - bpo-41792(15): Add is_typeddict function to typing.py to check if a
     type is a TypedDict class

     Previously there was no way to check that without using private
     API.  See the relevant issue in python/typing(16).

   - bpo-41789(17): Honor ‘object’ overrides in ‘Enum’ class creation
     (specifically, ‘__str__’, ‘__repr__’, ‘__format__’, and
     ‘__reduce_ex__’).

   - bpo-32218(18): ‘enum.Flag’ and ‘enum.IntFlag’ members are now
     iterable.

   - bpo-39651(19): Fix a race condition in the ‘call_soon_threadsafe()’
     method of ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop’: do nothing if the self-pipe
     socket has been closed.

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port the ‘mashal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(21)).

   - bpo-1635741(22): Port the ‘_string’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(23)).

   - bpo-41732(24): Added an *note iterator: 176e. to *note memoryview:
     185.

   - bpo-41720(25): Fixed ‘turtle.Vec2D.__rmul__()’ for arguments which
     are not int or float.

   - bpo-41696(26): Fix handling of debug mode in *note asyncio.run():
     19d.  This allows setting ‘PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG’ or ‘-X dev’ to
     enable asyncio debug mode when using *note asyncio.run(): 19d.

   - bpo-41687(27): Fix implementation of sendfile to be compatible with
     Solaris.

   - bpo-41662(28): No longer override exceptions raised in ‘__len__()’
     of a sequence of parameters in *note sqlite3: ce. with *note
     ProgrammingError: 241.

   - bpo-39010(29): Restarting a ‘ProactorEventLoop’ on Windows no
     longer logs spurious ‘ConnectionResetErrors’.

   - bpo-41638(30): *note ProgrammingError: 241. message for absent
     parameter in *note sqlite3: ce. contains now the name of the
     parameter instead of its index when parameters are supplied as a
     dict.

   - bpo-41662(31): Fixed crash when mutate list of parameters during
     iteration in *note sqlite3: ce.

   - bpo-41513(32): Improved the accuracy of math.hypot().  Internally,
     each step is computed with extra precision so that the result is
     now almost always correctly rounded.

   - bpo-41609(33): The pdb whatis command correctly reports instance
     methods as ‘Method’ rather than ‘Function’.

   - bpo-39994(34): Fixed pprint’s handling of dict subclasses that
     override __repr__.

   - bpo-32751(35): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete also in the case when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with
     positive timeouts.

   - bpo-37658(36): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. now properly handles
     races between cancellation of itself and the completion of the
     wrapped awaitable.

   - bpo-40782(37): Change the method
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.run_in_executor to not be a coroutine.

   - bpo-41520(38): Fix *note codeop: 1c. regression that prevented
     turning compile warnings into errors.

   - bpo-41528(39): turtle uses math module functions to convert degrees
     to radians and vice versa and to calculate vector norm

   - bpo-41513(40): Minor algorithmic improvement to math.hypot() and
     math.dist() giving small gains in speed and accuracy.

   - bpo-41503(41): Fixed a race between setTarget and flush in
     logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.

   - bpo-41497(42): Fix potential UnicodeDecodeError in dis module.

   - bpo-41467(43): On Windows, fix asyncio ‘recv_into()’ return value
     when the socket/pipe is closed (*note BrokenPipeError: f06.):
     return ‘0’ rather than an empty byte string (‘b''’).

   - bpo-41425(44): Make tkinter doc example runnable.

   - bpo-41421(45): Make an algebraic simplification to
     random.paretovariate().  It now is slightly less subject to
     round-off error and is slightly faster.  Inputs that used to cause
     ZeroDivisionError now cause an OverflowError instead.

   - bpo-41440(46): Add *note os.cpu_count(): 654. support for VxWorks
     RTOS.

   - bpo-41316(47): Fix the *note tarfile: dd. module to write only
     basename of TAR file to GZIP compression header.

   - bpo-41384(48): Raise TclError instead of TypeError when an unknown
     option is passed to tkinter.OptionMenu.

   - bpo-41317(49): Use add_done_callback() in
     asyncio.loop.sock_accept() to unsubscribe reader early on
     cancellation.

   - bpo-41364(50): Reduce import overhead of *note uuid: 110.

   - bpo-35328(51): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 111. activation.

   - bpo-41341(52): Recursive evaluation of ‘typing.ForwardRef’ in
     ‘get_type_hints’.

   - bpo-41344(53): Prevent creating ‘shared_memory.SharedMemory’
     objects with ‘size=0’.

   - bpo-41333(54): ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ is now 2 times
     faster.

   - bpo-41288(55): Unpickling invalid NEWOBJ_EX opcode with the C
     implementation raises now UnpicklingError instead of crashing.

   - bpo-39017(56): Avoid infinite loop when reading specially crafted
     TAR files using the tarfile module ( CVE 2019-20907(57)).

   - bpo-41273(58): Speed up any transport using
     ‘_ProactorReadPipeTransport’ by calling ‘recv_into’ instead of
     ‘recv’, thus not creating a new buffer for each ‘recv’ call in the
     transport’s read loop.

   - bpo-41235(59): Fix the error handling in *note
     ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params(): fe8.

   - bpo-41207(60): In distutils.spawn, restore expectation that
     DistutilsExecError is raised when the command is not found.

   - bpo-29727(61): Register *note array.array: 195. as a *note
     MutableSequence: c62.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39168(62): Remove the ‘__new__’ method of *note typing.Generic:
     1478.

   - bpo-41194(63): Fix a crash in the ‘_ast’ module: it can no longer
     be loaded more than once.  It now uses a global state rather than a
     module state.

   - bpo-41195(64): Add read-only ssl.SSLContext.security_level
     attribute to retrieve the context’s security level.

   - bpo-41193(65): The ‘write_history()’ atexit function of the
     readline completer now ignores any *note OSError: 65c. to ignore
     error if the filesystem is read-only, instead of only ignoring
     *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. and *note PermissionError: bcb.

   - bpo-41182(66): selector: use DefaultSelector based upon
     implementation

   - bpo-41161(67): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.
     Users of –with-system-libmpdec should update their system library.

   - bpo-40874(68): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.

   - bpo-41138(69): Fixed the *note trace: fd. module CLI for Python
     source files with non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-31082(70): Use the term “iterable” in the docstring for *note
     functools.reduce(): 1186.

   - bpo-40521(71): Remove freelist from collections.deque().

   - bpo-31938(72): Fix default-value signatures of several functions in
     the *note select: c0. module - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41068(73): Fixed reading files with non-ASCII names from ZIP
     archive directly after writing them.

   - bpo-41058(74): ‘pdb.find_function()’ now correctly determines the
     source file encoding.

   - bpo-41056(75): Invalid file descriptor values are now prevented
     from being passed to os.fpathconf.  (discovered by Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(76): Fix a NULL pointer dereference within the ssl module
     during a MemoryError in the keylog callback.  (discovered by
     Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(77): Fixed an instance where a MemoryError within the
     zoneinfo module might not be reported or not reported at its
     source.  (found by Coverity)

   - bpo-41048(78): *note mimetypes.read_mime_types(): 176f. function
     reads the rule file using UTF-8 encoding, not the locale encoding.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy.

   - bpo-41043(79): Fixed the use of *note glob(): 641. in the stdlib:
     literal part of the path is now always correctly escaped.

   - bpo-41025(80): Fixed an issue preventing the C implementation of
     *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 732. from being subclassed.

   - bpo-35018(81): Add the *note xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler: 69f.
     class that is present in other SAX XML implementations.

   - bpo-41002(82): Improve performance of HTTPResponse.read with a
     given amount.  Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-40448(83): *note ensurepip: 53. now disables the use of ‘pip’
     cache when installing the bundled versions of ‘pip’ and
     ‘setuptools’.  Patch by Krzysztof Konopko.

   - bpo-40967(84): Removed ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-40924(85): Ensure ‘importlib.resources.path’ returns an extant
     path for the SourceFileLoader’s resource reader.  Avoids the
     regression identified in master while a long-term solution is
     devised.

   - bpo-40955(86): Fix a minor memory leak in *note subprocess: d5.
     module when extra_groups was specified.

   - bpo-40855(87): The standard deviation and variance functions in the
     statistics module were ignoring their mu and xbar arguments.

   - bpo-40939(88): Use the new PEG parser when generating the stdlib
     *note keyword: 82. module.

   - bpo-23427(89): Add *note sys.orig_argv: 67f. attribute: the list of
     the original command line arguments passed to the Python
     executable.

   - bpo-33689(90): Ignore empty or whitespace-only lines in .pth files.
     This matches the documentated behavior.  Before, empty lines caused
     the site-packages dir to appear multiple times in sys.path.  By Ido
     Michael, contributors Malcolm Smith and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-40884(91): Added a ‘defaults’ parameter to *note
     logging.Formatter: 131f, to allow specifying default values for
     custom fields.  Patch by Asaf Alon and Bar Harel.

   - bpo-40876(92): Clarify error message in the *note csv: 29. module.

   - bpo-39791(93): Refresh importlib.metadata from importlib_metadata
     1.6.1.

   - bpo-40807(94): Stop codeop._maybe_compile, used by
     code.InteractiveInterpreter (and IDLE). from emitting each warning
     three times.

   - bpo-32604(95): Fix reference leak in the *note select: c0. module
     when the module is imported in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-39791(96): Built-in loaders (SourceFileLoader and ZipImporter)
     now supply ‘TraversableResources’ implementations for
     ‘ResourceReader’, and the fallback function has been removed.

   - bpo-39314(97): *note rlcompleter.Completer: 1770. and the standard
     Python shell now close the parenthesis for functions that take no
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-17005(98): The topological sort functionality that was
     introduced initially in the *note functools: 5d. module has been
     moved to a new *note graphlib: 63. module to better accommodate the
     new tools and keep the original scope of the *note functools: 5d.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40834(99): Fix truncate when sending str object
     with_xxsubinterpreters.channel_send.

   - bpo-40755(100): Add rich comparisons to collections.Counter().

   - bpo-26407(101): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in *note csv.reader(): 132a,
     ‘csv.writer.writerow()’ and ‘csv.writer.writerows()’.

   - bpo-39384(102): Fixed email.contentmanager to allow set_content()
     to set a null string.

   - bpo-40744(103): The *note sqlite3: ce. module uses SQLite API
     functions that require SQLite v3.7.3 or higher.  This patch removes
     support for older SQLite versions, and explicitly requires SQLite
     3.7.3 both at build, compile and runtime.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev
     and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40777(104): Initialize PyDateTime_IsoCalendarDateType.tp_base
     at run-time to avoid errors on some compilers.

   - bpo-38488(105): Update ensurepip to install pip 20.1.1 and
     setuptools 47.1.0.

   - bpo-40792(106): The result of *note operator.index(): 1739. now
     always has exact type *note int: 184.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-40767(107): *note webbrowser: 115. now properly finds the
     default browser in pure Wayland systems by checking the
     WAYLAND_DISPLAY environment variable.  Patch contributed by Jérémy
     Attali.

   - bpo-40791(108): ‘hashlib.compare_digest()’ uses OpenSSL’s
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ function when OpenSSL is available.

   - bpo-40795(109): *note ctypes: 2a. module: If ctypes fails to
     convert the result of a callback or if a ctypes callback function
     raises an exception, sys.unraisablehook is now called with an
     exception set.  Previously, the error was logged into stderr by
     *note PyErr_Print(): 1771.

   - bpo-16995(110): Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 61d. and *note
     base64.b32hexdecode(): 61e. to support the Base32 Encoding with
     Extended Hex Alphabet.

   - bpo-30008(111): Fix *note ssl: cf. code to be compatible with
     OpenSSL 1.1.x builds that use ‘no-deprecated’ and ‘--api=1.1.0’.

   - bpo-30064(112): Fix asyncio ‘loop.sock_*’ race condition issue

   - bpo-40759(113): Deprecate the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40756(114): The second argument (extra) of
     ‘LoggerAdapter.__init__’ now defaults to None.

   - bpo-37129(115): Add a new *note os.RWF_APPEND: 1772. flag for *note
     os.pwritev(): 9d4.

   - bpo-40737(116): Fix possible reference leak for *note sqlite3: ce.
     initialization.

   - bpo-40726(117): Handle cases where the ‘end_lineno’ is ‘None’ on
     *note ast.increment_lineno(): 15b5.

   - bpo-40698(118): ‘distutils’ upload creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256
     digests.  MD5 digests is skipped if platform blocks MD5.

   - bpo-40695(119): *note hashlib: 66. no longer falls back to builtin
     hash implementations when OpenSSL provides a hash digest and the
     algorithm is blocked by security policy.

   - bpo-9216(120): *note hashlib.new(): 1773. passed ‘usedforsecurity’
     to OpenSSL EVP constructor ‘_hashlib.new()’.  test_hashlib and
     test_smtplib handle strict security policy better.

   - bpo-40614(121): *note ast.parse(): 188. will not parse self
     documenting expressions in f-strings when passed ‘feature_version’
     is less than ‘(3, 8)’.

   - bpo-40626(122): Add h5 file extension as MIME Type
     application/x-hdf5, as per HDF Group recommendation for HDF5
     formatted data files.  Patch contributed by Mark Schwab.

   - bpo-25920(123): On macOS, when building Python for macOS 10.4 and
     older, which wasn’t the case for python.org macOS installer, *note
     socket.getaddrinfo(): 156e. no longer uses an internal lock to
     prevent race conditions when calling ‘getaddrinfo()’ which is
     thread-safe since macOS 10.5.  Python 3.9 requires macOS 10.6 or
     newer.  The internal lock caused random hang on fork when another
     thread was calling *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 156e.  The lock was
     also used on FreeBSD older than 5.3, OpenBSD older than 201311 and
     NetBSD older than 4.

   - bpo-40671(124): Prepare ‘_hashlib’ for PEP 489(125) and use *note
     PyModule_AddType(): 7d3.

   - bpo-32309(126): Added a new *note coroutine: 1b4. *note
     asyncio.to_thread(): 73b.  It is mainly used for running IO-bound
     functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop,
     and essentially works as a high-level version of *note
     run_in_executor(): 73c. that can directly take keyword arguments.

   - bpo-36543(127): Restored the deprecated ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’
     module.

   - bpo-40611(128): *note MAP_POPULATE: 1774. constant has now been
     added to the list of exported *note mmap: 8f. module flags.

   - bpo-39881(129): PEP 554 for use in the test suite.  (Patch By
     Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-13097(130): ‘ctypes’ now raises an ‘ArgumentError’ when a
     callback is invoked with more than 1024 arguments.

   - bpo-39385(131): A new test assertion context-manager,
     ‘unittest.assertNoLogs()’ will ensure a given block of code emits
     no log messages using the logging module.  Contributed by Kit Yan
     Choi.

   - bpo-23082(132): Updated the error message and docs of
     PurePath.relative_to() to better reflect the function behaviour.

   - bpo-40318(133): Use SQLite3 trace v2 API, if it is available.

   - bpo-40105(134): ZipFile truncates files to avoid corruption when a
     shorter comment is provided in append (“a”) mode.  Patch by Jan
     Mazur.

   - bpo-40084(135): Fix ‘Enum.__dir__’: dir(Enum.member) now includes
     attributes as well as methods.

   - bpo-31122(136): ssl.wrap_socket() now raises ssl.SSLEOFError rather
     than OSError when peer closes connection during TLS negotiation

   - bpo-39728(137): fix default ‘_missing_’ so a duplicate ‘ValueError’
     is not set as the ‘__context__’ of the original ‘ValueError’.

   - bpo-39244(138): Fixed
     ‘multiprocessing.context.get_all_start_methods’ to properly return
     the default method first on macOS.

   - bpo-39040(139): Fix parsing of invalid mime headers parameters by
     collapsing whitespace between encoded words in a bare-quote-string.

   - bpo-38731(140): Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of
     *note py_compile: b2.  Patch by Gregory Schevchenko.

   - bpo-35714(141): *note struct.error: 11cf. is now raised if there is
     a null character in a *note struct: d4. format string.

   - bpo-38144(142): Added the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in
     *note glob.glob(): 641.

   - bpo-26543(143): Fix ‘IMAP4.noop()’ when debug mode is enabled (ex:
     ‘imaplib.Debug = 3’).

   - bpo-12178(144): *note csv.writer(): 1a8. now correctly escapes
     'escapechar' when input contains 'escapechar'.  Patch by Catalin
     Iacob, Berker Peksag, and Itay Elbirt.

   - bpo-36290(145): AST nodes are now raising *note TypeError: 2c4. on
     conflicting keyword arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33944(146): Added site.py site-packages tracing in verbose
     mode.

   - bpo-35078(147): Refactor formatweekday, formatmonthname methods in
     LocaleHTMLCalendar and LocaleTextCalendar classes in calendar
     module to call the base class methods.This enables customizable CSS
     classes for LocaleHTMLCalendar.  Patch by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy

   - bpo-29620(148): *note assertWarns(): 100b. no longer raises a
     ‘RuntimeException’ when accessing a module’s ‘__warningregistry__’
     causes importation of a new module, or when a new module is
     imported in another thread.  Patch by Kernc.

   - bpo-31844(149): Remove ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private
     and undocumented ‘_markupbase’ module.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: 6bc. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was deprecated in Python 3.4 and
     removed in Python 3.5.

   - bpo-34226(150): Fix ‘cgi.parse_multipart’ without content_length.
     Patch by Roger Duran

   - bpo-33660(151): Fix pathlib.PosixPath to resolve a relative path
     located on the root directory properly.

   - bpo-28557(152): Improve the error message for a misbehaving
     ‘rawio.readinto’

   - bpo-26680(153): The d.is_integer() method is added to the Decimal
     type, for compatibility with other number types.

   - bpo-26680(154): The x.is_integer() method is incorporated into the
     abstract types of the numeric tower, Real, Rational and Integral,
     with appropriate default implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41887

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41773

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41840

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40564

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41833

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41817

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41815

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39587

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (16) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/751

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41789

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32218

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39651

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41732

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41720

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41696

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41687

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39010

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41638

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39994

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40782

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41520

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41528

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41503

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41497

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41467

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41425

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41421

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41316

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41384

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41317

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41364

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35328

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41341

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41344

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41333

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41288

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39017

   (57) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-20907

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41273

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41235

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41207

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29727

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39168

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41194

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41195

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41193

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41182

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41161

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40874

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41138

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31082

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31938

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41068

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41058

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

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   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41043

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41025

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018

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   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33689

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40884

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40876

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40807

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39314

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40834

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40755

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26407

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39384

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40777

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38488

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40767

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40795

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16995

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30008

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30064

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40759

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   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40726

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40695

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9216

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40614

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40626

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25920

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40671

   (125) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (128) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40611

   (129) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39881

   (130) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13097

   (131) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23082

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40105

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40084

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31122

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39728

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39244

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39040

   (140) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731

   (141) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35714

   (142) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144

   (143) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26543

   (144) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12178

   (145) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36290

   (146) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944

   (147) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35078

   (148) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29620

   (149) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844

   (150) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34226

   (151) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33660

   (152) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28557

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<39>,  Next: Tests<39>,  Prev: Library<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-41428(1): Add documentation for PEP 604(2) (Allow writing union
     types as ‘X | Y’).

   - bpo-41774(3): In Programming FAQ “Sequences (Tuples/Lists)”
     section, add “How do you remove multiple items from a list”.

   - bpo-35293(4): Fix RemovedInSphinx40Warning when building the
     documentation.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37149(5): Change Shipman tkinter doc link from archive.org to
     TkDocs.  (The doc has been removed from the NMT server.)  The new
     link responds much faster and includes a short explanatory note.

   - bpo-41726(6): Update the refcounts info of
     ‘PyType_FromModuleAndSpec’.

   - bpo-41624(7): Fix the signature of *note typing.Coroutine: 1776.

   - bpo-40204(8): Enable Sphinx 3.2 ‘c_allow_pre_v3’ option and disable
     ‘c_warn_on_allowed_pre_v3’ option to make the documentation
     compatible with Sphinx 2 and Sphinx 3.

   - bpo-41045(9): Add documentation for debug feature of f-strings.

   - bpo-41314(10): Changed the release when ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ becomes the default from ‘4.0’ to ‘3.10’ (following a
     change in PEP 563).

   - bpo-40979(11): Refactored typing.rst, arranging more than 70
     classes, functions, and decorators into new sub-sections.

   - bpo-40552(12): Fix in tutorial section 4.2.  Code snippet is now
     correct.

   - bpo-39883(13): Make code, examples, and recipes in the Python
     documentation be licensed under the more permissive BSD0 license in
     addition to the existing Python 2.0 license.

   - bpo-37703(14): Updated Documentation to comprehensively elaborate
     on the behaviour of gather.cancel()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41774

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41045

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41314

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40552

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39883

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37703


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<39>,  Next: Build<38>,  Prev: Documentation<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41939(1): Fix test_site.test_license_exists_at_url(): call
     ‘urllib.request.urlcleanup()’ to reset the global
     ‘urllib.request._opener’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41731(2): Make test_cmd_line_script pass with option ‘-vv’.

   - bpo-41602(3): Add tests for SIGINT handling in the runpy module.

   - bpo-41521(4): *note test.support: e3.: Rename ‘blacklist’ parameter
     of *note check__all__(): 1778. to ‘not_exported’.

   - bpo-41477(5): Make ctypes optional in test_genericalias.

   - bpo-41085(6): Fix integer overflow in the *note
     array.array.index(): 61a. method on 64-bit Windows for index larger
     than ‘2**31’.

   - bpo-41069(7): ‘test.support.TESTFN’ and the current directory for
     tests when run via ‘test.regrtest’ contain now non-ascii characters
     if possible.

   - bpo-38377(8): On Linux, skip tests using multiprocessing if the
     current user cannot create a file in ‘/dev/shm/’ directory.  Add
     the *note skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize(): 1779.
     function to the *note test.support: e3. module.

   - bpo-41009(9): Fix use of
     ‘support.require_{linux|mac|freebsd}_version()’ decorators as class
     decorator.

   - bpo-41003(10): Fix ‘test_copyreg’ when ‘numpy’ is installed:
     ‘test.pickletester’ now saves/restores warnings filters when
     importing ‘numpy’, to ignore filters installed by ‘numpy’.

   - bpo-40964(11): Disable remote *note imaplib: 72. tests, host
     cyrus.andrew.cmu.edu is blocking incoming connections.

   - bpo-40927(12): Fix test_binhex when run twice: it now uses
     import_fresh_module() to ensure that it raises DeprecationWarning
     each time.

   - bpo-17258(13): Skip some *note multiprocessing: 93. tests when MD5
     hash digest is blocked.

   - bpo-31904(14): Increase LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT to 10 for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-38169(15): Increase code coverage for SharedMemory and
     ShareableList

   - bpo-34401(16): Make test_gdb properly run on HP-UX. Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41939

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41521

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41477

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41085

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41069

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41009

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40964

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40927

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38169

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34401


File: python.info,  Node: Build<38>,  Next: Windows<37>,  Prev: Tests<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38249(1): Update *note Py_UNREACHABLE: a2c. to use
     __builtin_unreachable() if only the compiler is able to use it.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41617(2): Fix ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ header file to support old
     clang versions: ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ is not available in LLVM
     clang 3.0.

   - bpo-40204(3): Pin Sphinx version to 2.3.1 in ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-36020(4): The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are
     now required to build Python.

   - bpo-40684(5): ‘make install’ now uses the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ variable for
     the destination ‘lib-dynload/’ directory when ‘./configure
     --with-platlibdir’ is used.

   - bpo-40683(6): Fixed an issue where the *note zoneinfo: 134. module
     and its tests were not included when Python is installed with
     ‘make’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40683


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<37>,  Next: macOS<30>,  Prev: Build<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41744(1): Fixes automatic import of props file when using the
     Nuget package.

   - bpo-41627(2): The user site directory for 32-bit now includes a
     ‘-32’ suffix to distinguish it from the 64-bit interpreter’s
     directory.

   - bpo-41526(3): Fixed layout of final page of the installer by
     removing the special thanks to Mark Hammond (with his permission).

   - bpo-41492(4): Fixes the description that appears in UAC prompts.

   - bpo-40948(5): Improve post-install message to direct people to the
     “py” command.

   - bpo-41412(6): The installer will now fail to install on Windows 7
     and Windows 8.  Further, the UCRT dependency is now always
     downloaded on demand.

   - bpo-40741(7): Update Windows release to include SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41142(8): *note msilib: 91. now supports creating CAB files
     with non-ASCII file path and adding files with non-ASCII file path
     to them.

   - bpo-41074(9): Fixed support of non-ASCII names in functions *note
     msilib.OpenDatabase(): 177c. and *note msilib.init_database():
     177d. and non-ASCII SQL in method *note msilib.Database.OpenView():
     177e.

   - bpo-41039(10): Stable ABI redirection DLL (python3.dll) now uses
     ‘#pragma comment(linker)’ for re-exporting.

   - bpo-40164(11): Updates Windows OpenSSL to 1.1.1g

   - bpo-39631(12): Changes the registered MIME type for ‘.py’ files on
     Windows to ‘text/x-python’ instead of ‘text/plain’.

   - bpo-40677(13): Manually define IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK in case
     some old Windows SDK doesn’t have it.

   - bpo-37556(14): Extend py.exe help to mention overrides via venv,
     shebang, environmental variables & ini files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41627

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41526

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40948

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41412

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41142

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41074

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41039

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39631

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40677

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37556


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<30>,  Next: IDLE<25>,  Prev: Windows<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-41557(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-39580(2): Avoid opening Finder window if running installer from
     the command line.  Patch contributed by Rick Heil.

   - bpo-41100(3): Fix configure error when building on macOS 11.  Note
     that the current Python release was released shortly after the
     first developer preview of macOS 11 (Big Sur); there are other
     known issues with building and running on the developer preview.
     Big Sur is expected to be fully supported in a future bugfix
     release of Python 3.8.x and with 3.9.0.

   - bpo-40741(4): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41005(5): fixed an XDG settings issue not allowing macos to
     open browser in webbrowser.py

   - bpo-40741(6): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39580

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<25>,  Next: C API<35>,  Prev: macOS<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-41775(1): Use ‘IDLE Shell’ as shell title

   - bpo-35764(2): Rewrite the Calltips doc section.

   - bpo-40181(3): In calltips, stop reminding that ‘/’ marks the end of
     positional-only arguments.

   - bpo-41468(4): Improve IDLE run crash error message (which users
     should never see).

   - bpo-41373(5): Save files loaded with no line ending, as when blank,
     or different line endings, by setting its line ending to the system
     default.  Fix regression in 3.8.4 and 3.9.0b4.

   - bpo-41300(6): Save files with non-ascii chars.  Fix regression
     released in 3.9.0b4 and 3.8.4.

   - bpo-37765(7): Add keywords to module name completion list.  Rewrite
     Completions section of IDLE doc.

   - bpo-41152(8): The encoding of ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ in
     IDLE is now always UTF-8.

   - bpo-41144(9): Make Open Module open a special module such as
     os.path.

   - bpo-39885(10): Make context menu Cut and Copy work again when
     right-clicking within a selection.

   - bpo-40723(11): Make test_idle pass when run after import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41300

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41152

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41144

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40723


File: python.info,  Node: C API<35>,  Prev: IDLE<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.22.43.10 C API
................

   - bpo-41936(1): Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. structure.

   - bpo-41692(2): The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 703. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41842(3): Add *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6e0. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-41834(4): Remove the ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has
     been replaced by ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 70f. structure.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41689(5): Types created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316. now
     make any signature in their ‘tp_doc’ slot accessible from
     ‘__text_signature__’.

   - bpo-41524(6): Fix bug in PyOS_mystrnicmp and PyOS_mystricmp that
     incremented pointers beyond the end of a string.

   - bpo-41324(7): Add a minimal decimal capsule API. The API supports
     fast conversions between Decimals up to 38 digits and their triple
     representation as a C struct.

   - bpo-30155(8): Add *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 6dd. and
     *note PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 6de. macros for accessing the
     ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 22b. and *note
     datetime.time: 6df. objects.

   - bpo-40170(9): Revert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1782. change: it
     reads again directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 16e6. member
     when the limited C API is not used, rather than always calling
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1783. which hides implementation details.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy’.

   - bpo-41123(11): Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.

   - bpo-41123(12): Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.

   - bpo-41123(13): Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating
     ‘Py_UNICODE*’ strings.

   - bpo-41103(14): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and
     ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are removed.  Please migrate to new
     buffer protocol; *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 58f.

   - bpo-36346(15): Raises DeprecationWarning for
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ with ‘size > 0’.

   - bpo-36346(16): Mark ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’,
     ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’, ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize’ as
     deprecated in C. Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’ which was deprecated and
     broken since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-40989(17): The ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’
     macros become aliases to, respectively, *note PyObject_Init(): 8d0.
     and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1784. functions.

   - bpo-36020(18): On Windows, ‘#include "pyerrors.h"’ no longer
     defines ‘snprintf’ and ‘vsnprintf’ macros.

   - bpo-40943(19): The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5.
     formats which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’
     and ‘Z#’.  See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 6f6.
     and the PEP 353(20).

   - bpo-40910(21): Export explicitly the *note Py_GetArgcArgv(): 1785.
     function to the C API and document the function.  Previously, it
     was exported implicitly which no longer works since Python is built
     with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40724(22): Allow defining buffer slots in type specs.

   - bpo-40679(23): Fix a ‘_PyEval_EvalCode()’ crash if 'qualname'
     argument is NULL.

   - bpo-40839(24): Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6f9. without *note
     GIL: 6fa. held had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no
     longer allowed.

   - bpo-40826(25): ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’ now fails with a fatal
     error if it is called with the GIL released.

   - bpo-40792(26): The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): 6db. now
     always has exact type *note int: 184.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-39573(27): Convert *note Py_REFCNT(): 6f7. and *note Py_SIZE():
     5b2. macros to static inline functions.  They cannot be used as
     l-value anymore: use *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6f8. and *note
     Py_SET_SIZE(): 5b3. to set an object reference count and size.
     This change is backward incompatible on purpose, to prepare the C
     API for an opaque *note PyObject: 6eb. structure.

   - bpo-40703(28): The PyType_FromSpec*() functions no longer overwrite
     the type’s “__module__” attribute if it is set via “Py_tp_members”
     or “Py_tp_getset”.

   - bpo-39583(29): Remove superfluous “extern C” declarations from
     ‘Include/cpython/*.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41689

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41524

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40989

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40724

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40703

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.44 Python 3.9.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2020-05-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<31>,  Next: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40501(1): *note uuid: 110. no longer uses *note ctypes: 2a. to
     load ‘libuuid’ or ‘rpcrt4.dll’ at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40501


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<43>,  Next: Library<44>,  Prev: Security<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40663(1): Correctly generate annotations where parentheses are
     omitted but required (e.g: ‘Type[(str, int, *other))]’.

   - bpo-40596(2): Fixed *note str.isidentifier(): 1789. for
     non-canonicalized strings containing non-BMP characters on Windows.

   - bpo-40593(3): Improved syntax errors for invalid characters in
     source code.

   - bpo-40585(4): Fixed a bug when using *note
     codeop.compile_command(): 15ea. that was causing exceptions to be
     swallowed with the new parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40566(5): Apply PEP 573(6) to *note abc: 4.

   - bpo-40502(7): Initialize ‘n->n_col_offset’.  (Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye)

   - bpo-40527(8): Fix command line argument parsing: no longer write
     errors multiple times into stderr.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port *note errno: 55. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-40523(11): Add pass-throughs for *note hash(): 3f7. and *note
     reversed(): 6a9. to *note weakref.proxy: 8b5. objects.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note syslog: db. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-40246(14): Reporting a specialised error message for invalid
     string prefixes, which was introduced in bpo-40246(15), is being
     reverted due to backwards compatibility concerns for strings that
     immediately follow a reserved keyword without whitespace between
     them.  Constructs like ‘bg="#d00" if clear else"#fca"’ were failing
     to parse, which is not an acceptable breakage on such short notice.

   - bpo-40417(16): Fix imp module deprecation warning when
     PyImport_ReloadModule is called.  Patch by Robert Rouhani.

   - bpo-40408(17): Fixed support of nested type variables in
     GenericAlias (e.g.  ‘list[list[T]]’).

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port _stat module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-29587(20): Enable implicit exception chaining when calling
     *note generator.throw(): 24a.

   - bpo-40328(21): Add tools for generating mappings headers for
     CJKCodecs.

   - bpo-40228(22): Setting frame.f_lineno is now robust w.r.t.  changes
     in the source-to-bytecode compiler

   - bpo-38880(23): Added the ability to list interpreters associated
     with channel ends in the internal subinterpreters module.

   - bpo-37986(24): Improve performance of *note PyLong_FromDouble():
     79b. for values that fit into long.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40596

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40585

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40566

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40502

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40527

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40523

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40417

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40408

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29587

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40328

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40228

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38880

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986


File: python.info,  Node: Library<44>,  Next: Documentation<40>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40662(1): Fixed *note ast.get_source_segment(): 835. for ast
     nodes that have incomplete location information.  Patch by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-40665(2): Convert *note bisect: 11. to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40536(3): Added the *note available_timezones(): 178b. function
     to the *note zoneinfo: 134. module.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-40645(4): The ‘hmac.HMAC’ exposes internal implementation
     details.  The attributes ‘digest_cons’, ‘inner’, and ‘outer’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-40645(5): The internal module ‘_hashlib’ wraps and exposes
     OpenSSL’s HMAC API. The new code will be used in Python 3.10 after
     the internal implementation details of the pure Python HMAC module
     are no longer part of the public API.

   - bpo-40637(6): Builtin hash modules can now be disabled or
     selectively enabled with ‘configure
     --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake1’ or
     ‘--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’.

   - bpo-37630(7): The *note hashlib: 66. module can now use SHA3 hashes
     and SHAKE XOF from OpenSSL when available.

   - bpo-40479(8): The *note hashlib: 66. now compiles with OpenSSL
     3.0.0-alpha2.

   - bpo-40257(9): Revert changes to *note inspect.getdoc(): 859.

   - bpo-40607(10): When cancelling a task due to timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. will now propagate the exception if an
     error happens during cancellation.  Patch by Roman Skurikhin.

   - bpo-40612(11): Fix edge cases in SyntaxError formatting.  If the
     offset is <= 0, no caret is printed.  If the offset is > line
     length, the caret is printed pointing just after the last
     character.

   - bpo-40597(12): If text content lines are longer than
     policy.max_line_length, always use a content-encoding to make sure
     they are wrapped.

   - bpo-40571(13): Added functools.cache() as a simpler, more
     discoverable way to access the unbounded cache variant of
     lru_cache(maxsize=None).

   - bpo-40503(14): PEP 615(15), the *note zoneinfo: 134. module.  Adds
     support for the IANA time zone database.

   - bpo-40397(16): Removed attributes ‘__args__’ and ‘__parameters__’
     from special generic aliases like ‘typing.List’ (not subscripted).

   - bpo-40549(17): Convert posixmodule.c (“posix” or “nt” module) to
     the multiphase initialization (PEP 489).

   - bpo-31033(18): Add a ‘msg’ argument to ‘Future.cancel()’ and
     ‘Task.cancel()’.

   - bpo-40541(19): Added an optional 'counts' parameter to
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40515(20): The *note ssl: cf. and *note hashlib: 66. modules
     now actively check that OpenSSL is build with thread support.
     Python 3.7.0 made thread support mandatory and no longer works
     safely with a no-thread builds.

   - bpo-31033(21): When a *note asyncio.Task: 20a. is cancelled, the
     exception traceback now chains all the way back to where the task
     was first interrupted.

   - bpo-40504(22): *note functools.lru_cache(): 84e. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-40559(23): Fix possible memory leak in the C implementation of
     *note asyncio.Task: 20a.

   - bpo-40480(24): ‘fnmatch.fnmatch()’ could take exponential time in
     the presence of multiple ‘*’ pattern characters.  This was repaired
     by generating more elaborate regular expressions to avoid futile
     backtracking.

   - bpo-40495(25): *note compileall: 20. is now able to use hardlinks
     to prevent duplicates in a case when ‘.pyc’ files for different
     optimization levels have the same content.

   - bpo-40457(26): The ssl module now support OpenSSL builds without
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1 methods.

   - bpo-40355(27): Improve error reporting in *note ast.literal_eval():
     a91. in the presence of malformed *note ast.Dict: 178c. nodes
     instead of silently ignoring any non-conforming elements.  Patch by
     Curtis Bucher.

   - bpo-40465(28): Deprecated the optional 'random' argument to
     'random.shuffle()'.

   - bpo-40459(29): *note platform.win32_ver(): 178d. now produces
     correct 'ptype' strings instead of empty strings.

   - bpo-39435(30): The first argument of *note pickle.loads(): b96. is
     now positional-only.

   - bpo-39305(31): Update *note nntplib: 9c. to merge *note
     nntplib.NNTP: 76d. and ‘nntplib._NNTPBase’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32494(32): Update *note dbm.gnu: 33. to use gdbm_count if
     possible when calling *note len(): 441.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40453(33): Add ‘isolated=True’ keyword-only parameter to
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters.create()’.  An isolated subinterpreter cannot
     spawn threads, spawn a child process or call ‘os.fork()’.

   - bpo-40286(34): Remove ‘_random.Random.randbytes()’: the C
     implementation of ‘randbytes()’.  Implement the method in Python to
     ease subclassing: ‘randbytes()’ now directly reuses
     ‘getrandbits()’.

   - bpo-40394(35): Added default arguments to *note
     difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match(): 178e.

   - bpo-39995(36): Fix a race condition in
     concurrent.futures._ThreadWakeup: access to _ThreadWakeup is now
     protected with the shutdown lock.

   - bpo-30966(37): ‘Process.shutdown(wait=True)’ of *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. now closes explicitly the result queue.

   - bpo-30966(38): Add a new *note close(): 76b. method to the *note
     SimpleQueue: 76a. class to explicitly close the queue.

   - bpo-39966(39): Revert bpo-25597(40).  *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: d25. with wraps’ set uses default return
     values for magic methods.

   - bpo-39791(41): Added ‘files()’ function to importlib.resources with
     support for subdirectories in package data, matching backport in
     importlib_resources 1.5.

   - bpo-40375(42): *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 75c. is added.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40389(43): ‘repr()’ now returns ‘typing.Optional[T]’ when
     called for ‘typing.Union’ of two types, one of which is ‘NoneType’.

   - bpo-40291(44): Add support for CAN_J1939 sockets (available on
     Linux 5.4+)

   - bpo-40273(45): *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. is now
     reversible.

   - bpo-39075(46): The repr for *note types.SimpleNamespace: 77f. is
     now insertion ordered rather than alphabetical.

   - bpo-40192(47): On AIX, *note thread_time(): 78f. is now implemented
     with ‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather
     than ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a
     resolution of 10 milliseconds.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40025(48): Raise TypeError when _generate_next_value_ is
     defined after members.  Patch by Ethan Onstott.

   - bpo-39058(49): In the argparse module, the repr for Namespace() and
     other argument holders now displayed in the order attributes were
     added.  Formerly, it displayed in alphabetical order even though
     argument order is preserved the user visible parts of the module.

   - bpo-24416(50): The ‘isocalendar()’ methods of *note datetime.date:
     749. and *note datetime.datetime: 22b. now return a *note named
     tuple: 461. instead of a *note tuple: 4ff.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40665

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40637

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40607

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40612

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40597

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40571

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40503

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40397

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40549

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40541

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40515

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40504

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40559

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40480

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40457

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40355

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40459

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39305

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32494

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40453

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40394

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39995

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39966

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40389

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40273

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39075

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40025

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39058

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<40>,  Next: Tests<40>,  Prev: Library<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-34790(1): Add version of removal for explicit passing of coros
     to ‘asyncio.wait()’’s documentation

   - bpo-40561(2): Provide docstrings for webbrowser open functions.

   - bpo-40499(3): Mention that *note asyncio.wait(): 1a0. requires a
     non-empty set of awaitables.

   - bpo-39705(4): Tutorial example for sorted() in the Loop Techniques
     section is given a better explanation.  Also a new example is
     included to explain sorted()’s basic behavior.

   - bpo-39435(5): Fix an incorrect signature for *note pickle.loads():
     b96. in the docs

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40561

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40499

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39705

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<40>,  Next: Build<39>,  Prev: Documentation<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40055(1): distutils.tests now saves/restores warnings filters
     to leave them unchanged.  Importing tests imports docutils which
     imports pkg_resources which adds a warnings filter.

   - bpo-40436(2): test_gdb and test.pythoninfo now check gdb command
     exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40055

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40436


File: python.info,  Node: Build<39>,  Next: Windows<38>,  Prev: Tests<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-40653(1): Move _dirnameW out of HAVE_SYMLINK to fix a potential
     compiling issue.

   - bpo-40514(2): Add ‘--with-experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     build option to ‘configure’: better isolate subinterpreters,
     experimental build mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40653

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40514


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<38>,  Next: macOS<31>,  Prev: Build<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40650(1): Include winsock2.h in pytime.c for timeval.

   - bpo-40458(2): Increase reserved stack space to prevent overflow
     crash on Windows.

   - bpo-39148(3): Add IPv6 support to *note asyncio: a. datagram
     endpoints in ProactorEventLoop.  Change the raised exception for
     unknown address families to ValueError as it’s not coming from
     Windows API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40458

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39148


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<31>,  Next: Tools/Demos<21>,  Prev: Windows<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34956(1): When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’
     now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are
     installed in ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older
     releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by
     using ‘--enable-universalsdk=’ or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself
     is searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.

   - bpo-35569(2): Expose RFC 3542 IPv6 socket options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35569


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<21>,  Next: C API<36>,  Prev: macOS<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40479(1): Update multissltest helper to test with latest
     OpenSSL 1.0.2, 1.1.0, 1.1.1, and 3.0.0-alpha.

   - bpo-40431(2): Fix a syntax typo in ‘turtledemo’ that now raises a
     ‘SyntaxError’.

   - bpo-40163(3): Fix multissltest tool.  OpenSSL has changed download
     URL for old releases.  The multissltest tool now tries to download
     from current and old download URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40431

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40163


File: python.info,  Node: C API<36>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<21>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.22.44.10 C API
................

   - bpo-39465(1): Remove the ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function
     from the C API.

   - bpo-38787(2): Add PyCFunction_CheckExact() macro for exact type
     checks now that we allow subtypes of PyCFunction, as well as
     PyCMethod_CheckExact() and PyCMethod_Check() for the new PyCMethod
     subtype.

   - bpo-40545(3): Declare ‘_PyErr_GetTopmostException()’ with
     ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’ to properly export the function in the C API. The
     function remains private (‘_Py’) prefix.

   - bpo-40412(4): Nullify inittab_copy during finalization, preventing
     future interpreter initializations in an embedded situation from
     crashing.  Patch by Gregory Szorc.

   - bpo-40429(5): The *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5c0. function now
     returns a strong reference to the frame.

   - bpo-40428(6): Remove the following functions from the C API. Call
     *note PyGC_Collect(): 7ec. explicitly to free all free lists.

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

   - bpo-40421(7): New *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 5b6. function: get the
     frame next outer frame.

   - bpo-40421(8): New *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5bb. function: return a
     borrowed reference to the frame code.

   - bpo-40217(9): Ensure that instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317. will visit its class object when
     traversing references in the garbage collector (implemented as an
     extension of the provided *note tp_traverse: 5ae.).  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-38787(10): Module C state is now accessible from C-defined heap
     type methods ( PEP 573(11)).  Patch by Marcel Plch and Petr
     Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40545

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.45 Python 3.9.0 alpha 6
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-04-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<32>,  Next: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40121(1): Fixes audit events raised on creating a new socket.

   - bpo-39073(2): Disallow CR or LF in email.headerregistry.Address
     arguments to guard against header injection attacks.

   - bpo-39503(3): CVE 2020-8492(4): The *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     16e4. class of the *note urllib.request: 10b. module uses an
     inefficient regular expression which can be exploited by an
     attacker to cause a denial of service.  Fix the regex to prevent
     the catastrophic backtracking.  Vulnerability reported by Ben
     Caller and Matt Schwager.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40121

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-8492


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<44>,  Next: Library<45>,  Prev: Security<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40313(1): Improve the performance of bytes.hex().

   - bpo-40334(2): Switch to a new parser, based on PEG. For more
     details see PEP 617.  To temporarily switch back to the old parser,
     use ‘-X oldparser’ or ‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’.  In Python 3.10 we will
     remove the old parser completely, including the ‘parser’ module
     (already deprecated) and anything that depends on it.

   - bpo-40267(3): Fix the tokenizer to display the correct error
     message, when there is a ‘SyntaxError’ on the last input character
     and no newline follows.  It used to be ‘unexpected EOF while
     parsing’, while it should be ‘invalid syntax’.

   - bpo-39522(4): Correctly unparse explicit ‘u’ prefix for strings
     when postponed evaluation for annotations activated.  Patch by
     Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40246(5): Report a specialized error message, ‘invalid string
     prefix’, when the tokenizer encounters a string with an invalid
     prefix.

   - bpo-40082(6): Fix the signal handler: it now always uses the main
     interpreter, rather than trying to get the current Python thread
     state.

   - bpo-37388(7): str.encode() and str.decode() no longer check the
     encoding and errors in development mode or in debug mode during
     Python finalization.  The codecs machinery can no longer work on
     very late calls to str.encode() and str.decode().

   - bpo-40077(8): Fix possible refleaks in ‘_json’, memo of
     PyScannerObject should be traversed.

   - bpo-37207(9): Speed up calls to ‘dict()’ by using the PEP 590(10)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.

   - bpo-40141(11): Add column and line information to ‘ast.keyword’
     nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note resource: bb. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port *note math: 8d. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(15)).

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _uuid module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert json module to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     316.

   - bpo-40067(19): Improve the error message for multiple star
     expressions in an assignment.  Patch by Furkan Onder

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port _functools module to multiphase
     initialization (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port operator module to multiphase initialization
     (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-20526(22): Fix *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1488.
     ‘PyThreadState.frame’ is a borrowed reference, not a strong
     reference: ‘PyThreadState_Clear()’ must not call
     ‘Py_CLEAR(tstate->frame)’.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port time module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(24)).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-40020(27): Fix a leak and subsequent crash in parsetok.c caused
     by realloc misuse on a rare codepath.

   - bpo-39939(28): Added str.removeprefix and str.removesuffix methods
     and corresponding bytes, bytearray, and collections.UserString
     methods to remove affixes from a string if present.  See PEP
     616(29) for a full description.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-39481(30): Implement PEP 585.  This supports list[int],
     tuple[str, …] etc.

   - bpo-32894(31): Support unparsing of infinity numbers in postponed
     annotations.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-37207(32): Speed up calls to ‘list()’ by using the PEP 590(33)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40267

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39522

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40082

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40141

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40067

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20526

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40020

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32894

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<45>,  Next: Documentation<41>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40398(1): *note typing.get_args(): 6c4. now always returns an
     empty tuple for special generic aliases.

   - bpo-40396(2): Functions *note typing.get_origin(): 8aa, *note
     typing.get_args(): 6c4. and *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8.
     support now generic aliases like ‘list[int]’.

   - bpo-38061(3): Optimize the *note subprocess: d5. module on FreeBSD
     using ‘closefrom()’.  A single ‘close(fd)’ syscall is cheap, but
     when ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’ is high, the loop calling ‘close(fd)’
     on each file descriptor can take several milliseconds.

     The workaround on FreeBSD to improve performance was to load and
     mount the fdescfs kernel module, but this is not enabled by
     default.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-38061(4): On FreeBSD, ‘os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)’ now
     calls ‘closefrom(fd_low)’ if 'fd_high' is greater than or equal to
     ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-40360(5): The *note lib2to3: 83. module is pending deprecation
     due to PEP 617(6).

   - bpo-40138(7): Fix the Windows implementation of *note os.waitpid():
     c27. for exit code larger than ‘INT_MAX >> 8’.  The exit status is
     now interpreted as an unsigned number.

   - bpo-39942(8): Set “__main__” as the default module name when
     “__name__” is missing in *note typing.TypeVar: 16a.  Patch by
     Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-40275(9): The *note logging: 86. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 106. only when the *note assertLogs(): 698.
     assertion is used.

   - bpo-40275(10): The *note asyncio: a. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 106. only when the *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282. class is used.

   - bpo-40330(11): In ‘ShareableList.__setitem__()’, check the size of
     a new string item after encoding it to utf-8, not before.

   - bpo-40148(12): Added ‘pathlib.Path.with_stem()’ to create a new
     Path with the stem replaced.

   - bpo-40325(13): Deprecated support for set objects in
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40257(14): Improved help for the *note typing: 104. module.
     Docstrings are now shown for all special forms and special generic
     aliases (like ‘Union’ and ‘List’).  Using ‘help()’ with generic
     alias like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent
     concrete type (‘list’ in this case).

   - bpo-40257(15): *note inspect.getdoc(): 859. no longer returns
     docstring inherited from the type of the object or from parent
     class if it is a class if it is not defined in the object itself.
     In *note pydoc: b4. the documentation string is now shown not only
     for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its
     own ‘__doc__’ attribute.

   - bpo-40287(16): Fixed ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.seek()’ to return the
     position.

   - bpo-40290(17): Added zscore() to statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-40282(18): Allow ‘random.getrandbits(0)’ to succeed and to
     return 0.

   - bpo-40286(19): Add *note random.randbytes(): 179a. function and
     ‘random.Random.randbytes()’ method to generate random bytes.

   - bpo-40277(20): *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. now provides a
     human-readable repr for its field accessors.

   - bpo-40270(21): The included copy of sqlite3 on Windows is now
     compiled with the json extension.  This allows the use of functions
     such as ‘json_object’.

   - bpo-29255(22): Wait in ‘KqueueSelector.select’ when no fds are
     registered

   - bpo-40260(23): Ensure *note modulefinder: 90. uses *note
     io.open_code(): 153f. and respects coding comments.

   - bpo-40234(24): Allow again to spawn daemon threads in
     subinterpreters (revert change which denied them).

   - bpo-39207(25): Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. are now
     spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to
     reuse.  This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of
     lost CPU time to idle workers.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-40091(26): Fix a hang at fork in the logging module: the new
     private _at_fork_reinit() method is now used to reinitialize locks
     at fork in the child process.

   - bpo-40149(27): Implement traverse and clear slots in _abc._abc_data
     type.

   - bpo-40208(28): Remove deprecated ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’.

   - bpo-40196(29): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: d7. module that was
     causing incorrectly report global variables as local.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40190(30): Add support for ‘_SC_AIX_REALMEM’ to
     ‘posix.sysconf()’.

   - bpo-40182(31): Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 202. class.

   - bpo-36517(32): Multiple inheritance with *note typing.NamedTuple:
     202. now raises an error instead of silently ignoring other types.

   - bpo-40126(33): Fixed reverting multiple patches in unittest.mock.
     Patcher’s ‘__exit__()’ is now never called if its ‘__enter__()’ is
     failed.  Returning true from ‘__exit__()’ silences now the
     exception.

   - bpo-40094(34): CGIHTTPRequestHandler of http.server now logs the
     CGI script exit code, rather than the CGI script exit status of
     os.waitpid().  For example, if the script is killed by signal 11,
     it now logs: “CGI script exit code -11.”

   - bpo-40108(35): Improve the error message when triying to import a
     module using *note runpy: bd. and incorrectly using the “.py”
     extension at the end of the module name.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40094(36): Add *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775.
     function: convert a wait status to an exit code.

   - bpo-40089(37): Fix threading._after_fork(): if fork was not called
     by a thread spawned by threading.Thread, threading._after_fork()
     now creates a _MainThread instance for _main_thread, instead of a
     _DummyThread instance.

   - bpo-40089(38): Add a private ‘_at_fork_reinit()’ method to
     ‘_thread.Lock’, ‘_thread.RLock’, *note threading.RLock: 262. and
     *note threading.Condition: ffc. classes: reinitialize the lock at
     fork in the child process, reset the lock to the unlocked state.
     Rename also the private ‘_reset_internal_locks()’ method of *note
     threading.Event: fff. to ‘_at_fork_reinit()’.

   - bpo-25780(39): Expose *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS: 78a. in the *note
     socket: cb. module.

   - bpo-39503(40): *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler: 16e4. of *note
     urllib.request: 10b. now parses all WWW-Authenticate HTTP headers
     and accepts multiple challenges per header: use the realm of the
     first Basic challenge.

   - bpo-39812(41): Removed daemon threads from *note
     concurrent.futures: 21. by adding an internal
     ‘threading._register_atexit()’, which calls registered functions
     prior to joining all non-daemon threads.  This allows for
     compatibility with subinterpreters, which don’t support daemon
     threads.

   - bpo-40050(42): Fix ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’: avoid creating
     a new ‘winreg’ builtin module if it’s already available in *note
     sys.modules: 179b, and remove redundant imports.

   - bpo-40014(43): Fix ‘os.getgrouplist()’: if ‘getgrouplist()’
     function fails because the group list is too small, retry with a
     larger group list.  On failure, the glibc implementation of
     ‘getgrouplist()’ sets ‘ngroups’ to the total number of groups.  For
     other implementations, double the group list size.

   - bpo-40017(44): Add *note time.CLOCK_TAI: 179c. constant if the
     operating system support it.

   - bpo-40016(45): In re docstring, clarify the relationship between
     inline and argument compile flags.

   - bpo-39953(46): Update internal table of OpenSSL error codes in the
     ‘ssl’ module.

   - bpo-36144(47): Added PEP 584(48) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 179d.

   - bpo-36144(49): Added PEP 584(50) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 179e.

   - bpo-38891(51): Fix linear runtime behaviour of the ‘__getitem__’
     and ‘__setitem__’ methods in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList: 179f.  This avoids
     quadratic performance when iterating a ‘ShareableList’.  Patch by
     Thomas Krennwallner.

   - bpo-39682(52): Remove undocumented support for 'closing' a
     ‘pathlib.Path’ object via its context manager.  The context manager
     magic methods remain, but they are now a no-op, making ‘Path’
     objects immutable.

   - bpo-36144(53): Added PEP 584(54) operators (‘|’ and ‘|=’) to *note
     collections.ChainMap: a95.

   - bpo-39011(55): Normalization of line endings in ElementTree
     attributes was removed, as line endings which were replaced by
     entity numbers should be preserved in original form.

   - bpo-38410(56): Properly handle *note sys.audit(): 17a0. failures in
     *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 165a.

   - bpo-36541(57): lib2to3 now recognizes named assignment expressions
     (the walrus operator, ‘:=’)

   - bpo-35967(58): In platform, delay the invocation of ‘uname -p’
     until the processor attribute is requested.

   - bpo-35113(59): *note inspect.getsource(): 1525. now returns correct
     source code for inner class with same name as module level class.
     Decorators are also returned as part of source of the class.  Patch
     by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33262(60): Deprecate passing None as an argument for *note
     shlex.split(): 2c8.’s ‘s’ parameter.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-31758(61): Prevent crashes when using an uninitialized
     ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’ object.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40398

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40138

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39942

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40330

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40148

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40325

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40290

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40282

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40277

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40270

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40260

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40234

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40091

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40149

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40196

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40190

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36517

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40126

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40108

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40050

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40014

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40017

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40016

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39953

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38891

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39682

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (54) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38410

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35113

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31758


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<41>,  Next: Tests<41>,  Prev: Library<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27635(1): The pickle documentation incorrectly claimed that
     ‘__new__’ isn’t called by default when unpickling.

   - bpo-39879(2): Updated *note Data model: 17a2. docs to include *note
     dict(): 240. insertion order preservation.  Patch by Furkan Onder
     and Samy Lahfa.

   - bpo-38387(3): Document *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 17a3. macro in the C-API
     reference.

   - bpo-13743(4): Some methods within xml.dom.minidom.Element class are
     now better documented.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39879

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38387

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13743


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<41>,  Next: Build<40>,  Prev: Documentation<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): Set expected default encoding in
     test_c_locale_coercion.py for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40162(2): Update Travis CI configuration to OpenSSL 1.1.1f.

   - bpo-40146(3): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1f in Azure Pipelines.

   - bpo-40094(4): Add *note test.support.wait_process(): 17a5.
     function.

   - bpo-40003(5): ‘test.bisect_cmd’ now copies Python command line
     options like ‘-O’ or ‘-W’.  Moreover, emit a warning if
     ‘test.bisect_cmd’ is used with ‘-w’/‘--verbose2’ option.

   - bpo-39380(6): Add the encoding in *note ftplib.FTP: 74f. and *note
     ftplib.FTP_TLS: 750. to the constructor as keyword-only and change
     the default from ‘latin-1’ to ‘utf-8’ to follow RFC 2640(7).

   - bpo-39793(8): Use the same domain when testing ‘make_msgid’.  Patch
     by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1812(9): Fix newline handling in doctest.testfile when loading
     from a package whose loader has a get_data method.  Patch by Peter
     Donis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40162

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40003

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39380

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39793

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1812


File: python.info,  Node: Build<40>,  Next: Windows<39>,  Prev: Tests<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38360(1): Support single-argument form of macOS -isysroot flag.

   - bpo-40158(2): Fix CPython MSBuild Properties in NuGet Package
     (build/native/python.props)

   - bpo-38527(3): Fix configure check on Solaris for “float word
     ordering”: sometimes, the correct “grep” command was not being
     used.  Patch by Arnon Yaari.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40158

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38527


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<39>,  Next: macOS<32>,  Prev: Build<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40164(1): Updates Windows to OpenSSL 1.1.1f

   - bpo-8901(2): Ignore the Windows registry when the ‘-E’ option is
     used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<32>,  Next: IDLE<26>,  Prev: Windows<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38329(1): python.org macOS installers now update the Current
     version symlink of /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions
     for 3.9 installs.  Previously, Current was only updated for Python
     2.x installs.  This should make it easier to embed Python 3 into
     other macOS applications.

   - bpo-40164(2): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1g.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<26>,  Next: Tools/Demos<22>,  Prev: macOS<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38439(1): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to support more modern
     environments.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Delete the unused macOS
     idle.icns icon file.

   - bpo-38689(2): IDLE will no longer freeze when inspect.signature
     fails when fetching a calltip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38689


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<22>,  Next: C API<37>,  Prev: IDLE<26>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-40385(1): Removed the checkpyc.py tool.  Please see compileall
     without force mode as a potential alternative.

   - bpo-40179(2): Fixed translation of ‘#elif’ in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40094(3): Fix ‘which.py’ script exit code: it now uses *note
     os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. to convert *note os.system():
     12e5. exit status into an exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40385

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40179

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: C API<37>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<22>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.22.45.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40241(1): Move the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure to the internal C API.

   - bpo-40170(2): Convert *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 7e2. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details.

   - bpo-40241(3): Add the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 7d4.
     and *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 7d5. to the public API to
     allow to query if Python objects are being currently tracked or
     have been already finalized by the garbage collector respectively.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40170(4): The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the
     *note PyObject_New(): 7e3. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’
     macro becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar(): 7e4. macro,
     to hide implementation details.  They no longer access directly the
     *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 7e5. member.

   - bpo-40170(5): *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1782. now always calls
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1783. to hide implementation details.
     Previously, it accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags:
     16e6. member when the limited C API was not used.

   - bpo-40170(6): Convert the ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro
     to a function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly to the *note PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6. member.

   - bpo-40170(7): Convert *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 585. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 7e7. member.

   - bpo-40170(8): Always declare *note PyIndex_Check(): 7e8. as an
     opaque function to hide implementation details: remove
     ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro.  The macro accessed directly the *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 7e9. member.

   - bpo-39947(9): Add *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 7cf. function: get
     the unique identifier of a Python thread state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.22.46 Python 3.9.0 alpha 5
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-03-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<33>,  Next: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38576(1): Disallow control characters in hostnames in
     http.client, addressing CVE 2019-18348(2).  Such potentially
     malicious header injection URLs now cause a InvalidURL to be
     raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38576

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-18348


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<45>,  Next: Library<46>,  Prev: Security<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40010(1): Optimize pending calls in multithreaded applications.
     If a thread different than the main thread schedules a pending call
     (*note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7df.), the bytecode evaluation loop is
     no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for
     pending calls which cannot be executed.  Only the main thread can
     execute pending calls.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread executes pending calls.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _collections module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-40010(6): Optimize signal handling in multithreaded
     applications.  If a thread different than the main thread gets a
     signal, the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at
     each bytecode instruction to check for pending signals which cannot
     be handled.  Only the main thread of the main interpreter can
     handle signals.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread handles signals.

   - bpo-39984(7): If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7df. is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function is now scheduled to be called from the
     subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter.
     Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _heapq module to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port itertools module to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-37207(11): Speed up calls to ‘frozenset()’ by using the PEP
     590(12) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39984(13): subinterpreters: Move
     ‘_PyRuntimeState.ceval.tracing_possible’ to
     ‘PyInterpreterState.ceval.tracing_possible’: each interpreter now
     has its own variable.

   - bpo-37207(14): Speed up calls to ‘set()’ by using the PEP 590(15)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _statistics module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-39968(18): Use inline function to replace extension modules’
     get_module_state macros.

   - bpo-39965(19): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ if 'await' is used
     inside non-async functions and ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ is set
     (like in the asyncio REPL). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39562(20): Allow executing asynchronous comprehensions on the
     top level when the ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag is given.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-37207(21): Speed up calls to ‘tuple()’ by using the PEP 590(22)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38373(23): Changed list overallocation strategy.  It no longer
     overallocates if the new size is closer to overallocated size than
     to the old size and adds padding.

   - bpo-39926(24): Update Unicode database to Unicode version 13.0.0.

   - bpo-19466(25): Clear the frames of daemon threads earlier during
     the Python shutdown to call objects destructors.  So “unclosed
     file” resource warnings are now emitted for daemon threads in a
     more reliable way.

   - bpo-38894(26): Fix a bug that was causing incomplete results when
     calling ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ in the presence of symlinks that point
     to files where the user does not have read access.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Matt Wozniski.

   - bpo-39877(27): Fix *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4. random crash
     at exit with daemon threads.  It now accesses the ‘_PyRuntime’
     variable directly instead of using ‘tstate->interp->runtime’, since
     ‘tstate’ can be a dangling pointer after *note Py_Finalize(): 1200.
     has been called.  Moreover, the daemon thread now exits before
     trying to take the GIL.

   - bpo-39871(28): Fix a possible *note SystemError: 30e. in
     ‘math.{atan2,copysign,remainder}()’ when the first argument cannot
     be converted to a *note float: 272.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-39776(29): Fix race condition where threads created by
     PyGILState_Ensure() could get a duplicate id.

     This affects consumers of tstate->id like the contextvar caching
     machinery, which could return invalid cached objects under heavy
     thread load (observed in embedded scenarios).

   - bpo-39778(30): Fixed a crash due to incorrect handling of weak
     references in ‘collections.OrderedDict’ classes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port audioop extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-39702(33): Relax *note decorator: 559. grammar restrictions to
     allow any valid expression ( PEP 614(34)).

   - bpo-38091(35): Tweak import deadlock detection code to not deadlock
     itself.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port _locale extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-39087(38): Optimize *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): a32. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6e2. slightly when they need to create
     internal UTF-8 cache.

   - bpo-39520(39): Fix unparsing of ext slices with no items
     (‘foo[:,]’).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39220(40): Do not optimize annotations if ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ is used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35712(41): Using *note NotImplemented: 60b. in a boolean
     context has been deprecated.  Patch contributed by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22490(42): Don’t leak environment variable
     ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ into the interpreter session on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39965

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38373

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19466

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38894

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39871

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39776

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39778

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38091

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39087

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39520

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39220

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22490


File: python.info,  Node: Library<46>,  Next: Documentation<42>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39830(1): Add *note zipfile.Path: 4e1. to ‘__all__’ in the
     *note zipfile: 131. module.

   - bpo-40000(2): Improved error messages for validation of
     ‘ast.Constant’ nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39999(3): ‘__module__’ of the AST node classes is now set to
     “ast” instead of “_ast”.  Added docstrings for dummy AST node
     classes and deprecated attributes.

   - bpo-39991(4): *note uuid.getnode(): a1e. now skips IPv6 addresses
     with the same string length than a MAC address (17 characters):
     only use MAC addresses.

   - bpo-39988(5): Deprecated ‘ast.AugLoad’ and ‘ast.AugStore’ node
     classes because they are no longer used.

   - bpo-39656(6): Ensure ‘bin/python3.#’ is always present in virtual
     environments on POSIX platforms - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39969(7): Deprecated ‘ast.Param’ node class because it’s no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39360(8): Ensure all workers exit when finalizing a
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ implicitly via the module finalization
     handlers of multiprocessing.  This fixes a deadlock situation that
     can be experienced when the Pool is not properly finalized via the
     context manager or a call to ‘multiprocessing.Pool.terminate’.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35370(9): sys.settrace(), sys.setprofile() and
     _lsprof.Profiler.enable() now properly report *note PySys_Audit():
     17b0. error if “sys.setprofile” or “sys.settrace” audit event is
     denied.

   - bpo-39936(10): AIX: Fix _aix_support module when the subprocess is
     not available, when building Python from scratch.  It now uses new
     private _bootsubprocess module, rather than having two
     implementations depending if subprocess is available or not.  So
     _aix_support.aix_platform() result is now the same if subprocess is
     available or not.

   - bpo-36144(11): *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. now implements
     ‘|’ and ‘|=’ ( PEP 584(12)).

   - bpo-39652(13): The column name found in
     ‘sqlite3.Cursor.description’ is now truncated on the first ‘[’ only
     if the PARSE_COLNAMES option is set.

   - bpo-39915(14): Ensure *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock.await_args_list: 17b1. has call objects in
     the order of awaited arguments instead of using *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.call_args: 17b2. which has the last value of the
     call.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36144(15): Updated *note os.environ: 105f. and *note
     os.environb: 10bc. to support PEP 584(16)’s merge (‘|’) and update
     (‘|=’) operators.

   - bpo-38662(17): The ‘ensurepip’ module now invokes ‘pip’ via the
     ‘runpy’ module.  Hence it is no longer tightly coupled with the
     internal API of the bundled ‘pip’ version, allowing easier updates
     to a newer ‘pip’ version both internally and for distributors.

   - bpo-38075(18): Fix the *note random.Random.seed(): 17b3. method
     when a *note bool: 183. is passed as the seed.

   - bpo-39916(19): More reliable use of ‘os.scandir()’ in
     ‘Path.glob()’.  It no longer emits a ResourceWarning when
     interrupted.

   - bpo-39850(20): *note multiprocessing: 93. now supports abstract
     socket addresses (if abstract sockets are supported in the running
     platform).  When creating arbitrary addresses (like when
     default-constructing *note multiprocessing.connection.Listener:
     14a8. objects) abstract sockets are preferred to avoid the case
     when the temporary-file-generated address is too large for an
     AF_UNIX socket address.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36287(21): *note ast.dump(): 737. no longer outputs optional
     fields and attributes with default values.  The default values for
     optional fields and attributes of AST nodes are now set as class
     attributes (e.g.  ‘Constant.kind’ is set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-39889(22): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): 738. for extended slices
     containing a single element (e.g.  ‘a[i:j,]’).  Remove redundant
     tuples when index with a tuple (e.g.  ‘a[i, j]’).

   - bpo-39828(23): Fix *note json.tool: 81. to catch *note
     BrokenPipeError: f06.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-13487(24): Avoid a possible '“RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration”' from *note inspect.getmodule(): 1606. when
     it tried to loop through *note sys.modules: 179b.

   - bpo-39674(25): Revert “bpo-37330(26): open() no longer accept ‘U’
     in file mode”.  The “U” mode of open() is kept in Python 3.9 to
     ease transition from Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python
     3.10.

   - bpo-28577(27): The hosts method on 32-bit prefix length
     IPv4Networks and 128-bit prefix IPv6Networks now returns a list
     containing the single Address instead of an empty list.

   - bpo-39826(28): Add getConnection method to logging HTTPHandler to
     enable custom connections.

   - bpo-39763(29): Reimplement ‘distutils.spawn.spawn’ function with
     the *note subprocess: d5. module.

   - bpo-39794(30): Add –without-decimal-contextvar build option.  This
     enables a thread-local rather than a coroutine local context.

   - bpo-36144(31): *note collections.defaultdict: 1062. now implements
     ‘|’ ( PEP 584(32)).

   - bpo-39517(33): Fix runpy.run_path() when using pathlike objects

   - bpo-39775(34): Change ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ back to
     ‘collections.OrderedDict’.  This was changed to ‘dict’ in Python
     3.9.0a4.

   - bpo-39678(35): Refactor queue_manager in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. to make it easier to
     maintain.

   - bpo-39764(36): Fix AttributeError when calling get_stack on a
     PyAsyncGenObject Task

   - bpo-39769(37): The *note compileall.compile_dir(): 996. function’s
     'ddir' parameter and the compileall command line flag ‘-d’ no
     longer write the wrong pathname to the generated pyc file for
     submodules beneath the root of the directory tree being compiled.
     This fixes a regression introduced with Python 3.5.

   - bpo-36144(38): *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. objects now
     support the merge (‘|’) operator from PEP 584(39).

   - bpo-38691(40): The *note importlib: 75. module now ignores the
     *note PYTHONCASEOK: 7b9. environment variable when the *note -E:
     7b7. or *note -I: 7b8. command line options are being used.

   - bpo-39719(41): Remove ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.softspace()’
     as files no longer have the ‘softspace’ attribute in Python 3.
     Patch by Shantanu.

   - bpo-39667(42): Improve pathlib.Path compatibility on zipfile.Path
     and correct performance degradation as found in zipp 3.0.

   - bpo-39638(43): Keep ASDL signatures in the docstrings for ‘AST’
     nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-39639(44): Deprecated ‘ast.Suite’ node class because it’s no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39609(45): Add thread_name_prefix to default asyncio executor

   - bpo-39548(46): Fix handling of header in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 17b4. when the optional
     ‘qop’ parameter is not present.

   - bpo-39509(47): HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’ and ‘425
     TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 755.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39507(48): Adding HTTP status 418 “I’m a Teapot” to HTTPStatus
     in http library.  Patch by Ross Rhodes.

   - bpo-39495(49): Remove default value from 'attrs' parameter of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start(): 17b5. for consistency
     between Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-38971(50): Open issue in the BPO indicated a desire to make the
     implementation of codecs.open() at parity with io.open(), which
     implements a try/except to assure file stream gets closed before an
     exception is raised.

   - bpo-38641(51): Added starred expressions support to ‘return’ and
     ‘yield’ statements for ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Vlad Emelianov.

   - bpo-37534(52): When using minidom module to generate XML documents
     the ability to add Standalone Document Declaration is added.  All
     the changes are made to generate a document in compliance with
     Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition) W3C
     Recommendation (available here:
     ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/#sec-prolog-dtd’).

   - bpo-34788(53): Add support for scoped IPv6 addresses to *note
     ipaddress: 7e.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-34822(54): Simplified AST for subscription.  Simple indices are
     now represented by their value, extended slices are represented as
     tuples.  *note ast: 8. classes ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are
     considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  In the meantime, ‘Index(value)’ now returns a ‘value’
     itself, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ returns ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39830

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40000

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39999

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39656

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39360

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39652

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39915

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38662

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39916

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39850

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36287

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39889

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39828

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13487

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28577

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39826

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39794

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39517

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39678

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39764

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39769

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38691

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39719

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39667

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39609

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39548

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39495

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38971

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38641

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37534

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<42>,  Next: Tests<42>,  Prev: Library<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39868(1): Updated the Language Reference for PEP 572(2).

   - bpo-13790(3): Change ‘string’ to ‘specification’ in format doc.

   - bpo-17422(4): The language reference no longer restricts default
     class namespaces to dicts only.

   - bpo-39530(5): Fix misleading documentation about mixed-type numeric
     comparisons.

   - bpo-39718(6): Update *note token: fa. documentation to reflect
     additions in Python 3.8

   - bpo-39677(7): Changed operand name of 'MAKE_FUNCTION' from 'argc'
     to 'flags' for module *note dis: 37.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39868

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13790

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39718

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39677


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<42>,  Next: Build<41>,  Prev: Documentation<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40019(1): test_gdb now skips tests if it detects that gdb
     failed to read debug information because the Python binary is
     optimized.

   - bpo-27807(2): ‘test_site.test_startup_imports()’ is now skipped if
     a path of *note sys.path: 368. contains a ‘.pth’ file.

   - bpo-26067(3): Do not fail test_shutil test_chown test when uid or
     gid of user cannot be resolved to a name.

   - bpo-39855(4): test_subprocess.test_user() now skips the test on an
     user name if the user name doesn’t exist.  For example, skip the
     test if the user “nobody” doesn’t exist on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40019

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26067

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39855


File: python.info,  Node: Build<41>,  Next: Windows<40>,  Prev: Tests<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39761(1): Fix build with DTrace but without additional DFLAGS.

   - bpo-39763(2): setup.py now uses a basic implementation of the *note
     subprocess: d5. module if the *note subprocess: d5. module is not
     available: before required C extension modules are built.

   - bpo-1294959(3): Add ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the configure
     script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in
     the new *note sys.platlibdir: 791. attribute.  It is used to build
     the path of platform-specific extension modules and the path of the
     standard library.  It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On
     Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.
     Patch by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39761

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<40>,  Next: macOS<33>,  Prev: Build<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39930(1): Ensures the required ‘vcruntime140.dll’ is included
     in install packages.

   - bpo-39847(2): Avoid hang when computer is hibernated whilst waiting
     for a mutex (for lock-related objects from *note threading: ec.)
     around 49-day uptime.

   - bpo-38597(3): ‘distutils’ will no longer statically link
     ‘vcruntime140.dll’ when a redistributable version is unavailable.
     All future releases of CPython will include a copy of this DLL to
     ensure distributed extensions can continue to load.

   - bpo-38380(4): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   - bpo-39789(5): Update Windows release build machines to Visual
     Studio 2019 (MSVC 14.2).

   - bpo-34803(6): Package for nuget.org now includes repository
     reference and bundled icon image.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39930

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38597

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39789

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<33>,  Next: IDLE<27>,  Prev: Windows<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38380(1): Update macOS builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<27>,  Next: Tools/Demos<23>,  Prev: macOS<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27115(1): For ‘Go to Line’, use a Query box subclass with IDLE
     standard behavior and improved error checking.

   - bpo-39885(2): Since clicking to get an IDLE context menu moves the
     cursor, any text selection should be and now is cleared.

   - bpo-39852(3): Edit “Go to line” now clears any selection,
     preventing accidental deletion.  It also updates Ln and Col on the
     status bar.

   - bpo-39781(4): Selecting code context lines no longer causes a jump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39852

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39781


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<23>,  Next: C API<38>,  Prev: IDLE<27>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-36184(1): Port python-gdb.py to FreeBSD. python-gdb.py now
     checks for “take_gil” function name to check if a frame tries to
     acquire the GIL, instead of checking for “pthread_cond_timedwait”
     which is specific to Linux and can be a different condition than
     the GIL.

   - bpo-38080(2): Added support to fix ‘getproxies’ in the
     ‘lib2to3.fixes.fix_urllib’ module.  Patch by José Roberto Meza
     Cabrera.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38080


File: python.info,  Node: C API<38>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<23>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.22.46.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40024(1): Add *note PyModule_AddType(): 7d3. helper function:
     add a type to a module.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39946(2): Remove ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and remove
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  They were only exposed by the internal C
     API. Remove also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type.

   - bpo-39947(3): Add *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5c0. function:
     get the current frame of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-37207(4): Add _PyArg_NoKwnames helper function.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39947(5): Add *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 7cd.: get
     the interpreter of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-39947(6): Add *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 7ce. function to
     the limited C API.

   - bpo-35370(7): If *note PySys_Audit(): 17b0. fails in *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 138a. or *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 138b, log
     the error as an unraisable exception.

   - bpo-39947(8): Move the static inline function flavor of
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() to the internal
     C API: they access PyThreadState attributes.  The limited C API
     provides regular functions which hide implementation details.

   - bpo-39947(9): Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION and Py_TRASHCAN_END macro
     no longer access PyThreadState attributes, but call new private
     _PyTrash_begin() and _PyTrash_end() functions which hide
     implementation details.

   - bpo-39884(10): *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 17be. and *note
     PyCFunction_NewEx(): 17bf. now include the method name in the
     SystemError “bad call flags” error message to ease debug.

   - bpo-39877(11): Deprecated ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’.  Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now
     does nothing.

   - bpo-38249(12): *note Py_UNREACHABLE: a2c. is now implemented with
     ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ and analogs in release mode.

   - bpo-38643(13): *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 160c. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 30e. instead of crashing when called with invalid
     base.

   - bpo-39882(14): The *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1. function is replaced
     with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current
     function, unless the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

   - bpo-39824(15): Extension modules: *note m_traverse: 7d8, *note
     m_clear: 7d9. and *note m_free: 7da. functions of *note
     PyModuleDef: 7db. are no longer called if the module state was
     requested but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately
     after the module is created and before the module is executed
     (*note Py_mod_exec: 7dc. function).  More precisely, these
     functions are not called if *note m_size: 7dd. is greater than 0
     and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState():
     7de.) is ‘NULL’.

     Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not
     affected.

   - bpo-38913(16): Fixed segfault in ‘Py_BuildValue()’ called with a
     format containing “#” and undefined PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN whwn an
     exception is set.

   - bpo-38500(17): Add a private API to get and set the frame
     evaluation function: add *note
     _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc(): 17c0. and *note
     _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc(): 17c1. C functions.  The
     *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 5a6. function type now takes a 'tstate'
     parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39884

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38643

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39824

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38913

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.22.47 Python 3.9.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-02-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* C API: C API<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<34>,  Next: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-39184(1): Add audit events to functions in ‘fcntl’, ‘msvcrt’,
     ‘os’, ‘resource’, ‘shutil’, ‘signal’ and ‘syslog’.

   - bpo-39401(2): Avoid unsafe DLL load at startup on Windows 7 and
     earlier.

   - bpo-39184(3): Add audit events to command execution functions in os
     and pty modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39401

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<46>,  Next: Library<47>,  Prev: Security<34>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39382(1): Fix a use-after-free in the single inheritance path
     of ‘issubclass()’, when the ‘__bases__’ of an object has a single
     reference, and so does its first item.  Patch by Yonatan
     Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-39573(2): Update clinic tool to use *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 1639.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39619(3): Enable use of *note os.chroot(): 17c5. on HP-UX
     systems.

   - bpo-39573(4): Add *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 1639. static inline function
     to check whether the object 'o' type is 'type'.

   - bpo-39606(5): Fix regression caused by fix for bpo-39386(6), that
     prevented calling ‘aclose’ on an async generator that had already
     been closed or exhausted.

   - bpo-39579(7): Change the ending column offset of ‘Attribute’ nodes
     constructed in ‘ast_for_dotted_name’ to point at the end of the
     current node and not at the end of the last ‘NAME’ node.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _crypt extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9)).

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port _contextvars extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11)).

   - bpo-39510(12): Fix segfault in ‘readinto()’ method on closed
     BufferedReader.

   - bpo-39502(13): Fix *note time.localtime(): 1386. on 64-bit AIX to
     support years before 1902 and after 2038.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-39492(14): Fix a reference cycle in the C Pickler that was
     preventing the garbage collection of deleted, pickled objects.

   - bpo-39453(15): Fixed a possible crash in ‘list.__contains__()’ when
     a list is changed during comparing items.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39434(16): *note floor division: 79d. of float operation now
     has a better performance.  Also the message of *note
     ZeroDivisionError: 79e. for this operation is updated.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port _codecs extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port _bz2 extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(20)).

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _abc extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-39320(23): Replace two complex bytecodes for building dicts
     with two simpler ones.  The new bytecodes ‘DICT_MERGE’ and
     ‘DICT_UPDATE’ have been added The old bytecodes ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK’
     and ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39219(24): Syntax errors raised in the tokenizer now always set
     correct “text” and “offset” attributes.

   - bpo-36051(25): Drop the GIL during large ‘bytes.join’ operations.
     Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-38960(26): Fix DTrace build issues on FreeBSD. Patch by David
     Carlier.

   - bpo-37207(27): Speed up calls to ‘range()’ by about 30%, by using
     the PEP 590 ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark
     Shannon.

   - bpo-36144(28): *note dict: 240. (and *note collections.UserDict:
     17c6.) objects now support PEP 584’s merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’)
     operators.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-32856(29): Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary
     variable in comprehensions.  Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in
     comprehensions is as fast as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39382

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39619

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39606

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39579

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39453

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36051

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38960

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856


File: python.info,  Node: Library<47>,  Next: Documentation<43>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30566(1): Fix *note IndexError: 13c2. when trying to decode an
     invalid string with punycode codec.

   - bpo-39649(2): Remove obsolete check for ‘__args__’ in
     ‘bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry’.

   - bpo-39648(3): Expanded *note math.gcd(): 766. and *note math.lcm():
     767. to handle multiple arguments.

   - bpo-39681(4): Fix a regression where the C pickle module wouldn’t
     allow unpickling from a file-like object that doesn’t expose a
     readinto() method.

   - bpo-35950(5): Raise *note io.UnsupportedOperation: 17c8. in
     ‘io.BufferedReader.truncate()’ when it is called on a read-only
     *note io.BufferedReader: 10b3. instance.

   - bpo-39479(6): Add *note math.lcm(): 767. function: least common
     multiple.

   - bpo-39674(7): Revert “Do not expose abstract collection classes in
     the collections module” change (bpo-25988(8)).  Aliases to ABC like
     collections.Mapping are kept in Python 3.9 to ease transition from
     Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python 3.10.

   - bpo-39104(9): Fix hanging ProcessPoolExcutor on
     ‘shutdown(wait=False)’ when a task has failed pickling.

   - bpo-39627(10): Fixed TypedDict totality check for inherited keys.

   - bpo-39474(11): Fixed starting position of AST for expressions like
     ‘(a)(b)’, ‘(a)[b]’ and ‘(a).b’.

   - bpo-21016(12): The *note pydoc: b4. and *note trace: fd. modules
     now use the *note sysconfig: da. module to get the path to the
     Python standard library, to support uncommon installation path like
     ‘/usr/lib64/python3.9/’ on Fedora.  Patch by Jan Matějek.

   - bpo-39590(13): Collections.deque now holds strong references during
     deque.__contains__ and deque.count, fixing crashes.

   - bpo-39586(14): The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is deprecated in
     Python 3.9, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-39595(15): Improved performance of zipfile.Path for files with
     a large number of entries.  Also improved performance and fixed
     minor issue as published with importlib_metadata 1.5(16).

   - bpo-39350(17): Fix regression in *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. if
     the numerator and/or the denominator is an *note int: 184.
     subclass.  The *note math.gcd(): 766. function is now used to
     normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  *note math.gcd():
     766. always return a *note int: 184. type.  Previously, the GCD
     type depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

   - bpo-39567(18): Added audit for *note os.walk(): 1d1, *note
     os.fwalk(): 9cf, *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5. and *note
     pathlib.Path.rglob(): 1d6.

   - bpo-39559(19): Remove unused, undocumented argument ‘getters’ from
     *note uuid.getnode(): a1e.

   - bpo-38149(20): *note sys.audit(): 17a0. is now called only once per
     call of *note glob.glob(): 641. and *note glob.iglob(): 642.

   - bpo-39546(21): Fix a regression in *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. where
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ was ignored for long options that used a
     prefix character other than “-“.

   - bpo-39450(22): Striped whitespace from docstring before returning
     it from ‘unittest.case.shortDescription()’.

   - bpo-12915(23): A new function ‘resolve_name’ has been added to the
     ‘pkgutil’ module.  This resolves a string of the form ‘'a.b.c.d'’
     or ‘'a.b:c.d'’ to an object.  In the example, ‘a.b’ is a
     package/module and ‘c.d’ is an object within that package/module
     reached via recursive attribute access.

   - bpo-39353(24): The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 55d. function is no
     longer deprecated.

   - bpo-39493(25): Mark ‘typing.IO.closed’ as a property

   - bpo-39491(26): Add *note typing.Annotated: 796. and
     ‘include_extras’ parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8.
     as part of PEP 593(27).  Patch by Till Varoquaux, documentation by
     Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.

   - bpo-39485(28): Fix a bug in *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     1466. that would complain about the wrong number of arguments for
     custom descriptors defined in an extension module returning
     functions.

   - bpo-38932(29): Mock fully resets child objects on reset_mock().
     Patch by Vegard Stikbakke

   - bpo-39082(30): Allow AsyncMock to correctly patch static/class
     methods

   - bpo-39432(31): Implement PEP-489 algorithm for non-ascii “PyInit_…”
     symbol names in distutils to make it export the correct init symbol
     also on Windows.

   - bpo-18819(32): Omit ‘devmajor’ and ‘devminor’ fields for non-device
     files in *note tarfile: dd. archives, enabling bit-for-bit
     compatibility with GNU ‘tar(1)’.

   - bpo-39349(33): Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 740. that cancels all
     pending futures which have not started running, instead of waiting
     for them to complete before shutting down the executor.

   - bpo-39274(34): ‘bool(fraction.Fraction)’ now returns a boolean even
     if (numerator != 0) does not return a boolean (ex: numpy number).

   - bpo-34793(35): Remove support for ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and
     ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’.  The same is correct for
     ‘asyncio.Condition’ and ‘asyncio.Semaphore’.

   - bpo-25597(36): Ensure, if ‘wraps’ is supplied to *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: d25, it is used to calculate return values
     for the magic methods instead of using the default return values.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36350(37): ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ and
     ‘inspect.BoundArguments.arguments’ are now dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35727(38): Fix sys.exit() and sys.exit(None) exit code
     propagation when used in multiprocessing.Process.

   - bpo-32173(39): * Add ‘lazycache’ function to ‘__all__’.  * Use
     ‘dict.clear’ to clear the cache.  * Refactoring ‘getline’ function
     and ‘checkcache’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39681

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35950

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39627

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39474

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21016

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39590

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39595

   (16) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v1-5-0

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39567

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39559

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38149

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39546

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39450

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39493

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39491

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39485

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38932

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39082

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39432

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18819

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35727

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32173


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<43>,  Next: Tests<43>,  Prev: Library<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17422(1): The language reference now specifies restrictions on
     class namespaces.  Adapted from a patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-39572(2): Updated documentation of ‘total’ flag of ‘TypedDict’.

   - bpo-39654(3): In pyclbr doc, update ‘class’ to ‘module’ where
     appropriate and add readmodule comment.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-39153(4): Clarify refcounting semantics for the following
     functions: - PyObject_SetItem - PyMapping_SetItemString -
     PyDict_SetItem - PyDict_SetItemString

   - bpo-39392(5): Explain that when filling with turtle, overlap
     regions may be left unfilled.

   - bpo-39369(6): Update mmap readline method description.  The fact
     that the readline method does update the file position should not
     be ignored since this might give the impression for the programmer
     that it doesn’t update it.

   - bpo-9056(7): Include subsection in TOC for PDF version of docs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39153

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39369

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9056


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<43>,  Next: Build<42>,  Prev: Documentation<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38325(1): Skip tests on non-BMP characters of
     test_winconsoleio.

   - bpo-39502(2): Skip test_zipfile.test_add_file_after_2107() if *note
     time.localtime(): 1386. fails with *note OverflowError: 6c7.  It is
     the case on AIX 6.1 for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38325

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502


File: python.info,  Node: Build<42>,  Next: Windows<41>,  Prev: Tests<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39489(1): Remove ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<41>,  Next: IDLE<28>,  Prev: Build<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39553(1): Delete unused code related to SxS manifests.

   - bpo-39439(2): Honor the Python path when a virtualenv is active on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39393(3): Improve the error message when attempting to load a
     DLL with unresolved dependencies.

   - bpo-38883(4): *note home(): cd3. and *note expanduser(): cd2. on
     Windows now prefer ‘USERPROFILE’ and no longer use ‘HOME’, which is
     not normally set for regular user accounts.  This makes them again
     behave like *note os.path.expanduser(): 874, which was changed to
     ignore ‘HOME’ in 3.8, see bpo-36264(5).

   - bpo-39185(6): The build.bat script has additional options for
     very-quiet output (-q) and very-verbose output (-vv)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39553

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39393

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38883

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39185


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<28>,  Next: C API<39>,  Prev: Windows<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39663(1): Add tests for pyparse find_good_parse_start().

   - bpo-39600(2): In the font configuration window, remove duplicated
     font names.

   - bpo-30780(3): Add remaining configdialog tests for buttons and
     highlights and keys tabs.

   - bpo-39388(4): IDLE Settings Cancel button now cancels pending
     changes

   - bpo-38792(5): Close an IDLE shell calltip if a *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. or shell restart occurs.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30780

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39388

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38792


File: python.info,  Node: C API<39>,  Prev: IDLE<28>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.22.47.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-35081(1): Move the ‘bytes_methods.h’ header file to the
     internal C API as ‘pycore_bytes_methods.h’: it only contains
     private symbols (prefixed by ‘_Py’), except of the
     ‘PyDoc_STRVAR_shared()’ macro.

   - bpo-35081(2): Move the ‘dtoa.h’ header file to the internal C API
     as ‘pycore_dtoa.h’: it only contains private functions (prefixed by
     ‘_Py’).  The *note math: 8d. and *note cmath: 18. modules must now
     be compiled with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’ macro defined.

   - bpo-39573(3): Add *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 5b3. function to set the
     size of an object.

   - bpo-39500(4): *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 17cf. does not call
     *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1. anymore if the string is not ready.

   - bpo-39573(5): Add *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 5b1. function to set the
     type of an object.

   - bpo-39573(6): Add a *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6f8. function to set the
     reference counter of an object.

   - bpo-39542(7): Convert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1782, *note
     PyType_Check(): 17d0. and *note PyType_CheckExact(): 17d1. macros
     to static inline functions.

   - bpo-39542(8): In the limited C API, ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and
     ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ are now defined as aliases to *note
     PyObject_Init(): 8d0. and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1784. to make
     their implementation opaque.  It avoids to leak implementation
     details in the limited C API. Exclude the following functions from
     the limited C API: ‘_Py_NewReference()’, ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’,
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’ and ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’.

   - bpo-39542(9): Exclude trashcan mechanism from the limited C API: it
     requires access to PyTypeObject and PyThreadState structure fields,
     whereas these structures are opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-39511(10): The *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1488. function now
     calls the ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that
     happened in *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 17d2.

   - bpo-38076(11): Fix to clear the interpreter state only after
     clearing module globals to guarantee module state access from C
     Extensions during runtime destruction

   - bpo-39245(12): The Vectorcall API (PEP 590) was made public, adding
     the functions ‘PyObject_Vectorcall’, ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod’,
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function’, ‘PyObject_CallOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs’, ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_FastCallDict’, and the flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39511

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39245


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.48 Python 3.9.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-01-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* C API: C API<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<47>,  Next: Library<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.48.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39427(1): Document all possibilities for the ‘-X’ options in
     the command line help section.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39421(2): Fix possible crashes when operating with the
     functions in the *note heapq: 67. module and custom comparison
     operators.

   - bpo-39386(3): Prevent double awaiting of async iterator.

   - bpo-17005(4): Add ‘functools.TopologicalSorter’ to the *note
     functools: 5d. module to offers functionality to perform
     topological sorting of graphs.  Patch by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters
     and Larry Hastings.

   - bpo-39320(5): Replace four complex bytecodes for building sequences
     with three simpler ones.

     The following four bytecodes have been removed:

        * BUILD_LIST_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK

        * BUILD_SET_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL

     The following three bytecodes have been added:

        * LIST_TO_TUPLE

        * LIST_EXTEND

        * SET_UPDATE

   - bpo-39336(6): Import loaders which publish immutable module objects
     can now publish immutable packages in addition to individual
     modules.

   - bpo-39322(7): Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): 752. to
     check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39048(8): Improve the displayed error message when incorrect
     types are passed to ‘async with’ statements by looking up the
     ‘__aenter__()’ special method before the ‘__aexit__()’ special
     method when entering an asynchronous context manager.  Patch by
     Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-39235(9): Fix AST end location for lone generator expression in
     function call, e.g.  f(i for i in a).

   - bpo-39209(10): Correctly handle multi-line tokens in interactive
     mode.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port _json extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-39216(13): Fix constant folding optimization for positional
     only arguments - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39215(14): Fix ‘SystemError’ when nested function has
     annotation on positional-only argument - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39200(15): Correct the error message when calling the *note
     min(): d9f. or *note max(): da0. with no arguments.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39200(16): Correct the error message when trying to construct
     *note range: 79c. objects with no arguments.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-39166(17): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing the last iteration of asynchronous for
     loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39114(18): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing exception handlers with name binding.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39156(19): Split the COMPARE_OP bytecode instruction into four
     distinct instructions.

        * COMPARE_OP for rich comparisons

        * IS_OP for ‘is’ and ‘is not’ tests

        * CONTAINS_OP for ‘in’ and ‘is not’ tests

        * JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH for checking exceptions in ‘try-except’
          statements.

     This improves the clarity of the interpreter and should provide a
     modest speedup.

   - bpo-38588(20): Fix possible crashes in dict and list when calling
     *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 17d5.

   - bpo-13601(21): By default, ‘sys.stderr’ is line-buffered now, even
     if ‘stderr’ is redirected to a file.  You can still make
     ‘sys.stderr’ unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 17d6. command-line
     option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 17d7. environment
     variable.

     (Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(22).)

   - bpo-38610(23): Fix possible crashes in several list methods by
     holding strong references to list elements when calling *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 17d5.

   - bpo-32021(24): Include brotli .br encoding in mimetypes
     encodings_map

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39235

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39209

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39216

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39215

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39166

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39114

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38588

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38610

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32021


File: python.info,  Node: Library<48>,  Next: Documentation<44>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.48.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-39430(1): Fixed race condition in lazy imports in *note
     tarfile: dd.

   - bpo-39413(2): The *note os.unsetenv(): 773. function is now also
     available on Windows.

   - bpo-39390(3): Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of
     *note shutil.copytree(): 88b.  The argument types are now ‘str’ and
     ‘List[str]’ again.

   - bpo-39395(4): The *note os.putenv(): 774. and *note os.unsetenv():
     773. functions are now always available.

   - bpo-39406(5): If ‘setenv()’ C function is available, *note
     os.putenv(): 774. is now implemented with ‘setenv()’ instead of
     ‘putenv()’, so Python doesn’t have to handle the environment
     variable memory.

   - bpo-39396(6): Fix ‘math.nextafter(-0.0, +0.0)’ on AIX 7.1.

   - bpo-29435(7): Allow *note tarfile.is_tarfile(): 166b. to be used
     with file and file-like objects, like *note zipfile.is_zipfile():
     11d6.  Patch by William Woodruff.

   - bpo-39377(8): Removed ‘encoding’ option from *note json.loads():
     7b0.  It has been deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-39389(9): Write accurate compression level metadata in *note
     gzip: 65. archives, rather than always signaling maximum
     compression.

   - bpo-39366(10): The previously deprecated ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’
     methods of *note nntplib.NNTP: 76d. have been removed.

   - bpo-39357(11): Remove the 'buffering' parameter of *note
     bz2.BZ2File: 6aa.  Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it
     was emitting *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  Pass an open file
     object, to control how the file is opened.  The 'compresslevel'
     parameter becomes keyword-only.

   - bpo-39353(12): Deprecate binhex4 and hexbin4 standards.  Deprecate
     the ‘binhex’ module and the following *note binascii: 10.
     functions: ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘rlecode_hqx()’,
     ‘rledecode_hqx()’, *note crc_hqx(): 55d.

   - bpo-39351(13): Remove ‘base64.encodestring()’ and
     ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases deprecated since Python 3.1: use
     *note base64.encodebytes(): 7ae. and *note base64.decodebytes():
     7af. instead.

   - bpo-39350(14): Remove ‘fractions.gcd()’ function, deprecated since
     Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(15)): use *note math.gcd(): 766. instead.

   - bpo-39329(16): *note LMTP: 788. constructor now has an optional
     'timeout' parameter.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39313(17): Add a new ‘exec_function’ option ('–exec-function'
     in the CLI) to ‘RefactoringTool’ for making ‘exec’ a function.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39259(18): *note FTP_TLS: 750. and *note FTP_TLS: 750. now
     raise a *note ValueError: 189. if the given timeout for their
     constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking
     socket.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39259(19): *note SMTP: 786. and *note SMTP_SSL: 787. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 189. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39310(20): Add *note math.ulp(): 768.: return the value of the
     least significant bit of a float.

   - bpo-39297(21): Improved performance of importlib.metadata
     distribution discovery and resilients to inaccessible sys.path
     entries (importlib_metadata v1.4.0).

   - bpo-39259(22): *note NNTP: 76d. and *note NNTP_SSL: 76e. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 189. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38901(23): When you specify prompt=’.’ or equivalently python
     -m venv –prompt .  … the basename of the current directory is used
     to set the created venv’s prompt when it’s activated.

   - bpo-39288(24): Add *note math.nextafter(): 1bd.: return the next
     floating-point value after 'x' towards 'y'.

   - bpo-39259(25): *note POP3: 77c. and *note POP3_SSL: 77d. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 189. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39242(26): Updated the Gmane domain from news.gmane.org to
     news.gmane.io which is used for examples of *note NNTP: 76d. news
     reader server and nntplib tests.

   - bpo-35292(27): Proxy the ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.guess_type’ to
     ‘mimetypes.guess_type’ so the ‘mimetypes.init’ is called lazily to
     avoid unnecessary costs when *note http.server: 70. module is
     imported.

   - bpo-39239(28): The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 7b5. method no
     longer ignores the *note EBADF: 7b6. error.

   - bpo-38907(29): In http.server script, restore binding to IPv4 on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39152(30): Fix ttk.Scale.configure([name]) to return
     configuration tuple for name or all options.  Giovanni Lombardo
     contributed part of the patch.

   - bpo-39198(31): If an exception were to be thrown in
     ‘Logger.isEnabledFor’ (say, by asyncio timeouts or stopit) , the
     ‘logging’ global lock may not be released appropriately, resulting
     in deadlock.  This change wraps that block of code with
     ‘try...finally’ to ensure the lock is released.

   - bpo-39191(32): Perform a check for running loop before starting a
     new task in ‘loop.run_until_complete()’ to fail fast; it prevents
     the side effect of new task spawning before exception raising.

   - bpo-38871(33): Correctly parenthesize filter-based statements that
     contain lambda expressions in *note lib2to3: 83.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-39142(34): A change was made to logging.config.dictConfig to
     avoid converting instances of named tuples to ConvertingTuple.
     It’s assumed that named tuples are too specialised to be treated
     like ordinary tuples; if a user of named tuples requires
     ConvertingTuple functionality, they will have to implement that
     themselves in their named tuple class.

   - bpo-39158(35): ast.literal_eval() now supports empty sets.

   - bpo-39129(36): Fix import path for ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’

   - bpo-39057(37): ‘urllib.request.proxy_bypass_environment()’ now
     ignores leading dots and no longer ignores a trailing newline.

   - bpo-39056(38): Fixed handling invalid warning category in the -W
     option.  No longer import the re module if it is not needed.

   - bpo-39055(39): *note base64.b64decode(): 17d9. with ‘validate=True’
     raises now a binascii.Error if the input ends with a single ‘\n’.

   - bpo-21600(40): Fix ‘mock.patch.stopall()’ to stop active patches
     that were created with ‘mock.patch.dict()’.

   - bpo-39019(41): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 4a8.

   - bpo-39019(42): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for
     ‘subprocess.Popen’, ‘subprocess.CompletedProcess’

   - bpo-38914(43): Adjusted the wording of the warning issued by
     distutils’ ‘check’ command when the ‘author’ and ‘maintainer’
     fields are supplied but no corresponding e-mail field
     (‘author_email’ or ‘maintainer_email’) is found.  The wording now
     reflects the fact that these fields are suggested, but not
     required.  Patch by Juergen Gmach.

   - bpo-38878(44): Fixed __subclasshook__ of *note os.PathLike: acd. to
     return a correct result upon inheritance.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38615(45): *note IMAP4: 758. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 759. now have
     an optional 'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the
     *note open(): 75a. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter
     with this change.  The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 759.
     and *note IMAP4_stream: 75b. were applied to this change.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35182(46): Fixed ‘Popen.communicate()’ subsequent call crash
     when the child process has already closed any piped standard
     stream, but still continues to be running.  Patch by Andriy
     Maletsky.

   - bpo-38630(47): On Unix, *note subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 1265.
     now polls the process status.  Polling reduces the risk of sending
     a signal to the wrong process if the process completed, the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: 17da. attribute is still ‘None’, and
     the pid has been reassigned (recycled) to a new different process.

   - bpo-38536(48): Removes trailing space in formatted currency with
     ‘international=True’ and a locale with symbol following value.
     E.g.  ‘locale.currency(12.34, international=True)’ returned ‘'12,34
     EUR '’ instead of ‘'12,34 EUR'’.

   - bpo-38473(49): Use signature from inner mock for autospecced
     methods attached with ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-38361(50): Fixed an issue where ‘ident’ could include a leading
     path separator when *note syslog.openlog(): 2cc. was called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-38293(51): Add *note copy.copy(): 2bf. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9e4. support to *note property(): 43c. objects.

   - bpo-37958(52): Added the pstats.Stats.get_profile_dict() method to
     return the profile data as a StatsProfile instance.

   - bpo-28367(53): Termios magic constants for the following baud
     rates: - B500000 - B576000 - B921600 - B1000000 - B1152000 -
     B1500000 - B2000000 - B2500000 - B3000000 - B3500000 - B4000000
     Patch by Andrey Smirnov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39430

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39390

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39406

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39396

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29435

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39389

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39313

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39297

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38901

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39242

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38907

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39152

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39198

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39191

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38871

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39142

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39129

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39057

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39056

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39055

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21600

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38914

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38878

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35182

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38630

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38536

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38473

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38361

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38293

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37958

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28367


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<44>,  Next: Build<43>,  Prev: Library<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.48.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39381(1): Mention in docs that *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     227. implicitly creates new event loop only if called from the main
     thread.

   - bpo-38918(2): Add an entry for ‘__module__’ in the “function” &
     “method” sections of the *note inspect: 7c. docs’ *note Types and
     members: 17dc. table.

   - bpo-3530(3): In the *note ast: 8. module documentation, fix a
     misleading ‘NodeTransformer’ example and add advice on when to use
     the ‘fix_missing_locations’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38918

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3530


File: python.info,  Node: Build<43>,  Next: IDLE<29>,  Prev: Documentation<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.48.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-39395(1): On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and
     ‘unsetenv()’ functions are now required to build Python.

   - bpo-39160(2): Updated the documentation in ‘./configure --help’ to
     show default values, reference documentation where required and add
     additional explanation where needed.

   - bpo-39144(3): The ctags and etags build targets both include
     Modules/_ctypes and Python standard library source files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39160

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39144


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<29>,  Next: C API<40>,  Prev: Build<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.48.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39050(1): Make IDLE Settings dialog Help button work again.

   - bpo-34118(2): Tag memoryview, range, and tuple as classes, the same
     as list, etcetera, in the library manual built-in functions list.

   - bpo-32989(3): Add tests for editor newline_and_indent_event method.
     Remove dead code from pyparse find_good_parse_start method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39050

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34118

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32989


File: python.info,  Node: C API<40>,  Prev: IDLE<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.22.48.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-39372(1): Clean header files of interfaces defined but with no
     implementation.  The public API symbols being removed are:
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.

   - bpo-39164(2): Add a private ‘_PyErr_GetExcInfo()’ function to
     retrieve exception information of the specified Python thread
     state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39164


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.49 Python 3.9.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-12-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* C API: C API<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<35>,  Next: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38945(1): Newline characters have been escaped when performing
     uu encoding to prevent them from overflowing into to content
     section of the encoded file.  This prevents malicious or accidental
     modification of data during the decoding process.

   - bpo-37228(2): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. is no longer
     supported.  This is because of the behavior of ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in
     UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
     ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
     Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(3).)

   - bpo-38804(4): Fixes a ReDoS vulnerability in *note http.cookiejar:
     6e.  Patch by Ben Caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38804


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<48>,  Next: Library<49>,  Prev: Security<35>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39028(1): Slightly improve the speed of keyword argument
     parsing with many kwargs by strengthening the assumption that
     kwargs are interned strings.

   - bpo-39080(2): Fix the value of 'end_col_offset' for Starred
     Expression AST nodes when they are among the elements in the 'args'
     attribute of Call AST nodes.

   - bpo-39031(3): When parsing an “elif” node, lineno and col_offset of
     the node now point to the “elif” keyword and not to its condition,
     making it consistent with the “if” node.  Patch by Lysandros
     Nikolaou.

   - bpo-20443(4): In Python 3.9.0a1, sys.argv[0] was made an absolute
     path if a filename was specified on the command line.  Revert this
     change, since most users expect sys.argv to be unmodified.

   - bpo-39008(5): *note PySys_Audit(): 17b0. now requires ‘Py_ssize_t’
     to be used for size arguments in the format string, regardless of
     whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was defined at include time.

   - bpo-38673(6): In REPL mode, don’t switch to PS2 if the line starts
     with comment or whitespace.  Based on work by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-38922(7): Calling ‘replace’ on a code object now raises the
     ‘code.__new__’ audit event.

   - bpo-38920(8): Add audit hooks for when *note sys.excepthook(): 646.
     and *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491. are invoked.

   - bpo-38892(9): Improve documentation for audit events table and
     functions.

   - bpo-38852(10): Set the thread stack size to 8 Mb for debug builds
     on android platforms.

   - bpo-38858(11): Each Python subinterpreter now has its own “small
     integer singletons”: numbers in [-5; 257] range.  It is no longer
     possible to change the number of small integers at build time by
     overriding ‘NSMALLNEGINTS’ and ‘NSMALLPOSINTS’ macros: macros
     should now be modified manually in ‘pycore_pystate.h’ header file.

   - bpo-36854(12): The garbage collector state becomes per interpreter
     (‘PyInterpreterState.gc’), rather than being global
     (‘_PyRuntimeState.gc’).

   - bpo-38835(13): The ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros are empty: they have been doing
     nothing for the last year, so stop using them.

   - bpo-38328(14): Sped up the creation time of constant *note list:
     422. and *note set: 3e4. displays.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-38707(15): ‘MainThread.native_id’ is now correctly reset in
     child processes spawned using *note multiprocessing.Process: 9cd,
     instead of retaining the parent’s value.

   - bpo-38629(16): Added ‘__floor__’ and ‘__ceil__’ methods to float
     object.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-27145(17): int + int and int - int operators can now return
     small integer singletons.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-38021(18): Provide a platform tag for AIX that is sufficient
     for PEP425 binary distribution identification.  Patch by Michael
     Felt.

   - bpo-35409(19): Ignore GeneratorExit exceptions when throwing an
     exception into the aclose coroutine of an asynchronous generator.

   - bpo-33387(20): Removed WITH_CLEANUP_START, WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH,
     BEGIN_FINALLY, END_FINALLY, CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY bytecodes.
     Replaced with RERAISE and WITH_EXCEPT_START bytecodes.  The
     compiler now generates different code for exceptional and
     non-exceptional branches for ‘with’ and ‘try-except’ statements.
     For ‘try-finally’ statements the ‘finally’ block is replicated for
     each exit from the ‘try’ body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39080

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39008

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38892

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38852

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38858

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36854

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38328

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38707

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38629

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27145

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38021

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33387


File: python.info,  Node: Library<49>,  Next: Documentation<45>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39033(1): Fix *note NameError: 14a. in *note zipimport: 132.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-39022(2): Update importlib.metadata to include improvements
     from importlib_metadata 1.3 including better serialization of
     EntryPoints and improved documentation for custom finders.

   - bpo-39006(3): Fix asyncio when the ssl module is missing: only
     check for ssl.SSLSocket instance if the ssl module is available.

   - bpo-38708(4): Fix a potential IndexError in email parser when
     parsing an empty msg-id.

   - bpo-38698(5): Add a new ‘InvalidMessageID’ token to email parser to
     represent invalid Message-ID headers.  Also, add defects when there
     is remaining value after parsing the header.

   - bpo-38994(6): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ for ‘os.PathLike’,
     ‘pathlib.Path’.

   - bpo-38979(7): Return class from ‘ContextVar.__class_getitem__’ to
     simplify subclassing.

   - bpo-38978(8): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ on asyncio objects
     (Future, Task, Queue).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38916(9): *note array.array: 195.: Remove ‘tostring()’ and
     ‘fromstring()’ methods.  They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and
     ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - bpo-38986(10): Make repr of C accelerated TaskWakeupMethWrapper the
     same as of pure Python version.

   - bpo-38982(11): Fix asyncio ‘PidfdChildWatcher’: handle ‘waitpid()’
     error.  If ‘waitpid()’ is called elsewhere, ‘waitpid()’ call fails
     with *note ChildProcessError: f02.: use return code 255 in this
     case, and log a warning.  It ensures that the pidfd file descriptor
     is closed if this error occurs.

   - bpo-38529(12): Drop too noisy asyncio warning about deletion of a
     stream without explicit ‘.close()’ call.

   - bpo-27413(13): Added ability to pass through ‘ensure_ascii’ options
     to json.dumps in the ‘json.tool’ command-line interface.

   - bpo-38634(14): The *note readline: b9. module now detects if Python
     is linked to libedit at runtime on all platforms.  Previously, the
     check was only done on macOS.

   - bpo-33684(15): Fix ‘json.tool’ failed to read a JSON file with
     non-ASCII characters when locale encoding is not UTF-8.

   - bpo-38698(16): Prevent UnboundLocalError to pop up in
     parse_message_id.

     parse_message_id() was improperly using a token defined inside an
     exception handler, which was raising ‘UnboundLocalError’ on parsing
     an invalid value.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38927(17): Use ‘python -m pip’ instead of ‘pip’ to upgrade
     dependencies in venv.

   - bpo-26730(18): Fix ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.rollover()’ might corrupt
     the file when it is in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-38881(19): random.choices() now raises a ValueError when all
     the weights are zero.

   - bpo-38876(20): Raise pickle.UnpicklingError when loading an item
     from memo for invalid input.

     The previous code was raising a ‘KeyError’ for both the Python and
     C implementation.  This was caused by the specified index of an
     invalid input which did not exist in the memo structure, where the
     pickle stores what objects it has seen.  The malformed input would
     have caused either a ‘BINGET’ or ‘LONG_BINGET’ load from the memo,
     leading to a ‘KeyError’ as the determined index was bogus.  Patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38688(21): Calling func:‘shutil.copytree’ to copy a directory
     tree from one directory to another subdirectory resulted in an
     endless loop and a RecursionError.  A fix was added to consume an
     iterator and create the list of the entries to be copied, avoiding
     the recursion for newly created directories.  Patch by Bruno P.
     Kinoshita.

   - bpo-38863(22): Improve ‘is_cgi()’ function in *note http.server:
     70, which enables processing the case that cgi directory is a child
     of another directory other than root.

   - bpo-37838(23): *note typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. properly handles
     functions decorated with *note functools.wraps(): dfd.

   - bpo-38870(24): Expose *note ast.unparse(): 738. as a function of
     the *note ast: 8. module that can be used to unparse an *note
     ast.AST: 56c. object and produce a string with code that would
     produce an equivalent *note ast.AST: 56c. object when parsed.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38859(25): AsyncMock now returns StopAsyncIteration on the
     exhaustion of a side_effects iterable.  Since PEP-479 its
     Impossible to raise a StopIteration exception from a coroutine.

   - bpo-38857(26): AsyncMock fix for return values that are awaitable
     types.  This also covers side_effect iterable values that happened
     to be awaitable, and wraps callables that return an awaitable type.
     Before these awaitables were being awaited instead of being
     returned as is.

   - bpo-38834(27): *note typing.TypedDict: 159. subclasses now track
     which keys are optional using the ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes, to enable runtime validation by
     downstream projects.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-38821(28): Fix unhandled exceptions in *note argparse: 6. when
     internationalizing error messages for arguments with ‘nargs’ set to
     special (non-integer) values.  Patch by Federico Bond.

   - bpo-38820(29): Make Python compatible with OpenSSL 3.0.0.  *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e5a. no longer returns IPv6 addresses
     with a trailing new line.

   - bpo-38811(30): Fix an unhandled exception in *note pathlib: a3.
     when *note os.link(): f92. is missing.  Patch by Toke
     Høiland-Jørgensen.

   - bpo-38686(31): Added support for multiple ‘qop’ values in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 17b4.

   - bpo-38712(32): Add the Linux-specific *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 784. function, which allows sending a
     signal to a process identified by a file descriptor rather than a
     pid.

   - bpo-38348(33): Add ‘-i’ and ‘--indent’ (indentation level), and
     ‘--no-type-comments’ (type comments) command line options to ast
     parsing tool.

   - bpo-37523(34): Change ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’ to raise ‘ValueError’
     when trying to access the underlying file object after it has been
     closed.  This new behavior is consistent with how accessing closed
     files is handled in other parts of Python.

   - bpo-38045(35): Improve the performance of ‘enum._decompose()’ in
     *note enum: 54.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-36820(36): Break cycle generated when saving an exception in
     socket.py, codeop.py and dyld.py as they keep alive not only the
     exception but user objects through the ‘__traceback__’ attribute.
     Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-36406(37): Handle namespace packages in *note doctest: 39.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-34776(38): Fix dataclasses to support forward references in
     type annotations

   - bpo-20928(39): ElementTree supports recursive XInclude processing.
     Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-29636(40): Add whitespace options for formatting JSON with the
     ‘json.tool’ CLI. The following mutually exclusive options are now
     supported: ‘--indent’ for setting the indent level in spaces;
     ‘--tab’ for indenting with tabs; ‘--no-indent’ for suppressing
     newlines; and ‘--compact’ for suppressing all whitespace.  The
     default behavior remains the same as ‘--indent=4’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39033

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39006

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38979

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38978

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38986

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38982

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38529

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27413

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38927

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26730

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38876

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38688

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38863

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37838

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38859

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38857

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38834

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38821

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38811

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38686

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38348

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37523

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38045

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36820

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36406

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34776

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20928

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29636


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<45>,  Next: Tests<44>,  Prev: Library<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-38928(1): Correct when venv’s ‘upgrade_dependencies()’ and
     ‘--upgrade-deps’ are added.

   - bpo-38899(2): Update documentation to state that to activate
     virtual environments under fish one should use ‘source’, not ‘.’ as
     documented at
     ‘https://fishshell.com/docs/current/cmds/source.html’.

   - bpo-22377(3): Improves documentation of the values that *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1468. accepts for ‘%Z’.  Patch by
     Karl Dubost.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38928

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38899

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<44>,  Next: Build<44>,  Prev: Documentation<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38546(1): Fix test_ressources_gced_in_workers() of
     test_concurrent_futures: explicitly stop the manager to prevent
     leaking a child process running in the background after the test
     completes.

   - bpo-38546(2): Multiprocessing and concurrent.futures tests now stop
     the resource tracker process when tests complete.

   - bpo-38614(3): Replace hardcoded timeout constants in tests with new
     *note test.support: e3. constants: *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 17e6,
     *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 17e7, *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 16d7. and *note
     LONG_TIMEOUT: 17e8.  It becomes easier to adjust these four timeout
     constants for all tests at once, rather than having to adjust every
     single test file.

   - bpo-38547(4): Fix test_pty: if the process is the session leader,
     closing the master file descriptor raises a SIGHUP signal: simply
     ignore SIGHUP when running the tests.

   - bpo-38992(5): Fix a test for *note math.fsum(): 125b. that was
     failing due to constant folding.

   - bpo-38991(6): *note test.support: e3.: ‘run_python_until_end()’,
     ‘assert_python_ok()’ and ‘assert_python_failure()’ functions no
     longer strip whitespaces from stderr.  Remove
     ‘test.support.strip_python_stderr()’ function.

   - bpo-38965(7): Fix test_faulthandler on GCC 10.  Use the “volatile”
     keyword in ‘faulthandler._stack_overflow()’ to prevent tail call
     optimization on any compiler, rather than relying on compiler
     specific pragma.

   - bpo-38875(8): test_capi: trashcan tests now require the test “cpu”
     resource.

   - bpo-38841(9): Skip asyncio
     test_create_datagram_endpoint_existing_sock_unix on platforms
     lacking a functional bind() for named unix domain sockets.

   - bpo-38692(10): Skip the test_posix.test_pidfd_open() test if
     ‘os.pidfd_open()’ fails with a *note PermissionError: bcb.  This
     situation can happen in a Linux sandbox using a syscall whitelist
     which doesn’t allow the ‘pidfd_open()’ syscall yet.

   - bpo-38839(11): Fix some unused functions in tests.  Patch by Adam
     Johnson.

   - bpo-38669(12): Raise *note TypeError: 2c4. when passing target as a
     string with *note unittest.mock.patch.object(): 1420.

   - bpo-37957(13): test.regrtest now can receive a list of test
     patterns to ignore (using the -i/–ignore argument) or a file with a
     list of patterns to ignore (using the –ignore-file argument).
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38547

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38992

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38965

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38875

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38839

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38669

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37957


File: python.info,  Node: Build<44>,  Next: Windows<42>,  Prev: Tests<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-37404(1): *note asyncio: a. now raises *note TypeError: 2c4.
     when calling incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 73d.
     socket.  Patch by Ido Michael.

   - bpo-36500(2): Added an optional “regen” project to the Visual
     Studio solution that will regenerate all grammar, tokens, and
     opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36500


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<42>,  Next: macOS<34>,  Prev: Build<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39007(1): Add auditing events to functions in *note winreg:
     116.

   - bpo-33125(2): Add support for building and releasing Windows ARM64
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<34>,  Next: IDLE<30>,  Prev: Windows<42>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-37931(1): Fixed a crash on OSX dynamic builds that occurred
     when re-initializing the posix module after a Py_Finalize if the
     environment had changed since the previous ‘import posix’.  Patch
     by Benoît Hudson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37931


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<30>,  Next: C API<41>,  Prev: macOS<34>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38944(1): Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  Patch
     by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38943(2): Fix IDLE autocomplete windows not always appearing on
     some systems.  Patch by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38862(3): ‘Strip Trailing Whitespace’ on the Format menu
     removes extra newlines at the end of non-shell files.

   - bpo-38636(4): Fix IDLE Format menu tab toggle and file indent
     width.  These functions (default shortcuts Alt-T and Alt-U) were
     mistakenly disabled in 3.7.5 and 3.8.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38862

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38636


File: python.info,  Node: C API<41>,  Prev: IDLE<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.22.49.10 C API
................

   - bpo-38896(1): Remove ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’ function: the
     Unicode free list has been removed in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-37340(2): Remove ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and
     ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’ functions: the free lists of bound
     method objects have been removed.

   - bpo-38835(3): Exclude ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros of ‘pyfpe.h’ from ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     (stable API).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.50 Python 3.9.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-11-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<42>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<36>,  Next: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38722(1): *note runpy: bd. now uses *note io.open_code(): 153f.
     to open code files.  Patch by Jason Killen.

   - bpo-38622(2): Add additional audit events for the *note ctypes: 2a.
     module.

   - bpo-38418(3): Fixes audit event for *note os.system(): 12e5. to be
     named ‘os.system’.

   - bpo-38243(4): Escape the server title of *note
     xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer: 17f0. when rendering the document
     page as HTML. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38243(5).)

   - bpo-38174(6): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.8,
     which resolves CVE 2019-15903(7).

   - bpo-37764(8): Fixes email._header_value_parser.get_unstructured
     going into an infinite loop for a specific case in which the email
     header does not have trailing whitespace, and the case in which it
     contains an invalid encoded word.  Patch by Ashwin Ramaswami.

   - bpo-37461(9): Fix an infinite loop when parsing specially crafted
     email headers.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-37363(10): Adds audit events for the range of supported run
     commands (see *note Command line and environment: 17f1.).

   - bpo-37463(11): ssl.match_hostname() no longer accepts IPv4
     addresses with additional text after the address and only
     quad-dotted notation without trailing whitespaces.  Some
     inet_aton() implementations ignore whitespace and all data after
     whitespace, e.g.  ‘127.0.0.1 whatever’.

   - bpo-37363(12): Adds audit events for *note ensurepip: 53, *note
     ftplib: 5c, *note glob: 62, *note imaplib: 72, *note nntplib: 9c,
     *note pdb: a4, *note poplib: ab, *note shutil: c4, *note smtplib:
     c9, *note sqlite3: ce, *note subprocess: d5, *note telnetlib: de,
     *note tempfile: df. and *note webbrowser: 115, as well as *note
     os.listdir(): f9c, *note os.scandir(): 8c3. and *note breakpoint():
     930.

   - bpo-37364(13): *note io.open_code(): 153f. is now used when reading
     ‘.pth’ files.

   - bpo-34631(14): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in Windows installer

   - bpo-34155(15): Fix parsing of invalid email addresses with more
     than one ‘@’ (e.g.  a@b@c.com.)  to not return the part before 2nd
     ‘@’ as valid email address.  Patch by maxking & jpic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38622

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38174

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-15903

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37764

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37461

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37463

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37364

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34155


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<49>,  Next: Library<50>,  Prev: Security<36>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-38631(1): Replace ‘Py_FatalError()’ call with a regular *note
     RuntimeError: 180. exception in ‘float.__getformat__()’.

   - bpo-38639(2): Optimized *note math.floor(): 1248, *note
     math.ceil(): 1249. and *note math.trunc(): 124a. for floats.

   - bpo-38640(3): Fixed a bug in the compiler that was causing to raise
     in the presence of break statements and continue statements inside
     always false while loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38613(4): Optimized some set operations (e.g.  ‘|’, ‘^’, and
     ‘-’) of ‘dict_keys’.  ‘d.keys() | other’ was slower than ‘set(d) |
     other’ but they are almost same performance for now.

   - bpo-28029(5): ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an
     empty string for all non-zero ‘n’.  There are similar changes for
     *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. objects.

   - bpo-38535(6): Fixed line numbers and column offsets for AST nodes
     for calls without arguments in decorators.

   - bpo-38525(7): Fix a segmentation fault when using reverse iterators
     of empty ‘dict’ objects.  Patch by Donghee Na and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-38465(8): *note bytearray: 2ca, *note array: 195. and *note
     mmap: 868. objects allow now to export more than ‘2**31’ buffers at
     a time.

   - bpo-38469(9): Fixed a bug where the scope of named expressions was
     not being resolved correctly in the presence of the 'global'
     keyword.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38437(10): Activate the ‘GC_DEBUG’ macro for debug builds of
     the interpreter (when ‘Py_DEBUG’ is set).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38379(11): When the garbage collector makes a collection in
     which some objects resurrect (they are reachable from outside the
     isolated cycles after the finalizers have been executed), do not
     block the collection of all objects that are still unreachable.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Tim Peters.

   - bpo-38379(12): When cyclic garbage collection (gc) runs finalizers
     that resurrect unreachable objects, the current gc run ends,
     without collecting any cyclic trash.  However, the statistics
     reported by ‘collect()’ and ‘get_stats()’ claimed that all cyclic
     trash found was collected, and that the resurrected objects were
     collected.  Changed the stats to report that none were collected.

   - bpo-38392(13): In debug mode, *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 1393. now
     calls ‘tp_traverse()’ of the object type to ensure that the object
     is valid: test that objects visited by ‘tp_traverse()’ are valid.

   - bpo-38210(14): Remove unnecessary intersection and update set
     operation in dictview with empty set.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in bpo-38210(15).)

   - bpo-38402(16): Check the error from the system’s underlying ‘crypt’
     or ‘crypt_r’.

   - bpo-37474(17): On FreeBSD, Python no longer calls
     ‘fedisableexcept()’ at startup to control the floating-point
     control mode.  The call became useless since FreeBSD 6: it became
     the default mode.

   - bpo-38006(18): Fix a bug due to the interaction of weakrefs and the
     cyclic garbage collector.  We must clear any weakrefs in garbage in
     order to prevent their callbacks from executing and causing a
     crash.

   - bpo-38317(19): Fix warnings options priority:
     ‘PyConfig.warnoptions’ has the highest priority, as stated in the
     PEP 587(20).

   - bpo-38310(21): Predict ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ ->
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode pairs in the main interpreter loop.
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-36871(22): Improve error handling for the assert_has_calls and
     assert_has_awaits methods of mocks.  Fixed a bug where any errors
     encountered while binding the expected calls to the mock’s spec
     were silently swallowed, leading to misleading error output.

   - bpo-11410(23): Better control over symbol visibility is provided
     through use of the visibility attributes available in gcc >= 4.0,
     provided in a uniform way across POSIX and Windows.  The POSIX
     build files have been updated to compile with -fvisibility=hidden,
     minimising exported symbols.

   - bpo-38219(24): Optimized the *note dict: 240. constructor and the
     *note update(): 12ed. method for the case when the argument is a
     dict.

   - bpo-38236(25): Python now dumps path configuration if it fails to
     import the Python codecs of the filesystem and stdio encodings.

   - bpo-38013(26): Allow to call ‘async_generator_athrow().throw(...)’
     even for non-started async generator helper.  It fixes annoying
     warning at the end of *note asyncio.run(): 19d. call.

   - bpo-38124(27): Fix an off-by-one error in PyState_AddModule that
     could cause out-of-bounds memory access.

   - bpo-38116(28): The select module is now PEP-384 compliant and no
     longer has static state

   - bpo-38113(29): ast module updated to PEP-384 and all statics
     removed

   - bpo-38076(30): The struct module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38075(31): The random module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38074(32): zlib module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38073(33): Make pwd extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38072(34): grp module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38069(35): Make _posixsubprocess PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38071(36): Make termios extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38005(37): Fixed comparing and creating of InterpreterID and
     ChannelID.

   - bpo-36946(38): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-37994(39): Fixed silencing arbitrary errors if an attribute
     lookup fails in several sites.  Only AttributeError should be
     silenced.

   - bpo-8425(40): Optimize set difference_update for the case when the
     other set is much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny
     Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù).

   - bpo-37966(41): The implementation of *note is_normalized(): 8ac.
     has been greatly sped up on strings that aren’t normalized, by
     implementing the full normalization-quick-check algorithm from the
     Unicode standard.

   - bpo-37947(42): Adjust correctly the recursion level in the symtable
     generation for named expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37812(43): The ‘CHECK_SMALL_INT’ macro used inside
     ‘Object/longobject.c’ has been replaced with an explicit ‘return’
     at each call site.

   - bpo-37751(44): Fix *note codecs.lookup(): 7be. to normalize the
     encoding name the same way than ‘encodings.normalize_encoding()’,
     except that *note codecs.lookup(): 7be. also converts the name to
     lower case.

   - bpo-37830(45): Fixed compilation of *note break: 915. and *note
     continue: 827. in the *note finally: 828. block when the
     corresponding *note try: 503. block contains *note return: 82c.
     with a non-constant value.

   - bpo-20490(46): Improve import error message for partially
     initialized module on circular ‘from’ imports - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37840(47): Fix handling of negative indices in *note sq_item:
     1757. of *note bytearray: 2ca.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37802(48): Slightly improve performance of *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 17f3, *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 17f4. and *note PyLong_FromSize_t():
     17f5.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37409(49): Ensure explicit relative imports from interactive
     sessions and scripts (having no parent package) always raise
     ImportError, rather than treating the current module as the
     package.  Patch by Ben Lewis.

   - bpo-32912(50): Reverted bpo-32912(51): emitting *note
     SyntaxWarning: 17e. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. for
     invalid escape sequences in string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-37757(52): PEP 572(53): As described in the PEP, assignment
     expressions now raise *note SyntaxError: 14c. when their
     interaction with comprehension scoping results in an ambiguous
     target scope.

     The ‘TargetScopeError’ subclass originally proposed by the PEP has
     been removed in favour of just raising regular syntax errors for
     the disallowed cases.

   - bpo-36279(54): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in *note
     os.wait3(): c23.

   - bpo-36311(55): Decoding bytes objects larger than 2GiB is faster
     and no longer fails when a multibyte characters spans a chunk
     boundary.

   - bpo-34880(56): The *note assert: 7c4. statement now works properly
     if the *note AssertionError: 4bf. exception is being shadowed.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-37340(57): Removed object cache (‘free_list’) for bound method
     objects.  Temporary bound method objects are less used than before
     thanks to the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ opcode and the
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod’ C API.

   - bpo-37648(58): Fixed minor inconsistency in ‘list.__contains__()’,
     ‘tuple.__contains__()’ and a few other places.  The collection’s
     item is now always at the left and the needle is on the right of
     ‘==’.

   - bpo-37444(59): Update differing exception between
     ‘builtins.__import__()’ and *note importlib.__import__(): f17.

   - bpo-37619(60): When adding a wrapper descriptor from one class to a
     different class (for example, setting ‘__add__ = str.__add__’ on an
     ‘int’ subclass), an exception is correctly raised when the operator
     is called.

   - bpo-37593(61): Swap the positions of the 'posonlyargs' and 'args'
     parameters in the constructor of ‘ast.parameters’ nodes.

   - bpo-37543(62): Optimized pymalloc for non PGO build.

   - bpo-37537(63): Compute allocated pymalloc blocks inside
     _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks().  This slows down _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks()
     but gives a small speedup to _PyObject_Malloc() and
     _PyObject_Free().

   - bpo-37467(64): Fix *note sys.excepthook(): 646. and
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ if a filename is a bytes string.  For example,
     for a SyntaxError exception where the filename attribute is a bytes
     string.

   - bpo-37433(65): Fix ‘SyntaxError’ indicator printing too many spaces
     for multi-line strings - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37417(66): ‘bytearray.extend()’ now correctly handles errors
     that arise during iteration.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37414(67): The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been
     removed.  Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned
     ‘None’.  It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which
     was already removed in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37392(68): Remove ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and
     ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.2.  Use *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 7a4. and *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): 7a5. instead.  Remove also
     ‘check_interval’ field of the ‘PyInterpreterState’ structure.

   - bpo-37388(69): In development mode and in debug build, 'encoding'
     and 'errors' arguments are now checked on string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 2a6, *note
     str.encode(): 728. and *note bytes.decode(): 729.

     By default, for best performances, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error, and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   - bpo-37348(70): Optimized decoding short ASCII string with UTF-8 and
     ascii codecs.  ‘b"foo".decode()’ is about 15% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-24214(71): Improved support of the surrogatepass error handler
     in the UTF-8 and UTF-16 incremental decoders.

   - bpo-37330(72): *note open(): 2a6, *note io.open(): 2a7, *note
     codecs.open(): 56a. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ (“universal newline”) in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-35224(73): Reverse evaluation order of key: value in dict
     comprehensions as proposed in PEP 572.  I.e.  in ‘{k: v for ...}’,
     ‘k’ will be evaluated before ‘v’.

   - bpo-37316(74): Fix the *note PySys_Audit(): 17b0. call in *note
     mmap.mmap: 868.

   - bpo-37300(75): Remove an unnecessary Py_XINCREF in classobject.c.

   - bpo-37269(76): Fix a bug in the peephole optimizer that was not
     treating correctly constant conditions with binary operators.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20443(77): Python now gets the absolute path of the script
     filename specified on the command line (ex: “python3 script.py”):
     the __file__ attribute of the __main__ module and sys.path[0]
     become an absolute path, rather than a relative path.

   - bpo-37257(78): Python’s small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now
     allows (no more than) one empty arena to remain available for
     immediate reuse, without returning it to the OS. This prevents
     thrashing in simple loops where an arena could be created and
     destroyed anew on each iteration.

   - bpo-37231(79): The dispatching of type slots to special methods
     (for example calling ‘__mul__’ when doing ‘x * y’) has been made
     faster.

   - bpo-36974(80): Implemented separate vectorcall functions for every
     calling convention of builtin functions and methods.  This improves
     performance for calls.

   - bpo-37213(81): Handle correctly negative line offsets in the
     peephole optimizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37219(82): Remove erroneous optimization for empty set
     differences.

   - bpo-15913(83): Implement *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 588.
     function (previously documented but not implemented): call *note
     struct.calcsize(): 17f6.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-36922(84): Slot functions optimize any callable with
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ instead of only instances of
     ‘function’.

   - bpo-36974(85): The slot ‘tp_vectorcall_offset’ is inherited
     unconditionally to support ‘super().__call__()’ when the base class
     uses vectorcall.

   - bpo-37160(86): *note threading.get_native_id(): 8a0. now also
     supports NetBSD.

   - bpo-37077(87): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): 8a0. support
     for AIX. Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-36781(88): *note sum(): 187. has been optimized for boolean
     values.

   - bpo-34556(89): Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ to venv module.  Patch by
     Cooper Ry Lees

   - bpo-20523(90): ‘pdb.Pdb’ supports ~/.pdbrc in Windows 7.  Patch by
     Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter.

   - bpo-35551(91): Updated encodings: - Removed the “tis260” encoding,
     which was an alias for the nonexistent “tactis” codec.  - Added
     “mac_centeuro” as an alias for the mac_latin2 encoding.

   - bpo-19072(92): The *note classmethod: 252. decorator can now wrap
     other descriptors such as property objects.  Adapted from a patch
     written by Graham Dumpleton.

   - bpo-27575(93): Improve speed of dictview intersection by directly
     using set intersection logic.  Patch by David Su.

   - bpo-30773(94): Prohibit parallel running of aclose() / asend() /
     athrow().  Fix ag_running to reflect the actual running status of
     the AG.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38535

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38525

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38437

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38392

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37474

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38317

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38310

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36871

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11410

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38013

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38124

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38116

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38113

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38074

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38073

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38069

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38071

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38005

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37994

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37947

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37812

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37830

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20490

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37840

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37802

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37409

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37757

   (53) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36279

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36311

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37648

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37619

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37593

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37543

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37537

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37467

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37433

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37417

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37316

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37300

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37269

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37231

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37213

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37219

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15913

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37160

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37077

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36781

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34556

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35551

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27575

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773


File: python.info,  Node: Library<50>,  Next: Documentation<46>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36589(1): The *note curses.update_lines_cols(): c7a. function
     now returns ‘None’ instead of ‘1’ on success.

   - bpo-38807(2): Update *note TypeError: 2c4. messages for *note
     os.path.join(): 1547. to include *note os.PathLike: acd. objects as
     acceptable input types.

   - bpo-38724(3): Add a repr for ‘subprocess.Popen’ objects.  Patch by
     Andrey Doroschenko.

   - bpo-38786(4): pydoc now recognizes and parses HTTPS URLs.  Patch by
     python273.

   - bpo-38785(5): Prevent asyncio from crashing if parent ‘__init__’ is
     not called from a constructor of object derived from
     ‘asyncio.Future’.

   - bpo-38723(6): *note pdb: a4. now uses *note io.open_code(): 153f.
     to trigger auditing events.

   - bpo-27805(7): Allow opening pipes and other non-seekable files in
     append mode with *note open(): 2a6.

   - bpo-38438(8): Simplify the *note argparse: 6. usage message for
     ‘nargs="*"’.

   - bpo-38761(9): WeakSet is now registered as a
     collections.abc.MutableSet.

   - bpo-38716(10): logging: change RotatingHandler namer and rotator to
     class-level attributes.  This stops __init__ from setting them to
     None in the case where a subclass defines them with eponymous
     methods.

   - bpo-38713(11): Add *note os.P_PIDFD: 772. constant, which may be
     passed to *note os.waitid(): c26. to wait on a Linux process file
     descriptor.

   - bpo-38692(12): Add *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 19a, a
     Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file
     descriptors.

   - bpo-38692(13): Expose the Linux ‘pidfd_open’ syscall as *note
     os.pidfd_open(): 19b.

   - bpo-38602(14): Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and
     ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ to the *note fcntl: 57. module.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-38334(15): Fixed seeking backward on an encrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’.

   - bpo-38312(16): Add *note curses.get_escdelay(): 743, *note
     curses.set_escdelay(): 744, *note curses.get_tabsize(): 745, and
     *note curses.set_tabsize(): 746. functions - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-38586(17): Now *note fileConfig(): 9c4. correctly sets the
     .name of handlers loaded.

   - bpo-38565(18): Add new cache_parameters() method for
     functools.lru_cache() to better support pickling.

   - bpo-34679(19): asynci.ProactorEventLoop.close() now only calls
     signal.set_wakeup_fd() in the main thread.

   - bpo-31202(20): The case the result of ‘pathlib.WindowsPath.glob()’
     matches now the case of the pattern for literal parts.

   - bpo-36321(21): Remove misspelled attribute.  The 3.8 changelog
     noted that this would be removed in 3.9.

   - bpo-38521(22): Fixed erroneous equality comparison in
     statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-38493(23): Added *note CLD_KILLED: 770. and *note CLD_STOPPED:
     771. for ‘si_code’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38478(24): Fixed a bug in ‘inspect.signature.bind()’ that was
     causing it to fail when handling a keyword argument with same name
     as positional-only parameter.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33604(25): Fixed ‘hmac.new’ and ‘hmac.HMAC’ to raise TypeError
     instead of ValueError when the digestmod parameter, now required in
     3.8, is omitted.  Also clarified the hmac module documentation and
     docstrings.

   - bpo-38378(26): Parameters 'out' and 'in' of *note os.sendfile():
     97d. was renamed to 'out_fd' and 'in_fd'.

   - bpo-38417(27): Added support for setting the umask in the child
     process to the subprocess module on POSIX systems.

   - bpo-38449(28): Revert PR 15522, which introduces a regression in
     *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 13f5. due to improper handling of
     filenames as urls.

   - bpo-38431(29): Fix ‘__repr__’ method for ‘dataclasses.InitVar’ to
     support typing objects, patch by Samuel Colvin.

   - bpo-38109(30): Add missing *note stat.S_IFDOOR: e5d, *note
     stat.S_IFPORT: e5e, *note stat.S_IFWHT: e5f, *note stat.S_ISDOOR():
     17f8, *note stat.S_ISPORT(): 17f9, and *note stat.S_ISWHT(): 17fa.
     values to the Python implementation of *note stat: d0.

   - bpo-38422(31): Clarify docstrings of pathlib suffix(es)

   - bpo-38405(32): Nested subclasses of *note typing.NamedTuple: 202.
     are now pickleable.

   - bpo-38332(33): Prevent *note KeyError: 903. thrown by
     ‘_encoded_words.decode()’ when given an encoded-word with invalid
     content-type encoding from propagating all the way to
     ‘email.message.get()’.

   - bpo-38371(34): Deprecated the ‘split()’ method in
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour of the ‘splitlist()’ method which
     has more consistent and predictable behavior.

   - bpo-38341(35): Add *note smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb. to
     the *note smtplib: c9. exported names.

   - bpo-38319(36): sendfile() used in socket and shutil modules was
     raising OverflowError for files >= 2GiB on 32-bit architectures.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-38242(37): Revert the new asyncio Streams API

   - bpo-13153(38): OS native encoding is now used for converting
     between Python strings and Tcl objects.  This allows to display,
     copy and paste to clipboard emoji and other non-BMP characters.
     Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails
     (except MemoryError).

   - bpo-38019(39): Correctly handle pause/resume reading of closed
     asyncio unix pipe.

   - bpo-38163(40): Child mocks will now detect their type as either
     synchronous or asynchronous, asynchronous child mocks will be
     AsyncMocks and synchronous child mocks will be either MagicMock or
     Mock (depending on their parent type).

   - bpo-38161(41): Removes _AwaitEvent from AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38216(42): Allow the rare code that wants to send invalid http
     requests from the ‘http.client’ library a way to do so.  The fixes
     for bpo-30458(43) led to breakage for some projects that were
     relying on this ability to test their own behavior in the face of
     bad requests.

   - bpo-28286(44): Deprecate opening *note GzipFile: 296. for writing
     implicitly.  Always specify the 'mode' argument for writing.

   - bpo-38108(45): Any synchronous magic methods on an AsyncMock now
     return a MagicMock.  Any asynchronous magic methods on a MagicMock
     now return an AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38265(46): Update the 'length' parameter of *note os.pread():
     9d3. to accept *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. instead of int.

   - bpo-38112(47): *note compileall: 20. has a higher default recursion
     limit and new command-line arguments for path manipulation,
     symlinks handling, and multiple optimization levels.

   - bpo-38248(48): asyncio: Fix inconsistent immediate Task
     cancellation

   - bpo-38237(49): The arguments for the builtin pow function are more
     descriptive.  They can now also be passed in as keywords.

   - bpo-34002(50): Improve efficiency in parts of email package by
     changing while-pop to a for loop, using isdisjoint instead of set
     intersections.

   - bpo-38191(51): Constructors of *note NamedTuple: 202. and *note
     TypedDict: 159. types now accept arbitrary keyword argument names,
     including “cls”, “self”, “typename”, “_typename”, “fields” and
     “_fields”.

   - bpo-38155(52): Add ‘__all__’ to *note datetime: 30.  Patch by Tahia
     Khan.

   - bpo-38185(53): Fixed case-insensitive string comparison in *note
     sqlite3.Row: d05. indexing.

   - bpo-38136(54): Changes AsyncMock call count and await count to be
     two different counters.  Now await count only counts when a
     coroutine has been awaited, not when it has been called, and
     vice-versa.  Update the documentation around this.

   - bpo-37828(55): Fix default mock name in *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called(): b7c. exceptions.  Patch by
     Abraham Toriz Cruz.

   - bpo-38175(56): Fix a memory leak in comparison of *note
     sqlite3.Row: d05. objects.

   - bpo-33936(57): _hashlib no longer calls obsolete OpenSSL
     initialization function with OpenSSL 1.1.0+.

   - bpo-34706(58): Preserve subclassing in
     inspect.Signature.from_callable.

   - bpo-38153(59): Names of hashing algorithms from OpenSSL are now
     normalized to follow Python’s naming conventions.  For example
     OpenSSL uses sha3-512 instead of sha3_512 or blake2b512 instead of
     blake2b.

   - bpo-38115(60): Fix a bug in dis.findlinestarts() where it would
     return invalid bytecode offsets.  Document that a code object’s
     co_lnotab can contain invalid bytecode offsets.

   - bpo-38148(61): Add slots to *note asyncio: a. transport classes,
     which can reduce memory usage.

   - bpo-38142(62): The _hashlib OpenSSL wrapper extension module is now
     PEP-384 compliant.

   - bpo-9216(63): hashlib constructors now support usedforsecurity flag
     to signal that a hashing algorithm is not used in a security
     context.

   - bpo-36991(64): Fixes a potential incorrect AttributeError exception
     escaping ZipFile.extract() in some unsupported input error
     situations.

   - bpo-38134(65): Remove obsolete copy of PBKDF2_HMAC_fast.  All
     supported OpenSSL versions contain a fast implementation.

   - bpo-38132(66): The OpenSSL hashlib wrapper uses a simpler
     implementation.  Several Macros and pointless caches are gone.  The
     hash name now comes from OpenSSL’s EVP. The algorithm name stays
     the same, except it is now always lower case.

   - bpo-38008(67): Fix parent class check in protocols to correctly
     identify the module that provides a builtin protocol, instead of
     assuming they all come from the *note collections.abc: 1e. module

   - bpo-34037(68): For *note asyncio: a, add a new coroutine
     ‘loop.shutdown_default_executor()’.  The new coroutine provides an
     API to schedule an executor shutdown that waits on the threadpool
     to finish closing.  Also, *note asyncio.run(): 19d. has been
     updated to utilize the new coroutine.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-37405(69): Fixed regression bug for socket.getsockname() for
     non-CAN_ISOTP AF_CAN address family sockets by returning a 1-tuple
     instead of string.

   - bpo-38121(70): Update parameter names on functions in
     importlib.metadata matching the changes in the 0.22 release of
     importlib_metadata.

   - bpo-38110(71): The os.closewalk() implementation now uses the libc
     fdwalk() API on platforms where it is available.

   - bpo-38093(72): Fixes AsyncMock so it doesn’t crash when used with
     AsyncContextManagers or AsyncIterators.

   - bpo-37488(73): Add warning to ‘datetime.utctimetuple()’,
     ‘datetime.utcnow()’ and ‘datetime.utcfromtimestamp()’ .

   - bpo-35640(74): Allow passing a *note path-like object: 98e. as
     ‘directory’ argument to the *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. class.  Patch by Géry
     Ogam.

   - bpo-38086(75): Update importlib.metadata with changes from
     importlib_metadata 0.21(76).

   - bpo-37251(77): Remove ‘__code__’ check in AsyncMock that
     incorrectly evaluated function specs as async objects but failed to
     evaluate classes with ‘__await__’ but no ‘__code__’ attribute
     defined as async objects.

   - bpo-38037(78): Fix reference counters in the *note signal: c5.
     module.

   - bpo-38066(79): Hide internal asyncio.Stream methods: feed_eof(),
     feed_data(), set_exception() and set_transport().

   - bpo-38059(80): inspect.py now uses sys.exit() instead of exit()

   - bpo-38049(81): Added command-line interface for the *note ast: 8.
     module.

   - bpo-37953(82): In *note typing: 104, improved the ‘__hash__’ and
     ‘__eq__’ methods for ‘ForwardReferences’.

   - bpo-38026(83): Fixed *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8. used
     ‘isinstance’ while it should avoid dynamic lookup.

   - bpo-35923(84): Update *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter:
     b32. to use ‘loader._ORIGIN’ instead of a hardcoded value.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38010(85): In ‘importlib.metadata’ sync with
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 0.20, clarifying behavior of ‘files()’ and
     fixing issue where only one requirement was returned for
     ‘requires()’ on ‘dist-info’ packages.

   - bpo-38006(86): weakref.WeakValueDictionary defines a local remove()
     function used as callback for weak references.  This function was
     created with a closure.  Modify the implementation to avoid the
     closure.

   - bpo-37995(87): Added the 'indent' option to *note ast.dump(): 737.
     which allows it to produce a multiline indented output.

   - bpo-34410(88): Fixed a crash in the ‘tee()’ iterator when re-enter
     it.  RuntimeError is now raised in this case.

   - bpo-37140(89): Fix a ctypes regression of Python 3.8.  When a
     ctypes.Structure is passed by copy to a function, ctypes internals
     created a temporary object which had the side effect of calling the
     structure finalizer (__del__) twice.  The Python semantics requires
     a finalizer to be called exactly once.  Fix ctypes internals to no
     longer call the finalizer twice.

   - bpo-37587(90): ‘_json.scanstring’ is now up to 3x faster when there
     are many backslash escaped characters in the JSON string.

   - bpo-37834(91): Prevent shutil.rmtree exception when built on
     non-Windows system without fd system call support, like older
     versions of macOS.

   - bpo-10978(92): Semaphores and BoundedSemaphores can now release
     more than one waiting thread at a time.

   - bpo-37972(93): Subscripts to the ‘unittest.mock.call’ objects now
     receive the same chaining mechanism as any other custom attributes,
     so that the following usage no longer raises a ‘TypeError’:

     ‘call().foo().__getitem__('bar')’

     Patch by blhsing

   - bpo-37965(94): Fix C compiler warning caused by
     distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function.

   - bpo-37964(95): Add ‘F_GETPATH’ command to *note fcntl: 57.

   - bpo-37960(96): ‘repr()’ of buffered and text streams now silences
     only expected exceptions when get the value of “name” and “mode”
     attributes.

   - bpo-37961(97): Add a ‘total_nframe’ field to the traces collected
     by the tracemalloc module.  This field indicates the original
     number of frames before it was truncated.

   - bpo-37951(98): Most features of the subprocess module now work
     again in subinterpreters.  Only 'preexec_fn' is restricted in
     subinterpreters.

   - bpo-36205(99): Fix the rusage implementation of time.process_time()
     to correctly report the sum of the system and user CPU time.

   - bpo-37950(100): Fix *note ast.dump(): 737. when call with
     incompletely initialized node.

   - bpo-34679(101): Restores instantiation of Windows IOCP event loops
     from the non-main thread.

   - bpo-36917(102): Add default implementation of the *note
     ast.NodeVisitor.visit_Constant(): 8d3. method which emits a
     deprecation warning and calls corresponding methods ‘visit_Num()’,
     ‘visit_Str()’, etc.

   - bpo-37798(103): Update test_statistics.py to verify that the
     statistics module works well for both C and Python implementations.
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-26589(104): Added a new status code to the http module: 451
     UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS

   - bpo-37915(105): Fix a segmentation fault that appeared when
     comparing instances of ‘datetime.timezone’ and ‘datetime.tzinfo’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32554(106): Deprecate having random.seed() call hash on
     arbitrary types.

   - bpo-9938(107): Add optional keyword argument ‘exit_on_error’ for
     ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-37851(108): The *note faulthandler: 56. module no longer
     allocates its alternative stack at Python startup.  Now the stack
     is only allocated at the first faulthandler usage.

   - bpo-32793(109): Fix a duplicated debug message when *note
     smtplib.SMTP.connect(): 17fc. is called.

   - bpo-37885(110): venv: Don’t generate unset variable warning on
     deactivate.

   - bpo-37868(111): Fix dataclasses.is_dataclass when given an instance
     that never raises AttributeError in __getattr__.  That is, an
     object that returns something for __dataclass_fields__ even if it’s
     not a dataclass.

   - bpo-37811(112): Fix ‘socket’ module’s ‘socket.connect(address)’
     function being unable to establish connection in case of
     interrupted system call.  The problem was observed on all OSes
     which ‘poll(2)’ system call can take only non-negative integers and
     -1 as a timeout value.

   - bpo-37863(113): Optimizations for Fraction.__hash__ suggested by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-21131(114): Fix ‘faulthandler.register(chain=True)’ stack.
     faulthandler now allocates a dedicated stack of ‘SIGSTKSZ*2’ bytes,
     instead of just ‘SIGSTKSZ’ bytes.  Calling the previous signal
     handler in faulthandler signal handler uses more than ‘SIGSTKSZ’
     bytes of stack memory on some platforms.

   - bpo-37798(115): Add C fastpath for statistics.NormalDist.inv_cdf()
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-37804(116): Remove the deprecated method
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37819(117): Add Fraction.as_integer_ratio() to match the
     corresponding methods in bool, int, float, and decimal.

   - bpo-14465(118): Add an xml.etree.ElementTree.indent() function for
     pretty-printing XML trees.  Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-37810(119): Fix *note difflib: 36. ‘?’ hint in diff output when
     dealing with tabs.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37772(120): In ‘zipfile.Path’, when adding implicit dirs,
     ensure that ancestral directories are added and that duplicates are
     excluded.

   - bpo-18578(121): Renamed and documented ‘test.bytecode_helper’ as
     ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37785(122): Fix xgettext warnings in *note argparse: 6.

   - bpo-34488(123): ‘writelines()’ method of *note io.BytesIO: d38. is
     now slightly faster when many small lines are passed.  Patch by
     Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37449(124): ‘ensurepip’ now uses
     ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’ to read data instead of
     ‘pkgutil.get_data()’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-28292(125): Mark calendar.py helper functions as being private.
     The follows PEP 8 guidance to maintain the style conventions in the
     module and it addresses a known case of user confusion.

   - bpo-18049(126): Add definition of THREAD_STACK_SIZE for AIX in
     Python/thread_pthread.h The default thread stacksize caused crashes
     with the default recursion limit Patch by M Felt

   - bpo-37742(127): The logging.getLogger() API now returns the root
     logger when passed the name ‘root’, whereas previously it returned
     a non-root logger named ‘root’.  This could affect cases where user
     code explicitly wants a non-root logger named ‘root’, or
     instantiates a logger using logging.getLogger(__name__) in some
     top-level module called ‘root.py’.

   - bpo-37738(128): Fix the implementation of curses ‘addch(str,
     color_pair)’: pass the color pair to ‘setcchar()’, instead of
     always passing 0 as the color pair.

   - bpo-37723(129): Fix performance regression on regular expression
     parsing with huge character sets.  Patch by Yann Vaginay.

   - bpo-35943(130): The function *note PyImport_GetModule(): a2a. now
     ensures any module it returns is fully initialized.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-32178(131): Fix IndexError in *note email: 3a. package when
     trying to parse invalid address fields starting with ‘:’.

   - bpo-37268(132): The ‘parser’ module is deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.

   - bpo-11953(133): Completing WSA* error codes in *note socket: cb.

   - bpo-37685(134): Fixed comparisons of *note datetime.timedelta: 82d.
     and *note datetime.timezone: f62.

   - bpo-37697(135): Synchronize ‘importlib.metadata’ with
     importlib_metadata 0.19(136), improving handling of EGG-INFO files
     and fixing a crash when entry point names contained colons.

   - bpo-37695(137): Correct *note curses.unget_wch(): f42. error
     message.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37689(138): Add ‘is_relative_to()’ in ‘PurePath’ to determine
     whether or not one path is relative to another.

   - bpo-29553(139): Fixed *note argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage():
     17fd. for mutually exclusive groups.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-37691(140): Let math.dist() accept coordinates as sequences (or
     iterables) rather than just tuples.

   - bpo-37685(141): Fixed ‘__eq__’, ‘__lt__’ etc implementations in
     some classes.  They now return *note NotImplemented: 60b. for
     unsupported type of the other operand.  This allows the other
     operand to play role (for example the equality comparison with
     *note ANY: 17fe. will return ‘True’).

   - bpo-37354(142): Make Activate.ps1 Powershell script static to allow
     for signing it.

   - bpo-37664(143): Update wheels bundled with ensurepip (pip 19.2.3
     and setuptools 41.2.0)

   - bpo-37663(144): Bring consistency to venv shell activation scripts
     by always using __VENV_PROMPT__.

   - bpo-37642(145): Allowed the pure Python implementation of *note
     datetime.timezone: f62. to represent sub-minute offsets close to
     minimum and maximum boundaries, specifically in the ranges (23:59,
     24:00) and (-23:59, 24:00).  Patch by Ngalim Siregar

   - bpo-36161(146): In *note posix: ac, use ‘ttyname_r’ instead of
     ‘ttyname’ for thread safety.

   - bpo-36324(147): Make internal attributes for
     statistics.NormalDist() private.

   - bpo-37555(148): Fix ‘NonCallableMock._call_matcher’ returning tuple
     instead of ‘_Call’ object when ‘self._spec_signature’ exists.
     Patch by Elizabeth Uselton

   - bpo-29446(149): Make ‘from tkinter import *’ import only the
     expected objects.

   - bpo-16970(150): Adding a value error when an invalid value in
     passed to nargs Patch by Robert Leenders

   - bpo-34443(151): Exceptions from *note enum: 54. now use the
     ‘__qualname’ of the enum class in the exception message instead of
     the ‘__name__’.

   - bpo-37491(152): Fix ‘IndexError’ when parsing email headers with
     unexpectedly ending bare-quoted string value.  Patch by Abhilash
     Raj.

   - bpo-37587(153): Make json.loads faster for long strings.  (Patch by
     Marco Paolini)

   - bpo-18378(154): Recognize “UTF-8” as a valid value for LC_CTYPE in
     locale._parse_localename.

   - bpo-37579(155): Return *note NotImplemented: 60b. in Python
     implementation of ‘__eq__’ for *note timedelta: 82d. and *note
     time: 6df. when the other object being compared is not of the same
     type to match C implementation.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(156): Record calls to parent when autospecced object is
     attached to a mock using ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37531(157): “python3 -m test -jN –timeout=TIMEOUT” now kills a
     worker process if it runs longer than 'TIMEOUT' seconds.

   - bpo-37482(158): Fix serialization of display name in originator or
     destination address fields with both encoded words and special
     chars.

   - bpo-36993(159): Improve error reporting for corrupt zip files with
     bad zip64 extra data.  Patch by Daniel Hillier.

   - bpo-37502(160): pickle.loads() no longer raises TypeError when the
     buffers argument is set to None

   - bpo-37520(161): Correct behavior for zipfile.Path.parent when the
     path object identifies a subdirectory.

   - bpo-18374(162): Fix the ‘.col_offset’ attribute of nested *note
     ast.BinOp: 17ff. instances which had a too large value in some
     situations.

   - bpo-37424(163): Fixes a possible hang when using a timeout on
     ‘subprocess.run()’ while capturing output.  If the child process
     spawned its own children or otherwise connected its stdout or
     stderr handles with another process, we could hang after the
     timeout was reached and our child was killed when attempting to
     read final output from the pipes.

   - bpo-37421(164): Fix ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’
     finalizer: clear also the ‘tempdir’ configuration of the current
     process, so next call to ‘get_temp_dir()’ will create a new
     temporary directory, rather than reusing the removed temporary
     directory.

   - bpo-37481(165): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is deprecated
     in Python 3.8, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-37479(166): When ‘Enum.__str__’ is overridden in a derived
     class, the override will be used by ‘Enum.__format__’ regardless of
     whether mixin classes are present.

   - bpo-37440(167): http.client now enables TLS 1.3 post-handshake
     authentication for default context or if a cert_file is passed to
     HTTPSConnection.

   - bpo-37437(168): Update vendorized expat version to 2.2.7.

   - bpo-37428(169): SSLContext.post_handshake_auth = True no longer
     sets SSL_VERIFY_POST_HANDSHAKE verify flag for client connections.
     Although the option is documented as ignored for clients, OpenSSL
     implicitly enables cert chain validation when the flag is set.

   - bpo-37420(170): *note os.sched_setaffinity(): fb0. now correctly
     handles errors that arise during iteration over its ‘mask’
     argument.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37412(171): The *note os.getcwdb(): 8f9. function now uses the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP
     529(172) for the rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated
     on Windows.

   - bpo-37406(173): The sqlite3 module now raises TypeError, rather
     than ValueError, if operation argument type is not str: execute(),
     executemany() and calling a connection.

   - bpo-29412(174): Fix IndexError in parsing a header value ending
     unexpectedly.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-36546(175): The 'dist' argument for statistics.quantiles() is
     now positional only.  The current name doesn’t reflect that the
     argument can be either a dataset or a distribution.  Marking the
     parameter as positional avoids confusion and makes it possible to
     change the name later.

   - bpo-37394(176): Fix a bug that was causing the *note queue: b5.
     module to fail if the accelerator module was not available.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37376(177): *note pprint: ad. now has support for *note
     types.SimpleNamespace: 77f.  Patch by Carl Bordum Hansen.

   - bpo-26967(178): An *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. with
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ no longer disables grouping of short flags,
     such as ‘-vv’, but only disables abbreviation of long flags as
     documented.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-37212(179): *note unittest.mock.call(): 1800. now preserves the
     order of keyword arguments in repr output.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37372(180): Fix error unpickling datetime.time objects from
     Python 2 with seconds>=24.  Patch by Justin Blanchard.

   - bpo-37345(181): Add formal support for UDPLITE sockets.  Support
     was present before, but it is now easier to detect support with
     ‘hasattr(socket, 'IPPROTO_UDPLITE')’ and there are constants
     defined for each of the values needed: ‘socket.IPPROTO_UDPLITE’,
     ‘UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV’, and ‘UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV’.  Patch by Gabe
     Appleton.

   - bpo-37358(182): Optimized ‘functools.partial’ by using vectorcall.

   - bpo-37347(183): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 1801,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 1802, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 489, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 1803. *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback(): fe5. methods lead to
     segfaults if some of these methods are called twice with an equal
     object but not the same.  Now callbacks are stored more carefully.
     Patch by Aleksandr Balezin.

   - bpo-37163(184): The 'obj' argument of *note dataclasses.replace():
     16ef. is positional-only now.

   - bpo-37085(185): Add the optional Linux SocketCAN Broadcast Manager
     constants, used as flags to configure the BCM behaviour, in the
     socket module.  Patch by Karl Ding.

   - bpo-37328(186): ‘HTMLParser.unescape’ is removed.  It was
     undocumented and deprecated since Python 3.4.

   - bpo-37305(187): Add .webmanifest -> application/manifest+json to
     list of recognized file types and content type headers

   - bpo-37320(188): ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’,
     ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias
     to ‘wave.open()’ have been removed.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37315(189): Deprecated accepting floats with integral value
     (like ‘5.0’) in *note math.factorial(): 7a0.

   - bpo-37312(190): ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have
     been removed.  These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which
     requires threading support.

   - bpo-33972(191): Email with single part but content-type set to
     ‘multipart/*’ doesn’t raise AttributeError anymore.

   - bpo-37280(192): Use threadpool for reading from file for sendfile
     fallback mode.

   - bpo-37279(193): Fix asyncio sendfile support when sendfile sends
     extra data in fallback mode.

   - bpo-19865(194): *note ctypes.create_unicode_buffer(): 1804. now
     also supports non-BMP characters on platforms with 16-bit ‘wchar_t’
     (for example, Windows and AIX).

   - bpo-37266(195): In a subinterpreter, spawning a daemon thread now
     raises an exception.  Daemon threads were never supported in
     subinterpreters.  Previously, the subinterpreter finalization
     crashed with a Python fatal error if a daemon thread was still
     running.

   - bpo-37210(196): Allow pure Python implementation of *note pickle:
     a5. to work even when the C ‘_pickle’ module is unavailable.

   - bpo-21872(197): Fix *note lzma: 89.: module decompresses data
     incompletely.  When decompressing a FORMAT_ALONE format file, and
     it doesn’t have the end marker, sometimes the last one to dozens
     bytes can’t be output.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35922(198): Fix ‘RobotFileParser.crawl_delay()’ and
     ‘RobotFileParser.request_rate()’ to return ‘None’ rather than raise
     *note AttributeError: 3dc. when no relevant rule is defined in the
     robots.txt file.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35766(199): Change the format of feature_version to be a
     (major, minor) tuple.

   - bpo-36607(200): Eliminate *note RuntimeError: 180. raised by *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): 7b1. if internal tasks weak set is changed by
     another thread during iteration.

   - bpo-18748(201): ‘_pyio.IOBase’ destructor now does nothing if
     getting the ‘closed’ attribute fails to better mimic ‘_io.IOBase’
     finalizer.

   - bpo-36402(202): Fix a race condition at Python shutdown when
     waiting for threads.  Wait until the Python thread state of all
     non-daemon threads get deleted (join all non-daemon threads),
     rather than just wait until non-daemon Python threads complete.

   - bpo-37206(203): Default values which cannot be represented as
     Python objects no longer improperly represented as ‘None’ in
     function signatures.

   - bpo-37111(204): Added ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ keyword parameters to
     ‘logging.basicConfig’.

   - bpo-12144(205): Ensure cookies with ‘expires’ attribute are handled
     in ‘CookieJar.make_cookies()’.

   - bpo-34886(206): Fix an unintended ValueError from *note
     subprocess.run(): 9fc. when checking for conflicting 'input' and
     'stdin' or 'capture_output' and 'stdout' or 'stderr' args when they
     were explicitly provided but with ‘None’ values within a passed in
     ‘**kwargs’ dict rather than as passed directly by name.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37173(207): The exception message for ‘inspect.getfile()’ now
     correctly reports the passed class rather than the builtins module.

   - bpo-37178(208): Give math.perm() a one argument form that means the
     same as math.factorial().

   - bpo-37178(209): For math.perm(n, k), let k default to n, giving the
     same result as factorial.

   - bpo-37165(210): Converted _collections._count_elements to use the
     Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-34767(211): Do not always create a *note collections.deque:
     3e7. in *note asyncio.Lock: 8d6.

   - bpo-37158(212): Speed-up statistics.fmean() by switching from a
     function to a generator.

   - bpo-34282(213): Remove ‘Enum._convert’ method, deprecated in 3.8.

   - bpo-37150(214): ‘argparse._ActionsContainer.add_argument’ now
     throws error, if someone accidentally pass FileType class object
     instead of instance of FileType as ‘type’ argument.

   - bpo-28724(215): The socket module now has the *note
     socket.send_fds(): 78c. and ‘socket.recv.fds()’ methods.
     Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35621(216): Support running asyncio subprocesses when execution
     event loop in a thread on UNIX.

   - bpo-36520(217): Lengthy email headers with UTF-8 characters are now
     properly encoded when they are folded.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-30835(218): Fixed a bug in email parsing where a message with
     invalid bytes in content-transfer-encoding of a multipart message
     can cause an AttributeError.  Patch by Andrew Donnellan.

   - bpo-31163(219): pathlib.Path instance’s rename and replace methods
     now return the new Path instance.

   - bpo-25068(220): *note urllib.request.ProxyHandler: 1805. now
     lowercases the keys of the passed dictionary.

   - bpo-26185(221): Fix *note repr(): 637. on empty ‘ZipInfo’ object.
     Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-21315(222): Email headers containing RFC2047 encoded words are
     parsed despite the missing whitespace, and a defect registered.
     Also missing trailing whitespace after encoded words is now
     registered as a defect.

   - bpo-31904(223): Port test_datetime to VxWorks: skip zoneinfo tests
     on VxWorks

   - bpo-35805(224): Add parser for Message-ID header and add it to
     default HeaderRegistry.  This should prevent folding of Message-ID
     using RFC 2048 encoded words.

   - bpo-36871(225): Ensure method signature is used instead of
     constructor signature of a class while asserting mock object
     against method calls.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35070(226): posix.getgrouplist() now works correctly when the
     user belongs to NGROUPS_MAX supplemental groups.  Patch by Jeffrey
     Kintscher.

   - bpo-31783(227): Fix race condition in ThreadPoolExecutor when
     worker threads are created during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-36582(228): Fix ‘UserString.encode()’ to correctly return
     ‘bytes’ rather than a ‘UserString’ instance.

   - bpo-32424(229): Deprecate xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.copy() in
     favor of copy.copy().

     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley

   - bpo-36564(230): Fix infinite loop in email header folding logic
     that would be triggered when an email policy’s max_line_length is
     not long enough to include the required markup and any values in
     the message.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-36543(231): Removed methods Element.getchildren(),
     Element.getiterator() and ElementTree.getiterator() and the
     xml.etree.cElementTree module.

   - bpo-36409(232): Remove the old plistlib API deprecated in Python
     3.4

   - bpo-36302(233): distutils sorts source file lists so that Extension
     .so files build more reproducibly by default

   - bpo-36250(234): Ignore ‘ValueError’ from ‘signal’ with
     ‘interaction’ in non-main thread.

   - bpo-36046(235): Added ‘user’, ‘group’ and ‘extra_groups’ parameters
     to the subprocess.Popen constructor.  Patch by Patrick McLean.

   - bpo-32627(236): Fix compile error when ‘_uuid’ headers conflicting
     included.

   - bpo-35800(237): Deprecate ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ ready for future
     removal.

   - bpo-35168(238): *note shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars: 1806. is now a
     read-only property.

   - bpo-8538(239): Add support for boolean actions like ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’ to argparse.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-20504(240): Fixes a bug in *note cgi: 15. module when a
     multipart/form-data request has no ‘Content-Length’ header.

   - bpo-25988(241): The abstract base classes in *note collections.abc:
     1e. no longer are exposed in the regular *note collections: 1d.
     module.

   - bpo-11122(242): Distutils won’t check for rpmbuild in specified
     paths only.

   - bpo-34775(243): Division handling of PurePath now returns
     NotImplemented instead of raising a TypeError when passed something
     other than an instance of str or PurePath.  Patch by Roger Aiudi.

   - bpo-34749(244): *note binascii.a2b_base64(): 1475. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34519(245): Add additional aliases for HP Roman 8.  Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-28009(246): Fix uuid.getnode() on platforms with ‘.’ as MAC
     Addr delimiter as well fix for MAC Addr format that omits a leading
     0 in MAC Addr values.  Currently, AIX is the only know platform
     with these settings.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-30618(247): Add *note readlink(): 777.  Patch by Girts
     Folkmanis.

   - bpo-32498(248): Made *note urllib.parse.unquote(): 15a5. accept
     bytes in addition to strings.  Patch by Stein Karlsen.

   - bpo-33348(249): lib2to3 now recognizes expressions after ‘*’ and
     ‘**’ like in ‘f(*[] or [])’.

   - bpo-32689(250): Update *note shutil.move(): 8c0. function to allow
     for Path objects to be used as source argument.  Patch by Emily
     Morehouse and Maxwell “5.13b” McKinnon.

   - bpo-32820(251): Added ‘__format__’ to IPv4 and IPv6 classes.
     Always outputs a fully zero-padded string.  Supports b/x/n
     modifiers (bin/hex/native format).  Native format for IPv4 is bin,
     native format for IPv6 is hex.  Also supports ‘#’ and ‘_’
     modifiers.

   - bpo-27657(252): Fix urllib.parse.urlparse() with numeric paths.  A
     string like “path:80” is no longer parsed as a path but as a scheme
     (“path”) and a path (“80”).

   - bpo-4963(253): Fixed non-deterministic behavior related to
     mimetypes extension mapping and module reinitialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38724

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38786

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38785

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38723

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27805

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38761

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38716

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38334

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38586

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38565

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34679

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31202

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38478

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38378

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38417

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38449

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38431

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38109

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38422

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38405

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38332

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38341

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38319

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38242

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38019

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38163

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38161

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38216

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38108

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38265

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<46>,  Next: Tests<45>,  Prev: Library<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21767(1): Explicitly mention abc support in
     functools.singledispatch

   - bpo-38816(2): Provides more details about the interaction between
     ‘fork()’ and CPython’s runtime, focusing just on the C-API. This
     includes cautions about where ‘fork()’ should and shouldn’t be
     called.

   - bpo-38351(3): Modernize *note email: 3a. examples from %-formatting
     to f-strings.

   - bpo-38778(4): Document the fact that *note RuntimeError: 180. is
     raised if *note os.fork(): 23a. is called in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-38592(5): Add Brazilian Portuguese to the language switcher at
     Python Documentation website.

   - bpo-38294(6): Add list of no-longer-escaped chars to re.escape
     documentation

   - bpo-38053(7): Modernized the plistlib documentation

   - bpo-26868(8): Fix example usage of *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6e4.
     to properly handle errors.

   - bpo-36797(9): Fix a dead link in the distutils API Reference.

   - bpo-37977(10): Warn more strongly and clearly about pickle
     insecurity

   - bpo-37979(11): Added a link to dateutil.parser.isoparse in the
     datetime.fromisoformat documentation.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-12707(12): Deprecate info(), geturl(), getcode() methods in
     favor of the headers, url, and status properties, respectively, for
     HTTPResponse and addinfourl.  Also deprecate the code attribute of
     addinfourl in favor of the status attribute.  Patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami

   - bpo-37937(13): Mention ‘frame.f_trace’ in *note sys.settrace():
     138d. docs.

   - bpo-37878(14): Make *note PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(): 1808.
     Internal.

   - bpo-37759(15): Beginning edits to Whatsnew 3.8

   - bpo-37726(16): Stop recommending getopt in the tutorial for command
     line argument parsing and promote argparse.

   - bpo-32910(17): Remove implementation-specific behaviour of how
     venv’s Deactivate works.

   - bpo-37256(18): Fix wording of arguments for ‘Request’ in *note
     urllib.request: 10b.

   - bpo-37284(19): Add a brief note to indicate that any new
     ‘sys.implementation’ required attributes must go through the PEP
     process.

   - bpo-30088(20): Documented that *note mailbox.Maildir: 11be.
     constructor doesn’t attempt to verify the maildir folder layout
     correctness.  Patch by Sviatoslav Sydorenko.

   - bpo-37521(21): Fix ‘importlib’ examples to insert any newly created
     modules via importlib.util.module_from_spec() immediately into
     sys.modules instead of after calling loader.exec_module().

     Thanks to Benjamin Mintz for finding the bug.

   - bpo-37456(22): Slash (‘/’) is now part of syntax.

   - bpo-37487(23): Fix PyList_GetItem index description to include 0.

   - bpo-37149(24): Replace the dead link to the Tkinter 8.5 reference
     by John Shipman, New Mexico Tech, with a link to the archive.org
     copy.

   - bpo-37478(25): Added possible exceptions to the description of
     os.chdir().

   - bpo-34903(26): Documented that in *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1468, the leading zero in some
     two-digit formats is optional.  Patch by Mike Gleen.

   - bpo-36260(27): Add decompression pitfalls to zipfile module
     documentation.

   - bpo-37004(28): In the documentation for difflib, a note was added
     explicitly warning that the results of SequenceMatcher’s ratio
     method may depend on the order of the input strings.

   - bpo-36960(29): Restructured the *note datetime: 30. docs in the
     interest of making them more user-friendly and improving
     readability.  Patch by Brad Solomon.

   - bpo-36487(30): Make C-API docs clear about what the “main”
     interpreter is.

   - bpo-23460(31): The documentation for decimal string formatting
     using the ‘:g’ specifier has been updated to reflect the correct
     exponential notation cutoff point.  Original patch contributed by
     Tuomas Suutari.

   - bpo-35803(32): Document and test that ‘tempfile’ functions may
     accept a *note path-like object: 98e. for the ‘dir’ argument.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33944(33): Added a note about the intended use of code in .pth
     files.

   - bpo-34293(34): Fix the Doc/Makefile regarding PAPER environment
     variable and PDF builds

   - bpo-25237(35): Add documentation for tkinter modules

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21767

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38816

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38351

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38778

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38592

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38294

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38053

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26868

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37977

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12707

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37937

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37726

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37256

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37284

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30088

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37521

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37487

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37478

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34903

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37004

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36960

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36487

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23460

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35803

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34293

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25237


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<45>,  Next: Build<45>,  Prev: Documentation<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38614(1): Fix test_communicate() of
     test_asyncio.test_subprocess: use ‘support.LONG_TIMEOUT’ (5
     minutes), instead of just 1 minute.

   - bpo-38614(2): Add timeout constants to *note test.support: e3.:
     *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 17e6, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 17e7, *note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 16d7. and *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 17e8.

   - bpo-38502(3): test.regrtest now uses process groups in the
     multiprocessing mode (-jN command line option) if process groups
     are available: if *note os.setsid(): 180a. and *note os.killpg():
     180b. functions are available.

   - bpo-35998(4): Fix a race condition in
     test_asyncio.test_start_tls_server_1().  Previously, there was a
     race condition between the test main() function which replaces the
     protocol and the test ServerProto protocol which sends ANSWER once
     it gets HELLO. Now, only the test main() function is responsible to
     send data, ServerProto no longer sends data.

   - bpo-38470(5): Fix ‘test_compileall.test_compile_dir_maxlevels()’ on
     Windows without long path support: only create 3 subdirectories
     instead of between 20 and 100 subdirectories.

   - bpo-37531(6): On timeout, regrtest no longer attempts to call
     ‘popen.communicate()’ again: it can hang until all child processes
     using stdout and stderr pipes completes.  Kill the worker process
     and ignores its output.  Change also the faulthandler timeout of
     the main process from 1 minute to 5 minutes, for Python slowest
     buildbots.

   - bpo-38239(7): Fix test_gdb for Link Time Optimization (LTO) builds.

   - bpo-38275(8): test_ssl now handles disabled TLS/SSL versions
     better.  OpenSSL’s crypto policy and run-time settings are
     recognized and tests for disabled versions are skipped.  Tests also
     accept more TLS minimum_versions for platforms that override
     OpenSSL’s default with strict settings.

   - bpo-38271(9): The private keys for test_ssl were encrypted with
     3DES in traditional PKCS#5 format.  3DES and the digest algorithm
     of PKCS#5 are blocked by some strict crypto policies.  Use PKCS#8
     format with AES256 encryption instead.

   - bpo-38270(10): test.support now has a helper function to check for
     availability of a hash digest function.  Several tests are
     refactored avoid MD5 and use SHA256 instead.  Other tests are
     marked to use MD5 and skipped when MD5 is disabled.

   - bpo-37123(11): Multiprocessing test test_mymanager() now also
     expects -SIGTERM, not only exitcode 0.
     BaseManager._finalize_manager() sends SIGTERM to the manager
     process if it takes longer than 1 second to stop, which happens on
     slow buildbots.

   - bpo-38212(12): Multiprocessing tests: increase
     test_queue_feeder_donot_stop_onexc() timeout from 1 to 60 seconds.

   - bpo-38117(13): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38018(14): Increase code coverage for
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.

   - bpo-37805(15): Add tests for json.dump(…, skipkeys=True).  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37531(16): Enhance regrtest multiprocess timeout: write a
     message when killing a worker process, catch popen.kill() and
     popen.wait() exceptions, put a timeout on the second call to
     popen.communicate().

   - bpo-37876(17): Add tests for ROT-13 codec.

   - bpo-36833(18): Added tests for ‘PyDateTime_XXX_GET_XXX()’ macros of
     the C API of the *note datetime: 30. module.  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37558(19): Fix
     test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination name handling

   - bpo-37526(20): Add ‘test.support.catch_threading_exception()’:
     context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 7a7. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): 68a.

   - bpo-37421(21): test_concurrent_futures now explicitly stops the
     ForkServer instance if it’s running.

   - bpo-37421(22): multiprocessing tests now stop the ForkServer
     instance if it’s running: close the “alive” file descriptor to ask
     the server to stop and then remove its UNIX address.

   - bpo-37421(23): test_distutils.test_build_ext() is now able to
     remove the temporary directory on Windows: don’t import the newly
     built C extension (“xx”) in the current process, but test it in a
     separated process.

   - bpo-37421(24): test_concurrent_futures now cleans up
     multiprocessing to remove immediately temporary directories created
     by multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir().

   - bpo-37421(25): test_winconsoleio doesn’t leak a temporary file
     anymore: use tempfile.TemporaryFile() to remove it when the test
     completes.

   - bpo-37421(26): multiprocessing tests now explicitly call
     ‘_run_finalizers()’ to immediately remove temporary directories
     created by tests.

   - bpo-37421(27): urllib.request tests now call *note urlcleanup():
     180c. to remove temporary files created by ‘urlretrieve()’ tests
     and to clear the ‘_opener’ global variable set by ‘urlopen()’ and
     functions calling indirectly ‘urlopen()’.

   - bpo-37472(28): Remove ‘Lib/test/outstanding_bugs.py’.

   - bpo-37199(29): Fix test failures when IPv6 is unavailable or
     disabled.

   - bpo-19696(30): Replace deprecated method “random.choose” with
     “random.choice” in “test_pkg_import.py”.

   - bpo-37335(31): Remove no longer necessary code from c locale
     coercion tests

   - bpo-37421(32): Fix test_shutil to no longer leak temporary files.

   - bpo-37411(33): Fix test_wsgiref.testEnviron() to no longer depend
     on the environment variables (don’t fail if “X” variable is set).

   - bpo-37400(34): Fix test_os.test_chown(): use os.getgroups() rather
     than grp.getgrall() to get groups.  Rename also the test to
     test_chown_gid().

   - bpo-37359(35): Add –cleanup option to python3 -m test to remove
     ‘test_python_*’ directories of previous failed jobs.  Add “make
     cleantest” to run ‘python3 -m test --cleanup’.

   - bpo-37362(36): test_gdb no longer fails if it gets an “unexpected”
     message on stderr: it now ignores stderr.  The purpose of test_gdb
     is to test that python-gdb.py commands work as expected, not to
     test gdb.

   - bpo-35998(37): Avoid TimeoutError in test_asyncio:
     test_start_tls_server_1()

   - bpo-37278(38): Fix test_asyncio ProactorLoopCtrlC: join the thread
     to prevent leaking a running thread and leaking a reference.

   - bpo-37261(39): Fix *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     180d.: its __exit__() method now ignores unraisable exception
     raised when clearing its ‘unraisable’ attribute.

   - bpo-37069(40): regrtest now uses *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491.
     to mark a test as “environment altered” (ENV_CHANGED) if it emits
     an “unraisable exception”.  Moreover, regrtest logs a warning in
     this case.

     Use ‘python3 -m test --fail-env-changed’ to catch unraisable
     exceptions in tests.

   - bpo-37252(41): Fix assertions in ‘test_close’ and
     ‘test_events_mask_overflow’ devpoll tests.

   - bpo-37169(42): Rewrite ‘_PyObject_IsFreed()’ unit tests.

   - bpo-37153(43): ‘test_venv.test_multiprocessing()’ now explicitly
     calls ‘pool.terminate()’ to wait until the pool completes.

   - bpo-34001(44): Make test_ssl pass with LibreSSL. LibreSSL handles
     minimum and maximum TLS version differently than OpenSSL.

   - bpo-36919(45): Make ‘test_source_encoding.test_issue2301’
     implementation independent.  The test will work now for both
     CPython and IronPython.

   - bpo-30202(46): Update ‘test.test_importlib.test_abc’ to test
     ‘find_spec()’.

   - bpo-28009(47): Modify the test_uuid logic to test when a program is
     available AND can be used to obtain a MACADDR as basis for an UUID.
     Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-34596(48): Fallback to a default reason when *note
     unittest.skip(): 180e. is uncalled.  Patch by Naitree Zhu.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38502

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38470

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38275

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38270

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38212

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38018

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37805

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36833

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37526

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37472

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37199

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19696

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37335

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37411

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37400

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37359

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37362

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37278

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37261

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37252

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37169

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37153

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34001

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36919

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30202

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34596


File: python.info,  Node: Build<45>,  Next: Windows<43>,  Prev: Tests<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38809(1): On Windows, build scripts will now recognize and use
     python.exe from an active virtual env.

   - bpo-38684(2): Fix _hashlib build when Blake2 is disabled, but
     OpenSSL supports it.

   - bpo-38468(3): Misc/python-config.in now uses ‘getvar()’ for all
     still existing ‘sysconfig.get_config_var()’ calls.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37415(4): Fix stdatomic.h header check for ICC compiler: the
     ICC implementation lacks atomic_uintptr_t type which is needed by
     Python.

   - bpo-38301(5): In Solaris family, we must be sure to use
     ‘-D_REENTRANT’.  Patch by Jesús Cea Avión.

   - bpo-36002(6): Locate ‘llvm-profdata’ and ‘llvm-ar’ binaries using
     ‘AC_PATH_TOOL’ rather than ‘AC_PATH_TARGET_TOOL’.

   - bpo-37936(7): The ‘.gitignore’ file systematically keeps “rooted”,
     with a non-trailing slash, all the rules that are meant to apply to
     files in a specific place in the repo.  Previously, when the
     intended file to ignore happened to be at the root of the repo,
     we’d most often accidentally also ignore files and directories with
     the same name anywhere in the tree.

   - bpo-37760(8): The ‘Tools/unicode/makeunicodedata.py’ script, which
     is used for converting information from the Unicode Character
     Database into generated code and data used by the methods of *note
     str: 15d. and by the *note unicodedata: 105. module, now handles
     each character’s data as a ‘dataclass’ with named attributes,
     rather than a length-18 list of different fields.

   - bpo-37936(9): The ‘.gitignore’ file no longer applies to any files
     that are in fact tracked in the Git repository.  Patch by Greg
     Price.

   - bpo-37725(10): Change “clean” makefile target to also clean the
     program guided optimization (PGO) data.  Previously you would have
     to use “make clean” and “make profile-removal”, or “make clobber”.

   - bpo-37707(11): Mark some individual tests to skip when –pgo is
     used.  The tests marked increase the PGO task time significantly
     and likely don’t help improve optimization of the final executable.

   - bpo-36044(12): Reduce the number of unit tests run for the PGO
     generation task.  This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x.
     Running the full unit test suite is slow.  This change may result
     in a slightly less optimized build since not as many code branches
     will be executed.  If you are willing to wait for the much slower
     build, the old behavior can be restored using ‘./configure [..]
     PROFILE_TASK=”-m test –pgo-extended”’.  We make no guarantees as to
     which PGO task set produces a faster build.  Users who care should
     run their own relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the
     environment, workload, and compiler tool chain.

   - bpo-37468(13): ‘make install’ no longer installs ‘wininst-*.exe’
     files used by distutils bdist_wininst: bdist_wininst only works on
     Windows.

   - bpo-37189(14): Many ‘PyRun_XXX()’ functions like *note
     PyRun_String(): 1810. were no longer exported in ‘libpython38.dll’
     by mistake.  Export them again to fix the ABI compatibility.

   - bpo-25361(15): Enables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build.

   - bpo-36210(16): Update optional extension module detection for AIX.
     ossaudiodev and spwd are not applicable for AIX, and are no longer
     reported as missing.  3rd-party packaging of ncurses (with ASIS
     support) conflicts with officially supported AIX curses library, so
     configure AIX to use libcurses.a.  However, skip trying to build
     _curses_panel.

     patch by M Felt

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38809

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38468

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37415

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38301

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36002

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37760

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37189

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36210


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<43>,  Next: macOS<35>,  Prev: Build<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38589(1): Fixes HTML Help shortcut when Windows is not
     installed to C drive

   - bpo-38453(2): Ensure ntpath.realpath() correctly resolves relative
     paths.

   - bpo-38519(3): Restores the internal C headers that were missing
     from the nuget.org and Microsoft Store packages.

   - bpo-38492(4): Remove ‘pythonw.exe’ dependency on the Microsoft C++
     runtime.

   - bpo-38344(5): Fix error message in activate.bat

   - bpo-38359(6): Ensures ‘pyw.exe’ launcher reads correct registry
     key.

   - bpo-38355(7): Fixes ‘ntpath.realpath’ failing on ‘sys.executable’.

   - bpo-38117(8): Update bundled OpenSSL to 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38092(9): Reduce overhead when using multiprocessing in a
     Windows virtual environment.

   - bpo-38133(10): Allow py.exe launcher to locate installations from
     the Microsoft Store and improve display of active virtual
     environments.

   - bpo-38114(11): The ‘pip.ini’ is no longer included in the Nuget
     package.

   - bpo-32592(12): Set Windows 8 as the minimum required version for
     API support

   - bpo-36634(13): *note os.cpu_count(): 654. now returns active
     processors rather than maximum processors.

   - bpo-36634(14): venv activate.bat now works when the existing
     variables contain double quote characters.

   - bpo-38081(15): Prevent error calling *note os.path.realpath(): 398.
     on ‘'NUL'’.

   - bpo-38087(16): Fix case sensitivity in test_pathlib and
     test_ntpath.

   - bpo-38088(17): Fixes distutils not finding vcruntime140.dll with
     only the v142 toolset installed.

   - bpo-37283(18): Ensure command-line and unattend.xml setting
     override previously detected states in Windows installer.

   - bpo-38030(19): Fixes *note os.stat(): 1c5. failing for block
     devices on Windows

   - bpo-38020(20): Fixes potential crash when calling *note
     os.readlink(): 778. (or indirectly through *note realpath(): 398.)
     on a file that is not a supported link.

   - bpo-37705(21): Improve the implementation of ‘winerror_to_errno()’.

   - bpo-37549(22): *note os.dup(): 1812. no longer fails for standard
     streams on Windows 7.

   - bpo-1311(23): The ‘nul’ file on Windows now returns True from *note
     exists(): 86f. and a valid result from *note os.stat(): 1c5. with
     ‘S_IFCHR’ set.

   - bpo-9949(24): Enable support for following symlinks in
     ‘os.realpath()’.

   - bpo-37834(25): Treat all name surrogate reparse points on Windows
     in *note os.lstat(): 1c6. and other reparse points as regular files
     in *note os.stat(): 1c5.

   - bpo-36266(26): Add the module name in the formatted error message
     when DLL load fail happens during module import in
     ‘_PyImport_FindSharedFuncptrWindows()’.  Patch by Srinivas
     Nyayapati.

   - bpo-25172(27): Trying to import the *note crypt: 28. module on
     Windows will result in an *note ImportError: 14b. with a message
     explaining that the module isn’t supported on Windows.  On other
     platforms, if the underlying ‘_crypt’ module is not available, the
     ImportError will include a message explaining the problem.

   - bpo-37778(28): Fixes the icons used for file associations to the
     Microsoft Store package.

   - bpo-37734(29): Fix use of registry values to launch Python from
     Microsoft Store app.

   - bpo-37702(30): Fix memory leak on Windows in creating an SSLContext
     object or running ‘urllib.request.urlopen('https://...')’.

   - bpo-37672(31): Switch Windows Store package’s pip to use bundled
     ‘pip.ini’ instead of ‘PIP_USER’ variable.

   - bpo-10945(32): Officially drop support for creating bdist_wininst
     installers on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-37445(33): Include the ‘FORMAT_MESSAGE_IGNORE_INSERTS’ flag in
     ‘FormatMessageW()’ calls.

   - bpo-37369(34): Fixes path for *note sys.executable: 36c. when
     running from the Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-37380(35): Don’t collect unfinished processes with
     ‘subprocess._active’ on Windows to cleanup later.  Patch by Ruslan
     Kuprieiev.

   - bpo-37351(36): Removes libpython38.a from standard Windows
     distribution.

   - bpo-35360(37): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-37267(38): On Windows, *note os.dup(): 1812. no longer creates
     an inheritable fd when handling a character file.

   - bpo-36779(39): Ensure ‘time.tzname’ is correct on Windows when the
     active code page is set to CP_UTF7 or CP_UTF8.

   - bpo-32587(40): Make *note winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ: 1813. support
     zero-length strings.

   - bpo-28269(41): Replace use of ‘strcasecmp()’ for the system
     function ‘_stricmp()’.  Patch by Minmin Gong.

   - bpo-36590(42): Add native Bluetooth RFCOMM support to socket
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38453

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38519

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38344

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38355

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38133

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38081

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38088

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37283

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38030

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38020

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37705

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37549

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9949

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36266

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25172

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37778

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37734

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37702

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37672

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37445

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37369

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37380

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37267

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36779

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32587

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28269

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36590


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<35>,  Next: IDLE<31>,  Prev: Windows<43>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38117(1): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1d in macOS installer.

   - bpo-38089(2): Move Azure Pipelines to latest VM versions and make
     macOS tests optional

   - bpo-18049(3): Increase the default stack size of threads from 5MB
     to 16MB on macOS, to match the stack size of the main thread.  This
     avoids crashes on deep recursion in threads.

   - bpo-34602(4): Avoid test suite failures on macOS by no longer
     calling resource.setrlimit to increase the process stack size limit
     at runtime.  The runtime change is no longer needed since the
     interpreter is being built with a larger default stack size.

   - bpo-35360(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-34631(6): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18049

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<31>,  Next: Tools/Demos<24>,  Prev: macOS<35>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-26353(1): Stop adding newline when saving an IDLE shell window.

   - bpo-4630(2): Add an option to toggle IDLE’s cursor blink for shell,
     editor, and output windows.  See Settings, General, Window
     Preferences, Cursor Blink.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-38598(3): Do not try to compile IDLE shell or output windows

   - bpo-36698(4): IDLE no longer fails when write non-encodable
     characters to stderr.  It now escapes them with a backslash, as the
     regular Python interpreter.  Added the ‘errors’ field to the
     standard streams.

   - bpo-35379(5): When exiting IDLE, catch any AttributeError.  One
     happens when EditorWindow.close is called twice.  Printing a
     traceback, when IDLE is run from a terminal, is useless and
     annoying.

   - bpo-38183(6): To avoid problems, test_idle ignores the user config
     directory.  It no longer tries to create or access .idlerc or any
     files within.  Users must run IDLE to discover problems with saving
     settings.

   - bpo-38077(7): IDLE no longer adds ‘argv’ to the user namespace when
     initializing it.  This bug only affected 3.7.4 and 3.8.0b2 to
     3.8.0b4.

   - bpo-38041(8): Shell restart lines now fill the window width, always
     start with ‘=’, and avoid wrapping unnecessarily.  The line will
     still wrap if the included file name is long relative to the width.

   - bpo-35771(9): To avoid occasional spurious test_idle failures on
     slower machines, increase the ‘hover_delay’ in test_tooltip.

   - bpo-37824(10): Properly handle user input warnings in IDLE shell.
     Cease turning SyntaxWarnings into SyntaxErrors.

   - bpo-37929(11): IDLE Settings dialog now closes properly when there
     is no shell window.

   - bpo-37902(12): Add mousewheel scrolling for IDLE module, path, and
     stack browsers.  Patch by George Zhang.

   - bpo-37849(13): Fixed completions list appearing too high or low
     when shown above the current line.

   - bpo-36419(14): Refactor IDLE autocomplete and improve testing.

   - bpo-37748(15): Reorder the Run menu.  Put the most common choice,
     Run Module, at the top.

   - bpo-37692(16): Improve highlight config sample with example shell
     interaction and better labels for shell elements.

   - bpo-37628(17): Settings dialog no longer expands with font size.

   - bpo-37627(18): Initialize the Customize Run dialog with the command
     line arguments most recently entered before.  The user can
     optionally edit before submitting them.

   - bpo-33610(19): Fix code context not showing the correct context
     when first toggled on.

   - bpo-37530(20): Optimize code context to reduce unneeded background
     activity.  Font and highlight changes now occur along with text
     changes instead of after a random delay.

   - bpo-27452(21): Cleanup ‘config.py’ by inlining ‘RemoveFile’ and
     simplifying the handling of ‘file’ in ‘CreateConfigHandlers’.

   - bpo-37325(22): Fix tab focus traversal order for help source and
     custom run dialogs.

   - bpo-37321(23): Both subprocess connection error messages now refer
     to the ‘Startup failure’ section of the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-17535(24): Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.
     Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the
     General tab of the configuration dialog.

   - bpo-26806(25): To compensate for stack frames added by IDLE and
     avoid possible problems with low recursion limits, add 30 to limits
     in the user code execution process.  Subtract 30 when reporting
     recursion limits to make this addition mostly transparent.

   - bpo-37177(26): Properly ‘attach’ search dialogs to their main
     window so that they behave like other dialogs and do not get hidden
     behind their main window.

   - bpo-37039(27): Adjust “Zoom Height” to individual screens by
     momentarily maximizing the window on first use with a particular
     screen.  Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height.
     While a window is maximized, “Zoom Height” has no effect.

   - bpo-35763(28): Make calltip reminder about ‘/’ meaning
     positional-only less obtrusive by only adding it when there is room
     on the first line.

   - bpo-5680(29): Add ‘Run… Customized’ to the Run menu to run a module
     with customized settings.  Any ‘command line arguments’ entered are
     added to sys.argv.  One can suppress the normal Shell main module
     restart.

   - bpo-36390(30): Gather Format menu functions into format.py.
     Combine paragraph.py, rstrip.py, and format methods from editor.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4630

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38598

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36698

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35379

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38183

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38077

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38041

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35771

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37824

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37902

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37849

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36419

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37748

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37692

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37628

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33610

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37530

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37325

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37321

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26806

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37177

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37039

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35763

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<24>,  Next: C API<42>,  Prev: IDLE<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-38118(1): Update Valgrind suppression file to ignore a false
     alarm in *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 1817. when using GCC builtin
     strcmp().

   - bpo-38347(2): pathfix.py: Assume all files that end on ‘.py’ are
     Python scripts when working recursively.

   - bpo-37803(3): pdb’s ‘--help’ and ‘--version’ long options now work.

   - bpo-37942(4): Improve ArgumentClinic converter for floats.

   - bpo-37704(5): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/h2py.py’: use cffi to access a
     C API in Python.

   - bpo-37675(6): 2to3 now works when run from a zipped standard
     library.

   - bpo-37034(7): Argument Clinic now uses the argument name on errors
     with keyword-only argument instead of their position.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37064(8): Add option -k to pathscript.py script: preserve
     shebang flags.  Add option -a to pathscript.py script: add flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37942

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37704

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37675

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37064


File: python.info,  Node: C API<42>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<24>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.22.50.11 C API
................

   - bpo-37633(1): Re-export some function compatibility wrappers for
     macros in ‘pythonrun.h’.

   - bpo-38644(2): Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7d1. and *note
     Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7d2. as regular functions for the limited
     API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but these macros
     didn’t work with the limited API which cannot access
     ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field.  Remove
     ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ from the stable ABI.

   - bpo-38650(3): The global variable *note
     PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7e0. is now a constant and refers to
     a constant string.

   - bpo-38540(4): Fixed possible leak in *note PyArg_Parse(): 1819. and
     similar functions for format units ‘"es#"’ and ‘"et#"’ when the
     macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is not defined.

   - bpo-38395(5): Fix a crash in *note weakref.proxy: 8b5. objects due
     to incorrect lifetime management when calling some associated
     methods that may delete the last reference to object being
     referenced by the proxy.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36389(6): The ‘_PyObject_CheckConsistency()’ function is now
     also available in release mode.  For example, it can be used to
     debug a crash in the ‘visit_decref()’ function of the GC.

   - bpo-38266(7): Revert the removal of PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()
     with documentation.

   - bpo-38303(8): Update audioop extension module to use the stable ABI
     (PEP-384).  Patch by Tyler Kieft.

   - bpo-38234(9): ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 36c. to
     the program full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b.) rather
     than to the program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d.).

   - bpo-38234(10): Python ignored arguments passed to ‘Py_SetPath()’,
     ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ and ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: fix Python
     initialization to use specified arguments.

   - bpo-38205(11): The *note Py_UNREACHABLE(): a2c. macro now calls
     *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1.

   - bpo-38140(12): Make dict and weakref offsets opaque for C heap
     types by passing the offsets through PyMemberDef

   - bpo-15088(13): The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been
     removed.  It was not documented, tested or used anywhere within
     CPython after the implementation of PEP 442(14).  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.  (Patch by Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-36763(15): Options added by ‘PySys_AddXOption()’ are now
     handled the same way than ‘PyConfig.xoptions’ and command line ‘-X’
     options.

   - bpo-37926(16): Fix a crash in ‘PySys_SetArgvEx(0, NULL, 0)’.

   - bpo-37879(17): Fix subtype_dealloc to suppress the type decref when
     the base type is a C heap type

   - bpo-37645(18): Add ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly
     string representation of a function-like object.  Patch by Jeroen
     Demeyer.

   - bpo-29548(19): The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’,
     ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and
     ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are deprecated.  Use *note
     PyObject_Call(): 7c1. and its variants instead.

   - bpo-37151(20): ‘PyCFunction_Call’ is now a deprecated alias of
     *note PyObject_Call(): 7c1.

   - bpo-37540(21): The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller
     passes only strings as keyword names.

   - bpo-37207(22): The vectorcall protocol is now enabled for ‘type’
     objects: set ‘tp_vectorcall’ to a vectorcall function to be used
     instead of ‘tp_new’ and ‘tp_init’ when calling the class itself.

   - bpo-21120(23): Exclude Python-ast.h, ast.h and asdl.h from the
     limited API.

   - bpo-37483(24): Add new function ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg’ for calling
     an object with one positional argument.

   - bpo-36763(25): Add *note PyConfig_SetWideStringList(): 181a.
     function.

   - bpo-37337(26): Add fast functions for calling methods:
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’, ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’.

   - bpo-28805(27): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 1640. calling convention
     has been documented.

   - bpo-37221(28): The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’
     allows to create code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an
     extra 'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positonal-only arguments.

   - bpo-37215(29): Fix dtrace issue introduce by bpo-36842(30)

   - bpo-37194(31): Add a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 7d0.
     function to the C API: call a callable Python object without any
     arguments.  It is the most efficient way to call a callback without
     any argument.  On x86-64, for example,
     ‘PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(func, NULL)’ allocates 960 bytes on
     the stack per call, whereas ‘PyObject_CallNoArgs(func)’ only
     allocates 624 bytes per call.

   - bpo-37170(32): Fix the cast on error in *note
     PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 181b.

   - bpo-35381(33): Convert posixmodule.c statically allocated types
     ‘DirEntryType’ and ‘ScandirIteratorType’ to heap-allocated types.

   - bpo-34331(34): Use singular/plural noun in error message when
     instantiating an abstract class with non-overridden abstract
     method(s).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37633

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38303

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38205

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38140

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37926

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37879

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37151

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21120

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37337

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28805

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37215

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37170

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35381

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34331


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.51 Python 3.8.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2019-06-04'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<43>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<37>,  Next: Core and Builtins<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35907(1): CVE 2019-9948(2): Avoid file reading by disallowing
     ‘local-file://’ and ‘local_file://’ URL schemes in
     ‘URLopener().open()’ and ‘URLopener().retrieve()’ of *note
     urllib.request: 10b.

   - bpo-33529(3): Prevent fold function used in email header encoding
     from entering infinite loop when there are too many non-ASCII
     characters in a header.

   - bpo-33164(4): Updated blake2 implementation which uses secure
     memset implementation provided by platform.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35907

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9948

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33529

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33164


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<50>,  Next: Library<51>,  Prev: Security<37>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35814(1): Allow unpacking in the right hand side of annotated
     assignments.  In particular, ‘t: Tuple[int, ...] = x, y, *z’ is now
     allowed.

   - bpo-37126(2): All structseq objects are now tracked by the garbage
     collector.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37122(3): Make the 'co_argcount' attribute of code objects
     represent the total number of positional arguments (including
     positional-only arguments).  The value of 'co_posonlyargcount' can
     be used to distinguish which arguments are positional only, and the
     difference ('co_argcount' - 'co_posonlyargcount') is the number of
     positional-or-keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20092(4): Constructors of *note int: 184, *note float: 272. and
     *note complex: 273. will now use the *note __index__(): 538.
     special method, if available and the corresponding method *note
     __int__(): 537, *note __float__(): 82a. or *note __complex__():
     3f3. is not available.

   - bpo-37087(5): Add native thread ID (TID) support to OpenBSD.

   - bpo-26219(6): Implemented per opcode cache mechanism and
     ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction use it.  ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ is now about 40%
     faster.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov, and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-37072(7): Fix crash in PyAST_FromNodeObject() when flags is
     NULL.

   - bpo-37029(8): Freeing a great many small objects could take time
     quadratic in the number of arenas, due to using linear search to
     keep ‘obmalloc.c’’s list of usable arenas sorted by order of number
     of free memory pools.  This is accomplished without search now,
     leaving the worst-case time linear in the number of arenas.  For
     programs where this quite visibly matters (typically with more than
     100 thousand small objects alive simultaneously), this can greatly
     reduce the time needed to release their memory.

   - bpo-26423(9): Fix possible overflow in ‘wrap_lenfunc()’ when
     ‘sizeof(long) < sizeof(Py_ssize_t)’ (e.g., 64-bit Windows).

   - bpo-37050(10): Improve the AST for “debug” f-strings, which use ‘=’
     to print out the source of the expression being evaluated.  Delete
     expr_text from the FormattedValue node, and instead use a Constant
     string node (possibly merged with adjacent constant expressions
     inside the f-string).

   - bpo-22385(11): The ‘bytes.hex’, ‘bytearray.hex’, and
     ‘memoryview.hex’ methods as well as the ‘binascii.hexlify’ and
     ‘b2a_hex’ functions now have the ability to include an optional
     separator between hex bytes.  This functionality was inspired by
     MicroPython’s hexlify implementation.

   - bpo-26836(12): Add *note os.memfd_create(): 86c.

   - bpo-37032(13): Added new ‘replace()’ method to the code type (*note
     types.CodeType: 263.).

   - bpo-37007(14): Implement *note socket.if_nameindex(): 88f, *note
     socket.if_nametoindex(): 890, and *note socket.if_indextoname():
     891. on Windows.

   - bpo-36829(15): *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 181f. now creates a
     traceback object if there is no current traceback.  Moreover, call
     *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 372. and *note
     PyException_SetTraceback(): 1820. to normalize the exception value.
     Ignore any error.

   - bpo-36878(16): Only accept text after ‘# type: ignore’ if the first
     character is ASCII. This is to disallow things like ‘# type:
     ignoreé’.

   - bpo-36878(17): Store text appearing after a ‘# type: ignore’
     comment in the AST. For example a type ignore like ‘# type:
     ignore[E1000]’ will have the string ‘"[E1000]"’ stored in its AST
     node.

   - bpo-2180(18): Treat line continuation at EOF as a ‘SyntaxError’ by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36907(19): Fix a crash when calling a C function with a keyword
     dict (‘f(**kwargs)’) and changing the dict ‘kwargs’ while that
     function is running.

   - bpo-36946(20): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.

   - bpo-36826(21): Add NamedExpression kind support to ast_unparse.c

   - bpo-1875(22): A *note SyntaxError: 14c. is now raised if a code
     blocks that will be optimized away (e.g.  if conditions that are
     always false) contains syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36027(23): Allow computation of modular inverses via
     three-argument ‘pow’: the second argument is now permitted to be
     negative in the case where the first and third arguments are
     relatively prime.

   - bpo-36861(24): Update the Unicode database to version 12.1.0.

   - bpo-28866(25): Avoid caching attributes of classes which type
     defines mro() to avoid a hard cache invalidation problem.

   - bpo-36851(26): The ‘FrameType’ stack is now correctly cleaned up if
     the execution ends with a return and the stack is not empty.

   - bpo-34616(27): The ‘compile()’ builtin functions now support the
     ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag, which allow to compile
     sources that contains top-level ‘await’, ‘async with’ or ‘async
     for’.  This is useful to evaluate async-code from with an already
     async functions; for example in a custom REPL.

   - bpo-36842(28): Implement PEP 578, adding sys.audit, io.open_code
     and related APIs.

   - bpo-27639(29): Correct return type for UserList slicing operations.
     Patch by Michael Blahay, Erick Cervantes, and vaultah

   - bpo-36737(30): Move PyRuntimeState.warnings into per-interpreter
     state (via “module state”).

   - bpo-36793(31): Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types
     *note bool: 183, *note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note complex:
     273. and few classes from the standard library.  They now inherit
     ‘__str__()’ from *note object: 8f2.

   - bpo-36817(32): Add a ‘=’ feature f-strings for debugging.  This can
     precede ‘!s’, ‘!r’, or ‘!a’.  It produces the text of the
     expression, followed by an equal sign, followed by the repr of the
     value of the expression.  So ‘f'{3*9+15=}'’ would be equal to the
     string ‘'3*9+15=42'’.  If ‘=’ is specified, the default conversion
     is set to ‘!r’, unless a format spec is given, in which case the
     formatting behavior is unchanged, and __format__ will be used.

   - bpo-24048(33): Save the live exception during import.c’s
     ‘remove_module()’.

   - bpo-27987(34): pymalloc returns memory blocks aligned by 16 bytes,
     instead of 8 bytes, on 64-bit platforms to conform x86-64 ABI.
     Recent compilers assume this alignment more often.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36601(35): A long-since-meaningless check for ‘getpid() ==
     main_pid’ was removed from Python’s internal C signal handler.

   - bpo-36594(36): Fix incorrect use of ‘%p’ in format strings.  Patch
     by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36045(37): ‘builtins.help()’ now prefixes ‘async’ for async
     functions.

   - bpo-36084(38): Add native thread ID (TID) to threading.Thread
     objects (supported platforms: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS)

   - bpo-36035(39): Added fix for broken symlinks in combination with
     pathlib

   - bpo-35983(40): Added new trashcan macros to deal with a double
     deallocation that could occur when the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a subclass
     calls the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a base class and that base class uses the
     trashcan mechanism.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-20602(41): Do not clear *note sys.flags: 4a1. and *note
     sys.float_info: 1821. during shutdown.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26826(42): Expose ‘copy_file_range()’ as a low level API in the
     *note os: a0. module.

   - bpo-32388(43): Remove cross-version binary compatibility
     requirement in tp_flags.

   - bpo-31862(44): Port binascii to PEP 489 multiphase initialization.
     Patch by Marcel Plch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37122

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37072

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37029

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37050

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22385

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2180

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36907

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36826

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1875

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28866

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36851

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27639

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36737

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24048

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27987

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36601

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36594

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36045

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36035

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35983

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20602

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26826

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31862


File: python.info,  Node: Library<51>,  Next: Documentation<47>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-37128(1): Added *note math.perm(): 4e8.

   - bpo-37120(2): Add SSLContext.num_tickets to control the number of
     TLSv1.3 session tickets.

   - bpo-12202(3): Fix the error handling in *note
     msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty(): 1823.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   - bpo-26835(4): The fcntl module now contains file sealing constants
     for sealing of memfds.

   - bpo-29262(5): Add ‘get_origin()’ and ‘get_args()’ introspection
     helpers to ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-12639(6): *note msilib.Directory.start_component(): 1824. no
     longer fails if 'keyfile' is not ‘None’.

   - bpo-36999(7): Add the ‘asyncio.Task.get_coro()’ method to publicly
     expose the tasks’s coroutine object.

   - bpo-35246(8): Make *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc.
     accept path-like arguments.

   - bpo-35279(9): Change default 'max_workers' of ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     from ‘cpu_count() * 5’ to ‘min(32, cpu_count() + 4)’.  Previous
     value was unreasonably large on many cores machines.

   - bpo-37076(10): *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 14d0. now logs
     uncaught exception raised by the function using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 491, rather than *note sys.excepthook(): 646,
     so the hook gets access to the function which raised the exception.

   - bpo-33725(11): On macOS, the *note multiprocessing: 93. module now
     uses 'spawn' start method by default.

   - bpo-37054(12): Fix destructor ‘_pyio.BytesIO’ and
     ‘_pyio.TextIOWrapper’: initialize their ‘_buffer’ attribute as soon
     as possible (in the class body), because it’s used by ‘__del__()’
     which calls ‘close()’.

   - bpo-37058(13): PEP 544: Add ‘Protocol’ and ‘@runtime_checkable’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-36933(14): The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper’ that were deprecated and marked for
     removal in 3.8 have been removed.

   - bpo-37047(15): Handle late binding and attribute access in *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: 8ae. setup for autospeccing.  Document
     newly implemented async methods in *note unittest.mock.MagicMock:
     d25.

   - bpo-37049(16): PEP 589: Add ‘TypedDict’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37046(17): PEP 586: Add ‘Literal’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37045(18): PEP 591: Add ‘Final’ qualifier and ‘@final’
     decorator to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37035(19): Don’t log OSError based exceptions if a fatal error
     has occurred in asyncio transport.  Peer can generate almost any
     OSError, user cannot avoid these exceptions by fixing own code.
     Errors are still propagated to user code, it’s just logging them is
     pointless and pollute asyncio logs.

   - bpo-37001(20): *note symtable.symtable(): 1825. now accepts the
     same input types for source code as the built-in *note compile():
     56d. function.  Patch by Dino Viehland.

   - bpo-37028(21): Implement asyncio REPL

   - bpo-37027(22): Return safe to use proxy socket object from
     transport.get_extra_info(‘socket’)

   - bpo-32528(23): Make asyncio.CancelledError a BaseException.

     This will address the common mistake many asyncio users make: an
     “except Exception” clause breaking Tasks cancellation.

     In addition to this change, we stop inheriting asyncio.TimeoutError
     and asyncio.InvalidStateError from their concurrent.futures.*
     counterparts.  There’s no point for these exceptions to share the
     inheritance chain.

   - bpo-1230540(24): Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): 68a.
     function which handles uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): 89f.
     exception.  It can be overridden to control how uncaught *note
     threading.Thread.run(): 89f. exceptions are handled.

   - bpo-36996(25): Handle *note unittest.mock.patch(): d26. used as a
     decorator on async functions.

   - bpo-37008(26): Add support for calling *note next(): 611. with the
     mock resulting from *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1826.

   - bpo-27737(27): Allow whitespace only header encoding in
     ‘email.header’ - by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-36969(28): PDB command ‘args’ now display positional only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36969(29): PDB command ‘args’ now display keyword only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36983(30): Add missing names to ‘typing.__all__’: ‘ChainMap’,
     ‘ForwardRef’, ‘OrderedDict’ - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36972(31): Add SupportsIndex protocol to the typing module to
     allow type checking to detect classes that can be passed to
     ‘hex()’, ‘oct()’ and ‘bin()’.

   - bpo-32972(32): Implement ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase’ to help
     testing asyncio-based code.

   - bpo-36952(33): *note fileinput.input(): 639. and *note
     fileinput.FileInput: 560. 'bufsize' argument has been removed (was
     deprecated and ignored since Python 3.6), and as a result the
     'mode' and 'openhook' arguments have been made keyword-only.

   - bpo-36952(34): Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note
     collections: 1d. is deprecated, and import should be done from
     *note collections.abc: 1e.  Still being able to import from *note
     collections: 1d. was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been
     delayed to 3.9; documentation and ‘DeprecationWarning’ clarified.

   - bpo-36949(35): Implement __repr__ for WeakSet objects.

   - bpo-36948(36): Fix *note NameError: 14a. in *note
     urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve(): 1827.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33524(37): Fix the folding of email header when the
     max_line_length is 0 or None and the header contains non-ascii
     characters.  Contributed by Licht Takeuchi (@Licht-T).

   - bpo-24564(38): *note shutil.copystat(): fd2. now ignores *note
     errno.EINVAL: 1828. on *note os.setxattr(): fa9. which may occur
     when copying files on filesystems without extended attributes
     support.

     Original patch by Giampaolo Rodola, updated by Ying Wang.

   - bpo-36888(39): Python child processes can now access the status of
     their parent process using multiprocessing.process.parent_process

   - bpo-36921(40): Deprecate ‘@coroutine’ for sake of ‘async def’.

   - bpo-25652(41): Fix bug in ‘__rmod__’ of ‘UserString’ - by Batuhan
     Taskaya.

   - bpo-36916(42): Remove a message about an unhandled exception in a
     task when writer.write() is used without await and writer.drain()
     fails with an exception.

   - bpo-36889(43): Introduce ‘asyncio.Stream’ class that merges *note
     asyncio.StreamReader: 16ee. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter: 14f2.
     functionality.  ‘asyncio.Stream’ can work in readonly, writeonly
     and readwrite modes.  Provide ‘asyncio.connect()’,
     ‘asyncio.connect_unix()’, ‘asyncio.connect_read_pipe()’ and
     ‘asyncio.connect_write_pipe()’ factories to open ‘asyncio.Stream’
     connections.  Provide ‘asyncio.StreamServer’ and ‘UnixStreamServer’
     to serve servers with asyncio.Stream API. Modify *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): 8dd. and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc. to use ‘asyncio.Stream’
     instead of deprecated ‘StreamReader’ and ‘StreamWriter’.  Deprecate
     *note asyncio.StreamReader: 16ee. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter:
     14f2.  Deprecate usage of private classes, e.g.
     ‘asyncio.FlowControlMixing’ and ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol’
     outside of asyncio package.

   - bpo-36845(44): Added validation of integer prefixes to the
     construction of IP networks and interfaces in the ipaddress module.

   - bpo-23378(45): Add an extend action to argparser.

   - bpo-36867(46): Fix a bug making a SharedMemoryManager instance and
     its parent process use two separate resource_tracker processes.

   - bpo-23896(47): Adds a grammar to lib2to3.pygram that contains exec
     as a function not as statement.

   - bpo-36895(48): The function ‘time.clock()’ was deprecated in 3.3 in
     favor of ‘time.perf_counter()’ and marked for removal in 3.8, it
     has removed.

   - bpo-35545(49): Fix asyncio discarding IPv6 scopes when ensuring
     hostname resolutions internally

   - bpo-36887(50): Add new function *note math.isqrt(): 865. to compute
     integer square roots.

   - bpo-34632(51): Introduce the ‘importlib.metadata’ module with
     (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party
     packages.

   - bpo-36878(52): When using ‘type_comments=True’ in ‘ast.parse’,
     treat ‘# type: ignore’ followed by a non-alphanumeric character and
     then arbitrary text as a type ignore, instead of requiring nothing
     but whitespace or another comment.  This is to permit formations
     such as ‘# type: ignore[E1000]’.

   - bpo-36778(53): ‘cp65001’ encoding (Windows code page 65001) becomes
     an alias to ‘utf_8’ encoding.

   - bpo-36867(54): The multiprocessing.resource_tracker replaces the
     multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker module.  Other than semaphores,
     resource_tracker also tracks shared_memory segments.

   - bpo-30262(55): The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note
     sqlite3: ce. module are not exposed to the user.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-24538(56): In ‘shutil.copystat()’, first copy extended file
     attributes and then file permissions, since extended attributes can
     only be set on the destination while it is still writeable.

   - bpo-36829(57): Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491. function
     which can be overridden to control how “unraisable exceptions” are
     handled.  It is called when an exception has occurred but there is
     no way for Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor
     raises an exception or during garbage collection (*note
     gc.collect(): 89c.).

   - bpo-36832(58): Introducing ‘zipfile.Path’, a pathlib-compatible
     wrapper for traversing zip files.

   - bpo-36814(59): Fix an issue where os.posix_spawnp() would
     incorrectly raise a TypeError when file_actions is None.

   - bpo-33110(60): Handle exceptions raised by functions added by
     concurrent.futures add_done_callback correctly when the Future has
     already completed.

   - bpo-26903(61): Limit ‘max_workers’ in ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ to 61
     to work around a WaitForMultipleObjects limitation.

   - bpo-36813(62): Fix *note QueueListener: cbc. to call
     ‘queue.task_done()’ upon stopping.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-36806(63): Forbid creation of asyncio stream objects like
     StreamReader, StreamWriter, Process, and their protocols outside of
     asyncio package.

   - bpo-36802(64): Provide both sync and async calls for
     StreamWriter.write() and StreamWriter.close()

   - bpo-36801(65): Properly handle SSL connection closing in asyncio
     StreamWriter.drain() call.

   - bpo-36785(66): Implement PEP 574 (pickle protocol 5 with
     out-of-band buffers).

   - bpo-36772(67): functools.lru_cache() can now be used as a straight
     decorator in addition to its existing usage as a function that
     returns a decorator.

   - bpo-6584(68): Add a *note BadGzipFile: 856. exception to the *note
     gzip: 65. module.

   - bpo-36748(69): Optimized write buffering in C implementation of
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  Writing ASCII string to ‘TextIOWrapper’ with
     ascii, latin1, or utf-8 encoding is about 20% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-8138(70): Don’t mark ‘wsgiref.simple_server.SimpleServer’ as
     multi-threaded since ‘wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer’ is
     single-threaded.

   - bpo-22640(71): *note py_compile.compile(): 887. now supports silent
     mode.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye

   - bpo-29183(72): Fix double exceptions in *note
     wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 1829. by calling its ‘close()’ method
     only when no exception is raised.

   - bpo-36548(73): Improved the repr of regular expression flags.

   - bpo-36542(74): The signature of Python functions can now be
     overridden by specifying the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.

   - bpo-36533(75): Reinitialize logging.Handler locks in forked child
     processes instead of attempting to acquire them all in the parent
     before forking only to be released in the child process.  The
     acquire/release pattern was leading to deadlocks in code that has
     implemented any form of chained logging handlers that depend upon
     one another as the lock acquisition order cannot be guaranteed.

   - bpo-35252(76): Throw a TypeError instead of an AssertionError when
     using an invalid type annotation with singledispatch.

   - bpo-35900(77): Allow reduction methods to return a 6-item tuple
     where the 6th item specifies a custom state-setting method that’s
     called instead of the regular ‘__setstate__’ method.

   - bpo-35900(78): enable custom reduction callback registration for
     functions and classes in _pickle.c, using the new Pickler’s
     attribute ‘reducer_override’

   - bpo-36368(79): Fix a bug crashing SharedMemoryManager instances in
     interactive sessions after a ctrl-c (KeyboardInterrupt) was sent

   - bpo-31904(80): Fix mmap fail for VxWorks

   - bpo-27497(81): *note csv.DictWriter.writeheader(): 10a4. now
     returns the return value of the underlying ‘csv.Writer.writerow()’
     method.  Patch contributed by Ashish Nitin Patil.

   - bpo-36239(82): Parsing .mo files now ignores comments starting and
     ending with #-#-#-#-#.

   - bpo-26707(83): Enable plistlib to read and write binary plist files
     that were created as a KeyedArchive file.  Specifically, this
     allows the plistlib to process 0x80 tokens as UID objects.

   - bpo-31904(84): Add posix module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-35125(85): Asyncio: Remove inner callback on outer cancellation
     in shield

   - bpo-35721(86): Fix ‘asyncio.SelectorEventLoop.subprocess_exec()’
     leaks file descriptors if ‘Popen’ fails and called with
     ‘stdin=subprocess.PIPE’.  Patch by Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-31855(87): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1826. results now
     respects the argument of read([size]).  Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35431(88): Implement *note math.comb(): 4e7. that returns
     binomial coefficient, that computes the number of ways to choose k
     items from n items without repetition and without order.  Patch by
     Yash Aggarwal and Keller Fuchs.

   - bpo-26660(89): Fixed permission errors in *note TemporaryDirectory:
     10db. clean up.  Previously ‘TemporaryDirectory.cleanup()’ failed
     when non-writeable or non-searchable files or directories were
     created inside a temporary directory.

   - bpo-34271(90): Add debugging helpers to ssl module.  It’s now
     possible to dump key material and to trace TLS protocol.  The
     default and stdlib contexts also support SSLKEYLOGFILE env var.

   - bpo-26467(91): Added AsyncMock to support using unittest to mock
     asyncio coroutines.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-33569(92): dataclasses.InitVar: Exposes the type used to create
     the init var.

   - bpo-34424(93): Fix serialization of messages containing encoded
     strings when the policy.linesep is set to a multi-character string.
     Patch by Jens Troeger.

   - bpo-34303(94): Performance of *note functools.reduce(): 1186. is
     slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-33361(95): Fix a bug in *note codecs.StreamRecoder: 182a. where
     seeking might leave old data in a buffer and break subsequent read
     calls.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-22454(96): The *note shlex: c3. module now exposes *note
     shlex.join(): 889, the inverse of *note shlex.split(): 2c8.  Patch
     by Bo Bayles.

   - bpo-31922(97):
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.create_datagram_endpoint()’: Do not
     connect UDP socket when broadcast is allowed.  This allows to
     receive replies after a UDP broadcast.

   - bpo-24882(98): Change ThreadPoolExecutor to use existing idle
     threads before spinning up new ones.

   - bpo-31961(99): Added support for bytes and path-like objects in
     *note subprocess.Popen(): 8fa. on Windows.  The 'args' parameter
     now accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. if 'shell' is ‘False’
     and a sequence containing bytes and path-like objects.  The
     'executable' parameter now accepts a bytes and *note path-like
     object: 98e.  The 'cwd' parameter now accepts a bytes object.
     Based on patch by Anders Lorentsen.

   - bpo-33123(100): *note pathlib.Path.unlink: 182b. now accepts a
     'missing_ok' parameter to avoid a *note FileNotFoundError: 39a.
     from being raised.  Patch by Robert Buchholz.

   - bpo-32941(101): Allow *note mmap.mmap: 868. objects to access the
     madvise() system call (through *note mmap.mmap.madvise(): 869.).

   - bpo-22102(102): Added support for ZIP files with disks set to 0.
     Such files are commonly created by builtin tools on Windows when
     use ZIP64 extension.  Patch by Francisco Facioni.

   - bpo-32515(103): trace.py can now run modules via python3 -m trace
     -t –module module_name

   - bpo-32299(104): Changed *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 182c. to
     return the patched dictionary when used as context manager.  Patch
     by Vadim Tsander.

   - bpo-27141(105): Added a ‘__copy__()’ to ‘collections.UserList’ and
     ‘collections.UserDict’ in order to correctly implement shallow
     copying of the objects.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31829(106): ‘\r’, ‘\0’ and ‘\x1a’ (end-of-file on Windows) are
     now escaped in protocol 0 pickles of Unicode strings.  This allows
     to load them without loss from files open in text mode in Python 2.

   - bpo-23395(107): ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’ now avoids setting the
     Python error status if the ‘SIGINT’ signal is ignored or not
     handled by Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26835

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35246

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35279

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37076

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37054

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37058

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37047

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37049

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37046

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37045

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37035

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37001

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36996

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37008

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27737

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36983

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36972

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36949

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36948

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33524

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24564

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<47>,  Next: Tests<46>,  Prev: Library<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36896(1): Clarify that some types have unstable constructor
     signature between Python versions.

   - bpo-36686(2): Improve documentation of the stdin, stdout, and
     stderr arguments of the ‘asyncio.subprocess_exec’ function to
     specify which values are supported.  Also mention that decoding as
     text is not supported.

     Add a few tests to verify that the various values passed to the
     std* arguments actually work.

   - bpo-36984(3): Improve version added references in ‘typing’ module -
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36868(4): What’s new now mentions
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name instead of
     SSLContext.host_flags.

   - bpo-35924(5): Add a note to the ‘curses.addstr()’ documentation to
     warn that multiline strings can cause segfaults because of an
     ncurses bug.

   - bpo-36783(6): Added C API Documentation for Time_FromTimeAndFold
     and PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold as per PEP 495.  Patch by
     Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36797(7): More of the legacy distutils documentation has been
     either pruned, or else more clearly marked as being retained solely
     until the setuptools documentation covers it independently.

   - bpo-22865(8): Add detail to the documentation on the ‘pty.spawn’
     function.

   - bpo-35397(9): Remove deprecation and document
     urllib.parse.unwrap().  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-32995(10): Added the context variable in glossary.

   - bpo-33519(11): Clarify that ‘copy()’ is not part of the
     ‘MutableSequence’ ABC.

   - bpo-33482(12): Make ‘codecs.StreamRecoder.writelines’ take a list
     of bytes.

   - bpo-25735(13): Added documentation for func factorial to indicate
     that returns integer values

   - bpo-20285(14): Expand object.__doc__ (docstring) to make it
     clearer.  Modify pydoc.py so that help(object) lists object methods
     (for other classes, help omits methods of the object base class.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36686

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36868

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35924

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36783

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22865

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35397

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32995

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33519

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33482

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<46>,  Next: Build<46>,  Prev: Documentation<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37069(1): Modify test_coroutines, test_cprofile,
     test_generators, test_raise, test_ssl and test_yield_from to use
     *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception(): 180d. rather than
     *note test.support.captured_stderr(): 182f.

   - bpo-37098(2): Fix test_memfd_create on older Linux Kernels.

   - bpo-37081(3): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1c

   - bpo-36829(4): Add *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     180d.: context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 491.

   - bpo-36915(5): The main regrtest process now always removes all
     temporary directories of worker processes even if they crash or if
     they are killed on KeyboardInterrupt (CTRL+c).

   - bpo-36719(6): “python3 -m test -jN …” now continues the execution
     of next tests when a worker process crash (CHILD_ERROR state).
     Previously, the test suite stopped immediately.  Use –failfast to
     stop at the first error.

   - bpo-36816(7): Update Lib/test/selfsigned_pythontestdotnet.pem to
     match self-signed.pythontest.net’s new TLS certificate.

   - bpo-35925(8): Skip httplib and nntplib networking tests when they
     would otherwise fail due to a modern OS or distro with a default
     OpenSSL policy of rejecting connections to servers with weak
     certificates.

   - bpo-36782(9): Add tests for several C API functions in the *note
     datetime: 30. module.  Patch by Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36342(10): Fix test_multiprocessing in test_venv if platform
     lacks functioning sem_open.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37098

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36816

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35925

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36782

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36342


File: python.info,  Node: Build<46>,  Next: Windows<44>,  Prev: Tests<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36721(1): To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’
     option must be passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get
     ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the application to libpython).  To support both
     3.8 and older, try ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and
     fallback to ‘python3-config --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the
     previous command fails.

     Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
     application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command
     fails (replace ‘X.Y’ with the Python version).

     On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython
     (except on Android, case handled by the script); this change is
     backward incompatible on purpose.

   - bpo-36786(2): “make install” now runs compileall in parallel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36786


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<44>,  Next: macOS<36>,  Prev: Build<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36965(1): include of STATUS_CONTROL_C_EXIT without depending on
     MSC compiler

   - bpo-35926(2): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1b for Windows.

   - bpo-29883(3): Add Windows support for UDP transports for the
     Proactor Event Loop.  Patch by Adam Meily.

   - bpo-33407(4): The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): 910. macro has been
     implemented for MSVC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36965

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35926

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<36>,  Next: IDLE<32>,  Prev: Windows<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-36231(1): Support building Python on macOS without /usr/include
     installed.  As of macOS 10.14, system header files are only
     available within an SDK provided by either the Command Line Tools
     or the Xcode app.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36231


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<32>,  Next: Tools/Demos<25>,  Prev: macOS<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35610(1): Replace now redundant .context_use_ps1 with
     .prompt_last_line.  This finishes change started in bpo-31858(2).

   - bpo-37038(3): Make idlelib.run runnable; add test clause.

   - bpo-36958(4): Print any argument other than None or int passed to
     SystemExit or sys.exit().

   - bpo-36807(5): When saving a file, call os.fsync() so bits are
     flushed to e.g.  USB drive.

   - bpo-32411(6): In browser.py, remove extraneous sorting by line
     number since dictionary was created in line number order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37038

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36958

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32411


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<25>,  Next: C API<43>,  Prev: IDLE<32>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-37053(1): Handle strings like u”bar” correctly in
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Chih-Hsuan Yen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37053


File: python.info,  Node: C API<43>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<25>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.22.51.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Implement the PEP 587(2) “Python Initialization
     Configuration”.

   - bpo-36379(3): Fix crashes when attempting to use the 'modulo'
     parameter when ‘__ipow__’ is implemented in C.

   - bpo-37107(4): Update *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1836. and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodIdObjArgs’ to use ‘_PyObject_GetMethod’ to
     avoid creating a bound method object in many cases.  Patch by
     Michael J. Sullivan.

   - bpo-36974(5): Implement PEP 590(6): Vectorcall: a fast calling
     protocol for CPython.  This is a new protocol to optimize calls of
     custom callable objects.

   - bpo-36763(7): ‘Py_Main()’ now returns the exitcode rather than
     calling ‘Py_Exit(exitcode)’ when calling ‘PyErr_Print()’ if the
     current exception type is ‘SystemExit’.

   - bpo-36922(8): Add new type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ for
     objects behaving like unbound methods.  These are objects
     supporting the optimization given by the
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ opcodes.  See PEP 590.

   - bpo-36728(9): The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been
     removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37107

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.52 Python 3.8.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<38>,  Next: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36742(1): Fixes mishandling of pre-normalization characters in
     urlsplit().

   - bpo-30458(2): Address CVE 2019-9740(3) by disallowing URL paths
     with embedded whitespace or control characters through into the
     underlying http client request.  Such potentially malicious header
     injection URLs now cause an http.client.InvalidURL exception to be
     raised.

   - bpo-35755(4): *note shutil.which(): 1e0. now uses
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ if available and if the ‘PATH’ environment
     variable is not set.  Remove also the current directory from
     ‘posixpath.defpath’.  On Unix, *note shutil.which(): 1e0. and the
     *note subprocess: d5. module no longer search the executable in the
     current directory if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9740

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<51>,  Next: Library<52>,  Prev: Security<38>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36722(1): In debug build, import now also looks for C
     extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled
     in the stable ABI.

   - bpo-32849(2): Fix Python Initialization code on FreeBSD to detect
     properly when stdin file descriptor (fd 0) is invalid.

   - bpo-36623(3): Remove parser headers and related function
     declarations that lack implementations after the removal of pgen.

   - bpo-20180(4): ‘dict.pop()’ is now up to 33% faster thanks to
     Argument Clinic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36611(5): Debug memory allocators: disable serialno field by
     default from debug hooks on Python memory allocators to reduce the
     memory footprint by 5%.  Enable *note tracemalloc: ff. to get the
     traceback where a memory block has been allocated when a fatal
     memory error is logged to decide where to put a breakpoint.
     Compile Python with ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ defined to get back the
     field.

   - bpo-36588(6): On AIX, *note sys.platform: 8f3. doesn’t contain the
     major version anymore.  Always return ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’
     ..  ‘'aix7'’.  Since older Python versions include the version
     number, it is recommended to always use
     ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.  Contributed by M. Felt.

   - bpo-36549(7): Change str.capitalize to use titlecase for the first
     character instead of uppercase.

   - bpo-36540(8): Implement PEP 570(9) (Python positional-only
     parameters).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36475(10): ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’
     now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is
     finalizing, making them consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8f5, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6.

   - bpo-36504(11): Fix signed integer overflow in _ctypes.c’s
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-20844(12): Fix running script with encoding cookie and LF line
     ending may fail on Windows.

   - bpo-24214(13): Fixed support of the surrogatepass error handler in
     the UTF-8 incremental decoder.

   - bpo-36452(14): Changing ‘dict’ keys during iteration of the dict
     itself, ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, or ‘items()’ will now be detected in
     certain corner cases where keys are deleted/added so that the
     number of keys isn’t changed.  A ‘RuntimeError’ will be raised
     after ‘len(dict)’ iterations.  Contributed by Thomas Perl.

   - bpo-36459(15): Fix a possible double ‘PyMem_FREE()’ due to
     tokenizer.c’s ‘tok_nextc()’.

   - bpo-36433(16): Fixed TypeError message in classmethoddescr_call.

   - bpo-36430(17): Fix a possible reference leak in *note
     itertools.count(): 112c.

   - bpo-36440(18): Include node names in ‘ParserError’ messages,
     instead of numeric IDs.  Patch by A. Skrobov.

   - bpo-36143(19): Regenerate *note keyword: 82. from the Grammar and
     Tokens file using pgen.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-18372(20): Add missing *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 1393. calls
     in the *note pickle: a5. module.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32849

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20180

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36549

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36504

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20844

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36452

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36459

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36433

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36430

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36440

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18372


File: python.info,  Node: Library<52>,  Next: Documentation<48>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35952(1): Fix pythoninfo when the compiler is missing.

   - bpo-28238(2): The ‘.find*()’ methods of xml.etree.ElementTree can
     now search for wildcards like ‘{*}tag’ and ‘{ns}*’ that match a tag
     in any namespace or all tags in a namespace.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-26978(3): ‘pathlib.path.link_to()’ is now implemented.  It
     creates a hard link pointing to a path.

   - bpo-1613500(4): *note fileinput.FileInput: 560. now uses the input
     file mode to correctly set the output file mode (previously it was
     hardcoded to ‘'w'’) when ‘inplace=True’ is passed to its
     constructor.

   - bpo-36734(5): Fix compilation of ‘faulthandler.c’ on HP-UX.
     Initialize ‘stack_t current_stack’ to zero using ‘memset()’.

   - bpo-13611(6): The xml.etree.ElementTree packages gained support for
     C14N 2.0 serialisation.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36669(7): Add missing matrix multiplication operator support to
     weakref.proxy.

   - bpo-36676(8): The XMLParser() in xml.etree.ElementTree provides
     namespace prefix context to the parser target if it defines the
     callback methods “start_ns()” and/or “end_ns()”.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-36673(9): The TreeBuilder and XMLPullParser in
     xml.etree.ElementTree gained support for parsing comments and
     processing instructions.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36650(10): The C version of functools.lru_cache() was treating
     calls with an empty ‘**kwargs’ dictionary as being distinct from
     calls with no keywords at all.  This did not result in an incorrect
     answer, but it did trigger an unexpected cache miss.

   - bpo-28552(11): Fix ‘distutils.sysconfig’ if *note sys.executable:
     36c. is ‘None’ or an empty string: use *note os.getcwd(): 1423. to
     initialize ‘project_base’.  Fix also the distutils build command:
     don’t use *note sys.executable: 36c. if it is ‘None’ or an empty
     string.

   - bpo-35755(12): *note shutil.which(): 1e0. and
     ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable’ now use ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’
     if available instead of *note os.defpath: 183b, if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is not set.  Moreover, don’t use
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ nor *note os.defpath: 183b. if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is set to an empty string.

   - bpo-25430(13): improve performance of ‘IPNetwork.__contains__()’

   - bpo-30485(14): Path expressions in xml.etree.ElementTree can now
     avoid explicit namespace prefixes for tags (or the “{namespace}tag”
     notation) by passing a default namespace with an empty string
     prefix.

   - bpo-36613(15): Fix *note asyncio: a. wait() not removing callback
     if exception

   - bpo-36598(16): Fix ‘isinstance’ check for Mock objects with spec
     when the code is executed under tracing.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-18748(17): In development mode (*note -X: 18e. ‘dev’) and in
     debug build, the *note io.IOBase: 85b. destructor now logs
     ‘close()’ exceptions.  These exceptions are silent by default in
     release mode.

   - bpo-36575(18): The ‘_lsprof’ module now uses internal timer same to
     ‘time.perf_counter()’ by default.  ‘gettimeofday(2)’ was used on
     Unix.  New timer has better resolution on most Unix platforms and
     timings are no longer impacted by system clock updates since
     ‘perf_counter()’ is monotonic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-33461(19): ‘json.loads’ now emits ‘DeprecationWarning’ when
     ‘encoding’ option is specified.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-36559(20): The random module now prefers the lean internal
     _sha512 module over hashlib for seed(version=2) to optimize import
     time.

   - bpo-17561(21): Set backlog=None as the default for
     socket.create_server.

   - bpo-34373(22): Fix *note time.mktime(): 108d. error handling on AIX
     for year before 1970.

   - bpo-36232(23): Improve error message when trying to open existing
     DBM database that actually doesn’t exist.  Patch by Marco Rougeth.

   - bpo-36546(24): Add statistics.quantiles()

   - bpo-36050(25): Optimized ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read()’ for
     large response.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36522(26): If 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note http.client:
     6d, print all values for headers with multiple values for the same
     header name.  Patch by Matt Houglum.

   - bpo-36492(27): Deprecated passing required arguments like 'func' as
     keyword arguments in functions which should accept arbitrary
     keyword arguments and pass them to other function.  Arbitrary
     keyword arguments (even with names “self” and “func”) can now be
     passed to these functions if the required arguments are passed as
     positional arguments.

   - bpo-27181(28): Add statistics.geometric_mean().

   - bpo-30427(29): ‘os.path.normcase()’ relies on ‘os.fspath()’ to
     check the type of its argument.  Redundant checks have been removed
     from its ‘posixpath.normcase()’ and ‘ntpath.normcase()’
     implementations.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-36385(30): Stop rejecting IPv4 octets for being ambiguously
     octal.  Leading zeros are ignored, and no longer are assumed to
     specify octal octets.  Octets are always decimal numbers.  Octets
     must still be no more than three digits, including leading zeroes.

   - bpo-36434(31): Errors during writing to a ZIP file no longer
     prevent to properly close it.

   - bpo-36407(32): Fixed wrong indentation writing for CDATA section in
     xml.dom.minidom.  Patch by Vladimir Surjaninov.

   - bpo-36326(33): inspect.getdoc() can now find docstrings for member
     objects when __slots__ is a dictionary.

   - bpo-36366(34): Calling ‘stop()’ on an unstarted or stopped *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): d26. object will now return ‘None’ instead
     of raising *note RuntimeError: 180, making the method idempotent.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36348(35): The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer ignores
     silently arbitrary exceptions.

   - bpo-31904(36): Add time module support and fix test_time failures
     for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36227(37): Added support for keyword arguments
     ‘default_namespace’ and ‘xml_declaration’ in functions
     ‘ElementTree.tostring()’ and ‘ElementTree.tostringlist()’.

   - bpo-36004(38): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.date.fromisocalendar(): 84b. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 84c, which construct date
     objects from ISO year, week number and weekday; these are the
     inverse of each class’s ‘isocalendar’ method.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35936(39): *note modulefinder: 90. no longer depends on the
     deprecated *note imp: 74. module, and the initializer for *note
     modulefinder.ModuleFinder: 183c. now has immutable default
     arguments.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-35376(40): *note modulefinder: 90. correctly handles modules
     that have the same name as a bad package.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-17396(41): *note modulefinder: 90. no longer crashes when
     encountering syntax errors in followed imports.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-35934(42): Added *note create_server(): 88d. and *note
     has_dualstack_ipv6(): 88e. convenience functions to automate the
     necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket,
     including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same
     socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-17561(43).)

   - bpo-23078(44): Add support for *note classmethod(): 252. and *note
     staticmethod(): 612. to *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     1466.  Initial patch by Felipe Ochoa.

   - bpo-35416(45): Fix potential resource warnings in distutils.  Patch
     by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-25451(46): Add transparency methods to ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35082(47): Don’t return deleted attributes when calling dir on
     a *note unittest.mock.Mock: 8af.

   - bpo-34547(48): *note wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 1829. now
     handles abrupt client connection terminations gracefully.  Patch by
     Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31658(49): *note xml.sax.parse(): 183d. now supports *note
     path-like: 98e.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-34139(50): Remove stale unix datagram socket before binding

   - bpo-33530(51): Implemented Happy Eyeballs in
     ‘asyncio.create_connection()’.  Added two new arguments,
     'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave', to specify Happy Eyeballs
     behavior.

   - bpo-33291(52): Do not raise AttributeError when calling the inspect
     functions isgeneratorfunction, iscoroutinefunction,
     isasyncgenfunction on a method created from an arbitrary callable.
     Instead, return False.

   - bpo-31310(53): Fix the multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker so it is
     reused by child processes

   - bpo-31292(54): Fix ‘setup.py check --restructuredtext’ for files
     containing ‘include’ directives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1613500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36734

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36650

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25430

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30485

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36613

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36598

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36575

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33461

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36559

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36232

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36050

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30427

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36385

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36434

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36407

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36366

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36227

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35936

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35376

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17396

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35934

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23078

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35416

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35082

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34547

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31658

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34139

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33291

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31292


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<48>,  Next: Tests<47>,  Prev: Library<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36625(1): Remove obsolete comments from docstrings in
     fractions.Fraction

   - bpo-30840(2): Document relative imports

   - bpo-36523(3): Add docstring for io.IOBase.writelines().

   - bpo-36425(4): New documentation translation: Simplified Chinese(5).

   - bpo-36345(6): Avoid the duplication of code from
     ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ in using the ‘literalinclude’ directive
     for the basic wsgiref-based web server in the documentation of
     *note wsgiref: 118.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36345(7): Using the code of the ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ script
     as an example in the *note wsgiref: 118. documentation.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36157(8): Added documentation for PyInterpreterState_Main().

   - bpo-33043(9): Updates the docs.python.org page with the addition of
     a ‘Contributing to Docs’ link at the end of the page (between
     ‘Reporting Bugs’ and ‘About Documentation’).  Updates the ‘Found a
     Bug’ page with additional links and information in the
     Documentation Bugs section.

   - bpo-35581(10): @typing.type_check_only now allows type stubs to
     mark functions and classes not available during runtime.

   - bpo-33832(11): Add glossary entry for ‘magic method’.

   - bpo-32913(12): Added re.Match.groupdict example to regex HOWTO.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36425

   (5) https://docs.python.org/zh-cn/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36157

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33043

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35581

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33832

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32913


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<47>,  Next: Build<47>,  Prev: Documentation<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36719(1): regrtest now always detects uncollectable objects.
     Previously, the check was only enabled by ‘--findleaks’.  The check
     now also works with ‘-jN/--multiprocess N’.  ‘--findleaks’ becomes
     a deprecated alias to ‘--fail-env-changed’.

   - bpo-36725(2): When using multiprocessing mode (-jN), regrtest now
     better reports errors if a worker process fails, and it exits
     immediately on a worker thread failure or when interrupted.

   - bpo-36454(3): Change test_time.test_monotonic() to test only the
     lower bound of elapsed time after a sleep command rather than the
     upper bound.  This prevents unnecessary test failures on slow
     buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32424(4): Improve test coverage for xml.etree.ElementTree.
     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-32424(5): Fix typo in test_cyclic_gc() test for
     xml.etree.ElementTree.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-36635(6): Add a new ‘_testinternalcapi’ module to test the
     internal C API.

   - bpo-36629(7): Fix ‘test_imap4_host_default_value()’ of
     ‘test_imaplib’: catch also *note errno.ENETUNREACH: 1840. error.

   - bpo-36611(8): Fix ‘test_sys.test_getallocatedblocks()’ when *note
     tracemalloc: ff. is enabled.

   - bpo-36560(9): Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest: compute also
     deltas (of reference count, allocated memory blocks, file
     descriptor count) during warmup, to ensure that everything is
     initialized before starting to hunt reference leaks.

   - bpo-36565(10): Fix reference hunting (‘python3 -m test -R 3:3’)
     when Python has no built-in abc module.

   - bpo-31904(11): Port test_resource to VxWorks: skip tests cases
     setting RLIMIT_FSIZE and RLIMIT_CPU.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix test_tabnanny on VxWorks: adjust ENOENT error
     message.

   - bpo-36436(13): Fix ‘_testcapi.pymem_buffer_overflow()’: handle
     memory allocation failure.

   - bpo-31904(14): Fix test_utf8_mode on VxWorks: Python always use
     UTF-8 on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36341(15): Fix tests that may fail with PermissionError upon
     calling bind() on AF_UNIX sockets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36725

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36454

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36629

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36560

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36565

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36341


File: python.info,  Node: Build<47>,  Next: Windows<45>,  Prev: Tests<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36747(1): Remove the stale scriptsinstall Makefile target.

   - bpo-21536(2): On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to
     libpython except on Android and Cygwin.

     It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C
     extension built using a shared library Python.

     When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not be loaded with
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.  Previously, using
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load C extensions
     which were not linked to ‘libpython’, such as C extensions of the
     standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section of
     ‘Modules/Setup’.

     distutils, python-config and python-config.py have been modified.

   - bpo-36707(3): ‘./configure --with-pymalloc’ no longer adds the ‘m’
     flag to SOABI (sys.implementation.cache_tag).  Enabling or
     disabling pymalloc has no impact on the ABI.

   - bpo-36635(4): Change ‘PyAPI_FUNC(type)’, ‘PyAPI_DATA(type)’ and
     ‘PyMODINIT_FUNC’ macros of ‘pyport.h’ when ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     is defined.  The ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ define must be now be used
     to build a C extension as a dynamic library accessing Python
     internals: export the ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function in DLL exports on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31904(5): Don’t build the ‘_crypt’ extension on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36618(6): Add ‘-fmax-type-align=8’ to CFLAGS when clang
     compiler is detected.  The pymalloc memory allocator aligns memory
     on 8 bytes.  On x86-64, clang expects alignment on 16 bytes by
     default and so uses MOVAPS instruction which can lead to
     segmentation fault.  Instruct clang that Python is limited to
     alignment on 8 bytes to use MOVUPS instruction instead: slower but
     don’t trigger a SIGSEGV if the memory is not aligned on 16 bytes.
     Sadly, the flag must be added to ‘CFLAGS’ and not just
     ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’, since third party C extensions can have the same
     issue.

   - bpo-36605(7): ‘make tags’ and ‘make TAGS’ now also parse
     ‘Modules/_io/*.c’ and ‘Modules/_io/*.h’.

   - bpo-36465(8): Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
     compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
     ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which introduces the only ABI
     incompatibility.  The ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the *note
     sys.getobjects(): 395. function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 804.
     environment variable, can be set using the new ‘./configure
     --with-trace-refs’ build option.

   - bpo-36577(9): setup.py now correctly reports missing OpenSSL
     headers and libraries again.

   - bpo-36544(10): Fix regression introduced in bpo-36146(11)
     refactoring setup.py

   - bpo-36508(12): ‘python-config --ldflags’ no longer includes flags
     of the ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable.  The ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable must
     only be used to build executables.

   - bpo-36503(13): Remove references to “aix3” and “aix4”.  Patch by M.
     Felt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36747

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36618

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36605

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36577

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36544

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36508

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36503


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<45>,  Next: macOS<37>,  Prev: Build<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35920(1): Added platform.win32_edition() and
     platform.win32_is_iot().  Added support for cross-compiling
     packages for Windows ARM32.  Skip tests that are not expected to
     work on Windows IoT Core ARM32.

   - bpo-36649(2): Remove trailing spaces for registry keys when
     installed via the Store.

   - bpo-34144(3): Fixed activate.bat to correctly update codepage when
     chcp.com returns dots in output.  Patch by Lorenz Mende.

   - bpo-36509(4): Added preset-iot layout for Windows IoT ARM
     containers.  This layout doesn’t contain UI components like tkinter
     or IDLE. It also doesn’t contain files to support on-target builds
     since Windows ARM32 builds must be cross-compiled when using MSVC.

   - bpo-35941(5): enum_certificates function of the ssl module now
     returns certificates from all available certificate stores inside
     windows in a query instead of returning only certificates from the
     system wide certificate store.  This includes certificates from
     these certificate stores: local machine, local machine enterprise,
     local machine group policy, current user, current user group
     policy, services, users.  ssl.enum_crls() function is changed in
     the same way to return all certificate revocation lists inside the
     windows certificate revocation list stores.

   - bpo-36441(6): Fixes creating a venv when debug binaries are
     installed.

   - bpo-36085(7): Enable better DLL resolution on Windows by using safe
     DLL search paths and adding *note os.add_dll_directory(): 849.

   - bpo-36010(8): Add the venv standard library module to the nuget
     distribution for Windows.

   - bpo-29515(9): Add the following socket module constants on Windows:
     IPPROTO_AH IPPROTO_CBT IPPROTO_DSTOPTS IPPROTO_EGP IPPROTO_ESP
     IPPROTO_FRAGMENT IPPROTO_GGP IPPROTO_HOPOPTS IPPROTO_ICLFXBM
     IPPROTO_ICMPV6 IPPROTO_IDP IPPROTO_IGMP IPPROTO_IGP IPPROTO_IPV4
     IPPROTO_IPV6 IPPROTO_L2TP IPPROTO_MAX IPPROTO_ND IPPROTO_NONE
     IPPROTO_PGM IPPROTO_PIM IPPROTO_PUP IPPROTO_RDP IPPROTO_ROUTING
     IPPROTO_SCTP IPPROTO_ST

   - bpo-35947(10): Added current version of libffi to
     cpython-source-deps.  Change _ctypes to use current version of
     libffi on Windows.

   - bpo-34060(11): Report system load when running test suite on
     Windows.  Patch by Ammar Askar.  Based on prior work by Jeremy
     Kloth.

   - bpo-31512(12): With the Windows 10 Creators Update, non-elevated
     users can now create symlinks as long as the computer has Developer
     Mode enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35920

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36509

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35941

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29515

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35947

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31512


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<37>,  Next: IDLE<33>,  Prev: Windows<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34602(1): Avoid failures setting macOS stack resource limit
     with resource.setrlimit.  This reverts an earlier fix for
     bpo-18075(2) which forced a non-default stack size when building
     the interpreter executable on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18075


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<33>,  Next: Tools/Demos<26>,  Prev: macOS<37>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36429(1): Fix starting IDLE with pyshell.  Add idlelib.pyshell
     alias at top; remove pyshell alias at bottom.  Remove obsolete
     __name__==’__main__’ command.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36429


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<26>,  Next: C API<44>,  Prev: IDLE<33>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-14546(1): Fix the argument handling in Tools/scripts/lll.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14546


File: python.info,  Node: C API<44>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<26>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.22.52.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Fix memory leak in *note
     Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): ea8.: release memory if the
     function is called twice.

   - bpo-36641(2): PyDoc_VAR(name) and *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 17a3.(name,
     str) now create ‘static const char name[]’ instead of ‘static char
     name[]’.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36389(3): Change the value of ‘CLEANBYTE’, ‘DEADDYTE’ and
     ‘FORBIDDENBYTE’ internal constants used by debug hooks on Python
     memory allocators (*note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. function).
     Byte patterns ‘0xCB’, ‘0xDB’ and ‘0xFB’ have been replaced with
     ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
     debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   - bpo-36443(4): Since Python 3.7.0, calling *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     a3e. before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. produces mojibake if the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is coerced and/or if the UTF-8 Mode is enabled by
     the user configuration.  The LC_CTYPE coercion and UTF-8 Mode are
     now disabled by default to fix the mojibake issue.  They must now
     be enabled explicitly (opt-in) using the new ‘_Py_PreInitialize()’
     API with ‘_PyPreConfig’.

   - bpo-36025(5): Fixed an accidental change to the datetime C API
     where the arguments to the *note PyDate_FromTimestamp(): 1847.
     function were incorrectly interpreted as a single timestamp rather
     than an arguments tuple, which causes existing code to start
     raising *note TypeError: 2c4.  The backwards-incompatible change
     was only present in alpha releases of Python 3.8.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35810(6): Modify ‘PyObject_Init’ to correctly increase the
     refcount of heap-allocated Type objects.  Also fix the refcounts of
     the heap-allocated types that were either doing this manually or
     not decreasing the type’s refcount in tp_dealloc

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36025

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.53 Python 3.8.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-03-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<39>,  Next: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36216(1): Changes urlsplit() to raise ValueError when the URL
     contains characters that decompose under IDNA encoding
     (NFKC-normalization) into characters that affect how the URL is
     parsed.

   - bpo-35121(2): Don’t send cookies of domain A without Domain
     attribute to domain B when domain A is a suffix match of domain B
     while using a cookiejar with *note
     http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a. policy.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<52>,  Next: Library<53>,  Prev: Security<39>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36421(1): Fix a possible double decref in _ctypes.c’s
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-36412(2): Fix a possible crash when creating a new dictionary.

   - bpo-36398(3): Fix a possible crash in ‘structseq_repr()’.

   - bpo-36256(4): Fix bug in parsermodule when parsing a state in a DFA
     that has two or more arcs with labels of the same type.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36365(5): repr(structseq) is no longer limited to 512 bytes.

   - bpo-36374(6): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     ‘merge_consts_recursive()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36236(7): At Python initialization, the current directory is no
     longer prepended to *note sys.path: 368. if it has been removed.

   - bpo-36352(8): Python initialization now fails with an error, rather
     than silently truncating paths, if a path is too long.

   - bpo-36301(9): Python initialization now fails if decoding
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ configuration file fails at startup.

   - bpo-36333(10): Fix leak in _PyRuntimeState_Fini.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36332(11): The builtin *note compile(): 56d. can now handle AST
     objects that contain assignment expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-36282(12): Improved error message for too much positional
     arguments in some builtin functions.

   - bpo-30040(13): New empty dict uses fewer memory for now.  It used
     more memory than empty dict created by ‘dict.clear()’.  And empty
     dict creation and deletion is about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36262(14): Fix an unlikely memory leak on conversion from
     string to float in the function ‘_Py_dg_strtod()’ used by
     ‘float(str)’, ‘complex(str)’, *note pickle.load(): b95, *note
     marshal.load(): 184c, etc.

   - bpo-36252(15): Update Unicode databases to version 12.0.0.

   - bpo-36218(16): Fix a segfault occurring when sorting a list of
     heterogeneous values.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre and Elliot
     Gorokhovsky.

   - bpo-36188(17): Cleaned up left-over vestiges of Python 2 unbound
     method handling in method objects and documentation.  Patch by
     Martijn Pieters

   - bpo-36124(18): Add a new interpreter-specific dict and expose it in
     the C-API via PyInterpreterState_GetDict().  This parallels
     PyThreadState_GetDict().  However, extension modules should
     continue using PyModule_GetState() for their own internal
     per-interpreter state.

   - bpo-35975(19): Add a ‘feature_version’ flag to ‘ast.parse()’
     (documented) and ‘compile()’ (hidden) that allows tweaking the
     parser to support older versions of the grammar.  In particular, if
     ‘feature_version’ is 5 or 6, the hacks for the ‘async’ and ‘await’
     keyword from PEP 492 are reinstated.  (For 7 or higher, these are
     unconditionally treated as keywords, but they are still special
     tokens rather than ‘NAME’ tokens that the parser driver
     recognizes.)

   - bpo-31904(20): Use UTF-8 as the system encoding on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36048(21): The *note __index__(): 538. special method will be
     used instead of *note __int__(): 537. for implicit conversion of
     Python numbers to C integers.  Using the ‘__int__()’ method in
     implicit conversions has been deprecated.

   - bpo-35808(22): Retire pgen and use a modified version of pgen2 to
     generate the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36398

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36256

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36365

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36374

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36236

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36352

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36333

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36332

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30040

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36262

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36252

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36218

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36188

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36124

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35808


File: python.info,  Node: Library<53>,  Next: Documentation<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36401(1): The class documentation created by pydoc now has a
     separate section for readonly properties.

   - bpo-36320(2): The typing.NamedTuple() class has deprecated the
     _field_types attribute in favor of the __annotations__ attribute
     which carried the same information.  Also, both attributes were
     converted from OrderedDict to a regular dict.

   - bpo-34745(3): Fix *note asyncio: a. ssl memory issues caused by
     circular references

   - bpo-36324(4): Add method to statistics.NormalDist for computing the
     inverse cumulative normal distribution.

   - bpo-36321(5): collections.namedtuple() misspelled the name of an
     attribute.  To be consistent with typing.NamedTuple, the attribute
     name should have been “_field_defaults” instead of
     “_fields_defaults”.  For backwards compatibility, both spellings
     are now created.  The misspelled version may be removed in the
     future.

   - bpo-36297(6): “unicode_internal” codec is removed.  It was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36298(7): Raise ModuleNotFoundError in pyclbr when a module
     can’t be found.  Thanks to ‘mental’ for the bug report.

   - bpo-36268(8): Switch the default format used for writing tars with
     *note tarfile: dd. to the modern POSIX.1-2001 pax standard, from
     the vendor-specific GNU. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-36285(9): Fix integer overflows in the array module.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-31904(10): Add _signal module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36272(11): *note logging: 86. does not silently ignore
     RecursionError anymore.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36280(12): Add a kind field to ast.Constant.  It is ‘u’ if the
     literal has a ‘u’ prefix (i.e.  a Python 2 style unicode literal),
     else None.

   - bpo-35931(13): The *note pdb: a4. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles all exceptions.

   - bpo-36251(14): Fix format strings used for stderrprinter and
     re.Match reprs.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-36235(15): Fix ‘CFLAGS’ in ‘customize_compiler()’ of
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’: when the ‘CFLAGS’ environment variable is
     defined, don’t override ‘CFLAGS’ variable with the ‘OPT’ variable
     anymore.  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-35807(16): Update ensurepip to install pip 19.0.3 and
     setuptools 40.8.0.

   - bpo-36139(17): Release GIL when closing *note mmap: 868. objects.

   - bpo-36179(18): Fix two unlikely reference leaks in _hashopenssl.
     The leaks only occur in out-of-memory cases.

   - bpo-36169(19): Add overlap() method to statistics.NormalDist.
     Computes the overlapping coefficient for two normal distributions.

   - bpo-36103(20): Default buffer size used by ‘shutil.copyfileobj()’
     is changed from 16 KiB to 64 KiB on non-Windows platform to reduce
     system call overhead.  Contributed by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36130(21): Fix ‘pdb’ with ‘skip=...’ when stepping into a frame
     without a ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35652(22): shutil.copytree(copy_function=…) erroneously pass
     DirEntry instead of a path string.

   - bpo-35178(23): Ensure custom *note warnings.formatwarning(): 184e.
     function can receive ‘line’ as positional argument.  Based on patch
     by Tashrif Billah.

   - bpo-36106(24): Resolve potential name clash with libm’s sinpi().
     Patch by Dmitrii Pasechnik.

   - bpo-36091(25): Clean up reference to async generator in Lib/types.
     Patch by Henry Chen.

   - bpo-36043(26): ‘FileCookieJar’ supports *note path-like object:
     98e.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35899(27): Enum has been fixed to correctly handle empty
     strings and strings with non-Latin characters (ie.  ‘α’, ‘א’)
     without crashing.  Original patch contributed by Maxwell.  Assisted
     by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-21269(28): Add ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties to mock call
     objects.  Contributed by Kumar Akshay.

   - bpo-30670(29): ‘pprint.pp’ has been added to pretty-print objects
     with dictionary keys being sorted with their insertion order by
     default.  Parameter 'sort_dicts' has been added to ‘pprint.pprint’,
     ‘pprint.pformat’ and ‘pprint.PrettyPrinter’.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35843(30): Implement ‘__getitem__’ for ‘_NamespacePath’.  Patch
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35802(31): Clean up code which checked presence of ‘os.stat’ /
     ‘os.lstat’ / ‘os.chmod’ which are always present.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-35715(32): Librates the return value of a ProcessPoolExecutor
     _process_worker after it’s no longer needed to free memory

   - bpo-35493(33): Use *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f82.
     instead of polling each 0.2 seconds for worker updates in
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35661(34): Store the venv prompt in pyvenv.cfg.

   - bpo-35121(35): Don’t set cookie for a request when the request path
     is a prefix match of the cookie’s path attribute but doesn’t end
     with “/”.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(36): Calls to a child function created with *note
     unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1466. should propagate to the
     parent.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35198(37): Fix C++ extension compilation on AIX

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34745

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36324

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36298

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36285

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36272

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36280

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36251

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35807

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36139

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36169

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36103

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36130

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35652

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35178

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36106

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36091

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36043

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35899

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21269

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35843

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35802

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35715

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35493

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35198


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<49>,  Next: Tests<48>,  Prev: Library<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36329(1): Declare the path of the Python binary for the usage
     of ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ when executing ‘make -C Doc/ serve’.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-36138(2): Improve documentation about converting
     datetime.timedelta to scalars.

   - bpo-21314(3): A new entry was added to the Core Language Section of
     the Programming FAQ, which explaines the usage of slash(/) in the
     signature of a function.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36138

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21314


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<48>,  Next: Build<48>,  Prev: Documentation<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36234(1): test_posix.PosixUidGidTests: add tests for invalid
     uid/gid type (str).  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-29571(2): Fix ‘test_re.test_locale_flag()’: use
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’ rather than ‘locale.getlocale()’ to
     get the locale encoding.  With some locales, ‘locale.getlocale()’
     returns the wrong encoding.

   - bpo-36123(3): Fix race condition in test_socket.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36234

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36123


File: python.info,  Node: Build<48>,  Next: Windows<46>,  Prev: Tests<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36356(1): Fix leaks that led to build failure when configured
     with address sanitizer.

   - bpo-36146(2): Add ‘TEST_EXTENSIONS’ constant to ‘setup.py’ to allow
     to not build test extensions like ‘_testcapi’.

   - bpo-36146(3): Fix setup.py on macOS: only add ‘/usr/include/ffi’ to
     include directories of _ctypes, not for all extensions.

   - bpo-31904(4): Enable build system to cross-build for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36356

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<46>,  Next: IDLE<34>,  Prev: Build<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36312(1): Fixed decoders for the following code pages: 50220,
     50221, 50222, 50225, 50227, 50229, 57002 through 57011, 65000 and
     42.

   - bpo-36264(2): Don’t honor POSIX ‘HOME’ in ‘os.path.expanduser’ on
     windows.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-24643(3): Fix name collisions due to ‘#define timezone
     _timezone’ in PC/pyconfig.h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24643


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<34>,  Next: Tools/Demos<27>,  Prev: Windows<46>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36405(1): Use dict unpacking in idlelib.

   - bpo-36396(2): Remove fgBg param of idlelib.config.GetHighlight().
     This param was only used twice and changed the return type.

   - bpo-36176(3): Fix IDLE autocomplete & calltip popup colors.
     Prevent conflicts with Linux dark themes (and slightly darken
     calltip background).

   - bpo-23205(4): For the grep module, add tests for findfiles,
     refactor findfiles to be a module-level function, and refactor
     findfiles to use os.walk.

   - bpo-23216(5): Add docstrings to IDLE search modules.

   - bpo-36152(6): Remove colorizer.ColorDelegator.close_when_done and
     the corresponding argument of .close().  In IDLE, both have always
     been None or False since 2007.

   - bpo-32129(7): Avoid blurry IDLE application icon on macOS with Tk
     8.6.  Patch by Kevin Walzer.

   - bpo-36096(8): Refactor class variables to instance variables in
     colorizer.

   - bpo-30348(9): Increase test coverage of idlelib.autocomplete by
     30%.  Patch by Louie Lu

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36405

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23216

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36152

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32129

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36096

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30348


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<27>,  Next: C API<45>,  Prev: IDLE<34>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-35132(1): Fix py-list and py-bt commands of python-gdb.py on
     gdb7.

   - bpo-32217(2): Fix freeze script on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32217


File: python.info,  Node: C API<45>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<27>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.22.53.10 C API
................

   - bpo-36381(1): Raise ‘DeprecationWarning’ when ‘#’ formats are used
     for building or parsing values without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - bpo-36142(2): The whole coreconfig.h header is now excluded from
     Py_LIMITED_API. Move functions definitions into a new internal
     pycore_coreconfig.h header.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36142


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.54 Python 3.8.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<53>,  Next: Library<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.54.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36052(1): Raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c. when assigning a
     value to ‘__debug__’ with the Assignment Operator.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36012(2): Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a
     non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to
     update slots.

   - bpo-35942(3): The error message emitted when returning invalid
     types from ‘__fspath__’ in interfaces that allow passing *note
     PathLike: acd. objects has been improved and now it does explain
     the origin of the error.

   - bpo-36016(4): ‘gc.get_objects’ can now receive an optional
     parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1054041(5): When the main interpreter exits due to an uncaught
     KeyboardInterrupt, the process now exits in the appropriate manner
     for its parent process to detect that a SIGINT or ^C terminated the
     process.  This allows shells and batch scripts to understand that
     the user has asked them to stop.

   - bpo-35992(6): Fix ‘__class_getitem__()’ not being called on a class
     with a custom non-subscriptable metaclass.

   - bpo-35993(7): Fix a crash on fork when using subinterpreters.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35991(8): Fix a potential double free in
     Modules/_randommodule.c.

   - bpo-35961(9): Fix a crash in slice_richcompare(): use strong
     references rather than stolen references for the two temporary
     internal tuples.

   - bpo-35911(10): Enable the creation of cell objects by adding a
     ‘cell.__new__’ method, and expose the type ‘cell’ in ‘Lib/types.py’
     under the name CellType.  Patch by Pierre Glaser.

   - bpo-12822(11): Use monotonic clock for ‘pthread_cond_timedwait’
     when ‘pthread_condattr_setclock’ and ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC’ are
     available.

   - bpo-15248(12): The compiler emits now syntax warnings in the case
     when a comma is likely missed before tuple or list.

   - bpo-35886(13): The implementation of PyInterpreterState has been
     moved into the internal header files (guarded by Py_BUILD_CORE).

   - bpo-31506(14): Clarify the errors reported when ‘object.__new__’
     and ‘object.__init__’ receive more than one argument.  Contributed
     by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-35724(15): Signal-handling is now guaranteed to happen relative
     to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33608(16): We added a new internal _Py_AddPendingCall() that
     operates relative to the provided interpreter.  This allows us to
     use the existing implementation to ask another interpreter to do
     work that cannot be done in the current interpreter, like decref an
     object the other interpreter owns.  The existing
     Py_AddPendingCall() only operates relative to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33989(17): Fix a possible crash in *note list.sort(): a46. when
     sorting objects with ‘ob_type->tp_richcompare == NULL’.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35942

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35992

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35991

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35961

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35911

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12822

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35724

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33608

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33989


File: python.info,  Node: Library<54>,  Next: Documentation<50>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.54.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-35512(1): *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 182c. used as a
     decorator with string target resolves the target during function
     call instead of during decorator construction.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36018(2): Add statistics.NormalDist, a tool for creating and
     manipulating normal distributions of random variable.  Features a
     composite class that treats the mean and standard deviation of
     measurement data as single entity.

   - bpo-35904(3): Added statistics.fmean() as a faster, floating-point
     variant of the existing mean() function.

   - bpo-35918(4): Removed broken ‘has_key’ method from
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-18283(5): Add support for bytes to *note shutil.which(): 1e0.

   - bpo-35960(6): Fix *note dataclasses.field(): 1859. throwing away
     empty mapping objects passed as metadata.

   - bpo-35500(7): Write expected and actual call parameters on separate
     lines in *note unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with(): 185a.
     assertion errors.  Contributed by Susan Su.

   - bpo-35931(8): The *note pdb: a4. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles syntax errors.

   - bpo-24209(9): In http.server script, rely on getaddrinfo to bind to
     preferred address based on the bind parameter.  Now default bind or
     binding to a name may bind to IPv6 or dual-stack, depending on the
     environment.

   - bpo-35321(10): Set ‘__spec__.origin’ of ‘_frozen_importlib’ to
     frozen so that it matches the behavior of
     ‘_frozen_importlib_external’.  Patch by Nina Zakharenko.

   - bpo-35378(11): Fix a reference issue inside ‘multiprocessing.Pool’
     that caused the pool to remain alive if it was deleted without
     being closed or terminated explicitly.  A new strong reference is
     added to the pool iterators to link the lifetime of the pool to the
     lifetime of its iterators so the pool does not get destroyed if a
     pool iterator is still alive.

   - bpo-34294(12): re module, fix wrong capturing groups in rare cases.
     *note re.search(): 10d3, *note re.findall(): ed2, *note re.sub():
     208. and other functions that scan through string looking for a
     match, should reset capturing groups between two match attempts.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35615(13): *note weakref: 114.: Fix a RuntimeError when copying
     a WeakKeyDictionary or a WeakValueDictionary, due to some keys or
     values disappearing while iterating.

   - bpo-35606(14): Implement *note math.prod(): 864. as analogous
     function to *note sum(): 187. that returns the product of a ‘start’
     value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-32417(15): Performing arithmetic between *note
     datetime.datetime: 22b. subclasses and *note datetime.timedelta:
     82d. now returns an object of the same type as the *note
     datetime.datetime: 22b. subclass.  As a result, *note
     datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 82e. and alternate constructors
     like *note datetime.datetime.now(): 22e. and
     ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ called with a ‘tz’ argument now 'also'
     retain their subclass.

   - bpo-35153(16): Add 'headers' optional keyword-only parameter to
     *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: 8ba, ‘xmlrpc.client.Transport’ and
     ‘xmlrpc.client.SafeTransport’.  Patch by Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-34572(17): Fix C implementation of pickle.loads to use
     importlib’s locking mechanisms, and thereby avoid using partially
     loaded modules.  Patch by Tim Burgess.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35918

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18283

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35960

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24209

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35321

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35378

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34294

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35615

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34572


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<50>,  Next: Tests<49>,  Prev: Library<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.54.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36083(1): Fix formatting of –check-hash-based-pycs options in
     the manpage Synopsis.

   - bpo-36007(2): Bump minimum sphinx version to 1.8.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-22062(3): Update documentation and docstrings for pathlib.
     Original patch by Mike Short.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36083

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36007

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22062


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<49>,  Next: Windows<47>,  Prev: Documentation<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.54.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27313(1): Avoid test_ttk_guionly ComboboxTest failure with
     macOS Cocoa Tk.

   - bpo-36019(2): Add test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL and replace references
     of ‘http://www.example.com’ by this new constant.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36037(3): Fix test_ssl for strict OpenSSL configuration like
     RHEL8 strict crypto policy.  Use older TLS version for minimum TLS
     version of the server SSL context if needed, to test TLS version
     older than default minimum TLS version.

   - bpo-35798(4): Added ‘test.support.check_syntax_warning()’.

   - bpo-35505(5): Make test_imap4_host_default_value independent on
     whether the local IMAP server is running.

   - bpo-35917(6): multiprocessing: provide unit tests for SyncManager
     and SharedMemoryManager classes + all the shareable types which are
     supposed to be supported by them.  (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35704(7): Skip ‘test_shutil.test_unpack_archive_xztar’ to
     prevent a MemoryError on 32-bit AIX when MAXDATA setting is less
     than 0x20000000.

     Patch by Michael Felt (aixtools)

   - bpo-34720(8): Assert m_state != NULL to mimic GC traversal
     functions that do not correctly handle module creation when the
     module state has not been created.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36019

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35798

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35505

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35917

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35704

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34720


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<47>,  Next: IDLE<35>,  Prev: Tests<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.54.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35976(1): Added ARM build support to Windows build files in
     PCBuild.

   - bpo-35692(2): ‘pathlib’ no longer raises when checking file and
     directory existence on drives that are not ready

   - bpo-35872(3): Uses the base Python executable when invoking venv in
     a virtual environment

   - bpo-35873(4): Prevents venv paths being inherited by child
     processes

   - bpo-35299(5): Fix sysconfig detection of the source directory and
     distutils handling of pyconfig.h during PGO profiling

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35976

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35872

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35299


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<35>,  Prev: Windows<47>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.22.54.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-24310(1): IDLE – Document settings dialog font tab sample.

   - bpo-35833(2): Revise IDLE doc for control codes sent to Shell.  Add
     a code example block.

   - bpo-35689(3): Add docstrings and unittests for colorizer.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24310

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35833

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35689


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.55 Python 3.8.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<40>,  Next: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35746(1): CVE 2019-5010(2): Fix a NULL pointer deref in ssl
     module.  The cert parser did not handle CRL distribution points
     with empty DP or URI correctly.  A malicious or buggy certificate
     can result into segfault.  Vulnerability (TALOS-2018-0758) reported
     by Colin Read and Nicolas Edet of Cisco.

   - bpo-34812(3): The *note -I: 7b8. command line option (run Python in
     isolated mode) is now also copied by the *note multiprocessing: 93.
     and ‘distutils’ modules when spawning child processes.  Previously,
     only *note -E: 7b7. and *note -s: 1232. options (enabled by *note
     -I: 7b8.) were copied.

   - bpo-34791(4): The xml.sax and xml.dom.domreg no longer use
     environment variables to override parser implementations when
     sys.flags.ignore_environment is set by -E or -I arguments.

   - bpo-17239(5): The xml.sax and xml.dom.minidom parsers no longer
     processes external entities by default.  External DTD and ENTITY
     declarations no longer load files or create network connections.

   - bpo-34623(6): CVE 2018-14647(7): The C accelerated _elementtree
     module now initializes hash randomization salt from _Py_HashSecret
     instead of libexpat’s default CSPRNG.

   - bpo-34405(8): Updated to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for Windows builds.

   - bpo-33871(9): Fixed sending the part of the file in *note
     os.sendfile(): 97d. on macOS. Using the 'trailers' argument could
     cause sending more bytes from the input file than was specified.

   - bpo-32533(10): Fixed thread-safety of error handling in _ssl.

   - bpo-33136(11): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE
     2018-8970(12).  X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an
     explicit namelen.  A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not
     allowed.

   - bpo-33001(13): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(14): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(15) and CVE 2018-1061(16).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   - bpo-28414(17): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35746

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-5010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34812

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34791

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34623

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-14647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33871

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32533

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (16) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<54>,  Next: Library<55>,  Prev: Security<40>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35877(1): Make parenthesis optional for named expressions in
     while statement.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35814(2): Allow same right hand side expressions in annotated
     assignments as in normal ones.  In particular, ‘x: Tuple[int, int]
     = 1, 2’ (without parentheses on the right) is now allowed.

   - bpo-35766(3): Add the option to parse PEP 484 type comments in the
     ast module.  (Off by default.)  This is merging the key
     functionality of the third party fork thereof,
     [typed_ast](‘https://github.com/python/typed_ast’).

   - bpo-35713(4): Reorganize Python initialization to get working
     exceptions and sys.stderr earlier.

   - bpo-33416(5): Add end line and end column position information to
     the Python AST nodes.  This is a C-level backwards incompatible
     change.

   - bpo-35720(6): Fixed a minor memory leak in
     pymain_parse_cmdline_impl function in Modules/main.c

   - bpo-35634(7): ‘func(**kwargs)’ will now raise an error when
     ‘kwargs’ is a mapping containing multiple entries with the same
     key.  An error was already raised when other keyword arguments are
     passed before ‘**kwargs’ since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-35623(8): Fix a crash when sorting very long lists.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-35214(9): clang Memory Sanitizer build instrumentation was
     added to work around false positives from posix, socket, time,
     test_io, and test_faulthandler.

   - bpo-35560(10): Fix an assertion error in *note format(): 431. in
     debug build for floating-point formatting with “n” format, zero
     padding and small width.  Release build is not impacted.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35552(11): Format characters ‘%s’ and ‘%V’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. and ‘%s’ in *note
     PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1862. no longer read memory past the limit if
     'precision' is specified.

   - bpo-35504(12): Fix segfaults and *note SystemError: 30e.s when
     deleting certain attributes.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35504(13): Fixed a SystemError when delete the
     characters_written attribute of an OSError.

   - bpo-35494(14): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses in f-string.

   - bpo-35444(15): Fixed error handling in pickling methods when fail
     to look up builtin “getattr”.  Sped up pickling iterators.

   - bpo-35436(16): Fix various issues with memory allocation error
     handling.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35423(17): Separate the signal handling trigger in the eval
     loop from the “pending calls” machinery.  There is no semantic
     change and the difference in performance is insignificant.

   - bpo-35357(18): Internal attributes’ names of unittest.mock._Call
     and unittest.mock.MagicProxy (name, parent & from_kall) are now
     prefixed with _mock_ in order to prevent clashes with widely used
     object attributes.  Fixed minor typo in test function name.

   - bpo-35372(19): Fixed the code page decoder for input longer than 2
     GiB containing undecodable bytes.

   - bpo-35336(20): Fix PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=1 environment variable: only
     coerce the C locale if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C”.

   - bpo-31241(21): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of AST
     nodes for list comprehensions, generator expressions and tuples are
     now point to the opening parenthesis or square brace.  For tuples
     without parenthesis they point to the position of the first item.

   - bpo-33954(22): For *note str.format(): 433, ‘float.__format__()’
     and ‘complex.__format__()’ methods for non-ASCII decimal point when
     using the “n” formatter.

   - bpo-35269(23): Fix a possible segfault involving a newly created
     coroutine.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35224(24): Implement PEP 572(25) (assignment expressions).
     Patch by Emily Morehouse.

   - bpo-32492(26): Speed up ‘namedtuple()’ attribute access by 1.6x
     using a C fast-path for the name descriptors.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-35214(27): Fixed an out of bounds memory access when parsing a
     truncated unicode escape sequence at the end of a string such as
     ‘'\N'’.  It would read one byte beyond the end of the memory
     allocation.

   - bpo-35214(28): The interpreter and extension modules have had
     annotations added so that they work properly under clang’s Memory
     Sanitizer.  A new configure flag –with-memory-sanitizer has been
     added to make test builds of this nature easier to perform.

   - bpo-35193(29): Fix an off by one error in the bytecode peephole
     optimizer where it could read bytes beyond the end of bounds of an
     array when removing unreachable code.  This bug was present in
     every release of Python 3.6 and 3.7 until now.

   - bpo-35169(30): Improved error messages for forbidden assignments.

   - bpo-34022(31): Fix handling of hash-based bytecode files in *note
     zipimport: 132.  Patch by Elvis Pranskevichus.

   - bpo-28401(32): Debug builds will no longer to attempt to import
     extension modules built for the ABI as they were never compatible
     to begin with.  Patch by Stefano Rivera.

   - bpo-29341(33): Clarify in the docstrings of *note os: a0. methods
     that path-like objects are also accepted as input parameters.

   - bpo-35050(34): *note socket: cb.: Fix off-by-one bug in length
     check for ‘AF_ALG’ name and type.

   - bpo-29743(35): Raise *note ValueError: 189. instead of *note
     OverflowError: 6c7. in case of a negative ‘_length_’ in a *note
     ctypes.Array: 1863. subclass.  Also raise *note TypeError: 2c4.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 3dc. for non-integer ‘_length_’.
     Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-16806(36): Fix ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ for multi-line string
     tokens.

   - bpo-35029(37): *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. raised as an exception at
     code generation time will be now replaced with a *note SyntaxError:
     14c. for better error reporting.

   - bpo-34983(38): Expose *note symtable.Symbol.is_nonlocal(): 1864. in
     the symtable module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34974(39): *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca.
     constructors no longer convert unexpected exceptions (e.g.  *note
     MemoryError: 1409. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.) to *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

   - bpo-34939(40): Allow annotated names in module namespace that are
     declared global before the annotation happens.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-34973(41): Fixed crash in *note bytes(): 2cb. when the *note
     list: 422. argument is mutated while it is iterated.

   - bpo-34876(42): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of the AST
     for decorated function and class refer now to the position of the
     corresponding ‘def’, ‘async def’ and ‘class’ instead of the
     position of the first decorator.  This leads to more correct line
     reporting in tracing.  This is the only case when the position of
     child AST nodes can precede the position of the parent AST node.

   - bpo-34879(43): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     bytesobject.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34784(44): Fix the implementation of PyStructSequence_NewType
     in order to create heap allocated StructSequences.

   - bpo-32912(45): A *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. is now emitted instead
     of a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. for invalid escape sequences in
     string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-34854(46): Fixed a crash in compiling string annotations
     containing a lambda with a keyword-only argument that doesn’t have
     a default value.

   - bpo-34850(47): The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning:
     17e. when identity checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain
     types of literals (e.g.  strings, ints).  These can often work by
     accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.
     The warning advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’)
     instead.

   - bpo-34824(48): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     Modules/_ssl.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30156(49): The C function ‘property_descr_get()’ uses a
     “cached” tuple to optimize function calls.  But this tuple can be
     discovered in debug mode with *note sys.getobjects(): 395.  Remove
     the optimization, it’s not really worth it and it causes 3
     different crashes last years.

   - bpo-34762(50): Fix contextvars C API to use PyObject* pointer
     types.

   - bpo-34751(51): The hash function for tuples is now based on xxHash
     which gives better collision results on (formerly) pathological
     cases.  Additionally, on 64-bit systems it improves tuple hashes in
     general.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer with substantial contributions by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-34735(52): Fix a memory leak in Modules/timemodule.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34683(53): Fixed a bug where some SyntaxError error pointed to
     locations that were off-by-one.

   - bpo-34651(54): Only allow the main interpreter to fork.  The avoids
     the possibility of affecting the main interpreter, which is
     critical to operation of the runtime.

   - bpo-34653(55): Remove unused function
     PyParser_SimpleParseStringFilename.

   - bpo-32236(56): Warn that line buffering is not supported if *note
     open(): 2a6. is called with binary mode and ‘buffering=1’.

   - bpo-34641(57): Further restrict the syntax of the left-hand side of
     keyword arguments in function calls.  In particular,
     ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is now disallowed.

   - bpo-34637(58): Make the 'start' argument to 'sum()' visible as a
     keyword argument.

   - bpo-1621(59): Do not assume signed integer overflow behavior (C
     undefined behavior) when performing set hash table resizing.

   - bpo-34588(60): Fix an off-by-one in the recursive call pruning
     feature of traceback formatting.

   - bpo-34485(61): On Windows, the LC_CTYPE is now set to the user
     preferred locale at startup.  Previously, the LC_CTYPE locale was
     “C” at startup, but changed when calling setlocale(LC_CTYPE, “”) or
     setlocale(LC_ALL, “”).

   - bpo-34485(62): Standard streams like sys.stdout now use the
     “surrogateescape” error handler, instead of “strict”, on the POSIX
     locale (when the C locale is not coerced and the UTF-8 Mode is
     disabled).

   - bpo-34485(63): Fix the error handler of standard streams like
     sys.stdout: PYTHONIOENCODING=”:” is now ignored instead of setting
     the error handler to “strict”.

   - bpo-34485(64): Python now gets the locale encoding with C code to
     initialize the encoding of standard streams like sys.stdout.
     Moreover, the encoding is now initialized to the Python codec name
     to get a normalized encoding name and to ensure that the codec is
     loaded.  The change avoids importing _bootlocale and _locale
     modules at startup by default.

   - bpo-34527(65): On FreeBSD, Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale()
     now also forces the ASCII encoding if the LC_CTYPE locale is
     “POSIX”, not only if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C”.

   - bpo-34527(66): The UTF-8 Mode is now also enabled by the “POSIX”
     locale, not only by the “C” locale.

   - bpo-34403(67): On HP-UX with C or POSIX locale,
     sys.getfilesystemencoding() now returns “ascii” instead of “roman8”
     (when the UTF-8 Mode is disabled and the C locale is not coerced).

   - bpo-34523(68): The Python filesystem encoding is now read earlier
     during the Python initialization.

   - bpo-12458(69): Tracebacks show now correct line number for
     subexpressions in multiline expressions.  Tracebacks show now the
     line number of the first line for multiline expressions instead of
     the line number of the last subexpression.

   - bpo-34408(70): Prevent a null pointer dereference and resource
     leakage in ‘PyInterpreterState_New()’.

   - bpo-34400(71): Fix undefined behavior in parsetok.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33073(72): Added as_integer_ratio to ints to make them more
     interoperable with floats.

   - bpo-34377(73): Update valgrind suppression list to use
     ‘_PyObject_Free’/‘_PyObject_Realloc’ instead of
     ‘PyObject_Free’/‘PyObject_Realloc’.

   - bpo-34353(74): Added the “socket” option in the ‘stat.filemode()’
     Python implementation to match the C implementation.

   - bpo-34320(75): Fix ‘dict(od)’ didn’t copy iteration order of
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-34113(76): Fixed crash on debug builds when opcode stack was
     adjusted with negative numbers.  Patch by Constantin Petrisor.

   - bpo-34100(77): Compiler now merges constants in tuples and
     frozensets recursively.  Code attributes like ‘co_names’ are merged
     too.

   - bpo-34151(78): Performance of list concatenation, repetition and
     slicing operations is slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34170(79): -X dev: it is now possible to override the memory
     allocator using PYTHONMALLOC even if the developer mode is enabled.

   - bpo-33237(80): Improved *note AttributeError: 3dc. message for
     partially initialized module.

   - bpo-34149(81): Fix min and max functions to get default behavior
     when key is None.

   - bpo-34125(82): Profiling of unbound built-in methods now works when
     ‘**kwargs’ is given.

   - bpo-34141(83): Optimized pickling atomic types (None, bool, int,
     float, bytes, str).

   - bpo-34126(84): Fix crashes when profiling certain invalid calls of
     unbound methods.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-24618(85): Fixed reading invalid memory when create the code
     object with too small varnames tuple or too large argument counts.

   - bpo-34068(86): In *note io.IOBase.close(): 1865, ensure that the
     *note closed: 1866. attribute is not set with a live exception.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-34087(87): Fix buffer overflow while converting unicode to
     numeric values.

   - bpo-34080(88): Fixed a memory leak in the compiler when it raised
     some uncommon errors during tokenizing.

   - bpo-34066(89): Disabled interruption by Ctrl-C between calling
     ‘open()’ and entering a 'with' block in ‘with open()’.

   - bpo-34042(90): Fix dict.copy() to maintain correct total refcount
     (as reported by sys.gettotalrefcount()).

   - bpo-33418(91): Fix potential memory leak in function object when it
     creates reference cycle.

   - bpo-33985(92): Implement contextvars.ContextVar.name attribute.

   - bpo-33956(93): Update vendored Expat library copy to version 2.2.5.

   - bpo-24596(94): Decref the module object in *note
     PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 1733. before calling *note
     PyErr_Print(): 1771.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33451(95): Close directly executed pyc files before calling
     ‘PyEval_EvalCode()’.

   - bpo-1617161(96): The hash of ‘BuiltinMethodType’ instances (methods
     of built-in classes) now depends on the hash of the identity of
     '__self__' instead of its value.  The hash and equality of
     ‘ModuleType’ and ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances (methods of
     user-defined classes and some methods of built-in classes like
     ‘str.__add__’) now depend on the hash and equality of the identity
     of '__self__' instead of its value.  ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances
     no longer support ordering.

   - bpo-33824(97): Fix “LC_ALL=C python3.7 -V”: reset properly the
     command line parser when the encoding changes after reading the
     Python configuration.

   - bpo-33803(98): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn’t all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33738(99): Seven macro incompatibilities with the Limited API
     were fixed, and the macros *note PyIter_Check(): 171f, *note
     PyIndex_Check(): 7e8. and ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ were added as
     functions.  A script for automatic macro checks was added.

   - bpo-33786(100): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30167(101): ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags’ removes ‘__cached__’ from
     module in addition to ‘__file__’.

   - bpo-33706(102): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing
     the command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug
     report and the fix!

   - bpo-33597(103): Reduce ‘PyGC_Head’ size from 3 words to 2 words.

   - bpo-30654(104): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(105): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to
     add an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into
     the *note gc.garbage: 1066. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 7ec. can
     now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33462(106): Make dict and dict views reversible.  Patch by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-23722(107): A *note RuntimeError: 180. is now raised when the
     custom metaclass doesn’t provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the
     namespace passed to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning:
     17f. was emitted in Python 3.6–3.7.

   - bpo-33499(108): Add *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 801. environment
     variable and *note -X: 18e. ‘pycache_prefix’ command-line option to
     set an alternate root directory for writing module bytecode cache
     files.

   - bpo-25711(109): The *note zipimport: 132. module has been rewritten
     in pure Python.

   - bpo-33509(110): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don’t crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-31849(111): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33475(112): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations
     to strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-20104(113): Added support for the ‘setpgroup’, ‘resetids’,
     ‘setsigmask’, ‘setsigdef’ and ‘scheduler’ parameters of
     ‘posix_spawn’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33391(114): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-33363(115): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async
     for’ statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-28055(116): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by
     Rolf Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33128(117): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33331(118): Modules imported last are now cleared first at
     interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-33312(119): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33305(120): Improved syntax error messages for invalid
     numerical literals.

   - bpo-33306(121): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses.

   - bpo-33234(122): The list constructor will pre-size and not
     over-allocate when the input length is known.

   - bpo-33270(123): Intern the names for all anonymous code objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30455(124): The C and Python code and the documentation related
     to tokens are now generated from a single source file
     ‘Grammar/Tokens’.

   - bpo-33176(125): Add a ‘toreadonly()’ method to memoryviews.

   - bpo-33231(126): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(127): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(128): Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(129): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33053(130): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33138(131): Changed standard error message for non-pickleable
     and non-copyable types.  It now says “cannot pickle” instead of
     “can’t pickle” or “cannot serialize”.

   - bpo-33018(132): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33083(133): ‘math.factorial’ no longer accepts arguments that
     are not int-like.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33041(134): Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: 917. and
     fixes the following issues:

        * Setting global *note StopAsyncIteration: 1867. no longer
          breaks ‘async for’ loops.

        * Jumping into an ‘async for’ loop is now disabled.

        * Jumping out of an ‘async for’ loop no longer corrupts the
          stack.

   - bpo-25750(135): Fix rare Python crash due to bad refcounting in
     ‘type_getattro()’ if a descriptor deletes itself from the class.
     Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-33041(136): Fixed bytecode generation for “async for” with a
     complex target.  A StopAsyncIteration raised on assigning or
     unpacking will be now propagated instead of stopping the iteration.

   - bpo-33026(137): Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(138): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-32911(139): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(140).
     ‘docstring’ field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef,
     and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-17288(141): Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace
     events.

   - bpo-32946(142): Importing names from already imported module with
     “from … import …” is now 30% faster if the module is not a package.

   - bpo-32932(143): Make error message more revealing when there are
     non-str objects in ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-32925(144): Optimized iterating and containing test for literal
     lists consisting of non-constants: ‘x in [a, b]’ and ‘for x in [a,
     b]’.  The case of all constant elements already was optimized.

   - bpo-32889(145): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32836(146): Don’t use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   - bpo-31356(147): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(148)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(149): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(150): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’
     for namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(151): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(152): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-32489(153): A *note continue: 827. statement is now allowed in
     the *note finally: 828. clause.

   - bpo-17611(154): Simplified the interpreter loop by moving the logic
     of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning up code for *note break: 915, *note
     continue: 827. and *note return: 82c.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’ and
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

   - bpo-32285(155): New function unicodedata.is_normalized, which can
     check whether a string is in a specific normal form.

   - bpo-10544(156): Yield expressions are now disallowed in
     comprehensions and generator expressions except the expression for
     the outermost iterable.

   - bpo-32117(157): Iterable unpacking is now allowed without
     parentheses in yield and return statements, e.g.  ‘yield 1, 2, 3,
     *rest’.  Thanks to David Cuthbert for the change and Jordan Chapman
     for added tests.

   - bpo-31902(158): Fix the ‘col_offset’ attribute for ast nodes
     ‘ast.AsyncFor’, ‘ast.AsyncFunctionDef’, and ‘ast.AsyncWith’.
     Previously, ‘col_offset’ pointed to the keyword after ‘async’.

   - bpo-25862(159): Fix assertion failures in the ‘tell()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-21983(160): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31577(161): Fix a crash in ‘os.utime()’ in case of a bad ns
     argument.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29832(162): Remove references to ‘getsockaddrarg’ from various
     socket error messages.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35877

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35623

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35560

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35494

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35444

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35436

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35423

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35357

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35372

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35336

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31241

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33954

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35269

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35193

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35169

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34022

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28401

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29341

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35050

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35029

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34983

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34974

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34939

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34973

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34876

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34879

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34784

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34854

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34824

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30156

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34751

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34735

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34683

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34653

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32236

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34637

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34588

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34485

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<55>,  Next: Documentation<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35845(1): Add ‘order’ parameter to memoryview.tobytes().

   - bpo-35864(2): The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple now
     returns a regular dict instead of an OrderedDict.

   - bpo-35537(3): An ExitStack is now used internally within
     subprocess.Popen to clean up pipe file handles.  No behavior change
     in normal operation.  But if closing one handle were ever to cause
     an exception, the others will now be closed instead of leaked.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35847(4): RISC-V needed the CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK. Fixes
     ctypes Structure test_pass_by_value.

   - bpo-35813(5): Shared memory submodule added to multiprocessing to
     avoid need for serialization between processes

   - bpo-35780(6): Fix lru_cache() errors arising in recursive,
     reentrant, or multi-threaded code.  These errors could result in
     orphan links and in the cache being trapped in a state with fewer
     than the specified maximum number of links.  Fix handling of
     negative maxsize which should have been treated as zero.  Fix
     errors in toggling the “full” status flag.  Fix misordering of
     links when errors are encountered.  Sync-up the C code and pure
     Python code for the space saving path in functions with a single
     positional argument.  In this common case, the space overhead of an
     lru cache entry is reduced by almost half.  Fix counting of cache
     misses.  In error cases, the miss count was out of sync with the
     actual number of times the underlying user function was called.

   - bpo-35537(7): *note os.posix_spawn(): 8bc. and *note
     os.posix_spawnp(): 1869. now have a 'setsid' parameter.

   - bpo-23846(8): *note asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 418. now catches and
     logs send errors when the self-pipe is full.

   - bpo-34323(9): *note asyncio: a.: Enhance ‘IocpProactor.close()’
     log: wait 1 second before the first log, then log every second.
     Log also the number of seconds since ‘close()’ was called.

   - bpo-35674(10): Add a new *note os.posix_spawnp(): 1869. function.
     Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-35733(11): ‘ast.Constant(boolean)’ no longer an instance of
     ‘ast.Num’.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35726(12): QueueHandler.prepare() now makes a copy of the
     record before modifying and enqueueing it, to avoid affecting other
     handlers in the chain.

   - bpo-35719(13): Sped up multi-argument *note math: 8d. functions
     atan2(), copysign(), remainder() and hypot() by 1.3–2.5 times.

   - bpo-35717(14): Fix KeyError exception raised when using enums and
     compile.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35699(15): Fixed detection of Visual Studio Build Tools 2017 in
     distutils

   - bpo-32710(16): Fix memory leaks in asyncio ProactorEventLoop on
     overlapped operation failure.

   - bpo-35702(17): The *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: 8a5. constant is
     now available for macOS 10.12.

   - bpo-32710(18): Fix a memory leak in asyncio in the
     ProactorEventLoop when ‘ReadFile()’ or ‘WSASend()’ overlapped
     operation fail immediately: release the internal buffer.

   - bpo-35682(19): Fix ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop.sendfile()’: don’t
     attempt to set the result of an internal future if it’s already
     done.

   - bpo-35283(20): Add a deprecated warning for the
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’ method.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35664(21): Improve operator.itemgetter() performance by 33%
     with optimized argument handling and with adding a fast path for
     the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple
     (which is the typical use case in the standard library).

   - bpo-35643(22): Fixed a SyntaxWarning: invalid escape sequence in
     Modules/_sha3/cleanup.py.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-35619(23): Improved support of custom data descriptors in *note
     help(): 72a. and *note pydoc: b4.

   - bpo-28503(24): The ‘crypt’ module now internally uses the
     ‘crypt_r()’ library function instead of ‘crypt()’ when available.

   - bpo-35614(25): Fixed help() on metaclasses.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-35568(26): Expose ‘raise(signum)’ as ‘raise_signal’

   - bpo-35588(27): The floor division and modulo operations and the
     *note divmod(): 7ff. function on *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae.
     types are 2–4x faster.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-35585(28): Speed-up building enums by value, e.g.
     http.HTTPStatus(200).

   - bpo-30561(29): random.gammavariate(1.0, beta) now computes the same
     result as random.expovariate(1.0 / beta).  This synchronizes the
     two algorithms and eliminates some idiosyncrasies in the old
     implementation.  It does however produce a difference stream of
     random variables than it used to.

   - bpo-35537(30): The *note subprocess: d5. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 8bc. function in some cases for better
     performance.

   - bpo-35526(31): Delaying the ‘joke’ of barry_as_FLUFL.mandatory to
     Python version 4.0

   - bpo-35523(32): Remove *note ctypes: 2a. callback workaround: no
     longer create a callback at startup.  Avoid SELinux alert on
     ‘import ctypes’ and ‘import uuid’.

   - bpo-31784(33): *note uuid.uuid1(): a1f. now calls *note
     time.time_ns(): 955. rather than ‘int(time.time() * 1e9)’.

   - bpo-35513(34): ‘TextTestRunner’ of ‘unittest.runner’ now uses *note
     time.perf_counter(): 8ed. rather than *note time.time(): 94f. to
     measure the execution time of a test: *note time.time(): 94f. can
     go backwards, whereas *note time.perf_counter(): 8ed. is monotonic.

   - bpo-35502(35): Fixed reference leaks in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: 8b8. in case of unfinished
     building of the tree (in particular when an error was raised during
     parsing XML).

   - bpo-35348(36): Make *note platform.architecture(): 186a. parsing of
     ‘file’ command output more reliable: add the ‘-b’ option to the
     ‘file’ command to omit the filename, force the usage of the C
     locale, and search also the “shared object” pattern.

   - bpo-35491(37): *note multiprocessing: 93.: Add ‘Pool.__repr__()’
     and enhance ‘BaseProcess.__repr__()’ (add pid and parent pid) to
     ease debugging.  Pool state constant values are now strings instead
     of integers, for example ‘RUN’ value becomes ‘'RUN'’ instead of
     ‘0’.

   - bpo-35477(38): ‘multiprocessing.Pool.__enter__()’ now fails if the
     pool is not running: ‘with pool:’ fails if used more than once.

   - bpo-31446(39): Copy command line that was passed to CreateProcessW
     since this function can change the content of the input buffer.

   - bpo-35471(40): Python 2.4 dropped MacOS 9 support.  The macpath
     module was deprecated in Python 3.7.  The module is now removed.

   - bpo-23057(41): Unblock Proactor event loop when keyboard interrupt
     is received on Windows

   - bpo-35052(42): Fix xml.dom.minidom cloneNode() on a document with
     an entity: pass the correct arguments to the user data handler of
     an entity.

   - bpo-20239(43): Allow repeated assignment deletion of *note
     unittest.mock.Mock: 8af. attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-17185(44): Set ‘__signature__’ on mock for *note inspect: 7c.
     to get signature.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35445(45): Memory errors during creating posix.environ no
     longer ignored.

   - bpo-35415(46): Validate fileno= argument to socket.socket().

   - bpo-35424(47): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ destructor now emits *note
     ResourceWarning: ab9. if the pool is still running.

   - bpo-35330(48): When a ‘Mock’ instance was used to wrap an object,
     if ‘side_effect’ is used in one of the mocks of it methods, don’t
     call the original implementation and return the result of using the
     side effect the same way that it is done with return_value.

   - bpo-35346(49): Drop Mac OS 9 and Rhapsody support from the *note
     platform: a9. module.  Rhapsody last release was in 2000.  Mac OS 9
     last release was in 2001.

   - bpo-10496(50): ‘check_environ()’ of ‘distutils.utils’ now catches
     *note KeyError: 903. on calling *note pwd.getpwuid(): 186b.: don’t
     create the ‘HOME’ environment variable in this case.

   - bpo-10496(51): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ now returns the input
     'path' unchanged if the ‘HOME’ environment variable is not set and
     the current user has no home directory (if the current user
     identifier doesn’t exist in the password database).  This change
     fix the *note site: c6. module if the current user doesn’t exist in
     the password database (if the user has no home directory).

   - bpo-35389(52): *note platform.libc_ver(): 186c. now uses
     ‘os.confstr('CS_GNU_LIBC_VERSION')’ if available and the
     'executable' parameter is not set.

   - bpo-35394(53): Add empty slots to asyncio abstract protocols.

   - bpo-35310(54): Fix a bug in *note select.select(): c2d. where, in
     some cases, the file descriptor sequences were returned unmodified
     after a signal interruption, even though the file descriptors might
     not be ready yet.  *note select.select(): c2d. will now always
     return empty lists if a timeout has occurred.  Patch by Oran
     Avraham.

   - bpo-35380(55): Enable TCP_NODELAY on Windows for proactor asyncio
     event loop.

   - bpo-35341(56): Add generic version of ‘collections.OrderedDict’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Ismo Toijala.

   - bpo-35371(57): Fixed possible crash in ‘os.utime()’ on Windows when
     pass incorrect arguments.

   - bpo-35346(58): *note platform.uname(): 186d. now redirects ‘stderr’
     to *note os.devnull: 186e. when running external programs like ‘cmd
     /c ver’.

   - bpo-35066(59): Previously, calling the strftime() method on a
     datetime object with a trailing ‘%’ in the format string would
     result in an exception.  However, this only occurred when the
     datetime C module was being used; the python implementation did not
     match this behavior.  Datetime is now PEP-399 compliant, and will
     not throw an exception on a trailing ‘%’.

   - bpo-35345(60): The function ‘platform.popen’ has been removed, it
     was deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): 8ec.
     instead.

   - bpo-35344(61): On macOS, *note platform.platform(): 1572. now uses
     *note platform.mac_ver(): 186f, if it returns a non-empty release
     string, to get the macOS version rather than the darwin version.

   - bpo-35312(62): Make ‘lib2to3.pgen2.parse.ParseError’ round-trip
     pickle-able.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35308(63): Fix regression in ‘webbrowser’ where default
     browsers may be preferred over browsers in the ‘BROWSER’
     environment variable.

   - bpo-24746(64): Avoid stripping trailing whitespace in doctest fancy
     diff.  Original patch by R. David Murray & Jairo Trad.  Enhanced by
     Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-28604(65): *note locale.localeconv(): a77. now sets temporarily
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if the two
     locales are different and monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

   - bpo-35277(66): Update ensurepip to install pip 18.1 and setuptools
     40.6.2.

   - bpo-24209(67): Adds IPv6 support when invoking http.server
     directly.

   - bpo-35226(68): Recursively check arguments when testing for
     equality of *note unittest.mock.call: 1800. objects and add note
     that tracking of parameters used to create ancestors of mocks in
     ‘mock_calls’ is not possible.

   - bpo-29564(69): The warnings module now suggests to enable
     tracemalloc if the source is specified, the tracemalloc module is
     available, but tracemalloc is not tracing memory allocations.

   - bpo-35189(70): Modify the following fnctl function to retry if
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR): flock, lockf, fnctl

   - bpo-30064(71): Use add_done_callback() in sock_* asyncio API to
     unsubscribe reader/writer early on calcellation.

   - bpo-35186(72): Removed the “built with” comment added when
     ‘setup.py upload’ is used with either ‘bdist_rpm’ or ‘bdist_dumb’.

   - bpo-35152(73): Allow sending more than 2 GB at once on a
     multiprocessing connection on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-35062(74): Fix incorrect parsing of *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 14c6.’s 'translate' argument.

   - bpo-35065(75): Remove ‘StreamReaderProtocol._untrack_reader’.  The
     call to ‘_untrack_reader’ is currently performed too soon, causing
     the protocol to forget about the reader before ‘connection_lost’
     can run and feed the EOF to the reader.

   - bpo-34160(76): ElementTree and minidom now preserve the attribute
     order specified by the user.

   - bpo-35079(77): Improve difflib.SequenceManager.get_matching_blocks
     doc by adding ‘non-overlapping’ and changing ‘!=’ to ‘<’.

   - bpo-33710(78): Deprecated ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods in
     the *note gettext: 61. module.  They return encoded bytes instead
     of Unicode strings and are artifacts from Python 2 times.  Also
     deprecated functions and methods related to setting the charset for
     ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods.

   - bpo-35017(79): *note socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever(): fe3.
     now exits immediately if it’s *note shutdown(): 1870. method is
     called while it is polling for new events.

   - bpo-35024(80): ‘importlib’ no longer logs ‘wrote <bytecode path>’
     redundantly after ‘(created|could not create) <bytecode path>’ is
     already logged.  Patch by Quentin Agren.

   - bpo-35047(81): ‘unittest.mock’ now includes mock calls in exception
     messages if ‘assert_not_called’, ‘assert_called_once’, or
     ‘assert_called_once_with’ fails.  Patch by Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31047(82): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ regression where it didn’t
     remove a trailing separator on Windows.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-35053(83): tracemalloc now tries to update the traceback when
     an object is reused from a “free list” (optimization for faster
     object creation, used by the builtin list type for example).

   - bpo-31553(84): Add the –json-lines option to json.tool.  Patch by
     hongweipeng.

   - bpo-34794(85): Fixed a leak in Tkinter when pass the Python wrapper
     around Tcl_Obj back to Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-34909(86): Enum: fix grandchildren subclassing when parent
     mixed with concrete data types.

   - bpo-35022(87): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: d25. now supports the
     ‘__fspath__’ method (from *note os.PathLike: acd.).

   - bpo-35008(88): Fixed references leaks when call the
     ‘__setstate__()’ method of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     247. in the C implementation for already initialized element.

   - bpo-23420(89): Verify the value for the parameter ‘-s’ of the
     cProfile CLI. Patch by Robert Kuska

   - bpo-33947(90): dataclasses now handle recursive reprs without
     raising RecursionError.

   - bpo-34890(91): Make *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 1b5, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 15f3. and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 15f4. work with *note
     functools.partial(): d61.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34521(92): Use *note socket.CMSG_SPACE(): 1871. to calculate
     ancillary data size instead of *note socket.CMSG_LEN(): 1872. in
     ‘multiprocessing.reduction.recvfds()’ as RFC 3542(93) requires the
     use of the former for portable applications.

   - bpo-31522(94): The ‘mailbox.mbox.get_string’ function 'from_'
     parameter can now successfully be set to a non-default value.

   - bpo-34970(95): Protect tasks weak set manipulation in
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’

   - bpo-34969(96): gzip: Add –fast, –best on the gzip CLI, these
     parameters will be used for the fast compression method (quick) or
     the best method compress (slower, but smaller file).  Also, change
     the default compression level to 6 (tradeoff).

   - bpo-16965(97): The *note 2to3: 1873. *note execfile: 1874. fixer
     now opens the file with mode ‘'rb'’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34966(98): *note pydoc: b4. now supports aliases not only to
     methods defined in the end class, but also to inherited methods.
     The docstring is not duplicated for aliases.

   - bpo-34926(99): *note mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type(): 1875. now
     accepts *note path-like object: 98e. in addition to url strings.
     Patch by Mayank Asthana.

   - bpo-23831(100): Add ‘moveto()’ method to the ‘tkinter.Canvas’
     widget.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34941(101): Methods ‘find()’, ‘findtext()’ and ‘findall()’ of
     the ‘Element’ class in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module
     are now able to find children which are instances of ‘Element’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-32680(102): *note smtplib.SMTP: 786. objects now always have a
     ‘sock’ attribute present

   - bpo-34769(103): Fix for async generators not finalizing when event
     loop is in debug mode and garbage collector runs in another thread.

   - bpo-34936(104): Fix ‘TclError’ in
     ‘tkinter.Spinbox.selection_element()’.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34829(105): Add methods ‘selection_from’, ‘selection_range’,
     ‘selection_present’ and ‘selection_to’ to the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ for
     consistency with the ‘tkinter.Entry’ widget.  Patch by Juliette
     Monsel.

   - bpo-34911(106): Added 'secure_protocols' argument to
     'http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy' to allow for tweaking of
     protocols and also to add support by default for 'wss', the secure
     websocket protocol.

   - bpo-34922(107): Fixed integer overflow in the *note digest(): 1876.
     and *note hexdigest(): 1877. methods for the SHAKE algorithm in the
     *note hashlib: 66. module.

   - bpo-34925(108): 25% speedup in argument parsing for the functions
     in the bisect module.

   - bpo-34900(109): Fixed *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 16bc. when
     used to call test methods with subtests.  Patch by Bruno Oliveira.

   - bpo-34844(110): logging.Formatter enhancement - Ensure styles and
     fmt matches in logging.Formatter - Added validate method in each
     format style class: StrFormatStyle, PercentStyle,
     StringTemplateStyle.  - This method is called in the constructor of
     logging.Formatter class - Also re-raise the KeyError in the format
     method of each style class, so it would a bit clear that it’s an
     error with the invalid format fields.

   - bpo-34897(111): Adjust test.support.missing_compiler_executable
     check so that a nominal command name of “” is ignored.  Patch by
     Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34871(112): Fix inspect module polluted ‘sys.modules’ when
     parsing ‘__text_signature__’ of callable.

   - bpo-34898(113): Add ‘mtime’ argument to ‘gzip.compress’ for
     reproducible output.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-28441(114): On Cygwin and MinGW, ensure that ‘sys.executable’
     always includes the full filename in the path, including the ‘.exe’
     suffix (unless it is a symbolic link).

   - bpo-34866(115): Adding ‘max_num_fields’ to ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ to
     make DOS attacks harder by limiting the number of
     ‘MiniFieldStorage’ objects created by ‘FieldStorage’.

   - bpo-34711(116): http.server ensures it reports HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND
     when the local path ends with “/” and is not a directory, even if
     the underlying OS (e.g.  AIX) accepts such paths as a valid file
     reference.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34872(117): Fix self-cancellation in C implementation of
     asyncio.Task

   - bpo-34849(118): Don’t log waiting for ‘selector.select’ in asyncio
     loop iteration.  The waiting is pretty normal for any asyncio
     program, logging its time just adds a noise to logs without any
     useful information provided.

   - bpo-34022(119): The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable no
     longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode' argument to
     *note py_compile.compile(): 887, and determines its default value
     instead.

   - bpo-34819(120): Use a monotonic clock to compute timeouts in
     ‘Executor.map()’ and ‘as_completed()’, in order to prevent timeouts
     from deviating when the system clock is adjusted.

   - bpo-34758(121): Add .wasm -> application/wasm to list of recognized
     file types and content type headers

   - bpo-34789(122): *note xml.sax.make_parser(): 1878. now accepts any
     iterable as its 'parser_list' argument.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-34334(123): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘exc_text’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent traceback from being written twice.

   - bpo-34687(124): On Windows, asyncio now uses ProactorEventLoop,
     instead of SelectorEventLoop, by default.

   - bpo-5950(125): Support reading zip files with archive comments in
     *note zipimport: 132.

   - bpo-32892(126): The parser now represents all constants as *note
     ast.Constant: 21e. instead of using specific constant AST types
     (‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’).  These
     classes are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.

   - bpo-34728(127): Add deprecation warning when ‘loop’ is used in
     methods: ‘asyncio.sleep’, ‘asyncio.wait’ and ‘asyncio.wait_for’.

   - bpo-34738(128): ZIP files created by ‘distutils’ will now include
     entries for directories.

   - bpo-34659(129): Add an optional 'initial' argument to
     itertools.accumulate().

   - bpo-29577(130): Support multiple mixin classes when creating Enums.

   - bpo-34670(131): Add SSLContext.post_handshake_auth and
     SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake for TLS 1.3’s post handshake
     authentication feature.

   - bpo-32718(132): The Activate.ps1 script from venv works with
     PowerShell Core 6.1 and is now available under all operating
     systems.

   - bpo-31177(133): Fix bug that prevented using *note reset_mock: b7e.
     on mock instances with deleted attributes

   - bpo-34672(134): Add a workaround, so the ‘'Z'’ *note
     time.strftime(): 108e. specifier on the musl C library can work in
     some cases.

   - bpo-34666(135): Implement ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.awrite’ and
     ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.aclose()’ coroutines.  Methods are needed for
     providing a consistent stream API with control flow switched on by
     default.

   - bpo-6721(136): Acquire the logging module’s commonly used internal
     locks while fork()ing to avoid deadlocks in the child process.

   - bpo-34658(137): Fix a rare interpreter unhandled exception state
     SystemError only seen when using subprocess with a preexec_fn while
     an after_parent handler has been registered with
     os.register_at_fork and the fork system call fails.

   - bpo-34652(138): Ensure *note os.lchmod(): 1879. is never defined on
     Linux.

   - bpo-34638(139): Store a weak reference to stream reader to break
     strong references loop between reader and protocol.  It allows to
     detect and close the socket if the stream is deleted (garbage
     collected) without ‘close()’ call.

   - bpo-34536(140): ‘Enum._missing_’: raise ‘ValueError’ if None
     returned and ‘TypeError’ if non-member is returned.

   - bpo-34636(141): Speed up re scanning of many non-matching
     characters for s w and d within bytes objects.  (microoptimization)

   - bpo-24412(142): Add *note addModuleCleanup(): 8b0. and *note
     addClassCleanup(): 8b1. to unittest to support cleanups for
     ‘setUpModule()’ and *note setUpClass(): 8b2.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-34630(143): Don’t log SSL certificate errors in asyncio code
     (connection error logging is skipped already).

   - bpo-32490(144): Prevent filename duplication in *note subprocess:
     d5. exception messages.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34363(145): dataclasses.asdict() and .astuple() now handle
     namedtuples correctly.

   - bpo-34625(146): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.6.

   - bpo-32270(147): The subprocess module no longer mistakenly closes
     redirected fds even when they were in pass_fds when outside of the
     default {0, 1, 2} set.

   - bpo-34622(148): Create a dedicated ‘asyncio.CancelledError’,
     ‘asyncio.InvalidStateError’ and ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ exception
     classes.  Inherit them from corresponding exceptions from
     ‘concurrent.futures’ package.  Extract ‘asyncio’ exceptions into a
     separate file.

   - bpo-34610(149): Fixed iterator of
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy’.

   - bpo-34421(150): Fix distutils logging for non-ASCII strings.  This
     caused installation issues on Windows.

   - bpo-34604(151): Fix possible mojibake in the error message of
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘grp.getgrnam’ using string representation
     because of invisible characters or trailing whitespaces.  Patch by
     William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-30977(152): Make uuid.UUID use ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  Based on original patch by Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-34574(153): OrderedDict iterators are not exhausted during
     pickling anymore.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-8110(154): Refactored *note subprocess: d5. to check for
     Windows-specific modules rather than ‘sys.platform == 'win32'’.

   - bpo-34530(155): ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable()’ now falls back
     on *note os.defpath: 183b. if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is
     not set.

   - bpo-34563(156): On Windows, fix multiprocessing.Connection for very
     large read: fix _winapi.PeekNamedPipe() and _winapi.ReadFile() for
     read larger than INT_MAX (usually ‘2**31-1’).

   - bpo-34558(157): Correct typo in Lib/ctypes/_aix.py

   - bpo-34282(158): Move ‘Enum._convert’ to ‘EnumMeta._convert_’ and
     fix enum members getting shadowed by parent attributes.

   - bpo-22872(159): When the queue is closed, *note ValueError: 189. is
     now raised by *note multiprocessing.Queue.put(): 187a. and *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.get(): 187b. instead of *note AssertionError:
     4bf. and *note OSError: 65c, respectively.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34515(160): Fix parsing non-ASCII identifiers in
     ‘lib2to3.pgen2.tokenize’ ( PEP 3131(161)).

   - bpo-13312(162): Avoids a possible integer underflow (undefined
     behavior) in the time module’s year handling code when passed a
     very low negative year value.

   - bpo-34472(163): Improved compatibility for streamed files in *note
     zipfile: 131.  Previously an optional signature was not being
     written and certain ZIP applications were not supported.  Patch by
     Silas Sewell.

   - bpo-34454(164): Fix the .fromisoformat() methods of datetime types
     crashing when given unicode with non-UTF-8-encodable code points.
     Specifically, datetime.fromisoformat() now accepts surrogate
     unicode code points used as the separator.  Report and tests by
     Alexey Izbyshev, patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-6700(165): Fix inspect.getsourcelines for module level
     frames/tracebacks.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev.

   - bpo-34171(166): Running the *note trace: fd. module no longer
     creates the ‘trace.cover’ file.

   - bpo-34441(167): Fix crash when an ‘ABC’-derived class with invalid
     ‘__subclasses__’ is passed as the second argument to *note
     issubclass(): 5f8.  Patch by Alexey Izbyshev.

   - bpo-34427(168): Fix infinite loop in ‘a.extend(a)’ for
     ‘MutableSequence’ subclasses.

   - bpo-34412(169): Make *note signal.strsignal(): 187c. work on HP-UX.
     Patch by Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-20849(170): shutil.copytree now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’
     keyword argument.  Patch by Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-31715(171): Associate ‘.mjs’ file extension with
     ‘application/javascript’ MIME Type.

   - bpo-34384(172): *note os.readlink(): 778. now accepts *note
     path-like: 98e. and *note bytes: 2cb. objects on Windows.

   - bpo-22602(173): The UTF-7 decoder now raises *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 873. for ill-formed sequences starting with “+”
     (as specified in RFC 2152).  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-2122(174): The *note mmap.flush(): 902. method now returns
     ‘None’ on success, raises an exception on error under all
     platforms.

   - bpo-34341(175): Appending to the ZIP archive with the ZIP64
     extension no longer grows the size of extra fields of existing
     entries.

   - bpo-34333(176): Fix %-formatting in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 187d. when formatting an error
     message.

   - bpo-18540(177): The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 758. and *note
     imaplib.IMAP4_SSL: 759. classes now resolve to the local host IP
     correctly when the default value of 'host' parameter (‘''’) is
     used.

   - bpo-26502(178): Implement ‘traceback.FrameSummary.__len__()’ method
     to preserve compatibility with the old tuple API.

   - bpo-34318(179): *note assertRaises(): 2b7, *note
     assertRaisesRegex(): 2b9, *note assertWarns(): 100b. and *note
     assertWarnsRegex(): 100c. no longer success if the passed callable
     is None.  They no longer ignore unknown keyword arguments in the
     context manager mode.  A DeprecationWarning was raised in these
     cases since Python 3.5.

   - bpo-9372(180): Deprecate *note __getitem__(): 500. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 55e, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 55f. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 560.

   - bpo-33613(181): Fix a race condition in
     ‘multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker’ when the tracker receives
     SIGINT before it can register signal handlers for ignoring it.

   - bpo-34248(182): Report filename in the exception raised when the
     database file cannot be opened by *note dbm.gnu.open(): 187e. and
     *note dbm.ndbm.open(): 187f. due to OS-related error.  Patch by
     Zsolt Cserna.

   - bpo-33089(183): Add math.dist() to compute the Euclidean distance
     between two points.

   - bpo-34246(184): *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): cec. no longer
     modifies the content of the 'mail_options' argument.  Patch by
     Pablo S. Blum de Aguiar.

   - bpo-31047(185): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ for invalid paths on windows.
     Patch by Franz Woellert.

   - bpo-32321(186): Add pure Python fallback for functools.reduce.
     Patch by Robert Wright.

   - bpo-34270(187): The default asyncio task class now always has a
     name which can be get or set using two new methods (*note
     get_name(): 83d. and *note set_name(): 83c.) and is visible in the
     *note repr(): 637. output.  An initial name can also be set using
     the new ‘name’ keyword argument to *note asyncio.create_task():
     40b. or the ‘create_task()’ method of the event loop.  If no
     initial name is set, the default Task implementation generates a
     name like ‘Task-1’ using a monotonic counter.

   - bpo-34263(188): asyncio’s event loop will not pass timeouts longer
     than one day to epoll/select etc.

   - bpo-34035(189): Fix several AttributeError in zipfile seek()
     methods.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-32215(190): Fix performance regression in *note sqlite3: ce.
     when a DML statement appeared in a different line than the rest of
     the SQL query.

   - bpo-34075(191): Deprecate passing non-ThreadPoolExecutor instances
     to ‘AbstractEventLoop.set_default_executor()’.

   - bpo-34251(192): Restore ‘msilib.Win64’ to preserve backwards
     compatibility since it’s already used by ‘distutils’’ ‘bdist_msi’
     command.

   - bpo-19891(193): Ignore errors caused by missing / non-writable
     homedir while writing history during exit of an interactive
     session.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33089(194): Enhanced math.hypot() to support more than two
     dimensions.

   - bpo-34228(195): tracemalloc: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=0 environment
     variable and -X tracemalloc=0 command line option are now allowed
     to disable explicitly tracemalloc at startup.

   - bpo-13041(196): Use *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): fa5. to
     calculate the terminal width correctly in the
     ‘argparse.HelpFormatter’ class.  Initial patch by Zbyszek
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-34213(197): Allow frozen dataclasses to have a field named
     “object”.  Previously this conflicted with an internal use of
     “object”.

   - bpo-34052(198): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 1801,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 1802, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 489, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 1803. methods raises
     TypeError when unhashable objects are passed as callable.  These
     methods now don’t pass such objects to SQLite API. Previous
     behavior could lead to segfaults.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34197(199): Attributes 'skipinitialspace', 'doublequote' and
     'strict' of the 'dialect' attribute of the *note csv: 29. reader
     are now *note bool: 183. instances instead of integers 0 or 1.

   - bpo-32788(200): Errors other than *note TypeError: 2c4. raised in
     methods ‘__adapt__()’ and ‘__conform__()’ in the *note sqlite3: ce.
     module are now propagated to the user.

   - bpo-21446(201): The *note reload: 1880. fixer now uses *note
     importlib.reload(): 2a3. instead of deprecated ‘imp.reload()’.

   - bpo-940286(202): pydoc’s ‘Helper.showtopic()’ method now prints the
     cross references of a topic correctly.

   - bpo-34164(203): *note base64.b32decode(): ecd. could raise
     UnboundLocalError or OverflowError for incorrect padding.  Now it
     always raises ‘base64.Error’ in these cases.

   - bpo-33729(204): Fixed issues with arguments parsing in *note
     hashlib: 66.

   - bpo-34097(205): ZipFile can zip files older than 1980-01-01 and
     newer than 2107-12-31 using a new ‘strict_timestamps’ parameter at
     the cost of setting the timestamp to the limit.

   - bpo-34108(206): Remove extraneous CR in 2to3 refactor.

   - bpo-34070(207): Make sure to only check if the handle is a tty,
     when opening a file with ‘buffering=-1’.

   - bpo-27494(208): Reverted bpo-27494(209).  2to3 rejects now a
     trailing comma in generator expressions.

   - bpo-33967(210): functools.singledispatch now raises TypeError
     instead of IndexError when no positional arguments are passed.

   - bpo-34041(211): Add the parameter 'deterministic' to the *note
     sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 1802. method.  Patch by
     Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34056(212): Ensure the loader shim created by ‘imp.load_module’
     always returns bytes from its ‘get_data()’ function.  This fixes
     using ‘imp.load_module’ with PEP 552(213) hash-based pycs.

   - bpo-34054(214): The multiprocessing module now uses the monotonic
     clock *note time.monotonic(): d12. instead of the system clock
     *note time.time(): 94f. to implement timeout.

   - bpo-34043(215): Optimize tarfile uncompress performance about 15%
     when gzip is used.

   - bpo-34044(216): ‘subprocess.Popen’ now copies the 'startupinfo'
     argument to leave it unchanged: it will modify the copy, so that
     the same ‘STARTUPINFO’ object can be used multiple times.

   - bpo-34010(217): Fixed a performance regression for reading streams
     with tarfile.  The buffered read should use a list, instead of
     appending to a bytes object.

   - bpo-34019(218): webbrowser: Correct the arguments passed to Opera
     Browser when opening a new URL using the ‘webbrowser’ module.
     Patch by Bumsik Kim.

   - bpo-34003(219): csv.DictReader now creates dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-33978(220): Closed existing logging handlers before
     reconfiguration via fileConfig and dictConfig.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-14117(221): Make minor tweaks to turtledemo.  The ‘wikipedia’
     example is now ‘rosette’, describing what it draws.  The ‘penrose’
     print output is reduced.  The’1024’ output of ‘tree’ is eliminated.

   - bpo-33974(222): Fixed passing lists and tuples of strings
     containing special characters ‘"’, ‘\’, ‘{’, ‘}’ and ‘\n’ as
     options to *note ttk: f9. widgets.

   - bpo-27500(223): Fix getaddrinfo to resolve IPv6 addresses
     correctly.

   - bpo-24567(224): Improve random.choices() to handle subnormal input
     weights that could occasionally trigger an IndexError.

   - bpo-33871(225): Fixed integer overflow in *note os.readv(): 9d2,
     *note os.writev(): 9d5, *note os.preadv(): 9d1. and *note
     os.pwritev(): 9d4. and in *note os.sendfile(): 97d. with 'headers'
     or 'trailers' arguments (on BSD-based OSes and macOS).

   - bpo-25007(226): Add *note copy.copy(): 2bf. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9e4. support to zlib compressors and
     decompressors.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33929(227): multiprocessing: Fix a race condition in Popen of
     multiprocessing.popen_spawn_win32.  The child process now
     duplicates the read end of pipe instead of “stealing” it.
     Previously, the read end of pipe was “stolen” by the child process,
     but it leaked a handle if the child process had been terminated
     before it could steal the handle from the parent process.

   - bpo-33899(228): Tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE when
     provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
     behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
     Contributed by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33897(229): Added a ‘force’ keyword argument to
     logging.basicConfig().

   - bpo-33695(230): *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. uses *note
     os.scandir(): 8c3. function and all copy functions depending from
     it use cached *note os.stat(): 1c5. values.  The speedup for
     copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on
     Windows and + 30% on a Windows SMB share.  Also the number of *note
     os.stat(): 1c5. syscalls is reduced by 38% making *note
     shutil.copytree(): 88b. especially faster on network filesystems.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-33695(231).)

   - bpo-33916(232): bz2 and lzma: When Decompressor.__init__() is
     called twice, free the old lock to not leak memory.

   - bpo-32568(233): Make select.epoll() and its documentation
     consistent regarding 'sizehint' and 'flags'.

   - bpo-33833(234): Fixed bug in asyncio where ProactorSocketTransport
     logs AssertionError if force closed during write.

   - bpo-33663(235): Convert content length to string before putting to
     header.

   - bpo-33721(236): *note os.path: a1. functions that return a boolean
     result like *note exists(): 86f, *note lexists(): 870, *note
     isdir(): 871, *note isfile(): 872, *note islink(): 86d, and *note
     ismount(): e12, and *note pathlib.Path: 14f. methods that return a
     boolean result like *note exists(): 876, *note is_dir(): 877, *note
     is_file(): 878, *note is_mount(): 879, *note is_symlink(): 87a,
     *note is_block_device(): 87b, *note is_char_device(): 87c, *note
     is_fifo(): 87d, *note is_socket(): 87e. now return ‘False’ instead
     of raising *note ValueError: 189. or its subclasses *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 48b. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873. for
     paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS
     level.

   - bpo-26544(237): Fixed implementation of *note platform.libc_ver():
     186c.  It almost always returned version ‘2.9’ for glibc.

   - bpo-33843(238): Remove deprecated ‘cgi.escape’, ‘cgi.parse_qs’ and
     ‘cgi.parse_qsl’.

   - bpo-33842(239): Remove ‘tarfile.filemode’ which is deprecated since
     Python 3.3.

   - bpo-30167(240): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33805(241): Improve error message of dataclasses.replace() when
     an InitVar is not specified

   - bpo-33687(242): Fix the call to ‘os.chmod()’ for ‘uu.decode()’ if a
     mode is given or decoded.  Patch by Timo Furrer.

   - bpo-33812(243): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-32108(244): In configparser, don’t clear section when it is
     assigned to itself.

   - bpo-27397(245): Make email module properly handle invalid-length
     base64 strings.

   - bpo-33578(246): Implement multibyte encoder/decoder state methods

   - bpo-30805(247): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33476(248): Fix _header_value_parser.py when address group is
     missing final ‘;’.  Contributed by Enrique Perez-Terron

   - bpo-33694(249): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(250): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(251): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33274(252): W3C DOM Level 1 specifies return value of
     Element.removeAttributeNode() as “The Attr node that was removed.”
     xml.dom.minidom now complies with this requirement.

   - bpo-33778(253): Update ‘unicodedata’’s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33165(254): Added a stacklevel parameter to logging calls to
     allow use of wrapper/helper functions for logging APIs.

   - bpo-33770(255): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(256): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(257): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 2c4. instead of
     *note SystemError: 30e. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 868.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(258): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-31014(259): Fixed creating a controller for *note webbrowser:
     115. when a user specifies a path to an entry in the BROWSER
     environment variable.  Based on patch by John Still.

   - bpo-2504(260): Add gettext.pgettext() and variants.

   - bpo-33197(261): Add description property for _ParameterKind

   - bpo-32751(262): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(263): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(264): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(265): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33671(266): *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd, *note shutil.copy():
     8be, *note shutil.copy2(): 8bf, *note shutil.copytree(): 88b. and
     *note shutil.move(): 8c0. use platform-specific fast-copy syscalls
     on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.  On
     Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd. uses a bigger default buffer
     size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 185.-based
     variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): 8c1. is used.  The speedup
     for copying a 512MiB file is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and
     +40% on Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-25427(267).)

   - bpo-33674(268): Fix a race condition in
     SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start
     immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon().
     Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake
     started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

   - bpo-31647(269): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(270): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(271): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(272): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(273): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(274): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(275): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(276): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): a1f. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33238(277): Add ‘InvalidStateError’ to *note
     concurrent.futures: 21.  ‘Future.set_result’ and
     ‘Future.set_exception’ now raise ‘InvalidStateError’ if the futures
     are not pending or running.  Patch by Jason Haydaman.

   - bpo-33618(278): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33625(279): Release GIL on ‘grp.getgrnam’, ‘grp.getgrgid’,
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘pwd.getpwuid’ if reentrant variants of these
     functions are available.  Patch by William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-33623(280): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-11874(281): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(282): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the
     JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from
     clearing after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33604(283): Remove HMAC default to md5 marked for removal in
     3.8 (removal originally planned in 3.6, bump to 3.8 in PR 7062).

   - bpo-33582(284): Emit a deprecation warning for
     inspect.formatargspec

   - bpo-21145(285): Add ‘functools.cached_property’ decorator, for
     computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

   - bpo-33570(286): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(287): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-12486(288): *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 20c. is now
     documented as a public API to tokenize unicode strings.  It was
     previously present but undocumented.

   - bpo-33540(289): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     cc.

   - bpo-33548(290): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(291): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(292) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33541(293): Remove unused private method
     ‘_strptime.LocaleTime.__pad’ (a.k.a.  ‘_LocaleTime__pad’).

   - bpo-33536(294): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(295): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead
     of a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(296): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33516(297): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: d25. now supports
     the ‘__round__’ magic method.

   - bpo-28612(298): Added support for Site Maps to urllib’s
     ‘RobotFileParser’ as *note RobotFileParser.site_maps(): 1881.
     Patch by Lady Red, based on patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-28167(299): Remove platform.linux_distribution, which was
     deprecated since 3.5.

   - bpo-33504(300): Switch the default dictionary implementation for
     *note configparser: 22. from *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. to
     the standard *note dict: 240. type.

   - bpo-33505(301): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(302): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-29235(303): The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a
     context manager.  Patch by Scott Sanderson.

   - bpo-33495(304): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     ‘type’ member.

   - bpo-26103(305): Correct ‘inspect.isdatadescriptor’ to look for
     ‘__set__’ or ‘__delete__’.  Patch by Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-29209(306): Removed the ‘doctype()’ method and the 'html'
     parameter of the constructor of *note XMLParser: 8b7.  The
     ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass will no longer be called.
     Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 125. module emit now a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.

   - bpo-33453(307): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string
     type annotations or if using PEP 563 “Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations”.  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar (“ClassVar” and “typing.ClassVar”) and InitVar (“InitVar”
     and “dataclasses.InitVar”).

   - bpo-28556(308): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-33365(309): Print the header values besides the header keys
     instead just the header keys if 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note
     http.client: 6d.  Patch by Marco Strigl.

   - bpo-20087(310): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(311): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(312): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33281(313): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33311(314): Text and html output generated by cgitb does not
     display parentheses if the current call is done directly in the
     module.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-27300(315): The file classes in 'tempfile' now accept an
     'errors' parameter that complements the already existing
     'encoding'.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-32933(316): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1826. now supports
     iteration over the file contents.  Patch by Tony Flury.

   - bpo-33217(317): Raise *note TypeError: 2c4. when looking up
     non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum members.

   - bpo-33197(318): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(319): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33375(320): The warnings module now finds the Python file
     associated with a warning from the code object, rather than the
     frame’s global namespace.  This is consistent with how tracebacks
     and pdb find filenames, and should work better for dynamically
     executed code.

   - bpo-33336(321): ‘imaplib’ now allows ‘MOVE’ command in
     ‘IMAP4.uid()’ (RFC 6851: IMAP MOVE Extension) and potentially as a
     name of supported method of ‘IMAP4’ object.

   - bpo-32455(322): Added 'jump' parameter to *note dis.stack_effect():
     dd1.

   - bpo-27485(323): Rename and deprecate undocumented functions in
     *note urllib.parse(): 10a.

   - bpo-33332(324): Add ‘signal.valid_signals()’ to expose the POSIX
     sigfillset() functionality.

   - bpo-33251(325): ‘ConfigParser.items()’ was fixed so that key-value
     pairs passed in via *note vars(): 1882. are not included in the
     resulting output.

   - bpo-33329(326): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-33334(327): *note dis.stack_effect(): dd1. now supports all
     defined opcodes including NOP and EXTENDED_ARG.

   - bpo-991266(328): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1883.

   - bpo-33131(329): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(330): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when
     converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with
     ‘line_info=False’ and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-23403(331): lib2to3 now uses pickle protocol 4 for pre-computed
     grammars.

   - bpo-33266(332): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(333): Ensure line-endings are respected when using
     lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(334): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 540. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1884. return an
     *note iterable: 10ce. instead of an *note iterator: 176e.

   - bpo-33265(335): ‘contextlib.ExitStack’ and
     ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack’ now use a method instead of a wrapper
     function for exit callbacks.

   - bpo-33263(336): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(337): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33144(338): ‘random.Random()’ and its subclassing mechanism got
     optimized to check only once at class/subclass instantiation time
     whether its ‘getrandbits()’ method can be relied on by other
     methods, including ‘randrange()’, for the generation of arbitrarily
     large random integers.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-33185(339): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 3ec. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(340))

     This fix also changed pydoc to add ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path:
     368. when necessary, rather than adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-29613(341): Added support for the ‘SameSite’ cookie flag to the
     ‘http.cookies’ module.

   - bpo-33169(342): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33203(343): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’
     for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(344): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(345).  Convert
     an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(346): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1885.

   - bpo-32861(347): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and
     “Request-rate” fields.  Also removes extra newlines that were being
     appended to the end of the string.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-23403(348): ‘DEFAULT_PROTOCOL’ in *note pickle: a5. was bumped
     to 4.  Protocol 4 is described in PEP 3154(349) and available since
     Python 3.4.  It offers better performance and smaller size compared
     to protocol 3 introduced in Python 3.0.

   - bpo-20104(350): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 8bc.

   - bpo-33106(351): Deleting a key from a read-only dbm database raises
     module specific error instead of KeyError.

   - bpo-33175(352): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-32380(353): Create functools.singledispatchmethod to support
     generic single dispatch on descriptors and methods.

   - bpo-33141(354): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to
     their default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(355): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(356): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(357): When computing dataclass’s __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(358): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(359): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn’t have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(360): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying
     on sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(361): Add ‘Field’ to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(362): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(363): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that’s
     a MemberDescriptorType, then it’s from that field being in
     __slots__, not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(364): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen
     dataclass, allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only
     attributes from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.
     Require all dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or
     all non-frozen.

   - bpo-33097(365): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32968(366): Modulo and floor division involving Fraction and
     float should return float.

   - bpo-33061(367): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(368): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(369): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(370): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(371): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(372): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33034(373): Providing an explicit error message when casting
     the port property to anything that is not an integer value using
     ‘urlparse()’ and ‘urlsplit()’.  Patch by Matt Eaton.

   - bpo-30249(374): Improve struct.unpack_from() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.

   - bpo-33037(375): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(376): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7e. that
     result of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a
     tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-22674(377): Add the strsignal() function in the signal module
     that returns the system description of the given signal, as
     returned by strsignal(3).

   - bpo-32999(378): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(379): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(380): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(381): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules *note
     aifc: 5, *note wave: 113. and *note sunau: d6.

   - bpo-32970(382): Improved disassembly of the MAKE_FUNCTION
     instruction.

   - bpo-32844(383): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32960(384): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(385): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32257(386): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32951(387): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(388): Remove the tri-state parameter “hash”, and add the
     boolean “unsafe_hash”.  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(389): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32146(390): Document the interaction between frozen executables
     and the spawn and forkserver start methods in multiprocessing.

   - bpo-30622(391): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(392): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32759(393): Free unused arenas in multiprocessing.heap.

   - bpo-32859(394): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(395): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-21060(396): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     “No dist file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must
     create and upload files in one command”.

   - bpo-32857(397): In *note tkinter: ef, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 189. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(398): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(399): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module
     with C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.

     Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and
     caches, previously accessible via private attributes
     ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’, and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There
     are three debugging helper methods that can be used instead
     ‘_dump_registry’, ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(400): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(401): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-19675(402): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ no longer leaks processes if
     its initialization fails.

   - bpo-32394(403): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(404): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(405): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-30688(406): Added support of ‘\N{name}’ escapes in regular
     expressions.  Based on patch by Jonathan Eunice.

   - bpo-32792(407): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(408): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1886. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with ‘[’ or
     containing ‘–’, ‘&&’, ‘~~’ or ‘||’ will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(409): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(410): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(411): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect
     linking for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked
     against libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32749(412): A *note dbm.dumb: 32. database opened with flags
     ‘r’ is now read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): 8ff. with flags ‘r’
     and ‘w’ no longer creates a database if it does not exist.

   - bpo-32741(413): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(414): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(415): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(416): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(417): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(418): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(419): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(420): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f9.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32512(421): *note profile: ae. CLI accepts ‘-m module_name’ as
     an alternative to script path.

   - bpo-8525(422): help() on a type now displays builtin subclasses.
     This is intended primarily to help with notification of more
     specific exception subclasses.

     Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31639(423): http.server now exposes a ThreadingHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-29877(424): compileall: import ProcessPoolExecutor only when
     needed, preventing hangs on low resource platforms

   - bpo-32221(425): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-32147(426): *note binascii.unhexlify(): 1887. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-30693(427): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(428): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-31680(429): Added *note curses.ncurses_version: 846.

   - bpo-31908(430): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31608(431): Raise a ‘TypeError’ instead of crashing if a
     ‘collections.deque’ subclass returns a non-deque from ‘__new__’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31425(432): Add support for sockets of the AF_QIPCRTR address
     family, supported by the Linux kernel.  This is used to communicate
     with services, such as GPS or radio, running on Qualcomm devices.
     Patch by Bjorn Andersson.

   - bpo-22005(433): Implemented unpickling instances of *note datetime:
     22b, *note date: 749. and *note time: 6df. pickled by Python 2.
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ should be used for successful decoding.

   - bpo-27645(434): *note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. now exposes a *note
     backup: 9f0. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   - bpo-16865(435): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch
     by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31508(436): Removed support of arguments in
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection’.  It was deprecated in 3.6.  Use
     specialized methods like ‘selection_set’ for changing the
     selection.

   - bpo-29456(437): Fix bugs in hangul normalization: u1176, u11a7 and
     u11c3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

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   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864

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   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35847

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   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35780

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23846

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34323

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<51>,  Next: Tests<50>,  Prev: Library<55>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21257(1): Document *note http.client.parse_headers(): 1889.

   - bpo-34764(2): Improve example of iter() with 2nd sentinel argument.

   - bpo-35564(3): Explicitly set master_doc variable in conf.py for
     compliance with Sphinx 2.0

   - bpo-35511(4): Specified that profile.Profile class doesn’t not
     support enable or disable methods.  Also, elaborated that Profile
     object as a context manager is only supported in cProfile module.

   - bpo-10536(5): Enhance the gettext docs.  Patch by Éric Araujo

   - bpo-35089(6): Remove mention of ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’.  Their
     types should be imported from ‘typing’ directly.

   - bpo-35038(7): Fix the documentation about an unexisting
     ‘f_restricted’ attribute in the frame object.  Patch by Stéphane
     Wirtel

   - bpo-35042(8): Replace PEP XYZ by the pep role and allow to use the
     direct links to the PEPs.

   - bpo-35044(9): Fix the documentation with the role ‘exc’ for the
     appropriated exception.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35035(10): Rename documentation for *note email.utils: 4f. to
     ‘email.utils.rst’.

   - bpo-34967(11): Use app.add_object_type() instead of the deprecated
     Sphinx function app.description_unit()

   - bpo-34913(12): Add documentation about the new command line
     interface of the gzip module.

   - bpo-32174(13): chm document displays non-ASCII characters properly
     on some MBCS Windows systems.

   - bpo-11233(14): Create availability directive for documentation.
     Original patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-34790(15): Document how passing coroutines to asyncio.wait()
     can be confusing.

   - bpo-34552(16): Make clear that ‘==’ operator sometimes is
     equivalent to ‘is’.  The ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ and ‘>=’ operators are only
     defined where they make sense.

   - bpo-28617(17): Fixed info in the stdtypes docs concerning the types
     that support membership tests.

   - bpo-20177(18): Migrate datetime.date.fromtimestamp to Argument
     Clinic.  Patch by Tim Hoffmann.

   - bpo-34065(19): Fix wrongly written basicConfig documentation markup
     syntax

   - bpo-33460(20): replaced ellipsis with correct error codes in
     tutorial chapter 3.

   - bpo-33847(21): Add ‘@’ operator entry to index.

   - bpo-33409(22): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(23)’s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540’s PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33197(24): Add versionadded tag to the documentation of
     ParameterKind.description

   - bpo-17045(25): Improve the C-API doc for PyTypeObject.  This
     includes adding several quick-reference tables and a lot of missing
     slot/typedef entries.  The existing entries were also cleaned up
     with a slightly more consistent format.

   - bpo-33736(26): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 987, *note asyncio.start_server(): 988.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-23859(27): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(28): Document PEP 567(29) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(30): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning,
     bump removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33594(31): Document ‘getargspec’, ‘from_function’ and
     ‘from_builtin’ as deprecated in their respective docstring, and
     include version since deprecation in DeprecationWarning message.

   - bpo-33503(32): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(33): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33487(34): BZ2file now emit a DeprecationWarning when
     buffering=None is passed, the deprecation message and documentation
     also now explicitly state it is deprecated since 3.0.

   - bpo-33378(35): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(36): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(37): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(38): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’
     document.  ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python
     3.3, but it is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(39): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(40): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(41): Update *note zipapp: 130. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(42): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(43): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-28124(44): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(45): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(46): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(47): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(48): Update *note test.support: e3. documentation.

   - bpo-32613(49): Update the faq/windows.html to use the py command
     from PEP 397 instead of python.

   - bpo-8722(50): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 3dc.

   - bpo-32614(51): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-20709(52): Remove the paragraph where we explain that
     os.utime() does not support a directory as path under Windows.
     Patch by Jan-Philip Gehrcke

   - bpo-32722(53): Remove the bad example in the tutorial of the
     Generator Expression.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31972(54): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-30607(55): Use the externalized ‘python-docs-theme’ package
     when building the documentation.

   - bpo-8243(56): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(57): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   - bpo-25041(58): Document ‘AF_PACKET’ in the *note socket: cb.
     module.

   - bpo-31432(59): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35511

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10536

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35038

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35042

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35044

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35035

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34967

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34913

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32174

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11233

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34552

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28617

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20177

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34065

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33460

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33847

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17045

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33594

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32613

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20709

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32722

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30607

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25041

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<50>,  Next: Build<49>,  Prev: Documentation<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-35772(1): Fix sparse file tests of test_tarfile on ppc64 with
     the tmpfs filesystem.  Fix the function testing if the filesystem
     supports sparse files: create a file which contains data and
     “holes”, instead of creating a file which contains no data.  tmpfs
     effective block size is a page size (tmpfs lives in the page
     cache).  RHEL uses 64 KiB pages on aarch64, ppc64, ppc64le, only
     s390x and x86_64 use 4 KiB pages, whereas the test punch holes of 4
     KiB.

   - bpo-35045(2): Make ssl tests less strict and also accept TLSv1 as
     system default.  The changes unbreaks test_min_max_version on
     Fedora 29.

   - bpo-32710(3): ‘test_asyncio/test_sendfile.py’ now resets the event
     loop policy using ‘tearDownModule()’ as done in other tests, to
     prevent a warning when running tests on Windows.

   - bpo-33717(4): test.pythoninfo now logs information of all clocks,
     not only time.time() and time.perf_counter().

   - bpo-35488(5): Add a test to pathlib’s Path.match() to verify it
     does not support glob-style ** recursive pattern matching.

   - bpo-31731(6): Fix a race condition in ‘check_interrupted_write()’
     of test_io: create directly the thread with SIGALRM signal blocked,
     rather than blocking the signal later from the thread.  Previously,
     it was possible that the thread gets the signal before the signal
     is blocked.

   - bpo-35424(7): Fix test_multiprocessing_main_handling: use
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ with a context manager and then explicitly
     join the pool.

   - bpo-35519(8): Rename ‘test.bisect’ module to ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to
     avoid conflict with *note bisect: 11. module when running directly
     a test like ‘./python Lib/test/test_xmlrpc.py’.

   - bpo-35513(9): Replace *note time.time(): 94f. with *note
     time.monotonic(): d12. in tests to measure time delta.

   - bpo-34279(10): ‘test.support.run_unittest()’ no longer raise
     ‘TestDidNotRun’ if the test result contains skipped tests.  The
     exception is now only raised if no test have been run and no test
     have been skipped.

   - bpo-35412(11): Add testcase to ‘test_future4’: check unicode
     literal.

   - bpo-26704(12): Added test demonstrating double-patching of an
     instance method.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33725(13): test_multiprocessing_fork may crash on recent
     versions of macOS. Until the issue is resolved, skip the test on
     macOS.

   - bpo-35352(14): Modify test_asyncio to use the certificate set from
     the test directory.

   - bpo-35317(15): Fix ‘mktime()’ overflow error in ‘test_email’: run
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_true_dst_true()’ and
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_false_dst_true()’ with a specific
     timezone.

   - bpo-21263(16): After several reports that test_gdb does not work
     properly on macOS and since gdb is not shipped by default anymore,
     test_gdb is now skipped on macOS when LLVM Clang has been used to
     compile Python.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   - bpo-34279(17): regrtest issue a warning when no tests have been
     executed in a particular test file.  Also, a new final result state
     is issued if no test have been executed across all test files.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34962(18): make docstest in Doc now passes., and is enforced in
     CI

   - bpo-23596(19): Use argparse for the command line of the gzip
     module.  Patch by Antony Lee

   - bpo-34537(20): Fix ‘test_gdb.test_strings()’ when ‘LC_ALL=C’ and
     GDB was compiled with Python 3.6 or earlier.

   - bpo-34587(21): test_socket: Remove RDSTest.testCongestion().  The
     test tries to fill the receiver’s socket buffer and expects an
     error.  But the RDS protocol doesn’t require that.  Moreover, the
     Linux implementation of RDS expects that the producer of the
     messages reduces its rate, it’s not the role of the receiver to
     trigger an error.  The test fails on Fedora 28 by design, so just
     remove it.

   - bpo-34661(22): Fix test_shutil if unzip doesn’t support -t.

   - bpo-34200(23): Fixed non-deterministic flakiness of test_pkg by not
     using the scary test.support.module_cleanup() logic to save and
     restore sys.modules contents between test cases.

   - bpo-34569(24): The experimental PEP 554 data channels now correctly
     pass negative PyLong objects between subinterpreters on 32-bit
     systems.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34594(25): Fix usage of hardcoded ‘errno’ values in the tests.

   - bpo-34579(26): Fix test_embed for AIX Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-34542(27): Use 3072 RSA keys and SHA-256 signature for test
     certs and keys.

   - bpo-11193(28): Remove special condition for AIX in
     ‘test_subprocess.test_undecodable_env’

   - bpo-34347(29): Fix ‘test_utf8_mode.test_cmd_line’ for AIX

   - bpo-34490(30): On AIX with AF_UNIX family sockets getsockname()
     does not provide ‘sockname’, so skip calls to
     transport.get_extra_info(‘sockname’)

   - bpo-34391(31): Fix ftplib test for TLS 1.3 by reading from data
     socket.

   - bpo-11192(32): Fix ‘test_socket’ on AIX 6.1 and later IPv6 zone id
     supports only supported by ‘inet_pton6_zone()’.  Switch to
     runtime-based ‘platform.system()’ to establish current platform
     rather than build-time based ‘sys.platform()’

   - bpo-34399(33): Update all RSA keys and DH params to use at least
     2048 bits.

   - bpo-34373(34): Fix ‘test_mktime’ and ‘test_pthread_getcpuclickid’
     tests for AIX Add range checking for ‘_PyTime_localtime’ for AIX
     Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-11191(35): Skip the distutils test ‘test_search_cpp’ when using
     XLC as compiler patch by aixtools (Michael Felt)

   - Improved an error message when mock assert_has_calls fails.

   - bpo-33746(36): Fix test_unittest when run in verbose mode.

   - bpo-33901(37): Fix test_dbm_gnu on macOS with gdbm 1.15: add a
     larger value to make sure that the file size changes.

   - bpo-33873(38): Fix a bug in ‘regrtest’ that caused an extra test to
     run if –huntrleaks/-R was used.  Exit with error in case that
     invalid parameters are specified to –huntrleaks/-R (at least one
     warmup run and one repetition must be used).

   - bpo-33562(39): Check that a global asyncio event loop policy is not
     left behind by any tests.

   - bpo-33655(40): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD
     platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32962(41): Fixed test_gdb when Python is compiled with flags
     -mcet -fcf-protection -O0.

   - bpo-33358(42): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   - bpo-32872(43): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(44): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32663(45): Making sure the ‘SMTPUTF8SimTests’ class of tests
     gets run in ‘test_smtplib.py’.

   - bpo-27643(46): Test_C test case needs “signed short” bitfields, but
     the IBM XLC compiler (on AIX) does not support this Skip the code
     and test when AIX and XLC are used

     Applicable to Python2-2.7 and later

   - bpo-19417(47): Add test_bdb.py.

   - bpo-31809(48): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH
     curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35045

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33717

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35488

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31731

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35519

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26704

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35352

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35317

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21263

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34962

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23596

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34537

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34587

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34200

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34569

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34594

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34579

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34542

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11193

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34347

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34490

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34391

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11192

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34399

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11191

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33746

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33901

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33873

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33562

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32663

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27643

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<49>,  Next: Windows<48>,  Prev: Tests<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-34691(1): The _contextvars module is now built into the core
     Python library on Windows.

   - bpo-35683(2): Improved Azure Pipelines build steps and now
     verifying layouts correctly

   - bpo-35642(3): Remove asynciomodule.c from pythoncore.vcxproj

   - bpo-35550(4): Fix incorrect Solaris #ifdef checks to look for __sun
     && __SVR4 instead of sun when compiling.

   - bpo-35499(5): ‘make profile-opt’ no longer replaces ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     with ‘CFLAGS’.  It now adds profile-guided optimization (PGO) flags
     to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’: existing ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’ flags are kept.

   - bpo-35257(6): Avoid leaking the linker flags from Link Time
     Optimizations (LTO) into distutils when compiling C extensions.

   - bpo-35351(7): When building Python with clang and LTO, LTO flags
     are no longer passed into CFLAGS to build third-party C extensions
     through distutils.

   - bpo-35139(8): Fix a compiler error when statically linking
     ‘pyexpat’ in ‘Modules/Setup’.

   - bpo-35059(9): PCbuild: Set InlineFunctionExpansion to
     OnlyExplicitInline (“/Ob1” option) in pyproject.props in Debug mode
     to expand functions marked as inline.  This change should make
     Python compiled in Debug mode a little bit faster on Windows.

   - bpo-35011(10): Restores the use of pyexpatns.h to isolate our
     embedded copy of the expat C library so that its symbols do not
     conflict at link or dynamic loading time with an embedding
     application or other extension modules with their own version of
     libexpat.

   - bpo-28015(11): Have –with-lto works correctly with clang.

   - bpo-34765(12): Update the outdated install-sh file to the latest
     revision from automake v1.16.1

   - bpo-34585(13): Check for floating-point byte order in configure.ac
     using compilation tests instead of executing code, so that these
     checks work in cross-compiled builds.

   - bpo-34710(14): Fixed SSL module build with OpenSSL & pedantic
     CFLAGS.

   - bpo-34582(15): Add JUnit XML output for regression tests and update
     Azure DevOps builds.

   - bpo-34081(16): Make Sphinx warnings as errors in the Docs Makefile.

   - bpo-34555(17): Fix for case where it was not possible to have both
     ‘HAVE_LINUX_VM_SOCKETS_H’ and ‘HAVE_SOCKADDR_ALG’ be undefined.

   - bpo-33015(18): Fix an undefined behaviour in the pthread
     implementation of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’: add a function
     wrapper to always return ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-34245(19): The Python shared library is now installed with
     write permission (mode 0755), which is the standard way of
     installing such libraries.

   - bpo-34121(20): Fix detection of C11 atomic support on clang.

   - bpo-32430(21): Rename Modules/Setup.dist to Modules/Setup, and
     remove the necessity to copy the former manually to the latter when
     updating the local source tree.

   - bpo-30345(22): Add -g to LDFLAGS when compiling with LTO to get
     debug symbols.

   - bpo-5755(23): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(24): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI
     on Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33648(25): The –with-c-locale-warning configuration flag has
     been removed.  It has had no effect for about a year.

   - bpo-33522(26): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33512(27): configure’s check for “long double” has been
     simplified

   - bpo-33483(28): C compiler is now correctly detected from the
     standard environment variables.  –without-gcc and –with-icc options
     have been removed.

   - bpo-33394(29): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(30): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(31): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants
     (used in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(32): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’
     are no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(33): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   - bpo-33163(34): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   - bpo-33012(35): gcc 8 has added a new warning heuristic to detect
     invalid function casts and a stock python build seems to hit that
     warning quite often.  The most common is the cast of a METH_NOARGS
     function (that uses just one argument) to a PyCFunction.  Fix this
     by adding a dummy argument to all functions that implement
     METH_NOARGS.

   - bpo-32898(36): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   - bpo-29442(37): Replace optparse with argparse in setup.py

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34691

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35550

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35499

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35257

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35351

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35139

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35011

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28015

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34765

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34585

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34710

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34582

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34081

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34555

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33015

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34245

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34121

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30345

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33648

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33512

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33483

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29442


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<48>,  Next: macOS<38>,  Prev: Build<49>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35890(1): Fix API calling consistency of GetVersionEx and
     wcstok.

   - bpo-32560(2): The ‘py’ launcher now forwards its ‘STARTUPINFO’
     structure to child processes.

   - bpo-35854(3): Fix EnvBuilder and –symlinks in venv on Windows

   - bpo-35811(4): Avoid propagating venv settings when launching via
     py.exe

   - bpo-35797(5): Fix default executable used by the multiprocessing
     module

   - bpo-35758(6): Allow building on ARM with MSVC.

   - bpo-29734(7): Fix handle leaks in os.stat on Windows.

   - bpo-35596(8): Use unchecked PYCs for the embeddable distro to avoid
     zipimport restrictions.

   - bpo-35596(9): Fix vcruntime140.dll being added to embeddable distro
     multiple times.

   - bpo-35402(10): Update Windows build to use Tcl and Tk 8.6.9

   - bpo-35401(11): Updates Windows build to OpenSSL 1.1.0j

   - bpo-34977(12): venv on Windows will now use a python.exe redirector
     rather than copying the actual binaries from the base environment.

   - bpo-34977(13): Adds support for building a Windows App Store
     package

   - bpo-35067(14): Remove _distutils_findvs module and use vswhere.exe
     instead.

   - bpo-32557(15): Allow shutil.disk_usage to take a file path on
     Windows

   - bpo-34770(16): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     pyshellext.cpp.

   - bpo-34603(17): Fix returning structs from functions produced by
     MSVC

   - bpo-34581(18): Guard MSVC-specific code in socketmodule.c with
     ‘#ifdef _MSC_VER’.

   - bpo-34532(19): Fixes exit code of list version arguments for
     py.exe.

   - bpo-34062(20): Fixed the ‘–list’ and ‘–list-paths’ arguments for
     the py.exe launcher

   - bpo-34225(21): Ensure INCLUDE and LIB directories do not end with a
     backslash.

   - bpo-34011(22): A suite of code has been changed which copied across
     DLLs and init.tcl from the running Python location into a venv
     being created.  These copies are needed only when running from a
     Python source build, and the copying code is now only run when that
     is the case, rather than whenever a venv is created.

   - bpo-34006(23): Revert line length limit for Windows help docs.  The
     line-length limit is not needed because the pages appear in a
     separate app rather than on a browser tab.  It can also interact
     badly with the DPI setting.

   - bpo-31546(24): Restore running PyOS_InputHook while waiting for
     user input at the prompt.  The restores integration of interactive
     GUI windows (such as Matplotlib figures) with the prompt on
     Windows.

   - bpo-30237(25): Output error when ReadConsole is canceled by
     CancelSynchronousIo instead of crashing.

   - bpo-33895(26): GIL is released while calling functions that acquire
     Windows loader lock.

   - bpo-33720(27): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   - bpo-29097(28): Fix bug where ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ erroneously
     throws an *note OSError: 65c. on Windows for values between 0 and
     86400.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33316(29): PyThread_release_lock always fails

   - bpo-33184(30): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32890(31): Fix usage of GetLastError() instead of errno in
     os.execve() and os.truncate().

   - bpo-33016(32): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(33): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-32901(34): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(35): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(36): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(37): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(38): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(39): Fix *note os.readlink(): 778. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-1104(40): Correctly handle string length in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInfo.GetProperty()’ to prevent it from truncating
     the last character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32560

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35854

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35797

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35758

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29734

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35067

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32557

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34770

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34532

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34062

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34225

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34006

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30237

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33895

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29097

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33316

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32890

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1104


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<38>,  Next: IDLE<36>,  Prev: Windows<48>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-35401(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0j.

   - bpo-35025(2): Properly guard the use of the ‘CLOCK_GETTIME’ et al.
     macros in ‘timemodule’ on macOS.

   - bpo-24658(3): On macOS, fix reading from and writing into a file
     with a size larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-34405(4): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for macOS installer builds.

   - bpo-33635(5): In macOS stat on some file descriptors (/dev/fd/3
     f.e) will result in bad file descriptor OSError.  Guard against
     this exception was added in is_dir, is_file and similar methods.
     DirEntry.is_dir can also throw this exception so
     _RecursiveWildcardSelector._iterate_directories was also extended
     with the same error ignoring pattern.

   - bpo-13631(6): The .editrc file in user’s home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   - bpo-33184(7): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32726(8): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   - bpo-32901(9): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   - bpo-31903(10): In ‘_scproxy’, drop the GIL when calling into
     ‘SystemConfiguration’ to avoid deadlocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35025

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24658

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31903


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<36>,  Next: Tools/Demos<28>,  Prev: macOS<38>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35770(1): IDLE macosx deletes Options => Configure IDLE. It
     previously deleted Window => Zoom Height by mistake.  (Zoom Height
     is now on the Options menu).  On Mac, the settings dialog is
     accessed via Preferences on the IDLE menu.

   - bpo-35769(2): Change IDLE’s new file name from ‘Untitled’ to
     ‘untitled’

   - bpo-35660(3): Fix imports in idlelib.window.

   - bpo-35641(4): Proper format ‘calltip’ when the function has no
     docstring.

   - bpo-33987(5): Use ttk Frame for ttk widgets.

   - bpo-34055(6): Fix erroneous ‘smart’ indents and newlines in IDLE
     Shell.

   - bpo-35591(7): Find Selection now works when selection not found.

   - bpo-35196(8): Speed up squeezer line counting.

   - bpo-35598(9): Update config_key: use PEP 8 names and ttk widgets,
     make some objects global, and add tests.

   - bpo-28097(10): Add Previous/Next History entries to Shell menu.

   - bpo-35208(11): Squeezer now properly counts wrapped lines before
     newlines.

   - bpo-35555(12): Gray out Code Context menu entry when it’s not
     applicable.

   - bpo-35521(13): Document the IDLE editor code context feature.  Add
     some internal references within the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-22703(14): The Code Context menu label now toggles between
     Show/Hide Code Context.  The Zoom Height menu now toggles between
     Zoom/Restore Height.  Zoom Height has moved from the Window menu to
     the Options menu.

   - bpo-35213(15): Where appropriate, use ‘macOS’ in idlelib.

   - bpo-34864(16): On macOS, warn if the system preference “Prefer tabs
     when opening documents” is set to “Always”.

   - bpo-34864(17): Document two IDLE on MacOS issues.  The System
     Preferences Dock “prefer tabs always” setting disables some IDLE
     features.  Menus are a bit different than as described for Windows
     and Linux.

   - bpo-35202(18): Remove unused imports from lib/idlelib

   - bpo-33000(19): Document that IDLE’s shell has no line limit.  A
     program that runs indefinitely can overfill memory.

   - bpo-23220(20): Explain how IDLE’s Shell displays output.

   - bpo-35099(21): Improve the doc about IDLE running user code.  The
     section is renamed from “IDLE – console differences” is renamed
     “Running user code”.  It mostly covers the implications of using
     custom ‘sys.stdXXX’ objects.

   - bpo-35097(22): Add IDLE doc subsection explaining editor windows.
     Topics include opening, title and status bar, .py* extension, and
     running.

   - bpo-35093(23): Document the IDLE document viewer in the IDLE doc.
     Add a paragraph in “Help and preferences”, “Help sources”
     subsection.

   - bpo-35088(24): Update idlelib.help.copy_string docstring.  We now
     use git and backporting instead of hg and forward merging.

   - bpo-35087(25): Update idlelib help files for the current doc build.
     The main change is the elimination of chapter-section numbers.

   - bpo-34548(26): Use configured color theme for read-only text views.

   - bpo-1529353(27): Enable “squeezing” of long outputs in the shell,
     to avoid performance degradation and to clean up the history
     without losing it.  Squeezed outputs may be copied, viewed in a
     separate window, and “unsqueezed”.

   - bpo-34047(28): Fixed mousewheel scrolling direction on macOS.

   - bpo-34275(29): Make IDLE calltips always visible on Mac.  Some
     MacOS-tk combinations need .update_idletasks().  Patch by Kevin
     Walzer.

   - bpo-34120(30): Fix unresponsiveness after closing certain windows
     and dialogs.

   - bpo-33975(31): Avoid small type when running htests.  Since part of
     the purpose of human-viewed tests is to determine that widgets look
     right, it is important that they look the same for testing as when
     running IDLE.

   - bpo-33905(32): Add test for idlelib.stackview.StackBrowser.

   - bpo-33924(33): Change mainmenu.menudefs key ‘windows’ to ‘window’.
     Every other menudef key is lowercase version of main menu entry.

   - bpo-33906(34): Rename idlelib.windows as window Match Window on the
     main menu and remove last plural module name.

   - bpo-33917(35): Fix and document idlelib/idle_test/template.py.  The
     revised file compiles, runs, and tests OK. idle_test/README.txt
     explains how to use it to create new IDLE test files.

   - bpo-33904(36): IDLE: In rstrip, rename class RstripExtension as
     Rstrip

   - bpo-33907(37): For consistency and clarity, rename an IDLE module
     and classes.  Module calltips and its class CallTips are now
     calltip and Calltip.  In module calltip_w, class CallTip is now
     CalltipWindow.

   - bpo-33856(38): Add “help” in the welcome message of IDLE

   - bpo-33839(39): IDLE: refactor ToolTip and CallTip and add
     documentation and tests

   - bpo-33855(40): Minimally test all IDLE modules.  Add missing files,
     import module, instantiate classes, and check coverage.  Check
     existing files.

   - bpo-33656(41): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(42): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the
     top of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(43): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(44): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(45): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(46): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(47): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(48): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-21474(49): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(50): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     ‘u’ string prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32984(51): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(52): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(53): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(54): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(55): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(56): Using the system and place-dependent default
     encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and
     location-independent files.

   - bpo-32826(57): Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32831(58): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   - bpo-32765(59): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35770

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35591

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35196

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28097

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35208

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35521

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22703

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35213

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35202

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33000

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23220

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35099

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35097

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35093

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35087

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34548

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34275

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34120

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33975

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33905

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33924

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33906

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33917

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33907

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33856

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33839

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33855

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<28>,  Next: C API<46>,  Prev: IDLE<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-35884(1): Add a benchmark script for timing various ways to
     access variables: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.

   - bpo-34989(2): python-gdb.py now handles errors on computing the
     line number of a Python frame.

   - bpo-20260(3): Argument Clinic now has non-bitwise unsigned int
     converters.

   - bpo-32962(4): python-gdb now catches ‘UnicodeDecodeError’
     exceptions when calling ‘string()’.

   - bpo-32962(5): python-gdb now catches ValueError on read_var(): when
     Python has no debug symbols for example.

   - bpo-33189(6): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(7): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(8): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-25427(9): Remove the pyvenv script in favor of ‘python3 -m
     venv’ in order to lower confusion as to what Python interpreter a
     virtual environment will be created for.

   - bpo-32885(10): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-32222(11): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for
     functions with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   - bpo-31583(12): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34989

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20260

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<46>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<28>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.22.55.11 C API
................

   - bpo-35713(1): The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’
     functions have been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4
     and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI),
     and were not documented.

   - bpo-33817(2): Fixed *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 1891. for empty bytes
     objects.

   - bpo-35322(3): Fix memory leak in *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale():
     a41. and *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1892. on error
     handling.

   - bpo-35059(4): The following C macros have been converted to static
     inline functions: *note Py_INCREF(): 305, *note Py_DECREF(): 306,
     *note Py_XINCREF(): 8c9, *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2,
     ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’.

   - bpo-35296(5): ‘make install’ now also installs the internal API:
     ‘Include/internal/*.h’ header files.

   - bpo-35081(6): Internal APIs surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_BUILD_CORE’
     have been moved from ‘Include/*.h’ headers to new header files
     ‘Include/internal/pycore_*.h’.

   - bpo-35259(7): Conditionally declare *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a.
     (new in 3.6) based on Py_LIMITED_API. Patch by Arthur Neufeld.

   - bpo-35081(8): The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C
     API.

   - bpo-35134(9): Creation of a new ‘Include/cpython/’ subdirectory.

   - bpo-34725(10): Adds _Py_SetProgramFullPath so embedders may
     override sys.executable

   - bpo-34910(11): Ensure that *note PyObject_Print(): 1893. always
     returns ‘-1’ on error.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34523(12): Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now use the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows if Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag is
     zero.

   - bpo-34193(13): Fix pluralization in TypeError messages in getargs.c
     and typeobject.c: ‘1 argument’ instead of ‘1 arguments’ and ‘1
     element’ instead of ‘1 elements’.

   - bpo-34127(14): Return grammatically correct error message based on
     argument count.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-23927(15): Fixed *note SystemError: 30e. in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. when the ‘w*’ format unit is
     used for optional parameter.

   - bpo-32455(16): Added ‘PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump()’.

   - bpo-34008(17): Py_Main() can again be called after Py_Initialize(),
     as in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-32500(18): Fixed error messages for *note PySequence_Size():
     1894, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1895, *note PySequence_SetItem():
     1896. and *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1897. called with a mapping
     and *note PyMapping_Size(): 1898. called with a sequence.

   - bpo-33818(19): ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’ will now return ‘const
     char *’ instead of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-33042(20): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(21): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   - bpo-30863(22): *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1899. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 70e. no longer cache the ‘wchar_t*’
     representation of string objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33817

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35322

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35296

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34910

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34193

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34127

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23927

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32455

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32500

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30863


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 final,  Next: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.56 Python 3.7.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<56>.
* C API: C API<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<56>,  Next: C API<47>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.22.56.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-33851(1): Fix *note ast.get_docstring(): 189c. for a node that
     lacks a docstring.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33851


File: python.info,  Node: C API<47>,  Prev: Library<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.22.56.2 C API
...............

   - bpo-33932(1): Calling Py_Initialize() twice does nothing, instead
     of failing with a fatal error: restore the Python 3.6 behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33932


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.57 Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<55>,  Next: Library<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.57.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33803(1): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn’t all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33706(2): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the
     command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report
     and the fix!

   - bpo-30654(3): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849


File: python.info,  Node: Library<57>,  Next: Documentation<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.57.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33694(4): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(5): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(6): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33778(7): Update ‘unicodedata’’s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33770(8): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(9): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(10): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 2c4. instead of
     *note SystemError: 30e. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 868.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(11): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-11874(12): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-33582(13): Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33694

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33770

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33769

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33734

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33582


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<52>,  Next: Build<50>,  Prev: Library<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.57.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33409(1): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(2)’s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540’s PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33736(3): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 987, *note asyncio.start_server(): 988.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-31432(4): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Build<50>,  Next: Windows<49>,  Prev: Documentation<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.57.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<49>,  Next: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Build<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.57.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33720(1): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Windows<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.22.57.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.58 Python 3.7.0 beta 5
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<56>,  Next: Library<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.58.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33622(1): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 1066. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 7ec. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33509(2): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don’t crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-20104(3): The new ‘os.posix_spawn’ added in 3.7.0b1 was removed
     as we are still working on what the API should look like.  Expect
     this in 3.8 instead.

   - bpo-33475(4): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to
     strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-32911(7): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(8).  ‘docstring’
     field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and
     AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-21983(9): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<58>,  Next: Documentation<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.58.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32751(1): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(2): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(3): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(4): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33674(5): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(6): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(7): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(8): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(10): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(11): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(12): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(13): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): a1f. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33618(14): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33623(15): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-30877(16): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33570(17): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(18): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-33540(19): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     cc.

   - bpo-33548(20): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(21): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(22) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33536(23): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(24): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(25): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33505(26): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(27): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-33495(28): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     ‘type’ member.

   - bpo-33453(29): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type
     annotations or if using PEP 563 “Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations”.  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar (“ClassVar” and “typing.ClassVar”) and InitVar (“InitVar”
     and “dataclasses.InitVar”).

   - bpo-28556(30): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(31): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(32): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(33): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33197(34): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33263(35): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-32861(36): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and
     “Request-rate” fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-32257(37): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32610

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33652

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33623

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33570

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33109

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33536

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33505

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33497

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33495

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33453

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32257

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<53>,  Next: Tests<51>,  Prev: Library<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.58.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23859(1): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(2): Document PEP 567(3) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(4): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump
     removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33503(5): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(6): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<51>,  Next: Build<51>,  Prev: Documentation<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.58.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32604(2): Remove the _xxsubinterpreters module (meant for
     testing) and associated helpers.  This module was originally added
     recently in 3.7b1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604


File: python.info,  Node: Build<51>,  Next: macOS<39>,  Prev: Tests<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.58.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33614(1): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(2): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(3): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<39>,  Next: IDLE<38>,  Prev: Build<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.58.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-13631(1): The .editrc file in user’s home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<38>,  Prev: macOS<39>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.22.58.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33628(1): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(2): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-32831(3): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Up: Changelog

1.22.59 Python 3.7.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-02'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<57>,  Next: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33363(1): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async for’
     statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-33128(2): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33312(3): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33231(4): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(5): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrinked only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrinked.

   - bpo-29922(6): Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(7): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33363

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33128

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33312

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33205

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199


File: python.info,  Node: Library<59>,  Next: Documentation<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-33281(1): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33383(2): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(3): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(4): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1883.

   - bpo-33131(5): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(6): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33266(7): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(8): Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(9): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 540. and
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents(): 1884. return an
     *note iterable: 10ce. instead of an *note iterator: 176e.

   - bpo-33256(10): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33185(11): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 3ec. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(12)) This fix also changed pydoc to add
     ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path: 368. when necessary, rather than
     adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-33169(13): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33217(14): Deprecate looking up non-Enum objects in Enum
     classes and Enum members (will raise *note TypeError: 2c4. in
     3.8+).

   - bpo-33203(15): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(16): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(17).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(18): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1885.

   - bpo-20104(19): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 8bc.

   - bpo-33175(20): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-33097(21): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-31908(22): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11594

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33254

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33185

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33175

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<54>,  Next: Tests<52>,  Prev: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33378(1): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(2): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(3): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(4): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-8243(5): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(6): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<52>,  Next: Build<52>,  Prev: Documentation<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33358(1): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358


File: python.info,  Node: Build<52>,  Next: Windows<50>,  Prev: Tests<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33394(1): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(2): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(3): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used
     in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(4): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’ are
     no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(5): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<50>,  Next: macOS<40>,  Prev: Build<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<40>,  Next: IDLE<39>,  Prev: Windows<50>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<39>,  Next: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: macOS<40>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-21474(1): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(2): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     ‘u’ string prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: IDLE<39>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.22.59.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-31583(4): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.60 Python 3.7.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-29'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<41>,  Next: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33136(1): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE 2018-8970(2).
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen.
     A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.

   - bpo-33001(3): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(4): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(5) and CVE 2018-1061(6).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<58>,  Next: Library<60>,  Prev: Security<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33053(1): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33018(2): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33041(3): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-33026(4): Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(5): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-17288(6): Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace
     events.

   - bpo-32836(7): Don’t use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32836


File: python.info,  Node: Library<60>,  Next: Documentation<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33141(1): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their
     default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(2): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(3): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(4): When computing dataclass’s __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(5): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(6): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn’t have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(7): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on
     sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(8): Add ‘Field’ to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(9): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(10): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that’s a
     MemberDescriptorType, then it’s from that field being in __slots__,
     not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(11): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass,
     allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only attributes
     from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.  Require all
     dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or all
     non-frozen.

   - bpo-33061(12): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(13): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(14): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(15): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(16): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(17): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(18): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(19): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7e. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32999(20): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(21): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(22): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(23): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules *note
     aifc: 5, *note wave: 113. and *note sunau: d6.

   - bpo-32844(24): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32857(25): In *note tkinter: ef, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 189. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31639(26): http.server now exposes a ThreadedHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-27645(27): *note sqlite3.Connection: 1e3. now exposes a *note
     backup: 9f0. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33141

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32873

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32505

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33116

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32896

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33100

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32953

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33061

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33056

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32999

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32056

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<55>,  Next: Tests<53>,  Prev: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33126(1): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(2): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(3): Update *note zipapp: 130. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(4): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(5): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<53>,  Next: Build<53>,  Prev: Documentation<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(2): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-19417(3): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<53>,  Next: Windows<51>,  Prev: Tests<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<51>,  Next: macOS<41>,  Prev: Build<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<41>,  Next: IDLE<40>,  Prev: Windows<51>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<40>,  Next: Tools/Demos<30>,  Prev: macOS<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<30>,  Next: C API<48>,  Prev: IDLE<40>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32885(1): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885


File: python.info,  Node: C API<48>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<30>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.22.60.11 C API
................

   - bpo-33042(1): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(2): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.61 Python 3.7.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<42>,  Next: Core and Builtins<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-28414(1): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<59>,  Next: Library<61>,  Prev: Security<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32889(1): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-31356(2): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(3)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(4): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(5): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’ for
     namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(6): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(7): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32711

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583


File: python.info,  Node: Library<61>,  Next: Documentation<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32960(1): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(2): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32951(3): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(4): Remove the tri-state parameter “hash”, and add the
     boolean “unsafe_hash”.  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(5): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-30622(6): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(7): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(8): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(9): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-25988(10): Emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. when using or
     importing an ABC directly from *note collections: 1d. rather than
     from *note collections.abc: 1e.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     “No dist file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must
     create and upload files in one command”.

   - bpo-32852(12): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(13): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module with
     C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.  Note that the new
     implementation hides internal registry and caches, previously
     accessible via private attributes ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’,
     and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There are three debugging helper
     methods that can be used instead ‘_dump_registry’,
     ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(15): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-32394(16): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(17): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(18): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32792(19): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(20): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1886. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with ‘[’ or
     containing ‘–’, ‘&&’, ‘~~’ or ‘||’ will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(21): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(22): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(23): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32741(24): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(25): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(26): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(27): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(28): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(29): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(30): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(31): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: f9.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32221(32): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-30693(33): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(34): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32929

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32556

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32819

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32775

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32691

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31453

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24334

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32221

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<56>,  Next: Tests<54>,  Prev: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28124(1): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(2): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(3): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(4): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(5): Update *note test.support: e3. documentation.

   - bpo-8722(6): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 3dc.

   - bpo-32614(7): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(8): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<54>,  Next: Build<54>,  Prev: Documentation<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31809(1): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<54>,  Next: Windows<52>,  Prev: Tests<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32898(1): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<52>,  Next: macOS<42>,  Prev: Build<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32901(1): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(2): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(3): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(4): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(5): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(6): Fix *note os.readlink(): 778. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<42>,  Next: IDLE<41>,  Prev: Windows<52>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32901(1): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<41>,  Next: Tools/Demos<31>,  Prev: macOS<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32916(1): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(2): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(3): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(4): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(5): Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(6): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<31>,  Prev: IDLE<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.22.61.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32222(1): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.62 Python 3.7.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* C API: C API<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<60>,  Next: Library<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32703(1): Fix coroutine’s ResourceWarning when there’s an
     active error set when it’s being finalized.

   - bpo-32650(2): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28685(3): Optimize list.sort() and sorted() by using type
     specialized comparisons when possible.

   - bpo-32685(4): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32697(5): Python now explicitly preserves the definition order
     of keyword-only parameters.  It’s always preserved their order, but
     this behavior was never guaranteed before; this behavior is now
     guaranteed and tested.

   - bpo-32690(6): The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     reversed.

   - bpo-32677(7): Add ‘.isascii()’ method to ‘str’, ‘bytes’ and
     ‘bytearray’.  It can be used to test that string contains only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-32670(8): Enforce PEP 479(9) for all code.  This means that
     manually raising a StopIteration exception from a generator is
     prohibited for all code, regardless of whether ‘from __future__
     import generator_stop’ was used or not.

   - bpo-32591(10): Added built-in support for tracking the origin of
     coroutine objects; see sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth and
     CoroutineType.cr_origin.  This replaces the asyncio debug mode’s
     use of coroutine wrapping for native coroutine objects.

   - bpo-31368(11): Expose preadv and pwritev system calls in the os
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-32544(12): ‘hasattr(obj, name)’ and ‘getattr(obj, name,
     default)’ are about 4 times faster than before when ‘name’ is not
     found and ‘obj’ doesn’t override ‘__getattr__’ or
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - bpo-26163(13): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-32550(14): Remove the STORE_ANNOTATION bytecode.

   - bpo-20104(15): Expose posix_spawn as a low level API in the os
     module.  (removed before 3.7.0rc1)

   - bpo-24340(16): Fixed estimation of the code stack size.

   - bpo-32436(17): Implement PEP 567(18) Context Variables.

   - bpo-18533(19): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-20891(20): Py_Initialize() now creates the GIL. The GIL is no
     longer created “on demand” to fix a race condition when
     PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread.

   - bpo-32028(21): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31179(22): Make dict.copy() up to 5.5 times faster.

   - bpo-31113(23): Get rid of recursion in the compiler for normal
     control flow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32703

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24340

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31113


File: python.info,  Node: Library<62>,  Next: Documentation<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25988(1): Deprecate exposing the contents of collections.abc in
     the regular collections module.

   - bpo-31429(2): The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module
     now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.
     Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by
     OpenSSL security update.  Default cipher suite selection can be
     configured on compile time.

   - bpo-30306(3): contextlib.contextmanager now releases the arguments
     passed to the underlying generator as soon as the context manager
     is entered.  Previously it would keep them alive for as long as the
     context manager was alive, even when not being used as a function
     decorator.  Patch by Martin Teichmann.

   - bpo-21417(4): Added support for setting the compression level for
     zipfile.ZipFile.

   - bpo-32251(5): Implement asyncio.BufferedProtocol (provisional API).

   - bpo-32513(6): In dataclasses, allow easier overriding of dunder
     methods without specifying decorator parameters.

   - bpo-32660(7): *note termios: e0. makes available ‘FIONREAD’,
     ‘FIONCLEX’, ‘FIOCLEX’, ‘FIOASYNC’ and ‘FIONBIO’ also under
     Solaris/derivatives.

   - bpo-27931(8): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32659(9): Under Solaris and derivatives, *note os.stat_result:
     134c. provides a st_fstype attribute.

   - bpo-32662(10): Implement Server.start_serving(),
     Server.serve_forever(), and Server.is_serving() methods.  Add
     ‘start_serving’ keyword parameter to loop.create_server() and
     loop.create_unix_server().

   - bpo-32391(11): Implement *note asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed():
     97a. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing(): 97b. methods

   - bpo-32643(12): Make Task._step, Task._wakeup and
     Future._schedule_callbacks methods private.

   - bpo-32630(13): Refactor decimal module to use contextvars to store
     decimal context.

   - bpo-32622(14): Add ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sendfile()’ method.

   - bpo-32304(15): distutils’ upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(16): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-32596(17): ‘concurrent.futures’ imports ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     and ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ lazily (using PEP 562(18)).  It makes
     ‘import asyncio’ about 15% faster because asyncio uses only
     ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ by default.

   - bpo-31801(19): Add ‘_ignore_’ to ‘Enum’ so temporary variables can
     be used during class construction without being turned into
     members.

   - bpo-32576(20): Use queue.SimpleQueue() in places where it can be
     invoked from a weakref callback.

   - bpo-32574(21): Fix memory leak in asyncio.Queue, when the queue has
     limited size and it is full, the cancelation of queue.put() can
     cause a memory leak.  Patch by: José Melero.

   - bpo-32521(22): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32467(23): collections.abc.ValuesView now inherits from
     collections.abc.Collection.

   - bpo-32473(24): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32102(25): New argument ‘capture_output’ for subprocess.run

   - bpo-32521(26): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32493(27): UUID module fixes build for FreeBSD/OpenBSD

   - bpo-32503(28): Pickling with protocol 4 no longer creates too small
     frames.

   - bpo-29237(29): Create enum for pstats sorting options

   - bpo-32454(30): Add close(fd) function to the socket module.

   - bpo-25942(31): The subprocess module is now more graceful when
     handling a Ctrl-C KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call,
     subprocess.run, or a Popen context manager.  It now waits a short
     amount of time for the child (presumed to have also gotten the
     SIGINT) to exit, before continuing the KeyboardInterrupt exception
     handling.  This still includes a SIGKILL in the call() and run()
     APIs, but at least the child had a chance first.

   - bpo-32433(32): The hmac module now has hmac.digest(), which
     provides an optimized HMAC digest.

   - bpo-28134(33): Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol
     from file descriptor by default.

   - bpo-32404(34): Fix bug where *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 22f. did not call __new__ in
     *note datetime.datetime: 22b. subclasses.

   - bpo-32403(35): Improved speed of *note datetime.date: 749. and
     *note datetime.datetime: 22b. alternate constructors.

   - bpo-32228(36): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-32410(37): Implement ‘loop.sock_sendfile’ for asyncio event
     loop.

   - bpo-22908(38): Added seek and tell to the ZipExtFile class.  This
     only works if the file object used to open the zipfile is seekable.

   - bpo-32373(39): Add socket.getblocking() method.

   - bpo-32248(40): Add *note importlib.resources: 79. and *note
     importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 96b. as the unified API for reading
     resources contained within packages.  Loaders wishing to support
     resource reading must implement the ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.
     File-based and zipimport-based loaders both implement these APIs.
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: a5f. is deprecated in favor of
     these new APIs.

   - bpo-32320(41): collections.namedtuple() now supports default
     values.

   - bpo-29302(42): Add contextlib.AsyncExitStack.  Patch by Alexander
     Mohr and Ilya Kulakov.

   - bpo-31961(43): 'Removed in Python 3.7.0b2.'  The 'args' argument of
     subprocess.Popen can now be a *note path-like object: 98e.  If
     'args' is given as a sequence, it’s first element can now be a
     *note path-like object: 98e. as well.

   - bpo-31900(44): The *note locale.localeconv(): a77. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     433. method when formatting a number (*note int: 184, *note float:
     272, *note float: 272. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31853(45): Use super().method instead of socket.method in
     SSLSocket.  They were there most likely for legacy reasons.

   - bpo-31399(46): The ssl module now uses OpenSSL’s
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() and X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_ip() API
     to verify hostname and IP addresses.  Subject common name fallback
     can be disabled with SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name.

   - bpo-14976(47): Add a queue.SimpleQueue class, an unbounded FIFO
     queue with a reentrant C implementation of put().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32513

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32660

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32596

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32576

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32574

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32467

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32503

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29237

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32404

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22908

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31853

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<57>,  Next: Tests<55>,  Prev: Library<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32724(1): Add references to some commands in the documentation
     of Pdb.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32649(2): Complete the C API documentation, profiling and
     tracing part with the newly added per-opcode events.

   - bpo-17799(3): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32724

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<55>,  Next: Build<55>,  Prev: Documentation<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32721(1): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-28414(2): Add test cases for IDNA 2003 and 2008 host names.
     IDNA 2003 internationalized host names are working since
     bpo-31399(3) has landed.  IDNA 2008 are still broken.

   - bpo-32604(4): Add a new “_xxsubinterpreters” extension module that
     exposes the existing subinterpreter C-API and a new
     cross-interpreter data sharing mechanism.  The module is primarily
     intended for more thorough testing of the existing subinterpreter
     support.  Note that the _xxsubinterpreters module has been removed
     in 3.7.0rc1.

   - bpo-32602(5): Add test certs and test for ECDSA cert and EC/RSA
     dual mode.

   - bpo-32549(6): On Travis CI, Python now Compiles and uses a local
     copy of OpenSSL 1.1.0g for testing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32602

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32549


File: python.info,  Node: Build<55>,  Next: Windows<53>,  Prev: Tests<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   - bpo-32598(2): Use autoconf to detect OpenSSL libs, headers and
     supported features.  The ax_check_openssl M4 macro uses pkg-config
     to locate OpenSSL and falls back to manual search.

   - bpo-32593(3): Drop support of FreeBSD 9 and older.

   - bpo-29708(4): If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set, *note py_compile: b2. will always create hash-based ‘.pyc’
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32598

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<53>,  Next: macOS<43>,  Prev: Build<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32588(1): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module and add
     missing _queue module to installer.

   - bpo-29911(2): Ensure separate Modify and Uninstall buttons are
     displayed.

   - bpo-32507(3): Use app-local UCRT install rather than the proper
     update for old versions of Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32507


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<43>,  Next: C API<49>,  Prev: Windows<53>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.1.0g and to
     SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its
     own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.

   - bpo-28440(2): No longer add /Library/Python/3.x/site-packages to
     sys.path for macOS framework builds to avoid future conflicts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: C API<49>,  Prev: macOS<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.22.62.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-32681(1): Fix uninitialized variable ‘res’ in the C
     implementation of os.dup2.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-10381(2): Add C API access to the ‘datetime.timezone’
     constructor and ‘datetime.timzone.UTC’ singleton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32681

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.63 Python 3.7.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<50>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<61>,  Next: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.63.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31975(1): The default warning filter list now starts with a
     “default::DeprecationWarning:__main__” entry, so deprecation
     warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and
     at the interactive prompt.

   - bpo-32226(2): ‘__class_getitem__’ is now an automatic class method.

   - bpo-32399(3): Add AIX uuid library support for RFC4122 using
     uuid_create() in libc.a

   - bpo-32390(4): Fix the compilation failure on AIX after the f_fsid
     field has been added to the object returned by os.statvfs()
     (bpo-32143(5)).  Original patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-32379(6): Make MRO computation faster when a class inherits
     from a single base.

   - bpo-32259(7): The error message of a TypeError raised when unpack
     non-iterable is now more specific.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): The *note -R: 18d9. option now turns on hash
     randomization when the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27. environment
     variable is set to ‘0’.  Previously, the option was ignored.
     Moreover, ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set to 0
     when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.  Increased limits for
     constants that can be produced in constant folding.

   - bpo-32282(12): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-30579(13): Implement TracebackType.__new__ to allow
     Python-level creation of traceback objects, and make
     TracebackType.tb_next mutable.

   - bpo-32260(14): Don’t byte swap the input keys to the SipHash
     algorithm on big-endian platforms.  This should ensure siphash
     gives consistent results across platforms.

   - bpo-31506(15): Improve the error message logic for object.__new__
     and object.__init__.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-20361(16): ‘-b’ and ‘-bb’ now inject ‘'default::BytesWarning'’
     and ‘error::BytesWarning’ entries into ‘sys.warnoptions’, ensuring
     that they take precedence over any other warning filters configured
     via the ‘-W’ option or the ‘PYTHONWARNINGS’ environment variable.

   - bpo-32230(17): ‘-X dev’ now injects a ‘'default'’ entry into
     sys.warnoptions, ensuring that it behaves identically to actually
     passing ‘-Wdefault’ at the command line.

   - bpo-29240(18): Add a new UTF-8 mode: implementation of the PEP
     540(19).

   - bpo-32226(20): PEP 560(21): Add support for ‘__mro_entries__’ and
     ‘__class_getitem__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32225(22): PEP 562(23): Add support for module ‘__getattr__’
     and ‘__dir__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31901(24): The ‘atexit’ module now has its callback stored per
     interpreter.

   - bpo-31650(25): Implement PEP 552(26) (Deterministic pycs).  Python
     now supports invalidating bytecode cache files bashed on a source
     content hash rather than source last-modified time.

   - bpo-29469(27): Move constant folding from bytecode layer to AST
     layer.  Original patch by Eugene Toder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32390

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32379

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32260

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32225

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31901

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469


File: python.info,  Node: Library<63>,  Next: Documentation<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.63.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32506(1): Now that dict is defined as keeping insertion order,
     drop OrderedDict and just use plain dict.

   - bpo-32279(2): Add params to dataclasses.make_dataclasses(): init,
     repr, eq, order, hash, and frozen.  Pass them through to
     dataclass().

   - bpo-32278(3): Make type information optional on
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().  If omitted, the string ‘typing.Any’
     is used.

   - bpo-32499(4): Add dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj), which returns True
     if obj is a dataclass or an instance of one.

   - bpo-32468(5): Improve frame repr() to mention filename, code name
     and current line number.

   - bpo-23749(6): asyncio: Implement loop.start_tls()

   - bpo-32441(7): Return the new file descriptor (i.e., the second
     argument) from ‘os.dup2’.  Previously, ‘None’ was always returned.

   - bpo-32422(8): ‘functools.lru_cache’ uses less memory (3 words for
     each cached key) and takes about 1/3 time for cyclic GC.

   - bpo-31721(9): Prevent Python crash from happening when
     Future._log_traceback is set to True manually.  Now it can only be
     set to False, or a ValueError is raised.

   - bpo-32415(10): asyncio: Add Task.get_loop() and Future.get_loop()

   - bpo-26133(11): Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32363(12): Make asyncio.Task.set_exception() and set_result()
     raise NotImplementedError.  Task._step() and Future.__await__()
     raise proper exceptions when they are in an invalid state, instead
     of raising an AssertionError.

   - bpo-32357(13): Optimize asyncio.iscoroutine() and
     loop.create_task() for non-native coroutines (e.g.  async/await
     compiled with Cython).  ‘loop.create_task(python_coroutine)’ used
     to be 20% faster than ‘loop.create_task(cython_coroutine)’.  Now,
     the latter is as fast.

   - bpo-32356(14): asyncio.transport.resume_reading() and
     pause_reading() are now idempotent.  New transport.is_reading()
     method is added.

   - bpo-32355(15): Optimize asyncio.gather(); now up to 15% faster.

   - bpo-32351(16): Use fastpath in asyncio.sleep if delay<0 (2x boost)

   - bpo-32348(17): Optimize asyncio.Future schedule/add/remove
     callback.  The optimization shows 3-6% performance improvements of
     async/await code.

   - bpo-32331(18): Fix socket.settimeout() and socket.setblocking() to
     keep socket.type as is.  Fix socket.socket() constructor to reset
     any bit flags applied to socket’s type.  This change only affects
     OSes that have SOCK_NONBLOCK and/or SOCK_CLOEXEC.

   - bpo-32248(19): Add *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: 96b. as an
     ABC for loaders to provide a unified API for reading resources
     contained within packages.  Also add *note importlib.resources: 79.
     as the port of ‘importlib_resources’.

   - bpo-32311(20): Implement asyncio.create_task(coro) shortcut

   - bpo-32327(21): Convert asyncio functions that were documented as
     coroutines to coroutines.  Affected functions: loop.sock_sendall,
     loop.sock_recv, loop.sock_accept, loop.getaddrinfo,
     loop.getnameinfo.

   - bpo-32323(22): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bc7. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(23): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-29711(24): Fix ‘stop_serving’ in asyncio proactor loop kill all
     listening servers

   - bpo-32308(25): *note re.sub(): 208. now replaces empty matches
     adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

   - bpo-29970(26): Abort asyncio SSLProtocol connection if handshake
     not complete within 10 seconds.

   - bpo-32314(27): Implement asyncio.run().

   - bpo-17852(28): Revert incorrect fix based on misunderstanding of
     _Py_PyAtExit() semantics.

   - bpo-32296(29): Implement asyncio._get_running_loop() and
     get_event_loop() in C. This makes them 4x faster.

   - bpo-32250(30): Implement ‘asyncio.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’.  Add helpers intended to be used by
     alternative task implementations: ‘asyncio._register_task’,
     ‘asyncio._enter_task’, ‘asyncio._leave_task’ and
     ‘asyncio._unregister_task’.  Deprecate
     ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.

   - bpo-32255(31): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(32): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-30050(33): New argument warn_on_full_buffer to
     signal.set_wakeup_fd lets you control whether Python prints a
     warning on stderr when the wakeup fd buffer overflows.

   - bpo-29137(34): The ‘fpectl’ library has been removed.  It was never
     enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it
     changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C
     extensions.

   - bpo-32273(35): Move asyncio.test_utils to test.test_asyncio.

   - bpo-32272(36): Remove asyncio.async() function.

   - bpo-32269(37): Add asyncio.get_running_loop() function.

   - bpo-32265(38): All class and static methods of builtin types now
     are correctly classified by inspect.classify_class_attrs() and
     grouped in pydoc ouput.  Added types.ClassMethodDescriptorType for
     unbound class methods of builtin types.

   - bpo-32253(39): Deprecate ‘yield from lock’, ‘await lock’, ‘with
     (yield from lock)’ and ‘with await lock’ for asyncio
     synchronization primitives.

   - bpo-22589(40): Changed MIME type of .bmp from ‘image/x-ms-bmp’ to
     ‘image/bmp’

   - bpo-32193(41): Convert asyncio to use 'async/await' syntax.  Old
     styled ‘yield from’ is still supported too.

   - bpo-32206(42): Add support to run modules with pdb

   - bpo-32227(43): ‘functools.singledispatch’ now supports registering
     implementations using type annotations.

   - bpo-15873(44): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 428, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 427. and *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 426. as the inverse operation of
     each classes’s respective ‘isoformat’ methods.

   - bpo-32199(45): The getnode() ip getter now uses ‘ip link’ instead
     of ‘ip link list’.

   - bpo-32143(46): os.statvfs() includes the f_fsid field from
     statvfs(2)

   - bpo-26439(47): Fix ctypes.util.find_library() for AIX by
     implementing ctypes._aix.find_library() Patch by: Michael Felt

   - bpo-31993(48): The pickler now uses less memory when serializing
     large bytes and str objects into a file.  Pickles created with
     protocol 4 will require less memory for unpickling large bytes and
     str objects.

   - bpo-27456(49): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31778(50): ast.literal_eval() is now more strict.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers no longer allowed.

   - bpo-31802(51): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   - bpo-30241(52): Add contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-31699(53): Fix deadlocks in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. when task arguments or
     results cause pickling or unpickling errors.  This should make sure
     that calls to the ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ API always eventually
     return.

   - bpo-15216(54): ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’ supports changing
     'encoding', 'errors', and 'newline'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32278

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32499

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31721

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32357

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29711

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32273

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32272

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26439

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31993

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31699

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<58>,  Next: Tests<56>,  Prev: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.63.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32418(1): Add get_loop() method to Server and AbstractServer
     classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<56>,  Next: Windows<54>,  Prev: Documentation<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.63.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32252(1): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-32002(2): Adjust C locale coercion testing for the empty locale
     and POSIX locale cases to more readily adjust to platform dependent
     behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32002


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<54>,  Next: Tools/Demos<32>,  Prev: Tests<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.63.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-19764(1): Implement support for
     ‘subprocess.Popen(close_fds=True)’ on Windows.  Patch by Segev
     Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<32>,  Next: C API<50>,  Prev: Windows<54>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.63.6 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960


File: python.info,  Node: C API<50>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<32>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.22.63.7 C API
...............

   - bpo-32030(1): Py_Initialize() doesn’t reset the memory allocators
     to default if the ‘PYTHONMALLOC’ environment variable is not set.

   - bpo-29084(2): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   - bpo-32264(3): Moved the pygetopt.h header into internal/, since it
     has no public APIs.

   - bpo-32241(4): *note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0. and *note
     Py_SetPythonHome(): 18e1. now take the ‘const wchar *’ arguments
     instead of ‘wchar *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32264

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32241


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.64 Python 3.7.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<62>,  Next: Library<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-10544(2): Yield expressions are now deprecated in
     comprehensions and generator expressions.  They are still permitted
     in the definition of the outermost iterable, as that is evaluated
     directly in the enclosing scope.

   - bpo-32137(3): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   - bpo-32096(4): Revert memory allocator changes in the C API: move
     structures back from _PyRuntime to Objects/obmalloc.c.  The memory
     allocators are once again initialized statically, and so
     PyMem_RawMalloc() and Py_DecodeLocale() can be called before
     _PyRuntime_Initialize().

   - bpo-32043(5): Add a new “developer mode”: new “-X dev” command line
     option to enable debug checks at runtime.

   - bpo-32023(6): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is used instead of an inheritance
     list in a class definition.  The duplication of the parentheses can
     be omitted only on calls.

   - bpo-32012(7): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is passed as an argument, but
     followed by a trailing comma.  A generator expression always needs
     to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma
     on either side.

   - bpo-28180(8): A new internal ‘_Py_SetLocaleFromEnv(category)’
     helper function has been added in order to improve the consistency
     of behaviour across different ‘libc’ implementations (e.g.  Android
     doesn’t support setting the locale from the environment by
     default).

   - bpo-31949(9): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(10): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(11): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-21720(12): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31845(13): Environment variables are once more read correctly
     at interpreter startup.

   - bpo-28936(14): Ensure that lexically first syntax error involving a
     parameter and ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ is detected first at a given
     scope.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31825(15): Fixed OverflowError in the ‘unicode-escape’ codec
     and in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii
     byte.

   - bpo-31618(16): The per-frame tracing logic added in 3.7a1 has been
     altered so that ‘frame->f_lineno’ is updated before either ‘"line"’
     or ‘"opcode"’ events are emitted.  Previously, opcode events were
     emitted first, and therefore would occasionally see stale line
     numbers on the frame.  The behavior of this feature has changed
     slightly as a result: when both ‘f_trace_lines’ and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ are enabled, line events now occur first.

   - bpo-28603(17): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(18): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31781(19): Prevent crashes when calling methods of an
     uninitialized ‘zipimport.zipimporter’ object.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-30399(20): Standard repr() of BaseException with a single
     argument no longer contains redundant trailing comma.

   - bpo-31626(21): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-30817(22): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32096

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31845

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31618

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31781

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<64>,  Next: Documentation<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32214(2): PEP 557, Data Classes.  Provides a decorator which
     adds boilerplate methods to classes which use type annotations so
     specify fields.

   - bpo-27240(3): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(4),
     bpo-31831(5), and bpo-32182(6).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(7): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-32101(8): Add *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 18e5. flag

   - bpo-32154(9): The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has
     been removed: use directly *note socket.socketpair(): a6e. which is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5 (before, it wasn’t
     available on Windows).  ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ was
     just an alias to ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   - bpo-32089(10): warnings: In development (-X dev) and debug mode
     (pydebug build), use the “default” action for ResourceWarning,
     rather than the “always” action, in the default warnings filters.

   - bpo-32107(11): ‘uuid.getnode()’ now preferentially returns
     universally administered MAC addresses if available, over locally
     administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better guarantee for
     global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from ‘uuid.uuid1()’.  If only
     locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such
     one found is returned.

   - bpo-23033(12): Wildcard is now supported in hostname when it is one
     and only character in the left most segment of hostname in second
     argument of ‘ssl.match_hostname()’.  Patch by Mandeep Singh.

   - bpo-12239(13): Make *note msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty():
     1823. return ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.
     Initial patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-28334(14): Use *note os.path.expanduser(): 874. to find the
     ‘~/.netrc’ file in *note netrc.netrc: 16ea.  If it does not exist,
     *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. is raised.  Patch by Dimitri
     Merejkowsky.

   - bpo-32121(15): Made ‘tracemalloc.Traceback’ behave more like the
     traceback module, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
     ‘Traceback.format()’ now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
     result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old
     behaviour, one can use the new 'most_recent_first' argument to
     ‘Traceback.format()’.  (Patch by Jesse Bakker.)

   - bpo-31325(16): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     74b. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 18e6. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(17): *note msilib.OpenDatabase(): 177c. now raises a
     better exception message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI
     file.  Initial patch by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-19610(18): ‘setup()’ now warns about invalid types for some
     fields.  The ‘distutils.dist.Distribution’ class now warns when
     ‘classifiers’, ‘keywords’ and ‘platforms’ fields are not specified
     as a list or a string.

   - bpo-32071(19): Added the ‘-k’ command-line option to ‘python -m
     unittest’ to run only tests that match the given pattern(s).

   - bpo-10049(20): Added 'nullcontext' no-op context manager to
     contextlib.  This provides a simpler and faster alternative to
     ExitStack() when handling optional context managers.

   - bpo-28684(21): The new test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket()
     decorator is used here to skip asyncio tests that fail because the
     platform lacks a functional bind() function for unix domain sockets
     (as it is the case for non root users on the recent Android
     versions that run now SELinux in enforcing mode).

   - bpo-32110(22): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-27535(23): The warnings module doesn’t leak memory anymore in
     the hidden warnings registry for the “ignore” action of warnings
     filters.  warn_explicit() function doesn’t add the warning key to
     the registry anymore for the “ignore” action.

   - bpo-32088(24): warnings: When Python is build is debug mode
     (‘Py_DEBUG’), *note DeprecationWarning: 17f, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. and *note ImportWarning: 24e.
     warnings are now displayed by default.

   - bpo-1647489(25): Fixed searching regular expression patterns that
     could match an empty string.  Non-empty string can now be correctly
     found after matching an empty string.

   - bpo-25054(26): Added support of splitting on a pattern that could
     match an empty string.

   - bpo-32072(27): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32069(28): Drop legacy SSL transport from asyncio,
     ssl.MemoryBIO is always used anyway.

   - bpo-32066(29): asyncio: Support pathlib.Path in
     create_unix_connection; sock arg should be optional

   - bpo-32046(30): Updates 2to3 to convert from
     operator.isCallable(obj) to callable(obj).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32018(31): inspect.signature should follow PEP 8(32), if the
     parameter has an annotation and a default value.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-32025(33): Add time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns()

   - bpo-32037(34): Integers that fit in a signed 32-bit integer will be
     now pickled with protocol 0 using the INT opcode.  This will
     decrease the size of a pickle, speed up pickling and unpickling,
     and make these integers be unpickled as int instances in Python 2.

   - bpo-32034(35): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(36): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(37): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-28369(38): Enhance add_reader/writer check that socket is not
     used by some transport.  Before, only cases when add_reader/writer
     were called with an int FD were supported.  Now the check is
     implemented correctly for all file-like objects.

   - bpo-31976(39): Fix race condition when flushing a file is slow,
     which can cause a segfault if closing the file from another thread.

   - bpo-31985(40): Formally deprecated aifc.openfp, sunau.openfp, and
     wave.openfp.  Since change 7bc817d5ba917528e8bd07ec461c635291e7b06a
     in 1993, openfp in each of the three modules had been pointing to
     that module’s open function as a matter of backwards compatibility,
     though it had been both untested and undocumented.

   - bpo-21862(41): cProfile command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’
     as an alternative to script path.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31970(42): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-31843(43): 'database' argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts
     a *note path-like object: 98e, instead of just a string.

   - bpo-31945(44): Add Configurable 'blocksize' to ‘HTTPConnection’ and
     ‘HTTPSConnection’ for improved upload throughput.  Patch by Nir
     Soffer.

   - bpo-31943(45): Add a ‘cancelled()’ method to *note asyncio.Handle:
     18e7.  Patch by Marat Sharafutdinov.

   - bpo-9678(46): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(47): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(48): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-21423(49): Add an initializer argument to
     {Process,Thread}PoolExecutor

   - bpo-31927(50): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(51): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31917(52): Add 3 new clock identifiers: *note
     time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: a04, *note time.CLOCK_PROF: a05. and *note
     time.CLOCK_UPTIME: a06.

   - bpo-31897(53): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(54): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(55): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(56): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-31884(57): added required constants to subprocess module for
     setting priority on windows

   - bpo-28281(58): Remove year (1-9999) limits on the
     Calendar.weekday() function.  Patch by Mark Gollahon.

   - bpo-31702(59): crypt.mksalt() now allows to specify the number of
     rounds for SHA-256 and SHA-512 hashing.

   - bpo-30639(60): *note inspect.getfile(): 18e8. no longer computes
     the repr of unknown objects to display in an error message, to
     protect against badly behaved custom reprs.

   - bpo-30768(61): Fix the pthread+semaphore implementation of
     PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() when called with timeout > 0 and
     intr_flag=0: recompute the timeout if sem_timedwait() is
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR). See also the PEP 475(62).

   - bpo-31854(63): Add ‘mmap.ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

   - bpo-31834(64): Use optimized code for BLAKE2 only with SSSE3+.  The
     pure SSE2 implementation is slower than the pure C reference
     implementation.

   - bpo-28292(65): Calendar.itermonthdates() will now consistently
     raise an exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01
     through 9999-12-31 range.  To support applications that cannot
     tolerate such exceptions, the new methods itermonthdays3() and
     itermonthdays4() are added.  The new methods return tuples and are
     not restricted by the range supported by datetime.date.

   - bpo-28564(66): The shutil.rmtree() function has been sped up to
     20–40%.  This was done using the os.scandir() function.

   - bpo-28416(67): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-31653(68): Don’t release the GIL if we can acquire a
     multiprocessing semaphore immediately.

   - bpo-28326(69): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-20825(70): Add ‘subnet_of’ and ‘superset_of’ containment tests
     to *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 9bc. and *note
     ipaddress.IPv4Network: 9bd.  Patch by Michel Albert and Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-31827(71): Remove the os.stat_float_times() function.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-31756(72): Add a ‘subprocess.Popen(text=False)’ keyword
     argument to ‘subprocess’ functions to be more explicit about when
     the library should attempt to decode outputs into text.  Patch by
     Andrew Clegg.

   - bpo-31819(73): Add AbstractEventLoop.sock_recv_into().

   - bpo-31457(74): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(75): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(76): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31803(77): time.clock() and time.get_clock_info(‘clock’) now
     emit a DeprecationWarning warning.

   - bpo-31800(78): Extended support for parsing UTC offsets.  strptime
     ‘%z’ can now parse the output generated by datetime.isoformat,
     including seconds and microseconds.

   - bpo-28603(79): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30541(80): Add new function to seal a mock and prevent the
     automatically creation of child mocks.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-31784(81): Implement the PEP 564(82), add new 6 new functions
     with nanosecond resolution to the *note time: ed. module: *note
     clock_gettime_ns(): 950, *note clock_settime_ns(): 951, *note
     monotonic_ns(): 952, *note perf_counter_ns(): 953, *note
     process_time_ns(): 954, *note time_ns(): 955.

   - bpo-30143(83): 2to3 now generates a code that uses abstract
     collection classes from collections.abc rather than collections.

   - bpo-31770(84): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31764(85): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(86): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31620(87): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31690(88): Allow the flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE, and re.UNICODE
     to be used as group flags for regular expressions.

   - bpo-30349(89): FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression
     contains character set constructs that will change semantically in
     the future (nested sets and set operations).

   - bpo-31664(90): Added support for the Blowfish hashing in the crypt
     module.

   - bpo-31632(91): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-15037(92): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-31307(93): Allow use of bytes objects for arguments to *note
     configparser.ConfigParser.read(): 12f0.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-31334(94): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(95): multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(96): Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   - bpo-31245(97): Added support for AF_UNIX socket in asyncio
     ‘create_datagram_endpoint’.

   - bpo-30553(98): Add HTTP/2 status code 421 (Misdirected Request) to
     *note http.HTTPStatus: 755.  Patch by Vitor Pereira.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32214

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32101

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32154

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32089

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28334

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19610

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28684

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27535

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1647489

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32069

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32046

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32018

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32037

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31976

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31917

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31884

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28281

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30639

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30768

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31854

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31834

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31653

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31827

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31803

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31800

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30143

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31307

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30553


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<59>,  Next: Tests<57>,  Prev: Library<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<57>,  Next: Build<56>,  Prev: Documentation<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-32138(3): Skip on Android test_faulthandler tests that raise
     SIGSEGV and remove the test.support.requires_android_level
     decorator.

   - bpo-32136(4): The runtime embedding tests have been split out from
     ‘Lib/test/test_capi.py’ into a new ‘Lib/test/test_embed.py’ file.

   - bpo-28668(5): test.support.requires_multiprocessing_queue is
     removed.  Skip tests with
     test.support.import_module(‘multiprocessing.synchronize’) instead
     when the semaphore implementation is broken or missing.

   - bpo-32126(6): Skip test_get_event_loop_new_process in
     test.test_asyncio.test_events when sem_open() is not functional.

   - bpo-31174(7): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32136

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32126

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174


File: python.info,  Node: Build<56>,  Next: Windows<55>,  Prev: Tests<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28538(1): Revert the previous changes, the if_nameindex
     structure is defined by Unified Headers.

   - bpo-28762(2): Revert the last commit, the F_LOCK macro is defined
     by Android Unified Headers.

   - bpo-29040(3): Support building Android with Unified Headers.  The
     first NDK release to support Unified Headers is android-ndk-r14.

   - bpo-32059(4): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(5): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(6): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(7): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(8): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(9): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(10): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28643(11): Record profile-opt build progress with stamp files.

   - bpo-31866(12): Finish removing support for AtheOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28643

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31866


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<55>,  Next: macOS<44>,  Prev: Build<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   - bpo-20486(3): Implement the ‘Database.Close()’ method to help
     closing MSI database objects.

   - bpo-31857(4): Make the behavior of USE_STACKCHECK deterministic in
     a multi-threaded environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31857


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<44>,  Next: IDLE<42>,  Prev: Windows<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<42>,  Next: Tools/Demos<33>,  Prev: macOS<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to ‘>>> ‘ if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<33>,  Next: C API<51>,  Prev: IDLE<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-32159(1): Remove CVS and Subversion tools: remove svneol.py and
     treesync.py scripts.  CPython migrated from CVS to Subversion, to
     Mercurial, and then to Git.  CVS and Subversion are no longer used
     to develop CPython.

   - bpo-30722(2): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn’t work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32159

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<51>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<33>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.22.64.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-32125(2): The ‘Py_UseClassExceptionsFlag’ flag has been
     removed.  It was deprecated and wasn’t used anymore since Python
     2.0.

   - bpo-25612(3): Move the current exception state from the frame
     object to the co-routine.  This simplifies the interpreter and
     fixes a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception
     state when entering or exiting a generator.

   - bpo-23699(4): Add Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro to reduce boilerplate
     code in rich comparison functions.

   - bpo-30697(5): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(6).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32125

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.65 Python 3.7.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* C API: C API<52>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<63>,  Next: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.65.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31558(1): ‘gc.freeze()’ is a new API that allows for moving all
     objects currently tracked by the garbage collector to a permanent
     generation, effectively removing them from future collection
     events.  This can be used to protect those objects from having
     their PyGC_Head mutated.  In effect, this enables great
     copy-on-write stability at fork().

   - bpo-31642(2): Restored blocking “from package import module” by
     setting sys.modules[“package.module”] to None.

   - bpo-31708(3): Allow use of asynchronous generator expressions in
     synchronous functions.

   - bpo-31709(4): Drop support of asynchronous __aiter__.

   - bpo-30404(5): The -u option now makes the stdout and stderr streams
     unbuffered rather than line-buffered.

   - bpo-31619(6): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31602(7): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimporter.get_source()’ in case of a bad ‘zlib.decompress()’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31592(8): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(9): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message when
     class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad ‘__prepare__()’
     method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31574(10): Importlib was instrumented with two dtrace probes to
     profile import timing.

   - bpo-31566(11): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31506(12): Improved the error message logic for
     ‘object.__new__’ and ‘object.__init__’.

   - bpo-31505(13): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(14): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31336(16): Speed up class creation by 10-20% by reducing the
     overhead in the necessary special method lookups.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-31415(17): Add ‘-X importtime’ option to show how long each
     import takes.  It can be used to optimize application’s startup
     time.  Support the *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 963. as an
     equivalent way to enable this.

   - bpo-31410(18): Optimized calling wrapper and classmethod
     descriptors.

   - bpo-31353(19): PEP 553(20) - Add a new built-in called
     ‘breakpoint()’ which calls ‘sys.breakpointhook()’.  By default this
     imports ‘pdb’ and calls ‘pdb.set_trace()’, but users may override
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to call whatever debugger they want.  The
     original value of the hook is saved in ‘sys.__breakpointhook__’.

   - bpo-17852(21): Maintain a list of open buffered files, flush them
     before exiting the interpreter.  Based on a patch from Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-31315(22): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(23): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(24): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(25): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader’s ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30406(26): Make ‘async’ and ‘await’ proper keywords, as
     specified in PEP 492(27).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30404

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31602

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31336

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31410

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<65>,  Next: Documentation<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.65.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30058(1): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31672(2): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31701(3): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and
     COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(4): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31671(5): Now ‘re.compile()’ converts passed RegexFlag to
     normal int object before compiling.  bm_regex_compile benchmark
     shows 14% performance improvements.

   - bpo-30397(6): The types of compiled regular objects and match
     objects are now exposed as ‘re.Pattern’ and ‘re.Match’.  This adds
     information in pydoc output for the ‘re’ module.

   - bpo-31675(7): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(8): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-31648(9): Improvements to path predicates in ElementTree: Allow
     whitespace around predicate parts, i.e.  “[a = ‘text’]” instead of
     requiring the less readable “[a=’text’]”.  Add support for text
     comparison of the current node, like “[.=’text’]”.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-30806(10): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-31638(11): Add optional argument ‘compressed’ to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive’, and add option ‘--compress’ to the command
     line interface of ‘zipapp’.

   - bpo-25351(12): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-20519(13): Avoid ctypes use (if possible) and improve import
     time for uuid.

   - bpo-28293(14): The regular expression cache is no longer completely
     dumped when it is full.

   - bpo-31596(15): Added pthread_getcpuclockid() to the time module

   - bpo-27494(16): Make 2to3 accept a trailing comma in generator
     expressions.  For example, ‘set(x for x in [],)’ is now allowed.

   - bpo-30347(17): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-30346(18): An iterator produced by itertools.groupby() iterator
     now becomes exhausted after advancing the groupby iterator.

   - bpo-31556(19): Cancel asyncio.wait_for future faster if timeout <=
     0

   - bpo-31540(20): Allow passing a context object in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. constructor.  Also,
     free job resources in *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     741. earlier to improve memory usage when a worker waits for new
     jobs.

   - bpo-31516(21): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31525(22): In the sqlite module, require the sqlite3_prepare_v2
     API. Thus, the sqlite module now requires sqlite version at least
     3.3.9.

   - bpo-26510(23): argparse subparsers are now required by default.
     This matches behaviour in Python 2.  For optional subparsers, use
     the new parameter ‘add_subparsers(required=False)’.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.  (As of 3.7.0rc1, the default was changed to not
     required as had been the case since Python 3.3.)

   - bpo-27541(24): Reprs of subclasses of some collection and iterator
     classes (‘bytearray’, ‘array.array’, ‘collections.deque’,
     ‘collections.defaultdict’, ‘itertools.count’, ‘itertools.repeat’)
     now contain actual type name instead of hardcoded names of the base
     class.

   - bpo-31351(25): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31389(26): ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now takes an optional keyword-only
     argument ‘header’.  If given, this is printed to the console just
     before debugging begins.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30397

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20519

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28293

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31596

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30346

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31525

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27541

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<60>,  Next: Build<57>,  Prev: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.65.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31537(1): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(2): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Build<57>,  Next: IDLE<43>,  Prev: Documentation<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.65.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-31696(1): Improve compiler version information in *note
     sys.version: ba3. when Python is built with Clang.

   - bpo-31625(2): Stop using ranlib on static libraries.  Instead, we
     assume ar supports the ‘s’ flag.

   - bpo-31624(3): Remove support for BSD/OS.

   - bpo-22140(4): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31569(5): Correct PCBuild/ case to PCbuild/ in build scripts
     and documentation.

   - bpo-31536(6): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31696

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31625

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31624

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31569

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<43>,  Next: C API<52>,  Prev: Build<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.65.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31460(1): Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(2): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(3): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(4): Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(5): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(6): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: C API<52>,  Prev: IDLE<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.22.65.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-28280(1): Make ‘PyMapping_Keys()’, ‘PyMapping_Values()’ and
     ‘PyMapping_Items()’ always return a ‘list’ (rather than a ‘list’ or
     a ‘tuple’).  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-25658(3): Implement PEP 539(4) for Thread Specific Storage
     (TSS) API: it is a new Thread Local Storage (TLS) API to CPython
     which would supersede use of the existing TLS API within the
     CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. PEP
     written by Erik M. Bray, patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 6 6 final,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.66 Python 3.7.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<53>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<43>,  Next: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-29505(2): Add fuzz tests for float(str), int(str),
     unicode(str); for oss-fuzz.

   - bpo-30947(3): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   - bpo-30730(4): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(5): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(6)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(7) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(8) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(9)) and CVE 2012-0876(10) (Counter
     hash flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(11) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(12): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(13): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(14) and CVE 2016-4472(15).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (14) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<64>,  Next: Library<66>,  Prev: Security<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31490(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31471(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(3): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(4): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28411(5): Change direct usage of PyInterpreterState.modules to
     PyImport_GetModuleDict().  Also introduce more uniformity in other
     code that deals with sys.modules.  This helps reduce complications
     when working on sys.modules.

   - bpo-28411(6): Switch to the abstract API when dealing with
     ‘PyInterpreterState.modules’.  This allows later support for all
     dict subclasses and other Mapping implementations.  Also add a
     ‘PyImport_GetModule()’ function to reduce a bunch of duplicated
     code.

   - bpo-31411(7): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31344(8): For finer control of tracing behaviour when testing
     the interpreter, two new frame attributes have been added to
     control the emission of particular trace events: ‘f_trace_lines’
     (‘True’ by default) to turn off per-line trace events; and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ (‘False’ by default) to turn on per-opcode trace
     events.

   - bpo-31373(9): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(10): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-30860(11): Consolidate CPython’s global runtime state under a
     single struct.  This improves discoverability of the runtime state.

   - bpo-31347(12): Fix possible undefined behavior in
     _PyObject_FastCall_Prepend.

   - bpo-31343(13): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(14): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn’t a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(15): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(16): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder’s state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(17): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(18): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-30747(19): Add a non-dummy implementation of _Py_atomic_store
     and _Py_atomic_load on MSVC.

   - bpo-31095(20): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(21): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(22): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(23): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(24): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(25): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I’m adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(26): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(27): Make sure the ‘Missing parentheses’ syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(28): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30736(29): The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded
     to Unicode 10.0.

   - bpo-30604(30): Move co_extra_freefuncs from per-thread to
     per-interpreter to avoid crashes.

   - bpo-30597(31): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-30682(32): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval(“f’\n’”) and eval(“f’\r’”).

   - bpo-30501(33): The compiler now produces more optimal code for
     complex condition expressions in the “if”, “while” and “assert”
     statement, the “if” expression, and generator expressions and
     comprehensions.

   - bpo-28180(34): Implement PEP 538(35) (legacy C locale coercion).
     This means that when a suitable coercion target locale is
     available, both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions
     will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather
     than ASCII.

   - bpo-30486(36): Allows setting cell values for __closure__.  Patch
     by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-30537(37): itertools.islice now accepts integer-like objects
     (having an __index__ method) as start, stop, and slice arguments

   - bpo-25324(38): Tokens needed for parsing in Python moved to C.
     ‘COMMENT’, ‘NL’ and ‘ENCODING’.  This way the tokens and tok_names
     in the token module don’t get changed when you import the tokenize
     module.

   - bpo-29104(39): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(40): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(41): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(42): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested ‘yield from’ or
     ‘await’ calls, it’s now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-28974(43): ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to
     ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(self), '')’.

   - bpo-30024(44): Circular imports involving absolute imports with
     binding a submodule to a name are now supported.

   - bpo-12414(45): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29839(46): len() now raises ValueError rather than
     OverflowError if __len__() returned a large negative integer.

   - bpo-11913(47): README.rst is now included in the list of distutils
     standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions.

   - bpo-29914(48): Fixed default implementations of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__().  object.__reduce__() no longer takes arguments,
     object.__reduce_ex__() now requires one argument.

   - bpo-29949(49): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(50): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29816(51): Shift operation now has less opportunity to raise
     OverflowError.  ValueError always is raised rather than
     OverflowError for negative counts.  Shifting zero with non-negative
     count always returns zero.

   - bpo-24821(52): Fixed the slowing down to 25 times in the searching
     of some unlucky Unicode characters.

   - bpo-29102(53): Add a unique ID to PyInterpreterState.  This makes
     it easier to identify each subinterpreter.

   - bpo-29894(54): The deprecation warning is emitted if __complex__
     returns an instance of a strict subclass of complex.  In a future
     versions of Python this can be an error.

   - bpo-29859(55): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-29849(56): Fix a memory leak when an ImportError is raised
     during from import.

   - bpo-28856(57): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29723(58): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(59) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   - bpo-29568(60): Escaped percent “%%” in the format string for
     classic string formatting no longer allows any characters between
     two percents.

   - bpo-29714(61): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29695(62): bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take
     keyword arguments.  The first argument of int() can now be passes
     only as positional argument.

   - bpo-28893(63): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-28876(64): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 6c7.

   - bpo-29683(65): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(66): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(67): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(68): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(69): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(70): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29463(71): Add ‘docstring’ field to Module, ClassDef,
     FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes.  docstring is not
     first stmt in their body anymore.  It affects ‘co_firstlineno’ and
     ‘co_lnotab’ of code object for module and class.  (Reverted in
     bpo-32911(72).)

   - bpo-29438(73): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29546(74): Set the ‘path’ and ‘name’ attribute on ImportError
     for ‘from ... import ...’.

   - bpo-29546(75): Improve from-import error message with location

   - bpo-29478(76): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   - bpo-29319(77): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(78): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(79): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(80): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(81): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-29049(82): Call _PyObject_GC_TRACK() lazily when calling Python
     function.  Calling function is up to 5% faster.

   - bpo-28927(83): bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore
     all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  Patch by Robert Xiao.

   - bpo-28932(84): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(85): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(86): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-18896(87): Python function can now have more than 255
     parameters.  collections.namedtuple() now supports tuples with more
     than 255 elements.

   - bpo-28596(88): The preferred encoding is UTF-8 on Android.  Patch
     written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22257(89): Clean up interpreter startup (see PEP 432(90)).

   - bpo-26919(91): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(92): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28147(93): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28739(94): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(95): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(96): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-23722(97): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(98): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28799(99): Remove the ‘PyEval_GetCallStats()’ function and
     deprecate the untested and undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function.
     Remove the ‘CALL_PROFILE’ special build: use the *note
     sys.setprofile(): 138c. function, *note cProfile: 27. or *note
     profile: ae. to profile function calls.

   - bpo-12844(100): More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a
     function.

   - bpo-28782(101): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(102)).

   - bpo-28774(103): Fix error position of the unicode error in ASCII
     and Latin1 encoders when a string returned by the error handler
     contains multiple non-encodable characters (non-ASCII for the ASCII
     codec, characters out of the U+0000-U+00FF range for Latin1).

   - bpo-28731(104): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   - bpo-28532(105): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(106): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before
     it checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages
     when both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(107): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(108): Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(109): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28665(110): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-19398(111): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components
     in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28621(112): Sped up converting int to float by reusing faster
     bits counting implementation.  Patch by Adrian Wielgosik.

   - bpo-28580(113): Optimize iterating split table values.  Patch by
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28583(114): PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28128(115): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(116): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(117): Fixed potential crash in
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(118): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer
     that caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(119): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(120): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add()
     and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28183(121): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(122): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(123): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(124): The type of long range iterator is now registered
     as Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(125): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is disallowed.  Calling iter() on range
     instance is the only way.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(126): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(127): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(128): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(129): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(130): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(131): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(132): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-28289(133): ImportError.__init__ now resets not specified
     attributes.

   - bpo-21578(134): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(135): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(136): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(137): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(138): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(139): Don’t import readline in isolated mode.

   - bpo-27441(140): Remove some redundant assignments to ob_size in
     longobject.c.  Thanks Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27222(141): Clean up redundant code in long_rshift function.
     Thanks Oren Milman.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(142): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(143): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(144): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a “pending key” (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(145): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   - bpo-26182(146): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(147): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow()
     to handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   - bpo-26110(148): Speed-up method calls: add LOAD_METHOD and
     CALL_METHOD opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30860

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30747

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30736

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30501

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30486

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25324

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29839

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29914

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29816

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29894

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29849

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29568

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29695

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

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   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29049

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   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

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   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28596

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (90) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28774

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28621

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28580

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517

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   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

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   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28289

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192

   (140) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27441

   (141) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27222

   (142) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (143) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126

   (144) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120

   (145) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (146) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (147) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721

   (148) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110


File: python.info,  Node: Library<66>,  Next: Documentation<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-31482(2): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-28556(3): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(4): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(5): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(6): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(7): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31431(8): SSLContext.check_hostname now automatically sets
     SSLContext.verify_mode to ssl.CERT_REQUIRED instead of failing with
     a ValueError.

   - bpo-31233(9): socketserver.ThreadingMixIn now keeps a list of
     non-daemonic threads to wait until all these threads complete in
     server_close().

   - bpo-28638(10): Changed the implementation strategy for
     collections.namedtuple() to substantially reduce the use of exec()
     in favor of precomputed methods.  As a result, the 'verbose'
     parameter and '_source' attribute are no longer supported.  The
     benefits include 1) having a smaller memory footprint for
     applications using multiple named tuples, 2) faster creation of the
     named tuple class (approx 4x to 6x depending on how it is
     measured), and 3) minor speed-ups for instance creation using
     __new__, _make, and _replace.  (The primary patch contributor is
     Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger.)

   - bpo-31400(11): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-27629(12): Make return types of SSLContext.wrap_bio() and
     SSLContext.wrap_socket() customizable.

   - bpo-28958(13): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-28182(14): The SSL module now raises SSLCertVerificationError
     when OpenSSL fails to verify the peer’s certificate.  The exception
     contains more information about the error.

   - bpo-27340(15): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-14191(16): A new function
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args’ provides the
     ability to parse command lines where there user intermixes options
     and positional arguments.

   - bpo-31178(17): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(18): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(19): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(20): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-1198569(21): ‘string.Template’ subclasses can optionally define
     ‘braceidpattern’ if they want to specify different placeholder
     patterns inside and outside the braces.  If None (the default) it
     falls back to ‘idpattern’.

   - bpo-31326(22): concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.shutdown()
     now explicitly closes the call queue.  Moreover,
     shutdown(wait=True) now also join the call queue thread, to prevent
     leaking a dangling thread.

   - bpo-27144(23): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-31281(24): Fix ‘fileinput.FileInput(files, inplace=True)’ when
     ‘files’ contain ‘pathlib.Path’ objects.

   - bpo-10746(25): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(26) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-27584(27): ‘AF_VSOCK’ has been added to the socket interface
     which allows communication between virtual machines and their host.

   - bpo-22536(28): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-29741(29): Update some methods in the _pyio module to also
     accept integer types.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31249(30): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(31): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-23835(32): configparser: reading defaults in the
     ‘ConfigParser()’ constructor is now using ‘read_dict()’, making its
     behavior consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys
     and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly
     converted to strings.  Patch by James Tocknell.

   - bpo-31238(33): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-5001(34): Many asserts in ‘multiprocessing’ are now more
     informative, and some error types have been changed to more
     specific ones.

   - bpo-31109(35): Convert zipimport to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-30102(36): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-18966(37): Non-daemonic threads created by a
     multiprocessing.Process are now joined on child exit.

   - bpo-31183(38): ‘dis’ now works with asynchronous generator and
     coroutine objects.  Patch by George Collins based on diagnosis by
     Luciano Ramalho.

   - bpo-5001(39): There are a number of uninformative asserts in the
     ‘multiprocessing’ module, as noted in issue 5001.  This change
     fixes two of the most potentially problematic ones, since they are
     in error-reporting code, in the
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.convert_to_error’ function.  (It also
     makes more informative a ValueError message.)  The only potentially
     problematic change is that the AssertionError is now a TypeError;
     however, this should also help distinguish it from an
     AssertionError being 'reported' by the function/its caller (such as
     in issue 31169).  - Patch by Allen W. Smith (drallensmith on
     github).

   - bpo-31185(40): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31151(41): socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close() now waits
     until all child processes completed to prevent leaking zombie
     processes.

   - bpo-31072(42): Add an ‘include_file’ parameter to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive()’

   - bpo-24700(43): Optimize array.array comparison.  It is now from 10x
     up to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same
     integer type.

   - bpo-31135(44): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn’t exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(45): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31080(46): Allow ‘logging.config.fileConfig’ to accept kwargs
     and/or args.

   - bpo-30897(47): ‘pathlib.Path’ objects now include an ‘is_mount()’
     method (only implemented on POSIX). This is similar to
     ‘os.path.ismount(p)’.  Patch by Cooper Ry Lees.

   - bpo-31061(48): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30987(49): Added support for CAN ISO-TP protocol in the socket
     module.

   - bpo-30522(50): Added a ‘setStream’ method to
     ‘logging.StreamHandler’ to allow the stream to be set after
     creation.

   - bpo-30502(51): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-5288(52): Support tzinfo objects with sub-minute offsets.

   - bpo-30919(53): Fix shared memory performance regression in
     multiprocessing in 3.x.  Shared memory used anonymous memory
     mappings in 2.x, while 3.x mmaps actual files.  Try to be careful
     to do as little disk I/O as possible.

   - bpo-26732(54): Fix too many fds in processes started with the
     “forkserver” method.  A child process would inherit as many fds as
     the number of still-running children.

   - bpo-29403(55): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(56): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-19896(57): Fix multiprocessing.sharedctypes to recognize
     typecodes ‘'q'’ and ‘'Q'’.

   - bpo-30946(58): Remove obsolete code in readline module for
     platforms where GNU readline is older than 2.1 or where select() is
     not available.

   - bpo-25684(59): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(60): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(61): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30794(62): Added multiprocessing.Process.kill method to
     terminate using the SIGKILL signal on Unix.

   - bpo-30319(63): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(64): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30302(65): Use keywords in the ‘repr’ of ‘datetime.timedelta’.

   - bpo-30807(66): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(67): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-29585(68): Avoid importing ‘sysconfig’ from ‘site’ to improve
     startup speed.  Python startup is about 5% faster on Linux and 30%
     faster on macOS.

   - bpo-29293(69): Add missing parameter “n” on
     multiprocessing.Condition.notify().  The doc claims
     multiprocessing.Condition behaves like threading.Condition, but its
     notify() method lacked the optional “n” argument (to specify the
     number of sleepers to wake up) that threading.Condition.notify()
     accepts.

   - bpo-30532(70): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30596(71): Add a ‘close()’ method to ‘multiprocessing.Process’.

   - bpo-9146(72): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-29169(73): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30119(74): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30879(75): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(76): Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-30664(77): The description of a unittest subtest now preserves
     the order of keyword arguments of TestCase.subTest().

   - bpo-21071(78): struct.Struct.format type is now *note str: 15d.
     instead of *note bytes: 2cb.

   - bpo-29212(79): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as “ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n”.

   - bpo-29755(80): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30616(81): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(82): Fix race condition between signal delivery and
     wakeup file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(83): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-24744(84): pkgutil.walk_packages function now raises ValueError
     if 'path' is a string.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-24484(85): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-30589(86): Fix multiprocessing.Process.exitcode to return the
     opposite of the signal number when the process is killed by a
     signal (instead of 255) when using the “forkserver” method.

   - bpo-28994(87): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(88): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()”
     method was called.

   - bpo-30645(89): Fix path calculation in ‘imp.load_package()’, fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-11822(90): The dis.dis() function now is able to disassemble
     nested code objects.

   - bpo-30624(91): selectors does not take KeyboardInterrupt and
     SystemExit into account, leaving a fd in a bad state in case of
     error.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-30595(92): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-28556(93): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-30605(94): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-29870(95): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(96): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(97): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30014(98): modify() method of poll(), epoll() and devpoll()
     based classes of selectors module is around 10% faster.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-30418(99): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30463(100): Addded empty __slots__ to abc.ABC. This allows
     subclassers to deny __dict__ and __weakref__ creation.  Patch by
     Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-30520(101): Loggers are now pickleable.

   - bpo-30557(102): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30526(103): Add TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() and a
     TextIOWrapper.write_through attribute.

   - bpo-30245(104): Fix possible overflow when organize
     struct.pack_into error message.  Patch by Yuan Liu.

   - bpo-30378(105): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-16500(106): Allow registering at-fork handlers.

   - bpo-30470(107): Deprecate invalid ctypes call protection on
     Windows.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-30414(108): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(109): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30149(110): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30436(111): importlib.find_spec() raises ModuleNotFoundError
     instead of AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a __path__ attribute).

   - bpo-30301(112): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30375(113): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30329(114): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-29196(115): Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes
     Plist, Dict and _InternalDict in the plistlib module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are
     now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to access
     items of these dictionaries.

   - bpo-9850(116): The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.8.

   - bpo-30299(117): Compiling regular expression in debug mode on
     CPython now displays the compiled bytecode in human readable form.

   - bpo-30048(118): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(119): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(120).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30340(121): Enhanced regular expressions optimization.  This
     increased the performance of matching some patterns up to 25 times.

   - bpo-30298(122): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-30285(123): Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching
     of regular expressions.

   - bpo-29990(124): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-29979(125): rewrite cgi.parse_multipart, reusing the
     FieldStorage class and making its results consistent with those of
     FieldStorage for multipart/form-data requests.  Patch by Pierre
     Quentel.

   - bpo-30243(126): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30215(127): Compiled regular expression objects with the
     re.LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time.
     Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

   - bpo-30185(128): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-30103(129): binascii.b2a_uu() and uu.encode() now support using
     ‘'`'’ as zero instead of space.

   - bpo-28556(130): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(131): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30228(132): The seek() and tell() methods of io.FileIO now set
     the internal seekable attribute to avoid one syscall on open() (in
     buffered or text mode).

   - bpo-30190(133): unittest’s assertAlmostEqual and
     assertNotAlmostEqual provide a better message in case of failure
     which includes the difference between left and right arguments.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola’)

   - bpo-30101(134): Add support for curses.A_ITALIC.

   - bpo-29822(135): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29960(136): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30070(137): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-22352(138): Column widths in the output of dis.dis() are now
     adjusted for large line numbers and instruction offsets.

   - bpo-30061(139): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30218(140): Fix PathLike support for shutil.unpack_archive.
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-10076(141): Compiled regular expression and match objects in
     the re module now support copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() (they are
     considered atomic).

   - bpo-30068(142): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(143): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(144): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-26187(145): Test that sqlite3 trace callback is not called
     multiple times when schema is changing.  Indirectly fixed by
     switching to use sqlite3_prepare_v2() in bpo-9303(146).  Patch by
     Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-30017(147): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-29998(148): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29995(149): re.escape() now escapes only regex special
     characters.

   - bpo-29962(150): Add math.remainder operation, implementing
     remainder as specified in IEEE 754.

   - bpo-29649(151): Improve struct.pack_into() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-29654(152): Support If-Modified-Since HTTP header (browser
     cache).  Patch by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-29931(153): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-29953(154): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(155): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-10030(156): Sped up reading encrypted ZIP files by 2 times.

   - bpo-29204(157): Element.getiterator() and the html parameter of
     XMLParser() were deprecated only in the documentation (since Python
     3.2 and 3.4 correspondingly).  Now using them emits a deprecation
     warning.

   - bpo-27863(158): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by
     race conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-25996(159): Added support of file descriptors in os.scandir()
     on Unix.  os.fwalk() is sped up by 2 times by using os.scandir().

   - bpo-28699(160): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23890(161): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually
     breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than
     expected.

   - bpo-29901(162): The zipapp module now supports general path-like
     objects, not just pathlib.Path.

   - bpo-25803(163): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(164): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-19930(165): The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer
     affects the file permission bits of newly created
     intermediate-level directories.

   - bpo-29884(166): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(167): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(168): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-8256(169): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes “encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28692(170): Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form
     in gettext is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26121(171): Use C library implementation for math functions
     erf() and erfc().

   - bpo-29619(172): os.stat() and os.DirEntry.inode() now convert inode
     (st_ino) using unsigned integers.

   - bpo-28298(173): Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’
     from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as
     elements.

   - bpo-29645(174): Speed up importing the webbrowser module.
     webbrowser.register() is now thread-safe.

   - bpo-28231(175): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects
     for external paths.

   - bpo-26915(176): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-28682(177): Added support for bytes paths in os.fwalk().

   - bpo-29728(178): Add new ‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12)
     constant.  Patch by Nathaniel J. Smith.

   - bpo-29623(179): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument
     in ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-9303(180): Migrate sqlite3 module to _v2 API. Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-28963(181): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(182): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(183): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks
     implemented in C to accept None argument as their pure Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-29703(184): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29615(185): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError
     (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-7769(186): Method register_function() of
     xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher and its subclasses can now be
     used as a decorator.

   - bpo-29376(187): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(188): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of
     Popen() accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(189): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29742(190): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-16285(191): urllib.parse.quote is now based on RFC 3986 and
     hence includes ‘~’ in the set of characters that is not quoted by
     default.  Patch by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath.

   - bpo-29532(192): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(193): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-22807(194): Add uuid.SafeUUID and uuid.UUID.is_safe to relay
     information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are
     generated with a multiprocessing safe method.

   - bpo-29576(195): Improve some deprecations in importlib.  Some
     deprecated methods now emit DeprecationWarnings and have better
     descriptive messages.

   - bpo-29534(196): Fixed different behaviour of Decimal.from_float()
     for _decimal and _pydecimal.  Thanks Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-10379(197): locale.format_string now supports the ‘monetary’
     keyword argument, and locale.format is deprecated.

   - bpo-29851(198): importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError
     if the module lacks a spec.

   - bpo-28556(199): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(200): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29416(201): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(202): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29377(203): Add WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, and
     MethodDescriptorType built-in types to types module.  Original
     patch by Manuel Krebber.

   - bpo-29218(204): Unused install_misc command is now removed.  It has
     been documented as unused since 2000.  Patch by Eric N. Vander
     Weele.

   - bpo-29368(205): The extend() method is now called instead of the
     append() method when unpickle collections.deque and other list-like
     objects.  This can speed up unpickling to 2 times.

   - bpo-29338(206): The help of a builtin or extension class now
     includes the constructor signature if __text_signature__ is
     provided for the class.

   - bpo-29335(207): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(208): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(209): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29197(210): Removed deprecated function ntpath.splitunc().

   - bpo-29210(211): Removed support of deprecated argument “exclude” in
     tarfile.TarFile.add().

   - bpo-29219(212): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29192(213): Removed deprecated features in the http.cookies
     module.

   - bpo-29193(214): A format string argument for
     string.Formatter.format() is now positional-only.

   - bpo-29195(215): Removed support of deprecated undocumented keyword
     arguments in methods of regular expression objects.

   - bpo-28969(216): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-20804(217): The unittest.mock.sentinel attributes now preserve
     their identity when they are copied or pickled.

   - bpo-29142(218): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(219): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-15812(220): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the
     first line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-28985(221): Update authorizer constants in sqlite3 module.
     Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-29079(222): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(223): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-9770(224): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(225): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(226): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(227): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(228): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(229): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-16255(230): subprocess.Popen uses /system/bin/sh on Android as
     the shell, instead of /bin/sh.

   - bpo-28779(231): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would
     crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated
     some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-26937(232): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class
     does not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for
     example on Android platforms.

   - bpo-28847(233): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and
     no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.  A
     deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missed and
     recreated in the ‘r’ and ‘w’ modes (will be an error in future
     Python releases).

   - bpo-27030(234): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in re.sub() replacement templates regular expressions now
     are errors.

   - bpo-28835(235): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(236): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-28740(237): Add sys.getandroidapilevel(): return the build time
     API version of Android as an integer.  Function only available on
     Android.

   - bpo-26273(238): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-28752(239): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(240): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern
     objects created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and
     x!=y operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(241): don’t
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(242): Remove the subprocess.Popen.wait endtime parameter.
     It was deprecated in 3.4 and undocumented prior to that.

   - bpo-25659(243): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the
     from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes
     like Array.

   - bpo-28548(244): In the “http.server” module, parse the protocol
     version if possible, to avoid using HTTP 0.9 in some error
     responses.

   - bpo-19717(245): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(246): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution
     when handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(247): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(248): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(249): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(250): tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(251): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-24241(252): The webbrowser in an X environment now prefers
     using the default browser directly.  Also, the webbrowser
     register() function now has a documented ‘preferred’ argument, to
     specify browsers to be returned by get() with no arguments.  Patch
     by David Steele

   - bpo-27939(253): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(254): calendar.TextCalendar.prweek() no longer prints a
     space after a weeks’s calendar.  calendar.TextCalendar.pryear() no
     longer prints redundant newline after a year’s calendar.  Based on
     patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28255(255): calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(256): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(257): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(258): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future
     doesn’t accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(259): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by
     the “!” prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(260): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module
     by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(261): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry “./” to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(262): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-28469(263): timeit now uses the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,…
     instead of 1, 10, 100,… for autoranging.

   - bpo-28115(264): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     uses argparse.  Added support of long options.

   - bpo-18219(265): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of
     columns.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(266): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-23214(267): In the “io” module, the argument to BufferedReader
     and BytesIO’s read1() methods is now optional and can be -1,
     matching the BufferedIOBase specification.

   - bpo-28480(268): Fix error building socket module when
     multithreading is disabled.

   - bpo-28240(269): timeit: remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ command
     line options which were deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-28240(270): timeit now repeats the benchmarks 5 times instead
     of only 3 to make benchmarks more reliable.

   - bpo-28240(271): timeit autorange now uses a single loop iteration
     if the benchmark takes less than 10 seconds, instead of 10
     iterations.  “python3 -m timeit -s ‘import time’ ‘time.sleep(1)’”
     now takes 4 seconds instead of 40 seconds.

   - Distutils.sdist now looks for README and setup.py files with case
     sensitivity.  This behavior matches that found in Setuptools 6.0
     and later.  See setuptools 100(272) for rationale.

   - bpo-24452(273): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X. Patch
     by Ned Batchelder.

   - bpo-20766(274): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-27998(275): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on
     Windows.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(276): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-28380(277): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-28229(278): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(279): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(280): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(281): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28332(282): Deprecated silent truncations in socket.htons and
     socket.ntohs.  Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27358(283): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and
     improved error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword
     argument.

   - bpo-28257(284): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(285): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(286): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(287): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(288): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(289): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(290): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months:
     0001-01 and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2()
     are reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which
     can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(291): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(292): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(293): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(294): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(295): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(296): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(297): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(298): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(299): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(300): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default
     values for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter
     Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(301): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(302): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(303): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in
     the middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(304): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(305): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(306): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(307): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(308): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(309): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(310): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(311): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(312): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(313): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(314): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28325(315): Remove vestigial MacOS 9 macurl2path module and its
     tests.

   - bpo-28368(316): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(317): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(318): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(319): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(320): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(321): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(322): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-24142(323): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in
     an invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-29581(324): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-25532(325): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30177(326): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31431

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27629

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28182

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31326

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31281

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29741

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31109

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31183

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5001

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30987

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30919

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26732

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19896

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30946

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<61>,  Next: Tests<58>,  Prev: Library<66>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-31128(3): Allow the pydoc server to bind to arbitrary
     hostnames.

   - bpo-30803(4): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   - bpo-30176(5): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(6): the link targets for *note bytes(): 2cb. and *note
     bytearray(): 2ca. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     18fd. and *note bytearray: 18fe. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(7): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-19824(8): Improve the documentation for, and links to, template
     strings by emphasizing their utility for internationalization, and
     by clarifying some usage constraints.  (See also: bpo-20314(9),
     bpo-12518(10))

   - bpo-28929(11): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(12): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add
     a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(13): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(14): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   - bpo-23722(15): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the 3.6 What’s New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(16)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28513(17): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19824

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20314

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12518

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<58>,  Next: Build<58>,  Prev: Documentation<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-29639(1): test.support.HOST is now “localhost”, a new HOSTv4
     constant has been added for your ‘127.0.0.1’ needs, similar to the
     existing HOSTv6 constant.

   - bpo-31320(2): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-31346(3): Prefer PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER
     protocols for SSLContext.

   - bpo-25674(4): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(5): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(6): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all.  When
     running the test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30695(7): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   - bpo-30357(8): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(9): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-24932(10): Use proper command line parsing in _testembed

   - bpo-28950(11): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(12): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26936(13): Fix the test_socket failures on Android -
     getservbyname(), getservbyport() and getaddrinfo() are broken on
     some Android API levels.

   - bpo-28666(14): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(15): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-26944(16): Fix test_posix for Android where ‘id -G’ is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(17): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-28217(18): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   - bpo-26939(19): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29639

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31346

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24932

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26936

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<58>,  Next: Windows<56>,  Prev: Tests<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31354(1): Allow ‘--with-lto’ to be used on all builds, not just
     ‘make profile-opt’.

   - bpo-31370(2): Remove support for building –without-threads.  This
     option is not really useful anymore in the 21st century.  Removing
     lots of conditional paths allows us to simplify the code base,
     including in difficult to maintain low-level internal code.

   - bpo-31341(3): Per PEP 11(4), support for the IRIX operating system
     was removed.

   - bpo-30854(5): Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-30687(6): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-20210(7): Support the 'disabled' marker in Setup files.
     Extension modules listed after this marker are not built at all,
     neither by the Makefile nor by setup.py.

   - bpo-29941(8): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(9): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(10): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during
     ‘make test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when
     configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(11): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(12): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   - bpo-27593(13): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(14): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-27659(15): Prohibit implicit C function declarations: use
     ‘-Werror=implicit-function-declaration’ when possible (GCC and
     Clang, but it depends on the compiler version).  Patch written by
     Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-29384(16): Remove old Be OS helper scripts.

   - bpo-26851(17): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(18): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(19): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(20): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(21): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but
     the F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(22): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(23): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(24): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   - bpo-10656(25): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(26): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(27): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(28): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(29): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-21124(30): Fix building the _struct module on Cygwin by passing
     ‘NULL’ instead of ‘&PyType_Type’ to PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT. Patch by
     Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-13756(31): Fix building extensions modules on Cygwin.  Patch by
     Roumen Petrov, based on original patch by Jason Tishler.

   - bpo-21085(32): Add configure check for siginfo_t.si_band, which
     Cygwin does not provide.  Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto with review
     and rebase by Erik Bray.

   - bpo-28258(33): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(34): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-27979(35): A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use
     when building _ctypes on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
     of libffi is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms.

   - bpo-15819(36): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-28676(37): Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31354

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31341

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20210

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27659

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29384

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21124

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13756

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21085

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<56>,  Next: IDLE<44>,  Prev: Build<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-31392(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0f

   - bpo-30389(2): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31358(3): zlib is no longer bundled in the CPython source,
     instead it is downloaded on demand just like bz2, lzma, OpenSSL,
     Tcl/Tk, and SQLite.

   - bpo-31340(4): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(5): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30916(6): Pre-build OpenSSL, Tcl and Tk and include the
     binaries in the build.

   - bpo-30731(7): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   - bpo-30291(8): Allow requiring 64-bit interpreters from py.exe using
     -64 suffix.  Contributed by Steve (Gadget) Barnes.

   - bpo-30362(9): Adds list options (-0, -0p) to py.exe launcher.
     Contributed by Steve Barnes.

   - bpo-23451(10): Fix socket deprecation warnings in socketmodule.c.
     Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-30450(11): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   - bpo-29579(12): Removes readme.txt from the installer.

   - bpo-25778(13): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(14): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default

   - bpo-28522(15): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   - bpo-28402(16): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(17): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(18): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(19): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(20): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(21): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line
     starts with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(22): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(23): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(24): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(25): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31358

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30916

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23451

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<44>,  Next: Tools/Demos<34>,  Prev: Windows<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context – fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int(‘’) will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE’s built-in ‘extensions’ to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are ‘<<force-open-completions>>’, ‘<<expand-word>>’,
     ‘<<force-open-calltip>>’, ‘<<flash-paren>>’,
     ‘<<format-paragraph>>’, ‘<<run-module>>’, ‘<<check-module>>’, and
     ‘<<zoom-height>>’.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’ in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in ‘if __name__ == ‘__main__’.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     ‘parens’ style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make ‘default’
     style, which is not default, a synonym for ‘opener’.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace ‘colour’ with
     ‘color’, expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-15786(44): Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(45): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(46): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(47): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(48): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(49): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   - bpo-29071(50): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(51): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<34>,  Next: C API<53>,  Prev: IDLE<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno “Polaco”
     Penteado.

   - bpo-29748(3): Added the slice index converter in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-24037(4): Argument Clinic now uses the converter
     ‘bool(accept={int})’ rather than ‘int’ for semantical booleans.
     This avoids repeating the default value for Python and C and will
     help in converting to ‘bool’ in future.

   - bpo-29367(5): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   - bpo-28023(6): Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict
     implementation.

   - bpo-15369(7): The pybench and pystone microbenchmark have been
     removed from Tools.  Please use the new Python benchmark suite
     ‘https://github.com/python/pyperformance’ which is more reliable
     and includes a portable version of pybench working on Python 2 and
     Python 3.

   - bpo-28102(8): The zipfile module CLI now prints usage to stderr.
     Patch by Stephen J. Turnbull.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29748

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24037

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28102


File: python.info,  Node: C API<53>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<34>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.22.66.10 C API
................

   - bpo-31338(1): Added the ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ macro for code paths
     which are never expected to be reached.  This and a few other
     useful macros are now documented in the C API manual.

   - bpo-30832(2): Remove own implementation for thread-local storage.
     CPython has provided the own implementation for thread-local
     storage (TLS) on Python/thread.c, it’s used in the case which a
     platform has not supplied native TLS. However, currently all
     supported platforms (Windows and pthreads) have provided native TLS
     and defined the Py_HAVE_NATIVE_TLS macro with unconditional in any
     case.

   - bpo-30708(3): PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError
     if the second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains
     null characters.

   - bpo-16500(4): Deprecate PyOS_AfterFork() and add PyOS_BeforeFork(),
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

   - bpo-6532(5): The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and
     PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of
     PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from “long” to “unsigned long”.

   - bpo-27867(6): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and
     replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the
     value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or
     0x03060100 or higher.  Added functions PySlice_Unpack() and
     PySlice_AdjustIndices().

   - bpo-29083(7): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-28769(8): The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
     *’.

   - bpo-29058(9): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   - bpo-28822(10): The index parameters 'start' and 'end' of
     PyUnicode_FindChar() are now adjusted to behave like
     ‘str[start:end]’.

   - bpo-28808(11): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-28761(12): The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef,
     PyGetSetDef, PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and
     wrapperbase are now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-28748(13): Private variable _Py_PackageContext is now of type
     ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-19569(14): Compiler warnings are now emitted if use most of
     deprecated functions.

   - bpo-28426(15): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30832

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28748

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 final,  Next: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.67 Python 3.6.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

There were no new changes in version 3.6.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.68 Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-11'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<54>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<65>,  Next: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33786(1): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30654(2): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(3): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 1066. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): 7ec. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33231(7): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-29922(8): Improved error messages in ‘async with’ when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(9): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33041(10): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-32282(11): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-21983(12): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<67>,  Next: Documentation<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33767(4): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’) sequence
     operations now raise *note TypeError: 2c4. instead of *note
     SystemError: 30e. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 868. objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32684(5): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33674(6): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(7): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-33672(8): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-11874(10): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(11): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33548(12): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33542(13): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(14): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - bpo-28556(15): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(16): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(17): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-33197(18): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(19): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(20): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(21): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 1883.

   - bpo-33131(22): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(23): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33263(24): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(25): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33203(26): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(27): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(28).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(29): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 1885.

   - bpo-32861(30): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the “Crawl-delay” and
     “Request-rate” fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-33096(31): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-33127(32): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-33021(33): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-27683(34): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 7e. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32844(35): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-31908(36): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31457(37): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2a.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31238(39): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<62>,  Next: Tests<59>,  Prev: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33503(1): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(2): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33378(3): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(4): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(5): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(6): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(7): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(8): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(9): Update *note zipapp: 130. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(10): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(11): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-8243(12): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-31432(13): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<59>,  Next: Build<59>,  Prev: Documentation<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-19417(2): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<59>,  Next: Windows<57>,  Prev: Tests<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(2): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(3): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(4): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   - bpo-33394(5): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<57>,  Next: macOS<45>,  Prev: Build<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<45>,  Next: IDLE<45>,  Prev: Windows<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<45>,  Next: Tools/Demos<35>,  Prev: macOS<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(7): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(8): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-29706(9): IDLE now colors async and await as keywords in 3.6.
     They become full keywords in 3.7.

   - bpo-21474(10): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(11): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     ‘u’ string prefix cannot be paired with either ‘r’ or ‘f’.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32831(12): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29706

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<35>,  Next: C API<54>,  Prev: IDLE<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-32885(4): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-31583(5): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<54>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<35>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.22.68.10 C API
................

   - bpo-32374(1): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 final,  Next: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.69 Python 3.6.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-28'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<60>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<60>,  Next: Build<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.22.69.1 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872


File: python.info,  Node: Build<60>,  Prev: Tests<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.22.69.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.70 Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.
* C API: C API<55>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<44>,  Next: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33001(1): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(2): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(3) and CVE 2018-1061(4).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<66>,  Next: Library<68>,  Prev: Security<44>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33026(1): Fixed jumping out of “with” block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-17288(2): Prevent jumps from ‘return’ and ‘exception’ trace
     events.

   - bpo-32889(3): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32650(4): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32685(5): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32583(6): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-26163(7): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set
     to 0 when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.

   - bpo-18533(12): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-32028(13): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-32137(14): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137


File: python.info,  Node: Library<68>,  Next: Documentation<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33064(1): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-31804(2): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(3): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-30353(4): Fix ctypes pass-by-value for structs on 64-bit
     Cygwin/MinGW.

   - bpo-33009(5): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(6): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32713(7): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-30622(8): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(9): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(10): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     “No dist file created in earlier command” to the more helpful “Must
     create and upload files in one command”.

   - bpo-32857(12): In *note tkinter: ef, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 189. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(13): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31787(15): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(16): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32394(17): socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT flags on
     older version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-32777(18): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(19): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32734(20): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(21): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-27931(22): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32304(23): distutils’ upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(24): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-31848(25): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32555(26): On FreeBSD and Solaris, os.strerror() now always
     decode the byte string from the current locale encoding, rather
     than using ASCII/surrogateescape in some cases.

   - bpo-32521(27): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32473(28): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32521(29): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32228(30): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-26133(31): Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32185(32): The SSL module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI
     TLS extension on platforms with OpenSSL 1.0.2+ or inet_pton.

   - bpo-32323(33): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): bc7. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(34): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-32255(35): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(36): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-32199(37): The getnode() ip getter now uses ‘ip link’ instead
     of ‘ip link list’.

   - bpo-27456(38): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31900(39): The *note locale.localeconv(): a77. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     433. method when formatting a number (*note int: 184, *note float:
     272, *note float: 272. and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31802(40): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30353

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32555

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<63>,  Next: Tests<61>,  Prev: Library<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17232(1): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32800(2): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-8722(3): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 3dc.

   - bpo-32614(4): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(5): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   - bpo-17799(6): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<61>,  Next: Build<61>,  Prev: Documentation<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32517(1): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32721(2): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-32252(3): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-31518(4): Debian Unstable has disabled TLS 1.0 and 1.1 for
     SSLv23_METHOD().  Change TLS/SSL protocol of some tests to
     PROTOCOL_TLS or PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 to make them pass on Debian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31518


File: python.info,  Node: Build<61>,  Next: Windows<58>,  Prev: Tests<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<58>,  Next: macOS<46>,  Prev: Build<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-31966(3): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(4): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(5): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(6): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(7): Fix *note os.readlink(): 778. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-32588(8): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<46>,  Next: IDLE<46>,  Prev: Windows<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.0.2n, XZ
     5.2.3, and SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and
     supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<46>,  Next: Tools/Demos<36>,  Prev: macOS<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(3): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(4): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(5): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(6): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(7): Add “encoding=utf-8” to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to ‘ascii’ because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(8): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<36>,  Next: C API<55>,  Prev: IDLE<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   - bpo-32222(2): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: C API<55>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<36>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.22.70.11 C API
................

   - bpo-29084(1): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 final,  Next: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.71 Python 3.6.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-18'

There were no new code changes in version 3.6.4 since v3.6.4rc1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.72 Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* C API: C API<56>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<67>,  Next: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-31949(2): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(3): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(4): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-31852(5): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a combination of
     the async soft keyword and continuation lines.

   - bpo-21720(6): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31825(7): Fixed OverflowError in the ‘unicode-escape’ codec and
     in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.

   - bpo-28603(8): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(9): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31642(10): Restored blocking “from package import module” by
     setting sys.modules[“package.module”] to None.

   - bpo-31626(11): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-31619(12): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31592(13): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(14): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message
     when class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad
     ‘__prepare__()’ method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31566(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31505(16): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(17): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31490(18): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(19): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31315(20): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(21): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(22): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(23): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader’s ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30817(24): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31852

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<69>,  Next: Documentation<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-27240(2): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(3),
     bpo-31831(4), and bpo-32182(5).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(6): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-12239(7): Make *note msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty():
     1823. return ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.
     Initial patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-31325(8): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     74b. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 18e6. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(9): *note msilib.OpenDatabase(): 177c. now raises a
     better exception message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI
     file.  Initial patch by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-32110(10): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-32072(11): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32034(12): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(13): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(14): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-31970(15): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-9678(16): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(17): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(18): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-31927(19): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(20): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31897(21): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(22): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(23): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(24): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-28416(25): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-28326(26): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-31457(27): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(28): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(29): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28603(30): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30058(31): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31770(32): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31672(33): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31764(34): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(35): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31701(36): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC
     and COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(37): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31620(38): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31632(39): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-31675(40): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(41): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-30806(42): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-15037(43): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-25351(44): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-25532(45): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30347(46): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-31516(47): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31351(48): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31482(49): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-31334(50): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(51): multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(52): Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25532

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<64>,  Next: Tests<62>,  Prev: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   - bpo-31537(2): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(3): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<62>,  Next: Build<62>,  Prev: Documentation<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-31174(3): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   - bpo-30695(4): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695


File: python.info,  Node: Build<62>,  Next: Windows<59>,  Prev: Tests<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32059(1): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(2): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(3): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(4): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(5): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(6): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(7): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-22140(8): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31536(9): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<59>,  Next: macOS<47>,  Prev: Build<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<47>,  Next: IDLE<47>,  Prev: Windows<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<47>,  Next: Tools/Demos<37>,  Prev: macOS<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to ‘>>> ‘ if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   - bpo-31460(9): Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(10): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(11): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(12): Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(13): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(14): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<37>,  Next: C API<56>,  Prev: IDLE<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30722(1): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn’t work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<56>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<37>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.22.72.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-30697(3): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 final,  Next: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.73 Python 3.6.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-03'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<70>.
* Build: Build<63>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<70>,  Next: Build<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.22.73.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-31641(1): Re-allow arbitrary iterables in
     ‘concurrent.futures.as_completed()’.  Fixes regression in 3.6.3rc1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31641


File: python.info,  Node: Build<63>,  Prev: Library<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.22.73.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-31662(1): Fix typos in Windows ‘uploadrelease.bat’ script.  Fix
     Windows Doc build issues in ‘Doc/make.bat’.

   - bpo-31423(2): Fix building the PDF documentation with newer
     versions of Sphinx.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31423


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.74 Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<45>,  Next: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-30947(2): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<68>,  Next: Library<71>,  Prev: Security<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31471(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(3): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31411(4): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31373(5): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(6): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-31343(7): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C libray plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(8): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn’t a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(9): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(10): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder’s state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(11): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(12): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-31095(13): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(14): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(15): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(16): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(17): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(18): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I’m adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(19): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(20): Make sure the ‘Missing parentheses’ syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(21): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30597(22): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597


File: python.info,  Node: Library<71>,  Next: Documentation<65>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-28556(2): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(3): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(4): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(5): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(6): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31400(7): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-28958(8): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-27340(9): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-31178(10): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(11): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(12): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(13): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-29212(14): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as “ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n”.

   - bpo-9146(15): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-27144(16): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-10746(17): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(18) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-22536(19): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-31249(20): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(21): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-30102(22): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-31185(23): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31135(24): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn’t exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(25): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31061(26): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30502(27): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-30119(28): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30595(29): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-29403(30): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(31): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-25684(32): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(33): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(34): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30319(35): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(36): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30807(37): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(38): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(39): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30879(40): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(41): Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(42): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<65>,  Next: Tests<63>,  Prev: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-30803(3): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<63>,  Next: Build<64>,  Prev: Documentation<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31320(1): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-25674(2): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(3): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(4): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all.  When
     running the test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822


File: python.info,  Node: Build<64>,  Next: Windows<60>,  Prev: Tests<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-30854(1): Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<60>,  Next: IDLE<48>,  Prev: Build<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30389(1): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31340(2): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(3): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30731(4): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<48>,  Next: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: Windows<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context – fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int(‘’) will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE’s built-in ‘extensions’ to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are ‘<<force-open-completions>>’, ‘<<expand-word>>’,
     ‘<<force-open-calltip>>’, ‘<<flash-paren>>’,
     ‘<<format-paragraph>>’, ‘<<run-module>>’, ‘<<check-module>>’, and
     ‘<<zoom-height>>’.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace ‘colour’ with ‘color’ in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in ‘if __name__ == ‘__main__’.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     ‘parens’ style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make ‘default’
     style, which is not default, a synonym for ‘opener’.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace ‘colour’ with
     ‘color’, expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: IDLE<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.22.74.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno “Polaco”
     Penteado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 final,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.75 Python 3.6.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-17'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.76 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2

1.22.76.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.77 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-06-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* C API: C API<57>.
* Build: Build<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<47>,  Next: Core and Builtins<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29591(1): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
     CVE 2016-0718(2) and CVE 2016-4472(3).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<69>,  Next: Library<72>,  Prev: Security<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30682(1): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval(“f’\n’”) and eval(“f’\r’”).

   - bpo-30604(2): Move co_extra_freefuncs to not be per-thread to avoid
     crashes

   - bpo-29104(3): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(4): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(5): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(6): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested ‘yield from’ or
     ‘await’ calls, it’s now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-12414(7): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29949(8): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(9): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29859(10): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-28876(11): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: 6c7.

   - bpo-29600(12): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-28856(13): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29714(14): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<72>,  Next: IDLE<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30616(1): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(2): Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup
     file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(3): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-23890(4): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(5): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30645(6): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it
     for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch by
     Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-29931(7): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-30605(8): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-24484(9): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup
     (#2159)

   - bpo-28994(10): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(11): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()”
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(12): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(13): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(14): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(15): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(16): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-29822(17): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29581(18): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-30557(19): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30378(20): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(21): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(22): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(23): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(24): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(25): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(26): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(27): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(28): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(29).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30298(30): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-29990(31): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(32): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(33))

   - bpo-30243(34): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(35): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(36): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(37): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(38): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(39): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30017(40): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29953(45): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(46): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(47): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(48): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(49): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(50): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(51): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(52): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(53): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(54): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(55): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes “encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(56): Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’ from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28231(57): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for
     external paths.

   - bpo-26915(58): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-29615(59): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-30177(60): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29822

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30266

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30298

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30017

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29953

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28231

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30177


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<49>,  Next: C API<57>,  Prev: Library<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15786(1): Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(2): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(3): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(4): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(5): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(6): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303


File: python.info,  Node: C API<57>,  Next: Build<65>,  Prev: IDLE<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() no longer replaced
     with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: Build<65>,  Next: Documentation<66>,  Prev: C API<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29941(1): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(2): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(3): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(4): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(5): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<66>,  Next: Tools/Demos<39>,  Prev: Build<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.7 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(2): the link targets for *note bytes(): 2cb. and *note
     bytearray(): 2ca. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     18fd. and *note bytearray: 18fe. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(3): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<39>,  Next: Tests<64>,  Prev: Documentation<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-29367(1): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<64>,  Next: Windows<61>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<39>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30357(1): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(2): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<61>,  Prev: Tests<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.22.77.10 Windows
..................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-30450(2): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 final,  Next: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.78 Python 3.6.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Build: Build<66>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<70>,  Next: Build<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.22.78.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29723(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139


File: python.info,  Node: Build<66>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.22.78.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): fix format of git information used in sys.version

   - Fix incompatible comment in python.h

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.79 Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* C API: C API<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<67>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<71>,  Next: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28893(1): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-29683(2): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(3): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(4): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(5): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(6): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(7): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(8): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(9): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(10): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(11): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(12): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(13): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-28932(14): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(15): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(16): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-26919(17): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(18): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28739(19): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(20): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(21): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-28731(22): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731


File: python.info,  Node: Library<73>,  Next: IDLE<50>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-29169(1): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-29623(2): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in
     ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-28963(3): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(4): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer
     closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(5): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented
     in C to accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.

   - bpo-29703(6): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(7): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(8): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen()
     accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(9): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29532(10): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(11): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28556(12): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(13): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(14): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(15): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(16): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(17): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(18): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(19): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29316(20): Restore the provisional status of typing module, add
     corresponding note to documentation.  Patch by Ivan L.

   - bpo-29219(21): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29011(22): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-28969(23): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(24): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(25): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29203(26): functools.lru_cache() now respects PEP 468(27) and
     preserves the order of keyword arguments.  f(a=1, b=2) is now
     cached separately from f(b=2, a=1) since both calls could
     potentially give different results.

   - bpo-15812(28): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(29): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file
     object and modes “w” and “x” now are relative to the start of the
     file.

   - bpo-29085(30): Allow random.Random.seed() to use high quality OS
     randomness rather than the pid and time.

   - bpo-29061(31): Fixed bug in secrets.randbelow() which would hang
     when given a negative input.  Patch by Brendan Donegan.

   - bpo-29079(32): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(33): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(34): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(35): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(36): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(37): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-29055(38): Neaten-up empty population error on random.choice()
     by suppressing the upstream exception.

   - bpo-28871(39): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(40): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(41): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(42): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(43): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-26937(44): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does
     not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example
     on Android platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29623

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28963

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29271

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28624

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28518

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29316

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29203

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29085

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29061

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29079

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29055

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26937


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<50>,  Next: Windows<62>,  Prev: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-29071(1): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(2): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<62>,  Next: C API<58>,  Prev: IDLE<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.4 Windows
.................

   - bpo-29579(1): Removes readme.txt from the installer

   - bpo-29326(2): Ignores blank lines in ._pth files (Patch by Alexey
     Izbyshev)

   - bpo-28164(3): Correctly handle special console filenames (patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-29409(4): Implement PEP 529(5) for io.FileIO (Patch by Eryk
     Sun)

   - bpo-29392(6): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   - bpo-25778(7): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(8): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29326

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29409

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: C API<58>,  Next: Documentation<67>,  Prev: Windows<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between
     0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-29058(3): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<67>,  Next: Tests<65>,  Prev: C API<58>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28929(1): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(2): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(3): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(4): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<65>,  Next: Build<67>,  Prev: Documentation<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28087(1): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-29571(2): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   - bpo-28950(3): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(4): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26939(5): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<67>,  Prev: Tests<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.22.79.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-26851(3): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(4): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.  Patch
     by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(5): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(6): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(7): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(8): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(9): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(10): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 final,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.80 Python 3.6.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-23'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.81 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* Build: Build<68>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<72>,  Next: Tools/Demos<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.81.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28147(1): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28990(2): Fix asyncio SSL hanging if connection is closed
     before handshake is completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<40>,  Next: Windows<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.81.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28770(1): Fix python-gdb.py for fastcalls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28770


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<63>,  Next: Build<68>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<40>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.81.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28896(1): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: Build<68>,  Prev: Windows<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.22.81.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28898(1): Prevent gdb build errors due to HAVE_LONG_LONG
     redefinition.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.82 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* C API: C API<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<73>,  Next: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.82.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(2): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28782(3): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647


File: python.info,  Node: Library<74>,  Next: C API<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.82.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27030(1): Unknown escapes in re.sub() replacement template are
     allowed again.  But they still are deprecated and will be disabled
     in 3.7.

   - bpo-28835(2): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(3): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-26273(4): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-24142(5): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28843(6): Fix asyncio C Task to handle exceptions
     __traceback__.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28835

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28843


File: python.info,  Node: C API<59>,  Next: Documentation<68>,  Prev: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.82.3 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<68>,  Next: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: C API<59>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.82.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23722(1): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the What’s New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(2)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: Documentation<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.22.82.5 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28023(1): Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict
     implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.83 Python 3.6.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-11-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Build: Build<69>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<74>,  Next: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.83.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28532(1): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(2): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it
     checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages when
     both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(3): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(4): Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(5): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(6): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28665(7): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-28583(8): PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27243(9): Change PendingDeprecationWarning ->
     DeprecationWarning.  As it was agreed in the issue, __aiter__
     returning an awaitable should result in PendingDeprecationWarning
     in 3.5 and in DeprecationWarning in 3.6.

   - bpo-26182(10): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(11): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to
     handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721


File: python.info,  Node: Library<75>,  Next: Documentation<69>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.83.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28752(1): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(2): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects
     created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y
     operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(3): don’t
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(4): The subprocess.Popen.wait method’s undocumented
     endtime parameter now raises a DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25659(5): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-19717(6): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(7): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when
     handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(8): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator
     when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on
     patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-28600(9): Optimize loop.call_soon.

   - bpo-28613(10): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28634(11): Fix asyncio.isfuture() to support unittest.Mock.

   - bpo-26081(12): Fix refleak in _asyncio.Future.__iter__().throw.

   - bpo-28639(13): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(14): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(15): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(16): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-28704(17): Fix create_unix_server to support Path-like objects
     (PEP 519).

   - bpo-28720(18): Add collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28752

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28727

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20572

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19717

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28563

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28634

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28704

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<69>,  Next: Tests<66>,  Prev: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.83.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<66>,  Next: Build<69>,  Prev: Documentation<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.83.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28666(1): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(2): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839


File: python.info,  Node: Build<69>,  Prev: Tests<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.22.83.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-10656(1): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(2): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28676(3): Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.84 Python 3.6.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<75>,  Next: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.84.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28128(1): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(2): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(3): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(4): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that
     caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(5): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(6): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28471(7): Fix “Python memory allocator called without holding
     the GIL” crash in socket.setblocking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28471


File: python.info,  Node: Library<76>,  Next: Windows<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.84.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27517(1): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(2): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(3): tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(4): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(5): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-18844(6): The various ways of specifying weights for
     random.choices() now produce the same result sequences.

   - bpo-28255(7): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(8): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(9): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(10): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn’t
     accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(11): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the
     “!” prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(12): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(13): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry “./” to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(14): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-18219(15): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns.
     Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(16): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-28480(17): Fix error building socket module when multithreading
     is disabled.

   - bpo-24452(18): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(19): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-28492(20): Fix how StopIteration exception is raised in
     _asyncio.Future.

   - bpo-28500(21): Fix asyncio to handle async gens GC from another
     thread.

   - bpo-26923(22): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(23): Don’t configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28544(24): Implement asyncio.Task in C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28430

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18219

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28448

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28480

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28492

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28500

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<64>,  Next: Build<70>,  Prev: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.84.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28522(1): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522


File: python.info,  Node: Build<70>,  Next: Tests<67>,  Prev: Windows<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.84.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28444(1): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(3): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<67>,  Prev: Build<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.22.84.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26944(1): Fix test_posix for Android where ‘id -G’ is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(2): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.85 Python 3.6.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.
* C API: C API<60>.
* Build: Build<71>.
* Tests: Tests<68>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<76>,  Next: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.85.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28183(1): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(2): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(3): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(4): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(5): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is deprecated.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(6): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(7): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(8): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(9): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(10): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(11): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(12): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(13): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(14): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(15): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(16): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(17): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(18): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(19): Don’t import readline in isolated mode.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(20): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(21): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(22): Fix dict.pop() for splitted dictionary when trying
     to remove a “pending key” (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch
     by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(23): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28183

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28201

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182


File: python.info,  Node: Library<77>,  Next: Windows<65>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.85.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27998(1): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows.
     Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(2): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-26293(3): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28380(4): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-27181(5): remove statistics.geometric_mean and defer until 3.7.

   - bpo-28229(6): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(7): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(8): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(9): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-27358(10): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved
     error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.

   - bpo-28257(11): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(12): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(13): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(14): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(15): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(16): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(17): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(18): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(19): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(20): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(21): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(22): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(23): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(24): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(25): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(26): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(27): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values
     for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(28): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(29): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(30): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the
     middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(31): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(32): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(33): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(34): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(35): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(36): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(37): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(38): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(39): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(40): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(41): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(42): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has
     no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(43): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(44): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(45): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(46): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(47): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(48): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28229

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28225

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28227

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27358

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28228

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28226

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28314

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28148

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28200

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25400

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28114

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<65>,  Next: C API<60>,  Prev: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.85.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28402(1): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(2): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(3): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(4): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(5): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(6): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts
     with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(7): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(8): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(9): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(10): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: C API<60>,  Next: Build<71>,  Prev: Windows<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.85.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-28426(1): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Build<71>,  Next: Tests<68>,  Prev: C API<60>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.85.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28258(1): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(2): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-15819(3): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<68>,  Prev: Build<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.22.85.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28217(1): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.86 Python 3.6.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-09-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* C API: C API<61>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.
* Build: Build<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<77>,  Next: Library<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): The __class__ cell used by zero-argument super() is
     now initialized from type.__new__ rather than __build_class__, so
     class methods relying on that will now work correctly when called
     from metaclass methods during class creation.  Patch by Martin
     Teichmann.

   - bpo-25221(2): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-27080(3): Implement formatting support for PEP 515(4).  Initial
     patch by Chris Angelico.

   - bpo-27199(5): In tarfile, expose copyfileobj bufsize to improve
     throughput.  Patch by Jason Fried.

   - bpo-27948(6): In f-strings, only allow backslashes inside the
     braces (where the expressions are).  This is a breaking change from
     the 3.6 alpha releases, where backslashes are allowed anywhere in
     an f-string.  Also, require that expressions inside f-strings be
     enclosed within literal braces, and not escapes like
     ‘f'\x7b"hi"\x7d'’.

   - bpo-28046(7): Remove platform-specific directories from sys.path.

   - bpo-28071(8): Add early-out for differencing from an empty set.

   - bpo-25758(9): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-25856(10): The __module__ attribute of extension classes and
     functions now is interned.  This leads to more compact pickle data
     with protocol 4.

   - bpo-27213(11): Rework CALL_FUNCTION* opcodes to produce shorter and
     more efficient bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed, design by Serhiy
     Storchaka, reviewed by Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-26331(12): Implement tokenizing support for PEP 515(13).  Patch
     by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-27999(14): Make “global after use” a SyntaxError, and ditto for
     nonlocal.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-28003(15): Implement PEP 525(16) – Asynchronous Generators.

   - bpo-27985(17): Implement PEP 526(18) – Syntax for Variable
     Annotations.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-26058(19): Add a new private version to the builtin dict type,
     incremented at each dictionary creation and at each dictionary
     change.  Implementation of the PEP 509.

   - bpo-27364(20): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid
     escape sequence now generates a DeprecationWarning.  Patch by
     Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27350(21): ‘dict’ implementation is changed like PyPy.  It is
     more compact and preserves insertion order.  (Concept developed by
     Raymond Hettinger and patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - bpo-27911(22): Remove unnecessary error checks in
     ‘exec_builtin_or_dynamic()’.

   - bpo-27078(23): Added BUILD_STRING opcode.  Optimized f-strings
     evaluation.

   - bpo-17884(24): Python now requires systems with inttypes.h and
     stdint.h

   - bpo-27961(25): Require platforms to support ‘long long’.  Python
     hasn’t compiled without ‘long long’ for years, so this is basically
     a formality.

   - bpo-27355(26): Removed support for Windows CE. It was never
     finished, and Windows CE is no longer a relevant platform for
     Python.

   - Implement PEP 523(27).

   - bpo-27870(28): A left shift of zero by a large integer no longer
     attempts to allocate large amounts of memory.

   - bpo-25402(29): In int-to-decimal-string conversion, improve the
     estimate of the intermediate memory required, and remove an
     unnecessarily strict overflow check.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-27214(30): In long_invert, be more careful about modifying
     object returned by long_add, and remove an unnecessary check for
     small longs.  Thanks Oren Milman for analysis and patch.

   - bpo-27506(31): Support passing the bytes/bytearray.translate()
     “delete” argument by keyword.

   - bpo-27812(32): Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(33): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(34): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of ‘def’ in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27792(35): The modulo operation applied to ‘bool’ and other
     ‘int’ subclasses now always returns an ‘int’.  Previously the
     return type depended on the input values.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26984(36): int() now always returns an instance of exact int.

   - bpo-25604(37): Fix a minor bug in integer true division; this bug
     could potentially have caused off-by-one-ulp results on platforms
     with unreliable ldexp implementations.

   - bpo-24254(38): Make class definition namespace ordered by default.

   - bpo-27662(39): Fix an overflow check in ‘List_New’: the original
     code was checking against ‘Py_SIZE_MAX’ instead of the correct
     upper bound of ‘Py_SSIZE_T_MAX’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27782(40): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(41): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(42): Warn if a submodule argument to “python -m” or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27157(43): Make only type() itself accept the one-argument
     form.  Patch by Eryk Sun and Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27558(44): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of “raise”
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28008(45): Implement PEP 530(46) – asynchronous comprehensions.

   - bpo-27942(47): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27080

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27948

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28046

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28071

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25856

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26331

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27999

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26058

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27911

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27355

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27870

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25402

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27214

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27506

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27792

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26984

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24254

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27662

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27157

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28008

   (46) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<78>,  Next: IDLE<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28732(1): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(2): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28037(3): Use sqlite3_get_autocommit() instead of setting
     Connection->inTransaction manually.

   - bpo-25283(4): Attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on
     all platforms in the return values of time.localtime() and
     time.gmtime().

   - bpo-24454(5): Regular expression match object groups are now
     accessible using __getitem__.  “mo[x]” is equivalent to
     “mo.group(x)”.

   - bpo-10740(6): sqlite3 no longer implicitly commit an open
     transaction before DDL statements.

   - bpo-17941(7): Add a 'module' parameter to collections.namedtuple().

   - bpo-22493(8): Inline flags now should be used only at the start of
     the regular expression.  Deprecation warning is emitted if uses
     them in the middle of the regular expression.

   - bpo-26885(9): xmlrpc now supports unmarshalling additional data
     types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None.

   - bpo-28070(10): Fixed parsing inline verbose flag in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-19500(11): Add client-side SSL session resumption to the ssl
     module.

   - bpo-28022(12): Deprecate ssl-related arguments in favor of
     SSLContext.  The deprecation include manual creation of SSLSocket
     and certfile/keyfile (or similar) in ftplib, httplib, imaplib,
     smtplib, poplib and urllib.

   - bpo-28043(13): SSLContext has improved default settings:
     OP_NO_SSLv2, OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_COMPRESSION,
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE, OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE
     and HIGH ciphers without MD5.

   - bpo-24693(14): Changed some RuntimeError’s in the zipfile module to
     more appropriate types.  Improved some error messages and debugging
     output.

   - bpo-17909(15): ‘json.load’ and ‘json.loads’ now support binary
     input encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.  Patch by Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-27137(16): the pure Python fallback implementation of
     ‘functools.partial’ now matches the behaviour of its accelerated C
     counterpart for subclassing, pickling and text representation
     purposes.  Patch by Emanuel Barry and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(17): Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28019(18): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-18401(19): Pdb now supports the ‘readrc’ keyword argument to
     control whether .pdbrc files should be read.  Patch by Martin
     Matusiak and Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-25969(20): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(21): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files (“first match”), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-28082(22): Convert re flag constants to IntFlag.

   - bpo-28025(23): Convert all ssl module constants to IntEnum and
     IntFlags.  SSLContext properties now return flags and enums.

   - bpo-23591(24): Add Flag, IntFlag, and auto() to enum module.

   - bpo-433028(25): Added support of modifier spans in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-24594(26): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(27): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(28): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27576(29): Fix call order in OrderedDict.__init__().

   - email.generator.DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.

   - bpo-28027(30): Remove undocumented modules from ‘Lib/plat-*’: IN,
     CDROM, DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS.

   - bpo-27445(31): Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-24277(32): The new email API is no longer provisional, and the
     docs have been reorganized and rewritten to emphasize the new API.

   - bpo-22450(33): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-28005(34): Allow ImportErrors in encoding implementation to
     propagate.

   - bpo-26667(35): Support path-like objects in importlib.util.

   - bpo-27570(36): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the “ctypes” and “array” modules.

   - bpo-22233(37): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27331(38): The email.mime classes now all accept an optional
     policy keyword.

   - bpo-27988(39): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-16113(40): Add SHA-3 and SHAKE support to hashlib module.

   - Eliminate a tautological-pointer-compare warning in _scproxy.c.

   - bpo-27776(41): The *note os.urandom(): 2ad. function does now block
     on Linux 3.17 and newer until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized to increase the security.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(42).

   - bpo-27778(43): Expose the Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall as a new
     *note os.getrandom(): b40. function.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(44).

   - bpo-27691(45): Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-18844(46): Add random.choices().

   - bpo-25761(47): Improved error reporting about truncated pickle data
     in C implementation of unpickler.  UnpicklingError is now raised
     instead of AttributeError and ValueError in some cases.

   - bpo-26798(48): Add BLAKE2 (blake2b and blake2s) to hashlib.

   - bpo-26032(49): Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir();
     it is now about 1.5–4 times faster.

   - bpo-25596(50): Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob
     module; they are now about 3–6 times faster.

   - bpo-27928(51): Add scrypt (password-based key derivation function)
     to hashlib module (requires OpenSSL 1.1.0).

   - bpo-27850(52): Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(53)).

   - bpo-27766(54): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-25387(55): Check return value of winsound.MessageBeep.

   - bpo-27866(56): Add SSLContext.get_ciphers() method to get a list of
     all enabled ciphers.

   - bpo-27744(57): Add AF_ALG (Linux Kernel crypto) to socket module.

   - bpo-26470(58): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-11620(59): Fix support for SND_MEMORY in winsound.PlaySound.
     Based on a patch by Tim Lesher.

   - bpo-11734(60): Add support for IEEE 754 half-precision floats to
     the struct module.  Based on a patch by Eli Stevens.

   - bpo-27919(61): Deprecated ‘extra_path’ distribution option in
     distutils packaging.

   - bpo-23229(62): Add new ‘cmath’ constants: ‘cmath.inf’ and
     ‘cmath.nan’ to match ‘math.inf’ and ‘math.nan’, and also
     ‘cmath.infj’ and ‘cmath.nanj’ to match the format used by complex
     repr.

   - bpo-27842(63): The csv.DictReader now returns rows of type
     OrderedDict.  (Contributed by Steve Holden.)

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn’t raise.

   - bpo-12885(64): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(65): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(66): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(67): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(68): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(69): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - bpo-12319(70): Chunked transfer encoding support added to
     http.client.HTTPConnection requests.  The
     urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler class does not enforce a
     Content-Length header any more.  If a HTTP request has a file or
     iterable body, but no Content-Length header, the library now falls
     back to use chunked transfer-encoding.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     - Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(71)) - Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261) - fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259) - Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252)

   - bpo-27832(72): Make ‘_normalize’ parameter to ‘Fraction’
     constructor keyword-only, so that ‘Fraction(2, 3, 4)’ now raises
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-27539(73): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(74): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-27819(75): In distutils sdists, simply produce the “gztar”
     (gzipped tar format) distributions on all platforms unless
     “formats” is supplied.

   - bpo-2466(76): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-9998(77): On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library now looks in
     LD_LIBRARY_PATH for shared libraries.

   - bpo-27573(78): exit message for code.interact is now configurable.

   - bpo-27930(79): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-6766(80): Distributed reference counting added to
     multiprocessing to support nesting of shared values / proxy
     objects.

   - bpo-21201(81): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - asyncio: Add set_protocol / get_protocol to Transports.

   - bpo-27456(82): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25283

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10740

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28070

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24693

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27137

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18401

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28082

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27576

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28027

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28005

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26667

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27776

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (44) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25761

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (53) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25387

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27866

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11620

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27832

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<51>,  Next: C API<61>,  Prev: Library<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add ‘interrupt execution’ (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from ‘flashing’ gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - bpo-27891(3): Consistently group and sort imports within idlelib
     modules.

   - bpo-17642(4): add larger font sizes for classroom projection.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(5): In section on IDLE – console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27821(6): Fix 3.6.0a3 regression that prevented custom key sets
     from being selected when no custom theme was defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17642

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27821


File: python.info,  Node: C API<61>,  Next: Tests<69>,  Prev: IDLE<51>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-26900(1): Excluded underscored names and other private API from
     limited API.

   - bpo-26027(2): Add support for path-like objects in
     PyUnicode_FSConverter() & PyUnicode_FSDecoder().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<69>,  Next: Build<72>,  Prev: C API<61>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27427(1): Additional tests for the math module.  Patch by
     Francisco Couzo.

   - bpo-27953(2): Skip math and cmath tests that fail on OS X 10.4 due
     to a poor libm implementation of tan.

   - bpo-26040(3): Improve test_math and test_cmath coverage and rigour.
     Patch by Jeff Allen.

   - bpo-27787(4): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     “dangling threads”, since the dangling threads are weak references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787


File: python.info,  Node: Build<72>,  Next: Tools/Demos<42>,  Prev: Tests<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27566(1): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(2): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27976(3): Deprecate building _ctypes with the bundled copy of
     libffi on non-OSX UNIX platforms.

   - bpo-27983(4): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when ‘--with-optimizations’ is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-21590(5): Support for DTrace and SystemTap probes.

   - bpo-26307(6): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in
     modules.

   - bpo-26359(7): Add the –with-optimizations flag to turn on LTO and
     PGO build support when available.

   - bpo-27917(8): Set platform triplets for Android builds.

   - bpo-25825(9): Update references to the $(LIBPL) installation path
     on AIX. This path was changed in 3.2a4.

   - Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.14.1 and XZ 5.2.2.

   - bpo-21122(10): Fix LTO builds on OS X.

   - bpo-17128(11): Build OS X installer with a private copy of OpenSSL.
     Also provide a sample Install Certificates command script to
     install a set of root certificates from the third-party certifi
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27976

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21122

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<42>,  Next: Windows<66>,  Prev: Build<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current “re” module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<66>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<42>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.22.86.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28065(1): Update xz dependency to 5.2.2 and build it from
     source.

   - bpo-25144(2): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-1602(3): Windows console doesn’t input or print Unicode (PEP
     528)

   - bpo-27781(4): Change file system encoding on Windows to UTF-8 (PEP
     529)

   - bpo-27731(5): Opt-out of MAX_PATH on Windows 10

   - bpo-6135(6): Adds encoding and errors parameters to subprocess.

   - bpo-27959(7): Adds oem encoding, alias ansi to mbcs, move aliasmbcs
     to codec lookup.

   - bpo-27982(8): The functions of the winsound module now accept
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-20366(9): Build full text search support into SQLite on
     Windows.

   - bpo-27756(10): Adds new icons for Python files and processes on
     Windows.  Designs by Cherry Wang.

   - bpo-27883(11): Update sqlite to 3.14.1.0 on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28065

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27731

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20366

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27756

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27883


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.87 Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-08-15'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.
* Build: Build<73>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<78>,  Next: Library<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.87.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27704(1): Optimized creating bytes and bytearray from byte-like
     objects and iterables.  Speed up to 3 times for short objects.
     Original patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-26823(2): Large sections of repeated lines in tracebacks are
     now abbreviated as “[Previous line repeated {count} more times]” by
     the builtin traceback rendering.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27574(3): Decreased an overhead of parsing keyword arguments in
     functions implemented with using Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-22557(4): Now importing already imported modules is up to 2.5
     times faster.

   - bpo-17596(5): Include <wincrypt.h> to help with Min GW building.

   - bpo-17599(6): On Windows, rename the privately defined
     REPARSE_DATA_BUFFER structure to avoid conflicting with the
     definition from Min GW.

   - bpo-27507(7): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(8): Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-1621(9): Avoid signed integer overflow in list and tuple
     operations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(10): Standard __import__() no longer look up “__import__”
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or “from import”.
     Fixed a crash if raise a warning about unabling to resolve package
     from __spec__ or __package__.

   - bpo-27083(11): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(12): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27366(13): Implemented PEP 487(14) (Simpler customization of
     class creation).  Upon subclassing, the __init_subclass__
     classmethod is called on the base class.  Descriptors are
     initialized with __set_name__ after class creation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27704

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17596

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17599

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27366

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<79>,  Next: IDLE<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.87.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-26027(1): Add PEP 519(2)/__fspath__() support to the os and
     os.path modules.  Includes code from Jelle Zijlstra.  (See also:
     bpo-27524(3))

   - bpo-27598(4): Add Collections to collections.abc.  Patch by Ivan
     Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar.

   - bpo-25958(5): Support “anti-registration” of special methods from
     various ABCs, like __hash__, __iter__ or __len__.  All these (and
     several more) can be set to None in an implementation class and the
     behavior will be as if the method is not defined at all.
     (Previously, this mechanism existed only for __hash__, to make
     mutable classes unhashable.)  Code contributed by Andrew Barnert
     and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-16764(6): Support keyword arguments to zlib.decompress().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27736(7): Prevent segfault after interpreter re-initialization
     due to ref count problem introduced in code for bpo-27038(8) in
     3.6.0a3.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25628(9): The 'verbose' and 'rename' parameters for
     collections.namedtuple are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-12345(10): Add mathematical constant tau to math and cmath.
     See also PEP 628(11).

   - bpo-26823(12): traceback.StackSummary.format now abbreviates large
     sections of repeated lines as “[Previous line repeated {count} more
     times]” (this change then further affects other traceback display
     operations in the module).  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27664(13): Add to
     concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor() the ability to
     specify a thread name prefix.

   - bpo-27181(14): Add geometric_mean and harmonic_mean to statistics
     module.

   - bpo-27573(15): code.interact now prints an message when exiting.

   - bpo-6422(16): Add autorange method to timeit.Timer objects.

   - bpo-27773(17): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(18): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.  Removes
     the never publicly used, never documented
     unittest.mock.DescriptorTypes tuple.

   - bpo-26754(19): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as path in compile() and similar functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26800(20): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as paths in os functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26981(21): Add _order_ compatibility shim to enum.Enum for
     Python 2/3 code bases.

   - bpo-27661(22): Added tzinfo keyword argument to datetime.combine.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(23): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(24): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(25): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(26): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(27): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(28)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-7063(29): Remove dead code from the “array” module’s slice
     handling.  Patch by Chuck.

   - bpo-27656(30): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(31): In the “zlib” module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-24773(32): Implemented PEP 495(33) (Local Time Disambiguation).

   - Expose the EPOLLEXCLUSIVE constant (when it is defined) in the
     select module.

   - bpo-27567(34): Expose the EPOLLRDHUP and POLLRDHUP constants in the
     select module.

   - bpo-1621(35): Avoid signed int negation overflow in the “audioop”
     module.

   - bpo-27533(36): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(37): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(38): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-27512(39): Fix a segfault when os.fspath() called an
     __fspath__() method that raised an exception.  Patch by Xiang
     Zhang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27524

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27736

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26800

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26981

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (28) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7063

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27567

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27512


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<52>,  Next: Tests<70>,  Prev: Library<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.87.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27714(1): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-27621(2): Put query response validation error messages in the
     query box itself instead of in a separate messagebox.  Redo tests
     to match.  Add Mac OSX refinements.  Original patch by Mark
     Roseman.

   - bpo-27620(3): Escape key now closes Query box as cancelled.

   - bpo-27609(4): IDLE: tab after initial whitespace should tab, not
     autocomplete.  This fixes problem with writing docstrings at least
     twice indented.

   - bpo-27609(5): Explicitly return None when there are also non-None
     returns.  In a few cases, reverse a condition and eliminate a
     return.

   - bpo-25507(6): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27173(7): Add ‘IDLE Modern Unix’ to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(8): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27621

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27620

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<70>,  Next: Windows<67>,  Prev: IDLE<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.87.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25805(1): Skip a test in test_pkgutil as needed that doesn’t
     work when ‘__name__ == __main__’.  Patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-27472(2): Add test.support.unix_shell as the path to the
     default shell.

   - bpo-27369(3): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   - bpo-27594(4): Prevent assertion error when running test_ast with
     coverage enabled: ensure code object has a valid first line number.
     Patch suggested by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25805

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27594


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<67>,  Next: Build<73>,  Prev: Tests<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.87.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27647(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.6.

   - bpo-27610(2): Adds PEP 514(3) metadata to Windows installer

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enables proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27610

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<73>,  Prev: Windows<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.22.87.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27713(1): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib’s bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(2): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp, which
     is required on AIX. The references were accidentally changed in
     3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(3): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(4): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(5): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program
     to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(6): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.88 Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-07-11'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* C API: C API<62>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<48>,  Next: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<79>,  Next: Library<80>,  Prev: Security<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27473(1): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23034(2): The output of a special Python build with defined
     COUNT_ALLOCS, SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now
     off by default.  It can be re-enabled using the “-X showalloccount”
     option.  It now outputs to stderr instead of stdout.

   - bpo-27443(3): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27007(4): The fromhex() class methods of bytes and bytearray
     subclasses now return an instance of corresponding subclass.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27007


File: python.info,  Node: Library<80>,  Next: IDLE<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-26844(1): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     ‘path’ instead of ‘name’.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(2): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not
     raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(3): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-21708(4): Deprecated dbm.dumb behavior that differs from common
     dbm behavior: creating a database in ‘r’ and ‘w’ modes and
     modifying a database in ‘r’ mode.

   - bpo-26721(5): Change the socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile
     attribute to implement BufferedIOBase.  In particular, the write()
     method no longer does partial writes.

   - bpo-22115(6): Added methods trace_add, trace_remove and trace_info
     in the tkinter.Variable class.  They replace old methods
     trace_variable, trace, trace_vdelete and trace_vinfo that use
     obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.
     Fixed old tracing methods: trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no
     longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of
     pairs of strings, tracing in the “u” mode now works.

   - bpo-26243(7): Only the level argument to zlib.compress() is keyword
     argument now.  The first argument is positional-only.

   - bpo-27038(8): Expose the DirEntry type as os.DirEntry.  Code patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27186(9): Update os.fspath()/PyOS_FSPath() to check the return
     value of __fspath__() to be either str or bytes.

   - bpo-18726(10): All optional parameters of the dump(), dumps(),
     load() and loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class
     constructors in the json module are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-27319(11): Methods selection_set(), selection_add(),
     selection_remove() and selection_toggle() of ttk.TreeView now allow
     passing multiple items as multiple arguments instead of passing
     them as a tuple.  Deprecated undocumented ability of calling the
     selection() method with arguments.

   - bpo-27079(12): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-27294(13): Numerical state in the repr for Tkinter event
     objects is now represented as a combination of known flags.

   - bpo-27177(14): Match objects in the re module now support
     index-like objects as group indices.  Based on patches by Jeroen
     Demeyer and Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26754(15): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-26536(16): socket.ioctl now supports SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH.
     Patch by Daniel Stokes.

   - bpo-27048(17): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(18): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(19): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(20): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(21) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-16864(22): sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports REPLACE
     statement.  Initial patch by Alex LordThorsen.

   - bpo-26386(23): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id’s containing spaces.

   - bpo-8637(24): Honor a pager set by the env var MANPAGER (in
     preference to one set by the env var PAGER).

   - bpo-16182(25): Fix various functions in the “readline” module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(26): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<53>,  Next: C API<62>,  Prev: Library<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27477(1): IDLE search dialogs now use ttk widgets.

   - bpo-27173(2): Add ‘IDLE Modern Unix’ to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(3): make command line “idle-test> python test_help.py”
     work.  __file__ is relative when python is started in the file’s
     directory.

   - bpo-27452(4): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27380(5): IDLE: add query.py with base Query dialog and ttk
     widgets.  Module had subclasses SectionName, ModuleName, and
     HelpSource, which are used to get information from users by
     configdialog and file =>Load Module.  Each subclass has itw own
     validity checks.  Using ModuleName allows users to edit bad module
     names instead of starting over.  Add tests and delete the two files
     combined into the new one.

   - bpo-27372(6): Test_idle no longer changes the locale.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24137(9): Run IDLE, test_idle, and htest with tkinter default
     root disabled.  Fix code and tests that fail with this restriction.
     Fix htests to not create a second and redundant root and mainloop.

   - bpo-27310(10): Fix IDLE.app failure to launch on OS X due to
     vestigial import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27477

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27380

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27372

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<62>,  Next: Build<74>,  Prev: IDLE<53>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-26754(1): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and byte-like
     objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Build<74>,  Next: Tools/Demos<43>,  Prev: C API<62>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-28066(1): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27442(2): Expose the Android API level that python was built
     against, in sysconfig.get_config_vars() as ‘ANDROID_API_LEVEL’.

   - bpo-27434(3): The interpreter that runs the cross-build, found in
     PATH, must now be of the same feature version (e.g.  3.6) as the
     source being built.

   - bpo-26930(4): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-23968(5): Rename the platform directory from plat-$(MACHDEP) to
     plat-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Rename the config directory (LIBPL) from
     config-$(LDVERSION) to config-$(LDVERSION)-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET).
     Install the platform specific _sysconfigdata module into the
     platform directory and rename it to include the ABIFLAGS.

   - Don’t use largefile support for GNU/Hurd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27442

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27434

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23968


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<43>,  Next: Documentation<70>,  Prev: Build<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27332(1): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(2): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<70>,  Next: Tests<71>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-27285(2): Update documentation to reflect the deprecation of
     ‘pyvenv’ and normalize on the term “virtual environment”.  Patch by
     Steve Piercy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<71>,  Prev: Documentation<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.22.88.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27027(1): Added test.support.is_android that is True when this
     is an Android build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.89 Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* Build: Build<75>.
* C API: C API<63>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<49>,  Next: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2ad. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<80>,  Next: Library<81>,  Prev: Security<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27095(1): Simplified MAKE_FUNCTION and removed MAKE_CLOSURE
     opcodes.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-27190(2): Raise NotSupportedError if sqlite3 is older than
     3.3.1.  Patch by Dave Sawyer.

   - bpo-27286(3): Fixed compiling BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode.
     Calling function with generalized unpacking (PEP 448) and
     conflicting keyword names could cause undefined behavior.

   - bpo-27140(4): Added BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode.

   - bpo-27186(5): Add support for os.PathLike objects to open() (part
     of PEP 519(6)).

   - bpo-27066(7): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-26983(8): float() now always return an instance of exact float.
     The deprecation warning is emitted if __float__ returns an instance
     of a strict subclass of float.  In a future versions of Python this
     can be an error.

   - bpo-27097(9): Python interpreter is now about 7% faster due to
     optimized instruction decoding.  Based on patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-26647(10): Python interpreter now uses 16-bit wordcode instead
     of bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-23275(11): Allow assigning to an empty target list in round
     brackets: () = iterable.

   - bpo-27243(12): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27190

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27097

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23275

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<81>,  Next: IDLE<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.3 Library
.................

   - Comment out socket (SO_REUSEPORT) and posix (O_SHLOCK, O_EXLOCK)
     constants exposed on the API which are not implemented on GNU/Hurd.
     They would not work at runtime anyway.

   - bpo-27025(1): Generated names for Tkinter widgets are now more
     meaningful and recognizable.

   - bpo-25455(2): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive
     ElementTree.Element and functools.partial objects.

   - bpo-27294(3): Improved repr for Tkinter event objects.

   - bpo-20508(4): Improve exception message of
     IPv{4,6}Network.__getitem__.  Patch by Gareth Rees.

   - bpo-21386(5): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-27029(6): Removed deprecated support of universal newlines mode
     from ZipFile.open().

   - bpo-27030(7): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in regular expressions now are errors.  The re.LOCALE flag
     now can be used only with bytes patterns.

   - bpo-27186(8): Add os.PathLike support to DirEntry (part of PEP
     519(9)).  Initial patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-20900(10): distutils register command now decodes HTTP
     responses correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - bpo-27186(11): Add os.PathLike support to pathlib, removing its
     provisional status (part of PEP 519).  Initial patch by Dusty
     Phillips.

   - bpo-27186(12): Add support for os.PathLike objects to os.fsencode()
     and os.fsdecode() (part of PEP 519(13)).

   - bpo-27186(14): Introduce os.PathLike and os.fspath() (part of PEP
     519(15)).

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(16)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(17): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t
     send Content header fields in responses that don’t have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(18): Fix the “platform” module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-23883(19): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: cgi, mailbox, mimetypes,
     plistlib and smtpd.  Patches by Jacek Kołodziej.

   - bpo-27164(20): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(21): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-21272(22): Use _sysconfigdata.py to initialize
     distutils.sysconfig.

   - bpo-19611(23): *note inspect: 7c. now reports the implicit ‘.0’
     parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
     generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only
     parameters called ‘implicit0’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26809(24): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: d2.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(25): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - signal, socket, and ssl module IntEnum constant name lookups now
     return a consistent name for values having multiple names.  Ex:
     signal.Signals(6) now refers to itself as signal.SIGALRM rather
     than flipping between that and signal.SIGIOT based on the
     interpreter’s hash randomization seed.

   - bpo-27167(26): Clarify the subprocess.CalledProcessError error
     message text when the child process died due to a signal.

   - bpo-25931(27): Don’t define socketserver.Forking* names on
     platforms such as Windows that do not support os.fork().

   - bpo-21776(28): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-26526(29): Replace custom parse tree validation in the parser
     module with a simple DFA validator.

   - bpo-27114(30): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(31): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-23026(32): winreg.QueryValueEx() now return an integer for
     REG_QWORD type.

   - bpo-26741(33): subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a
     ResourceWarning warning if the child process is still running.

   - bpo-27056(34): Optimize pickle.load() and pickle.loads(), up to 10%
     faster to deserialize a lot of small objects.

   - bpo-21271(35): New keyword only parameters in reset_mock call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20508

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27029

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21272

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27167

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25931

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26526

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<54>,  Next: Documentation<71>,  Prev: Library<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24750(2): Switch all scrollbars in IDLE to ttk versions.  Where
     needed, minimal tests are added to cover changes.

   - bpo-24759(3): IDLE requires tk 8.5 and availability ttk widgets.
     Delete now unneeded tk version tests and code for older versions.
     Add test for IDLE syntax colorizer.

   - bpo-27239(4): idlelib.macosx.isXyzTk functions initialize as
     needed.

   - bpo-27262(5): move Aqua unbinding code, which enable context menus,
     to macosx.

   - bpo-24759(6): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(7): Stop ‘ThemeChanged’ warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(8): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-24225(9): Update idlelib/README.txt with new file names and
     event handlers.

   - bpo-27156(10): Remove obsolete code not used by IDLE.

   - bpo-27117(11): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-24225(12): Rename many ‘idlelib/*.py’ and ‘idle_test/test_*.py’
     files.  Edit files to replace old names with new names when the old
     name referred to the module rather than the class it contained.
     See the issue and IDLE section in What’s New in 3.6 for more.

   - bpo-26673(13): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(14): Add test for IDLE’s percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(15): Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(16): Add test for IDLE’s search dialog.  Original patch
     by Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(17): Add test for undo delegator.  Patch mostly by
     Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(18): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(19): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27239

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27156

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<71>,  Next: Tests<72>,  Prev: IDLE<54>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-16484(1): Change the default PYTHONDOCS URL to “https:”, and
     fix the resulting links to use lowercase.  Patch by Sean Rodman,
     test by Kaushik Nadikuditi.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-22558(4): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16484

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<72>,  Next: Windows<68>,  Prev: Documentation<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25285(1): regrtest now uses subprocesses when the -j1 command
     line option is used: each test file runs in a fresh child process.
     Before, the -j1 option was ignored.

   - bpo-25285(2): Tools/buildbot/test.bat script now uses -j1 by
     default to run each test file in fresh child process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<68>,  Next: Build<75>,  Prev: Tests<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27064(1): The py.exe launcher now defaults to Python 3.  The
     Windows launcher ‘py.exe’ no longer prefers an installed Python 2
     version over Python 3 by default when used interactively.

   - bpo-17500(2): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Build<75>,  Next: C API<63>,  Prev: Windows<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27229(1): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26930(2): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: C API<63>,  Next: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: Build<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-27186(1): Add the PyOS_FSPath() function (part of PEP 519(2)).

   - bpo-26282(3): PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports
     positional-only parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: C API<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.22.89.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-26282(1): Argument Clinic now supports positional-only and
     keyword parameters in the same function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 5 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.90 Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-05-16'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Build: Build<76>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.
* C API: C API<64>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<50>,  Next: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26657(1): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(2): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(3): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<81>,  Next: Library<82>,  Prev: Security<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-20041(1): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(2): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the “N” format unit.

   - bpo-26991(3): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(4): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Based on patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(5): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-27005(6): Optimized the float.fromhex() class method for exact
     float.  It is now 2 times faster.

   - bpo-18531(7): Single var-keyword argument of dict subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact dict.

   - bpo-26811(8): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(9): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26249(10): Memory functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.
     domain (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7.) now use the *note pymalloc
     allocator: b94. rather than system ‘malloc()’.  Applications
     calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4. without holding the GIL can now
     crash: use ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable to validate
     the usage of memory allocators in your application.

   - bpo-26802(11): Optimize function calls only using unpacking like
     ‘func(*tuple)’ (no other positional argument, no keyword): avoid
     copying the tuple.  Patch written by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-26659(12): Make the builtin slice type support cycle
     collection.

   - bpo-26718(13): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-27138(14): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-27147(15): Mention PEP 420(16) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-25339(17): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(18): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26574(19): Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and
     ‘bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')’.  Patch written by Josh Snider.

   - bpo-26581(20): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-19711(21): Add tests for reloading namespace packages.

   - bpo-21099(22): Switch applicable importlib tests to use PEP 451(23)
     API.

   - bpo-26563(24): Debug hooks on Python memory allocators now raise a
     fatal error if functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4. family
     are called without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26564(25): On error, the debug hooks on Python memory
     allocators now use the *note tracemalloc: ff. module to get the
     traceback where a memory block was allocated.

   - bpo-26558(26): The debug hooks on Python memory allocator *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): ae6. now detect when functions are called
     without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26516(27): Add *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable to
     set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

   - bpo-26516(28): The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. function can
     now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.

   - bpo-26516(29): The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 199a. environment
     variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.
     It now has no effect if set to an empty string.

   - bpo-26516(30): In debug mode, debug hooks are now also installed on
     Python memory allocators when Python is configured without
     pymalloc.

   - bpo-26464(31): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(32): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(33): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-26136(34): Upgrade the warning when a generator raises
     StopIteration from PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning.
     Patch by Anish Shah.

   - bpo-26204(35): The compiler now ignores all constant statements:
     bytes, str, int, float, complex, name constants (None, False,
     True), Ellipsis and ast.Constant; not only str and int.  For
     example, ‘1.0’ is now ignored in ‘def f(): 1.0’.

   - bpo-4806(36): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-26146(37): Add a new kind of AST node: ‘ast.Constant’.  It can
     be used by external AST optimizers, but the compiler does not emit
     directly such node.

   - bpo-23601(38): Sped-up allocation of dict key objects by using
     Python’s small object allocator.  (Contributed by Julian Taylor.)

   - bpo-18018(39): Import raises ImportError instead of SystemError if
     a relative import is attempted without a known parent package.

   - bpo-25843(40): When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘float’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-26107(41): The format of the ‘co_lnotab’ attribute of code
     objects changes to support negative line number delta.

   - bpo-26154(42): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-25791(43): If __package__ != __spec__.parent or if neither
     __package__ or __spec__ are defined then ImportWarning is raised.

   - bpo-22995(44): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(45): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(46): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(47): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren’t subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(48): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(49): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(50): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(51): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-5319(52): New Py_FinalizeEx() API allowing Python to set an
     exit status of 120 on failure to flush buffered streams.

   - bpo-25485(53): telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager.

   - bpo-24097(54): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(55): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-25630(56): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(57): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(58): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(59): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(60): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-24802(61): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-25555(62): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     “arg” node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24726(63): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(64): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(65): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25401(66): Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex():
     they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.

   - bpo-25399(67): Optimize bytearray % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now between 2.5 and 5 times
     faster.

   - bpo-25274(68): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the “lower-water mark” formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(69): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-25349(70): Optimize bytes % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now up to 2 times faster.

   - bpo-24806(71): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-25301(72): The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’.

   - bpo-24848(73): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25267(74): The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’,
     ‘surrogatepass’.  Patch co-written with Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25280(75): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25227(76): Optimize ASCII and latin1 encoders with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler: the encoders are now up to 3 times
     as fast.  Initial patch written by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25003(77): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-9232(78): Modify Python’s grammar to allow trailing commas in
     the argument list of a function declaration.  For example, “def
     f(*, a = 3,): pass” is now legal.  Patch from Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24965(79): Implement PEP 498(80) “Literal String
     Interpolation”.  This allows you to embed expressions inside
     f-strings, which are converted to normal strings at run time.
     Given x=3, then f’value={x}’ == ‘value=3’.  Patch by Eric V. Smith.

   - bpo-26478(81): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(82): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(83): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-26288(84): Optimize PyLong_AsDouble.

   - bpo-26289(85): Optimize floor and modulo division for single-digit
     longs.  Microbenchmarks show 2-2.5x improvement.  Built-in ‘divmod’
     function is now also ~10% faster.  (See also: bpo-26315(86))

   - bpo-25887(87): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27005

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18531

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26802

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19711

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21099

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26563

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26558

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26136

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26204

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23601

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26107

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9232

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24965

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26288

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26289

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26315

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887


File: python.info,  Node: Library<82>,  Next: IDLE<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-27057(1): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(2): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-27031(3): Removed dummy methods in Tkinter widget classes:
     tk_menuBar() and tk_bindForTraversal().

   - bpo-14132(4): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(5): The “urllib.request” module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but “http.client”
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27033(6): The default value of the decode_data parameter for
     smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is changed to
     False.

   - bpo-27034(7): Removed deprecated class asynchat.fifo.

   - bpo-26870(8): Added readline.set_auto_history(), which can stop
     entries being automatically added to the history list.  Based on
     patch by Tyler Crompton.

   - bpo-26039(9): zipfile.ZipFile.open() can now be used to write data
     into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  Patch by Thomas
     Kluyver.

   - bpo-26892(10): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(11): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(12): mock_open ‘files’ no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(13): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(14): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26002(15): Use bisect in statistics.median instead of a linear
     search.  Patch by Upendra Kuma.

   - bpo-25974(16): Make use of new Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method in
     statistics module.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-26996(17): Add secrets module as described in PEP 506(18).

   - bpo-26881(19): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(20): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(21): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(22): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26915(23): The __contains__ methods in the collections ABCs now
     check for identity before checking equality.  This better matches
     the behavior of the concrete classes, allows sensible handling of
     NaNs, and makes it easier to reason about container invariants.

   - bpo-26711(24): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(25): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(26): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24902(27): Print server URL on http.server startup.  Initial
     patch by Felix Kaiser.

   - bpo-25788(28): fileinput.hook_encoded() now supports an “errors”
     argument for passing to open.  Original patch by Joseph Hackman.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove “will be removed in Python 3.7” from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): fa5, catch *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     instead of *note NameError: 14a.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26782(38): Add STARTUPINFO to subprocess.__all__ on Windows.

   - bpo-26404(39): Add context manager to socketserver.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26735(40): Fix *note os.urandom(): 2ad. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-26585(41): Eliminate http.server._quote_html() and use
     html.escape(quote=False).  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26685(42): Raise OSError if closing a socket fails.

   - bpo-16329(43): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-13952(44): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26587(45): the site module now allows .pth files to specify
     files to be added to sys.path (e.g.  zip files).

   - bpo-25609(46): Introduce contextlib.AbstractContextManager and
     typing.ContextManager.

   - bpo-26709(47): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(48): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-25951(49): Change SSLSocket.sendall() to return None, as
     explicitly documented for plain socket objects.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26586(50): In http.server, respond with “413 Request header
     fields too large” if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26676(51): Added missing XMLPullParser to ElementTree.__all__.

   - bpo-22854(52): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-26492(53): Exhausted iterator of array.array now conforms with
     the behavior of iterators of other mutable sequences: it lefts
     exhausted even if iterated array is extended.

   - bpo-26641(54): doctest.DocFileTest and doctest.testfile() now
     support packages (module splitted into multiple directories) for
     the package parameter.

   - bpo-25195(55): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(56): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(57): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(58): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-26637(59): The *note importlib: 75. module now emits an *note
     ImportError: 14b. rather than a *note TypeError: 2c4. if *note
     __import__(): 727. is tried during the Python shutdown process but
     *note sys.path: 368. is already cleared (set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-21925(60): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 184e. now catches
     exceptions when calling *note linecache.getline(): cb3. and *note
     tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(): 199c. to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: ab9. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-23848(61): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now also installs
     an exception handler to dump the traceback of all Python threads on
     any Windows exception, not only on UNIX signals (SIGSEGV, SIGFPE,
     SIGABRT).

   - bpo-26530(62): Add C functions ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Track()’ and
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Untrack()’ to track memory blocks using the *note
     tracemalloc: ff. module.  Add ‘_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback()’ to
     get the traceback of an object.

   - bpo-26588(63): The _tracemalloc now supports tracing memory
     allocations of multiple address spaces (domains).

   - bpo-24266(64): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26590(65): Implement a safe finalizer for the _socket.socket
     type.  It now releases the GIL to close the socket.

   - bpo-18787(66): spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError if the
     user doesn’t have privileges.

   - bpo-26560(67): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26567(68): Add a new function *note PyErr_ResourceWarning():
     b9d. function to pass the destroyed object.  Add a 'source'
     attribute to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.  Add
     warnings._showwarnmsg() which uses tracemalloc to get the traceback
     where source object was allocated.

   - bpo-26569(69): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 669. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 66a. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(70): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(71): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(72): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(73): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(74): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-26323(75): Add Mock.assert_called() and
     Mock.assert_called_once() methods to unittest.mock.  Patch written
     by Amit Saha.

   - bpo-20589(76): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(77): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(78): Got rid of excessive buffering in fileinput.  The
     bufsize parameter is now deprecated and ignored.

   - bpo-19475(79): Added an optional argument timespec to the datetime
     isoformat() method to choose the precision of the time component.

   - bpo-2202(80): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-26167(81): Minimized overhead in copy.copy() and
     copy.deepcopy().  Optimized copying and deepcopying bytearrays,
     NotImplemented, slices, short lists, tuples, dicts, sets.

   - bpo-25718(82): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(83): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26482(84): Allowed pickling recursive dequeues.

   - bpo-26335(85): Make mmap.write() return the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  Patch by Jakub Stasiak.

   - bpo-26457(86): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(87): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(88): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(89): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(90): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(91): importlib.__import__() raises ImportError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(92): In the “socketserver” module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-23430(93): Change the socketserver module to only catch
     exceptions raised from a request handler that are derived from
     Exception (instead of BaseException).  Therefore SystemExit and
     KeyboardInterrupt no longer trigger the handle_error() method, and
     will now to stop a single-threaded server.

   - bpo-25995(94): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-25994(95): Added the close() method and the support of the
     context manager protocol for the os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-23992(96): multiprocessing: make MapResult not fail-fast upon
     exception.

   - bpo-26243(97): Support keyword arguments to zlib.compress().  Patch
     by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-26117(98): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25949(99): __dict__ for an OrderedDict instance is now created
     only when needed.

   - bpo-25911(100): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(101): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting
     a non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-26039(102): Added zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file() and
     zipinfo.ZipInfo.is_dir().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-12923(103): Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(104): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  “args” and “keywords” attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(105): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range()
     objects with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(106): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(107): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(108): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26099(109): The site module now writes an error into stderr if
     sitecustomize module can be imported but executing the module raise
     an ImportError.  Same change for usercustomize.

   - bpo-26147(110): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(111): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(112): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(113): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-26129(114): Deprecated accepting non-integers in
     grp.getgrgid().

   - bpo-25850(115): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit
     Windows.

   - bpo-25822(116): Add docstrings to the fields of urllib.parse
     results.  Patch contributed by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-22642(117): Convert trace module option parsing mechanism to
     argparse.  Patch contributed by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-24705(118): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${}
     vars appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-26069(119): Remove the deprecated apis in the trace module.

   - bpo-22138(120): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(121): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(122): Don’t traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(123): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-21815(124): Accept ] characters in the data portion of imap
     responses, in order to handle the flags with square brackets
     accepted and produced by servers such as gmail.

   - bpo-25447(125): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25971(126): Optimized creating Fractions from floats by 2 times
     and from Decimals by 3 times.

   - bpo-25802(127): Document as deprecated the remaining
     implementations of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

   - bpo-25928(128): Add Decimal.as_integer_ratio().

   - bpo-25447(129): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25768(130): Have the functions in compileall return booleans
     instead of ints and add proper documentation and tests for the
     return values.

   - bpo-24103(131): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(132): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(133): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25869(134): Optimized deepcopying ElementTree; it is now 20
     times faster.

   - bpo-25873(135): Optimized iterating ElementTree.  Iterating
     elements Element.iter() is now 40% faster, iterating text
     Element.itertext() is now up to 2.5 times faster.

   - bpo-25902(136): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-22227(137): The TarFile iterator is reimplemented using
     generator.  This implementation is simpler that using class.

   - bpo-25638(138): Optimized ElementTree.iterparse(); it is now 2x
     faster.  Optimized ElementTree parsing; it is now 10% faster.

   - bpo-25761(139): Improved detecting errors in broken pickle data.

   - bpo-25717(140): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(141): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when ‘-d’ is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(142): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-25771(143): Tweak the exception message for
     importlib.util.resolve_name() when ‘package’ isn’t specified but
     necessary.

   - bpo-6478(144): _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(145): When executing a package with the “python -m
     package” option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The “runpy” module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(146): Also in runpy and the “-m” option, omit the
     irrelevant message “… is a package and cannot be directly executed”
     if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due to a bad
     ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(147): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(148): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(149): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-7990(150): dir() on ElementTree.Element now lists properties:
     “tag”, “text”, “tail” and “attrib”.  Original patch by Santoso
     Wijaya.

   - bpo-25725(151): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(152): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(153): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(154): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(155): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(156): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-25626(157): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that
     fit in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(158): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(159): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(160): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-23883(161): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: calendar, csv, enum,
     fileinput, ftplib, logging, optparse, tarfile, threading and wave.
     Also added a test.support.check__all__() helper.  Patches by Jacek
     Kołodziej, Mauro S. M. Rodrigues and Joel Taddei.

   - bpo-25590(162): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.  Also complete names of attributes such as
     properties and slots which are listed by dir() but not yet created
     on an instance.

   - bpo-25498(163): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(164): Added “escape” to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(165): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(166): Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(167): Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function
     to handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(168): Got rid of circular references in regular
     expression parsing.

   - bpo-18973(169): Command-line interface of the calendar module now
     uses argparse instead of optparse.

   - bpo-25510(170): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b’’
     instead of ‘’ at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(171): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(172): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(173): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(174): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(175): typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(176): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(177): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(178): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - Move the imp module from a PendingDeprecationWarning to
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25407(179): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(180): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25382(181): pickletools.dis() now outputs implicit memo index
     for the MEMOIZE opcode.

   - bpo-25357(182): Add an optional newline parameter to
     binascii.b2a_base64().  base64.b64encode() uses it to avoid a
     memory copy.

   - bpo-24164(183): Objects that need calling ‘__new__’ with keyword
     arguments, can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than
     protocol version 4.

   - bpo-25364(184): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(185): smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-16099(186): RobotFileParser now supports Crawl-delay and
     Request-rate extensions.  Patch by Nikolay Bogoychev.

   - bpo-25316(187): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(188): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(189): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is ‘posix’ (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(190): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(191): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(192): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes
     in the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25287(193): Don’t add crypt.METHOD_CRYPT to crypt.methods if
     it’s not supported.  Check if it is supported, it may not be
     supported on OpenBSD for example.

   - bpo-23600(194): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-25203(195): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-25011(196): rlcompleter now omits private and special attribute
     names unless the prefix starts with underscores.

   - bpo-25209(197): rlcompleter now can add a space or a colon after
     completed keyword.

   - bpo-22241(198): timezone.utc name is now plain ‘UTC’, not
     ‘UTC-00:00’.

   - bpo-23517(199): fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of
     datetime.datetime now round microseconds to nearest with ties going
     to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), as round(float), instead
     of rounding towards -Infinity (ROUND_FLOOR).

   - bpo-23552(200): Timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x)
     variance between best and worst times.  Patch from Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-24633(201): site-packages/README -> README.txt.

   - bpo-24879(202): help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in
     the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  The
     ordering is determined by the _fields attribute if present.

   - bpo-24874(203): Improve speed of itertools.cycle() and make its
     pickle more compact.

   - Fix crash in itertools.cycle.__setstate__() when the first argument
     wasn’t a list.

   - bpo-20059(204): urllib.parse raises ValueError on all invalid
     ports.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-24360(205): Improve __repr__ of argparse.Namespace() for
     invalid identifiers.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-23426(206): run_setup was broken in distutils.  Patch from
     Alexander Belopolsky.

   - bpo-13938(207): 2to3 converts StringTypes to a tuple.  Patch from
     Mark Hammond.

   - bpo-2091(208): open() accepted a ‘U’ mode string containing ‘+’,
     but ‘U’ can only be used with ‘r’.  Patch from Jeff Balogh and John
     O’Connor.

   - bpo-8585(209): improved tests for zipimporter2.  Patch from Mark
     Lawrence.

   - bpo-18622(210): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-24426(211): Fast searching optimization in regular expressions
     now works for patterns that starts with capturing groups.  Fast
     searching optimization now can’t be disabled at compile time.

   - bpo-23661(212): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-13248(213): Remove deprecated inspect.getmoduleinfo function.

   - bpo-25578(214): Fix (another) memory leak in
     SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(215): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(216): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(217): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(218): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(219): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(220): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(221): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(222): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-27040(223): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(224): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25974

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26996

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24902

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26782

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26585

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25951

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26676

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26641

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26637

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26530

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26590

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18787

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26177

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15068

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2202

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26167

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25718

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26475

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<55>,  Next: Documentation<72>,  Prev: Library<82>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-20640(1): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the ‘IDLE-console differences’ section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(2): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(3): Revert unwanted conversion of ‘ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     ‘ascii’.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with ‘utf-8’.

   - bpo-15348(4): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(5): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change ‘The program’ to ‘Your program’ in an IDLE ‘kill program?’
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(6): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(7): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(8): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(9): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(10): IDLE now has an ‘IDLE Dark’ built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green,
     red, orange, … .  To use it with IDLEs released before November
     2015, hit the ‘Save as New Custom Theme’ button and enter a new
     name, such as ‘Custom Dark’.  The custom theme will work with any
     IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(11): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  ‘IDLE’ now means ‘Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment’.

   - bpo-24820(12): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(13): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(14): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(15): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(16): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(17): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a ‘sheet’.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(18): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(19): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(20): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(21): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(22): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(23): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(24): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(25): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(26): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Rose Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(27): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(28): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<72>,  Next: Tests<73>,  Prev: IDLE<55>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-26736(1): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(2): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(3): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-24952(4): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the “threading” and “_thread” modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-26014(5): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * “See also”
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<73>,  Next: Build<76>,  Prev: Documentation<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26295(2): When using “python3 -m test –testdir=TESTDIR”,
     regrtest doesn’t add “test.” prefix to test module names.

   - bpo-26523(3): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(4): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(5): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(6): Changed test_ssl to use its internal local server
     more.  This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently
     changed root certificate.

   - bpo-25616(7): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-25449(8): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25188(9): Add -P/–pgo to test.regrtest to suppress error output
     when running the test suite for the purposes of a PGO build.
     Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu.

   - bpo-22806(10): Add ‘python -m test --list-tests’ command to list
     tests.

   - bpo-18174(11): ‘python -m test --huntrleaks ...’ now also checks
     for leak of file descriptors.  Patch written by Richard Oudkerk.

   - bpo-25260(12): Fix ‘python -m test --coverage’ on Windows.  Remove
     the list of ignored directories.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   - bpo-26583(13): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25188

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18174

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25260

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<76>,  Next: Windows<69>,  Prev: Tests<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-21277(1): Don’t try to link _ctypes with a ffi_convenience
     library.

   - bpo-26884(2): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26932(3): Fixed support of RTLD_* constants defined as enum
     values, not via macros (in particular on Android).  Patch by Chi
     Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22359(4): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(5): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-25702(6): A –with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(7): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(8): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(9): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(10): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is removed.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-24986(14): It is now possible to build Python on Windows
     without errors when external libraries are not available.

   - bpo-24421(15): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-26465(16): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-26268(17): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(18): Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(19): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26932

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<69>,  Next: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: Build<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don’t include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-25022(6): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<45>,  Next: C API<64>,  Prev: Windows<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-25440(5): Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.

   - bpo-25154(6): The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of
     ‘python3 -m venv’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: C API<64>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<45>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.22.90.10 C API
................

   - bpo-26312(1): SystemError is now raised in all programming bugs
     with using PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().  RuntimeError did raised
     before in some programming bugs.

   - bpo-26198(2): ValueError is now raised instead of TypeError on
     buffer overflow in parsing “es#” and “et#” format units.
     SystemError is now raised instead of TypeError on programmatical
     error in parsing format string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26198


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 final,  Next: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.91 Python 3.5.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-04'

There were no new changes in version 3.5.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.92 Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<51>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Library: Library<83>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<51>,  Next: Core and Builtins<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.22.92.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-32551(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  This is considered a
     potential security issue, as it may lead to privileged processes
     unexpectedly loading code from user controlled directories in
     situations where that was not previously the case.  The interpreter
     now consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.  (Originally reported as bpo-29723(3) against
     Python 3.6rc1, but it was missed at the time that the then upcoming
     Python 3.5.4 release would also be affected)

   - bpo-30657(4): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     PyBytes_DecodeEscape, CVE 2017-1000158(5).  Original patch by Jay
     Bosamiya; rebased to Python 3 by Miro Hrončok.

   - bpo-30947(6): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32551

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30657

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-1000158

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<82>,  Next: Library<83>,  Prev: Security<51>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.22.92.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31095(1): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095


File: python.info,  Node: Library<83>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.22.92.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32072(1): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-31170(2): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 final,  Next: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.93 Python 3.5.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-08-07'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<84>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 final

1.22.93.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-30119(1): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.94 Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<85>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* C API: C API<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<52>,  Next: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(10): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(11) and CVE 2016-4472(12).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<83>,  Next: Library<85>,  Prev: Security<52>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30876(1): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30765(2): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-27945(3): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(4): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-29935(5): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-28876(6): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises *note
     OverflowError: 6c7.

   - bpo-29600(7): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-29537(8): Restore runtime compatibility with bytecode files
     generated by CPython 3.5.0 to 3.5.2, and adjust the eval loop to
     avoid the problems that could be caused by the malformed variant of
     the BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode that they may contain.  Patch
     by Petr Viktorin, Serhiy Storchaka, and Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-28598(9): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29602(10): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(11): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(12): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(13): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(14): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29537

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<85>,  Next: Documentation<73>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-29403(1): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(2): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

   - bpo-30886(3): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits
     until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the
     same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(4): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30807(5): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(6): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(7): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-29169(8): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30879(9): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(10): Prohibited the ‘=’ character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(11): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30645(12): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-23890(13): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(14): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29931(15): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-24484(16): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-28994(17): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(18): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future “cancel()”
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(19): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(20): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(21): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(22): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(23): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30378(24): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(25): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(26): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(27): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(28): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(29): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(30): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(31): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-29990(32): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(33): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(34))

   - bpo-30243(35): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(36): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(37): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(38): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(39): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(40): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29942(45): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(46): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(47): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(48): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(49): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(50): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(51): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(52): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(53): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(54): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes “encoding” or “errors” of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(55): Fix a bug that prevented array ‘Q’, ‘L’ and ‘I’ from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29615(56): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-29704(57): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29703(58): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(59): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-29110(60): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28961(61): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29532(62): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-28556(63): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(64): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(65): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(66): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(67): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(68): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(69): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(70): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29011(71): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-29219(72): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-28969(73): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(74): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<73>,  Next: Tests<74>,  Prev: Library<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-26985(2): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-28929(3): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(4): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(5): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(6): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<74>,  Next: Build<77>,  Prev: Documentation<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30822(1): Fix regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u
     extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30383(2): regrtest: Enhance regrtest and backport features from
     the master branch.  Add options: –coverage, –testdir, –list-tests
     (list test files, don’t run them), –list-cases (list test
     identifiers, don’t run them, bpo-30523(3)), –matchfile (load a list
     of test filters from a text file, bpo-30540(4)), –slowest (alias to
     –slow).  Enhance output: add timestamp, test result, currently
     running tests, “Tests result: xxx” summary with total duration,
     etc.  Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest, –huntrleaks: regrtest
     now warms up caches, create explicitly all internal singletons
     which are created on demand to prevent false positives when
     checking for reference leaks.  (bpo-30675(5)).

   - bpo-30357(6): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-28087(7): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-30197(8): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-29571(9): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30675

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571


File: python.info,  Node: Build<77>,  Next: Windows<70>,  Prev: Tests<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29243(1): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(2): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(3): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<70>,  Next: C API<65>,  Prev: Build<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-29392(2): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392


File: python.info,  Node: C API<65>,  Prev: Windows<70>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.22.94.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value between 0x03050400 and
     0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 final,  Next: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.95 Python 3.5.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-17'

There were no code changes between 3.5.3rc1 and 3.5.3 final.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.96 Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<86>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* C API: C API<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* Build: Build<78>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<53>,  Next: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<84>,  Next: Library<86>,  Prev: Security<53>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29073(1): bytearray formatting no longer truncates on first
     null byte.

   - bpo-28932(2): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-28147(3): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.

   - bpo-25677(4): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for
     indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(5): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in
     alternate form.

   - bpo-28512(6): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28991(7): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug caused by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28648(8): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(9): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28426(10): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-23782(11): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28379(12): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(13): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(14): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(15): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(16): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(17): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28350(18): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(19): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(20): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(21): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(22): Fix incorrect type in error message from
     ‘complex(1.0, {2:3})’.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-27955(23): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28131(24): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-25221(25): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-25758(26): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28189(27): dictitems_contains no longer swallows compare
     errors.  (Patch by Xiang Zhang)

   - bpo-27812(28): Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(29): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(30): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of ‘def’ in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26020(31): set literal evaluation order did not match
     documented behaviour.

   - bpo-27782(32): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(33): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(34): Warn if a submodule argument to “python -m” or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27558(35): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of “raise”
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(36): Standard __import__() no longer look up “__import__”
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or “from import”.
     Fixed handling an error of non-string package name.

   - bpo-27083(37): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(38): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27473(39): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27507(40): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(41): Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27443(42): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27942(43): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29073

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28189

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26020

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<86>,  Next: IDLE<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-15812(1): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(2): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object
     and modes “w” and “x” now are relative to the start of the file.

   - bpo-13051(3): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(4): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(5): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(6): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(7): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(8): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(9): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(10): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when pass a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(11): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(12): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-25659(13): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-28732(14): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(15): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28387(16): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(17): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(18): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(19): tarfile.open() with mode “r” or “r:” now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(20): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(21): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(22): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(23): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(24): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-25464(25): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(26): shutil.make_archive() no longer add entry “./” to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-24452(27): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(28): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-26293(29): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28321(30): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28322(31): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(32): Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28253(33): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(34): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(35): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18893(36): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(37): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.

   - bpo-27348(38): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like “Exception: None”.  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(39): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27932(40): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(41): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-25270(42): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(43): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(44): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-27599(45): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-19003(46): m email.generator now replaces only ‘\r’ and/or ‘\n’
     line endings, per the RFC, instead of all unicode line endings.

   - bpo-28019(47): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-25969(48): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(49): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files (“first match”), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-24594(50): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(51): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(52): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27445(53): Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-22450(54): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-27570(55): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the “ctypes” and “array” modules.

   - bpo-22233(56): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27988(57): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-27691(58): Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-27850(59): Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(60)).

   - bpo-27766(61): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-26470(62): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn’t raise.

   - bpo-12885(63): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(64): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(65): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(66): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(67): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(68): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(69)).  Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261).  Fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259).  Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252).

   - bpo-27539(70): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(71): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-2466(72): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-27773(73): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(74): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(75): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(76): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(77): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(78): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(79): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(80)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-27656(81): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(82): In the “zlib” module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-27533(83): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(84): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(85): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-26844(86): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     ‘path’ instead of ‘name’.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(87): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and
     not raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(88): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-26664(89): Fix activate.fish by removing mis-use of ‘$’.

   - bpo-22115(90): Fixed tracing Tkinter variables: trace_vdelete()
     with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always
     returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the “u” mode now
     works.

   - Fix a scoping issue in importlib.util.LazyLoader which triggered an
     UnboundLocalError when lazy-loading a module that was already put
     into sys.modules.

   - bpo-27079(91): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-26754(92): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-27048(93): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(94): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(95): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(96): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(97) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-26386(98): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id’s containing spaces.

   - bpo-16182(99): Fix various functions in the “readline” module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(100): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   - bpo-27930(101): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-21201(102): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - bpo-27456(103): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   - bpo-27906(104): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(105): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(106): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(107): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(108): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(109): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(110): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(111): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(112): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(113): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(114): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(115): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(116): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-26923(117): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(118): Don’t configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28600(119): Optimize loop.call_soon().

   - bpo-28613(120): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28639(121): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(122): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(123): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(124): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-24142(125): Reading a corrupt config file left the parser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28990(126): Fix SSL hanging if connection is closed before
     handshake completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19003

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (60) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (80) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26664

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (97) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (125) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<56>,  Next: C API<66>,  Prev: Library<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add ‘interrupt execution’ (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from ‘flashing’ gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(3): In section on IDLE – console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27714(4): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-25507(5): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27452(6): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245


File: python.info,  Node: C API<66>,  Next: Documentation<74>,  Prev: IDLE<56>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-26754(2): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     bytes-like objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<74>,  Next: Tests<75>,  Prev: C API<66>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<75>,  Next: Tools/Demos<46>,  Prev: Documentation<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28950(1): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l/-M in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28666(2): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(3): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-28409(4): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-27787(5): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     “dangling threads”, since the dangling threads are weak references.

   - bpo-27369(6): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<46>,  Next: Windows<71>,  Prev: Tests<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current “re” module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   - bpo-27332(2): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(3): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<71>,  Next: Build<78>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<46>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.9 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28251(1): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(2): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-25144(3): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enabled proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<78>,  Prev: Windows<71>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.22.96.10 Build
................

   - bpo-29080(1): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(2): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-10656(3): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(4): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(5): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28248(6): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-28258(7): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(8): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-28066(9): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-15819(10): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27566(11): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(12): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27983(13): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when –with-optimizations is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-26307(14): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the
     built-in modules.

   - bpo-26359(15): Add the –with-optimizations configure flag.

   - bpo-27713(16): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib’s bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(17): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp and
     ld_so_aix, which are required on AIX. This updates references to an
     installation path that was changed in 3.2a4, and undoes changed
     references to the build tree that were made in 3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(18): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(19): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(20): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python
     program to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(21): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   - bpo-28676(22): Prevent missing ‘getentropy’ declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 final,  Next: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.97 Python 3.5.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<85>,  Next: Tests<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.22.97.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-26930(1): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<76>,  Next: IDLE<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.22.97.2 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26867(1): Ubuntu’s openssl OP_NO_SSLv3 is forced on by default;
     fix test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26867


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<57>,  Prev: Tests<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.22.97.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27365(1): Allow non-ascii in idlelib/NEWS.txt - minimal part
     for 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.98 Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<54>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<87>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Build: Build<79>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<54>,  Next: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 2ad. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   - bpo-26657(5): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(6): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(7): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<86>,  Next: Library<87>,  Prev: Security<54>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27066(1): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-20041(2): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(3): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the “N” format unit.

   - bpo-26991(4): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(5): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(6): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-26811(7): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(8): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26659(9): Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.

   - bpo-26718(10): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-25339(11): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(12): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26581(13): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-26464(14): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(15): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(16): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-4806(17): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-27138(18): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-26154(19): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-26194(20): Deque.insert() gave odd results for bounded deques
     that had reached their maximum size.  Now an IndexError will be
     raised when attempting to insert into a full deque.

   - bpo-25843(21): When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘int’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-22995(22): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(23): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(24): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(25): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren’t subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(26): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(27): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(28): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(29): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-27147(30): Mention PEP 420(31) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-24097(32): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(33): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-26478(34): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(35): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(36): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-25887(37): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   - bpo-27243(38): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26194

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<87>,  Next: IDLE<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-21386(1): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-20900(2): distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses
     correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(3)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(4): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t
     send Content header fields in responses that don’t have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(5): Fix the “platform” module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-27164(6): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(7): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-26809(8): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: d2.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(9): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - bpo-21776(10): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-27114(11): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(12): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-27057(13): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(14): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-14132(15): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(16): The “urllib.request” module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but “http.client”
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26892(17): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(18): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(19): mock_open ‘files’ no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(20): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(21): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26881(22): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(23): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(24): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(25): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26711(26): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(27): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(28): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove “will be removed in Python 3.7” from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): fa5, catch *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     instead of *note NameError: 14a.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26735(38): Fix *note os.urandom(): 2ad. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-16329(39): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-13952(40): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26709(41): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(42): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-26586(43): In http.server, respond with “413 Request header
     fields too large” if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-22854(44): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-25195(45): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(46): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(47): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(48): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-21925(49): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 184e. now catches
     exceptions on ‘linecache.getline(...)’ to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: ab9. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-24266(50): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26560(51): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26569(52): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 669. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 66a. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(53): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(54): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(55): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(56): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(57): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-20589(58): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(59): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(60): Got rid of excessive buffering in the fileinput
     module.  The bufsize parameter is no longer used.

   - bpo-2202(61): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-25718(62): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(63): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26457(64): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(65): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(66): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(67): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(68): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(69): importlib.__import__() raises SystemError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(70): In the “socketserver” module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-25995(71): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-26117(72): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25911(73): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(74): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a
     non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-12923(75): Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(76): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  “args” and “keywords” attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(77): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects
     with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(78): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(79): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(80): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26147(81): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(82): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(83): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(84): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-25850(85): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-17633(86): Improve zipimport’s support for namespace packages.

   - bpo-24705(87): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars
     appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-22138(88): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(89): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(90): Don’t traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(91): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-25447(92): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25447(93): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-24103(94): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(95): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(96): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25902(97): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-25717(98): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(99): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when ‘-d’ is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(100): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-6478(101): _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(102): When executing a package with the “python -m
     package” option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The “runpy” module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(103): Also in runpy and the “-m” option, omit the
     irrelevant message “… is a package and cannot be directly executed”
     if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due to a bad
     ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(104): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(105): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(106): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-25725(107): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(108): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(109): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(110): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(111): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(112): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(113): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(114): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(115): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(116): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-27040(117): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(118): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   - bpo-27223(119): asyncio: Fix _read_ready and _write_ready to
     respect _conn_lost.  Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-22970(120): asyncio: Fix inconsistency cancelling
     Condition.wait.  Patch by David Coles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26041

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26822

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26733

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26801

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26717

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26735

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16329

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13952

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26709

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23735

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26586

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22854

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25195

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26644

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26616

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21925

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24266

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26560

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26569

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26499

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25320

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16181

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26513

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23718

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20589

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26177

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15068

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2202

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   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26475

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26457

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26385

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26402

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25913

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26186

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26367

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26309

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25995

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26117

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25911

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26045

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12923

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25945

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26202

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23076

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19883

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26147

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25935

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   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25914

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25902

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25717

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24903

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25764

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6478

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14285

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19771

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25177

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   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23914

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<58>,  Next: Documentation<75>,  Prev: Library<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24759(2): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(3): Stop ‘ThemeChanged’ warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(4): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-27117(5): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-26673(6): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(7): Add test for IDLE’s percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(8): Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(9): Add test for IDLE’s search dialog.  Original patch by
     Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(10): Add test for IDLE’s undo delegator.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(11): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(12): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   - bpo-20640(13): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the ‘IDLE-console differences’ section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(14): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(15): Revert unwanted conversion of ‘ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     ‘ascii’.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with ‘utf-8’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<75>,  Next: Tests<77>,  Prev: IDLE<58>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-26736(4): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(5): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(6): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-25500(7): Fix documentation to not claim that __import__ is
     searched for in the global scope.

   - bpo-26014(8): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * “See also”
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<77>,  Next: Build<79>,  Prev: Documentation<75>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26523(2): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(3): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(4): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(5): Changed test_ssl to use self-signed.pythontest.net.
     This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root
     certificate.

   - bpo-25616(6): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-26583(7): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<79>,  Next: Windows<72>,  Prev: Tests<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-26884(1): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22359(2): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-27229(3): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(4): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-25702(5): A –with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(6): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(7): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(8): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(9): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-24421(10): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is now deprecated, and
     simply calls ‘PCbuild\build.bat --pgo %*’.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-26930(14): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-26268(15): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(16): Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(17): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<72>,  Next: Tools/Demos<47>,  Prev: Build<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don’t include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-17500(6): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<47>,  Prev: Windows<72>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.22.98.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 final,  Next: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.99 Python 3.5.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2015-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<87>,  Next: Windows<73>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.22.99.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-25709(1): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<73>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.22.99.2 Windows
.................

   - bpo-25715(1): Python 3.5.1 installer shows wrong upgrade path and
     incorrect logic for launcher detection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25715


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.100 Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<88>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Build: Build<80>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<88>,  Next: Library<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-25630(1): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(2): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(3): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(4): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(5): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-25555(6): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     “arg” node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24802(7): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-24726(8): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(9): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(10): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25274(11): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the “lower-water mark” formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(12): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-24806(13): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-24848(14): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25280(15): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25003(16): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-25182(17): The stdprinter (used as sys.stderr before the io
     module is imported at startup) now uses the backslashreplace error
     handler.

   - bpo-25131(18): Make the line number and column offset of set/dict
     literals and comprehensions correspond to the opening brace.

   - bpo-25150(19): Hide the private ‘_Py_atomic_XXX’ symbols from the
     public Python.h header to fix a compilation error with OpenMP.
     PyThreadState_GET() becomes an alias to PyThreadState_Get() to
     avoid ABI incompatibilities.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25182

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25131

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25150


File: python.info,  Node: Library<88>,  Next: IDLE<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-25626(1): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit
     in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(2): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(3): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(4): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-25590(5): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.

   - bpo-25498(6): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(7): Added “escape” to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(8): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(9): Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(10): Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function to
     handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(11): Got rid of circular references in regular expression
     parsing.

   - bpo-25510(12): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b’’
     instead of ‘’ at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(13): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(14): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(15): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(16): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(17): typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(18): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(19): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(20): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - bpo-25407(21): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(22): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25364(23): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(24): smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-25316(25): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(26): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(27): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is ‘posix’ (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(28): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(29): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(30): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in
     the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from Xiang
     Zhang.

   - bpo-24483(31): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now
     calculates key’s hash only once.

   - bpo-22958(32): Constructor and update method of
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary now accept the self and the dict
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-22609(33): Constructor of collections.UserDict now accepts the
     self keyword argument.

   - bpo-25111(34): Fixed comparison of traceback.FrameSummary.

   - bpo-25262(35): Added support for BINBYTES8 opcode in Python
     implementation of unpickler.  Highest 32 bits of 64-bit size for
     BINUNICODE8 and BINBYTES8 opcodes no longer silently ignored on
     32-bit platforms in C implementation.

   - bpo-25034(36): Fix string.Formatter problem with auto-numbering and
     nested format_specs.  Patch by Anthon van der Neut.

   - bpo-25233(37): Rewrite the guts of asyncio.Queue and
     asyncio.Semaphore to be more understandable and correct.

   - bpo-25203(38): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-23600(39): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-23329(40): Allow the ssl module to be built with older versions
     of LibreSSL.

   - Prevent overflow in _Unpickler_Read.

   - bpo-25047(41): The XML encoding declaration written by Element Tree
     now respects the letter case given by the user.  This restores the
     ability to write encoding names in uppercase like “UTF-8”, which
     worked in Python 2.

   - bpo-25135(42): Make deque_clear() safer by emptying the deque
     before clearing.  This helps avoid possible reentrancy issues.

   - bpo-19143(43): platform module now reads Windows version from
     kernel32.dll to avoid compatibility shims.

   - bpo-25092(44): Fix datetime.strftime() failure when errno was
     already set to EINVAL.

   - bpo-23517(45): Fix rounding in fromtimestamp() and
     utcfromtimestamp() methods of datetime.datetime: microseconds are
     now rounded to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer
     (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), instead of being rounding towards minus infinity
     (ROUND_FLOOR). It’s important that these methods use the same
     rounding mode than datetime.timedelta to keep the property:
     (datetime(1970,1,1) + timedelta(seconds=t)) ==
     datetime.utcfromtimestamp(t).  It also the rounding mode used by
     round(float) for example.

   - bpo-25155(46): Fix datetime.datetime.now() and
     datetime.datetime.utcnow() on Windows to support date after year
     2038.  It was a regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-25108(47): Omitted internal frames in traceback functions
     print_stack(), format_stack(), and extract_stack() called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-25118(48): Fix a regression of Python 3.5.0 in os.waitpid() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-24684(49): socket.socket.getaddrinfo() now calls
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedString() instead of calling the encode() method
     of the host, to handle correctly custom string with an encode()
     method which doesn’t return a byte string.  The encoder of the IDNA
     codec is now called directly instead of calling the encode() method
     of the string.

   - bpo-25060(50): Correctly compute stack usage of the BUILD_MAP
     opcode.

   - bpo-24857(51): Comparing call_args to a long sequence now correctly
     returns a boolean result instead of raising an exception.  Patch by
     A Kaptur.

   - bpo-23144(52): Make sure that HTMLParser.feed() returns all the
     data, even when convert_charrefs is True.

   - bpo-24982(53): shutil.make_archive() with the “zip” format now adds
     entries for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-25019(54): Fixed a crash caused by setting non-string key of
     expat parser.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-16180(55): Exit pdb if file has syntax error, instead of
     trapping user in an infinite loop.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-24891(56): Fix a race condition at Python startup if the file
     descriptor of stdin (0), stdout (1) or stderr (2) is closed while
     Python is creating sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr objects.
     These attributes are now set to None if the creation of the object
     failed, instead of raising an OSError exception.  Initial patch
     written by Marco Paolini.

   - bpo-24992(57): Fix error handling and a race condition (related to
     garbage collection) in collections.OrderedDict constructor.

   - bpo-24881(58): Fixed setting binary mode in Python implementation
     of FileIO on Windows and Cygwin.  Patch from Akira Li.

   - bpo-25578(59): Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(60): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(61): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(62): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(63): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - bpo-21112(64): Fix regression in unittest.expectedFailure on
     subclasses.  Patch from Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-24764(65): cgi.FieldStorage.read_multi() now ignores the
     Content-Length header in part headers.  Patch written by Peter
     Landry and reviewed by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-24913(66): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   - bpo-24774(67): Fix docstring in http.server.test.  Patch from
     Chiu-Hsiang Hsu.

   - bpo-21159(68): Improve message in
     configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError.  Patch from Łukasz
     Langa.

   - bpo-20362(69): Honour TestCase.longMessage correctly in
     assertRegex.  Patch from Ilia Kurenkov.

   - bpo-23572(70): Fixed functools.singledispatch on classes with false
     metaclasses.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - asyncio: ensure_future() now accepts awaitable objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25583

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6973

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25498

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25446

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18010

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25554

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25503

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25515

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21827

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25390

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25441

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25410

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25411

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25407

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25406

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25364

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25328

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25316

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25380

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23972

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25304

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25232

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24657

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24483

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22958

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25111

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25262

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25034

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25203

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23600

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23329

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25047

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25135

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19143

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25092

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23517

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25155

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25108

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25118

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24684

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25060

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24857

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23144

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24982

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25019

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16180

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24992

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24881

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25578

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25530

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25569

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25471

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25319

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21112

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24764

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24774

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21159

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20362

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23572


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<59>,  Next: Documentation<76>,  Prev: Library<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-15348(1): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(2): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change ‘The program’ to ‘Your program’ in an IDLE ‘kill program?’
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(3): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(4): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(5): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(6): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(7): IDLE now has an ‘IDLE Dark’ built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green,
     red, orange, … .  To use it with IDLEs released before November
     2015, hit the ‘Save as New Custom Theme’ button and enter a new
     name, such as ‘Custom Dark’.  The custom theme will work with any
     IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(8): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  ‘IDLE’ now means ‘Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment’.

   - bpo-24820(9): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(10): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(11): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(12): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(13): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(14): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a ‘sheet’.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(15): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(16): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(17): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(18): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(19): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(20): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(21): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(22): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(23): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Mark Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(24): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(25): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<76>,  Next: Tests<78>,  Prev: IDLE<59>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22558(1): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   - bpo-12067(2): Rewrite Comparisons section in the Expressions
     chapter of the language reference.  Some of the details of
     comparing mixed types were incorrect or ambiguous.  NotImplemented
     is only relevant at a lower level than the Expressions chapter.
     Added details of comparing range() objects, and default behaviour
     and consistency suggestions for user-defined classes.  Patch from
     Andy Maier.

   - bpo-24952(3): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the “threading” and “_thread” modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-23725(4): Overhaul tempfile docs.  Note deprecated status of
     mktemp.  Patch from Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-24808(5): Update the types of some PyTypeObject fields.  Patch
     by Joseph Weston.

   - bpo-22812(6): Fix unittest discovery examples.  Patch from Pam
     McA’Nulty.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12067

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23725

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24808

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22812


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<78>,  Next: Build<80>,  Prev: Documentation<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-25449(1): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25099(2): Make test_compileall not fail when an entry on
     sys.path cannot be written to (commonly seen in administrative
     installs on Windows).

   - bpo-23919(3): Prevents assert dialogs appearing in the test suite.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25099

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23919


File: python.info,  Node: Build<80>,  Next: Windows<74>,  Prev: Tests<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.6 Build
................

   - bpo-24915(1): Add LLVM support for PGO builds and use the test
     suite to generate the profile data.  Initial patch by Alecsandru
     Patrascu of Intel.

   - bpo-24910(2): Windows MSIs now have unique display names.

   - bpo-24986(3): It is now possible to build Python on Windows without
     errors when external libraries are not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24915

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<74>,  Next: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Build<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.7 Windows
..................

   - bpo-25450(1): Updates shortcuts to start Python in installation
     directory.

   - bpo-25164(2): Changes default all-users install directory to match
     per-user directory.

   - bpo-25143(3): Improves installer error messages for unsupported
     platforms.

   - bpo-25163(4): Display correct directory in installer when using
     non-default settings.

   - bpo-25361(5): Disables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build

   - bpo-25089(6): Adds logging to installer for case where launcher is
     not selected on upgrade.

   - bpo-25165(7): Windows uninstallation should not remove launcher if
     other versions remain

   - bpo-25112(8): py.exe launcher is missing icons

   - bpo-25102(9): Windows installer does not precompile for -O or -OO.

   - bpo-25081(10): Makes Back button in installer go back to upgrade
     page when upgrading.

   - bpo-25091(11): Increases font size of the installer.

   - bpo-25126(12): Clarifies that the non-web installer will download
     some components.

   - bpo-25213(13): Restores requestedExecutionLevel to manifest to
     disable UAC virtualization.

   - bpo-25022(14): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25450

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25143

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25165

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25112

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25102

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25081

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25091

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25126

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25213

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Windows<74>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.22.100.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-25440(1): Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 final,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.101 Python 3.5.0 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-13'

* Menu:

* Build: Build<81>.


File: python.info,  Node: Build<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 final

1.22.101.1 Build
................

   - bpo-25071(1): Windows installer should not require TargetDir
     parameter when installing quietly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25071


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.22.102 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-09'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<89>.
* Build: Build<82>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<89>,  Next: Build<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.22.102.1 Library
..................

   - bpo-25029(1): Fixes MemoryError in test_strptime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25029


File: python.info,  Node: Build<82>,  Prev: Library<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.22.102.2 Build
................

   - bpo-25027(1): Reverts partial-static build options and adds
     vcruntime140.dll to Windows installation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.103 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Library: Library<90>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<89>,  Next: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.22.103.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24305(1): Prevent import subsystem stack frames from being
     counted by the warnings.warn(stacklevel=) parameter.

   - bpo-24912(2): Prevent __class__ assignment to immutable built-in
     objects.

   - bpo-24975(3): Fix AST compilation for PEP 448(4) syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24305

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24912

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24975

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<90>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.22.103.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24917(1): time_strftime() buffer over-read.

   - bpo-24748(2): To resolve a compatibility problem found with py2exe
     and pywin32, imp.load_dynamic() once again ignores previously
     loaded modules to support Python modules replacing themselves with
     extension modules.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-24635(3): Fixed a bug in typing.py where isinstance([],
     typing.Iterable) would return True once, then False on subsequent
     calls.

   - bpo-24989(4): Fixed buffer overread in BytesIO.readline() if a
     position is set beyond size.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-24913(5): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24748

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24635

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24989

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.104 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<91>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<90>,  Next: Library<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.22.104.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24769(1): Interpreter now starts properly when dynamic loading
     is disabled.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-21167(2): NAN operations are now handled correctly when python
     is compiled with ICC even if -fp-model strict is not specified.

   - bpo-24492(3): A “package” lacking a __name__ attribute when trying
     to perform a ‘from .. import ...’ statement will trigger an
     ImportError instead of an AttributeError.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24769

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21167

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24492


File: python.info,  Node: Library<91>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.22.104.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24847(1): Removes vcruntime140.dll dependency from Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-24839(2): platform._syscmd_ver raises DeprecationWarning

   - bpo-24867(3): Fix Task.get_stack() for ‘async def’ coroutines

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24847

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24839

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24867


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.105 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<92>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<91>,  Next: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.105.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24667(1): Resize odict in all cases that the underlying dict
     resizes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24667


File: python.info,  Node: Library<92>,  Next: IDLE<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.105.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24824(1): Signatures of codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() now
     are compatible with pydoc.

   - bpo-24634(2): Importing uuid should not try to load libc on Windows

   - bpo-24798(3): _msvccompiler.py doesn’t properly support manifests

   - bpo-4395(4): Better testing and documentation of binary operators.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23973(5): Update typing.py from GitHub repo.

   - bpo-23004(6): mock_open() now reads binary data correctly when the
     type of read_data is bytes.  Initial patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-23888(7): Handle fractional time in cookie expiry.  Patch by
     ssh.

   - bpo-23652(8): Make it possible to compile the select module against
     the libc headers from the Linux Standard Base, which do not include
     some EPOLL macros.  Patch by Matt Frank.

   - bpo-22932(9): Fix timezones in email.utils.formatdate.  Patch from
     Dmitry Shachnev.

   - bpo-23779(10): imaplib raises TypeError if authenticator tries to
     abort.  Patch from Craig Holmquist.

   - bpo-23319(11): Fix ctypes.BigEndianStructure, swap correctly bytes.
     Patch written by Matthieu Gautier.

   - bpo-23254(12): Document how to close the TCPServer listening
     socket.  Patch from Martin Panter.

   - bpo-19450(13): Update Windows and OS X installer builds to use
     SQLite 3.8.11.

   - bpo-17527(14): Add PATCH to wsgiref.validator.  Patch from Luca
     Sbardella.

   - bpo-24791(15): Fix grammar regression for call syntax: ‘g(*a or
     b)’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24824

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24634

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24798

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23004

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23888

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23652

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22932

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23779

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23254

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19450

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17527

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24791


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<60>,  Next: Documentation<77>,  Prev: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.105.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23672(1): Allow Idle to edit and run files with astral chars in
     name.  Patch by Mohd Sanad Zaki Rizvi.

   - bpo-24745(2): Idle editor default font.  Switch from Courier to
     platform-sensitive TkFixedFont.  This should not affect current
     customized font selections.  If there is a problem, edit
     $HOME/.idlerc/config-main.cfg and remove ‘‘fontXXX’’ entries from
     [Editor Window].  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-21192(3): Idle editor.  When a file is run, put its name in the
     restart bar.  Do not print false prompts.  Original patch by Adnan
     Umer.

   - bpo-13884(4): Idle menus.  Remove tearoff lines.  Patch by Roger
     Serwy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23672

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24745

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21192

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13884


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<77>,  Next: Tests<79>,  Prev: IDLE<60>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.105.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24129(1): Clarify the reference documentation for name
     resolution.  This includes removing the assumption that readers
     will be familiar with the name resolution scheme Python used prior
     to the introduction of lexical scoping for function namespaces.
     Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-20769(2): Improve reload() docs.  Patch by Dorian Pula.

   - bpo-23589(3): Remove duplicate sentence from the FAQ. Patch by
     Yongzhi Pan.

   - bpo-24729(4): Correct IO tutorial to match implementation regarding
     encoding parameter to open function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23589

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24729


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<79>,  Prev: Documentation<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.22.105.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-24751(1): When running regrtest with the ‘-w’ command line
     option, a test run is no longer marked as a failure if all tests
     succeed when re-run.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24751


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.106 Python 3.5.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Library: Library<93>.
* Build: Build<83>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<92>,  Next: Library<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.22.106.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Restored optimization of bytes.rfind() and
     bytearray.rfind() for single-byte argument on Linux.

   - bpo-24569(2): Make PEP 448(3) dictionary evaluation more
     consistent.

   - bpo-24583(4): Fix crash when set is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24407(5): Fix crash when dict is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24619(6): New approach for tokenizing async/await.  As a
     consequence, it is now possible to have one-line ‘async def foo():
     await ..’ functions.

   - bpo-24687(7): Plug refleak on SyntaxError in function parameters
     annotations.

   - bpo-15944(8): memoryview: Allow arbitrary formats when casting to
     bytes.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24569

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24583

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24407

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24687

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15944


File: python.info,  Node: Library<93>,  Next: Build<83>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.22.106.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23441(1): rcompleter now prints a tab character instead of
     displaying possible completions for an empty word.  Initial patch
     by Martin Sekera.

   - bpo-24683(2): Fixed crashes in _json functions called with
     arguments of inappropriate type.

   - bpo-21697(3): shutil.copytree() now correctly handles symbolic
     links that point to directories.  Patch by Eduardo Seabra and
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-14373(4): Fixed segmentation fault when gc.collect() is called
     during constructing lru_cache (C implementation).

   - bpo-24695(5): Fix a regression in traceback.print_exception().  If
     exc_traceback is None we shouldn’t print a traceback header like
     described in the documentation.

   - bpo-24620(6): Random.setstate() now validates the value of state
     last element.

   - bpo-22485(7): Fixed an issue that caused ‘inspect.getsource’ to
     return incorrect results on nested functions.

   - bpo-22153(8): Improve unittest docs.  Patch from Martin Panter and
     evilzero.

   - bpo-24580(9): Symbolic group references to open group in re
     patterns now are explicitly forbidden as well as numeric group
     references.

   - bpo-24206(10): Fixed __eq__ and __ne__ methods of inspect classes.

   - bpo-24631(11): Fixed regression in the timeit module with multiline
     setup.

   - bpo-18622(12): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-23661(13): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-24608(14): chunk.Chunk.read() now always returns bytes, not
     str.

   - bpo-18684(15): Fixed reading out of the buffer in the re module.

   - bpo-24259(16): tarfile now raises a ReadError if an archive is
     truncated inside a data segment.

   - bpo-15014(17): SMTP.auth() and SMTP.login() now support RFC 4954’s
     optional initial-response argument to the SMTP AUTH command.

   - bpo-24669(18): Fix inspect.getsource() for ‘async def’ functions.
     Patch by Kai Groner.

   - bpo-24688(19): ast.get_docstring() for ‘async def’ functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24695

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24620

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22485

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22153

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24580

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24206

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24631

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18622

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23661

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24608

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24259

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24669

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24688


File: python.info,  Node: Build<83>,  Prev: Library<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.22.106.3 Build
................

   - bpo-24603(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24603


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.107 Python 3.5.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Documentation: Documentation<78>.
* Build: Build<84>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<93>,  Next: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.107.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24467(1): Fixed possible buffer over-read in bytearray.  The
     bytearray object now always allocates place for trailing null byte
     and it’s buffer now is always null-terminated.

   - Upgrade to Unicode 8.0.0.

   - bpo-24345(2): Add Py_tp_finalize slot for the stable ABI.

   - bpo-24400(3): Introduce a distinct type for PEP 492(4) coroutines;
     add types.CoroutineType, inspect.getcoroutinestate,
     inspect.getcoroutinelocals; coroutines no longer use CO_GENERATOR
     flag; sys.set_coroutine_wrapper works only for ‘async def’
     coroutines; inspect.iscoroutine no longer uses
     collections.abc.Coroutine, it’s intended to test for pure ‘async
     def’ coroutines only; add new opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER; fix
     generators wrapper used in types.coroutine to be instance of
     collections.abc.Generator; collections.abc.Awaitable and
     collections.abc.Coroutine can no longer be used to detect
     generator-based coroutines–use inspect.isawaitable instead.

   - bpo-24450(5): Add gi_yieldfrom to generators and cr_await to
     coroutines.  Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-19235(6): Add new RecursionError exception.  Patch by Georg
     Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235


File: python.info,  Node: Library<94>,  Next: Tests<80>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.107.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-21750(1): mock_open.read_data can now be read from each
     instance, as it could in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-24552(2): Fix use after free in an error case of the _pickle
     module.

   - bpo-24514(3): tarfile now tolerates number fields consisting of
     only whitespace.

   - bpo-19176(4): Fixed doctype() related bugs in C implementation of
     ElementTree.  A deprecation warning no longer issued by XMLParser
     subclass with default doctype() method.  Direct call of doctype()
     now issues a warning.  Parser’s doctype() now is not called if
     target’s doctype() is called.  Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20387(5): Restore semantic round-trip correctness in
     tokenize/untokenize for tab-indented blocks.

   - bpo-24456(6): Fixed possible buffer over-read in adpcm2lin() and
     lin2adpcm() functions of the audioop module.

   - bpo-24336(7): The contextmanager decorator now works with functions
     with keyword arguments called “func” and “self”.  Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24522(8): Fix possible integer overflow in json accelerator
     module.

   - bpo-24489(9): ensure a previously set C errno doesn’t disturb
     cmath.polar().

   - bpo-24408(10): Fixed AttributeError in measure() and metrics()
     methods of tkinter.Font.

   - bpo-14373(11): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now can be
     used with methods.

   - bpo-24347(12): Set KeyError if PyDict_GetItemWithError returns
     NULL.

   - bpo-24348(13): Drop superfluous incref/decref.

   - bpo-24359(14): Check for changed OrderedDict size during iteration.

   - bpo-24368(15): Support keyword arguments in OrderedDict methods.

   - bpo-24362(16): Simplify the C OrderedDict fast nodes resize logic.

   - bpo-24377(17): Fix a ref leak in OrderedDict.__repr__.

   - bpo-24369(18): Defend against key-changes during iteration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21750

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19176

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20387

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24336

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24522

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24489

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24408

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24348

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24359

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24368

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24362

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24369


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<80>,  Next: Documentation<78>,  Prev: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.107.3 Tests
................

   - bpo-24373(1): _testmultiphase and xxlimited now use tp_traverse and
     tp_finalize to avoid reference leaks encountered when combining
     tp_dealloc with PyType_FromSpec (see bpo-16690(2) for details)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16690


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<78>,  Next: Build<84>,  Prev: Tests<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.107.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24458(1): Update documentation to cover multi-phase
     initialization for extension modules (PEP 489).  Patch by Petr
     Viktorin.

   - bpo-24351(2): Clarify what is meant by “identifier” in the context
     of string.Template instances.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24458

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24351


File: python.info,  Node: Build<84>,  Prev: Documentation<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.22.107.5 Build
................

   - bpo-24432(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24432


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.108 Python 3.5.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<95>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<94>,  Next: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.22.108.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24284(1): The startswith and endswith methods of the str class
     no longer return True when finding the empty string and the indexes
     are completely out of range.

   - bpo-24115(2): Update uses of PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Not(),
     PyObject_IsInstance(), PyObject_RichCompareBool() and
     _PyDict_Contains() to check for and handle errors correctly.

   - bpo-24328(3): Fix importing one character extension modules.

   - bpo-11205(4): In dictionary displays, evaluate the key before the
     value.

   - bpo-24285(5): Fixed regression that prevented importing extension
     modules from inside packages.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24115

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24328

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<95>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.22.108.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23247(1): Fix a crash in the StreamWriter.reset() of CJK
     codecs.

   - bpo-24270(2): Add math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions as
     per PEP 485(3).  Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-5633(4): Fixed timeit when the statement is a string and the
     setup is not.

   - bpo-24326(5): Fixed audioop.ratecv() with non-default weightB
     argument.  Original patch by David Moore.

   - bpo-16991(6): Add a C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-23934(7): Fix inspect.signature to fail correctly for builtin
     types lacking signature information.  Initial patch by James
     Powell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5633

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24326

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23934


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.109 Python 3.5.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<79>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<95>,  Next: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.109.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24276(1): Fixed optimization of property descriptor getter.

   - bpo-24268(2): PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization.
     Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-23955(3): Add pyvenv.cfg option to suppress
     registry/environment lookup for generating sys.path on Windows.

   - bpo-24257(4): Fixed system error in the comparison of faked
     types.SimpleNamespace.

   - bpo-22939(5): Fixed integer overflow in iterator object.  Patch by
     Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-23985(6): Fix a possible buffer overrun when deleting a slice
     from the front of a bytearray and then appending some other bytes
     data.

   - bpo-24102(7): Fixed exception type checking in standard error
     handlers.

   - bpo-15027(8): The UTF-32 encoder is now 3x to 7x faster.

   - bpo-23290(9): Optimize set_merge() for cases where the target is
     empty.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-2292(10): PEP 448: Additional Unpacking Generalizations.

   - bpo-24096(11): Make warnings.warn_explicit more robust against
     mutation of the warnings.filters list.

   - bpo-23996(12): Avoid a crash when a delegated generator raises an
     unnormalized StopIteration exception.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23910(13): Optimize property() getter calls.  Patch by Joe
     Jevnik.

   - bpo-23911(14): Move path-based importlib bootstrap code to a
     separate frozen module.

   - bpo-24192(15): Fix namespace package imports.

   - bpo-24022(16): Fix tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code.

   - bpo-9951(17): Added a hex() method to bytes, bytearray, and
     memoryview.

   - bpo-22906(18): PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside
     generators.

   - bpo-24017(19): PEP 492: Coroutines with async and await syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23955

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23985

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23290

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2292

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24096

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23996

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23911

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24192

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24022

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22906

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017


File: python.info,  Node: Library<96>,  Next: IDLE<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<95>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.109.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14373(1): Added C implementation of functools.lru_cache().
     Based on patches by Matt Joiner and Alexey Kachayev.

   - bpo-24230(2): The tempfile module now accepts bytes for prefix,
     suffix and dir parameters and returns bytes in such situations
     (matching the os module APIs).

   - bpo-22189(3): collections.UserString now supports __getnewargs__(),
     __rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and
     maketrans().  Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-24244(4): Prevents termination when an invalid format string is
     encountered on Windows in strftime.

   - bpo-23973(5): PEP 484: Add the typing module.

   - bpo-23086(6): The collections.abc.Sequence() abstract base class
     added 'start' and 'stop' parameters to the index() mixin.  Patch by
     Devin Jeanpierre.

   - bpo-20035(7): Replaced the ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting
     up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows with a private function in the
     ‘_tkinter’ module that makes no permanent changes to the
     environment.

   - bpo-24257(8): Fixed segmentation fault in sqlite3.Row constructor
     with faked cursor type.

   - bpo-15836(9): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() assertments now check the type of the first
     argument to prevent possible user error.  Based on patch by Daniel
     Wagner-Hall.

   - bpo-9858(10): Add missing method stubs to _io.RawIOBase.  Patch by
     Laura Rupprecht.

   - bpo-22955(11): attrgetter, itemgetter and methodcaller objects in
     the operator module now support pickling.  Added readable and
     evaluable repr for these objects.  Based on patch by Josh
     Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22107(12): tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.mkdtemp() now try
     again when a directory with the chosen name already exists on
     Windows as well as on Unix.  tempfile.mkstemp() now fails early if
     parent directory is not valid (not exists or is a file) on Windows.

   - bpo-23780(13): Improved error message in os.path.join() with single
     argument.

   - bpo-6598(14): Increased time precision and random number range in
     email.utils.make_msgid() to strengthen the uniqueness of the
     message ID.

   - bpo-24091(15): Fixed various crashes in corner cases in C
     implementation of ElementTree.

   - bpo-21931(16): msilib.FCICreate() now raises TypeError in the case
     of a bad argument instead of a ValueError with a bogus FCI error
     number.  Patch by Jeffrey Armstrong.

   - bpo-13866(17): 'quote_via' argument added to
     urllib.parse.urlencode.

   - bpo-20098(18): New mangle_from policy option for email, default
     True for compat32, but False for all other policies.

   - bpo-24211(19): The email library now supports RFC 6532: it can
     generate headers using utf-8 instead of encoded words.

   - bpo-16314(20): Added support for the LZMA compression in distutils.

   - bpo-21804(21): poplib now supports RFC 6856 (UTF8).

   - bpo-18682(22): Optimized pprint functions for builtin scalar types.

   - bpo-22027(23): smtplib now supports RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8).

   - bpo-23488(24): Random generator objects now consume 2x less memory
     on 64-bit.

   - bpo-1322(25): platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution()
     functions are now deprecated.  Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-22486(26): Added the math.gcd() function.  The fractions.gcd()
     function now is deprecated.  Based on patch by Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24064(27): Property() docstrings are now writeable.  (Patch by
     Berker Peksag.)

   - bpo-22681(28): Added support for the koi8_t encoding.

   - bpo-22682(29): Added support for the kz1048 encoding.

   - bpo-23796(30): peek and read1 methods of BufferedReader now raise
     ValueError if they called on a closed object.  Patch by John
     Hergenroeder.

   - bpo-21795(31): smtpd now supports the 8BITMIME extension whenever
     the new 'decode_data' constructor argument is set to False.

   - bpo-24155(32): optimize heapq.heapify() for better cache
     performance when heapifying large lists.

   - bpo-21800(33): imaplib now supports RFC 5161 (enable), RFC 6855
     (utf8/internationalized email) and automatically encodes non-ASCII
     usernames and passwords to UTF8.

   - bpo-20274(34): When calling a _sqlite.Connection, it now complains
     if passed any keyword arguments.  Previously it silently ignored
     them.

   - bpo-20274(35): Remove ignored and erroneous “kwargs” parameters
     from three METH_VARARGS methods on _sqlite.Connection.

   - bpo-24134(36): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() checks now emits a deprecation warning when
     callable is None or keyword arguments except msg is passed in the
     context manager mode.

   - bpo-24018(37): Add a collections.abc.Generator abstract base class.
     Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23880(38): Tkinter’s getint() and getdouble() now support
     Tcl_Obj.  Tkinter’s getdouble() now supports any numbers (in
     particular int).

   - bpo-22619(39): Added negative limit support in the traceback
     module.  Based on patch by Dmitry Kazakov.

   - bpo-24094(40): Fix possible crash in json.encode with poorly
     behaved dict subclasses.

   - bpo-9246(41): On POSIX, os.getcwd() now supports paths longer than
     1025 bytes.  Patch written by William Orr.

   - bpo-17445(42): add difflib.diff_bytes() to support comparison of
     byte strings (fixes a regression from Python 2).

   - bpo-23917(43): Fall back to sequential compilation when
     ProcessPoolExecutor doesn’t exist.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23008(44): Fixed resolving attributes with boolean value is
     False in pydoc.

   - Fix asyncio issue 235: LifoQueue and PriorityQueue’s put didn’t
     increment unfinished tasks (this bug was introduced when
     JoinableQueue was merged with Queue).

   - bpo-23908(45): os functions now reject paths with embedded null
     character on Windows instead of silently truncating them.

   - bpo-23728(46): binascii.crc_hqx() could return an integer outside
     of the range 0-0xffff for empty data.

   - bpo-23887(47): urllib.error.HTTPError now has a proper repr()
     representation.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - asyncio: New event loop APIs: set_task_factory() and
     get_task_factory().

   - asyncio: async() function is deprecated in favour of
     ensure_future().

   - bpo-24178(48): asyncio.Lock, Condition, Semaphore, and
     BoundedSemaphore support new ‘async with’ syntax.  Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24179(49): Support ‘async for’ for asyncio.StreamReader.
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24184(50): Add AsyncIterator and AsyncIterable ABCs to
     collections.abc.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-22547(51): Implement informative __repr__ for
     inspect.BoundArguments.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24190(52): Implement inspect.BoundArgument.apply_defaults()
     method.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-20691(53): Add ‘follow_wrapped’ argument to
     inspect.Signature.from_callable() and inspect.signature().
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24248(54): Deprecate inspect.Signature.from_function() and
     inspect.Signature.from_builtin().

   - bpo-23898(55): Fix inspect.classify_class_attrs() to support
     attributes with overloaded __eq__ and __bool__.  Patch by Mike
     Bayer.

   - bpo-24298(56): Fix inspect.signature() to correctly unwrap wrappers
     around bound methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24230

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15836

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9858

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22107

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23780

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6598

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24091

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21931

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18682

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23796

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24155

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24134

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23880

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24094

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9246

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23917

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23008

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23908

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23728

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23887

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24178

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24179

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22547

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23898

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24298


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<61>,  Next: Tests<81>,  Prev: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.109.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23184(1): remove unused names and imports in idlelib.  Initial
     patch by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23184


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<81>,  Next: Documentation<79>,  Prev: IDLE<61>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.109.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-21520(1): test_zipfile no longer fails if the word ‘bad’
     appears anywhere in the name of the current directory.

   - bpo-9517(2): Move script_helper into the support package.  Patch by
     Christie Wilson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9517


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<79>,  Next: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Tests<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.109.5 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22155(1): Add File Handlers subsection with createfilehandler
     to tkinter doc.  Remove obsolete example from FAQ. Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24029(2): Document the name binding behavior for submodule
     imports.

   - bpo-24077(3): Fix typo in man page for -I command option: -s, not
     -S

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24029

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24077


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Documentation<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.22.109.6 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24000(1): Improved Argument Clinic’s mapping of converters to
     legacy “format units”.  Updated the documentation to match.

   - bpo-24001(2): Argument Clinic converters now use accept={type}
     instead of types={‘type’} to specify the types the converter
     accepts.

   - bpo-23330(3): h2py now supports arbitrary filenames in #include.

   - bpo-24031(4): make patchcheck now supports git checkouts, too.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24000

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23330

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24031


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.22.110 Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-04-19'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<97>.
* Build: Build<85>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* C API: C API<67>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<96>,  Next: Library<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.110.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-22980(1): Under Linux, GNU/KFreeBSD and the Hurd, C extensions
     now include the architecture triplet in the extension name, to make
     it easy to test builds for different ABIs in the same working tree.
     Under OS X, the extension name now includes PEP 3149(2)-style
     information.

   - bpo-22631(3): Added Linux-specific socket constant
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES. Patch courtesy of Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23731(4): Implement PEP 488(5): removal of .pyo files.

   - bpo-23726(6): Don’t enable GC for user subclasses of non-GC types
     that don’t add any new fields.  Patch by Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-23309(7): Avoid a deadlock at shutdown if a daemon thread is
     aborted while it is holding a lock to a buffered I/O object, and
     the main thread tries to use the same I/O object (typically stdout
     or stderr).  A fatal error is emitted instead.

   - bpo-22977(8): Fixed formatting Windows error messages on Wine.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23466(9): %c, %o, %x, and %X in bytes formatting now raise
     TypeError on non-integer input.

   - bpo-24044(10): Fix possible null pointer dereference in list.sort
     in out of memory conditions.

   - bpo-21354(11): PyCFunction_New function is exposed by python DLL
     again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23731

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23309

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22977

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23466

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24044

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21354


File: python.info,  Node: Library<97>,  Next: Build<85>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<96>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.110.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23840(1): tokenize.open() now closes the temporary binary file
     on error to fix a resource warning.

   - bpo-16914(2): new debuglevel 2 in smtplib adds timestamps to debug
     output.

   - bpo-7159(3): urllib.request now supports sending auth credentials
     automatically after the first 401.  This enhancement is a superset
     of the enhancement from bpo-19494(4) and supersedes that change.

   - bpo-23703(5): Fix a regression in urljoin() introduced in
     901e4e52b20a.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-4254(6): Adds _curses.update_lines_cols().  Patch by Arnon
     Yaari

   - bpo-19933(7): Provide default argument for ndigits in round.  Patch
     by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-23193(8): Add a numeric_owner parameter to
     tarfile.TarFile.extract and tarfile.TarFile.extractall.  Patch by
     Michael Vogt and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-23342(9): Add a subprocess.run() function than returns a
     CalledProcess instance for a more consistent API than the existing
     call* functions.

   - bpo-21217(10): inspect.getsourcelines() now tries to compute the
     start and end lines from the code object, fixing an issue when a
     lambda function is used as decorator argument.  Patch by Thomas
     Ballinger and Allison Kaptur.

   - bpo-24521(11): Fix possible integer overflows in the pickle module.

   - bpo-22931(12): Allow ‘[’ and ‘]’ in cookie values.

   - The keywords attribute of functools.partial is now always a
     dictionary.

   - bpo-23811(13): Add missing newline to the PyCompileError error
     message.  Patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-21116(14): Avoid blowing memory when allocating a
     multiprocessing shared array that’s larger than 50% of the
     available RAM. Patch by Médéric Boquien.

   - bpo-22982(15): Improve BOM handling when seeking to multiple
     positions of a writable text file.

   - bpo-23464(16): Removed deprecated asyncio JoinableQueue.

   - bpo-23529(17): Limit the size of decompressed data when reading
     from GzipFile, BZ2File or LZMAFile.  This defeats denial of service
     attacks using compressed bombs (i.e.  compressed payloads which
     decompress to a huge size).  Patch by Martin Panter and Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-21859(18): Added Python implementation of io.FileIO.

   - bpo-23865(19): close() methods in multiple modules now are
     idempotent and more robust at shutdown.  If they need to release
     multiple resources, all are released even if errors occur.

   - bpo-23400(20): Raise same exception on both Python 2 and 3 if
     sem_open is not available.  Patch by Davin Potts.

   - bpo-10838(21): The subprocess now module includes SubprocessError
     and TimeoutError in its list of exported names for the users wild
     enough to use ‘from subprocess import *’.

   - bpo-23411(22): Added DefragResult, ParseResult, SplitResult,
     DefragResultBytes, ParseResultBytes, and SplitResultBytes to
     urllib.parse.__all__.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23881(23): urllib.request.ftpwrapper constructor now closes the
     socket if the FTP connection failed to fix a ResourceWarning.

   - bpo-23853(24): *note socket.socket.sendall(): c35. does no more
     reset the socket timeout each time data is sent successfully.  The
     socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.

   - bpo-22721(25): An order of multiline pprint output of set or dict
     containing orderable and non-orderable elements no longer depends
     on iteration order of set or dict.

   - bpo-15133(26): _tkinter.tkapp.getboolean() now supports Tcl_Obj and
     always returns bool.  tkinter.BooleanVar now validates input values
     (accepted bool, int, str, and Tcl_Obj).  tkinter.BooleanVar.get()
     now always returns bool.

   - bpo-10590(27): xml.sax.parseString() now supports string argument.

   - bpo-23338(28): Fixed formatting ctypes error messages on Cygwin.
     Patch by Makoto Kato.

   - bpo-15582(29): inspect.getdoc() now follows inheritance chains.

   - bpo-2175(30): SAX parsers now support a character stream of
     InputSource object.

   - bpo-16840(31): Tkinter now supports 64-bit integers added in Tcl
     8.4 and arbitrary precision integers added in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23834(32): Fix socket.sendto(), use the C Py_ssize_t type to
     store the result of sendto() instead of the C int type.

   - bpo-23618(33): *note socket.socket.connect(): c30. now waits until
     the connection completes instead of raising *note InterruptedError:
     c14. if the connection is interrupted by signals, signal handlers
     don’t raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a
     timeout.  *note socket.socket.connect(): c30. still raise *note
     InterruptedError: c14. for non-blocking sockets.

   - bpo-21526(34): Tkinter now supports new boolean type in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23836(35): Fix the faulthandler module to handle reentrant
     calls to its signal handlers.

   - bpo-23838(36): linecache now clears the cache and returns an empty
     result on MemoryError.

   - bpo-10395(37): Added os.path.commonpath().  Implemented in
     posixpath and ntpath.  Based on patch by Rafik Draoui.

   - bpo-23611(38): Serializing more “lookupable” objects (such as
     unbound methods or nested classes) now are supported with pickle
     protocols < 4.

   - bpo-13583(39): sqlite3.Row now supports slice indexing.

   - bpo-18473(40): Fixed 2to3 and 3to2 compatible pickle mappings.
     Fixed ambiguous reverse mappings.  Added many new mappings.  Import
     mapping is no longer applied to modules already mapped with full
     name mapping.

   - bpo-23485(41): select.select() is now retried automatically with
     the recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception.  This change is part of the PEP
     475(42).

   - bpo-23752(43): When built from an existing file descriptor,
     io.FileIO() now only calls fstat() once.  Before fstat() was called
     twice, which was not necessary.

   - bpo-23704(44): collections.deque() objects now support __add__,
     __mul__, and __imul__().

   - bpo-23171(45): csv.Writer.writerow() now supports arbitrary
     iterables.

   - bpo-23745(46): The new email header parser now handles duplicate
     MIME parameter names without error, similar to how get_param
     behaves.

   - bpo-22117(47): Fix os.utime(), it now rounds the timestamp towards
     minus infinity (-inf) instead of rounding towards zero.

   - bpo-23310(48): Fix MagicMock’s initializer to work with
     __methods__, just like configure_mock().  Patch by Kasia Jachim.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23703

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19933

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21217

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24521

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22931

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23811

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21116

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22982

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23529

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21859

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23865

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23400

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10838

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23411

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23881

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22721

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15133

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23338

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16840

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23834

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23618

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21526

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23836

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18473

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23485

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23752

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23745

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22117

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23310


File: python.info,  Node: Build<85>,  Next: Tests<82>,  Prev: Library<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.110.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23817(1): FreeBSD now uses “1.0” in the SOVERSION as other
     operating systems, instead of just “1”.

   - bpo-23501(2): Argument Clinic now generates code into separate
     files by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23817

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23501


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<82>,  Next: Tools/Demos<50>,  Prev: Build<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.110.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23799(1): Added test.support.start_threads() for running and
     cleaning up multiple threads.

   - bpo-22390(2): test.regrtest now emits a warning if temporary files
     or directories are left after running a test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<50>,  Next: C API<67>,  Prev: Tests<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.110.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-18128(1): pygettext now uses standard +NNNN format in the
     POT-Creation-Date header.

   - bpo-23935(2): Argument Clinic’s understanding of format units
     accepting bytes, bytearrays, and buffers is now consistent with
     both the documentation and the implementation.

   - bpo-23944(3): Argument Clinic now wraps long impl prototypes at
     column 78.

   - bpo-20586(4): Argument Clinic now ensures that functions without
     docstrings have signatures.

   - bpo-23492(5): Argument Clinic now generates argument parsing code
     with PyArg_Parse instead of PyArg_ParseTuple if possible.

   - bpo-23500(6): Argument Clinic is now smarter about generating the
     “#ifndef” (empty) definition of the methoddef macro: it’s only
     generated once, even if Argument Clinic processes the same symbol
     multiple times, and it’s emitted at the end of all processing
     rather than immediately after the first use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20586

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23500


File: python.info,  Node: C API<67>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<50>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.22.110.6 C API
................

   - bpo-23998(1): PyImport_ReInitLock() now checks for lock allocation
     error

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23998


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.22.111 Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-28'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* Build: Build<86>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<97>,  Next: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.111.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Increased performance of string search operations
     (str.find, str.index, str.count, the in operator, str.split,
     str.partition) with arguments of different kinds (UCS1, UCS2,
     UCS4).

   - bpo-23753(2): Python doesn’t support anymore platforms without
     stat() or fstat(), these functions are always required.

   - bpo-23681(3): The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with
     int.

   - bpo-23632(4): Memoryviews now allow tuple indexing (including for
     multi-dimensional memoryviews).

   - bpo-23192(5): Fixed generator lambdas.  Patch by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-23629(6): Fix the default __sizeof__ implementation for
     variable-sized objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23753

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23192

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23629


File: python.info,  Node: Library<98>,  Next: Build<86>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.111.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14260(1): The groupindex attribute of regular expression
     pattern object now is non-modifiable mapping.

   - bpo-23792(2): Ignore KeyboardInterrupt when the pydoc pager is
     active.  This mimics the behavior of the standard unix pagers, and
     prevents pipepager from shutting down while the pager itself is
     still running.

   - bpo-23775(3): pprint() of OrderedDict now outputs the same
     representation as repr().

   - bpo-23765(4): Removed IsBadStringPtr calls in ctypes

   - bpo-22364(5): Improved some re error messages using regex for
     hints.

   - bpo-23742(6): ntpath.expandvars() no longer loses unbalanced single
     quotes.

   - bpo-21717(7): The zipfile.ZipFile.open function now supports ‘x’
     (exclusive creation) mode.

   - bpo-21802(8): The reader in BufferedRWPair now is closed even when
     closing writer failed in BufferedRWPair.close().

   - bpo-23622(9): Unknown escapes in regular expressions that consist
     of ‘'\'’ and ASCII letter now raise a deprecation warning and will
     be forbidden in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-23671(10): string.Template now allows specifying the “self”
     parameter as a keyword argument.  string.Formatter now allows
     specifying the “self” and the “format_string” parameters as keyword
     arguments.

   - bpo-23502(11): The pprint module now supports mapping proxies.

   - bpo-17530(12): pprint now wraps long bytes objects and bytearrays.

   - bpo-22687(13): Fixed some corner cases in breaking words in
     tetxtwrap.  Got rid of quadratic complexity in breaking long words.

   - bpo-4727(14): The copy module now uses pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154)
     and supports copying of instances of classes whose __new__ method
     takes keyword-only arguments.

   - bpo-23491(15): Added a zipapp module to support creating executable
     zip file archives of Python code.  Registered “.pyz” and “.pyzw”
     extensions on Windows for these archives (PEP 441).

   - bpo-23657(16): Avoid explicit checks for str in zipapp, adding
     support for pathlib.Path objects as arguments.

   - bpo-23688(17): Added support of arbitrary bytes-like objects and
     avoided unnecessary copying of memoryview in gzip.GzipFile.write().
     Original patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-23252(18): Added support for writing ZIP files to unseekable
     streams.

   - bpo-23647(19): Increase imaplib’s MAXLINE to accommodate modern
     mailbox sizes.

   - bpo-23539(20): If body is None, http.client.HTTPConnection.request
     now sets Content-Length to 0 for PUT, POST, and PATCH headers to
     avoid 411 errors from some web servers.

   - bpo-22351(21): The nntplib.NNTP constructor no longer leaves the
     connection and socket open until the garbage collector cleans them
     up.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23704(22): collections.deque() objects now support methods for
     index(), insert(), and copy().  This allows deques to be registered
     as a MutableSequence and it improves their substitutability for
     lists.

   - bpo-23715(23): *note signal.sigwaitinfo(): c38. and *note
     signal.sigtimedwait(): c37. are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal not in the 'sigset' parameter, if the signal handler does
     not raise an exception.  signal.sigtimedwait() recomputes the
     timeout with a monotonic clock when it is retried.

   - bpo-23001(24): Few functions in modules mmap, ossaudiodev, socket,
     ssl, and codecs, that accepted only read-only bytes-like object now
     accept writable bytes-like object too.

   - bpo-23646(25): If time.sleep() is interrupted by a signal, the
     sleep is now retried with the recomputed delay, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (PEP 475).

   - bpo-23136(26): _strptime now uniformly handles all days in week 0,
     including Dec 30 of previous year.  Based on patch by Jim Carroll.

   - bpo-23700(27): Iterator of NamedTemporaryFile now keeps a reference
     to NamedTemporaryFile instance.  Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-22903(28): The fake test case created by unittest.loader when
     it fails importing a test module is now picklable.

   - bpo-22181(29): On Linux, os.urandom() now uses the new getrandom()
     syscall if available, syscall introduced in the Linux kernel 3.17.
     It is more reliable and more secure, because it avoids the need of
     a file descriptor and waits until the kernel has enough entropy.

   - bpo-2211(30): Updated the implementation of the http.cookies.Morsel
     class.  Setting attributes key, value and coded_value directly now
     is deprecated.  update() and setdefault() now transform and check
     keys.  Comparing for equality now takes into account attributes
     key, value and coded_value.  copy() now returns a Morsel, not a
     dict.  repr() now contains all attributes.  Optimized checking keys
     and quoting values.  Added new tests.  Original patch by Demian
     Brecht.

   - bpo-18983(31): Allow selection of output units in timeit.  Patch by
     Julian Gindi.

   - bpo-23631(32): Fix traceback.format_list when a traceback has been
     mutated.

   - bpo-23568(33): Add rdivmod support to MagicMock() objects.  Patch
     by Håkan Lövdahl.

   - bpo-2052(34): Add charset parameter to HtmlDiff.make_file().

   - bpo-23668(35): Support os.truncate and os.ftruncate on Windows.

   - bpo-23138(36): Fixed parsing cookies with absent keys or values in
     cookiejar.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23051(37): multiprocessing.Pool methods imap() and
     imap_unordered() now handle exceptions raised by an iterator.
     Patch by Alon Diamant and Davin Potts.

   - bpo-23581(38): Add matmul support to MagicMock.  Patch by Håkan
     Lövdahl.

   - bpo-23566(39): enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and
     dump_traceback_later() functions of faulthandler now accept file
     descriptors.  Patch by Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22928(40): Disabled HTTP header injections in http.client.
     Original patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23615(41): Modules bz2, tarfile and tokenize now can be
     reloaded with imp.reload().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-23605(42): os.walk() now calls os.scandir() instead of
     os.listdir().  The usage of os.scandir() reduces the number of
     calls to os.stat().  Initial patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23792

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23775

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23765

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22364

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23742

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23502

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17530

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22687

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4727

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23657

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23688

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23539

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22351

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23715

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23646

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23136

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23700

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22903

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23631

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23138

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23051

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22928

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23615

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605


File: python.info,  Node: Build<86>,  Next: Tests<83>,  Prev: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.111.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23585(1): make patchcheck will ensure the interpreter is built.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23585


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<83>,  Next: Tools/Demos<51>,  Prev: Build<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.111.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23583(1): Added tests for standard IO streams in IDLE.

   - bpo-22289(2): Prevent test_urllib2net failures due to ftp
     connection timeout.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23583

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22289


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<51>,  Prev: Tests<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.22.111.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22826(1): The result of open() in Tools/freeze/bkfile.py is now
     better compatible with regular files (in particular it now supports
     the context management protocol).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22826


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.22.112 Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<99>.
* Build: Build<87>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<98>,  Next: Library<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.112.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23571(1): PyObject_Call() and PyCFunction_Call() now raise a
     SystemError if a function returns a result and raises an exception.
     The SystemError is chained to the previous exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23571


File: python.info,  Node: Library<99>,  Next: Build<87>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.112.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-22524(1): New os.scandir() function, part of the PEP 471(2):
     “os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator”.
     Patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-23103(3): Reduced the memory consumption of IPv4Address and
     IPv6Address.

   - bpo-21793(4): BaseHTTPRequestHandler again logs response code as
     numeric, not as stringified enum.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23476(5): In the ssl module, enable OpenSSL’s
     X509_V_FLAG_TRUSTED_FIRST flag on certificate stores when it is
     available.

   - bpo-23576(6): Avoid stalling in SSL reads when EOF has been reached
     in the SSL layer but the underlying connection hasn’t been closed.

   - bpo-23504(7): Added an __all__ to the types module.

   - bpo-23563(8): Optimized utility functions in urllib.parse.

   - bpo-7830(9): Flatten nested functools.partial.

   - bpo-20204(10): Added the __module__ attribute to _tkinter classes.

   - bpo-19980(11): Improved help() for non-recognized strings.
     help(‘’) now shows the help on str.  help(‘help’) now shows the
     help on help().  Original patch by Mark Lawrence.

   - bpo-23521(12): Corrected pure python implementation of timedelta
     division.  Eliminated OverflowError from ‘timedelta * float’ for
     some floats; Corrected rounding in timedelta true division.

   - bpo-21619(13): Popen objects no longer leave a zombie after exit in
     the with statement if the pipe was broken.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22936(14): Make it possible to show local variables in
     tracebacks for both the traceback module and unittest.

   - bpo-15955(15): Add an option to limit the output size in
     bz2.decompress().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-6639(16): Module-level turtle functions no longer raise
     TclError after closing the window.

   - bpo-814253(17): Group references and conditional group references
     now work in lookbehind assertions in regular expressions.  (See
     also: bpo-9179(18))

   - bpo-23215(19): Multibyte codecs with custom error handlers that
     ignores errors consumed too much memory and raised SystemError or
     MemoryError.  Original patch by Aleksi Torhamo.

   - bpo-5700(20): io.FileIO() called flush() after closing the file.
     flush() was not called in close() if closefd=False.

   - bpo-23374(21): Fixed pydoc failure with non-ASCII files when stdout
     encoding differs from file system encoding (e.g.  on Mac OS).

   - bpo-23481(22): Remove RC4 from the SSL module’s default cipher
     list.

   - bpo-21548(23): Fix pydoc.synopsis() and pydoc.apropos() on modules
     with empty docstrings.

   - bpo-22885(24): Fixed arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the
     dbm.dumb module.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23239(25): ssl.match_hostname() now supports matching of IP
     addresses.

   - bpo-23146(26): Fix mishandling of absolute Windows paths with
     forward slashes in pathlib.

   - bpo-23096(27): Pickle representation of floats with protocol 0 now
     is the same for both Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-19105(28): pprint now more efficiently uses free space at the
     right.

   - bpo-14910(29): Add allow_abbrev parameter to
     argparse.ArgumentParser.  Patch by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard,
     paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson.

   - bpo-21717(30): tarfile.open() now supports ‘x’ (exclusive creation)
     mode.

   - bpo-23344(31): marshal.dumps() is now 20-25% faster on average.

   - bpo-20416(32): marshal.dumps() with protocols 3 and 4 is now 40-50%
     faster on average.

   - bpo-23421(33): Fixed compression in tarfile CLI. Patch by wdv4758h.

   - bpo-23367(34): Fix possible overflows in the unicodedata module.

   - bpo-23361(35): Fix possible overflow in Windows subprocess creation
     code.

   - logging.handlers.QueueListener now takes a respect_handler_level
     keyword argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to
     handlers taking handler levels into account.

   - bpo-19705(36): turtledemo now has a visual sorting algorithm demo.
     Original patch from Jason Yeo.

   - bpo-23801(37): Fix issue where cgi.FieldStorage did not always
     ignore the entire preamble to a multipart body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23476

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23504

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23563

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19980

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23521

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21619

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6639

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=814253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23215

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5700

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23481

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21548

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22885

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23146

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23096

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19105

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23367

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23361

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19705

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23801


File: python.info,  Node: Build<87>,  Next: C API<68>,  Prev: Library<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.112.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23445(1): pydebug builds now use “gcc -Og” where possible, to
     make the resulting executable faster.

   - bpo-23686(2): Update OS X 10.5 installer build to use OpenSSL
     1.0.2a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23445

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23686


File: python.info,  Node: C API<68>,  Next: Windows<75>,  Prev: Build<87>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.112.4 C API
................

   - bpo-20204(1): Deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types
     without the __module__ attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<75>,  Prev: C API<68>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.22.112.5 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23465(1): Implement PEP 486(2) - Make the Python Launcher aware
     of virtual environments.  Patch by Paul Moore.

   - bpo-23437(3): Make user scripts directory versioned on Windows.
     Patch by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23465

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.22.113 Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-02-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<100>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Build: Build<88>.
* C API: C API<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<80>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<52>.
* Windows: Windows<76>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<99>,  Next: Library<100>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23285(1): PEP 475 - EINTR handling.

   - bpo-22735(2): Fix many edge cases (including crashes) involving
     custom mro() implementations.

   - bpo-22896(3): Avoid using PyObject_AsCharBuffer(),
     PyObject_AsReadBuffer() and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer().

   - bpo-21295(4): Revert some changes (bpo-16795(5)) to AST line
     numbers and column offsets that constituted a regression.

   - bpo-22986(6): Allow changing an object’s __class__ between a
     dynamic type and static type in some cases.

   - bpo-15859(7): PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()
     and PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() now raise an exception if the object
     is not a Unicode object.  For PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), it was
     already the case on platforms other than Windows.  Patch written by
     Campbell Barton.

   - bpo-21408(8): The default __ne__() now returns NotImplemented if
     __eq__() returned NotImplemented.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23321(9): Fixed a crash in str.decode() when error handler
     returned replacement string longer than malformed input data.

   - bpo-22286(10): The “backslashreplace” error handlers now works with
     decoding and translating.

   - bpo-23253(11): Delay-load ShellExecute[AW] in os.startfile for
     reduced startup overhead on Windows.

   - bpo-22038(12): pyatomic.h now uses stdatomic.h or GCC built-in
     functions for atomic memory access if available.  Patch written by
     Vitor de Lima and Gustavo Temple.

   - bpo-20284(13): %-interpolation (aka printf) formatting added for
     bytes and bytearray.

   - bpo-23048(14): Fix jumping out of an infinite while loop in the
     pdb.

   - bpo-20335(15): bytes constructor now raises TypeError when encoding
     or errors is specified with non-string argument.  Based on patch by
     Renaud Blanch.

   - bpo-22834(16): If the current working directory ends up being set
     to a non-existent directory then import will no longer raise
     FileNotFoundError.

   - bpo-22869(17): Move the interpreter startup & shutdown code to a
     new dedicated pylifecycle.c module

   - bpo-22847(18): Improve method cache efficiency.

   - bpo-22335(19): Fix crash when trying to enlarge a bytearray to
     0x7fffffff bytes on a 32-bit platform.

   - bpo-22653(20): Fix an assertion failure in debug mode when doing a
     reentrant dict insertion in debug mode.

   - bpo-22643(21): Fix integer overflow in Unicode case operations
     (upper, lower, title, swapcase, casefold).

   - bpo-17636(22): Circular imports involving relative imports are now
     supported.

   - bpo-22604(23): Fix assertion error in debug mode when dividing a
     complex number by (nan+0j).

   - bpo-21052(24): Do not raise ImportWarning when sys.path_hooks or
     sys.meta_path are set to None.

   - bpo-16518(25): Use ‘bytes-like object required’ in error messages
     that previously used the far more cryptic “‘x’ does not support the
     buffer protocol.

   - bpo-22470(26): Fixed integer overflow issues in “backslashreplace”,
     “xmlcharrefreplace”, and “surrogatepass” error handlers.

   - bpo-22540(27): speed up ‘PyObject_IsInstance’ and
     ‘PyObject_IsSubclass’ in the common case that the second argument
     has metaclass ‘type’.

   - bpo-18711(28): Add a new ‘PyErr_FormatV’ function, similar to
     ‘PyErr_Format’ but accepting a ‘va_list’ argument.

   - bpo-22520(29): Fix overflow checking when generating the repr of a
     unicode object.

   - bpo-22519(30): Fix overflow checking in PyBytes_Repr.

   - bpo-22518(31): Fix integer overflow issues in latin-1 encoding.

   - bpo-16324(32): _charset parameter of MIMEText now also accepts
     email.charset.Charset instances.  Initial patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-1764286(33): Fix inspect.getsource() to support decorated
     functions.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18554(34): os.__all__ includes posix functions.

   - bpo-21391(35): Use os.path.abspath in the shutil module.

   - bpo-11471(36): avoid generating a JUMP_FORWARD instruction at the
     end of an if-block if there is no else-clause.  Original patch by
     Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-22215(37): Now ValueError is raised instead of TypeError when
     str or bytes argument contains not permitted null character or
     byte.

   - bpo-22258(38): Fix the internal function set_inheritable() on
     Illumos.  This platform exposes the function ‘ioctl(FIOCLEX)’, but
     calling it fails with errno is ENOTTY: “Inappropriate ioctl for
     device”.  set_inheritable() now falls back to the slower ‘fcntl()’
     (‘F_GETFD’ and then ‘F_SETFD’).

   - bpo-21389(39): Displaying the __qualname__ of the underlying
     function in the repr of a bound method.

   - bpo-22206(40): Using pthread, PyThread_create_key() now sets errno
     to ENOMEM and returns -1 (error) on integer overflow.

   - bpo-20184(41): Argument Clinic based signature introspection added
     for 30 of the builtin functions.

   - bpo-22116(42): C functions and methods (of the
     ‘builtin_function_or_method’ type) can now be weakref’ed.  Patch by
     Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22077(43): Improve index error messages for bytearrays, bytes,
     lists, and tuples by adding ‘or slices’.  Added ‘, not <typename>’
     for bytearrays.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-20179(44): Apply Argument Clinic to bytes and bytearray.  Patch
     by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-22082(45): Clear interned strings in slotdefs.

   - Upgrade Unicode database to Unicode 7.0.0.

   - bpo-21897(46): Fix a crash with the f_locals attribute with closure
     variables when frame.clear() has been called.

   - bpo-21205(47): Add a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute to generator, the
     qualified name, and use it in the representation of a generator
     (‘repr(gen)’).  The default name of the generator (‘__name__’
     attribute) is now get from the function instead of the code.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to get the name of the code.

   - bpo-21669(48): With the aid of heuristics in SyntaxError.__init__,
     the parser now attempts to generate more meaningful (or at least
     more search engine friendly) error messages when “exec” and “print”
     are used as statements.

   - bpo-21642(49): In the conditional if-else expression, allow an
     integer written with no space between itself and the ‘else’ keyword
     (e.g.  ‘True if 42else False’) to be valid syntax.

   - bpo-21523(50): Fix over-pessimistic computation of the stack effect
     of some opcodes in the compiler.  This also fixes a quadratic
     compilation time issue noticeable when compiling code with a large
     number of “and” and “or” operators.

   - bpo-21418(51): Fix a crash in the builtin function super() when
     called without argument and without current frame (ex: embedded
     Python).

   - bpo-21425(52): Fix flushing of standard streams in the interactive
     interpreter.

   - bpo-21435(53): In rare cases, when running finalizers on objects in
     cyclic trash a bad pointer dereference could occur due to a subtle
     flaw in internal iteration logic.

   - bpo-21377(54): PyBytes_Concat() now tries to concatenate in-place
     when the first argument has a reference count of 1.  Patch by
     Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20355(55): -W command line options now have higher priority
     than the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable.  Patch by Arfrever.

   - bpo-21274(56): Define PATH_MAX for GNU/Hurd in Python/pythonrun.c.

   - bpo-20904(57): Support setting FPU precision on m68k.

   - bpo-21209(58): Fix sending tuples to custom generator objects with
     the yield from syntax.

   - bpo-21193(59): pow(a, b, c) now raises ValueError rather than
     TypeError when b is negative.  Patch by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21176(60): PEP 465: Add the ‘@’ operator for matrix
     multiplication.

   - bpo-21134(61): Fix segfault when str is called on an uninitialized
     UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError, or UnicodeTranslateError
     object.

   - bpo-19537(62): Fix PyUnicode_DATA() alignment under m68k.  Patch by
     Andreas Schwab.

   - bpo-20929(63): Add a type cast to avoid shifting a negative number.

   - bpo-20731(64): Properly position in source code files even if they
     are opened in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-20637(65): Key-sharing now also works for instance dictionaries
     of subclasses.  Patch by Peter Ingebretson.

   - bpo-8297(66): Attributes missing from modules now include the
     module name in the error text.  Original patch by ysj.ray.

   - bpo-19995(67): %c, %o, %x, and %X now raise TypeError on
     non-integer input.

   - bpo-19655(68): The ASDL parser - used by the build process to
     generate code for managing the Python AST in C - was rewritten.
     The new parser is self contained and does not require to carry long
     the spark.py parser-generator library; spark.py was removed from
     the source base.

   - bpo-12546(69): Allow ‘\x00’ to be used as a fill character when
     using str, int, float, and complex __format__ methods.

   - bpo-20480(70): Add ipaddress.reverse_pointer.  Patch by Leon Weber.

   - bpo-13598(71): Modify string.Formatter to support auto-numbering of
     replacement fields.  It now matches the behavior of str.format() in
     this regard.  Patches by Phil Elson and Ramchandra Apte.

   - bpo-8931(72): Make alternate formatting (‘#’) for type ‘c’ raise an
     exception.  In versions prior to 3.5, ‘#’ with ‘c’ had no effect.
     Now specifying it is an error.  Patch by Torsten Landschoff.

   - bpo-23165(73): Perform overflow checks before allocating memory in
     the _Py_char2wchar function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22735

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22896

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21295

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16795

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15859

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23321

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23253

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20284

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23048

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20335

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22869

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22335

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22653

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22643

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22604

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21052

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22470

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22520

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22519

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22518

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1764286

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18554

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21391

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11471

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22215

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22258

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21389

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22206

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20184

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22116

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22077

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20179

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22082

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21897

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21669

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21642

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21523

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21418

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21425

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21435

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21377

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20355

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21274

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20904

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21193

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21134

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19537

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20929

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20731

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20637

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8297

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19995

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19655

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12546

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8931

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23165


File: python.info,  Node: Library<100>,  Next: IDLE<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23399(1): pyvenv creates relative symlinks where possible.

   - bpo-20289(2): cgi.FieldStorage() now supports the context
     management protocol.

   - bpo-13128(3): Print response headers for CONNECT requests when
     debuglevel > 0.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-15381(4): Optimized io.BytesIO to make less allocations and
     copyings.

   - bpo-22818(5): Splitting on a pattern that could match an empty
     string now raises a warning.  Patterns that can only match empty
     strings are now rejected.

   - bpo-23099(6): Closing io.BytesIO with exported buffer is rejected
     now to prevent corrupting exported buffer.

   - bpo-23326(7): Removed __ne__ implementations.  Since fixing default
     __ne__ implementation in bpo-21408(8) they are redundant.

   - bpo-23363(9): Fix possible overflow in itertools.permutations.

   - bpo-23364(10): Fix possible overflow in itertools.product.

   - bpo-23366(11): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     itertools.combinations.

   - bpo-23369(12): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     _json.encode_basestring_ascii.

   - bpo-23353(13): Fix the exception handling of generators in
     PyEval_EvalFrameEx().  At entry, save or swap the exception state
     even if PyEval_EvalFrameEx() is called with throwflag=0.  At exit,
     the exception state is now always restored or swapped, not only if
     why is WHY_YIELD or WHY_RETURN. Patch co-written with Antoine
     Pitrou.

   - bpo-14099(14): Restored support of writing ZIP files to tellable
     but non-seekable streams.

   - bpo-14099(15): Writing to ZipFile and reading multiple ZipExtFiles
     is threadsafe now.

   - bpo-19361(16): JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of
     ValueError.

   - bpo-18518(17): timeit now rejects statements which can’t be
     compiled outside a function or a loop (e.g.  “return” or “break”).

   - bpo-23094(18): Fixed readline with frames in Python implementation
     of pickle.

   - bpo-23268(19): Fixed bugs in the comparison of ipaddress classes.

   - bpo-21408(20): Removed incorrect implementations of __ne__() which
     didn’t returned NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented.
     The default __ne__() now works correctly.

   - bpo-19996(21): ‘email.feedparser.FeedParser’ now handles
     (malformed) headers with no key rather than assuming the body has
     started.

   - bpo-20188(22): Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation
     (ALPN) in the ssl module.

   - bpo-23133(23): Pickling of ipaddress objects now produces more
     compact and portable representation.

   - bpo-23248(24): Update ssl error codes from latest OpenSSL git
     master.

   - bpo-23266(25): Much faster implementation of
     ipaddress.collapse_addresses() when there are many non-consecutive
     addresses.

   - bpo-23098(26): 64-bit dev_t is now supported in the os module.

   - bpo-21817(27): When an exception is raised in a task submitted to a
     ProcessPoolExecutor, the remote traceback is now displayed in the
     parent process.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-15955(28): Add an option to limit output size when
     decompressing LZMA data.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath and Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23250(29): In the http.cookies module, capitalize “HttpOnly”
     and “Secure” as they are written in the standard.

   - bpo-23063(30): In the distutils’ check command, fix parsing of reST
     with code or code-block directives.

   - bpo-23209(31): selectors.BaseSelector.get_key() now raises a
     RuntimeError if the selector is closed.  And
     selectors.BaseSelector.close() now clears its internal reference to
     the selector mapping to break a reference cycle.  Initial patch
     written by Martin Richard.  (See also: bpo-23225(32))

   - bpo-17911(33): Provide a way to seed the linecache for a PEP-302
     module without actually loading the code.

   - bpo-17911(34): Provide a new object API for traceback, including
     the ability to not lookup lines at all until the traceback is
     actually rendered, without any trace of the original objects being
     kept alive.

   - bpo-19777(35): Provide a home() classmethod on Path objects.
     Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi.

   - bpo-23206(36): Make ‘json.dumps(..., ensure_ascii=False)’ as fast
     as the default case of ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  Patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-23185(37): Add math.inf and math.nan constants.

   - bpo-23186(38): Add ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() to fetch the client’s list ciphers
     sent at handshake.

   - bpo-23143(39): Remove compatibility with OpenSSLs older than 0.9.8.

   - bpo-23132(40): Improve performance and introspection support of
     comparison methods created by functool.total_ordering.

   - bpo-19776(41): Add an expanduser() method on Path objects.

   - bpo-23112(42): Fix SimpleHTTPServer to correctly carry the query
     string and fragment when it redirects to add a trailing slash.

   - bpo-21793(43): Added http.HTTPStatus enums (i.e.  HTTPStatus.OK,
     HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND). Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23093(44): In the io, module allow more operations to work on
     detached streams.

   - bpo-23111(45): In the ftplib, make ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23 the default
     protocol version.

   - bpo-22585(46): On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, os.urandom() now calls
     getentropy(), instead of reading /dev/urandom, to get pseudo-random
     bytes.

   - bpo-19104(47): pprint now produces evaluable output for wrapped
     strings.

   - bpo-23071(48): Added missing names to codecs.__all__.  Patch by
     Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22783(49): Pickling now uses the NEWOBJ opcode instead of the
     NEWOBJ_EX opcode if possible.

   - bpo-15513(50): Added a __sizeof__ implementation for pickle
     classes.

   - bpo-19858(51): pickletools.optimize() now aware of the MEMOIZE
     opcode, can produce more compact result and no longer produces
     invalid output if input data contains MEMOIZE opcodes together with
     PUT or BINPUT opcodes.

   - bpo-22095(52): Fixed HTTPConnection.set_tunnel with default port.
     The port value in the host header was set to “None”.  Patch by
     Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23016(53): A warning no longer produces an AttributeError when
     the program is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-21775(54): shutil.copytree(): fix crash when copying to VFAT.
     An exception handler assumed that OSError objects always have a
     ‘winerror’ attribute.  That is not the case, so the exception
     handler itself raised AttributeError when run on Linux (and,
     presumably, any other non-Windows OS). Patch by Greg Ward.

   - bpo-1218234(55): Fix inspect.getsource() to load updated source of
     reloaded module.  Initial patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21740(56): Support wrapped callables in doctest.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23009(57): Make sure selectors.EpollSelector.select() works
     when no FD is registered.

   - bpo-22959(58): In the constructor of http.client.HTTPSConnection,
     prefer the context’s check_hostname attribute over the
     'check_hostname' parameter.

   - bpo-22696(59): Add function *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8f7. to know
     about interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-16043(60): Add a default limit for the amount of data
     xmlrpclib.gzip_decode will return.  This resolves CVE
     2013-1753(61).

   - bpo-14099(62): ZipFile.open() no longer reopen the underlying file.
     Objects returned by ZipFile.open() can now operate independently of
     the ZipFile even if the ZipFile was created by passing in a
     file-like object as the first argument to the constructor.

   - bpo-22966(63): Fix __pycache__ pyc file name clobber when
     pyc_compile is asked to compile a source file containing multiple
     dots in the source file name.

   - bpo-21971(64): Update turtledemo doc and add module to the index.

   - bpo-21032(65): Fixed socket leak if HTTPConnection.getresponse()
     fails.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22407(66): Deprecated the use of re.LOCALE flag with str
     patterns or re.ASCII. It was newer worked.

   - bpo-22902(67): The “ip” command is now used on Linux to determine
     MAC address in uuid.getnode().  Pach by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-22960(68): Add a context argument to xmlrpclib.ServerProxy
     constructor.

   - bpo-22389(69): Add contextlib.redirect_stderr().

   - bpo-21356(70): Make ssl.RAND_egd() optional to support LibreSSL.
     The availability of the function is checked during the compilation.
     Patch written by Bernard Spil.

   - bpo-22915(71): SAX parser now supports files opened with file
     descriptor or bytes path.

   - bpo-22609(72): Constructors and update methods of mapping classes
     in the collections module now accept the self keyword argument.

   - bpo-22940(73): Add readline.append_history_file.

   - bpo-19676(74): Added the “namereplace” error handler.

   - bpo-22788(75): Add 'context' parameter to
     logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.

   - bpo-22921(76): Allow SSLContext to take the 'hostname' parameter
     even if OpenSSL doesn’t support SNI.

   - bpo-22894(77): TestCase.subTest() would cause the test suite to be
     stopped when in failfast mode, even in the absence of failures.

   - bpo-22796(78): HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to
     protect against potential injection attacks.

   - bpo-22370(79): Windows detection in pathlib is now more robust.

   - bpo-22841(80): Reject coroutines in asyncio add_signal_handler().
     Patch by Ludovic.Gasc.

   - bpo-19494(81): Added urllib.request.HTTPBasicPriorAuthHandler.
     Patch by Matej Cepl.

   - bpo-22578(82): Added attributes to the re.error class.

   - bpo-22849(83): Fix possible double free in the io.TextIOWrapper
     constructor.

   - bpo-12728(84): Different Unicode characters having the same
     uppercase but different lowercase are now matched in
     case-insensitive regular expressions.

   - bpo-22821(85): Fixed fcntl() with integer argument on 64-bit
     big-endian platforms.

   - bpo-21650(86): Add an ‘--sort-keys’ option to ‘json.tool’ CLI.

   - bpo-22824(87): Updated reprlib output format for sets to use set
     literals.  Patch contributed by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22824(88): Updated reprlib output format for arrays to display
     empty arrays without an unnecessary empty list.  Suggested by
     Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-22406(89): Fixed the uu_codec codec incorrectly ported to 3.x.
     Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-17293(90): uuid.getnode() now determines MAC address on AIX
     using netstat.  Based on patch by Aivars Kalvāns.

   - bpo-22769(91): Fixed ttk.Treeview.tag_has() when called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-22417(92): Verify certificates by default in httplib (PEP 476).

   - bpo-22775(93): Fixed unpickling of http.cookies.SimpleCookie with
     protocol 2 and above.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-22776(94): Brought excluded code into the scope of a try block
     in SysLogHandler.emit().

   - bpo-22665(95): Add missing get_terminal_size and SameFileError to
     shutil.__all__.

   - bpo-6623(96): Remove deprecated Netrc class in the ftplib module.
     Patch by Matt Chaput.

   - bpo-17381(97): Fixed handling of case-insensitive ranges in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-22410(98): Module level functions in the re module now cache
     compiled locale-dependent regular expressions taking into account
     the locale.

   - bpo-22759(99): Query methods on pathlib.Path() (exists(), is_dir(),
     etc.)  now return False when the underlying stat call raises
     NotADirectoryError.

   - bpo-8876(100): distutils now falls back to copying files when hard
     linking doesn’t work.  This allows use with special filesystems
     such as VirtualBox shared folders.

   - bpo-22217(101): Implemented reprs of classes in the zipfile module.

   - bpo-22457(102): Honour load_tests in the start_dir of discovery.

   - bpo-18216(103): gettext now raises an error when a .mo file has an
     unsupported major version number.  Patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-13918(104): Provide a locale.delocalize() function which can
     remove locale-specific number formatting from a string representing
     a number, without then converting it to a specific type.  Patch by
     Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-22676(105): Make the pickling of global objects which don’t
     have a __module__ attribute less slow.

   - bpo-18853(106): Fixed ResourceWarning in shlex.__nain__.

   - bpo-9351(107): Defaults set with set_defaults on an argparse
     subparser are no longer ignored when also set on the parent parser.

   - bpo-7559(108): unittest test loading ImportErrors are reported as
     import errors with their import exception rather than as attribute
     errors after the import has already failed.

   - bpo-19746(109): Make it possible to examine the errors from
     unittest discovery without executing the test suite.  The new
     ‘errors’ attribute on ‘TestLoader’ exposes these non-fatal errors
     encountered during discovery.

   - bpo-21991(110): Make email.headerregistry’s header ‘params’
     attributes be read-only (MappingProxyType).  Previously the
     dictionary was modifiable but a new one was created on each access
     of the attribute.

   - bpo-22638(111): SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard
     library.  It can still be enabled by instantiating a SSLContext
     manually.

   - bpo-22641(112): In asyncio, the default SSL context for client
     connections is now created using ssl.create_default_context(), for
     stronger security.

   - bpo-17401(113): Include closefd in io.FileIO repr.

   - bpo-21338(114): Add silent mode for compileall.  quiet parameters
     of compile_{dir, file, path} functions now have a multilevel value.
     Also, -q option of the CLI now have a multilevel value.  Patch by
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-20152(115): Convert the array and cmath modules to Argument
     Clinic.

   - bpo-18643(116): Add socket.socketpair() on Windows.

   - bpo-22435(117): Fix a file descriptor leak when socketserver bind
     fails.

   - bpo-13096(118): Fixed segfault in CTypes POINTER handling of large
     values.

   - bpo-11694(119): Raise ConversionError in xdrlib as documented.
     Patch by Filip Gruszczyński and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19380(120): Optimized parsing of regular expressions.

   - bpo-1519638(121): Now unmatched groups are replaced with empty
     strings in re.sub() and re.subn().

   - bpo-18615(122): sndhdr.what/whathdr now return a namedtuple.

   - bpo-22462(123): Fix pyexpat’s creation of a dummy frame to make it
     appear in exception tracebacks.

   - bpo-21965(124): Add support for in-memory SSL to the ssl module.
     Patch by Geert Jansen.

   - bpo-21173(125): Fix len() on a WeakKeyDictionary when .clear() was
     called with an iterator alive.

   - bpo-11866(126): Eliminated race condition in the computation of
     names for new threads.

   - bpo-21905(127): Avoid RuntimeError in pickle.whichmodule() when
     sys.modules is mutated while iterating.  Patch by Olivier Grisel.

   - bpo-11271(128): concurrent.futures.Executor.map() now takes a
     'chunksize' argument to allow batching of tasks in child processes
     and improve performance of ProcessPoolExecutor.  Patch by Dan
     O’Reilly.

   - bpo-21883(129): os.path.join() and os.path.relpath() now raise a
     TypeError with more helpful error message for unsupported or
     mismatched types of arguments.

   - bpo-22219(130): The zipfile module CLI now adds entries for
     directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-22449(131): In the ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs, consult
     the environmental variables SSL_CERT_DIR and SSL_CERT_FILE on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22508(132): The email.__version__ variable has been removed;
     the email code is no longer shipped separately from the stdlib, and
     __version__ hasn’t been updated in several releases.

   - bpo-20076(133): Added non derived UTF-8 aliases to locale aliases
     table.

   - bpo-20079(134): Added locales supported in glibc 2.18 to locale
     alias table.

   - bpo-20218(135): Added convenience methods read_text/write_text and
     read_bytes/ write_bytes to pathlib.Path objects.

   - bpo-22396(136): On 32-bit AIX platform, don’t expose
     os.posix_fadvise() nor os.posix_fallocate() because their
     prototypes in system headers are wrong.

   - bpo-22517(137): When an io.BufferedRWPair object is deallocated,
     clear its weakrefs.

   - bpo-22437(138): Number of capturing groups in regular expression is
     no longer limited by 100.

   - bpo-17442(139): InteractiveInterpreter now displays the full
     chained traceback in its showtraceback method, to match the built
     in interactive interpreter.

   - bpo-23392(140): Added tests for marshal C API that works with
     FILE*.

   - bpo-10510(141): distutils register and upload methods now use HTML
     standards compliant CRLF line endings.

   - bpo-9850(142): Fixed macpath.join() for empty first component.
     Patch by Oleg Oshmyan.

   - bpo-5309(143): distutils’ build and build_ext commands now accept a
     ‘-j’ option to enable parallel building of extension modules.

   - bpo-22448(144): Improve canceled timer handles cleanup to prevent
     unbound memory usage.  Patch by Joshua Moore-Oliva.

   - bpo-22427(145): TemporaryDirectory no longer attempts to clean up
     twice when used in the with statement in generator.

   - bpo-22362(146): Forbidden ambiguous octal escapes out of range
     0-0o377 in regular expressions.

   - bpo-20912(147): Now directories added to ZIP file have correct Unix
     and MS-DOS directory attributes.

   - bpo-21866(148): ZipFile.close() no longer writes ZIP64 central
     directory records if allowZip64 is false.

   - bpo-22278(149): Fix urljoin problem with relative urls, a
     regression observed after changes to issue22118 were submitted.

   - bpo-22415(150): Fixed debugging output of the GROUPREF_EXISTS
     opcode in the re module.  Removed trailing spaces in debugging
     output.

   - bpo-22423(151): Unhandled exception in thread no longer causes
     unhandled AttributeError when sys.stderr is None.

   - bpo-21332(152): Ensure that ‘bufsize=1’ in subprocess.Popen()
     selects line buffering, rather than block buffering.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-21091(153): Fix API bug:
     email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment is now a method.

   - bpo-21079(154): Fix email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment to
     return the correct result when the header has parameters as well as
     a value.

   - bpo-22247(155): Add NNTPError to nntplib.__all__.

   - bpo-22366(156): urllib.request.urlopen will accept a context object
     (SSLContext) as an argument which will then be used for HTTPS
     connection.  Patch by Alex Gaynor.

   - bpo-4180(157): The warnings registries are now reset when the
     filters are modified.

   - bpo-22419(158): Limit the length of incoming HTTP request in
     wsgiref server to 65536 bytes and send a 414 error code for higher
     lengths.  Patch contributed by Devin Cook.

   - Lax cookie parsing in http.cookies could be a security issue when
     combined with non-standard cookie handling in some web browsers.
     Reported by Sergey Bobrov.

   - bpo-20537(159): logging methods now accept an exception instance as
     well as a Boolean value or exception tuple.  Thanks to Yury
     Selivanov for the patch.

   - bpo-22384(160): An exception in Tkinter callback no longer crashes
     the program when it is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-22168(161): Prevent turtle AttributeError with non-default
     Canvas on OS X.

   - bpo-21147(162): sqlite3 now raises an exception if the request
     contains a null character instead of truncating it.  Based on patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13968(163): The glob module now supports recursive search in
     subdirectories using the ‘**’ pattern.

   - bpo-21951(164): Fixed a crash in Tkinter on AIX when called Tcl
     command with empty string or tuple argument.

   - bpo-21951(165): Tkinter now most likely raises MemoryError instead
     of crash if the memory allocation fails.

   - bpo-22338(166): Fix a crash in the json module on memory allocation
     failure.

   - bpo-12410(167): imaplib.IMAP4 now supports the context management
     protocol.  Original patch by Tarek Ziadé.

   - bpo-21270(168): We now override tuple methods in mock.call objects
     so that they can be used as normal call attributes.

   - bpo-16662(169): ‘load_tests()’ is now unconditionally run when it
     is present in a package’s ‘__init__.py’.
     ‘TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ still accepts use_load_tests,
     but it is deprecated and ignored.  A new keyword-only attribute
     ‘pattern’ is added and documented.  Patch given by Robert Collins,
     tweaked by Barry Warsaw.

   - bpo-22226(170): First letter no longer is stripped from the
     “status” key in the result of Treeview.heading().

   - bpo-19524(171): Fixed resource leak in the HTTP connection when an
     invalid response is received.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20421(172): Add a .version() method to SSL sockets exposing the
     actual protocol version in use.

   - bpo-19546(173): configparser exceptions no longer expose
     implementation details.  Chained KeyErrors are removed, which leads
     to cleaner tracebacks.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22051(174): turtledemo no longer reloads examples to re-run
     them.  Initialization of variables and gui setup should be done in
     main(), which is called each time a demo is run, but not on import.

   - bpo-21933(175): Turtledemo users can change the code font size with
     a menu selection or control(command) ‘-’ or ‘+’ or
     control-mousewheel.  Original patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21597(176): The separator between the turtledemo text pane and
     the drawing canvas can now be grabbed and dragged with a mouse.
     The code text pane can be widened to easily view or copy the full
     width of the text.  The canvas can be widened on small screens.
     Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-18132(177): Turtledemo buttons no longer disappear when the
     window is shrunk.  Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-22043(178): time.monotonic() is now always available.
     ‘threading.Lock.acquire()’, ‘threading.RLock.acquire()’ and socket
     operations now use a monotonic clock, instead of the system clock,
     when a timeout is used.

   - bpo-21527(179): Add a default number of workers to
     ThreadPoolExecutor equal to 5 times the number of CPUs.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22216(180): smtplib now resets its state more completely after
     a quit.  The most obvious consequence of the previous behavior was
     a STARTTLS failure during a connect/starttls/quit/connect/starttls
     sequence.

   - bpo-22098(181): ctypes’ BigEndianStructure and
     LittleEndianStructure now define an empty __slots__ so that
     subclasses don’t always get an instance dict.  Patch by Claudiu
     Popa.

   - bpo-22185(182): Fix an occasional RuntimeError in
     threading.Condition.wait() caused by mutation of the waiters queue
     without holding the lock.  Patch by Doug Zongker.

   - bpo-22287(183): On UNIX, _PyTime_gettimeofday() now uses
     clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available.  As a side effect,
     Python now depends on the librt library on Solaris and on Linux
     (only with glibc older than 2.17).

   - bpo-22182(184): Use e.args to unpack exceptions correctly in
     distutils.file_util.move_file.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - The webbrowser module now uses subprocess’s start_new_session=True
     rather than a potentially risky preexec_fn=os.setsid call.

   - bpo-22042(185): signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) now raises an exception if
     the file descriptor is in blocking mode.

   - bpo-16808(186): inspect.stack() now returns a named tuple instead
     of a tuple.  Patch by Daniel Shahaf.

   - bpo-22236(187): Fixed Tkinter images copying operations in
     NoDefaultRoot mode.

   - bpo-2527(188): Add a 'globals' argument to timeit functions, in
     order to override the globals namespace in which the timed code is
     executed.  Patch by Ben Roberts.

   - bpo-22118(189): Switch urllib.parse to use RFC 3986 semantics for
     the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFCs 1808 and 2396.
     Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-21549(190): Added the “members” parameter to TarFile.list().

   - bpo-19628(191): Allow compileall recursion depth to be specified
     with a -r option.

   - bpo-15696(192): Add a __sizeof__ implementation for mmap objects on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22068(193): Avoided reference loops with Variables and Fonts in
     Tkinter.

   - bpo-22165(194): SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports undecodable
     file names.

   - bpo-15381(195): Optimized line reading in io.BytesIO.

   - bpo-8797(196): Raise HTTPError on failed Basic Authentication
     immediately.  Initial patch by Sam Bull.

   - bpo-20729(197): Restored the use of lazy
     iterkeys()/itervalues()/iteritems() in the mailbox module.

   - bpo-21448(198): Changed FeedParser feed() to avoid 'O'('n'^2)
     behavior when parsing long line.  Original patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-22184(199): The functools LRU Cache decorator factory now gives
     an earlier and clearer error message when the user forgets the
     required parameters.

   - bpo-17923(200): glob() patterns ending with a slash no longer match
     non-dirs on AIX. Based on patch by Delhallt.

   - bpo-21725(201): Added support for RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8) in smtpd.

   - bpo-22176(202): Update the ctypes module’s libffi to v3.1.  This
     release adds support for the Linux AArch64 and POWERPC ELF ABIv2
     little endian architectures.

   - bpo-5411(203): Added support for the “xztar” format in the shutil
     module.

   - bpo-21121(204): Don’t force 3rd party C extensions to be built with
     -Werror=declaration-after-statement.

   - bpo-21975(205): Fixed crash when using uninitialized sqlite3.Row
     (in particular when unpickling pickled sqlite3.Row).  sqlite3.Row
     is now initialized in the __new__() method.

   - bpo-20170(206): Convert posixmodule to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-21539(207): Add an 'exists_ok' argument to ‘Pathlib.mkdir()’ to
     mimic ‘mkdir -p’ and ‘os.makedirs()’ functionality.  When true,
     ignore ‘FileExistsErrors’.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22127(208): Bypass IDNA for pure-ASCII host names in the socket
     module (in particular for numeric IPs).

   - bpo-21047(209): set the default value for the 'convert_charrefs'
     argument of HTMLParser to True.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - Add an __all__ to html.entities.

   - bpo-15114(210): the strict mode and argument of HTMLParser,
     HTMLParser.error, and the HTMLParserError exception have been
     removed.

   - bpo-22085(211): Dropped support of Tk 8.3 in Tkinter.

   - bpo-21580(212): Now Tkinter correctly handles bytes arguments
     passed to Tk.  In particular this allows initializing images from
     binary data.

   - bpo-22003(213): When initialized from a bytes object, io.BytesIO()
     now defers making a copy until it is mutated, improving performance
     and memory use on some use cases.  Patch by David Wilson.

   - bpo-22018(214): On Windows, signal.set_wakeup_fd() now also
     supports sockets.  A side effect is that Python depends to the
     WinSock library.

   - bpo-22054(215): Add os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking()
     functions to get and set the blocking mode of a file descriptor
     (False if the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True otherwise).  These
     functions are not available on Windows.

   - bpo-17172(216): Make turtledemo start as active on OS X even when
     run with subprocess.  Patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21704(217): Fix build error for _multiprocessing when
     semaphores are not available.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis.

   - bpo-20173(218): Convert sha1, sha256, sha512 and md5 to
     ArgumentClinic.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - Fix repr(_socket.socket) on Windows 64-bit: don’t fail with
     OverflowError on closed socket.  repr(socket.socket) already works
     fine.

   - bpo-22033(219): Reprs of most Python implemented classes now
     contain actual class name instead of hardcoded one.

   - bpo-21947(220): The dis module can now disassemble
     generator-iterator objects based on their gi_code attribute.  Patch
     by Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-16133(221): The asynchat.async_chat.handle_read() method now
     ignores BlockingIOError exceptions.

   - bpo-22044(222): Fixed premature DECREF in call_tzinfo_method.
     Patch by Tom Flanagan.

   - bpo-19884(223): readline: Disable the meta modifier key if stdout
     is not a terminal to not write the ANSI sequence ‘"\033[1034h"’
     into stdout.  This sequence is used on some terminal (ex:
     TERM=xterm-256color”) to enable support of 8 bit characters.

   - bpo-4350(224): Removed a number of out-of-dated and non-working for
     a long time Tkinter methods.

   - bpo-6167(225): Scrollbar.activate() now returns the name of active
     element if the argument is not specified.  Scrollbar.set() now
     always accepts only 2 arguments.

   - bpo-15275(226): Clean up and speed up the ntpath module.

   - bpo-21888(227): plistlib’s load() and loads() now work if the fmt
     parameter is specified.

   - bpo-22032(228): __qualname__ instead of __name__ is now always used
     to format fully qualified class names of Python implemented
     classes.

   - bpo-22031(229): Reprs now always use hexadecimal format with the
     “0x” prefix when contain an id in form “ at 0x…”.

   - bpo-22018(230): signal.set_wakeup_fd() now raises an OSError
     instead of a ValueError on ‘fstat()’ failure.

   - bpo-21044(231): tarfile.open() now handles fileobj with an integer
     ‘name’ attribute.  Based on patch by Antoine Pietri.

   - bpo-21966(232): Respect -q command-line option when code module is
     ran.

   - bpo-19076(233): Don’t pass the redundant ‘file’ argument to
     self.error().

   - bpo-16382(234): Improve exception message of warnings.warn() for
     bad category.  Initial patch by Phil Elson.

   - bpo-21932(235): os.read() now uses a *note Py_ssize_t(): 8c4. type
     instead of int for the size to support reading more than 2 GB at
     once.  On Windows, the size is truncated to INT_MAX. As any call to
     os.read(), the OS may read less bytes than the number of requested
     bytes.

   - bpo-21942(236): Fixed source file viewing in pydoc’s server mode on
     Windows.

   - bpo-11259(237): asynchat.async_chat().set_terminator() now raises a
     ValueError if the number of received bytes is negative.

   - bpo-12523(238): asynchat.async_chat.push() now raises a TypeError
     if it doesn’t get a bytes string

   - bpo-21707(239): Add missing kwonlyargcount argument to
     ModuleFinder.replace_paths_in_code().

   - bpo-20639(240): calling Path.with_suffix(‘’) allows removing the
     suffix again.  Patch by July Tikhonov.

   - bpo-21714(241): Disallow the construction of invalid paths using
     Path.with_name().  Original patch by Antony Lee.

   - bpo-15014(242): Added ‘auth’ method to smtplib to make implementing
     auth mechanisms simpler, and used it internally in the login
     method.

   - bpo-21151(243): Fixed a segfault in the winreg module when ‘None’
     is passed as a ‘REG_BINARY’ value to SetValueEx.  Patch by John
     Ehresman.

   - bpo-21090(244): io.FileIO.readall() does not ignore I/O errors
     anymore.  Before, it ignored I/O errors if at least the first C
     call read() succeed.

   - bpo-5800(245): headers parameter of wsgiref.headers.Headers is now
     optional.  Initial patch by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost.

   - bpo-21781(246): ssl.RAND_add() now supports strings longer than 2
     GB.

   - bpo-21679(247): Prevent extraneous fstat() calls during open().
     Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-21863(248): cProfile now displays the module name of C
     extension functions, in addition to their own name.

   - bpo-11453(249): asyncore: emit a ResourceWarning when an unclosed
     file_wrapper object is destroyed.  The destructor now closes the
     file if needed.  The close() method can now be called twice: the
     second call does nothing.

   - bpo-21858(250): Better handling of Python exceptions in the sqlite3
     module.

   - bpo-21476(251): Make sure the email.parser.BytesParser
     TextIOWrapper is discarded after parsing, so the input file isn’t
     unexpectedly closed.

   - bpo-20295(252): imghdr now recognizes OpenEXR format images.

   - bpo-21729(253): Used the “with” statement in the dbm.dumb module to
     ensure files closing.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21491(254): socketserver: Fix a race condition in child
     processes reaping.

   - bpo-21719(255): Added the ‘st_file_attributes’ field to
     os.stat_result on Windows.

   - bpo-21832(256): Require named tuple inputs to be exact strings.

   - bpo-21722(257): The distutils “upload” command now exits with a
     non-zero return code when uploading fails.  Patch by Martin
     Dengler.

   - bpo-21723(258): asyncio.Queue: support any type of number (ex:
     float) for the maximum size.  Patch written by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21711(259): support for “site-python” directories has now been
     removed from the site module (it was deprecated in 3.4).

   - bpo-17552(260): new socket.sendfile() method allowing a file to be
     sent over a socket by using high-performance os.sendfile() on UNIX.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-18039(261): dbm.dump.open() now always creates a new database
     when the flag has the value ‘n’.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21326(262): Add a new is_closed() method to
     asyncio.BaseEventLoop.  run_forever() and run_until_complete()
     methods of asyncio.BaseEventLoop now raise an exception if the
     event loop was closed.

   - bpo-21766(263): Prevent a security hole in CGIHTTPServer by URL
     unquoting paths before checking for a CGI script at that path.

   - bpo-21310(264): Fixed possible resource leak in failed open().

   - bpo-21256(265): Printout of keyword args should be in deterministic
     order in a mock function call.  This will help to write better
     doctests.

   - bpo-21677(266): Fixed chaining nonnormalized exceptions in io
     close() methods.

   - bpo-11709(267): Fix the pydoc.help function to not fail when
     sys.stdin is not a valid file.

   - bpo-21515(268): tempfile.TemporaryFile now uses os.O_TMPFILE flag
     is available.

   - bpo-13223(269): Fix pydoc.writedoc so that the HTML documentation
     for methods that use ‘self’ in the example code is generated
     correctly.

   - bpo-21463(270): In urllib.request, fix pruning of the FTP cache.

   - bpo-21618(271): The subprocess module could fail to close open fds
     that were inherited by the calling process and already higher than
     POSIX resource limits would otherwise allow.  On systems with a
     functioning /proc/self/fd or /dev/fd interface the max is now
     ignored and all fds are closed.

   - bpo-20383(272): Introduce importlib.util.module_from_spec() as the
     preferred way to create a new module.

   - bpo-21552(273): Fixed possible integer overflow of too long string
     lengths in the tkinter module on 64-bit platforms.

   - bpo-14315(274): The zipfile module now ignores extra fields in the
     central directory that are too short to be parsed instead of
     letting a struct.unpack error bubble up as this “bad data” appears
     in many real world zip files in the wild and is ignored by other
     zip tools.

   - bpo-13742(275): Added “key” and “reverse” parameters to
     heapq.merge().  (First draft of patch contributed by Simon Sapin.)

   - bpo-21402(276): tkinter.ttk now works when default root window is
     not set.

   - bpo-3015(277): ‘_tkinter.create()’ now creates ‘tkapp’ object with
     ‘wantobjects=1’ by default.

   - bpo-10203(278): sqlite3.Row now truly supports sequence protocol.
     In particular it supports reverse() and negative indices.  Original
     patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18807(279): If copying (no symlinks) specified for a venv, then
     the python interpreter aliases (python, python3) are now created by
     copying rather than symlinking.

   - bpo-20197(280): Added support for the WebP image type in the imghdr
     module.  Patch by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21513(281): Speedup some properties of IP addresses
     (IPv4Address, IPv6Address) such as .is_private or .is_multicast.

   - bpo-21137(282): Improve the repr for threading.Lock() and its
     variants by showing the “locked” or “unlocked” status.  Patch by
     Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21538(283): The plistlib module now supports loading of binary
     plist files when reference or offset size is not a power of two.

   - bpo-21455(284): Add a default backlog to socket.listen().

   - bpo-21525(285): Most Tkinter methods which accepted tuples now
     accept lists too.

   - bpo-22166(286): With the assistance of a new internal
     _codecs._forget_codec helping function, test_codecs now clears the
     encoding caches to avoid the appearance of a reference leak

   - bpo-22236(287): Tkinter tests now don’t reuse default root window.
     New root window is created for every test class.

   - bpo-10744(288): Fix PEP 3118(289) format strings on ctypes objects
     with a nontrivial shape.

   - bpo-20826(290): Optimize ipaddress.collapse_addresses().

   - bpo-21487(291): Optimize ipaddress.summarize_address_range() and
     ipaddress.{IPv4Network,IPv6Network}.subnets().

   - bpo-21486(292): Optimize parsing of netmasks in
     ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network.

   - bpo-13916(293): Disallowed the surrogatepass error handler for non
     UTF-* encodings.

   - bpo-20998(294): Fixed re.fullmatch() of repeated single character
     pattern with ignore case.  Original patch by Matthew Barnett.

   - bpo-21075(295): fileinput.FileInput now reads bytes from standard
     stream if binary mode is specified.  Patch by Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-19775(296): Add a samefile() method to pathlib Path objects.
     Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21226(297): Set up modules properly in
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (and friends).

   - bpo-21398(298): Fix a unicode error in the pydoc pager when the
     documentation contains characters not encodable to the stdout
     encoding.

   - bpo-16531(299): ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network now
     accept an (address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily
     construct network objects from existing addresses.

   - bpo-21156(300): importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() is now
     a staticmethod.

   - bpo-21424(301): Simplified and optimized heaqp.nlargest() and
     nmsmallest() to make fewer tuple comparisons.

   - bpo-21396(302): Fix TextIOWrapper(…, write_through=True) to not
     force a flush() on the underlying binary stream.  Patch by akira.

   - bpo-18314(303): Unlink now removes junctions on Windows.  Patch by
     Kim Gräsman

   - bpo-21088(304): Bugfix for curses.window.addch() regression in
     3.4.0.  In porting to Argument Clinic, the first two arguments were
     reversed.

   - bpo-21407(305): _decimal: The module now supports function
     signatures.

   - bpo-10650(306): Remove the non-standard ‘watchexp’ parameter from
     the Decimal.quantize() method in the Python version.  It had never
     been present in the C version.

   - bpo-21469(307): Reduced the risk of false positives in robotparser
     by checking to make sure that robots.txt has been read or does not
     exist prior to returning True in can_fetch().

   - bpo-19414(308): Have the OrderedDict mark deleted links as
     unusable.  This gives an early failure if the link is deleted
     during iteration.

   - bpo-21421(309): Add __slots__ to the MappingViews ABC. Patch by
     Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21101(310): Eliminate double hashing in the C speed-up code for
     collections.Counter().

   - bpo-21321(311): itertools.islice() now releases the reference to
     the source iterator when the slice is exhausted.  Patch by Anton
     Afanasyev.

   - bpo-21057(312): TextIOWrapper now allows the underlying binary
     stream’s read() or read1() method to return an arbitrary bytes-like
     object (such as a memoryview).  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20951(313): SSLSocket.send() now raises either SSLWantReadError
     or SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation
     would block.  Previously, it would return 0.  Patch by Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-13248(314): removed previously deprecated asyncore.dispatcher
     __getattr__ cheap inheritance hack.

   - bpo-9815(315): assertRaises now tries to clear references to local
     variables in the exception’s traceback.

   - bpo-19940(316): ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() now interprets the given
     time string in the UTC timezone (as specified in RFC 5280), not the
     local timezone.

   - bpo-13204(317): Calling sys.flags.__new__ would crash the
     interpreter, now it raises a TypeError.

   - bpo-19385(318): Make operations on a closed dbm.dumb database
     always raise the same exception.

   - bpo-21207(319): Detect when the os.urandom cached fd has been
     closed or replaced, and open it anew.

   - bpo-21291(320): subprocess’s Popen.wait() is now thread safe so
     that multiple threads may be calling wait() or poll() on a Popen
     instance at the same time without losing the Popen.returncode
     value.

   - bpo-21127(321): Path objects can now be instantiated from str
     subclass instances (such as ‘numpy.str_’).

   - bpo-15002(322): urllib.response object to use _TemporaryFileWrapper
     (and _TemporaryFileCloser) facility.  Provides a better way to
     handle file descriptor close.  Patch contributed by Christian
     Theune.

   - bpo-12220(323): mindom now raises a custom ValueError indicating it
     doesn’t support spaces in URIs instead of letting a ‘split’
     ValueError bubble up.

   - bpo-21068(324): The ssl.PROTOCOL* constants are now enum members.

   - bpo-21276(325): posixmodule: Don’t define USE_XATTRS on KFreeBSD
     and the Hurd.

   - bpo-21262(326): New method assert_not_called for Mock.  It raises
     AssertionError if the mock has been called.

   - bpo-21238(327): New keyword argument ‘unsafe’ to Mock.  It raises
     ‘AttributeError’ incase of an attribute startswith assert or
     assret.

   - bpo-20896(328): ssl.get_server_certificate() now uses
     PROTOCOL_SSLv23, not PROTOCOL_SSLv3, for maximum compatibility.

   - bpo-21239(329): patch.stopall() didn’t work deterministically when
     the same name was patched more than once.

   - bpo-21203(330): Updated fileConfig and dictConfig to remove
     inconsistencies.  Thanks to Jure Koren for the patch.

   - bpo-21222(331): Passing name keyword argument to
     mock.create_autospec now works.

   - bpo-21197(332): Add lib64 -> lib symlink in venvs on 64-bit non-OS
     X POSIX.

   - bpo-17498(333): Some SMTP servers disconnect after certain errors,
     violating strict RFC conformance.  Instead of losing the error code
     when we issue the subsequent RSET, smtplib now returns the error
     code and defers raising the SMTPServerDisconnected error until the
     next command is issued.

   - bpo-17826(334): setting an iterable side_effect on a mock function
     created by create_autospec now works.  Patch by Kushal Das.

   - bpo-7776(335): Fix ‘Host:’ header and reconnection when using
     http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20968(336): unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports division.
     Patch by Johannes Baiter.

   - bpo-21529(337): Fix arbitrary memory access in
     JSONDecoder.raw_decode with a negative second parameter.  Bug
     reported by Guido Vranken.  (See also: CVE 2014-4616(338))

   - bpo-21169(339): getpass now handles non-ascii characters that the
     input stream encoding cannot encode by re-encoding using the
     replace error handler.

   - bpo-21171(340): Fixed undocumented filter API of the rot13 codec.
     Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-20539(341): Improved math.factorial error message for large
     positive inputs and changed exception type (OverflowError ->
     ValueError) for large negative inputs.

   - bpo-21172(342): isinstance check relaxed from dict to
     collections.Mapping.

   - bpo-21155(343): asyncio.EventLoop.create_unix_server() now raises a
     ValueError if path and sock are specified at the same time.

   - bpo-21136(344): Avoid unnecessary normalization of Fractions
     resulting from power and other operations.  Patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-17621(345): Introduce importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-21076(346): signal module constants were turned into enums.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-20636(347): Improved the repr of Tkinter widgets.

   - bpo-19505(348): The items, keys, and values views of OrderedDict
     now support reverse iteration using reversed().

   - bpo-21149(349): Improved thread-safety in logging cleanup during
     interpreter shutdown.  Thanks to Devin Jeanpierre for the patch.

   - bpo-21058(350): Fix a leak of file descriptor in *note
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 1f4, close the file descriptor if
     *note io.open(): 2a7. fails

   - bpo-21200(351): Return None from pkgutil.get_loader() when __spec__
     is missing.

   - bpo-21013(352): Enhance ssl.create_default_context() when used for
     server side sockets to provide better security by default.

   - bpo-20145(353): ‘assertRaisesRegex’ and ‘assertWarnsRegex’ now
     raise a ‘TypeError’ if the second argument is not a string or
     compiled regex.

   - bpo-20633(354): Replace relative import by absolute import.

   - bpo-20980(355): Stop wrapping exception when using ThreadPool.

   - bpo-21082(356): In os.makedirs, do not set the process-wide umask.
     Note this changes behavior of makedirs when exist_ok=True.

   - bpo-20990(357): Fix issues found by pyflakes for multiprocessing.

   - bpo-21015(358): SSL contexts will now automatically select an
     elliptic curve for ECDH key exchange on OpenSSL 1.0.2 and later,
     and otherwise default to “prime256v1”.

   - bpo-21000(359): Improve the command-line interface of json.tool.

   - bpo-20995(360): Enhance default ciphers used by the ssl module to
     enable better security and prioritize perfect forward secrecy.

   - bpo-20884(361): Don’t assume that __file__ is defined on
     importlib.__init__.

   - bpo-21499(362): Ignore __builtins__ in several
     test_importlib.test_api tests.

   - bpo-20627(363): xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy is now a context manager.

   - bpo-19165(364): The formatter module now raises DeprecationWarning
     instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-13936(365): Remove the ability of datetime.time instances to be
     considered false in boolean contexts.

   - bpo-18931(366): selectors module now supports /dev/poll on Solaris.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola’.

   - bpo-19977(367): When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’
     locale), *note sys.stdin: 2c9. and *note sys.stdout: 943. are now
     using the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’
     error handler.

   - bpo-20574(368): Implement incremental decoder for cp65001 code
     (Windows code page 65001, Microsoft UTF-8).

   - bpo-20879(369): Delay the initialization of encoding and decoding
     tables for base32, ascii85 and base85 codecs in the base64 module,
     and delay the initialization of the unquote_to_bytes() table of the
     urllib.parse module, to not waste memory if these modules are not
     used.

   - bpo-19157(370): Include the broadcast address in the usuable hosts
     for IPv6 in ipaddress.

   - bpo-11599(371): When an external command (e.g.  compiler) fails,
     distutils now prints out the whole command line (instead of just
     the command name) if the environment variable DISTUTILS_DEBUG is
     set.

   - bpo-4931(372): distutils should not produce unhelpful “error: None”
     messages anymore.  distutils.util.grok_environment_error is kept
     but doc-deprecated.

   - bpo-20875(373): Prevent possible gzip “‘read’ is not defined”
     NameError.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-11558(374): ‘email.message.Message.attach’ now returns a more
     useful error message if ‘attach’ is called on a message for which
     ‘is_multipart’ is False.

   - bpo-20283(375): RE pattern methods now accept the string keyword
     parameters as documented.  The pattern and source keyword
     parameters are left as deprecated aliases.

   - bpo-20778(376): Fix modulefinder to work with bytecode-only
     modules.

   - bpo-20791(377): copy.copy() now doesn’t make a copy when the input
     is a bytes object.  Initial patch by Peter Otten.

   - bpo-19748(378): On AIX, time.mktime() now raises an OverflowError
     for year outsize range [1902; 2037].

   - bpo-19573(379): inspect.signature: Use enum for parameter kind
     constants.

   - bpo-20726(380): inspect.signature: Make Signature and Parameter
     picklable.

   - bpo-17373(381): Add inspect.Signature.from_callable method.

   - bpo-20378(382): Improve repr of inspect.Signature and
     inspect.Parameter.

   - bpo-20816(383): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to raise correct
     TypeError for missing keyword-only arguments.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Lowin.

   - bpo-20817(384): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to fail correctly if more
     than 3 arguments are missing.  Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.

   - bpo-6676(385): Ensure a meaningful exception is raised when
     attempting to parse more than one XML document per pyexpat
     xmlparser instance.  (Original patches by Hirokazu Yamamoto and
     Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, with suggested wording by David Gutteridge)

   - bpo-21117(386): Fix inspect.signature to better support
     functools.partial.  Due to the specifics of functools.partial
     implementation, positional-or-keyword arguments passed as keyword
     arguments become keyword-only.

   - bpo-20334(387): inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter are now
     hashable.  Thanks to Antony Lee for bug reports and suggestions.

   - bpo-15916(388): doctest.DocTestSuite returns an empty
     unittest.TestSuite instead of raising ValueError if it finds no
     tests

   - bpo-21209(389): Fix asyncio.tasks.CoroWrapper to workaround a bug
     in yield-from implementation in CPythons prior to 3.4.1.

   - asyncio: Add gi_{frame,running,code} properties to CoroWrapper
     (upstream bpo-163(390)).

   - bpo-21311(391): Avoid exception in _osx_support with non-standard
     compiler configurations.  Patch by John Szakmeister.

   - bpo-11571(392): Ensure that the turtle window becomes the topmost
     window when launched on OS X.

   - bpo-21801(393): Validate that __signature__ is None or an instance
     of Signature.

   - bpo-21923(394): Prevent AttributeError in
     distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler due to possible
     uninitialized _config_vars.

   - bpo-21323(395): Fix http.server to again handle scripts in CGI
     subdirectories, broken by the fix for security bpo-19435(396).
     Patch by Zach Byrne.

   - bpo-22733(397): Fix ffi_prep_args not zero-extending argument
     values correctly on 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-23302(398): Default to TCP_NODELAY=1 upon establishing an
     HTTPConnection.  Removed use of hard-coded MSS as it’s an
     optimization that’s no longer needed with Nagle disabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23099

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23326

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23363

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23364

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23366

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23369

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23353

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18518

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23094

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23268

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19996

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23248

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23098

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21817

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23250

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23063

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23209

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23225

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23143

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23132

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23112

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23093

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23111

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22585

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19104

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23071

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22783

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15513

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19858

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22095

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23016

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21775

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1218234

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21740

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23009

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22959

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16043

   (61) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-1753

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22966

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21971

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21032

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22902

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21356

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22915

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

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   (388) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916

   (389) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21209

   (390) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=163

   (391) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21311

   (392) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11571

   (393) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21801

   (394) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21923

   (395) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21323

   (396) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19435

   (397) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22733

   (398) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23302


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<62>,  Next: Build<88>,  Prev: Library<100>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-20577(1): Configuration of the max line length for the
     FormatParagraph extension has been moved from the General tab of
     the Idle preferences dialog to the FormatParagraph tab of the
     Config Extensions dialog.  Patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16893(2): Update Idle doc chapter to match current Idle and add
     new information.

   - bpo-3068(3): Add Idle extension configuration dialog to Options
     menu.  Changes are written to HOME/.idlerc/config-extensions.cfg.
     Original patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16233(4): A module browser (File : Class Browser, Alt+C)
     requires an editor window with a filename.  When Class Browser is
     requested otherwise, from a shell, output window, or ‘Untitled’
     editor, Idle no longer displays an error box.  It now pops up an
     Open Module box (Alt+M). If a valid name is entered and a module is
     opened, a corresponding browser is also opened.

   - bpo-4832(5): Save As to type Python files automatically adds .py to
     the name you enter (even if your system does not display it).  Some
     systems automatically add .txt when type is Text files.

   - bpo-21986(6): Code objects are not normally pickled by the pickle
     module.  To match this, they are no longer pickled when running
     under Idle.

   - bpo-17390(7): Adjust Editor window title; remove ‘Python’, move
     version to end.

   - bpo-14105(8): Idle debugger breakpoints no longer disappear when
     inserting or deleting lines.

   - bpo-17172(9): Turtledemo can now be run from Idle.  Currently, the
     entry is on the Help menu, but it may move to Run.  Patch by
     Ramchandra Apt and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21765(10): Add support for non-ascii identifiers to
     HyperParser.

   - bpo-21940(11): Add unittest for WidgetRedirector.  Initial patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18592(12): Add unittest for SearchDialogBase.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21694(13): Add unittest for ParenMatch.  Patch by Saimadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-21686(14): add unittest for HyperParser.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-12387(15): Add missing upper(lower)case versions of default
     Windows key bindings for Idle so Caps Lock does not disable them.
     Patch by Roger Serwy.

   - bpo-21695(16): Closing a Find-in-files output window while the
     search is still in progress no longer closes Idle.

   - bpo-18910(17): Add unittest for textView.  Patch by Phil Webster.

   - bpo-18292(18): Add unittest for AutoExpand.  Patch by Saihadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-18409(19): Add unittest for AutoComplete.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21477(20): htest.py - Improve framework, complete set of tests.
     Patches by Saimadhav Heblikar

   - bpo-18104(21): Add idlelib/idle_test/htest.py with a few sample
     tests to begin consolidating and improving human-validated tests of
     Idle.  Change other files as needed to work with htest.  Running
     the module as __main__ runs all tests.

   - bpo-21139(22): Change default paragraph width to 72, the PEP 8(23)
     recommendation.

   - bpo-21284(24): Paragraph reformat test passes after user changes
     reformat width.

   - bpo-17654(25): Ensure IDLE menus are customized properly on OS X
     for non-framework builds and for all variants of Tk.

   - bpo-23180(26): Rename IDLE “Windows” menu item to “Window”.  Patch
     by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20577

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3068

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16233

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4832

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17390

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14105

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17172

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21765

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21940

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21694

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21686

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12387

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21695

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18292

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21477

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18104

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21139

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21284

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17654

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23180


File: python.info,  Node: Build<88>,  Next: C API<69>,  Prev: IDLE<62>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.4 Build
................

   - bpo-15506(1): Use standard PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG autoconf macro in
     the configure script.

   - bpo-22935(2): Allow the ssl module to be compiled if openssl
     doesn’t support SSL 3.

   - bpo-22592(3): Drop support of the Borland C compiler to build
     Python.  The distutils module still supports it to build
     extensions.

   - bpo-22591(4): Drop support of MS-DOS, especially of the DJGPP
     compiler (MS-DOS port of GCC).

   - bpo-16537(5): Check whether self.extensions is empty in setup.py.
     Patch by Jonathan Hosmer.

   - bpo-22359(6): Remove incorrect uses of recursive make.  Patch by
     Jonas Wagner.

   - bpo-21958(7): Define HAVE_ROUND when building with Visual Studio
     2013 and above.  Patch by Zachary Turner.

   - bpo-18093(8): the programs that embed the CPython runtime are now
     in a separate “Programs” directory, rather than being kept in the
     Modules directory.

   - bpo-15759(9): “make suspicious”, “make linkcheck” and “make
     doctest” in Doc/ now display special message when and only when
     there are failures.

   - bpo-21141(10): The Windows build process no longer attempts to find
     Perl, instead relying on OpenSSL source being configured and ready
     to build.  The ‘PCbuild\build_ssl.py’ script has been re-written
     and re-named to ‘PCbuild\prepare_ssl.py’, and takes care of
     configuring OpenSSL source for both 32 and 64 bit platforms.
     OpenSSL sources obtained from svn.python.org will always be
     pre-configured and ready to build.

   - bpo-21037(11): Add a build option to enable AddressSanitizer
     support.

   - bpo-19962(12): The Windows build process now creates “python.bat”
     in the root of the source tree, which passes all arguments through
     to the most recently built interpreter.

   - bpo-21285(13): Refactor and fix curses configure check to always
     search in a ncursesw directory.

   - bpo-15234(14): For BerkeleyDB and Sqlite, only add the found
     library and include directories if they aren’t already being
     searched.  This avoids an explicit runtime library dependency.

   - bpo-17861(15): Tools/scripts/generate_opcode_h.py automatically
     regenerates Include/opcode.h from Lib/opcode.py if the latter gets
     any change.

   - bpo-20644(16): OS X installer build support for documentation build
     changes in 3.4.1: assume externally supplied sphinx-build is
     available in /usr/bin.

   - bpo-20022(17): Eliminate use of deprecated bundlebuilder in OS X
     builds.

   - bpo-15968(18): Incorporated Tcl, Tk, and Tix builds into the
     Windows build solution.

   - bpo-17095(19): Fix Modules/Setup 'shared' support.

   - bpo-21811(20): Anticipated fixes to support OS X versions > 10.9.

   - bpo-21166(21): Prevent possible segfaults and other random failures
     of python –generate-posix-vars in pybuilddir.txt build target.

   - bpo-18096(22): Fix library order returned by python-config.

   - bpo-17219(23): Add library build dir for Python extension
     cross-builds.

   - bpo-22919(24): Windows build updated to support VC 14.0 (Visual
     Studio 2015), which will be used for the official release.

   - bpo-21236(25): Build _msi.pyd with cabinet.lib instead of fci.lib

   - bpo-17128(26): Use private version of OpenSSL for OS X 10.5+
     installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22592

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22591

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16537

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21958

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18093

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15759

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21141

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21037

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19962

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21285

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15234

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17861

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20644

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20022

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17095

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21811

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21166

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18096

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22919

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: C API<69>,  Next: Documentation<80>,  Prev: Build<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.5 C API
................

   - bpo-14203(1): Remove obsolete support for view==NULL in
     PyBuffer_FillInfo(), bytearray_getbuffer(), bytesiobuf_getbuffer()
     and array_buffer_getbuf().  All functions now raise BufferError in
     that case.

   - bpo-22445(2): PyBuffer_IsContiguous() now implements precise
     contiguity tests, compatible with NumPy’s
     NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING compilation flag.  Previously the
     function reported false negatives for corner cases.

   - bpo-22079(3): PyType_Ready() now checks that statically allocated
     type has no dynamically allocated bases.

   - bpo-22453(4): Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR().

   - bpo-18395(5): Rename ‘_Py_char2wchar()’ to *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     a3e, rename ‘_Py_wchar2char()’ to *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f, and
     document these functions.

   - bpo-21233(6): Add new C functions: PyMem_RawCalloc(),
     PyMem_Calloc(), PyObject_Calloc(), _PyObject_GC_Calloc().
     bytes(int) is now using ‘calloc()’ instead of ‘malloc()’ for large
     objects which is faster and use less memory.

   - bpo-20942(7): PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject() no longer sets
     __file__ to match what importlib does; this affects
     _frozen_importlib as well as any module loaded using
     imp.init_frozen().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22445

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22079

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20942


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<80>,  Next: Tests<84>,  Prev: C API<69>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.6 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-19548(1): Update the codecs module documentation to better
     cover the distinction between text encodings and other codecs,
     together with other clarifications.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22394(2): Doc/Makefile now supports ‘make venv
     PYTHON=../python’ to create a venv for generating the
     documentation, e.g., ‘make html PYTHON=venv/bin/python3’.

   - bpo-21514(3): The documentation of the json module now refers to
     new JSON RFC 7159 instead of obsoleted RFC 4627.

   - bpo-21777(4): The binary sequence methods on bytes and bytearray
     are now documented explicitly, rather than assuming users will be
     able to derive the expected behaviour from the behaviour of the
     corresponding str methods.

   - bpo-6916(5): undocument deprecated asynchat.fifo class.

   - bpo-17386(6): Expanded functionality of the ‘Doc/make.bat’ script
     to make it much more comparable to ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-21312(7): Update the thread_foobar.h template file to include
     newer threading APIs.  Patch by Jack McCracken.

   - bpo-21043(8): Remove the recommendation for specific CA
     organizations and to mention the ability to load the OS
     certificates.

   - bpo-20765(9): Add missing documentation for PurePath.with_name()
     and PurePath.with_suffix().

   - bpo-19407(10): New package installation and distribution guides
     based on the Python Packaging Authority tools.  Existing guides
     have been retained as legacy links from the distutils docs, as they
     still contain some required reference material for tool developers
     that isn’t recorded anywhere else.

   - bpo-19697(11): Document cases where __main__.__spec__ is None.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22394

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6916

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21312

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21043

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20765

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19407

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19697


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<84>,  Next: Tools/Demos<52>,  Prev: Documentation<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.7 Tests
................

   - bpo-18982(1): Add tests for CLI of the calendar module.

   - bpo-19548(2): Added some additional checks to test_codecs to ensure
     that statements in the updated documentation remain accurate.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22838(3): All test_re tests now work with unittest test
     discovery.

   - bpo-22173(4): Update lib2to3 tests to use unittest test discovery.

   - bpo-16000(5): Convert test_curses to use unittest.

   - bpo-21456(6): Skip two tests in test_urllib2net.py if _ssl module
     not present.  Patch by Remi Pointel.

   - bpo-20746(7): Fix test_pdb to run in refleak mode (-R). Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22060(8): test_ctypes has been somewhat cleaned up and
     simplified; it now uses unittest test discovery to find its tests.

   - bpo-22104(9): regrtest.py no longer holds a reference to the suite
     of tests loaded from test modules that don’t define test_main().

   - bpo-22111(10): Assorted cleanups in test_imaplib.  Patch by Milan
     Oberkirch.

   - bpo-22002(11): Added ‘load_package_tests’ function to test.support
     and used it to implement/augment test discovery in test_asyncio,
     test_email, test_importlib, test_json, and test_tools.

   - bpo-21976(12): Fix test_ssl to accept LibreSSL version strings.
     Thanks to William Orr.

   - bpo-21918(13): Converted test_tools from a module to a package
     containing separate test files for each tested script.

   - bpo-9554(14): Use modern unittest features in test_argparse.
     Initial patch by Denver Coneybeare and Radu Voicilas.

   - bpo-20155(15): Changed HTTP method names in failing tests in
     test_httpservers so that packet filtering software (specifically
     Windows Base Filtering Engine) does not interfere with the
     transaction semantics expected by the tests.

   - bpo-19493(16): Refactored the ctypes test package to skip tests
     explicitly rather than silently.

   - bpo-18492(17): All resources are now allowed when tests are not run
     by regrtest.py.

   - bpo-21634(18): Fix pystone micro-benchmark: use floor division
     instead of true division to benchmark integers instead of
     floating-point numbers.  Set pystone version to 1.2.  Patch written
     by Lennart Regebro.

   - bpo-21605(19): Added tests for Tkinter images.

   - bpo-21493(20): Added test for ntpath.expanduser().  Original patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19925(21): Added tests for the spwd module.  Original patch by
     Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21522(22): Added Tkinter tests for Listbox.itemconfigure(),
     PanedWindow.paneconfigure(), and Menu.entryconfigure().

   - bpo-17756(23): Fix test_code test when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-17752(24): Fix distutils tests when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-18604(25): Consolidated checks for GUI availability.  All
     platforms now at least check whether Tk can be instantiated when
     the GUI resource is requested.

   - bpo-21275(26): Fix a socket test on KFreeBSD.

   - bpo-21223(27): Pass test_site/test_startup_imports when some of the
     extensions are built as builtins.

   - bpo-20635(28): Added tests for Tk geometry managers.

   - Add test case for freeze.

   - bpo-20743(29): Fix a reference leak in test_tcl.

   - bpo-21097(30): Move test_namespace_pkgs into test_importlib.

   - bpo-21503(31): Use test_both() consistently in test_importlib.

   - bpo-20939(32): Avoid various network test failures due to new
     redirect of ‘http://www.python.org/’ to ‘https://www.python.org’:
     use ‘http://www.example.com’ instead.

   - bpo-20668(33): asyncio tests no longer rely on tests.txt file.
     (Patch by Vajrasky Kok)

   - bpo-21093(34): Prevent failures of ctypes test_macholib on OS X if
     a copy of libz exists in $HOME/lib or /usr/local/lib.

   - bpo-22770(35): Prevent some Tk segfaults on OS X when running gui
     tests.

   - bpo-23211(36): Workaround test_logging failure on some OS X 10.6
     systems.

   - bpo-23345(37): Prevent test_ssl failures with large OpenSSL patch
     level values (like 0.9.8zc).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22838

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22173

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20746

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22060

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22111

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22002

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21976

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21918

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9554

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20155

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19493

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21634

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21605

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21493

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19925

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21522

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17756

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17752

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21275

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21223

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20635

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20743

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21097

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21503

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20939

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20668

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21093

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23211

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23345


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<52>,  Next: Windows<76>,  Prev: Tests<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22314(1): pydoc now works when the LINES environment variable
     is set.

   - bpo-22615(2): Argument Clinic now supports the “type” argument for
     the int converter.  This permits using the int converter with enums
     and typedefs.

   - bpo-20076(3): The makelocalealias.py script no longer ignores UTF-8
     mapping.

   - bpo-20079(4): The makelocalealias.py script now can parse the
     SUPPORTED file from glibc sources and supports command line options
     for source paths.

   - bpo-22201(5): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     correctly extracts ZIP files with directory entries.  Patch by Ryan
     Wilson.

   - bpo-22120(6): For functions using an unsigned integer return
     converter, Argument Clinic now generates a cast to that type for
     the comparison to -1 in the generated code.  (This suppresses a
     compilation warning.)

   - bpo-18974(7): Tools/scripts/diff.py now uses argparse instead of
     optparse.

   - bpo-21906(8): Make Tools/scripts/md5sum.py work in Python 3.  Patch
     by Zachary Ware.

   - bpo-21629(9): Fix Argument Clinic’s “–converters” feature.

   - Add support for ‘yield from’ to 2to3.

   - Add support for the PEP 465(10) matrix multiplication operator to
     2to3.

   - bpo-16047(11): Fix module exception list and __file__ handling in
     freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-11824(12): Consider ABI tags in freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-20535(13): PYTHONWARNING no longer affects the run_tests.py
     script.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22615

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20079

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22120

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21906

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21629

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11824

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20535


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<76>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<52>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.22.113.9 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23260(1): Update Windows installer

   - The bundled version of Tcl/Tk has been updated to 8.6.3.  The most
     visible result of this change is the addition of new native file
     dialogs when running on Windows Vista or newer.  See Tcl/Tk’s TIP
     432 for more information.  Also, this version of Tcl/Tk includes
     support for Windows 10.

   - bpo-17896(2): The Windows build scripts now expect external library
     sources to be in ‘PCbuild\..\externals’ rather than
     ‘PCbuild\..\..’.

   - bpo-17717(3): The Windows build scripts now use a copy of NASM
     pulled from svn.python.org to build OpenSSL.

   - bpo-21907(4): Improved the batch scripts provided for building
     Python.

   - bpo-22644(5): The bundled version of OpenSSL has been updated to
     1.0.1j.

   - bpo-10747(6): Use versioned labels in the Windows start menu.
     Patch by Olive Kilburn.

   - bpo-22980(7): .pyd files with a version and platform tag (for
     example, “.cp35-win32.pyd”) will now be loaded in preference to
     those without tags.

'(For information about older versions, consult the HISTORY file.)'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17717

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21907

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22644

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10747

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980


File: python.info,  Node: Python Öğreticisi,  Next: Python Setup and Usage,  Prev: What’s New in Python,  Up: Top

2 Python Öğreticisi
*******************

Python öğrenmesi kolay, güçlü bir yazılım dilidir.  Verimli üst düzey
veri yapılarına ve nesne yönelimli programlamaya basit ama etkili bir
yaklaşıma sahiptir.  Python’un zarif sözdizimi ve dinamik yazımı,
yorumlanmış doğasıyla birlikte, onu çoğu platformda birçok alanda komut
dosyası oluşturma ve hızlı uygulama geliştirme için ideal bir dil haline
getirir.

Python yorumlayıcısı ve kapsamlı standart kütüphane, Python web
sitesinde, ‘https://www.python.org/’ tüm büyük platformlar için kaynak
veya ikili biçimde ücretsiz olarak mevcuttur ve ücretsiz olarak
dağıtılabilir.  Aynı site ayrıca birçok ücretsiz üçüncü taraf Python
modülü, programı ve aracının dağıtımlarını ve bunlara yönelik
yönlendirmeleri ve ek belgeleri içerir.

Python yorumlayıcısı, C veya C++’da (veya C’den çağrılabilen diğer
dillerde) uygulanan yeni işlevler ve veri türleri ile kolayca
genişletilebilir.  Python, özelleştirilebilir uygulamalar için bir
uzantı dili olarak da kullanılabilir.

Bu öğretici, okuyucuyu Python dilinin ve sisteminin temel kavramlarını
ve özelliklerini gayriresmi olarak tanıtır.  Uygulamalı deneyim için
kullanışlı bir Python yorumlayıcıya sahip olmaya yardımcı olur, ancak
tüm örnekler bağımsızdır, böylece öğretici de çevrimdışı olarak
okunabilir.

Standart nesnelerin ve modüllerin açıklaması için *note Python Standart
Kütüphanesi: 143. ‘e bakınız.  *note Python Dil Referansı: 144. dilin
daha resmi bir tanımını verir.  Uzantıları C veya C++’ta yazmak için
*note Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme: 1a1f. ve *note
Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu: 1a20. ‘i okuyun.  Python’ı derinlemesine
kapsayan birkaç kitap da vardır.

Bu öğretici kapsamlı olmaya ve her bir özelliği, hatta yaygın olarak
kullanılan her özelliği bile kapsamaya çalışmaz.  Bunun yerine,
Python’un en dikkat çekici özelliklerinin çoğunu sunar ve size dilin
tarzı hakkında iyi bir fikir verecektir.  Okuduktan sonra, Python
modüllerini ve programlarını okuyabilecek ve yazabileceksiniz ve *note
Python Standart Kütüphanesi: 143. bölümünde açıklanan çeşitli Python
kütüphanesi modülleri hakkında daha fazla bilgi edinmeye hazır
olacaksınız.

Ayrıca *note Sözlük: 1a21. de göz atmaya değer.

* Menu:

* İştahınızı Kabartma::
* Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma::
* Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş::
* Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı::
* Veri Yapıları::
* Modüller::
* Girdi ve Çıktı::
* Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar::
* Sınıflar::
* Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti::
* Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II::
* Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler::
* Sırada Ne Var?::
* Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame::
* Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations.
* Ek Bölüm::


File: python.info,  Node: İştahınızı Kabartma,  Next: Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.1 İştahınızı Kabartma
=======================

Bilgisayarlarda çok fazla iş yaparsanız, sonunda otomatikleştirmek
istediğiniz bazı görevler olduğunu bulursunuz.  Örneğin, çok sayıda
metin dosyası üzerinde arama ve değiştirme gerçekleştirmek veya bir grup
fotoğraf dosyasını karmaşık bir şekilde yeniden adlandırmak ve yeniden
düzenlemek isteyebilirsiniz.  Belki küçük bir özel veritabanı, özel bir
GUI uygulaması veya basit bir oyun yazmak istersiniz.

Profesyonel bir yazılım geliştiricisiyseniz, birçok C/C++/Java
kütüphanesiyle çalışmanız gerekebilir, ancak normal yazma/derleme/test
etme/yeniden derleme döngüsünü çok yavaş buluyorsunuz.  Belki de böyle
bir kütüphane için bir test paketi yazıyorsunuz ve test kodunu yazmayı
sıkıcı bir görev olarak buluyorsunuz.  Veya eklenti dili kullanabilecek
bir program yazdınız ve uygulamanız için yepyeni bir dil tasarlamak ve
uygulamak istemiyorsunuz.

Python tam size göre bir dil.

Bu görevlerden bazıları için bir Unix kabuk komut dosyası veya Windows
toplu iş dosyaları yazabilirsiniz, ancak kabuk komut dosyaları,
dosyaların etrafında hareket etmek ve metin verilerini değiştirmekte en
iyisi olmakla beraber GUI uygulamaları veya oyun yapımı için pek öyle
olmayabilir.  Bir C/C++/Java programı yazabilirsiniz, ancak taslak
programını almak bile çok zaman alabilir.  Python’un kullanımı daha
kolaydır, Windows, macOS ve Unix işletim sistemlerinde kullanılabilir ve
işi daha hızlı bir şekilde halletmenize yardımcı olur.

Python kolay olmakla birlikte, kabuk komut dosyalarının veya toplu iş
dosyalarının sunabileceğinden çok daha fazla yapı ve büyük programlar
için destek sunan gerçek bir programlama dilidir.  Öte yandan, Python
C’den çok daha fazla hata denetimi sunar ve 'çok üst düzey bir dil
(very-high-level language)' olarak, esnek diziler ve sözlükler gibi
yerleşik üst düzey veri türlerine sahiptir.  Python daha genel veri
türleri nedeniyle, Awk ve hatta Perl’den çok daha büyük bir kullanım
alanına uygulanabilir, ancak Python’da birçok şey en az bu dillerdeki
kadar kolaydır.

Python, programınızı diğer Python programlarında yeniden
kullanılabilecek modüllere bölmenizi sağlar.  Python, programlayı
öğrenmeye başlarken veya programlarınızda temel olarak
kullanabileceğiniz geniş bir standart modül koleksiyonuyla birlikte
gelir.  Bu modüllerden bazıları dosya giriş/çıkışı (I/O), sistem
çağrıları, soketler ve hatta Tk gibi GUI araç setlerini içerir.

Python, derleme ve bağlama gerekmediğinden program geliştirme sırasında
size önemli ölçüde zaman kazandırabilecek yorumlanmış bir dildir.
Yorumlayıcı etkileşimli olarak kullanılabilir, bu da dilin
özellikleriyle deneme yapmayı, atma programları yazmayı veya aşağıdan
yukarıya program geliştirme sırasında işlevleri test etmeyi
kolaylaştırır.  Ayrıca kullanışlı bir masa üstühesap makinesidir.

Python, programların kompakt ve okunabilir bir şekilde yazılmasını
sağlar.  Python’da yazılan programlar genellikle çeşitli nedenlerden
dolayı aynı görevi gören C, C++ veya Java programlarına göre çok daha
kısadır:

   * üst düzey veri türleri karmaşık işlemleri tek bir deyimde ifade
     etmenizi sağlar;

   * ifade gruplandırması, başlangıç ve bitişe koyulan köşeli ayraçlar
     yerine girintileme kullanılarak yapılır;

   * değişken veya bağımsız değişken bildirimleri gerekli değildir.

Python 'genişletilebilir': C’de programlamayı biliyorsanız, kritik
işlemleri maksimum hızda gerçekleştirmek veya Python programlarını
yalnızca ikili biçimde (satıcıya özgü grafik kitaplığı gibi)
kullanılabilen kütüphanelere bağlamak için yorumlayıcıya yeni bir
yerleşik işlev veya modül eklemek kolaydır.  Gerçekten bağlandıktan
sonra, Python yorumlayıcısını C ile yazılmış bir uygulamaya bağlayabilir
ve bu uygulama için bir uzantı veya komut dili olarak kullanabilirsiniz.

Bu arada, dil adını BBC şovu “Monty Python’un Uçan Sirki”nden almıştır
ve sürüngenlerle hiçbir ilgisi yoktur.  Belgelerde Monty Python
skeçlerine atıfta bulunmaya sadece izin verilmez, aynı zamanda teşvik
edilir!

Artık hepiniz Python için heyecanlı olduğunuza göre, biraz daha
ayrıntılı olarak incelemek isteyeceksiniz.  Bir dili öğrenmenin en iyi
yolu kullanmak olduğundan, öğretici sizi okurken Python yorumlayıcısıyla
oynamaya davet eder.

Bir sonraki bölümde, yorumlayıcıyı kullanma mekaniği açıklanmıştır.  Bu
oldukça sıradan bir bilgidir, ancak daha sonra gösterilen örnekleri
denemek için gereklidir.

Öğreticinin geri kalanı, basit ifadeler, ifadeler ve veri türlerinden
başlayarak, işlevler ve modüller aracılığıyla ve son olarak istisnalar
ve kullanıcı tanımlı sınıflar gibi gelişmiş kavramlara dokunarak
örnekler aracılığıyla Python dilinin ve sisteminin çeşitli özelliklerini
tanıtır.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma,  Next: Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş,  Prev: İştahınızı Kabartma,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.2 Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma
===================================

* Menu:

* Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma::
* Yorumlayıcı ve Çevresi::


File: python.info,  Node: Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma,  Next: Yorumlayıcı ve Çevresi,  Up: Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma

2.2.1 Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma
---------------------------

The Python interpreter is usually installed as
‘/usr/local/bin/python3.12’ on those machines where it is available;
putting ‘/usr/local/bin’ in your Unix shell’s search path makes it
possible to start it by typing the command:

     python3.12

kabuğa.  (1)  Yorumlayıcının bulunduğu dizinin seçimi bir yükleme
seçeneği olduğundan, Python dizini başka bir yerde de olabilir; yerel
Python gurunuza veya sistem yöneticinize danışın.  (Örneğin,
‘/usr/local/python’ popüler bir alternatif konumdur.)

On Windows machines where you have installed Python from the *note
Microsoft Store: 1a2a, the ‘python3.12’ command will be available.  If
you have the *note py.exe launcher: 3c6. installed, you can use the ‘py’
command.  See *note Excursus; Setting environment variables: 1a2b. for
other ways to launch Python.

Dosya sonu karakteri (Unix’te ‘Control’-‘D’, Windows’ta ‘Control’-‘Z’)
yazılması, yorumlayıcının sıfır durumuyla (zero exit status)
sonlanmasına neden olur.  Bu işe yaramazsa, aşağıdaki komutu yazarak
yorumlayıcıdan çıkabilirsiniz: ‘quit()’.

Yorumlayıcının satır düzenleme özellikleri arasında etkileşimli
düzenleme, geçmiş değiştirme ve GNU Readline(2) kütüphanesini
destekleyen sistemlerde kod tamamlama bulunur.  Komut satırı
düzenlemenin desteklenip desteklenmediğini görmek için belki de en hızlı
denetim, elde ettiğiniz ilk Python istemine ‘Control’-‘P’ yazmaktır.
Bip sesi çıkarsa komut satırı düzenlemeniz vardır; Tuşların tanıtımı
için *note Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame: 1a2c. ‘e göz
atabilirsiniz.  Hiçbir şey görünmüyorsa veya ‘^P’ yankılanıyorsa, komut
satırı düzenlemesi kullanılamaz; yalnızca geçerli satırdaki karakterleri
kaldırmak için geri alabiliyorsunuz.

Yorumlayıcı bir şekilde Unix kabuğu gibi çalışır: bir tty aygıtına bağlı
standart girdi ile çağrıldığında, komutları etkileşimli olarak okur ve
yürütür; bir dosya adı argümanıyla veya standart girdi olarak bir
dosyayla çağrıldığında, o dosyadan bir 'komut dosyası' okur ve yürütür.

Yorumlayıcıyı başlatmanın ikinci bir yolu, kabuğun *note -c: 3eb.
seçeneğine benzer şekilde 'command' içindeki deyimleri çalıştıran
‘python -c command [arg] ...’ komutudur.  Python deyimleri genellikle
boşluk veya kabuğa özel başka karakterler içerdiğinden, genellikle
'command' ifadesinin tamamının alıntılanması tavsiye edilir.

Bazı Python modülleri komut dosyası olarak da yararlıdır.  Bunlar, eğer
tam adını komut satırına yazarsanız 'modül' için kaynak dosyası ‘python
-m *modül* [argüman] ...’ kullanılarak çağrılabilir.

Bir komut dosyası kullanıldığında, bazen komut dosyasını çalıştırabilmek
ve daha sonra etkileşimli moda girebilmek yararlıdır.  Bu komut
dosyasından önce *note -i: 1368. geçirilerek yapılabilir.

Tüm komut satırı seçenekleri *note Command line and environment: 17f1.
bölümünde açıklanmıştır.

* Menu:

* Değişken Geçirme::
* Etkileşimli Mod::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Unix’te, Python 3.x yorumlayıcısı varsayılan olarak ‘python’ adlı
yürütülebilir dosyayla yüklenmez, böylece aynı anda yüklenen bir Python
2.x yürütülebilir dosyasıyla çakışmaz.

   (2) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


File: python.info,  Node: Değişken Geçirme,  Next: Etkileşimli Mod,  Up: Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma

2.2.1.1 Değişken Geçirme
........................

Yorumlayıcı tarafından bilindiğinde, komut dosyası adı ve bundan sonraki
ek argüman dizelerin listesine dönüştürülür ve ‘sys’ modülündeki ‘argv’
değişkenine atanır.  Bu listeye ‘import sys’ öğesini yürüterek
erişebilirsiniz.  Listenin uzunluğu en az birdir; komut dosyası ve
argüman verilmediğinde ‘sys.argv[0]’ boş bir dizedir.  Komut dosyası adı
‘'-'’ (standart giriş anlamına gelir) olarak verildiğinde, ‘sys.argv[0]’
‘'-'’ olarak ayarlanır.  *note -c: 3eb. 'komut' kullanıldığında,
‘sys.argv[0]’, ‘-c’ olarak ayarlanır.  *note -m: 3ec. 'modül'
kullanıldığında, ‘sys.argv[0]’ bulunan modülün tam adına ayarlanır.
*note -c: 3eb. 'komut' veya *note -m: 3ec. 'modül' ‘den sonra bulunan
seçenekler, Python yorumlayıcısının seçenek işlemesi tarafından
tüketilmez, ancak komut veya modülün işlemesi için ‘sys.argv’ içinde
bırakılır.


File: python.info,  Node: Etkileşimli Mod,  Prev: Değişken Geçirme,  Up: Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma

2.2.1.2 Etkileşimli Mod
.......................

Komutlar bir tty’den okunduğunda, yorumlayıcının 'etkileşimli modda'
olduğu söylenir.  Bu modda, genellikle üç büyük işaret olan 'öncelikli
bilgi istemi' ile bir sonraki komutu ister (‘>>>’); devam satırları için
'ikincil istem' ile sorar, varsayılan olarak üç nokta (‘...’).
Yorumlayıcı, ilk istemi yazdırmadan önce sürüm numarasını ve telif hakkı
bildirimini belirten bir karşılama iletisi yazdırır:

     $ python3.12
     Python 3.12 (default, April 4 2022, 09:25:04)
     [GCC 10.2.0] on linux
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

Çok satırlı bir yapıya girilirken devamlılık satırları gereklidir.
Örnek olarak, *note if: 26e. ifadesine bir göz atın:

     >>> the_world_is_flat = True
     >>> if the_world_is_flat:
     ...     print("Be careful not to fall off!")
     ...
     Be careful not to fall off!

Etkileşimli mod hakkında daha fazlası için bkz.  *note Etkileşimli Mod:
1a30.


File: python.info,  Node: Yorumlayıcı ve Çevresi,  Prev: Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma,  Up: Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma

2.2.2 Yorumlayıcı ve Çevresi
----------------------------

* Menu:

* Kaynak Kodu Şeması::


File: python.info,  Node: Kaynak Kodu Şeması,  Up: Yorumlayıcı ve Çevresi

2.2.2.1 Kaynak Kodu Şeması
..........................

Varsayılan olarak, Python kaynak dosyaları UTF-8’de kodlanmış olarak
kabul edilir.  Bu kodlamada, dünyadaki çoğu dilin karakterleri dize
değişmezlerinde, tanımlayıcılarda ve yorumlarda aynı anda kullanılabilir
— standart kütüphane tanımlayıcılar için yalnızca ASCII karakterleri
kullansa da, herhangi bir taşınabilir kodun izlemesi gereken bir
kuraldır.  Tüm bu karakterleri düzgün görüntülemek için,
düzenleyicinizin dosyanın UTF-8 olduğunu tanıması ve dosyadaki tüm
karakterleri destekleyen bir yazı tipi kullanması gerekir.

Varsayılan dil şeması dışında bir şema bildirmek için, dosyanın 'ilk'
satırı olarak özel bir yorum satırı eklenmelidir.  Sözdizimi aşağıdaki
gibidir:

     # -*- coding: encoding -*-

burada 'kodlama', Python tarafından desteklenen geçerli ‘codec’
bileşenlerinden biridir.

Örneğin, Windows-1252 şemasının kullanılacağını bildirmek için, kaynak
kod dosyanızın ilk satırı şu olmalıdır:

     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

'İlk satır' kuralının bir istisnası, kaynak kodun *note UNIX “shebang”
line: 1a35. satırı ile başlamasıdır.  Bu durumda, şema bildirimi
dosyanın ikinci satırı olarak eklenmelidir.  Örneğin:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3
     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-


File: python.info,  Node: Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş,  Next: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı,  Prev: Python Yorumlayıcısını Kullanma,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.3 Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş
====================================

İlerleyen örneklerde; giriş ve çıkış, bilgi istemlerinin olup olmamasına
göre ayırt edilir (*note >>>: 1a39. ve *note …: 1a3a.): örneği
tekrarlamak için bilgi isteminden sonra her şeyi yazmalısınız, istem
göründüğünde bir bilgi istemi ile başlamayan satırlar yorumlayıcıdan
çıkar.  Bir örnekte tek başına bir satırdaki ikincil istemin boş bir
satır yazmanız gerektiği anlamına geldiğini unutmayın; bu, çok satırlı
bir komutu sonlandırmak için kullanılır.

Bu kılavuzdaki örneklerin çoğu, etkileşimli komut isteminde girilenler
dahil, yorumlar içerir.  Python’da yorumlar, ‘#’ hash karakteriyle
başlar ve fiziksel satırın sonuna kadar uzanır.  Bir satırın başında
veya boşluk veya kodun ardından bir yorum görünebilir, ancak bir dize
sabiti içinde değil.  Bir dize sabiti içindeki bir hash karakteri,
yalnızca bir hash karakterdir.  Yorumlar kodu netleştirmek için
olduğundan ve Python tarafından yorumlanmadığından örnekler yazarken
atlanabilirler.

Bazı örnekler:

     # this is the first comment
     spam = 1  # and this is the second comment
               # ... and now a third!
     text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes."

* Menu:

* Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak::
* Programlamaya Doğru İlk Adımlar::


File: python.info,  Node: Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak,  Next: Programlamaya Doğru İlk Adımlar,  Up: Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş

2.3.1 Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak
----------------------------------------------

Bazı basit Python komutlarını deneyelim.  Yorumlayıcıyı başlatın ve
‘>>>’ birincil istemini bekleyin.  (Uzun sürmemelidir.)

* Menu:

* Sayılar::
* Metin::
* Listeler::


File: python.info,  Node: Sayılar,  Next: Metin,  Up: Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak

2.3.1.1 Sayılar
...............

The interpreter acts as a simple calculator: you can type an expression
at it and it will write the value.  Expression syntax is
straightforward: the operators ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’ and ‘/’ can be used to
perform arithmetic; parentheses (‘()’) can be used for grouping.  For
example:

     >>> 2 + 2
     4
     >>> 50 - 5*6
     20
     >>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
     5.0
     >>> 8 / 5  # division always returns a floating-point number
     1.6

Tam sayıların (örneğin ‘2’, ‘4’, ‘20’) türü *note int: 184. olup,
kesirli kısmı olanlar (örneğin ‘5.0’, ‘1.6’) *note float: 272. türüne
sahiptir.  Sayısal türler hakkında sonrasında daha fazlasını göreceğiz.

Bölme (‘/’) her zaman bir ondalıklı sayı döndürür.  *note floor
division: 79d. yapmak ve bir tam sayı sonucu almak için ‘//’ operatörünü
kullanabilirsiniz; kalanı hesaplamak içinse ‘%’ operatörünü
kullanabilirsiniz:

     >>> 17 / 3  # classic division returns a float
     5.666666666666667
     >>>
     >>> 17 // 3  # floor division discards the fractional part
     5
     >>> 17 % 3  # the % operator returns the remainder of the division
     2
     >>> 5 * 3 + 2  # floored quotient * divisor + remainder
     17

Python ile üslü sayıları hesaplamak için ‘**’ operatörünü kullanmak
mümkündür (1):

     >>> 5 ** 2  # 5 squared
     25
     >>> 2 ** 7  # 2 to the power of 7
     128

Bir değişkene değer atamak için eşittir işareti (‘=’) kullanılır.  Daha
sonra, bir sonraki etkileşimli komut isteminden önce hiçbir sonuç
görüntülenmez:

     >>> width = 20
     >>> height = 5 * 9
     >>> width * height
     900

Bir değişken “tanımlı” değilse (bir değer atanmamışsa), onu kullanmaya
çalışmak size bir hata verecektir:

     >>> n  # try to access an undefined variable
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'n' is not defined

Ondalıklı sayı için tam destek var; karışık türde işlenenlere sahip
operatörler, tam sayı işlenenini ondalıklı sayıya dönüştürür:

     >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1
     14.0

Etkileşimli modda, son yazdırılan ifade ‘_’ değişkenine atanır.  Bu,
Python’ı bir masa hesap makinesi olarak kullandığınızda, hesaplamalara
devam etmenin biraz daha kolay olduğu anlamına gelir, örneğin:

     >>> tax = 12.5 / 100
     >>> price = 100.50
     >>> price * tax
     12.5625
     >>> price + _
     113.0625
     >>> round(_, 2)
     113.06

Bu değişken, kullanıcı tarafından salt okunur olarak ele alınmalıdır.
Açıkça ona bir değer atamayın — sihirli davranışları olan bu gömülü
değişkeni maskeleyen aynı ada sahip bağımsız bir yerel değişken
yaratırsınız.

*note int: 184. ve *note float: 272. ‘a ek olarak Python, *note Decimal:
609. ve *note Fraction: 1ae. gibi diğer sayı türlerini de destekler.
Python ayrıca *note karmaşık sayılar: 1a3f. için gömülü desteğe sahiptir
ve hayali kısmı belirtmek için ‘j’ veya ‘J’ son ekini kullanır (ör.
‘3+5j’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘**’, ‘-’ ‘den daha yüksek önceliğe sahip olduğundan, ‘-3**2’,
‘-(3**2)’ olarak yorumlanacak ve dolayısıyla ‘-9’ ile sonuçlanacaktır.
Bundan kaçınmak ve ‘9’ elde etmek için ‘(-3)**2’ kullanabilirsiniz.


File: python.info,  Node: Metin,  Next: Listeler,  Prev: Sayılar,  Up: Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak

2.3.1.2 Metin
.............

Python sayıların yanı sıra metinleri de (“string” olarak adlandırılan
*note str: 15d. türü ile temsil edilir) işleyebilir.  Bu karakterleri
“‘!’”, kelimeleri “‘tavşan’”, isimleri “‘Paris’”, cümleleri “‘Arkanı
kolluyorum.’”, vb.  içerir.  “‘Yay! :)’”.  Tek tırnak (‘'...'’) veya
çift tırnak (‘"..."’) içine alınabilirler ve aynı sonucu verirler (1).

     >>> 'spam eggs'  # single quotes
     'spam eggs'
     >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!"  # double quotes
     'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!'
     >>> '1975'  # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings
     '1975'

Bir alıntıyı alıntılamak için, önüne ‘\’ koyarak “kaçmamız”(escape)
gerekir.  Alternatif olarak, diğer tırnak işareti türlerini de
kullanabiliriz:

     >>> 'doesn\'t'  # use \' to escape the single quote...
     "doesn't"
     >>> "doesn't"  # ...or use double quotes instead
     "doesn't"
     >>> '"Yes," they said.'
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> "\"Yes,\" they said."
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
     '"Isn\'t," they said.'

Python kabuğunda(shell), string tanımı ve çıktı stringi farklı
görünebilir.  *note print(): e16. fonksiyonu, tırnak işaretlerini
atlayarak ve kaçan ve özel karakterleri yazdırarak daha okunabilir bir
çıktı üretir:

     >>> s = 'First line.\nSecond line.'  # \n means newline
     >>> s  # without print(), special characters are included in the string
     'First line.\nSecond line.'
     >>> print(s)  # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line
     First line.
     Second line.

‘\’ ile başlayan karakterlerin özel karakterler olarak yorumlanmasını
istemiyorsanız, ilk alıntıdan önce bir ‘r’ ekleyerek 'ham dizeleri (raw
strings)' kullanabilirsiniz:

     >>> print('C:\some\name')  # here \n means newline!
     C:\some
     ame
     >>> print(r'C:\some\name')  # note the r before the quote
     C:\some\name

Ham dizelerin ince bir yönü vardır: ham bir dize tek sayıda ‘\’
karakterle bitmeyebilir; daha fazla bilgi ve geçici çözümler için *note
SSS: 1a42. ‘e bakın.

String literals can span multiple lines.  One way is using
triple-quotes: ‘"""..."""’ or ‘'''...'''’.  End-of-line characters are
automatically included in the string, but it’s possible to prevent this
by adding a ‘\’ at the end of the line.  In the following example, the
initial newline is not included:

     >>> print("""\
     ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
     ...      -h                        Display this usage message
     ...      -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
     ... """)
     Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
          -h                        Display this usage message
          -H hostname               Hostname to connect to

     >>>

Dizeler ‘+’ operatörüyle birleştirilebilir (birbirine yapıştırılabilir)
ve ‘*’ ile tekrarlanabilir:

     >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium'
     >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
     'unununium'

Yan yana iki veya daha fazla 'dize sabiti' (yani, tırnak işaretleri
arasına alınanlar) otomatik olarak birleştirilir.

     >>> 'Py' 'thon'
     'Python'

Bu özellik, özellikle uzun dizeleri kırmak istediğinizde kullanışlıdır:

     >>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
     ...         'to have them joined together.')
     >>> text
     'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'

Bu, değişkenler veya ifadelerle değil, yalnızca iki sabit değerle
çalışır:

     >>> prefix = 'Py'
     >>> prefix 'thon'  # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         prefix 'thon'
                ^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax
     >>> ('un' * 3) 'ium'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         ('un' * 3) 'ium'
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Değişkenleri veya bir değişkeni ve bir sabiti birleştirmek istiyorsanız,
‘+’ kullanın:

     >>> prefix + 'thon'
     'Python'

Dizeler, ilk karakterin indeksi 0 olacak şekilde 'dizine eklenebilir'
(abone olabilir).  Karakterler için ayrı bir tür yoktur; karakterler
yalnızca 'bir' uzunluğunda dizelerdir:

     >>> word = 'Python'
     >>> word[0]  # character in position 0
     'P'
     >>> word[5]  # character in position 5
     'n'

Sağdan saymaya başlamak için indeksler negatif sayılar da olabilir:

     >>> word[-1]  # last character
     'n'
     >>> word[-2]  # second-last character
     'o'
     >>> word[-6]
     'P'

-0 ile 0 aynı olduğundan, negatif endekslerin -1’den başladığını
unutmayın.

In addition to indexing, 'slicing' is also supported.  While indexing is
used to obtain individual characters, 'slicing' allows you to obtain a
substring:

     >>> word[0:2]  # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[2:5]  # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)
     'tho'

Dilim indekslerinin kullanışlı varsayılanları vardır; atlanmış bir ilk
dizin varsayılanı sıfırdır, atlanmış bir ikinci dizin varsayılanı
dilimlenmekte olan dizenin boyutudur.

     >>> word[:2]   # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[4:]   # characters from position 4 (included) to the end
     'on'
     >>> word[-2:]  # characters from the second-last (included) to the end
     'on'

Başlangıcın her zaman dahil edildiğine ve sonun her zaman hariç
tutulduğuna dikkat edin.  Bu, ‘s[:i] + s[i:]’ değerinin her zaman ‘s’
değerine eşit olmasını sağlar:

     >>> word[:2] + word[2:]
     'Python'
     >>> word[:4] + word[4:]
     'Python'

Dilimlerin nasıl çalıştığını hatırlamanın bir yolu, dizinleri ilk
karakterin sol kenarı 0 ile 'arasındaki' karakterleri işaret ediyor
olarak düşünmektir.  Ardından, 'n' karakterli bir dizenin son
karakterinin sağ kenarında 'n' dizini vardır, örneğin:

      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      | P | y | t | h | o | n |
      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      0   1   2   3   4   5   6
     -6  -5  -4  -3  -2  -1

İlk sayı satırı, dizideki 0…6 endekslerinin konumunu verir; ikinci
satır, karşılık gelen negatif endeksleri verir.  'i' ile 'j' arasındaki
dilim, sırasıyla 'i' ve 'j' etiketli kenarlar arasındaki tüm
karakterlerden oluşur.

Negatif olmayan indeksler için, her ikisi de sınırlar içindeyse, bir
dilimin uzunluğu indekslerin farkıdır.  Örneğin, ‘kelime[1:3]’ ‘ün
uzunluğu 2’dir.

Çok büyük bir dizin kullanmaya çalışmak bir hataya neden olur:

     >>> word[42]  # the word only has 6 characters
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     IndexError: string index out of range

Ancak, aralık dışı dilim endeksleri, dilimleme için kullanıldığında
zarif bir şekilde işlenir:

     >>> word[4:42]
     'on'
     >>> word[42:]
     ''

Python dizeleri değiştirilemez — bunlar *note immutable: 1a43. ‘dır.  Bu
nedenle, dizide dizine alınmış bir konuma atamak bir hatayla sonuçlanır:

     >>> word[0] = 'J'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
     >>> word[2:] = 'py'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

Farklı bir dizeye ihtiyacınız varsa, yeni bir tane oluşturmalısınız:

     >>> 'J' + word[1:]
     'Jython'
     >>> word[:2] + 'py'
     'Pypy'

Yerleşik işlev *note len(): 441, bir dizenin uzunluğunu döndürür:

     >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
     >>> len(s)
     34

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Metin Sırası Türü — str: 1a44.

     Dizeler, 'sıra türlerinin' örnekleridir ve bu türler tarafından
     desteklenen genel işlemleri destekler.

*note dize-yöntemleri: 1a45.

     Dizeler, temel dönüşümler ve arama için çok sayıda yöntemi
     destekler.

*note f-strings: 807.

     Gömülü ifadelere sahip dize sabitleri.

*note Format String Syntax: 1237.

     *note str.format(): 433. ile dize biçimlendirme hakkında bilgi.

*note printf-style String Formatting: 4e4.

     Dizeler ‘%’ operatörünün sol işleneni olduğunda çağrılan eski
     biçimlendirme işlemleri burada daha ayrıntılı olarak
     açıklanmaktadır.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Diğer dillerden farklı olarak, ‘\n’ gibi özel karakterler hem tek
(‘'...'’) hem de çift (‘"..."’) tırnak işaretleri ile aynı anlama
sahiptir.  İkisi arasındaki tek fark, tek tırnak içinde ‘"’ dan
kaçmanıza gerek olmamasıdır (ancak ‘\'’ dan kaçmanız gerekir) ve bunun
tersi de geçerlidir.


File: python.info,  Node: Listeler,  Prev: Metin,  Up: Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak

2.3.1.3 Listeler
................

Python, diğer değerleri gruplamak için kullanılan bir dizi 'bileşik'
veri türünü bilir.  En çok yönlü olanı, köşeli parantezler arasında
virgülle ayrılmış değerlerin (ögelerin) bir listesi olarak yazılabilen
'liste'’dir.  Listeler farklı türde ögeler içerebilir, ancak genellikle
ögelerin tümü aynı türdedir.

     >>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
     >>> squares
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

Dizeler gibi (ve diğer tüm yerleşik *note sequence: 23f. türleri),
listeler dizine alınabilir ve dilimlenebilir:

     >>> squares[0]  # indexing returns the item
     1
     >>> squares[-1]
     25
     >>> squares[-3:]  # slicing returns a new list
     [9, 16, 25]

Ayrıca listeler birleştirme gibi işlemleri de destekler:

     >>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

*note immutable: 1a43. olan dizelerin aksine, listeler *note mutable:
1a48. türündedir, yani içeriklerini değiştirmek mümkündür:

     >>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # something's wrong here
     >>> 4 ** 3  # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65!
     64
     >>> cubes[3] = 64  # replace the wrong value
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125]

You can also add new items at the end of the list, by using the
‘list.append()’ 'method' (we will see more about methods later):

     >>> cubes.append(216)  # add the cube of 6
     >>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # and the cube of 7
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]

Simple assignment in Python never copies data.  When you assign a list
to a variable, the variable refers to the 'existing list'.  Any changes
you make to the list through one variable will be seen through all other
variables that refer to it.:

     >>> rgb = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]
     >>> rgba = rgb
     >>> id(rgb) == id(rgba)  # they reference the same object
     True
     >>> rgba.append("Alph")
     >>> rgb
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Tüm dilim işlemleri, istenen ögeleri içeren yeni bir liste döndürür.
Bu, aşağıdaki dilimin listenin bir *note shallow copy: 1a49. döndürdüğü
anlamına gelir:

     >>> correct_rgba = rgba[:]
     >>> correct_rgba[-1] = "Alpha"
     >>> correct_rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"]
     >>> rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Dilimlere atama da mümkündür ve bu, listenin boyutunu bile
değiştirebilir veya tamamen temizleyebilir:

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # replace some values
     >>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # now remove them
     >>> letters[2:5] = []
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list
     >>> letters[:] = []
     >>> letters
     []

Yerleşik işlev *note len(): 441. ayrıca listeler için de geçerlidir:

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
     >>> len(letters)
     4

Listeleri iç içe yerleştirmek (diğer listeleri içeren listeler
oluşturmak) mümkündür, örneğin:

     >>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> n = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> x = [a, n]
     >>> x
     [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
     >>> x[0]
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> x[0][1]
     'b'


File: python.info,  Node: Programlamaya Doğru İlk Adımlar,  Prev: Python’ı Hesap Makinesi Olarak Kullanmak,  Up: Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş

2.3.2 Programlamaya Doğru İlk Adımlar
-------------------------------------

Elbette Python’ı iki ile ikiyi toplamaktan daha komplike görevler için
kullanabiliriz.  Örneğin, Fibonacci serisinin(1) ilk alt dizisini
aşağıdaki gibi yazabiliriz:

     >>> # Fibonacci series:
     >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next
     >>> a, b = 0, 1
     >>> while a < 10:
     ...     print(a)
     ...     a, b = b, a+b
     ...
     0
     1
     1
     2
     3
     5
     8

Bu örnek, birkaç yeni özellik sunar.

   * İlk satır bir 'çoklu atama': ‘a’ ve ‘b’ değişkenleri aynı anda yeni
     0 ve 1 değerlerini alır.  Tarafların tümü, herhangi bir görev
     yapılmadan önce değerlendirilir.  Sağ taraftaki ifadeler soldan
     sağa doğru değerlendirilir.

   * *note while: 1a4c. döngüsü, koşul (burada: ‘a < 10’) doğru kaldığı
     sürece yürütülür.  Python’da, C’de olduğu gibi, sıfır olmayan
     herhangi bir tam sayı değeri doğrudur; sıfır yanlıştır.  Koşul
     ayrıca bir dizi veya liste değeri, aslında herhangi bir dizi
     olabilir; uzunluğu sıfır olmayan her şey doğrudur, boş diziler
     yanlıştır.  Örnekte kullanılan test basit bir karşılaştırmadır.
     Standart karşılaştırma işleçleri C’dekiyle aynı şekilde yazılır:
     ‘<’ (küçüktür), ‘>’ (büyüktür), ‘==’ (eşittir), ‘<=’ ( küçük veya
     eşit), ‘>=’ (büyük veya eşit) ve ‘!=’ (eşit değil).

   * Döngünün 'gövdesi girintilidir': girinti, Python’un ifadeleri
     gruplama şeklidir.  Etkileşimli komut isteminde, girintili her
     satır için bir sekme veya boşluk(lar) yazmanız gerekir.  Pratikte,
     bir metin düzenleyici ile Python için daha karmaşık girdiler
     hazırlayacaksınız; tüm düzgün metin editörlerinin otomatik girinti
     özelliği vardır.  Bir bileşik deyim etkileşimli olarak
     girildiğinde, tamamlandığını belirtmek için boş bir satırdan sonra
     gelmelidir (çünkü ayrıştırıcı son satırı ne zaman yazdığınızı
     tahmin edemez).  Bir temel blok içindeki her satırın aynı miktarda
     girintili olması gerektiğini unutmayın.

   * The *note print(): e16. function writes the value of the
     argument(s) it is given.  It differs from just writing the
     expression you want to write (as we did earlier in the calculator
     examples) in the way it handles multiple arguments, floating-point
     quantities, and strings.  Strings are printed without quotes, and a
     space is inserted between items, so you can format things nicely,
     like this:

          >>> i = 256*256
          >>> print('The value of i is', i)
          The value of i is 65536

     'end' anahtar sözcüğü argümanı, çıktıdan sonra yeni satırı önlemek
     veya çıktıyı farklı bir dizeyle bitirmek için kullanılabilir:

          >>> a, b = 0, 1
          >>> while a < 1000:
          ...     print(a, end=',')
          ...     a, b = b, a+b
          ...
          0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_sequence


File: python.info,  Node: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı,  Next: Veri Yapıları,  Prev: Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.4 Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı
==================================

As well as the *note while: 1a4c. statement just introduced, Python uses
a few more that we will encounter in this chapter.

* Menu:

* if İfadeleri::
* for İfadeleri::
* range() Fonksiyonu: range Fonksiyonu.
* break and continue Statements::
* else Clauses on Loops::
* pass İfadeleri::
* pass İfadeleri: pass İfadeleri<2>.
* Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması::
* İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi::
* Intermezzo; Kodlama Stili: Intermezzo Kodlama Stili.


File: python.info,  Node: if İfadeleri,  Next: for İfadeleri,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.1 ‘if’ İfadeleri
--------------------

Belki de en iyi bilinen deyim türü *note if: 26e. deyimidir.  Örneğin:

     >>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
     Please enter an integer: 42
     >>> if x < 0:
     ...     x = 0
     ...     print('Negative changed to zero')
     ... elif x == 0:
     ...     print('Zero')
     ... elif x == 1:
     ...     print('Single')
     ... else:
     ...     print('More')
     ...
     More

Sıfır veya daha fazla *note elif: 1a52. bölümü olabilir ve *note else:
26c. bölümü isteğe bağlıdır.  ‘‘elif’’ anahtar sözcüğü ‘else if’
ifadesinin kısaltmasıdır ve aşırı girintiden kaçınmak için
kullanışlıdır.  Bir ‘if’ … ‘elif’ … ‘elif’ … dizisi, diğer dillerde
bulunan ‘switch’ veya ‘case’ deyimlerinin yerine geçer.

Aynı değeri birkaç sabitle karşılaştırıyorsanız veya belirli türleri
veya nitelikleri kontrol ediyorsanız, ‘match’ deyimini de yararlı
bulabilirsiniz.  Daha fazla ayrıntı için *note pass İfadeleri: 1a53.
bölümüne bakınız.


File: python.info,  Node: for İfadeleri,  Next: range Fonksiyonu,  Prev: if İfadeleri,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.2 ‘for’ İfadeleri
---------------------

Python’daki *note for: 26d. deyimi, C veya Pascal’da alışkın
olduğunuzdan biraz farklıdır.  Her zaman sayıların aritmetik ilerlemesi
üzerinde yineleme yapmak (Pascal’daki gibi) veya kullanıcıya hem
yineleme adımını hem de durma koşulunu tanımlama yeteneği vermek (C
gibi) yerine, Python’un ‘for’ deyimi, herhangi bir dizinin (bir liste
veya bir dize) öğeleri üzerinde, dizide göründükleri sırayla yineler.
Örneğin (kelime oyunu yapmak istemedim):

     >>> # Measure some strings:
     >>> words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
     >>> for w in words:
     ...     print(w, len(w))
     ...
     cat 3
     window 6
     defenestrate 12

Aynı koleksiyon üzerinde yineleme yaparken bir koleksiyonu değiştiren
kodun doğru yazılması zor olabilir.  Bunun yerine, koleksiyonun bir
kopyası üzerinde döngü yapmak veya yeni bir koleksiyon oluşturmak
genellikle daha kolaydır:

     # Create a sample collection
     users = {'Hans': 'active', 'Éléonore': 'inactive', '景太郎': 'active'}

     # Strategy:  Iterate over a copy
     for user, status in users.copy().items():
         if status == 'inactive':
             del users[user]

     # Strategy:  Create a new collection
     active_users = {}
     for user, status in users.items():
         if status == 'active':
             active_users[user] = status


File: python.info,  Node: range Fonksiyonu,  Next: break and continue Statements,  Prev: for İfadeleri,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.3 ‘range()’ Fonksiyonu
--------------------------

Bir sayı dizisi üzerinde yineleme yapmanız gerekiyorsa, yerleşik *note
range(): 79c. fonksiyonu kullanışlı olur.  Aritmetik ilerlemeler üretir:

     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     0
     1
     2
     3
     4

Verilen bitiş noktası asla oluşturulan dizinin bir parçası değildir;
‘range(10)’ 10 değer üretir, 10 uzunluğundaki bir dizinin öğeleri için
yasal indisler.  Aralığın başka bir sayıdan başlamasına izin vermek veya
farklı bir artış (negatif bile olsa; bazen buna ‘adım’ denir) belirtmek
mümkündür:

     >>> list(range(5, 10))
     [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
     [0, 3, 6, 9]

     >>> list(range(-10, -100, -30))
     [-10, -40, -70]

Bir dizinin indisleri üzerinde yineleme yapmak için *note range(): 79c.
ve *note len(): 441. öğelerini aşağıdaki gibi birleştirebilirsiniz:

     >>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
     >>> for i in range(len(a)):
     ...     print(i, a[i])
     ...
     0 Mary
     1 had
     2 a
     3 little
     4 lamb

Ancak bu tür durumların çoğunda *note enumerate(): 1308. fonksiyonunu
kullanmak uygundur, bkz *note Döngü Teknikleri: 1a58.

Sadece bir aralık yazdırırsanız garip bir şey olur:

     >>> range(10)
     range(0, 10)

Birçok yönden *note range(): 79c. tarafından döndürülen nesne bir
listeymiş gibi davranır, ancak aslında öyle değildir.  Üzerinde yineleme
yaptığınızda istenen dizinin ardışık öğelerini döndüren bir nesnedir,
ancak listeyi gerçekten oluşturmaz, böylece yerden tasarruf sağlar.

Böyle bir nesnenin *note iterable: 10ce. olduğunu, yani arz tükenene
kadar ardışık öğeler elde edebilecekleri bir şey bekleyen fonksiyonlar
ve yapılar için bir hedef olarak uygun olduğunu söylüyoruz.  Daha önce
*note for: 26d. deyiminin böyle bir yapı olduğunu görmüştük, bir
yinelenebilir alan bir fonksiyon örneği ise *note sum(): 187.:

     >>> sum(range(4))  # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
     6

Daha sonra yinelenebilirleri döndüren ve argüman olarak
yinelenebilirleri alan daha fazla fonksiyon göreceğiz.  *note Veri
Yapıları: 1a59. bölümünde, *note list(): 422. hakkında daha ayrıntılı
olarak tartışacağız.


File: python.info,  Node: break and continue Statements,  Next: else Clauses on Loops,  Prev: range Fonksiyonu,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.4 ‘break’ and ‘continue’ Statements
---------------------------------------

The *note break: 915. statement breaks out of the innermost enclosing
*note for: 26d. or *note while: 1a4c. loop:

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(f"{n} equals {x} * {n//x}")
     ...             break
     ...
     4 equals 2 * 2
     6 equals 2 * 3
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

The *note continue: 827. statement continues with the next iteration of
the loop:

     >>> for num in range(2, 10):
     ...     if num % 2 == 0:
     ...         print(f"Found an even number {num}")
     ...         continue
     ...     print(f"Found an odd number {num}")
     ...
     Found an even number 2
     Found an odd number 3
     Found an even number 4
     Found an odd number 5
     Found an even number 6
     Found an odd number 7
     Found an even number 8
     Found an odd number 9


File: python.info,  Node: else Clauses on Loops,  Next: pass İfadeleri,  Prev: break and continue Statements,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.5 ‘else’ Clauses on Loops
-----------------------------

In a ‘for’ or ‘while’ loop the ‘break’ statement may be paired with an
‘else’ clause.  If the loop finishes without executing the ‘break’, the
‘else’ clause executes.

In a *note for: 26d. loop, the ‘else’ clause is executed after the loop
finishes its final iteration, that is, if no break occurred.

In a *note while: 1a4c. loop, it’s executed after the loop’s condition
becomes false.

In either kind of loop, the ‘else’ clause is 'not' executed if the loop
was terminated by a *note break: 915.  Of course, other ways of ending
the loop early, such as a *note return: 82c. or a raised exception, will
also skip execution of the *note else: 26c. clause.

This is exemplified in the following ‘for’ loop, which searches for
prime numbers:

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
     ...             break
     ...     else:
     ...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
     ...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
     ...
     2 is a prime number
     3 is a prime number
     4 equals 2 * 2
     5 is a prime number
     6 equals 2 * 3
     7 is a prime number
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

(Yes, this is the correct code.  Look closely: the ‘else’ clause belongs
to the ‘for’ loop, 'not' the ‘if’ statement.)

One way to think of the else clause is to imagine it paired with the
‘if’ inside the loop.  As the loop executes, it will run a sequence like
if/if/if/else.  The ‘if’ is inside the loop, encountered a number of
times.  If the condition is ever true, a ‘break’ will happen.  If the
condition is never true, the ‘else’ clause outside the loop will
execute.

When used with a loop, the ‘else’ clause has more in common with the
‘else’ clause of a *note try: 503. statement than it does with that of
‘if’ statements: a ‘try’ statement’s ‘else’ clause runs when no
exception occurs, and a loop’s ‘else’ clause runs when no ‘break’
occurs.  For more on the ‘try’ statement and exceptions, see *note Özel
Durumları İşleme: 1a5f.


File: python.info,  Node: pass İfadeleri,  Next: pass İfadeleri<2>,  Prev: else Clauses on Loops,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.6 ‘pass’ İfadeleri
----------------------

*note pass: 1a62. deyimi hiçbir şey yapmaz.  Sözdizimsel olarak bir
deyim gerektiğinde ancak program hiçbir eylem gerektirmediğinde
kullanılabilir.  Örneğin:

     >>> while True:
     ...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
     ...

Bu genellikle minimal sınıflar oluşturmak için kullanılır:

     >>> class MyEmptyClass:
     ...     pass
     ...

*note pass: 1a62. ‘in kullanılabileceği bir başka yer de, yeni kod
üzerinde çalışırken bir fonksiyon veya koşul gövdesi için bir yer tutucu
olarak daha soyut bir düzeyde düşünmeye devam etmenizi sağlamaktır.
‘pass’ sessizce göz ardı edilir:

     >>> def initlog(*args):
     ...     pass   # Remember to implement this!
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: pass İfadeleri<2>,  Next: Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması,  Prev: pass İfadeleri,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.7 ‘pass’ İfadeleri
----------------------

*note match: 648. bir ifadeyi alır ve değerini bir veya daha fazla case
bloğu olarak verilen ardışık kalıplarla karşılaştırır.  Bu, C, Java veya
JavaScript’teki (ve diğer birçok dildeki) bir switch ifadesine yüzeysel
olarak benzer, ancak Rust veya Haskell gibi dillerdeki kalıp
eşleştirmeye daha çok benzer.  Yalnızca eşleşen ilk kalıp yürütülür ve
ayrıca bileşenleri (sıra öğeleri veya nesne nitelikleri) değerden
değişkenlere çıkarabilir.

En basit form, bir konu değerini bir veya daha fazla sabitle
karşılaştırır:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Son bloğa dikkat edin: “değişken adı” ‘_’ bir 'wildcard' görevi görür ve
asla eşleşmez.  Hiçbir durum eşleşmezse, dallardan hiçbiri yürütülmez.

‘|’ (“or”) kullanarak birkaç sabiti tek bir kalıpta
birleştirebilirsiniz:

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

Kalıplar paket açma atamaları gibi görünebilir ve değişkenleri bağlamak
için kullanılabilir:

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

Bunu dikkatle inceleyin!  İlk kalıpta iki sabit vardır ve yukarıda
gösterilen sabit kalıbının bir uzantısı olarak düşünülebilir.  Ancak
sonraki iki kalıp bir sabit ve bir değişkeni birleştirir ve değişken
özneden (‘point’) bir değer 'bağlar'.  Dördüncü kalıp iki değeri
yakalar, bu da onu kavramsal olarak ‘(x, y) = point’ paket açma
atamasına benzer hale getirir.

Verilerinizi yapılandırmak için sınıfları kullanıyorsanız, sınıf adını
ve ardından bir yapıcıya benzeyen, ancak nitelikleri değişkenlere
yakalama yeteneğine sahip bir argüman listesi kullanabilirsiniz:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     def where_is(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y}")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x}")
             case Point():
                 print("Somewhere else")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

Konumsal parametreleri, nitelikleri için bir sıralama sağlayan bazı
yerleşik sınıflarla (örneğin veri sınıfları) kullanabilirsiniz.  Ayrıca
sınıflarınızda ‘__match_args__’ niteliğini ayarlayarak kalıplardaki
nitelikler için belirli bir konum tanımlayabilirsiniz.  Bu özellik (“x”,
“y”) olarak ayarlanırsa, bahsi geçen kalıpların hepsi eş değerdir (ve
hepsi ‘y’ niteliğini ‘var’ değişkenine bağlar):

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)

Kalıpları okumak için önerilen bir yol, hangi değişkenlerin neye
ayarlanacağını anlamak için onlara bir atamanın soluna koyacağınız şeyin
genişletilmiş bir biçimi olarak bakmaktır.  Yalnızca bağımsız isimler
(yukarıdaki ‘var’ gibi) bir eşleştirme deyimi tarafından atanır.
Noktalı isimlere (‘foo.bar’ gibi), nitelik isimlerine (yukarıdaki ‘x=’
ve ‘y=’ gibi) veya sınıf isimlerine (yukarıdaki ‘Point’ gibi
yanlarındaki “(…)” ile tanınan) asla atama yapılmaz.

Patterns can be arbitrarily nested.  For example, if we have a short
list of Points, with ‘__match_args__’ added, we could match it like
this:

     class Point:
         __match_args__ = ('x', 'y')
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"Single point {x}, {y}")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2}")
         case _:
             print("Something else")

Bir kalıba “guard” olarak bilinen bir ‘if’ cümlesi ekleyebiliriz.  Eğer
guard yanlış ise, ‘match’ bir sonraki case bloğunu denemeye devam eder.
Değer yakalamanın koruma değerlendirilmeden önce gerçekleştiğine dikkat
edin:

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"Y=X at {x}")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Not on the diagonal")

Bu açıklamanın diğer bazı kilit özellikleri:

   - Paket açma atamaları gibi, tuple ve liste kalıpları da tamamen aynı
     anlama sahiptir ve aslında rastgele dizilerle eşleşir.  Önemli bir
     istisna, yineleyicilerle veya string’lerle eşleşmezler.

   - Sıra kalıpları genişletilmiş paket açmayı destekler: ‘[x, y,
     *rest]’ ve ‘(x, y, *rest)’ paket açma atamalarına benzer şekilde
     çalışır.  ‘*’ öğesinden sonraki ad ‘_’ de olabilir, bu nedenle ‘(x,
     y, *_)’ öğesi, kalan öğeleri bağlamadan en az iki öğeden oluşan bir
     diziyle eşleşir.

   - Eşleme kalıpları: ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ bir sözlükten
     ‘"bandwidth"’ ve ‘"latency"’ değerlerini yakalar.  Sıra
     kalıplarının aksine, ekstra anahtarlar göz ardı edilir.  ‘**rest’
     gibi bir paket açma da desteklenir.  (Ancak ‘**_’ gereksiz
     olacağından buna izin verilmez)

   - Alt kalıplar ‘as’ anahtar sözcüğü kullanılarak yakalanabilir:

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     girdinin ikinci elemanını ‘p2’ olarak yakalayacaktır (girdi iki
     noktadan oluşan bir dizi olduğu sürece)

   - Çoğu sabit eşitlikle karşılaştırılır, ancak ‘True’, ‘False’ ve
     ‘None’ tekilleri özdeşlikle karşılaştırılır.

   - Kalıplar adlandırılmış sabitler kullanabilir.  Bunlar, yakalama
     değişkeni olarak yorumlanmalarını önlemek için noktalı isimler
     olmalıdır:

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 'red'
              GREEN = 'green'
              BLUE = 'blue'

          color = Color(input("Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': "))

          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

Daha ayrıntılı bir açıklama ve ek örnekler için, öğretici bir formatta
yazılmış olan PEP 636(1) sayfasına bakabilirsiniz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması,  Next: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi,  Prev: pass İfadeleri<2>,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.8 Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması
---------------------------------

Fibonacci serisini rastgele bir sınıra kadar yazan bir fonksiyon
oluşturabiliriz:

     >>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series less than n
     ...     """Print a Fibonacci series less than n."""
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         print(a, end=' ')
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     print()
     ...
     >>> # Now call the function we just defined:
     >>> fib(2000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

Anahtar kelime *note def: 12e2. bir fonksiyon 'tanımını' tanıtır.  Bunu
fonksiyon adı ve parantez içine alınmış resmi parametreler listesi takip
etmelidir.  Fonksiyonun gövdesini oluşturan ifadeler bir sonraki
satırdan başlar ve girintili olmalıdır.

Fonksiyon gövdesinin ilk ifadesi isteğe bağlı olarak bir string literal
olabilir; bu string literal fonksiyonun dokümantasyon stringi veya
'docstring' ‘dir.  (Docstringler hakkında daha fazla bilgi *note
Dokümantasyon Stringler’i: 1a66. bölümünde bulunabilir.)  Otomatik
olarak çevrimiçi veya basılı dokümantasyon üretmek veya kullanıcının
etkileşimli olarak kodda gezinmesini sağlamak için docstringleri
kullanan araçlar vardır; yazdığınız koda docstringler eklemek iyi bir
uygulamadır, bu yüzden bunu alışkanlık haline getirin.

Bir fonksiyonun 'çalıştırılması', fonksiyonun yerel değişkenleri için
kullanılan yeni bir sembol tablosu ortaya çıkarır.  Daha açık bir
ifadeyle, bir fonksiyon içindeki tüm değişken atamaları değeri yerel
sembol tablosunda saklar; oysa değişken referansları önce yerel sembol
tablosuna, sonra çevreleyen fonksiyonların yerel sembol tablolarına,
daha sonra global sembol tablosuna ve son olarak da yerleşik isimler
tablosuna bakar.  Bu nedenle, global değişkenlere ve çevreleyen
fonksiyonların değişkenlerine bir fonksiyon içinde doğrudan değer
atanamaz (global değişkenler için bir *note global: 1a67. deyiminde veya
çevreleyen fonksiyonların değişkenleri için bir *note nonlocal: 1150.
deyiminde isimlendirilmedikçe), ancak bunlara referans verilebilir.

Bir fonksiyon çağrısının gerçek parametreleri (argümanları),
çağrıldığında çağrılan fonksiyonun yerel sembol tablosunda tanıtılır; bu
nedenle, argümanlar 'call by value' (burada 'value' her zaman bir nesne
'referans'’dır, nesnenin değeri değildir) kullanılarak aktarılır.  (1)
Bir fonksiyon başka bir fonksiyonu çağırdığında veya kendini tekrarlı
olarak çağırdığında, bu çağrı için yeni bir yerel sembol tablosu
oluşturulur.

Bir fonksiyon tanımı, fonksiyon adını geçerli sembol tablosundaki
fonksiyon nesnesiyle ilişkilendirir.  Yorumlayıcı, bu adın işaret ettiği
nesneyi kullanıcı tanımlı bir fonksiyon olarak tanır.  Diğer isimler de
aynı fonksiyon nesnesine işaret edebilir ve fonksiyona erişmek için
kullanılabilir:

     >>> fib
     <function fib at 10042ed0>
     >>> f = fib
     >>> f(100)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

Diğer dillerden geliyorsanız, ‘fib’ ‘in bir fonksiyon değil, değer
döndürmediği için bir prosedür olduğuna itiraz edebilirsiniz.  Aslında,
*note return: 82c. ifadesi olmayan fonksiyonlar bile, oldukça sıkıcı
olsa da, bir değer döndürürler.  Bu değer ‘None’ olarak adlandırılır
(yerleşik bir isimdir).  Normalde ‘None’ değerinin yazılması, yazılan
tek değer olacaksa yorumlayıcı tarafından bastırılır.  Eğer gerçekten
istiyorsanız *note print(): e16. kullanarak görebilirsiniz:

     >>> fib(0)
     >>> print(fib(0))
     None

Fibonacci serisindeki sayıların listesini döndürebilecek bir fonksiyon
yazmak gayet basittir, onun yerine şunu yazdırarak:

     >>> def fib2(n):  # return Fibonacci series up to n
     ...     """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
     ...     result = []
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         result.append(a)    # see below
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     return result
     ...
     >>> f100 = fib2(100)    # call it
     >>> f100                # write the result
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

Bu örnek, her zamanki gibi, bazı yeni Python özelliklerini
göstermektedir:

   * Bir *note return: 82c. deyimi bir fonksiyondan bir değerle döner.
     ‘return’ deyimi bir ifade argümanı olmadan ‘None’ döndürür.  Bir
     fonksiyonun sonundan düşmek de ‘None’ değerini döndürür.

   * The statement ‘result.append(a)’ calls a 'method' of the list
     object ‘result’.  A method is a function that ‘belongs’ to an
     object and is named ‘obj.methodname’, where ‘obj’ is some object
     (this may be an expression), and ‘methodname’ is the name of a
     method that is defined by the object’s type.  Different types
     define different methods.  Methods of different types may have the
     same name without causing ambiguity.  (It is possible to define
     your own object types and methods, using 'classes', see *note
     Sınıflar: 1a68.) The method ‘append()’ shown in the example is
     defined for list objects; it adds a new element at the end of the
     list.  In this example it is equivalent to ‘result = result + [a]’,
     but more efficient.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Aslında, 'nesne referansı ile çağırma' daha iyi bir tanımlama
olacaktır, çünkü değiştirilebilir bir nesne aktarılırsa, çağıran,
çağırılanın üzerinde yaptığı tüm değişiklikleri (bir listeye eklenen
öğeler) görecektir.


File: python.info,  Node: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi,  Next: Intermezzo Kodlama Stili,  Prev: Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.9 İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi
-----------------------------------------------

Değişken sayıda argüman içeren fonksiyonlar tanımlamak da mümkündür.
Birleştirilebilen üç form vardır.

* Menu:

* Varsayılan Değişken Değerleri::
* Anahtar Kelime Değişkenleri::
* Özel parametreler::
* Keyfi Argüman Listeleri::
* Argüman Listelerini Açma::
* Lambda İfadeleri::
* Dokümantasyon Stringler’i::
* Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları::


File: python.info,  Node: Varsayılan Değişken Değerleri,  Next: Anahtar Kelime Değişkenleri,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.1 Varsayılan Değişken Değerleri
.....................................

En kullanışlı biçim, bir veya daha fazla bağımsız değişken için
varsayılan bir değer belirtmektir.  Bu, izin vermek üzere
tanımlandığından daha az sayıda bağımsız değişkenle çağrılabilen bir
fonksiyon oluşturur.  Örneğin:

     def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
         while True:
             reply = input(prompt)
             if reply in {'y', 'ye', 'yes'}:
                 return True
             if reply in {'n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'}:
                 return False
             retries = retries - 1
             if retries < 0:
                 raise ValueError('invalid user response')
             print(reminder)

Bu fonksiyon çeşitli yollarla çağrılabilir:

   * sadece zorunlu argümanı vererek: ‘ask_ok('Gerçekten çıkmak istiyor
     musun?')’

   * isteğe bağlı değişkenlerden birini vermek: ‘ask_ok('OK to overwrite
     the file?', 2)’

   * ya da bütün değişkenleri vermek: ‘ask_ok('OK to overwrite the
     file?', 2, 'Come on, only yes or no!')’

Bu örnek ayrıca *note in: 26f. anahtar sözcüğünü de tanıtır.  Bu, bir
dizinin belirli bir değer içerip içermediğini test eder.

Varsayılan değerler 'tanımlayan' kapsamdaki fonksiyon tanımlama
noktasında değerlendirilir, böylece

     i = 5

     def f(arg=i):
         print(arg)

     i = 6
     f()

‘5’ çıktısını verecektir.

'Önemli uyarı:' Varsayılan değer yalnızca bir kez değerlendirilir.
Varsayılan değer liste, sözlük veya çoğu sınıfın örnekleri gibi
değiştirilebilir bir nesne olduğunda bu durum fark yaratır.  Örneğin,
aşağıdaki fonksiyon sonraki çağrılarda kendisine aktarılan argümanları
biriktirir:

     def f(a, L=[]):
         L.append(a)
         return L

     print(f(1))
     print(f(2))
     print(f(3))

Bu şu çıktıyı verecektir

     [1]
     [1, 2]
     [1, 2, 3]

Varsayılan değerin sonraki çağrılar arasında paylaşılmasını
istemiyorsanız, bunun yerine fonksiyonu şu şekilde yazabilirsiniz:

     def f(a, L=None):
         if L is None:
             L = []
         L.append(a)
         return L


File: python.info,  Node: Anahtar Kelime Değişkenleri,  Next: Özel parametreler,  Prev: Varsayılan Değişken Değerleri,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.2 Anahtar Kelime Değişkenleri
...................................

Fonksiyonlar ayrıca ‘kwarg=value’ şeklinde *note anahtar kelime
argümanları: b97. kullanılarak da çağrılabilir.  Örneğin, aşağıdaki
fonksiyon:

     def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
         print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
         print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
         print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
         print("-- It's", state, "!")

bir gerekli argüman (‘voltage’) ve üç isteğe bağlı argüman (‘state’,
‘action’ ve ‘type’) kabul eder.  Bu fonksiyon aşağıdaki yollardan
herhangi biriyle çağrılabilir:

     parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
     parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
     parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
     parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword

ancak aşağıdaki tüm çağrılar geçersiz olacaktır:

     parrot()                     # required argument missing
     parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
     parrot(110, voltage=220)     # duplicate value for the same argument
     parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # unknown keyword argument

Bir fonksiyon çağrısında, anahtar kelime argümanları konumsal
argümanları takip etmelidir.  Aktarılan tüm anahtar sözcük argümanları
fonksiyon tarafından kabul edilen argümanlardan biriyle eşleşmelidir
(örneğin ‘actor’ ‘parrot’ fonksiyonu için geçerli bir argüman değildir)
ve sıraları önemli değildir.  Buna isteğe bağlı olmayan argümanlar da
dahildir (örneğin ‘parrot(voltage=1000)’ da geçerlidir).  Hiçbir argüman
birden fazla değer alamaz.  İşte bu kısıtlama nedeniyle başarısız olan
bir örnek:

     >>> def function(a):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> function(0, a=0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: function() got multiple values for argument 'a'

‘**name’ biçiminde bir son biçimsel parametre mevcut olduğunda, biçimsel
parametreye karşılık gelenler dışındaki tüm anahtar kelime argümanlarını
içeren bir sözlük alır (bkz.  *note Mapping Types — dict: 933.).  Bu,
biçimsel parametre *note tuple: 1a6f. listesinin ötesindeki konumsal
argümanları içeren bir ‘*name’ biçimindeki bir biçimsel parametre ile
birleştirilebilir (bir sonraki alt bölümde açıklanmıştır).  (‘*name’,
‘**name’ ‘den önce gelmelidir.)  Örneğin, aşağıdaki gibi bir fonksiyon
tanımlarsak:

     def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
         print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
         print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
         for arg in arguments:
             print(arg)
         print("-" * 40)
         for kw in keywords:
             print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

Şöyle denebilir:

     cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
                "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
                shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
                client="John Cleese",
                sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

ve tabii ki yazdıracaktır:

     -- Do you have any Limburger ?
     -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
     It's very runny, sir.
     It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
     ----------------------------------------
     shopkeeper : Michael Palin
     client : John Cleese
     sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

Anahtar sözcük bağımsız değişkenlerinin yazdırılma sırasının, fonksiyon
çağrısında sağlandıkları sırayla eşleşmesinin garanti edildiğini
unutmayın.


File: python.info,  Node: Özel parametreler,  Next: Keyfi Argüman Listeleri,  Prev: Anahtar Kelime Değişkenleri,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.3 Özel parametreler
.........................

Varsayılan olarak, argümanlar bir Python fonksiyonuna ya pozisyona göre
ya da açıkça anahtar kelimeye göre aktarılabilir.  Okunabilirlik ve
performans için, argümanların geçirilme şeklini kısıtlamak mantıklıdır,
böylece bir geliştiricinin öğelerin konumla mı, konumla ya da anahtar
sözcükle mi yoksa anahtar sözcükle mi geçirildiğini belirlemek için
yalnızca fonksiyon tanımına bakması gerekir.

Bir fonksiyon tanımı aşağıdaki gibi görünebilir:

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):
           -----------    ----------     ----------
             |             |                  |
             |        Positional or keyword   |
             |                                - Keyword only
              -- Positional only

burada ‘/’ ve ‘*’ isteğe bağlıdır.  Kullanılırsa, bu semboller,
argümanların fonksiyona nasıl geçirilebileceğine göre parametre türünü
gösterir: yalnızca konumsal, konumsal veya anahtar sözcük ve yalnızca
anahtar sözcük.  Anahtar sözcük parametreleri, adlandırılmış
parametreler olarak da adlandırılır.

* Menu:

* Konumsal veya Anahtar Kelime Argümanları::
* Yalnızca Konumsal Parametreler::
* Yalnızca Anahtar Sözcük İçeren Değişkenler::
* Fonksiyon Örnekleri::
* Özet::


File: python.info,  Node: Konumsal veya Anahtar Kelime Argümanları,  Next: Yalnızca Konumsal Parametreler,  Up: Özel parametreler

2.4.9.4 Konumsal veya Anahtar Kelime Argümanları
................................................

Eğer ‘/’ ve ‘*’ fonksiyon tanımında mevcut değilse, argümanlar bir
fonksiyona pozisyon veya anahtar kelime ile aktarılabilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Yalnızca Konumsal Parametreler,  Next: Yalnızca Anahtar Sözcük İçeren Değişkenler,  Prev: Konumsal veya Anahtar Kelime Argümanları,  Up: Özel parametreler

2.4.9.5 Yalnızca Konumsal Parametreler
......................................

Bu konuya biraz daha detaylı bakacak olursak, belirli parametreleri
'positional-only' olarak işaretlemek mümkündür.  Eğer 'konumsal-sadece'
ise, parametrelerin sırası önemlidir ve parametreler anahtar kelime ile
aktarılamaz.  Yalnızca konumsal parametreler bir ‘/’ (ileri eğik çizgi)
önüne yerleştirilir.  ‘/’ sadece konumsal parametreleri diğer
parametrelerden mantıksal olarak ayırmak için kullanılır.  Fonksiyon
tanımında ‘/’ yoksa, sadece konumsal parametre yoktur.

‘/’ işaretini takip eden parametreler 'konumsal veya anahtar sözcük'
veya 'sadece anahtar sözcük' olabilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Yalnızca Anahtar Sözcük İçeren Değişkenler,  Next: Fonksiyon Örnekleri,  Prev: Yalnızca Konumsal Parametreler,  Up: Özel parametreler

2.4.9.6 Yalnızca Anahtar Sözcük İçeren Değişkenler
..................................................

Parametrelerin anahtar sözcük argümanıyla geçirilmesi gerektiğini
belirterek parametreleri 'anahtar sözcüğe özel' olarak işaretlemek için,
argüman listesine ilk 'anahtar sözcüğe özel' parametreden hemen önce bir
‘*’ yerleştirin.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonksiyon Örnekleri,  Next: Özet,  Prev: Yalnızca Anahtar Sözcük İçeren Değişkenler,  Up: Özel parametreler

2.4.9.7 Fonksiyon Örnekleri
...........................

‘/’ ve ‘*’ işaretlerine çok dikkat ederek aşağıdaki örnek fonksiyon
tanımlarını göz önünde bulundurun:

     >>> def standard_arg(arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
     ...     print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

İlk fonksiyon tanımı, ‘standard_arg’, en bilinen biçimdir, çağırma
kuralına herhangi bir kısıtlama getirmez ve argümanlar konum veya
anahtar kelime ile aktarılabilir:

     >>> standard_arg(2)
     2

     >>> standard_arg(arg=2)
     2

İkinci fonksiyon ‘pos_only_arg’, fonksiyon tanımında bir ‘/’ olduğu için
sadece konumsal parametreleri kullanacak şekilde sınırlandırılmıştır:

     >>> pos_only_arg(1)
     1

     >>> pos_only_arg(arg=1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg'

The third function ‘kwd_only_arg’ only allows keyword arguments as
indicated by a ‘*’ in the function definition:

     >>> kwd_only_arg(3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

     >>> kwd_only_arg(arg=3)
     3

Sonuncusu ise aynı fonksiyon tanımında üç çağrı kuralını da kullanır:

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(pos_only=1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only'

Son olarak, ‘name’ konumsal argümanı ile ‘name’ anahtarına sahip
‘**kwds’ arasında potansiyel bir çakışma olan bu fonksiyon tanımını
düşünün:

     def foo(name, **kwds):
         return 'name' in kwds

Anahtar kelime ‘'name'’ her zaman ilk parametreye bağlanacağı için
‘True’ döndürmesini sağlayacak olası bir çağrı yoktur.  Örneğin:

     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: foo() got multiple values for argument 'name'
     >>>

Ancak ‘/’ (yalnızca konumsal argümanlar) kullanıldığında, ‘name’ bir
konumsal argüman olarak ve ‘'name'’ anahtar kelime argümanlarında bir
anahtar olarak izin verdiği için mümkündür:

     >>> def foo(name, /, **kwds):
     ...     return 'name' in kwds
     ...
     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     True

Başka bir deyişle, yalnızca konumsal parametrelerin adları ‘**kwds’
içinde belirsizlik olmadan kullanılabilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Özet,  Prev: Fonksiyon Örnekleri,  Up: Özel parametreler

2.4.9.8 Özet
............

Kullanım durumu, fonksiyon tanımında hangi parametrelerin
kullanılacağını belirleyecektir:

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

Rehber olarak:

   * Parametrelerin adının kullanıcı tarafından kullanılamamasını
     istiyorsanız sadece pozisyonel seçeneğini kullanın.  Bu, parametre
     adlarının gerçek bir anlamı olmadığında, fonksiyon çağrıldığında
     bağımsız değişkenlerin sırasını zorlamak istediğinizde veya bazı
     konumsal parametreler ve rastgele anahtar sözcükler almanız
     gerektiğinde kullanışlıdır.

   * Adların bir anlamı olduğunda ve fonksiyon tanımının adlarla açık
     olmasıyla daha anlaşılır olduğunda veya kullanıcıların geçirilen
     argümanın konumuna güvenmesini önlemek istediğinizde yalnızca
     anahtar sözcük kullanın.

   * Bir API için, parametrenin adı gelecekte değiştirilirse API
     değişikliklerinin bozulmasını önlemek için yalnızca konumsal
     kullanın.


File: python.info,  Node: Keyfi Argüman Listeleri,  Next: Argüman Listelerini Açma,  Prev: Özel parametreler,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.9 Keyfi Argüman Listeleri
...............................

Son olarak, en az kullanılan seçenek, bir fonksiyonun rastgele sayıda
argümanla çağrılabileceğini belirtmektir.  Bu argümanlar bir tuple
içinde paketlenecektir (bkz *note Veri Grupları ve Diziler: 1a6f.).
Değişken argüman sayısından önce, sıfır veya daha fazla normal argüman
olabilir.

     def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
         file.write(separator.join(args))

Normalde 'variadic' argümanlar biçimsel parametreler listesinde en sonda
yer alır, çünkü fonksiyona aktarılan geri kalan tüm girdi argümanlarını
toplarlar.  ‘*args’ parametresinden sonra gelen tüm biçimsel
parametreler ‘keyword-only’ (yalnızca-anahtar-kelime) argümanlarıdır,
yani konumsal argümanlar yerine sadece anahtar kelimeler olarak
kullanılabilirler.

     >>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
     ...     return sep.join(args)
     ...
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
     'earth/mars/venus'
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
     'earth.mars.venus'


File: python.info,  Node: Argüman Listelerini Açma,  Next: Lambda İfadeleri,  Prev: Keyfi Argüman Listeleri,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.10 Argüman Listelerini Açma
.................................

Tersi durum, argümanlar zaten bir liste veya tuple içinde olduğunda,
ancak ayrı konumsal argümanlar gerektiren bir fonksiyon çağrısı için
paketten çıkarılması gerektiğinde ortaya çıkar.  Örneğin, yerleşik *note
range(): 79c. fonksiyonu ayrı 'start' ve 'stop' argümanları bekler.
Eğer bunlar ayrı olarak mevcut değilse, argümanları bir listeden veya
tuple’dan çıkarmak için fonksiyon çağrısını ‘*’-operatörü ile yazın:

     >>> list(range(3, 6))            # normal call with separate arguments
     [3, 4, 5]
     >>> args = [3, 6]
     >>> list(range(*args))            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
     [3, 4, 5]

Aynı şekilde, sözlükler ‘**’-operatörü ile anahtar sözcük argümanları
sunabilir:

     >>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
     ...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
     ...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
     ...     print("E's", state, "!")
     ...
     >>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
     >>> parrot(**d)
     -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !


File: python.info,  Node: Lambda İfadeleri,  Next: Dokümantasyon Stringler’i,  Prev: Argüman Listelerini Açma,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.11 Lambda İfadeleri
.........................

Küçük anonim fonksiyonlar *note lambda: 1145. anahtar sözcüğü ile
oluşturulabilir.  Bu fonksiyon iki argümanının toplamını döndürür:
‘lambda a, b: a+b’.  Lambda fonksiyonları, fonksiyon nesnelerinin
gerekli olduğu her yerde kullanılabilir.  Sözdizimsel olarak tek bir
ifadeyle sınırlıdırlar.  Anlamsal olarak, normal bir fonksiyon tanımı
için sadece sözdizimsel şekerdirler.  İç içe işlev tanımları gibi,
lambda işlevleri de içeren kapsamdaki değişkenlere başvurabilir:

     >>> def make_incrementor(n):
     ...     return lambda x: x + n
     ...
     >>> f = make_incrementor(42)
     >>> f(0)
     42
     >>> f(1)
     43

Yukarıdaki örnekte bir fonksiyon döndürmek için bir lambda ifadesi
kullanılmıştır.  Başka bir kullanım da küçük bir fonksiyonu argüman
olarak geçirmektir:

     >>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
     >>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
     >>> pairs
     [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]


File: python.info,  Node: Dokümantasyon Stringler’i,  Next: Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları,  Prev: Lambda İfadeleri,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.12 Dokümantasyon Stringler’i
..................................

Belge dizelerinin içeriği ve biçimlendirilmesiyle ilgili bazı kurallar
aşağıda verilmiştir.

İlk satır her zaman nesnenin amacının kısa ve öz bir özeti olmalıdır.
Öz olması için, nesnenin adı veya türü açıkça belirtilmemelidir, çünkü
bunlar başka yollarla elde edilebilir (adın bir fonksiyonun çalışmasını
açıklayan bir fiil olması durumu hariç).  Bu satır büyük harfle
başlamalı ve nokta ile bitmelidir.

Belgeleme string’inde daha fazla satır varsa, ikinci satır boş olmalı ve
özeti açıklamanın geri kalanından görsel olarak ayırmalıdır.  Sonraki
satırlar, nesnenin çağrı kurallarını, yan etkilerini vb.  açıklayan bir
veya daha fazla paragraftan oluşmalıdır.

Python ayrıştırıcısı, Python’daki çok satırlı dize değişmezlerinden
girintiyi çıkarmaz, bu nedenle belgeleri işleyen araçların istenirse
girintiyi çıkarması gerekir.  Bu, aşağıdaki kural kullanılarak yapılır.
Dizenin ilk satırından 'sonraki' boş olmayan ilk satır, tüm
dokümantasyon dizesi için girinti miktarını belirler.  (İlk satırı
kullanamayız, çünkü genellikle dizenin açılış tırnaklarına bitişiktir,
bu nedenle girintisi dize değişmezinde belirgin değildir) Bu girintiye
“eş değer” boşluk daha sonra dizenin tüm satırlarının başlangıcından
çıkarılır.  Daha az girintili satırlar oluşmamalıdır, ancak oluşurlarsa
başlarındaki tüm boşluklar çıkarılmalıdır.  Beyaz boşlukların eş
değerliği sekmelerin genişletilmesinden sonra test edilmelidir (normalde
8 boşluğa kadar).

İşte çok satırlı bir docstring örneği:

     >>> def my_function():
     ...     """Do nothing, but document it.
     ...
     ...     No, really, it doesn't do anything.
     ...     """
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> print(my_function.__doc__)
     Do nothing, but document it.

         No, really, it doesn't do anything.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları,  Prev: Dokümantasyon Stringler’i,  Up: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi

2.4.9.13 Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları
..................................

*note Fonksiyon ek açıklamaları: 1a7f. kullanıcı tanımlı fonksiyonlar
tarafından kullanılan tipler hakkında tamamen isteğe bağlı meta veri
bilgileridir (daha fazla bilgi için PEP 3107(1) ve PEP 484(2)
sayfalarına bakınız).

*note Annotations: 1a80. are stored in the ‘__annotations__’ attribute
of the function as a dictionary and have no effect on any other part of
the function.  Parameter annotations are defined by a colon after the
parameter name, followed by an expression evaluating to the value of the
annotation.  Return annotations are defined by a literal ‘->’, followed
by an expression, between the parameter list and the colon denoting the
end of the *note def: 12e2. statement.  The following example has a
required argument, an optional argument, and the return value annotated:

     >>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
     ...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
     ...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
     ...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
     ...
     >>> f('spam')
     Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
     Arguments: spam eggs
     'spam and eggs'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Intermezzo Kodlama Stili,  Prev: İşlev Tanımlama hakkında daha fazla bilgi,  Up: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı

2.4.10 Intermezzo: Kodlama Stili
--------------------------------

Artık daha uzun, daha karmaşık Python parçaları yazmak üzere olduğunuza
göre, 'kodlama stili' hakkında konuşmak için iyi bir zaman.  Çoğu dil
farklı stillerde yazılabilir (ya da daha özlü bir ifadeyle
'biçimlendirilebilir'); bazıları diğerlerinden daha okunaklıdır.
Başkalarının kodunuzu okumasını kolaylaştırmak her zaman iyi bir
fikirdir ve güzel bir kodlama stili benimsemek buna çok yardımcı olur.

Python için PEP 8(1), çoğu projenin bağlı olduğu stil kılavuzu olarak
ortaya çıkmıştır; okunabilir ve göze hoş gelen bir kodlama stilini
teşvik eder.  Her Python geliştiricisi bir noktada onu okumalıdır; işte
sizin için çıkarılan en önemli noktalar:

   * 4 aralıklı girinti kullanın ve sekme kullanmayın.

     4 boşluk, küçük girinti (daha fazla iç içe geçme derinliği sağlar)
     ve büyük girinti (okunması daha kolay) arasında iyi bir uzlaşmadır.
     Sekmeler karışıklığa neden olur ve en iyisi dışarıda bırakmaktır.

   * Satırları 79 karakteri geçmeyecek şekilde sarın.

     Bu, küçük ekranlı kullanıcılara yardımcı olur ve daha büyük
     ekranlarda birkaç kod dosyasının yan yana olmasını mümkün kılar.

   * Fonksiyonları ve sınıfları ve fonksiyonların içindeki büyük kod
     bloklarını ayırmak için boş satırlar kullanın.

   * Mümkün olduğunda, yorumları kendi başlarına bir satıra koyun.

   * Docstrings kullanın.

   * Operatörlerin etrafında ve virgüllerden sonra boşluk kullanın,
     ancak doğrudan parantez yapılarının içinde kullanmayın: ‘a = f(1,
     2) + g(3, 4)’.

   * Sınıflarınızı ve fonksiyonlarınızı tutarlı bir şekilde adlandırın;
     buradaki kural, sınıflar için ‘UpperCamelCase’, fonksiyonlarını;
     metotlar için de ‘lowercase_with_underscores’ kullanmaktır.  İlk
     yöntem argümanının adı olarak her zaman ‘self’ kullanın (sınıflar
     ve yöntemler hakkında daha fazla bilgi için *note Sınıflara İlk
     Bakış: 1a83. bölümüne bakın).

   * Kodunuz uluslararası ortamlarda kullanılacaksa süslü kodlamalar
     kullanmayın.  Python’un varsayılanı, UTF-8 veya hatta düz ASCII her
     durumda en iyi sonucu verir.

   * Aynı şekilde, farklı bir dil konuşan kişilerin kodu okuması veya
     muhafaza etmesi için en ufak bir şans varsa, tanımlayıcılarda ASCII
     olmayan karakterler kullanmayın.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Veri Yapıları,  Next: Modüller,  Prev: Daha Fazla Kontrol Akışı Aracı,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.5 Veri Yapıları
=================

Bu bölüm, daha önce öğrendiğiniz bazı şeyleri daha ayrıntılı olarak
açıklamakta ve bazı yeni şeyler de eklemektedir.

* Menu:

* Listeler Üzerine::
* del ifadesi::
* Veri Grupları ve Diziler::
* Kümeler::
* Sözlükler::
* Döngü Teknikleri::
* Koşullar Üzerine::
* Diziler ile Diğer Veri Tiplerinin Karşılaştırılması::


File: python.info,  Node: Listeler Üzerine,  Next: del ifadesi,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.1 Listeler Üzerine
----------------------

Liste veri türünün bazı yöntemleri daha vardır.  Liste nesnelerinin tüm
metotları şunlardır:

 -- Yöntemi: list.append (x)

     Add an item to the end of the list.  Similar to ‘a[len(a):] = [x]’.

 -- Yöntemi: list.extend (iterable)

     Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable.
     Similar to ‘a[len(a):] = iterable’.

 -- Yöntemi: list.insert (i, x)

     Verilen pozisyona bir öğe ekleyin.  İlk argüman, daha önce
     ekleyeceğiniz öğenin indeksidir, bu nedenle ‘a.insert(0, x)’
     listenin önüne ekler ve ‘a.insert(len(a), x)’ komutu ‘a.append(x)’
     komutu ile eş değerdir.

 -- Yöntemi: list.remove (x)

     Değeri 'x'’e eşit olan ilk öğeyi listeden kaldırır.  Böyle bir öğe
     yoksa *note ValueError: 189. hatası ortaya çıkar.

 -- Yöntemi: list.pop ([i])

     Remove the item at the given position in the list, and return it.
     If no index is specified, ‘a.pop()’ removes and returns the last
     item in the list.  It raises an *note IndexError: 13c2. if the list
     is empty or the index is outside the list range.

 -- Yöntemi: list.clear ()

     Remove all items from the list.  Similar to ‘del a[:]’.

 -- Yöntemi: list.index (x[, start[, end]])

     Değeri 'x'’e eşit olan ilk öğenin listedeki sıfır tabanlı indeksini
     döndürür.  Böyle bir öğe yoksa *note ValueError: 189. hatası ortaya
     çıkar.

     İsteğe bağlı 'start' ve 'end' argümanları dilim gösteriminde olduğu
     gibi yorumlanır ve aramayı listenin belirli bir alt dizisiyle
     sınırlamak için kullanılır.  Döndürülen dizin, 'start' bağımsız
     değişkeni yerine tam dizinin başlangıcına göre hesaplanır.

 -- Yöntemi: list.count (x)

     Listede 'x' öğesinin kaç kez göründüğünü döndürür.

 -- Yöntemi: list.sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

     Listenin öğelerini yerinde sıralayın (argümanlar sıralama
     özelleştirmesi için kullanılabilir, açıklamaları için bkz: *note
     sorted(): a45.).

 -- Yöntemi: list.reverse ()

     Listenin öğelerini yerinde ters çevirir.

 -- Yöntemi: list.copy ()

     Return a shallow copy of the list.  Similar to ‘a[:]’.

Liste yöntemlerinin çoğunu kullanan bir örnek:

     >>> fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
     >>> fruits.count('apple')
     2
     >>> fruits.count('tangerine')
     0
     >>> fruits.index('banana')
     3
     >>> fruits.index('banana', 4)  # Find next banana starting at position 4
     6
     >>> fruits.reverse()
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
     >>> fruits.append('grape')
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
     >>> fruits.sort()
     >>> fruits
     ['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
     >>> fruits.pop()
     'pear'

Listeyi yalnızca değiştiren ‘insert’, ‘remove’ veya ‘sort’ gibi
yöntemlerin hiçbir dönüş değeri yazdırmadığını fark etmiş olabilirsiniz
– onlar varsayılan ‘None’ değerini döndürürler.  (1)  Bu, Python’daki
tüm değiştirilebilir veri yapıları için bir tasarım ilkesidir.

Another thing you might notice is that not all data can be sorted or
compared.  For instance, ‘[None, 'hello', 10]’ doesn’t sort because
integers can’t be compared to strings and ‘None’ can’t be compared to
other types.  Also, there are some types that don’t have a defined
ordering relation.  For example, ‘3+4j < 5+7j’ isn’t a valid comparison.

* Menu:

* Listeleri Yığın Olarak Kullanma::
* Listeleri Kuyruk Olarak Kullanma::
* Liste Kavramaları::
* İç İçe Liste Kavramaları::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Diğer diller, ‘d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();’ gibi yöntem
zincirlemesine izin veren değiştirilmiş nesneyi döndürebilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Listeleri Yığın Olarak Kullanma,  Next: Listeleri Kuyruk Olarak Kullanma,  Up: Listeler Üzerine

2.5.1.1 Listeleri Yığın Olarak Kullanma
.......................................

The list methods make it very easy to use a list as a stack, where the
last element added is the first element retrieved (“last-in,
first-out”).  To add an item to the top of the stack, use ‘append()’.
To retrieve an item from the top of the stack, use ‘pop()’ without an
explicit index.  For example:

     >>> stack = [3, 4, 5]
     >>> stack.append(6)
     >>> stack.append(7)
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
     >>> stack.pop()
     7
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6]
     >>> stack.pop()
     6
     >>> stack.pop()
     5
     >>> stack
     [3, 4]


File: python.info,  Node: Listeleri Kuyruk Olarak Kullanma,  Next: Liste Kavramaları,  Prev: Listeleri Yığın Olarak Kullanma,  Up: Listeler Üzerine

2.5.1.2 Listeleri Kuyruk Olarak Kullanma
........................................

Bir listeyi, eklenen ilk elemanın alınan ilk eleman olduğu bir kuyruk
olarak kullanmak da mümkündür (“ilk giren ilk çıkar”); ancak listeler bu
amaç için verimli değildir.  Listenin sonundan ekleme ve çıkarma
işlemleri hızlıyken, listenin başından ekleme veya çıkarma yapmak
yavaştır (çünkü diğer tüm öğelerin bir adım kaydırılması gerekir).

Bir kuyruk uygulamak için, her iki uçtan da hızlı ekleme ve çıkarma
yapmak üzere tasarlanmış *note collections.deque: 3e7. kullanın.
Örneğin:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
     >>> queue.append("Terry")           # Terry arrives
     >>> queue.append("Graham")          # Graham arrives
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The first to arrive now leaves
     'Eric'
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The second to arrive now leaves
     'John'
     >>> queue                           # Remaining queue in order of arrival
     deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])


File: python.info,  Node: Liste Kavramaları,  Next: İç İçe Liste Kavramaları,  Prev: Listeleri Kuyruk Olarak Kullanma,  Up: Listeler Üzerine

2.5.1.3 Liste Kavramaları
.........................

Liste kavramaları, listeler oluşturmak için kısa bir yol sağlar.  Yaygın
uygulamalar, her bir öğenin başka bir dizinin veya yinelenebilir öğenin
her bir üyesine uygulanan bazı işlemlerin sonucu olduğu yeni listeler
oluşturmak veya belirli bir koşulu karşılayan öğelerin bir alt dizisini
oluşturmaktır.

Örneğin, aşağıdaki gibi bir kareler listesi oluşturmak istediğimizi
varsayalım:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(10):
     ...     squares.append(x**2)
     ...
     >>> squares
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

Bunun, ‘x’ adında bir değişken yarattığına (veya üzerine yazdığına) ve
bu değişkenin döngü tamamlandıktan sonra da var olduğuna dikkat edin.
Kareler listesini, şunu kullanarak herhangi bir yan etki olmadan
hesaplayabiliriz:

     squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))

veya aynı şekilde:

     squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

ki bu daha kısa ve okunaklıdır.

Bir liste kavrayışı, bir ifade içeren parantezlerden ve ardından bir
‘for’ cümlesinden, ardından sıfır veya daha fazla ‘for’ veya ‘if’
cümlesinden oluşur.  Sonuç, ifadenin kendisini takip eden ‘for’ ve ‘if’
cümleleri bağlamında değerlendirilmesiyle elde edilen yeni bir liste
olacaktır.  Örneğin, listcomp, eşit değillerse iki listenin öğelerini
birleştirir:

     >>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

ve şuna eş değerdir:

     >>> combs = []
     >>> for x in [1,2,3]:
     ...     for y in [3,1,4]:
     ...         if x != y:
     ...             combs.append((x, y))
     ...
     >>> combs
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

Her iki kod parçacığında da *note for: 26d. ve *note if: 26e.
ifadelerinin sıralamasının aynı olduğuna dikkat edin.

Eğer ifade bir veri grubu ise (örneğin önceki örnekteki ‘(x, y)’),
parantez içine alınmalıdır.

     >>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # create a new list with the values doubled
     >>> [x*2 for x in vec]
     [-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
     >>> # filter the list to exclude negative numbers
     >>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
     [0, 2, 4]
     >>> # apply a function to all the elements
     >>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
     [4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # call a method on each element
     >>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
     >>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
     ['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
     >>> # create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
     >>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
     [(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
     >>> # the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised
     >>> [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
          ^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?
     >>> # flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
     >>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
     >>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Liste kavramaları karmaşık ifadeler ve iç içe geçmiş fonksiyonlar
içerebilir:

     >>> from math import pi
     >>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
     ['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']


File: python.info,  Node: İç İçe Liste Kavramaları,  Prev: Liste Kavramaları,  Up: Listeler Üzerine

2.5.1.4 İç İçe Liste Kavramaları
................................

Bir liste kavrayışındaki ilk ifade, başka bir liste kavrayışı da dahil
olmak üzere rastgele herhangi bir ifade olabilir.

Uzunluğu 4 olan 3 listeden oluşan bir liste olarak uygulanan 3x4’lük bir
matrisin aşağıdaki örneğini düşünün:

     >>> matrix = [
     ...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
     ...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
     ...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
     ... ]

Aşağıdaki liste kavraması satır ve sütunların yerlerini değiştirir:

     >>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Önceki bölümde gördüğümüz gibi, iç liste kavrayışı, onu takip eden *note
for: 26d. bağlamında değerlendirilir, bu nedenle bu örnek şuna eş
değerdir:

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

ki bu da şununla aynıdır:

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     # the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp
     ...     transposed_row = []
     ...     for row in matrix:
     ...         transposed_row.append(row[i])
     ...     transposed.append(transposed_row)
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Gerçek dünyada, karmaşık akışlı ifadeler yerine yerleşik işlevleri
tercih etmelisiniz.  Bu kullanım durumu için *note zip(): 608.
fonksiyonu harika bir iş çıkaracaktır:

     >>> list(zip(*matrix))
     [(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]

Bu satırdaki yıldız işaretiyle ilgili ayrıntılar için *note Argüman
Listelerini Açma: 1a78. bölümüne bakın.


File: python.info,  Node: del ifadesi,  Next: Veri Grupları ve Diziler,  Prev: Listeler Üzerine,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.2 ‘del’ ifadesi
-------------------

There is a way to remove an item from a list given its index instead of
its value: the *note del: 15c5. statement.  This differs from the
‘pop()’ method which returns a value.  The ‘del’ statement can also be
used to remove slices from a list or clear the entire list (which we did
earlier by assignment of an empty list to the slice).  For example:

     >>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[0]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[2:4]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[:]
     >>> a
     []

*note del: 15c5. değişkenlerin tamamını silmek için de kullanılabilir:

     >>> del a

Bundan sonra ‘a’ ismine referans vermek bir hatadır (en azından ona
başka bir değer atanana kadar).  Daha sonra *note del: 15c5. için başka
kullanımlar bulacağız.


File: python.info,  Node: Veri Grupları ve Diziler,  Next: Kümeler,  Prev: del ifadesi,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.3 Veri Grupları ve Diziler
------------------------------

Listelerin ve dizelerin indeksleme ve dilimleme işlemleri gibi birçok
ortak özelliğe sahip olduğunu gördük.  Bunlar 'dizi' veri tiplerinin iki
örneğidir (bkz.  *note Dizi Tipleri — list, tuple, range: 1a92.).
Python gelişen bir dil olduğu için başka dizi veri tipleri de
eklenebilir.  Ayrıca başka bir standart dizi veri tipi daha vardır:
'tuple'.

Bir veri grubu, virgülle ayrılmış bir dizi değerden oluşur, örneğin:

     >>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
     >>> t[0]
     12345
     >>> t
     (12345, 54321, 'hello!')
     >>> # Tuples may be nested:
     >>> u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
     >>> u
     ((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
     >>> # Tuples are immutable:
     >>> t[0] = 88888
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
     >>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
     >>> v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
     >>> v
     ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])

Gördüğünüz gibi, çıktıda veri grupları her zaman parantez içine alınır,
böylece iç içe geçmiş veri grupları doğru şekilde yorumlanır; parantezli
veya parantezsiz olarak girilebilirler, ancak genellikle parantezler
gereklidir (eğer grup daha büyük bir ifadenin parçasıysa).  Bir veri
grubunun öğelerine tek tek atama yapmak mümkün değildir, ancak listeler
gibi değiştirilebilir nesneler içeren veri grupları oluşturmak
mümkündür.

Veri grupları listelere benzer görünse de, genellikle farklı durumlarda
ve farklı amaçlar için kullanılırlar.  Veri grupları *note immutable:
1a43. ‘dır ve genellikle paket açma (bu bölümün ilerleyen kısımlarına
bakınız) veya indeksleme (hatta *note namedtuples: 74b. durumunda
öznitelik ile) yoluyla erişilen heterojen bir dizi eleman içerir.
Listeler *note mutable: 1a48. ‘dır ve elemanları genellikle homojendir
ve listenin üzerinde yinelenerek erişilir.

Özel bir sorun, 0 veya 1 öğe içeren veri gruplarının oluşturulmasıdır:
söz diziminin bunlar ile başa çıkan bazı ekstra tuhaflıkları vardır.
Boş veri grupları boş bir parantez çifti ile oluşturulur; bir öğeli bir
veri grubu, bir değeri virgülle takip ederek oluşturulur (tek bir değeri
parantez içine almak yeterli değildir).  Çirkin olsa da etkilidir.
Örneğin:

     >>> empty = ()
     >>> singleton = 'hello',    # <-- note trailing comma
     >>> len(empty)
     0
     >>> len(singleton)
     1
     >>> singleton
     ('hello',)

‘t = 12345, 54321, ‘hello!’’ ifadesi bir 'veri grubu paketleme'
örneğidir: ‘12345’, ‘54321’ ve ‘'hello!'’ değerleri bir veri grubu
içinde bir araya getirilmiştir.  Bu işlemin tersi de mümkündür:

     >>> x, y, z = t

Buna uygun bir şekilde 'dizi açma (sequence unpacking)' denir ve sağ
taraftaki herhangi bir dizi için çalışır.  Dizi açma, eşittir işaretinin
sol tarafında dizideki eleman sayısı kadar değişken olmasını gerektirir.
Çoklu atamanın aslında tuple paketleme ve dizi açmanın bir kombinasyonu
olduğunu unutmayın.


File: python.info,  Node: Kümeler,  Next: Sözlükler,  Prev: Veri Grupları ve Diziler,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.4 Kümeler
-------------

Python ayrıca 'kümeler' için bir veri türü içerir.  Bir küme, yinelenen
öğeleri olmayan sırasız bir koleksiyondur.  Temel kullanımları
içerisinde üyelik testi ve yinelenen girdilerin elenmesi yer alır.  Küme
nesneleri ayrıca birleşim, kesişim, fark ve simetrik fark gibi
matematiksel işlemleri de destekler.

Küme oluşturmak için küme parantezleri veya *note set(): 3e4. fonksiyonu
kullanılabilir.  Not: boş bir küme oluşturmak için ‘{}’ değil ‘set()’
kullanmanız gerekir, çünkü birincisi boş bir sözlük oluşturur, ki bu da
bir sonraki bölümde tartışacağımız bir veri yapısıdır.

İşte kısa bir gösterim:

     >>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
     >>> print(basket)                      # show that duplicates have been removed
     {'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
     >>> 'orange' in basket                 # fast membership testing
     True
     >>> 'crabgrass' in basket
     False

     >>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
     >>>
     >>> a = set('abracadabra')
     >>> b = set('alacazam')
     >>> a                                  # unique letters in a
     {'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
     >>> a - b                              # letters in a but not in b
     {'r', 'd', 'b'}
     >>> a | b                              # letters in a or b or both
     {'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
     >>> a & b                              # letters in both a and b
     {'a', 'c'}
     >>> a ^ b                              # letters in a or b but not both
     {'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}

*note liste kavramaları: 1a8d. gibi küme kavramaları da
desteklenmektedir:

     >>> a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
     >>> a
     {'r', 'd'}


File: python.info,  Node: Sözlükler,  Next: Döngü Teknikleri,  Prev: Kümeler,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.5 Sözlükler
---------------

Another useful data type built into Python is the 'dictionary' (see
*note Mapping Types — dict: 933.).  Dictionaries are sometimes found in
other languages as “associative memories” or “associative arrays”.
Unlike sequences, which are indexed by a range of numbers, dictionaries
are indexed by 'keys', which can be any immutable type; strings and
numbers can always be keys.  Tuples can be used as keys if they contain
only strings, numbers, or tuples; if a tuple contains any mutable object
either directly or indirectly, it cannot be used as a key.  You can’t
use lists as keys, since lists can be modified in place using index
assignments, slice assignments, or methods like ‘append()’ and
‘extend()’.

Bir sözlüğü 'anahtar: değer' çiftleri olarak düşünmek en iyisidir.  Bir
sözlük içerisindeki her anahtarın benzersiz olması gerektiğini ise
unutmayın.  Bir çift parantez boş bir sözlük oluşturur: ‘{}’.
Anahtar:değer çiftlerinin virgülle ayrılmış bir listesini parantezler
içine yerleştirmek sözlüğe ilk anahtar:değer çiftlerini ekler; sözlükler
çıktıda da aynı bu şekilde görünürler.

Bir sözlük üzerindeki ana işlemler, bir değeri bir anahtarla depolamak
ve anahtarı verilen değeri geri çıkarmaktır.  Ayrıca ‘del’ ile bir
anahtar:değer çiftini silmek de mümkündür.  Zaten bir değeri kullanımda
olan bir anahtar kullanarak saklarsanız, bu anahtarla ilişkili eski
değer unutulur.  Var olmayan bir anahtar kullanarak değer çıkarmak bir
hatadır.

Bir sözlük üzerinde ‘list(d)’ işlemini gerçekleştirmek, sözlükte
kullanılan tüm anahtarların bir listesini eklenme sırasına göre döndürür
(başka bir düzenle sıralanmasını istiyorsanız, bunun yerine ‘sorted(d)’
kullanın).  Tek bir anahtarın sözlükte olup olmadığını kontrol etmek
için *note in: 26f. anahtar sözcüğünü kullanın.

İşte sözlük kullanılan bir örnek:

     >>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
     >>> tel['guido'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
     >>> tel['jack']
     4098
     >>> del tel['sape']
     >>> tel['irv'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
     >>> list(tel)
     ['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
     >>> sorted(tel)
     ['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
     >>> 'guido' in tel
     True
     >>> 'jack' not in tel
     False

*note dict(): 240. yapıcısı, doğrudan anahtar-değer dizilerinden
sözlükler oluşturur:

     >>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}

Buna ek olarak, sözlük kavramaları rastgele anahtar ve değer
ifadelerinden sözlükler oluşturmak için de kullanılabilir:

     >>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
     {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

Anahtarlar basit dizgiler olduğunda, anahtar sözcük argümanlarını
kullanarak çiftleri belirtmek bazen daha kolaydır:

     >>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}


File: python.info,  Node: Döngü Teknikleri,  Next: Koşullar Üzerine,  Prev: Sözlükler,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.6 Döngü Teknikleri
----------------------

When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can
be retrieved at the same time using the *note items(): 607. method.

     >>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
     >>> for k, v in knights.items():
     ...     print(k, v)
     ...
     gallahad the pure
     robin the brave

Bir dizi boyunca döngü yaparken, *note enumerate(): 1308. fonksiyonu
kullanılarak konum indeksi ve karşılık gelen değer aynı anda alınabilir.

     >>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
     ...     print(i, v)
     ...
     0 tic
     1 tac
     2 toe

Aynı anda iki veya daha fazla dizi üzerinde döngü yapmak için, girdiler
*note zip(): 608. fonksiyonu ile eşleştirilebilir.

     >>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
     >>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
     >>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
     ...     print('What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a))
     ...
     What is your name?  It is lancelot.
     What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
     What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

Bir dizi üzerinde ters yönde döngü yapmak için, önce diziyi ileri yönde
belirtin ve ardından *note reversed(): 6a9. fonksiyonunu çağırın.

     >>> for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     9
     7
     5
     3
     1

Bir dizi üzerinde sıralı olarak döngü yapmak için, listenin kaynağını
değiştirmeksizin yeni bir sıralı liste döndüren *note sorted(): a45.
fonksiyonunu kullanın.

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for i in sorted(basket):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     apple
     apple
     banana
     orange
     orange
     pear

Bir dizi üzerinde *note set(): 3e4. kullanmak yinelenen öğeleri ortadan
kaldırır.  Bir dizi üzerinde *note set(): 3e4. ile birlikte *note
sorted(): a45. kullanımı, dizinin benzersiz öğeleri üzerinde sıralı
olarak döngü oluşturmanın deyimsel bir yoludur.

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
     ...     print(f)
     ...
     apple
     banana
     orange
     pear

Bazen bir liste üzerinde döngü yaparken değiştirmek cazip gelebilir;
ancak bunun yerine yeni bir liste oluşturmak genellikle daha basit ve
daha güvenlidir.

     >>> import math
     >>> raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
     >>> filtered_data = []
     >>> for value in raw_data:
     ...     if not math.isnan(value):
     ...         filtered_data.append(value)
     ...
     >>> filtered_data
     [56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]


File: python.info,  Node: Koşullar Üzerine,  Next: Diziler ile Diğer Veri Tiplerinin Karşılaştırılması,  Prev: Döngü Teknikleri,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.7 Koşullar Üzerine
----------------------

‘while’ ve ‘if’ deyimlerinde kullanılan koşullar sadece karşılaştırma
değil, herhangi bir operatör içerebilir.

Karşılaştırma operatörleri ‘in’ ve ‘not in’ bir değerin bir dizide olup
olmadığını kontrol eder.  ‘is’ ve ‘is not’ operatörleri iki nesnenin
gerçekten aynı nesne olup olmadığını karşılaştırır.  Tüm karşılaştırma
operatörleri aynı önceliğe sahiptir, bu öncelik ise tüm sayısal
operatörlerden daha düşüktür.

Karşılaştırmalar art arda zincirlenebilir.  Örneğin, ‘a < b == c’
ifadesi ‘a’ değerinin ‘b’ değerinden küçük olup olmadığını test ederken
aynı zamanda ‘b’ değerinin ‘c’ değerine eşit olup olmadığını test eder.

Karşılaştırmalar ‘and’ ve ‘or’ Boolean operatörleri kullanılarak
birleştirilebilir ve bir karşılaştırmanın (veya başka bir Boolean
ifadesinin) sonucu ‘not’ ile olumsuzlanabilir.  Bunlar karşılaştırma
operatörlerinden daha düşük önceliklere sahiptir; aralarında, ‘not’ en
yüksek önceliğe ve ‘or’ en düşük önceliğe sahiptir, böylece ‘A ve B
değil veya C’, ‘(A ve (B değil)) veya C’ ile eş değerdir.  Her zaman
olduğu gibi, istenen bileşimi ifade etmek için parantezler
kullanılabilir.

Boolean operatörleri ‘and’ ve ‘or’ 'kısa devre' operatörleri olarak
adlandırılır: argümanları soldan sağa doğru değerlendirilir ve sonuç
belirlenir belirlenmez değerlendirme durur.  Örneğin, ‘A’ ve ‘C’ doğru
ancak ‘B’ yanlış ise, ‘A ve B ve C’ ‘C’ ifadesini değerlendirmez.
Boolean olarak değil de genel bir değer olarak kullanıldığında, kısa
devre işlecinin dönüş değeri son değerlendirilen bağımsız değişkendir.

Bir değişkene, bir karşılaştırmanın sonucunu veya başka bir Boolean
ifadesini atamak mümkündür.  Örneğin:

     >>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
     >>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
     >>> non_null
     'Trondheim'

Python’da, C’den farklı olarak, ifadelerin içindeki atamanın *note
walrus operatörü: 1a9a. ‘=’ ile açıkça yapılması gerektiğini unutmayın.
Bu, C programlarında karşılaşılan yaygın bir sorunu önler: ‘==’ yazmak
isterken ‘=’ yazmak.


File: python.info,  Node: Diziler ile Diğer Veri Tiplerinin Karşılaştırılması,  Prev: Koşullar Üzerine,  Up: Veri Yapıları

2.5.8 Diziler ile Diğer Veri Tiplerinin Karşılaştırılması
---------------------------------------------------------

Dizi nesneleri tipik olarak aynı dizi türüne sahip diğer nesnelerle
karşılaştırılabilir.  Karşılaştırmada 'sözlüksel' sıralama kullanılır:
önce ilk iki öğe karşılaştırılır ve farklılarsa bu karşılaştırmanın
sonucunu belirler; eşitlerse, sonraki iki öğe karşılaştırılır ve her iki
dizi de tükenene kadar böyle devam eder.  Karşılaştırılacak iki öğenin
kendileri de aynı türden diziler ise, sözlükbilimsel karşılaştırma
özyinelemeli olarak gerçekleştirilir.  İki dizinin tüm öğeleri eşit
çıkarsa, diziler eşit kabul edilir.  Eğer dizilerden biri diğerinin alt
dizisi ise, daha kısa olan dizi daha küçük (küçük) olandır.  Dizgiler
için sözlükbilimsel sıralama, tek tek karakterleri sıralamak için
Unicode kod noktası numarasını kullanır.  Aynı türdeki diziler
arasındaki karşılaştırmalara bazı örnekler:

     (1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
     [1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
     'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
     (1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
     (1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
     (1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
     (1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)

Nesnelerin uygun karşılaştırma yöntemlerine sahip olması koşuluyla,
farklı türlerdeki nesnelerin ‘<’ veya ‘>’ ile karşılaştırılabileceğini
unutmayın.  Örneğin, karışık sayısal türler sayısal değerlerine göre
karşılaştırılır, bu nedenle 0 eşittir 0.0, vb.  Bu türler uygun
yöntemlere sahip değillerse, yorumlayıcı rastgele bir sıralama döndürmek
yerine *note TypeError: 2c4. hatası verir.


File: python.info,  Node: Modüller,  Next: Girdi ve Çıktı,  Prev: Veri Yapıları,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.6 Modüller
============

Python yorumlayıcısından çıkıp tekrar girerseniz, yaptığınız tanımlar
(fonksiyonlar ve değişkenler) kaybolur.  Bu nedenle, daha uzun bir
program yazmak istiyorsanız, girdiyi yorumlayıcıya hazırlarken bir metin
düzenleyicisi kullanmak ve o dosyayla girdi olarak çalıştırmak daha
iyidir.  Bu bir 'script' oluşturma olarak bilinir.  Programınız
uzadıkça, daha kolay bakım için birkaç dosyaya bölmek isteyebilirsiniz.
Ayrıca, tanımını her programa kopyalamadan, birkaç programda yazdığınız
kullanışlı bir fonksiyonu kullanmak isteyebilirsiniz.

Bunu desteklemek için Python, tanımları bir dosyaya koymanın ve bunları
bir komut dosyasında veya yorumlayıcının etkileşimli bir örneğinde
kullanmanın bir yolunu sağlar.  Böyle bir dosyaya 'module' denir; bir
modülden alınan tanımlar diğer modüllere veya 'main' modülüne (en üst
düzeyde ve hesap makinesi modunda yürütülen bir komut dosyasında
erişiminiz olan değişkenlerin derlenmesi) aktarılabilir.

Modül, Python tanımlarını ve ifadelerini içeren bir dosyadır.  Dosya
adı, ‘.py’ son ekini içeren modül adıdır.  Bir modül içinde, modülün adı
(dize olarak) ‘__name__’ genel değişkeninin değeri olarak
kullanılabilir.  Örneğin, geçerli dizinde aşağıdaki içeriklerle
‘fibo.py’ adlı bir dosya oluşturmak için en sevdiğiniz metin
düzenleyicisini kullanın:

     # Fibonacci numbers module

     def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series up to n
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             print(a, end=' ')
             a, b = b, a+b
         print()

     def fib2(n):   # return Fibonacci series up to n
         result = []
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             result.append(a)
             a, b = b, a+b
         return result

Şimdi Python yorumlayıcısına girin ve bu modülü aşağıdaki komutla içe
aktarın:

     >>> import fibo

Bu, ‘fibo’ ‘da tanımlanan işlevlerin adlarını doğrudan geçerli *note
namespace: 1aa0. ‘e eklemez (daha fazla ayrıntı için bkz.  *note Python
Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları: 1aa1.); oraya sadece ‘fibo’ modül adını
ekler.  Modül adını kullanarak şu işlevlere erişebilirsiniz:

     >>> fibo.fib(1000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
     >>> fibo.fib2(100)
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
     >>> fibo.__name__
     'fibo'

Bir işlevi sık sık kullanmayı düşünüyorsanız, işlevi yerel bir ada
atayabilirsiniz:

     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

* Menu:

* Modüller hakkında daha fazla::
* Standart modüller::
* dir() Fonksiyonu: dir Fonksiyonu.
* Paketler::


File: python.info,  Node: Modüller hakkında daha fazla,  Next: Standart modüller,  Up: Modüller

2.6.1 Modüller hakkında daha fazla
----------------------------------

Bir modül, işlev tanımlarının yanı sıra çalıştırılabilir ifadeler de
içerebilir.  Bu ifadeler modülü başlatmayı amaçlamaktadır.  Yalnızca bir
import ifadesinde modül adıyla karşılaşıldığında 'ilk' kez yürütülürler.
(1)  (Dosya komut dosyası olarak yürütülürse de çalıştırılırlar.)

Her modülün, modülde tanımlanan tüm işlevler tarafından genel ad alanı
olarak kullanılan kendi özel ad alanı vardır.  Böylece, bir modülün
yazarı, bir kullanıcının genel değişkenleriyle yanlışlıkla çakışma
endişesi duymadan, modüldeki genel değişkenleri kullanabilir.  Öte
yandan, ne yaptığınızı biliyorsanız, bir modülün global değişkenlerine,
işlevlerine atıfta bulunmak için kullanılan ‘modname.itemname’
notasyonuyla dokunabilirsiniz.

Modüller diğer modülleri içe aktarabilir.  Tüm *note import: 3ed.
ifadelerinin bir modülün (veya bu konuda betiğin) başına yerleştirilmesi
alışılmış bir durumdur ancak gerekli değildir.  İçe aktarılan modül
adları, bir modülün en üst düzeyine yerleştirilirse (herhangi bir işlev
veya sınıfın dışında), modülün genel ad alanına eklenir.

*note import: 3ed. ifadesinin, bir modülden adları doğrudan içe aktaran
modülün ad alanına aktaran bir çeşidi vardır.  Örneğin:

     >>> from fibo import fib, fib2
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Bu, içe aktarmaların yerel ad alanında alındığı modül adını tanıtmaz(bu
nedenle örnekte ‘fibo’ tanımlanmamıştır).

Bir modülün tanımladığı tüm adları içe aktarmak için bir varyant bile
vardır:

     >>> from fibo import *
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Bu, alt çizgiyle başlayanlar (‘_’) dışındaki tüm isimleri alır.  Çoğu
durumda Python programcıları bu özelliği kullanmaz, çünkü yorumlayıcıya
bilinmeyen bir ad kümesi ekler ve muhtemelen önceden tanımladığınız bazı
şeyleri gizler.

Genel olarak, bir modülden veya paketten ‘*’ içeri aktarma
uygulamasının, genellikle okunamayan koda neden olduğundan hoş
karşılanmadığına dikkat edin.  Ancak, etkileşimli oturumlarda yazmayı
kaydetmek için kullanmak sorun değildir.

Modül adının ardından ‘as’ geliyorsa, ‘as’ ‘den sonraki ad doğrudan içe
aktarılan modüle bağlanır.

     >>> import fibo as fib
     >>> fib.fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Bu, modülün ‘import fibo’ ‘nun yapacağı şekilde etkin bir şekilde içe
aktarılmasıdır, tek farkı ‘fib’ olarak mevcut olmasıdır.

Benzer efektlere sahip *note from: 1154. kullanılırken de
kullanılabilir:

     >>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
     >>> fibonacci(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

     Not: Verimlilik nedeniyle, her modül yorumlayıcı oturumu başına
     yalnızca bir kez içe aktarılır.  Bu nedenle, modüllerinizi
     değiştirirseniz, yorumlayıcıyı yeniden başlatmanız gerekir - veya
     etkileşimli olarak test etmek istediğiniz tek bir modülse, *note
     importlib.reload(): 2a3, örneğin ‘importlib;
     importlib.reload(modulename)’.

* Menu:

* Modülleri komut dosyası olarak yürütme::
* Modül Arama Yolu::
* “Derlenmiş” Python dosyaları::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Aslında işlev tanımları aynı zamanda ‘çalıştırılan’
‘ifadelerdir’; modül düzeyinde bir işlev tanımının çalıştırılması, işlev
adını modülün genel ad alanına ekler.


File: python.info,  Node: Modülleri komut dosyası olarak yürütme,  Next: Modül Arama Yolu,  Up: Modüller hakkında daha fazla

2.6.1.1 Modülleri komut dosyası olarak yürütme
..............................................

Bir Python modülünü :: ile çalıştırdığınızda:

     python fibo.py <arguments>

modüldeki kod, içe aktardığınız gibi yürütülür, ancak ‘__name__’
‘"__main__"’ olarak ayarlanır.  Bu, modülünüzün sonuna bu kodu
ekleyerek:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import sys
         fib(int(sys.argv[1]))

dosyayı bir komut dosyası ve içe aktarılabilir bir modül olarak
kullanılabilir hale getirebilirsiniz, çünkü komut satırını ayrıştıran
kod yalnızca modül “main” dosya olarak yürütülürse çalışır:

     $ python fibo.py 50
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

Modül içe aktarılırsa kod çalıştırılmaz:

     >>> import fibo
     >>>

Bu genellikle bir modüle uygun bir kullanıcı arabirimi sağlamak veya
test amacıyla kullanılır (modülü komut dosyası olarak çalıştırmak bir
test paketi yürütür).


File: python.info,  Node: Modül Arama Yolu,  Next: “Derlenmiş” Python dosyaları,  Prev: Modülleri komut dosyası olarak yürütme,  Up: Modüller hakkında daha fazla

2.6.1.2 Modül Arama Yolu
........................

‘spam’ adında bir modül içe aktarıldığında, yorumlayıcı ilk olarak bu
ada sahip gömülü bir modül arar.  Bu modül adları *note
sys.builtin_module_names: 1aa8. içinde listelenir.  Bulamazsa, *note
sys.path: 368. değişkeni tarafından verilen dizin listesinde ‘spam.py’
adlı bir dosya arar.  *note sys.path: 368. bu konumlardan başlatılır:

   * Girdi komut dosyasını içeren dizin (veya dosya belirtilmediğinde
     geçerli dizin).

   * *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. (kabuk değişkeni ‘PATH’ ile aynı sözdizimine
     sahip dizin adlarının listesi).

   * Kuruluma bağlı varsayılan (kural olarak, *note site: c6. modülü
     tarafından işlenen bir “site-packages” dizini dahil).

Daha fazla ayrıntı *note The initialization of the sys.path module
search path: 1aa9. adresindedir.

     Not: Symlink’leri destekleyen dosya sistemlerinde, symlink
     izlendikten sonra girdi komut dosyasını içeren dizin hesaplanır.
     Başka bir deyişle, symlink içeren dizin modül arama yoluna 'not'
     eklenir.

Başlatıldıktan sonra Python programları *note sys.path: 368.
değiştirebilir.  Çalıştırılmakta olan komut dosyasını içeren dizin,
arama yolunun başına, standart kitaplık yolunun önüne yerleştirilir.
Bu, kitaplık dizininde aynı ada sahip modüller yerine bu dizindeki komut
dosyalarının yüklanacağı anlamına gelir.  Değiştirme amaçlanmadığı
sürece bu bir hatadır.  Daha fazla bilgi için *note Standart modüller:
1aaa. bölümüne bakın.


File: python.info,  Node: “Derlenmiş” Python dosyaları,  Prev: Modül Arama Yolu,  Up: Modüller hakkında daha fazla

2.6.1.3 “Derlenmiş” Python dosyaları
....................................

Modüllerin yüklenmesini hızlandırmak için Python, her modülün derlenmiş
sürümünü ‘__pycache__’ dizininde ‘module.`version'.pyc’ adı altında
önbelleğe alır; burada sürüm, derlenen dosyanın biçimini kodlar;
genellikle Python sürüm numarasını içerir.  Örneğin, CPython 3.3
sürümünde spam.py’nin derlenmiş sürümü ‘__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc’
olarak önbelleğe alınacaktır.  Bu adlandırma kuralı, farklı sürümlerden
ve Python’un farklı sürümlerinden derlenmiş modüllerin bir arada var
olmasına izin verir.

Python, eski olup olmadığını ve yeniden derlenmesi gerekip gerekmediğini
görmek için kaynağın değişiklik tarihini derlenmiş sürümle
karşılaştırır.  Bu tamamen otomatik bir işlemdir.  Ayrıca, derlenen
modüller platformdan bağımsızdır, bu nedenle aynı kitaplık farklı
mimarilere sahip sistemler arasında paylaşılabilir.

Python iki durumda önbelleği kontrol etmez.  İlk olarak, doğrudan komut
satırından yüklenen modülün sonucunu her zaman yeniden derler ve
saklamaz.  İkincisi, kaynak modül yoksa önbelleği kontrol etmez.  Kaynak
olmayan (yalnızca derlenmiş) bir dağıtımı desteklemek için, derlenen
modül kaynak dizinde olmalı ve bir kaynak modül olmamalıdır.

Uzmanlar için bazı ipuçları:

   * Derlenmiş bir modülün boyutunu küçültmek için Python komutundaki
     *note -O: c42. veya *note -OO: c43. anahtarlarını
     kullanabilirsiniz.  ‘-O’ anahtarı, onaylama ifadelerini kaldırır,
     ‘-OO’ anahtarı, hem assert ifadelerini hem de __doc__ dizelerini
     kaldırır.  Bazı programlar bunların kullanılabilir olmasına
     güvenebileceğinden, bu seçeneği yalnızca ne yaptığınızı
     biliyorsanız kullanmalısınız.  “Optimize edilmiş” modüller bir
     “opt-” etiketine sahiptir ve genellikle daha küçüktür.  Gelecekteki
     sürümler, optimizasyonun etkilerini değiştirebilir.

   * Bir program ‘.pyc’ dosyasından okunduğunda, ‘.py’ dosyasından
     okunduğundan daha hızlı çalışmaz; ‘.pyc’ dosyaları hakkında daha
     hızlı olan tek şey, yüklenme hızlarıdır.

   * *note compileall: 20. modülü, bir dizindeki tüm modüller için .pyc
     dosyaları oluşturabilir.

   * PEP 3147(1) ‘de, kararların bir akış şeması da dahil olmak üzere,
     bu süreç hakkında daha fazla ayrıntı bulunmaktadır.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Standart modüller,  Next: dir Fonksiyonu,  Prev: Modüller hakkında daha fazla,  Up: Modüller

2.6.2 Standart modüller
-----------------------

Python, ayrı bir belge olan Python Kütüphane Referansında (buradan
itibaren “Kütüphane Referansı”) açıklanan standart modüllerden oluşan
bir kütüphaneyle birlikte gelir.  Bazı modüller yorumlayıcıda yerleşik
olarak bulunur; bunlar dilin çekirdeğinin bir parçası olmayan ancak yine
de verimlilik için veya sistem çağrıları gibi işletim sistemi
ilkellerine erişim sağlamak için yerleşik olarak bulunan işlemlere
erişim sağlar.  Bu tür modüllerin kümesi, altta yatan platforma da bağlı
olan bir yapılandırma seçeneğidir.  Örneğin, *note winreg: 116. modülü
yalnızca Windows sistemlerinde sağlanır.  Belirli bir modül biraz ilgiyi
hak ediyor: *note sys: d8, her Python yorumlayıcısında yerleşik olarak
bulunur.  ‘sys.ps1’ ve ‘sys.ps2’ değişkenleri birincil ve ikincil
istemler olarak kullanılan dizeleri tanımlar:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.ps1
     '>>> '
     >>> sys.ps2
     '... '
     >>> sys.ps1 = 'C> '
     C> print('Yuck!')
     Yuck!
     C>

Bu iki değişken yalnızca yorumlayıcı etkileşimli moddaysa tanımlanır.

‘sys.path’ değişkeni, yorumlayıcının modüller için arama yolunu
belirleyen bir dizeler listesidir.  *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. ortam
değişkeninden veya *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. ayarlanmamışsa yerleşik bir
varsayılan değerden alınan varsayılan bir yola başlatılır.  Standart
liste işlemlerini kullanarak değiştirebilirsiniz:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.append('/ufs/guido/lib/python')


File: python.info,  Node: dir Fonksiyonu,  Next: Paketler,  Prev: Standart modüller,  Up: Modüller

2.6.3 ‘dir()’ Fonksiyonu
------------------------

Yerleşik fonksiyon *note dir(): 445, bir modülün hangi adları
tanımladığını bulmak için kullanılır.  Sıralanmış bir dize listesi
döndürür:

     >>> import fibo, sys
     >>> dir(fibo)
     ['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
     >>> dir(sys)
     ['__breakpointhook__', '__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__',
      '__interactivehook__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',
      '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '__unraisablehook__',
      '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_framework',
      '_getframe', '_git', '_home', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'addaudithook',
      'api_version', 'argv', 'audit', 'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix',
      'breakpointhook', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing',
      'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info',
      'excepthook', 'exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info',
      'float_repr_style', 'get_asyncgen_hooks', 'get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth',
      'getallocatedblocks', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
      'getfilesystemencodeerrors', 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getprofile',
      'getrecursionlimit', 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval',
      'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',
      'intern', 'is_finalizing', 'last_traceback', 'last_type', 'last_value',
      'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path', 'path_hooks',
      'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'pycache_prefix',
      'set_asyncgen_hooks', 'set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth', 'setdlopenflags',
      'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr',
      'stdin', 'stdout', 'thread_info', 'unraisablehook', 'version', 'version_info',
      'warnoptions']

Argümanlar olmadan, *note dir(): 445, şu anda tanımladığınız adları
listeler:

     >>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
     >>> import fibo
     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> dir()
     ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']

Her tür adın listelendiğini unutmayın: değişkenler, modüller,
fonksiyonlar vb.

*note dir(): 445. yerleşik fonksiyonlarun ve değişkenlerin adlarını
listelemez.  Bunların bir listesini istiyorsanız, standart modül *note
builtins: 12. ‘de tanımlanırlar:

     >>> import builtins
     >>> dir(builtins)
     ['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
      'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
      'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
      'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
      'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
      'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
      'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',
      'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',
      'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',
      'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',
      'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
      'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
      'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',
      'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',
      'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',
      'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',
      'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',
      'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',
      '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',
      'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
      'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',
      'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',
      'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',
      'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',
      'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',
      'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',
      'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',
      'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',
      'zip']


File: python.info,  Node: Paketler,  Prev: dir Fonksiyonu,  Up: Modüller

2.6.4 Paketler
--------------

Paketler, Python’un modül isim alanını “noktalı modül isimleri”
kullanarak yapılandırmanın bir yoludur.  Örneğin, ‘A.B’ modül adı, ‘A’
adlı bir paketteki ‘B’ adlı bir alt modülü belirtir.  Modül kullanımının
farklı modüllerin yazarlarını birbirlerinin global değişken isimleri
hakkında endişelenmekten kurtarması gibi, noktalı modül isimlerinin
kullanımı da NumPy veya Pillow gibi çok modüllü paketlerin yazarlarını
birbirlerinin modül isimleri hakkında endişelenmekten kurtarır.

Ses dosyalarının ve ses verilerinin tek tip işlenmesi için bir modül
koleksiyonu (“paket”) tasarlamak istediğinizi varsayalım.  Birçok farklı
ses dosyası biçimi vardır (genellikle uzantılarıyla tanınır, örneğin:
‘.wav’, ‘.aiff’, ‘.au’) bu nedenle, çeşitli dosya biçimleri arasında
dönüşüm için büyüyen bir modül koleksiyonu oluşturmanız ve sürdürmeniz
gerekebilir.  Ses verileri üzerinde gerçekleştirmek isteyebileceğiniz
birçok farklı işlem de vardır (karıştırma, eko ekleme, ekolayzır işlevi
uygulama, yapay bir stereo efekti oluşturma gibi) bu nedenle ek olarak,
bu işlemleri gerçekleştirmek için hiç bitmeyen bir modül akışı yazıyor
olacaksınız.  İşte paketiniz için olası bir yapı (hiyerarşik bir dosya
sistemi cinsinden ifade edilir):

     sound/                          Top-level package
           __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
           formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
                   __init__.py
                   wavread.py
                   wavwrite.py
                   aiffread.py
                   aiffwrite.py
                   auread.py
                   auwrite.py
                   ...
           effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
                   __init__.py
                   echo.py
                   surround.py
                   reverse.py
                   ...
           filters/                  Subpackage for filters
                   __init__.py
                   equalizer.py
                   vocoder.py
                   karaoke.py
                   ...

Paketi içe aktarırken Python, paket alt dizinini arayan ‘sys.path’
üzerindeki dizinleri arar.

‘__init__.py’ dosyaları, Python’un dosyayı içeren dizinleri paket olarak
ele almasını sağlamak için gereklidir (nispeten gelişmiş bir özellik
olan *note namespace package: 1ab1. kullanılmadığı sürece).  Bu,
‘string’ gibi ortak bir ada sahip dizinlerin, modül arama yolunda daha
sonra ortaya çıkan geçerli modülleri istemeden gizlemesini önler.  En
basit durumda, ‘__init__.py’ sadece boş bir dosya olabilir, ancak aynı
zamanda paket için başlatma kodunu çalıştırabilir veya daha sonra
açıklanacak olan ‘__all__’ değişkenini ayarlayabilir.

Paketin kullanıcıları, paketin içindeki ayrı modülleri içe aktarabilir,
örneğin:

     import sound.effects.echo

Bu, ‘sound.effects.echo’ alt modülünü yükler.  Tam adı ile referans
verilmelidir.

     sound.effects.echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Alt modülü içe aktarmanın alternatif bir yolu:

     from sound.effects import echo

Bu aynı zamanda ‘echo’ alt modülünü yükler ve paket öneki olmadan
kullanılabilir hale getirir, böylece aşağıdaki gibi kullanılabilir:

     echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Yine başka bir varyasyon, istenen işlevi veya değişkeni doğrudan içe
aktarmaktır:

     from sound.effects.echo import echofilter

Yine, bu, ‘echo’ alt modülünü yükler, ancak bu, ‘echofilter()’
fonksiyonunu doğrudan kullanılabilir hale getirir:

     echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

‘from package import item’ kullanırken, öğenin paketin bir alt modülü
(veya alt paketi) veya pakette tanımlanmış bir fonksiyon, sınıf veya
değişken gibi başka bir ad olabileceğini unutmayın.  ‘import’ ifadesi
önce öğenin pakette tanımlanıp tanımlanmadığını test eder; değilse modül
olduğunu varsayar ve yüklemeye çalışır.  Onu bulamazsa, bir *note
ImportError: 14b. istisnası ortaya çıkar.

Aksine, ‘import item.subitem.subsubitem’ gibi bir sözdizimi kullanırken,
sonuncusu hariç her öğe bir paket olmalıdır; son öğe bir modül veya
paket olabilir, ancak önceki öğede tanımlanan bir sınıf, fonksiyon veya
değişken olamaz.

* Menu:

* Bir Paketten * İçe Aktarma::
* Paket İçi Referanslar::
* Birden Çok Dizindeki Paketler::


File: python.info,  Node: Bir Paketten * İçe Aktarma,  Next: Paket İçi Referanslar,  Up: Paketler

2.6.4.1 Bir Paketten * İçe Aktarma
..................................

Şimdi, kullanıcı ‘from sound.effects import *’ yazdığında ne olur?
İdeal olarak, bunun bir şekilde dosya sistemine gitmesi, pakette hangi
alt modüllerin bulunduğunu bulması ve hepsini içe aktarması umulur.  Bu
uzun zaman alabilir ve alt modüllerin içe aktarılması, yalnızca alt
modül açıkça içe aktarıldığında gerçekleşmesi gereken istenmeyen yan
etkilere neden olabilir.

Tek çözüm, paket yazarının paketin açık bir dizinini sağlamasıdır.
*note import: 3ed. ifadesi aşağıdaki kuralı kullanır: eğer bir paketin
‘__init__.py’ kodu ‘__all__’ adlı bir liste tanımlarsa, ‘from package
import *’ ile karşılaşıldığında alınması gereken modül adlarının listesi
olarak alınır.  Paketin yeni bir sürümü yayınlandığında bu listeyi
güncel tutmak paket yazarının sorumluluğundadır.  Paket yazarları,
paketlerinden * içe aktarmak için bir kullanım görmezlerse, onu
desteklememeye de karar verebilirler.  Örneğin,
‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ dosyası şu kodu içerebilir:

     __all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

Bu, ‘from sound.effects import *’ ifadesinin ‘sound.effects’ paketinin
üç adlandırılmış alt modülünü içe aktaracağı anlamına gelir.

Alt modüllerin yerel olarak tanımlanmış isimler tarafından
gölgelenebileceğini unutmayın.  Örneğin, ‘sound/effects/__init__.py’
dosyasına bir ‘reverse’ fonksiyonu eklediyseniz, ‘from sound.effects
import *’ sadece iki alt modül olan ‘echo’ ve ‘surround``u içe aktarır,
ancak *reverse’ alt modülünü içe aktarmaz, çünkü yerel olarak
tanımlanmış ‘reverse’ fonksiyonu tarafından gölgelenir:

     __all__ = [
         "echo",      # refers to the 'echo.py' file
         "surround",  # refers to the 'surround.py' file
         "reverse",   # !!! refers to the 'reverse' function now !!!
     ]

     def reverse(msg: str):  # <-- this name shadows the 'reverse.py' submodule
         return msg[::-1]    #     in the case of a 'from sound.effects import *'

Eğer ‘__all__’ tanımlanmamışsa, ‘from sound.effects import *’ ifadesi
‘sound.effects’ paketindeki tüm alt modülleri geçerli isim alanına
import etmez; sadece ‘sound.effects’ paketinin import edildiğinden emin
olur (muhtemelen ‘__init__.py’ içindeki herhangi bir başlatma kodunu
çalıştırır) ve sonra pakette tanımlanan isimleri import eder.  Bu,
‘__init__.py’ tarafından tanımlanan (ve alt modülleri açıkça yüklenen)
tüm isimleri içerir.  Ayrıca, önceki *note import: 3ed. deyimleri
tarafından açıkça yüklenmiş olan paketin tüm alt modüllerini de içerir.
Bu kodu göz önünde bulundurun:

     import sound.effects.echo
     import sound.effects.surround
     from sound.effects import *

Bu örnekte, ‘echo’ ve ‘surround’ modülleri, ‘from...import’ deyimi
çalıştırıldığında ‘sound.effects’ paketinde tanımlandıkları için geçerli
ad alanında içe aktarılır.  (Bu aynı zamanda ‘__all__’ tanımlandığında
da çalışır).

Bazı modüller, ‘import *’ kullandığınızda yalnızca belirli kalıpları
takip eden adları dışa aktarmak üzere tasarlanmış olsa da, üretim
kodunda yine de kötü uygulama olarak kabul edilir.

Unutmayın, ‘from package import specific_submodule’ kullanmanın yanlış
bir tarafı yok!  Aslında, içe aktarma modülünün farklı paketlerden aynı
ada sahip alt modülleri kullanması gerekmedikçe, önerilen gösterim
budur.


File: python.info,  Node: Paket İçi Referanslar,  Next: Birden Çok Dizindeki Paketler,  Prev: Bir Paketten * İçe Aktarma,  Up: Paketler

2.6.4.2 Paket İçi Referanslar
.............................

Paketler alt paketler halinde yapılandırıldığında (örnekteki ‘sound’
paketinde olduğu gibi), kardeş paketlerin alt modüllerine başvurmak için
mutlak içe aktarımları kullanabilirsiniz.  Örneğin,
‘sound.filters.vocoder’ modülünün ‘sound.effects’ paketindeki ‘echo’
modülünü kullanması gerekiyorsa, ‘from sound.effects import echo’
kullanabilir.

Ayrıca, içe aktarma ifadesinin ‘from module import name’ formuyla göreli
içe aktarmaları(relative import) da yazabilirsiniz.  Bu içe aktarmalar,
göreli içe aktarmada(relative import) yer alan mevcut ve ana paketleri
belirtmek için baştaki noktaları kullanır.  Örneğin ‘surround’
modülünden şunları kullanabilirsiniz:

     from . import echo
     from .. import formats
     from ..filters import equalizer

Göreceli içe aktarmaların geçerli modülün adını temel aldığını
unutmayın.  Ana modülün adı her zaman ‘"__main__"’ olduğundan, bir
Python uygulamasının ana modülü olarak kullanılması amaçlanan modüller
her zaman mutlak içe aktarma kullanmalıdır.


File: python.info,  Node: Birden Çok Dizindeki Paketler,  Prev: Paket İçi Referanslar,  Up: Paketler

2.6.4.3 Birden Çok Dizindeki Paketler
.....................................

Packages support one more special attribute, *note __path__: 1ab7.  This
is initialized to be a *note sequence: 23f. of strings containing the
name of the directory holding the package’s ‘__init__.py’ before the
code in that file is executed.  This variable can be modified; doing so
affects future searches for modules and subpackages contained in the
package.

Bu özelliğe sıklıkla ihtiyaç duyulmasa da, bir pakette bulunan modül
dizisini genişletmek için kullanılabilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Girdi ve Çıktı,  Next: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar,  Prev: Modüller,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.7 Girdi ve Çıktı
==================

Bir programın çıktısını sunmanın birkaç yolu vardır; veriler okunabilir
bir biçimde yazdırılabilir veya ileride kullanılmak üzere bir dosyaya
yazılabilir.  Bu bölümde bazı olasılıklar tartışılacaktır.

* Menu:

* Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi::
* Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma::


File: python.info,  Node: Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi,  Next: Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma,  Up: Girdi ve Çıktı

2.7.1 Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi
---------------------------------

So far we’ve encountered two ways of writing values: 'expression
statements' and the *note print(): e16. function.  (A third way is using
the *note write(): 1abd. method of file objects; the standard output
file can be referenced as ‘sys.stdout’.  See the Library Reference for
more information on this.)

Genellikle, yalnızca boşlukla ayrılmış değerleri yazdırmaktansa,
çıktınızın biçimlendirmesi üzerinde daha fazla denetim istersiniz.
Çıktıyı biçimlendirmenin birkaç yolu vardır.

   * *note formatted string literals: 1abe. kullanmak için, açılış
     tırnak işaretinden veya üç tırnak işaretinden önce ‘f’ veya ‘F’ ile
     bir dize başlatın.  Bu dizenin içinde, değişkenlere veya hazır
     bilgi değerlerine başvurabilen ‘{’ ve ‘}’ karakterleri arasında bir
     Python ifadesi yazabilirsiniz.

          >>> year = 2016
          >>> event = 'Referendum'
          >>> f'Results of the {year} {event}'
          'Results of the 2016 Referendum'

   * The *note str.format(): 433. method of strings requires more manual
     effort.  You’ll still use ‘{’ and ‘}’ to mark where a variable will
     be substituted and can provide detailed formatting directives, but
     you’ll also need to provide the information to be formatted.  In
     the following code block there are two examples of how to format
     variables:

          >>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
          >>> total_votes = 85_705_149
          >>> percentage = yes_votes / total_votes
          >>> '{:-9} YES votes  {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
          ' 42572654 YES votes  49.67%'

     Notice how the ‘yes_votes’ are padded with spaces and a negative
     sign only for negative numbers.  The example also prints
     ‘percentage’ multiplied by 100, with 2 decimal places and followed
     by a percent sign (see *note Format Specification Mini-Language:
     3ee. for details).

   * Son olarak, hayal edebileceğiniz herhangi bir düzen oluşturmak için
     dize dilimleme ve birleştirme işlemlerini kullanarak tüm dize
     işlemeyi kendiniz yapabilirsiniz.  Dize türü, dizeleri belirli bir
     sütun genişliğine doldurma için yararlı işlemler gerçekleştiren
     bazı yöntemlere sahiptir.

Daha güzel görünen bir çıktıya ihtiyacınız olmadığında, ancak hata
ayıklama amacıyla bazı değişkenlerin hızlı bir şekilde görüntülenmesini
istediğinizde, herhangi bir değeri *note repr(): 637. veya *note str():
15d. işlevleriyle bir dizeye dönüştürebilirsiniz.

*note str(): 15d. işlevi açıkça okunabilir değerlerin gösterimlerini
döndürmek için, *note repr(): 637. ise yorumlayıcı tarafından
okunabilecek gösterimler oluşturmak içindir (veya eş değer bir sözdizimi
yoksa *note SyntaxError: 14c. ‘ı zorlar).  İnsan tüketimi için belirli
bir temsili olmayan nesneler için *note str(): 15d, *note repr(): 637.
ile aynı değeri döndürür.  Sayılar veya listeler ve sözlükler benzeri
yapılar gibi birçok değer, her iki işlevi de kullanarak aynı gösterime
sahiptir.  Özellikle dizelerin iki farklı gösterimi vardır.

Bazı örnekler:

     >>> s = 'Hello, world.'
     >>> str(s)
     'Hello, world.'
     >>> repr(s)
     "'Hello, world.'"
     >>> str(1/7)
     '0.14285714285714285'
     >>> x = 10 * 3.25
     >>> y = 200 * 200
     >>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...'
     >>> print(s)
     The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
     >>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:
     >>> hello = 'hello, world\n'
     >>> hellos = repr(hello)
     >>> print(hellos)
     'hello, world\n'
     >>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object:
     >>> repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
     "(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"

*note string: d2. modülü bir *note Template: 49c. sınıfını içerir; bu
sınıf, ‘$x’ gibi yer tutucuları kullanarak ve bunları bir sözlükten
değerlerle değiştirerek, değerleri dizelerle değiştirmenin başka bir
yolunu sunar, ancak biçimlendirme üzerinde çok daha az kontrol sağlar.

* Menu:

* Biçimlendirilmiş Dize Değişmezleri::
* String format() Metodu: String format Metodu.
* Manuel Dize Biçimlendirmesi::
* Eski dize biçimlendirmesi::


File: python.info,  Node: Biçimlendirilmiş Dize Değişmezleri,  Next: String format Metodu,  Up: Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi

2.7.1.1 Biçimlendirilmiş Dize Değişmezleri
..........................................

*note Formatted string literals: 807. (kısaltmak için f-string olarak da
adlandırılır), dizenin önüne ‘f’ veya ‘F’ yazarak ve ifadeleri
‘{expression}’ olarak yazarak Python ifadelerinin değerini bir dizenin
içine eklemenize olanak tanır.

Opsiyonel biçim belirleyicisi ifadeyi izleyebilir.  Bu, değerin nasıl
biçimlendirileceğini daha fazla denetlemenizi sağlar.  Aşağıdaki örnek
pi sayısını ondalık sayıdan sonra üç basamağa yuvarlar:

     >>> import math
     >>> print(f'The value of pi is approximately {math.pi:.3f}.')
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

‘':'’ öğesinin ardından bir tamsayı geçmek, bu alanın en az sayıda
karakter genişliğinde olmasına neden olur.  Bu, sütunların hizaya
getirilmesi için yararlıdır.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
     >>> for name, phone in table.items():
     ...     print(f'{name:10} ==> {phone:10d}')
     ...
     Sjoerd     ==>       4127
     Jack       ==>       4098
     Dcab       ==>       7678

Diğer değiştiriciler, değeri biçimlendirilmeden önce dönüştürmek için
kullanılabilir.  ‘'!a'’ *note ascii(): 126d, ‘'!s'’ *note str(): 15d, ve
‘'!r'’ *note repr(): 637. uygular:

     >>> animals = 'eels'
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals}.')
     My hovercraft is full of eels.
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals!r}.')
     My hovercraft is full of 'eels'.

‘=’ belirleyicisi, bir ifadeyi ifadenin metnine, eşittir işaretine ve
ardından değerlendirilen ifadenin temsiline genişletmek için
kullanılabilir:

     >>> bugs = 'roaches'
     >>> count = 13
     >>> area = 'living room'
     >>> print(f'Debugging {bugs=} {count=} {area=}')
     Debugging bugs='roaches' count=13 area='living room'

‘=’ belirtici hakkında daha fazla bilgi için *note kendi kendini
belgeleyen ifadeler: 805. konusuna bakın.  Bu biçim belirtimleriyle
ilgili bir referans için, *note Format Specification Mini-Language: 3ee.
için başvuru kılavuzuna bakın.


File: python.info,  Node: String format Metodu,  Next: Manuel Dize Biçimlendirmesi,  Prev: Biçimlendirilmiş Dize Değişmezleri,  Up: Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi

2.7.1.2 String format() Metodu
..............................

*note str.format(): 433. metodunun temel kullanımı şöyle görünür:

     >>> print('We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni'))
     We are the knights who say "Ni!"

İçlerindeki köşeli ayraçlar ve karakterler (format fields olarak
adlandırılır) *note str.format(): 433. yöntemine geçirilen nesnelerle
değiştirilir.  Köşeli ayraçlardaki bir sayı, *note str.format(): 433.
yöntemine geçirilen nesnenin konumuna başvurmak için kullanılabilir.

     >>> print('{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     spam and eggs
     >>> print('{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     eggs and spam

Anahtar sözcük argümanları *note str.format(): 433. yönteminde
kullanılıyorsa, değerlerine argümanın adı kullanılarak başvurulmaktadır.

     >>> print('This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
     ...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible'))
     This spam is absolutely horrible.

Konumsal ve anahtar sözcük argümanları isteğe bağlı olarak
birleştirilebilir:

     >>> print('The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred',
     ...                                                    other='Georg'))
     The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.

Bölmek istemediğiniz gerçekten uzun biçimli bir dizeniz varsa, konuma
göre değil de ada göre biçimlendirilecek değişkenlere başvurursanız iyi
olur.  Bu, sadece dict’i geçirerek ve tuşlara erişmek için ‘'[]'’ köşeli
ayraçları kullanarak yapılabilir.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
     ...       'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

Bu, ‘table’ sözlüğünü ‘**’ gösterimiyle anahtar kelime bağımsız
değişkenleri olarak ileterek de yapılabilir.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

This is particularly useful in combination with the built-in function
*note vars(): 1882, which returns a dictionary containing all local
variables:

     >>> table = {k: str(v) for k, v in vars().items()}
     >>> message = " ".join([f'{k}: ' + '{' + k +'};' for k in table.keys()])
     >>> print(message.format(**table))
     __name__: __main__; __doc__: None; __package__: None; __loader__: ...

Örnek olarak, aşağıdaki satırlar, tamsayıları ve bunların karelerini ve
küplerini veren düzenli bir şekilde hizalanmış bir sütun kümesi
oluşturur:

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print('{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

*note str.format(): 433. ile dize biçimlendirmeye tam bir genel bakış
için bkz.  *note Format String Syntax: 1237.


File: python.info,  Node: Manuel Dize Biçimlendirmesi,  Next: Eski dize biçimlendirmesi,  Prev: String format Metodu,  Up: Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi

2.7.1.3 Manuel Dize Biçimlendirmesi
...................................

Manuel olarak biçimlendirilmiş aynı kare ve küp tablosu aşağıdadır:

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print(repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), end=' ')
     ...     # Note use of 'end' on previous line
     ...     print(repr(x*x*x).rjust(4))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

(Her sütun arasındaki tek boşluğun *note print(): e16. çalışma şekliyle
ekli olduğunu unutmayın: her zaman argümanları arasına boşluk ekler.)

Dize nesnelerinin *note str.rjust(): 1ac3. yöntemi, belirli bir
genişlikteki bir alandaki dizeyi soldaki boşluklarla doldurmayı haklı
hale getirir.  Benzer yöntemler vardır *note str.ljust(): 1ac4. ve *note
str.center(): 1ac5.  Bu yöntemler hiçbir şey yazmaz, yalnızca yeni bir
dize döndürür.  Giriş dizesi çok uzunsa, onu kesmezler, değiştirmeden
döndürürler; bu, sütununuzu mahvedecektir, ancak bu genellikle bir değer
hakkında yalan söylemek olan alternatiften daha iyidir.  (Gerçekten
kesilme istiyorsanız, ‘x.ljust(n)[:n]’ gibi her zaman bir dilim işlemi
ekleyebilirsiniz.)

Soldaki sayısal bir dizeyi sıfırlarla dolduran başka bir metot vardır:
*note str.zfill(): 133d.  Bu metot artı ve eksi işaretlerini anlar:

     >>> '12'.zfill(5)
     '00012'
     >>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
     '-003.14'
     >>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
     '3.14159265359'


File: python.info,  Node: Eski dize biçimlendirmesi,  Prev: Manuel Dize Biçimlendirmesi,  Up: Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi

2.7.1.4 Eski dize biçimlendirmesi
.................................

The % operator (modulo) can also be used for string formatting.  Given
‘format % values’ (where 'format' is a string), ‘%’ conversion
specifications in 'format' are replaced with zero or more elements of
'values'.  This operation is commonly known as string interpolation.
For example:

     >>> import math
     >>> print('The value of pi is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi)
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

Daha fazla bilgiyi *note printf-style String Formatting: 4e4. bölümünde
bulabilirsiniz.


File: python.info,  Node: Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma,  Prev: Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi,  Up: Girdi ve Çıktı

2.7.2 Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma
------------------------------

*note open(): 2a6. bir *note file object: 1068. döndürür ve en yaygın
olarak iki konum argümanı ve bir anahtar sözcük argümanı ile kullanılır:
‘open(filename, mode, encoding=None)’

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'w', encoding="utf-8")

İlk parametre dosya adını içeren bir dizedir.  İkinci parametre dosyanın
nasıl kullanılacağını açıklayan birkaç karakter içeren başka bir
dizedir.  'mode', dosya yalnızca okunacağı zaman ‘'r'’, yalnızca yazmak
için ‘'w'’ olabilir (aynı ada sahip varolan bir dosya temizlenir) ve
‘'a'’ dosyayı ekleme için açar; dosyaya yazılan tüm veriler otomatik
olarak sonuna eklenir.  ‘'r+'’ dosyayı hem okumak hem de yazmak için
açar.  'mode' parametresi isteğe bağlıdır; verilmezse ‘'r'’
varsayılacaktır.

Normalde dosyalar 'text mode' ‘unda açılır, yani belirli bir 'kodlamada
(encoding)' kodlanmış dizeleri dosyadan okur ve dosyaya yazarsınız.
'kodlama' belirtilmezse, varsayılan değer platforma bağlıdır (bakınız
*note open(): 2a6.).  UTF-8 modern de-fakto standart olduğundan, farklı
bir kodlama kullanmanız gerekmiyorsa ‘encoding="utf-8"’ kullanmanız
önerilir.  Moda ‘'b'’ eklemek, dosyayı 'binary' modunda açar.  İkili mod
verileri, *note bytes: 2cb. nesneleri olarak okunur ve yazılır.  Dosyayı
ikili modda açarken 'kodlama' belirtemezsiniz.

Metin modunda, okurken varsayılan değer platforma özgü satır sonlarını
(‘\n’ on Unix, ‘\r\n’ on Windows) yalnızca ‘\n’ olarak dönüştürmektir.
Metin modunda yazarken, varsayılan değer ‘\n’ oluşumlarını platforma
özgü satır sonlarına geri dönüştürmektir.  Dosya verilerinde yapılan bu
sahne arkası değişikliği metin dosyaları için iyidir, ancak ‘JPEG’ veya
‘EXE’ dosyalarında bunun gibi ikili verileri bozacaktır.  Bu tür
dosyaları okurken ve yazarken ikili modu kullanmaya çok dikkat edin.

Dosya nesneleriyle uğraşırken *note with: 3dd. anahtar sözcüğünü
kullanmak iyi bir uygulamadır.  Avantajı, herhangi bir noktada bir hata
oluşsa bile, paketi bittikten sonra dosyanın düzgün bir şekilde
kapatılmasıdır.  ‘with’ kullanmak da eş değer *note try: 503. -*note
finally: 828. blokları yazmaktançok daha kısadır:

     >>> with open('workfile', encoding="utf-8") as f:
     ...     read_data = f.read()

     >>> # We can check that the file has been automatically closed.
     >>> f.closed
     True

*note with: 3dd. anahtar sözcüğünü kullanmıyorsanız, dosyayı kapatmak ve
kullandığı sistem kaynaklarını hemen boşaltmak için ‘f.close()’ metodunu
çağırmalısınız.

     Uyarı: ‘with’ anahtar sözcüğünü kullanmadan ‘f.write()’ çağırmak
     veya ‘f.close()’ çağırmak, program başarıyla çıksa bile ‘f.write()’
     parametrelerinin diske tamamen yazılmamasıyla sonuçlanabilir.

Bir dosya nesnesi kapatıldıktan sonra, bir *note with: 3dd. deyimiyle
veya ‘f.close()’ çağırarak dosya nesnesini kullanma girişimleri otomatik
olarak başarısız olur.

     >>> f.close()
     >>> f.read()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.

* Menu:

* Dosya Nesnelerinin Metotları::
* Yapılandırılmış verileri json ile kaydetme::


File: python.info,  Node: Dosya Nesnelerinin Metotları,  Next: Yapılandırılmış verileri json ile kaydetme,  Up: Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma

2.7.2.1 Dosya Nesnelerinin Metotları
....................................

Bu bölümdeki örneklerin geri kalanı, ‘f’ adlı bir dosya nesnesinin zaten
oluşturulduğunu varsayar.

Bir dosyanın içeriğini okumak için, bir miktar veriyi okuyan ve dize
(metin modunda) veya bayt nesnesi (ikili modda) olarak döndüren
‘f.read(size)’ öğesini çağırın.  'size' isteğe bağlı bir sayısal
parametredir.  'size' boş bırakıldığında veya negatif olduğunda,
dosyanın tüm içeriği okunur ve döndürülür; dosya makinenizin belleğinden
iki kat daha büyükse bu sizin sorununuzdur.  Aksi takdirde, en fazla
'size' karakterleri (metin modunda) veya 'size' bayt (ikili modda)
okunur ve döndürülür.  Dosyanın sonuna ulaşıldıysa, ‘f.read()’ boş bir
dize (‘''’) döndürür.

     >>> f.read()
     'This is the entire file.\n'
     >>> f.read()
     ''

‘f.readline()’ dosyadan tek bir satır okur; dizenin sonunda bir newline
karakteri (‘\n’) bırakılır ve dosya yalnızca dosya yeni satırda bitmezse
dosyanın son satırında atlanır.  Bu, dönüş değerini netleştirir;
‘f.readline()’ boş bir dize döndürürse, dosyanın sonuna ulaşılmış
demektir, boş bir satır ise yalnızca tek bir yeni satır içeren bir dize
olan ‘'\n'’ ile temsil edilir.

     >>> f.readline()
     'This is the first line of the file.\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     'Second line of the file\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     ''

Bir dosyadan satırları okumak için, dosya nesnesinin üzerinde döngü
oluşturabilirsiniz.  Bu bellek verimliliğine, hızlılığına ve basit koda
yol açar:

     >>> for line in f:
     ...     print(line, end='')
     ...
     This is the first line of the file.
     Second line of the file

Listedeki bir dosyanın tüm satırlarını okumak istiyorsanız, ‘list(f)’
veya ‘f.readlines()’ öğelerini de kullanabilirsiniz.

‘f.write(string)’ 'string' içeriğini dosyaya yazar ve yazılan karakter
sayısını döndürür.

     >>> f.write('This is a test\n')
     15

Diğer nesne türlerinin yazmadan önce bir dizeye (metin modunda) veya
bayt nesnesine (ikili modda) dönüştürülmesi gerekir:

     >>> value = ('the answer', 42)
     >>> s = str(value)  # convert the tuple to string
     >>> f.write(s)
     18

‘f.tell()’ dosya nesnesinin dosyadaki geçerli konumunu ikili moddayken
dosyanın başından itibaren bayt sayısı ve metin modundayken opak bir
sayı olarak veren bir tamsayı döndürür.

Dosya nesnesinin konumunu değiştirmek için ‘f.seek(offset, whence)’
kullanın.  Konum, bir referans noktasına 'offset' eklenerek hesaplanır;
referans noktası 'whence' parametresi tarafından seçilir.  'whence'
değeri dosyanın başından itibaren 0 ölçerken, 1 geçerli dosya konumunu,
2 ise başvuru noktası olarak dosyanın sonunu kullanır.  'whence'
atlanabilir ve başvuru noktası için dosyanın başlangıcını kullanarak 0
olarak varsayılabilir.

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'rb+')
     >>> f.write(b'0123456789abcdef')
     16
     >>> f.seek(5)      # Go to the 6th byte in the file
     5
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'5'
     >>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # Go to the 3rd byte before the end
     13
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'd'

Metin dosyalarında (mod dizesinde ‘b’ olmadan açılanlar), yalnızca
dosyanın başına göre aramalara izin verilir (dosyanın sonuna ‘seek(0,
2)’ ile arayan özel durum) ve tek geçerli 'offset' değerleri ‘f.tell()’
veya sıfırdan döndürülen değerlerdir.  Başka herhangi bir 'offset'
değeri tanımsız davranış üretir.

File objects have some additional methods, such as *note isatty(): 1acb.
and *note truncate(): 11bb. which are less frequently used; consult the
Library Reference for a complete guide to file objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Yapılandırılmış verileri json ile kaydetme,  Prev: Dosya Nesnelerinin Metotları,  Up: Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma

2.7.2.2 Yapılandırılmış verileri ‘json’ ile kaydetme
....................................................

Strings can easily be written to and read from a file.  Numbers take a
bit more effort, since the *note read(): 1ace. method only returns
strings, which will have to be passed to a function like *note int():
184, which takes a string like ‘'123'’ and returns its numeric value
123.  When you want to save more complex data types like nested lists
and dictionaries, parsing and serializing by hand becomes complicated.

Python, kullanıcıların karmaşık veri türlerini dosyalara kaydetmek için
sürekli olarak kod yazmasını ve hata ayıklamasını sağlamak yerine, JSON
(JavaScript Object Notation)(1) adlı popüler veri değişim biçimini
kullanmanıza olanak tanır.  *note json: 80. adlı standart modül, Python
veri hiyerarşilerini alabilir ve bunları dize temsillerine
dönüştürebilir; bu işleme 'serializing' adı verilir.  Dize gösteriminden
verilerin yeniden yapılandırılmasına 'deserializing' denir.
Serileştirme ve seri durumdan çıkarma arasında, nesneyi temsil eden dizi
bir dosyada veya veride saklanmış olabilir veya bir ağ bağlantısı
üzerinden uzaktaki bir makineye gönderilmiş olabilir.

     Not: JSON biçimi, veri alışverişine izin vermek için modern
     uygulamalar tarafından yaygın olarak kullanılır.  Birçok programcı
     zaten buna aşinadır, bu da onu birlikte çalışabilirlik için iyi bir
     seçim haline getirir.

‘x’ nesnesiniz varsa, JSON dize gösterimini basit bir kod satırıyla
görüntüleyebilirsiniz:

     >>> import json
     >>> x = [1, 'simple', 'list']
     >>> json.dumps(x)
     '[1, "simple", "list"]'

*note dumps(): bce. işlevinin başka bir çeşidi, *note dump(): bcd. adı
verilen nesneyi bir *note text file: 1acf. (metin dosyası) olarak seri
hale getirmektedir.  Yani ‘f’ bir *note text file: 1acf. nesnesi yazmak
için açılmışsa, bunu yapabiliriz:

     json.dump(x, f)

Nesnenin kodunu tekrar çözmek için, ‘f’ okuma için açılmış bir *note
binary file: 1ad0. veya *note text file: 1acf. nesnesiyse:

     x = json.load(f)

     Not: JSON dosyaları UTF-8’de kodlanmalıdır.  Hem okuma hem de yazma
     için JSON dosyasını *note text file: 1acf. olarak açarken
     ‘encoding="utf-8"’ kullanın.

Bu basit seri hale getirme tekniği listeleri ve sözlükleri işleyebilir,
ancak JSON’da rasgele sınıf örneklerini seri hale getirmek biraz daha
fazla çaba gerektirir.  *note json: 80. modülü için olan örnek bunun bir
açıklamasını içerir.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note pickle: a5. - pickle modülü

*note JSON: 1acd. ifadesinin aksine, 'pickle', gelişigüzel olarak
karmaşık Python nesnelerinin seri hale getirilmesine izin veren bir
protokoldür.  Bu nedenle, Python’a özgüdür ve diğer dillerde yazılmış
uygulamalarla iletişim kurmak için kullanılamaz.  Varsayılan olarak da
güvensizdir: güvenilmeyen bir kaynaktan gelen pickle verilerinin
dizilerinin seri halden çıkarılması, veriler yetenekli bir saldırgan
tarafından hazırlanmışsa rasgele kod yürütebilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar,  Next: Sınıflar,  Prev: Girdi ve Çıktı,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.8 Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar
============================

Şimdiye kadar hata mesajlarından fazla bahsedilmedi, ancak örnekleri
denediyseniz muhtemelen bazılarını görmüşsünüzdür.  (En azından) iki
ayırt edilebilir hata türü vardır: 'söz dizimi hataları' ('syntax
errors') ve 'özel durumlar' ('exceptions').

* Menu:

* Söz Dizimi Hataları::
* Özel Durumlar::
* Özel Durumları İşleme::
* Hata Yükseltme::
* İstisna Zincirleme::
* Kullanıcı Tanımlı İstisnalar::
* Temizleme Eylemlerini Tanımlama::
* Önceden Tanımlanmış Temizleme Eylemleri::
* Birden Fazla Alakasız İstisna Oluşturma ve İşleme::
* İstisnaları Notlarla Zenginleştirme::


File: python.info,  Node: Söz Dizimi Hataları,  Next: Özel Durumlar,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.1 Söz Dizimi Hataları
-------------------------

Ayrıştırma hataları olarak da bilinen söz dizimi hataları, Python
öğrenirken belki de en sık karşılaşılan hatalardan biridir:

     >>> while True print('Hello world')
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         while True print('Hello world')
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

The parser repeats the offending line and displays little arrows
pointing at the place where the error was detected.  Note that this is
not always the place that needs to be fixed.  In the example, the error
is detected at the function *note print(): e16, since a colon (‘':'’) is
missing just before it.

The file name (‘<stdin>’ in our example) and line number are printed so
you know where to look in case the input came from a file.


File: python.info,  Node: Özel Durumlar,  Next: Özel Durumları İşleme,  Prev: Söz Dizimi Hataları,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.2 Özel Durumlar
-------------------

Bir komut veya ifade söz dizimsel olarak doğru olsa bile, yürütülmeye
çalışıldığında hataya neden olabilir.  Yürütme sırasında algılanan
hatalara 'exceptions (özel durumlar)' denir ve bazıları programlar için
kritik değildir: yakında Python programlarında bunların üstesinden
gelmeyi öğreneceksiniz.  Ancak, çoğu özel durum programlar tarafından
önlenemez ve burada gösterildiği gibi hata iletileriyle sonuçlanır:

     >>> 10 * (1/0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> 4 + spam*3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
     >>> '2' + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

Hata iletisinin son satırı hataya neyin sebep olduğu gösterir.  Özel
durumlar farklı türlerde gelir ve tür iletinin bir parçası olarak
yazdırılır: örnekteki türler şunlardır *note ZeroDivisionError: 79e,
*note NameError: 14a. ve *note TypeError: 2c4.  Özel durum türü olarak
yazdırılan dize, oluşan gömülü özel durumun adıdır.  Bu, tüm gömülü özel
durumlar için geçerlidir, ancak kullanıcı tanımlı özel durumlar için
doğru olması gerekmez (yararlı bir kural olmasına rağmen).  Standart
özel durum adları gömülü tanımlayıcılardır (ayrılmış anahtar sözcükler
değildir).

Satırın geri kalanı, özel durum türüne ve buna neyin neden olduğuna
bağlı olarak ayrıntı gösterir.

Hata iletisinin önceki bölümü, özel durumun oluştuğu bağlamı yığın
izleme geri dönüşü biçiminde gösterir.  Genel olarak, kaynak satırları
listeleyen bir yığın izleme listesi içerir; ancak, standart girişten
okunan satırları görüntülemez.

*note Gömülü İstisnalar: 16ac. yerleşik özel durumları ve anlamlarını
listeler.


File: python.info,  Node: Özel Durumları İşleme,  Next: Hata Yükseltme,  Prev: Özel Durumlar,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.3 Özel Durumları İşleme
---------------------------

Seçili özel durumları işleyen programlar yazmak mümkündür.  Geçerli bir
tam sayı girilene kadar kullanıcıdan giriş isteyen, ancak kullanıcının
programı kesmesine izin veren aşağıdaki örneğe bakın (‘Control’-‘C’ veya
işletim sistemi ne destekliyorsa onu kullanarak); kullanıcı kaynaklı
kesintilerin *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. özel durumu ile
gösterildiğini unutmayın.

     >>> while True:
     ...     try:
     ...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
     ...         break
     ...     except ValueError:
     ...         print("Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...")
     ...

*note try: 503. ifadesi aşağıdaki gibi çalışır.

   * İlk olarak, 'try yan tümcesi' (*note try: 503. ve *note except:
     3c0. anahtar kelimeleri arasındaki ifadeler) yürütülür.

   * Özel durum oluşmazsa, 'except yan tümcesi' atlanır ve *note try:
     503. ifadesinin yürütülmesi tamamlanır.

   * *note try: 503. yan tümcesinin yürütülmesi sırasında bir özel durum
     oluşursa, yan tümcenin geri kalanı atlanır.  Daha sonra belirtilen
     *note except: 3c0. türü ile karşılaşılırsa, 'except yan tümcesi'
     yürütülür ve try/except bloğundan sonra yürütme devam eder.

   * If an exception occurs which does not match the exception named in
     the 'except clause', it is passed on to outer *note try: 503.
     statements; if no handler is found, it is an 'unhandled exception'
     and execution stops with an error message.

*note try: 503. ifadesi, farklı özel durumlar için işleyiciler belirtmek
üzere birden fazla 'except yan tümcesi' alabilir.  Maksimum bir tane
işleyici yürütülür.  İşleyiciler yalnızca karşılık gelen 'try yan
tümcesinde' oluşan özel durumları işler, aynı ‘try’ ifadesinin diğer
işleyicilerinde işlemez.  'except yan tümcesi' birden çok özel durumu
parantezli demet olarak adlandırabilir, örneğin:

     ... except (RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError):
     ...     pass

A class in an *note except: 3c0. clause matches exceptions which are
instances of the class itself or one of its derived classes (but not the
other way around — an 'except clause' listing a derived class does not
match instances of its base classes).  For example, the following code
will print B, C, D in that order:

     class B(Exception):
         pass

     class C(B):
         pass

     class D(C):
         pass

     for cls in [B, C, D]:
         try:
             raise cls()
         except D:
             print("D")
         except C:
             print("C")
         except B:
             print("B")

'except yan tümceleri' tersine çevrilmişse (ilk olarak ‘except B’ ile)
B, B, B şeklinde yazdırılacaktır — ilk eşleşen 'except yan tümcesi'
tetiklenir.

Bir istisna oluştuğunda, istisnanın 'argümanı' olarak da bilinen
ilişkili bir değeri olabilir.  Argümanın varlığı ve türü, istisna türüne
bağlıdır.

The 'except clause' may specify a variable after the exception name.
The variable is bound to the exception instance which typically has an
‘args’ attribute that stores the arguments.  For convenience, builtin
exception types define *note __str__(): 42f. to print all the arguments
without explicitly accessing ‘.args’.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
     ... except Exception as inst:
     ...     print(type(inst))    # the exception type
     ...     print(inst.args)     # arguments stored in .args
     ...     print(inst)          # __str__ allows args to be printed directly,
     ...                          # but may be overridden in exception subclasses
     ...     x, y = inst.args     # unpack args
     ...     print('x =', x)
     ...     print('y =', y)
     ...
     <class 'Exception'>
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     x = spam
     y = eggs

The exception’s *note __str__(): 42f. output is printed as the last part
(‘detail’) of the message for unhandled exceptions.

*note BaseException: 3c3, tüm istisnaların ortak temel sınıfıdır.  Alt
sınıflarından biri olan *note Exception: 838, tüm önemli olmayan
istisnaların temel sınıfıdır.  *note Exception: 838. öğesinin alt
sınıfları olmayan istisnalar genellikle işlenmez, çünkü bunlar programın
sona ermesi gerektiğini belirtmek için kullanılır.  Bunlar *note
sys.exit(): 11f5. tarafından oluşturulan *note SystemExit: bc8. ve bir
kullanıcı programı kesmek istediğinde ortaya çıkan *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. içerir.

*note Exception: 838. (neredeyse) her şeyi yakalayan bir joker karakter
(wildcard) olarak kullanılabilir.  Ancak, işlemeyi amaçladığımız istisna
türleri konusunda mümkün olduğunca spesifik olmak ve beklenmeyen
istisnaların yayılmasına izin vermek iyi bir uygulamadır.

*note Exception: 838. işlemek için en yaygın model, istisnayı yazdırmak
veya log’a kaydetmek ve ardından yeniden yükseltmektir (arayanın
istisnayı da işlemesine izin verir):

     import sys

     try:
         f = open('myfile.txt')
         s = f.readline()
         i = int(s.strip())
     except OSError as err:
         print("OS error:", err)
     except ValueError:
         print("Could not convert data to an integer.")
     except Exception as err:
         print(f"Unexpected {err=}, {type(err)=}")
         raise

*note try: 503. … *note except: 3c0. ifadesinin isteğe bağlı bir 'else
yan tümcesi' vardır, bu da mevcut olduğunda tüm 'except yan tümcelerini'
izlemelidir.  'try yan tümcesi' bir özel durum oluşturmazsa yürütülmesi
gereken kod için yararlıdır.  Mesela:

     for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
         try:
             f = open(arg, 'r')
         except OSError:
             print('cannot open', arg)
         else:
             print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
             f.close()

‘else’ yan tümcesinin kullanılması, *note try: 503. yan tümcesine ek kod
eklemekten daha iyidir çünkü yanlışlıkla ‘try’ tarafından korunan kod
tarafından oluşturulmamış bir istisnayı yakalamayı önler.  … ‘except’
ifadesi.

İstisna işleyicileri, yalnızca 'try yan tümcesinde' anında ortaya çıkan
istisnaları değil, aynı zamanda 'try yan tümcesinde' çağrılan (dolaylı
olarak da olsa) işlevlerin içinde oluşan istisnaları da işler.  Örneğin:

     >>> def this_fails():
     ...     x = 1/0
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     this_fails()
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as err:
     ...     print('Handling run-time error:', err)
     ...
     Handling run-time error: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: Hata Yükseltme,  Next: İstisna Zincirleme,  Prev: Özel Durumları İşleme,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.4 Hata Yükseltme
--------------------

*note raise: 3f9. ifadesi, programcının belirli bir istisnanın
gerçekleşmesini zorlamasını sağlar.  Örneğin:

     >>> raise NameError('HiThere')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: HiThere

*note raise: 3f9. için tek argüman, ortaya çıkacak istisnayı belirtir.
Bu, bir istisna örneği veya bir istisna sınıfı (*note BaseException:
3c3. ‘dan türetilen bir sınıf, örneğin *note Exception: 838. veya alt
sınıflarından) olmalıdır.  Bir istisna sınıfı iletilirse, yapıcısını
hiçbir argüman olmadan çağırarak dolaylı olarak başlatılır:

     raise ValueError  # shorthand for 'raise ValueError()'

Bir istisnanın oluşturulup oluşturulmadığını belirlemeniz gerekiyorsa
ancak onu işlemeyi düşünmüyorsanız, *note raise: 3f9. ifadesinin daha
basit bir biçimi, istisnayı yeniden oluşturmanıza olanak tanır:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise NameError('HiThere')
     ... except NameError:
     ...     print('An exception flew by!')
     ...     raise
     ...
     An exception flew by!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     NameError: HiThere


File: python.info,  Node: İstisna Zincirleme,  Next: Kullanıcı Tanımlı İstisnalar,  Prev: Hata Yükseltme,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.5 İstisna Zincirleme
------------------------

Bir *note except: 3c0. bölümü içinde işlenmeyen bir istisna meydana
gelirse, istisnanın kendisine eklenmiş olarak işlenmesi ve şu hata
mesajına dahil edilmesi gerekir:

     >>> try:
     ...     open("database.sqlite")
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: unable to handle error

*note raise: 3f9. ifadesi, bir istisnanın başka bir istisnanın doğrudan
sonucu olduğunu belirtmek için isteğe bağlı *note from: 3f9. yan
tümcesine izin verir:

     # exc must be exception instance or None.
     raise RuntimeError from exc

Bu, özel durumları dönüştürürken yararlı olabilir.  Mesela:

     >>> def func():
     ...     raise ConnectionError
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     func()
     ... except ConnectionError as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in func
     ConnectionError

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: Failed to open database

Ayrıca, ‘from None’ deyimi kullanılarak otomatik istisna zincirlemenin
devre dışı bırakılmasına izin verir:

     >>> try:
     ...     open('database.sqlite')
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError

Zincirleme mekaniği hakkında daha fazla bilgi için bkz.  *note Gömülü
İstisnalar: 16ac.


File: python.info,  Node: Kullanıcı Tanımlı İstisnalar,  Next: Temizleme Eylemlerini Tanımlama,  Prev: İstisna Zincirleme,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.6 Kullanıcı Tanımlı İstisnalar
----------------------------------

Programlar yeni bir istisna sınıfı oluşturarak kendi özel durumlarını
adlandırabilir (Python sınıfları hakkında daha fazla bilgi için bkz:
*note Sınıflar: 1a68. ).  Özel durumlar genellikle doğrudan veya dolaylı
olarak *note Exception: 838. sınıfından türetilmelidir.

İstisna sınıfları, başka herhangi bir sınıfın yapabileceği her şeyi
yapan tanımlanabilir, ancak genellikle basit tutulur ve çoğu zaman
yalnızca istisna için işleyiciler tarafından hatayla ilgili bilgilerin
çıkarılmasına izin veren bir dizi öznitelik sunar.

Çoğu özel durum, standart özel durumların adlandırışına benzer şekilde
“Hata” ile biten adlarla tanımlanır.

Birçok standart modül, tanımladıkları işlevlerde oluşabilecek hataları
raporlamak için kendi istisnalarını tanımlar.


File: python.info,  Node: Temizleme Eylemlerini Tanımlama,  Next: Önceden Tanımlanmış Temizleme Eylemleri,  Prev: Kullanıcı Tanımlı İstisnalar,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.7 Temizleme Eylemlerini Tanımlama
-------------------------------------

*note try: 503. deyimi, her koşulda yürütülmesi gereken temizleme
eylemlerini tanımlamayı amaçlayan başka bir opsiyonel yan tümceye
sahiptir.  Mesela:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
     ... finally:
     ...     print('Goodbye, world!')
     ...
     Goodbye, world!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     KeyboardInterrupt

Bir *note finally: 828. yan tümcesi varsa, ‘finally’ yan tümcesi *note
try: 503. deyimi tamamlanmadan önceki son görev olarak yürütülür.
‘finally’ yan tümcesi ‘try’ deyiminin bir istisna oluşturup
oluşturmadığından bağımsız çalışır.  Aşağıdaki noktalarda, bir istisna
oluştuğunda daha karmaşık durumlar anlatılmaktadır:

   * ‘try’ yan tümcesinin yürütülmesi sırasında bir istisna oluşursa,
     istisna bir *note except: 3c0. yan tümcesi tarafından işlenebilir.
     İstisna bir ‘except’ yan tümcesi tarafından ele alınmıyorsa,
     istisna ‘finally’ yan tümcesi yürütüldükten sonra yeniden
     oluşturulur.

   * Bir ‘except’ veya ‘else’ yan tümcesinin yürütülmesi sırasında bir
     istisna oluşabilir.  Yine, istisna, ‘finally’ yan tümcesi
     yürütüldükten sonra yeniden oluşturulur.

   * ‘finally’ yan tümcesi bir *note break: 915, *note continue: 827.
     veya *note return: 82c. deyimini yürütürse, istisnalar yeniden
     oluşturulmaz.

   * ‘try’ ifadesi bir *note break: 915, *note continue: 827. veya *note
     return: 82c. ifadesine ulaşırsa, ‘finally’ yan tümcesi ‘break’,
     ‘continue’ veya ‘return’ ifadesinin yürütülmesinin hemen öncesinde
     yürütülür.

   * Bir ‘finally’ yan tümcesi bir ‘return’ ifadesini içeriyorsa,
     döndürülen değer, ‘finally’ yan tümcesinin ‘return’ ifadesindeki
     değer olacaktır, ‘try’ yan tümcesinin ‘return’ ifadesindeki değer
     değil.

Mesela:

     >>> def bool_return():
     ...     try:
     ...         return True
     ...     finally:
     ...         return False
     ...
     >>> bool_return()
     False

Daha karmaşık bir örnek:

     >>> def divide(x, y):
     ...     try:
     ...         result = x / y
     ...     except ZeroDivisionError:
     ...         print("division by zero!")
     ...     else:
     ...         print("result is", result)
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("executing finally clause")
     ...
     >>> divide(2, 1)
     result is 2.0
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide(2, 0)
     division by zero!
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide("2", "1")
     executing finally clause
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

Gördüğünüz gibi, *note finally: 828. yan tümcesi her durumda yürütülür.
İki dizeyi bölerek oluşturulan *note TypeError: 2c4, *note except: 3c0.
yan tümcesi tarafından işlenmez ve bu nedenle ‘finally’ yan tümcesi
yürütüldikten sonra yeniden yükseltilir.

Gerçek dünyadaki uygulamalarda *note finally: 828. yan tümcesi, kaynağın
kullanımının başarılı olup olmadığına bakılmaksızın dış kaynakları
(dosyalar veya ağ bağlantıları gibi) serbest bırakmak için yararlıdır.


File: python.info,  Node: Önceden Tanımlanmış Temizleme Eylemleri,  Next: Birden Fazla Alakasız İstisna Oluşturma ve İşleme,  Prev: Temizleme Eylemlerini Tanımlama,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.8 Önceden Tanımlanmış Temizleme Eylemleri
---------------------------------------------

Bazı nesneler, nesneyi kullanan işlemin başarılı veya başarısız olup
olmadığına bakılmaksızın, nesne artık gerekli olmadığında
gerçekleştirilecek standart temizleme eylemlerini tanımlar.  Bir dosyayı
açmaya ve içeriğini ekrana yazdırmaya çalışan aşağıdaki örneğe bakın.

     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end="")

Bu kodla ilgili sorun, kodun bu bölümünün yürütülmesi tamamlandıktan
sonra dosyayı belirsiz bir süre açık bırakmasıdır.  Bu basit komut
dosyalarında bir sorun değildir, ancak daha büyük uygulamalar için bir
sorun olabilir.  *note with: 3dd. ifadesi, dosyalar gibi nesnelerin her
zaman hızlı ve doğru temizlenmesini sağlayacak şekilde kullanılmasına
izin verir.

     with open("myfile.txt") as f:
         for line in f:
             print(line, end="")

İfade çalıştırıldıktan sonra, satırlar işlenirken bir sorunla
karşılaşılsa bile 'f' dosyası her zaman kapatılır.  Dosyalar gibi
önceden tanımlanmış temizleme eylemleri sağlayan nesneler
dokümantasyonlarında bunu gösterir.


File: python.info,  Node: Birden Fazla Alakasız İstisna Oluşturma ve İşleme,  Next: İstisnaları Notlarla Zenginleştirme,  Prev: Önceden Tanımlanmış Temizleme Eylemleri,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.9 Birden Fazla Alakasız İstisna Oluşturma ve İşleme
-------------------------------------------------------

Meydana gelen birkaç istisnanın rapor edilmesinin gerekli olduğu
durumlar vardır.  Bu, genellikle birkaç görevin paralel olarak başarısız
olabileceği eşzamanlılık çerçevelerinde geçerlidir, ancak ilk istisnayı
yükseltmek yerine yürütmeye devam etmenin ve birden çok hata toplamanın
istendiği başka kullanım durumları da vardır.

Yerleşik *note ExceptionGroup: 181, birlikte oluşturulabilmeleri için
istisna örneklerinin bir listesini sarar.  Kendisi bir istisnadır, bu
nedenle herhangi bir istisna gibi yakalanabilir.

     >>> def f():
     ...     excs = [OSError('error 1'), SystemError('error 2')]
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
     ...
     >>> f()
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in f
       | ExceptionGroup: there were problems
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | OSError: error 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | SystemError: error 2
         +------------------------------------
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)}: e')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'>: e
     >>>

‘except’ yerine ‘except*’ kullanarak, yalnızca gruptaki belirli bir
türle eşleşen istisnaları seçerek işleyebiliriz.  İç içe geçmiş bir
istisna grubunu gösteren aşağıdaki örnekte, her bir ‘except*’ yan
tümcesi, diğer tüm istisnaların diğer yan tümcelere yayılmasına ve
sonunda yeniden ortaya çıkmasına izin verirken, belirli bir türdeki grup
istisnalarını çıkarır.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup(
     ...         "group1",
     ...         [
     ...             OSError(1),
     ...             SystemError(2),
     ...             ExceptionGroup(
     ...                 "group2",
     ...                 [
     ...                     OSError(3),
     ...                     RecursionError(4)
     ...                 ]
     ...             )
     ...         ]
     ...     )
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print("There were OSErrors")
     ... except* SystemError as e:
     ...     print("There were SystemErrors")
     ...
     There were OSErrors
     There were SystemErrors
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
       | ExceptionGroup: group1
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ExceptionGroup: group2
         +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
           | RecursionError: 4
           +------------------------------------
     >>>

Bir istisna grubunda iç içe geçmiş istisnaların türler değil, örnekler
olması gerektiğini unutmayın.  Bunun nedeni, pratikte istisnaların tipik
olarak, aşağıdaki kalıp boyunca program tarafından önceden oluşturulmuş
ve yakalanmış olanlar olmasıdır:

     >>> excs = []
     ... for test in tests:
     ...     try:
     ...         test.run()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> if excs:
     ...    raise ExceptionGroup("Test Failures", excs)
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: İstisnaları Notlarla Zenginleştirme,  Prev: Birden Fazla Alakasız İstisna Oluşturma ve İşleme,  Up: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar

2.8.10 İstisnaları Notlarla Zenginleştirme
------------------------------------------

Yükseltilmek üzere bir istisna oluşturulduğunda, genellikle meydana
gelen hatayı açıklayan bilgilerle başlatılır.  İstisna yakalandıktan
sonra bilgi eklemenin yararlı olduğu durumlar vardır.  Bu amaçla,
istisnaların bir dizgiyi kabul eden ve onu istisnanın notlar listesine
ekleyen ‘add_note(note)’ metodu vardır.  Standart geri işleme
(traceback) oluşturma, tüm notları istisnadan sonra eklendikleri sırayla
içerir.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError('bad type')
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     e.add_note('Add some information')
     ...     e.add_note('Add some more information')
     ...     raise
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     TypeError: bad type
     Add some information
     Add some more information
     >>>

Örneğin, istisnaları bir istisna grubuna toplarken, bireysel hatalar
için bağlam bilgisi eklemek isteyebiliriz.  Aşağıda, gruptaki her özel
durum, bu hatanın ne zaman oluştuğunu gösteren bir nota sahiptir.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise OSError('operation failed')
     ...
     >>> excs = []
     >>> for i in range(3):
     ...     try:
     ...         f()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         e.add_note(f'Happened in Iteration {i+1}')
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       | ExceptionGroup: We have some problems (3 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 2
         +---------------- 3 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 3
         +------------------------------------
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Sınıflar,  Next: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti,  Prev: Hatalar ve Özel Durumlar,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.9 Sınıflar
============

Sınıflar, verileri ve işlevleri bir arada tutan bir araçtır.  Yeni bir
sınıf oluşturulurken, objeye ait yeni örnekler (instances) oluşturulur.
Sınıf örnekleri, durumlarını korumak için onlara iliştirilmiş
niteliklere sahip olabilir.  Sınıfların durumunu modifiye etmek için ise
metotlar kullanılabilir.

Diğer programlama dilleriyle karşılaştırıldığında, Python’un sınıf
mekanizması olabildiğince az yeni sözdizimi ve semantik içeren sınıflar
ekler.  C++ ve Modula-3’te bulunan sınıf mekanizmalarının bir
karışımıdır.  Python sınıfları Nesne Yönelimli Programlama’nın tüm
standart özelliklerini sağlar: sınıf devralma mekanizması birden çok
temel sınıfa izin verir, türetilmiş bir sınıf temel sınıfının veya
sınıflarının herhangi bir metodunu geçersiz kılabilir ve bir metot aynı
ada sahip bir temel sınıfın metodunu çağırabilir.  Nesneler farklı
miktar ve türlerde veri içerebilir.  Modüller için olduğu gibi, sınıflar
da Python’un dinamik doğasına uygundur: çalışma sırasında oluşturulurlar
ve oluşturulduktan sonra da değiştirilebilirler.

C++ terminolojisinde, normalde sınıf üyeleri (veri üyeleri dahil)
'public' (aşağıdakine bakın *note Özel Değişkenler: 1ae9.) ve tüm üye
fonksiyonları 'virtual'’ dır.  Modula-3’te olduğu gibi, nesnenin
üyelerine metotlarından ulaşmak için bir kısayol yoktur: metodun işlevi,
çağrı tarafından örtülü olarak sağlanan objeyi temsil eden açık bir
argümanla bildirilir.  Smalltalk’ta olduğu gibi, sınıfların kendileri de
birer nesnedir.  Bu sayede metotlar yeniden isimlendirilebilir veya içe
aktarılabilir.  C++ ve Modula-3’ün aksine, yerleşik türler kullanıcının
üzerlerine yapacağı geliştirmeler için temel sınıflar olarak
kullanılabilir.  Ayrıca, C++’ta olduğu gibi, özel sözdizimine sahip çoğu
yerleşik işleç (aritmetik işleçler, alt simgeleme vb.)  sınıf örnekleri
için yeniden tanımlanabilir, geliştirilebilir.

(Sınıflara dair evrensel terimlerin yanı sıra, nadiren Smalltalk ve C++
terimlerini kullanacağım.  Onun yerine Modula-3 terimlerini kullanacağım
çünkü Python’un nesne yönelimli semantiğine C++’tan daha yakın, yine de
ancak çok az okuyucunun bunları duymuş olacağını tahmin ediyorum.)

* Menu:

* İsim ve Nesneler Hakkında Birkaç Şey::
* Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları::
* Sınıflara İlk Bakış::
* Rastgele Açıklamalar::
* Kalıtım::
* Özel Değişkenler::
* Oranlar ve Bitişler::
* Yineleyiciler::
* Üreteçler::
* Üreteç İfadeleri::


File: python.info,  Node: İsim ve Nesneler Hakkında Birkaç Şey,  Next: Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.1 İsim ve Nesneler Hakkında Birkaç Şey
------------------------------------------

Nesnelerin bireyselliği vardır ve birden çok ad (birden çok kapsamda)
aynı nesneye bağlanabilir.  Bu, diğer dillerde örtüşme (aliasing) olarak
bilinir.  Bu genellikle Python’a ilk bakışta takdir edilmeyen bir
özellik olsa da değiştirilemeyen veri türleriyle (sayılar, dizeler,
diziler) uğraşırken rahatlıkla göz ardı edilebilir.  Ancak, örtüşmeler,
listeler, sözlükler ve diğer türlerin çoğu gibi değişebilir nesneleri
içeren Python kodunun semantiği üzerinde şaşırtıcı bir etkiye sahiptir.
Diğer adlar bazı açılardan işaretçiler (pointers) gibi davrandığından,
bu genellikle programın yararına kullanılır.  Örneğin, bir nesneyi
geçirmek kolaydır çünkü uygulama tarafından geçirilen şey yalnızca bir
işaretçidir; bir fonksiyon argüman olarak geçirilen bir nesneyi
değiştirirse, çağıran bu değişikliği görür — bu Pascal’daki iki farklı
bağımsız değişken geçirme mekanizmasına olan gereksinimi ortadan
kaldırır.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları,  Next: Sınıflara İlk Bakış,  Prev: İsim ve Nesneler Hakkında Birkaç Şey,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.2 Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları
-----------------------------------------

Sınıflara başlamadan önce, size Python’un etki alanı kuralları hakkında
bir şey söylemeliyim.  Sınıf tanımlarında ad alanlarının kullanımının
bazı püf noktaları vardır ve neler olduğunu tam olarak anlamak için etki
alanlarının ve isimlerin nasıl çalıştığını bilmeniz gerekir.  Bu arada,
bu konuda bilgi edinmek herhangi bir ileri düzey Python programcısı için
yararlıdır.

Haydi birkaç tanımlama ile başlayalım.

'Ad alanları' (namespace), adlardan nesnelere eşlemedir.  Çoğu isim şu
anda Python sözlükleri olarak uygulanmaktadır, ancak bu fark edilir
çapta bir fark yaratmaz (performans hariç) ve gelecekte değişebilir.  Ad
alanlarına örnek olarak şunlar verilebilir: yerleşik isimler (*note
abs(): 1aed. ve yerleşik özel durum adları gibi fonksiyonları içerir);
modüldeki global adlar; ve bir fonksiyon çağırmadaki yerel adlar.  Bir
bakıma, bir nesnenin nitelik kümesi de bir ad alanı oluşturur.  İsimler
hakkında bilinmesi gereken önemli şey, farklı ad alanlarındaki adlar
arasında kesinlikle bir ilişki olmamasıdır; örneğin, iki farklı modülün
her ikisi de karışıklık olmadan ‘maximize’ fonksiyonunu tanımlayabilir —
modül kullanıcılarının modül adını örneklemesi gerekir.

Bu arada, 'nitelik' sözcüğünü bir noktayı takip eden herhangi bir isim
için kullanıyorum.  Mesela, ‘z.real’ ifadesinde ‘real’, ‘z’ nesnesine
ait bir niteliktir.  Açıkçası, modüllerde isimlere yapılan referanslar
nitelik referanslarıdır: ‘modname.funcname’ ifadesinde ‘modname’ bir
modül nesnesi ve ‘funcname’ onun bir niteliğidir.  Bu durumda, modülün
nitelikleri ve modüldeki global değişkenler arasında bir eşleşme olur:
aynı ad alanını paylaşmaları!  (1)

Attributes may be read-only or writable.  In the latter case, assignment
to attributes is possible.  Module attributes are writable: you can
write ‘modname.the_answer = 42’.  Writable attributes may also be
deleted with the *note del: 15c5. statement.  For example, ‘del
modname.the_answer’ will remove the attribute ‘the_answer’ from the
object named by ‘modname’.

Ad alanları farklı anlarda oluşturulur ve farklı yaşam sürelerine
sahiptir.  Yerleşik adları içeren ad alanı, Python yorumlayıcısı
başlatıldığında oluşturulur ve hiçbir zaman silinmez.  Modül tanımı
okunduğunda modül için genel ad alanı oluşturulur; normalde, modül ad
alanları da yorumlayıcı çıkıp bitene kadar sürer.  Bir komut dosyasından
veya etkileşimli olarak okunan yorumlayıcının en üst düzey çağrısı
tarafından yürütülen ifadeler *note __main__: 1. adlı bir modülün
parçası olarak kabul edilir, bu nedenle kendi genel ad alanlarına
sahiptirler.  (Yerleşik isimler aslında bir modülde de yaşar; buna *note
builtins: 12.)

Bir işlevin yerel ad alanı, bir fonksiyon çağrıldığında oluşturulur ve
fonksiyon başa çıkamadığı bir hata veya istisna ile karşılaştığında
silinir.  (Aslında, bir bakıma ad alanı unutulmaktadır diyebiliriz.)
Tabii ki, özyinelemeli çağrıların her birinin kendi yerel ad alanı
vardır.

'scope', bir ad alanının doğrudan erişilebilir olduğu Python programının
metinsel bölgesidir.  Burada “Doğrudan erişilebilir”, niteliksiz bir
başvurunun hedeflediği ismi ad alanında bulmaya çalıştığı anlamına
gelir.

Kapsamlar statik olarak belirlense de, dinamik olarak kullanılırlar.
Yürütme sırasında herhangi bir zamanda, ad alanlarına doğrudan
erişilebilen 3 veya 4 iç içe kapsam vardır:

   * en içte bulunan kapsam, ilk aranan olmakla birlikte yerel isimleri
     içerir

   * en yakın kapsayan kapsamdan başlayarak aranan kapsayan
     fonksiyonların kapsamları yerel olmayan, aynı zamanda genel olmayan
     adlar içerir

   * sondan bir önceki kapsam, geçerli modülün genel adlarını içerir

   * en dıştaki kapsam (en son aranan), yerleşik adlar içeren ad
     alanıdır

Bir ad global olarak bildirilirse, tüm başvurular ve atamalar doğrudan
modülün genel adlarını içeren orta kapsama gider.  En iç kapsamın
dışında bulunan değişkenleri yeniden bağlamak için *note nonlocal: 1150.
ifadesi kullanılabilir; yerel olarak bildirilmezse de, bu değişkenler
salt okunurdur (böyle bir değişken düzenlenirse, aynı adlı dış değişkeni
değiştirmeden en iç kapsamda 'yeni' bir yerel değişken oluşturur).

Genellikle, yerel kapsam (metinsel olarak) geçerli fonksiyonun yerel
adlarına başvurur.  Dış fonksiyonlarda, yerel kapsam genel kapsamla aynı
ad alanına başvurur: modülün ad alanı.  Sınıf tanımları yerel kapsamda
başka bir ad alanı yerleştirir.

Kapsamların metinsel olarak belirlendiğini fark etmek önemlidir: bir
modülde tanımlanan bir işlevin genel kapsamı, işlevin nereden veya hangi
diğer adla adlandırıldığından bağımsız olarak modülün ad alanıdır.  Öte
yandan, gerçek ad araması dinamik olarak yapılır, çalışma zamanında —
ancak, dil tanımı statik ad çözümlemelerine doğru, “derleme” zamanında
gelişir, bu nedenle dinamik ad çözümlemesini güvenmeyin!  (Aslında,
yerel değişkenler zaten statik olarak belirlenir.)

Python’un özel bir cilvesi, eğer *note global: 1a67. veya *note
nonlocal: 1150. deyimi geçerli değilse – isimlere yapılan atamaların her
zaman en içteki kapsama girmesidir.  Atamalar verileri kopyalamaz —
adları nesnelere bağlarlar.  Aynı şey silme için de geçerlidir: ‘del x’
deyimi, ‘x’ bağlamasını yerel kapsam tarafından başvurulan ad alanından
kaldırır.  Aslında, yeni adlar tanıtan tüm işlemler yerel kapsamı
kullanır: özellikle, *note import: 3ed. ifadeleri ve işlev tanımları
modül veya işlev adını yerel kapsamda bağlar.

*note global: 1a67. deyimi, belirli değişkenlerin genel kapsamda
yaşadığını ve orada geri alınması gerektiğini belirtmek için
kullanılabilir; *note nonlocal: 1150. deyimi, belirli değişkenlerin bir
çevreleme kapsamında yaşadığını ve orada geri alınması gerektiğini
gösterir.

* Menu:

* Kapsamlar ve Ad Alanları Örneği::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Except for one thing.  Module objects have a secret read-only
attribute called *note __dict__: 2ec. which returns the dictionary used
to implement the module’s namespace; the name ‘__dict__’ is an attribute
but not a global name.  Obviously, using this violates the abstraction
of namespace implementation, and should be restricted to things like
post-mortem debuggers.


File: python.info,  Node: Kapsamlar ve Ad Alanları Örneği,  Up: Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları

2.9.2.1 Kapsamlar ve Ad Alanları Örneği
.......................................

Bu, farklı kapsamlara ve ad alanlarına başvurmayı ve *note global: 1a67.
ve *note nonlocal: 1150. değişken bağlamasını nasıl etkileyeceğini
gösteren bir örnektir:

     def scope_test():
         def do_local():
             spam = "local spam"

         def do_nonlocal():
             nonlocal spam
             spam = "nonlocal spam"

         def do_global():
             global spam
             spam = "global spam"

         spam = "test spam"
         do_local()
         print("After local assignment:", spam)
         do_nonlocal()
         print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
         do_global()
         print("After global assignment:", spam)

     scope_test()
     print("In global scope:", spam)

Örnek kodun çıktısı şudur:

     After local assignment: test spam
     After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
     After global assignment: nonlocal spam
     In global scope: global spam

Varsayılan atama olan 'local' atamasının 'scope_test"in 'spam'
bağlamasını nasıl değiştirmediğini unutmayın.  *note nonlocal: 1150.
ataması 'scope_test"in 'spam' bağlamasını değiştirdi, hatta *note
global: 1a67. ataması modül düzeyindeki bağlamasını değiştirdi.

Ayrıca *note global: 1a67. atamasından önce 'spam' için herhangi bir
bağlama olmadığını görebilirsiniz.


File: python.info,  Node: Sınıflara İlk Bakış,  Next: Rastgele Açıklamalar,  Prev: Python Etki Alanları ve Ad Alanları,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.3 Sınıflara İlk Bakış
-------------------------

Sınıflar biraz yeni söz dizimi, üç yeni nesne türü ve bazı yeni
semantiklere sahiptir.

* Menu:

* Sınıf Tanımlama Söz Dizimi::
* Sınıf Nesneleri::
* Örnek Nesneleri::
* Metot Nesneleri::
* Sınıf ve Örnek Değişkenleri::


File: python.info,  Node: Sınıf Tanımlama Söz Dizimi,  Next: Sınıf Nesneleri,  Up: Sınıflara İlk Bakış

2.9.3.1 Sınıf Tanımlama Söz Dizimi
..................................

Sınıf tanımlamasının en basit biçimi şöyledir:

     class ClassName:
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Sınıf tanımlamaları, fonksiyon tanımlamaları (*note def: 12e2.
deyimleri) ile aynı şekilde, herhangi bir etkiye sahip olmadan önce
yürütülmelidir.  (Bir sınıf tanımını *note if: 26e. ifadesinin bir
dalına veya bir fonksiyonun içine yerleştirebilirsiniz.)

Uygulamada, bir sınıf tanımı içindeki ifadeler genellikle fonksiyon
tanımlamaları olacaktır, ancak diğer ifadelere de izin verilir ve daha
sonra bahsedeceğimiz üzere bazen yararlılardır.  Bir sınıfın içindeki
fonksiyon tanımları normalde, yöntemler için çağırma kuralları
tarafından dikte edilen tuhaf bir bağımsız değişken listesi biçimine
sahiptir — bu daha sonra açıklanacak.

Sınıf tanımı girildiğinde, yeni bir ad alanı oluşturulur ve yerel kapsam
olarak kullanılır — böylece yerel değişkenlere yapılan tüm atamalar bu
yeni ad alanına gider.  Özellikle, fonksiyon tanımlamaları yeni
fonksiyonların adını buraya bağlar.

When a class definition is left normally (via the end), a 'class object'
is created.  This is basically a wrapper around the contents of the
namespace created by the class definition; we’ll learn more about class
objects in the next section.  The original local scope (the one in
effect just before the class definition was entered) is reinstated, and
the class object is bound here to the class name given in the class
definition header (‘ClassName’ in the example).


File: python.info,  Node: Sınıf Nesneleri,  Next: Örnek Nesneleri,  Prev: Sınıf Tanımlama Söz Dizimi,  Up: Sınıflara İlk Bakış

2.9.3.2 Sınıf Nesneleri
.......................

Sınıf nesneleri iki tür işlemi destekler: nitelik referansları ve
örnekleme.

'Nitelik referansları', Python’daki tüm nitelik referansları için
kullanılan standart söz dizimi olan ‘obj.name’ kullanır.  Geçerli
nitelik adları, sınıf nesnesi oluşturulduğunda sınıfın ad alanında
bulunan tüm adlardır.  Yani, sınıf tanımı şöyle görünüyorsa:

     class MyClass:
         """A simple example class"""
         i = 12345

         def f(self):
             return 'hello world'

then ‘MyClass.i’ and ‘MyClass.f’ are valid attribute references,
returning an integer and a function object, respectively.  Class
attributes can also be assigned to, so you can change the value of
‘MyClass.i’ by assignment.  *note __doc__: 1af5. is also a valid
attribute, returning the docstring belonging to the class: ‘"A simple
example class"’.

Sınıf 'örnekleme' fonksiyon notasyonunu kullanır.  Sınıf nesnesinin,
sınıfın yeni bir örneğini döndüren parametresiz bir fonksiyon olduğunu
varsayın.  Örneğin (yukarıdaki sınıfı varsayarsak):

     x = MyClass()

sınıfın yeni bir 'örnek' öğesini oluşturur ve bu nesneyi ‘x’ yerel
değişkenine atar.

The instantiation operation (“calling” a class object) creates an empty
object.  Many classes like to create objects with instances customized
to a specific initial state.  Therefore a class may define a special
method named *note __init__(): 4c6, like this:

     def __init__(self):
         self.data = []

When a class defines an *note __init__(): 4c6. method, class
instantiation automatically invokes ‘__init__()’ for the newly created
class instance.  So in this example, a new, initialized instance can be
obtained by:

     x = MyClass()

Of course, the *note __init__(): 4c6. method may have arguments for
greater flexibility.  In that case, arguments given to the class
instantiation operator are passed on to ‘__init__()’.  For example,

     >>> class Complex:
     ...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
     ...         self.r = realpart
     ...         self.i = imagpart
     ...
     >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
     >>> x.r, x.i
     (3.0, -4.5)


File: python.info,  Node: Örnek Nesneleri,  Next: Metot Nesneleri,  Prev: Sınıf Nesneleri,  Up: Sınıflara İlk Bakış

2.9.3.3 Örnek Nesneleri
.......................

Şimdi örnek nesnelerle ne yapabiliriz?  Örnek nesneleri tarafından
anlaşılan tek işlemler nitelik başvurularıdır.  İki tür geçerli
öznitelik adı vardır: veri nitelikleri ve metotları.

'data attributes' correspond to “instance variables” in Smalltalk, and
to “data members” in C++.  Data attributes need not be declared; like
local variables, they spring into existence when they are first assigned
to.  For example, if ‘x’ is the instance of ‘MyClass’ created above, the
following piece of code will print the value ‘16’, without leaving a
trace:

     x.counter = 1
     while x.counter < 10:
         x.counter = x.counter * 2
     print(x.counter)
     del x.counter

The other kind of instance attribute reference is a 'method'.  A method
is a function that “belongs to” an object.

Örnek nesnesinin geçerli metot adları nesnenin sınıfına bağlıdır.
Fonksiyon nesneleri olan bir sınıfın tüm nitelikleri, örneklerinin
karşılık gelen fonksiyonlarını tanımlar.  Bu nedenle, örneğimizde, ‘x.f’
geçerli bir metot referansıdır, ne de olsa ‘MyClass.f’ bir fonksiyondur
ancak ‘MyClass.i’ fonksiyon olmadığından ‘x.i’ değildir.  Ancak ‘x.f’,
‘MyClass.f’ ile aynı şey değildir çünkü bir fonksiyon nesnesi değil,
'metot nesnesi' ‘dir.


File: python.info,  Node: Metot Nesneleri,  Next: Sınıf ve Örnek Değişkenleri,  Prev: Örnek Nesneleri,  Up: Sınıflara İlk Bakış

2.9.3.4 Metot Nesneleri
.......................

Genellikle, bir metot bağlandıktan hemen sonra çağrılır:

     x.f()

In the ‘MyClass’ example, this will return the string ‘'hello world'’.
However, it is not necessary to call a method right away: ‘x.f’ is a
method object, and can be stored away and called at a later time.  For
example:

     xf = x.f
     while True:
         print(xf())

daima ‘hello world’ yazdırmaya devam edecek.

What exactly happens when a method is called?  You may have noticed that
‘x.f()’ was called without an argument above, even though the function
definition for ‘f()’ specified an argument.  What happened to the
argument?  Surely Python raises an exception when a function that
requires an argument is called without any — even if the argument isn’t
actually used…

Aslında, cevabı tahmin etmiş olabilirsiniz: yöntemlerle ilgili özel şey,
örnek nesnesinin fonksiyonun ilk argüman olarak geçirilmesidir.
Örneğimizde, ‘x.f()’ çağrısı tam olarak ‘MyClass.f(x)’ ile eş değerdir.
Genel olarak, 'n' tane argümana sahip bir metodu çağırmak, ilk
argümandan önce metodun örnek nesnesi eklenerek oluşturulan bir argüman
listesiyle karşılık gelen fonksiyonu çağırmaya eş değerdir.

In general, methods work as follows.  When a non-data attribute of an
instance is referenced, the instance’s class is searched.  If the name
denotes a valid class attribute that is a function object, references to
both the instance object and the function object are packed into a
method object.  When the method object is called with an argument list,
a new argument list is constructed from the instance object and the
argument list, and the function object is called with this new argument
list.


File: python.info,  Node: Sınıf ve Örnek Değişkenleri,  Prev: Metot Nesneleri,  Up: Sınıflara İlk Bakış

2.9.3.5 Sınıf ve Örnek Değişkenleri
...................................

Genel olarak, örnek değişkenleri o örneğe özgü veriler içindir ve sınıf
değişkenleri sınıfın tüm örnekleri tarafından paylaşılan nitelikler ile
metotlar içindir:

     class Dog:

         kind = 'canine'         # class variable shared by all instances

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name    # instance variable unique to each instance

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> e.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> d.name                  # unique to d
     'Fido'
     >>> e.name                  # unique to e
     'Buddy'

*note İsim ve Nesneler Hakkında Birkaç Şey: 1aeb. ‘te anlatıldığı gibi,
paylaşılan veriler listeler ve sözlükler gibi *note mutable: 1a48.
nesnelerini içeren şaşırtıcı etkilere sahip olabilir.  Örneğin,
aşağıdaki koddaki 'tricks' listesi sınıf değişkeni olarak
kullanılmamalıdır, çünkü yalnızca tek bir liste tüm 'Dog' örnekleri
tarafından paylaşılacaktır:

     class Dog:

         tricks = []             # mistaken use of a class variable

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks                # unexpectedly shared by all dogs
     ['roll over', 'play dead']

Doğru olan ise veriyi paylaşmak yerine bir örnek değişkeni kullanmaktır:

     class Dog:

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             self.tricks = []    # creates a new empty list for each dog

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks
     ['roll over']
     >>> e.tricks
     ['play dead']


File: python.info,  Node: Rastgele Açıklamalar,  Next: Kalıtım,  Prev: Sınıflara İlk Bakış,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.4 Rastgele Açıklamalar
--------------------------

Aynı nitelik adı hem bir örnekte hem de bir sınıfta oluşuyorsa, nitelik
araması örneğe öncelik verir:

     >>> class Warehouse:
     ...    purpose = 'storage'
     ...    region = 'west'
     ...
     >>> w1 = Warehouse()
     >>> print(w1.purpose, w1.region)
     storage west
     >>> w2 = Warehouse()
     >>> w2.region = 'east'
     >>> print(w2.purpose, w2.region)
     storage east

Veri niteliklerine metotların yanı sıra bir nesnenin sıradan
kullanıcıları (“istemciler”) tarafından başvurulabilir.  Başka bir
deyişle, sınıflar saf soyut veri türlerini uygulamak için kullanılamaz.
Aslında, Python’daki hiçbir şey, veri gizlemeyi zorlamaz.  Bu durum
geleneksel kullanımından dolayı bu şekildedir.  (Öte yandan, C ile
yazılan Python uygulamaları, uygulama ayrıntılarını tamamen gizleyebilir
ve gerekirse bir nesneye erişimi kontrol edebilir; bu, C ile yazılmış
Python uzantıları tarafından kullanılabilir.)

İstemciler veri niteliklerini dikkatle kullanmalıdır — istemciler veri
özniteliklerini damgalayarak yöntemler tarafından tutulan değişmezleri
bozabilir.  İstemcilerin, metotların geçerliliğini etkilemeden bir örnek
nesnesine kendi veri niteliklerini ekleyebileceğini unutmayın.  Tabii ki
burada da ad çakışmalarından kaçınılmalıdır, adlandırma kuralları ise
kaçınmak için oldukça faydalı olabilir.

Yöntemlerin içinden veri niteliklerine (veya diğer metotlara!)
başvurmak için kısa yol yoktur.  Bu aslında metotların okunabilirliğini
arttırıyor, çünkü bir metoda bakarken yerel değişkenleri ve örnek
değişkenlerini karıştırma ihtimali bırakmamış oluyoruz.

Genellikle, bir metodun ilk bağımsız değişkenine ‘self’ denir.  Bu bir
kullanım geleneğinden başka bir şey değildir, yani ‘self’ adının Python
için kesinlikle özel bir anlamı yoktur.  Bununla birlikte, kurala
uymadığınızda kodunuzun diğer Python programcıları tarafından daha az
okunabilir olabileceğini ve yazılabilecek potansiyel bir 'sınıf
tarayıcısı' programının bu kurala dayanıyor olabileceğini unutmayın.

Sınıf niteliği olan herhangi bir fonksiyon nesnesi, bu sınıfın örnekleri
için bir metot tanımlar.  Fonksiyon tanımının metinsel olarak sınıf
tanımına dahil olması gerekli değildir: sınıftaki yerel bir değişkene
fonksiyon nesnesi atamak da uygundur.  Mesela:

     # Function defined outside the class
     def f1(self, x, y):
         return min(x, x+y)

     class C:
         f = f1

         def g(self):
             return 'hello world'

         h = g

Now ‘f’, ‘g’ and ‘h’ are all attributes of class ‘C’ that refer to
function objects, and consequently they are all methods of instances of
‘C’ — ‘h’ being exactly equivalent to ‘g’.  Note that this practice
usually only serves to confuse the reader of a program.

Metotlar, ‘self’ bağımsız değişkeninin metot niteliklerini kullanarak
diğer metotları çağırabilir:

     class Bag:
         def __init__(self):
             self.data = []

         def add(self, x):
             self.data.append(x)

         def addtwice(self, x):
             self.add(x)
             self.add(x)

Metotlar, global adlara sıradan işlevler gibi başvuru yapabilir.  Bir
metotla ilişkili genel kapsam, tanımını içeren modüldür.  (Bir sınıf
hiçbir zaman genel kapsam olarak kullanılmaz.)  Global verileri bir
metotta kullanmak için nadiren iyi bir nedenle karşılaşılsa da, genel
kapsamın birçok meşru kullanımı vardır: bir kere, genel kapsamlıya içe
aktarılan fonksiyon ve modüller, metotlar ve içinde tanımlanan
fonksiyonlar ve sınıflar tarafından kullanılabilir.  Genellikle, metodu
içeren sınıfın kendisi bu genel kapsamda tanımlanır ve sonraki bölümde
bir yöntemin kendi sınıfına başvurmak istemesinin bazı iyi nedenlerini
bulacağız.

Her değer bir nesnedir ve bu nedenle bir 'sınıf' ('type' olarak da
adlandırılır) bulundurur.  ‘object.__class__’ olarak depolanır.


File: python.info,  Node: Kalıtım,  Next: Özel Değişkenler,  Prev: Rastgele Açıklamalar,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.5 Kalıtım
-------------

Tabii ki, bir dil özelliği kalıtımı desteklemeden “sınıf” adına layık
olmaz.  Türetilmiş sınıf tanımının söz dizimi şöyle görünür:

     class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

The name ‘BaseClassName’ must be defined in a namespace accessible from
the scope containing the derived class definition.  In place of a base
class name, other arbitrary expressions are also allowed.  This can be
useful, for example, when the base class is defined in another module:

     class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):

Türetilmiş bir sınıf tanımının yürütülmesi, temel sınıfla aynı şekilde
devam eder.  Sınıf nesnesi inşa edildiğinde, temel sınıf hatırlanır.
Bu, nitelik başvurularını çözmek için kullanılır: istenen nitelik
sınıfta bulunmazsa, arama temel sınıfa bakmaya devam eder.  Temel
sınıfın kendisi başka bir sınıftan türetilmişse, bu kural özyinelemeli
olarak uygulanır.

Türetilmiş sınıfların somutlaştırılmasında özel bir şey yoktur:
‘DerivedClassName()’ sınıfın yeni bir örneğini oluşturur.  Metot
başvuruları aşağıdaki gibi çözümlenir: ilgili sınıf niteliği aranır,
gerekirse temel sınıflar zincirinin aşağısına inilir ve bu bir fonksiyon
nesnesi veriyorsa metot başvurusu geçerlidir.

Türetilmiş sınıflar, temel sınıflarının metotlarını geçersiz kılabilir.
Metotlar aynı nesnenin diğer yöntemlerini çağırırken özel ayrıcalıkları
olmadığından, aynı temel sınıfta tanımlanan başka bir metodu çağıran bir
temel sınıfın metodu, onu geçersiz kılan türetilmiş bir sınıfın metodunu
çağırabilir.  (C++ programcıları için: Python’daki tüm yöntemler etkili
bir şekilde ‘sanal’.)

Türetilmiş bir sınıfta geçersiz kılma yöntemi aslında yalnızca aynı adlı
temel sınıf yöntemini değiştirmek yerine genişletmek isteyebilir.  Temel
sınıf metodunu doğrudan çağırmanın basit bir yolu vardır: sadece
‘BaseClassName.methodname(self, arguments)’ çağırın.  Bu bazen
müşteriler için de yararlıdır.  (Bunun yalnızca temel sınıfa genel
kapsamda ‘BaseClassName’ olarak erişilebiliyorsa çalıştığını unutmayın.)

Python’un kalıtımla çalışan iki yerleşik fonksiyonu vardır:

   * Bir örneğin türünü denetlemek için *note isinstance(): 151.
     kullanın: ‘isinstance(obj, int)’ yalnızca ‘obj.__class__’ *note
     int: 184. veya *note int: 184. sınıfından türetilmiş bir sınıfsa
     ‘True’ olacaktır.

   * Sınıf kalıtımını denetlemek için *note issubclass(): 5f8. kullanın:
     ‘issubclass(bool, int)’ ‘True’ ‘dur, çünkü *note bool: 183. *note
     int: 184. ‘in bir alt sınıfıdır.  Ancak, ‘issubclass(float, int)’
     ‘False’ olduğundan *note float: 272, *note int: 184. alt sınıfı
     değildir.

* Menu:

* Çoklu Kalıtım::


File: python.info,  Node: Çoklu Kalıtım,  Up: Kalıtım

2.9.5.1 Çoklu Kalıtım
.....................

Python, çoklu kalıtım biçimini de destekler.  Birden çok temel sınıf
içeren bir sınıf tanımı şöyle görünür:

     class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

For most purposes, in the simplest cases, you can think of the search
for attributes inherited from a parent class as depth-first,
left-to-right, not searching twice in the same class where there is an
overlap in the hierarchy.  Thus, if an attribute is not found in
‘DerivedClassName’, it is searched for in ‘Base1’, then (recursively) in
the base classes of ‘Base1’, and if it was not found there, it was
searched for in ‘Base2’, and so on.

Aslında, durum bundan biraz daha karmaşıktır: yöntem çözümleme sırası,
*note super(): 20d. için işbirliği çağrılarını desteklemek için dinamik
olarak değişir.  Bu yaklaşım, diğer bazı çoklu kalıtım dillerinde
sonraki çağrı yöntemi olarak bilinir ve tekli kalıtım dillerinde bulunan
süper çağrıdan daha güçlüdür.

Dynamic ordering is necessary because all cases of multiple inheritance
exhibit one or more diamond relationships (where at least one of the
parent classes can be accessed through multiple paths from the
bottommost class).  For example, all classes inherit from *note object:
8f2, so any case of multiple inheritance provides more than one path to
reach *note object: 8f2.  To keep the base classes from being accessed
more than once, the dynamic algorithm linearizes the search order in a
way that preserves the left-to-right ordering specified in each class,
that calls each parent only once, and that is monotonic (meaning that a
class can be subclassed without affecting the precedence order of its
parents).  Taken together, these properties make it possible to design
reliable and extensible classes with multiple inheritance.  For more
detail, see *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1335.


File: python.info,  Node: Özel Değişkenler,  Next: Oranlar ve Bitişler,  Prev: Kalıtım,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.6 Özel Değişkenler
----------------------

Python’da bir nesnenin içinden erişilmesi dışında asla erişilemeyen
“özel” örnek değişkenleri yoktur.  Ancak, çoğu Python kodu tarafından
izlenen bir kural vardır: alt çizgi (örneğin ‘_spam’) ile öneklenmiş bir
ad API’nin genel olmayan bir parçası olarak kabul edilmelidir (bir
fonksiyon, metot veya veri üyesi olsun).  Bir uygulama detayıdır ve
önceden haber verilmeksizin değiştirilebilir.

Sınıf-özel üyeler için geçerli bir kullanım örneği olduğundan (yani alt
sınıflar tarafından tanımlanan adlara sahip adların ad çakışmasını
önlemek için), 'name mangling' adı verilen böyle bir mekanizma için
sınırlı destek vardır.  ‘__spam’ formunun herhangi bir tanımlayıcısı (en
az iki satır altı, en fazla bir alt çizgi) metinsel olarak
‘_classname__spam’ ile değiştirilir; Bu mangling, bir sınıfın tanımı
içinde gerçekleştiği sürece tanımlayıcının söz dizimsel konumuna
bakılmaksızın yapılır.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note private name mangling specifications: 1b03. for details and
special cases.

Ad mangling, alt sınıfların sınıf içi metot çağrılarını kesmeden
metotları geçersiz kılmasına izin vermek için yararlıdır.  Mesela:

     class Mapping:
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.items_list = []
             self.__update(iterable)

         def update(self, iterable):
             for item in iterable:
                 self.items_list.append(item)

         __update = update   # private copy of original update() method

     class MappingSubclass(Mapping):

         def update(self, keys, values):
             # provides new signature for update()
             # but does not break __init__()
             for item in zip(keys, values):
                 self.items_list.append(item)

Yukarıdaki örnek, ‘MappingSubclass’ sırasıyla ‘Mapping’ sınıfında
‘_Mapping__update’ ve ‘mappingSubclass’ sınıfında
‘_MappingSubclass__update’ ile değiştirildiği için ‘__update’
tanımlayıcısı tanıtsa bile çalışır.

Mangling kurallarının çoğunlukla kazaları önlemek için tasarlandığını
unutmayın; özel olarak kabul edilen bir değişkene erişmek veya
değiştirmek hala mümkündür.  Bu, hata ayıklayıcı gibi özel durumlarda
bile yararlı olabilir.

‘exec()’ veya ‘eval()’ koduna geçirilen kodun çağırma sınıfının sınıf
adını geçerli sınıf olarak görmediğine dikkat edin; bu, etkisi aynı
şekilde birlikte bayt derlenmiş kodla sınırlı olan ‘global’ deyiminin
etkisine benzer.  Aynı kısıtlama ‘getattr()’, ‘setattr()’ ve ‘delattr()’
ve doğrudan ‘__dict__’ atıfta bulunurken de geçerlidir.


File: python.info,  Node: Oranlar ve Bitişler,  Next: Yineleyiciler,  Prev: Özel Değişkenler,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.7 Oranlar ve Bitişler
-------------------------

Bazen, birkaç adlandırılmış veri öğesini bir araya getirerek Pascal
'record' ‘u veya C 'struct' ‘ına benzer bir veri türüne sahip olmak
yararlıdır.  Deyimsel yaklaşım, bu amaç için *note dataclasses: 2f.
kullanmaktır:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class Employee:
         name: str
         dept: str
         salary: int

     >>> john = Employee('john', 'computer lab', 1000)
     >>> john.dept
     'computer lab'
     >>> john.salary
     1000

A piece of Python code that expects a particular abstract data type can
often be passed a class that emulates the methods of that data type
instead.  For instance, if you have a function that formats some data
from a file object, you can define a class with methods *note read():
1ace. and *note readline(): 1b06. that get the data from a string buffer
instead, and pass it as an argument.

*note Instance method objects: 1b07. have attributes, too: *note
m.__self__: 124f. is the instance object with the method ‘m()’, and
*note m.__func__: 11a6. is the *note function object: 1b08.
corresponding to the method.


File: python.info,  Node: Yineleyiciler,  Next: Üreteçler,  Prev: Oranlar ve Bitişler,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.8 Yineleyiciler
-------------------

Şimdiye kadar büyük olasılıkla çoğu kapsayıcı nesnenin bir *note for:
26d. deyimi kullanılarak döngüye alınabileceğini fark etmişsinizdir:

     for element in [1, 2, 3]:
         print(element)
     for element in (1, 2, 3):
         print(element)
     for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
         print(key)
     for char in "123":
         print(char)
     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end='')

Bu erişim tarzı açık, özlü ve kullanışlıdır.  Yineleyicilerin kullanımı
Python’u istila eder ve birleştirir.  Perde arkasında *note for: 26d.
deyimi kapsayıcı nesne üzerinde *note iter(): 610. öğesini çağırır.
Fonksiyon, kapsayıcıdaki öğelere teker teker erişen *note __next__():
1176. metodunu tanımlayan bir yineleyici nesnesi döndürür.  Başka öğe
olmadığında, *note __next__(): 1176, ‘for’ döngüsünün sonlandırılacağını
bildiren bir *note StopIteration: a73. hatası oluşturur.  *note next():
611. yerleşik fonksiyonunu kullanarak *note __next__(): 1176. yöntemini
çağırabilirsiniz; Bu örnek, her şeyin nasıl çalıştığını gösterir:

     >>> s = 'abc'
     >>> it = iter(s)
     >>> it
     <str_iterator object at 0x10c90e650>
     >>> next(it)
     'a'
     >>> next(it)
     'b'
     >>> next(it)
     'c'
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         next(it)
     StopIteration

Having seen the mechanics behind the iterator protocol, it is easy to
add iterator behavior to your classes.  Define an *note __iter__():
1b0b. method which returns an object with a *note __next__(): 1176.
method.  If the class defines ‘__next__()’, then ‘__iter__()’ can just
return ‘self’:

     class Reverse:
         """Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards."""
         def __init__(self, data):
             self.data = data
             self.index = len(data)

         def __iter__(self):
             return self

         def __next__(self):
             if self.index == 0:
                 raise StopIteration
             self.index = self.index - 1
             return self.data[self.index]

     >>> rev = Reverse('spam')
     >>> iter(rev)
     <__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50>
     >>> for char in rev:
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     m
     a
     p
     s


File: python.info,  Node: Üreteçler,  Next: Üreteç İfadeleri,  Prev: Yineleyiciler,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.9 Üreteçler
---------------

*note Üreteçler: f0b. yineleyiciler oluşturmak için basit ve güçlü bir
araçtır.  Normal fonksiyonlar gibi yazılırlar, ancak veri döndürmek
istediklerinde *note yield: 82b. deyimini kullanırlar.  Üzerinde her
*note next(): 611. çağrıldığı zaman, üreteç kaldığı yerden devam eder
(tüm veri değerlerini ve hangi deyimin en son yürütüldüğını hatırlar).
Bu örnek, üreteçlerin oluşturulmasının ne kadar da kolay olabileceğini
gösterir:

     def reverse(data):
         for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
             yield data[index]

     >>> for char in reverse('golf'):
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     f
     l
     o
     g

Anything that can be done with generators can also be done with
class-based iterators as described in the previous section.  What makes
generators so compact is that the *note __iter__(): 1b0e. and *note
__next__(): 1b0f. methods are created automatically.

Başka bir önemli özellik, yerel değişkenlerin ve yürütme durumunun
çağrılar arasında otomatik olarak kaydedilmesidir.  Bu, fonksiyonun
yazılmasını kolaylaştırdı ve ‘self.index’ ve ‘self.data’ gibi
değişkenleri kullanmaya kıyasla çok daha net hale getirdi.

Otomatik metot oluşturma ve kaydetme programı durumuna ek olarak,
üreteçler sonlandırıldığında otomatik olarak *note StopIteration: a73.
‘ı yükseltirler.  Birlikte, bu özellikler normal bir işlev yazmaktan
daha fazla çaba harcamadan yinelemeler oluşturmayı kolaylaştırır.


File: python.info,  Node: Üreteç İfadeleri,  Prev: Üreteçler,  Up: Sınıflar

2.9.10 Üreteç İfadeleri
-----------------------

Bazı basit üreteçler, listelere benzer bir söz dizimi kullanılarak ve
köşeli ayraçlar yerine parantezlerle kısaca kodlanabilir.  Bu ifadeler,
üreteçlerin kapsayıcı bir fonksiyon tarafından hemen kullanıldığı
durumlar için tasarlanmıştır.  Üreteç ifadeleri tam üreteç tanımlarından
daha kompakt ancak daha az çok yönlüdür ve aynı özellikle liste
anlamalarından daha bellek dostu olma eğilimindedir.

Örnekler:

     >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))                 # sum of squares
     285

     >>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
     >>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
     >>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))         # dot product
     260

     >>> unique_words = set(word for line in page  for word in line.split())

     >>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)

     >>> data = 'golf'
     >>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
     ['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']


File: python.info,  Node: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti,  Next: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II,  Prev: Sınıflar,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.10 Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti
================================

* Menu:

* İşletim Sistemi Arayüzü::
* Dosya Joker Karakterleri::
* Komut Satırı Argümanları::
* Hata Çıktısının Yeniden Yönlendirilmesi ve Programın Sonlandırılması::
* String Örüntü Eşlemesi::
* Matematik::
* İnternet Erişimi::
* Tarihler ve Saatler::
* Veri Sıkıştırma::
* Performans Ölçümü::
* Kalite Kontrolü::
* Bataryalar Dahildir::


File: python.info,  Node: İşletim Sistemi Arayüzü,  Next: Dosya Joker Karakterleri,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.1 İşletim Sistemi Arayüzü
------------------------------

*note os: a0. modülü, işletim sistemiyle etkileşim kurmak için
düzinelerce fonksiyon sağlar:

     >>> import os
     >>> os.getcwd()      # Return the current working directory
     'C:\\Python312'
     >>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs')   # Change current working directory
     >>> os.system('mkdir today')   # Run the command mkdir in the system shell
     0

‘from os import *’ yerine ‘import os’ stilini kullandığınızdan emin
olun.  Yanlış kullanım olan ilk stili tercih etmek, *note os.open():
c1f. ‘ın çok daha farklı çalışan gömülü *note open(): 2a6. fonksiyonunu
gölgelemesine neden olur.

Gömülü *note dir(): 445. ve *note help(): 72a. fonksiyonları *note os:
a0. gibi büyük modüllerle çalışma konusunda interaktif yardımcılar
olarak kullanışlıdır:

     >>> import os
     >>> dir(os)
     <returns a list of all module functions>
     >>> help(os)
     <returns an extensive manual page created from the module's docstrings>

Günlük dosya ve dizin yönetimi görevleri için *note shutil: c4. modülü
kullanımı daha kolay olan daha yüksek düzeyli (higher level) bir arayüz
sağlar:

     >>> import shutil
     >>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
     'archive.db'
     >>> shutil.move('/build/executables', 'installdir')
     'installdir'


File: python.info,  Node: Dosya Joker Karakterleri,  Next: Komut Satırı Argümanları,  Prev: İşletim Sistemi Arayüzü,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.2 Dosya Joker Karakterleri
-------------------------------

*note glob: 62. modülü , klasör joker karakter aramalarından dosya
listeleri oluşturabilmek için bir fonsiyon sağlar:

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.py')
     ['primes.py', 'random.py', 'quote.py']


File: python.info,  Node: Komut Satırı Argümanları,  Next: Hata Çıktısının Yeniden Yönlendirilmesi ve Programın Sonlandırılması,  Prev: Dosya Joker Karakterleri,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.3 Komut Satırı Argümanları
-------------------------------

Common utility scripts often need to process command line arguments.
These arguments are stored in the *note sys: d8. module’s 'argv'
attribute as a list.  For instance, let’s take the following ‘demo.py’
file:

     # File demo.py
     import sys
     print(sys.argv)

Here is the output from running ‘python demo.py one two three’ at the
command line:

     ['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']

*note argparse: 6. modülü, komut satırı argümanlarını işlemek için daha
sofistike bir yöntem sağlar.  Aşağıdaki program, bir veya birden fazla
dosya adını ve isteğe bağlı görüntülenecek satır sayısını ayıklar:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
         prog='top',
         description='Show top lines from each file')
     parser.add_argument('filenames', nargs='+')
     parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=10)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

Komut satırında ‘python top.py --lines=5 alpha.txt beta.txt’
çalıştırıldığı zaman program, ‘args.lines’ ögesini ‘5’ ve
‘args.filenames’ ögesini ‘['alpha.txt', 'beta.txt']’ olarak ayarlar.


File: python.info,  Node: Hata Çıktısının Yeniden Yönlendirilmesi ve Programın Sonlandırılması,  Next: String Örüntü Eşlemesi,  Prev: Komut Satırı Argümanları,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.4 Hata Çıktısının Yeniden Yönlendirilmesi ve Programın Sonlandırılması
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

*note sys: d8. modülü ayrıca 'stdin', 'stdout' ve 'stderr' özelliklerine
sahiptir.  İkincisi, 'stdout' yeniden yönlendirilmiş olsa bile bunları
görünür hale getirmek için uyarılar ve hata iletileri yayımlamak için
yararlıdır:

     >>> sys.stderr.write('Warning, log file not found starting a new one\n')
     Warning, log file not found starting a new one

Bir programı sonlandırmak için, en kısa yol olan ‘sys.exit()’ komutunu
kullanın.


File: python.info,  Node: String Örüntü Eşlemesi,  Next: Matematik,  Prev: Hata Çıktısının Yeniden Yönlendirilmesi ve Programın Sonlandırılması,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.5 String Örüntü Eşlemesi
-----------------------------

*note re: b8. modülü, gelişmiş string işleme için kurallı ifade araçları
sağlar.  Karmaşık eşleme ve manipülasyon için, kurallı ifadeler kısa ve
optimize edilmiş çözümler sunar:

     >>> import re
     >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
     ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
     >>> re.sub(r'(\b[a-z]+) \1', r'\1', 'cat in the the hat')
     'cat in the hat'

Basit işlemlerde “string” metodu önerilir çünkü okuması ve hata
ayıklaması daha kolaydır:

     >>> 'tea for too'.replace('too', 'two')
     'tea for two'


File: python.info,  Node: Matematik,  Next: İnternet Erişimi,  Prev: String Örüntü Eşlemesi,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.6 Matematik
----------------

The *note math: 8d. module gives access to the underlying C library
functions for floating-point math:

     >>> import math
     >>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
     0.70710678118654757
     >>> math.log(1024, 2)
     10.0

*note random: b7. modülü rastgele seçimler yapmak için araçlar sağlar:

     >>> import random
     >>> random.choice(['apple', 'pear', 'banana'])
     'apple'
     >>> random.sample(range(100), 10)   # sampling without replacement
     [30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]
     >>> random.random()    # random float
     0.17970987693706186
     >>> random.randrange(6)    # random integer chosen from range(6)
     4

*note statistics: d1. modülü sayı içeren veriler için temel
istatistiksel özellikleri hesaplar (ortalama, ortanca, fark, vb.):

     >>> import statistics
     >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
     >>> statistics.mean(data)
     1.6071428571428572
     >>> statistics.median(data)
     1.25
     >>> statistics.variance(data)
     1.3720238095238095

SciPy projesi <‘https://scipy.org’> sayısal hesaplamalar için daha fazla
modül içerir.


File: python.info,  Node: İnternet Erişimi,  Next: Tarihler ve Saatler,  Prev: Matematik,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.7 İnternet Erişimi
-----------------------

İnternete bağlanmak ve internet protokollerini işlemek için bazı
modüller var.  Bunlardan en basit ikisi; *note urllib.request: 10b.
URL’lerden veri çekmek, ve *note smtplib: c9. ise mail göndermek için:

     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('http://worldtimeapi.org/api/timezone/etc/UTC.txt') as response:
     ...     for line in response:
     ...         line = line.decode()             # Convert bytes to a str
     ...         if line.startswith('datetime'):
     ...             print(line.rstrip())         # Remove trailing newline
     ...
     datetime: 2022-01-01T01:36:47.689215+00:00

     >>> import smtplib
     >>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     >>> server.sendmail('soothsayer@example.org', 'jcaesar@example.org',
     ... """To: jcaesar@example.org
     ... From: soothsayer@example.org
     ...
     ... Beware the Ides of March.
     ... """)
     >>> server.quit()

(İkinci örnek için bir mail sunucusunun localhost’ta çalışması
gerektiğini unutmayın.)


File: python.info,  Node: Tarihler ve Saatler,  Next: Veri Sıkıştırma,  Prev: İnternet Erişimi,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.8 Tarihler ve Saatler
--------------------------

*note datetime: 30. modülü, tarihleri ve saatleri hem basit hem de
karmaşık şekillerde işlemek için sınıflar sağlar.  Tarih ve saat
aritmetiği desteklenirken, uygulamanın odak noktası çıktı
biçimlendirmesi ve düzenlemesi için verimli üye ayıklamadır.  Modül
ayrıca saat dilimi farkında olan nesneleri de destekler.

     >>> # dates are easily constructed and formatted
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> now = date.today()
     >>> now
     datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
     >>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
     '12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'

     >>> # dates support calendar arithmetic
     >>> birthday = date(1964, 7, 31)
     >>> age = now - birthday
     >>> age.days
     14368


File: python.info,  Node: Veri Sıkıştırma,  Next: Performans Ölçümü,  Prev: Tarihler ve Saatler,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.9 Veri Sıkıştırma
----------------------

Genel veri arşivleme ve sıkıştırma formatları şu modüller tarafından
desteklenir: *note zlib: 133, *note gzip: 65, *note bz2: 13, *note lzma:
89, *note zipfile: 131. ve *note tarfile: dd.

     >>> import zlib
     >>> s = b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> len(s)
     41
     >>> t = zlib.compress(s)
     >>> len(t)
     37
     >>> zlib.decompress(t)
     b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> zlib.crc32(s)
     226805979


File: python.info,  Node: Performans Ölçümü,  Next: Kalite Kontrolü,  Prev: Veri Sıkıştırma,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.10 Performans Ölçümü
-------------------------

Bazı Python kullanıcıları, aynı soruna farklı yaklaşımların göreli
performansını bilmek konusunda derin bir ilgi geliştirir.  Python, bu
soruları hemen yanıtlayan bir ölçüm aracı sağlar.

Örneğin, argümanları değiştirmek için geleneksel yaklaşım yerine dizi
paketleme ve açma özelliğini kullanmak cazip olabilir.  *note timeit:
ee. modülü hızla sade bir performans avantajı gösterir:

     >>> from timeit import Timer
     >>> Timer('t=a; a=b; b=t', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.57535828626024577
     >>> Timer('a,b = b,a', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.54962537085770791

*note timeit: ee. ‘in ince ayrıntı düzeyinin aksine, *note profile: ae.
ve *note pstats: af. modülleri, daha büyük kod bloklarında zaman
açısından kritik bölümleri tanımlamak için araçlar sağlar.


File: python.info,  Node: Kalite Kontrolü,  Next: Bataryalar Dahildir,  Prev: Performans Ölçümü,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.11 Kalite Kontrolü
-----------------------

Yüksek kalitede yazılımlar geliştirmek için her fonksiyon için testler
yazılmalıdır ve bu testler geliştirirken sık sık çalıştırmalıdır.

*note doctest: 39. modülü, bir modülü taramak ve bir programın
docstrings’ine gömülü testleri doğrulamak için bir araç sağlar.  Test
yapısı, sonuçlarıyla birlikte tipik bir çağrıyı docstring’e kesip
yapıştırma kadar basittir.  Bu, kullanıcıya bir örnek sunarak
dokümantasyonu geliştirir ve doctest modülünün kodun dokümantasyona göre
doğru olduğundan emin olmasını sağlar:

     def average(values):
         """Computes the arithmetic mean of a list of numbers.

         >>> print(average([20, 30, 70]))
         40.0
         """
         return sum(values) / len(values)

     import doctest
     doctest.testmod()   # automatically validate the embedded tests

*note unittest: 106. modülü, *note doctest: 39. modülü gibi çaba
istemeyen bir modül değildir ama daha geniş kapsamlı test setlerinin
ayrı dosyalarda sağlanmasına imkân verir:

     import unittest

     class TestStatisticalFunctions(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_average(self):
             self.assertEqual(average([20, 30, 70]), 40.0)
             self.assertEqual(round(average([1, 5, 7]), 1), 4.3)
             with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                 average([])
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 average(20, 30, 70)

     unittest.main()  # Calling from the command line invokes all tests


File: python.info,  Node: Bataryalar Dahildir,  Prev: Kalite Kontrolü,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti

2.10.12 Bataryalar Dahildir
---------------------------

Python’un “bataryalar dahil” felsefesi vardır.  Bu , büyük paketlerin en
iyi şekilde sofistike ve sağlam kapabiliteleriyle görülür.  Mesela:

   * *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. ve *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. modülleri,
     uzak işlem grubu çağrılarını uygulamayı neredeyse önemsiz bir görev
     haline getirir.  Modül adlarına rağmen, XML’nin doğrudan bilgisine
     veya işlenmesine gerek yoktur.

   * *note email: 3a. paketi e-mail mesajlarını işlemek için bir
     kütüphanedir.MIME ve diğer RFC 2822(1)-tabanlı mesajların
     dokümanlarını içerir.  Mesaj gönderip alan *note smtplib: c9. ve
     *note poplib: ab. ‘in aksine, e-mail paketinin derleme işlemini,
     kompleks mesaj yapılarının (ekler dahil) decode edilebilmesini
     sağlayan, internet encode işlemini ve header protokollerini
     uygulamak için geniş kapsamlı bir toolkit’e sahiptir.

   * *note json: 80. paketi, bu popüler veri değişim biçimini
     ayrıştırmak için sağlam destek sağlar.  *note csv: 29. modülü,
     genellikle veritabanları ve elektronik tablolar tarafından
     desteklenen Virgülle-Ayrılmış Değer biçimindeki dosyaların doğrudan
     okunmasını ve yazılmasını destekler.  XML işleme *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 125, *note xml.dom: 121. ve *note xml.sax:
     129. paketleri tarafından desteklenir.  Birlikte, bu modüller ve
     paketler Python uygulamaları ve diğer araçlar arasındaki veri
     değişimini büyük ölçüde basitleştirir.

   * *note sqlite3: ce. modülü , SQLite veritabanı kütüphanesi için bir
     wrapper’dır.  Biraz standart dışı SQL syntax’ları kullanılarak
     güncellenebilen ve erişilebilen kalıcı bir veritabanı sağlanabilir.

   * Uluslararasılaştırma *note gettext: 61, *note locale: 85. ve *note
     codecs: 1b. paketi dahil olmak üzere bir dizi modül tarafından
     desteklenir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II,  Next: Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler,  Prev: Standart Kütüphanenin Özeti,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.11 Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II
================================================

Bu ikinci özet, profesyonel programlama ihtiyaçlarını destekleyen daha
gelişmiş modülleri kapsar.  Bu modüller nadiren küçük komut dosyalarında
bulunur.

* Menu:

* Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi::
* Şablonlamak::
* İkili Veri Kaydı Düzenleriyle Çalışma::
* Çoklu iş parçacığı::
* Günlükleme::
* Zayıf Başvurular::
* Listelerle Çalışma Araçları::
* Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic::


File: python.info,  Node: Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi,  Next: Şablonlamak,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.1 Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi
----------------------------

*note reprlib: ba. modülü, büyük veya derinlemesine iç içe kapların
kısaltılmış gösterimleri için özelleştirilmiş bir *note repr(): 637.
sürümünü sağlar:

     >>> import reprlib
     >>> reprlib.repr(set('supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'))
     "{'a', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', ...}"

*note pprint: ad. modülü, hem yerleşik hem de kullanıcı tanımlı
nesnelerin yorumlayıcı tarafından okunabilecek şekilde yazdırılması
üzerinde daha karmaşık kontrol sunar.  Sonuç bir satırdan uzun
olduğunda, “pretty printer” veri yapısını daha net bir şekilde ortaya
çıkarmak için satır sonları ve girintiler ekler:

     >>> import pprint
     >>> t = [[[['black', 'cyan'], 'white', ['green', 'red']], [['magenta',
     ...     'yellow'], 'blue']]]
     ...
     >>> pprint.pprint(t, width=30)
     [[[['black', 'cyan'],
        'white',
        ['green', 'red']],
       [['magenta', 'yellow'],
        'blue']]]

*note textwrap: eb. modülü, metin paragraflarını belirli bir ekran
genişliğine uyacak şekilde biçimlendirir:

     >>> import textwrap
     >>> doc = """The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns
     ... a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate
     ... the wrapped lines."""
     ...
     >>> print(textwrap.fill(doc, width=40))
     The wrap() method is just like fill()
     except that it returns a list of strings
     instead of one big string with newlines
     to separate the wrapped lines.

*note locale: 85. modülü kültüre özgü veri biçimlerinden oluşan bir
veritabanına erişmektedir.  Yerel ortamın biçim işlevinin gruplandırma
özniteliği, sayıları grup ayırıcılarıyla biçimlendirmek için doğrudan
bir yol sağlar:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'English_United States.1252')
     'English_United States.1252'
     >>> conv = locale.localeconv()          # get a mapping of conventions
     >>> x = 1234567.8
     >>> locale.format_string("%d", x, grouping=True)
     '1,234,567'
     >>> locale.format_string("%s%.*f", (conv['currency_symbol'],
     ...                      conv['frac_digits'], x), grouping=True)
     '$1,234,567.80'


File: python.info,  Node: Şablonlamak,  Next: İkili Veri Kaydı Düzenleriyle Çalışma,  Prev: Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.2 Şablonlamak
------------------

*note string: d2. modülü birçok yönlü kullanıcılar tarafından
düzenlemeye uygun basitleştirilmiş sözdizimine sahip şablon sınıfı *note
Template: 49c. içerir.  Bu, kullanıcıların uygulamayı değiştirmek
zorunda kalmadan uygulamalarını özelleştirmelerini sağlar.

Format, geçerli Python tanımlayıcılarıyla (alfasayısal karakterler ve
alt çizgiler) ‘$’ tarafından oluşturulan yer tutucu adlarını kullanır.
Yer tutucuyu ayraçla çevrelemek, onu araya giren boşluklar olmadan daha
alfasayısal harflerle takip etmenizi sağlar.  ‘$$’ yazmak tek bir ‘$’
oluşturur:

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> t = Template('${village}folk send $$10 to $cause.')
     >>> t.substitute(village='Nottingham', cause='the ditch fund')
     'Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.'

*note substitute(): 1b34. yöntemi, bir sözlükte veya anahtar sözcük
bağımsız değişkeninde yer tutucu sağlandığında *note KeyError: 903.
öğesini yükseltir.  Adres mektup birleştirme stili uygulamalar için,
kullanıcı tarafından sağlanan veriler eksik olabilir ve *note
safe_substitute(): 1b35. yöntemi daha uygun olabilir — veriler eksikse
yer tutucuları değiştirmez:

     >>> t = Template('Return the $item to $owner.')
     >>> d = dict(item='unladen swallow')
     >>> t.substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'owner'
     >>> t.safe_substitute(d)
     'Return the unladen swallow to $owner.'

Şablon alt sınıfları özel bir sınırlayıcı belirtebilir.  Örneğin, bir
fotoğraf tarayıcısı için toplu yeniden adlandırma yardımcı programı,
geçerli tarih, görüntü sıra numarası veya dosya biçimi gibi yer
tutucular için yüzde işaretlerini kullanmayı seçebilir:

     >>> import time, os.path
     >>> photofiles = ['img_1074.jpg', 'img_1076.jpg', 'img_1077.jpg']
     >>> class BatchRename(Template):
     ...     delimiter = '%'
     ...
     >>> fmt = input('Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  ')
     Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f

     >>> t = BatchRename(fmt)
     >>> date = time.strftime('%d%b%y')
     >>> for i, filename in enumerate(photofiles):
     ...     base, ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
     ...     newname = t.substitute(d=date, n=i, f=ext)
     ...     print('{0} --> {1}'.format(filename, newname))

     img_1074.jpg --> Ashley_0.jpg
     img_1076.jpg --> Ashley_1.jpg
     img_1077.jpg --> Ashley_2.jpg

Templating için başka bir uygulama, program mantığını birden çok çıktı
biçiminin ayrıntılarından ayırmaktır.  Bu, XML dosyaları, düz metin
raporları ve HTML web raporları için özel şablonların değiştirilmesini
mümkün kılar.


File: python.info,  Node: İkili Veri Kaydı Düzenleriyle Çalışma,  Next: Çoklu iş parçacığı,  Prev: Şablonlamak,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.3 İkili Veri Kaydı Düzenleriyle Çalışma
--------------------------------------------

*note struct: d4. modülü, değişken uzunluklu ikili kayıt formatlarıyla
çalışmak için *note pack(): 111f. ve *note unpack(): 15e8. işlevlerini
sağlar.  Aşağıdaki örnek, *note zipfile: 131. modülünü kullanmadan bir
ZIP dosyasındaki başlık bilgilerinin nasıl döngüye alınacağını gösterir.
Paket kodları ‘"H"’ ve ‘"I"’ sırasıyla iki ve dört baytlık işaretsiz
sayıları temsil eder.  ‘"<"’, standart boyutta ve küçük endian bayt
düzeninde olduklarını gösterir:

     import struct

     with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f:
         data = f.read()

     start = 0
     for i in range(3):                      # show the first 3 file headers
         start += 14
         fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])
         crc32, comp_size, uncomp_size, filenamesize, extra_size = fields

         start += 16
         filename = data[start:start+filenamesize]
         start += filenamesize
         extra = data[start:start+extra_size]
         print(filename, hex(crc32), comp_size, uncomp_size)

         start += extra_size + comp_size     # skip to the next header


File: python.info,  Node: Çoklu iş parçacığı,  Next: Günlükleme,  Prev: İkili Veri Kaydı Düzenleriyle Çalışma,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.4 Çoklu iş parçacığı
-------------------------

Diş açma, sıralı olarak bağımlı olmayan görevlerin ayrıştırılması için
bir tekniktir.  Diğer görevler arka planda çalışırken kullanıcı
girdisini kabul eden uygulamaların yanıt verme hızını artırmak için iş
parçacıkları kullanılabilir.  İlgili bir kullanım durumu, başka bir iş
parçacığındaki hesaplamalara paralel olarak I/O çalıştırmaktadır.

Aşağıdaki kod, ana program çalışmaya devam ederken üst düzey *note
threading: ec. modülünün görevleri arka planda nasıl çalıştırabileceğini
gösterir:

     import threading, zipfile

     class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
         def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
             threading.Thread.__init__(self)
             self.infile = infile
             self.outfile = outfile

         def run(self):
             f = zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED)
             f.write(self.infile)
             f.close()
             print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)

     background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
     background.start()
     print('The main program continues to run in foreground.')

     background.join()    # Wait for the background task to finish
     print('Main program waited until background was done.')

Çok iş parçacıklı uygulamaların temel zorluğu, verileri veya diğer
kaynakları paylaşan iş parçacıklarını koordine etmektir.  Bu amaçla, iş
parçacığı modülü, kilitler, olaylar, koşul değişkenleri ve semaforlar
dahil olmak üzere bir dizi senkronizasyon ilkesi sağlar.

Bu araçlar güçlü olsa da, küçük tasarım hataları, yeniden üretilmesi zor
sorunlara neden olabilir.  Bu nedenle, görev koordinasyonuna yönelik
tercih edilen yaklaşım, bir kaynağa tüm erişimi tek bir iş parçacığında
yoğunlaştırmak ve ardından bu iş parçacığını diğer iş parçacıklarından
gelen isteklerle beslemek için *note queue: b5. modülünü kullanmaktır.
İş parçacıkları arası iletişim ve koordinasyon için *note Queue: 1235.
nesnelerini kullanan uygulamaların tasarımı daha kolay, daha okunaklı ve
daha güvenilirdir.


File: python.info,  Node: Günlükleme,  Next: Zayıf Başvurular,  Prev: Çoklu iş parçacığı,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.5 Günlükleme
-----------------

*note logging: 86. modülü, tam özellikli ve esnek bir kayıt sistemi
sunar.  En basit haliyle, günlük mesajları bir dosyaya veya ‘sys.stderr’
adresine gönderilir:

     import logging
     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

Bu, aşağıdaki çıktıyı üretir:

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

Varsayılan olarak, bilgi ve hata ayıklama mesajları bastırılır ve çıktı
standart hataya gönderilir.  Diğer çıktı seçenekleri, mesajları e-posta,
datagramlar, yuvalar veya bir HTTP Sunucusuna yönlendirmeyi içerir.
Yeni filtreler mesaj önceliğine göre farklı yönlendirme seçebilir: *note
DEBUG: 1b3c, *note INFO: 1b3d, *note WARNING: 1b3e, *note ERROR: 1b3f. ,
ve *note CRITICAL: 1b40.

Günlük kaydı sistemi, doğrudan Python’dan yapılandırılabilir veya
uygulamayı değiştirmeden özelleştirilmiş günlük kaydı için kullanıcı
tarafından düzenlenebilir bir yapılandırma dosyasından yüklenebilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Zayıf Başvurular,  Next: Listelerle Çalışma Araçları,  Prev: Günlükleme,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.6 Zayıf Başvurular
-----------------------

Python otomatik bellek yönetimi yapar (çoğu nesne için referans sayımı
ve döngüleri ortadan kaldırmak için *note garbage collection: 1744.).
Hafıza, ona yapılan son başvurunun ortadan kaldırılmasından kısa bir
süre sonra serbest bırakılır.

Bu yaklaşım çoğu uygulama için iyi sonuç verir ancak bazen nesneleri
yalnızca başka bir şey tarafından kullanıldıkları sürece izlemeye
ihtiyaç duyulur.  Ne yazık ki, sadece onları izlemek onları kalıcı kılan
bir referans oluşturur.  *note weakref: 114. modülü, referans
oluşturmadan nesneleri izlemek için araçlar sağlar.  Nesneye artık
ihtiyaç duyulmadığında, zayıf referans tablosundan otomatik olarak
kaldırılır ve zayıf referans nesneleri için bir geri arama tetiklenir.
Tipik uygulamalar, oluşturması pahalı olan nesneleri önbelleğe almayı
içerir:

     >>> import weakref, gc
     >>> class A:
     ...     def __init__(self, value):
     ...         self.value = value
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return str(self.value)
     ...
     >>> a = A(10)                   # create a reference
     >>> d = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
     >>> d['primary'] = a            # does not create a reference
     >>> d['primary']                # fetch the object if it is still alive
     10
     >>> del a                       # remove the one reference
     >>> gc.collect()                # run garbage collection right away
     0
     >>> d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
       File "C:/python312/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__
         o = self.data[key]()
     KeyError: 'primary'


File: python.info,  Node: Listelerle Çalışma Araçları,  Next: Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic,  Prev: Zayıf Başvurular,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.7 Listelerle Çalışma Araçları
----------------------------------

Birçok veri yapısı ihtiyacı yerleşik liste türüyle karşılanabilir.
Ancak bazen farklı performans ödünleşimleri ile alternatif uygulamalara
ihtiyaç duyulmaktadır.

The *note array: 7. module provides an *note array: 195. object that is
like a list that stores only homogeneous data and stores it more
compactly.  The following example shows an array of numbers stored as
two byte unsigned binary numbers (typecode ‘"H"’) rather than the usual
16 bytes per entry for regular lists of Python int objects:

     >>> from array import array
     >>> a = array('H', [4000, 10, 700, 22222])
     >>> sum(a)
     26932
     >>> a[1:3]
     array('H', [10, 700])

The *note collections: 1d. module provides a *note deque: 3e7. object
that is like a list with faster appends and pops from the left side but
slower lookups in the middle.  These objects are well suited for
implementing queues and breadth first tree searches:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque(["task1", "task2", "task3"])
     >>> d.append("task4")
     >>> print("Handling", d.popleft())
     Handling task1

     unsearched = deque([starting_node])
     def breadth_first_search(unsearched):
         node = unsearched.popleft()
         for m in gen_moves(node):
             if is_goal(m):
                 return m
             unsearched.append(m)

Alternatif liste uygulamalarına ek olarak, kütüphane ayrıca sıralanmış
listeleri işlemek için işlevlere sahip *note bisect: 11. modülü gibi
başka araçlar da sunar:

     >>> import bisect
     >>> scores = [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
     >>> bisect.insort(scores, (300, 'ruby'))
     >>> scores
     [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (300, 'ruby'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]

*note heapq: 67. modülü, düzenli listelere dayalı yığınları uygulamak
için işlevler sağlar.  En düşük değerli giriş her zaman sıfır konumunda
tutulur.  Bu, en küçük öğeye tekrar tekrar erişen ancak tam liste
sıralamasını çalıştırmak istemeyen uygulamalar için kullanışlıdır:

     >>> from heapq import heapify, heappop, heappush
     >>> data = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0]
     >>> heapify(data)                      # rearrange the list into heap order
     >>> heappush(data, -5)                 # add a new entry
     >>> [heappop(data) for i in range(3)]  # fetch the three smallest entries
     [-5, 0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic,  Prev: Listelerle Çalışma Araçları,  Up: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II

2.11.8 Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic
----------------------------------------

The *note decimal: 35. module offers a *note Decimal: 609. datatype for
decimal floating-point arithmetic.  Compared to the built-in *note
float: 272. implementation of binary floating point, the class is
especially helpful for

   * tam ondalık gösterim gerektiren finansal uygulamalar ve diğer
     kullanımlar,

   * hassasiyet üzerinde kontrol,

   * yasal veya düzenleyici gereklilikleri karşılamak için yuvarlama
     üzerinde kontrol,

   * önemli ondalık basamakların izlenmesi veya

   * kullanıcının sonuçların elle yapılan hesaplamalarla eşleşmesini
     beklediği uygulamalar.

Örneğin, 70 sentlik bir telefon ücretinde 5% vergi hesaplamak ondalık
kayan nokta ve ikili kayan nokta için farklı sonuçlar verir.  Sonuçlar
en yakın küsurata yuvarlanırsa fark önemli hale gelir:

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> round(Decimal('0.70') * Decimal('1.05'), 2)
     Decimal('0.74')
     >>> round(.70 * 1.05, 2)
     0.73

*note Decimal: 609. sonucu, iki basamaklı anlamlı çarpanlardan otomatik
olarak dört basamaklı anlamlılık çıkaran, sonunda bir sıfır tutar.
Ondalık, matematiği elle yapıldığı gibi yeniden üretir ve ikili kayan
nokta ondalık miktarları tam olarak temsil edemediğinde ortaya
çıkabilecek sorunları önler.

Tam gösterim, *note Decimal: 609. sınıfının, ikili kayan nokta için
uygun olmayan modlo hesaplamaları ve eşitlik testleri gerçekleştirmesini
sağlar:

     >>> Decimal('1.00') % Decimal('.10')
     Decimal('0.00')
     >>> 1.00 % 0.10
     0.09999999999999995

     >>> sum([Decimal('0.1')]*10) == Decimal('1.0')
     True
     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False

*note decimal: 35. modülü, aritmetikle birlikte gerektiği kadar
hassasiyet sağlar:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 36
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857')


File: python.info,  Node: Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler,  Next: Sırada Ne Var?,  Prev: Standart Kütüphanenin Kısa Özeti — Bölüm II,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.12 Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler
===============================

* Menu:

* Tanıtım::
* Sanal Ortamlar Oluşturma::
* Paketleri pip ile Yönetme::


File: python.info,  Node: Tanıtım,  Next: Sanal Ortamlar Oluşturma,  Up: Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler

2.12.1 Tanıtım
--------------

Python uygulamaları genellikle standart kütüphanenin bir parçası olmayan
paketleri ve modülleri kullanır.  Uygulama bazen kütüphanenin spesifik
bir sürümüne ihtiyaç duyar, çünkü uygulama belirli bir hatanın
düzeltilmiş olmasını veya uygulamanın kütüphanenin arabiriminin eski bir
sürümü kullanılarak yazılmasını gerektirebilir.

Bu, bir Python yüklemesinin, her uygulamanın gereksinimlerini
karşılamasının mümkün olmayabileceği anlamına gelir.  Bir A uygulaması
belirli bir modülün 1.0 sürümüne, bir B uygulaması ise 2.0 sürümüne
ihtiyaç duyuyorsa, sürümlerin farklı olmasından dolayı versiyon 1.0 veya
2.0’ı yüklemek A veya B uygulamasından birini çalışmaz hale
getirecektir.

Bu sorunun çözümü, spesifik bir Python sürümü için Python yüklemesi ve
bir dizi ek paket içeren bağımsız bir dizin ağacı olan *note virtual
environment: 1b4b. (sanal ortam) oluşturmaktır.

Bu sayede farklı uygulamalar farklı sanal ortamlar kullanabilir.
Çakışan gereksinimlerin önceki örneğini çözmek için, A uygulamasının
sanal ortamında sürüm 1.0 yüklüyken, B uygulamasının sanal ortamında
sürüm 2.0 yüklü olabilir.  B uygulaması bir kitaplığın sürüm 3.0’a
yükseltilmesini gerektiriyorsa, bu uygulama A’nın ortamını etkilemez.


File: python.info,  Node: Sanal Ortamlar Oluşturma,  Next: Paketleri pip ile Yönetme,  Prev: Tanıtım,  Up: Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler

2.12.2 Sanal Ortamlar Oluşturma
-------------------------------

The module used to create and manage virtual environments is called
*note venv: 111.  *note venv: 111. will install the Python version from
which the command was run (as reported by the *note -version: ba1.
option).  For instance, executing the command with ‘python3.12’ will
install version 3.12.

Sanal ortam oluşturmak için, yerleştirmek istediğiniz dizine karar verin
ve *note venv: 111. modülünü dizin yolu ile bir komut dosyası olarak
çalıştırın:

     python -m venv tutorial-env

Bu, eğer yoksa ‘tutorial-env’ dizinini oluşturur ve ayrıca Python
derleyicisinin bir kopyasını ve çeşitli destekleyici dosyaları içeren
dizinler oluşturur.

Sanal ortam için ortak bir dizin konumu ‘.venv’ ‘dir.  Bu ad, dizini
genellikle kabuğunuzda gizli tutar ve böylece dizinin neden var olduğunu
açıklayan bir ad verirken aradan uzak tutar.  Ayrıca, bazı araç
çalıştırmanın desteklediği ‘.env’ ortam değişkeni tanım dosyalarıyla
çakışmayı önler.

Sanal bir ortam oluşturduktan sonra onu etkinleştirebilirsiniz.

Windows’da çalıştır:

     tutorial-env\Scripts\activate

Unix veya MacOS’ta çalıştır:

     source tutorial-env/bin/activate

(Bu komut dosyası bash kabuğu için yazılmıştır.  Eğer ‘csh’ veya ‘fish’
kabuklarını kullanıyorsanız, bunun yerine ‘activate.csh’ veya
‘activate.fish’ komut dosyalarını kullanmanız gerekmektedir.)

Sanal ortamı etkinleştirmek, hangi sanal ortamı kullandığınızı göstermek
için kabuğunuzun görünüşünü değiştirir ve ortamı değiştirerek ‘python’
komutunun belirlediğiniz spesifik Python kurulumunu ve sürümünü
çalıştırmasını sağlar.  Mesela:

     $ source ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
     (tutorial-env) $ python
     Python 3.5.1 (default, May  6 2016, 10:59:36)
       ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path
     ['', '/usr/local/lib/python35.zip', ...,
     '~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
     >>>

Bir sanal ortamı devre dışı bırakmak için şunu yazın:

     deactivate

terminalin içine.


File: python.info,  Node: Paketleri pip ile Yönetme,  Prev: Sanal Ortamlar Oluşturma,  Up: Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler

2.12.3 Paketleri pip ile Yönetme
--------------------------------

‘pip’ adlı bir program kullanarak paketleri yükleyebilir, yükseltebilir
ve kaldırabilirsiniz.  Varsayılan olarak ‘pip’, Python Paket Dizini(1)
‘nden paketler yükler.  Python Paket Dizini’ne web tarayıcınızdan
giderek göz atabilirsiniz.

‘pip’ bir dizi alt komut içerir: “install” (yükle), “uninstall”
(kaldır), “freeze” (dondur), vb.  (‘pip’ için eksiksiz dokümantasyon
için *note Python Modüllerini Kurmak: d8c. rehberine bakın.)

Paketin adını belirterek paketin en son sürümünü yükleyebilirsiniz:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install novas
     Collecting novas
       Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz (136kB)
     Installing collected packages: novas
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3

Paketin belirli bir sürümünü, paket adını ve ardından ‘==’ ve sürüm
numarasını vererek de yükleyebilirsiniz:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install requests==2.6.0
     Collecting requests==2.6.0
       Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
     Installing collected packages: requests
     Successfully installed requests-2.6.0

Bu komutu tekrar çalıştırırsanız, ‘pip’ istenen sürümün kurulu olduğunu
fark edecek ve hiçbir şey yapmayacaktır.  Bu sürümü almak için farklı
bir sürüm numarası sağlayabilir veya paketi en son sürüme yükseltmek
için ‘python -m pip install --upgrade’ komutunu çalıştırabilirsiniz:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install --upgrade requests
     Collecting requests
     Installing collected packages: requests
       Found existing installation: requests 2.6.0
         Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
           Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
     Successfully installed requests-2.7.0

‘python -m pip uninstall’ ve ardından gelen bir veya daha fazla paket
adı, paketleri sanal ortamdan kaldıracaktır.

‘python -m pip show’ belirli bir paket hakkındaki bilgileri
görüntüleyecektir:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip show requests
     ---
     Metadata-Version: 2.0
     Name: requests
     Version: 2.7.0
     Summary: Python HTTP for Humans.
     Home-page: http://python-requests.org
     Author: Kenneth Reitz
     Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
     License: Apache 2.0
     Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
     Requires:

‘python -m pip list’ sanal ortamda yüklü olan tüm paketleri
gösterecektir:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip list
     novas (3.1.1.3)
     numpy (1.9.2)
     pip (7.0.3)
     requests (2.7.0)
     setuptools (16.0)

‘python -m pip freeze’ yüklü paketlerin benzer bir listesini
üretecektir, ancak çıktı ‘python -m pip install’’ın beklediği biçimi
kullanır.  Genel bir kullanım bu listeyi bir ‘requirements.txt’
dosyasına koymaktır:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip freeze > requirements.txt
     (tutorial-env) $ cat requirements.txt
     novas==3.1.1.3
     numpy==1.9.2
     requests==2.7.0

‘requirements.txt’ daha sonra sürüm denetimine kaydedilebilir ve bir
uygulamanın parçası olarak gönderilebilir.  Kullanıcılar daha sonra
gerekli tüm paketleri ‘install -r’ ile yükleyebilir:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt
     Collecting novas==3.1.1.3 (from -r requirements.txt (line 1))
       ...
     Collecting numpy==1.9.2 (from -r requirements.txt (line 2))
       ...
     Collecting requests==2.7.0 (from -r requirements.txt (line 3))
       ...
     Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0

‘pip’ has many more options.  Consult the *note Python Modüllerini
Kurmak: d8c. guide for complete documentation for ‘pip’.  When you’ve
written a package and want to make it available on the Python Package
Index, consult the Python packaging user guide(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


File: python.info,  Node: Sırada Ne Var?,  Next: Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame,  Prev: Sanal Ortamlar ve Paketler,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.13 Sırada Ne Var?
===================

Bu öğreticiyi okumak muhtemelen Python’u kullanmaya olan ilginizi
pekiştirdi — Python’u gerçek dünyadaki sorunlarınızı çözmek için
kullanmaya istekli olmalısınız.  Daha fazla bilgi edinmek için nereye
gitmelisiniz?

Bu öğretici Python’un dokümantasyon kümesinin bir parçasıdır.  Kümedeki
diğer bazı belgeler şunlardır:

   * *note Python Standart Kütüphanesi: 143.:

     Standart kütüphanedeki türler, fonksiyonlar ve modüller hakkında
     eksiksiz (özlü de olsa) referans materyali sağlayan bu kılavuza göz
     atmalısınız.  Standart Python dağıtımı 'birçok' ek kod içerir.
     Unix posta kutularını okumak, belgeleri HTTP yoluyla almak,
     rastgele sayılar oluşturmak, komut satırı seçeneklerini
     ayrıştırmak, verileri sıkıştırmak ve diğer birçok görev için
     modüller vardır.  Kütüphane Referansını gözden geçirmek size
     nelerin mevcut olduğu hakkında bir fikir verecektir.

   * *note Python Modüllerini Kurmak: d8c. , diğer Python kullanıcıları
     tarafından yazılan ek modüllerin nasıl yükleneceğini açıklar.

   * *note Python Dil Referansı: 144.: Python sözdiziminin ve
     anlambiliminin ayrıntılı bir açıklaması.  Ağır bir metin, ancak
     dilin kendisi için eksiksiz bir rehber olarak yararlıdır.

Diğer Python kaynakları:

   * ‘https://www.python.org’: Başlıca Python web sitesi.  Web’deki
     Python ile ilgili sayfalara yönelik kod, belgeler ve işaretçiler
     içerir.

   * ‘https://docs.python.org’: Python belgelerine hızlı erişim.

   * ‘https://pypi.org’: Daha önce Cheese Shop (1), olarak da
     adlandırılan Python Paket Dizini, kullanıcılar tarafından
     oluşturulan indirilebilir Python modülleri dizinidir.  Kodlarınızı
     yayınlamaya başladıktan sonra, başkalarının bulabilmesi için buraya
     kaydedebilirsiniz.

   * ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/’: Python Yemek
     Tarifleri; kod örnekleri, daha geniş çaplı modüller ve kullanışlı
     kodların büyük bir koleksiyonudur.  Özellikle dikkat çekici
     katkılar Python Cookbook (O’Reilly & Associates, ISBN
     0-596-00797-3) adlı bir kitapta toplanır.

   * ‘https://pyvideo.org’, konferanslardan ve kullanıcı grubu
     toplantılarından Python ile ilgili videolara bağlantılar toplar.

   * ‘https://scipy.org’: Scientific Python projesi, hızlı dizi
     hesaplamaları ve manipülasyonları için modüllerin yanı sıra
     doğrusal cebir, Fourier dönüşümleri, doğrusal olmayan çözücüler,
     rastgele sayı dağılımları, istatistiksel analiz ve benzeri şeyler
     için bir dizi paket içerir.

Python ile ilgili sorular ve sorun raporları için haber grubu
‘comp.lang.python’ adresine gönderebilir veya bunları
<python-list@python.org> posta listesine gönderebilirsiniz.  Haber grubu
ve posta listesi aynı ağ içinde olduğundan, birine gönderilen iletiler
otomatik olarak diğerine iletilir.  Günde yüzlerce gönderi geliyor,
sorular soruluyor (ve yanıtlanıyor), yeni özellikler öneriliyor ve yeni
modüller duyuruluyor.  Posta listesi arşivleri için
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/’.

Göndermeden önce, *note Sık Sorulan Sorular: 1b51. (SSS olarak da
adlandırılır) listesini kontrol etmeyi unutmayın.  SSS, tekrar tekrar
gelen soruların çoğunu yanıtlar ve halihazırda sorununuzun çözümünü
içeriyor olabilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) “Cheese Shop” Monty Python’un bir çizimidir: bir müşteri peynir
dükkanına girer, ancak istediği peynir ne olursa olsun, tezgahtar elinde
olmadığını söyler.


File: python.info,  Node: Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame,  Next: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations,  Prev: Sırada Ne Var?,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.14 Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame
================================================

Python yorumlayıcısının bazı sürümleri, Korn kabuğunda ve GNU Bash
kabuğunda bulunan tesislere benzer şekilde, mevcut girdi satırının ve
geçmiş ikamesinin düzenlenmesini destekler.  Bu, çeşitli düzenleme
stillerini destekleyen GNU Readline(1) kütüphanesi kullanılarak
gerçekleştirilir.  Bu kütüphanenin burada kopyalamayacağımız kendi
belgeleri vardır.

* Menu:

* Tab Tamamlama ve Geçmiş Düzenleme::
* Etkileşimli Yorumlayıcıya Alternatifler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


File: python.info,  Node: Tab Tamamlama ve Geçmiş Düzenleme,  Next: Etkileşimli Yorumlayıcıya Alternatifler,  Up: Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame

2.14.1 Tab Tamamlama ve Geçmiş Düzenleme
----------------------------------------

Completion of variable and module names is *note automatically enabled:
e6f. at interpreter startup so that the ‘Tab’ key invokes the completion
function; it looks at Python statement names, the current local
variables, and the available module names.  For dotted expressions such
as ‘string.a’, it will evaluate the expression up to the final ‘'.'’ and
then suggest completions from the attributes of the resulting object.
Note that this may execute application-defined code if an object with a
*note __getattr__(): 201. method is part of the expression.  The default
configuration also saves your history into a file named
‘.python_history’ in your user directory.  The history will be available
again during the next interactive interpreter session.


File: python.info,  Node: Etkileşimli Yorumlayıcıya Alternatifler,  Prev: Tab Tamamlama ve Geçmiş Düzenleme,  Up: Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame

2.14.2 Etkileşimli Yorumlayıcıya Alternatifler
----------------------------------------------

This facility is an enormous step forward compared to earlier versions
of the interpreter; however, some wishes are left: It would be nice if
the proper indentation were suggested on continuation lines (the parser
knows if an *note INDENT: 1b58. token is required next).  The completion
mechanism might use the interpreter’s symbol table.  A command to check
(or even suggest) matching parentheses, quotes, etc., would also be
useful.

Oldukça uzun bir süredir var olan alternatif geliştirilmiş etkileşimli
yorumlayıcı, tab tamamlama, nesne keşfi ve gelişmiş geçmiş yönetimi
özelliklerine sahip IPython(1) ‘dur.  Ayrıca, tamamen özelleştirilebilir
ve diğer uygulamalara gömülebilir.  Bir başka benzer geliştirilmiş
etkileşimli ortam da bpython(2) ‘dur.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ipython.org/

   (2) https://bpython-interpreter.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations,  Next: Ek Bölüm,  Prev: Etkileşimli Girdi Düzenleme ve Geçmiş İkame,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.15 Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
======================================================

Floating-point numbers are represented in computer hardware as base 2
(binary) fractions.  For example, the 'decimal' fraction ‘0.625’ has
value 6/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000, and in the same way the 'binary' fraction
‘0.101’ has value 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/8.  These two fractions have identical
values, the only real difference being that the first is written in base
10 fractional notation, and the second in base 2.

Ne yazık ki, ondalık kesirlerin çoğu tam olarak ikili kesir olarak
gösterilemez.  Bunun bir sonucu olarak, genel olarak, girdiğiniz ondalık
kayan noktalı sayılar, makinede gerçekte depolanan ikili kayan noktalı
sayılar tarafından yalnızca yaklaşık olarak gösterilir.

Problem ilk başta 10 tabanında daha kolay anlaşılabilir.  1/3 kesrini
düşünün.  Bunu 10 tabanında bir kesir olarak yaklaşık olarak
hesaplayabilirsiniz:

     0.3

ya da daha iyisi

     0.33

ya da daha iyisi

     0.333

ve bunun gibi.  Kaç basamak yazmak isterseniz isteyin, sonuç hiçbir
zaman tam olarak 1/3 olmayacak, ancak 1/3’ün giderek daha iyi bir
yaklaşımı olacaktır.

Aynı şekilde, kaç tane 2 tabanı basamağı kullanmak isterseniz isteyin,
0.1 ondalık değeri tam olarak 2 tabanı kesri olarak gösterilemez.  Taban
2’de 1/10 sonsuza kadar tekrar eden bir kesirdir

     0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011...

Herhangi bir sonlu bit sayısında durduğunuzda bir yaklaşık değer elde
edersiniz.  Bugün çoğu makinede, kayan sayılar, pay en anlamlı bitten
başlayarak ilk 53 bit kullanılarak ve payda ikinin kuvveti olarak ikili
bir kesir kullanılarak yaklaştırılır.  1/10 durumunda ikili kesir,
1/10’un gerçek değerine yakın ancak tam olarak eşit olmayan
‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’ şeklindedir.

Many users are not aware of the approximation because of the way values
are displayed.  Python only prints a decimal approximation to the true
decimal value of the binary approximation stored by the machine.  On
most machines, if Python were to print the true decimal value of the
binary approximation stored for 0.1, it would have to display:

     >>> 0.1
     0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

That is more digits than most people find useful, so Python keeps the
number of digits manageable by displaying a rounded value instead:

     >>> 1 / 10
     0.1

Unutmayın, yazdırılan sonuç 1/10’un tam değeri gibi görünse de, saklanan
gerçek değer temsil edilebilir olan en yakın ikili kesirdir.

İlginç bir şekilde, aynı en yakın yaklaşık ikili kesri paylaşan birçok
farklı ondalık sayı vardır.  Örneğin, ‘0.1’ ve ‘0.10000000000000001’ ve
‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’ sayılarının
tümü ‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’ ile yaklaştırılır.  Bu ondalık
değerlerin tümü aynı yaklaşımı paylaştığından, ‘eval(repr(x)) == x’
değişmezi korunarak bunlardan herhangi biri görüntülenebilir.

Geçmişte, Python komut istemi ve yerleşik *note repr(): 637. işlevi 17
anlamlı basamağa sahip olanı, ‘0.10000000000000001’ ‘i seçerdi.  Python
3.1’den itibaren, Python (çoğu sistemde) artık bunlardan en kısa olanı
seçebilmekte ve basitçe ‘0.1’ ‘i görüntüleyebilmektedir.

Note that this is in the very nature of binary floating point: this is
not a bug in Python, and it is not a bug in your code either.  You’ll
see the same kind of thing in all languages that support your hardware’s
floating-point arithmetic (although some languages may not 'display' the
difference by default, or in all output modes).

For more pleasant output, you may wish to use string formatting to
produce a limited number of significant digits:

     >>> format(math.pi, '.12g')  # give 12 significant digits
     '3.14159265359'

     >>> format(math.pi, '.2f')   # give 2 digits after the point
     '3.14'

     >>> repr(math.pi)
     '3.141592653589793'

Bunun gerçek anlamda bir yanılsama olduğunun farkına varmak önemlidir:
gerçek makine değerinin 'görüntüsünü' yuvarlıyorsunuz.

One illusion may beget another.  For example, since 0.1 is not exactly
1/10, summing three values of 0.1 may not yield exactly 0.3, either:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3
     False

Also, since the 0.1 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 1/10 and
0.3 cannot get any closer to the exact value of 3/10, then pre-rounding
with *note round(): 1184. function cannot help:

     >>> round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) == round(0.3, 1)
     False

Though the numbers cannot be made closer to their intended exact values,
the *note math.isclose(): c3d. function can be useful for comparing
inexact values:

     >>> math.isclose(0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1, 0.3)
     True

Alternatively, the *note round(): 1184. function can be used to compare
rough approximations:

     >>> round(math.pi, ndigits=2) == round(22 / 7, ndigits=2)
     True

Binary floating-point arithmetic holds many surprises like this.  The
problem with “0.1” is explained in precise detail below, in the
“Representation Error” section.  See Examples of Floating Point
Problems(1) for a pleasant summary of how binary floating point works
and the kinds of problems commonly encountered in practice.  Also see
The Perils of Floating Point(2) for a more complete account of other
common surprises.

As that says near the end, “there are no easy answers.” Still, don’t be
unduly wary of floating point!  The errors in Python float operations
are inherited from the floating-point hardware, and on most machines are
on the order of no more than 1 part in 2**53 per operation.  That’s more
than adequate for most tasks, but you do need to keep in mind that it’s
not decimal arithmetic and that every float operation can suffer a new
rounding error.

Patolojik durumlar mevcut olsa da, kayan noktalı aritmetiğin sıradan
kullanımı için, nihai sonuçlarınızın görüntüsünü beklediğiniz ondalık
basamak sayısına yuvarlarsanız, sonunda beklediğiniz sonucu görürsünüz.
*note str(): 15d. genellikle yeterlidir ve daha ince kontrol için *note
Format String Syntax: 1237. içindeki *note str.format(): 433. yönteminin
biçim belirleyicilerine bakın.

Tam ondalık gösterim gerektiren durumlar için, muhasebe uygulamaları ve
yüksek hassasiyetli uygulamalar için uygun ondalık aritmetiği uygulayan
*note decimal: 35. modülünü kullanmayı deneyin.

Kesin aritmetiğin bir başka biçimi, rasyonel sayılara dayalı aritmetik
uygulayan *note fractions: 5b. modülü tarafından desteklenir (böylece
1/3 gibi sayılar tam olarak temsil edilebilir).

If you are a heavy user of floating-point operations you should take a
look at the NumPy package and many other packages for mathematical and
statistical operations supplied by the SciPy project.  See
<‘https://scipy.org’>.

Python provides tools that may help on those rare occasions when you
really 'do' want to know the exact value of a float.  The *note
float.as_integer_ratio(): 1b5c. method expresses the value of a float as
a fraction:

     >>> x = 3.14159
     >>> x.as_integer_ratio()
     (3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)

Since the ratio is exact, it can be used to losslessly recreate the
original value:

     >>> x == 3537115888337719 / 1125899906842624
     True

The *note float.hex(): 1b5d. method expresses a float in hexadecimal
(base 16), again giving the exact value stored by your computer:

     >>> x.hex()
     '0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1'

This precise hexadecimal representation can be used to reconstruct the
float value exactly:

     >>> x == float.fromhex('0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1')
     True

Temsil tam olduğundan, değerleri Python’un farklı sürümleri arasında
güvenilir bir şekilde taşımak (platform bağımsızlığı) ve aynı biçimi
destekleyen diğer dillerle (Java ve C99 gibi) veri alışverişi yapmak
için kullanışlıdır.

Another helpful tool is the *note sum(): 187. function which helps
mitigate loss-of-precision during summation.  It uses extended precision
for intermediate rounding steps as values are added onto a running
total.  That can make a difference in overall accuracy so that the
errors do not accumulate to the point where they affect the final total:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False
     >>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
     True

The *note math.fsum(): 125b. goes further and tracks all of the “lost
digits” as values are added onto a running total so that the result has
only a single rounding.  This is slower than *note sum(): 187. but will
be more accurate in uncommon cases where large magnitude inputs mostly
cancel each other out leaving a final sum near zero:

     >>> arr = [-0.10430216751806065, -266310978.67179024, 143401161448607.16,
     ...        -143401161400469.7, 266262841.31058735, -0.003244936839808227]
     >>> float(sum(map(Fraction, arr)))   # Exact summation with single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> math.fsum(arr)                   # Single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> sum(arr)                         # Multiple roundings in extended precision
     8.042178034628478e-13
     >>> total = 0.0
     >>> for x in arr:
     ...     total += x                   # Multiple roundings in standard precision
     ...
     >>> total                            # Straight addition has no correct digits!
     -0.0051575902860057365

* Menu:

* Temsil Hatası::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://jvns.ca/blog/2023/01/13/examples-of-floating-point-problems/

   (2) http://www.indowsway.com/floatingpoint.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Temsil Hatası,  Up: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations

2.15.1 Temsil Hatası
--------------------

Bu bölüm “0.1” örneğini ayrıntılı olarak açıklamakta ve bu gibi
durumların tam analizini kendiniz nasıl yapabileceğinizi göstermektedir.
İkili kayan nokta gösterimine temel düzeyde aşina olunduğu
varsayılmaktadır.

'Temsil hatası', bazı (aslında çoğu) ondalık kesirlerin tam olarak ikili
(taban 2) kesirler olarak temsil edilemeyeceği gerçeğini ifade eder.
Bu, Python’un (veya Perl, C, C++, Java, Fortran ve diğerlerinin)
genellikle beklediğiniz tam ondalık sayıyı göstermemesinin başlıca
nedenidir.

Why is that?  1/10 is not exactly representable as a binary fraction.
Since at least 2000, almost all machines use IEEE 754 binary
floating-point arithmetic, and almost all platforms map Python floats to
IEEE 754 binary64 “double precision” values.  IEEE 754 binary64 values
contain 53 bits of precision, so on input the computer strives to
convert 0.1 to the closest fraction it can of the form 'J'/2**'N' where
'J' is an integer containing exactly 53 bits.  Rewriting

     1 / 10 ~= J / (2**N)

şu şekilde

     J ~= 2**N / 10

and recalling that 'J' has exactly 53 bits (is ‘>= 2**52’ but ‘<
2**53’), the best value for 'N' is 56:

     >>> 2**52 <=  2**56 // 10  < 2**53
     True

That is, 56 is the only value for 'N' that leaves 'J' with exactly 53
bits.  The best possible value for 'J' is then that quotient rounded:

     >>> q, r = divmod(2**56, 10)
     >>> r
     6

Since the remainder is more than half of 10, the best approximation is
obtained by rounding up:

     >>> q+1
     7205759403792794

Therefore the best possible approximation to 1/10 in IEEE 754 double
precision is:

     7205759403792794 / 2 ** 56

Hem pay hem de paydayı ikiye böldüğünüzde kesir şuna indirgenir:

     3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55

Aslında bölümü yukarı yuvarladığımız için değerin 1/10’dan biraz daha
büyük olduğuna dikkat edin; yukarı yuvarlamamış olsaydık, bölüm 1/10’dan
biraz daha küçük olurdu.  Ancak hiçbir durumda 'tam olarak' 1/10 olamaz!

So the computer never “sees” 1/10: what it sees is the exact fraction
given above, the best IEEE 754 double approximation it can get:

     >>> 0.1 * 2 ** 55
     3602879701896397.0

If we multiply that fraction by 10**55, we can see the value out to 55
decimal digits:

     >>> 3602879701896397 * 10 ** 55 // 2 ** 55
     1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

meaning that the exact number stored in the computer is equal to the
decimal value 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.
Instead of displaying the full decimal value, many languages (including
older versions of Python), round the result to 17 significant digits:

     >>> format(0.1, '.17f')
     '0.10000000000000001'

The *note fractions: 5b. and *note decimal: 35. modules make these
calculations easy:

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction

     >>> Fraction.from_float(0.1)
     Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> (0.1).as_integer_ratio()
     (3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
     Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')

     >>> format(Decimal.from_float(0.1), '.17')
     '0.10000000000000001'


File: python.info,  Node: Ek Bölüm,  Prev: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations,  Up: Python Öğreticisi

2.16 Ek Bölüm
=============

* Menu:

* Etkileşimli Mod: Etkileşimli Mod<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Etkileşimli Mod<2>,  Up: Ek Bölüm

2.16.1 Etkileşimli Mod
----------------------

* Menu:

* Hata İşleme::
* Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları::
* Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası::
* Özelliştirme Modülleri::


File: python.info,  Node: Hata İşleme,  Next: Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları,  Up: Etkileşimli Mod<2>

2.16.1.1 Hata İşleme
....................

When an error occurs, the interpreter prints an error message and a
stack trace.  In interactive mode, it then returns to the primary
prompt; when input came from a file, it exits with a nonzero exit status
after printing the stack trace.  (Exceptions handled by an *note except:
3c0. clause in a *note try: 503. statement are not errors in this
context.)  Some errors are unconditionally fatal and cause an exit with
a nonzero exit status; this applies to internal inconsistencies and some
cases of running out of memory.  All error messages are written to the
standard error stream; normal output from executed commands is written
to standard output.

Yarıda kesme karakterinin (genellikle ‘Control’-‘C’ veya ‘Delete’)
birincil veya ikincil istemine yazılması girişi iptal eder ve birincil
istemi döndürür.  (1)  Bir komut yürütülürken bir yarıda kesme karakteri
yazmak *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. özel durumuna neden olur ve bu özel
durum *note try: 503. deyimi tarafından işlenebilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) GNU Readline paketiyle ilgili bir sorun bunu engelleyebilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları,  Next: Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası,  Prev: Hata İşleme,  Up: Etkileşimli Mod<2>

2.16.1.2 Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları
.............................................

BSD türü Unix sistemlerinde Python komut dosyaları, :: satırı koyarak
kabuk komut dosyaları gibi doğrudan yürütülebilir hale getirilebilir:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

(yorumlayıcının kullanıcının ‘PATH’) komut dosyasının başında olduğunu
ve dosyaya yürütülebilir bir mod verdiğini varsayarsak.  ‘#!’ dosyanın
ilk iki karakteri olmalıdır.  Bazı platformlarda, bu ilk satırın Windows
(‘'\r\n'’) satır sonuyla değil, Unix stili bir satır sonuyla (‘\n'’)
bitmesi gerekir.  Python’da yorum başlatmak için karma veya pound
karakteri olan ‘'#'’ kullanıldığını unutmayın.

Komut dosyasına ‘chmod’ komutu kullanılarak yürütülebilir mod veya izin
verilebilir.

     $ chmod +x myscript.py

Windows sistemlerinde, “yürütülebilir mod” kavramı yoktur.  Python
yükleyicisi otomatik olarak ‘.py’ dosyalarını ‘python.exe’ ile
ilişkilendirir, böylece python dosyasına çift tıklama komut dosyası
olarak çalıştırılır.  Uzantı ‘.pyw’ ‘de olabilir, bu durumda normalde
görünen konsol penceresi bastırılır.


File: python.info,  Node: Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası,  Next: Özelliştirme Modülleri,  Prev: Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları,  Up: Etkileşimli Mod<2>

2.16.1.3 Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası
......................................

Python’u etkileşimli olarak kullandığınızda, yorumlayıcı her
başlatıldığında bazı standart komutların yürütülmesi genellikle
kullanışlıdır.  Bunu, başlatma komutlarınızı içeren bir dosyanın adına
*note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e. adlı bir ortam değişkeni ayarlayarak
yapabilirsiniz.  Bu, Unix kabuklarının ‘.profile’ özelliğine benzer.

Bu dosya Python komutları bir komut dosyasından okuduğunda değil,
yalnızca etkileşimli oturumlarda okunur.  Python komutları bir komut
dosyasından okuduğunda, ‘/dev/tty’ komutların açık kaynağı olarak
verildiğinde değil (aksi takdirde etkileşimli bir oturum gibi davranır).
Etkileşimli komutların yürütüldüğü aynı ad alanında yürütülür, böylece
tanımladığı veya aldığı nesneler etkileşimli oturumda nitelik olmadan
kullanılabilir.  Bu dosyadaki ‘sys.ps1’ ve ‘sys.ps2’ istemlerini de
değiştirebilirsiniz.

Geçerli dizinden ek bir başlangıç dosyası okumak istiyorsanız, bunu
genel başlangıç dosyasında ‘if os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'):
exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read()’ gibi bir kod kullanarak
programlayabilirsiniz.  Başlangıç dosyasını bir komut dosyasında
kullanmak istiyorsanız, bunu komut dosyasında açıkça yapmalısınız:

     import os
     filename = os.environ.get('PYTHONSTARTUP')
     if filename and os.path.isfile(filename):
         with open(filename) as fobj:
             startup_file = fobj.read()
         exec(startup_file)


File: python.info,  Node: Özelliştirme Modülleri,  Prev: Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası,  Up: Etkileşimli Mod<2>

2.16.1.4 Özelliştirme Modülleri
...............................

Python provides two hooks to let you customize it: sitecustomize and
usercustomize.  To see how it works, you need first to find the location
of your user site-packages directory.  Start Python and run this code:

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/home/user/.local/lib/python3.x/site-packages'

Artık bu dizinde ‘usercustomize.py’ adlı bir dosya oluşturabilir ve
içine istediğiniz her şeyi koyabilirsiniz.  Otomatik içe aktarmayı devre
dışı bırakmak için *note -s: 1232. seçeneğiyle başlatılmadıkça Python’un
her çağrısını etkiler.

sitecustomize works in the same way, but is typically created by an
administrator of the computer in the global site-packages directory, and
is imported before usercustomize.  See the documentation of the *note
site: c6. module for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Setup and Usage,  Next: Python Dil Referansı,  Prev: Python Öğreticisi,  Up: Top

3 Python Setup and Usage
************************

This part of the documentation is devoted to general information on the
setup of the Python environment on different platforms, the invocation
of the interpreter and things that make working with Python easier.

* Menu:

* Command line and environment::
* Using Python on Unix platforms::
* Configure Python::
* Using Python on Windows::
* Using Python on a Mac::
* Editors and IDEs::


File: python.info,  Node: Command line and environment,  Next: Using Python on Unix platforms,  Up: Python Setup and Usage

3.1 Command line and environment
================================

The CPython interpreter scans the command line and the environment for
various settings.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Other implementations’ command line
schemes may differ.  See *note Alternate Implementations: 1b70. for
further resources.

* Menu:

* Command line::
* Environment variables::


File: python.info,  Node: Command line,  Next: Environment variables,  Up: Command line and environment

3.1.1 Command line
------------------

When invoking Python, you may specify any of these options:

     python [-bBdEhiIOPqRsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]

The most common use case is, of course, a simple invocation of a script:

     python myscript.py

* Menu:

* Interface options::
* Generic options::
* Miscellaneous options::
* Options you shouldn’t use::


File: python.info,  Node: Interface options,  Next: Generic options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.1 Interface options
.........................

The interpreter interface resembles that of the UNIX shell, but provides
some additional methods of invocation:

   * When called with standard input connected to a tty device, it
     prompts for commands and executes them until an EOF (an end-of-file
     character, you can produce that with ‘Ctrl’-‘D’ on UNIX or
     ‘Ctrl’-‘Z,’ ‘Enter’ on Windows) is read.

   * When called with a file name argument or with a file as standard
     input, it reads and executes a script from that file.

   * When called with a directory name argument, it reads and executes
     an appropriately named script from that directory.

   * When called with ‘-c command’, it executes the Python statement(s)
     given as 'command'.  Here 'command' may contain multiple statements
     separated by newlines.  Leading whitespace is significant in Python
     statements!

   * When called with ‘-m module-name’, the given module is located on
     the Python module path and executed as a script.

In non-interactive mode, the entire input is parsed before it is
executed.

An interface option terminates the list of options consumed by the
interpreter, all consecutive arguments will end up in *note sys.argv:
110d. – note that the first element, subscript zero (‘sys.argv[0]’), is
a string reflecting the program’s source.

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Execute the Python code in 'command'.  'command' can be one or more
     statements separated by newlines, with significant leading
     whitespace as in normal module code.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 110d.
     will be ‘"-c"’ and the current directory will be added to the start
     of *note sys.path: 368. (allowing modules in that directory to be
     imported as top level modules).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_command’ with
     argument ‘command’.

 -- Option: -m <module-name>

     Search *note sys.path: 368. for the named module and execute its
     contents as the *note __main__: 1. module.

     Since the argument is a 'module' name, you must not give a file
     extension (‘.py’).  The module name should be a valid absolute
     Python module name, but the implementation may not always enforce
     this (e.g.  it may allow you to use a name that includes a hyphen).

     Package names (including namespace packages) are also permitted.
     When a package name is supplied instead of a normal module, the
     interpreter will execute ‘<pkg>.__main__’ as the main module.  This
     behaviour is deliberately similar to the handling of directories
     and zipfiles that are passed to the interpreter as the script
     argument.

          Not: This option cannot be used with built-in modules and
          extension modules written in C, since they do not have Python
          module files.  However, it can still be used for precompiled
          modules, even if the original source file is not available.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 110d.
     will be the full path to the module file (while the module file is
     being located, the first element will be set to ‘"-m"’).  As with
     the *note -c: 3eb. option, the current directory will be added to
     the start of *note sys.path: 368.

     *note -I: 7b8. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 368. contains neither the current
     directory nor the user’s site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     Many standard library modules contain code that is invoked on their
     execution as a script.  An example is the *note timeit: ee. module:

          python -m timeit -s "setup here" "benchmarked code here"
          python -m timeit -h # for details

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_module’ with
     argument ‘module-name’.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note runpy.run_module(): 162f.

          Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code

     PEP 338(1) – Executing modules as scripts

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Supply the package name to run a ‘__main__’
     submodule.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: namespace packages are also supported

 -- Describe: -

     Read commands from standard input (*note sys.stdin: 2c9.).  If
     standard input is a terminal, *note -i: 1368. is implied.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 110d.
     will be ‘"-"’ and the current directory will be added to the start
     of *note sys.path: 368.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Describe: <script>

     Execute the Python code contained in 'script', which must be a
     filesystem path (absolute or relative) referring to either a Python
     file, a directory containing a ‘__main__.py’ file, or a zipfile
     containing a ‘__main__.py’ file.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 110d.
     will be the script name as given on the command line.

     If the script name refers directly to a Python file, the directory
     containing that file is added to the start of *note sys.path: 368,
     and the file is executed as the *note __main__: 1. module.

     If the script name refers to a directory or zipfile, the script
     name is added to the start of *note sys.path: 368. and the
     ‘__main__.py’ file in that location is executed as the *note
     __main__: 1. module.

     *note -I: 7b8. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 368. contains neither the script’s
     directory nor the user’s site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_file’ with
     argument ‘filename’.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note runpy.run_path(): 11c7.

          Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code

If no interface option is given, *note -i: 1368. is implied,
‘sys.argv[0]’ is an empty string (‘""’) and the current directory will
be added to the start of *note sys.path: 368.  Also, tab-completion and
history editing is automatically enabled, if available on your platform
(see *note Readline configuration: e6f.).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Yorumlayıcıyı Çağırma: 1a29.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Automatic enabling of tab-completion and history
editing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic options,  Next: Miscellaneous options,  Prev: Interface options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.2 Generic options
.......................

 -- Option: -?
 -- Option: -h
 -- Option: --help

     Print a short description of all command line options and
     corresponding environment variables and exit.

 -- Option: --help-env

     Print a short description of Python-specific environment variables
     and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-xoptions

     Print a description of implementation-specific *note -X: 18e.
     options and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-all

     Print complete usage information and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: -V
 -- Option: --version

     Print the Python version number and exit.  Example output could be:

          Python 3.8.0b2+

     When given twice, print more information about the build, like:

          Python 3.8.0b2+ (3.8:0c076caaa8, Apr 20 2019, 21:55:00)
          [GCC 6.2.0 20161005]

     Added in version 3.6: The ‘-VV’ option.


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous options,  Next: Options you shouldn’t use,  Prev: Generic options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.3 Miscellaneous options
.............................

 -- Option: -b

     Issue a warning when converting *note bytes: 2cb. or *note
     bytearray: 2ca. to *note str: 15d. without specifying encoding or
     comparing ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearray’ with ‘str’ or ‘bytes’ with *note
     int: 184.  Issue an error when the option is given twice (‘-bb’).

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Affects also comparisons of *note bytes:
     2cb. with *note int: 184.

 -- Option: -B

     If given, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the import of
     source modules.  See also *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1255.

 -- Option: --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never

     Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files.  See
     *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 3f8.  When set to ‘default’,
     checked and unchecked hash-based bytecode cache files are validated
     according to their default semantics.  When set to ‘always’, all
     hash-based ‘.pyc’ files, whether checked or unchecked, are
     validated against their corresponding source file.  When set to
     ‘never’, hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are not validated against their
     corresponding source files.

     The semantics of timestamp-based ‘.pyc’ files are unaffected by
     this option.

 -- Option: -d

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only).  See also the
     *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1b7c. environment variable.

     This option requires a *note debug build of Python: 6b9, otherwise
     it’s ignored.

 -- Option: -E

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     ec5. and *note PYTHONHOME: 36f, that might be set.

     See also the *note -P: 3a9. and *note -I: 7b8. (isolated) options.

 -- Option: -i

     Enter interactive mode after execution.

     Using the *note -i: 1368. option will enter interactive mode in any
     of the following circumstances:

        * When a script is passed as first argument

        * When the *note -c: 3eb. option is used

        * When the *note -m: 3ec. option is used

     Interactive mode will start even when *note sys.stdin: 2c9. does
     not appear to be a terminal.  The *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e. file is
     not read.

     This can be useful to inspect global variables or a stack trace
     when a script raises an exception.  See also *note PYTHONINSPECT:
     1367.

 -- Option: -I

     Run Python in isolated mode.  This also implies *note -E: 7b7,
     *note -P: 3a9. and *note -s: 1232. options.

     In isolated mode *note sys.path: 368. contains neither the script’s
     directory nor the user’s site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.  Further restrictions may
     be imposed to prevent the user from injecting malicious code.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Option: -O

     Remove assert statements and any code conditional on the value of
     *note __debug__: 614.  Augment the filename for compiled (*note
     bytecode: 3b7.) files by adding ‘.opt-1’ before the ‘.pyc’
     extension (see PEP 488(1)).  See also *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1b7d.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Modify ‘.pyc’ filenames according to PEP
     488(2).

 -- Option: -OO

     Do *note -O: c42. and also discard docstrings.  Augment the
     filename for compiled (*note bytecode: 3b7.) files by adding
     ‘.opt-2’ before the ‘.pyc’ extension (see PEP 488(3)).

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Modify ‘.pyc’ filenames according to PEP
     488(4).

 -- Option: -P

     Don’t prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 368.:

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: Don’t prepend the current
          working directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: Don’t prepend the script’s
          directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: Don’t
          prepend an empty string, which means the current working
          directory.

     See also the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 3aa. environment variable, and
     *note -E: 7b7. and *note -I: 7b8. (isolated) options.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: -q

     Don’t display the copyright and version messages even in
     interactive mode.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Option: -R

     Turn on hash randomization.  This option only has an effect if the
     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27. environment variable is set to ‘0’,
     since hash randomization is enabled by default.

     On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash
     randomization, so that the *note __hash__(): 969. values of str and
     bytes objects are “salted” with an unpredictable random value.
     Although they remain constant within an individual Python process,
     they are not predictable between repeated invocations of Python.

     Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a
     denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit
     the worst case performance of a dict construction, 'O'('n'^2)
     complexity.  See ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’
     for details.

     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27. allows you to set a fixed value for the
     hash seed secret.

     Added in version 3.2.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The option is no longer ignored.

 -- Option: -s

     Don’t add the *note user site-packages directory: 1b7f. to *note
     sys.path: 368.

     See also *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1233.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 370(5) – Per user site-packages directory

 -- Option: -S

     Disable the import of the module *note site: c6. and the
     site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 368. that it
     entails.  Also disable these manipulations if *note site: c6. is
     explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1b80. if you
     want them to be triggered).

 -- Option: -u

     Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.  This option
     has no effect on the stdin stream.

     See also *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 17d7.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The text layer of the stdout and stderr
     streams now is unbuffered.

 -- Option: -v

     Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the
     place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  When
     given twice (‘-vv’), print a message for each file that is checked
     for when searching for a module.  Also provides information on
     module cleanup at exit.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The *note site: c6. module reports the
     site-specific paths and ‘.pth’ files being processed.

     See also *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1b81.

 -- Option: -W arg

     Warning control.  Python’s warning machinery by default prints
     warning messages to *note sys.stderr: 792.

     The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to
     all warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise
     ignored by default):

          -Wdefault  # Warn once per call location
          -Werror    # Convert to exceptions
          -Walways   # Warn every time
          -Wall      # Same as -Walways
          -Wmodule   # Warn once per calling module
          -Wonce     # Warn once per Python process
          -Wignore   # Never warn

     The action names can be abbreviated as desired and the interpreter
     will resolve them to the appropriate action name.  For example,
     ‘-Wi’ is the same as ‘-Wignore’.

     The full form of argument is:

          action:message:category:module:lineno

     Empty fields match all values; trailing empty fields may be
     omitted.  For example ‘-W ignore::DeprecationWarning’ ignores all
     DeprecationWarning warnings.

     The 'action' field is as explained above but only applies to
     warnings that match the remaining fields.

     The 'message' field must match the whole warning message; this
     match is case-insensitive.

     The 'category' field matches the warning category (ex:
     ‘DeprecationWarning’).  This must be a class name; the match test
     whether the actual warning category of the message is a subclass of
     the specified warning category.

     The 'module' field matches the (fully qualified) module name; this
     match is case-sensitive.

     The 'lineno' field matches the line number, where zero matches all
     line numbers and is thus equivalent to an omitted line number.

     Multiple *note -W: 71a. options can be given; when a warning
     matches more than one option, the action for the last matching
     option is performed.  Invalid *note -W: 71a. options are ignored
     (though, a warning message is printed about invalid options when
     the first warning is issued).

     Warnings can also be controlled using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     a21. environment variable and from within a Python program using
     the *note warnings: 112. module.  For example, the *note
     warnings.filterwarnings(): 1334. function can be used to use a
     regular expression on the warning message.

     See *note The Warnings Filter: 71b. and *note Describing Warning
     Filters: 1b83. for more details.

 -- Option: -x

     Skip the first line of the source, allowing use of non-Unix forms
     of ‘#!cmd’.  This is intended for a DOS specific hack only.

 -- Option: -X

     Reserved for various implementation-specific options.  CPython
     currently defines the following possible values:

        * ‘-X faulthandler’ to enable *note faulthandler: 56.  See also
          *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f2a.

          Added in version 3.3.

        * ‘-X showrefcount’ to output the total reference count and
          number of used memory blocks when the program finishes or
          after each statement in the interactive interpreter.  This
          only works on *note debug builds: 6b9.

          Added in version 3.4.

        * ‘-X tracemalloc’ to start tracing Python memory allocations
          using the *note tracemalloc: ff. module.  By default, only the
          most recent frame is stored in a traceback of a trace.  Use
          ‘-X tracemalloc=NFRAME’ to start tracing with a traceback
          limit of 'NFRAME' frames.  See *note tracemalloc.start():
          1b85. and *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b86. for more information.

          Added in version 3.4.

        * ‘-X int_max_str_digits’ configures the *note integer string
          conversion length limitation: 402.  See also *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 15de.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X importtime’ to show how long each import takes.  It shows
          module name, cumulative time (including nested imports) and
          self time (excluding nested imports).  Note that its output
          may be broken in multi-threaded application.  Typical usage is
          ‘python3 -X importtime -c 'import asyncio'’.  See also *note
          PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 963.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X dev’: enable *note Python Development Mode: 71d,
          introducing additional runtime checks that are too expensive
          to be enabled by default.  See also *note PYTHONDEVMODE: 95b.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X utf8’ enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.  ‘-X
          utf8=0’ explicitly disables *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.
          (even when it would otherwise activate automatically).  See
          also *note PYTHONUTF8: 945.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X pycache_prefix=PATH’ enables writing ‘.pyc’ files to a
          parallel tree rooted at the given directory instead of to the
          code tree.  See also *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 801.

          Added in version 3.8.

        * ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ issues a *note EncodingWarning:
          1b87. when the locale-specific default encoding is used for
          opening files.  See also *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 5f3.

          Added in version 3.10.

        * ‘-X no_debug_ranges’ disables the inclusion of the tables
          mapping extra location information (end line, start column
          offset and end column offset) to every instruction in code
          objects.  This is useful when smaller code objects and pyc
          files are desired as well as suppressing the extra visual
          location indicators when the interpreter displays tracebacks.
          See also *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3bc.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X frozen_modules’ determines whether or not frozen modules
          are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of “on” means
          they get imported and “off” means they are ignored.  The
          default is “on” if this is an installed Python (the normal
          case).  If it’s under development (running from the source
          tree) then the default is “off”.  Note that the
          “importlib_bootstrap” and “importlib_bootstrap_external”
          frozen modules are always used, even if this flag is set to
          “off”.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X perf’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler.  When
          this option is provided, the ‘perf’ profiler will be able to
          report Python calls.  This option is only available on some
          platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the
          current system.  The default value is “off”.  See also *note
          PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 18d. and *note Python support for the Linux
          perf profiler: 157.

          Added in version 3.12.

     It also allows passing arbitrary values and retrieving them through
     the *note sys._xoptions: 1b88. dictionary.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Removed the ‘-X showalloccount’ option.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the ‘-X oldparser’ option.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: Options you shouldn’t use,  Prev: Miscellaneous options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.4 Options you shouldn’t use
.................................

 -- Option: -J

     Reserved for use by Jython(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Environment variables,  Prev: Command line,  Up: Command line and environment

3.1.2 Environment variables
---------------------------

These environment variables influence Python’s behavior, they are
processed before the command-line switches other than -E or -I. It is
customary that command-line switches override environmental variables
where there is a conflict.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONHOME

     Change the location of the standard Python libraries.  By default,
     the libraries are searched in ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’ and
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’, where ‘`prefix'’ and
     ‘`exec_prefix'’ are installation-dependent directories, both
     defaulting to ‘/usr/local’.

     When *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. is set to a single directory, its value
     replaces both ‘`prefix'’ and ‘`exec_prefix'’.  To specify different
     values for these, set *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. to
     ‘`prefix':`exec_prefix'’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONPATH

     Augment the default search path for module files.  The format is
     the same as the shell’s ‘PATH’: one or more directory pathnames
     separated by *note os.pathsep: 1b8b. (e.g.  colons on Unix or
     semicolons on Windows).  Non-existent directories are silently
     ignored.

     In addition to normal directories, individual *note PYTHONPATH:
     ec5. entries may refer to zipfiles containing pure Python modules
     (in either source or compiled form).  Extension modules cannot be
     imported from zipfiles.

     The default search path is installation dependent, but generally
     begins with ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’ (see *note PYTHONHOME:
     36f. above).  It is 'always' appended to *note PYTHONPATH: ec5.

     An additional directory will be inserted in the search path in
     front of *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. as described above under *note
     Interface options: 1b73.  The search path can be manipulated from
     within a Python program as the variable *note sys.path: 368.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONSAFEPATH

     If this is set to a non-empty string, don’t prepend a potentially
     unsafe path to *note sys.path: 368.: see the *note -P: 3a9. option
     for details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONPLATLIBDIR

     If this is set to a non-empty string, it overrides the *note
     sys.platlibdir: 791. value.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONSTARTUP

     If this is the name of a readable file, the Python commands in that
     file are executed before the first prompt is displayed in
     interactive mode.  The file is executed in the same namespace where
     interactive commands are executed so that objects defined or
     imported in it can be used without qualification in the interactive
     session.  You can also change the prompts *note sys.ps1: 1b8c. and
     *note sys.ps2: 1b8d. and the hook *note sys.__interactivehook__:
     e6d. in this file.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_startup’ with
     the filename as the argument when called on startup.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONOPTIMIZE

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -O: c42. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying *note -O: c42. multiple times.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONBREAKPOINT

     If this is set, it names a callable using dotted-path notation.
     The module containing the callable will be imported and then the
     callable will be run by the default implementation of *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): 947. which itself is called by built-in *note
     breakpoint(): 930.  If not set, or set to the empty string, it is
     equivalent to the value “pdb.set_trace”.  Setting this to the
     string “0” causes the default implementation of *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): 947. to do nothing but return immediately.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONDEBUG

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -d: 1b7b. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying *note -d: 1b7b. multiple times.

     This environment variable requires a *note debug build of Python:
     6b9, otherwise it’s ignored.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONINSPECT

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -i: 1368. option.

     This variable can also be modified by Python code using *note
     os.environ: 105f. to force inspect mode on program termination.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
     arguments.

     3.12.5 sürümünde değişti: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and
     3.8.20) Emits audit events.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONUNBUFFERED

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -u: 17d6. option.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONVERBOSE

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -v: 12ad. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying *note -v: 12ad. multiple times.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONCASEOK

     If this is set, Python ignores case in *note import: 3ed.
     statements.  This only works on Windows and macOS.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE

     If this is set to a non-empty string, Python won’t try to write
     ‘.pyc’ files on the import of source modules.  This is equivalent
     to specifying the *note -B: 1254. option.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX

     If this is set, Python will write ‘.pyc’ files in a mirror
     directory tree at this path, instead of in ‘__pycache__’
     directories within the source tree.  This is equivalent to
     specifying the *note -X: 18e. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ option.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONHASHSEED

     If this variable is not set or set to ‘random’, a random value is
     used to seed the hashes of str and bytes objects.

     If *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27. is set to an integer value, it is
     used as a fixed seed for generating the hash() of the types covered
     by the hash randomization.

     Its purpose is to allow repeatable hashing, such as for selftests
     for the interpreter itself, or to allow a cluster of python
     processes to share hash values.

     The integer must be a decimal number in the range [0,4294967295].
     Specifying the value 0 will disable hash randomization.

     Added in version 3.2.3.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS

     If this variable is set to an integer, it is used to configure the
     interpreter’s global *note integer string conversion length
     limitation: 402.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONIOENCODING

     If this is set before running the interpreter, it overrides the
     encoding used for stdin/stdout/stderr, in the syntax
     ‘encodingname:errorhandler’.  Both the ‘encodingname’ and the
     ‘:errorhandler’ parts are optional and have the same meaning as in
     *note str.encode(): 728.

     For stderr, the ‘:errorhandler’ part is ignored; the handler will
     always be ‘'backslashreplace'’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘encodingname’ part is now optional.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, the encoding specified by this
     variable is ignored for interactive console buffers unless *note
     PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ad9. is also specified.  Files and pipes
     redirected through the standard streams are not affected.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONNOUSERSITE

     If this is set, Python won’t add the *note user site-packages
     directory: 1b7f. to *note sys.path: 368.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 370(1) – Per user site-packages directory

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONUSERBASE

     Defines the *note user base directory: 11c8, which is used to
     compute the path of the *note user site-packages directory: 1b7f.
     and *note installation paths: 1b8e. for ‘python -m pip install
     --user’.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 370(2) – Per user site-packages directory

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONEXECUTABLE

     If this environment variable is set, ‘sys.argv[0]’ will be set to
     its value instead of the value got through the C runtime.  Only
     works on macOS.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONWARNINGS

     This is equivalent to the *note -W: 71a. option.  If set to a comma
     separated string, it is equivalent to specifying *note -W: 71a.
     multiple times, with filters later in the list taking precedence
     over those earlier in the list.

     The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to
     all warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise
     ignored by default):

          PYTHONWARNINGS=default  # Warn once per call location
          PYTHONWARNINGS=error    # Convert to exceptions
          PYTHONWARNINGS=always   # Warn every time
          PYTHONWARNINGS=all      # Same as PYTHONWARNINGS=always
          PYTHONWARNINGS=module   # Warn once per calling module
          PYTHONWARNINGS=once     # Warn once per Python process
          PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore   # Never warn

     See *note The Warnings Filter: 71b. and *note Describing Warning
     Filters: 1b83. for more details.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONFAULTHANDLER

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, *note
     faulthandler.enable(): b21. is called at startup: install a handler
     for *note SIGSEGV: 1b90, *note SIGFPE: 1b91, *note SIGABRT: 1b92,
     *note SIGBUS: 1b93. and *note SIGILL: 1b94. signals to dump the
     Python traceback.  This is equivalent to *note -X: 18e.
     ‘faulthandler’ option.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, start
     tracing Python memory allocations using the *note tracemalloc: ff.
     module.  The value of the variable is the maximum number of frames
     stored in a traceback of a trace.  For example,
     ‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1’ stores only the most recent frame.  See the
     *note tracemalloc.start(): 1b85. function for more information.
     This is equivalent to setting the *note -X: 18e. ‘tracemalloc’
     option.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, Python
     will show how long each import takes.  This is equivalent to
     setting the *note -X: 18e. ‘importtime’ option.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable
     the *note debug mode: 1b96. of the *note asyncio: a. module.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONMALLOC

     Set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

     Set the family of memory allocators used by Python:

        * ‘default’: use the *note default memory allocators: 1b97.

        * ‘malloc’: use the ‘malloc()’ function of the C library for all
          domains (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b98, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM:
          ae7, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5.).

        * ‘pymalloc’: use the *note pymalloc allocator: b94. for *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5.
          domains and use the ‘malloc()’ function for the *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b98. domain.

     Install *note debug hooks: 1b99.:

        * ‘debug’: install debug hooks on top of the *note default
          memory allocators: 1b97.

        * ‘malloc_debug’: same as ‘malloc’ but also install debug hooks.

        * ‘pymalloc_debug’: same as ‘pymalloc’ but also install debug
          hooks.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘"default"’ allocator.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONMALLOCSTATS

     If set to a non-empty string, Python will print statistics of the
     *note pymalloc memory allocator: b94. every time a new pymalloc
     object arena is created, and on shutdown.

     This variable is ignored if the *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2.
     environment variable is used to force the ‘malloc()’ allocator of
     the C library, or if Python is configured without ‘pymalloc’
     support.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: This variable can now also be used on Python
     compiled in release mode.  It now has no effect if set to an empty
     string.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING

     If set to a non-empty string, the default *note filesystem encoding
     and error handler: 2c7. mode will revert to their pre-3.6 values of
     ‘mbcs’ and ‘replace’, respectively.  Otherwise, the new defaults
     ‘utf-8’ and ‘surrogatepass’ are used.

     This may also be enabled at runtime with *note
     sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): ad7.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 529(3) for more details.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO

     If set to a non-empty string, does not use the new console reader
     and writer.  This means that Unicode characters will be encoded
     according to the active console code page, rather than using utf-8.

     This variable is ignored if the standard streams are redirected (to
     files or pipes) rather than referring to console buffers.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE

     If set to the value ‘0’, causes the main Python command line
     application to skip coercing the legacy ASCII-based C and POSIX
     locales to a more capable UTF-8 based alternative.

     If this variable is 'not' set (or is set to a value other than
     ‘0’), the ‘LC_ALL’ locale override environment variable is also not
     set, and the current locale reported for the ‘LC_CTYPE’ category is
     either the default ‘C’ locale, or else the explicitly ASCII-based
     ‘POSIX’ locale, then the Python CLI will attempt to configure the
     following locales for the ‘LC_CTYPE’ category in the order listed
     before loading the interpreter runtime:

        * ‘C.UTF-8’

        * ‘C.utf8’

        * ‘UTF-8’

     If setting one of these locale categories succeeds, then the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ environment variable will also be set accordingly in the
     current process environment before the Python runtime is
     initialized.  This ensures that in addition to being seen by both
     the interpreter itself and other locale-aware components running in
     the same process (such as the GNU ‘readline’ library), the updated
     setting is also seen in subprocesses (regardless of whether or not
     those processes are running a Python interpreter), as well as in
     operations that query the environment rather than the current C
     locale (such as Python’s own *note locale.getdefaultlocale():
     25b.).

     Configuring one of these locales (either explicitly or via the
     above implicit locale coercion) automatically enables the
     ‘surrogateescape’ *note error handler: 1608. for *note sys.stdin:
     2c9. and *note sys.stdout: 943. (*note sys.stderr: 792. continues
     to use ‘backslashreplace’ as it does in any other locale).  This
     stream handling behavior can be overridden using *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. as usual.

     For debugging purposes, setting ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’ will
     cause Python to emit warning messages on ‘stderr’ if either the
     locale coercion activates, or else if a locale that 'would' have
     triggered coercion is still active when the Python runtime is
     initialized.

     Also note that even when locale coercion is disabled, or when it
     fails to find a suitable target locale, *note PYTHONUTF8: 945. will
     still activate by default in legacy ASCII-based locales.  Both
     features must be disabled in order to force the interpreter to use
     ‘ASCII’ instead of ‘UTF-8’ for system interfaces.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.7: See PEP 538(4) for more details.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONDEVMODE

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable
     *note Python Development Mode: 71d, introducing additional runtime
     checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default.  This is
     equivalent to setting the *note -X: 18e. ‘dev’ option.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONUTF8

     If set to ‘1’, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     If set to ‘0’, disable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     Setting any other non-empty string causes an error during
     interpreter initialisation.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, issue a
     *note EncodingWarning: 1b87. when the locale-specific default
     encoding is used.

     See *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1b9b. for details.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES

     If this variable is set, it disables the inclusion of the tables
     mapping extra location information (end line, start column offset
     and end column offset) to every instruction in code objects.  This
     is useful when smaller code objects and pyc files are desired as
     well as suppressing the extra visual location indicators when the
     interpreter displays tracebacks.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONPERFSUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     See also the *note -X perf: 18e. command-line option and *note
     Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 157.

     Added in version 3.12.

* Menu:

* Debug-mode variables::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: Debug-mode variables,  Up: Environment variables

3.1.2.1 Debug-mode variables
............................

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONDUMPREFS

     If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive
     after shutting down the interpreter.

     Need Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 6ec. build
     option.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE=FILENAME

     If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive
     after shutting down the interpreter into a file called 'FILENAME'.

     Need Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 6ec. build
     option.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on Unix platforms,  Next: Configure Python,  Prev: Command line and environment,  Up: Python Setup and Usage

3.2 Using Python on Unix platforms
==================================

* Menu:

* Getting and installing the latest version of Python::
* Building Python::
* Python-related paths and files::
* Miscellaneous::
* Custom OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: Getting and installing the latest version of Python,  Next: Building Python,  Up: Using Python on Unix platforms

3.2.1 Getting and installing the latest version of Python
---------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* On Linux::
* On FreeBSD and OpenBSD::


File: python.info,  Node: On Linux,  Next: On FreeBSD and OpenBSD,  Up: Getting and installing the latest version of Python

3.2.1.1 On Linux
................

Python comes preinstalled on most Linux distributions, and is available
as a package on all others.  However there are certain features you
might want to use that are not available on your distro’s package.  You
can compile the latest version of Python from source.

In the event that the latest version of Python doesn’t come preinstalled
and isn’t in the repositories as well, you can make packages for your
own distro.  Have a look at the following links:

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html’

     for Debian users

‘https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging’

     for OpenSuse users

‘https://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/package-maintainers/Packaging_Tutorial_GNU_Hello/’

     for Fedora users

‘https://slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html’

     for Slackware users

* Menu:

* Installing IDLE::


File: python.info,  Node: Installing IDLE,  Up: On Linux

3.2.1.2 Installing IDLE
.......................

In some cases, IDLE might not be included in your Python installation.

   * For Debian and Ubuntu users:

          sudo apt update
          sudo apt install idle

   * For Fedora, RHEL, and CentOS users:

          sudo dnf install python3-idle

   * For SUSE and OpenSUSE users:

          sudo zypper install python3-idle

   * For Alpine Linux users:

          sudo apk add python3-idle


File: python.info,  Node: On FreeBSD and OpenBSD,  Prev: On Linux,  Up: Getting and installing the latest version of Python

3.2.1.3 On FreeBSD and OpenBSD
..............................

   * FreeBSD users, to add the package use:

          pkg install python3

   * OpenBSD users, to add the package use:

          pkg_add -r python

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/<insert your architecture here>/python-<version>.tgz

     For example i386 users get the 2.5.1 version of Python using:

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz


File: python.info,  Node: Building Python,  Next: Python-related paths and files,  Prev: Getting and installing the latest version of Python,  Up: Using Python on Unix platforms

3.2.2 Building Python
---------------------

If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is
get the source(1).  You can download either the latest release’s source
or just grab a fresh clone(2).  (If you want to contribute patches, you
will need a clone.)

The build process consists of the usual commands:

     ./configure
     make
     make install

*note Configuration options: 1ba7. and caveats for specific Unix
platforms are extensively documented in the README.rst(3) file in the
root of the Python source tree.

     Uyarı: ‘make install’ can overwrite or masquerade the ‘python3’
     binary.  ‘make altinstall’ is therefore recommended instead of
     ‘make install’ since it only installs
     ‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python`version'’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Python-related paths and files,  Next: Miscellaneous,  Prev: Building Python,  Up: Using Python on Unix platforms

3.2.3 Python-related paths and files
------------------------------------

These are subject to difference depending on local installation
conventions; *note prefix: 1ba9. and *note exec_prefix: 1baa. are
installation-dependent and should be interpreted as for GNU software;
they may be the same.

For example, on most Linux systems, the default for both is ‘/usr’.

File/directory                                      Meaning
                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python3’                         Recommended location of the interpreter.
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’,                     Recommended locations of the directories
‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’                 containing the standard modules.
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/include/python`version'’,                 Recommended locations of the directories
‘`exec_prefix'/include/python`version'’             containing the include files needed for
                                                    developing Python extensions and embedding
                                                    the interpreter.
                                                    


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous,  Next: Custom OpenSSL,  Prev: Python-related paths and files,  Up: Using Python on Unix platforms

3.2.4 Miscellaneous
-------------------

To easily use Python scripts on Unix, you need to make them executable,
e.g.  with

     $ chmod +x script

and put an appropriate Shebang line at the top of the script.  A good
choice is usually

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

which searches for the Python interpreter in the whole ‘PATH’.  However,
some Unices may not have the ‘env’ command, so you may need to hardcode
‘/usr/bin/python3’ as the interpreter path.

To use shell commands in your Python scripts, look at the *note
subprocess: d5. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom OpenSSL,  Prev: Miscellaneous,  Up: Using Python on Unix platforms

3.2.5 Custom OpenSSL
--------------------

  1. To use your vendor’s OpenSSL configuration and system trust store,
     locate the directory with ‘openssl.cnf’ file or symlink in ‘/etc’.
     On most distribution the file is either in ‘/etc/ssl’ or
     ‘/etc/pki/tls’.  The directory should also contain a ‘cert.pem’
     file and/or a ‘certs’ directory.

          $ find /etc/ -name openssl.cnf -printf "%h\n"
          /etc/ssl

  2. Download, build, and install OpenSSL. Make sure you use
     ‘install_sw’ and not ‘install’.  The ‘install_sw’ target does not
     override ‘openssl.cnf’.

          $ curl -O https://www.openssl.org/source/openssl-VERSION.tar.gz
          $ tar xzf openssl-VERSION
          $ pushd openssl-VERSION
          $ ./config \
              --prefix=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --libdir=lib \
              --openssldir=/etc/ssl
          $ make -j1 depend
          $ make -j8
          $ make install_sw
          $ popd

  3. Build Python with custom OpenSSL (see the configure
     ‘--with-openssl’ and ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ options)

          $ pushd python-3.x.x
          $ ./configure -C \
              --with-openssl=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --with-openssl-rpath=auto \
              --prefix=/usr/local/python-3.x.x
          $ make -j8
          $ make altinstall

     Not: Patch releases of OpenSSL have a backwards compatible ABI. You
     don’t need to recompile Python to update OpenSSL. It’s sufficient
     to replace the custom OpenSSL installation with a newer version.


File: python.info,  Node: Configure Python,  Next: Using Python on Windows,  Prev: Using Python on Unix platforms,  Up: Python Setup and Usage

3.3 Configure Python
====================

* Menu:

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Configure Options::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Build Requirements,  Next: Generated files,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.1 Build Requirements
------------------------

Features required to build CPython:

   * A C11(1) compiler.  Optional C11 features(2) are not required.

   * Support for IEEE 754(3) floating-point numbers and floating-point
     Not-a-Number (NaN)(4).

   * Support for threads.

   * OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer for the *note ssl: cf. and *note hashlib:
     66. modules.

   * On Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, Visual Studio 2015 or later is
required.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Selected C99 features are now required, like
‘<stdint.h>’ and ‘static inline’ functions.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Thread support and OpenSSL 1.0.2 are now
required.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: OpenSSL 1.1.1 is now required.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: C11 compiler, IEEE 754 and NaN support are now
required.  On Windows, Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

See also PEP 7(5) “Style Guide for C Code” and PEP 11(6) “CPython
platform support”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN#Floating_point

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Generated files,  Next: Configure Options,  Prev: Build Requirements,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.2 Generated files
---------------------

To reduce build dependencies, Python source code contains multiple
generated files.  Commands to regenerate all generated files:

     make regen-all
     make regen-stdlib-module-names
     make regen-limited-abi
     make regen-configure

The ‘Makefile.pre.in’ file documents generated files, their inputs, and
tools used to regenerate them.  Search for ‘regen-*’ make targets.

* Menu:

* configure script::


File: python.info,  Node: configure script,  Up: Generated files

3.3.2.1 configure script
........................

The ‘make regen-configure’ command regenerates the ‘aclocal.m4’ file and
the ‘configure’ script using the ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ shell
script which uses an Ubuntu container to get the same tools versions and
have a reproducible output.

The container is optional, the following command can be run locally:

     autoreconf -ivf -Werror

The generated files can change depending on the exact
‘autoconf-archive’, ‘aclocal’ and ‘pkg-config’ versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Configure Options,  Next: Python Build System,  Prev: Generated files,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.3 Configure Options
-----------------------

List all ‘./configure’ script options using:

     ./configure --help

See also the ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution.

* Menu:

* General Options::
* WebAssembly Options::
* Install Options::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options::
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::


File: python.info,  Node: General Options,  Next: WebAssembly Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.1 General Options
.......................

 -- Option: --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions

     Support loadable extensions in the ‘_sqlite’ extension module
     (default is no) of the *note sqlite3: ce. module.

     See the *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 67d.
     method of the *note sqlite3: ce. module.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --disable-ipv6

     Disable IPv6 support (enabled by default if supported), see the
     *note socket: cb. module.

 -- Option: --enable-big-digits=[15|30]

     Define the size in bits of Python *note int: 184. digits: 15 or 30
     bits.

     By default, the digit size is 30.

     Define the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ to ‘15’ or ‘30’.

     See *note sys.int_info.bits_per_digit: 113c.

 -- Option: --with-suffix=SUFFIX

     Set the Python executable suffix to 'SUFFIX'.

     The default suffix is ‘.exe’ on Windows and macOS (‘python.exe’
     executable), ‘.js’ on Emscripten node, ‘.html’ on Emscripten
     browser, ‘.wasm’ on WASI, and an empty string on other platforms
     (‘python’ executable).

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The default suffix on WASM platform is one
     of ‘.js’, ‘.html’ or ‘.wasm’.

 -- Option: --with-tzpath=<list of absolute paths separated by pathsep>

     Select the default time zone search path for *note zoneinfo.TZPATH:
     1bb9.  See the *note Compile-time configuration: 1bba. of the *note
     zoneinfo: 134. module.

     Default:
     ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo:/usr/lib/zoneinfo:/usr/share/lib/zoneinfo:/etc/zoneinfo’.

     See *note os.pathsep: 1b8b. path separator.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --without-decimal-contextvar

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using a thread-local context
     rather than a coroutine-local context (default), see the *note
     decimal: 35. module.

     See *note decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR: 1bbc. and the *note contextvars:
     24. module.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-dbmliborder=<list of backend names>

     Override order to check db backends for the *note dbm: 31. module

     A valid value is a colon (‘:’) separated string with the backend
     names:

        * ‘ndbm’;

        * ‘gdbm’;

        * ‘bdb’.

 -- Option: --without-c-locale-coercion

     Disable C locale coercion to a UTF-8 based locale (enabled by
     default).

     Don’t define the ‘PY_COERCE_C_LOCALE’ macro.

     See *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: 942. and the PEP 538(1).

 -- Option: --without-freelists

     Disable all freelists except the empty tuple singleton.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --with-platlibdir=DIRNAME

     Python library directory name (default is ‘lib’).

     Fedora and SuSE use ‘lib64’ on 64-bit platforms.

     See *note sys.platlibdir: 791.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH

     Directory of wheel packages used by the *note ensurepip: 53. module
     (none by default).

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-pkg-config=[check|yes|no]

     Whether configure should use ‘pkg-config’ to detect build
     dependencies.

        * ‘check’ (default): ‘pkg-config’ is optional

        * ‘yes’: ‘pkg-config’ is mandatory

        * ‘no’: configure does not use ‘pkg-config’ even when present

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-pystats

     Turn on internal statistics gathering.

     The statistics will be dumped to a arbitrary (probably unique) file
     in ‘/tmp/py_stats/’, or ‘C:\temp\py_stats\’ on Windows.  If that
     directory does not exist, results will be printed on stdout.

     Use ‘Tools/scripts/summarize_stats.py’ to read the stats.

     Added in version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: WebAssembly Options,  Next: Install Options,  Prev: General Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.2 WebAssembly Options
...........................

 -- Option: --with-emscripten-target=[browser|node]

     Set build flavor for ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

        * ‘browser’ (default): preload minimal stdlib, default MEMFS.

        * ‘node’: NODERAWFS and pthread support.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-dynamic-linking

     Turn on dynamic linking support for WASM.

     Dynamic linking enables ‘dlopen’.  File size of the executable
     increases due to limited dead code elimination and additional
     features.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-pthreads

     Turn on pthreads support for WASM.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Install Options,  Next: Performance options,  Prev: WebAssembly Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.3 Install Options
.......................

 -- Option: --prefix=PREFIX

     Install architecture-independent files in PREFIX. On Unix, it
     defaults to ‘/usr/local’.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.prefix: 36a.

     As an example, one can use ‘--prefix="$HOME/.local/"’ to install a
     Python in its home directory.

 -- Option: --exec-prefix=EPREFIX

     Install architecture-dependent files in EPREFIX, defaults to *note
     -prefix: 1ba9.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.exec_prefix:
     366.

 -- Option: --disable-test-modules

     Don’t build nor install test modules, like the *note test: e1.
     package or the ‘_testcapi’ extension module (built and installed by
     default).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-ensurepip=[upgrade|install|no]

     Select the *note ensurepip: 53. command run on Python installation:

        * ‘upgrade’ (default): run ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall
          --upgrade’ command.

        * ‘install’: run ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall’ command;

        * ‘no’: don’t run ensurepip;

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance options,  Next: Python Debug Build,  Prev: Install Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.4 Performance options
...........................

Configuring Python using ‘--enable-optimizations --with-lto’ (PGO + LTO)
is recommended for best performance.  The experimental ‘--enable-bolt’
flag can also be used to improve performance.

 -- Option: --enable-optimizations

     Enable Profile Guided Optimization (PGO) using *note PROFILE_TASK:
     1bc6. (disabled by default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-profdata’ program for PGO. On
     macOS, GCC also requires it: GCC is just an alias to Clang on
     macOS.

     Disable also semantic interposition in libpython if
     ‘--enable-shared’ and GCC is used: add
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to the compiler and linker flags.

          Not: During the build, you may encounter compiler warnings
          about profile data not being available for some source files.
          These warnings are harmless, as only a subset of the code is
          exercised during profile data acquisition.  To disable these
          warnings on Clang, manually suppress them by adding
          ‘-Wno-profile-instr-unprofiled’ to *note CFLAGS: 1342.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Use ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ on GCC.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PROFILE_TASK

     Environment variable used in the Makefile: Python command line
     arguments for the PGO generation task.

     Default: ‘-m test --pgo --timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Option: --with-lto=[full|thin|no|yes]

     Enable Link Time Optimization (LTO) in any build (disabled by
     default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-ar’ for LTO (‘ar’ on macOS), as
     well as an LTO-aware linker (‘ld.gold’ or ‘lld’).

     Added in version 3.6.

     Added in version 3.11: To use ThinLTO feature, use
     ‘--with-lto=thin’ on Clang.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Use ThinLTO as the default optimization
     policy on Clang if the compiler accepts the flag.

 -- Option: --enable-bolt

     Enable usage of the BOLT post-link binary optimizer(1) (disabled by
     default).

     BOLT is part of the LLVM project but is not always included in
     their binary distributions.  This flag requires that ‘llvm-bolt’
     and ‘merge-fdata’ are available.

     BOLT is still a fairly new project so this flag should be
     considered experimental for now.  Because this tool operates on
     machine code its success is dependent on a combination of the build
     environment + the other optimization configure args + the CPU
     architecture, and not all combinations are supported.  BOLT
     versions before LLVM 16 are known to crash BOLT under some
     scenarios.  Use of LLVM 16 or newer for BOLT optimization is
     strongly encouraged.

     The ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ ‘configure’
     variables can be defined to override the default set of arguments
     for ‘llvm-bolt’ to instrument and apply BOLT data to binaries,
     respectively.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Option: --with-computed-gotos

     Enable computed gotos in evaluation loop (enabled by default on
     supported compilers).

 -- Option: --without-pymalloc

     Disable the specialized Python memory allocator *note pymalloc:
     b94. (enabled by default).

     See also *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable.

 -- Option: --without-doc-strings

     Disable static documentation strings to reduce the memory footprint
     (enabled by default).  Documentation strings defined in Python are
     not affected.

     Don’t define the ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro.

     See the ‘PyDoc_STRVAR()’ macro.

 -- Option: --enable-profiling

     Enable C-level code profiling with ‘gprof’ (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-strict-overflow

     Add ‘-fstrict-overflow’ to the C compiler flags (by default we add
     ‘-fno-strict-overflow’ instead).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/tree/main/bolt


File: python.info,  Node: Python Debug Build,  Next: Debug options,  Prev: Performance options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.5 Python Debug Build
..........................

A debug build is Python built with the *note -with-pydebug: 1bcd.
configure option.

Effects of a debug build:

   * Display all warnings by default: the list of default warning
     filters is empty in the *note warnings: 112. module.

   * Add ‘d’ to *note sys.abiflags: 8c8.

   * Add ‘sys.gettotalrefcount()’ function.

   * Add *note -X showrefcount: 18e. command line option.

   * Add *note -d: 1b7b. command line option and *note PYTHONDEBUG:
     1b7c. environment variable to debug the parser.

   * Add support for the ‘__lltrace__’ variable: enable low-level
     tracing in the bytecode evaluation loop if the variable is defined.

   * Install *note debug hooks on memory allocators: 1b97. to detect
     buffer overflow and other memory errors.

   * Define ‘Py_DEBUG’ and ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’ macros.

   * Add runtime checks: code surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_DEBUG’ and
     ‘#endif’.  Enable ‘assert(...)’ and ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...)’
     assertions: don’t set the ‘NDEBUG’ macro (see also the *note
     -with-assertions: 1bce. configure option).  Main runtime checks:

        * Add sanity checks on the function arguments.

        * Unicode and int objects are created with their memory filled
          with a pattern to detect usage of uninitialized objects.

        * Ensure that functions which can clear or replace the current
          exception are not called with an exception raised.

        * Check that deallocator functions don’t change the current
          exception.

        * The garbage collector (*note gc.collect(): 89c. function) runs
          some basic checks on objects consistency.

        * The ‘Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST()’ macro checks for integer underflow
          and overflow when downcasting from wide types to narrow types.

See also the *note Python Development Mode: 71d. and the *note
-with-trace-refs: 6ec. configure option.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro (see the *note -with-trace-refs: 6ec. option),
which introduces the only ABI incompatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug options,  Next: Linker options,  Prev: Python Debug Build,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.6 Debug options
.....................

 -- Option: --with-pydebug

     *note Build Python in debug mode: 6b9.: define the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro
     (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-trace-refs

     Enable tracing references for debugging purpose (disabled by
     default).

     Effects:

        * Define the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro.

        * Add *note sys.getobjects(): 395. function.

        * Add *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 804. environment variable.

     This build is not ABI compatible with release build (default build)
     or debug build (‘Py_DEBUG’ and ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’ macros).

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Option: --with-assertions

     Build with C assertions enabled (default is no): ‘assert(...);’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...);’.

     If set, the ‘NDEBUG’ macro is not defined in the *note OPT: 1bd0.
     compiler variable.

     See also the *note -with-pydebug: 1bcd. option (*note debug build:
     6b9.) which also enables assertions.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-valgrind

     Enable Valgrind support (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-dtrace

     Enable DTrace support (default is no).

     See *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: aea.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-address-sanitizer

     Enable AddressSanitizer memory error detector, ‘asan’ (default is
     no).

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-memory-sanitizer

     Enable MemorySanitizer allocation error detector, ‘msan’ (default
     is no).

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer

     Enable UndefinedBehaviorSanitizer undefined behaviour detector,
     ‘ubsan’ (default is no).

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options,  Next: Libraries options,  Prev: Debug options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.7 Linker options
......................

 -- Option: --enable-shared

     Enable building a shared Python library: ‘libpython’ (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --without-static-libpython

     Do not build ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ and do not install ‘python.o’
     (built and enabled by default).

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Libraries options,  Next: Security Options,  Prev: Linker options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.8 Libraries options
.........................

 -- Option: --with-libs='lib1 ...'

     Link against additional libraries (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-expat

     Build the ‘pyexpat’ module using an installed ‘expat’ library
     (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-libmpdec

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using an installed ‘mpdec’
     library, see the *note decimal: 35. module (default is no).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Option: --with-readline=editline

     Use ‘editline’ library for backend of the *note readline: b9.
     module.

     Define the ‘WITH_EDITLINE’ macro.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --without-readline

     Don’t build the *note readline: b9. module (built by default).

     Don’t define the ‘HAVE_LIBREADLINE’ macro.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-libm=STRING

     Override ‘libm’ math library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-libc=STRING

     Override ‘libc’ C library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-openssl=DIR

     Root of the OpenSSL directory.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: --with-openssl-rpath=[no|auto|DIR]

     Set runtime library directory (rpath) for OpenSSL libraries:

        * ‘no’ (default): don’t set rpath;

        * ‘auto’: auto-detect rpath from *note -with-openssl: 1bdd. and
          ‘pkg-config’;

        * 'DIR': set an explicit rpath.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Security Options,  Next: macOS Options,  Prev: Libraries options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.9 Security Options
........................

 -- Option: --with-hash-algorithm=[fnv|siphash13|siphash24]

     Select hash algorithm for use in ‘Python/pyhash.c’:

        * ‘siphash13’ (default);

        * ‘siphash24’;

        * ‘fnv’.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Added in version 3.11: ‘siphash13’ is added and it is the new
     default.

 -- Option:
          --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=md5,sha1,sha256,sha512,sha3,blake2

     Built-in hash modules:

        * ‘md5’;

        * ‘sha1’;

        * ‘sha256’;

        * ‘sha512’;

        * ‘sha3’ (with shake);

        * ‘blake2’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-ssl-default-suites=[python|openssl|STRING]

     Override the OpenSSL default cipher suites string:

        * ‘python’ (default): use Python’s preferred selection;

        * ‘openssl’: leave OpenSSL’s defaults untouched;

        * 'STRING': use a custom string

     See the *note ssl: cf. module.

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The settings ‘python’ and 'STRING' also set
     TLS 1.2 as minimum protocol version.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS Options,  Next: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: Security Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.10 macOS Options
......................

See ‘Mac/README.rst’.

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk=SDKDIR

     Create a universal binary build.  'SDKDIR' specifies which macOS
     SDK should be used to perform the build (default is no).

 -- Option: --enable-framework

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework rather than a traditional Unix install.
     Optional 'INSTALLDIR' specifies the installation path (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --with-universal-archs=ARCH

     Specify the kind of universal binary that should be created.  This
     option is only valid when *note -enable-universalsdk: 7c7. is set.

     Options:

        * ‘universal2’ (x86-64 and arm64);

        * ‘32-bit’ (PPC and i386);

        * ‘64-bit’ (PPC64 and x86-64);

        * ‘3-way’ (i386, PPC and x86-64);

        * ‘intel’ (i386 and x86-64);

        * ‘intel-32’ (i386);

        * ‘intel-64’ (x86-64);

        * ‘all’ (PPC, i386, PPC64 and x86-64).

     Note that values for this configuration item are 'not' the same as
     the identifiers used for universal binary wheels on macOS. See the
     Python Packaging User Guide for details on the packaging platform
     compatibility tags used on macOS(1)

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the python framework on macOS only valid when
     *note -enable-framework: 1be4. is set (default: ‘Python’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/platform-compatibility-tags/#macos


File: python.info,  Node: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: macOS Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.11 Cross Compiling Options
................................

Cross compiling, also known as cross building, can be used to build
Python for another CPU architecture or platform.  Cross compiling
requires a Python interpreter for the build platform.  The version of
the build Python must match the version of the cross compiled host
Python.

 -- Option: --build=BUILD

     configure for building on BUILD, usually guessed by ‘config.guess’.

 -- Option: --host=HOST

     cross-compile to build programs to run on HOST (target platform)

 -- Option: --with-build-python=path/to/python

     path to build ‘python’ binary for cross compiling

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: CONFIG_SITE=file

     An environment variable that points to a file with configure
     overrides.

     Example 'config.site' file:

          # config.site-aarch64
          ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no

Cross compiling example:

     CONFIG_SITE=config.site-aarch64 ../configure \
         --build=x86_64-pc-linux-gnu \
         --host=aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu \
         --with-build-python=../x86_64/python


File: python.info,  Node: Python Build System,  Next: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Configure Options,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.4 Python Build System
-------------------------

* Menu:

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Main files of the build system,  Next: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.1 Main files of the build system
......................................

   * ‘configure.ac’ => ‘configure’;

   * ‘Makefile.pre.in’ => ‘Makefile’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘pyconfig.h’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘Modules/Setup’: C extensions built by the Makefile using
     ‘Module/makesetup’ shell script;


File: python.info,  Node: Main build steps,  Next: Main Makefile targets,  Prev: Main files of the build system,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.2 Main build steps
........................

   * C files (‘.c’) are built as object files (‘.o’).

   * A static ‘libpython’ library (‘.a’) is created from objects files.

   * ‘python.o’ and the static ‘libpython’ library are linked into the
     final ‘python’ program.

   * C extensions are built by the Makefile (see ‘Modules/Setup’).


File: python.info,  Node: Main Makefile targets,  Next: C extensions,  Prev: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.3 Main Makefile targets
.............................

   * ‘make’: Build Python with the standard library.

   * ‘make platform:’: build the ‘python’ program, but don’t build the
     standard library extension modules.

   * ‘make profile-opt’: build Python using Profile Guided Optimization
     (PGO). You can use the configure *note -enable-optimizations: 6a5.
     option to make this the default target of the ‘make’ command (‘make
     all’ or just ‘make’).

   * ‘make buildbottest’: Build Python and run the Python test suite,
     the same way than buildbots test Python.  Set ‘TESTTIMEOUT’
     variable (in seconds) to change the test timeout (1200 by default:
     20 minutes).

   * ‘make install’: Build and install Python.

   * ‘make regen-all’: Regenerate (almost) all generated files; ‘make
     regen-stdlib-module-names’ and ‘autoconf’ must be run separately
     for the remaining generated files.

   * ‘make clean’: Remove built files.

   * ‘make distclean’: Same than ‘make clean’, but remove also files
     created by the configure script.


File: python.info,  Node: C extensions,  Prev: Main Makefile targets,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.4 C extensions
....................

Some C extensions are built as built-in modules, like the ‘sys’ module.
They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro defined.  Built-in
modules have no ‘__file__’ attribute:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys
     <module 'sys' (built-in)>
     >>> sys.__file__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'sys' has no attribute '__file__'

Other C extensions are built as dynamic libraries, like the ‘_asyncio’
module.  They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro defined.
Example on Linux x86-64:

     >>> import _asyncio
     >>> _asyncio
     <module '_asyncio' from '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'>
     >>> _asyncio.__file__
     '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'

‘Modules/Setup’ is used to generate Makefile targets to build C
extensions.  At the beginning of the files, C extensions are built as
built-in modules.  Extensions defined after the ‘*shared*’ marker are
built as dynamic libraries.

The ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’, ‘PyAPI_DATA()’ and *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1360.
macros of ‘Include/exports.h’ are defined differently depending if the
‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro is defined:

   * Use ‘Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL’ if the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ is defined

   * Use ‘Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL’ otherwise.

If the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro is used by mistake on a C extension
built as a shared library, its ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function is not exported,
causing an *note ImportError: 14b. on import.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Python Build System,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.5 Compiler and linker flags
-------------------------------

Options set by the ‘./configure’ script and environment variables and
used by ‘Makefile’.

* Menu:

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Preprocessor flags,  Next: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.1 Preprocessor flags
..........................

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS

     Value of *note CPPFLAGS: 1344. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CPPFLAGS

     (Objective) C/C++ preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’ if you
     have headers in a nonstandard directory 'include_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 1344. and *note LDFLAGS: 1343. need to contain
     the shell’s value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: BASECPPFLAGS

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_CPPFLAGS

     Extra preprocessor flags added for building the interpreter object
     files.

     Default: ‘$(BASECPPFLAGS) -I. -I$(srcdir)/Include
     $(CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)’.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler flags,  Next: Linker flags,  Prev: Preprocessor flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.2 Compiler flags
......................

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CC

     C compiler command.

     Example: ‘gcc -pthread’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CXX

     C++ compiler command.

     Example: ‘g++ -pthread’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CFLAGS

     C compiler flags.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CFLAGS_NODIST

     *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1bf9. is used for building the interpreter and
     stdlib C extensions.  Use it when a compiler flag should 'not' be
     part of *note CFLAGS: 1342. once Python is installed (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note CFLAGS: 1342. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-I’ (for setting the search path for
          include files).  The ‘-I’ flags are processed from left to
          right, and any flags in *note CFLAGS: 1342. would take
          precedence over user- and package-supplied ‘-I’ flags.

        * hardening flags such as ‘-Werror’ because distributions cannot
          control whether packages installed by users conform to such
          heightened standards.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: COMPILEALL_OPTS

     Options passed to the *note compileall: 20. command line when
     building PYC files in ‘make install’.  Default: ‘-j0’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: EXTRA_CFLAGS

     Extra C compiler flags.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS

     Value of *note CFLAGS: 1342. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 1bf9. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: BASECFLAGS

     Base compiler flags.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: OPT

     Optimization flags.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CFLAGS_ALIASING

     Strict or non-strict aliasing flags used to compile
     ‘Python/dtoa.c’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CCSHARED

     Compiler flags used to build a shared library.

     For example, ‘-fPIC’ is used on Linux and on BSD.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CFLAGSFORSHARED

     Extra C flags added for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(CCSHARED)’ when *note -enable-shared: 6a6. is used, or
     an empty string otherwise.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(BASECFLAGS) $(OPT) $(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS) $(CFLAGS)
     $(EXTRA_CFLAGS)’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(CFLAGS_NODIST)
     -I$(srcdir)/Include/internal’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS

     C flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(PY_CFLAGS) $(PY_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(PY_CPPFLAGS)
     $(CFLAGSFORSHARED)’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_CORE_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS

     Compiler flags to build a standard library extension module as a
     built-in module, like the *note posix: ac. module.

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PURIFY

     Purify command.  Purify is a memory debugger program.

     Default: empty string (not used).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Linker flags,  Prev: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.3 Linker flags
....................

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: LINKCC

     Linker command used to build programs like ‘python’ and
     ‘_testembed’.

     Default: ‘$(PURIFY) $(CC)’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS

     Value of *note LDFLAGS: 1343. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Avoid assigning *note CFLAGS: 1342, *note LDFLAGS: 1343, etc.  so
     users can use them on the command line to append to these values
     without stomping the pre-set values.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: LDFLAGS_NODIST

     *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1c0b. is used in the same manner as *note
     CFLAGS_NODIST: 1bf9.  Use it when a linker flag should 'not' be
     part of *note LDFLAGS: 1343. once Python is installed
     (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note LDFLAGS: 1343. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-L’ (for setting the search path for
          libraries).  The ‘-L’ flags are processed from left to right,
          and any flags in *note LDFLAGS: 1343. would take precedence
          over user- and package-supplied ‘-L’ flags.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 1c0b. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIB_DIR’ if you have libraries in a
     nonstandard directory 'lib_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 1344. and *note LDFLAGS: 1343. need to contain
     the shell’s value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: LIBS

     Linker flags to pass libraries to the linker when linking the
     Python executable.

     Example: ‘-lrt’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: LDSHARED

     Command to build a shared library.

     Default: ‘@LDSHARED@ $(PY_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: BLDSHARED

     Command to build ‘libpython’ shared library.

     Default: ‘@BLDSHARED@ $(PY_CORE_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_LDFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST) $(LDFLAGS_NODIST)’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PY_CORE_LDFLAGS

     Linker flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on Windows,  Next: Using Python on a Mac,  Prev: Configure Python,  Up: Python Setup and Usage

3.4 Using Python on Windows
===========================

This document aims to give an overview of Windows-specific behaviour you
should know about when using Python on Microsoft Windows.

Unlike most Unix systems and services, Windows does not include a system
supported installation of Python.  To make Python available, the CPython
team has compiled Windows installers with every release(1) for many
years.  These installers are primarily intended to add a per-user
installation of Python, with the core interpreter and library being used
by a single user.  The installer is also able to install for all users
of a single machine, and a separate ZIP file is available for
application-local distributions.

As specified in PEP 11(2), a Python release only supports a Windows
platform while Microsoft considers the platform under extended support.
This means that Python 3.12 supports Windows 8.1 and newer.  If you
require Windows 7 support, please install Python 3.8.

There are a number of different installers available for Windows, each
with certain benefits and downsides.

*note The full installer: 1c15. contains all components and is the best
option for developers using Python for any kind of project.

*note The Microsoft Store package: 1a2a. is a simple installation of
Python that is suitable for running scripts and packages, and using IDLE
or other development environments.  It requires Windows 10 and above,
but can be safely installed without corrupting other programs.  It also
provides many convenient commands for launching Python and its tools.

*note The nuget.org packages: 1c16. are lightweight installations
intended for continuous integration systems.  It can be used to build
Python packages or run scripts, but is not updateable and has no user
interface tools.

*note The embeddable package: 1c17. is a minimal package of Python
suitable for embedding into a larger application.

* Menu:

* The full installer::
* The Microsoft Store package::
* The nuget.org packages: The nuget org packages.
* The embeddable package::
* Alternative bundles::
* Configuring Python::
* UTF-8 mode::
* Python Launcher for Windows::
* Finding modules::
* Additional modules::
* Compiling Python on Windows::
* Other Platforms::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: The full installer,  Next: The Microsoft Store package,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.1 The full installer
------------------------

* Menu:

* Installation steps::
* Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation::
* Installing Without UI::
* Installing Without Downloading::
* Modifying an install::


File: python.info,  Node: Installation steps,  Next: Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.1 Installation steps
..........................

Four Python 3.12 installers are available for download - two each for
the 32-bit and 64-bit versions of the interpreter.  The 'web installer'
is a small initial download, and it will automatically download the
required components as necessary.  The 'offline installer' includes the
components necessary for a default installation and only requires an
internet connection for optional features.  See *note Installing Without
Downloading: 1c1a. for other ways to avoid downloading during
installation.

After starting the installer, one of two options may be selected:

[image src="python-figures/win_installer.png"]


If you select “Install Now”:

   * You will 'not' need to be an administrator (unless a system update
     for the C Runtime Library is required or you install the *note
     Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. for all users)

   * Python will be installed into your user directory

   * The *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. will be installed
     according to the option at the bottom of the first page

   * The standard library, test suite, launcher and pip will be
     installed

   * If selected, the install directory will be added to your ‘PATH’

   * Shortcuts will only be visible for the current user

Selecting “Customize installation” will allow you to select the features
to install, the installation location and other options or post-install
actions.  To install debugging symbols or binaries, you will need to use
this option.

To perform an all-users installation, you should select “Customize
installation”.  In this case:

   * You may be required to provide administrative credentials or
     approval

   * Python will be installed into the Program Files directory

   * The *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. will be installed into
     the Windows directory

   * Optional features may be selected during installation

   * The standard library can be pre-compiled to bytecode

   * If selected, the install directory will be added to the system
     ‘PATH’

   * Shortcuts are available for all users


File: python.info,  Node: Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation,  Next: Installing Without UI,  Prev: Installation steps,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.2 Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation
........................................

Windows historically has limited path lengths to 260 characters.  This
meant that paths longer than this would not resolve and errors would
result.

In the latest versions of Windows, this limitation can be expanded to
approximately 32,000 characters.  Your administrator will need to
activate the “Enable Win32 long paths” group policy, or set
‘LongPathsEnabled’ to ‘1’ in the registry key
‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem’.

This allows the *note open(): 2a6. function, the *note os: a0. module
and most other path functionality to accept and return paths longer than
260 characters.

After changing the above option, no further configuration is required.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Support for long paths was enabled in Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Without UI,  Next: Installing Without Downloading,  Prev: Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.3 Installing Without UI
.............................

All of the options available in the installer UI can also be specified
from the command line, allowing scripted installers to replicate an
installation on many machines without user interaction.  These options
may also be set without suppressing the UI in order to change some of
the defaults.

The following options (found by executing the installer with ‘/?’) can
be passed into the installer:

Name                      Description
                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                          
/passive                  to display progress without requiring user interaction
                          
                          
/quiet                    to install/uninstall without displaying any UI
                          
                          
/simple                   to prevent user customization
                          
                          
/uninstall                to remove Python (without confirmation)
                          
                          
/layout [directory]       to pre-download all components
                          
                          
/log [filename]           to specify log files location
                          

All other options are passed as ‘name=value’, where the value is usually
‘0’ to disable a feature, ‘1’ to enable a feature, or a path.  The full
list of available options is shown below.

Name                            Description                                Default
                                                                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
InstallAllUsers                 Perform a system-wide installation.        0
                                                                           
                                                                           
TargetDir                       The installation directory                 Selected based on
                                                                           InstallAllUsers
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultAllUsersTargetDir        The default installation directory for     ‘%ProgramFiles%\Python X.Y’
                                all-user installs                          or
                                                                           ‘%ProgramFiles(x86)%\Python
                                                                           X.Y’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultJustForMeTargetDir       The default install directory for          ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY’
                                just-for-me installs                       or
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-32’
                                                                           or
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-64’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultCustomTargetDir          The default custom install directory       (empty)
                                displayed in the UI                        
                                
                                                                           
AssociateFiles                  Create file associations if the launcher   1
                                is also installed.                         
                                
                                                                           
CompileAll                      Compile all ‘.py’ files to ‘.pyc’.         0
                                                                           
                                                                           
PrependPath                     Prepend install and Scripts directories    0
                                to ‘PATH’ and add ‘.PY’ to ‘PATHEXT’       
                                
                                                                           
AppendPath                      Append install and Scripts directories     0
                                to ‘PATH’ and add ‘.PY’ to ‘PATHEXT’       
                                
                                                                           
Shortcuts                       Create shortcuts for the interpreter,      1
                                documentation and IDLE if installed.       
                                
                                                                           
Include_doc                     Install Python manual                      1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_debug                   Install debug binaries                     0
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_dev                     Install developer headers and libraries.   1
                                Omitting this may lead to an unusable      
                                installation.
                                
                                                                           
Include_exe                     Install ‘python.exe’ and related files.    1
                                Omitting this may lead to an unusable      
                                installation.
                                
                                                                           
Include_launcher                Install                                    1
                                *note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6.    
                                
                                                                           
InstallLauncherAllUsers         Installs the launcher for all users.       1
                                Also requires ‘Include_launcher’ to be     
                                set to 1
                                
                                                                           
Include_lib                     Install standard library and extension     1
                                modules.  Omitting this may lead to an     
                                unusable installation.
                                
                                                                           
Include_pip                     Install bundled pip and setuptools         1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_symbols                 Install debugging symbols (‘*.pdb’)        0
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_tcltk                   Install Tcl/Tk support and IDLE            1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_test                    Install standard library test suite        1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_tools                   Install utility scripts                    1
                                                                           
                                                                           
LauncherOnly                    Only installs the launcher.  This will     0
                                override most other options.               
                                
                                                                           
SimpleInstall                   Disable most install UI                    0
                                                                           
                                                                           
SimpleInstallDescription        A custom message to display when the       (empty)
                                simplified install UI is used.             
                                

For example, to silently install a default, system-wide Python
installation, you could use the following command (from an elevated
command prompt):

     python-3.9.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0

To allow users to easily install a personal copy of Python without the
test suite, you could provide a shortcut with the following command.
This will display a simplified initial page and disallow customization:

     python-3.9.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
         SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription="Just for me, no test suite."

(Note that omitting the launcher also omits file associations, and is
only recommended for per-user installs when there is also a system-wide
installation that included the launcher.)

The options listed above can also be provided in a file named
‘unattend.xml’ alongside the executable.  This file specifies a list of
options and values.  When a value is provided as an attribute, it will
be converted to a number if possible.  Values provided as element text
are always left as strings.  This example file sets the same options as
the previous example:

     <Options>
         <Option Name="InstallAllUsers" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="Include_launcher" Value="0" />
         <Option Name="Include_test" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstall" Value="yes" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstallDescription">Just for me, no test suite</Option>
     </Options>


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Without Downloading,  Next: Modifying an install,  Prev: Installing Without UI,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.4 Installing Without Downloading
......................................

As some features of Python are not included in the initial installer
download, selecting those features may require an internet connection.
To avoid this need, all possible components may be downloaded on-demand
to create a complete 'layout' that will no longer require an internet
connection regardless of the selected features.  Note that this download
may be bigger than required, but where a large number of installations
are going to be performed it is very useful to have a locally cached
copy.

Execute the following command from Command Prompt to download all
possible required files.  Remember to substitute ‘python-3.9.0.exe’ for
the actual name of your installer, and to create layouts in their own
directories to avoid collisions between files with the same name.

     python-3.9.0.exe /layout [optional target directory]

You may also specify the ‘/quiet’ option to hide the progress display.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifying an install,  Prev: Installing Without Downloading,  Up: The full installer

3.4.1.5 Modifying an install
............................

Once Python has been installed, you can add or remove features through
the Programs and Features tool that is part of Windows.  Select the
Python entry and choose “Uninstall/Change” to open the installer in
maintenance mode.

“Modify” allows you to add or remove features by modifying the
checkboxes - unchanged checkboxes will not install or remove anything.
Some options cannot be changed in this mode, such as the install
directory; to modify these, you will need to remove and then reinstall
Python completely.

“Repair” will verify all the files that should be installed using the
current settings and replace any that have been removed or modified.

“Uninstall” will remove Python entirely, with the exception of the *note
Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6, which has its own entry in Programs
and Features.


File: python.info,  Node: The Microsoft Store package,  Next: The nuget org packages,  Prev: The full installer,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.2 The Microsoft Store package
---------------------------------

Added in version 3.7.2.

The Microsoft Store package is an easily installable Python interpreter
that is intended mainly for interactive use, for example, by students.

To install the package, ensure you have the latest Windows 10 updates
and search the Microsoft Store app for “Python 3.12”.  Ensure that the
app you select is published by the Python Software Foundation, and
install it.

     Uyarı: Python will always be available for free on the Microsoft
     Store.  If you are asked to pay for it, you have not selected the
     correct package.

After installation, Python may be launched by finding it in Start.
Alternatively, it will be available from any Command Prompt or
PowerShell session by typing ‘python’.  Further, pip and IDLE may be
used by typing ‘pip’ or ‘idle’.  IDLE can also be found in Start.

All three commands are also available with version number suffixes, for
example, as ‘python3.exe’ and ‘python3.x.exe’ as well as ‘python.exe’
(where ‘3.x’ is the specific version you want to launch, such as 3.12).
Open “Manage App Execution Aliases” through Start to select which
version of Python is associated with each command.  It is recommended to
make sure that ‘pip’ and ‘idle’ are consistent with whichever version of
‘python’ is selected.

Virtual environments can be created with ‘python -m venv’ and activated
and used as normal.

If you have installed another version of Python and added it to your
‘PATH’ variable, it will be available as ‘python.exe’ rather than the
one from the Microsoft Store.  To access the new installation, use
‘python3.exe’ or ‘python3.x.exe’.

The ‘py.exe’ launcher will detect this Python installation, but will
prefer installations from the traditional installer.

To remove Python, open Settings and use Apps and Features, or else find
Python in Start and right-click to select Uninstall.  Uninstalling will
remove all packages you installed directly into this Python
installation, but will not remove any virtual environments

* Menu:

* Known issues::


File: python.info,  Node: Known issues,  Up: The Microsoft Store package

3.4.2.1 Known issues
....................

* Menu:

* Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.


File: python.info,  Node: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths,  Up: Known issues

3.4.2.2 Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths
................................................................

Because of restrictions on Microsoft Store apps, Python scripts may not
have full write access to shared locations such as ‘TEMP’ and the
registry.  Instead, it will write to a private copy.  If your scripts
must modify the shared locations, you will need to install the full
installer.

At runtime, Python will use a private copy of well-known Windows folders
and the registry.  For example, if the environment variable ‘%APPDATA%’
is ‘c:\Users\<user>\AppData\’, then when writing to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local’ will write to
‘C:\Users\<user>\AppData\Local\Packages\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\LocalCache\Local\’.

When reading files, Windows will return the file from the private
folder, or if that does not exist, the real Windows directory.  For
example reading ‘C:\Windows\System32’ returns the contents of
‘C:\Windows\System32’ plus the contents of ‘C:\Program
Files\WindowsApps\package_name\VFS\SystemX86’.

You can find the real path of any existing file using *note
os.path.realpath(): 398.:

     >>> import os
     >>> test_file = 'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\test.txt'
     >>> os.path.realpath(test_file)
     'C:\\Users\\example\\AppData\\Local\\Packages\\PythonSoftwareFoundation.Python.3.8_qbz5n2kfra8p0\\LocalCache\\Local\\test.txt'

When writing to the Windows Registry, the following behaviors exist:

   * Reading from ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed and results are merged
     with the ‘registry.dat’ file in the package.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is not allowed if the corresponding
     key/value exists, i.e.  modifying existing keys.

   * Writing to ‘HKLM\\Software’ is allowed as long as a corresponding
     key/value does not exist in the package and the user has the
     correct access permissions.

For more detail on the technical basis for these limitations, please
consult Microsoft’s documentation on packaged full-trust apps, currently
available at
docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/msix/desktop/desktop-to-uwp-behind-the-scenes


File: python.info,  Node: The nuget org packages,  Next: The embeddable package,  Prev: The Microsoft Store package,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.3 The nuget.org packages
----------------------------

Added in version 3.5.2.

The nuget.org package is a reduced size Python environment intended for
use on continuous integration and build systems that do not have a
system-wide install of Python.  While nuget is “the package manager for
.NET”, it also works perfectly fine for packages containing build-time
tools.

Visit nuget.org(1) for the most up-to-date information on using nuget.
What follows is a summary that is sufficient for Python developers.

The ‘nuget.exe’ command line tool may be downloaded directly from
‘https://aka.ms/nugetclidl’, for example, using curl or PowerShell.
With the tool, the latest version of Python for 64-bit or 32-bit
machines is installed using:

     nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
     nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .

To select a particular version, add a ‘-Version 3.x.y’.  The output
directory may be changed from ‘.’, and the package will be installed
into a subdirectory.  By default, the subdirectory is named the same as
the package, and without the ‘-ExcludeVersion’ option this name will
include the specific version installed.  Inside the subdirectory is a
‘tools’ directory that contains the Python installation:

     # Without -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

     # With -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

In general, nuget packages are not upgradeable, and newer versions
should be installed side-by-side and referenced using the full path.
Alternatively, delete the package directory manually and install it
again.  Many CI systems will do this automatically if they do not
preserve files between builds.

Alongside the ‘tools’ directory is a ‘build\native’ directory.  This
contains a MSBuild properties file ‘python.props’ that can be used in a
C++ project to reference the Python install.  Including the settings
will automatically use the headers and import libraries in your build.

The package information pages on nuget.org are
www.nuget.org/packages/python(2) for the 64-bit version and
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86(3) for the 32-bit version.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86


File: python.info,  Node: The embeddable package,  Next: Alternative bundles,  Prev: The nuget org packages,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.4 The embeddable package
----------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

The embedded distribution is a ZIP file containing a minimal Python
environment.  It is intended for acting as part of another application,
rather than being directly accessed by end-users.

When extracted, the embedded distribution is (almost) fully isolated
from the user’s system, including environment variables, system registry
settings, and installed packages.  The standard library is included as
pre-compiled and optimized ‘.pyc’ files in a ZIP, and ‘python3.dll’,
‘python37.dll’, ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ are all provided.  Tcl/tk
(including all dependents, such as Idle), pip and the Python
documentation are not included.

     Not: The embedded distribution does not include the Microsoft C
     Runtime(1) and it is the responsibility of the application
     installer to provide this.  The runtime may have already been
     installed on a user’s system previously or automatically via
     Windows Update, and can be detected by finding ‘ucrtbase.dll’ in
     the system directory.

Third-party packages should be installed by the application installer
alongside the embedded distribution.  Using pip to manage dependencies
as for a regular Python installation is not supported with this
distribution, though with some care it may be possible to include and
use pip for automatic updates.  In general, third-party packages should
be treated as part of the application (“vendoring”) so that the
developer can ensure compatibility with newer versions before providing
updates to users.

The two recommended use cases for this distribution are described below.

* Menu:

* Python Application::
* Embedding Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/cpp/windows/latest-supported-vc-redist#visual-studio-2015-2017-2019-and-2022


File: python.info,  Node: Python Application,  Next: Embedding Python,  Up: The embeddable package

3.4.4.1 Python Application
..........................

An application written in Python does not necessarily require users to
be aware of that fact.  The embedded distribution may be used in this
case to include a private version of Python in an install package.
Depending on how transparent it should be (or conversely, how
professional it should appear), there are two options.

Using a specialized executable as a launcher requires some coding, but
provides the most transparent experience for users.  With a customized
launcher, there are no obvious indications that the program is running
on Python: icons can be customized, company and version information can
be specified, and file associations behave properly.  In most cases, a
custom launcher should simply be able to call ‘Py_Main’ with a
hard-coded command line.

The simpler approach is to provide a batch file or generated shortcut
that directly calls the ‘python.exe’ or ‘pythonw.exe’ with the required
command-line arguments.  In this case, the application will appear to be
Python and not its actual name, and users may have trouble
distinguishing it from other running Python processes or file
associations.

With the latter approach, packages should be installed as directories
alongside the Python executable to ensure they are available on the
path.  With the specialized launcher, packages can be located in other
locations as there is an opportunity to specify the search path before
launching the application.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedding Python,  Prev: Python Application,  Up: The embeddable package

3.4.4.2 Embedding Python
........................

Applications written in native code often require some form of scripting
language, and the embedded Python distribution can be used for this
purpose.  In general, the majority of the application is in native code,
and some part will either invoke ‘python.exe’ or directly use
‘python3.dll’.  For either case, extracting the embedded distribution to
a subdirectory of the application installation is sufficient to provide
a loadable Python interpreter.

As with the application use, packages can be installed to any location
as there is an opportunity to specify search paths before initializing
the interpreter.  Otherwise, there is no fundamental differences between
using the embedded distribution and a regular installation.


File: python.info,  Node: Alternative bundles,  Next: Configuring Python,  Prev: The embeddable package,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.5 Alternative bundles
-------------------------

Besides the standard CPython distribution, there are modified packages
including additional functionality.  The following is a list of popular
versions and their key features:

ActivePython(1)

     Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation, PyWin32

Anaconda(2)

     Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy and pandas) and
     the ‘conda’ package manager.

Enthought Deployment Manager(3)

     “The Next Generation Python Environment and Package Manager”.

     Previously Enthought provided Canopy, but it reached end of life in
     2016(4).

WinPython(5)

     Windows-specific distribution with prebuilt scientific packages and
     tools for building packages.

Note that these packages may not include the latest versions of Python
or other libraries, and are not maintained or supported by the core
Python team.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://assets.enthought.com/downloads/edm/

   (4) 
https://support.enthought.com/hc/en-us/articles/360038600051-Canopy-GUI-end-of-life-transition-to-the-Enthought-Deployment-Manager-EDM-and-Visual-Studio-Code

   (5) https://winpython.github.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring Python,  Next: UTF-8 mode,  Prev: Alternative bundles,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.6 Configuring Python
------------------------

To run Python conveniently from a command prompt, you might consider
changing some default environment variables in Windows.  While the
installer provides an option to configure the PATH and PATHEXT variables
for you, this is only reliable for a single, system-wide installation.
If you regularly use multiple versions of Python, consider using the
*note Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6.

* Menu:

* Excursus; Setting environment variables: Excursus Setting environment variables.
* Finding the Python executable::


File: python.info,  Node: Excursus Setting environment variables,  Next: Finding the Python executable,  Up: Configuring Python

3.4.6.1 Excursus: Setting environment variables
...............................................

Windows allows environment variables to be configured permanently at
both the User level and the System level, or temporarily in a command
prompt.

To temporarily set environment variables, open Command Prompt and use
the ‘set’ command:

     C:\>set PATH=C:\Program Files\Python 3.9;%PATH%
     C:\>set PYTHONPATH=%PYTHONPATH%;C:\My_python_lib
     C:\>python

These changes will apply to any further commands executed in that
console, and will be inherited by any applications started from the
console.

Including the variable name within percent signs will expand to the
existing value, allowing you to add your new value at either the start
or the end.  Modifying ‘PATH’ by adding the directory containing
‘python.exe’ to the start is a common way to ensure the correct version
of Python is launched.

To permanently modify the default environment variables, click Start and
search for ‘edit environment variables’, or open System properties,
Advanced system settings and click the Environment Variables button.  In
this dialog, you can add or modify User and System variables.  To change
System variables, you need non-restricted access to your machine (i.e.
Administrator rights).

     Not: Windows will concatenate User variables 'after' System
     variables, which may cause unexpected results when modifying
     ‘PATH’.

     The *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. variable is used by all versions of
     Python, so you should not permanently configure it unless the
     listed paths only include code that is compatible with all of your
     installed Python versions.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/procthread/environment-variables’

     Overview of environment variables on Windows

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/set_1’

     The ‘set’ command, for temporarily modifying environment variables

‘https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-server/administration/windows-commands/setx’

     The ‘setx’ command, for permanently modifying environment variables


File: python.info,  Node: Finding the Python executable,  Prev: Excursus Setting environment variables,  Up: Configuring Python

3.4.6.2 Finding the Python executable
.....................................

3.5 sürümünde değişti.

Besides using the automatically created start menu entry for the Python
interpreter, you might want to start Python in the command prompt.  The
installer has an option to set that up for you.

On the first page of the installer, an option labelled “Add Python to
PATH” may be selected to have the installer add the install location
into the ‘PATH’.  The location of the ‘Scripts\’ folder is also added.
This allows you to type ‘python’ to run the interpreter, and ‘pip’ for
the package installer.  Thus, you can also execute your scripts with
command line options, see *note Command line: eae. documentation.

If you don’t enable this option at install time, you can always re-run
the installer, select Modify, and enable it.  Alternatively, you can
manually modify the ‘PATH’ using the directions in *note Excursus;
Setting environment variables: 1a2b.  You need to set your ‘PATH’
environment variable to include the directory of your Python
installation, delimited by a semicolon from other entries.  An example
variable could look like this (assuming the first two entries already
existed):

     C:\WINDOWS\system32;C:\WINDOWS;C:\Program Files\Python 3.9


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-8 mode,  Next: Python Launcher for Windows,  Prev: Configuring Python,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.7 UTF-8 mode
----------------

Added in version 3.7.

Windows still uses legacy encodings for the system encoding (the ANSI
Code Page).  Python uses it for the default encoding of text files (e.g.
*note locale.getencoding(): 25d.).

This may cause issues because UTF-8 is widely used on the internet and
most Unix systems, including WSL (Windows Subsystem for Linux).

You can use the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. to change the default text
encoding to UTF-8.  You can enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. via
the ‘-X utf8’ command line option, or the ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’ environment
variable.  See *note PYTHONUTF8: 945. for enabling UTF-8 mode, and *note
Excursus; Setting environment variables: 1a2b. for how to modify
environment variables.

When the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. is enabled, you can still use the
system encoding (the ANSI Code Page) via the “mbcs” codec.

Note that adding ‘PYTHONUTF8=1’ to the default environment variables
will affect all Python 3.7+ applications on your system.  If you have
any Python 3.7+ applications which rely on the legacy system encoding,
it is recommended to set the environment variable temporarily or use the
‘-X utf8’ command line option.

     Not: Even when UTF-8 mode is disabled, Python uses UTF-8 by default
     on Windows for:

        * Console I/O including standard I/O (see PEP 528(1) for
          details).

        * The *note filesystem encoding: 2c7. (see PEP 529(2) for
          details).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Launcher for Windows,  Next: Finding modules,  Prev: UTF-8 mode,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.8 Python Launcher for Windows
---------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

The Python launcher for Windows is a utility which aids in locating and
executing of different Python versions.  It allows scripts (or the
command-line) to indicate a preference for a specific Python version,
and will locate and execute that version.

Unlike the ‘PATH’ variable, the launcher will correctly select the most
appropriate version of Python.  It will prefer per-user installations
over system-wide ones, and orders by language version rather than using
the most recently installed version.

The launcher was originally specified in PEP 397(1).

* Menu:

* Getting started::
* Shebang Lines::
* Arguments in shebang lines::
* Customization::
* Diagnostics::
* Dry Run::
* Install on demand::
* Return codes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: Getting started,  Next: Shebang Lines,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.1 Getting started
.......................

* Menu:

* From the command-line::
* Virtual environments::
* From a script::
* From file associations::


File: python.info,  Node: From the command-line,  Next: Virtual environments,  Up: Getting started

3.4.8.2 From the command-line
.............................

3.6 sürümünde değişti.

System-wide installations of Python 3.3 and later will put the launcher
on your ‘PATH’.  The launcher is compatible with all available versions
of Python, so it does not matter which version is installed.  To check
that the launcher is available, execute the following command in Command
Prompt:

     py

You should find that the latest version of Python you have installed is
started - it can be exited as normal, and any additional command-line
arguments specified will be sent directly to Python.

If you have multiple versions of Python installed (e.g., 3.7 and 3.12)
you will have noticed that Python 3.12 was started - to launch Python
3.7, try the command:

     py -3.7

If you want the latest version of Python 2 you have installed, try the
command:

     py -2

If you see the following error, you do not have the launcher installed:

     'py' is not recognized as an internal or external command,
     operable program or batch file.

The command:

     py --list

displays the currently installed version(s) of Python.

The ‘-x.y’ argument is the short form of the ‘-V:Company/Tag’ argument,
which allows selecting a specific Python runtime, including those that
may have come from somewhere other than python.org.  Any runtime
registered by following PEP 514(1) will be discoverable.  The ‘--list’
command lists all available runtimes using the ‘-V:’ format.

When using the ‘-V:’ argument, specifying the Company will limit
selection to runtimes from that provider, while specifying only the Tag
will select from all providers.  Note that omitting the slash implies a
tag:

     # Select any '3.*' tagged runtime
     py -V:3

     # Select any 'PythonCore' released runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/

     # Select PythonCore's latest Python 3 runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/3

The short form of the argument (‘-3’) only ever selects from core Python
releases, and not other distributions.  However, the longer form
(‘-V:3’) will select from any.

The Company is matched on the full string, case-insenitive.  The Tag is
matched oneither the full string, or a prefix, provided the next
character is a dot or a hyphen.  This allows ‘-V:3.1’ to match ‘3.1-32’,
but not ‘3.10’.  Tags are sorted using numerical ordering (‘3.10’ is
newer than ‘3.1’), but are compared using text (‘-V:3.01’ does not match
‘3.1’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual environments,  Next: From a script,  Prev: From the command-line,  Up: Getting started

3.4.8.3 Virtual environments
............................

Added in version 3.5.

If the launcher is run with no explicit Python version specification,
and a virtual environment (created with the standard library *note venv:
111. module or the external ‘virtualenv’ tool) active, the launcher will
run the virtual environment’s interpreter rather than the global one.
To run the global interpreter, either deactivate the virtual
environment, or explicitly specify the global Python version.


File: python.info,  Node: From a script,  Next: From file associations,  Prev: Virtual environments,  Up: Getting started

3.4.8.4 From a script
.....................

Let’s create a test Python script - create a file called ‘hello.py’ with
the following contents

     #! python
     import sys
     sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,))

From the directory in which hello.py lives, execute the command:

     py hello.py

You should notice the version number of your latest Python 2.x
installation is printed.  Now try changing the first line to be:

     #! python3

Re-executing the command should now print the latest Python 3.x
information.  As with the above command-line examples, you can specify a
more explicit version qualifier.  Assuming you have Python 3.7
installed, try changing the first line to ‘#! python3.7’ and you should
find the 3.7 version information printed.

Note that unlike interactive use, a bare “python” will use the latest
version of Python 2.x that you have installed.  This is for backward
compatibility and for compatibility with Unix, where the command
‘python’ typically refers to Python 2.


File: python.info,  Node: From file associations,  Prev: From a script,  Up: Getting started

3.4.8.5 From file associations
..............................

The launcher should have been associated with Python files (i.e.  ‘.py’,
‘.pyw’, ‘.pyc’ files) when it was installed.  This means that when you
double-click on one of these files from Windows explorer the launcher
will be used, and therefore you can use the same facilities described
above to have the script specify the version which should be used.

The key benefit of this is that a single launcher can support multiple
Python versions at the same time depending on the contents of the first
line.


File: python.info,  Node: Shebang Lines,  Next: Arguments in shebang lines,  Prev: Getting started,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.6 Shebang Lines
.....................

If the first line of a script file starts with ‘#!’, it is known as a
“shebang” line.  Linux and other Unix like operating systems have native
support for such lines and they are commonly used on such systems to
indicate how a script should be executed.  This launcher allows the same
facilities to be used with Python scripts on Windows and the examples
above demonstrate their use.

To allow shebang lines in Python scripts to be portable between Unix and
Windows, this launcher supports a number of ‘virtual’ commands to
specify which interpreter to use.  The supported virtual commands are:

   * ‘/usr/bin/env’

   * ‘/usr/bin/python’

   * ‘/usr/local/bin/python’

   * ‘python’

For example, if the first line of your script starts with

     #! /usr/bin/python

The default Python will be located and used.  As many Python scripts
written to work on Unix will already have this line, you should find
these scripts can be used by the launcher without modification.  If you
are writing a new script on Windows which you hope will be useful on
Unix, you should use one of the shebang lines starting with ‘/usr’.

Any of the above virtual commands can be suffixed with an explicit
version (either just the major version, or the major and minor version).
Furthermore the 32-bit version can be requested by adding “-32” after
the minor version.  I.e.  ‘/usr/bin/python3.7-32’ will request usage of
the 32-bit python 3.7.

Added in version 3.7: Beginning with python launcher 3.7 it is possible
to request 64-bit version by the “-64” suffix.  Furthermore it is
possible to specify a major and architecture without minor (i.e.
‘/usr/bin/python3-64’).

3.11 sürümünde değişti: The “-64” suffix is deprecated, and now implies
“any architecture that is not provably i386/32-bit”.  To request a
specific environment, use the new ‘-V:TAG’ argument with the complete
tag.

The ‘/usr/bin/env’ form of shebang line has one further special
property.  Before looking for installed Python interpreters, this form
will search the executable ‘PATH’ for a Python executable matching the
name provided as the first argument.  This corresponds to the behaviour
of the Unix ‘env’ program, which performs a ‘PATH’ search.  If an
executable matching the first argument after the ‘env’ command cannot be
found, but the argument starts with ‘python’, it will be handled as
described for the other virtual commands.  The environment variable
‘PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH’ may be set (to any value) to skip this
search of ‘PATH’.

Shebang lines that do not match any of these patterns are looked up in
the ‘[commands]’ section of the launcher’s *note .INI file: 1c33.  This
may be used to handle certain commands in a way that makes sense for
your system.  The name of the command must be a single argument (no
spaces in the shebang executable), and the value substituted is the full
path to the executable (additional arguments specified in the .INI will
be quoted as part of the filename).

     [commands]
     /bin/xpython=C:\Program Files\XPython\python.exe

Any commands not found in the .INI file are treated as 'Windows'
executable paths that are absolute or relative to the directory
containing the script file.  This is a convenience for Windows-only
scripts, such as those generated by an installer, since the behavior is
not compatible with Unix-style shells.  These paths may be quoted, and
may include multiple arguments, after which the path to the script and
any additional arguments will be appended.


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments in shebang lines,  Next: Customization,  Prev: Shebang Lines,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.7 Arguments in shebang lines
..................................

The shebang lines can also specify additional options to be passed to
the Python interpreter.  For example, if you have a shebang line:

     #! /usr/bin/python -v

Then Python will be started with the ‘-v’ option


File: python.info,  Node: Customization,  Next: Diagnostics,  Prev: Arguments in shebang lines,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.8 Customization
.....................

* Menu:

* Customization via INI files::
* Customizing default Python versions::


File: python.info,  Node: Customization via INI files,  Next: Customizing default Python versions,  Up: Customization

3.4.8.9 Customization via INI files
...................................

Two .ini files will be searched by the launcher - ‘py.ini’ in the
current user’s application data directory (‘%LOCALAPPDATA%’ or
‘$env:LocalAppData’) and ‘py.ini’ in the same directory as the launcher.
The same .ini files are used for both the ‘console’ version of the
launcher (i.e.  py.exe) and for the ‘windows’ version (i.e.  pyw.exe).

Customization specified in the “application directory” will have
precedence over the one next to the executable, so a user, who may not
have write access to the .ini file next to the launcher, can override
commands in that global .ini file.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing default Python versions,  Prev: Customization via INI files,  Up: Customization

3.4.8.10 Customizing default Python versions
............................................

In some cases, a version qualifier can be included in a command to
dictate which version of Python will be used by the command.  A version
qualifier starts with a major version number and can optionally be
followed by a period (‘.’) and a minor version specifier.  Furthermore
it is possible to specify if a 32 or 64 bit implementation shall be
requested by adding “-32” or “-64”.

For example, a shebang line of ‘#!python’ has no version qualifier,
while ‘#!python3’ has a version qualifier which specifies only a major
version.

If no version qualifiers are found in a command, the environment
variable ‘PY_PYTHON’ can be set to specify the default version
qualifier.  If it is not set, the default is “3”.  The variable can
specify any value that may be passed on the command line, such as “3”,
“3.7”, “3.7-32” or “3.7-64”.  (Note that the “-64” option is only
available with the launcher included with Python 3.7 or newer.)

If no minor version qualifiers are found, the environment variable
‘PY_PYTHON{major}’ (where ‘{major}’ is the current major version
qualifier as determined above) can be set to specify the full version.
If no such option is found, the launcher will enumerate the installed
Python versions and use the latest minor release found for the major
version, which is likely, although not guaranteed, to be the most
recently installed version in that family.

On 64-bit Windows with both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations of the
same (major.minor) Python version installed, the 64-bit version will
always be preferred.  This will be true for both 32-bit and 64-bit
implementations of the launcher - a 32-bit launcher will prefer to
execute a 64-bit Python installation of the specified version if
available.  This is so the behavior of the launcher can be predicted
knowing only what versions are installed on the PC and without regard to
the order in which they were installed (i.e., without knowing whether a
32 or 64-bit version of Python and corresponding launcher was installed
last).  As noted above, an optional “-32” or “-64” suffix can be used on
a version specifier to change this behaviour.

Examples:

   * If no relevant options are set, the commands ‘python’ and ‘python2’
     will use the latest Python 2.x version installed and the command
     ‘python3’ will use the latest Python 3.x installed.

   * The command ‘python3.7’ will not consult any options at all as the
     versions are fully specified.

   * If ‘PY_PYTHON=3’, the commands ‘python’ and ‘python3’ will both use
     the latest installed Python 3 version.

   * If ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7-32’, the command ‘python’ will use the 32-bit
     implementation of 3.7 whereas the command ‘python3’ will use the
     latest installed Python (PY_PYTHON was not considered at all as a
     major version was specified.)

   * If ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ and ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’, the commands ‘python’ and
     ‘python3’ will both use specifically 3.7

In addition to environment variables, the same settings can be
configured in the .INI file used by the launcher.  The section in the
INI file is called ‘[defaults]’ and the key name will be the same as the
environment variables without the leading ‘PY_’ prefix (and note that
the key names in the INI file are case insensitive.)  The contents of an
environment variable will override things specified in the INI file.

For example:

   * Setting ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7’ is equivalent to the INI file containing:

     [defaults]
     python=3.7

   * Setting ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ and ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’ is equivalent to the INI
     file containing:

     [defaults]
     python=3
     python3=3.7


File: python.info,  Node: Diagnostics,  Next: Dry Run,  Prev: Customization,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.11 Diagnostics
....................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG’ is set (to any value), the
launcher will print diagnostic information to stderr (i.e.  to the
console).  While this information manages to be simultaneously verbose
'and' terse, it should allow you to see what versions of Python were
located, why a particular version was chosen and the exact command-line
used to execute the target Python.  It is primarily intended for testing
and debugging.


File: python.info,  Node: Dry Run,  Next: Install on demand,  Prev: Diagnostics,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.12 Dry Run
................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’ is set (to any value),
the launcher will output the command it would have run, but will not
actually launch Python.  This may be useful for tools that want to use
the launcher to detect and then launch Python directly.  Note that the
command written to standard output is always encoded using UTF-8, and
may not render correctly in the console.


File: python.info,  Node: Install on demand,  Next: Return codes,  Prev: Dry Run,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.13 Install on demand
..........................

If an environment variable ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ is set (to any
value), and the requested Python version is not installed but is
available on the Microsoft Store, the launcher will attempt to install
it.  This may require user interaction to complete, and you may need to
run the command again.

An additional ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL’ variable causes the launcher
to always try to install Python, even if it is detected.  This is mainly
intended for testing (and should be used with ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’).


File: python.info,  Node: Return codes,  Prev: Install on demand,  Up: Python Launcher for Windows

3.4.8.14 Return codes
.....................

The following exit codes may be returned by the Python launcher.
Unfortunately, there is no way to distinguish these from the exit code
of Python itself.

The names of codes are as used in the sources, and are only for
reference.  There is no way to access or resolve them apart from reading
this page.  Entries are listed in alphabetical order of names.

Name                    Value       Description
                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
RC_BAD_VENV_CFG         107         A ‘pyvenv.cfg’ was found but is corrupt.
                                    
                                    
RC_CREATE_PROCESS       101         Failed to launch Python.
                                    
                                    
RC_INSTALLING           111         An install was started, but the command will need
                                    to be re-run after it completes.
                                    
                                    
RC_INTERNAL_ERROR       109         Unexpected error.  Please report a bug.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_COMMANDLINE       108         Unable to obtain command line from the operating
                                    system.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_PYTHON            103         Unable to locate the requested version.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_VENV_CFG          106         A ‘pyvenv.cfg’ was required but not found.
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: Finding modules,  Next: Additional modules,  Prev: Python Launcher for Windows,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.9 Finding modules
---------------------

These notes supplement the description at *note The initialization of
the sys.path module search path: 1aa9. with detailed Windows notes.

When no ‘._pth’ file is found, this is how *note sys.path: 368. is
populated on Windows:

   * An empty entry is added at the start, which corresponds to the
     current directory.

   * If the environment variable *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. exists, as
     described in *note Environment variables: 3fe, its entries are
     added next.  Note that on Windows, paths in this variable must be
     separated by semicolons, to distinguish them from the colon used in
     drive identifiers (‘C:\’ etc.).

   * Additional “application paths” can be added in the registry as
     subkeys of ‘\SOFTWARE\Python\PythonCore{version}\PythonPath’ under
     both the ‘HKEY_CURRENT_USER’ and ‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE’ hives.
     Subkeys which have semicolon-delimited path strings as their
     default value will cause each path to be added to *note sys.path:
     368.  (Note that all known installers only use HKLM, so HKCU is
     typically empty.)

   * If the environment variable *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. is set, it is
     assumed as “Python Home”.  Otherwise, the path of the main Python
     executable is used to locate a “landmark file” (either ‘Lib\os.py’
     or ‘pythonXY.zip’) to deduce the “Python Home”.  If a Python home
     is found, the relevant sub-directories added to *note sys.path:
     368. (‘Lib’, ‘plat-win’, etc) are based on that folder.  Otherwise,
     the core Python path is constructed from the PythonPath stored in
     the registry.

   * If the Python Home cannot be located, no *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. is
     specified in the environment, and no registry entries can be found,
     a default path with relative entries is used (e.g.
     ‘.\Lib;.\plat-win’, etc).

If a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found alongside the main executable or in the
directory one level above the executable, the following variations
apply:

   * If ‘home’ is an absolute path and *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. is not
     set, this path is used instead of the path to the main executable
     when deducing the home location.

The end result of all this is:

   * When running ‘python.exe’, or any other .exe in the main Python
     directory (either an installed version, or directly from the
     PCbuild directory), the core path is deduced, and the core paths in
     the registry are ignored.  Other “application paths” in the
     registry are always read.

   * When Python is hosted in another .exe (different directory,
     embedded via COM, etc), the “Python Home” will not be deduced, so
     the core path from the registry is used.  Other “application paths”
     in the registry are always read.

   * If Python can’t find its home and there are no registry value
     (frozen .exe, some very strange installation setup) you get a path
     with some default, but relative, paths.

For those who want to bundle Python into their application or
distribution, the following advice will prevent conflicts with other
installations:

   * Include a ‘._pth’ file alongside your executable containing the
     directories to include.  This will ignore paths listed in the
     registry and environment variables, and also ignore *note site: c6.
     unless ‘import site’ is listed.

   * If you are loading ‘python3.dll’ or ‘python37.dll’ in your own
     executable, explicitly call *note Py_SetPath(): 1c3d. or (at least)
     *note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0. before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

   * Clear and/or overwrite *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. and set *note
     PYTHONHOME: 36f. before launching ‘python.exe’ from your
     application.

   * If you cannot use the previous suggestions (for example, you are a
     distribution that allows people to run ‘python.exe’ directly),
     ensure that the landmark file (‘Lib\os.py’) exists in your install
     directory.  (Note that it will not be detected inside a ZIP file,
     but a correctly named ZIP file will be detected instead.)

These will ensure that the files in a system-wide installation will not
take precedence over the copy of the standard library bundled with your
application.  Otherwise, your users may experience problems using your
application.  Note that the first suggestion is the best, as the others
may still be susceptible to non-standard paths in the registry and user
site-packages.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Add ‘._pth’ file support and removes ‘applocal’
option from ‘pyvenv.cfg’.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Add ‘python`XX'.zip’ as a potential landmark when
directly adjacent to the executable.

3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Modules specified in the registry
under ‘Modules’ (not ‘PythonPath’) may be imported by *note
importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: bb2.  This finder is enabled
on Windows in 3.6.0 and earlier, but may need to be explicitly added to
*note sys.meta_path: bb3. in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: Additional modules,  Next: Compiling Python on Windows,  Prev: Finding modules,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.10 Additional modules
-------------------------

Even though Python aims to be portable among all platforms, there are
features that are unique to Windows.  A couple of modules, both in the
standard library and external, and snippets exist to use these features.

The Windows-specific standard modules are documented in *note MS Windows
Specific Services: 1c3f.

* Menu:

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::


File: python.info,  Node: PyWin32,  Next: cx_Freeze,  Up: Additional modules

3.4.10.1 PyWin32
................

The PyWin32(1) module by Mark Hammond is a collection of modules for
advanced Windows-specific support.  This includes utilities for:

   * Component Object Model(2) (COM)

   * Win32 API calls

   * Registry

   * Event log

   * Microsoft Foundation Classes(3) (MFC) user interfaces

PythonWin(4) is a sample MFC application shipped with PyWin32.  It is an
embeddable IDE with a built-in debugger.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Win32 How Do I...?(5)

     by Tim Golden

Python and COM(6)

     by David and Paul Boddie

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/PyWin32/

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/com/component-object-model-com-portal

   (3) https://learn.microsoft.com/cpp/mfc/mfc-desktop-applications

   (4) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/https://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/

   (5) https://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html

   (6) https://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html


File: python.info,  Node: cx_Freeze,  Prev: PyWin32,  Up: Additional modules

3.4.10.2 cx_Freeze
..................

cx_Freeze(1) wraps Python scripts into executable Windows programs
(‘`*'.exe’ files).  When you have done this, you can distribute your
application without requiring your users to install Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cx-freeze.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling Python on Windows,  Next: Other Platforms,  Prev: Additional modules,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.11 Compiling Python on Windows
----------------------------------

If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is
get the source(1).  You can download either the latest release’s source
or just grab a fresh checkout(2).

The source tree contains a build solution and project files for
Microsoft Visual Studio, which is the compiler used to build the
official Python releases.  These files are in the ‘PCbuild’ directory.

Check ‘PCbuild/readme.txt’ for general information on the build process.

For extension modules, consult *note Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları
Oluşturmak: 1c43.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code


File: python.info,  Node: Other Platforms,  Prev: Compiling Python on Windows,  Up: Using Python on Windows

3.4.12 Other Platforms
----------------------

With ongoing development of Python, some platforms that used to be
supported earlier are no longer supported (due to the lack of users or
developers).  Check PEP 11(1) for details on all unsupported platforms.

   * Windows CE(2) is no longer supported(3) since Python 3 (if it ever
     was).

   * The Cygwin(4) installer offers to install the Python interpreter(5)
     as well

See Python for Windows(6) for detailed information about platforms with
pre-compiled installers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71542

   (4) https://cygwin.com/

   (5) https://cygwin.com/packages/summary/python3.html

   (6) https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/


File: python.info,  Node: Using Python on a Mac,  Next: Editors and IDEs,  Prev: Using Python on Windows,  Up: Python Setup and Usage

3.5 Using Python on a Mac
=========================


Author: Bob Savage <<bobsavage@mac.com>>

Python on a Mac running macOS is in principle very similar to Python on
any other Unix platform, but there are a number of additional features
such as the integrated development environment (IDE) and the Package
Manager that are worth pointing out.
* Menu:

* Getting and Installing Python::
* The IDE::
* Installing Additional Python Packages::
* GUI Programming::
* Distributing Python Applications::
* Other Resources::


File: python.info,  Node: Getting and Installing Python,  Next: The IDE,  Up: Using Python on a Mac

3.5.1 Getting and Installing Python
-----------------------------------

macOS used to come with Python 2.7 pre-installed between versions 10.8
and 12.3(1).  You are invited to install the most recent version of
Python 3 from the Python website(2).  A current “universal2 binary”
build of Python, which runs natively on the Mac’s new Apple Silicon and
legacy Intel processors, is available there.

What you get after installing is a number of things:

   * A ‘Python 3.12’ folder in your ‘Applications’ folder.  In here you
     find IDLE, the development environment that is a standard part of
     official Python distributions; and ‘Python Launcher’, which handles
     double-clicking Python scripts from the Finder.

   * A framework ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’, which includes
     the Python executable and libraries.  The installer adds this
     location to your shell path.  To uninstall Python, you can remove
     these three things.  A symlink to the Python executable is placed
     in ‘/usr/local/bin/’.

     Not: On macOS 10.8-12.3, the Apple-provided build of Python is
     installed in ‘/System/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ and
     ‘/usr/bin/python’, respectively.  You should never modify or delete
     these, as they are Apple-controlled and are used by Apple- or
     third-party software.  Remember that if you choose to install a
     newer Python version from python.org, you will have two different
     but functional Python installations on your computer, so it will be
     important that your paths and usages are consistent with what you
     want to do.

IDLE includes a Help menu that allows you to access Python
documentation.  If you are completely new to Python you should start
reading the tutorial introduction in that document.

If you are familiar with Python on other Unix platforms you should read
the section on running Python scripts from the Unix shell.

* Menu:

* How to run a Python script::
* Running scripts with a GUI::
* Configuration::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://developer.apple.com/documentation/macos-release-notes/macos-12_3-release-notes#Python

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: How to run a Python script,  Next: Running scripts with a GUI,  Up: Getting and Installing Python

3.5.1.1 How to run a Python script
..................................

Your best way to get started with Python on macOS is through the IDLE
integrated development environment; see section *note The IDE: 1c4c. and
use the Help menu when the IDE is running.

If you want to run Python scripts from the Terminal window command line
or from the Finder you first need an editor to create your script.
macOS comes with a number of standard Unix command line editors, ‘vim’
‘nano’ among them.  If you want a more Mac-like editor, ‘BBEdit’ from
Bare Bones Software (see
‘https://www.barebones.com/products/bbedit/index.html’) are good
choices, as is ‘TextMate’ (see ‘https://macromates.com’).  Other editors
include ‘MacVim’ (‘https://macvim.org’) and ‘Aquamacs’
(‘https://aquamacs.org’).

To run your script from the Terminal window you must make sure that
‘/usr/local/bin’ is in your shell search path.

To run your script from the Finder you have two options:

   * Drag it to ‘Python Launcher’.

   * Select ‘Python Launcher’ as the default application to open your
     script (or any ‘.py’ script) through the finder Info window and
     double-click it.  ‘Python Launcher’ has various preferences to
     control how your script is launched.  Option-dragging allows you to
     change these for one invocation, or use its Preferences menu to
     change things globally.


File: python.info,  Node: Running scripts with a GUI,  Next: Configuration,  Prev: How to run a Python script,  Up: Getting and Installing Python

3.5.1.2 Running scripts with a GUI
..................................

With older versions of Python, there is one macOS quirk that you need to
be aware of: programs that talk to the Aqua window manager (in other
words, anything that has a GUI) need to be run in a special way.  Use
‘pythonw’ instead of ‘python’ to start such scripts.

With Python 3.9, you can use either ‘python’ or ‘pythonw’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration,  Prev: Running scripts with a GUI,  Up: Getting and Installing Python

3.5.1.3 Configuration
.....................

Python on macOS honors all standard Unix environment variables such as
*note PYTHONPATH: ec5, but setting these variables for programs started
from the Finder is non-standard as the Finder does not read your
‘.profile’ or ‘.cshrc’ at startup.  You need to create a file
‘~/.MacOSX/environment.plist’.  See Apple’s Technical Q&A QA1067(1) for
details.

For more information on installation Python packages, see section *note
Installing Additional Python Packages: 1c50.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/qa/qa1067/_index.html


File: python.info,  Node: The IDE,  Next: Installing Additional Python Packages,  Prev: Getting and Installing Python,  Up: Using Python on a Mac

3.5.2 The IDE
-------------

Python ships with the standard IDLE development environment.  A good
introduction to using IDLE can be found at
‘https://www.hashcollision.org/hkn/python/idle_intro/index.html’.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Additional Python Packages,  Next: GUI Programming,  Prev: The IDE,  Up: Using Python on a Mac

3.5.3 Installing Additional Python Packages
-------------------------------------------

This section has moved to the Python Packaging User Guide(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/


File: python.info,  Node: GUI Programming,  Next: Distributing Python Applications,  Prev: Installing Additional Python Packages,  Up: Using Python on a Mac

3.5.4 GUI Programming
---------------------

There are several options for building GUI applications on the Mac with
Python.

'PyObjC' is a Python binding to Apple’s Objective-C/Cocoa framework,
which is the foundation of most modern Mac development.  Information on
PyObjC is available from pyobjc(1).

The standard Python GUI toolkit is *note tkinter: ef, based on the
cross-platform Tk toolkit (‘https://www.tcl.tk’).  An Aqua-native
version of Tk is bundled with macOS by Apple, and the latest version can
be downloaded and installed from ‘https://www.activestate.com’; it can
also be built from source.

A number of alternative macOS GUI toolkits are available:

   * PySide(2): Official Python bindings to the Qt GUI toolkit(3).

   * PyQt(4): Alternative Python bindings to Qt.

   * Kivy(5): A cross-platform GUI toolkit that supports desktop and
     mobile platforms.

   * Toga(6): Part of the BeeWare Project(7); supports desktop, mobile,
     web and console apps.

   * wxPython(8): A cross-platform toolkit that supports desktop
     operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/

   (2) https://www.qt.io/qt-for-python

   (3) https://www.qt.io

   (4) https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro

   (5) https://kivy.org

   (6) https://toga.readthedocs.io

   (7) https://beeware.org

   (8) https://www.wxpython.org


File: python.info,  Node: Distributing Python Applications,  Next: Other Resources,  Prev: GUI Programming,  Up: Using Python on a Mac

3.5.5 Distributing Python Applications
--------------------------------------

A range of tools exist for converting your Python code into a standalone
distributable application:

   * py2app(1): Supports creating macOS ‘.app’ bundles from a Python
     project.

   * Briefcase(2): Part of the BeeWare Project(3); a cross-platform
     packaging tool that supports creation of ‘.app’ bundles on macOS,
     as well as managing signing and notarization.

   * PyInstaller(4): A cross-platform packaging tool that creates a
     single file or folder as a distributable artifact.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/py2app/

   (2) https://briefcase.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://beeware.org

   (4) https://pyinstaller.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Resources,  Prev: Distributing Python Applications,  Up: Using Python on a Mac

3.5.6 Other Resources
---------------------

The Pythonmac-SIG mailing list is an excellent support resource for
Python users and developers on the Mac:

‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/’

Another useful resource is the MacPython wiki:

‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/MacPython’


File: python.info,  Node: Editors and IDEs,  Prev: Using Python on a Mac,  Up: Python Setup and Usage

3.6 Editors and IDEs
====================

There are a number of IDEs that support Python programming language.
Many editors and IDEs provide syntax highlighting, debugging tools, and
PEP 8(1) checks.

* Menu:

* IDLE — Python editor and shell::
* Other Editors and IDEs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE — Python editor and shell,  Next: Other Editors and IDEs,  Up: Editors and IDEs

3.6.1 IDLE — Python editor and shell
------------------------------------

IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment and is
generally bundled with Python installs.  If you are on Linux and do not
have IDLE installed see *note Installing IDLE on Linux: 1ba4.  For more
information see the *note IDLE docs: ebd.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Editors and IDEs,  Prev: IDLE — Python editor and shell,  Up: Editors and IDEs

3.6.2 Other Editors and IDEs
----------------------------

Python’s community wiki has information submitted by the community on
Editors and IDEs.  Please go to Python Editors(1) and Integrated
Development Environments(2) for a comprehensive list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments


File: python.info,  Node: Python Dil Referansı,  Next: Python Standart Kütüphanesi,  Prev: Python Setup and Usage,  Up: Top

4 Python Dil Referansı
**********************

Bu başvuru kılavuzu, dilin söz dizimini ve “çekirdek semantiğini”
tanımlar.  Kısa ve özdür ancak tam ve eksiksiz olmayı hedefler.  Temel
olmayan gömülü nesne türlerinin ve gömülü işlevler ile modüllerin
semantiği *note Python Standart Kütüphanesi: 143. içerisinde
açıklanmaktadır.  Dile resmi olmayan bir giriş için *note Python
Öğreticisi: 1a1e. bölümüne bakınız.  C veya C++ programcıları için, iki
ek kılavuz mevcuttur: *note Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme:
1a1f. bir Python genişletme modülünün nasıl yazılacağına dair üst düzey
genel görünümü açıklar ve *note Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu: 1a20.
C/C++ programcıları için mevcut olan arayüzleri ayrıntılı olarak
tanımlar.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* Lexical analysis::
* Data model::
* Execution model::
* The import system::
* Expressions::
* Simple statements::
* Compound statements::
* Top-level components::
* Full Grammar specification::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<4>,  Next: Lexical analysis,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.1 Introduction
================

This reference manual describes the Python programming language.  It is
not intended as a tutorial.

While I am trying to be as precise as possible, I chose to use English
rather than formal specifications for everything except syntax and
lexical analysis.  This should make the document more understandable to
the average reader, but will leave room for ambiguities.  Consequently,
if you were coming from Mars and tried to re-implement Python from this
document alone, you might have to guess things and in fact you would
probably end up implementing quite a different language.  On the other
hand, if you are using Python and wonder what the precise rules about a
particular area of the language are, you should definitely be able to
find them here.  If you would like to see a more formal definition of
the language, maybe you could volunteer your time — or invent a cloning
machine :-).

It is dangerous to add too many implementation details to a language
reference document — the implementation may change, and other
implementations of the same language may work differently.  On the other
hand, CPython is the one Python implementation in widespread use
(although alternate implementations continue to gain support), and its
particular quirks are sometimes worth being mentioned, especially where
the implementation imposes additional limitations.  Therefore, you’ll
find short “implementation notes” sprinkled throughout the text.

Every Python implementation comes with a number of built-in and standard
modules.  These are documented in *note Python Standart Kütüphanesi:
143.  A few built-in modules are mentioned when they interact in a
significant way with the language definition.

* Menu:

* Alternate Implementations::
* Notation::


File: python.info,  Node: Alternate Implementations,  Next: Notation,  Up: Introduction<4>

4.1.1 Alternate Implementations
-------------------------------

Though there is one Python implementation which is by far the most
popular, there are some alternate implementations which are of
particular interest to different audiences.

Known implementations include:

CPython

     This is the original and most-maintained implementation of Python,
     written in C. New language features generally appear here first.

Jython

     Python implemented in Java.  This implementation can be used as a
     scripting language for Java applications, or can be used to create
     applications using the Java class libraries.  It is also often used
     to create tests for Java libraries.  More information can be found
     at the Jython website(1).

Python for .NET

     This implementation actually uses the CPython implementation, but
     is a managed .NET application and makes .NET libraries available.
     It was created by Brian Lloyd.  For more information, see the
     Python for .NET home page(2).

IronPython

     An alternate Python for .NET. Unlike Python.NET, this is a complete
     Python implementation that generates IL, and compiles Python code
     directly to .NET assemblies.  It was created by Jim Hugunin, the
     original creator of Jython.  For more information, see the
     IronPython website(3).

PyPy

     An implementation of Python written completely in Python.  It
     supports several advanced features not found in other
     implementations like stackless support and a Just in Time compiler.
     One of the goals of the project is to encourage experimentation
     with the language itself by making it easier to modify the
     interpreter (since it is written in Python).  Additional
     information is available on the PyPy project's home page(4).

Each of these implementations varies in some way from the language as
documented in this manual, or introduces specific information beyond
what’s covered in the standard Python documentation.  Please refer to
the implementation-specific documentation to determine what else you
need to know about the specific implementation you’re using.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/

   (2) https://pythonnet.github.io/

   (3) https://ironpython.net/

   (4) https://pypy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Notation,  Prev: Alternate Implementations,  Up: Introduction<4>

4.1.2 Notation
--------------

The descriptions of lexical analysis and syntax use a modified
Backus–Naur form (BNF)(1) grammar notation.  This uses the following
style of definition:

     name      ::= *note lc_letter: 1c66. (*note lc_letter: 1c66. | "_")*
     lc_letter ::= "a"..."z"

The first line says that a ‘name’ is an ‘lc_letter’ followed by a
sequence of zero or more ‘lc_letter’s and underscores.  An ‘lc_letter’
in turn is any of the single characters ‘'a'’ through ‘'z'’.  (This rule
is actually adhered to for the names defined in lexical and grammar
rules in this document.)

Each rule begins with a name (which is the name defined by the rule) and
‘::=’.  A vertical bar (‘|’) is used to separate alternatives; it is the
least binding operator in this notation.  A star (‘*’) means zero or
more repetitions of the preceding item; likewise, a plus (‘+’) means one
or more repetitions, and a phrase enclosed in square brackets (‘[ ]’)
means zero or one occurrences (in other words, the enclosed phrase is
optional).  The ‘*’ and ‘+’ operators bind as tightly as possible;
parentheses are used for grouping.  Literal strings are enclosed in
quotes.  White space is only meaningful to separate tokens.  Rules are
normally contained on a single line; rules with many alternatives may be
formatted alternatively with each line after the first beginning with a
vertical bar.

In lexical definitions (as the example above), two more conventions are
used: Two literal characters separated by three dots mean a choice of
any single character in the given (inclusive) range of ASCII characters.
A phrase between angular brackets (‘<...>’) gives an informal
description of the symbol defined; e.g., this could be used to describe
the notion of ‘control character’ if needed.

Even though the notation used is almost the same, there is a big
difference between the meaning of lexical and syntactic definitions: a
lexical definition operates on the individual characters of the input
source, while a syntax definition operates on the stream of tokens
generated by the lexical analysis.  All uses of BNF in the next chapter
(“Lexical Analysis”) are lexical definitions; uses in subsequent
chapters are syntactic definitions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form


File: python.info,  Node: Lexical analysis,  Next: Data model,  Prev: Introduction<4>,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.2 Lexical analysis
====================

A Python program is read by a 'parser'.  Input to the parser is a stream
of *note tokens: 1c6a, generated by the 'lexical analyzer' (also known
as the 'tokenizer').  This chapter describes how the lexical analyzer
breaks a file into tokens.

Python reads program text as Unicode code points; the encoding of a
source file can be given by an encoding declaration and defaults to
UTF-8, see PEP 3120(1) for details.  If the source file cannot be
decoded, a *note SyntaxError: 14c. is raised.

* Menu:

* Line structure::
* Other tokens::
* Identifiers and keywords::
* Literals::
* Operators::
* Delimiters::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/


File: python.info,  Node: Line structure,  Next: Other tokens,  Up: Lexical analysis

4.2.1 Line structure
--------------------

A Python program is divided into a number of 'logical lines'.

* Menu:

* Logical lines::
* Physical lines::
* Comments::
* Encoding declarations::
* Explicit line joining::
* Implicit line joining::
* Blank lines::
* Indentation::
* Whitespace between tokens::


File: python.info,  Node: Logical lines,  Next: Physical lines,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.1 Logical lines
.....................

The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE.
Statements cannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is
allowed by the syntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements).
A logical line is constructed from one or more 'physical lines' by
following the explicit or implicit 'line joining' rules.


File: python.info,  Node: Physical lines,  Next: Comments,  Prev: Logical lines,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.2 Physical lines
......................

A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by an end-of-line
sequence.  In source files and strings, any of the standard platform
line termination sequences can be used - the Unix form using ASCII LF
(linefeed), the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return
followed by linefeed), or the old Macintosh form using the ASCII CR
(return) character.  All of these forms can be used equally, regardless
of platform.  The end of input also serves as an implicit terminator for
the final physical line.

When embedding Python, source code strings should be passed to Python
APIs using the standard C conventions for newline characters (the ‘\n’
character, representing ASCII LF, is the line terminator).


File: python.info,  Node: Comments,  Next: Encoding declarations,  Prev: Physical lines,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.3 Comments
................

A comment starts with a hash character (‘#’) that is not part of a
string literal, and ends at the end of the physical line.  A comment
signifies the end of the logical line unless the implicit line joining
rules are invoked.  Comments are ignored by the syntax.


File: python.info,  Node: Encoding declarations,  Next: Explicit line joining,  Prev: Comments,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.4 Encoding declarations
.............................

If a comment in the first or second line of the Python script matches
the regular expression ‘coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+)’, this comment is
processed as an encoding declaration; the first group of this expression
names the encoding of the source code file.  The encoding declaration
must appear on a line of its own.  If it is the second line, the first
line must also be a comment-only line.  The recommended forms of an
encoding expression are

     # -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*-

which is recognized also by GNU Emacs, and

     # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name>

which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar’s VIM.

If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8.  If
the implicit or explicit encoding of a file is UTF-8, an initial UTF-8
byte-order mark (b’xefxbbxbf’) is ignored rather than being a syntax
error.

If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by
Python (see *note Standard Encodings: c46.).  The encoding is used for
all lexical analysis, including string literals, comments and
identifiers.


File: python.info,  Node: Explicit line joining,  Next: Implicit line joining,  Prev: Encoding declarations,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.5 Explicit line joining
.............................

Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using
backslash characters (‘\’), as follows: when a physical line ends in a
backslash that is not part of a string literal or comment, it is joined
with the following forming a single logical line, deleting the backslash
and the following end-of-line character.  For example:

     if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
        and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
        and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60:   # Looks like a valid date
             return 1

A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment.  A backslash does
not continue a comment.  A backslash does not continue a token except
for string literals (i.e., tokens other than string literals cannot be
split across physical lines using a backslash).  A backslash is illegal
elsewhere on a line outside a string literal.


File: python.info,  Node: Implicit line joining,  Next: Blank lines,  Prev: Explicit line joining,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.6 Implicit line joining
.............................

Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be split
over more than one physical line without using backslashes.  For
example:

     month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart',      # These are the
                    'April',   'Mei',      'Juni',       # Dutch names
                    'Juli',    'Augustus', 'September',  # for the months
                    'Oktober', 'November', 'December']   # of the year

Implicitly continued lines can carry comments.  The indentation of the
continuation lines is not important.  Blank continuation lines are
allowed.  There is no NEWLINE token between implicit continuation lines.
Implicitly continued lines can also occur within triple-quoted strings
(see below); in that case they cannot carry comments.


File: python.info,  Node: Blank lines,  Next: Indentation,  Prev: Implicit line joining,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.7 Blank lines
...................

A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly a
comment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated).  During
interactive input of statements, handling of a blank line may differ
depending on the implementation of the read-eval-print loop.  In the
standard interactive interpreter, an entirely blank logical line (i.e.
one containing not even whitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line
statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Indentation,  Next: Whitespace between tokens,  Prev: Blank lines,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.8 Indentation
...................

Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a logical line
is used to compute the indentation level of the line, which in turn is
used to determine the grouping of statements.

Tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces such that
the total number of characters up to and including the replacement is a
multiple of eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by
Unix).  The total number of spaces preceding the first non-blank
character then determines the line’s indentation.  Indentation cannot be
split over multiple physical lines using backslashes; the whitespace up
to the first backslash determines the indentation.

Indentation is rejected as inconsistent if a source file mixes tabs and
spaces in a way that makes the meaning dependent on the worth of a tab
in spaces; a *note TabError: 2d1. is raised in that case.

'Cross-platform compatibility note:' because of the nature of text
editors on non-UNIX platforms, it is unwise to use a mixture of spaces
and tabs for the indentation in a single source file.  It should also be
noted that different platforms may explicitly limit the maximum
indentation level.

A formfeed character may be present at the start of the line; it will be
ignored for the indentation calculations above.  Formfeed characters
occurring elsewhere in the leading whitespace have an undefined effect
(for instance, they may reset the space count to zero).

The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT
and DEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows.

Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on
the stack; this will never be popped off again.  The numbers pushed on
the stack will always be strictly increasing from bottom to top.  At the
beginning of each logical line, the line’s indentation level is compared
to the top of the stack.  If it is equal, nothing happens.  If it is
larger, it is pushed on the stack, and one INDENT token is generated.
If it is smaller, it 'must' be one of the numbers occurring on the
stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger are popped off, and for
each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated.  At the end of the
file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on the stack
that is larger than zero.

Here is an example of a correctly (though confusingly) indented piece of
Python code:

     def perm(l):
             # Compute the list of all permutations of l
         if len(l) <= 1:
                       return [l]
         r = []
         for i in range(len(l)):
                  s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
                  p = perm(s)
                  for x in p:
                   r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
         return r

The following example shows various indentation errors:

      def perm(l):                       # error: first line indented
     for i in range(len(l)):             # error: not indented
         s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
             p = perm(l[:i] + l[i+1:])   # error: unexpected indent
             for x in p:
                     r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
                 return r                # error: inconsistent dedent

(Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the
last error is found by the lexical analyzer — the indentation of ‘return
r’ does not match a level popped off the stack.)


File: python.info,  Node: Whitespace between tokens,  Prev: Indentation,  Up: Line structure

4.2.1.9 Whitespace between tokens
.................................

Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the
whitespace characters space, tab and formfeed can be used
interchangeably to separate tokens.  Whitespace is needed between two
tokens only if their concatenation could otherwise be interpreted as a
different token (e.g., ab is one token, but a b is two tokens).


File: python.info,  Node: Other tokens,  Next: Identifiers and keywords,  Prev: Line structure,  Up: Lexical analysis

4.2.2 Other tokens
------------------

Besides NEWLINE, INDENT and DEDENT, the following categories of tokens
exist: 'identifiers', 'keywords', 'literals', 'operators', and
'delimiters'.  Whitespace characters (other than line terminators,
discussed earlier) are not tokens, but serve to delimit tokens.  Where
ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longest possible string that
forms a legal token, when read from left to right.


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiers and keywords,  Next: Literals,  Prev: Other tokens,  Up: Lexical analysis

4.2.3 Identifiers and keywords
------------------------------

Identifiers (also referred to as 'names') are described by the following
lexical definitions.

The syntax of identifiers in Python is based on the Unicode standard
annex UAX-31, with elaboration and changes as defined below; see also
PEP 3131(1) for further details.

Within the ASCII range (U+0001..U+007F), the valid characters for
identifiers include the uppercase and lowercase letters ‘A’ through ‘Z’,
the underscore ‘_’ and, except for the first character, the digits ‘0’
through ‘9’.  Python 3.0 introduced additional characters from outside
the ASCII range (see PEP 3131(2)).  For these characters, the
classification uses the version of the Unicode Character Database as
included in the *note unicodedata: 105. module.

Identifiers are unlimited in length.  Case is significant.

     identifier   ::= *note xid_start: 1c84. *note xid_continue: 1c85.*
     id_start     ::= <all characters in general categories Lu, Ll, Lt, Lm, Lo, Nl, the underscore, and characters with the Other_ID_Start property>
     id_continue  ::= <all characters in *note id_start: 1c86, plus characters in the categories Mn, Mc, Nd, Pc and others with the Other_ID_Continue property>
     xid_start    ::= <all characters in *note id_start: 1c86. whose NFKC normalization is in "id_start xid_continue*">
     xid_continue ::= <all characters in *note id_continue: 1c87. whose NFKC normalization is in "id_continue*">

The Unicode category codes mentioned above stand for:

   * 'Lu' - uppercase letters

   * 'Ll' - lowercase letters

   * 'Lt' - titlecase letters

   * 'Lm' - modifier letters

   * 'Lo' - other letters

   * 'Nl' - letter numbers

   * 'Mn' - nonspacing marks

   * 'Mc' - spacing combining marks

   * 'Nd' - decimal numbers

   * 'Pc' - connector punctuations

   * 'Other_ID_Start' - explicit list of characters in PropList.txt(3)
     to support backwards compatibility

   * 'Other_ID_Continue' - likewise

All identifiers are converted into the normal form NFKC while parsing;
comparison of identifiers is based on NFKC.

A non-normative HTML file listing all valid identifier characters for
Unicode 15.0.0 can be found at
‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/DerivedCoreProperties.txt’

* Menu:

* Keywords::
* Soft Keywords::
* Reserved classes of identifiers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Keywords,  Next: Soft Keywords,  Up: Identifiers and keywords

4.2.3.1 Keywords
................

The following identifiers are used as reserved words, or 'keywords' of
the language, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers.  They must be
spelled exactly as written here:

     False      await      else       import     pass
     None       break      except     in         raise
     True       class      finally    is         return
     and        continue   for        lambda     try
     as         def        from       nonlocal   while
     assert     del        global     not        with
     async      elif       if         or         yield


File: python.info,  Node: Soft Keywords,  Next: Reserved classes of identifiers,  Prev: Keywords,  Up: Identifiers and keywords

4.2.3.2 Soft Keywords
.....................

Added in version 3.10.

Some identifiers are only reserved under specific contexts.  These are
known as 'soft keywords'.  The identifiers ‘match’, ‘case’, ‘type’ and
‘_’ can syntactically act as keywords in certain contexts, but this
distinction is done at the parser level, not when tokenizing.

As soft keywords, their use in the grammar is possible while still
preserving compatibility with existing code that uses these names as
identifier names.

‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ are used in the *note match: 648. statement.
‘type’ is used in the *note type: 140. statement.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘type’ is now a soft keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Reserved classes of identifiers,  Prev: Soft Keywords,  Up: Identifiers and keywords

4.2.3.3 Reserved classes of identifiers
.......................................

Certain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special meanings.
These classes are identified by the patterns of leading and trailing
underscore characters:

‘_*’

     Not imported by ‘from module import *’.

‘_’

     In a ‘case’ pattern within a *note match: 648. statement, ‘_’ is a
     *note soft keyword: 647. that denotes a *note wildcard: 649.

     Separately, the interactive interpreter makes the result of the
     last evaluation available in the variable ‘_’.  (It is stored in
     the *note builtins: 12. module, alongside built-in functions like
     ‘print’.)

     Elsewhere, ‘_’ is a regular identifier.  It is often used to name
     “special” items, but it is not special to Python itself.

          Not: The name ‘_’ is often used in conjunction with
          internationalization; refer to the documentation for the *note
          gettext: 61. module for more information on this convention.

          It is also commonly used for unused variables.

‘__*__’

     System-defined names, informally known as “dunder” names.  These
     names are defined by the interpreter and its implementation
     (including the standard library).  Current system names are
     discussed in the *note Special method names: aec. section and
     elsewhere.  More will likely be defined in future versions of
     Python.  'Any' use of ‘__*__’ names, in any context, that does not
     follow explicitly documented use, is subject to breakage without
     warning.

‘__*’

     Class-private names.  Names in this category, when used within the
     context of a class definition, are re-written to use a mangled form
     to help avoid name clashes between “private” attributes of base and
     derived classes.  See section *note Identifiers (Names): 1c8d.


File: python.info,  Node: Literals,  Next: Operators,  Prev: Identifiers and keywords,  Up: Lexical analysis

4.2.4 Literals
--------------

Literals are notations for constant values of some built-in types.

* Menu:

* String and Bytes literals::
* String literal concatenation::
* f-strings::
* Numeric literals::
* Integer literals::
* Floating-point literals::
* Imaginary literals::


File: python.info,  Node: String and Bytes literals,  Next: String literal concatenation,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.1 String and Bytes literals
.................................

String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

     stringliteral   ::= [*note stringprefix: 1c93.](*note shortstring: 1c94. | *note longstring: 1c95.)
     stringprefix    ::= "r" | "u" | "R" | "U" | "f" | "F"
                         | "fr" | "Fr" | "fR" | "FR" | "rf" | "rF" | "Rf" | "RF"
     shortstring     ::= "'" *note shortstringitem: 1c96.* "'" | '"' *note shortstringitem: 1c96.* '"'
     longstring      ::= "'''" *note longstringitem: 1c97.* "'''" | '"""' *note longstringitem: 1c97.* '"""'
     shortstringitem ::= *note shortstringchar: 1c98. | *note stringescapeseq: 1c99.
     longstringitem  ::= *note longstringchar: 1c9a. | *note stringescapeseq: 1c99.
     shortstringchar ::= <any source character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longstringchar  ::= <any source character except "\">
     stringescapeseq ::= "\" <any source character>

     bytesliteral   ::= *note bytesprefix: 1c9c.(*note shortbytes: 1c9d. | *note longbytes: 1c9e.)
     bytesprefix    ::= "b" | "B" | "br" | "Br" | "bR" | "BR" | "rb" | "rB" | "Rb" | "RB"
     shortbytes     ::= "'" *note shortbytesitem: 1c9f.* "'" | '"' *note shortbytesitem: 1c9f.* '"'
     longbytes      ::= "'''" *note longbytesitem: 1ca0.* "'''" | '"""' *note longbytesitem: 1ca0.* '"""'
     shortbytesitem ::= *note shortbyteschar: 1ca1. | *note bytesescapeseq: 1ca2.
     longbytesitem  ::= *note longbyteschar: 1ca3. | *note bytesescapeseq: 1ca2.
     shortbyteschar ::= <any ASCII character except "\" or newline or the quote>
     longbyteschar  ::= <any ASCII character except "\">
     bytesescapeseq ::= "\" <any ASCII character>

One syntactic restriction not indicated by these productions is that
whitespace is not allowed between the *note stringprefix: 1c93. or *note
bytesprefix: 1c9c. and the rest of the literal.  The source character
set is defined by the encoding declaration; it is UTF-8 if no encoding
declaration is given in the source file; see section *note Encoding
declarations: 1c74.

In plain English: Both types of literals can be enclosed in matching
single quotes (‘'’) or double quotes (‘"’).  They can also be enclosed
in matching groups of three single or double quotes (these are generally
referred to as 'triple-quoted strings').  The backslash (‘\’) character
is used to give special meaning to otherwise ordinary characters like
‘n’, which means ‘newline’ when escaped (‘\n’).  It can also be used to
escape characters that otherwise have a special meaning, such as
newline, backslash itself, or the quote character.  See *note escape
sequences: 170. below for examples.

Bytes literals are always prefixed with ‘'b'’ or ‘'B'’; they produce an
instance of the *note bytes: 2cb. type instead of the *note str: 15d.
type.  They may only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric
value of 128 or greater must be expressed with escapes.

Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter
‘'r'’ or ‘'R'’; such constructs are called 'raw string literals' and
'raw bytes literals' respectively and treat backslashes as literal
characters.  As a result, in raw string literals, ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’
escapes are not treated specially.

Added in version 3.3: The ‘'rb'’ prefix of raw bytes literals has been
added as a synonym of ‘'br'’.

Support for the unicode legacy literal (‘u'value'’) was reintroduced to
simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases.  See PEP
414(1) for more information.

A string literal with ‘'f'’ or ‘'F'’ in its prefix is a 'formatted
string literal'; see *note f-strings: 807.  The ‘'f'’ may be combined
with ‘'r'’, but not with ‘'b'’ or ‘'u'’, therefore raw formatted strings
are possible, but formatted bytes literals are not.

In triple-quoted literals, unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed
(and are retained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row
terminate the literal.  (A “quote” is the character used to open the
literal, i.e.  either ‘'’ or ‘"’.)

* Menu:

* Escape sequences::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: Escape sequences,  Up: String and Bytes literals

4.2.4.2 Escape sequences
........................

Unless an ‘'r'’ or ‘'R'’ prefix is present, escape sequences in string
and bytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those
used by Standard C. The recognized escape sequences are:

Escape Sequence               Meaning                               Notes
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\’<newline>                  Backslash and newline ignored         (1)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘\\’                          Backslash (‘\’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\'’                          Single quote (‘'’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\"’                          Double quote (‘"’)
                              
                                                                    
‘\a’                          ASCII Bell (BEL)
                              
                                                                    
‘\b’                          ASCII Backspace (BS)
                              
                                                                    
‘\f’                          ASCII Formfeed (FF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\n’                          ASCII Linefeed (LF)
                              
                                                                    
‘\r’                          ASCII Carriage Return (CR)
                              
                                                                    
‘\t’                          ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB)
                              
                                                                    
‘\v’                          ASCII Vertical Tab (VT)
                              
                                                                    
‘\OOO’                        Character with octal value 'ooo'      (2,4)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘\xHH’                        Character with hex value 'hh'         (3,4)
                                                                    

Escape sequences only recognized in string literals are:

Escape Sequence               Meaning                               Notes
                                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘\N{NAME}’                    Character named 'name' in the         (5)
                              Unicode database                      
                              
                                                                    
‘\uXXXX’                      Character with 16-bit hex value       (6)
                              'xxxx'                                
                              
                                                                    
‘\UXXXXXXXX’                  Character with 32-bit hex value       (7)
                              'xxxxxxxx'                            
                              

Notes:

  1. A backslash can be added at the end of a line to ignore the
     newline:

          >>> 'This string will not include \
          ... backslashes or newline characters.'
          'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.'

     The same result can be achieved using *note triple-quoted strings:
     1c91, or parentheses and *note string literal concatenation: 1ca5.

  2. As in Standard C, up to three octal digits are accepted.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Octal escapes with value larger than
     ‘0o377’ produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Octal escapes with value larger than
     ‘0o377’ produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e.  In a future Python
     version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 14c.

  3. Unlike in Standard C, exactly two hex digits are required.

  4. In a bytes literal, hexadecimal and octal escapes denote the byte
     with the given value.  In a string literal, these escapes denote a
     Unicode character with the given value.

  5. 
     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support for name aliases (1) has been added.

  6. Exactly four hex digits are required.

  7. Any Unicode character can be encoded this way.  Exactly eight hex
     digits are required.

Unlike Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the
string unchanged, i.e., 'the backslash is left in the result'.  (This
behavior is useful when debugging: if an escape sequence is mistyped,
the resulting output is more easily recognized as broken.)  It is also
important to note that the escape sequences only recognized in string
literals fall into the category of unrecognized escapes for bytes
literals.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a *note
SyntaxWarning: 17e.  In a future Python version they will be eventually
a *note SyntaxError: 14c.

Even in a raw literal, quotes can be escaped with a backslash, but the
backslash remains in the result; for example, ‘r"\""’ is a valid string
literal consisting of two characters: a backslash and a double quote;
‘r"\"’ is not a valid string literal (even a raw string cannot end in an
odd number of backslashes).  Specifically, 'a raw literal cannot end in
a single backslash' (since the backslash would escape the following
quote character).  Note also that a single backslash followed by a
newline is interpreted as those two characters as part of the literal,
'not' as a line continuation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’


File: python.info,  Node: String literal concatenation,  Next: f-strings,  Prev: String and Bytes literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.3 String literal concatenation
....................................

Multiple adjacent string or bytes literals (delimited by whitespace),
possibly using different quoting conventions, are allowed, and their
meaning is the same as their concatenation.  Thus, ‘"hello" 'world'’ is
equivalent to ‘"helloworld"’.  This feature can be used to reduce the
number of backslashes needed, to split long strings conveniently across
long lines, or even to add comments to parts of strings, for example:

     re.compile("[A-Za-z_]"       # letter or underscore
                "[A-Za-z0-9_]*"   # letter, digit or underscore
               )

Note that this feature is defined at the syntactical level, but
implemented at compile time.  The ‘+’ operator must be used to
concatenate string expressions at run time.  Also note that literal
concatenation can use different quoting styles for each component (even
mixing raw strings and triple quoted strings), and formatted string
literals may be concatenated with plain string literals.


File: python.info,  Node: f-strings,  Next: Numeric literals,  Prev: String literal concatenation,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.4 f-strings
.................

Added in version 3.6.

A 'formatted string literal' or 'f-string' is a string literal that is
prefixed with ‘'f'’ or ‘'F'’.  These strings may contain replacement
fields, which are expressions delimited by curly braces ‘{}’.  While
other string literals always have a constant value, formatted strings
are really expressions evaluated at run time.

Escape sequences are decoded like in ordinary string literals (except
when a literal is also marked as a raw string).  After decoding, the
grammar for the contents of the string is:

     f_string          ::= (*note literal_char: 1caa. | "{{" | "}}" | *note replacement_field: 1cab.)*
     replacement_field ::= "{" *note f_expression: 1cac. ["="] ["!" *note conversion: 1cad.] [":" *note format_spec: 1cae.] "}"
     f_expression      ::= (*note conditional_expression: 1caf. | "*" *note or_expr: 1cb0.)
                           ("," *note conditional_expression: 1caf. | "," "*" *note or_expr: 1cb0.)* [","]
                           | *note yield_expression: 1cb1.
     conversion        ::= "s" | "r" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= (*note literal_char: 1caa. | *note replacement_field: 1cab.)*
     literal_char      ::= <any code point except "{", "}" or NULL>

The parts of the string outside curly braces are treated literally,
except that any doubled curly braces ‘'{{'’ or ‘'}}'’ are replaced with
the corresponding single curly brace.  A single opening curly bracket
‘'{'’ marks a replacement field, which starts with a Python expression.
To display both the expression text and its value after evaluation,
(useful in debugging), an equal sign ‘'='’ may be added after the
expression.  A conversion field, introduced by an exclamation point
‘'!'’ may follow.  A format specifier may also be appended, introduced
by a colon ‘':'’.  A replacement field ends with a closing curly bracket
‘'}'’.

Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular Python
expressions surrounded by parentheses, with a few exceptions.  An empty
expression is not allowed, and both *note lambda: 1145. and assignment
expressions ‘:=’ must be surrounded by explicit parentheses.  Each
expression is evaluated in the context where the formatted string
literal appears, in order from left to right.  Replacement expressions
can contain newlines in both single-quoted and triple-quoted f-strings
and they can contain comments.  Everything that comes after a ‘#’ inside
a replacement field is a comment (even closing braces and quotes).  In
that case, replacement fields must be closed in a different line.

     >>> f"abc{a # This is a comment }"
     ... + 3}"
     'abc5'

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.7, an *note await: 55b.
expression and comprehensions containing an *note async for: 916. clause
were illegal in the expressions in formatted string literals due to a
problem with the implementation.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.12, comments were not allowed
inside f-string replacement fields.

When the equal sign ‘'='’ is provided, the output will have the
expression text, the ‘'='’ and the evaluated value.  Spaces after the
opening brace ‘'{'’, within the expression and after the ‘'='’ are all
retained in the output.  By default, the ‘'='’ causes the *note repr():
637. of the expression to be provided, unless there is a format
specified.  When a format is specified it defaults to the *note str():
15d. of the expression unless a conversion ‘'!r'’ is declared.

Added in version 3.8: The equal sign ‘'='’.

If a conversion is specified, the result of evaluating the expression is
converted before formatting.  Conversion ‘'!s'’ calls *note str(): 15d.
on the result, ‘'!r'’ calls *note repr(): 637, and ‘'!a'’ calls *note
ascii(): 126d.

The result is then formatted using the *note format(): 431. protocol.
The format specifier is passed to the *note __format__(): 430. method of
the expression or conversion result.  An empty string is passed when the
format specifier is omitted.  The formatted result is then included in
the final value of the whole string.

Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields.
These nested fields may include their own conversion fields and *note
format specifiers: 3ee, but may not include more deeply nested
replacement fields.  The *note format specifier mini-language: 3ee. is
the same as that used by the *note str.format(): 433. method.

Formatted string literals may be concatenated, but replacement fields
cannot be split across literals.

Some examples of formatted string literals:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name!r}."
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> f"He said his name is {repr(name)}."  # repr() is equivalent to !r
     "He said his name is 'Fred'."
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
     'result:      12.35'
     >>> today = datetime(year=2017, month=1, day=27)
     >>> f"{today:%B %d, %Y}"  # using date format specifier
     'January 27, 2017'
     >>> f"{today=:%B %d, %Y}" # using date format specifier and debugging
     'today=January 27, 2017'
     >>> number = 1024
     >>> f"{number:#0x}"  # using integer format specifier
     '0x400'
     >>> foo = "bar"
     >>> f"{ foo = }" # preserves whitespace
     " foo = 'bar'"
     >>> line = "The mill's closed"
     >>> f"{line = }"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed"'
     >>> f"{line = :20}"
     "line = The mill's closed   "
     >>> f"{line = !r:20}"
     'line = "The mill\'s closed" '

Reusing the outer f-string quoting type inside a replacement field is
permitted:

     >>> a = dict(x=2)
     >>> f"abc {a["x"]} def"
     'abc 2 def'

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.12, reuse of the same quoting
type of the outer f-string inside a replacement field was not possible.

Backslashes are also allowed in replacement fields and are evaluated the
same way as in any other context:

     >>> a = ["a", "b", "c"]
     >>> print(f"List a contains:\n{"\n".join(a)}")
     List a contains:
     a
     b
     c

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.12, backslashes were not
permitted inside an f-string replacement field.

Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings, even if they do
not include expressions.

     >>> def foo():
     ...     f"Not a docstring"
     ...
     >>> foo.__doc__ is None
     True

See also PEP 498(1) for the proposal that added formatted string
literals, and *note str.format(): 433, which uses a related format
string mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: Numeric literals,  Next: Integer literals,  Prev: f-strings,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.5 Numeric literals
........................

There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating-point
numbers, and imaginary numbers.  There are no complex literals (complex
numbers can be formed by adding a real number and an imaginary number).

Note that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like ‘-1’ is
actually an expression composed of the unary operator ‘‘-’’ and the
literal ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Integer literals,  Next: Floating-point literals,  Prev: Numeric literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.6 Integer literals
........................

Integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

     integer      ::= *note decinteger: 1cb7. | *note bininteger: 1cb8. | *note octinteger: 1cb9. | *note hexinteger: 1cba.
     decinteger   ::= *note nonzerodigit: 1cbb. (["_"] *note digit: 1cbc.)* | "0"+ (["_"] "0")*
     bininteger   ::= "0" ("b" | "B") (["_"] *note bindigit: 1cbd.)+
     octinteger   ::= "0" ("o" | "O") (["_"] *note octdigit: 1cbe.)+
     hexinteger   ::= "0" ("x" | "X") (["_"] *note hexdigit: 1cbf.)+
     nonzerodigit ::= "1"..."9"
     digit        ::= "0"..."9"
     bindigit     ::= "0" | "1"
     octdigit     ::= "0"..."7"
     hexdigit     ::= *note digit: 1cbc. | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"

There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can
be stored in available memory.

Underscores are ignored for determining the numeric value of the
literal.  They can be used to group digits for enhanced readability.
One underscore can occur between digits, and after base specifiers like
‘0x’.

Note that leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed.
This is for disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python
used before version 3.0.

Some examples of integer literals:

     7     2147483647                        0o177    0b100110111
     3     79228162514264337593543950336     0o377    0xdeadbeef
           100_000_000_000                   0b_1110_0101

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes
in literals.


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-point literals,  Next: Imaginary literals,  Prev: Integer literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.7 Floating-point literals
...............................

Floating-point literals are described by the following lexical
definitions:

     floatnumber   ::= *note pointfloat: 1cc3. | *note exponentfloat: 1cc4.
     pointfloat    ::= [*note digitpart: 1cc5.] *note fraction: 1cc6. | *note digitpart: 1cc5. "."
     exponentfloat ::= (*note digitpart: 1cc5. | *note pointfloat: 1cc3.) *note exponent: 1cc7.
     digitpart     ::= *note digit: 1cbc. (["_"] *note digit: 1cbc.)*
     fraction      ::= "." *note digitpart: 1cc5.
     exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] *note digitpart: 1cc5.

Note that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using
radix 10.  For example, ‘077e010’ is legal, and denotes the same number
as ‘77e10’.  The allowed range of floating-point literals is
implementation-dependent.  As in integer literals, underscores are
supported for digit grouping.

Some examples of floating-point literals:

     3.14    10.    .001    1e100    3.14e-10    0e0    3.14_15_93

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes
in literals.


File: python.info,  Node: Imaginary literals,  Prev: Floating-point literals,  Up: Literals

4.2.4.8 Imaginary literals
..........................

Imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

     imagnumber ::= (*note floatnumber: 1cc2. | *note digitpart: 1cc5.) ("j" | "J")

An imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0.
Complex numbers are represented as a pair of floating-point numbers and
have the same restrictions on their range.  To create a complex number
with a nonzero real part, add a floating-point number to it, e.g.,
‘(3+4j)’.  Some examples of imaginary literals:

     3.14j   10.j    10j     .001j   1e100j   3.14e-10j   3.14_15_93j


File: python.info,  Node: Operators,  Next: Delimiters,  Prev: Literals,  Up: Lexical analysis

4.2.5 Operators
---------------

The following tokens are operators:

     +       -       *       **      /       //      %      @
     <<      >>      &       |       ^       ~       :=
     <       >       <=      >=      ==      !=


File: python.info,  Node: Delimiters,  Prev: Operators,  Up: Lexical analysis

4.2.6 Delimiters
----------------

The following tokens serve as delimiters in the grammar:

     (       )       [       ]       {       }
     ,       :       !       .       ;       @       =
     ->      +=      -=      *=      /=      //=     %=
     @=      &=      |=      ^=      >>=     <<=     **=

The period can also occur in floating-point and imaginary literals.  A
sequence of three periods has a special meaning as an ellipsis literal.
The second half of the list, the augmented assignment operators, serve
lexically as delimiters, but also perform an operation.

The following printing ASCII characters have special meaning as part of
other tokens or are otherwise significant to the lexical analyzer:

     '       "       #       \

The following printing ASCII characters are not used in Python.  Their
occurrence outside string literals and comments is an unconditional
error:

     $       ?       `


File: python.info,  Node: Data model,  Next: Execution model,  Prev: Lexical analysis,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.3 Data model
==============

* Menu:

* Objects, values and types: Objects values and types.
* The standard type hierarchy::
* Special method names::
* Coroutines::


File: python.info,  Node: Objects values and types,  Next: The standard type hierarchy,  Up: Data model

4.3.1 Objects, values and types
-------------------------------

'Objects' are Python’s abstraction for data.  All data in a Python
program is represented by objects or by relations between objects.  (In
a sense, and in conformance to Von Neumann’s model of a “stored program
computer”, code is also represented by objects.)

Every object has an identity, a type and a value.  An object’s
'identity' never changes once it has been created; you may think of it
as the object’s address in memory.  The *note is: 270. operator compares
the identity of two objects; the *note id(): 12ab. function returns an
integer representing its identity.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' For CPython, ‘id(x)’ is the memory address
where ‘x’ is stored.

An object’s type determines the operations that the object supports
(e.g., “does it have a length?”) and also defines the possible values
for objects of that type.  The *note type(): bd1. function returns an
object’s type (which is an object itself).  Like its identity, an
object’s 'type' is also unchangeable.  (1)

The 'value' of some objects can change.  Objects whose value can change
are said to be 'mutable'; objects whose value is unchangeable once they
are created are called 'immutable'.  (The value of an immutable
container object that contains a reference to a mutable object can
change when the latter’s value is changed; however the container is
still considered immutable, because the collection of objects it
contains cannot be changed.  So, immutability is not strictly the same
as having an unchangeable value, it is more subtle.)  An object’s
mutability is determined by its type; for instance, numbers, strings and
tuples are immutable, while dictionaries and lists are mutable.

Objects are never explicitly destroyed; however, when they become
unreachable they may be garbage-collected.  An implementation is allowed
to postpone garbage collection or omit it altogether — it is a matter of
implementation quality how garbage collection is implemented, as long as
no objects are collected that are still reachable.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' CPython currently uses a
reference-counting scheme with (optional) delayed detection of
cyclically linked garbage, which collects most objects as soon as they
become unreachable, but is not guaranteed to collect garbage containing
circular references.  See the documentation of the *note gc: 5e. module
for information on controlling the collection of cyclic garbage.  Other
implementations act differently and CPython may change.  Do not depend
on immediate finalization of objects when they become unreachable (so
you should always close files explicitly).

Note that the use of the implementation’s tracing or debugging
facilities may keep objects alive that would normally be collectable.
Also note that catching an exception with a *note try: 503.…*note
except: 3c0. statement may keep objects alive.

Some objects contain references to “external” resources such as open
files or windows.  It is understood that these resources are freed when
the object is garbage-collected, but since garbage collection is not
guaranteed to happen, such objects also provide an explicit way to
release the external resource, usually a ‘close()’ method.  Programs are
strongly recommended to explicitly close such objects.  The *note try:
503.…*note finally: 828. statement and the *note with: 3dd. statement
provide convenient ways to do this.

Some objects contain references to other objects; these are called
'containers'.  Examples of containers are tuples, lists and
dictionaries.  The references are part of a container’s value.  In most
cases, when we talk about the value of a container, we imply the values,
not the identities of the contained objects; however, when we talk about
the mutability of a container, only the identities of the immediately
contained objects are implied.  So, if an immutable container (like a
tuple) contains a reference to a mutable object, its value changes if
that mutable object is changed.

Types affect almost all aspects of object behavior.  Even the importance
of object identity is affected in some sense: for immutable types,
operations that compute new values may actually return a reference to
any existing object with the same type and value, while for mutable
objects this is not allowed.  For example, after ‘a = 1; b = 1’, 'a' and
'b' may or may not refer to the same object with the value one,
depending on the implementation.  This is because *note int: 184. is an
immutable type, so the reference to ‘1’ can be reused.  This behaviour
depends on the implementation used, so should not be relied upon, but is
something to be aware of when making use of object identity tests.
However, after ‘c = []; d = []’, 'c' and 'd' are guaranteed to refer to
two different, unique, newly created empty lists.  (Note that ‘e = f =
[]’ assigns the 'same' object to both 'e' and 'f'.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) It 'is' possible in some cases to change an object’s type, under
certain controlled conditions.  It generally isn’t a good idea though,
since it can lead to some very strange behaviour if it is handled
incorrectly.


File: python.info,  Node: The standard type hierarchy,  Next: Special method names,  Prev: Objects values and types,  Up: Data model

4.3.2 The standard type hierarchy
---------------------------------

Below is a list of the types that are built into Python.  Extension
modules (written in C, Java, or other languages, depending on the
implementation) can define additional types.  Future versions of Python
may add types to the type hierarchy (e.g., rational numbers, efficiently
stored arrays of integers, etc.), although such additions will often be
provided via the standard library instead.

Some of the type descriptions below contain a paragraph listing ‘special
attributes.’ These are attributes that provide access to the
implementation and are not intended for general use.  Their definition
may change in the future.

* Menu:

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Sequences::
* Set types::
* Mappings::
* Callable types::
* Modules: Modules<2>.
* Custom classes::
* Class instances::
* I/O objects (also known as file objects): I/O objects also known as file objects.
* Internal types::


File: python.info,  Node: None,  Next: NotImplemented,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.1 None
............

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name ‘None’.  It is used to
signify the absence of a value in many situations, e.g., it is returned
from functions that don’t explicitly return anything.  Its truth value
is false.


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented,  Next: Ellipsis,  Prev: None,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.2 NotImplemented
......................

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the built-in name *note NotImplemented:
60b.  Numeric methods and rich comparison methods should return this
value if they do not implement the operation for the operands provided.
(The interpreter will then try the reflected operation, or some other
fallback, depending on the operator.)  It should not be evaluated in a
boolean context.

See *note Implementing the arithmetic operations: 1cd7. for more
details.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Evaluating *note NotImplemented: 60b. in a
boolean context is deprecated.  While it currently evaluates as true, it
will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  It will raise a *note
TypeError: 2c4. in a future version of Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis,  Next: numbers Number,  Prev: NotImplemented,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.3 Ellipsis
................

This type has a single value.  There is a single object with this value.
This object is accessed through the literal ‘...’ or the built-in name
‘Ellipsis’.  Its truth value is true.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Number,  Next: Sequences,  Prev: Ellipsis,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.4 ‘numbers.Number’
........................

These are created by numeric literals and returned as results by
arithmetic operators and arithmetic built-in functions.  Numeric objects
are immutable; once created their value never changes.  Python numbers
are of course strongly related to mathematical numbers, but subject to
the limitations of numerical representation in computers.

The string representations of the numeric classes, computed by *note
__repr__(): 42e. and *note __str__(): 42f, have the following
properties:

   * They are valid numeric literals which, when passed to their class
     constructor, produce an object having the value of the original
     numeric.

   * The representation is in base 10, when possible.

   * Leading zeros, possibly excepting a single zero before a decimal
     point, are not shown.

   * Trailing zeros, possibly excepting a single zero after a decimal
     point, are not shown.

   * A sign is shown only when the number is negative.

Python distinguishes between integers, floating-point numbers, and
complex numbers:

* Menu:

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Integral,  Next: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.5 ‘numbers.Integral’
..........................

These represent elements from the mathematical set of integers (positive
and negative).

     Not: 
     The rules for integer representation are intended to give the most
     meaningful interpretation of shift and mask operations involving
     negative integers.

There are two types of integers:

Integers (*note int: 184.)

     These represent numbers in an unlimited range, subject to available
     (virtual) memory only.  For the purpose of shift and mask
     operations, a binary representation is assumed, and negative
     numbers are represented in a variant of 2’s complement which gives
     the illusion of an infinite string of sign bits extending to the
     left.

Booleans (*note bool: 183.)

     These represent the truth values False and True.  The two objects
     representing the values ‘False’ and ‘True’ are the only Boolean
     objects.  The Boolean type is a subtype of the integer type, and
     Boolean values behave like the values 0 and 1, respectively, in
     almost all contexts, the exception being that when converted to a
     string, the strings ‘"False"’ or ‘"True"’ are returned,
     respectively.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Real float,  Next: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Integral,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.6 ‘numbers.Real’ (‘float’)
................................

These represent machine-level double precision floating-point numbers.
You are at the mercy of the underlying machine architecture (and C or
Java implementation) for the accepted range and handling of overflow.
Python does not support single-precision floating-point numbers; the
savings in processor and memory usage that are usually the reason for
using these are dwarfed by the overhead of using objects in Python, so
there is no reason to complicate the language with two kinds of
floating-point numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.7 ‘numbers.Complex’ (‘complex’)
.....................................

These represent complex numbers as a pair of machine-level double
precision floating-point numbers.  The same caveats apply as for
floating-point numbers.  The real and imaginary parts of a complex
number ‘z’ can be retrieved through the read-only attributes ‘z.real’
and ‘z.imag’.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequences,  Next: Set types,  Prev: numbers Number,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.8 Sequences
.................

These represent finite ordered sets indexed by non-negative numbers.
The built-in function *note len(): 441. returns the number of items of a
sequence.  When the length of a sequence is 'n', the index set contains
the numbers 0, 1, …, 'n'-1.  Item 'i' of sequence 'a' is selected by
‘a[i]’.  Some sequences, including built-in sequences, interpret
negative subscripts by adding the sequence length.  For example, ‘a[-2]’
equals ‘a[n-2]’, the second to last item of sequence a with length ‘n’.

Sequences also support slicing: ‘a[i:j]’ selects all items with index
'k' such that 'i' ‘<=’ 'k' ‘<’ 'j'.  When used as an expression, a slice
is a sequence of the same type.  The comment above about negative
indexes also applies to negative slice positions.

Some sequences also support “extended slicing” with a third “step”
parameter: ‘a[i:j:k]’ selects all items of 'a' with index 'x' where ‘x =
i + n*k’, 'n' ‘>=’ ‘0’ and 'i' ‘<=’ 'x' ‘<’ 'j'.

Sequences are distinguished according to their mutability:

* Menu:

* Immutable sequences::
* Mutable sequences::


File: python.info,  Node: Immutable sequences,  Next: Mutable sequences,  Up: Sequences

4.3.2.9 Immutable sequences
...........................

An object of an immutable sequence type cannot change once it is
created.  (If the object contains references to other objects, these
other objects may be mutable and may be changed; however, the collection
of objects directly referenced by an immutable object cannot change.)

The following types are immutable sequences:

Strings

     A string is a sequence of values that represent Unicode code
     points.  All the code points in the range ‘U+0000 - U+10FFFF’ can
     be represented in a string.  Python doesn’t have a char type;
     instead, every code point in the string is represented as a string
     object with length ‘1’.  The built-in function *note ord(): 1cdf.
     converts a code point from its string form to an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’; *note chr(): 1ce0. converts an integer in the
     range ‘0 - 10FFFF’ to the corresponding length ‘1’ string object.
     *note str.encode(): 728. can be used to convert a *note str: 15d.
     to *note bytes: 2cb. using the given text encoding, and *note
     bytes.decode(): 729. can be used to achieve the opposite.

Tuples

     The items of a tuple are arbitrary Python objects.  Tuples of two
     or more items are formed by comma-separated lists of expressions.
     A tuple of one item (a ‘singleton’) can be formed by affixing a
     comma to an expression (an expression by itself does not create a
     tuple, since parentheses must be usable for grouping of
     expressions).  An empty tuple can be formed by an empty pair of
     parentheses.

Bytes

     A bytes object is an immutable array.  The items are 8-bit bytes,
     represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.  Bytes literals
     (like ‘b'abc'’) and the built-in *note bytes(): 2cb. constructor
     can be used to create bytes objects.  Also, bytes objects can be
     decoded to strings via the *note decode(): 729. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutable sequences,  Prev: Immutable sequences,  Up: Sequences

4.3.2.10 Mutable sequences
..........................

Mutable sequences can be changed after they are created.  The
subscription and slicing notations can be used as the target of
assignment and *note del: 15c5. (delete) statements.

     Not: 
     The *note collections: 1d. and *note array: 7. module provide
     additional examples of mutable sequence types.

There are currently two intrinsic mutable sequence types:

Lists

     The items of a list are arbitrary Python objects.  Lists are formed
     by placing a comma-separated list of expressions in square
     brackets.  (Note that there are no special cases needed to form
     lists of length 0 or 1.)

Byte Arrays

     A bytearray object is a mutable array.  They are created by the
     built-in *note bytearray(): 2ca. constructor.  Aside from being
     mutable (and hence unhashable), byte arrays otherwise provide the
     same interface and functionality as immutable *note bytes: 2cb.
     objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Set types,  Next: Mappings,  Prev: Sequences,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.11 Set types
..................

These represent unordered, finite sets of unique, immutable objects.  As
such, they cannot be indexed by any subscript.  However, they can be
iterated over, and the built-in function *note len(): 441. returns the
number of items in a set.  Common uses for sets are fast membership
testing, removing duplicates from a sequence, and computing mathematical
operations such as intersection, union, difference, and symmetric
difference.

For set elements, the same immutability rules apply as for dictionary
keys.  Note that numeric types obey the normal rules for numeric
comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., ‘1’ and ‘1.0’), only one
of them can be contained in a set.

There are currently two intrinsic set types:

Sets

     These represent a mutable set.  They are created by the built-in
     *note set(): 3e4. constructor and can be modified afterwards by
     several methods, such as ‘add()’.

Frozen sets

     These represent an immutable set.  They are created by the built-in
     *note frozenset(): 3e5. constructor.  As a frozenset is immutable
     and *note hashable: 421, it can be used again as an element of
     another set, or as a dictionary key.


File: python.info,  Node: Mappings,  Next: Callable types,  Prev: Set types,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.12 Mappings
.................

These represent finite sets of objects indexed by arbitrary index sets.
The subscript notation ‘a[k]’ selects the item indexed by ‘k’ from the
mapping ‘a’; this can be used in expressions and as the target of
assignments or *note del: 15c5. statements.  The built-in function *note
len(): 441. returns the number of items in a mapping.

There is currently a single intrinsic mapping type:

* Menu:

* Dictionaries::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionaries,  Up: Mappings

4.3.2.13 Dictionaries
.....................

These represent finite sets of objects indexed by nearly arbitrary
values.  The only types of values not acceptable as keys are values
containing lists or dictionaries or other mutable types that are
compared by value rather than by object identity, the reason being that
the efficient implementation of dictionaries requires a key’s hash value
to remain constant.  Numeric types used for keys obey the normal rules
for numeric comparison: if two numbers compare equal (e.g., ‘1’ and
‘1.0’) then they can be used interchangeably to index the same
dictionary entry.

Dictionaries preserve insertion order, meaning that keys will be
produced in the same order they were added sequentially over the
dictionary.  Replacing an existing key does not change the order,
however removing a key and re-inserting it will add it to the end
instead of keeping its old place.

Dictionaries are mutable; they can be created by the ‘{}’ notation (see
section *note Dictionary displays: c0b.).

The extension modules *note dbm.ndbm: 34. and *note dbm.gnu: 33. provide
additional examples of mapping types, as does the *note collections: 1d.
module.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Dictionaries did not preserve insertion order in
versions of Python before 3.6.  In CPython 3.6, insertion order was
preserved, but it was considered an implementation detail at that time
rather than a language guarantee.


File: python.info,  Node: Callable types,  Next: Modules<2>,  Prev: Mappings,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.14 Callable types
.......................

These are the types to which the function call operation (see section
*note Calls: c09.) can be applied:

* Menu:

* User-defined functions::
* Instance methods::
* Generator functions::
* Coroutine functions::
* Asynchronous generator functions::
* Built-in functions::
* Built-in methods::
* Classes::
* Class Instances::


File: python.info,  Node: User-defined functions,  Next: Instance methods,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.15 User-defined functions
...............................

A user-defined function object is created by a function definition (see
section *note Function definitions: 1a7f.).  It should be called with an
argument list containing the same number of items as the function’s
formal parameter list.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes::
* Special writable attributes::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes,  Next: Special writable attributes,  Up: User-defined functions

4.3.2.16 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

Attribute                                              Meaning
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__globals__                   A reference to the *note dictionary: 240. that holds
                                                       the function’s *note global variables: 1ce8. – the
                                                       global namespace of the module in which the function
                                                       was defined.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__closure__                   ‘None’ or a *note tuple: 4ff. of cells that contain
                                                       bindings for the function’s free variables.
                                                       
                                                       A cell object has the attribute ‘cell_contents’.
                                                       This can be used to get the value of the cell, as
                                                       well as set the value.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special writable attributes,  Prev: Special read-only attributes,  Up: User-defined functions

4.3.2.17 Special writable attributes
....................................

Most of these attributes check the type of the assigned value:

Attribute                                              Meaning
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__doc__                       The function’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       unavailable.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__name__                      The function’s name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: f10.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__qualname__                  The function’s *note qualified name: 176c.  See
                                                       also: *note __qualname__ attributes: f0f.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.3.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__module__                    The name of the module the function was defined in,
                                                       or ‘None’ if unavailable.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__defaults__                  A *note tuple: 4ff. containing default
                                                       *note parameter: 1cec. values for those parameters
                                                       that have defaults, or ‘None’ if no parameters have
                                                       a default value.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__code__                      The *note code object: 5e3. representing the
                                                       compiled function body.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__dict__                      The namespace supporting arbitrary function
                                                       attributes.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 2ec.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__annotations__               A *note dictionary: 240. containing annotations of
                                                       *note parameters: 1cec.  The keys of the dictionary
                                                       are the parameter names, and ‘'return'’ for the
                                                       return annotation, if provided.  See also:
                                                       *note Annotations Best Practices: 613.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__kwdefaults__                A *note dictionary: 240. containing defaults for
                                                       keyword-only *note parameters: 1cec.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: function.__type_params__               A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 16c. of a
                                                       *note generic function: 164.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.12.
                                                       

Function objects also support getting and setting arbitrary attributes,
which can be used, for example, to attach metadata to functions.
Regular attribute dot-notation is used to get and set such attributes.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' CPython’s current implementation only
supports function attributes on user-defined functions.  Function
attributes on *note built-in functions: 1cee. may be supported in the
future.

Additional information about a function’s definition can be retrieved
from its *note code object: 5e3. (accessible via the *note __code__:
117a. attribute).


File: python.info,  Node: Instance methods,  Next: Generator functions,  Prev: User-defined functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.18 Instance methods
.........................

An instance method object combines a class, a class instance and any
callable object (normally a user-defined function).

Special read-only attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: method.__self__                        Refers to the class instance object to which the
                                                       method is *note bound: 1cf0.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: method.__func__                        Refers to the original *note function object: 1b08.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: method.__doc__                         The method’s documentation (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__doc__: 107e.).  A
                                                       *note string: 15d. if the original function had a
                                                       docstring, else ‘None’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: method.__name__                        The name of the method (same as
                                                       *note method.__func__.__name__: 117e.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: method.__module__                      The name of the module the method was defined in, or
                                                       ‘None’ if unavailable.
                                                       

Methods also support accessing (but not setting) the arbitrary function
attributes on the underlying *note function object: 1b08.

User-defined method objects may be created when getting an attribute of
a class (perhaps via an instance of that class), if that attribute is a
user-defined *note function object: 1b08. or a *note classmethod: 252.
object.  When an instance method object is created by retrieving a
user-defined *note function object: 1b08. from a class via one of its
instances, its *note __self__: 124f. attribute is the instance, and the
method object is said to be 'bound'.  The new method’s *note __func__:
11a6. attribute is the original function object.

When an instance method object is created by retrieving a *note
classmethod: 252. object from a class or instance, its *note __self__:
124f. attribute is the class itself, and its *note __func__: 11a6.
attribute is the function object underlying the class method.

When an instance method object is called, the underlying function (*note
__func__: 11a6.) is called, inserting the class instance (*note
__self__: 124f.) in front of the argument list.  For instance, when ‘C’
is a class which contains a definition for a function ‘f()’, and ‘x’ is
an instance of ‘C’, calling ‘x.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘C.f(x,
1)’.

When an instance method object is derived from a *note classmethod: 252.
object, the “class instance” stored in *note __self__: 124f. will
actually be the class itself, so that calling either ‘x.f(1)’ or
‘C.f(1)’ is equivalent to calling ‘f(C,1)’ where ‘f’ is the underlying
function.

It is important to note that user-defined functions which are attributes
of a class instance are not converted to bound methods; this 'only'
happens when the function is an attribute of the class.


File: python.info,  Node: Generator functions,  Next: Coroutine functions,  Prev: Instance methods,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.19 Generator functions
............................

A function or method which uses the *note yield: 82b. statement (see
section *note The yield statement: 82b.) is called a 'generator
function'.  Such a function, when called, always returns an *note
iterator: 176e. object which can be used to execute the body of the
function: calling the iterator’s *note iterator.__next__(): 1176. method
will cause the function to execute until it provides a value using the
‘yield’ statement.  When the function executes a *note return: 82c.
statement or falls off the end, a *note StopIteration: a73. exception is
raised and the iterator will have reached the end of the set of values
to be returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine functions,  Next: Asynchronous generator functions,  Prev: Generator functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.20 Coroutine functions
............................

A function or method which is defined using *note async def: 3db. is
called a 'coroutine function'.  Such a function, when called, returns a
*note coroutine: 1b4. object.  It may contain *note await: 55b.
expressions, as well as *note async with: 3e0. and *note async for: 916.
statements.  See also the *note Coroutine Objects: 1cf6. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator functions,  Next: Built-in functions,  Prev: Coroutine functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.21 Asynchronous generator functions
.........................................

A function or method which is defined using *note async def: 3db. and
which uses the *note yield: 82b. statement is called a 'asynchronous
generator function'.  Such a function, when called, returns an *note
asynchronous iterator: c05. object which can be used in an *note async
for: 916. statement to execute the body of the function.

Calling the asynchronous iterator’s *note aiterator.__anext__: 1402.
method will return an *note awaitable: af6. which when awaited will
execute until it provides a value using the *note yield: 82b.
expression.  When the function executes an empty *note return: 82c.
statement or falls off the end, a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1867.
exception is raised and the asynchronous iterator will have reached the
end of the set of values to be yielded.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in functions,  Next: Built-in methods,  Prev: Asynchronous generator functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.22 Built-in functions
...........................

A built-in function object is a wrapper around a C function.  Examples
of built-in functions are *note len(): 441. and *note math.sin(): 1349.
(*note math: 8d. is a standard built-in module).  The number and type of
the arguments are determined by the C function.  Special read-only
attributes:

   * ‘__doc__’ is the function’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if
     unavailable.  See *note function.__doc__: 107e.

   * ‘__name__’ is the function’s name.  See *note function.__name__:
     117e.

   * ‘__self__’ is set to ‘None’ (but see the next item).

   * ‘__module__’ is the name of the module the function was defined in
     or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See *note function.__module__: 1ceb.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in methods,  Next: Classes,  Prev: Built-in functions,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.23 Built-in methods
.........................

This is really a different disguise of a built-in function, this time
containing an object passed to the C function as an implicit extra
argument.  An example of a built-in method is ‘alist.append()’, assuming
'alist' is a list object.  In this case, the special read-only attribute
‘__self__’ is set to the object denoted by 'alist'.  (The attribute has
the same semantics as it does with *note other instance methods: 124f.)


File: python.info,  Node: Classes,  Next: Class Instances,  Prev: Built-in methods,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.24 Classes
................

Classes are callable.  These objects normally act as factories for new
instances of themselves, but variations are possible for class types
that override *note __new__(): 319.  The arguments of the call are
passed to ‘__new__()’ and, in the typical case, to *note __init__():
4c6. to initialize the new instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Instances,  Prev: Classes,  Up: Callable types

4.3.2.25 Class Instances
........................

Instances of arbitrary classes can be made callable by defining a *note
__call__(): 2e7. method in their class.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<2>,  Next: Custom classes,  Prev: Callable types,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.26 Modules
................

Modules are a basic organizational unit of Python code, and are created
by the *note import system: 1cff. as invoked either by the *note import:
3ed. statement, or by calling functions such as *note
importlib.import_module(): 2a2. and built-in *note __import__(): 727.  A
module object has a namespace implemented by a *note dictionary: 240.
object (this is the dictionary referenced by the *note __globals__:
117d. attribute of functions defined in the module).  Attribute
references are translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘m.x’ is
equivalent to ‘m.__dict__["x"]’.  A module object does not contain the
code object used to initialize the module (since it isn’t needed once
the initialization is done).

Attribute assignment updates the module’s namespace dictionary, e.g.,
‘m.x = 1’ is equivalent to ‘m.__dict__["x"] = 1’.

* Menu:

* Import-related attributes on module objects::
* Other writable attributes on module objects::
* Module dictionaries::


File: python.info,  Node: Import-related attributes on module objects,  Next: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Up: Modules<2>

4.3.2.27 Import-related attributes on module objects
....................................................

Module objects have the following attributes that relate to the *note
import system: 1cff.  When a module is created using the machinery
associated with the import system, these attributes are filled in based
on the module’s *note spec: 1d02, before the *note loader: 14c0.
executes and loads the module.

To create a module dynamically rather than using the import system, it’s
recommended to use *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): ca1, which
will set the various import-controlled attributes to appropriate values.
It’s also possible to use the *note types.ModuleType: ca2. constructor
to create modules directly, but this technique is more error-prone, as
most attributes must be manually set on the module object after it has
been created when using this approach.

     Uyarı: With the exception of *note __name__: 122f, it is 'strongly'
     recommended that you rely on *note __spec__: 1d03. and its
     attributes instead of any of the other individual attributes listed
     in this subsection.  Note that updating an attribute on ‘__spec__’
     will not update the corresponding attribute on the module itself:

          >>> import typing
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'typing')
          >>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'spelling')
          >>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')

 -- Özniteliği: module.__name__

     The name used to uniquely identify the module in the import system.
     For a directly executed module, this will be set to ‘"__main__"’.

     This attribute must be set to the fully qualified name of the
     module.  It is expected to match the value of *note
     module.__spec__.name: 1d04.

 -- Özniteliği: module.__spec__

     A record of the module’s import-system-related state.

     Set to the *note module spec: 1d05. that was used when importing
     the module.  See *note Module specs: 1d06. for more details.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Özniteliği: module.__package__

     The *note package: 1d07. a module belongs to.

     If the module is top-level (that is, not a part of any specific
     package) then the attribute should be set to ‘''’ (the empty
     string).  Otherwise, it should be set to the name of the module’s
     package (which can be equal to *note module.__name__: 122f. if the
     module itself is a package).  See PEP 366(1) for further details.

     This attribute is used instead of *note __name__: 122f. to
     calculate explicit relative imports for main modules.  It defaults
     to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically using the *note
     types.ModuleType: ca2. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): ca1. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note str: 15d.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.parent: 24d. instead of ‘module.__package__’.
     *note __package__: 24c. is now only used as a fallback if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not set, and this fallback path is deprecated.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’ for
     modules created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType: ca2.
     constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The value of ‘__package__’ is expected to be
     the same as *note __spec__.parent: 24d.  *note __package__: 24c. is
     now only used as a fallback during import resolution if
     ‘__spec__.parent’ is not defined.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note ImportWarning: 24e. is raised if an
     import resolution falls back to ‘__package__’ instead of *note
     __spec__.parent: 24d.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     instead of *note ImportWarning: 24e. when falling back to
     ‘__package__’ during import resolution.

 -- Özniteliği: module.__loader__

     The *note loader: 14c0. object that the import machinery used to
     load the module.

     This attribute is mostly useful for introspection, but can be used
     for additional loader-specific functionality, for example getting
     data associated with a loader.

     ‘__loader__’ defaults to ‘None’ for modules created dynamically
     using the *note types.ModuleType: ca2. constructor; use *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): ca1. instead to ensure the
     attribute is set to a *note loader: 14c0. object.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.loader: 268. instead of ‘module.__loader__’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: This attribute now defaults to ‘None’ for
     modules created dynamically using the *note types.ModuleType: ca2.
     constructor.  Previously the attribute was optional.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.16:
     Setting ‘__loader__’ on a module while failing to set
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is deprecated.  In Python 3.16, ‘__loader__’ will
     cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or
     the standard library.

 -- Özniteliği: module.__path__

     A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 23f. of strings enumerating the
     locations where the package’s submodules will be found.
     Non-package modules should not have a ‘__path__’ attribute.  See
     *note __path__ attributes on modules: 1d08. for more details.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations: 1d09. instead of
     ‘module.__path__’.

 -- Özniteliği: module.__file__

 -- Özniteliği: module.__cached__

     ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are both optional attributes that may
     or may not be set.  Both attributes should be a *note str: 15d.
     when they are available.

     ‘__file__’ indicates the pathname of the file from which the module
     was loaded (if loaded from a file), or the pathname of the shared
     library file for extension modules loaded dynamically from a shared
     library.  It might be missing for certain types of modules, such as
     C modules that are statically linked into the interpreter, and the
     *note import system: 1cff. may opt to leave it unset if it has no
     semantic meaning (for example, a module loaded from a database).

     If ‘__file__’ is set then the ‘__cached__’ attribute might also be
     set, which is the path to any compiled version of the code (for
     example, a byte-compiled file).  The file does not need to exist to
     set this attribute; the path can simply point to where the compiled
     file 'would' exist (see PEP 3147(2)).

     Note that ‘__cached__’ may be set even if ‘__file__’ is not set.
     However, that scenario is quite atypical.  Ultimately, the *note
     loader: 14c0. is what makes use of the module spec provided by the
     *note finder: 1d0b. (from which ‘__file__’ and ‘__cached__’ are
     derived).  So if a loader can load from a cached module but
     otherwise does not load from a file, that atypical scenario may be
     appropriate.

     It is 'strongly' recommended that you use *note
     module.__spec__.cached: 1d0c. instead of ‘module.__cached__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Next: Module dictionaries,  Prev: Import-related attributes on module objects,  Up: Modules<2>

4.3.2.28 Other writable attributes on module objects
....................................................

As well as the import-related attributes listed above, module objects
also have the following writable attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: module.__doc__

     The module’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if unavailable.  See
     also: *note __doc__ attributes: 781.

 -- Özniteliği: module.__annotations__

     A dictionary containing *note variable annotations: be1. collected
     during module body execution.  For best practices on working with
     *note __annotations__: 1d0e, please see *note Annotations Best
     Practices: 613.


File: python.info,  Node: Module dictionaries,  Prev: Other writable attributes on module objects,  Up: Modules<2>

4.3.2.29 Module dictionaries
............................

Module objects also have the following special read-only attribute:

 -- Özniteliği: module.__dict__

     The module’s namespace as a dictionary object.  Uniquely among the
     attributes listed here, ‘__dict__’ cannot be accessed as a global
     variable from within a module; it can only be accessed as an
     attribute on module objects.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Because of the way CPython clears
     module dictionaries, the module dictionary will be cleared when the
     module falls out of scope even if the dictionary still has live
     references.  To avoid this, copy the dictionary or keep the module
     around while using its dictionary directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom classes,  Next: Class instances,  Prev: Modules<2>,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.30 Custom classes
.......................

Custom class types are typically created by class definitions (see
section *note Class definitions: 1181.).  A class has a namespace
implemented by a dictionary object.  Class attribute references are
translated to lookups in this dictionary, e.g., ‘C.x’ is translated to
‘C.__dict__["x"]’ (although there are a number of hooks which allow for
other means of locating attributes).  When the attribute name is not
found there, the attribute search continues in the base classes.  This
search of the base classes uses the C3 method resolution order which
behaves correctly even in the presence of ‘diamond’ inheritance
structures where there are multiple inheritance paths leading back to a
common ancestor.  Additional details on the C3 MRO used by Python can be
found at *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1335.

When a class attribute reference (for class ‘C’, say) would yield a
class method object, it is transformed into an instance method object
whose *note __self__: 124f. attribute is ‘C’.  When it would yield a
*note staticmethod: 612. object, it is transformed into the object
wrapped by the static method object.  See section *note Implementing
Descriptors: acb. for another way in which attributes retrieved from a
class may differ from those actually contained in its *note __dict__:
2ec.

Class attribute assignments update the class’s dictionary, never the
dictionary of a base class.

A class object can be called (see above) to yield a class instance (see
below).

* Menu:

* Special attributes::
* Special methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Special attributes,  Next: Special methods,  Up: Custom classes

4.3.2.31 Special attributes
...........................

Attribute                                              Meaning
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__name__                          The class’s name.  See also:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: f10.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__qualname__                      The class’s *note qualified name: 176c.  See also:
                                                       *note __qualname__ attributes: f0f.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__module__                        The name of the module in which the class was
                                                       defined.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__dict__                          A *note mapping proxy: 18c. providing a read-only
                                                       view of the class’s namespace.  See also:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 2ec.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__bases__                         A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the class’s bases.
                                                       In most cases, for a class defined as ‘class X(A, B,
                                                       C)’, ‘X.__bases__’ will be exactly equal to ‘(A, B,
                                                       C)’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__doc__                           The class’s documentation string, or ‘None’ if
                                                       undefined.  Not inherited by subclasses.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__annotations__                   A dictionary containing
                                                       *note variable annotations: be1. collected during
                                                       class body execution.  For best practices on working
                                                       with ‘__annotations__’, please see
                                                       *note Annotations Best Practices: 613.
                                                       
                                                            Uyarı: Accessing the ‘__annotations__’
                                                            attribute of a class object directly may yield
                                                            incorrect results in the presence of
                                                            metaclasses.  In addition, the attribute may
                                                            not exist for some classes.  Use
                                                            *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. to
                                                            retrieve class annotations safely.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__type_params__                   A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the
                                                       *note type parameters: 16c. of a
                                                       *note generic class: 163.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.12.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: type.__mro__                           The *note tuple: 4ff. of classes that are considered
                                                       when looking for base classes during method
                                                       resolution.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special methods,  Prev: Special attributes,  Up: Custom classes

4.3.2.32 Special methods
........................

In addition to the special attributes described above, all Python
classes also have the following two methods available:

 -- Yöntemi: type.mro ()

     This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the
     method resolution order for its instances.  It is called at class
     instantiation, and its result is stored in *note __mro__: 1d17.

 -- Yöntemi: type.__subclasses__ ()

     Each class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate
     subclasses.  This method returns a list of all those references
     still alive.  The list is in definition order.  Example:

          >>> class A: pass
          >>> class B(A): pass
          >>> A.__subclasses__()
          [<class 'B'>]


File: python.info,  Node: Class instances,  Next: I/O objects also known as file objects,  Prev: Custom classes,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.33 Class instances
........................

A class instance is created by calling a class object (see above).  A
class instance has a namespace implemented as a dictionary which is the
first place in which attribute references are searched.  When an
attribute is not found there, and the instance’s class has an attribute
by that name, the search continues with the class attributes.  If a
class attribute is found that is a user-defined function object, it is
transformed into an instance method object whose *note __self__: 124f.
attribute is the instance.  Static method and class method objects are
also transformed; see above under “Classes”.  See section *note
Implementing Descriptors: acb. for another way in which attributes of a
class retrieved via its instances may differ from the objects actually
stored in the class’s *note __dict__: 2ec.  If no class attribute is
found, and the object’s class has a *note __getattr__(): 201. method,
that is called to satisfy the lookup.

Attribute assignments and deletions update the instance’s dictionary,
never a class’s dictionary.  If the class has a *note __setattr__():
1d1b. or *note __delattr__(): 1d1c. method, this is called instead of
updating the instance dictionary directly.

Class instances can pretend to be numbers, sequences, or mappings if
they have methods with certain special names.  See section *note Special
method names: aec.

* Menu:

* Special attributes: Special attributes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Special attributes<2>,  Up: Class instances

4.3.2.34 Special attributes
...........................

 -- Özniteliği: object.__class__

     The class to which a class instance belongs.

 -- Özniteliği: object.__dict__

     A dictionary or other mapping object used to store an object’s
     (writable) attributes.  Not all instances have a ‘__dict__’
     attribute; see the section on *note __slots__: 1d1e. for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O objects also known as file objects,  Next: Internal types,  Prev: Class instances,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.35 I/O objects (also known as file objects)
.................................................

A *note file object: 1068. represents an open file.  Various shortcuts
are available to create file objects: the *note open(): 2a6. built-in
function, and also *note os.popen(): 8ec, *note os.fdopen(): 1d20, and
the *note makefile(): 1045. method of socket objects (and perhaps by
other functions or methods provided by extension modules).

The objects ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ are initialized
to file objects corresponding to the interpreter’s standard input,
output and error streams; they are all open in text mode and therefore
follow the interface defined by the *note io.TextIOBase: 4aa. abstract
class.


File: python.info,  Node: Internal types,  Prev: I/O objects also known as file objects,  Up: The standard type hierarchy

4.3.2.36 Internal types
.......................

A few types used internally by the interpreter are exposed to the user.
Their definitions may change with future versions of the interpreter,
but they are mentioned here for completeness.

* Menu:

* Code objects::
* Frame objects::
* Traceback objects::
* Slice objects::
* Static method objects::
* Class method objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Code objects,  Next: Frame objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.37 Code objects
.....................

Code objects represent 'byte-compiled' executable Python code, or *note
bytecode: 3b7.  The difference between a code object and a function
object is that the function object contains an explicit reference to the
function’s globals (the module in which it was defined), while a code
object contains no context; also the default argument values are stored
in the function object, not in the code object (because they represent
values calculated at run-time).  Unlike function objects, code objects
are immutable and contain no references (directly or indirectly) to
mutable objects.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<2>.
* Methods on code objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes<2>,  Next: Methods on code objects,  Up: Code objects

4.3.2.38 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_name                     The function name
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_qualname                 The fully qualified function name
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.11.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_argcount                 The total number of positional
                                                       *note parameters: 1cec. (including positional-only
                                                       parameters and parameters with default values) that
                                                       the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_posonlyargcount          The number of positional-only
                                                       *note parameters: 1cec. (including arguments with
                                                       default values) that the function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_kwonlyargcount           The number of keyword-only *note parameters: 1cec.
                                                       (including arguments with default values) that the
                                                       function has
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_nlocals                  The number of *note local variables: 1ce8. used by
                                                       the function (including parameters)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_varnames                 A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the names of the
                                                       local variables in the function (starting with the
                                                       parameter names)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_cellvars                 A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the names of
                                                       *note local variables: 1ce8. that are referenced by
                                                       nested functions inside the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_freevars                 A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the names of free
                                                       variables in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_code                     A string representing the sequence of
                                                       *note bytecode: 3b7. instructions in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_consts                   A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the literals used by
                                                       the *note bytecode: 3b7. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_names                    A *note tuple: 4ff. containing the names used by the
                                                       *note bytecode: 3b7. in the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_filename                 The name of the file from which the code was
                                                       compiled
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_firstlineno              The line number of the first line of the function
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_lnotab                   A string encoding the mapping from
                                                       *note bytecode: 3b7. offsets to line numbers.  For
                                                       details, see the source code of the interpreter.
                                                       
                                                       3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This attribute
                                                       of code objects is deprecated, and may be removed in
                                                       Python 3.15.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_stacksize                The required stack size of the code object
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: codeobject.co_flags                    An *note integer: 184. encoding a number of flags
                                                       for the interpreter.
                                                       

The following flag bits are defined for *note co_flags: 1d32.: bit
‘0x04’ is set if the function uses the ‘*arguments’ syntax to accept an
arbitrary number of positional arguments; bit ‘0x08’ is set if the
function uses the ‘**keywords’ syntax to accept arbitrary keyword
arguments; bit ‘0x20’ is set if the function is a generator.  See *note
Code Objects Bit Flags: 1d33. for details on the semantics of each flags
that might be present.

Future feature declarations (‘from __future__ import division’) also use
bits in *note co_flags: 1d32. to indicate whether a code object was
compiled with a particular feature enabled: bit ‘0x2000’ is set if the
function was compiled with future division enabled; bits ‘0x10’ and
‘0x1000’ were used in earlier versions of Python.

Other bits in *note co_flags: 1d32. are reserved for internal use.

If a code object represents a function, the first item in *note
co_consts: 1d2e. is the documentation string of the function, or ‘None’
if undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods on code objects,  Prev: Special read-only attributes<2>,  Up: Code objects

4.3.2.39 Methods on code objects
................................

 -- Yöntemi: codeobject.co_positions ()

     Returns an iterable over the source code positions of each *note
     bytecode: 3b7. instruction in the code object.

     The iterator returns *note tuple: 4ff.s containing the
     ‘(start_line, end_line, start_column, end_column)’.  The 'i-th'
     tuple corresponds to the position of the source code that compiled
     to the 'i-th' code unit.  Column information is 0-indexed utf-8
     byte offsets on the given source line.

     This positional information can be missing.  A non-exhaustive lists
     of cases where this may happen:

        - Running the interpreter with *note -X: 18e. ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Loading a pyc file compiled while using *note -X: 18e.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Position tuples corresponding to artificial instructions.

        - Line and column numbers that can’t be represented due to
          implementation specific limitations.

     When this occurs, some or all of the tuple elements can be *note
     None: 488.

     Added in version 3.11.

          Not: This feature requires storing column positions in code
          objects which may result in a small increase of disk usage of
          compiled Python files or interpreter memory usage.  To avoid
          storing the extra information and/or deactivate printing the
          extra traceback information, the *note -X: 18e.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’ command line flag or the *note
          PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3bc. environment variable can be used.

 -- Yöntemi: codeobject.co_lines ()

     Returns an iterator that yields information about successive ranges
     of *note bytecode: 3b7.s.  Each item yielded is a ‘(start, end,
     lineno)’ *note tuple: 4ff.:

        * ‘start’ (an *note int: 184.) represents the offset (inclusive)
          of the start of the *note bytecode: 3b7. range

        * ‘end’ (an *note int: 184.) represents the offset (exclusive)
          of the end of the *note bytecode: 3b7. range

        * ‘lineno’ is an *note int: 184. representing the line number of
          the *note bytecode: 3b7. range, or ‘None’ if the bytecodes in
          the given range have no line number

     The items yielded will have the following properties:

        * The first range yielded will have a ‘start’ of 0.

        * The ‘(start, end)’ ranges will be non-decreasing and
          consecutive.  That is, for any pair of *note tuple: 4ff.s, the
          ‘start’ of the second will be equal to the ‘end’ of the first.

        * No range will be backwards: ‘end >= start’ for all triples.

        * The last *note tuple: 4ff. yielded will have ‘end’ equal to
          the size of the *note bytecode: 3b7.

     Zero-width ranges, where ‘start == end’, are allowed.  Zero-width
     ranges are used for lines that are present in the source code, but
     have been eliminated by the *note bytecode: 3b7. compiler.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 626(1) - Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

          The PEP that introduced the ‘co_lines()’ method.

 -- Yöntemi: codeobject.replace (**kwargs)

     Return a copy of the code object with new values for the specified
     fields.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Frame objects,  Next: Traceback objects,  Prev: Code objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.40 Frame objects
......................

Frame objects represent execution frames.  They may occur in *note
traceback objects: 962, and are also passed to registered trace
functions.

* Menu:

* Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<3>.
* Special writable attributes: Special writable attributes<2>.
* Frame object methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Special read-only attributes<3>,  Next: Special writable attributes<2>,  Up: Frame objects

4.3.2.41 Special read-only attributes
.....................................

 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_back                           Points to the previous stack frame (towards the
                                                       caller), or ‘None’ if this is the bottom stack frame
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_code                           The *note code object: 5e3. being executed in this
                                                       frame.  Accessing this attribute raises an
                                                       *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘object.__getattr__’
                                                       with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"f_code"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_locals                         The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note local variables: 1ce8.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_globals                        The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note global variables: 1ce8.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_builtins                       The dictionary used by the frame to look up
                                                       *note built-in (intrinsic) names: 1ce8.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_lasti                          The “precise instruction” of the frame object (this
                                                       is an index into the *note bytecode: 3b7. string of
                                                       the *note code object: 5e3.)
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Special writable attributes<2>,  Next: Frame object methods,  Prev: Special read-only attributes<3>,  Up: Frame objects

4.3.2.42 Special writable attributes
....................................

 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_trace                          If not ‘None’, this is a function called for various
                                                       events during code execution (this is used by
                                                       debuggers).  Normally an event is triggered for each
                                                       new source line (see *note f_trace_lines: a52.).
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_trace_lines                    Set this attribute to *note False: 9a8. to disable
                                                       triggering a tracing event for each source line.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_trace_opcodes                  Set this attribute to *note True: a86. to allow
                                                       per-opcode events to be requested.  Note that this
                                                       may lead to undefined interpreter behaviour if
                                                       exceptions raised by the trace function escape to
                                                       the function being traced.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: frame.f_lineno                         The current line number of the frame – writing to
                                                       this from within a trace function jumps to the given
                                                       line (only for the bottom-most frame).  A debugger
                                                       can implement a Jump command (aka Set Next
                                                       Statement) by writing to this attribute.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Frame object methods,  Prev: Special writable attributes<2>,  Up: Frame objects

4.3.2.43 Frame object methods
.............................

Frame objects support one method:

 -- Yöntemi: frame.clear ()

     This method clears all references to *note local variables: 1ce8.
     held by the frame.  Also, if the frame belonged to a *note
     generator: f0b, the generator is finalized.  This helps break
     reference cycles involving frame objects (for example when catching
     an *note exception: 16ac. and storing its *note traceback: 962. for
     later use).

     *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised if the frame is currently
     executing.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Traceback objects,  Next: Slice objects,  Prev: Frame objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.44 Traceback objects
..........................

Traceback objects represent the stack trace of an *note exception: 1ad3.
A traceback object is implicitly created when an exception occurs, and
may also be explicitly created by calling *note types.TracebackType:
960.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Traceback objects can now be explicitly
instantiated from Python code.

For implicitly created tracebacks, when the search for an exception
handler unwinds the execution stack, at each unwound level a traceback
object is inserted in front of the current traceback.  When an exception
handler is entered, the stack trace is made available to the program.
(See section *note The try statement: 503.)  It is accessible as the
third item of the tuple returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f, and as
the *note __traceback__: 116f. attribute of the caught exception.

When the program contains no suitable handler, the stack trace is
written (nicely formatted) to the standard error stream; if the
interpreter is interactive, it is also made available to the user as
*note sys.last_traceback: 1ef.

For explicitly created tracebacks, it is up to the creator of the
traceback to determine how the *note tb_next: 961. attributes should be
linked to form a full stack trace.

Special read-only attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: traceback.tb_frame                     Points to the execution *note frame: 4f7. of the
                                                       current level.
                                                       
                                                       Accessing this attribute raises an
                                                       *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘object.__getattr__’
                                                       with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"tb_frame"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: traceback.tb_lineno                    Gives the line number where the exception occurred
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: traceback.tb_lasti                     Indicates the “precise instruction”.
                                                       

The line number and last instruction in the traceback may differ from
the line number of its *note frame object: 4f7. if the exception
occurred in a *note try: 503. statement with no matching except clause
or with a *note finally: 828. clause.

 -- Özniteliği: traceback.tb_next

     The special writable attribute ‘tb_next’ is the next level in the
     stack trace (towards the frame where the exception occurred), or
     ‘None’ if there is no next level.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: This attribute is now writable


File: python.info,  Node: Slice objects,  Next: Static method objects,  Prev: Traceback objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.45 Slice objects
......................

Slice objects are used to represent slices for *note __getitem__(): 500.
methods.  They are also created by the built-in *note slice(): 186.
function.

Special read-only attributes: *note start: 1d43. is the lower bound;
*note stop: 1d44. is the upper bound; *note step: 1d45. is the step
value; each is ‘None’ if omitted.  These attributes can have any type.

Slice objects support one method:

 -- Yöntemi: slice.indices (self, length)

     This method takes a single integer argument 'length' and computes
     information about the slice that the slice object would describe if
     applied to a sequence of 'length' items.  It returns a tuple of
     three integers; respectively these are the 'start' and 'stop'
     indices and the 'step' or stride length of the slice.  Missing or
     out-of-bounds indices are handled in a manner consistent with
     regular slices.


File: python.info,  Node: Static method objects,  Next: Class method objects,  Prev: Slice objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.46 Static method objects
..............................

Static method objects provide a way of defeating the transformation of
function objects to method objects described above.  A static method
object is a wrapper around any other object, usually a user-defined
method object.  When a static method object is retrieved from a class or
a class instance, the object actually returned is the wrapped object,
which is not subject to any further transformation.  Static method
objects are also callable.  Static method objects are created by the
built-in *note staticmethod(): 612. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Class method objects,  Prev: Static method objects,  Up: Internal types

4.3.2.47 Class method objects
.............................

A class method object, like a static method object, is a wrapper around
another object that alters the way in which that object is retrieved
from classes and class instances.  The behaviour of class method objects
upon such retrieval is described above, under *note “instance methods”:
1b07.  Class method objects are created by the built-in *note
classmethod(): 252. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Special method names,  Next: Coroutines,  Prev: The standard type hierarchy,  Up: Data model

4.3.3 Special method names
--------------------------

A class can implement certain operations that are invoked by special
syntax (such as arithmetic operations or subscripting and slicing) by
defining methods with special names.  This is Python’s approach to
'operator overloading', allowing classes to define their own behavior
with respect to language operators.  For instance, if a class defines a
method named *note __getitem__(): 500, and ‘x’ is an instance of this
class, then ‘x[i]’ is roughly equivalent to ‘type(x).__getitem__(x, i)’.
Except where mentioned, attempts to execute an operation raise an
exception when no appropriate method is defined (typically *note
AttributeError: 3dc. or *note TypeError: 2c4.).

Setting a special method to ‘None’ indicates that the corresponding
operation is not available.  For example, if a class sets *note
__iter__(): 1d49. to ‘None’, the class is not iterable, so calling *note
iter(): 610. on its instances will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.
(without falling back to *note __getitem__(): 500.).  (1)

When implementing a class that emulates any built-in type, it is
important that the emulation only be implemented to the degree that it
makes sense for the object being modelled.  For example, some sequences
may work well with retrieval of individual elements, but extracting a
slice may not make sense.  (One example of this is the ‘NodeList’
interface in the W3C’s Document Object Model.)

* Menu:

* Basic customization::
* Customizing attribute access::
* Customizing class creation::
* Customizing instance and subclass checks::
* Emulating generic types::
* Emulating callable objects::
* Emulating container types::
* Emulating numeric types::
* With Statement Context Managers::
* Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching::
* Emulating buffer types::
* Special method lookup::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The *note __hash__(): 969, *note __iter__(): 1d49, *note
__reversed__(): 1d4a, and *note __contains__(): 1d4b. methods have
special handling for this; others will still raise a *note TypeError:
2c4, but may do so by relying on the behavior that ‘None’ is not
callable.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic customization,  Next: Customizing attribute access,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.1 Basic customization
...........................

 -- Yöntemi: object.__new__ (cls[, ...])

     Called to create a new instance of class 'cls'.  *note __new__():
     319. is a static method (special-cased so you need not declare it
     as such) that takes the class of which an instance was requested as
     its first argument.  The remaining arguments are those passed to
     the object constructor expression (the call to the class).  The
     return value of *note __new__(): 319. should be the new object
     instance (usually an instance of 'cls').

     Typical implementations create a new instance of the class by
     invoking the superclass’s *note __new__(): 319. method using
     ‘super().__new__(cls[, ...])’ with appropriate arguments and then
     modifying the newly created instance as necessary before returning
     it.

     If *note __new__(): 319. is invoked during object construction and
     it returns an instance of 'cls', then the new instance’s *note
     __init__(): 4c6. method will be invoked like ‘__init__(self[,
     ...])’, where 'self' is the new instance and the remaining
     arguments are the same as were passed to the object constructor.

     If *note __new__(): 319. does not return an instance of 'cls', then
     the new instance’s *note __init__(): 4c6. method will not be
     invoked.

     *note __new__(): 319. is intended mainly to allow subclasses of
     immutable types (like int, str, or tuple) to customize instance
     creation.  It is also commonly overridden in custom metaclasses in
     order to customize class creation.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__init__ (self[, ...])

     Called after the instance has been created (by *note __new__():
     319.), but before it is returned to the caller.  The arguments are
     those passed to the class constructor expression.  If a base class
     has an *note __init__(): 4c6. method, the derived class’s *note
     __init__(): 4c6. method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure
     proper initialization of the base class part of the instance; for
     example: ‘super().__init__([args...])’.

     Because *note __new__(): 319. and *note __init__(): 4c6. work
     together in constructing objects (*note __new__(): 319. to create
     it, and *note __init__(): 4c6. to customize it), no non-‘None’
     value may be returned by *note __init__(): 4c6.; doing so will
     cause a *note TypeError: 2c4. to be raised at runtime.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__del__ (self)

     Called when the instance is about to be destroyed.  This is also
     called a finalizer or (improperly) a destructor.  If a base class
     has a *note __del__(): 1d4e. method, the derived class’s *note
     __del__(): 1d4e. method, if any, must explicitly call it to ensure
     proper deletion of the base class part of the instance.

     It is possible (though not recommended!)  for the *note __del__():
     1d4e. method to postpone destruction of the instance by creating a
     new reference to it.  This is called object 'resurrection'.  It is
     implementation-dependent whether *note __del__(): 1d4e. is called a
     second time when a resurrected object is about to be destroyed; the
     current *note CPython: 510. implementation only calls it once.

     It is not guaranteed that *note __del__(): 1d4e. methods are called
     for objects that still exist when the interpreter exits.  *note
     weakref.finalize: 8e1. provides a straightforward way to register a
     cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.

          Not: ‘del x’ doesn’t directly call ‘x.__del__()’ — the former
          decrements the reference count for ‘x’ by one, and the latter
          is only called when ‘x’’s reference count reaches zero.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' It is possible for a reference cycle
     to prevent the reference count of an object from going to zero.  In
     this case, the cycle will be later detected and deleted by the
     *note cyclic garbage collector: 1744.  A common cause of reference
     cycles is when an exception has been caught in a local variable.
     The frame’s locals then reference the exception, which references
     its own traceback, which references the locals of all frames caught
     in the traceback.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     Documentation for the *note gc: 5e. module.

          Uyarı: Due to the precarious circumstances under which *note
          __del__(): 1d4e. methods are invoked, exceptions that occur
          during their execution are ignored, and a warning is printed
          to ‘sys.stderr’ instead.  In particular:

             * *note __del__(): 1d4e. can be invoked when arbitrary code
               is being executed, including from any arbitrary thread.
               If *note __del__(): 1d4e. needs to take a lock or invoke
               any other blocking resource, it may deadlock as the
               resource may already be taken by the code that gets
               interrupted to execute *note __del__(): 1d4e.

             * *note __del__(): 1d4e. can be executed during interpreter
               shutdown.  As a consequence, the global variables it
               needs to access (including other modules) may already
               have been deleted or set to ‘None’.  Python guarantees
               that globals whose name begins with a single underscore
               are deleted from their module before other globals are
               deleted; if no other references to such globals exist,
               this may help in assuring that imported modules are still
               available at the time when the *note __del__(): 1d4e.
               method is called.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__repr__ (self)

     Called by the *note repr(): 637. built-in function to compute the
     “official” string representation of an object.  If at all possible,
     this should look like a valid Python expression that could be used
     to recreate an object with the same value (given an appropriate
     environment).  If this is not possible, a string of the form
     ‘<...some useful description...>’ should be returned.  The return
     value must be a string object.  If a class defines *note
     __repr__(): 42e. but not *note __str__(): 42f, then *note
     __repr__(): 42e. is also used when an “informal” string
     representation of instances of that class is required.

     This is typically used for debugging, so it is important that the
     representation is information-rich and unambiguous.  A default
     implementation is provided by the *note object: 8f2. class itself.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__str__ (self)

     Called by *note str(object): 15d, the default *note __format__():
     430. implementation, and the built-in function *note print(): e16,
     to compute the “informal” or nicely printable string representation
     of an object.  The return value must be a *note str: 1a44. object.

     This method differs from *note object.__repr__(): 42e. in that
     there is no expectation that *note __str__(): 42f. return a valid
     Python expression: a more convenient or concise representation can
     be used.

     The default implementation defined by the built-in type *note
     object: 8f2. calls *note object.__repr__(): 42e.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__bytes__ (self)

     Called by *note bytes: 18fd. to compute a byte-string
     representation of an object.  This should return a *note bytes:
     2cb. object.  The *note object: 8f2. class itself does not provide
     this method.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__format__ (self, format_spec)

     Called by the *note format(): 431. built-in function, and by
     extension, evaluation of *note formatted string literals: 807. and
     the *note str.format(): 433. method, to produce a “formatted”
     string representation of an object.  The 'format_spec' argument is
     a string that contains a description of the formatting options
     desired.  The interpretation of the 'format_spec' argument is up to
     the type implementing *note __format__(): 430, however most classes
     will either delegate formatting to one of the built-in types, or
     use a similar formatting option syntax.

     See *note Format Specification Mini-Language: 3ee. for a
     description of the standard formatting syntax.

     The return value must be a string object.

     The default implementation by the *note object: 8f2. class should
     be given an empty 'format_spec' string.  It delegates to *note
     __str__(): 42f.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The __format__ method of ‘object’ itself
     raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. if passed any non-empty string.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent
     to ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(x), '')’.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__lt__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__le__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__eq__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ne__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__gt__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ge__ (self, other)

     These are the so-called “rich comparison” methods.  The
     correspondence between operator symbols and method names is as
     follows: ‘x<y’ calls ‘x.__lt__(y)’, ‘x<=y’ calls ‘x.__le__(y)’,
     ‘x==y’ calls ‘x.__eq__(y)’, ‘x!=y’ calls ‘x.__ne__(y)’, ‘x>y’ calls
     ‘x.__gt__(y)’, and ‘x>=y’ calls ‘x.__ge__(y)’.

     A rich comparison method may return the singleton *note
     NotImplemented: 60b. if it does not implement the operation for a
     given pair of arguments.  By convention, ‘False’ and ‘True’ are
     returned for a successful comparison.  However, these methods can
     return any value, so if the comparison operator is used in a
     Boolean context (e.g., in the condition of an ‘if’ statement),
     Python will call *note bool(): 183. on the value to determine if
     the result is true or false.

     By default, ‘object’ implements *note __eq__(): 968. by using ‘is’,
     returning *note NotImplemented: 60b. in the case of a false
     comparison: ‘True if x is y else NotImplemented’.  For *note
     __ne__(): 13a5, by default it delegates to *note __eq__(): 968. and
     inverts the result unless it is ‘NotImplemented’.  There are no
     other implied relationships among the comparison operators or
     default implementations; for example, the truth of ‘(x<y or x==y)’
     does not imply ‘x<=y’.  To automatically generate ordering
     operations from a single root operation, see *note
     functools.total_ordering(): de2.

     By default, the *note object: 8f2. class provides implementations
     consistent with *note Value comparisons: 16a3.: equality compares
     according to object identity, and order comparisons raise *note
     TypeError: 2c4.  Each default method may generate these results
     directly, but may also return *note NotImplemented: 60b.

     See the paragraph on *note __hash__(): 969. for some important
     notes on creating *note hashable: 421. objects which support custom
     comparison operations and are usable as dictionary keys.

     There are no swapped-argument versions of these methods (to be used
     when the left argument does not support the operation but the right
     argument does); rather, *note __lt__(): 1148. and *note __gt__():
     11b6. are each other’s reflection, *note __le__(): 11b5. and *note
     __ge__(): 11b7. are each other’s reflection, and *note __eq__():
     968. and *note __ne__(): 13a5. are their own reflection.  If the
     operands are of different types, and the right operand’s type is a
     direct or indirect subclass of the left operand’s type, the
     reflected method of the right operand has priority, otherwise the
     left operand’s method has priority.  Virtual subclassing is not
     considered.

     When no appropriate method returns any value other than *note
     NotImplemented: 60b, the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators will fall back to
     ‘is’ and ‘is not’, respectively.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__hash__ (self)

     Called by built-in function *note hash(): 3f7. and for operations
     on members of hashed collections including *note set: 3e4, *note
     frozenset: 3e5, and *note dict: 240.  The ‘__hash__()’ method
     should return an integer.  The only required property is that
     objects which compare equal have the same hash value; it is advised
     to mix together the hash values of the components of the object
     that also play a part in comparison of objects by packing them into
     a tuple and hashing the tuple.  Example:

          def __hash__(self):
              return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))

          Not: *note hash(): 3f7. truncates the value returned from an
          object’s custom *note __hash__(): 969. method to the size of a
          *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.  This is typically 8 bytes on 64-bit
          builds and 4 bytes on 32-bit builds.  If an object’s *note
          __hash__(): 969. must interoperate on builds of different bit
          sizes, be sure to check the width on all supported builds.  An
          easy way to do this is with ‘python -c "import sys;
          print(sys.hash_info.width)"’.

     If a class does not define an *note __eq__(): 968. method it should
     not define a *note __hash__(): 969. operation either; if it defines
     *note __eq__(): 968. but not *note __hash__(): 969, its instances
     will not be usable as items in hashable collections.  If a class
     defines mutable objects and implements an *note __eq__(): 968.
     method, it should not implement *note __hash__(): 969, since the
     implementation of *note hashable: 421. collections requires that a
     key’s hash value is immutable (if the object’s hash value changes,
     it will be in the wrong hash bucket).

     User-defined classes have *note __eq__(): 968. and *note
     __hash__(): 969. methods by default (inherited from the *note
     object: 8f2. class); with them, all objects compare unequal (except
     with themselves) and ‘x.__hash__()’ returns an appropriate value
     such that ‘x == y’ implies both that ‘x is y’ and ‘hash(x) ==
     hash(y)’.

     A class that overrides *note __eq__(): 968. and does not define
     *note __hash__(): 969. will have its *note __hash__(): 969.
     implicitly set to ‘None’.  When the *note __hash__(): 969. method
     of a class is ‘None’, instances of the class will raise an
     appropriate *note TypeError: 2c4. when a program attempts to
     retrieve their hash value, and will also be correctly identified as
     unhashable when checking ‘isinstance(obj,
     collections.abc.Hashable)’.

     If a class that overrides *note __eq__(): 968. needs to retain the
     implementation of *note __hash__(): 969. from a parent class, the
     interpreter must be told this explicitly by setting ‘__hash__ =
     <ParentClass>.__hash__’.

     If a class that does not override *note __eq__(): 968. wishes to
     suppress hash support, it should include ‘__hash__ = None’ in the
     class definition.  A class which defines its own *note __hash__():
     969. that explicitly raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. would be
     incorrectly identified as hashable by an ‘isinstance(obj,
     collections.abc.Hashable)’ call.

          Not: By default, the *note __hash__(): 969. values of str and
          bytes objects are “salted” with an unpredictable random value.
          Although they remain constant within an individual Python
          process, they are not predictable between repeated invocations
          of Python.

          This is intended to provide protection against a
          denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that
          exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion,
          'O'('n'^2) complexity.  See
          ‘http://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’ for details.

          Changing hash values affects the iteration order of sets.
          Python has never made guarantees about this ordering (and it
          typically varies between 32-bit and 64-bit builds).

          See also *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Hash randomization is enabled by default.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__bool__ (self)

     Called to implement truth value testing and the built-in operation
     ‘bool()’; should return ‘False’ or ‘True’.  When this method is not
     defined, *note __len__(): 1d50. is called, if it is defined, and
     the object is considered true if its result is nonzero.  If a class
     defines neither ‘__len__()’ nor ‘__bool__()’ (which is true of the
     *note object: 8f2. class itself), all its instances are considered
     true.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing attribute access,  Next: Customizing class creation,  Prev: Basic customization,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.2 Customizing attribute access
....................................

The following methods can be defined to customize the meaning of
attribute access (use of, assignment to, or deletion of ‘x.name’) for
class instances.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__getattr__ (self, name)

     Called when the default attribute access fails with an *note
     AttributeError: 3dc. (either *note __getattribute__(): a49. raises
     an *note AttributeError: 3dc. because 'name' is not an instance
     attribute or an attribute in the class tree for ‘self’; or *note
     __get__(): 1374. of a 'name' property raises *note AttributeError:
     3dc.).  This method should either return the (computed) attribute
     value or raise an *note AttributeError: 3dc. exception.  The *note
     object: 8f2. class itself does not provide this method.

     Note that if the attribute is found through the normal mechanism,
     *note __getattr__(): 201. is not called.  (This is an intentional
     asymmetry between *note __getattr__(): 201. and *note
     __setattr__(): 1d1b.)  This is done both for efficiency reasons and
     because otherwise *note __getattr__(): 201. would have no way to
     access other attributes of the instance.  Note that at least for
     instance variables, you can fake total control by not inserting any
     values in the instance attribute dictionary (but instead inserting
     them in another object).  See the *note __getattribute__(): a49.
     method below for a way to actually get total control over attribute
     access.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__getattribute__ (self, name)

     Called unconditionally to implement attribute accesses for
     instances of the class.  If the class also defines *note
     __getattr__(): 201, the latter will not be called unless *note
     __getattribute__(): a49. either calls it explicitly or raises an
     *note AttributeError: 3dc.  This method should return the
     (computed) attribute value or raise an *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     exception.  In order to avoid infinite recursion in this method,
     its implementation should always call the base class method with
     the same name to access any attributes it needs, for example,
     ‘object.__getattribute__(self, name)’.

          Not: This method may still be bypassed when looking up special
          methods as the result of implicit invocation via language
          syntax or *note built-in functions: 1cee.  See *note Special
          method lookup: 1d53.

     For certain sensitive attribute accesses, raises an *note auditing
     event: 16e3. ‘object.__getattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘name’.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__setattr__ (self, name, value)

     Called when an attribute assignment is attempted.  This is called
     instead of the normal mechanism (i.e.  store the value in the
     instance dictionary).  'name' is the attribute name, 'value' is the
     value to be assigned to it.

     If *note __setattr__(): 1d1b. wants to assign to an instance
     attribute, it should call the base class method with the same name,
     for example, ‘object.__setattr__(self, name, value)’.

     For certain sensitive attribute assignments, raises an *note
     auditing event: 16e3. ‘object.__setattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’,
     ‘name’, ‘value’.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__delattr__ (self, name)

     Like *note __setattr__(): 1d1b. but for attribute deletion instead
     of assignment.  This should only be implemented if ‘del obj.name’
     is meaningful for the object.

     For certain sensitive attribute deletions, raises an *note auditing
     event: 16e3. ‘object.__delattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘name’.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__dir__ (self)

     Called when *note dir(): 445. is called on the object.  An iterable
     must be returned.  *note dir(): 445. converts the returned iterable
     to a list and sorts it.

* Menu:

* Customizing module attribute access::
* Implementing Descriptors::
* Invoking Descriptors::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing module attribute access,  Next: Implementing Descriptors,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.3 Customizing module attribute access
...........................................

Special names ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’ can be also used to customize
access to module attributes.  The ‘__getattr__’ function at the module
level should accept one argument which is the name of an attribute and
return the computed value or raise an *note AttributeError: 3dc.  If an
attribute is not found on a module object through the normal lookup,
i.e.  *note object.__getattribute__(): a49, then ‘__getattr__’ is
searched in the module ‘__dict__’ before raising an *note
AttributeError: 3dc.  If found, it is called with the attribute name and
the result is returned.

The ‘__dir__’ function should accept no arguments, and return an
iterable of strings that represents the names accessible on module.  If
present, this function overrides the standard *note dir(): 445. search
on a module.

For a more fine grained customization of the module behavior (setting
attributes, properties, etc.), one can set the ‘__class__’ attribute of
a module object to a subclass of *note types.ModuleType: ca2.  For
example:

     import sys
     from types import ModuleType

     class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
         def __repr__(self):
             return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'

         def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
             print(f'Setting {attr}...')
             super().__setattr__(attr, value)

     sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule

     Not: Defining module ‘__getattr__’ and setting module ‘__class__’
     only affect lookups made using the attribute access syntax –
     directly accessing the module globals (whether by code within the
     module, or via a reference to the module’s globals dictionary) is
     unaffected.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: ‘__class__’ module attribute is now writable.

Added in version 3.7: ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’ module attributes.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 562(1) - Module __getattr__ and __dir__

     Describes the ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’ functions on modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing Descriptors,  Next: Invoking Descriptors,  Prev: Customizing module attribute access,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.4 Implementing Descriptors
................................

The following methods only apply when an instance of the class
containing the method (a so-called 'descriptor' class) appears in an
'owner' class (the descriptor must be in either the owner’s class
dictionary or in the class dictionary for one of its parents).  In the
examples below, “the attribute” refers to the attribute whose name is
the key of the property in the owner class’ *note __dict__: 2ec.  The
*note object: 8f2. class itself does not implement any of these
protocols.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__get__ (self, instance, owner=None)

     Called to get the attribute of the owner class (class attribute
     access) or of an instance of that class (instance attribute
     access).  The optional 'owner' argument is the owner class, while
     'instance' is the instance that the attribute was accessed through,
     or ‘None’ when the attribute is accessed through the 'owner'.

     This method should return the computed attribute value or raise an
     *note AttributeError: 3dc. exception.

     PEP 252(1) specifies that *note __get__(): 1374. is callable with
     one or two arguments.  Python’s own built-in descriptors support
     this specification; however, it is likely that some third-party
     tools have descriptors that require both arguments.  Python’s own
     *note __getattribute__(): a49. implementation always passes in both
     arguments whether they are required or not.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__set__ (self, instance, value)

     Called to set the attribute on an instance 'instance' of the owner
     class to a new value, 'value'.

     Note, adding *note __set__(): 1d57. or *note __delete__(): 1d58.
     changes the kind of descriptor to a “data descriptor”.  See *note
     Invoking Descriptors: 1d59. for more details.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__delete__ (self, instance)

     Called to delete the attribute on an instance 'instance' of the
     owner class.

Instances of descriptors may also have the ‘__objclass__’ attribute
present:

 -- Özniteliği: object.__objclass__

     The attribute ‘__objclass__’ is interpreted by the *note inspect:
     7c. module as specifying the class where this object was defined
     (setting this appropriately can assist in runtime introspection of
     dynamic class attributes).  For callables, it may indicate that an
     instance of the given type (or a subclass) is expected or required
     as the first positional argument (for example, CPython sets this
     attribute for unbound methods that are implemented in C).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/


File: python.info,  Node: Invoking Descriptors,  Next: __slots__<2>,  Prev: Implementing Descriptors,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.5 Invoking Descriptors
............................

In general, a descriptor is an object attribute with “binding behavior”,
one whose attribute access has been overridden by methods in the
descriptor protocol: *note __get__(): 1374, *note __set__(): 1d57, and
*note __delete__(): 1d58.  If any of those methods are defined for an
object, it is said to be a descriptor.

The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
attribute from an object’s dictionary.  For instance, ‘a.x’ has a lookup
chain starting with ‘a.__dict__['x']’, then ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’, and
continuing through the base classes of ‘type(a)’ excluding metaclasses.

However, if the looked-up value is an object defining one of the
descriptor methods, then Python may override the default behavior and
invoke the descriptor method instead.  Where this occurs in the
precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods were defined and
how they were called.

The starting point for descriptor invocation is a binding, ‘a.x’.  How
the arguments are assembled depends on ‘a’:

Direct Call

     The simplest and least common call is when user code directly
     invokes a descriptor method: ‘x.__get__(a)’.

Instance Binding

     If binding to an object instance, ‘a.x’ is transformed into the
     call: ‘type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a, type(a))’.

Class Binding

     If binding to a class, ‘A.x’ is transformed into the call:
     ‘A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A)’.

Super Binding

     A dotted lookup such as ‘super(A, a).x’ searches
     ‘a.__class__.__mro__’ for a base class ‘B’ following ‘A’ and then
     returns ‘B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A)’.  If not a descriptor, ‘x’
     is returned unchanged.

For instance bindings, the precedence of descriptor invocation depends
on which descriptor methods are defined.  A descriptor can define any
combination of *note __get__(): 1374, *note __set__(): 1d57. and *note
__delete__(): 1d58.  If it does not define ‘__get__()’, then accessing
the attribute will return the descriptor object itself unless there is a
value in the object’s instance dictionary.  If the descriptor defines
‘__set__()’ and/or ‘__delete__()’, it is a data descriptor; if it
defines neither, it is a non-data descriptor.  Normally, data
descriptors define both ‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’, while non-data
descriptors have just the ‘__get__()’ method.  Data descriptors with
‘__get__()’ and ‘__set__()’ (and/or ‘__delete__()’) defined always
override a redefinition in an instance dictionary.  In contrast,
non-data descriptors can be overridden by instances.

Python methods (including those decorated with *note @staticmethod: 612.
and *note @classmethod: 252.) are implemented as non-data descriptors.
Accordingly, instances can redefine and override methods.  This allows
individual instances to acquire behaviors that differ from other
instances of the same class.

The *note property(): 43c. function is implemented as a data descriptor.
Accordingly, instances cannot override the behavior of a property.


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__<2>,  Prev: Invoking Descriptors,  Up: Customizing attribute access

4.3.3.6 __slots__
.................

'__slots__' allow us to explicitly declare data members (like
properties) and deny the creation of *note __dict__: 2ec. and
'__weakref__' (unless explicitly declared in '__slots__' or available in
a parent.)

The space saved over using *note __dict__: 2ec. can be significant.
Attribute lookup speed can be significantly improved as well.

 -- Verisi: object.__slots__

     This class variable can be assigned a string, iterable, or sequence
     of strings with variable names used by instances.  '__slots__'
     reserves space for the declared variables and prevents the
     automatic creation of *note __dict__: 2ec. and '__weakref__' for
     each instance.
Notes on using '__slots__':

   * When inheriting from a class without '__slots__', the *note
     __dict__: 2ec. and '__weakref__' attribute of the instances will
     always be accessible.

   * Without a *note __dict__: 2ec. variable, instances cannot be
     assigned new variables not listed in the '__slots__' definition.
     Attempts to assign to an unlisted variable name raises *note
     AttributeError: 3dc.  If dynamic assignment of new variables is
     desired, then add ‘'__dict__'’ to the sequence of strings in the
     '__slots__' declaration.

   * Without a '__weakref__' variable for each instance, classes
     defining '__slots__' do not support *note weak references: 114. to
     its instances.  If weak reference support is needed, then add
     ‘'__weakref__'’ to the sequence of strings in the '__slots__'
     declaration.

   * '__slots__' are implemented at the class level by creating *note
     descriptors: acb. for each variable name.  As a result, class
     attributes cannot be used to set default values for instance
     variables defined by '__slots__'; otherwise, the class attribute
     would overwrite the descriptor assignment.

   * The action of a '__slots__' declaration is not limited to the class
     where it is defined.  '__slots__' declared in parents are available
     in child classes.  However, instances of a child subclass will get
     a *note __dict__: 2ec. and '__weakref__' unless the subclass also
     defines '__slots__' (which should only contain names of any
     'additional' slots).

   * If a class defines a slot also defined in a base class, the
     instance variable defined by the base class slot is inaccessible
     (except by retrieving its descriptor directly from the base class).
     This renders the meaning of the program undefined.  In the future,
     a check may be added to prevent this.

   * *note TypeError: 2c4. will be raised if nonempty '__slots__' are
     defined for a class derived from a *note "variable-length" built-in
     type: 1d5e. such as *note int: 184, *note bytes: 2cb, and *note
     tuple: 4ff.

   * Any non-string *note iterable: 10ce. may be assigned to
     '__slots__'.

   * If a *note dictionary: 240. is used to assign '__slots__', the
     dictionary keys will be used as the slot names.  The values of the
     dictionary can be used to provide per-attribute docstrings that
     will be recognised by *note inspect.getdoc(): 859. and displayed in
     the output of *note help(): 72a.

   * *note __class__: 1338. assignment works only if both classes have
     the same '__slots__'.

   * *note Multiple inheritance: 1b01. with multiple slotted parent
     classes can be used, but only one parent is allowed to have
     attributes created by slots (the other bases must have empty slot
     layouts) - violations raise *note TypeError: 2c4.

   * If an *note iterator: 176e. is used for '__slots__' then a *note
     descriptor: 1d5f. is created for each of the iterator’s values.
     However, the '__slots__' attribute will be an empty iterator.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing class creation,  Next: Customizing instance and subclass checks,  Prev: Customizing attribute access,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.7 Customizing class creation
..................................

Whenever a class inherits from another class, *note __init_subclass__():
444. is called on the parent class.  This way, it is possible to write
classes which change the behavior of subclasses.  This is closely
related to class decorators, but where class decorators only affect the
specific class they’re applied to, ‘__init_subclass__’ solely applies to
future subclasses of the class defining the method.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod object.__init_subclass__ (cls)

     This method is called whenever the containing class is subclassed.
     'cls' is then the new subclass.  If defined as a normal instance
     method, this method is implicitly converted to a class method.

     Keyword arguments which are given to a new class are passed to the
     parent class’s ‘__init_subclass__’.  For compatibility with other
     classes using ‘__init_subclass__’, one should take out the needed
     keyword arguments and pass the others over to the base class, as
     in:

          class Philosopher:
              def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs):
                  super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
                  cls.default_name = default_name

          class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
              pass

     The default implementation ‘object.__init_subclass__’ does nothing,
     but raises an error if it is called with any arguments.

          Not: The metaclass hint ‘metaclass’ is consumed by the rest of
          the type machinery, and is never passed to ‘__init_subclass__’
          implementations.  The actual metaclass (rather than the
          explicit hint) can be accessed as ‘type(cls)’.

     Added in version 3.6.

When a class is created, ‘type.__new__()’ scans the class variables and
makes callbacks to those with a *note __set_name__(): aca. hook.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__set_name__ (self, owner, name)

     Automatically called at the time the owning class 'owner' is
     created.  The object has been assigned to 'name' in that class:

          class A:
              x = C()  # Automatically calls: x.__set_name__(A, 'x')

     If the class variable is assigned after the class is created, *note
     __set_name__(): aca. will not be called automatically.  If needed,
     *note __set_name__(): aca. can be called directly:

          class A:
             pass

          c = C()
          A.x = c                  # The hook is not called
          c.__set_name__(A, 'x')   # Manually invoke the hook

     See *note Creating the class object: ac6. for more details.

     Added in version 3.6.

* Menu:

* Metaclasses::
* Resolving MRO entries::
* Determining the appropriate metaclass::
* Preparing the class namespace::
* Executing the class body::
* Creating the class object::
* Uses for metaclasses::


File: python.info,  Node: Metaclasses,  Next: Resolving MRO entries,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.8 Metaclasses
...................

By default, classes are constructed using *note type(): bd1.  The class
body is executed in a new namespace and the class name is bound locally
to the result of ‘type(name, bases, namespace)’.

The class creation process can be customized by passing the ‘metaclass’
keyword argument in the class definition line, or by inheriting from an
existing class that included such an argument.  In the following
example, both ‘MyClass’ and ‘MySubclass’ are instances of ‘Meta’:

     class Meta(type):
         pass

     class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
         pass

     class MySubclass(MyClass):
         pass

Any other keyword arguments that are specified in the class definition
are passed through to all metaclass operations described below.

When a class definition is executed, the following steps occur:

   * MRO entries are resolved;

   * the appropriate metaclass is determined;

   * the class namespace is prepared;

   * the class body is executed;

   * the class object is created.


File: python.info,  Node: Resolving MRO entries,  Next: Determining the appropriate metaclass,  Prev: Metaclasses,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.9 Resolving MRO entries
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: object.__mro_entries__ (self, bases)

     If a base that appears in a class definition is not an instance of
     *note type: bd1, then an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is searched on
     the base.  If an ‘__mro_entries__()’ method is found, the base is
     substituted with the result of a call to ‘__mro_entries__()’ when
     creating the class.  The method is called with the original bases
     tuple passed to the 'bases' parameter, and must return a tuple of
     classes that will be used instead of the base.  The returned tuple
     may be empty: in these cases, the original base is ignored.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note types.resolve_bases(): a12.

     Dynamically resolve bases that are not instances of *note type:
     bd1.

*note types.get_original_bases(): 1fc.

     Retrieve a class’s “original bases” prior to modifications by *note
     __mro_entries__(): 1d64.

PEP 560(1)

     Core support for typing module and generic types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Determining the appropriate metaclass,  Next: Preparing the class namespace,  Prev: Resolving MRO entries,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.10 Determining the appropriate metaclass
..............................................

The appropriate metaclass for a class definition is determined as
follows:

   * if no bases and no explicit metaclass are given, then *note type():
     bd1. is used;

   * if an explicit metaclass is given and it is 'not' an instance of
     *note type(): bd1, then it is used directly as the metaclass;

   * if an instance of *note type(): bd1. is given as the explicit
     metaclass, or bases are defined, then the most derived metaclass is
     used.

The most derived metaclass is selected from the explicitly specified
metaclass (if any) and the metaclasses (i.e.  ‘type(cls)’) of all
specified base classes.  The most derived metaclass is one which is a
subtype of 'all' of these candidate metaclasses.  If none of the
candidate metaclasses meets that criterion, then the class definition
will fail with ‘TypeError’.


File: python.info,  Node: Preparing the class namespace,  Next: Executing the class body,  Prev: Determining the appropriate metaclass,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.11 Preparing the class namespace
......................................

Once the appropriate metaclass has been identified, then the class
namespace is prepared.  If the metaclass has a ‘__prepare__’ attribute,
it is called as ‘namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name, bases, **kwds)’
(where the additional keyword arguments, if any, come from the class
definition).  The ‘__prepare__’ method should be implemented as a *note
classmethod: 252.  The namespace returned by ‘__prepare__’ is passed in
to ‘__new__’, but when the final class object is created the namespace
is copied into a new ‘dict’.

If the metaclass has no ‘__prepare__’ attribute, then the class
namespace is initialised as an empty ordered mapping.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3115(1) - Metaclasses in Python 3000

     Introduced the ‘__prepare__’ namespace hook

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Executing the class body,  Next: Creating the class object,  Prev: Preparing the class namespace,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.12 Executing the class body
.................................

The class body is executed (approximately) as ‘exec(body, globals(),
namespace)’.  The key difference from a normal call to *note exec():
6cb. is that lexical scoping allows the class body (including any
methods) to reference names from the current and outer scopes when the
class definition occurs inside a function.

However, even when the class definition occurs inside the function,
methods defined inside the class still cannot see names defined at the
class scope.  Class variables must be accessed through the first
parameter of instance or class methods, or through the implicit
lexically scoped ‘__class__’ reference described in the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating the class object,  Next: Uses for metaclasses,  Prev: Executing the class body,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.13 Creating the class object
..................................

Once the class namespace has been populated by executing the class body,
the class object is created by calling ‘metaclass(name, bases,
namespace, **kwds)’ (the additional keywords passed here are the same as
those passed to ‘__prepare__’).

This class object is the one that will be referenced by the
zero-argument form of *note super(): 20d.  ‘__class__’ is an implicit
closure reference created by the compiler if any methods in a class body
refer to either ‘__class__’ or ‘super’.  This allows the zero argument
form of *note super(): 20d. to correctly identify the class being
defined based on lexical scoping, while the class or instance that was
used to make the current call is identified based on the first argument
passed to the method.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' In CPython 3.6 and later, the ‘__class__’
cell is passed to the metaclass as a ‘__classcell__’ entry in the class
namespace.  If present, this must be propagated up to the ‘type.__new__’
call in order for the class to be initialised correctly.  Failing to do
so will result in a *note RuntimeError: 180. in Python 3.8.

When using the default metaclass *note type: bd1, or any metaclass that
ultimately calls ‘type.__new__’, the following additional customization
steps are invoked after creating the class object:

  1. The ‘type.__new__’ method collects all of the attributes in the
     class namespace that define a *note __set_name__(): aca. method;

  2. Those ‘__set_name__’ methods are called with the class being
     defined and the assigned name of that particular attribute;

  3. The *note __init_subclass__(): 444. hook is called on the immediate
     parent of the new class in its method resolution order.

After the class object is created, it is passed to the class decorators
included in the class definition (if any) and the resulting object is
bound in the local namespace as the defined class.

When a new class is created by ‘type.__new__’, the object provided as
the namespace parameter is copied to a new ordered mapping and the
original object is discarded.  The new copy is wrapped in a read-only
proxy, which becomes the *note __dict__: adb. attribute of the class
object.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3135(1) - New super

     Describes the implicit ‘__class__’ closure reference

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/


File: python.info,  Node: Uses for metaclasses,  Prev: Creating the class object,  Up: Customizing class creation

4.3.3.14 Uses for metaclasses
.............................

The potential uses for metaclasses are boundless.  Some ideas that have
been explored include enum, logging, interface checking, automatic
delegation, automatic property creation, proxies, frameworks, and
automatic resource locking/synchronization.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing instance and subclass checks,  Next: Emulating generic types,  Prev: Customizing class creation,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.15 Customizing instance and subclass checks
.................................................

The following methods are used to override the default behavior of the
*note isinstance(): 151. and *note issubclass(): 5f8. built-in
functions.

In particular, the metaclass *note abc.ABCMeta: db0. implements these
methods in order to allow the addition of Abstract Base Classes (ABCs)
as “virtual base classes” to any class or type (including built-in
types), including other ABCs.

 -- Yöntemi: type.__instancecheck__ (self, instance)

     Return true if 'instance' should be considered a (direct or
     indirect) instance of 'class'.  If defined, called to implement
     ‘isinstance(instance, class)’.

 -- Yöntemi: type.__subclasscheck__ (self, subclass)

     Return true if 'subclass' should be considered a (direct or
     indirect) subclass of 'class'.  If defined, called to implement
     ‘issubclass(subclass, class)’.

Note that these methods are looked up on the type (metaclass) of a
class.  They cannot be defined as class methods in the actual class.
This is consistent with the lookup of special methods that are called on
instances, only in this case the instance is itself a class.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3119(1) - Introducing Abstract Base Classes

     Includes the specification for customizing *note isinstance(): 151.
     and *note issubclass(): 5f8. behavior through *note
     __instancecheck__(): 1d6b. and *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d6c,
     with motivation for this functionality in the context of adding
     Abstract Base Classes (see the *note abc: 4. module) to the
     language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating generic types,  Next: Emulating callable objects,  Prev: Customizing instance and subclass checks,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.16 Emulating generic types
................................

When using *note type annotations: 16e, it is often useful to
'parameterize' a *note generic type: 141. using Python’s square-brackets
notation.  For example, the annotation ‘list[int]’ might be used to
signify a *note list: 422. in which all the elements are of type *note
int: 184.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 484(1) - Type Hints

     Introducing Python’s framework for type annotations

*note Generic Alias Types: 4c9.

     Documentation for objects representing parameterized generic
     classes

*note Generics: 1d6e, *note user-defined generics: 1fd. and *note typing.Generic: 1478.

     Documentation on how to implement generic classes that can be
     parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers.

A class can 'generally' only be parameterized if it defines the special
class method ‘__class_getitem__()’.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod object.__class_getitem__ (cls, key)

     Return an object representing the specialization of a generic class
     by type arguments found in 'key'.

     When defined on a class, ‘__class_getitem__()’ is automatically a
     class method.  As such, there is no need for it to be decorated
     with *note @classmethod: 252. when it is defined.

* Menu:

* The purpose of __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: The purpose of __class_getitem__,  Next: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__,  Up: Emulating generic types

4.3.3.17 The purpose of '__class_getitem__'
...........................................

The purpose of *note __class_getitem__(): 565. is to allow runtime
parameterization of standard-library generic classes in order to more
easily apply *note type hints: 1d70. to these classes.

To implement custom generic classes that can be parameterized at runtime
and understood by static type-checkers, users should either inherit from
a standard library class that already implements *note
__class_getitem__(): 565, or inherit from *note typing.Generic: 1478,
which has its own implementation of ‘__class_getitem__()’.

Custom implementations of *note __class_getitem__(): 565. on classes
defined outside of the standard library may not be understood by
third-party type-checkers such as mypy.  Using ‘__class_getitem__()’ on
any class for purposes other than type hinting is discouraged.


File: python.info,  Node: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__,  Prev: The purpose of __class_getitem__,  Up: Emulating generic types

4.3.3.18 '__class_getitem__' versus '__getitem__'
.................................................

Usually, the *note subscription: 1d73. of an object using square
brackets will call the *note __getitem__(): 500. instance method defined
on the object’s class.  However, if the object being subscribed is
itself a class, the class method *note __class_getitem__(): 565. may be
called instead.  ‘__class_getitem__()’ should return a *note
GenericAlias: 4c9. object if it is properly defined.

Presented with the *note expression: 1d74. ‘obj[x]’, the Python
interpreter follows something like the following process to decide
whether *note __getitem__(): 500. or *note __class_getitem__(): 565.
should be called:

     from inspect import isclass

     def subscribe(obj, x):
         """Return the result of the expression 'obj[x]'"""

         class_of_obj = type(obj)

         # If the class of obj defines __getitem__,
         # call class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)
         if hasattr(class_of_obj, '__getitem__'):
             return class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)

         # Else, if obj is a class and defines __class_getitem__,
         # call obj.__class_getitem__(x)
         elif isclass(obj) and hasattr(obj, '__class_getitem__'):
             return obj.__class_getitem__(x)

         # Else, raise an exception
         else:
             raise TypeError(
                 f"'{class_of_obj.__name__}' object is not subscriptable"
             )

In Python, all classes are themselves instances of other classes.  The
class of a class is known as that class’s *note metaclass: 1d75, and
most classes have the *note type: bd1. class as their metaclass.  *note
type: bd1. does not define *note __getitem__(): 500, meaning that
expressions such as ‘list[int]’, ‘dict[str, float]’ and ‘tuple[str,
bytes]’ all result in *note __class_getitem__(): 565. being called:

     >>> # list has class "type" as its metaclass, like most classes:
     >>> type(list)
     <class 'type'>
     >>> type(dict) == type(list) == type(tuple) == type(str) == type(bytes)
     True
     >>> # "list[int]" calls "list.__class_getitem__(int)"
     >>> list[int]
     list[int]
     >>> # list.__class_getitem__ returns a GenericAlias object:
     >>> type(list[int])
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

However, if a class has a custom metaclass that defines *note
__getitem__(): 500, subscribing the class may result in different
behaviour.  An example of this can be found in the *note enum: 54.
module:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Menu(Enum):
     ...     """A breakfast menu"""
     ...     SPAM = 'spam'
     ...     BACON = 'bacon'
     ...
     >>> # Enum classes have a custom metaclass:
     >>> type(Menu)
     <class 'enum.EnumMeta'>
     >>> # EnumMeta defines __getitem__,
     >>> # so __class_getitem__ is not called,
     >>> # and the result is not a GenericAlias object:
     >>> Menu['SPAM']
     <Menu.SPAM: 'spam'>
     >>> type(Menu['SPAM'])
     <enum 'Menu'>

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 560(1) - Core Support for typing module and generic types

     Introducing *note __class_getitem__(): 565, and outlining when a
     *note subscription: 1d73. results in ‘__class_getitem__()’ being
     called instead of *note __getitem__(): 500.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating callable objects,  Next: Emulating container types,  Prev: Emulating generic types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.19 Emulating callable objects
...................................

 -- Yöntemi: object.__call__ (self[, args...])

     Called when the instance is “called” as a function; if this method
     is defined, ‘x(arg1, arg2, ...)’ roughly translates to
     ‘type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...)’.  The *note object: 8f2. class
     itself does not provide this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating container types,  Next: Emulating numeric types,  Prev: Emulating callable objects,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.20 Emulating container types
..................................

The following methods can be defined to implement container objects.
None of them are provided by the *note object: 8f2. class itself.
Containers usually are *note sequences: 23f. (such as *note lists: 422.
or *note tuples: 4ff.) or *note mappings: 1061. (like *note
dictionaries: 1d7a.), but can represent other containers as well.  The
first set of methods is used either to emulate a sequence or to emulate
a mapping; the difference is that for a sequence, the allowable keys
should be the integers 'k' for which ‘0 <= k < N’ where 'N' is the
length of the sequence, or *note slice: 186. objects, which define a
range of items.  It is also recommended that mappings provide the
methods ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘get()’, ‘clear()’,
‘setdefault()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, ‘copy()’, and ‘update()’ behaving
similar to those for Python’s standard *note dictionary: 240. objects.
The *note collections.abc: 1e. module provides a *note MutableMapping:
f51. *note abstract base class: 105b. to help create those methods from
a base set of *note __getitem__(): 500, *note __setitem__(): 1174, *note
__delitem__(): 1175, and ‘keys()’.  Mutable sequences should provide
methods ‘append()’, ‘count()’, ‘index()’, ‘extend()’, ‘insert()’,
‘pop()’, ‘remove()’, ‘reverse()’ and ‘sort()’, like Python standard
*note list: 422. objects.  Finally, sequence types should implement
addition (meaning concatenation) and multiplication (meaning repetition)
by defining the methods *note __add__(): 1d7b, *note __radd__(): 1d7c,
*note __iadd__(): 1d7d, *note __mul__(): 1d7e, *note __rmul__(): 1d7f.
and *note __imul__(): 1d80. described below; they should not define
other numerical operators.  It is recommended that both mappings and
sequences implement the *note __contains__(): 1d4b. method to allow
efficient use of the ‘in’ operator; for mappings, ‘in’ should search the
mapping’s keys; for sequences, it should search through the values.  It
is further recommended that both mappings and sequences implement the
*note __iter__(): 1d49. method to allow efficient iteration through the
container; for mappings, ‘__iter__()’ should iterate through the
object’s keys; for sequences, it should iterate through the values.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__len__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in function *note len(): 441.  Should
     return the length of the object, an integer ‘>=’ 0.  Also, an
     object that doesn’t define a *note __bool__(): 117f. method and
     whose ‘__len__()’ method returns zero is considered to be false in
     a Boolean context.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' In CPython, the length is required to
     be at most *note sys.maxsize: 106a.  If the length is larger than
     ‘sys.maxsize’ some features (such as *note len(): 441.) may raise
     *note OverflowError: 6c7.  To prevent raising ‘OverflowError’ by
     truth value testing, an object must define a *note __bool__():
     117f. method.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__length_hint__ (self)

     Called to implement *note operator.length_hint(): e0d.  Should
     return an estimated length for the object (which may be greater or
     less than the actual length).  The length must be an integer ‘>=’
     0.  The return value may also be *note NotImplemented: 60b, which
     is treated the same as if the ‘__length_hint__’ method didn’t exist
     at all.  This method is purely an optimization and is never
     required for correctness.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Not: Slicing is done exclusively with the following three methods.
     A call like

          a[1:2] = b

     is translated to

          a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b

     and so forth.  Missing slice items are always filled in with
     ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__getitem__ (self, key)

     Called to implement evaluation of ‘self[key]’.  For *note sequence:
     23f. types, the accepted keys should be integers.  Optionally, they
     may support *note slice: 186. objects as well.  Negative index
     support is also optional.  If 'key' is of an inappropriate type,
     *note TypeError: 2c4. may be raised; if 'key' is a value outside
     the set of indexes for the sequence (after any special
     interpretation of negative values), *note IndexError: 13c2. should
     be raised.  For *note mapping: 1061. types, if 'key' is missing
     (not in the container), *note KeyError: 903. should be raised.

          Not: *note for: 26d. loops expect that an *note IndexError:
          13c2. will be raised for illegal indexes to allow proper
          detection of the end of the sequence.

          Not: When *note subscripting: 1d73. a 'class', the special
          class method *note __class_getitem__(): 565. may be called
          instead of ‘__getitem__()’.  See *note __class_getitem__
          versus __getitem__: 1d72. for more details.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__setitem__ (self, key, value)

     Called to implement assignment to ‘self[key]’.  Same note as for
     *note __getitem__(): 500.  This should only be implemented for
     mappings if the objects support changes to the values for keys, or
     if new keys can be added, or for sequences if elements can be
     replaced.  The same exceptions should be raised for improper 'key'
     values as for the *note __getitem__(): 500. method.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__delitem__ (self, key)

     Called to implement deletion of ‘self[key]’.  Same note as for
     *note __getitem__(): 500.  This should only be implemented for
     mappings if the objects support removal of keys, or for sequences
     if elements can be removed from the sequence.  The same exceptions
     should be raised for improper 'key' values as for the *note
     __getitem__(): 500. method.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__missing__ (self, key)

     Called by *note dict: 240.*note __getitem__(): 500. to implement
     ‘self[key]’ for dict subclasses when key is not in the dictionary.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__iter__ (self)

     This method is called when an *note iterator: 176e. is required for
     a container.  This method should return a new iterator object that
     can iterate over all the objects in the container.  For mappings,
     it should iterate over the keys of the container.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__reversed__ (self)

     Called (if present) by the *note reversed(): 6a9. built-in to
     implement reverse iteration.  It should return a new iterator
     object that iterates over all the objects in the container in
     reverse order.

     If the *note __reversed__(): 1d4a. method is not provided, the
     *note reversed(): 6a9. built-in will fall back to using the
     sequence protocol (*note __len__(): 1d50. and *note __getitem__():
     500.).  Objects that support the sequence protocol should only
     provide *note __reversed__(): 1d4a. if they can provide an
     implementation that is more efficient than the one provided by
     *note reversed(): 6a9.

The membership test operators (*note in: 26f. and *note not in: 442.)
are normally implemented as an iteration through a container.  However,
container objects can supply the following special method with a more
efficient implementation, which also does not require the object be
iterable.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__contains__ (self, item)

     Called to implement membership test operators.  Should return true
     if 'item' is in 'self', false otherwise.  For mapping objects, this
     should consider the keys of the mapping rather than the values or
     the key-item pairs.

     For objects that don’t define *note __contains__(): 1d4b, the
     membership test first tries iteration via *note __iter__(): 1d49,
     then the old sequence iteration protocol via *note __getitem__():
     500, see *note this section in the language reference: 1d82.


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating numeric types,  Next: With Statement Context Managers,  Prev: Emulating container types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.21 Emulating numeric types
................................

The following methods can be defined to emulate numeric objects.
Methods corresponding to operations that are not supported by the
particular kind of number implemented (e.g., bitwise operations for
non-integral numbers) should be left undefined.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__add__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__sub__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__mul__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__matmul__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__truediv__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__floordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__mod__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__divmod__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__pow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Yöntemi: object.__lshift__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rshift__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__and__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__xor__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__or__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic
     operations (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     7ff, *note pow(): 830, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’).  For
     instance, to evaluate the expression ‘x + y’, where 'x' is an
     instance of a class that has an *note __add__(): 1d7b. method,
     ‘type(x).__add__(x, y)’ is called.  The *note __divmod__(): 1d88.
     method should be the equivalent to using *note __floordiv__():
     1381. and *note __mod__(): 1d87.; it should not be related to *note
     __truediv__(): 1380.  Note that *note __pow__(): 60c. should be
     defined to accept an optional third argument if the ternary version
     of the built-in *note pow(): 830. function is to be supported.

     If one of those methods does not support the operation with the
     supplied arguments, it should return *note NotImplemented: 60b.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__radd__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rsub__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rmul__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rmatmul__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rtruediv__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rfloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rmod__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rdivmod__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rpow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rlshift__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rrshift__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rand__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__rxor__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ror__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the binary arithmetic
     operations (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     7ff, *note pow(): 830, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’) with
     reflected (swapped) operands.  These functions are only called if
     the left operand does not support the corresponding operation (1)
     and the operands are of different types.  (2)  For instance, to
     evaluate the expression ‘x - y’, where 'y' is an instance of a
     class that has an *note __rsub__(): 1d8e. method,
     ‘type(y).__rsub__(y, x)’ is called if ‘type(x).__sub__(x, y)’
     returns *note NotImplemented: 60b.

     Note that ternary *note pow(): 830. will not try calling *note
     __rpow__(): 60d. (the coercion rules would become too complicated).

          Not: If the right operand’s type is a subclass of the left
          operand’s type and that subclass provides a different
          implementation of the reflected method for the operation, this
          method will be called before the left operand’s non-reflected
          method.  This behavior allows subclasses to override their
          ancestors’ operations.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__iadd__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__isub__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__imul__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__imatmul__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__itruediv__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ifloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__imod__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ipow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ilshift__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__irshift__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__iand__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ixor__ (self, other)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ior__ (self, other)

     These methods are called to implement the augmented arithmetic
     assignments (‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’, ‘@=’, ‘/=’, ‘//=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’,
     ‘<<=’, ‘>>=’, ‘&=’, ‘^=’, ‘|=’).  These methods should attempt to
     do the operation in-place (modifying 'self') and return the result
     (which could be, but does not have to be, 'self').  If a specific
     method is not defined, or if that method returns *note
     NotImplemented: 60b, the augmented assignment falls back to the
     normal methods.  For instance, if 'x' is an instance of a class
     with an *note __iadd__(): 1d7d. method, ‘x += y’ is equivalent to
     ‘x = x.__iadd__(y)’ .  If *note __iadd__(): 1d7d. does not exist,
     or if ‘x.__iadd__(y)’ returns ‘NotImplemented’, ‘x.__add__(y)’ and
     ‘y.__radd__(x)’ are considered, as with the evaluation of ‘x + y’.
     In certain situations, augmented assignment can result in
     unexpected errors (see *note Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise
     an exception when the addition works?: 1da3.), but this behavior is
     in fact part of the data model.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__neg__ (self)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__pos__ (self)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__abs__ (self)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__invert__ (self)

     Called to implement the unary arithmetic operations (‘-’, ‘+’,
     *note abs(): 1aed. and ‘~’).

 -- Yöntemi: object.__complex__ (self)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__int__ (self)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__float__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in functions *note complex(): 273,
     *note int(): 184. and *note float(): 272.  Should return a value of
     the appropriate type.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__index__ (self)

     Called to implement *note operator.index(): 1739, and whenever
     Python needs to losslessly convert the numeric object to an integer
     object (such as in slicing, or in the built-in *note bin(): 1151,
     *note hex(): 1178. and *note oct(): 1177. functions).  Presence of
     this method indicates that the numeric object is an integer type.
     Must return an integer.

     If *note __int__(): 537, *note __float__(): 82a. and *note
     __complex__(): 3f3. are not defined then corresponding built-in
     functions *note int(): 184, *note float(): 272. and *note
     complex(): 273. fall back to *note __index__(): 538.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__round__ (self[, ndigits])
 -- Yöntemi: object.__trunc__ (self)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__floor__ (self)
 -- Yöntemi: object.__ceil__ (self)

     Called to implement the built-in function *note round(): 1184. and
     *note math: 8d. functions *note trunc(): 124a, *note floor(): 1248.
     and *note ceil(): 1249.  Unless 'ndigits' is passed to
     ‘__round__()’ all these methods should return the value of the
     object truncated to an *note Integral: 1dab. (typically an *note
     int: 184.).

     The built-in function *note int(): 184. falls back to *note
     __trunc__(): 536. if neither *note __int__(): 537. nor *note
     __index__(): 538. is defined.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The delegation of *note int(): 184. to
     *note __trunc__(): 536. is deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) “Does not support” here means that the class has no such method,
or the method returns *note NotImplemented: 60b.  Do not set the method
to ‘None’ if you want to force fallback to the right operand’s reflected
method—that will instead have the opposite effect of explicitly
'blocking' such fallback.

   (2) For operands of the same type, it is assumed that if the
non-reflected method – such as *note __add__(): 1d7b. – fails then the
overall operation is not supported, which is why the reflected method is
not called.


File: python.info,  Node: With Statement Context Managers,  Next: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Prev: Emulating numeric types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.22 With Statement Context Managers
........................................

A 'context manager' is an object that defines the runtime context to be
established when executing a *note with: 3dd. statement.  The context
manager handles the entry into, and the exit from, the desired runtime
context for the execution of the block of code.  Context managers are
normally invoked using the ‘with’ statement (described in section *note
The with statement: 3dd.), but can also be used by directly invoking
their methods.

Typical uses of context managers include saving and restoring various
kinds of global state, locking and unlocking resources, closing opened
files, etc.

For more information on context managers, see *note Bağlam Yöneticisi
Türleri: 1dae.  The *note object: 8f2. class itself does not provide the
context manager methods.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__enter__ (self)

     Enter the runtime context related to this object.  The *note with:
     3dd. statement will bind this method’s return value to the
     target(s) specified in the ‘as’ clause of the statement, if any.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__exit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Exit the runtime context related to this object.  The parameters
     describe the exception that caused the context to be exited.  If
     the context was exited without an exception, all three arguments
     will be *note None: 488.

     If an exception is supplied, and the method wishes to suppress the
     exception (i.e., prevent it from being propagated), it should
     return a true value.  Otherwise, the exception will be processed
     normally upon exit from this method.

     Note that *note __exit__(): 11aa. methods should not reraise the
     passed-in exception; this is the caller’s responsibility.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 3dd. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Next: Emulating buffer types,  Prev: With Statement Context Managers,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.23 Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching
...................................................................

When using a class name in a pattern, positional arguments in the
pattern are not allowed by default, i.e.  ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ is
typically invalid without special support in ‘MyClass’.  To be able to
use that kind of pattern, the class needs to define a '__match_args__'
attribute.

 -- Verisi: object.__match_args__

     This class variable can be assigned a tuple of strings.  When this
     class is used in a class pattern with positional arguments, each
     positional argument will be converted into a keyword argument,
     using the corresponding value in '__match_args__' as the keyword.
     The absence of this attribute is equivalent to setting it to ‘()’.

For example, if ‘MyClass.__match_args__’ is ‘("left", "center",
"right")’ that means that ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ is equivalent to ‘case
MyClass(left=x, center=y)’.  Note that the number of arguments in the
pattern must be smaller than or equal to the number of elements in
'__match_args__'; if it is larger, the pattern match attempt will raise
a *note TypeError: 2c4.

Added in version 3.10.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 634(1) - Structural Pattern Matching

     The specification for the Python ‘match’ statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/


File: python.info,  Node: Emulating buffer types,  Next: Special method lookup,  Prev: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.24 Emulating buffer types
...............................

The *note buffer protocol: 14e. provides a way for Python objects to
expose efficient access to a low-level memory array.  This protocol is
implemented by builtin types such as *note bytes: 2cb. and *note
memoryview: 185, and third-party libraries may define additional buffer
types.

While buffer types are usually implemented in C, it is also possible to
implement the protocol in Python.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__buffer__ (self, flags)

     Called when a buffer is requested from 'self' (for example, by the
     *note memoryview: 185. constructor).  The 'flags' argument is an
     integer representing the kind of buffer requested, affecting for
     example whether the returned buffer is read-only or writable.
     *note inspect.BufferFlags: 177. provides a convenient way to
     interpret the flags.  The method must return a *note memoryview:
     185. object.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__release_buffer__ (self, buffer)

     Called when a buffer is no longer needed.  The 'buffer' argument is
     a *note memoryview: 185. object that was previously returned by
     *note __buffer__(): 175.  The method must release any resources
     associated with the buffer.  This method should return ‘None’.
     Buffer objects that do not need to perform any cleanup are not
     required to implement this method.

Added in version 3.12.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 688(1) - Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python

     Introduces the Python ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’
     methods.

*note collections.abc.Buffer: 176.

     ABC for buffer types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Special method lookup,  Prev: Emulating buffer types,  Up: Special method names

4.3.3.25 Special method lookup
..............................

For custom classes, implicit invocations of special methods are only
guaranteed to work correctly if defined on an object’s type, not in the
object’s instance dictionary.  That behaviour is the reason why the
following code raises an exception:

     >>> class C:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
     >>> len(c)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()

The rationale behind this behaviour lies with a number of special
methods such as *note __hash__(): 969. and *note __repr__(): 42e. that
are implemented by all objects, including type objects.  If the implicit
lookup of these methods used the conventional lookup process, they would
fail when invoked on the type object itself:

     >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
     True
     >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument

Incorrectly attempting to invoke an unbound method of a class in this
way is sometimes referred to as ‘metaclass confusion’, and is avoided by
bypassing the instance when looking up special methods:

     >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
     True
     >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
     True

In addition to bypassing any instance attributes in the interest of
correctness, implicit special method lookup generally also bypasses the
*note __getattribute__(): a49. method even of the object’s metaclass:

     >>> class Meta(type):
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
     ...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
     ...     def __len__(self):
     ...         return 10
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
     ...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
     Class getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
     Metaclass getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
     10

Bypassing the *note __getattribute__(): a49. machinery in this fashion
provides significant scope for speed optimisations within the
interpreter, at the cost of some flexibility in the handling of special
methods (the special method 'must' be set on the class object itself in
order to be consistently invoked by the interpreter).


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines,  Prev: Special method names,  Up: Data model

4.3.4 Coroutines
----------------

* Menu:

* Awaitable Objects::
* Coroutine Objects::
* Asynchronous Iterators::
* Asynchronous Context Managers::


File: python.info,  Node: Awaitable Objects,  Next: Coroutine Objects,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.1 Awaitable Objects
.........................

An *note awaitable: af6. object generally implements an *note
__await__(): 1db6. method.  *note Coroutine objects: 1b4. returned from
*note async def: 3db. functions are awaitable.

     Not: The *note generator iterator: a55. objects returned from
     generators decorated with *note types.coroutine(): d1e. are also
     awaitable, but they do not implement *note __await__(): 1db6.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__await__ (self)

     Must return an *note iterator: 176e.  Should be used to implement
     *note awaitable: af6. objects.  For instance, *note asyncio.Future:
     a44. implements this method to be compatible with the *note await:
     55b. expression.  The *note object: 8f2. class itself is not
     awaitable and does not provide this method.

          Not: The language doesn’t place any restriction on the type or
          value of the objects yielded by the iterator returned by
          ‘__await__’, as this is specific to the implementation of the
          asynchronous execution framework (e.g.  *note asyncio: a.)
          that will be managing the *note awaitable: af6. object.

Added in version 3.5.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 492(1) for additional information about awaitable objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Objects,  Next: Asynchronous Iterators,  Prev: Awaitable Objects,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.2 Coroutine Objects
.........................

*note Coroutine objects: 1b4. are *note awaitable: af6. objects.  A
coroutine’s execution can be controlled by calling *note __await__():
1db6. and iterating over the result.  When the coroutine has finished
executing and returns, the iterator raises *note StopIteration: a73, and
the exception’s *note value: 1db8. attribute holds the return value.  If
the coroutine raises an exception, it is propagated by the iterator.
Coroutines should not directly raise unhandled *note StopIteration: a73.
exceptions.

Coroutines also have the methods listed below, which are analogous to
those of generators (see *note Generator-iterator methods: 1db9.).
However, unlike generators, coroutines do not directly support
iteration.

3.5.2 sürümünde değişti: It is a *note RuntimeError: 180. to await on a
coroutine more than once.

 -- Yöntemi: coroutine.send (value)

     Starts or resumes execution of the coroutine.  If 'value' is
     ‘None’, this is equivalent to advancing the iterator returned by
     *note __await__(): 1db6.  If 'value' is not ‘None’, this method
     delegates to the *note send(): 1dbb. method of the iterator that
     caused the coroutine to suspend.  The result (return value, *note
     StopIteration: a73, or other exception) is the same as when
     iterating over the ‘__await__()’ return value, described above.

 -- Yöntemi: coroutine.throw (value)

 -- Yöntemi: coroutine.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Raises the specified exception in the coroutine.  This method
     delegates to the *note throw(): 24a. method of the iterator that
     caused the coroutine to suspend, if it has such a method.
     Otherwise, the exception is raised at the suspension point.  The
     result (return value, *note StopIteration: a73, or other exception)
     is the same as when iterating over the *note __await__(): 1db6.
     return value, described above.  If the exception is not caught in
     the coroutine, it propagates back to the caller.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Yöntemi: coroutine.close ()

     Causes the coroutine to clean itself up and exit.  If the coroutine
     is suspended, this method first delegates to the *note close():
     15e1. method of the iterator that caused the coroutine to suspend,
     if it has such a method.  Then it raises *note GeneratorExit: 124e.
     at the suspension point, causing the coroutine to immediately clean
     itself up.  Finally, the coroutine is marked as having finished
     executing, even if it was never started.

     Coroutine objects are automatically closed using the above process
     when they are about to be destroyed.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Iterators,  Next: Asynchronous Context Managers,  Prev: Coroutine Objects,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.3 Asynchronous Iterators
..............................

An 'asynchronous iterator' can call asynchronous code in its ‘__anext__’
method.

Asynchronous iterators can be used in an *note async for: 916.
statement.

The *note object: 8f2. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__aiter__ (self)

     Must return an 'asynchronous iterator' object.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__anext__ (self)

     Must return an 'awaitable' resulting in a next value of the
     iterator.  Should raise a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1867. error
     when the iteration is over.

An example of an asynchronous iterable object:

     class Reader:
         async def readline(self):
             ...

         def __aiter__(self):
             return self

         async def __anext__(self):
             val = await self.readline()
             if val == b'':
                 raise StopAsyncIteration
             return val

Added in version 3.5.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): a74.
could return an 'awaitable' that would resolve to an *note asynchronous
iterator: c05.

Starting with Python 3.7, *note __aiter__(): a74. must return an
asynchronous iterator object.  Returning anything else will result in a
*note TypeError: 2c4. error.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Context Managers,  Prev: Asynchronous Iterators,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.4 Asynchronous Context Managers
.....................................

An 'asynchronous context manager' is a 'context manager' that is able to
suspend execution in its ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ methods.

Asynchronous context managers can be used in an *note async with: 3e0.
statement.

The *note object: 8f2. class itself does not provide these methods.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__aenter__ (self)

     Semantically similar to *note __enter__(): 3d0, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__aexit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Semantically similar to *note __exit__(): 11aa, the only difference
     being that it must return an 'awaitable'.

An example of an asynchronous context manager class:

     class AsyncContextManager:
         async def __aenter__(self):
             await log('entering context')

         async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
             await log('exiting context')

Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Execution model,  Next: The import system,  Prev: Data model,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.4 Execution model
===================

* Menu:

* Structure of a program::
* Naming and binding::
* Exceptions::


File: python.info,  Node: Structure of a program,  Next: Naming and binding,  Up: Execution model

4.4.1 Structure of a program
----------------------------

A Python program is constructed from code blocks.  A 'block' is a piece
of Python program text that is executed as a unit.  The following are
blocks: a module, a function body, and a class definition.  Each command
typed interactively is a block.  A script file (a file given as standard
input to the interpreter or specified as a command line argument to the
interpreter) is a code block.  A script command (a command specified on
the interpreter command line with the *note -c: 3eb. option) is a code
block.  A module run as a top level script (as module ‘__main__’) from
the command line using a *note -m: 3ec. argument is also a code block.
The string argument passed to the built-in functions *note eval(): 6ca.
and *note exec(): 6cb. is a code block.

A code block is executed in an 'execution frame'.  A frame contains some
administrative information (used for debugging) and determines where and
how execution continues after the code block’s execution has completed.


File: python.info,  Node: Naming and binding,  Next: Exceptions,  Prev: Structure of a program,  Up: Execution model

4.4.2 Naming and binding
------------------------

* Menu:

* Binding of names::
* Resolution of names::
* Annotation scopes::
* Lazy evaluation::
* Builtins and restricted execution::
* Interaction with dynamic features::


File: python.info,  Node: Binding of names,  Next: Resolution of names,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.1 Binding of names
........................

'Names' refer to objects.  Names are introduced by name binding
operations.

The following constructs bind names:

   * formal parameters to functions,

   * class definitions,

   * function definitions,

   * assignment expressions,

   * *note targets: 1dc9. that are identifiers if occurring in an
     assignment:

        + *note for: 26d. loop header,

        + after ‘as’ in a *note with: 3dd. statement, *note except: 3c0.
          clause, *note except*: 3bf. clause, or in the as-pattern in
          structural pattern matching,

        + in a capture pattern in structural pattern matching

   * *note import: 3ed. statements.

   * *note type: 140. statements.

   * *note type parameter lists: 16c.

The ‘import’ statement of the form ‘from ... import *’ binds all names
defined in the imported module, except those beginning with an
underscore.  This form may only be used at the module level.

A target occurring in a *note del: 15c5. statement is also considered
bound for this purpose (though the actual semantics are to unbind the
name).

Each assignment or import statement occurs within a block defined by a
class or function definition or at the module level (the top-level code
block).

If a name is bound in a block, it is a local variable of that block,
unless declared as *note nonlocal: 1150. or *note global: 1a67.  If a
name is bound at the module level, it is a global variable.  (The
variables of the module code block are local and global.)  If a variable
is used in a code block but not defined there, it is a 'free variable'.

Each occurrence of a name in the program text refers to the 'binding' of
that name established by the following name resolution rules.


File: python.info,  Node: Resolution of names,  Next: Annotation scopes,  Prev: Binding of names,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.2 Resolution of names
...........................

A 'scope' defines the visibility of a name within a block.  If a local
variable is defined in a block, its scope includes that block.  If the
definition occurs in a function block, the scope extends to any blocks
contained within the defining one, unless a contained block introduces a
different binding for the name.

When a name is used in a code block, it is resolved using the nearest
enclosing scope.  The set of all such scopes visible to a code block is
called the block’s 'environment'.

When a name is not found at all, a *note NameError: 14a. exception is
raised.  If the current scope is a function scope, and the name refers
to a local variable that has not yet been bound to a value at the point
where the name is used, an *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. exception is
raised.  *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. is a subclass of *note
NameError: 14a.

If a name binding operation occurs anywhere within a code block, all
uses of the name within the block are treated as references to the
current block.  This can lead to errors when a name is used within a
block before it is bound.  This rule is subtle.  Python lacks
declarations and allows name binding operations to occur anywhere within
a code block.  The local variables of a code block can be determined by
scanning the entire text of the block for name binding operations.  See
*note the FAQ entry on UnboundLocalError: 1dcc. for examples.

If the *note global: 1a67. statement occurs within a block, all uses of
the names specified in the statement refer to the bindings of those
names in the top-level namespace.  Names are resolved in the top-level
namespace by searching the global namespace, i.e.  the namespace of the
module containing the code block, and the builtins namespace, the
namespace of the module *note builtins: 12.  The global namespace is
searched first.  If the names are not found there, the builtins
namespace is searched next.  If the names are also not found in the
builtins namespace, new variables are created in the global namespace.
The global statement must precede all uses of the listed names.

The *note global: 1a67. statement has the same scope as a name binding
operation in the same block.  If the nearest enclosing scope for a free
variable contains a global statement, the free variable is treated as a
global.

The *note nonlocal: 1150. statement causes corresponding names to refer
to previously bound variables in the nearest enclosing function scope.
*note SyntaxError: 14c. is raised at compile time if the given name does
not exist in any enclosing function scope.  *note Type parameters: 16c.
cannot be rebound with the ‘nonlocal’ statement.

The namespace for a module is automatically created the first time a
module is imported.  The main module for a script is always called *note
__main__: 1.

Class definition blocks and arguments to *note exec(): 6cb. and *note
eval(): 6ca. are special in the context of name resolution.  A class
definition is an executable statement that may use and define names.
These references follow the normal rules for name resolution with an
exception that unbound local variables are looked up in the global
namespace.  The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute
dictionary of the class.  The scope of names defined in a class block is
limited to the class block; it does not extend to the code blocks of
methods.  This includes comprehensions and generator expressions, but it
does not include *note annotation scopes: 16d, which have access to
their enclosing class scopes.  This means that the following will fail:

     class A:
         a = 42
         b = list(a + i for i in range(10))

However, the following will succeed:

     class A:
         type Alias = Nested
         class Nested: pass

     print(A.Alias.__value__)  # <type 'A.Nested'>


File: python.info,  Node: Annotation scopes,  Next: Lazy evaluation,  Prev: Resolution of names,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.3 Annotation scopes
.........................

*note Type parameter lists: 16c. and *note type: 140. statements
introduce 'annotation scopes', which behave mostly like function scopes,
but with some exceptions discussed below.  *note Annotations: 16e.
currently do not use annotation scopes, but they are expected to use
annotation scopes in Python 3.13 when PEP 649(1) is implemented.

Annotation scopes are used in the following contexts:

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic type aliases: 167.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic functions: 164.  A generic
     function’s annotations are executed within the annotation scope,
     but its defaults and decorators are not.

   * Type parameter lists for *note generic classes: 163.  A generic
     class’s base classes and keyword arguments are executed within the
     annotation scope, but its decorators are not.

   * The bounds and constraints for type variables (*note lazily
     evaluated: 16b.).

   * The value of type aliases (*note lazily evaluated: 16b.).

Annotation scopes differ from function scopes in the following ways:

   * Annotation scopes have access to their enclosing class namespace.
     If an annotation scope is immediately within a class scope, or
     within another annotation scope that is immediately within a class
     scope, the code in the annotation scope can use names defined in
     the class scope as if it were executed directly within the class
     body.  This contrasts with regular functions defined within
     classes, which cannot access names defined in the class scope.

   * Expressions in annotation scopes cannot contain *note yield: 82b,
     ‘yield from’, *note await: 55b, or *note ;=: 1dce. expressions.
     (These expressions are allowed in other scopes contained within the
     annotation scope.)

   * Names defined in annotation scopes cannot be rebound with *note
     nonlocal: 1150. statements in inner scopes.  This includes only
     type parameters, as no other syntactic elements that can appear
     within annotation scopes can introduce new names.

   * While annotation scopes have an internal name, that name is not
     reflected in the *note qualified name: 176c. of objects defined
     within the scope.  Instead, the *note __qualname__: f0f. of such
     objects is as if the object were defined in the enclosing scope.

Added in version 3.12: Annotation scopes were introduced in Python 3.12
as part of PEP 695(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Lazy evaluation,  Next: Builtins and restricted execution,  Prev: Annotation scopes,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.4 Lazy evaluation
.......................

The values of type aliases created through the *note type: 140.
statement are 'lazily evaluated'.  The same applies to the bounds and
constraints of type variables created through the *note type parameter
syntax: 16c.  This means that they are not evaluated when the type alias
or type variable is created.  Instead, they are only evaluated when
doing so is necessary to resolve an attribute access.

Example:

     >>> type Alias = 1/0
     >>> Alias.__value__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> def func[T: 1/0](): pass
     >>> T = func.__type_params__[0]
     >>> T.__bound__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Here the exception is raised only when the ‘__value__’ attribute of the
type alias or the ‘__bound__’ attribute of the type variable is
accessed.

This behavior is primarily useful for references to types that have not
yet been defined when the type alias or type variable is created.  For
example, lazy evaluation enables creation of mutually recursive type
aliases:

     from typing import Literal

     type SimpleExpr = int | Parenthesized
     type Parenthesized = tuple[Literal["("], Expr, Literal[")"]]
     type Expr = SimpleExpr | tuple[SimpleExpr, Literal["+", "-"], Expr]

Lazily evaluated values are evaluated in *note annotation scope: 16d,
which means that names that appear inside the lazily evaluated value are
looked up as if they were used in the immediately enclosing scope.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Builtins and restricted execution,  Next: Interaction with dynamic features,  Prev: Lazy evaluation,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.5 Builtins and restricted execution
.........................................

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Users should not touch ‘__builtins__’; it
is strictly an implementation detail.  Users wanting to override values
in the builtins namespace should *note import: 3ed. the *note builtins:
12. module and modify its attributes appropriately.

The builtins namespace associated with the execution of a code block is
actually found by looking up the name ‘__builtins__’ in its global
namespace; this should be a dictionary or a module (in the latter case
the module’s dictionary is used).  By default, when in the *note
__main__: 1. module, ‘__builtins__’ is the built-in module *note
builtins: 12.; when in any other module, ‘__builtins__’ is an alias for
the dictionary of the *note builtins: 12. module itself.


File: python.info,  Node: Interaction with dynamic features,  Prev: Builtins and restricted execution,  Up: Naming and binding

4.4.2.6 Interaction with dynamic features
.........................................

Name resolution of free variables occurs at runtime, not at compile
time.  This means that the following code will print 42:

     i = 10
     def f():
         print(i)
     i = 42
     f()

The *note eval(): 6ca. and *note exec(): 6cb. functions do not have
access to the full environment for resolving names.  Names may be
resolved in the local and global namespaces of the caller.  Free
variables are not resolved in the nearest enclosing namespace, but in
the global namespace.  (1)  The *note exec(): 6cb. and *note eval():
6ca. functions have optional arguments to override the global and local
namespace.  If only one namespace is specified, it is used for both.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This limitation occurs because the code that is executed by these
operations is not available at the time the module is compiled.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions,  Prev: Naming and binding,  Up: Execution model

4.4.3 Exceptions
----------------

Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of
a code block in order to handle errors or other exceptional conditions.
An exception is 'raised' at the point where the error is detected; it
may be 'handled' by the surrounding code block or by any code block that
directly or indirectly invoked the code block where the error occurred.

The Python interpreter raises an exception when it detects a run-time
error (such as division by zero).  A Python program can also explicitly
raise an exception with the *note raise: 3f9. statement.  Exception
handlers are specified with the *note try: 503. … *note except: 3c0.
statement.  The *note finally: 828. clause of such a statement can be
used to specify cleanup code which does not handle the exception, but is
executed whether an exception occurred or not in the preceding code.

Python uses the “termination” model of error handling: an exception
handler can find out what happened and continue execution at an outer
level, but it cannot repair the cause of the error and retry the failing
operation (except by re-entering the offending piece of code from the
top).

When an exception is not handled at all, the interpreter terminates
execution of the program, or returns to its interactive main loop.  In
either case, it prints a stack traceback, except when the exception is
*note SystemExit: bc8.

Exceptions are identified by class instances.  The *note except: 3c0.
clause is selected depending on the class of the instance: it must
reference the class of the instance or a *note non-virtual base class:
105b. thereof.  The instance can be received by the handler and can
carry additional information about the exceptional condition.

     Not: Exception messages are not part of the Python API. Their
     contents may change from one version of Python to the next without
     warning and should not be relied on by code which will run under
     multiple versions of the interpreter.

See also the description of the *note try: 503. statement in section
*note The try statement: 503. and *note raise: 3f9. statement in section
*note The raise statement: 3f9.


File: python.info,  Node: The import system,  Next: Expressions,  Prev: Execution model,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.5 The import system
=====================

Python code in one *note module: 1539. gains access to the code in
another module by the process of *note importing: 1dd8. it.  The *note
import: 3ed. statement is the most common way of invoking the import
machinery, but it is not the only way.  Functions such as *note
importlib.import_module(): 2a2. and built-in *note __import__(): 727.
can also be used to invoke the import machinery.

The *note import: 3ed. statement combines two operations; it searches
for the named module, then it binds the results of that search to a name
in the local scope.  The search operation of the ‘import’ statement is
defined as a call to the *note __import__(): 727. function, with the
appropriate arguments.  The return value of *note __import__(): 727. is
used to perform the name binding operation of the ‘import’ statement.
See the ‘import’ statement for the exact details of that name binding
operation.

A direct call to *note __import__(): 727. performs only the module
search and, if found, the module creation operation.  While certain
side-effects may occur, such as the importing of parent packages, and
the updating of various caches (including *note sys.modules: 179b.),
only the *note import: 3ed. statement performs a name binding operation.

When an *note import: 3ed. statement is executed, the standard builtin
*note __import__(): 727. function is called.  Other mechanisms for
invoking the import system (such as *note importlib.import_module():
2a2.) may choose to bypass *note __import__(): 727. and use their own
solutions to implement import semantics.

When a module is first imported, Python searches for the module and if
found, it creates a module object (1), initializing it.  If the named
module cannot be found, a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8. is raised.
Python implements various strategies to search for the named module when
the import machinery is invoked.  These strategies can be modified and
extended by using various hooks described in the sections below.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: The import system has been updated to fully
implement the second phase of PEP 302(2).  There is no longer any
implicit import machinery - the full import system is exposed through
*note sys.meta_path: bb3.  In addition, native namespace package support
has been implemented (see PEP 420(3)).

* Menu:

* importlib: importlib<9>.
* Packages::
* Searching::
* Loading::
* The Path Based Finder::
* Replacing the standard import system::
* Package Relative Imports::
* Special considerations for __main__::
* References::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) See *note types.ModuleType: ca2.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<9>,  Next: Packages,  Up: The import system

4.5.1 ‘importlib’
-----------------

The *note importlib: 75. module provides a rich API for interacting with
the import system.  For example *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2.
provides a recommended, simpler API than built-in *note __import__():
727. for invoking the import machinery.  Refer to the *note importlib:
75. library documentation for additional detail.


File: python.info,  Node: Packages,  Next: Searching,  Prev: importlib<9>,  Up: The import system

4.5.2 Packages
--------------

Python has only one type of module object, and all modules are of this
type, regardless of whether the module is implemented in Python, C, or
something else.  To help organize modules and provide a naming
hierarchy, Python has a concept of *note packages: 1d07.

You can think of packages as the directories on a file system and
modules as files within directories, but don’t take this analogy too
literally since packages and modules need not originate from the file
system.  For the purposes of this documentation, we’ll use this
convenient analogy of directories and files.  Like file system
directories, packages are organized hierarchically, and packages may
themselves contain subpackages, as well as regular modules.

It’s important to keep in mind that all packages are modules, but not
all modules are packages.  Or put another way, packages are just a
special kind of module.  Specifically, any module that contains a
‘__path__’ attribute is considered a package.

All modules have a name.  Subpackage names are separated from their
parent package name by a dot, akin to Python’s standard attribute access
syntax.  Thus you might have a package called *note email: 3a, which in
turn has a subpackage called *note email.mime: 44. and a module within
that subpackage called *note email.mime.text: 4c.

* Menu:

* Regular packages::
* Namespace packages::


File: python.info,  Node: Regular packages,  Next: Namespace packages,  Up: Packages

4.5.2.1 Regular packages
........................

Python defines two types of packages, *note regular packages: 1ddc. and
*note namespace packages: 1ab1.  Regular packages are traditional
packages as they existed in Python 3.2 and earlier.  A regular package
is typically implemented as a directory containing an ‘__init__.py’
file.  When a regular package is imported, this ‘__init__.py’ file is
implicitly executed, and the objects it defines are bound to names in
the package’s namespace.  The ‘__init__.py’ file can contain the same
Python code that any other module can contain, and Python will add some
additional attributes to the module when it is imported.

For example, the following file system layout defines a top level
‘parent’ package with three subpackages:

     parent/
         __init__.py
         one/
             __init__.py
         two/
             __init__.py
         three/
             __init__.py

Importing ‘parent.one’ will implicitly execute ‘parent/__init__.py’ and
‘parent/one/__init__.py’.  Subsequent imports of ‘parent.two’ or
‘parent.three’ will execute ‘parent/two/__init__.py’ and
‘parent/three/__init__.py’ respectively.


File: python.info,  Node: Namespace packages,  Prev: Regular packages,  Up: Packages

4.5.2.2 Namespace packages
..........................

A namespace package is a composite of various *note portions: 1ddf,
where each portion contributes a subpackage to the parent package.
Portions may reside in different locations on the file system.  Portions
may also be found in zip files, on the network, or anywhere else that
Python searches during import.  Namespace packages may or may not
correspond directly to objects on the file system; they may be virtual
modules that have no concrete representation.

Namespace packages do not use an ordinary list for their ‘__path__’
attribute.  They instead use a custom iterable type which will
automatically perform a new search for package portions on the next
import attempt within that package if the path of their parent package
(or *note sys.path: 368. for a top level package) changes.

With namespace packages, there is no ‘parent/__init__.py’ file.  In
fact, there may be multiple ‘parent’ directories found during import
search, where each one is provided by a different portion.  Thus
‘parent/one’ may not be physically located next to ‘parent/two’.  In
this case, Python will create a namespace package for the top-level
‘parent’ package whenever it or one of its subpackages is imported.

See also PEP 420(1) for the namespace package specification.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Searching,  Next: Loading,  Prev: Packages,  Up: The import system

4.5.3 Searching
---------------

To begin the search, Python needs the *note fully qualified: 176c. name
of the module (or package, but for the purposes of this discussion, the
difference is immaterial) being imported.  This name may come from
various arguments to the *note import: 3ed. statement, or from the
parameters to the *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2. or *note
__import__(): 727. functions.

This name will be used in various phases of the import search, and it
may be the dotted path to a submodule, e.g.  ‘foo.bar.baz’.  In this
case, Python first tries to import ‘foo’, then ‘foo.bar’, and finally
‘foo.bar.baz’.  If any of the intermediate imports fail, a *note
ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8. is raised.

* Menu:

* The module cache::
* Finders and loaders::
* Import hooks::
* The meta path::


File: python.info,  Node: The module cache,  Next: Finders and loaders,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.1 The module cache
........................

The first place checked during import search is *note sys.modules: 179b.
This mapping serves as a cache of all modules that have been previously
imported, including the intermediate paths.  So if ‘foo.bar.baz’ was
previously imported, *note sys.modules: 179b. will contain entries for
‘foo’, ‘foo.bar’, and ‘foo.bar.baz’.  Each key will have as its value
the corresponding module object.

During import, the module name is looked up in *note sys.modules: 179b.
and if present, the associated value is the module satisfying the
import, and the process completes.  However, if the value is ‘None’,
then a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8. is raised.  If the module name is
missing, Python will continue searching for the module.

*note sys.modules: 179b. is writable.  Deleting a key may not destroy
the associated module (as other modules may hold references to it), but
it will invalidate the cache entry for the named module, causing Python
to search anew for the named module upon its next import.  The key can
also be assigned to ‘None’, forcing the next import of the module to
result in a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8.

Beware though, as if you keep a reference to the module object,
invalidate its cache entry in *note sys.modules: 179b, and then
re-import the named module, the two module objects will 'not' be the
same.  By contrast, *note importlib.reload(): 2a3. will reuse the 'same'
module object, and simply reinitialise the module contents by rerunning
the module’s code.


File: python.info,  Node: Finders and loaders,  Next: Import hooks,  Prev: The module cache,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.2 Finders and loaders
...........................

If the named module is not found in *note sys.modules: 179b, then
Python’s import protocol is invoked to find and load the module.  This
protocol consists of two conceptual objects, *note finders: 1d0b. and
*note loaders: 14c0.  A finder’s job is to determine whether it can find
the named module using whatever strategy it knows about.  Objects that
implement both of these interfaces are referred to as *note importers:
1de4. - they return themselves when they find that they can load the
requested module.

Python includes a number of default finders and importers.  The first
one knows how to locate built-in modules, and the second knows how to
locate frozen modules.  A third default finder searches an *note import
path: 1de5. for modules.  The *note import path: 1de5. is a list of
locations that may name file system paths or zip files.  It can also be
extended to search for any locatable resource, such as those identified
by URLs.

The import machinery is extensible, so new finders can be added to
extend the range and scope of module searching.

Finders do not actually load modules.  If they can find the named
module, they return a 'module spec', an encapsulation of the module’s
import-related information, which the import machinery then uses when
loading the module.

The following sections describe the protocol for finders and loaders in
more detail, including how you can create and register new ones to
extend the import machinery.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions of Python, finders returned
*note loaders: 14c0. directly, whereas now they return module specs
which 'contain' loaders.  Loaders are still used during import but have
fewer responsibilities.


File: python.info,  Node: Import hooks,  Next: The meta path,  Prev: Finders and loaders,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.3 Import hooks
....................

The import machinery is designed to be extensible; the primary mechanism
for this are the 'import hooks'.  There are two types of import hooks:
'meta hooks' and 'import path hooks'.

Meta hooks are called at the start of import processing, before any
other import processing has occurred, other than *note sys.modules:
179b. cache look up.  This allows meta hooks to override *note sys.path:
368. processing, frozen modules, or even built-in modules.  Meta hooks
are registered by adding new finder objects to *note sys.meta_path: bb3,
as described below.

Import path hooks are called as part of *note sys.path: 368. (or
‘package.__path__’) processing, at the point where their associated path
item is encountered.  Import path hooks are registered by adding new
callables to *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. as described below.


File: python.info,  Node: The meta path,  Prev: Import hooks,  Up: Searching

4.5.3.4 The meta path
.....................

When the named module is not found in *note sys.modules: 179b, Python
next searches *note sys.meta_path: bb3, which contains a list of meta
path finder objects.  These finders are queried in order to see if they
know how to handle the named module.  Meta path finders must implement a
method called *note find_spec(): 6ac. which takes three arguments: a
name, an import path, and (optionally) a target module.  The meta path
finder can use any strategy it wants to determine whether it can handle
the named module or not.

If the meta path finder knows how to handle the named module, it returns
a spec object.  If it cannot handle the named module, it returns ‘None’.
If *note sys.meta_path: bb3. processing reaches the end of its list
without returning a spec, then a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8. is
raised.  Any other exceptions raised are simply propagated up, aborting
the import process.

The *note find_spec(): 6ac. method of meta path finders is called with
two or three arguments.  The first is the fully qualified name of the
module being imported, for example ‘foo.bar.baz’.  The second argument
is the path entries to use for the module search.  For top-level
modules, the second argument is ‘None’, but for submodules or
subpackages, the second argument is the value of the parent package’s
‘__path__’ attribute.  If the appropriate ‘__path__’ attribute cannot be
accessed, a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8. is raised.  The third
argument is an existing module object that will be the target of loading
later.  The import system passes in a target module only during reload.

The meta path may be traversed multiple times for a single import
request.  For example, assuming none of the modules involved has already
been cached, importing ‘foo.bar.baz’ will first perform a top level
import, calling ‘mpf.find_spec("foo", None, None)’ on each meta path
finder (‘mpf’).  After ‘foo’ has been imported, ‘foo.bar’ will be
imported by traversing the meta path a second time, calling
‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar", foo.__path__, None)’.  Once ‘foo.bar’ has been
imported, the final traversal will call ‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar.baz",
foo.bar.__path__, None)’.

Some meta path finders only support top level imports.  These importers
will always return ‘None’ when anything other than ‘None’ is passed as
the second argument.

Python’s default *note sys.meta_path: bb3. has three meta path finders,
one that knows how to import built-in modules, one that knows how to
import frozen modules, and one that knows how to import modules from an
*note import path: 1de5. (i.e.  the *note path based finder: 1de8.).

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The *note find_spec(): 6ac. method of meta path
finders replaced ‘find_module()’, which is now deprecated.  While it
will continue to work without change, the import machinery will try it
only if the finder does not implement *note find_spec(): 6ac.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Use of ‘find_module()’ by the import system now
raises *note ImportWarning: 24e.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘find_module()’ has been removed.  Use *note
find_spec(): 6ac. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading,  Next: The Path Based Finder,  Prev: Searching,  Up: The import system

4.5.4 Loading
-------------

If and when a module spec is found, the import machinery will use it
(and the loader it contains) when loading the module.  Here is an
approximation of what happens during the loading portion of import:

     module = None
     if spec.loader is not None and hasattr(spec.loader, 'create_module'):
         # It is assumed 'exec_module' will also be defined on the loader.
         module = spec.loader.create_module(spec)
     if module is None:
         module = ModuleType(spec.name)
     # The import-related module attributes get set here:
     _init_module_attrs(spec, module)

     if spec.loader is None:
         # unsupported
         raise ImportError
     if spec.origin is None and spec.submodule_search_locations is not None:
         # namespace package
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
     elif not hasattr(spec.loader, 'exec_module'):
         module = spec.loader.load_module(spec.name)
     else:
         sys.modules[spec.name] = module
         try:
             spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         except BaseException:
             try:
                 del sys.modules[spec.name]
             except KeyError:
                 pass
             raise
     return sys.modules[spec.name]

Note the following details:

   * If there is an existing module object with the given name in *note
     sys.modules: 179b, import will have already returned it.

   * The module will exist in *note sys.modules: 179b. before the loader
     executes the module code.  This is crucial because the module code
     may (directly or indirectly) import itself; adding it to *note
     sys.modules: 179b. beforehand prevents unbounded recursion in the
     worst case and multiple loading in the best.

   * If loading fails, the failing module – and only the failing module
     – gets removed from *note sys.modules: 179b.  Any module already in
     the *note sys.modules: 179b. cache, and any module that was
     successfully loaded as a side-effect, must remain in the cache.
     This contrasts with reloading where even the failing module is left
     in *note sys.modules: 179b.

   * After the module is created but before execution, the import
     machinery sets the import-related module attributes
     (“_init_module_attrs” in the pseudo-code example above), as
     summarized in a *note later section: 1d00.

   * Module execution is the key moment of loading in which the module’s
     namespace gets populated.  Execution is entirely delegated to the
     loader, which gets to decide what gets populated and how.

   * The module created during loading and passed to exec_module() may
     not be the one returned at the end of import (1).

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The import system has taken over the boilerplate
responsibilities of loaders.  These were previously performed by the
*note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 6ad. method.

* Menu:

* Loaders::
* Submodules::
* Module specs::
* __path__ attributes on modules::
* Module reprs::
* Cached bytecode invalidation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The importlib implementation avoids using the return value
directly.  Instead, it gets the module object by looking the module name
up in *note sys.modules: 179b.  The indirect effect of this is that an
imported module may replace itself in *note sys.modules: 179b.  This is
implementation-specific behavior that is not guaranteed to work in other
Python implementations.


File: python.info,  Node: Loaders,  Next: Submodules,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.1 Loaders
...............

Module loaders provide the critical function of loading: module
execution.  The import machinery calls the *note
importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 6ae. method with a single argument,
the module object to execute.  Any value returned from *note
exec_module(): 6ae. is ignored.

Loaders must satisfy the following requirements:

   * If the module is a Python module (as opposed to a built-in module
     or a dynamically loaded extension), the loader should execute the
     module’s code in the module’s global name space
     (‘module.__dict__’).

   * If the loader cannot execute the module, it should raise an *note
     ImportError: 14b, although any other exception raised during *note
     exec_module(): 6ae. will be propagated.

In many cases, the finder and loader can be the same object; in such
cases the *note find_spec(): 6ac. method would just return a spec with
the loader set to ‘self’.

Module loaders may opt in to creating the module object during loading
by implementing a *note create_module(): b31. method.  It takes one
argument, the module spec, and returns the new module object to use
during loading.  ‘create_module()’ does not need to set any attributes
on the module object.  If the method returns ‘None’, the import
machinery will create the new module itself.

Added in version 3.4: The *note create_module(): b31. method of loaders.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The *note load_module(): 6ad. method was replaced
by *note exec_module(): 6ae. and the import machinery assumed all the
boilerplate responsibilities of loading.

For compatibility with existing loaders, the import machinery will use
the ‘load_module()’ method of loaders if it exists and the loader does
not also implement ‘exec_module()’.  However, ‘load_module()’ has been
deprecated and loaders should implement ‘exec_module()’ instead.

The ‘load_module()’ method must implement all the boilerplate loading
functionality described above in addition to executing the module.  All
the same constraints apply, with some additional clarification:

   * If there is an existing module object with the given name in *note
     sys.modules: 179b, the loader must use that existing module.
     (Otherwise, *note importlib.reload(): 2a3. will not work
     correctly.)  If the named module does not exist in *note
     sys.modules: 179b, the loader must create a new module object and
     add it to *note sys.modules: 179b.

   * The module 'must' exist in *note sys.modules: 179b. before the
     loader executes the module code, to prevent unbounded recursion or
     multiple loading.

   * If loading fails, the loader must remove any modules it has
     inserted into *note sys.modules: 179b, but it must remove 'only'
     the failing module(s), and only if the loader itself has loaded the
     module(s) explicitly.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: A *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is raised when
‘exec_module()’ is defined but ‘create_module()’ is not.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: An *note ImportError: 14b. is raised when
‘exec_module()’ is defined but ‘create_module()’ is not.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Use of ‘load_module()’ will raise *note
ImportWarning: 24e.


File: python.info,  Node: Submodules,  Next: Module specs,  Prev: Loaders,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.2 Submodules
..................

When a submodule is loaded using any mechanism (e.g.  ‘importlib’ APIs,
the ‘import’ or ‘import-from’ statements, or built-in ‘__import__()’) a
binding is placed in the parent module’s namespace to the submodule
object.  For example, if package ‘spam’ has a submodule ‘foo’, after
importing ‘spam.foo’, ‘spam’ will have an attribute ‘foo’ which is bound
to the submodule.  Let’s say you have the following directory structure:

     spam/
         __init__.py
         foo.py

and ‘spam/__init__.py’ has the following line in it:

     from .foo import Foo

then executing the following puts name bindings for ‘foo’ and ‘Foo’ in
the ‘spam’ module:

     >>> import spam
     >>> spam.foo
     <module 'spam.foo' from '/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py'>
     >>> spam.Foo
     <class 'spam.foo.Foo'>

Given Python’s familiar name binding rules this might seem surprising,
but it’s actually a fundamental feature of the import system.  The
invariant holding is that if you have ‘sys.modules['spam']’ and
‘sys.modules['spam.foo']’ (as you would after the above import), the
latter must appear as the ‘foo’ attribute of the former.


File: python.info,  Node: Module specs,  Next: __path__ attributes on modules,  Prev: Submodules,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.3 Module specs
....................

The import machinery uses a variety of information about each module
during import, especially before loading.  Most of the information is
common to all modules.  The purpose of a module’s spec is to encapsulate
this import-related information on a per-module basis.

Using a spec during import allows state to be transferred between import
system components, e.g.  between the finder that creates the module spec
and the loader that executes it.  Most importantly, it allows the import
machinery to perform the boilerplate operations of loading, whereas
without a module spec the loader had that responsibility.

The module’s spec is exposed as *note module.__spec__: 1d03.  Setting
‘__spec__’ appropriately applies equally to *note modules initialized
during interpreter startup: 1ded.  The one exception is ‘__main__’,
where ‘__spec__’ is *note set to None in some cases: 1dee.

See *note ModuleSpec: 1d05. for details on the contents of the module
spec.

Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: __path__ attributes on modules,  Next: Module reprs,  Prev: Module specs,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.4 __path__ attributes on modules
......................................

The *note __path__: 1ab7. attribute should be a (possibly empty) *note
sequence: 23f. of strings enumerating the locations where the package’s
submodules will be found.  By definition, if a module has a ‘__path__’
attribute, it is a *note package: 1d07.

A package’s *note __path__: 1ab7. attribute is used during imports of
its subpackages.  Within the import machinery, it functions much the
same as *note sys.path: 368, i.e.  providing a list of locations to
search for modules during import.  However, ‘__path__’ is typically much
more constrained than ‘sys.path’.

The same rules used for *note sys.path: 368. also apply to a package’s
‘__path__’.  *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. (described below) are consulted
when traversing a package’s ‘__path__’.

A package’s ‘__init__.py’ file may set or alter the package’s *note
__path__: 1ab7. attribute, and this was typically the way namespace
packages were implemented prior to PEP 420(1).  With the adoption of PEP
420(2), namespace packages no longer need to supply ‘__init__.py’ files
containing only ‘__path__’ manipulation code; the import machinery
automatically sets ‘__path__’ correctly for the namespace package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Module reprs,  Next: Cached bytecode invalidation,  Prev: __path__ attributes on modules,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.5 Module reprs
....................

By default, all modules have a usable repr, however depending on the
attributes set above, and in the module’s spec, you can more explicitly
control the repr of module objects.

If the module has a spec (‘__spec__’), the import machinery will try to
generate a repr from it.  If that fails or there is no spec, the import
system will craft a default repr using whatever information is available
on the module.  It will try to use the ‘module.__name__’,
‘module.__file__’, and ‘module.__loader__’ as input into the repr, with
defaults for whatever information is missing.

Here are the exact rules used:

   * If the module has a ‘__spec__’ attribute, the information in the
     spec is used to generate the repr.  The “name”, “loader”, “origin”,
     and “has_location” attributes are consulted.

   * If the module has a ‘__file__’ attribute, this is used as part of
     the module’s repr.

   * If the module has no ‘__file__’ but does have a ‘__loader__’ that
     is not ‘None’, then the loader’s repr is used as part of the
     module’s repr.

   * Otherwise, just use the module’s ‘__name__’ in the repr.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Use of ‘module_repr()’, having been deprecated
since Python 3.4, was removed in Python 3.12 and is no longer called
during the resolution of a module’s repr.


File: python.info,  Node: Cached bytecode invalidation,  Prev: Module reprs,  Up: Loading

4.5.4.6 Cached bytecode invalidation
....................................

Before Python loads cached bytecode from a ‘.pyc’ file, it checks
whether the cache is up-to-date with the source ‘.py’ file.  By default,
Python does this by storing the source’s last-modified timestamp and
size in the cache file when writing it.  At runtime, the import system
then validates the cache file by checking the stored metadata in the
cache file against the source’s metadata.

Python also supports “hash-based” cache files, which store a hash of the
source file’s contents rather than its metadata.  There are two variants
of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files: checked and unchecked.  For checked
hash-based ‘.pyc’ files, Python validates the cache file by hashing the
source file and comparing the resulting hash with the hash in the cache
file.  If a checked hash-based cache file is found to be invalid, Python
regenerates it and writes a new checked hash-based cache file.  For
unchecked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files, Python simply assumes the cache file
is valid if it exists.  Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files validation behavior may
be overridden with the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 1b7a. flag.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added hash-based ‘.pyc’ files.  Previously,
Python only supported timestamp-based invalidation of bytecode caches.


File: python.info,  Node: The Path Based Finder,  Next: Replacing the standard import system,  Prev: Loading,  Up: The import system

4.5.5 The Path Based Finder
---------------------------

As mentioned previously, Python comes with several default meta path
finders.  One of these, called the *note path based finder: 1de8. (*note
PathFinder: ecb.), searches an *note import path: 1de5, which contains a
list of *note path entries: 1df3.  Each path entry names a location to
search for modules.

The path based finder itself doesn’t know how to import anything.
Instead, it traverses the individual path entries, associating each of
them with a path entry finder that knows how to handle that particular
kind of path.

The default set of path entry finders implement all the semantics for
finding modules on the file system, handling special file types such as
Python source code (‘.py’ files), Python byte code (‘.pyc’ files) and
shared libraries (e.g.  ‘.so’ files).  When supported by the *note
zipimport: 132. module in the standard library, the default path entry
finders also handle loading all of these file types (other than shared
libraries) from zipfiles.

Path entries need not be limited to file system locations.  They can
refer to URLs, database queries, or any other location that can be
specified as a string.

The path based finder provides additional hooks and protocols so that
you can extend and customize the types of searchable path entries.  For
example, if you wanted to support path entries as network URLs, you
could write a hook that implements HTTP semantics to find modules on the
web.  This hook (a callable) would return a *note path entry finder:
f1b. supporting the protocol described below, which was then used to get
a loader for the module from the web.

A word of warning: this section and the previous both use the term
'finder', distinguishing between them by using the terms *note meta path
finder: f1a. and *note path entry finder: f1b.  These two types of
finders are very similar, support similar protocols, and function in
similar ways during the import process, but it’s important to keep in
mind that they are subtly different.  In particular, meta path finders
operate at the beginning of the import process, as keyed off the *note
sys.meta_path: bb3. traversal.

By contrast, path entry finders are in a sense an implementation detail
of the path based finder, and in fact, if the path based finder were to
be removed from *note sys.meta_path: bb3, none of the path entry finder
semantics would be invoked.

* Menu:

* Path entry finders::
* Path entry finder protocol::


File: python.info,  Node: Path entry finders,  Next: Path entry finder protocol,  Up: The Path Based Finder

4.5.5.1 Path entry finders
..........................

The *note path based finder: 1de8. is responsible for finding and
loading Python modules and packages whose location is specified with a
string *note path entry: 1df3.  Most path entries name locations in the
file system, but they need not be limited to this.

As a meta path finder, the *note path based finder: 1de8. implements the
*note find_spec(): 6ac. protocol previously described, however it
exposes additional hooks that can be used to customize how modules are
found and loaded from the *note import path: 1de5.

Three variables are used by the *note path based finder: 1de8, *note
sys.path: 368, *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. and *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0.  The ‘__path__’ attributes on package
objects are also used.  These provide additional ways that the import
machinery can be customized.

*note sys.path: 368. contains a list of strings providing search
locations for modules and packages.  It is initialized from the *note
PYTHONPATH: ec5. environment variable and various other installation-
and implementation-specific defaults.  Entries in *note sys.path: 368.
can name directories on the file system, zip files, and potentially
other “locations” (see the *note site: c6. module) that should be
searched for modules, such as URLs, or database queries.  Only strings
should be present on *note sys.path: 368.; all other data types are
ignored.

The *note path based finder: 1de8. is a *note meta path finder: f1a, so
the import machinery begins the *note import path: 1de5. search by
calling the path based finder’s *note find_spec(): eb8. method as
described previously.  When the ‘path’ argument to *note find_spec():
eb8. is given, it will be a list of string paths to traverse - typically
a package’s ‘__path__’ attribute for an import within that package.  If
the ‘path’ argument is ‘None’, this indicates a top level import and
*note sys.path: 368. is used.

The path based finder iterates over every entry in the search path, and
for each of these, looks for an appropriate *note path entry finder:
f1b. (*note PathEntryFinder: 6b3.) for the path entry.  Because this can
be an expensive operation (e.g.  there may be ‘stat()’ call overheads
for this search), the path based finder maintains a cache mapping path
entries to path entry finders.  This cache is maintained in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. (despite the name, this cache actually
stores finder objects rather than being limited to *note importer: 1de4.
objects).  In this way, the expensive search for a particular *note path
entry: 1df3. location’s *note path entry finder: f1b. need only be done
once.  User code is free to remove cache entries from *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. forcing the path based finder to perform
the path entry search again.

If the path entry is not present in the cache, the path based finder
iterates over every callable in *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.  Each of the
*note path entry hooks: 1df5. in this list is called with a single
argument, the path entry to be searched.  This callable may either
return a *note path entry finder: f1b. that can handle the path entry,
or it may raise *note ImportError: 14b.  An *note ImportError: 14b. is
used by the path based finder to signal that the hook cannot find a
*note path entry finder: f1b. for that *note path entry: 1df3.  The
exception is ignored and *note import path: 1de5. iteration continues.
The hook should expect either a string or bytes object; the encoding of
bytes objects is up to the hook (e.g.  it may be a file system encoding,
UTF-8, or something else), and if the hook cannot decode the argument,
it should raise *note ImportError: 14b.

If *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. iteration ends with no *note path entry
finder: f1b. being returned, then the path based finder’s *note
find_spec(): eb8. method will store ‘None’ in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. (to indicate that there is no finder for
this path entry) and return ‘None’, indicating that this *note meta path
finder: f1a. could not find the module.

If a *note path entry finder: f1b. 'is' returned by one of the *note
path entry hook: 1df5. callables on *note sys.path_hooks: ecc, then the
following protocol is used to ask the finder for a module spec, which is
then used when loading the module.

The current working directory – denoted by an empty string – is handled
slightly differently from other entries on *note sys.path: 368.  First,
if the current working directory is found to not exist, no value is
stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0.  Second, the value for the
current working directory is looked up fresh for each module lookup.
Third, the path used for *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. and
returned by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): eb8. will
be the actual current working directory and not the empty string.


File: python.info,  Node: Path entry finder protocol,  Prev: Path entry finders,  Up: The Path Based Finder

4.5.5.2 Path entry finder protocol
..................................

In order to support imports of modules and initialized packages and also
to contribute portions to namespace packages, path entry finders must
implement the *note find_spec(): 6b0. method.

*note find_spec(): 6b0. takes two arguments: the fully qualified name of
the module being imported, and the (optional) target module.
‘find_spec()’ returns a fully populated spec for the module.  This spec
will always have “loader” set (with one exception).

To indicate to the import machinery that the spec represents a namespace
*note portion: 1ddf, the path entry finder sets
‘submodule_search_locations’ to a list containing the portion.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: *note find_spec(): 6b0. replaced ‘find_loader()’
and ‘find_module()’, both of which are now deprecated, but will be used
if ‘find_spec()’ is not defined.

Older path entry finders may implement one of these two deprecated
methods instead of ‘find_spec()’.  The methods are still respected for
the sake of backward compatibility.  However, if ‘find_spec()’ is
implemented on the path entry finder, the legacy methods are ignored.

‘find_loader()’ takes one argument, the fully qualified name of the
module being imported.  ‘find_loader()’ returns a 2-tuple where the
first item is the loader and the second item is a namespace *note
portion: 1ddf.

For backwards compatibility with other implementations of the import
protocol, many path entry finders also support the same, traditional
‘find_module()’ method that meta path finders support.  However path
entry finder ‘find_module()’ methods are never called with a ‘path’
argument (they are expected to record the appropriate path information
from the initial call to the path hook).

The ‘find_module()’ method on path entry finders is deprecated, as it
does not allow the path entry finder to contribute portions to namespace
packages.  If both ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ exist on a path
entry finder, the import system will always call ‘find_loader()’ in
preference to ‘find_module()’.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Calls to ‘find_module()’ and ‘find_loader()’ by
the import system will raise *note ImportWarning: 24e.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘find_module()’ and ‘find_loader()’ have been
removed.


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing the standard import system,  Next: Package Relative Imports,  Prev: The Path Based Finder,  Up: The import system

4.5.6 Replacing the standard import system
------------------------------------------

The most reliable mechanism for replacing the entire import system is to
delete the default contents of *note sys.meta_path: bb3, replacing them
entirely with a custom meta path hook.

If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements
without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then
replacing the builtin *note __import__(): 727. function may be
sufficient.  This technique may also be employed at the module level to
only alter the behaviour of import statements within that module.

To selectively prevent the import of some modules from a hook early on
the meta path (rather than disabling the standard import system
entirely), it is sufficient to raise *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8.
directly from *note find_spec(): 6ac. instead of returning ‘None’.  The
latter indicates that the meta path search should continue, while
raising an exception terminates it immediately.


File: python.info,  Node: Package Relative Imports,  Next: Special considerations for __main__,  Prev: Replacing the standard import system,  Up: The import system

4.5.7 Package Relative Imports
------------------------------

Relative imports use leading dots.  A single leading dot indicates a
relative import, starting with the current package.  Two or more leading
dots indicate a relative import to the parent(s) of the current package,
one level per dot after the first.  For example, given the following
package layout:

     package/
         __init__.py
         subpackage1/
             __init__.py
             moduleX.py
             moduleY.py
         subpackage2/
             __init__.py
             moduleZ.py
         moduleA.py

In either ‘subpackage1/moduleX.py’ or ‘subpackage1/__init__.py’, the
following are valid relative imports:

     from .moduleY import spam
     from .moduleY import spam as ham
     from . import moduleY
     from ..subpackage1 import moduleY
     from ..subpackage2.moduleZ import eggs
     from ..moduleA import foo

Absolute imports may use either the ‘import <>’ or ‘from <> import <>’
syntax, but relative imports may only use the second form; the reason
for this is that:

     import XXX.YYY.ZZZ

should expose ‘XXX.YYY.ZZZ’ as a usable expression, but .moduleY is not
a valid expression.


File: python.info,  Node: Special considerations for __main__,  Next: References,  Prev: Package Relative Imports,  Up: The import system

4.5.8 Special considerations for __main__
-----------------------------------------

The *note __main__: 1. module is a special case relative to Python’s
import system.  As noted *note elsewhere: 1ded, the ‘__main__’ module is
directly initialized at interpreter startup, much like *note sys: d8.
and *note builtins: 12.  However, unlike those two, it doesn’t strictly
qualify as a built-in module.  This is because the manner in which
‘__main__’ is initialized depends on the flags and other options with
which the interpreter is invoked.

* Menu:

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ __spec__,  Up: Special considerations for __main__

4.5.8.1 __main__.__spec__
.........................

Depending on how *note __main__: 1. is initialized, ‘__main__.__spec__’
gets set appropriately or to ‘None’.

When Python is started with the *note -m: 3ec. option, ‘__spec__’ is set
to the module spec of the corresponding module or package.  ‘__spec__’
is also populated when the ‘__main__’ module is loaded as part of
executing a directory, zipfile or other *note sys.path: 368. entry.

In *note the remaining cases: 1b73. ‘__main__.__spec__’ is set to
‘None’, as the code used to populate the *note __main__: 1. does not
correspond directly with an importable module:

   - interactive prompt

   - *note -c: 3eb. option

   - running from stdin

   - running directly from a source or bytecode file

Note that ‘__main__.__spec__’ is always ‘None’ in the last case, 'even
if' the file could technically be imported directly as a module instead.
Use the *note -m: 3ec. switch if valid module metadata is desired in
*note __main__: 1.

Note also that even when ‘__main__’ corresponds with an importable
module and ‘__main__.__spec__’ is set accordingly, they’re still
considered 'distinct' modules.  This is due to the fact that blocks
guarded by ‘if __name__ == "__main__":’ checks only execute when the
module is used to populate the ‘__main__’ namespace, and not during
normal import.


File: python.info,  Node: References,  Prev: Special considerations for __main__,  Up: The import system

4.5.9 References
----------------

The import machinery has evolved considerably since Python’s early days.
The original specification for packages(1) is still available to read,
although some details have changed since the writing of that document.

The original specification for *note sys.meta_path: bb3. was PEP 302(2),
with subsequent extension in PEP 420(3).

PEP 420(4) introduced *note namespace packages: 1ab1. for Python 3.3.
PEP 420(5) also introduced the ‘find_loader()’ protocol as an
alternative to ‘find_module()’.

PEP 366(6) describes the addition of the ‘__package__’ attribute for
explicit relative imports in main modules.

PEP 328(7) introduced absolute and explicit relative imports and
initially proposed ‘__name__’ for semantics PEP 366(8) would eventually
specify for ‘__package__’.

PEP 338(9) defines executing modules as scripts.

PEP 451(10) adds the encapsulation of per-module import state in spec
objects.  It also off-loads most of the boilerplate responsibilities of
loaders back onto the import machinery.  These changes allow the
deprecation of several APIs in the import system and also addition of
new methods to finders and loaders.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions,  Next: Simple statements,  Prev: The import system,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.6 Expressions
===============

This chapter explains the meaning of the elements of expressions in
Python.

'Syntax Notes:' In this and the following chapters, extended BNF
notation will be used to describe syntax, not lexical analysis.  When
(one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form

     name ::= othername

and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of ‘name’ are the
same as for ‘othername’.

* Menu:

* Arithmetic conversions::
* Atoms::
* Primaries::
* Await expression::
* The power operator::
* Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations::
* Binary arithmetic operations::
* Shifting operations::
* Binary bitwise operations::
* Comparisons::
* Boolean operations::
* Assignment expressions::
* Conditional expressions::
* Lambdas::
* Expression lists::
* Evaluation order::
* Operator precedence::


File: python.info,  Node: Arithmetic conversions,  Next: Atoms,  Up: Expressions

4.6.1 Arithmetic conversions
----------------------------

When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase “the
numeric arguments are converted to a common type”, this means that the
operator implementation for built-in types works as follows:

   * If either argument is a complex number, the other is converted to
     complex;

   * otherwise, if either argument is a floating-point number, the other
     is converted to floating point;

   * otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.

Some additional rules apply for certain operators (e.g., a string as a
left argument to the ‘%’ operator).  Extensions must define their own
conversion behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: Atoms,  Next: Primaries,  Prev: Arithmetic conversions,  Up: Expressions

4.6.2 Atoms
-----------

Atoms are the most basic elements of expressions.  The simplest atoms
are identifiers or literals.  Forms enclosed in parentheses, brackets or
braces are also categorized syntactically as atoms.  The syntax for
atoms is:

     atom      ::= *note identifier: 1c83. | *note literal: 1e07. | *note enclosure: 1e08.
     enclosure ::= *note parenth_form: 1e09. | *note list_display: 1e0a. | *note dict_display: 1e0b. | *note set_display: 1e0c.
                   | *note generator_expression: 1e0d. | *note yield_atom: 1e0e.

* Menu:

* Identifiers (Names): Identifiers Names.
* Literals: Literals<2>.
* Parenthesized forms::
* Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
* List displays::
* Set displays::
* Dictionary displays::
* Generator expressions::
* Yield expressions::


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiers Names,  Next: Literals<2>,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.1 Identifiers (Names)
...........................

An identifier occurring as an atom is a name.  See section *note
Identifiers and keywords: 1c81. for lexical definition and section *note
Naming and binding: 1ce8. for documentation of naming and binding.

When the name is bound to an object, evaluation of the atom yields that
object.  When a name is not bound, an attempt to evaluate it raises a
*note NameError: 14a. exception.

* Menu:

* Private name mangling::


File: python.info,  Node: Private name mangling,  Up: Identifiers Names

4.6.2.2 Private name mangling
.............................

When an identifier that textually occurs in a class definition begins
with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two or more
underscores, it is considered a 'private name' of that class.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note class specifications: 1181.

More precisely, private names are transformed to a longer form before
code is generated for them.  If the transformed name is longer than 255
characters, implementation-defined truncation may happen.

The transformation is independent of the syntactical context in which
the identifier is used but only the following private identifiers are
mangled:

   - Any name used as the name of a variable that is assigned or read or
     any name of an attribute being accessed.

     The *note __name__: f10. attribute of nested functions, classes,
     and type aliases is however not mangled.

   - The name of imported modules, e.g., ‘__spam’ in ‘import __spam’.
     If the module is part of a package (i.e., its name contains a dot),
     the name is 'not' mangled, e.g., the ‘__foo’ in ‘import __foo.bar’
     is not mangled.

   - The name of an imported member, e.g., ‘__f’ in ‘from spam import
     __f’.

The transformation rule is defined as follows:

   - The class name, with leading underscores removed and a single
     leading underscore inserted, is inserted in front of the
     identifier, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘Foo’, ‘_Foo’ or ‘__Foo’ is transformed to ‘_Foo__spam’.

   - If the class name consists only of underscores, the transformation
     is the identity, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘_’ or ‘__’ is left as is.


File: python.info,  Node: Literals<2>,  Next: Parenthesized forms,  Prev: Identifiers Names,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.3 Literals
................

Python supports string and bytes literals and various numeric literals:

     literal ::= *note stringliteral: 1c92. | *note bytesliteral: 1c9b.
                 | *note integer: 1cb6. | *note floatnumber: 1cc2. | *note imagnumber: 1cca.

Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (string,
bytes, integer, floating-point number, complex number) with the given
value.  The value may be approximated in the case of floating-point and
imaginary (complex) literals.  See section *note Literals: 1c8f. for
details.

All literals correspond to immutable data types, and hence the object’s
identity is less important than its value.  Multiple evaluations of
literals with the same value (either the same occurrence in the program
text or a different occurrence) may obtain the same object or a
different object with the same value.


File: python.info,  Node: Parenthesized forms,  Next: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Prev: Literals<2>,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.4 Parenthesized forms
...........................

A parenthesized form is an optional expression list enclosed in
parentheses:

     parenth_form ::= "(" [*note starred_expression: 1e15.] ")"

A parenthesized expression list yields whatever that expression list
yields: if the list contains at least one comma, it yields a tuple;
otherwise, it yields the single expression that makes up the expression
list.

An empty pair of parentheses yields an empty tuple object.  Since tuples
are immutable, the same rules as for literals apply (i.e., two
occurrences of the empty tuple may or may not yield the same object).

Note that tuples are not formed by the parentheses, but rather by use of
the comma.  The exception is the empty tuple, for which parentheses
'are' required — allowing unparenthesized “nothing” in expressions would
cause ambiguities and allow common typos to pass uncaught.


File: python.info,  Node: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Next: List displays,  Prev: Parenthesized forms,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.5 Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries
.................................................

For constructing a list, a set or a dictionary Python provides special
syntax called “displays”, each of them in two flavors:

   * either the container contents are listed explicitly, or

   * they are computed via a set of looping and filtering instructions,
     called a 'comprehension'.

Common syntax elements for comprehensions are:

     comprehension ::= *note assignment_expression: 1dce. *note comp_for: 1e18.
     comp_for      ::= ["async"] "for" *note target_list: 1e19. "in" *note or_test: 1e1a. [*note comp_iter: 1e1b.]
     comp_iter     ::= *note comp_for: 1e18. | *note comp_if: 1e1c.
     comp_if       ::= "if" *note or_test: 1e1a. [*note comp_iter: 1e1b.]

The comprehension consists of a single expression followed by at least
one ‘for’ clause and zero or more ‘for’ or ‘if’ clauses.  In this case,
the elements of the new container are those that would be produced by
considering each of the ‘for’ or ‘if’ clauses a block, nesting from left
to right, and evaluating the expression to produce an element each time
the innermost block is reached.

However, aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’
clause, the comprehension is executed in a separate implicitly nested
scope.  This ensures that names assigned to in the target list don’t
“leak” into the enclosing scope.

The iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause is evaluated
directly in the enclosing scope and then passed as an argument to the
implicitly nested scope.  Subsequent ‘for’ clauses and any filter
condition in the leftmost ‘for’ clause cannot be evaluated in the
enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the
leftmost iterable.  For example: ‘[x*y for x in range(10) for y in
range(x, x+10)]’.

To ensure the comprehension always results in a container of the
appropriate type, ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ expressions are prohibited in
the implicitly nested scope.

Since Python 3.6, in an *note async def: 3db. function, an ‘async for’
clause may be used to iterate over a *note asynchronous iterator: c05.
A comprehension in an ‘async def’ function may consist of either a ‘for’
or ‘async for’ clause following the leading expression, may contain
additional ‘for’ or ‘async for’ clauses, and may also use *note await:
55b. expressions.

If a comprehension contains ‘async for’ clauses, or if it contains
‘await’ expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions anywhere except
the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause, it is called an
'asynchronous comprehension'.  An asynchronous comprehension may suspend
the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.  See also
PEP 530(1).

Added in version 3.6: Asynchronous comprehensions were introduced.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ prohibited in the
implicitly nested scope.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed
inside comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: List displays,  Next: Set displays,  Prev: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.6 List displays
.....................

A list display is a possibly empty series of expressions enclosed in
square brackets:

     list_display ::= "[" [*note flexible_expression_list: 1e1f. | *note comprehension: 1e17.] "]"

A list display yields a new list object, the contents being specified by
either a list of expressions or a comprehension.  When a comma-separated
list of expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated from left to
right and placed into the list object in that order.  When a
comprehension is supplied, the list is constructed from the elements
resulting from the comprehension.


File: python.info,  Node: Set displays,  Next: Dictionary displays,  Prev: List displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.7 Set displays
....................

A set display is denoted by curly braces and distinguishable from
dictionary displays by the lack of colons separating keys and values:

     set_display ::= "{" (*note flexible_expression_list: 1e1f. | *note comprehension: 1e17.) "}"

A set display yields a new mutable set object, the contents being
specified by either a sequence of expressions or a comprehension.  When
a comma-separated list of expressions is supplied, its elements are
evaluated from left to right and added to the set object.  When a
comprehension is supplied, the set is constructed from the elements
resulting from the comprehension.

An empty set cannot be constructed with ‘{}’; this literal constructs an
empty dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary displays,  Next: Generator expressions,  Prev: Set displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.8 Dictionary displays
...........................

A dictionary display is a possibly empty series of dict items (key/value
pairs) enclosed in curly braces:

     dict_display       ::= "{" [*note dict_item_list: 1e23. | *note dict_comprehension: 1e24.] "}"
     dict_item_list     ::= *note dict_item: 1e25. ("," *note dict_item: 1e25.)* [","]
     dict_item          ::= *note expression: 1e26. ":" *note expression: 1e26. | "**" *note or_expr: 1cb0.
     dict_comprehension ::= *note expression: 1e26. ":" *note expression: 1e26. *note comp_for: 1e18.

A dictionary display yields a new dictionary object.

If a comma-separated sequence of dict items is given, they are evaluated
from left to right to define the entries of the dictionary: each key
object is used as a key into the dictionary to store the corresponding
value.  This means that you can specify the same key multiple times in
the dict item list, and the final dictionary’s value for that key will
be the last one given.

A double asterisk ‘**’ denotes 'dictionary unpacking'.  Its operand must
be a *note mapping: 1061.  Each mapping item is added to the new
dictionary.  Later values replace values already set by earlier dict
items and earlier dictionary unpackings.

Added in version 3.5: Unpacking into dictionary displays, originally
proposed by PEP 448(1).

A dict comprehension, in contrast to list and set comprehensions, needs
two expressions separated with a colon followed by the usual “for” and
“if” clauses.  When the comprehension is run, the resulting key and
value elements are inserted in the new dictionary in the order they are
produced.

Restrictions on the types of the key values are listed earlier in
section *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4.  (To summarize, the key
type should be *note hashable: 421, which excludes all mutable objects.)
Clashes between duplicate keys are not detected; the last value
(textually rightmost in the display) stored for a given key value
prevails.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.8, in dict comprehensions, the
evaluation order of key and value was not well-defined.  In CPython, the
value was evaluated before the key.  Starting with 3.8, the key is
evaluated before the value, as proposed by PEP 572(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator expressions,  Next: Yield expressions,  Prev: Dictionary displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.9 Generator expressions
.............................

A generator expression is a compact generator notation in parentheses:

     generator_expression ::= "(" *note expression: 1e26. *note comp_for: 1e18. ")"

A generator expression yields a new generator object.  Its syntax is the
same as for comprehensions, except that it is enclosed in parentheses
instead of brackets or curly braces.

Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the
*note __next__(): 1b0f. method is called for the generator object (in
the same fashion as normal generators).  However, the iterable
expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause is immediately evaluated, so
that an error produced by it will be emitted at the point where the
generator expression is defined, rather than at the point where the
first value is retrieved.  Subsequent ‘for’ clauses and any filter
condition in the leftmost ‘for’ clause cannot be evaluated in the
enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the
leftmost iterable.  For example: ‘(x*y for x in range(10) for y in
range(x, x+10))’.

The parentheses can be omitted on calls with only one argument.  See
section *note Calls: c09. for details.

To avoid interfering with the expected operation of the generator
expression itself, ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ expressions are prohibited
in the implicitly defined generator.

If a generator expression contains either ‘async for’ clauses or *note
await: 55b. expressions it is called an 'asynchronous generator
expression'.  An asynchronous generator expression returns a new
asynchronous generator object, which is an asynchronous iterator (see
*note Asynchronous Iterators: c06.).

Added in version 3.6: Asynchronous generator expressions were
introduced.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.7, asynchronous generator
expressions could only appear in *note async def: 3db. coroutines.
Starting with 3.7, any function can use asynchronous generator
expressions.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ prohibited in the
implicitly nested scope.


File: python.info,  Node: Yield expressions,  Prev: Generator expressions,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.10 Yield expressions
..........................

     yield_atom       ::= "(" *note yield_expression: 1cb1. ")"
     yield_from       ::= "yield" "from" *note expression: 1e26.
     yield_expression ::= "yield" *note yield_list: 1e2c. | *note yield_from: 1e2b.

The yield expression is used when defining a *note generator: f0b.
function or an *note asynchronous generator: 1e2d. function and thus can
only be used in the body of a function definition.  Using a yield
expression in a function’s body causes that function to be a generator
function, and using it in an *note async def: 3db. function’s body
causes that coroutine function to be an asynchronous generator function.
For example:

     def gen():  # defines a generator function
         yield 123

     async def agen(): # defines an asynchronous generator function
         yield 123

Due to their side effects on the containing scope, ‘yield’ expressions
are not permitted as part of the implicitly defined scopes used to
implement comprehensions and generator expressions.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Yield expressions prohibited in the implicitly
nested scopes used to implement comprehensions and generator
expressions.

Generator functions are described below, while asynchronous generator
functions are described separately in section *note Asynchronous
generator functions: 1e2e.

When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
generator.  That generator then controls the execution of the generator
function.  The execution starts when one of the generator’s methods is
called.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 1e2c. to the generator’s caller, or ‘None’ if *note
yield_list: 1e2c. is omitted.  By suspended, we mean that all local
state is retained, including the current bindings of local variables,
the instruction pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of
any exception handling.  When the execution is resumed by calling one of
the generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the
yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __next__(): 1b0f. is used (typically via either a
*note for: 26d. or the *note next(): 611. builtin) then the result is
*note None: 488.  Otherwise, if *note send(): 1dbb. is used, then the
result will be the value passed in to that method.

All of this makes generator functions quite similar to coroutines; they
yield multiple times, they have more than one entry point and their
execution can be suspended.  The only difference is that a generator
function cannot control where the execution should continue after it
yields; the control is always transferred to the generator’s caller.

Yield expressions are allowed anywhere in a *note try: 503. construct.
If the generator is not resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a
zero reference count or by being garbage collected), the
generator-iterator’s *note close(): 15e1. method will be called,
allowing any pending *note finally: 828. clauses to execute.

When ‘yield from <expr>’ is used, the supplied expression must be an
iterable.  The values produced by iterating that iterable are passed
directly to the caller of the current generator’s methods.  Any values
passed in with *note send(): 1dbb. and any exceptions passed in with
*note throw(): 24a. are passed to the underlying iterator if it has the
appropriate methods.  If this is not the case, then *note send(): 1dbb.
will raise *note AttributeError: 3dc. or *note TypeError: 2c4, while
*note throw(): 24a. will just raise the passed in exception immediately.

When the underlying iterator is complete, the *note value: 1db8.
attribute of the raised *note StopIteration: a73. instance becomes the
value of the yield expression.  It can be either set explicitly when
raising *note StopIteration: a73, or automatically when the subiterator
is a generator (by returning a value from the subgenerator).

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘yield from <expr>’ to delegate control
flow to a subiterator.

The parentheses may be omitted when the yield expression is the sole
expression on the right hand side of an assignment statement.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 255(1) - Simple Generators

     The proposal for adding generators and the *note yield: 82b.
     statement to Python.

PEP 342(2) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators

     The proposal to enhance the API and syntax of generators, making
     them usable as simple coroutines.

PEP 380(3) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

     The proposal to introduce the *note yield_from: 1e2b. syntax,
     making delegation to subgenerators easy.

PEP 525(4) - Asynchronous Generators

     The proposal that expanded on PEP 492(5) by adding generator
     capabilities to coroutine functions.

* Menu:

* Generator-iterator methods::
* Examples::
* Asynchronous generator functions: Asynchronous generator functions<2>.
* Asynchronous generator-iterator methods::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator-iterator methods,  Next: Examples,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.11 Generator-iterator methods
...................................

This subsection describes the methods of a generator iterator.  They can
be used to control the execution of a generator function.

Note that calling any of the generator methods below when the generator
is already executing raises a *note ValueError: 189. exception.

 -- Yöntemi: generator.__next__ ()

     Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the
     last executed yield expression.  When a generator function is
     resumed with a *note __next__(): 1b0f. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 488.  The execution then
     continues to the next yield expression, where the generator is
     suspended again, and the value of the *note yield_list: 1e2c. is
     returned to *note __next__(): 1b0f.’s caller.  If the generator
     exits without yielding another value, a *note StopIteration: a73.
     exception is raised.

     This method is normally called implicitly, e.g.  by a *note for:
     26d. loop, or by the built-in *note next(): 611. function.

 -- Yöntemi: generator.send (value)

     Resumes the execution and “sends” a value into the generator
     function.  The 'value' argument becomes the result of the current
     yield expression.  The *note send(): 1dbb. method returns the next
     value yielded by the generator, or raises *note StopIteration: a73.
     if the generator exits without yielding another value.  When *note
     send(): 1dbb. is called to start the generator, it must be called
     with *note None: 488. as the argument, because there is no yield
     expression that could receive the value.

 -- Yöntemi: generator.throw (value)

 -- Yöntemi: generator.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Raises an exception at the point where the generator was paused,
     and returns the next value yielded by the generator function.  If
     the generator exits without yielding another value, a *note
     StopIteration: a73. exception is raised.  If the generator function
     does not catch the passed-in exception, or raises a different
     exception, then that exception propagates to the caller.

     In typical use, this is called with a single exception instance
     similar to the way the *note raise: 3f9. keyword is used.

     For backwards compatibility, however, the second signature is
     supported, following a convention from older versions of Python.
     The 'type' argument should be an exception class, and 'value'
     should be an exception instance.  If the 'value' is not provided,
     the 'type' constructor is called to get an instance.  If
     'traceback' is provided, it is set on the exception, otherwise any
     existing *note __traceback__: 116f. attribute stored in 'value' may
     be cleared.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Yöntemi: generator.close ()

     Raises a *note GeneratorExit: 124e. at the point where the
     generator function was paused.  If the generator function then
     exits gracefully, is already closed, or raises *note GeneratorExit:
     124e. (by not catching the exception), close returns to its caller.
     If the generator yields a value, a *note RuntimeError: 180. is
     raised.  If the generator raises any other exception, it is
     propagated to the caller.  *note close(): 15e1. does nothing if the
     generator has already exited due to an exception or normal exit.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples,  Next: Asynchronous generator functions<2>,  Prev: Generator-iterator methods,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.12 Examples
.................

Here is a simple example that demonstrates the behavior of generators
and generator functions:

     >>> def echo(value=None):
     ...     print("Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.")
     ...     try:
     ...         while True:
     ...             try:
     ...                 value = (yield value)
     ...             except Exception as e:
     ...                 value = e
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.")
     ...
     >>> generator = echo(1)
     >>> print(next(generator))
     Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.
     1
     >>> print(next(generator))
     None
     >>> print(generator.send(2))
     2
     >>> generator.throw(TypeError, "spam")
     TypeError('spam',)
     >>> generator.close()
     Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.

For examples using ‘yield from’, see *note PEP 380; Syntax for
Delegating to a Subgenerator: ee3. in “What’s New in Python.”


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator functions<2>,  Next: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods,  Prev: Examples,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.13 Asynchronous generator functions
.........................................

The presence of a yield expression in a function or method defined using
*note async def: 3db. further defines the function as an *note
asynchronous generator: 1e2d. function.

When an asynchronous generator function is called, it returns an
asynchronous iterator known as an asynchronous generator object.  That
object then controls the execution of the generator function.  An
asynchronous generator object is typically used in an *note async for:
916. statement in a coroutine function analogously to how a generator
object would be used in a *note for: 26d. statement.

Calling one of the asynchronous generator’s methods returns an *note
awaitable: af6. object, and the execution starts when this object is
awaited on.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 1e2c. to the awaiting coroutine.  As with a generator,
suspension means that all local state is retained, including the current
bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the
execution is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the
asynchronous generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if
the yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __anext__(): 1e32. is used then the result is *note
None: 488.  Otherwise, if *note asend(): 72c. is used, then the result
will be the value passed in to that method.

If an asynchronous generator happens to exit early by *note break: 915,
the caller task being cancelled, or other exceptions, the generator’s
async cleanup code will run and possibly raise exceptions or access
context variables in an unexpected context–perhaps after the lifetime of
tasks it depends, or during the event loop shutdown when the
async-generator garbage collection hook is called.  To prevent this, the
caller must explicitly close the async generator by calling *note
aclose(): 72b. method to finalize the generator and ultimately detach it
from the event loop.

In an asynchronous generator function, yield expressions are allowed
anywhere in a *note try: 503. construct.  However, if an asynchronous
generator is not resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a zero
reference count or by being garbage collected), then a yield expression
within a ‘try’ construct could result in a failure to execute pending
*note finally: 828. clauses.  In this case, it is the responsibility of
the event loop or scheduler running the asynchronous generator to call
the asynchronous generator-iterator’s *note aclose(): 72b. method and
run the resulting coroutine object, thus allowing any pending ‘finally’
clauses to execute.

To take care of finalization upon event loop termination, an event loop
should define a 'finalizer' function which takes an asynchronous
generator-iterator and presumably calls *note aclose(): 72b. and
executes the coroutine.  This 'finalizer' may be registered by calling
*note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 165a.  When first iterated over, an
asynchronous generator-iterator will store the registered 'finalizer' to
be called upon finalization.  For a reference example of a 'finalizer'
method see the implementation of ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in
Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(1).

The expression ‘yield from <expr>’ is a syntax error when used in an
asynchronous generator function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods,  Prev: Asynchronous generator functions<2>,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.14 Asynchronous generator-iterator methods
................................................

This subsection describes the methods of an asynchronous generator
iterator, which are used to control the execution of a generator
function.

 -- Yöntemi: async agen.__anext__ ()

     Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the
     asynchronous generator or resumes it at the last executed yield
     expression.  When an asynchronous generator function is resumed
     with an *note __anext__(): 1e32. method, the current yield
     expression always evaluates to *note None: 488. in the returned
     awaitable, which when run will continue to the next yield
     expression.  The value of the *note yield_list: 1e2c. of the yield
     expression is the value of the *note StopIteration: a73. exception
     raised by the completing coroutine.  If the asynchronous generator
     exits without yielding another value, the awaitable instead raises
     a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1867. exception, signalling that the
     asynchronous iteration has completed.

     This method is normally called implicitly by a *note async for:
     916. loop.

 -- Yöntemi: async agen.asend (value)

     Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
     asynchronous generator.  As with the *note send(): 1dbb. method for
     a generator, this “sends” a value into the asynchronous generator
     function, and the 'value' argument becomes the result of the
     current yield expression.  The awaitable returned by the *note
     asend(): 72c. method will return the next value yielded by the
     generator as the value of the raised *note StopIteration: a73, or
     raises *note StopAsyncIteration: 1867. if the asynchronous
     generator exits without yielding another value.  When *note
     asend(): 72c. is called to start the asynchronous generator, it
     must be called with *note None: 488. as the argument, because there
     is no yield expression that could receive the value.

 -- Yöntemi: async agen.athrow (value)

 -- Yöntemi: async agen.athrow (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Returns an awaitable that raises an exception of type ‘type’ at the
     point where the asynchronous generator was paused, and returns the
     next value yielded by the generator function as the value of the
     raised *note StopIteration: a73. exception.  If the asynchronous
     generator exits without yielding another value, a *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 1867. exception is raised by the awaitable.  If
     the generator function does not catch the passed-in exception, or
     raises a different exception, then when the awaitable is run that
     exception propagates to the caller of the awaitable.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Yöntemi: async agen.aclose ()

     Returns an awaitable that when run will throw a *note
     GeneratorExit: 124e. into the asynchronous generator function at
     the point where it was paused.  If the asynchronous generator
     function then exits gracefully, is already closed, or raises *note
     GeneratorExit: 124e. (by not catching the exception), then the
     returned awaitable will raise a *note StopIteration: a73.
     exception.  Any further awaitables returned by subsequent calls to
     the asynchronous generator will raise a *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1867. exception.  If the asynchronous generator yields a value, a
     *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised by the awaitable.  If the
     asynchronous generator raises any other exception, it is propagated
     to the caller of the awaitable.  If the asynchronous generator has
     already exited due to an exception or normal exit, then further
     calls to *note aclose(): 72b. will return an awaitable that does
     nothing.


File: python.info,  Node: Primaries,  Next: Await expression,  Prev: Atoms,  Up: Expressions

4.6.3 Primaries
---------------

Primaries represent the most tightly bound operations of the language.
Their syntax is:

     primary ::= *note atom: 1e06. | *note attributeref: 1e38. | *note subscription: 1e39. | *note slicing: 1e3a. | *note call: 1e3b.

* Menu:

* Attribute references::
* Subscriptions::
* Slicings::
* Calls::


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute references,  Next: Subscriptions,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.1 Attribute references
............................

An attribute reference is a primary followed by a period and a name:

     attributeref ::= *note primary: 1e37. "." *note identifier: 1c83.

The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute
references, which most objects do.  This object is then asked to produce
the attribute whose name is the identifier.  The type and value produced
is determined by the object.  Multiple evaluations of the same attribute
reference may yield different objects.

This production can be customized by overriding the *note
__getattribute__(): a49. method or the *note __getattr__(): 201. method.
The ‘__getattribute__()’ method is called first and either returns a
value or raises *note AttributeError: 3dc. if the attribute is not
available.

If an *note AttributeError: 3dc. is raised and the object has a
‘__getattr__()’ method, that method is called as a fallback.


File: python.info,  Node: Subscriptions,  Next: Slicings,  Prev: Attribute references,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.2 Subscriptions
.....................

The subscription of an instance of a *note container class: 1d79. will
generally select an element from the container.  The subscription of a
*note generic class: 141. will generally return a *note GenericAlias:
4c9. object.

     subscription ::= *note primary: 1e37. "[" *note flexible_expression_list: 1e1f. "]"

When an object is subscripted, the interpreter will evaluate the primary
and the expression list.

The primary must evaluate to an object that supports subscription.  An
object may support subscription through defining one or both of *note
__getitem__(): 500. and *note __class_getitem__(): 565.  When the
primary is subscripted, the evaluated result of the expression list will
be passed to one of these methods.  For more details on when
‘__class_getitem__’ is called instead of ‘__getitem__’, see *note
__class_getitem__ versus __getitem__: 1d72.

If the expression list contains at least one comma, or if any of the
expressions are starred, the expression list will evaluate to a *note
tuple: 4ff. containing the items of the expression list.  Otherwise, the
expression list will evaluate to the value of the list’s sole member.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: Expressions in an expression list may be
starred.  See PEP 646(1).

For built-in objects, there are two types of objects that support
subscription via *note __getitem__(): 500.:

  1. Mappings.  If the primary is a *note mapping: 1061, the expression
     list must evaluate to an object whose value is one of the keys of
     the mapping, and the subscription selects the value in the mapping
     that corresponds to that key.  An example of a builtin mapping
     class is the *note dict: 240. class.

  2. Sequences.  If the primary is a *note sequence: 23f, the expression
     list must evaluate to an *note int: 184. or a *note slice: 186. (as
     discussed in the following section).  Examples of builtin sequence
     classes include the *note str: 15d, *note list: 422. and *note
     tuple: 4ff. classes.

The formal syntax makes no special provision for negative indices in
*note sequences: 23f.  However, built-in sequences all provide a *note
__getitem__(): 500. method that interprets negative indices by adding
the length of the sequence to the index so that, for example, ‘x[-1]’
selects the last item of ‘x’.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative
integer less than the number of items in the sequence, and the
subscription selects the item whose index is that value (counting from
zero).  Since the support for negative indices and slicing occurs in the
object’s *note __getitem__(): 500. method, subclasses overriding this
method will need to explicitly add that support.

A *note string: 15d. is a special kind of sequence whose items are
'characters'.  A character is not a separate data type but a string of
exactly one character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Slicings,  Next: Calls,  Prev: Subscriptions,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.3 Slicings
................

A slicing selects a range of items in a sequence object (e.g., a string,
tuple or list).  Slicings may be used as expressions or as targets in
assignment or *note del: 15c5. statements.  The syntax for a slicing:

     slicing      ::= *note primary: 1e37. "[" *note slice_list: 1e41. "]"
     slice_list   ::= *note slice_item: 1e42. ("," *note slice_item: 1e42.)* [","]
     slice_item   ::= *note expression: 1e26. | *note proper_slice: 1e43.
     proper_slice ::= [*note lower_bound: 1e44.] ":" [*note upper_bound: 1e45.] [ ":" [*note stride: 1e46.] ]
     lower_bound  ::= *note expression: 1e26.
     upper_bound  ::= *note expression: 1e26.
     stride       ::= *note expression: 1e26.

There is ambiguity in the formal syntax here: anything that looks like
an expression list also looks like a slice list, so any subscription can
be interpreted as a slicing.  Rather than further complicating the
syntax, this is disambiguated by defining that in this case the
interpretation as a subscription takes priority over the interpretation
as a slicing (this is the case if the slice list contains no proper
slice).

The semantics for a slicing are as follows.  The primary is indexed
(using the same *note __getitem__(): 500. method as normal subscription)
with a key that is constructed from the slice list, as follows.  If the
slice list contains at least one comma, the key is a tuple containing
the conversion of the slice items; otherwise, the conversion of the lone
slice item is the key.  The conversion of a slice item that is an
expression is that expression.  The conversion of a proper slice is a
slice object (see section *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4.)
whose *note start: 1d43, *note stop: 1d44. and *note step: 1d45.
attributes are the values of the expressions given as lower bound, upper
bound and stride, respectively, substituting ‘None’ for missing
expressions.


File: python.info,  Node: Calls,  Prev: Slicings,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.4 Calls
.............

A call calls a callable object (e.g., a *note function: 1e48.) with a
possibly empty series of *note arguments: 15a.:

     call                 ::= *note primary: 1e37. "(" [*note argument_list: 1e49. [","] | *note comprehension: 1e17.] ")"
     argument_list        ::= *note positional_arguments: 1e4a. ["," *note starred_and_keywords: 1e4b.]
                              ["," *note keywords_arguments: 1e4c.]
                              | *note starred_and_keywords: 1e4b. ["," *note keywords_arguments: 1e4c.]
                              | *note keywords_arguments: 1e4c.
     positional_arguments ::= positional_item ("," positional_item)*
     positional_item      ::= *note assignment_expression: 1dce. | "*" *note expression: 1e26.
     starred_and_keywords ::= ("*" *note expression: 1e26. | *note keyword_item: 1e4e.)
                              ("," "*" *note expression: 1e26. | "," *note keyword_item: 1e4e.)*
     keywords_arguments   ::= (*note keyword_item: 1e4e. | "**" *note expression: 1e26.)
                              ("," *note keyword_item: 1e4e. | "," "**" *note expression: 1e26.)*
     keyword_item         ::= *note identifier: 1c83. "=" *note expression: 1e26.

An optional trailing comma may be present after the positional and
keyword arguments but does not affect the semantics.

The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions,
built-in functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods
of class instances, and all objects having a *note __call__(): 2e7.
method are callable).  All argument expressions are evaluated before the
call is attempted.  Please refer to section *note Function definitions:
1a7f. for the syntax of formal *note parameter: 1cec. lists.

If keyword arguments are present, they are first converted to positional
arguments, as follows.  First, a list of unfilled slots is created for
the formal parameters.  If there are N positional arguments, they are
placed in the first N slots.  Next, for each keyword argument, the
identifier is used to determine the corresponding slot (if the
identifier is the same as the first formal parameter name, the first
slot is used, and so on).  If the slot is already filled, a *note
TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised.  Otherwise, the argument is placed
in the slot, filling it (even if the expression is ‘None’, it fills the
slot).  When all arguments have been processed, the slots that are still
unfilled are filled with the corresponding default value from the
function definition.  (Default values are calculated, once, when the
function is defined; thus, a mutable object such as a list or dictionary
used as default value will be shared by all calls that don’t specify an
argument value for the corresponding slot; this should usually be
avoided.)  If there are any unfilled slots for which no default value is
specified, a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised.  Otherwise, the
list of filled slots is used as the argument list for the call.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' An implementation may provide built-in
functions whose positional parameters do not have names, even if they
are ‘named’ for the purpose of documentation, and which therefore cannot
be supplied by keyword.  In CPython, this is the case for functions
implemented in C that use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. to parse their
arguments.

If there are more positional arguments than there are formal parameter
slots, a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised, unless a formal
parameter using the syntax ‘*identifier’ is present; in this case, that
formal parameter receives a tuple containing the excess positional
arguments (or an empty tuple if there were no excess positional
arguments).

If any keyword argument does not correspond to a formal parameter name,
a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised, unless a formal parameter
using the syntax ‘**identifier’ is present; in this case, that formal
parameter receives a dictionary containing the excess keyword arguments
(using the keywords as keys and the argument values as corresponding
values), or a (new) empty dictionary if there were no excess keyword
arguments.

If the syntax ‘*expression’ appears in the function call, ‘expression’
must evaluate to an *note iterable: 10ce.  Elements from these iterables
are treated as if they were additional positional arguments.  For the
call ‘f(x1, x2, *y, x3, x4)’, if 'y' evaluates to a sequence 'y1', …,
'yM', this is equivalent to a call with M+4 positional arguments 'x1',
'x2', 'y1', …, 'yM', 'x3', 'x4'.

A consequence of this is that although the ‘*expression’ syntax may
appear 'after' explicit keyword arguments, it is processed 'before' the
keyword arguments (and any ‘**expression’ arguments – see below).  So:

     >>> def f(a, b):
     ...     print(a, b)
     ...
     >>> f(b=1, *(2,))
     2 1
     >>> f(a=1, *(2,))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: f() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
     >>> f(1, *(2,))
     1 2

It is unusual for both keyword arguments and the ‘*expression’ syntax to
be used in the same call, so in practice this confusion does not often
arise.

If the syntax ‘**expression’ appears in the function call, ‘expression’
must evaluate to a *note mapping: 1061, the contents of which are
treated as additional keyword arguments.  If a parameter matching a key
has already been given a value (by an explicit keyword argument, or from
another unpacking), a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised.

When ‘**expression’ is used, each key in this mapping must be a string.
Each value from the mapping is assigned to the first formal parameter
eligible for keyword assignment whose name is equal to the key.  A key
need not be a Python identifier (e.g.  ‘"max-temp °F"’ is acceptable,
although it will not match any formal parameter that could be declared).
If there is no match to a formal parameter the key-value pair is
collected by the ‘**’ parameter, if there is one, or if there is not, a
*note TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised.

Formal parameters using the syntax ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’
cannot be used as positional argument slots or as keyword argument
names.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Function calls accept any number of ‘*’ and ‘**’
unpackings, positional arguments may follow iterable unpackings (‘*’),
and keyword arguments may follow dictionary unpackings (‘**’).
Originally proposed by PEP 448(1).

A call always returns some value, possibly ‘None’, unless it raises an
exception.  How this value is computed depends on the type of the
callable object.

If it is—

a user-defined function:

     The code block for the function is executed, passing it the
     argument list.  The first thing the code block will do is bind the
     formal parameters to the arguments; this is described in section
     *note Function definitions: 1a7f.  When the code block executes a
     *note return: 82c. statement, this specifies the return value of
     the function call.  If execution reaches the end of the code block
     without executing a *note return: 82c. statement, the return value
     is ‘None’.

a built-in function or method:

     The result is up to the interpreter; see *note Gömülü Fonksiyonlar:
     1105. for the descriptions of built-in functions and methods.

a class object:

     A new instance of that class is returned.

a class instance method:

     The corresponding user-defined function is called, with an argument
     list that is one longer than the argument list of the call: the
     instance becomes the first argument.

a class instance:

     The class must define a *note __call__(): 2e7. method; the effect
     is then the same as if that method was called.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Await expression,  Next: The power operator,  Prev: Primaries,  Up: Expressions

4.6.4 Await expression
----------------------

Suspend the execution of *note coroutine: 1b4. on an *note awaitable:
af6. object.  Can only be used inside a *note coroutine function: c02.

     await_expr ::= "await" *note primary: 1e37.

Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: The power operator,  Next: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Prev: Await expression,  Up: Expressions

4.6.5 The power operator
------------------------

The power operator binds more tightly than unary operators on its left;
it binds less tightly than unary operators on its right.  The syntax is:

     power ::= (*note await_expr: 1e50. | *note primary: 1e37.) ["**" *note u_expr: 1e54.]

Thus, in an unparenthesized sequence of power and unary operators, the
operators are evaluated from right to left (this does not constrain the
evaluation order for the operands): ‘-1**2’ results in ‘-1’.

The power operator has the same semantics as the built-in *note pow():
830. function, when called with two arguments: it yields its left
argument raised to the power of its right argument.  The numeric
arguments are first converted to a common type, and the result is of
that type.

For int operands, the result has the same type as the operands unless
the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
converted to float and a float result is delivered.  For example,
‘10**2’ returns ‘100’, but ‘10**-2’ returns ‘0.01’.

Raising ‘0.0’ to a negative power results in a *note ZeroDivisionError:
79e.  Raising a negative number to a fractional power results in a *note
complex: 273. number.  (In earlier versions it raised a *note
ValueError: 189.)

This operation can be customized using the special *note __pow__(): 60c.
and *note __rpow__(): 60d. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Next: Binary arithmetic operations,  Prev: The power operator,  Up: Expressions

4.6.6 Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
---------------------------------------------

All unary arithmetic and bitwise operations have the same priority:

     u_expr ::= *note power: 1e53. | "-" *note u_expr: 1e54. | "+" *note u_expr: 1e54. | "~" *note u_expr: 1e54.

The unary ‘-’ (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric
argument; the operation can be overridden with the *note __neg__():
1da4. special method.

The unary ‘+’ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged; the
operation can be overridden with the *note __pos__(): 1da5. special
method.

The unary ‘~’ (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its
integer argument.  The bitwise inversion of ‘x’ is defined as ‘-(x+1)’.
It only applies to integral numbers or to custom objects that override
the *note __invert__(): 1da7. special method.

In all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type, a
*note TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary arithmetic operations,  Next: Shifting operations,  Prev: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.7 Binary arithmetic operations
----------------------------------

The binary arithmetic operations have the conventional priority levels.
Note that some of these operations also apply to certain non-numeric
types.  Apart from the power operator, there are only two levels, one
for multiplicative operators and one for additive operators:

     m_expr ::= *note u_expr: 1e54. | *note m_expr: 1e59. "*" *note u_expr: 1e54. | *note m_expr: 1e59. "@" *note m_expr: 1e59. |
                *note m_expr: 1e59. "//" *note u_expr: 1e54. | *note m_expr: 1e59. "/" *note u_expr: 1e54. |
                *note m_expr: 1e59. "%" *note u_expr: 1e54.
     a_expr ::= *note m_expr: 1e59. | *note a_expr: 1e5a. "+" *note m_expr: 1e59. | *note a_expr: 1e5a. "-" *note m_expr: 1e59.

The ‘*’ (multiplication) operator yields the product of its arguments.
The arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument must be an
integer and the other must be a sequence.  In the former case, the
numbers are converted to a common type and then multiplied together.  In
the latter case, sequence repetition is performed; a negative repetition
factor yields an empty sequence.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __mul__():
1d7e. and *note __rmul__(): 1d7f. methods.

The ‘@’ (at) operator is intended to be used for matrix multiplication.
No builtin Python types implement this operator.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __matmul__():
1d86. and *note __rmatmul__(): 1d8f. methods.

Added in version 3.5.

The ‘/’ (division) and ‘//’ (floor division) operators yield the
quotient of their arguments.  The numeric arguments are first converted
to a common type.  Division of integers yields a float, while floor
division of integers results in an integer; the result is that of
mathematical division with the ‘floor’ function applied to the result.
Division by zero raises the *note ZeroDivisionError: 79e. exception.

The division operation can be customized using the special *note
__truediv__(): 1380. and *note __rtruediv__(): 1d90. methods.  The floor
division operation can be customized using the special *note
__floordiv__(): 1381. and *note __rfloordiv__(): 1d91. methods.

The ‘%’ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the
first argument by the second.  The numeric arguments are first converted
to a common type.  A zero right argument raises the *note
ZeroDivisionError: 79e. exception.  The arguments may be floating-point
numbers, e.g., ‘3.14%0.7’ equals ‘0.34’ (since ‘3.14’ equals ‘4*0.7 +
0.34’.)  The modulo operator always yields a result with the same sign
as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of the result is
strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand (1).

The floor division and modulo operators are connected by the following
identity: ‘x == (x//y)*y + (x%y)’.  Floor division and modulo are also
connected with the built-in function *note divmod(): 7ff.: ‘divmod(x, y)
== (x//y, x%y)’.  (2).

In addition to performing the modulo operation on numbers, the ‘%’
operator is also overloaded by string objects to perform old-style
string formatting (also known as interpolation).  The syntax for string
formatting is described in the Python Library Reference, section *note
printf-style String Formatting: 4e4.

The 'modulo' operation can be customized using the special *note
__mod__(): 1d87. and *note __rmod__(): 1d92. methods.

The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the *note
divmod(): 7ff. function are not defined for complex numbers.  Instead,
convert to a floating-point number using the *note abs(): 1aed. function
if appropriate.

The ‘+’ (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.  The
arguments must either both be numbers or both be sequences of the same
type.  In the former case, the numbers are converted to a common type
and then added together.  In the latter case, the sequences are
concatenated.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __add__():
1d7b. and *note __radd__(): 1d7c. methods.

The ‘-’ (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its arguments.
The numeric arguments are first converted to a common type.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __sub__():
1d85. and *note __rsub__(): 1d8e. methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) While ‘abs(x%y) < abs(y)’ is true mathematically, for floats it
may not be true numerically due to roundoff.  For example, and assuming
a platform on which a Python float is an IEEE 754 double-precision
number, in order that ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ have the same sign as ‘1e100’,
the computed result is ‘-1e-100 + 1e100’, which is numerically exactly
equal to ‘1e100’.  The function *note math.fmod(): 1e5b. returns a
result whose sign matches the sign of the first argument instead, and so
returns ‘-1e-100’ in this case.  Which approach is more appropriate
depends on the application.

   (2) If x is very close to an exact integer multiple of y, it’s
possible for ‘x//y’ to be one larger than ‘(x-x%y)//y’ due to rounding.
In such cases, Python returns the latter result, in order to preserve
that ‘divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y’ be very close to ‘x’.


File: python.info,  Node: Shifting operations,  Next: Binary bitwise operations,  Prev: Binary arithmetic operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.8 Shifting operations
-------------------------

The shifting operations have lower priority than the arithmetic
operations:

     shift_expr ::= *note a_expr: 1e5a. | *note shift_expr: 1e5e. ("<<" | ">>") *note a_expr: 1e5a.

These operators accept integers as arguments.  They shift the first
argument to the left or right by the number of bits given by the second
argument.

The left shift operation can be customized using the special *note
__lshift__(): 1d89. and *note __rlshift__(): 1d94. methods.  The right
shift operation can be customized using the special *note __rshift__():
1d8a. and *note __rrshift__(): 1d95. methods.

A right shift by 'n' bits is defined as floor division by ‘pow(2,n)’.  A
left shift by 'n' bits is defined as multiplication with ‘pow(2,n)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary bitwise operations,  Next: Comparisons,  Prev: Shifting operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.9 Binary bitwise operations
-------------------------------

Each of the three bitwise operations has a different priority level:

     and_expr ::= *note shift_expr: 1e5e. | *note and_expr: 1e61. "&" *note shift_expr: 1e5e.
     xor_expr ::= *note and_expr: 1e61. | *note xor_expr: 1e62. "^" *note and_expr: 1e61.
     or_expr  ::= *note xor_expr: 1e62. | *note or_expr: 1cb0. "|" *note xor_expr: 1e62.

The ‘&’ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be
integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding *note
__and__(): 1d8b. or *note __rand__(): 1d96. special methods.

The ‘^’ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __xor__(): 1d8c. or *note __rxor__(): 1d97. special methods.

The ‘|’ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __or__(): 1d8d. or *note __ror__(): 1d98. special methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons,  Next: Boolean operations,  Prev: Binary bitwise operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.10 Comparisons
------------------

Unlike C, all comparison operations in Python have the same priority,
which is lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or bitwise
operation.  Also unlike C, expressions like ‘a < b < c’ have the
interpretation that is conventional in mathematics:

     comparison    ::= *note or_expr: 1cb0. (*note comp_operator: 1e66. *note or_expr: 1cb0.)*
     comp_operator ::= "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="
                       | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"

Comparisons yield boolean values: ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Custom 'rich
comparison methods' may return non-boolean values.  In this case Python
will call *note bool(): 183. on such value in boolean contexts.

Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g., ‘x < y <= z’ is equivalent
to ‘x < y and y <= z’, except that ‘y’ is evaluated only once (but in
both cases ‘z’ is not evaluated at all when ‘x < y’ is found to be
false).

Formally, if 'a', 'b', 'c', …, 'y', 'z' are expressions and 'op1',
'op2', …, 'opN' are comparison operators, then ‘a op1 b op2 c ... y opN
z’ is equivalent to ‘a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z’, except that
each expression is evaluated at most once.

Note that ‘a op1 b op2 c’ doesn’t imply any kind of comparison between
'a' and 'c', so that, e.g., ‘x < y > z’ is perfectly legal (though
perhaps not pretty).

* Menu:

* Value comparisons::
* Membership test operations::
* Identity comparisons::


File: python.info,  Node: Value comparisons,  Next: Membership test operations,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.1 Value comparisons
..........................

The operators ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘==’, ‘>=’, ‘<=’, and ‘!=’ compare the values of
two objects.  The objects do not need to have the same type.

Chapter *note Objects, values and types: 1cd1. states that objects have
a value (in addition to type and identity).  The value of an object is a
rather abstract notion in Python: For example, there is no canonical
access method for an object’s value.  Also, there is no requirement that
the value of an object should be constructed in a particular way, e.g.
comprised of all its data attributes.  Comparison operators implement a
particular notion of what the value of an object is.  One can think of
them as defining the value of an object indirectly, by means of their
comparison implementation.

Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of *note object:
8f2, they inherit the default comparison behavior from *note object:
8f2.  Types can customize their comparison behavior by implementing
'rich comparison methods' like *note __lt__(): 1148, described in *note
Basic customization: 1d4d.

The default behavior for equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’) is based on
the identity of the objects.  Hence, equality comparison of instances
with the same identity results in equality, and equality comparison of
instances with different identities results in inequality.  A motivation
for this default behavior is the desire that all objects should be
reflexive (i.e.  ‘x is y’ implies ‘x == y’).

A default order comparison (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, and ‘>=’) is not provided;
an attempt raises *note TypeError: 2c4.  A motivation for this default
behavior is the lack of a similar invariant as for equality.

The behavior of the default equality comparison, that instances with
different identities are always unequal, may be in contrast to what
types will need that have a sensible definition of object value and
value-based equality.  Such types will need to customize their
comparison behavior, and in fact, a number of built-in types have done
that.

The following list describes the comparison behavior of the most
important built-in types.

   * Numbers of built-in numeric types (*note Sayısal Türler — int,
     float, complex: 1a3f.) and of the standard library types *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1ae. and *note decimal.Decimal: 609. can be
     compared within and across their types, with the restriction that
     complex numbers do not support order comparison.  Within the limits
     of the types involved, they compare mathematically
     (algorithmically) correct without loss of precision.

     The not-a-number values ‘float('NaN')’ and ‘decimal.Decimal('NaN')’
     are special.  Any ordered comparison of a number to a not-a-number
     value is false.  A counter-intuitive implication is that
     not-a-number values are not equal to themselves.  For example, if
     ‘x = float('NaN')’, ‘3 < x’, ‘x < 3’ and ‘x == x’ are all false,
     while ‘x != x’ is true.  This behavior is compliant with IEEE 754.

   * ‘None’ and *note NotImplemented: 60b. are singletons.  PEP 8(1)
     advises that comparisons for singletons should always be done with
     ‘is’ or ‘is not’, never the equality operators.

   * Binary sequences (instances of *note bytes: 2cb. or *note
     bytearray: 2ca.) can be compared within and across their types.
     They compare lexicographically using the numeric values of their
     elements.

   * Strings (instances of *note str: 15d.) compare lexicographically
     using the numerical Unicode code points (the result of the built-in
     function *note ord(): 1cdf.) of their characters.  (2)

     Strings and binary sequences cannot be directly compared.

   * Sequences (instances of *note tuple: 4ff, *note list: 422, or *note
     range: 79c.) can be compared only within each of their types, with
     the restriction that ranges do not support order comparison.
     Equality comparison across these types results in inequality, and
     ordering comparison across these types raises *note TypeError: 2c4.

     Sequences compare lexicographically using comparison of
     corresponding elements.  The built-in containers typically assume
     identical objects are equal to themselves.  That lets them bypass
     equality tests for identical objects to improve performance and to
     maintain their internal invariants.

     Lexicographical comparison between built-in collections works as
     follows:

        - For two collections to compare equal, they must be of the same
          type, have the same length, and each pair of corresponding
          elements must compare equal (for example, ‘[1,2] == (1,2)’ is
          false because the type is not the same).

        - Collections that support order comparison are ordered the same
          as their first unequal elements (for example, ‘[1,2,x] <=
          [1,2,y]’ has the same value as ‘x <= y’).  If a corresponding
          element does not exist, the shorter collection is ordered
          first (for example, ‘[1,2] < [1,2,3]’ is true).

   * Mappings (instances of *note dict: 240.) compare equal if and only
     if they have equal ‘(key, value)’ pairs.  Equality comparison of
     the keys and values enforces reflexivity.

     Order comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, and ‘>=’) raise *note TypeError:
     2c4.

   * Sets (instances of *note set: 3e4. or *note frozenset: 3e5.) can be
     compared within and across their types.

     They define order comparison operators to mean subset and superset
     tests.  Those relations do not define total orderings (for example,
     the two sets ‘{1,2}’ and ‘{2,3}’ are not equal, nor subsets of one
     another, nor supersets of one another).  Accordingly, sets are not
     appropriate arguments for functions which depend on total ordering
     (for example, *note min(): d9f, *note max(): da0, and *note
     sorted(): a45. produce undefined results given a list of sets as
     inputs).

     Comparison of sets enforces reflexivity of its elements.

   * Most other built-in types have no comparison methods implemented,
     so they inherit the default comparison behavior.

User-defined classes that customize their comparison behavior should
follow some consistency rules, if possible:

   * Equality comparison should be reflexive.  In other words, identical
     objects should compare equal:

          ‘x is y’ implies ‘x == y’

   * Comparison should be symmetric.  In other words, the following
     expressions should have the same result:

          ‘x == y’ and ‘y == x’

          ‘x != y’ and ‘y != x’

          ‘x < y’ and ‘y > x’

          ‘x <= y’ and ‘y >= x’

   * Comparison should be transitive.  The following (non-exhaustive)
     examples illustrate that:

          ‘x > y and y > z’ implies ‘x > z’

          ‘x < y and y <= z’ implies ‘x < z’

   * Inverse comparison should result in the boolean negation.  In other
     words, the following expressions should have the same result:

          ‘x == y’ and ‘not x != y’

          ‘x < y’ and ‘not x >= y’ (for total ordering)

          ‘x > y’ and ‘not x <= y’ (for total ordering)

     The last two expressions apply to totally ordered collections (e.g.
     to sequences, but not to sets or mappings).  See also the *note
     total_ordering(): de2. decorator.

   * The *note hash(): 3f7. result should be consistent with equality.
     Objects that are equal should either have the same hash value, or
     be marked as unhashable.

Python does not enforce these consistency rules.  In fact, the
not-a-number values are an example for not following these rules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (2) The Unicode standard distinguishes between 'code points' (e.g.
U+0041) and 'abstract characters' (e.g.  “LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A”).
While most abstract characters in Unicode are only represented using one
code point, there is a number of abstract characters that can in
addition be represented using a sequence of more than one code point.
For example, the abstract character “LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH
CEDILLA” can be represented as a single 'precomposed character' at code
position U+00C7, or as a sequence of a 'base character' at code position
U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C), followed by a 'combining character' at
code position U+0327 (COMBINING CEDILLA).

The comparison operators on strings compare at the level of Unicode code
points.  This may be counter-intuitive to humans.  For example,
‘"\u00C7" == "\u0043\u0327"’ is ‘False’, even though both strings
represent the same abstract character “LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH
CEDILLA”.

To compare strings at the level of abstract characters (that is, in a
way intuitive to humans), use *note unicodedata.normalize(): 4ec.


File: python.info,  Node: Membership test operations,  Next: Identity comparisons,  Prev: Value comparisons,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.2 Membership test operations
...................................

The operators *note in: 26f. and *note not in: 442. test for membership.
‘x in s’ evaluates to ‘True’ if 'x' is a member of 's', and ‘False’
otherwise.  ‘x not in s’ returns the negation of ‘x in s’.  All built-in
sequences and set types support this as well as dictionary, for which
‘in’ tests whether the dictionary has a given key.  For container types
such as list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, or collections.deque, the
expression ‘x in y’ is equivalent to ‘any(x is e or x == e for e in y)’.

For the string and bytes types, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if 'x' is
a substring of 'y'.  An equivalent test is ‘y.find(x) != -1’.  Empty
strings are always considered to be a substring of any other string, so
‘"" in "abc"’ will return ‘True’.

For user-defined classes which define the *note __contains__(): 1d4b.
method, ‘x in y’ returns ‘True’ if ‘y.__contains__(x)’ returns a true
value, and ‘False’ otherwise.

For user-defined classes which do not define *note __contains__(): 1d4b.
but do define *note __iter__(): 1d49, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if some value
‘z’, for which the expression ‘x is z or x == z’ is true, is produced
while iterating over ‘y’.  If an exception is raised during the
iteration, it is as if *note in: 26f. raised that exception.

Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines
*note __getitem__(): 500, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if there is a
non-negative integer index 'i' such that ‘x is y[i] or x == y[i]’, and
no lower integer index raises the *note IndexError: 13c2. exception.
(If any other exception is raised, it is as if *note in: 26f. raised
that exception).

The operator *note not in: 442. is defined to have the inverse truth
value of *note in: 26f.


File: python.info,  Node: Identity comparisons,  Prev: Membership test operations,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.3 Identity comparisons
.............................

The operators *note is: 270. and *note is not: 1e6a. test for an
object’s identity: ‘x is y’ is true if and only if 'x' and 'y' are the
same object.  An Object’s identity is determined using the *note id():
12ab. function.  ‘x is not y’ yields the inverse truth value.  (1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Due to automatic garbage-collection, free lists, and the dynamic
nature of descriptors, you may notice seemingly unusual behaviour in
certain uses of the *note is: 270. operator, like those involving
comparisons between instance methods, or constants.  Check their
documentation for more info.


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean operations,  Next: Assignment expressions,  Prev: Comparisons,  Up: Expressions

4.6.11 Boolean operations
-------------------------

     or_test  ::= *note and_test: 1e6e. | *note or_test: 1e1a. "or" *note and_test: 1e6e.
     and_test ::= *note not_test: 1e6f. | *note and_test: 1e6e. "and" *note not_test: 1e6f.
     not_test ::= *note comparison: 1e65. | "not" *note not_test: 1e6f.

In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used
by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as
false: ‘False’, ‘None’, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and
containers (including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and
frozensets).  All other values are interpreted as true.  User-defined
objects can customize their truth value by providing a *note __bool__():
117f. method.

The operator *note not: 1e6d. yields ‘True’ if its argument is false,
‘False’ otherwise.

The expression ‘x and y’ first evaluates 'x'; if 'x' is false, its value
is returned; otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and the resulting value is
returned.

The expression ‘x or y’ first evaluates 'x'; if 'x' is true, its value
is returned; otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and the resulting value is
returned.

Note that neither *note and: 26b. nor *note or: 271. restrict the value
and type they return to ‘False’ and ‘True’, but rather return the last
evaluated argument.  This is sometimes useful, e.g., if ‘s’ is a string
that should be replaced by a default value if it is empty, the
expression ‘s or 'foo'’ yields the desired value.  Because *note not:
1e6d. has to create a new value, it returns a boolean value regardless
of the type of its argument (for example, ‘not 'foo'’ produces ‘False’
rather than ‘''’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Assignment expressions,  Next: Conditional expressions,  Prev: Boolean operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.12 Assignment expressions
-----------------------------

     assignment_expression ::= [*note identifier: 1c83. ":="] *note expression: 1e26.

An assignment expression (sometimes also called a “named expression” or
“walrus”) assigns an *note expression: 1e26. to an *note identifier:
1c83, while also returning the value of the *note expression: 1e26.

One common use case is when handling matched regular expressions:

     if matching := pattern.search(data):
         do_something(matching)

Or, when processing a file stream in chunks:

     while chunk := file.read(9000):
         process(chunk)

Assignment expressions must be surrounded by parentheses when used as
expression statements and when used as sub-expressions in slicing,
conditional, lambda, keyword-argument, and comprehension-if expressions
and in ‘assert’, ‘with’, and ‘assignment’ statements.  In all other
places where they can be used, parentheses are not required, including
in ‘if’ and ‘while’ statements.

Added in version 3.8: See PEP 572(1) for more details about assignment
expressions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Conditional expressions,  Next: Lambdas,  Prev: Assignment expressions,  Up: Expressions

4.6.13 Conditional expressions
------------------------------

     conditional_expression ::= *note or_test: 1e1a. ["if" *note or_test: 1e1a. "else" *note expression: 1e26.]
     expression             ::= *note conditional_expression: 1caf. | *note lambda_expr: 1e73.

Conditional expressions (sometimes called a “ternary operator”) have the
lowest priority of all Python operations.

The expression ‘x if C else y’ first evaluates the condition, 'C' rather
than 'x'.  If 'C' is true, 'x' is evaluated and its value is returned;
otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and its value is returned.

See PEP 308(1) for more details about conditional expressions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: Lambdas,  Next: Expression lists,  Prev: Conditional expressions,  Up: Expressions

4.6.14 Lambdas
--------------

     lambda_expr ::= "lambda" [*note parameter_list: 1e76.] ":" *note expression: 1e26.

Lambda expressions (sometimes called lambda forms) are used to create
anonymous functions.  The expression ‘lambda parameters: expression’
yields a function object.  The unnamed object behaves like a function
object defined with:

     def <lambda>(parameters):
         return expression

See section *note Function definitions: 1a7f. for the syntax of
parameter lists.  Note that functions created with lambda expressions
cannot contain statements or annotations.


File: python.info,  Node: Expression lists,  Next: Evaluation order,  Prev: Lambdas,  Up: Expressions

4.6.15 Expression lists
-----------------------

     starred_expression       ::= ["*"] *note or_expr: 1cb0.
     flexible_expression      ::= *note assignment_expression: 1dce. | *note starred_expression: 1e15.
     flexible_expression_list ::= *note flexible_expression: 1e78. ("," *note flexible_expression: 1e78.)* [","]
     starred_expression_list  ::= *note starred_expression: 1e15. ("," *note starred_expression: 1e15.)* [","]
     expression_list          ::= *note expression: 1e26. ("," *note expression: 1e26.)* [","]
     yield_list               ::= *note expression_list: 1e7a. | *note starred_expression: 1e15. "," [*note starred_expression_list: 1e79.]

Except when part of a list or set display, an expression list containing
at least one comma yields a tuple.  The length of the tuple is the
number of expressions in the list.  The expressions are evaluated from
left to right.

An asterisk ‘*’ denotes 'iterable unpacking'.  Its operand must be an
*note iterable: 10ce.  The iterable is expanded into a sequence of
items, which are included in the new tuple, list, or set, at the site of
the unpacking.

Added in version 3.5: Iterable unpacking in expression lists, originally
proposed by PEP 448(1).

Added in version 3.11: Any item in an expression list may be starred.
See PEP 646(2).

A trailing comma is required only to create a one-item tuple, such as
‘1,’; it is optional in all other cases.  A single expression without a
trailing comma doesn’t create a tuple, but rather yields the value of
that expression.  (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of
parentheses: ‘()’.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Evaluation order,  Next: Operator precedence,  Prev: Expression lists,  Up: Expressions

4.6.16 Evaluation order
-----------------------

Python evaluates expressions from left to right.  Notice that while
evaluating an assignment, the right-hand side is evaluated before the
left-hand side.

In the following lines, expressions will be evaluated in the arithmetic
order of their suffixes:

     expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4
     (expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4)
     {expr1: expr2, expr3: expr4}
     expr1 + expr2 * (expr3 - expr4)
     expr1(expr2, expr3, *expr4, **expr5)
     expr3, expr4 = expr1, expr2


File: python.info,  Node: Operator precedence,  Prev: Evaluation order,  Up: Expressions

4.6.17 Operator precedence
--------------------------

The following table summarizes the operator precedence in Python, from
highest precedence (most binding) to lowest precedence (least binding).
Operators in the same box have the same precedence.  Unless the syntax
is explicitly given, operators are binary.  Operators in the same box
group left to right (except for exponentiation and conditional
expressions, which group from right to left).

Note that comparisons, membership tests, and identity tests, all have
the same precedence and have a left-to-right chaining feature as
described in the *note Comparisons: 1e63. section.

Operator                                            Description
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘(expressions...)’,                                 Binding or parenthesized expression,
                                                    list display, dictionary display, set
‘[expressions...]’, ‘{key: value...}’,              display
‘{expressions...}’                                  

‘x[index]’, ‘x[index:index]’, ‘x(arguments...)’,    Subscription, slicing, call, attribute
‘x.attribute’                                       reference
                                                    
                                                    
*note await x: 55b.                                 Await expression
                                                    
                                                    
‘**’                                                Exponentiation (1)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+x’, ‘-x’, ‘~x’                                    Positive, negative, bitwise NOT
                                                    
                                                    
‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’                            Multiplication, matrix multiplication,
                                                    division, floor division, remainder (2)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+’, ‘-’                                            Addition and subtraction
                                                    
                                                    
‘<<’, ‘>>’                                          Shifts
                                                    
                                                    
‘&’                                                 Bitwise AND
                                                    
                                                    
‘^’                                                 Bitwise XOR
                                                    
                                                    
‘|’                                                 Bitwise OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note in: 26f, *note not in: 442, *note is: 270,    Comparisons, including membership tests
*note is not: 1e6a, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘!=’,     and identity tests
‘==’                                                

*note not x: 1e6d.                                  Boolean NOT
                                                    
                                                    
*note and: 26b.                                     Boolean AND
                                                    
                                                    
*note or: 271.                                      Boolean OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note if: 1e72. – ‘else’                            Conditional expression
                                                    
                                                    
*note lambda: 1145.                                 Lambda expression
                                                    
                                                    
‘:=’                                                Assignment expression
                                                    

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The power operator ‘**’ binds less tightly than an arithmetic or
bitwise unary operator on its right, that is, ‘2**-1’ is ‘0.5’.

   (2) The ‘%’ operator is also used for string formatting; the same
precedence applies.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple statements,  Next: Compound statements,  Prev: Expressions,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.7 Simple statements
=====================

A simple statement is comprised within a single logical line.  Several
simple statements may occur on a single line separated by semicolons.
The syntax for simple statements is:

     simple_stmt ::= *note expression_stmt: 1e83.
                     | *note assert_stmt: 1e84.
                     | *note assignment_stmt: 1e85.
                     | *note augmented_assignment_stmt: 1e86.
                     | *note annotated_assignment_stmt: 1e87.
                     | *note pass_stmt: 1e88.
                     | *note del_stmt: 1e89.
                     | *note return_stmt: 1e8a.
                     | *note yield_stmt: 1e8b.
                     | *note raise_stmt: 1e8c.
                     | *note break_stmt: 1e8d.
                     | *note continue_stmt: 1e8e.
                     | *note import_stmt: 1e8f.
                     | *note future_stmt: 1e90.
                     | *note global_stmt: 1e91.
                     | *note nonlocal_stmt: 1e92.
                     | *note type_stmt: 1e93.

* Menu:

* Expression statements::
* Assignment statements::
* The assert statement::
* The pass statement::
* The del statement::
* The return statement::
* The yield statement::
* The raise statement::
* The break statement::
* The continue statement::
* The import statement::
* The global statement::
* The nonlocal statement::
* The type statement::


File: python.info,  Node: Expression statements,  Next: Assignment statements,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.1 Expression statements
---------------------------

Expression statements are used (mostly interactively) to compute and
write a value, or (usually) to call a procedure (a function that returns
no meaningful result; in Python, procedures return the value ‘None’).
Other uses of expression statements are allowed and occasionally useful.
The syntax for an expression statement is:

     expression_stmt ::= *note starred_expression: 1e15.

An expression statement evaluates the expression list (which may be a
single expression).

In interactive mode, if the value is not ‘None’, it is converted to a
string using the built-in *note repr(): 637. function and the resulting
string is written to standard output on a line by itself (except if the
result is ‘None’, so that procedure calls do not cause any output.)


File: python.info,  Node: Assignment statements,  Next: The assert statement,  Prev: Expression statements,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.2 Assignment statements
---------------------------

Assignment statements are used to (re)bind names to values and to modify
attributes or items of mutable objects:

     assignment_stmt ::= (*note target_list: 1e19. "=")+ (*note starred_expression: 1e15. | *note yield_expression: 1cb1.)
     target_list     ::= *note target: 1e97. ("," *note target: 1e97.)* [","]
     target          ::= *note identifier: 1c83.
                         | "(" [*note target_list: 1e19.] ")"
                         | "[" [*note target_list: 1e19.] "]"
                         | *note attributeref: 1e38.
                         | *note subscription: 1e39.
                         | *note slicing: 1e3a.
                         | "*" *note target: 1e97.

(See section *note Primaries: 1e36. for the syntax definitions for
'attributeref', 'subscription', and 'slicing'.)

An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that
this can be a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter
yielding a tuple) and assigns the single resulting object to each of the
target lists, from left to right.

Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target
(list).  When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute
reference, subscription or slicing), the mutable object must ultimately
perform the assignment and decide about its validity, and may raise an
exception if the assignment is unacceptable.  The rules observed by
various types and the exceptions raised are given with the definition of
the object types (see section *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4.).

Assignment of an object to a target list, optionally enclosed in
parentheses or square brackets, is recursively defined as follows.

   * If the target list is a single target with no trailing comma,
     optionally in parentheses, the object is assigned to that target.

   * Else:

        * If the target list contains one target prefixed with an
          asterisk, called a “starred” target: The object must be an
          iterable with at least as many items as there are targets in
          the target list, minus one.  The first items of the iterable
          are assigned, from left to right, to the targets before the
          starred target.  The final items of the iterable are assigned
          to the targets after the starred target.  A list of the
          remaining items in the iterable is then assigned to the
          starred target (the list can be empty).

        * Else: The object must be an iterable with the same number of
          items as there are targets in the target list, and the items
          are assigned, from left to right, to the corresponding
          targets.

Assignment of an object to a single target is recursively defined as
follows.

   * If the target is an identifier (name):

        * If the name does not occur in a *note global: 1a67. or *note
          nonlocal: 1150. statement in the current code block: the name
          is bound to the object in the current local namespace.

        * Otherwise: the name is bound to the object in the global
          namespace or the outer namespace determined by *note nonlocal:
          1150, respectively.

     The name is rebound if it was already bound.  This may cause the
     reference count for the object previously bound to the name to
     reach zero, causing the object to be deallocated and its destructor
     (if it has one) to be called.

   * If the target is an attribute reference: The primary expression in
     the reference is evaluated.  It should yield an object with
     assignable attributes; if this is not the case, *note TypeError:
     2c4. is raised.  That object is then asked to assign the assigned
     object to the given attribute; if it cannot perform the assignment,
     it raises an exception (usually but not necessarily *note
     AttributeError: 3dc.).  Note: If the object is a class instance and
     the attribute reference occurs on both sides of the assignment
     operator, the right-hand side expression, ‘a.x’ can access either
     an instance attribute or (if no instance attribute exists) a class
     attribute.  The left-hand side target ‘a.x’ is always set as an
     instance attribute, creating it if necessary.  Thus, the two
     occurrences of ‘a.x’ do not necessarily refer to the same
     attribute: if the right-hand side expression refers to a class
     attribute, the left-hand side creates a new instance attribute as
     the target of the assignment:

          class Cls:
              x = 3             # class variable
          inst = Cls()
          inst.x = inst.x + 1   # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3

     This description does not necessarily apply to descriptor
     attributes, such as properties created with *note property(): 43c.

   * If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the
     reference is evaluated.  It should yield either a mutable sequence
     object (such as a list) or a mapping object (such as a dictionary).
     Next, the subscript expression is evaluated.

     If the primary is a mutable sequence object (such as a list), the
     subscript must yield an integer.  If it is negative, the sequence’s
     length is added to it.  The resulting value must be a nonnegative
     integer less than the sequence’s length, and the sequence is asked
     to assign the assigned object to its item with that index.  If the
     index is out of range, *note IndexError: 13c2. is raised
     (assignment to a subscripted sequence cannot add new items to a
     list).

     If the primary is a mapping object (such as a dictionary), the
     subscript must have a type compatible with the mapping’s key type,
     and the mapping is then asked to create a key/value pair which maps
     the subscript to the assigned object.  This can either replace an
     existing key/value pair with the same key value, or insert a new
     key/value pair (if no key with the same value existed).

     For user-defined objects, the *note __setitem__(): 1174. method is
     called with appropriate arguments.

   * If the target is a slicing: The primary expression in the reference
     is evaluated.  It should yield a mutable sequence object (such as a
     list).  The assigned object should be a sequence object of the same
     type.  Next, the lower and upper bound expressions are evaluated,
     insofar they are present; defaults are zero and the sequence’s
     length.  The bounds should evaluate to integers.  If either bound
     is negative, the sequence’s length is added to it.  The resulting
     bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence’s length,
     inclusive.  Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the
     slice with the items of the assigned sequence.  The length of the
     slice may be different from the length of the assigned sequence,
     thus changing the length of the target sequence, if the target
     sequence allows it.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' In the current implementation, the syntax
for targets is taken to be the same as for expressions, and invalid
syntax is rejected during the code generation phase, causing less
detailed error messages.

Although the definition of assignment implies that overlaps between the
left-hand side and the right-hand side are ‘simultaneous’ (for example
‘a, b = b, a’ swaps two variables), overlaps 'within' the collection of
assigned-to variables occur left-to-right, sometimes resulting in
confusion.  For instance, the following program prints ‘[0, 2]’:

     x = [0, 1]
     i = 0
     i, x[i] = 1, 2         # i is updated, then x[i] is updated
     print(x)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3132(1) - Extended Iterable Unpacking

     The specification for the ‘*target’ feature.

* Menu:

* Augmented assignment statements::
* Annotated assignment statements::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/


File: python.info,  Node: Augmented assignment statements,  Next: Annotated assignment statements,  Up: Assignment statements

4.7.2.1 Augmented assignment statements
.......................................

Augmented assignment is the combination, in a single statement, of a
binary operation and an assignment statement:

     augmented_assignment_stmt ::= *note augtarget: 1e9b. *note augop: 1e9c. (*note expression_list: 1e7a. | *note yield_expression: 1cb1.)
     augtarget                 ::= *note identifier: 1c83. | *note attributeref: 1e38. | *note subscription: 1e39. | *note slicing: 1e3a.
     augop                     ::= "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
                                   | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="

(See section *note Primaries: 1e36. for the syntax definitions of the
last three symbols.)

An augmented assignment evaluates the target (which, unlike normal
assignment statements, cannot be an unpacking) and the expression list,
performs the binary operation specific to the type of assignment on the
two operands, and assigns the result to the original target.  The target
is only evaluated once.

An augmented assignment statement like ‘x += 1’ can be rewritten as ‘x =
x + 1’ to achieve a similar, but not exactly equal effect.  In the
augmented version, ‘x’ is only evaluated once.  Also, when possible, the
actual operation is performed 'in-place', meaning that rather than
creating a new object and assigning that to the target, the old object
is modified instead.

Unlike normal assignments, augmented assignments evaluate the left-hand
side 'before' evaluating the right-hand side.  For example, ‘a[i] +=
f(x)’ first looks-up ‘a[i]’, then it evaluates ‘f(x)’ and performs the
addition, and lastly, it writes the result back to ‘a[i]’.

With the exception of assigning to tuples and multiple targets in a
single statement, the assignment done by augmented assignment statements
is handled the same way as normal assignments.  Similarly, with the
exception of the possible 'in-place' behavior, the binary operation
performed by augmented assignment is the same as the normal binary
operations.

For targets which are attribute references, the same *note caveat about
class and instance attributes: 1e98. applies as for regular assignments.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotated assignment statements,  Prev: Augmented assignment statements,  Up: Assignment statements

4.7.2.2 Annotated assignment statements
.......................................

*note Annotation: be1. assignment is the combination, in a single
statement, of a variable or attribute annotation and an optional
assignment statement:

     annotated_assignment_stmt ::= *note augtarget: 1e9b. ":" *note expression: 1e26.
                                   ["=" (*note starred_expression: 1e15. | *note yield_expression: 1cb1.)]

The difference from normal *note Assignment statements: 1dc9. is that
only a single target is allowed.

The assignment target is considered “simple” if it consists of a single
name that is not enclosed in parentheses.  For simple assignment
targets, if in class or module scope, the annotations are evaluated and
stored in a special class or module attribute ‘__annotations__’ that is
a dictionary mapping from variable names (mangled if private) to
evaluated annotations.  This attribute is writable and is automatically
created at the start of class or module body execution, if annotations
are found statically.

If the assignment target is not simple (an attribute, subscript node, or
parenthesized name), the annotation is evaluated if in class or module
scope, but not stored.

If a name is annotated in a function scope, then this name is local for
that scope.  Annotations are never evaluated and stored in function
scopes.

If the right hand side is present, an annotated assignment performs the
actual assignment before evaluating annotations (where applicable).  If
the right hand side is not present for an expression target, then the
interpreter evaluates the target except for the last *note
__setitem__(): 1174. or *note __setattr__(): 1d1b. call.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 526(1) - Syntax for Variable Annotations

     The proposal that added syntax for annotating the types of
     variables (including class variables and instance variables),
     instead of expressing them through comments.

PEP 484(2) - Type hints

     The proposal that added the *note typing: 104. module to provide a
     standard syntax for type annotations that can be used in static
     analysis tools and IDEs.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Now annotated assignments allow the same
expressions in the right hand side as regular assignments.  Previously,
some expressions (like un-parenthesized tuple expressions) caused a
syntax error.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: The assert statement,  Next: The pass statement,  Prev: Assignment statements,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.3 The ‘assert’ statement
----------------------------

Assert statements are a convenient way to insert debugging assertions
into a program:

     assert_stmt ::= "assert" *note expression: 1e26. ["," *note expression: 1e26.]

The simple form, ‘assert expression’, is equivalent to

     if __debug__:
         if not expression: raise AssertionError

The extended form, ‘assert expression1, expression2’, is equivalent to

     if __debug__:
         if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)

These equivalences assume that *note __debug__: 614. and *note
AssertionError: 4bf. refer to the built-in variables with those names.
In the current implementation, the built-in variable ‘__debug__’ is
‘True’ under normal circumstances, ‘False’ when optimization is
requested (command line option *note -O: c42.).  The current code
generator emits no code for an *note assert: 7c4. statement when
optimization is requested at compile time.  Note that it is unnecessary
to include the source code for the expression that failed in the error
message; it will be displayed as part of the stack trace.

Assignments to *note __debug__: 614. are illegal.  The value for the
built-in variable is determined when the interpreter starts.


File: python.info,  Node: The pass statement,  Next: The del statement,  Prev: The assert statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.4 The ‘pass’ statement
--------------------------

     pass_stmt ::= "pass"

*note pass: 1a62. is a null operation — when it is executed, nothing
happens.  It is useful as a placeholder when a statement is required
syntactically, but no code needs to be executed, for example:

     def f(arg): pass    # a function that does nothing (yet)

     class C: pass       # a class with no methods (yet)


File: python.info,  Node: The del statement,  Next: The return statement,  Prev: The pass statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.5 The ‘del’ statement
-------------------------

     del_stmt ::= "del" *note target_list: 1e19.

Deletion is recursively defined very similar to the way assignment is
defined.  Rather than spelling it out in full details, here are some
hints.

Deletion of a target list recursively deletes each target, from left to
right.

Deletion of a name removes the binding of that name from the local or
global namespace, depending on whether the name occurs in a *note
global: 1a67. statement in the same code block.  If the name is unbound,
a *note NameError: 14a. exception will be raised.

Deletion of attribute references, subscriptions and slicings is passed
to the primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general
equivalent to assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even
this is determined by the sliced object).

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Previously it was illegal to delete a name from
the local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block.


File: python.info,  Node: The return statement,  Next: The yield statement,  Prev: The del statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.6 The ‘return’ statement
----------------------------

     return_stmt ::= "return" [*note expression_list: 1e7a.]

*note return: 82c. may only occur syntactically nested in a function
definition, not within a nested class definition.

If an expression list is present, it is evaluated, else ‘None’ is
substituted.

*note return: 82c. leaves the current function call with the expression
list (or ‘None’) as return value.

When *note return: 82c. passes control out of a *note try: 503.
statement with a *note finally: 828. clause, that ‘finally’ clause is
executed before really leaving the function.

In a generator function, the *note return: 82c. statement indicates that
the generator is done and will cause *note StopIteration: a73. to be
raised.  The returned value (if any) is used as an argument to construct
*note StopIteration: a73. and becomes the *note StopIteration.value:
1db8. attribute.

In an asynchronous generator function, an empty *note return: 82c.
statement indicates that the asynchronous generator is done and will
cause *note StopAsyncIteration: 1867. to be raised.  A non-empty
‘return’ statement is a syntax error in an asynchronous generator
function.


File: python.info,  Node: The yield statement,  Next: The raise statement,  Prev: The return statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.7 The ‘yield’ statement
---------------------------

     yield_stmt ::= *note yield_expression: 1cb1.

A *note yield: 82b. statement is semantically equivalent to a *note
yield expression: 1e2a.  The ‘yield’ statement can be used to omit the
parentheses that would otherwise be required in the equivalent yield
expression statement.  For example, the yield statements

     yield <expr>
     yield from <expr>

are equivalent to the yield expression statements

     (yield <expr>)
     (yield from <expr>)

Yield expressions and statements are only used when defining a *note
generator: f0b. function, and are only used in the body of the generator
function.  Using *note yield: 82b. in a function definition is
sufficient to cause that definition to create a generator function
instead of a normal function.

For full details of *note yield: 82b. semantics, refer to the *note
Yield expressions: 1e2a. section.


File: python.info,  Node: The raise statement,  Next: The break statement,  Prev: The yield statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.8 The ‘raise’ statement
---------------------------

     raise_stmt ::= "raise" [*note expression: 1e26. ["from" *note expression: 1e26.]]

If no expressions are present, *note raise: 3f9. re-raises the exception
that is currently being handled, which is also known as the 'active
exception'.  If there isn’t currently an active exception, a *note
RuntimeError: 180. exception is raised indicating that this is an error.

Otherwise, *note raise: 3f9. evaluates the first expression as the
exception object.  It must be either a subclass or an instance of *note
BaseException: 3c3.  If it is a class, the exception instance will be
obtained when needed by instantiating the class with no arguments.

The 'type' of the exception is the exception instance’s class, the
'value' is the instance itself.

A traceback object is normally created automatically when an exception
is raised and attached to it as the *note __traceback__: 116f.
attribute.  You can create an exception and set your own traceback in
one step using the *note with_traceback(): 1ea5. exception method (which
returns the same exception instance, with its traceback set to its
argument), like so:

     raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)

The ‘from’ clause is used for exception chaining: if given, the second
'expression' must be another exception class or instance.  If the second
expression is an exception instance, it will be attached to the raised
exception as the *note __cause__: 1171. attribute (which is writable).
If the expression is an exception class, the class will be instantiated
and the resulting exception instance will be attached to the raised
exception as the ‘__cause__’ attribute.  If the raised exception is not
handled, both exceptions will be printed:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except Exception as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

A similar mechanism works implicitly if a new exception is raised when
an exception is already being handled.  An exception may be handled when
an *note except: 3c0. or *note finally: 828. clause, or a *note with:
3dd. statement, is used.  The previous exception is then attached as the
new exception’s *note __context__: 1170. attribute:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Exception chaining can be explicitly suppressed by specifying *note
None: 488. in the ‘from’ clause:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Additional information on exceptions can be found in section *note
Exceptions: 1dd4, and information about handling exceptions is in
section *note The try statement: 503.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note None: 488. is now permitted as ‘Y’ in
‘raise X from Y’.

Added the *note __suppress_context__: 1ea6. attribute to suppress
automatic display of the exception context.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: If the traceback of the active exception is
modified in an *note except: 3c0. clause, a subsequent ‘raise’ statement
re-raises the exception with the modified traceback.  Previously, the
exception was re-raised with the traceback it had when it was caught.


File: python.info,  Node: The break statement,  Next: The continue statement,  Prev: The raise statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.9 The ‘break’ statement
---------------------------

     break_stmt ::= "break"

*note break: 915. may only occur syntactically nested in a *note for:
26d. or *note while: 1a4c. loop, but not nested in a function or class
definition within that loop.

It terminates the nearest enclosing loop, skipping the optional ‘else’
clause if the loop has one.

If a *note for: 26d. loop is terminated by *note break: 915, the loop
control target keeps its current value.

When *note break: 915. passes control out of a *note try: 503. statement
with a *note finally: 828. clause, that ‘finally’ clause is executed
before really leaving the loop.


File: python.info,  Node: The continue statement,  Next: The import statement,  Prev: The break statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.10 The ‘continue’ statement
-------------------------------

     continue_stmt ::= "continue"

*note continue: 827. may only occur syntactically nested in a *note for:
26d. or *note while: 1a4c. loop, but not nested in a function or class
definition within that loop.  It continues with the next cycle of the
nearest enclosing loop.

When *note continue: 827. passes control out of a *note try: 503.
statement with a *note finally: 828. clause, that ‘finally’ clause is
executed before really starting the next loop cycle.


File: python.info,  Node: The import statement,  Next: The global statement,  Prev: The continue statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.11 The ‘import’ statement
-----------------------------

     import_stmt     ::= "import" *note module: 1eaa. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.] ("," *note module: 1eaa. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.])*
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 1eab. "import" *note identifier: 1c83. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.]
                         ("," *note identifier: 1c83. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.])*
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 1eab. "import" "(" *note identifier: 1c83. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.]
                         ("," *note identifier: 1c83. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.])* [","] ")"
                         | "from" *note relative_module: 1eab. "import" "*"
     module          ::= (*note identifier: 1c83. ".")* *note identifier: 1c83.
     relative_module ::= "."* *note module: 1eaa. | "."+

The basic import statement (no *note from: 1154. clause) is executed in
two steps:

  1. find a module, loading and initializing it if necessary

  2. define a name or names in the local namespace for the scope where
     the *note import: 3ed. statement occurs.

When the statement contains multiple clauses (separated by commas) the
two steps are carried out separately for each clause, just as though the
clauses had been separated out into individual import statements.

The details of the first step, finding and loading modules, are
described in greater detail in the section on the *note import system:
1cff, which also describes the various types of packages and modules
that can be imported, as well as all the hooks that can be used to
customize the import system.  Note that failures in this step may
indicate either that the module could not be located, 'or' that an error
occurred while initializing the module, which includes execution of the
module’s code.

If the requested module is retrieved successfully, it will be made
available in the local namespace in one of three ways:

   * If the module name is followed by ‘as’, then the name following
     ‘as’ is bound directly to the imported module.

   * If no other name is specified, and the module being imported is a
     top level module, the module’s name is bound in the local namespace
     as a reference to the imported module

   * If the module being imported is 'not' a top level module, then the
     name of the top level package that contains the module is bound in
     the local namespace as a reference to the top level package.  The
     imported module must be accessed using its full qualified name
     rather than directly

The *note from: 1154. form uses a slightly more complex process:

  1. find the module specified in the *note from: 1154. clause, loading
     and initializing it if necessary;

  2. for each of the identifiers specified in the *note import: 3ed.
     clauses:

       1. check if the imported module has an attribute by that name

       2. if not, attempt to import a submodule with that name and then
          check the imported module again for that attribute

       3. if the attribute is not found, *note ImportError: 14b. is
          raised.

       4. otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the local
          namespace, using the name in the ‘as’ clause if it is present,
          otherwise using the attribute name

Examples:

     import foo                 # foo imported and bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz         # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as fbb
     from foo.bar import baz    # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as baz
     from foo import attr       # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr

If the list of identifiers is replaced by a star (‘'*'’), all public
names defined in the module are bound in the local namespace for the
scope where the *note import: 3ed. statement occurs.

The 'public names' defined by a module are determined by checking the
module’s namespace for a variable named ‘__all__’; if defined, it must
be a sequence of strings which are names defined or imported by that
module.  The names given in ‘__all__’ are all considered public and are
required to exist.  If ‘__all__’ is not defined, the set of public names
includes all names found in the module’s namespace which do not begin
with an underscore character (‘'_'’).  ‘__all__’ should contain the
entire public API. It is intended to avoid accidentally exporting items
that are not part of the API (such as library modules which were
imported and used within the module).

The wild card form of import — ‘from module import *’ — is only allowed
at the module level.  Attempting to use it in class or function
definitions will raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c.

When specifying what module to import you do not have to specify the
absolute name of the module.  When a module or package is contained
within another package it is possible to make a relative import within
the same top package without having to mention the package name.  By
using leading dots in the specified module or package after *note from:
1154. you can specify how high to traverse up the current package
hierarchy without specifying exact names.  One leading dot means the
current package where the module making the import exists.  Two dots
means up one package level.  Three dots is up two levels, etc.  So if
you execute ‘from . import mod’ from a module in the ‘pkg’ package then
you will end up importing ‘pkg.mod’.  If you execute ‘from ..subpkg2
import mod’ from within ‘pkg.subpkg1’ you will import ‘pkg.subpkg2.mod’.
The specification for relative imports is contained in the *note Package
Relative Imports: 1df9. section.

*note importlib.import_module(): 2a2. is provided to support
applications that determine dynamically the modules to be loaded.

Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘import’ with arguments ‘module’,
‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’, ‘sys.path_hooks’.

* Menu:

* Future statements::


File: python.info,  Node: Future statements,  Up: The import statement

4.7.11.1 Future statements
..........................

A 'future statement' is a directive to the compiler that a particular
module should be compiled using syntax or semantics that will be
available in a specified future release of Python where the feature
becomes standard.

The future statement is intended to ease migration to future versions of
Python that introduce incompatible changes to the language.  It allows
use of the new features on a per-module basis before the release in
which the feature becomes standard.

     future_stmt ::= "from" "__future__" "import" *note feature: 1ead. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.]
                     ("," *note feature: 1ead. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.])*
                     | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" *note feature: 1ead. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.]
                     ("," *note feature: 1ead. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.])* [","] ")"
     feature     ::= *note identifier: 1c83.

A future statement must appear near the top of the module.  The only
lines that can appear before a future statement are:

   * the module docstring (if any),

   * comments,

   * blank lines, and

   * other future statements.

The only feature that requires using the future statement is
‘annotations’ (see PEP 563(1)).

All historical features enabled by the future statement are still
recognized by Python 3.  The list includes ‘absolute_import’,
‘division’, ‘generators’, ‘generator_stop’, ‘unicode_literals’,
‘print_function’, ‘nested_scopes’ and ‘with_statement’.  They are all
redundant because they are always enabled, and only kept for backwards
compatibility.

A future statement is recognized and treated specially at compile time:
Changes to the semantics of core constructs are often implemented by
generating different code.  It may even be the case that a new feature
introduces new incompatible syntax (such as a new reserved word), in
which case the compiler may need to parse the module differently.  Such
decisions cannot be pushed off until runtime.

For any given release, the compiler knows which feature names have been
defined, and raises a compile-time error if a future statement contains
a feature not known to it.

The direct runtime semantics are the same as for any import statement:
there is a standard module *note __future__: 0, described later, and it
will be imported in the usual way at the time the future statement is
executed.

The interesting runtime semantics depend on the specific feature enabled
by the future statement.

Note that there is nothing special about the statement:

     import __future__ [as name]

That is not a future statement; it’s an ordinary import statement with
no special semantics or syntax restrictions.

Code compiled by calls to the built-in functions *note exec(): 6cb. and
*note compile(): 56d. that occur in a module ‘M’ containing a future
statement will, by default, use the new syntax or semantics associated
with the future statement.  This can be controlled by optional arguments
to *note compile(): 56d. — see the documentation of that function for
details.

A future statement typed at an interactive interpreter prompt will take
effect for the rest of the interpreter session.  If an interpreter is
started with the *note -i: 1368. option, is passed a script name to
execute, and the script includes a future statement, it will be in
effect in the interactive session started after the script is executed.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 236(2) - Back to the __future__

     The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: The global statement,  Next: The nonlocal statement,  Prev: The import statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.12 The ‘global’ statement
-----------------------------

     global_stmt ::= "global" *note identifier: 1c83. ("," *note identifier: 1c83.)*

The *note global: 1a67. statement causes the listed identifiers to be
interpreted as globals.  It would be impossible to assign to a global
variable without ‘global’, although free variables may refer to globals
without being declared global.

The *note global: 1a67. statement applies to the entire scope of a
function or class body.  A *note SyntaxError: 14c. is raised if a
variable is used or assigned to prior to its global declaration in the
scope.

'Programmer’s note:' *note global: 1a67. is a directive to the parser.
It applies only to code parsed at the same time as the ‘global’
statement.  In particular, a ‘global’ statement contained in a string or
code object supplied to the built-in *note exec(): 6cb. function does
not affect the code block 'containing' the function call, and code
contained in such a string is unaffected by ‘global’ statements in the
code containing the function call.  The same applies to the *note
eval(): 6ca. and *note compile(): 56d. functions.


File: python.info,  Node: The nonlocal statement,  Next: The type statement,  Prev: The global statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.13 The ‘nonlocal’ statement
-------------------------------

     nonlocal_stmt ::= "nonlocal" *note identifier: 1c83. ("," *note identifier: 1c83.)*

When the definition of a function or class is nested (enclosed) within
the definitions of other functions, its nonlocal scopes are the local
scopes of the enclosing functions.  The *note nonlocal: 1150. statement
causes the listed identifiers to refer to names previously bound in
nonlocal scopes.  It allows encapsulated code to rebind such nonlocal
identifiers.  If a name is bound in more than one nonlocal scope, the
nearest binding is used.  If a name is not bound in any nonlocal scope,
or if there is no nonlocal scope, a *note SyntaxError: 14c. is raised.

The *note nonlocal: 1150. statement applies to the entire scope of a
function or class body.  A *note SyntaxError: 14c. is raised if a
variable is used or assigned to prior to its nonlocal declaration in the
scope.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3104(1) - Access to Names in Outer Scopes

     The specification for the *note nonlocal: 1150. statement.

'Programmer’s note:' *note nonlocal: 1150. is a directive to the parser
and applies only to code parsed along with it.  See the note for the
*note global: 1a67. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/


File: python.info,  Node: The type statement,  Prev: The nonlocal statement,  Up: Simple statements

4.7.14 The ‘type’ statement
---------------------------

     type_stmt ::= 'type' *note identifier: 1c83. [*note type_params: 1eb1.] "=" *note expression: 1e26.

The ‘type’ statement declares a type alias, which is an instance of
*note typing.TypeAliasType: 166.

For example, the following statement creates a type alias:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

This code is roughly equivalent to:

     annotation-def VALUE_OF_Point():
         return tuple[float, float]
     Point = typing.TypeAliasType("Point", VALUE_OF_Point())

‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 16d, which behaves
mostly like a function, but with several small differences.

The value of the type alias is evaluated in the annotation scope.  It is
not evaluated when the type alias is created, but only when the value is
accessed through the type alias’s ‘__value__’ attribute (see *note Lazy
evaluation: 16b.).  This allows the type alias to refer to names that
are not yet defined.

Type aliases may be made generic by adding a *note type parameter list:
16c. after the name.  See *note Generic type aliases: 167. for more.

‘type’ is a *note soft keyword: 647.

Added in version 3.12.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 695(1) - Type Parameter Syntax

     Introduced the ‘type’ statement and syntax for generic classes and
     functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Compound statements,  Next: Top-level components,  Prev: Simple statements,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.8 Compound statements
=======================

Compound statements contain (groups of) other statements; they affect or
control the execution of those other statements in some way.  In
general, compound statements span multiple lines, although in simple
incarnations a whole compound statement may be contained in one line.

The *note if: 26e, *note while: 1a4c. and *note for: 26d. statements
implement traditional control flow constructs.  *note try: 503.
specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code for a group of
statements, while the *note with: 3dd. statement allows the execution of
initialization and finalization code around a block of code.  Function
and class definitions are also syntactically compound statements.

A compound statement consists of one or more ‘clauses.’ A clause
consists of a header and a ‘suite.’ The clause headers of a particular
compound statement are all at the same indentation level.  Each clause
header begins with a uniquely identifying keyword and ends with a colon.
A suite is a group of statements controlled by a clause.  A suite can be
one or more semicolon-separated simple statements on the same line as
the header, following the header’s colon, or it can be one or more
indented statements on subsequent lines.  Only the latter form of a
suite can contain nested compound statements; the following is illegal,
mostly because it wouldn’t be clear to which *note if: 26e. clause a
following *note else: 26c. clause would belong:

     if test1: if test2: print(x)

Also note that the semicolon binds tighter than the colon in this
context, so that in the following example, either all or none of the
*note print(): e16. calls are executed:

     if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)

Summarizing:

     compound_stmt ::= *note if_stmt: 1eb6.
                       | *note while_stmt: 1eb7.
                       | *note for_stmt: 1eb8.
                       | *note try_stmt: 1eb9.
                       | *note with_stmt: 1eba.
                       | *note match_stmt: 1ebb.
                       | *note funcdef: 1ebc.
                       | *note classdef: 1ebd.
                       | *note async_with_stmt: 1ebe.
                       | *note async_for_stmt: 1ebf.
                       | *note async_funcdef: 1ec0.
     suite         ::= *note stmt_list: 1ec2. NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT *note statement: 1ec3.+ DEDENT
     statement     ::= *note stmt_list: 1ec2. NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 1eb5.
     stmt_list     ::= *note simple_stmt: 1e82. (";" *note simple_stmt: 1e82.)* [";"]

Note that statements always end in a ‘NEWLINE’ possibly followed by a
‘DEDENT’.  Also note that optional continuation clauses always begin
with a keyword that cannot start a statement, thus there are no
ambiguities (the ‘dangling *note else: 26c.’ problem is solved in Python
by requiring nested *note if: 26e. statements to be indented).

The formatting of the grammar rules in the following sections places
each clause on a separate line for clarity.
* Menu:

* The if statement::
* The while statement::
* The for statement::
* The try statement::
* The with statement::
* The match statement::
* Function definitions::
* Class definitions::
* Coroutines: Coroutines<2>.
* Type parameter lists::


File: python.info,  Node: The if statement,  Next: The while statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.1 The ‘if’ statement
------------------------

The *note if: 26e. statement is used for conditional execution:

     if_stmt ::= "if" *note assignment_expression: 1dce. ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
                 ("elif" *note assignment_expression: 1dce. ":" *note suite: 1ec1.)*
                 ["else" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.]

It selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one
by one until one is found to be true (see section *note Boolean
operations: 1e6b. for the definition of true and false); then that suite
is executed (and no other part of the *note if: 26e. statement is
executed or evaluated).  If all expressions are false, the suite of the
*note else: 26c. clause, if present, is executed.


File: python.info,  Node: The while statement,  Next: The for statement,  Prev: The if statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.2 The ‘while’ statement
---------------------------

The *note while: 1a4c. statement is used for repeated execution as long
as an expression is true:

     while_stmt ::= "while" *note assignment_expression: 1dce. ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
                    ["else" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.]

This repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the
first suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time it
is tested) the suite of the ‘else’ clause, if present, is executed and
the loop terminates.

A *note break: 915. statement executed in the first suite terminates the
loop without executing the ‘else’ clause’s suite.  A *note continue:
827. statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite
and goes back to testing the expression.


File: python.info,  Node: The for statement,  Next: The try statement,  Prev: The while statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.3 The ‘for’ statement
-------------------------

The *note for: 26d. statement is used to iterate over the elements of a
sequence (such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:

     for_stmt ::= "for" *note target_list: 1e19. "in" starred_list ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
                  ["else" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.]

The ‘starred_list’ expression is evaluated once; it should yield an
*note iterable: 10ce. object.  An *note iterator: 176e. is created for
that iterable.  The first item provided by the iterator is then assigned
to the target list using the standard rules for assignments (see *note
Assignment statements: 1dc9.), and the suite is executed.  This repeats
for each item provided by the iterator.  When the iterator is exhausted,
the suite in the ‘else’ clause, if present, is executed, and the loop
terminates.

A *note break: 915. statement executed in the first suite terminates the
loop without executing the ‘else’ clause’s suite.  A *note continue:
827. statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite
and continues with the next item, or with the ‘else’ clause if there is
no next item.

The for-loop makes assignments to the variables in the target list.
This overwrites all previous assignments to those variables including
those made in the suite of the for-loop:

     for i in range(10):
         print(i)
         i = 5             # this will not affect the for-loop
                           # because i will be overwritten with the next
                           # index in the range

Names in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished, but
if the sequence is empty, they will not have been assigned to at all by
the loop.  Hint: the built-in type *note range(): 79c. represents
immutable arithmetic sequences of integers.  For instance, iterating
‘range(3)’ successively yields 0, 1, and then 2.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: Starred elements are now allowed in the
expression list.


File: python.info,  Node: The try statement,  Next: The with statement,  Prev: The for statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.4 The ‘try’ statement
-------------------------

The ‘try’ statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code for
a group of statements:

     try_stmt  ::= *note try1_stmt: 1ec8. | *note try2_stmt: 1ec9. | *note try3_stmt: 1eca.
     try1_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
                   ("except" [*note expression: 1e26. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.]] ":" *note suite: 1ec1.)+
                   ["else" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.]
                   ["finally" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.]
     try2_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
                   ("except" "*" *note expression: 1e26. ["as" *note identifier: 1c83.] ":" *note suite: 1ec1.)+
                   ["else" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.]
                   ["finally" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.]
     try3_stmt ::= "try" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
                   "finally" ":" *note suite: 1ec1.

Additional information on exceptions can be found in section *note
Exceptions: 1dd4, and information on using the *note raise: 3f9.
statement to generate exceptions may be found in section *note The raise
statement: 3f9.

* Menu:

* except clause::
* except* clause::
* else clause::
* finally clause::


File: python.info,  Node: except clause,  Next: except* clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.1 ‘except’ clause
.......................

The ‘except’ clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers.  When no
exception occurs in the *note try: 503. clause, no exception handler is
executed.  When an exception occurs in the ‘try’ suite, a search for an
exception handler is started.  This search inspects the ‘except’ clauses
in turn until one is found that matches the exception.  An
expression-less ‘except’ clause, if present, must be last; it matches
any exception.

For an ‘except’ clause with an expression, the expression must evaluate
to an exception type or a tuple of exception types.  The raised
exception matches an ‘except’ clause whose expression evaluates to the
class or a *note non-virtual base class: 105b. of the exception object,
or to a tuple that contains such a class.

If no ‘except’ clause matches the exception, the search for an exception
handler continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.
(1)

If the evaluation of an expression in the header of an ‘except’ clause
raises an exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and a
search starts for the new exception in the surrounding code and on the
call stack (it is treated as if the entire *note try: 503. statement
raised the exception).

When a matching ‘except’ clause is found, the exception is assigned to
the target specified after the ‘as’ keyword in that ‘except’ clause, if
present, and the ‘except’ clause’s suite is executed.  All ‘except’
clauses must have an executable block.  When the end of this block is
reached, execution continues normally after the entire *note try: 503.
statement.  (This means that if two nested handlers exist for the same
exception, and the exception occurs in the ‘try’ clause of the inner
handler, the outer handler will not handle the exception.)

When an exception has been assigned using ‘as target’, it is cleared at
the end of the ‘except’ clause.  This is as if

     except E as N:
         foo

was translated to

     except E as N:
         try:
             foo
         finally:
             del N

This means the exception must be assigned to a different name to be able
to refer to it after the ‘except’ clause.  Exceptions are cleared
because with the traceback attached to them, they form a reference cycle
with the stack frame, keeping all locals in that frame alive until the
next garbage collection occurs.

Before an ‘except’ clause’s suite is executed, the exception is stored
in the *note sys: d8. module, where it can be accessed from within the
body of the ‘except’ clause by calling *note sys.exception(): 4a0.  When
leaving an exception handler, the exception stored in the *note sys: d8.
module is reset to its previous value:

     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None
     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError
     ... except:
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     try:
     ...          raise ValueError
     ...     except:
     ...         print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...
     TypeError()
     ValueError()
     TypeError()
     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The exception is propagated to the invocation stack unless there
is a *note finally: 828. clause which happens to raise another
exception.  That new exception causes the old one to be lost.


File: python.info,  Node: except* clause,  Next: else clause,  Prev: except clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.2 ‘except*’ clause
........................

The ‘except*’ clause(s) are used for handling *note ExceptionGroup:
181.s.  The exception type for matching is interpreted as in the case of
*note except: 3c0, but in the case of exception groups we can have
partial matches when the type matches some of the exceptions in the
group.  This means that multiple ‘except*’ clauses can execute, each
handling part of the exception group.  Each clause executes at most once
and handles an exception group of all matching exceptions.  Each
exception in the group is handled by at most one ‘except*’ clause, the
first that matches it.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
     ...         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
     ... except* TypeError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (TypeError(2),)
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (OSError(3), OSError(4))
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       | ExceptionGroup: eg
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ValueError: 1
         +------------------------------------

Any remaining exceptions that were not handled by any ‘except*’ clause
are re-raised at the end, along with all exceptions that were raised
from within the ‘except*’ clauses.  If this list contains more than one
exception to reraise, they are combined into an exception group.

If the raised exception is not an exception group and its type matches
one of the ‘except*’ clauses, it is caught and wrapped by an exception
group with an empty message string.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise BlockingIOError
     ... except* BlockingIOError as e:
     ...     print(repr(e))
     ...
     ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError()))

An ‘except*’ clause must have a matching expression; it cannot be
‘except*:’.  Furthermore, this expression cannot contain exception group
types, because that would have ambiguous semantics.

It is not possible to mix *note except: 3c0. and ‘except*’ in the same
*note try: 503.  *note break: 915, *note continue: 827. and *note
return: 82c. cannot appear in an ‘except*’ clause.


File: python.info,  Node: else clause,  Next: finally clause,  Prev: except* clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.3 ‘else’ clause
.....................

The optional ‘else’ clause is executed if the control flow leaves the
*note try: 503. suite, no exception was raised, and no *note return:
82c, *note continue: 827, or *note break: 915. statement was executed.
Exceptions in the ‘else’ clause are not handled by the preceding *note
except: 3c0. clauses.


File: python.info,  Node: finally clause,  Prev: else clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.4 ‘finally’ clause
........................

If ‘finally’ is present, it specifies a ‘cleanup’ handler.  The *note
try: 503. clause is executed, including any *note except: 3c0. and *note
else: 26c. clauses.  If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and is
not handled, the exception is temporarily saved.  The ‘finally’ clause
is executed.  If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at the end
of the ‘finally’ clause.  If the ‘finally’ clause raises another
exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new
exception.  If the ‘finally’ clause executes a *note return: 82c, *note
break: 915. or *note continue: 827. statement, the saved exception is
discarded:

     >>> def f():
     ...     try:
     ...         1/0
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 42
     ...
     >>> f()
     42

The exception information is not available to the program during
execution of the ‘finally’ clause.

When a *note return: 82c, *note break: 915. or *note continue: 827.
statement is executed in the *note try: 503. suite of a ‘try’…‘finally’
statement, the ‘finally’ clause is also executed ‘on the way out.’

The return value of a function is determined by the last *note return:
82c. statement executed.  Since the ‘finally’ clause always executes, a
‘return’ statement executed in the ‘finally’ clause will always be the
last one executed:

     >>> def foo():
     ...     try:
     ...         return 'try'
     ...     finally:
     ...         return 'finally'
     ...
     >>> foo()
     'finally'

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.8, a *note continue: 827.
statement was illegal in the ‘finally’ clause due to a problem with the
implementation.


File: python.info,  Node: The with statement,  Next: The match statement,  Prev: The try statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.5 The ‘with’ statement
--------------------------

The *note with: 3dd. statement is used to wrap the execution of a block
with methods defined by a context manager (see section *note With
Statement Context Managers: 1dac.).  This allows common *note try:
503.…*note except: 3c0.…*note finally: 828. usage patterns to be
encapsulated for convenient reuse.

     with_stmt          ::= "with" ( "(" *note with_stmt_contents: 1ed2. ","? ")" | *note with_stmt_contents: 1ed2. ) ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
     with_stmt_contents ::= *note with_item: 1ed3. ("," *note with_item: 1ed3.)*
     with_item          ::= *note expression: 1e26. ["as" *note target: 1e97.]

The execution of the *note with: 3dd. statement with one “item” proceeds
as follows:

  1. The context expression (the expression given in the *note
     with_item: 1ed3.) is evaluated to obtain a context manager.

  2. The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 3d0. is loaded for later
     use.

  3. The context manager’s *note __exit__(): 11aa. is loaded for later
     use.

  4. The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 3d0. method is invoked.

  5. If a target was included in the *note with: 3dd. statement, the
     return value from *note __enter__(): 3d0. is assigned to it.

          Not: The *note with: 3dd. statement guarantees that if the
          *note __enter__(): 3d0. method returns without an error, then
          *note __exit__(): 11aa. will always be called.  Thus, if an
          error occurs during the assignment to the target list, it will
          be treated the same as an error occurring within the suite
          would be.  See step 7 below.

  6. The suite is executed.

  7. The context manager’s *note __exit__(): 11aa. method is invoked.
     If an exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and
     traceback are passed as arguments to *note __exit__(): 11aa.
     Otherwise, three *note None: 488. arguments are supplied.

     If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value
     from the *note __exit__(): 11aa. method was false, the exception is
     reraised.  If the return value was true, the exception is
     suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following
     the *note with: 3dd. statement.

     If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the
     return value from *note __exit__(): 11aa. is ignored, and execution
     proceeds at the normal location for the kind of exit that was
     taken.

The following code:

     with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     enter = type(manager).__enter__
     exit = type(manager).__exit__
     value = enter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not exit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             exit(manager, None, None, None)

With more than one item, the context managers are processed as if
multiple *note with: 3dd. statements were nested:

     with A() as a, B() as b:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     with A() as a:
         with B() as b:
             SUITE

You can also write multi-item context managers in multiple lines if the
items are surrounded by parentheses.  For example:

     with (
         A() as a,
         B() as b,
     ):
         SUITE

3.1 sürümünde değişti: Support for multiple context expressions.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Support for using grouping parentheses to break
the statement in multiple lines.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 3dd. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: The match statement,  Next: Function definitions,  Prev: The with statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.6 The ‘match’ statement
---------------------------

Added in version 3.10.

The match statement is used for pattern matching.  Syntax:

     match_stmt   ::= 'match' *note subject_expr: 1ed5. ":" NEWLINE INDENT *note case_block: 1ed6.+ DEDENT
     subject_expr ::= star_named_expression "," star_named_expressions?
                      | named_expression
     case_block   ::= 'case' *note patterns: 1ed7. [*note guard: 1ed8.] ":" block

     Not: This section uses single quotes to denote *note soft keywords:
     647.

Pattern matching takes a pattern as input (following ‘case’) and a
subject value (following ‘match’).  The pattern (which may contain
subpatterns) is matched against the subject value.  The outcomes are:

   * A match success or failure (also termed a pattern success or
     failure).

   * Possible binding of matched values to a name.  The prerequisites
     for this are further discussed below.

The ‘match’ and ‘case’ keywords are *note soft keywords: 647.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

* Menu:

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview,  Next: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.1 Overview
................

Here’s an overview of the logical flow of a match statement:

  1. The subject expression ‘subject_expr’ is evaluated and a resulting
     subject value obtained.  If the subject expression contains a
     comma, a tuple is constructed using *note the standard rules: 1eda.

  2. Each pattern in a ‘case_block’ is attempted to match with the
     subject value.  The specific rules for success or failure are
     described below.  The match attempt can also bind some or all of
     the standalone names within the pattern.  The precise pattern
     binding rules vary per pattern type and are specified below.  'Name
     bindings made during a successful pattern match outlive the
     executed block and can be used after the match statement'.

          Not: During failed pattern matches, some subpatterns may
          succeed.  Do not rely on bindings being made for a failed
          match.  Conversely, do not rely on variables remaining
          unchanged after a failed match.  The exact behavior is
          dependent on implementation and may vary.  This is an
          intentional decision made to allow different implementations
          to add optimizations.

  3. If the pattern succeeds, the corresponding guard (if present) is
     evaluated.  In this case all name bindings are guaranteed to have
     happened.

        * If the guard evaluates as true or is missing, the ‘block’
          inside ‘case_block’ is executed.

        * Otherwise, the next ‘case_block’ is attempted as described
          above.

        * If there are no further case blocks, the match statement is
          completed.

     Not: Users should generally never rely on a pattern being
     evaluated.  Depending on implementation, the interpreter may cache
     values or use other optimizations which skip repeated evaluations.

A sample match statement:

     >>> flag = False
     >>> match (100, 200):
     ...    case (100, 300):  # Mismatch: 200 != 300
     ...        print('Case 1')
     ...    case (100, 200) if flag:  # Successful match, but guard fails
     ...        print('Case 2')
     ...    case (100, y):  # Matches and binds y to 200
     ...        print(f'Case 3, y: {y}')
     ...    case _:  # Pattern not attempted
     ...        print('Case 4, I match anything!')
     ...
     Case 3, y: 200

In this case, ‘if flag’ is a guard.  Read more about that in the next
section.


File: python.info,  Node: Guards,  Next: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Prev: Overview,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.2 Guards
..............

     guard ::= "if" named_expression

A ‘guard’ (which is part of the ‘case’) must succeed for code inside the
‘case’ block to execute.  It takes the form: *note if: 26e. followed by
an expression.

The logical flow of a ‘case’ block with a ‘guard’ follows:

  1. Check that the pattern in the ‘case’ block succeeded.  If the
     pattern failed, the ‘guard’ is not evaluated and the next ‘case’
     block is checked.

  2. If the pattern succeeded, evaluate the ‘guard’.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as true, the case block is
          selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as false, the case block is
          not selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ raises an exception during evaluation, the
          exception bubbles up.

Guards are allowed to have side effects as they are expressions.  Guard
evaluation must proceed from the first to the last case block, one at a
time, skipping case blocks whose pattern(s) don’t all succeed.  (I.e.,
guard evaluation must happen in order.)  Guard evaluation must stop once
a case block is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Next: Patterns,  Prev: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.3 Irrefutable Case Blocks
...............................

An irrefutable case block is a match-all case block.  A match statement
may have at most one irrefutable case block, and it must be last.

A case block is considered irrefutable if it has no guard and its
pattern is irrefutable.  A pattern is considered irrefutable if we can
prove from its syntax alone that it will always succeed.  Only the
following patterns are irrefutable:

   * *note AS Patterns: 1ede. whose left-hand side is irrefutable

   * *note OR Patterns: 1edf. containing at least one irrefutable
     pattern

   * *note Capture Patterns: 1ee0.

   * *note Wildcard Patterns: 649.

   * parenthesized irrefutable patterns


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns,  Prev: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.4 Patterns
................

     Not: This section uses grammar notations beyond standard EBNF:

        * the notation ‘SEP.RULE+’ is shorthand for ‘RULE (SEP RULE)*’

        * the notation ‘!RULE’ is shorthand for a negative lookahead
          assertion

The top-level syntax for ‘patterns’ is:

     patterns       ::= *note open_sequence_pattern: 1ee2. | *note pattern: 1ee3.
     pattern        ::= *note as_pattern: 1ee4. | *note or_pattern: 1ee5.
     closed_pattern ::= | *note literal_pattern: 1ee7.
                        | *note capture_pattern: 1ee8.
                        | *note wildcard_pattern: 1ee9.
                        | *note value_pattern: 1eea.
                        | *note group_pattern: 1eeb.
                        | *note sequence_pattern: 1eec.
                        | *note mapping_pattern: 1eed.
                        | *note class_pattern: 1eee.

The descriptions below will include a description “in simple terms” of
what a pattern does for illustration purposes (credits to Raymond
Hettinger for a document that inspired most of the descriptions).  Note
that these descriptions are purely for illustration purposes and 'may
not' reflect the underlying implementation.  Furthermore, they do not
cover all valid forms.

* Menu:

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: OR Patterns,  Next: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.5 OR Patterns
...................

An OR pattern is two or more patterns separated by vertical bars ‘|’.
Syntax:

     or_pattern ::= "|".*note closed_pattern: 1ee6.+

Only the final subpattern may be *note irrefutable: 1edc, and each
subpattern must bind the same set of names to avoid ambiguity.

An OR pattern matches each of its subpatterns in turn to the subject
value, until one succeeds.  The OR pattern is then considered
successful.  Otherwise, if none of the subpatterns succeed, the OR
pattern fails.

In simple terms, ‘P1 | P2 | ...’ will try to match ‘P1’, if it fails it
will try to match ‘P2’, succeeding immediately if any succeeds, failing
otherwise.


File: python.info,  Node: AS Patterns,  Next: Literal Patterns,  Prev: OR Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.6 AS Patterns
...................

An AS pattern matches an OR pattern on the left of the *note as: 1ed0.
keyword against a subject.  Syntax:

     as_pattern ::= *note or_pattern: 1ee5. "as" *note capture_pattern: 1ee8.

If the OR pattern fails, the AS pattern fails.  Otherwise, the AS
pattern binds the subject to the name on the right of the as keyword and
succeeds.  ‘capture_pattern’ cannot be a ‘_’.

In simple terms ‘P as NAME’ will match with ‘P’, and on success it will
set ‘NAME = <subject>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Literal Patterns,  Next: Capture Patterns,  Prev: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.7 Literal Patterns
........................

A literal pattern corresponds to most *note literals: 1c8f. in Python.
Syntax:

     literal_pattern ::= *note signed_number: 1ef3.
                         | *note signed_number: 1ef3. "+" NUMBER
                         | *note signed_number: 1ef3. "-" NUMBER
                         | strings
                         | "None"
                         | "True"
                         | "False"
     signed_number   ::= ["-"] NUMBER

The rule ‘strings’ and the token ‘NUMBER’ are defined in the *note
standard Python grammar: 1ef4.  Triple-quoted strings are supported.
Raw strings and byte strings are supported.  *note f-strings: 807. are
not supported.

The forms ‘signed_number '+' NUMBER’ and ‘signed_number '-' NUMBER’ are
for expressing *note complex numbers: 1cc8.; they require a real number
on the left and an imaginary number on the right.  E.g.  ‘3 + 4j’.

In simple terms, ‘LITERAL’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> == LITERAL’.
For the singletons ‘None’, ‘True’ and ‘False’, the *note is: 270.
operator is used.


File: python.info,  Node: Capture Patterns,  Next: Wildcard Patterns,  Prev: Literal Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.8 Capture Patterns
........................

A capture pattern binds the subject value to a name.  Syntax:

     capture_pattern ::= !'_' NAME

A single underscore ‘_’ is not a capture pattern (this is what ‘!'_'’
expresses).  It is instead treated as a *note wildcard_pattern: 1ee9.

In a given pattern, a given name can only be bound once.  E.g.  ‘case x,
x: ...’ is invalid while ‘case [x] | x: ...’ is allowed.

Capture patterns always succeed.  The binding follows scoping rules
established by the assignment expression operator in PEP 572(1); the
name becomes a local variable in the closest containing function scope
unless there’s an applicable *note global: 1a67. or *note nonlocal:
1150. statement.

In simple terms ‘NAME’ will always succeed and it will set ‘NAME =
<subject>’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Wildcard Patterns,  Next: Value Patterns,  Prev: Capture Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.9 Wildcard Patterns
.........................

A wildcard pattern always succeeds (matches anything) and binds no name.
Syntax:

     wildcard_pattern ::= '_'

‘_’ is a *note soft keyword: 647. within any pattern, but only within
patterns.  It is an identifier, as usual, even within ‘match’ subject
expressions, ‘guard’s, and ‘case’ blocks.

In simple terms, ‘_’ will always succeed.


File: python.info,  Node: Value Patterns,  Next: Group Patterns,  Prev: Wildcard Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.10 Value Patterns
.......................

A value pattern represents a named value in Python.  Syntax:

     value_pattern ::= *note attr: 1ef9.
     attr          ::= *note name_or_attr: 1efa. "." NAME
     name_or_attr  ::= *note attr: 1ef9. | NAME

The dotted name in the pattern is looked up using standard Python *note
name resolution rules: 1dcb.  The pattern succeeds if the value found
compares equal to the subject value (using the ‘==’ equality operator).

In simple terms ‘NAME1.NAME2’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> ==
NAME1.NAME2’

     Not: If the same value occurs multiple times in the same match
     statement, the interpreter may cache the first value found and
     reuse it rather than repeat the same lookup.  This cache is
     strictly tied to a given execution of a given match statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Group Patterns,  Next: Sequence Patterns,  Prev: Value Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.11 Group Patterns
.......................

A group pattern allows users to add parentheses around patterns to
emphasize the intended grouping.  Otherwise, it has no additional
syntax.  Syntax:

     group_pattern ::= "(" *note pattern: 1ee3. ")"

In simple terms ‘(P)’ has the same effect as ‘P’.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Patterns,  Next: Mapping Patterns,  Prev: Group Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.12 Sequence Patterns
..........................

A sequence pattern contains several subpatterns to be matched against
sequence elements.  The syntax is similar to the unpacking of a list or
tuple.

     sequence_pattern       ::= "[" [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 1eff.] "]"
                                | "(" [*note open_sequence_pattern: 1ee2.] ")"
     open_sequence_pattern  ::= *note maybe_star_pattern: 1f00. "," [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 1eff.]
     maybe_sequence_pattern ::= ",".*note maybe_star_pattern: 1f00.+ ","?
     maybe_star_pattern     ::= *note star_pattern: 1f01. | *note pattern: 1ee3.
     star_pattern           ::= "*" (*note capture_pattern: 1ee8. | *note wildcard_pattern: 1ee9.)

There is no difference if parentheses or square brackets are used for
sequence patterns (i.e.  ‘(...)’ vs ‘[...]’ ).

     Not: A single pattern enclosed in parentheses without a trailing
     comma (e.g.  ‘(3 | 4)’) is a *note group pattern: 1efb.  While a
     single pattern enclosed in square brackets (e.g.  ‘[3 | 4]’) is
     still a sequence pattern.

At most one star subpattern may be in a sequence pattern.  The star
subpattern may occur in any position.  If no star subpattern is present,
the sequence pattern is a fixed-length sequence pattern; otherwise it is
a variable-length sequence pattern.

The following is the logical flow for matching a sequence pattern
against a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a sequence (1), the sequence pattern
     fails.

  2. If the subject value is an instance of ‘str’, ‘bytes’ or
     ‘bytearray’ the sequence pattern fails.

  3. The subsequent steps depend on whether the sequence pattern is
     fixed or variable-length.

     If the sequence pattern is fixed-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is not equal to the
          number of subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails

       2. Subpatterns in the sequence pattern are matched to their
          corresponding items in the subject sequence from left to
          right.  Matching stops as soon as a subpattern fails.  If all
          subpatterns succeed in matching their corresponding item, the
          sequence pattern succeeds.

     Otherwise, if the sequence pattern is variable-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is less than the number
          of non-star subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails.

       2. The leading non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding items as for fixed-length sequences.

       3. If the previous step succeeds, the star subpattern matches a
          list formed of the remaining subject items, excluding the
          remaining items corresponding to non-star subpatterns
          following the star subpattern.

       4. Remaining non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding subject items, as for a fixed-length sequence.

          Not: The length of the subject sequence is obtained via *note
          len(): 441. (i.e.  via the ‘__len__()’ protocol).  This length
          may be cached by the interpreter in a similar manner as *note
          value patterns: 1ef8.

In simple terms ‘[P1, P2, P3,’ … ‘, P<N>]’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a sequence

   * ‘len(subject) == <N>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[0]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>[1]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * … and so on for the corresponding pattern/element.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a sequence is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Sequence: 1069.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE:
     16cc. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The following standard library classes are sequences:

   * *note array.array: 195.

   * *note collections.deque: 3e7.

   * *note list: 422.

   * *note memoryview: 185.

   * *note range: 79c.

   * *note tuple: 4ff.

     Not: Subject values of type ‘str’, ‘bytes’, and ‘bytearray’ do not
     match sequence patterns.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Patterns,  Next: Class Patterns,  Prev: Sequence Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.13 Mapping Patterns
.........................

A mapping pattern contains one or more key-value patterns.  The syntax
is similar to the construction of a dictionary.  Syntax:

     mapping_pattern     ::= "{" [*note items_pattern: 1f04.] "}"
     items_pattern       ::= ",".*note key_value_pattern: 1f05.+ ","?
     key_value_pattern   ::= (*note literal_pattern: 1ee7. | *note value_pattern: 1eea.) ":" *note pattern: 1ee3.
                             | *note double_star_pattern: 1f06.
     double_star_pattern ::= "**" *note capture_pattern: 1ee8.

At most one double star pattern may be in a mapping pattern.  The double
star pattern must be the last subpattern in the mapping pattern.

Duplicate keys in mapping patterns are disallowed.  Duplicate literal
keys will raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c.  Two keys that otherwise have
the same value will raise a *note ValueError: 189. at runtime.

The following is the logical flow for matching a mapping pattern against
a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a mapping (1),the mapping pattern
     fails.

  2. If every key given in the mapping pattern is present in the subject
     mapping, and the pattern for each key matches the corresponding
     item of the subject mapping, the mapping pattern succeeds.

  3. If duplicate keys are detected in the mapping pattern, the pattern
     is considered invalid.  A *note SyntaxError: 14c. is raised for
     duplicate literal values; or a *note ValueError: 189. for named
     keys of the same value.

     Not: Key-value pairs are matched using the two-argument form of the
     mapping subject’s ‘get()’ method.  Matched key-value pairs must
     already be present in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly via
     ‘__missing__()’ or *note __getitem__(): 500.

In simple terms ‘{KEY1: P1, KEY2: P2, ... }’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a mapping

   * ‘KEY1 in <subject>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[KEY1]’

   * … and so on for the corresponding KEY/pattern pair.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a mapping is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Mapping: 71c.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: 71c.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     16cb. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The standard library classes *note dict: 240. and *note
types.MappingProxyType: 18c. are mappings.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Patterns,  Prev: Mapping Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.14 Class Patterns
.......................

A class pattern represents a class and its positional and keyword
arguments (if any).  Syntax:

     class_pattern       ::= *note name_or_attr: 1efa. "(" [*note pattern_arguments: 1f09. ","?] ")"
     pattern_arguments   ::= *note positional_patterns: 1f0a. ["," *note keyword_patterns: 1f0b.]
                             | *note keyword_patterns: 1f0b.
     positional_patterns ::= ",".*note pattern: 1ee3.+
     keyword_patterns    ::= ",".*note keyword_pattern: 1f0c.+
     keyword_pattern     ::= NAME "=" *note pattern: 1ee3.

The same keyword should not be repeated in class patterns.

The following is the logical flow for matching a class pattern against a
subject value:

  1. If ‘name_or_attr’ is not an instance of the builtin *note type:
     bd1. , raise *note TypeError: 2c4.

  2. If the subject value is not an instance of ‘name_or_attr’ (tested
     via *note isinstance(): 151.), the class pattern fails.

  3. If no pattern arguments are present, the pattern succeeds.
     Otherwise, the subsequent steps depend on whether keyword or
     positional argument patterns are present.

     For a number of built-in types (specified below), a single
     positional subpattern is accepted which will match the entire
     subject; for these types keyword patterns also work as for other
     types.

     If only keyword patterns are present, they are processed as
     follows, one by one:

     I. The keyword is looked up as an attribute on the subject.

             * If this raises an exception other than *note
               AttributeError: 3dc, the exception bubbles up.

             * If this raises *note AttributeError: 3dc, the class
               pattern has failed.

             * Else, the subpattern associated with the keyword pattern
               is matched against the subject’s attribute value.  If
               this fails, the class pattern fails; if this succeeds,
               the match proceeds to the next keyword.

     II. If all keyword patterns succeed, the class pattern succeeds.

     If any positional patterns are present, they are converted to
     keyword patterns using the *note __match_args__: 16e8. attribute on
     the class ‘name_or_attr’ before matching:

     I. The equivalent of ‘getattr(cls, "__match_args__", ())’ is
     called.

             * If this raises an exception, the exception bubbles up.

             * If the returned value is not a tuple, the conversion
               fails and *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

             * If there are more positional patterns than
               ‘len(cls.__match_args__)’, *note TypeError: 2c4. is
               raised.

             * Otherwise, positional pattern ‘i’ is converted to a
               keyword pattern using ‘__match_args__[i]’ as the keyword.
               ‘__match_args__[i]’ must be a string; if not *note
               TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

             * If there are duplicate keywords, *note TypeError: 2c4. is
               raised.

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          *note Customizing positional arguments in class pattern
          matching: 1daf.

     II. Once all positional patterns have been converted to keyword patterns,

          the match proceeds as if there were only keyword patterns.

     For the following built-in types the handling of positional
     subpatterns is different:

        * *note bool: 183.

        * *note bytearray: 2ca.

        * *note bytes: 2cb.

        * *note dict: 240.

        * *note float: 272.

        * *note frozenset: 3e5.

        * *note int: 184.

        * *note list: 422.

        * *note set: 3e4.

        * *note str: 15d.

        * *note tuple: 4ff.

     These classes accept a single positional argument, and the pattern
     there is matched against the whole object rather than an attribute.
     For example ‘int(0|1)’ matches the value ‘0’, but not the value
     ‘0.0’.

In simple terms ‘CLS(P1, attr=P2)’ matches only if the following
happens:

   * ‘isinstance(<subject>, CLS)’

   * convert ‘P1’ to a keyword pattern using ‘CLS.__match_args__’

   * For each keyword argument ‘attr=P2’:

        * ‘hasattr(<subject>, "attr")’

        * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>.attr’

   * … and so on for the corresponding keyword argument/pattern pair.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Function definitions,  Next: Class definitions,  Prev: The match statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.7 Function definitions
--------------------------

A function definition defines a user-defined function object (see
section *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4.):

     funcdef                   ::= [*note decorators: 1f0e.] "def" *note funcname: 1f0f. [*note type_params: 1eb1.] "(" [*note parameter_list: 1e76.] ")"
                                   ["->" *note expression: 1e26.] ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
     decorators                ::= *note decorator: 1f10.+
     decorator                 ::= "@" *note assignment_expression: 1dce. NEWLINE
     parameter_list            ::= *note defparameter: 1f11. ("," *note defparameter: 1f11.)* "," "/" ["," [*note parameter_list_no_posonly: 1f12.]]
                                   | *note parameter_list_no_posonly: 1f12.
     parameter_list_no_posonly ::= *note defparameter: 1f11. ("," *note defparameter: 1f11.)* ["," [*note parameter_list_starargs: 1f13.]]
                                   | *note parameter_list_starargs: 1f13.
     parameter_list_starargs   ::= "*" [*note star_parameter: 1f14.] ("," *note defparameter: 1f11.)* ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 1f15.]]
                                   | "*" ("," *note defparameter: 1f11.)+ ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 1f15.]]
                                   | *note parameter_star_kwargs: 1f15.
     parameter_star_kwargs     ::= "**" *note parameter: 1f16. [","]
     parameter                 ::= *note identifier: 1c83. [":" *note expression: 1e26.]
     star_parameter            ::= *note identifier: 1c83. [":" ["*"] *note expression: 1e26.]
     defparameter              ::= *note parameter: 1f16. ["=" *note expression: 1e26.]
     funcname                  ::= *note identifier: 1c83.

A function definition is an executable statement.  Its execution binds
the function name in the current local namespace to a function object (a
wrapper around the executable code for the function).  This function
object contains a reference to the current global namespace as the
global namespace to be used when the function is called.

The function definition does not execute the function body; this gets
executed only when the function is called.  (1)

A function definition may be wrapped by one or more *note decorator:
559. expressions.  Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function
is defined, in the scope that contains the function definition.  The
result must be a callable, which is invoked with the function object as
the only argument.  The returned value is bound to the function name
instead of the function object.  Multiple decorators are applied in
nested fashion.  For example, the following code

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     def func(): pass

is roughly equivalent to

     def func(): pass
     func = f1(arg)(f2(func))

except that the original function is not temporarily bound to the name
‘func’.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Functions may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 1dce.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 16c. may be given in square brackets
between the function’s name and the opening parenthesis for its
parameter list.  This indicates to static type checkers that the
function is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can be retrieved
from the function’s *note __type_params__: 1ced. attribute.  See *note
Generic functions: 164. for more.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

When one or more *note parameters: 1cec. have the form 'parameter' ‘=’
'expression', the function is said to have “default parameter values.”
For a parameter with a default value, the corresponding *note argument:
15a. may be omitted from a call, in which case the parameter’s default
value is substituted.  If a parameter has a default value, all following
parameters up until the “‘*’” must also have a default value — this is a
syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.

'Default parameter values are evaluated from left to right when the
function definition is executed.'  This means that the expression is
evaluated once, when the function is defined, and that the same
“pre-computed” value is used for each call.  This is especially
important to understand when a default parameter value is a mutable
object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the
object (e.g.  by appending an item to a list), the default parameter
value is in effect modified.  This is generally not what was intended.
A way around this is to use ‘None’ as the default, and explicitly test
for it in the body of the function, e.g.:

     def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
         if penguin is None:
             penguin = []
         penguin.append("property of the zoo")
         return penguin

Function call semantics are described in more detail in section *note
Calls: c09.  A function call always assigns values to all parameters
mentioned in the parameter list, either from positional arguments, from
keyword arguments, or from default values.  If the form “‘*identifier’”
is present, it is initialized to a tuple receiving any excess positional
parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple.  If the form “‘**identifier’”
is present, it is initialized to a new ordered mapping receiving any
excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a new empty mapping of the same
type.  Parameters after “‘*’” or “‘*identifier’” are keyword-only
parameters and may only be passed by keyword arguments.  Parameters
before “‘/’” are positional-only parameters and may only be passed by
positional arguments.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: The ‘/’ function parameter syntax may be used to
indicate positional-only parameters.  See PEP 570(3) for details.

Parameters may have an *note annotation: 1a80. of the form “‘:
expression’” following the parameter name.  Any parameter may have an
annotation, even those of the form ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’.  (As
a special case, parameters of the form ‘*identifier’ may have an
annotation “‘: *expression’”.)  Functions may have “return” annotation
of the form “‘-> expression’” after the parameter list.  These
annotations can be any valid Python expression.  The presence of
annotations does not change the semantics of a function.  The annotation
values are available as values of a dictionary keyed by the parameters’
names in the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of the function object.  If the
‘annotations’ import from *note __future__: 0. is used, annotations are
preserved as strings at runtime which enables postponed evaluation.
Otherwise, they are evaluated when the function definition is executed.
In this case annotations may be evaluated in a different order than they
appear in the source code.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: Parameters of the form “‘*identifier’” may have
an annotation “‘: *expression’”.  See PEP 646(4).

It is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound
to a name), for immediate use in expressions.  This uses lambda
expressions, described in section *note Lambdas: 1145.  Note that the
lambda expression is merely a shorthand for a simplified function
definition; a function defined in a “*note def: 12e2.” statement can be
passed around or assigned to another name just like a function defined
by a lambda expression.  The “‘def’” form is actually more powerful
since it allows the execution of multiple statements and annotations.

'Programmer’s note:' Functions are first-class objects.  A “‘def’”
statement executed inside a function definition defines a local function
that can be returned or passed around.  Free variables used in the
nested function can access the local variables of the function
containing the def.  See section *note Naming and binding: 1ce8. for
details.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3107(5) - Function Annotations

     The original specification for function annotations.

PEP 484(6) - Type Hints

     Definition of a standard meaning for annotations: type hints.

PEP 526(7) - Syntax for Variable Annotations

     Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class
     variables and instance variables.

PEP 563(8) - Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

     Support for forward references within annotations by preserving
     annotations in a string form at runtime instead of eager
     evaluation.

PEP 318(9) - Decorators for Functions and Methods

     Function and method decorators were introduced.  Class decorators
     were introduced in PEP 3129(10).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function
body is transformed into the function’s *note __doc__: 107e. attribute
and therefore the function’s *note docstring: 1f17.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: Class definitions,  Next: Coroutines<2>,  Prev: Function definitions,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.8 Class definitions
-----------------------

A class definition defines a class object (see section *note The
standard type hierarchy: 1cd4.):

     classdef    ::= [*note decorators: 1f0e.] "class" *note classname: 1f19. [*note type_params: 1eb1.] [*note inheritance: 1f1a.] ":" *note suite: 1ec1.
     inheritance ::= "(" [*note argument_list: 1e49.] ")"
     classname   ::= *note identifier: 1c83.

A class definition is an executable statement.  The inheritance list
usually gives a list of base classes (see *note Metaclasses: 1d62. for
more advanced uses), so each item in the list should evaluate to a class
object which allows subclassing.  Classes without an inheritance list
inherit, by default, from the base class *note object: 8f2.; hence,

     class Foo:
         pass

is equivalent to

     class Foo(object):
         pass

The class’s suite is then executed in a new execution frame (see *note
Naming and binding: 1ce8.), using a newly created local namespace and
the original global namespace.  (Usually, the suite contains mostly
function definitions.)  When the class’s suite finishes execution, its
execution frame is discarded but its local namespace is saved.  (1)  A
class object is then created using the inheritance list for the base
classes and the saved local namespace for the attribute dictionary.  The
class name is bound to this class object in the original local
namespace.

The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
in the new class’s *note __dict__: adb.  Note that this is reliable only
right after the class is created and only for classes that were defined
using the definition syntax.

Class creation can be customized heavily using *note metaclasses: 1d62.

Classes can also be decorated: just like when decorating functions,

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     class Foo: pass

is roughly equivalent to

     class Foo: pass
     Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))

The evaluation rules for the decorator expressions are the same as for
function decorators.  The result is then bound to the class name.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Classes may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 1dce.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 16c. may be given in square brackets
immediately after the class’s name.  This indicates to static type
checkers that the class is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can
be retrieved from the class’s *note __type_params__: 1d16. attribute.
See *note Generic classes: 163. for more.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

'Programmer’s note:' Variables defined in the class definition are class
attributes; they are shared by instances.  Instance attributes can be
set in a method with ‘self.name = value’.  Both class and instance
attributes are accessible through the notation “‘self.name’”, and an
instance attribute hides a class attribute with the same name when
accessed in this way.  Class attributes can be used as defaults for
instance attributes, but using mutable values there can lead to
unexpected results.  *note Descriptors: acb. can be used to create
instance variables with different implementation details.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3115(3) - Metaclasses in Python 3000

     The proposal that changed the declaration of metaclasses to the
     current syntax, and the semantics for how classes with metaclasses
     are constructed.

PEP 3129(4) - Class Decorators

     The proposal that added class decorators.  Function and method
     decorators were introduced in PEP 318(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class
body is transformed into the namespace’s *note __doc__: 1af5. item and
therefore the class’s *note docstring: 1f17.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines<2>,  Next: Type parameter lists,  Prev: Class definitions,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.9 Coroutines
----------------

Added in version 3.5.

* Menu:

* Coroutine function definition::
* The async for statement::
* The async with statement::


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine function definition,  Next: The async for statement,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.1 Coroutine function definition
.....................................

     async_funcdef ::= [*note decorators: 1f0e.] "async" "def" *note funcname: 1f0f. "(" [*note parameter_list: 1e76.] ")"
                       ["->" *note expression: 1e26.] ":" *note suite: 1ec1.

Execution of Python coroutines can be suspended and resumed at many
points (see *note coroutine: 1b4.).  *note await: 55b. expressions,
*note async for: 916. and *note async with: 3e0. can only be used in the
body of a coroutine function.

Functions defined with ‘async def’ syntax are always coroutine
functions, even if they do not contain ‘await’ or ‘async’ keywords.

It is a *note SyntaxError: 14c. to use a ‘yield from’ expression inside
the body of a coroutine function.

An example of a coroutine function:

     async def func(param1, param2):
         do_stuff()
         await some_coroutine()

3.7 sürümünde değişti: ‘await’ and ‘async’ are now keywords; previously
they were only treated as such inside the body of a coroutine function.


File: python.info,  Node: The async for statement,  Next: The async with statement,  Prev: Coroutine function definition,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.2 The ‘async for’ statement
.................................

     async_for_stmt ::= "async" *note for_stmt: 1eb8.

An *note asynchronous iterable: c03. provides an ‘__aiter__’ method that
directly returns an *note asynchronous iterator: c05, which can call
asynchronous code in its ‘__anext__’ method.

The ‘async for’ statement allows convenient iteration over asynchronous
iterables.

The following code:

     async for TARGET in ITER:
         SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

Is semantically equivalent to:

     iter = (ITER)
     iter = type(iter).__aiter__(iter)
     running = True

     while running:
         try:
             TARGET = await type(iter).__anext__(iter)
         except StopAsyncIteration:
             running = False
         else:
             SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

See also *note __aiter__(): a74. and *note __anext__(): 1402. for
details.

It is a *note SyntaxError: 14c. to use an ‘async for’ statement outside
the body of a coroutine function.


File: python.info,  Node: The async with statement,  Prev: The async for statement,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.3 The ‘async with’ statement
..................................

     async_with_stmt ::= "async" *note with_stmt: 1eba.

An *note asynchronous context manager: 3e2. is a *note context manager:
3df. that is able to suspend execution in its 'enter' and 'exit'
methods.

The following code:

     async with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     aenter = type(manager).__aenter__
     aexit = type(manager).__aexit__
     value = await aenter(manager)
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not await aexit(manager, *sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             await aexit(manager, None, None, None)

See also *note __aenter__(): 1dbf. and *note __aexit__(): 1dc0. for
details.

It is a *note SyntaxError: 14c. to use an ‘async with’ statement outside
the body of a coroutine function.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 492(1) - Coroutines with async and await syntax

     The proposal that made coroutines a proper standalone concept in
     Python, and added supporting syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameter lists,  Prev: Coroutines<2>,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.10 Type parameter lists
---------------------------

Added in version 3.12.

     type_params  ::= "[" *note type_param: 1f20. ("," *note type_param: 1f20.)* "]"
     type_param   ::= *note typevar: 1f21. | *note typevartuple: 1f22. | *note paramspec: 1f23.
     typevar      ::= *note identifier: 1c83. (":" *note expression: 1e26.)?
     typevartuple ::= "*" *note identifier: 1c83.
     paramspec    ::= "**" *note identifier: 1c83.

*note Functions: 12e2. (including *note coroutines: 3db.), *note
classes: 1181. and *note type aliases: 140. may contain a type parameter
list:

     def max[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     async def amax[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class Bag[T]:
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]:
             ...

         def add(self, arg: T) -> None:
             ...

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Semantically, this indicates that the function, class, or type alias is
generic over a type variable.  This information is primarily used by
static type checkers, and at runtime, generic objects behave much like
their non-generic counterparts.

Type parameters are declared in square brackets (‘[]’) immediately after
the name of the function, class, or type alias.  The type parameters are
accessible within the scope of the generic object, but not elsewhere.
Thus, after a declaration ‘def func[T](): pass’, the name ‘T’ is not
available in the module scope.  Below, the semantics of generic objects
are described with more precision.  The scope of type parameters is
modeled with a special function (technically, an *note annotation scope:
16d.) that wraps the creation of the generic object.

Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a *note
__type_params__: 1f24. attribute listing their type parameters.

Type parameters come in three kinds:

   * *note typing.TypeVar: 16a, introduced by a plain name (e.g., ‘T’).
     Semantically, this represents a single type to a type checker.

   * *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 168, introduced by a name prefixed with
     a single asterisk (e.g., ‘*Ts’).  Semantically, this stands for a
     tuple of any number of types.

   * *note typing.ParamSpec: 169, introduced by a name prefixed with two
     asterisks (e.g., ‘**P’).  Semantically, this stands for the
     parameters of a callable.

*note typing.TypeVar: 16a. declarations can define 'bounds' and
'constraints' with a colon (‘:’) followed by an expression.  A single
expression after the colon indicates a bound (e.g.  ‘T: int’).
Semantically, this means that the ‘typing.TypeVar’ can only represent
types that are a subtype of this bound.  A parenthesized tuple of
expressions after the colon indicates a set of constraints (e.g.  ‘T:
(str, bytes)’).  Each member of the tuple should be a type (again, this
is not enforced at runtime).  Constrained type variables can only take
on one of the types in the list of constraints.

For ‘typing.TypeVar’s declared using the type parameter list syntax, the
bound and constraints are not evaluated when the generic object is
created, but only when the value is explicitly accessed through the
attributes ‘__bound__’ and ‘__constraints__’.  To accomplish this, the
bounds or constraints are evaluated in a separate *note annotation
scope: 16d.

*note typing.TypeVarTuple: 168.s and *note typing.ParamSpec: 169.s
cannot have bounds or constraints.

The following example indicates the full set of allowed type parameter
declarations:

     def overly_generic[
        SimpleTypeVar,
        TypeVarWithBound: int,
        TypeVarWithConstraints: (str, bytes),
        *SimpleTypeVarTuple,
        **SimpleParamSpec,
     ](
        a: SimpleTypeVar,
        b: TypeVarWithBound,
        c: Callable[SimpleParamSpec, TypeVarWithConstraints],
        *d: SimpleTypeVarTuple,
     ): ...

* Menu:

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic functions,  Next: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.1 Generic functions
..........................

Generic functions are declared as follows:

     def func[T](arg: T): ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         def func(arg: T): ...
         func.__type_params__ = (T,)
         return func
     func = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func()

Here ‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 16d, which is
not actually bound to any name at runtime.  (One other liberty is taken
in the translation: the syntax does not go through attribute access on
the *note typing: 104. module, but creates an instance of *note
typing.TypeVar: 16a. directly.)

The annotations of generic functions are evaluated within the annotation
scope used for declaring the type parameters, but the function’s
defaults and decorators are not.

The following example illustrates the scoping rules for these cases, as
well as for additional flavors of type parameters:

     @decorator
     def func[T: int, *Ts, **P](*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = some_default):
         ...

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 16b. of the *note TypeVar: 16a.
bound, this is equivalent to:

     DEFAULT_OF_arg = some_default

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():

         annotation-def BOUND_OF_T():
             return int
         # In reality, BOUND_OF_T() is evaluated only on demand.
         T = typing.TypeVar("T", bound=BOUND_OF_T())

         Ts = typing.TypeVarTuple("Ts")
         P = typing.ParamSpec("P")

         def func(*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = DEFAULT_OF_arg):
             ...

         func.__type_params__ = (T, Ts, P)
         return func
     func = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func())

The capitalized names like ‘DEFAULT_OF_arg’ are not actually bound at
runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Generic classes,  Next: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic functions,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.2 Generic classes
........................

Generic classes are declared as follows:

     class Bag[T]: ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(typing.Generic[T]):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag()

Here again ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 16d, and the name ‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag’ is not actually
bound at runtime.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note typing.Generic: 1478.  The
base classes and keyword arguments of generic classes are evaluated
within the type scope for the type parameters, and decorators are
evaluated outside that scope.  This is illustrated by this example:

     @decorator
     class Bag(Base[T], arg=T): ...

This is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(Base[T], typing.Generic[T], arg=T):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag())


File: python.info,  Node: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.3 Generic type aliases
.............................

The *note type: 140. statement can also be used to create a generic type
alias:

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 16b. of the value, this is
equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")

         annotation-def VALUE_OF_ListOrSet():
             return list[T] | set[T]
         # In reality, the value is lazily evaluated
         return typing.TypeAliasType("ListOrSet", VALUE_OF_ListOrSet(), type_params=(T,))
     ListOrSet = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet()

Here, ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 16d.  The capitalized names like
‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet’ are not actually bound at runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Top-level components,  Next: Full Grammar specification,  Prev: Compound statements,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.9 Top-level components
========================

The Python interpreter can get its input from a number of sources: from
a script passed to it as standard input or as program argument, typed in
interactively, from a module source file, etc.  This chapter gives the
syntax used in these cases.

* Menu:

* Complete Python programs::
* File input::
* Interactive input::
* Expression input::


File: python.info,  Node: Complete Python programs,  Next: File input,  Up: Top-level components

4.9.1 Complete Python programs
------------------------------

While a language specification need not prescribe how the language
interpreter is invoked, it is useful to have a notion of a complete
Python program.  A complete Python program is executed in a minimally
initialized environment: all built-in and standard modules are
available, but none have been initialized, except for *note sys: d8.
(various system services), *note builtins: 12. (built-in functions,
exceptions and ‘None’) and *note __main__: 1.  The latter is used to
provide the local and global namespace for execution of the complete
program.

The syntax for a complete Python program is that for file input,
described in the next section.

The interpreter may also be invoked in interactive mode; in this case,
it does not read and execute a complete program but reads and executes
one statement (possibly compound) at a time.  The initial environment is
identical to that of a complete program; each statement is executed in
the namespace of *note __main__: 1.

A complete program can be passed to the interpreter in three forms: with
the *note -c: 3eb. 'string' command line option, as a file passed as the
first command line argument, or as standard input.  If the file or
standard input is a tty device, the interpreter enters interactive mode;
otherwise, it executes the file as a complete program.


File: python.info,  Node: File input,  Next: Interactive input,  Prev: Complete Python programs,  Up: Top-level components

4.9.2 File input
----------------

All input read from non-interactive files has the same form:

     file_input ::= (NEWLINE | *note statement: 1ec3.)*

This syntax is used in the following situations:

   * when parsing a complete Python program (from a file or from a
     string);

   * when parsing a module;

   * when parsing a string passed to the *note exec(): 6cb. function;


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive input,  Next: Expression input,  Prev: File input,  Up: Top-level components

4.9.3 Interactive input
-----------------------

Input in interactive mode is parsed using the following grammar:

     interactive_input ::= [*note stmt_list: 1ec2.] NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 1eb5. NEWLINE

Note that a (top-level) compound statement must be followed by a blank
line in interactive mode; this is needed to help the parser detect the
end of the input.


File: python.info,  Node: Expression input,  Prev: Interactive input,  Up: Top-level components

4.9.4 Expression input
----------------------

*note eval(): 6ca. is used for expression input.  It ignores leading
whitespace.  The string argument to *note eval(): 6ca. must have the
following form:

     eval_input ::= *note expression_list: 1e7a. NEWLINE*


File: python.info,  Node: Full Grammar specification,  Prev: Top-level components,  Up: Python Dil Referansı

4.10 Full Grammar specification
===============================

This is the full Python grammar, derived directly from the grammar used
to generate the CPython parser (see Grammar/python.gram(1)).  The
version here omits details related to code generation and error
recovery.

The notation is a mixture of EBNF(2) and PEG(3). In particular, ‘&’
followed by a symbol, token or parenthesized group indicates a positive
lookahead (i.e., is required to match but not consumed), while ‘!’
indicates a negative lookahead (i.e., is required 'not' to match).  We
use the ‘|’ separator to mean PEG’s “ordered choice” (written as ‘/’ in
traditional PEG grammars).  See PEP 617(4) for more details on the
grammar’s syntax.

     # PEG grammar for Python

     @trailer '''
     void *
     _PyPegen_parse(Parser *p)
     {
         // Initialize keywords
         p->keywords = reserved_keywords;
         p->n_keyword_lists = n_keyword_lists;
         p->soft_keywords = soft_keywords;

         // Run parser
         void *result = NULL;
         if (p->start_rule == Py_file_input) {
             result = file_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_single_input) {
             result = interactive_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_eval_input) {
             result = eval_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_func_type_input) {
             result = func_type_rule(p);
         }

         return result;
     }
     '''

     # ========================= START OF THE GRAMMAR =========================

     # General grammatical elements and rules:
     #
     # * Strings with double quotes (") denote SOFT KEYWORDS
     # * Strings with single quotes (') denote KEYWORDS
     # * Upper case names (NAME) denote tokens in the Grammar/Tokens file
     # * Rule names starting with "invalid_" are used for specialized syntax errors
     #     - These rules are NOT used in the first pass of the parser.
     #     - Only if the first pass fails to parse, a second pass including the invalid
     #       rules will be executed.
     #     - If the parser fails in the second phase with a generic syntax error, the
     #       location of the generic failure of the first pass will be used (this avoids
     #       reporting incorrect locations due to the invalid rules).
     #     - The order of the alternatives involving invalid rules matter
     #       (like any rule in PEG).
     #
     # Grammar Syntax (see PEP 617 for more information):
     #
     # rule_name: expression
     #   Optionally, a type can be included right after the rule name, which
     #   specifies the return type of the C or Python function corresponding to the
     #   rule:
     # rule_name[return_type]: expression
     #   If the return type is omitted, then a void * is returned in C and an Any in
     #   Python.
     # e1 e2
     #   Match e1, then match e2.
     # e1 | e2
     #   Match e1 or e2.
     #   The first alternative can also appear on the line after the rule name for
     #   formatting purposes. In that case, a | must be used before the first
     #   alternative, like so:
     #       rule_name[return_type]:
     #            | first_alt
     #            | second_alt
     # ( e )
     #   Match e (allows also to use other operators in the group like '(e)*')
     # [ e ] or e?
     #   Optionally match e.
     # e*
     #   Match zero or more occurrences of e.
     # e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e.
     # s.e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e, separated by s. The generated parse tree
     #   does not include the separator. This is otherwise identical to (e (s e)*).
     # &e
     #   Succeed if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # !e
     #   Fail if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # ~
     #   Commit to the current alternative, even if it fails to parse.
     #

     # STARTING RULES
     # ==============

     file[mod_ty]: a=[statements] ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_make_module(p, a) }
     interactive[mod_ty]: a=statement_newline { _PyAST_Interactive(a, p->arena) }
     eval[mod_ty]: a=expressions NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_Expression(a, p->arena) }
     func_type[mod_ty]: '(' a=[type_expressions] ')' '->' b=expression NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_FunctionType(a, b, p->arena) }

     # GENERAL STATEMENTS
     # ==================

     statements[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=statement+ { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_flatten(p, a) }

     statement[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=compound_stmt { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=simple_stmts { a }

     statement_newline[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=compound_stmt NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | simple_stmts
         | NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(stmt_ty, _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA))) }
         | ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_interactive_exit(p) }

     simple_stmts[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=simple_stmt !';' NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } # Not needed, there for speedup
         | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=';'.simple_stmt+ [';'] NEWLINE { a }

     # NOTE: assignment MUST precede expression, else parsing a simple assignment
     # will throw a SyntaxError.
     simple_stmt[stmt_ty] (memo):
         | assignment
         | &"type" type_alias
         | e=star_expressions { _PyAST_Expr(e, EXTRA) }
         | &'return' return_stmt
         | &('import' | 'from') import_stmt
         | &'raise' raise_stmt
         | 'pass' { _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA) }
         | &'del' del_stmt
         | &'yield' yield_stmt
         | &'assert' assert_stmt
         | 'break' { _PyAST_Break(EXTRA) }
         | 'continue' { _PyAST_Continue(EXTRA) }
         | &'global' global_stmt
         | &'nonlocal' nonlocal_stmt

     compound_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | &('def' | '@' | ASYNC) function_def
         | &'if' if_stmt
         | &('class' | '@') class_def
         | &('with' | ASYNC) with_stmt
         | &('for' | ASYNC) for_stmt
         | &'try' try_stmt
         | &'while' while_stmt
         | match_stmt

     # SIMPLE STATEMENTS
     # =================

     # NOTE: annotated_rhs may start with 'yield'; yield_expr must start with 'yield'
     assignment[stmt_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 6,
                 "Variable annotation syntax is",
                 _PyAST_AnnAssign(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, c, 1, EXTRA)
             ) }
         | a=('(' b=single_target ')' { b }
              | single_subscript_attribute_target) ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 6, "Variable annotations syntax is", _PyAST_AnnAssign(a, b, c, 0, EXTRA)) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(z=star_targets '=' { z })+ b=(yield_expr | star_expressions) !'=' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] {
              _PyAST_Assign(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | a=single_target b=augassign ~ c=(yield_expr | star_expressions) {
              _PyAST_AugAssign(a, b->kind, c, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_assignment

     annotated_rhs[expr_ty]: yield_expr | star_expressions

     augassign[AugOperator*]:
         | '+=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Add) }
         | '-=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Sub) }
         | '*=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mult) }
         | '@=' { CHECK_VERSION(AugOperator*, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyPegen_augoperator(p, MatMult)) }
         | '/=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Div) }
         | '%=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mod) }
         | '&=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitAnd) }
         | '|=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitOr) }
         | '^=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitXor) }
         | '<<=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, LShift) }
         | '>>=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, RShift) }
         | '**=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Pow) }
         | '//=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, FloorDiv) }

     return_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'return' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Return(a, EXTRA) }

     raise_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'raise' a=expression b=['from' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Raise(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'raise' { _PyAST_Raise(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     global_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'global' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Global(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     nonlocal_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'nonlocal' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Nonlocal(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     del_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'del' a=del_targets &(';' | NEWLINE) { _PyAST_Delete(a, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_del_stmt

     yield_stmt[stmt_ty]: y=yield_expr { _PyAST_Expr(y, EXTRA) }

     assert_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'assert' a=expression b=[',' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Assert(a, b, EXTRA) }

     import_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_import
         | import_name
         | import_from

     # Import statements
     # -----------------

     import_name[stmt_ty]: 'import' a=dotted_as_names { _PyAST_Import(a, EXTRA) }
     # note below: the ('.' | '...') is necessary because '...' is tokenized as ELLIPSIS
     import_from[stmt_ty]:
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')* b=dotted_name 'import' c=import_from_targets {
             _PyPegen_checked_future_import(p, b->v.Name.id, c, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
         | 'from' a=('.' | '...')+ 'import' b=import_from_targets {
             _PyAST_ImportFrom(NULL, b, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), EXTRA) }
     import_from_targets[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | '(' a=import_from_as_names [','] ')' { a }
         | import_from_as_names !','
         | '*' { (asdl_alias_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(alias_ty, _PyPegen_alias_for_star(p, EXTRA))) }
         | invalid_import_from_targets
     import_from_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.import_from_as_name+ { a }
     import_from_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=NAME b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                    (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                    EXTRA) }
     dotted_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.dotted_as_name+ { a }
     dotted_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(a->v.Name.id,
                                                           (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL,
                                                           EXTRA) }
     dotted_name[expr_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name '.' b=NAME { _PyPegen_join_names_with_dot(p, a, b) }
         | NAME

     # COMPOUND STATEMENTS
     # ===================

     # Common elements
     # ---------------

     block[asdl_stmt_seq*] (memo):
         | NEWLINE INDENT a=statements DEDENT { a }
         | simple_stmts
         | invalid_block

     decorators[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=('@' f=named_expression NEWLINE { f })+ { a }

     # Class definitions
     # -----------------

     class_def[stmt_ty]:
         | a=decorators b=class_def_raw { _PyPegen_class_def_decorators(p, a, b) }
         | class_def_raw

     class_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_class_def_raw
         | 'class' a=NAME t=[type_params] b=['(' z=[arguments] ')' { z }] ':' c=block {
             _PyAST_ClassDef(a->v.Name.id,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                          c, NULL, t, EXTRA) }

     # Function definitions
     # --------------------

     function_def[stmt_ty]:
         | d=decorators f=function_def_raw { _PyPegen_function_def_decorators(p, d, f) }
         | function_def_raw

     function_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_def_raw
         | 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] &&'(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] &&':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             _PyAST_FunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                             (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                             b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA) }
         | ASYNC 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] &&'(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] &&':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 5,
                 "Async functions are",
                 _PyAST_AsyncFunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                                 (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                                 b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA)
             ) }

     # Function parameters
     # -------------------

     params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_parameters
         | parameters

     parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default* c=param_with_default* d=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=slash_with_default b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=param_with_default+ b=[star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     # Some duplication here because we can't write (',' | &')'),
     # which is because we don't support empty alternatives (yet).

     slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' &')' { a }
     slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' &')' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_star_etc
         | '*' a=param_no_default b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' a=param_no_default_star_annotation b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=param_maybe_default+ c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_kwds
         | '**' a=param_no_default { a }

     # One parameter.  This *includes* a following comma and type comment.
     #
     # There are three styles:
     # - No default
     # - With default
     # - Maybe with default
     #
     # There are two alternative forms of each, to deal with type comments:
     # - Ends in a comma followed by an optional type comment
     # - No comma, optional type comment, must be followed by close paren
     # The latter form is for a final parameter without trailing comma.
     #

     param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=param ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_no_default_star_annotation[arg_ty]:
         | a=param_star_annotation ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param_star_annotation tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default? ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default? tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=annotation? { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     param_star_annotation[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=star_annotation { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=expression { a }
     star_annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=star_expression { a }
     default[expr_ty]: '=' a=expression { a } | invalid_default

     # If statement
     # ------------

     if_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_if_stmt
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     elif_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_elif_stmt
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     else_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_else_stmt
         | 'else' &&':' b=block { b }

     # While statement
     # ---------------

     while_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_while_stmt
         | 'while' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_While(a, b, c, EXTRA) }

     # For statement
     # -------------

     for_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_for_stmt
         | 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             _PyAST_For(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | ASYNC 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async for loops are", _PyAST_AsyncFor(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_for_target

     # With statement
     # --------------

     with_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_with_stmt_indent
         | 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_With(a, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
             _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | ASYNC 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NULL, EXTRA)) }
         | ASYNC 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_with_stmt

     with_item[withitem_ty]:
         | e=expression 'as' t=star_target &(',' | ')' | ':') { _PyAST_withitem(e, t, p->arena) }
         | invalid_with_item
         | e=expression { _PyAST_withitem(e, NULL, p->arena) }

     # Try statement
     # -------------

     try_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_try_stmt
         | 'try' &&':' b=block f=finally_block { _PyAST_Try(b, NULL, NULL, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] { _PyAST_Try(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_star_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 11, "Exception groups are",
                           _PyAST_TryStar(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA)) }


     # Except statement
     # ----------------

     except_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_stmt_indent
         | 'except' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' ':' b=block { _PyAST_ExceptHandler(NULL, NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     except_star_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_star_stmt_indent
         | 'except' '*' e=expression t=['as' z=NAME { z }] ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, (t) ? ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id : NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     finally_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_finally_stmt
         | 'finally' &&':' a=block { a }

     # Match statement
     # ---------------

     match_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | "match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE INDENT cases[asdl_match_case_seq*]=case_block+ DEDENT {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 10, "Pattern matching is", _PyAST_Match(subject, cases, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_match_stmt

     subject_expr[expr_ty]:
         | value=star_named_expression ',' values=star_named_expressions? {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, value, values)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     case_block[match_case_ty]:
         | invalid_case_block
         | "case" pattern=patterns guard=guard? ':' body=block {
             _PyAST_match_case(pattern, guard, body, p->arena) }

     guard[expr_ty]: 'if' guard=named_expression { guard }

     patterns[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]=open_sequence_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | pattern

     pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | as_pattern
         | or_pattern

     as_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | pattern=or_pattern 'as' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchAs(pattern, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_as_pattern

     or_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]='|'.closed_pattern+ {
             asdl_seq_LEN(patterns) == 1 ? asdl_seq_GET(patterns, 0) : _PyAST_MatchOr(patterns, EXTRA) }

     closed_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | literal_pattern
         | capture_pattern
         | wildcard_pattern
         | value_pattern
         | group_pattern
         | sequence_pattern
         | mapping_pattern
         | class_pattern

     # Literal patterns are used for equality and identity constraints
     literal_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | value=signed_number !('+' | '-') { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=complex_number { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=strings { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_None, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_True, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_False, EXTRA) }

     # Literal expressions are used to restrict permitted mapping pattern keys
     literal_expr[expr_ty]:
         | signed_number !('+' | '-')
         | complex_number
         | strings
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }

     complex_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=signed_real_number '+' imag=imaginary_number {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Add, imag, EXTRA) }
         | real=signed_real_number '-' imag=imaginary_number  {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Sub, imag, EXTRA) }

     signed_number[expr_ty]:
         | NUMBER
         | '-' number=NUMBER { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, number, EXTRA) }

     signed_real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real_number
         | '-' real=real_number { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, real, EXTRA) }

     real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_real(p, real) }

     imaginary_number[expr_ty]:
         | imag=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_imaginary(p, imag) }

     capture_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | target=pattern_capture_target { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }

     pattern_capture_target[expr_ty]:
         | !"_" name=NAME !('.' | '(' | '=') {
             _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, name, Store) }

     wildcard_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | "_" { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     value_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | attr=attr !('.' | '(' | '=') { _PyAST_MatchValue(attr, EXTRA) }

     attr[expr_ty]:
         | value=name_or_attr '.' attr=NAME {
             _PyAST_Attribute(value, attr->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }

     name_or_attr[expr_ty]:
         | attr
         | NAME

     group_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '(' pattern=pattern ')' { pattern }

     sequence_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '[' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? ']' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | '(' patterns=open_sequence_pattern? ')' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }

     open_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | pattern=maybe_star_pattern ',' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? {
             _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, pattern, patterns) }

     maybe_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | patterns=','.maybe_star_pattern+ ','? { patterns }

     maybe_star_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | star_pattern
         | pattern

     star_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | '*' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '*' wildcard_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(NULL, EXTRA) }

     mapping_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '{' '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | '{' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, rest->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ',' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 rest->v.Name.id,
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 NULL,
                 EXTRA) }

     items_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.key_value_pattern+

     key_value_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | key=(literal_expr | attr) ':' pattern=pattern {
             _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, key, pattern) }

     double_star_pattern[expr_ty]:
         | '**' target=pattern_capture_target { target }

     class_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, patterns, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls, NULL,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ',' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls,
                 patterns,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | invalid_class_pattern

     positional_patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | args[asdl_pattern_seq*]=','.pattern+ { args }

     keyword_patterns[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.keyword_pattern+

     keyword_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | arg=NAME '=' value=pattern { _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, arg, value) }

     # Type statement
     # ---------------

     type_alias[stmt_ty]:
         | "type" n=NAME t=[type_params] '=' b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 12, "Type statement is",
             _PyAST_TypeAlias(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, n, Store)), t, b, EXTRA)) }

     # Type parameter declaration
     # --------------------------

     type_params[asdl_type_param_seq*]: '[' t=type_param_seq  ']' {
             CHECK_VERSION(asdl_type_param_seq *, 12, "Type parameter lists are", t) }

     type_param_seq[asdl_type_param_seq*]: a[asdl_type_param_seq*]=','.type_param+ [','] { a }

     type_param[type_param_ty] (memo):
         | a=NAME b=[type_param_bound] { _PyAST_TypeVar(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }
         | '*' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with TypeVarTuple"
                     : "cannot use bound with TypeVarTuple")
             }
         | '*' a=NAME { _PyAST_TypeVarTuple(a->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '**' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with ParamSpec"
                     : "cannot use bound with ParamSpec")
             }
         | '**' a=NAME { _PyAST_ParamSpec(a->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }

     type_param_bound[expr_ty]: ':' e=expression { e }

     # EXPRESSIONS
     # -----------

     expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=expression b=(',' c=expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | invalid_expression
         | invalid_legacy_expression
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef

     yield_expr[expr_ty]:
         | 'yield' 'from' a=expression { _PyAST_YieldFrom(a, EXTRA) }
         | 'yield' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Yield(a, EXTRA) }

     star_expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_expression b=(',' c=star_expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=star_expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | star_expression

     star_expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     star_named_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_named_expression+ [','] { a }

     star_named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     assignment_expression[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':=' ~ b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 8, "Assignment expressions are",
             _PyAST_NamedExpr(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, EXTRA)) }

     named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | assignment_expression
         | invalid_named_expression
         | expression !':='

     disjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=conjunction b=('or' c=conjunction { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             Or,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | conjunction

     conjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=inversion b=('and' c=inversion { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             And,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | inversion

     inversion[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'not' a=inversion { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Not, a, EXTRA) }
         | comparison

     # Comparison operators
     # --------------------

     comparison[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or b=compare_op_bitwise_or_pair+ {
             _PyAST_Compare(
                 a,
                 CHECK(asdl_int_seq*, _PyPegen_get_cmpops(p, b)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_exprs(p, b)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_or

     compare_op_bitwise_or_pair[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | eq_bitwise_or
         | noteq_bitwise_or
         | lte_bitwise_or
         | lt_bitwise_or
         | gte_bitwise_or
         | gt_bitwise_or
         | notin_bitwise_or
         | in_bitwise_or
         | isnot_bitwise_or
         | is_bitwise_or

     eq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '==' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Eq, a) }
     noteq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | (tok='!=' { _PyPegen_check_barry_as_flufl(p, tok) ? NULL : tok}) a=bitwise_or {_PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotEq, a) }
     lte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, LtE, a) }
     lt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Lt, a) }
     gte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, GtE, a) }
     gt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Gt, a) }
     notin_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'not' 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotIn, a) }
     in_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, In, a) }
     isnot_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' 'not' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, IsNot, a) }
     is_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Is, a) }

     # Bitwise operators
     # -----------------

     bitwise_or[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or '|' b=bitwise_xor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitOr, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_xor

     bitwise_xor[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_xor '^' b=bitwise_and { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitXor, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_and

     bitwise_and[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_and '&' b=shift_expr { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitAnd, b, EXTRA) }
         | shift_expr

     shift_expr[expr_ty]:
         | a=shift_expr '<<' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, LShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=shift_expr '>>' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, RShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | sum

     # Arithmetic operators
     # --------------------

     sum[expr_ty]:
         | a=sum '+' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Add, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=sum '-' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Sub, b, EXTRA) }
         | term

     term[expr_ty]:
         | a=term '*' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mult, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '/' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Div, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '//' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, FloorDiv, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '%' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mod, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '@' b=factor { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyAST_BinOp(a, MatMult, b, EXTRA)) }
         | factor

     factor[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '+' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(UAdd, a, EXTRA) }
         | '-' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, a, EXTRA) }
         | '~' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Invert, a, EXTRA) }
         | power

     power[expr_ty]:
         | a=await_primary '**' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Pow, b, EXTRA) }
         | await_primary

     # Primary elements
     # ----------------

     # Primary elements are things like "obj.something.something", "obj[something]", "obj(something)", "obj" ...

     await_primary[expr_ty] (memo):
         | AWAIT a=primary { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "Await expressions are", _PyAST_Await(a, EXTRA)) }
         | primary

     primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=primary '.' b=NAME { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary b=genexp { _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '[' b=slices ']' { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | atom

     slices[expr_ty]:
         | a=slice !',' { a }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(slice | starred_expression)+ [','] { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     slice[expr_ty]:
         | a=[expression] ':' b=[expression] c=[':' d=[expression] { d }] { _PyAST_Slice(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | a=named_expression { a }

     atom[expr_ty]:
         | NAME
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | &(STRING|FSTRING_START) strings
         | NUMBER
         | &'(' (tuple | group | genexp)
         | &'[' (list | listcomp)
         | &'{' (dict | set | dictcomp | setcomp)
         | '...' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_Ellipsis, NULL, EXTRA) }

     group[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=(yield_expr | named_expression) ')' { a }
         | invalid_group

     # Lambda functions
     # ----------------

     lambdef[expr_ty]:
         | 'lambda' a=[lambda_params] ':' b=expression {
             _PyAST_Lambda((a) ? a : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)), b, EXTRA) }

     lambda_params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_parameters
         | lambda_parameters

     # lambda_parameters etc. duplicates parameters but without annotations
     # or type comments, and if there's no comma after a parameter, we expect
     # a colon, not a close parenthesis.  (For more, see parameters above.)
     #
     lambda_parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=lambda_slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default* c=lambda_param_with_default* d=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_param_with_default+ b=[lambda_star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=lambda_star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' &':' { a }

     lambda_slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' &':' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     lambda_star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_lambda_star_etc
         | '*' a=lambda_param_no_default b=lambda_param_maybe_default* c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=lambda_param_maybe_default+ c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_kwds
         | '**' a=lambda_param_no_default { a }

     lambda_param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=lambda_param ',' { a }
         | a=lambda_param &':' { a }
     lambda_param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default? ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default? &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param[arg_ty]: a=NAME { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     # LITERALS
     # ========

     fstring_middle[expr_ty]:
         | fstring_replacement_field
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_constant_from_token(p, t) }
     fstring_replacement_field[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=(yield_expr | star_expressions) debug_expr='='? conversion=[fstring_conversion] format=[fstring_full_format_spec] rbrace='}' {
             _PyPegen_formatted_value(p, a, debug_expr, conversion, format, rbrace, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_replacement_field
     fstring_conversion[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | conv_token="!" conv=NAME { _PyPegen_check_fstring_conversion(p, conv_token, conv) }
     fstring_full_format_spec[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | colon=':' spec=fstring_format_spec* { _PyPegen_setup_full_format_spec(p, colon, (asdl_expr_seq *) spec, EXTRA) }
     fstring_format_spec[expr_ty]:
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_decoded_constant_from_token(p, t) }
         | fstring_replacement_field
     fstring[expr_ty]:
         | a=FSTRING_START b=fstring_middle* c=FSTRING_END { _PyPegen_joined_str(p, a, (asdl_expr_seq*)b, c) }

     string[expr_ty]: s[Token*]=STRING { _PyPegen_constant_from_string(p, s) }
     strings[expr_ty] (memo): a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(fstring|string)+ { _PyPegen_concatenate_strings(p, a, EXTRA) }

     list[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=[star_named_expressions] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     tuple[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=[y=star_named_expression ',' z=[star_named_expressions] { _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, y, z) } ] ')' {
             _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     set[expr_ty]: '{' a=star_named_expressions '}' { _PyAST_Set(a, EXTRA) }

     # Dicts
     # -----

     dict[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=[double_starred_kvpairs] '}' {
             _PyAST_Dict(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_keys(p, a)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_values(p, a)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' invalid_double_starred_kvpairs '}'

     double_starred_kvpairs[asdl_seq*]: a=','.double_starred_kvpair+ [','] { a }

     double_starred_kvpair[KeyValuePair*]:
         | '**' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, NULL, a) }
         | kvpair

     kvpair[KeyValuePair*]: a=expression ':' b=expression { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, a, b) }

     # Comprehensions & Generators
     # ---------------------------

     for_if_clauses[asdl_comprehension_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_comprehension_seq*]=for_if_clause+ { a }

     for_if_clause[comprehension_ty]:
         | ASYNC 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             CHECK_VERSION(comprehension_ty, 6, "Async comprehensions are", _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 1, p->arena)) }
         | 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 0, p->arena) }
         | invalid_for_target

     listcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses ']' { _PyAST_ListComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     setcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=named_expression b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_SetComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     genexp[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=( assignment_expression | expression !':=') b=for_if_clauses ')' { _PyAST_GeneratorExp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     dictcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=kvpair b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_DictComp(a->key, a->value, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_dict_comprehension

     # FUNCTION CALL ARGUMENTS
     # =======================

     arguments[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=args [','] &')' { a }
         | invalid_arguments

     args[expr_ty]:
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ b=[',' k=kwargs {k}] {
             _PyPegen_collect_call_seqs(p, a, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=kwargs { _PyAST_Call(_PyPegen_dummy_name(p),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_extract_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_keyword_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_delete_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               EXTRA) }

     kwargs[asdl_seq*]:
         | a=','.kwarg_or_starred+ ',' b=','.kwarg_or_double_starred+ { _PyPegen_join_sequences(p, a, b) }
         | ','.kwarg_or_starred+
         | ','.kwarg_or_double_starred+

     starred_expression[expr_ty]:
         | invalid_starred_expression
         | '*' a=expression { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | '*' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Invalid star expression") }

     kwarg_or_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | a=starred_expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, a, 0) }

     kwarg_or_double_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | '**' a=expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(NULL, a, EXTRA)), 1) }

     # ASSIGNMENT TARGETS
     # ==================

     # Generic targets
     # ---------------

     # NOTE: star_targets may contain *bitwise_or, targets may not.
     star_targets[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_target !',' { a }
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })* [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Store, EXTRA) }

     star_targets_list_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_target+ [','] { a }

     star_targets_tuple_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })+ [','] { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b) }
         | a=star_target ',' { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }

     star_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=(!'*' star_target) {
             _PyAST_Starred(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), Store, EXTRA) }
         | target_with_star_atom

     target_with_star_atom[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }
         | star_atom

     star_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=target_with_star_atom ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=[star_targets_tuple_seq] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Store, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[star_targets_list_seq] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Store, EXTRA) }

     single_target[expr_ty]:
         | single_subscript_attribute_target
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=single_target ')' { a }

     single_subscript_attribute_target[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }

     t_primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary b=genexp &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=atom &t_lookahead { a }

     t_lookahead: '(' | '[' | '.'

     # Targets for del statements
     # --------------------------

     del_targets[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.del_target+ [','] { a }

     del_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Del, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Del, EXTRA) }
         | del_t_atom

     del_t_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=del_target ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=[del_targets] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Del, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[del_targets] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Del, EXTRA) }

     # TYPING ELEMENTS
     # ---------------

     # type_expressions allow */** but ignore them
     type_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression ',' '**' c=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b)),
                 c) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '**' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | '*' a=expression ',' '**' b=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)),
                 b) }
         | '*' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | '**' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.expression+ {a}

     func_type_comment[Token*]:
         | NEWLINE t=TYPE_COMMENT &(NEWLINE INDENT) { t }  # Must be followed by indented block
         | invalid_double_type_comments
         | TYPE_COMMENT

     # ========================= END OF THE GRAMMAR ===========================



     # ========================= START OF INVALID RULES =======================

     # From here on, there are rules for invalid syntax with specialised error messages
     invalid_arguments:
         | ((','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ ',' kwargs) | kwargs) a=',' ','.(starred_expression !'=')+ {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "iterable argument unpacking follows keyword argument unpacking") }
         | a=expression b=for_if_clauses ',' [args | expression for_if_clauses] {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | (args ',')? a=NAME b='=' &(',' | ')') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected argument value expression")}
         | a=args b=for_if_clauses { _PyPegen_nonparen_genexp_in_call(p, a, b) }
         | args ',' a=expression b=for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=args ',' args { _PyPegen_arguments_parsing_error(p, a) }
     invalid_kwarg:
         | a[Token*]=('True'|'False'|'None') b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to %s", PyBytes_AS_STRING(a->bytes)) }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | !(NAME '=') a=expression b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b, "expression cannot contain assignment, perhaps you meant \"==\"?") }
         | a='**' expression '=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to keyword argument unpacking") }

     # IMPORTANT: Note that the "_without_invalid" suffix causes the rule to not call invalid rules under it
     expression_without_invalid[expr_ty]:
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef
     invalid_legacy_expression:
         | a=NAME !'(' b=star_expressions {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b,
                 "Missing parentheses in call to '%U'. Did you mean %U(...)?", a->v.Name.id, a->v.Name.id) : NULL}

     invalid_expression:
         # !(NAME STRING) is not matched so we don't show this error with some invalid string prefixes like: kf"dsfsdf"
         # Soft keywords need to also be ignored because they can be parsed as NAME NAME
        | !(NAME STRING | SOFT_KEYWORD) a=disjunction b=expression_without_invalid {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? NULL : p->tokens[p->mark-1]->level == 0 ? NULL :
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?") }
        | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction !('else'|':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected 'else' after 'if' expression") }
        | a='lambda' [lambda_params] b=':' &FSTRING_MIDDLE  {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "f-string: lambda expressions are not allowed without parentheses") }

     invalid_named_expression(memo):
         | a=expression ':=' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use assignment expressions with %s", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
         | a=NAME '=' b=bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?") }
         | !(list|tuple|genexp|'True'|'None'|'False') a=bitwise_or b='=' bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot assign to %s here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?",
                                               _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }

     invalid_assignment:
         | a=invalid_ann_assign_target ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "only single target (not %s) can be annotated",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
         | a=star_named_expression ',' star_named_expressions* ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "only single target (not tuple) can be annotated") }
         | a=expression ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "illegal target for annotation") }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=star_expressions '=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=yield_expr '=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "assignment to yield expression not possible") }
         | a=star_expressions augassign (yield_expr | star_expressions) {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "'%s' is an illegal expression for augmented assignment",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
     invalid_ann_assign_target[expr_ty]:
         | list
         | tuple
         | '(' a=invalid_ann_assign_target ')' { a }
     invalid_del_stmt:
         | 'del' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(DEL_TARGETS, a) }
     invalid_block:
         | NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block") }
     invalid_comprehension:
         | ('[' | '(' | '{') a=starred_expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "iterable unpacking cannot be used in comprehension") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression ',' b=star_named_expressions for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, PyPegen_last_item(b, expr_ty),
             "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression b=',' for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
     invalid_dict_comprehension:
         | '{' a='**' bitwise_or for_if_clauses '}' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "dict unpacking cannot be used in dict comprehension") }
     invalid_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | slash_no_default? param_no_default* invalid_parameters_helper a=param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | param_no_default* a='(' param_no_default+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Function parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default)? param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | param_no_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_default:
         | a='=' &(')'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected default value expression") }
     invalid_star_etc:
         | a='*' (')' | ',' (')' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' ',' TYPE_COMMENT { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("bare * has associated type comment") }
         | '*' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (param_no_default | ',') param_maybe_default* a='*' (param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_kwds:
         | '**' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' param ',' a=param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_parameters_helper: # This is only there to avoid type errors
         | a=slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one argument must precede /") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | lambda_slash_no_default? lambda_param_no_default* invalid_lambda_parameters_helper a=lambda_param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | lambda_param_no_default* a='(' ','.lambda_param+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Lambda expression parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default)? lambda_param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | lambda_param_no_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | lambda_param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_lambda_parameters_helper:
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | lambda_param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_star_etc:
         | '*' (':' | ',' (':' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("named arguments must follow bare *") }
         | '*' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional argument cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') lambda_param_maybe_default* a='*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* argument may appear only once") }
     invalid_lambda_kwds:
         | '**' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword argument cannot have default value") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a=lambda_param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "arguments cannot follow var-keyword argument") }
     invalid_double_type_comments:
         | TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE INDENT {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Cannot have two type comments on def") }
     invalid_with_item:
         | expression 'as' a=expression &(',' | ')' | ':') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_for_target:
         | ASYNC? 'for' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(FOR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_group:
         | '(' a=starred_expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use starred expression here") }
         | '(' a='**' expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use double starred expression here") }
     invalid_import:
         | a='import' ','.dotted_name+ 'from' dotted_name {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?") }

     invalid_import_from_targets:
         | import_from_as_names ',' NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("trailing comma not allowed without surrounding parentheses") }

     invalid_with_stmt:
         | [ASYNC] 'with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | [ASYNC] 'with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
     invalid_with_stmt_indent:
         | [ASYNC] a='with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | [ASYNC] a='with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_try_stmt:
         | a='try' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'try' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | 'try' ':' block !('except' | 'finally') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected 'except' or 'finally' block") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_block+ a='except' b='*' expression ['as' NAME] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_star_block+ a='except' [expression ['as' NAME]] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
     invalid_except_stmt:
         | 'except' '*'? a=expression ',' expressions ['as' NAME ] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "multiple exception types must be parenthesized") }
         | a='except' '*'? expression ['as' NAME ] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' '*' (NEWLINE | ':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected one or more exception types") }
     invalid_finally_stmt:
         | a='finally' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'finally' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | a='except' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_star_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' '*' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except*' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_match_stmt:
         | "match" subject_expr NEWLINE { CHECK_VERSION(void*, 10, "Pattern matching is", RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") ) }
         | a="match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'match' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_case_block:
         | "case" patterns guard? NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a="case" patterns guard? ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'case' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_as_pattern:
         | or_pattern 'as' a="_" { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use '_' as a target") }
         | or_pattern 'as' !NAME a=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "invalid pattern target") }
     invalid_class_pattern:
         | name_or_attr '(' a=invalid_class_argument_pattern  { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
             PyPegen_first_item(a, pattern_ty),
             PyPegen_last_item(a, pattern_ty),
             "positional patterns follow keyword patterns") }
     invalid_class_argument_pattern[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | [positional_patterns ','] keyword_patterns ',' a=positional_patterns { a }
     invalid_if_stmt:
         | 'if' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='if' a=named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'if' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_elif_stmt:
         | 'elif' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='elif' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'elif' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_else_stmt:
         | a='else' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'else' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_while_stmt:
         | 'while' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='while' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'while' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_for_stmt:
         | [ASYNC] 'for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | [ASYNC] a='for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_def_raw:
         | [ASYNC] a='def' NAME [type_params] '(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after function definition on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_class_def_raw:
         | 'class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after class definition on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_double_starred_kvpairs:
         | ','.double_starred_kvpair+ ',' invalid_kvpair
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_kvpair:
         | a=expression !(':') {
             RAISE_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(p, PyExc_SyntaxError, a->lineno, a->end_col_offset - 1, a->end_lineno, -1, "':' expected after dictionary key") }
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') {RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_starred_expression:
         | a='*' expression '=' b=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to iterable argument unpacking") }

     invalid_replacement_field:
         | '{' a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '='") }
         | '{' a='!' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '!'") }
         | '{' a=':' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before ':'") }
         | '{' a='}' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '}'") }
         | '{' !(yield_expr | star_expressions) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting a valid expression after '{'")}
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) !('=' | '!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '=', or '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '=' !('!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? invalid_conversion_character
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? ['!' NAME] !(':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting ':' or '}'") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? ['!' NAME] ':' fstring_format_spec* !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}', or format specs") }
         | '{' (yield_expr | star_expressions) '='? ['!' NAME] !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}'") }

     invalid_conversion_character:
         | '!' &(':' | '}') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: missing conversion character") }
         | '!' !NAME { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: invalid conversion character") }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Grammar/python.gram

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Standart Kütüphanesi,  Next: Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme,  Prev: Python Dil Referansı,  Up: Top

5 Python Standart Kütüphanesi
*****************************

*note Python Dil Referansı: 144. Python dilinin tam sözdizimini ve
anlamını açıklarken, bu kütüphane başvuru kılavuzu Python ile birlikte
dağıtılan standart kütüphaneyi açıklar.  Ayrıca, Python dağıtımlarına
yaygın olarak dahil edilen bazı isteğe bağlı bileşenleri de açıklar.

Python’un standart kütüphanesi çok kapsamlıdır ve aşağıda listelenen
uzun içindekiler tablosunda belirtildiği gibi çok çeşitli olanaklar
sunar.  Kütüphane, aksi takdirde Python programcılarının erişemeyeceği
dosya G/Ç(I/O) gibi sistem işlevlerine erişim sağlayan yerleşik
modüllerin (C ile yazılmış) yanı sıra günlük programlamada ortaya çıkan
birçok sorun için standartlaştırılmış çözümler sağlayan Python ile
yazılmış modüller içerir.  Bu modüllerden bazıları, platforma özgü
özellikleri platformdan bağımsız API’lere soyutlayarak Python
programlarının taşınabilirliğini teşvik etmek ve geliştirmek için açıkça
tasarlanmıştır.

Windows platformu için Python yükleyicileri genellikle tüm standart
kütüphaneyi içerir ve genellikle birçok ek bileşen de içerir.  Unix
benzeri işletim sistemleri için Python normalde bir paket koleksiyonu
olarak sağlanır, bu nedenle isteğe bağlı bileşenlerin bir kısmını veya
tamamını elde etmek için işletim sistemiyle birlikte sağlanan paketleme
araçlarını kullanmak gerekebilir.

Standart kütüphaneye ek olarak, Python Package Index(1) adresinden
ulaşılabilen yüz binlerce bileşenden (bireysel programlar ve modüllerden
paketlere ve tüm uygulama geliştirme çerçevelerine kadar) oluşan aktif
bir koleksiyon bulunmaktadır.

* Menu:

* Giriş::
* Gömülü Fonksiyonlar::
* Built-in Constants::
* Gömülü Türler::
* Gömülü İstisnalar::
* Text Processing Services::
* Binary Data Services::
* Data Types::
* Numeric and Mathematical Modules::
* Functional Programming Modules::
* File and Directory Access::
* Data Persistence::
* Data Compression and Archiving::
* File Formats::
* Cryptographic Services::
* Generic Operating System Services::
* Concurrent Execution::
* Networking and Interprocess Communication::
* Internet Data Handling::
* Structured Markup Processing Tools::
* Internet Protocols and Support::
* Multimedia Services::
* Internationalization::
* Program Frameworks::
* Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri::
* Development Tools::
* Debugging and Profiling::
* Software Packaging and Distribution::
* Python Runtime Services::
* Custom Python Interpreters::
* Importing Modules::
* Python Language Services::
* MS Windows Specific Services::
* Unix Specific Services::
* Modules command-line interface (CLI): Modules command-line interface CLI.
* Superseded Modules::
* Removed Modules::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Giriş,  Next: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.1 Giriş
=========

“Python kütüphanesi” birkaç farklı türde bileşen içerir.

Sayılar ve listeler gibi normalde bir dilin “çekirdeğinin” parçası
olarak kabul edilecek veri türlerini içerir.  Bu türler için, Python dil
çekirdeği değişmezlerin biçimini tanımlar ve anlamları üzerine bazı
kısıtlamalar koyar, ancak anlamları tam olarak tanımlamaz.  (Öte yandan,
dil çekirdeği operatörlerin yazımı ve öncelikleri gibi sözdizimsel
özellikleri tanımlar).

Kütüphane ayrıca yerleşik fonksiyonlar ve istisnalar da içerir — bir
*note import: 3ed. deyimine ihtiyaç duymadan tüm Python kodları
tarafından kullanılabilen nesneler.  Bunlardan bazıları çekirdek dil
tarafından tanımlanmıştır, ancak çoğu çekirdek semantiği için gerekli
değildir ve burada sadece açıklanmıştır.

Bununla birlikte, kütüphanenin büyük kısmı bir modül koleksiyonundan
oluşur.  Bu koleksiyonu incelemenin birçok yolu vardır.  Bazı modüller C
dilinde yazılmış ve Python yorumlayıcısına yerleştirilmiştir; diğerleri
Python dilinde yazılmış ve kaynak biçiminde içe aktarılmıştır.  Bazı
modüller, yığın izlemesi yazdırma gibi Python’a özgü arayüzler sağlar;
bazıları belirli donanımlara erişim gibi belirli işletim sistemlerine
özgü arayüzler sağlar; diğerleri World Wide Web gibi belirli bir
uygulama alanına özgü arayüzler sağlar.  Bazı modüller Python’un tüm
sürümlerinde ve portlarında mevcuttur; diğerleri yalnızca temel sistem
bunları desteklediğinde veya gerektirdiğinde kullanılabilir; ancak
diğerleri yalnızca Python derlendiğinde ve yüklendiğinde belirli bir
yapılandırma seçeneği seçildiğinde kullanılabilir.

Bu kılavuz “içten dışa doğru” düzenlenmiştir: ilk olarak yerleşik
fonksiyonlar, veri türleri ve istisnalar ve son olarak ilgili modüllerin
bölümlerinde gruplandırılmış modüller açıklanmaktadır.

Bu, bu kılavuzu en baştan okumaya başlarsanız ve sıkıldığınızda bir
sonraki bölüme atlarsanız, Python kütüphanesi tarafından desteklenen
mevcut modüller ve uygulama alanları hakkında makul bir genel bakış elde
edeceğiniz anlamına gelir.  Elbette bunu bir roman gibi okumak zorunda
değilsiniz — içindekiler tablosuna da göz atabilir (kılavuzun önünde)
veya dizinde (arkada) belirli bir fonksiyonu, modülü veya terimi
arayabilirsiniz.  Ve son olarak, rastgele konular hakkında bilgi
edinmekten hoşlanıyorsanız, rastgele bir sayfa numarası seçip (bkz.
modül *note random: b7.) bir ya da iki bölüm okuyabilirsiniz.  Bu
kılavuzun bölümlerini okuma sıranız ne olursa olsun, kılavuzun geri
kalanı bu materyale aşina olduğunuzu varsaydığından, bölüm *note Gömülü
Fonksiyonlar: 1105. ile başlamanıza yardımcı olur.

Gösteri başlasın!

* Menu:

* Kullanılabilirlik hakkında notlar::


File: python.info,  Node: Kullanılabilirlik hakkında notlar,  Up: Giriş

5.1.1 Kullanılabilirlik hakkında notlar
---------------------------------------

   * “Kullanılabilirlik: Unix” notu, bu fonksiyonun Unix sistemlerinde
     yaygın olarak bulunduğu anlamına gelir.  Belirli bir işletim
     sistemindeki varlığı hakkında herhangi bir iddiada bulunmaz.

   * Ayrı olarak belirtilmediği takdirde, “Kullanılabilirlik: Unix”
     yazan tüm fonksiyonlar, Unix çekirdeği üzerine inşa edilen macOS
     üzerinde desteklenmektedir.

   * Bir kullanılabilirlik notu hem minimum Çekirdek(Kernel) sürümü hem
     de minimum libc sürümü içeriyorsa, her iki koşul da geçerli
     olmalıdır.  Örneğin 'Availability: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >=
     2.27' notuna sahip bir özellik için hem Linux 3.17 veya daha yeni
     hem de glibc 2.27 veya daha yeni olması gerekir.

* Menu:

* WebAssembly platformları::


File: python.info,  Node: WebAssembly platformları,  Up: Kullanılabilirlik hakkında notlar

5.1.1.1 WebAssembly platformları
................................

WebAssembly(1) platformları ‘wasm32-emscripten’ (Emscripten(2)) ve
‘wasm32-wasi’ (WASI(3)) POSIX API'lerinin bir alt kümesini sağlar.
WebAssembly çalışma zamanları ve tarayıcıları korumalıdır ve ana
bilgisayara ve harici kaynaklara sınırlı erişime sahiptir.  Süreçler, iş
parçacığı, ağ, sinyaller veya diğer süreçler arası iletişim (IPC)
biçimlerini kullanan herhangi bir Python standart kütüphane modülü ya
mevcut değildir ya da diğer Unix benzeri sistemlerde olduğu gibi
çalışmayabilir.  Dosya I/O, dosya sistemi ve Unix izinleriyle ilgili
işlevler de kısıtlanmıştır.  Emscripten bloklama I/O’ye izin vermez.
*note sleep(): 4b2. gibi diğer engelleme işlemleri tarayıcı olay
döngüsünü engeller.

Python’un WebAssembly platformlarındaki özellikleri ve davranışı
Emscripten(4)-SDK veya WASI(5)-SDK sürümüne, WASM çalışma zamanlarına
(tarayıcı, NodeJS, wasmtime(6)) ve Python derleme zamanı
bayraklarına(build time flags) bağlıdır.  WebAssembly, Emscripten ve
WASI gelişmekte olan standartlardır; ağ oluşturma gibi bazı özellikler
gelecekte desteklenebilir.

Tarayıcıda Python için kullanıcılar Pyodide(7) veya PyScript(8)’i
düşünmelidir.  PyScript, kendisi de CPython ve Emscripten üzerine inşa
edilmiş olan Pyodide üzerine kurulmuştur.  Pyodide, tarayıcıların
JavaScript ve DOM API’lerine erişimin yanı sıra JavaScript’in
‘XMLHttpRequest’ ve ‘Fetch’ API’leri ile sınırlı ağ yetenekleri sağlar.

   * Süreçle ilgili API’ler kullanılamaz veya her zaman bir hata ile
     başarısız olur.  Bu, yeni süreçler oluşturan (*note fork(): 23a,
     *note execve(): f9b.), süreçleri bekleyen (*note waitpid(): c27.),
     sinyal gönderen (*note kill(): 120e.) veya süreçlerle başka şekilde
     etkileşime giren API’leri içerir.  *note subprocess: d5. içe
     aktarılabilir ancak çalışmaz.

   * *note socket: cb. modülü mevcuttur, ancak sınırlıdır ve diğer
     platformlardan farklı davranır.  Emscripten üzerinde, soketler her
     zaman bloklama yapmaz ve WebSockets aracılığıyla TCP’yi proxy’lemek
     için sunucuda ek JavaScript kodu ve yardımcılar gerektirir; daha
     fazla bilgi için Emscripten Networking(9) bölümüne bakın.  WASI
     anlık görüntü önizleme 1, yalnızca mevcut bir dosya
     tanımlayıcısından soketlere izin verir.

   * Bazı fonksiyonlar hiçbir şey yapmayan ve her zaman sabit kodlanmış
     değerler döndüren taslaklardır.

   * Dosya tanımlayıcıları, dosya izinleri, dosya sahipliği ve
     bağlantılarla ilgili işlevler sınırlıdır ve bazı işlemleri
     desteklemez.  Örneğin, WASI mutlak dosya adlarıyla ortak
     bağlantılara izin vermez.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://webassembly.org/

   (2) https://emscripten.org/

   (3) https://wasi.dev/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://wasmtime.dev/

   (7) https://pyodide.org/

   (8) https://pyscript.net/

   (9) https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/networking.html


File: python.info,  Node: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar,  Next: Built-in Constants,  Prev: Giriş,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.2 Gömülü Fonksiyonlar
=======================

Python yorumlayıcısı, içinde gömülü olarak gelen ve her zaman
kullanılabilen bir dizi fonksiyon ve tür barındırır.  Burada alfabetik
sıraya göre listelenmiştir.

Gömülü Fonksiyonlar

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     'A'                           'E'                         'L'                         'R'
     *note abs(): 1aed.            *note enumerate(): 1308.     *note len(): 441.          *note range(): 1f45.
     *note aiter(): 60e.           *note eval(): 6ca.          *note list(): 1f43.         *note repr(): 637.
     *note all(): 12aa.            *note exec(): 6cb.          *note locals(): 179.        *note reversed(): 6a9.
     *note anext(): 60f.                                                                   *note round(): 1184.
     *note any(): 12a9.            'F'                         'M'                         
     *note ascii(): 126d.          *note filter(): 6a8.        *note map(): 6a7.           'S'
                                   *note float(): 272.         *note max(): da0.           *note set(): 1f46.
     'B'                           *note format(): 431.        *note memoryview(): 1f44.     *note setattr(): 1f47.
     *note bin(): 1151.            *note frozenset(): 1f42.     *note min(): d9f.          *note slice(): 186.
     *note bool(): 183.                                                                    *note sorted(): a45.
     *note breakpoint(): 930.      'G'                         'N'                         *note staticmethod(): 612.
     *note bytearray(): 18fe.      *note getattr(): a48.       *note next(): 611.          *note str(): 1f48.
     *note bytes(): 18fd.          *note globals(): 168f.                                  *note sum(): 187.
                                                               'O'                         *note super(): 20d.
     'C'                           'H'                         *note object(): 8f2.        
     *note callable(): 106b.       *note hasattr(): 200.       *note oct(): 1177.          'T'
     *note chr(): 1ce0.            *note hash(): 3f7.          *note open(): 2a6.          *note tuple(): 1f49.
     *note classmethod(): 252.     *note help(): 72a.          *note ord(): 1cdf.          *note type(): bd1.
     *note compile(): 56d.         *note hex(): 1178.                                      
     *note complex(): 273.                                     'P'                         'V'
                                   'I'                         *note pow(): 830.           *note vars(): 1882.
     'D'                           *note id(): 12ab.           *note print(): e16.         
     *note delattr(): 1f40.        *note input(): 1182.        *note property(): 43c.      'Z'
     *note dict(): 1f41.           *note int(): 184.                                       *note zip(): 608.
     *note dir(): 445.             *note isinstance(): 151.                                
     *note divmod(): 7ff.          *note issubclass(): 5f8.                                '_'
                                   *note iter(): 610.                                      *note __import__(): 727.
                                                                                      

 -- Işlevi: abs (x)

     Return the absolute value of a number.  The argument may be an
     integer, a floating-point number, or an object implementing *note
     __abs__(): 1da6.  If the argument is a complex number, its
     magnitude is returned.

 -- Işlevi: aiter (async_iterable)

     Bir *note asynchronous iterable: c03. için bir *note asynchronous
     iterator: c05. döndürür.  ‘x.__aiter__()’ çağrısına eş değerdir.

     Not: *note iter(): 610. ‘in aksine, *note aiter(): 60e. ‘in 2
     argümanlı biçimi yoktur.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: all (iterable)

     Eğer 'iterable' ‘ın tüm elementleri doğruysa, ‘True’ döndürür.
     Şuna eş değerdir:

          def all(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if not element:
                      return False
              return True

 -- Işlevi: awaitable anext (async_iterator)

 -- Işlevi: awaitable anext (async_iterator, default)

     Hazır olunduğunda, verilen *note asynchronous iterator: c05. ‘dan
     sıradaki parçayı döndürür.  Eğer yineleyici tükendiyse ve 'default'
     değer verildiyse, 'default' değeri döndürür.

     Bu, gömülü fonksiyonlardan olan *note next(): 611. ‘in asenkron bir
     varyantıdır, benzer şekilde çalışır.

     Bu 'async_iterator' ‘ın *note __anext__(): 1402. metodunu çağırır.
     Bir *note awaitable: af6. döndürür.  Bunu beklemek yineleyicinin
     bir sonraki değerini döndürür.  Eğer 'default' değer verildiyse,
     yineleyici tükendiğinde o döndürülür.  Aksi takdirde *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 1867. hatası ortaya çıkar.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: any (iterable)

     Eğer 'iterable' ‘ın elementlerinden herhangi biri doğru ise ‘True’
     döndürür.  Eğer 'iterable' boş ise, ‘False’ döndürür.  Şuna
     eşittir:

          def any(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if element:
                      return True
              return False

 -- Işlevi: ascii (object)

     *note repr(): 637. ‘in bir nesnenin yazdırılabilir temsilini içeren
     bir dize döndürdüğü, ancak *note repr(): 637. tarafından döndürülen
     dizedeki ASCII olmayan karakterlerden ‘\x’, ‘\u’ veya ‘\U’ gibi
     kaçış karakterlerini kullanarak kaçtığı gibi, bu da Python 2’deki
     *note repr(): 637. tarafından döndürülen değere benzeyen bir string
     üretir.

 -- Işlevi: bin (x)

     Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with “0b”.
     The result is a valid Python expression.  If 'x' is not a Python
     *note int: 184. object, it has to define an *note __index__(): 538.
     method that returns an integer.  Some examples:

          >>> bin(3)
          '0b11'
          >>> bin(-10)
          '-0b1010'

     Eğer ön ek olarak “0b” isteniyorsa veya istenmiyorsa, aşağıdaki
     gibi iki şekilde de kullanabilirsiniz.

          >>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
          ('0b1110', '1110')
          >>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
          ('0b1110', '1110')

     Ayrıca daha fazla bilgi için *note format(): 431. ‘a
     bakabilirsiniz.

 -- Sınıfı: bool (object=False, /)

     Return a Boolean value, i.e.  one of ‘True’ or ‘False’.  The
     argument is converted using the standard *note truth testing
     procedure: 1f4a.  If the argument is false or omitted, this returns
     ‘False’; otherwise, it returns ‘True’.  The *note bool: 183. class
     is a subclass of *note int: 184. (see *note Sayısal Türler — int,
     float, complex: 1a3f.).  It cannot be subclassed further.  Its only
     instances are ‘False’ and ‘True’ (see *note Boolean Type - bool:
     1f4b.).

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The parameter is now positional-only.

 -- Işlevi: breakpoint (*args, **kws)

     This function drops you into the debugger at the call site.
     Specifically, it calls *note sys.breakpointhook(): 947, passing
     ‘args’ and ‘kws’ straight through.  By default,
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ calls *note pdb.set_trace(): 9db. expecting
     no arguments.  In this case, it is purely a convenience function so
     you don’t have to explicitly import *note pdb: a4. or type as much
     code to enter the debugger.  However, *note sys.breakpointhook():
     947. can be set to some other function and *note breakpoint(): 930.
     will automatically call that, allowing you to drop into the
     debugger of choice.  If *note sys.breakpointhook(): 947. is not
     accessible, this function will raise *note RuntimeError: 180.

     By default, the behavior of *note breakpoint(): 930. can be changed
     with the *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 948. environment variable.  See
     *note sys.breakpointhook(): 947. for usage details.

     Note that this is not guaranteed if *note sys.breakpointhook():
     947. has been replaced.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘builtins.breakpoint’ with
     argument ‘breakpointhook’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Sınıfı: bytearray (source=b'')

 -- Sınıfı: bytearray (source, encoding)

 -- Sınıfı: bytearray (source, encoding, errors)

     Baytlardan oluşan yeni bir dizi döndürür.  *note bytearray: 2ca.
     sınıfı 0 <= x < 256 aralığındaki tam sayılardan oluşan değişebilir
     bir dizedir.  *note Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri: 1f4c. ‘da tarif
     edildiği gibi değişebilir dizeler klasik metotlarının çoğuna
     sahiptir.  *note bytes: 2cb. tipinin sahip olduğu metotlar için,
     *note Bytes and Bytearray Operations: 1f4d. ‘a bakınız.

     Opsiyonel 'source' parametresi diziyi birkaç farklı şekilde
     başlatmak için kullanılabilir:

        * Eğer bir 'string' ise, 'encoding' (ve istenirse, 'errors')
          parametrelerini de vermelisiniz; sonrasında *note bytearray():
          2ca. *note str.encode(): 728. kullanarak dizeyi bayta
          çevirecektir.

        * Eğer bir 'integer' ise, dizi bu boyuta göre null baytlar ile
          doldurulur.

        * Eğer *note arabellek arayüzü: 14e. ‘ne uyan bir objeyse, bayt
          dizisini başlatmak için bir salt okunur arabellek kullanılır.

        * Eğer 'iterable' ise, 0 <= x < 256 aralığındaki dizinin
          başlangıç içeriği olan tam sayılardan oluşan bir yinelenebilir
          nesne olmalıdır.

     Argüman yoksa, boyutu 0 olan bir dizi oluşturulur.

     *note Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 1f4e.
     ve *note Bytearray Objects: 1f4f. ‘a bakınız.

 -- Sınıfı: bytes (source=b'')

 -- Sınıfı: bytes (source, encoding)

 -- Sınıfı: bytes (source, encoding, errors)

     ‘0 <= x < 256’ aralığındaki tam sayılardan oluşan değiştirilemez
     bir “bayt” objesi döndürür.  *note bytes: 2cb, *note bytearray:
     2ca. ‘in değiştirilemez versiyonudur.  Aynı objeyi değiştirmeyen
     metotlara, indeksleme ve dilimleme davranışına sahiptir.

     Buna göre, yapıcı argümanları *note bytearray(): 2ca. için
     yorumlanır.

     Bayt nesneleri değişmez değerler ile de oluşturulabilir, *note
     String and Bytes literals: 1c91. ‘a bakınız.

     Ayrıca *note Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview:
     1f4e, *note Bytes Objects: 1f50, ve *note Bytes and Bytearray
     Operations: 1f4d. ‘a bakınız.

 -- Işlevi: callable (object)

     Return *note True: a86. if the 'object' argument appears callable,
     *note False: 9a8. if not.  If this returns ‘True’, it is still
     possible that a call fails, but if it is ‘False’, calling 'object'
     will never succeed.  Note that classes are callable (calling a
     class returns a new instance); instances are callable if their
     class has a *note __call__(): 2e7. method.

     Added in version 3.2: Bu fonksiyon Python 3.0 versiyonunda
     kaldırılmıştı ama Python 3.2 versiyonunda geri getirildi.

 -- Işlevi: chr (i)

     Unicode kod noktası 'i' tamsayısı olan bir karakteri temsil eden
     dizeyi döndürür.  Örneğin, ‘chr(97)’ , ‘'a'’ dizesini döndürürken,
     ‘chr(8364)’ , ‘'€'’ dizesini döndürür.  Bu fonksiyon, *note ord():
     1cdf. ‘un tam tersidir.

     Argüman için geçerli değer 0 ile 1.114.111 arasındadır (16’lık sayı
     sisteminde 0x10FFFF). Eğer 'i' aralığın dışında ise *note
     ValueError: 189. hatası ortaya çıkar.

 -- Işlevi: @classmethod

     Bir metodu sınıf metoduna dönüştürür.

     Bir sınıf metodu, sınıfı örtük ilk argüman olarak alır, aynı
     sınıftan türeyen bir örneğin metodunun örneği aldığı gibi.  Bir
     sınıf metodunu bu şekilde tanımlayabilirsiniz:

          class C:
              @classmethod
              def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

     ‘@classmethod’ formu, bir *note decorator: 559. fonksiyonudur.  –
     detaylar için *note Function definitions: 1a7f. ‘a bakınız.

     Bir sınıf metodu sınıf (‘C.f()’ gibi) veya örnek (‘C().f()’ gibi)
     üzerinden çağırılabilir.  Örnek, sınıfı dışında yoksayılır.  Eğer
     bir sınıf metodu türetilmiş bir sınıf için çağrılırsa, türetilmiş
     sınıf nesnesi örtük ilk argüman olarak geçer.

     Sınıf metotları C++ ve Java static metotlarından farklıdır.  Eğer
     bunları kullanmak isterseniz, bu bölümdeki *note staticmethod():
     612. kısmına bakınız.  Sınıf metotları hakkında daha fazla bilgi
     için, *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4. ‘a bakınız.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Sınıf metotları artık *note property(): 43c.
     gibi diğer *note descriptors: 1d5f. ‘ları sarmalayabilir.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Class methods now inherit the method
     attributes (*note __module__: 1ceb, *note __name__: 117e, *note
     __qualname__: 1cea, *note __doc__: 107e. and *note __annotations__:
     107d.) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Sınıf metotları artık *note property():
     43c. gibi diğer *note descriptor: 1d5f. ‘ları sarmalayamaz.

 -- Işlevi: compile (source, filename, mode, flags=0,
          dont_inherit=False, optimize=-1)

     'source' ‘ı bir koda veya AST nesnesine derler.  Kod nesneleri
     *note exec(): 6cb. veya *note eval(): 6ca. fonksiyonları
     kullanılarak çalıştırılabilir.  'source' normal bir dize, bayt
     dizesi veya bir AST nesnesi olabilir.  AST nesneleriyle nasıl
     çalışılacağını öğrenmek için *note ast: 8. modülüne bkz.

     'filename' argümanı kodun okunduğu dosyayı vermelidir; eğer bir
     dosyadan okunmuyorsa ayırtedilebilir bir değer verebilirsin
     (genellikle ‘'<string>'’ kullanılır).

     'mode' argümanı hangi türden kodun derleneceğini belirtir; eğer
     'source' bir dizi ifadeden oluşuyorsa ‘'exec'’ , eğer tek bir
     ifadeden oluşuyorsa ‘'eval'’ , veya tek bir etkileşimli ifadeden
     oluşuyorsa ‘'single'’ olabilir (ikinci durumda, “None” dışında bir
     değere sahip ifadeler yazdırılacaktır).

     'flags' ve 'dont_inherit' opsiyonel argümanları hangi *note
     derleyici seçenekleri: 1f51. ‘ın aktive edilmesi gerektiğini ve
     hangi *note gelecekteki özellikler: 3d7. ‘e izin verileceğini
     kontrol eder.  İkisi de verilmediyse (veya ikisi de sıfır ise) kod,
     *note compile(): 56d. ‘ı çağıran kodu etkileyen aynı bayraklarla
     derlenir.  Eğer 'flags' argümanı verilip 'dont_inherit'
     verilmediyse (veya sıfırsa), derleyici seçenekleri ve gelecek
     ifadeleri 'flags' argümanı tarafından belirtilirler, her
     türlükullanılacak olanlara ek olarak kullanılır.  Eğer
     'dont_inherit' sıfırdan farklı bir tamsayıysa, 'flags' argümanı da
     odur.  – çevreleyen koddaki bayraklar (gelecekteki özellikler ve
     derleyici seçenekleri) yoksayılır.

     Derleyici seçenekleri ve gelecek ifadeleri, birden fazla seçeneği
     belirlemek için bit düzeyinde VEYA’lanabilen bitler tarafından
     belirlenirler.  Gelecekteki belirli bir özelliği belirtmek için
     gereken bit alanı, *note __future__: 0. modülündeki *note _Feature:
     1f52. örneğinde *note compiler_flag: 1f53. niteliği olarak
     bulunabilir.  *note Derleyici bayrakları: 1f51. , *note ast: 8.
     modülünde ‘PyCF_’ öneki ile bulunabilir.

     'optimize' argümanı derleyicinin optimizasyon seviyesini belirler;
     ‘-1’ varsayılan değeri, *note -O: c42. seçenekleri tarafından
     verilen yorumlayıcının optimizasyon seviyesini seçer.  Belli
     seviyeler: ‘0’ (optimizasyon yok; ‘__debug__’ doğru), ‘1’ (iddialar
     kaldırılır, ‘__debug__’ yanlış) veya ‘2’ (Ekstradan doküman
     dizeleri de kaldırıldı).

     Bu fonksiyon derlenmiş kaynak geçerli değil ise *note SyntaxError:
     14c. , null baytlar içeriyorsa *note ValueError: 189. hatalarını
     ortaya çıkarır.

     Python kodunu onun AST temsiline ayrıştırmak isterseniz, *note
     ast.parse(): 188. ‘a bakınız.

     ‘source’ ve ‘filename’ argümanlarıyla *note denetleme olayı: 16e3.
     ‘compile’ ortaya çıkartır.  Bu durum, örtük derleme ile de ortaya
     çıkarılabilir.

          Not: ‘'single'’ veya ‘'eval'’ modunda çok satırlı bir dize
          derleneceğinde, giren veri en az bir yeni satır karakteri ile
          sonlandırılmalıdır.  Bu *note code: 1a. modülündeki
          tamamlanmış ve tamamlanmamış ifadelerin tespitini
          kolaylaştırmak içindir.

          Uyarı: Python’un AST derleyicisindeki yığın derinliği
          sınırlamaları nedeniyle yeterince büyük/karmaşık bir dizeyi
          bir AST nesnesine derlerken Python yorumlayıcısını çökertmek
          mümkündür.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Windows ve Mac yeni satırlarının kullanımına
     izin verildi.  Ayrıca, bundan böyle ‘'exec'’ modunda iken veri
     girişinin yeni satırda sonlanması gerekmiyor.  'optimize'
     parametresi eklendi.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Önceden, 'source' , null baytlar içeriyorsa
     *note TypeError: 2c4. hatası ortaya çıkardı.

     Added in version 3.8: ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ artık üst
     düze ‘await’, ‘async for’, ve ‘async with’ desteğini etkinleştirmek
     için bayraklarla iletilebilir.

 -- Sınıfı: complex (number=0, /)

 -- Sınıfı: complex (string, /)

 -- Sınıfı: complex (real=0, imag=0)

     Convert a single string or number to a complex number, or create a
     complex number from real and imaginary parts.

     Examples:

          >>> complex('+1.23')
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex('-4.5j')
          -4.5j
          >>> complex('-1.23+4.5j')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('\t( -1.23+4.5J )\n')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('-Infinity+NaNj')
          (-inf+nanj)
          >>> complex(1.23)
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex(imag=-4.5)
          -4.5j
          >>> complex(-1.23, 4.5)
          (-1.23+4.5j)

     If the argument is a string, it must contain either a real part (in
     the same format as for *note float(): 272.) or an imaginary part
     (in the same format but with a ‘'j'’ or ‘'J'’ suffix), or both real
     and imaginary parts (the sign of the imaginary part is mandatory in
     this case).  The string can optionally be surrounded by whitespaces
     and the round parentheses ‘'('’ and ‘')'’, which are ignored.  The
     string must not contain whitespace between ‘'+'’, ‘'-'’, the ‘'j'’
     or ‘'J'’ suffix, and the decimal number.  For example,
     ‘complex('1+2j')’ is fine, but ‘complex('1 + 2j')’ raises *note
     ValueError: 189.  More precisely, the input must conform to the
     *note complexvalue: 1f54. production rule in the following grammar,
     after parentheses and leading and trailing whitespace characters
     are removed:

          complexvalue ::= *note floatvalue: 1f55. |
                           *note floatvalue: 1f55. ("j" | "J") |
                           *note floatvalue: 1f55. *note sign: 1f56. *note absfloatvalue: 1f57. ("j" | "J")

     If the argument is a number, the constructor serves as a numeric
     conversion like *note int: 184. and *note float: 272.  For a
     general Python object ‘x’, ‘complex(x)’ delegates to
     ‘x.__complex__()’.  If *note __complex__(): 3f3. is not defined
     then it falls back to *note __float__(): 82a.  If ‘__float__()’ is
     not defined then it falls back to *note __index__(): 538.

     If two arguments are provided or keyword arguments are used, each
     argument may be any numeric type (including complex).  If both
     arguments are real numbers, return a complex number with the real
     component 'real' and the imaginary component 'imag'.  If both
     arguments are complex numbers, return a complex number with the
     real component ‘real.real-imag.imag’ and the imaginary component
     ‘real.imag+imag.real’.  If one of arguments is a real number, only
     its real component is used in the above expressions.

     If all arguments are omitted, returns ‘0j’.

     Karmaşık tür, *note Sayısal Türler — int, float, complex: 1a3f.
     kısmında açıklanmıştır.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Rakamların, kod sabitlerinde olduğu gibi alt
     çizgi ile gruplandırılmasına izin verilir.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Falls back to *note __index__(): 538. if
     *note __complex__(): 3f3. and *note __float__(): 82a. are not
     defined.

 -- Işlevi: delattr (object, name)

     *note setattr(): 1f47. fonksiyonu ile ilişkilidir .  Argümanlar bir
     nesne ve bir dizedir.  Dize nesnenin özelliklerinden birinin adı
     olmak zorundadır.  Fonksiyon nesnenin izin vermesi koşuluyla,
     dizede belirtilen bu özelliği siler.  Örnek olarak, ‘delattr(x,
     'foobar')’ , ‘del x.foobar’ ‘a eş değerdir.  'name' bir Python
     tanımlayıcısı olmak zorunda değildir (*note setattr(): 1f47. bkz.).

 -- Sınıfı: dict (**kwarg)

 -- Sınıfı: dict (mapping, **kwarg)

 -- Sınıfı: dict (iterable, **kwarg)

     Yeni bir sözlük yaratır.  *note dict: 240. nesnesi bir sözlük
     sınıfıdır.  Bu sınıf hakkındaki dokümantasyon için *note dict: 240.
     ve *note Mapping Types — dict: 933. ‘e bakınız.

     Diğer konteynerler için dahili *note list: 422. , *note set: 3e4. ,
     *note tuple: 4ff. sınıfları ve *note collections: 1d. modülüne
     bakınız.

 -- Işlevi: dir ()

 -- Işlevi: dir (object)

     Argüman yoksa, mevcut yerel kapsamdaki isimleri liste olarak
     döndürür.  Argüman varsa, o nesne için geçerli özelliklerin bir
     listesini döndürmeye çalışır.

     If the object has a method named *note __dir__(): 1d54, this method
     will be called and must return the list of attributes.  This allows
     objects that implement a custom *note __getattr__(): 201. or *note
     __getattribute__(): a49. function to customize the way *note dir():
     445. reports their attributes.

     If the object does not provide *note __dir__(): 1d54, the function
     tries its best to gather information from the object’s *note
     __dict__: 2ec. attribute, if defined, and from its type object.
     The resulting list is not necessarily complete and may be
     inaccurate when the object has a custom *note __getattr__(): 201.

     Varsayılan *note dir(): 445. mekanizması, eksiksiz bilgi yerine en
     alakalı bilgiyi üretmeye çalıştığı için farklı nesne türleriyle
     farklı çalışır:

        * Eğer nesne bir modül nesnesiyse, liste modülün özelliklerinin
          isimlerini içerir.

        * Eğer nesne bir tür veya sınıf nesnesiyse, liste onun
          özelliklerini ve yinelemeli olarak tabanlarının özelliklerini
          içerir.

        * Aksi takdirde, liste nesnenin özelliklerini, sınıfının
          özelliklerini ve yinelemeli olarak sınıfının temel
          sınıflarının özelliklerini içerir.

     Sonuç listesi alfabetik olarak sıralanmıştır.  Örnek olarak:

          >>> import struct
          >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace
          ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
          >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module
          ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',
           '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
           '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
           'unpack', 'unpack_from']
          >>> class Shape:
          ...     def __dir__(self):
          ...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
          ...
          >>> s = Shape()
          >>> dir(s)
          ['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

          Not: Çünkü *note dir(): 445, öncelikle etkileşimli bir komut
          isteminde kullanım kolaylığı sunmak amacıyla sağlanır.
          Titizlikle ve tutarlı bir isim kümesi sağlamaktansa ilginç bir
          isim kümesi sağlar, Detaylı davranışlı sürümler arasında
          değişikliğe uğrayabilir.  Örnek olarak, argüman sınıf ise
          metasınıf özellikleri sonuç listesinde yer almaz.

 -- Işlevi: divmod (a, b)

     Take two (non-complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of
     numbers consisting of their quotient and remainder when using
     integer division.  With mixed operand types, the rules for binary
     arithmetic operators apply.  For integers, the result is the same
     as ‘(a // b, a % b)’.  For floating-point numbers the result is
     ‘(q, a % b)’, where 'q' is usually ‘math.floor(a / b)’ but may be 1
     less than that.  In any case ‘q * b + a % b’ is very close to 'a',
     if ‘a % b’ is non-zero it has the same sign as 'b', and ‘0 <= abs(a
     % b) < abs(b)’.

 -- Işlevi: enumerate (iterable, start=0)

     Bir numaralandırma nesnesi döndürür.  'iterable' bir dize, *note
     iterator: 176e. veya tekrarlamayı destekleyen başka bir nesne
     olmalıdır.  Yineleyicinin by *note enumerate(): 1308. tarafından
     döndürülen *note __next__(): 1176. metodu bir sayıyı (varsayılan
     olarak 0 olan 'start' ‘dan) ve 'iterable' üzerinde yinelemeden elde
     edilen değerleri içeren bir demet döndürür.

          >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
          [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
          [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

     Şuna eşittir:

          def enumerate(iterable, start=0):
              n = start
              for elem in iterable:
                  yield n, elem
                  n += 1

 -- Işlevi: eval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘expression’ (*note str: 15d. | *note code object: 5e3.) – A
          Python expression.

        * ‘globals’ (*note dict: 240. | ‘None’) – The global namespace
          (default: ‘None’).

        * ‘locals’ (*note mapping: 1061. | ‘None’) – The local namespace
          (default: ‘None’).


     Dönüşler: The result of the evaluated expression.


     Raises: Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.

          Uyarı: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling it with
          user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities.

     'expression' bağımsız değişkeni, genel ve yerel ad alanı olarak
     'globals' ve 'locals' sözlükleri kullanılarak Python ifadesi
     (teknik olarak bir koşul listesi) olarak ayrıştırılır ve
     değerlendirilir.  'globals' sözlüğü varsa ve ‘__builtins__’
     anahtarı için bir değer içermiyorsa, 'expression' ayrıştırılmadan
     önce bu anahtarın altına yerleşik modül *note builtins: 12.
     sözlüğüne bir referans eklenir.  Bu şekilde, kendi ‘__builtins__’
     sözlüğünüzü *note eval(): 6ca. içine geçirmeden önce 'globals'
     içine ekleyerek yürütülen kod için hangi yerleşiklerin
     kullanılabilir olduğunu kontrol edebilirsiniz.  'locals' sözlüğü
     atlanırsa, varsayılan olarak 'globals' sözlüğünü kullanır.  Her iki
     sözlük de atlanırsa, ifade *note eval(): 6ca. olarak adlandırılan
     ortamda 'globals' ve 'locals' ile yürütülür.  Not, 'eval()' kapsama
     ortamında *note iç içe kapsamlar: 1f59. (yerel olmayan) erişimi
     yoktur.

     Example:

          >>> x = 1
          >>> eval('x+1')
          2

     Bu fonksiyon keyfi kod nesnelerini (*note compile(): 56d.
     tarafından oluşturulanlar gibi) çalıştırmak için de kullanılabilir.
     Bu durumda, dize yerine bir kod nesnesi iletin.  Eğer kod nesnesi
     'mode' argümanı olarak ‘'exec'’ ile derlendiyse, *note eval(): 6ca.
     ‘in döndürdüğü değer ‘None’ olacaktır.

     İpuçları: ifadelerin dinamik yürütmeleri *note exec(): 6cb.
     fonksiyonu tarafından desteklenir.  *note globals(): 168f. ve *note
     locals(): 179. fonksiyonları sırasıyla mevcut global ve yerel
     sözlüğü döndürür.  *note eval(): 6ca. veya *note exec(): 6cb.
     tarafından kullanım için dolaşmak yararlı olabilir.

     Eğer verilen kaynak dize ise, baştaki ve sondaki boşluklar ve
     tab’lar çıkarılır.

     Sadece kalıp içeren ifadelerle dizeleri güvenli bir şekilde
     değerlendirebilen bir fonksiyon arıyorsanız, *note
     ast.literal_eval(): a91. ‘a bakınız.

     Argüman olarak kod nesnesi ile bir *note denetleme olayı: 16e3.
     ‘exec’ hatası ortaya çıkartır.  Kodun derlendiği sırada çıkan
     hatalar da yükseltilir.

 -- Işlevi: exec (object, globals=None, locals=None, /, *, closure=None)

          Uyarı: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling it with
          user-supplied input may lead to security vulnerabilities.

     Bu fonksiyon Python kodunun dinamik çalıştırılmasını destekler.
     'object' bir kod objesi veya dize olmalıdır.  Dize ise, dize daha
     sonra yürütülen bir Python ifadeleri paketi olarak ayrıştırılır
     (bir sözdizimi hatası olmadıkça).  (1)  eğer bir kod objesiyse,
     sadece çalıştırılır.  Her durumda, çalıştırılacak kodun dosya
     girişi olarak geçerli olması beklenir (Referans Kılavuzundaki *note
     File input: 1f2c. kısmına bakınız).  *note nonlocal: 1150, *note
     yield: 82b, ve *note return: 82c. ifadelerinin *note exec(): 6cb.
     fonksiyonuna geçirilen kod kaynağında bile fonksiyonlar dışında
     kullanılamayacağını unutmayınız.  Döndürülen değer ‘None’ ‘dır.

     In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is
     executed in the current scope.  If only 'globals' is provided, it
     must be a dictionary (and not a subclass of dictionary), which will
     be used for both the global and the local variables.  If 'globals'
     and 'locals' are given, they are used for the global and local
     variables, respectively.  If provided, 'locals' can be any mapping
     object.  Remember that at the module level, globals and locals are
     the same dictionary.

          Not: Most users should just pass a 'globals' argument and
          never 'locals'.  If exec gets two separate objects as
          'globals' and 'locals', the code will be executed as if it
          were embedded in a class definition.

     Eğer 'globals' sözlüğü ‘__builtins__’ anahtarı için bir değer
     içermiyorsa, bu anahtarın altına bir referans yerleşik modül *note
     builtins: 12. ‘in sözlüğüne eklenir.  Bu şekilde, kendi
     ‘__builtins__’ sözlüğünüzü *note exec(): 6cb. ‘e geçirmeden önce
     'globals' içine ekleyerek yürütülen kod için hangi yerleşiklerin
     mevcut olduğunu kontrol edebilirsiniz.

     'closure' argümanı, bir hücre değişkenleri demeti olan bir
     kapatmayı belirtir.  Yalnızca 'nesne' serbest değişkenler içeren
     bir kod nesnesi olduğunda geçerlidir.  Demetin uzunluğu, kod
     nesnesi tarafından başvurulan serbest değişkenlerin sayısıyla tam
     olarak eşleşmelidir.

     Argüman olarak kod nesnesi ile bir *note denetleme olayı: 16e3.
     ‘exec’ hatası ortaya çıkartır.  Kodun derlendiği sırada çıkan
     hatalar da yükseltilir.

          Not: Yerleşik *note globals(): 168f. ve *note locals(): 179.
          fonksiyonları mevcut global ve yerel sözlüğü sırasıyla
          döndürür.  Bu, *note exec(): 6cb. ‘e ikinci ve üçüncü argüman
          olarak kullanılmak üzere geçirmek için yararlı olabilir.

          Not: Varsayılan 'locals' davranışı aşağıda *note locals():
          179. fonksiyonu için açıklandığı gibi: varsayılan 'locals'
          sözlüğünde değişiklik yapılmaya çalışılmamalıdır.  *note
          exec(): 6cb. fonksiyonu değer döndürdükten sonra kodun
          'locals' üzerindeki etkilerini görmeniz gerekiyorsa, açık bir
          'local' sözlüğü geçirin.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'closure' parametresi eklendi.

 -- Işlevi: filter (function, iterable)

     'fonksiyon'’un doğru olduğu 'iterable' öğelerinden bir yineleyici
     oluşturun.  'iterable' bir dizi, yinelemeyi destekleyen bir
     kapsayıcı veya bir yineleyici olabilir.  'fonksiyon' ‘None’ ise,
     kimlik işlevi varsayılır, yani 'iterable' öğesinin yanlış olan tüm
     öğeleri kaldırılır.

     Eğer fonksiyon ‘None’ değilse ve ‘(item for item in iterable if
     item)’ için fonksiyon ‘None’ ise, ‘filter(function, iterable)’ ‘ın
     bir üretici ifadesine ‘(item for item in iterable if
     function(item))’ eşit olduğunu unutmayın.

     'fonksiyon'’un yanlış olduğu 'iterable' öğelerini döndüren
     tamamlayıcı fonksiyon için *note itertools.filterfalse(): 1f5a.
     konusuna bakın.

 -- Sınıfı: float (number=0.0, /)

 -- Sınıfı: float (string, /)

     Return a floating-point number constructed from a number or a
     string.

     Examples:

          >>> float('+1.23')
          1.23
          >>> float('   -12345\n')
          -12345.0
          >>> float('1e-003')
          0.001
          >>> float('+1E6')
          1000000.0
          >>> float('-Infinity')
          -inf

     If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number,
     optionally preceded by a sign, and optionally embedded in
     whitespace.  The optional sign may be ‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’; a ‘'+'’ sign
     has no effect on the value produced.  The argument may also be a
     string representing a NaN (not-a-number), or positive or negative
     infinity.  More precisely, the input must conform to the *note
     floatvalue: 1f55. production rule in the following grammar, after
     leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed:

          sign          ::= "+" | "-"
          infinity      ::= "Infinity" | "inf"
          nan           ::= "nan"
          digit         ::= <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd>
          digitpart     ::= *note digit: 1f5d. (["_"] *note digit: 1f5d.)*
          number        ::= [*note digitpart: 1f5e.] "." *note digitpart: 1f5e. | *note digitpart: 1f5e. ["."]
          exponent      ::= ("e" | "E") [*note sign: 1f56.] *note digitpart: 1f5e.
          floatnumber   ::= *note number: 1f5f. [*note exponent: 1f60.]
          absfloatvalue ::= *note floatnumber: 1f61. | *note infinity: 1f5b. | *note nan: 1f5c.
          floatvalue    ::= [*note sign: 1f56.] *note absfloatvalue: 1f57.

     Case is not significant, so, for example, “inf”, “Inf”, “INFINITY”,
     and “iNfINity” are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

     Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating-point
     number, a floating-point number with the same value (within
     Python’s floating-point precision) is returned.  If the argument is
     outside the range of a Python float, an *note OverflowError: 6c7.
     will be raised.

     For a general Python object ‘x’, ‘float(x)’ delegates to
     ‘x.__float__()’.  If *note __float__(): 82a. is not defined then it
     falls back to *note __index__(): 538.

     Argüman verilmediyse, ‘0.0’ döndürülür.

     Float tipi *note Sayısal Türler — int, float, complex: 1a3f.
     kısmında açıklandı.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Rakamların, kod sabitlerinde olduğu gibi alt
     çizgi ile gruplandırılmasına izin verilir.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The parameter is now positional-only.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Falls back to *note __index__(): 538. if
     *note __float__(): 82a. is not defined.

 -- Işlevi: format (value, format_spec='')

     Bir 'value' ‘ı, 'format_spec' tarafından kontrol edildiği gibi
     “biçimlendirilmiş” bir gösterime dönüştürür.  'format_spec' ‘in
     yorumlanması 'value' argümanının tipine göre değişkendir; ama, çoğu
     yerleşik tiplerde kullanılan *note Format Specification
     Mini-Language: 3ee. adında bir standart biçimlendirme sözdizimi
     var.

     Varsayılan 'format_spec', *note str(value): 15d. fonksiyonunu
     çağırmakla aynı etkiyi gösteren boş bir dizedir.

     A call to ‘format(value, format_spec)’ is translated to
     ‘type(value).__format__(value, format_spec)’ which bypasses the
     instance dictionary when searching for the value’s *note
     __format__(): 430. method.  A *note TypeError: 2c4. exception is
     raised if the method search reaches *note object: 8f2. and the
     'format_spec' is non-empty, or if either the 'format_spec' or the
     return value are not strings.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: 'format_spec' boş bir dize değilse,
     ‘object().__format__(format_spec)’, *note TypeError: 2c4. hatasını
     ortaya çıkartır.

 -- Sınıfı: frozenset (iterable=set())

     Opsiyonel olarak 'iterable' öğesinden alınan öğelerle yeni bir
     *note frozenset: 3e5. nesnesi döndürür.  ‘frozenset’ yerleşik bir
     sınıftır.  Bu sınıf hakkında dokümantasyona ulaşmak için *note
     frozenset: 3e5. ve *note Set Türleri — set, frozenset: 1f62. ‘e
     bakınız.

     Diğer konteynerler için, yerleşik *note set: 3e4, *note list: 422,
     *note tuple: 4ff, ve *note dict: 240. sınıflarına, ayrıca *note
     collections: 1d. modülüne bakabilirsiniz.

 -- Işlevi: getattr (object, name)

 -- Işlevi: getattr (object, name, default)

     'object' ‘in parametre olarak verilmiş isimli özelliğinin değerini
     döndürür.  'name' bir dize olmalıdır.  Eğer dize nesnenin
     özelliklerinden birinin ismi ise, sonuç bu özelliğin değeri olur.
     Örnek olarak, ‘getattr(x, 'foobar')’, ‘x.foobar’ ‘a eşittir.  Eğer
     isimlendirilmiş özellik objede bulunmuyorsa, 'default' sağlanmışsa
     döndürülür, aksi takdirde *note AttributeError: 3dc. hatası ortaya
     çıkar.  'name' bir Python tanımlayıcısı olmak zorunda değildir
     (*note setattr(): 1f47. bkz).

          Not: *note özel isim yönetimi: 1b03. derleme zamanında
          gerçekleştiğinden dolayı, *note getattr(): a48. ile almak için
          özel bir niteliğin (baştaki iki alt çizgili nitelikler) adını
          manuel olarak değiştirmek gerekir.

 -- Işlevi: globals ()

     Geçerli modül ad alanını uygulayan sözlüğü döndürür.  Fonksiyonlar
     içeren kod için, bu fonksiyon tanımlandığında ayarlanır ve
     fonksiyonun çağrıldığı yerden bağımsız olarak aynı kalır.

 -- Işlevi: hasattr (object, name)

     Argümanlar bir nesne ve dizedir.  Eğer dize, nesnenin
     özelliklerinden birinin ismiyse ‘True’, değilse ‘False’ döndürür.
     (Bu ‘getattr(object, name)’ ‘i çağırarak uygulanır ve *note
     AttributeError: 3dc. hatası oluşup oluşmayacağı görülür.)

 -- Işlevi: hash (object)

     Nesnenin karma değerini döndürür (eğer varsa).  Karma değerler tam
     sayılardır.  Sözlükleri incelerken hızlı bir şekilde anahtarları
     karşılaştırmak için kullanılırlar.  Karşılaştırıldığında aynı olan
     nümerik değerler aynı karma değere sahiptir (1 ve 1.0 durumunda
     olduğu gibi farklı veri tiplerinde olsalar bile).

          Not: For objects with custom *note __hash__(): 969. methods,
          note that *note hash(): 3f7. truncates the return value based
          on the bit width of the host machine.

 -- Işlevi: help ()

 -- Işlevi: help (request)

     Yerleşik yardım sistemini çağırın.  (Bu fonksiyon interaktif
     kullanıma yöneliktir.)  Eğer argüman verilmediyse, interaktif
     yardım sistemi yorumlayıcı konsolunda başlar.  Eğer argüman bir
     dize ise, bir modül, fonksiyon, sınıf, metot, anahtar kelime veya
     dokümantasyon konusu için dizeye bakılır ve bir yardım sayfası
     konsola bastırılır.  Eğer argüman başka tipte bir nesne ise, nesne
     üzerinde bir yardım sayfası oluşturulur.

     Eğer *note help(): 72a. çağrılırken bir fonksiyonun parametre
     listesinde eğik çizgi(/) bulunuyorsa, bu, eğik çizgiden önceki
     parametrelerin yalnızca konumsal olduğu anlamına gelir.  Daha fazla
     bilgi için *note yalnızca konumsalparametrelerle ilgili SSS girişi:
     1f63. ‘ne bakınız.

     Bu fonksiyon *note site: c6. modülü tarafından yerleşik ad alanına
     eklenir.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: *note pydoc: b4. ve *note inspect: 7c. ‘e
     gelen değişiklikler, çağrılabilir nesneler için rapor edilen
     damgaların artık daha kapsamlı ve tutarlı olduğunu ifade eder.

 -- Işlevi: hex (x)

     Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string
     prefixed with “0x”.  If 'x' is not a Python *note int: 184. object,
     it has to define an *note __index__(): 538. method that returns an
     integer.  Some examples:

          >>> hex(255)
          '0xff'
          >>> hex(-42)
          '-0x2a'

     Eğer bir tam sayıyı büyük harf-küçük harf, önekli-öneksiz bir
     onaltılık sayıya dönüştürmek istiyorsanız, aşağıdaki yolları
     kullanabilirsiniz:

          >>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

     Ayrıca daha fazla bilgi için *note format(): 431. ‘a
     bakabilirsiniz.

     Ayrıca onaltılık bir dizgiyi 16 tabanını kullanarak bir tam sayıya
     dönüştürmek için *note int(): 184. ‘e bakınız.

          Not: Bir gerçel sayıdan onaltılık bir dize gösterimi elde
          etmek için *note float.hex(): 1b5d. metodunu kullanın.

 -- Işlevi: id (object)

     Bir nesnenin “kimlik” ‘ini döndürür.  Bu nesnenin ömrü boyunca
     eşsiz ve sabit olduğu garanti edilen bir tam sayıdır.  Ömürleri
     örtüşmeyen iki nesne aynı *note id(): 12ab. değerine sahip
     olabilir.

     Bu, bellekteki nesnenin adresidir.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘builtins.id’ with argument
     ‘id’.

 -- Işlevi: input ()

 -- Işlevi: input (prompt)

     Eğer 'prompt' argümanı bulunuyorsa, sonunda yeni bir satır olmadan
     standart çıktıya yazılır.  Ardından fonksiyon veri girişinden bir
     satır okur ve bunu bir dizeye çevirip (sondaki yeni satırı
     çıkartır) döndürür.  EOF okunduğunda, *note EOFError: 1183.
     istisnası ortaya çıkar.  Örnek:

          >>> s = input('--> ')
          --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
          >>> s
          "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

     Eğer *note readline: b9. modülü yüklendiyse, *note input(): 1182.
     ayrıntılı satır düzenleme ve geçmiş özellikleri sağlamak için onu
     kullanacaktır.

     Girişi okumadan önce, ‘prompt’ argümanıyla birlikte bir *note
     denetleme olayı: 16e3. ‘builtins.input’ ortaya çıkartır

     Girişi başarıyla okuduktan sonra sonuçla birlikte bir *note
     auditing event: 16e3. ‘builtins.input/result’ denetleme olayı
     ortaya çıkarır.

 -- Sınıfı: int (number=0, /)

 -- Sınıfı: int (string, /, base=10)

     Return an integer object constructed from a number or a string, or
     return ‘0’ if no arguments are given.

     Examples:

          >>> int(123.45)
          123
          >>> int('123')
          123
          >>> int('   -12_345\n')
          -12345
          >>> int('FACE', 16)
          64206
          >>> int('0xface', 0)
          64206
          >>> int('01110011', base=2)
          115

     If the argument defines *note __int__(): 537, ‘int(x)’ returns
     ‘x.__int__()’.  If the argument defines *note __index__(): 538, it
     returns ‘x.__index__()’.  If the argument defines *note
     __trunc__(): 536, it returns ‘x.__trunc__()’.  For floating-point
     numbers, this truncates towards zero.

     If the argument is not a number or if 'base' is given, then it must
     be a string, *note bytes: 2cb, or *note bytearray: 2ca. instance
     representing an integer in radix 'base'.  Optionally, the string
     can be preceded by ‘+’ or ‘-’ (with no space in between), have
     leading zeros, be surrounded by whitespace, and have single
     underscores interspersed between digits.

     Bir taban-n tamsayı dizesi, her biri 0 ile n-1 arasında bir değeri
     temsil eden rakamlar içerir.  0–9 değerleri herhangi bir Unicode
     ondalık basamağı ile temsil edilebilir.  10-35 değerleri ‘a’ ila
     ‘z’ (veya ‘A’ ila ‘Z’) ile temsil edilebilir.  Varsayılan 'taban'
     10’dur.  İzin verilen tabanlar 0 ve 2–36’dır.  Taban-2, -8 ve -16
     dizelerinin önüne isteğe bağlı olarak ‘0b’/‘0B’, ‘0o’/‘0O’ veya
     ‘0x’/‘0X’ eklenebilir, tıpkı koddaki tamsayı değişmezlerinde olduğu
     gibi.  Taban 0 için, dize *note koddaki tamsayı değişmezi: 1cb5.
     ‘ne benzer bir şekilde yorumlanır, gerçek taban önek tarafından
     belirlenen 2, 8, 10 veya 16’dır.  Taban 0 ayrıca baştaki sıfırlara
     da izin vermez: ‘int('010', 0)’ yasal değilken, ‘int('010')’ ve
     ‘int('010', 8)’ yasaldır.

     Tam sayı tipi *note Sayısal Türler — int, float, complex: 1a3f.
     kısmında açıklandı.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Eğer 'base' bir *note int: 184. örneği
     değilse ve 'base' objesi *note base.__index__: 538. metoduna
     sahipse, bu metot, taban için bir tamsayı elde etmek için çağrılır.
     Önceki sürümler *note base.__index__: 538. yerine *note
     base.__int__: 537. ‘i kullandı.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Rakamların, kod sabitlerinde olduğu gibi alt
     çizgi ile gruplandırılmasına izin verilir.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The first parameter is now positional-only.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Falls back to *note __index__(): 538. if
     *note __int__(): 537. is not defined.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The delegation to *note __trunc__(): 536.
     is deprecated.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note int: 184. string inputs and string
     representations can be limited to help avoid denial of service
     attacks.  A *note ValueError: 189. is raised when the limit is
     exceeded while converting a string to an *note int: 184. or when
     converting an *note int: 184. into a string would exceed the limit.
     See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 402.
     documentation.

 -- Işlevi: isinstance (object, classinfo)

     'object' argümanı, 'classinfo' argümanının bir örneğiyse veya
     (doğrudan, dolaylı veya *note sanal: 105b.) alt sınıfının bir
     örneğiyse ‘True’ döndürür.  Eğer 'object' verilen tipte bir nesne
     değilse, fonksiyon mutlaka ‘False’ döndürür.  'classinfo', tür
     nesnelerinden oluşan bir demet (veya yinelemeli olarak, bu tür
     diğer demetler) veya birden çok türden bir *note Sendika Türü: 5f9.
     ise, ayrıca 'object' bu verilen türlerden herhangi birinin örneği
     ise ‘True’ döndürür.  Eğer 'classinfo' bir tür veya türler içeren
     bir tuple değilse, *note TypeError: 2c4. hatası ortaya çıkar.  Eğer
     önceden yapılmış bir kontrol başarılıysa *note TypeError: 2c4.
     geçersiz bir tip için ortaya çıkmayabilir.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: 'classinfo' bir *note Sendika Türü: 5f9.
     olabilir.

 -- Işlevi: issubclass (class, classinfo)

     Eğer 'class', 'classinfo' ‘nun bir alt sınıfıysa (doğrudan,
     dolaylı, veya *note sanal: 105b.), ‘True’ döndürür.  Bir sınıf
     kendisinin alt sınıfı olarak dikkate alınır.  'classinfo' sınıf
     nesnelerinden oluşan bir demet (veya tekrarlı diğer benzer
     demetler) veya *note Sendika Türü: 5f9. olabilir, bu durumda eğer
     'class', 'classinfo' ‘daki elemanlardan herhangi birinin alt
     sınıfıysa ‘True’ döndürülür.  Diğer her durumda, *note TypeError:
     2c4. hatası ortaya çıkar.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: 'classinfo' bir *note Sendika Türü: 5f9.
     olabilir.

 -- Işlevi: iter (object)

 -- Işlevi: iter (object, sentinel)

     Return an *note iterator: 176e. object.  The first argument is
     interpreted very differently depending on the presence of the
     second argument.  Without a second argument, 'object' must be a
     collection object which supports the *note iterable: 10ce. protocol
     (the *note __iter__(): 1d49. method), or it must support the
     sequence protocol (the *note __getitem__(): 500. method with
     integer arguments starting at ‘0’).  If it does not support either
     of those protocols, *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.  If the second
     argument, 'sentinel', is given, then 'object' must be a callable
     object.  The iterator created in this case will call 'object' with
     no arguments for each call to its *note __next__(): 1176. method;
     if the value returned is equal to 'sentinel', *note StopIteration:
     a73. will be raised, otherwise the value will be returned.

     Ayrıca *note Yineleyici Türleri: 1f64. bkz.

     *note iter(): 610. ‘in ikinci formunun kullanışlı uygulamalarından
     biri bir blok okuyucu inşaa etmektir.  Örnek olarak, dosyanın
     sonuna ulaşılana kadar ikili bir veritabanı dosyasından sabit
     genişlikte bloklar okunurken:

          from functools import partial
          with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:
              for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):
                  process_block(block)

 -- Işlevi: len (s)

     Bir objenin uzunluğunu (element sayısını) döndürür.  Argüman bir
     dizi (örneğin dize, bytes, demet, liste veya aralık) veya bir
     koleksiyon (örneğin sözlük, küme veya dondurulmuş küme) olabilir.

     ‘len’, *note range(2 ** 100): 79c. gibi *note sys.maxsize: 106a.
     ‘dan daha geniş uzunluklar için *note OverflowError: 6c7. hatası
     ortaya çıkartır.

 -- Sınıfı: list

 -- Sınıfı: list (iterable)

     Bir fonksiyon görevi görmektense, *note Listeler: 1f65. ve *note
     Dizi Tipleri — list, tuple, range: 1a92. de anlatıldığı gibi *note
     list: 422. bir değiştirebilir dizi çeşididir.

 -- Işlevi: locals ()

     Anlık yerel sembol tablosunu temsil eden bir sözlüğü günceller ve
     döndürür.  Serbest değişkenler *note locals(): 179. fonksiyon
     bloklarında çağırıldığında onun aracılığıyla döndürülür, aynısı
     sınıf bloklarında geçerli değildir.  Unutmayın ki modül
     seviyesinde, *note locals(): 179. ve *note globals(): 168f. aynı
     sözlüklerdir.

          Not: Bu sözlüğün içeriği modifiye edilmemelidir, değişiklikler
          yorumlayıcı tarafından kullanılan yerel ve serbest
          değişkenlerin değerlerini etkilemeyebilir.

 -- Işlevi: map (function, iterable, *iterables)

     'iterable' ‘in her elementini 'function' ‘a gönderen bir yineleyici
     döndürür ve sonuçları sunar.  Eğer ek 'iterables' parametreleri
     verildiyse, 'function' o sayıda parametre almalı ve paralel bir
     şekilde tüm yinelenebilir nesnelerden tüm elementleri
     uygulamalıdır.  Birden fazla yinelenebilir nesne ile, yineleyici en
     kısa yinelenebilir nesne tükendiğinde durur.  Fonksiyon
     girdilerinin zaten demetler halinde verildiği durumlar için, *note
     itertools.starmap(): f86.‘a bakın.

 -- Işlevi: max (iterable, *, key=None)

 -- Işlevi: max (iterable, *, default, key=None)

 -- Işlevi: max (arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)

     Bir yineleyicinin veya birden fazla parametrenin en büyük
     elementini döndürür.

     Eğer bir konumsal parametre sağlandıysa, o bir *note iterable:
     10ce. olmalıdır.  Yineleyicinin en büyük elementi döndürülür.  Eğer
     iki veya daha fazla pozisyonel parametre sağlandıysa, pozisyonel
     parametrelerin en büyüğü döndürülür.

     İki tane opsiyonel anahtar kelime parametresi vardır.  'key'
     parametresi, *note list.sort(): a46. için kullanıldığı gibi bir
     parametre talep etme fonksiyonunu belirtir.  'varsayılan'
     parametre, sağlanan yineleyici boş ise döndürülecek nesneyi
     belirtir.  Eğer yineleyici boş ve 'varsayılan' verilmemiş ise,
     *note ValueError: 189. hatası ortaya çıkar.

     Eğer birden fazla element en büyük ise, fonksiyon ilk rastlananı
     döndürür.  bu ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0]’ ve
     ‘heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)’ gibi sıralama
     kararlılığı muhafaza eden araçlar ile uygundur.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'default' keyword-only parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: 'key' ‘None’ olabilir.

 -- Sınıfı: memoryview (object)

     Verilen argümandan oluşturulan bir “memory view” objesi döndürür.
     Daha fazla bilgi için *note Memory Views: 1f66. bkz.

 -- Işlevi: min (iterable, *, key=None)

 -- Işlevi: min (iterable, *, default, key=None)

 -- Işlevi: min (arg1, arg2, *args, key=None)

     Bir yineleyicideki en küçük elementi veya birden fazla argümandan
     en küçüğünü döndürür.

     Eğer bir argüman sağlandıysa, argüman bir *note iterable: 10ce.
     olmalıdır.  Yineleyicinin en küçük elementi döndürülür.  Eğer
     birden fazla argüman sağlandıysa, argümanların en küçüğü
     döndürülür.

     İki tane opsiyonel anahtar kelime parametresi vardır.  'key'
     parametresi, *note list.sort(): a46. için kullanıldığı gibi bir
     parametre talep etme fonksiyonunu belirtir.  'varsayılan'
     parametre, sağlanan yineleyici boş ise döndürülecek nesneyi
     belirtir.  Eğer yineleyici boş ve 'varsayılan' verilmemiş ise,
     *note ValueError: 189. hatası ortaya çıkar.

     Eğer birden fazla element minimum ise, ilk karşılaşılan döndürülür.
     Bu, ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]’ ve ‘heapq.nsmallest(1,
     iterable, key=keyfunc)’ gibi diğer sıralama kararlılığını koruma
     araçlarıyla tutarlı çalışır.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'default' keyword-only parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: 'key' ‘None’ olabilir.

 -- Işlevi: next (iterator)

 -- Işlevi: next (iterator, default)

     *note iterator: 176e. ‘ın *note __next__(): 1176. metodunu
     çağırarak sıradaki elementi getirir.  Eğer 'default' verildiyse ve
     yineleyici tükenmiş ise 'default' döndürülür, aksi takdirde *note
     StopIteration: a73. hatası ortaya çıkar.

 -- Sınıfı: object

     This is the ultimate base class of all other classes.  It has
     methods that are common to all instances of Python classes.  When
     the constructor is called, it returns a new featureless object.
     The constructor does not accept any arguments.

          Not: *note object: 8f2. instances do 'not' have *note
          __dict__: 2ec. attributes, so you can’t assign arbitrary
          attributes to an instance of *note object: 8f2.

 -- Işlevi: oct (x)

     Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with “0o”.
     The result is a valid Python expression.  If 'x' is not a Python
     *note int: 184. object, it has to define an *note __index__(): 538.
     method that returns an integer.  For example:

          >>> oct(8)
          '0o10'
          >>> oct(-56)
          '-0o70'

     Eğer bir tamsayıyı “0o” ön ekiyle veya ön eksiz oktal bir dizeye
     dönüştürmek istiyorsanız, aşağıdaki yolları kullanabilirsiniz.

          >>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
          ('0o12', '12')

     Ayrıca daha fazla bilgi için *note format(): 431. ‘a
     bakabilirsiniz.

 -- Işlevi: open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     'file' ‘ı açar ve buna karşılık gelen *note file object: 1068. ‘i
     döndürür.  Eğer dosya açılamazsa, *note OSError: 65c. hatası ortaya
     çıkar.  Bu fonksiyonun nasıl kullanıldığına dair daha fazla örnek
     için *note Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma: 1ac8. bkz.

     'file', açılan dosyanın açılması veya dosyanın bir tam sayı dosya
     tanımlayıcısının paketlenmesi için bir yol adını (mutlak veya
     geçerli çalışma dizinine göre) veren *note path-like object: 98e.
     ‘dir.  (Eğer bir dosya açıklayıcısı veirldiyse, 'closefd', ‘False’
     ‘a ayarlanmadığı sürece I/O nesnesi kapatıldığında kapatılır.

     'mode' is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the
     file is opened.  It defaults to ‘'r'’ which means open for reading
     in text mode.  Other common values are ‘'w'’ for writing
     (truncating the file if it already exists), ‘'x'’ for exclusive
     creation, and ‘'a'’ for appending (which on 'some' Unix systems,
     means that 'all' writes append to the end of the file regardless of
     the current seek position).  In text mode, if 'encoding' is not
     specified the encoding used is platform-dependent: *note
     locale.getencoding(): 25d. is called to get the current locale
     encoding.  (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and
     leave 'encoding' unspecified.)  The available modes are:

     Karakter      Anlam
                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'r'’         okumaya açık (varsayılan)
                   
                   
     ‘'w'’         yazmaya açık, önce dosyayı keser
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         ayrıcalıklı oluşturma için açık, dosya varsa hata verir
                   
                   
     ‘'a'’         yazmaya açık, eğer dosya bulunuyorsa dosyaya ekleme yapar
                   
                   
     ‘'b'’         ikili mod
                   
                   
     ‘'t'’         metin modu (varsayılan)
                   
                   
     ‘'+'’         güncellemeye açık (okuma ve yazma)
                   

     Varsayılan mod ‘'r'’ (okumaya açık, ‘'rt'’ ‘nin eşanlamlısı.)
     ‘dir.  ‘'w+'’ ve ‘'w+b'’ modları dosyayı açar ve temizlerler.
     ‘'r+'’ ve ‘'r+b'’ modları dosyayı temizlemeden açarlar.

     *note Overview: 1f68. ‘de bahsedildiği gibi, Python ikili ve metin
     I/O arasında ayrım yapar.  İkili modda ('mode' parametresinde ‘'b'’
     ‘yi içererek) açılan dosyalar, içerikleri *note bytes: 2cb.
     nesneleri halinde deşifre etmeden döndürür.  Metin modunda
     (varsayılan, veya 'mode' parametresinde ‘'t'’ içerildiğinde),
     dosyanın içeriği *note str: 15d. olarak döndürülür, baytlar
     platforma bağlı bir kodlayıcı veya belirtilen 'encoding' ‘i
     kullanarak deşifre edilir.

          Not: Python, temel alınan işletim sisteminin metin dosyaları
          kavramına bağlı değildir.  Tüm işlemler Python’un kendisi
          tarafından yapılır ve bu yüzden de platformdan bağımsızdır.

     'buffering', arabelleğe alma ilkesini ayarlamak için kullanılan
     isteğe bağlı bir tamsayıdır.  Arabelleğe almayı kapatmak için 0
     (yalnızca ikili modda yazılırken izin verilir), satır arabelleğini
     seçmek için 1 (yalnızca metin modunda kullanılabilir) ve sabit
     boyutlu yığın arabelleğinin bayt cinsinden boyutunu belirtmek için
     birden büyük bir tam sayı iletin.  Bir arabellek boyutunu bu
     şekilde belirtmenin ikili arabelleğe alınmış G/Ç için geçerli
     olduğunu unutmayın, ancak ‘TextIOWrapper’ (yani, ‘mode='r+'’ ile
     açılan dosyalar) başka bir arabelleğe alır.  ‘TextIOWrapper’
     arabelleğe almayı devre dışı bırakmak için, *note
     io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): 9ba. için ‘write_through’ bayrağını
     kullanmayı düşünün.  'arabelleğe alma' bağımsız değişkeni
     verilmediğinde, varsayılan arabelleğe alma ilkesi şu şekilde
     çalışır:

        * Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of
          the buffer is chosen using a heuristic trying to determine the
          underlying device’s “block size” and falling back on *note
          io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 14c5.  On many systems, the buffer
          will typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.

        * “İnteraktif” metin dosyaları (*note isatty(): 1acb. ‘nın
          ‘True’ döndürdüğü dosyalar) satır arabelleğe almayı kullanır.
          Diğer metin dosyaları yukarıda ikili dosyalar için açıklanan
          poliçeyi kullanırlar.

     'encoding' dosyayı kodlamak veya deşifre etmek için kullanılan
     kodlayıcının ismidir.  Bu sadece metin modunda kullanılmalıdır.
     Varsayılan kodlayıcı platforma bağımlıdır (*note
     locale.getpreferredencoding(): 2c6. ne döndürüyorsa), ama Python
     tarafından desteklenen herhangi bir *note text encoding: 1f69.
     kullanılabilir.  Desteklenen kodlayıcıların listesi için *note
     codecs: 1b. modülüne bkz.

     'errors' şifreleme ve deşifreleme hatalarının nasıl işleneceğini
     belirten opsiyonel bir dizedir—bu ikili modda kullanılamaz.  Bazı
     standart hata işleyecileri mevcuttur (*note Error Handlers: 1608.
     ‘da listelendi), ayrıca *note codecs.register_error(): 1323. ile
     kaydedilen herhangi bir hata işleyici ismi de geçerlidir.  Standart
     isimler bunları içerir:

        * ‘'strict'’, bir kodlama hatası varsa bir *note ValueError:
          189. istisnasını yükseltmek için kullanılır.  Varsayılan değer
          ‘None’ ile aynı etkiyi gösterir.

        * ‘'ignore'’ hataları görmezden gelir.  Kodlayıcı hatalarını
          görmezden gelmenin veri kaybı ile sonuçlanabileceğini
          unutmayın.

        * ‘'replace'’ hatalı biçimlendirilmiş veri olduğunda bir yedek
          işaretleyici (‘'?'’ gibi) ‘nin hatalı biçimlendirilmiş verinin
          yerine geçmesine neden olur.

        * ‘'surrogateescape'’, hatalı baytları U+DC80’den U+DCFF’ye
          kadar değişen vekil kod birimleri olarak sunacaktır.  Bu vekil
          kod birimleri sonradan ‘surrogateescape’ hata işleyicisi veri
          yazmak için kullanıldığında aynı baytlara geri
          döndürülecektir.  Bu dosyaları bilinmeyen bir kodlayıcıyla
          işlerken kullanışlıdır.

        * ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ is only supported when writing to a
          file.  Characters not supported by the encoding are replaced
          with the appropriate XML character reference ‘&#NNN;’.

        * ‘'backslashreplace'’ Python’un ters slash kaçış karakterleri
          yüzünden oluşan hatalı veriyi değiştirir.

        * ‘'namereplace'’ (sadece yazarken desteklenir) desteklenmeyen
          karakterleri ‘\N{...}’ kaçış karakterleriyle değiştirir.

     'newline' akıştan yeni satır karakterlerinin nasıl
     ayrıştırılacağını belirler.  ‘None’, ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ ve
     ‘'\r\n'’ olabilir.  Aşağıdaki gibi çalışır:

        * Akıştan veri okurken eğer 'newline' ‘None’ ise, evrensel
          'newlines' aktif hale getirilir.  Girdideki satırlar ‘'\n'’,
          ‘'\r'’, veya ‘'\r\n'’ ile bitebilirler ve bunlar çağrıcıya
          döndürülmeden önce ‘'\n'’ ‘e çevrilirler.  Eğer ‘''’ ise,
          evrensel 'newlines' aktif hale getirilir ama satır sonları
          çağrıcıya çevrilmeden döndürülürler.  Eğer başka bir geçerli
          değer verildiyse, girdi satırları sadece verilen dize ile
          sonlanır ve satır sonu çağrıcıya çevrilmeden döndürülür.

        * Çıktıyı akışa yazarkeni eğer 'newline' ‘None’ ise, tüm ‘'\n'’
          karakterleri sistemin varsayılan satır ayırıcısına, *note
          os.linesep: 1f6a. ‘e dönüştürülür.  Eğer 'newline' ‘''’ veya
          ‘'\n'’ ise, bir dönüştürme yapılmaz.  Eğer 'newline' diğer
          uygun değerlerden biri ise, tüm ‘'\n'’ karakterleri verilen
          dizeye dönüştürülür.

     Eğer 'closefd', ‘False’ ise ve dosya adı yerine bir dosya
     tanımlayıcısı verildiyse, dosya kapatıldığında temel dosya
     tanımlayıcısı açık kalacaktır.  Eğer bir dosya adı verildiyse,
     'closefd' ‘True’ olmalıdır (varsayılan); aksi takdirde, bir hata
     ortaya çıkar.

     'opener' yerine bir çağrılabilir nesne verilerek özel bir açıcı
     kullanabilirsiniz.  Dosya nesnesi için temel dosya tanımlayıcısı
     sonradan 'opener' ‘ı ('file', 'flags') ile çağırarak elde edilir.
     'opener' bir açık dosya tanımlayıcısı döndürmelidir ('opener'
     yerine *note os.open: c1f. göndermek fonksiyonel olarak ‘None’
     göndermek ile benzer sonuçlanır).

     Yeni oluşturulan dosya *note non-inheritable: d90. ‘dir.

     Aşağıdaki örnek verilen bir dizine ait bir dosyayı açmak için *note
     os.open(): c1f. fonksiyonunun *note dir_fd: f8c. parametresini
     kullanır:

          >>> import os
          >>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
          >>> def opener(path, flags):
          ...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
          ...
          >>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
          ...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
          ...
          >>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor

     *note open(): 2a6. metodu tarafından döndürülen *note file object:
     1068. ‘in tipi moda bağlıdır.  *note open(): 2a6. bir dosyayı metin
     modunda (‘'w'’, ‘'r'’, ‘'wt'’, ‘'rt'’ vb.)  açmak için
     kullanıldığında, *note io.TextIOBase: 4aa. ‘in bir alt sınıfını
     döndürür (özellikle *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.).  Bir dosyayı
     ikili modda arabellek ile açmak için kullanıldığında, döndürülen
     sınıf *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. ‘ın alt sınıfıdır.  Kesin sınıf
     değişkendir: ikili okuma modunda, bir *note io.BufferedReader:
     10b3. döndürür; ikili yazma ve ikili ekleme modunda, *note
     io.BufferedWriter: 1f6b. döndürür, ve okuma/yazma modunda *note
     io.BufferedRandom: 1f6c. döndürür.  Arabelleğe alma devre dışı
     olduğunda, ham akış, *note io.RawIOBase: f73. ‘in alt sınıfı, *note
     io.FileIO: 11ba. döndürülür.

     Ayrıca *note fileinput: 59, *note io: 7d. (*note open(): 2a6. ‘ın
     tanımlandığı yer), *note os: a0, *note os.path: a1, *note tempfile:
     df, ve *note shutil: c4. gibi dosya işleme modüllerine de bkz.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘open’ with arguments ‘path’,
     ‘mode’, ‘flags’.

     ‘mode’ ve ‘flags’ parametreleri orijinal çağrı tarafından modifiye
     edilmiş veya çıkartılmış olabilir.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti:

        * 'opener' parametresi eklendi.

        * ‘'x'’ modu eklendi.

        * Eskiden *note IOError: efc. hatası ortaya çıkardı, şimdi *note
          OSError: 65c. ‘un takma adıdır.

        * Artık eğer özel oluşturma modunda (‘'x'’) açılmış dosyalar
          zaten bulunuyorsa *note FileExistsError: ec8. hatası ortaya
          çıkar.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti:

        * Dosya artık miras alınamaz.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti:

        * Eğer sistem çağrısı bölündüyse ve sinyal işleyicisi bir hata
          ortaya çıkartmazsa, artık fonksiyon *note InterruptedError:
          c14. hatası ortaya çıkartmak yerine sistem çağrısını yeniden
          dener (açıklama için PEP 475(2) bkz).

        * ‘'namereplace'’ hata işleyicisi eklendi.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti:

        * *note os.PathLike: acd. uygulayan nesneleri kabul etme desteği
          eklendi.

        * Windows’da, bir konsol arabelleğinin açılması *note io.FileIO:
          11ba. dışında bir *note io.RawIOBase: f73. alt sınıfını
          döndürebilir.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘'U'’ modu kaldırıldı.

 -- Işlevi: ord (c)

     Bir Unicode karakterini temsil eden dize verilir ve o karakterin
     Unicode kod noktasını temsil eden bir tamsayı döndürür.  Örneğin,
     ‘ord('a')’ ‘97’ tamsayısını döndürür ve ‘ord('€')’ (Euro simgesi)
     ‘8364’ tamsayısını döndürür.  Bu *note chr(): 1ce0. ‘nin tersidir.

 -- Işlevi: pow (base, exp, mod=None)

     'base' ‘in 'exp' kuvvetini döndürür; 'mod' verildiyse, aynı sayı %
     'mod' sonucunu döndürür (‘pow(base,exp) % mod’ ‘dan daha verimli
     işlenir).  İki parametreli formu ‘pow(base, exp)’, üs operatörü
     ‘base**exp’ kullanmaya eş değerdir.

     The arguments must have numeric types.  With mixed operand types,
     the coercion rules for binary arithmetic operators apply.  For
     *note int: 184. operands, the result has the same type as the
     operands (after coercion) unless the second argument is negative;
     in that case, all arguments are converted to float and a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(10, 2)’ returns ‘100’, but
     ‘pow(10, -2)’ returns ‘0.01’.  For a negative base of type *note
     int: 184. or *note float: 272. and a non-integral exponent, a
     complex result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 0.5)’ returns a
     value close to ‘3j’.  Whereas, for a negative base of type *note
     int: 184. or *note float: 272. with an integral exponent, a float
     result is delivered.  For example, ‘pow(-9, 2.0)’ returns ‘81.0’.

     *note int: 184. işlemleri için 'mod' verilmişse, 'base' ve 'exp'
     bir tam sayı olmalıdır, aynı zamanda 'mod' sıfır olamaz.  Eğer
     'mod' verilmişse ve 'exp' negatifse, 'base', 'mod' için görece asal
     olmalıdır.  Bu durumda, ‘pow(inv_base,-exp,mod)’ döndürülüri
     'inv_base, *base' mod 'mod' ‘un tersidir.

     Burada ‘38’ mod ‘97’ ‘nin tersini işlemek için bir örnek var:

          >>> pow(38, -1, mod=97)
          23
          >>> 23 * 38 % 97 == 1
          True

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note int: 184. işlenenleri için, ‘pow’ ‘un
     üç parametreli formu artık ikinci parametrenin negatif olmasına,
     modüler terslerin hesaplanmasına izin verir.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Anahtar kelime parametrelerine izin ver,
     önceden sadece pozisyonel parametreler desteklenirdi.

 -- Işlevi: print (*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None, flush=False)

     Metin akış 'file' ‘ına 'sep' tarafından ayırılacak ve 'end' ile
     bitirilecek şekilde 'objects' ‘i yazdırır.  'sep', 'end, *file', ve
     'flush' sunulursa anahtar kelime parametreleri olarak verilmelidir.

     Tüm anahtar kelime olmayan parametler *note str(): 15d. ‘in yaptığı
     gibi dizeye çevirilir ve 'sep' tarafından ayırılıp 'end' ile
     bitecek şekilde akışa yazdırılır.  'sep' ve 'end' dize veya ‘None’
     olmalıdır.  ‘None’ olduğunda varsayılan değerler kullanılır.  Eğer
     'objects' verilmediyse, *note print(): e16. sadece 'end' ‘i
     yazdırır.

     'file' parametresi ‘write(string)’ metodu içeren bir obje
     olmalıdır; eğer sunulmamış veya ‘None’ ise, *note sys.stdout: 943.
     kullanılacaktır.  Yazdırılan argümanlar metin dizelerine
     çevrildiğinden, *note print(): e16. ikili dosya nesneleri ile
     kullanılamaz.  Bunlar için, ‘file.write(...)’ ‘ı kullanın.

     Output buffering is usually determined by 'file'.  However, if
     'flush' is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'flush' anahtar kelimesi argümanı eklendi.

 -- Sınıfı: property (fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

     Bir özellik özelliği döndürür.

     'fget' bir özelliğin değerini almak için kullanılan bir
     fonksiyondur.  'fset' bir özelliğin değerini ayarlamak için
     kullanılan bir fonksiyondur.  'fdel' bir özelliğin değerini silmek
     için kullanılan bir fonksiyondur, ve 'doc' özellik için bir belge
     dizisi oluşturur.

     Yönetilen bir ‘x’ özelliği tanımlamak için tipik bir yöntem:

          class C:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._x = None

              def getx(self):
                  return self._x

              def setx(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              def delx(self):
                  del self._x

              x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

     Eğer 'c', 'C' ‘nin bir örneğiyse, ‘c.x’, alıcı fonksiyonu
     çağıracaktır.  ‘c.x = value’ ayarlayıcı fonksiyonu, ‘del c.x’ ise
     siliciyi çağıracaktır.

     Eğer verildiyse, 'doc' property özelliğinin doküman dizisi
     olacaktır.  Aksi takdirde, property 'fget' ‘in (bulunuyorsa)
     doküman dizisini kopyalayacaktır.  Bu *note property(): 43c. ‘i
     *note decorator: 559. olarak kullanarak kolayca salt-okunur
     özellikler oluşturmayı mümkün kılar:

          class Parrot:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._voltage = 100000

              @property
              def voltage(self):
                  """Get the current voltage."""
                  return self._voltage

     The ‘@property’ decorator turns the ‘voltage()’ method into a
     “getter” for a read-only attribute with the same name, and it sets
     the docstring for 'voltage' to “Get the current voltage.”

      -- Işlevi: @getter

      -- Işlevi: @setter

      -- Işlevi: @deleter

          A property object has ‘getter’, ‘setter’, and ‘deleter’
          methods usable as decorators that create a copy of the
          property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
          decorated function.  This is best explained with an example:

               class C:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self._x = None

                   @property
                   def x(self):
                       """I'm the 'x' property."""
                       return self._x

                   @x.setter
                   def x(self, value):
                       self._x = value

                   @x.deleter
                   def x(self):
                       del self._x

          Bu kod birinci örneğin tamamen eş değeridir.  Orijinal
          özellikte olduğu gibi ekstra fonksiyonlara aynı ismi
          verdiğinizden emin olun (bu durumda ‘x’).

          Döndürülen property nesnesi yapıcı metotta verilen ‘fget’,
          ‘fset’, ve ‘fdel’ özelliklerine sahiptir.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Property nesnelerinin doküman dizeleri artık
     yazılabilir.

 -- Sınıfı: range (stop)

 -- Sınıfı: range (start, stop, step=1)

     Bir metot olmaktansa, *note range: 79c. aslında bir değiştirilemez
     dizi tipidir.  Daha fazla bilgi için *note Aralıklar: 1f6d. ve
     *note Dizi Tipleri — list, tuple, range: 1a92. ‘e bakınız.

 -- Işlevi: repr (object)

     Return a string containing a printable representation of an object.
     For many types, this function makes an attempt to return a string
     that would yield an object with the same value when passed to *note
     eval(): 6ca.; otherwise, the representation is a string enclosed in
     angle brackets that contains the name of the type of the object
     together with additional information often including the name and
     address of the object.  A class can control what this function
     returns for its instances by defining a *note __repr__(): 42e.
     method.  If *note sys.displayhook(): 13ad. is not accessible, this
     function will raise *note RuntimeError: 180.

     This class has a custom representation that can be evaluated:

          class Person:
             def __init__(self, name, age):
                self.name = name
                self.age = age

             def __repr__(self):
                return f"Person('{self.name}', {self.age})"

 -- Işlevi: reversed (seq)

     Return a reverse *note iterator: 176e.  'seq' must be an object
     which has a *note __reversed__(): 1d4a. method or supports the
     sequence protocol (the *note __len__(): 1d50. method and the *note
     __getitem__(): 500. method with integer arguments starting at ‘0’).

 -- Işlevi: round (number, ndigits=None)

     Noktadan sonra 'ndigits' basamak hassasiyetiyle 'number' ‘ı
     yuvarlar.  Eğer 'ndigits' verilmediyse veya ‘None’ ise, 'number' ‘a
     en yakın tam sayı döndürülür.

     *note round(): 1184. ‘u destekleyen yerleşik yapılar için, değerler
     10 üssü 'ndigits' ‘in en yakın katına yuvarlanır; eğer iki kat da
     eşitse, yuvarlama işlemi çift sayıya doğru yapılır (örneğin,
     ‘round(0.5)’ ve ‘round(-0.5)’ ‘in değerleri ‘0’ ‘dır.  ve
     ‘round(1.5)’, ‘2’ ‘dir).  'ndigits' için herhangi bir tamsayı
     değeri (pozitif, sıfır veya negatif) uygundur.  'ndigits'
     verilmediyse veya ‘None’ ise döndürülen değer bir tam sayıdır.
     Aksi takdirde, döndürülen değerin tipi 'number' ‘ınkiyle aynıdır.

     Genel bir Python nesnesi için ‘number’, ‘round’ ‘number.__round__’
     ‘u temsil eder.

          Not: Gerçel sayılar için *note round(): 1184. ‘un davranışı
          şaşırtıcı olabilir: örneğin ‘round(2.675, 2)’ beklenen gibi
          ‘2.68’ yerine ‘2.67’ sonucunu verir.  Bu bir hata değil; çoğu
          ondalıklı kesir tamı tamına bir gerçel sayı olarak
          gösterilemeyeceğinden bu sonucu alıyoruz.  Daha fazla bilgi
          için *note Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations:
          1b5b. ‘e bkz.

 -- Sınıfı: set

 -- Sınıfı: set (iterable)

     Opsiyonel olarak 'iterable' ‘dan alınan elementlerle yeni bir *note
     set: 3e4. nesnesi döndürür.  ‘set’ yerleşik bir sınıftır.  Bu sınıf
     hakkında dokümantasyon için *note set: 3e4. ve *note Set Türleri —
     set, frozenset: 1f62. ‘e bakınız.

     Diğer konteynerler için, yerleşik *note frozenset: 3e5, *note list:
     422, *note tuple: 4ff. ve *note dict: 240. sınıflarını; aynı
     zamanda *note collections: 1d. modülüne bakınız.

 -- Işlevi: setattr (object, name, value)

     Bu *note getattr(): a48. ‘un karşılığıdır.  Argümanlar bir nesne,
     dize ve opsiyonel değerdir.  Dize halihazırda var olan veya yeni
     bir özelliğe isim verebilir.  Fonksiyon, nesnenin izin vermesi
     koşuluyla, değeri özelliğe atar.  Örneğin ‘setattr(x, 'foobar',
     123)’ ve ‘x.foobar = 123’ eş değerdir.

     'name', nesne bunu zorunlu kılmayı seçmedikçe, örneğin özel bir
     *note __getattribute__(): a49. veya *note __slots__: 1377.
     aracılığıyla, *note Identifiers and keywords: 1c81. içinde
     tanımlandığı gibi bir Python tanımlayıcısı olmak zorunda değildir.
     Adı tanımlayıcı olmayan bir özelliğe nokta kullanılarak erişilemez,
     ancak *note getattr(): a48. vb.  aracılığıyla erişilebilir.

          Not: *note Özel isim karıştırma: 1b03, derleme sürecinde
          olacağından, *note setattr(): 1f47. ile ayarlamak için özel
          bir niteliğin (iki alt çizgi ile başlayan nitelikler) adını
          manuel olarak değiştirmek gerekir.

 -- Sınıfı: slice (stop)

 -- Sınıfı: slice (start, stop, step=None)

     Return a *note slice: 1f6e. object representing the set of indices
     specified by ‘range(start, stop, step)’.  The 'start' and 'step'
     arguments default to ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: start

      -- Özniteliği: stop

      -- Özniteliği: step

          Slice objects have read-only data attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’,
          and ‘step’ which merely return the argument values (or their
          default).  They have no other explicit functionality; however,
          they are used by NumPy and other third-party packages.

     Slice objects are also generated when extended indexing syntax is
     used.  For example: ‘a[start:stop:step]’ or ‘a[start:stop, i]’.
     See *note itertools.islice(): 9bf. for an alternate version that
     returns an *note iterator: 176e.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Slice objects are now *note hashable: 421.
     (provided *note start: 1d43, *note stop: 1d44, and *note step:
     1d45. are hashable).

 -- Işlevi: sorted (iterable, /, *, key=None, reverse=False)

     'iterable' ‘ın içindeki elementlerden oluşan sıralı bir liste
     döndürür.

     İsimle belirtilmesi gereken 2 opsiyonel parametresi vardır.

     'key', 'iterable' ‘ın her elementinden bir karşılaştırma anahtarı
     ayıklamak için kullanılan bir argümanın fonksiyonunu belirtir
     (örneğin, ‘key=str.lower’).  Varsayılan değer ‘None’ ‘dır
     (elementleri direkt karşılaştırır).

     'reverse' bir boolean değerdir.  Eğer ‘True’ ise, liste elementleri
     tüm karşılaştırmalar tersine çevrilmiş şekilde sıralanır.

     Eski stil 'cmp' fonksiyonunu bir 'key' fonksiyonuna dönüştürmek
     için *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 107f. ‘yi kullanın.

     Yerleşik *note sorted(): a45. fonksiyonunun stabil çalışması
     garantilenmiştir.  Bir sıralama eşit olan elementlerin ilgili
     sırasını değiştirmemeyi garantiliyorsa stabildir — bu çoklu
     geçişlerle sıralama (örneğin önce departman, ardından maaş
     sıralama) için yardımcıdır.

     Sıralama algoritması elementler arasında sadece ‘<’
     karşılaştırmalarını kullanır.  Bir *note __lt__(): 1148. metodu
     tanımlamak sıralamak için yeterli olmasına rağmen, PEP 8(3) tüm
     altı *note rich comparisons: 1e63. ‘ların uygulanmasını öneriyor.
     Bu aynı veri ile *note max(): da0. gibi farklı bir temel metot ile
     çalışan farklı sıralama araçlarını kullanırken hataları önlemeyi
     kolaylaştıracaktır.  Tüm karşılaştırmaları uygulamak ayrıca
     yansıtılan *note __gt__(): 11b6. metodunu çağırabilen karmaşık tür
     karşılaştırmaları için karışıklığı da önler.

     Sıralama örnekleri ve kısa sıralama öğreticisi için *note Sorting
     Techniques: 1f6f. ‘ya bakınız.

 -- Işlevi: @staticmethod

     Bir metodu statik metoda dönüştürür.

     Statik bir metot üstü kapalı şekilde bir ilk argüman almaz.  Statik
     metot tanımlamak için bu ifadeyi kullanabilirsiniz:

          class C:
              @staticmethod
              def f(arg1, arg2, argN): ...

     ‘@staticmethod’ ifadesi bir *note decorator: 559. fonksiyonudur.  –
     detaylar için *note Function definitions: 1a7f. bkz.

     A static method can be called either on the class (such as ‘C.f()’)
     or on an instance (such as ‘C().f()’).  Moreover, the static method
     *note descriptor: 1d5f. is also callable, so it can be used in the
     class definition (such as ‘f()’).

     Python’daki statik metotlar Java ve C++’takilerle benzerdir.
     Ayrıca, sınıf için alternatif bir yapıcı metot oluşturmak
     isterseniz *note classmethod(): 252. bkz.

     Tüm dekoratörler gibi, ‘staticmethod’ ‘u normal bir fonksiyon gibi
     çağırmak ve sonucu ile bir şeyler yapmak mümkündür.  Bu, bir
     sınıfın fonksiyonuna referans vermeniz gerektiğinde ve örnek metoda
     otomatik dönüşümü engellemek istediğinizde işinize yarayabilir.
     Böyle durumlar için, bu ifadeyi kullanabilirsiniz:

          def regular_function():
              ...

          class C:
              method = staticmethod(regular_function)

     Statik metotlar hakkında daha fazla bilgi için, *note The standard
     type hierarchy: 1cd4. bkz.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Static methods now inherit the method
     attributes (*note __module__: 1ceb, *note __name__: 117e, *note
     __qualname__: 1cea, *note __doc__: 107e. and *note __annotations__:
     107d.), have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute, and are now callable as
     regular functions.

 -- Sınıfı: str (object='')

 -- Sınıfı: str (object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     'object' ‘in *note str: 15d. versiyonunu döndürür.  Detaylar için
     *note str(): 15d. bkz.

     ‘str’ yerleşik dize *note class: 175d. ‘ıdır.  Dizeler hakkında
     genel bilgi için, *note Metin Sırası Türü — str: 1a44. bkz.

 -- Işlevi: sum (iterable, /, start=0)

     'start' ve 'iterable' ‘ın elemanlarını soldan sağa toplar ve
     toplamı döndürür.  'iterable' ‘ın elemanları normal olarak
     numaralardır ve başlangıç değeri bir dize olamaz.

     For some use cases, there are good alternatives to *note sum():
     187.  The preferred, fast way to concatenate a sequence of strings
     is by calling ‘''.join(sequence)’.  To add floating-point values
     with extended precision, see *note math.fsum(): 125b.  To
     concatenate a series of iterables, consider using *note
     itertools.chain(): 1f70.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: 'start' parametresi bir anahtar kelime
     argümanı olarak belirtilebilir.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Summation of floats switched to an
     algorithm that gives higher accuracy on most builds.

 -- Sınıfı: super

 -- Sınıfı: super (type, object_or_type=None)

     'type' ‘ın ebeveyn veya kardeş sınıfına yapılan metot çağrılarını
     temsil eden bir proxy objesi döndürür.  Bu bir sınıfta üzerine
     yazılmış kalıtılan metotlara erişmek için kullanışlıdır.

     'object_or_type' aranacak *note method resolution order: 1f71. ‘nı
     belirler.  Arama 'type' ‘dan sonraki ilk sınıftan başlar.

     For example, if *note __mro__: 1d17. of 'object_or_type' is ‘D -> B
     -> C -> A -> object’ and the value of 'type' is ‘B’, then *note
     super(): 20d. searches ‘C -> A -> object’.

     The *note __mro__: 1d17. attribute of the class corresponding to
     'object_or_type' lists the method resolution search order used by
     both *note getattr(): a48. and *note super(): 20d.  The attribute
     is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
     updated.

     Eğer ikinci parametre atlanırsa, döndürülen süper objesi
     serbesttir.  Eğer ikinci parametre bir objeyse, ‘isinstance(obj,
     type)’ doğru olmak zorundadır.  Eğer ikinci parametre bir tür ise,
     ‘issubclass(type2, type)’ doğru olmak zorundadır (bu sınıf
     metotları için kullanışlıdır).

     'super' için tipik iki kullanım şekli vardır.  Tek kalıtımlı bir
     sınıf hiyerarşisinde 'super' üst sınıfları açıkça adlandırmadan
     onlara başvurmak için kullanılabilir.  böylece kodu daha
     sürdürülebilir hale getirir.

     İkinci kullanım şekli dinamik yürütme ortamında işbirlikli çoklu
     kalıtımı desteklemektir.  Bu durum Python’a özgüdür ve statik
     derlenen diller veya tekli kalıtımı destekleyen dillerde bulunmaz.
     Bu çoklu temel sınıfların aynı metodu uyguladığı “diamond diagrams”
     sistemini uygulamayı mümkün kılar.  İyi tasarım bu tür
     uygulamaların her durumda aynı çağrı imzasına sahip olduğunu (çünkü
     çağrıların sırası yürütme zamanında belirlenir, çünkü bu sıra sınıf
     hiyerarşisindeki değişikliklere uyarlanır ve çalışma zamanından
     önce bilinmeyen kardeş sınıfları içerebilir) dikte eder.

     İki kullanım durumu için de, tipik bir üst sınıf çağrısı bu
     şekildedir:

          class C(B):
              def method(self, arg):
                  super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                                         # super(C, self).method(arg)

     Metot aramalarına ek olarak, *note super(): 20d. özellik aramaları
     için de çalışır.  Bunun kullanım şekli ebeveyn veya kardeş bir
     sınıfta *note tanımlayıcılar: 1d5f. ‘i çağırmaktır.

     Note that *note super(): 20d. is implemented as part of the binding
     process for explicit dotted attribute lookups such as
     ‘super().__getitem__(name)’.  It does so by implementing its own
     *note __getattribute__(): a49. method for searching classes in a
     predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
     Accordingly, *note super(): 20d. is undefined for implicit lookups
     using statements or operators such as ‘super()[name]’.

     Ayrıca, argümansız formunun yanı sıra, ‘süper()’ iç metotları
     kullanmakla sınırlı değildir.  İki parametreli form parametlerini
     tamı tamına belirler ve uygun karşılaştırmaları yapar.  Argümansız
     form sadece bir sınıf tanımının içinde çalışır, derleyici
     tanımlanan sınıfı doğru şekilde almak ve sıradan yöntemlere geçerli
     örnekten erişmek için gerekli detayları doldurur.

     *note super(): 20d. ‘ı kullanarak kooperatif sınıflar tasarlamaya
     yönelik pratik öneriler için, guide to using super()(4) bkz.

 -- Sınıfı: tuple

 -- Sınıfı: tuple (iterable)

     Bir fonksiyon olmaktansa, *note tuple: 4ff. *note Demetler: 1eda.
     ve *note Dizi Tipleri — list, tuple, range: 1a92. ‘de gösterildiği
     gibi düzenlenemez bir dizi türüdür.

 -- Sınıfı: type (object)

 -- Sınıfı: type (name, bases, dict, **kwds)

     With one argument, return the type of an 'object'.  The return
     value is a type object and generally the same object as returned by
     *note object.__class__: 1338.

     *note isinstance(): 151. yerleşik fonksiyonu bir objenin türünü
     test etmek için önerilir.  Çünkü altsınıfları hesaba katar.

     With three arguments, return a new type object.  This is
     essentially a dynamic form of the *note class: 1181. statement.
     The 'name' string is the class name and becomes the *note __name__:
     1336. attribute.  The 'bases' tuple contains the base classes and
     becomes the *note __bases__: 1337. attribute; if empty, *note
     object: 8f2, the ultimate base of all classes, is added.  The
     'dict' dictionary contains attribute and method definitions for the
     class body; it may be copied or wrapped before becoming the *note
     __dict__: adb. attribute.  The following two statements create
     identical ‘type’ objects:

          >>> class X:
          ...     a = 1
          ...
          >>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))

     See also:

        * *note Documentation on attributes and methods on classes:
          1d11.

        * *note Type Objects: 1f72.

     Üç değişkene sağlanan anahtar kelime argümanları, uygun metasınıf
     makinelerine (genellikle *note __init_subclass__(): 444.) bir sınıf
     tanımındaki anahtar sözcüklerin ('metaclass' dışında) yapacağı
     şekilde iletilir.

     *note Customizing class creation: ac7. ‘a da bkz.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Subclasses of ‘type’ which don’t override
     ‘type.__new__’ may no longer use the one-argument form to get the
     type of an object.

 -- Işlevi: vars ()

 -- Işlevi: vars (object)

     Return the *note __dict__: 2ec. attribute for a module, class,
     instance, or any other object with a ‘__dict__’ attribute.

     Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable *note
     __dict__: 2ec. attribute; however, other objects may have write
     restrictions on their ‘__dict__’ attributes (for example, classes
     use a *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. to prevent direct
     dictionary updates).

     Parametre olmadan, *note vars(): 1882. *note locals(): 179. gibi
     davranır.  Yerel sözlük, ona yapılan güncellemeler görmezden
     gelindiğinden ötürü, sadece okuma işlemi için kullanışlıdır.

     Eğer bir obje belirtildiyse ama *note __dict__: 2ec. özelliği yoksa
     (örneğin, *note __slots__: 1377. özelliğini tanımlayan bir sınıf
     ise), *note TypeError: 2c4. hatası ortaya çıkar.

 -- Işlevi: zip (*iterables, strict=False)

     Paralel olarak birkaç yinelenebilir nesneyi yineler ve hepsinden
     bir element alarak bir demet üretir.

     Örnek:

          >>> for item in zip([1, 2, 3], ['sugar', 'spice', 'everything nice']):
          ...     print(item)
          ...
          (1, 'sugar')
          (2, 'spice')
          (3, 'everything nice')

     Daha resmice: *note zip(): 608. demetlerden oluşan ve 'i' inci
     demetin her parametre yineleyicisinden 'i' ‘inci elementi içerdiği
     bir yineleyici döndürür.

     *note zip(): 608. ‘i anlamanın başka bir yolu da, sütunları
     satırlara ve satırları sütunlara çevirmesidir.  Bu transposing a
     matrix(5) ‘a benzer.

     *note zip(): 608. tembeldir: Yinelenebilir nesne, örneğin bir ‘for’
     döngüsü veya *note list: 422. tarafından sarılarak yinelenmediği
     sürece elementler işlenmez.

     Dikkate alınması gereken şeylerden biri de *note zip(): 608. ‘e
     verilen yineleyiciler bazen tasarım gereği, bazen ise
     yineleyicileri hazırlayan kodda oluşan bir hatadan dolayı farklı
     uzunluklarda olabilirler.  Python bununla başa çıkmak için üç
     farklı yaklaşım sunar:

        * Varsayılan olarak, *note zip(): 608. en kısa yinelenebilir
          nesne tükendiğinde durur.  Daha uzun yinelebilirlerde kalan
          elementleri görmezden gelecektir ve sonucu en kısa
          yineleyicinin uzunluğuna eşitleyecektir:

               >>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum']))
               [(0, 'fee'), (1, 'fi'), (2, 'fo')]

        * *note zip(): 608. genellikle yineleyicilerin aynı uzunlukta
          olduğu varsayıldığında kullanılır.  Bu gibi durumlarda,
          ‘strict=True’ opsiyonunu kullanmak önerilir.  Çıktısı sıradan
          *note zip(): 608. ile aynıdır:

               >>> list(zip(('a', 'b', 'c'), (1, 2, 3), strict=True))
               [('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

          Varsayılan davranışın aksine, bir yinelenebilir diğerlerinden
          önce tükenirse bir *note ValueError: 189. ortaya çıkar:

               >>> for item in zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum'], strict=True):
               ...     print(item)
               ...
               (0, 'fee')
               (1, 'fi')
               (2, 'fo')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError: zip() argument 2 is longer than argument 1

          ‘strict=True’ parametresi olmadan, farklı boyutlardaki
          nesnelerde sonuçlanan hatalar susturulacaktır.  Mümkün
          olduğunca programın başka bir bölümünde bulunması zor bir hata
          olarak tezahür ediyor.

        * Daha kısa yinelenebilir nesneler, tüm yinelenebilir nesnelerin
          aynı uzunlukta olması için sabit bir değerle
          doldurulabilirler.  Bu *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1146.
          tarafından yapılır.

     Kenar durumları: Tek bir yinelenebilir nesne argümanı verilirse,
     *note zip(): 608. bir demetin yineleyicisini döndürür.  Argüman
     verilmezse, boş bir yineleyici döndürür.

     İpucu ve hileler:

        * Yinelenebilir nesnelerin soldan sağa değerlendirme sırası
          garanti edilir.  Bu, bir veri serisini ‘zip(*[iter(s)]*n,
          strict=True)’ kullanarak n-uzunluklu gruplar halinde
          kümelemeyi mümkün kılar.  Bu 'aynı' yineleyiciyi ‘n’ defa
          tekrar eder ve böylece tüm çıktı demetler yineleyiciye ‘n’
          sayıda çağrı yapmış olur.  Bu, girdiyi n-uzunluklu parçalara
          bölme etkisine sahiptir.

        * *note zip(): 608, bir listeyi açmak için ‘*’ operatörüyle
          birlikte kullanılabilir:

               >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
               >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
               >>> list(zip(x, y))
               [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
               >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
               >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
               True

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘strict’ argümanı eklendi.

 -- Işlevi: __import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(),
          level=0)

          Not: Bu *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2. ‘un aksine
          günlük Python programlamasında genel olarak kullanılmayan
          gelişmiş bir fonksiyondur.

     Bu fonksiyon *note import: 3ed. ifadesi tarafından çağırılır.
     ‘import’ ifadesinin anlamlarını değiştirmek için yenisiyle
     değiştirilebilir (*note builtins: 12. modülünü içe aktarıp
     ‘builtins.__import__’ ‘a devrederek), ama bunu yapmak aynı amaçlara
     ulaşmak için içe aktarma çengellerini kullanmak daha basit
     olduğundan ve içe aktarma çengellerinin kodda hatalara neden
     olmayacağından tavsiye 'edilmez'.  *note __import__(): 727. ‘un
     doğrudan kullanımı da *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2. ‘ın
     lehine tavsiye edilmez.

     Fonksiyon modül 'adını' içe aktarır, potansiyel olarak bir paket
     bağlamındaki isimleri nasıl yorumlayacağını belirlemek için verien
     'globals' ve 'locals' ‘i kullanır.  'fromlist', 'name' ismiyle içe
     aktarılması gereken modülün alt modüllerinin ve nesnelerinin
     isimlerini verir.  Standart uygulama 'locals' argümanını kullanmaya
     teşebbüs etmez ve 'globals' ‘i *note import: 3ed. ifadesinin paket
     bağlamını belirlemek için kullanır.

     'level' mutlak mı yoksa göreli içe aktarmaların mı kullanılacağını
     belirtir.  ‘0’ (varsayılan) sadece mutlak içe aktarmaların
     uygulanacağını belirtir.  'level' için pozitif değerler, *note
     __import__(): 727. çağrısı yapan modülün dizinine göre aranacak üst
     dizinlerin sayısını gösterir (detaylar için PEP 328(6) ‘e bakınız).

     'name' değişkeni ‘package.module’ biçiminde olduğunda, üst düzey
     paket ((ilk noktaya kadar olan isim) döndürülür, 'name' isimli
     modül 'değil'.  Boş olmayan bir 'fromlist' argümanı verildiğinde,
     'name' isimli modül döndürülür.

     Örnek olarak, ‘import spam’ ifadesi aşağıdaki koda benzeyen bayt
     koduyla sonuçlanır:

          spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     ‘import spam.ham’ ifadesi şu çağrıyla sonuçlanır:

          spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     Burada *note __import__(): 727. öğesinin üst düzey modülü nasıl
     döndürdüğüne dikkat edin, çünkü bu, *note import: 3ed. ifadesiyle
     bir ada bağlanan nesnedir.

     Diğer yandan, ‘from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as saus’ ifadesi
     şöyle sonuçlanır:

          _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
          eggs = _temp.eggs
          saus = _temp.sausage

     Burada, ‘spam.ham’ modülü *note __import__(): 727. ‘dan döndürülür.
     Bu objeden, içeri aktarılacak isimler alınır ve sırasıyla adlarına
     atanır.

     Eğer ismiyle bir modülü (potansiyel olarak bir paket içinde) içe
     aktarmak istiyorsanız, *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2. ‘i
     kullanın.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'level' için negatif değerler artık
     desteklenmiyor (bu, varsayılan değeri 0 olarak da değiştirir).

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Komut satırı opsiyonlarından *note -E: 7b7.
     veya *note -I: 7b8. kullanıldığında, ortam değişkeni *note
     PYTHONCASEOK: 7b9. görmezden gelinir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Ayrıştırıcının yalnızca Unix stili satır sonu kuralını kabul
ettiğini unutmayın.  Eğer bir dosyadan kod okuyorsanız, Windows veya Mac
tarzı yeni satırları dönüştürmek için yeni satır dönüştürme modunu
kullandığınızdan emin olun.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (4) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in Constants,  Next: Gömülü Türler,  Prev: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.3 Built-in Constants
======================

A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace.  They are:

 -- Verisi: False

     The false value of the *note bool: 183. type.  Assignments to
     ‘False’ are illegal and raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c.

 -- Verisi: True

     The true value of the *note bool: 183. type.  Assignments to ‘True’
     are illegal and raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c.

 -- Verisi: None

     An object frequently used to represent the absence of a value, as
     when default arguments are not passed to a function.  Assignments
     to ‘None’ are illegal and raise a *note SyntaxError: 14c.  ‘None’
     is the sole instance of the *note NoneType: 691. type.

 -- Verisi: NotImplemented

     A special value which should be returned by the binary special
     methods (e.g.  *note __eq__(): 968, *note __lt__(): 1148, *note
     __add__(): 1d7b, *note __rsub__(): 1d8e, etc.)  to indicate that
     the operation is not implemented with respect to the other type;
     may be returned by the in-place binary special methods (e.g.  *note
     __imul__(): 1d80, *note __iand__(): 1da0, etc.)  for the same
     purpose.  It should not be evaluated in a boolean context.
     ‘NotImplemented’ is the sole instance of the *note
     types.NotImplementedType: 692. type.

          Not: When a binary (or in-place) method returns
          ‘NotImplemented’ the interpreter will try the reflected
          operation on the other type (or some other fallback, depending
          on the operator).  If all attempts return ‘NotImplemented’,
          the interpreter will raise an appropriate exception.
          Incorrectly returning ‘NotImplemented’ will result in a
          misleading error message or the ‘NotImplemented’ value being
          returned to Python code.

          See *note Implementing the arithmetic operations: 1cd7. for
          examples.

          Uyarı: ‘NotImplemented’ and ‘NotImplementedError’ are not
          interchangeable.  This constant should only be used as
          described above; see *note NotImplementedError: bd6. for
          details on correct usage of the exception.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Evaluating ‘NotImplemented’ in a boolean
     context is deprecated.  While it currently evaluates as true, it
     will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  It will raise a *note
     TypeError: 2c4. in a future version of Python.

 -- Verisi: Ellipsis

     The same as the ellipsis literal “‘...’”.  Special value used
     mostly in conjunction with extended slicing syntax for user-defined
     container data types.  ‘Ellipsis’ is the sole instance of the *note
     types.EllipsisType: 690. type.

 -- Verisi: __debug__

     This constant is true if Python was not started with an *note -O:
     c42. option.  See also the *note assert: 7c4. statement.

     Not: The names *note None: 488, *note False: 9a8, *note True: a86.
     and *note __debug__: 614. cannot be reassigned (assignments to
     them, even as an attribute name, raise *note SyntaxError: 14c.), so
     they can be considered “true” constants.

* Menu:

* Constants added by the site module::


File: python.info,  Node: Constants added by the site module,  Up: Built-in Constants

5.3.1 Constants added by the ‘site’ module
------------------------------------------

The *note site: c6. module (which is imported automatically during
startup, except if the *note -S: 104e. command-line option is given)
adds several constants to the built-in namespace.  They are useful for
the interactive interpreter shell and should not be used in programs.

 -- Verisi: quit (code=None)
 -- Verisi: exit (code=None)

     Objects that when printed, print a message like “Use quit() or
     Ctrl-D (i.e.  EOF) to exit”, and when called, raise *note
     SystemExit: bc8. with the specified exit code.

 -- Verisi: help

     Object that when printed, prints the message “Type help() for
     interactive help, or help(object) for help about object.”, and when
     called, acts as described *note elsewhere: 72a.

 -- Verisi: copyright
 -- Verisi: credits

     Objects that when printed or called, print the text of copyright or
     credits, respectively.

 -- Verisi: license

     Object that when printed, prints the message “Type license() to see
     the full license text”, and when called, displays the full license
     text in a pager-like fashion (one screen at a time).


File: python.info,  Node: Gömülü Türler,  Next: Gömülü İstisnalar,  Prev: Built-in Constants,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.4 Gömülü Türler
=================

Aşağıdaki bölümlerde, yorumlayıcıda yerleşik olarak yer alan standart
türler açıklanmaktadır.

Başlıca gömülü türler sayısallar, diziler, eşleşmeler, sınıflar,
örnekler ve kural dışı durumlardır.

Bazı koleksiyon sınıfları değişebilirdir.  Üyelerini yerinde ekleyen,
çıkaran veya yeniden düzenleyen ve belirli bir öğe döndürmeyen metotlar,
her zaman koleksiyon örneğini değil ‘None’ değerini döndürür.

Bazı işlemler birkaç nesne türü tarafından desteklenir; özellikle, tüm
nesneler eşitlik için karşılaştırılabilir, doğruluk değeri için test
edilebilir ve bir dizeye dönüştürülebilir (*note repr(): 637. fonksiyonu
veya hafif farklı olan *note str(): 15d. fonksiyonu ile).  İkinci
fonksiyon, bir nesne *note print(): e16. ile yazdırıldığında dolaylı
olarak kullanılır.

* Menu:

* Doğruluk Değeri Testi::
* Boolean İşlemleri — and, or, not: Boolean İşlemleri — and or not.
* Karşılaştırmalar::
* Sayısal Türler — int, float, complex: Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
* Boolean Type - bool::
* Yineleyici Türleri::
* Dizi Tipleri — list, tuple, range: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range.
* Metin Sırası Türü — str::
* Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview.
* Set Türleri — set, frozenset: Set Türleri — set frozenset.
* Mapping Types — dict::
* Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri::
* Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union.
* Diğer Yerleşik Tipler::
* Özel Özellikler::
* Integer string conversion length limitation::


File: python.info,  Node: Doğruluk Değeri Testi,  Next: Boolean İşlemleri — and or not,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.1 Doğruluk Değeri Testi
---------------------------

Herhangi bir nesne, *note if: 26e. veya *note while: 1a4c. koşulunda
veya aşağıdaki Boolean işlemlerinin işleneni olarak kullanımında
doğruluk değeri için test edilebilir.

By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either
a *note __bool__(): 117f. method that returns ‘False’ or a *note
__len__(): 1d50. method that returns zero, when called with the object.
(1)  Here are most of the built-in objects considered false:

   * constants defined to be false: ‘None’ and ‘False’

   * herhangi bir sayısal türden sıfır: ‘0’, ‘0.0’, ‘0j’, ‘Decimal(0)’,
     ‘Fraction(0, 1)’

   * boş diziler ve koleksiyonlar: ‘''’, ‘()’, ‘[]’, ‘{}’, ‘set()’,
     ‘range(0)’

Boolean sonucu olan işlemler ve gömülü fonksiyonlar, aksi
belirtilmedikçe her zaman false için “0” veya “False” ve true için “1”
veya “True” döndürür.  (Önemli istisna: Boolean işlemleri “or” ve “and”
her zaman işlenenlerinden birini döndürür.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Bu özel yöntemler hakkında daha fazla bilgi Python Referans El
Kitabında (*note Basic customization: 1d4d.) bulunabilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean İşlemleri — and or not,  Next: Karşılaştırmalar,  Prev: Doğruluk Değeri Testi,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.2 Boolean İşlemleri — ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’
--------------------------------------------

Bunlar artan önceliğe göre sıralanmış Boolean işlemleridir:

İşlem             Sonuç                                 Notlar
                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘x or y’          'x' doğruysa, 'x', aksi halde 'y'     (1)
                                                        
                                                        
‘x and y’         'x' yanlışsa, 'x', aksi halde 'y'     (2)
                                                        
                                                        
‘not x’           'x' yanlışsa, ‘True’, aksi halde      (3)
                  ‘False’                               
                  

Notlar:

  1. Bu bir kısa devre operatörüdür, bu nedenle ikinci argümanı yalnızca
     birincisi yanlışsa değerlendirir.

  2. Bu bir kısa devre operatörüdür, bu nedenle sadece ilki doğruysa
     ikinci argümanı değerlendirir.

  3. ‘not’ Boolean olmayan operatörlerden daha düşük bir önceliğe
     sahiptir, bu nedenle ‘not a == b’, ‘not (a == b)’ olarak yorumlanır
     bu sebeple ‘a == not b’ bir söz dizimi hatasıdır.


File: python.info,  Node: Karşılaştırmalar,  Next: Sayısal Türler — int float complex,  Prev: Boolean İşlemleri — and or not,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.3 Karşılaştırmalar
----------------------

Python’da sekiz karşılaştırma işlemi vardır.  Hepsinin önceliği aynıdır
(Boolean işlemlerinden daha önceliklidir).  Karşılaştırmalar isteğe
bağlı olarak zincirlenebilir; örneğin, ‘x < y <= z’, ‘x < y and y <= z’
ile eş değerdir, ancak 'y' yalnızca bir kez değerlendirilir (ancak her
iki durumda da ‘x < y’ yanlış olduğu tespit edildiğinde 'z' hiç
değerlendirilmez).

Bu tablo karşılaştırma operatörlerini özetlemektedir:

İşlem            Anlamı
                 
-----------------------------------------------
                 
‘<’              kesinlikle daha az
                 
                 
‘<=’             daha az veya eşit
                 
                 
‘>’              kesinlikle daha büyük
                 
                 
‘>=’             daha büyük veya eşit
                 
                 
‘==’             eşit
                 
                 
‘!=’             eşit değil
                 
                 
‘is’             nesne kimliği
                 
                 
‘is not’         olumsuz nesne kimliği
                 

Farklı sayısal türler dışında, farklı türdeki nesneler hiçbir zaman eşit
olarak karşılaştırılmaz.  ‘==’ operatörü her zaman tanımlanır, ancak
bazı nesne türleri için (örneğin, sınıf nesneleri) *note is: 270. ile eş
değerdir.  ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ ve ‘>=’ operatörleri yalnızca anlamlı
oldukları yerde tanımlanır; örneğin, argümanlardan biri karmaşık bir
sayı olduğunda bir *note TypeError: 2c4. hatası oluştururlar.

Normalde, bir sınıfın özdeş olmayan örnekleri, sınıf *note __eq__():
968. metodunu tanımlamadığı sürece eşit olmayan olarak karşılaştırılır.

Bir sınıfın örnekleri, sınıf yeterli metotları tanımlamadıkça, aynı
sınıfın diğer örneklerine veya diğer nesne türlerine göre sıralanamaz
*note __lt__(): 1148, *note __le__(): 11b5. , *note __gt__(): 11b6. ve
*note __ge__(): 11b7. (karşılaştırma operatörlerin geleneksel
anlamlarını istiyorsanız, *note __lt__(): 1148. ve *note __eq__(): 968.
genellikle yeterli olacaktır).

*note is: 270. ve *note is not: 1e6a. operatörlerinin davranışı
özelleştirilemez; ayrıca herhangi iki nesneye uygulanabilirler ve asla
bir hata oluşturmazlar.

Two more operations with the same syntactic priority, *note in: 26f. and
*note not in: 442, are supported by types that are *note iterable: 10ce.
or implement the *note __contains__(): 1d4b. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Sayısal Türler — int float complex,  Next: Boolean Type - bool,  Prev: Karşılaştırmalar,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.4 Sayısal Türler — ‘int’, ‘float’, ‘complex’
------------------------------------------------

There are three distinct numeric types: 'integers', 'floating-point
numbers', and 'complex numbers'.  In addition, Booleans are a subtype of
integers.  Integers have unlimited precision.  Floating-point numbers
are usually implemented using double in C; information about the
precision and internal representation of floating-point numbers for the
machine on which your program is running is available in *note
sys.float_info: 1821.  Complex numbers have a real and imaginary part,
which are each a floating-point number.  To extract these parts from a
complex number 'z', use ‘z.real’ and ‘z.imag’.  (The standard library
includes the additional numeric types *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae, for
rationals, and *note decimal.Decimal: 609, for floating-point numbers
with user-definable precision.)

Numbers are created by numeric literals or as the result of built-in
functions and operators.  Unadorned integer literals (including hex,
octal and binary numbers) yield integers.  Numeric literals containing a
decimal point or an exponent sign yield floating-point numbers.
Appending ‘'j'’ or ‘'J'’ to a numeric literal yields an imaginary number
(a complex number with a zero real part) which you can add to an integer
or float to get a complex number with real and imaginary parts.

Python karma aritmetiği tam olarak destekler: herhangi bir ikili
aritmetik operatörü farklı sayısal türlerde işlenenlere sahip olduğunda,
“dar” türe sahip işlenen, tam sayı karmaşık sayıdan daha dar olan gerçel
sayıdan daha dar olduğu diğerininkine genişletilir.  Farklı türlerdeki
sayıların karşılaştırılması, bu sayıların tam değerleri
karşılaştırılıyormuş gibi davranır.  (1)

*note int(): 184, *note float(): 272. ve *note complex(): 273.
yapıcıları belirli bir türde sayılar üretmek için kullanılabilir.

Tüm sayısal türler (karmaşık sayılar hariç) aşağıdaki işlemleri
destekler (işlemlerin öncelikleri için bkz.  *note Operator precedence:
1e7e.):

İşlem                     Sonuç                                 Notlar        Tam dokümantasyon
                                                                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                              
‘x + y’                   'x' ve 'y' ‘nin toplamı
                          
                                                                              
‘x - y’                   'x' ve 'y' ‘nin farkı
                          
                                                                              
‘x * y’                   'x' ve 'y' ‘nin çarpımı
                          
                                                                              
‘x / y’                   'x' ‘in 'y' ‘ye bölümü
                          
                                                                              
‘x // y’                  'x' ve 'y' ‘nin kat bölümü            (1)(2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘x % y’                   ‘x / y’ işleminde kalan               (2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘-x’                      'x' ‘in negatifi
                          
                                                                              
‘+x’                      'x' ‘in değişmemişi
                          
                                                                              
‘abs(x)’                  'x' ‘in mutlak değeri                               *note abs(): 1aed.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘int(x)’                  'x' ‘in integer tam sayıya            (3)(6)        *note int(): 184.
                          (integer) dönüştürülmüş hali                        
                          
                                                                              
‘float(x)’                'x' ‘in gerçel sayıya (float)         (4)(6)        *note float(): 272.
                          dönüştürülmüş hali                                  
                          
                                                                              
‘complex(re, im)’         gerçek kısmı 're', sanal kısmı 'im'   (6)           *note complex(): 273.
                          olan bir karmaşık sayı.  'im'                       
                          varsayılan olarak sıfırdır.
                          
                                                                              
‘c.conjugate()’           'c' karmaşık sayısının eşleniği
                          
                                                                              
‘divmod(x, y)’            ‘(x // y, x % y)’ ifadesinin          (2)           *note divmod(): 7ff.
                          ikilisi                                             
                          
                                                                              
‘pow(x, y)’               'x' üzeri 'y'                         (5)           *note pow(): 830.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘x ** y’                  'x' üzeri 'y'                         (5)
                                                                

Notlar:

  1. Also referred to as integer division.  For operands of type *note
     int: 184, the result has type *note int: 184.  For operands of type
     *note float: 272, the result has type *note float: 272.  In
     general, the result is a whole integer, though the result’s type is
     not necessarily *note int: 184.  The result is always rounded
     towards minus infinity: ‘1//2’ is ‘0’, ‘(-1)//2’ is ‘-1’, ‘1//(-2)’
     is ‘-1’, and ‘(-1)//(-2)’ is ‘0’.

  2. Karmaşık sayılar için değil.  Bunun yerine uygunsa *note abs():
     1aed. kullanarak gerçel sayılara dönüştürün.

  3. 
     Conversion from *note float: 272. to *note int: 184. truncates,
     discarding the fractional part.  See functions *note math.floor():
     1248. and *note math.ceil(): 1249. for alternative conversions.

  4. float ayrıca “nan” ve “inf” dizelerini, Sayı Değil ( Not a Number
     -> NaN) ve pozitif veya negatif sonsuzluk için isteğe bağlı bir “+”
     veya “-” ön ekiyle kabul eder.

  5. Python, diğer programlama dillerinde de olduğu gibi ‘pow(0, 0)’ =
     ‘1’ ve ‘0 ** 0’ = ‘1’ şeklinde tanımlar.

  6. Kabul edilen sayısal değişmezler, ‘0’ ile ‘9’ arasındaki rakamları
     veya herhangi bir Unicode eş değerini (“Nd” özelliğine sahip kod
     noktaları) içerir.

     See the Unicode Standard(2) for a complete list of code points with
     the ‘Nd’ property.

Tüm *note numbers.Real: 1f87. türleri (*note int: 184. ve *note float:
272.) ayrıca aşağıdaki işlemleri içerir:

İşlem                    Sonuç
                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
*note math.trunc(x): 124a.'x' *note Integral: 1dab. şeklinde kısaltıldı
                         
                         
*note round(x[, n]): 1184.'x' 'n' haneye yuvarlanır, yarıdan çifte
                         yuvarlanır.  'n' atlanırsa, 'n' varsayılan
                         olarak 0 olur.
                         
                         
*note math.floor(x): 1248.en büyük *note Integral: 1dab. <= 'x'
                         
                         
*note math.ceil(x): 1249.en küçük *note Integral: 1dab. >= 'x'
                         

Ek sayısal işlemler için *note math: 8d. ve *note cmath: 18. modüllerine
bakın.

* Menu:

* Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler::
* Integer (Tam sayı) Türlerinde Ek Metotlar: Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
* Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar::
* Sayısal türlerin hashlemesi::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Sonuç olarak, ‘[1, 2]’ listesi ‘[1.0, 2.0]’ ve benzer şekilde
demetler için eşit kabul edilir.

   (2) 
https://unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler,  Next: Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar,  Up: Sayısal Türler — int float complex

5.4.4.1 Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler
..................................................

Bit düzeyinde işlemler yalnızca tam sayılar için anlamlıdır.  Bit
düzeyinde işlemlerin sonucu, sonsuz sayıda işaret biti ile ikiye
tümleyende gerçekleştiriliyormuş gibi hesaplanır.

İkili bit düzeyinde işlemlerin öncelikleri, sayısal işlemlerden daha
düşük ve karşılaştırmalardan daha yüksektir; ‘~’ tekli işlemidiğer tekli
sayısal işlemlerle (‘+’ ve ‘-’) aynı önceliğe sahiptir.

Bu tablo, artan önceliğe göre sıralanmış bit düzeyinde işlemleri
listeler:

İşlem            Sonuç                                Notlar
                                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘x | y’          bit düzeyinde 'x' 'or' 'y'           (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x ^ y’          bit düzeyinde 'x' 'exclusive or'     (4)
                 'y'                                  
                 
                                                      
‘x & y’          bit düzeyinde 'x' 'and' 'y'          (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x << n’         'x', 'n' bit kadar sola kaydırıldı   (1)(2)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x >> n’         'x', 'n' bit kadar sağa kaydırıldı   (1)(3)
                                                      
                                                      
‘~x’             'x' ‘in bitleri ters çevrildi
                 

Notlar:

  1. Negatif kaydırma sayıları geçersizdir ve *note ValueError: 189.
     hatasına sebep olur.

  2. 'n' bitlik sola kaydırma, ‘pow(2, n)’ ile çarpmaya eş değerdir.

  3. 'n' bitlik sağa kaydırma, ‘pow(2, n)’ ile kat bölümü işlemine eş
     değerdir.

  4. Bu hesaplamaları, sonlu ikinin tümleyen temsilinde en az bir ekstra
     işaret uzatma biti ile yapmak ( ‘1 + max(x.bit_length(),
     y.bit_length())’ veya daha fazla çalışan bit genişliği), sonsuz
     sayıda işaret biti varmış gibi aynı sonucu elde etmek için
     yeterlidir.


File: python.info,  Node: Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar,  Next: Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar,  Prev: Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler,  Up: Sayısal Türler — int float complex

5.4.4.2 Integer (Tam sayı) Türlerinde Ek Metotlar
.................................................

Int türü, *note numbers.Integral: 1dab. *note abstract base class: 105b.
‘ı uygular.  Ek olarak, birkaç metot daha sağlar:

 -- Yöntemi: int.bit_length ()

     İşaret ve baştaki sıfırlar hariç, ikili sistemde bir tam sayıyı
     (integer) temsil etmek için gereken bit sayısını döndürür:

          >>> n = -37
          >>> bin(n)
          '-0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6

     Daha doğrusu, ‘x’ sıfırdan farklıysa, ‘x.bit_length()’, ‘2**(k-1)
     <= abs(x) < 2**k’ olacak şekilde benzersiz ‘k’ pozitif tam
     sayısıdır.  Aynı şekilde, ‘abs(x)’ doğru olarak yuvarlatılmış bir
     logaritmaya sahip olacak kadar küçük olduğunda, ‘k = 1 +
     int(log(abs(x), 2))’ olur.  ‘x’ sıfır ise, ‘x.bit_length()’, ‘0’
     döndürür.

     Eşittir:

          def bit_length(self):
              s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
              s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
              return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Yöntemi: int.bit_count ()

     Tam sayının mutlak değerinin ikili gösterimindeki birlerin sayısını
     döndürür.  Buna nüfus sayımı da denir.  Örneğin:

          >>> n = 19
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b10011'
          >>> n.bit_count()
          3
          >>> (-n).bit_count()
          3

     Eşittir:

          def bit_count(self):
              return bin(self).count("1")

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Yöntemi: int.to_bytes (length=1, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)

     Bir tam sayıyı temsil eden bir bayt dizisi döndürür.

          >>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
          b'\x04\x00'
          >>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
          b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
          >>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
          b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
          >>> x = 1000
          >>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
          b'\xe8\x03'

     Tam sayı, 'length' bayt kullanılarak temsil edilir ve varsayılan
     olarak birdir.  Tam sayı verilen bayt sayısıyla gösterilemezse
     *note OverflowError: 6c7. hatası ortaya çıkar.

     'byteorder' argümanı, tam sayıyı temsil etmek için kullanılan bayt
     sırasını belirler ve varsayılan olarak ‘"big"’ ‘dir.  'byteorder'
     ‘"big"’ ise, en önemli bayt, bayt dizisinin başındadır.
     'byteorder' ‘"little"’ ise, en önemli bayt, bayt dizisinin
     sonundadır.

     'signed' argümanı, tam sayıyı temsil etmek için ikinin tümleyeninin
     kullanılıp kullanılmayacağını belirler.  'signed' ‘False’ ise ve
     negatif bir tam sayı verilirse, bir *note OverflowError: 6c7.
     hatası ortaya çıkar.  'signed' için varsayılan değer ‘False’
     şeklindedir.

     The default values can be used to conveniently turn an integer into
     a single byte object:

          >>> (65).to_bytes()
          b'A'

     However, when using the default arguments, don’t try to convert a
     value greater than 255 or you’ll get an *note OverflowError: 6c7.

     Eşittir:

          def to_bytes(n, length=1, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  order = range(length)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  order = reversed(range(length))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              return bytes((n >> i*8) & 0xff for i in order)

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added default argument values for ‘length’
     and ‘byteorder’.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod int.from_bytes (bytes, byteorder='big', *,
          signed=False)

     Verilen bayt dizisi tarafından temsil edilen tam sayıyı döndürür.

          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='big')
          16
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='little')
          4096
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=True)
          -1024
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=False)
          64512
          >>> int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder='big')
          16711680

     The argument 'bytes' must either be a *note bytes-like object: bb5.
     or an iterable producing bytes.

     The 'byteorder' argument determines the byte order used to
     represent the integer, and defaults to ‘"big"’.  If 'byteorder' is
     ‘"big"’, the most significant byte is at the beginning of the byte
     array.  If 'byteorder' is ‘"little"’, the most significant byte is
     at the end of the byte array.  To request the native byte order of
     the host system, use *note sys.byteorder: 1f8c. as the byte order
     value.

     'signed' argümanı, tam sayıyı temsil etmek için ikinin tümleyeninin
     kullanılıp kullanılmadığını gösterir.

     Eşittir:

          def from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  little_ordered = list(bytes)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  little_ordered = list(reversed(bytes))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              n = sum(b << i*8 for i, b in enumerate(little_ordered))
              if signed and little_ordered and (little_ordered[-1] & 0x80):
                  n -= 1 << 8*len(little_ordered)

              return n

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added default argument value for
     ‘byteorder’.

 -- Yöntemi: int.as_integer_ratio ()

     Return a pair of integers whose ratio is equal to the original
     integer and has a positive denominator.  The integer ratio of
     integers (whole numbers) is always the integer as the numerator and
     ‘1’ as the denominator.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Yöntemi: int.is_integer ()

     Returns ‘True’.  Exists for duck type compatibility with *note
     float.is_integer(): 1f8d.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar,  Next: Sayısal türlerin hashlemesi,  Prev: Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar,  Up: Sayısal Türler — int float complex

5.4.4.3 Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar
....................................

Float türü, *note numbers.Real: 1f87. *note abstract base class: 105b.
‘ı uygular.  Float ayrıca aşağıdaki ek metotlara sahiptir.

 -- Yöntemi: float.as_integer_ratio ()

     Return a pair of integers whose ratio is exactly equal to the
     original float.  The ratio is in lowest terms and has a positive
     denominator.  Raises *note OverflowError: 6c7. on infinities and a
     *note ValueError: 189. on NaNs.

 -- Yöntemi: float.is_integer ()

     Float örneği integral değeriyle sonluysa ‘True’, aksi takdirde
     ‘False’ döndürür:

          >>> (-2.0).is_integer()
          True
          >>> (3.2).is_integer()
          False

İki yöntem, onaltılık dizelere dönüştürmeyi destekler.  Python’un
floatları dahili olarak ikili sayılar olarak depolandığından, bir kayan
noktayı 'decimal' (ondalık) dizgeye dönüştürmek veya bu karakter
dizisinden dönüştürmek genellikle küçük bir yuvarlama hatası içerir.
Buna karşılık, onaltılık diziler, gerçel sayıların tam olarak
gösterilmesine ve belirtilmesine izin verir.  Bu, hata ayıklama
sırasında ve sayısal çalışmalarda yararlı olabilir.

 -- Yöntemi: float.hex ()

     Bir gerçel sayının temsilini, onaltılık bir dize olarak döndürür.
     Sonlu gerçel sayılar için, bu gösterim her zaman başında bir ‘0x’
     ve sonunda bir ‘p’ ve üs içerecektir.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod float.fromhex (s)

     Gerçel sayıyı temsil eden bir onaltılık dize 's'’yi döndüren için
     sınıf (class) metodu.  's' dizesinin başında ve sonunda boşluk
     olabilir.

*note float.hex(): 1b5d. ‘in bir örnek (instance) metodu olduğunu, *note
float.fromhex(): 1f8f. ‘in ise bir sınıf (class) metodu olduğunu
unutmayın.

Onaltılık bir dize şu biçimi alır:

     [sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]

where the optional ‘sign’ may by either ‘+’ or ‘-’, ‘integer’ and
‘fraction’ are strings of hexadecimal digits, and ‘exponent’ is a
decimal integer with an optional leading sign.  Case is not significant,
and there must be at least one hexadecimal digit in either the integer
or the fraction.  This syntax is similar to the syntax specified in
section 6.4.4.2 of the C99 standard, and also to the syntax used in Java
1.5 onwards.  In particular, the output of *note float.hex(): 1b5d. is
usable as a hexadecimal floating-point literal in C or Java code, and
hexadecimal strings produced by C’s ‘%a’ format character or Java’s
‘Double.toHexString’ are accepted by *note float.fromhex(): 1f8f.

Üssün onaltılık değil ondalık olarak yazıldığına ve katsayıyı çarpmak
için 2’nin gücünü verdiğine dikkat edin.  Örneğin, ‘0x3.a7p10’ onaltılık
dizesi, ‘(3 + 10./16 + 7./16**2) * 2.0**10’ veya ‘3740.0’ gerçel
sayısını temsil eder:

     >>> float.fromhex('0x3.a7p10')
     3740.0

‘3740.0’ ‘a ters dönüştürme uygulamak, aynı sayıyı temsil eden farklı
bir onaltılık dize verir:

     >>> float.hex(3740.0)
     '0x1.d380000000000p+11'


File: python.info,  Node: Sayısal türlerin hashlemesi,  Prev: Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar,  Up: Sayısal Türler — int float complex

5.4.4.4 Sayısal türlerin hashlemesi
...................................

For numbers ‘x’ and ‘y’, possibly of different types, it’s a requirement
that ‘hash(x) == hash(y)’ whenever ‘x == y’ (see the *note __hash__():
969. method documentation for more details).  For ease of implementation
and efficiency across a variety of numeric types (including *note int:
184, *note float: 272, *note decimal.Decimal: 609. and *note
fractions.Fraction: 1ae.) Python’s hash for numeric types is based on a
single mathematical function that’s defined for any rational number, and
hence applies to all instances of *note int: 184. and *note
fractions.Fraction: 1ae, and all finite instances of *note float: 272.
and *note decimal.Decimal: 609.  Essentially, this function is given by
reduction modulo ‘P’ for a fixed prime ‘P’.  The value of ‘P’ is made
available to Python as the *note modulus: 1f92. attribute of *note
sys.hash_info: ea5.

Şu anda kullanılan asal sayı, 32 bit C uzunluğundaki makinelerde ‘P =
2**31 - 1’ ve 64-bit C uzunluğundaki makinelerde ‘P = 2**61 - 1’
şeklindedir.

İşte ayrıntılı kurallar:

   - ‘x = m / n’ negatif olmayan bir rasyonel sayıysa ve ‘n’ ‘P’ ile
     bölünemiyorsa, ‘hash(x)’ ‘i ‘m * invmod(n, P) % P’ olarak
     tanımlayın, bu durumda ‘invmod(n, P)’, ‘n’ modül ‘P’ ‘nin tersini
     verir.

   - ‘x = m / n’ negatif olmayan bir rasyonel sayıysa ve ‘n’, ‘P’ ile
     bölünebiliyorsa (ancak ‘m’ değildir), o zaman ‘n’ ‘nin ‘P’ şeklinde
     ters modülü yoktur ve yukarıdaki kural geçerli değildir; bu durumda
     ‘hash(x)’ i ‘sys.hash_info.inf’ olarak tanımlayın.

   - ‘x = m / n’ negatif bir rasyonel sayıysa, ‘hash(x)’ ‘i ‘-hash(-x)’
     olarak tanımlayın.  Elde edilen ‘hash’ ‘-1’ ise, bunu ‘-2’ ile
     değiştirin.

   - ‘sys.hash_info.inf’ ve ‘-sys.hash_info.inf’, pozitif sonsuz veya
     negatif sonsuz (sırasıyla) için ‘hash’ değerleri olarak kullanılır.

   - For a *note complex: 273. number ‘z’, the hash values of the real
     and imaginary parts are combined by computing ‘hash(z.real) +
     sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)’, reduced modulo
     ‘2**sys.hash_info.width’ so that it lies in
     ‘range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width -
     1))’.  Again, if the result is ‘-1’, it’s replaced with ‘-2’.

Yukarıdaki kuralları açıklığa kavuşturmak için, *note float: 272. veya
*note complex: 273. olan rasyonel bir sayının ‘hash’ ‘ini hesaplamak
için gömülü ‘hash’ ‘e eş değer örnek Python kodu:

     import sys, math

     def hash_fraction(m, n):
         """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.

         Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
         Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).

         """
         P = sys.hash_info.modulus
         # Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
         while m % P == n % P == 0:
             m, n = m // P, n // P

         if n % P == 0:
             hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
             # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
             hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
         if m < 0:
             hash_value = -hash_value
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value

     def hash_float(x):
         """Compute the hash of a float x."""

         if math.isnan(x):
             return object.__hash__(x)
         elif math.isinf(x):
             return sys.hash_info.inf if x > 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())

     def hash_complex(z):
         """Compute the hash of a complex number z."""

         hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
         # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
         M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
         hash_value = (hash_value & (M - 1)) - (hash_value & M)
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean Type - bool,  Next: Yineleyici Türleri,  Prev: Sayısal Türler — int float complex,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.5 Boolean Type - ‘bool’
---------------------------

Booleans represent truth values.  The *note bool: 183. type has exactly
two constant instances: ‘True’ and ‘False’.

The built-in function *note bool(): 183. converts any value to a
boolean, if the value can be interpreted as a truth value (see section
*note Doğruluk Değeri Testi: 1f4a. above).

For logical operations, use the *note boolean operators: 1f82. ‘and’,
‘or’ and ‘not’.  When applying the bitwise operators ‘&’, ‘|’, ‘^’ to
two booleans, they return a bool equivalent to the logical operations
“and”, “or”, “xor”.  However, the logical operators ‘and’, ‘or’ and ‘!=’
should be preferred over ‘&’, ‘|’ and ‘^’.

3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The use of the bitwise inversion
operator ‘~’ is deprecated and will raise an error in Python 3.16.

*note bool: 183. is a subclass of *note int: 184. (see *note Sayısal
Türler — int, float, complex: 1a3f.).  In many numeric contexts, ‘False’
and ‘True’ behave like the integers 0 and 1, respectively.  However,
relying on this is discouraged; explicitly convert using *note int():
184. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Yineleyici Türleri,  Next: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range,  Prev: Boolean Type - bool,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.6 Yineleyici Türleri
------------------------

Python, konteynerler üzerinde yineleme kavramını destekler.  Bu, iki
farklı metot kullanılarak uygulanır; bunlar, kullanıcı tanımlı
sınıfların yinelemeyi desteklemesine izin vermek için kullanılır.
Aşağıda daha ayrıntılı olarak açıklanan diziler, her zaman yineleme
metotlarını destekler.

Container nesnelerinin *note iterable: 10ce. desteği sağlaması için bir
metodun tanımlanması gerekir:

 -- Yöntemi: container.__iter__ ()

     Bir *note iterator: 176e. nesnesi döndürür.  Nesnenin aşağıda
     açıklanan yineleyici protokolünü desteklemesi gerekir.  Bir
     container, farklı yineleme türlerini destekliyorsa, bu yineleme
     türleri için özel olarak yineleyiciler istemek için ek yöntemler
     sağlanabilir.  (Birden çok yineleme biçimini destekleyen bir
     nesneye örnek olarak hem genişlik öncelikli hem de derinlik
     öncelikli geçişi destekleyen bir ağaç yapısı verilebilir.)  Bu
     metot, Python/C API’sindeki Python nesneleri için tür yapısının
     *note tp_iter: 137b. yuvasına karşılık gelir.

Yineleyici nesnelerinin kendilerinin, birlikte 'iterator protocol' ‘ü
oluşturan aşağıdaki iki metodu desteklemesi gerekir:

 -- Yöntemi: iterator.__iter__ ()

     *note iterator: 176e. nesnesinin kendisini döndürür.  Bu, hem
     containerların hem de yineleyicilerin *note for: 26d. ve *note in:
     26f. ifadeleriyle birlikte kullanılmasına izin vermek için
     gereklidir.  Bu metot, Python/C API’sindeki Python nesneleri için
     tür yapısının *note tp_iter: 137b. yuvasına karşılık gelir.

 -- Yöntemi: iterator.__next__ ()

     *note iterator: 176e. ‘den sonraki öğeyi döndürür.  Başka öğe
     yoksa, *note StopIteration: a73. hatasını verir.  Bu metot,
     Python/C API’sindeki Python nesneleri için tür yapısının *note
     tp_iternext: 137c. yuvasına karşılık gelir.

Python, genel ve özel dizi türleri, sözlükler ve diğer daha özel formlar
üzerinde yinelemeyi desteklemek için birkaç yineleyici nesnesi tanımlar.
Belirli türler, yineleyici protokolünün uygulanmasının ötesinde önemli
değildir.

Bir yineleyicinin *note __next__(): 1176. metodu *note StopIteration:
a73. hatasını verdiğinde, sonraki çağrılarda bunu yapmaya devam
etmelidir.  Bu özelliğe uymayan uygulamalar bozuk sayılır.

* Menu:

* Oluşturucu Tipleri::


File: python.info,  Node: Oluşturucu Tipleri,  Up: Yineleyici Türleri

5.4.6.1 Oluşturucu Tipleri
..........................

Python’s *note generator: f0b.s provide a convenient way to implement
the iterator protocol.  If a container object’s *note __iter__(): 1d49.
method is implemented as a generator, it will automatically return an
iterator object (technically, a generator object) supplying the *note
__iter__(): 1b0e. and *note __next__(): 1b0f. methods.  More information
about generators can be found in *note the documentation for the yield
expression: 1e2a.


File: python.info,  Node: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range,  Next: Metin Sırası Türü — str,  Prev: Yineleyici Türleri,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.7 Dizi Tipleri — ‘list’, ‘tuple’, ‘range’
---------------------------------------------

Üç temel dizi türü vardır: listeler, demetler ve aralık nesneleri.
*note binary data: 1f4e. ve *note text strings: 1a44. ‘in işlenmesi için
uyarlanmış ek dizi türleri, özel bölümlerde açıklanmıştır.

* Menu:

* Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri::
* Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri::
* Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri::
* Listeler: Listeler<2>.
* Demetler::
* Aralıklar::


File: python.info,  Node: Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri,  Next: Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri,  Up: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range

5.4.7.1 Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri
.............................

Aşağıdaki tablodaki işlemler, hem değiştirilebilir hem de değiştirilemez
olan çoğu dizi türü tarafından desteklenir.  *note
collections.abc.Sequence: 1069. ABC, bu işlemleri özel dize türlerinde
doğru şekilde uygulamayı kolaylaştırmak için sağlanmıştır.

Bu tablo artan önceliğe göre sıralanmış dizi işlemlerini listeler.
Tabloda 's' ve 't' aynı türden dizilerdir, 'n', 'i', 'j' ve 'k' tam
sayılardır ve 'x', 's' tarafından dayatılan her tür ve değer
kısıtlamasını karşılayan isteğe bağlı bir nesnedir.

‘in’ ve ‘not in’ işlemleri, karşılaştırma işlemleriyle aynı önceliklere
sahiptir.  ‘+’ (birleştirme) ve ‘*’ (yineleme) işlemleri, karşılık gelen
sayısal işlemlerle aynı önceliğe sahiptir.  (1)

İşlem                          Sonuç                                Notlar
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘x in s’                       's' ‘nin bir öğesi 'x' ‘e eşitse     (1)
                               ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’        
                               
                                                                    
‘x not in s’                   's' ‘nin bir öğesi 'x' ‘e eşitse     (1)
                               ‘False’, aksi taktirde ‘True’        
                               
                                                                    
‘s + t’                        's' ve 't' ‘nin birleşimi            (6)(7)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s * n’ veya ‘n * s’           's' ‘yi kendisine 'n' kez eklemeye   (2)(7)
                               eş değer                             
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i]’                         's' ‘nin 'i'‘inci öğesi, orijin 0    (3)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s[i:j]’                       's' ‘nin 'i' ‘den 'j' ‘ye kadar      (3)(4)
                               olan dilimi                          
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i:j:k]’                     's' ‘nin 'i' ‘den 'j' ‘ye kadar      (3)(5)
                               olan dilimi, 'k' ‘lik adımlarla      
                               (örneğin 'k' = 2 ise, ikişer
                               ikişer)
                               
                                                                    
‘len(s)’                       's' ‘nin uzunluğu
                               
                                                                    
‘min(s)’                       's' ‘nin en küçük öğesi
                               
                                                                    
‘max(s)’                       's' ‘nin en büyük öğesi
                               
                                                                    
‘s.index(x[, i[, j]])’         'x' ‘in 's' içindeki ilk görüldüğü   (8)
                               dizini ('i' dizininde veya           
                               sonrasında ve 'j' dizininden önce)
                               
                                                                    
‘s.count(x)’                   's' ‘de 'x'’in toplam görülme
                               sayısı
                               

Aynı türden diziler de karşılaştırmaları destekler.  Özellikle, demetler
ve listeler, karşılık gelen öğeler ile sözlükbilimsel olarak
karşılaştırılır.  Bu, eşit karşılaştırma yapılabilmesi için her öğenin
eşit olarak karşılaştırması gerektiği ve iki dizinin aynı türde ve aynı
uzunlukta olması gerektiği anlamına gelir.  (Tüm ayrıntılar için dil
referansındaki *note Comparisons: 1e63. bölümüne bakın.)

Forward and reversed iterators over mutable sequences access values
using an index.  That index will continue to march forward (or backward)
even if the underlying sequence is mutated.  The iterator terminates
only when an *note IndexError: 13c2. or a *note StopIteration: a73. is
encountered (or when the index drops below zero).

Notlar:

  1. ‘in’ ve ‘not in’ işlemleri, genel durumda yalnızca basit sınırlama
     testi için kullanılırken, bazı özel diziler (örneğin: *note str:
     15d, *note bytes: 2cb. ve *note bytearray: 2ca.) bunları sonraki
     dizi testi için de kullanır:

          >>> "gg" in "eggs"
          True

  2. 'n' ‘nin ‘0’ ‘dan küçük değerleri ‘0’ olarak değerlendirilir (bu,
     's' ile aynı türde boş bir dizi verir).  's' dizisindeki öğeler
     kopyalanmaz, birden çok kez referans gösterilir (kullanılır).  Bu,
     çoğunlukla yeni Python programcılarına musallat olur; şunu düşünün:

          >>> lists = [[]] * 3
          >>> lists
          [[], [], []]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [3], [3]]

     Olan şu ki, ‘[[]]’ boş bir liste içeren tek elemanlı bir listedir,
     dolayısıyla ‘[[]] * 3’ ‘ün üç elemanı da bu boş listeye
     referanstır.  ‘lists’ öğelerinin herhangi birinin değiştirilmesi bu
     listeyi değiştirir.  Bu şekilde farklı listelerin bir listesini
     oluşturabilirsiniz:

          >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists[1].append(5)
          >>> lists[2].append(7)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [5], [7]]

     Daha fazla açıklama SSS gönderisinde mevcuttur: *note How do I
     create a multidimensional list?: 1f9b.

  3. 'i' veya 'j' negatifse, dizin 's': dizisinin sonuna göredir:
     ‘len(s) + i’ veya ‘len(s) + j’ değiştirilir.  Ancak ‘-0’ ‘ın hala
     ‘0’ olduğuna dikkat edin.

  4. 's' ‘nin 'i' ile 'j' arasındaki dilimi, ‘i <= k < j’ olacak şekilde
     'k' indeksine sahip öğelerin dizisi olarak tanımlanır.  'i' veya
     'j' ‘len(s)’ ‘den büyükse,''len(s)'' kullanın.  'i' atlanırsa veya
     ‘None’ ise, ‘0’ kullanın.  'j' atlanırsa veya ‘None’ ise, ‘len(s)’
     kullanın.  'i', 'j' ‘den büyük veya ona eşitse, dilim boştur.

  5. The slice of 's' from 'i' to 'j' with step 'k' is defined as the
     sequence of items with index ‘x = i + n*k’ such that ‘0 <= n <
     (j-i)/k’.  In other words, the indices are ‘i’, ‘i+k’, ‘i+2*k’,
     ‘i+3*k’ and so on, stopping when 'j' is reached (but never
     including 'j').  When 'k' is positive, 'i' and 'j' are reduced to
     ‘len(s)’ if they are greater.  When 'k' is negative, 'i' and 'j'
     are reduced to ‘len(s) - 1’ if they are greater.  If 'i' or 'j' are
     omitted or ‘None’, they become “end” values (which end depends on
     the sign of 'k').  Note, 'k' cannot be zero.  If 'k' is ‘None’, it
     is treated like ‘1’.

  6. Değiştirilemez dizileri birleştirmek her zaman yeni bir nesneyle
     sonuçlanır.  Bu, tekrarlanan birleştirme ile bir dizi oluşturmanın,
     toplam dizi uzunluğunda ikinci dereceden bir çalışma zamanı
     maliyetine sahip olacağı anlamına gelir.  Doğrusal bir çalışma
     zamanı maliyeti elde etmek için aşağıdaki alternatiflerden birine
     geçmelisiniz:

        * *note str: 15d. nesnelerini birleştiriyorsanız, bir liste
          oluşturabilir ve sonunda *note str.join(): 1f9c. kullanabilir
          veya bir *note io.StringIO: dc4. örneğine yazabilir ve
          tamamlandığında değerini alabilirsiniz

        * *note bytes: 2cb. nesnelerini birleştiriyorsanız, benzer
          şekilde *note bytes.join(): 1f9d. veya *note io.BytesIO: d38.
          kullanabilir veya bir *note bytearray: 2ca. nesnesiyle yerinde
          birleştirme yapabilirsiniz.  *note bytearray: 2ca. nesneleri
          değiştirilebilirdir ve verimli bir aşırı tahsis mekanizmasına
          sahiptir

        * *note tuple: 4ff. nesneleri birleştiriyorsanız, bunun yerine
          bir *note list: 422. öğesini genişletin

        * diğer türler için ilgili sınıf dokümantasyonunu inceleyin

  7. Bazı dizi türleri (örneğin *note range: 79c.) yalnızca belirli
     kalıpları takip eden öğe dizilerini destekler ve bu nedenle dizi
     birleştirmeyi veya tekrarlamayı desteklemez.

  8. 's' içinde 'x' bulunmadığında ‘index’ *note ValueError: 189.
     hatasını verir.  Tüm uygulamalar 'i' ve 'j' ek argümanlarının
     iletilmesini desteklemez.  Bu argümanlar, dizinin alt bölümlerinin
     verimli bir şekilde aranmasını sağlar.  Fazladan argümanları
     iletmek kabaca ‘s[i:j].index(x)’ kullanmaya eş değerdir, yalnızca
     herhangi bir veri kopyalamadan ve döndürülen index dilimin
     başlangıcından ziyade dizinin başlangıcına göredir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Ayrıştırıcı, işlenenlerin türünü söyleyemediğinden sahip olmaları
gerekir.


File: python.info,  Node: Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri,  Next: Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri,  Prev: Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri,  Up: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range

5.4.7.2 Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri
...................................

Değiştirilemez dizi türlerinin genellikle uyguladığı ve aynı zamanda
değişken dizi türleri tarafından uygulanmayan tek işlem, gömülü *note
hash(): 3f7. desteğidir.

Bu destek, *note tuple: 4ff. örnekleri gibi değiştirilemez dizilerin
*note dict: 240. anahtarları olarak kullanılmasına, *note set: 3e4. ve
*note frozenset: 3e5. örneklerinde saklanmasına izin verir.

Attempting to hash an immutable sequence that contains unhashable values
will result in *note TypeError: 2c4.


File: python.info,  Node: Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri,  Next: Listeler<2>,  Prev: Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri,  Up: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range

5.4.7.3 Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri
.....................................

Aşağıdaki tabloda yer alan işlemler değiştirilebilir dizi tiplerinde
tanımlanmıştır.  *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: c62. ABC, bu
işlemleri özel dizi türlerinde doğru şekilde uygulamayı kolaylaştırmak
için sağlanmıştır.

Tabloda 's' değiştirilebilir bir dizi türünün bir örneğidir, 't'
yinelenebilir herhangi bir nesnedir ve 'x', 's' tarafından dayatılan
herhangi bir tür ve değer kısıtlamasını karşılayan rastgele bir nesnedir
(örneğin, *note bytearray: 2ca. yalnızca ‘0 <= x <= 255’ değer
kısıtlamasını karşılayan tam sayıları kabul eder).

İşlem                              Sonuç                                Notlar
                                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                        
‘s[i] = x’                         's' ‘nin 'i' öğesi 'x' ile
                                   değiştirilir
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j] = t’                       's' ‘nin 'i' ile 'j' arasındaki
                                   dilimi, yinelenebilir 't'
                                   içeriğiyle değiştirilir
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j]’                       ‘s[i:j] = []’ ile eş değerdir
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j:k] = t’                     ‘s[i:j:k]’ ‘nin öğelerinin yerini    (1)
                                   't' öğelerininkiler alır             
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j:k]’                     ‘s[i:j:k]’ ‘nin öğelerini listeden
                                   kaldırır
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.append(x)’                      dizinin sonuna 'x' ekler
                                   (‘s[len(s):len(s)] = [x]’ ile eş
                                   değerdir)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.clear()’                        's' içindeki tüm öğeleri kaldırır    (5)
                                   (‘del s[:]’ ile eş değerdir)         
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.copy()’                         's'’nin sığ bir kopyasını            (5)
                                   oluşturur (‘s[:]’ ile eş değerdir)   
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.extend(t)’ veya ‘s += t’        's' ‘yi 't' ‘nin içeriğiyle
                                   genişletir (çoğunlukla
                                   ‘s[len(s):len(s)] = t’ ile eş
                                   değerdir)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s *= n’                           'n' kez tekrarlanan içeriğiyle 's'   (6)
                                   ‘yi günceller                        
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.insert(i, x)’                   'i' tarafından verilen dizinde 's'
                                   ‘nin içine 'x' ekler (‘s[i:i] =
                                   [x]’ ile eş değerdir)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.pop()’ veya ‘s.pop(i)’          'i' noktasındaki öğeyi alır ve 's'   (2)
                                   öğesinden kaldırır                   
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.remove(x)’                      removes the first item from 's'      (3)
                                   where ‘s[i]’ is equal to 'x'         
                                   
                                                                        
‘s.reverse()’                      's' ‘nin öğelerini yerinde tersine   (4)
                                   çevirir                              
                                   

Notlar:

  1. If 'k' is not equal to ‘1’, 't' must have the same length as the
     slice it is replacing.

  2. İsteğe bağlı 'i' argümanı varsayılan olarak ‘-1’ şeklindedir,
     böylece varsayılan olarak son öğe kaldırılır ve döndürülür.

  3. 's' ‘nin içinde 'x' bulunmadığında ‘remove()’ işlemi *note
     ValueError: 189. hatasını verir.

  4. ‘reverse()’ metodu, büyük bir diziyi tersine çevirirken yerden
     tasarruf sağlamak için diziyi yerinde değiştirir.  Kullanıcılara
     yan etki ile çalıştığını hatırlatmak için ters diziyi döndürmez.

  5. ‘clear()’ and ‘copy()’ are included for consistency with the
     interfaces of mutable containers that don’t support slicing
     operations (such as *note dict: 240. and *note set: 3e4.).
     ‘copy()’ is not part of the *note collections.abc.MutableSequence:
     c62. ABC, but most concrete mutable sequence classes provide it.

     Added in version 3.3: ‘clear()’ ve ‘copy()’ metotları.

  6. 'n' değeri bir tam sayıdır veya *note __index__(): 538. uygulayan
     bir nesnedir.  'n' ‘nin sıfır ve negatif değerleri diziyi temizler.
     Dizideki öğeler kopyalanmaz; *note Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri: 1f9a.
     altında ‘s * n’ için açıklandığı gibi, bunlara birden çok kez
     başvurulur.


File: python.info,  Node: Listeler<2>,  Next: Demetler,  Prev: Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri,  Up: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range

5.4.7.4 Listeler
................

Listeler, tipik olarak (kesin benzerlik derecesinin uygulamaya göre
değişeceği) homojen öğelerin koleksiyonlarını depolamak için kullanılan
değiştirilebilir dizilerdir.

 -- Sınıfı: list ([iterable])

     Listeler birkaç şekilde oluşturulabilir:

        * Boş listeyi belirtmek için bir çift köşeli parantez kullanma:
          ‘[]’

        * Köşeli parantez kullanarak, öğeleri virgülle ayırarak: ‘[a]’,
          ‘[a, b, c]’

        * Liste kavrayışını kullanma: ‘[x for x in iterable]’

        * Tür oluşturucuyu kullanma: ‘list()’ veya ‘list(iterable)’

     Yapıcı, öğeleri 'iterable' ‘ın öğeleriyle aynı ve aynı sırada olan
     bir liste oluşturur.  'iterable'; bir dizi, yinelemeyi destekleyen
     bir container veya yineleyici nesne olabilir.  'iterable' zaten bir
     listeyse, ‘iterable[:]’ ‘e benzer şekilde bir kopya oluşturulur ve
     döndürülür.  Örneğin, ‘list('abc')’, ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’ değerini
     döndürür ve ‘list( (1, 2, 3) )’, ‘[ 1, 2, 3]’.  Argüman verilmezse,
     yapıcı ‘[]’ yeni bir boş liste oluşturur.

     Gömülü *note sorted(): a45. dahil olmak üzere diğer birçok işlem de
     listeler üretir.

     Listeler, tüm *note common: 1f9a. ve *note mutable: 1f4c. dizi
     işlemlerini uygular.  Listeler ayrıca aşağıdaki ek metodu da
     sağlar:

      -- Yöntemi: sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

          Bu metot, öğeler arasında yalnızca ‘<’ karşılaştırmalarını
          kullanarak listeyi yerinde sıralar.  Hatalar bastırılmaz -
          herhangi bir karşılaştırma işlemi başarısız olursa, tüm
          sıralama işlemi başarısız olur (ve liste büyük olasılıkla
          kısmen değiştirilmiş durumda kalır).

          *note sort(): a46. yalnızca anahtar kelime tarafından
          iletilebilen iki argümanı kabul eder (*note keyword-only
          arguments: 8ef.):

          'key', her liste öğesinden bir karşılaştırma anahtarı çıkarmak
          için kullanılan bir argümanın işlevini belirtir (örneğin,
          ‘key=str.lower’).  Listedeki her bir öğeye karşılık gelen
          anahtar bir kez hesaplanır ve ardından tüm sıralama işlemi
          için kullanılır.  Varsayılan değer olan ‘None’, liste
          öğelerinin ayrı bir anahtar değeri hesaplamadan doğrudan
          sıralandığı anlamına gelir.

          *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 107f. yardımcı programı, 2.x
          stili 'cmp' işlevini bir 'key' işlevine dönüştürmek için
          kullanılabilir.

          'reverse' bir boolean değeridir.  ‘True’ olarak ayarlanırsa,
          liste öğeleri, her karşılaştırma tersine çevrilmiş gibi
          sıralanır.

          Bu yöntem, büyük bir diziyi sıralarken yerden tasarruf
          sağlamak için diziyi yerinde değiştirir.  Kullanıcılara yan
          etki ile çalıştığını hatırlatmak için, sıralanan diziyi
          döndürmez (açıkça yeni bir sıralanmış liste örneği istemek
          için *note sorted(): a45. kullanın).

          *note sort(): a46. metodunun kararlı olduğu garanti edilir.
          Bir sıralama, eşit olarak karşılaştırılan öğelerin göreli
          sırasını değiştirmemeyi garanti ediyorsa kararlıdır — bu,
          birden çok geçişte sıralama için yararlıdır (örneğin,
          departmana göre sıralama, ardından maaş derecesine göre).

          Sıralama örnekleri ve kısa bir sıralama eğitimi için bkz.
          *note Sorting Techniques: 1f6f.

          Bir liste sıralanırken, listeyi değiştirmeye ve hatta
          incelemeye çalışmanın etkisi tanımsızdır.  Python’un C
          uygulaması, listenin süre boyunca boş görünmesini sağlar ve
          bir sıralama sırasında listenin mutasyona uğradığını
          algılayabilirse *note ValueError: 189. hatasını verir.


File: python.info,  Node: Demetler,  Next: Aralıklar,  Prev: Listeler<2>,  Up: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range

5.4.7.5 Demetler
................

Tuple’lar, tipik olarak heterojen veri koleksiyonlarını depolamak için
kullanılan değiştirilemez dizilerdir (örneğin, gömülü *note enumerate():
1308. tarafından üretilen 2 tuple).  Tuple’lar, değiştirilemez bir
homojen veri dizisinin gerekli olduğu durumlarda da kullanılır (bir
*note set: 3e4. veya *note dict: 240. örneğinde depolamaya izin vermek
gibi).

 -- Sınıfı: tuple ([iterable])

     Tuple’lar çeşitli şekillerde oluşturulabilir:

        * Boş demeti belirtmek için bir çift parantez kullanma: ‘()’

        * Tekli bir tuple için sonunda virgül kullanma: ‘a,’ veya ‘(a,)’

        * Öğeleri virgülle ayırma: ‘a, b, c’ veya ‘(a, b, c)’

        * Gömülü *note tuple(): 4ff. kullanmak: ‘tuple()’ veya
          ‘tuple(iterable)’

     Yapıcı, öğeleri 'iterable' öğeleriyle aynı ve aynı sırada olan bir
     demet oluşturur.  'iterable' bir dizi, yinelemeyi destekleyen bir
     container veya yineleyici nesne olabilir.  'iterable' zaten bir
     tuple ise, değiştirilmeden döndürülür.  Örneğin, ‘tuple('abc')’,
     ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’ ‘yi ve ‘tuple( [1, 2, 3] )’, ‘(1, 2, 3)’ ‘yi
     döndürür.  Herhangi bir argüman verilmezse, yapıcı yeni bir boş
     demet oluşturur ‘()’.

     Bir demeti oluşturanın aslında parantez değil virgül olduğuna
     dikkat edin.  Boş demet durumunda veya söz dizimsel belirsizliği
     önlemek için gerektiğinde parantezler isteğe bağlıdır.  Örneğin,
     ‘f(a, b, c)’ üç argümanlı bir fonksiyon çağrısı iken ‘f((a, b,
     c))’, tek argüman olarak 3’lü bir tuple içeren bir fonksiyon
     çağrısıdır.

     Tuple’lar, tüm *note common: 1f9a. dizi işlemlerini uygular.

Ada göre erişimin dizine göre erişimden daha net olduğu heterojen veri
koleksiyonları için, *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b. basit bir
tuple nesnesinden daha uygun bir seçim olabilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Aralıklar,  Prev: Demetler,  Up: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range

5.4.7.6 Aralıklar
.................

*note range: 79c. türü, değiştirilemez bir sayı dizisini temsil eder ve
genellikle *note for: 26d. döngülerinde belirli sayıda döngü yapmak için
kullanılır.

 -- Sınıfı: range (stop)

 -- Sınıfı: range (start, stop[, step])

     Aralık oluşturucunun argümanları tamsayı olmalıdır (gömülü *note
     int: 184. veya *note __index__(): 538. özel metodunu uygulayan
     herhangi bir nesne).  'step' argümanı atlanırsa, varsayılan olarak
     ‘1’ olur.  'start' argümanı atlanırsa, varsayılan olarak ‘0’ olur.
     'step' sıfırsa, *note ValueError: 189. hatası ortaya çıkar.

     Pozitif 'step' için, ‘r’ aralığının içeriği, ‘i >= 0’ ve ‘r[i] <
     stop’ olmak üzere ‘r[i] = start + step*i’ formülüyle belirlenir.

     Negatif bir 'step' için, aralığın içeriği hala ‘r[i] = start +
     step*i’ formülüyle belirlenir, ancak kısıtlamalar ‘i >= 0’ ve ‘r[i]
     > stop’ ‘dir.

     Bir aralık nesnesi ‘r[0]’ değer kısıtlamasını karşılamıyorsa, boş
     olacaktır.  Aralıklar negatif indeksleri destekler, ancak bunlar
     pozitif indeksler tarafından belirlenen dizinin sonundan indeksleme
     olarak yorumlanır.

     *note sys.maxsize: 106a. ‘dan büyük mutlak değerler içeren
     aralıklara izin verilir, ancak bazı özellikler (*note len(): 441.
     gibi), *note OverflowError: 6c7. hatasınının ortaya çıkmasını
     sağlayabilir.

     Aralık örnekleri:

          >>> list(range(10))
          [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> list(range(1, 11))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
          >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
          [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
          >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
          [0, 3, 6, 9]
          >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
          >>> list(range(0))
          []
          >>> list(range(1, 0))
          []

     Aralıklar, birleştirme ve tekrar dışında tüm *note common: 1f9a.
     dizi işlemlerini uygular (aralık nesnelerinin yalnızca katı bir
     kalıp izleyen dizileri temsil edebilmesi ve tekrarlama ve
     birleştirmenin genellikle bu kalıbı ihlal etmesi nedeniyle).

      -- Özniteliği: start

          'start' parametresinin değeri (veya parametre sağlanmadıysa
          ‘0’)

      -- Özniteliği: stop

          'stop' parametresinin değeri

      -- Özniteliği: step

          'step' parametresinin değeri (veya parametre sağlanmadıysa
          ‘1’)

*note range: 79c. türünün normal bir *note list: 422. veya *note tuple:
4ff. üzerindeki avantajı, bir *note range: 79c. nesnesinin temsil ettiği
aralığın boyutu ne olursa olsun her zaman aynı (küçük) miktarda bellek
almasıdır (yalnızca ‘start’, ‘stop’ ve ‘step’ değerlerini sakladığı
için, tek tek öğeleri ve alt aralıkları gerektiği gibi hesaplar).

Aralık (range) nesneleri *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069. ABC’sini
uygular ve sınırlama testleri, eleman indeksi araması, dilimleme ve
negatif indeksler için destek gibi özellikler sağlar (bkz.  *note Dizi
Tipleri — list, tuple, range: 1a92.):

     >>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> r
     range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> 11 in r
     False
     >>> 10 in r
     True
     >>> r.index(10)
     5
     >>> r[5]
     10
     >>> r[:5]
     range(0, 10, 2)
     >>> r[-1]
     18

Aralık nesnelerini ‘==’ ve ‘!=’ ile eşitlik açısından test etmek,
bunları diziler olarak karşılaştırır.  Yani, aynı değer dizisini temsil
ediyorlarsa, iki aralık nesnesi eşit kabul edilir.  (Eşit karşılaştıran
iki aralık nesnesinin farklı *note start: 1fa4, *note stop: 1fa5. ve
*note step: 1fa6. niteliklerine sahip olabileceğini unutmayın, örneğin
‘range(0) == range(2, 1, 3)’ veya ‘range(0, 3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2)’.)

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Dizi ABC’sini uygular, Dilimleme ve negatif
indekslemeyi destekler, Tüm öğeleri yinelemek yerine sabit zamanda
üyelik için *note int: 184. nesnelerini test eder.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Aralık nesnelerini tanımladıkları değer sırasına
göre karşılaştırmak için ‘==’ ve ‘!=’ tanımlayın (nesne kimliğine göre
karşılaştırmak yerine).

Added the *note start: 1fa4, *note stop: 1fa5. and *note step: 1fa6.
attributes.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * The linspace recipe(1) shows how to implement a lazy version of
     range suitable for floating-point applications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000-equally-spaced-numbers-linspace/


File: python.info,  Node: Metin Sırası Türü — str,  Next: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Prev: Dizi Tipleri — list tuple range,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.8 Metin Sırası Türü — ‘str’
-------------------------------

Python’da metinsel veriler *note str: 15d. nesneleri veya 'strings' ile
işlenir.  Dizeler, Unicode kod noktalarının değişmez *note dizgeleridir:
1a92.  Dize değişmezleri çeşitli şekillerde yazılır:

   * Tek tırnak: ‘'katıştırılmış "çift" tırnaklara izin verir'’

   * Çift tırnak: ‘"katıştırılmış 'tek' tırnaklara izin verir"’

   * Üçlü tırnak: ‘'''Üç tek tırnak'''’, ‘"""Üç çift tırnak"""’

Üçlü tırnak içine alınmış dizeler birden çok satıra yayılabilir -
ilişkili tüm boşluklar dize değişmezine dahil edilecektir.

Tek bir ifadenin parçası olan ve aralarında yalnızca boşluk bulunan dize
değişmezleri, örtük olarak tek bir dize değişmezine dönüştürülür.  Yani,
‘("spam" "yumurtalar") == "spam yumurtalar"’.

See *note String and Bytes literals: 1c91. for more about the various
forms of string literal, including supported *note escape sequences:
170, and the ‘r’ (“raw”) prefix that disables most escape sequence
processing.

Dizeler, *note str: 15d. yapıcısı kullanılarak diğer nesnelerden de
oluşturulabilir.

Ayrı bir “karakter” türü olmadığından, bir dizenin indekslenmesi 1
uzunluğunda dizeler üretir.  Yani, boş olmayan bir 's' dizesi için ‘s[0]
== s[0:1]’.

Değiştirilebilir bir dize türü de yoktur, ancak *note str.join(): 1f9c.
veya *note io.StringIO: dc4. birden çok parçadan dizeleri verimli bir
şekilde oluşturmak için kullanılabilir.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Python 2 serisiyle geriye dönük uyumluluk için,
dize değişmezlerinde ‘u’ ön ekine izin verilir.  Bunun dize
değişmezlerinin anlamı üzerinde hiçbir etkisi yoktur ve ‘r’ ön ekiyle
birleştirilemez.

 -- Sınıfı: str (object='')

 -- Sınıfı: str (object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return a *note string: 1a44. version of 'object'.  If 'object' is
     not provided, returns the empty string.  Otherwise, the behavior of
     ‘str()’ depends on whether 'encoding' or 'errors' is given, as
     follows.

     If neither 'encoding' nor 'errors' is given, ‘str(object)’ returns
     *note type(object).__str__(object): 42f, which is the “informal” or
     nicely printable string representation of 'object'.  For string
     objects, this is the string itself.  If 'object' does not have a
     *note __str__(): 42f. method, then *note str(): 15d. falls back to
     returning *note repr(object): 637.

     'kodlama' veya 'hatalar' ‘dan en az biri verilirse, 'nesne' bir
     *note bytes-like object: bb5. olmalıdır (ör.  *note bytes: 2cb.
     veya *note bytearray: 2ca.).  Bu durumda, 'nesne' bir *note bytes:
     2cb. (veya *note bytearray: 2ca.) nesnesiyse ‘str(bytes, *kodlama*,
     *hatalar*)’, *note bytes.decode(*kodlama*, *hatalar*): 729. ‘a eş
     değerdir.  Aksi takdirde, arabellek nesnesinin altında yatan bayt
     nesnesi, *note bytes.decode(): 729. çağrılmadan önce elde edilir.
     Arabellek nesneleri hakkında bilgi için bkz.  *note Binary Sequence
     Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 1f4e. ve *note Buffer
     Protocol: 14e.

     Bir *note bytes: 2cb. nesnesini 'kodlama' veya 'hatalar'
     argümanları olmadan *note str(): 15d. ‘ye iletmek, gayriresmi dize
     temsilini döndürmenin ilk durumuna girer (ayrıca bkz.  Python için
     *note -b: 3ef. komut satırı seçeneği).  Örneğin:

          >>> str(b'Zoot!')
          "b'Zoot!'"

     ‘str’ sınıfı ve metotları hakkında daha fazla bilgi için aşağıdaki
     *note Metin Sırası Türü — str: 1a44. ve *note String (Dize)
     Metotları: 1a45. bölümüne bakın.  Biçimlendirilmiş dizelerin
     çıktısını almak için *note f-strings: 807. ve *note Format String
     Syntax: 1237. bölümlerine bakın.  Ayrıca, *note Text Processing
     Services: 1fa8. bölümüne de bakın.

* Menu:

* String (Dize) Metotları: String Dize Metotları.
* printf-style String Formatting::


File: python.info,  Node: String Dize Metotları,  Next: printf-style String Formatting,  Up: Metin Sırası Türü — str

5.4.8.1 String (Dize) Metotları
...............................

Dizeler, aşağıda açıklanan ek yöntemlerle birlikte tüm *note ortak:
1f9a. dizi işlemlerini uygular.

Strings also support two styles of string formatting, one providing a
large degree of flexibility and customization (see *note str.format():
433, *note Format String Syntax: 1237. and *note Custom String
Formatting: 1faa.) and the other based on C ‘printf’ style formatting
that handles a narrower range of types and is slightly harder to use
correctly, but is often faster for the cases it can handle (*note
printf-style String Formatting: 4e4.).

Standart kütüphanenin *note Text Processing Services: 1fab. bölümü,
metinle ilgili çeşitli yardımcı programlar sağlayan bir dizi başka
modülü kapsar (*note re: b8. modülündeki normal ifade desteği dahil).

 -- Yöntemi: str.capitalize ()

     İlk karakteri büyük ve geri kalanı küçük harf ile, dizenin bir
     kopyasını döndürür.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The first character is now put into
     titlecase rather than uppercase.  This means that characters like
     digraphs will only have their first letter capitalized, instead of
     the full character.

 -- Yöntemi: str.casefold ()

     Dizenin küçük harfe katlanmış bir kopyasını döndürür.  Küçük harfe
     katlanmış dizeler, büyük/küçük harfsiz eşleştirme için
     kullanılabilir.

     Büyük harf katlama, harf küçültmeye (lowercasing) benzer ancak daha
     agresiftir, çünkü bir dizedeki tüm büyük/küçük harf ayrımlarını
     kaldırmayı amaçlar.  Örneğin, Almanca küçük harf ‘'ß'’, ‘"ss"’ ile
     eş değerdir.  Zaten küçük harf olduğundan, *note lower(): 160f.
     ‘'ß'’ için hiçbir şey yapmaz; *note casefold(): c64. onu ‘"ss"’
     biçimine dönüştürür.

     The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13 'Default
     Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(1).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: str.center (width[, fillchar])

     'width' uzunluğundaki bir dizede ortalanmış olarak döndürür.
     Doldurma, belirtilen 'fillchar' kullanılarak yapılır (varsayılanı
     bir ASCII boşluğudur).  'width', ‘len(s)’ değerinden küçük veya ona
     eşitse orijinal dize döndürülür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     ['start', 'end'] aralığında 'sub' alt dizesinin örtüşmeyen
     oluşumlarının sayısını döndürür.  İsteğe bağlı bağımsız değişkenler
     'start' ve 'end', dilim notasyonunda olduğu gibi yorumlanır.

     If 'sub' is empty, returns the number of empty strings between
     characters which is the length of the string plus one.

 -- Yöntemi: str.encode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return the string encoded to *note bytes: 2cb.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’; see *note Standard Encodings:
     c46. for possible values.

     'errors' kodlama hatalarının nasıl ele alınacağını kontrol eder.
     Eğer ‘'strict'’ (varsayılan) ise, bir *note UnicodeError: 114c.
     istisnası oluşturulur.  Diğer olası değerler ‘'ignore'’,
     ‘'replace'’, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’, ‘'backslashreplace'’ ve *note
     codecs.register_error(): 1323. ile kaydedilen diğer isimlerdir.
     Ayrıntılar için *note Error Handlers: 1608. bölümüne bakınız.

     For performance reasons, the value of 'errors' is not checked for
     validity unless an encoding error actually occurs, *note Python
     Development Mode: 71d. is enabled or a *note debug build: 6b9. is
     used.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added support for keyword arguments.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: 'errors' şimdi *note Python Development
     Mode: 71d. ve *note hata ayıklama modunda: 6b9. kontrol edilir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Dize belirtilen 'suffix' ile bitiyorsa ‘True’, aksi takdirde
     ‘False’ döndürür.  'suffix' ayrıca aranacak bir son ek grubu da
     olabilir.  İsteğe bağlı 'start' ile, o konumdan başlayarak test
     edin.  İsteğe bağlı 'end' ile, o konumda karşılaştırmayı bırakın.

 -- Yöntemi: str.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Geçerli sütuna ve verilen tab boyutuna bağlı olarak, tüm tab
     karakterlerinin bir veya daha fazla boşlukla değiştirildiği dizenin
     bir kopyasını döndürür.  Tab konumları her 'tab boyutu'
     karakterinde oluşur (varsayılan 8’dir, 0, 8, 16 ve benzeri
     sütunlarda tab konumları verilir).  Dizeyi genişletmek için mevcut
     sütun sıfıra ayarlanır ve dize karakter karakter incelenir.
     Karakter bir tab ise (‘\t’), geçerli sütun sonraki tab konumuna
     eşit olana kadar sonuca bir veya daha fazla boşluk karakteri
     eklenir.  (Tab karakterinin kendisi kopyalanmaz.)  Karakter yeni
     satırsa (‘\n’) veya dönüşse (‘\r’), kopyalanır ve mevcut sütun
     sıfırlanır.  Diğer herhangi bir karakter değiştirilmeden kopyalanır
     ve mevcut sütun, karakterin yazdırıldığında nasıl temsil edildiğine
     bakılmaksızın bir artırılır.

          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          '01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          '01  012 0123    01234'

 -- Yöntemi: str.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     'sub' alt dizesinin ‘s[start:end]’ diliminde bulunduğu dizedeki en
     düşük dizini döndür.  İsteğe bağlı argümanlar 'start' ve 'end',
     dilim notasyonunda olduğu gibi yorumlanır.  'sub' bulunamazsa ‘-1’
     döndürür.

          Not: *note find(): d3c. metodu yalnızca 'sub' öğesinin
          konumunu bilmeniz gerekiyorsa kullanılmalıdır.  'sub' ‘ın bir
          alt dize olup olmadığını kontrol etmek için *note in: 26f.
          operatörünü kullanın:

               >>> 'Py' in 'Python'
               True

 -- Yöntemi: str.format (*args, **kwargs)

     Bir dize biçimlendirme işlemi gerçekleştirin.  Bu yöntemin
     çağrıldığı dize, parantez ‘{}’ ile sınırlandırılmış metin veya
     değiştirme alanları içerebilir.  Her değiştirme alanı, ya bir
     konumsal (sırası önemli) argümanın sayısal dizinini ya da bir
     anahtar sözcük argmünanının adını içerir.  Her değiştirme alanının,
     karşılık gelen argümanın dize değeriyle değiştirildiği dizenin bir
     kopyasını döndürür.

          >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
          'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'

     Biçim dizelerinde (f string) belirtilebilecek çeşitli biçimlendirme
     seçeneklerinin açıklaması için bkz.  *note Format String Syntax:
     1237.

          Not: Bir sayıyı (*note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note
          complex: 273, *note decimal.Decimal: 609. ve alt sınıfları)
          ‘n’ türüyle biçimlendirirken (örn: ‘'{:n}'. format(1234)’),
          işlev ‘localeconv()’ öğesinin ‘decimal_point’ ve
          ‘thousands_sep’ alanlarını ASCII değilse veya 1 bayttan uzunsa
          ve ‘LC_NUMERIC’ yerel ayarı ‘LC_CTYPE’ yerel ayarından
          farklıysa kod çözmek için ‘LC_CTYPE’ yerel ayarını geçici
          olarak ‘LC_NUMERIC’ yerel ayarına ayarlar.  Bu geçici
          değişiklik diğer iş parçacıklarını etkiler.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Bir sayıyı ‘n’ türüyle biçimlendirirken,
     fonksiyon bazı durumlarda ‘LC_CTYPE’ yerel ayarını geçici olarak
     ‘LC_NUMERIC’ yerel ayarına ayarlar.

 -- Yöntemi: str.format_map (mapping)

     ‘str.format(**mapping)’ ile benzerdir, ancak ‘mapping’ doğrudan
     kullanılır ve bir *note dict: 240. ‘e kopyalanmaz.  Örneğin,
     ‘mapping’ bir dict alt sınıfı ise bu kullanışlıdır:

          >>> class Default(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return key
          ...
          >>> '{name} was born in {country}'.format_map(Default(name='Guido'))
          'Guido was born in country'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Yöntemi: str.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     *note find(): d3c. gibi, ancak alt dize bulunamadığında *note
     ValueError: 189. yükseltir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isalnum ()

     Dizedeki tüm karakterler alfanümerikse ve en az bir karakter varsa
     ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’ döndürür.  Bir ‘c’ karakteri,
     aşağıdakilerden biri ‘True’ döndürüyorsa alfasayısaldır:
     ‘c.isalpha()’, ‘c.isdecimal()’, ‘c.isdigit()’ veya ‘c.isnumeric()’.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isalpha ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are alphabetic and
     there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  Alphabetic
     characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
     database as “Letter”, i.e., those with general category property
     being one of “Lm”, “Lt”, “Lu”, “Ll”, or “Lo”.  Note that this is
     different from the Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10
     'Letters, Alphabetic, and Ideographic' of the Unicode Standard(2).

 -- Yöntemi: str.isascii ()

     Dize boşsa veya dizedeki tüm karakterler ASCII ise ‘True’, aksi
     takdirde ‘False’ döndürür.  ASCII karakterleri U+0000-U+007F
     aralığında kod noktalarına sahiptir.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isdecimal ()

     Dizedeki tüm karakterler ondalık karakter ise ve en az bir karakter
     varsa ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’ döndürür.  Ondalık karakterler
     10 tabanında sayılar oluşturmak için kullanılabilen karakterlerdir,
     örneğin U+0660, ARAPÇA-HİNTÇE RAKAM SIFIR. Resmi olarak bir ondalık
     karakter Unicode Genel Kategorisi “Nd” içerisindeki bir
     karakterdir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isdigit ()

     Dizedeki tüm karakterler rakamsa ve en az bir karakter varsa
     ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’ döndürür.  Rakamlar ondalık
     karakterleri ve özel işlem gerektiren rakamları (uyumluluk üst
     simge rakamları gibi) içerir.  Bu, Kharosthi sayıları gibi 10
     tabanında sayı oluşturmak için kullanılamayan rakamları kapsar.
     Resmi olarak rakam, Numeric_Type=Digit veya Numeric_Type=Decimal
     özellik değerine sahip bir karakterdir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isidentifier ()

     *note Identifiers and keywords: 1c81. bölümüne göre dizge dil
     tanımına göre geçerli bir tanımlayıcı ise ‘True’ döndürür.

     *note keyword.iskeyword(): 1fb4. can be used to test whether string
     ‘s’ is a reserved identifier, such as *note def: 12e2. and *note
     class: 1181.

     Örnek:

          >>> from keyword import iskeyword

          >>> 'hello'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('hello')
          (True, False)
          >>> 'def'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('def')
          (True, True)

 -- Yöntemi: str.islower ()

     Dizedeki tüm büyük harfli karakterler (3) küçük harfli ise ve en az
     bir büyük harfli karakter varsa ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’
     döndürür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isnumeric ()

     Dizedeki tüm karakterler sayısal karakterlerse ve en az bir
     karakter varsa ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’ döndürür.  Sayısal
     karakterler rakam karakterlerini ve Unicode sayısal değer
     özelliğine sahip tüm karakterleri içerir, örneğin U+2155, VULGAR
     FRAKSİYONU BEŞİNCİ. Resmi olarak, sayısal karakterler
     Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal veya Numeric_Type=Numeric
     özellik değerine sahip karakterlerdir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isprintable ()

     Return true if all characters in the string are printable, false if
     it contains at least one non-printable character.

     Here “printable” means the character is suitable for *note repr():
     637. to use in its output; “non-printable” means that *note repr():
     637. on built-in types will hex-escape the character.  It has no
     bearing on the handling of strings written to *note sys.stdout:
     943. or *note sys.stderr: 792.

     The printable characters are those which in the Unicode character
     database (see *note unicodedata: 105.) have a general category in
     group Letter, Mark, Number, Punctuation, or Symbol (L, M, N, P, or
     S); plus the ASCII space 0x20.  Nonprintable characters are those
     in group Separator or Other (Z or C), except the ASCII space.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isspace ()

     Dizede yalnızca boşluk karakterleri varsa ve en az bir karakter
     varsa ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’ döndürür.

     Bir karakter, genel kategorisi ‘Zs’ (“Ayırıcı, boşluk”) ya da çift
     yönlü sınıfı ‘WS’, ‘B’ veya ‘S’’den biri ise Unicode karakter
     veritabanında (bkz.  *note unicodedata: 105.) 'beyaz boşluk
     karakteri'’dir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.istitle ()

     Eğer dizenin yalnızca ilk harfi büyük ise ve en az bir karakter
     varsa ‘True’ döndürür.  Örneğin, büyük harfli karakterler sadece
     küçük harfli karakterleri ve küçük harfli karakterler sadece büyük
     harfli karakterleri takip edebilir.  Aksi takdirde ‘False’
     döndürür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.isupper ()

     Dizedeki tüm karakterler (4) büyük harfli ise ve en az bir büyük
     harfli karakter varsa ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’ döndürür.

          >>> 'BANANA'.isupper()
          True
          >>> 'banana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> 'baNana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> ' '.isupper()
          False

 -- Yöntemi: str.join (iterable)

     'iterable' içindeki dizgelerin birleşiminden oluşan bir dizge
     döndürür.  Eğer 'iterable' içinde *note bytes: 2cb. nesneleri de
     dahil olmak üzere string olmayan değerler varsa bir *note
     TypeError: 2c4. oluşacaktır.  Öğeler arasındaki ayırıcı, bu yöntemi
     sağlayan dizedir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.ljust (width[, fillchar])

     'width' uzunluğundaki bir dizeyi sola hizalanmış olarak döndürür.
     Doldurma, belirtilen 'fillchar' kullanılarak yapılır (varsayılanı
     bir ASCII boşluğudur).  'width', ‘len(s)’ değerinden küçük veya ona
     eşitse orijinal dize döndürülür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.lower ()

     Dizenin tüm büyük harfli karakterlerini (5) küçük harfe
     dönüştürerek bir kopyasını döndürür.

     The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13
     'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(6).

 -- Yöntemi: str.lstrip ([chars])

     Dizenin baştaki karakterleri çıkarılmış bir kopyasını döndürür.
     'chars' bağımsız değişkeni, kaldırılacak karakter kümesini belirten
     bir dizedir.  Atlanırsa veya ‘None’ olursa, 'chars' bağımsız
     değişkeni varsayılan olarak boşlukları kaldırır.  'chars' bağımsız
     değişkeni bir ön ek değildir; bunun yerine, değerlerinin tüm
     kombinasyonları çıkarılır:

          >>> '   spacious   '.lstrip()
          'spacious   '
          >>> 'www.example.com'.lstrip('cmowz.')
          'example.com'

     Bir karakter kümesinin tüm ön ekleri yerine tek bir ön ek dizesini
     kaldıracak bir yöntem için *note str.removeprefix(): 722. bölümüne
     bakın.  Örneğin:

          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.lstrip('Arthur: ')
          'ee!'
          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix('Arthur: ')
          'three!'

 -- Yöntemi: static str.maketrans (x[, y[, z]])

     Bu statik yöntem *note str.translate(): 1fbb. için kullanılabilecek
     bir çeviri tablosu döndürür.

     Yalnızca bir bağımsız değişken varsa, Unicode sıradanlarını
     (tamsayılar) veya karakterlerini (1 uzunluğundaki dizeler) Unicode
     sıradanlarına, dizelere (isteğe bağlı uzunluklarda) veya ‘None’
     değerine eşleyen bir sözlük olmalıdır.  Karakter anahtarları daha
     sonra sıradanlara dönüştürülecektir.

     İki bağımsız değişken varsa, bunlar eşit uzunlukta dizgeler
     olmalıdır.  Sözlüğün son halinde x’teki her karakter y’de aynı
     konumdaki karakterle eşlenecektir.  Üçüncü bir bağımsız değişken
     varsa, karakterleri sonuçta ‘None’ ile eşlenecek bir dizge
     olmalıdır.

 -- Yöntemi: str.partition (sep)

     Dizeyi 'sep' öğesinin ilk geçtiği yerden böler ve ayırıcıdan önceki
     kısmı, ayırıcının kendisini ve ayırıcıdan sonraki kısmı içeren bir
     3’lü döndürür.  Ayırıcı bulunamazsa, dizenin kendisini ve ardından
     iki boş dizeyi içeren bir 3’lü döndürür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     Eğer dize 'prefix' dizesi ile başlıyorsa, ‘dize[len(prefix):]’
     döndürür.  Aksi takdirde, orijinal dizgenin bir kopyasını döndürür:

          >>> 'TestHook'.removeprefix('Test')
          'Hook'
          >>> 'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix('Test')
          'BaseTestCase'

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Yöntemi: str.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     Dize 'suffix' (son ek) dizesiyle bitiyorsa ve bu 'suffix' boş
     değilse, ‘dize[:-len(suffix)]’ döndürür.  Aksi takdirde, orijinal
     dizenin bir kopyasını döndürür:

          >>> 'MiscTests'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'Misc'
          >>> 'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'TmpDirMixin'

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Yöntemi: str.replace (old, new[, count])

     Dizenin, 'eski' alt dizesinin tüm oluşumları 'yeni' ile
     değiştirilmiş bir kopyasını döndürür.  İsteğe bağlı olarak 'count'
     bağımsız değişkeni verilirse, yalnızca ilk 'count' oluşumu
     değiştirilir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Dizede 'sub' alt dizesinin bulunduğu en yüksek dizini döndürür,
     öyle ki 'sub' ‘s[start:end]’ içinde yer alır.  İsteğe bağlı
     argümanlar 'start' ve 'end' dilim gösterimindeki gibi yorumlanır.
     Başarısızlık durumunda ‘-1’ döndürür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     *note rfind(): d3d. gibi, ancak 'sub' alt dizesi bulunamadığında
     *note ValueError: 189. yükseltir.

 -- Yöntemi: str.rjust (width[, fillchar])

     'width' uzunluğundaki bir dizeyi sağa hizalanmış olarak döndürür.
     Doldurma, belirtilen 'fillchar' kullanılarak yapılır (varsayılanı
     bir ASCII boşluğudur).  'width', ‘len(s)’ değerinden küçük veya ona
     eşitse orijinal dize döndürülür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.rpartition (sep)

     Dizeyi 'sep' öğesinin ilk geçtiği yerden böler ve ayırıcıdan önceki
     kısmı, ayırıcının kendisini ve ayırıcıdan sonraki kısmı içeren bir
     3’lü döndürür.  Ayırıcı bulunamazsa, dizenin kendisini ve ardından
     iki boş dizeyi içeren bir 3’lü döndürür.

 -- Yöntemi: str.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Ayırıcı dizge olarak 'sep' kullanarak dizgedeki sözcüklerin bir
     listesini döndürür.  Eğer 'maxsplit' belirtilmişse, 'rightmost'
     olmak üzere en fazla 'maxsplit' bölme yapılır.  Eğer 'sep'
     belirtilmemişse veya ‘None’ ise, herhangi bir boşluk dizesi
     ayırıcıdır.  Sağdan bölme dışında, *note rsplit(): 10fd. aşağıda
     ayrıntılı olarak açıklanan *note split(): d3e. gibi davranır.

 -- Yöntemi: str.rstrip ([chars])

     Dizenin en sondaki karakterleri çıkarılmış bir kopyasını döndürür.
     'chars' bağımsız değişkeni, kaldırılacak karakter kümesini belirten
     bir dizedir.  Atlanırsa veya ‘None’ olursa, 'chars' bağımsız
     değişkeni varsayılan olarak boşlukları kaldırır.  'chars' bağımsız
     değişkeni bir ön ek değildir; bunun yerine, değerlerinin tüm
     kombinasyonları çıkarılır:

          >>> '   spacious   '.rstrip()
          '   spacious'
          >>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
          'mississ'

     Bir karakter kümesinin tüm son ekleri yerine tek bir son ek
     dizesini kaldıracak bir yöntem için *note str.removeprefix(): 722.
     bölümüne bakın.  Örneğin:

          >>> 'Monty Python'.rstrip(' Python')
          'M'
          >>> 'Monty Python'.removesuffix(' Python')
          'Monty'

 -- Yöntemi: str.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Ayırıcı dizge olarak 'sep' kullanarak dizgedeki sözcüklerin bir
     listesini döndürür.  Eğer 'maxsplit' belirtilmişse, en fazla
     'maxsplit' bölme işlemi yapılır (dolayısıyla, liste en fazla
     ‘maxsplit+1’ elemana sahip olur).  Eğer 'maxsplit' belirtilmemişse
     veya ‘-1’ ise, bölme sayısında bir sınırlama yoktur (tüm olası
     bölmeler yapılır).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty strings (for example,
     ‘'1,,2'.split(',')’ returns ‘['1', '', '2']’).  The 'sep' argument
     may consist of multiple characters as a single delimiter (to split
     with multiple delimiters, use *note re.split(): 9e3.).  Splitting
     an empty string with a specified separator returns ‘['']’.

     Örneğin:

          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',', maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2,3']
          >>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '', '3', '']
          >>> '1<>2<>3<4'.split('<>')
          ['1', '2', '3<4']

     Eğer 'sep' belirtilmemişse veya ‘None’ ise, farklı bir bölme
     algoritması uygulanır: ardışık boşluk dizileri tek bir ayırıcı
     olarak kabul edilir ve dizgenin başında veya sonunda boşluk varsa,
     sonucun başında veya sonunda boş dizeler olmaz.  Dolayısıyla, boş
     bir dizeyi veya sadece beyaz boşluktan oluşan bir dizeyi ‘None’
     ayırıcısıyla bölmek ‘[]’ döndürür.

     Örneğin:

          >>> '1 2 3'.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2 3']
          >>> '   1   2   3   '.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']

 -- Yöntemi: str.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Satır sınırlarında keserek dizedeki satırların bir listesini
     döndürür.  Satır sonları için 'keepends' belirtilmediği ve true
     değerinde olmadığı sürece, satır sonları sonuç listesine dahil
     edilmez.

     Bu yöntem aşağıdaki satır sınırlarında bölme yapar.  Spesifik
     olarak, sınırlar *note universal newlines: bc2. ‘ın bir üst
     kümesidir.

     Temsil                      Açıklama
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     ‘\n’                        Satır Atlama
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r’                        Satır Başına Alma
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r\n’                      Satır Başına Alma + Satır
                                 Atlama
                                 
                                 
     ‘\v’ or ‘\x0b’              Satır Tablolama
                                 
                                 
     ‘\f’ or ‘\x0c’              Form Besleme
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1c’                      Dosya Ayırıcı
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1d’                      Grup Ayırıcı
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1e’                      Kayıt Ayırıcı
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x85’                      Yeni Satır (C1 Denetim Kodu)
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2028’                    Satır Ayrıcı
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2029’                    Paragraf Ayırıcı
                                 

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: ‘\v’ ve ‘\f’ satır sınırlarına eklenir.

     Örneğin:

          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          ['ab c', '', 'de fg', 'kl']
          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          ['ab c\n', '\n', 'de fg\r', 'kl\r\n']

     Bir sınırlayıcı dize 'sep' verildiğinde *note split(): d3e.
     yönteminden farklı olarak, bu yöntem boş dize için boş bir liste
     döndürür ve bir terminal satır sonu fazladan bir satır ile
     sonuçlanmaz:

          >>> "".splitlines()
          []
          >>> "One line\n".splitlines()
          ['One line']

     Kıyaslayacak olursak ‘split(‘\n’)’ şu değeri verir:

          >>> ''.split('\n')
          ['']
          >>> 'Two lines\n'.split('\n')
          ['Two lines', '']

 -- Yöntemi: str.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Dize 'önek' ile başlıyorsa ‘True’ döndürür, aksi takdirde ‘False’
     döndürür.  'prefix' ayrıca aranacak ön eklerin bir tuple’ı da
     olabilir.  İsteğe bağlı 'start' ile, o konumdan başlayan dizeyi
     sınar.  İsteğe bağlı 'end' ile, dizeyi o konumda karşılaştırmayı
     durdurur.

 -- Yöntemi: str.strip ([chars])

     Dizenin baştaki ve sondaki karakterleri çıkarılmış bir kopyasını
     döndürür.  'chars' bağımsız değişkeni, kaldırılacak karakter
     kümesini belirten bir dizedir.  Atlanırsa veya ‘None’ olursa,
     'chars' bağımsız değişkeni varsayılan olarak boşlukları kaldırır.
     'chars' bağımsız değişkeni bir ön ek veya son ek değildir; bunun
     yerine, değerlerinin tüm kombinasyonları çıkarılır:

          >>> '   spacious   '.strip()
          'spacious'
          >>> 'www.example.com'.strip('cmowz.')
          'example'

     En dıştaki ön ve son*chars* bağımsız değişken değerleri dizeden
     çıkarılır.  Karakterler, 'chars' içindeki karakter kümesinde
     bulunmayan bir dize karakterine ulaşılana kadar önde gelen uçtan
     çıkarılır.  Benzer bir işlem son uçta da gerçekleşir.  Örneğin:

          >>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
          >>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
          'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'

 -- Yöntemi: str.swapcase ()

     Büyük harf karakterleri küçük harfe dönüştürülmüş veya tam tersi
     yapılmış dizenin bir kopyasını döndürür.  ‘s.swapcase().swapcase()
     == s’ ifadesinin mutlaka doğru olması gerekmediğine dikkat edin.

 -- Yöntemi: str.title ()

     Sözcüklerin büyük harfle başladığı ve kalan karakterlerin küçük
     harf olduğu dizenin başlıklandırılmış bir sürümünü döndürür.

     Örneğin:

          >>> 'Hello world'.title()
          'Hello World'

     Algoritma, bir kelimenin ardışık harf grupları olarak dilden
     bağımsız basit bir tanımını kullanır.  Bu tanım birçok bağlamda işe
     yarar, ancak bu, kısaltmalar ve iyeliklerdeki kesme işaretlerinin
     kelime sınırları oluşturduğu anlamına gelir ve bu istenen sonuç
     olmayabilir:

          >>> "they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          "They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     The *note string.capwords(): 1fbe. function does not have this
     problem, as it splits words on spaces only.

     Alternatively, a workaround for apostrophes can be constructed
     using regular expressions:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(r"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0).capitalize(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
          "They're Bill's Friends."

 -- Yöntemi: str.translate (table)

     Return a copy of the string in which each character has been mapped
     through the given translation table.  The table must be an object
     that implements indexing via *note __getitem__(): 500, typically a
     *note mapping: 1061. or *note sequence: 23f.  When indexed by a
     Unicode ordinal (an integer), the table object can do any of the
     following: return a Unicode ordinal or a string, to map the
     character to one or more other characters; return ‘None’, to delete
     the character from the return string; or raise a *note LookupError:
     1fbf. exception, to map the character to itself.

     You can use *note str.maketrans(): c67. to create a translation map
     from character-to-character mappings in different formats.

     See also the *note codecs: 1b. module for a more flexible approach
     to custom character mappings.

 -- Yöntemi: str.upper ()

     Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters (7)
     converted to uppercase.  Note that ‘s.upper().isupper()’ might be
     ‘False’ if ‘s’ contains uncased characters or if the Unicode
     category of the resulting character(s) is not “Lu” (Letter,
     uppercase), but e.g.  “Lt” (Letter, titlecase).

     The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13
     'Default Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(8).

 -- Yöntemi: str.zfill (width)

     Return a copy of the string left filled with ASCII ‘'0'’ digits to
     make a string of length 'width'.  A leading sign prefix
     (‘'+'’/‘'-'’) is handled by inserting the padding 'after' the sign
     character rather than before.  The original string is returned if
     'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

     Örneğin:

          >>> "42".zfill(5)
          '00042'
          >>> "-42".zfill(5)
          '-0042'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf

   (3) Harfli karakterler, genel kategori özelliği “Lu” (Harf, büyük),
“Ll” (Harf, küçük harf) veya “Lt” (Harf, başlık) karakterlerinden biri
olan karakterlerdir.

   (4) Harfli karakterler, genel kategori özelliği “Lu” (Harf, büyük),
“Ll” (Harf, küçük harf) veya “Lt” (Harf, başlık) karakterlerinden biri
olan karakterlerdir.

   (5) Harfli karakterler, genel kategori özelliği “Lu” (Harf, büyük),
“Ll” (Harf, küçük harf) veya “Lt” (Harf, başlık) karakterlerinden biri
olan karakterlerdir.

   (6) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf

   (7) Harfli karakterler, genel kategori özelliği “Lu” (Harf, büyük),
“Ll” (Harf, küçük harf) veya “Lt” (Harf, başlık) karakterlerinden biri
olan karakterlerdir.

   (8) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch03.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: printf-style String Formatting,  Prev: String Dize Metotları,  Up: Metin Sırası Türü — str

5.4.8.2 ‘printf’-style String Formatting
........................................

     Not: The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of
     quirks that lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to
     display tuples and dictionaries correctly).  Using the newer *note
     formatted string literals: 807, the *note str.format(): 433.
     interface, or *note template strings: 1fc2. may help avoid these
     errors.  Each of these alternatives provides their own trade-offs
     and benefits of simplicity, flexibility, and/or extensibility.

String objects have one unique built-in operation: the ‘%’ operator
(modulo).  This is also known as the string 'formatting' or
'interpolation' operator.  Given ‘format % values’ (where 'format' is a
string), ‘%’ conversion specifications in 'format' are replaced with
zero or more elements of 'values'.  The effect is similar to using the
‘sprintf()’ in the C language.

If 'format' requires a single argument, 'values' may be a single
non-tuple object.  (1)  Otherwise, 'values' must be a tuple with exactly
the number of items specified by the format string, or a single mapping
object (for example, a dictionary).

A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
following components, which must occur in this order:

  1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

  2. Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of
     characters (for example, ‘(somename)’).

  3. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
     conversion types.

  4. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
     (asterisk), the actual width is read from the next element of the
     tuple in 'values', and the object to convert comes after the
     minimum field width and optional precision.

  5. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
     precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
     precision is read from the next element of the tuple in 'values',
     and the value to convert comes after the precision.

  6. Length modifier (optional).

  7. Conversion type.

When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then
the formats in the string 'must' include a parenthesised mapping key
into that dictionary inserted immediately after the ‘'%'’ character.
The mapping key selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For
example:

     >>> print('%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {'language': "Python", "number": 2})
     Python has 002 quote types.

In this case no ‘*’ specifiers may occur in a format (since they require
a sequential parameter list).

The conversion flag characters are:

Flag          Anlamı
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         The value conversion will use the “alternate form” (where defined
              below).
              
              
‘'0'’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
              
              
‘'-'’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘'0'’ conversion if
              both are given).
              
              
‘' '’         (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
              string) produced by a signed conversion.
              
              
‘'+'’         A sign character (‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’) will precede the conversion
              (overrides a “space” flag).
              

A length modifier (‘h’, ‘l’, or ‘L’) may be present, but is ignored as
it is not necessary for Python – so e.g.  ‘%ld’ is identical to ‘%d’.

The conversion types are:

Conversion       Anlamı                                                    Notlar
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Signed octal value.                                       (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Obsolete type – it is identical to ‘'d'’.                 (6)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Single character (accepts integer or single character
                 string).
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            String (converts any Python object using                  (5)
                 *note repr(): 637.).                                      
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            String (converts any Python object using                  (5)
                 *note str(): 15d.).                                       
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            String (converts any Python object using                  (5)
                 *note ascii(): 126d.).                                    
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            No argument is converted, results in a ‘'%'’ character
                 in the result.
                 

Notlar:

  1. The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (‘'0o'’) to be
     inserted before the first digit.

  2. The alternate form causes a leading ‘'0x'’ or ‘'0X'’ (depending on
     whether the ‘'x'’ or ‘'X'’ format was used) to be inserted before
     the first digit.

  3. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, even if no digits follow it.

     The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal
     point and defaults to 6.

  4. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, and trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise
     be.

     The precision determines the number of significant digits before
     and after the decimal point and defaults to 6.

  5. If precision is ‘N’, the output is truncated to ‘N’ characters.

  6. See PEP 237(2).

Since Python strings have an explicit length, ‘%s’ conversions do not
assume that ‘'\0'’ is the end of the string.

3.1 sürümünde değişti: ‘%f’ conversions for numbers whose absolute value
is over 1e50 are no longer replaced by ‘%g’ conversions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Bu nedenle, yalnızca bir tuple(demet) biçimlendirmek için, tek
öğesi biçimlendirilecek tuple(demet) olan tek bir tuple(demet)
sağlamanız gerekir.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Next: Set Türleri — set frozenset,  Prev: Metin Sırası Türü — str,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.9 Binary Sequence Types — ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, ‘memoryview’
----------------------------------------------------------------

The core built-in types for manipulating binary data are *note bytes:
2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca.  They are supported by *note memoryview:
185. which uses the *note buffer protocol: 14e. to access the memory of
other binary objects without needing to make a copy.

The *note array: 7. module supports efficient storage of basic data
types like 32-bit integers and IEEE754 double-precision floating values.

* Menu:

* Bytes Objects::
* Bytearray Objects::
* Bytes and Bytearray Operations::
* printf-style Bytes Formatting::
* Memory Views::


File: python.info,  Node: Bytes Objects,  Next: Bytearray Objects,  Up: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.1 Bytes Objects
.....................

Bytes objects are immutable sequences of single bytes.  Since many major
binary protocols are based on the ASCII text encoding, bytes objects
offer several methods that are only valid when working with ASCII
compatible data and are closely related to string objects in a variety
of other ways.

 -- Sınıfı: bytes ([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

     Firstly, the syntax for bytes literals is largely the same as that
     for string literals, except that a ‘b’ prefix is added:

        * Single quotes: ‘b'still allows embedded "double" quotes'’

        * Double quotes: ‘b"still allows embedded 'single' quotes"’

        * Triple quoted: ‘b'''3 single quotes'''’, ‘b"""3 double
          quotes"""’

     Only ASCII characters are permitted in bytes literals (regardless
     of the declared source code encoding).  Any binary values over 127
     must be entered into bytes literals using the appropriate escape
     sequence.

     As with string literals, bytes literals may also use a ‘r’ prefix
     to disable processing of escape sequences.  See *note String and
     Bytes literals: 1c91. for more about the various forms of bytes
     literal, including supported escape sequences.

     While bytes literals and representations are based on ASCII text,
     bytes objects actually behave like immutable sequences of integers,
     with each value in the sequence restricted such that ‘0 <= x < 256’
     (attempts to violate this restriction will trigger *note
     ValueError: 189.).  This is done deliberately to emphasise that
     while many binary formats include ASCII based elements and can be
     usefully manipulated with some text-oriented algorithms, this is
     not generally the case for arbitrary binary data (blindly applying
     text processing algorithms to binary data formats that are not
     ASCII compatible will usually lead to data corruption).

     In addition to the literal forms, bytes objects can be created in a
     number of other ways:

        * A zero-filled bytes object of a specified length: ‘bytes(10)’

        * From an iterable of integers: ‘bytes(range(20))’

        * Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:
          ‘bytes(obj)’

     Also see the *note bytes: 18fd. built-in.

     Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte,
     hexadecimal numbers are a commonly used format for describing
     binary data.  Accordingly, the bytes type has an additional class
     method to read data in that format:

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod fromhex (string)

          This *note bytes: 2cb. class method returns a bytes object,
          decoding the given string object.  The string must contain two
          hexadecimal digits per byte, with ASCII whitespace being
          ignored.

               >>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2'

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note bytes.fromhex(): 95d. now skips
          all ASCII whitespace in the string, not just spaces.

     A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytes object
     into its hexadecimal representation.

      -- Yöntemi: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for
          each byte in the instance.

               >>> b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'.hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          If you want to make the hex string easier to read, you can
          specify a single character separator 'sep' parameter to
          include in the output.  By default, this separator will be
          included between each byte.  A second optional 'bytes_per_sep'
          parameter controls the spacing.  Positive values calculate the
          separator position from the right, negative values from the
          left.

               >>> value = b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'
               >>> value.hex('-')
               'f0-f1-f2'
               >>> value.hex('_', 2)
               'f0_f1f2'
               >>> b'UUDDLRLRAB'.hex(' ', -4)
               '55554444 4c524c52 4142'

          Added in version 3.5.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note bytes.hex(): bf4. now supports
          optional 'sep' and 'bytes_per_sep' parameters to insert
          separators between bytes in the hex output.

Since bytes objects are sequences of integers (akin to a tuple), for a
bytes object 'b', ‘b[0]’ will be an integer, while ‘b[0:1]’ will be a
bytes object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings, where both
indexing and slicing will produce a string of length 1)

The representation of bytes objects uses the literal format (‘b'...'’)
since it is often more useful than e.g.  ‘bytes([46, 46, 46])’.  You can
always convert a bytes object into a list of integers using ‘list(b)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Bytearray Objects,  Next: Bytes and Bytearray Operations,  Prev: Bytes Objects,  Up: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.2 Bytearray Objects
.........................

*note bytearray: 2ca. objects are a mutable counterpart to *note bytes:
2cb. objects.

 -- Sınıfı: bytearray ([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

     There is no dedicated literal syntax for bytearray objects, instead
     they are always created by calling the constructor:

        * Creating an empty instance: ‘bytearray()’

        * Creating a zero-filled instance with a given length:
          ‘bytearray(10)’

        * From an iterable of integers: ‘bytearray(range(20))’

        * Copying existing binary data via the buffer protocol:
          ‘bytearray(b'Hi!')’

     As bytearray objects are mutable, they support the *note mutable:
     1f4c. sequence operations in addition to the common bytes and
     bytearray operations described in *note Bytes and Bytearray
     Operations: 1f4d.

     Also see the *note bytearray: 18fe. built-in.

     Since 2 hexadecimal digits correspond precisely to a single byte,
     hexadecimal numbers are a commonly used format for describing
     binary data.  Accordingly, the bytearray type has an additional
     class method to read data in that format:

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod fromhex (string)

          This *note bytearray: 2ca. class method returns bytearray
          object, decoding the given string object.  The string must
          contain two hexadecimal digits per byte, with ASCII whitespace
          being ignored.

               >>> bytearray.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               bytearray(b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2')

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note bytearray.fromhex(): 95e. now
          skips all ASCII whitespace in the string, not just spaces.

     A reverse conversion function exists to transform a bytearray
     object into its hexadecimal representation.

      -- Yöntemi: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for
          each byte in the instance.

               >>> bytearray(b'\xf0\xf1\xf2').hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          Added in version 3.5.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: Similar to *note bytes.hex(): bf4,
          *note bytearray.hex(): bf5. now supports optional 'sep' and
          'bytes_per_sep' parameters to insert separators between bytes
          in the hex output.

Since bytearray objects are sequences of integers (akin to a list), for
a bytearray object 'b', ‘b[0]’ will be an integer, while ‘b[0:1]’ will
be a bytearray object of length 1.  (This contrasts with text strings,
where both indexing and slicing will produce a string of length 1)

The representation of bytearray objects uses the bytes literal format
(‘bytearray(b'...')’) since it is often more useful than e.g.
‘bytearray([46, 46, 46])’.  You can always convert a bytearray object
into a list of integers using ‘list(b)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Bytes and Bytearray Operations,  Next: printf-style Bytes Formatting,  Prev: Bytearray Objects,  Up: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.3 Bytes and Bytearray Operations
......................................

Both bytes and bytearray objects support the *note common: 1f9a.
sequence operations.  They interoperate not just with operands of the
same type, but with any *note bytes-like object: bb5.  Due to this
flexibility, they can be freely mixed in operations without causing
errors.  However, the return type of the result may depend on the order
of operands.

     Not: The methods on bytes and bytearray objects don’t accept
     strings as their arguments, just as the methods on strings don’t
     accept bytes as their arguments.  For example, you have to write:

          a = "abc"
          b = a.replace("a", "f")

     and:

          a = b"abc"
          b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")

Some bytes and bytearray operations assume the use of ASCII compatible
binary formats, and hence should be avoided when working with arbitrary
binary data.  These restrictions are covered below.

     Not: Using these ASCII based operations to manipulate binary data
     that is not stored in an ASCII based format may lead to data
     corruption.

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects can be used with
arbitrary binary data.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.count (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of subsequence
     'sub' in the range ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start'
     and 'end' are interpreted as in slice notation.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     If 'sub' is empty, returns the number of empty slices between
     characters which is the length of the bytes object plus one.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255
     as the subsequence.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.removeprefix (prefix, /)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     If the binary data starts with the 'prefix' string, return
     ‘bytes[len(prefix):]’.  Otherwise, return a copy of the original
     binary data:

          >>> b'TestHook'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'Hook'
          >>> b'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'BaseTestCase'

     The 'prefix' may be any *note bytes-like object: bb5.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.removesuffix (suffix, /)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     If the binary data ends with the 'suffix' string and that 'suffix'
     is not empty, return ‘bytes[:-len(suffix)]’.  Otherwise, return a
     copy of the original binary data:

          >>> b'MiscTests'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'Misc'
          >>> b'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'TmpDirMixin'

     The 'suffix' may be any *note bytes-like object: bb5.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Return the bytes decoded to a *note str: 15d.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’; see *note Standard Encodings:
     c46. for possible values.

     'errors' controls how decoding errors are handled.  If ‘'strict'’
     (the default), a *note UnicodeError: 114c. exception is raised.
     Other possible values are ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’, and any other
     name registered via *note codecs.register_error(): 1323.  See *note
     Error Handlers: 1608. for details.

     For performance reasons, the value of 'errors' is not checked for
     validity unless a decoding error actually occurs, *note Python
     Development Mode: 71d. is enabled or a *note debug build: 6b9. is
     used.

          Not: Passing the 'encoding' argument to *note str: 15d. allows
          decoding any *note bytes-like object: bb5. directly, without
          needing to make a temporary ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearray’ object.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added support for keyword arguments.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: 'errors' şimdi *note Python Development
     Mode: 71d. ve *note hata ayıklama modunda: 6b9. kontrol edilir.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Return ‘True’ if the binary data ends with the specified 'suffix',
     otherwise return ‘False’.  'suffix' can also be a tuple of suffixes
     to look for.  With optional 'start', test beginning at that
     position.  With optional 'end', stop comparing at that position.

     The suffix(es) to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.find (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the lowest index in the data where the subsequence 'sub' is
     found, such that 'sub' is contained in the slice ‘s[start:end]’.
     Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are interpreted as in slice
     notation.  Return ‘-1’ if 'sub' is not found.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

          Not: The *note find(): 1664. method should be used only if you
          need to know the position of 'sub'.  To check if 'sub' is a
          substring or not, use the *note in: 26f. operator:

               >>> b'Py' in b'Python'
               True

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255
     as the subsequence.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.index (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note find(): 1664, but raise *note ValueError: 189. when the
     subsequence is not found.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255
     as the subsequence.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.join (iterable)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.join (iterable)

     Return a bytes or bytearray object which is the concatenation of
     the binary data sequences in 'iterable'.  A *note TypeError: 2c4.
     will be raised if there are any values in 'iterable' that are not
     *note bytes-like objects: bb5, including *note str: 15d. objects.
     The separator between elements is the contents of the bytes or
     bytearray object providing this method.

 -- Yöntemi: static bytes.maketrans (from, to)
 -- Yöntemi: static bytearray.maketrans (from, to)

     This static method returns a translation table usable for *note
     bytes.translate(): 1fd4. that will map each character in 'from'
     into the character at the same position in 'to'; 'from' and 'to'
     must both be *note bytes-like objects: bb5. and have the same
     length.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.partition (sep)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.partition (sep)

     Split the sequence at the first occurrence of 'sep', and return a
     3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator
     itself or its bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.  If
     the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing a copy of
     the original sequence, followed by two empty bytes or bytearray
     objects.

     The separator to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.replace (old, new[, count])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.replace (old, new[, count])

     Return a copy of the sequence with all occurrences of subsequence
     'old' replaced by 'new'.  If the optional argument 'count' is
     given, only the first 'count' occurrences are replaced.

     The subsequence to search for and its replacement may be any *note
     bytes-like object: bb5.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the highest index in the sequence where the subsequence
     'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained within ‘s[start:end]’.
     Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are interpreted as in slice
     notation.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255
     as the subsequence.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note rfind(): 1665. but raises *note ValueError: 189. when
     the subsequence 'sub' is not found.

     The subsequence to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5. or an integer in the range 0 to 255.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Also accept an integer in the range 0 to 255
     as the subsequence.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.rpartition (sep)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.rpartition (sep)

     Split the sequence at the last occurrence of 'sep', and return a
     3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator
     itself or its bytearray copy, and the part after the separator.  If
     the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty
     bytes or bytearray objects, followed by a copy of the original
     sequence.

     The separator to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Return ‘True’ if the binary data starts with the specified
     'prefix', otherwise return ‘False’.  'prefix' can also be a tuple
     of prefixes to look for.  With optional 'start', test beginning at
     that position.  With optional 'end', stop comparing at that
     position.

     The prefix(es) to search for may be any *note bytes-like object:
     bb5.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.translate (table, /, delete=b'')
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.translate (table, /, delete=b'')

     Return a copy of the bytes or bytearray object where all bytes
     occurring in the optional argument 'delete' are removed, and the
     remaining bytes have been mapped through the given translation
     table, which must be a bytes object of length 256.

     You can use the *note bytes.maketrans(): 111d. method to create a
     translation table.

     Set the 'table' argument to ‘None’ for translations that only
     delete characters:

          >>> b'read this short text'.translate(None, b'aeiou')
          b'rd ths shrt txt'

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'delete' is now supported as a keyword
     argument.

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects have default
behaviours that assume the use of ASCII compatible binary formats, but
can still be used with arbitrary binary data by passing appropriate
arguments.  Note that all of the bytearray methods in this section do
'not' operate in place, and instead produce new objects.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.center (width[, fillbyte])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.center (width[, fillbyte])

     Return a copy of the object centered in a sequence of length
     'width'.  Padding is done using the specified 'fillbyte' (default
     is an ASCII space).  For *note bytes: 2cb. objects, the original
     sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.ljust (width[, fillbyte])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.ljust (width[, fillbyte])

     Return a copy of the object left justified in a sequence of length
     'width'.  Padding is done using the specified 'fillbyte' (default
     is an ASCII space).  For *note bytes: 2cb. objects, the original
     sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.lstrip ([chars])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.lstrip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading bytes removed.
     The 'chars' argument is a binary sequence specifying the set of
     byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this method
     is usually used with ASCII characters.  If omitted or ‘None’, the
     'chars' argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace.  The
     'chars' argument is not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its
     values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.lstrip()
          b'spacious   '
          >>> b'www.example.com'.lstrip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example.com'

     The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any *note
     bytes-like object: bb5.  See *note removeprefix(): 1fc9. for a
     method that will remove a single prefix string rather than all of a
     set of characters.  For example:

          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.lstrip(b'Arthur: ')
          b'ee!'
          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix(b'Arthur: ')
          b'three!'

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.rjust (width[, fillbyte])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.rjust (width[, fillbyte])

     Return a copy of the object right justified in a sequence of length
     'width'.  Padding is done using the specified 'fillbyte' (default
     is an ASCII space).  For *note bytes: 2cb. objects, the original
     sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal to ‘len(s)’.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using
     'sep' as the delimiter string.  If 'maxsplit' is given, at most
     'maxsplit' splits are done, the 'rightmost' ones.  If 'sep' is not
     specified or ‘None’, any subsequence consisting solely of ASCII
     whitespace is a separator.  Except for splitting from the right,
     *note rsplit(): 1fe9. behaves like *note split(): 1fea. which is
     described in detail below.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.rstrip ([chars])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.rstrip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified trailing bytes
     removed.  The 'chars' argument is a binary sequence specifying the
     set of byte values to be removed - the name refers to the fact this
     method is usually used with ASCII characters.  If omitted or
     ‘None’, the 'chars' argument defaults to removing ASCII whitespace.
     The 'chars' argument is not a suffix; rather, all combinations of
     its values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.rstrip()
          b'   spacious'
          >>> b'mississippi'.rstrip(b'ipz')
          b'mississ'

     The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any *note
     bytes-like object: bb5.  See *note removesuffix(): 1fcb. for a
     method that will remove a single suffix string rather than all of a
     set of characters.  For example:

          >>> b'Monty Python'.rstrip(b' Python')
          b'M'
          >>> b'Monty Python'.removesuffix(b' Python')
          b'Monty'

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Split the binary sequence into subsequences of the same type, using
     'sep' as the delimiter string.  If 'maxsplit' is given and
     non-negative, at most 'maxsplit' splits are done (thus, the list
     will have at most ‘maxsplit+1’ elements).  If 'maxsplit' is not
     specified or is ‘-1’, then there is no limit on the number of
     splits (all possible splits are made).

     If 'sep' is given, consecutive delimiters are not grouped together
     and are deemed to delimit empty subsequences (for example,
     ‘b'1,,2'.split(b',')’ returns ‘[b'1', b'', b'2']’).  The 'sep'
     argument may consist of a multibyte sequence as a single delimiter.
     Splitting an empty sequence with a specified separator returns
     ‘[b'']’ or ‘[bytearray(b'')]’ depending on the type of object being
     split.  The 'sep' argument may be any *note bytes-like object: bb5.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',', maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2,3']
          >>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
          >>> b'1<>2<>3<4'.split(b'<>')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3<4']

     If 'sep' is not specified or is ‘None’, a different splitting
     algorithm is applied: runs of consecutive ASCII whitespace are
     regarded as a single separator, and the result will contain no
     empty strings at the start or end if the sequence has leading or
     trailing whitespace.  Consequently, splitting an empty sequence or
     a sequence consisting solely of ASCII whitespace without a
     specified separator returns ‘[]’.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'1 2 3'.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2 3']
          >>> b'   1   2   3   '.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.strip ([chars])
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.strip ([chars])

     Return a copy of the sequence with specified leading and trailing
     bytes removed.  The 'chars' argument is a binary sequence
     specifying the set of byte values to be removed - the name refers
     to the fact this method is usually used with ASCII characters.  If
     omitted or ‘None’, the 'chars' argument defaults to removing ASCII
     whitespace.  The 'chars' argument is not a prefix or suffix;
     rather, all combinations of its values are stripped:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.strip()
          b'spacious'
          >>> b'www.example.com'.strip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example'

     The binary sequence of byte values to remove may be any *note
     bytes-like object: bb5.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

The following methods on bytes and bytearray objects assume the use of
ASCII compatible binary formats and should not be applied to arbitrary
binary data.  Note that all of the bytearray methods in this section do
'not' operate in place, and instead produce new objects.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.capitalize ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.capitalize ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with each byte interpreted as an
     ASCII character, and the first byte capitalized and the rest
     lowercased.  Non-ASCII byte values are passed through unchanged.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.expandtabs (tabsize=8)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Return a copy of the sequence where all ASCII tab characters are
     replaced by one or more ASCII spaces, depending on the current
     column and the given tab size.  Tab positions occur every 'tabsize'
     bytes (default is 8, giving tab positions at columns 0, 8, 16 and
     so on).  To expand the sequence, the current column is set to zero
     and the sequence is examined byte by byte.  If the byte is an ASCII
     tab character (‘b'\t'’), one or more space characters are inserted
     in the result until the current column is equal to the next tab
     position.  (The tab character itself is not copied.)  If the
     current byte is an ASCII newline (‘b'\n'’) or carriage return
     (‘b'\r'’), it is copied and the current column is reset to zero.
     Any other byte value is copied unchanged and the current column is
     incremented by one regardless of how the byte value is represented
     when printed:

          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          b'01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          b'01  012 0123    01234'

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.isalnum ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.isalnum ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetical ASCII
     characters or ASCII decimal digits and the sequence is not empty,
     ‘False’ otherwise.  Alphabetic ASCII characters are those byte
     values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  ASCII
     decimal digits are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'0123456789'’.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalnum()
          True
          >>> b'ABC abc1'.isalnum()
          False

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.isalpha ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.isalpha ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are alphabetic ASCII
     characters and the sequence is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.
     Alphabetic ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'ABCabc'.isalpha()
          True
          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalpha()
          False

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.isascii ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.isascii ()

     Return ‘True’ if the sequence is empty or all bytes in the sequence
     are ASCII, ‘False’ otherwise.  ASCII bytes are in the range 0-0x7F.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.isdigit ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.isdigit ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII decimal digits
     and the sequence is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  ASCII decimal
     digits are those byte values in the sequence ‘b'0123456789'’.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'1234'.isdigit()
          True
          >>> b'1.23'.isdigit()
          False

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.islower ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.islower ()

     Return ‘True’ if there is at least one lowercase ASCII character in
     the sequence and no uppercase ASCII characters, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'hello world'.islower()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.islower()
          False

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.isspace ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.isspace ()

     Return ‘True’ if all bytes in the sequence are ASCII whitespace and
     the sequence is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  ASCII whitespace
     characters are those byte values in the sequence ‘b' \t\n\r\x0b\f'’
     (space, tab, newline, carriage return, vertical tab, form feed).

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.istitle ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.istitle ()

     Return ‘True’ if the sequence is ASCII titlecase and the sequence
     is not empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  See *note bytes.title(): 2002.
     for more details on the definition of “titlecase”.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'Hello World'.istitle()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.istitle()
          False

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.isupper ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.isupper ()

     Return ‘True’ if there is at least one uppercase alphabetic ASCII
     character in the sequence and no lowercase ASCII characters,
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'HELLO WORLD'.isupper()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.isupper()
          False

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.lower ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.lower ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with all the uppercase ASCII
     characters converted to their corresponding lowercase counterpart.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'Hello World'.lower()
          b'hello world'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.splitlines (keepends=False)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Return a list of the lines in the binary sequence, breaking at
     ASCII line boundaries.  This method uses the *note universal
     newlines: bc2. approach to splitting lines.  Line breaks are not
     included in the resulting list unless 'keepends' is given and true.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          [b'ab c', b'', b'de fg', b'kl']
          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          [b'ab c\n', b'\n', b'de fg\r', b'kl\r\n']

     Unlike *note split(): 1fed. when a delimiter string 'sep' is given,
     this method returns an empty list for the empty string, and a
     terminal line break does not result in an extra line:

          >>> b"".split(b'\n'), b"Two lines\n".split(b'\n')
          ([b''], [b'Two lines', b''])
          >>> b"".splitlines(), b"One line\n".splitlines()
          ([], [b'One line'])

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.swapcase ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.swapcase ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII
     characters converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart
     and vice-versa.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'Hello World'.swapcase()
          b'hELLO wORLD'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     Unlike *note str.swapcase(): 1fbc, it is always the case that
     ‘bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin’ for the binary versions.  Case
     conversions are symmetrical in ASCII, even though that is not
     generally true for arbitrary Unicode code points.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.title ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.title ()

     Return a titlecased version of the binary sequence where words
     start with an uppercase ASCII character and the remaining
     characters are lowercase.  Uncased byte values are left unmodified.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'Hello world'.title()
          b'Hello World'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.
     All other byte values are uncased.

     Algoritma, bir kelimenin ardışık harf grupları olarak dilden
     bağımsız basit bir tanımını kullanır.  Bu tanım birçok bağlamda işe
     yarar, ancak bu, kısaltmalar ve iyeliklerdeki kesme işaretlerinin
     kelime sınırları oluşturduğu anlamına gelir ve bu istenen sonuç
     olmayabilir:

          >>> b"they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          b"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     Kesme işaretleri için geçici bir çözüm düzenli ifadeler
     kullanılarak oluşturulabilir:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(rb"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
          ...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase(b"they're bill's friends.")
          b"They're Bill's Friends."

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.upper ()
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.upper ()

     Return a copy of the sequence with all the lowercase ASCII
     characters converted to their corresponding uppercase counterpart.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b'Hello World'.upper()
          b'HELLO WORLD'

     Lowercase ASCII characters are those byte values in the sequence
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Uppercase ASCII characters are
     those byte values in the sequence ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.

 -- Yöntemi: bytes.zfill (width)
 -- Yöntemi: bytearray.zfill (width)

     Return a copy of the sequence left filled with ASCII ‘b'0'’ digits
     to make a sequence of length 'width'.  A leading sign prefix
     (‘b'+'’/ ‘b'-'’) is handled by inserting the padding 'after' the
     sign character rather than before.  For *note bytes: 2cb. objects,
     the original sequence is returned if 'width' is less than or equal
     to ‘len(seq)’.

     Örneğin:

          >>> b"42".zfill(5)
          b'00042'
          >>> b"-42".zfill(5)
          b'-0042'

          Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate
          in place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes
          were made.


File: python.info,  Node: printf-style Bytes Formatting,  Next: Memory Views,  Prev: Bytes and Bytearray Operations,  Up: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.4 ‘printf’-style Bytes Formatting
.......................................

     Not: The formatting operations described here exhibit a variety of
     quirks that lead to a number of common errors (such as failing to
     display tuples and dictionaries correctly).  If the value being
     printed may be a tuple or dictionary, wrap it in a tuple.

Bytes objects (‘bytes’/‘bytearray’) have one unique built-in operation:
the ‘%’ operator (modulo).  This is also known as the bytes 'formatting'
or 'interpolation' operator.  Given ‘format % values’ (where 'format' is
a bytes object), ‘%’ conversion specifications in 'format' are replaced
with zero or more elements of 'values'.  The effect is similar to using
the ‘sprintf()’ in the C language.

If 'format' requires a single argument, 'values' may be a single
non-tuple object.  (1)  Otherwise, 'values' must be a tuple with exactly
the number of items specified by the format bytes object, or a single
mapping object (for example, a dictionary).

A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
following components, which must occur in this order:

  1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

  2. Mapping key (optional), consisting of a parenthesised sequence of
     characters (for example, ‘(somename)’).

  3. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
     conversion types.

  4. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
     (asterisk), the actual width is read from the next element of the
     tuple in 'values', and the object to convert comes after the
     minimum field width and optional precision.

  5. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
     precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
     precision is read from the next element of the tuple in 'values',
     and the value to convert comes after the precision.

  6. Length modifier (optional).

  7. Conversion type.

When the right argument is a dictionary (or other mapping type), then
the formats in the bytes object 'must' include a parenthesised mapping
key into that dictionary inserted immediately after the ‘'%'’ character.
The mapping key selects the value to be formatted from the mapping.  For
example:

     >>> print(b'%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {b'language': b"Python", b"number": 2})
     b'Python has 002 quote types.'

In this case no ‘*’ specifiers may occur in a format (since they require
a sequential parameter list).

The conversion flag characters are:

Flag          Anlamı
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         The value conversion will use the “alternate form” (where defined
              below).
              
              
‘'0'’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
              
              
‘'-'’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘'0'’ conversion if
              both are given).
              
              
‘' '’         (a space) A blank should be left before a positive number (or empty
              string) produced by a signed conversion.
              
              
‘'+'’         A sign character (‘'+'’ or ‘'-'’) will precede the conversion
              (overrides a “space” flag).
              

A length modifier (‘h’, ‘l’, or ‘L’) may be present, but is ignored as
it is not necessary for Python – so e.g.  ‘%ld’ is identical to ‘%d’.

The conversion types are:

Conversion       Anlamı                                                    Notlar
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Signed integer decimal.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Signed octal value.                                       (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Obsolete type – it is identical to ‘'d'’.                 (8)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Signed hexadecimal (lowercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Signed hexadecimal (uppercase).                           (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Floating-point exponential format (lowercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Floating-point exponential format (uppercase).            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Floating-point decimal format.                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Floating-point format.  Uses lowercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Floating-point format.  Uses uppercase exponential        (4)
                 format if exponent is less than -4 or not less than       
                 precision, decimal format otherwise.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Single byte (accepts integer or single byte objects).
                 
                                                                           
‘'b'’            Bytes (any object that follows the                        (5)
                 *note buffer protocol: 14e. or has                        
                 *note __bytes__(): 3f4.).
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            ‘'s'’ is an alias for ‘'b'’ and should only be used for   (6)
                 Python2/3 code bases.                                     
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            Bytes (converts any Python object using                   (5)
                 ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’).         
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            ‘'r'’ is an alias for ‘'a'’ and should only be used for   (7)
                 Python2/3 code bases.                                     
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            No argument is converted, results in a ‘'%'’ character
                 in the result.
                 

Notlar:

  1. The alternate form causes a leading octal specifier (‘'0o'’) to be
     inserted before the first digit.

  2. The alternate form causes a leading ‘'0x'’ or ‘'0X'’ (depending on
     whether the ‘'x'’ or ‘'X'’ format was used) to be inserted before
     the first digit.

  3. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, even if no digits follow it.

     The precision determines the number of digits after the decimal
     point and defaults to 6.

  4. The alternate form causes the result to always contain a decimal
     point, and trailing zeroes are not removed as they would otherwise
     be.

     The precision determines the number of significant digits before
     and after the decimal point and defaults to 6.

  5. If precision is ‘N’, the output is truncated to ‘N’ characters.

  6. ‘b'%s'’ is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x
     series.

  7. ‘b'%r'’ is deprecated, but will not be removed during the 3.x
     series.

  8. See PEP 237(2).

     Not: The bytearray version of this method does 'not' operate in
     place - it always produces a new object, even if no changes were
     made.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 461(3) - Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray

Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Bu nedenle, yalnızca bir tuple(demet) biçimlendirmek için, tek
öğesi biçimlendirilecek tuple(demet) olan tek bir tuple(demet)
sağlamanız gerekir.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Views,  Prev: printf-style Bytes Formatting,  Up: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.9.5 Memory Views
....................

*note memoryview: 185. objects allow Python code to access the internal
data of an object that supports the *note buffer protocol: 14e. without
copying.

 -- Sınıfı: memoryview (object)

     Create a *note memoryview: 185. that references 'object'.  'object'
     must support the buffer protocol.  Built-in objects that support
     the buffer protocol include *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray:
     2ca.

     A *note memoryview: 185. has the notion of an 'element', which is
     the atomic memory unit handled by the originating 'object'.  For
     many simple types such as *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray:
     2ca, an element is a single byte, but other types such as *note
     array.array: 195. may have bigger elements.

     ‘len(view)’ is equal to the length of *note tolist: 2012, which is
     the nested list representation of the view.  If ‘view.ndim = 1’,
     this is equal to the number of elements in the view.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: If ‘view.ndim == 0’, ‘len(view)’ now raises
     *note TypeError: 2c4. instead of returning 1.

     The *note itemsize: 2013. attribute will give you the number of
     bytes in a single element.

     A *note memoryview: 185. supports slicing and indexing to expose
     its data.  One-dimensional slicing will result in a subview:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> v[1]
          98
          >>> v[-1]
          103
          >>> v[1:4]
          <memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350>
          >>> bytes(v[1:4])
          b'bce'

     If *note format: 2014. is one of the native format specifiers from
     the *note struct: d4. module, indexing with an integer or a tuple
     of integers is also supported and returns a single 'element' with
     the correct type.  One-dimensional memoryviews can be indexed with
     an integer or a one-integer tuple.  Multi-dimensional memoryviews
     can be indexed with tuples of exactly 'ndim' integers where 'ndim'
     is the number of dimensions.  Zero-dimensional memoryviews can be
     indexed with the empty tuple.

     Here is an example with a non-byte format:

          >>> import array
          >>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
          >>> m = memoryview(a)
          >>> m[0]
          -11111111
          >>> m[-1]
          44444444
          >>> m[::2].tolist()
          [-11111111, -33333333]

     If the underlying object is writable, the memoryview supports
     one-dimensional slice assignment.  Resizing is not allowed:

          >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg')
          >>> v = memoryview(data)
          >>> v.readonly
          False
          >>> v[0] = ord(b'z')
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'zbcefg')
          >>> v[1:4] = b'123'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z123fg')
          >>> v[2:3] = b'spam'
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
          >>> v[2:6] = b'spam'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z1spam')

     One-dimensional memoryviews of *note hashable: 421. (read-only)
     types with formats ‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ are also hashable.  The hash is
     defined as ‘hash(m) == hash(m.tobytes())’:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg')
          True
          >>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce')
          True
          >>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2])
          True

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: One-dimensional memoryviews can now be
     sliced.  One-dimensional memoryviews with formats ‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’
     are now *note hashable: 421.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: memoryview is now registered automatically
     with *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: memoryviews can now be indexed with tuple of
     integers.

     *note memoryview: 185. has several methods:

      -- Yöntemi: __eq__ (exporter)

          A memoryview and a PEP 3118(1) exporter are equal if their
          shapes are equivalent and if all corresponding values are
          equal when the operands’ respective format codes are
          interpreted using *note struct: d4. syntax.

          For the subset of *note struct: d4. format strings currently
          supported by *note tolist(): 2012, ‘v’ and ‘w’ are equal if
          ‘v.tolist() == w.tolist()’:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
               >>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
               >>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> y = memoryview(b)
               >>> x == a == y == b
               True
               >>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
               True
               >>> z = y[::-2]
               >>> z == c
               True
               >>> z.tolist() == c.tolist()
               True

          If either format string is not supported by the *note struct:
          d4. module, then the objects will always compare as unequal
          (even if the format strings and buffer contents are
          identical):

               >>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
               >>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
               ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)]
               ...
               >>> point = BEPoint(100, 200)
               >>> a = memoryview(point)
               >>> b = memoryview(point)
               >>> a == point
               False
               >>> a == b
               False

          Note that, as with floating-point numbers, ‘v is w’ does 'not'
          imply ‘v == w’ for memoryview objects.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Previous versions compared the raw
          memory disregarding the item format and the logical array
          structure.

      -- Yöntemi: tobytes (order='C')

          Return the data in the buffer as a bytestring.  This is
          equivalent to calling the *note bytes: 2cb. constructor on the
          memoryview.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.tobytes()
               b'abc'
               >>> bytes(m)
               b'abc'

          For non-contiguous arrays the result is equal to the flattened
          list representation with all elements converted to bytes.
          *note tobytes(): 2016. supports all format strings, including
          those that are not in *note struct: d4. module syntax.

          Added in version 3.8: 'order' can be {‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’}.  When
          'order' is ‘C’ or ‘F’, the data of the original array is
          converted to C or Fortran order.  For contiguous views, ‘A’
          returns an exact copy of the physical memory.  In particular,
          in-memory Fortran order is preserved.  For non-contiguous
          views, the data is converted to C first.  'order=None' is the
          same as 'order=’C’'.

      -- Yöntemi: hex ([sep[, bytes_per_sep]])

          Return a string object containing two hexadecimal digits for
          each byte in the buffer.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.hex()
               '616263'

          Added in version 3.5.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: Similar to *note bytes.hex(): bf4,
          *note memoryview.hex(): bf6. now supports optional 'sep' and
          'bytes_per_sep' parameters to insert separators between bytes
          in the hex output.

      -- Yöntemi: tolist ()

          Return the data in the buffer as a list of elements.

               >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> m.tolist()
               [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note tolist(): 2012. now supports all
          single character native formats in *note struct: d4. module
          syntax as well as multi-dimensional representations.

      -- Yöntemi: toreadonly ()

          Return a readonly version of the memoryview object.  The
          original memoryview object is unchanged.

               >>> m = memoryview(bytearray(b'abc'))
               >>> mm = m.toreadonly()
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> mm[0] = 42
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
               >>> m[0] = 43
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [43, 98, 99]

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release the underlying buffer exposed by the memoryview
          object.  Many objects take special actions when a view is held
          on them (for example, a *note bytearray: 2ca. would
          temporarily forbid resizing); therefore, calling release() is
          handy to remove these restrictions (and free any dangling
          resources) as soon as possible.

          After this method has been called, any further operation on
          the view raises a *note ValueError: 189. (except *note
          release(): 1063. itself which can be called multiple times):

               >>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
               >>> m.release()
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          The context management protocol can be used for a similar
          effect, using the ‘with’ statement:

               >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m:
               ...     m[0]
               ...
               97
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: cast (format[, shape])

          Cast a memoryview to a new format or shape.  'shape' defaults
          to ‘[byte_length//new_itemsize]’, which means that the result
          view will be one-dimensional.  The return value is a new
          memoryview, but the buffer itself is not copied.  Supported
          casts are 1D -> C-*note contiguous: 2019. and C-contiguous ->
          1D.

          The destination format is restricted to a single element
          native format in *note struct: d4. syntax.  One of the formats
          must be a byte format (‘B’, ‘b’ or ‘c’).  The byte length of
          the result must be the same as the original length.  Note that
          all byte lengths may depend on the operating system.

          Cast 1D/long to 1D/unsigned bytes:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> x.format
               'l'
               >>> x.itemsize
               8
               >>> len(x)
               3
               >>> x.nbytes
               24
               >>> y = x.cast('B')
               >>> y.format
               'B'
               >>> y.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(y)
               24
               >>> y.nbytes
               24

          Cast 1D/unsigned bytes to 1D/char:

               >>> b = bytearray(b'zyz')
               >>> x = memoryview(b)
               >>> x[0] = b'a'
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               TypeError: memoryview: invalid type for format 'B'
               >>> y = x.cast('c')
               >>> y[0] = b'a'
               >>> b
               bytearray(b'ayz')

          Cast 1D/bytes to 3D/ints to 1D/signed char:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
               >>> y.format
               'i'
               >>> y.itemsize
               4
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> z = y.cast('b')
               >>> z.format
               'b'
               >>> z.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(z)
               48
               >>> z.nbytes
               48

          Cast 1D/unsigned long to 2D/unsigned long:

               >>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3])
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]

          Added in version 3.3.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: The source format is no longer
          restricted when casting to a byte view.

     There are also several readonly attributes available:

      -- Özniteliği: obj

          The underlying object of the memoryview:

               >>> b  = bytearray(b'xyz')
               >>> m = memoryview(b)
               >>> m.obj is b
               True

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: nbytes

          ‘nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())’.
          This is the amount of space in bytes that the array would use
          in a contiguous representation.  It is not necessarily equal
          to ‘len(m)’:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> len(m)
               5
               >>> m.nbytes
               20
               >>> y = m[::2]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               12
               >>> len(y.tobytes())
               12

          Multi-dimensional arrays:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               96

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: readonly

          A bool indicating whether the memory is read only.

      -- Özniteliği: format

          A string containing the format (in *note struct: d4. module
          style) for each element in the view.  A memoryview can be
          created from exporters with arbitrary format strings, but some
          methods (e.g.  *note tolist(): 2012.) are restricted to native
          single element formats.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: format ‘'B'’ is now handled according
          to the struct module syntax.  This means that
          ‘memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97’.

      -- Özniteliği: itemsize

          The size in bytes of each element of the memoryview:

               >>> import array, struct
               >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002]))
               >>> m.itemsize
               2
               >>> m[0]
               32000
               >>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize
               True

      -- Özniteliği: ndim

          An integer indicating how many dimensions of a
          multi-dimensional array the memory represents.

      -- Özniteliği: shape

          A tuple of integers the length of *note ndim: 201d. giving the
          shape of the memory as an N-dimensional array.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: An empty tuple instead of ‘None’ when
          ndim = 0.

      -- Özniteliği: strides

          A tuple of integers the length of *note ndim: 201d. giving the
          size in bytes to access each element for each dimension of the
          array.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: An empty tuple instead of ‘None’ when
          ndim = 0.

      -- Özniteliği: suboffsets

          Used internally for PIL-style arrays.  The value is
          informational only.

      -- Özniteliği: c_contiguous

          Belleğin C-*note contiguous: 2019. olup olmadığını gösteren
          bir bool.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: f_contiguous

          Belleğin Fortran *note contiguous: 2019. olup olmadığını
          gösteren bir bool.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: contiguous

          Belleğin *note contiguous: 2019. olup olmadığını gösteren bir
          bool.

          Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Set Türleri — set frozenset,  Next: Mapping Types — dict,  Prev: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.10 Set Türleri — ‘set’, ‘frozenset’
---------------------------------------

Bir 'set' nesnesi, farklı *note hashable: 421. nesnelerinin sıralanmamış
bir koleksiyonudur.  Yaygın kullanımları arasında üyelik sınaması, bir
diziden yinelenenlerin kaldırılması ve kesişim, birleşim, fark ve
simetrik fark gibi matematiksel işlemlerin hesaplanması yer alır.
(Diğer kapsayıcılar için yerleşik *note dict: 240, *note list: 422. ve
*note tuple: 4ff. sınıflarına ve *note collections: 1d. modülüne bakın)

Diğer koleksiyonlar gibi, kümeler de ‘x in set’, ‘len(set)’, ve ‘for x
in set’ özelliklerini destekler.  Sırasız bir koleksiyon olan kümeler,
eleman konumunu veya ekleme sırasını kaydetmez.  Buna göre, kümeler
dizinleme, dilimleme veya sıra benzeri davranışları desteklemez.

Şu anda iki yerleşik set türü vardır, *note set: 3e4. ve *note
frozenset: 3e5.  *note set: 3e4. türü değişkendir — içeriği ‘add()’ ve
‘remove()’ gibi yöntemler kullanılarak değiştirilebilir.
Değiştirilebilir olduğu için hash değeri yoktur ve bir sözlük anahtarı
ya da başka bir kümenin elemanı olarak kullanılamaz.  *note frozenset:
3e5. türü değişmezdir ve *note hashable: 421. — içeriği oluşturulduktan
sonra değiştirilemez; bu nedenle bir sözlük anahtarı veya başka bir
kümenin öğesi olarak kullanılabilir.

Boş olmayan kümeler (frozensetler değil), *note set: 3e4. yapıcısına ek
olarak parantez içine virgülle ayrılmış bir öğe listesi yerleştirilerek
oluşturulabilir, örneğin: ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’.

Her iki sınıfın kurucuları aynı şekilde çalışır:

 -- Sınıfı: set ([iterable])
 -- Sınıfı: frozenset ([iterable])

     Elemanları 'iterable' öğesinden alınan yeni bir küme veya frozenset
     nesnesi döndürür.  Bir kümenin elemanları *note hashable: 421.
     olmalıdır.  Kümelerin kümelerini temsil etmek için, iç kümeler
     *note frozenset: 3e5. nesneleri olmalıdır.  Eğer 'iterable'
     belirtilmemişse, yeni bir boş küme döndürülür.

     Setler çeşitli yollarla oluşturulabilir:

        * Parantez içinde virgülle ayrılmış bir öğe listesi kullanın:
          ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’

        * Bir küme kavrayışı kullanın: ‘{c for c in 'abracadabra' if c
          not in 'abc'}’

        * Tür kurucusunu kullanın: ‘set()’, ‘set('foobar')’, ‘set(['a',
          'b', 'foo'])’

     *note set: 3e4. ve *note frozenset: 3e5. örnekleri aşağıdaki
     işlemleri sağlar:

      -- Describe: len(s)

          's' kümesindeki eleman sayısını döndürür ('s'’nin
          kardinalitesi).

      -- Describe: x in s

          'x'’i 's' üyeliği için test edin.

      -- Describe: x not in s

          'x'’in 's'’ye üye olup olmadığını test edin.

      -- Yöntemi: isdisjoint (other)

          Kümenin 'other' kümelerle ortak hiçbir elemanı yoksa ‘True’
          döndürür.  Kümeler, ancak ve ancak kesişimleri boş küme ise
          ayrıktır.

      -- Yöntemi: issubset (other)

      -- Yöntemi: set <= other

          Kümedeki her elemanın 'other' içinde olup olmadığını test
          edin.

      -- Yöntemi: set < other

          Kümenin 'other' kümenin uygun bir alt kümesi olup olmadığını,
          yani ‘set <= other and set != other’ olup olmadığını test
          eder.

      -- Yöntemi: issuperset (other)

      -- Yöntemi: set >= other

          Kümedeki her elemanın 'other' içinde olup olmadığını test
          edin.

      -- Yöntemi: set > other

          Kümenin 'other' kümenin uygun bir üst kümesi olup olmadığını,
          yani ‘set >= other and set != other’ olup olmadığını test
          edin.

      -- Yöntemi: union (*others)

      -- Yöntemi: set | other | ...

          Kümedeki ve diğer tüm kümelerdeki elemanları içeren yeni bir
          küme döndürür.

      -- Yöntemi: intersection (*others)

      -- Yöntemi: set & other & ...

          Küme ve diğer tüm kümeler için ortak öğeler içeren yeni bir
          küme döndürür.

      -- Yöntemi: difference (*others)

      -- Yöntemi: set - other - ...

          Küme içinde diğerlerinde olmayan elemanlar içeren yeni bir
          küme döndürür.

      -- Yöntemi: symmetric_difference (other)

      -- Yöntemi: set ^ other

          Elemanları ya kümede ya da 'diğer' kümede olan ancak her
          ikisinde de olmayan yeni bir küme döndürür.

      -- Yöntemi: copy ()

          Kümenin yüzeysel bir kopyasını döndürür.

     Not: *note union(): 130a, *note intersection(): 130b, *note
     difference(): 2028, *note symmetric_difference(): 2029, *note
     issubset(): 2026. ve *note issuperset(): 2027. metotlarının
     operatörsüz versiyonları herhangi bir yinelenebiliri argüman olarak
     kabul edecektir.  Buna karşılık, operatör tabanlı benzerleri
     argümanlarının küme olmasını gerektirir.  Bu, daha okunabilir
     ‘set('abc').intersection('cbs')’ yerine ‘set('abc') & 'cbs'’ gibi
     hataya açık yapıları engeller.

     Hem *note set: 3e4. hem de *note frozenset: 3e5. kümeden kümeye
     karşılaştırmaları destekler.  İki küme, ancak ve ancak her kümenin
     her elemanı diğerinin içinde bulunuyorsa (her biri diğerinin alt
     kümesi ise) eşittir.  Bir küme başka bir kümeden ancak ve ancak
     birinci küme ikinci kümenin uygun bir alt kümesi ise (bir alt
     kümedir, ancak eşit değildir) küçüktür.  Bir küme, ancak ve ancak
     birinci küme ikinci kümenin uygun bir üst kümesi ise (bir üst
     kümedir, ancak eşit değildir) başka bir kümeden büyüktür.

     *note set: 3e4. örnekleri, üyelerine göre *note frozenset: 3e5.
     örnekleriyle karşılaştırılır.  Örneğin, ‘set('abc') ==
     frozenset('abc')’ ‘True’ döndürür ve ‘set('abc') in
     set([frozenset('abc')])’ de öyle.

     Alt küme ve eşitlik karşılaştırmaları toplam sıralama fonksiyonuna
     genelleştirilemez.  Örneğin, boş olmayan herhangi iki ayrık küme
     eşit değildir ve birbirinin alt kümesi değildir, bu nedenle
     aşağıdakilerin 'all' ‘Yanlış’ döndürür: ‘a<b’, ‘a==b’ veya ‘a>b’.

     Kümeler yalnızca kısmi sıralama (alt küme ilişkileri)
     tanımladığından, *note list.sort(): a46. yönteminin çıktısı küme
     listeleri için tanımsızdır.

     Sözlük anahtarları gibi küme öğeleri de *note hashable: 421.
     olmalıdır.

     *note set: 3e4. örneklerini *note frozenset: 3e5. ile karıştıran
     ikili işlemler ilk işlenenin türünü döndürür.  Örneğin:
     ‘frozenset('ab') | set('bc')’ bir *note frozenset: 3e5. örneği
     döndürür.

     Aşağıdaki tabloda *note set: 3e4. için kullanılabilen ve *note
     frozenset: 3e5. ‘in değişmez örneklerine uygulanmayan işlemler
     listelenmektedir:

      -- Yöntemi: update (*others)

      -- Yöntemi: set |= other | ...

          Diğer tüm öğeleri ekleyerek seti güncelleyin.

      -- Yöntemi: intersection_update (*others)

      -- Yöntemi: set &= other & ...

          Yalnızca içinde bulunan öğeleri ve diğerlerini koruyarak seti
          güncelleyin.

      -- Yöntemi: difference_update (*others)

      -- Yöntemi: set -= other | ...

          Diğerlerinde bulunan öğeleri kaldırarak kümeyi güncelleyin.

      -- Yöntemi: symmetric_difference_update (other)

      -- Yöntemi: set ^= other

          Kümeyi güncelleyin, yalnızca her iki kümede de bulunan öğeleri
          saklayın, ancak her ikisinde de bulunmayın.

      -- Yöntemi: add (elem)

          Kümeye 'elem' öğesini ekleyin.

      -- Yöntemi: remove (elem)

          Kümeden 'elem' elemanını kaldırır.  Eğer 'elem' kümede
          bulunmuyorsa *note KeyError: 903. değerini yükseltir.

      -- Yöntemi: discard (elem)

          Eğer varsa 'elem' öğesini kümeden kaldırır.

      -- Yöntemi: pop ()

          Kümeden rastgele bir elemanı kaldırır ve döndürür.  Küme boşsa
          *note KeyError: 903. değerini yükseltir.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Kümeden tüm öğeleri kaldırın.

     Not: *note update(): 202b, *note intersection_update(): 130c, *note
     difference_update(): 202c. ve *note symmetric_difference_update():
     130d. metotlarının operatör olmayan versiyonları herhangi bir
     iterable’ı argüman olarak kabul edecektir.

     Note, the 'elem' argument to the *note __contains__(): 1d4b, *note
     remove(): 202e, and *note discard(): 202f. methods may be a set.
     To support searching for an equivalent frozenset, a temporary one
     is created from 'elem'.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Types — dict,  Next: Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri,  Prev: Set Türleri — set frozenset,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.11 Mapping Types — ‘dict’
-----------------------------

Bir *note mapping: 1061. nesnesi *note hashable: 421. değerlerini
rastgele nesnelere eşler.  Eşlemeler değiştirilebilir nesnelerdir.  Şu
anda sadece bir standart eşleme türü vardır, 'dictionary'.  (Diğer
kapsayıcılar için yerleşik *note list: 422, *note set: 3e4. ve *note
tuple: 4ff. sınıflarına ve *note collections: 1d. modülüne bakın).

Bir sözlüğün anahtarları 'neredeyse' rastgele değerlerdir.  *note
hashable: 421. olmayan değerler, yani listeler, sözlükler veya diğer
değişken türleri içeren değerler (nesne kimliği yerine değere göre
karşılaştırılan) anahtar olarak kullanılamaz.  Eşit karşılaştırılan
değerler (‘1’, ‘1.0’ ve ‘True’ gibi) aynı sözlük girdisini indekslemek
için birbirinin yerine kullanılabilir.

 -- Sınıfı: dict (**kwargs)

 -- Sınıfı: dict (mapping, **kwargs)

 -- Sınıfı: dict (iterable, **kwargs)

     İsteğe bağlı bir konumsal bağımsız değişken ve muhtemelen boş bir
     anahtar sözcük bağımsız değişken kümesinden başlatılan yeni bir
     sözlük döndürür.

     Sözlükler çeşitli yollarla oluşturulabilir:

        * Use a comma-separated list of ‘key: value’ pairs within
          braces: ‘{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}’ or ‘{4098: 'jack',
          4127: 'sjoerd'}’

        * Use a dict comprehension: ‘{}’, ‘{x: x ** 2 for x in
          range(10)}’

        * Use the type constructor: ‘dict()’, ‘dict([('foo', 100),
          ('bar', 200)])’, ‘dict(foo=100, bar=200)’

     If no positional argument is given, an empty dictionary is created.
     If a positional argument is given and it defines a ‘keys()’ method,
     a dictionary is created by calling *note __getitem__(): 500. on the
     argument with each returned key from the method.  Otherwise, the
     positional argument must be an *note iterable: 10ce. object.  Each
     item in the iterable must itself be an iterable with exactly two
     elements.  The first element of each item becomes a key in the new
     dictionary, and the second element the corresponding value.  If a
     key occurs more than once, the last value for that key becomes the
     corresponding value in the new dictionary.

     If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their
     values are added to the dictionary created from the positional
     argument.  If a key being added is already present, the value from
     the keyword argument replaces the value from the positional
     argument.

     To illustrate, the following examples all return a dictionary equal
     to ‘{"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}’:

          >>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
          >>> b = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
          >>> c = dict(zip(['one', 'two', 'three'], [1, 2, 3]))
          >>> d = dict([('two', 2), ('one', 1), ('three', 3)])
          >>> e = dict({'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2})
          >>> f = dict({'one': 1, 'three': 3}, two=2)
          >>> a == b == c == d == e == f
          True

     Providing keyword arguments as in the first example only works for
     keys that are valid Python identifiers.  Otherwise, any valid keys
     can be used.

     These are the operations that dictionaries support (and therefore,
     custom mapping types should support too):

      -- Describe: list(d)

          Return a list of all the keys used in the dictionary 'd'.

      -- Describe: len(d)

          Return the number of items in the dictionary 'd'.

      -- Describe: d[key]

          Return the item of 'd' with key 'key'.  Raises a *note
          KeyError: 903. if 'key' is not in the map.

          If a subclass of dict defines a method ‘__missing__()’ and
          'key' is not present, the ‘d[key]’ operation calls that method
          with the key 'key' as argument.  The ‘d[key]’ operation then
          returns or raises whatever is returned or raised by the
          ‘__missing__(key)’ call.  No other operations or methods
          invoke ‘__missing__()’.  If ‘__missing__()’ is not defined,
          *note KeyError: 903. is raised.  ‘__missing__()’ must be a
          method; it cannot be an instance variable:

               >>> class Counter(dict):
               ...     def __missing__(self, key):
               ...         return 0
               ...
               >>> c = Counter()
               >>> c['red']
               0
               >>> c['red'] += 1
               >>> c['red']
               1

          The example above shows part of the implementation of *note
          collections.Counter: f3c.  A different ‘__missing__’ method is
          used by *note collections.defaultdict: 1062.

      -- Describe: d[key] = value

          Set ‘d[key]’ to 'value'.

      -- Describe: del d[key]

          Remove ‘d[key]’ from 'd'.  Raises a *note KeyError: 903. if
          'key' is not in the map.

      -- Describe: key in d

          Return ‘True’ if 'd' has a key 'key', else ‘False’.

      -- Describe: key not in d

          Equivalent to ‘not key in d’.

      -- Describe: iter(d)

          Return an iterator over the keys of the dictionary.  This is a
          shortcut for ‘iter(d.keys())’.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Remove all items from the dictionary.

      -- Yöntemi: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the dictionary.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod fromkeys (iterable, value=None, /)

          Create a new dictionary with keys from 'iterable' and values
          set to 'value'.

          *note fromkeys(): 2034. is a class method that returns a new
          dictionary.  'value' defaults to ‘None’.  All of the values
          refer to just a single instance, so it generally doesn’t make
          sense for 'value' to be a mutable object such as an empty
          list.  To get distinct values, use a *note dict comprehension:
          c0b. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: get (key, default=None, /)

          Return the value for 'key' if 'key' is in the dictionary, else
          'default'.  If 'default' is not given, it defaults to ‘None’,
          so that this method never raises a *note KeyError: 903.

      -- Yöntemi: items ()

          Return a new view of the dictionary’s items (‘(key, value)’
          pairs).  See the *note documentation of view objects: 2036.

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          Return a new view of the dictionary’s keys.  See the *note
          documentation of view objects: 2036.

      -- Yöntemi: pop (key[, default])

          If 'key' is in the dictionary, remove it and return its value,
          else return 'default'.  If 'default' is not given and 'key' is
          not in the dictionary, a *note KeyError: 903. is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: popitem ()

          Remove and return a ‘(key, value)’ pair from the dictionary.
          Pairs are returned in LIFO (last-in, first-out) order.

          *note popitem(): 13b4. is useful to destructively iterate over
          a dictionary, as often used in set algorithms.  If the
          dictionary is empty, calling *note popitem(): 13b4. raises a
          *note KeyError: 903.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: LIFO order is now guaranteed.  In prior
          versions, *note popitem(): 13b4. would return an arbitrary
          key/value pair.

      -- Describe: reversed(d)

          Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the dictionary.
          This is a shortcut for ‘reversed(d.keys())’.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: setdefault (key, default=None, /)

          If 'key' is in the dictionary, return its value.  If not,
          insert 'key' with a value of 'default' and return 'default'.
          'default' defaults to ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: update ([other])

          Update the dictionary with the key/value pairs from 'other',
          overwriting existing keys.  Return ‘None’.

          *note update(): 12ed. accepts either another object with a
          ‘keys()’ method (in which case *note __getitem__(): 500. is
          called with every key returned from the method) or an iterable
          of key/value pairs (as tuples or other iterables of length
          two).  If keyword arguments are specified, the dictionary is
          then updated with those key/value pairs: ‘d.update(red=1,
          blue=2)’.

      -- Yöntemi: values ()

          Return a new view of the dictionary’s values.  See the *note
          documentation of view objects: 2036.

          An equality comparison between one ‘dict.values()’ view and
          another will always return ‘False’.  This also applies when
          comparing ‘dict.values()’ to itself:

               >>> d = {'a': 1}
               >>> d.values() == d.values()
               False

      -- Describe: d | other

          Create a new dictionary with the merged keys and values of 'd'
          and 'other', which must both be dictionaries.  The values of
          'other' take priority when 'd' and 'other' share keys.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Describe: d |= other

          Update the dictionary 'd' with keys and values from 'other',
          which may be either a *note mapping: 1061. or an *note
          iterable: 10ce. of key/value pairs.  The values of 'other'
          take priority when 'd' and 'other' share keys.

          Added in version 3.9.

     Dictionaries compare equal if and only if they have the same ‘(key,
     value)’ pairs (regardless of ordering).  Order comparisons (‘<’,
     ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise *note TypeError: 2c4.

     Dictionaries preserve insertion order.  Note that updating a key
     does not affect the order.  Keys added after deletion are inserted
     at the end.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(d)
          ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
          >>> list(d.values())
          [1, 2, 3, 4]
          >>> d["one"] = 42
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> del d["two"]
          >>> d["two"] = None
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Dictionary order is guaranteed to be
     insertion order.  This behavior was an implementation detail of
     CPython from 3.6.

     Dictionaries and dictionary views are reversible.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(reversed(d))
          ['four', 'three', 'two', 'one']
          >>> list(reversed(d.values()))
          [4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> list(reversed(d.items()))
          [('four', 4), ('three', 3), ('two', 2), ('one', 1)]

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Dictionaries are now reversible.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. can be used to create a read-only
view of a *note dict: 240.

* Menu:

* Dictionary view objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary view objects,  Up: Mapping Types — dict

5.4.11.1 Dictionary view objects
................................

The objects returned by *note dict.keys(): 605, *note dict.values():
606. and *note dict.items(): 607. are 'view objects'.  They provide a
dynamic view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the
dictionary changes, the view reflects these changes.

Dictionary views can be iterated over to yield their respective data,
and support membership tests:

 -- Describe: len(dictview)

     Return the number of entries in the dictionary.

 -- Describe: iter(dictview)

     Return an iterator over the keys, values or items (represented as
     tuples of ‘(key, value)’) in the dictionary.

     Keys and values are iterated over in insertion order.  This allows
     the creation of ‘(value, key)’ pairs using *note zip(): 608.:
     ‘pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())’.  Another way to create the
     same list is ‘pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()]’.

     Iterating views while adding or deleting entries in the dictionary
     may raise a *note RuntimeError: 180. or fail to iterate over all
     entries.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Dictionary order is guaranteed to be
     insertion order.

 -- Describe: x in dictview

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is in the underlying dictionary’s keys, values
     or items (in the latter case, 'x' should be a ‘(key, value)’
     tuple).

 -- Describe: reversed(dictview)

     Return a reverse iterator over the keys, values or items of the
     dictionary.  The view will be iterated in reverse order of the
     insertion.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Dictionary views are now reversible.

 -- Describe: dictview.mapping

     Return a *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. that wraps the original
     dictionary to which the view refers.

     Added in version 3.10.

Keys views are set-like since their entries are unique and *note
hashable: 421.  Items views also have set-like operations since the
(key, value) pairs are unique and the keys are hashable.  If all values
in an items view are hashable as well, then the items view can
interoperate with other sets.  (Values views are not treated as set-like
since the entries are generally not unique.)  For set-like views, all of
the operations defined for the abstract base class *note
collections.abc.Set: 2039. are available (for example, ‘==’, ‘<’, or
‘^’).  While using set operators, set-like views accept any iterable as
the other operand, unlike sets which only accept sets as the input.

An example of dictionary view usage:

     >>> dishes = {'eggs': 2, 'sausage': 1, 'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500}
     >>> keys = dishes.keys()
     >>> values = dishes.values()

     >>> # iteration
     >>> n = 0
     >>> for val in values:
     ...     n += val
     ...
     >>> print(n)
     504

     >>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
     >>> list(keys)
     ['eggs', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam']
     >>> list(values)
     [2, 1, 1, 500]

     >>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
     >>> del dishes['eggs']
     >>> del dishes['sausage']
     >>> list(keys)
     ['bacon', 'spam']

     >>> # set operations
     >>> keys & {'eggs', 'bacon', 'salad'}
     {'bacon'}
     >>> keys ^ {'sausage', 'juice'} == {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'}
     True
     >>> keys | ['juice', 'juice', 'juice'] == {'bacon', 'spam', 'juice'}
     True

     >>> # get back a read-only proxy for the original dictionary
     >>> values.mapping
     mappingproxy({'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500})
     >>> values.mapping['spam']
     500


File: python.info,  Node: Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri,  Next: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union,  Prev: Mapping Types — dict,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.12 Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri
--------------------------------

Python’s *note with: 3dd. statement supports the concept of a runtime
context defined by a context manager.  This is implemented using a pair
of methods that allow user-defined classes to define a runtime context
that is entered before the statement body is executed and exited when
the statement ends:

 -- Yöntemi: contextmanager.__enter__ ()

     Enter the runtime context and return either this object or another
     object related to the runtime context.  The value returned by this
     method is bound to the identifier in the ‘as’ clause of *note with:
     3dd. statements using this context manager.

     An example of a context manager that returns itself is a *note file
     object: 1068.  File objects return themselves from __enter__() to
     allow *note open(): 2a6. to be used as the context expression in a
     *note with: 3dd. statement.

     An example of a context manager that returns a related object is
     the one returned by *note decimal.localcontext(): 1627.  These
     managers set the active decimal context to a copy of the original
     decimal context and then return the copy.  This allows changes to
     be made to the current decimal context in the body of the *note
     with: 3dd. statement without affecting code outside the ‘with’
     statement.

 -- Yöntemi: contextmanager.__exit__ (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)

     Exit the runtime context and return a Boolean flag indicating if
     any exception that occurred should be suppressed.  If an exception
     occurred while executing the body of the *note with: 3dd.
     statement, the arguments contain the exception type, value and
     traceback information.  Otherwise, all three arguments are ‘None’.

     Returning a true value from this method will cause the *note with:
     3dd. statement to suppress the exception and continue execution
     with the statement immediately following the ‘with’ statement.
     Otherwise the exception continues propagating after this method has
     finished executing.  Exceptions that occur during execution of this
     method will replace any exception that occurred in the body of the
     ‘with’ statement.

     The exception passed in should never be reraised explicitly -
     instead, this method should return a false value to indicate that
     the method completed successfully and does not want to suppress the
     raised exception.  This allows context management code to easily
     detect whether or not an *note __exit__(): 11aa. method has
     actually failed.

Python defines several context managers to support easy thread
synchronisation, prompt closure of files or other objects, and simpler
manipulation of the active decimal arithmetic context.  The specific
types are not treated specially beyond their implementation of the
context management protocol.  See the *note contextlib: 23. module for
some examples.

Python’s *note generator: f0b.s and the *note contextlib.contextmanager:
10a7. decorator provide a convenient way to implement these protocols.
If a generator function is decorated with the *note
contextlib.contextmanager: 10a7. decorator, it will return a context
manager implementing the necessary *note __enter__(): 203b. and *note
__exit__(): 203c. methods, rather than the iterator produced by an
undecorated generator function.

Note that there is no specific slot for any of these methods in the type
structure for Python objects in the Python/C API. Extension types
wanting to define these methods must provide them as a normal Python
accessible method.  Compared to the overhead of setting up the runtime
context, the overhead of a single class dictionary lookup is negligible.


File: python.info,  Node: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union,  Next: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler,  Prev: Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.13 Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union
---------------------------------------------------

The core built-in types for *note type annotations: 16e. are *note
Generic Alias: 4c9. and *note Union: 5f9.

* Menu:

* Genel Takma Ad Türü::
* Sendika Türü::


File: python.info,  Node: Genel Takma Ad Türü,  Next: Sendika Türü,  Up: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union

5.4.13.1 Genel Takma Ad Türü
............................

‘GenericAlias’ objects are generally created by *note subscripting:
1d73. a class.  They are most often used with *note container classes:
1d79, such as *note list: 422. or *note dict: 240.  For example,
‘list[int]’ is a ‘GenericAlias’ object created by subscripting the
‘list’ class with the argument *note int: 184.  ‘GenericAlias’ objects
are intended primarily for use with *note type annotations: 16e.

     Not: It is generally only possible to subscript a class if the
     class implements the special method *note __class_getitem__(): 565.

Bir ‘GenericAlias’ nesnesi, *note generic type: 141. için bir vekil
olarak hareket eder ve 'parameterized generics' uygular.

For a container class, the argument(s) supplied to a *note subscription:
1d73. of the class may indicate the type(s) of the elements an object
contains.  For example, ‘set[bytes]’ can be used in type annotations to
signify a *note set: 3e4. in which all the elements are of type *note
bytes: 2cb.

For a class which defines *note __class_getitem__(): 565. but is not a
container, the argument(s) supplied to a subscription of the class will
often indicate the return type(s) of one or more methods defined on an
object.  For example, *note regular expressions: b8. can be used on both
the *note str: 15d. data type and the *note bytes: 2cb. data type:

   * If ‘x = re.search('foo', 'foo')’, ‘x’ will be a *note re.Match:
     e28. object where the return values of ‘x.group(0)’ and ‘x[0]’ will
     both be of type *note str: 15d.  We can represent this kind of
     object in type annotations with the ‘GenericAlias’ ‘re.Match[str]’.

   * If ‘y = re.search(b'bar', b'bar')’, (note the ‘b’ for *note bytes:
     2cb.), ‘y’ will also be an instance of ‘re.Match’, but the return
     values of ‘y.group(0)’ and ‘y[0]’ will both be of type *note bytes:
     2cb.  In type annotations, we would represent this variety of *note
     re.Match: e28. objects with ‘re.Match[bytes]’.

‘GenericAlias’ nesneleri, doğrudan ‘GenericAlias’ nesneleri oluşturmak
için de kullanılabilen *note types.GenericAlias: 625. sınıfının
örnekleridir.

 -- Describe: T[X, Y, ...]

     Kullanılan ‘T’ türüne bağlı olarak 'X', 'Y' ve daha fazla tür
     tarafından parametrelenen bir ‘T’ türünü temsil eden bir
     ‘GenericAlias’ oluşturur.  Örneğin, *note float: 272. elemanları
     içeren bir *note list: 422. bekleyen bir fonksiyon:

          def average(values: list[float]) -> float:
              return sum(values) / len(values)

     Anahtar türünü ve değer türünü temsil eden iki tür parametresi
     bekleyen genel bir tür olan *note dict: 240. kullanarak *note
     mapping: 1061. nesneleri için başka bir örnek.  Bu örnekte,
     fonksiyon *note str: 15d. türünde anahtarları ve *note int: 184.
     türünde değerleri olan bir ‘dict’ bekler:

          def send_post_request(url: str, body: dict[str, int]) -> None:
              ...

Yerleşik *note isinstance(): 151. ve *note issubclass(): 5f8. işlevleri
ikinci argümanları için ‘GenericAlias’ türlerini kabul etmez:

     >>> isinstance([1, 2], list[str])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Python çalışma zamanı *note tip anotasyonları: 16e. ‘nı zorlamaz.  Bu,
genel türleri ve bunların tür parametrelerini de kapsar.  Bir
‘GenericAlias’ türünden bir konteyner nesnesi oluştururken,
konteynerdeki elemanlar türlerine göre kontrol edilmez.  Örneğin,
aşağıdaki kod tavsiye edilmez, ancak hatasız çalışacaktır:

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> t([1, 2, 3])
     [1, 2, 3]

Ayrıca, parametrelendirilmiş jenerikler nesne oluşturma sırasında tip
parametrelerini siler:

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> type(t)
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

     >>> l = t()
     >>> type(l)
     <class 'list'>

Bir jenerik üzerinde *note repr(): 637. veya *note str(): 15d. çağrısı
parametrelendirilmiş türü gösterir:

     >>> repr(list[int])
     'list[int]'

     >>> str(list[int])
     'list[int]'

Genel kapsayıcıların *note __getitem__(): 500. metodu, ‘dict[str][str]’
gibi hatalara izin vermemek için bir istisna oluşturacaktır:

     >>> dict[str][str]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: dict[str] is not a generic class

Ancak, bu tür ifadeler *note type variables: 1d6e. kullanıldığında
geçerlidir.  Dizin, ‘GenericAlias’ nesnesinin *note __args__: 203f.
öğesindeki tür değişkeni öğeleri kadar öğeye sahip olmalıdır:

     >>> from typing import TypeVar
     >>> Y = TypeVar('Y')
     >>> dict[str, Y][int]
     dict[str, int]

* Menu:

* Standart Jenerik Sınıflar::
* GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri::


File: python.info,  Node: Standart Jenerik Sınıflar,  Next: GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri,  Up: Genel Takma Ad Türü

5.4.13.2 Standart Jenerik Sınıflar
..................................

Bu standart kütüphane sınıfları parametrelendirilmiş jenerikleri
destekler.  Bu liste kapsamlı değildir.

   * *note tuple: 4ff.

   * *note list: 422.

   * *note dict: 240.

   * *note set: 3e4.

   * *note frozenset: 3e5.

   * *note type: bd1.

   * *note asyncio.Future: a44.

   * *note asyncio.Task: 20a.

   * *note collections.deque: 3e7.

   * *note collections.defaultdict: 1062.

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6.

   * *note collections.Counter: f3c.

   * *note collections.ChainMap: a95.

   * *note collections.abc.Awaitable: c6a.

   * *note collections.abc.Coroutine: c6b.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: c6d.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: c6c.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: b0a.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterable: 2041.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterator: 2042.

   * *note collections.abc.Generator: c69.

   * *note collections.abc.Reversible: b09.

   * *note collections.abc.Container: 2043.

   * *note collections.abc.Collection: b08.

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: 624.

   * *note collections.abc.Set: 2039.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 2044.

   * *note collections.abc.Mapping: 71c.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f51.

   * *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: c62.

   * *note collections.abc.ByteString: 22a.

   * *note collections.abc.MappingView: 2045.

   * *note collections.abc.KeysView: 2046.

   * *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 2047.

   * *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 2048.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: b0e.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: 99b.

   * *note dataclasses.Field: 2049.

   * *note functools.cached_property: 2cf.

   * *note functools.partialmethod: 8e0.

   * *note os.PathLike: acd.

   * *note queue.LifoQueue: 204a.

   * *note queue.Queue: 1235.

   * *note queue.PriorityQueue: 204b.

   * *note tuple: 4ff.

   * *note re.Pattern: e27.

   * *note re.Match: e28.

   * *note shelve.BsdDbShelf: 204c.

   * *note shelve.DbfilenameShelf: 204d.

   * *note shelve.Shelf: e3b.

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c.

   * *note weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 179e.

   * *note weakref.WeakMethod: e95.

   * *note weakref.WeakSet: 3e8.

   * *note weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 179d.


File: python.info,  Node: GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri,  Prev: Standart Jenerik Sınıflar,  Up: Genel Takma Ad Türü

5.4.13.3 ‘GenericAlias’ objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri
....................................................

Tüm parametreli jenerikler özel salt okunur öznitelikler uygular.

 -- Özniteliği: genericalias.__origin__

     Bu öznitelik, parametrelendirilmemiş genel sınıfa işaret eder:

          >>> list[int].__origin__
          <class 'list'>

 -- Özniteliği: genericalias.__args__

     Bu öznitelik, jenerik sınıfın orijinal *note __class_getitem__():
     565. öğesine iletilen jenerik tiplerinden bir *note tuple: 4ff.
     ‘dır (muhtemelen 1 uzunluğunda):

          >>> dict[str, list[int]].__args__
          (<class 'str'>, list[int])

 -- Özniteliği: genericalias.__parameters__

     Bu öznitelik, ‘’__args__’’ içinde bulunan benzersiz tür
     değişkenlerin tembel bir şekilde hesaplanmış bir demetidir
     (muhtemelen boş):

          >>> from typing import TypeVar

          >>> T = TypeVar('T')
          >>> list[T].__parameters__
          (~T,)

          Not: ‘GenericAlias’ nesnesi ile *note typing.ParamSpec: 169.
          parametreleri değiştirildikten sonra doğru ‘__parameters__’
          olmayabilir çünkü *note typing.ParamSpec: 169. öncelikle
          statik tip kontrolü için tasarlanmıştır.

 -- Özniteliği: genericalias.__unpacked__

     A boolean that is true if the alias has been unpacked using the ‘*’
     operator (see *note TypeVarTuple: 168.).

     Added in version 3.11.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 484(1) - Type Hints

     Introducing Python’s framework for type annotations.

PEP 585(2) - Standart Koleksiyonlarda Tip İma Etme (Type Hinting) Jenerikleri

     Introducing the ability to natively parameterize standard-library
     classes, provided they implement the special class method *note
     __class_getitem__(): 565.

*note Generics: 1d6e, *note user-defined generics: 1fd. and *note typing.Generic: 1478.

     Documentation on how to implement generic classes that can be
     parameterized at runtime and understood by static type-checkers.

Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Sendika Türü,  Prev: Genel Takma Ad Türü,  Up: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union

5.4.13.4 Sendika Türü
.....................

Bir birleşim nesnesi, birden çok *note type objects: 1f72. üzerinde ‘|’
(bitsel veya) işleminin değerini tutar.  Bu türler öncelikle
aşağıdakiler için tasarlanmıştır *note type annotations: 16e.  Birleşim
türü ifadesi, aşağıdakilere kıyasla daha temiz tür ipucu sözdizimi
sağlar *note typing.Union: 44e.

 -- Describe: X | Y | ...

     'X', 'Y' vb.  türleri tutan bir birleşim nesnesi tanımlar.  ‘X | Y’
     X veya Y anlamına gelir.  Bu, ‘typing.Union[X, Y]’ ile eş değerdir.
     Örneğin, aşağıdaki işlev *note int: 184. veya *note float: 272.:

          def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
              return number ** 2

          Not: The ‘|’ operand cannot be used at runtime to define
          unions where one or more members is a forward reference.  For
          example, ‘int | "Foo"’, where ‘"Foo"’ is a reference to a
          class not yet defined, will fail at runtime.  For unions which
          include forward references, present the whole expression as a
          string, e.g.  ‘"int | Foo"’.

 -- Describe: union_object == other

     Birlik nesneleri, diğer birlik nesneleriyle eşitlik açısından test
     edilebilir.  Detaylar:

        * Birliklerin birlikleri düzleştirimiştir:

               (int | str) | float == int | str | float

        * Gereksiz türler kaldırılır:

               int | str | int == int | str

        * Birlikleri karşılaştırırken, sipariş göz ardı edilir:

               int | str == str | int

        * *note typing.Union: 44e.:: ile uyumludur:

               int | str == typing.Union[int, str]

        * İsteğe bağlı türler ‘None’:: ile bir birlik olarak
          yazılabilir:

               str | None == typing.Optional[str]

 -- Describe: isinstance(obj, union_object)

 -- Describe: issubclass(obj, union_object)

     *note isinstance(): 151. ve *note issubclass(): 5f8. çağrıları da
     bir birlik nesnesiyle desteklenir:

          >>> isinstance("", int | str)
          True

     However, *note parameterized generics: 4c9. in union objects cannot
     be checked:

          >>> isinstance(1, int | list[int])  # short-circuit evaluation
          True
          >>> isinstance([1], int | list[int])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Union nesnesinin kullanıcıya açık türüne *note types.UnionType: 44d.
adresinden erişilebilir ve *note isinstance(): 151. kontrolleri için
kullanılabilir.  Bir nesne şu türden örneklenemez:

     >>> import types
     >>> isinstance(int | str, types.UnionType)
     True
     >>> types.UnionType()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot create 'types.UnionType' instances

     Not: The ‘__or__()’ method for type objects was added to support
     the syntax ‘X | Y’.  If a metaclass implements ‘__or__()’, the
     Union may override it:

          >>> class M(type):
          ...     def __or__(self, other):
          ...         return "Hello"
          ...
          >>> class C(metaclass=M):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> C | int
          'Hello'
          >>> int | C
          int | C

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 604(1) – ‘X | Y’ sözdizimini ve Birlik türünü öneren PEP.

Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler,  Next: Özel Özellikler,  Prev: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.14 Diğer Yerleşik Tipler
----------------------------

Yorumlayıcı başka nesne türlerini de destekler.  Bunların çoğu yalnızca
bir veya iki işlemi destekler.

* Menu:

* Modüller: Modüller<2>.
* Sınıflar ve Sınıf Örnekleri::
* Fonksiyonlar::
* Yöntemler::
* Kod Nesneleri::
* Type Objects::
* Null Nesne::
* Üç Nokta Nesnesi::
* NotImplemented Nesnesi::
* İç Nesneler::


File: python.info,  Node: Modüller<2>,  Next: Sınıflar ve Sınıf Örnekleri,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.1 Modüller
.................

Bir modül üzerindeki tek özel işlem öznitelik erişimidir: ‘m.name’,
burada 'm' bir modüldür ve 'name', 'm'’nin sembol tablosunda tanımlanan
bir isme erişir.  Modül nitelikleri atanabilir.  (*note import: 3ed.
deyiminin kesinlikle bir modül nesnesi üzerinde bir işlem olmadığına
dikkat edin; ‘import foo’ 'foo' adında bir modül nesnesinin var olmasını
gerektirmez, bunun yerine bir yerlerde 'foo' adında bir modül için
(harici) bir 'tanımlama' gerektirir)

Her modülün özel bir niteliği *note __dict__: 2ec. ‘dir.  Bu, modülün
sembol tablosunu içeren sözlüktür.  Bu sözlüğü değiştirmek aslında
modülün sembol tablosunu değiştirecektir, ancak *note __dict__: 2ec.
niteliğine doğrudan atama yapmak mümkün değildir (‘m.__dict__['a'] = 1’
yazabilirsiniz, bu ‘m.a’ yı ‘1’ olarak tanımlar, ancak ‘m.__dict__ = {}’
yazamazsınız).  *note __dict__: 2ec. öğesinin doğrudan değiştirilmesi
önerilmez.

Yorumlayıcıda yerleşik olarak bulunan modüller şu şekilde yazılır:
‘<module 'sys' (built-in)>’.  Eğer bir dosyadan yüklenmişlerse, ‘<module
'os' from '/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>’ şeklinde yazılırlar.


File: python.info,  Node: Sınıflar ve Sınıf Örnekleri,  Next: Fonksiyonlar,  Prev: Modüller<2>,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.2 Sınıflar ve Sınıf Örnekleri
....................................

Bunlar için *note Class definitions: 1181. ve *note Objects, values and
types: 1cd1. bakın.


File: python.info,  Node: Fonksiyonlar,  Next: Yöntemler,  Prev: Sınıflar ve Sınıf Örnekleri,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.3 Fonksiyonlar
.....................

Fonksiyon nesneleri fonksiyon tanımları tarafından oluşturulur.  Bir
fonksiyon nesnesi üzerindeki tek işlem onu çağırmaktır:
‘func(argument-list)’.

Fonksiyon nesnelerinin gerçekten iki çeşidi vardır: yerleşik
fonksiyonlar ve kullanıcı tanımlı fonksiyonlar.  Her ikisi de aynı
işlemi destekler (işlevi çağırmak için), ancak uygulama farklıdır,
dolayısıyla farklı nesne türleri vardır.

Daha fazla bilgi için *note Function definitions: 1a7f. bölümüne
bakınız.


File: python.info,  Node: Yöntemler,  Next: Kod Nesneleri,  Prev: Fonksiyonlar,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.4 Yöntemler
..................

Methods are functions that are called using the attribute notation.
There are two flavors: *note built-in methods: 1cfa. (such as ‘append()’
on lists) and *note class instance method: 1b07.  Built-in methods are
described with the types that support them.

If you access a method (a function defined in a class namespace) through
an instance, you get a special object: a 'bound method' (also called
*note instance method: 1b07.) object.  When called, it will add the
‘self’ argument to the argument list.  Bound methods have two special
read-only attributes: *note m.__self__: 124f. is the object on which the
method operates, and *note m.__func__: 11a6. is the function
implementing the method.  Calling ‘m(arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)’ is
completely equivalent to calling ‘m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2,
..., arg-n)’.

Like *note function objects: 1b08, bound method objects support getting
arbitrary attributes.  However, since method attributes are actually
stored on the underlying function object (*note method.__func__: 11a6.),
setting method attributes on bound methods is disallowed.  Attempting to
set an attribute on a method results in an *note AttributeError: 3dc.
being raised.  In order to set a method attribute, you need to
explicitly set it on the underlying function object:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.method.whoami = 'my name is method'  # can't set on the method
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: 'method' object has no attribute 'whoami'
     >>> c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is method'
     >>> c.method.whoami
     'my name is method'

See *note Instance methods: 1b07. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Kod Nesneleri,  Next: Type Objects,  Prev: Yöntemler,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.5 Kod Nesneleri
......................

Code objects are used by the implementation to represent
“pseudo-compiled” executable Python code such as a function body.  They
differ from function objects because they don’t contain a reference to
their global execution environment.  Code objects are returned by the
built-in *note compile(): 56d. function and can be extracted from
function objects through their *note __code__: 117a. attribute.  See
also the *note code: 1a. module.

Accessing *note __code__: 117a. raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
‘object.__getattr__’ with arguments ‘obj’ and ‘"__code__"’.

Bir kod nesnesi (kaynak dize yerine) *note exec(): 6cb. veya *note
eval(): 6ca. yerleşik işlevlerine geçirilerek yürütülebilir veya
değerlendirilebilir.

Daha fazla bilgi için *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4. sayfasına
bakın.


File: python.info,  Node: Type Objects,  Next: Null Nesne,  Prev: Kod Nesneleri,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.6 Type Objects
.....................

Type nesneleri çeşitli nesne türlerini temsil eder.  Bir nesnenin türüne
yerleşik işlev *note type(): bd1. tarafından erişilir.  Türler üzerinde
özel bir işlem yoktur.  Standart modül *note types: 103. tüm standart
yerleşik türler için isimleri tanımlar.

Türler şu şekilde yazılır: ‘<class 'int'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Null Nesne,  Next: Üç Nokta Nesnesi,  Prev: Type Objects,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.7 Null Nesne
...................

Bu nesne, açıkça bir değer döndürmeyen işlevler tarafından döndürülür.
Özel operasyonları desteklemez.  Tam olarak ‘None’ (yerleşik bir ad)
adlı bir null nesne vardır.  ‘type(None)()’ aynı singleton’u üretir.

‘’Yok’’ olarak yazılmıştır.


File: python.info,  Node: Üç Nokta Nesnesi,  Next: NotImplemented Nesnesi,  Prev: Null Nesne,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.8 Üç Nokta Nesnesi
.........................

Bu nesne genellikle dilimleme tarafından kullanılır (bkz.  *note
Slicings: 1e40.).  Özel operasyonları desteklemez.  Tam olarak *note
Ellipsis: 1f76. (yerleşik bir ad) adında bir elips nesnesi vardır.
‘type(Ellipsis)()’, *note Ellipsis: 1f76. singletonunu üretir.

‘Ellipsis’ veya ‘...’ olarak yazılmıştır.


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented Nesnesi,  Next: İç Nesneler,  Prev: Üç Nokta Nesnesi,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.9 NotImplemented Nesnesi
...............................

This object is returned from comparisons and binary operations when they
are asked to operate on types they don’t support.  See *note
Comparisons: 1e63. for more information.  There is exactly one *note
NotImplemented: 60b. object.  ‘type(NotImplemented)()’ produces the
singleton instance.

It is written as ‘NotImplemented’.


File: python.info,  Node: İç Nesneler,  Prev: NotImplemented Nesnesi,  Up: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler

5.4.14.10 İç Nesneler
.....................

See *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4. for this information.  It
describes *note stack frame objects: 4f7, *note traceback objects: 962,
and slice objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Özel Özellikler,  Next: Integer string conversion length limitation,  Prev: Diğer Yerleşik Tipler,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.15 Özel Özellikler
----------------------

Uygulama, ilgili oldukları çeşitli nesne türlerine birkaç özel salt
okunur öznitelik ekler.  Bunlardan bazıları *note dir(): 445. yerleşik
işlevi tarafından bildirilmez.

 -- Özniteliği: definition.__name__

     Sınıf, fonksiyon, yöntem, tanımlayıcı veya üretici örneğinin adı.

 -- Özniteliği: definition.__qualname__

     Sınıf, fonksiyon, yöntem, tanımlayıcı veya üretici örneğinin *note
     qualified name: 176c.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özniteliği: definition.__module__

     The name of the module in which a class or function was defined.

 -- Özniteliği: definition.__doc__

     The documentation string of a class or function, or ‘None’ if
     undefined.

 -- Özniteliği: definition.__type_params__

     The *note type parameters: 16c. of generic classes, functions, and
     *note type aliases: 165.  For classes and functions that are not
     generic, this will be an empty tuple.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Integer string conversion length limitation,  Prev: Özel Özellikler,  Up: Gömülü Türler

5.4.16 Integer string conversion length limitation
--------------------------------------------------

CPython has a global limit for converting between *note int: 184. and
*note str: 15d. to mitigate denial of service attacks.  This limit
'only' applies to decimal or other non-power-of-two number bases.
Hexadecimal, octal, and binary conversions are unlimited.  The limit can
be configured.

The *note int: 184. type in CPython is an arbitrary length number stored
in binary form (commonly known as a “bignum”).  There exists no
algorithm that can convert a string to a binary integer or a binary
integer to a string in linear time, 'unless' the base is a power of 2.
Even the best known algorithms for base 10 have sub-quadratic
complexity.  Converting a large value such as ‘int('1' * 500_000)’ can
take over a second on a fast CPU.

Limiting conversion size offers a practical way to avoid CVE
2020-10735(1).

The limit is applied to the number of digit characters in the input or
output string when a non-linear conversion algorithm would be involved.
Underscores and the sign are not counted towards the limit.

When an operation would exceed the limit, a *note ValueError: 189. is
raised:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.set_int_max_str_digits(4300)  # Illustrative, this is the default.
     >>> _ = int('2' * 5432)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion: value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> i = int('2' * 4300)
     >>> len(str(i))
     4300
     >>> i_squared = i*i
     >>> len(str(i_squared))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> len(hex(i_squared))
     7144
     >>> assert int(hex(i_squared), base=16) == i*i  # Hexadecimal is unlimited.

The default limit is 4300 digits as provided in *note
sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 113c.  The lowest limit that can be
configured is 640 digits as provided in *note
sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 113c.

Doğrulama

     >>> import sys
     >>> assert sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits == 4300, sys.int_info
     >>> assert sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold == 640, sys.int_info
     >>> msg = int('578966293710682886880994035146873798396722250538762761564'
     ...           '9252925514383915483333812743580549779436104706260696366600'
     ...           '571186405732').to_bytes(53, 'big')
     ...

Added in version 3.11.

* Menu:

* Affected APIs::
* Configuring the limit::
* Recommended configuration::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Affected APIs,  Next: Configuring the limit,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.1 Affected APIs
......................

The limitation only applies to potentially slow conversions between
*note int: 184. and *note str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb.:

   * ‘int(string)’ with default base 10.

   * ‘int(string, base)’ for all bases that are not a power of 2.

   * ‘str(integer)’.

   * ‘repr(integer)’.

   * any other string conversion to base 10, for example ‘f"{integer}"’,
     ‘"{}".format(integer)’, or ‘b"%d" % integer’.

The limitations do not apply to functions with a linear algorithm:

   * ‘int(string, base)’ with base 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32.

   * *note int.from_bytes(): 1677. and *note int.to_bytes(): 16b8.

   * *note hex(): 1178, *note oct(): 1177, *note bin(): 1151.

   * *note Format Specification Mini-Language: 3ee. for hex, octal, and
     binary numbers.

   * *note str: 15d. to *note float: 272.

   * *note str: 15d. to *note decimal.Decimal: 609.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring the limit,  Next: Recommended configuration,  Prev: Affected APIs,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.2 Configuring the limit
..............................

Before Python starts up you can use an environment variable or an
interpreter command line flag to configure the limit:

   * *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 15de, e.g.  ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=640
     python3’ to set the limit to 640 or ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=0
     python3’ to disable the limitation.

   * *note -X int_max_str_digits: 18e, e.g.  ‘python3 -X
     int_max_str_digits=640’

   * *note sys.flags.int_max_str_digits: 206e. contains the value of
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 15de. or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
     18e.  If both the env var and the ‘-X’ option are set, the ‘-X’
     option takes precedence.  A value of '-1' indicates that both were
     unset, thus a value of *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits:
     206f. was used during initialization.

From code, you can inspect the current limit and set a new one using
these *note sys: d8. APIs:

   * *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 2070. and *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 15df. are a getter and setter for the
     interpreter-wide limit.  Subinterpreters have their own limit.

Information about the default and minimum can be found in *note
sys.int_info: 113c.:

   * *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 113c. is the compiled-in
     default limit.

   * *note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 113c. is the lowest
     accepted value for the limit (other than 0 which disables it).

Added in version 3.11.

     Uyarı: Setting a low limit 'can' lead to problems.  While rare,
     code exists that contains integer constants in decimal in their
     source that exceed the minimum threshold.  A consequence of setting
     the limit is that Python source code containing decimal integer
     literals longer than the limit will encounter an error during
     parsing, usually at startup time or import time or even at
     installation time - anytime an up to date ‘.pyc’ does not already
     exist for the code.  A workaround for source that contains such
     large constants is to convert them to ‘0x’ hexadecimal form as it
     has no limit.

     Test your application thoroughly if you use a low limit.  Ensure
     your tests run with the limit set early via the environment or flag
     so that it applies during startup and even during any installation
     step that may invoke Python to precompile ‘.py’ sources to ‘.pyc’
     files.


File: python.info,  Node: Recommended configuration,  Prev: Configuring the limit,  Up: Integer string conversion length limitation

5.4.16.3 Recommended configuration
..................................

The default *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 206f. is expected
to be reasonable for most applications.  If your application requires a
different limit, set it from your main entry point using Python version
agnostic code as these APIs were added in security patch releases in
versions before 3.12.

Örnek:

     >>> import sys
     >>> if hasattr(sys, "set_int_max_str_digits"):
     ...     upper_bound = 68000
     ...     lower_bound = 4004
     ...     current_limit = sys.get_int_max_str_digits()
     ...     if current_limit == 0 or current_limit > upper_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(upper_bound)
     ...     elif current_limit < lower_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(lower_bound)

If you need to disable it entirely, set it to ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Gömülü İstisnalar,  Next: Text Processing Services,  Prev: Gömülü Türler,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.5 Gömülü İstisnalar
=====================

Python’da tüm istisnalar(exceptions) *note BaseException: 3c3.
sınıfından türeyen bir sınıfın örnekleri olmalıdır.  Belirli bir
sınıftan bahseden *note except: 3c0. cümlesine sahip bir *note try: 503.
deyiminde, bu cümle aynı zamanda o sınıftan türetilen istisna
sınıflarını da ele alır (ancak 'onun' türetildiği istisna sınıflarını
değil).  Alt sınıflandırma yoluyla ilişkili olmayan iki istisna sınıfı,
aynı ada sahip olsalar bile asla eşdeğer değildir.

The built-in exceptions listed in this chapter can be generated by the
interpreter or built-in functions.  Except where mentioned, they have an
“associated value” indicating the detailed cause of the error.  This may
be a string or a tuple of several items of information (e.g., an error
code and a string explaining the code).  The associated value is usually
passed as arguments to the exception class’s constructor.

Kullanıcı kodu gömülü istisnaları oluşturabilir.  Bu, bir istisna
işleyicileri test etmek veya yorumlayıcının aynı istisnayı ortaya
çıkardığı duruma “benzer” bir hata durumunu bildirmek için
kullanılabilir; ancak kullanıcı kodunun uygun olmayan bir hata
oluşturmasını engelleyecek hiçbir şey olmadığına dikkat edin.

Gömülü istisna sınıfları yeni istisnalar tanımlamak için alt sınıflara
ayrılabilir; programcıların yeni istisnaları *note BaseException: 3c3.
sınıfından değil, *note Exception: 838. sınıfından veya onun alt
sınıflarından birinden türetmeleri önerilir.  İstisnaların
tanımlanmasıyla ilgili daha fazla bilgi Python Öğreticisi’nde *note
Kullanıcı Tanımlı İstisnalar: 1add. başlığı altında mevcuttur.

* Menu:

* İstisna bağlamı::
* Gömülü istisnalardan miras alma::
* Temel sınıflar::
* Somut istisnalar (Concrete exceptions): Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
* Uyarılar::
* İstisna grupları::
* İstisna hiyerarşisi::


File: python.info,  Node: İstisna bağlamı,  Next: Gömülü istisnalardan miras alma,  Up: Gömülü İstisnalar

5.5.1 İstisna bağlamı
---------------------

İstisna nesnelerindeki üç öznitelik, istisnanın ortaya çıktığı bağlam
hakkında bilgi sağlar:

 -- Özniteliği: BaseException.__context__
 -- Özniteliği: BaseException.__cause__
 -- Özniteliği: BaseException.__suppress_context__

     Başka bir istisna zaten işlenirken yeni bir istisna yükseltirken,
     yeni istisnanın ‘__context__’ niteliği otomatik olarak işlenen
     istisnaya ayarlanır.  Bir *note except: 3c0. veya *note finally:
     828. cümlesi veya bir *note with: 3dd. deyimi kullanıldığında bir
     istisna ele alınabilir.

     Bu örtük istisna bağlamı(implicit exception context), ‘from’ ile
     *note raise: 3f9.: kullanılarak açık bir neden ile desteklenebilir:

          raise new_exc from original_exc

     Bu *note from: 3f9. ifadesini takip eden ifade bir istisna veya
     ‘None’ olmalıdır.  Ortaya çıkan istisna üzerinde ‘__cause__’ olarak
     ayarlanacaktır.  ‘__cause__’ ayarı aynı zamanda
     ‘__suppress_context__’ niteliğini de örtük(implicit) olarak ‘True’
     olarak ayarlar, böylece ‘raise new_exc from None’ kullanımı
     görüntüleme amacıyla eski istisnayı yenisiyle değiştirirken
     (örneğin *note KeyError: 903. ifadesini *note AttributeError: 3dc.
     ifadesine dönüştürmek), hata ayıklama sırasında iç gözlem için eski
     istisnayı ‘__context__’ içinde kullanılabilir bırakır.

     Varsayılan geri izleme görüntüleme kodu(default traceback display
     code), istisnanın geri izlemesine ek olarak bu zincirleme
     istisnaları da gösterir.  ‘__cause__’ içinde açıkça zincirlenmiş
     bir istisna mevcut olduğunda her zaman gösterilir.  ‘__context__’
     içindeki dolaylı zincirleme istisna yalnızca ‘__cause__’ *note
     None: 488. ve ‘__suppress_context__’ false ise gösterilir.

     Her iki durumda da, istisnanın kendisi her zaman zincirleme
     istisnalardan sonra gösterilir, böylece geri izlemenin(traceback)
     son satırı her zaman oluşturulan son istisnayı gösterir.


File: python.info,  Node: Gömülü istisnalardan miras alma,  Next: Temel sınıflar,  Prev: İstisna bağlamı,  Up: Gömülü İstisnalar

5.5.2 Gömülü istisnalardan miras alma
-------------------------------------

Kullanıcı kodu, bir istisna türünden miras alan alt sınıflar
oluşturabilir.  Tabanların ‘args’ niteliğini işleme biçimleri arasındaki
olası çakışmaların yanı sıra olası bellek düzeni uyumsuzluklarından
kaçınmak için bir seferde yalnızca bir istisna türünün alt sınıfının
oluşturulması önerilir.

Çoğu gömülü istisna, verimlilik için C dilinde uygulanmıştır, bkz:
Objects/exceptions.c(1).  Bazılarının özel bellek düzenleri vardır, bu
da birden fazla istisna türünden miras alan bir alt sınıf oluşturmayı
imkansız kılar.  Bir türün bellek düzeni bir uygulama detayıdır ve
Python sürümleri arasında değişebilir, bu da gelecekte yeni çakışmalara
yol açabilir.  Bu nedenle, birden fazla istisna türünün alt sınıfını
oluşturmaktan tamamen kaçınmanız önerilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/exceptions.c


File: python.info,  Node: Temel sınıflar,  Next: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions,  Prev: Gömülü istisnalardan miras alma,  Up: Gömülü İstisnalar

5.5.3 Temel sınıflar
--------------------

Aşağıdaki istisnalar çoğunlukla diğer istisnalar için temel sınıflar
olarak kullanılır.

 -- Özel Durum: BaseException

     Tüm gömülü istisnalar için temel sınıf.  Kullanıcı tanımlı sınıflar
     tarafından doğrudan miras alınması amaçlanmamıştır (bunun için
     *note Exception: 838. kullanın).  Bu sınıfın bir örneği üzerinde
     *note str(): 15d. çağrılırsa, örneğin argüman(lar)ının gösterimi
     veya argüman yoksa boş dize döndürülür.

      -- Özniteliği: args

          İstisna kurucusuna verilen argümanlar demeti.  Bazı gömülü
          istisnalar (*note OSError: 65c. gibi) belirli sayıda argüman
          bekler ve bu ikilinin elemanlarına özel bir anlam atarken,
          diğerleri genellikle yalnızca bir hata mesajı veren tek bir
          dizeyle çağrılır.

      -- Yöntemi: with_traceback (tb)

          Bu yöntem 'tb' öğesini istisna için yeni geri izleme olarak
          ayarlar ve istisna nesnesini döndürür.  Daha çok PEP 3134(1)
          istisna zincirleme özellikleri kullanıma sunulmadan önce
          kullanılıyordu.  Aşağıdaki örnek, bir ‘SomeException’ örneğini
          geri izlemeyi koruyarak nasıl bir ‘OtherException’ örneğine
          dönüştürebileceğimizi göstermektedir.  Bir kez
          oluşturulduğunda, geçerli kare, orijinal ‘SomeException’ ın
          geri izlemesinde olduğu gibi, ‘OtherException’ ın geri
          izlemesine itilir, eğer arayan kişiye yayılmasına izin
          verseydik:

               try:
                   ...
               except SomeException:
                   tb = sys.exception().__traceback__
                   raise OtherException(...).with_traceback(tb)

      -- Özniteliği: __traceback__

          Bu istisna ile ilişkili *note traceback nesnesini: 962. tutan
          yazılabilir bir alan.  Ayrıca bakınız: *note The raise
          statement: 3f9.

      -- Yöntemi: add_note (note)

          İstisna dizesinden sonra standart geri dönüşte görünen istisna
          notlarına ‘note’ dizesini ekleyin.  Eğer ‘note’ bir string
          değilse bir *note TypeError: 2c4. oluşur.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Özniteliği: __notes__

          Bu istisnanın *note add_note(): 3c2. ile eklenen notlarının
          bir listesi.  Bu nitelik *note add_note(): 3c2. çağrıldığında
          oluşturulur.

          Added in version 3.11.

 -- Özel Durum: Exception

     Tüm gömülü, sistemden çıkmayan istisnalar(non-system-exiting
     exceptions) bu sınıftan türetilir.  Kullanıcı tanımlı tüm
     istisnalar da bu sınıftan türetilmelidir.

 -- Özel Durum: ArithmeticError

     Çeşitli aritmetik hatalar için oluşturulan gömülü istisnalar için
     temel sınıf: *note OverflowError: 6c7, *note ZeroDivisionError:
     79e, *note FloatingPointError: 2079.

 -- Özel Durum: BufferError

     Bu *note buffer: 14e. ile ilgili bir işlem gerçekleştirilemediğinde
     oluşturulur.

 -- Özel Durum: LookupError

     Bir eşleme veya dizide kullanılan bir anahtar veya dizin geçersiz
     olduğunda ortaya çıkan istisnalar için temel sınıf: *note
     IndexError: 13c2, *note KeyError: 903.  Bu doğrudan *note
     codecs.lookup(): 7be. tarafından oluşturulabilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions,  Next: Uyarılar,  Prev: Temel sınıflar,  Up: Gömülü İstisnalar

5.5.4 Somut istisnalar (Concrete exceptions)
--------------------------------------------

Aşağıdaki istisnalar genellikle ortaya çıkan istisnalardır.

 -- Özel Durum: AssertionError

     Bir *note assert: 7c4. ifadesi başarısız(fail) olduğunda ortaya
     çıkar.

 -- Özel Durum: AttributeError

     Bir öznitelik referansı (bkz.  *note Attribute references: 1e3c.)
     veya ataması başarısız olduğunda ortaya çıkar.  (Bir nesne
     öznitelik referanslarını veya öznitelik atamalarını hiç
     desteklemiyorsa, *note TypeError: 2c4. yükseltilir)

     ‘name’ ve ‘obj’ öznitelikleri, kurucuya(constructor) yalnızca
     anahtar kelime argümanları kullanılarak ayarlanabilir.
     Ayarlandıklarında, sırasıyla erişilmeye çalışılan özniteliğin adını
     ve söz konusu öznitelik için erişilen nesneyi temsil ederler.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘name’ ve ‘obj’ nitelikleri eklendi.

 -- Özel Durum: EOFError

     *note input(): 1182. fonksiyonu herhangi bir veri okumadan dosya
     sonu koşuluna (end-of-file EOF) ulaştığında ortaya çıkar.  (Not:
     ‘io.IOBase.read()’ ve *note io.IOBase.readline(): 11d5. yöntemleri
     EOF’ye ulaştıklarında boş bir dize döndürürler)

 -- Özel Durum: FloatingPointError

     Şu anda kullanılmıyor.

 -- Özel Durum: GeneratorExit

     Bir *note generator: f0b. veya *note coroutine: 1b4. kapatıldığında
     ortaya çıkar; bkz *note generator.close(): 15e1. ve *note
     coroutine.close(): 1dbc.  Teknik olarak bir hata olmadığı için
     *note Exception: 838. yerine doğrudan *note BaseException: 3c3. dan
     miras alınır.

 -- Özel Durum: ImportError

     Bir *note import: 3ed. deyimi bir modülü yüklemeye çalışırken sorun
     yaşadığında ortaya çıkar.  Ayrıca ‘from ... import’ içindeki “from
     list” bulunamayan bir isme sahip olduğunda da oluşur.

     İsteğe bağlı 'name' ve 'path' anahtar sözcük, bağımsız değişkenleri
     ilgili öznitelikleri ayarlar:

      -- Özniteliği: name

          İçe aktarılmaya çalışılan modülün adı.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          İstisnayı tetikleyen herhangi bir dosyanın yolu.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note name: 207b. ve *note path: 207c.
     nitelikleri eklendi.

 -- Özel Durum: ModuleNotFoundError

     Bir modül bulunamadığında *note import: 3ed. tarafından ortaya
     çıkarılan *note ImportError: 14b. alt sınıfı.  Ayrıca *note
     sys.modules: 179b. içinde ‘None’ bulunduğunda da ortaya çıkar.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Özel Durum: IndexError

     Bir dizi alt simgesi aralık dışında olduğunda yükseltilir.  (Dilim
     indeksleri(slice indices) sessizce izin verilen aralığa düşecek
     şekilde kırpılır; bir indeks bir tamsayı değilse, *note TypeError:
     2c4. oluşur.).

 -- Özel Durum: KeyError

     Bir eşleme(mapping) sözlük(dictionary) anahtarı mevcut anahtarlar
     kümesinde bulunamadığında ortaya çıkar.

 -- Özel Durum: KeyboardInterrupt

     Kullanıcı kesme(interrupt) tuşuna bastığında oluşur (normalde
     ‘Control’-‘C’ veya ‘Delete’).  Yürütme sırasında düzenli olarak
     kesme kontrolü yapılır.  İstisna, *note Exception: 838. kodunu
     yakalayan kod tarafından yanlışlıkla yakalanmamak ve böylece
     yorumlayıcının çıkmasını önlemek için *note BaseException: 3c3.
     kodundan miras alır.

          Not: Bir *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. yakalamak özel dikkat
          gerektirir.  Tahmin edilemeyen noktalarda
          yükseltilebildiğinden, bazı durumlarda çalışan programı
          tutarsız bir durumda bırakabilir.  Genellikle en iyisi *note
          KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. ın programı mümkün olduğunca çabuk
          sonlandırmasına izin vermek veya tamamen yükseltilmesinden
          kaçınmaktır.  (Bkz.  *note Note on Signal Handlers and
          Exceptions: 207d.)

 -- Özel Durum: MemoryError

     Bir işlemin belleği tükendiğinde ancak durum hala
     kurtarılabildiğinde (bazı nesneleri silerek) yükseltilir.  İlişkili
     değer, ne tür bir (dahili) işlemin belleğinin tükendiğini gösteren
     bir dizedir.  Altta yatan bellek yönetim mimarisi (C’nin ‘malloc()’
     fonksiyonu) nedeniyle, yorumlayıcının bu durumdan her zaman tamamen
     kurtulamayabileceğini unutmayın; yine de bir istisna yükseltir,
     böylece kaçan bir programın neden olması durumunda bir yığın geri
     dönüşü yazdırılabilir.

 -- Özel Durum: NameError

     Yerel veya genel bir ad bulunamadığında oluşur.  Bu yalnızca
     niteliksiz adlar için geçerlidir.  İlişkili değer, bulunamayan adı
     içeren bir hata mesajıdır.

     ‘name’ özniteliği, yapıcıya yalnızca bir anahtar sözcük argümanı
     kullanılarak ayarlanabilir.  Ayarlandığında, erişilmeye çalışılan
     değişkenin adını temsil eder.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘name’ niteliği eklendi.

 -- Özel Durum: NotImplementedError

     Bu istisna *note RuntimeError: 180.’dan türetilmiştir.  Kullanıcı
     tanımlı temel sınıflarda, soyut yöntemler, türetilmiş sınıfların
     yöntemi geçersiz kılmasını gerektirdiğinde veya sınıf
     geliştirilirken gerçek uygulamanın hala eklenmesi gerektiğini
     belirtmek için bu istisnayı yükseltmelidir.

          Not: Bu, bir operatörün veya yöntemin hiç desteklenmemesi
          gerektiğini belirtmek için kullanılmamalıdır - bu durumda, ya
          operatörü / yöntemi tanımlanmamış bırakın ya da bir alt
          sınıfsa *note None: 488.  olarak ayarlayın.

          Uyarı: ‘NotImplementedError’ and ‘NotImplemented’ are not
          interchangeable.  This exception should only be used as
          described above; see *note NotImplemented: 60b. for details on
          correct usage of the built-in constant.

 -- Özel Durum: OSError ([arg])

 -- Özel Durum: OSError (errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[,
          filename2]]])

     Bu istisna, bir sistem işlevi “dosya bulunamadı” veya “disk dolu”
     gibi G/Ç hataları da dahil olmak üzere sistemle ilgili bir hata
     döndürdüğünde ortaya çıkar (illegal argüman bağımsız değişken
     türleri veya diğer tesadüfi hatalar için değil).

     Kurucunun(constructor) ikinci formu, aşağıda açıklanan ilgili
     nitelikleri ayarlar.  Öznitelikler belirtilmezse varsayılan olarak
     *note None: 488. olur.  Geriye dönük uyumluluk için, üç argüman
     geçilirse, *note args: 302. niteliği yalnızca ilk iki kurucu
     argümanının 2’li bir çiftini(tuple) içerir.

     Kurucu genellikle aşağıda *note OS istisnaları: 207e. bölümünde
     açıklandığı gibi *note OSError: 65c. alt sınıfını döndürür.
     Belirli alt sınıf son *note errno: 207f. değerine bağlıdır.  Bu
     davranış yalnızca *note OSError: 65c. doğrudan veya bir takma ad
     aracılığıyla oluşturulurken ortaya çıkar ve alt sınıf
     oluşturulurken miras alınmaz.

      -- Özniteliği: errno

          C değişkeni ‘errno’ dan alınan sayısal bir hata kodu.

      -- Özniteliği: winerror

          Windows altında, bu size yerel Windows hata kodunu verir.  O
          halde *note errno: 207f. niteliği bu yerel hata kodunun POSIX
          terimleriyle yaklaşık bir çevirisidir.

          Windows altında, 'winerror' kurucu bağımsız değişkeni bir
          tamsayı ise, *note errno: 207f. özniteliği Windows hata
          kodundan belirlenir ve 'errno' bağımsız değişkeni yok sayılır.
          Diğer platformlarda, 'winerror' argümanı yok sayılır ve *note
          winerror: 2080. niteliği mevcut değildir.

      -- Özniteliği: strerror

          İşletim sistemi tarafından sağlanan ilgili hata mesajı.  POSIX
          altında ‘perror()’ ve Windows altında ‘FormatMessage()’ C
          işlevleri tarafından biçimlendirilir.

      -- Özniteliği: filename
      -- Özniteliği: filename2

          Bir dosya sistemi yolu içeren istisnalar için (örneğin *note
          open(): 2a6. veya *note os.unlink(): f98.), *note filename:
          2082. fonksiyona aktarılan dosya adıdır.  İki dosya sistemi
          yolu içeren fonksiyonlar için (*note os.rename(): f94. gibi),
          *note filename2: 2083. fonksiyona aktarılan ikinci dosya adına
          karşılık gelir.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note EnvironmentError: efd, *note IOError:
     efc, *note WindowsError: efe, *note socket.error: eff, *note
     select.error: f00. ve ‘mmap.error’, *note OSError: 65c. ile
     birleştirilmiştir ve kurucu bir alt sınıf döndürebilir.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: *note filename: 2082. özniteliği artık *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. ile kodlanan veya kodu
     çözülen ad yerine işleve aktarılan orijinal dosya adıdır.  Ayrıca,
     'filename2' kurucu argümanı ve niteliği eklenmiştir.

 -- Özel Durum: OverflowError

     Raised when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large to
     be represented.  This cannot occur for integers (which would rather
     raise *note MemoryError: 1409. than give up).  However, for
     historical reasons, OverflowError is sometimes raised for integers
     that are outside a required range.  Because of the lack of
     standardization of floating-point exception handling in C, most
     floating-point operations are not checked.

 -- Özel Durum: RecursionError

     Bu istisna *note RuntimeError: 180. öğesinden türetilmiştir.
     Yorumlayıcı maksimum özyineleme derinliğinin(recursion depth) (bkz.
     *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1f2.) aşıldığını tespit ettiğinde
     ortaya çıkar.

     Added in version 3.5: Önceden, düz bir *note RuntimeError: 180.
     oluşturulurdu.

 -- Özel Durum: ReferenceError

     Bu istisna, *note weakref.proxy(): 8b5. fonksiyonu tarafından
     oluşturulan bir zayıf referans proxy’si(weak reference proxy), çöp
     toplandıktan(garbage collect) sonra referansın bir niteliğine
     erişmek için kullanıldığında ortaya çıkar.  Zayıf referanslar
     hakkında daha fazla bilgi için *note weakref: 114. modülüne bakın.

 -- Özel Durum: RuntimeError

     Diğer kategorilerden herhangi birine girmeyen bir hata tespit
     edildiğinde oluşturulur.  İlişkili değer, tam olarak neyin yanlış
     gittiğini gösteren bir dizedir.

 -- Özel Durum: StopIteration

     Yerleşik işlev *note next(): 611. ve bir *note iterator: 176e. ün
     *note __next__(): 1176. yöntemi tarafından yineleyici tarafından
     üretilen başka öğe olmadığını bildirmek için yükseltilir.

      -- Özniteliği: value

          İstisna nesnesinin tek bir ‘value’ özelliği vardır; bu özellik
          istisna oluşturulurken argüman olarak verilir ve varsayılan
          olarak *note None: 488. değerini alır.

     Bir *note generator: f0b. veya *note coroutine: 1b4. fonksiyonu
     döndüğünde, yeni bir *note StopIteration: a73. örneği oluşturulur
     ve fonksiyon tarafından döndürülen değer, istisnanın yapıcısı için
     *note value: 1db8. parametresi olarak kullanılır.

     Bir generator(işleyici) kodu doğrudan veya dolaylı olarak *note
     StopIteration: a73. değerini oluşturunca, *note RuntimeError: 180.
     değerine dönüştürülür (yeni istisnanın nedeni olarak *note
     StopIteration: a73. değeri korunur).

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: ‘value’ niteliği ve generator işlevlerin bir
     değer döndürmek için bunu kullanabilmesi özelliği eklendi.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: RuntimeError dönüşümü ‘from __future__
     import generator_stop’ aracılığıyla tanıtıldı, bkz PEP 479(1).

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Varsayılan olarak tüm kodlar için PEP 479(2)
     özelliğini etkinleştirin: bir generator’da ortaya çıkan *note
     StopIteration: a73. hatası bir *note RuntimeError: 180. hatasına
     dönüştürülür.

 -- Özel Durum: StopAsyncIteration

     Yinelemeyi durdurmak için bir *note asynchronous iterator: c05.
     nesnesinin *note __anext__(): 1402. yöntemi tarafından
     oluşturulmalıdır.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Özel Durum: SyntaxError (message, details)

     Ayrıştırıcı bir sözdizimi hatasıyla karşılaştığında ortaya çıkar.
     Bu, bir *note import: 3ed. deyiminde, yerleşik *note compile():
     56d, *note exec(): 6cb. veya *note eval(): 6ca. işlevlerine yapılan
     bir çağrıda veya ilk kod veya standart girdi okunurken (etkileşimli
     olarak da) meydana gelebilir.

     İstisna örneğinin *note str(): 15d. öğesi yalnızca hata mesajını
     döndürür.  Details, üyeleri ayrı nitelikler olarak da
     kullanılabilen bir tuple’dır.

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          Sözdizimi hatasının oluştuğu dosyanın adı.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          Hatanın dosyadaki hangi satır numarasında meydana geldiği.  Bu
          1 indekslidir: dosyadaki ilk satırın ‘lineno’ değeri 1’dir.

      -- Özniteliği: offset

          Hatanın meydana geldiği satırdaki sütun.  Bu 1 indekslidir:
          satırdaki ilk karakter 1 ‘offset’ değerine sahiptir.

      -- Özniteliği: text

          Hataya dahil olan kaynak kod metni.

      -- Özniteliği: end_lineno

          Hatanın meydana geldiği dosyadaki satır numarası.  Bu, 1
          indekslidir: Dosyanın ilk satırının lineno değeri 1’dir.

      -- Özniteliği: end_offset

          Hatanın meydana geldiği son satırdaki sütun numarası.  Bu, 1
          indekslidir: Satırdaki ilk karakterin offset değeri 1’dir.

     f-string alanlarındaki hatalar için mesajın önüne “f-string: “ ile
     başlar ve ofsetler, değiştirme ifadesinden oluşturulan bir
     metindeki ofsetlerdir.  Örneğin, f’Bad {a b} field’ derlendiğinde
     şu args özniteliği elde edilir: (‘f-string: …’, (‘’, 1, 2, ‘(a
     b)n’, 1, 5)).

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note end_lineno: 2088. ve *note
     end_offset: 2089. nitelikleri eklendi.

 -- Özel Durum: IndentationError

     Yanlış girintileme ile ilgili sözdizimi hataları için temel sınıf.
     Bu, *note SyntaxError: 14c. alt sınıfıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: TabError

     Girintileme tutarsız sekme ve boşluk kullanımı içerdiğinde ortaya
     çıkar.  Bu, *note IndentationError: 5de. öğesinin bir alt
     sınıfıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: SystemError

     Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the
     situation does not look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope.
     The associated value is a string indicating what went wrong (in
     low-level terms).  In *note CPython: 510, this could be raised by
     incorrectly using Python’s C API, such as returning a ‘NULL’ value
     without an exception set.

     If you’re confident that this exception wasn’t your fault, or the
     fault of a package you’re using, you should report this to the
     author or maintainer of your Python interpreter.  Be sure to report
     the version of the Python interpreter (‘sys.version’; it is also
     printed at the start of an interactive Python session), the exact
     error message (the exception’s associated value) and if possible
     the source of the program that triggered the error.

 -- Özel Durum: SystemExit

     Bu istisna *note sys.exit(): 11f5. işlevi tarafından ortaya
     çıkartılır.  Yanlışlıkla *note Exception: 838. kodunu yakalayan kod
     tarafından yakalanmaması için *note Exception: 838. yerine *note
     BaseException: 3c3. kodundan miras alır.  Bu, istisnanın düzgün bir
     şekilde yayılmasını ve yorumlayıcının çıkmasına neden olmasını
     sağlar.  İşlenmediğinde, Python yorumlayıcısı çıkar; herhangi bir
     yığın geri dönüşü yazdırılmaz.  Kurucu, *note sys.exit(): 11f5.
     öğesine aktarılan isteğe bağlı argümanın aynısını kabul eder.
     Değer bir tamsayı ise, sistem çıkış durumunu belirtir (C’nin
     ‘exit()’ fonksiyonuna aktarılır); ‘None’ ise, çıkış durumu
     sıfırdır; başka bir türe sahipse (string gibi), nesnenin değeri
     yazdırılır ve çıkış durumu birdir.

     Bir *note sys.exit(): 11f5. çağrısı bir istisnaya çevrilir, böylece
     temizleme işleyicileri(clean-up handlers) (*note try: 503.
     deyimlerinin *note finally: 828. cümleleri) çalıştırılabilir ve
     böylece bir hata ayıklayıcı kontrolü kaybetme riski olmadan bir
     betiği çalıştırabilir.  Hemen çıkmak kesinlikle gerekliyse *note
     os._exit(): 208a. fonksiyonu kullanılabilir (örneğin, *note
     os.fork(): 23a. çağrısından sonra alt süreçte).

      -- Özniteliği: code

          Yapıcıya aktarılan çıkış durumu veya hata mesajı.  (Varsayılan
          değer ‘None’.)

 -- Özel Durum: TypeError

     Bir işlem veya fonksiyon uygun olmayan türdeki bir nesneye
     uygulandığında oluşur.  İlişkili değer, tür uyuşmazlığı hakkında
     ayrıntılar veren bir dizedir.

     Bu istisna, bir nesne üzerinde denenen bir işlemin
     desteklenmediğini ve desteklenmesinin amaçlanmadığını belirtmek
     için kullanıcı kodu tarafından oluşur.  Bir nesnenin belirli bir
     işlemi desteklemesi gerekiyorsa ancak henüz bir uygulama
     sağlamamışsa, *note NotImplementedError: bd6. oluşması gereken
     uygun istisnadır.

     Yanlış türde argümanlar geçirmek (örneğin bir *note int: 184.
     beklenirken bir *note list: 422. geçirmek) bir *note TypeError:
     2c4. ile sonuçlanmalıdır, ancak yanlış değere sahip argümanlar
     geçirmek (örneğin beklenen sınırların dışında bir sayı) bir *note
     ValueError: 189. ile sonuçlanmalıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: UnboundLocalError

     Bir işlev veya yöntemde yerel(local) bir değişkene referans
     yapıldığında, ancak bu değişkene herhangi bir değer bağlanmadığında
     ortaya çıkar.  Bu, *note NameError: 14a. alt sınıfıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: UnicodeError

     Unicode ile ilgili bir kodlama veya kod çözme hatası oluştuğunda
     ortaya çıkar.  Bu, *note ValueError: 189. alt sınıfıdır.

     *note UnicodeError: 114c. kodlama(encoding) veya kod
     çözme(decoding) hatasını tanımlayan özniteliklere sahiptir.
     Örneğin, ‘err.object[err.start:err.end]’ codec’in başarısız olduğu
     belirli geçersiz girdiyi verir.

      -- Özniteliği: encoding

          Hataya neden olan kodlamanın adı.

      -- Özniteliği: reason

          Belirli kodek hatasını açıklayan bir dize.

      -- Özniteliği: object

          Kodek’in kodlamaya veya kodunu çözmeye çalıştığı nesne.

      -- Özniteliği: start

          *note object: 8f2. içindeki geçersiz verilerin ilk indeksi.

      -- Özniteliği: end

          *note object: 8f2. içindeki son geçersiz veriden sonraki
          dizin.

 -- Özel Durum: UnicodeEncodeError

     Kodlama sırasında Unicode ile ilgili bir hata oluştuğunda ortaya
     çıkar.  Bu *note UnicodeError: 114c. alt sınıfıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: UnicodeDecodeError

     Kod çözme sırasında Unicode ile ilgili bir hata oluştuğunda ortaya
     çıkar.  Bu *note UnicodeError: 114c. alt sınıfıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: UnicodeTranslateError

     Çeviri sırasında Unicode ile ilgili bir hata oluştuğunda ortaya
     çıkar.  Bu *note UnicodeError: 114c. alt sınıfıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: ValueError

     Bir işlem veya fonksiyon doğru türde ancak uygun olmayan bir değere
     sahip bir argüman aldığında ve durum *note IndexError: 13c2. gibi
     daha kesin bir istisna ile tanımlanmadığında ortaya çıkar.

 -- Özel Durum: ZeroDivisionError

     Bir bölme veya modulo işleminin ikinci bağımsız değişkeni sıfır
     olduğunda ortaya çıkar.  İlişkili değer, işlenenlerin ve işlemin
     türünü belirten bir dizedir.

Aşağıdaki istisnalar önceki sürümlerle uyumluluk için tutulur; Python
3.3’ten başlayarak, *note OSError: 65c. takma adlarıdır.

 -- Özel Durum: EnvironmentError

 -- Özel Durum: IOError

 -- Özel Durum: WindowsError

     Yalnızca Windows’ta kullanılabilir.

* Menu:

* İşletim sistemi istisnaları(ES exceptions): İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions,  Up: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions

5.5.4.1 İşletim sistemi istisnaları(ES exceptions)
..................................................

Aşağıdaki istisnalar *note OSError: 65c. alt sınıflarıdır, sistem hata
koduna bağlı olarak ortaya çıkarlar.

 -- Özel Durum: BlockingIOError

     Bir işlem, bloklanmayan işlem(non-blocking operation) için
     ayarlanmış bir nesne (örn.  soket) üzerinde bloklandığında ortaya
     çıkar.  ‘errno’ *note EAGAIN: 2090, *note EALREADY: 2091, *note
     EWOULDBLOCK: 2092. ve *note EINPROGRESS: 2093. değerlerine karşılık
     gelir.

     *note OSError: 65c. özelliğine ek olarak, *note BlockingIOError:
     f01. bir özelliğe daha sahip olabilir:

      -- Özniteliği: characters_written

          “Bu öznitelik, *note io: 7d. modülünden gelen arabellekli I/O
          sınıflarını kullanırken, akışa yazılmadan önce engellendiğinde
          yazılan karakterlerin sayısını içeren bir tamsayı içerir.”

 -- Özel Durum: ChildProcessError

     Bir alt süreç(child process) üzerindeki bir işlem başarısız
     olduğunda yükseltilir.  Karşılığı ‘errno’ *note ECHILD: 2095.

 -- Özel Durum: ConnectionError

     Bağlantı ile ilgili konular için bir temel sınıf.

     Alt sınıflar *note BrokenPipeError: f06, *note
     ConnectionAbortedError: f07, *note ConnectionRefusedError: f08. ve
     *note ConnectionResetError: f09.

 -- Özel Durum: BrokenPipeError

     *note ConnectionError: c98. alt sınıfı, diğer ucu kapatılmış bir
     pipe’ın üzerine yazmaya çalışıldığında veya yazmaya kapatılmış bir
     soket üzerine yazmaya çalışıldığında ortaya çıkar.  ‘errno’ *note
     EPIPE: 2096. ve *note ESHUTDOWN: 2097. değerlerine karşılık gelir.

 -- Özel Durum: ConnectionAbortedError

     Bir bağlantı girişimi eş(peer) tarafından iptal edildiğinde ortaya
     çıkan *note ConnectionError: c98. alt sınıfı.  Karşılığı ‘errno’
     *note ECONNABORTED: 2098.

 -- Özel Durum: ConnectionRefusedError

     Bir bağlantı girişimi eş(peer) tarafından reddedildiğinde ortaya
     çıkan *note ConnectionError: c98. alt sınıfı.  Karşılığı ‘errno’
     *note ECONNREFUSED: 2099.

 -- Özel Durum: ConnectionResetError

     Bir bağlantı eş(peer) tarafından sıfırlandığında ortaya çıkan *note
     ConnectionError: c98. alt sınıfı.  Karşılığı ‘errno’ *note
     ECONNRESET: 209a.

 -- Özel Durum: FileExistsError

     Zaten var olan bir dosya veya dizin oluşturulmaya çalışıldığında
     ortaya çıkar.  Karşılığı ‘errno’ *note EEXIST: 209b.

 -- Özel Durum: FileNotFoundError

     Bir dosya veya dizin isteğinde(request) ancak mevcut olmadığında
     ortaya çıakr.  Karşılığı ‘errno’ *note ENOENT: 209c.

 -- Özel Durum: InterruptedError

     Bir sistem çağrısı gelen bir sinyal tarafından kesintiye
     uğradığında ortaya çıkar.  Karşılığı ‘errno’ *note EINTR: c13.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Python, bir sistem çağrısı bir sinyal
     tarafından kesildiğinde, artık sinyal işleyicisi bir istisna
     yükseltmediği sürece ( PEP 475(1) için gerekçeye bakın), *note
     InterruptedError: c14. istisnası yükseltmek yerine sistem
     çağrılarını tekrar deniyor.

 -- Özel Durum: IsADirectoryError

     Bir dizin üzerinde bir dosya işlemi (örneğin *note os.remove():
     f93.) istendiğinde ortaya çıkar.  Karşılığı ‘errno’ *note EISDIR:
     209d.

 -- Özel Durum: NotADirectoryError

     Dizin olmayan bir şey üzerinde bir dizin işlemi (örneğin *note
     os.listdir(): f9c.) istendiğinde ortaya çıakr.  Çoğu POSIX
     platformunda, bir işlem dizin olmayan bir dosyayı bir dizinmiş gibi
     açmaya veya geçmeye çalışırsa da ortaya çıkabilir.  Karşılığı
     ‘errno’ *note ENOTDIR: 209e.

 -- Özel Durum: PermissionError

     Yeterli erişim hakları (örneğin dosya sistemi izinleri) olmadan bir
     işlem çalıştırılmaya çalışıldığında ortaya çıkar.  ‘errno’ *note
     EACCES: 209f, *note EPERM: 15ee. ve *note ENOTCAPABLE: 15e0.
     değerlerine karşılık gelir.

     3.11.1 sürümünde değişti: WASI’nin *note ENOTCAPABLE: 15e0. ifadesi
     artık *note PermissionError: bcb. ile eşleştirilmiştir.

 -- Özel Durum: ProcessLookupError

     Belirli bir süreç mevcut olmadığında ortaya çıkar.  Karşılığı
     ‘errno’ *note ESRCH: 20a0.

 -- Özel Durum: TimeoutError

     Bir sistem işlevi sistem düzeyinde zaman aşımına uğradığında ortaya
     çıkar.  Karşılığı ‘errno’ *note ETIMEDOUT: 20a1.

Added in version 3.3: Yukarıdaki tüm *note OSError: 65c. alt sınıfları
eklendi.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3151(2) - İşletim sistemi ve IO istisna hiyerarşisinin yeniden
düzenlenmesi

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Uyarılar,  Next: İstisna grupları,  Prev: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions,  Up: Gömülü İstisnalar

5.5.5 Uyarılar
--------------

Aşağıdaki istisnalar uyarı kategorileri olarak kullanılır; daha fazla
ayrıntı için *note Warning Categories: 20a4. belgesine bakın.

 -- Özel Durum: Warning

     Uyarı kategorileri için temel sınıf.

 -- Özel Durum: UserWarning

     Kullanıcı kodu tarafından oluşturulan uyarılar için temel sınıf.

 -- Özel Durum: DeprecationWarning

     Kullanımdan kaldırılan özelliklerle ilgili uyarılar diğer Python
     geliştiricilerine yönelik olduğunda bu uyarılar için temel sınıf.

     ‘__main__’ modülü ( PEP 565(1)) dışında varsayılan uyarı filtreleri
     tarafından yok sayılır.  *note Python Geliştirme Modu: 71d.
     etkinleştirildiğinde bu uyarı gösterilir.

     Kullanımdan kaldırma politikası PEP 387(2) bölümünde
     açıklanmaktadır.

 -- Özel Durum: PendingDeprecationWarning

     Eski olan ve gelecekte kullanımdan kaldırılması beklenen, ancak şu
     anda kullanımdan kaldırılmayan özelliklerle ilgili uyarılar için
     temel sınıf.

     Bu sınıf nadiren kullanılır çünkü yaklaşan olası bir kullanımdan
     kaldırma hakkında bir uyarı yayınlamak alışılmadık bir durumdur ve
     *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. zaten aktif olan kullanımdan
     kaldırmalar için tercih edilir.

     Varsayılan uyarı filtreleri tarafından yok sayılır.  *note Python
     Geliştirme Modu: 71d. etkinleştirildiğinde bu uyarı gösterilir.

     Kullanımdan kaldırma politikası PEP 387(3) bölümünde
     açıklanmaktadır.

 -- Özel Durum: SyntaxWarning

     Şüpheli sözdizimiyle ilgili uyarılar için temel sınıf.

 -- Özel Durum: RuntimeWarning

     Şüpheli çalışma zamanı davranışları hakkındaki uyarılar için temel
     sınıf.

 -- Özel Durum: FutureWarning

     Kullanımdan kaldırılan özelliklerle ilgili uyarılar Python’da
     yazılmış uygulamaların son kullanıcılarına yönelik olduğunda bu
     uyarılar için temel sınıf.

 -- Özel Durum: ImportWarning

     Modül içe aktarmalarındaki olası hatalar hakkında uyarılar için
     temel sınıf.

     Varsayılan uyarı filtreleri tarafından yok sayılır.  *note Python
     Geliştirme Modu: 71d. etkinleştirildiğinde bu uyarı gösterilir.

 -- Özel Durum: UnicodeWarning

     Unicode ile ilgili uyarılar için temel sınıf.

 -- Özel Durum: EncodingWarning

     Kodlamalarla ilgili uyarılar için temel sınıf.

     Ayrıntılar için *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1b9b. sayfasına
     bakın.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Özel Durum: BytesWarning

     *note bytes: 2cb. ve *note bytearray: 2ca. ile ilgili uyarılar için
     temel sınıf.

 -- Özel Durum: ResourceWarning

     Kaynak kullanımıyla ilgili uyarılar için temel sınıf.

     Varsayılan uyarı filtreleri tarafından yok sayılır.  *note Python
     Geliştirme Modu: 71d. etkinleştirildiğinde bu uyarı gösterilir.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: İstisna grupları,  Next: İstisna hiyerarşisi,  Prev: Uyarılar,  Up: Gömülü İstisnalar

5.5.6 İstisna grupları
----------------------

Aşağıdakiler, birden fazla ilgisiz istisnayı yükseltmek gerektiğinde
kullanılır.  Bunlar istisna hiyerarşisinin bir parçasıdır, bu nedenle
diğer tüm istisnalar gibi *note except: 3c0. ile ele alınabilirler.
Ayrıca, içerdikleri istisnaların türlerine göre alt gruplarını
eşleştiren *note except*: 3bf. tarafından tanınırlar.

 -- Özel Durum: ExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

 -- Özel Durum: BaseExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

     Bu istisna türlerinin her ikisi de istisnaları ‘excs’ dizisine
     sarar.  ‘msg’ parametresi bir string olmalıdır.  İki sınıf
     arasındaki fark, *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be, *note
     BaseException: 3c3.’ı genişletir ve herhangi bir istisnayı
     sarabilirken, *note ExceptionGroup: 181, *note Exception: 838.’ı
     genişletir ve yalnızca *note Exception: 838.’ın alt sınıflarını
     sarabilir.  Bu tasarım sayesinde ‘except Exception’ bir *note
     ExceptionGroup: 181. u yakalar ancak *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be.
     u yakalayamaz.

     İçerdiği tüm istisnalar *note Exception: 838. örneğiyse, *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 3be. yapıcısı bir *note BaseExceptionGroup:
     3be. yerine bir *note ExceptionGroup: 181. döndürür, böylece seçimi
     otomatik hale getirmek için kullanılabilir.  Öte yandan, *note
     ExceptionGroup: 181. kurucusu, içerdiği herhangi bir istisna bir
     *note Exception: 838. alt sınıfı değilse bir *note TypeError: 2c4.
     yükseltir.

      -- Özniteliği: message

          Kurucunun ‘msg’ argümanı.  Bu salt okunur bir niteliktir.

      -- Özniteliği: exceptions

          Yapıcıya verilen ‘excs’ dizisindeki istisnaların bir
          demeti(tuple).  Bu salt okunur bir özniteliktir.

      -- Yöntemi: subgroup (condition)

          Yalnızca geçerli gruptaki 'condition' ile eşleşen istisnaları
          içeren bir istisna grubu veya sonuç boşsa ‘None’ döndürür.

          Koşul, bir istisnayı kabul eden ve alt grupta olması
          gerekenler için true döndüren bir fonksiyon olabileceği gibi,
          bir ‘except’ cümlesinde kullanılan kontrolün aynısını
          kullanarak bir eşleşme olup olmadığını kontrol etmek için
          kullanılan bir istisna türü veya istisna türleri demeti(tuple)
          de olabilir.

          Mevcut istisna içindeki iç içe geçme yapısı sonuçta korunur,
          ayrıca *note message: 20a9, *note __traceback__: 116f, *note
          __cause__: 1171, *note __context__: 1170. ve *note __notes__:
          2077. alanlarının değerleri de korunur.  Boş iç içe gruplar
          sonuçtan çıkarılır.

          Koşul(condition), üst düzey ve iç içe geçmiş istisna grupları
          dahil olmak üzere, iç içe geçmiş istisna grubundaki tüm
          istisnalar için kontrol edilir.  Koşul böyle bir istisna grubu
          için doğruysa, sonuca tam olarak dahil edilir.

      -- Yöntemi: split (condition)

          *note subgroup(): 20ab. gibi, ancak ‘(match, rest)’ çiftini
          döndürür; burada ‘match’ ‘subgroup(condition)’ ve ‘rest’ kalan
          eşleşmeyen kısımdır.

      -- Yöntemi: derive (excs)

          Aynı *note message: 20a9. ile bir istisna grubu döndürür,
          ancak istisnaları ‘excs’ içine sarar.

          This method is used by *note subgroup(): 20ab. and *note
          split(): 1412, which are used in various contexts to break up
          an exception group.  A subclass needs to override it in order
          to make *note subgroup(): 20ab. and *note split(): 1412.
          return instances of the subclass rather than *note
          ExceptionGroup: 181.

          *note subgroup(): 20ab. ve *note split(): 1412, *note
          __traceback__: 116f, *note __cause__: 1171, *note __context__:
          1170. ve *note __notes__: 2077. alanlarını orijinal istisna
          grubundan *note derive(): 20ac. tarafından döndürülene
          kopyalar, böylece bu alanların *note derive(): 20ac.
          tarafından güncellenmesi gerekmez.

               >>> class MyGroup(ExceptionGroup):
               ...     def derive(self, excs):
               ...         return MyGroup(self.message, excs)
               ...
               >>> e = MyGroup("eg", [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)])
               >>> e.add_note("a note")
               >>> e.__context__ = Exception("context")
               >>> e.__cause__ = Exception("cause")
               >>> try:
               ...    raise e
               ... except Exception as e:
               ...    exc = e
               ...
               >>> match, rest = exc.split(ValueError)
               >>> exc, exc.__context__, exc.__cause__, exc.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> match, match.__context__, match.__cause__, match.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> rest, rest.__context__, rest.__cause__, rest.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> exc.__traceback__ is match.__traceback__ is rest.__traceback__
               True

     *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be. öğesinin *note __new__(): 319.
     öğesini tanımladığına dikkat edin, bu nedenle farklı bir kurucu
     imzasına ihtiyaç duyan alt sınıfların *note __init__(): 4c6. yerine
     bunu geçersiz kılmaları gerekir.  Örneğin, aşağıda bir exit_code
     kabul eden ve grubun mesajını bundan oluşturan bir istisna grubu
     alt sınıfı tanımlanmaktadır:

          class Errors(ExceptionGroup):
             def __new__(cls, errors, exit_code):
                self = super().__new__(Errors, f"exit code: {exit_code}", errors)
                self.exit_code = exit_code
                return self

             def derive(self, excs):
                return Errors(excs, self.exit_code)

     Tıpkı *note ExceptionGroup: 181. gibi, *note BaseExceptionGroup:
     3be. alt sınıfı olan *note Exception: 838. alt sınıfı da yalnızca
     *note Exception: 838. örneklerini sarabilir.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: İstisna hiyerarşisi,  Prev: İstisna grupları,  Up: Gömülü İstisnalar

5.5.7 İstisna hiyerarşisi
-------------------------

Gömülü istisnalar için sınıf hiyerarşisi şöyledir:

     BaseException
      ├── BaseExceptionGroup
      ├── GeneratorExit
      ├── KeyboardInterrupt
      ├── SystemExit
      └── Exception
           ├── ArithmeticError
           │    ├── FloatingPointError
           │    ├── OverflowError
           │    └── ZeroDivisionError
           ├── AssertionError
           ├── AttributeError
           ├── BufferError
           ├── EOFError
           ├── ExceptionGroup [BaseExceptionGroup]
           ├── ImportError
           │    └── ModuleNotFoundError
           ├── LookupError
           │    ├── IndexError
           │    └── KeyError
           ├── MemoryError
           ├── NameError
           │    └── UnboundLocalError
           ├── OSError
           │    ├── BlockingIOError
           │    ├── ChildProcessError
           │    ├── ConnectionError
           │    │    ├── BrokenPipeError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionAbortedError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionRefusedError
           │    │    └── ConnectionResetError
           │    ├── FileExistsError
           │    ├── FileNotFoundError
           │    ├── InterruptedError
           │    ├── IsADirectoryError
           │    ├── NotADirectoryError
           │    ├── PermissionError
           │    ├── ProcessLookupError
           │    └── TimeoutError
           ├── ReferenceError
           ├── RuntimeError
           │    ├── NotImplementedError
           │    └── RecursionError
           ├── StopAsyncIteration
           ├── StopIteration
           ├── SyntaxError
           │    └── IndentationError
           │         └── TabError
           ├── SystemError
           ├── TypeError
           ├── ValueError
           │    └── UnicodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeDecodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeEncodeError
           │         └── UnicodeTranslateError
           └── Warning
                ├── BytesWarning
                ├── DeprecationWarning
                ├── EncodingWarning
                ├── FutureWarning
                ├── ImportWarning
                ├── PendingDeprecationWarning
                ├── ResourceWarning
                ├── RuntimeWarning
                ├── SyntaxWarning
                ├── UnicodeWarning
                └── UserWarning


File: python.info,  Node: Text Processing Services,  Next: Binary Data Services,  Prev: Gömülü İstisnalar,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.6 Text Processing Services
============================

The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of string
manipulation operations and other text processing services.

The *note codecs: 1b. module described under *note Binary Data Services:
20b0. is also highly relevant to text processing.  In addition, see the
documentation for Python’s built-in string type in *note Metin Sırası
Türü — str: 1a44.

* Menu:

* string — Common string operations::
* re — Regular expression operations::
* difflib — Helpers for computing deltas::
* textwrap — Text wrapping and filling::
* unicodedata — Unicode Database::
* stringprep — Internet String Preparation::
* readline — GNU readline interface::
* rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline::


File: python.info,  Node: string — Common string operations,  Next: re — Regular expression operations,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.1 ‘string’ — Common string operations
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/string.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Metin Sırası Türü — str: 1a44.

*note String (Dize) Metotları: 1a45.

* Menu:

* String constants::
* Custom String Formatting::
* Format String Syntax::
* Template strings::
* Helper functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/string.py


File: python.info,  Node: String constants,  Next: Custom String Formatting,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.6.1.1 String constants
........................

The constants defined in this module are:

 -- Verisi: string.ascii_letters

     The concatenation of the *note ascii_lowercase: 20b4. and *note
     ascii_uppercase: 20b5. constants described below.  This value is
     not locale-dependent.

 -- Verisi: string.ascii_lowercase

     The lowercase letters ‘'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  This value
     is not locale-dependent and will not change.

 -- Verisi: string.ascii_uppercase

     The uppercase letters ‘'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  This value
     is not locale-dependent and will not change.

 -- Verisi: string.digits

     The string ‘'0123456789'’.

 -- Verisi: string.hexdigits

     The string ‘'0123456789abcdefABCDEF'’.

 -- Verisi: string.octdigits

     The string ‘'01234567'’.

 -- Verisi: string.punctuation

     String of ASCII characters which are considered punctuation
     characters in the ‘C’ locale: ‘!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~’.

 -- Verisi: string.printable

     String of ASCII characters which are considered printable by
     Python.  This is a combination of *note digits: 20b6, *note
     ascii_letters: 116c, *note punctuation: 20b9, and *note whitespace:
     20ba.

          Not: By design, *note string.printable.isprintable(): c66.
          returns *note False: 9a8.  In particular, ‘string.printable’
          is not printable in the POSIX sense (see ‘LC_CTYPE(1)’).

 -- Verisi: string.whitespace

     A string containing all ASCII characters that are considered
     whitespace.  This includes the characters space, tab, linefeed,
     return, formfeed, and vertical tab.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/locale(5)


File: python.info,  Node: Custom String Formatting,  Next: Format String Syntax,  Prev: String constants,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.6.1.2 Custom String Formatting
................................

The built-in string class provides the ability to do complex variable
substitutions and value formatting via the *note format(): 433. method
described in PEP 3101(1).  The *note Formatter: d51. class in the *note
string: d2. module allows you to create and customize your own string
formatting behaviors using the same implementation as the built-in *note
format(): 433. method.

 -- Sınıfı: string.Formatter

     The *note Formatter: d51. class has the following public methods:

      -- Yöntemi: format (format_string, /, *args, **kwargs)

          The primary API method.  It takes a format string and an
          arbitrary set of positional and keyword arguments.  It is just
          a wrapper that calls *note vformat(): 20bc.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: A format string argument is now *note
          positional-only: 8ea.

      -- Yöntemi: vformat (format_string, args, kwargs)

          This function does the actual work of formatting.  It is
          exposed as a separate function for cases where you want to
          pass in a predefined dictionary of arguments, rather than
          unpacking and repacking the dictionary as individual arguments
          using the ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ syntax.  *note vformat():
          20bc. does the work of breaking up the format string into
          character data and replacement fields.  It calls the various
          methods described below.

     In addition, the *note Formatter: d51. defines a number of methods
     that are intended to be replaced by subclasses:

      -- Yöntemi: parse (format_string)

          Loop over the format_string and return an iterable of tuples
          ('literal_text', 'field_name', 'format_spec', 'conversion').
          This is used by *note vformat(): 20bc. to break the string
          into either literal text, or replacement fields.

          The values in the tuple conceptually represent a span of
          literal text followed by a single replacement field.  If there
          is no literal text (which can happen if two replacement fields
          occur consecutively), then 'literal_text' will be a
          zero-length string.  If there is no replacement field, then
          the values of 'field_name', 'format_spec' and 'conversion'
          will be ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: get_field (field_name, args, kwargs)

          Given 'field_name' as returned by *note parse(): 20bd. (see
          above), convert it to an object to be formatted.  Returns a
          tuple (obj, used_key).  The default version takes strings of
          the form defined in PEP 3101(2), such as “0[name]” or
          “label.title”.  'args' and 'kwargs' are as passed in to *note
          vformat(): 20bc.  The return value 'used_key' has the same
          meaning as the 'key' parameter to *note get_value(): 20bf.

      -- Yöntemi: get_value (key, args, kwargs)

          Retrieve a given field value.  The 'key' argument will be
          either an integer or a string.  If it is an integer, it
          represents the index of the positional argument in 'args'; if
          it is a string, then it represents a named argument in
          'kwargs'.

          The 'args' parameter is set to the list of positional
          arguments to *note vformat(): 20bc, and the 'kwargs' parameter
          is set to the dictionary of keyword arguments.

          For compound field names, these functions are only called for
          the first component of the field name; subsequent components
          are handled through normal attribute and indexing operations.

          So for example, the field expression ‘0.name’ would cause
          *note get_value(): 20bf. to be called with a 'key' argument of
          0.  The ‘name’ attribute will be looked up after *note
          get_value(): 20bf. returns by calling the built-in *note
          getattr(): a48. function.

          If the index or keyword refers to an item that does not exist,
          then an *note IndexError: 13c2. or *note KeyError: 903. should
          be raised.

      -- Yöntemi: check_unused_args (used_args, args, kwargs)

          Implement checking for unused arguments if desired.  The
          arguments to this function is the set of all argument keys
          that were actually referred to in the format string (integers
          for positional arguments, and strings for named arguments),
          and a reference to the 'args' and 'kwargs' that was passed to
          vformat.  The set of unused args can be calculated from these
          parameters.  *note check_unused_args(): 20c0. is assumed to
          raise an exception if the check fails.

      -- Yöntemi: format_field (value, format_spec)

          *note format_field(): 20c1. simply calls the global *note
          format(): 431. built-in.  The method is provided so that
          subclasses can override it.

      -- Yöntemi: convert_field (value, conversion)

          Converts the value (returned by *note get_field(): 20be.)
          given a conversion type (as in the tuple returned by the *note
          parse(): 20bd. method).  The default version understands ‘s’
          (str), ‘r’ (repr) and ‘a’ (ascii) conversion types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Format String Syntax,  Next: Template strings,  Prev: Custom String Formatting,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.6.1.3 Format String Syntax
............................

The *note str.format(): 433. method and the *note Formatter: d51. class
share the same syntax for format strings (although in the case of *note
Formatter: d51, subclasses can define their own format string syntax).
The syntax is related to that of *note formatted string literals: 807,
but it is less sophisticated and, in particular, does not support
arbitrary expressions.

Format strings contain “replacement fields” surrounded by curly braces
‘{}’.  Anything that is not contained in braces is considered literal
text, which is copied unchanged to the output.  If you need to include a
brace character in the literal text, it can be escaped by doubling: ‘{{’
and ‘}}’.

The grammar for a replacement field is as follows:

     replacement_field ::= "{" [*note field_name: 20c5.] ["!" *note conversion: 20c6.] [":" *note format_spec: 20c7.] "}"
     field_name        ::= *note arg_name: 20c8. ("." *note attribute_name: 20c9. | "[" *note element_index: 20ca. "]")*
     arg_name          ::= [*note identifier: 1c83. | *note digit: 1cbc.+]
     attribute_name    ::= *note identifier: 1c83.
     element_index     ::= *note digit: 1cbc.+ | *note index_string: 20cb.
     index_string      ::= <any source character except "]"> +
     conversion        ::= "r" | "s" | "a"
     format_spec       ::= *note format-spec;format_spec: 20cc.

In less formal terms, the replacement field can start with a
'field_name' that specifies the object whose value is to be formatted
and inserted into the output instead of the replacement field.  The
'field_name' is optionally followed by a 'conversion' field, which is
preceded by an exclamation point ‘'!'’, and a 'format_spec', which is
preceded by a colon ‘':'’.  These specify a non-default format for the
replacement value.

See also the *note Format Specification Mini-Language: 3ee. section.

The 'field_name' itself begins with an 'arg_name' that is either a
number or a keyword.  If it’s a number, it refers to a positional
argument, and if it’s a keyword, it refers to a named keyword argument.
An 'arg_name' is treated as a number if a call to *note str.isdecimal():
1fb2. on the string would return true.  If the numerical arg_names in a
format string are 0, 1, 2, … in sequence, they can all be omitted (not
just some) and the numbers 0, 1, 2, … will be automatically inserted in
that order.  Because 'arg_name' is not quote-delimited, it is not
possible to specify arbitrary dictionary keys (e.g., the strings ‘'10'’
or ‘':-]'’) within a format string.  The 'arg_name' can be followed by
any number of index or attribute expressions.  An expression of the form
‘'.name'’ selects the named attribute using *note getattr(): a48, while
an expression of the form ‘'[index]'’ does an index lookup using *note
__getitem__(): 500.

3.1 sürümünde değişti: The positional argument specifiers can be omitted
for *note str.format(): 433, so ‘'{} {}'.format(a, b)’ is equivalent to
‘'{0} {1}'.format(a, b)’.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The positional argument specifiers can be omitted
for *note Formatter: d51.

Some simple format string examples:

     "First, thou shalt count to {0}"  # References first positional argument
     "Bring me a {}"                   # Implicitly references the first positional argument
     "From {} to {}"                   # Same as "From {0} to {1}"
     "My quest is {name}"              # References keyword argument 'name'
     "Weight in tons {0.weight}"       # 'weight' attribute of first positional arg
     "Units destroyed: {players[0]}"   # First element of keyword argument 'players'.

The 'conversion' field causes a type coercion before formatting.
Normally, the job of formatting a value is done by the *note
__format__(): 430. method of the value itself.  However, in some cases
it is desirable to force a type to be formatted as a string, overriding
its own definition of formatting.  By converting the value to a string
before calling *note __format__(): 430, the normal formatting logic is
bypassed.

Three conversion flags are currently supported: ‘'!s'’ which calls *note
str(): 15d. on the value, ‘'!r'’ which calls *note repr(): 637. and
‘'!a'’ which calls *note ascii(): 126d.

Some examples:

     "Harold's a clever {0!s}"        # Calls str() on the argument first
     "Bring out the holy {name!r}"    # Calls repr() on the argument first
     "More {!a}"                      # Calls ascii() on the argument first

The 'format_spec' field contains a specification of how the value should
be presented, including such details as field width, alignment, padding,
decimal precision and so on.  Each value type can define its own
“formatting mini-language” or interpretation of the 'format_spec'.

Most built-in types support a common formatting mini-language, which is
described in the next section.

A 'format_spec' field can also include nested replacement fields within
it.  These nested replacement fields may contain a field name,
conversion flag and format specification, but deeper nesting is not
allowed.  The replacement fields within the format_spec are substituted
before the 'format_spec' string is interpreted.  This allows the
formatting of a value to be dynamically specified.

See the *note Format examples: 20cd. section for some examples.

* Menu:

* Format Specification Mini-Language::
* Format examples::


File: python.info,  Node: Format Specification Mini-Language,  Next: Format examples,  Up: Format String Syntax

5.6.1.4 Format Specification Mini-Language
..........................................

“Format specifications” are used within replacement fields contained
within a format string to define how individual values are presented
(see *note Format String Syntax: 1237. and *note f-strings: 807.).  They
can also be passed directly to the built-in *note format(): 431.
function.  Each formattable type may define how the format specification
is to be interpreted.

Most built-in types implement the following options for format
specifications, although some of the formatting options are only
supported by the numeric types.

A general convention is that an empty format specification produces the
same result as if you had called *note str(): 15d. on the value.  A
non-empty format specification typically modifies the result.

The general form of a 'standard format specifier' is:

     format_spec ::= [*note options: 20cf.][*note width: 20d0.][*note grouping: 20d1.]["." *note precision: 20d2.][*note type: 20d3.]
     options     ::= [[*note fill: 20d4.]*note align: 20d5.][*note sign: 20d6.]["z"]["#"]["0"]
     fill        ::= <any character>
     align       ::= "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
     sign        ::= "+" | "-" | " "
     width       ::= *note digit: 1cbc.+
     grouping    ::= "," | "_"
     precision   ::= *note digit: 1cbc.+
     type        ::= "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g"
                     | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"

If a valid 'align' value is specified, it can be preceded by a 'fill'
character that can be any character and defaults to a space if omitted.
It is not possible to use a literal curly brace (”‘{’” or “‘}’”) as the
'fill' character in a *note formatted string literal: 807. or when using
the *note str.format(): 433. method.  However, it is possible to insert
a curly brace with a nested replacement field.  This limitation doesn’t
affect the *note format(): 431. function.

The meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:

Option        Meaning
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'<'’         Forces the field to be left-aligned within the available
              space (this is the default for most objects).
              
              
‘'>'’         Forces the field to be right-aligned within the available
              space (this is the default for numbers).
              
              
‘'='’         Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) but
              before the digits.  This is used for printing fields in the
              form ‘+000000120’.  This alignment option is only valid for
              numeric types, excluding *note complex: 273.  It becomes the
              default for numbers when ‘0’ immediately precedes the field
              width.
              
              
‘'^'’         Forces the field to be centered within the available space.
              

Note that unless a minimum field width is defined, the field width will
always be the same size as the data to fill it, so that the alignment
option has no meaning in this case.

The 'sign' option is only valid for number types, and can be one of the
following:

Option        Meaning
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'+'’         Indicates that a sign should be used for both positive as
              well as negative numbers.
              
              
‘'-'’         Indicates that a sign should be used only for negative
              numbers (this is the default behavior).
              
              
space         Indicates that a leading space should be used on positive
              numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers.
              

The ‘'z'’ option coerces negative zero floating-point values to positive
zero after rounding to the format precision.  This option is only valid
for floating-point presentation types.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘'z'’ option (see also PEP 682(1)).

The ‘'#'’ option causes the “alternate form” to be used for the
conversion.  The alternate form is defined differently for different
types.  This option is only valid for integer, float and complex types.
For integers, when binary, octal, or hexadecimal output is used, this
option adds the respective prefix ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, ‘'0x'’, or ‘'0X'’ to
the output value.  For float and complex the alternate form causes the
result of the conversion to always contain a decimal-point character,
even if no digits follow it.  Normally, a decimal-point character
appears in the result of these conversions only if a digit follows it.
In addition, for ‘'g'’ and ‘'G'’ conversions, trailing zeros are not
removed from the result.

The 'width' is a decimal integer defining the minimum total field width,
including any prefixes, separators, and other formatting characters.  If
not specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.

When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the 'width' field by a
zero (‘'0'’) character enables sign-aware zero-padding for numeric
types, excluding *note complex: 273.  This is equivalent to a 'fill'
character of ‘'0'’ with an 'alignment' type of ‘'='’.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Preceding the 'width' field by ‘'0'’ no longer
affects the default alignment for strings.

The 'grouping' option after the 'width' field specifies a digit group
separator for the integral part of a number.  It can be one of the
following:

Option        Meaning
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘','’         Inserts a comma every 3 digits for integer presentation type
              ‘'d'’ and floating-point presentation types, excluding
              ‘'n'’.  For other presentation types, this option is not
              supported.
              
              
‘'_'’         Inserts an underscore every 3 digits for integer
              presentation type ‘'d'’ and floating-point presentation
              types, excluding ‘'n'’.  For integer presentation types
              ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’, ‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores are inserted
              every 4 digits.  For other presentation types, this option
              is not supported.
              

For a locale aware separator, use the ‘'n'’ presentation type instead.

3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘','’ option (see also PEP 378(2)).

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘'_'’ option (see also PEP 515(3)).

The 'precision' is a decimal integer indicating how many digits should
be displayed after the decimal point for presentation types ‘'f'’ and
‘'F'’, or before and after the decimal point for presentation types
‘'g'’ or ‘'G'’.  For string presentation types the field indicates the
maximum field size - in other words, how many characters will be used
from the field content.  The 'precision' is not allowed for integer
presentation types.

Finally, the 'type' determines how the data should be presented.

The available string presentation types are:

     Type          Meaning
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'s'’         String format.  This is the default type for strings and may
                   be omitted.
                   
                   
     None          The same as ‘'s'’.
                   

The available integer presentation types are:

     Type          Meaning
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'b'’         Binary format.  Outputs the number in base 2.
                   
                   
     ‘'c'’         Character.  Converts the integer to the corresponding
                   unicode character before printing.
                   
                   
     ‘'d'’         Decimal Integer.  Outputs the number in base 10.
                   
                   
     ‘'o'’         Octal format.  Outputs the number in base 8.
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case
                   letters for the digits above 9.
                   
                   
     ‘'X'’         Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using upper-case
                   letters for the digits above 9.  In case ‘'#'’ is specified,
                   the prefix ‘'0x'’ will be upper-cased to ‘'0X'’ as well.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'d'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group
                   separators.
                   
                   
     None          The same as ‘'d'’.
                   

In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted
with the floating-point presentation types listed below (except ‘'n'’
and ‘None’).  When doing so, *note float(): 272. is used to convert the
integer to a floating-point number before formatting.

The available presentation types for *note float: 272. and *note
Decimal: 609. values are:

     Type          Meaning
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'e'’         Scientific notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats the
                   number in scientific notation with the letter ‘e’ separating
                   the coefficient from the exponent.  The coefficient has one
                   digit before and ‘p’ digits after the decimal point, for a
                   total of ‘p + 1’ significant digits.  With no precision
                   given, uses a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal
                   point for *note float: 272, and shows all coefficient digits
                   for *note Decimal: 609.  If ‘p=0’, the decimal point is
                   omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   
     ‘'E'’         Scientific notation.  Same as ‘'e'’ except it uses an upper
                   case ‘E’ as the separator character.
                   
                   
     ‘'f'’         Fixed-point notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats
                   the number as a decimal number with exactly ‘p’ digits
                   following the decimal point.  With no precision given, uses
                   a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal point for
                   *note float: 272, and uses a precision large enough to show
                   all coefficient digits for *note Decimal: 609.  If ‘p=0’,
                   the decimal point is omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   
     ‘'F'’         Fixed-point notation.  Same as ‘'f'’, but converts ‘nan’ to
                   ‘NAN’ and ‘inf’ to ‘INF’.
                   
                   
     ‘'g'’         General format.  For a given precision ‘p >= 1’, this rounds
                   the number to ‘p’ significant digits and then formats the
                   result in either fixed-point format or in scientific
                   notation, depending on its magnitude.  A precision of ‘0’ is
                   treated as equivalent to a precision of ‘1’.
                   
                   The precise rules are as follows: suppose that the result
                   formatted with presentation type ‘'e'’ and precision ‘p-1’
                   would have exponent ‘exp’.  Then, if ‘m <= exp < p’, where
                   ‘m’ is -4 for floats and -6 for *note Decimals: 609, the
                   number is formatted with presentation type ‘'f'’ and
                   precision ‘p-1-exp’.  Otherwise, the number is formatted
                   with presentation type ‘'e'’ and precision ‘p-1’.  In both
                   cases insignificant trailing zeros are removed from the
                   significand, and the decimal point is also removed if there
                   are no remaining digits following it, unless the ‘'#'’
                   option is used.
                   
                   With no precision given, uses a precision of ‘6’ significant
                   digits for *note float: 272.  For *note Decimal: 609, the
                   coefficient of the result is formed from the coefficient
                   digits of the value; scientific notation is used for values
                   smaller than ‘1e-6’ in absolute value and values where the
                   place value of the least significant digit is larger than 1,
                   and fixed-point notation is used otherwise.
                   
                   Positive and negative infinity, positive and negative zero,
                   and nans, are formatted as ‘inf’, ‘-inf’, ‘0’, ‘-0’ and
                   ‘nan’ respectively, regardless of the precision.
                   
                   
     ‘'G'’         General format.  Same as ‘'g'’ except switches to ‘'E'’ if
                   the number gets too large.  The representations of infinity
                   and NaN are uppercased, too.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'g'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group
                   separators for the integral part of a number.
                   
                   
     ‘'%'’         Percentage.  Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in
                   fixed (‘'f'’) format, followed by a percent sign.
                   
                   
     None          For *note float: 272. this is like the ‘'g'’ type, except
                   that when fixed-point notation is used to format the result,
                   it always includes at least one digit past the decimal
                   point, and switches to the scientific notation when ‘exp >=
                   p - 1’.  When the precision is not specified, the latter
                   will be as large as needed to represent the given value
                   faithfully.
                   
                   For *note Decimal: 609, this is the same as either ‘'g'’ or
                   ‘'G'’ depending on the value of ‘context.capitals’ for the
                   current decimal context.
                   
                   The overall effect is to match the output of
                   *note str(): 15d. as altered by the other format modifiers.
                   

The result should be correctly rounded to a given precision ‘p’ of
digits after the decimal point.  The rounding mode for *note float: 272.
matches that of the *note round(): 1184. builtin.  For *note Decimal:
609, the rounding mode of the current *note context: 20d7. will be used.

The available presentation types for *note complex: 273. are the same as
those for *note float: 272. (‘'%'’ is not allowed).  Both the real and
imaginary components of a complex number are formatted as floating-point
numbers, according to the specified presentation type.  They are
separated by the mandatory sign of the imaginary part, the latter being
terminated by a ‘j’ suffix.  If the presentation type is missing, the
result will match the output of *note str(): 15d. (complex numbers with
a non-zero real part are also surrounded by parentheses), possibly
altered by other format modifiers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: Format examples,  Prev: Format Specification Mini-Language,  Up: Format String Syntax

5.6.1.5 Format examples
.......................

This section contains examples of the *note str.format(): 433. syntax
and comparison with the old ‘%’-formatting.

In most of the cases the syntax is similar to the old ‘%’-formatting,
with the addition of the ‘{}’ and with ‘:’ used instead of ‘%’.  For
example, ‘'%03.2f'’ can be translated to ‘'{:03.2f}'’.

The new format syntax also supports new and different options, shown in
the following examples.

Accessing arguments by position:

     >>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{}, {}, {}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')  # 3.1+ only
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc')      # unpacking argument sequence
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad')   # arguments' indices can be repeated
     'abracadabra'

Accessing arguments by name:

     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
     >>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'

Accessing arguments’ attributes:

     >>> c = 3-5j
     >>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
     ...  'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
     'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
     >>> class Point:
     ...     def __init__(self, x, y):
     ...         self.x, self.y = x, y
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
     ...
     >>> str(Point(4, 2))
     'Point(4, 2)'

Accessing arguments’ items:

     >>> coord = (3, 5)
     >>> 'X: {0[0]};  Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
     'X: 3;  Y: 5'

Replacing ‘%s’ and ‘%r’:

     >>> "repr() shows quotes: {!r}; str() doesn't: {!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
     "repr() shows quotes: 'test1'; str() doesn't: test2"

Aligning the text and specifying a width:

     >>> '{:<30}'.format('left aligned')
     'left aligned                  '
     >>> '{:>30}'.format('right aligned')
     '                 right aligned'
     >>> '{:^30}'.format('centered')
     '           centered           '
     >>> '{:*^30}'.format('centered')  # use '*' as a fill char
     '***********centered***********'

Replacing ‘%+f’, ‘%-f’, and ‘% f’ and specifying a sign:

     >>> '{:+f}; {:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show it always
     '+3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{: f}; {: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show a space for positive numbers
     ' 3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{:-f}; {:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show only the minus -- same as '{:f}; {:f}'
     '3.140000; -3.140000'

Replacing ‘%x’ and ‘%o’ and converting the value to different bases:

     >>> # format also supports binary numbers
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:x};  oct: {0:o};  bin: {0:b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010'
     >>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:#x};  oct: {0:#o};  bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010'

Using the comma or the underscore as a digit group separator:

     >>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
     '1,234,567,890'
     >>> '{:_}'.format(1234567890)
     '1_234_567_890'
     >>> '{:_b}'.format(1234567890)
     '100_1001_1001_0110_0000_0010_1101_0010'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(1234567890)
     '4996_02d2'

Expressing a percentage:

     >>> points = 19
     >>> total = 22
     >>> 'Correct answers: {:.2%}'.format(points/total)
     'Correct answers: 86.36%'

Using type-specific formatting:

     >>> import datetime
     >>> d = datetime.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
     >>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
     '2010-07-04 12:15:58'

Nesting arguments and more complex examples:

     >>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
     ...     '{0:{fill}{align}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
     ...
     'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
     '^^^^^center^^^^^'
     '>>>>>>>>>>>right'
     >>>
     >>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
     >>> '{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}'.format(*octets)
     'C0A80001'
     >>> int(_, 16)
     3232235521
     >>>
     >>> width = 5
     >>> for num in range(5,12):
     ...     for base in 'dXob':
     ...         print('{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width), end=' ')
     ...     print()
     ...
         5     5     5   101
         6     6     6   110
         7     7     7   111
         8     8    10  1000
         9     9    11  1001
        10     A    12  1010
        11     B    13  1011


File: python.info,  Node: Template strings,  Next: Helper functions,  Prev: Format String Syntax,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.6.1.6 Template strings
........................

Template strings provide simpler string substitutions as described in
PEP 292(1).  A primary use case for template strings is for
internationalization (i18n) since in that context, the simpler syntax
and functionality makes it easier to translate than other built-in
string formatting facilities in Python.  As an example of a library
built on template strings for i18n, see the flufl.i18n(2) package.

Template strings support ‘$’-based substitutions, using the following
rules:

   * ‘$$’ is an escape; it is replaced with a single ‘$’.

   * ‘$identifier’ names a substitution placeholder matching a mapping
     key of ‘"identifier"’.  By default, ‘"identifier"’ is restricted to
     any case-insensitive ASCII alphanumeric string (including
     underscores) that starts with an underscore or ASCII letter.  The
     first non-identifier character after the ‘$’ character terminates
     this placeholder specification.

   * ‘${identifier}’ is equivalent to ‘$identifier’.  It is required
     when valid identifier characters follow the placeholder but are not
     part of the placeholder, such as ‘"${noun}ification"’.

Any other appearance of ‘$’ in the string will result in a *note
ValueError: 189. being raised.

The *note string: d2. module provides a *note Template: 49c. class that
implements these rules.  The methods of *note Template: 49c. are:

 -- Sınıfı: string.Template (template)

     The constructor takes a single argument which is the template
     string.

      -- Yöntemi: substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          Performs the template substitution, returning a new string.
          'mapping' is any dictionary-like object with keys that match
          the placeholders in the template.  Alternatively, you can
          provide keyword arguments, where the keywords are the
          placeholders.  When both 'mapping' and 'kwds' are given and
          there are duplicates, the placeholders from 'kwds' take
          precedence.

      -- Yöntemi: safe_substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          Like *note substitute(): 1b34, except that if placeholders are
          missing from 'mapping' and 'kwds', instead of raising a *note
          KeyError: 903. exception, the original placeholder will appear
          in the resulting string intact.  Also, unlike with *note
          substitute(): 1b34, any other appearances of the ‘$’ will
          simply return ‘$’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 189.

          While other exceptions may still occur, this method is called
          “safe” because it always tries to return a usable string
          instead of raising an exception.  In another sense, *note
          safe_substitute(): 1b35. may be anything other than safe,
          since it will silently ignore malformed templates containing
          dangling delimiters, unmatched braces, or placeholders that
          are not valid Python identifiers.

      -- Yöntemi: is_valid ()

          Returns false if the template has invalid placeholders that
          will cause *note substitute(): 1b34. to raise *note
          ValueError: 189.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: get_identifiers ()

          Returns a list of the valid identifiers in the template, in
          the order they first appear, ignoring any invalid identifiers.

          Added in version 3.11.

     *note Template: 49c. instances also provide one public data
     attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: template

          This is the object passed to the constructor’s 'template'
          argument.  In general, you shouldn’t change it, but read-only
          access is not enforced.

Here is an example of how to use a Template:

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
     >>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
     'tim likes kung pao'
     >>> d = dict(who='tim')
     >>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     KeyError: 'what'
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
     'tim likes $what'

Advanced usage: you can derive subclasses of *note Template: 49c. to
customize the placeholder syntax, delimiter character, or the entire
regular expression used to parse template strings.  To do this, you can
override these class attributes:

   * 'delimiter' – This is the literal string describing a placeholder
     introducing delimiter.  The default value is ‘$’.  Note that this
     should 'not' be a regular expression, as the implementation will
     call *note re.escape(): a82. on this string as needed.  Note
     further that you cannot change the delimiter after class creation
     (i.e.  a different delimiter must be set in the subclass’s class
     namespace).

   * 'idpattern' – This is the regular expression describing the pattern
     for non-braced placeholders.  The default value is the regular
     expression ‘(?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*)’.  If this is given and
     'braceidpattern' is ‘None’ this pattern will also apply to braced
     placeholders.

          Not: Since default 'flags' is ‘re.IGNORECASE’, pattern ‘[a-z]’
          can match with some non-ASCII characters.  That’s why we use
          the local ‘a’ flag here.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: 'braceidpattern' can be used to define
     separate patterns used inside and outside the braces.

   * 'braceidpattern' – This is like 'idpattern' but describes the
     pattern for braced placeholders.  Defaults to ‘None’ which means to
     fall back to 'idpattern' (i.e.  the same pattern is used both
     inside and outside braces).  If given, this allows you to define
     different patterns for braced and unbraced placeholders.

     Added in version 3.7.

   * 'flags' – The regular expression flags that will be applied when
     compiling the regular expression used for recognizing
     substitutions.  The default value is ‘re.IGNORECASE’.  Note that
     ‘re.VERBOSE’ will always be added to the flags, so custom
     'idpattern's must follow conventions for verbose regular
     expressions.

     Added in version 3.2.

Alternatively, you can provide the entire regular expression pattern by
overriding the class attribute 'pattern'.  If you do this, the value
must be a regular expression object with four named capturing groups.
The capturing groups correspond to the rules given above, along with the
invalid placeholder rule:

   * 'escaped' – This group matches the escape sequence, e.g.  ‘$$’, in
     the default pattern.

   * 'named' – This group matches the unbraced placeholder name; it
     should not include the delimiter in capturing group.

   * 'braced' – This group matches the brace enclosed placeholder name;
     it should not include either the delimiter or braces in the
     capturing group.

   * 'invalid' – This group matches any other delimiter pattern (usually
     a single delimiter), and it should appear last in the regular
     expression.

The methods on this class will raise *note ValueError: 189. if the
pattern matches the template without one of these named groups matching.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/

   (2) https://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Helper functions,  Prev: Template strings,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.6.1.7 Helper functions
........................

 -- Işlevi: string.capwords (s, sep=None)

     Split the argument into words using *note str.split(): d3e,
     capitalize each word using *note str.capitalize(): 1fac, and join
     the capitalized words using *note str.join(): 1f9c.  If the
     optional second argument 'sep' is absent or ‘None’, runs of
     whitespace characters are replaced by a single space and leading
     and trailing whitespace are removed, otherwise 'sep' is used to
     split and join the words.


File: python.info,  Node: re — Regular expression operations,  Next: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas,  Prev: string — Common string operations,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.2 ‘re’ — Regular expression operations
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/re/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides regular expression matching operations similar to
those found in Perl.

Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (*note
str: 15d.) as well as 8-bit strings (*note bytes: 2cb.).  However,
Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed: that is, you cannot
match a Unicode string with a bytes pattern or vice-versa; similarly,
when asking for a substitution, the replacement string must be of the
same type as both the pattern and the search string.

Regular expressions use the backslash character (‘'\'’) to indicate
special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking
their special meaning.  This collides with Python’s usage of the same
character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match
a literal backslash, one might have to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the pattern
string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each backslash
must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string literal.  Also,
please note that any invalid escape sequences in Python’s usage of the
backslash in string literals now generate a *note SyntaxWarning: 17e.
and in the future this will become a *note SyntaxError: 14c.  This
behaviour will happen even if it is a valid escape sequence for a
regular expression.

The solution is to use Python’s raw string notation for regular
expression patterns; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a
string literal prefixed with ‘'r'’.  So ‘r"\n"’ is a two-character
string containing ‘'\'’ and ‘'n'’, while ‘"\n"’ is a one-character
string containing a newline.  Usually patterns will be expressed in
Python code using this raw string notation.

It is important to note that most regular expression operations are
available as module-level functions and methods on *note compiled
regular expressions: e27.  The functions are shortcuts that don’t
require you to compile a regex object first, but miss some fine-tuning
parameters.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The third-party regex(2) module, which has an API compatible with the
standard library *note re: b8. module, but offers additional
functionality and a more thorough Unicode support.

* Menu:

* Regular Expression Syntax::
* Module Contents::
* Regular Expression Objects::
* Match Objects::
* Regular Expression Examples::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/re/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/regex/


File: python.info,  Node: Regular Expression Syntax,  Next: Module Contents,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.1 Regular Expression Syntax
.................................

A regular expression (or RE) specifies a set of strings that matches it;
the functions in this module let you check if a particular string
matches a given regular expression (or if a given regular expression
matches a particular string, which comes down to the same thing).

Regular expressions can be concatenated to form new regular expressions;
if 'A' and 'B' are both regular expressions, then 'AB' is also a regular
expression.  In general, if a string 'p' matches 'A' and another string
'q' matches 'B', the string 'pq' will match AB. This holds unless 'A' or
'B' contain low precedence operations; boundary conditions between 'A'
and 'B'; or have numbered group references.  Thus, complex expressions
can easily be constructed from simpler primitive expressions like the
ones described here.  For details of the theory and implementation of
regular expressions, consult the Friedl book *note [Frie09]: 20df, or
almost any textbook about compiler construction.

A brief explanation of the format of regular expressions follows.  For
further information and a gentler presentation, consult the *note
Regular Expression HOWTO: 20e0.

Regular expressions can contain both special and ordinary characters.
Most ordinary characters, like ‘'A'’, ‘'a'’, or ‘'0'’, are the simplest
regular expressions; they simply match themselves.  You can concatenate
ordinary characters, so ‘last’ matches the string ‘'last'’.  (In the
rest of this section, we’ll write RE’s in ‘this special style’, usually
without quotes, and strings to be matched ‘'in single quotes'’.)

Some characters, like ‘'|'’ or ‘'('’, are special.  Special characters
either stand for classes of ordinary characters, or affect how the
regular expressions around them are interpreted.

Repetition operators or quantifiers (‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, ‘{m,n}’, etc) cannot
be directly nested.  This avoids ambiguity with the non-greedy modifier
suffix ‘?’, and with other modifiers in other implementations.  To apply
a second repetition to an inner repetition, parentheses may be used.
For example, the expression ‘(?:a{6})*’ matches any multiple of six
‘'a'’ characters.

The special characters are:

‘.’

     (Dot.)  In the default mode, this matches any character except a
     newline.  If the *note DOTALL: 20e1. flag has been specified, this
     matches any character including a newline.  ‘(?s:.)’ matches any
     character regardless of flags.

‘^’

     (Caret.)  Matches the start of the string, and in *note MULTILINE:
     20e2. mode also matches immediately after each newline.

‘$’

     Matches the end of the string or just before the newline at the end
     of the string, and in *note MULTILINE: 20e2. mode also matches
     before a newline.  ‘foo’ matches both ‘foo’ and ‘foobar’, while the
     regular expression ‘foo$’ matches only ‘foo’.  More interestingly,
     searching for ‘foo.$’ in ‘'foo1\nfoo2\n'’ matches ‘foo2’ normally,
     but ‘foo1’ in *note MULTILINE: 20e2. mode; searching for a single
     ‘$’ in ‘'foo\n'’ will find two (empty) matches: one just before the
     newline, and one at the end of the string.

‘*’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or more repetitions of the
     preceding RE, as many repetitions as are possible.  ‘ab*’ will
     match ‘a’, ‘ab’, or ‘a’ followed by any number of ‘b’s.

‘+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 1 or more repetitions of the
     preceding RE. ‘ab+’ will match ‘a’ followed by any non-zero number
     of ‘b’s; it will not match just ‘a’.

‘?’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or 1 repetitions of the
     preceding RE. ‘ab?’ will match either ‘a’ or ‘ab’.

‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’

     The ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers are all 'greedy'; they
     match as much text as possible.  Sometimes this behaviour isn’t
     desired; if the RE ‘<.*>’ is matched against ‘'<a> b <c>'’, it will
     match the entire string, and not just ‘'<a>'’.  Adding ‘?’ after
     the quantifier makes it perform the match in 'non-greedy' or
     'minimal' fashion; as 'few' characters as possible will be matched.
     Using the RE ‘<.*?>’ will match only ‘'<a>'’.

‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’

     Like the ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers, those where ‘'+'’ is
     appended also match as many times as possible.  However, unlike the
     true greedy quantifiers, these do not allow back-tracking when the
     expression following it fails to match.  These are known as
     'possessive' quantifiers.  For example, ‘a*a’ will match ‘'aaaa'’
     because the ‘a*’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’s, but, when the final ‘'a'’
     is encountered, the expression is backtracked so that in the end
     the ‘a*’ ends up matching 3 ‘'a'’s total, and the fourth ‘'a'’ is
     matched by the final ‘'a'’.  However, when ‘a*+a’ is used to match
     ‘'aaaa'’, the ‘a*+’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’, but when the final
     ‘'a'’ fails to find any more characters to match, the expression
     cannot be backtracked and will thus fail to match.  ‘x*+’, ‘x++’
     and ‘x?+’ are equivalent to ‘(?>x*)’, ‘(?>x+)’ and ‘(?>x?)’
     correspondingly.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘{m}’

     Specifies that exactly 'm' copies of the previous RE should be
     matched; fewer matches cause the entire RE not to match.  For
     example, ‘a{6}’ will match exactly six ‘'a'’ characters, but not
     five.

‘{m,n}’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible.
     For example, ‘a{3,5}’ will match from 3 to 5 ‘'a'’ characters.
     Omitting 'm' specifies a lower bound of zero, and omitting 'n'
     specifies an infinite upper bound.  As an example, ‘a{4,}b’ will
     match ‘'aaaab'’ or a thousand ‘'a'’ characters followed by a ‘'b'’,
     but not ‘'aaab'’.  The comma may not be omitted or the modifier
     would be confused with the previously described form.

‘{m,n}?’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as 'few' repetitions as possible.
     This is the non-greedy version of the previous quantifier.  For
     example, on the 6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}’ will match
     5 ‘'a'’ characters, while ‘a{3,5}?’ will only match 3 characters.

‘{m,n}+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible
     'without' establishing any backtracking points.  This is the
     possessive version of the quantifier above.  For example, on the
     6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}+aa’ attempt to match 5 ‘'a'’
     characters, then, requiring 2 more ‘'a'’s, will need more
     characters than available and thus fail, while ‘a{3,5}aa’ will
     match with ‘a{3,5}’ capturing 5, then 4 ‘'a'’s by backtracking and
     then the final 2 ‘'a'’s are matched by the final ‘aa’ in the
     pattern.  ‘x{m,n}+’ is equivalent to ‘(?>x{m,n})’.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘\’

     Either escapes special characters (permitting you to match
     characters like ‘'*'’, ‘'?'’, and so forth), or signals a special
     sequence; special sequences are discussed below.

     If you’re not using a raw string to express the pattern, remember
     that Python also uses the backslash as an escape sequence in string
     literals; if the escape sequence isn’t recognized by Python’s
     parser, the backslash and subsequent character are included in the
     resulting string.  However, if Python would recognize the resulting
     sequence, the backslash should be repeated twice.  This is
     complicated and hard to understand, so it’s highly recommended that
     you use raw strings for all but the simplest expressions.

‘[]’

     Used to indicate a set of characters.  In a set:

        * Characters can be listed individually, e.g.  ‘[amk]’ will
          match ‘'a'’, ‘'m'’, or ‘'k'’.

        * Ranges of characters can be indicated by giving two characters
          and separating them by a ‘'-'’, for example ‘[a-z]’ will match
          any lowercase ASCII letter, ‘[0-5][0-9]’ will match all the
          two-digits numbers from ‘00’ to ‘59’, and ‘[0-9A-Fa-f]’ will
          match any hexadecimal digit.  If ‘-’ is escaped (e.g.
          ‘[a\-z]’) or if it’s placed as the first or last character
          (e.g.  ‘[-a]’ or ‘[a-]’), it will match a literal ‘'-'’.

        * Special characters lose their special meaning inside sets.
          For example, ‘[(+*)]’ will match any of the literal characters
          ‘'('’, ‘'+'’, ‘'*'’, or ‘')'’.

        * Character classes such as ‘\w’ or ‘\S’ (defined below) are
          also accepted inside a set, although the characters they match
          depend on the *note flags: 20e3. used.

        * Characters that are not within a range can be matched by
          'complementing' the set.  If the first character of the set is
          ‘'^'’, all the characters that are 'not' in the set will be
          matched.  For example, ‘[^5]’ will match any character except
          ‘'5'’, and ‘[^^]’ will match any character except ‘'^'’.  ‘^’
          has no special meaning if it’s not the first character in the
          set.

        * To match a literal ‘']'’ inside a set, precede it with a
          backslash, or place it at the beginning of the set.  For
          example, both ‘[()[\]{}]’ and ‘[]()[{}]’ will match a right
          bracket, as well as left bracket, braces, and parentheses.

        * Support of nested sets and set operations as in Unicode
          Technical Standard #18(1) might be added in the future.  This
          would change the syntax, so to facilitate this change a *note
          FutureWarning: 248. will be raised in ambiguous cases for the
          time being.  That includes sets starting with a literal ‘'['’
          or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’, ‘'&&'’,
          ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’.  To avoid a warning escape them with a
          backslash.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note FutureWarning: 248. is raised if a
     character set contains constructs that will change semantically in
     the future.

‘|’

     ‘A|B’, where 'A' and 'B' can be arbitrary REs, creates a regular
     expression that will match either 'A' or 'B'. An arbitrary number
     of REs can be separated by the ‘'|'’ in this way.  This can be used
     inside groups (see below) as well.  As the target string is
     scanned, REs separated by ‘'|'’ are tried from left to right.  When
     one pattern completely matches, that branch is accepted.  This
     means that once 'A' matches, 'B' will not be tested further, even
     if it would produce a longer overall match.  In other words, the
     ‘'|'’ operator is never greedy.  To match a literal ‘'|'’, use
     ‘\|’, or enclose it inside a character class, as in ‘[|]’.

‘(...)’

     Matches whatever regular expression is inside the parentheses, and
     indicates the start and end of a group; the contents of a group can
     be retrieved after a match has been performed, and can be matched
     later in the string with the ‘\number’ special sequence, described
     below.  To match the literals ‘'('’ or ‘')'’, use ‘\(’ or ‘\)’, or
     enclose them inside a character class: ‘[(]’, ‘[)]’.

‘(?...)’

     This is an extension notation (a ‘'?'’ following a ‘'('’ is not
     meaningful otherwise).  The first character after the ‘'?'’
     determines what the meaning and further syntax of the construct is.
     Extensions usually do not create a new group; ‘(?P<name>...)’ is
     the only exception to this rule.  Following are the currently
     supported extensions.

‘(?aiLmsux)’

     (One or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’.)  The group matches the empty string; the
     letters set the corresponding flags for the entire regular
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 20e4. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 20e5. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 20e6. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 20e7. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 20e8. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 20e9. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 20ea. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note Module Contents: 20eb.)  This is
     useful if you wish to include the flags as part of the regular
     expression, instead of passing a 'flag' argument to the *note
     re.compile(): a4a. function.  Flags should be used first in the
     expression string.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: This construction can only be used at the
     start of the expression.

‘(?:...)’

     A non-capturing version of regular parentheses.  Matches whatever
     regular expression is inside the parentheses, but the substring
     matched by the group 'cannot' be retrieved after performing a match
     or referenced later in the pattern.

‘(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)’

     (Zero or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’, optionally followed by ‘'-'’ followed by one
     or more letters from the ‘'i'’, ‘'m'’, ‘'s'’, ‘'x'’.)  The letters
     set or remove the corresponding flags for the part of the
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 20e4. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 20e5. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 20e6. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 20e7. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 20e8. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 20e9. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 20ea. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note Module Contents: 20eb.)

     The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ are mutually exclusive when used
     as inline flags, so they can’t be combined or follow ‘'-'’.
     Instead, when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides
     the matching mode in the enclosing group.  In Unicode patterns
     ‘(?a:...)’ switches to ASCII-only matching, and ‘(?u:...)’ switches
     to Unicode matching (default).  In bytes patterns ‘(?L:...)’
     switches to locale dependent matching, and ‘(?a:...)’ switches to
     ASCII-only matching (default).  This override is only in effect for
     the narrow inline group, and the original matching mode is restored
     outside of the group.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ also can
     be used in a group.

‘(?>...)’

     Attempts to match ‘...’ as if it was a separate regular expression,
     and if successful, continues to match the rest of the pattern
     following it.  If the subsequent pattern fails to match, the stack
     can only be unwound to a point 'before' the ‘(?>...)’ because once
     exited, the expression, known as an 'atomic group', has thrown away
     all stack points within itself.  Thus, ‘(?>.*).’ would never match
     anything because first the ‘.*’ would match all characters
     possible, then, having nothing left to match, the final ‘.’ would
     fail to match.  Since there are no stack points saved in the Atomic
     Group, and there is no stack point before it, the entire expression
     would thus fail to match.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘(?P<name>...)’

     Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the
     group is accessible via the symbolic group name 'name'.  Group
     names must be valid Python identifiers, and in *note bytes: 2cb.
     patterns they can only contain bytes in the ASCII range.  Each
     group name must be defined only once within a regular expression.
     A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group
     were not named.

     Named groups can be referenced in three contexts.  If the pattern
     is ‘(?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote)’ (i.e.  matching a string quoted
     with either single or double quotes):

     Context of reference to group “quote”       Ways to reference it
                                                 
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     in the same pattern itself                     * ‘(?P=quote)’ (as shown)
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 
                                                 
     when processing match object 'm'               * ‘m.group('quote')’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘m.end('quote')’ (etc.)
                                                 
                                                 
     in a string passed to the 'repl' argument      * ‘\g<quote>’
     of ‘re.sub()’                               
                                                    * ‘\g<1>’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: In *note bytes: 2cb. patterns, group 'name'
     can only contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

‘(?P=name)’

     A backreference to a named group; it matches whatever text was
     matched by the earlier group named 'name'.

‘(?#...)’

     A comment; the contents of the parentheses are simply ignored.

‘(?=...)’

     Matches if ‘...’ matches next, but doesn’t consume any of the
     string.  This is called a 'lookahead assertion'.  For example,
     ‘Isaac (?=Asimov)’ will match ‘'Isaac '’ only if it’s followed by
     ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?!...)’

     Matches if ‘...’ doesn’t match next.  This is a 'negative lookahead
     assertion'.  For example, ‘Isaac (?!Asimov)’ will match ‘'Isaac '’
     only if it’s 'not' followed by ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?<=...)’

     Matches if the current position in the string is preceded by a
     match for ‘...’ that ends at the current position.  This is called
     a 'positive lookbehind assertion'.  ‘(?<=abc)def’ will find a match
     in ‘'abcdef'’, since the lookbehind will back up 3 characters and
     check if the contained pattern matches.  The contained pattern must
     only match strings of some fixed length, meaning that ‘abc’ or
     ‘a|b’ are allowed, but ‘a*’ and ‘a{3,4}’ are not.  Note that
     patterns which start with positive lookbehind assertions will not
     match at the beginning of the string being searched; you will most
     likely want to use the *note search(): 10d3. function rather than
     the *note match(): 10d4. function:

          >>> import re
          >>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'def'

     This example looks for a word following a hyphen:

          >>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'egg'

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for group references of fixed
     length.

‘(?<!...)’

     Matches if the current position in the string is not preceded by a
     match for ‘...’.  This is called a 'negative lookbehind assertion'.
     Similar to positive lookbehind assertions, the contained pattern
     must only match strings of some fixed length.  Patterns which start
     with negative lookbehind assertions may match at the beginning of
     the string being searched.

‘(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)’

     Will try to match with ‘yes-pattern’ if the group with given 'id'
     or 'name' exists, and with ‘no-pattern’ if it doesn’t.
     ‘no-pattern’ is optional and can be omitted.  For example,
     ‘(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$)’ is a poor email matching
     pattern, which will match with ‘'<user@host.com>'’ as well as
     ‘'user@host.com'’, but not with ‘'<user@host.com'’ nor
     ‘'user@host.com>'’.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.
     In *note bytes: 2cb. patterns, group 'name' can only contain bytes
     in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

The special sequences consist of ‘'\'’ and a character from the list
below.  If the ordinary character is not an ASCII digit or an ASCII
letter, then the resulting RE will match the second character.  For
example, ‘\$’ matches the character ‘'$'’.

‘\number’

     Matches the contents of the group of the same number.  Groups are
     numbered starting from 1.  For example, ‘(.+) \1’ matches ‘'the
     the'’ or ‘'55 55'’, but not ‘'thethe'’ (note the space after the
     group).  This special sequence can only be used to match one of the
     first 99 groups.  If the first digit of 'number' is 0, or 'number'
     is 3 octal digits long, it will not be interpreted as a group
     match, but as the character with octal value 'number'.  Inside the
     ‘'['’ and ‘']'’ of a character class, all numeric escapes are
     treated as characters.

‘\A’

     Matches only at the start of the string.

‘\b’

     Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a
     word.  A word is defined as a sequence of word characters.  Note
     that formally, ‘\b’ is defined as the boundary between a ‘\w’ and a
     ‘\W’ character (or vice versa), or between ‘\w’ and the beginning
     or end of the string.  This means that ‘r'\bat\b'’ matches ‘'at'’,
     ‘'at.'’, ‘'(at)'’, and ‘'as at ay'’ but not ‘'attempt'’ or
     ‘'atlas'’.

     The default word characters in Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode
     alphanumerics and the underscore, but this can be changed by using
     the *note ASCII: 43f. flag.  Word boundaries are determined by the
     current locale if the *note LOCALE: 9e1. flag is used.

          Not: Inside a character range, ‘\b’ represents the backspace
          character, for compatibility with Python’s string literals.

‘\B’

     Matches the empty string, but only when it is 'not' at the
     beginning or end of a word.  This means that ‘r'at\B'’ matches
     ‘'athens'’, ‘'atom'’, ‘'attorney'’, but not ‘'at'’, ‘'at.'’, or
     ‘'at!'’.  ‘\B’ is the opposite of ‘\b’, so word characters in
     Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore,
     although this can be changed by using the *note ASCII: 43f. flag.
     Word boundaries are determined by the current locale if the *note
     LOCALE: 9e1. flag is used.

          Not: Note that ‘\B’ does not match an empty string, which
          differs from RE implementations in other programming languages
          such as Perl.  This behavior is kept for compatibility
          reasons.

‘\d’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in
          Unicode character category [Nd](2)).  This includes ‘[0-9]’,
          and also many other digit characters.

          Matches ‘[0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches any decimal digit in the ASCII character set; this is
          equivalent to ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any character which is not a decimal digit.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\d’.

     Matches ‘[^0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used.

‘\s’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches Unicode whitespace characters (as defined by *note
          str.isspace(): 1fb7.).  This includes ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’, and
          also many other characters, for example the non-breaking
          spaces mandated by typography rules in many languages.

          Matches ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches characters considered whitespace in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Matches any character which is not a whitespace character.  This is
     the opposite of ‘\s’.

     Matches ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used.

‘\w’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches Unicode word characters; this includes all Unicode
          alphanumeric characters (as defined by *note str.isalnum():
          1fb0.), as well as the underscore (‘_’).

          Matches ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the
          *note LOCALE: 9e1. flag is used, matches characters considered
          alphanumeric in the current locale and the underscore.

‘\W’

     Matches any character which is not a word character.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\w’.  By default, matches non-underscore (‘_’)
     characters for which *note str.isalnum(): 1fb0. returns ‘False’.

     Matches ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used.

     If the *note LOCALE: 9e1. flag is used, matches characters which
     are neither alphanumeric in the current locale nor the underscore.

‘\Z’

     Matches only at the end of the string.

Most of the *note escape sequences: 170. supported by Python string
literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:

     \a      \b      \f      \n
     \N      \r      \t      \u
     \U      \v      \x      \\

(Note that ‘\b’ is used to represent word boundaries, and means
“backspace” only inside character classes.)

‘'\u'’, ‘'\U'’, and ‘'\N'’ escape sequences are only recognized in
Unicode (str) patterns.  In bytes patterns they are errors.  Unknown
escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and treated as
errors.

Octal escapes are included in a limited form.  If the first digit is a
0, or if there are three octal digits, it is considered an octal escape.
Otherwise, it is a group reference.  As for string literals, octal
escapes are always at most three digits in length.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'\u'’ and ‘'\U'’ escape sequences have been
added.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
letter now are errors.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'\N{NAME}'’ escape sequence has been added.
As in string literals, it expands to the named Unicode character (e.g.
‘'\N{EM DASH}'’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf#G134153


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents,  Next: Regular Expression Objects,  Prev: Regular Expression Syntax,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.2 Module Contents
.......................

The module defines several functions, constants, and an exception.  Some
of the functions are simplified versions of the full featured methods
for compiled regular expressions.  Most non-trivial applications always
use the compiled form.

* Menu:

* Flags::
* Functions::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Flags,  Next: Functions,  Up: Module Contents

5.6.2.3 Flags
.............

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Flag constants are now instances of *note
RegexFlag: 440, which is a subclass of *note enum.IntFlag: 20ee.

 -- Sınıfı: re.RegexFlag

     An *note enum.IntFlag: 20ee. class containing the regex options
     listed below.

     Added in version 3.11: - added to ‘__all__’

 -- Verisi: re.A
 -- Verisi: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\d’, ‘\D’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform
     ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only
     meaningful for Unicode (str) patterns, and is ignored for bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?a)’.

          Not: The *note U: 20e9. flag still exists for backward
          compatibility, but is redundant in Python 3 since matches are
          Unicode by default for ‘str’ patterns, and Unicode matching
          isn’t allowed for bytes patterns.  *note UNICODE: 9e2. and the
          inline flag ‘(?u)’ are similarly redundant.

 -- Verisi: re.DEBUG

     Display debug information about compiled expression.

     No corresponding inline flag.

 -- Verisi: re.I
 -- Verisi: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like ‘[A-Z]’ will
     also match lowercase letters.  Full Unicode matching (such as ‘Ü’
     matching ‘ü’) also works unless the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used
     to disable non-ASCII matches.  The current locale does not change
     the effect of this flag unless the *note LOCALE: 9e1. flag is also
     used.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?i)’.

     Note that when the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’ are used in
     combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 153d. flag, they will match
     the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: ‘İ’
     (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), ‘ı’ (U+0131, Latin
     small letter dotless i), ‘ſ’ (U+017F, Latin small letter long s)
     and ‘K’ (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  If the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is
     used, only letters ‘a’ to ‘z’ and ‘A’ to ‘Z’ are matched.

 -- Verisi: re.L
 -- Verisi: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale.  This flag can be used only with bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?L)’.

          Uyarı: This flag is discouraged; consider Unicode matching
          instead.  The locale mechanism is very unreliable as it only
          handles one “culture” at a time and only works with 8-bit
          locales.  Unicode matching is enabled by default for Unicode
          (str) patterns and it is able to handle different locales and
          languages.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note LOCALE: 9e1. can be used only with
     bytes patterns and is not compatible with *note ASCII: 43f.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Compiled regular expression objects with the
     *note LOCALE: 9e1. flag no longer depend on the locale at compile
     time.  Only the locale at matching time affects the result of
     matching.

 -- Verisi: re.M
 -- Verisi: re.MULTILINE

     When specified, the pattern character ‘'^'’ matches at the
     beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line
     (immediately following each newline); and the pattern character
     ‘'$'’ matches at the end of the string and at the end of each line
     (immediately preceding each newline).  By default, ‘'^'’ matches
     only at the beginning of the string, and ‘'$'’ only at the end of
     the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end
     of the string.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?m)’.

 -- Verisi: re.NOFLAG

     Indicates no flag being applied, the value is ‘0’.  This flag may
     be used as a default value for a function keyword argument or as a
     base value that will be conditionally ORed with other flags.
     Example of use as a default value:

          def myfunc(text, flag=re.NOFLAG):
              return re.match(text, flag)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: re.S
 -- Verisi: re.DOTALL

     Make the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?s)’.

 -- Verisi: re.U
 -- Verisi: re.UNICODE

     In Python 3, Unicode characters are matched by default for ‘str’
     patterns.  This flag is therefore redundant with 'no effect' and is
     only kept for backward compatibility.

     See *note ASCII: 43f. to restrict matching to ASCII characters
     instead.

 -- Verisi: re.X
 -- Verisi: re.VERBOSE

     This flag allows you to write regular expressions that look nicer
     and are more readable by allowing you to visually separate logical
     sections of the pattern and add comments.  Whitespace within the
     pattern is ignored, except when in a character class, or when
     preceded by an unescaped backslash, or within tokens like ‘*?’,
     ‘(?:’ or ‘(?P<...>’.  For example, ‘(? :’ and ‘* ?’ are not
     allowed.  When a line contains a ‘#’ that is not in a character
     class and is not preceded by an unescaped backslash, all characters
     from the leftmost such ‘#’ through the end of the line are ignored.

     This means that the two following regular expression objects that
     match a decimal number are functionally equal:

          a = re.compile(r"""\d +  # the integral part
                             \.    # the decimal point
                             \d *  # some fractional digits""", re.X)
          b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*")

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?x)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions,  Next: Exceptions<2>,  Prev: Flags,  Up: Module Contents

5.6.2.4 Functions
.................

 -- Işlevi: re.compile (pattern, flags=0)

     Compile a regular expression pattern into a *note regular
     expression object: e27, which can be used for matching using its
     *note match(): 20f3, *note search(): 20f4. and other methods,
     described below.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     The sequence

          prog = re.compile(pattern)
          result = prog.match(string)

     is equivalent to

          result = re.match(pattern, string)

     but using *note re.compile(): a4a. and saving the resulting regular
     expression object for reuse is more efficient when the expression
     will be used several times in a single program.

          Not: The compiled versions of the most recent patterns passed
          to *note re.compile(): a4a. and the module-level matching
          functions are cached, so programs that use only a few regular
          expressions at a time needn’t worry about compiling regular
          expressions.

 -- Işlevi: re.search (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where the
     regular expression 'pattern' produces a match, and return a
     corresponding *note Match: b4b.  Return ‘None’ if no position in
     the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from
     finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Işlevi: re.match (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If zero or more characters at the beginning of 'string' match the
     regular expression 'pattern', return a corresponding *note Match:
     b4b.  Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note
     that this is different from a zero-length match.

     Note that even in *note MULTILINE: 20e2. mode, *note re.match():
     10d4. will only match at the beginning of the string and not at the
     beginning of each line.

     If you want to locate a match anywhere in 'string', use *note
     search(): 10d3. instead (see also *note search() vs.  match():
     20f5.).

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Işlevi: re.fullmatch (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If the whole 'string' matches the regular expression 'pattern',
     return a corresponding *note Match: b4b.  Return ‘None’ if the
     string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from
     a zero-length match.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: re.split (pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)

     Split 'string' by the occurrences of 'pattern'.  If capturing
     parentheses are used in 'pattern', then the text of all groups in
     the pattern are also returned as part of the resulting list.  If
     'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits occur, and the
     remainder of the string is returned as the final element of the
     list.

          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
          ['Words', 'words, words.']
          >>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          ['0', '3', '9']

     If there are capturing groups in the separator and it matches at
     the start of the string, the result will start with an empty
     string.  The same holds for the end of the string:

          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
          ['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']

     That way, separator components are always found at the same
     relative indices within the result list.

     Empty matches for the pattern split the string only when not
     adjacent to a previous empty match.

          >>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
          >>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
          ['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
          ['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional flags argument.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added support of splitting on a pattern that
     could match an empty string.

 -- Işlevi: re.findall (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return all non-overlapping matches of 'pattern' in 'string', as a
     list of strings or tuples.  The 'string' is scanned left-to-right,
     and matches are returned in the order found.  Empty matches are
     included in the result.

     The result depends on the number of capturing groups in the
     pattern.  If there are no groups, return a list of strings matching
     the whole pattern.  If there is exactly one group, return a list of
     strings matching that group.  If multiple groups are present,
     return a list of tuples of strings matching the groups.
     Non-capturing groups do not affect the form of the result.

          >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
          ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
          >>> re.findall(r'(\w+)=(\d+)', 'set width=20 and height=10')
          [('width', '20'), ('height', '10')]

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Non-empty matches can now start just after a
     previous empty match.

 -- Işlevi: re.finditer (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return an *note iterator: 176e. yielding *note Match: b4b. objects
     over all non-overlapping matches for the RE 'pattern' in 'string'.
     The 'string' is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in
     the order found.  Empty matches are included in the result.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Non-empty matches can now start just after a
     previous empty match.

 -- Işlevi: re.sub (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Return the string obtained by replacing the leftmost
     non-overlapping occurrences of 'pattern' in 'string' by the
     replacement 'repl'.  If the pattern isn’t found, 'string' is
     returned unchanged.  'repl' can be a string or a function; if it is
     a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.  That is, ‘\n’
     is converted to a single newline character, ‘\r’ is converted to a
     carriage return, and so forth.  Unknown escapes of ASCII letters
     are reserved for future use and treated as errors.  Other unknown
     escapes such as ‘\&’ are left alone.  Backreferences, such as ‘\6’,
     are replaced with the substring matched by group 6 in the pattern.
     For example:

          >>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
          ...        r'static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{',
          ...        'def myfunc():')
          'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'

     If 'repl' is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping
     occurrence of 'pattern'.  The function takes a single *note Match:
     b4b. argument, and returns the replacement string.  For example:

          >>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
          ...     if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
          ...     else: return '-'
          ...
          >>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
          'pro--gram files'
          >>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          'Baked Beans & Spam'

     The pattern may be a string or a *note Pattern: 1528.

     The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern
     occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer.
     If omitted or zero, all occurrences will be replaced.  Empty
     matches for the pattern are replaced only when not adjacent to a
     previous empty match, so ‘sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’ returns
     ‘'-a-b--d-'’.

     In string-type 'repl' arguments, in addition to the character
     escapes and backreferences described above, ‘\g<name>’ will use the
     substring matched by the group named ‘name’, as defined by the
     ‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax.  ‘\g<number>’ uses the corresponding group
     number; ‘\g<2>’ is therefore equivalent to ‘\2’, but isn’t
     ambiguous in a replacement such as ‘\g<2>0’.  ‘\20’ would be
     interpreted as a reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2
     followed by the literal character ‘'0'’.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’
     substitutes in the entire substring matched by the RE.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional flags argument.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Unknown escapes in 'pattern' consisting of
     ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter now are errors.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Unknown escapes in 'repl' consisting of
     ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter now are errors.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Empty matches for the pattern are replaced
     when adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.
     In *note bytes: 2cb. replacement strings, group 'name' can only
     contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

 -- Işlevi: re.subn (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Perform the same operation as *note sub(): 208, but return a tuple
     ‘(new_string, number_of_subs_made)’.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional flags argument.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 20e3. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Işlevi: re.escape (pattern)

     Escape special characters in 'pattern'.  This is useful if you want
     to match an arbitrary literal string that may have regular
     expression metacharacters in it.  For example:

          >>> print(re.escape('https://www.python.org'))
          https://www\.python\.org

          >>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
          >>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
          [abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+

          >>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
          >>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
          /|\-|\+|\*\*|\*

     This function must not be used for the replacement string in *note
     sub(): 208. and *note subn(): 209, only backslashes should be
     escaped.  For example:

          >>> digits_re = r'\d+'
          >>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
          >>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
          /usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'_'’ character is no longer escaped.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Only characters that can have special
     meaning in a regular expression are escaped.  As a result, ‘'!'’,
     ‘'"'’, ‘'%'’, ‘"'"’, ‘','’, ‘'/'’, ‘':'’, ‘';'’, ‘'<'’, ‘'='’,
     ‘'>'’, ‘'@'’, and ‘"`"’ are no longer escaped.

 -- Işlevi: re.purge ()

     Clear the regular expression cache.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<2>,  Prev: Functions,  Up: Module Contents

5.6.2.5 Exceptions
..................

 -- Özel Durum: re.error (msg, pattern=None, pos=None)

     Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here
     is not a valid regular expression (for example, it might contain
     unmatched parentheses) or when some other error occurs during
     compilation or matching.  It is never an error if a string contains
     no match for a pattern.  The error instance has the following
     additional attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: msg

          The unformatted error message.

      -- Özniteliği: pattern

          The regular expression pattern.

      -- Özniteliği: pos

          The index in 'pattern' where compilation failed (may be
          ‘None’).

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line corresponding to 'pos' (may be ‘None’).

      -- Özniteliği: colno

          The column corresponding to 'pos' (may be ‘None’).

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added additional attributes.


File: python.info,  Node: Regular Expression Objects,  Next: Match Objects,  Prev: Module Contents,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.6 Regular Expression Objects
..................................

 -- Sınıfı: re.Pattern

     Compiled regular expression object returned by *note re.compile():
     a4a.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: *note re.Pattern: 1528. supports ‘[]’ to
     indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes pattern.  See *note Genel Takma
     Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.search (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where this
     regular expression produces a match, and return a corresponding
     *note Match: b4b.  Return ‘None’ if no position in the string
     matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a
     zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The optional second parameter 'pos' gives an index in the string
     where the search is to start; it defaults to ‘0’.  This is not
     completely equivalent to slicing the string; the ‘'^'’ pattern
     character matches at the real beginning of the string and at
     positions just after a newline, but not necessarily at the index
     where the search is to start.

     The optional parameter 'endpos' limits how far the string will be
     searched; it will be as if the string is 'endpos' characters long,
     so only the characters from 'pos' to ‘endpos - 1’ will be searched
     for a match.  If 'endpos' is less than 'pos', no match will be
     found; otherwise, if 'rx' is a compiled regular expression object,
     ‘rx.search(string, 0, 50)’ is equivalent to ‘rx.search(string[:50],
     0)’.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("d")
          >>> pattern.search("dog")     # Match at index 0
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
          >>> pattern.search("dog", 1)  # No match; search doesn't include the "d"

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.match (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If zero or more characters at the 'beginning' of 'string' match
     this regular expression, return a corresponding *note Match: b4b.
     Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note that
     this is different from a zero-length match.

     The optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters have the same meaning as
     for the *note search(): 20f4. method.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o")
          >>> pattern.match("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.match("dog", 1)   # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>

     If you want to locate a match anywhere in 'string', use *note
     search(): 20f4. instead (see also *note search() vs.  match():
     20f5.).

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.fullmatch (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If the whole 'string' matches this regular expression, return a
     corresponding *note Match: b4b.  Return ‘None’ if the string does
     not match the pattern; note that this is different from a
     zero-length match.

     The optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters have the same meaning as
     for the *note search(): 20f4. method.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre")     # No match as not the full string matches.
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3)   # Matches within given limits.
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.split (string, maxsplit=0)

     Identical to the *note split(): 9e3. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.findall (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similar to the *note findall(): ed2. function, using the compiled
     pattern, but also accepts optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters
     that limit the search region like for *note search(): 10d3.

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.finditer (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similar to the *note finditer(): 1387. function, using the compiled
     pattern, but also accepts optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters
     that limit the search region like for *note search(): 10d3.

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.sub (repl, string, count=0)

     Identical to the *note sub(): 208. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- Yöntemi: Pattern.subn (repl, string, count=0)

     Identical to the *note subn(): 209. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- Özniteliği: Pattern.flags

     The regex matching flags.  This is a combination of the flags given
     to *note compile(): a4a, any ‘(?...)’ inline flags in the pattern,
     and implicit flags such as *note UNICODE: 9e2. if the pattern is a
     Unicode string.

 -- Özniteliği: Pattern.groups

     The number of capturing groups in the pattern.

 -- Özniteliği: Pattern.groupindex

     A dictionary mapping any symbolic group names defined by ‘(?P<id>)’
     to group numbers.  The dictionary is empty if no symbolic groups
     were used in the pattern.

 -- Özniteliği: Pattern.pattern

     The pattern string from which the pattern object was compiled.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added support of *note copy.copy(): 2bf. and
*note copy.deepcopy(): 9e4.  Compiled regular expression objects are
considered atomic.


File: python.info,  Node: Match Objects,  Next: Regular Expression Examples,  Prev: Regular Expression Objects,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.7 Match Objects
.....................

Match objects always have a boolean value of ‘True’.  Since *note
match(): 20f3. and *note search(): 20f4. return ‘None’ when there is no
match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple ‘if’
statement:

     match = re.search(pattern, string)
     if match:
         process(match)

 -- Sınıfı: re.Match

     Match object returned by successful ‘match’es and ‘search’es.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: *note re.Match: b4b. supports ‘[]’ to
     indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes match.  See *note Genel Takma Ad
     Türü: 4c9.

 -- Yöntemi: Match.expand (template)

     Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the
     template string 'template', as done by the *note sub(): 20fc.
     method.  Escapes such as ‘\n’ are converted to the appropriate
     characters, and numeric backreferences (‘\1’, ‘\2’) and named
     backreferences (‘\g<1>’, ‘\g<name>’) are replaced by the contents
     of the corresponding group.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’ will be
     replaced by the entire match.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

 -- Yöntemi: Match.group ([group1, ...])

     Returns one or more subgroups of the match.  If there is a single
     argument, the result is a single string; if there are multiple
     arguments, the result is a tuple with one item per argument.
     Without arguments, 'group1' defaults to zero (the whole match is
     returned).  If a 'groupN' argument is zero, the corresponding
     return value is the entire matching string; if it is in the
     inclusive range [1..99], it is the string matching the
     corresponding parenthesized group.  If a group number is negative
     or larger than the number of groups defined in the pattern, an
     *note IndexError: 13c2. exception is raised.  If a group is
     contained in a part of the pattern that did not match, the
     corresponding result is ‘None’.  If a group is contained in a part
     of the pattern that matched multiple times, the last match is
     returned.

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m.group(0)       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m.group(1)       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m.group(2)       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'
          >>> m.group(1, 2)    # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
          ('Isaac', 'Newton')

     If the regular expression uses the ‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax, the
     'groupN' arguments may also be strings identifying groups by their
     group name.  If a string argument is not used as a group name in
     the pattern, an *note IndexError: 13c2. exception is raised.

     A moderately complicated example:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.group('first_name')
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group('last_name')
          'Reynolds'

     Named groups can also be referred to by their index:

          >>> m.group(1)
          'Malcolm'
          >>> m.group(2)
          'Reynolds'

     If a group matches multiple times, only the last match is
     accessible:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3")  # Matches 3 times.
          >>> m.group(1)                        # Returns only the last match.
          'c3'

 -- Yöntemi: Match.__getitem__ (g)

     This is identical to ‘m.group(g)’.  This allows easier access to an
     individual group from a match:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Isaac Newton, physicist")
          >>> m[0]       # The entire match
          'Isaac Newton'
          >>> m[1]       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Isaac'
          >>> m[2]       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Newton'

     Named groups are supported as well:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Isaac Newton")
          >>> m['first_name']
          'Isaac'
          >>> m['last_name']
          'Newton'

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Yöntemi: Match.groups (default=None)

     Return a tuple containing all the subgroups of the match, from 1 up
     to however many groups are in the pattern.  The 'default' argument
     is used for groups that did not participate in the match; it
     defaults to ‘None’.

     For example:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
          >>> m.groups()
          ('24', '1632')

     If we make the decimal place and everything after it optional, not
     all groups might participate in the match.  These groups will
     default to ‘None’ unless the 'default' argument is given:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
          >>> m.groups()      # Second group defaults to None.
          ('24', None)
          >>> m.groups('0')   # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
          ('24', '0')

 -- Yöntemi: Match.groupdict (default=None)

     Return a dictionary containing all the 'named' subgroups of the
     match, keyed by the subgroup name.  The 'default' argument is used
     for groups that did not participate in the match; it defaults to
     ‘None’.  For example:

          >>> m = re.match(r"(?P<first_name>\w+) (?P<last_name>\w+)", "Malcolm Reynolds")
          >>> m.groupdict()
          {'first_name': 'Malcolm', 'last_name': 'Reynolds'}

 -- Yöntemi: Match.start ([group])
 -- Yöntemi: Match.end ([group])

     Return the indices of the start and end of the substring matched by
     'group'; 'group' defaults to zero (meaning the whole matched
     substring).  Return ‘-1’ if 'group' exists but did not contribute
     to the match.  For a match object 'm', and a group 'g' that did
     contribute to the match, the substring matched by group 'g'
     (equivalent to ‘m.group(g)’) is

          m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]

     Note that ‘m.start(group)’ will equal ‘m.end(group)’ if 'group'
     matched a null string.  For example, after ‘m = re.search('b(c?)',
     'cba')’, ‘m.start(0)’ is 1, ‘m.end(0)’ is 2, ‘m.start(1)’ and
     ‘m.end(1)’ are both 2, and ‘m.start(2)’ raises an *note IndexError:
     13c2. exception.

     An example that will remove 'remove_this' from email addresses:

          >>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
          >>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
          >>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
          'tony@tiger.net'

 -- Yöntemi: Match.span ([group])

     For a match 'm', return the 2-tuple ‘(m.start(group),
     m.end(group))’.  Note that if 'group' did not contribute to the
     match, this is ‘(-1, -1)’.  'group' defaults to zero, the entire
     match.

 -- Özniteliği: Match.pos

     The value of 'pos' which was passed to the *note search(): 20f4. or
     *note match(): 20f3. method of a *note regex object: e27.  This is
     the index into the string at which the RE engine started looking
     for a match.

 -- Özniteliği: Match.endpos

     The value of 'endpos' which was passed to the *note search(): 20f4.
     or *note match(): 20f3. method of a *note regex object: e27.  This
     is the index into the string beyond which the RE engine will not
     go.

 -- Özniteliği: Match.lastindex

     The integer index of the last matched capturing group, or ‘None’ if
     no group was matched at all.  For example, the expressions ‘(a)b’,
     ‘((a)(b))’, and ‘((ab))’ will have ‘lastindex == 1’ if applied to
     the string ‘'ab'’, while the expression ‘(a)(b)’ will have
     ‘lastindex == 2’, if applied to the same string.

 -- Özniteliği: Match.lastgroup

     The name of the last matched capturing group, or ‘None’ if the
     group didn’t have a name, or if no group was matched at all.

 -- Özniteliği: Match.re

     The *note regular expression object: e27. whose *note match():
     20f3. or *note search(): 20f4. method produced this match instance.

 -- Özniteliği: Match.string

     The string passed to *note match(): 20f3. or *note search(): 20f4.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added support of *note copy.copy(): 2bf. and
*note copy.deepcopy(): 9e4.  Match objects are considered atomic.


File: python.info,  Node: Regular Expression Examples,  Prev: Match Objects,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.6.2.8 Regular Expression Examples
...................................

* Menu:

* Checking for a Pair::
* Simulating scanf(): Simulating scanf.
* search() vs. match(): search vs match.
* Making a Phonebook::
* Text Munging::
* Finding all Adverbs::
* Finding all Adverbs and their Positions::
* Raw String Notation::
* Writing a Tokenizer::


File: python.info,  Node: Checking for a Pair,  Next: Simulating scanf,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.9 Checking for a Pair
...........................

In this example, we’ll use the following helper function to display
match objects a little more gracefully:

     def displaymatch(match):
         if match is None:
             return None
         return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())

Suppose you are writing a poker program where a player’s hand is
represented as a 5-character string with each character representing a
card, “a” for ace, “k” for king, “q” for queen, “j” for jack, “t” for
10, and “2” through “9” representing the card with that value.

To see if a given string is a valid hand, one could do the following:

     >>> valid = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5q"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt5e"))  # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("akt"))    # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid.match("727ak"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"

That last hand, ‘"727ak"’, contained a pair, or two of the same valued
cards.  To match this with a regular expression, one could use
backreferences as such:

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("717ak"))     # Pair of 7s.
     "<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("718ak"))     # No pairs.
     >>> displaymatch(pair.match("354aa"))     # Pair of aces.
     "<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"

To find out what card the pair consists of, one could use the *note
group(): 2104. method of the match object in the following manner:

     >>> pair = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> pair.match("717ak").group(1)
     '7'

     # Error because re.match() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
     >>> pair.match("718ak").group(1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
         re.match(r".*(.).*\1", "718ak").group(1)
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'

     >>> pair.match("354aa").group(1)
     'a'


File: python.info,  Node: Simulating scanf,  Next: search vs match,  Prev: Checking for a Pair,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.10 Simulating scanf()
...........................

Python does not currently have an equivalent to ‘scanf()’.  Regular
expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than
‘scanf()’ format strings.  The table below offers some more-or-less
equivalent mappings between ‘scanf()’ format tokens and regular
expressions.

‘scanf()’ Token                      Regular Expression
                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘%c’                                 ‘.’
                                     
                                     
‘%5c’                                ‘.{5}’
                                     
                                     
‘%d’                                 ‘[-+]?\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%e’, ‘%E’, ‘%f’, ‘%g’               ‘[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?’
                                     
                                     
‘%i’                                 ‘[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)’
                                     
                                     
‘%o’                                 ‘[-+]?[0-7]+’
                                     
                                     
‘%s’                                 ‘\S+’
                                     
                                     
‘%u’                                 ‘\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%x’, ‘%X’                           ‘[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+’
                                     

To extract the filename and numbers from a string like

     /usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings

you would use a ‘scanf()’ format like

     %s - %d errors, %d warnings

The equivalent regular expression would be

     (\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings


File: python.info,  Node: search vs match,  Next: Making a Phonebook,  Prev: Simulating scanf,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.11 search() vs. match()
.............................

Python offers different primitive operations based on regular
expressions:

   + *note re.match(): 10d4. checks for a match only at the beginning of
     the string

   + *note re.search(): 10d3. checks for a match anywhere in the string
     (this is what Perl does by default)

   + *note re.fullmatch(): e26. checks for entire string to be a match

For example:

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("c", "abcdef")   # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("p.*n", "python") # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 6), match='python'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("r.*n", "python") # No match

Regular expressions beginning with ‘'^'’ can be used with *note
search(): 10d3. to restrict the match at the beginning of the string:

     >>> re.match("c", "abcdef")    # No match
     >>> re.search("^c", "abcdef")  # No match
     >>> re.search("^a", "abcdef")  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>

Note however that in *note MULTILINE: 20e2. mode *note match(): 10d4.
only matches at the beginning of the string, whereas using *note
search(): 10d3. with a regular expression beginning with ‘'^'’ will
match at the beginning of each line.

     >>> re.match("X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # No match
     >>> re.search("^X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>


File: python.info,  Node: Making a Phonebook,  Next: Text Munging,  Prev: search vs match,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.12 Making a Phonebook
...........................

*note split(): 9e3. splits a string into a list delimited by the passed
pattern.  The method is invaluable for converting textual data into data
structures that can be easily read and modified by Python as
demonstrated in the following example that creates a phonebook.

First, here is the input.  Normally it may come from a file, here we are
using triple-quoted string syntax

     >>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
     ...
     ... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
     ... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
     ...
     ...
     ... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""

The entries are separated by one or more newlines.  Now we convert the
string into a list with each nonempty line having its own entry:

     >>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
     >>> entries
     ['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
     'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
     'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
     'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']

Finally, split each entry into a list with first name, last name,
telephone number, and address.  We use the ‘maxsplit’ parameter of *note
split(): 9e3. because the address has spaces, our splitting pattern, in
it:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 3) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]

The ‘:?’ pattern matches the colon after the last name, so that it does
not occur in the result list.  With a ‘maxsplit’ of ‘4’, we could
separate the house number from the street name:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, 4) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]


File: python.info,  Node: Text Munging,  Next: Finding all Adverbs,  Prev: Making a Phonebook,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.13 Text Munging
.....................

*note sub(): 208. replaces every occurrence of a pattern with a string
or the result of a function.  This example demonstrates using *note
sub(): 208. with a function to “munge” text, or randomize the order of
all the characters in each word of a sentence except for the first and
last characters:

     >>> def repl(m):
     ...     inner_word = list(m.group(2))
     ...     random.shuffle(inner_word)
     ...     return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3)
     ...
     >>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly."
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.'
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'


File: python.info,  Node: Finding all Adverbs,  Next: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions,  Prev: Text Munging,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.14 Finding all Adverbs
............................

*note findall(): ed2. matches 'all' occurrences of a pattern, not just
the first one as *note search(): 10d3. does.  For example, if a writer
wanted to find all of the adverbs in some text, they might use *note
findall(): ed2. in the following manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> re.findall(r"\w+ly\b", text)
     ['carefully', 'quickly']


File: python.info,  Node: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions,  Next: Raw String Notation,  Prev: Finding all Adverbs,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.15 Finding all Adverbs and their Positions
................................................

If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the
matched text, *note finditer(): 1387. is useful as it provides *note
Match: b4b. objects instead of strings.  Continuing with the previous
example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs 'and their
positions' in some text, they would use *note finditer(): 1387. in the
following manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly\b", text):
     ...     print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
     07-16: carefully
     40-47: quickly


File: python.info,  Node: Raw String Notation,  Next: Writing a Tokenizer,  Prev: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.16 Raw String Notation
............................

Raw string notation (‘r"text"’) keeps regular expressions sane.  Without
it, every backslash (‘'\'’) in a regular expression would have to be
prefixed with another one to escape it.  For example, the two following
lines of code are functionally identical:

     >>> re.match(r"\W(.)\1\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
     >>> re.match("\\W(.)\\1\\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>

When one wants to match a literal backslash, it must be escaped in the
regular expression.  With raw string notation, this means ‘r"\\"’.
Without raw string notation, one must use ‘"\\\\"’, making the following
lines of code functionally identical:

     >>> re.match(r"\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
     >>> re.match("\\\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>


File: python.info,  Node: Writing a Tokenizer,  Prev: Raw String Notation,  Up: Regular Expression Examples

5.6.2.17 Writing a Tokenizer
............................

A tokenizer or scanner(1) analyzes a string to categorize groups of
characters.  This is a useful first step in writing a compiler or
interpreter.

The text categories are specified with regular expressions.  The
technique is to combine those into a single master regular expression
and to loop over successive matches:

     from typing import NamedTuple
     import re

     class Token(NamedTuple):
         type: str
         value: str
         line: int
         column: int

     def tokenize(code):
         keywords = {'IF', 'THEN', 'ENDIF', 'FOR', 'NEXT', 'GOSUB', 'RETURN'}
         token_specification = [
             ('NUMBER',   r'\d+(\.\d*)?'),  # Integer or decimal number
             ('ASSIGN',   r':='),           # Assignment operator
             ('END',      r';'),            # Statement terminator
             ('ID',       r'[A-Za-z]+'),    # Identifiers
             ('OP',       r'[+\-*/]'),      # Arithmetic operators
             ('NEWLINE',  r'\n'),           # Line endings
             ('SKIP',     r'[ \t]+'),       # Skip over spaces and tabs
             ('MISMATCH', r'.'),            # Any other character
         ]
         tok_regex = '|'.join('(?P<%s>%s)' % pair for pair in token_specification)
         line_num = 1
         line_start = 0
         for mo in re.finditer(tok_regex, code):
             kind = mo.lastgroup
             value = mo.group()
             column = mo.start() - line_start
             if kind == 'NUMBER':
                 value = float(value) if '.' in value else int(value)
             elif kind == 'ID' and value in keywords:
                 kind = value
             elif kind == 'NEWLINE':
                 line_start = mo.end()
                 line_num += 1
                 continue
             elif kind == 'SKIP':
                 continue
             elif kind == 'MISMATCH':
                 raise RuntimeError(f'{value!r} unexpected on line {line_num}')
             yield Token(kind, value, line_num, column)

     statements = '''
         IF quantity THEN
             total := total + price * quantity;
             tax := price * 0.05;
         ENDIF;
     '''

     for token in tokenize(statements):
         print(token)

The tokenizer produces the following output:

     Token(type='IF', value='IF', line=2, column=4)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=2, column=7)
     Token(type='THEN', value='THEN', line=2, column=16)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=3, column=14)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=17)
     Token(type='OP', value='+', line=3, column=23)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=3, column=25)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=3, column=31)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=3, column=33)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=3, column=41)
     Token(type='ID', value='tax', line=4, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=4, column=12)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=4, column=15)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=4, column=21)
     Token(type='NUMBER', value=0.05, line=4, column=23)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=4, column=27)
     Token(type='ENDIF', value='ENDIF', line=5, column=4)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=5, column=9)

(Frie09) Friedl, Jeffrey.  Mastering Regular Expressions.  3rd ed.,
O’Reilly Media, 2009.  The third edition of the book no longer covers
Python at all, but the first edition covered writing good regular
expression patterns in great detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis


File: python.info,  Node: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas,  Next: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling,  Prev: re — Regular expression operations,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.3 ‘difflib’ — Helpers for computing deltas
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/difflib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences.  It
can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce
information about file differences in various formats, including HTML
and context and unified diffs.  For comparing directories and files, see
also, the *note filecmp: 58. module.

 -- Sınıfı: difflib.SequenceMatcher

     This is a flexible class for comparing pairs of sequences of any
     type, so long as the sequence elements are *note hashable: 421.
     The basic algorithm predates, and is a little fancier than, an
     algorithm published in the late 1980’s by Ratcliff and Obershelp
     under the hyperbolic name “gestalt pattern matching.” The idea is
     to find the longest contiguous matching subsequence that contains
     no “junk” elements; these “junk” elements are ones that are
     uninteresting in some sense, such as blank lines or whitespace.
     (Handling junk is an extension to the Ratcliff and Obershelp
     algorithm.)  The same idea is then applied recursively to the
     pieces of the sequences to the left and to the right of the
     matching subsequence.  This does not yield minimal edit sequences,
     but does tend to yield matches that “look right” to people.

     'Timing:' The basic Ratcliff-Obershelp algorithm is cubic time in
     the worst case and quadratic time in the expected case.  *note
     SequenceMatcher: ec1. is quadratic time for the worst case and has
     expected-case behavior dependent in a complicated way on how many
     elements the sequences have in common; best case time is linear.

     'Automatic junk heuristic:' *note SequenceMatcher: ec1. supports a
     heuristic that automatically treats certain sequence items as junk.
     The heuristic counts how many times each individual item appears in
     the sequence.  If an item’s duplicates (after the first one)
     account for more than 1% of the sequence and the sequence is at
     least 200 items long, this item is marked as “popular” and is
     treated as junk for the purpose of sequence matching.  This
     heuristic can be turned off by setting the ‘autojunk’ argument to
     ‘False’ when creating the *note SequenceMatcher: ec1.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'autojunk' parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: difflib.Differ

     This is a class for comparing sequences of lines of text, and
     producing human-readable differences or deltas.  Differ uses *note
     SequenceMatcher: ec1. both to compare sequences of lines, and to
     compare sequences of characters within similar (near-matching)
     lines.

     Each line of a *note Differ: 211d. delta begins with a two-letter
     code:

     Code           Meaning
                    
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘'- '’         line unique to sequence 1
                    
                    
     ‘'+ '’         line unique to sequence 2
                    
                    
     ‘' '’          line common to both sequences
                    
                    
     ‘'? '’         line not present in either input sequence
                    

     Lines beginning with ‘‘?’’ attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input sequence.  These
     lines can be confusing if the sequences contain whitespace
     characters, such as spaces, tabs or line breaks.

 -- Sınıfı: difflib.HtmlDiff

     This class can be used to create an HTML table (or a complete HTML
     file containing the table) showing a side by side, line by line
     comparison of text with inter-line and intra-line change
     highlights.  The table can be generated in either full or
     contextual difference mode.

     The constructor for this class is:

      -- Yöntemi: __init__ (tabsize=8, wrapcolumn=None, linejunk=None,
               charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

          Initializes instance of *note HtmlDiff: 13ef.

          'tabsize' is an optional keyword argument to specify tab stop
          spacing and defaults to ‘8’.

          'wrapcolumn' is an optional keyword to specify column number
          where lines are broken and wrapped, defaults to ‘None’ where
          lines are not wrapped.

          'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are optional keyword arguments
          passed into *note ndiff(): 211f. (used by *note HtmlDiff:
          13ef. to generate the side by side HTML differences).  See
          *note ndiff(): 211f. documentation for argument default values
          and descriptions.

     The following methods are public:

      -- Yöntemi: make_file (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='',
               context=False, numlines=5, *, charset='utf-8')

          Compares 'fromlines' and 'tolines' (lists of strings) and
          returns a string which is a complete HTML file containing a
          table showing line by line differences with inter-line and
          intra-line changes highlighted.

          'fromdesc' and 'todesc' are optional keyword arguments to
          specify from/to file column header strings (both default to an
          empty string).

          'context' and 'numlines' are both optional keyword arguments.
          Set 'context' to ‘True’ when contextual differences are to be
          shown, else the default is ‘False’ to show the full files.
          'numlines' defaults to ‘5’.  When 'context' is ‘True’
          'numlines' controls the number of context lines which surround
          the difference highlights.  When 'context' is ‘False’
          'numlines' controls the number of lines which are shown before
          a difference highlight when using the “next” hyperlinks
          (setting to zero would cause the “next” hyperlinks to place
          the next difference highlight at the top of the browser
          without any leading context).

               Not: 'fromdesc' and 'todesc' are interpreted as unescaped
               HTML and should be properly escaped while receiving input
               from untrusted sources.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'charset' keyword-only argument was
          added.  The default charset of HTML document changed from
          ‘'ISO-8859-1'’ to ‘'utf-8'’.

      -- Yöntemi: make_table (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='',
               todesc='', context=False, numlines=5)

          Compares 'fromlines' and 'tolines' (lists of strings) and
          returns a string which is a complete HTML table showing line
          by line differences with inter-line and intra-line changes
          highlighted.

          The arguments for this method are the same as those for the
          *note make_file(): c7d. method.

 -- Işlevi: difflib.context_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a delta (a *note
     generator: f0b. generating the delta lines) in context diff format.

     Context diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in a
     before/after style.  The number of context lines is set by 'n'
     which defaults to three.

     By default, the diff control lines (those with ‘***’ or ‘---’) are
     created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that inputs
     created from *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 2122. result in diffs
     that are suitable for use with *note io.IOBase.writelines(): 2123.
     since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

     For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the 'lineterm'
     argument to ‘""’ so that the output will be uniformly newline free.

     The context diff format normally has a header for filenames and
     modification times.  Any or all of these may be specified using
     strings for 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate', and 'tofiledate'.
     The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601
     format.  If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

          >>> import sys
          >>> from difflib import *
          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(context_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py',
          ...                        tofile='after.py'))
          *** before.py
          --- after.py
          ***************
          *** 1,4 ****
          ! bacon
          ! eggs
          ! ham
            guido
          --- 1,4 ----
          ! python
          ! eggy
          ! hamster
            guido

     See *note A command-line interface to difflib: 2124. for a more
     detailed example.

 -- Işlevi: difflib.get_close_matches (word, possibilities, n=3,
          cutoff=0.6)

     Return a list of the best “good enough” matches.  'word' is a
     sequence for which close matches are desired (typically a string),
     and 'possibilities' is a list of sequences against which to match
     'word' (typically a list of strings).

     Optional argument 'n' (default ‘3’) is the maximum number of close
     matches to return; 'n' must be greater than ‘0’.

     Optional argument 'cutoff' (default ‘0.6’) is a float in the range
     [0, 1].  Possibilities that don’t score at least that similar to
     'word' are ignored.

     The best (no more than 'n') matches among the possibilities are
     returned in a list, sorted by similarity score, most similar first.

          >>> get_close_matches('appel', ['ape', 'apple', 'peach', 'puppy'])
          ['apple', 'ape']
          >>> import keyword
          >>> get_close_matches('wheel', keyword.kwlist)
          ['while']
          >>> get_close_matches('pineapple', keyword.kwlist)
          []
          >>> get_close_matches('accept', keyword.kwlist)
          ['except']

 -- Işlevi: difflib.ndiff (a, b, linejunk=None,
          charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a *note Differ:
     211d.-style delta (a *note generator: f0b. generating the delta
     lines).

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are filtering
     functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk, or false if not.  The default
     is ‘None’.  There is also a module-level function *note
     IS_LINE_JUNK(): 2126, which filters out lines without visible
     characters, except for at most one pound character (‘'#'’) –
     however the underlying *note SequenceMatcher: ec1. class does a
     dynamic analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute
     noise, and this usually works better than using this function.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a character (a string of length
     1), and returns if the character is junk, or false if not.  The
     default is module-level function *note IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(): 2127,
     which filters out whitespace characters (a blank or tab; it’s a bad
     idea to include newline in this!).

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> print(''.join(diff), end="")
          - one
          ?  ^
          + ore
          ?  ^
          - two
          - three
          ?  -
          + tree
          + emu

 -- Işlevi: difflib.restore (sequence, which)

     Return one of the two sequences that generated a delta.

     Given a 'sequence' produced by *note Differ.compare(): 2129. or
     *note ndiff(): 211f, extract lines originating from file 1 or 2
     (parameter 'which'), stripping off line prefixes.

     Example:

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> diff = list(diff) # materialize the generated delta into a list
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 1)), end="")
          one
          two
          three
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 2)), end="")
          ore
          tree
          emu

 -- Işlevi: difflib.unified_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a delta (a *note
     generator: f0b. generating the delta lines) in unified diff format.

     Unified diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in an
     inline style (instead of separate before/after blocks).  The number
     of context lines is set by 'n' which defaults to three.

     By default, the diff control lines (those with ‘---’, ‘+++’, or
     ‘@@’) are created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that
     inputs created from *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 2122. result in
     diffs that are suitable for use with *note io.IOBase.writelines():
     2123. since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

     For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the 'lineterm'
     argument to ‘""’ so that the output will be uniformly newline free.

     The unified diff format normally has a header for filenames and
     modification times.  Any or all of these may be specified using
     strings for 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate', and 'tofiledate'.
     The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601
     format.  If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(unified_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
          --- before.py
          +++ after.py
          @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
          -bacon
          -eggs
          -ham
          +python
          +eggy
          +hamster
           guido

     See *note A command-line interface to difflib: 2124. for a more
     detailed example.

 -- Işlevi: difflib.diff_bytes (dfunc, a, b, fromfile=b'', tofile=b'',
          fromfiledate=b'', tofiledate=b'', n=3, lineterm=b'\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of bytes objects) using 'dfunc'; yield a
     sequence of delta lines (also bytes) in the format returned by
     'dfunc'.  'dfunc' must be a callable, typically either *note
     unified_diff(): 212a. or *note context_diff(): 2121.

     Allows you to compare data with unknown or inconsistent encoding.
     All inputs except 'n' must be bytes objects, not str.  Works by
     losslessly converting all inputs (except 'n') to str, and calling
     ‘dfunc(a, b, fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate, tofiledate, n,
     lineterm)’.  The output of 'dfunc' is then converted back to bytes,
     so the delta lines that you receive have the same
     unknown/inconsistent encodings as 'a' and 'b'.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK (line)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable lines.  The line 'line' is ignorable if
     'line' is blank or contains a single ‘'#'’, otherwise it is not
     ignorable.  Used as a default for parameter 'linejunk' in *note
     ndiff(): 211f. in older versions.

 -- Işlevi: difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK (ch)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable characters.  The character 'ch' is
     ignorable if 'ch' is a space or tab, otherwise it is not ignorable.
     Used as a default for parameter 'charjunk' in *note ndiff(): 211f.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach(2)

     Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E.
     Metzener.  This was published in Dr.  Dobb's Journal(3) in July,
     1988.

* Menu:

* SequenceMatcher Objects::
* SequenceMatcher Examples::
* Differ Objects::
* Differ Example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/difflib.py

   (2) 
https://www.drdobbs.com/database/pattern-matching-the-gestalt-approach/184407970

   (3) https://www.drdobbs.com/


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher Objects,  Next: SequenceMatcher Examples,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.1 SequenceMatcher Objects
...............................

The *note SequenceMatcher: ec1. class has this constructor:

 -- Sınıfı: difflib.SequenceMatcher (isjunk=None, a='', b='',
          autojunk=True)

     Optional argument 'isjunk' must be ‘None’ (the default) or a
     one-argument function that takes a sequence element and returns
     true if and only if the element is “junk” and should be ignored.
     Passing ‘None’ for 'isjunk' is equivalent to passing ‘lambda x:
     False’; in other words, no elements are ignored.  For example,
     pass:

          lambda x: x in " \t"

     if you’re comparing lines as sequences of characters, and don’t
     want to synch up on blanks or hard tabs.

     The optional arguments 'a' and 'b' are sequences to be compared;
     both default to empty strings.  The elements of both sequences must
     be *note hashable: 421.

     The optional argument 'autojunk' can be used to disable the
     automatic junk heuristic.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'autojunk' parameter.

     SequenceMatcher objects get three data attributes: 'bjunk' is the
     set of elements of 'b' for which 'isjunk' is ‘True’; 'bpopular' is
     the set of non-junk elements considered popular by the heuristic
     (if it is not disabled); 'b2j' is a dict mapping the remaining
     elements of 'b' to a list of positions where they occur.  All three
     are reset whenever 'b' is reset with *note set_seqs(): 212d. or
     *note set_seq2(): 212e.

     Added in version 3.2: The 'bjunk' and 'bpopular' attributes.

     *note SequenceMatcher: ec1. objects have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: set_seqs (a, b)

          Set the two sequences to be compared.

     *note SequenceMatcher: ec1. computes and caches detailed
     information about the second sequence, so if you want to compare
     one sequence against many sequences, use *note set_seq2(): 212e. to
     set the commonly used sequence once and call *note set_seq1():
     212f. repeatedly, once for each of the other sequences.

      -- Yöntemi: set_seq1 (a)

          Set the first sequence to be compared.  The second sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- Yöntemi: set_seq2 (b)

          Set the second sequence to be compared.  The first sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- Yöntemi: find_longest_match (alo=0, ahi=None, blo=0, bhi=None)

          Find longest matching block in ‘a[alo:ahi]’ and ‘b[blo:bhi]’.

          If 'isjunk' was omitted or ‘None’, *note find_longest_match():
          178e. returns ‘(i, j, k)’ such that ‘a[i:i+k]’ is equal to
          ‘b[j:j+k]’, where ‘alo <= i <= i+k <= ahi’ and ‘blo <= j <=
          j+k <= bhi’.  For all ‘(i', j', k')’ meeting those conditions,
          the additional conditions ‘k >= k'’, ‘i <= i'’, and if ‘i ==
          i'’, ‘j <= j'’ are also met.  In other words, of all maximal
          matching blocks, return one that starts earliest in 'a', and
          of all those maximal matching blocks that start earliest in
          'a', return the one that starts earliest in 'b'.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)

          If 'isjunk' was provided, first the longest matching block is
          determined as above, but with the additional restriction that
          no junk element appears in the block.  Then that block is
          extended as far as possible by matching (only) junk elements
          on both sides.  So the resulting block never matches on junk
          except as identical junk happens to be adjacent to an
          interesting match.

          Here’s the same example as before, but considering blanks to
          be junk.  That prevents ‘' abcd'’ from matching the ‘' abcd'’
          at the tail end of the second sequence directly.  Instead only
          the ‘'abcd'’ can match, and matches the leftmost ‘'abcd'’ in
          the second sequence:

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x==" ", " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)

          If no blocks match, this returns ‘(alo, blo, 0)’.

          This method returns a *note named tuple: 461. ‘Match(a, b,
          size)’.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added default arguments.

      -- Yöntemi: get_matching_blocks ()

          Return list of triples describing non-overlapping matching
          subsequences.  Each triple is of the form ‘(i, j, n)’, and
          means that ‘a[i:i+n] == b[j:j+n]’.  The triples are
          monotonically increasing in 'i' and 'j'.

          The last triple is a dummy, and has the value ‘(len(a),
          len(b), 0)’.  It is the only triple with ‘n == 0’.  If ‘(i, j,
          n)’ and ‘(i', j', n')’ are adjacent triples in the list, and
          the second is not the last triple in the list, then ‘i+n < i'’
          or ‘j+n < j'’; in other words, adjacent triples always
          describe non-adjacent equal blocks.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abxcd", "abcd")
               >>> s.get_matching_blocks()
               [Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]

      -- Yöntemi: get_opcodes ()

          Return list of 5-tuples describing how to turn 'a' into 'b'.
          Each tuple is of the form ‘(tag, i1, i2, j1, j2)’.  The first
          tuple has ‘i1 == j1 == 0’, and remaining tuples have 'i1'
          equal to the 'i2' from the preceding tuple, and, likewise,
          'j1' equal to the previous 'j2'.

          The 'tag' values are strings, with these meanings:

          Value               Meaning
                              
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
          ‘'replace'’         ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be replaced by ‘b[j1:j2]’.
                              
                              
          ‘'delete'’          ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be deleted.  Note that ‘j1 ==
                              j2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'insert'’          ‘b[j1:j2]’ should be inserted at ‘a[i1:i1]’.
                              Note that ‘i1 == i2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'equal'’           ‘a[i1:i2] == b[j1:j2]’ (the sub-sequences are
                              equal).
                              

          For example:

               >>> a = "qabxcd"
               >>> b = "abycdf"
               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, a, b)
               >>> for tag, i1, i2, j1, j2 in s.get_opcodes():
               ...     print('{:7}   a[{}:{}] --> b[{}:{}] {!r:>8} --> {!r}'.format(
               ...         tag, i1, i2, j1, j2, a[i1:i2], b[j1:j2]))
               delete    a[0:1] --> b[0:0]      'q' --> ''
               equal     a[1:3] --> b[0:2]     'ab' --> 'ab'
               replace   a[3:4] --> b[2:3]      'x' --> 'y'
               equal     a[4:6] --> b[3:5]     'cd' --> 'cd'
               insert    a[6:6] --> b[5:6]       '' --> 'f'

      -- Yöntemi: get_grouped_opcodes (n=3)

          Return a *note generator: f0b. of groups with up to 'n' lines
          of context.

          Starting with the groups returned by *note get_opcodes():
          2131, this method splits out smaller change clusters and
          eliminates intervening ranges which have no changes.

          The groups are returned in the same format as *note
          get_opcodes(): 2131.

      -- Yöntemi: ratio ()

          Return a measure of the sequences’ similarity as a float in
          the range [0, 1].

          Where T is the total number of elements in both sequences, and
          M is the number of matches, this is 2.0*M / T. Note that this
          is ‘1.0’ if the sequences are identical, and ‘0.0’ if they
          have nothing in common.

          This is expensive to compute if *note get_matching_blocks():
          2130. or *note get_opcodes(): 2131. hasn’t already been
          called, in which case you may want to try *note quick_ratio():
          2134. or *note real_quick_ratio(): 2135. first to get an upper
          bound.

               Not: Caution: The result of a *note ratio(): 2133. call
               may depend on the order of the arguments.  For instance:

                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'tide', 'diet').ratio()
                    0.25
                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'diet', 'tide').ratio()
                    0.5

      -- Yöntemi: quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 2133. relatively
          quickly.

      -- Yöntemi: real_quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 2133. very quickly.

The three methods that return the ratio of matching to total characters
can give different results due to differing levels of approximation,
although *note quick_ratio(): 2134. and *note real_quick_ratio(): 2135.
are always at least as large as *note ratio(): 2133.:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abcd", "bcde")
     >>> s.ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.quick_ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.real_quick_ratio()
     1.0


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher Examples,  Next: Differ Objects,  Prev: SequenceMatcher Objects,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.2 SequenceMatcher Examples
................................

This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be “junk”:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x == " ",
     ...                     "private Thread currentThread;",
     ...                     "private volatile Thread currentThread;")

*note ratio(): 2133. returns a float in [0, 1], measuring the similarity
of the sequences.  As a rule of thumb, a *note ratio(): 2133. value over
0.6 means the sequences are close matches:

     >>> print(round(s.ratio(), 3))
     0.866

If you’re only interested in where the sequences match, *note
get_matching_blocks(): 2130. is handy:

     >>> for block in s.get_matching_blocks():
     ...     print("a[%d] and b[%d] match for %d elements" % block)
     a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements
     a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements
     a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements

Note that the last tuple returned by *note get_matching_blocks(): 2130.
is always a dummy, ‘(len(a), len(b), 0)’, and this is the only case in
which the last tuple element (number of elements matched) is ‘0’.

If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second,
use *note get_opcodes(): 2131.:

     >>> for opcode in s.get_opcodes():
     ...     print("%6s a[%d:%d] b[%d:%d]" % opcode)
      equal a[0:8] b[0:8]
     insert a[8:8] b[8:17]
      equal a[8:29] b[17:38]

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * The *note get_close_matches(): 2125. function in this module which
     shows how simple code building on *note SequenceMatcher: ec1. can
     be used to do useful work.

   * Simple version control recipe(1) for a small application built with
     *note SequenceMatcher: ec1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729-simple-version-control/


File: python.info,  Node: Differ Objects,  Next: Differ Example,  Prev: SequenceMatcher Examples,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.3 Differ Objects
......................

Note that *note Differ: 211d.-generated deltas make no claim to be
'minimal' diffs.  To the contrary, minimal diffs are often
counter-intuitive, because they synch up anywhere possible, sometimes
accidental matches 100 pages apart.  Restricting synch points to
contiguous matches preserves some notion of locality, at the occasional
cost of producing a longer diff.

The *note Differ: 211d. class has this constructor:

 -- Sınıfı: difflib.Differ (linejunk=None, charjunk=None)

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are for
     filter functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk.  The default is ‘None’, meaning
     that no line is considered junk.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a single character argument (a
     string of length 1), and returns true if the character is junk.
     The default is ‘None’, meaning that no character is considered
     junk.

     These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
     differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
     be ignored.  Read the description of the *note
     find_longest_match(): 178e. method’s 'isjunk' parameter for an
     explanation.

     *note Differ: 211d. objects are used (deltas generated) via a
     single method:

      -- Yöntemi: compare (a, b)

          Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a
          sequence of lines).

          Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings
          ending with newlines.  Such sequences can be obtained from the
          *note readlines(): 2122. method of file-like objects.  The
          delta generated also consists of newline-terminated strings,
          ready to be printed as-is via the *note writelines(): 2123.
          method of a file-like object.


File: python.info,  Node: Differ Example,  Next: A command-line interface to difflib,  Prev: Differ Objects,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.4 Differ Example
......................

This example compares two texts.  First we set up the texts, sequences
of individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences
can also be obtained from the *note readlines(): 2122. method of
file-like objects):

     >>> text1 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     ...   3. Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
     >>> len(text1)
     4
     >>> text1[0][-1]
     '\n'
     >>> text2 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ...   5. Flat is better than nested.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)

Next we instantiate a Differ object:

     >>> d = Differ()

Note that when instantiating a *note Differ: 211d. object we may pass
functions to filter out line and character “junk.” See the *note
Differ(): 211d. constructor for details.

Finally, we compare the two:

     >>> result = list(d.compare(text1, text2))

‘result’ is a list of strings, so let’s pretty-print it:

     >>> from pprint import pprint
     >>> pprint(result)
     ['    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n',
      '-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n',
      '-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n',
      '?     ++\n',
      '-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n',
      '?            ^                     ---- ^\n',
      '+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n',
      '?           ++++ ^                      ^\n',
      '+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n']

As a single multi-line string it looks like this:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout.writelines(result)
         1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     -   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     -   3. Simple is better than complex.
     +   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ?     ++
     -   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ?            ^                     ---- ^
     +   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ?           ++++ ^                      ^
     +   5. Flat is better than nested.


File: python.info,  Node: A command-line interface to difflib,  Next: ndiff example,  Prev: Differ Example,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.5 A command-line interface to difflib
...........................................

This example shows how to use difflib to create a ‘diff’-like utility.

     """ Command line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:

     * ndiff:    lists every line and highlights interline changes.
     * context:  highlights clusters of changes in a before/after format.
     * unified:  highlights clusters of changes in an inline format.
     * html:     generates side by side comparison with change highlights.

     """

     import sys, os, difflib, argparse
     from datetime import datetime, timezone

     def file_mtime(path):
         t = datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
                                    timezone.utc)
         return t.astimezone().isoformat()

     def main():

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-c', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a context format diff (default)')
         parser.add_argument('-u', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a unified format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-m', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce HTML side by side diff '
                                  '(can use -c and -l in conjunction)')
         parser.add_argument('-n', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a ndiff format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=3,
                             help='Set number of context lines (default 3)')
         parser.add_argument('fromfile')
         parser.add_argument('tofile')
         options = parser.parse_args()

         n = options.lines
         fromfile = options.fromfile
         tofile = options.tofile

         fromdate = file_mtime(fromfile)
         todate = file_mtime(tofile)
         with open(fromfile) as ff:
             fromlines = ff.readlines()
         with open(tofile) as tf:
             tolines = tf.readlines()

         if options.u:
             diff = difflib.unified_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)
         elif options.n:
             diff = difflib.ndiff(fromlines, tolines)
         elif options.m:
             diff = difflib.HtmlDiff().make_file(fromlines,tolines,fromfile,tofile,context=options.c,numlines=n)
         else:
             diff = difflib.context_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)

         sys.stdout.writelines(diff)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: ndiff example,  Prev: A command-line interface to difflib,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.6.3.6 ndiff example
.....................

This example shows how to use *note difflib.ndiff(): 211f.

     """ndiff [-q] file1 file2
         or
     ndiff (-r1 | -r2) < ndiff_output > file1_or_file2

     Print a human-friendly file difference report to stdout.  Both inter-
     and intra-line differences are noted.  In the second form, recreate file1
     (-r1) or file2 (-r2) on stdout, from an ndiff report on stdin.

     In the first form, if -q ("quiet") is not specified, the first two lines
     of output are

     -: file1
     +: file2

     Each remaining line begins with a two-letter code:

         "- "    line unique to file1
         "+ "    line unique to file2
         "  "    line common to both files
         "? "    line not present in either input file

     Lines beginning with "? " attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input file.  These lines can be
     confusing if the source files contain tab characters.

     The first file can be recovered by retaining only lines that begin with
     "  " or "- ", and deleting those 2-character prefixes; use ndiff with -r1.

     The second file can be recovered similarly, but by retaining only "  " and
     "+ " lines; use ndiff with -r2; or, on Unix, the second file can be
     recovered by piping the output through

         sed -n '/^[+ ] /s/^..//p'
     """

     __version__ = 1, 7, 0

     import difflib, sys

     def fail(msg):
         out = sys.stderr.write
         out(msg + "\n\n")
         out(__doc__)
         return 0

     # open a file & return the file object; gripe and return 0 if it
     # couldn't be opened
     def fopen(fname):
         try:
             return open(fname)
         except IOError as detail:
             return fail("couldn't open " + fname + ": " + str(detail))

     # open two files & spray the diff to stdout; return false iff a problem
     def fcompare(f1name, f2name):
         f1 = fopen(f1name)
         f2 = fopen(f2name)
         if not f1 or not f2:
             return 0

         a = f1.readlines(); f1.close()
         b = f2.readlines(); f2.close()
         for line in difflib.ndiff(a, b):
             print(line, end=' ')

         return 1

     # crack args (sys.argv[1:] is normal) & compare;
     # return false iff a problem

     def main(args):
         import getopt
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(args, "qr:")
         except getopt.error as detail:
             return fail(str(detail))
         noisy = 1
         qseen = rseen = 0
         for opt, val in opts:
             if opt == "-q":
                 qseen = 1
                 noisy = 0
             elif opt == "-r":
                 rseen = 1
                 whichfile = val
         if qseen and rseen:
             return fail("can't specify both -q and -r")
         if rseen:
             if args:
                 return fail("no args allowed with -r option")
             if whichfile in ("1", "2"):
                 restore(whichfile)
                 return 1
             return fail("-r value must be 1 or 2")
         if len(args) != 2:
             return fail("need 2 filename args")
         f1name, f2name = args
         if noisy:
             print('-:', f1name)
             print('+:', f2name)
         return fcompare(f1name, f2name)

     # read ndiff output from stdin, and print file1 (which=='1') or
     # file2 (which=='2') to stdout

     def restore(which):
         restored = difflib.restore(sys.stdin.readlines(), which)
         sys.stdout.writelines(restored)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main(sys.argv[1:])


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling,  Next: unicodedata — Unicode Database,  Prev: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.4 ‘textwrap’ — Text wrapping and filling
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/textwrap.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note textwrap: eb. module provides some convenience functions, as
well as *note TextWrapper: e73, the class that does all the work.  If
you’re just wrapping or filling one or two text strings, the convenience
functions should be good enough; otherwise, you should use an instance
of *note TextWrapper: e73. for efficiency.

 -- Işlevi: textwrap.wrap (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Wraps the single paragraph in 'text' (a string) so every line is at
     most 'width' characters long.  Returns a list of output lines,
     without final newlines.

     Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
     *note TextWrapper: e73, documented below.

     See the *note TextWrapper.wrap(): 2140. method for additional
     details on how *note wrap(): 1352. behaves.

 -- Işlevi: textwrap.fill (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Wraps the single paragraph in 'text', and returns a single string
     containing the wrapped paragraph.  *note fill(): 1351. is shorthand
     for

          "\n".join(wrap(text, ...))

     In particular, *note fill(): 1351. accepts exactly the same keyword
     arguments as *note wrap(): 1352.

 -- Işlevi: textwrap.shorten (text, width, *,
          fix_sentence_endings=False, break_long_words=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, placeholder=' [...]')

     Collapse and truncate the given 'text' to fit in the given 'width'.

     First the whitespace in 'text' is collapsed (all whitespace is
     replaced by single spaces).  If the result fits in the 'width', it
     is returned.  Otherwise, enough words are dropped from the end so
     that the remaining words plus the 'placeholder' fit within 'width':

          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=12)
          'Hello world!'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=11)
          'Hello [...]'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello world", width=10, placeholder="...")
          'Hello...'

     Optional keyword arguments correspond to the instance attributes of
     *note TextWrapper: e73, documented below.  Note that the whitespace
     is collapsed before the text is passed to the *note TextWrapper:
     e73. *note fill(): 1351. function, so changing the value of *note
     tabsize: 2141, *note expand_tabs: 2142, *note drop_whitespace:
     2143, and *note replace_whitespace: 2144. will have no effect.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: textwrap.dedent (text)

     Remove any common leading whitespace from every line in 'text'.

     This can be used to make triple-quoted strings line up with the
     left edge of the display, while still presenting them in the source
     code in indented form.

     Note that tabs and spaces are both treated as whitespace, but they
     are not equal: the lines ‘" hello"’ and ‘"\thello"’ are considered
     to have no common leading whitespace.

     Lines containing only whitespace are ignored in the input and
     normalized to a single newline character in the output.

     For example:

          def test():
              # end first line with \ to avoid the empty line!
              s = '''\
              hello
                world
              '''
              print(repr(s))          # prints '    hello\n      world\n    '
              print(repr(dedent(s)))  # prints 'hello\n  world\n'

 -- Işlevi: textwrap.indent (text, prefix, predicate=None)

     Add 'prefix' to the beginning of selected lines in 'text'.

     Lines are separated by calling ‘text.splitlines(True)’.

     By default, 'prefix' is added to all lines that do not consist
     solely of whitespace (including any line endings).

     For example:

          >>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld'
          >>> indent(s, '  ')
          '  hello\n\n \n  world'

     The optional 'predicate' argument can be used to control which
     lines are indented.  For example, it is easy to add 'prefix' to
     even empty and whitespace-only lines:

          >>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True))
          + hello
          +
          +
          + world

     Added in version 3.3.

*note wrap(): 1352, *note fill(): 1351. and *note shorten(): e76. work
by creating a *note TextWrapper: e73. instance and calling a single
method on it.  That instance is not reused, so for applications that
process many text strings using *note wrap(): 1352. and/or *note fill():
1351, it may be more efficient to create your own *note TextWrapper:
e73. object.

Text is preferably wrapped on whitespaces and right after the hyphens in
hyphenated words; only then will long words be broken if necessary,
unless *note TextWrapper.break_long_words: 2146. is set to false.

 -- Sınıfı: textwrap.TextWrapper (**kwargs)

     The *note TextWrapper: e73. constructor accepts a number of
     optional keyword arguments.  Each keyword argument corresponds to
     an instance attribute, so for example

          wrapper = TextWrapper(initial_indent="* ")

     is the same as

          wrapper = TextWrapper()
          wrapper.initial_indent = "* "

     You can reuse the same *note TextWrapper: e73. object many times,
     and you can change any of its options through direct assignment to
     instance attributes between uses.

     The *note TextWrapper: e73. instance attributes (and keyword
     arguments to the constructor) are as follows:

      -- Özniteliği: width

          (default: ‘70’) The maximum length of wrapped lines.  As long
          as there are no individual words in the input text longer than
          *note width: 2147, *note TextWrapper: e73. guarantees that no
          output line will be longer than *note width: 2147. characters.

      -- Özniteliği: expand_tabs

          (default: ‘True’) If true, then all tab characters in 'text'
          will be expanded to spaces using the *note expandtabs(): 1fae.
          method of 'text'.

      -- Özniteliği: tabsize

          (default: ‘8’) If *note expand_tabs: 2142. is true, then all
          tab characters in 'text' will be expanded to zero or more
          spaces, depending on the current column and the given tab
          size.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: replace_whitespace

          (default: ‘True’) If true, after tab expansion but before
          wrapping, the *note wrap(): 1352. method will replace each
          whitespace character with a single space.  The whitespace
          characters replaced are as follows: tab, newline, vertical
          tab, formfeed, and carriage return (‘'\t\n\v\f\r'’).

               Not: If *note expand_tabs: 2142. is false and *note
               replace_whitespace: 2144. is true, each tab character
               will be replaced by a single space, which is 'not' the
               same as tab expansion.

               Not: If *note replace_whitespace: 2144. is false,
               newlines may appear in the middle of a line and cause
               strange output.  For this reason, text should be split
               into paragraphs (using *note str.splitlines(): 10fe. or
               similar) which are wrapped separately.

      -- Özniteliği: drop_whitespace

          (default: ‘True’) If true, whitespace at the beginning and
          ending of every line (after wrapping but before indenting) is
          dropped.  Whitespace at the beginning of the paragraph,
          however, is not dropped if non-whitespace follows it.  If
          whitespace being dropped takes up an entire line, the whole
          line is dropped.

      -- Özniteliği: initial_indent

          (default: ‘''’) String that will be prepended to the first
          line of wrapped output.  Counts towards the length of the
          first line.  The empty string is not indented.

      -- Özniteliği: subsequent_indent

          (default: ‘''’) String that will be prepended to all lines of
          wrapped output except the first.  Counts towards the length of
          each line except the first.

      -- Özniteliği: fix_sentence_endings

          (default: ‘False’) If true, *note TextWrapper: e73. attempts
          to detect sentence endings and ensure that sentences are
          always separated by exactly two spaces.  This is generally
          desired for text in a monospaced font.  However, the sentence
          detection algorithm is imperfect: it assumes that a sentence
          ending consists of a lowercase letter followed by one of
          ‘'.'’, ‘'!'’, or ‘'?'’, possibly followed by one of ‘'"'’ or
          ‘"'"’, followed by a space.  One problem with this algorithm
          is that it is unable to detect the difference between “Dr.” in

               [...] Dr. Frankenstein's monster [...]

          and “Spot.” in

               [...] See Spot. See Spot run [...]

          *note fix_sentence_endings: 214a. is false by default.

          Since the sentence detection algorithm relies on
          ‘string.lowercase’ for the definition of “lowercase letter”,
          and a convention of using two spaces after a period to
          separate sentences on the same line, it is specific to
          English-language texts.

      -- Özniteliği: break_long_words

          (default: ‘True’) If true, then words longer than *note width:
          2147. will be broken in order to ensure that no lines are
          longer than *note width: 2147.  If it is false, long words
          will not be broken, and some lines may be longer than *note
          width: 2147.  (Long words will be put on a line by themselves,
          in order to minimize the amount by which *note width: 2147. is
          exceeded.)

      -- Özniteliği: break_on_hyphens

          (default: ‘True’) If true, wrapping will occur preferably on
          whitespaces and right after hyphens in compound words, as it
          is customary in English.  If false, only whitespaces will be
          considered as potentially good places for line breaks, but you
          need to set *note break_long_words: 2146. to false if you want
          truly insecable words.  Default behaviour in previous versions
          was to always allow breaking hyphenated words.

      -- Özniteliği: max_lines

          (default: ‘None’) If not ‘None’, then the output will contain
          at most 'max_lines' lines, with 'placeholder' appearing at the
          end of the output.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Özniteliği: placeholder

          (default: ‘' [...]'’) String that will appear at the end of
          the output text if it has been truncated.

          Added in version 3.4.

     *note TextWrapper: e73. also provides some public methods,
     analogous to the module-level convenience functions:

      -- Yöntemi: wrap (text)

          Wraps the single paragraph in 'text' (a string) so every line
          is at most *note width: 2147. characters long.  All wrapping
          options are taken from instance attributes of the *note
          TextWrapper: e73. instance.  Returns a list of output lines,
          without final newlines.  If the wrapped output has no content,
          the returned list is empty.

      -- Yöntemi: fill (text)

          Wraps the single paragraph in 'text', and returns a single
          string containing the wrapped paragraph.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/textwrap.py


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata — Unicode Database,  Next: stringprep — Internet String Preparation,  Prev: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.5 ‘unicodedata’ — Unicode Database
--------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD)
which defines character properties for all Unicode characters.  The data
contained in this database is compiled from the UCD version 15.0.0(1).

The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode
Standard Annex #44, "Unicode Character Database"(2).  It defines the
following functions:

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.lookup (name)

     Look up character by name.  If a character with the given name is
     found, return the corresponding character.  If not found, *note
     KeyError: 903. is raised.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support for name aliases (3) and named
     sequences (4) has been added.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.name (chr[, default])

     Returns the name assigned to the character 'chr' as a string.  If
     no name is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not given, *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.decimal (chr[, default])

     Returns the decimal value assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or,
     if not given, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.digit (chr[, default])

     Returns the digit value assigned to the character 'chr' as integer.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.numeric (chr[, default])

     Returns the numeric value assigned to the character 'chr' as float.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.category (chr)

     Returns the general category assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.bidirectional (chr)

     Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.combining (chr)

     Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character
     'chr' as integer.  Returns ‘0’ if no combining class is defined.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.east_asian_width (chr)

     Returns the east asian width assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.mirrored (chr)

     Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  Returns ‘1’ if the character has been identified as a
     “mirrored” character in bidirectional text, ‘0’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.decomposition (chr)

     Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the
     character 'chr' as string.  An empty string is returned in case no
     such mapping is defined.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.normalize (form, unistr)

     Return the normal form 'form' for the Unicode string 'unistr'.
     Valid values for 'form' are ‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’, and ‘NFKD’.

     The Unicode standard defines various normalization forms of a
     Unicode string, based on the definition of canonical equivalence
     and compatibility equivalence.  In Unicode, several characters can
     be expressed in various way.  For example, the character U+00C7
     (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA) can also be expressed as the
     sequence U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) U+0327 (COMBINING
     CEDILLA).

     For each character, there are two normal forms: normal form C and
     normal form D. Normal form D (NFD) is also known as canonical
     decomposition, and translates each character into its decomposed
     form.  Normal form C (NFC) first applies a canonical decomposition,
     then composes pre-combined characters again.

     In addition to these two forms, there are two additional normal
     forms based on compatibility equivalence.  In Unicode, certain
     characters are supported which normally would be unified with other
     characters.  For example, U+2160 (ROMAN NUMERAL ONE) is really the
     same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I). However, it is
     supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character sets
     (e.g.  gb2312).

     The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility
     decomposition, i.e.  replace all compatibility characters with
     their equivalents.  The normal form KC (NFKC) first applies the
     compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical composition.

     Even if two unicode strings are normalized and look the same to a
     human reader, if one has combining characters and the other
     doesn’t, they may not compare equal.

 -- Işlevi: unicodedata.is_normalized (form, unistr)

     Return whether the Unicode string 'unistr' is in the normal form
     'form'.  Valid values for 'form' are ‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’, and
     ‘NFKD’.

     Added in version 3.8.

In addition, the module exposes the following constant:

 -- Verisi: unicodedata.unidata_version

     The version of the Unicode database used in this module.

 -- Verisi: unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0

     This is an object that has the same methods as the entire module,
     but uses the Unicode database version 3.2 instead, for applications
     that require this specific version of the Unicode database (such as
     IDNA).

Examples:

     >>> import unicodedata
     >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
     '{'
     >>> unicodedata.name('/')
     'SOLIDUS'
     >>> unicodedata.decimal('9')
     9
     >>> unicodedata.decimal('a')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: not a decimal
     >>> unicodedata.category('A')  # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
     'Lu'
     >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\u0660') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
     'AN'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/

   (3) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’

   (4) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/15.0.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt’


File: python.info,  Node: stringprep — Internet String Preparation,  Next: readline — GNU readline interface,  Prev: unicodedata — Unicode Database,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.6 ‘stringprep’ — Internet String Preparation
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/stringprep.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

When identifying things (such as host names) in the internet, it is
often necessary to compare such identifications for “equality”.  Exactly
how this comparison is executed may depend on the application domain,
e.g.  whether it should be case-insensitive or not.  It may be also
necessary to restrict the possible identifications, to allow only
identifications consisting of “printable” characters.

RFC 3454(2) defines a procedure for “preparing” Unicode strings in
internet protocols.  Before passing strings onto the wire, they are
processed with the preparation procedure, after which they have a
certain normalized form.  The RFC defines a set of tables, which can be
combined into profiles.  Each profile must define which tables it uses,
and what other optional parts of the ‘stringprep’ procedure are part of
the profile.  One example of a ‘stringprep’ profile is ‘nameprep’, which
is used for internationalized domain names.

The module *note stringprep: d3. only exposes the tables from RFC
3454(3).  As these tables would be very large to represent as
dictionaries or lists, the module uses the Unicode character database
internally.  The module source code itself was generated using the
‘mkstringprep.py’ utility.

As a result, these tables are exposed as functions, not as data
structures.  There are two kinds of tables in the RFC: sets and
mappings.  For a set, *note stringprep: d3. provides the “characteristic
function”, i.e.  a function that returns ‘True’ if the parameter is part
of the set.  For mappings, it provides the mapping function: given the
key, it returns the associated value.  Below is a list of all functions
available in the module.

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_a1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableA.1 (Unassigned code points in
     Unicode 3.2).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_b1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableB.1 (Commonly mapped to
     nothing).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.map_table_b2 (code)

     Return the mapped value for 'code' according to tableB.2 (Mapping
     for case-folding used with NFKC).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.map_table_b3 (code)

     Return the mapped value for 'code' according to tableB.3 (Mapping
     for case-folding used with no normalization).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c11 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1.1 (ASCII space characters).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c12 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1.2 (Non-ASCII space
     characters).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c11_c12 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1 (Space characters, union of
     C.1.1 and C.1.2).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c21 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2.1 (ASCII control
     characters).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c22 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2.2 (Non-ASCII control
     characters).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c21_c22 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2 (Control characters, union
     of C.2.1 and C.2.2).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c3 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.3 (Private use).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c4 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.4 (Non-character code
     points).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c5 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.5 (Surrogate codes).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c6 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.6 (Inappropriate for plain
     text).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c7 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.7 (Inappropriate for
     canonical representation).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c8 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.8 (Change display properties
     or are deprecated).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_c9 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.9 (Tagging characters).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_d1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableD.1 (Characters with
     bidirectional property “R” or “AL”).

 -- Işlevi: stringprep.in_table_d2 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableD.2 (Characters with
     bidirectional property “L”).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/stringprep.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html


File: python.info,  Node: readline — GNU readline interface,  Next: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline,  Prev: stringprep — Internet String Preparation,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.7 ‘readline’ — GNU readline interface
-----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note readline: b9. module defines a number of functions to
facilitate completion and reading/writing of history files from the
Python interpreter.  This module can be used directly, or via the *note
rlcompleter: bc. module, which supports completion of Python identifiers
at the interactive prompt.  Settings made using this module affect the
behaviour of both the interpreter’s interactive prompt and the prompts
offered by the built-in *note input(): 1182. function.

Readline keybindings may be configured via an initialization file,
typically ‘.inputrc’ in your home directory.  See Readline Init File(1)
in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and
allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the Readline
library in general.

     Not: The underlying Readline library API may be implemented by the
     ‘libedit’ library instead of GNU readline.  On macOS the *note
     readline: b9. module detects which library is being used at run
     time.

     The configuration file for ‘libedit’ is different from that of GNU
     readline.  If you programmatically load configuration strings you
     can check for the text “libedit” in ‘readline.__doc__’ to
     differentiate between GNU readline and libedit.

     If you use 'editline'/‘libedit’ readline emulation on macOS, the
     initialization file located in your home directory is named
     ‘.editrc’.  For example, the following content in ‘~/.editrc’ will
     turn ON 'vi' keybindings and TAB completion:

          python:bind -v
          python:bind ^I rl_complete

     Also note that different libraries may use different history file
     formats.  When switching the underlying library, existing history
     files may become unusable.

* Menu:

* Init file::
* Line buffer::
* History file::
* History list::
* Startup hooks::
* Completion::
* Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#Readline-Init-File


File: python.info,  Node: Init file,  Next: Line buffer,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.6.7.1 Init file
.................

The following functions relate to the init file and user configuration:

 -- Işlevi: readline.parse_and_bind (string)

     Execute the init line provided in the 'string' argument.  This
     calls ‘rl_parse_and_bind()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.read_init_file ([filename])

     Execute a readline initialization file.  The default filename is
     the last filename used.  This calls ‘rl_read_init_file()’ in the
     underlying library.


File: python.info,  Node: Line buffer,  Next: History file,  Prev: Init file,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.6.7.2 Line buffer
...................

The following functions operate on the line buffer:

 -- Işlevi: readline.get_line_buffer ()

     Return the current contents of the line buffer (‘rl_line_buffer’ in
     the underlying library).

 -- Işlevi: readline.insert_text (string)

     Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position.  This
     calls ‘rl_insert_text()’ in the underlying library, but ignores the
     return value.

 -- Işlevi: readline.redisplay ()

     Change what’s displayed on the screen to reflect the current
     contents of the line buffer.  This calls ‘rl_redisplay()’ in the
     underlying library.


File: python.info,  Node: History file,  Next: History list,  Prev: Line buffer,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.6.7.3 History file
....................

The following functions operate on a history file:

 -- Işlevi: readline.read_history_file ([filename])

     Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list.
     The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls ‘read_history()’
     in the underlying library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.write_history_file ([filename])

     Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any
     existing file.  The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls
     ‘write_history()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.append_history_file (nelements[, filename])

     Append the last 'nelements' items of history to a file.  The
     default filename is ‘~/.history’.  The file must already exist.
     This calls ‘append_history()’ in the underlying library.  This
     function only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the
     library that supports it.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: readline.get_history_length ()
 -- Işlevi: readline.set_history_length (length)

     Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history
     file.  The *note write_history_file(): 2178. function uses this
     value to truncate the history file, by calling
     ‘history_truncate_file()’ in the underlying library.  Negative
     values imply unlimited history file size.


File: python.info,  Node: History list,  Next: Startup hooks,  Prev: History file,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.6.7.4 History list
....................

The following functions operate on a global history list:

 -- Işlevi: readline.clear_history ()

     Clear the current history.  This calls ‘clear_history()’ in the
     underlying library.  The Python function only exists if Python was
     compiled for a version of the library that supports it.

 -- Işlevi: readline.get_current_history_length ()

     Return the number of items currently in the history.  (This is
     different from *note get_history_length(): 2179, which returns the
     maximum number of lines that will be written to a history file.)

 -- Işlevi: readline.get_history_item (index)

     Return the current contents of history item at 'index'.  The item
     index is one-based.  This calls ‘history_get()’ in the underlying
     library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.remove_history_item (pos)

     Remove history item specified by its position from the history.
     The position is zero-based.  This calls ‘remove_history()’ in the
     underlying library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.replace_history_item (pos, line)

     Replace history item specified by its position with 'line'.  The
     position is zero-based.  This calls ‘replace_history_entry()’ in
     the underlying library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.add_history (line)

     Append 'line' to the history buffer, as if it was the last line
     typed.  This calls ‘add_history()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.set_auto_history (enabled)

     Enable or disable automatic calls to ‘add_history()’ when reading
     input via readline.  The 'enabled' argument should be a Boolean
     value that when true, enables auto history, and that when false,
     disables auto history.

     Added in version 3.6.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Auto history is enabled by default,
     and changes to this do not persist across multiple sessions.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup hooks,  Next: Completion,  Prev: History list,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.6.7.5 Startup hooks
.....................

 -- Işlevi: readline.set_startup_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_startup_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments just before readline prints the first prompt.

 -- Işlevi: readline.set_pre_input_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_pre_input_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments after the first prompt has been printed and just before
     readline starts reading input characters.  This function only
     exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library that
     supports it.


File: python.info,  Node: Completion,  Next: Example,  Prev: Startup hooks,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.6.7.6 Completion
..................

The following functions relate to implementing a custom word completion
function.  This is typically operated by the Tab key, and can suggest
and automatically complete a word being typed.  By default, Readline is
set up to be used by *note rlcompleter: bc. to complete Python
identifiers for the interactive interpreter.  If the *note readline: b9.
module is to be used with a custom completer, a different set of word
delimiters should be set.

 -- Işlevi: readline.set_completer ([function])

     Set or remove the completer function.  If 'function' is specified,
     it will be used as the new completer function; if omitted or
     ‘None’, any completer function already installed is removed.  The
     completer function is called as ‘function(text, state)’, for
     'state' in ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘2’, …, until it returns a non-string value.
     It should return the next possible completion starting with 'text'.

     The installed completer function is invoked by the 'entry_func'
     callback passed to ‘rl_completion_matches()’ in the underlying
     library.  The 'text' string comes from the first parameter to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.get_completer ()

     Get the completer function, or ‘None’ if no completer function has
     been set.

 -- Işlevi: readline.get_completion_type ()

     Get the type of completion being attempted.  This returns the
     ‘rl_completion_type’ variable in the underlying library as an
     integer.

 -- Işlevi: readline.get_begidx ()
 -- Işlevi: readline.get_endidx ()

     Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope.  These
     indexes are the 'start' and 'end' arguments passed to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.  The values may be different in the same input editing
     scenario based on the underlying C readline implementation.  Ex:
     libedit is known to behave differently than libreadline.

 -- Işlevi: readline.set_completer_delims (string)
 -- Işlevi: readline.get_completer_delims ()

     Set or get the word delimiters for completion.  These determine the
     start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion
     scope).  These functions access the
     ‘rl_completer_word_break_characters’ variable in the underlying
     library.

 -- Işlevi: readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the completion display function.  If 'function' is
     specified, it will be used as the new completion display function;
     if omitted or ‘None’, any completion display function already
     installed is removed.  This sets or clears the
     ‘rl_completion_display_matches_hook’ callback in the underlying
     library.  The completion display function is called as
     ‘function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length)’ once each
     time matches need to be displayed.


File: python.info,  Node: Example,  Prev: Completion,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.6.7.7 Example
...............

The following example demonstrates how to use the *note readline: b9.
module’s history reading and writing functions to automatically load and
save a history file named ‘.python_history’ from the user’s home
directory.  The code below would normally be executed automatically
during interactive sessions from the user’s *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e.
file.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline

     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         # default history len is -1 (infinite), which may grow unruly
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
     except FileNotFoundError:
         pass

     atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile)

This code is actually automatically run when Python is run in *note
interactive mode: e6c. (see *note Readline configuration: e6f.).

The following example achieves the same goal but supports concurrent
interactive sessions, by only appending the new history.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline
     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")

     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         open(histfile, 'wb').close()
         h_len = 0

     def save(prev_h_len, histfile):
         new_h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
         readline.append_history_file(new_h_len - prev_h_len, histfile)
     atexit.register(save, h_len, histfile)

The following example extends the *note code.InteractiveConsole: 218b.
class to support history save/restore.

     import atexit
     import code
     import os
     import readline

     class HistoryConsole(code.InteractiveConsole):
         def __init__(self, locals=None, filename="<console>",
                      histfile=os.path.expanduser("~/.console-history")):
             code.InteractiveConsole.__init__(self, locals, filename)
             self.init_history(histfile)

         def init_history(self, histfile):
             readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
             if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"):
                 try:
                     readline.read_history_file(histfile)
                 except FileNotFoundError:
                     pass
                 atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile)

         def save_history(self, histfile):
             readline.set_history_length(1000)
             readline.write_history_file(histfile)


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline,  Prev: readline — GNU readline interface,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.6.8 ‘rlcompleter’ — Completion function for GNU readline
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/rlcompleter.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘rlcompleter’ module defines a completion function suitable to be
passed to *note set_completer(): 2184. in the *note readline: b9.
module.

When this module is imported on a Unix platform with the *note readline:
b9. module available, an instance of the *note Completer: 1770. class is
automatically created and its *note complete(): 218e. method is set as
the *note readline completer: 2183.  The method provides completion of
valid Python *note identifiers and keywords: 1c81.

Example:

     >>> import rlcompleter
     >>> import readline
     >>> readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
     >>> readline. <TAB PRESSED>
     readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(
     readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(
     readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(
     >>> readline.

The ‘rlcompleter’ module is designed for use with Python’s *note
interactive mode: e6c.  Unless Python is run with the *note -S: 104e.
option, the module is automatically imported and configured (see *note
Readline configuration: e6f.).

On platforms without *note readline: b9, the *note Completer: 1770.
class defined by this module can still be used for custom purposes.

 -- Sınıfı: rlcompleter.Completer

     Completer objects have the following method:

      -- Yöntemi: complete (text, state)

          Return the next possible completion for 'text'.

          When called by the *note readline: b9. module, this method is
          called successively with ‘state == 0, 1, 2, ...’ until the
          method returns ‘None’.

          If called for 'text' that doesn’t include a period character
          (‘'.'’), it will complete from names currently defined in
          *note __main__: 1, *note builtins: 12. and keywords (as
          defined by the *note keyword: 82. module).

          If called for a dotted name, it will try to evaluate anything
          without obvious side-effects (functions will not be evaluated,
          but it can generate calls to *note __getattr__(): 201.) up to
          the last part, and find matches for the rest via the *note
          dir(): 445. function.  Any exception raised during the
          evaluation of the expression is caught, silenced and *note
          None: 488. is returned.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/rlcompleter.py


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Data Services,  Next: Data Types,  Prev: Text Processing Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.7 Binary Data Services
========================

The modules described in this chapter provide some basic services
operations for manipulation of binary data.  Other operations on binary
data, specifically in relation to file formats and network protocols,
are described in the relevant sections.

Some libraries described under *note Text Processing Services: 1fab.
also work with either ASCII-compatible binary formats (for example,
*note re: b8.) or all binary data (for example, *note difflib: 36.).

In addition, see the documentation for Python’s built-in binary data
types in *note Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview:
1f4e.

* Menu:

* struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data::
* codecs — Codec registry and base classes::


File: python.info,  Node: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data,  Next: codecs — Codec registry and base classes,  Up: Binary Data Services

5.7.1 ‘struct’ — Interpret bytes as packed binary data
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/struct.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module converts between Python values and C structs represented as
Python *note bytes: 2cb. objects.  Compact *note format strings: 2194.
describe the intended conversions to/from Python values.  The module’s
functions and objects can be used for two largely distinct applications,
data exchange with external sources (files or network connections), or
data transfer between the Python application and the C layer.

     Not: When no prefix character is given, native mode is the default.
     It packs or unpacks data based on the platform and compiler on
     which the Python interpreter was built.  The result of packing a
     given C struct includes pad bytes which maintain proper alignment
     for the C types involved; similarly, alignment is taken into
     account when unpacking.  In contrast, when communicating data
     between external sources, the programmer is responsible for
     defining byte ordering and padding between elements.  See *note
     Byte Order, Size, and Alignment: 2195. for details.

Several *note struct: d4. functions (and methods of *note Struct: 14c1.)
take a 'buffer' argument.  This refers to objects that implement the
*note Buffer Protocol: 14e. and provide either a readable or
read-writable buffer.  The most common types used for that purpose are
*note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca, but many other types that
can be viewed as an array of bytes implement the buffer protocol, so
that they can be read/filled without additional copying from a *note
bytes: 2cb. object.

* Menu:

* Functions and Exceptions::
* Format Strings::
* Applications::
* Classes: Classes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/struct.py


File: python.info,  Node: Functions and Exceptions,  Next: Format Strings,  Up: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.1 Functions and Exceptions
................................

The module defines the following exception and functions:

 -- Özel Durum: struct.error

     Exception raised on various occasions; argument is a string
     describing what is wrong.

 -- Işlevi: struct.pack (format, v1, v2, ...)

     Return a bytes object containing the values 'v1', 'v2', … packed
     according to the format string 'format'.  The arguments must match
     the values required by the format exactly.

 -- Işlevi: struct.pack_into (format, buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

     Pack the values 'v1', 'v2', … according to the format string
     'format' and write the packed bytes into the writable buffer
     'buffer' starting at position 'offset'.  Note that 'offset' is a
     required argument.

 -- Işlevi: struct.unpack (format, buffer)

     Unpack from the buffer 'buffer' (presumably packed by ‘pack(format,
     ...)’) according to the format string 'format'.  The result is a
     tuple even if it contains exactly one item.  The buffer’s size in
     bytes must match the size required by the format, as reflected by
     *note calcsize(): 17f6.

 -- Işlevi: struct.unpack_from (format, /, buffer, offset=0)

     Unpack from 'buffer' starting at position 'offset', according to
     the format string 'format'.  The result is a tuple even if it
     contains exactly one item.  The buffer’s size in bytes, starting at
     position 'offset', must be at least the size required by the
     format, as reflected by *note calcsize(): 17f6.

 -- Işlevi: struct.iter_unpack (format, buffer)

     Iteratively unpack from the buffer 'buffer' according to the format
     string 'format'.  This function returns an iterator which will read
     equally sized chunks from the buffer until all its contents have
     been consumed.  The buffer’s size in bytes must be a multiple of
     the size required by the format, as reflected by *note calcsize():
     17f6.

     Each iteration yields a tuple as specified by the format string.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: struct.calcsize (format)

     Return the size of the struct (and hence of the bytes object
     produced by ‘pack(format, ...)’) corresponding to the format string
     'format'.


File: python.info,  Node: Format Strings,  Next: Applications,  Prev: Functions and Exceptions,  Up: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.2 Format Strings
......................

Format strings describe the data layout when packing and unpacking data.
They are built up from *note format characters: 219a, which specify the
type of data being packed/unpacked.  In addition, special characters
control the *note byte order, size and alignment: 2195.  Each format
string consists of an optional prefix character which describes the
overall properties of the data and one or more format characters which
describe the actual data values and padding.

* Menu:

* Byte Order, Size, and Alignment: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
* Format Characters::
* Examples: Examples<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Byte Order Size and Alignment,  Next: Format Characters,  Up: Format Strings

5.7.1.3 Byte Order, Size, and Alignment
.......................................

By default, C types are represented in the machine’s native format and
byte order, and properly aligned by skipping pad bytes if necessary
(according to the rules used by the C compiler).  This behavior is
chosen so that the bytes of a packed struct correspond exactly to the
memory layout of the corresponding C struct.  Whether to use native byte
ordering and padding or standard formats depends on the application.

Alternatively, the first character of the format string can be used to
indicate the byte order, size and alignment of the packed data,
according to the following table:

Character       Byte order                   Size           Alignment
                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
‘@’             native                       native         native
                                                            
                                                            
‘=’             native                       standard       none
                                                            
                                                            
‘<’             little-endian                standard       none
                                                            
                                                            
‘>’             big-endian                   standard       none
                                                            
                                                            
‘!’             network (= big-endian)       standard       none
                                                            

If the first character is not one of these, ‘'@'’ is assumed.

     Not: The number 1023 (‘0x3ff’ in hexadecimal) has the following
     byte representations:

        * ‘03 ff’ in big-endian (‘>’)

        * ‘ff 03’ in little-endian (‘<’)

     Python example:

          >>> import struct
          >>> struct.pack('>h', 1023)
          b'\x03\xff'
          >>> struct.pack('<h', 1023)
          b'\xff\x03'

Native byte order is big-endian or little-endian, depending on the host
system.  For example, Intel x86, AMD64 (x86-64), and Apple M1 are
little-endian; IBM z and many legacy architectures are big-endian.  Use
*note sys.byteorder: 1f8c. to check the endianness of your system.

Native size and alignment are determined using the C compiler’s ‘sizeof’
expression.  This is always combined with native byte order.

Standard size depends only on the format character; see the table in the
*note Format Characters: 219a. section.

Note the difference between ‘'@'’ and ‘'='’: both use native byte order,
but the size and alignment of the latter is standardized.

The form ‘'!'’ represents the network byte order which is always
big-endian as defined in IETF RFC 1700(1).

There is no way to indicate non-native byte order (force byte-swapping);
use the appropriate choice of ‘'<'’ or ‘'>'’.

Notes:

  1. Padding is only automatically added between successive structure
     members.  No padding is added at the beginning or the end of the
     encoded struct.

  2. No padding is added when using non-native size and alignment, e.g.
     with ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘=’, and ‘!’.

  3. To align the end of a structure to the alignment requirement of a
     particular type, end the format with the code for that type with a
     repeat count of zero.  See *note Examples: 219c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1700


File: python.info,  Node: Format Characters,  Next: Examples<2>,  Prev: Byte Order Size and Alignment,  Up: Format Strings

5.7.1.4 Format Characters
.........................

Format characters have the following meaning; the conversion between C
and Python values should be obvious given their types.  The ‘Standard
size’ column refers to the size of the packed value in bytes when using
standard size; that is, when the format string starts with one of ‘'<'’,
‘'>'’, ‘'!'’ or ‘'='’.  When using native size, the size of the packed
value is platform-dependent.

Format       C Type                         Python type              Standard size        Notes
                                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘x’          pad byte                       no value                                      (7)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘c’          char                           bytes of length 1        1
                                                                     
                                                                                          
‘b’          signed char                    integer                  1                    (1), (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘B’          unsigned char                  integer                  1                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘?’          _Bool                          bool                     1                    (1)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘h’          short                          integer                  2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘H’          unsigned short                 integer                  2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘i’          int                            integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘I’          unsigned int                   integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘l’          long                           integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘L’          unsigned long                  integer                  4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘q’          long long                      integer                  8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘Q’          unsigned long long             integer                  8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘n’          ‘ssize_t’                      integer                                       (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘N’          ‘size_t’                       integer                                       (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘e’          (6)                            float                    2                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘f’          float                          float                    4                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘d’          double                         float                    8                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘s’          char[]                         bytes                                         (9)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘p’          char[]                         bytes                                         (8)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘P’          void*                          integer                                       (5)
                                                                                          

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the ‘'n'’ and ‘'N'’ formats.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the ‘'e'’ format.

Notes:

  1. 
     The ‘'?'’ conversion code corresponds to the _Bool type defined by
     C standards since C99.  In standard mode, it is represented by one
     byte.

  2. When attempting to pack a non-integer using any of the integer
     conversion codes, if the non-integer has a *note __index__(): 538.
     method then that method is called to convert the argument to an
     integer before packing.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added use of the *note __index__(): 538.
     method for non-integers.

  3. The ‘'n'’ and ‘'N'’ conversion codes are only available for the
     native size (selected as the default or with the ‘'@'’ byte order
     character).  For the standard size, you can use whichever of the
     other integer formats fits your application.

  4. For the ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ and ‘'e'’ conversion codes, the packed
     representation uses the IEEE 754 binary32, binary64 or binary16
     format (for ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ or ‘'e'’ respectively), regardless of the
     floating-point format used by the platform.

  5. The ‘'P'’ format character is only available for the native byte
     ordering (selected as the default or with the ‘'@'’ byte order
     character).  The byte order character ‘'='’ chooses to use little-
     or big-endian ordering based on the host system.  The struct module
     does not interpret this as native ordering, so the ‘'P'’ format is
     not available.

  6. The IEEE 754 binary16 “half precision” type was introduced in the
     2008 revision of the IEEE 754 standard(1).  It has a sign bit, a
     5-bit exponent and 11-bit precision (with 10 bits explicitly
     stored), and can represent numbers between approximately ‘6.1e-05’
     and ‘6.5e+04’ at full precision.  This type is not widely supported
     by C compilers: on a typical machine, an unsigned short can be used
     for storage, but not for math operations.  See the Wikipedia page
     on the half-precision floating-point format(2) for more
     information.

  7. When packing, ‘'x'’ inserts one NUL byte.

  8. The ‘'p'’ format character encodes a “Pascal string”, meaning a
     short variable-length string stored in a 'fixed number of bytes',
     given by the count.  The first byte stored is the length of the
     string, or 255, whichever is smaller.  The bytes of the string
     follow.  If the string passed in to *note pack(): 111f. is too long
     (longer than the count minus 1), only the leading ‘count-1’ bytes
     of the string are stored.  If the string is shorter than ‘count-1’,
     it is padded with null bytes so that exactly count bytes in all are
     used.  Note that for *note unpack(): 15e8, the ‘'p'’ format
     character consumes ‘count’ bytes, but that the string returned can
     never contain more than 255 bytes.

  9. For the ‘'s'’ format character, the count is interpreted as the
     length of the bytes, not a repeat count like for the other format
     characters; for example, ‘'10s'’ means a single 10-byte string
     mapping to or from a single Python byte string, while ‘'10c'’ means
     10 separate one byte character elements (e.g., ‘cccccccccc’)
     mapping to or from ten different Python byte objects.  (See *note
     Examples: 219c. for a concrete demonstration of the difference.)
     If a count is not given, it defaults to 1.  For packing, the string
     is truncated or padded with null bytes as appropriate to make it
     fit.  For unpacking, the resulting bytes object always has exactly
     the specified number of bytes.  As a special case, ‘'0s'’ means a
     single, empty string (while ‘'0c'’ means 0 characters).

A format character may be preceded by an integral repeat count.  For
example, the format string ‘'4h'’ means exactly the same as ‘'hhhh'’.

Whitespace characters between formats are ignored; a count and its
format must not contain whitespace though.

When packing a value ‘x’ using one of the integer formats (‘'b'’, ‘'B'’,
‘'h'’, ‘'H'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'I'’, ‘'l'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'q'’, ‘'Q'’), if ‘x’ is
outside the valid range for that format then *note struct.error: 11cf.
is raised.

3.1 sürümünde değişti: Previously, some of the integer formats wrapped
out-of-range values and raised *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. instead of
*note struct.error: 11cf.

For the ‘'?'’ format character, the return value is either *note True:
a86. or *note False: 9a8.  When packing, the truth value of the argument
object is used.  Either 0 or 1 in the native or standard bool
representation will be packed, and any non-zero value will be ‘True’
when unpacking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<2>,  Prev: Format Characters,  Up: Format Strings

5.7.1.5 Examples
................

     Not: Native byte order examples (designated by the ‘'@'’ format
     prefix or lack of any prefix character) may not match what the
     reader’s machine produces as that depends on the platform and
     compiler.

Pack and unpack integers of three different sizes, using big endian
ordering:

     >>> from struct import *
     >>> pack(">bhl", 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
     >>> unpack('>bhl', b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> calcsize('>bhl')
     7

Attempt to pack an integer which is too large for the defined field:

     >>> pack(">h", 99999)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     struct.error: 'h' format requires -32768 <= number <= 32767

Demonstrate the difference between ‘'s'’ and ‘'c'’ format characters:

     >>> pack("@ccc", b'1', b'2', b'3')
     b'123'
     >>> pack("@3s", b'123')
     b'123'

Unpacked fields can be named by assigning them to variables or by
wrapping the result in a named tuple:

     >>> record = b'raymond   \x32\x12\x08\x01\x08'
     >>> name, serialnum, school, gradelevel = unpack('<10sHHb', record)

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> Student = namedtuple('Student', 'name serialnum school gradelevel')
     >>> Student._make(unpack('<10sHHb', record))
     Student(name=b'raymond   ', serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)

The ordering of format characters may have an impact on size in native
mode since padding is implicit.  In standard mode, the user is
responsible for inserting any desired padding.  Note in the first ‘pack’
call below that three NUL bytes were added after the packed ‘'#'’ to
align the following integer on a four-byte boundary.  In this example,
the output was produced on a little endian machine:

     >>> pack('@ci', b'#', 0x12131415)
     b'#\x00\x00\x00\x15\x14\x13\x12'
     >>> pack('@ic', 0x12131415, b'#')
     b'\x15\x14\x13\x12#'
     >>> calcsize('@ci')
     8
     >>> calcsize('@ic')
     5

The following format ‘'llh0l'’ results in two pad bytes being added at
the end, assuming the platform’s longs are aligned on 4-byte boundaries:

     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note array: 7.

     Packed binary storage of homogeneous data.

Module *note json: 80.

     JSON encoder and decoder.

Module *note pickle: a5.

     Python object serialization.


File: python.info,  Node: Applications,  Next: Classes<2>,  Prev: Format Strings,  Up: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.6 Applications
....................

Two main applications for the *note struct: d4. module exist, data
interchange between Python and C code within an application or another
application compiled using the same compiler (*note native formats:
21a1.), and data interchange between applications using agreed upon data
layout (*note standard formats: 21a2.).  Generally speaking, the format
strings constructed for these two domains are distinct.

* Menu:

* Native Formats::
* Standard Formats::


File: python.info,  Node: Native Formats,  Next: Standard Formats,  Up: Applications

5.7.1.7 Native Formats
......................

When constructing format strings which mimic native layouts, the
compiler and machine architecture determine byte ordering and padding.
In such cases, the ‘@’ format character should be used to specify native
byte ordering and data sizes.  Internal pad bytes are normally inserted
automatically.  It is possible that a zero-repeat format code will be
needed at the end of a format string to round up to the correct byte
boundary for proper alignment of consecutive chunks of data.

Consider these two simple examples (on a 64-bit, little-endian machine):

     >>> calcsize('@lhl')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18

Data is not padded to an 8-byte boundary at the end of the second format
string without the use of extra padding.  A zero-repeat format code
solves that problem:

     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24

The ‘'x'’ format code can be used to specify the repeat, but for native
formats it is better to use a zero-repeat format like ‘'0l'’.

By default, native byte ordering and alignment is used, but it is better
to be explicit and use the ‘'@'’ prefix character.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Formats,  Prev: Native Formats,  Up: Applications

5.7.1.8 Standard Formats
........................

When exchanging data beyond your process such as networking or storage,
be precise.  Specify the exact byte order, size, and alignment.  Do not
assume they match the native order of a particular machine.  For
example, network byte order is big-endian, while many popular CPUs are
little-endian.  By defining this explicitly, the user need not care
about the specifics of the platform their code is running on.  The first
character should typically be ‘<’ or ‘>’ (or ‘!’).  Padding is the
responsibility of the programmer.  The zero-repeat format character
won’t work.  Instead, the user must explicitly add ‘'x'’ pad bytes where
needed.  Revisiting the examples from the previous section, we have:

     >>> calcsize('<qh6xq')
     24
     >>> pack('<qh6xq', 1, 2, 3) == pack('@lhl', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18
     >>> pack('@llh', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     True

The above results (executed on a 64-bit machine) aren’t guaranteed to
match when executed on different machines.  For example, the examples
below were executed on a 32-bit machine:

     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     12
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<2>,  Prev: Applications,  Up: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data

5.7.1.9 Classes
...............

The *note struct: d4. module also defines the following type:

 -- Sınıfı: struct.Struct (format)

     Return a new Struct object which writes and reads binary data
     according to the format string 'format'.  Creating a ‘Struct’
     object once and calling its methods is more efficient than calling
     module-level functions with the same format since the format string
     is only compiled once.

          Not: The compiled versions of the most recent format strings
          passed to the module-level functions are cached, so programs
          that use only a few format strings needn’t worry about reusing
          a single *note Struct: 14c1. instance.

     Compiled Struct objects support the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- Yöntemi: pack (v1, v2, ...)

          Identical to the *note pack(): 111f. function, using the
          compiled format.  (‘len(result)’ will equal *note size: 21a8.)

      -- Yöntemi: pack_into (buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

          Identical to the *note pack_into(): 2197. function, using the
          compiled format.

      -- Yöntemi: unpack (buffer)

          Identical to the *note unpack(): 15e8. function, using the
          compiled format.  The buffer’s size in bytes must equal *note
          size: 21a8.

      -- Yöntemi: unpack_from (buffer, offset=0)

          Identical to the *note unpack_from(): 2198. function, using
          the compiled format.  The buffer’s size in bytes, starting at
          position 'offset', must be at least *note size: 21a8.

      -- Yöntemi: iter_unpack (buffer)

          Identical to the *note iter_unpack(): e61. function, using the
          compiled format.  The buffer’s size in bytes must be a
          multiple of *note size: 21a8.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Özniteliği: format

          The format string used to construct this Struct object.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: The format string type is now *note
          str: 15d. instead of *note bytes: 2cb.

      -- Özniteliği: size

          The calculated size of the struct (and hence of the bytes
          object produced by the *note pack(): 111f. method)
          corresponding to *note format: 431.


File: python.info,  Node: codecs — Codec registry and base classes,  Prev: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data,  Up: Binary Data Services

5.7.2 ‘codecs’ — Codec registry and base classes
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/codecs.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders
and decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec registry,
which manages the codec and error handling lookup process.  Most
standard codecs are *note text encodings: 1f69, which encode text to
bytes (and decode bytes to text), but there are also codecs provided
that encode text to text, and bytes to bytes.  Custom codecs may encode
and decode between arbitrary types, but some module features are
restricted to be used specifically with *note text encodings: 1f69. or
with codecs that encode to *note bytes: 2cb.

The module defines the following functions for encoding and decoding
with any codec:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.encode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Encodes 'obj' using the codec registered for 'encoding'.

     'Errors' may be given to set the desired error handling scheme.
     The default error handler is ‘'strict'’ meaning that encoding
     errors raise *note ValueError: 189. (or a more codec specific
     subclass, such as *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b.).  Refer to *note
     Codec Base Classes: 21ae. for more information on codec error
     handling.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.decode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Decodes 'obj' using the codec registered for 'encoding'.

     'Errors' may be given to set the desired error handling scheme.
     The default error handler is ‘'strict'’ meaning that decoding
     errors raise *note ValueError: 189. (or a more codec specific
     subclass, such as *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873.).  Refer to *note
     Codec Base Classes: 21ae. for more information on codec error
     handling.

The full details for each codec can also be looked up directly:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.lookup (encoding)

     Looks up the codec info in the Python codec registry and returns a
     *note CodecInfo: 21af. object as defined below.

     Encodings are first looked up in the registry’s cache.  If not
     found, the list of registered search functions is scanned.  If no
     *note CodecInfo: 21af. object is found, a *note LookupError: 1fbf.
     is raised.  Otherwise, the *note CodecInfo: 21af. object is stored
     in the cache and returned to the caller.

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.CodecInfo (encode, decode, streamreader=None,
          streamwriter=None, incrementalencoder=None,
          incrementaldecoder=None, name=None)

     Codec details when looking up the codec registry.  The constructor
     arguments are stored in attributes of the same name:

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the encoding.

      -- Özniteliği: encode
      -- Özniteliği: decode

          The stateless encoding and decoding functions.  These must be
          functions or methods which have the same interface as the
          *note encode(): 21b3. and *note decode(): 21b4. methods of
          Codec instances (see *note Codec Interface: 21b5.).  The
          functions or methods are expected to work in a stateless mode.

      -- Özniteliği: incrementalencoder
      -- Özniteliği: incrementaldecoder

          Incremental encoder and decoder classes or factory functions.
          These have to provide the interface defined by the base
          classes *note IncrementalEncoder: 21b8. and *note
          IncrementalDecoder: 21b9, respectively.  Incremental codecs
          can maintain state.

      -- Özniteliği: streamwriter
      -- Özniteliği: streamreader

          Stream writer and reader classes or factory functions.  These
          have to provide the interface defined by the base classes
          *note StreamWriter: 21bc. and *note StreamReader: 21bd,
          respectively.  Stream codecs can maintain state.

To simplify access to the various codec components, the module provides
these additional functions which use *note lookup(): 7be. for the codec
lookup:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.getencoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its encoder
     function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.getdecoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its decoder
     function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.getincrementalencoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
     encoder class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. in case the encoding cannot be
     found or the codec doesn’t support an incremental encoder.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.getincrementaldecoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
     decoder class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. in case the encoding cannot be
     found or the codec doesn’t support an incremental decoder.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.getreader (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its *note
     StreamReader: 21bd. class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.getwriter (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its *note
     StreamWriter: 21bc. class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

Custom codecs are made available by registering a suitable codec search
function:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.register (search_function)

     Register a codec search function.  Search functions are expected to
     take one argument, being the encoding name in all lower case
     letters with hyphens and spaces converted to underscores, and
     return a *note CodecInfo: 21af. object.  In case a search function
     cannot find a given encoding, it should return ‘None’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Hyphens and spaces are converted to
     underscore.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.unregister (search_function)

     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry’s cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.

     Added in version 3.10.

While the builtin *note open(): 2a6. and the associated *note io: 7d.
module are the recommended approach for working with encoded text files,
this module provides additional utility functions and classes that allow
the use of a wider range of codecs when working with binary files:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.open (filename, mode='r', encoding=None,
          errors='strict', buffering=-1)

     Open an encoded file using the given 'mode' and return an instance
     of *note StreamReaderWriter: 21c5, providing transparent
     encoding/decoding.  The default file mode is ‘'r'’, meaning to open
     the file in read mode.

          Not: If 'encoding' is not ‘None’, then the underlying encoded
          files are always opened in binary mode.  No automatic
          conversion of ‘'\n'’ is done on reading and writing.  The
          'mode' argument may be any binary mode acceptable to the
          built-in *note open(): 2a6. function; the ‘'b'’ is
          automatically added.

     'encoding' specifies the encoding which is to be used for the file.
     Any encoding that encodes to and decodes from bytes is allowed, and
     the data types supported by the file methods depend on the codec
     used.

     'errors' may be given to define the error handling.  It defaults to
     ‘'strict'’ which causes a *note ValueError: 189. to be raised in
     case an encoding error occurs.

     'buffering' has the same meaning as for the built-in *note open():
     2a6. function.  It defaults to -1 which means that the default
     buffer size will be used.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'U'’ mode has been removed.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.EncodedFile (file, data_encoding, file_encoding=None,
          errors='strict')

     Return a *note StreamRecoder: 182a. instance, a wrapped version of
     'file' which provides transparent transcoding.  The original file
     is closed when the wrapped version is closed.

     Data written to the wrapped file is decoded according to the given
     'data_encoding' and then written to the original file as bytes
     using 'file_encoding'.  Bytes read from the original file are
     decoded according to 'file_encoding', and the result is encoded
     using 'data_encoding'.

     If 'file_encoding' is not given, it defaults to 'data_encoding'.

     'errors' may be given to define the error handling.  It defaults to
     ‘'strict'’, which causes *note ValueError: 189. to be raised in
     case an encoding error occurs.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.iterencode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  This function is a *note generator: f0b.
     The 'errors' argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is
     passed through to the incremental encoder.

     This function requires that the codec accept text *note str: 15d.
     objects to encode.  Therefore it does not support bytes-to-bytes
     encoders such as ‘base64_codec’.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.iterdecode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  This function is a *note generator: f0b.
     The 'errors' argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is
     passed through to the incremental decoder.

     This function requires that the codec accept *note bytes: 2cb.
     objects to decode.  Therefore it does not support text-to-text
     encoders such as ‘rot_13’, although ‘rot_13’ may be used
     equivalently with *note iterencode(): 21c7.

The module also provides the following constants which are useful for
reading and writing to platform dependent files:

 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_BE
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_LE
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_UTF8
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_UTF16
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_UTF32
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE
 -- Verisi: codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE

     These constants define various byte sequences, being Unicode byte
     order marks (BOMs) for several encodings.  They are used in UTF-16
     and UTF-32 data streams to indicate the byte order used, and in
     UTF-8 as a Unicode signature.  *note BOM_UTF16: 21cd. is either
     *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 21ce. or *note BOM_UTF16_LE: 21cf. depending on
     the platform’s native byte order, *note BOM: 21c9. is an alias for
     *note BOM_UTF16: 21cd, *note BOM_LE: 21cb. for *note BOM_UTF16_LE:
     21cf. and *note BOM_BE: 21ca. for *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 21ce.  The
     others represent the BOM in UTF-8 and UTF-32 encodings.

* Menu:

* Codec Base Classes::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
* encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage.
* encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/codecs.py


File: python.info,  Node: Codec Base Classes,  Next: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.1 Codec Base Classes
..........................

The *note codecs: 1b. module defines a set of base classes which define
the interfaces for working with codec objects, and can also be used as
the basis for custom codec implementations.

Each codec has to define four interfaces to make it usable as codec in
Python: stateless encoder, stateless decoder, stream reader and stream
writer.  The stream reader and writers typically reuse the stateless
encoder/decoder to implement the file protocols.  Codec authors also
need to define how the codec will handle encoding and decoding errors.
* Menu:

* Error Handlers::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::


File: python.info,  Node: Error Handlers,  Next: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.2 Error Handlers
......................

To simplify and standardize error handling, codecs may implement
different error handling schemes by accepting the 'errors' string
argument:

     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='backslashreplace')
     b'German \\xdf, \\u266c'
     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'German &#223;, &#9836;'

The following error handlers can be used with all Python *note Standard
Encodings: c46. codecs:

Value                         Meaning
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'strict'’                    Raise *note UnicodeError: 114c. (or a subclass),
                              this is the default.  Implemented in
                              *note strict_errors(): 21d6.
                              
                              
‘'ignore'’                    Ignore the malformed data and continue without
                              further notice.  Implemented in
                              *note ignore_errors(): 21d7.
                              
                              
‘'replace'’                   Replace with a replacement marker.  On encoding,
                              use ‘?’ (ASCII character).  On decoding, use ‘�’
                              (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER).
                              Implemented in *note replace_errors(): 21d8.
                              
                              
‘'backslashreplace'’          Replace with backslashed escape sequences.  On
                              encoding, use hexadecimal form of Unicode code
                              point with formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.
                              On decoding, use hexadecimal form of byte value
                              with format ‘\xHH’.  Implemented in
                              *note backslashreplace_errors(): 21d9.
                              
                              
‘'surrogateescape'’           On decoding, replace byte with individual
                              surrogate code ranging from ‘U+DC80’ to ‘U+DCFF’.
                              This code will then be turned back into the same
                              byte when the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler
                              is used when encoding the data.  (See PEP 383(1)
                              for more.)
                              

The following error handlers are only applicable to encoding (within
*note text encodings: 1f69.):

Value                         Meaning
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’         Replace with XML/HTML numeric character
                              reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
                              code point with format ‘&#NUM;’.  Implemented in
                              *note xmlcharrefreplace_errors(): 21da.
                              
                              
‘'namereplace'’               Replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences, what
                              appears in the braces is the Name property from
                              Unicode Character Database.  Implemented in
                              *note namereplace_errors(): 21db.
                              

In addition, the following error handler is specific to the given
codecs:

Value                   Codecs                       Meaning
                                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
‘'surrogatepass'’       utf-8, utf-16, utf-32,       Allow encoding and decoding surrogate code
                        utf-16-be, utf-16-le,        point (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) as normal code
                        utf-32-be, utf-32-le         point.  Otherwise these codecs treat the
                                                     presence of surrogate code point in
                                                     *note str: 15d. as an error.
                                                     

Added in version 3.1: The ‘'surrogateescape'’ and ‘'surrogatepass'’
error handlers.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'surrogatepass'’ error handler now works
with utf-16* and utf-32* codecs.

Added in version 3.5: The ‘'namereplace'’ error handler.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler now works
with decoding and translating.

The set of allowed values can be extended by registering a new named
error handler:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.register_error (name, error_handler)

     Register the error handling function 'error_handler' under the name
     'name'.  The 'error_handler' argument will be called during
     encoding and decoding in case of an error, when 'name' is specified
     as the errors parameter.

     For encoding, 'error_handler' will be called with a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 48b. instance, which contains information about
     the location of the error.  The error handler must either raise
     this or a different exception, or return a tuple with a replacement
     for the unencodable part of the input and a position where encoding
     should continue.  The replacement may be either *note str: 15d. or
     *note bytes: 2cb.  If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will
     simply copy them into the output buffer.  If the replacement is a
     string, the encoder will encode the replacement.  Encoding
     continues on original input at the specified position.  Negative
     position values will be treated as being relative to the end of the
     input string.  If the resulting position is out of bound an *note
     IndexError: 13c2. will be raised.

     Decoding and translating works similarly, except *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: 873. or *note UnicodeTranslateError: 208f. will
     be passed to the handler and that the replacement from the error
     handler will be put into the output directly.

Previously registered error handlers (including the standard error
handlers) can be looked up by name:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.lookup_error (name)

     Return the error handler previously registered under the name
     'name'.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. in case the handler cannot be
     found.

The following standard error handlers are also made available as module
level functions:

 -- Işlevi: codecs.strict_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'strict'’ error handling.

     Each encoding or decoding error raises a *note UnicodeError: 114c.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.ignore_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'ignore'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is ignored; encoding or decoding is continued
     without further notice.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.replace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'replace'’ error handling.

     Substitutes ‘?’ (ASCII character) for encoding errors or ‘�’
     (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER) for decoding errors.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.backslashreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is replaced by a backslashed escape sequence.  On
     encoding, use the hexadecimal form of Unicode code point with
     formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.  On decoding, use the
     hexadecimal form of byte value with format ‘\xHH’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Works with decoding and translating.

 -- Işlevi: codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ error handling (for encoding
     within *note text encoding: 1f69. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML/HTML
     numeric character reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
     code point with format ‘&#NUM;’ .

 -- Işlevi: codecs.namereplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'namereplace'’ error handling (for encoding within
     *note text encoding: 1f69. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by a ‘\N{...}’ escape
     sequence.  The set of characters that appear in the braces is the
     Name property from Unicode Character Database.  For example, the
     German lowercase letter ‘'ß'’ will be converted to byte sequence
     ‘\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S}’ .

     Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Error Handlers,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.3 Stateless Encoding and Decoding
.......................................

The base *note Codec: 21dd. class defines these methods which also
define the function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.Codec

      -- Yöntemi: encode (input, errors='strict')

          Encodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, *note text encoding: 1f69.
          converts a string object to a bytes object using a particular
          character set encoding (e.g., ‘cp1252’ or ‘iso-8859-1’).

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the *note Codec: 21dd.
          instance.  Use *note StreamWriter: 21bc. for codecs which have
          to keep state in order to make encoding efficient.

          The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.

      -- Yöntemi: decode (input, errors='strict')

          Decodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, for a *note text encoding:
          1f69, decoding converts a bytes object encoded using a
          particular character set encoding to a string object.

          For text encodings and bytes-to-bytes codecs, 'input' must be
          a bytes object or one which provides the read-only buffer
          interface – for example, buffer objects and memory mapped
          files.

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the *note Codec: 21dd.
          instance.  Use *note StreamReader: 21bd. for codecs which have
          to keep state in order to make decoding efficient.

          The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.4 Incremental Encoding and Decoding
.........................................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 21b8. and *note IncrementalDecoder: 21b9.
classes provide the basic interface for incremental encoding and
decoding.  Encoding/decoding the input isn’t done with one call to the
stateless encoder/decoder function, but with multiple calls to the *note
encode(): 21df./*note decode(): 21e0. method of the incremental
encoder/decoder.  The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of the
encoding/decoding process during method calls.

The joined output of calls to the *note encode(): 21df./*note decode():
21e0. method is the same as if all the single inputs were joined into
one, and this input was encoded/decoded with the stateless
encoder/decoder.

* Menu:

* IncrementalEncoder Objects::
* IncrementalDecoder Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalEncoder Objects,  Next: IncrementalDecoder Objects,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.5 IncrementalEncoder Objects
..................................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 21b8. class is used for encoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental encoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.IncrementalEncoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an *note IncrementalEncoder: 21b8. instance.

     All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The *note IncrementalEncoder: 21b8. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 1608. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note IncrementalEncoder: 21b8. object.

      -- Yöntemi: encode (object, final=False)

          Encodes 'object' (taking the current state of the encoder into
          account) and returns the resulting encoded object.  If this is
          the last call to *note encode(): d98. 'final' must be true
          (the default is false).

      -- Yöntemi: reset ()

          Reset the encoder to the initial state.  The output is
          discarded: call ‘.encode(object, final=True)’, passing an
          empty byte or text string if necessary, to reset the encoder
          and to get the output.

      -- Yöntemi: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the encoder which must be an
          integer.  The implementation should make sure that ‘0’ is the
          most common state.  (States that are more complicated than
          integers can be converted into an integer by
          marshaling/pickling the state and encoding the bytes of the
          resulting string into an integer.)

      -- Yöntemi: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the encoder to 'state'.  'state' must be an
          encoder state returned by *note getstate(): 21e4.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalDecoder Objects,  Prev: IncrementalEncoder Objects,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.6 IncrementalDecoder Objects
..................................

The *note IncrementalDecoder: 21b9. class is used for decoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental decoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.IncrementalDecoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an *note IncrementalDecoder: 21b9. instance.

     All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The *note IncrementalDecoder: 21b9. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 1608. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note IncrementalDecoder: 21b9. object.

      -- Yöntemi: decode (object, final=False)

          Decodes 'object' (taking the current state of the decoder into
          account) and returns the resulting decoded object.  If this is
          the last call to *note decode(): d99. 'final' must be true
          (the default is false).  If 'final' is true the decoder must
          decode the input completely and must flush all buffers.  If
          this isn’t possible (e.g.  because of incomplete byte
          sequences at the end of the input) it must initiate error
          handling just like in the stateless case (which might raise an
          exception).

      -- Yöntemi: reset ()

          Reset the decoder to the initial state.

      -- Yöntemi: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the decoder.  This must be a tuple
          with two items, the first must be the buffer containing the
          still undecoded input.  The second must be an integer and can
          be additional state info.  (The implementation should make
          sure that ‘0’ is the most common additional state info.)  If
          this additional state info is ‘0’ it must be possible to set
          the decoder to the state which has no input buffered and ‘0’
          as the additional state info, so that feeding the previously
          buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state
          without producing any output.  (Additional state info that is
          more complicated than integers can be converted into an
          integer by marshaling/pickling the info and encoding the bytes
          of the resulting string into an integer.)

      -- Yöntemi: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the decoder to 'state'.  'state' must be a
          decoder state returned by *note getstate(): 21e9.


File: python.info,  Node: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.7.2.7 Stream Encoding and Decoding
....................................

The *note StreamWriter: 21bc. and *note StreamReader: 21bd. classes
provide generic working interfaces which can be used to implement new
encoding submodules very easily.  See ‘encodings.utf_8’ for an example
of how this is done.

* Menu:

* StreamWriter Objects::
* StreamReader Objects::
* StreamReaderWriter Objects::
* StreamRecoder Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter Objects,  Next: StreamReader Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.8 StreamWriter Objects
............................

The *note StreamWriter: 21bc. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 21dd.
and defines the following methods which every stream writer must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.StreamWriter (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a *note StreamWriter: 21bc. instance.

     All stream writers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for writing
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The *note StreamWriter: 21bc. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 1608. for the standard error handlers the
     underlying stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note StreamWriter: 21bc. object.

      -- Yöntemi: write (object)

          Writes the object’s contents encoded to the stream.

      -- Yöntemi: writelines (list)

          Writes the concatenated iterable of strings to the stream
          (possibly by reusing the *note write(): 21ee. method).
          Infinite or very large iterables are not supported.  The
          standard bytes-to-bytes codecs do not support this method.

      -- Yöntemi: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output
          is put into a clean state that allows appending of new fresh
          data without having to rescan the whole stream to recover
          state.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamWriter: 21bc. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader Objects,  Next: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Prev: StreamWriter Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.9 StreamReader Objects
............................

The *note StreamReader: 21bd. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 21dd.
and defines the following methods which every stream reader must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.StreamReader (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a *note StreamReader: 21bd. instance.

     All stream readers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for reading
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The *note StreamReader: 21bd. may implement different error
     handling schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See
     *note Error Handlers: 1608. for the standard error handlers the
     underlying stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the *note StreamReader: 21bd. object.

     The set of allowed values for the 'errors' argument can be extended
     with *note register_error(): 1323.

      -- Yöntemi: read (size=-1, chars=-1, firstline=False)

          Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.

          The 'chars' argument indicates the number of decoded code
          points or bytes to return.  The *note read(): 21f3. method
          will never return more data than requested, but it might
          return less, if there is not enough available.

          The 'size' argument indicates the approximate maximum number
          of encoded bytes or code points to read for decoding.  The
          decoder can modify this setting as appropriate.  The default
          value -1 indicates to read and decode as much as possible.
          This parameter is intended to prevent having to decode huge
          files in one step.

          The 'firstline' flag indicates that it would be sufficient to
          only return the first line, if there are decoding errors on
          later lines.

          The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it
          should read as much data as is allowed within the definition
          of the encoding and the given size, e.g.  if optional encoding
          endings or state markers are available on the stream, these
          should be read too.

      -- Yöntemi: readline (size=None, keepends=True)

          Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded
          data.

          'size', if given, is passed as size argument to the stream’s
          *note read(): 21f3. method.

          If 'keepends' is false line-endings will be stripped from the
          lines returned.

      -- Yöntemi: readlines (sizehint=None, keepends=True)

          Read all lines available on the input stream and return them
          as a list of lines.

          Line-endings are implemented using the codec’s *note decode():
          d99. method and are included in the list entries if 'keepends'
          is true.

          'sizehint', if given, is passed as the 'size' argument to the
          stream’s *note read(): 21f3. method.

      -- Yöntemi: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Note that no stream repositioning should take place.  This
          method is primarily intended to be able to recover from
          decoding errors.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamReader: 21bd. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Next: StreamRecoder Objects,  Prev: StreamReader Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.10 StreamReaderWriter Objects
...................................

The *note StreamReaderWriter: 21c5. is a convenience class that allows
wrapping streams which work in both read and write modes.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): 7be. function to construct the instance.

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.StreamReaderWriter (stream, Reader, Writer,
          errors='strict')

     Creates a *note StreamReaderWriter: 21c5. instance.  'stream' must
     be a file-like object.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory
     functions or classes providing the *note StreamReader: 21bd. and
     *note StreamWriter: 21bc. interface resp.  Error handling is done
     in the same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.

*note StreamReaderWriter: 21c5. instances define the combined interfaces
of *note StreamReader: 21bd. and *note StreamWriter: 21bc. classes.
They inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamRecoder Objects,  Prev: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.7.2.11 StreamRecoder Objects
..............................

The *note StreamRecoder: 182a. translates data from one encoding to
another, which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding
environments.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): 7be. function to construct the instance.

 -- Sınıfı: codecs.StreamRecoder (stream, encode, decode, Reader,
          Writer, errors='strict')

     Creates a *note StreamRecoder: 182a. instance which implements a
     two-way conversion: 'encode' and 'decode' work on the frontend —
     the data visible to code calling *note read(): 21f3. and *note
     write(): 21ee, while 'Reader' and 'Writer' work on the backend —
     the data in 'stream'.

     You can use these objects to do transparent transcodings, e.g.,
     from Latin-1 to UTF-8 and back.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object.

     The 'encode' and 'decode' arguments must adhere to the *note Codec:
     21dd. interface.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory functions
     or classes providing objects of the *note StreamReader: 21bd. and
     *note StreamWriter: 21bc. interface respectively.

     Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream
     readers and writers.

*note StreamRecoder: 182a. instances define the combined interfaces of
*note StreamReader: 21bd. and *note StreamWriter: 21bc. classes.  They
inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Encodings and Unicode,  Next: Standard Encodings,  Prev: Codec Base Classes,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.12 Encodings and Unicode
..............................

Strings are stored internally as sequences of code points in range
‘U+0000’–‘U+10FFFF’.  (See PEP 393(1) for more details about the
implementation.)  Once a string object is used outside of CPU and
memory, endianness and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an
issue.  As with other codecs, serialising a string into a sequence of
bytes is known as 'encoding', and recreating the string from the
sequence of bytes is known as 'decoding'.  There are a variety of
different text serialisation codecs, which are collectivity referred to
as *note text encodings: 1f69.

The simplest text encoding (called ‘'latin-1'’ or ‘'iso-8859-1'’) maps
the code points 0–255 to the bytes ‘0x0’–‘0xff’, which means that a
string object that contains code points above ‘U+00FF’ can’t be encoded
with this codec.  Doing so will raise a *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b.
that looks like the following (although the details of the error message
may differ): ‘UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character
'\u1234' in position 3: ordinal not in range(256)’.

There’s another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings)
that choose a different subset of all Unicode code points and how these
code points are mapped to the bytes ‘0x0’–‘0xff’.  To see how this is
done simply open e.g.  ‘encodings/cp1252.py’ (which is an encoding that
is used primarily on Windows).  There’s a string constant with 256
characters that shows you which character is mapped to which byte value.

All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 code points
defined in Unicode.  A simple and straightforward way that can store
each Unicode code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive
bytes.  There are two possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in
little endian order.  These two encodings are called ‘UTF-32-BE’ and
‘UTF-32-LE’ respectively.  Their disadvantage is that if e.g.  you use
‘UTF-32-BE’ on a little endian machine you will always have to swap
bytes on encoding and decoding.  ‘UTF-32’ avoids this problem: bytes
will always be in natural endianness.  When these bytes are read by a
CPU with a different endianness, then bytes have to be swapped though.
To be able to detect the endianness of a ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte
sequence, there’s the so called BOM (“Byte Order Mark”).  This is the
Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’.  This character can be prepended to every
‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte sequence.  The byte swapped version of this
character (‘0xFFFE’) is an illegal character that may not appear in a
Unicode text.  So when the first character in a ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’
byte sequence appears to be a ‘U+FFFE’ the bytes have to be swapped on
decoding.  Unfortunately the character ‘U+FEFF’ had a second purpose as
a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’: a character that has no width and doesn’t
allow a word to be split.  It can e.g.  be used to give hints to a
ligature algorithm.  With Unicode 4.0 using ‘U+FEFF’ as a ‘ZERO WIDTH
NO-BREAK SPACE’ has been deprecated (with ‘U+2060’ (‘WORD JOINER’)
assuming this role).  Nevertheless Unicode software still must be able
to handle ‘U+FEFF’ in both roles: as a BOM it’s a device to determine
the storage layout of the encoded bytes, and vanishes once the byte
sequence has been decoded into a string; as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK
SPACE’ it’s a normal character that will be decoded like any other.

There’s another encoding that is able to encode the full range of
Unicode characters: UTF-8.  UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means
there are no issues with byte order in UTF-8.  Each byte in a UTF-8 byte
sequence consists of two parts: marker bits (the most significant bits)
and payload bits.  The marker bits are a sequence of zero to four ‘1’
bits followed by a ‘0’ bit.  Unicode characters are encoded like this
(with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the Unicode
character):

Range                                   Encoding
                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
‘U-00000000’ … ‘U-0000007F’             0xxxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000080’ … ‘U-000007FF’             110xxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000800’ … ‘U-0000FFFF’             1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00010000’ … ‘U-0010FFFF’             11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        

The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x
bit.

As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any ‘U+FEFF’
character in the decoded string (even if it’s the first character) is
treated as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’.

Without external information it’s impossible to reliably determine which
encoding was used for encoding a string.  Each charmap encoding can
decode any random byte sequence.  However that’s not possible with
UTF-8, as UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn’t allow
arbitrary byte sequences.  To increase the reliability with which a
UTF-8 encoding can be detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8
(that Python calls ‘"utf-8-sig"’) for its Notepad program: Before any of
the Unicode characters is written to the file, a UTF-8 encoded BOM
(which looks like this as a byte sequence: ‘0xef’, ‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’) is
written.  As it’s rather improbable that any charmap encoded file starts
with these byte values (which would e.g.  map to

          LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS
          RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK
          INVERTED QUESTION MARK

in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a ‘utf-8-sig’
encoding can be correctly guessed from the byte sequence.  So here the
BOM is not used to be able to determine the byte order used for
generating the byte sequence, but as a signature that helps in guessing
the encoding.  On encoding the utf-8-sig codec will write ‘0xef’,
‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’ as the first three bytes to the file.  On decoding
‘utf-8-sig’ will skip those three bytes if they appear as the first
three bytes in the file.  In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is discouraged
and should generally be avoided.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Encodings,  Next: Python Specific Encodings,  Prev: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.13 Standard Encodings
...........................

Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C
functions or with dictionaries as mapping tables.  The following table
lists the codecs by name, together with a few common aliases, and the
languages for which the encoding is likely used.  Neither the list of
aliases nor the list of languages is meant to be exhaustive.  Notice
that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a hyphen
instead of an underscore are also valid aliases; therefore, e.g.
‘'utf-8'’ is a valid alias for the ‘'utf_8'’ codec.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Some common encodings can bypass the
codecs lookup machinery to improve performance.  These optimization
opportunities are only recognized by CPython for a limited set of (case
insensitive) aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1,
iso8859-1, mbcs (Windows only), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16, utf16, utf-32,
utf32, and the same using underscores instead of dashes.  Using
alternative aliases for these encodings may result in slower execution.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Optimization opportunity recognized for us-ascii.

Many of the character sets support the same languages.  They vary in
individual characters (e.g.  whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not),
and in the assignment of characters to code positions.  For the European
languages in particular, the following variants typically exist:

   * an ISO 8859 codeset

   * a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from an
     8859 codeset, but replaces control characters with additional
     graphic characters

   * an IBM EBCDIC code page

   * an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible

Codec                 Aliases                              Languages
                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
ascii                 646, us-ascii                        English
                                                           
                                                           
big5                  big5-tw, csbig5                      Traditional Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
big5hkscs             big5-hkscs, hkscs                    Traditional Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
cp037                 IBM037, IBM039                       English
                                                           
                                                           
cp273                 273, IBM273, csIBM273                German
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
cp424                 EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424                 Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp437                 437, IBM437                          English
                                                           
                                                           
cp500                 EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH, IBM500   Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp720                                                      Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
cp737                                                      Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp775                 IBM775                               Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
cp850                 850, IBM850                          Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp852                 852, IBM852                          Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp855                 855, IBM855                          Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
cp856                                                      Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp857                 857, IBM857                          Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
cp858                 858, IBM858                          Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp860                 860, IBM860                          Portuguese
                                                           
                                                           
cp861                 861, CP-IS, IBM861                   Icelandic
                                                           
                                                           
cp862                 862, IBM862                          Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp863                 863, IBM863                          Canadian
                                                           
                                                           
cp864                 IBM864                               Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
cp865                 865, IBM865                          Danish, Norwegian
                                                           
                                                           
cp866                 866, IBM866                          Russian
                                                           
                                                           
cp869                 869, CP-GR, IBM869                   Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp874                                                      Thai
                                                           
                                                           
cp875                                                      Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp932                 932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji        Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
cp949                 949, ms949, uhc                      Korean
                                                           
                                                           
cp950                 950, ms950                           Traditional Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
cp1006                                                     Urdu
                                                           
                                                           
cp1026                ibm1026                              Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
cp1125                1125, ibm1125, cp866u, ruscii        Ukrainian
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
cp1140                ibm1140                              Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1250                windows-1250                         Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1251                windows-1251                         Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
cp1252                windows-1252                         Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1253                windows-1253                         Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp1254                windows-1254                         Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
cp1255                windows-1255                         Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp1256                windows-1256                         Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
cp1257                windows-1257                         Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
cp1258                windows-1258                         Vietnamese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jp                eucjp, ujis, u-jis                   Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jis_2004          jisx0213, eucjis2004                 Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jisx0213          eucjisx0213                          Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_kr                euckr, korean, ksc5601, ks_c-5601,   Korean
                      ks_c-5601-1987, ksx1001, ks_x-1001   
                      
                                                           
gb2312                chinese, csiso58gb231280, euc-cn,    Simplified Chinese
                      euccn, eucgb2312-cn, gb2312-1980,    
                      gb2312-80, iso-ir-58
                      
                                                           
gbk                   936, cp936, ms936                    Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
gb18030               gb18030-2000                         Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
hz                    hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312              Simplified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp            csiso2022jp, iso2022jp,              Japanese
                      iso-2022-jp                          
                      
                                                           
iso2022_jp_1          iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1           Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2          iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2           Japanese, Korean, Simplified
                                                           Chinese, Western Europe, Greek
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2004       iso2022jp-2004, iso-2022-jp-2004     Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_3          iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3           Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_ext        iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext       Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_kr            csiso2022kr, iso2022kr,              Korean
                      iso-2022-kr                          
                      
                                                           
latin_1               iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859,         Western Europe
                      cp819, latin, latin1, L1             
                      
                                                           
iso8859_2             iso-8859-2, latin2, L2               Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_3             iso-8859-3, latin3, L3               Esperanto, Maltese
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_4             iso-8859-4, latin4, L4               Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_5             iso-8859-5, cyrillic                 Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_6             iso-8859-6, arabic                   Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_7             iso-8859-7, greek, greek8            Greek
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_8             iso-8859-8, hebrew                   Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_9             iso-8859-9, latin5, L5               Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_10            iso-8859-10, latin6, L6              Nordic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_11            iso-8859-11, thai                    Thai languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_13            iso-8859-13, latin7, L7              Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_14            iso-8859-14, latin8, L8              Celtic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_15            iso-8859-15, latin9, L9              Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_16            iso-8859-16, latin10, L10            South-Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
johab                 cp1361, ms1361                       Korean
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_r                                                     Russian
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_t                                                     Tajik
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_u                                                     Ukrainian
                                                           
                                                           
kz1048                kz_1048, strk1048_2002, rk1048       Kazakh
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
mac_cyrillic          maccyrillic                          Bulgarian, Byelorussian,
                                                           Macedonian, Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
mac_greek             macgreek                             Greek
                                                           
                                                           
mac_iceland           maciceland                           Icelandic
                                                           
                                                           
mac_latin2            maclatin2, maccentraleurope,         Central and Eastern Europe
                      mac_centeuro                         
                      
                                                           
mac_roman             macroman, macintosh                  Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
mac_turkish           macturkish                           Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
ptcp154               csptcp154, pt154, cp154,             Kazakh
                      cyrillic-asian                       
                      
                                                           
shift_jis             csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis, s_jis    Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jis_2004        shiftjis2004, sjis_2004, sjis2004    Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jisx0213        shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213,            Japanese
                      s_jisx0213                           
                      
                                                           
utf_32                U32, utf32                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_be             UTF-32BE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_le             UTF-32LE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16                U16, utf16                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_be             UTF-16BE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_le             UTF-16LE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_7                 U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7                all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8                 U8, UTF, utf8, cp65001               all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8_sig                                                  all languages
                                                           

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The utf-16* and utf-32* encoders no longer allow
surrogate code points (‘U+D800’–‘U+DFFF’) to be encoded.  The utf-32*
decoders no longer decode byte sequences that correspond to surrogate
code points.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: ‘cp65001’ is now an alias to ‘utf_8’.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Specific Encodings,  Next: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Prev: Standard Encodings,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.14 Python Specific Encodings
..................................

A number of predefined codecs are specific to Python, so their codec
names have no meaning outside Python.  These are listed in the tables
below based on the expected input and output types (note that while text
encodings are the most common use case for codecs, the underlying codec
infrastructure supports arbitrary data transforms rather than just text
encodings).  For asymmetric codecs, the stated meaning describes the
encoding direction.

* Menu:

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Text Transforms::


File: python.info,  Node: Text Encodings,  Next: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.15 Text Encodings
.......................

The following codecs provide *note str: 15d. to *note bytes: 2cb.
encoding and *note bytes-like object: bb5. to *note str: 15d. decoding,
similar to the Unicode text encodings.

Codec                    Aliases       Meaning
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
idna                                   Implement RFC 3490(1), see
                                       also
                                       *note encodings.idna: 50.
                                       Only ‘errors='strict'’ is
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
mbcs                     ansi, dbcs    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the ANSI
                                       codepage (CP_ACP).
                                       
                                       
oem                                    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the OEM
                                       codepage (CP_OEMCP).
                                       
                                       Added in version 3.6.
                                       
                                       
palmos                                 Encoding of PalmOS 3.5.
                                       
                                       
punycode                               Implement RFC 3492(2).
                                       Stateful codecs are not
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
raw_unicode_escape                     Latin-1 encoding with
                                       ‘\uXXXX’ and ‘\UXXXXXXXX’ for
                                       other code points.  Existing
                                       backslashes are not escaped
                                       in any way.  It is used in
                                       the Python pickle protocol.
                                       
                                       
undefined                              Raise an exception for all
                                       conversions, even empty
                                       strings.  The error handler
                                       is ignored.
                                       
                                       
unicode_escape                         Encoding suitable as the
                                       contents of a Unicode literal
                                       in ASCII-encoded Python
                                       source code, except that
                                       quotes are not escaped.
                                       Decode from Latin-1 source
                                       code.  Beware that Python
                                       source code actually uses
                                       UTF-8 by default.
                                       

3.8 sürümünde değişti: “unicode_internal” codec is removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Transforms,  Next: Text Transforms,  Prev: Text Encodings,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.16 Binary Transforms
..........................

The following codecs provide binary transforms: *note bytes-like object:
bb5. to *note bytes: 2cb. mappings.  They are not supported by *note
bytes.decode(): 729. (which only produces *note str: 15d. output).

Codec                      Aliases                Meaning                            Encoder / decoder
                                                                                     
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
base64_codec (1)           base64, base_64        Convert the operand to multiline   *note base64.encodebytes(): 7ae.
                                                  MIME base64 (the result always     /
                                                  includes a trailing ‘'\n'’).       *note base64.decodebytes(): 7af.
                                                                                     
                                                  3.4 sürümünde değişti: accepts
                                                  any
                                                  *note bytes-like object: bb5. as
                                                  input for encoding and decoding
                                                  
                                                                                     
bz2_codec                  bz2                    Compress the operand using bz2.    *note bz2.compress(): 2201. /
                                                                                     *note bz2.decompress(): f39.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
hex_codec                  hex                    Convert the operand to             *note binascii.b2a_hex(): 2202.
                                                  hexadecimal representation, with   /
                                                  two digits per byte.               *note binascii.a2b_hex(): 2203.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
quopri_codec               quopri,                Convert the operand to MIME        *note quopri.encode(): 2204.
                           quotedprintable,       quoted printable.                  with ‘quotetabs=True’ /
                           quoted_printable                                          *note quopri.decode(): 2205.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
uu_codec                   uu                     Convert the operand using          ‘uu.encode()’ / ‘uu.decode()’
                                                  uuencode.                          (Note: *note uu: 10f. is
                                                                                     deprecated.)
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
zlib_codec                 zip, zlib              Compress the operand using gzip.   *note zlib.compress(): 452. /
                                                                                     *note zlib.decompress(): b92.
                                                                                     

Added in version 3.2: Restoration of the binary transforms.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Restoration of the aliases for the binary
transforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In addition to *note bytes-like objects: bb5, ‘'base64_codec'’
also accepts ASCII-only instances of *note str: 15d. for decoding


File: python.info,  Node: Text Transforms,  Prev: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.7.2.17 Text Transforms
........................

The following codec provides a text transform: a *note str: 15d. to
*note str: 15d. mapping.  It is not supported by *note str.encode():
728. (which only produces *note bytes: 2cb. output).

Codec                    Aliases       Meaning
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
rot_13                   rot13         Return the Caesar-cypher
                                       encryption of the operand.
                                       

Added in version 3.2: Restoration of the ‘rot_13’ text transform.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Restoration of the ‘rot13’ alias.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Next: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage,  Prev: Python Specific Encodings,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.18 ‘encodings.idna’ — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
..........................................................................

This module implements RFC 3490(1) (Internationalized Domain Names in
Applications) and RFC 3492(2) (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the ‘punycode’
encoding and *note stringprep: d3.

If you need the IDNA 2008 standard from RFC 5891(3) and RFC 5895(4), use
the third-party idna(5) module.

These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters in
domain names.  A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such as
‘www.Alliancefrançaise.nu’) is converted into an ASCII-compatible
encoding (ACE, such as ‘www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu’).  The ACE form
of the domain name is then used in all places where arbitrary characters
are not allowed by the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP ‘Host’
fields, and so on.  This conversion is carried out in the application;
if possible invisible to the user: The application should transparently
convert Unicode domain labels to IDNA on the wire, and convert back ACE
labels to Unicode before presenting them to the user.

Python supports this conversion in several ways: the ‘idna’ codec
performs conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input string
into labels based on the separator characters defined in section 3.1 of
RFC 3490(6) and converting each label to ACE as required, and conversely
separating an input byte string into labels based on the ‘.’ separator
and converting any ACE labels found into unicode.  Furthermore, the
*note socket: cb. module transparently converts Unicode host names to
ACE, so that applications need not be concerned about converting host
names themselves when they pass them to the socket module.  On top of
that, modules that have host names as function parameters, such as *note
http.client: 6d. and *note ftplib: 5c, accept Unicode host names (*note
http.client: 6d. then also transparently sends an IDNA hostname in the
‘Host’ field if it sends that field at all).

When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name
lookup), no automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: applications
wishing to present such host names to the user should decode them to
Unicode.

The module *note encodings.idna: 50. also implements the nameprep
procedure, which performs certain normalizations on host names, to
achieve case-insensitivity of international domain names, and to unify
similar characters.  The nameprep functions can be used directly if
desired.

 -- Işlevi: encodings.idna.nameprep (label)

     Return the nameprepped version of 'label'.  The implementation
     currently assumes query strings, so ‘AllowUnassigned’ is true.

 -- Işlevi: encodings.idna.ToASCII (label)

     Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in RFC 3490(7).
     ‘UseSTD3ASCIIRules’ is assumed to be false.

 -- Işlevi: encodings.idna.ToUnicode (label)

     Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in RFC 3490(8).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5891.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5895.html

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/idna/

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html#section-3.1

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html


File: python.info,  Node: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage,  Next: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.19 ‘encodings.mbcs’ — Windows ANSI codepage
.................................................

This module implements the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Before 3.2, the 'errors' argument was ignored;
‘'replace'’ was always used to encode, and ‘'ignore'’ to decode.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support any error handler.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.7.2.20 ‘encodings.utf_8_sig’ — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
...............................................................

This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec.  On encoding, a
UTF-8 encoded BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes.  For the
stateful encoder this is only done once (on the first write to the byte
stream).  On decoding, an optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start of the
data will be skipped.


File: python.info,  Node: Data Types,  Next: Numeric and Mathematical Modules,  Prev: Binary Data Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.8 Data Types
==============

The modules described in this chapter provide a variety of specialized
data types such as dates and times, fixed-type arrays, heap queues,
double-ended queues, and enumerations.

Python also provides some built-in data types, in particular, *note
dict: 240, *note list: 422, *note set: 3e4. and *note frozenset: 3e5,
and *note tuple: 4ff.  The *note str: 15d. class is used to hold Unicode
strings, and the *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. classes are
used to hold binary data.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

* Menu:

* datetime — Basic date and time types::
* zoneinfo — IANA time zone support::
* calendar — General calendar-related functions::
* collections — Container datatypes::
* collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers.
* heapq — Heap queue algorithm::
* bisect — Array bisection algorithm::
* array — Efficient arrays of numeric values::
* weakref — Weak references::
* types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types::
* copy — Shallow and deep copy operations::
* pprint — Data pretty printer::
* reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
* enum — Support for enumerations::
* graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures::


File: python.info,  Node: datetime — Basic date and time types,  Next: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support,  Up: Data Types

5.8.1 ‘datetime’ — Basic date and time types
--------------------------------------------

'Kaynak kod:' Lib/datetime.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘datetime’ module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times.

Tarih ve saat aritmetiği desteklenirken, uygulamanın odak noktası çıktı
biçimlendirme ve manipülasyon için verimli öznitelik çıkarımıdır.

     Tüyo: *note Biçim kodları: 2212. kısmına atlayın.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Modül *note calendar: 14.

     Takvimle ilgili genel fonksiyonlar.

Modül *note time: ed.

     Zamana erişim ve dönüşümler.

Modül *note zoneinfo: 134.

     IANA zaman dilimi veritabanını temsil eden somut zaman dilimleri.

Paket dateutil(2)

     Genişletilmiş saat dilimi ve ayrıştırma desteğine sahip
     üçüncü-parti kütüphane.

Package DateType(3)

     Third-party library that introduces distinct static types to e.g.
     allow *note static type checkers: 2213. to differentiate between
     naive and aware datetimes.

* Menu:

* Bilinçli ve Bilinçsiz Nesneler::
* Sabitler::
* Mevcut Türler::
* timedelta Nesneleri::
* date Objects::
* datetime Objects::
* time Objects::
* tzinfo Objects::
* timezone Objects::
* strftime() and strptime() Behavior: strftime and strptime Behavior.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/datetime.py

   (2) https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/DateType/


File: python.info,  Node: Bilinçli ve Bilinçsiz Nesneler,  Next: Sabitler,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.1 Bilinçli ve Bilinçsiz Nesneler
......................................

Date and time objects may be categorized as “aware” or “naive” depending
on whether or not they include time zone information.

Saat dilimi ve yaz saati uygulaması gibi geçerli algoritmik ve politik
zaman ayarlamaları hakkında yeterli bilgiye sahip olan bir 'bilinçli'
nesne, kendisini diğer farkında nesnelere göre konumlandırabilir.
Bilinçli bir nesne, zaman içinde yoruma açık olmayan belirli bir anı
temsil eder.  (1)

A 'naive' object does not contain enough information to unambiguously
locate itself relative to other date/time objects.  Whether a naive
object represents Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time
in some other time zone is purely up to the program, just like it is up
to the program whether a particular number represents metres, miles, or
mass.  Naive objects are easy to understand and to work with, at the
cost of ignoring some aspects of reality.

Bilinçli nesneler gerektiren uygulamalar için, *note datetime: 22b. ve
*note time: 6df. nesneleri, soyut *note tzinfo: 3e9. sınıfının bir alt
sınıfının örneğine ayarlanabilen isteğe bağlı bir saat dilimi bilgisi
özniteliğine, ‘tzinfo’ sahiptir.  *note tzinfo: 3e9. nesneleri UTC
zamanından sapma, saat dilimi adı ve yaz saati uygulamasının geçerli
olup olmadığına ilişkin bilgileri yakalar.

Only one concrete *note tzinfo: 3e9. class, the *note timezone: f62.
class, is supplied by the ‘datetime’ module.  The ‘timezone’ class can
represent simple time zones with fixed offsets from UTC, such as UTC
itself or North American EST and EDT time zones.  Supporting time zones
at deeper levels of detail is up to the application.  The rules for time
adjustment across the world are more political than rational, change
frequently, and there is no standard suitable for every application
aside from UTC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) If, that is, we ignore the effects of Relativity


File: python.info,  Node: Sabitler,  Next: Mevcut Türler,  Prev: Bilinçli ve Bilinçsiz Nesneler,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.2 Sabitler
................

The ‘datetime’ module exports the following constants:

 -- Verisi: datetime.MINYEAR

     The smallest year number allowed in a *note date: 749. or *note
     datetime: 22b. object.  *note MINYEAR: 2217. is 1.

 -- Verisi: datetime.MAXYEAR

     The largest year number allowed in a *note date: 749. or *note
     datetime: 22b. object.  *note MAXYEAR: 2218. is 9999.

 -- Verisi: datetime.UTC

     Alias for the UTC time zone singleton *note datetime.timezone.utc:
     425.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Mevcut Türler,  Next: timedelta Nesneleri,  Prev: Sabitler,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.3 Mevcut Türler
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.date

     Geçerli Miladi takvimin her zaman yürürlükte olduğu ve her zaman
     yürürlükte olacağı varsayılarak idealleştirilmiş bilinçsiz bir
     tarih.  Öznitelikler: *note year: 221a, *note month: 221b, ve *note
     day: 221c.

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.time

     Her günün tam olarak 24*60*60 saniye olduğu varsayılarak, belirli
     bir günden bağımsız idealleştirilmiş bir zaman.  (Burada “artık
     saniye” kavramı yoktur.)  Öznitelikler: *note hour: 221d, *note
     minute: 221e, *note second: 221f, *note microsecond: 2220, ve *note
     tzinfo: 2221.

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.datetime

     Tarih ve saatin bir kombinasyonu.  Öznitelikler: *note year: 2222,
     *note month: 2223, *note day: 2224, *note hour: 2225, *note minute:
     2226, *note second: 2227, *note microsecond: 2228. ve *note tzinfo:
     2229.

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.timedelta

     A duration expressing the difference between two *note datetime:
     22b. or *note date: 749. instances to microsecond resolution.

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.tzinfo

     Zaman dilimi bilgi nesneleri için soyut bir temel sınıf.  Bunlar
     *note datetime: 22b. ve *note time: 6df. sınıfları tarafından
     özelleştirilebilir bir zaman ayarlaması sağlamak için kullanılır
     (örneğin, saat dilimini ve/veya yaz saati uygulamasını hesaba
     katmak için).

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.timezone

     UTC’den sabit bir ofset olarak *note tzinfo: 3e9. soyut temel
     sınıfını uygulayan bir sınıf.

     Added in version 3.2.

Bu türdeki nesneler değiştirilemezdir.

Alt sınıf ilişkileri:

     object
         timedelta
         tzinfo
             timezone
         time
         date
             datetime

* Menu:

* Ortak Özellikler::
* Bir Nesnenin Bilinçli veya Bilinçsiz Olduğunu Belirleme::


File: python.info,  Node: Ortak Özellikler,  Next: Bir Nesnenin Bilinçli veya Bilinçsiz Olduğunu Belirleme,  Up: Mevcut Türler

5.8.1.4 Ortak Özellikler
........................

*note date: 749, *note datetime: 22b, *note time: 6df. ve *note
timezone: f62. türleri bu ortak özellikleri paylaşır:

   - Bu türdeki nesneler değiştirilemezdir.

   - Bu türdeki nesneler *note hashable: 421. ‘dır, yani sözlük
     anahtarları olarak kullanılabilirler.

   - Bu tür nesneler *note pickle: a5. modülü aracılığıyla verimli
     pickling işlemini destekler.


File: python.info,  Node: Bir Nesnenin Bilinçli veya Bilinçsiz Olduğunu Belirleme,  Prev: Ortak Özellikler,  Up: Mevcut Türler

5.8.1.5 Bir Nesnenin Bilinçli veya Bilinçsiz Olduğunu Belirleme
...............................................................

*note date: 749. türündeki nesneler her zaman bilinçsizdir.

*note time: 6df. veya *note datetime: 22b. türündeki bir nesne bilinçli
veya bilinçsiz olabilir.

A *note datetime: 22b. object ‘d’ is aware if both of the following
hold:

  1. ‘d.tzinfo’, ‘None’ değildir

  2. ‘d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)’, ‘None’ döndürmez

Otherwise, ‘d’ is naive.

A *note time: 6df. object ‘t’ is aware if both of the following hold:

  1. ‘t.tzinfo’, ‘None’ değildir

  2. ‘t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’, ‘None’ döndürmez.

Otherwise, ‘t’ is naive.

Bilinçli ve bilinçsiz nesneler arasındaki ayrım *note timedelta: 82d.
nesneleri için geçerli değildir.


File: python.info,  Node: timedelta Nesneleri,  Next: date Objects,  Prev: Mevcut Türler,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.6 ‘timedelta’ Nesneleri
.............................

Bir *note timedelta: 82d. nesnesi, iki *note datetime: 22b. veya *note
date: 749. örneği arasındaki fark olan bir süreyi temsil eder.

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.timedelta (days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0,
          milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)

     All arguments are optional and default to 0.  Arguments may be
     integers or floats, and may be positive or negative.

     Yalnızca 'gün', 'saniye' ve 'mikrosaniye' dahili olarak saklanır.
     Argümanlar bu birimlere dönüştürülür:

        * Bir milisaniye 1000 mikrosaniyeye dönüştürülür.

        * Bir dakika 60 saniyeye dönüştürülür.

        * Bir saat 3600 saniyeye dönüştürülür.

        * Bir hafta 7 güne dönüştürülür.

     ve günler, saniyeler ve mikrosaniyeler daha sonra gösterimin
     benzersiz olması için aşağıdaki şekilde normalleştirilir.

        * ‘0 <= mikrosaniye < 1000000’

        * ‘0 <= saniye < 3600*24’ (bir gündeki saniye sayısı)

        * ‘-999999999 <= gün <= 999999999’

     Aşağıdaki örnekte 'gün', 'saniye' ve 'mikrosaniye' dışındaki tüm
     argümanların nasıl “birleştirildiği” ve sonuçta ortaya çıkan bu üç
     özelliğe normalleştirildiği gösterilmektedir:

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> delta = timedelta(
          ...     days=50,
          ...     seconds=27,
          ...     microseconds=10,
          ...     milliseconds=29000,
          ...     minutes=5,
          ...     hours=8,
          ...     weeks=2
          ... )
          >>> # Only days, seconds, and microseconds remain
          >>> delta
          datetime.timedelta(days=64, seconds=29156, microseconds=10)

     Herhangi bir bağımsız değişken bir ondalıklı sayı ise ve kesirli
     mikrosaniyeler varsa, tüm argümanlardan kalan kesirli
     mikrosaniyeler birleştirilir ve toplamları, yuvarlak-yarım-çift
     eşitlik bozucu kullanılarak en yakın mikrosaniyeye yuvarlanır.
     Hiçbir argüman ondalıklı değilse, dönüştürme ve normalleştirme
     işlemleri tam olarak yapılır (hiçbir bilgi kaybı olmaz).

     Günlerin normalleştirilmiş değeri belirtilen aralığın dışında
     kalıyorsa, *note OverflowError: 6c7. ortaya çıkar.

     Negatif değerlerin normalleştirilmesinin ilk başta şaşırtıcı
     olabileceğini unutmayın.  Örneğin:

          >>> from datetime import timedelta
          >>> d = timedelta(microseconds=-1)
          >>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
          (-1, 86399, 999999)

Sınıf özellikleri:

 -- Özniteliği: timedelta.min

     En düşük *note timedelta: 82d. nesnesi, ‘timedelta(-999999999)’.

 -- Özniteliği: timedelta.max

     En yüksek *note timedelta: 82d. nesnesi, ‘timedelta(days=999999999,
     hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59, microseconds=999999)’.

 -- Özniteliği: timedelta.resolution

     Eşit olmayan *note timedelta: 82d. nesneleri arasındaki mümkün olan
     en küçük fark, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Note that, because of normalization, ‘timedelta.max’ is greater than
‘-timedelta.min’.  ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note
timedelta: 82d. object.

Örnek özellikleri (salt okunur):

 -- Özniteliği: timedelta.days

     Between -999,999,999 and 999,999,999 inclusive.

 -- Özniteliği: timedelta.seconds

     Between 0 and 86,399 inclusive.

          Uyarı: It is a somewhat common bug for code to unintentionally
          use this attribute when it is actually intended to get a *note
          total_seconds(): 11b0. value instead:

               >>> from datetime import timedelta
               >>> duration = timedelta(seconds=11235813)
               >>> duration.days, duration.seconds
               (130, 3813)
               >>> duration.total_seconds()
               11235813.0

 -- Özniteliği: timedelta.microseconds

     Between 0 and 999,999 inclusive.

Desteklenen operasyonlar:

Operasyon                            Sonuç
                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘t1 = t2 + t3’                       Sum of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 - t2 == t3’
                                     and ‘t1 - t3 == t2’ are true.  (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 - t3’                       Difference of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 ==
                                     t2 - t3’ and ‘t2 == t1 + t3’ are true.  (1)(6)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * i or t1 = i * t2’         Delta multiplied by an integer.  Afterwards ‘t1
                                     // i == t2’ is true, provided ‘i != 0’.
                                     
                                     
                                     In general, ‘t1 * i == t1 * (i-1) + t1’ is true.
                                     (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * f or t1 = f * t2’         Delta multiplied by a float.  The result is
                                     rounded to the nearest multiple of
                                     timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.
                                     
                                     
‘f = t2 / t3’                        Division (3) of overall duration ‘t2’ by interval
                                     unit ‘t3’.  Returns a *note float: 272. object.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 / f or t1 = t2 / i’         Delta divided by a float or an int.  The result
                                     is rounded to the nearest multiple of
                                     timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 // i’ or ‘t1 = t2 // t3’    The floor is computed and the remainder (if any)
                                     is thrown away.  In the second case, an integer
                                     is returned.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 % t3’                       The remainder is computed as a
                                     *note timedelta: 82d. object.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘q, r = divmod(t1, t2)’              Computes the quotient and the remainder: ‘q = t1
                                     // t2’ (3) and ‘r = t1 % t2’.  ‘q’ is an integer
                                     and ‘r’ is a *note timedelta: 82d. object.
                                     
                                     
‘+t1’                                Returns a *note timedelta: 82d. object with the
                                     same value.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘-t1’                                Equivalent to ‘timedelta(-t1.days, -t1.seconds,
                                     -t1.microseconds)’, and to ‘t1 * -1’.  (1)(4)
                                     
                                     
‘abs(t)’                             Equivalent to ‘+t’ when ‘t.days >= 0’, and to
                                     ‘-t’ when ‘t.days < 0’.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘str(t)’                             Returns a string in the form ‘[D day[s],
                                     ][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU]’, where D is negative for
                                     negative ‘t’.  (5)
                                     
                                     
‘repr(t)’                            Returns a string representation of the
                                     *note timedelta: 82d. object as a constructor
                                     call with canonical attribute values.
                                     

Notes:

  1. This is exact but may overflow.

  2. This is exact and cannot overflow.

  3. Division by zero raises *note ZeroDivisionError: 79e.

  4. ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note timedelta: 82d.
     object.

  5. String representations of *note timedelta: 82d. objects are
     normalized similarly to their internal representation.  This leads
     to somewhat unusual results for negative timedeltas.  For example:

          >>> timedelta(hours=-5)
          datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)
          >>> print(_)
          -1 day, 19:00:00

  6. The expression ‘t2 - t3’ will always be equal to the expression ‘t2
     + (-t3)’ except when t3 is equal to ‘timedelta.max’; in that case
     the former will produce a result while the latter will overflow.

In addition to the operations listed above, *note timedelta: 82d.
objects support certain additions and subtractions with *note date: 749.
and *note datetime: 22b. objects (see below).

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Floor division and true division of a *note
timedelta: 82d. object by another *note timedelta: 82d. object are now
supported, as are remainder operations and the *note divmod(): 7ff.
function.  True division and multiplication of a *note timedelta: 82d.
object by a *note float: 272. object are now supported.

*note timedelta: 82d. objects support equality and order comparisons.

In Boolean contexts, a *note timedelta: 82d. object is considered to be
true if and only if it isn’t equal to ‘timedelta(0)’.

Instance methods:

 -- Yöntemi: timedelta.total_seconds ()

     Return the total number of seconds contained in the duration.
     Equivalent to ‘td / timedelta(seconds=1)’.  For interval units
     other than seconds, use the division form directly (e.g.  ‘td /
     timedelta(microseconds=1)’).

     Note that for very large time intervals (greater than 270 years on
     most platforms) this method will lose microsecond accuracy.

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* Examples of usage; timedelta: Examples of usage timedelta.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage timedelta,  Up: timedelta Nesneleri

5.8.1.7 Examples of usage: ‘timedelta’
......................................

An additional example of normalization:

     >>> # Components of another_year add up to exactly 365 days
     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> another_year = timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
     ...                          minutes=50, seconds=600)
     >>> year == another_year
     True
     >>> year.total_seconds()
     31536000.0

Examples of *note timedelta: 82d. arithmetic:

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> year = timedelta(days=365)
     >>> ten_years = 10 * year
     >>> ten_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3650)
     >>> ten_years.days // 365
     10
     >>> nine_years = ten_years - year
     >>> nine_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3285)
     >>> three_years = nine_years // 3
     >>> three_years, three_years.days // 365
     (datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)


File: python.info,  Node: date Objects,  Next: datetime Objects,  Prev: timedelta Nesneleri,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.8 ‘date’ Objects
......................

A *note date: 749. object represents a date (year, month and day) in an
idealized calendar, the current Gregorian calendar indefinitely extended
in both directions.

January 1 of year 1 is called day number 1, January 2 of year 1 is
called day number 2, and so on.  (1)

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.date (year, month, day)

     All arguments are required.  Arguments must be integers, in the
     following ranges:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’

        * ‘1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year’

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     189. is raised.

Other constructors, all class methods:

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod date.today ()

     Return the current local date.

     This is equivalent to ‘date.fromtimestamp(time.time())’.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod date.fromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Return the local date corresponding to the POSIX timestamp, such as
     is returned by *note time.time(): 94f.

     This may raise *note OverflowError: 6c7, if the timestamp is out of
     the range of values supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’
     function, and *note OSError: 65c. on ‘localtime()’ failure.  It’s
     common for this to be restricted to years from 1970 through 2038.
     Note that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their
     notion of a timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by *note
     fromtimestamp(): 1467.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. instead of
     *note ValueError: 189. if the timestamp is out of the range of
     values supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’ function.  Raise
     *note OSError: 65c. instead of *note ValueError: 189. on
     ‘localtime()’ failure.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod date.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Return the date corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian ordinal,
     where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.

     *note ValueError: 189. is raised unless ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     date.max.toordinal()’.  For any date ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod date.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note date: 749. corresponding to a 'date_string' given in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       2. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       3. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     Examples:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('20191204')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
          datetime.date(2021, 1, 4)

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this method only supported the
     format ‘YYYY-MM-DD’.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod date.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Return a *note date: 749. corresponding to the ISO calendar date
     specified by year, week and day.  This is the inverse of the
     function *note date.isocalendar(): 748.

     Added in version 3.8.

Sınıf özellikleri:

 -- Özniteliği: date.min

     The earliest representable date, ‘date(MINYEAR, 1, 1)’.

 -- Özniteliği: date.max

     The latest representable date, ‘date(MAXYEAR, 12, 31)’.

 -- Özniteliği: date.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal date objects,
     ‘timedelta(days=1)’.

Örnek özellikleri (salt okunur):

 -- Özniteliği: date.year

     Between *note MINYEAR: 2217. and *note MAXYEAR: 2218. inclusive.

 -- Özniteliği: date.month

     Between 1 and 12 inclusive.

 -- Özniteliği: date.day

     Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given
     year.

Desteklenen operasyonlar:

Operasyon                           Sonuç
                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘date2 = date1 + timedelta’         ‘date2’ will be ‘timedelta.days’ days after
                                    ‘date1’.  (1)
                                    
                                    
‘date2 = date1 - timedelta’         Computes ‘date2’ such that ‘date2 + timedelta ==
                                    date1’.  (2)
                                    
                                    
‘timedelta = date1 - date2’         (3)
                                    
                                    
     ‘date1 == date2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘date1 != date2’               

     ‘date1 < date2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘date1 > date2’                
     ‘date1 <= date2’
     ‘date1 >= date2’

Notes:

  1. 'date2' is moved forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or
     backward if ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  Afterward ‘date2 - date1 ==
     timedelta.days’.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and ‘timedelta.microseconds’
     are ignored.  *note OverflowError: 6c7. is raised if ‘date2.year’
     would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 2217. or larger than *note
     MAXYEAR: 2218.

  2. ‘timedelta.seconds’ and ‘timedelta.microseconds’ are ignored.

  3. This is exact, and cannot overflow.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and
     ‘timedelta.microseconds’ are 0, and ‘date2 + timedelta == date1’
     after.

  4. *note date: 749. objects are equal if they represent the same date.

  5. 'date1' is considered less than 'date2' when 'date1' precedes
     'date2' in time.  In other words, ‘date1 < date2’ if and only if
     ‘date1.toordinal() < date2.toordinal()’.

In Boolean contexts, all *note date: 749. objects are considered to be
true.

Instance methods:

 -- Yöntemi: date.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day)

     Return a new *note date: 749. object with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.

     Example:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> d = date(2002, 12, 31)
          >>> d.replace(day=26)
          datetime.date(2002, 12, 26)

 -- Yöntemi: date.timetuple ()

     Return a *note time.struct_time: b6e. such as returned by *note
     time.localtime(): 1386.

     The hours, minutes and seconds are 0, and the DST flag is -1.

     ‘d.timetuple()’ is equivalent to:

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day, 0, 0, 0, d.weekday(), yday, -1))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.

 -- Yöntemi: date.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1
     of year 1 has ordinal 1.  For any *note date: 749. object ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- Yöntemi: date.weekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and
     Sunday is 6.  For example, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).weekday() == 2’, a
     Wednesday.  See also *note isoweekday(): 223f.

 -- Yöntemi: date.isoweekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and
     Sunday is 7.  For example, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).isoweekday() == 3’, a
     Wednesday.  See also *note weekday(): 223e, *note isocalendar():
     748.

 -- Yöntemi: date.isocalendar ()

     Return a *note named tuple: 461. object with three components:
     ‘year’, ‘week’ and ‘weekday’.

     The ISO calendar is a widely used variant of the Gregorian
     calendar.  (2)

     The ISO year consists of 52 or 53 full weeks, and where a week
     starts on a Monday and ends on a Sunday.  The first week of an ISO
     year is the first (Gregorian) calendar week of a year containing a
     Thursday.  This is called week number 1, and the ISO year of that
     Thursday is the same as its Gregorian year.

     For example, 2004 begins on a Thursday, so the first week of ISO
     year 2004 begins on Monday, 29 Dec 2003 and ends on Sunday, 4 Jan
     2004:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=1)
          >>> date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=7)

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Result changed from a tuple to a *note named
     tuple: 461.

 -- Yöntemi: date.isoformat ()

     Return a string representing the date in ISO 8601 format,
     ‘YYYY-MM-DD’:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
          '2002-12-04'

 -- Yöntemi: date.__str__ ()

     For a date ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to ‘d.isoformat()’.

 -- Yöntemi: date.ctime ()

     Return a string representing the date:

          >>> from datetime import date
          >>> date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 00:00:00 2002'

     ‘d.ctime()’ is equivalent to:

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     on platforms where the native C ‘ctime()’ function (which *note
     time.ctime(): 2243. invokes, but which *note date.ctime(): 2242.
     does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.

 -- Yöntemi: date.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  Format codes referring to hours, minutes or seconds
     will see 0 values.  See also *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 15eb. and *note date.isoformat(): 2240.

 -- Yöntemi: date.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note date.strftime(): b12.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note date: 749. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 807. and when using *note str.format():
     433.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 15eb. and
     *note date.isoformat(): 2240.

* Menu:

* Examples of Usage; date: Examples of Usage date.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This matches the definition of the “proleptic Gregorian” calendar
in Dershowitz and Reingold’s book 'Calendrical Calculations', where it’s
the base calendar for all computations.  See the book for algorithms for
converting between proleptic Gregorian ordinals and many other calendar
systems.

   (2) See R. H. van Gent’s guide to the mathematics of the ISO 8601
calendar
(https://web.archive.org/web/20220531051136/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm)
for a good explanation.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Usage date,  Up: date Objects

5.8.1.9 Examples of Usage: ‘date’
.................................

Example of counting days to an event:

     >>> import time
     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> today = date.today()
     >>> today
     datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
     >>> today == date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
     True
     >>> my_birthday = date(today.year, 6, 24)
     >>> if my_birthday < today:
     ...     my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
     ...
     >>> my_birthday
     datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)
     >>> time_to_birthday = abs(my_birthday - today)
     >>> time_to_birthday.days
     202

More examples of working with *note date: 749.:

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> d = date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
     >>> d
     datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)

     >>> # Methods related to formatting string output
     >>> d.isoformat()
     '2002-03-11'
     >>> d.strftime("%d/%m/%y")
     '11/03/02'
     >>> d.strftime("%A %d. %B %Y")
     'Monday 11. March 2002'
     >>> d.ctime()
     'Mon Mar 11 00:00:00 2002'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}.'.format(d, "day", "month")
     'The day is 11, the month is March.'

     >>> # Methods for to extracting 'components' under different calendars
     >>> t = d.timetuple()
     >>> for i in t:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # year
     3                   # month
     11                  # day
     0
     0
     0
     0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)
     70                  # 70th day in the year
     -1
     >>> ic = d.isocalendar()
     >>> for i in ic:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # ISO year
     11                  # ISO week number
     1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )

     >>> # A date object is immutable; all operations produce a new object
     >>> d.replace(year=2005)
     datetime.date(2005, 3, 11)


File: python.info,  Node: datetime Objects,  Next: time Objects,  Prev: date Objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.10 ‘datetime’ Objects
...........................

A *note datetime: 22b. object is a single object containing all the
information from a *note date: 749. object and a *note time: 6df.
object.

Like a *note date: 749. object, *note datetime: 22b. assumes the current
Gregorian calendar extended in both directions; like a *note time: 6df.
object, *note datetime: 22b. assumes there are exactly 3600*24 seconds
in every day.

Constructor:

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.datetime (year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0,
          second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     The 'year', 'month' and 'day' arguments are required.  'tzinfo' may
     be ‘None’, or an instance of a *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass.  The
     remaining arguments must be integers in the following ranges:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’,

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’,

        * ‘1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year’,

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     189. is raised.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'fold' parameter.

Other constructors, all class methods:

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.today ()

     Return the current local date and time, with *note tzinfo: 2229.
     ‘None’.

     Equivalent to:

          datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())

     See also *note now(): 22e, *note fromtimestamp(): 22f.

     This method is functionally equivalent to *note now(): 22e, but
     without a ‘tz’ parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.now (tz=None)

     Return the current local date and time.

     If optional argument 'tz' is ‘None’ or not specified, this is like
     *note today(): 2248, but, if possible, supplies more precision than
     can be gotten from going through a *note time.time(): 94f.
     timestamp (for example, this may be possible on platforms supplying
     the C ‘gettimeofday()’ function).

     If 'tz' is not ‘None’, it must be an instance of a *note tzinfo:
     3e9. subclass, and the current date and time are converted to
     'tz'’s time zone.

     This function is preferred over *note today(): 2248. and *note
     utcnow(): 22c.

          Not: Subsequent calls to ‘datetime.now()’ may return the same
          instant depending on the precision of the underlying clock.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.utcnow ()

     Return the current UTC date and time, with *note tzinfo: 2229.
     ‘None’.

     This is like *note now(): 22e, but returns the current UTC date and
     time, as a naive *note datetime: 22b. object.  An aware current UTC
     datetime can be obtained by calling ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.
     See also *note now(): 22e.

          Uyarı: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by many
          ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC. As such, the
          recommended way to create an object representing the current
          time in UTC is by calling ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note datetime.now(): 22e.
     with *note UTC: 230. instead.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.fromtimestamp (timestamp, tz=None)

     Return the local date and time corresponding to the POSIX
     timestamp, such as is returned by *note time.time(): 94f.  If
     optional argument 'tz' is ‘None’ or not specified, the timestamp is
     converted to the platform’s local date and time, and the returned
     *note datetime: 22b. object is naive.

     If 'tz' is not ‘None’, it must be an instance of a *note tzinfo:
     3e9. subclass, and the timestamp is converted to 'tz'’s time zone.

     *note fromtimestamp(): 22f. may raise *note OverflowError: 6c7, if
     the timestamp is out of the range of values supported by the
     platform C ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ functions, and *note
     OSError: 65c. on ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It’s common
     for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.  Note that
     on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their notion of a
     timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by *note fromtimestamp(): 22f,
     and then it’s possible to have two timestamps differing by a second
     that yield identical *note datetime: 22b. objects.  This method is
     preferred over *note utcfromtimestamp(): 22d.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. instead of
     *note ValueError: 189. if the timestamp is out of the range of
     values supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’
     functions.  Raise *note OSError: 65c. instead of *note ValueError:
     189. on ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note fromtimestamp(): 22f. may return
     instances with *note fold: ad3. set to 1.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.utcfromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Return the UTC *note datetime: 22b. corresponding to the POSIX
     timestamp, with *note tzinfo: 2229. ‘None’.  (The resulting object
     is naive.)

     This may raise *note OverflowError: 6c7, if the timestamp is out of
     the range of values supported by the platform C ‘gmtime()’
     function, and *note OSError: 65c. on ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It’s
     common for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.

     To get an aware *note datetime: 22b. object, call *note
     fromtimestamp(): 22f.:

          datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, timezone.utc)

     On the POSIX compliant platforms, it is equivalent to the following
     expression:

          datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp)

     except the latter formula always supports the full years range:
     between *note MINYEAR: 2217. and *note MAXYEAR: 2218. inclusive.

          Uyarı: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by many
          ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC. As such, the
          recommended way to create an object representing a specific
          timestamp in UTC is by calling
          ‘datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=timezone.utc)’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. instead of
     *note ValueError: 189. if the timestamp is out of the range of
     values supported by the platform C ‘gmtime()’ function.  Raise
     *note OSError: 65c. instead of *note ValueError: 189. on ‘gmtime()’
     failure.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note
     datetime.fromtimestamp(): 22f. with *note UTC: 230. instead.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Return the *note datetime: 22b. corresponding to the proleptic
     Gregorian ordinal, where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.  *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised unless ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     datetime.max.toordinal()’.  The hour, minute, second and
     microsecond of the result are all 0, and *note tzinfo: 2229. is
     ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.combine (date, time,
          tzinfo=time.tzinfo)

     Return a new *note datetime: 22b. object whose date components are
     equal to the given *note date: 749. object’s, and whose time
     components are equal to the given *note time: 6df. object’s.  If
     the 'tzinfo' argument is provided, its value is used to set the
     *note tzinfo: 2229. attribute of the result, otherwise the *note
     tzinfo: 2221. attribute of the 'time' argument is used.  If the
     'date' argument is a *note datetime: 22b. object, its time
     components and *note tzinfo: 2229. attributes are ignored.

     For any *note datetime: 22b. object ‘d’, ‘d ==
     datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo)’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'tzinfo' argument.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note datetime: 22b. corresponding to a 'date_string' in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The ‘T’ separator may be replaced by any single unicode
          character.

       3. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

       4. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       5. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       6. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     Examples:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23,
              tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this method only supported
     formats that could be emitted by *note date.isoformat(): 2240. or
     *note datetime.isoformat(): 9a1.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Return a *note datetime: 22b. corresponding to the ISO calendar
     date specified by year, week and day.  The non-date components of
     the datetime are populated with their normal default values.  This
     is the inverse of the function *note datetime.isocalendar(): 74a.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod datetime.strptime (date_string, format)

     Return a *note datetime: 22b. corresponding to 'date_string',
     parsed according to 'format'.

     If 'format' does not contain microseconds or time zone information,
     this is equivalent to:

          datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

     *note ValueError: 189. is raised if the date_string and format
     can’t be parsed by *note time.strptime(): 12b5. or if it returns a
     value which isn’t a time tuple.  See also *note strftime() and
     strptime() Behavior: 15eb. and *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 428.

Sınıf özellikleri:

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.min

     The earliest representable *note datetime: 22b, ‘datetime(MINYEAR,
     1, 1, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.max

     The latest representable *note datetime: 22b, ‘datetime(MAXYEAR,
     12, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note datetime:
     22b. objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Örnek özellikleri (salt okunur):

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.year

     Between *note MINYEAR: 2217. and *note MAXYEAR: 2218. inclusive.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.month

     Between 1 and 12 inclusive.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.day

     Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given
     year.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.hour

     In ‘range(24)’.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.minute

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.second

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.microsecond

     In ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.tzinfo

     The object passed as the 'tzinfo' argument to the *note datetime:
     22b. constructor, or ‘None’ if none was passed.

 -- Özniteliği: datetime.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Added in version 3.6.

Desteklenen operasyonlar:

Operasyon                                   Sonuç
                                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 + timedelta’         (1)
                                            
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 - timedelta’         (2)
                                            
                                            
‘timedelta = datetime1 - datetime2’         (3)
                                            
                                            
     ‘datetime1 == datetime2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘datetime1 != datetime2’               

     ‘datetime1 < datetime2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘datetime1 > datetime2’                
     ‘datetime1 <= datetime2’
     ‘datetime1 >= datetime2’

  1. ‘datetime2’ is a duration of ‘timedelta’ removed from ‘datetime1’,
     moving forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or backward if
     ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  The result has the same *note tzinfo: 2229.
     attribute as the input datetime, and ‘datetime2 - datetime1 ==
     timedelta’ after.  *note OverflowError: 6c7. is raised if
     ‘datetime2.year’ would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 2217. or
     larger than *note MAXYEAR: 2218.  Note that no time zone
     adjustments are done even if the input is an aware object.

  2. Computes the ‘datetime2’ such that ‘datetime2 + timedelta ==
     datetime1’.  As for addition, the result has the same *note tzinfo:
     2229. attribute as the input datetime, and no time zone adjustments
     are done even if the input is aware.

  3. Subtraction of a *note datetime: 22b. from a *note datetime: 22b.
     is defined only if both operands are naive, or if both are aware.
     If one is aware and the other is naive, *note TypeError: 2c4. is
     raised.

     If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same *note
     tzinfo: 2229. attribute, the *note tzinfo: 2229. attributes are
     ignored, and the result is a *note timedelta: 82d. object ‘t’ such
     that ‘datetime2 + t == datetime1’.  No time zone adjustments are
     done in this case.

     If both are aware and have different *note tzinfo: 2229.
     attributes, ‘a-b’ acts as if ‘a’ and ‘b’ were first converted to
     naive UTC datetimes.  The result is ‘(a.replace(tzinfo=None) -
     a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None) - b.utcoffset())’ except
     that the implementation never overflows.

  4. *note datetime: 22b. objects are equal if they represent the same
     date and time, taking into account the time zone.

     Naive and aware ‘datetime’ objects are never equal.  ‘datetime’
     objects are never equal to *note date: 749. objects that are not
     also ‘datetime’ instances, even if they represent the same date.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: ad3. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 2229. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.  ‘datetime’ instances in a repeated
     interval are never equal to ‘datetime’ instances in other time
     zone.

  5. 'datetime1' is considered less than 'datetime2' when 'datetime1'
     precedes 'datetime2' in time, taking into account the time zone.

     Order comparison between naive and aware *note datetime: 22b.
     objects, as well as a ‘datetime’ object and a ‘date’ object that is
     not also a ‘datetime’ instance, raises *note TypeError: 2c4.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: ad3. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 2229. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Equality comparisons between aware and naive
*note datetime: 22b. instances don’t raise *note TypeError: 2c4.

Instance methods:

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.date ()

     Return *note date: 749. object with same year, month and day.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.time ()

     Return *note time: 6df. object with same hour, minute, second,
     microsecond and fold.  *note tzinfo: 2229. is ‘None’.  See also
     method *note timetz(): 224e.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The fold value is copied to the returned
     *note time: 6df. object.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.timetz ()

     Return *note time: 6df. object with same hour, minute, second,
     microsecond, fold, and tzinfo attributes.  See also method *note
     time(): ed.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The fold value is copied to the returned
     *note time: 6df. object.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day, hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note datetime: 30. object with the same attributes,
     but with specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can
     be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware datetime with
     no conversion of date and time data.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.astimezone (tz=None)

     Return a *note datetime: 22b. object with new *note tzinfo: 2229.
     attribute 'tz', adjusting the date and time data so the result is
     the same UTC time as 'self', but in 'tz'’s local time.

     If provided, 'tz' must be an instance of a *note tzinfo: 3e9.
     subclass, and its *note utcoffset(): 224f. and *note dst(): 2250.
     methods must not return ‘None’.  If 'self' is naive, it is presumed
     to represent time in the system time zone.

     If called without arguments (or with ‘tz=None’) the system local
     time zone is assumed for the target time zone.  The ‘.tzinfo’
     attribute of the converted datetime instance will be set to an
     instance of *note timezone: f62. with the zone name and offset
     obtained from the OS.

     If ‘self.tzinfo’ is 'tz', ‘self.astimezone(tz)’ is equal to 'self':
     no adjustment of date or time data is performed.  Else the result
     is local time in the time zone 'tz', representing the same UTC time
     as 'self': after ‘astz = dt.astimezone(tz)’, ‘astz -
     astz.utcoffset()’ will have the same date and time data as ‘dt -
     dt.utcoffset()’.

     If you merely want to attach a *note timezone: f62. object 'tz' to
     a datetime 'dt' without adjustment of date and time data, use
     ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)’.  If you merely want to remove the
     ‘timezone’ object from an aware datetime 'dt' without conversion of
     date and time data, use ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=None)’.

     Note that the default *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 2251. method can be
     overridden in a *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass to affect the result
     returned by *note astimezone(): 82e.  Ignoring error cases, *note
     astimezone(): 82e. acts like:

          def astimezone(self, tz):
              if self.tzinfo is tz:
                  return self
              # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new timezone object.
              utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
              # Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
              return tz.fromutc(utc)

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'tz' now can be omitted.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The *note astimezone(): 82e. method can now
     be called on naive instances that are presumed to represent system
     local time.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.utcoffset ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2229. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self)’, and raises an exception if the
     latter doesn’t return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: 82d. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.dst ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2229. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(self)’, and raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: 82d. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.tzname ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2229. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(self)’, raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’ or a string object,

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.timetuple ()

     Return a *note time.struct_time: b6e. such as returned by *note
     time.localtime(): 1386.

     ‘d.timetuple()’ is equivalent to:

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day,
                            d.hour, d.minute, d.second,
                            d.weekday(), yday, dst))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.  The *note tm_isdst: 2254. flag of the result is set
     according to the *note dst(): 2250. method: *note tzinfo: 2229. is
     ‘None’ or *note dst(): 2250. returns ‘None’, ‘tm_isdst’ is set to
     ‘-1’; else if *note dst(): 2250. returns a non-zero value,
     ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 1; else ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 0.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.utctimetuple ()

     If *note datetime: 22b. instance ‘d’ is naive, this is the same as
     ‘d.timetuple()’ except that *note tm_isdst: 2254. is forced to 0
     regardless of what ‘d.dst()’ returns.  DST is never in effect for a
     UTC time.

     If ‘d’ is aware, ‘d’ is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
     ‘d.utcoffset()’, and a *note time.struct_time: b6e. for the
     normalized time is returned.  ‘tm_isdst’ is forced to 0.  Note that
     an *note OverflowError: 6c7. may be raised if ‘d.year’ was
     ‘MINYEAR’ or ‘MAXYEAR’ and UTC adjustment spills over a year
     boundary.

          Uyarı: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by many
          ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC; as a result, using
          *note datetime.utctimetuple(): 2255. may give misleading
          results.  If you have a naive ‘datetime’ representing UTC, use
          ‘datetime.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc)’ to make it aware, at
          which point you can use *note datetime.timetuple(): 2253.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date.  The same as
     ‘self.date().toordinal()’.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.timestamp ()

     Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 22b.
     instance.  The return value is a *note float: 272. similar to that
     returned by *note time.time(): 94f.

     Naive *note datetime: 22b. instances are assumed to represent local
     time and this method relies on the platform C ‘mktime()’ function
     to perform the conversion.  Since *note datetime: 22b. supports
     wider range of values than ‘mktime()’ on many platforms, this
     method may raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. or *note OSError: 65c.
     for times far in the past or far in the future.

     For aware *note datetime: 22b. instances, the return value is
     computed as:

          (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds()

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The *note timestamp(): f44. method uses the
     *note fold: ad3. attribute to disambiguate the times during a
     repeated interval.

          Not: There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp directly
          from a naive *note datetime: 22b. instance representing UTC
          time.  If your application uses this convention and your
          system time zone is not set to UTC, you can obtain the POSIX
          timestamp by supplying ‘tzinfo=timezone.utc’:

               timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp()

          or by calculating the timestamp directly:

               timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1)

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.weekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and
     Sunday is 6.  The same as ‘self.date().weekday()’.  See also *note
     isoweekday(): 2258.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.isoweekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and
     Sunday is 7.  The same as ‘self.date().isoweekday()’.  See also
     *note weekday(): 2257, *note isocalendar(): 74a.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.isocalendar ()

     Return a *note named tuple: 461. with three components: ‘year’,
     ‘week’ and ‘weekday’.  The same as ‘self.date().isocalendar()’.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.isoformat (sep='T', timespec='auto')

     Return a string representing the date and time in ISO 8601 format:

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff’, if *note microsecond: 2228. is
          not 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS’, if *note microsecond: 2228. is 0

     If *note utcoffset(): 224f. does not return ‘None’, a string is
     appended, giving the UTC offset:

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note
          microsecond: 2228. is not 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note
          microsecond: 2228. is 0

     Examples:

          >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:08.132263'
          >>> datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=timezone.utc).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:00+00:00'

     The optional argument 'sep' (default ‘'T'’) is a one-character
     separator, placed between the date and time portions of the result.
     For example:

          >>> from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime
          >>> class TZ(tzinfo):
          ...     """A time zone with an arbitrary, constant -06:39 offset."""
          ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
          ...         return timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
          ...
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
          '2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
          >>> datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
          '2009-11-27T00:00:00.000100-06:39'

     The optional argument 'timespec' specifies the number of additional
     components of the time to include (the default is ‘'auto'’).  It
     can be one of the following:

        - ‘'auto'’: Same as ‘'seconds'’ if *note microsecond: 2228. is
          0, same as ‘'microseconds'’ otherwise.

        - ‘'hours'’: Include the *note hour: 2225. in the two-digit ‘HH’
          format.

        - ‘'minutes'’: Include *note hour: 2225. and *note minute: 2226.
          in ‘HH:MM’ format.

        - ‘'seconds'’: Include *note hour: 2225, *note minute: 2226, and
          *note second: 2227. in ‘HH:MM:SS’ format.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: Include full time, but truncate fractional
          second part to milliseconds.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ format.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: Include full time in ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’
          format.

          Not: Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.

     *note ValueError: 189. will be raised on an invalid 'timespec'
     argument:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '2002-12-25T00:00'
          >>> dt = datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.__str__ ()

     For a *note datetime: 22b. instance ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to
     ‘d.isoformat(' ')’.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.ctime ()

     Return a string representing the date and time:

          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 20:30:40 2002'

     The output string will 'not' include time zone information,
     regardless of whether the input is aware or naive.

     ‘d.ctime()’ is equivalent to:

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     on platforms where the native C ‘ctime()’ function (which *note
     time.ctime(): 2243. invokes, but which *note datetime.ctime():
     225a. does not invoke) conforms to the C standard.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date and time, controlled by an
     explicit format string.  See also *note strftime() and strptime()
     Behavior: 15eb. and *note datetime.isoformat(): 9a1.

 -- Yöntemi: datetime.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note datetime.strftime(): b11.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note datetime: 22b. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 807. and when using *note str.format():
     433.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 15eb. and
     *note datetime.isoformat(): 9a1.

* Menu:

* Examples of Usage; datetime: Examples of Usage datetime.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Usage datetime,  Up: datetime Objects

5.8.1.11 Examples of Usage: ‘datetime’
......................................

Examples of working with *note datetime: 22b. objects:

     >>> from datetime import datetime, date, time, timezone

     >>> # Using datetime.combine()
     >>> d = date(2005, 7, 14)
     >>> t = time(12, 30)
     >>> datetime.combine(d, t)
     datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.now()
     >>> datetime.now()
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1
     >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     >>> # Using datetime.strptime()
     >>> dt = datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
     >>> dt
     datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
     >>> tt = dt.timetuple()
     >>> for it in tt:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # year
     11      # month
     21      # day
     16      # hour
     30      # minute
     0       # second
     1       # weekday (0 = Monday)
     325     # number of days since 1st January
     -1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None

     >>> # Date in ISO format
     >>> ic = dt.isocalendar()
     >>> for it in ic:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # ISO year
     47      # ISO week
     2       # ISO weekday

     >>> # Formatting a datetime
     >>> dt.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
     'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(dt, "day", "month", "time")
     'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'

The example below defines a *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass capturing time
zone information for Kabul, Afghanistan, which used +4 UTC until 1945
and then +4:30 UTC thereafter:

     from datetime import timedelta, datetime, tzinfo, timezone

     class KabulTz(tzinfo):
         # Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
         UTC_MOVE_DATE = datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if dt.year < 1945:
                 return timedelta(hours=4)
             elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= dt.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
                 # An ambiguous ("imaginary") half-hour range representing
                 # a 'fold' in time due to the shift from +4 to +4:30.
                 # If dt falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
                 # to resolve. See PEP495.
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if dt.fold else 0))
             else:
                 return timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             # Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
             if not isinstance(dt, datetime):
                 raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
             if dt.tzinfo is not self:
                 raise ValueError("dt.tzinfo is not self")

             # A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
             # the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
             # but with a tzinfo set to self.
             # See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp.
             if dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
             else:
                 return dt + timedelta(hours=4)

         def dst(self, dt):
             # Kabul does not observe daylight saving time.
             return timedelta(0)

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if dt >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return "+04:30"
             return "+04"

Usage of ‘KabulTz’ from above:

     >>> tz1 = KabulTz()

     >>> # Datetime before the change
     >>> dt1 = datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
     4:00:00

     >>> # Datetime after the change
     >>> dt2 = datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
     4:30:00

     >>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
     >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(timezone.utc)
     >>> dt3
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
     >>> dt2
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())
     >>> dt2 == dt3
     True


File: python.info,  Node: time Objects,  Next: tzinfo Objects,  Prev: datetime Objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.12 ‘time’ Objects
.......................

A *note time: 6df. object represents a (local) time of day, independent
of any particular day, and subject to adjustment via a *note tzinfo:
3e9. object.

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.time (hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0,
          tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     All arguments are optional.  'tzinfo' may be ‘None’, or an instance
     of a *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass.  The remaining arguments must be
     integers in the following ranges:

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     189. is raised.  All default to 0 except 'tzinfo', which defaults
     to ‘None’.

Sınıf özellikleri:

 -- Özniteliği: time.min

     The earliest representable *note time: 6df, ‘time(0, 0, 0, 0)’.

 -- Özniteliği: time.max

     The latest representable *note time: 6df, ‘time(23, 59, 59,
     999999)’.

 -- Özniteliği: time.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note time: 6df.
     objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’, although note that arithmetic
     on *note time: 6df. objects is not supported.

Örnek özellikleri (salt okunur):

 -- Özniteliği: time.hour

     In ‘range(24)’.

 -- Özniteliği: time.minute

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Özniteliği: time.second

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Özniteliği: time.microsecond

     In ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- Özniteliği: time.tzinfo

     The object passed as the tzinfo argument to the *note time: 6df.
     constructor, or ‘None’ if none was passed.

 -- Özniteliği: time.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Added in version 3.6.

*note time: 6df. objects support equality and order comparisons, where
‘a’ is considered less than ‘b’ when ‘a’ precedes ‘b’ in time.

Naive and aware ‘time’ objects are never equal.  Order comparison
between naive and aware ‘time’ objects raises *note TypeError: 2c4.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same *note tzinfo: 2221.
attribute, the ‘tzinfo’ and ‘fold’ attributes are ignored and the base
times are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have different
‘tzinfo’ attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting
their UTC offsets (obtained from ‘self.utcoffset()’).

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Equality comparisons between aware and naive
*note time: 6df. instances don’t raise *note TypeError: 2c4.

In Boolean contexts, a *note time: 6df. object is always considered to
be true.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Before Python 3.5, a *note time: 6df. object was
considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This behavior
was considered obscure and error-prone and has been removed in Python
3.5.  See bpo-13936(1) for full details.

Other constructor:

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod time.fromisoformat (time_string)

     Return a *note time: 6df. corresponding to a 'time_string' in any
     valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The leading ‘T’, normally required in cases where there may be
          ambiguity between a date and a time, is not required.

       3. Fractional seconds may have any number of digits (anything
          beyond 6 will be truncated).

       4. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

     Examples:

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('T042301')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this method only supported
     formats that could be emitted by *note time.isoformat(): 2263.

Instance methods:

 -- Yöntemi: time.replace (hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note time: 6df. with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can be
     specified to create a naive *note time: 6df. from an aware *note
     time: 6df, without conversion of the time data.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: time.isoformat (timespec='auto')

     Return a string representing the time in ISO 8601 format, one of:

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’, if *note microsecond: 2220. is not 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS’, if *note microsecond: 2220. is 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note utcoffset():
          2265. does not return ‘None’

        - ‘HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note microsecond: 2220. is
          0 and *note utcoffset(): 2265. does not return ‘None’

     The optional argument 'timespec' specifies the number of additional
     components of the time to include (the default is ‘'auto'’).  It
     can be one of the following:

        - ‘'auto'’: Same as ‘'seconds'’ if *note microsecond: 2220. is
          0, same as ‘'microseconds'’ otherwise.

        - ‘'hours'’: Include the *note hour: 221d. in the two-digit ‘HH’
          format.

        - ‘'minutes'’: Include *note hour: 221d. and *note minute: 221e.
          in ‘HH:MM’ format.

        - ‘'seconds'’: Include *note hour: 221d, *note minute: 221e, and
          *note second: 221f. in ‘HH:MM:SS’ format.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: Include full time, but truncate fractional
          second part to milliseconds.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ format.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: Include full time in ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’
          format.

          Not: Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.

     *note ValueError: 189. will be raised on an invalid 'timespec'
     argument.

     Example:

          >>> from datetime import time
          >>> time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '12:34'
          >>> dt = time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '12:34:56.000000'
          >>> dt.isoformat(timespec='auto')
          '12:34:56'

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: time.__str__ ()

     For a time ‘t’, ‘str(t)’ is equivalent to ‘t.isoformat()’.

 -- Yöntemi: time.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the time, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior:
     15eb. and *note time.isoformat(): 2263.

 -- Yöntemi: time.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note time.strftime(): 15a2.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note time: 6df. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 807. and when using *note str.format():
     433.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() Behavior: 15eb. and
     *note time.isoformat(): 2263.

 -- Yöntemi: time.utcoffset ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2221. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’, and raises an exception if the
     latter doesn’t return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: 82d. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: time.dst ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2221. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(None)’, and raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’, or a *note timedelta: 82d. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: time.tzname ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2221. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(None)’, or raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’ or a string object.

* Menu:

* Examples of Usage; time: Examples of Usage time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Usage time,  Up: time Objects

5.8.1.13 Examples of Usage: ‘time’
..................................

Examples of working with a *note time: 6df. object:

     >>> from datetime import time, tzinfo, timedelta
     >>> class TZ1(tzinfo):
     ...     def utcoffset(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(hours=1)
     ...     def dst(self, dt):
     ...         return timedelta(0)
     ...     def tzname(self,dt):
     ...         return "+01:00"
     ...     def  __repr__(self):
     ...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
     ...
     >>> t = time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t
     datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t.isoformat()
     '12:10:30+01:00'
     >>> t.dst()
     datetime.timedelta(0)
     >>> t.tzname()
     '+01:00'
     >>> t.strftime("%H:%M:%S %Z")
     '12:10:30 +01:00'
     >>> 'The {} is {:%H:%M}.'.format("time", t)
     'The time is 12:10.'


File: python.info,  Node: tzinfo Objects,  Next: timezone Objects,  Prev: time Objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.14 ‘tzinfo’ Objects
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.tzinfo

     This is an abstract base class, meaning that this class should not
     be instantiated directly.  Define a subclass of *note tzinfo: 3e9.
     to capture information about a particular time zone.

     An instance of (a concrete subclass of) *note tzinfo: 3e9. can be
     passed to the constructors for *note datetime: 22b. and *note time:
     6df. objects.  The latter objects view their attributes as being in
     local time, and the *note tzinfo: 3e9. object supports methods
     revealing offset of local time from UTC, the name of the time zone,
     and DST offset, all relative to a date or time object passed to
     them.

     You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least) supply
     implementations of the standard *note tzinfo: 3e9. methods needed
     by the *note datetime: 22b. methods you use.  The ‘datetime’ module
     provides *note timezone: f62, a simple concrete subclass of *note
     tzinfo: 3e9. which can represent time zones with fixed offset from
     UTC such as UTC itself or North American EST and EDT.

     Special requirement for pickling: A *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass
     must have an *note __init__(): 4c6. method that can be called with
     no arguments, otherwise it can be pickled but possibly not
     unpickled again.  This is a technical requirement that may be
     relaxed in the future.

     A concrete subclass of *note tzinfo: 3e9. may need to implement the
     following methods.  Exactly which methods are needed depends on the
     uses made of aware ‘datetime’ objects.  If in doubt, simply
     implement all of them.

 -- Yöntemi: tzinfo.utcoffset (dt)

     Return offset of local time from UTC, as a *note timedelta: 82d.
     object that is positive east of UTC. If local time is west of UTC,
     this should be negative.

     This represents the 'total' offset from UTC; for example, if a
     *note tzinfo: 3e9. object represents both time zone and DST
     adjustments, *note utcoffset(): 226d. should return their sum.  If
     the UTC offset isn’t known, return ‘None’.  Else the value returned
     must be a *note timedelta: 82d. object strictly between
     ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’ and ‘timedelta(hours=24)’ (the magnitude of
     the offset must be less than one day).  Most implementations of
     *note utcoffset(): 226d. will probably look like one of these two:

          return CONSTANT                 # fixed-offset class
          return CONSTANT + self.dst(dt)  # daylight-aware class

     If *note utcoffset(): 226d. does not return ‘None’, *note dst():
     226e. should not return ‘None’ either.

     The default implementation of *note utcoffset(): 226d. raises *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: tzinfo.dst (dt)

     Return the daylight saving time (DST) adjustment, as a *note
     timedelta: 82d. object or ‘None’ if DST information isn’t known.

     Return ‘timedelta(0)’ if DST is not in effect.  If DST is in
     effect, return the offset as a *note timedelta: 82d. object (see
     *note utcoffset(): 226d. for details).  Note that DST offset, if
     applicable, has already been added to the UTC offset returned by
     *note utcoffset(): 226d, so there’s no need to consult *note dst():
     226e. unless you’re interested in obtaining DST info separately.
     For example, *note datetime.timetuple(): 2253. calls its *note
     tzinfo: 2229. attribute’s *note dst(): 226e. method to determine
     how the *note tm_isdst: 2254. flag should be set, and *note
     tzinfo.fromutc(): 2251. calls *note dst(): 226e. to account for DST
     changes when crossing time zones.

     An instance 'tz' of a *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass that models both
     standard and daylight times must be consistent in this sense:

     ‘tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)’

     must return the same result for every *note datetime: 22b. 'dt'
     with ‘dt.tzinfo == tz’.  For sane *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclasses,
     this expression yields the time zone’s “standard offset”, which
     should not depend on the date or the time, but only on geographic
     location.  The implementation of *note datetime.astimezone(): 82e.
     relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it’s the programmer’s
     responsibility to ensure it.  If a *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass
     cannot guarantee this, it may be able to override the default
     implementation of *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 2251. to work correctly
     with *note astimezone(): 82e. regardless.

     Most implementations of *note dst(): 226e. will probably look like
     one of these two:

          def dst(self, dt):
              # a fixed-offset class:  doesn't account for DST
              return timedelta(0)

     or:

          def dst(self, dt):
              # Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
              # transition times based on the input dt.year, and expressed
              # in standard local time.

              if dston <= dt.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
                  return timedelta(hours=1)
              else:
                  return timedelta(0)

     The default implementation of *note dst(): 226e. raises *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: tzinfo.tzname (dt)

     Return the time zone name corresponding to the *note datetime: 22b.
     object 'dt', as a string.  Nothing about string names is defined by
     the ‘datetime’ module, and there’s no requirement that it mean
     anything in particular.  For example, ‘"GMT"’, ‘"UTC"’, ‘"-500"’,
     ‘"-5:00"’, ‘"EDT"’, ‘"US/Eastern"’, ‘"America/New York"’ are all
     valid replies.  Return ‘None’ if a string name isn’t known.  Note
     that this is a method rather than a fixed string primarily because
     some *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclasses will wish to return different
     names depending on the specific value of 'dt' passed, especially if
     the *note tzinfo: 3e9. class is accounting for daylight time.

     The default implementation of *note tzname(): 226f. raises *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6.

These methods are called by a *note datetime: 22b. or *note time: 6df.
object, in response to their methods of the same names.  A *note
datetime: 22b. object passes itself as the argument, and a *note time:
6df. object passes ‘None’ as the argument.  A *note tzinfo: 3e9.
subclass’s methods should therefore be prepared to accept a 'dt'
argument of ‘None’, or of class *note datetime: 22b.

When ‘None’ is passed, it’s up to the class designer to decide the best
response.  For example, returning ‘None’ is appropriate if the class
wishes to say that time objects don’t participate in the *note tzinfo:
3e9. protocols.  It may be more useful for ‘utcoffset(None)’ to return
the standard UTC offset, as there is no other convention for discovering
the standard offset.

When a *note datetime: 22b. object is passed in response to a *note
datetime: 22b. method, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is the same object as 'self'.  *note
tzinfo: 3e9. methods can rely on this, unless user code calls *note
tzinfo: 3e9. methods directly.  The intent is that the *note tzinfo:
3e9. methods interpret 'dt' as being in local time, and not need worry
about objects in other time zones.

There is one more *note tzinfo: 3e9. method that a subclass may wish to
override:

 -- Yöntemi: tzinfo.fromutc (dt)

     This is called from the default *note datetime.astimezone(): 82e.
     implementation.  When called from that, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is 'self', and
     'dt'’s date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC
     time.  The purpose of *note fromutc(): 2251. is to adjust the date
     and time data, returning an equivalent datetime in 'self'’s local
     time.

     Most *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclasses should be able to inherit the
     default *note fromutc(): 2251. implementation without problems.
     It’s strong enough to handle fixed-offset time zones, and time
     zones accounting for both standard and daylight time, and the
     latter even if the DST transition times differ in different years.
     An example of a time zone the default *note fromutc(): 2251.
     implementation may not handle correctly in all cases is one where
     the standard offset (from UTC) depends on the specific date and
     time passed, which can happen for political reasons.  The default
     implementations of *note astimezone(): 82e. and *note fromutc():
     2251. may not produce the result you want if the result is one of
     the hours straddling the moment the standard offset changes.

     Skipping code for error cases, the default *note fromutc(): 2251.
     implementation acts like:

          def fromutc(self, dt):
              # raise ValueError error if dt.tzinfo is not self
              dtoff = dt.utcoffset()
              dtdst = dt.dst()
              # raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
              delta = dtoff - dtdst  # this is self's standard offset
              if delta:
                  dt += delta   # convert to standard local time
                  dtdst = dt.dst()
                  # raise ValueError if dtdst is None
              if dtdst:
                  return dt + dtdst
              else:
                  return dt

In the following ‘tzinfo_examples.py’ file there are some examples of
*note tzinfo: 3e9. classes:

     from datetime import tzinfo, timedelta, datetime

     ZERO = timedelta(0)
     HOUR = timedelta(hours=1)
     SECOND = timedelta(seconds=1)

     # A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
     # (May result in wrong values on historical times in
     #  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
     #  changed in the past.)
     import time as _time

     STDOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.timezone)
     if _time.daylight:
         DSTOFFSET = timedelta(seconds = -_time.altzone)
     else:
         DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET

     DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET

     class LocalTimezone(tzinfo):

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             stamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
             args = _time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
             dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
             # Detect fold
             fold = (args == _time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
             return datetime(*args, microsecond=dt.microsecond,
                             tzinfo=self, fold=fold)

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTOFFSET
             else:
                 return STDOFFSET

         def dst(self, dt):
             if self._isdst(dt):
                 return DSTDIFF
             else:
                 return ZERO

         def tzname(self, dt):
             return _time.tzname[self._isdst(dt)]

         def _isdst(self, dt):
             tt = (dt.year, dt.month, dt.day,
                   dt.hour, dt.minute, dt.second,
                   dt.weekday(), 0, 0)
             stamp = _time.mktime(tt)
             tt = _time.localtime(stamp)
             return tt.tm_isdst > 0

     Local = LocalTimezone()


     # A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.

     def first_sunday_on_or_after(dt):
         days_to_go = 6 - dt.weekday()
         if days_to_go:
             dt += timedelta(days_to_go)
         return dt


     # US DST Rules
     #
     # This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US
     # DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules
     # and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):
     # http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm
     # https://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)
     #
     # In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
     # Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
     DSTSTART_2007 = datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
     # and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
     DSTEND_2007 = datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
     # From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
     # Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
     # Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
     DSTEND_1987_2006 = datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
     # From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
     # Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
     # on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
     # on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1967_1986 = datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
     DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006

     def us_dst_range(year):
         # Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
         # start = end for no DST.
         if 2006 < year:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_2007, DSTEND_2007
         elif 1986 < year < 2007:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1987_2006, DSTEND_1987_2006
         elif 1966 < year < 1987:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
         else:
             return (datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2

         start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
         end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
         return start, end


     class USTimeZone(tzinfo):

         def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
             self.stdoffset = timedelta(hours=hours)
             self.reprname = reprname
             self.stdname = stdname
             self.dstname = dstname

         def __repr__(self):
             return self.reprname

         def tzname(self, dt):
             if self.dst(dt):
                 return self.dstname
             else:
                 return self.stdname

         def utcoffset(self, dt):
             return self.stdoffset + self.dst(dt)

         def dst(self, dt):
             if dt is None or dt.tzinfo is None:
                 # An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
                 # It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default
                 # fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
                 # implementation) passes a datetime with dt.tzinfo is self.
                 return ZERO
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             # Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
             # dt first.
             dt = dt.replace(tzinfo=None)
             if start + HOUR <= dt < end - HOUR:
                 # DST is in effect.
                 return HOUR
             if end - HOUR <= dt < end:
                 # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use dt.fold to disambiguate.
                 return ZERO if dt.fold else HOUR
             if start <= dt < start + HOUR:
                 # Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
                 return HOUR if dt.fold else ZERO
             # DST is off.
             return ZERO

         def fromutc(self, dt):
             assert dt.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(dt.year)
             start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
             end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
             std_time = dt + self.stdoffset
             dst_time = std_time + HOUR
             if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
                 # Repeated hour
                 return std_time.replace(fold=1)
             if std_time < start or dst_time >= end:
                 # Standard time
                 return std_time
             if start <= std_time < end - HOUR:
                 # Daylight saving time
                 return dst_time


     Eastern  = USTimeZone(-5, "Eastern",  "EST", "EDT")
     Central  = USTimeZone(-6, "Central",  "CST", "CDT")
     Mountain = USTimeZone(-7, "Mountain", "MST", "MDT")
     Pacific  = USTimeZone(-8, "Pacific",  "PST", "PDT")

Note that there are unavoidable subtleties twice per year in a *note
tzinfo: 3e9. subclass accounting for both standard and daylight time, at
the DST transition points.  For concreteness, consider US Eastern (UTC
-0500), where EDT begins the minute after 1:59 (EST) on the second
Sunday in March, and ends the minute after 1:59 (EDT) on the first
Sunday in November:

       UTC   3:MM  4:MM  5:MM  6:MM  7:MM  8:MM
       EST  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
       EDT  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM  4:MM

     start  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  3:MM  4:MM

       end  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM

When DST starts (the “start” line), the local wall clock leaps from 1:59
to 3:00.  A wall time of the form 2:MM doesn’t really make sense on that
day, so ‘astimezone(Eastern)’ won’t deliver a result with ‘hour == 2’ on
the day DST begins.  For example, at the Spring forward transition of
2016, we get:

     >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone
     >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname())
     ...
     05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST
     07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT
     08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT

When DST ends (the “end” line), there’s a potentially worse problem:
there’s an hour that can’t be spelled unambiguously in local wall time:
the last hour of daylight time.  In Eastern, that’s times of the form
5:MM UTC on the day daylight time ends.  The local wall clock leaps from
1:59 (daylight time) back to 1:00 (standard time) again.  Local times of
the form 1:MM are ambiguous.  *note astimezone(): 82e. mimics the local
clock’s behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC hours into the same local
hour then.  In the Eastern example, UTC times of the form 5:MM and 6:MM
both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times have the
*note fold: ad3. attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to
1.  For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

Note that the *note datetime: 22b. instances that differ only by the
value of the *note fold: ad3. attribute are considered equal in
comparisons.

Applications that can’t bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly
check the value of the *note fold: ad3. attribute or avoid using hybrid
*note tzinfo: 3e9. subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using *note
timezone: f62, or any other fixed-offset *note tzinfo: 3e9. subclass
(such as a class representing only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only
EDT (fixed offset -4 hours)).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

     *note zoneinfo: 134.

          The ‘datetime’ module has a basic *note timezone: f62. class
          (for handling arbitrary fixed offsets from UTC) and its *note
          timezone.utc: 425. attribute (a UTC ‘timezone’ instance).

          ‘zoneinfo’ brings the 'IANA time zone database' (also known as
          the Olson database) to Python, and its usage is recommended.

IANA time zone database(1)

     The Time Zone Database (often called tz, tzdata or zoneinfo)
     contains code and data that represent the history of local time for
     many representative locations around the globe.  It is updated
     periodically to reflect changes made by political bodies to time
     zone boundaries, UTC offsets, and daylight-saving rules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/time-zones


File: python.info,  Node: timezone Objects,  Next: strftime and strptime Behavior,  Prev: tzinfo Objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.15 ‘timezone’ Objects
...........................

The *note timezone: f62. class is a subclass of *note tzinfo: 3e9, each
instance of which represents a time zone defined by a fixed offset from
UTC.

Objects of this class cannot be used to represent time zone information
in the locations where different offsets are used in different days of
the year or where historical changes have been made to civil time.

 -- Sınıfı: datetime.timezone (offset, name=None)

     The 'offset' argument must be specified as a *note timedelta: 82d.
     object representing the difference between the local time and UTC.
     It must be strictly between ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’ and
     ‘timedelta(hours=24)’, otherwise *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

     The 'name' argument is optional.  If specified it must be a string
     that will be used as the value returned by the *note
     datetime.tzname(): 2252. method.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: timezone.utcoffset (dt)

     Return the fixed value specified when the *note timezone: f62.
     instance is constructed.

     The 'dt' argument is ignored.  The return value is a *note
     timedelta: 82d. instance equal to the difference between the local
     time and UTC.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Yöntemi: timezone.tzname (dt)

     Return the fixed value specified when the *note timezone: f62.
     instance is constructed.

     If 'name' is not provided in the constructor, the name returned by
     ‘tzname(dt)’ is generated from the value of the ‘offset’ as
     follows.  If 'offset' is ‘timedelta(0)’, the name is “UTC”,
     otherwise it is a string in the format ‘UTC±HH:MM’, where ± is the
     sign of ‘offset’, HH and MM are two digits of ‘offset.hours’ and
     ‘offset.minutes’ respectively.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Name generated from ‘offset=timedelta(0)’ is
     now plain ‘'UTC'’, not ‘'UTC+00:00'’.

 -- Yöntemi: timezone.dst (dt)

     Always returns ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: timezone.fromutc (dt)

     Return ‘dt + offset’.  The 'dt' argument must be an aware *note
     datetime: 22b. instance, with ‘tzinfo’ set to ‘self’.

Sınıf özellikleri:

 -- Özniteliği: timezone.utc

     The UTC time zone, ‘timezone(timedelta(0))’.


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime Behavior,  Prev: timezone Objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.8.1.16 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ Behavior
...............................................

*note date: 749, *note datetime: 22b, and *note time: 6df. objects all
support a ‘strftime(format)’ method, to create a string representing the
time under the control of an explicit format string.

Conversely, the *note datetime.strptime(): 1468. class method creates a
*note datetime: 22b. object from a string representing a date and time
and a corresponding format string.

The table below provides a high-level comparison of *note strftime():
b11. versus *note strptime(): 1468.:

                     ‘strftime’                                                   ‘strptime’
                                                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
Usage                Convert object to a string according to a given format       Parse a string into a *note datetime: 22b. object given a corresponding format
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Type of method       Instance method                                              Class method
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Method of            *note date: 749.; *note datetime: 22b.; *note time: 6df.     *note datetime: 22b.
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Signature            ‘strftime(format)’                                           ‘strptime(date_string, format)’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* strftime() and strptime() Format Codes: strftime and strptime Format Codes.
* Technical Detail::


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime Format Codes,  Next: Technical Detail,  Up: strftime and strptime Behavior

5.8.1.17 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ Format Codes
...................................................

These methods accept format codes that can be used to parse and format
dates:

     >>> datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
     ...                   '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
     datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999)
     >>> _.strftime('%a %d %b %Y, %I:%M%p')
     'Mon 31 Jan 2022, 11:59PM'

The following is a list of all the format codes that the 1989 C standard
requires, and these work on all platforms with a standard C
implementation.

Directive       Meaning                              Example                      Notes
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%a’            Weekday as locale’s abbreviated           Sun, Mon, …, Sat (en_US);(1)
                name.                                     So, Mo, …, Sa (de_DE)   
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%A’            Weekday as locale’s full name.            Sunday, Monday, …, Saturday (en_US);(1)
                                                          Sonntag, Montag, …, Samstag (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%w’            Weekday as a decimal number, where   0, 1, …, 6
                0 is Sunday and 6 is Saturday.       
                
                                                                                  
‘%d’            Day of the month as a zero-padded    01, 02, …, 31                (9)
                decimal number.                                                   
                
                                                                                  
‘%b’            Month as locale’s abbreviated             Jan, Feb, …, Dec (en_US);(1)
                name.                                     Jan, Feb, …, Dez (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%B’            Month as locale’s full name.              January, February, …, December (en_US);(1)
                                                          Januar, Februar, …, Dezember (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%m’            Month as a zero-padded decimal       01, 02, …, 12                (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%y’            Year without century as a            00, 01, …, 99                (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%Y’            Year with century as a decimal       0001, 0002, …, 2013, 2014,   (2)
                number.                              …, 9998, 9999                
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%H’            Hour (24-hour clock) as a            00, 01, …, 23                (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%I’            Hour (12-hour clock) as a            01, 02, …, 12                (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%p’            Locale’s equivalent of either AM          AM, PM (en_US);         (1), (3)
                or PM.                                    am, pm (de_DE)          
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%M’            Minute as a zero-padded decimal      00, 01, …, 59                (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%S’            Second as a zero-padded decimal      00, 01, …, 59                (4), (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%f’            Microsecond as a decimal number,     000000, 000001, …, 999999    (5)
                zero-padded to 6 digits.                                          
                
                                                                                  
‘%z’            UTC offset in the form               (empty), +0000, -0400,       (6)
                ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty string   +1030, +063415,              
                if the object is naive).             -030712.345216
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%Z’            Time zone name (empty string if      (empty), UTC, GMT            (6)
                the object is naive).                                             
                
                                                                                  
‘%j’            Day of the year as a zero-padded     001, 002, …, 366             (9)
                decimal number.                                                   
                
                                                                                  
‘%U’            Week number of the year (Sunday as   00, 01, …, 53                (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Sunday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%W’            Week number of the year (Monday as   00, 01, …, 53                (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Monday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%c’            Locale’s appropriate date and time        Tue Aug 16 21:30:00 1988 (en_US);(1)
                representation.                           Di 16 Aug 21:30:00 1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%x’            Locale’s appropriate date                 08/16/88 (None);        (1)
                representation.                           08/16/1988 (en_US);     
                                                          16.08.1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%X’            Locale’s appropriate time                 21:30:00 (en_US);       (1)
                representation.                           21:30:00 (de_DE)        
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%%’            A literal ‘'%'’ character.           %
                                                     

Several additional directives not required by the C89 standard are
included for convenience.  These parameters all correspond to ISO 8601
date values.

Directive       Meaning                              Example                      Notes
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%G’            ISO 8601 year with century           0001, 0002, …, 2013, 2014,   (8)
                representing the year that           …, 9998, 9999                
                contains the greater part of the     
                ISO week (‘%V’).
                
                                                                                  
‘%u’            ISO 8601 weekday as a decimal        1, 2, …, 7
                number where 1 is Monday.            
                
                                                                                  
‘%V’            ISO 8601 week as a decimal number    01, 02, …, 53                (8), (9)
                with Monday as the first day of                                   
                the week.  Week 01 is the week
                containing Jan 4.
                
                                                                                  
‘%:z’           UTC offset in the form               (empty), +00:00, -04:00,     (6)
                ‘±HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty        +10:30, +06:34:15,           
                string if the object is naive).      -03:07:12.345216
                                                     

These may not be available on all platforms when used with the *note
strftime(): b11. method.  The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives
are not interchangeable with the year and week number directives above.
Calling *note strptime(): 1468. with incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601
directives will raise a *note ValueError: 189.

The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because
Python calls the platform C library’s ‘strftime()’ function, and
platform variations are common.  To see the full set of format codes
supported on your platform, consult the ‘strftime(3)(1)’ documentation.
There are also differences between platforms in handling of unsupported
format specifiers.

Added in version 3.6: ‘%G’, ‘%u’ and ‘%V’ were added.

Added in version 3.12: ‘%:z’ was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Technical Detail,  Prev: strftime and strptime Format Codes,  Up: strftime and strptime Behavior

5.8.1.18 Technical Detail
.........................

Broadly speaking, ‘d.strftime(fmt)’ acts like the *note time: ed.
module’s ‘time.strftime(fmt, d.timetuple())’ although not all objects
support a *note timetuple(): 223c. method.

For the *note datetime.strptime(): 1468. class method, the default value
is ‘1900-01-01T00:00:00.000’: any components not specified in the format
string will be pulled from the default value.

     Not: When used to parse partial dates lacking a year, *note
     strptime(): 1468. will raise when encountering February 29 because
     its default year of 1900 is 'not' a leap year.  Always add a
     default leap year to partial date strings before parsing.

     >>> from datetime import datetime
     >>> value = "2/29"
     >>> datetime.strptime(value, "%m/%d")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: day is out of range for month
     >>> datetime.strptime(f"1904 {value}", "%Y %m/%d")
     datetime.datetime(1904, 2, 29, 0, 0)

Using ‘datetime.strptime(date_string, format)’ is equivalent to:

     datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

except when the format includes sub-second components or time zone
offset information, which are supported in ‘datetime.strptime’ but are
discarded by ‘time.strptime’.

For *note time: 6df. objects, the format codes for year, month, and day
should not be used, as ‘time’ objects have no such values.  If they’re
used anyway, 1900 is substituted for the year, and 1 for the month and
day.

For *note date: 749. objects, the format codes for hours, minutes,
seconds, and microseconds should not be used, as *note date: 749.
objects have no such values.  If they’re used anyway, 0 is substituted
for them.

For the same reason, handling of format strings containing Unicode code
points that can’t be represented in the charset of the current locale is
also platform-dependent.  On some platforms such code points are
preserved intact in the output, while on others ‘strftime’ may raise
*note UnicodeError: 114c. or return an empty string instead.

Notes:

  1. Because the format depends on the current locale, care should be
     taken when making assumptions about the output value.  Field
     orderings will vary (for example, “month/day/year” versus
     “day/month/year”), and the output may contain non-ASCII characters.

  2. The *note strptime(): 1468. method can parse years in the full [1,
     9999] range, but years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions, *note strftime(): b11.
     method was restricted to years >= 1900.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: In version 3.2, *note strftime(): b11.
     method was restricted to years >= 1000.

  3. When used with the *note strptime(): 1468. method, the ‘%p’
     directive only affects the output hour field if the ‘%I’ directive
     is used to parse the hour.

  4. Unlike the *note time: ed. module, the ‘datetime’ module does not
     support leap seconds.

  5. When used with the *note strptime(): 1468. method, the ‘%f’
     directive accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the
     right.  ‘%f’ is an extension to the set of format characters in the
     C standard (but implemented separately in datetime objects, and
     therefore always available).

  6. For a naive object, the ‘%z’, ‘%:z’ and ‘%Z’ format codes are
     replaced by empty strings.

     For an aware object:

     ‘%z’

          *note utcoffset(): 224f. is transformed into a string of the
          form ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’, where ‘HH’ is a 2-digit string
          giving the number of UTC offset hours, ‘MM’ is a 2-digit
          string giving the number of UTC offset minutes, ‘SS’ is a
          2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset seconds and
          ‘ffffff’ is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
          microseconds.  The ‘ffffff’ part is omitted when the offset is
          a whole number of seconds and both the ‘ffffff’ and the ‘SS’
          part is omitted when the offset is a whole number of minutes.
          For example, if *note utcoffset(): 224f. returns
          ‘timedelta(hours=-3, minutes=-30)’, ‘%z’ is replaced with the
          string ‘'-0330'’.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the
     *note strptime(): 1468. method, the UTC offsets can have a colon as
     a separator between hours, minutes and seconds.  For example,
     ‘'+01:00:00'’ will be parsed as an offset of one hour.  In
     addition, providing ‘'Z'’ is identical to ‘'+00:00'’.

     ‘%:z’

          Behaves exactly as ‘%z’, but has a colon separator added
          between hours, minutes and seconds.

     ‘%Z’

          In *note strftime(): b11, ‘%Z’ is replaced by an empty string
          if *note tzname(): 2252. returns ‘None’; otherwise ‘%Z’ is
          replaced by the returned value, which must be a string.

          *note strptime(): 1468. only accepts certain values for ‘%Z’:

            1. any value in ‘time.tzname’ for your machine’s locale

            2. the hard-coded values ‘UTC’ and ‘GMT’

          So someone living in Japan may have ‘JST’, ‘UTC’, and ‘GMT’ as
          valid values, but probably not ‘EST’.  It will raise
          ‘ValueError’ for invalid values.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the
     *note strptime(): 1468. method, an aware *note datetime: 22b.
     object will be produced.  The ‘tzinfo’ of the result will be set to
     a *note timezone: f62. instance.

  7. When used with the *note strptime(): 1468. method, ‘%U’ and ‘%W’
     are only used in calculations when the day of the week and the
     calendar year (‘%Y’) are specified.

  8. Similar to ‘%U’ and ‘%W’, ‘%V’ is only used in calculations when
     the day of the week and the ISO year (‘%G’) are specified in a
     *note strptime(): 1468. format string.  Also note that ‘%G’ and
     ‘%Y’ are not interchangeable.

  9. When used with the *note strptime(): 1468. method, the leading zero
     is optional for formats ‘%d’, ‘%m’, ‘%H’, ‘%I’, ‘%M’, ‘%S’, ‘%j’,
     ‘%U’, ‘%W’, and ‘%V’.  Format ‘%y’ does require a leading zero.

  10. Parsing dates without a year using *note strptime(): 1468. will
     fail on representations of February 29 as that date does not exist
     in the default year of 1900.


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support,  Next: calendar — General calendar-related functions,  Prev: datetime — Basic date and time types,  Up: Data Types

5.8.2 ‘zoneinfo’ — IANA time zone support
-----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.9.

'Source code:' Lib/zoneinfo(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note zoneinfo: 134. module provides a concrete time zone
implementation to support the IANA time zone database as originally
specified in PEP 615(2).  By default, *note zoneinfo: 134. uses the
system’s time zone data if available; if no system time zone data is
available, the library will fall back to using the first-party tzdata(3)
package available on PyPI.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module: *note datetime: 30.

     Provides the *note time: 6df. and *note datetime: 22b. types with
     which the *note ZoneInfo: 732. class is designed to be used.

Package tzdata(4)

     First-party package maintained by the CPython core developers to
     supply time zone data via PyPI.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Using ZoneInfo::
* Data sources::
* The ZoneInfo class::
* Functions: Functions<2>.
* Globals::
* Exceptions and warnings::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zoneinfo

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Using ZoneInfo,  Next: Data sources,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.8.2.1 Using ‘ZoneInfo’
........................

*note ZoneInfo: 732. is a concrete implementation of the *note
datetime.tzinfo: 3e9. abstract base class, and is intended to be
attached to ‘tzinfo’, either via the constructor, the *note
datetime.replace: 1358. method or *note datetime.astimezone: 82e.:

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00

     >>> dt.tzname()
     'PDT'

Datetimes constructed in this way are compatible with datetime
arithmetic and handle daylight saving time transitions with no further
intervention:

     >>> dt_add = dt + timedelta(days=1)

     >>> print(dt_add)
     2020-11-01 12:00:00-08:00

     >>> dt_add.tzname()
     'PST'

These time zones also support the *note fold: ad3. attribute introduced
in PEP 495(1).  During offset transitions which induce ambiguous times
(such as a daylight saving time to standard time transition), the offset
from 'before' the transition is used when ‘fold=0’, and the offset
'after' the transition is used when ‘fold=1’, for example:

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(dt)
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> print(dt.replace(fold=1))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

When converting from another time zone, the fold will be set to the
correct value:

     >>> from datetime import timezone
     >>> LOS_ANGELES = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
     >>> dt_utc = datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=timezone.utc)

     >>> # Before the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print(dt_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> # After the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print((dt_utc + timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: Data sources,  Next: The ZoneInfo class,  Prev: Using ZoneInfo,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.8.2.2 Data sources
....................

The ‘zoneinfo’ module does not directly provide time zone data, and
instead pulls time zone information from the system time zone database
or the first-party PyPI package tzdata(1), if available.  Some systems,
including notably Windows systems, do not have an IANA database
available, and so for projects targeting cross-platform compatibility
that require time zone data, it is recommended to declare a dependency
on tzdata.  If neither system data nor tzdata are available, all calls
to *note ZoneInfo: 732. will raise *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 227d.

* Menu:

* Configuring the data sources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring the data sources,  Up: Data sources

5.8.2.3 Configuring the data sources
....................................

When ‘ZoneInfo(key)’ is called, the constructor first searches the
directories specified in *note TZPATH: 1bb9. for a file matching ‘key’,
and on failure looks for a match in the tzdata package.  This behavior
can be configured in three ways:

  1. The default *note TZPATH: 1bb9. when not otherwise specified can be
     configured at *note compile time: 1bba.

  2. *note TZPATH: 1bb9. can be configured using *note an environment
     variable: 2280.

  3. At *note runtime: 2281, the search path can be manipulated using
     the *note reset_tzpath(): 2282. function.

* Menu:

* Compile-time configuration::
* Environment configuration::
* Runtime configuration::


File: python.info,  Node: Compile-time configuration,  Next: Environment configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.8.2.4 Compile-time configuration
..................................

The default *note TZPATH: 1bb9. includes several common deployment
locations for the time zone database (except on Windows, where there are
no “well-known” locations for time zone data).  On POSIX systems,
downstream distributors and those building Python from source who know
where their system time zone data is deployed may change the default
time zone path by specifying the compile-time option ‘TZPATH’ (or, more
likely, the *note configure flag -with-tzpath: 1bb8.), which should be a
string delimited by *note os.pathsep: 1b8b.

On all platforms, the configured value is available as the ‘TZPATH’ key
in *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): ed3.


File: python.info,  Node: Environment configuration,  Next: Runtime configuration,  Prev: Compile-time configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.8.2.5 Environment configuration
.................................

When initializing *note TZPATH: 1bb9. (either at import time or whenever
*note reset_tzpath(): 2282. is called with no arguments), the ‘zoneinfo’
module will use the environment variable ‘PYTHONTZPATH’, if it exists,
to set the search path.

 -- Ortam Değişkeni: PYTHONTZPATH

     This is an *note os.pathsep: 1b8b.-separated string containing the
     time zone search path to use.  It must consist of only absolute
     rather than relative paths.  Relative components specified in
     ‘PYTHONTZPATH’ will not be used, but otherwise the behavior when a
     relative path is specified is implementation-defined; CPython will
     raise *note InvalidTZPathWarning: 2286, but other implementations
     are free to silently ignore the erroneous component or raise an
     exception.

To set the system to ignore the system data and use the tzdata package
instead, set ‘PYTHONTZPATH=""’.


File: python.info,  Node: Runtime configuration,  Prev: Environment configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.8.2.6 Runtime configuration
.............................

The TZ search path can also be configured at runtime using the *note
reset_tzpath(): 2282. function.  This is generally not an advisable
operation, though it is reasonable to use it in test functions that
require the use of a specific time zone path (or require disabling
access to the system time zones).


File: python.info,  Node: The ZoneInfo class,  Next: Functions<2>,  Prev: Data sources,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.8.2.7 The ‘ZoneInfo’ class
............................

 -- Sınıfı: zoneinfo.ZoneInfo (key)

     A concrete *note datetime.tzinfo: 3e9. subclass that represents an
     IANA time zone specified by the string ‘key’.  Calls to the primary
     constructor will always return objects that compare identically;
     put another way, barring cache invalidation via *note
     ZoneInfo.clear_cache(): 2289, for all values of ‘key’, the
     following assertion will always be true:

          a = ZoneInfo(key)
          b = ZoneInfo(key)
          assert a is b

     ‘key’ must be in the form of a relative, normalized POSIX path,
     with no up-level references.  The constructor will raise *note
     ValueError: 189. if a non-conforming key is passed.

     If no file matching ‘key’ is found, the constructor will raise
     *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 227d.

The ‘ZoneInfo’ class has two alternate constructors:

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod ZoneInfo.from_file (fobj, /, key=None)

     Constructs a ‘ZoneInfo’ object from a file-like object returning
     bytes (e.g.  a file opened in binary mode or an *note io.BytesIO:
     d38. object).  Unlike the primary constructor, this always
     constructs a new object.

     The ‘key’ parameter sets the name of the zone for the purposes of
     *note __str__(): 42f. and *note __repr__(): 42e.

     Objects created via this constructor cannot be pickled (see *note
     pickling: 228b.).

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod ZoneInfo.no_cache (key)

     An alternate constructor that bypasses the constructor’s cache.  It
     is identical to the primary constructor, but returns a new object
     on each call.  This is most likely to be useful for testing or
     demonstration purposes, but it can also be used to create a system
     with a different cache invalidation strategy.

     Objects created via this constructor will also bypass the cache of
     a deserializing process when unpickled.

          Uyarı: Using this constructor may change the semantics of your
          datetimes in surprising ways, only use it if you know that you
          need to.

The following class methods are also available:

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod ZoneInfo.clear_cache (*, only_keys=None)

     A method for invalidating the cache on the ‘ZoneInfo’ class.  If no
     arguments are passed, all caches are invalidated and the next call
     to the primary constructor for each key will return a new instance.

     If an iterable of key names is passed to the ‘only_keys’ parameter,
     only the specified keys will be removed from the cache.  Keys
     passed to ‘only_keys’ but not found in the cache are ignored.

          Uyarı: Invoking this function may change the semantics of
          datetimes using ‘ZoneInfo’ in surprising ways; this modifies
          module state and thus may have wide-ranging effects.  Only use
          it if you know that you need to.

The class has one attribute:

 -- Özniteliği: ZoneInfo.key

     This is a read-only *note attribute: 228e. that returns the value
     of ‘key’ passed to the constructor, which should be a lookup key in
     the IANA time zone database (e.g.  ‘America/New_York’,
     ‘Europe/Paris’ or ‘Asia/Tokyo’).

     For zones constructed from file without specifying a ‘key’
     parameter, this will be set to ‘None’.

          Not: Although it is a somewhat common practice to expose these
          to end users, these values are designed to be primary keys for
          representing the relevant zones and not necessarily
          user-facing elements.  Projects like CLDR (the Unicode Common
          Locale Data Repository) can be used to get more user-friendly
          strings from these keys.

* Menu:

* String representations::
* Pickle serialization::


File: python.info,  Node: String representations,  Next: Pickle serialization,  Up: The ZoneInfo class

5.8.2.8 String representations
..............................

The string representation returned when calling *note str: 15d. on a
*note ZoneInfo: 732. object defaults to using the *note ZoneInfo.key:
228d. attribute (see the note on usage in the attribute documentation):

     >>> zone = ZoneInfo("Pacific/Kwajalein")
     >>> str(zone)
     'Pacific/Kwajalein'

     >>> dt = datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
     >>> f"{dt.isoformat()} [{dt.tzinfo}]"
     '2020-04-01T03:15:00+12:00 [Pacific/Kwajalein]'

For objects constructed from a file without specifying a ‘key’
parameter, ‘str’ falls back to calling *note repr(): 637.  ‘ZoneInfo’’s
‘repr’ is implementation-defined and not necessarily stable between
versions, but it is guaranteed not to be a valid ‘ZoneInfo’ key.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickle serialization,  Prev: String representations,  Up: The ZoneInfo class

5.8.2.9 Pickle serialization
............................

Rather than serializing all transition data, ‘ZoneInfo’ objects are
serialized by key, and ‘ZoneInfo’ objects constructed from files (even
those with a value for ‘key’ specified) cannot be pickled.

The behavior of a ‘ZoneInfo’ file depends on how it was constructed:

  1. ‘ZoneInfo(key)’: When constructed with the primary constructor, a
     ‘ZoneInfo’ object is serialized by key, and when deserialized, the
     deserializing process uses the primary and thus it is expected that
     these are expected to be the same object as other references to the
     same time zone.  For example, if ‘europe_berlin_pkl’ is a string
     containing a pickle constructed from ‘ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")’,
     one would expect the following behavior:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl)
          >>> a is b
          True

  2. ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache(key)’: When constructed from the cache-bypassing
     constructor, the ‘ZoneInfo’ object is also serialized by key, but
     when deserialized, the deserializing process uses the cache
     bypassing constructor.  If ‘europe_berlin_pkl_nc’ is a string
     containing a pickle constructed from
     ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache("Europe/Berlin")’, one would expect the
     following behavior:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl_nc)
          >>> a is b
          False

  3. ‘ZoneInfo.from_file(fobj, /, key=None)’: When constructed from a
     file, the ‘ZoneInfo’ object raises an exception on pickling.  If an
     end user wants to pickle a ‘ZoneInfo’ constructed from a file, it
     is recommended that they use a wrapper type or a custom
     serialization function: either serializing by key or storing the
     contents of the file object and serializing that.

This method of serialization requires that the time zone data for the
required key be available on both the serializing and deserializing
side, similar to the way that references to classes and functions are
expected to exist in both the serializing and deserializing
environments.  It also means that no guarantees are made about the
consistency of results when unpickling a ‘ZoneInfo’ pickled in an
environment with a different version of the time zone data.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<2>,  Next: Globals,  Prev: The ZoneInfo class,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.8.2.10 Functions
..................

 -- Işlevi: zoneinfo.available_timezones ()

     Get a set containing all the valid keys for IANA time zones
     available anywhere on the time zone path.  This is recalculated on
     every call to the function.

     This function only includes canonical zone names and does not
     include “special” zones such as those under the ‘posix/’ and
     ‘right/’ directories, or the ‘posixrules’ zone.

          Uyarı: This function may open a large number of files, as the
          best way to determine if a file on the time zone path is a
          valid time zone is to read the “magic string” at the
          beginning.

          Not: These values are not designed to be exposed to end-users;
          for user facing elements, applications should use something
          like CLDR (the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository) to get
          more user-friendly strings.  See also the cautionary note on
          *note ZoneInfo.key: 228d.

 -- Işlevi: zoneinfo.reset_tzpath (to=None)

     Sets or resets the time zone search path (*note TZPATH: 1bb9.) for
     the module.  When called with no arguments, *note TZPATH: 1bb9. is
     set to the default value.

     Calling ‘reset_tzpath’ will not invalidate the *note ZoneInfo: 732.
     cache, and so calls to the primary ‘ZoneInfo’ constructor will only
     use the new ‘TZPATH’ in the case of a cache miss.

     The ‘to’ parameter must be a *note sequence: 23f. of strings or
     *note os.PathLike: acd. and not a string, all of which must be
     absolute paths.  *note ValueError: 189. will be raised if something
     other than an absolute path is passed.


File: python.info,  Node: Globals,  Next: Exceptions and warnings,  Prev: Functions<2>,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.8.2.11 Globals
................

 -- Verisi: zoneinfo.TZPATH

     A read-only sequence representing the time zone search path – when
     constructing a ‘ZoneInfo’ from a key, the key is joined to each
     entry in the ‘TZPATH’, and the first file found is used.

     ‘TZPATH’ may contain only absolute paths, never relative paths,
     regardless of how it is configured.

     The object that ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ points to may change in response
     to a call to *note reset_tzpath(): 2282, so it is recommended to
     use ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ rather than importing ‘TZPATH’ from
     ‘zoneinfo’ or assigning a long-lived variable to ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’.

     For more information on configuring the time zone search path, see
     *note Configuring the data sources: 227f.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions and warnings,  Prev: Globals,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.8.2.12 Exceptions and warnings
................................

 -- Özel Durum: zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError

     Raised when construction of a *note ZoneInfo: 732. object fails
     because the specified key could not be found on the system.  This
     is a subclass of *note KeyError: 903.

 -- Özel Durum: zoneinfo.InvalidTZPathWarning

     Raised when *note PYTHONTZPATH: 2285. contains an invalid component
     that will be filtered out, such as a relative path.


File: python.info,  Node: calendar — General calendar-related functions,  Next: collections — Container datatypes,  Prev: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support,  Up: Data Types

5.8.3 ‘calendar’ — General calendar-related functions
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/calendar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module allows you to output calendars like the Unix ‘cal’ program,
and provides additional useful functions related to the calendar.  By
default, these calendars have Monday as the first day of the week, and
Sunday as the last (the European convention).  Use *note
setfirstweekday(): 2296. to set the first day of the week to Sunday (6)
or to any other weekday.  Parameters that specify dates are given as
integers.  For related functionality, see also the *note datetime: 30.
and *note time: ed. modules.

The functions and classes defined in this module use an idealized
calendar, the current Gregorian calendar extended indefinitely in both
directions.  This matches the definition of the “proleptic Gregorian”
calendar in Dershowitz and Reingold’s book “Calendrical Calculations”,
where it’s the base calendar for all computations.  Zero and negative
years are interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard.  Year 0 is
1 BC, year -1 is 2 BC, and so on.

 -- Sınıfı: calendar.Calendar (firstweekday=0)

     Creates a *note Calendar: 2297. object.  'firstweekday' is an
     integer specifying the first day of the week.  *note MONDAY: 2298.
     is ‘0’ (the default), *note SUNDAY: 2299. is ‘6’.

     A *note Calendar: 2297. object provides several methods that can be
     used for preparing the calendar data for formatting.  This class
     doesn’t do any formatting itself.  This is the job of subclasses.

     *note Calendar: 2297. instances have the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: firstweekday

          The first weekday as an integer (0–6).

          This property can also be set and read using *note
          setfirstweekday(): 229b. and *note getfirstweekday(): 229c.
          respectively.

      -- Yöntemi: getfirstweekday ()

          Return an *note int: 184. for the current first weekday (0–6).

          Identical to reading the *note firstweekday: 229a. property.

      -- Yöntemi: setfirstweekday (firstweekday)

          Set the first weekday to 'firstweekday', passed as an *note
          int: 184. (0–6)

          Identical to setting the *note firstweekday: 229a. property.

      -- Yöntemi: iterweekdays ()

          Return an iterator for the week day numbers that will be used
          for one week.  The first value from the iterator will be the
          same as the value of the *note firstweekday: 229a. property.

      -- Yöntemi: itermonthdates (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' (1–12) in the year
          'year'.  This iterator will return all days (as *note
          datetime.date: 749. objects) for the month and all days before
          the start of the month or after the end of the month that are
          required to get a complete week.

      -- Yöntemi: itermonthdays (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): a92, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 749. range.  Days returned will
          simply be day of the month numbers.  For the days outside of
          the specified month, the day number is ‘0’.

      -- Yöntemi: itermonthdays2 (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): a92, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 749. range.  Days returned will be
          tuples consisting of a day of the month number and a week day
          number.

      -- Yöntemi: itermonthdays3 (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): a92, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 749. range.  Days returned will be
          tuples consisting of a year, a month and a day of the month
          numbers.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: itermonthdays4 (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): a92, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 749. range.  Days returned will be
          tuples consisting of a year, a month, a day of the month, and
          a day of the week numbers.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: monthdatescalendar (year, month)

          Return a list of the weeks in the month 'month' of the 'year'
          as full weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven *note datetime.date:
          749. objects.

      -- Yöntemi: monthdays2calendar (year, month)

          Return a list of the weeks in the month 'month' of the 'year'
          as full weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven tuples of day numbers
          and weekday numbers.

      -- Yöntemi: monthdayscalendar (year, month)

          Return a list of the weeks in the month 'month' of the 'year'
          as full weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven day numbers.

      -- Yöntemi: yeardatescalendar (year, width=3)

          Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting.
          The return value is a list of month rows.  Each month row
          contains up to 'width' months (defaulting to 3).  Each month
          contains between 4 and 6 weeks and each week contains 1–7
          days.  Days are *note datetime.date: 749. objects.

      -- Yöntemi: yeardays2calendar (year, width=3)

          Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting
          (similar to *note yeardatescalendar(): 22a3.).  Entries in the
          week lists are tuples of day numbers and weekday numbers.  Day
          numbers outside this month are zero.

      -- Yöntemi: yeardayscalendar (year, width=3)

          Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting
          (similar to *note yeardatescalendar(): 22a3.).  Entries in the
          week lists are day numbers.  Day numbers outside this month
          are zero.

 -- Sınıfı: calendar.TextCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     This class can be used to generate plain text calendars.

     *note TextCalendar: 22a6. instances have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: formatday (theday, weekday, width)

          Return a string representing a single day formatted with the
          given 'width'.  If 'theday' is ‘0’, return a string of spaces
          of the specified width, representing an empty day.  The
          'weekday' parameter is unused.

      -- Yöntemi: formatweek (theweek, w=0)

          Return a single week in a string with no newline.  If 'w' is
          provided, it specifies the width of the date columns, which
          are centered.  Depends on the first weekday as specified in
          the constructor or set by the *note setfirstweekday(): 2296.
          method.

      -- Yöntemi: formatweekday (weekday, width)

          Return a string representing the name of a single weekday
          formatted to the specified 'width'.  The 'weekday' parameter
          is an integer representing the day of the week, where ‘0’ is
          Monday and ‘6’ is Sunday.

      -- Yöntemi: formatweekheader (width)

          Return a string containing the header row of weekday names,
          formatted with the given 'width' for each column.  The names
          depend on the locale settings and are padded to the specified
          width.

      -- Yöntemi: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          Return a month’s calendar in a multi-line string.  If 'w' is
          provided, it specifies the width of the date columns, which
          are centered.  If 'l' is given, it specifies the number of
          lines that each week will use.  Depends on the first weekday
          as specified in the constructor or set by the *note
          setfirstweekday(): 2296. method.

      -- Yöntemi: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, width=0,
               withyear=True)

          Return a string representing the month’s name centered within
          the specified 'width'.  If 'withyear' is ‘True’, include the
          year in the output.  The 'theyear' and 'themonth' parameters
          specify the year and month for the name to be formatted
          respectively.

      -- Yöntemi: prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          Print a month’s calendar as returned by *note formatmonth():
          22ab.

      -- Yöntemi: formatyear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          Return a 'm'-column calendar for an entire year as a
          multi-line string.  Optional parameters 'w', 'l', and 'c' are
          for date column width, lines per week, and number of spaces
          between month columns, respectively.  Depends on the first
          weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the *note
          setfirstweekday(): 2296. method.  The earliest year for which
          a calendar can be generated is platform-dependent.

      -- Yöntemi: pryear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          Print the calendar for an entire year as returned by *note
          formatyear(): 22ae.

 -- Sınıfı: calendar.HTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     This class can be used to generate HTML calendars.

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          Return a month’s calendar as an HTML table.  If 'withyear' is
          true the year will be included in the header, otherwise just
          the month name will be used.

      -- Yöntemi: formatyear (theyear, width=3)

          Return a year’s calendar as an HTML table.  'width'
          (defaulting to 3) specifies the number of months per row.

      -- Yöntemi: formatyearpage (theyear, width=3, css='calendar.css',
               encoding=None)

          Return a year’s calendar as a complete HTML page.  'width'
          (defaulting to 3) specifies the number of months per row.
          'css' is the name for the cascading style sheet to be used.
          *note None: 488. can be passed if no style sheet should be
          used.  'encoding' specifies the encoding to be used for the
          output (defaulting to the system default encoding).

      -- Yöntemi: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          Return a month name as an HTML table row.  If 'withyear' is
          true the year will be included in the row, otherwise just the
          month name will be used.

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ has the following attributes you can override to
     customize the CSS classes used by the calendar:

      -- Özniteliği: cssclasses

          A list of CSS classes used for each weekday.  The default
          class list is:

               cssclasses = ["mon", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun"]

          more styles can be added for each day:

               cssclasses = ["mon text-bold", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun red"]

          Note that the length of this list must be seven items.

      -- Özniteliği: cssclass_noday

          The CSS class for a weekday occurring in the previous or
          coming month.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: cssclasses_weekday_head

          A list of CSS classes used for weekday names in the header
          row.  The default is the same as *note cssclasses: 22b4.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: cssclass_month_head

          The month’s head CSS class (used by *note formatmonthname():
          22b3.).  The default value is ‘"month"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: cssclass_month

          The CSS class for the whole month’s table (used by *note
          formatmonth(): 22b0.).  The default value is ‘"month"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: cssclass_year

          The CSS class for the whole year’s table of tables (used by
          *note formatyear(): 22b1.).  The default value is ‘"year"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: cssclass_year_head

          The CSS class for the table head for the whole year (used by
          *note formatyear(): 22b1.).  The default value is ‘"year"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

     Note that although the naming for the above described class
     attributes is singular (e.g.  ‘cssclass_month’ ‘cssclass_noday’),
     one can replace the single CSS class with a space separated list of
     CSS classes, for example:

          "text-bold text-red"

     Here is an example how ‘HTMLCalendar’ can be customized:

          class CustomHTMLCal(calendar.HTMLCalendar):
              cssclasses = [style + " text-nowrap" for style in
                            calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses]
              cssclass_month_head = "text-center month-head"
              cssclass_month = "text-center month"
              cssclass_year = "text-italic lead"

 -- Sınıfı: calendar.LocaleTextCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     This subclass of *note TextCalendar: 22a6. can be passed a locale
     name in the constructor and will return month and weekday names in
     the specified locale.

 -- Sınıfı: calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     This subclass of *note HTMLCalendar: 993. can be passed a locale
     name in the constructor and will return month and weekday names in
     the specified locale.

     Not: The constructor, ‘formatweekday()’ and ‘formatmonthname()’
     methods of these two classes temporarily change the ‘LC_TIME’
     locale to the given 'locale'.  Because the current locale is a
     process-wide setting, they are not thread-safe.

For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.setfirstweekday (weekday)

     Sets the weekday (‘0’ is Monday, ‘6’ is Sunday) to start each week.
     The values *note MONDAY: 2298, *note TUESDAY: 22bb, *note
     WEDNESDAY: 22bc, *note THURSDAY: 22bd, *note FRIDAY: 22be, *note
     SATURDAY: 22bf, and *note SUNDAY: 2299. are provided for
     convenience.  For example, to set the first weekday to Sunday:

          import calendar
          calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY)

 -- Işlevi: calendar.firstweekday ()

     Returns the current setting for the weekday to start each week.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.isleap (year)

     Returns *note True: a86. if 'year' is a leap year, otherwise *note
     False: 9a8.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.leapdays (y1, y2)

     Returns the number of leap years in the range from 'y1' to 'y2'
     (exclusive), where 'y1' and 'y2' are years.

     This function works for ranges spanning a century change.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.weekday (year, month, day)

     Returns the day of the week (‘0’ is Monday) for 'year' (‘1970’–…),
     'month' (‘1’–‘12’), 'day' (‘1’–‘31’).

 -- Işlevi: calendar.weekheader (n)

     Return a header containing abbreviated weekday names.  'n'
     specifies the width in characters for one weekday.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.monthrange (year, month)

     Returns weekday of first day of the month and number of days in
     month, for the specified 'year' and 'month'.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.monthcalendar (year, month)

     Returns a matrix representing a month’s calendar.  Each row
     represents a week; days outside of the month are represented by
     zeros.  Each week begins with Monday unless set by *note
     setfirstweekday(): 2296.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     Prints a month’s calendar as returned by *note month(): 1427.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.month (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     Returns a month’s calendar in a multi-line string using the *note
     formatmonth(): 22ab. of the *note TextCalendar: 22a6. class.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.prcal (year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)

     Prints the calendar for an entire year as returned by *note
     calendar(): 14.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.calendar (year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

     Returns a 3-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line
     string using the *note formatyear(): 22ae. of the *note
     TextCalendar: 22a6. class.

 -- Işlevi: calendar.timegm (tuple)

     An unrelated but handy function that takes a time tuple such as
     returned by the *note gmtime(): 1065. function in the *note time:
     ed. module, and returns the corresponding Unix timestamp value,
     assuming an epoch of 1970, and the POSIX encoding.  In fact, *note
     time.gmtime(): 1065. and *note timegm(): 22ca. are each others’
     inverse.

The *note calendar: 14. module exports the following data attributes:

 -- Verisi: calendar.day_name

     A sequence that represents the days of the week in the current
     locale, where Monday is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_name)
          ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday']

 -- Verisi: calendar.day_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the
     current locale, where Mon is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_abbr)
          ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat', 'Sun']

 -- Verisi: calendar.MONDAY
 -- Verisi: calendar.TUESDAY
 -- Verisi: calendar.WEDNESDAY
 -- Verisi: calendar.THURSDAY
 -- Verisi: calendar.FRIDAY
 -- Verisi: calendar.SATURDAY
 -- Verisi: calendar.SUNDAY

     Aliases for the days of the week, where ‘MONDAY’ is ‘0’ and
     ‘SUNDAY’ is ‘6’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Sınıfı: calendar.Day

     Enumeration defining days of the week as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note MONDAY: 2298. through *note SUNDAY: 2299.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: calendar.month_name

     A sequence that represents the months of the year in the current
     locale.  This follows normal convention of January being month
     number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_name[0]’ is the empty
     string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_name)
          ['', 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December']

 -- Verisi: calendar.month_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated months of the year in
     the current locale.  This follows normal convention of January
     being month number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_abbr[0]’
     is the empty string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_abbr)
          ['', 'Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar', 'Apr', 'May', 'Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']

 -- Verisi: calendar.JANUARY
 -- Verisi: calendar.FEBRUARY
 -- Verisi: calendar.MARCH
 -- Verisi: calendar.APRIL
 -- Verisi: calendar.MAY
 -- Verisi: calendar.JUNE
 -- Verisi: calendar.JULY
 -- Verisi: calendar.AUGUST
 -- Verisi: calendar.SEPTEMBER
 -- Verisi: calendar.OCTOBER
 -- Verisi: calendar.NOVEMBER
 -- Verisi: calendar.DECEMBER

     Aliases for the months of the year, where ‘JANUARY’ is ‘1’ and
     ‘DECEMBER’ is ‘12’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Sınıfı: calendar.Month

     Enumeration defining months of the year as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note JANUARY: 228. through *note DECEMBER: 22d8.

     Added in version 3.12.

The *note calendar: 14. module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Özel Durum: calendar.IllegalMonthError (month)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 189, raised when the given month
     number is outside of the range 1-12 (inclusive).

      -- Özniteliği: month

          The invalid month number.

 -- Özel Durum: calendar.IllegalWeekdayError (weekday)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 189, raised when the given weekday
     number is outside of the range 0-6 (inclusive).

      -- Özniteliği: weekday

          The invalid weekday number.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note datetime: 30.

     Object-oriented interface to dates and times with similar
     functionality to the *note time: ed. module.

Module *note time: ed.

     Low-level time related functions.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/calendar.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage,  Up: calendar — General calendar-related functions

5.8.3.1 Command-Line Usage
..........................

Added in version 2.5.

The *note calendar: 14. module can be executed as a script from the
command line to interactively print a calendar.

     python -m calendar [-h] [-L LOCALE] [-e ENCODING] [-t {text,html}]
                        [-w WIDTH] [-l LINES] [-s SPACING] [-m MONTHS] [-c CSS]
                        [year] [month]

For example, to print a calendar for the year 2000:

     $ python -m calendar 2000
                                       2000

           January                   February                   March
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6             1  2  3  4  5
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       6  7  8  9 10 11 12
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      13 14 15 16 17 18 19
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      20 21 22 23 24 25 26
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29                     27 28 29 30 31
     31

            April                      May                       June
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2       1  2  3  4  5  6  7                1  2  3  4
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       8  9 10 11 12 13 14       5  6  7  8  9 10 11
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      15 16 17 18 19 20 21      12 13 14 15 16 17 18
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      22 23 24 25 26 27 28      19 20 21 22 23 24 25
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      29 30 31                  26 27 28 29 30

             July                     August                  September
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6                   1  2  3
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29 30 31               25 26 27 28 29 30
     31

           October                   November                  December
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                        1             1  2  3  4  5                   1  2  3
      2  3  4  5  6  7  8       6  7  8  9 10 11 12       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
      9 10 11 12 13 14 15      13 14 15 16 17 18 19      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     16 17 18 19 20 21 22      20 21 22 23 24 25 26      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     23 24 25 26 27 28 29      27 28 29 30               25 26 27 28 29 30 31
     30 31

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: --help, -h

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: --locale LOCALE, -L LOCALE

     The locale to use for month and weekday names.  Defaults to
     English.

 -- Option: --encoding ENCODING, -e ENCODING

     The encoding to use for output.  *note -encoding: 22e2. is required
     if *note -locale: 22e0. is set.

 -- Option: --type {text,html}, -t {text,html}

     Print the calendar to the terminal as text, or as an HTML document.

 -- Option: year

     The year to print the calendar for.  Must be a number between 1 and
     9999.  Defaults to the current year.

 -- Option: month

     The month of the specified *note year: 22e6. to print the calendar
     for.  Must be a number between 1 and 12, and may only be used in
     text mode.  Defaults to printing a calendar for the full year.

'Text-mode options:'

 -- Option: --width WIDTH, -w WIDTH

     The width of the date column in terminal columns.  The date is
     printed centred in the column.  Any value lower than 2 is ignored.
     Defaults to 2.

 -- Option: --lines LINES, -l LINES

     The number of lines for each week in terminal rows.  The date is
     printed top-aligned.  Any value lower than 1 is ignored.  Defaults
     to 1.

 -- Option: --spacing SPACING, -s SPACING

     The space between months in columns.  Any value lower than 2 is
     ignored.  Defaults to 6.

 -- Option: --months MONTHS, -m MONTHS

     The number of months printed per row.  Defaults to 3.

'HTML-mode options:'

 -- Option: --css CSS, -c CSS

     The path of a CSS stylesheet to use for the calendar.  This must
     either be relative to the generated HTML, or an absolute HTTP or
     ‘file:///’ URL.


File: python.info,  Node: collections — Container datatypes,  Next: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers,  Prev: calendar — General calendar-related functions,  Up: Data Types

5.8.4 ‘collections’ — Container datatypes
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/collections/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements specialized container datatypes providing
alternatives to Python’s general purpose built-in containers, *note
dict: 240, *note list: 422, *note set: 3e4, and *note tuple: 4ff.

*note namedtuple(): 74b.  factory function for creating tuple subclasses with named fields
                          
                          
*note deque: 3e7.         list-like container with fast appends and pops on either end
                          
                          
*note ChainMap: a95.      dict-like class for creating a single view of multiple mappings
                          
                          
*note Counter: f3c.       dict subclass for counting *note hashable: 421. objects
                          
                          
*note OrderedDict: 3e6.   dict subclass that remembers the order entries were added
                          
                          
*note defaultdict: 1062.  dict subclass that calls a factory function to supply missing values
                          
                          
*note UserDict: 17c6.     wrapper around dictionary objects for easier dict subclassing
                          
                          
*note UserList: 1370.     wrapper around list objects for easier list subclassing
                          
                          
*note UserString: c63.    wrapper around string objects for easier string subclassing
                          

* Menu:

* ChainMap objects::
* Counter objects::
* deque objects::
* defaultdict objects::
* namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
* OrderedDict objects::
* UserDict objects::
* UserList objects::
* UserString objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/collections/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap objects,  Next: Counter objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.1 ‘ChainMap’ objects
..........................

Added in version 3.3.

A *note ChainMap: a95. class is provided for quickly linking a number of
mappings so they can be treated as a single unit.  It is often much
faster than creating a new dictionary and running multiple *note
update(): 12ed. calls.

The class can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in
templating.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.ChainMap (*maps)

     A *note ChainMap: a95. groups multiple dicts or other mappings
     together to create a single, updateable view.  If no 'maps' are
     specified, a single empty dictionary is provided so that a new
     chain always has at least one mapping.

     The underlying mappings are stored in a list.  That list is public
     and can be accessed or updated using the 'maps' attribute.  There
     is no other state.

     Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is
     found.  In contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on
     the first mapping.

     A *note ChainMap: a95. incorporates the underlying mappings by
     reference.  So, if one of the underlying mappings gets updated,
     those changes will be reflected in *note ChainMap: a95.

     All of the usual dictionary methods are supported.  In addition,
     there is a 'maps' attribute, a method for creating new subcontexts,
     and a property for accessing all but the first mapping:

      -- Özniteliği: maps

          A user updateable list of mappings.  The list is ordered from
          first-searched to last-searched.  It is the only stored state
          and can be modified to change which mappings are searched.
          The list should always contain at least one mapping.

      -- Yöntemi: new_child (m=None, **kwargs)

          Returns a new *note ChainMap: a95. containing a new map
          followed by all of the maps in the current instance.  If ‘m’
          is specified, it becomes the new map at the front of the list
          of mappings; if not specified, an empty dict is used, so that
          a call to ‘d.new_child()’ is equivalent to: ‘ChainMap({},
          *d.maps)’.  If any keyword arguments are specified, they
          update passed map or new empty dict.  This method is used for
          creating subcontexts that can be updated without altering
          values in any of the parent mappings.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: The optional ‘m’ parameter was added.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: Keyword arguments support was added.

      -- Özniteliği: parents

          Property returning a new *note ChainMap: a95. containing all
          of the maps in the current instance except the first one.
          This is useful for skipping the first map in the search.  Use
          cases are similar to those for the *note nonlocal: 1150.
          keyword used in *note nested scopes: 1f59.  The use cases also
          parallel those for the built-in *note super(): 20d. function.
          A reference to ‘d.parents’ is equivalent to:
          ‘ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])’.

     Note, the iteration order of a *note ChainMap: a95. is determined
     by scanning the mappings last to first:

          >>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
          >>> adjustments = {'art': 'van gogh', 'opera': 'carmen'}
          >>> list(ChainMap(adjustments, baseline))
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     This gives the same ordering as a series of *note dict.update():
     12ed. calls starting with the last mapping:

          >>> combined = baseline.copy()
          >>> combined.update(adjustments)
          >>> list(combined)
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’ operators,
     specified in PEP 584(1).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * The MultiContext class(2) in the Enthought CodeTools package(3) has
     options to support writing to any mapping in the chain.

   * Django’s Context class(4) for templating is a read-only chain of
     mappings.  It also features pushing and popping of contexts similar
     to the *note new_child(): dc0. method and the *note parents: 22f6.
     property.

   * The Nested Contexts recipe(5) has options to control whether writes
     and other mutations apply only to the first mapping or to any
     mapping in the chain.

   * A greatly simplified read-only version of Chainmap(6).

* Menu:

* ChainMap Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) 
https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py

   (3) https://github.com/enthought/codetools

   (4) 
https://github.com/django/django/blob/main/django/template/context.py

   (5) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434-nested-contexts-a-chain-of-mapping-objects/

   (6) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap Examples and Recipes,  Up: ChainMap objects

5.8.4.2 ‘ChainMap’ Examples and Recipes
.......................................

This section shows various approaches to working with chained maps.

Example of simulating Python’s internal lookup chain:

     import builtins
     pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins))

Example of letting user specified command-line arguments take precedence
over environment variables which in turn take precedence over default
values:

     import os, argparse

     defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'}

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user')
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--color')
     namespace = parser.parse_args()
     command_line_args = {k: v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v is not None}

     combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults)
     print(combined['color'])
     print(combined['user'])

Example patterns for using the *note ChainMap: a95. class to simulate
nested contexts:

     c = ChainMap()        # Create root context
     d = c.new_child()     # Create nested child context
     e = c.new_child()     # Child of c, independent from d
     e.maps[0]             # Current context dictionary -- like Python's locals()
     e.maps[-1]            # Root context -- like Python's globals()
     e.parents             # Enclosing context chain -- like Python's nonlocals

     d['x'] = 1            # Set value in current context
     d['x']                # Get first key in the chain of contexts
     del d['x']            # Delete from current context
     list(d)               # All nested values
     k in d                # Check all nested values
     len(d)                # Number of nested values
     d.items()             # All nested items
     dict(d)               # Flatten into a regular dictionary

The *note ChainMap: a95. class only makes updates (writes and deletions)
to the first mapping in the chain while lookups will search the full
chain.  However, if deep writes and deletions are desired, it is easy to
make a subclass that updates keys found deeper in the chain:

     class DeepChainMap(ChainMap):
         'Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     mapping[key] = value
                     return
             self.maps[0][key] = value

         def __delitem__(self, key):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     del mapping[key]
                     return
             raise KeyError(key)

     >>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant': 'blue'}, {'lion': 'yellow'})
     >>> d['lion'] = 'orange'         # update an existing key two levels down
     >>> d['snake'] = 'red'           # new keys get added to the topmost dict
     >>> del d['elephant']            # remove an existing key one level down
     >>> d                            # display result
     DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'})


File: python.info,  Node: Counter objects,  Next: deque objects,  Prev: ChainMap objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.3 ‘Counter’ objects
.........................

A counter tool is provided to support convenient and rapid tallies.  For
example:

     >>> # Tally occurrences of words in a list
     >>> cnt = Counter()
     >>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
     ...     cnt[word] += 1
     ...
     >>> cnt
     Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     >>> # Find the ten most common words in Hamlet
     >>> import re
     >>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
     >>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
     [('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
      ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]

 -- Sınıfı: collections.Counter ([iterable-or-mapping])

     A *note Counter: f3c. is a *note dict: 240. subclass for counting
     *note hashable: 421. objects.  It is a collection where elements
     are stored as dictionary keys and their counts are stored as
     dictionary values.  Counts are allowed to be any integer value
     including zero or negative counts.  The *note Counter: f3c. class
     is similar to bags or multisets in other languages.

     Elements are counted from an 'iterable' or initialized from another
     'mapping' (or counter):

          >>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
          >>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
          >>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
          >>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args

     Counter objects have a dictionary interface except that they return
     a zero count for missing items instead of raising a *note KeyError:
     903.:

          >>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
          >>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
          0

     Setting a count to zero does not remove an element from a counter.
     Use ‘del’ to remove it entirely:

          >>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
          >>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry

     Added in version 3.1.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: As a *note dict: 240. subclass, *note
     Counter: f3c. inherited the capability to remember insertion order.
     Math operations on 'Counter' objects also preserve order.  Results
     are ordered according to when an element is first encountered in
     the left operand and then by the order encountered in the right
     operand.

     Counter objects support additional methods beyond those available
     for all dictionaries:

      -- Yöntemi: elements ()

          Return an iterator over elements repeating each as many times
          as its count.  Elements are returned in the order first
          encountered.  If an element’s count is less than one, *note
          elements(): 11ae. will ignore it.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> sorted(c.elements())
               ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']

      -- Yöntemi: most_common ([n])

          Return a list of the 'n' most common elements and their counts
          from the most common to the least.  If 'n' is omitted or
          ‘None’, *note most_common(): 11ad. returns 'all' elements in
          the counter.  Elements with equal counts are ordered in the
          order first encountered:

               >>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
               [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('r', 2)]

      -- Yöntemi: subtract ([iterable-or-mapping])

          Elements are subtracted from an 'iterable' or from another
          'mapping' (or counter).  Like *note dict.update(): 12ed. but
          subtracts counts instead of replacing them.  Both inputs and
          outputs may be zero or negative.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
               >>> c.subtract(d)
               >>> c
               Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: total ()

          Compute the sum of the counts.

               >>> c = Counter(a=10, b=5, c=0)
               >>> c.total()
               15

          Added in version 3.10.

     The usual dictionary methods are available for *note Counter: f3c.
     objects except for two which work differently for counters.

      -- Yöntemi: fromkeys (iterable)

          This class method is not implemented for *note Counter: f3c.
          objects.

      -- Yöntemi: update ([iterable-or-mapping])

          Elements are counted from an 'iterable' or added-in from
          another 'mapping' (or counter).  Like *note dict.update():
          12ed. but adds counts instead of replacing them.  Also, the
          'iterable' is expected to be a sequence of elements, not a
          sequence of ‘(key, value)’ pairs.

Counters support rich comparison operators for equality, subset, and
superset relationships: ‘==’, ‘!=’, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’.  All of those
tests treat missing elements as having zero counts so that ‘Counter(a=1)
== Counter(a=1, b=0)’ returns true.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Rich comparison operations were added.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: In equality tests, missing elements are treated
as having zero counts.  Formerly, ‘Counter(a=3)’ and ‘Counter(a=3, b=0)’
were considered distinct.

Common patterns for working with *note Counter: f3c. objects:

     c.total()                       # total of all counts
     c.clear()                       # reset all counts
     list(c)                         # list unique elements
     set(c)                          # convert to a set
     dict(c)                         # convert to a regular dictionary
     c.items()                       # convert to a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
     Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
     c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # n least common elements
     +c                              # remove zero and negative counts

Several mathematical operations are provided for combining *note
Counter: f3c. objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts
greater than zero).  Addition and subtraction combine counters by adding
or subtracting the counts of corresponding elements.  Intersection and
union return the minimum and maximum of corresponding counts.  Equality
and inclusion compare corresponding counts.  Each operation can accept
inputs with signed counts, but the output will exclude results with
counts of zero or less.

     >>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
     >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
     >>> c + d                       # add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]
     Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
     >>> c - d                       # subtract (keeping only positive counts)
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> c & d                       # intersection:  min(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
     >>> c | d                       # union:  max(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})
     >>> c == d                      # equality:  c[x] == d[x]
     False
     >>> c <= d                      # inclusion:  c[x] <= d[x]
     False

Unary addition and subtraction are shortcuts for adding an empty counter
or subtracting from an empty counter.

     >>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4)
     >>> +c
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> -c
     Counter({'b': 4})

Added in version 3.3: Added support for unary plus, unary minus, and
in-place multiset operations.

     Not: Counters were primarily designed to work with positive
     integers to represent running counts; however, care was taken to
     not unnecessarily preclude use cases needing other types or
     negative values.  To help with those use cases, this section
     documents the minimum range and type restrictions.

        * The *note Counter: f3c. class itself is a dictionary subclass
          with no restrictions on its keys and values.  The values are
          intended to be numbers representing counts, but you 'could'
          store anything in the value field.

        * The *note most_common(): 11ad. method requires only that the
          values be orderable.

        * For in-place operations such as ‘c[key] += 1’, the value type
          need only support addition and subtraction.  So fractions,
          floats, and decimals would work and negative values are
          supported.  The same is also true for *note update(): 22fb.
          and *note subtract(): 1083. which allow negative and zero
          values for both inputs and outputs.

        * The multiset methods are designed only for use cases with
          positive values.  The inputs may be negative or zero, but only
          outputs with positive values are created.  There are no type
          restrictions, but the value type needs to support addition,
          subtraction, and comparison.

        * The *note elements(): 11ae. method requires integer counts.
          It ignores zero and negative counts.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * Bag class(1) in Smalltalk.

   * Wikipedia entry for Multisets(2).

   * C++ multisets(3) tutorial with examples.

   * For mathematical operations on multisets and their use cases, see
     'Knuth, Donald.  The Art of Computer Programming Volume II, Section
     4.6.3, Exercise 19'.

   * To enumerate all distinct multisets of a given size over a given
     set of elements, see *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 112a.:

          map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) # --> AA AB AC BB BC CC

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset

   (3) 
http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm


File: python.info,  Node: deque objects,  Next: defaultdict objects,  Prev: Counter objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.4 ‘deque’ objects
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: collections.deque ([iterable[, maxlen]])

     Returns a new deque object initialized left-to-right (using *note
     append(): 22fd.) with data from 'iterable'.  If 'iterable' is not
     specified, the new deque is empty.

     Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is
     pronounced “deck” and is short for “double-ended queue”).  Deques
     support thread-safe, memory efficient appends and pops from either
     side of the deque with approximately the same 'O'(1) performance in
     either direction.

     Though *note list: 422. objects support similar operations, they
     are optimized for fast fixed-length operations and incur 'O'('n')
     memory movement costs for ‘pop(0)’ and ‘insert(0, v)’ operations
     which change both the size and position of the underlying data
     representation.

     If 'maxlen' is not specified or is ‘None’, deques may grow to an
     arbitrary length.  Otherwise, the deque is bounded to the specified
     maximum length.  Once a bounded length deque is full, when new
     items are added, a corresponding number of items are discarded from
     the opposite end.  Bounded length deques provide functionality
     similar to the ‘tail’ filter in Unix.  They are also useful for
     tracking transactions and other pools of data where only the most
     recent activity is of interest.

     Deque objects support the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: append (x)

          Add 'x' to the right side of the deque.

      -- Yöntemi: appendleft (x)

          Add 'x' to the left side of the deque.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Remove all elements from the deque leaving it with length 0.

      -- Yöntemi: copy ()

          Create a shallow copy of the deque.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: count (x)

          Count the number of deque elements equal to 'x'.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: extend (iterable)

          Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from
          the iterable argument.

      -- Yöntemi: extendleft (iterable)

          Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from
          'iterable'.  Note, the series of left appends results in
          reversing the order of elements in the iterable argument.

      -- Yöntemi: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          Return the position of 'x' in the deque (at or after index
          'start' and before index 'stop').  Returns the first match or
          raises *note ValueError: 189. if not found.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: insert (i, x)

          Insert 'x' into the deque at position 'i'.

          If the insertion would cause a bounded deque to grow beyond
          'maxlen', an *note IndexError: 13c2. is raised.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: pop ()

          Remove and return an element from the right side of the deque.
          If no elements are present, raises an *note IndexError: 13c2.

      -- Yöntemi: popleft ()

          Remove and return an element from the left side of the deque.
          If no elements are present, raises an *note IndexError: 13c2.

      -- Yöntemi: remove (value)

          Remove the first occurrence of 'value'.  If not found, raises
          a *note ValueError: 189.

      -- Yöntemi: reverse ()

          Reverse the elements of the deque in-place and then return
          ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: rotate (n=1)

          Rotate the deque 'n' steps to the right.  If 'n' is negative,
          rotate to the left.

          When the deque is not empty, rotating one step to the right is
          equivalent to ‘d.appendleft(d.pop())’, and rotating one step
          to the left is equivalent to ‘d.append(d.popleft())’.

     Deque objects also provide one read-only attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: maxlen

          Maximum size of a deque or ‘None’ if unbounded.

          Added in version 3.1.

In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, ‘len(d)’,
‘reversed(d)’, ‘copy.copy(d)’, ‘copy.deepcopy(d)’, membership testing
with the *note in: 26f. operator, and subscript references such as
‘d[0]’ to access the first element.  Indexed access is 'O'(1) at both
ends but slows to 'O'('n') in the middle.  For fast random access, use
lists instead.

Starting in version 3.5, deques support ‘__add__()’, ‘__mul__()’, and
‘__imul__()’.

Example:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque('ghi')                 # make a new deque with three items
     >>> for elem in d:                   # iterate over the deque's elements
     ...     print(elem.upper())
     G
     H
     I

     >>> d.append('j')                    # add a new entry to the right side
     >>> d.appendleft('f')                # add a new entry to the left side
     >>> d                                # show the representation of the deque
     deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])

     >>> d.pop()                          # return and remove the rightmost item
     'j'
     >>> d.popleft()                      # return and remove the leftmost item
     'f'
     >>> list(d)                          # list the contents of the deque
     ['g', 'h', 'i']
     >>> d[0]                             # peek at leftmost item
     'g'
     >>> d[-1]                            # peek at rightmost item
     'i'

     >>> list(reversed(d))                # list the contents of a deque in reverse
     ['i', 'h', 'g']
     >>> 'h' in d                         # search the deque
     True
     >>> d.extend('jkl')                  # add multiple elements at once
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
     >>> d.rotate(1)                      # right rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
     >>> d.rotate(-1)                     # left rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])

     >>> deque(reversed(d))               # make a new deque in reverse order
     deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
     >>> d.clear()                        # empty the deque
     >>> d.pop()                          # cannot pop from an empty deque
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
             d.pop()
     IndexError: pop from an empty deque

     >>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() reverses the input order
     >>> d
     deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])

* Menu:

* deque Recipes::


File: python.info,  Node: deque Recipes,  Up: deque objects

5.8.4.5 ‘deque’ Recipes
.......................

This section shows various approaches to working with deques.

Bounded length deques provide functionality similar to the ‘tail’ filter
in Unix:

     def tail(filename, n=10):
         'Return the last n lines of a file'
         with open(filename) as f:
             return deque(f, n)

Another approach to using deques is to maintain a sequence of recently
added elements by appending to the right and popping to the left:

     def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
         # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
         # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
         it = iter(iterable)
         d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
         d.appendleft(0)
         s = sum(d)
         for elem in it:
             s += elem - d.popleft()
             d.append(elem)
             yield s / n

A round-robin scheduler(1) can be implemented with input iterators
stored in a *note deque: 3e7.  Values are yielded from the active
iterator in position zero.  If that iterator is exhausted, it can be
removed with *note popleft(): 2303.; otherwise, it can be cycled back to
the end with the *note rotate(): 1701. method:

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
         iterators = deque(map(iter, iterables))
         while iterators:
             try:
                 while True:
                     yield next(iterators[0])
                     iterators.rotate(-1)
             except StopIteration:
                 # Remove an exhausted iterator.
                 iterators.popleft()

The *note rotate(): 1701. method provides a way to implement *note
deque: 3e7. slicing and deletion.  For example, a pure Python
implementation of ‘del d[n]’ relies on the ‘rotate()’ method to position
elements to be popped:

     def delete_nth(d, n):
         d.rotate(-n)
         d.popleft()
         d.rotate(n)

To implement *note deque: 3e7. slicing, use a similar approach applying
*note rotate(): 1701. to bring a target element to the left side of the
deque.  Remove old entries with *note popleft(): 2303, add new entries
with *note extend(): 2300, and then reverse the rotation.  With minor
variations on that approach, it is easy to implement Forth style stack
manipulations such as ‘dup’, ‘drop’, ‘swap’, ‘over’, ‘pick’, ‘rot’, and
‘roll’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict objects,  Next: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields,  Prev: deque objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.6 ‘defaultdict’ objects
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: collections.defaultdict (default_factory=None, /[, ...])

     Return a new dictionary-like object.  *note defaultdict: 1062. is a
     subclass of the built-in *note dict: 240. class.  It overrides one
     method and adds one writable instance variable.  The remaining
     functionality is the same as for the *note dict: 240. class and is
     not documented here.

     The first argument provides the initial value for the *note
     default_factory: 2306. attribute; it defaults to ‘None’.  All
     remaining arguments are treated the same as if they were passed to
     the *note dict: 240. constructor, including keyword arguments.

     *note defaultdict: 1062. objects support the following method in
     addition to the standard *note dict: 240. operations:

      -- Yöntemi: __missing__ (key)

          If the *note default_factory: 2306. attribute is ‘None’, this
          raises a *note KeyError: 903. exception with the 'key' as
          argument.

          If *note default_factory: 2306. is not ‘None’, it is called
          without arguments to provide a default value for the given
          'key', this value is inserted in the dictionary for the 'key',
          and returned.

          If calling *note default_factory: 2306. raises an exception
          this exception is propagated unchanged.

          This method is called by the *note __getitem__(): 500. method
          of the *note dict: 240. class when the requested key is not
          found; whatever it returns or raises is then returned or
          raised by *note __getitem__(): 500.

          Note that *note __missing__(): 2307. is 'not' called for any
          operations besides *note __getitem__(): 500.  This means that
          *note get(): 2035. will, like normal dictionaries, return
          ‘None’ as a default rather than using *note default_factory:
          2306.

     *note defaultdict: 1062. objects support the following instance
     variable:

      -- Özniteliği: default_factory

          This attribute is used by the *note __missing__(): 2307.
          method; it is initialized from the first argument to the
          constructor, if present, or to ‘None’, if absent.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’)
     operators, specified in PEP 584(1).

* Menu:

* defaultdict Examples::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict Examples,  Up: defaultdict objects

5.8.4.7 ‘defaultdict’ Examples
..............................

Using *note list: 422. as the *note default_factory: 2306, it is easy to
group a sequence of key-value pairs into a dictionary of lists:

     >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(list)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

When each key is encountered for the first time, it is not already in
the mapping; so an entry is automatically created using the *note
default_factory: 2306. function which returns an empty *note list: 422.
The ‘list.append()’ operation then attaches the value to the new list.
When keys are encountered again, the look-up proceeds normally
(returning the list for that key) and the ‘list.append()’ operation adds
another value to the list.  This technique is simpler and faster than an
equivalent technique using *note dict.setdefault(): f23.:

     >>> d = {}
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

Setting the *note default_factory: 2306. to *note int: 184. makes the
*note defaultdict: 1062. useful for counting (like a bag or multiset in
other languages):

     >>> s = 'mississippi'
     >>> d = defaultdict(int)
     >>> for k in s:
     ...     d[k] += 1
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('i', 4), ('m', 1), ('p', 2), ('s', 4)]

When a letter is first encountered, it is missing from the mapping, so
the *note default_factory: 2306. function calls *note int(): 184. to
supply a default count of zero.  The increment operation then builds up
the count for each letter.

The function *note int(): 184. which always returns zero is just a
special case of constant functions.  A faster and more flexible way to
create constant functions is to use a lambda function which can supply
any constant value (not just zero):

     >>> def constant_factory(value):
     ...     return lambda: value
     ...
     >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
     >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
     >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
     'John ran to <missing>'

Setting the *note default_factory: 2306. to *note set: 3e4. makes the
*note defaultdict: 1062. useful for building a dictionary of sets:

     >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(set)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].add(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})]


File: python.info,  Node: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields,  Next: OrderedDict objects,  Prev: defaultdict objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.8 ‘namedtuple()’ Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields
....................................................................

Named tuples assign meaning to each position in a tuple and allow for
more readable, self-documenting code.  They can be used wherever regular
tuples are used, and they add the ability to access fields by name
instead of position index.

 -- Işlevi: collections.namedtuple (typename, field_names, *,
          rename=False, defaults=None, module=None)

     Returns a new tuple subclass named 'typename'.  The new subclass is
     used to create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by
     attribute lookup as well as being indexable and iterable.
     Instances of the subclass also have a helpful docstring (with
     'typename' and 'field_names') and a helpful *note __repr__(): 42e.
     method which lists the tuple contents in a ‘name=value’ format.

     The 'field_names' are a sequence of strings such as ‘['x', 'y']’.
     Alternatively, 'field_names' can be a single string with each
     fieldname separated by whitespace and/or commas, for example ‘'x
     y'’ or ‘'x, y'’.

     Any valid Python identifier may be used for a fieldname except for
     names starting with an underscore.  Valid identifiers consist of
     letters, digits, and underscores but do not start with a digit or
     underscore and cannot be a *note keyword: 82. such as 'class',
     'for', 'return', 'global', 'pass', or 'raise'.

     If 'rename' is true, invalid fieldnames are automatically replaced
     with positional names.  For example, ‘['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']’
     is converted to ‘['abc', '_1', 'ghi', '_3']’, eliminating the
     keyword ‘def’ and the duplicate fieldname ‘abc’.

     'defaults' can be ‘None’ or an *note iterable: 10ce. of default
     values.  Since fields with a default value must come after any
     fields without a default, the 'defaults' are applied to the
     rightmost parameters.  For example, if the fieldnames are ‘['x',
     'y', 'z']’ and the defaults are ‘(1, 2)’, then ‘x’ will be a
     required argument, ‘y’ will default to ‘1’, and ‘z’ will default to
     ‘2’.

     If 'module' is defined, the *note __module__: b0b. attribute of the
     named tuple is set to that value.

     Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so
     they are lightweight and require no more memory than regular
     tuples.

     To support pickling, the named tuple class should be assigned to a
     variable that matches 'typename'.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 'rename'.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'verbose' and 'rename' parameters became
     *note keyword-only arguments: 8ef.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'module' parameter.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'verbose' parameter and the
     ‘_source’ attribute.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'defaults' parameter and the *note
     _field_defaults: 230a. attribute.

     >>> # Basic example
     >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     >>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments
     >>> p[0] + p[1]             # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)
     33
     >>> x, y = p                # unpack like a regular tuple
     >>> x, y
     (11, 22)
     >>> p.x + p.y               # fields also accessible by name
     33
     >>> p                       # readable __repr__ with a name=value style
     Point(x=11, y=22)

Named tuples are especially useful for assigning field names to result
tuples returned by the *note csv: 29. or *note sqlite3: ce. modules:

     EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')

     import csv
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

     import sqlite3
     conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
     cursor = conn.cursor()
     cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

In addition to the methods inherited from tuples, named tuples support
three additional methods and two attributes.  To prevent conflicts with
field names, the method and attribute names start with an underscore.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod somenamedtuple._make (iterable)

     Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or
     iterable.

          >>> t = [11, 22]
          >>> Point._make(t)
          Point(x=11, y=22)

 -- Yöntemi: somenamedtuple._asdict ()

     Return a new *note dict: 240. which maps field names to their
     corresponding values:

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._asdict()
          {'x': 11, 'y': 22}

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Returns an *note OrderedDict: 3e6. instead
     of a regular *note dict: 240.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Returns a regular *note dict: 240. instead
     of an *note OrderedDict: 3e6.  As of Python 3.7, regular dicts are
     guaranteed to be ordered.  If the extra features of *note
     OrderedDict: 3e6. are required, the suggested remediation is to
     cast the result to the desired type: ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.

 -- Yöntemi: somenamedtuple._replace (**kwargs)

     Return a new instance of the named tuple replacing specified fields
     with new values:

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._replace(x=33)
          Point(x=33, y=22)

          >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
          ...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())

 -- Özniteliği: somenamedtuple._fields

     Tuple of strings listing the field names.  Useful for introspection
     and for creating new named tuple types from existing named tuples.

          >>> p._fields            # view the field names
          ('x', 'y')

          >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
          >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
          >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
          Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)

 -- Özniteliği: somenamedtuple._field_defaults

     Dictionary mapping field names to default values.

          >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', ['type', 'balance'], defaults=[0])
          >>> Account._field_defaults
          {'balance': 0}
          >>> Account('premium')
          Account(type='premium', balance=0)

To retrieve a field whose name is stored in a string, use the *note
getattr(): a48. function:

     >>> getattr(p, 'x')
     11

To convert a dictionary to a named tuple, use the double-star-operator
(as described in *note Argüman Listelerini Açma: 1a78.):

     >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
     >>> Point(**d)
     Point(x=11, y=22)

Since a named tuple is a regular Python class, it is easy to add or
change functionality with a subclass.  Here is how to add a calculated
field and a fixed-width print format:

     >>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])):
     ...     __slots__ = ()
     ...     @property
     ...     def hypot(self):
     ...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)

     >>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7):
     ...     print(p)
     Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
     Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018

The subclass shown above sets ‘__slots__’ to an empty tuple.  This helps
keep memory requirements low by preventing the creation of instance
dictionaries.

Subclassing is not useful for adding new, stored fields.  Instead,
simply create a new named tuple type from the *note _fields: 230d.
attribute:

     >>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))

Docstrings can be customized by making direct assignments to the
‘__doc__’ fields:

     >>> Book = namedtuple('Book', ['id', 'title', 'authors'])
     >>> Book.__doc__ += ': Hardcover book in active collection'
     >>> Book.id.__doc__ = '13-digit ISBN'
     >>> Book.title.__doc__ = 'Title of first printing'
     >>> Book.authors.__doc__ = 'List of authors sorted by last name'

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Property docstrings became writeable.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * See *note typing.NamedTuple: 202. for a way to add type hints for
     named tuples.  It also provides an elegant notation using the *note
     class: 1181. keyword:

          class Component(NamedTuple):
              part_number: int
              weight: float
              description: Optional[str] = None

   * See *note types.SimpleNamespace(): 77f. for a mutable namespace
     based on an underlying dictionary instead of a tuple.

   * The *note dataclasses: 2f. module provides a decorator and
     functions for automatically adding generated special methods to
     user-defined classes.


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict objects,  Next: UserDict objects,  Prev: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.9 ‘OrderedDict’ objects
.............................

Ordered dictionaries are just like regular dictionaries but have some
extra capabilities relating to ordering operations.  They have become
less important now that the built-in *note dict: 240. class gained the
ability to remember insertion order (this new behavior became guaranteed
in Python 3.7).

Some differences from *note dict: 240. still remain:

   * The regular *note dict: 240. was designed to be very good at
     mapping operations.  Tracking insertion order was secondary.

   * The *note OrderedDict: 3e6. was designed to be good at reordering
     operations.  Space efficiency, iteration speed, and the performance
     of update operations were secondary.

   * The *note OrderedDict: 3e6. algorithm can handle frequent
     reordering operations better than *note dict: 240.  As shown in the
     recipes below, this makes it suitable for implementing various
     kinds of LRU caches.

   * The equality operation for *note OrderedDict: 3e6. checks for
     matching order.

     A regular *note dict: 240. can emulate the order sensitive equality
     test with ‘p == q and all(k1 == k2 for k1, k2 in zip(p, q))’.

   * The *note popitem(): 1197. method of *note OrderedDict: 3e6. has a
     different signature.  It accepts an optional argument to specify
     which item is popped.

     A regular *note dict: 240. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.popitem(last=True)’ with ‘d.popitem()’ which is guaranteed to
     pop the rightmost (last) item.

     A regular *note dict: 240. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.popitem(last=False)’ with ‘(k := next(iter(d)), d.pop(k))’
     which will return and remove the leftmost (first) item if it
     exists.

   * *note OrderedDict: 3e6. has a *note move_to_end(): 1084. method to
     efficiently reposition an element to an endpoint.

     A regular *note dict: 240. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=True)’ with ‘d[k] = d.pop(k)’ which will
     move the key and its associated value to the rightmost (last)
     position.

     A regular *note dict: 240. does not have an efficient equivalent
     for OrderedDict’s ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=False)’ which moves the
     key and its associated value to the leftmost (first) position.

   * Until Python 3.8, *note dict: 240. lacked a *note __reversed__():
     1d4a. method.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.OrderedDict ([items])

     Return an instance of a *note dict: 240. subclass that has methods
     specialized for rearranging dictionary order.

     Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: popitem (last=True)

          The *note popitem(): 1197. method for ordered dictionaries
          returns and removes a (key, value) pair.  The pairs are
          returned in LIFO order if 'last' is true or FIFO (first-in,
          first-out) order if false.

      -- Yöntemi: move_to_end (key, last=True)

          Move an existing 'key' to either end of an ordered dictionary.
          The item is moved to the right end if 'last' is true (the
          default) or to the beginning if 'last' is false.  Raises *note
          KeyError: 903. if the 'key' does not exist:

               >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde')
               >>> d.move_to_end('b')
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'acdeb'
               >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False)
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'bacde'

          Added in version 3.2.

In addition to the usual mapping methods, ordered dictionaries also
support reverse iteration using *note reversed(): 6a9.  Equality tests
between *note OrderedDict: 3e6. objects are order-sensitive and are
roughly equivalent to ‘list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())’.

Equality tests between *note OrderedDict: 3e6. objects and other *note
Mapping: 71c. objects are order-insensitive like regular dictionaries.
This allows *note OrderedDict: 3e6. objects to be substituted anywhere a
regular dictionary is used.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: The items, keys, and values *note views: 230f. of
*note OrderedDict: 3e6. now support reverse iteration using *note
reversed(): 6a9.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: With the acceptance of PEP 468(1), order is
retained for keyword arguments passed to the *note OrderedDict: 3e6.
constructor and its *note update(): 12ed. method.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’) operators,
specified in PEP 584(2).

* Menu:

* OrderedDict Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict Examples and Recipes,  Up: OrderedDict objects

5.8.4.10 ‘OrderedDict’ Examples and Recipes
...........................................

It is straightforward to create an ordered dictionary variant that
remembers the order the keys were 'last' inserted.  If a new entry
overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is changed
and moved to the end:

     class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
         'Store items in the order the keys were last added'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             super().__setitem__(key, value)
             self.move_to_end(key)

An *note OrderedDict: 3e6. would also be useful for implementing
variants of *note functools.lru_cache(): 84e.:

     from collections import OrderedDict
     from time import time

     class TimeBoundedLRU:
         "LRU Cache that invalidates and refreshes old entries."

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxage=30):
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { args : (timestamp, result)}
             self.func = func
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.maxage = maxage

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 timestamp, result = self.cache[args]
                 if time() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
                     return result
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.cache[args] = time(), result
             if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                 self.cache.popitem(0)
             return result

     class MultiHitLRUCache:
         """ LRU cache that defers caching a result until
             it has been requested multiple times.

             To avoid flushing the LRU cache with one-time requests,
             we don't cache until a request has been made more than once.

         """

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxrequests=4096, cache_after=1):
             self.requests = OrderedDict()   # { uncached_key : request_count }
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { cached_key : function_result }
             self.func = func
             self.maxrequests = maxrequests  # max number of uncached requests
             self.maxsize = maxsize          # max number of stored return values
             self.cache_after = cache_after

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 return self.cache[args]
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.requests[args] = self.requests.get(args, 0) + 1
             if self.requests[args] <= self.cache_after:
                 self.requests.move_to_end(args)
                 if len(self.requests) > self.maxrequests:
                     self.requests.popitem(0)
             else:
                 self.requests.pop(args, None)
                 self.cache[args] = result
                 if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                     self.cache.popitem(0)
             return result


File: python.info,  Node: UserDict objects,  Next: UserList objects,  Prev: OrderedDict objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.11 ‘UserDict’ objects
...........................

The class, *note UserDict: 17c6. acts as a wrapper around dictionary
objects.  The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the
ability to subclass directly from *note dict: 240.; however, this class
can be easier to work with because the underlying dictionary is
accessible as an attribute.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.UserDict ([initialdata])

     Class that simulates a dictionary.  The instance’s contents are
     kept in a regular dictionary, which is accessible via the *note
     data: 2312. attribute of *note UserDict: 17c6. instances.  If
     'initialdata' is provided, *note data: 2312. is initialized with
     its contents; note that a reference to 'initialdata' will not be
     kept, allowing it to be used for other purposes.

     In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings,
     *note UserDict: 17c6. instances provide the following attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: data

          A real dictionary used to store the contents of the *note
          UserDict: 17c6. class.


File: python.info,  Node: UserList objects,  Next: UserString objects,  Prev: UserDict objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.12 ‘UserList’ objects
...........................

This class acts as a wrapper around list objects.  It is a useful base
class for your own list-like classes which can inherit from them and
override existing methods or add new ones.  In this way, one can add new
behaviors to lists.

The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
subclass directly from *note list: 422.; however, this class can be
easier to work with because the underlying list is accessible as an
attribute.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.UserList ([list])

     Class that simulates a list.  The instance’s contents are kept in a
     regular list, which is accessible via the *note data: 2314.
     attribute of *note UserList: 1370. instances.  The instance’s
     contents are initially set to a copy of 'list', defaulting to the
     empty list ‘[]’.  'list' can be any iterable, for example a real
     Python list or a *note UserList: 1370. object.

     In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mutable
     sequences, *note UserList: 1370. instances provide the following
     attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: data

          A real *note list: 422. object used to store the contents of
          the *note UserList: 1370. class.

'Subclassing requirements:' Subclasses of *note UserList: 1370. are
expected to offer a constructor which can be called with either no
arguments or one argument.  List operations which return a new sequence
attempt to create an instance of the actual implementation class.  To do
so, it assumes that the constructor can be called with a single
parameter, which is a sequence object used as a data source.

If a derived class does not wish to comply with this requirement, all of
the special methods supported by this class will need to be overridden;
please consult the sources for information about the methods which need
to be provided in that case.


File: python.info,  Node: UserString objects,  Prev: UserList objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.8.4.13 ‘UserString’ objects
.............................

The class, *note UserString: c63. acts as a wrapper around string
objects.  The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the
ability to subclass directly from *note str: 15d.; however, this class
can be easier to work with because the underlying string is accessible
as an attribute.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.UserString (seq)

     Class that simulates a string object.  The instance’s content is
     kept in a regular string object, which is accessible via the *note
     data: 2316. attribute of *note UserString: c63. instances.  The
     instance’s contents are initially set to a copy of 'seq'.  The
     'seq' argument can be any object which can be converted into a
     string using the built-in *note str(): 15d. function.

     In addition to supporting the methods and operations of strings,
     *note UserString: c63. instances provide the following attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: data

          A real *note str: 15d. object used to store the contents of
          the *note UserString: c63. class.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: New methods ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__rmod__’,
     ‘casefold’, ‘format_map’, ‘isprintable’, and ‘maketrans’.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers,  Next: heapq — Heap queue algorithm,  Prev: collections — Container datatypes,  Up: Data Types

5.8.5 ‘collections.abc’ — Abstract Base Classes for Containers
--------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3: Formerly, this module was part of the *note
collections: 1d. module.

'Source code:' Lib/_collections_abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides *note abstract base classes: 105b. that can be used
to test whether a class provides a particular interface; for example,
whether it is *note hashable: 421. or whether it is a *note mapping:
1061.

An *note issubclass(): 5f8. or *note isinstance(): 151. test for an
interface works in one of three ways.

  1. A newly written class can inherit directly from one of the abstract
     base classes.  The class must supply the required abstract methods.
     The remaining mixin methods come from inheritance and can be
     overridden if desired.  Other methods may be added as needed:

          class C(Sequence):                      # Direct inheritance
              def __init__(self): ...             # Extra method not required by the ABC
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...  # Required abstract method
              def __len__(self):  ...             # Required abstract method
              def count(self, value): ...         # Optionally override a mixin method

          >>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
          True

  2. Existing classes and built-in classes can be registered as “virtual
     subclasses” of the ABCs.  Those classes should define the full API
     including all of the abstract methods and all of the mixin methods.
     This lets users rely on *note issubclass(): 5f8. or *note
     isinstance(): 151. tests to determine whether the full interface is
     supported.  The exception to this rule is for methods that are
     automatically inferred from the rest of the API:

          class D:                                 # No inheritance
              def __init__(self): ...              # Extra method not required by the ABC
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...   # Abstract method
              def __len__(self):  ...              # Abstract method
              def count(self, value): ...          # Mixin method
              def index(self, value): ...          # Mixin method

          Sequence.register(D)                     # Register instead of inherit

          >>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
          True

     In this example, class ‘D’ does not need to define ‘__contains__’,
     ‘__iter__’, and ‘__reversed__’ because the *note in-operator: 1e63,
     the *note iteration: 10ce. logic, and the *note reversed(): 6a9.
     function automatically fall back to using ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__len__’.

  3. Some simple interfaces are directly recognizable by the presence of
     the required methods (unless those methods have been set to *note
     None: 488.):

          class E:
              def __iter__(self): ...
              def __next__(self): ...

          >>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
          True
          >>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
          True

     Complex interfaces do not support this last technique because an
     interface is more than just the presence of method names.
     Interfaces specify semantics and relationships between methods that
     cannot be inferred solely from the presence of specific method
     names.  For example, knowing that a class supplies ‘__getitem__’,
     ‘__len__’, and ‘__iter__’ is insufficient for distinguishing a
     *note Sequence: 1069. from a *note Mapping: 71c.

Added in version 3.9: These abstract classes now support ‘[]’.  See
*note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9. and PEP 585(2).

* Menu:

* Collections Abstract Base Classes::
* Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions::
* Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/_collections_abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes,  Next: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions,  Up: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers

5.8.5.1 Collections Abstract Base Classes
.........................................

The collections module offers the following *note ABCs: 105b.:

ABC                                Inherits from              Abstract Methods            Mixin Methods
                                                                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
*note Container: 2043. (1)                                    ‘__contains__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Hashable: 244. (2)                                      ‘__hash__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterable: 2041. (3) (4)                                 ‘__iter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterator: 2042. (5)          *note Iterable: 2041.      ‘__next__’                  ‘__iter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Reversible: b09. (6)         *note Iterable: 2041.      ‘__reversed__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Generator: c69. (7)          *note Iterator: 2042.      ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Sized: 245. (8)                                         ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Callable: 624. (9)                                      ‘__call__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Collection: b08. (10)        *note Sized: 245,          ‘__contains__’,
                                   *note Iterable: 2041,      ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                   *note Container: 2043.     
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Sequence: 1069.              *note Reversible: b09,     ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’, ‘index’,
                                   *note Collection: b08.                                 and ‘count’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSequence: c62.        *note Sequence: 1069.      ‘__getitem__’,              Inherited *note Sequence: 1069. methods and ‘append’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘clear’, ‘reverse’, ‘extend’, ‘pop’, ‘remove’, and
                                                              ‘__delitem__’, ‘__len__’,   ‘__iadd__’
                                                              ‘insert’                    
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note ByteString: 22a.             *note Sequence: 1069.      ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    Inherited *note Sequence: 1069. methods
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Set: 2039.                   *note Collection: b08.     ‘__contains__’,             ‘__le__’, ‘__lt__’, ‘__eq__’, ‘__ne__’, ‘__gt__’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__ge__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__or__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__rsub__’,
                                                                                          ‘__xor__’, ‘__rxor__’ and ‘isdisjoint’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSet: 2044.            *note Set: 2039.           ‘__contains__’,             Inherited *note Set: 2039. methods and ‘clear’, ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’,      ‘remove’, ‘__ior__’, ‘__iand__’, ‘__ixor__’, and
                                                              ‘add’, ‘discard’            ‘__isub__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Mapping: 71c.                *note Collection: b08.     ‘__getitem__’,              ‘__contains__’, ‘keys’, ‘items’, ‘values’, ‘get’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__eq__’, and ‘__ne__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableMapping: f51.         *note Mapping: 71c.        ‘__getitem__’,              Inherited *note Mapping: 71c. methods and ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘popitem’, ‘clear’, ‘update’, and ‘setdefault’
                                                              ‘__delitem__’,              
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note MappingView: 2045.           *note Sized: 245.                                      ‘__init__’, ‘__len__’ and ‘__repr__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note ItemsView: 2047.             *note MappingView: 2045,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 2039.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note KeysView: 2046.              *note MappingView: 2045,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 2039.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note ValuesView: 2048.            *note MappingView: 2045,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Collection: b08.                                 
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Awaitable: c6a. (11)                                    ‘__await__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Coroutine: c6b. (12)         *note Awaitable: c6a.      ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterable: c6d. (13)                                ‘__aiter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterator: c6c. (14)     *note AsyncIterable: c6d.  ‘__anext__’                 ‘__aiter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncGenerator: b0a. (15)    *note AsyncIterator: c6c.  ‘asend’, ‘athrow’           ‘aclose’, ‘__aiter__’, ‘__anext__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Buffer: 176. (16)                                       ‘__buffer__’
                                                              

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (2) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (3) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (4) Checking ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ detects classes that are
registered as *note Iterable: 2041. or that have an *note __iter__():
1b0b. method, but it does not detect classes that iterate with the *note
__getitem__(): 500. method.  The only reliable way to determine whether
an object is *note iterable: 10ce. is to call ‘iter(obj)’.

   (5) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (6) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (7) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (8) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (9) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (10) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (11) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (12) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (13) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (14) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (15) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.

   (16) These ABCs override *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. to support
testing an interface by verifying the required methods are present and
have not been set to *note None: 488.  This only works for simple
interfaces.  More complex interfaces require registration or direct
subclassing.


File: python.info,  Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions,  Next: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: Collections Abstract Base Classes,  Up: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers

5.8.5.2 Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions
.................................................................

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Container

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __contains__(): 1d4b.
     method.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Hashable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __hash__(): 969. method.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Sized

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __len__(): 1d50. method.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Callable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __call__(): 2e7. method.

     See *note Annotating callable objects: 231c. for details on how to
     use ‘Callable’ in type annotations.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Iterable

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __iter__(): 1b0b. method.

     Checking ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ detects classes that are
     registered as *note Iterable: 2041. or that have an *note
     __iter__(): 1b0b. method, but it does not detect classes that
     iterate with the *note __getitem__(): 500. method.  The only
     reliable way to determine whether an object is *note iterable:
     10ce. is to call ‘iter(obj)’.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Collection

     ABC for sized iterable container classes.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Iterator

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __iter__(): 1b0e. and *note
     __next__(): 1176. methods.  See also the definition of *note
     iterator: 176e.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Reversible

     ABC for iterable classes that also provide the *note
     __reversed__(): 1d4a. method.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Generator

     ABC for *note generator: f0b. classes that implement the protocol
     defined in PEP 342(1) that extends *note iterators: 176e. with the
     *note send(): 1dbb, *note throw(): 24a. and *note close(): 15e1.
     methods.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 231d. for details
     on using ‘Generator’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Sequence
 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.MutableSequence
 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.ByteString

     ABCs for read-only and mutable *note sequences: 23f.

     Implementation note: Some of the mixin methods, such as *note
     __iter__(): 1b0b, *note __reversed__(): 1d4a. and ‘index()’, make
     repeated calls to the underlying *note __getitem__(): 500. method.
     Consequently, if *note __getitem__(): 500. is implemented with
     constant access speed, the mixin methods will have linear
     performance; however, if the underlying method is linear (as it
     would be with a linked list), the mixins will have quadratic
     performance and will likely need to be overridden.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The index() method added support for 'stop'
     and 'start' arguments.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: The
     *note ByteString: 22a. ABC has been deprecated.  For use in typing,
     prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note
     collections.abc.Buffer: 176.  For use as an ABC, prefer *note
     Sequence: 1069. or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 176.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Set
 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.MutableSet

     ABCs for read-only and mutable *note sets: 1f62.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Mapping
 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.MutableMapping

     ABCs for read-only and mutable *note mappings: 1061.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.MappingView
 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.ItemsView
 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.KeysView
 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.ValuesView

     ABCs for mapping, items, keys, and values *note views: 230f.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Awaitable

     ABC for *note awaitable: af6. objects, which can be used in *note
     await: 55b. expressions.  Custom implementations must provide the
     *note __await__(): 1db6. method.

     *note Coroutine: 1b4. objects and instances of the *note Coroutine:
     c6b. ABC are all instances of this ABC.

          Not: In CPython, generator-based coroutines (*note generators:
          f0b. decorated with *note @types.coroutine: d1e.) are
          'awaitables', even though they do not have an *note
          __await__(): 1db6. method.  Using ‘isinstance(gencoro,
          Awaitable)’ for them will return ‘False’.  Use *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): ca7. to detect them.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Coroutine

     ABC for *note coroutine: 1b4. compatible classes.  These implement
     the following methods, defined in *note Coroutine Objects: 1cf6.:
     *note send(): 1dba, *note throw(): 249, and *note close(): 1dbc.
     Custom implementations must also implement *note __await__(): 1db6.
     All *note Coroutine: c6b. instances are also instances of *note
     Awaitable: c6a.

          Not: In CPython, generator-based coroutines (*note generators:
          f0b. decorated with *note @types.coroutine: d1e.) are
          'awaitables', even though they do not have an *note
          __await__(): 1db6. method.  Using ‘isinstance(gencoro,
          Coroutine)’ for them will return ‘False’.  Use *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): ca7. to detect them.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 231d. for details
     on using ‘Coroutine’ in type annotations.  The variance and order
     of type parameters correspond to those of *note Generator: c69.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.AsyncIterable

     ABC for classes that provide an ‘__aiter__’ method.  See also the
     definition of *note asynchronous iterable: c03.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.AsyncIterator

     ABC for classes that provide ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’ methods.
     See also the definition of *note asynchronous iterator: c05.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.AsyncGenerator

     ABC for *note asynchronous generator: 1e2d. classes that implement
     the protocol defined in PEP 525(2) and PEP 492(3).

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 231d. for details
     on using ‘AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: collections.abc.Buffer

     ABC for classes that provide the *note __buffer__(): 175. method,
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 14e.  See PEP 688(4).

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions,  Up: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers

5.8.5.3 Examples and Recipes
............................

ABCs allow us to ask classes or instances if they provide particular
functionality, for example:

     size = None
     if isinstance(myvar, collections.abc.Sized):
         size = len(myvar)

Several of the ABCs are also useful as mixins that make it easier to
develop classes supporting container APIs.  For example, to write a
class supporting the full *note Set: 2039. API, it is only necessary to
supply the three underlying abstract methods: *note __contains__():
1d4b, *note __iter__(): 1b0b, and *note __len__(): 1d50.  The ABC
supplies the remaining methods such as ‘__and__()’ and *note
isdisjoint(): 2025.:

     class ListBasedSet(collections.abc.Set):
         ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed
             and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. '''
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.elements = lst = []
             for value in iterable:
                 if value not in lst:
                     lst.append(value)

         def __iter__(self):
             return iter(self.elements)

         def __contains__(self, value):
             return value in self.elements

         def __len__(self):
             return len(self.elements)

     s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
     s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
     overlap = s1 & s2            # The __and__() method is supported automatically

Notes on using *note Set: 2039. and *note MutableSet: 2044. as a mixin:

  1. Since some set operations create new sets, the default mixin
     methods need a way to create new instances from an *note iterable:
     10ce.  The class constructor is assumed to have a signature in the
     form ‘ClassName(iterable)’.  That assumption is factored-out to an
     internal *note classmethod: 252. called ‘_from_iterable()’ which
     calls ‘cls(iterable)’ to produce a new set.  If the *note Set:
     2039. mixin is being used in a class with a different constructor
     signature, you will need to override ‘_from_iterable()’ with a
     classmethod or regular method that can construct new instances from
     an iterable argument.

  2. To override the comparisons (presumably for speed, as the semantics
     are fixed), redefine *note __le__(): 11b5. and *note __ge__():
     11b7, then the other operations will automatically follow suit.

  3. The *note Set: 2039. mixin provides a ‘_hash()’ method to compute a
     hash value for the set; however, *note __hash__(): 969. is not
     defined because not all sets are *note hashable: 421. or immutable.
     To add set hashability using mixins, inherit from both *note Set():
     2039. and *note Hashable(): 244, then define ‘__hash__ =
     Set._hash’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * OrderedSet recipe(1) for an example built on *note MutableSet:
     2044.

   * For more about ABCs, see the *note abc: 4. module and PEP 3119(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: heapq — Heap queue algorithm,  Next: bisect — Array bisection algorithm,  Prev: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers,  Up: Data Types

5.8.6 ‘heapq’ — Heap queue algorithm
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/heapq.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an implementation of the heap queue algorithm, also
known as the priority queue algorithm.

Heaps are binary trees for which every parent node has a value less than
or equal to any of its children.  We refer to this condition as the heap
invariant.

This implementation uses arrays for which ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and
‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’ for all 'k', counting elements from zero.  For
the sake of comparison, non-existing elements are considered to be
infinite.  The interesting property of a heap is that its smallest
element is always the root, ‘heap[0]’.

The API below differs from textbook heap algorithms in two aspects: (a)
We use zero-based indexing.  This makes the relationship between the
index for a node and the indexes for its children slightly less obvious,
but is more suitable since Python uses zero-based indexing.  (b) Our pop
method returns the smallest item, not the largest (called a “min heap”
in textbooks; a “max heap” is more common in texts because of its
suitability for in-place sorting).

These two make it possible to view the heap as a regular Python list
without surprises: ‘heap[0]’ is the smallest item, and ‘heap.sort()’
maintains the heap invariant!

To create a heap, use a list initialized to ‘[]’, or you can transform a
populated list into a heap via function *note heapify(): 2321.

The following functions are provided:

 -- Işlevi: heapq.heappush (heap, item)

     Push the value 'item' onto the 'heap', maintaining the heap
     invariant.

 -- Işlevi: heapq.heappop (heap)

     Pop and return the smallest item from the 'heap', maintaining the
     heap invariant.  If the heap is empty, *note IndexError: 13c2. is
     raised.  To access the smallest item without popping it, use
     ‘heap[0]’.

 -- Işlevi: heapq.heappushpop (heap, item)

     Push 'item' on the heap, then pop and return the smallest item from
     the 'heap'.  The combined action runs more efficiently than *note
     heappush(): 1347. followed by a separate call to *note heappop():
     1348.

 -- Işlevi: heapq.heapify (x)

     Transform list 'x' into a heap, in-place, in linear time.

 -- Işlevi: heapq.heapreplace (heap, item)

     Pop and return the smallest item from the 'heap', and also push the
     new 'item'.  The heap size doesn’t change.  If the heap is empty,
     *note IndexError: 13c2. is raised.

     This one step operation is more efficient than a *note heappop():
     1348. followed by *note heappush(): 1347. and can be more
     appropriate when using a fixed-size heap.  The pop/push combination
     always returns an element from the heap and replaces it with
     'item'.

     The value returned may be larger than the 'item' added.  If that
     isn’t desired, consider using *note heappushpop(): 2322. instead.
     Its push/pop combination returns the smaller of the two values,
     leaving the larger value on the heap.

The module also offers three general purpose functions based on heaps.

 -- Işlevi: heapq.merge (*iterables, key=None, reverse=False)

     Merge multiple sorted inputs into a single sorted output (for
     example, merge timestamped entries from multiple log files).
     Returns an *note iterator: 176e. over the sorted values.

     Similar to ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables))’ but returns an
     iterable, does not pull the data into memory all at once, and
     assumes that each of the input streams is already sorted (smallest
     to largest).

     Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword
     arguments.

     'key' specifies a *note key function: c93. of one argument that is
     used to extract a comparison key from each input element.  The
     default value is ‘None’ (compare the elements directly).

     'reverse' is a boolean value.  If set to ‘True’, then the input
     elements are merged as if each comparison were reversed.  To
     achieve behavior similar to ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables),
     reverse=True)’, all iterables must be sorted from largest to
     smallest.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional 'key' and 'reverse'
     parameters.

 -- Işlevi: heapq.nlargest (n, iterable, key=None)

     Return a list with the 'n' largest elements from the dataset
     defined by 'iterable'.  'key', if provided, specifies a function of
     one argument that is used to extract a comparison key from each
     element in 'iterable' (for example, ‘key=str.lower’).  Equivalent
     to: ‘sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=True)[:n]’.

 -- Işlevi: heapq.nsmallest (n, iterable, key=None)

     Return a list with the 'n' smallest elements from the dataset
     defined by 'iterable'.  'key', if provided, specifies a function of
     one argument that is used to extract a comparison key from each
     element in 'iterable' (for example, ‘key=str.lower’).  Equivalent
     to: ‘sorted(iterable, key=key)[:n]’.

The latter two functions perform best for smaller values of 'n'.  For
larger values, it is more efficient to use the *note sorted(): a45.
function.  Also, when ‘n==1’, it is more efficient to use the built-in
*note min(): d9f. and *note max(): da0. functions.  If repeated usage of
these functions is required, consider turning the iterable into an
actual heap.

* Menu:

* Basic Examples::
* Priority Queue Implementation Notes::
* Theory::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/heapq.py


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Examples,  Next: Priority Queue Implementation Notes,  Up: heapq — Heap queue algorithm

5.8.6.1 Basic Examples
......................

A heapsort(1) can be implemented by pushing all values onto a heap and
then popping off the smallest values one at a time:

     >>> def heapsort(iterable):
     ...     h = []
     ...     for value in iterable:
     ...         heappush(h, value)
     ...     return [heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
     ...
     >>> heapsort([1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0])
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

This is similar to ‘sorted(iterable)’, but unlike *note sorted(): a45,
this implementation is not stable.

Heap elements can be tuples.  This is useful for assigning comparison
values (such as task priorities) alongside the main record being
tracked:

     >>> h = []
     >>> heappush(h, (5, 'write code'))
     >>> heappush(h, (7, 'release product'))
     >>> heappush(h, (1, 'write spec'))
     >>> heappush(h, (3, 'create tests'))
     >>> heappop(h)
     (1, 'write spec')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort


File: python.info,  Node: Priority Queue Implementation Notes,  Next: Theory,  Prev: Basic Examples,  Up: heapq — Heap queue algorithm

5.8.6.2 Priority Queue Implementation Notes
...........................................

A priority queue(1) is common use for a heap, and it presents several
implementation challenges:

   * Sort stability: how do you get two tasks with equal priorities to
     be returned in the order they were originally added?

   * Tuple comparison breaks for (priority, task) pairs if the
     priorities are equal and the tasks do not have a default comparison
     order.

   * If the priority of a task changes, how do you move it to a new
     position in the heap?

   * Or if a pending task needs to be deleted, how do you find it and
     remove it from the queue?

A solution to the first two challenges is to store entries as 3-element
list including the priority, an entry count, and the task.  The entry
count serves as a tie-breaker so that two tasks with the same priority
are returned in the order they were added.  And since no two entry
counts are the same, the tuple comparison will never attempt to directly
compare two tasks.

Another solution to the problem of non-comparable tasks is to create a
wrapper class that ignores the task item and only compares the priority
field:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     from typing import Any

     @dataclass(order=True)
     class PrioritizedItem:
         priority: int
         item: Any=field(compare=False)

The remaining challenges revolve around finding a pending task and
making changes to its priority or removing it entirely.  Finding a task
can be done with a dictionary pointing to an entry in the queue.

Removing the entry or changing its priority is more difficult because it
would break the heap structure invariants.  So, a possible solution is
to mark the entry as removed and add a new entry with the revised
priority:

     pq = []                         # list of entries arranged in a heap
     entry_finder = {}               # mapping of tasks to entries
     REMOVED = '<removed-task>'      # placeholder for a removed task
     counter = itertools.count()     # unique sequence count

     def add_task(task, priority=0):
         'Add a new task or update the priority of an existing task'
         if task in entry_finder:
             remove_task(task)
         count = next(counter)
         entry = [priority, count, task]
         entry_finder[task] = entry
         heappush(pq, entry)

     def remove_task(task):
         'Mark an existing task as REMOVED.  Raise KeyError if not found.'
         entry = entry_finder.pop(task)
         entry[-1] = REMOVED

     def pop_task():
         'Remove and return the lowest priority task. Raise KeyError if empty.'
         while pq:
             priority, count, task = heappop(pq)
             if task is not REMOVED:
                 del entry_finder[task]
                 return task
         raise KeyError('pop from an empty priority queue')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue


File: python.info,  Node: Theory,  Prev: Priority Queue Implementation Notes,  Up: heapq — Heap queue algorithm

5.8.6.3 Theory
..............

Heaps are arrays for which ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+1]’ and ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+2]’ for
all 'k', counting elements from 0.  For the sake of comparison,
non-existing elements are considered to be infinite.  The interesting
property of a heap is that ‘a[0]’ is always its smallest element.

The strange invariant above is meant to be an efficient memory
representation for a tournament.  The numbers below are 'k', not ‘a[k]’:

                                    0

                   1                                 2

           3               4                5               6

       7       8       9       10      11      12      13      14

     15 16   17 18   19 20   21 22   23 24   25 26   27 28   29 30

In the tree above, each cell 'k' is topping ‘2*k+1’ and ‘2*k+2’.  In a
usual binary tournament we see in sports, each cell is the winner over
the two cells it tops, and we can trace the winner down the tree to see
all opponents s/he had.  However, in many computer applications of such
tournaments, we do not need to trace the history of a winner.  To be
more memory efficient, when a winner is promoted, we try to replace it
by something else at a lower level, and the rule becomes that a cell and
the two cells it tops contain three different items, but the top cell
“wins” over the two topped cells.

If this heap invariant is protected at all time, index 0 is clearly the
overall winner.  The simplest algorithmic way to remove it and find the
“next” winner is to move some loser (let’s say cell 30 in the diagram
above) into the 0 position, and then percolate this new 0 down the tree,
exchanging values, until the invariant is re-established.  This is
clearly logarithmic on the total number of items in the tree.  By
iterating over all items, you get an 'O'('n' log 'n') sort.

A nice feature of this sort is that you can efficiently insert new items
while the sort is going on, provided that the inserted items are not
“better” than the last 0’th element you extracted.  This is especially
useful in simulation contexts, where the tree holds all incoming events,
and the “win” condition means the smallest scheduled time.  When an
event schedules other events for execution, they are scheduled into the
future, so they can easily go into the heap.  So, a heap is a good
structure for implementing schedulers (this is what I used for my MIDI
sequencer :-).

Various structures for implementing schedulers have been extensively
studied, and heaps are good for this, as they are reasonably speedy, the
speed is almost constant, and the worst case is not much different than
the average case.  However, there are other representations which are
more efficient overall, yet the worst cases might be terrible.

Heaps are also very useful in big disk sorts.  You most probably all
know that a big sort implies producing “runs” (which are pre-sorted
sequences, whose size is usually related to the amount of CPU memory),
followed by a merging passes for these runs, which merging is often very
cleverly organised (1).  It is very important that the initial sort
produces the longest runs possible.  Tournaments are a good way to
achieve that.  If, using all the memory available to hold a tournament,
you replace and percolate items that happen to fit the current run,
you’ll produce runs which are twice the size of the memory for random
input, and much better for input fuzzily ordered.

Moreover, if you output the 0’th item on disk and get an input which may
not fit in the current tournament (because the value “wins” over the
last output value), it cannot fit in the heap, so the size of the heap
decreases.  The freed memory could be cleverly reused immediately for
progressively building a second heap, which grows at exactly the same
rate the first heap is melting.  When the first heap completely
vanishes, you switch heaps and start a new run.  Clever and quite
effective!

In a word, heaps are useful memory structures to know.  I use them in a
few applications, and I think it is good to keep a ‘heap’ module around.
:-)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The disk balancing algorithms which are current, nowadays, are
more annoying than clever, and this is a consequence of the seeking
capabilities of the disks.  On devices which cannot seek, like big tape
drives, the story was quite different, and one had to be very clever to
ensure (far in advance) that each tape movement will be the most
effective possible (that is, will best participate at “progressing” the
merge).  Some tapes were even able to read backwards, and this was also
used to avoid the rewinding time.  Believe me, real good tape sorts were
quite spectacular to watch!  From all times, sorting has always been a
Great Art!  :-)


File: python.info,  Node: bisect — Array bisection algorithm,  Next: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Prev: heapq — Heap queue algorithm,  Up: Data Types

5.8.7 ‘bisect’ — Array bisection algorithm
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/bisect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for maintaining a list in sorted order
without having to sort the list after each insertion.  For long lists of
items with expensive comparison operations, this can be an improvement
over linear searches or frequent resorting.

The module is called *note bisect: 11. because it uses a basic bisection
algorithm to do its work.  Unlike other bisection tools that search for
a specific value, the functions in this module are designed to locate an
insertion point.  Accordingly, the functions never call an *note
__eq__(): 968. method to determine whether a value has been found.
Instead, the functions only call the *note __lt__(): 1148. method and
will return an insertion point between values in an array.  The
following functions are provided:

 -- Işlevi: bisect.bisect_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Locate the insertion point for 'x' in 'a' to maintain sorted order.
     The parameters 'lo' and 'hi' may be used to specify a subset of the
     list which should be considered; by default the entire list is
     used.  If 'x' is already present in 'a', the insertion point will
     be before (to the left of) any existing entries.  The return value
     is suitable for use as the first parameter to ‘list.insert()’
     assuming that 'a' is already sorted.

     The returned insertion point 'ip' partitions the array 'a' into two
     slices such that ‘all(elem < x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ is true for
     the left slice and ‘all(elem >= x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ is true
     for the right slice.

     'key' specifies a *note key function: c93. of one argument that is
     used to extract a comparison key from each element in the array.
     To support searching complex records, the key function is not
     applied to the 'x' value.

     If 'key' is ‘None’, the elements are compared directly and no key
     function is called.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'key' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: bisect.bisect_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- Işlevi: bisect.bisect (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Similar to *note bisect_left(): 232c, but returns an insertion
     point which comes after (to the right of) any existing entries of
     'x' in 'a'.

     The returned insertion point 'ip' partitions the array 'a' into two
     slices such that ‘all(elem <= x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ is true
     for the left slice and ‘all(elem > x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ is
     true for the right slice.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'key' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: bisect.insort_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Insert 'x' in 'a' in sorted order.

     This function first runs *note bisect_left(): 232c. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the ‘insert()’ method on 'a' to
     insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'key' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: bisect.insort_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- Işlevi: bisect.insort (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Similar to *note insort_left(): 232f, but inserting 'x' in 'a'
     after any existing entries of 'x'.

     This function first runs *note bisect_right(): 232d. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the ‘insert()’ method on 'a' to
     insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'key' parameter.

* Menu:

* Performance Notes::
* Searching Sorted Lists::
* Examples: Examples<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/bisect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Performance Notes,  Next: Searching Sorted Lists,  Up: bisect — Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.1 Performance Notes
.........................

When writing time sensitive code using 'bisect()' and 'insort()', keep
these thoughts in mind:

   * Bisection is effective for searching ranges of values.  For
     locating specific values, dictionaries are more performant.

   * The 'insort()' functions are 'O'('n') because the logarithmic
     search step is dominated by the linear time insertion step.

   * The search functions are stateless and discard key function results
     after they are used.  Consequently, if the search functions are
     used in a loop, the key function may be called again and again on
     the same array elements.  If the key function isn’t fast, consider
     wrapping it with *note functools.cache(): 2333. to avoid duplicate
     computations.  Alternatively, consider searching an array of
     precomputed keys to locate the insertion point (as shown in the
     examples section below).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * Sorted Collections(1) is a high performance module that uses
     'bisect' to managed sorted collections of data.

   * The SortedCollection recipe(2) uses bisect to build a full-featured
     collection class with straight-forward search methods and support
     for a key-function.  The keys are precomputed to save unnecessary
     calls to the key function during searches.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://grantjenks.com/docs/sortedcollections/

   (2) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/


File: python.info,  Node: Searching Sorted Lists,  Next: Examples<3>,  Prev: Performance Notes,  Up: bisect — Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.2 Searching Sorted Lists
..............................

The above *note bisect functions: 232b. are useful for finding insertion
points but can be tricky or awkward to use for common searching tasks.
The following five functions show how to transform them into the
standard lookups for sorted lists:

     def index(a, x):
         'Locate the leftmost value exactly equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a) and a[i] == x:
             return i
         raise ValueError

     def find_lt(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_le(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_gt(a, x):
         'Find leftmost value greater than x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError

     def find_ge(a, x):
         'Find leftmost item greater than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<3>,  Prev: Searching Sorted Lists,  Up: bisect — Array bisection algorithm

5.8.7.3 Examples
................

The *note bisect(): 232e. function can be useful for numeric table
lookups.  This example uses *note bisect(): 232e. to look up a letter
grade for an exam score (say) based on a set of ordered numeric
breakpoints: 90 and up is an ‘A’, 80 to 89 is a ‘B’, and so on:

     >>> def grade(score, breakpoints=[60, 70, 80, 90], grades='FDCBA'):
     ...     i = bisect(breakpoints, score)
     ...     return grades[i]
     ...
     >>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
     ['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']

The *note bisect(): 232e. and *note insort(): 2331. functions also work
with lists of tuples.  The 'key' argument can serve to extract the field
used for ordering records in a table:

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> from operator import attrgetter
     >>> from bisect import bisect, insort
     >>> from pprint import pprint

     >>> Movie = namedtuple('Movie', ('name', 'released', 'director'))

     >>> movies = [
     ...     Movie('Jaws', 1975, 'Spielberg'),
     ...     Movie('Titanic', 1997, 'Cameron'),
     ...     Movie('The Birds', 1963, 'Hitchcock'),
     ...     Movie('Aliens', 1986, 'Cameron')
     ... ]

     >>> # Find the first movie released after 1960
     >>> by_year = attrgetter('released')
     >>> movies.sort(key=by_year)
     >>> movies[bisect(movies, 1960, key=by_year)]
     Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock')

     >>> # Insert a movie while maintaining sort order
     >>> romance = Movie('Love Story', 1970, 'Hiller')
     >>> insort(movies, romance, key=by_year)
     >>> pprint(movies)
     [Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock'),
      Movie(name='Love Story', released=1970, director='Hiller'),
      Movie(name='Jaws', released=1975, director='Spielberg'),
      Movie(name='Aliens', released=1986, director='Cameron'),
      Movie(name='Titanic', released=1997, director='Cameron')]

If the key function is expensive, it is possible to avoid repeated
function calls by searching a list of precomputed keys to find the index
of a record:

     >>> data = [('red', 5), ('blue', 1), ('yellow', 8), ('black', 0)]
     >>> data.sort(key=lambda r: r[1])       # Or use operator.itemgetter(1).
     >>> keys = [r[1] for r in data]         # Precompute a list of keys.
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 0)]
     ('black', 0)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 1)]
     ('blue', 1)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 5)]
     ('red', 5)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 8)]
     ('yellow', 8)


File: python.info,  Node: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Next: weakref — Weak references,  Prev: bisect — Array bisection algorithm,  Up: Data Types

5.8.8 ‘array’ — Efficient arrays of numeric values
--------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines an object type which can compactly represent an
array of basic values: characters, integers, floating-point numbers.
Arrays are sequence types and behave very much like lists, except that
the type of objects stored in them is constrained.  The type is
specified at object creation time by using a 'type code', which is a
single character.  The following type codes are defined:

Type code       C Type                   Python Type             Minimum size in bytes       Notes
                                                                                             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             
‘'b'’           signed char              int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'B'’           unsigned char            int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'u'’           wchar_t                  Unicode character       2                           (1)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'h'’           signed short             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'H'’           unsigned short           int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'i'’           signed int               int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'I'’           unsigned int             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'l'’           signed long              int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'L'’           unsigned long            int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'q'’           signed long long         int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'Q'’           unsigned long long       int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'f'’           float                    float                   4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'d'’           double                   float                   8
                                                                 

Notes:

  1. It can be 16 bits or 32 bits depending on the platform.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C type
     instead of deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’.  This change doesn’t affect its
     behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is alias of ‘wchar_t’ since Python
     3.3.

     Deprecated since version 3.3, will be removed in version 4.0.

The actual representation of values is determined by the machine
architecture (strictly speaking, by the C implementation).  The actual
size can be accessed through the *note array.itemsize: 2339. attribute.

The module defines the following item:

 -- Verisi: array.typecodes

     A string with all available type codes.

The module defines the following type:

 -- Sınıfı: array.array (typecode[, initializer])

     A new array whose items are restricted by 'typecode', and
     initialized from the optional 'initializer' value, which must be a
     *note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca. object, a Unicode
     string, or iterable over elements of the appropriate type.

     If given a *note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca. object, the
     initializer is passed to the new array’s *note frombytes(): 111a.
     method; if given a Unicode string, the initializer is passed to the
     *note fromunicode(): 233b. method; otherwise, the initializer’s
     iterator is passed to the *note extend(): 233c. method to add
     initial items to the array.

     Array objects support the ordinary sequence operations of indexing,
     slicing, concatenation, and multiplication.  When using slice
     assignment, the assigned value must be an array object with the
     same type code; in all other cases, *note TypeError: 2c4. is
     raised.  Array objects also implement the buffer interface, and may
     be used wherever *note bytes-like objects: bb5. are supported.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘array.__new__’ with
     arguments ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’.

      -- Özniteliği: typecode

          The typecode character used to create the array.

      -- Özniteliği: itemsize

          The length in bytes of one array item in the internal
          representation.

      -- Yöntemi: append (x)

          Append a new item with value 'x' to the end of the array.

      -- Yöntemi: buffer_info ()

          Return a tuple ‘(address, length)’ giving the current memory
          address and the length in elements of the buffer used to hold
          array’s contents.  The size of the memory buffer in bytes can
          be computed as ‘array.buffer_info()[1] * array.itemsize’.
          This is occasionally useful when working with low-level (and
          inherently unsafe) I/O interfaces that require memory
          addresses, such as certain ‘ioctl()’ operations.  The returned
          numbers are valid as long as the array exists and no
          length-changing operations are applied to it.

               Not: When using array objects from code written in C or
               C++ (the only way to effectively make use of this
               information), it makes more sense to use the buffer
               interface supported by array objects.  This method is
               maintained for backward compatibility and should be
               avoided in new code.  The buffer interface is documented
               in *note Buffer Protocol: 14e.

      -- Yöntemi: byteswap ()

          “Byteswap” all items of the array.  This is only supported for
          values which are 1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes in size; for other types
          of values, *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised.  It is useful
          when reading data from a file written on a machine with a
          different byte order.

      -- Yöntemi: count (x)

          Return the number of occurrences of 'x' in the array.

      -- Yöntemi: extend (iterable)

          Append items from 'iterable' to the end of the array.  If
          'iterable' is another array, it must have 'exactly' the same
          type code; if not, *note TypeError: 2c4. will be raised.  If
          'iterable' is not an array, it must be iterable and its
          elements must be the right type to be appended to the array.

      -- Yöntemi: frombytes (buffer)

          Appends items from the *note bytes-like object: bb5,
          interpreting its content as an array of machine values (as if
          it had been read from a file using the *note fromfile(): 1169.
          method).

          Added in version 3.2: ‘fromstring()’ is renamed to *note
          frombytes(): 111a. for clarity.

      -- Yöntemi: fromfile (f, n)

          Read 'n' items (as machine values) from the *note file object:
          1068. 'f' and append them to the end of the array.  If less
          than 'n' items are available, *note EOFError: 1183. is raised,
          but the items that were available are still inserted into the
          array.

      -- Yöntemi: fromlist (list)

          Append items from the list.  This is equivalent to ‘for x in
          list: a.append(x)’ except that if there is a type error, the
          array is unchanged.

      -- Yöntemi: fromunicode (s)

          Extends this array with data from the given Unicode string.
          The array must have type code ‘'u'’; otherwise a *note
          ValueError: 189. is raised.  Use
          ‘array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc))’ to append Unicode
          data to an array of some other type.

      -- Yöntemi: index (x[, start[, stop]])

          Return the smallest 'i' such that 'i' is the index of the
          first occurrence of 'x' in the array.  The optional arguments
          'start' and 'stop' can be specified to search for 'x' within a
          subsection of the array.  Raise *note ValueError: 189. if 'x'
          is not found.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added optional 'start' and 'stop'
          parameters.

      -- Yöntemi: insert (i, x)

          Insert a new item with value 'x' in the array before position
          'i'.  Negative values are treated as being relative to the end
          of the array.

      -- Yöntemi: pop ([i])

          Removes the item with the index 'i' from the array and returns
          it.  The optional argument defaults to ‘-1’, so that by
          default the last item is removed and returned.

      -- Yöntemi: remove (x)

          Remove the first occurrence of 'x' from the array.

      -- Yöntemi: reverse ()

          Reverse the order of the items in the array.

      -- Yöntemi: tobytes ()

          Convert the array to an array of machine values and return the
          bytes representation (the same sequence of bytes that would be
          written to a file by the *note tofile(): 116a. method.)

          Added in version 3.2: ‘tostring()’ is renamed to *note
          tobytes(): 1119. for clarity.

      -- Yöntemi: tofile (f)

          Write all items (as machine values) to the *note file object:
          1068. 'f'.

      -- Yöntemi: tolist ()

          Convert the array to an ordinary list with the same items.

      -- Yöntemi: tounicode ()

          Convert the array to a Unicode string.  The array must have a
          type ‘'u'’; otherwise a *note ValueError: 189. is raised.  Use
          ‘array.tobytes().decode(enc)’ to obtain a Unicode string from
          an array of some other type.

The string representation of array objects has the form ‘array(typecode,
initializer)’.  The 'initializer' is omitted if the array is empty,
otherwise it is a Unicode string if the 'typecode' is ‘'u'’, otherwise
it is a list of numbers.  The string representation is guaranteed to be
able to be converted back to an array with the same type and value using
*note eval(): 6ca, so long as the *note array: 195. class has been
imported using ‘from array import array’.  Variables ‘inf’ and ‘nan’
must also be defined if it contains corresponding floating-point values.
Examples:

     array('l')
     array('u', 'hello \u2641')
     array('l', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
     array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.14, -inf, nan])

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note struct: d4.

     Packing and unpacking of heterogeneous binary data.

Module *note xdrlib: 11f.

     Packing and unpacking of External Data Representation (XDR) data as
     used in some remote procedure call systems.

NumPy(1)

     The NumPy package defines another array type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: weakref — Weak references,  Next: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types,  Prev: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Up: Data Types

5.8.9 ‘weakref’ — Weak references
---------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/weakref.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note weakref: 114. module allows the Python programmer to create
'weak references' to objects.

In the following, the term 'referent' means the object which is referred
to by a weak reference.

A weak reference to an object is not enough to keep the object alive:
when the only remaining references to a referent are weak references,
*note garbage collection: 1744. is free to destroy the referent and
reuse its memory for something else.  However, until the object is
actually destroyed the weak reference may return the object even if
there are no strong references to it.

A primary use for weak references is to implement caches or mappings
holding large objects, where it’s desired that a large object not be
kept alive solely because it appears in a cache or mapping.

For example, if you have a number of large binary image objects, you may
wish to associate a name with each.  If you used a Python dictionary to
map names to images, or images to names, the image objects would remain
alive just because they appeared as values or keys in the dictionaries.
The *note WeakKeyDictionary: 179e. and *note WeakValueDictionary: 179d.
classes supplied by the *note weakref: 114. module are an alternative,
using weak references to construct mappings that don’t keep objects
alive solely because they appear in the mapping objects.  If, for
example, an image object is a value in a *note WeakValueDictionary:
179d, then when the last remaining references to that image object are
the weak references held by weak mappings, garbage collection can
reclaim the object, and its corresponding entries in weak mappings are
simply deleted.

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 179e. and *note WeakValueDictionary: 179d. use
weak references in their implementation, setting up callback functions
on the weak references that notify the weak dictionaries when a key or
value has been reclaimed by garbage collection.  *note WeakSet: 3e8.
implements the *note set: 3e4. interface, but keeps weak references to
its elements, just like a *note WeakKeyDictionary: 179e. does.

*note finalize: 8e1. provides a straight forward way to register a
cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.  This
is simpler to use than setting up a callback function on a raw weak
reference, since the module automatically ensures that the finalizer
remains alive until the object is collected.

Most programs should find that using one of these weak container types
or *note finalize: 8e1. is all they need – it’s not usually necessary to
create your own weak references directly.  The low-level machinery is
exposed by the *note weakref: 114. module for the benefit of advanced
uses.

Not all objects can be weakly referenced.  Objects which support weak
references include class instances, functions written in Python (but not
in C), instance methods, sets, frozensets, some *note file objects:
1068, *note generators: f0b, type objects, sockets, arrays, deques,
regular expression pattern objects, and code objects.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added support for thread.lock, threading.Lock,
and code objects.

Several built-in types such as *note list: 422. and *note dict: 240. do
not directly support weak references but can add support through
subclassing:

     class Dict(dict):
         pass

     obj = Dict(red=1, green=2, blue=3)   # this object is weak referenceable

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Other built-in types such as *note tuple:
4ff. and *note int: 184. do not support weak references even when
subclassed.

Extension types can easily be made to support weak references; see *note
Weak Reference Support: 234b.

When ‘__slots__’ are defined for a given type, weak reference support is
disabled unless a ‘'__weakref__'’ string is also present in the sequence
of strings in the ‘__slots__’ declaration.  See *note __slots__
documentation: 1d1e. for details.

 -- Sınıfı: weakref.ref (object[, callback])

     Return a weak reference to 'object'.  The original object can be
     retrieved by calling the reference object if the referent is still
     alive; if the referent is no longer alive, calling the reference
     object will cause *note None: 488. to be returned.  If 'callback'
     is provided and not *note None: 488, and the returned weakref
     object is still alive, the callback will be called when the object
     is about to be finalized; the weak reference object will be passed
     as the only parameter to the callback; the referent will no longer
     be available.

     It is allowable for many weak references to be constructed for the
     same object.  Callbacks registered for each weak reference will be
     called from the most recently registered callback to the oldest
     registered callback.

     Exceptions raised by the callback will be noted on the standard
     error output, but cannot be propagated; they are handled in exactly
     the same way as exceptions raised from an object’s *note __del__():
     1d4e. method.

     Weak references are *note hashable: 421. if the 'object' is
     hashable.  They will maintain their hash value even after the
     'object' was deleted.  If *note hash(): 3f7. is called the first
     time only after the 'object' was deleted, the call will raise *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

     Weak references support tests for equality, but not ordering.  If
     the referents are still alive, two references have the same
     equality relationship as their referents (regardless of the
     'callback').  If either referent has been deleted, the references
     are equal only if the reference objects are the same object.

     This is a subclassable type rather than a factory function.

      -- Özniteliği: __callback__

          This read-only attribute returns the callback currently
          associated to the weakref.  If there is no callback or if the
          referent of the weakref is no longer alive then this attribute
          will have value ‘None’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the *note __callback__: e97.
     attribute.

 -- Işlevi: weakref.proxy (object[, callback])

     Return a proxy to 'object' which uses a weak reference.  This
     supports use of the proxy in most contexts instead of requiring the
     explicit dereferencing used with weak reference objects.  The
     returned object will have a type of either ‘ProxyType’ or
     ‘CallableProxyType’, depending on whether 'object' is callable.
     Proxy objects are not *note hashable: 421. regardless of the
     referent; this avoids a number of problems related to their
     fundamentally mutable nature, and prevents their use as dictionary
     keys.  'callback' is the same as the parameter of the same name to
     the *note ref(): e96. function.

     Accessing an attribute of the proxy object after the referent is
     garbage collected raises *note ReferenceError: 139c.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Extended the operator support on proxy
     objects to include the matrix multiplication operators ‘@’ and
     ‘@=’.

 -- Işlevi: weakref.getweakrefcount (object)

     Return the number of weak references and proxies which refer to
     'object'.

 -- Işlevi: weakref.getweakrefs (object)

     Return a list of all weak reference and proxy objects which refer
     to 'object'.

 -- Sınıfı: weakref.WeakKeyDictionary ([dict])

     Mapping class that references keys weakly.  Entries in the
     dictionary will be discarded when there is no longer a strong
     reference to the key.  This can be used to associate additional
     data with an object owned by other parts of an application without
     adding attributes to those objects.  This can be especially useful
     with objects that override attribute accesses.

     Note that when a key with equal value to an existing key (but not
     equal identity) is inserted into the dictionary, it replaces the
     value but does not replace the existing key.  Due to this, when the
     reference to the original key is deleted, it also deletes the entry
     in the dictionary:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k1: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {}

     A workaround would be to remove the key prior to reassignment:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> del d[k1]
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k2: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {k2: 2}

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’ operators, as
     specified in PEP 584(2).

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 179e. objects have an additional method that
exposes the internal references directly.  The references are not
guaranteed to be “live” at the time they are used, so the result of
calling the references needs to be checked before being used.  This can
be used to avoid creating references that will cause the garbage
collector to keep the keys around longer than needed.

 -- Yöntemi: WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs ()

     Return an iterable of the weak references to the keys.

 -- Sınıfı: weakref.WeakValueDictionary ([dict])

     Mapping class that references values weakly.  Entries in the
     dictionary will be discarded when no strong reference to the value
     exists any more.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’ operators, as
     specified in PEP 584(3).

*note WeakValueDictionary: 179d. objects have an additional method that
has the same issues as the *note WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs(): 234e.
method.

 -- Yöntemi: WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs ()

     Return an iterable of the weak references to the values.

 -- Sınıfı: weakref.WeakSet ([elements])

     Set class that keeps weak references to its elements.  An element
     will be discarded when no strong reference to it exists any more.

 -- Sınıfı: weakref.WeakMethod (method[, callback])

     A custom *note ref: e96. subclass which simulates a weak reference
     to a bound method (i.e., a method defined on a class and looked up
     on an instance).  Since a bound method is ephemeral, a standard
     weak reference cannot keep hold of it.  *note WeakMethod: e95. has
     special code to recreate the bound method until either the object
     or the original function dies:

          >>> class C:
          ...     def method(self):
          ...         print("method called!")
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> r = weakref.ref(c.method)
          >>> r()
          >>> r = weakref.WeakMethod(c.method)
          >>> r()
          <bound method C.method of <__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220>>
          >>> r()()
          method called!
          >>> del c
          >>> gc.collect()
          0
          >>> r()
          >>>

     'callback' is the same as the parameter of the same name to the
     *note ref(): e96. function.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Sınıfı: weakref.finalize (obj, func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return a callable finalizer object which will be called when 'obj'
     is garbage collected.  Unlike an ordinary weak reference, a
     finalizer will always survive until the reference object is
     collected, greatly simplifying lifecycle management.

     A finalizer is considered 'alive' until it is called (either
     explicitly or at garbage collection), and after that it is 'dead'.
     Calling a live finalizer returns the result of evaluating
     ‘func(*arg, **kwargs)’, whereas calling a dead finalizer returns
     *note None: 488.

     Exceptions raised by finalizer callbacks during garbage collection
     will be shown on the standard error output, but cannot be
     propagated.  They are handled in the same way as exceptions raised
     from an object’s *note __del__(): 1d4e. method or a weak
     reference’s callback.

     When the program exits, each remaining live finalizer is called
     unless its *note atexit: c. attribute has been set to false.  They
     are called in reverse order of creation.

     A finalizer will never invoke its callback during the later part of
     the *note interpreter shutdown: d09. when module globals are liable
     to have been replaced by *note None: 488.

      -- Yöntemi: __call__ ()

          If 'self' is alive then mark it as dead and return the result
          of calling ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then
          return *note None: 488.

      -- Yöntemi: detach ()

          If 'self' is alive then mark it as dead and return the tuple
          ‘(obj, func, args, kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then return
          *note None: 488.

      -- Yöntemi: peek ()

          If 'self' is alive then return the tuple ‘(obj, func, args,
          kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then return *note None: 488.

      -- Özniteliği: alive

          Property which is true if the finalizer is alive, false
          otherwise.

      -- Özniteliği: atexit

          A writable boolean property which by default is true.  When
          the program exits, it calls all remaining live finalizers for
          which *note atexit: 2354. is true.  They are called in reverse
          order of creation.

          Not: It is important to ensure that 'func', 'args' and
          'kwargs' do not own any references to 'obj', either directly
          or indirectly, since otherwise 'obj' will never be garbage
          collected.  In particular, 'func' should not be a bound method
          of 'obj'.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: weakref.ReferenceType

     The type object for weak references objects.

 -- Verisi: weakref.ProxyType

     The type object for proxies of objects which are not callable.

 -- Verisi: weakref.CallableProxyType

     The type object for proxies of callable objects.

 -- Verisi: weakref.ProxyTypes

     Sequence containing all the type objects for proxies.  This can
     make it simpler to test if an object is a proxy without being
     dependent on naming both proxy types.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 205(4) - Weak References

     The proposal and rationale for this feature, including links to
     earlier implementations and information about similar features in
     other languages.

* Menu:

* Weak Reference Objects::
* Example: Example<2>.
* Finalizer Objects::
* Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/weakref.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: Weak Reference Objects,  Next: Example<2>,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.8.9.1 Weak Reference Objects
..............................

Weak reference objects have no methods and no attributes besides *note
ref.__callback__: e97.  A weak reference object allows the referent to
be obtained, if it still exists, by calling it:

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> o = Object()
     >>> r = weakref.ref(o)
     >>> o2 = r()
     >>> o is o2
     True

If the referent no longer exists, calling the reference object returns
*note None: 488.:

     >>> del o, o2
     >>> print(r())
     None

Testing that a weak reference object is still live should be done using
the expression ‘ref() is not None’.  Normally, application code that
needs to use a reference object should follow this pattern:

     # r is a weak reference object
     o = r()
     if o is None:
         # referent has been garbage collected
         print("Object has been deallocated; can't frobnicate.")
     else:
         print("Object is still live!")
         o.do_something_useful()

Using a separate test for “liveness” creates race conditions in threaded
applications; another thread can cause a weak reference to become
invalidated before the weak reference is called; the idiom shown above
is safe in threaded applications as well as single-threaded
applications.

Specialized versions of *note ref: e96. objects can be created through
subclassing.  This is used in the implementation of the *note
WeakValueDictionary: 179d. to reduce the memory overhead for each entry
in the mapping.  This may be most useful to associate additional
information with a reference, but could also be used to insert
additional processing on calls to retrieve the referent.

This example shows how a subclass of *note ref: e96. can be used to
store additional information about an object and affect the value that’s
returned when the referent is accessed:

     import weakref

     class ExtendedRef(weakref.ref):
         def __init__(self, ob, callback=None, /, **annotations):
             super().__init__(ob, callback)
             self.__counter = 0
             for k, v in annotations.items():
                 setattr(self, k, v)

         def __call__(self):
             """Return a pair containing the referent and the number of
             times the reference has been called.
             """
             ob = super().__call__()
             if ob is not None:
                 self.__counter += 1
                 ob = (ob, self.__counter)
             return ob


File: python.info,  Node: Example<2>,  Next: Finalizer Objects,  Prev: Weak Reference Objects,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.8.9.2 Example
...............

This simple example shows how an application can use object IDs to
retrieve objects that it has seen before.  The IDs of the objects can
then be used in other data structures without forcing the objects to
remain alive, but the objects can still be retrieved by ID if they do.

     import weakref

     _id2obj_dict = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()

     def remember(obj):
         oid = id(obj)
         _id2obj_dict[oid] = obj
         return oid

     def id2obj(oid):
         return _id2obj_dict[oid]


File: python.info,  Node: Finalizer Objects,  Next: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods,  Prev: Example<2>,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.8.9.3 Finalizer Objects
.........................

The main benefit of using *note finalize: 8e1. is that it makes it
simple to register a callback without needing to preserve the returned
finalizer object.  For instance

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> kenny = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(kenny, print, "You killed Kenny!")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> del kenny
     You killed Kenny!

The finalizer can be called directly as well.  However the finalizer
will invoke the callback at most once.

     >>> def callback(x, y, z):
     ...     print("CALLBACK")
     ...     return x + y + z
     ...
     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> assert f.alive
     >>> assert f() == 6
     CALLBACK
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> f()                     # callback not called because finalizer dead
     >>> del obj                 # callback not called because finalizer dead

You can unregister a finalizer using its *note detach(): 2351. method.
This kills the finalizer and returns the arguments passed to the
constructor when it was created.

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> f.detach()
     (<...Object object ...>, <function callback ...>, (1, 2), {'z': 3})
     >>> newobj, func, args, kwargs = _
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> assert newobj is obj
     >>> assert func(*args, **kwargs) == 6
     CALLBACK

Unless you set the *note atexit: 2354. attribute to *note False: 9a8, a
finalizer will be called when the program exits if it is still alive.
For instance

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(obj, print, "obj dead or exiting")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> exit()
     obj dead or exiting


File: python.info,  Node: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods,  Prev: Finalizer Objects,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.8.9.4 Comparing finalizers with ‘__del__()’ methods
.....................................................

Suppose we want to create a class whose instances represent temporary
directories.  The directories should be deleted with their contents when
the first of the following events occurs:

   * the object is garbage collected,

   * the object’s ‘remove()’ method is called, or

   * the program exits.

We might try to implement the class using a *note __del__(): 1d4e.
method as follows:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()

         def remove(self):
             if self.name is not None:
                 shutil.rmtree(self.name)
                 self.name = None

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return self.name is None

         def __del__(self):
             self.remove()

Starting with Python 3.4, *note __del__(): 1d4e. methods no longer
prevent reference cycles from being garbage collected, and module
globals are no longer forced to *note None: 488. during *note
interpreter shutdown: d09.  So this code should work without any issues
on CPython.

However, handling of *note __del__(): 1d4e. methods is notoriously
implementation specific, since it depends on internal details of the
interpreter’s garbage collector implementation.

A more robust alternative can be to define a finalizer which only
references the specific functions and objects that it needs, rather than
having access to the full state of the object:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
             self._finalizer = weakref.finalize(self, shutil.rmtree, self.name)

         def remove(self):
             self._finalizer()

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return not self._finalizer.alive

Defined like this, our finalizer only receives a reference to the
details it needs to clean up the directory appropriately.  If the object
never gets garbage collected the finalizer will still be called at exit.

The other advantage of weakref based finalizers is that they can be used
to register finalizers for classes where the definition is controlled by
a third party, such as running code when a module is unloaded:

     import weakref, sys
     def unloading_module():
         # implicit reference to the module globals from the function body
     weakref.finalize(sys.modules[__name__], unloading_module)

     Not: If you create a finalizer object in a daemonic thread just as
     the program exits then there is the possibility that the finalizer
     does not get called at exit.  However, in a daemonic thread *note
     atexit.register(): 6c3, ‘try: ... finally: ...’ and ‘with: ...’ do
     not guarantee that cleanup occurs either.


File: python.info,  Node: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types,  Next: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations,  Prev: weakref — Weak references,  Up: Data Types

5.8.10 ‘types’ — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types
-------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/types.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines utility functions to assist in dynamic creation of
new types.

It also defines names for some object types that are used by the
standard Python interpreter, but not exposed as builtins like *note int:
184. or *note str: 15d. are.

Finally, it provides some additional type-related utility classes and
functions that are not fundamental enough to be builtins.

* Menu:

* Dynamic Type Creation::
* Standard Interpreter Types::
* Additional Utility Classes and Functions::
* Coroutine Utility Functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/types.py


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic Type Creation,  Next: Standard Interpreter Types,  Up: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.1 Dynamic Type Creation
..............................

 -- Işlevi: types.new_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None, exec_body=None)

     Creates a class object dynamically using the appropriate metaclass.

     The first three arguments are the components that make up a class
     definition header: the class name, the base classes (in order), the
     keyword arguments (such as ‘metaclass’).

     The 'exec_body' argument is a callback that is used to populate the
     freshly created class namespace.  It should accept the class
     namespace as its sole argument and update the namespace directly
     with the class contents.  If no callback is provided, it has the
     same effect as passing in ‘lambda ns: None’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: types.prepare_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None)

     Calculates the appropriate metaclass and creates the class
     namespace.

     The arguments are the components that make up a class definition
     header: the class name, the base classes (in order) and the keyword
     arguments (such as ‘metaclass’).

     The return value is a 3-tuple: ‘metaclass, namespace, kwds’

     'metaclass' is the appropriate metaclass, 'namespace' is the
     prepared class namespace and 'kwds' is an updated copy of the
     passed in 'kwds' argument with any ‘'metaclass'’ entry removed.  If
     no 'kwds' argument is passed in, this will be an empty dict.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The default value for the ‘namespace’
     element of the returned tuple has changed.  Now an
     insertion-order-preserving mapping is used when the metaclass does
     not have a ‘__prepare__’ method.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Metaclasses: 1d62.

     Full details of the class creation process supported by these
     functions

PEP 3115(1) - Metaclasses in Python 3000

     Introduced the ‘__prepare__’ namespace hook

 -- Işlevi: types.resolve_bases (bases)

     Resolve MRO entries dynamically as specified by PEP 560(2).

     This function looks for items in 'bases' that are not instances of
     *note type: bd1, and returns a tuple where each such object that
     has an *note __mro_entries__(): 1d64. method is replaced with an
     unpacked result of calling this method.  If a 'bases' item is an
     instance of *note type: bd1, or it doesn’t have an
     ‘__mro_entries__()’ method, then it is included in the return tuple
     unchanged.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: types.get_original_bases (cls, /)

     Return the tuple of objects originally given as the bases of 'cls'
     before the *note __mro_entries__(): 1d64. method has been called on
     any bases (following the mechanisms laid out in PEP 560(3)).  This
     is useful for introspecting *note Generics: 1fd.

     For classes that have an ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, this function
     returns the value of ‘cls.__orig_bases__’.  For classes without the
     ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute, *note cls.__bases__: 1337. is returned.

     Examples:

          from typing import TypeVar, Generic, NamedTuple, TypedDict

          T = TypeVar("T")
          class Foo(Generic[T]): ...
          class Bar(Foo[int], float): ...
          class Baz(list[str]): ...
          Eggs = NamedTuple("Eggs", [("a", int), ("b", str)])
          Spam = TypedDict("Spam", {"a": int, "b": str})

          assert Bar.__bases__ == (Foo, float)
          assert get_original_bases(Bar) == (Foo[int], float)

          assert Baz.__bases__ == (list,)
          assert get_original_bases(Baz) == (list[str],)

          assert Eggs.__bases__ == (tuple,)
          assert get_original_bases(Eggs) == (NamedTuple,)

          assert Spam.__bases__ == (dict,)
          assert get_original_bases(Spam) == (TypedDict,)

          assert int.__bases__ == (object,)
          assert get_original_bases(int) == (object,)

     Added in version 3.12.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 560(4) - Core support for typing module and generic types

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Interpreter Types,  Next: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Prev: Dynamic Type Creation,  Up: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.2 Standard Interpreter Types
...................................

This module provides names for many of the types that are required to
implement a Python interpreter.  It deliberately avoids including some
of the types that arise only incidentally during processing such as the
‘listiterator’ type.

Typical use of these names is for *note isinstance(): 151. or *note
issubclass(): 5f8. checks.

If you instantiate any of these types, note that signatures may vary
between Python versions.

Standard names are defined for the following types:

 -- Verisi: types.NoneType

     The type of *note None: 488.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: types.FunctionType
 -- Verisi: types.LambdaType

     The type of user-defined functions and functions created by *note
     lambda: 1145. expressions.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘function.__new__’ with
     argument ‘code’.

     The audit event only occurs for direct instantiation of function
     objects, and is not raised for normal compilation.

 -- Verisi: types.GeneratorType

     The type of *note generator: f0b.-iterator objects, created by
     generator functions.

 -- Verisi: types.CoroutineType

     The type of *note coroutine: 1b4. objects, created by *note async
     def: 3db. functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: types.AsyncGeneratorType

     The type of *note asynchronous generator: 1e2d.-iterator objects,
     created by asynchronous generator functions.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: types.CodeType (**kwargs)

     The type of *note code objects: 5e3. such as returned by *note
     compile(): 56d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘code.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’, ‘posonlyargcount’,
     ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’, ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’.

     Note that the audited arguments may not match the names or
     positions required by the initializer.  The audit event only occurs
     for direct instantiation of code objects, and is not raised for
     normal compilation.

 -- Verisi: types.CellType

     The type for cell objects: such objects are used as containers for
     a function’s free variables.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: types.MethodType

     The type of methods of user-defined class instances.

 -- Verisi: types.BuiltinFunctionType
 -- Verisi: types.BuiltinMethodType

     The type of built-in functions like *note len(): 441. or *note
     sys.exit(): 11f5, and methods of built-in classes.  (Here, the term
     “built-in” means “written in C”.)

 -- Verisi: types.WrapperDescriptorType

     The type of methods of some built-in data types and base classes
     such as *note object.__init__(): 4c6. or *note object.__lt__():
     1148.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: types.MethodWrapperType

     The type of 'bound' methods of some built-in data types and base
     classes.  For example it is the type of ‘object().__str__’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: types.NotImplementedType

     The type of *note NotImplemented: 60b.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: types.MethodDescriptorType

     The type of methods of some built-in data types such as *note
     str.join(): 1f9c.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: types.ClassMethodDescriptorType

     The type of 'unbound' class methods of some built-in data types
     such as ‘dict.__dict__['fromkeys']’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Sınıfı: types.ModuleType (name, doc=None)

     The type of *note modules: 1539.  The constructor takes the name of
     the module to be created and optionally its *note docstring: 1f17.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note Documentation on module objects: 1cfd.

          Provides details on the special attributes that can be found
          on instances of ‘ModuleType’.

     *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): ca1.

          Modules created using the ‘ModuleType’ constructor are created
          with many of their special attributes unset or set to default
          values.  ‘module_from_spec()’ provides a more robust way of
          creating ‘ModuleType’ instances which ensures the various
          attributes are set appropriately.

 -- Verisi: types.EllipsisType

     The type of *note Ellipsis: 1f76.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: types.GenericAlias (t_origin, t_args)

     The type of *note parameterized generics: 4c9. such as ‘list[int]’.

     ‘t_origin’ should be a non-parameterized generic class, such as
     ‘list’, ‘tuple’ or ‘dict’.  ‘t_args’ should be a *note tuple: 4ff.
     (possibly of length 1) of types which parameterize ‘t_origin’:

          >>> from types import GenericAlias

          >>> list[int] == GenericAlias(list, (int,))
          True
          >>> dict[str, int] == GenericAlias(dict, (str, int))
          True

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.9.2 sürümünde değişti: This type can now be subclassed.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note Generic Alias Types: 4c9.

          In-depth documentation on instances of ‘types.GenericAlias’

     PEP 585(1) - Type Hinting Generics In Standard Collections

          Introducing the ‘types.GenericAlias’ class

 -- Sınıfı: types.UnionType

     The type of *note union type expressions: 5f9.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: types.TracebackType (tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)

     The type of traceback objects such as found in
     ‘sys.exception().__traceback__’.

     See *note the language reference: 962. for details of the available
     attributes and operations, and guidance on creating tracebacks
     dynamically.

 -- Verisi: types.FrameType

     The type of *note frame objects: 4f7. such as found in *note
     tb.tb_frame: 1d3f. if ‘tb’ is a traceback object.

 -- Verisi: types.GetSetDescriptorType

     The type of objects defined in extension modules with
     ‘PyGetSetDef’, such as *note FrameType.f_locals: 5be. or
     ‘array.array.typecode’.  This type is used as descriptor for object
     attributes; it has the same purpose as the *note property: 43c.
     type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

 -- Verisi: types.MemberDescriptorType

     The type of objects defined in extension modules with
     ‘PyMemberDef’, such as ‘datetime.timedelta.days’.  This type is
     used as descriptor for simple C data members which use standard
     conversion functions; it has the same purpose as the *note
     property: 43c. type, but for classes defined in extension modules.

     In addition, when a class is defined with a *note __slots__: 1377.
     attribute, then for each slot, an instance of
     ‘MemberDescriptorType’ will be added as an attribute on the class.
     This allows the slot to appear in the class’s *note __dict__: adb.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' In other implementations of Python,
     this type may be identical to ‘GetSetDescriptorType’.

 -- Sınıfı: types.MappingProxyType (mapping)

     Read-only proxy of a mapping.  It provides a dynamic view on the
     mapping’s entries, which means that when the mapping changes, the
     view reflects these changes.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Updated to support the new union (‘|’)
     operator from PEP 584(2), which simply delegates to the underlying
     mapping.

      -- Describe: key in proxy

          Return ‘True’ if the underlying mapping has a key 'key', else
          ‘False’.

      -- Describe: proxy[key]

          Return the item of the underlying mapping with key 'key'.
          Raises a *note KeyError: 903. if 'key' is not in the
          underlying mapping.

      -- Describe: iter(proxy)

          Return an iterator over the keys of the underlying mapping.
          This is a shortcut for ‘iter(proxy.keys())’.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Return the number of items in the underlying mapping.

      -- Yöntemi: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the underlying mapping.

      -- Yöntemi: get (key[, default])

          Return the value for 'key' if 'key' is in the underlying
          mapping, else 'default'.  If 'default' is not given, it
          defaults to ‘None’, so that this method never raises a *note
          KeyError: 903.

      -- Yöntemi: items ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping’s items (‘(key,
          value)’ pairs).

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping’s keys.

      -- Yöntemi: values ()

          Return a new view of the underlying mapping’s values.

      -- Describe: reversed(proxy)

          Return a reverse iterator over the keys of the underlying
          mapping.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Describe: hash(proxy)

          Return a hash of the underlying mapping.

          Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Next: Coroutine Utility Functions,  Prev: Standard Interpreter Types,  Up: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.3 Additional Utility Classes and Functions
.................................................

 -- Sınıfı: types.SimpleNamespace

     A simple *note object: 8f2. subclass that provides attribute access
     to its namespace, as well as a meaningful repr.

     Unlike *note object: 8f2, with ‘SimpleNamespace’ you can add and
     remove attributes.  If a ‘SimpleNamespace’ object is initialized
     with keyword arguments, those are directly added to the underlying
     namespace.

     The type is roughly equivalent to the following code:

          class SimpleNamespace:
              def __init__(self, /, **kwargs):
                  self.__dict__.update(kwargs)

              def __repr__(self):
                  items = (f"{k}={v!r}" for k, v in self.__dict__.items())
                  return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))

              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if isinstance(self, SimpleNamespace) and isinstance(other, SimpleNamespace):
                     return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
                  return NotImplemented

     ‘SimpleNamespace’ may be useful as a replacement for ‘class NS:
     pass’.  However, for a structured record type use *note
     namedtuple(): 74b. instead.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Attribute order in the repr changed from
     alphabetical to insertion (like ‘dict’).

 -- Işlevi: types.DynamicClassAttribute (fget=None, fset=None,
          fdel=None, doc=None)

     Route attribute access on a class to __getattr__.

     This is a descriptor, used to define attributes that act
     differently when accessed through an instance and through a class.
     Instance access remains normal, but access to an attribute through
     a class will be routed to the class’s __getattr__ method; this is
     done by raising AttributeError.

     This allows one to have properties active on an instance, and have
     virtual attributes on the class with the same name (see *note
     enum.Enum: 443. for an example).

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Utility Functions,  Prev: Additional Utility Classes and Functions,  Up: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

5.8.10.4 Coroutine Utility Functions
....................................

 -- Işlevi: types.coroutine (gen_func)

     This function transforms a *note generator: f0b. function into a
     *note coroutine function: c02. which returns a generator-based
     coroutine.  The generator-based coroutine is still a *note
     generator iterator: a55, but is also considered to be a *note
     coroutine: 1b4. object and is *note awaitable: af6.  However, it
     may not necessarily implement the *note __await__(): 1db6. method.

     If 'gen_func' is a generator function, it will be modified
     in-place.

     If 'gen_func' is not a generator function, it will be wrapped.  If
     it returns an instance of *note collections.abc.Generator: c69, the
     instance will be wrapped in an 'awaitable' proxy object.  All other
     types of objects will be returned as is.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations,  Next: pprint — Data pretty printer,  Prev: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types,  Up: Data Types

5.8.11 ‘copy’ — Shallow and deep copy operations
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/copy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Assignment statements in Python do not copy objects, they create
bindings between a target and an object.  For collections that are
mutable or contain mutable items, a copy is sometimes needed so one can
change one copy without changing the other.  This module provides
generic shallow and deep copy operations (explained below).

Interface summary:

 -- Işlevi: copy.copy (x)

     Return a shallow copy of 'x'.

 -- Işlevi: copy.deepcopy (x[, memo])

     Return a deep copy of 'x'.

 -- Özel Durum: copy.Error

     Raised for module specific errors.
The difference between shallow and deep copying is only relevant for
compound objects (objects that contain other objects, like lists or
class instances):

   * A 'shallow copy' constructs a new compound object and then (to the
     extent possible) inserts 'references' into it to the objects found
     in the original.

   * A 'deep copy' constructs a new compound object and then,
     recursively, inserts 'copies' into it of the objects found in the
     original.

Two problems often exist with deep copy operations that don’t exist with
shallow copy operations:

   * Recursive objects (compound objects that, directly or indirectly,
     contain a reference to themselves) may cause a recursive loop.

   * Because deep copy copies everything it may copy too much, such as
     data which is intended to be shared between copies.

The *note deepcopy(): 9e4. function avoids these problems by:

   * keeping a ‘memo’ dictionary of objects already copied during the
     current copying pass; and

   * letting user-defined classes override the copying operation or the
     set of components copied.

This module does not copy types like module, method, stack trace, stack
frame, file, socket, window, or any similar types.  It does “copy”
functions and classes (shallow and deeply), by returning the original
object unchanged; this is compatible with the way these are treated by
the *note pickle: a5. module.

Shallow copies of dictionaries can be made using *note dict.copy(): a47,
and of lists by assigning a slice of the entire list, for example,
‘copied_list = original_list[:]’.

Classes can use the same interfaces to control copying that they use to
control pickling.  See the description of module *note pickle: a5. for
information on these methods.  In fact, the *note copy: 25. module uses
the registered pickle functions from the *note copyreg: 26. module.

In order for a class to define its own copy implementation, it can
define special methods *note __copy__(): 2373. and *note __deepcopy__():
2374.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__copy__ (self)

     Called to implement the shallow copy operation; no additional
     arguments are passed.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__deepcopy__ (self, memo)

     Called to implement the deep copy operation; it is passed one
     argument, the 'memo' dictionary.  If the ‘__deepcopy__’
     implementation needs to make a deep copy of a component, it should
     call the *note deepcopy(): 9e4. function with the component as
     first argument and the 'memo' dictionary as second argument.  The
     'memo' dictionary should be treated as an opaque object.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note pickle: a5.

     Discussion of the special methods used to support object state
     retrieval and restoration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/copy.py


File: python.info,  Node: pprint — Data pretty printer,  Next: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation,  Prev: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations,  Up: Data Types

5.8.12 ‘pprint’ — Data pretty printer
-------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pprint.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pprint: ad. module provides a capability to “pretty-print”
arbitrary Python data structures in a form which can be used as input to
the interpreter.  If the formatted structures include objects which are
not fundamental Python types, the representation may not be loadable.
This may be the case if objects such as files, sockets or classes are
included, as well as many other objects which are not representable as
Python literals.

The formatted representation keeps objects on a single line if it can,
and breaks them onto multiple lines if they don’t fit within the allowed
width, adjustable by the 'width' parameter defaulting to 80 characters.

Dictionaries are sorted by key before the display is computed.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added support for pretty-printing *note
types.SimpleNamespace: 77f.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added support for pretty-printing *note
dataclasses.dataclass: 3d4.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<3>.
* PrettyPrinter Objects::
* Example: Example<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pprint.py


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<3>,  Next: PrettyPrinter Objects,  Up: pprint — Data pretty printer

5.8.12.1 Functions
..................

 -- Işlevi: pprint.pp (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=False,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Prints the formatted representation of 'object', followed by a
     newline.  This function may be used in the interactive interpreter
     instead of the *note print(): e16. function for inspecting values.
     Tip: you can reassign ‘print = pprint.pp’ for use within a scope.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘object’ – The object to be printed.

        * ‘stream’ (*note file-like object: 2379. | None) – A file-like
          object to which the output will be written by calling its
          ‘write()’ method.  If ‘None’ (the default), *note sys.stdout:
          943. is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 184.) – The amount of indentation added
          for each nesting level.

        * ‘width’ (*note int: 184.) – The desired maximum number of
          characters per line in the output.  If a structure cannot be
          formatted within the width constraint, a best effort will be
          made.

        * ‘depth’ (*note int: 184.‘ | ’‘None’) – The number of nesting
          levels which may be printed.  If the data structure being
          printed is too deep, the next contained level is replaced by
          ‘...’.  If ‘None’ (the default), there is no constraint on the
          depth of the objects being formatted.

        * ‘compact’ (*note bool: 183.) – Control the way long *note
          sequences: 23f. are formatted.  If ‘False’ (the default), each
          item of a sequence will be formatted on a separate line,
          otherwise as many items as will fit within the 'width' will be
          formatted on each output line.

        * ‘sort_dicts’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be formatted with their keys sorted, otherwise they will be
          displayed in insertion order (the default).

        * ‘underscore_numbers’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’, integers
          will be formatted with the ‘_’ character for a thousands
          separator, otherwise underscores are not displayed (the
          default).

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
          >>> pprint.pp(stuff)
          [<Recursion on list with id=...>,
           'spam',
           'eggs',
           'lumberjack',
           'knights',
           'ni']

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: pprint.pprint (object, stream=None, indent=1, width=80,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Alias for *note pp(): 885. with 'sort_dicts' set to ‘True’ by
     default, which would automatically sort the dictionaries’ keys, you
     might want to use *note pp(): 885. instead where it is ‘False’ by
     default.

 -- Işlevi: pprint.pformat (object, indent=1, width=80, depth=None, *,
          compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

     Return the formatted representation of 'object' as a string.
     'indent', 'width', 'depth', 'compact', 'sort_dicts' and
     'underscore_numbers' are passed to the *note PrettyPrinter: e20.
     constructor as formatting parameters and their meanings are as
     described in the documentation above.

 -- Işlevi: pprint.isreadable (object)

     Determine if the formatted representation of 'object' is
     “readable”, or can be used to reconstruct the value using *note
     eval(): 6ca.  This always returns ‘False’ for recursive objects.

          >>> pprint.isreadable(stuff)
          False

 -- Işlevi: pprint.isrecursive (object)

     Determine if 'object' requires a recursive representation.  This
     function is subject to the same limitations as noted in *note
     saferepr(): 237c. below and may raise an *note RecursionError: bf7.
     if it fails to detect a recursive object.

 -- Işlevi: pprint.saferepr (object)

     Return a string representation of 'object', protected against
     recursion in some common data structures, namely instances of *note
     dict: 240, *note list: 422. and *note tuple: 4ff. or subclasses
     whose ‘__repr__’ has not been overridden.  If the representation of
     object exposes a recursive entry, the recursive reference will be
     represented as ‘<Recursion on typename with id=number>’.  The
     representation is not otherwise formatted.

          >>> pprint.saferepr(stuff)
          "[<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']"


File: python.info,  Node: PrettyPrinter Objects,  Next: Example<3>,  Prev: Functions<3>,  Up: pprint — Data pretty printer

5.8.12.2 PrettyPrinter Objects
..............................

 -- Sınıfı: pprint.PrettyPrinter (indent=1, width=80, depth=None,
          stream=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Construct a *note PrettyPrinter: e20. instance.

     Arguments have the same meaning as for *note pp(): 885.  Note that
     they are in a different order, and that 'sort_dicts' defaults to
     ‘True’.

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=4)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [   ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
              'spam',
              'eggs',
              'lumberjack',
              'knights',
              'ni']
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, compact=True)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
            'knights', 'ni'],
           'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
           'ni']
          >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
          ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
          >>> pp.pprint(tup)
          ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'compact' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'sort_dicts' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'underscore_numbers' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: No longer attempts to write to ‘sys.stdout’
     if it is ‘None’.

*note PrettyPrinter: e20. instances have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: PrettyPrinter.pformat (object)

     Return the formatted representation of 'object'.  This takes into
     account the options passed to the *note PrettyPrinter: e20.
     constructor.

 -- Yöntemi: PrettyPrinter.pprint (object)

     Print the formatted representation of 'object' on the configured
     stream, followed by a newline.

The following methods provide the implementations for the corresponding
functions of the same names.  Using these methods on an instance is
slightly more efficient since new *note PrettyPrinter: e20. objects
don’t need to be created.

 -- Yöntemi: PrettyPrinter.isreadable (object)

     Determine if the formatted representation of the object is
     “readable,” or can be used to reconstruct the value using *note
     eval(): 6ca.  Note that this returns ‘False’ for recursive objects.
     If the 'depth' parameter of the *note PrettyPrinter: e20. is set
     and the object is deeper than allowed, this returns ‘False’.

 -- Yöntemi: PrettyPrinter.isrecursive (object)

     Determine if the object requires a recursive representation.

This method is provided as a hook to allow subclasses to modify the way
objects are converted to strings.  The default implementation uses the
internals of the *note saferepr(): 237c. implementation.

 -- Yöntemi: PrettyPrinter.format (object, context, maxlevels, level)

     Returns three values: the formatted version of 'object' as a
     string, a flag indicating whether the result is readable, and a
     flag indicating whether recursion was detected.  The first argument
     is the object to be presented.  The second is a dictionary which
     contains the *note id(): 12ab. of objects that are part of the
     current presentation context (direct and indirect containers for
     'object' that are affecting the presentation) as the keys; if an
     object needs to be presented which is already represented in
     'context', the third return value should be ‘True’.  Recursive
     calls to the *note format(): 1749. method should add additional
     entries for containers to this dictionary.  The third argument,
     'maxlevels', gives the requested limit to recursion; this will be
     ‘0’ if there is no requested limit.  This argument should be passed
     unmodified to recursive calls.  The fourth argument, 'level', gives
     the current level; recursive calls should be passed a value less
     than that of the current call.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<3>,  Prev: PrettyPrinter Objects,  Up: pprint — Data pretty printer

5.8.12.3 Example
................

To demonstrate several uses of the *note pp(): 885. function and its
parameters, let’s fetch information about a project from PyPI(1):

     >>> import json
     >>> import pprint
     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/1.2.0/json') as resp:
     ...     project_info = json.load(resp)['info']

In its basic form, *note pp(): 885. shows the whole object:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': ['Development Status :: 3 - Alpha',
                      'Intended Audience :: Developers',
                      'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3',
                      'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4',
                      'Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools'],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {'last_day': -1, 'last_month': -1, 'last_week': -1},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {'Download': 'UNKNOWN',
                       'Homepage': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject'},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

The result can be limited to a certain 'depth' (ellipsis is used for
deeper contents):

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using '
                     'ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and '
                     'should be written for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of '
                     'the project, basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
                     'changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the '
                     'most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

Additionally, maximum character 'width' can be suggested.  If a long
object cannot be split, the specified width will be exceeded:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1, width=60)
     {'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
      'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
      'bugtrack_url': None,
      'classifiers': [...],
      'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
                     '=======================\n'
                     '\n'
                     'This is the description file for the '
                     'project.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be '
                     'written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
                     'will be used to generate the project '
                     'webpage on PyPI, and should be written '
                     'for\n'
                     'that purpose.\n'
                     '\n'
                     'Typical contents for this file would '
                     'include an overview of the project, '
                     'basic\n'
                     'usage examples, etc. Generally, including '
                     'the project changelog in here is not\n'
                     'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s '
                     'New" section for the most recent version\n'
                     'may be appropriate.',
      'description_content_type': None,
      'docs_url': None,
      'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
      'downloads': {...},
      'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
      'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
      'license': 'MIT',
      'maintainer': None,
      'maintainer_email': None,
      'name': 'sampleproject',
      'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
      'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
      'project_urls': {...},
      'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
      'requires_dist': None,
      'requires_python': None,
      'summary': 'A sample Python project',
      'version': '1.2.0'}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation,  Next: enum — Support for enumerations,  Prev: pprint — Data pretty printer,  Up: Data Types

5.8.13 ‘reprlib’ — Alternate ‘repr()’ implementation
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/reprlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘reprlib’ module provides a means for producing object
representations with limits on the size of the resulting strings.  This
is used in the Python debugger and may be useful in other contexts as
well.

This module provides a class, an instance, and a function:

 -- Sınıfı: reprlib.Repr (*, maxlevel=6, maxtuple=6, maxlist=6,
          maxarray=5, maxdict=4, maxset=6, maxfrozenset=6, maxdeque=6,
          maxstring=30, maxlong=40, maxother=30, fillvalue='...',
          indent=None)

     Class which provides formatting services useful in implementing
     functions similar to the built-in *note repr(): 637.; size limits
     for different object types are added to avoid the generation of
     representations which are excessively long.

     The keyword arguments of the constructor can be used as a shortcut
     to set the attributes of the *note Repr: 2387. instance.  Which
     means that the following initialization:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr(maxlevel=3)

     Is equivalent to:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          aRepr.maxlevel = 3

     See section *note Repr Objects: 2388. for more information about
     *note Repr: 2387. attributes.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Allow attributes to be set via keyword
     arguments.

 -- Verisi: reprlib.aRepr

     This is an instance of *note Repr: 2387. which is used to provide
     the *note repr(): 238a. function described below.  Changing the
     attributes of this object will affect the size limits used by *note
     repr(): 238a. and the Python debugger.

 -- Işlevi: reprlib.repr (obj)

     This is the *note repr(): 238b. method of ‘aRepr’.  It returns a
     string similar to that returned by the built-in function of the
     same name, but with limits on most sizes.

In addition to size-limiting tools, the module also provides a decorator
for detecting recursive calls to *note __repr__(): 42e. and substituting
a placeholder string instead.

 -- Işlevi: @reprlib.recursive_repr (fillvalue='...')

     Decorator for *note __repr__(): 42e. methods to detect recursive
     calls within the same thread.  If a recursive call is made, the
     'fillvalue' is returned, otherwise, the usual ‘__repr__()’ call is
     made.  For example:

          >>> from reprlib import recursive_repr
          >>> class MyList(list):
          ...     @recursive_repr()
          ...     def __repr__(self):
          ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
          ...
          >>> m = MyList('abc')
          >>> m.append(m)
          >>> m.append('x')
          >>> print(m)
          <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* Repr Objects::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/reprlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Repr Objects,  Next: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Up: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation

5.8.13.1 Repr Objects
.....................

*note Repr: 2387. instances provide several attributes which can be used
to provide size limits for the representations of different object
types, and methods which format specific object types.

 -- Özniteliği: Repr.fillvalue

     This string is displayed for recursive references.  It defaults to
     ‘...’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxlevel

     Depth limit on the creation of recursive representations.  The
     default is ‘6’.

 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxdict
 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxlist
 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxtuple
 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxset
 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxfrozenset
 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxdeque
 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxarray

     Limits on the number of entries represented for the named object
     type.  The default is ‘4’ for *note maxdict: 238f, ‘5’ for *note
     maxarray: 2395, and ‘6’ for the others.

 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxlong

     Maximum number of characters in the representation for an integer.
     Digits are dropped from the middle.  The default is ‘40’.

 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxstring

     Limit on the number of characters in the representation of the
     string.  Note that the “normal” representation of the string is
     used as the character source: if escape sequences are needed in the
     representation, these may be mangled when the representation is
     shortened.  The default is ‘30’.

 -- Özniteliği: Repr.maxother

     This limit is used to control the size of object types for which no
     specific formatting method is available on the *note Repr: 2387.
     object.  It is applied in a similar manner as *note maxstring:
     2397.  The default is ‘20’.

 -- Özniteliği: Repr.indent

     If this attribute is set to ‘None’ (the default), the output is
     formatted with no line breaks or indentation, like the standard
     *note repr(): 637.  For example:

          >>> example = [
          ...     1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']
          >>> import reprlib
          >>> aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']

     If *note indent: 2399. is set to a string, each recursion level is
     placed on its own line, indented by that string:

          >>> aRepr.indent = '-->'
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
          -->1,
          -->'spam',
          -->{
          -->-->'a': 2,
          -->-->'b': 'spam eggs',
          -->-->'c': {
          -->-->-->3: 4.5,
          -->-->-->6: [],
          -->-->},
          -->},
          -->'ham',
          ]

     Setting *note indent: 2399. to a positive integer value behaves as
     if it was set to a string with that number of spaces:

          >>> aRepr.indent = 4
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
              1,
              'spam',
              {
                  'a': 2,
                  'b': 'spam eggs',
                  'c': {
                      3: 4.5,
                      6: [],
                  },
              },
              'ham',
          ]

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Yöntemi: Repr.repr (obj)

     The equivalent to the built-in *note repr(): 637. that uses the
     formatting imposed by the instance.

 -- Yöntemi: Repr.repr1 (obj, level)

     Recursive implementation used by *note repr(): 238b.  This uses the
     type of 'obj' to determine which formatting method to call, passing
     it 'obj' and 'level'.  The type-specific methods should call *note
     repr1(): 239a. to perform recursive formatting, with ‘level - 1’
     for the value of 'level' in the recursive call.

 -- Yöntemi: Repr.repr_TYPE (obj, level)

     Formatting methods for specific types are implemented as methods
     with a name based on the type name.  In the method name, 'TYPE' is
     replaced by ‘'_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split())’.  Dispatch to
     these methods is handled by *note repr1(): 239a.  Type-specific
     methods which need to recursively format a value should call
     ‘self.repr1(subobj, level - 1)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Prev: Repr Objects,  Up: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation

5.8.13.2 Subclassing Repr Objects
.................................

The use of dynamic dispatching by *note Repr.repr1(): 239a. allows
subclasses of *note Repr: 2387. to add support for additional built-in
object types or to modify the handling of types already supported.  This
example shows how special support for file objects could be added:

     import reprlib
     import sys

     class MyRepr(reprlib.Repr):

         def repr_TextIOWrapper(self, obj, level):
             if obj.name in {'<stdin>', '<stdout>', '<stderr>'}:
                 return obj.name
             return repr(obj)

     aRepr = MyRepr()
     print(aRepr.repr(sys.stdin))         # prints '<stdin>'

     <stdin>


File: python.info,  Node: enum — Support for enumerations,  Next: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures,  Prev: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation,  Up: Data Types

5.8.14 ‘enum’ — Support for enumerations
----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/enum.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains the API reference information.  For tutorial
information and discussion of more advanced topics, see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 239f.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 23a0.

   * *note Enum Cookbook: 23a1.

__________________________________________________________________

An enumeration:

   * is a set of symbolic names (members) bound to unique values

   * can be iterated over to return its canonical (i.e.  non-alias)
     members in definition order

   * uses 'call' syntax to return members by value

   * uses 'index' syntax to return members by name

Enumerations are created either by using *note class: 1181. syntax, or
by using function-call syntax:

     >>> from enum import Enum

     >>> # class syntax
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

     >>> # functional syntax
     >>> Color = Enum('Color', [('RED', 1), ('GREEN', 2), ('BLUE', 3)])

Even though we can use *note class: 1181. syntax to create Enums, Enums
are not normal Python classes.  See *note How are Enums different?:
23a2. for more details.

     Not: Nomenclature

        - The class ‘Color’ is an 'enumeration' (or 'enum')

        - The attributes ‘Color.RED’, ‘Color.GREEN’, etc., are
          'enumeration members' (or 'members') and are functionally
          constants.

        - The enum members have 'names' and 'values' (the name of
          ‘Color.RED’ is ‘RED’, the value of ‘Color.BLUE’ is ‘3’, etc.)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Module Contents: Module Contents<2>.
* Data Types: Data Types<2>.
* Utilities and Decorators::
* Notes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/enum.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents<2>,  Next: Data Types<2>,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.8.14.1 Module Contents
........................

     *note EnumType: 42b.

          The ‘type’ for Enum and its subclasses.

     *note Enum: 443.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants.

     *note IntEnum: b62.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that are also
          subclasses of *note int: 184.  (*note Notes: 23a4.)

     *note StrEnum: 42c.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that are also
          subclasses of *note str: 15d.  (*note Notes: 23a4.)

     *note Flag: 435.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be
          combined using the bitwise operations without losing their
          *note Flag: 435. membership.

     *note IntFlag: 20ee.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be
          combined using the bitwise operators without losing their
          *note IntFlag: 20ee. membership.  *note IntFlag: 20ee. members
          are also subclasses of *note int: 184.  (*note Notes: 23a4.)

     *note ReprEnum: 42d.

          Used by *note IntEnum: b62, *note StrEnum: 42c, and *note
          IntFlag: 20ee. to keep the *note str(): 15d. of the mixed-in
          type.

     *note EnumCheck: 438.

          An enumeration with the values ‘CONTINUOUS’, ‘NAMED_FLAGS’,
          and ‘UNIQUE’, for use with *note verify(): 437. to ensure
          various constraints are met by a given enumeration.

     *note FlagBoundary: 436.

          An enumeration with the values ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’,
          and ‘KEEP’ which allows for more fine-grained control over how
          invalid values are dealt with in an enumeration.

     *note auto: b1f.

          Instances are replaced with an appropriate value for Enum
          members.  *note StrEnum: 42c. defaults to the lower-cased
          version of the member name, while other Enums default to 1 and
          increase from there.

     *note property(): 43b.

          Allows *note Enum: 443. members to have attributes without
          conflicting with member names.  The ‘value’ and ‘name’
          attributes are implemented this way.

     *note unique(): 23a5.

          Enum class decorator that ensures only one name is bound to
          any one value.

     *note verify(): 437.

          Enum class decorator that checks user-selectable constraints
          on an enumeration.

     *note member(): 439.

          Make ‘obj’ a member.  Can be used as a decorator.

     *note nonmember(): 43a.

          Do not make ‘obj’ a member.  Can be used as a decorator.

     *note global_enum(): 43e.

          Modify the *note str(): 15d. and *note repr(): 637. of an enum
          to show its members as belonging to the module instead of its
          class, and export the enum members to the global namespace.

     *note show_flag_values(): 23a6.

          Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a
          flag.

Added in version 3.6: ‘Flag’, ‘IntFlag’, ‘auto’

Added in version 3.11: ‘StrEnum’, ‘EnumCheck’, ‘ReprEnum’,
‘FlagBoundary’, ‘property’, ‘member’, ‘nonmember’, ‘global_enum’,
‘show_flag_values’

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Data Types<2>,  Next: Utilities and Decorators,  Prev: Module Contents<2>,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.8.14.2 Data Types
...................

 -- Sınıfı: enum.EnumType

     'EnumType' is the *note metaclass: 1d75. for 'enum' enumerations.
     It is possible to subclass 'EnumType' – see *note Subclassing
     EnumType: 23a8. for details.

     'EnumType' is responsible for setting the correct ‘__repr__()’,
     ‘__str__()’, ‘__format__()’, and ‘__reduce__()’ methods on the
     final 'enum', as well as creating the enum members, properly
     handling duplicates, providing iteration over the enum class, etc.

      -- Yöntemi: __call__ (cls, value, names=None, *, module=None,
               qualname=None, type=None, start=1, boundary=None)

          This method is called in two different ways:

             * to look up an existing member:


                    cls: The enum class being called.


                    value: The value to lookup.

             * to use the ‘cls’ enum to create a new enum (only if the
               existing enum does not have any members):


                    cls: The enum class being called.


                    value: The name of the new Enum to create.


                    names: The names/values of the members for the new
                    Enum.


                    module: The name of the module the new Enum is
                    created in.


                    qualname: The actual location in the module where
                    this Enum can be found.


                    type: A mix-in type for the new Enum.


                    start: The first integer value for the Enum (used by
                    *note auto: b1f.).


                    boundary: How to handle out-of-range values from bit
                    operations (*note Flag: 435. only).

      -- Yöntemi: __contains__ (cls, member)

          Returns ‘True’ if member belongs to the ‘cls’:

               >>> some_var = Color.RED
               >>> some_var in Color
               True
               >>> Color.RED.value in Color
               True

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Before Python 3.12, a ‘TypeError’ is raised
     if a non-Enum-member is used in a containment check.

      -- Yöntemi: __dir__ (cls)

          Returns ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__members__',
          '__module__']’ and the names of the members in 'cls':

               >>> dir(Color)
               ['BLUE', 'GREEN', 'RED', '__class__', '__contains__', '__doc__', '__getitem__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__members__', '__module__', '__name__', '__qualname__']

      -- Yöntemi: __getitem__ (cls, name)

          Returns the Enum member in 'cls' matching 'name', or raises a
          *note KeyError: 903.:

               >>> Color['BLUE']
               <Color.BLUE: 3>

      -- Yöntemi: __iter__ (cls)

          Returns each member in 'cls' in definition order:

               >>> list(Color)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 3>]

      -- Yöntemi: __len__ (cls)

          Returns the number of member in 'cls':

               >>> len(Color)
               3

      -- Özniteliği: __members__

          Returns a mapping of every enum name to its member, including
          aliases

      -- Yöntemi: __reversed__ (cls)

          Returns each member in 'cls' in reverse definition order:

               >>> list(reversed(Color))
               [<Color.BLUE: 3>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.RED: 1>]

     Added in version 3.11: Before 3.11 ‘enum’ used ‘EnumMeta’ type,
     which is kept as an alias.

 -- Sınıfı: enum.Enum

     'Enum' is the base class for all 'enum' enumerations.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name used to define the ‘Enum’ member:

               >>> Color.BLUE.name
               'BLUE'

      -- Özniteliği: value

          The value given to the ‘Enum’ member:

               >>> Color.RED.value
               1

          Value of the member, can be set in *note __new__(): 23b3.

               Not: Enum member values

               Member values can be anything: *note int: 184, *note str:
               15d, etc.  If the exact value is unimportant you may use
               *note auto: b1f. instances and an appropriate value will
               be chosen for you.  See *note auto: b1f. for the details.

               While mutable/unhashable values, such as *note dict: 240,
               *note list: 422. or a mutable *note dataclass: 3d4, can
               be used, they will have a quadratic performance impact
               during creation relative to the total number of
               mutable/unhashable values in the enum.

      -- Özniteliği: _name_

          Name of the member.

      -- Özniteliği: _value_

          Value of the member, can be set in *note __new__(): 23b3.

      -- Özniteliği: _order_

          No longer used, kept for backward compatibility.  (class
          attribute, removed during class creation).

      -- Özniteliği: _ignore_

          ‘_ignore_’ is only used during creation and is removed from
          the enumeration once creation is complete.

          ‘_ignore_’ is a list of names that will not become members,
          and whose names will also be removed from the completed
          enumeration.  See *note TimePeriod: 23b8. for an example.

      -- Yöntemi: __dir__ (self)

          Returns ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name',
          'value']’ and any public methods defined on 'self.__class__':

               >>> from datetime import date
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1
               ...     TUESDAY = 2
               ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
               ...     THURSDAY = 4
               ...     FRIDAY = 5
               ...     SATURDAY = 6
               ...     SUNDAY = 7
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def today(cls):
               ...         print('today is %s' % cls(date.today().isoweekday()).name)
               ...
               >>> dir(Weekday.SATURDAY)
               ['__class__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__hash__', '__module__', 'name', 'today', 'value']

      -- Yöntemi: _generate_next_value_ (name, start, count,
               last_values)


               name: The name of the member being defined (e.g.  ‘RED’).


               start: The start value for the Enum; the default is 1.


               count: The number of members currently defined, not
               including this one.


               last_values: A list of the previous values.

          A 'staticmethod' that is used to determine the next value
          returned by *note auto: b1f.:

               >>> from enum import auto
               >>> class PowersOfThree(Enum):
               ...     @staticmethod
               ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
               ...         return 3 ** (count + 1)
               ...     FIRST = auto()
               ...     SECOND = auto()
               ...
               >>> PowersOfThree.SECOND.value
               9

      -- Yöntemi: __init__ (self, *args, **kwds)

          By default, does nothing.  If multiple values are given in the
          member assignment, those values become separate arguments to
          ‘__init__’; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1, 'Mon'

          ‘Weekday.__init__()’ would be called as
          ‘Weekday.__init__(self, 1, 'Mon')’

      -- Yöntemi: __init_subclass__ (cls, **kwds)

          A 'classmethod' that is used to further configure subsequent
          subclasses.  By default, does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: _missing_ (cls, value)

          A 'classmethod' for looking up values not found in 'cls'.  By
          default it does nothing, but can be overridden to implement
          custom search behavior:

               >>> from enum import StrEnum
               >>> class Build(StrEnum):
               ...     DEBUG = auto()
               ...     OPTIMIZED = auto()
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def _missing_(cls, value):
               ...         value = value.lower()
               ...         for member in cls:
               ...             if member.value == value:
               ...                 return member
               ...         return None
               ...
               >>> Build.DEBUG.value
               'debug'
               >>> Build('deBUG')
               <Build.DEBUG: 'debug'>

      -- Yöntemi: __new__ (cls, *args, **kwds)

          By default, doesn’t exist.  If specified, either in the enum
          class definition or in a mixin class (such as ‘int’), all
          values given in the member assignment will be passed; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
               ...     TWENTYSIX = '1a', 16

          results in the call ‘int('1a', 16)’ and a value of ‘26’ for
          the member.

               Not: When writing a custom ‘__new__’, do not use
               ‘super().__new__’ – call the appropriate ‘__new__’
               instead.

      -- Yöntemi: __repr__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'repr()' calls.  By default,
          returns the 'Enum' name, member name, and value, but can be
          overridden:

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __repr__(self):
               ...         cls_name = self.__class__.__name__
               ...         return f'{cls_name}.{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE')

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'str()' calls.  By default,
          returns the 'Enum' name and member name, but can be
          overridden:

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __str__(self):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

      -- Yöntemi: __format__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'format()' and 'f-string' calls.
          By default, returns *note __str__(): 434. return value, but
          can be overridden:

               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __format__(self, spec):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

          Not: Using *note auto: b1f. with *note Enum: 443. results in
          integers of increasing value, starting with ‘1’.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added *note Dataclass support: 15a3.

 -- Sınıfı: enum.IntEnum

     'IntEnum' is the same as 'Enum', but its members are also integers
     and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.  If any
     integer operation is performed with an 'IntEnum' member, the
     resulting value loses its enumeration status.

          >>> from enum import IntEnum
          >>> class Number(IntEnum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...
          >>> Number.THREE
          <Number.THREE: 3>
          >>> Number.ONE + Number.TWO
          3
          >>> Number.THREE + 5
          8
          >>> Number.THREE == 3
          True

          Not: Using *note auto: b1f. with *note IntEnum: b62. results
          in integers of increasing value, starting with ‘1’.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note __str__(): 42f. is now
     ‘int.__str__()’ to better support the 'replacement of existing
     constants' use-case.  *note __format__(): 430. was already
     ‘int.__format__()’ for that same reason.

 -- Sınıfı: enum.StrEnum

     'StrEnum' is the same as 'Enum', but its members are also strings
     and can be used in most of the same places that a string can be
     used.  The result of any string operation performed on or with a
     'StrEnum' member is not part of the enumeration.

          Not: There are places in the stdlib that check for an exact
          *note str: 15d. instead of a *note str: 15d. subclass (i.e.
          ‘type(unknown) == str’ instead of ‘isinstance(unknown, str)’),
          and in those locations you will need to use
          ‘str(StrEnum.member)’.

          Not: Using *note auto: b1f. with *note StrEnum: 42c. results
          in the lower-cased member name as the value.

          Not: *note __str__(): 42f. is ‘str.__str__()’ to better
          support the 'replacement of existing constants' use-case.
          *note __format__(): 430. is likewise ‘str.__format__()’ for
          that same reason.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: enum.Flag

     ‘Flag’ is the same as *note Enum: 443, but its members support the
     bitwise operators ‘&’ ('AND'), ‘|’ ('OR'), ‘^’ ('XOR'), and ‘~’
     ('INVERT'); the results of those operations are (aliases of)
     members of the enumeration.

      -- Yöntemi: __contains__ (self, value)

          Returns 'True' if value is in self:

               >>> from enum import Flag, auto
               >>> class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
               >>> white = Color.RED | Color.GREEN | Color.BLUE
               >>> Color.GREEN in purple
               False
               >>> Color.GREEN in white
               True
               >>> purple in white
               True
               >>> white in purple
               False

      -- Yöntemi: __iter__(self):

          Returns all contained non-alias members:

               >>> list(Color.RED)
               [<Color.RED: 1>]
               >>> list(purple)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: __len__(self):

          Returns number of members in flag:

               >>> len(Color.GREEN)
               1
               >>> len(white)
               3

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: __bool__(self):

          Returns 'True' if any members in flag, 'False' otherwise:

               >>> bool(Color.GREEN)
               True
               >>> bool(white)
               True
               >>> black = Color(0)
               >>> bool(black)
               False

      -- Yöntemi: __or__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary or’ed with other:

               >>> Color.RED | Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

      -- Yöntemi: __and__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary and’ed with other:

               >>> purple & white
               <Color.RED|BLUE: 5>
               >>> purple & Color.GREEN
               <Color: 0>

      -- Yöntemi: __xor__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary xor’ed with other:

               >>> purple ^ white
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> purple ^ Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>

      -- Yöntemi: __invert__(self):

          Returns all the flags in 'type(self)' that are not in self:

               >>> ~white
               <Color: 0>
               >>> ~purple
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> ~Color.RED
               <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

      -- Yöntemi: _numeric_repr_ ()

          Function used to format any remaining unnamed numeric values.
          Default is the value’s repr; common choices are *note hex():
          1178. and *note oct(): 1177.

          Not: Using *note auto: b1f. with *note Flag: 435. results in
          integers that are powers of two, starting with ‘1’.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'repr()' of zero-valued flags has
     changed.  It is now::

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

 -- Sınıfı: enum.IntFlag

     'IntFlag' is the same as 'Flag', but its members are also integers
     and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.

          >>> from enum import IntFlag, auto
          >>> class Color(IntFlag):
          ...     RED = auto()
          ...     GREEN = auto()
          ...     BLUE = auto()
          ...
          >>> Color.RED & 2
          <Color: 0>
          >>> Color.RED | 2
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

     If any integer operation is performed with an 'IntFlag' member, the
     result is not an 'IntFlag':

          >>> Color.RED + 2
          3

     If a 'Flag' operation is performed with an 'IntFlag' member and:

        * the result is a valid 'IntFlag': an 'IntFlag' is returned

        * the result is not a valid 'IntFlag': the result depends on the
          'FlagBoundary' setting

     The 'repr()' of unnamed zero-valued flags has changed.  It is now:

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

          Not: Using *note auto: b1f. with *note IntFlag: 20ee. results
          in integers that are powers of two, starting with ‘1’.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note __str__(): 42f. is now
     ‘int.__str__()’ to better support the 'replacement of existing
     constants' use-case.  *note __format__(): 430. was already
     ‘int.__format__()’ for that same reason.

     Inversion of an ‘IntFlag’ now returns a positive value that is the
     union of all flags not in the given flag, rather than a negative
     value.  This matches the existing *note Flag: 435. behavior.

 -- Sınıfı: enum.ReprEnum

     ‘ReprEnum’ uses the *note repr(): 15a4. of *note Enum: 443, but the
     *note str(): 15d. of the mixed-in data type:

        * ‘int.__str__()’ for *note IntEnum: b62. and *note IntFlag:
          20ee.

        * ‘str.__str__()’ for *note StrEnum: 42c.

     Inherit from ‘ReprEnum’ to keep the *note str(): 15d. / *note
     format(): 431. of the mixed-in data type instead of using the *note
     Enum: 443.-default *note str(): 434.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: enum.EnumCheck

     'EnumCheck' contains the options used by the *note verify(): 437.
     decorator to ensure various constraints; failed constraints result
     in a *note ValueError: 189.

      -- Özniteliği: UNIQUE

          Ensure that each value has only one name:

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, UNIQUE
               >>> @verify(UNIQUE)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 3
               ...     CRIMSON = 1
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: aliases found in <enum 'Color'>: CRIMSON -> RED

      -- Özniteliği: CONTINUOUS

          Ensure that there are no missing values between the
          lowest-valued member and the highest-valued member:

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, CONTINUOUS
               >>> @verify(CONTINUOUS)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 5
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid enum 'Color': missing values 3, 4

      -- Özniteliği: NAMED_FLAGS

          Ensure that any flag groups/masks contain only named flags –
          useful when values are specified instead of being generated by
          *note auto(): b1f.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, verify, NAMED_FLAGS
               >>> @verify(NAMED_FLAGS)
               ... class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 4
               ...     WHITE = 15
               ...     NEON = 31
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid Flag 'Color': aliases WHITE and NEON are missing combined values of 0x18 [use enum.show_flag_values(value) for details]

          Not: CONTINUOUS and NAMED_FLAGS are designed to work with
          integer-valued members.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: enum.FlagBoundary

     'FlagBoundary' controls how out-of-range values are handled in
     'Flag' and its subclasses.

      -- Özniteliği: STRICT

          Out-of-range values cause a *note ValueError: 189. to be
          raised.  This is the default for *note Flag: 435.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, STRICT, auto
               >>> class StrictFlag(Flag, boundary=STRICT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> StrictFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: <flag 'StrictFlag'> invalid value 20
                   given 0b0 10100
                 allowed 0b0 00111

      -- Özniteliği: CONFORM

          Out-of-range values have invalid values removed, leaving a
          valid 'Flag' value:

               >>> from enum import Flag, CONFORM, auto
               >>> class ConformFlag(Flag, boundary=CONFORM):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> ConformFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <ConformFlag.BLUE: 4>

      -- Özniteliği: EJECT

          Out-of-range values lose their 'Flag' membership and revert to
          *note int: 184.

               >>> from enum import Flag, EJECT, auto
               >>> class EjectFlag(Flag, boundary=EJECT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> EjectFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               20

      -- Özniteliği: KEEP

          Out-of-range values are kept, and the 'Flag' membership is
          kept.  This is the default for *note IntFlag: 20ee.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, KEEP, auto
               >>> class KeepFlag(Flag, boundary=KEEP):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> KeepFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <KeepFlag.BLUE|16: 20>

Added in version 3.11.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::


File: python.info,  Node: Supported __dunder__ names,  Next: Supported _sunder_ names,  Up: Data Types<2>

5.8.14.3 Supported ‘__dunder__’ names
.....................................

*note __members__: 23af. is a read-only ordered mapping of
‘member_name’:‘member’ items.  It is only available on the class.

*note __new__(): 23b3, if specified, must create and return the enum
members; it is also a very good idea to set the member’s ‘_value_’
appropriately.  Once all the members are created it is no longer used.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported _sunder_ names,  Prev: Supported __dunder__ names,  Up: Data Types<2>

5.8.14.4 Supported ‘_sunder_’ names
...................................

   - *note _name_: 23b4. – name of the member

   - *note _value_: 23b5. – value of the member; can be set in ‘__new__’

   - *note _missing_(): 23bc. – a lookup function used when a value is
     not found; may be overridden

   - *note _ignore_: 23b7. – a list of names, either as a *note list:
     422. or a *note str: 15d, that will not be transformed into
     members, and will be removed from the final class

   - *note _order_: 23b6. – no longer used, kept for backward
     compatibility (class attribute, removed during class creation)

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 23b9. – used to get an appropriate
     value for an enum member; may be overridden

          Not: For standard *note Enum: 443. classes the next value
          chosen is the last value seen incremented by one.

          For *note Flag: 435. classes the next value chosen will be the
          next highest power-of-two, regardless of the last value seen.

Added in version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’, ‘_generate_next_value_’

Added in version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities and Decorators,  Next: Notes,  Prev: Data Types<2>,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.8.14.5 Utilities and Decorators
.................................

 -- Sınıfı: enum.auto

     'auto' can be used in place of a value.  If used, the 'Enum'
     machinery will call an 'Enum'’s *note _generate_next_value_():
     23b9. to get an appropriate value.  For 'Enum' and 'IntEnum' that
     appropriate value will be the last value plus one; for 'Flag' and
     'IntFlag' it will be the first power-of-two greater than the
     highest value; for 'StrEnum' it will be the lower-cased version of
     the member’s name.  Care must be taken if mixing 'auto()' with
     manually specified values.

     'auto' instances are only resolved when at the top level of an
     assignment:

        * ‘FIRST = auto()’ will work (auto() is replaced with ‘1’);

        * ‘SECOND = auto(), -2’ will work (auto is replaced with ‘2’, so
          ‘2, -2’ is used to create the ‘SECOND’ enum member;

        * ‘THREE = [auto(), -3]’ will 'not' work (‘<auto instance>, -3’
          is used to create the ‘THREE’ enum member)

     3.11.1 sürümünde değişti: In prior versions, ‘auto()’ had to be the
     only thing on the assignment line to work properly.

     ‘_generate_next_value_’ can be overridden to customize the values
     used by 'auto'.

          Not: in 3.13 the default ‘_generate_next_value_’ will always
          return the highest member value incremented by 1, and will
          fail if any member is an incompatible type.

 -- Işlevi: @enum.property

     A decorator similar to the built-in 'property', but specifically
     for enumerations.  It allows member attributes to have the same
     names as members themselves.

          Not: the 'property' and the member must be defined in separate
          classes; for example, the 'value' and 'name' attributes are
          defined in the 'Enum' class, and 'Enum' subclasses can define
          members with the names ‘value’ and ‘name’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: @enum.unique

     A *note class: 1181. decorator specifically for enumerations.  It
     searches an enumeration’s *note __members__: 23af, gathering any
     aliases it finds; if any are found *note ValueError: 189. is raised
     with the details:

          >>> from enum import Enum, unique
          >>> @unique
          ... class Mistake(Enum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...     FOUR = 3
          ...
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE

 -- Işlevi: @enum.verify

     A *note class: 1181. decorator specifically for enumerations.
     Members from *note EnumCheck: 438. are used to specify which
     constraints should be checked on the decorated enumeration.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: @enum.member

     A decorator for use in enums: its target will become a member.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: @enum.nonmember

     A decorator for use in enums: its target will not become a member.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: @enum.global_enum

     A decorator to change the *note str(): 15d. and *note repr(): 637.
     of an enum to show its members as belonging to the module instead
     of its class.  Should only be used when the enum members are
     exported to the module global namespace (see *note re.RegexFlag:
     440. for an example).

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: enum.show_flag_values (value)

     Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a flag
     'value'.

     Added in version 3.11.

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Notes,  Prev: Utilities and Decorators,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.8.14.6 Notes
..............

*note IntEnum: b62, *note StrEnum: 42c, and *note IntFlag: 20ee.

     These three enum types are designed to be drop-in replacements for
     existing integer- and string-based values; as such, they have extra
     limitations:

        - ‘__str__’ uses the value and not the name of the enum member

        - ‘__format__’, because it uses ‘__str__’, will also use the
          value of the enum member instead of its name

     If you do not need/want those limitations, you can either create
     your own base class by mixing in the ‘int’ or ‘str’ type yourself:

          >>> from enum import Enum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
          ...     pass

     or you can reassign the appropriate *note str(): 15d, etc., in your
     enum:

          >>> from enum import Enum, IntEnum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(IntEnum):
          ...     __str__ = Enum.__str__


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures,  Prev: enum — Support for enumerations,  Up: Data Types

5.8.15 ‘graphlib’ — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/graphlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Sınıfı: graphlib.TopologicalSorter (graph=None)

     Provides functionality to topologically sort a graph of *note
     hashable: 421. nodes.

     A topological order is a linear ordering of the vertices in a graph
     such that for every directed edge u -> v from vertex u to vertex v,
     vertex u comes before vertex v in the ordering.  For instance, the
     vertices of the graph may represent tasks to be performed, and the
     edges may represent constraints that one task must be performed
     before another; in this example, a topological ordering is just a
     valid sequence for the tasks.  A complete topological ordering is
     possible if and only if the graph has no directed cycles, that is,
     if it is a directed acyclic graph.

     If the optional 'graph' argument is provided it must be a
     dictionary representing a directed acyclic graph where the keys are
     nodes and the values are iterables of all predecessors of that node
     in the graph (the nodes that have edges that point to the value in
     the key).  Additional nodes can be added to the graph using the
     *note add(): 23ce. method.

     In the general case, the steps required to perform the sorting of a
     given graph are as follows:

        * Create an instance of the *note TopologicalSorter: 734. with
          an optional initial graph.

        * Add additional nodes to the graph.

        * Call *note prepare(): 23cf. on the graph.

        * While *note is_active(): 23d0. is ‘True’, iterate over the
          nodes returned by *note get_ready(): 23d1. and process them.
          Call *note done(): 23d2. on each node as it finishes
          processing.

     In case just an immediate sorting of the nodes in the graph is
     required and no parallelism is involved, the convenience method
     *note TopologicalSorter.static_order(): 23d3. can be used directly:

          >>> graph = {"D": {"B", "C"}, "C": {"A"}, "B": {"A"}}
          >>> ts = TopologicalSorter(graph)
          >>> tuple(ts.static_order())
          ('A', 'C', 'B', 'D')

     The class is designed to easily support parallel processing of the
     nodes as they become ready.  For instance:

          topological_sorter = TopologicalSorter()

          # Add nodes to 'topological_sorter'...

          topological_sorter.prepare()
          while topological_sorter.is_active():
              for node in topological_sorter.get_ready():
                  # Worker threads or processes take nodes to work on off the
                  # 'task_queue' queue.
                  task_queue.put(node)

              # When the work for a node is done, workers put the node in
              # 'finalized_tasks_queue' so we can get more nodes to work on.
              # The definition of 'is_active()' guarantees that, at this point, at
              # least one node has been placed on 'task_queue' that hasn't yet
              # been passed to 'done()', so this blocking 'get()' must (eventually)
              # succeed.  After calling 'done()', we loop back to call 'get_ready()'
              # again, so put newly freed nodes on 'task_queue' as soon as
              # logically possible.
              node = finalized_tasks_queue.get()
              topological_sorter.done(node)

      -- Yöntemi: add (node, *predecessors)

          Add a new node and its predecessors to the graph.  Both the
          'node' and all elements in 'predecessors' must be *note
          hashable: 421.

          If called multiple times with the same node argument, the set
          of dependencies will be the union of all dependencies passed
          in.

          It is possible to add a node with no dependencies
          ('predecessors' is not provided) or to provide a dependency
          twice.  If a node that has not been provided before is
          included among 'predecessors' it will be automatically added
          to the graph with no predecessors of its own.

          Raises *note ValueError: 189. if called after *note prepare():
          23cf.

      -- Yöntemi: prepare ()

          Mark the graph as finished and check for cycles in the graph.
          If any cycle is detected, *note CycleError: 23d4. will be
          raised, but *note get_ready(): 23d1. can still be used to
          obtain as many nodes as possible until cycles block more
          progress.  After a call to this function, the graph cannot be
          modified, and therefore no more nodes can be added using *note
          add(): 23ce.

      -- Yöntemi: is_active ()

          Returns ‘True’ if more progress can be made and ‘False’
          otherwise.  Progress can be made if cycles do not block the
          resolution and either there are still nodes ready that haven’t
          yet been returned by *note TopologicalSorter.get_ready():
          23d1. or the number of nodes marked *note
          TopologicalSorter.done(): 23d2. is less than the number that
          have been returned by *note TopologicalSorter.get_ready():
          23d1.

          The *note __bool__(): 117f. method of this class defers to
          this function, so instead of:

               if ts.is_active():
                   ...

          it is possible to simply do:

               if ts:
                   ...

          Raises *note ValueError: 189. if called without calling *note
          prepare(): 23cf. previously.

      -- Yöntemi: done (*nodes)

          Marks a set of nodes returned by *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 23d1. as processed, unblocking
          any successor of each node in 'nodes' for being returned in
          the future by a call to *note TopologicalSorter.get_ready():
          23d1.

          Raises *note ValueError: 189. if any node in 'nodes' has
          already been marked as processed by a previous call to this
          method or if a node was not added to the graph by using *note
          TopologicalSorter.add(): 23ce, if called without calling *note
          prepare(): 23cf. or if node has not yet been returned by *note
          get_ready(): 23d1.

      -- Yöntemi: get_ready ()

          Returns a ‘tuple’ with all the nodes that are ready.
          Initially it returns all nodes with no predecessors, and once
          those are marked as processed by calling *note
          TopologicalSorter.done(): 23d2, further calls will return all
          new nodes that have all their predecessors already processed.
          Once no more progress can be made, empty tuples are returned.

          Raises *note ValueError: 189. if called without calling *note
          prepare(): 23cf. previously.

      -- Yöntemi: static_order ()

          Returns an iterator object which will iterate over nodes in a
          topological order.  When using this method, *note prepare():
          23cf. and *note done(): 23d2. should not be called.  This
          method is equivalent to:

               def static_order(self):
                   self.prepare()
                   while self.is_active():
                       node_group = self.get_ready()
                       yield from node_group
                       self.done(*node_group)

          The particular order that is returned may depend on the
          specific order in which the items were inserted in the graph.
          For example:

               >>> ts = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> ts.add(1, 0)
               >>> print([*ts.static_order()])
               [2, 0, 1, 3]

               >>> ts2 = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts2.add(1, 0)
               >>> ts2.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> print([*ts2.static_order()])
               [0, 2, 1, 3]

          This is due to the fact that “0” and “2” are in the same level
          in the graph (they would have been returned in the same call
          to *note get_ready(): 23d1.) and the order between them is
          determined by the order of insertion.

          If any cycle is detected, *note CycleError: 23d4. will be
          raised.

     Added in version 3.9.

* Menu:

* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/graphlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<3>,  Up: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

5.8.15.1 Exceptions
...................

The *note graphlib: 63. module defines the following exception classes:

 -- Özel Durum: graphlib.CycleError

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 189. raised by *note
     TopologicalSorter.prepare(): 23cf. if cycles exist in the working
     graph.  If multiple cycles exist, only one undefined choice among
     them will be reported and included in the exception.

     The detected cycle can be accessed via the second element in the
     *note args: 302. attribute of the exception instance and consists
     in a list of nodes, such that each node is, in the graph, an
     immediate predecessor of the next node in the list.  In the
     reported list, the first and the last node will be the same, to
     make it clear that it is cyclic.


File: python.info,  Node: Numeric and Mathematical Modules,  Next: Functional Programming Modules,  Prev: Data Types,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.9 Numeric and Mathematical Modules
====================================

The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related
functions and data types.  The *note numbers: 9d. module defines an
abstract hierarchy of numeric types.  The *note math: 8d. and *note
cmath: 18. modules contain various mathematical functions for
floating-point and complex numbers.  The *note decimal: 35. module
supports exact representations of decimal numbers, using arbitrary
precision arithmetic.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

* Menu:

* numbers — Numeric abstract base classes::
* math — Mathematical functions::
* cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers::
* decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic::
* fractions — Rational numbers::
* random — Generate pseudo-random numbers::
* statistics — Mathematical statistics functions::


File: python.info,  Node: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes,  Next: math — Mathematical functions,  Up: Numeric and Mathematical Modules

5.9.1 ‘numbers’ — Numeric abstract base classes
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/numbers.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘numbers’ module ( PEP 3141(2)) defines a hierarchy of numeric *note
abstract base classes: 105b. which progressively define more operations.
None of the types defined in this module are intended to be
instantiated.

 -- Sınıfı: numbers.Number

     The root of the numeric hierarchy.  If you just want to check if an
     argument 'x' is a number, without caring what kind, use
     ‘isinstance(x, Number)’.

* Menu:

* The numeric tower::
* Notes for type implementers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/numbers.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/


File: python.info,  Node: The numeric tower,  Next: Notes for type implementers,  Up: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes

5.9.1.1 The numeric tower
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: numbers.Complex

     Subclasses of this type describe complex numbers and include the
     operations that work on the built-in *note complex: 273. type.
     These are: conversions to *note complex: 273. and *note bool: 183,
     *note real: 23de, *note imag: 23df, ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘/’, ‘**’, *note
     abs(): 1aed, *note conjugate(): 23e0, ‘==’, and ‘!=’.  All except
     ‘-’ and ‘!=’ are abstract.

      -- Özniteliği: real

          Abstract.  Retrieves the real component of this number.

      -- Özniteliği: imag

          Abstract.  Retrieves the imaginary component of this number.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod conjugate ()

          Abstract.  Returns the complex conjugate.  For example,
          ‘(1+3j).conjugate() == (1-3j)’.

 -- Sınıfı: numbers.Real

     To *note Complex: 23dd, ‘Real’ adds the operations that work on
     real numbers.

     In short, those are: a conversion to *note float: 272, *note
     math.trunc(): 124a, *note round(): 1184, *note math.floor(): 1248,
     *note math.ceil(): 1249, *note divmod(): 7ff, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘<’, ‘<=’,
     ‘>’, and ‘>=’.

     Real also provides defaults for *note complex(): 273, *note real:
     23de, *note imag: 23df, and *note conjugate(): 23e0.

 -- Sınıfı: numbers.Rational

     Subtypes *note Real: 1f87. and adds *note numerator: 23e1. and
     *note denominator: 23e2. properties.  It also provides a default
     for *note float(): 272.

     The *note numerator: 23e1. and *note denominator: 23e2. values
     should be instances of *note Integral: 1dab. and should be in
     lowest terms with *note denominator: 23e2. positive.

      -- Özniteliği: numerator

          Abstract.

      -- Özniteliği: denominator

          Abstract.

 -- Sınıfı: numbers.Integral

     Subtypes *note Rational: 1167. and adds a conversion to *note int:
     184.  Provides defaults for *note float(): 272, *note numerator:
     23e1, and *note denominator: 23e2.  Adds abstract methods for *note
     pow(): 830. with modulus and bit-string operations: ‘<<’, ‘>>’,
     ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’, ‘~’.


File: python.info,  Node: Notes for type implementers,  Prev: The numeric tower,  Up: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes

5.9.1.2 Notes for type implementers
...................................

Implementers should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash them
to the same values.  This may be subtle if there are two different
extensions of the real numbers.  For example, *note fractions.Fraction:
1ae. implements *note hash(): 3f7. as follows:

     def __hash__(self):
         if self.denominator == 1:
             # Get integers right.
             return hash(self.numerator)
         # Expensive check, but definitely correct.
         if self == float(self):
             return hash(float(self))
         else:
             # Use tuple's hash to avoid a high collision rate on
             # simple fractions.
             return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))

* Menu:

* Adding More Numeric ABCs::
* Implementing the arithmetic operations::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding More Numeric ABCs,  Next: Implementing the arithmetic operations,  Up: Notes for type implementers

5.9.1.3 Adding More Numeric ABCs
................................

There are, of course, more possible ABCs for numbers, and this would be
a poor hierarchy if it precluded the possibility of adding those.  You
can add ‘MyFoo’ between *note Complex: 23dd. and *note Real: 1f87. with:

     class MyFoo(Complex): ...
     MyFoo.register(Real)


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing the arithmetic operations,  Prev: Adding More Numeric ABCs,  Up: Notes for type implementers

5.9.1.4 Implementing the arithmetic operations
..............................................

We want to implement the arithmetic operations so that mixed-mode
operations either call an implementation whose author knew about the
types of both arguments, or convert both to the nearest built in type
and do the operation there.  For subtypes of *note Integral: 1dab, this
means that *note __add__(): 1d7b. and *note __radd__(): 1d7c. should be
defined as:

     class MyIntegral(Integral):

         def __add__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(self, other)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(self, other)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

         def __radd__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, Integral):
                 return int(other) + int(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Real):
                 return float(other) + float(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Complex):
                 return complex(other) + complex(self)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

There are 5 different cases for a mixed-type operation on subclasses of
*note Complex: 23dd.  I’ll refer to all of the above code that doesn’t
refer to ‘MyIntegral’ and ‘OtherTypeIKnowAbout’ as “boilerplate”.  ‘a’
will be an instance of ‘A’, which is a subtype of *note Complex: 23dd.
(‘a : A <: Complex’), and ‘b : B <: Complex’.  I’ll consider ‘a + b’:

  1. If ‘A’ defines an *note __add__(): 1d7b. which accepts ‘b’, all is
     well.

  2. If ‘A’ falls back to the boilerplate code, and it were to return a
     value from *note __add__(): 1d7b, we’d miss the possibility that
     ‘B’ defines a more intelligent *note __radd__(): 1d7c, so the
     boilerplate should return *note NotImplemented: 60b. from
     ‘__add__()’.  (Or ‘A’ may not implement ‘__add__()’ at all.)

  3. Then ‘B’’s *note __radd__(): 1d7c. gets a chance.  If it accepts
     ‘a’, all is well.

  4. If it falls back to the boilerplate, there are no more possible
     methods to try, so this is where the default implementation should
     live.

  5. If ‘B <: A’, Python tries ‘B.__radd__’ before ‘A.__add__’.  This is
     ok, because it was implemented with knowledge of ‘A’, so it can
     handle those instances before delegating to *note Complex: 23dd.

If ‘A <: Complex’ and ‘B <: Real’ without sharing any other knowledge,
then the appropriate shared operation is the one involving the built in
*note complex: 273, and both *note __radd__(): 1d7c. s land there, so
‘a+b == b+a’.

Because most of the operations on any given type will be very similar,
it can be useful to define a helper function which generates the forward
and reverse instances of any given operator.  For example, *note
fractions.Fraction: 1ae. uses:

     def _operator_fallbacks(monomorphic_operator, fallback_operator):
         def forward(a, b):
             if isinstance(b, (int, Fraction)):
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(b, float):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), b)
             elif isinstance(b, complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), b)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         forward.__name__ = '__' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         forward.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         def reverse(b, a):
             if isinstance(a, Rational):
                 # Includes ints.
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(a, Real):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), float(b))
             elif isinstance(a, Complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), complex(b))
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         reverse.__name__ = '__r' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         reverse.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         return forward, reverse

     def _add(a, b):
         """a + b"""
         return Fraction(a.numerator * b.denominator +
                         b.numerator * a.denominator,
                         a.denominator * b.denominator)

     __add__, __radd__ = _operator_fallbacks(_add, operator.add)

     # ...


File: python.info,  Node: math — Mathematical functions,  Next: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Prev: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes,  Up: Numeric and Mathematical Modules

5.9.2 ‘math’ — Mathematical functions
-------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Bu modül, C standardı tarafından tanımlanan matematiksel fonksiyonlara
erişim sağlar.

Bu fonksiyonlar karmaşık sayılarla kullanılamaz; karmaşık sayılar için
desteğe ihtiyacınız varsa *note cmath: 18. modülündeki aynı isimli
fonksiyonları kullanın.  Karmaşık sayıları destekleyen ve desteklemeyen
fonksiyonlar arasındaki ayrım, çoğu kullanıcının karmaşık sayıları
anlamak için gereken kadar matematik öğrenmek istememesi nedeniyle
yapılmıştır.  Karmaşık bir sonuç yerine bir istisna almak, parametre
olarak kullanılan beklenmedik karmaşık sayının daha erken tespit
edilmesini sağlar, böylece programcı ilk etapta nasıl ve neden
üretildiğini belirleyebilir.

Aşağıdaki fonksiyonlar bu modül tarafından sağlanır.  Aksi açıkça
belirtilmedikçe, tüm dönüş değerleri floattır.

* Menu:

* Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları::
* Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar::
* Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar::
* Açısal dönüşüm::
* Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar::
* Özel fonksiyonlar::
* Sabitler: Sabitler<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları,  Next: Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.9.2.1 Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları
............................................

 -- Işlevi: math.ceil (x)

     'x'’in tavanını, yani 'x'’ten büyük veya ona eşit en küçük
     tamsayıyı döndürür.  Eğer 'x' bir float değilse, bir *note
     Integral: 1dab. değeri döndürmesi gereken *note x.__ceil__: 1daa.’e
     delege eder.

 -- Işlevi: math.comb (n, k)

     Tekrarlama ve sıralama olmaksızın 'n' öğe arasından 'k' öğeyi
     seçmenin yollarının sayısını döndürür.

     ‘n! / (k! * (n - k)!)’ değerini ‘k <= n’ olduğunda verir ve ‘k > n’
     olduğunda sıfır olarak değerlendirir.

     Binom katsayısı olarak da adlandırılır.  Çünkü ‘(1 + x)ⁿ’ polinom
     açılımındaki k.  terimin katsayısına eşittir.

     Herhangi bir argümanın tamsayı olmaması durumunda *note TypeError:
     2c4. fırlatır.  Herhangi bir argümanın negatif olması durumunda
     *note ValueError: 189. fırlatır.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: math.copysign (x, y)

     Büyüklüğü (mutlak değeri) 'x' olan ancak işareti 'y' olan bir
     ondalıklı sayı döndürür.  İşaretli sıfırları destekleyen
     platformlarda, ‘copysign(1.0, -0.0)’ '-1.0' döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.fabs (x)

     'x'’in mutlak değerini döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.factorial (n)

     'n' faktöriyeli tamsayı olarak döndürür.  'n' tamsayı değil veya
     negatifse *note ValueError: 189. fırlatır.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Tam sayı değerlere sahip
     ondalıklı değerlerin kabul edilmesi (‘5.0’ gibi) kullanımdan
     kaldırılmıştır.

 -- Işlevi: math.floor (x)

     x*’ten küçük veya ona eşit en büyük tamsayı olan 'x'’in tabanını
     döndürür.  Eğer 'x' bir ondalıklı sayı değilse, bir *note Integral:
     1dab. değeri döndürmesi gereken *note x.__floor__: 1da9. değerini
     vermelidir.

 -- Işlevi: math.fmod (x, y)

     Return the floating-point remainder of ‘x / y’, as defined by the
     platform C library function ‘fmod(x, y)’.  Note that the Python
     expression ‘x % y’ may not return the same result.  The intent of
     the C standard is that ‘fmod(x, y)’ be exactly (mathematically; to
     infinite precision) equal to ‘x - n*y’ for some integer 'n' such
     that the result has the same sign as 'x' and magnitude less than
     ‘abs(y)’.  Python’s ‘x % y’ returns a result with the sign of 'y'
     instead, and may not be exactly computable for float arguments.
     For example, ‘fmod(-1e-100, 1e100)’ is ‘-1e-100’, but the result of
     Python’s ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ is ‘1e100-1e-100’, which cannot be
     represented exactly as a float, and rounds to the surprising
     ‘1e100’.  For this reason, function *note fmod(): 1e5b. is
     generally preferred when working with floats, while Python’s ‘x %
     y’ is preferred when working with integers.

 -- Işlevi: math.frexp (x)

     x*’in mantissa ve üssünü ‘(m, e)’ çifti olarak döndürür.  'm' bir
     ondalıklı sayı ve 'e' bir tamsayıdır, bu yüzden ‘x == m * 2**e’
     doğru olarak eşittir.  Eğer 'x' sıfır ise ‘(0.0, 0)’, aksi takdirde
     ‘0.5 <= abs(m) < 1’ döndürür.  Bu, bir ondalıklı sayının iç
     temsilini taşınabilir bir şekilde “ayırmak” için kullanılır.

 -- Işlevi: math.fsum (iterable)

     Return an accurate floating-point sum of values in the iterable.
     Avoids loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial
     sums.

     Algoritmanın doğruluğu IEEE-754 aritmetik garantilerine ve
     yuvarlama modunun yarı-çift olduğu tipik duruma bağlıdır.  Bazı
     Windows dışı yapılarda, temel C kütüphanesi genişletilmiş
     hassasiyetli toplama kullanır ve bazen bir ara toplamı çift
     yuvarlayarak en az anlamlı bitinde eksik olmasına neden olabilir.

     For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the ASPN
     cookbook recipes for accurate floating-point summation(1).

 -- Işlevi: math.gcd (*integers)

     Belirtilen tamsayı bağımsız değişkenlerinin en büyük ortak bölenini
     döndürür.  Bağımsız değişkenlerden herhangi biri sıfır değilse,
     döndürülen değer tüm bağımsız değişkenlerin bölenleri olan en büyük
     pozitif tamsayıdır.  Tüm bağımsız değişkenler sıfırsa, döndürülen
     değer ‘0’ olur.  bağımsız değişkenler olmadan ‘gcd()’ fonksiyonu
     ‘0’ değerini döndürür.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: İsteğe bağlı sayıda bağımsız değişken için
     destek eklendi.  Önceden sadece iki argüman destekleniyordu.

 -- Işlevi: math.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     Eğer 'a' ve 'b' değerleri birbirine yakınsa ‘True’, değilse ‘False’
     döndürür.

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance – it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any nonzero ‘x’ and 'rel_tol' less than ‘1.0’.  So add an
     appropriate positive 'abs_tol' argument to the call.

     IEEE 754 özel değerleri olan ‘NaN’, ‘inf’ ve ‘-inf’ IEEE
     kurallarına göre ele alınacaktır.  Özellikle, ‘NaN’, ‘NaN’ dahil
     olmak üzere başka hiçbir değere yakın kabul edilmez.  ‘inf’ ve
     ‘-inf’ yalnızca kendilerine yakın kabul edilir.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 485(2) – Yaklaşık eşitliği test etmek için bir fonksiyon

 -- Işlevi: math.isfinite (x)

     Eğer 'x' sonsuz bir değer ya da NaN ise ‘True’, aksi takdirde
     ‘False’ döndürür.  (‘0.0’ 'sonlu' olarak kabul edilir.)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: math.isinf (x)

     Eğer 'x' pozitif veya negatif bir sonsuz ise ‘True’, aksi takdirde
     ‘False’ döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.isnan (x)

     Eğer 'x' bir NaN (sayı değil) ise ‘True’, aksi takdirde ‘False’
     döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.isqrt (n)

     Negatif olmayan 'n' tamsayısının tamsayı karekökünü döndürür.  Bu,
     'n' tam karekökünün tabanıdır veya eşdeğer olarak 'a'² ≤ 'n' olacak
     şekilde en büyük 'a' tamsayısıdır.

     Bazı uygulamalar için, 'n' ≤ 'a'² olacak şekilde en küçük 'a'
     tamsayısına veya başka bir deyişle 'n'’nin tam karekökünün tavanına
     sahip olmak daha uygun olabilir.  Pozitif 'n' için bu, ‘a = 1 +
     isqrt(n - 1)’ kullanılarak hesaplanabilir.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: math.lcm (*integers)

     Belirtilen tamsayı bağımsız değişkenlerinin en küçük ortak katını
     döndürür.  Tüm bağımsız değişkenler sıfır değilse, döndürülen değer
     tüm bağımsız değişkenlerin katı olan en küçük pozitif tamsayıdır.
     Bağımsız değişkenlerden herhangi biri sıfırsa, döndürülen değer ‘0’
     olur.  Bağımsız değişkenler olmadan ‘lcm()’ işlevi ‘1’ değerini
     döndürür.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: math.ldexp (x, i)

     ‘x * (2**i)’ döndürür.  Bu aslında *note frexp(): 23ea.
     fonksiyonunun tersidir.

 -- Işlevi: math.modf (x)

     x*’in kesirli ve tamsayı kısımlarını döndürür.  Her iki sonuç da
     'x' işaretini taşır ve kayan değerdir.

 -- Işlevi: math.nextafter (x, y, steps=1)

     Return the floating-point value 'steps' steps after 'x' towards
     'y'.

     If 'x' is equal to 'y', return 'y', unless 'steps' is zero.

     Örnekler:

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.inf)’ yukarı gider: pozitif sonsuza
          doğru.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, -math.inf)’ aşağı iner: eksi sonsuza doğru.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, 0.0)’ sıfıra doğru gider.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.copysign(math.inf, x))’ sıfırdan
          uzaklaşır.

     Ayrıca bakınız *note math.ulp(): 768.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'steps' argument.

 -- Işlevi: math.perm (n, k=None)

     Tekrarlama olmadan ve sırayla 'n' öğe arasından 'k' öğeyi seçmenin
     yollarının sayısını döndürür.

     ‘n! / (k! * (n - k)!)’ değerini ‘k <= n’ olduğunda verir ve ‘k > n’
     olduğunda sıfır olarak değerlendirir.

     If 'k' is not specified or is ‘None’, then 'k' defaults to 'n' and
     the function returns ‘n!’.

     Herhangi bir argümanın tamsayı olmaması durumunda *note TypeError:
     2c4. fırlatır.  Herhangi bir argümanın negatif olması durumunda
     *note ValueError: 189. fırlatır.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: math.prod (iterable, *, start=1)

     Girdi 'iterable' içindeki tüm elemanların çarpımını hesaplar.
     Çarpım için varsayılan 'başlangıç' değeri ‘1’ ‘dir.

     Yinelenebilir boş olduğunda, başlangıç değerini döndürür.  Bu
     fonksiyon özellikle sayısal değerlerle kullanılmak üzere
     tasarlanmıştır ve sayısal olmayan türleri reddedebilir.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: math.remainder (x, y)

     x*’in 'y'’ye göre IEEE 754 tarzı kalanını döndürür.  Sonlu 'x' ve
     sonlu sıfır olmayan 'y' için bu, ‘x - n*y’ farkıdır; burada ‘n’, ‘x
     / y’ bölümünün tam değerine en yakın tamsayıdır.  Eğer ‘x / y’
     ardışık iki tamsayının tam ortası ise, ‘n’ için en yakın 'çift'
     tamsayı kullanılır.  Kalan ‘r = remainder(x, y)’ böylece her zaman
     ‘abs(r) <= 0.5 * abs(y)’ sağlar.

     Özel durumlar IEEE 754’ü takip eder: özellikle, ‘remainder(x,
     math.inf)’ herhangi bir sonlu 'x' için 'x'’dir ve ‘remainder(x, 0)’
     ve ‘remainder(math.inf, x)’ NaN olmayan herhangi bir 'x' için *note
     ValueError: 189. yükseltir.  Eğer kalan işleminin sonucu sıfır ise,
     bu sıfır 'x' ile aynı işarete sahip olacaktır.

     On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating point, the result of
     this operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error
     is introduced.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: math.sumprod (p, q)

     Return the sum of products of values from two iterables 'p' and
     'q'.

     Raises *note ValueError: 189. if the inputs do not have the same
     length.

     Kabaca şuna eşdeğerdir:

          sum(itertools.starmap(operator.mul, zip(p, q, strict=True)))

     For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products and
     sums are computed with extended precision.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: math.trunc (x)

     Kesirli kısmı çıkarılmış ve tamsayı kısmı bırakılmış 'x' döndürür.
     Bu 0’a yuvarlanır: ‘trunc()’ pozitif 'x' için *note floor(): 1248.
     ve negatif 'x' için *note ceil(): 1249. ile eşdeğerdir.  Eğer 'x'
     bir float değilse, bir *note Integral: 1dab. değeri döndürmesi
     gereken *note x.__trunc__: 536.’a delege eder.

 -- Işlevi: math.ulp (x)

     float 'x' öğesinin en az anlamlı bitinin değerini döndürür:

        * Eğer 'x' bir NaN (sayı değil) ise ‘True’, aksi takdirde
          ‘False’ döndürür.

        * Eğer 'x' negatif ise, ‘ulp(-x)’ döndürür.

        * Eğer 'x' pozitif bir sonsuzluk ise, 'x' değerini döndürür.

        * Eğer 'x' sıfıra eşitse, temsil edilebilir en küçük pozitif
          'normalize' floatı döndürür (minimum pozitif 'normalize'
          floattan daha küçük, *note sys.float_info.min: 1821.).

        * Eğer 'x' pozitif olarak temsil edilebilen en büyük float
          değerine eşitse, 'x' değerinden küçük olan ilk float değeri ‘x
          - ulp(x)’ olacak şekilde 'x' değerinin en küçük anlamlı
          bitinin değerini döndürür.

        * Aksi takdirde ('x' pozitif bir sonlu sayıdır), 'x'’in en az
          anlamlı bitinin değerini döndürür, öyle ki 'x'’ten büyük ilk
          float ‘x + ulp(x)’ olur.

     ULP, “Son Yerdeki Birim” anlamına gelmektedir.

     Ayrıca bakınız *note math.nextafter(): 1bd. ve *note
     sys.float_info.epsilon: 1821.

     Added in version 3.9.

*note frexp(): 23ea. ve *note modf(): 23ec.’un C’deki eşdeğerlerinden
farklı bir çağrı/çağrı modeline sahip olduğuna dikkat edin: tek bir
argüman alırlar ve ikinci dönüş değerlerini bir ‘çıktı parametresi’
aracılığıyla döndürmek yerine bir çift değer döndürürler (Python’da
böyle bir şey yoktur).

*note ceil(): 1249, *note floor(): 1248. ve *note modf(): 23ec.
fonksiyonları için, yeterince büyük büyüklükteki 'tüm' kayan noktalı
sayıların tam tamsayı olduğunu unutmayın.  Python kayan noktalı sayıları
tipik olarak 53 bitten fazla hassasiyet taşımaz (C platformundaki double
tipiyle aynıdır), bu durumda ‘abs(x) >= 2**52’ olan herhangi bir 'x'
kayan noktalı sayısı zorunlu olarak kesirli bitlere sahip değildir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090-binary-floating-point-summation-accurate-to-full-p/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar,  Next: Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar,  Prev: Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.9.2.2 Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar
......................................

 -- Işlevi: math.cbrt (x)

     x*’in küp kökünü döndürür.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: math.exp (x)

     'e'’yi 'x' kuvvetine yükseltilmiş olarak döndürür, burada 'e' =
     2.718281… doğal logaritma tabanıdır.  Bu genellikle ‘math.e ** x’
     veya ‘pow(math.e, x)’ değerinden daha doğrudur.

 -- Işlevi: math.exp2 (x)

     '2'’nin 'x' kuvvetine yükseltilmiş halini döndürür.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: math.expm1 (x)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'x', minus 1.  Here 'e' is the base
     of natural logarithms.  For small floats 'x', the subtraction in
     ‘exp(x) - 1’ can result in a significant loss of precision(1); the
     *note expm1(): 1091. function provides a way to compute this
     quantity to full precision:

          >>> from math import exp, expm1
          >>> exp(1e-5) - 1  # gives result accurate to 11 places
          1.0000050000069649e-05
          >>> expm1(1e-5)    # result accurate to full precision
          1.0000050000166668e-05

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: math.log (x[, base])

     Bir bağımsız değişkenle, 'x'’in doğal logaritmasını döndürür ('e'
     tabanına göre).

     İki bağımsız değişkenle, ‘log(x)/log(taban)’ şeklinde hesaplanan
     'x' değerinin verilen 'taban' değerine göre logaritmasını döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.log1p (x)

     '1+x'’in ('e' tabanı) doğal logaritmasını döndürür.  Sonuç, sıfıra
     yakın 'x' için doğru olacak şekilde hesaplanır.

 -- Işlevi: math.log2 (x)

     x*’in 2 taban logaritmasını döndürür.  Bu genellikle ‘log(x, 2)’
     değerinden daha doğrudur.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note int.bit_length(): 1f8b, işaret ve baştaki sıfırlar hariç
     olmak üzere, bir tamsayıyı ikili olarak temsil etmek için gerekli
     bit sayısını döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.log10 (x)

     'x' ‘in 10 tabanında logaritmasını döndürür.  Bu genellikle ‘log(x,
     10)’ ‘dan daha doğrudur.

 -- Işlevi: math.pow (x, y)

     x'in ‘y’ kuvvetine yükseltilmiş halini döndürür.  İstisnai durumlar
     mümkün olduğunca IEEE 754 standardını takip eder.  Özellikle,
     ‘pow(1.0, x)’ ve ‘pow(x, 0.0)’, ‘x’ sıfır veya NaN olsa bile her
     zaman ‘1.0’ döndürür.  Eğer hem ‘x’ hem de ‘y’ sonlu ise, ‘x’
     negatif ise ve ‘y’ bir tamsayı değilse, ‘pow(x, y)’ tanımsızdır ve
     *note ValueError: 189. yükseltir.

     Yerleşik ‘**’ operatörünün aksine, *note math.pow(): 475. her iki
     argümanını da *note float: 272. türüne dönüştürür.  Tam sayı
     kuvvetlerini hesaplamak için ‘**’ veya yerleşik *note pow(): 830.
     fonksiyonunu kullanın.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Özel durumlar ‘pow(0.0, -inf)’ ve
     ‘pow(-0.0, -inf)’, IEEE 754 ile tutarlılık için ‘ValueError`’
     yükseltmek yerine ‘inf’ döndürmek üzere değiştirildi.

 -- Işlevi: math.sqrt (x)

     'x'’in karekökünü döndürür.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance


File: python.info,  Node: Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar,  Next: Açısal dönüşüm,  Prev: Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.9.2.3 Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar
..................................

 -- Işlevi: math.acos (x)

     Radyan cinsinden 'x'’in yay kosinüsünü döndürür.  Sonuç ‘0’ ile
     ‘pi’ arasındadır.

 -- Işlevi: math.asin (x)

     Radyan cinsinden 'x'’in yay sinüsünü döndürür.  Sonuç ‘-pi/2’ ile
     ‘pi/2’ arasındadır.

 -- Işlevi: math.atan (x)

     Radyan cinsinden 'x'’in yay tanjantını döndürür.  Sonuç ‘-pi/2’ ile
     ‘pi/2’ arasındadır.

 -- Işlevi: math.atan2 (y, x)

     Radyan cinsinden ‘atan(y / x)’ döndürür.  Sonuç ‘-pi’ ile ‘pi’
     arasındadır.  Düzlemde orijinden ‘(x, y)’ noktasına kadar olan
     vektör, pozitif X ekseni ile bu açıyı yapar.  *note atan2(): 23f3.
     ‘nin amacı, her iki girdinin de işaretlerinin bilinmesidir, böylece
     açı için doğru kadranı hesaplayabilir.  Örneğin, ‘atan(1)’ ve
     ‘atan2(1, 1)’ her ikisi de ‘pi/4’ ‘tür, ancak ‘atan2(-1, -1)’ ise
     ‘-3*pi/4’ ‘tür.

 -- Işlevi: math.cos (x)

     'x' radyanın kosinüsünü döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.dist (p, q)

     Her biri bir koordinat dizisi (veya yinelenebilir) olarak verilen
     iki 'p' ve 'q' noktası arasındaki Öklid mesafesini döndürür.  İki
     nokta aynı boyuta sahip olmalıdır.

     Kabaca şuna eşdeğerdir:

          sqrt(sum((px - qx) ** 2.0 for px, qx in zip(p, q)))

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: math.hypot (*coordinates)

     Öklid normunu döndürür, ‘sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in coordinates))’.
     Bu, vektörün orijinden koordinatlar tarafından verilen noktaya olan
     uzunluğudur.

     İki boyutlu bir ‘(x, y)’ noktası için bu, Pisagor teoremi ‘sqrt(x*x
     + y*y)’ kullanılarak bir dik üçgenin hipotenüsünün hesaplanmasına
     eşdeğerdir.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: n boyutlu noktalar için destek eklendi.
     Önceden sadece iki boyutlu durum destekleniyordu.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Algoritmanın doğruluğu, maksimum hata 1
     ulp’nin (son sıradaki birim) altında olacak şekilde geliştirildi.
     Daha tipik olarak, sonuç neredeyse her zaman 1/2 ulp içinde doğru
     şekilde yuvarlanır.

 -- Işlevi: math.sin (x)

     'x' radyanın sinüsünü döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.tan (x)

     'x' radyanın tanjantını döndürür.


File: python.info,  Node: Açısal dönüşüm,  Next: Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar,  Prev: Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.9.2.4 Açısal dönüşüm
......................

 -- Işlevi: math.degrees (x)

     Açıyı 'x' radyandan dereceye dönüştürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.radians (x)

     Açıyı 'x' dereceden radyana dönüştürür.


File: python.info,  Node: Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar,  Next: Özel fonksiyonlar,  Prev: Açısal dönüşüm,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.9.2.5 Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar
...............................

Hyperbolic functions(1) are analogs of trigonometric functions that are
based on hyperbolas instead of circles.

 -- Işlevi: math.acosh (x)

     'x'’in ters hiperbolik kosinüsünü döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.asinh (x)

     'x'’in ters hiperbolik sinüsünü döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.atanh (x)

     'x'’in ters hiperbolik tanjantını döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.cosh (x)

     'x'’in hiperbolik kosinüsünü döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.sinh (x)

     'x'’in hiperbolik sinüsünü döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: math.tanh (x)

     'x'’in hiperbolik tanjantını döndürür.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions


File: python.info,  Node: Özel fonksiyonlar,  Next: Sabitler<2>,  Prev: Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.9.2.6 Özel fonksiyonlar
.........................

 -- Işlevi: math.erf (x)

     'x' adresindeki hata fonksiyonunu(1) döndürür.

     The *note erf(): a4f. function can be used to compute traditional
     statistical functions such as the cumulative standard normal
     distribution(2):

          def phi(x):
              'Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution'
              return (1.0 + erf(x / sqrt(2.0))) / 2.0

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: math.erfc (x)

     'x' ‘de tamamlayıcı hata fonksiyonunu döndürür.  Tamamlayıcı hata
     fonksiyonu(3) ‘1.0 - erf(x)’ olarak tanımlanır.  Birbirinden
     çıkarmanın anlamlılık kaybına(4) neden olacağı büyük 'x' değerleri
     için kullanılır.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: math.gamma (x)

     'x' adresindeki Gamma fonksiyonunu(5) döndürür.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: math.lgamma (x)

     Gama fonksiyonunun 'x'’deki mutlak değerinin doğal logaritmasını
     döndürür.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function


File: python.info,  Node: Sabitler<2>,  Prev: Özel fonksiyonlar,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.9.2.7 Sabitler
................

 -- Verisi: math.pi

     Matematiksel sabit 'π' = 3.141592…, mevcut hassasiyete göre.

 -- Verisi: math.e

     Matematiksel sabit 'e' = 2,718281…, mevcut hassasiyete göre.

 -- Verisi: math.tau

     Matematiksel sabit 'τ' = 6.283185…, mevcut hassasiyete göre.  Tau,
     bir dairenin çevresinin yarıçapına oranı olan 2'π'’ye eşit bir
     daire sabitidir.  Tau hakkında daha fazla bilgi edinmek için Vi
     Hart’ın Pi (hala) Yanlış(1) videosuna göz atın ve Tau gününü(2) iki
     kat daha fazla turta yiyerek kutlamaya başlayın!

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: math.inf

     Bir kayan noktalı pozitif sonsuzluk.  (Negatif sonsuzluk için
     ‘-math.inf’ kullanın.)  ‘float('inf')’ çıktısına eşdeğerdir.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: math.nan

     A floating-point “not a number” (NaN) value.  Equivalent to the
     output of ‘float('nan')’.  Due to the requirements of the IEEE-754
     standard(3), ‘math.nan’ and ‘float('nan')’ are not considered to
     equal to any other numeric value, including themselves.  To check
     whether a number is a NaN, use the *note isnan(): 1259. function to
     test for NaNs instead of ‘is’ or ‘==’.  Example:

          >>> import math
          >>> math.nan == math.nan
          False
          >>> float('nan') == float('nan')
          False
          >>> math.isnan(math.nan)
          True
          >>> math.isnan(float('nan'))
          True

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Artık her zaman kullanılabilir.

*note math: 8d. modülü çoğunlukla platform C matematik kütüphanesi
fonksiyonları etrafındaki ince sarmalayıcılardan oluşur.  İstisnai
durumlarda davranış, uygun olan yerlerde C99 standardının Ek F’sini
takip eder.  Mevcut uygulama, ‘sqrt(-1.0)’ veya ‘log(0.0)’ gibi geçersiz
işlemler için :exc:*note ValueError: 189. (C99 Annex F geçersiz işlem
veya sıfıra bölme sinyalini önerir) ve taşan sonuçlar için *note
OverflowError: 6c7. (örneğin, ‘exp(1000.0)’) yükseltir.  Girdi
argümanlarından biri veya daha fazlası NaN olmadığı sürece yukarıdaki
fonksiyonların hiçbirinden NaN döndürülmeyecektir; bu durumda, çoğu
fonksiyon bir NaN döndürecektir, ancak (yine C99 Ek F’yi takip ederek)
bu kuralın bazı istisnaları vardır, örneğin ‘pow(float('nan'), 0.0)’
veya ‘hypot(float('nan'), float('inf'))’.

Python’un sinyal veren NaN’ları sessiz NaN’lardan ayırt etmek için
hiçbir çaba göstermediğini ve sinyal veren NaN’lar için davranışın
belirtilmediğini unutmayın.  Tipik davranış, tüm NaN’lara sessizmiş gibi
davranmaktır.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Modül *note cmath: 18.

     Bu fonksiyonların çoğunun karmaşık sayı versiyonları.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jG7vhMMXagQ

   (2) https://tauday.com/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754


File: python.info,  Node: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Next: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Prev: math — Mathematical functions,  Up: Numeric and Mathematical Modules

5.9.3 ‘cmath’ — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to mathematical functions for complex
numbers.  The functions in this module accept integers, floating-point
numbers or complex numbers as arguments.  They will also accept any
Python object that has either a *note __complex__(): 3f3. or a *note
__float__(): 82a. method: these methods are used to convert the object
to a complex or floating-point number, respectively, and the function is
then applied to the result of the conversion.

     Not: For functions involving branch cuts, we have the problem of
     deciding how to define those functions on the cut itself.
     Following Kahan’s “Branch cuts for complex elementary functions”
     paper, as well as Annex G of C99 and later C standards, we use the
     sign of zero to distinguish one side of the branch cut from the
     other: for a branch cut along (a portion of) the real axis we look
     at the sign of the imaginary part, while for a branch cut along the
     imaginary axis we look at the sign of the real part.

     For example, the *note cmath.sqrt(): 2403. function has a branch
     cut along the negative real axis.  An argument of ‘complex(-2.0,
     -0.0)’ is treated as though it lies 'below' the branch cut, and so
     gives a result on the negative imaginary axis:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, -0.0))
          -1.4142135623730951j

     But an argument of ‘complex(-2.0, 0.0)’ is treated as though it
     lies above the branch cut:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(complex(-2.0, 0.0))
          1.4142135623730951j

'Conversions to and from polar coordinates'

*note phase(z): 2404.                                    Return the phase of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note polar(z): 2405.                                    Return the representation of 'z' in polar coordinates
                                                         
                                                         
*note rect(r, phi): 2406.                                Return the complex number 'z' with polar coordinates 'r' and 'phi'
                                                         
                                                         
'Power and logarithmic functions'

*note exp(z): 2407.                                      Return 'e' raised to the power 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note log(z[, base]): 2408.                              Return the logarithm of 'z' to the given 'base' ('e' by default)
                                                         
                                                         
*note log10(z): 2409.                                    Return the base-10 logarithm of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sqrt(z): 2403.                                     Return the square root of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Trigonometric functions'

*note acos(z): 240a.                                     Return the arc cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asin(z): 240b.                                     Return the arc sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan(z): 240c.                                     Return the arc tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cos(z): 240d.                                      Return the cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sin(z): 240e.                                      Return the sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tan(z): 240f.                                      Return the tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Hyperbolic functions'

*note acosh(z): 2410.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asinh(z): 2411.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atanh(z): 2412.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cosh(z): 2413.                                     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sinh(z): 2414.                                     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tanh(z): 2415.                                     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Classification functions'

*note isfinite(z): 2416.                                 Check if all components of 'z' are finite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isinf(z): 2417.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is infinite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnan(z): 2418.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is a NaN
                                                         
                                                         
*note isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol, abs_tol): c3e.           Check if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other
                                                         
                                                         
'Constants'

*note pi: 2419.                                          'π' = 3.141592…
                                                         
                                                         
*note e: 241a.                                           'e' = 2.718281…
                                                         
                                                         
*note tau: b01.                                          'τ' = 2'π' = 6.283185…
                                                         
                                                         
*note inf: b02.                                          Positive infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note infj: b05.                                         Pure imaginary infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note nan: b03.                                          “Not a number” (NaN)
                                                         
                                                         
*note nanj: b06.                                         Pure imaginary NaN
                                                         

* Menu:

* Conversions to and from polar coordinates::
* Power and logarithmic functions::
* Trigonometric functions::
* Hyperbolic functions::
* Classification functions::
* Constants::


File: python.info,  Node: Conversions to and from polar coordinates,  Next: Power and logarithmic functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.1 Conversions to and from polar coordinates
.................................................

A Python complex number ‘z’ is stored internally using 'rectangular' or
'Cartesian' coordinates.  It is completely determined by its 'real part'
‘z.real’ and its 'imaginary part' ‘z.imag’.

'Polar coordinates' give an alternative way to represent a complex
number.  In polar coordinates, a complex number 'z' is defined by the
modulus 'r' and the phase angle 'phi'.  The modulus 'r' is the distance
from 'z' to the origin, while the phase 'phi' is the counterclockwise
angle, measured in radians, from the positive x-axis to the line segment
that joins the origin to 'z'.

The following functions can be used to convert from the native
rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates and back.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.phase (z)

     Return the phase of 'z' (also known as the 'argument' of 'z'), as a
     float.  ‘phase(z)’ is equivalent to ‘math.atan2(z.imag, z.real)’.
     The result lies in the range [-'π', 'π'], and the branch cut for
     this operation lies along the negative real axis.  The sign of the
     result is the same as the sign of ‘z.imag’, even when ‘z.imag’ is
     zero:

          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, 0.0))
          3.141592653589793
          >>> phase(complex(-1.0, -0.0))
          -3.141592653589793

     Not: The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number 'z' can be
     computed using the built-in *note abs(): 1aed. function.  There is
     no separate *note cmath: 18. module function for this operation.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.polar (z)

     Return the representation of 'z' in polar coordinates.  Returns a
     pair ‘(r, phi)’ where 'r' is the modulus of 'z' and 'phi' is the
     phase of 'z'.  ‘polar(z)’ is equivalent to ‘(abs(z), phase(z))’.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.rect (r, phi)

     Return the complex number 'z' with polar coordinates 'r' and 'phi'.
     Equivalent to ‘complex(r * math.cos(phi), r * math.sin(phi))’.


File: python.info,  Node: Power and logarithmic functions,  Next: Trigonometric functions,  Prev: Conversions to and from polar coordinates,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.2 Power and logarithmic functions
.......................................

 -- Işlevi: cmath.exp (z)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'z', where 'e' is the base of
     natural logarithms.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.log (z[, base])

     Return the logarithm of 'z' to the given 'base'.  If the 'base' is
     not specified, returns the natural logarithm of 'z'.  There is one
     branch cut, from 0 along the negative real axis to -∞.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.log10 (z)

     Return the base-10 logarithm of 'z'.  This has the same branch cut
     as *note log(): 2408.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.sqrt (z)

     Return the square root of 'z'.  This has the same branch cut as
     *note log(): 2408.


File: python.info,  Node: Trigonometric functions,  Next: Hyperbolic functions,  Prev: Power and logarithmic functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.3 Trigonometric functions
...............................

 -- Işlevi: cmath.acos (z)

     Return the arc cosine of 'z'.  There are two branch cuts: One
     extends right from 1 along the real axis to ∞.  The other extends
     left from -1 along the real axis to -∞.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.asin (z)

     Return the arc sine of 'z'.  This has the same branch cuts as *note
     acos(): 240a.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.atan (z)

     Return the arc tangent of 'z'.  There are two branch cuts: One
     extends from ‘1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘∞j’.  The other
     extends from ‘-1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘-∞j’.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.cos (z)

     Return the cosine of 'z'.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.sin (z)

     Return the sine of 'z'.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.tan (z)

     Return the tangent of 'z'.


File: python.info,  Node: Hyperbolic functions,  Next: Classification functions,  Prev: Trigonometric functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.4 Hyperbolic functions
............................

 -- Işlevi: cmath.acosh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'z'.  There is one branch
     cut, extending left from 1 along the real axis to -∞.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.asinh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'z'.  There are two branch
     cuts: One extends from ‘1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘∞j’.  The
     other extends from ‘-1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘-∞j’.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.atanh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'z'.  There are two branch
     cuts: One extends from ‘1’ along the real axis to ‘∞’.  The other
     extends from ‘-1’ along the real axis to ‘-∞’.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.cosh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'z'.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.sinh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'z'.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.tanh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'z'.


File: python.info,  Node: Classification functions,  Next: Constants,  Prev: Hyperbolic functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.5 Classification functions
................................

 -- Işlevi: cmath.isfinite (z)

     Return ‘True’ if both the real and imaginary parts of 'z' are
     finite, and ‘False’ otherwise.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.isinf (z)

     Return ‘True’ if either the real or the imaginary part of 'z' is an
     infinity, and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.isnan (z)

     Return ‘True’ if either the real or the imaginary part of 'z' is a
     NaN, and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: cmath.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     Return ‘True’ if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other and
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance – it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any ‘x’ and rel_tol less than ‘1.0’.  So add an appropriate
     positive abs_tol argument to the call.

     The IEEE 754 special values of ‘NaN’, ‘inf’, and ‘-inf’ will be
     handled according to IEEE rules.  Specifically, ‘NaN’ is not
     considered close to any other value, including ‘NaN’.  ‘inf’ and
     ‘-inf’ are only considered close to themselves.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 485(1) – A function for testing approximate equality

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: Constants,  Prev: Classification functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.9.3.6 Constants
.................

 -- Verisi: cmath.pi

     The mathematical constant 'π', as a float.

 -- Verisi: cmath.e

     The mathematical constant 'e', as a float.

 -- Verisi: cmath.tau

     The mathematical constant 'τ', as a float.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: cmath.inf

     Floating-point positive infinity.  Equivalent to ‘float('inf')’.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: cmath.infj

     Complex number with zero real part and positive infinity imaginary
     part.  Equivalent to ‘complex(0.0, float('inf'))’.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: cmath.nan

     A floating-point “not a number” (NaN) value.  Equivalent to
     ‘float('nan')’.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: cmath.nanj

     Complex number with zero real part and NaN imaginary part.
     Equivalent to ‘complex(0.0, float('nan'))’.

     Added in version 3.6.

Note that the selection of functions is similar, but not identical, to
that in module *note math: 8d.  The reason for having two modules is
that some users aren’t interested in complex numbers, and perhaps don’t
even know what they are.  They would rather have ‘math.sqrt(-1)’ raise
an exception than return a complex number.  Also note that the functions
defined in *note cmath: 18. always return a complex number, even if the
answer can be expressed as a real number (in which case the complex
number has an imaginary part of zero).

A note on branch cuts: They are curves along which the given function
fails to be continuous.  They are a necessary feature of many complex
functions.  It is assumed that if you need to compute with complex
functions, you will understand about branch cuts.  Consult almost any
(not too elementary) book on complex variables for enlightenment.  For
information of the proper choice of branch cuts for numerical purposes,
a good reference should be the following:

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Kahan, W: Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado
about nothing’s sign bit.  In Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The
state of the art in numerical analysis.  Clarendon Press (1987)
pp165–211.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Next: fractions — Rational numbers,  Prev: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Up: Numeric and Mathematical Modules

5.9.4 ‘decimal’ — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
-------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/decimal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note decimal: 35. module provides support for fast correctly
rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic.  It offers several advantages
over the *note float: 272. datatype:

   * Decimal “is based on a floating-point model which was designed with
     people in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding principle –
     computers must provide an arithmetic that works in the same way as
     the arithmetic that people learn at school.” – excerpt from the
     decimal arithmetic specification.

   * Decimal numbers can be represented exactly.  In contrast, numbers
     like ‘1.1’ and ‘2.2’ do not have exact representations in binary
     floating point.  End users typically would not expect ‘1.1 + 2.2’
     to display as ‘3.3000000000000003’ as it does with binary floating
     point.

   * The exactness carries over into arithmetic.  In decimal floating
     point, ‘0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3’ is exactly equal to zero.  In binary
     floating point, the result is ‘5.5511151231257827e-017’.  While
     near to zero, the differences prevent reliable equality testing and
     differences can accumulate.  For this reason, decimal is preferred
     in accounting applications which have strict equality invariants.

   * The decimal module incorporates a notion of significant places so
     that ‘1.30 + 1.20’ is ‘2.50’.  The trailing zero is kept to
     indicate significance.  This is the customary presentation for
     monetary applications.  For multiplication, the “schoolbook”
     approach uses all the figures in the multiplicands.  For instance,
     ‘1.3 * 1.2’ gives ‘1.56’ while ‘1.30 * 1.20’ gives ‘1.5600’.

   * Unlike hardware based binary floating point, the decimal module has
     a user alterable precision (defaulting to 28 places) which can be
     as large as needed for a given problem:

          >>> from decimal import *
          >>> getcontext().prec = 6
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.142857')
          >>> getcontext().prec = 28
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')

   * Both binary and decimal floating point are implemented in terms of
     published standards.  While the built-in float type exposes only a
     modest portion of its capabilities, the decimal module exposes all
     required parts of the standard.  When needed, the programmer has
     full control over rounding and signal handling.  This includes an
     option to enforce exact arithmetic by using exceptions to block any
     inexact operations.

   * The decimal module was designed to support “without prejudice, both
     exact unrounded decimal arithmetic (sometimes called fixed-point
     arithmetic) and rounded floating-point arithmetic.” – excerpt from
     the decimal arithmetic specification.

The module design is centered around three concepts: the decimal number,
the context for arithmetic, and signals.

A decimal number is immutable.  It has a sign, coefficient digits, and
an exponent.  To preserve significance, the coefficient digits do not
truncate trailing zeros.  Decimals also include special values such as
‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’, and ‘NaN’.  The standard also differentiates
‘-0’ from ‘+0’.

The context for arithmetic is an environment specifying precision,
rounding rules, limits on exponents, flags indicating the results of
operations, and trap enablers which determine whether signals are
treated as exceptions.  Rounding options include *note ROUND_CEILING:
2423, *note ROUND_DOWN: 2424, *note ROUND_FLOOR: 2425, *note
ROUND_HALF_DOWN: 2426, *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2427, *note ROUND_HALF_UP:
2428, *note ROUND_UP: 2429, and *note ROUND_05UP: 242a.

Signals are groups of exceptional conditions arising during the course
of computation.  Depending on the needs of the application, signals may
be ignored, considered as informational, or treated as exceptions.  The
signals in the decimal module are: *note Clamped: 242b, *note
InvalidOperation: f4d, *note DivisionByZero: 242c, *note Inexact: 242d,
*note Rounded: 242e, *note Subnormal: 242f, *note Overflow: 2430, *note
Underflow: 2431. and *note FloatOperation: f47.

For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler.  When a signal is
encountered, its flag is set to one, then, if the trap enabler is set to
one, an exception is raised.  Flags are sticky, so the user needs to
reset them before monitoring a calculation.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, The General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification(2).

* Menu:

* Quick-start Tutorial::
* Decimal objects::
* Context objects::
* Constants: Constants<2>.
* Rounding modes::
* Signals::
* Floating-Point Notes::
* Working with threads::
* Recipes::
* Decimal FAQ::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/decimal.py

   (2) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html


File: python.info,  Node: Quick-start Tutorial,  Next: Decimal objects,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.1 Quick-start Tutorial
............................

The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the
current context with *note getcontext(): 2434. and, if necessary,
setting new values for precision, rounding, or enabled traps:

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,
             InvalidOperation])

     >>> getcontext().prec = 7       # Set a new precision

Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or
tuples.  Construction from an integer or a float performs an exact
conversion of the value of that integer or float.  Decimal numbers
include special values such as ‘NaN’ which stands for “Not a number”,
positive and negative ‘Infinity’, and ‘-0’:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(10)
     Decimal('10')
     >>> Decimal('3.14')
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
     >>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))
     Decimal('1.4142135623730951')
     >>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal('NaN')
     Decimal('NaN')
     >>> Decimal('-Infinity')
     Decimal('-Infinity')

If the *note FloatOperation: f47. signal is trapped, accidental mixing
of decimals and floats in constructors or ordering comparisons raises an
exception:

     >>> c = getcontext()
     >>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5
     True

Added in version 3.3.

The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of
digits input.  Context precision and rounding only come into play during
arithmetic operations.

     >>> getcontext().prec = 6
     >>> Decimal('3.0')
     Decimal('3.0')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535')
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85987')
     >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85988')

If the internal limits of the C version are exceeded, constructing a
decimal raises *note InvalidOperation: f4d.:

     >>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]

3.3 sürümünde değişti.

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python.  Here is a small
decimal floating-point flying circus:

     >>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))
     >>> max(data)
     Decimal('9.25')
     >>> min(data)
     Decimal('0.03')
     >>> sorted(data)
     [Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),
      Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]
     >>> sum(data)
     Decimal('19.29')
     >>> a,b,c = data[:3]
     >>> str(a)
     '1.34'
     >>> float(a)
     1.34
     >>> round(a, 1)
     Decimal('1.3')
     >>> int(a)
     1
     >>> a * 5
     Decimal('6.70')
     >>> a * b
     Decimal('2.5058')
     >>> c % a
     Decimal('0.77')

And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(2).sqrt()
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal(1).exp()
     Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
     >>> Decimal('10').ln()
     Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')
     >>> Decimal('10').log10()
     Decimal('1')

The *note quantize(): f53. method rounds a number to a fixed exponent.
This method is useful for monetary applications that often round results
to a fixed number of places:

     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
     Decimal('7.32')
     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)
     Decimal('8')

As shown above, the *note getcontext(): 2434. function accesses the
current context and allows the settings to be changed.  This approach
meets the needs of most applications.

For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts
using the Context() constructor.  To make an alternate active, use the
*note setcontext(): 2435. function.

In accordance with the standard, the *note decimal: 35. module provides
two ready to use standard contexts, *note BasicContext: f4b. and *note
ExtendedContext: f4c.  The former is especially useful for debugging
because many of the traps are enabled:

     >>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)
     >>> setcontext(myothercontext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

     >>> ExtendedContext
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])
     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857143')
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')

     >>> setcontext(BasicContext)
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions
encountered during computations.  The flags remain set until explicitly
cleared, so it is best to clear the flags before each set of monitored
computations by using the *note clear_flags(): 2436. method.

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> getcontext().clear_flags()
     >>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)
     Decimal('3.14159292')
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

The 'flags' entry shows that the rational approximation to pi was
rounded (digits beyond the context precision were thrown away) and that
the result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-zero).

Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the ‘traps’ attribute
of a context:

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')
     >>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Most programs adjust the current context only once, at the beginning of
the program.  And, in many applications, data is converted to *note
Decimal: 609. with a single cast inside a loop.  With context set and
decimals created, the bulk of the program manipulates the data no
differently than with other Python numeric types.


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal objects,  Next: Context objects,  Prev: Quick-start Tutorial,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.2 Decimal objects
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Decimal (value='0', context=None)

     Construct a new *note Decimal: 609. object based from 'value'.

     'value' can be an integer, string, tuple, *note float: 272, or
     another *note Decimal: 609. object.  If no 'value' is given,
     returns ‘Decimal('0')’.  If 'value' is a string, it should conform
     to the decimal numeric string syntax after leading and trailing
     whitespace characters, as well as underscores throughout, are
     removed:

          sign           ::=  '+' | '-'
          digit          ::=  '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'
          indicator      ::=  'e' | 'E'
          digits         ::=  digit [digit]...
          decimal-part   ::=  digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits
          exponent-part  ::=  indicator [sign] digits
          infinity       ::=  'Infinity' | 'Inf'
          nan            ::=  'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]
          numeric-value  ::=  decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity
          numeric-string ::=  [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

     Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where ‘digit’
     appears above.  These include decimal digits from various other
     alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
     with the fullwidth digits ‘'\uff10'’ through ‘'\uff19'’.

     If 'value' is a *note tuple: 4ff, it should have three components,
     a sign (‘0’ for positive or ‘1’ for negative), a *note tuple: 4ff.
     of digits, and an integer exponent.  For example, ‘Decimal((0, (1,
     4, 1, 4), -3))’ returns ‘Decimal('1.414')’.

     If 'value' is a *note float: 272, the binary floating-point value
     is losslessly converted to its exact decimal equivalent.  This
     conversion can often require 53 or more digits of precision.  For
     example, ‘Decimal(float('1.1'))’ converts to
     ‘Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')’.

     The 'context' precision does not affect how many digits are stored.
     That is determined exclusively by the number of digits in 'value'.
     For example, ‘Decimal('3.00000')’ records all five zeros even if
     the context precision is only three.

     The purpose of the 'context' argument is determining what to do if
     'value' is a malformed string.  If the context traps *note
     InvalidOperation: f4d, an exception is raised; otherwise, the
     constructor returns a new Decimal with the value of ‘NaN’.

     Once constructed, *note Decimal: 609. objects are immutable.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The argument to the constructor is now
     permitted to be a *note float: 272. instance.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note float: 272. arguments raise an
     exception if the *note FloatOperation: f47. trap is set.  By
     default the trap is off.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Underscores are allowed for grouping, as
     with integral and floating-point literals in code.

     Decimal floating-point objects share many properties with the other
     built-in numeric types such as *note float: 272. and *note int:
     184.  All of the usual math operations and special methods apply.
     Likewise, decimal objects can be copied, pickled, printed, used as
     dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and
     coerced to another type (such as *note float: 272. or *note int:
     184.).

     There are some small differences between arithmetic on Decimal
     objects and arithmetic on integers and floats.  When the remainder
     operator ‘%’ is applied to Decimal objects, the sign of the result
     is the sign of the 'dividend' rather than the sign of the divisor:

          >>> (-7) % 4
          1
          >>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-3')

     The integer division operator ‘//’ behaves analogously, returning
     the integer part of the true quotient (truncating towards zero)
     rather than its floor, so as to preserve the usual identity ‘x ==
     (x // y) * y + x % y’:

          >>> -7 // 4
          -2
          >>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-1')

     The ‘%’ and ‘//’ operators implement the ‘remainder’ and
     ‘divide-integer’ operations (respectively) as described in the
     specification.

     Decimal objects cannot generally be combined with floats or
     instances of *note fractions.Fraction: 1ae. in arithmetic
     operations: an attempt to add a *note Decimal: 609. to a *note
     float: 272, for example, will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     However, it is possible to use Python’s comparison operators to
     compare a *note Decimal: 609. instance ‘x’ with another number ‘y’.
     This avoids confusing results when doing equality comparisons
     between numbers of different types.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Mixed-type comparisons between *note
     Decimal: 609. instances and other numeric types are now fully
     supported.

     In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal
     floating-point objects also have a number of specialized methods:

      -- Yöntemi: adjusted ()

          Return the adjusted exponent after shifting out the
          coefficient’s rightmost digits until only the lead digit
          remains: ‘Decimal('321e+5').adjusted()’ returns seven.  Used
          for determining the position of the most significant digit
          with respect to the decimal point.

      -- Yöntemi: as_integer_ratio ()

          Return a pair ‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given
          *note Decimal: 609. instance as a fraction, in lowest terms
          and with a positive denominator:

               >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
               (-157, 50)

          The conversion is exact.  Raise OverflowError on infinities
          and ValueError on NaNs.

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: as_tuple ()

          Return a *note named tuple: 461. representation of the number:
          ‘DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exponent)’.

      -- Yöntemi: canonical ()

          Return the canonical encoding of the argument.  Currently, the
          encoding of a *note Decimal: 609. instance is always
          canonical, so this operation returns its argument unchanged.

      -- Yöntemi: compare (other, context=None)

          Compare the values of two Decimal instances.  *note compare():
          243c. returns a Decimal instance, and if either operand is a
          NaN then the result is a NaN:

               a or b is a NaN  ==> Decimal('NaN')
               a < b            ==> Decimal('-1')
               a == b           ==> Decimal('0')
               a > b            ==> Decimal('1')

      -- Yöntemi: compare_signal (other, context=None)

          This operation is identical to the *note compare(): 243c.
          method, except that all NaNs signal.  That is, if neither
          operand is a signaling NaN then any quiet NaN operand is
          treated as though it were a signaling NaN.

      -- Yöntemi: compare_total (other, context=None)

          Compare two operands using their abstract representation
          rather than their numerical value.  Similar to the *note
          compare(): 243c. method, but the result gives a total ordering
          on *note Decimal: 609. instances.  Two *note Decimal: 609.
          instances with the same numeric value but different
          representations compare unequal in this ordering:

               >>> Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))
               Decimal('-1')

          Quiet and signaling NaNs are also included in the total
          ordering.  The result of this function is ‘Decimal('0')’ if
          both operands have the same representation, ‘Decimal('-1')’ if
          the first operand is lower in the total order than the second,
          and ‘Decimal('1')’ if the first operand is higher in the total
          order than the second operand.  See the specification for
          details of the total order.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Yöntemi: compare_total_mag (other, context=None)

          Compare two operands using their abstract representation
          rather than their value as in *note compare_total(): 243e, but
          ignoring the sign of each operand.  ‘x.compare_total_mag(y)’
          is equivalent to ‘x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs())’.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Yöntemi: conjugate ()

          Just returns self, this method is only to comply with the
          Decimal Specification.

      -- Yöntemi: copy_abs ()

          Return the absolute value of the argument.  This operation is
          unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed
          and no rounding is performed.

      -- Yöntemi: copy_negate ()

          Return the negation of the argument.  This operation is
          unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed
          and no rounding is performed.

      -- Yöntemi: copy_sign (other, context=None)

          Return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the
          same as the sign of the second operand.  For example:

               >>> Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))
               Decimal('-2.3')

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Yöntemi: exp (context=None)

          Return the value of the (natural) exponential function ‘e**x’
          at the given number.  The result is correctly rounded using
          the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2427. rounding mode.

               >>> Decimal(1).exp()
               Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
               >>> Decimal(321).exp()
               Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_float (f)

          Alternative constructor that only accepts instances of *note
          float: 272. or *note int: 184.

          Note ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ is not the same as
          ‘Decimal('0.1')’.  Since 0.1 is not exactly representable in
          binary floating point, the value is stored as the nearest
          representable value which is ‘0x1.999999999999ap-4’.  That
          equivalent value in decimal is
          ‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’.

               Not: From Python 3.2 onwards, a *note Decimal: 609.
               instance can also be constructed directly from a *note
               float: 272.

               >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
               Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))
               Decimal('NaN')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))
               Decimal('Infinity')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))
               Decimal('-Infinity')

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: fma (other, third, context=None)

          Fused multiply-add.  Return self*other+third with no rounding
          of the intermediate product self*other.

               >>> Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)
               Decimal('11')

      -- Yöntemi: is_canonical ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is canonical and *note
          False: 9a8. otherwise.  Currently, a *note Decimal: 609.
          instance is always canonical, so this operation always returns
          *note True: a86.

      -- Yöntemi: is_finite ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is a finite number,
          and *note False: 9a8. if the argument is an infinity or a NaN.

      -- Yöntemi: is_infinite ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is either positive or
          negative infinity and *note False: 9a8. otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: is_nan ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is a (quiet or
          signaling) NaN and *note False: 9a8. otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: is_normal (context=None)

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is a 'normal' finite
          number.  Return *note False: 9a8. if the argument is zero,
          subnormal, infinite or a NaN.

      -- Yöntemi: is_qnan ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is a quiet NaN, and
          *note False: 9a8. otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: is_signed ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument has a negative sign
          and *note False: 9a8. otherwise.  Note that zeros and NaNs can
          both carry signs.

      -- Yöntemi: is_snan ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is a signaling NaN and
          *note False: 9a8. otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: is_subnormal (context=None)

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is subnormal, and
          *note False: 9a8. otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: is_zero ()

          Return *note True: a86. if the argument is a (positive or
          negative) zero and *note False: 9a8. otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: ln (context=None)

          Return the natural (base e) logarithm of the operand.  The
          result is correctly rounded using the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN:
          2427. rounding mode.

      -- Yöntemi: log10 (context=None)

          Return the base ten logarithm of the operand.  The result is
          correctly rounded using the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2427.
          rounding mode.

      -- Yöntemi: logb (context=None)

          For a nonzero number, return the adjusted exponent of its
          operand as a *note Decimal: 609. instance.  If the operand is
          a zero then ‘Decimal('-Infinity')’ is returned and the *note
          DivisionByZero: 242c. flag is raised.  If the operand is an
          infinity then ‘Decimal('Infinity')’ is returned.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_and (other, context=None)

          *note logical_and(): 2451. is a logical operation which takes
          two 'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 2452.).
          The result is the digit-wise ‘and’ of the two operands.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_invert (context=None)

          *note logical_invert(): 2453. is a logical operation.  The
          result is the digit-wise inversion of the operand.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_or (other, context=None)

          *note logical_or(): 2454. is a logical operation which takes
          two 'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 2452.).
          The result is the digit-wise ‘or’ of the two operands.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_xor (other, context=None)

          *note logical_xor(): 2455. is a logical operation which takes
          two 'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 2452.).
          The result is the digit-wise exclusive or of the two operands.

      -- Yöntemi: max (other, context=None)

          Like ‘max(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- Yöntemi: max_mag (other, context=None)

          Similar to the *note max(): 2456. method, but the comparison
          is done using the absolute values of the operands.

      -- Yöntemi: min (other, context=None)

          Like ‘min(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- Yöntemi: min_mag (other, context=None)

          Similar to the *note min(): 2458. method, but the comparison
          is done using the absolute values of the operands.

      -- Yöntemi: next_minus (context=None)

          Return the largest number representable in the given context
          (or in the current thread’s context if no context is given)
          that is smaller than the given operand.

      -- Yöntemi: next_plus (context=None)

          Return the smallest number representable in the given context
          (or in the current thread’s context if no context is given)
          that is larger than the given operand.

      -- Yöntemi: next_toward (other, context=None)

          If the two operands are unequal, return the number closest to
          the first operand in the direction of the second operand.  If
          both operands are numerically equal, return a copy of the
          first operand with the sign set to be the same as the sign of
          the second operand.

      -- Yöntemi: normalize (context=None)

          Used for producing canonical values of an equivalence class
          within either the current context or the specified context.

          This has the same semantics as the unary plus operation,
          except that if the final result is finite it is reduced to its
          simplest form, with all trailing zeros removed and its sign
          preserved.  That is, while the coefficient is non-zero and a
          multiple of ten the coefficient is divided by ten and the
          exponent is incremented by 1.  Otherwise (the coefficient is
          zero) the exponent is set to 0.  In all cases the sign is
          unchanged.

          For example, ‘Decimal('32.100')’ and ‘Decimal('0.321000e+2')’
          both normalize to the equivalent value ‘Decimal('32.1')’.

          Note that rounding is applied 'before' reducing to simplest
          form.

          In the latest versions of the specification, this operation is
          also known as ‘reduce’.

      -- Yöntemi: number_class (context=None)

          Return a string describing the 'class' of the operand.  The
          returned value is one of the following ten strings.

             * ‘"-Infinity"’, indicating that the operand is negative
               infinity.

             * ‘"-Normal"’, indicating that the operand is a negative
               normal number.

             * ‘"-Subnormal"’, indicating that the operand is negative
               and subnormal.

             * ‘"-Zero"’, indicating that the operand is a negative
               zero.

             * ‘"+Zero"’, indicating that the operand is a positive
               zero.

             * ‘"+Subnormal"’, indicating that the operand is positive
               and subnormal.

             * ‘"+Normal"’, indicating that the operand is a positive
               normal number.

             * ‘"+Infinity"’, indicating that the operand is positive
               infinity.

             * ‘"NaN"’, indicating that the operand is a quiet NaN (Not
               a Number).

             * ‘"sNaN"’, indicating that the operand is a signaling NaN.

      -- Yöntemi: quantize (exp, rounding=None, context=None)

          Return a value equal to the first operand after rounding and
          having the exponent of the second operand.

               >>> Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))
               Decimal('1.414')

          Unlike other operations, if the length of the coefficient
          after the quantize operation would be greater than precision,
          then an *note InvalidOperation: f4d. is signaled.  This
          guarantees that, unless there is an error condition, the
          quantized exponent is always equal to that of the right-hand
          operand.

          Also unlike other operations, quantize never signals
          Underflow, even if the result is subnormal and inexact.

          If the exponent of the second operand is larger than that of
          the first then rounding may be necessary.  In this case, the
          rounding mode is determined by the ‘rounding’ argument if
          given, else by the given ‘context’ argument; if neither
          argument is given the rounding mode of the current thread’s
          context is used.

          An error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is
          greater than ‘Emax’ or less than *note Etiny(): 245f.

      -- Yöntemi: radix ()

          Return ‘Decimal(10)’, the radix (base) in which the *note
          Decimal: 609. class does all its arithmetic.  Included for
          compatibility with the specification.

      -- Yöntemi: remainder_near (other, context=None)

          Return the remainder from dividing 'self' by 'other'.  This
          differs from ‘self % other’ in that the sign of the remainder
          is chosen so as to minimize its absolute value.  More
          precisely, the return value is ‘self - n * other’ where ‘n’ is
          the integer nearest to the exact value of ‘self / other’, and
          if two integers are equally near then the even one is chosen.

          If the result is zero then its sign will be the sign of
          'self'.

               >>> Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-2')
               >>> Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('5')
               >>> Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-5')

      -- Yöntemi: rotate (other, context=None)

          Return the result of rotating the digits of the first operand
          by an amount specified by the second operand.  The second
          operand must be an integer in the range -precision through
          precision.  The absolute value of the second operand gives the
          number of places to rotate.  If the second operand is positive
          then rotation is to the left; otherwise rotation is to the
          right.  The coefficient of the first operand is padded on the
          left with zeros to length precision if necessary.  The sign
          and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

      -- Yöntemi: same_quantum (other, context=None)

          Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether
          both are ‘NaN’.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Yöntemi: scaleb (other, context=None)

          Return the first operand with exponent adjusted by the second.
          Equivalently, return the first operand multiplied by
          ‘10**other’.  The second operand must be an integer.

      -- Yöntemi: shift (other, context=None)

          Return the result of shifting the digits of the first operand
          by an amount specified by the second operand.  The second
          operand must be an integer in the range -precision through
          precision.  The absolute value of the second operand gives the
          number of places to shift.  If the second operand is positive
          then the shift is to the left; otherwise the shift is to the
          right.  Digits shifted into the coefficient are zeros.  The
          sign and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

      -- Yöntemi: sqrt (context=None)

          Return the square root of the argument to full precision.

      -- Yöntemi: to_eng_string (context=None)

          Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent
          is needed.

          Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.
          This can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place
          and may require the addition of either one or two trailing
          zeros.

          For example, this converts ‘Decimal('123E+1')’ to
          ‘Decimal('1.23E+3')’.

      -- Yöntemi: to_integral (rounding=None, context=None)

          Identical to the *note to_integral_value(): 2469. method.  The
          ‘to_integral’ name has been kept for compatibility with older
          versions.

      -- Yöntemi: to_integral_exact (rounding=None, context=None)

          Round to the nearest integer, signaling *note Inexact: 242d.
          or *note Rounded: 242e. as appropriate if rounding occurs.
          The rounding mode is determined by the ‘rounding’ parameter if
          given, else by the given ‘context’.  If neither parameter is
          given then the rounding mode of the current context is used.

      -- Yöntemi: to_integral_value (rounding=None, context=None)

          Round to the nearest integer without signaling *note Inexact:
          242d. or *note Rounded: 242e.  If given, applies 'rounding';
          otherwise, uses the rounding method in either the supplied
          'context' or the current context.

     Decimal numbers can be rounded using the *note round(): 1184.
     function:

      -- Describe: round(number)

      -- Describe: round(number, ndigits)

          If 'ndigits' is not given or ‘None’, returns the nearest *note
          int: 184. to 'number', rounding ties to even, and ignoring the
          rounding mode of the *note Decimal: 609. context.  Raises
          *note OverflowError: 6c7. if 'number' is an infinity or *note
          ValueError: 189. if it is a (quiet or signaling) NaN.

          If 'ndigits' is an *note int: 184, the context’s rounding mode
          is respected and a *note Decimal: 609. representing 'number'
          rounded to the nearest multiple of ‘Decimal('1E-ndigits')’ is
          returned; in this case, ‘round(number, ndigits)’ is equivalent
          to ‘self.quantize(Decimal('1E-ndigits'))’.  Returns
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’ if 'number' is a quiet NaN. Raises *note
          InvalidOperation: f4d. if 'number' is an infinity, a signaling
          NaN, or if the length of the coefficient after the quantize
          operation would be greater than the current context’s
          precision.  In other words, for the non-corner cases:

             * if 'ndigits' is positive, return 'number' rounded to
               'ndigits' decimal places;

             * if 'ndigits' is zero, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest integer;

             * if 'ndigits' is negative, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest multiple of ‘10**abs(ndigits)’.

          For example:

               >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext, ROUND_DOWN
               >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_DOWN
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'))     # context rounding ignored
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.5'))      # round-ties-to-even
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 0)  # uses the context rounding
               Decimal('3')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 1)
               Decimal('3.7')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), -1)
               Decimal('0E+1')

* Menu:

* Logical operands::


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operands,  Up: Decimal objects

5.9.4.3 Logical operands
........................

The *note logical_and(): 2451, *note logical_invert(): 2453, *note
logical_or(): 2454, and *note logical_xor(): 2455. methods expect their
arguments to be 'logical operands'.  A 'logical operand' is a *note
Decimal: 609. instance whose exponent and sign are both zero, and whose
digits are all either ‘0’ or ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Context objects,  Next: Constants<2>,  Prev: Decimal objects,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.4 Context objects
.......................

Contexts are environments for arithmetic operations.  They govern
precision, set rules for rounding, determine which signals are treated
as exceptions, and limit the range for exponents.

Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed
using the *note getcontext(): 2434. and *note setcontext(): 2435.
functions:

 -- Işlevi: decimal.getcontext ()

     Return the current context for the active thread.

 -- Işlevi: decimal.setcontext (c)

     Set the current context for the active thread to 'c'.

You can also use the *note with: 3dd. statement and the *note
localcontext(): 1627. function to temporarily change the active context.

 -- Işlevi: decimal.localcontext (ctx=None, **kwargs)

     Return a context manager that will set the current context for the
     active thread to a copy of 'ctx' on entry to the with-statement and
     restore the previous context when exiting the with-statement.  If
     no context is specified, a copy of the current context is used.
     The 'kwargs' argument is used to set the attributes of the new
     context.

     For example, the following code sets the current decimal precision
     to 42 places, performs a calculation, and then automatically
     restores the previous context:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext() as ctx:
              ctx.prec = 42   # Perform a high precision calculation
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s  # Round the final result back to the default precision

     Using keyword arguments, the code would be the following:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext(prec=42) as ctx:
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s

     Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if 'kwargs' supplies an attribute that
     *note Context: f52. doesn’t support.  Raises either *note
     TypeError: 2c4. or *note ValueError: 189. if 'kwargs' supplies an
     invalid value for an attribute.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note localcontext(): 1627. now supports
     setting context attributes through the use of keyword arguments.

New contexts can also be created using the *note Context: f52.
constructor described below.  In addition, the module provides three
pre-made contexts:

 -- Verisi: decimal.BasicContext

     This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is
     set to *note ROUND_HALF_UP: 2428.  All flags are cleared.  All
     traps are enabled (treated as exceptions) except *note Inexact:
     242d, *note Rounded: 242e, and *note Subnormal: 242f.

     Because many of the traps are enabled, this context is useful for
     debugging.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ExtendedContext

     This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is
     set to *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2427.  All flags are cleared.  No
     traps are enabled (so that exceptions are not raised during
     computations).

     Because the traps are disabled, this context is useful for
     applications that prefer to have result value of ‘NaN’ or
     ‘Infinity’ instead of raising exceptions.  This allows an
     application to complete a run in the presence of conditions that
     would otherwise halt the program.

 -- Verisi: decimal.DefaultContext

     This context is used by the *note Context: f52. constructor as a
     prototype for new contexts.  Changing a field (such a precision)
     has the effect of changing the default for new contexts created by
     the *note Context: f52. constructor.

     This context is most useful in multi-threaded environments.
     Changing one of the fields before threads are started has the
     effect of setting system-wide defaults.  Changing the fields after
     threads have started is not recommended as it would require thread
     synchronization to prevent race conditions.

     In single threaded environments, it is preferable to not use this
     context at all.  Instead, simply create contexts explicitly as
     described below.

     The default values are ‘Context.prec’=‘28’,
     ‘Context.rounding’=*note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2427, and enabled traps
     for *note Overflow: 2430, *note InvalidOperation: f4d, and *note
     DivisionByZero: 242c.

In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created
with the *note Context: f52. constructor.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Context (prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None,
          Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None)

     Creates a new context.  If a field is not specified or is *note
     None: 488, the default values are copied from the *note
     DefaultContext: f4a.  If the 'flags' field is not specified or is
     *note None: 488, all flags are cleared.

     'prec' is an integer in the range [‘1’, *note MAX_PREC: 246d.] that
     sets the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.

     The 'rounding' option is one of the constants listed in the section
     *note Rounding Modes: 246e.

     The 'traps' and 'flags' fields list any signals to be set.
     Generally, new contexts should only set traps and leave the flags
     clear.

     The 'Emin' and 'Emax' fields are integers specifying the outer
     limits allowable for exponents.  'Emin' must be in the range [*note
     MIN_EMIN: 246f, ‘0’], 'Emax' in the range [‘0’, *note MAX_EMAX:
     2470.].

     The 'capitals' field is either ‘0’ or ‘1’ (the default).  If set to
     ‘1’, exponents are printed with a capital ‘E’; otherwise, a
     lowercase ‘e’ is used: ‘Decimal('6.02e+23')’.

     The 'clamp' field is either ‘0’ (the default) or ‘1’.  If set to
     ‘1’, the exponent ‘e’ of a *note Decimal: 609. instance
     representable in this context is strictly limited to the range
     ‘Emin - prec + 1 <= e <= Emax - prec + 1’.  If 'clamp' is ‘0’ then
     a weaker condition holds: the adjusted exponent of the *note
     Decimal: 609. instance is at most ‘Emax’.  When 'clamp' is ‘1’, a
     large normal number will, where possible, have its exponent reduced
     and a corresponding number of zeros added to its coefficient, in
     order to fit the exponent constraints; this preserves the value of
     the number but loses information about significant trailing zeros.
     For example:

          >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
          Decimal('1.23000E+999')

     A 'clamp' value of ‘1’ allows compatibility with the fixed-width
     decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.

     The *note Context: f52. class defines several general purpose
     methods as well as a large number of methods for doing arithmetic
     directly in a given context.  In addition, for each of the *note
     Decimal: 609. methods described above (with the exception of the
     *note adjusted(): 2439. and *note as_tuple(): 243a. methods) there
     is a corresponding *note Context: f52. method.  For example, for a
     *note Context: f52. instance ‘C’ and *note Decimal: 609. instance
     ‘x’, ‘C.exp(x)’ is equivalent to ‘x.exp(context=C)’.  Each *note
     Context: f52. method accepts a Python integer (an instance of *note
     int: 184.) anywhere that a Decimal instance is accepted.

      -- Yöntemi: clear_flags ()

          Resets all of the flags to ‘0’.

      -- Yöntemi: clear_traps ()

          Resets all of the traps to ‘0’.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: copy ()

          Return a duplicate of the context.

      -- Yöntemi: copy_decimal (num)

          Return a copy of the Decimal instance num.

      -- Yöntemi: create_decimal (num)

          Creates a new Decimal instance from 'num' but using 'self' as
          context.  Unlike the *note Decimal: 609. constructor, the
          context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are
          applied to the conversion.

          This is useful because constants are often given to a greater
          precision than is needed by the application.  Another benefit
          is that rounding immediately eliminates unintended effects
          from digits beyond the current precision.  In the following
          example, using unrounded inputs means that adding zero to a
          sum can change the result:

               >>> getcontext().prec = 3
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.45')
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.44')

          This method implements the to-number operation of the IBM
          specification.  If the argument is a string, no leading or
          trailing whitespace or underscores are permitted.

      -- Yöntemi: create_decimal_from_float (f)

          Creates a new Decimal instance from a float 'f' but rounding
          using 'self' as the context.  Unlike the *note
          Decimal.from_float(): 10a9. class method, the context
          precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to
          the conversion.

               >>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Decimal('3.1415')
               >>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                   ...
               decimal.Inexact: None

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: Etiny ()

          Returns a value equal to ‘Emin - prec + 1’ which is the
          minimum exponent value for subnormal results.  When underflow
          occurs, the exponent is set to *note Etiny: 245f.

      -- Yöntemi: Etop ()

          Returns a value equal to ‘Emax - prec + 1’.

     The usual approach to working with decimals is to create *note
     Decimal: 609. instances and then apply arithmetic operations which
     take place within the current context for the active thread.  An
     alternative approach is to use context methods for calculating
     within a specific context.  The methods are similar to those for
     the *note Decimal: 609. class and are only briefly recounted here.

      -- Yöntemi: abs (x)

          Returns the absolute value of 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: add (x, y)

          Return the sum of 'x' and 'y'.

      -- Yöntemi: canonical (x)

          Returns the same Decimal object 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: compare (x, y)

          Compares 'x' and 'y' numerically.

      -- Yöntemi: compare_signal (x, y)

          Compares the values of the two operands numerically.

      -- Yöntemi: compare_total (x, y)

          Compares two operands using their abstract representation.

      -- Yöntemi: compare_total_mag (x, y)

          Compares two operands using their abstract representation,
          ignoring sign.

      -- Yöntemi: copy_abs (x)

          Returns a copy of 'x' with the sign set to 0.

      -- Yöntemi: copy_negate (x)

          Returns a copy of 'x' with the sign inverted.

      -- Yöntemi: copy_sign (x, y)

          Copies the sign from 'y' to 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: divide (x, y)

          Return 'x' divided by 'y'.

      -- Yöntemi: divide_int (x, y)

          Return 'x' divided by 'y', truncated to an integer.

      -- Yöntemi: divmod (x, y)

          Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the
          result.

      -- Yöntemi: exp (x)

          Returns ‘e ** x’.

      -- Yöntemi: fma (x, y, z)

          Returns 'x' multiplied by 'y', plus 'z'.

      -- Yöntemi: is_canonical (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is canonical; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_finite (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is finite; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_infinite (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is infinite; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_nan (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_normal (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a normal number; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_qnan (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_signed (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is negative; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_snan (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_subnormal (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is subnormal; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_zero (x)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a zero; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: ln (x)

          Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: log10 (x)

          Returns the base 10 logarithm of 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: logb (x)

          Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand’s MSD.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_and (x, y)

          Applies the logical operation 'and' between each operand’s
          digits.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_invert (x)

          Invert all the digits in 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_or (x, y)

          Applies the logical operation 'or' between each operand’s
          digits.

      -- Yöntemi: logical_xor (x, y)

          Applies the logical operation 'xor' between each operand’s
          digits.

      -- Yöntemi: max (x, y)

          Compares two values numerically and returns the maximum.

      -- Yöntemi: max_mag (x, y)

          Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

      -- Yöntemi: min (x, y)

          Compares two values numerically and returns the minimum.

      -- Yöntemi: min_mag (x, y)

          Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

      -- Yöntemi: minus (x)

          Minus corresponds to the unary prefix minus operator in
          Python.

      -- Yöntemi: multiply (x, y)

          Return the product of 'x' and 'y'.

      -- Yöntemi: next_minus (x)

          Returns the largest representable number smaller than 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: next_plus (x)

          Returns the smallest representable number larger than 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: next_toward (x, y)

          Returns the number closest to 'x', in direction towards 'y'.

      -- Yöntemi: normalize (x)

          Reduces 'x' to its simplest form.

      -- Yöntemi: number_class (x)

          Returns an indication of the class of 'x'.

      -- Yöntemi: plus (x)

          Plus corresponds to the unary prefix plus operator in Python.
          This operation applies the context precision and rounding, so
          it is 'not' an identity operation.

      -- Yöntemi: power (x, y, modulo=None)

          Return ‘x’ to the power of ‘y’, reduced modulo ‘modulo’ if
          given.

          With two arguments, compute ‘x**y’.  If ‘x’ is negative then
          ‘y’ must be integral.  The result will be inexact unless ‘y’
          is integral and the result is finite and can be expressed
          exactly in ‘precision’ digits.  The rounding mode of the
          context is used.  Results are always correctly rounded in the
          Python version.

          ‘Decimal(0) ** Decimal(0)’ results in ‘InvalidOperation’, and
          if ‘InvalidOperation’ is not trapped, then results in
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: The C module computes *note power():
          24a0. in terms of the correctly rounded *note exp(): 2482. and
          *note ln(): 248d. functions.  The result is well-defined but
          only “almost always correctly rounded”.

          With three arguments, compute ‘(x**y) % modulo’.  For the
          three argument form, the following restrictions on the
          arguments hold:

             - all three arguments must be integral

             - ‘y’ must be nonnegative

             - at least one of ‘x’ or ‘y’ must be nonzero

             - ‘modulo’ must be nonzero and have at most ‘precision’
               digits

          The value resulting from ‘Context.power(x, y, modulo)’ is
          equal to the value that would be obtained by computing ‘(x**y)
          % modulo’ with unbounded precision, but is computed more
          efficiently.  The exponent of the result is zero, regardless
          of the exponents of ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘modulo’.  The result is
          always exact.

      -- Yöntemi: quantize (x, y)

          Returns a value equal to 'x' (rounded), having the exponent of
          'y'.

      -- Yöntemi: radix ()

          Just returns 10, as this is Decimal, :)

      -- Yöntemi: remainder (x, y)

          Returns the remainder from integer division.

          The sign of the result, if non-zero, is the same as that of
          the original dividend.

      -- Yöntemi: remainder_near (x, y)

          Returns ‘x - y * n’, where 'n' is the integer nearest the
          exact value of ‘x / y’ (if the result is 0 then its sign will
          be the sign of 'x').

      -- Yöntemi: rotate (x, y)

          Returns a rotated copy of 'x', 'y' times.

      -- Yöntemi: same_quantum (x, y)

          Returns ‘True’ if the two operands have the same exponent.

      -- Yöntemi: scaleb (x, y)

          Returns the first operand after adding the second value its
          exp.

      -- Yöntemi: shift (x, y)

          Returns a shifted copy of 'x', 'y' times.

      -- Yöntemi: sqrt (x)

          Square root of a non-negative number to context precision.

      -- Yöntemi: subtract (x, y)

          Return the difference between 'x' and 'y'.

      -- Yöntemi: to_eng_string (x)

          Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent
          is needed.

          Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.
          This can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place
          and may require the addition of either one or two trailing
          zeros.

      -- Yöntemi: to_integral_exact (x)

          Rounds to an integer.

      -- Yöntemi: to_sci_string (x)

          Converts a number to a string using scientific notation.


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<2>,  Next: Rounding modes,  Prev: Context objects,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.5 Constants
.................

The constants in this section are only relevant for the C module.  They
are also included in the pure Python version for compatibility.

                          32-bit                    64-bit
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
 -- Verisi:               ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_PREC                          

 -- Verisi:               ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
          decimal.MAX_EMAX                          

 -- Verisi:               ‘-425000000’              ‘-999999999999999999’
          decimal.MIN_EMIN                          

 -- Verisi:               ‘-849999999’              ‘-1999999999999999997’
          decimal.MIN_ETINY                         

 -- Verisi: decimal.HAVE_THREADS

     The value is ‘True’.  Deprecated, because Python now always has
     threads.

3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Verisi: decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR

     The default value is ‘True’.  If Python is *note configured using
     the -without-decimal-contextvar option: 1bbb, the C version uses a
     thread-local rather than a coroutine-local context and the value is
     ‘False’.  This is slightly faster in some nested context scenarios.

     Added in version 3.8.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Rounding modes,  Next: Signals,  Prev: Constants<2>,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.6 Rounding modes
......................

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_CEILING

     Round towards ‘Infinity’.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_DOWN

     Round towards zero.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_FLOOR

     Round towards ‘-Infinity’.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN

     Round to nearest with ties going towards zero.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN

     Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP

     Round to nearest with ties going away from zero.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_UP

     Round away from zero.

 -- Verisi: decimal.ROUND_05UP

     Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero
     would have been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Signals,  Next: Floating-Point Notes,  Prev: Rounding modes,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.7 Signals
...............

Signals represent conditions that arise during computation.  Each
corresponds to one context flag and one context trap enabler.

The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered.  After
the computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for
instance, to determine whether a computation was exact).  After checking
the flags, be sure to clear all flags before starting the next
computation.

If the context’s trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition
causes a Python exception to be raised.  For example, if the *note
DivisionByZero: 242c. trap is set, then a *note DivisionByZero: 242c.
exception is raised upon encountering the condition.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Clamped

     Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.

     Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the
     context’s ‘Emin’ and ‘Emax’ limits.  If possible, the exponent is
     reduced to fit by adding zeros to the coefficient.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.DecimalException

     Base class for other signals and a subclass of *note
     ArithmeticError: 2078.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.DivisionByZero

     Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.

     Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number
     to a negative power.  If this signal is not trapped, returns
     ‘Infinity’ or ‘-Infinity’ with the sign determined by the inputs to
     the calculation.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Inexact

     Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.

     Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding.  The
     rounded result is returned.  The signal flag or trap is used to
     detect when results are inexact.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.InvalidOperation

     An invalid operation was performed.

     Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense.
     If not trapped, returns ‘NaN’.  Possible causes include:

          Infinity - Infinity
          0 * Infinity
          Infinity / Infinity
          x % 0
          Infinity % x
          sqrt(-x) and x > 0
          0 ** 0
          x ** (non-integer)
          x ** Infinity

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Overflow

     Numerical overflow.

     Indicates the exponent is larger than ‘Context.Emax’ after rounding
     has occurred.  If not trapped, the result depends on the rounding
     mode, either pulling inward to the largest representable finite
     number or rounding outward to ‘Infinity’.  In either case, *note
     Inexact: 242d. and *note Rounded: 242e. are also signaled.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Rounded

     Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.

     Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits
     are zero (such as rounding ‘5.00’ to ‘5.0’).  If not trapped,
     returns the result unchanged.  This signal is used to detect loss
     of significant digits.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Subnormal

     Exponent was lower than ‘Emin’ prior to rounding.

     Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too
     small).  If not trapped, returns the result unchanged.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.Underflow

     Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.

     Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding.
     *note Inexact: 242d. and *note Subnormal: 242f. are also signaled.

 -- Sınıfı: decimal.FloatOperation

     Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

     If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals
     is permitted in the *note Decimal: 609. constructor, *note
     create_decimal(): f4e. and all comparison operators.  Both
     conversion and comparisons are exact.  Any occurrence of a mixed
     operation is silently recorded by setting *note FloatOperation:
     f47. in the context flags.  Explicit conversions with *note
     from_float(): 10a9. or *note create_decimal_from_float(): 2474. do
     not set the flag.

     Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and
     explicit conversions are silent.  All other mixed operations raise
     *note FloatOperation: f47.

The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:

     exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception)
         DecimalException
             Clamped
             DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError)
             Inexact
                 Overflow(Inexact, Rounded)
                 Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal)
             InvalidOperation
             Rounded
             Subnormal
             FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError)


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Notes,  Next: Working with threads,  Prev: Signals,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.8 Floating-Point Notes
............................

* Menu:

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* Special values::


File: python.info,  Node: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Next: Special values,  Up: Floating-Point Notes

5.9.4.9 Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
...........................................................

The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation
error (making it possible to represent ‘0.1’ exactly); however, some
operations can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed
the fixed precision.

The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or
subtraction of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of
significance.  Knuth provides two instructive examples where rounded
floating-point arithmetic with insufficient precision causes the
breakdown of the associative and distributive properties of addition:

     # Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.
     >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext
     >>> getcontext().prec = 8

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.5111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('10')

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.01')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')

The *note decimal: 35. module makes it possible to restore the
identities by expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of
significance:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 20
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>>
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')


File: python.info,  Node: Special values,  Prev: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Up: Floating-Point Notes

5.9.4.10 Special values
.......................

The number system for the *note decimal: 35. module provides special
values including ‘NaN’, ‘sNaN’, ‘-Infinity’, ‘Infinity’, and two zeros,
‘+0’ and ‘-0’.

Infinities can be constructed directly with: ‘Decimal('Infinity')’.
Also, they can arise from dividing by zero when the *note
DivisionByZero: 242c. signal is not trapped.  Likewise, when the *note
Overflow: 2430. signal is not trapped, infinity can result from rounding
beyond the limits of the largest representable number.

The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic
operations where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers.
For instance, adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite
result.

Some operations are indeterminate and return ‘NaN’, or if the *note
InvalidOperation: f4d. signal is trapped, raise an exception.  For
example, ‘0/0’ returns ‘NaN’ which means “not a number”.  This variety
of ‘NaN’ is quiet and, once created, will flow through other
computations always resulting in another ‘NaN’.  This behavior can be
useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing
inputs — it allows the calculation to proceed while flagging specific
results as invalid.

A variant is ‘sNaN’ which signals rather than remaining quiet after
every operation.  This is a useful return value when an invalid result
needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python’s comparison operators can be a little surprising
where a ‘NaN’ is involved.  A test for equality where one of the
operands is a quiet or signaling ‘NaN’ always returns *note False: 9a8.
(even when doing ‘Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')’), while a test for
inequality always returns *note True: a86.  An attempt to compare two
Decimals using any of the ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ or ‘>=’ operators will raise
the *note InvalidOperation: f4d. signal if either operand is a ‘NaN’,
and return *note False: 9a8. if this signal is not trapped.  Note that
the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the
behavior of direct comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a
‘NaN’ were taken from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in section
5.7).  To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the *note compare():
243c. and *note compare_signal(): 243d. methods instead.

The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow.  They keep
the sign that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried
out to greater precision.  Since their magnitude is zero, both positive
and negative zeros are treated as equal and their sign is informational.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there
are various representations of zero with differing precisions yet
equivalent in value.  This takes a bit of getting used to.  For an eye
accustomed to normalized floating-point representations, it is not
immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal
to zero:

     >>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
     Decimal('0E-1000026')


File: python.info,  Node: Working with threads,  Next: Recipes,  Prev: Floating-Point Notes,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.11 Working with threads
.............................

The *note getcontext(): 2434. function accesses a different *note
Context: f52. object for each thread.  Having separate thread contexts
means that threads may make changes (such as ‘getcontext().prec=10’)
without interfering with other threads.

Likewise, the *note setcontext(): 2435. function automatically assigns
its target to the current thread.

If *note setcontext(): 2435. has not been called before *note
getcontext(): 2434, then *note getcontext(): 2434. will automatically
create a new context for use in the current thread.

The new context is copied from a prototype context called
'DefaultContext'.  To control the defaults so that each thread will use
the same values throughout the application, directly modify the
'DefaultContext' object.  This should be done 'before' any threads are
started so that there won’t be a race condition between threads calling
*note getcontext(): 2434.  For example:

     # Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched
     DefaultContext.prec = 12
     DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
     DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()
     DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1
     setcontext(DefaultContext)

     # Afterwards, the threads can be started
     t1.start()
     t2.start()
     t3.start()
      . . .


File: python.info,  Node: Recipes,  Next: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: Working with threads,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.12 Recipes
................

Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that
demonstrate ways to work with the *note Decimal: 609. class:

     def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',
                  pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):
         """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

         places:  required number of places after the decimal point
         curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
         sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
         dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
                  only specify as blank when places is zero
         pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
         neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
         trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank

         >>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
         '-$1,234,567.89'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
         '1.234.568-'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
         '($1,234,567.89)'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
         '123 456 789.00'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
         '<0.02>'

         """
         q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
         sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
         result = []
         digits = list(map(str, digits))
         build, next = result.append, digits.pop
         if sign:
             build(trailneg)
         for i in range(places):
             build(next() if digits else '0')
         if places:
             build(dp)
         if not digits:
             build('0')
         i = 0
         while digits:
             build(next())
             i += 1
             if i == 3 and digits:
                 i = 0
                 build(sep)
         build(curr)
         build(neg if sign else pos)
         return ''.join(reversed(result))

     def pi():
         """Compute Pi to the current precision.

         >>> print(pi())
         3.141592653589793238462643383

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
         three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
         lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             n, na = n+na, na+8
             d, da = d+da, da+32
             t = (t * n) / d
             s += t
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision

     def exp(x):
         """Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.

         >>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
         2.718281828459045235360287471
         >>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
         7.389056098930650227230427461
         >>> print(exp(2.0))
         7.38905609893
         >>> print(exp(2+0j))
         (7.38905609893+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 1
             fact *= i
             num *= x
             s += num / fact
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def cos(x):
         """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.8775825618903727161162815826
         >>> print(cos(0.5))
         0.87758256189
         >>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
         (0.87758256189+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def sin(x):
         """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.4794255386042030002732879352
         >>> print(sin(0.5))
         0.479425538604
         >>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
         (0.479425538604+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: Recipes,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.9.4.13 Decimal FAQ
....................

Q. It is cumbersome to type ‘decimal.Decimal('1234.5')’.  Is there a way
to minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?

A. Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:

     >>> D = decimal.Decimal
     >>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
     Decimal('4.68')

Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs
have many places and need to be rounded.  Others are not supposed to
have excess digits and need to be validated.  What methods should be
used?

A. The *note quantize(): f53. method rounds to a fixed number of decimal
places.  If the *note Inexact: 242d. trap is set, it is also useful for
validation:

     >>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2       # same as Decimal('0.01')

     >>> # Round to two places
     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> # Validate that a number does not exceed two places
     >>> Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     Inexact: None

Q. Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant
throughout an application?

A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an
integer will automatically preserve fixed point.  Others operations,
like division and non-integer multiplication, will change the number of
decimal places and need to be followed-up with a *note quantize(): f53.
step:

     >>> a = Decimal('102.72')           # Initial fixed-point values
     >>> b = Decimal('3.17')
     >>> a + b                           # Addition preserves fixed-point
     Decimal('105.89')
     >>> a - b
     Decimal('99.55')
     >>> a * 42                          # So does integer multiplication
     Decimal('4314.24')
     >>> (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # Must quantize non-integer multiplication
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # And quantize division
     Decimal('0.03')

In developing fixed-point applications, it is convenient to define
functions to handle the *note quantize(): f53. step:

     >>> def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x * y).quantize(fp)
     ...
     >>> def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x / y).quantize(fp)

     >>> mul(a, b)                       # Automatically preserve fixed-point
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> div(b, a)
     Decimal('0.03')

Q. There are many ways to express the same value.  The numbers ‘200’,
‘200.000’, ‘2E2’, and ‘.02E+4’ all have the same value at various
precisions.  Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
canonical value?

A. The *note normalize(): 245d. method maps all equivalent values to a
single representative:

     >>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
     >>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
     [Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]

Q. When does rounding occur in a computation?

A. It occurs 'after' the computation.  The philosophy of the decimal
specification is that numbers are considered exact and are created
independent of the current context.  They can even have greater
precision than current context.  Computations process with those exact
inputs and then rounding (or other context operations) is applied to the
'result' of the computation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 5
     >>> pi = Decimal('3.1415926535')   # More than 5 digits
     >>> pi                             # All digits are retained
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> pi + 0                         # Rounded after an addition
     Decimal('3.1416')
     >>> pi - Decimal('0.00005')        # Subtract unrounded numbers, then round
     Decimal('3.1415')
     >>> pi + 0 - Decimal('0.00005').   # Intermediate values are rounded
     Decimal('3.1416')

Q. Some decimal values always print with exponential notation.  Is there
a way to get a non-exponential representation?

A. For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the
number of significant places in the coefficient.  For example,
expressing ‘5.0E+3’ as ‘5000’ keeps the value constant but cannot show
the original’s two-place significance.

If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy
to remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but
keeping the value unchanged:

     >>> def remove_exponent(d):
     ...     return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()

     >>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
     Decimal('5000')

Q. Is there a way to convert a regular float to a *note Decimal: 609.?

A. Yes, any binary floating-point number can be exactly expressed as a
Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than
intuition would suggest:

     >>> Decimal(math.pi)
     Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')

Q. Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven’t
gotten a spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding
anomalies.

A. The decimal module makes it easy to test results.  A best practice is
to re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding
modes.  Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision,
rounding mode issues, ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable
algorithm.

Q. I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of
operations but not to the inputs.  Is there anything to watch out for
when mixing values of different precisions?

A. Yes.  The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and
so is the arithmetic on those values.  Only the results are rounded.
The advantage for inputs is that “what you type is what you get”.  A
disadvantage is that the results can look odd if you forget that the
inputs haven’t been rounded:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.21')
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.20')

The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of
inputs using the unary plus operation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> +Decimal('1.23456789')      # unary plus triggers rounding
     Decimal('1.23')

Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the *note
Context.create_decimal(): f4e. method:

     >>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
     Decimal('1.2345')

Q. Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?

A. Yes.  In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions
of the decimal module integrate the high speed libmpdec(1) library for
arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic
(2).  ‘libmpdec’ uses Karatsuba multiplication(3) for medium-sized
numbers and the Number Theoretic Transform(4) for very large numbers.

The context must be adapted for exact arbitrary precision arithmetic.
‘Emin’ and ‘Emax’ should always be set to the maximum values, ‘clamp’
should always be 0 (the default).  Setting ‘prec’ requires some care.

The easiest approach for trying out bignum arithmetic is to use the
maximum value for ‘prec’ as well (5):

     >>> setcontext(Context(prec=MAX_PREC, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN))
     >>> x = Decimal(2) ** 256
     >>> x / 128
     Decimal('904625697166532776746648320380374280103671755200316906558262375061821325312')

For inexact results, *note MAX_PREC: 246d. is far too large on 64-bit
platforms and the available memory will be insufficient:

     >>> Decimal(1) / 3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     MemoryError

On systems with overallocation (e.g.  Linux), a more sophisticated
approach is to adjust ‘prec’ to the amount of available RAM. Suppose
that you have 8GB of RAM and expect 10 simultaneous operands using a
maximum of 500MB each:

     >>> import sys
     >>>
     >>> # Maximum number of digits for a single operand using 500MB in 8-byte words
     >>> # with 19 digits per word (4-byte and 9 digits for the 32-bit build):
     >>> maxdigits = 19 * ((500 * 1024**2) // 8)
     >>>
     >>> # Check that this works:
     >>> c = Context(prec=maxdigits, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN)
     >>> c.traps[Inexact] = True
     >>> setcontext(c)
     >>>
     >>> # Fill the available precision with nines:
     >>> x = Decimal(0).logical_invert() * 9
     >>> sys.getsizeof(x)
     524288112
     >>> x + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       decimal.Inexact: [<class 'decimal.Inexact'>]

In general (and especially on systems without overallocation), it is
recommended to estimate even tighter bounds and set the *note Inexact:
242d. trap if all calculations are expected to be exact.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html

   (2) 
Added in version 3.3.

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform

   (5) 
3.9 sürümünde değişti: This approach now works for all exact results
except for non-integer powers.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions — Rational numbers,  Next: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers,  Prev: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Up: Numeric and Mathematical Modules

5.9.5 ‘fractions’ — Rational numbers
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/fractions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note fractions: 5b. module provides support for rational number
arithmetic.

A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of integers, from
another rational number, or from a string.

 -- Sınıfı: fractions.Fraction (numerator=0, denominator=1)

 -- Sınıfı: fractions.Fraction (other_fraction)

 -- Sınıfı: fractions.Fraction (float)

 -- Sınıfı: fractions.Fraction (decimal)

 -- Sınıfı: fractions.Fraction (string)

     The first version requires that 'numerator' and 'denominator' are
     instances of *note numbers.Rational: 1167. and returns a new *note
     Fraction: 1ae. instance with value ‘numerator/denominator’.  If
     'denominator' is ‘0’, it raises a *note ZeroDivisionError: 79e.
     The second version requires that 'other_fraction' is an instance of
     *note numbers.Rational: 1167. and returns a *note Fraction: 1ae.
     instance with the same value.  The next two versions accept either
     a *note float: 272. or a *note decimal.Decimal: 609. instance, and
     return a *note Fraction: 1ae. instance with exactly the same value.
     Note that due to the usual issues with binary floating point (see
     *note Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations: 1b5b.),
     the argument to ‘Fraction(1.1)’ is not exactly equal to 11/10, and
     so ‘Fraction(1.1)’ does 'not' return ‘Fraction(11, 10)’ as one
     might expect.  (But see the documentation for the *note
     limit_denominator(): 24c0. method below.)  The last version of the
     constructor expects a string or unicode instance.  The usual form
     for this instance is:

          [sign] numerator ['/' denominator]

     where the optional ‘sign’ may be either ‘+’ or ‘-’ and ‘numerator’
     and ‘denominator’ (if present) are strings of decimal digits
     (underscores may be used to delimit digits as with integral
     literals in code).  In addition, any string that represents a
     finite value and is accepted by the *note float: 272. constructor
     is also accepted by the *note Fraction: 1ae. constructor.  In
     either form the input string may also have leading and/or trailing
     whitespace.  Here are some examples:

          >>> from fractions import Fraction
          >>> Fraction(16, -10)
          Fraction(-8, 5)
          >>> Fraction(123)
          Fraction(123, 1)
          >>> Fraction()
          Fraction(0, 1)
          >>> Fraction('3/7')
          Fraction(3, 7)
          >>> Fraction(' -3/7 ')
          Fraction(-3, 7)
          >>> Fraction('1.414213 \t\n')
          Fraction(1414213, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction('-.125')
          Fraction(-1, 8)
          >>> Fraction('7e-6')
          Fraction(7, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction(2.25)
          Fraction(9, 4)
          >>> Fraction(1.1)
          Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
          >>> from decimal import Decimal
          >>> Fraction(Decimal('1.1'))
          Fraction(11, 10)

     The *note Fraction: 1ae. class inherits from the abstract base
     class *note numbers.Rational: 1167, and implements all of the
     methods and operations from that class.  *note Fraction: 1ae.
     instances are *note hashable: 421, and should be treated as
     immutable.  In addition, *note Fraction: 1ae. has the following
     properties and methods:

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The *note Fraction: 1ae. constructor now
     accepts *note float: 272. and *note decimal.Decimal: 609.
     instances.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The *note math.gcd(): 766. function is now
     used to normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  *note
     math.gcd(): 766. always returns an *note int: 184. type.
     Previously, the GCD type depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Underscores are now permitted when creating
     a *note Fraction: 1ae. instance from a string, following PEP 515(2)
     rules.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note Fraction: 1ae. implements ‘__int__’
     now to satisfy ‘typing.SupportsInt’ instance checks.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Space is allowed around the slash for
     string inputs: ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: *note Fraction: 1ae. instances now support
     float-style formatting, with presentation types ‘"e"’, ‘"E"’,
     ‘"f"’, ‘"F"’, ‘"g"’, ‘"G"’ and ‘"%""’.

      -- Özniteliği: numerator

          Numerator of the Fraction in lowest term.

      -- Özniteliği: denominator

          Denominator of the Fraction in lowest term.

      -- Yöntemi: as_integer_ratio ()

          Return a tuple of two integers, whose ratio is equal to the
          original Fraction.  The ratio is in lowest terms and has a
          positive denominator.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: is_integer ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Fraction is an integer.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_float (flt)

          Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of *note
          float: 272. or *note numbers.Integral: 1dab.  Beware that
          ‘Fraction.from_float(0.3)’ is not the same value as
          ‘Fraction(3, 10)’.

               Not: From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
               *note Fraction: 1ae. instance directly from a *note
               float: 272.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_decimal (dec)

          Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of *note
          decimal.Decimal: 609. or *note numbers.Integral: 1dab.

               Not: From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct a
               *note Fraction: 1ae. instance directly from a *note
               decimal.Decimal: 609. instance.

      -- Yöntemi: limit_denominator (max_denominator=1000000)

          Finds and returns the closest *note Fraction: 1ae. to ‘self’
          that has denominator at most max_denominator.  This method is
          useful for finding rational approximations to a given
          floating-point number:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> Fraction('3.1415926535897932').limit_denominator(1000)
               Fraction(355, 113)

          or for recovering a rational number that’s represented as a
          float:

               >>> from math import pi, cos
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3))
               Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3)).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(1, 2)
               >>> Fraction(1.1).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(11, 10)

      -- Yöntemi: __floor__ ()

          Returns the greatest *note int: 184. ‘<= self’.  This method
          can also be accessed through the *note math.floor(): 1248.
          function:

               >>> from math import floor
               >>> floor(Fraction(355, 113))
               3

      -- Yöntemi: __ceil__ ()

          Returns the least *note int: 184. ‘>= self’.  This method can
          also be accessed through the *note math.ceil(): 1249.
          function.

      -- Yöntemi: __round__ ()

      -- Yöntemi: __round__ (ndigits)

          The first version returns the nearest *note int: 184. to
          ‘self’, rounding half to even.  The second version rounds
          ‘self’ to the nearest multiple of ‘Fraction(1, 10**ndigits)’
          (logically, if ‘ndigits’ is negative), again rounding half
          toward even.  This method can also be accessed through the
          *note round(): 1184. function.

      -- Yöntemi: __format__ (format_spec, /)

          Provides support for float-style formatting of *note Fraction:
          1ae. instances via the *note str.format(): 433. method, the
          *note format(): 431. built-in function, or *note Formatted
          string literals: 807.  The presentation types ‘"e"’, ‘"E"’,
          ‘"f"’, ‘"F"’, ‘"g"’, ‘"G"’ and ‘"%"’ are supported.  For these
          presentation types, formatting for a *note Fraction: 1ae.
          object ‘x’ follows the rules outlined for the *note float:
          272. type in the *note Format Specification Mini-Language:
          3ee. section.

          Here are some examples:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.40g')
               '0.1428571428571428571428571428571428571429'
               >>> format(Fraction('1234567.855'), '_.2f')
               '1_234_567.86'
               >>> f"{Fraction(355, 113):*>20.6e}"
               '********3.141593e+00'
               >>> old_price, new_price = 499, 672
               >>> "{:.2%} price increase".format(Fraction(new_price, old_price) - 1)
               '34.67% price increase'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note numbers: 9d.

     The abstract base classes making up the numeric tower.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/fractions.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers,  Next: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions,  Prev: fractions — Rational numbers,  Up: Numeric and Mathematical Modules

5.9.6 ‘random’ — Generate pseudo-random numbers
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/random.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements pseudo-random number generators for various
distributions.

For integers, there is uniform selection from a range.  For sequences,
there is uniform selection of a random element, a function to generate a
random permutation of a list in-place, and a function for random
sampling without replacement.

On the real line, there are functions to compute uniform, normal
(Gaussian), lognormal, negative exponential, gamma, and beta
distributions.  For generating distributions of angles, the von Mises
distribution is available.

Almost all module functions depend on the basic function *note random():
574, which generates a random float uniformly in the half-open range
‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’.  Python uses the Mersenne Twister as the core
generator.  It produces 53-bit precision floats and has a period of
2**19937-1.  The underlying implementation in C is both fast and
threadsafe.  The Mersenne Twister is one of the most extensively tested
random number generators in existence.  However, being completely
deterministic, it is not suitable for all purposes, and is completely
unsuitable for cryptographic purposes.

The functions supplied by this module are actually bound methods of a
hidden instance of the *note random.Random: 16cf. class.  You can
instantiate your own instances of *note Random: 16cf. to get generators
that don’t share state.

Class *note Random: 16cf. can also be subclassed if you want to use a
different basic generator of your own devising: see the documentation on
that class for more details.

The *note random: b7. module also provides the *note SystemRandom: 24c8.
class which uses the system function *note os.urandom(): 2ad. to
generate random numbers from sources provided by the operating system.

     Uyarı: The pseudo-random generators of this module should not be
     used for security purposes.  For security or cryptographic uses,
     see the *note secrets: bf. module.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, “Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally
equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator”, ACM Transactions
on Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol.  8, No.  1, January pp.3–30
1998.

Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe(2) for a compatible alternative
random number generator with a long period and comparatively simple
update operations.

* Menu:

* Bookkeeping functions::
* Functions for bytes::
* Functions for integers::
* Functions for sequences::
* Discrete distributions::
* Real-valued distributions::
* Alternative Generator::
* Notes on Reproducibility::
* Examples: Examples<4>.
* Recipes: Recipes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/random.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707-long-period-random-number-generator/


File: python.info,  Node: Bookkeeping functions,  Next: Functions for bytes,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.1 Bookkeeping functions
.............................

 -- Işlevi: random.seed (a=None, version=2)

     Initialize the random number generator.

     If 'a' is omitted or ‘None’, the current system time is used.  If
     randomness sources are provided by the operating system, they are
     used instead of the system time (see the *note os.urandom(): 2ad.
     function for details on availability).

     If 'a' is an int, it is used directly.

     With version 2 (the default), a *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb,
     or *note bytearray: 2ca. object gets converted to an *note int:
     184. and all of its bits are used.

     With version 1 (provided for reproducing random sequences from
     older versions of Python), the algorithm for *note str: 15d. and
     *note bytes: 2cb. generates a narrower range of seeds.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Moved to the version 2 scheme which uses all
     of the bits in a string seed.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'seed' must be one of the following
     types: ‘None’, *note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note str: 15d,
     *note bytes: 2cb, or *note bytearray: 2ca.

 -- Işlevi: random.getstate ()

     Return an object capturing the current internal state of the
     generator.  This object can be passed to *note setstate(): 24cb. to
     restore the state.

 -- Işlevi: random.setstate (state)

     'state' should have been obtained from a previous call to *note
     getstate(): 24ca, and *note setstate(): 24cb. restores the internal
     state of the generator to what it was at the time *note getstate():
     24ca. was called.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions for bytes,  Next: Functions for integers,  Prev: Bookkeeping functions,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.2 Functions for bytes
...........................

 -- Işlevi: random.randbytes (n)

     Generate 'n' random bytes.

     This method should not be used for generating security tokens.  Use
     *note secrets.token_bytes(): 24cd. instead.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions for integers,  Next: Functions for sequences,  Prev: Functions for bytes,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.3 Functions for integers
..............................

 -- Işlevi: random.randrange (stop)

 -- Işlevi: random.randrange (start, stop[, step])

     Return a randomly selected element from ‘range(start, stop, step)’.

     This is roughly equivalent to ‘choice(range(start, stop, step))’
     but supports arbitrarily large ranges and is optimized for common
     cases.

     The positional argument pattern matches the *note range(): 79c.
     function.

     Keyword arguments should not be used because they can be
     interpreted in unexpected ways.  For example ‘randrange(start=100)’
     is interpreted as ‘randrange(0, 100, 1)’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: *note randrange(): 6af. is more
     sophisticated about producing equally distributed values.  Formerly
     it used a style like ‘int(random()*n)’ which could produce slightly
     uneven distributions.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Automatic conversion of non-integer types
     is no longer supported.  Calls such as ‘randrange(10.0)’ and
     ‘randrange(Fraction(10, 1))’ now raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.

 -- Işlevi: random.randint (a, b)

     Return a random integer 'N' such that ‘a <= N <= b’.  Alias for
     ‘randrange(a, b+1)’.

 -- Işlevi: random.getrandbits (k)

     Returns a non-negative Python integer with 'k' random bits.  This
     method is supplied with the Mersenne Twister generator and some
     other generators may also provide it as an optional part of the
     API.  When available, *note getrandbits(): eb4. enables *note
     randrange(): 6af. to handle arbitrarily large ranges.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: This method now accepts zero for 'k'.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions for sequences,  Next: Discrete distributions,  Prev: Functions for integers,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.4 Functions for sequences
...............................

 -- Işlevi: random.choice (seq)

     Return a random element from the non-empty sequence 'seq'.  If
     'seq' is empty, raises *note IndexError: 13c2.

 -- Işlevi: random.choices (population, weights=None, *,
          cum_weights=None, k=1)

     Return a 'k' sized list of elements chosen from the 'population'
     with replacement.  If the 'population' is empty, raises *note
     IndexError: 13c2.

     If a 'weights' sequence is specified, selections are made according
     to the relative weights.  Alternatively, if a 'cum_weights'
     sequence is given, the selections are made according to the
     cumulative weights (perhaps computed using *note
     itertools.accumulate(): 85d.).  For example, the relative weights
     ‘[10, 5, 30, 5]’ are equivalent to the cumulative weights ‘[10, 15,
     45, 50]’.  Internally, the relative weights are converted to
     cumulative weights before making selections, so supplying the
     cumulative weights saves work.

     If neither 'weights' nor 'cum_weights' are specified, selections
     are made with equal probability.  If a weights sequence is
     supplied, it must be the same length as the 'population' sequence.
     It is a *note TypeError: 2c4. to specify both 'weights' and
     'cum_weights'.

     The 'weights' or 'cum_weights' can use any numeric type that
     interoperates with the *note float: 272. values returned by *note
     random(): b7. (that includes integers, floats, and fractions but
     excludes decimals).  Weights are assumed to be non-negative and
     finite.  A *note ValueError: 189. is raised if all weights are
     zero.

     For a given seed, the *note choices(): b49. function with equal
     weighting typically produces a different sequence than repeated
     calls to *note choice(): 10d7.  The algorithm used by *note
     choices(): b49. uses floating-point arithmetic for internal
     consistency and speed.  The algorithm used by *note choice(): 10d7.
     defaults to integer arithmetic with repeated selections to avoid
     small biases from round-off error.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Raises a *note ValueError: 189. if all
     weights are zero.

 -- Işlevi: random.shuffle (x)

     Shuffle the sequence 'x' in place.

     To shuffle an immutable sequence and return a new shuffled list,
     use ‘sample(x, k=len(x))’ instead.

     Note that even for small ‘len(x)’, the total number of permutations
     of 'x' can quickly grow larger than the period of most random
     number generators.  This implies that most permutations of a long
     sequence can never be generated.  For example, a sequence of length
     2080 is the largest that can fit within the period of the Mersenne
     Twister random number generator.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Removed the optional parameter 'random'.

 -- Işlevi: random.sample (population, k, *, counts=None)

     Return a 'k' length list of unique elements chosen from the
     population sequence.  Used for random sampling without replacement.

     Returns a new list containing elements from the population while
     leaving the original population unchanged.  The resulting list is
     in selection order so that all sub-slices will also be valid random
     samples.  This allows raffle winners (the sample) to be partitioned
     into grand prize and second place winners (the subslices).

     Members of the population need not be *note hashable: 421. or
     unique.  If the population contains repeats, then each occurrence
     is a possible selection in the sample.

     Repeated elements can be specified one at a time or with the
     optional keyword-only 'counts' parameter.  For example,
     ‘sample(['red', 'blue'], counts=[4, 2], k=5)’ is equivalent to
     ‘sample(['red', 'red', 'red', 'red', 'blue', 'blue'], k=5)’.

     To choose a sample from a range of integers, use a *note range():
     79c. object as an argument.  This is especially fast and space
     efficient for sampling from a large population:
     ‘sample(range(10000000), k=60)’.

     If the sample size is larger than the population size, a *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'counts' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'population' must be a sequence.
     Automatic conversion of sets to lists is no longer supported.


File: python.info,  Node: Discrete distributions,  Next: Real-valued distributions,  Prev: Functions for sequences,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.5 Discrete distributions
..............................

The following function generates a discrete distribution.

 -- Işlevi: random.binomialvariate (n=1, p=0.5)

     Binomial distribution(1).  Return the number of successes for 'n'
     independent trials with the probability of success in each trial
     being 'p':

     Mathematically equivalent to:

          sum(random() < p for i in range(n))

     The number of trials 'n' should be a non-negative integer.  The
     probability of success 'p' should be between ‘0.0 <= p <= 1.0’.
     The result is an integer in the range ‘0 <= X <= n’.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: Real-valued distributions,  Next: Alternative Generator,  Prev: Discrete distributions,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.6 Real-valued distributions
.................................

The following functions generate specific real-valued distributions.
Function parameters are named after the corresponding variables in the
distribution’s equation, as used in common mathematical practice; most
of these equations can be found in any statistics text.

 -- Işlevi: random.random ()

     Return the next random floating-point number in the range ‘0.0 <= X
     < 1.0’

 -- Işlevi: random.uniform (a, b)

     Return a random floating-point number 'N' such that ‘a <= N <= b’
     for ‘a <= b’ and ‘b <= N <= a’ for ‘b < a’.

     The end-point value ‘b’ may or may not be included in the range
     depending on floating-point rounding in the expression ‘a + (b-a) *
     random()’.

 -- Işlevi: random.triangular (low, high, mode)

     Return a random floating-point number 'N' such that ‘low <= N <=
     high’ and with the specified 'mode' between those bounds.  The
     'low' and 'high' bounds default to zero and one.  The 'mode'
     argument defaults to the midpoint between the bounds, giving a
     symmetric distribution.

 -- Işlevi: random.betavariate (alpha, beta)

     Beta distribution.  Conditions on the parameters are ‘alpha > 0’
     and ‘beta > 0’.  Returned values range between 0 and 1.

 -- Işlevi: random.expovariate (lambd=1.0)

     Exponential distribution.  'lambd' is 1.0 divided by the desired
     mean.  It should be nonzero.  (The parameter would be called
     “lambda”, but that is a reserved word in Python.)  Returned values
     range from 0 to positive infinity if 'lambd' is positive, and from
     negative infinity to 0 if 'lambd' is negative.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the default value for ‘lambd’.

 -- Işlevi: random.gammavariate (alpha, beta)

     Gamma distribution.  ('Not' the gamma function!)  The shape and
     scale parameters, 'alpha' and 'beta', must have positive values.
     (Calling conventions vary and some sources define ‘beta’ as the
     inverse of the scale).

     The probability distribution function is:

                    x ** (alpha - 1) * math.exp(-x / beta)
          pdf(x) =  --------------------------------------
                      math.gamma(alpha) * beta ** alpha

 -- Işlevi: random.gauss (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Normal distribution, also called the Gaussian distribution.  'mu'
     is the mean, and 'sigma' is the standard deviation.  This is
     slightly faster than the *note normalvariate(): 1669. function
     defined below.

     Multithreading note: When two threads call this function
     simultaneously, it is possible that they will receive the same
     return value.  This can be avoided in three ways.  1) Have each
     thread use a different instance of the random number generator.  2)
     Put locks around all calls.  3) Use the slower, but thread-safe
     *note normalvariate(): 1669. function instead.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'mu' and 'sigma' now have default
     arguments.

 -- Işlevi: random.lognormvariate (mu, sigma)

     Log normal distribution.  If you take the natural logarithm of this
     distribution, you’ll get a normal distribution with mean 'mu' and
     standard deviation 'sigma'.  'mu' can have any value, and 'sigma'
     must be greater than zero.

 -- Işlevi: random.normalvariate (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Normal distribution.  'mu' is the mean, and 'sigma' is the standard
     deviation.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'mu' and 'sigma' now have default
     arguments.

 -- Işlevi: random.vonmisesvariate (mu, kappa)

     'mu' is the mean angle, expressed in radians between 0 and 2*'pi',
     and 'kappa' is the concentration parameter, which must be greater
     than or equal to zero.  If 'kappa' is equal to zero, this
     distribution reduces to a uniform random angle over the range 0 to
     2*'pi'.

 -- Işlevi: random.paretovariate (alpha)

     Pareto distribution.  'alpha' is the shape parameter.

 -- Işlevi: random.weibullvariate (alpha, beta)

     Weibull distribution.  'alpha' is the scale parameter and 'beta' is
     the shape parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Alternative Generator,  Next: Notes on Reproducibility,  Prev: Real-valued distributions,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.7 Alternative Generator
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: random.Random ([seed])

     Class that implements the default pseudo-random number generator
     used by the *note random: b7. module.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Formerly the 'seed' could be any hashable
     object.  Now it is limited to: ‘None’, *note int: 184, *note float:
     272, *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb, or *note bytearray: 2ca.

     Subclasses of ‘Random’ should override the following methods if
     they wish to make use of a different basic generator:

      -- Yöntemi: seed (a=None, version=2)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          seed(): 111c. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- Yöntemi: getstate ()

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          getstate(): 24ca. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- Yöntemi: setstate (state)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          setstate(): 24cb. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

      -- Yöntemi: random ()

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          random(): 574. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

     Optionally, a custom generator subclass can also supply the
     following method:

      -- Yöntemi: getrandbits (k)

          Override this method in subclasses to customise the *note
          getrandbits(): eb4. behaviour of ‘Random’ instances.

 -- Sınıfı: random.SystemRandom ([seed])

     Class that uses the *note os.urandom(): 2ad. function for
     generating random numbers from sources provided by the operating
     system.  Not available on all systems.  Does not rely on software
     state, and sequences are not reproducible.  Accordingly, the *note
     seed(): 111c. method has no effect and is ignored.  The *note
     getstate(): 24ca. and *note setstate(): 24cb. methods raise *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6. if called.


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on Reproducibility,  Next: Examples<4>,  Prev: Alternative Generator,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.8 Notes on Reproducibility
................................

Sometimes it is useful to be able to reproduce the sequences given by a
pseudo-random number generator.  By reusing a seed value, the same
sequence should be reproducible from run to run as long as multiple
threads are not running.

Most of the random module’s algorithms and seeding functions are subject
to change across Python versions, but two aspects are guaranteed not to
change:

   * If a new seeding method is added, then a backward compatible seeder
     will be offered.

   * The generator’s *note random(): 24de. method will continue to
     produce the same sequence when the compatible seeder is given the
     same seed.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<4>,  Next: Recipes<2>,  Prev: Notes on Reproducibility,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.9 Examples
................

Basic examples:

     >>> random()                          # Random float:  0.0 <= x < 1.0
     0.37444887175646646

     >>> uniform(2.5, 10.0)                # Random float:  2.5 <= x <= 10.0
     3.1800146073117523

     >>> expovariate(1 / 5)                # Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds
     5.148957571865031

     >>> randrange(10)                     # Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive
     7

     >>> randrange(0, 101, 2)              # Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive
     26

     >>> choice(['win', 'lose', 'draw'])   # Single random element from a sequence
     'draw'

     >>> deck = 'ace two three four'.split()
     >>> shuffle(deck)                     # Shuffle a list
     >>> deck
     ['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three']

     >>> sample([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], k=4) # Four samples without replacement
     [40, 10, 50, 30]

Simulations:

     >>> # Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement)
     >>> choices(['red', 'black', 'green'], [18, 18, 2], k=6)
     ['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black']

     >>> # Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck
     >>> # of 52 playing cards, and determine the proportion of cards
     >>> # with a ten-value:  ten, jack, queen, or king.
     >>> deal = sample(['tens', 'low cards'], counts=[16, 36], k=20)
     >>> deal.count('tens') / 20
     0.15

     >>> # Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins
     >>> # of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time.
     >>> sum(binomialvariate(n=7, p=0.6) >= 5 for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.4169

     >>> # Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles
     >>> def trial():
     ...     return 2_500 <= sorted(choices(range(10_000), k=5))[2] < 7_500
     ...
     >>> sum(trial() for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.7958

Example of statistical bootstrapping(1) using resampling with
replacement to estimate a confidence interval for the mean of a sample:

     # https://www.thoughtco.com/example-of-bootstrapping-3126155
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import choices

     data = [41, 50, 29, 37, 81, 30, 73, 63, 20, 35, 68, 22, 60, 31, 95]
     means = sorted(mean(choices(data, k=len(data))) for i in range(100))
     print(f'The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90% confidence '
           f'interval from {means[5]:.1f} to {means[94]:.1f}')

Example of a resampling permutation test(2) to determine the statistical
significance or p-value(3) of an observed difference between the effects
of a drug versus a placebo:

     # Example from "Statistics is Easy" by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import shuffle

     drug = [54, 73, 53, 70, 73, 68, 52, 65, 65]
     placebo = [54, 51, 58, 44, 55, 52, 42, 47, 58, 46]
     observed_diff = mean(drug) - mean(placebo)

     n = 10_000
     count = 0
     combined = drug + placebo
     for i in range(n):
         shuffle(combined)
         new_diff = mean(combined[:len(drug)]) - mean(combined[len(drug):])
         count += (new_diff >= observed_diff)

     print(f'{n} label reshufflings produced only {count} instances with a difference')
     print(f'at least as extreme as the observed difference of {observed_diff:.1f}.')
     print(f'The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null')
     print(f'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.')

Simulation of arrival times and service deliveries for a multiserver
queue:

     from heapq import heapify, heapreplace
     from random import expovariate, gauss
     from statistics import mean, quantiles

     average_arrival_interval = 5.6
     average_service_time = 15.0
     stdev_service_time = 3.5
     num_servers = 3

     waits = []
     arrival_time = 0.0
     servers = [0.0] * num_servers  # time when each server becomes available
     heapify(servers)
     for i in range(1_000_000):
         arrival_time += expovariate(1.0 / average_arrival_interval)
         next_server_available = servers[0]
         wait = max(0.0, next_server_available - arrival_time)
         waits.append(wait)
         service_duration = max(0.0, gauss(average_service_time, stdev_service_time))
         service_completed = arrival_time + wait + service_duration
         heapreplace(servers, service_completed)

     print(f'Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}   Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}')
     print('Quartiles:', [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(waits)])

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Statistics for Hackers(4) a video tutorial by Jake Vanderplas(5) on
statistical analysis using just a few fundamental concepts including
simulation, sampling, shuffling, and cross-validation.

Economics Simulation(6) a simulation of a marketplace by Peter Norvig(7)
that shows effective use of many of the tools and distributions provided
by this module (gauss, uniform, sample, betavariate, choice, triangular,
and randrange).

A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python)(8) a tutorial by
Peter Norvig(9) covering the basics of probability theory, how to write
simulations, and how to perform data analysis using Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value

   (4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA

   (5) https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/

   (6) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb

   (7) https://norvig.com/bio.html

   (8) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb

   (9) https://norvig.com/bio.html


File: python.info,  Node: Recipes<2>,  Prev: Examples<4>,  Up: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

5.9.6.10 Recipes
................

These recipes show how to efficiently make random selections from the
combinatoric iterators in the *note itertools: 7f. module:

     def random_product(*args, repeat=1):
         "Random selection from itertools.product(*args, **kwds)"
         pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in args] * repeat
         return tuple(map(random.choice, pools))

     def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
         "Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         r = len(pool) if r is None else r
         return tuple(random.sample(pool, r))

     def random_combination(iterable, r):
         "Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.sample(range(n), r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     def random_combination_with_replacement(iterable, r):
         "Choose r elements with replacement.  Order the result to match the iterable."
         # Result will be in set(itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)).
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.choices(range(n), k=r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

The default *note random(): 574. returns multiples of 2⁻⁵³ in the range
'0.0 ≤ x < 1.0'.  All such numbers are evenly spaced and are exactly
representable as Python floats.  However, many other representable
floats in that interval are not possible selections.  For example,
‘0.05954861408025609’ isn’t an integer multiple of 2⁻⁵³.

The following recipe takes a different approach.  All floats in the
interval are possible selections.  The mantissa comes from a uniform
distribution of integers in the range '2⁵² ≤ mantissa < 2⁵³'.  The
exponent comes from a geometric distribution where exponents smaller
than '-53' occur half as often as the next larger exponent.

     from random import Random
     from math import ldexp

     class FullRandom(Random):

         def random(self):
             mantissa = 0x10_0000_0000_0000 | self.getrandbits(52)
             exponent = -53
             x = 0
             while not x:
                 x = self.getrandbits(32)
                 exponent += x.bit_length() - 32
             return ldexp(mantissa, exponent)

All *note real valued distributions: 24d2. in the class will use the new
method:

     >>> fr = FullRandom()
     >>> fr.random()
     0.05954861408025609
     >>> fr.expovariate(0.25)
     8.87925541791544

The recipe is conceptually equivalent to an algorithm that chooses from
all the multiples of 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ in the range '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0'.  All such
numbers are evenly spaced, but most have to be rounded down to the
nearest representable Python float.  (The value 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ is the smallest
positive unnormalized float and is equal to ‘math.ulp(0.0)’.)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Generating Pseudo-random Floating-Point Values(1) a paper by Allen B.
Downey describing ways to generate more fine-grained floats than
normally generated by *note random(): 574.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://allendowney.com/research/rand/downey07randfloat.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions,  Prev: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers,  Up: Numeric and Mathematical Modules

5.9.7 ‘statistics’ — Mathematical statistics functions
------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/statistics.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides functions for calculating mathematical statistics
of numeric (*note Real: 1f87.-valued) data.

The module is not intended to be a competitor to third-party libraries
such as NumPy(2), SciPy(3), or proprietary full-featured statistics
packages aimed at professional statisticians such as Minitab, SAS and
Matlab.  It is aimed at the level of graphing and scientific
calculators.

Unless explicitly noted, these functions support *note int: 184, *note
float: 272, *note Decimal: 609. and *note Fraction: 1ae.  Behaviour with
other types (whether in the numeric tower or not) is currently
unsupported.  Collections with a mix of types are also undefined and
implementation-dependent.  If your input data consists of mixed types,
you may be able to use *note map(): 6a7. to ensure a consistent result,
for example: ‘map(float, input_data)’.

Some datasets use ‘NaN’ (not a number) values to represent missing data.
Since NaNs have unusual comparison semantics, they cause surprising or
undefined behaviors in the statistics functions that sort data or that
count occurrences.  The functions affected are ‘median()’,
‘median_low()’, ‘median_high()’, ‘median_grouped()’, ‘mode()’,
‘multimode()’, and ‘quantiles()’.  The ‘NaN’ values should be stripped
before calling these functions:

     >>> from statistics import median
     >>> from math import isnan
     >>> from itertools import filterfalse

     >>> data = [20.7, float('NaN'),19.2, 18.3, float('NaN'), 14.4]
     >>> sorted(data)  # This has surprising behavior
     [20.7, nan, 14.4, 18.3, 19.2, nan]
     >>> median(data)  # This result is unexpected
     16.35

     >>> sum(map(isnan, data))    # Number of missing values
     2
     >>> clean = list(filterfalse(isnan, data))  # Strip NaN values
     >>> clean
     [20.7, 19.2, 18.3, 14.4]
     >>> sorted(clean)  # Sorting now works as expected
     [14.4, 18.3, 19.2, 20.7]
     >>> median(clean)       # This result is now well defined
     18.75

* Menu:

* Averages and measures of central location::
* Measures of spread::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* Function details::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<4>.
* NormalDist objects::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/statistics.py

   (2) https://numpy.org

   (3) https://scipy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Averages and measures of central location,  Next: Measures of spread,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.1 Averages and measures of central location
.................................................

These functions calculate an average or typical value from a population
or sample.

*note mean(): 4e9.          Arithmetic mean (“average”) of data.
                            
                            
*note fmean(): 896.         Fast, floating-point arithmetic mean, with optional weighting.
                            
                            
*note geometric_mean(): 897.Geometric mean of data.
                            
                            
*note harmonic_mean(): b64. Harmonic mean of data.
                            
                            
*note median(): 24e6.       Median (middle value) of data.
                            
                            
*note median_low(): 24e7.   Low median of data.
                            
                            
*note median_high(): 24e8.  High median of data.
                            
                            
*note median_grouped(): 24e9.Median (50th percentile) of grouped data.
                            
                            
*note mode(): 8fb.          Single mode (most common value) of discrete or nominal data.
                            
                            
*note multimode(): 898.     List of modes (most common values) of discrete or nominal data.
                            
                            
*note quantiles(): 899.     Divide data into intervals with equal probability.
                            


File: python.info,  Node: Measures of spread,  Next: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Prev: Averages and measures of central location,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.2 Measures of spread
..........................

These functions calculate a measure of how much the population or sample
tends to deviate from the typical or average values.

*note pstdev(): 24eb.       Population standard deviation of data.
                            
                            
*note pvariance(): 24ec.    Population variance of data.
                            
                            
*note stdev(): 4eb.         Sample standard deviation of data.
                            
                            
*note variance(): 4ea.      Sample variance of data.
                            


File: python.info,  Node: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Next: Function details,  Prev: Measures of spread,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.3 Statistics for relations between two inputs
...................................................

These functions calculate statistics regarding relations between two
inputs.

*note covariance(): 66e.      Sample covariance for two variables.
                              
                              
*note correlation(): 1ea.     Pearson and Spearman’s correlation coefficients.
                              
                              
*note linear_regression(): 66f.Slope and intercept for simple linear regression.
                              


File: python.info,  Node: Function details,  Next: Exceptions<4>,  Prev: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.4 Function details
........................

Note: The functions do not require the data given to them to be sorted.
However, for reading convenience, most of the examples show sorted
sequences.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.mean (data)

     Return the sample arithmetic mean of 'data' which can be a sequence
     or iterable.

     The arithmetic mean is the sum of the data divided by the number of
     data points.  It is commonly called “the average”, although it is
     only one of many different mathematical averages.  It is a measure
     of the central location of the data.

     If 'data' is empty, *note StatisticsError: 24ef. will be raised.

     Some examples of use:

          >>> mean([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
          2.8
          >>> mean([-1.0, 2.5, 3.25, 5.75])
          2.625

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> mean([F(3, 7), F(1, 21), F(5, 3), F(1, 3)])
          Fraction(13, 21)

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> mean([D("0.5"), D("0.75"), D("0.625"), D("0.375")])
          Decimal('0.5625')

          Not: The mean is strongly affected by outliers(1) and is not
          necessarily a typical example of the data points.  For a more
          robust, although less efficient, measure of central
          tendency(2), see *note median(): 24e6.

          The sample mean gives an unbiased estimate of the true
          population mean, so that when taken on average over all the
          possible samples, ‘mean(sample)’ converges on the true mean of
          the entire population.  If 'data' represents the entire
          population rather than a sample, then ‘mean(data)’ is
          equivalent to calculating the true population mean μ.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.fmean (data, weights=None)

     Convert 'data' to floats and compute the arithmetic mean.

     This runs faster than the *note mean(): 4e9. function and it always
     returns a *note float: 272.  The 'data' may be a sequence or
     iterable.  If the input dataset is empty, raises a *note
     StatisticsError: 24ef.

          >>> fmean([3.5, 4.0, 5.25])
          4.25

     Optional weighting is supported.  For example, a professor assigns
     a grade for a course by weighting quizzes at 20%, homework at 20%,
     a midterm exam at 30%, and a final exam at 30%:

          >>> grades = [85, 92, 83, 91]
          >>> weights = [0.20, 0.20, 0.30, 0.30]
          >>> fmean(grades, weights)
          87.6

     If 'weights' is supplied, it must be the same length as the 'data'
     or a *note ValueError: 189. will be raised.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.geometric_mean (data)

     Convert 'data' to floats and compute the geometric mean.

     The geometric mean indicates the central tendency or typical value
     of the 'data' using the product of the values (as opposed to the
     arithmetic mean which uses their sum).

     Raises a *note StatisticsError: 24ef. if the input dataset is
     empty, if it contains a zero, or if it contains a negative value.
     The 'data' may be a sequence or iterable.

     No special efforts are made to achieve exact results.  (However,
     this may change in the future.)

          >>> round(geometric_mean([54, 24, 36]), 1)
          36.0

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.harmonic_mean (data, weights=None)

     Return the harmonic mean of 'data', a sequence or iterable of
     real-valued numbers.  If 'weights' is omitted or ‘None’, then equal
     weighting is assumed.

     The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic *note mean():
     4e9. of the reciprocals of the data.  For example, the harmonic
     mean of three values 'a', 'b' and 'c' will be equivalent to ‘3/(1/a
     + 1/b + 1/c)’.  If one of the values is zero, the result will be
     zero.

     The harmonic mean is a type of average, a measure of the central
     location of the data.  It is often appropriate when averaging
     ratios or rates, for example speeds.

     Suppose a car travels 10 km at 40 km/hr, then another 10 km at 60
     km/hr.  What is the average speed?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60])
          48.0

     Suppose a car travels 40 km/hr for 5 km, and when traffic clears,
     speeds-up to 60 km/hr for the remaining 30 km of the journey.  What
     is the average speed?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60], weights=[5, 30])
          56.0

     *note StatisticsError: 24ef. is raised if 'data' is empty, any
     element is less than zero, or if the weighted sum isn’t positive.

     The current algorithm has an early-out when it encounters a zero in
     the input.  This means that the subsequent inputs are not tested
     for validity.  (This behavior may change in the future.)

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.median (data)

     Return the median (middle value) of numeric data, using the common
     “mean of middle two” method.  If 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 24ef. is raised.  'data' can be a sequence or
     iterable.

     The median is a robust measure of central location and is less
     affected by the presence of outliers.  When the number of data
     points is odd, the middle data point is returned:

          >>> median([1, 3, 5])
          3

     When the number of data points is even, the median is interpolated
     by taking the average of the two middle values:

          >>> median([1, 3, 5, 7])
          4.0

     This is suited for when your data is discrete, and you don’t mind
     that the median may not be an actual data point.

     If the data is ordinal (supports order operations) but not numeric
     (doesn’t support addition), consider using *note median_low():
     24e7. or *note median_high(): 24e8. instead.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.median_low (data)

     Return the low median of numeric data.  If 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 24ef. is raised.  'data' can be a sequence or
     iterable.

     The low median is always a member of the data set.  When the number
     of data points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When it is
     even, the smaller of the two middle values is returned.

          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5, 7])
          3

     Use the low median when your data are discrete and you prefer the
     median to be an actual data point rather than interpolated.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.median_high (data)

     Return the high median of data.  If 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 24ef. is raised.  'data' can be a sequence or
     iterable.

     The high median is always a member of the data set.  When the
     number of data points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When
     it is even, the larger of the two middle values is returned.

          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5, 7])
          5

     Use the high median when your data are discrete and you prefer the
     median to be an actual data point rather than interpolated.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.median_grouped (data, interval=1.0)

     Estimates the median for numeric data that has been grouped or
     binned(3) around the midpoints of consecutive, fixed-width
     intervals.

     The 'data' can be any iterable of numeric data with each value
     being exactly the midpoint of a bin.  At least one value must be
     present.

     The 'interval' is the width of each bin.

     For example, demographic information may have been summarized into
     consecutive ten-year age groups with each group being represented
     by the 5-year midpoints of the intervals:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> demographics = Counter({
          ...    25: 172,   # 20 to 30 years old
          ...    35: 484,   # 30 to 40 years old
          ...    45: 387,   # 40 to 50 years old
          ...    55:  22,   # 50 to 60 years old
          ...    65:   6,   # 60 to 70 years old
          ... })
          ...

     The 50th percentile (median) is the 536th person out of the 1071
     member cohort.  That person is in the 30 to 40 year old age group.

     The regular *note median(): 24e6. function would assume that
     everyone in the tricenarian age group was exactly 35 years old.  A
     more tenable assumption is that the 484 members of that age group
     are evenly distributed between 30 and 40.  For that, we use *note
     median_grouped(): 24e9.:

          >>> data = list(demographics.elements())
          >>> median(data)
          35
          >>> round(median_grouped(data, interval=10), 1)
          37.5

     The caller is responsible for making sure the data points are
     separated by exact multiples of 'interval'.  This is essential for
     getting a correct result.  The function does not check this
     precondition.

     Inputs may be any numeric type that can be coerced to a float
     during the interpolation step.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.mode (data)

     Return the single most common data point from discrete or nominal
     'data'.  The mode (when it exists) is the most typical value and
     serves as a measure of central location.

     If there are multiple modes with the same frequency, returns the
     first one encountered in the 'data'.  If the smallest or largest of
     those is desired instead, use ‘min(multimode(data))’ or
     ‘max(multimode(data))’.  If the input 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 24ef. is raised.

     ‘mode’ assumes discrete data and returns a single value.  This is
     the standard treatment of the mode as commonly taught in schools:

          >>> mode([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
          3

     The mode is unique in that it is the only statistic in this package
     that also applies to nominal (non-numeric) data:

          >>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
          'red'

     Only hashable inputs are supported.  To handle type *note set: 3e4,
     consider casting to *note frozenset: 3e5.  To handle type *note
     list: 422, consider casting to *note tuple: 4ff.  For mixed or
     nested inputs, consider using this slower quadratic algorithm that
     only depends on equality tests: ‘max(data, key=data.count)’.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Now handles multimodal datasets by returning
     the first mode encountered.  Formerly, it raised *note
     StatisticsError: 24ef. when more than one mode was found.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.multimode (data)

     Return a list of the most frequently occurring values in the order
     they were first encountered in the 'data'.  Will return more than
     one result if there are multiple modes or an empty list if the
     'data' is empty:

          >>> multimode('aabbbbccddddeeffffgg')
          ['b', 'd', 'f']
          >>> multimode('')
          []

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.pstdev (data, mu=None)

     Return the population standard deviation (the square root of the
     population variance).  See *note pvariance(): 24ec. for arguments
     and other details.

          >>> pstdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          0.986893273527251

 -- Işlevi: statistics.pvariance (data, mu=None)

     Return the population variance of 'data', a non-empty sequence or
     iterable of real-valued numbers.  Variance, or second moment about
     the mean, is a measure of the variability (spread or dispersion) of
     data.  A large variance indicates that the data is spread out; a
     small variance indicates it is clustered closely around the mean.

     If the optional second argument 'mu' is given, it should be the
     'population' mean of the 'data'.  It can also be used to compute
     the second moment around a point that is not the mean.  If it is
     missing or ‘None’ (the default), the arithmetic mean is
     automatically calculated.

     Use this function to calculate the variance from the entire
     population.  To estimate the variance from a sample, the *note
     variance(): 4ea. function is usually a better choice.

     Raises *note StatisticsError: 24ef. if 'data' is empty.

     Examples:

          >>> data = [0.0, 0.25, 0.25, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.75, 3.25]
          >>> pvariance(data)
          1.25

     If you have already calculated the mean of your data, you can pass
     it as the optional second argument 'mu' to avoid recalculation:

          >>> mu = mean(data)
          >>> pvariance(data, mu)
          1.25

     Decimals and Fractions are supported:

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> pvariance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('24.815')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> pvariance([F(1, 4), F(5, 4), F(1, 2)])
          Fraction(13, 72)

          Not: When called with the entire population, this gives the
          population variance σ².  When called on a sample instead, this
          is the biased sample variance s², also known as variance with
          N degrees of freedom.

          If you somehow know the true population mean μ, you may use
          this function to calculate the variance of a sample, giving
          the known population mean as the second argument.  Provided
          the data points are a random sample of the population, the
          result will be an unbiased estimate of the population
          variance.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.stdev (data, xbar=None)

     Return the sample standard deviation (the square root of the sample
     variance).  See *note variance(): 4ea. for arguments and other
     details.

          >>> stdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          1.0810874155219827

 -- Işlevi: statistics.variance (data, xbar=None)

     Return the sample variance of 'data', an iterable of at least two
     real-valued numbers.  Variance, or second moment about the mean, is
     a measure of the variability (spread or dispersion) of data.  A
     large variance indicates that the data is spread out; a small
     variance indicates it is clustered closely around the mean.

     If the optional second argument 'xbar' is given, it should be the
     'sample' mean of 'data'.  If it is missing or ‘None’ (the default),
     the mean is automatically calculated.

     Use this function when your data is a sample from a population.  To
     calculate the variance from the entire population, see *note
     pvariance(): 24ec.

     Raises *note StatisticsError: 24ef. if 'data' has fewer than two
     values.

     Examples:

          >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
          >>> variance(data)
          1.3720238095238095

     If you have already calculated the sample mean of your data, you
     can pass it as the optional second argument 'xbar' to avoid
     recalculation:

          >>> m = mean(data)
          >>> variance(data, m)
          1.3720238095238095

     This function does not attempt to verify that you have passed the
     actual mean as 'xbar'.  Using arbitrary values for 'xbar' can lead
     to invalid or impossible results.

     Decimal and Fraction values are supported:

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> variance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('31.01875')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> variance([F(1, 6), F(1, 2), F(5, 3)])
          Fraction(67, 108)

          Not: This is the sample variance s² with Bessel’s correction,
          also known as variance with N-1 degrees of freedom.  Provided
          that the data points are representative (e.g.  independent and
          identically distributed), the result should be an unbiased
          estimate of the true population variance.

          If you somehow know the actual population mean μ you should
          pass it to the *note pvariance(): 24ec. function as the 'mu'
          parameter to get the variance of a sample.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.quantiles (data, *, n=4, method='exclusive')

     Divide 'data' into 'n' continuous intervals with equal probability.
     Returns a list of ‘n - 1’ cut points separating the intervals.

     Set 'n' to 4 for quartiles (the default).  Set 'n' to 10 for
     deciles.  Set 'n' to 100 for percentiles which gives the 99 cuts
     points that separate 'data' into 100 equal sized groups.  Raises
     *note StatisticsError: 24ef. if 'n' is not least 1.

     The 'data' can be any iterable containing sample data.  For
     meaningful results, the number of data points in 'data' should be
     larger than 'n'.  Raises *note StatisticsError: 24ef. if there are
     not at least two data points.

     The cut points are linearly interpolated from the two nearest data
     points.  For example, if a cut point falls one-third of the
     distance between two sample values, ‘100’ and ‘112’, the cut-point
     will evaluate to ‘104’.

     The 'method' for computing quantiles can be varied depending on
     whether the 'data' includes or excludes the lowest and highest
     possible values from the population.

     The default 'method' is “exclusive” and is used for data sampled
     from a population that can have more extreme values than found in
     the samples.  The portion of the population falling below the
     'i-th' of 'm' sorted data points is computed as ‘i / (m + 1)’.
     Given nine sample values, the method sorts them and assigns the
     following percentiles: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%.

     Setting the 'method' to “inclusive” is used for describing
     population data or for samples that are known to include the most
     extreme values from the population.  The minimum value in 'data' is
     treated as the 0th percentile and the maximum value is treated as
     the 100th percentile.  The portion of the population falling below
     the 'i-th' of 'm' sorted data points is computed as ‘(i - 1) / (m -
     1)’.  Given 11 sample values, the method sorts them and assigns the
     following percentiles: 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%,
     90%, 100%.

          # Decile cut points for empirically sampled data
          >>> data = [105, 129, 87, 86, 111, 111, 89, 81, 108, 92, 110,
          ...         100, 75, 105, 103, 109, 76, 119, 99, 91, 103, 129,
          ...         106, 101, 84, 111, 74, 87, 86, 103, 103, 106, 86,
          ...         111, 75, 87, 102, 121, 111, 88, 89, 101, 106, 95,
          ...         103, 107, 101, 81, 109, 104]
          >>> [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(data, n=10)]
          [81.0, 86.2, 89.0, 99.4, 102.5, 103.6, 106.0, 109.8, 111.0]

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.covariance (x, y, /)

     Return the sample covariance of two inputs 'x' and 'y'.  Covariance
     is a measure of the joint variability of two inputs.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two),
     otherwise *note StatisticsError: 24ef. is raised.

     Examples:

          >>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> y = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
          >>> covariance(x, y)
          0.75
          >>> z = [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> covariance(x, z)
          -7.5
          >>> covariance(z, x)
          -7.5

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.correlation (x, y, /, *, method='linear')

     Return the Pearson's correlation coefficient(4) for two inputs.
     Pearson’s correlation coefficient 'r' takes values between -1 and
     +1.  It measures the strength and direction of a linear
     relationship.

     If 'method' is “ranked”, computes Spearman's rank correlation
     coefficient(5) for two inputs.  The data is replaced by ranks.
     Ties are averaged so that equal values receive the same rank.  The
     resulting coefficient measures the strength of a monotonic
     relationship.

     Spearman’s correlation coefficient is appropriate for ordinal data
     or for continuous data that doesn’t meet the linear proportion
     requirement for Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and need
     not to be constant, otherwise *note StatisticsError: 24ef. is
     raised.

     Example with Kepler's laws of planetary motion(6):

          >>> # Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and  Neptune
          >>> orbital_period = [88, 225, 365, 687, 4331, 10_756, 30_687, 60_190]    # days
          >>> dist_from_sun = [58, 108, 150, 228, 778, 1_400, 2_900, 4_500] # million km

          >>> # Show that a perfect monotonic relationship exists
          >>> correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun, method='ranked')
          1.0

          >>> # Observe that a linear relationship is imperfect
          >>> round(correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun), 4)
          0.9882

          >>> # Demonstrate Kepler's third law: There is a linear correlation
          >>> # between the square of the orbital period and the cube of the
          >>> # distance from the sun.
          >>> period_squared = [p * p for p in orbital_period]
          >>> dist_cubed = [d * d * d for d in dist_from_sun]
          >>> round(correlation(period_squared, dist_cubed), 4)
          1.0

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Spearman’s rank
     correlation coefficient.

 -- Işlevi: statistics.linear_regression (x, y, /, *,
          proportional=False)

     Return the slope and intercept of simple linear regression(7)
     parameters estimated using ordinary least squares.  Simple linear
     regression describes the relationship between an independent
     variable 'x' and a dependent variable 'y' in terms of this linear
     function:

          'y = slope * x + intercept + noise'

     where ‘slope’ and ‘intercept’ are the regression parameters that
     are estimated, and ‘noise’ represents the variability of the data
     that was not explained by the linear regression (it is equal to the
     difference between predicted and actual values of the dependent
     variable).

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and the
     independent variable 'x' cannot be constant; otherwise a *note
     StatisticsError: 24ef. is raised.

     For example, we can use the release dates of the Monty Python
     films(8) to predict the cumulative number of Monty Python films
     that would have been produced by 2019 assuming that they had kept
     the pace.

          >>> year = [1971, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1983]
          >>> films_total = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
          >>> slope, intercept = linear_regression(year, films_total)
          >>> round(slope * 2019 + intercept)
          16

     If 'proportional' is true, the independent variable 'x' and the
     dependent variable 'y' are assumed to be directly proportional.
     The data is fit to a line passing through the origin.  Since the
     'intercept' will always be 0.0, the underlying linear function
     simplifies to:

          'y = slope * x + noise'

     Continuing the example from *note correlation(): 1ea, we look to
     see how well a model based on major planets can predict the orbital
     distances for dwarf planets:

          >>> model = linear_regression(period_squared, dist_cubed, proportional=True)
          >>> slope = model.slope

          >>> # Dwarf planets:   Pluto,  Eris,    Makemake, Haumea, Ceres
          >>> orbital_periods = [90_560, 204_199, 111_845, 103_410, 1_680]  # days
          >>> predicted_dist = [math.cbrt(slope * (p * p)) for p in orbital_periods]
          >>> list(map(round, predicted_dist))
          [5912, 10166, 6806, 6459, 414]

          >>> [5_906, 10_152, 6_796, 6_450, 414]  # actual distance in million km
          [5906, 10152, 6796, 6450, 414]

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 'proportional'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlier

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_tendency

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_binning

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient

   (5) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_linear_regression

   (8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python#Films


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<4>,  Next: NormalDist objects,  Prev: Function details,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.5 Exceptions
..................

A single exception is defined:

 -- Özel Durum: statistics.StatisticsError

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 189. for statistics-related
     exceptions.


File: python.info,  Node: NormalDist objects,  Next: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Prev: Exceptions<4>,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.6 ‘NormalDist’ objects
............................

*note NormalDist: 89a. is a tool for creating and manipulating normal
distributions of a random variable(1).  It is a class that treats the
mean and standard deviation of data measurements as a single entity.

Normal distributions arise from the Central Limit Theorem(2) and have a
wide range of applications in statistics.

 -- Sınıfı: statistics.NormalDist (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Returns a new 'NormalDist' object where 'mu' represents the
     arithmetic mean(3) and 'sigma' represents the standard
     deviation(4).

     If 'sigma' is negative, raises *note StatisticsError: 24ef.

      -- Özniteliği: mean

          A read-only property for the arithmetic mean(5) of a normal
          distribution.

      -- Özniteliği: median

          A read-only property for the median(6) of a normal
          distribution.

      -- Özniteliği: mode

          A read-only property for the mode(7) of a normal distribution.

      -- Özniteliği: stdev

          A read-only property for the standard deviation(8) of a normal
          distribution.

      -- Özniteliği: variance

          A read-only property for the variance(9) of a normal
          distribution.  Equal to the square of the standard deviation.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_samples (data)

          Makes a normal distribution instance with 'mu' and 'sigma'
          parameters estimated from the 'data' using *note fmean(): 896.
          and *note stdev(): 4eb.

          The 'data' can be any *note iterable: 10ce. and should consist
          of values that can be converted to type *note float: 272.  If
          'data' does not contain at least two elements, raises *note
          StatisticsError: 24ef. because it takes at least one point to
          estimate a central value and at least two points to estimate
          dispersion.

      -- Yöntemi: samples (n, *, seed=None)

          Generates 'n' random samples for a given mean and standard
          deviation.  Returns a *note list: 422. of *note float: 272.
          values.

          If 'seed' is given, creates a new instance of the underlying
          random number generator.  This is useful for creating
          reproducible results, even in a multi-threading context.

      -- Yöntemi: pdf (x)

          Using a probability density function (pdf)(10), compute the
          relative likelihood that a random variable 'X' will be near
          the given value 'x'.  Mathematically, it is the limit of the
          ratio ‘P(x <= X < x+dx) / dx’ as 'dx' approaches zero.

          The relative likelihood is computed as the probability of a
          sample occurring in a narrow range divided by the width of the
          range (hence the word “density”).  Since the likelihood is
          relative to other points, its value can be greater than ‘1.0’.

      -- Yöntemi: cdf (x)

          Using a cumulative distribution function (cdf)(11), compute
          the probability that a random variable 'X' will be less than
          or equal to 'x'.  Mathematically, it is written ‘P(X <= x)’.

      -- Yöntemi: inv_cdf (p)

          Compute the inverse cumulative distribution function, also
          known as the quantile function(12) or the percent-point(13)
          function.  Mathematically, it is written ‘x : P(X <= x) = p’.

          Finds the value 'x' of the random variable 'X' such that the
          probability of the variable being less than or equal to that
          value equals the given probability 'p'.

      -- Yöntemi: overlap (other)

          Measures the agreement between two normal probability
          distributions.  Returns a value between 0.0 and 1.0 giving the
          overlapping area for the two probability density
          functions(14).

      -- Yöntemi: quantiles (n=4)

          Divide the normal distribution into 'n' continuous intervals
          with equal probability.  Returns a list of (n - 1) cut points
          separating the intervals.

          Set 'n' to 4 for quartiles (the default).  Set 'n' to 10 for
          deciles.  Set 'n' to 100 for percentiles which gives the 99
          cuts points that separate the normal distribution into 100
          equal sized groups.

      -- Yöntemi: zscore (x)

          Compute the Standard Score(15) describing 'x' in terms of the
          number of standard deviations above or below the mean of the
          normal distribution: ‘(x - mean) / stdev’.

          Added in version 3.9.

     Instances of *note NormalDist: 89a. support addition, subtraction,
     multiplication and division by a constant.  These operations are
     used for translation and scaling.  For example:

          >>> temperature_february = NormalDist(5, 2.5)             # Celsius
          >>> temperature_february * (9/5) + 32                     # Fahrenheit
          NormalDist(mu=41.0, sigma=4.5)

     Dividing a constant by an instance of *note NormalDist: 89a. is not
     supported because the result wouldn’t be normally distributed.

     Since normal distributions arise from additive effects of
     independent variables, it is possible to add and subtract two
     independent normally distributed random variables(16) represented
     as instances of *note NormalDist: 89a.  For example:

          >>> birth_weights = NormalDist.from_samples([2.5, 3.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7, 3.5])
          >>> drug_effects = NormalDist(0.4, 0.15)
          >>> combined = birth_weights + drug_effects
          >>> round(combined.mean, 1)
          3.1
          >>> round(combined.stdev, 1)
          0.5

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-98/101/ranvar.htm

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistics)

   (8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (12) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantile_function

   (13) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20190203145224/https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/inverse-distribution-function/

   (14) https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt101r.htm

   (15) 
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/z-score/

   (16) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_of_normally_distributed_random_variables


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Prev: NormalDist objects,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.9.7.7 Examples and Recipes
............................

* Menu:

* Classic probability problems::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::
* Kernel density estimation::


File: python.info,  Node: Classic probability problems,  Next: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.9.7.8 Classic probability problems
....................................

*note NormalDist: 89a. readily solves classic probability problems.

For example, given historical data for SAT exams(1) showing that scores
are normally distributed with a mean of 1060 and a standard deviation of
195, determine the percentage of students with test scores between 1100
and 1200, after rounding to the nearest whole number:

     >>> sat = NormalDist(1060, 195)
     >>> fraction = sat.cdf(1200 + 0.5) - sat.cdf(1100 - 0.5)
     >>> round(fraction * 100.0, 1)
     18.4

Find the quartiles(2) and deciles(3) for the SAT scores:

     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles()))
     [928, 1060, 1192]
     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles(n=10)))
     [810, 896, 958, 1011, 1060, 1109, 1162, 1224, 1310]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_226.40.asp

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decile


File: python.info,  Node: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Next: Approximating binomial distributions,  Prev: Classic probability problems,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.9.7.9 Monte Carlo inputs for simulations
..........................................

To estimate the distribution for a model that isn’t easy to solve
analytically, *note NormalDist: 89a. can generate input samples for a
Monte Carlo simulation(1):

     >>> def model(x, y, z):
     ...     return (3*x + 7*x*y - 5*y) / (11 * z)
     ...
     >>> n = 100_000
     >>> X = NormalDist(10, 2.5).samples(n, seed=3652260728)
     >>> Y = NormalDist(15, 1.75).samples(n, seed=4582495471)
     >>> Z = NormalDist(50, 1.25).samples(n, seed=6582483453)
     >>> quantiles(map(model, X, Y, Z))
     [1.4591308524824727, 1.8035946855390597, 2.175091447274739]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating binomial distributions,  Next: Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.9.7.10 Approximating binomial distributions
.............................................

Normal distributions can be used to approximate Binomial
distributions(1) when the sample size is large and when the probability
of a successful trial is near 50%.

For example, an open source conference has 750 attendees and two rooms
with a 500 person capacity.  There is a talk about Python and another
about Ruby.  In previous conferences, 65% of the attendees preferred to
listen to Python talks.  Assuming the population preferences haven’t
changed, what is the probability that the Python room will stay within
its capacity limits?

     >>> n = 750             # Sample size
     >>> p = 0.65            # Preference for Python
     >>> q = 1.0 - p         # Preference for Ruby
     >>> k = 500             # Room capacity

     >>> # Approximation using the cumulative normal distribution
     >>> from math import sqrt
     >>> round(NormalDist(mu=n*p, sigma=sqrt(n*p*q)).cdf(k + 0.5), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Exact solution using the cumulative binomial distribution
     >>> from math import comb, fsum
     >>> round(fsum(comb(n, r) * p**r * q**(n-r) for r in range(k+1)), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Approximation using a simulation
     >>> from random import seed, binomialvariate
     >>> seed(8675309)
     >>> mean(binomialvariate(n, p) <= k for i in range(10_000))
     0.8406

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: Naive bayesian classifier,  Next: Kernel density estimation,  Prev: Approximating binomial distributions,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.9.7.11 Naive bayesian classifier
..................................

Normal distributions commonly arise in machine learning problems.

Wikipedia has a nice example of a Naive Bayesian Classifier(1).  The
challenge is to predict a person’s gender from measurements of normally
distributed features including height, weight, and foot size.

We’re given a training dataset with measurements for eight people.  The
measurements are assumed to be normally distributed, so we summarize the
data with *note NormalDist: 89a.:

     >>> height_male = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 5.92, 5.58, 5.92])
     >>> height_female = NormalDist.from_samples([5, 5.5, 5.42, 5.75])
     >>> weight_male = NormalDist.from_samples([180, 190, 170, 165])
     >>> weight_female = NormalDist.from_samples([100, 150, 130, 150])
     >>> foot_size_male = NormalDist.from_samples([12, 11, 12, 10])
     >>> foot_size_female = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 8, 7, 9])

Next, we encounter a new person whose feature measurements are known but
whose gender is unknown:

     >>> ht = 6.0        # height
     >>> wt = 130        # weight
     >>> fs = 8          # foot size

Starting with a 50% prior probability(2) of being male or female, we
compute the posterior as the prior times the product of likelihoods for
the feature measurements given the gender:

     >>> prior_male = 0.5
     >>> prior_female = 0.5
     >>> posterior_male = (prior_male * height_male.pdf(ht) *
     ...                   weight_male.pdf(wt) * foot_size_male.pdf(fs))

     >>> posterior_female = (prior_female * height_female.pdf(ht) *
     ...                     weight_female.pdf(wt) * foot_size_female.pdf(fs))

The final prediction goes to the largest posterior.  This is known as
the maximum a posteriori(3) or MAP:

     >>> 'male' if posterior_male > posterior_female else 'female'
     'female'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_Bayes_classifier#Person_classification

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_probability

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation


File: python.info,  Node: Kernel density estimation,  Prev: Naive bayesian classifier,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.9.7.12 Kernel density estimation
..................................

It is possible to estimate a continuous probability distribution from a
fixed number of discrete samples.

The basic idea is to smooth the data using a kernel function such as a
normal distribution, triangular distribution, or uniform
distribution(1).  The degree of smoothing is controlled by a scaling
parameter, ‘h’, which is called the 'bandwidth'.

     from random import choice, random

     def kde_normal(data, h):
         "Create a continuous probability distribution from discrete samples."

         # Smooth the data with a normal distribution kernel scaled by h.
         K_h = NormalDist(0.0, h)

         def pdf(x):
             'Probability density function.  P(x <= X < x+dx) / dx'
             return sum(K_h.pdf(x - x_i) for x_i in data) / len(data)

         def cdf(x):
             'Cumulative distribution function.  P(X <= x)'
             return sum(K_h.cdf(x - x_i) for x_i in data) / len(data)

         def rand():
             'Random selection from the probability distribution.'
             return choice(data) + K_h.inv_cdf(random())

         return pdf, cdf, rand

Wikipedia has an example(2) where we can use the ‘kde_normal()’ recipe
to generate and plot a probability density function estimated from a
small sample:

     >>> sample = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
     >>> pdf, cdf, rand = kde_normal(sample, h=1.5)
     >>> xarr = [i/100 for i in range(-750, 1100)]
     >>> yarr = [pdf(x) for x in xarr]

The points in ‘xarr’ and ‘yarr’ can be used to make a PDF plot:

[image src="python-figures/kde_example.png" alt="Scatter plot of the estimated probability density function."]


Resample(3) the data to produce 100 new selections:

     >>> new_selections = [rand() for i in range(100)]

Determine the probability of a new selection being below ‘2.0’:

     >>> round(cdf(2.0), 4)
     0.5794

Add a new sample data point and find the new CDF at ‘2.0’:

     >>> sample.append(4.9)
     >>> round(cdf(2.0), 4)
     0.5005

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(statistics)#Kernel_functions_in_common_use

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_density_estimation#Example

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)


File: python.info,  Node: Functional Programming Modules,  Next: File and Directory Access,  Prev: Numeric and Mathematical Modules,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.10 Functional Programming Modules
===================================

The modules described in this chapter provide functions and classes that
support a functional programming style, and general operations on
callables.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

* Menu:

* itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping::
* functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects::
* operator — Standard operators as functions::


File: python.info,  Node: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Next: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Up: Functional Programming Modules

5.10.1 ‘itertools’ — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a number of *note iterator: 176e. building blocks
inspired by constructs from APL, Haskell, and SML. Each has been recast
in a form suitable for Python.

The module standardizes a core set of fast, memory efficient tools that
are useful by themselves or in combination.  Together, they form an
“iterator algebra” making it possible to construct specialized tools
succinctly and efficiently in pure Python.

For instance, SML provides a tabulation tool: ‘tabulate(f)’ which
produces a sequence ‘f(0), f(1), ...’.  The same effect can be achieved
in Python by combining *note map(): 6a7. and *note count(): 112c. to
form ‘map(f, count())’.

These tools and their built-in counterparts also work well with the
high-speed functions in the *note operator: 9e. module.  For example,
the multiplication operator can be mapped across two vectors to form an
efficient dot-product: ‘sum(starmap(operator.mul, zip(vec1, vec2,
strict=True)))’.

'Infinite iterators:'

Iterator               Arguments             Results                                               Example
                                                                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                   
*note count(): 112c.   [start[, step]]       start, start+step, start+2*step, …                    ‘count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note cycle(): 2509.   p                     p0, p1, … plast, p0, p1, …                            ‘cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ...’
                                                                                                   
                                                                                                   
*note repeat(): 250a.  elem [,n]             elem, elem, elem, … endlessly or up to n times        ‘repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10’
                                                                                                   

'Iterators terminating on the shortest input sequence:'

Iterator                         Arguments                        Results                                               Example
                                                                                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                        
*note accumulate(): 85d.         p [,func]                        p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, …                                ‘accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note batched(): 1ba.            p, n                             (p0, p1, …, p_n-1), …                                 ‘batched('ABCDEFG', n=3) → ABC DEF G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain(): 1f70.             p, q, …                          p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                            ‘chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain.from_iterable(): 250b.iterable                        p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                            ‘chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note compress(): 112b.          data, selectors                  (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), …                     ‘compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note dropwhile(): 250c.         predicate, seq                   seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails       ‘dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note filterfalse(): 1f5a.       predicate, seq                   elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails           ‘filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note groupby(): 250d.           iterable[, key]                  sub-iterators grouped by value of key(v)
                                                                  
                                                                                                                        
*note islice(): 9bf.             seq, [start,] stop [, step]      elements from seq[start:stop:step]                    ‘islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note pairwise(): 651.           iterable                         (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])                            ‘pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note starmap(): f86.            func, seq                        func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), …                       ‘starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note takewhile(): 250e.         predicate, seq                   seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails                 ‘takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note tee(): 250f.               it, n                            it1, it2, … itn splits one iterator into n
                                                                  
                                                                                                                        
*note zip_longest(): 1146.       p, q, …                          (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), …                         ‘zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-’
                                                                                                                        

'Combinatoric iterators:'

Iterator                                           Arguments                Results
                                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
*note product(): 11bd.                             p, q, … [repeat=1]       cartesian product, equivalent to a nested for-loop
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note permutations(): 1745.                        p[, r]                   r-length tuples, all possible orderings, no repeated elements
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations(): 11bc.                        p, r                     r-length tuples, in sorted order, no repeated elements
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations_with_replacement(): 112a.       p, r                     r-length tuples, in sorted order, with repeated elements
                                                                            

Examples                                           Results
                                                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
‘product('ABCD', repeat=2)’                        ‘AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘permutations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BC BD CD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)’         ‘AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD’
                                                   

* Menu:

* Itertool Functions::
* Itertools Recipes::


File: python.info,  Node: Itertool Functions,  Next: Itertools Recipes,  Up: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.10.1.1 Itertool Functions
...........................

The following module functions all construct and return iterators.  Some
provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by
functions or loops that truncate the stream.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.accumulate (iterable[, function, *, initial=None])

     Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums or accumulated
     results from other binary functions.

     The 'function' defaults to addition.  The 'function' should accept
     two arguments, an accumulated total and a value from the
     'iterable'.

     If an 'initial' value is provided, the accumulation will start with
     that value and the output will have one more element than the input
     iterable.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
              'Return running totals'
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              total = initial
              if initial is None:
                  try:
                      total = next(iterator)
                  except StopIteration:
                      return

              yield total
              for element in iterator:
                  total = function(total, element)
                  yield total

     The 'function' argument can be set to *note min(): d9f. for a
     running minimum, *note max(): da0. for a running maximum, or *note
     operator.mul(): 2512. for a running product.  Amortization
     tables(1) can be built by accumulating interest and applying
     payments:

          >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
          [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
          [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]

          # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
          >>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
          >>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
          [1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

     See *note functools.reduce(): 1186. for a similar function that
     returns only the final accumulated value.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional 'function' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional 'initial' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.batched (iterable, n)

     Batch data from the 'iterable' into tuples of length 'n'.  The last
     batch may be shorter than 'n'.

     Loops over the input iterable and accumulates data into tuples up
     to size 'n'.  The input is consumed lazily, just enough to fill a
     batch.  The result is yielded as soon as the batch is full or when
     the input iterable is exhausted:

          >>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
          >>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
          >>> unflattened
          [('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def batched(iterable, n):
              # batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
              if n < 1:
                  raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
                  yield batch

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.chain (*iterables)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable
     until it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until
     all of the iterables are exhausted.  Used for treating consecutive
     sequences as a single sequence.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def chain(*iterables):
              # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod chain.from_iterable (iterable)

     Alternate constructor for *note chain(): 1f70.  Gets chained inputs
     from a single iterable argument that is evaluated lazily.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def from_iterable(iterables):
              # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- Işlevi: itertools.combinations (iterable, r)

     Return 'r' length subsequences of elements from the input
     'iterable'.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 11bd. keeping only
     entries that are subsequences of the 'iterable'.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.comb(): 4e7. which computes ‘n! / r!
     / (n - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within each combination.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def combinations(iterable, r):
              # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
              # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if r > n:
                  return
              indices = list(range(r))

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i] += 1
                  for j in range(i+1, r):
                      indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

 -- Işlevi: itertools.combinations_with_replacement (iterable, r)

     Return 'r' length subsequences of elements from the input
     'iterable' allowing individual elements to be repeated more than
     once.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 11bd. that keeps
     only entries that are subsequences (with possible repeated
     elements) of the 'iterable'.  The number of subsequence returned is
     ‘(n + r - 1)! / r! / (n - 1)!’ when ‘n > 0’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  if the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, the generated
     combinations will also be unique.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
              # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if not n and r:
                  return
              indices = [0] * r

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != n - 1:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.compress (data, selectors)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from 'data' where the
     corresponding element in 'selectors' is true.  Stops when either
     the 'data' or 'selectors' iterables have been exhausted.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def compress(data, selectors):
              # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
              return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.count (start=0, step=1)

     Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values beginning with
     'start'.  Can be used with *note map(): 6a7. to generate
     consecutive data points or with *note zip(): 608. to add sequence
     numbers.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def count(start=0, step=1):
              # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
              # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
              n = start
              while True:
                  yield n
                  n += step

     When counting with floating-point numbers, better accuracy can
     sometimes be achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as:
     ‘(start + step * i for i in count())’.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added 'step' argument and allowed
     non-integer arguments.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.cycle (iterable)

     Make an iterator returning elements from the 'iterable' and saving
     a copy of each.  When the iterable is exhausted, return elements
     from the saved copy.  Repeats indefinitely.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def cycle(iterable):
              # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...
              saved = []
              for element in iterable:
                  yield element
                  saved.append(element)
              while saved:
                  for element in saved:
                      yield element

     This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
     on the length of the iterable).

 -- Işlevi: itertools.dropwhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that drops elements from the 'iterable' while the
     'predicate' is true and afterwards returns every element.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
              # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              for x in iterator:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x
                      break

              for x in iterator:
                  yield x

     Note this does not produce 'any' output until the predicate first
     becomes false, so this itertool may have a lengthy start-up time.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.filterfalse (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that filters elements from the 'iterable'
     returning only those for which the 'predicate' returns a false
     value.  If 'predicate' is ‘None’, returns the items that are false.
     Roughly equivalent to:

          def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
              # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8
              if predicate is None:
                  predicate = bool
              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x

 -- Işlevi: itertools.groupby (iterable, key=None)

     Make an iterator that returns consecutive keys and groups from the
     'iterable'.  The 'key' is a function computing a key value for each
     element.  If not specified or is ‘None’, 'key' defaults to an
     identity function and returns the element unchanged.  Generally,
     the iterable needs to already be sorted on the same key function.

     The operation of *note groupby(): 250d. is similar to the ‘uniq’
     filter in Unix.  It generates a break or new group every time the
     value of the key function changes (which is why it is usually
     necessary to have sorted the data using the same key function).
     That behavior differs from SQL’s GROUP BY which aggregates common
     elements regardless of their input order.

     The returned group is itself an iterator that shares the underlying
     iterable with *note groupby(): 250d.  Because the source is shared,
     when the *note groupby(): 250d. object is advanced, the previous
     group is no longer visible.  So, if that data is needed later, it
     should be stored as a list:

          groups = []
          uniquekeys = []
          data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
          for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
              groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
              uniquekeys.append(k)

     *note groupby(): 250d. is roughly equivalent to:

          def groupby(iterable, key=None):
              # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
              # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

              keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              exhausted = False

              def _grouper(target_key):
                  nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
                  yield curr_value
                  for curr_value in iterator:
                      curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
                      if curr_key != target_key:
                          return
                      yield curr_value
                  exhausted = True

              try:
                  curr_value = next(iterator)
              except StopIteration:
                  return
              curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)

              while not exhausted:
                  target_key = curr_key
                  curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
                  yield curr_key, curr_group
                  if curr_key == target_key:
                      for _ in curr_group:
                          pass

 -- Işlevi: itertools.islice (iterable, stop)

 -- Işlevi: itertools.islice (iterable, start, stop[, step])

     Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable.
     Works like sequence slicing but does not support negative values
     for 'start', 'stop', or 'step'.

     If 'start' is zero or ‘None’, iteration starts at zero.  Otherwise,
     elements from the iterable are skipped until 'start' is reached.

     If 'stop' is ‘None’, iteration continues until the iterator is
     exhausted, if at all.  Otherwise, it stops at the specified
     position.

     If 'step' is ‘None’, the step defaults to one.  Elements are
     returned consecutively unless 'step' is set higher than one which
     results in items being skipped.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def islice(iterable, *args):
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G

              s = slice(*args)
              start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
              stop = s.stop
              step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
              if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
                  raise ValueError

              indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
              next_i = start
              for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
                  if i == next_i:
                      yield element
                      next_i += step

 -- Işlevi: itertools.pairwise (iterable)

     Return successive overlapping pairs taken from the input
     'iterable'.

     The number of 2-tuples in the output iterator will be one fewer
     than the number of inputs.  It will be empty if the input iterable
     has fewer than two values.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def pairwise(iterable):
              # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              a = next(iterator, None)
              for b in iterator:
                  yield a, b
                  a = b

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.permutations (iterable, r=None)

     Return successive 'r' length permutations of elements(2) from the
     'iterable'.

     If 'r' is not specified or is ‘None’, then 'r' defaults to the
     length of the 'iterable' and all possible full-length permutations
     are generated.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 11bd. where entries
     with repeated elements have been filtered out.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.perm(): 4e8. which computes ‘n! / (n
     - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within a permutation.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def permutations(iterable, r=None):
              # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
              # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              r = n if r is None else r
              if r > n:
                  return

              indices = list(range(n))
              cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])

              while n:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      cycles[i] -= 1
                      if cycles[i] == 0:
                          indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                          cycles[i] = n - i
                      else:
                          j = cycles[i]
                          indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                          break
                  else:
                      return

 -- Işlevi: itertools.product (*iterables, repeat=1)

     Cartesian product of input iterables.

     Roughly equivalent to nested for-loops in a generator expression.
     For example, ‘product(A, B)’ returns the same as ‘((x,y) for x in A
     for y in B)’.

     The nested loops cycle like an odometer with the rightmost element
     advancing on every iteration.  This pattern creates a lexicographic
     ordering so that if the input’s iterables are sorted, the product
     tuples are emitted in sorted order.

     To compute the product of an iterable with itself, specify the
     number of repetitions with the optional 'repeat' keyword argument.
     For example, ‘product(A, repeat=4)’ means the same as ‘product(A,
     A, A, A)’.

     This function is roughly equivalent to the following code, except
     that the actual implementation does not build up intermediate
     results in memory:

          def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
              # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
              # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

              pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat

              result = [[]]
              for pool in pools:
                  result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]

              for prod in result:
                  yield tuple(prod)

     Before *note product(): 11bd. runs, it completely consumes the
     input iterables, keeping pools of values in memory to generate the
     products.  Accordingly, it is only useful with finite inputs.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.repeat (object[, times])

     Make an iterator that returns 'object' over and over again.  Runs
     indefinitely unless the 'times' argument is specified.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def repeat(object, times=None):
              # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
              if times is None:
                  while True:
                      yield object
              else:
                  for i in range(times):
                      yield object

     A common use for 'repeat' is to supply a stream of constant values
     to 'map' or 'zip':

          >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
          [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

 -- Işlevi: itertools.starmap (function, iterable)

     Make an iterator that computes the 'function' using arguments
     obtained from the 'iterable'.  Used instead of *note map(): 6a7.
     when argument parameters have already been “pre-zipped” into
     tuples.

     The difference between *note map(): 6a7. and *note starmap(): f86.
     parallels the distinction between ‘function(a,b)’ and
     ‘function(*c)’.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def starmap(function, iterable):
              # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
              for args in iterable:
                  yield function(*args)

 -- Işlevi: itertools.takewhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the 'iterable' as long
     as the 'predicate' is true.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
              # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      break
                  yield x

     Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is
     consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it.
     This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume
     the input iterator after 'takewhile' has been run to exhaustion.
     To work around this problem, consider using more-itertools
     before_and_after()(3) instead.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.tee (iterable, n=2)

     Return 'n' independent iterators from a single iterable.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def tee(iterable, n=2):
              if n < 0:
                  raise ValueError
              if n == 0:
                  return ()
              iterator = _tee(iterable)
              result = [iterator]
              for _ in range(n - 1):
                  result.append(_tee(iterator))
              return tuple(result)

          class _tee:

              def __init__(self, iterable):
                  it = iter(iterable)
                  if isinstance(it, _tee):
                      self.iterator = it.iterator
                      self.link = it.link
                  else:
                      self.iterator = it
                      self.link = [None, None]

              def __iter__(self):
                  return self

              def __next__(self):
                  link = self.link
                  if link[1] is None:
                      link[0] = next(self.iterator)
                      link[1] = [None, None]
                  value, self.link = link
                  return value

     ‘tee’ iterators are not threadsafe.  A *note RuntimeError: 180. may
     be raised when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same
     *note tee(): 250f. call, even if the original 'iterable' is
     threadsafe.

     This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
     on how much temporary data needs to be stored).  In general, if one
     iterator uses most or all of the data before another iterator
     starts, it is faster to use *note list(): 422. instead of *note
     tee(): 250f.

 -- Işlevi: itertools.zip_longest (*iterables, fillvalue=None)

     Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
     'iterables'.

     If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in
     with 'fillvalue'.  If not specified, 'fillvalue' defaults to
     ‘None’.

     Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
              # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

              iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
              num_active = len(iterators)
              if not num_active:
                  return

              while True:
                  values = []
                  for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
                      try:
                          value = next(iterator)
                      except StopIteration:
                          num_active -= 1
                          if not num_active:
                              return
                          iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                          value = fillvalue
                      values.append(value)
                  yield tuple(values)

     If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the *note
     zip_longest(): 1146. function should be wrapped with something that
     limits the number of calls (for example *note islice(): 9bf. or
     *note takewhile(): 250e.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.ramseysolutions.com/real-estate/amortization-schedule

   (2) https://www.britannica.com/science/permutation

   (3) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.before_and_after


File: python.info,  Node: Itertools Recipes,  Prev: Itertool Functions,  Up: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.10.1.2 Itertools Recipes
..........................

This section shows recipes for creating an extended toolset using the
existing itertools as building blocks.

The primary purpose of the itertools recipes is educational.  The
recipes show various ways of thinking about individual tools — for
example, that ‘chain.from_iterable’ is related to the concept of
flattening.  The recipes also give ideas about ways that the tools can
be combined — for example, how ‘starmap()’ and ‘repeat()’ can work
together.  The recipes also show patterns for using itertools with the
*note operator: 9e. and *note collections: 1d. modules as well as with
the built-in itertools such as ‘map()’, ‘filter()’, ‘reversed()’, and
‘enumerate()’.

A secondary purpose of the recipes is to serve as an incubator.  The
‘accumulate()’, ‘compress()’, and ‘pairwise()’ itertools started out as
recipes.  Currently, the ‘sliding_window()’, ‘iter_index()’, and
‘sieve()’ recipes are being tested to see whether they prove their
worth.

Substantially all of these recipes and many, many others can be
installed from the more-itertools(1) project found on the Python Package
Index:

     python -m pip install more-itertools

Many of the recipes offer the same high performance as the underlying
toolset.  Superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one
at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at
once.  Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a
functional style(2).  High speed is retained by preferring “vectorized”
building blocks over the use of for-loops and *note generators: f0b.
which incur interpreter overhead.

     import collections
     import contextlib
     import functools
     import math
     import operator
     import random

     def take(n, iterable):
         "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
         return list(islice(iterable, n))

     def prepend(value, iterable):
         "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
         # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
         return chain([value], iterable)

     def tabulate(function, start=0):
         "Return function(0), function(1), ..."
         return map(function, count(start))

     def repeatfunc(func, times=None, *args):
         "Repeat calls to func with specified arguments."
         if times is None:
             return starmap(func, repeat(args))
         return starmap(func, repeat(args, times))

     def flatten(list_of_lists):
         "Flatten one level of nesting."
         return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

     def ncycles(iterable, n):
         "Returns the sequence elements n times."
         return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

     def loops(n):
         "Loop n times. Like range(n) but without creating integers."
         # for _ in loops(100): ...
         return repeat(None, n)

     def tail(n, iterable):
         "Return an iterator over the last n items."
         # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
         return iter(collections.deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

     def consume(iterator, n=None):
         "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
         # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
         if n is None:
             collections.deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
         else:
             next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

     def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
         "Returns the nth item or a default value."
         return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

     def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
         "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
         return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

     def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
         "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
         # first_true([a,b,c], x) → a or b or c or x
         # first_true([a,b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
         return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

     def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
         "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
         # all_equal('4٤௪౪໔', key=int) → True
         return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1

     def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
         # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
         # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
         if key is None:
             return map(operator.itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
         return map(next, map(operator.itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

     def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
         # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
         # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
         seen = set()
         if key is None:
             for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
                 seen.add(element)
                 yield element
         else:
             for element in iterable:
                 k = key(element)
                 if k not in seen:
                     seen.add(k)
                     yield element

     def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
        "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
        # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
        return unique_justseen(sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse), key=key)

     def sliding_window(iterable, n):
         "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 4) → ABCD BCDE CDEF DEFG
         iterator = iter(iterable)
         window = collections.deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
         for x in iterator:
             window.append(x)
             yield tuple(window)

     def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
         "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x') → ABC DEF Gxx
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
         iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
         match incomplete:
             case 'fill':
                 return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
             case 'strict':
                 return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
             case 'ignore':
                 return zip(*iterators)
             case _:
                 raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
         # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
         # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
         iterators = map(iter, iterables)
         for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
             iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
             yield from map(next, iterators)

     def partition(predicate, iterable):
         """Partition entries into false entries and true entries.

         If *predicate* is slow, consider wrapping it with functools.lru_cache().
         """
         # partition(is_odd, range(10)) → 0 2 4 6 8   and  1 3 5 7 9
         t1, t2 = tee(iterable)
         return filterfalse(predicate, t1), filter(predicate, t2)

     def subslices(seq):
         "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
         # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
         slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
         return map(operator.getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

     def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
         "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
         # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
         seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
         if seq_index is None:
             iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
             for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
                 if element is value or element == value:
                     yield i
         else:
             stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
             i = start
             with contextlib.suppress(ValueError):
                 while True:
                     yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                     i += 1

     def iter_except(func, exception, first=None):
         "Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
         # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
         with contextlib.suppress(exception):
             if first is not None:
                 yield first()
             while True:
                 yield func()

The following recipes have a more mathematical flavor:

     def powerset(iterable):
         "powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)"
         s = list(iterable)
         return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

     def sum_of_squares(iterable):
         "Add up the squares of the input values."
         # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
         return math.sumprod(*tee(iterable))

     def reshape(matrix, cols):
         "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
         # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5)
         return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), cols)

     def transpose(matrix):
         "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
         # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
         return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

     def matmul(m1, m2):
         "Multiply two matrices."
         # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80), (41, 60)
         n = len(m2[0])
         return batched(starmap(math.sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)

     def convolve(signal, kernel):
         """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
         Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

         Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
         evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
         infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

         Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
         Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
         """
         # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
         # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
         # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
         # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
         kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
         n = len(kernel)
         padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
         windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
         return map(math.sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

     def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
         """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

            (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
         """
         # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
         factors = zip(repeat(1), map(operator.neg, roots))
         return list(functools.reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

     def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
         """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

         Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
         """
         # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
         # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
         n = len(coefficients)
         if not n:
             return type(x)(0)
         powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
         return math.sumprod(coefficients, powers)

     def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
         """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

            f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
            f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
         """
         # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
         n = len(coefficients)
         powers = reversed(range(1, n))
         return list(map(operator.mul, coefficients, powers))

     def sieve(n):
         "Primes less than n."
         # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
         if n > 2:
             yield 2
         data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
         for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=math.isqrt(n) + 1):
             data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
         yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)

     def is_prime(n):
         "Return True if n is prime."
         # is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) → True
         return n > 1 and all(n % p for p in sieve(math.isqrt(n) + 1))

     def factor(n):
         "Prime factors of n."
         # factor(99) → 3 3 11
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
         for prime in sieve(math.isqrt(n) + 1):
             while not n % prime:
                 yield prime
                 n //= prime
                 if n == 1:
                     return
         if n > 1:
             yield n

     def totient(n):
         "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
         # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
         # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
         for prime in set(factor(n)):
             n -= n // prime
         return n

     def multinomial(*counts):
         "Number of distinct arrangements of a multiset."
         # Counter('abracadabra').values() -> 5 2 1 1 2
         # multinomial(5, 2, 1, 1, 2) → 83160
         return math.prod(map(math.comb, accumulate(counts), counts))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/more-itertools/

   (2) https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/dat/miranda/whyfp90.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Next: operator — Standard operators as functions,  Prev: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Up: Functional Programming Modules

5.10.2 ‘functools’ — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/functools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note functools: 5d. module is for higher-order functions: functions
that act on or return other functions.  In general, any callable object
can be treated as a function for the purposes of this module.

The *note functools: 5d. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: @functools.cache (user_function)

     Simple lightweight unbounded function cache.  Sometimes called
     "memoize"(2).

     Returns the same as ‘lru_cache(maxsize=None)’, creating a thin
     wrapper around a dictionary lookup for the function arguments.
     Because it never needs to evict old values, this is smaller and
     faster than *note lru_cache(): 84e. with a size limit.

     For example:

          @cache
          def factorial(n):
              return n * factorial(n-1) if n else 1

          >>> factorial(10)      # no previously cached result, makes 11 recursive calls
          3628800
          >>> factorial(5)       # just looks up cached value result
          120
          >>> factorial(12)      # makes two new recursive calls, the other 10 are cached
          479001600

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: @functools.cached_property (func)

     Transform a method of a class into a property whose value is
     computed once and then cached as a normal attribute for the life of
     the instance.  Similar to *note property(): 43c, with the addition
     of caching.  Useful for expensive computed properties of instances
     that are otherwise effectively immutable.

     Example:

          class DataSet:

              def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
                  self._data = tuple(sequence_of_numbers)

              @cached_property
              def stdev(self):
                  return statistics.stdev(self._data)

     The mechanics of *note cached_property(): 2cf. are somewhat
     different from *note property(): 43c.  A regular property blocks
     attribute writes unless a setter is defined.  In contrast, a
     'cached_property' allows writes.

     The 'cached_property' decorator only runs on lookups and only when
     an attribute of the same name doesn’t exist.  When it does run, the
     'cached_property' writes to the attribute with the same name.
     Subsequent attribute reads and writes take precedence over the
     'cached_property' method and it works like a normal attribute.

     The cached value can be cleared by deleting the attribute.  This
     allows the 'cached_property' method to run again.

     The 'cached_property' does not prevent a possible race condition in
     multi-threaded usage.  The getter function could run more than once
     on the same instance, with the latest run setting the cached value.
     If the cached property is idempotent or otherwise not harmful to
     run more than once on an instance, this is fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement the necessary locking inside
     the decorated getter function or around the cached property access.

     Note, this decorator interferes with the operation of PEP 412(3)
     key-sharing dictionaries.  This means that instance dictionaries
     can take more space than usual.

     Also, this decorator requires that the ‘__dict__’ attribute on each
     instance be a mutable mapping.  This means it will not work with
     some types, such as metaclasses (since the ‘__dict__’ attributes on
     type instances are read-only proxies for the class namespace), and
     those that specify ‘__slots__’ without including ‘__dict__’ as one
     of the defined slots (as such classes don’t provide a ‘__dict__’
     attribute at all).

     If a mutable mapping is not available or if space-efficient key
     sharing is desired, an effect similar to *note cached_property():
     2cf. can also be achieved by stacking *note property(): 43c. on top
     of *note lru_cache(): 84e.  See *note How do I cache method calls?:
     2516. for more details on how this differs from *note
     cached_property(): 2cf.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.12, ‘cached_property’
     included an undocumented lock to ensure that in multi-threaded
     usage the getter function was guaranteed to run only once per
     instance.  However, the lock was per-property, not per-instance,
     which could result in unacceptably high lock contention.  In Python
     3.12+ this locking is removed.

 -- Işlevi: functools.cmp_to_key (func)

     Transform an old-style comparison function to a *note key function:
     c93.  Used with tools that accept key functions (such as *note
     sorted(): a45, *note min(): d9f, *note max(): da0, *note
     heapq.nlargest(): 2324, *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2325, *note
     itertools.groupby(): 250d.).  This function is primarily used as a
     transition tool for programs being converted from Python 2 which
     supported the use of comparison functions.

     A comparison function is any callable that accepts two arguments,
     compares them, and returns a negative number for less-than, zero
     for equality, or a positive number for greater-than.  A key
     function is a callable that accepts one argument and returns
     another value to be used as the sort key.

     Example:

          sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see *note
     Sorting Techniques: 1f6f.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: @functools.lru_cache (user_function)

 -- Işlevi: @functools.lru_cache (maxsize=128, typed=False)

     Decorator to wrap a function with a memoizing callable that saves
     up to the 'maxsize' most recent calls.  It can save time when an
     expensive or I/O bound function is periodically called with the
     same arguments.

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     Since a dictionary is used to cache results, the positional and
     keyword arguments to the function must be *note hashable: 421.

     Distinct argument patterns may be considered to be distinct calls
     with separate cache entries.  For example, ‘f(a=1, b=2)’ and
     ‘f(b=2, a=1)’ differ in their keyword argument order and may have
     two separate cache entries.

     If 'user_function' is specified, it must be a callable.  This
     allows the 'lru_cache' decorator to be applied directly to a user
     function, leaving the 'maxsize' at its default value of 128:

          @lru_cache
          def count_vowels(sentence):
              return sum(sentence.count(vowel) for vowel in 'AEIOUaeiou')

     If 'maxsize' is set to ‘None’, the LRU feature is disabled and the
     cache can grow without bound.

     If 'typed' is set to true, function arguments of different types
     will be cached separately.  If 'typed' is false, the implementation
     will usually regard them as equivalent calls and only cache a
     single result.  (Some types such as 'str' and 'int' may be cached
     separately even when 'typed' is false.)

     Note, type specificity applies only to the function’s immediate
     arguments rather than their contents.  The scalar arguments,
     ‘Decimal(42)’ and ‘Fraction(42)’ are be treated as distinct calls
     with distinct results.  In contrast, the tuple arguments
     ‘('answer', Decimal(42))’ and ‘('answer', Fraction(42))’ are
     treated as equivalent.

     The wrapped function is instrumented with a ‘cache_parameters()’
     function that returns a new *note dict: 240. showing the values for
     'maxsize' and 'typed'.  This is for information purposes only.
     Mutating the values has no effect.

     To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the
     'maxsize' parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a
     ‘cache_info()’ function that returns a *note named tuple: 461.
     showing 'hits', 'misses', 'maxsize' and 'currsize'.

     The decorator also provides a ‘cache_clear()’ function for clearing
     or invalidating the cache.

     The original underlying function is accessible through the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  This is useful for introspection, for
     bypassing the cache, or for rewrapping the function with a
     different cache.

     The cache keeps references to the arguments and return values until
     they age out of the cache or until the cache is cleared.

     If a method is cached, the ‘self’ instance argument is included in
     the cache.  See *note How do I cache method calls?: 2516.

     An LRU (least recently used) cache(4) works best when the most
     recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for
     example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change
     each day).  The cache’s size limit assures that the cache does not
     grow without bound on long-running processes such as web servers.

     In general, the LRU cache should only be used when you want to
     reuse previously computed values.  Accordingly, it doesn’t make
     sense to cache functions with side-effects, functions that need to
     create distinct mutable objects on each call (such as generators
     and async functions), or impure functions such as time() or
     random().

     Example of an LRU cache for static web content:

          @lru_cache(maxsize=32)
          def get_pep(num):
              'Retrieve text of a Python Enhancement Proposal'
              resource = f'https://peps.python.org/pep-{num:04d}'
              try:
                  with urllib.request.urlopen(resource) as s:
                      return s.read()
              except urllib.error.HTTPError:
                  return 'Not Found'

          >>> for n in 8, 290, 308, 320, 8, 218, 320, 279, 289, 320, 9991:
          ...     pep = get_pep(n)
          ...     print(n, len(pep))

          >>> get_pep.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)

     Example of efficiently computing Fibonacci numbers(5) using a cache
     to implement a dynamic programming(6) technique:

          @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
          def fib(n):
              if n < 2:
                  return n
              return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

          >>> [fib(n) for n in range(16)]
          [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610]

          >>> fib.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=28, misses=16, maxsize=None, currsize=16)

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'typed' option.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'user_function' option.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the function ‘cache_parameters()’

 -- Işlevi: @functools.total_ordering

     Given a class defining one or more rich comparison ordering
     methods, this class decorator supplies the rest.  This simplifies
     the effort involved in specifying all of the possible rich
     comparison operations:

     The class must define one of ‘__lt__()’, ‘__le__()’, ‘__gt__()’, or
     ‘__ge__()’.  In addition, the class should supply an ‘__eq__()’
     method.

     For example:

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def _is_valid_operand(self, other):
                  return (hasattr(other, "lastname") and
                          hasattr(other, "firstname"))
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
              def __lt__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

          Not: While this decorator makes it easy to create well behaved
          totally ordered types, it 'does' come at the cost of slower
          execution and more complex stack traces for the derived
          comparison methods.  If performance benchmarking indicates
          this is a bottleneck for a given application, implementing all
          six rich comparison methods instead is likely to provide an
          easy speed boost.

          Not: This decorator makes no attempt to override methods that
          have been declared in the class 'or its superclasses'.
          Meaning that if a superclass defines a comparison operator,
          'total_ordering' will not implement it again, even if the
          original method is abstract.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Returning ‘NotImplemented’ from the
     underlying comparison function for unrecognised types is now
     supported.

 -- Işlevi: functools.partial (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     Return a new *note partial object: 2517. which when called will
     behave like 'func' called with the positional arguments 'args' and
     keyword arguments 'keywords'.  If more arguments are supplied to
     the call, they are appended to 'args'.  If additional keyword
     arguments are supplied, they extend and override 'keywords'.
     Roughly equivalent to:

          def partial(func, /, *args, **keywords):
              def newfunc(*fargs, **fkeywords):
                  newkeywords = {**keywords, **fkeywords}
                  return func(*args, *fargs, **newkeywords)
              newfunc.func = func
              newfunc.args = args
              newfunc.keywords = keywords
              return newfunc

     The *note partial(): d61. is used for partial function application
     which “freezes” some portion of a function’s arguments and/or
     keywords resulting in a new object with a simplified signature.
     For example, *note partial(): d61. can be used to create a callable
     that behaves like the *note int(): 184. function where the 'base'
     argument defaults to two:

          >>> from functools import partial
          >>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
          >>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
          >>> basetwo('10010')
          18

 -- Sınıfı: functools.partialmethod (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     Return a new *note partialmethod: 8e0. descriptor which behaves
     like *note partial: d61. except that it is designed to be used as a
     method definition rather than being directly callable.

     'func' must be a *note descriptor: 1d5f. or a callable (objects
     which are both, like normal functions, are handled as descriptors).

     When 'func' is a descriptor (such as a normal Python function,
     *note classmethod(): 252, *note staticmethod(): 612,
     ‘abstractmethod()’ or another instance of *note partialmethod:
     8e0.), calls to ‘__get__’ are delegated to the underlying
     descriptor, and an appropriate *note partial object: 2517. returned
     as the result.

     When 'func' is a non-descriptor callable, an appropriate bound
     method is created dynamically.  This behaves like a normal Python
     function when used as a method: the 'self' argument will be
     inserted as the first positional argument, even before the 'args'
     and 'keywords' supplied to the *note partialmethod: 8e0.
     constructor.

     Example:

          >>> class Cell:
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self._alive = False
          ...     @property
          ...     def alive(self):
          ...         return self._alive
          ...     def set_state(self, state):
          ...         self._alive = bool(state)
          ...     set_alive = partialmethod(set_state, True)
          ...     set_dead = partialmethod(set_state, False)
          ...
          >>> c = Cell()
          >>> c.alive
          False
          >>> c.set_alive()
          >>> c.alive
          True

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: functools.reduce (function, iterable[, initializer])

     Apply 'function' of two arguments cumulatively to the items of
     'iterable', from left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a
     single value.  For example, ‘reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4,
     5])’ calculates ‘((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)’.  The left argument, 'x', is
     the accumulated value and the right argument, 'y', is the update
     value from the 'iterable'.  If the optional 'initializer' is
     present, it is placed before the items of the iterable in the
     calculation, and serves as a default when the iterable is empty.
     If 'initializer' is not given and 'iterable' contains only one
     item, the first item is returned.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def reduce(function, iterable, initializer=None):
              it = iter(iterable)
              if initializer is None:
                  value = next(it)
              else:
                  value = initializer
              for element in it:
                  value = function(value, element)
              return value

     See *note itertools.accumulate(): 85d. for an iterator that yields
     all intermediate values.

 -- Işlevi: @functools.singledispatch

     Transform a function into a *note single-dispatch: 84f. *note
     generic function: 850.

     To define a generic function, decorate it with the
     ‘@singledispatch’ decorator.  When defining a function using
     ‘@singledispatch’, note that the dispatch happens on the type of
     the first argument:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)

     To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the
     ‘register()’ attribute of the generic function, which can be used
     as a decorator.  For functions annotated with types, the decorator
     will infer the type of the first argument automatically:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: list, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

     *note types.UnionType: 44d. and *note typing.Union: 44e. can also
     be used:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     For code which doesn’t use type annotations, the appropriate type
     argument can be passed explicitly to the decorator itself:

          >>> @fun.register(complex)
          ... def _(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Better than complicated.", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg.real, arg.imag)
          ...

     For code that dispatches on a collections type (e.g., ‘list’), but
     wants to typehint the items of the collection (e.g., ‘list[int]’),
     the dispatch type should be passed explicitly to the decorator
     itself with the typehint going into the function definition:

          >>> @fun.register(list)
          ... def _(arg: list[int], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

          Not: At runtime the function will dispatch on an instance of a
          list regardless of the type contained within the list i.e.
          ‘[1,2,3]’ will be dispatched the same as ‘["foo", "bar",
          "baz"]’.  The annotation provided in this example is for
          static type checkers only and has no runtime impact.

     To enable registering *note lambdas: 2518. and pre-existing
     functions, the ‘register()’ attribute can also be used in a
     functional form:

          >>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     print("Nothing.")
          ...
          >>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)

     The ‘register()’ attribute returns the undecorated function.  This
     enables decorator stacking, *note pickling: a5, and the creation of
     unit tests for each variant independently:

          >>> @fun.register(float)
          ... @fun.register(Decimal)
          ... def fun_num(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Half of your number:", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg / 2)
          ...
          >>> fun_num is fun
          False

     When called, the generic function dispatches on the type of the
     first argument:

          >>> fun("Hello, world.")
          Hello, world.
          >>> fun("test.", verbose=True)
          Let me just say, test.
          >>> fun(42, verbose=True)
          Strength in numbers, eh? 42
          >>> fun(['spam', 'spam', 'eggs', 'spam'], verbose=True)
          Enumerate this:
          0 spam
          1 spam
          2 eggs
          3 spam
          >>> fun(None)
          Nothing.
          >>> fun(1.23)
          0.615

     Where there is no registered implementation for a specific type,
     its method resolution order is used to find a more generic
     implementation.  The original function decorated with
     ‘@singledispatch’ is registered for the base *note object: 8f2.
     type, which means it is used if no better implementation is found.

     If an implementation is registered to an *note abstract base class:
     105b, virtual subclasses of the base class will be dispatched to
     that implementation:

          >>> from collections.abc import Mapping
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Mapping, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Keys & Values")
          ...     for key, value in arg.items():
          ...         print(key, "=>", value)
          ...
          >>> fun({"a": "b"})
          a => b

     To check which implementation the generic function will choose for
     a given type, use the ‘dispatch()’ attribute:

          >>> fun.dispatch(float)
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.dispatch(dict)    # note: default implementation
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     To access all registered implementations, use the read-only
     ‘registry’ attribute:

          >>> fun.registry.keys()
          dict_keys([<class 'NoneType'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'object'>,
                    <class 'decimal.Decimal'>, <class 'list'>,
                    <class 'float'>])
          >>> fun.registry[float]
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.registry[object]
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The ‘register()’ attribute now supports
     using type annotations.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘register()’ attribute now supports
     *note types.UnionType: 44d. and *note typing.Union: 44e. as type
     annotations.

 -- Sınıfı: functools.singledispatchmethod (func)

     Transform a method into a *note single-dispatch: 84f. *note generic
     function: 850.

     To define a generic method, decorate it with the
     ‘@singledispatchmethod’ decorator.  When defining a function using
     ‘@singledispatchmethod’, note that the dispatch happens on the type
     of the first non-'self' or non-'cls' argument:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              def neg(self, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     ‘@singledispatchmethod’ supports nesting with other decorators such
     as *note @classmethod: 252.  Note that to allow for
     ‘dispatcher.register’, ‘singledispatchmethod’ must be the 'outer
     most' decorator.  Here is the ‘Negator’ class with the ‘neg’
     methods bound to the class, rather than an instance of the class:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              @classmethod
              def neg(cls, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     The same pattern can be used for other similar decorators: *note
     @staticmethod: 612, *note @abstractmethod: f30, and others.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: functools.update_wrapper (wrapper, wrapped,
          assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     Update a 'wrapper' function to look like the 'wrapped' function.
     The optional arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of
     the original function are assigned directly to the matching
     attributes on the wrapper function and which attributes of the
     wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes from
     the original function.  The default values for these arguments are
     the module level constants ‘WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS’ (which assigns to
     the wrapper function’s *note __module__: 1ceb, *note __name__:
     117e, *note __qualname__: 1cea, *note __annotations__: 107d, *note
     __type_params__: 1ced, and *note __doc__: 107e, the documentation
     string) and ‘WRAPPER_UPDATES’ (which updates the wrapper function’s
     *note __dict__: 117c, i.e.  the instance dictionary).

     To allow access to the original function for introspection and
     other purposes (e.g.  bypassing a caching decorator such as *note
     lru_cache(): 84e.), this function automatically adds a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute to the wrapper that refers to the function
     being wrapped.

     The main intended use for this function is in *note decorator: 559.
     functions which wrap the decorated function and return the wrapper.
     If the wrapper function is not updated, the metadata of the
     returned function will reflect the wrapper definition rather than
     the original function definition, which is typically less than
     helpful.

     *note update_wrapper(): eca. may be used with callables other than
     functions.  Any attributes named in 'assigned' or 'updated' that
     are missing from the object being wrapped are ignored (i.e.  this
     function will not attempt to set them on the wrapper function).
     *note AttributeError: 3dc. is still raised if the wrapper function
     itself is missing any attributes named in 'updated'.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The ‘__wrapped__’ attribute is now
     automatically added.  The *note __annotations__: 107d. attribute is
     now copied by default.  Missing attributes no longer trigger an
     *note AttributeError: 3dc.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘__wrapped__’ attribute now always
     refers to the wrapped function, even if that function defined a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  (see bpo-17482(7))

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The *note __type_params__: 1ced. attribute
     is now copied by default.

 -- Işlevi: @functools.wraps (wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS,
          updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     This is a convenience function for invoking *note update_wrapper():
     eca. as a function decorator when defining a wrapper function.  It
     is equivalent to ‘partial(update_wrapper, wrapped=wrapped,
     assigned=assigned, updated=updated)’.  For example:

          >>> from functools import wraps
          >>> def my_decorator(f):
          ...     @wraps(f)
          ...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
          ...         print('Calling decorated function')
          ...         return f(*args, **kwds)
          ...     return wrapper
          ...
          >>> @my_decorator
          ... def example():
          ...     """Docstring"""
          ...     print('Called example function')
          ...
          >>> example()
          Calling decorated function
          Called example function
          >>> example.__name__
          'example'
          >>> example.__doc__
          'Docstring'

     Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example
     function would have been ‘'wrapper'’, and the docstring of the
     original ‘example()’ would have been lost.

* Menu:

* partial Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/functools.py

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_Recently_Used_(LRU)

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17482


File: python.info,  Node: partial Objects,  Up: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

5.10.2.1 ‘partial’ Objects
..........................

*note partial: d61. objects are callable objects created by *note
partial(): d61.  They have three read-only attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: partial.func

     A callable object or function.  Calls to the *note partial: d61.
     object will be forwarded to *note func: 251a. with new arguments
     and keywords.

 -- Özniteliği: partial.args

     The leftmost positional arguments that will be prepended to the
     positional arguments provided to a *note partial: d61. object call.

 -- Özniteliği: partial.keywords

     The keyword arguments that will be supplied when the *note partial:
     d61. object is called.

*note partial: d61. objects are like *note function objects: 1b08. in
that they are callable, weak referenceable, and can have attributes.
There are some important differences.  For instance, the *note __name__:
117e. and *note function.__doc__: 107e. attributes are not created
automatically.  Also, *note partial: d61. objects defined in classes
behave like static methods and do not transform into bound methods
during instance attribute look-up.


File: python.info,  Node: operator — Standard operators as functions,  Prev: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Up: Functional Programming Modules

5.10.3 ‘operator’ — Standard operators as functions
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/operator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note operator: 9e. module exports a set of efficient functions
corresponding to the intrinsic operators of Python.  For example,
‘operator.add(x, y)’ is equivalent to the expression ‘x+y’.  Many
function names are those used for special methods, without the double
underscores.  For backward compatibility, many of these have a variant
with the double underscores kept.  The variants without the double
underscores are preferred for clarity.

The functions fall into categories that perform object comparisons,
logical operations, mathematical operations and sequence operations.

The object comparison functions are useful for all objects, and are
named after the rich comparison operators they support:

 -- Işlevi: operator.lt (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.le (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.eq (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.ne (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.ge (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.gt (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__lt__ (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__le__ (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__eq__ (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__ne__ (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__ge__ (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__gt__ (a, b)

     Perform “rich comparisons” between 'a' and 'b'.  Specifically,
     ‘lt(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a < b’, ‘le(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a
     <= b’, ‘eq(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a == b’, ‘ne(a, b)’ is
     equivalent to ‘a != b’, ‘gt(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a > b’ and
     ‘ge(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a >= b’.  Note that these functions
     can return any value, which may or may not be interpretable as a
     Boolean value.  See *note Comparisons: 1e63. for more information
     about rich comparisons.

The logical operations are also generally applicable to all objects, and
support truth tests, identity tests, and boolean operations:

 -- Işlevi: operator.not_ (obj)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__not__ (obj)

     Return the outcome of *note not: 1e6d. 'obj'.  (Note that there is
     no ‘__not__()’ method for object instances; only the interpreter
     core defines this operation.  The result is affected by the *note
     __bool__(): 117f. and *note __len__(): 1d50. methods.)

 -- Işlevi: operator.truth (obj)

     Return *note True: a86. if 'obj' is true, and *note False: 9a8.
     otherwise.  This is equivalent to using the *note bool: 183.
     constructor.

 -- Işlevi: operator.is_ (a, b)

     Return ‘a is b’.  Tests object identity.

 -- Işlevi: operator.is_not (a, b)

     Return ‘a is not b’.  Tests object identity.

The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:

 -- Işlevi: operator.abs (obj)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__abs__ (obj)

     Return the absolute value of 'obj'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.add (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__add__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a + b’, for 'a' and 'b' numbers.

 -- Işlevi: operator.and_ (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__and__ (a, b)

     Return the bitwise and of 'a' and 'b'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.floordiv (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__floordiv__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a // b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.index (a)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__index__ (a)

     Return 'a' converted to an integer.  Equivalent to ‘a.__index__()’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The result always has exact type *note int:
     184.  Previously, the result could have been an instance of a
     subclass of ‘int’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.inv (obj)
 -- Işlevi: operator.invert (obj)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__inv__ (obj)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__invert__ (obj)

     Return the bitwise inverse of the number 'obj'.  This is equivalent
     to ‘~obj’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.lshift (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__lshift__ (a, b)

     Return 'a' shifted left by 'b'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.mod (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__mod__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a % b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.mul (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__mul__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a * b’, for 'a' and 'b' numbers.

 -- Işlevi: operator.matmul (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__matmul__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a @ b’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: operator.neg (obj)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__neg__ (obj)

     Return 'obj' negated (‘-obj’).

 -- Işlevi: operator.or_ (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__or__ (a, b)

     Return the bitwise or of 'a' and 'b'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.pos (obj)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__pos__ (obj)

     Return 'obj' positive (‘+obj’).

 -- Işlevi: operator.pow (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__pow__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a ** b’, for 'a' and 'b' numbers.

 -- Işlevi: operator.rshift (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__rshift__ (a, b)

     Return 'a' shifted right by 'b'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.sub (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__sub__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a - b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.truediv (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__truediv__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a / b’ where 2/3 is .66 rather than 0.  This is also known
     as “true” division.

 -- Işlevi: operator.xor (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__xor__ (a, b)

     Return the bitwise exclusive or of 'a' and 'b'.

Operations which work with sequences (some of them with mappings too)
include:

 -- Işlevi: operator.concat (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__concat__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a + b’ for 'a' and 'b' sequences.

 -- Işlevi: operator.contains (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__contains__ (a, b)

     Return the outcome of the test ‘b in a’.  Note the reversed
     operands.

 -- Işlevi: operator.countOf (a, b)

     Return the number of occurrences of 'b' in 'a'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.delitem (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__delitem__ (a, b)

     Remove the value of 'a' at index 'b'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.getitem (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__getitem__ (a, b)

     Return the value of 'a' at index 'b'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.indexOf (a, b)

     Return the index of the first of occurrence of 'b' in 'a'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.setitem (a, b, c)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__setitem__ (a, b, c)

     Set the value of 'a' at index 'b' to 'c'.

 -- Işlevi: operator.length_hint (obj, default=0)

     Return an estimated length for the object 'obj'.  First try to
     return its actual length, then an estimate using *note
     object.__length_hint__(): da3, and finally return the default
     value.

     Added in version 3.4.

The following operation works with callables:

 -- Işlevi: operator.call (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__call__ (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return ‘obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

     Added in version 3.11.

The *note operator: 9e. module also defines tools for generalized
attribute and item lookups.  These are useful for making fast field
extractors as arguments for *note map(): 6a7, *note sorted(): a45, *note
itertools.groupby(): 250d, or other functions that expect a function
argument.

 -- Işlevi: operator.attrgetter (attr)

 -- Işlevi: operator.attrgetter (*attrs)

     Return a callable object that fetches 'attr' from its operand.  If
     more than one attribute is requested, returns a tuple of
     attributes.  The attribute names can also contain dots.  For
     example:

        * After ‘f = attrgetter('name')’, the call ‘f(b)’ returns
          ‘b.name’.

        * After ‘f = attrgetter('name', 'date')’, the call ‘f(b)’
          returns ‘(b.name, b.date)’.

        * After ‘f = attrgetter('name.first', 'name.last')’, the call
          ‘f(b)’ returns ‘(b.name.first, b.name.last)’.

     Equivalent to:

          def attrgetter(*items):
              if any(not isinstance(item, str) for item in items):
                  raise TypeError('attribute name must be a string')
              if len(items) == 1:
                  attr = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return resolve_attr(obj, attr)
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(resolve_attr(obj, attr) for attr in items)
              return g

          def resolve_attr(obj, attr):
              for name in attr.split("."):
                  obj = getattr(obj, name)
              return obj

 -- Işlevi: operator.itemgetter (item)

 -- Işlevi: operator.itemgetter (*items)

     Return a callable object that fetches 'item' from its operand using
     the operand’s *note __getitem__(): 500. method.  If multiple items
     are specified, returns a tuple of lookup values.  For example:

        * After ‘f = itemgetter(2)’, the call ‘f(r)’ returns ‘r[2]’.

        * After ‘g = itemgetter(2, 5, 3)’, the call ‘g(r)’ returns
          ‘(r[2], r[5], r[3])’.

     Equivalent to:

          def itemgetter(*items):
              if len(items) == 1:
                  item = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return obj[item]
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(obj[item] for item in items)
              return g

     The items can be any type accepted by the operand’s *note
     __getitem__(): 500. method.  Dictionaries accept any *note
     hashable: 421. value.  Lists, tuples, and strings accept an index
     or a slice:

          >>> itemgetter(1)('ABCDEFG')
          'B'
          >>> itemgetter(1, 3, 5)('ABCDEFG')
          ('B', 'D', 'F')
          >>> itemgetter(slice(2, None))('ABCDEFG')
          'CDEFG'
          >>> soldier = dict(rank='captain', name='dotterbart')
          >>> itemgetter('rank')(soldier)
          'captain'

     Example of using *note itemgetter(): 8c6. to retrieve specific
     fields from a tuple record:

          >>> inventory = [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2), ('pear', 5), ('orange', 1)]
          >>> getcount = itemgetter(1)
          >>> list(map(getcount, inventory))
          [3, 2, 5, 1]
          >>> sorted(inventory, key=getcount)
          [('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]

 -- Işlevi: operator.methodcaller (name, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return a callable object that calls the method 'name' on its
     operand.  If additional arguments and/or keyword arguments are
     given, they will be given to the method as well.  For example:

        * After ‘f = methodcaller('name')’, the call ‘f(b)’ returns
          ‘b.name()’.

        * After ‘f = methodcaller('name', 'foo', bar=1)’, the call
          ‘f(b)’ returns ‘b.name('foo', bar=1)’.

     Equivalent to:

          def methodcaller(name, /, *args, **kwargs):
              def caller(obj):
                  return getattr(obj, name)(*args, **kwargs)
              return caller

* Menu:

* Mapping Operators to Functions::
* In-place Operators::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/operator.py


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Operators to Functions,  Next: In-place Operators,  Up: operator — Standard operators as functions

5.10.3.1 Mapping Operators to Functions
.......................................

This table shows how abstract operations correspond to operator symbols
in the Python syntax and the functions in the *note operator: 9e.
module.

Operation                   Syntax                        Function
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
Addition                    ‘a + b’                       ‘add(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Concatenation               ‘seq1 + seq2’                 ‘concat(seq1, seq2)’
                                                          
                                                          
Containment Test            ‘obj in seq’                  ‘contains(seq, obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Division                    ‘a / b’                       ‘truediv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Division                    ‘a // b’                      ‘floordiv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise And                 ‘a & b’                       ‘and_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise Exclusive Or        ‘a ^ b’                       ‘xor(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise Inversion           ‘~ a’                         ‘invert(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise Or                  ‘a | b’                       ‘or_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Exponentiation              ‘a ** b’                      ‘pow(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identity                    ‘a is b’                      ‘is_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identity                    ‘a is not b’                  ‘is_not(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Indexed Assignment          ‘obj[k] = v’                  ‘setitem(obj, k, v)’
                                                          
                                                          
Indexed Deletion            ‘del obj[k]’                  ‘delitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
Indexing                    ‘obj[k]’                      ‘getitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
Left Shift                  ‘a << b’                      ‘lshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Modulo                      ‘a % b’                       ‘mod(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Multiplication              ‘a * b’                       ‘mul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Matrix Multiplication       ‘a @ b’                       ‘matmul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Negation (Arithmetic)       ‘- a’                         ‘neg(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Negation (Logical)          ‘not a’                       ‘not_(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Positive                    ‘+ a’                         ‘pos(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Right Shift                 ‘a >> b’                      ‘rshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Slice Assignment            ‘seq[i:j] = values’           ‘setitem(seq, slice(i, j), values)’
                                                          
                                                          
Slice Deletion              ‘del seq[i:j]’                ‘delitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
Slicing                     ‘seq[i:j]’                    ‘getitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
String Formatting           ‘s % obj’                     ‘mod(s, obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Subtraction                 ‘a - b’                       ‘sub(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Truth Test                  ‘obj’                         ‘truth(obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a < b’                       ‘lt(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a <= b’                      ‘le(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Equality                    ‘a == b’                      ‘eq(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Difference                  ‘a != b’                      ‘ne(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a >= b’                      ‘ge(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a > b’                       ‘gt(a, b)’
                                                          


File: python.info,  Node: In-place Operators,  Prev: Mapping Operators to Functions,  Up: operator — Standard operators as functions

5.10.3.2 In-place Operators
...........................

Many operations have an “in-place” version.  Listed below are functions
providing a more primitive access to in-place operators than the usual
syntax does; for example, the *note statement: 2560. ‘x += y’ is
equivalent to ‘x = operator.iadd(x, y)’.  Another way to put it is to
say that ‘z = operator.iadd(x, y)’ is equivalent to the compound
statement ‘z = x; z += y’.

In those examples, note that when an in-place method is called, the
computation and assignment are performed in two separate steps.  The
in-place functions listed below only do the first step, calling the
in-place method.  The second step, assignment, is not handled.

For immutable targets such as strings, numbers, and tuples, the updated
value is computed, but not assigned back to the input variable:

     >>> a = 'hello'
     >>> iadd(a, ' world')
     'hello world'
     >>> a
     'hello'

For mutable targets such as lists and dictionaries, the in-place method
will perform the update, so no subsequent assignment is necessary:

     >>> s = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
     >>> iadd(s, [' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'])
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
     >>> s
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']

 -- Işlevi: operator.iadd (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__iadd__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iadd(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a += b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.iand (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__iand__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iand(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a &= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.iconcat (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__iconcat__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iconcat(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a += b’ for 'a' and 'b'
     sequences.

 -- Işlevi: operator.ifloordiv (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__ifloordiv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ifloordiv(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a //= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.ilshift (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__ilshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ilshift(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a <<= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.imod (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__imod__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imod(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a %= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.imul (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__imul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imul(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a *= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.imatmul (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__imatmul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imatmul(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a @= b’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: operator.ior (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__ior__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ior(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a |= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.ipow (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__ipow__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ipow(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a **= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.irshift (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__irshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = irshift(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a >>= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.isub (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__isub__ (a, b)

     ‘a = isub(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a -= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.itruediv (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__itruediv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = itruediv(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a /= b’.

 -- Işlevi: operator.ixor (a, b)
 -- Işlevi: operator.__ixor__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ixor(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a ^= b’.


File: python.info,  Node: File and Directory Access,  Next: Data Persistence,  Prev: Functional Programming Modules,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.11 File and Directory Access
==============================

The modules described in this chapter deal with disk files and
directories.  For example, there are modules for reading the properties
of files, manipulating paths in a portable way, and creating temporary
files.  The full list of modules in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths::
* os.path — Common pathname manipulations: os path — Common pathname manipulations.
* fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams::
* stat — Interpreting stat() results: stat — Interpreting stat results.
* filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons::
* tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories::
* glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı::
* fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching::
* linecache — Random access to text lines::
* shutil — High-level file operations::


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths,  Next: os path — Common pathname manipulations,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.1 ‘pathlib’ — Object-oriented filesystem paths
---------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/pathlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module offers classes representing filesystem paths with semantics
appropriate for different operating systems.  Path classes are divided
between *note pure paths: 2581, which provide purely computational
operations without I/O, and *note concrete paths: 2582, which inherit
from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

[image src="python-figures/pathlib-inheritance.png" alt="Inheritance diagram showing the classes available in pathlib. The most basic class is PurePath, which has three direct subclasses: PurePosixPath, PureWindowsPath, and Path. Further to these four classes, there are two classes that use multiple inheritance: PosixPath subclasses PurePosixPath and Path, and WindowsPath subclasses PureWindowsPath and Path."]


If you’ve never used this module before or just aren’t sure which class
is right for your task, *note Path: 14f. is most likely what you need.
It instantiates a *note concrete path: 2582. for the platform the code
is running on.

Pure paths are useful in some special cases; for example:

  1. If you want to manipulate Windows paths on a Unix machine (or vice
     versa).  You cannot instantiate a *note WindowsPath: 2583. when
     running on Unix, but you can instantiate *note PureWindowsPath:
     1529.

  2. You want to make sure that your code only manipulates paths without
     actually accessing the OS. In this case, instantiating one of the
     pure classes may be useful since those simply don’t have any
     OS-accessing operations.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 428(2): The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

For low-level path manipulation on strings, you can also use the *note
os.path: a1. module.

* Menu:

* Basic use::
* Pure paths::
* Concrete paths::
* Correspondence to tools in the os module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pathlib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: Basic use,  Next: Pure paths,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.1 Basic use
..................

Importing the main class:

     >>> from pathlib import Path

Listing subdirectories:

     >>> p = Path('.')
     >>> [x for x in p.iterdir() if x.is_dir()]
     [PosixPath('.hg'), PosixPath('docs'), PosixPath('dist'),
      PosixPath('__pycache__'), PosixPath('build')]

Listing Python source files in this directory tree:

     >>> list(p.glob('**/*.py'))
     [PosixPath('test_pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'),
      PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
      PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py')]

Navigating inside a directory tree:

     >>> p = Path('/etc')
     >>> q = p / 'init.d' / 'reboot'
     >>> q
     PosixPath('/etc/init.d/reboot')
     >>> q.resolve()
     PosixPath('/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt')

Querying path properties:

     >>> q.exists()
     True
     >>> q.is_dir()
     False

Opening a file:

     >>> with q.open() as f: f.readline()
     ...
     '#!/bin/bash\n'


File: python.info,  Node: Pure paths,  Next: Concrete paths,  Prev: Basic use,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.2 Pure paths
...................

Pure path objects provide path-handling operations which don’t actually
access a filesystem.  There are three ways to access these classes,
which we also call 'flavours':

 -- Sınıfı: pathlib.PurePath (*pathsegments)

     A generic class that represents the system’s path flavour
     (instantiating it creates either a *note PurePosixPath: 2586. or a
     *note PureWindowsPath: 1529.):

          >>> PurePath('setup.py')      # Running on a Unix machine
          PurePosixPath('setup.py')

     Each element of 'pathsegments' can be either a string representing
     a path segment, or an object implementing the *note os.PathLike:
     acd. interface where the *note __fspath__(): ace. method returns a
     string, such as another path object:

          >>> PurePath('foo', 'some/path', 'bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/some/path/bar')
          >>> PurePath(Path('foo'), Path('bar'))
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')

     When 'pathsegments' is empty, the current directory is assumed:

          >>> PurePath()
          PurePosixPath('.')

     If a segment is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored
     (like *note os.path.join(): 1547.):

          >>> PurePath('/etc', '/usr', 'lib64')
          PurePosixPath('/usr/lib64')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', 'd:bar')
          PureWindowsPath('d:bar')

     On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted relative path
     segment (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’) is encountered:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

     Spurious slashes and single dots are collapsed, but double dots
     (‘'..'’) and leading double slashes (‘'//'’) are not, since this
     would change the meaning of a path for various reasons (e.g.
     symbolic links, UNC paths):

          >>> PurePath('foo//bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('//foo/bar')
          PurePosixPath('//foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/./bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/../bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')

     (a naïve approach would make ‘PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')’
     equivalent to ‘PurePosixPath('bar')’, which is wrong if ‘foo’ is a
     symbolic link to another directory)

     Pure path objects implement the *note os.PathLike: acd. interface,
     allowing them to be used anywhere the interface is accepted.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the *note os.PathLike:
     acd. interface.

 -- Sınıfı: pathlib.PurePosixPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note PurePath: 1ce, this path flavour represents
     non-Windows filesystem paths:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 1ce.

 -- Sınıfı: pathlib.PureWindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note PurePath: 1ce, this path flavour represents
     Windows filesystem paths, including UNC paths(1):

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
          PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 1ce.

Regardless of the system you’re running on, you can instantiate all of
these classes, since they don’t provide any operation that does system
calls.

* Menu:

* General properties::
* Operators: Operators<2>.
* Accessing individual parts::
* Methods and properties::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)#UNC


File: python.info,  Node: General properties,  Next: Operators<2>,  Up: Pure paths

5.11.1.3 General properties
...........................

Paths are immutable and *note hashable: 421.  Paths of a same flavour
are comparable and orderable.  These properties respect the flavour’s
case-folding semantics:

     >>> PurePosixPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('FOO')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PureWindowsPath('FOO')
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('FOO') in { PureWindowsPath('foo') }
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('C:') < PureWindowsPath('d:')
     True

Paths of a different flavour compare unequal and cannot be ordered:

     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('foo')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') < PurePosixPath('foo')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'PureWindowsPath' and 'PurePosixPath'


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<2>,  Next: Accessing individual parts,  Prev: General properties,  Up: Pure paths

5.11.1.4 Operators
..................

The slash operator helps create child paths, like *note os.path.join():
1547.  If the argument is an absolute path, the previous path is
ignored.  On Windows, the drive is not reset when the argument is a
rooted relative path (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’):

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> p
     PurePosixPath('/etc')
     >>> p / 'init.d' / 'apache2'
     PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
     >>> q = PurePath('bin')
     >>> '/usr' / q
     PurePosixPath('/usr/bin')
     >>> p / '/an_absolute_path'
     PurePosixPath('/an_absolute_path')
     >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
     PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

A path object can be used anywhere an object implementing *note
os.PathLike: acd. is accepted:

     >>> import os
     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> os.fspath(p)
     '/etc'

The string representation of a path is the raw filesystem path itself
(in native form, e.g.  with backslashes under Windows), which you can
pass to any function taking a file path as a string:

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> str(p)
     '/etc'
     >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
     >>> str(p)
     'c:\\Program Files'

Similarly, calling *note bytes: 2cb. on a path gives the raw filesystem
path as a bytes object, as encoded by *note os.fsencode(): ad1.:

     >>> bytes(p)
     b'/etc'

     Not: Calling *note bytes: 2cb. is only recommended under Unix.
     Under Windows, the unicode form is the canonical representation of
     filesystem paths.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing individual parts,  Next: Methods and properties,  Prev: Operators<2>,  Up: Pure paths

5.11.1.5 Accessing individual parts
...................................

To access the individual “parts” (components) of a path, use the
following property:

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.parts

     A tuple giving access to the path’s various components:

          >>> p = PurePath('/usr/bin/python3')
          >>> p.parts
          ('/', 'usr', 'bin', 'python3')

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/PSF')
          >>> p.parts
          ('c:\\', 'Program Files', 'PSF')

     (note how the drive and local root are regrouped in a single part)


File: python.info,  Node: Methods and properties,  Prev: Accessing individual parts,  Up: Pure paths

5.11.1.6 Methods and properties
...............................

Pure paths provide the following methods and properties:

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.drive

     A string representing the drive letter or name, if any:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').drive
          'c:'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/Program Files/').drive
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').drive
          ''

     UNC shares are also considered drives:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share/foo.txt').drive
          '\\\\host\\share'

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.root

     A string representing the (local or global) root, if any:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').root
          '\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').root
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').root
          '/'

     UNC shares always have a root:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').root
          '\\'

     If the path starts with more than two successive slashes, *note
     PurePosixPath: 2586. collapses them:

          >>> PurePosixPath('//etc').root
          '//'
          >>> PurePosixPath('///etc').root
          '/'
          >>> PurePosixPath('////etc').root
          '/'

          Not: This behavior conforms to 'The Open Group Base
          Specifications Issue 6', paragraph 4.11 Pathname
          Resolution(1):

          '“A pathname that begins with two successive slashes may be
          interpreted in an implementation-defined manner, although more
          than two leading slashes shall be treated as a single slash.”'

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.anchor

     The concatenation of the drive and root:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').anchor
          'c:\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').anchor
          'c:'
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').anchor
          '/'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').anchor
          '\\\\host\\share\\'

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.parents

     An immutable sequence providing access to the logical ancestors of
     the path:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar/setup.py')
          >>> p.parents[0]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar')
          >>> p.parents[1]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo')
          >>> p.parents[2]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/')

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The parents sequence now supports *note
     slices: 1f6e. and negative index values.

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.parent

     The logical parent of the path:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/a/b/c/d')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/a/b/c')

     You cannot go past an anchor, or empty path:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p = PurePosixPath('.')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('.')

          Not: This is a purely lexical operation, hence the following
          behaviour:

               >>> p = PurePosixPath('foo/..')
               >>> p.parent
               PurePosixPath('foo')

          If you want to walk an arbitrary filesystem path upwards, it
          is recommended to first call *note Path.resolve(): 258f. so as
          to resolve symlinks and eliminate ‘".."’ components.

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.name

     A string representing the final path component, excluding the drive
     and root, if any:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'

     UNC drive names are not considered:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').name
          ''

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.suffix

     The file extension of the final component, if any:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').suffix
          '.py'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffix
          '.gz'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffix
          ''

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.suffixes

     A list of the path’s file extensions:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gar').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gar']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gz']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffixes
          []

 -- Özniteliği: PurePath.stem

     The final path component, without its suffix:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').stem
          'library.tar'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar').stem
          'library'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').stem
          'library'

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.as_posix ()

     Return a string representation of the path with forward slashes
     (‘/’):

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:\\windows')
          >>> str(p)
          'c:\\windows'
          >>> p.as_posix()
          'c:/windows'

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.as_uri ()

     Represent the path as a ‘file’ URI. *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised if the path isn’t absolute.

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///etc/passwd'
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///c:/Windows'

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.is_absolute ()

     Return whether the path is absolute or not.  A path is considered
     absolute if it has both a root and (if the flavour allows) a drive:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PurePosixPath('a/b').is_absolute()
          False

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').is_absolute()
          True

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.is_relative_to (other)

     Return whether or not this path is relative to the 'other' path.

          >>> p = PurePath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/etc')
          True
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/usr')
          False

     This method is string-based; it neither accesses the filesystem nor
     treats “‘..’” segments specially.  The following code is
     equivalent:

          >>> u = PurePath('/usr')
          >>> u == p or u in p.parents
          False

     Added in version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Passing additional arguments is deprecated; if supplied, they are
     joined with 'other'.

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.is_reserved ()

     With *note PureWindowsPath: 1529, return ‘True’ if the path is
     considered reserved under Windows, ‘False’ otherwise.  With *note
     PurePosixPath: 2586, ‘False’ is always returned.

          >>> PureWindowsPath('nul').is_reserved()
          True
          >>> PurePosixPath('nul').is_reserved()
          False

     File system calls on reserved paths can fail mysteriously or have
     unintended effects.

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.joinpath (*pathsegments)

     Calling this method is equivalent to combining the path with each
     of the given 'pathsegments' in turn:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('passwd')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath(PurePosixPath('passwd'))
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('init.d', 'apache2')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').joinpath('/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Match this path against the provided glob-style pattern.  Return
     ‘True’ if matching is successful, ‘False’ otherwise.

     If 'pattern' is relative, the path can be either relative or
     absolute, and matching is done from the right:

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('b/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('a/*.py')
          False

     If 'pattern' is absolute, the path must be absolute, and the whole
     path must match:

          >>> PurePath('/a.py').match('/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('/*.py')
          False

     The 'pattern' may be another path object; this speeds up matching
     the same pattern against multiple files:

          >>> pattern = PurePath('*.py')
          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match(pattern)
          True

          Not: The recursive wildcard “‘**’” isn’t supported by this
          method (it acts like non-recursive “‘*’”.)

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Accepts an object implementing the *note
     os.PathLike: acd. interface.

     As with other methods, case-sensitivity follows platform defaults:

          >>> PurePosixPath('b.py').match('*.PY')
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('b.py').match('*.PY')
          True

     Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or ‘False’ to override this
     behaviour.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.relative_to (other, walk_up=False)

     Compute a version of this path relative to the path represented by
     'other'.  If it’s impossible, *note ValueError: 189. is raised:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/')
          PurePosixPath('etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/etc')
          PurePosixPath('passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/usr')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not in the subpath of '/usr' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

     When 'walk_up' is false (the default), the path must start with
     'other'.  When the argument is true, ‘..’ entries may be added to
     form the relative path.  In all other cases, such as the paths
     referencing different drives, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.:

          >>> p.relative_to('/usr', walk_up=True)
          PurePosixPath('../etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('foo', walk_up=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not on the same drive as 'foo' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

          Uyarı: This function is part of *note PurePath: 1ce. and works
          with strings.  It does not check or access the underlying file
          structure.  This can impact the 'walk_up' option as it assumes
          that no symlinks are present in the path; call *note
          resolve(): 258f. first if necessary to resolve symlinks.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'walk_up' parameter was added (old
     behavior is the same as ‘walk_up=False’).

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Passing additional positional arguments is deprecated; if supplied,
     they are joined with 'other'.

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.with_name (name)

     Return a new path with the *note name: 2590. changed.  If the
     original path doesn’t have a name, ValueError is raised:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/setup.py')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 751, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.with_stem (stem)

     Return a new path with the *note stem: 2593. changed.  If the
     original path doesn’t have a name, ValueError is raised:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/draft.txt')
          >>> p.with_stem('final')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/final.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_stem('lib')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/lib.gz')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_stem('')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 861, in with_stem
              return self.with_name(stem + self.suffix)
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 851, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.with_suffix (suffix)

     Return a new path with the *note suffix: 2591. changed.  If the
     original path doesn’t have a suffix, the new 'suffix' is appended
     instead.  If the 'suffix' is an empty string, the original suffix
     is removed:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.bz2')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.txt')
          PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p.with_suffix('')
          PureWindowsPath('README')

 -- Yöntemi: PurePath.with_segments (*pathsegments)

     Create a new path object of the same type by combining the given
     'pathsegments'.  This method is called whenever a derivative path
     is created, such as from *note parent: 1546. and *note
     relative_to(): 1d2.  Subclasses may override this method to pass
     information to derivative paths, for example:

          from pathlib import PurePosixPath

          class MyPath(PurePosixPath):
              def __init__(self, *pathsegments, session_id):
                  super().__init__(*pathsegments)
                  self.session_id = session_id

              def with_segments(self, *pathsegments):
                  return type(self)(*pathsegments, session_id=self.session_id)

          etc = MyPath('/etc', session_id=42)
          hosts = etc / 'hosts'
          print(hosts.session_id)  # 42

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/basedefs/xbd_chap04.html#tag_04_11


File: python.info,  Node: Concrete paths,  Next: Correspondence to tools in the os module,  Prev: Pure paths,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.7 Concrete paths
.......................

Concrete paths are subclasses of the pure path classes.  In addition to
operations provided by the latter, they also provide methods to do
system calls on path objects.  There are three ways to instantiate
concrete paths:

 -- Sınıfı: pathlib.Path (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note PurePath: 1ce, this class represents concrete
     paths of the system’s path flavour (instantiating it creates either
     a *note PosixPath: 2599. or a *note WindowsPath: 2583.):

          >>> Path('setup.py')
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 1ce.

 -- Sınıfı: pathlib.PosixPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note Path: 14f. and *note PurePosixPath: 2586, this
     class represents concrete non-Windows filesystem paths:

          >>> PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 1ce.

 -- Sınıfı: pathlib.WindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note Path: 14f. and *note PureWindowsPath: 1529,
     this class represents concrete Windows filesystem paths:

          >>> WindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          WindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 1ce.

You can only instantiate the class flavour that corresponds to your
system (allowing system calls on non-compatible path flavours could lead
to bugs or failures in your application):

     >>> import os
     >>> os.name
     'posix'
     >>> Path('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> PosixPath('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> WindowsPath('setup.py')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "pathlib.py", line 798, in __new__
         % (cls.__name__,))
     NotImplementedError: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system

Some concrete path methods can raise an *note OSError: 65c. if a system
call fails (for example because the path doesn’t exist).

* Menu:

* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* Reading directories::
* Creating files and directories::
* Renaming and deleting::
* Permissions and ownership::


File: python.info,  Node: Expanding and resolving paths,  Next: Querying file type and status,  Up: Concrete paths

5.11.1.8 Expanding and resolving paths
......................................

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod Path.home ()

     Return a new path object representing the user’s home directory (as
     returned by *note os.path.expanduser(): 874. with ‘~’ construct).
     If the home directory can’t be resolved, *note RuntimeError: 180.
     is raised.

          >>> Path.home()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine')

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.expanduser ()

     Return a new path with expanded ‘~’ and ‘~user’ constructs, as
     returned by *note os.path.expanduser(): 874.  If a home directory
     can’t be resolved, *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

          >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
          >>> p.expanduser()
          PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod Path.cwd ()

     Return a new path object representing the current directory (as
     returned by *note os.getcwd(): 1423.):

          >>> Path.cwd()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

 -- Yöntemi: Path.absolute ()

     Make the path absolute, without normalization or resolving
     symlinks.  Returns a new path object:

          >>> p = Path('tests')
          >>> p
          PosixPath('tests')
          >>> p.absolute()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')

 -- Yöntemi: Path.resolve (strict=False)

     Make the path absolute, resolving any symlinks.  A new path object
     is returned:

          >>> p = Path()
          >>> p
          PosixPath('.')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

     “‘..’” components are also eliminated (this is the only method to
     do so):

          >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')

     If the path doesn’t exist and 'strict' is ‘True’, *note
     FileNotFoundError: 39a. is raised.  If 'strict' is ‘False’, the
     path is resolved as far as possible and any remainder is appended
     without checking whether it exists.  If an infinite loop is
     encountered along the resolution path, *note RuntimeError: 180. is
     raised.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'strict' parameter was added (pre-3.6
     behavior is strict).

 -- Yöntemi: Path.readlink ()

     Return the path to which the symbolic link points (as returned by
     *note os.readlink(): 778.):

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.readlink()
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying file type and status,  Next: Reading and writing files,  Prev: Expanding and resolving paths,  Up: Concrete paths

5.11.1.9 Querying file type and status
......................................

3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note exists(): 876, *note is_dir(): 877, *note
is_file(): 878, *note is_mount(): 879, *note is_symlink(): 87a, *note
is_block_device(): 87b, *note is_char_device(): 87c, *note is_fifo():
87d, *note is_socket(): 87e. now return ‘False’ instead of raising an
exception for paths that contain characters unrepresentable at the OS
level.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return an *note os.stat_result: 134c. object containing information
     about this path, like *note os.stat(): 1c5.  The result is looked
     up at each call to this method.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note lstat(): 259c.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.stat().st_mtime
          1327883547.852554

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.lstat ()

     Like *note Path.stat(): 661. but, if the path points to a symbolic
     link, return the symbolic link’s information rather than its
     target’s.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.exists (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to an existing file or directory.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to check if a symlink
     exists, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

          >>> Path('.').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('setup.py').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('/etc').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('nonexistentfile').exists()
          False

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_file ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a regular file (or a symbolic
     link pointing to a regular file), ‘False’ if it points to another
     kind of file.

     ‘False’ is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken
     symlink; other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_dir ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a directory (or a symbolic link
     pointing to a directory), ‘False’ if it points to another kind of
     file.

     ‘False’ is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken
     symlink; other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_symlink ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a symbolic link, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     ‘False’ is also returned if the path doesn’t exist; other errors
     (such as permission errors) are propagated.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_junction ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a junction, and ‘False’ for any
     other type of file.  Currently only Windows supports junctions.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_mount ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path is a 'mount point': a point in a file
     system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX,
     the function checks whether 'path'’s parent, ‘path/..’, is on a
     different device than 'path', or whether ‘path/..’ and 'path' point
     to the same i-node on the same device — this should detect mount
     points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  On Windows, a mount point
     is considered to be a drive letter root (e.g.  ‘c:\’), a UNC share
     (e.g.  ‘\\server\share’), or a mounted filesystem directory.

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Windows support was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_socket ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a Unix socket (or a symbolic
     link pointing to a Unix socket), ‘False’ if it points to another
     kind of file.

     ‘False’ is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken
     symlink; other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_fifo ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a FIFO (or a symbolic link
     pointing to a FIFO), ‘False’ if it points to another kind of file.

     ‘False’ is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken
     symlink; other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_block_device ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a block device (or a symbolic
     link pointing to a block device), ‘False’ if it points to another
     kind of file.

     ‘False’ is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken
     symlink; other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_char_device ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a character device (or a
     symbolic link pointing to a character device), ‘False’ if it points
     to another kind of file.

     ‘False’ is also returned if the path doesn’t exist or is a broken
     symlink; other errors (such as permission errors) are propagated.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.samefile (other_path)

     Return whether this path points to the same file as 'other_path',
     which can be either a Path object, or a string.  The semantics are
     similar to *note os.path.samefile(): e11. and *note
     os.path.samestat(): e10.

     An *note OSError: 65c. can be raised if either file cannot be
     accessed for some reason.

          >>> p = Path('spam')
          >>> q = Path('eggs')
          >>> p.samefile(q)
          False
          >>> p.samefile('spam')
          True

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing files,  Next: Reading directories,  Prev: Querying file type and status,  Up: Concrete paths

5.11.1.10 Reading and writing files
...................................

 -- Yöntemi: Path.open (mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     Open the file pointed to by the path, like the built-in *note
     open(): 2a6. function does:

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> with p.open() as f:
          ...     f.readline()
          ...
          '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'

 -- Yöntemi: Path.read_text (encoding=None, errors=None)

     Return the decoded contents of the pointed-to file as a string:

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     The file is opened and then closed.  The optional parameters have
     the same meaning as in *note open(): 2a6.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.read_bytes ()

     Return the binary contents of the pointed-to file as a bytes
     object:

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.write_text (data, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Open the file pointed to in text mode, write 'data' to it, and
     close the file:

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     An existing file of the same name is overwritten.  The optional
     parameters have the same meaning as in *note open(): 2a6.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'newline' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.write_bytes (data)

     Open the file pointed to in bytes mode, write 'data' to it, and
     close the file:

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     An existing file of the same name is overwritten.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading directories,  Next: Creating files and directories,  Prev: Reading and writing files,  Up: Concrete paths

5.11.1.11 Reading directories
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: Path.iterdir ()

     When the path points to a directory, yield path objects of the
     directory contents:

          >>> p = Path('docs')
          >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
          ...
          PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
          PosixPath('docs/_templates')
          PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
          PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
          PosixPath('docs/_build')
          PosixPath('docs/_static')
          PosixPath('docs/Makefile')

     The children are yielded in arbitrary order, and the special
     entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed
     from or added to the directory after creating the iterator, it is
     unspecified whether a path object for that file is included.

     If the path is not a directory or otherwise inaccessible, *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.glob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Glob the given relative 'pattern' in the directory represented by
     this path, yielding all matching files (of any kind):

          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
          [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]

     Patterns are the same as for *note fnmatch: 5a, with the addition
     of “‘**’” which means “this directory and all subdirectories,
     recursively”.  In other words, it enables recursive globbing:

          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
           PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('setup.py'),
           PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

     This method calls *note Path.is_dir(): 877. on the top-level
     directory and propagates any *note OSError: 65c. exception that is
     raised.  Subsequent *note OSError: 65c. exceptions from scanning
     directories are suppressed.

     By default, or when the 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘None’, this method matches paths using platform-specific
     casing rules: typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and
     case-insensitive on Windows.  Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to override this behaviour.

          Not: Using the “‘**’” pattern in large directory trees may
          consume an inordinate amount of time.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘pattern’.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Return only directories if 'pattern' ends
     with a pathname components separator (*note sep: 47d. or *note
     altsep: 47e.).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.rglob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Glob the given relative 'pattern' recursively.  This is like
     calling *note Path.glob(): 1d5. with “‘**/’” added in front of the
     'pattern', where 'patterns' are the same as for *note fnmatch: 5a.:

          >>> sorted(Path().rglob("*.py"))
          [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
           PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('setup.py'),
           PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

     By default, or when the 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘None’, this method matches paths using platform-specific
     casing rules: typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and
     case-insensitive on Windows.  Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to override this behaviour.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘pathlib.Path.rglob’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘pattern’.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Return only directories if 'pattern' ends
     with a pathname components separator (*note sep: 47d. or *note
     altsep: 47e.).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.walk (top_down=True, on_error=None,
          follow_symlinks=False)

     Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
     either top-down or bottom-up.

     For each directory in the directory tree rooted at 'self'
     (including 'self' but excluding ‘.’ and ‘..’), the method yields a
     3-tuple of ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a *note Path: 14f. to the directory currently being
     walked, 'dirnames' is a list of strings for the names of
     subdirectories in 'dirpath' (excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’), and
     'filenames' is a list of strings for the names of the non-directory
     files in 'dirpath'.  To get a full path (which begins with 'self')
     to a file or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘dirpath / name’.  Whether
     or not the lists are sorted is file system-dependent.

     If the optional argument 'top_down' is true (which is the default),
     the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any
     of its subdirectories (directories are walked top-down).  If
     'top_down' is false, the triple for a directory is generated after
     the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are walked
     bottom-up).  No matter the value of 'top_down', the list of
     subdirectories is retrieved before the triples for the directory
     and its subdirectories are walked.

     When 'top_down' is true, the caller can modify the 'dirnames' list
     in-place (for example, using *note del: 15c5. or slice assignment),
     and *note Path.walk(): 1d0. will only recurse into the
     subdirectories whose names remain in 'dirnames'.  This can be used
     to prune the search, or to impose a specific order of visiting, or
     even to inform *note Path.walk(): 1d0. about directories the caller
     creates or renames before it resumes *note Path.walk(): 1d0. again.
     Modifying 'dirnames' when 'top_down' is false has no effect on the
     behavior of *note Path.walk(): 1d0. since the directories in
     'dirnames' have already been generated by the time 'dirnames' is
     yielded to the caller.

     By default, errors from *note os.scandir(): 8c3. are ignored.  If
     the optional argument 'on_error' is specified, it should be a
     callable; it will be called with one argument, an *note OSError:
     65c. instance.  The callable can handle the error to continue the
     walk or re-raise it to stop the walk.  Note that the filename is
     available as the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception object.

     By default, *note Path.walk(): 1d0. does not follow symbolic links,
     and instead adds them to the 'filenames' list.  Set
     'follow_symlinks' to true to resolve symlinks and place them in
     'dirnames' and 'filenames' as appropriate for their targets, and
     consequently visit directories pointed to by symlinks (where
     supported).

          Not: Be aware that setting 'follow_symlinks' to true can lead
          to infinite recursion if a link points to a parent directory
          of itself.  *note Path.walk(): 1d0. does not keep track of the
          directories it has already visited.

          Not: *note Path.walk(): 1d0. assumes the directories it walks
          are not modified during execution.  For example, if a
          directory from 'dirnames' has been replaced with a symlink and
          'follow_symlinks' is false, *note Path.walk(): 1d0. will still
          try to descend into it.  To prevent such behavior, remove
          directories from 'dirnames' as appropriate.

          Not: Unlike *note os.walk(): 1d1, *note Path.walk(): 1d0.
          lists symlinks to directories in 'filenames' if
          'follow_symlinks' is false.

     This example displays the number of bytes used by all files in each
     directory, while ignoring ‘__pycache__’ directories:

          from pathlib import Path
          for root, dirs, files in Path("cpython/Lib/concurrent").walk(on_error=print):
            print(
                root,
                "consumes",
                sum((root / file).stat().st_size for file in files),
                "bytes in",
                len(files),
                "non-directory files"
            )
            if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')

     This next example is a simple implementation of *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 1df.  Walking the tree bottom-up is essential as
     *note rmdir(): 25a0. doesn’t allow deleting a directory before it
     is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory "top".
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous! For example, if top == Path('/'),
          # it could delete all of your files.
          for root, dirs, files in top.walk(top_down=False):
              for name in files:
                  (root / name).unlink()
              for name in dirs:
                  (root / name).rmdir()

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating files and directories,  Next: Renaming and deleting,  Prev: Reading directories,  Up: Concrete paths

5.11.1.12 Creating files and directories
........................................

 -- Yöntemi: Path.touch (mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)

     Create a file at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it is
     combined with the process’s ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the file already exists, the function
     succeeds when 'exist_ok' is true (and its modification time is
     updated to the current time), otherwise *note FileExistsError: ec8.
     is raised.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note open(): 259e, *note write_text(): cd4. and *note
     write_bytes(): cd6. methods are often used to create files.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.mkdir (mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)

     Create a new directory at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it
     is combined with the process’s ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the path already exists, *note
     FileExistsError: ec8. is raised.

     If 'parents' is true, any missing parents of this path are created
     as needed; they are created with the default permissions without
     taking 'mode' into account (mimicking the POSIX ‘mkdir -p’
     command).

     If 'parents' is false (the default), a missing parent raises *note
     FileNotFoundError: 39a.

     If 'exist_ok' is false (the default), *note FileExistsError: ec8.
     is raised if the target directory already exists.

     If 'exist_ok' is true, *note FileExistsError: ec8. will not be
     raised unless the given path already exists in the file system and
     is not a directory (same behavior as the POSIX ‘mkdir -p’ command).

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'exist_ok' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.symlink_to (target, target_is_directory=False)

     Make this path a symbolic link pointing to 'target'.

     On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and
     does not morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is
     present, the type of the symlink will be created to match.
     Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if
     'target_is_directory' is true or a file symlink (the default)
     otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, 'target_is_directory' is
     ignored.

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.lstat().st_size
          8

          Not: The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse of
          *note os.symlink(): f97.’s.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.hardlink_to (target)

     Make this path a hard link to the same file as 'target'.

          Not: The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse of
          *note os.link(): f92.’s.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Renaming and deleting,  Next: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: Creating files and directories,  Up: Concrete paths

5.11.1.13 Renaming and deleting
...............................

 -- Yöntemi: Path.rename (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  On Unix, if 'target'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  On Windows, if 'target' exists, *note FileExistsError:
     ec8. will be raised.  'target' can be either a string or another
     path object:

          >>> p = Path('foo')
          >>> p.open('w').write('some text')
          9
          >>> target = Path('bar')
          >>> p.rename(target)
          PosixPath('bar')
          >>> target.open().read()
          'some text'

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     It is implemented in terms of *note os.rename(): f94. and gives the
     same guarantees.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added return value, return the new ‘Path’
     instance.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.replace (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  If 'target' points to an
     existing file or empty directory, it will be unconditionally
     replaced.

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added return value, return the new ‘Path’
     instance.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.unlink (missing_ok=False)

     Remove this file or symbolic link.  If the path points to a
     directory, use *note Path.rmdir(): 25a0. instead.

     If 'missing_ok' is false (the default), *note FileNotFoundError:
     39a. is raised if the path does not exist.

     If 'missing_ok' is true, *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. exceptions
     will be ignored (same behavior as the POSIX ‘rm -f’ command).

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'missing_ok' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.rmdir ()

     Remove this directory.  The directory must be empty.


File: python.info,  Node: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: Renaming and deleting,  Up: Concrete paths

5.11.1.14 Permissions and ownership
...................................

 -- Yöntemi: Path.owner ()

     Return the name of the user owning the file.  *note KeyError: 903.
     is raised if the file’s user identifier (UID) isn’t found in the
     system database.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.group ()

     Return the name of the group owning the file.  *note KeyError: 903.
     is raised if the file’s group identifier (GID) isn’t found in the
     system database.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.chmod (mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the file mode and permissions, like *note os.chmod(): f90.

     This method normally follows symlinks.  Some Unix flavours support
     changing permissions on the symlink itself; on these platforms you
     may add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note
     lchmod(): 25a9.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33277
          >>> p.chmod(0o444)
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33060

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.lchmod (mode)

     Like *note Path.chmod(): 662. but, if the path points to a symbolic
     link, the symbolic link’s mode is changed rather than its target’s.


File: python.info,  Node: Correspondence to tools in the os module,  Prev: Concrete paths,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.11.1.15 Correspondence to tools in the ‘os’ module
....................................................

Below is a table mapping various *note os: a0. functions to their
corresponding *note PurePath: 1ce./*note Path: 14f. equivalent.

*note os: a0. and *note os.path: a1.      *note pathlib: a3.
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
*note os.path.dirname(): 25ab.            *note PurePath.parent: 1546.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.basename(): 25ac.           *note PurePath.name: 2590.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.splitext(): 25ad.           *note PurePath.stem: 2593,
                                          *note PurePath.suffix: 2591.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.join(): 1547.               *note PurePath.joinpath(): 2596.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isabs(): 25ae.              *note PurePath.is_absolute(): 1545.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.relpath(): 1d3.             *note PurePath.relative_to(): 1d2. (1)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.expanduser(): 874.          *note Path.expanduser(): cd2. (2)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.realpath(): 398.            *note Path.resolve(): 258f.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.abspath(): 11c6.            *note Path.absolute(): 1543. (3)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.exists(): 86f.              *note Path.exists(): 876.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isfile(): 872.              *note Path.is_file(): 878.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isdir(): 871.               *note Path.is_dir(): 877.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.islink(): 86d.              *note Path.is_symlink(): 87a.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isjunction(): 1cb.          *note Path.is_junction(): 1d4.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.ismount(): e12.             *note Path.is_mount(): 879.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.samefile(): e11.            *note Path.samefile(): cd0.
                                          
                                          
*note os.getcwd(): 1423.                  *note Path.cwd(): 1544.
                                          
                                          
*note os.stat(): 1c5.                     *note Path.stat(): 661.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lstat(): 1c6.                    *note Path.lstat(): 259c.
                                          
                                          
*note os.listdir(): f9c.                  *note Path.iterdir(): 15cf.
                                          
                                          
*note os.walk(): 1d1.                     *note Path.walk(): 1d0. (4)
                                          
                                          
*note os.mkdir(): 1c7,                    *note Path.mkdir(): cd1.
*note os.makedirs(): 1c8.                 

*note os.link(): f92.                     *note Path.hardlink_to(): 65f.
                                          
                                          
*note os.symlink(): f97.                  *note Path.symlink_to(): 660.
                                          
                                          
*note os.readlink(): 778.                 *note Path.readlink(): 777.
                                          
                                          
*note os.rename(): f94.                   *note Path.rename(): 25a4.
                                          
                                          
*note os.replace(): f95.                  *note Path.replace(): 25a5.
                                          
                                          
*note os.remove(): f93,                   *note Path.unlink(): 182b.
*note os.unlink(): f98.                   

*note os.rmdir(): f96.                    *note Path.rmdir(): 25a0.
                                          
                                          
*note os.chmod(): f90.                    *note Path.chmod(): 662.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lchmod(): 1879.                  *note Path.lchmod(): 25a9.
                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) *note os.path.relpath(): 1d3. calls *note abspath(): 11c6. to
make paths absolute and remove “‘..’” parts, whereas *note
PurePath.relative_to(): 1d2. is a lexical operation that raises *note
ValueError: 189. when its inputs’ anchors differ (e.g.  if one path is
absolute and the other relative.)

   (2) *note os.path.expanduser(): 874. returns the path unchanged if
the home directory can’t be resolved, whereas *note Path.expanduser():
cd2. raises *note RuntimeError: 180.

   (3) *note os.path.abspath(): 11c6. removes “‘..’” components without
resolving symlinks, which may change the meaning of the path, whereas
*note Path.absolute(): 1543. leaves any “‘..’” components in the path.

   (4) *note os.walk(): 1d1. always follows symlinks when categorizing
paths into 'dirnames' and 'filenames', whereas *note Path.walk(): 1d0.
categorizes all symlinks into 'filenames' when 'follow_symlinks' is
false (the default.)


File: python.info,  Node: os path — Common pathname manipulations,  Next: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Prev: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.2 ‘os.path’ — Common pathname manipulations
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/genericpath.py(1), Lib/posixpath.py(2) (for POSIX)
and Lib/ntpath.py(3) (for Windows).

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements some useful functions on pathnames.  To read or
write files see *note open(): 2a6, and for accessing the filesystem see
the *note os: a0. module.  The path parameters can be passed as strings,
or bytes, or any object implementing the *note os.PathLike: acd.
protocol.

Unlike a Unix shell, Python does not do any 'automatic' path expansions.
Functions such as *note expanduser(): 874. and *note expandvars(): 1260.
can be invoked explicitly when an application desires shell-like path
expansion.  (See also the *note glob: 62. module.)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note pathlib: a3. module offers high-level path objects.

     Not: All of these functions accept either only bytes or only string
     objects as their parameters.  The result is an object of the same
     type, if a path or file name is returned.

     Not: Since different operating systems have different path name
     conventions, there are several versions of this module in the
     standard library.  The *note os.path: a1. module is always the path
     module suitable for the operating system Python is running on, and
     therefore usable for local paths.  However, you can also import and
     use the individual modules if you want to manipulate a path that is
     'always' in one of the different formats.  They all have the same
     interface:

        * ‘posixpath’ for UNIX-style paths

        * ‘ntpath’ for Windows paths

3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note exists(): 86f, *note lexists(): 870, *note
isdir(): 871, *note isfile(): 872, *note islink(): 86d, and *note
ismount(): e12. now return ‘False’ instead of raising an exception for
paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.abspath (path)

     Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname 'path'.  On
     most platforms, this is equivalent to calling the function *note
     normpath(): 11c5. as follows: ‘normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.basename (path)

     Return the base name of pathname 'path'.  This is the second
     element of the pair returned by passing 'path' to the function
     *note split(): 25b1.  Note that the result of this function is
     different from the Unix ‘basename’ program; where ‘basename’ for
     ‘'/foo/bar/'’ returns ‘'bar'’, the *note basename(): 25ac. function
     returns an empty string (‘''’).

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.commonpath (paths)

     Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the sequence
     'paths'.  Raise *note ValueError: 189. if 'paths' contain both
     absolute and relative pathnames, if 'paths' are on different
     drives, or if 'paths' is empty.  Unlike *note commonprefix(): cce,
     this returns a valid path.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a sequence of *note path-like
     objects: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.commonprefix (list)

     Return the longest path prefix (taken character-by-character) that
     is a prefix of all paths in 'list'.  If 'list' is empty, return the
     empty string (‘''’).

          Not: This function may return invalid paths because it works a
          character at a time.  To obtain a valid path, see *note
          commonpath(): ccd.

               >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr/l'

               >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr'

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.dirname (path)

     Return the directory name of pathname 'path'.  This is the first
     element of the pair returned by passing 'path' to the function
     *note split(): 25b1.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.exists (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an existing path or an open file
     descriptor.  Returns ‘False’ for broken symbolic links.  On some
     platforms, this function may return ‘False’ if permission is not
     granted to execute *note os.stat(): 1c5. on the requested file,
     even if the 'path' physically exists.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'path' can now be an integer: ‘True’ is
     returned if it is an open file descriptor, ‘False’ otherwise.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.lexists (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an existing path, including
     broken symbolic links.  Equivalent to *note exists(): 86f. on
     platforms lacking *note os.lstat(): 1c6.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.expanduser (path)

     On Unix and Windows, return the argument with an initial component
     of ‘~’ or ‘~user’ replaced by that 'user'’s home directory.

     On Unix, an initial ‘~’ is replaced by the environment variable
     ‘HOME’ if it is set; otherwise the current user’s home directory is
     looked up in the password directory through the built-in module
     *note pwd: b1.  An initial ‘~user’ is looked up directly in the
     password directory.

     On Windows, ‘USERPROFILE’ will be used if set, otherwise a
     combination of ‘HOMEPATH’ and ‘HOMEDRIVE’ will be used.  An initial
     ‘~user’ is handled by checking that the last directory component of
     the current user’s home directory matches ‘USERNAME’, and replacing
     it if so.

     If the expansion fails or if the path does not begin with a tilde,
     the path is returned unchanged.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: No longer uses ‘HOME’ on Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.expandvars (path)

     Return the argument with environment variables expanded.
     Substrings of the form ‘$name’ or ‘${name}’ are replaced by the
     value of environment variable 'name'.  Malformed variable names and
     references to non-existing variables are left unchanged.

     On Windows, ‘%name%’ expansions are supported in addition to
     ‘$name’ and ‘${name}’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.getatime (path)

     Return the time of last access of 'path'.  The return value is a
     floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the epoch
     (see the *note time: ed. module).  Raise *note OSError: 65c. if the
     file does not exist or is inaccessible.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.getmtime (path)

     Return the time of last modification of 'path'.  The return value
     is a floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the
     epoch (see the *note time: ed. module).  Raise *note OSError: 65c.
     if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.getctime (path)

     Return the system’s ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the
     time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is
     the creation time for 'path'.  The return value is a number giving
     the number of seconds since the epoch (see the *note time: ed.
     module).  Raise *note OSError: 65c. if the file does not exist or
     is inaccessible.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.getsize (path)

     Return the size, in bytes, of 'path'.  Raise *note OSError: 65c. if
     the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.isabs (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an absolute pathname.  On Unix, that
     means it begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with a
     (back)slash after chopping off a potential drive letter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.isfile (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an *note existing: 86f. regular file.
     This follows symbolic links, so both *note islink(): 86d. and *note
     isfile(): 872. can be true for the same path.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.isdir (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an *note existing: 86f. directory.  This
     follows symbolic links, so both *note islink(): 86d. and *note
     isdir(): 871. can be true for the same path.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.isjunction (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an *note existing: 870. directory
     entry that is a junction.  Always return ‘False’ if junctions are
     not supported on the current platform.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.islink (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an *note existing: 86f. directory
     entry that is a symbolic link.  Always ‘False’ if symbolic links
     are not supported by the Python runtime.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.ismount (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is a 'mount point': a point in a
     file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On
     POSIX, the function checks whether 'path'’s parent, ‘`path'/..’, is
     on a different device than 'path', or whether ‘`path'/..’ and
     'path' point to the same i-node on the same device — this should
     detect mount points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  It is not
     able to reliably detect bind mounts on the same filesystem.  On
     Windows, a drive letter root and a share UNC are always mount
     points, and for any other path ‘GetVolumePathName’ is called to see
     if it is different from the input path.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for detecting non-root mount
     points on Windows.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.isdevdrive (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is located on a Windows Dev Drive.
     A Dev Drive is optimized for developer scenarios, and offers faster
     performance for reading and writing files.  It is recommended for
     use for source code, temporary build directories, package caches,
     and other IO-intensive operations.

     May raise an error for an invalid path, for example, one without a
     recognizable drive, but returns ‘False’ on platforms that do not
     support Dev Drives.  See the Windows documentation(4) for
     information on enabling and creating Dev Drives.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.join (path, *paths)

     Join one or more path segments intelligently.  The return value is
     the concatenation of 'path' and all members of '*paths', with
     exactly one directory separator following each non-empty part,
     except the last.  That is, the result will only end in a separator
     if the last part is either empty or ends in a separator.  If a
     segment is an absolute path (which on Windows requires both a drive
     and a root), then all previous segments are ignored and joining
     continues from the absolute path segment.

     On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted path segment
     (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’) is encountered.  If a segment is on a different
     drive or is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored and
     the drive is reset.  Note that since there is a current directory
     for each drive, ‘os.path.join("c:", "foo")’ represents a path
     relative to the current directory on drive ‘C:’ (‘c:foo’), not
     ‘c:\foo’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'path' and 'paths'.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.normcase (path)

     Normalize the case of a pathname.  On Windows, convert all
     characters in the pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward
     slashes to backward slashes.  On other operating systems, return
     the path unchanged.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.normpath (path)

     Normalize a pathname by collapsing redundant separators and
     up-level references so that ‘A//B’, ‘A/B/’, ‘A/./B’ and
     ‘A/foo/../B’ all become ‘A/B’.  This string manipulation may change
     the meaning of a path that contains symbolic links.  On Windows, it
     converts forward slashes to backward slashes.  To normalize case,
     use *note normcase(): 25b6.

          Not: On POSIX systems, in accordance with IEEE Std 1003.1 2013
          Edition; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(5), if a pathname begins
          with exactly two slashes, the first component following the
          leading characters may be interpreted in an
          implementation-defined manner, although more than two leading
          characters shall be treated as a single character.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.realpath (path, *, strict=False)

     Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating
     any symbolic links encountered in the path (if they are supported
     by the operating system).

     By default, the path is evaluated up to the first component that
     does not exist, is a symlink loop, or whose evaluation raises *note
     OSError: 65c.  All such components are appended unchanged to the
     existing part of the path.

     Some errors that are handled this way include “access denied”, “not
     a directory”, or “bad argument to internal function”.  Thus, the
     resulting path may be missing or inaccessible, may still contain
     links or loops, and may traverse non-directories.

     This behavior can be modified by keyword arguments:

     If 'strict' is ‘True’, the first error encountered when evaluating
     the path is re-raised.  In particular, *note FileNotFoundError:
     39a. is raised if 'path' does not exist, or another *note OSError:
     65c. if it is otherwise inaccessible.

     If 'strict' is *note os.path.ALLOW_MISSING: 399, errors other than
     *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. are re-raised (as with
     ‘strict=True’).  Thus, the returned path will not contain any
     symbolic links, but the named file and some of its parent
     directories may be missing.

          Not: This function emulates the operating system’s procedure
          for making a path canonical, which differs slightly between
          Windows and UNIX with respect to how links and subsequent path
          components interact.

          Operating system APIs make paths canonical as needed, so it’s
          not normally necessary to call this function.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Symbolic links and junctions are now
     resolved on Windows.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'strict' parameter was added.

     3.12.11 sürümünde değişti: The *note ALLOW_MISSING: 399. value for
     the 'strict' parameter was added.

 -- Verisi: os.path.ALLOW_MISSING

     Special value used for the 'strict' argument in *note realpath():
     398.

     Added in version 3.12.11.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.relpath (path, start=os.curdir)

     Return a relative filepath to 'path' either from the current
     directory or from an optional 'start' directory.  This is a path
     computation: the filesystem is not accessed to confirm the
     existence or nature of 'path' or 'start'.  On Windows, *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised when 'path' and 'start' are on different
     drives.

     'start' defaults to *note os.curdir: 25b7.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.samefile (path1, path2)

     Return ‘True’ if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or
     directory.  This is determined by the device number and i-node
     number and raises an exception if an *note os.stat(): 1c5. call on
     either pathname fails.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added Windows support.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Windows now uses the same implementation as
     all other platforms.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.sameopenfile (fp1, fp2)

     Return ‘True’ if the file descriptors 'fp1' and 'fp2' refer to the
     same file.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added Windows support.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.samestat (stat1, stat2)

     Return ‘True’ if the stat tuples 'stat1' and 'stat2' refer to the
     same file.  These structures may have been returned by *note
     os.fstat(): c19, *note os.lstat(): 1c6, or *note os.stat(): 1c5.
     This function implements the underlying comparison used by *note
     samefile(): e11. and *note sameopenfile(): 25b8.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added Windows support.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.split (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair, ‘(head, tail)’ where 'tail'
     is the last pathname component and 'head' is everything leading up
     to that.  The 'tail' part will never contain a slash; if 'path'
     ends in a slash, 'tail' will be empty.  If there is no slash in
     'path', 'head' will be empty.  If 'path' is empty, both 'head' and
     'tail' are empty.  Trailing slashes are stripped from 'head' unless
     it is the root (one or more slashes only).  In all cases,
     ‘join(head, tail)’ returns a path to the same location as 'path'
     (but the strings may differ).  Also see the functions *note
     dirname(): 25ab. and *note basename(): 25ac.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.splitdrive (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair ‘(drive, tail)’ where 'drive'
     is either a mount point or the empty string.  On systems which do
     not use drive specifications, 'drive' will always be the empty
     string.  In all cases, ‘drive + tail’ will be the same as 'path'.

     On Windows, splits a pathname into drive/UNC sharepoint and
     relative path.

     If the path contains a drive letter, drive will contain everything
     up to and including the colon:

          >>> splitdrive("c:/dir")
          ("c:", "/dir")

     If the path contains a UNC path, drive will contain the host name
     and share:

          >>> splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")
          ("//host/computer", "/dir")

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.splitroot (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’
     where 'drive' is a device name or mount point, 'root' is a string
     of separators after the drive, and 'tail' is everything after the
     root.  Any of these items may be the empty string.  In all cases,
     ‘drive + root + tail’ will be the same as 'path'.

     On POSIX systems, 'drive' is always empty.  The 'root' may be empty
     (if 'path' is relative), a single forward slash (if 'path' is
     absolute), or two forward slashes (implementation-defined per IEEE
     Std 1003.1-2017; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(6).)  For example:

          >>> splitroot('/home/sam')
          ('', '/', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('//home/sam')
          ('', '//', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('///home/sam')
          ('', '/', '//home/sam')

     On Windows, 'drive' may be empty, a drive-letter name, a UNC share,
     or a device name.  The 'root' may be empty, a forward slash, or a
     backward slash.  For example:

          >>> splitroot('C:/Users/Sam')
          ('C:', '/', 'Users/Sam')
          >>> splitroot('//Server/Share/Users/Sam')
          ('//Server/Share', '/', 'Users/Sam')

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.path.splitext (path)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair ‘(root, ext)’ such that ‘root
     + ext == path’, and the extension, 'ext', is empty or begins with a
     period and contains at most one period.

     If the path contains no extension, 'ext' will be ‘''’:

          >>> splitext('bar')
          ('bar', '')

     If the path contains an extension, then 'ext' will be set to this
     extension, including the leading period.  Note that previous
     periods will be ignored:

          >>> splitext('foo.bar.exe')
          ('foo.bar', '.exe')
          >>> splitext('/foo/bar.exe')
          ('/foo/bar', '.exe')

     Leading periods of the last component of the path are considered to
     be part of the root:

          >>> splitext('.cshrc')
          ('.cshrc', '')
          >>> splitext('/foo/....jpg')
          ('/foo/....jpg', '')

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Verisi: os.path.supports_unicode_filenames

     ‘True’ if arbitrary Unicode strings can be used as file names
     (within limitations imposed by the file system).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/genericpath.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/posixpath.py

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ntpath.py

   (4) https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/dev-drive/

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13

   (6) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Next: stat — Interpreting stat results,  Prev: os path — Common pathname manipulations,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.3 ‘fileinput’ — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
-------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/fileinput.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a helper class and functions to quickly write a
loop over standard input or a list of files.  If you just want to read
or write one file see *note open(): 2a6.

The typical use is:

     import fileinput
     for line in fileinput.input(encoding="utf-8"):
         process(line)

This iterates over the lines of all files listed in ‘sys.argv[1:]’,
defaulting to ‘sys.stdin’ if the list is empty.  If a filename is ‘'-'’,
it is also replaced by ‘sys.stdin’ and the optional arguments 'mode' and
'openhook' are ignored.  To specify an alternative list of filenames,
pass it as the first argument to *note input(): 639.  A single file name
is also allowed.

All files are opened in text mode by default, but you can override this
by specifying the 'mode' parameter in the call to *note input(): 639. or
*note FileInput: 560.  If an I/O error occurs during opening or reading
a file, *note OSError: 65c. is raised.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note IOError: efc. used to be raised; it is now
an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

If ‘sys.stdin’ is used more than once, the second and further use will
return no lines, except perhaps for interactive use, or if it has been
explicitly reset (e.g.  using ‘sys.stdin.seek(0)’).

Empty files are opened and immediately closed; the only time their
presence in the list of filenames is noticeable at all is when the last
file opened is empty.

Lines are returned with any newlines intact, which means that the last
line in a file may not have one.

You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via
the 'openhook' parameter to *note fileinput.input(): 639. or *note
FileInput(): 560.  The hook must be a function that takes two arguments,
'filename' and 'mode', and returns an accordingly opened file-like
object.  If 'encoding' and/or 'errors' are specified, they will be
passed to the hook as additional keyword arguments.  This module
provides a *note hook_compressed(): 63a. to support compressed files.

The following function is the primary interface of this module:

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.input (files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *,
          mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Create an instance of the *note FileInput: 560. class.  The
     instance will be used as global state for the functions of this
     module, and is also returned to use during iteration.  The
     parameters to this function will be passed along to the constructor
     of the *note FileInput: 560. class.

     The *note FileInput: 560. instance can be used as a context manager
     in the *note with: 3dd. statement.  In this example, 'input' is
     closed after the ‘with’ statement is exited, even if an exception
     occurs:

          with fileinput.input(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt'), encoding="utf-8") as f:
              for line in f:
                  process(line)

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Can be used as a context manager.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The keyword parameters 'mode' and 'openhook'
     are now keyword-only.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

The following functions use the global state created by *note
fileinput.input(): 639.; if there is no active state, *note
RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.filename ()

     Return the name of the file currently being read.  Before the first
     line has been read, returns ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.fileno ()

     Return the integer “file descriptor” for the current file.  When no
     file is opened (before the first line and between files), returns
     ‘-1’.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.lineno ()

     Return the cumulative line number of the line that has just been
     read.  Before the first line has been read, returns ‘0’.  After the
     last line of the last file has been read, returns the line number
     of that line.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.filelineno ()

     Return the line number in the current file.  Before the first line
     has been read, returns ‘0’.  After the last line of the last file
     has been read, returns the line number of that line within the
     file.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.isfirstline ()

     Return ‘True’ if the line just read is the first line of its file,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.isstdin ()

     Return ‘True’ if the last line was read from ‘sys.stdin’, otherwise
     return ‘False’.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.nextfile ()

     Close the current file so that the next iteration will read the
     first line from the next file (if any); lines not read from the
     file will not count towards the cumulative line count.  The
     filename is not changed until after the first line of the next file
     has been read.  Before the first line has been read, this function
     has no effect; it cannot be used to skip the first file.  After the
     last line of the last file has been read, this function has no
     effect.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.close ()

     Close the sequence.

The class which implements the sequence behavior provided by the module
is available for subclassing as well:

 -- Sınıfı: fileinput.FileInput (files=None, inplace=False, backup='',
          *, mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Class *note FileInput: 560. is the implementation; its methods
     *note filename(): 25bb, *note fileno(): 12b6, *note lineno(): 25bc,
     *note filelineno(): 25bd, *note isfirstline(): 25be, *note
     isstdin(): 25bf, *note nextfile(): 25c0. and *note close(): 25c1.
     correspond to the functions of the same name in the module.  In
     addition it is *note iterable: 10ce. and has a *note readline():
     1b06. method which returns the next input line.  The sequence must
     be accessed in strictly sequential order; random access and *note
     readline(): 1b06. cannot be mixed.

     With 'mode' you can specify which file mode will be passed to *note
     open(): 2a6.  It must be one of ‘'r'’ and ‘'rb'’.

     The 'openhook', when given, must be a function that takes two
     arguments, 'filename' and 'mode', and returns an accordingly opened
     file-like object.  You cannot use 'inplace' and 'openhook'
     together.

     You can specify 'encoding' and 'errors' that is passed to *note
     open(): 2a6. or 'openhook'.

     A *note FileInput: 560. instance can be used as a context manager
     in the *note with: 3dd. statement.  In this example, 'input' is
     closed after the ‘with’ statement is exited, even if an exception
     occurs:

          with FileInput(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as input:
              process(input)

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Can be used as a context manager.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The keyword parameter 'mode' and 'openhook'
     are now keyword-only.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'rU'’ and ‘'U'’ modes and the
     ‘__getitem__()’ method have been removed.

'Optional in-place filtering:' if the keyword argument ‘inplace=True’ is
passed to *note fileinput.input(): 639. or to the *note FileInput: 560.
constructor, the file is moved to a backup file and standard output is
directed to the input file (if a file of the same name as the backup
file already exists, it will be replaced silently).  This makes it
possible to write a filter that rewrites its input file in place.  If
the 'backup' parameter is given (typically as ‘backup='.<some
extension>'’), it specifies the extension for the backup file, and the
backup file remains around; by default, the extension is ‘'.bak'’ and it
is deleted when the output file is closed.  In-place filtering is
disabled when standard input is read.

The two following opening hooks are provided by this module:

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.hook_compressed (filename, mode, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Transparently opens files compressed with gzip and bzip2
     (recognized by the extensions ‘'.gz'’ and ‘'.bz2'’) using the *note
     gzip: 65. and *note bz2: 13. modules.  If the filename extension is
     not ‘'.gz'’ or ‘'.bz2'’, the file is opened normally (ie, using
     *note open(): 2a6. without any decompression).

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' values are passed to *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. for compressed files and open for normal
     files.

     Usage example: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed,
     encoding="utf-8")’

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

 -- Işlevi: fileinput.hook_encoded (encoding, errors=None)

     Returns a hook which opens each file with *note open(): 2a6, using
     the given 'encoding' and 'errors' to read the file.

     Usage example: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded("utf-8",
     "surrogateescape"))’

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional 'errors' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This function is deprecated
     since *note fileinput.input(): 639. and *note FileInput: 560. now
     have 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/fileinput.py


File: python.info,  Node: stat — Interpreting stat results,  Next: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons,  Prev: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.4 ‘stat’ — Interpreting ‘stat()’ results
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/stat.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note stat: d0. module defines constants and functions for
interpreting the results of *note os.stat(): 1c5, *note os.fstat(): c19.
and *note os.lstat(): 1c6. (if they exist).  For complete details about
the ‘stat()’, ‘fstat()’ and ‘lstat()’ calls, consult the documentation
for your system.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The stat module is backed by a C implementation.

The *note stat: d0. module defines the following functions to test for
specific file types:

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISDIR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a directory.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISCHR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a character special device
     file.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISBLK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a block special device file.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISREG (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a regular file.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISFIFO (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a FIFO (named pipe).

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISLNK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a symbolic link.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISSOCK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a socket.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISDOOR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a door.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISPORT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from an event port.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_ISWHT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a whiteout.

     Added in version 3.4.

Two additional functions are defined for more general manipulation of
the file’s mode:

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_IMODE (mode)

     Return the portion of the file’s mode that can be set by *note
     os.chmod(): f90.—that is, the file’s permission bits, plus the
     sticky bit, set-group-id, and set-user-id bits (on systems that
     support them).

 -- Işlevi: stat.S_IFMT (mode)

     Return the portion of the file’s mode that describes the file type
     (used by the ‘S_IS*()’ functions above).

Normally, you would use the ‘os.path.is*()’ functions for testing the
type of a file; the functions here are useful when you are doing
multiple tests of the same file and wish to avoid the overhead of the
‘stat()’ system call for each test.  These are also useful when checking
for information about a file that isn’t handled by *note os.path: a1,
like the tests for block and character devices.

Example:

     import os, sys
     from stat import *

     def walktree(top, callback):
         '''recursively descend the directory tree rooted at top,
            calling the callback function for each regular file'''

         for f in os.listdir(top):
             pathname = os.path.join(top, f)
             mode = os.lstat(pathname).st_mode
             if S_ISDIR(mode):
                 # It's a directory, recurse into it
                 walktree(pathname, callback)
             elif S_ISREG(mode):
                 # It's a file, call the callback function
                 callback(pathname)
             else:
                 # Unknown file type, print a message
                 print('Skipping %s' % pathname)

     def visitfile(file):
         print('visiting', file)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile)

An additional utility function is provided to convert a file’s mode in a
human readable string:

 -- Işlevi: stat.filemode (mode)

     Convert a file’s mode to a string of the form ‘-rwxrwxrwx’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The function supports *note S_IFDOOR: e5d,
     *note S_IFPORT: e5e. and *note S_IFWHT: e5f.

All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple
returned by *note os.stat(): 1c5, *note os.fstat(): c19. or *note
os.lstat(): 1c6.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_MODE

     Inode protection mode.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_INO

     Inode number.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_DEV

     Device inode resides on.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_NLINK

     Number of links to the inode.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_UID

     User id of the owner.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_GID

     Group id of the owner.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_SIZE

     Size in bytes of a plain file; amount of data waiting on some
     special files.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_ATIME

     Time of last access.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_MTIME

     Time of last modification.

 -- Verisi: stat.ST_CTIME

     The “ctime” as reported by the operating system.  On some systems
     (like Unix) is the time of the last metadata change, and, on others
     (like Windows), is the creation time (see platform documentation
     for details).

The interpretation of “file size” changes according to the file type.
For plain files this is the size of the file in bytes.  For FIFOs and
sockets under most flavors of Unix (including Linux in particular), the
“size” is the number of bytes waiting to be read at the time of the call
to *note os.stat(): 1c5, *note os.fstat(): c19, or *note os.lstat():
1c6.; this can sometimes be useful, especially for polling one of these
special files after a non-blocking open.  The meaning of the size field
for other character and block devices varies more, depending on the
implementation of the underlying system call.

The variables below define the flags used in the *note ST_MODE: e5c.
field.

Use of the functions above is more portable than use of the first set of
flags:

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFSOCK

     Socket.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFLNK

     Symbolic link.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFREG

     Regular file.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFBLK

     Block device.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFDIR

     Directory.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFCHR

     Character device.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFIFO

     FIFO.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFDOOR

     Door.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFPORT

     Event port.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IFWHT

     Whiteout.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Not: *note S_IFDOOR: e5d, *note S_IFPORT: e5e. or *note S_IFWHT:
     e5f. are defined as 0 when the platform does not have support for
     the file types.

The following flags can also be used in the 'mode' argument of *note
os.chmod(): f90.:

 -- Verisi: stat.S_ISUID

     Set UID bit.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_ISGID

     Set-group-ID bit.  This bit has several special uses.  For a
     directory it indicates that BSD semantics is to be used for that
     directory: files created there inherit their group ID from the
     directory, not from the effective group ID of the creating process,
     and directories created there will also get the *note S_ISGID:
     25de. bit set.  For a file that does not have the group execution
     bit (*note S_IXGRP: 25df.) set, the set-group-ID bit indicates
     mandatory file/record locking (see also *note S_ENFMT: 25e0.).

 -- Verisi: stat.S_ISVTX

     Sticky bit.  When this bit is set on a directory it means that a
     file in that directory can be renamed or deleted only by the owner
     of the file, by the owner of the directory, or by a privileged
     process.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IRWXU

     Mask for file owner permissions.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IRUSR

     Owner has read permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IWUSR

     Owner has write permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IXUSR

     Owner has execute permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IRWXG

     Mask for group permissions.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IRGRP

     Group has read permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IWGRP

     Group has write permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IXGRP

     Group has execute permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IRWXO

     Mask for permissions for others (not in group).

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IROTH

     Others have read permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IWOTH

     Others have write permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IXOTH

     Others have execute permission.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_ENFMT

     System V file locking enforcement.  This flag is shared with *note
     S_ISGID: 25de.: file/record locking is enforced on files that do
     not have the group execution bit (*note S_IXGRP: 25df.) set.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IREAD

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IRUSR: 25e3.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IWRITE

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IWUSR: 25e4.

 -- Verisi: stat.S_IEXEC

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IXUSR: 25e5.

The following flags can be used in the 'flags' argument of *note
os.chflags(): f8f.:

 -- Verisi: stat.UF_NODUMP

     Do not dump the file.

 -- Verisi: stat.UF_IMMUTABLE

     The file may not be changed.

 -- Verisi: stat.UF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- Verisi: stat.UF_OPAQUE

     The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack.

 -- Verisi: stat.UF_NOUNLINK

     The file may not be renamed or deleted.

 -- Verisi: stat.UF_COMPRESSED

     The file is stored compressed (macOS 10.6+).

 -- Verisi: stat.UF_HIDDEN

     The file should not be displayed in a GUI (macOS 10.5+).

 -- Verisi: stat.SF_ARCHIVED

     The file may be archived.

 -- Verisi: stat.SF_IMMUTABLE

     The file may not be changed.

 -- Verisi: stat.SF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- Verisi: stat.SF_NOUNLINK

     The file may not be renamed or deleted.

 -- Verisi: stat.SF_SNAPSHOT

     The file is a snapshot file.

See the *BSD or macOS systems man page ‘chflags(2)(2)’ for more
information.

On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use
when testing bits in the ‘st_file_attributes’ member returned by *note
os.stat(): 1c5.  See the Windows API documentation(3) for more detail on
the meaning of these constants.

 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY
 -- Verisi: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL

     Added in version 3.5.

On Windows, the following constants are available for comparing against
the ‘st_reparse_tag’ member returned by *note os.lstat(): 1c6.  These
are well-known constants, but are not an exhaustive list.

 -- Verisi: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK
 -- Verisi: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT
 -- Verisi: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/stat.py

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/chflags(2)

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons,  Next: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories,  Prev: stat — Interpreting stat results,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.5 ‘filecmp’ — File and Directory Comparisons
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/filecmp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note filecmp: 58. module defines functions to compare files and
directories, with various optional time/correctness trade-offs.  For
comparing files, see also the *note difflib: 36. module.

The *note filecmp: 58. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: filecmp.cmp (f1, f2, shallow=True)

     Compare the files named 'f1' and 'f2', returning ‘True’ if they
     seem equal, ‘False’ otherwise.

     If 'shallow' is true and the *note os.stat(): 1c5. signatures (file
     type, size, and modification time) of both files are identical, the
     files are taken to be equal.

     Otherwise, the files are treated as different if their sizes or
     contents differ.

     Note that no external programs are called from this function,
     giving it portability and efficiency.

     This function uses a cache for past comparisons and the results,
     with cache entries invalidated if the *note os.stat(): 1c5.
     information for the file changes.  The entire cache may be cleared
     using *note clear_cache(): dde.

 -- Işlevi: filecmp.cmpfiles (dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)

     Compare the files in the two directories 'dir1' and 'dir2' whose
     names are given by 'common'.

     Returns three lists of file names: 'match', 'mismatch', 'errors'.
     'match' contains the list of files that match, 'mismatch' contains
     the names of those that don’t, and 'errors' lists the names of
     files which could not be compared.  Files are listed in 'errors' if
     they don’t exist in one of the directories, the user lacks
     permission to read them or if the comparison could not be done for
     some other reason.

     The 'shallow' parameter has the same meaning and default value as
     for *note filecmp.cmp(): 16d4.

     For example, ‘cmpfiles('a', 'b', ['c', 'd/e'])’ will compare ‘a/c’
     with ‘b/c’ and ‘a/d/e’ with ‘b/d/e’.  ‘'c'’ and ‘'d/e'’ will each
     be in one of the three returned lists.

 -- Işlevi: filecmp.clear_cache ()

     Clear the filecmp cache.  This may be useful if a file is compared
     so quickly after it is modified that it is within the mtime
     resolution of the underlying filesystem.

     Added in version 3.4.

* Menu:

* The dircmp class::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/filecmp.py


File: python.info,  Node: The dircmp class,  Up: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons

5.11.5.1 The ‘dircmp’ class
...........................

 -- Sınıfı: filecmp.dircmp (a, b, ignore=None, hide=None)

     Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the
     directories 'a' and 'b'.  'ignore' is a list of names to ignore,
     and defaults to *note filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES: ddf.  'hide' is a
     list of names to hide, and defaults to ‘[os.curdir, os.pardir]’.

     The *note dircmp: de0. class compares files by doing 'shallow'
     comparisons as described for *note filecmp.cmp(): 16d4.

     The *note dircmp: de0. class provides the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: report ()

          Print (to *note sys.stdout: 943.) a comparison between 'a' and
          'b'.

      -- Yöntemi: report_partial_closure ()

          Print a comparison between 'a' and 'b' and common immediate
          subdirectories.

      -- Yöntemi: report_full_closure ()

          Print a comparison between 'a' and 'b' and common
          subdirectories (recursively).

     The *note dircmp: de0. class offers a number of interesting
     attributes that may be used to get various bits of information
     about the directory trees being compared.

     Note that via *note __getattr__(): 201. hooks, all attributes are
     computed lazily, so there is no speed penalty if only those
     attributes which are lightweight to compute are used.

      -- Özniteliği: left

          The directory 'a'.

      -- Özniteliği: right

          The directory 'b'.

      -- Özniteliği: left_list

          Files and subdirectories in 'a', filtered by 'hide' and
          'ignore'.

      -- Özniteliği: right_list

          Files and subdirectories in 'b', filtered by 'hide' and
          'ignore'.

      -- Özniteliği: common

          Files and subdirectories in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- Özniteliği: left_only

          Files and subdirectories only in 'a'.

      -- Özniteliği: right_only

          Files and subdirectories only in 'b'.

      -- Özniteliği: common_dirs

          Subdirectories in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- Özniteliği: common_files

          Files in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- Özniteliği: common_funny

          Names in both 'a' and 'b', such that the type differs between
          the directories, or names for which *note os.stat(): 1c5.
          reports an error.

      -- Özniteliği: same_files

          Files which are identical in both 'a' and 'b', using the
          class’s file comparison operator.

      -- Özniteliği: diff_files

          Files which are in both 'a' and 'b', whose contents differ
          according to the class’s file comparison operator.

      -- Özniteliği: funny_files

          Files which are in both 'a' and 'b', but could not be
          compared.

      -- Özniteliği: subdirs

          A dictionary mapping names in *note common_dirs: 261e. to
          *note dircmp: de0. instances (or MyDirCmp instances if this
          instance is of type MyDirCmp, a subclass of *note dircmp:
          de0.).

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: Previously entries were always *note
          dircmp: de0. instances.  Now entries are the same type as
          'self', if 'self' is a subclass of *note dircmp: de0.

 -- Verisi: filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES

     Added in version 3.4.

     List of directories ignored by *note dircmp: de0. by default.

Here is a simplified example of using the ‘subdirs’ attribute to search
recursively through two directories to show common different files:

     >>> from filecmp import dircmp
     >>> def print_diff_files(dcmp):
     ...     for name in dcmp.diff_files:
     ...         print("diff_file %s found in %s and %s" % (name, dcmp.left,
     ...               dcmp.right))
     ...     for sub_dcmp in dcmp.subdirs.values():
     ...         print_diff_files(sub_dcmp)
     ...
     >>> dcmp = dircmp('dir1', 'dir2')
     >>> print_diff_files(dcmp)


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories,  Next: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı,  Prev: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.6 ‘tempfile’ — Generate temporary files and directories
------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tempfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module creates temporary files and directories.  It works on all
supported platforms.  *note TemporaryFile: 2626, *note
NamedTemporaryFile: 1f4, *note TemporaryDirectory: 10db, and *note
SpooledTemporaryFile: 4a8. are high-level interfaces which provide
automatic cleanup and can be used as *note context managers: 3df.  *note
mkstemp(): 2627. and *note mkdtemp(): 1c9. are lower-level functions
which require manual cleanup.

All the user-callable functions and constructors take additional
arguments which allow direct control over the location and name of
temporary files and directories.  Files names used by this module
include a string of random characters which allows those files to be
securely created in shared temporary directories.  To maintain backward
compatibility, the argument order is somewhat odd; it is recommended to
use keyword arguments for clarity.

The module defines the following user-callable items:

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.TemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, *, errors=None)

     Return a *note file-like object: 2379. that can be used as a
     temporary storage area.  The file is created securely, using the
     same rules as *note mkstemp(): 2627.  It will be destroyed as soon
     as it is closed (including an implicit close when the object is
     garbage collected).  Under Unix, the directory entry for the file
     is either not created at all or is removed immediately after the
     file is created.  Other platforms do not support this; your code
     should not rely on a temporary file created using this function
     having or not having a visible name in the file system.

     The resulting object can be used as a *note context manager: 3df.
     (see *note Examples: 2628.).  On completion of the context or
     destruction of the file object the temporary file will be removed
     from the filesystem.

     The 'mode' parameter defaults to ‘'w+b'’ so that the file created
     can be read and written without being closed.  Binary mode is used
     so that it behaves consistently on all platforms without regard for
     the data that is stored.  'buffering', 'encoding', 'errors' and
     'newline' are interpreted as for *note open(): 2a6.

     The 'dir', 'prefix' and 'suffix' parameters have the same meaning
     and defaults as with *note mkstemp(): 2627.

     The returned object is a true file object on POSIX platforms.  On
     other platforms, it is a file-like object whose ‘file’ attribute is
     the underlying true file object.

     The *note os.O_TMPFILE: e14. flag is used if it is available and
     works (Linux-specific, requires Linux kernel 3.11 or later).

     On platforms that are neither Posix nor Cygwin, TemporaryFile is an
     alias for NamedTemporaryFile.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The *note os.O_TMPFILE: e14. flag is now
     used if available.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'errors' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, delete=True, *, errors=None, delete_on_close=True)

     This function operates exactly as *note TemporaryFile(): 2626.
     does, except the following differences:

        * This function returns a file that is guaranteed to have a
          visible name in the file system.

        * To manage the named file, it extends the parameters of *note
          TemporaryFile(): 2626. with 'delete' and 'delete_on_close'
          parameters that determine whether and how the named file
          should be automatically deleted.

     The returned object is always a *note file-like object: 2379. whose
     ‘file’ attribute is the underlying true file object.  This
     file-like object can be used in a *note with: 3dd. statement, just
     like a normal file.  The name of the temporary file can be
     retrieved from the ‘name’ attribute of the returned file-like
     object.  On Unix, unlike with the *note TemporaryFile(): 2626, the
     directory entry does not get unlinked immediately after the file
     creation.

     If 'delete' is true (the default) and 'delete_on_close' is true
     (the default), the file is deleted as soon as it is closed.  If
     'delete' is true and 'delete_on_close' is false, the file is
     deleted on context manager exit only, or else when the *note
     file-like object: 2379. is finalized.  Deletion is not always
     guaranteed in this case (see *note object.__del__(): 1d4e.).  If
     'delete' is false, the value of 'delete_on_close' is ignored.

     Therefore to use the name of the temporary file to reopen the file
     after closing it, either make sure not to delete the file upon
     closure (set the 'delete' parameter to be false) or, in case the
     temporary file is created in a *note with: 3dd. statement, set the
     'delete_on_close' parameter to be false.  The latter approach is
     recommended as it provides assistance in automatic cleaning of the
     temporary file upon the context manager exit.

     Opening the temporary file again by its name while it is still open
     works as follows:

        * On POSIX the file can always be opened again.

        * On Windows, make sure that at least one of the following
          conditions are fulfilled:

             * 'delete' is false

             * additional open shares delete access (e.g.  by calling
               *note os.open(): c1f. with the flag ‘O_TEMPORARY’)

             * 'delete' is true but 'delete_on_close' is false.  Note,
               that in this case the additional opens that do not share
               delete access (e.g.  created via builtin *note open():
               2a6.) must be closed before exiting the context manager,
               else the *note os.unlink(): f98. call on context manager
               exit will fail with a *note PermissionError: bcb.

     On Windows, if 'delete_on_close' is false, and the file is created
     in a directory for which the user lacks delete access, then the
     *note os.unlink(): f98. call on exit of the context manager will
     fail with a *note PermissionError: bcb.  This cannot happen when
     'delete_on_close' is true because delete access is requested by the
     open, which fails immediately if the requested access is not
     granted.

     On POSIX (only), a process that is terminated abruptly with SIGKILL
     cannot automatically delete any NamedTemporaryFiles it created.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'errors' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added 'delete_on_close' parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile (max_size=0, mode='w+b',
          buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None,
          prefix=None, dir=None, *, errors=None)

     This class operates exactly as *note TemporaryFile(): 2626. does,
     except that data is spooled in memory until the file size exceeds
     'max_size', or until the file’s *note fileno(): 2629. method is
     called, at which point the contents are written to disk and
     operation proceeds as with *note TemporaryFile(): 2626.

      -- Yöntemi: rollover ()

          The resulting file has one additional method, ‘rollover()’,
          which causes the file to roll over to an on-disk file
          regardless of its size.

     The returned object is a file-like object whose ‘_file’ attribute
     is either an *note io.BytesIO: d38. or *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.
     object (depending on whether binary or text 'mode' was specified)
     or a true file object, depending on whether *note rollover(): 262a.
     has been called.  This file-like object can be used in a *note
     with: 3dd. statement, just like a normal file.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: the truncate method now accepts a 'size'
     argument.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'errors' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Fully implements the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. and *note io.TextIOBase: 4aa. abstract base
     classes (depending on whether binary or text 'mode' was specified).

 -- Sınıfı: tempfile.TemporaryDirectory (suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, ignore_cleanup_errors=False, *, delete=True)

     This class securely creates a temporary directory using the same
     rules as *note mkdtemp(): 1c9.  The resulting object can be used as
     a *note context manager: 3df. (see *note Examples: 2628.).  On
     completion of the context or destruction of the temporary directory
     object, the newly created temporary directory and all its contents
     are removed from the filesystem.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The directory name can be retrieved from the ‘name’ attribute
          of the returned object.  When the returned object is used as a
          *note context manager: 3df, the ‘name’ will be assigned to the
          target of the ‘as’ clause in the *note with: 3dd. statement,
          if there is one.

      -- Yöntemi: cleanup ()

          The directory can be explicitly cleaned up by calling the
          ‘cleanup()’ method.  If 'ignore_cleanup_errors' is true, any
          unhandled exceptions during explicit or implicit cleanup (such
          as a *note PermissionError: bcb. removing open files on
          Windows) will be ignored, and the remaining removable items
          deleted on a “best-effort” basis.  Otherwise, errors will be
          raised in whatever context cleanup occurs (the ‘cleanup()’
          call, exiting the context manager, when the object is
          garbage-collected or during interpreter shutdown).

     The 'delete' parameter can be used to disable cleanup of the
     directory tree upon exiting the context.  While it may seem unusual
     for a context manager to disable the action taken when exiting the
     context, it can be useful during debugging or when you need your
     cleanup behavior to be conditional based on other logic.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added 'ignore_cleanup_errors' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'delete' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.mkstemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None,
          text=False)

     Creates a temporary file in the most secure manner possible.  There
     are no race conditions in the file’s creation, assuming that the
     platform properly implements the *note os.O_EXCL: 262d. flag for
     *note os.open(): c1f.  The file is readable and writable only by
     the creating user ID. If the platform uses permission bits to
     indicate whether a file is executable, the file is executable by no
     one.  The file descriptor is not inherited by child processes.

     Unlike *note TemporaryFile(): 2626, the user of *note mkstemp():
     2627. is responsible for deleting the temporary file when done with
     it.

     If 'suffix' is not ‘None’, the file name will end with that suffix,
     otherwise there will be no suffix.  *note mkstemp(): 2627. does not
     put a dot between the file name and the suffix; if you need one,
     put it at the beginning of 'suffix'.

     If 'prefix' is not ‘None’, the file name will begin with that
     prefix; otherwise, a default prefix is used.  The default is the
     return value of *note gettempprefix(): 262e. or *note
     gettempprefixb(): 262f, as appropriate.

     If 'dir' is not ‘None’, the file will be created in that directory;
     otherwise, a default directory is used.  The default directory is
     chosen from a platform-dependent list, but the user of the
     application can control the directory location by setting the
     'TMPDIR', 'TEMP' or 'TMP' environment variables.  There is thus no
     guarantee that the generated filename will have any nice
     properties, such as not requiring quoting when passed to external
     commands via ‘os.popen()’.

     If any of 'suffix', 'prefix', and 'dir' are not ‘None’, they must
     be the same type.  If they are bytes, the returned name will be
     bytes instead of str.  If you want to force a bytes return value
     with otherwise default behavior, pass ‘suffix=b''’.

     If 'text' is specified and true, the file is opened in text mode.
     Otherwise, (the default) the file is opened in binary mode.

     *note mkstemp(): 2627. returns a tuple containing an OS-level
     handle to an open file (as would be returned by *note os.open():
     c1f.) and the absolute pathname of that file, in that order.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'suffix', 'prefix', and 'dir' may now be
     supplied in bytes in order to obtain a bytes return value.  Prior
     to this, only str was allowed.  'suffix' and 'prefix' now accept
     and default to ‘None’ to cause an appropriate default value to be
     used.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'dir' parameter now accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.mkdtemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)

     Creates a temporary directory in the most secure manner possible.
     There are no race conditions in the directory’s creation.  The
     directory is readable, writable, and searchable only by the
     creating user ID.

     The user of *note mkdtemp(): 1c9. is responsible for deleting the
     temporary directory and its contents when done with it.

     The 'prefix', 'suffix', and 'dir' arguments are the same as for
     *note mkstemp(): 2627.

     *note mkdtemp(): 1c9. returns the absolute pathname of the new
     directory.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'suffix', 'prefix', and 'dir' may now be
     supplied in bytes in order to obtain a bytes return value.  Prior
     to this, only str was allowed.  'suffix' and 'prefix' now accept
     and default to ‘None’ to cause an appropriate default value to be
     used.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'dir' parameter now accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: *note mkdtemp(): 1c9. now always returns an
     absolute path, even if 'dir' is relative.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.gettempdir ()

     Return the name of the directory used for temporary files.  This
     defines the default value for the 'dir' argument to all functions
     in this module.

     Python searches a standard list of directories to find one which
     the calling user can create files in.  The list is:

       1. The directory named by the ‘TMPDIR’ environment variable.

       2. The directory named by the ‘TEMP’ environment variable.

       3. The directory named by the ‘TMP’ environment variable.

       4. A platform-specific location:

             * On Windows, the directories ‘C:\TEMP’, ‘C:\TMP’, ‘\TEMP’,
               and ‘\TMP’, in that order.

             * On all other platforms, the directories ‘/tmp’,
               ‘/var/tmp’, and ‘/usr/tmp’, in that order.

       5. As a last resort, the current working directory.

     The result of this search is cached, see the description of *note
     tempdir: 1703. below.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Always returns a str.  Previously it would
     return any *note tempdir: 1703. value regardless of type so long as
     it was not ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.gettempdirb ()

     Same as *note gettempdir(): 1704. but the return value is in bytes.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.gettempprefix ()

     Return the filename prefix used to create temporary files.  This
     does not contain the directory component.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.gettempprefixb ()

     Same as *note gettempprefix(): 262e. but the return value is in
     bytes.

     Added in version 3.5.

The module uses a global variable to store the name of the directory
used for temporary files returned by *note gettempdir(): 1704.  It can
be set directly to override the selection process, but this is
discouraged.  All functions in this module take a 'dir' argument which
can be used to specify the directory.  This is the recommended approach
that does not surprise other unsuspecting code by changing global API
behavior.

 -- Verisi: tempfile.tempdir

     When set to a value other than ‘None’, this variable defines the
     default value for the 'dir' argument to the functions defined in
     this module, including its type, bytes or str.  It cannot be a
     *note path-like object: 98e.

     If ‘tempdir’ is ‘None’ (the default) at any call to any of the
     above functions except *note gettempprefix(): 262e. it is
     initialized following the algorithm described in *note
     gettempdir(): 1704.

          Not: Beware that if you set ‘tempdir’ to a bytes value, there
          is a nasty side effect: The global default return type of
          *note mkstemp(): 2627. and *note mkdtemp(): 1c9. changes to
          bytes when no explicit ‘prefix’, ‘suffix’, or ‘dir’ arguments
          of type str are supplied.  Please do not write code expecting
          or depending on this.  This awkward behavior is maintained for
          compatibility with the historical implementation.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<5>.
* Deprecated functions and variables::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tempfile.py


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<5>,  Next: Deprecated functions and variables,  Up: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories

5.11.6.1 Examples
.................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the *note tempfile: df.
module:

     >>> import tempfile

     # create a temporary file and write some data to it
     >>> fp = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
     >>> fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     # read data from file
     >>> fp.seek(0)
     >>> fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     # close the file, it will be removed
     >>> fp.close()

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryFile() as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.seek(0)
     ...     fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now closed and removed

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     # close the file, use the name to open the file again
     >>> with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete_on_close=False) as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.close()
     ... # the file is closed, but not removed
     ... # open the file again by using its name
     ...     with open(fp.name, mode='rb') as f:
     ...         f.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now removed

     # create a temporary directory using the context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
     ...     print('created temporary directory', tmpdirname)
     >>>
     # directory and contents have been removed


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and variables,  Prev: Examples<5>,  Up: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories

5.11.6.2 Deprecated functions and variables
...........................................

A historical way to create temporary files was to first generate a file
name with the *note mktemp(): 16b6. function and then create a file
using this name.  Unfortunately this is not secure, because a different
process may create a file with this name in the time between the call to
*note mktemp(): 16b6. and the subsequent attempt to create the file by
the first process.  The solution is to combine the two steps and create
the file immediately.  This approach is used by *note mkstemp(): 2627.
and the other functions described above.

 -- Işlevi: tempfile.mktemp (suffix='', prefix='tmp', dir=None)

     2.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note mkstemp(): 2627.
     instead.

     Return an absolute pathname of a file that did not exist at the
     time the call is made.  The 'prefix', 'suffix', and 'dir' arguments
     are similar to those of *note mkstemp(): 2627, except that bytes
     file names, ‘suffix=None’ and ‘prefix=None’ are not supported.

          Uyarı: Use of this function may introduce a security hole in
          your program.  By the time you get around to doing anything
          with the file name it returns, someone else may have beaten
          you to the punch.  *note mktemp(): 16b6. usage can be replaced
          easily with *note NamedTemporaryFile(): 1f4, passing it the
          ‘delete=False’ parameter:

               >>> f = NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False)
               >>> f.name
               '/tmp/tmptjujjt'
               >>> f.write(b"Hello World!\n")
               13
               >>> f.close()
               >>> os.unlink(f.name)
               >>> os.path.exists(f.name)
               False


File: python.info,  Node: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı,  Next: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching,  Prev: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.7 ‘glob’ — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı
------------------------------------------------

'Kaynak kod' Lib/glob.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note glob: 62. modülü Unix kabuğu tarafından kullanılan kurallarına
uyarak spesifik desenlerle eşleşen tüm yol adlarını bulur ve sonucu
gelişigüzel bir sırada ile döndürür.  Tilde açılımı yapılmaz fakat ‘[]’
içinde ifade edilen karakter aralığı ve ‘*’, ‘?’ karakterleri
eşleştirilir.  Bu işlem *note os.scandir(): 8c3. ve *note
fnmatch.fnmatch(): 16c7. fonksiyonlarının birlikte çalışması ile olur ve
bir altkabuk çağırılmaz.

Dikkat edilmeli ki *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 16c7. veya *note
pathlib.Path.glob(): 1d5. aksine, nokta (‘.’) ile başlayan dosyalar
sadece nokta ile başlayan desenler ile eşleştirilebilir.  (Tilde ve
kabuk değişken açılımları için *note os.path.expanduser(): 874. ve *note
os.path.expandvars(): 1260. kullanın.)

Harfi harfine eşleşme için meta-karakter’leri köşeli parantez içine
koyun.  Örneğin, ‘'[?]'’ deseni ‘'?'’ karakteri ile eşleşir.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note pathlib: a3. modülü yüksek-seviye dizin yolu nesneleri döndürür.

 -- Işlevi: glob.glob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     'pathname' ile eşleşen bir liste döndürür ve bu boş liste de
     olabilir.  'pathname', dizin yolu belirtimi içeren bir string
     olmalıdır.  'pathname' hem mutlak (örneğin
     ‘/usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile’) hem de göreceli (örneğin
     ‘../../Tools/*/*.gif’) olabilir ve kabuk-tarzı joker karakterler de
     içerebilir.  Bozuk sembolik bağlantılar de sonuçlara dahil edilir
     (kabukta olduğu gibi).  Sonucun sıralanmış olup olmaması dosya
     sistemine bağlıdır.  Eğer eşleşmeye uyan bir dosya bu fonksiyonun
     çağrılması sırasında kaldırılırsa veya eklenirse dönüş değerinde
     dosyanın bulunup bulunmayacağı belirsizdir.

     Eğer 'root_dir' ‘None’ değilse, arama için kök dizini belirten bir
     *note yol benzeri nesne: 98e. olmalıdır.  Bu, *note glob(): 62.
     fonksiyonu üzerinde, fonksiyonu çağırmadan önce geçerli dizini
     değiştirmekle aynı etkiyi yaratır.  Eğer 'pathname' göreceli bir
     yol ise, sonuç 'root_dir'’den itibaren oluşturulmuş göreceli
     yolları içerir.

     Bu fonksiyon 'dir_fd' parametresi ile *note dizin tanımlayıcılarına
     göre dosya yolları: f8c. destekler .

     Eğer 'recursive' True ise “‘**’” deseni tüm dosyaları ve sıfır veya
     daha fazla dizin, alt dizin ve dizinlere işaret eden sembolik
     bağlantılarla eşleşir.  Eğer desen ardından *note os.sep: 47d. veya
     *note os.altsep: 47e. gelirse dosyalar eşlenmez.

     Eğer 'include_hidden' True ise, “‘**’” deseni gizli dizinleri de
     eşler.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’ argümanları ile ‘glob.glob’ fonksiyonu için
     bir *note denetim olayı: 16e3. tetikler.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’ , ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’ argümanları ile
     ‘glob.glob/2’ fonksiyonu için bir *note denetim olayı: 16e3.
     tetikler.

          Not: “‘**’” deseninin geniş dizin ağaçlarıyla kullanımı aşırı
          derecede zaman harcar.

          Not: Eğer 'pathname' birden fazla “‘**’” deseni içerirse ve
          'recursive' True ise fonksiyon tekrar eden yol adları
          döndürebilir.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: “‘**’” kullanarak yinelemeli glob’lar için
     destek eklendi.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: 'root_dir' ve 'dir_fd' parametreleri
     eklendi.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'include_hidden' parametresi eklendi.

 -- Işlevi: glob.iglob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     *note glob(): 62. fonksiyonuyla aynı değerleri döndüren fakat eş
     zamanlı olarak saklamayan bir *note yineleyici: 176e. döndürür.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’ argümanları ile ‘glob.glob’ fonksiyonu için
     bir *note denetim olayı: 16e3. tetikler.

     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’ , ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’ argümanları ile
     ‘glob.glob/2’ fonksiyonu için bir *note denetim olayı: 16e3.
     tetikler.

          Not: Eğer 'pathname' birden fazla “‘**’” deseni içerirse ve
          'recursive' True ise fonksiyon tekrar eden yol adları
          döndürebilir.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: “‘**’” kullanarak yinelemeli glob’lar için
     destek eklendi.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: 'root_dir' ve 'dir_fd' parametreleri
     eklendi.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'include_hidden' parametresi eklendi.

 -- Işlevi: glob.escape (pathname)

     Tüm özel karakterlerden (‘'?'’, ‘'*'’ and ‘'['’) kaçar.  Eğer özel
     karakterler içerme ihtimali olan belirsiz bir dizini harfi harfine
     eşleştirmek istiyorsanız faydalıdır.  Sürücü/UNC paylaşım
     noktalarındaki özel karakterler kaçırılamaz; örneğin Windows’ta
     ‘escape('//?/c:/Quo vadis?.txt')’ ‘'//?/c:/Quo vadis[?].txt'’
     döndürür.

     Added in version 3.4.

Örneğin, ‘1.gif’, ‘2.txt’, ‘card.gif’ dosyalarını içeren bir dizin ve
‘sub’ adında sadece ‘3.txt’ dosyasını içeren bir alt dizin düşünün.
*note glob(): 62. aşağıdaki sonuçları üretir.  Yolun başlangıç
bileşenlerinin nasıl korunduğuna dikkat edin.

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('./[0-9].*')
     ['./1.gif', './2.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['1.gif', 'card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('?.gif')
     ['1.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('**/*.txt', recursive=True)
     ['2.txt', 'sub/3.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('./**/', recursive=True)
     ['./', './sub/']

Eğer dizin ‘.’ ile başlayan dosyalar içeriyorsa varsayılan olarak
eşleştirilmezler.  Örneğin, ‘card.gif’ and ‘.card.gif’:: dosyalarını
içeren bir dizin düşünün.

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('.c*')
     ['.card.gif']

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Modül *note fnmatch: 5a.

     Kabuk-tarzı dosya ismi (yol adı değil) açılımı

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/glob.py


File: python.info,  Node: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching,  Next: linecache — Random access to text lines,  Prev: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.8 ‘fnmatch’ — Unix filename pattern matching
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/fnmatch.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for Unix shell-style wildcards, which are
'not' the same as regular expressions (which are documented in the *note
re: b8. module).  The special characters used in shell-style wildcards
are:

Pattern          Meaning
                 
----------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘*’              matches everything
                 
                 
‘?’              matches any single character
                 
                 
‘[seq]’          matches any character in 'seq'
                 
                 
‘[!seq]’         matches any character not in 'seq'
                 

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.  For example,
‘'[?]'’ matches the character ‘'?'’.

Note that the filename separator (‘'/'’ on Unix) is 'not' special to
this module.  See module *note glob: 62. for pathname expansion (*note
glob: 62. uses *note filter(): 16c9. to match pathname segments).
Similarly, filenames starting with a period are not special for this
module, and are matched by the ‘*’ and ‘?’ patterns.

Unless stated otherwise, “filename string” and “pattern string” either
refer to *note str: 15d. or ‘ISO-8859-1’ encoded *note bytes: 2cb.
objects.  Note that the functions documented below do not allow to mix a
‘bytes’ pattern with a ‘str’ filename, and vice-versa.

Finally, note that *note functools.lru_cache(): 84e. with a 'maxsize' of
32768 is used to cache the (typed) compiled regex patterns in the
following functions: *note fnmatch(): 5a, *note fnmatchcase(): 16c8,
*note filter(): 16c9.

 -- Işlevi: fnmatch.fnmatch (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Both parameters are
     case-normalized using *note os.path.normcase(): 25b6.  *note
     fnmatchcase(): 16c8. can be used to perform a case-sensitive
     comparison, regardless of whether that’s standard for the operating
     system.

     This example will print all file names in the current directory
     with the extension ‘.txt’:

          import fnmatch
          import os

          for file in os.listdir('.'):
              if fnmatch.fnmatch(file, '*.txt'):
                  print(file)

 -- Işlevi: fnmatch.fnmatchcase (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’; the comparison is
     case-sensitive and does not apply *note os.path.normcase(): 25b6.

 -- Işlevi: fnmatch.filter (names, pat)

     Construct a list from those elements of the *note iterable: 10ce.
     of filename strings 'names' that match the pattern string 'pat'.
     It is the same as ‘[n for n in names if fnmatch(n, pat)]’, but
     implemented more efficiently.

 -- Işlevi: fnmatch.translate (pat)

     Return the shell-style pattern 'pat' converted to a regular
     expression for using with *note re.match(): 10d4.  The pattern is
     expected to be a *note str: 15d.

     Example:

          >>> import fnmatch, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = fnmatch.translate('*.txt')
          >>> regex
          '(?s:.*\\.txt)\\Z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.match('foobar.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match='foobar.txt'>

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note glob: 62.

     Unix shell-style path expansion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/fnmatch.py


File: python.info,  Node: linecache — Random access to text lines,  Next: shutil — High-level file operations,  Prev: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.9 ‘linecache’ — Random access to text lines
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/linecache.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note linecache: 84. module allows one to get any line from a Python
source file, while attempting to optimize internally, using a cache, the
common case where many lines are read from a single file.  This is used
by the *note traceback: fe. module to retrieve source lines for
inclusion in the formatted traceback.

The *note tokenize.open(): 2639. function is used to open files.  This
function uses *note tokenize.detect_encoding(): 263a. to get the
encoding of the file; in the absence of an encoding token, the file
encoding defaults to UTF-8.

The *note linecache: 84. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: linecache.getline (filename, lineno, module_globals=None)

     Get line 'lineno' from file named 'filename'.  This function will
     never raise an exception — it will return ‘''’ on errors (the
     terminating newline character will be included for lines that are
     found).

     If a file named 'filename' is not found, the function first checks
     for a PEP 302(2) ‘__loader__’ in 'module_globals'.  If there is
     such a loader and it defines a ‘get_source’ method, then that
     determines the source lines (if ‘get_source()’ returns ‘None’, then
     ‘''’ is returned).  Finally, if 'filename' is a relative filename,
     it is looked up relative to the entries in the module search path,
     ‘sys.path’.

 -- Işlevi: linecache.clearcache ()

     Clear the cache.  Use this function if you no longer need lines
     from files previously read using *note getline(): cb3.

 -- Işlevi: linecache.checkcache (filename=None)

     Check the cache for validity.  Use this function if files in the
     cache may have changed on disk, and you require the updated
     version.  If 'filename' is omitted, it will check all the entries
     in the cache.

 -- Işlevi: linecache.lazycache (filename, module_globals)

     Capture enough detail about a non-file-based module to permit
     getting its lines later via *note getline(): cb3. even if
     'module_globals' is ‘None’ in the later call.  This avoids doing
     I/O until a line is actually needed, without having to carry the
     module globals around indefinitely.

     Added in version 3.5.

Example:

     >>> import linecache
     >>> linecache.getline(linecache.__file__, 8)
     'import sys\n'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/linecache.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: shutil — High-level file operations,  Prev: linecache — Random access to text lines,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.11.10 ‘shutil’ — High-level file operations
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/shutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note shutil: c4. module offers a number of high-level operations on
files and collections of files.  In particular, functions are provided
which support file copying and removal.  For operations on individual
files, see also the *note os: a0. module.

     Uyarı: Even the higher-level file copying functions (*note
     shutil.copy(): 8be, *note shutil.copy2(): 8bf.) cannot copy all
     file metadata.

     On POSIX platforms, this means that file owner and group are lost
     as well as ACLs.  On Mac OS, the resource fork and other metadata
     are not used.  This means that resources will be lost and file type
     and creator codes will not be correct.  On Windows, file owners,
     ACLs and alternate data streams are not copied.

* Menu:

* Directory and files operations::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/shutil.py


File: python.info,  Node: Directory and files operations,  Next: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil — High-level file operations

5.11.10.1 Directory and files operations
........................................

 -- Işlevi: shutil.copyfileobj (fsrc, fdst[, length])

     Copy the contents of the *note file-like object: 1068. 'fsrc' to
     the file-like object 'fdst'.  The integer 'length', if given, is
     the buffer size.  In particular, a negative 'length' value means to
     copy the data without looping over the source data in chunks; by
     default the data is read in chunks to avoid uncontrolled memory
     consumption.  Note that if the current file position of the 'fsrc'
     object is not 0, only the contents from the current file position
     to the end of the file will be copied.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.copyfile (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named 'src' to a file
     named 'dst' and return 'dst' in the most efficient way possible.
     'src' and 'dst' are *note path-like objects: 98e. or path names
     given as strings.

     'dst' must be the complete target file name; look at *note copy():
     8be. for a copy that accepts a target directory path.  If 'src' and
     'dst' specify the same file, *note SameFileError: e3e. is raised.

     The destination location must be writable; otherwise, an *note
     OSError: 65c. exception will be raised.  If 'dst' already exists,
     it will be replaced.  Special files such as character or block
     devices and pipes cannot be copied with this function.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false and 'src' is a symbolic link, a new
     symbolic link will be created instead of copying the file 'src'
     points to.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copyfile’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note IOError: efc. used to be raised
     instead of *note OSError: 65c.  Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.
     Now returns 'dst'.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note SameFileError: e3e. instead of
     *note Error: e3d.  Since the former is a subclass of the latter,
     this change is backward compatible.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8c2. section.

 -- Özel Durum: shutil.SameFileError

     This exception is raised if source and destination in *note
     copyfile(): 8bd. are the same file.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.copymode (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits from 'src' to 'dst'.  The file contents,
     owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are *note
     path-like objects: 98e. or path names given as strings.  If
     'follow_symlinks' is false, and both 'src' and 'dst' are symbolic
     links, *note copymode(): 14aa. will attempt to modify the mode of
     'dst' itself (rather than the file it points to).  This
     functionality is not available on every platform; please see *note
     copystat(): fd2. for more information.  If *note copymode(): 14aa.
     cannot modify symbolic links on the local platform, and it is asked
     to do so, it will do nothing and return.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copymode’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.copystat (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time,
     and flags from 'src' to 'dst'.  On Linux, *note copystat(): fd2.
     also copies the “extended attributes” where possible.  The file
     contents, owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are
     *note path-like objects: 98e. or path names given as strings.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' and 'dst' both refer to
     symbolic links, *note copystat(): fd2. will operate on the symbolic
     links themselves rather than the files the symbolic links refer
     to—reading the information from the 'src' symbolic link, and
     writing the information to the 'dst' symbolic link.

          Not: Not all platforms provide the ability to examine and
          modify symbolic links.  Python itself can tell you what
          functionality is locally available.

             * If ‘os.chmod in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): fd2. can modify the permission bits of
               a symbolic link.

             * If ‘os.utime in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): fd2. can modify the last access and
               modification times of a symbolic link.

             * If ‘os.chflags in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               *note copystat(): fd2. can modify the flags of a symbolic
               link.  (‘os.chflags’ is not available on all platforms.)

          On platforms where some or all of this functionality is
          unavailable, when asked to modify a symbolic link, *note
          copystat(): fd2. will copy everything it can.  *note
          copystat(): fd2. never returns failure.

          Please see *note os.supports_follow_symlinks: 2640. for more
          information.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copystat’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument and support
     for Linux extended attributes.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.copy (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copies the file 'src' to the file or directory 'dst'.  'src' and
     'dst' should be *note path-like objects: 98e. or strings.  If 'dst'
     specifies a directory, the file will be copied into 'dst' using the
     base filename from 'src'.  If 'dst' specifies a file that already
     exists, it will be replaced.  Returns the path to the newly created
     file.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst'
     will be created as a symbolic link.  If 'follow_symlinks' is true
     and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst' will be a copy of the file
     'src' refers to.

     *note copy(): 8be. copies the file data and the file’s permission
     mode (see *note os.chmod(): f90.).  Other metadata, like the file’s
     creation and modification times, is not preserved.  To preserve all
     file metadata from the original, use *note copy2(): 8bf. instead.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copyfile’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copymode’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.  Now
     returns path to the newly created file.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8c2. section.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.copy2 (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Identical to *note copy(): 8be. except that *note copy2(): 8bf.
     also attempts to preserve file metadata.

     When 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link,
     *note copy2(): 8bf. attempts to copy all metadata from the 'src'
     symbolic link to the newly created 'dst' symbolic link.  However,
     this functionality is not available on all platforms.  On platforms
     where some or all of this functionality is unavailable, *note
     copy2(): 8bf. will preserve all the metadata it can; *note copy2():
     8bf. never raises an exception because it cannot preserve file
     metadata.

     *note copy2(): 8bf. uses *note copystat(): fd2. to copy the file
     metadata.  Please see *note copystat(): fd2. for more information
     about platform support for modifying symbolic link metadata.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copyfile’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copystat’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument, try to
     copy extended file system attributes too (currently Linux only).
     Now returns path to the newly created file.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8c2. section.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.ignore_patterns (*patterns)

     This factory function creates a function that can be used as a
     callable for *note copytree(): 88b.'s 'ignore' argument, ignoring
     files and directories that match one of the glob-style 'patterns'
     provided.  See the example below.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.copytree (src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None,
          copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False,
          dirs_exist_ok=False)

     Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at 'src' to a
     directory named 'dst' and return the destination directory.  All
     intermediate directories needed to contain 'dst' will also be
     created by default.

     Permissions and times of directories are copied with *note
     copystat(): fd2, individual files are copied using *note copy2():
     8bf.

     If 'symlinks' is true, symbolic links in the source tree are
     represented as symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of
     the original links will be copied as far as the platform allows; if
     false or omitted, the contents and metadata of the linked files are
     copied to the new tree.

     When 'symlinks' is false, if the file pointed to by the symlink
     doesn’t exist, an exception will be added in the list of errors
     raised in an *note Error: e3d. exception at the end of the copy
     process.  You can set the optional 'ignore_dangling_symlinks' flag
     to true if you want to silence this exception.  Notice that this
     option has no effect on platforms that don’t support *note
     os.symlink(): f97.

     If 'ignore' is given, it must be a callable that will receive as
     its arguments the directory being visited by *note copytree(): 88b,
     and a list of its contents, as returned by *note os.listdir(): f9c.
     Since *note copytree(): 88b. is called recursively, the 'ignore'
     callable will be called once for each directory that is copied.
     The callable must return a sequence of directory and file names
     relative to the current directory (i.e.  a subset of the items in
     its second argument); these names will then be ignored in the copy
     process.  *note ignore_patterns(): 2641. can be used to create such
     a callable that ignores names based on glob-style patterns.

     If exception(s) occur, an *note Error: e3d. is raised with a list
     of reasons.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that will be
     used to copy each file.  It will be called with the source path and
     the destination path as arguments.  By default, *note copy2(): 8bf.
     is used, but any function that supports the same signature (like
     *note copy(): 8be.) can be used.

     If 'dirs_exist_ok' is false (the default) and 'dst' already exists,
     a *note FileExistsError: ec8. is raised.  If 'dirs_exist_ok' is
     true, the copying operation will continue if it encounters existing
     directories, and files within the 'dst' tree will be overwritten by
     corresponding files from the 'src' tree.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.copytree’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'copy_function' argument to be
     able to provide a custom copy function.  Added the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument to silence dangling symlinks
     errors when 'symlinks' is false.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Copy metadata when 'symlinks' is false.  Now
     returns 'dst'.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8c2. section.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dirs_exist_ok' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.rmtree (path, ignore_errors=False, onerror=None, *,
          onexc=None, dir_fd=None)

     Delete an entire directory tree; 'path' must point to a directory
     (but not a symbolic link to a directory).  If 'ignore_errors' is
     true, errors resulting from failed removals will be ignored; if
     false or omitted, such errors are handled by calling a handler
     specified by 'onexc' or 'onerror' or, if both are omitted,
     exceptions are propagated to the caller.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

          Not: On platforms that support the necessary fd-based
          functions a symlink attack resistant version of *note
          rmtree(): 1df. is used by default.  On other platforms, the
          *note rmtree(): 1df. implementation is susceptible to a
          symlink attack: given proper timing and circumstances,
          attackers can manipulate symlinks on the filesystem to delete
          files they wouldn’t be able to access otherwise.  Applications
          can use the *note rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks: 2642.
          function attribute to determine which case applies.

     If 'onexc' is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three
     parameters: 'function', 'path', and 'excinfo'.

     The first parameter, 'function', is the function which raised the
     exception; it depends on the platform and implementation.  The
     second parameter, 'path', will be the path name passed to
     'function'.  The third parameter, 'excinfo', is the exception that
     was raised.  Exceptions raised by 'onexc' will not be caught.

     The deprecated 'onerror' is similar to 'onexc', except that the
     third parameter it receives is the tuple returned from *note
     sys.exc_info(): 49f.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.rmtree’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added a symlink attack resistant version
     that is used automatically if platform supports fd-based functions.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, will no longer delete the
     contents of a directory junction before removing the junction.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'onexc' parameter, deprecated
     'onerror'.

      -- Özniteliği: rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks

          Indicates whether the current platform and implementation
          provides a symlink attack resistant version of *note rmtree():
          1df.  Currently this is only true for platforms supporting
          fd-based directory access functions.

          Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.move (src, dst, copy_function=copy2)

     Recursively move a file or directory ('src') to another location
     and return the destination.

     If 'dst' is an existing directory or a symlink to a directory, then
     'src' is moved inside that directory.  The destination path in that
     directory must not already exist.

     If 'dst' already exists but is not a directory, it may be
     overwritten depending on *note os.rename(): f94. semantics.

     If the destination is on the current filesystem, then *note
     os.rename(): f94. is used.  Otherwise, 'src' is copied to the
     destination using 'copy_function' and then removed.  In case of
     symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of 'src' will be
     created as the destination and 'src' will be removed.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that takes two
     arguments, 'src' and the destination, and will be used to copy
     'src' to the destination if *note os.rename(): f94. cannot be used.
     If the source is a directory, *note copytree(): 88b. is called,
     passing it the 'copy_function'.  The default 'copy_function' is
     *note copy2(): 8bf.  Using *note copy(): 8be. as the
     'copy_function' allows the move to succeed when it is not possible
     to also copy the metadata, at the expense of not copying any of the
     metadata.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.move’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added explicit symlink handling for foreign
     filesystems, thus adapting it to the behavior of GNU’s ‘mv’.  Now
     returns 'dst'.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'copy_function' keyword argument.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: 8c2. section.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     both 'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.disk_usage (path)

     Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a *note named
     tuple: 461. with the attributes 'total', 'used' and 'free', which
     are the amount of total, used and free space, in bytes.  'path' may
     be a file or a directory.

          Not: On Unix filesystems, 'path' must point to a path within a
          'mounted' filesystem partition.  On those platforms, CPython
          doesn’t attempt to retrieve disk usage information from
          non-mounted filesystems.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, 'path' can now be a file or
     directory.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.chown (path, user=None, group=None)

     Change owner 'user' and/or 'group' of the given 'path'.

     'user' can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to
     'group'.  At least one argument is required.

     See also *note os.chown(): f91, the underlying function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.which (cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None)

     Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given
     'cmd' was called.  If no 'cmd' would be called, return ‘None’.

     'mode' is a permission mask passed to *note os.access(): f8e, by
     default determining if the file exists and is executable.

     'path' is a “‘PATH’ string” specifying the directories to look in,
     delimited by *note os.pathsep: 1b8b.  When no 'path' is specified,
     the ‘PATH’ environment variable is read from *note os.environ:
     105f, falling back to *note os.defpath: 183b. if it is not set.

     On Windows, the current directory is prepended to the 'path' if
     'mode' does not include ‘os.X_OK’.  When the 'mode' does include
     ‘os.X_OK’, the Windows API ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ will
     be consulted to determine if the current directory should be
     prepended to 'path'.  To avoid consulting the current working
     directory for executables: set the environment variable
     ‘NoDefaultCurrentDirectoryInExePath’.

     Also on Windows, the ‘PATHEXT’ environment variable is used to
     resolve commands that may not already include an extension.  For
     example, if you call ‘shutil.which("python")’, *note which(): 1e0.
     will search ‘PATHEXT’ to know that it should look for ‘python.exe’
     within the 'path' directories.  For example, on Windows:

          >>> shutil.which("python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     This is also applied when 'cmd' is a path that contains a directory
     component:

          >> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note bytes: 2cb. type is now accepted.
     If 'cmd' type is *note bytes: 2cb, the result type is also *note
     bytes: 2cb.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, the current directory is no
     longer prepended to the search path if 'mode' includes ‘os.X_OK’
     and WinAPI ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW(cmd)’ is false, else
     the current directory is prepended even if it is already in the
     search path; ‘PATHEXT’ is used now even when 'cmd' includes a
     directory component or ends with an extension that is in ‘PATHEXT’;
     and filenames that have no extension can now be found.

 -- Özel Durum: shutil.Error

     This exception collects exceptions that are raised during a
     multi-file operation.  For *note copytree(): 88b, the exception
     argument is a list of 3-tuples ('srcname', 'dstname', 'exception').

* Menu:

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree example::


File: python.info,  Node: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Next: copytree example,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.11.10.2 Platform-dependent efficient copy operations
......................................................

Starting from Python 3.8, all functions involving a file copy (*note
copyfile(): 8bd, *note copy(): 8be, *note copy2(): 8bf, *note
copytree(): 88b, and *note move(): 8c0.) may use platform-specific
“fast-copy” syscalls in order to copy the file more efficiently (see
bpo-33671(1)).  “fast-copy” means that the copying operation occurs
within the kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in
“‘outfd.write(infd.read())’”.

On macOS fcopyfile(2) is used to copy the file content (not metadata).

On Linux *note os.sendfile(): 97d. is used.

On Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): 8bd. uses a bigger default buffer
size (1 MiB instead of 64 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 185.-based
variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): 8c1. is used.

If the fast-copy operation fails and no data was written in the
destination file then shutil will silently fallback on using less
efficient *note copyfileobj(): 8c1. function internally.

3.8 sürümünde değişti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (2) http://www.manpagez.com/man/3/copyfile/


File: python.info,  Node: copytree example,  Next: rmtree example,  Prev: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.11.10.3 copytree example
..........................

An example that uses the *note ignore_patterns(): 2641. helper:

     from shutil import copytree, ignore_patterns

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=ignore_patterns('*.pyc', 'tmp*'))

This will copy everything except ‘.pyc’ files and files or directories
whose name starts with ‘tmp’.

Another example that uses the 'ignore' argument to add a logging call:

     from shutil import copytree
     import logging

     def _logpath(path, names):
         logging.info('Working in %s', path)
         return []   # nothing will be ignored

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=_logpath)


File: python.info,  Node: rmtree example,  Prev: copytree example,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.11.10.4 rmtree example
........................

This example shows how to remove a directory tree on Windows where some
of the files have their read-only bit set.  It uses the onexc callback
to clear the readonly bit and reattempt the remove.  Any subsequent
failure will propagate.

     import os, stat
     import shutil

     def remove_readonly(func, path, _):
         "Clear the readonly bit and reattempt the removal"
         os.chmod(path, stat.S_IWRITE)
         func(path)

     shutil.rmtree(directory, onexc=remove_readonly)


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving operations,  Next: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Directory and files operations,  Up: shutil — High-level file operations

5.11.10.5 Archiving operations
..............................

Added in version 3.2.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the 'xztar' format.

High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files
are also provided.  They rely on the *note zipfile: 131. and *note
tarfile: dd. modules.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.make_archive (base_name, format[, root_dir[,
          base_dir[, verbose[, dry_run[, owner[, group[, logger]]]]]]])

     Create an archive file (such as zip or tar) and return its name.

     'base_name' is the name of the file to create, including the path,
     minus any format-specific extension.

     'format' is the archive format: one of “zip” (if the *note zlib:
     133. module is available), “tar”, “gztar” (if the *note zlib: 133.
     module is available), “bztar” (if the *note bz2: 13. module is
     available), or “xztar” (if the *note lzma: 89. module is
     available).

     'root_dir' is a directory that will be the root directory of the
     archive, all paths in the archive will be relative to it; for
     example, we typically chdir into 'root_dir' before creating the
     archive.

     'base_dir' is the directory where we start archiving from; i.e.
     'base_dir' will be the common prefix of all files and directories
     in the archive.  'base_dir' must be given relative to 'root_dir'.
     See *note Archiving example with base_dir: 2649. for how to use
     'base_dir' and 'root_dir' together.

     'root_dir' and 'base_dir' both default to the current directory.

     If 'dry_run' is true, no archive is created, but the operations
     that would be executed are logged to 'logger'.

     'owner' and 'group' are used when creating a tar archive.  By
     default, uses the current owner and group.

     'logger' must be an object compatible with PEP 282(1), usually an
     instance of *note logging.Logger: 9c2.

     The 'verbose' argument is unused and deprecated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.make_archive’ with
     arguments ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’.

          Not: This function is not thread-safe when custom archivers
          registered with *note register_archive_format(): 264a. do not
          support the 'root_dir' argument.  In this case it temporarily
          changes the current working directory of the process to
          'root_dir' to perform archiving.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format is now
     used instead of the legacy GNU format for archives created with
     ‘format="tar"’.

     3.10.6 sürümünde değişti: This function is now made thread-safe
     during creation of standard ‘.zip’ and tar archives.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.get_archive_formats ()

     Return a list of supported formats for archiving.  Each element of
     the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, description)’.

     By default *note shutil: c4. provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (if the *note zlib: 133. module is available).

        - 'tar': Uncompressed tar file.  Uses POSIX.1-2001 pax format
          for new archives.

        - 'gztar': gzip’ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 133. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2’ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 13. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz’ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 89. module is
          available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_archive_format(): 264a.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.register_archive_format (name, function[,
          extra_args[, description]])

     Register an archiver for the format 'name'.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive the 'base_name' of the file to create,
     followed by the 'base_dir' (which defaults to *note os.curdir:
     25b7.) to start archiving from.  Further arguments are passed as
     keyword arguments: 'owner', 'group', 'dry_run' and 'logger' (as
     passed in *note make_archive(): 1de.).

     If 'function' has the custom attribute ‘function.supports_root_dir’
     set to ‘True’, the 'root_dir' argument is passed as a keyword
     argument.  Otherwise the current working directory of the process
     is temporarily changed to 'root_dir' before calling 'function'.  In
     this case *note make_archive(): 1de. is not thread-safe.

     If given, 'extra_args' is a sequence of ‘(name, value)’ pairs that
     will be used as extra keywords arguments when the archiver callable
     is used.

     'description' is used by *note get_archive_formats(): 264b. which
     returns the list of archivers.  Defaults to an empty string.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added support for functions supporting the
     'root_dir' argument.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.unregister_archive_format (name)

     Remove the archive format 'name' from the list of supported
     formats.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.unpack_archive (filename[, extract_dir[, format[,
          filter]]])

     Unpack an archive.  'filename' is the full path of the archive.

     'extract_dir' is the name of the target directory where the archive
     is unpacked.  If not provided, the current working directory is
     used.

     'format' is the archive format: one of “zip”, “tar”, “gztar”,
     “bztar”, or “xztar”.  Or any other format registered with *note
     register_unpack_format(): 264d.  If not provided, *note
     unpack_archive(): 18a. will use the archive file name extension and
     see if an unpacker was registered for that extension.  In case none
     is found, a *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

     The keyword-only 'filter' argument is passed to the underlying
     unpacking function.  For zip files, 'filter' is not accepted.  For
     tar files, it is recommended to set it to ‘'data'’, unless using
     features specific to tar and UNIX-like filesystems.  (See *note
     Extraction filters: 18b. for details.)  The ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default for tar files in Python 3.14.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘shutil.unpack_archive’ with
     arguments ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’.

          Uyarı: Never extract archives from untrusted sources without
          prior inspection.  It is possible that files are created
          outside of the path specified in the 'extract_dir' argument,
          e.g.  members that have absolute filenames starting with “/”
          or filenames with two dots “..”.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'filename' and 'extract_dir'.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'filter' argument.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.register_unpack_format (name, extensions, function[,
          extra_args[, description]])

     Registers an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format and
     'extensions' is a list of extensions corresponding to the format,
     like ‘.zip’ for Zip files.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive:

        - the path of the archive, as a positional argument;

        - the directory the archive must be extracted to, as a
          positional argument;

        - possibly a 'filter' keyword argument, if it was given to *note
          unpack_archive(): 18a.;

        - additional keyword arguments, specified by 'extra_args' as a
          sequence of ‘(name, value)’ tuples.

     'description' can be provided to describe the format, and will be
     returned by the *note get_unpack_formats(): 264e. function.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.unregister_unpack_format (name)

     Unregister an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format.

 -- Işlevi: shutil.get_unpack_formats ()

     Return a list of all registered formats for unpacking.  Each
     element of the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, extensions,
     description)’.

     By default *note shutil: c4. provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (unpacking compressed files works only if the
          corresponding module is available).

        - 'tar': uncompressed tar file.

        - 'gztar': gzip’ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 133. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2’ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 13. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz’ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 89. module is
          available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_unpack_format(): 264d.

* Menu:

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example,  Next: Archiving example with base_dir,  Up: Archiving operations

5.11.10.6 Archiving example
...........................

In this example, we create a gzip’ed tar-file archive containing all
files found in the ‘.ssh’ directory of the user:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> root_dir = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', '.ssh'))
     >>> make_archive(archive_name, 'gztar', root_dir)
     '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz'

The resulting archive contains:

     $ tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
     drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config
     -rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub
     -rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example with base_dir,  Prev: Archiving example,  Up: Archiving operations

5.11.10.7 Archiving example with 'base_dir'
...........................................

In this example, similar to the *note one above: 2651, we show how to
use *note make_archive(): 1de, but this time with the usage of
'base_dir'.  We now have the following directory structure:

     $ tree tmp
     tmp
     └── root
         └── structure
             ├── content
                 └── please_add.txt
             └── do_not_add.txt

In the final archive, ‘please_add.txt’ should be included, but
‘do_not_add.txt’ should not.  Therefore we use the following:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> make_archive(
     ...     archive_name,
     ...     'tar',
     ...     root_dir='tmp/root',
     ...     base_dir='structure/content',
     ... )
     '/Users/tarek/my_archive.tar'

Listing the files in the resulting archive gives us:

     $ python -m tarfile -l /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar
     structure/content/
     structure/content/please_add.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil — High-level file operations

5.11.10.8 Querying the size of the output terminal
..................................................

 -- Işlevi: shutil.get_terminal_size (fallback=(columns, lines))

     Get the size of the terminal window.

     For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, ‘COLUMNS’
     and ‘LINES’ respectively, is checked.  If the variable is defined
     and the value is a positive integer, it is used.

     When ‘COLUMNS’ or ‘LINES’ is not defined, which is the common case,
     the terminal connected to *note sys.__stdout__: 2654. is queried by
     invoking *note os.get_terminal_size(): fa4.

     If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because
     the system doesn’t support querying, or because we are not
     connected to a terminal, the value given in ‘fallback’ parameter is
     used.  ‘fallback’ defaults to ‘(80, 24)’ which is the default size
     used by many terminal emulators.

     The value returned is a named tuple of type *note os.terminal_size:
     2655.

     See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2, Other
     Environment Variables(1).

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘fallback’ values are also used if
     *note os.get_terminal_size(): fa4. returns zeroes.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note os: a0.

     Operating system interfaces, including functions to work with files
     at a lower level than Python *note file objects: 1068.

Module *note io: 7d.

     Python’s built-in I/O library, including both abstract classes and
     some concrete classes such as file I/O.

Built-in function *note open(): 2a6.

     The standard way to open files for reading and writing with Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003


File: python.info,  Node: Data Persistence,  Next: Data Compression and Archiving,  Prev: File and Directory Access,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.12 Data Persistence
=====================

The modules described in this chapter support storing Python data in a
persistent form on disk.  The *note pickle: a5. and *note marshal: 8c.
modules can turn many Python data types into a stream of bytes and then
recreate the objects from the bytes.  The various DBM-related modules
support a family of hash-based file formats that store a mapping of
strings to other strings.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* pickle — Python object serialization::
* copyreg — Register pickle support functions::
* shelve — Python object persistence::
* marshal — Internal Python object serialization::
* dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”::
* sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle — Python object serialization,  Next: copyreg — Register pickle support functions,  Up: Data Persistence

5.12.1 ‘pickle’ — Python object serialization
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pickle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pickle: a5. module implements binary protocols for serializing
and de-serializing a Python object structure.  '“Pickling”' is the
process whereby a Python object hierarchy is converted into a byte
stream, and '“unpickling”' is the inverse operation, whereby a byte
stream (from a *note binary file: 1ad0. or *note bytes-like object:
bb5.) is converted back into an object hierarchy.  Pickling (and
unpickling) is alternatively known as “serialization”, “marshalling,”
(2) or “flattening”; however, to avoid confusion, the terms used here
are “pickling” and “unpickling”.

     Uyarı: The ‘pickle’ module 'is not secure'.  Only unpickle data you
     trust.

     It is possible to construct malicious pickle data which will
     'execute arbitrary code during unpickling'.  Never unpickle data
     that could have come from an untrusted source, or that could have
     been tampered with.

     Consider signing data with *note hmac: 68. if you need to ensure
     that it has not been tampered with.

     Safer serialization formats such as *note json: 80. may be more
     appropriate if you are processing untrusted data.  See *note
     Comparison with json: 265b.

* Menu:

* Relationship to other Python modules::
* Data stream format::
* Module Interface::
* What can be pickled and unpickled?::
* Pickling Class Instances::
* Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects.
* Out-of-band Buffers::
* Restricting Globals::
* Performance: Performance<2>.
* Examples: Examples<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pickle.py

   (2) Don’t confuse this with the *note marshal: 8c. module


File: python.info,  Node: Relationship to other Python modules,  Next: Data stream format,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.1 Relationship to other Python modules
.............................................

* Menu:

* Comparison with marshal::
* Comparison with json::


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison with marshal,  Next: Comparison with json,  Up: Relationship to other Python modules

5.12.1.2 Comparison with ‘marshal’
..................................

Python has a more primitive serialization module called *note marshal:
8c, but in general *note pickle: a5. should always be the preferred way
to serialize Python objects.  *note marshal: 8c. exists primarily to
support Python’s ‘.pyc’ files.

The *note pickle: a5. module differs from *note marshal: 8c. in several
significant ways:

   * The *note pickle: a5. module keeps track of the objects it has
     already serialized, so that later references to the same object
     won’t be serialized again.  *note marshal: 8c. doesn’t do this.

     This has implications both for recursive objects and object
     sharing.  Recursive objects are objects that contain references to
     themselves.  These are not handled by marshal, and in fact,
     attempting to marshal recursive objects will crash your Python
     interpreter.  Object sharing happens when there are multiple
     references to the same object in different places in the object
     hierarchy being serialized.  *note pickle: a5. stores such objects
     only once, and ensures that all other references point to the
     master copy.  Shared objects remain shared, which can be very
     important for mutable objects.

   * *note marshal: 8c. cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes
     and their instances.  *note pickle: a5. can save and restore class
     instances transparently, however the class definition must be
     importable and live in the same module as when the object was
     stored.

   * The *note marshal: 8c. serialization format is not guaranteed to be
     portable across Python versions.  Because its primary job in life
     is to support ‘.pyc’ files, the Python implementers reserve the
     right to change the serialization format in non-backwards
     compatible ways should the need arise.  The *note pickle: a5.
     serialization format is guaranteed to be backwards compatible
     across Python releases provided a compatible pickle protocol is
     chosen and pickling and unpickling code deals with Python 2 to
     Python 3 type differences if your data is crossing that unique
     breaking change language boundary.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison with json,  Prev: Comparison with marshal,  Up: Relationship to other Python modules

5.12.1.3 Comparison with ‘json’
...............................

There are fundamental differences between the pickle protocols and JSON
(JavaScript Object Notation)(1):

   * JSON is a text serialization format (it outputs unicode text,
     although most of the time it is then encoded to ‘utf-8’), while
     pickle is a binary serialization format;

   * JSON is human-readable, while pickle is not;

   * JSON is interoperable and widely used outside of the Python
     ecosystem, while pickle is Python-specific;

   * JSON, by default, can only represent a subset of the Python
     built-in types, and no custom classes; pickle can represent an
     extremely large number of Python types (many of them automatically,
     by clever usage of Python’s introspection facilities; complex cases
     can be tackled by implementing *note specific object APIs: 265f.);

   * Unlike pickle, deserializing untrusted JSON does not in itself
     create an arbitrary code execution vulnerability.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note json: 80. module: a standard library module allowing JSON
serialization and deserialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: Data stream format,  Next: Module Interface,  Prev: Relationship to other Python modules,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.4 Data stream format
...........................

The data format used by *note pickle: a5. is Python-specific.  This has
the advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external
standards such as JSON or XDR (which can’t represent pointer sharing);
however it means that non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct
pickled Python objects.

By default, the *note pickle: a5. data format uses a relatively compact
binary representation.  If you need optimal size characteristics, you
can efficiently *note compress: 2661. pickled data.

The module *note pickletools: a6. contains tools for analyzing data
streams generated by *note pickle: a5.  *note pickletools: a6. source
code has extensive comments about opcodes used by pickle protocols.

There are currently 6 different protocols which can be used for
pickling.  The higher the protocol used, the more recent the version of
Python needed to read the pickle produced.

   * Protocol version 0 is the original “human-readable” protocol and is
     backwards compatible with earlier versions of Python.

   * Protocol version 1 is an old binary format which is also compatible
     with earlier versions of Python.

   * Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3.  It provides much
     more efficient pickling of *note new-style classes: 2662.  Refer to
     PEP 307(1) for information about improvements brought by protocol
     2.

   * Protocol version 3 was added in Python 3.0.  It has explicit
     support for *note bytes: 2cb. objects and cannot be unpickled by
     Python 2.x.  This was the default protocol in Python 3.0–3.7.

   * Protocol version 4 was added in Python 3.4.  It adds support for
     very large objects, pickling more kinds of objects, and some data
     format optimizations.  It is the default protocol starting with
     Python 3.8.  Refer to PEP 3154(2) for information about
     improvements brought by protocol 4.

   * Protocol version 5 was added in Python 3.8.  It adds support for
     out-of-band data and speedup for in-band data.  Refer to PEP 574(3)
     for information about improvements brought by protocol 5.

     Not: Serialization is a more primitive notion than persistence;
     although *note pickle: a5. reads and writes file objects, it does
     not handle the issue of naming persistent objects, nor the (even
     more complicated) issue of concurrent access to persistent objects.
     The *note pickle: a5. module can transform a complex object into a
     byte stream and it can transform the byte stream into an object
     with the same internal structure.  Perhaps the most obvious thing
     to do with these byte streams is to write them onto a file, but it
     is also conceivable to send them across a network or store them in
     a database.  The *note shelve: c2. module provides a simple
     interface to pickle and unpickle objects on DBM-style database
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: Module Interface,  Next: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Prev: Data stream format,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.5 Module Interface
.........................

To serialize an object hierarchy, you simply call the *note dumps():
132d. function.  Similarly, to de-serialize a data stream, you call the
*note loads(): b96. function.  However, if you want more control over
serialization and de-serialization, you can create a *note Pickler: 880.
or an *note Unpickler: 14d2. object, respectively.

The *note pickle: a5. module provides the following constants:

 -- Verisi: pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL

     An integer, the highest *note protocol version: b44. available.
     This value can be passed as a 'protocol' value to functions *note
     dump(): 2664. and *note dumps(): 132d. as well as the *note
     Pickler: 880. constructor.

 -- Verisi: pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL

     An integer, the default *note protocol version: b44. used for
     pickling.  May be less than *note HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 132e.
     Currently the default protocol is 4, first introduced in Python 3.4
     and incompatible with previous versions.

     3.0 sürümünde değişti: The default protocol is 3.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The default protocol is 4.

The *note pickle: a5. module provides the following functions to make
the pickling process more convenient:

 -- Işlevi: pickle.dump (obj, file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     Write the pickled representation of the object 'obj' to the open
     *note file object: 1068. 'file'.  This is equivalent to
     ‘Pickler(file, protocol).dump(obj)’.

     Arguments 'file', 'protocol', 'fix_imports' and 'buffer_callback'
     have the same meaning as in the *note Pickler: 880. constructor.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'buffer_callback' argument was added.

 -- Işlevi: pickle.dumps (obj, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     Return the pickled representation of the object 'obj' as a *note
     bytes: 2cb. object, instead of writing it to a file.

     Arguments 'protocol', 'fix_imports' and 'buffer_callback' have the
     same meaning as in the *note Pickler: 880. constructor.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'buffer_callback' argument was added.

 -- Işlevi: pickle.load (file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Read the pickled representation of an object from the open *note
     file object: 1068. 'file' and return the reconstituted object
     hierarchy specified therein.  This is equivalent to
     ‘Unpickler(file).load()’.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled representation
     of the object are ignored.

     Arguments 'file', 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' and
     'buffers' have the same meaning as in the *note Unpickler: 14d2.
     constructor.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'buffers' argument was added.

 -- Işlevi: pickle.loads (data, /, *, fix_imports=True,
          encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Return the reconstituted object hierarchy of the pickled
     representation 'data' of an object.  'data' must be a *note
     bytes-like object: bb5.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled representation
     of the object are ignored.

     Arguments 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' and
     'buffers' have the same meaning as in the *note Unpickler: 14d2.
     constructor.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'buffers' argument was added.

The *note pickle: a5. module defines three exceptions:

 -- Özel Durum: pickle.PickleError

     Common base class for the other pickling exceptions.  It inherits
     from *note Exception: 838.

 -- Özel Durum: pickle.PicklingError

     Error raised when an unpicklable object is encountered by *note
     Pickler: 880.  It inherits from *note PickleError: 2665.

     Refer to *note What can be pickled and unpickled?: 2667. to learn
     what kinds of objects can be pickled.

 -- Özel Durum: pickle.UnpicklingError

     Error raised when there is a problem unpickling an object, such as
     a data corruption or a security violation.  It inherits from *note
     PickleError: 2665.

     Note that other exceptions may also be raised during unpickling,
     including (but not necessarily limited to) AttributeError,
     EOFError, ImportError, and IndexError.

The *note pickle: a5. module exports three classes, *note Pickler: 880,
*note Unpickler: 14d2. and *note PickleBuffer: 161c.:

 -- Sınıfı: pickle.Pickler (file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     This takes a binary file for writing a pickle data stream.

     The optional 'protocol' argument, an integer, tells the pickler to
     use the given protocol; supported protocols are 0 to *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 132e.  If not specified, the default is *note
     DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 66c.  If a negative number is specified, *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 132e. is selected.

     The 'file' argument must have a write() method that accepts a
     single bytes argument.  It can thus be an on-disk file opened for
     binary writing, an *note io.BytesIO: d38. instance, or any other
     custom object that meets this interface.

     If 'fix_imports' is true and 'protocol' is less than 3, pickle will
     try to map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in
     Python 2, so that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.

     If 'buffer_callback' is ‘None’ (the default), buffer views are
     serialized into 'file' as part of the pickle stream.

     If 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’, then it can be called any
     number of times with a buffer view.  If the callback returns a
     false value (such as ‘None’), the given buffer is *note
     out-of-band: 2669.; otherwise the buffer is serialized in-band,
     i.e.  inside the pickle stream.

     It is an error if 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’ and 'protocol' is
     ‘None’ or smaller than 5.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'buffer_callback' argument was added.

      -- Yöntemi: dump (obj)

          Write the pickled representation of 'obj' to the open file
          object given in the constructor.

      -- Yöntemi: persistent_id (obj)

          Do nothing by default.  This exists so a subclass can override
          it.

          If *note persistent_id(): 1428. returns ‘None’, 'obj' is
          pickled as usual.  Any other value causes *note Pickler: 880.
          to emit the returned value as a persistent ID for 'obj'.  The
          meaning of this persistent ID should be defined by *note
          Unpickler.persistent_load(): 266a.  Note that the value
          returned by *note persistent_id(): 1428. cannot itself have a
          persistent ID.

          See *note Persistence of External Objects: 266b. for details
          and examples of uses.

      -- Özniteliği: dispatch_table

          A pickler object’s dispatch table is a registry of 'reduction
          functions' of the kind which can be declared using *note
          copyreg.pickle(): 266c.  It is a mapping whose keys are
          classes and whose values are reduction functions.  A reduction
          function takes a single argument of the associated class and
          should conform to the same interface as a *note __reduce__():
          831. method.

          By default, a pickler object will not have a *note
          dispatch_table: fc4. attribute, and it will instead use the
          global dispatch table managed by the *note copyreg: 26.
          module.  However, to customize the pickling for a specific
          pickler object one can set the *note dispatch_table: fc4.
          attribute to a dict-like object.  Alternatively, if a subclass
          of *note Pickler: 880. has a *note dispatch_table: fc4.
          attribute then this will be used as the default dispatch table
          for instances of that class.

          See *note Dispatch Tables: 266d. for usage examples.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: reducer_override (obj)

          Special reducer that can be defined in *note Pickler: 880.
          subclasses.  This method has priority over any reducer in the
          *note dispatch_table: fc4.  It should conform to the same
          interface as a *note __reduce__(): 831. method, and can
          optionally return *note NotImplemented: 60b. to fallback on
          *note dispatch_table: fc4.-registered reducers to pickle
          ‘obj’.

          For a detailed example, see *note Custom Reduction for Types,
          Functions, and Other Objects: 266e.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Özniteliği: fast

          Deprecated.  Enable fast mode if set to a true value.  The
          fast mode disables the usage of memo, therefore speeding the
          pickling process by not generating superfluous PUT opcodes.
          It should not be used with self-referential objects, doing
          otherwise will cause *note Pickler: 880. to recurse
          infinitely.

          Use *note pickletools.optimize(): 2670. if you need more
          compact pickles.

 -- Sınıfı: pickle.Unpickler (file, *, fix_imports=True,
          encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

     This takes a binary file for reading a pickle data stream.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.

     The argument 'file' must have three methods, a read() method that
     takes an integer argument, a readinto() method that takes a buffer
     argument and a readline() method that requires no arguments, as in
     the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. interface.  Thus 'file' can be an
     on-disk file opened for binary reading, an *note io.BytesIO: d38.
     object, or any other custom object that meets this interface.

     The optional arguments 'fix_imports', 'encoding' and 'errors' are
     used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
     by Python 2.  If 'fix_imports' is true, pickle will try to map the
     old Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The
     'encoding' and 'errors' tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string
     instances pickled by Python 2; these default to ‘ASCII’ and
     ‘strict’, respectively.  The 'encoding' can be ‘bytes’ to read
     these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.  Using
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ is required for unpickling NumPy arrays and
     instances of *note datetime: 22b, *note date: 749. and *note time:
     6df. pickled by Python 2.

     If 'buffers' is ‘None’ (the default), then all data necessary for
     deserialization must be contained in the pickle stream.  This means
     that the 'buffer_callback' argument was ‘None’ when a *note
     Pickler: 880. was instantiated (or when *note dump(): 2664. or
     *note dumps(): 132d. was called).

     If 'buffers' is not ‘None’, it should be an iterable of
     buffer-enabled objects that is consumed each time the pickle stream
     references an *note out-of-band: 2669. buffer view.  Such buffers
     have been given in order to the 'buffer_callback' of a Pickler
     object.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'buffers' argument was added.

      -- Yöntemi: load ()

          Read the pickled representation of an object from the open
          file object given in the constructor, and return the
          reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein.  Bytes past
          the pickled representation of the object are ignored.

      -- Yöntemi: persistent_load (pid)

          Raise an *note UnpicklingError: 2668. by default.

          If defined, *note persistent_load(): 266a. should return the
          object specified by the persistent ID 'pid'.  If an invalid
          persistent ID is encountered, an *note UnpicklingError: 2668.
          should be raised.

          See *note Persistence of External Objects: 266b. for details
          and examples of uses.

      -- Yöntemi: find_class (module, name)

          Import 'module' if necessary and return the object called
          'name' from it, where the 'module' and 'name' arguments are
          *note str: 15d. objects.  Note, unlike its name suggests,
          *note find_class(): 2672. is also used for finding functions.

          Subclasses may override this to gain control over what type of
          objects and how they can be loaded, potentially reducing
          security risks.  Refer to *note Restricting Globals: 2673. for
          details.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘pickle.find_class’ with
          arguments ‘module’, ‘name’.

 -- Sınıfı: pickle.PickleBuffer (buffer)

     A wrapper for a buffer representing picklable data.  'buffer' must
     be a *note buffer-providing: 14e. object, such as a *note
     bytes-like object: bb5. or a N-dimensional array.

     *note PickleBuffer: 161c. is itself a buffer provider, therefore it
     is possible to pass it to other APIs expecting a buffer-providing
     object, such as *note memoryview: 185.

     *note PickleBuffer: 161c. objects can only be serialized using
     pickle protocol 5 or higher.  They are eligible for *note
     out-of-band serialization: 2669.

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: raw ()

          Return a *note memoryview: 185. of the memory area underlying
          this buffer.  The returned object is a one-dimensional,
          C-contiguous memoryview with format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes).
          *note BufferError: 164a. is raised if the buffer is neither C-
          nor Fortran-contiguous.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release the underlying buffer exposed by the PickleBuffer
          object.


File: python.info,  Node: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Next: Pickling Class Instances,  Prev: Module Interface,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.6 What can be pickled and unpickled?
...........................................

The following types can be pickled:

   * built-in constants (‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’, ‘Ellipsis’, and *note
     NotImplemented: 60b.);

   * integers, floating-point numbers, complex numbers;

   * strings, bytes, bytearrays;

   * tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable
     objects;

   * functions (built-in and user-defined) accessible from the top level
     of a module (using *note def: 12e2, not *note lambda: 1145.);

   * classes accessible from the top level of a module;

   * instances of such classes whose the result of calling *note
     __getstate__(): 3e3. is picklable (see section *note Pickling Class
     Instances: 265f. for details).

Attempts to pickle unpicklable objects will raise the *note
PicklingError: 2666. exception; when this happens, an unspecified number
of bytes may have already been written to the underlying file.  Trying
to pickle a highly recursive data structure may exceed the maximum
recursion depth, a *note RecursionError: bf7. will be raised in this
case.  You can carefully raise this limit with *note
sys.setrecursionlimit(): 1f1.

Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by fully
*note qualified name: 176c, not by value.  (1)  This means that only the
function name is pickled, along with the name of the containing module
and classes.  Neither the function’s code, nor any of its function
attributes are pickled.  Thus the defining module must be importable in
the unpickling environment, and the module must contain the named
object, otherwise an exception will be raised.  (2)

Similarly, classes are pickled by fully qualified name, so the same
restrictions in the unpickling environment apply.  Note that none of the
class’s code or data is pickled, so in the following example the class
attribute ‘attr’ is not restored in the unpickling environment:

     class Foo:
         attr = 'A class attribute'

     picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo)

These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be
defined at the top level of a module.

Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class’s code and data
are not pickled along with them.  Only the instance data are pickled.
This is done on purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods
to the class and still load objects that were created with an earlier
version of the class.  If you plan to have long-lived objects that will
see many versions of a class, it may be worthwhile to put a version
number in the objects so that suitable conversions can be made by the
class’s *note __setstate__(): 132f. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is why *note lambda: 1145. functions cannot be pickled: all
‘lambda’ functions share the same name: ‘<lambda>’.

   (2) The exception raised will likely be an *note ImportError: 14b. or
an *note AttributeError: 3dc. but it could be something else.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickling Class Instances,  Next: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Prev: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.7 Pickling Class Instances
.................................

In this section, we describe the general mechanisms available to you to
define, customize, and control how class instances are pickled and
unpickled.

In most cases, no additional code is needed to make instances picklable.
By default, pickle will retrieve the class and the attributes of an
instance via introspection.  When a class instance is unpickled, its
*note __init__(): 4c6. method is usually 'not' invoked.  The default
behaviour first creates an uninitialized instance and then restores the
saved attributes.  The following code shows an implementation of this
behaviour:

     def save(obj):
         return (obj.__class__, obj.__dict__)

     def restore(cls, attributes):
         obj = cls.__new__(cls)
         obj.__dict__.update(attributes)
         return obj

Classes can alter the default behaviour by providing one or several
special methods:

 -- Yöntemi: object.__getnewargs_ex__ ()

     In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implements the *note
     __getnewargs_ex__(): 2678. method can dictate the values passed to
     the *note __new__(): 319. method upon unpickling.  The method must
     return a pair ‘(args, kwargs)’ where 'args' is a tuple of
     positional arguments and 'kwargs' a dictionary of named arguments
     for constructing the object.  Those will be passed to the *note
     __new__(): 319. method upon unpickling.

     You should implement this method if the *note __new__(): 319.
     method of your class requires keyword-only arguments.  Otherwise,
     it is recommended for compatibility to implement *note
     __getnewargs__(): 1330.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2678. is now used
     in protocols 2 and 3.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__getnewargs__ ()

     This method serves a similar purpose as *note __getnewargs_ex__():
     2678, but supports only positional arguments.  It must return a
     tuple of arguments ‘args’ which will be passed to the *note
     __new__(): 319. method upon unpickling.

     *note __getnewargs__(): 1330. will not be called if *note
     __getnewargs_ex__(): 2678. is defined.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Before Python 3.6, *note __getnewargs__():
     1330. was called instead of *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2678. in
     protocols 2 and 3.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__getstate__ ()

     Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled by
     overriding the method *note __getstate__(): 3e3.  It is called and
     the returned object is pickled as the contents for the instance,
     instead of a default state.  There are several cases:

        * For a class that has no instance *note __dict__: 2ec. and no
          *note __slots__: 1377, the default state is ‘None’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 2ec. and no
          *note __slots__: 1377, the default state is ‘self.__dict__’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 2ec. and
          *note __slots__: 1377, the default state is a tuple consisting
          of two dictionaries: ‘self.__dict__’, and a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values.  Only slots that have a value are
          included in the latter.

        * For a class that has *note __slots__: 1377. and no instance
          *note __dict__: 2ec, the default state is a tuple whose first
          item is ‘None’ and whose second item is a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values described in the previous bullet.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the default implementation of the
     ‘__getstate__()’ method in the *note object: 8f2. class.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__setstate__ (state)

     Upon unpickling, if the class defines *note __setstate__(): 132f,
     it is called with the unpickled state.  In that case, there is no
     requirement for the state object to be a dictionary.  Otherwise,
     the pickled state must be a dictionary and its items are assigned
     to the new instance’s dictionary.

          Not: If *note __reduce__(): 831. returns a state with value
          ‘None’ at pickling, the *note __setstate__(): 132f. method
          will not be called upon unpickling.

Refer to the section *note Handling Stateful Objects: 2679. for more
information about how to use the methods *note __getstate__(): 3e3. and
*note __setstate__(): 132f.

     Not: At unpickling time, some methods like *note __getattr__():
     201, *note __getattribute__(): a49, or *note __setattr__(): 1d1b.
     may be called upon the instance.  In case those methods rely on
     some internal invariant being true, the type should implement *note
     __new__(): 319. to establish such an invariant, as *note
     __init__(): 4c6. is not called when unpickling an instance.

As we shall see, pickle does not use directly the methods described
above.  In fact, these methods are part of the copy protocol which
implements the *note __reduce__(): 831. special method.  The copy
protocol provides a unified interface for retrieving the data necessary
for pickling and copying objects.  (1)

Although powerful, implementing *note __reduce__(): 831. directly in
your classes is error prone.  For this reason, class designers should
use the high-level interface (i.e., *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2678,
*note __getstate__(): 3e3. and *note __setstate__(): 132f.) whenever
possible.  We will show, however, cases where using ‘__reduce__()’ is
the only option or leads to more efficient pickling or both.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__reduce__ ()

     The interface is currently defined as follows.  The *note
     __reduce__(): 831. method takes no argument and shall return either
     a string or preferably a tuple (the returned object is often
     referred to as the “reduce value”).

     If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the
     name of a global variable.  It should be the object’s local name
     relative to its module; the pickle module searches the module
     namespace to determine the object’s module.  This behaviour is
     typically useful for singletons.

     When a tuple is returned, it must be between two and six items
     long.  Optional items can either be omitted, or ‘None’ can be
     provided as their value.  The semantics of each item are in order:

        * A callable object that will be called to create the initial
          version of the object.

        * A tuple of arguments for the callable object.  An empty tuple
          must be given if the callable does not accept any argument.

        * Optionally, the object’s state, which will be passed to the
          object’s *note __setstate__(): 132f. method as previously
          described.  If the object has no such method then, the value
          must be a dictionary and it will be added to the object’s
          *note __dict__: 2ec. attribute.

        * Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding
          successive items.  These items will be appended to the object
          either using ‘obj.append(item)’ or, in batch, using
          ‘obj.extend(list_of_items)’.  This is primarily used for list
          subclasses, but may be used by other classes as long as they
          have *note append and extend methods: 1f9a. with the
          appropriate signature.  (Whether ‘append()’ or ‘extend()’ is
          used depends on which pickle protocol version is used as well
          as the number of items to append, so both must be supported.)

        * Optionally, an iterator (not a sequence) yielding successive
          key-value pairs.  These items will be stored to the object
          using ‘obj[key] = value’.  This is primarily used for
          dictionary subclasses, but may be used by other classes as
          long as they implement *note __setitem__(): 1174.

        * Optionally, a callable with a ‘(obj, state)’ signature.  This
          callable allows the user to programmatically control the
          state-updating behavior of a specific object, instead of using
          ‘obj’’s static *note __setstate__(): 132f. method.  If not
          ‘None’, this callable will have priority over ‘obj’’s *note
          __setstate__(): 132f.

          Added in version 3.8: The optional sixth tuple item, ‘(obj,
          state)’, was added.

 -- Yöntemi: object.__reduce_ex__ (protocol)

     Alternatively, a *note __reduce_ex__(): 267a. method may be
     defined.  The only difference is this method should take a single
     integer argument, the protocol version.  When defined, pickle will
     prefer it over the *note __reduce__(): 831. method.  In addition,
     *note __reduce__(): 831. automatically becomes a synonym for the
     extended version.  The main use for this method is to provide
     backwards-compatible reduce values for older Python releases.

* Menu:

* Persistence of External Objects::
* Dispatch Tables::
* Handling Stateful Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The *note copy: 25. module uses this protocol for shallow and
deep copying operations.


File: python.info,  Node: Persistence of External Objects,  Next: Dispatch Tables,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.12.1.8 Persistence of External Objects
........................................

For the benefit of object persistence, the *note pickle: a5. module
supports the notion of a reference to an object outside the pickled data
stream.  Such objects are referenced by a persistent ID, which should be
either a string of alphanumeric characters (for protocol 0) (1) or just
an arbitrary object (for any newer protocol).

The resolution of such persistent IDs is not defined by the *note
pickle: a5. module; it will delegate this resolution to the user-defined
methods on the pickler and unpickler, *note persistent_id(): 1428. and
*note persistent_load(): 266a. respectively.

To pickle objects that have an external persistent ID, the pickler must
have a custom *note persistent_id(): 1428. method that takes an object
as an argument and returns either ‘None’ or the persistent ID for that
object.  When ‘None’ is returned, the pickler simply pickles the object
as normal.  When a persistent ID string is returned, the pickler will
pickle that object, along with a marker so that the unpickler will
recognize it as a persistent ID.

To unpickle external objects, the unpickler must have a custom *note
persistent_load(): 266a. method that takes a persistent ID object and
returns the referenced object.

Here is a comprehensive example presenting how persistent ID can be used
to pickle external objects by reference.

     # Simple example presenting how persistent ID can be used to pickle
     # external objects by reference.

     import pickle
     import sqlite3
     from collections import namedtuple

     # Simple class representing a record in our database.
     MemoRecord = namedtuple("MemoRecord", "key, task")

     class DBPickler(pickle.Pickler):

         def persistent_id(self, obj):
             # Instead of pickling MemoRecord as a regular class instance, we emit a
             # persistent ID.
             if isinstance(obj, MemoRecord):
                 # Here, our persistent ID is simply a tuple, containing a tag and a
                 # key, which refers to a specific record in the database.
                 return ("MemoRecord", obj.key)
             else:
                 # If obj does not have a persistent ID, return None. This means obj
                 # needs to be pickled as usual.
                 return None


     class DBUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def __init__(self, file, connection):
             super().__init__(file)
             self.connection = connection

         def persistent_load(self, pid):
             # This method is invoked whenever a persistent ID is encountered.
             # Here, pid is the tuple returned by DBPickler.
             cursor = self.connection.cursor()
             type_tag, key_id = pid
             if type_tag == "MemoRecord":
                 # Fetch the referenced record from the database and return it.
                 cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos WHERE key=?", (str(key_id),))
                 key, task = cursor.fetchone()
                 return MemoRecord(key, task)
             else:
                 # Always raises an error if you cannot return the correct object.
                 # Otherwise, the unpickler will think None is the object referenced
                 # by the persistent ID.
                 raise pickle.UnpicklingError("unsupported persistent object")


     def main():
         import io
         import pprint

         # Initialize and populate our database.
         conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
         cursor = conn.cursor()
         cursor.execute("CREATE TABLE memos(key INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, task TEXT)")
         tasks = (
             'give food to fish',
             'prepare group meeting',
             'fight with a zebra',
             )
         for task in tasks:
             cursor.execute("INSERT INTO memos VALUES(NULL, ?)", (task,))

         # Fetch the records to be pickled.
         cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos")
         memos = [MemoRecord(key, task) for key, task in cursor]
         # Save the records using our custom DBPickler.
         file = io.BytesIO()
         DBPickler(file).dump(memos)

         print("Pickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)

         # Update a record, just for good measure.
         cursor.execute("UPDATE memos SET task='learn italian' WHERE key=1")

         # Load the records from the pickle data stream.
         file.seek(0)
         memos = DBUnpickler(file, conn).load()

         print("Unpickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The limitation on alphanumeric characters is due to the fact that
persistent IDs in protocol 0 are delimited by the newline character.
Therefore if any kind of newline characters occurs in persistent IDs,
the resulting pickled data will become unreadable.


File: python.info,  Node: Dispatch Tables,  Next: Handling Stateful Objects,  Prev: Persistence of External Objects,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.12.1.9 Dispatch Tables
........................

If one wants to customize pickling of some classes without disturbing
any other code which depends on pickling, then one can create a pickler
with a private dispatch table.

The global dispatch table managed by the *note copyreg: 26. module is
available as ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’.  Therefore, one may choose to use
a modified copy of ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’ as a private dispatch table.

For example

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)
     p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
     p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass

creates an instance of *note pickle.Pickler: 880. with a private
dispatch table which handles the ‘SomeClass’ class specially.
Alternatively, the code

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
         dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)

does the same but all instances of ‘MyPickler’ will by default share the
private dispatch table.  On the other hand, the code

     copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass)
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)

modifies the global dispatch table shared by all users of the *note
copyreg: 26. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Stateful Objects,  Prev: Dispatch Tables,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.12.1.10 Handling Stateful Objects
...................................

Here’s an example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a
class.  The ‘TextReader’ class below opens a text file, and returns the
line number and line contents each time its ‘readline()’ method is
called.  If a ‘TextReader’ instance is pickled, all attributes 'except'
the file object member are saved.  When the instance is unpickled, the
file is reopened, and reading resumes from the last location.  The
‘__setstate__()’ and ‘__getstate__()’ methods are used to implement this
behavior.

     class TextReader:
         """Print and number lines in a text file."""

         def __init__(self, filename):
             self.filename = filename
             self.file = open(filename)
             self.lineno = 0

         def readline(self):
             self.lineno += 1
             line = self.file.readline()
             if not line:
                 return None
             if line.endswith('\n'):
                 line = line[:-1]
             return "%i: %s" % (self.lineno, line)

         def __getstate__(self):
             # Copy the object's state from self.__dict__ which contains
             # all our instance attributes. Always use the dict.copy()
             # method to avoid modifying the original state.
             state = self.__dict__.copy()
             # Remove the unpicklable entries.
             del state['file']
             return state

         def __setstate__(self, state):
             # Restore instance attributes (i.e., filename and lineno).
             self.__dict__.update(state)
             # Restore the previously opened file's state. To do so, we need to
             # reopen it and read from it until the line count is restored.
             file = open(self.filename)
             for _ in range(self.lineno):
                 file.readline()
             # Finally, save the file.
             self.file = file

A sample usage might be something like this:

     >>> reader = TextReader("hello.txt")
     >>> reader.readline()
     '1: Hello world!'
     >>> reader.readline()
     '2: I am line number two.'
     >>> new_reader = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(reader))
     >>> new_reader.readline()
     '3: Goodbye!'


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Next: Out-of-band Buffers,  Prev: Pickling Class Instances,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.11 Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects
..................................................................

Added in version 3.8.

Sometimes, *note dispatch_table: fc4. may not be flexible enough.  In
particular we may want to customize pickling based on another criterion
than the object’s type, or we may want to customize the pickling of
functions and classes.

For those cases, it is possible to subclass from the *note Pickler: 880.
class and implement a *note reducer_override(): 881. method.  This
method can return an arbitrary reduction tuple (see *note __reduce__():
831.).  It can alternatively return *note NotImplemented: 60b. to
fallback to the traditional behavior.

If both the *note dispatch_table: fc4. and *note reducer_override():
881. are defined, then *note reducer_override(): 881. method takes
priority.

     Not: For performance reasons, *note reducer_override(): 881. may
     not be called for the following objects: ‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’,
     and exact instances of *note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note
     bytes: 2cb, *note str: 15d, *note dict: 240, *note set: 3e4, *note
     frozenset: 3e5, *note list: 422. and *note tuple: 4ff.

Here is a simple example where we allow pickling and reconstructing a
given class:

     import io
     import pickle

     class MyClass:
         my_attribute = 1

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         def reducer_override(self, obj):
             """Custom reducer for MyClass."""
             if getattr(obj, "__name__", None) == "MyClass":
                 return type, (obj.__name__, obj.__bases__,
                               {'my_attribute': obj.my_attribute})
             else:
                 # For any other object, fallback to usual reduction
                 return NotImplemented

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)
     p.dump(MyClass)

     del MyClass

     unpickled_class = pickle.loads(f.getvalue())

     assert isinstance(unpickled_class, type)
     assert unpickled_class.__name__ == "MyClass"
     assert unpickled_class.my_attribute == 1


File: python.info,  Node: Out-of-band Buffers,  Next: Restricting Globals,  Prev: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.12 Out-of-band Buffers
.............................

Added in version 3.8.

In some contexts, the *note pickle: a5. module is used to transfer
massive amounts of data.  Therefore, it can be important to minimize the
number of memory copies, to preserve performance and resource
consumption.  However, normal operation of the *note pickle: a5. module,
as it transforms a graph-like structure of objects into a sequential
stream of bytes, intrinsically involves copying data to and from the
pickle stream.

This constraint can be eschewed if both the 'provider' (the
implementation of the object types to be transferred) and the 'consumer'
(the implementation of the communications system) support the
out-of-band transfer facilities provided by pickle protocol 5 and
higher.

* Menu:

* Provider API::
* Consumer API::
* Example: Example<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Provider API,  Next: Consumer API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.12.1.13 Provider API
......................

The large data objects to be pickled must implement a *note
__reduce_ex__(): 267a. method specialized for protocol 5 and higher,
which returns a *note PickleBuffer: 161c. instance (instead of e.g.  a
*note bytes: 2cb. object) for any large data.

A *note PickleBuffer: 161c. object 'signals' that the underlying buffer
is eligible for out-of-band data transfer.  Those objects remain
compatible with normal usage of the *note pickle: a5. module.  However,
consumers can also opt-in to tell *note pickle: a5. that they will
handle those buffers by themselves.


File: python.info,  Node: Consumer API,  Next: Example<4>,  Prev: Provider API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.12.1.14 Consumer API
......................

A communications system can enable custom handling of the *note
PickleBuffer: 161c. objects generated when serializing an object graph.

On the sending side, it needs to pass a 'buffer_callback' argument to
*note Pickler: 880. (or to the *note dump(): 2664. or *note dumps():
132d. function), which will be called with each *note PickleBuffer:
161c. generated while pickling the object graph.  Buffers accumulated by
the 'buffer_callback' will not see their data copied into the pickle
stream, only a cheap marker will be inserted.

On the receiving side, it needs to pass a 'buffers' argument to *note
Unpickler: 14d2. (or to the *note load(): b95. or *note loads(): b96.
function), which is an iterable of the buffers which were passed to
'buffer_callback'.  That iterable should produce buffers in the same
order as they were passed to 'buffer_callback'.  Those buffers will
provide the data expected by the reconstructors of the objects whose
pickling produced the original *note PickleBuffer: 161c. objects.

Between the sending side and the receiving side, the communications
system is free to implement its own transfer mechanism for out-of-band
buffers.  Potential optimizations include the use of shared memory or
datatype-dependent compression.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<4>,  Prev: Consumer API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.12.1.15 Example
.................

Here is a trivial example where we implement a *note bytearray: 2ca.
subclass able to participate in out-of-band buffer pickling:

     class ZeroCopyByteArray(bytearray):

         def __reduce_ex__(self, protocol):
             if protocol >= 5:
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (PickleBuffer(self),), None
             else:
                 # PickleBuffer is forbidden with pickle protocols <= 4.
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (bytearray(self),)

         @classmethod
         def _reconstruct(cls, obj):
             with memoryview(obj) as m:
                 # Get a handle over the original buffer object
                 obj = m.obj
                 if type(obj) is cls:
                     # Original buffer object is a ZeroCopyByteArray, return it
                     # as-is.
                     return obj
                 else:
                     return cls(obj)

The reconstructor (the ‘_reconstruct’ class method) returns the buffer’s
providing object if it has the right type.  This is an easy way to
simulate zero-copy behaviour on this toy example.

On the consumer side, we can pickle those objects the usual way, which
when unserialized will give us a copy of the original object:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # False: a copy was made

But if we pass a 'buffer_callback' and then give back the accumulated
buffers when unserializing, we are able to get back the original object:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     buffers = []
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5, buffer_callback=buffers.append)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data, buffers=buffers)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # True: no copy was made

This example is limited by the fact that *note bytearray: 2ca. allocates
its own memory: you cannot create a *note bytearray: 2ca. instance that
is backed by another object’s memory.  However, third-party datatypes
such as NumPy arrays do not have this limitation, and allow use of
zero-copy pickling (or making as few copies as possible) when
transferring between distinct processes or systems.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 574(1) – Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: Restricting Globals,  Next: Performance<2>,  Prev: Out-of-band Buffers,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.16 Restricting Globals
.............................

By default, unpickling will import any class or function that it finds
in the pickle data.  For many applications, this behaviour is
unacceptable as it permits the unpickler to import and invoke arbitrary
code.  Just consider what this hand-crafted pickle data stream does when
loaded:

     >>> import pickle
     >>> pickle.loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     hello world
     0

In this example, the unpickler imports the *note os.system(): 12e5.
function and then apply the string argument “echo hello world”.
Although this example is inoffensive, it is not difficult to imagine one
that could damage your system.

For this reason, you may want to control what gets unpickled by
customizing *note Unpickler.find_class(): 2672.  Unlike its name
suggests, *note Unpickler.find_class(): 2672. is called whenever a
global (i.e., a class or a function) is requested.  Thus it is possible
to either completely forbid globals or restrict them to a safe subset.

Here is an example of an unpickler allowing only few safe classes from
the *note builtins: 12. module to be loaded:

     import builtins
     import io
     import pickle

     safe_builtins = {
         'range',
         'complex',
         'set',
         'frozenset',
         'slice',
     }

     class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def find_class(self, module, name):
             # Only allow safe classes from builtins.
             if module == "builtins" and name in safe_builtins:
                 return getattr(builtins, name)
             # Forbid everything else.
             raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
                                          (module, name))

     def restricted_loads(s):
         """Helper function analogous to pickle.loads()."""
         return RestrictedUnpickler(io.BytesIO(s)).load()

A sample usage of our unpickler working as intended:

     >>> restricted_loads(pickle.dumps([1, 2, range(15)]))
     [1, 2, range(0, 15)]
     >>> restricted_loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'os.system' is forbidden
     >>> restricted_loads(b'cbuiltins\neval\n'
     ...                  b'(S\'getattr(__import__("os"), "system")'
     ...                  b'("echo hello world")\'\ntR.')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'builtins.eval' is forbidden

As our examples shows, you have to be careful with what you allow to be
unpickled.  Therefore if security is a concern, you may want to consider
alternatives such as the marshalling API in *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. or
third-party solutions.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<2>,  Next: Examples<6>,  Prev: Restricting Globals,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.17 Performance
.....................

Recent versions of the pickle protocol (from protocol 2 and upwards)
feature efficient binary encodings for several common features and
built-in types.  Also, the *note pickle: a5. module has a transparent
optimizer written in C.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<6>,  Prev: Performance<2>,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.12.1.18 Examples
..................

For the simplest code, use the *note dump(): 2664. and *note load():
b95. functions.

     import pickle

     # An arbitrary collection of objects supported by pickle.
     data = {
         'a': [1, 2.0, 3+4j],
         'b': ("character string", b"byte string"),
         'c': {None, True, False}
     }

     with open('data.pickle', 'wb') as f:
         # Pickle the 'data' dictionary using the highest protocol available.
         pickle.dump(data, f, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)

The following example reads the resulting pickled data.

     import pickle

     with open('data.pickle', 'rb') as f:
         # The protocol version used is detected automatically, so we do not
         # have to specify it.
         data = pickle.load(f)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note copyreg: 26.

     Pickle interface constructor registration for extension types.

Module *note pickletools: a6.

     Tools for working with and analyzing pickled data.

Module *note shelve: c2.

     Indexed databases of objects; uses *note pickle: a5.

Module *note copy: 25.

     Shallow and deep object copying.

Module *note marshal: 8c.

     High-performance serialization of built-in types.


File: python.info,  Node: copyreg — Register pickle support functions,  Next: shelve — Python object persistence,  Prev: pickle — Python object serialization,  Up: Data Persistence

5.12.2 ‘copyreg’ — Register ‘pickle’ support functions
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/copyreg.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note copyreg: 26. module offers a way to define functions used
while pickling specific objects.  The *note pickle: a5. and *note copy:
25. modules use those functions when pickling/copying those objects.
The module provides configuration information about object constructors
which are not classes.  Such constructors may be factory functions or
class instances.

 -- Işlevi: copyreg.constructor (object)

     Declares 'object' to be a valid constructor.  If 'object' is not
     callable (and hence not valid as a constructor), raises *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

 -- Işlevi: copyreg.pickle (type, function, constructor_ob=None)

     Declares that 'function' should be used as a “reduction” function
     for objects of type 'type'.  'function' must return either a string
     or a tuple containing between two and six elements.  See the *note
     dispatch_table: fc4. for more details on the interface of
     'function'.

     The 'constructor_ob' parameter is a legacy feature and is now
     ignored, but if passed it must be a callable.

     Note that the *note dispatch_table: fc4. attribute of a pickler
     object or subclass of *note pickle.Pickler: 880. can also be used
     for declaring reduction functions.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/copyreg.py


File: python.info,  Node: Example<5>,  Up: copyreg — Register pickle support functions

5.12.2.1 Example
................

The example below would like to show how to register a pickle function
and how it will be used:

     >>> import copyreg, copy, pickle
     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, a):
     ...         self.a = a
     ...
     >>> def pickle_c(c):
     ...     print("pickling a C instance...")
     ...     return C, (c.a,)
     ...
     >>> copyreg.pickle(C, pickle_c)
     >>> c = C(1)
     >>> d = copy.copy(c)
     pickling a C instance...
     >>> p = pickle.dumps(c)
     pickling a C instance...


File: python.info,  Node: shelve — Python object persistence,  Next: marshal — Internal Python object serialization,  Prev: copyreg — Register pickle support functions,  Up: Data Persistence

5.12.3 ‘shelve’ — Python object persistence
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/shelve.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

A “shelf” is a persistent, dictionary-like object.  The difference with
“dbm” databases is that the values (not the keys!)  in a shelf can be
essentially arbitrary Python objects — anything that the *note pickle:
a5. module can handle.  This includes most class instances, recursive
data types, and objects containing lots of shared sub-objects.  The keys
are ordinary strings.

 -- Işlevi: shelve.open (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     Open a persistent dictionary.  The filename specified is the base
     filename for the underlying database.  As a side-effect, an
     extension may be added to the filename and more than one file may
     be created.  By default, the underlying database file is opened for
     reading and writing.  The optional 'flag' parameter has the same
     interpretation as the 'flag' parameter of *note dbm.open(): dc7.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     66c. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.

     Because of Python semantics, a shelf cannot know when a mutable
     persistent-dictionary entry is modified.  By default modified
     objects are written 'only' when assigned to the shelf (see *note
     Example: 268e.).  If the optional 'writeback' parameter is set to
     ‘True’, all entries accessed are also cached in memory, and written
     back on *note sync(): 268f. and *note close(): 2690.; this can make
     it handier to mutate mutable entries in the persistent dictionary,
     but, if many entries are accessed, it can consume vast amounts of
     memory for the cache, and it can make the close operation very slow
     since all accessed entries are written back (there is no way to
     determine which accessed entries are mutable, nor which ones were
     actually mutated).

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 66c. is now
     used as the default pickle protocol.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Accepts *note path-like object: 98e. for
     filename.

          Not: Do not rely on the shelf being closed automatically;
          always call *note close(): 2690. explicitly when you don’t
          need it any more, or use *note shelve.open(): 268d. as a
          context manager:

               with shelve.open('spam') as db:
                   db['eggs'] = 'eggs'
     Uyarı: Because the *note shelve: c2. module is backed by *note
     pickle: a5, it is insecure to load a shelf from an untrusted
     source.  Like with pickle, loading a shelf can execute arbitrary
     code.

Shelf objects support most of methods and operations supported by
dictionaries (except copying, constructors and operators ‘|’ and ‘|=’).
This eases the transition from dictionary based scripts to those
requiring persistent storage.

Two additional methods are supported:

 -- Yöntemi: Shelf.sync ()

     Write back all entries in the cache if the shelf was opened with
     'writeback' set to *note True: a86.  Also empty the cache and
     synchronize the persistent dictionary on disk, if feasible.  This
     is called automatically when the shelf is closed with *note
     close(): 2690.

 -- Yöntemi: Shelf.close ()

     Synchronize and close the persistent 'dict' object.  Operations on
     a closed shelf will fail with a *note ValueError: 189.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Persistent dictionary recipe(2) with widely supported storage formats
and having the speed of native dictionaries.

* Menu:

* Restrictions::
* Example: Example<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/shelve.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642-persistent-dict-with-multiple-standard-file-format/


File: python.info,  Node: Restrictions,  Next: Example<6>,  Up: shelve — Python object persistence

5.12.3.1 Restrictions
.....................

   * The choice of which database package will be used (such as *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. or *note dbm.gnu: 33.) depends on which interface is
     available.  Therefore it is not safe to open the database directly
     using *note dbm: 31.  The database is also (unfortunately) subject
     to the limitations of *note dbm: 31, if it is used — this means
     that (the pickled representation of) the objects stored in the
     database should be fairly small, and in rare cases key collisions
     may cause the database to refuse updates.

   * The *note shelve: c2. module does not support 'concurrent'
     read/write access to shelved objects.  (Multiple simultaneous read
     accesses are safe.)  When a program has a shelf open for writing,
     no other program should have it open for reading or writing.  Unix
     file locking can be used to solve this, but this differs across
     Unix versions and requires knowledge about the database
     implementation used.

   * On macOS *note dbm.ndbm: 34. can silently corrupt the database file
     on updates, which can cause hard crashes when trying to read from
     the database.

 -- Sınıfı: shelve.Shelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     A subclass of *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f51. which
     stores pickled values in the 'dict' object.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     66c. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.  See the
     *note pickle: a5. documentation for a discussion of the pickle
     protocols.

     If the 'writeback' parameter is ‘True’, the object will hold a
     cache of all entries accessed and write them back to the 'dict' at
     sync and close times.  This allows natural operations on mutable
     entries, but can consume much more memory and make sync and close
     take a long time.

     The 'keyencoding' parameter is the encoding used to encode keys
     before they are used with the underlying dict.

     A *note Shelf: e3b. object can also be used as a context manager,
     in which case it will be automatically closed when the *note with:
     3dd. block ends.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'keyencoding' parameter;
     previously, keys were always encoded in UTF-8.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added context manager support.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 66c. is now
     used as the default pickle protocol.

 -- Sınıfı: shelve.BsdDbShelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8')

     A subclass of *note Shelf: e3b. which exposes ‘first()’, ‘next()’,
     ‘previous()’, ‘last()’ and ‘set_location()’ methods.  These are
     available in the third-party ‘bsddb’ module from pybsddb(1) but not
     in other database modules.  The 'dict' object passed to the
     constructor must support those methods.  This is generally
     accomplished by calling one of ‘bsddb.hashopen()’, ‘bsddb.btopen()’
     or ‘bsddb.rnopen()’.  The optional 'protocol', 'writeback', and
     'keyencoding' parameters have the same interpretation as for the
     *note Shelf: e3b. class.

 -- Sınıfı: shelve.DbfilenameShelf (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False)

     A subclass of *note Shelf: e3b. which accepts a 'filename' instead
     of a dict-like object.  The underlying file will be opened using
     *note dbm.open(): dc7.  By default, the file will be created and
     opened for both read and write.  The optional 'flag' parameter has
     the same interpretation as for the *note open(): 268d. function.
     The optional 'protocol' and 'writeback' parameters have the same
     interpretation as for the *note Shelf: e3b. class.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Example<6>,  Prev: Restrictions,  Up: shelve — Python object persistence

5.12.3.2 Example
................

To summarize the interface (‘key’ is a string, ‘data’ is an arbitrary
object):

     import shelve

     d = shelve.open(filename)  # open -- file may get suffix added by low-level
                                # library

     d[key] = data              # store data at key (overwrites old data if
                                # using an existing key)
     data = d[key]              # retrieve a COPY of data at key (raise KeyError
                                # if no such key)
     del d[key]                 # delete data stored at key (raises KeyError
                                # if no such key)

     flag = key in d            # true if the key exists
     klist = list(d.keys())     # a list of all existing keys (slow!)

     # as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:
     d['xx'] = [0, 1, 2]        # this works as expected, but...
     d['xx'].append(3)          # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL [0, 1, 2]!

     # having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:
     temp = d['xx']             # extracts the copy
     temp.append(5)             # mutates the copy
     d['xx'] = temp             # stores the copy right back, to persist it

     # or, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True) would let you just code
     # d['xx'].append(5) and have it work as expected, BUT it would also
     # consume more memory and make the d.close() operation slower.

     d.close()                  # close it

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note dbm: 31.

     Generic interface to ‘dbm’-style databases.

Module *note pickle: a5.

     Object serialization used by *note shelve: c2.


File: python.info,  Node: marshal — Internal Python object serialization,  Next: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”,  Prev: shelve — Python object persistence,  Up: Data Persistence

5.12.4 ‘marshal’ — Internal Python object serialization
-------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains functions that can read and write Python values in
a binary format.  The format is specific to Python, but independent of
machine architecture issues (e.g., you can write a Python value to a
file on a PC, transport the file to a Mac, and read it back there).
Details of the format are undocumented on purpose; it may change between
Python versions (although it rarely does).  (1)

This is not a general “persistence” module.  For general persistence and
transfer of Python objects through RPC calls, see the modules *note
pickle: a5. and *note shelve: c2.  The *note marshal: 8c. module exists
mainly to support reading and writing the “pseudo-compiled” code for
Python modules of ‘.pyc’ files.  Therefore, the Python maintainers
reserve the right to modify the marshal format in backward incompatible
ways should the need arise.  If you’re serializing and de-serializing
Python objects, use the *note pickle: a5. module instead – the
performance is comparable, version independence is guaranteed, and
pickle supports a substantially wider range of objects than marshal.

     Uyarı: The *note marshal: 8c. module is not intended to be secure
     against erroneous or maliciously constructed data.  Never unmarshal
     data received from an untrusted or unauthenticated source.

Not all Python object types are supported; in general, only objects
whose value is independent from a particular invocation of Python can be
written and read by this module.  The following types are supported:
booleans, integers, floating-point numbers, complex numbers, strings,
bytes, bytearrays, tuples, lists, sets, frozensets, dictionaries, and
code objects, where it should be understood that tuples, lists, sets,
frozensets and dictionaries are only supported as long as the values
contained therein are themselves supported.  The singletons *note None:
488, *note Ellipsis: 1f76. and *note StopIteration: a73. can also be
marshalled and unmarshalled.  For format 'version' lower than 3,
recursive lists, sets and dictionaries cannot be written (see below).

There are functions that read/write files as well as functions operating
on bytes-like objects.

The module defines these functions:

 -- Işlevi: marshal.dump (value, file[, version])

     Write the value on the open file.  The value must be a supported
     type.  The file must be a writeable *note binary file: 1ad0.

     If the value has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported
     type, a *note ValueError: 189. exception is raised — but garbage
     data will also be written to the file.  The object will not be
     properly read back by *note load(): 184c.

     The 'version' argument indicates the data format that ‘dump’ should
     use (see below).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

 -- Işlevi: marshal.load (file)

     Read one value from the open file and return it.  If no valid value
     is read (e.g.  because the data has a different Python version’s
     incompatible marshal format), raise *note EOFError: 1183, *note
     ValueError: 189. or *note TypeError: 2c4.  The file must be a
     readable *note binary file: 1ad0.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘marshal.load’ with no
     arguments.

          Not: If an object containing an unsupported type was
          marshalled with *note dump(): 2696, *note load(): 184c. will
          substitute ‘None’ for the unmarshallable type.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This call used to raise a ‘code.__new__’
     audit event for each code object.  Now it raises a single
     ‘marshal.load’ event for the entire load operation.

 -- Işlevi: marshal.dumps (value[, version])

     Return the bytes object that would be written to a file by
     ‘dump(value, file)’.  The value must be a supported type.  Raise a
     *note ValueError: 189. exception if value has (or contains an
     object that has) an unsupported type.

     The 'version' argument indicates the data format that ‘dumps’
     should use (see below).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

 -- Işlevi: marshal.loads (bytes)

     Convert the *note bytes-like object: bb5. to a value.  If no valid
     value is found, raise *note EOFError: 1183, *note ValueError: 189.
     or *note TypeError: 2c4.  Extra bytes in the input are ignored.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘marshal.loads’ with argument
     ‘bytes’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This call used to raise a ‘code.__new__’
     audit event for each code object.  Now it raises a single
     ‘marshal.loads’ event for the entire load operation.

In addition, the following constants are defined:

 -- Verisi: marshal.version

     Indicates the format that the module uses.  Version 0 is the
     historical format, version 1 shares interned strings and version 2
     uses a binary format for floating-point numbers.  Version 3 adds
     support for object instancing and recursion.  The current version
     is 4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The name of this module stems from a bit of terminology used by
the designers of Modula-3 (amongst others), who use the term
“marshalling” for shipping of data around in a self-contained form.
Strictly speaking, “to marshal” means to convert some data from internal
to external form (in an RPC buffer for instance) and “unmarshalling” for
the reverse process.


File: python.info,  Node: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”,  Next: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: marshal — Internal Python object serialization,  Up: Data Persistence

5.12.5 ‘dbm’ — Interfaces to Unix “databases”
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note dbm: 31. is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database —
*note dbm.gnu: 33. or *note dbm.ndbm: 34.  If none of these modules is
installed, the slow-but-simple implementation in module *note dbm.dumb:
32. will be used.  There is a third party interface(2) to the Oracle
Berkeley DB.

 -- Özel Durum: dbm.error

     A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the
     supported modules, with a unique exception also named *note
     dbm.error: 269b. as the first item — the latter is used when *note
     dbm.error: 269b. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: dbm.whichdb (filename)

     This function attempts to guess which of the several simple
     database modules available — *note dbm.gnu: 33, *note dbm.ndbm: 34.
     or *note dbm.dumb: 32. — should be used to open a given file.

     Return one of the following values:

        * ‘None’ if the file can’t be opened because it’s unreadable or
          doesn’t exist

        * the empty string (‘''’) if the file’s format can’t be guessed

        * a string containing the required module name, such as
          ‘'dbm.ndbm'’ or ‘'dbm.gnu'’

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: dbm.open (file, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     Open a database and return the corresponding database object.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘file’ (*note path-like object: 98e.) – The database file to
          open.

          If the database file already exists, the *note whichdb():
          269c. function is used to determine its type and the
          appropriate module is used; if it does not exist, the first
          submodule listed above that can be imported is used.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 15d.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 184.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'file' accepts a *note path-like object:
     98e.

The object returned by *note open(): dc7. supports the same basic
functionality as a *note dict: 240.; keys and their corresponding values
can be stored, retrieved, and deleted, and the *note in: 26f. operator
and the ‘keys()’ method are available, as well as ‘get()’ and
‘setdefault()’ methods.

Key and values are always stored as *note bytes: 2cb.  This means that
when strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default
encoding before being stored.

These objects also support being used in a *note with: 3dd. statement,
which will automatically close them when done.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods are now
available for all *note dbm: 31. backends.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added native support for the context management
protocol to the objects returned by *note open(): dc7.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Deleting a key from a read-only database raises a
database module specific exception instead of *note KeyError: 903.

The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title,
and then prints out the contents of the database:

     import dbm

     # Open database, creating it if necessary.
     with dbm.open('cache', 'c') as db:

         # Record some values
         db[b'hello'] = b'there'
         db['www.python.org'] = 'Python Website'
         db['www.cnn.com'] = 'Cable News Network'

         # Note that the keys are considered bytes now.
         assert db[b'www.python.org'] == b'Python Website'
         # Notice how the value is now in bytes.
         assert db['www.cnn.com'] == b'Cable News Network'

         # Often-used methods of the dict interface work too.
         print(db.get('python.org', b'not present'))

         # Storing a non-string key or value will raise an exception (most
         # likely a TypeError).
         db['www.yahoo.com'] = 4

     # db is automatically closed when leaving the with statement.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note shelve: c2.

     Persistence module which stores non-string data.

The individual submodules are described in the following sections.

* Menu:

* dbm.gnu — GNU database manager: dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
* dbm.ndbm — New Database Manager: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
* dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: dbm gnu — GNU database manager,  Next: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager,  Up: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”

5.12.5.1 ‘dbm.gnu’ — GNU database manager
.........................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/gnu.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.gnu: 33. module provides an interface to the GDBM (GNU
dbm) library, similar to the *note dbm.ndbm: 34. module, but with
additional functionality like crash tolerance.

     Not: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 33. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

 -- Özel Durum: dbm.gnu.error

     Raised on *note dbm.gnu: 33.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 903. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- Işlevi: dbm.gnu.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open a GDBM database and return a ‘gdbm’ object.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 98e.) – The database file
          to open.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 15d.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

          The following additional characters may be appended to control
          how the database is opened:

             * ‘'f'’: Open the database in fast mode.  Writes to the
               database will not be synchronized.

             * ‘'s'’: Synchronized mode.  Changes to the database will
               be written immediately to the file.

             * ‘'u'’: Do not lock database.

          Not all flags are valid for all versions of GDBM. See the
          *note open_flags: 269e. member for a list of supported flag
          characters.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 184.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.


     Harekete geçirir: *note error: 905. – If an invalid 'flag' argument
     is passed.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 98e.

      -- Verisi: dbm.gnu.open_flags

          A string of characters the 'flag' parameter of *note open():
          187e. supports.

     ‘gdbm’ objects behave similar to *note mappings: 1061, but
     ‘items()’ and ‘values()’ methods are not supported.  The following
     methods are also provided:

      -- Yöntemi: gdbm.firstkey ()

          It’s possible to loop over every key in the database using
          this method and the *note nextkey(): 26a0. method.  The
          traversal is ordered by GDBM’s internal hash values, and won’t
          be sorted by the key values.  This method returns the starting
          key.

      -- Yöntemi: gdbm.nextkey (key)

          Returns the key that follows 'key' in the traversal.  The
          following code prints every key in the database ‘db’, without
          having to create a list in memory that contains them all:

               k = db.firstkey()
               while k is not None:
                   print(k)
                   k = db.nextkey(k)

      -- Yöntemi: gdbm.reorganize ()

          If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to
          shrink the space used by the GDBM file, this routine will
          reorganize the database.  ‘gdbm’ objects will not shorten the
          length of a database file except by using this reorganization;
          otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and reused as new
          (key, value) pairs are added.

      -- Yöntemi: gdbm.sync ()

          When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method
          forces any unwritten data to be written to the disk.

      -- Yöntemi: gdbm.close ()

          Close the GDBM database.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/gnu.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager,  Next: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation,  Prev: dbm gnu — GNU database manager,  Up: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”

5.12.5.2 ‘dbm.ndbm’ — New Database Manager
..........................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/ndbm.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.ndbm: 34. module provides an interface to the NDBM (New
Database Manager) library.  This module can be used with the “classic”
NDBM interface or the GDBM compatibility interface.

     Not: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 33. and *note
     dbm.ndbm: 34. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

     Uyarı: The NDBM library shipped as part of macOS has an
     undocumented limitation on the size of values, which can result in
     corrupted database files when storing values larger than this
     limit.  Reading such corrupted files can result in a hard crash
     (segmentation fault).

 -- Özel Durum: dbm.ndbm.error

     Raised on *note dbm.ndbm: 34.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 903. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- Verisi: dbm.ndbm.library

     Name of the NDBM implementation library used.

 -- Işlevi: dbm.ndbm.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open an NDBM database and return an ‘ndbm’ object.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 98e.) – The basename of
          the database file (without the ‘.dir’ or ‘.pag’ extensions).

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 15d.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 184.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     ‘ndbm’ objects behave similar to *note mappings: 1061, but
     ‘items()’ and ‘values()’ methods are not supported.  The following
     methods are also provided:

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Accepts *note path-like object: 98e. for
     filename.

      -- Yöntemi: ndbm.close ()

          Close the NDBM database.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/ndbm.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation,  Prev: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager,  Up: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”

5.12.5.3 ‘dbm.dumb’ — Portable DBM implementation
.................................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/dumb.py(1)

     Not: The *note dbm.dumb: 32. module is intended as a last resort
     fallback for the *note dbm: 31. module when a more robust module is
     not available.  The *note dbm.dumb: 32. module is not written for
     speed and is not nearly as heavily used as the other database
     modules.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dbm.dumb: 32. module provides a persistent *note dict:
240.-like interface which is written entirely in Python.  Unlike other
*note dbm: 31. backends, such as *note dbm.gnu: 33, no external library
is required.

The ‘dbm.dumb’ module defines the following:

 -- Özel Durum: dbm.dumb.error

     Raised on *note dbm.dumb: 32.-specific errors, such as I/O errors.
     *note KeyError: 903. is raised for general mapping errors like
     specifying an incorrect key.

 -- Işlevi: dbm.dumb.open (filename, flag='c', mode=0o666)

     Open a ‘dbm.dumb’ database.  The returned database object behaves
     similar to a *note mapping: 1061, in addition to providing *note
     sync(): 26a8. and *note close(): 26a9. methods.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘filename’ – The basename of the database file (without
          extensions).  A new database creates the following files:

             - ‘`filename'.dat’

             - ‘`filename'.dir’

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 15d.) –

             * ‘'r'’: Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’ (default): Open database for reading and writing,
               creating it if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 184.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

          Uyarı: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter when
          loading a database with a sufficiently large/complex entry due
          to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: *note open(): 8ff. always creates a new
     database when 'flag' is ‘'n'’.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: A database opened read-only if 'flag' is
     ‘'r'’.  A database is not created if it does not exist if 'flag' is
     ‘'r'’ or ‘'w'’.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 98e.

     In addition to the methods provided by the *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: f51. class, the following methods
     are provided:

      -- Yöntemi: dumbdbm.sync ()

          Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files.  This method
          is called by the *note shelve.Shelf.sync(): 268f. method.

      -- Yöntemi: dumbdbm.close ()

          Close the database.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dbm/dumb.py


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”,  Up: Data Persistence

5.12.6 ‘sqlite3’ — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/sqlite3/(1)

SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database
that doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the
database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language.  Some
applications can use SQLite for internal data storage.  It’s also
possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code
to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

The ‘sqlite3’ module was written by Gerhard Häring.  It provides an SQL
interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP
249(2), and requires SQLite 3.7.15 or newer.

This document includes four main sections:

   * *note Tutorial: 26ad. teaches how to use the ‘sqlite3’ module.

   * *note Reference: 26ae. describes the classes and functions this
     module defines.

   * *note How-to guides: 26af. details how to handle specific tasks.

   * *note Explanation: 26b0. provides in-depth background on
     transaction control.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
     available data types for the supported SQL dialect.

‘https://www.w3schools.com/sql/’

     Tutorial, reference and examples for learning SQL syntax.

PEP 249(3) - Database API Specification 2.0

     PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.

* Menu:

* Tutorial::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sqlite3/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial,  Next: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.1 Tutorial
.................

In this tutorial, you will create a database of Monty Python movies
using basic ‘sqlite3’ functionality.  It assumes a fundamental
understanding of database concepts, including cursors(1) and
transactions(2).

First, we need to create a new database and open a database connection
to allow ‘sqlite3’ to work with it.  Call *note sqlite3.connect(): 1e4.
to create a connection to the database ‘tutorial.db’ in the current
working directory, implicitly creating it if it does not exist:

     import sqlite3
     con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")

The returned *note Connection: 1e3. object ‘con’ represents the
connection to the on-disk database.

In order to execute SQL statements and fetch results from SQL queries,
we will need to use a database cursor.  Call *note con.cursor(): 26b2.
to create the *note Cursor: 26b3.:

     cur = con.cursor()

Now that we’ve got a database connection and a cursor, we can create a
database table ‘movie’ with columns for title, release year, and review
score.  For simplicity, we can just use column names in the table
declaration – thanks to the flexible typing(3) feature of SQLite,
specifying the data types is optional.  Execute the ‘CREATE TABLE’
statement by calling *note cur.execute(...): 23d.:

     cur.execute("CREATE TABLE movie(title, year, score)")

We can verify that the new table has been created by querying the
‘sqlite_master’ table built-in to SQLite, which should now contain an
entry for the ‘movie’ table definition (see The Schema Table(4) for
details).  Execute that query by calling *note cur.execute(...): 23d,
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchone(): 26b4. to
fetch the resulting row:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master")
     >>> res.fetchone()
     ('movie',)

We can see that the table has been created, as the query returns a *note
tuple: 4ff. containing the table’s name.  If we query ‘sqlite_master’
for a non-existent table ‘spam’, ‘res.fetchone()’ will return ‘None’:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE name='spam'")
     >>> res.fetchone() is None
     True

Now, add two rows of data supplied as SQL literals by executing an
‘INSERT’ statement, once again by calling *note cur.execute(...): 23d.:

     cur.execute("""
         INSERT INTO movie VALUES
             ('Monty Python and the Holy Grail', 1975, 8.2),
             ('And Now for Something Completely Different', 1971, 7.5)
     """)

The ‘INSERT’ statement implicitly opens a transaction, which needs to be
committed before changes are saved in the database (see *note
Transaction control: 26b5. for details).  Call *note con.commit(): 26b6.
on the connection object to commit the transaction:

     con.commit()

We can verify that the data was inserted correctly by executing a
‘SELECT’ query.  Use the now-familiar *note cur.execute(...): 23d. to
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchall(): 26b7. to
return all resulting rows:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT score FROM movie")
     >>> res.fetchall()
     [(8.2,), (7.5,)]

The result is a *note list: 422. of two ‘tuple’s, one per row, each
containing that row’s ‘score’ value.

Now, insert three more rows by calling *note cur.executemany(...): 258.:

     data = [
         ("Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl", 1982, 7.9),
         ("Monty Python's The Meaning of Life", 1983, 7.5),
         ("Monty Python's Life of Brian", 1979, 8.0),
     ]
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO movie VALUES(?, ?, ?)", data)
     con.commit()  # Remember to commit the transaction after executing INSERT.

Notice that ‘?’ placeholders are used to bind ‘data’ to the query.
Always use placeholders instead of *note string formatting: 1abc. to
bind Python values to SQL statements, to avoid SQL injection attacks(5)
(see *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries: 23e.
for more details).

We can verify that the new rows were inserted by executing a ‘SELECT’
query, this time iterating over the results of the query:

     >>> for row in cur.execute("SELECT year, title FROM movie ORDER BY year"):
     ...     print(row)
     (1971, 'And Now for Something Completely Different')
     (1975, 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail')
     (1979, "Monty Python's Life of Brian")
     (1982, 'Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl')
     (1983, "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")

Each row is a two-item *note tuple: 4ff. of ‘(year, title)’, matching
the columns selected in the query.

Finally, verify that the database has been written to disk by calling
*note con.close(): 14f0. to close the existing connection, opening a new
one, creating a new cursor, then querying the database:

     >>> con.close()
     >>> new_con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")
     >>> new_cur = new_con.cursor()
     >>> res = new_cur.execute("SELECT title, year FROM movie ORDER BY score DESC")
     >>> title, year = res.fetchone()
     >>> print(f'The highest scoring Monty Python movie is {title!r}, released in {year}')
     The highest scoring Monty Python movie is 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail', released in 1975
     >>> new_con.close()

You’ve now created an SQLite database using the ‘sqlite3’ module,
inserted data and retrieved values from it in multiple ways.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * *note How-to guides: 26af. for further reading:

        * *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries:
          23e.

        * *note How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values: 26b8.

        * *note How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types:
          26b9.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 1605.

        * *note How to create and use row factories: 26ba.

   * *note Explanation: 26b0. for in-depth background on transaction
     control.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/schematab.html

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Reference,  Next: How-to guides,  Prev: Tutorial,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.2 Reference
..................

* Menu:

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<5>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface::


File: python.info,  Node: Module functions,  Next: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.3 Module functions
.........................

 -- Işlevi: sqlite3.connect (database, timeout=5.0, detect_types=0,
          isolation_level='DEFERRED', check_same_thread=True,
          factory=sqlite3.Connection, cached_statements=128, uri=False,
          *, autocommit=sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL)

     Open a connection to an SQLite database.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘database’ (*note path-like object: 98e.) – The path to the
          database file to be opened.  You can pass ‘":memory:"’ to
          create an SQLite database existing only in memory(1), and open
          a connection to it.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 272.) – How many seconds the
          connection should wait before raising an *note
          OperationalError: 16c5. when a table is locked.  If another
          connection opens a transaction to modify a table, that table
          will be locked until the transaction is committed.  Default
          five seconds.

        * ‘detect_types’ (*note int: 184.) – Control whether and how
          data types not *note natively supported by SQLite: 26bf. are
          looked up to be converted to Python types, using the
          converters registered with *note register_converter(): 26c0.
          Set it to any combination (using ‘|’, bitwise or) of *note
          PARSE_DECLTYPES: 26c1. and *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 26c2. to
          enable this.  Column names takes precedence over declared
          types if both flags are set.  By default (‘0’), type detection
          is disabled.

        * ‘isolation_level’ (*note str: 15d.‘ | ’‘None’) – Control
          legacy transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.isolation_level: 26c3. and *note Transaction
          control via the isolation_level attribute: 26c4. for more
          information.  Can be ‘"DEFERRED"’ (default), ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’ or
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’; or ‘None’ to disable opening transactions
          implicitly.  Has no effect unless *note Connection.autocommit:
          1e2. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5. (the
          default).

        * ‘check_same_thread’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’ (default),
          *note ProgrammingError: 241. will be raised if the database
          connection is used by a thread other than the one that created
          it.  If ‘False’, the connection may be accessed in multiple
          threads; write operations may need to be serialized by the
          user to avoid data corruption.  See *note threadsafety: 490.
          for more information.

        * ‘factory’ (*note Connection: 1e3.) – A custom subclass of
          *note Connection: 1e3. to create the connection with, if not
          the default *note Connection: 1e3. class.

        * ‘cached_statements’ (*note int: 184.) – The number of
          statements that ‘sqlite3’ should internally cache for this
          connection, to avoid parsing overhead.  By default, 128
          statements.

        * ‘uri’ (*note bool: 183.) – If set to ‘True’, 'database' is
          interpreted as a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) with a file
          path and an optional query string.  The scheme part 'must' be
          ‘"file:"’, and the path can be relative or absolute.  The
          query string allows passing parameters to SQLite, enabling
          various *note How to work with SQLite URIs: 26c6.

        * ‘autocommit’ (*note bool: 183.) – Control PEP 249(2)
          transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.autocommit: 1e2. and *note Transaction control via
          the autocommit attribute: 1e5. for more information.
          'autocommit' currently defaults to *note
          LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5.  The default will change to
          ‘False’ in a future Python release.


     Dönüş türü: *note Connection: 1e3.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sqlite3.connect’ with
     argument ‘database’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ with
     argument ‘connection_handle’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'uri' parameter.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: 'database' can now also be a *note path-like
     object: 98e, not only a string.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ auditing
     event.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'autocommit' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: sqlite3.complete_statement (statement)

     Return ‘True’ if the string 'statement' appears to contain one or
     more complete SQL statements.  No syntactic verification or parsing
     of any kind is performed, other than checking that there are no
     unclosed string literals and the statement is terminated by a
     semicolon.

     For example:

          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo FROM bar;")
          True
          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo")
          False

     This function may be useful during command-line input to determine
     if the entered text seems to form a complete SQL statement, or if
     additional input is needed before calling *note execute(): 23d.

     See ‘runsource()’ in Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py(3) for real-world use.

 -- Işlevi: sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks (flag, /)

     Enable or disable callback tracebacks.  By default you will not get
     any tracebacks in user-defined functions, aggregates, converters,
     authorizer callbacks etc.  If you want to debug them, you can call
     this function with 'flag' set to ‘True’.  Afterwards, you will get
     tracebacks from callbacks on *note sys.stderr: 792.  Use ‘False’ to
     disable the feature again.

          Not: Errors in user-defined function callbacks are logged as
          unraisable exceptions.  Use an *note unraisable hook handler:
          491. for introspection of the failed callback.

 -- Işlevi: sqlite3.register_adapter (type, adapter, /)

     Register an 'adapter' *note callable: 26ca. to adapt the Python
     type 'type' into an SQLite type.  The adapter is called with a
     Python object of type 'type' as its sole argument, and must return
     a value of a *note type that SQLite natively understands: 26bf.

 -- Işlevi: sqlite3.register_converter (typename, converter, /)

     Register the 'converter' *note callable: 26ca. to convert SQLite
     objects of type 'typename' into a Python object of a specific type.
     The converter is invoked for all SQLite values of type 'typename';
     it is passed a *note bytes: 2cb. object and should return an object
     of the desired Python type.  Consult the parameter 'detect_types'
     of *note connect(): 1e4. for information regarding how type
     detection works.

     Note: 'typename' and the name of the type in your query are matched
     case-insensitively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/inmemorydb.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module constants,  Next: Connection objects,  Prev: Module functions,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.4 Module constants
.........................

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL

     Set *note autocommit: 1e2. to this constant to select old style
     (pre-Python 3.12) transaction control behaviour.  See *note
     Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 26c4. for
     more information.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 1e4. to look up a converter function using the declared
     types for each column.  The types are declared when the database
     table is created.  ‘sqlite3’ will look up a converter function
     using the first word of the declared type as the converter
     dictionary key.  For example:

          CREATE TABLE test(
             i integer primary key,  ! will look up a converter named "integer"
             p point,                ! will look up a converter named "point"
             n number(10)            ! will look up a converter named "number"
           )

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 26c2. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

          Not: Generated fields (for example ‘MAX(p)’) are returned as
          *note str: 15d.  Use ‘PARSE_COLNAMES’ to enforce types for
          such queries.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 1e4. to look up a converter function by using the type
     name, parsed from the query column name, as the converter
     dictionary key.  The query column name must be wrapped in double
     quotes (‘"’) and the type name must be wrapped in square brackets
     (‘[]’).

          SELECT MAX(p) as "p [point]" FROM test;  ! will look up converter "point"

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 26c1. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_OK
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DENY
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_IGNORE

     Flags that should be returned by the 'authorizer_callback' *note
     callable: 26ca. passed to *note Connection.set_authorizer(): 489,
     to indicate whether:

        * Access is allowed (‘SQLITE_OK’),

        * The SQL statement should be aborted with an error
          (‘SQLITE_DENY’)

        * The column should be treated as a ‘NULL’ value
          (‘SQLITE_IGNORE’)

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.apilevel

     String constant stating the supported DB-API level.  Required by
     the DB-API. Hard-coded to ‘"2.0"’.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.paramstyle

     String constant stating the type of parameter marker formatting
     expected by the ‘sqlite3’ module.  Required by the DB-API.
     Hard-coded to ‘"qmark"’.

          Not: The ‘named’ DB-API parameter style is also supported.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.sqlite_version

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note string:
     15d.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.sqlite_version_info

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note tuple: 4ff.
     of *note integers: 184.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.threadsafety

     Integer constant required by the DB-API 2.0, stating the level of
     thread safety the ‘sqlite3’ module supports.  This attribute is set
     based on the default threading mode(1) the underlying SQLite
     library is compiled with.  The SQLite threading modes are:

       1. 'Single-thread': In this mode, all mutexes are disabled and
          SQLite is unsafe to use in more than a single thread at once.

       2. 'Multi-thread': In this mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads provided that no single database connection
          is used simultaneously in two or more threads.

       3. 'Serialized': In serialized mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads with no restriction.

     The mappings from SQLite threading modes to DB-API 2.0 threadsafety
     levels are as follows:

     SQLite threading       threadsafety(2)            SQLITE_THREADSAFE(3)       DB-API 2.0 meaning
     mode                                                                         

     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     single-thread          0                          0                          Threads may not share the module
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     multi-thread           1                          2                          Threads may share the module, but
                                                                                  not connections
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     serialized             3                          1                          Threads may share the module,
                                                                                  connections and cursors
                                                                                  

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Set 'threadsafety' dynamically instead of
     hard-coding it to ‘1’.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.version

     Version number of this module as a *note string: 15d.  This is not
     the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.version_info

     Version number of this module as a *note tuple: 4ff. of *note
     integers: 184.  This is not the version of the SQLite library.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14:
     This constant used to reflect the version number of the ‘pysqlite’
     package, a third-party library which used to upstream changes to
     ‘sqlite3’.  Today, it carries no meaning or practical value.

 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA
 -- Verisi: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA

     These constants are used for the *note Connection.setconfig(): 1e8.
     and *note getconfig(): 1e7. methods.

     The availability of these constants varies depending on the version
     of SQLite Python was compiled with.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     ‘https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html’

          SQLite docs: Database Connection Configuration Options

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/threadsafe.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/#threadsafety

   (3) https://sqlite.org/compile.html#threadsafe


File: python.info,  Node: Connection objects,  Next: Cursor objects,  Prev: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.5 Connection objects
...........................

 -- Sınıfı: sqlite3.Connection

     Each open SQLite database is represented by a ‘Connection’ object,
     which is created using *note sqlite3.connect(): 1e4.  Their main
     purpose is creating *note Cursor: 26b3. objects, and *note
     Transaction control: 26b5.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

        * *note How to use connection shortcut methods: 26e7.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 1605.

     An SQLite database connection has the following attributes and
     methods:

      -- Yöntemi: cursor (factory=Cursor)

          Create and return a *note Cursor: 26b3. object.  The cursor
          method accepts a single optional parameter 'factory'.  If
          supplied, this must be a *note callable: 26ca. returning an
          instance of *note Cursor: 26b3. or its subclasses.

      -- Yöntemi: blobopen (table, column, row, /, *, readonly=False,
               name='main')

          Open a *note Blob: 497. handle to an existing BLOB (Binary
          Large OBject).


          Parametreler:

             * ‘table’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the table where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘column’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the column where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘row’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the row where the
               blob is located.

             * ‘readonly’ (*note bool: 183.) – Set to ‘True’ if the blob
               should be opened without write permissions.  Defaults to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the database where
               the blob is located.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Harekete geçirir: *note OperationalError: 16c5. – When trying
          to open a blob in a ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ table.


          Dönüş türü: *note Blob: 497.

               Not: The blob size cannot be changed using the *note
               Blob: 497. class.  Use the SQL function ‘zeroblob’ to
               create a blob with a fixed size.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: commit ()

          Commit any pending transaction to the database.  If *note
          autocommit: 1e2. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          committed by this method.

      -- Yöntemi: rollback ()

          Roll back to the start of any pending transaction.  If *note
          autocommit: 1e2. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          rolled back by this method.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the database connection.  If *note autocommit: 1e2. is
          ‘False’, any pending transaction is implicitly rolled back.
          If ‘autocommit’ is ‘True’ or *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          26c5, no implicit transaction control is executed.  Make sure
          to *note commit(): 26b6. before closing to avoid losing
          pending changes.

      -- Yöntemi: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 26b3. object and call *note
          execute(): 23d. on it with the given 'sql' and 'parameters'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- Yöntemi: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 26b3. object and call *note
          executemany(): 258. on it with the given 'sql' and
          'parameters'.  Return the new cursor object.

      -- Yöntemi: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 26b3. object and call *note
          executescript(): 26ec. on it with the given 'sql_script'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- Yöntemi: create_function (name, narg, func, *,
               deterministic=False)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL function.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the SQL function.

             * ‘narg’ (*note int: 184.) – The number of arguments the
               SQL function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take any number
               of arguments.

             * ‘func’ (*note callback: 26ed. | None) – A *note callable:
               26ca. that is called when the SQL function is invoked.
               The callable must return *note a type natively supported
               by SQLite: 26bf.  Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL
               function.

             * ‘deterministic’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’, the
               created SQL function is marked as deterministic(1), which
               allows SQLite to perform additional optimizations.


          Harekete geçirir: *note NotSupportedError: 26ee. – If
          'deterministic' is used with SQLite versions older than 3.8.3.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'deterministic' parameter.

          Example:

               >>> import hashlib
               >>> def md5sum(t):
               ...     return hashlib.md5(t).hexdigest()
               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> con.create_function("md5", 1, md5sum)
               >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT md5(?)", (b"foo",)):
               ...     print(row)
               ('acbd18db4cc2f85cedef654fccc4a4d8',)
               >>> con.close()

      -- Yöntemi: create_aggregate (name, n_arg, aggregate_class)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL aggregate function.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the SQL aggregate
               function.

             * ‘n_arg’ (*note int: 184.) – The number of arguments the
               SQL aggregate function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take
               any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 175d. | None) – A class
               must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the aggregate.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 26bf.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ method must
               accept is controlled by 'n_arg'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate
               function.

          Example:

               class MySum:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       self.count += value

                   def finalize(self):
                       return self.count

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_aggregate("mysum", 1, MySum)
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(i)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(1)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(2)")
               cur.execute("SELECT mysum(i) FROM test")
               print(cur.fetchone()[0])

               con.close()

      -- Yöntemi: create_window_function (name, num_params,
               aggregate_class, /)

          Create or remove a user-defined aggregate window function.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the SQL aggregate
               window function to create or remove.

             * ‘num_params’ (*note int: 184.) – The number of arguments
               the SQL aggregate window function can accept.  If ‘-1’,
               it may take any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 175d. | None) – A class
               that must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the current window.

                  * ‘value()’: Return the current value of the
                    aggregate.

                  * ‘inverse()’: Remove a row from the current window.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 26bf.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ and ‘value()’
               methods must accept is controlled by 'num_params'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate window
               function.


          Harekete geçirir: *note NotSupportedError: 26ee. – If used
          with a version of SQLite older than 3.25.0, which does not
          support aggregate window functions.

          Added in version 3.11.

          Example:

               # Example taken from https://www.sqlite.org/windowfunctions.html#udfwinfunc
               class WindowSumInt:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       """Add a row to the current window."""
                       self.count += value

                   def value(self):
                       """Return the current value of the aggregate."""
                       return self.count

                   def inverse(self, value):
                       """Remove a row from the current window."""
                       self.count -= value

                   def finalize(self):
                       """Return the final value of the aggregate.

                       Any clean-up actions should be placed here.
                       """
                       return self.count


               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x, y)")
               values = [
                   ("a", 4),
                   ("b", 5),
                   ("c", 3),
                   ("d", 8),
                   ("e", 1),
               ]
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test VALUES(?, ?)", values)
               con.create_window_function("sumint", 1, WindowSumInt)
               cur.execute("""
                   SELECT x, sumint(y) OVER (
                       ORDER BY x ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND 1 FOLLOWING
                   ) AS sum_y
                   FROM test ORDER BY x
               """)
               print(cur.fetchall())
               con.close()

      -- Yöntemi: create_collation (name, callable, /)

          Create a collation named 'name' using the collating function
          'callable'.  'callable' is passed two *note string: 15d.
          arguments, and it should return an *note integer: 184.:

             * ‘1’ if the first is ordered higher than the second

             * ‘-1’ if the first is ordered lower than the second

             * ‘0’ if they are ordered equal

          The following example shows a reverse sorting collation:

               def collate_reverse(string1, string2):
                   if string1 == string2:
                       return 0
                   elif string1 < string2:
                       return 1
                   else:
                       return -1

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_collation("reverse", collate_reverse)

               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x)")
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test(x) VALUES(?)", [("a",), ("b",)])
               cur.execute("SELECT x FROM test ORDER BY x COLLATE reverse")
               for row in cur:
                   print(row)
               con.close()

          Remove a collation function by setting 'callable' to ‘None’.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: The collation name can contain any
          Unicode character.  Earlier, only ASCII characters were
          allowed.

      -- Yöntemi: interrupt ()

          Call this method from a different thread to abort any queries
          that might be executing on the connection.  Aborted queries
          will raise an *note OperationalError: 16c5.

      -- Yöntemi: set_authorizer (authorizer_callback)

          Register *note callable: 26ca. 'authorizer_callback' to be
          invoked for each attempt to access a column of a table in the
          database.  The callback should return one of *note SQLITE_OK:
          26cd, *note SQLITE_DENY: 26ce, or *note SQLITE_IGNORE: 26cf.
          to signal how access to the column should be handled by the
          underlying SQLite library.

          The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of
          operation is to be authorized.  The second and third argument
          will be arguments or ‘None’ depending on the first argument.
          The 4th argument is the name of the database (“main”, “temp”,
          etc.)  if applicable.  The 5th argument is the name of the
          inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access
          attempt or ‘None’ if this access attempt is directly from
          input SQL code.

          Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible
          values for the first argument and the meaning of the second
          and third argument depending on the first one.  All necessary
          constants are available in the ‘sqlite3’ module.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'authorizer_callback' will disable the
          authorizer.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added support for disabling the
          authorizer using ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_progress_handler (progress_handler, n)

          Register *note callable: 26ca. 'progress_handler' to be
          invoked for every 'n' instructions of the SQLite virtual
          machine.  This is useful if you want to get called from SQLite
          during long-running operations, for example to update a GUI.

          If you want to clear any previously installed progress
          handler, call the method with ‘None’ for 'progress_handler'.

          Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will
          terminate the currently executing query and cause it to raise
          a *note DatabaseError: 26f0. exception.

      -- Yöntemi: set_trace_callback (trace_callback)

          Register *note callable: 26ca. 'trace_callback' to be invoked
          for each SQL statement that is actually executed by the SQLite
          backend.

          The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as
          *note str: 15d.) that is being executed.  The return value of
          the callback is ignored.  Note that the backend does not only
          run statements passed to the *note Cursor.execute(): 23d.
          methods.  Other sources include the *note transaction
          management: 26b5. of the ‘sqlite3’ module and the execution of
          triggers defined in the current database.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'trace_callback' will disable the trace
          callback.

               Not: Exceptions raised in the trace callback are not
               propagated.  As a development and debugging aid, use
               *note enable_callback_tracebacks(): 26c8. to enable
               printing tracebacks from exceptions raised in the trace
               callback.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: enable_load_extension (enabled, /)

          Enable the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions from shared
          libraries if 'enabled' is ‘True’; else, disallow loading
          SQLite extensions.  SQLite extensions can define new
          functions, aggregates or whole new virtual table
          implementations.  One well-known extension is the
          fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

               Not: The ‘sqlite3’ module is not built with loadable
               extension support by default, because some platforms
               (notably macOS) have SQLite libraries which are compiled
               without this feature.  To get loadable extension support,
               you must pass the *note
               -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: 1bb5. option to
               ‘configure’.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
          ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ with arguments ‘connection’,
          ‘enabled’.

          Added in version 3.2.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the
          ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ auditing event.

               con.enable_load_extension(True)

               # Load the fulltext search extension
               con.execute("select load_extension('./fts3.so')")

               # alternatively you can load the extension using an API call:
               # con.load_extension("./fts3.so")

               # disable extension loading again
               con.enable_load_extension(False)

               # example from SQLite wiki
               con.execute("CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE recipe USING fts3(name, ingredients)")
               con.executescript("""
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli stew', 'broccoli peppers cheese tomatoes');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin stew', 'pumpkin onions garlic celery');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli pie', 'broccoli cheese onions flour');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin pie', 'pumpkin sugar flour butter');
                   """)
               for row in con.execute("SELECT rowid, name, ingredients FROM recipe WHERE name MATCH 'pie'"):
                   print(row)

      -- Yöntemi: load_extension (path, /, *, entrypoint=None)

          Load an SQLite extension from a shared library.  Enable
          extension loading with *note enable_load_extension(): 67d.
          before calling this method.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘path’ (*note str: 15d.) – The path to the SQLite
               extension.

             * ‘entrypoint’ (*note str: 15d.‘ | ’‘None’) – Entry point
               name.  If ‘None’ (the default), SQLite will come up with
               an entry point name of its own; see the SQLite docs
               Loading an Extension(2) for details.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sqlite3.load_extension’
          with arguments ‘connection’, ‘path’.

          Added in version 3.2.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘sqlite3.load_extension’
          auditing event.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'entrypoint' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: iterdump ()

          Return an *note iterator: 176e. to dump the database as SQL
          source code.  Useful when saving an in-memory database for
          later restoration.  Similar to the ‘.dump’ command in the
          ‘sqlite3’ shell.

          Example:

               # Convert file example.db to SQL dump file dump.sql
               con = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               with open('dump.sql', 'w') as f:
                   for line in con.iterdump():
                       f.write('%s\n' % line)
               con.close()

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 26f1.

      -- Yöntemi: backup (target, *, pages=-1, progress=None,
               name='main', sleep=0.250)

          Create a backup of an SQLite database.

          Works even if the database is being accessed by other clients
          or concurrently by the same connection.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘target’ (*note Connection: 1e3.) – The database
               connection to save the backup to.

             * ‘pages’ (*note int: 184.) – The number of pages to copy
               at a time.  If equal to or less than ‘0’, the entire
               database is copied in a single step.  Defaults to ‘-1’.

             * ‘progress’ (*note callback: 26ed. | None) – If set to a
               *note callable: 26ca, it is invoked with three integer
               arguments for every backup iteration: the 'status' of the
               last iteration, the 'remaining' number of pages still to
               be copied, and the 'total' number of pages.  Defaults to
               ‘None’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the database to
               back up.  Either ‘"main"’ (the default) for the main
               database, ‘"temp"’ for the temporary database, or the
               name of a custom database as attached using the ‘ATTACH
               DATABASE’ SQL statement.

             * ‘sleep’ (*note float: 272.) – The number of seconds to
               sleep between successive attempts to back up remaining
               pages.

          Example 1, copy an existing database into another:

               def progress(status, remaining, total):
                   print(f'Copied {total-remaining} of {total} pages...')

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect('backup.db')
               with dst:
                   src.backup(dst, pages=1, progress=progress)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy:

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
               src.backup(dst)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Added in version 3.7.

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 26f1.

      -- Yöntemi: getlimit (category, /)

          Get a connection runtime limit.


          Parametreler: ‘category’ (*note int: 184.) – The SQLite limit
          category(3) to be queried.


          Dönüş türü: *note int: 184.


          Harekete geçirir: *note ProgrammingError: 241. – If 'category'
          is not recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, query the maximum length of an SQL statement for
          *note Connection: 1e3. ‘con’ (the default is 1000000000):

               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH)
               1000000000

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: setlimit (category, limit, /)

          Set a connection runtime limit.  Attempts to increase a limit
          above its hard upper bound are silently truncated to the hard
          upper bound.  Regardless of whether or not the limit was
          changed, the prior value of the limit is returned.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘category’ (*note int: 184.) – The SQLite limit
               category(4) to be set.

             * ‘limit’ (*note int: 184.) – The value of the new limit.
               If negative, the current limit is unchanged.


          Dönüş türü: *note int: 184.


          Harekete geçirir: *note ProgrammingError: 241. – If 'category'
          is not recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, limit the number of attached databases to 1 for *note
          Connection: 1e3. ‘con’ (the default limit is 10):

               >>> con.setlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED, 1)
               10
               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED)
               1

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: getconfig (op, /)

          Query a boolean connection configuration option.


          Parametreler: ‘op’ (*note int: 184.) – A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG
          code: 26d4.


          Dönüş türü: *note bool: 183.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Yöntemi: setconfig (op, enable=True, /)

          Set a boolean connection configuration option.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘op’ (*note int: 184.) – A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG code:
               26d4.

             * ‘enable’ (*note bool: 183.) – ‘True’ if the configuration
               option should be enabled (default); ‘False’ if it should
               be disabled.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Yöntemi: serialize (*, name='main')

          Serialize a database into a *note bytes: 2cb. object.  For an
          ordinary on-disk database file, the serialization is just a
          copy of the disk file.  For an in-memory database or a “temp”
          database, the serialization is the same sequence of bytes
          which would be written to disk if that database were backed up
          to disk.


          Parametreler: ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The database name to
          be serialized.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Dönüş türü: *note bytes: 2cb.

               Not: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the serialize API.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: deserialize (data, /, *, name='main')

          Deserialize a *note serialized: 493. database into a *note
          Connection: 1e3.  This method causes the database connection
          to disconnect from database 'name', and reopen 'name' as an
          in-memory database based on the serialization contained in
          'data'.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘data’ (*note bytes: 2cb.) – A serialized database.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The database name to
               deserialize into.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Harekete geçirir:

             * *note OperationalError: 16c5. – If the database
               connection is currently involved in a read transaction or
               a backup operation.

             * *note DatabaseError: 26f0. – If 'data' does not contain a
               valid SQLite database.

             * *note OverflowError: 6c7. – If *note len(data): 441. is
               larger than ‘2**63 - 1’.

               Not: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the deserialize API.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Özniteliği: autocommit

          This attribute controls PEP 249(5)-compliant transaction
          behaviour.  ‘autocommit’ has three allowed values:

             * ‘False’: Select PEP 249(6)-compliant transaction
               behaviour, implying that ‘sqlite3’ ensures a transaction
               is always open.  Use *note commit(): 26b6. and *note
               rollback(): 26e8. to close transactions.

               This is the recommended value of ‘autocommit’.

             * ‘True’: Use SQLite’s autocommit mode(7).  *note commit():
               26b6. and *note rollback(): 26e8. have no effect in this
               mode.

             * *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5.: Pre-Python 3.12
               (non- PEP 249(8)-compliant) transaction control.  See
               *note isolation_level: 26c3. for more details.

               This is currently the default value of ‘autocommit’.

          Changing ‘autocommit’ to ‘False’ will open a new transaction,
          and changing it to ‘True’ will commit any pending transaction.

          See *note Transaction control via the autocommit attribute:
          1e5. for more details.

               Not: The *note isolation_level: 26c3. attribute has no
               effect unless *note autocommit: 1e2. is *note
               LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Özniteliği: in_transaction

          This read-only attribute corresponds to the low-level SQLite
          autocommit mode(9).

          ‘True’ if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted
          changes), ‘False’ otherwise.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Özniteliği: isolation_level

          Controls the *note legacy transaction handling mode: 26c4. of
          ‘sqlite3’.  If set to ‘None’, transactions are never
          implicitly opened.  If set to one of ‘"DEFERRED"’,
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’, or ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’, corresponding to the
          underlying SQLite transaction behaviour(10), *note implicit
          transaction management: 26c4. is performed.

          If not overridden by the 'isolation_level' parameter of *note
          connect(): 1e4, the default is ‘""’, which is an alias for
          ‘"DEFERRED"’.

               Not: Using *note autocommit: 1e2. to control transaction
               handling is recommended over using ‘isolation_level’.
               ‘isolation_level’ has no effect unless *note autocommit:
               1e2. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5.
               (the default).

      -- Özniteliği: row_factory

          The initial *note row_factory: 26f3. for *note Cursor: 26b3.
          objects created from this connection.  Assigning to this
          attribute does not affect the ‘row_factory’ of existing
          cursors belonging to this connection, only new ones.  Is
          ‘None’ by default, meaning each row is returned as a *note
          tuple: 4ff.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 26ba. for more
          details.

      -- Özniteliği: text_factory

          A *note callable: 26ca. that accepts a *note bytes: 2cb.
          parameter and returns a text representation of it.  The
          callable is invoked for SQLite values with the ‘TEXT’ data
          type.  By default, this attribute is set to *note str: 15d.

          See *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 26f1. for
          more details.

      -- Özniteliği: total_changes

          Return the total number of database rows that have been
          modified, inserted, or deleted since the database connection
          was opened.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/deterministic.html

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/loadext.html#loading_an_extension

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (7) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (9) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (10) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Cursor objects,  Next: Row objects,  Prev: Connection objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.6 Cursor objects
.......................

     A ‘Cursor’ object represents a database cursor(1) which is used to
     execute SQL statements, and manage the context of a fetch
     operation.  Cursors are created using *note Connection.cursor():
     26b2, or by using any of the *note connection shortcut methods:
     26e7.

     Cursor objects are *note iterators: 176e, meaning that if you *note
     execute(): 23d. a ‘SELECT’ query, you can simply iterate over the
     cursor to fetch the resulting rows:

          for row in cur.execute("SELECT t FROM data"):
              print(row)

 -- Sınıfı: sqlite3.Cursor

     A *note Cursor: 26b3. instance has the following attributes and
     methods.

      -- Yöntemi: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Execute a single SQL statement, optionally binding Python
          values using *note placeholders: 23e.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 15d.) – A single SQL statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note dict: 240. | *note sequence: 23f.) –
               Python values to bind to placeholders in 'sql'.  A ‘dict’
               if named placeholders are used.  A sequence if unnamed
               placeholders are used.  See *note How to use placeholders
               to bind values in SQL queries: 23e.


          Harekete geçirir: *note ProgrammingError: 241. – If 'sql'
          contains more than one SQL statement.

          If *note autocommit: 1e2. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          26c5, *note isolation_level: 26c3. is not ‘None’, 'sql' is an
          ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or ‘REPLACE’ statement, and
          there is no open transaction, a transaction is implicitly
          opened before executing 'sql'.

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 23e. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence
          instead of a *note dict: 240.  Starting with Python 3.14,
          *note ProgrammingError: 241. will be raised instead.

          Use *note executescript(): 26ec. to execute multiple SQL
          statements.

      -- Yöntemi: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          For every item in 'parameters', repeatedly execute the *note
          parameterized: 23e. DML (Data Manipulation Language) SQL
          statement 'sql'.

          Uses the same implicit transaction handling as *note
          execute(): 23d.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 15d.) – A single SQL DML statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note iterable: 10ce.) – An iterable of
               parameters to bind with the placeholders in 'sql'.  See
               *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL
               queries: 23e.


          Harekete geçirir: *note ProgrammingError: 241. – If 'sql'
          contains more than one SQL statement, or is not a DML
          statement.

          Example:

               rows = [
                   ("row1",),
                   ("row2",),
               ]
               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO data VALUES(?)", rows)

               Not: Any resulting rows are discarded, including DML
               statements with RETURNING clauses(2).

          Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version
          3.14: *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is emitted if *note named
          placeholders: 23e. are used and the items in 'parameters' are
          sequences instead of *note dict: 240.s.  Starting with Python
          3.14, *note ProgrammingError: 241. will be raised instead.

      -- Yöntemi: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Execute the SQL statements in 'sql_script'.  If the *note
          autocommit: 1e2. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5.
          and there is a pending transaction, an implicit ‘COMMIT’
          statement is executed first.  No other implicit transaction
          control is performed; any transaction control must be added to
          'sql_script'.

          'sql_script' must be a *note string: 15d.

          Example:

               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executescript("""
                   BEGIN;
                   CREATE TABLE person(firstname, lastname, age);
                   CREATE TABLE book(title, author, published);
                   CREATE TABLE publisher(name, address);
                   COMMIT;
               """)

      -- Yöntemi: fetchone ()

          If *note row_factory: 26f3. is ‘None’, return the next row
          query result set as a *note tuple: 4ff.  Else, pass it to the
          row factory and return its result.  Return ‘None’ if no more
          data is available.

      -- Yöntemi: fetchmany (size=cursor.arraysize)

          Return the next set of rows of a query result as a *note list:
          422.  Return an empty list if no more rows are available.

          The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the
          'size' parameter.  If 'size' is not given, *note arraysize:
          26f9. determines the number of rows to be fetched.  If fewer
          than 'size' rows are available, as many rows as are available
          are returned.

          Note there are performance considerations involved with the
          'size' parameter.  For optimal performance, it is usually best
          to use the arraysize attribute.  If the 'size' parameter is
          used, then it is best for it to retain the same value from one
          *note fetchmany(): 26f8. call to the next.

      -- Yöntemi: fetchall ()

          Return all (remaining) rows of a query result as a *note list:
          422.  Return an empty list if no rows are available.  Note
          that the *note arraysize: 26f9. attribute can affect the
          performance of this operation.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the cursor now (rather than whenever ‘__del__’ is
          called).

          The cursor will be unusable from this point forward; a *note
          ProgrammingError: 241. exception will be raised if any
          operation is attempted with the cursor.

      -- Yöntemi: setinputsizes (sizes, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- Yöntemi: setoutputsize (size, column=None, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- Özniteliği: arraysize

          Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned
          by *note fetchmany(): 26f8.  The default value is 1 which
          means a single row would be fetched per call.

      -- Özniteliği: connection

          Read-only attribute that provides the SQLite database *note
          Connection: 1e3. belonging to the cursor.  A *note Cursor:
          26b3. object created by calling *note con.cursor(): 26b2. will
          have a *note connection: 26fd. attribute that refers to 'con':

               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> cur = con.cursor()
               >>> cur.connection == con
               True
               >>> con.close()

      -- Özniteliği: description

          Read-only attribute that provides the column names of the last
          query.  To remain compatible with the Python DB API, it
          returns a 7-tuple for each column where the last six items of
          each tuple are ‘None’.

          It is set for ‘SELECT’ statements without any matching rows as
          well.

      -- Özniteliği: lastrowid

          Read-only attribute that provides the row id of the last
          inserted row.  It is only updated after successful ‘INSERT’ or
          ‘REPLACE’ statements using the *note execute(): 23d. method.
          For other statements, after *note executemany(): 258. or *note
          executescript(): 26ec, or if the insertion failed, the value
          of ‘lastrowid’ is left unchanged.  The initial value of
          ‘lastrowid’ is ‘None’.

               Not: Inserts into ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ tables are not
               recorded.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the ‘REPLACE’
          statement.

      -- Özniteliği: rowcount

          Read-only attribute that provides the number of modified rows
          for ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, and ‘REPLACE’ statements; is
          ‘-1’ for other statements, including CTE (Common Table
          Expression) queries.  It is only updated by the *note
          execute(): 23d. and *note executemany(): 258. methods, after
          the statement has run to completion.  This means that any
          resulting rows must be fetched in order for ‘rowcount’ to be
          updated.

      -- Özniteliği: row_factory

          Control how a row fetched from this ‘Cursor’ is represented.
          If ‘None’, a row is represented as a *note tuple: 4ff.  Can be
          set to the included *note sqlite3.Row: d05.; or a *note
          callable: 26ca. that accepts two arguments, a *note Cursor:
          26b3. object and the ‘tuple’ of row values, and returns a
          custom object representing an SQLite row.

          Defaults to what *note Connection.row_factory: 1476. was set
          to when the ‘Cursor’ was created.  Assigning to this attribute
          does not affect *note Connection.row_factory: 1476. of the
          parent connection.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 26ba. for more
          details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/lang_returning.html


File: python.info,  Node: Row objects,  Next: Blob objects,  Prev: Cursor objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.7 Row objects
....................

 -- Sınıfı: sqlite3.Row

     A ‘Row’ instance serves as a highly optimized *note row_factory:
     1476. for *note Connection: 1e3. objects.  It supports iteration,
     equality testing, *note len(): 441, and *note mapping: 1061. access
     by column name and index.

     Two ‘Row’ objects compare equal if they have identical column names
     and values.

     See *note How to create and use row factories: 26ba. for more
     details.

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          Return a *note list: 422. of column names as *note strings:
          15d.  Immediately after a query, it is the first member of
          each tuple in *note Cursor.description: 13f4.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support of slicing.


File: python.info,  Node: Blob objects,  Next: PrepareProtocol objects,  Prev: Row objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.8 Blob objects
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: sqlite3.Blob

     Added in version 3.11.

     A *note Blob: 497. instance is a *note file-like object: 2379. that
     can read and write data in an SQLite BLOB.  Call *note len(blob):
     441. to get the size (number of bytes) of the blob.  Use indices
     and *note slices: 1f6e. for direct access to the blob data.

     Use the *note Blob: 497. as a *note context manager: 3df. to ensure
     that the blob handle is closed after use.

          con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
          con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(blob_col blob)")
          con.execute("INSERT INTO test(blob_col) VALUES(zeroblob(13))")

          # Write to our blob, using two write operations:
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              blob.write(b"hello, ")
              blob.write(b"world.")
              # Modify the first and last bytes of our blob
              blob[0] = ord("H")
              blob[-1] = ord("!")

          # Read the contents of our blob
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              greeting = blob.read()

          print(greeting)  # outputs "b'Hello, world!'"
          con.close()

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the blob.

          The blob will be unusable from this point onward.  An *note
          Error: 16a9. (or subclass) exception will be raised if any
          further operation is attempted with the blob.

      -- Yöntemi: read (length=-1, /)

          Read 'length' bytes of data from the blob at the current
          offset position.  If the end of the blob is reached, the data
          up to EOF (End of File) will be returned.  When 'length' is
          not specified, or is negative, *note read(): 2705. will read
          until the end of the blob.

      -- Yöntemi: write (data, /)

          Write 'data' to the blob at the current offset.  This function
          cannot change the blob length.  Writing beyond the end of the
          blob will raise *note ValueError: 189.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Return the current access position of the blob.

      -- Yöntemi: seek (offset, origin=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the current access position of the blob to 'offset'.  The
          'origin' argument defaults to *note os.SEEK_SET: 1136.
          (absolute blob positioning).  Other values for 'origin' are
          *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1137. (seek relative to the current
          position) and *note os.SEEK_END: 1138. (seek relative to the
          blob’s end).


File: python.info,  Node: PrepareProtocol objects,  Next: Exceptions<5>,  Prev: Blob objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.9 PrepareProtocol objects
................................

 -- Sınıfı: sqlite3.PrepareProtocol

     The PrepareProtocol type’s single purpose is to act as a PEP 246(1)
     style adaption protocol for objects that can *note adapt
     themselves: 270a. to *note native SQLite types: 26bf.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<5>,  Next: SQLite and Python types,  Prev: PrepareProtocol objects,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.10 Exceptions
....................

The exception hierarchy is defined by the DB-API 2.0 ( PEP 249(1)).

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.Warning

     This exception is not currently raised by the ‘sqlite3’ module, but
     may be raised by applications using ‘sqlite3’, for example if a
     user-defined function truncates data while inserting.  ‘Warning’ is
     a subclass of *note Exception: 838.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.Error

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  Use this to
     catch all errors with one single *note except: 3c0. statement.
     ‘Error’ is a subclass of *note Exception: 838.

     If the exception originated from within the SQLite library, the
     following two attributes are added to the exception:

      -- Özniteliği: sqlite_errorcode

          The numeric error code from the SQLite API(2)

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Özniteliği: sqlite_errorname

          The symbolic name of the numeric error code from the SQLite
          API(3)

          Added in version 3.11.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.InterfaceError

     Exception raised for misuse of the low-level SQLite C API. In other
     words, if this exception is raised, it probably indicates a bug in
     the ‘sqlite3’ module.  ‘InterfaceError’ is a subclass of *note
     Error: 16a9.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.DatabaseError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database.  This
     serves as the base exception for several types of database errors.
     It is only raised implicitly through the specialised subclasses.
     ‘DatabaseError’ is a subclass of *note Error: 16a9.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.DataError

     Exception raised for errors caused by problems with the processed
     data, like numeric values out of range, and strings which are too
     long.  ‘DataError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 26f0.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.OperationalError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database’s
     operation, and not necessarily under the control of the programmer.
     For example, the database path is not found, or a transaction could
     not be processed.  ‘OperationalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 26f0.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.IntegrityError

     Exception raised when the relational integrity of the database is
     affected, e.g.  a foreign key check fails.  It is a subclass of
     *note DatabaseError: 26f0.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.InternalError

     Exception raised when SQLite encounters an internal error.  If this
     is raised, it may indicate that there is a problem with the runtime
     SQLite library.  ‘InternalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 26f0.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.ProgrammingError

     Exception raised for ‘sqlite3’ API programming errors, for example
     supplying the wrong number of bindings to a query, or trying to
     operate on a closed *note Connection: 1e3.  ‘ProgrammingError’ is a
     subclass of *note DatabaseError: 26f0.

 -- Özel Durum: sqlite3.NotSupportedError

     Exception raised in case a method or database API is not supported
     by the underlying SQLite library.  For example, setting
     'deterministic' to ‘True’ in *note create_function(): 1802, if the
     underlying SQLite library does not support deterministic functions.
     ‘NotSupportedError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 26f0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html

   (3) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html


File: python.info,  Node: SQLite and Python types,  Next: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Prev: Exceptions<5>,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.11 SQLite and Python types
.................................

SQLite natively supports the following types: ‘NULL’, ‘INTEGER’, ‘REAL’,
‘TEXT’, ‘BLOB’.

The following Python types can thus be sent to SQLite without any
problem:

Python type                         SQLite type
                                    
------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘None’                              ‘NULL’
                                    
                                    
*note int: 184.                     ‘INTEGER’
                                    
                                    
*note float: 272.                   ‘REAL’
                                    
                                    
*note str: 15d.                     ‘TEXT’
                                    
                                    
*note bytes: 2cb.                   ‘BLOB’
                                    

This is how SQLite types are converted to Python types by default:

SQLite type       Python type
                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                  
‘NULL’            ‘None’
                  
                  
‘INTEGER’         *note int: 184.
                  
                  
‘REAL’            *note float: 272.
                  
                  
‘TEXT’            depends on *note text_factory: 26f4,
                  *note str: 15d. by default
                  
                  
‘BLOB’            *note bytes: 2cb.
                  

The type system of the ‘sqlite3’ module is extensible in two ways: you
can store additional Python types in an SQLite database via *note object
adapters: 26b8, and you can let the ‘sqlite3’ module convert SQLite
types to Python types via *note converters: 26b9.


File: python.info,  Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Next: Command-line interface,  Prev: SQLite and Python types,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.12 Default adapters and converters (deprecated)
......................................................

     Not: The default adapters and converters are deprecated as of
     Python 3.12.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter recipes:
     23c. and tailor them to your needs.

The deprecated default adapters and converters consist of:

   * An adapter for *note datetime.date: 749. objects to *note strings:
     15d. in ISO 8601(1) format.

   * An adapter for *note datetime.datetime: 22b. objects to strings in
     ISO 8601 format.

   * A converter for *note declared: 26b9. “date” types to *note
     datetime.date: 749. objects.

   * A converter for declared “timestamp” types to *note
     datetime.datetime: 22b. objects.  Fractional parts will be
     truncated to 6 digits (microsecond precision).

     Not: The default “timestamp” converter ignores UTC offsets in the
     database and always returns a naive *note datetime.datetime: 22b.
     object.  To preserve UTC offsets in timestamps, either leave
     converters disabled, or register an offset-aware converter with
     *note register_converter(): 26c0.

3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface,  Prev: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Up: Reference

5.12.6.13 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘sqlite3’ module can be invoked as a script, using the interpreter’s
*note -m: 3ec. switch, in order to provide a simple SQLite shell.  The
argument signature is as follows:

     python -m sqlite3 [-h] [-v] [filename] [sql]

Type ‘.quit’ or CTRL-D to exit the shell.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Print CLI help.

 -- Option: -v, --version

     Print underlying SQLite library version.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: How-to guides,  Next: Explanation,  Prev: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.14 How-to guides
.......................

* Menu:

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Next: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.15 How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries
...............................................................

SQL operations usually need to use values from Python variables.
However, beware of using Python’s string operations to assemble queries,
as they are vulnerable to SQL injection attacks(1).  For example, an
attacker can simply close the single quote and inject ‘OR TRUE’ to
select all rows:

     >>> # Never do this -- insecure!
     >>> symbol = input()
     ' OR TRUE; --
     >>> sql = "SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '%s'" % symbol
     >>> print(sql)
     SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '' OR TRUE; --'
     >>> cur.execute(sql)

Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  To insert a variable
into a query string, use a placeholder in the string, and substitute the
actual values into the query by providing them as a *note tuple: 4ff. of
values to the second argument of the cursor’s *note execute(): 23d.
method.

An SQL statement may use one of two kinds of placeholders: question
marks (qmark style) or named placeholders (named style).  For the qmark
style, 'parameters' must be a *note sequence: 23f. whose length must
match the number of placeholders, or a *note ProgrammingError: 241. is
raised.  For the named style, 'parameters' must be an instance of a
*note dict: 240. (or a subclass), which must contain keys for all named
parameters; any extra items are ignored.  Here’s an example of both
styles:

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")

     # This is the named style used with executemany():
     data = (
         {"name": "C", "year": 1972},
         {"name": "Fortran", "year": 1957},
         {"name": "Python", "year": 1991},
         {"name": "Go", "year": 2009},
     )
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO lang VALUES(:name, :year)", data)

     # This is the qmark style used in a SELECT query:
     params = (1972,)
     cur.execute("SELECT * FROM lang WHERE first_appeared = ?", params)
     print(cur.fetchall())
     con.close()

     Not: PEP 249(2) numeric placeholders are 'not' supported.  If used,
     they will be interpreted as named placeholders.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Next: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Prev: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.16 How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values
...........................................................

SQLite supports only a limited set of data types natively.  To store
custom Python types in SQLite databases, 'adapt' them to one of the
*note Python types SQLite natively understands: 26bf.

There are two ways to adapt Python objects to SQLite types: letting your
object adapt itself, or using an 'adapter callable'.  The latter will
take precedence above the former.  For a library that exports a custom
type, it may make sense to enable that type to adapt itself.  As an
application developer, it may make more sense to take direct control by
registering custom adapter functions.

* Menu:

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::


File: python.info,  Node: How to write adaptable objects,  Next: How to register adapter callables,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.17 How to write adaptable objects
........................................

Suppose we have a ‘Point’ class that represents a pair of coordinates,
‘x’ and ‘y’, in a Cartesian coordinate system.  The coordinate pair will
be stored as a text string in the database, using a semicolon to
separate the coordinates.  This can be implemented by adding a
‘__conform__(self, protocol)’ method which returns the adapted value.
The object passed to 'protocol' will be of type *note PrepareProtocol:
1604.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __conform__(self, protocol):
             if protocol is sqlite3.PrepareProtocol:
                 return f"{self.x};{self.y}"

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(4.0, -3.2),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to register adapter callables,  Prev: How to write adaptable objects,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.12.6.18 How to register adapter callables
...........................................

The other possibility is to create a function that converts the Python
object to an SQLite-compatible type.  This function can then be
registered using *note register_adapter(): 26c9.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(1.0, 2.5),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Next: Adapter and converter recipes,  Prev: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.19 How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types
.............................................................

Writing an adapter lets you convert 'from' custom Python types 'to'
SQLite values.  To be able to convert 'from' SQLite values 'to' custom
Python types, we use 'converters'.

Let’s go back to the ‘Point’ class.  We stored the x and y coordinates
separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.

First, we’ll define a converter function that accepts the string as a
parameter and constructs a ‘Point’ object from it.

     Not: Converter functions are 'always' passed a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object, no matter the underlying SQLite data type.

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = map(float, s.split(b";"))
         return Point(x, y)

We now need to tell ‘sqlite3’ when it should convert a given SQLite
value.  This is done when connecting to a database, using the
'detect_types' parameter of *note connect(): 1e4.  There are three
options:

   * Implicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 26c1.

   * Explicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 26c2.

   * Both: set 'detect_types' to ‘sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES |
     sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES’.  Column names take precedence over
     declared types.

The following example illustrates the implicit and explicit approaches:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __repr__(self):
             return f"Point({self.x}, {self.y})"

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = list(map(float, s.split(b";")))
         return Point(x, y)

     # Register the adapter and converter
     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)
     sqlite3.register_converter("point", convert_point)

     # 1) Parse using declared types
     p = Point(4.0, -3.2)
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p point)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute("SELECT p FROM test")
     print("with declared types:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()

     # 2) Parse using column names
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute('SELECT p AS "p [point]" FROM test')
     print("with column names:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Adapter and converter recipes,  Next: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Prev: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.20 Adapter and converter recipes
.......................................

This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.

     import datetime
     import sqlite3

     def adapt_date_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.date to ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to timezone-naive ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_epoch(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to Unix timestamp."""
         return int(val.timestamp())

     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.date, adapt_date_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(datetime.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)

     def convert_date(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 date to datetime.date object."""
         return datetime.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_datetime(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 datetime to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_timestamp(val):
         """Convert Unix epoch timestamp to datetime.datetime object."""
         return datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))

     sqlite3.register_converter("date", convert_date)
     sqlite3.register_converter("datetime", convert_datetime)
     sqlite3.register_converter("timestamp", convert_timestamp)


File: python.info,  Node: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Next: How to use the connection context manager,  Prev: Adapter and converter recipes,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.21 How to use connection shortcut methods
................................................

Using the *note execute(): 26e9, *note executemany(): 26ea, and *note
executescript(): 26eb. methods of the *note Connection: 1e3. class, your
code can be written more concisely because you don’t have to create the
(often superfluous) *note Cursor: 26b3. objects explicitly.  Instead,
the *note Cursor: 26b3. objects are created implicitly and these
shortcut methods return the cursor objects.  This way, you can execute a
‘SELECT’ statement and iterate over it directly using only a single call
on the *note Connection: 1e3. object.

     # Create and fill the table.
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")
     data = [
         ("C++", 1985),
         ("Objective-C", 1984),
     ]
     con.executemany("INSERT INTO lang(name, first_appeared) VALUES(?, ?)", data)

     # Print the table contents
     for row in con.execute("SELECT name, first_appeared FROM lang"):
         print(row)

     print("I just deleted", con.execute("DELETE FROM lang").rowcount, "rows")

     # close() is not a shortcut method and it's not called automatically;
     # the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to use the connection context manager,  Next: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Prev: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.22 How to use the connection context manager
...................................................

A *note Connection: 1e3. object can be used as a context manager that
automatically commits or rolls back open transactions when leaving the
body of the context manager.  If the body of the *note with: 3dd.
statement finishes without exceptions, the transaction is committed.  If
this commit fails, or if the body of the ‘with’ statement raises an
uncaught exception, the transaction is rolled back.  If *note
autocommit: 1e2. is ‘False’, a new transaction is implicitly opened
after committing or rolling back.

If there is no open transaction upon leaving the body of the ‘with’
statement, or if *note autocommit: 1e2. is ‘True’, the context manager
does nothing.

     Not: The context manager neither implicitly opens a new transaction
     nor closes the connection.  If you need a closing context manager,
     consider using *note contextlib.closing(): 271f.

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR UNIQUE)")

     # Successful, con.commit() is called automatically afterwards
     with con:
         con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))

     # con.rollback() is called after the with block finishes with an exception,
     # the exception is still raised and must be caught
     try:
         with con:
             con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))
     except sqlite3.IntegrityError:
         print("couldn't add Python twice")

     # Connection object used as context manager only commits or rollbacks transactions,
     # so the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Next: How to create and use row factories,  Prev: How to use the connection context manager,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.23 How to work with SQLite URIs
......................................

Some useful URI tricks include:

   * Open a database in read-only mode:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:tutorial.db?mode=ro", uri=True)
     >>> con.execute("CREATE TABLE readonly(data)")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: attempt to write a readonly database
     >>> con.close()

   * Do not implicitly create a new database file if it does not already
     exist; will raise *note OperationalError: 16c5. if unable to create
     a new file:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:nosuchdb.db?mode=rw", uri=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: unable to open database file

   * Create a shared named in-memory database:

     db = "file:mem1?mode=memory&cache=shared"
     con1 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     con2 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     with con1:
         con1.execute("CREATE TABLE shared(data)")
         con1.execute("INSERT INTO shared VALUES(28)")
     res = con2.execute("SELECT data FROM shared")
     assert res.fetchone() == (28,)

     con1.close()
     con2.close()

More information about this feature, including a list of parameters, can
be found in the SQLite URI documentation(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to create and use row factories,  Next: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.24 How to create and use row factories
.............................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ represents each row as a *note tuple: 4ff.  If a
‘tuple’ does not suit your needs, you can use the *note sqlite3.Row:
d05. class or a custom *note row_factory: 26f3.

While ‘row_factory’ exists as an attribute both on the *note Cursor:
26b3. and the *note Connection: 1e3, it is recommended to set *note
Connection.row_factory: 1476, so all cursors created from the connection
will use the same row factory.

‘Row’ provides indexed and case-insensitive named access to columns,
with minimal memory overhead and performance impact over a ‘tuple’.  To
use ‘Row’ as a row factory, assign it to the ‘row_factory’ attribute:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = sqlite3.Row

Queries now return ‘Row’ objects:

     >>> res = con.execute("SELECT 'Earth' AS name, 6378 AS radius")
     >>> row = res.fetchone()
     >>> row.keys()
     ['name', 'radius']
     >>> row[0]         # Access by index.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["name"]    # Access by name.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["RADIUS"]  # Column names are case-insensitive.
     6378
     >>> con.close()

     Not: The ‘FROM’ clause can be omitted in the ‘SELECT’ statement, as
     in the above example.  In such cases, SQLite returns a single row
     with columns defined by expressions, e.g.  literals, with the given
     aliases ‘expr AS alias’.

You can create a custom *note row_factory: 26f3. that returns each row
as a *note dict: 240, with column names mapped to values:

     def dict_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         return {key: value for key, value in zip(fields, row)}

Using it, queries now return a ‘dict’ instead of a ‘tuple’:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = dict_factory
     >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b"):
     ...     print(row)
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> con.close()

The following row factory returns a *note named tuple: 461.:

     from collections import namedtuple

     def namedtuple_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         cls = namedtuple("Row", fields)
         return cls._make(row)

‘namedtuple_factory()’ can be used as follows:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = namedtuple_factory
     >>> cur = con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b")
     >>> row = cur.fetchone()
     >>> row
     Row(a=1, b=2)
     >>> row[0]  # Indexed access.
     1
     >>> row.b   # Attribute access.
     2
     >>> con.close()

With some adjustments, the above recipe can be adapted to use a *note
dataclass: 3d4, or any other custom class, instead of a *note
namedtuple: 74b.


File: python.info,  Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to create and use row factories,  Up: How-to guides

5.12.6.25 How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings
................................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ uses *note str: 15d. to adapt SQLite values with
the ‘TEXT’ data type.  This works well for UTF-8 encoded text, but it
might fail for other encodings and invalid UTF-8.  You can use a custom
*note text_factory: 26f4. to handle such cases.

Because of SQLite’s flexible typing(1), it is not uncommon to encounter
table columns with the ‘TEXT’ data type containing non-UTF-8 encodings,
or even arbitrary data.  To demonstrate, let’s assume we have a database
with ISO-8859-2 (Latin-2) encoded text, for example a table of
Czech-English dictionary entries.  Assuming we now have a *note
Connection: 1e3. instance ‘con’ connected to this database, we can
decode the Latin-2 encoded text using this *note text_factory: 26f4.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, encoding="latin2")

For invalid UTF-8 or arbitrary data in stored in ‘TEXT’ table columns,
you can use the following technique, borrowed from the *note Unicode
HOWTO: 114d.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, errors="surrogateescape")

     Not: The ‘sqlite3’ module API does not support strings containing
     surrogates.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Unicode HOWTO: 114d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html


File: python.info,  Node: Explanation,  Prev: How-to guides,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.12.6.26 Explanation
.....................

* Menu:

* Transaction control::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control,  Up: Explanation

5.12.6.27 Transaction control
.............................

‘sqlite3’ offers multiple methods of controlling whether, when and how
database transactions are opened and closed.  *note Transaction control
via the autocommit attribute: 1e5. is recommended, while *note
Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 26c4. retains the
pre-Python 3.12 behaviour.

* Menu:

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Next: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.28 Transaction control via the ‘autocommit’ attribute
............................................................

The recommended way of controlling transaction behaviour is through the
*note Connection.autocommit: 1e2. attribute, which should preferably be
set using the 'autocommit' parameter of *note connect(): 1e4.

It is suggested to set 'autocommit' to ‘False’, which implies PEP
249(1)-compliant transaction control.  This means:

   * ‘sqlite3’ ensures that a transaction is always open, so *note
     connect(): 1e4, *note Connection.commit(): 26b6, and *note
     Connection.rollback(): 26e8. will implicitly open a new transaction
     (immediately after closing the pending one, for the latter two).
     ‘sqlite3’ uses ‘BEGIN DEFERRED’ statements when opening
     transactions.

   * Transactions should be committed explicitly using ‘commit()’.

   * Transactions should be rolled back explicitly using ‘rollback()’.

   * An implicit rollback is performed if the database is *note close():
     14f0.-ed with pending changes.

Set 'autocommit' to ‘True’ to enable SQLite’s autocommit mode(2).  In
this mode, *note Connection.commit(): 26b6. and *note
Connection.rollback(): 26e8. have no effect.  Note that SQLite’s
autocommit mode is distinct from the PEP 249(3)-compliant *note
Connection.autocommit: 1e2. attribute; use *note
Connection.in_transaction: 26f2. to query the low-level SQLite
autocommit mode.

Set 'autocommit' to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5. to leave
transaction control behaviour to the *note Connection.isolation_level:
26c3. attribute.  See *note Transaction control via the isolation_level
attribute: 26c4. for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Prev: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.12.6.29 Transaction control via the ‘isolation_level’ attribute
.................................................................

     Not: The recommended way of controlling transactions is via the
     *note autocommit: 1e2. attribute.  See *note Transaction control
     via the autocommit attribute: 1e5.

If *note Connection.autocommit: 1e2. is set to *note
LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 26c5. (the default), transaction behaviour
is controlled using the *note Connection.isolation_level: 26c3.
attribute.  Otherwise, ‘isolation_level’ has no effect.

If the connection attribute *note isolation_level: 26c3. is not ‘None’,
new transactions are implicitly opened before *note execute(): 23d. and
*note executemany(): 258. executes ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or
‘REPLACE’ statements; for other statements, no implicit transaction
handling is performed.  Use the *note commit(): 26b6. and *note
rollback(): 26e8. methods to respectively commit and roll back pending
transactions.  You can choose the underlying SQLite transaction
behaviour(1) — that is, whether and what type of ‘BEGIN’ statements
‘sqlite3’ implicitly executes – via the *note isolation_level: 26c3.
attribute.

If *note isolation_level: 26c3. is set to ‘None’, no transactions are
implicitly opened at all.  This leaves the underlying SQLite library in
autocommit mode(2), but also allows the user to perform their own
transaction handling using explicit SQL statements.  The underlying
SQLite library autocommit mode can be queried using the *note
in_transaction: 26f2. attribute.

The *note executescript(): 26ec. method implicitly commits any pending
transaction before execution of the given SQL script, regardless of the
value of *note isolation_level: 26c3.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: ‘sqlite3’ used to implicitly commit an open
transaction before DDL statements.  This is no longer the case.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: The recommended way of controlling transactions
is now via the *note autocommit: 1e2. attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Data Compression and Archiving,  Next: File Formats,  Prev: Data Persistence,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.13 Data Compression and Archiving
===================================

The modules described in this chapter support data compression with the
zlib, gzip, bzip2 and lzma algorithms, and the creation of ZIP- and
tar-format archives.  See also *note Archiving operations: 10be.
provided by the *note shutil: c4. module.

* Menu:

* zlib — Compression compatible with gzip::
* gzip — Support for gzip files::
* bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression::
* lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm::
* zipfile — Work with ZIP archives::
* tarfile — Read and write tar archive files::


File: python.info,  Node: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip,  Next: gzip — Support for gzip files,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.13.1 ‘zlib’ — Compression compatible with ‘gzip’
--------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

For applications that require data compression, the functions in this
module allow compression and decompression, using the zlib library.  The
zlib library has its own home page at ‘https://www.zlib.net’.  There are
known incompatibilities between the Python module and versions of the
zlib library earlier than 1.1.3; 1.1.3 has a security vulnerability(1),
so we recommend using 1.1.4 or later.

zlib’s functions have many options and often need to be used in a
particular order.  This documentation doesn’t attempt to cover all of
the permutations; consult the zlib manual at
‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’ for authoritative information.

For reading and writing ‘.gz’ files see the *note gzip: 65. module.

The available exception and functions in this module are:

 -- Özel Durum: zlib.error

     Exception raised on compression and decompression errors.

 -- Işlevi: zlib.adler32 (data[, value])

     Computes an Adler-32 checksum of 'data'.  (An Adler-32 checksum is
     almost as reliable as a CRC32 but can be computed much more
     quickly.)  The result is an unsigned 32-bit integer.  If 'value' is
     present, it is used as the starting value of the checksum;
     otherwise, a default value of 1 is used.  Passing in 'value' allows
     computing a running checksum over the concatenation of several
     inputs.  The algorithm is not cryptographically strong, and should
     not be used for authentication or digital signatures.  Since the
     algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not
     suitable for use as a general hash algorithm.

     3.0 sürümünde değişti: The result is always unsigned.

 -- Işlevi: zlib.compress (data, /, level=-1, wbits=MAX_WBITS)

     Compresses the bytes in 'data', returning a bytes object containing
     compressed data.  'level' is an integer from ‘0’ to ‘9’ or ‘-1’
     controlling the level of compression; ‘1’ (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest
     and produces the least compression, ‘9’ (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) is
     slowest and produces the most.  ‘0’ (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no
     compression.  The default value is ‘-1’ (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).
     Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default compromise between speed
     and compression (currently equivalent to level 6).  The 'wbits'
     argument controls the size of the history buffer (or the “window
     size”) used when compressing data, and whether a header and trailer
     is included in the output.  It can take several ranges of values,
     defaulting to ‘15’ (MAX_WBITS):

        * +9 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size, which
          therefore ranges between 512 and 32768.  Larger values produce
          better compression at the expense of greater memory usage.
          The resulting output will include a zlib-specific header and
          trailer.

        * −9 to −15: Uses the absolute value of 'wbits' as the window
          size logarithm, while producing a raw output stream with no
          header or trailing checksum.

        * +25 to +31 = 16 + (9 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value
          as the window size logarithm, while including a basic ‘gzip’
          header and trailing checksum in the output.

     Raises the *note error: 272c. exception if any error occurs.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'level' can now be used as a keyword
     parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'wbits' parameter is now available to
     set window bits and compression type.

 -- Işlevi: zlib.compressobj (level=-1, method=DEFLATED,
          wbits=MAX_WBITS, memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL,
          strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])

     Returns a compression object, to be used for compressing data
     streams that won’t fit into memory at once.

     'level' is the compression level – an integer from ‘0’ to ‘9’ or
     ‘-1’.  A value of ‘1’ (Z_BEST_SPEED) is fastest and produces the
     least compression, while a value of ‘9’ (Z_BEST_COMPRESSION) is
     slowest and produces the most.  ‘0’ (Z_NO_COMPRESSION) is no
     compression.  The default value is ‘-1’ (Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION).
     Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION represents a default compromise between speed
     and compression (currently equivalent to level 6).

     'method' is the compression algorithm.  Currently, the only
     supported value is ‘DEFLATED’.

     The 'wbits' parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or
     the “window size”), and what header and trailer format will be
     used.  It has the same meaning as *note described for compress():
     272d.

     The 'memLevel' argument controls the amount of memory used for the
     internal compression state.  Valid values range from ‘1’ to ‘9’.
     Higher values use more memory, but are faster and produce smaller
     output.

     'strategy' is used to tune the compression algorithm.  Possible
     values are ‘Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY’, ‘Z_FILTERED’, ‘Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY’,
     ‘Z_RLE’ (zlib 1.2.0.1) and ‘Z_FIXED’ (zlib 1.2.2.2).

     'zdict' is a predefined compression dictionary.  This is a sequence
     of bytes (such as a *note bytes: 2cb. object) containing
     subsequences that are expected to occur frequently in the data that
     is to be compressed.  Those subsequences that are expected to be
     most common should come at the end of the dictionary.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'zdict' parameter and keyword
     argument support.

 -- Işlevi: zlib.crc32 (data[, value])

     Computes a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) checksum of 'data'.  The
     result is an unsigned 32-bit integer.  If 'value' is present, it is
     used as the starting value of the checksum; otherwise, a default
     value of 0 is used.  Passing in 'value' allows computing a running
     checksum over the concatenation of several inputs.  The algorithm
     is not cryptographically strong, and should not be used for
     authentication or digital signatures.  Since the algorithm is
     designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable for
     use as a general hash algorithm.

     3.0 sürümünde değişti: The result is always unsigned.

 -- Işlevi: zlib.decompress (data, /, wbits=MAX_WBITS,
          bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE)

     Decompresses the bytes in 'data', returning a bytes object
     containing the uncompressed data.  The 'wbits' parameter depends on
     the format of 'data', and is discussed further below.  If 'bufsize'
     is given, it is used as the initial size of the output buffer.
     Raises the *note error: 272c. exception if any error occurs.  The
     'wbits' parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or
     “window size”), and what header and trailer format is expected.  It
     is similar to the parameter for *note compressobj(): 272e, but
     accepts more ranges of values:

        * +8 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size.  The
          input must include a zlib header and trailer.

        * 0: Automatically determine the window size from the zlib
          header.  Only supported since zlib 1.2.3.5.

        * −8 to −15: Uses the absolute value of 'wbits' as the window
          size logarithm.  The input must be a raw stream with no header
          or trailer.

        * +24 to +31 = 16 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value
          as the window size logarithm.  The input must include a gzip
          header and trailer.

        * +40 to +47 = 32 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value
          as the window size logarithm, and automatically accepts either
          the zlib or gzip format.

     When decompressing a stream, the window size must not be smaller
     than the size originally used to compress the stream; using a
     too-small value may result in an *note error: 272c. exception.  The
     default 'wbits' value corresponds to the largest window size and
     requires a zlib header and trailer to be included.

     'bufsize' is the initial size of the buffer used to hold
     decompressed data.  If more space is required, the buffer size will
     be increased as needed, so you don’t have to get this value exactly
     right; tuning it will only save a few calls to ‘malloc()’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'wbits' and 'bufsize' can be used as keyword
     arguments.

 -- Işlevi: zlib.decompressobj (wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])

     Returns a decompression object, to be used for decompressing data
     streams that won’t fit into memory at once.

     The 'wbits' parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or
     the “window size”), and what header and trailer format is expected.
     It has the same meaning as *note described for decompress(): 272f.

     The 'zdict' parameter specifies a predefined compression
     dictionary.  If provided, this must be the same dictionary as was
     used by the compressor that produced the data that is to be
     decompressed.

          Not: If 'zdict' is a mutable object (such as a *note
          bytearray: 2ca.), you must not modify its contents between the
          call to *note decompressobj(): 2730. and the first call to the
          decompressor’s ‘decompress()’ method.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'zdict' parameter.

Compression objects support the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Compress.compress (data)

     Compress 'data', returning a bytes object containing compressed
     data for at least part of the data in 'data'.  This data should be
     concatenated to the output produced by any preceding calls to the
     *note compress(): 452. method.  Some input may be kept in internal
     buffers for later processing.

 -- Yöntemi: Compress.flush ([mode])

     All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the
     remaining compressed output is returned.  'mode' can be selected
     from the constants ‘Z_NO_FLUSH’, ‘Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH’, ‘Z_SYNC_FLUSH’,
     ‘Z_FULL_FLUSH’, ‘Z_BLOCK’ (zlib 1.2.3.4), or ‘Z_FINISH’, defaulting
     to ‘Z_FINISH’.  Except ‘Z_FINISH’, all constants allow compressing
     further bytestrings of data, while ‘Z_FINISH’ finishes the
     compressed stream and prevents compressing any more data.  After
     calling *note flush(): 2732. with 'mode' set to ‘Z_FINISH’, the
     *note compress(): 452. method cannot be called again; the only
     realistic action is to delete the object.

 -- Yöntemi: Compress.copy ()

     Returns a copy of the compression object.  This can be used to
     efficiently compress a set of data that share a common initial
     prefix.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added *note copy.copy(): 2bf. and *note
copy.deepcopy(): 9e4. support to compression objects.

Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: Decompress.unused_data

     A bytes object which contains any bytes past the end of the
     compressed data.  That is, this remains ‘b""’ until the last byte
     that contains compression data is available.  If the whole
     bytestring turned out to contain compressed data, this is ‘b""’, an
     empty bytes object.

 -- Özniteliği: Decompress.unconsumed_tail

     A bytes object that contains any data that was not consumed by the
     last *note decompress(): b92. call because it exceeded the limit
     for the uncompressed data buffer.  This data has not yet been seen
     by the zlib machinery, so you must feed it (possibly with further
     data concatenated to it) back to a subsequent *note decompress():
     b92. method call in order to get correct output.

 -- Özniteliği: Decompress.eof

     A boolean indicating whether the end of the compressed data stream
     has been reached.

     This makes it possible to distinguish between a properly formed
     compressed stream, and an incomplete or truncated one.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: Decompress.decompress (data, max_length=0)

     Decompress 'data', returning a bytes object containing the
     uncompressed data corresponding to at least part of the data in
     'string'.  This data should be concatenated to the output produced
     by any preceding calls to the *note decompress(): b92. method.
     Some of the input data may be preserved in internal buffers for
     later processing.

     If the optional parameter 'max_length' is non-zero then the return
     value will be no longer than 'max_length'.  This may mean that not
     all of the compressed input can be processed; and unconsumed data
     will be stored in the attribute *note unconsumed_tail: 2735.  This
     bytestring must be passed to a subsequent call to *note
     decompress(): b92. if decompression is to continue.  If
     'max_length' is zero then the whole input is decompressed, and
     *note unconsumed_tail: 2735. is empty.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'max_length' can be used as a keyword
     argument.

 -- Yöntemi: Decompress.flush ([length])

     All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the
     remaining uncompressed output is returned.  After calling *note
     flush(): 2737, the *note decompress(): b92. method cannot be called
     again; the only realistic action is to delete the object.

     The optional parameter 'length' sets the initial size of the output
     buffer.

 -- Yöntemi: Decompress.copy ()

     Returns a copy of the decompression object.  This can be used to
     save the state of the decompressor midway through the data stream
     in order to speed up random seeks into the stream at a future
     point.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added *note copy.copy(): 2bf. and *note
copy.deepcopy(): 9e4. support to decompression objects.

Information about the version of the zlib library in use is available
through the following constants:

 -- Verisi: zlib.ZLIB_VERSION

     The version string of the zlib library that was used for building
     the module.  This may be different from the zlib library actually
     used at runtime, which is available as *note ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION:
     1015.

 -- Verisi: zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION

     The version string of the zlib library actually loaded by the
     interpreter.

     Added in version 3.3.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note gzip: 65.

     Reading and writing ‘gzip’-format files.

‘http://www.zlib.net’

     The zlib library home page.

‘http://www.zlib.net/manual.html’

     The zlib manual explains the semantics and usage of the library’s
     many functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://zlib.net/zlib_faq.html#faq33


File: python.info,  Node: gzip — Support for gzip files,  Next: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression,  Prev: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.13.2 ‘gzip’ — Support for ‘gzip’ files
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/gzip.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a simple interface to compress and decompress files
just like the GNU programs ‘gzip’ and ‘gunzip’ would.

The data compression is provided by the *note zlib: 133. module.

The *note gzip: 65. module provides the *note GzipFile: 296. class, as
well as the *note open(): 273c, *note compress(): 451. and *note
decompress(): 10b2. convenience functions.  The *note GzipFile: 296.
class reads and writes ‘gzip’-format files, automatically compressing or
decompressing the data so that it looks like an ordinary *note file
object: 1068.

Note that additional file formats which can be decompressed by the
‘gzip’ and ‘gunzip’ programs, such as those produced by ‘compress’ and
‘pack’, are not supported by this module.

The module defines the following items:

 -- Işlevi: gzip.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Open a gzip-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 1068.

     The 'filename' argument can be an actual filename (a *note str:
     15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. object), or an existing file object to
     read from or write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’,
     ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'xb'’ for binary mode, or ‘'rt'’, ‘'at'’,
     ‘'wt'’, or ‘'xt'’ for text mode.  The default is ‘'rb'’.

     The 'compresslevel' argument is an integer from 0 to 9, as for the
     *note GzipFile: 296. constructor.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note GzipFile:
     296. constructor: ‘GzipFile(filename, mode, compresslevel)’.  In
     this case, the 'encoding', 'errors' and 'newline' arguments must
     not be provided.

     For text mode, a *note GzipFile: 296. object is created, and
     wrapped in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. instance with the
     specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 'filename' being a file
     object, support for text mode, and the 'encoding', 'errors' and
     'newline' arguments.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’ and
     ‘'xt'’ modes.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Özel Durum: gzip.BadGzipFile

     An exception raised for invalid gzip files.  It inherits from *note
     OSError: 65c.  *note EOFError: 1183. and *note zlib.error: 272c.
     can also be raised for invalid gzip files.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Sınıfı: gzip.GzipFile (filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=9,
          fileobj=None, mtime=None)

     Constructor for the *note GzipFile: 296. class, which simulates
     most of the methods of a *note file object: 1068, with the
     exception of the *note truncate(): 11bb. method.  At least one of
     'fileobj' and 'filename' must be given a non-trivial value.

     The new class instance is based on 'fileobj', which can be a
     regular file, an *note io.BytesIO: d38. object, or any other object
     which simulates a file.  It defaults to ‘None’, in which case
     'filename' is opened to provide a file object.

     When 'fileobj' is not ‘None’, the 'filename' argument is only used
     to be included in the ‘gzip’ file header, which may include the
     original filename of the uncompressed file.  It defaults to the
     filename of 'fileobj', if discernible; otherwise, it defaults to
     the empty string, and in this case the original filename is not
     included in the header.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’,
     ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’, or ‘'xb'’, depending on whether the file will
     be read or written.  The default is the mode of 'fileobj' if
     discernible; otherwise, the default is ‘'rb'’.  In future Python
     releases the mode of 'fileobj' will not be used.  It is better to
     always specify 'mode' for writing.

     Note that the file is always opened in binary mode.  To open a
     compressed file in text mode, use *note open(): 273c. (or wrap your
     *note GzipFile: 296. with an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.).

     The 'compresslevel' argument is an integer from ‘0’ to ‘9’
     controlling the level of compression; ‘1’ is fastest and produces
     the least compression, and ‘9’ is slowest and produces the most
     compression.  ‘0’ is no compression.  The default is ‘9’.

     The 'mtime' argument is an optional numeric timestamp to be written
     to the last modification time field in the stream when compressing.
     It should only be provided in compression mode.  If omitted or
     ‘None’, the current time is used.  See the *note mtime: 273d.
     attribute for more details.

     Calling a *note GzipFile: 296. object’s ‘close()’ method does not
     close 'fileobj', since you might wish to append more material after
     the compressed data.  This also allows you to pass an *note
     io.BytesIO: d38. object opened for writing as 'fileobj', and
     retrieve the resulting memory buffer using the *note io.BytesIO:
     d38. object’s *note getvalue(): 273e. method.

     *note GzipFile: 296. supports the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9.
     interface, including iteration and the *note with: 3dd. statement.
     Only the *note truncate(): 11bb. method isn’t implemented.

     *note GzipFile: 296. also provides the following method and
     attribute:

      -- Yöntemi: peek (n)

          Read 'n' uncompressed bytes without advancing the file
          position.  At most one single read on the compressed stream is
          done to satisfy the call.  The number of bytes returned may be
          more or less than requested.

               Not: While calling *note peek(): 10b1. does not change
               the file position of the *note GzipFile: 296, it may
               change the position of the underlying file object (e.g.
               if the *note GzipFile: 296. was constructed with the
               'fileobj' parameter).

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Özniteliği: mtime

          When decompressing, the value of the last modification time
          field in the most recently read header may be read from this
          attribute, as an integer.  The initial value before reading
          any headers is ‘None’.

          All ‘gzip’ compressed streams are required to contain this
          timestamp field.  Some programs, such as ‘gunzip’, make use of
          the timestamp.  The format is the same as the return value of
          *note time.time(): 94f. and the *note st_mtime: 273f.
          attribute of the object returned by *note os.stat(): 1c5.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The path to the gzip file on disk, as a *note str: 15d. or
          *note bytes: 2cb.  Equivalent to the output of *note
          os.fspath(): acf. on the original input path, with no other
          normalization, resolution or expansion.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added, along with the 'mtime' constructor argument and *note
     mtime: 273d. attribute.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Support for zero-padded and unseekable files
     was added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The *note io.BufferedIOBase.read1(): 2740.
     method is now implemented.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the ‘'x'’ and ‘'xb'’
     modes.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for writing arbitrary *note
     bytes-like objects: bb5.  The *note read(): 11d4. method now
     accepts an argument of ‘None’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute, use the
     *note name: 297. attribute instead.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Opening *note GzipFile: 296. for
     writing without specifying the 'mode' argument is deprecated.

 -- Işlevi: gzip.compress (data, compresslevel=9, *, mtime=None)

     Compress the 'data', returning a *note bytes: 2cb. object
     containing the compressed data.  'compresslevel' and 'mtime' have
     the same meaning as in the *note GzipFile: 296. constructor above.
     When 'mtime' is set to ‘0’, this function is equivalent to *note
     zlib.compress(): 452. with 'wbits' set to ‘31’.  The zlib function
     is faster.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'mtime' parameter for reproducible
     output.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Speed is improved by compressing all data
     at once instead of in a streamed fashion.  Calls with 'mtime' set
     to ‘0’ are delegated to *note zlib.compress(): 452. for better
     speed.  In this situation the output may contain a gzip header “OS”
     byte value other than 255 “unknown” as supplied by the underlying
     zlib implementation.

 -- Işlevi: gzip.decompress (data)

     Decompress the 'data', returning a *note bytes: 2cb. object
     containing the uncompressed data.  This function is capable of
     decompressing multi-member gzip data (multiple gzip blocks
     concatenated together).  When the data is certain to contain only
     one member the *note zlib.decompress(): b92. function with 'wbits'
     set to 31 is faster.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Speed is improved by decompressing members
     at once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

* Menu:

* Examples of usage::
* Command Line Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/gzip.py


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage,  Next: Command Line Interface,  Up: gzip — Support for gzip files

5.13.2.1 Examples of usage
..........................

Example of how to read a compressed file:

     import gzip
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'rb') as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Example of how to create a compressed GZIP file:

     import gzip
     content = b"Lots of content here"
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(content)

Example of how to GZIP compress an existing file:

     import gzip
     import shutil
     with open('/home/joe/file.txt', 'rb') as f_in:
         with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f_out:
             shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)

Example of how to GZIP compress a binary string:

     import gzip
     s_in = b"Lots of content here"
     s_out = gzip.compress(s_in)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note zlib: 133.

     The basic data compression module needed to support the ‘gzip’ file
     format.


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Interface,  Prev: Examples of usage,  Up: gzip — Support for gzip files

5.13.2.2 Command Line Interface
...............................

The *note gzip: 65. module provides a simple command line interface to
compress or decompress files.

Once executed the *note gzip: 65. module keeps the input file(s).

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Add a new command line interface with a usage.
By default, when you will execute the CLI, the default compression level
is 6.

* Menu:

* Command line options::


File: python.info,  Node: Command line options,  Up: Command Line Interface

5.13.2.3 Command line options
.............................

 -- Option: file

     If 'file' is not specified, read from *note sys.stdin: 2c9.

 -- Option: --fast

     Indicates the fastest compression method (less compression).

 -- Option: --best

     Indicates the slowest compression method (best compression).

 -- Option: -d, --decompress

     Decompress the given file.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message.


File: python.info,  Node: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression,  Next: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Prev: gzip — Support for gzip files,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.13.3 ‘bz2’ — Support for ‘bzip2’ compression
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/bz2.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a comprehensive interface for compressing and
decompressing data using the bzip2 compression algorithm.

The *note bz2: 13. module contains:

   * The *note open(): f38. function and *note BZ2File: 6aa. class for
     reading and writing compressed files.

   * The *note BZ2Compressor: 157a. and *note BZ2Decompressor: 1578.
     classes for incremental (de)compression.

   * The *note compress(): 2201. and *note decompress(): f39. functions
     for one-shot (de)compression.

* Menu:

* (De)compression of files: De compression of files.
* Incremental (de)compression: Incremental de compression.
* One-shot (de)compression: One-shot de compression.
* Examples of usage: Examples of usage<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/bz2.py


File: python.info,  Node: De compression of files,  Next: Incremental de compression,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.1 (De)compression of files
.................................

 -- Işlevi: bz2.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 1068.

     As with the constructor for *note BZ2File: 6aa, the 'filename'
     argument can be an actual filename (a *note str: 15d. or *note
     bytes: 2cb. object), or an existing file object to read from or
     write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’,
     ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’, ‘'a'’ or ‘'ab'’ for binary mode, or ‘'rt'’, ‘'wt'’,
     ‘'xt'’, or ‘'at'’ for text mode.  The default is ‘'rb'’.

     The 'compresslevel' argument is an integer from 1 to 9, as for the
     *note BZ2File: 6aa. constructor.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note BZ2File:
     6aa. constructor: ‘BZ2File(filename, mode,
     compresslevel=compresslevel)’.  In this case, the 'encoding',
     'errors' and 'newline' arguments must not be provided.

     For text mode, a *note BZ2File: 6aa. object is created, and wrapped
     in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. instance with the specified
     encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Sınıfı: bz2.BZ2File (filename, mode='r', *, compresslevel=9)

     Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode.

     If 'filename' is a *note str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. object,
     open the named file directly.  Otherwise, 'filename' should be a
     *note file object: 1068, which will be used to read or write the
     compressed data.

     The 'mode' argument can be either ‘'r'’ for reading (default),
     ‘'w'’ for overwriting, ‘'x'’ for exclusive creation, or ‘'a'’ for
     appending.  These can equivalently be given as ‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’,
     ‘'xb'’ and ‘'ab'’ respectively.

     If 'filename' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘'w'’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘'a'’.

     If 'mode' is ‘'w'’ or ‘'a'’, 'compresslevel' can be an integer
     between ‘1’ and ‘9’ specifying the level of compression: ‘1’
     produces the least compression, and ‘9’ (default) produces the most
     compression.

     If 'mode' is ‘'r'’, the input file may be the concatenation of
     multiple compressed streams.

     *note BZ2File: 6aa. provides all of the members specified by the
     *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9, except for *note detach(): 2750. and
     *note truncate(): 11bb.  Iteration and the *note with: 3dd.
     statement are supported.

     *note BZ2File: 6aa. also provides the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: peek ([n])

          Return buffered data without advancing the file position.  At
          least one byte of data will be returned (unless at EOF). The
          exact number of bytes returned is unspecified.

               Not: While calling *note peek(): 2751. does not change
               the file position of the *note BZ2File: 6aa, it may
               change the position of the underlying file object (e.g.
               if the *note BZ2File: 6aa. was constructed by passing a
               file object for 'filename').

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor for the underlying file.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: readable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for reading.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: writable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for writing.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: read1 (size=-1)

          Read up to 'size' uncompressed bytes, while trying to avoid
          making multiple reads from the underlying stream.  Reads up to
          a buffer’s worth of data if size is negative.

          Returns ‘b''’ if the file is at EOF.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: readinto (b)

          Read bytes into 'b'.

          Returns the number of bytes read (0 for EOF).

          Added in version 3.3.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support was added for 'filename' being a
     *note file object: 1068. instead of an actual filename.

     The ‘'a'’ (append) mode was added, along with support for reading
     multi-stream files.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The *note read(): 11d4. method now accepts
     an argument of ‘None’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'buffering' parameter has been removed.
     It was ignored and deprecated since Python 3.0.  Pass an open file
     object to control how the file is opened.

     The 'compresslevel' parameter became keyword-only.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This class is thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 65. and *note lzma: 89. have always been.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental de compression,  Next: One-shot de compression,  Prev: De compression of files,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.2 Incremental (de)compression
....................................

 -- Sınıfı: bz2.BZ2Compressor (compresslevel=9)

     Create a new compressor object.  This object may be used to
     compress data incrementally.  For one-shot compression, use the
     *note compress(): 2201. function instead.

     'compresslevel', if given, must be an integer between ‘1’ and ‘9’.
     The default is ‘9’.

      -- Yöntemi: compress (data)

          Provide data to the compressor object.  Returns a chunk of
          compressed data if possible, or an empty byte string
          otherwise.

          When you have finished providing data to the compressor, call
          the *note flush(): 275a. method to finish the compression
          process.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Finish the compression process.  Returns the compressed data
          left in internal buffers.

          The compressor object may not be used after this method has
          been called.

 -- Sınıfı: bz2.BZ2Decompressor

     Create a new decompressor object.  This object may be used to
     decompress data incrementally.  For one-shot compression, use the
     *note decompress(): f39. function instead.

          Not: This class does not transparently handle inputs
          containing multiple compressed streams, unlike *note
          decompress(): f39. and *note BZ2File: 6aa.  If you need to
          decompress a multi-stream input with *note BZ2Decompressor:
          1578, you must use a new decompressor for each stream.

      -- Yöntemi: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: bb5.), returning
          uncompressed data as bytes.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to *note decompress(): f39.
          The returned data should be concatenated with the output of
          any previous calls to *note decompress(): f39.

          If 'max_length' is nonnegative, returns at most 'max_length'
          bytes of decompressed data.  If this limit is reached and
          further output can be produced, the *note needs_input: 275b.
          attribute will be set to ‘False’.  In this case, the next call
          to *note decompress(): c59. may provide 'data' as ‘b''’ to
          obtain more of the output.

          If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
          because this was less than 'max_length' bytes, or because
          'max_length' was negative), the *note needs_input: 275b.
          attribute will be set to ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 1183.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 275c. attribute.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'max_length' parameter.

      -- Özniteliği: eof

          ‘True’ if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: unused_data

          Data found after the end of the compressed stream.

          If this attribute is accessed before the end of the stream has
          been reached, its value will be ‘b''’.

      -- Özniteliği: needs_input

          ‘False’ if the *note decompress(): c59. method can provide
          more decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed
          input.

          Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: One-shot de compression,  Next: Examples of usage<2>,  Prev: Incremental de compression,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.3 One-shot (de)compression
.................................

 -- Işlevi: bz2.compress (data, compresslevel=9)

     Compress 'data', a *note bytes-like object: bb5.

     'compresslevel', if given, must be an integer between ‘1’ and ‘9’.
     The default is ‘9’.

     For incremental compression, use a *note BZ2Compressor: 157a.
     instead.

 -- Işlevi: bz2.decompress (data)

     Decompress 'data', a *note bytes-like object: bb5.

     If 'data' is the concatenation of multiple compressed streams,
     decompress all of the streams.

     For incremental decompression, use a *note BZ2Decompressor: 1578.
     instead.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support for multi-stream inputs was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage<2>,  Prev: One-shot de compression,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.13.3.4 Examples of usage
..........................

Below are some examples of typical usage of the *note bz2: 13. module.

Using *note compress(): 2201. and *note decompress(): f39. to
demonstrate round-trip compression:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> c = bz2.compress(data)
     >>> len(data) / len(c)  # Data compression ratio
     1.513595166163142
     >>> d = bz2.decompress(c)
     >>> data == d  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True

Using *note BZ2Compressor: 157a. for incremental compression:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> def gen_data(chunks=10, chunksize=1000):
     ...     """Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes."""
     ...     for _ in range(chunks):
     ...         yield b"z" * chunksize
     ...
     >>> comp = bz2.BZ2Compressor()
     >>> out = b""
     >>> for chunk in gen_data():
     ...     # Provide data to the compressor object
     ...     out = out + comp.compress(chunk)
     ...
     >>> # Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have
     >>> # finished providing data to the compressor.
     >>> out = out + comp.flush()

The example above uses a very “nonrandom” stream of data (a stream of
‘b"z"’ chunks).  Random data tends to compress poorly, while ordered,
repetitive data usually yields a high compression ratio.

Writing and reading a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "wb") as f:
     ...     # Write compressed data to file
     ...     unused = f.write(data)
     ...
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "rb") as f:
     ...     # Decompress data from file
     ...     content = f.read()
     ...
     >>> content == data  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True


File: python.info,  Node: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Next: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives,  Prev: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.13.4 ‘lzma’ — Compression using the LZMA algorithm
----------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/lzma.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and convenience functions for compressing
and decompressing data using the LZMA compression algorithm.  Also
included is a file interface supporting the ‘.xz’ and legacy ‘.lzma’
file formats used by the ‘xz’ utility, as well as raw compressed
streams.

The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the
*note bz2: 13. module.  Note that *note LZMAFile: eb3. and *note
bz2.BZ2File: 6aa. are 'not' thread-safe, so if you need to use a single
*note LZMAFile: eb3. instance from multiple threads, it is necessary to
protect it with a lock.

 -- Özel Durum: lzma.LZMAError

     This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or
     decompression, or while initializing the compressor/decompressor
     state.

* Menu:

* Reading and writing compressed files::
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<2>.
* Specifying custom filter chains::
* Examples: Examples<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/lzma.py


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing compressed files,  Next: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.1 Reading and writing compressed files
.............................................

 -- Işlevi: lzma.open (filename, mode='rb', *, format=None, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 1068.

     The 'filename' argument can be either an actual file name (given as
     a *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb. or *note path-like: 98e.
     object), in which case the named file is opened, or it can be an
     existing file object to read from or write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘"r"’, ‘"rb"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"wb"’,
     ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’, ‘"a"’ or ‘"ab"’ for binary mode, or ‘"rt"’, ‘"wt"’,
     ‘"xt"’, or ‘"at"’ for text mode.  The default is ‘"rb"’.

     When opening a file for reading, the 'format' and 'filters'
     arguments have the same meanings as for *note LZMADecompressor:
     1577.  In this case, the 'check' and 'preset' arguments should not
     be used.

     When opening a file for writing, the 'format', 'check', 'preset'
     and 'filters' arguments have the same meanings as for *note
     LZMACompressor: 1579.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note LZMAFile:
     eb3. constructor: ‘LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...)’.  In this case,
     the 'encoding', 'errors' and 'newline' arguments must not be
     provided.

     For text mode, a *note LZMAFile: eb3. object is created, and
     wrapped in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. instance with the
     specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’ and
     ‘"xt"’ modes.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Sınıfı: lzma.LZMAFile (filename=None, mode='r', *, format=None,
          check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

     Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary mode.

     An *note LZMAFile: eb3. can wrap an already-open *note file object:
     1068, or operate directly on a named file.  The 'filename' argument
     specifies either the file object to wrap, or the name of the file
     to open (as a *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb. or *note path-like:
     98e. object).  When wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped
     file will not be closed when the *note LZMAFile: eb3. is closed.

     The 'mode' argument can be either ‘"r"’ for reading (default),
     ‘"w"’ for overwriting, ‘"x"’ for exclusive creation, or ‘"a"’ for
     appending.  These can equivalently be given as ‘"rb"’, ‘"wb"’,
     ‘"xb"’ and ‘"ab"’ respectively.

     If 'filename' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘"w"’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘"a"’.

     When opening a file for reading, the input file may be the
     concatenation of multiple separate compressed streams.  These are
     transparently decoded as a single logical stream.

     When opening a file for reading, the 'format' and 'filters'
     arguments have the same meanings as for *note LZMADecompressor:
     1577.  In this case, the 'check' and 'preset' arguments should not
     be used.

     When opening a file for writing, the 'format', 'check', 'preset'
     and 'filters' arguments have the same meanings as for *note
     LZMACompressor: 1579.

     *note LZMAFile: eb3. supports all the members specified by *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9, except for *note detach(): 2750. and *note
     truncate(): 11bb.  Iteration and the *note with: 3dd. statement are
     supported.

     The following method is also provided:

      -- Yöntemi: peek (size=-1)

          Return buffered data without advancing the file position.  At
          least one byte of data will be returned, unless EOF has been
          reached.  The exact number of bytes returned is unspecified
          (the 'size' argument is ignored).

               Not: While calling *note peek(): 2766. does not change
               the file position of the *note LZMAFile: eb3, it may
               change the position of the underlying file object (e.g.
               if the *note LZMAFile: eb3. was constructed by passing a
               file object for 'filename').

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the ‘"x"’ and ‘"xb"’
     modes.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The *note read(): 11d4. method now accepts
     an argument of ‘None’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.


File: python.info,  Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Next: Miscellaneous<2>,  Prev: Reading and writing compressed files,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.2 Compressing and decompressing data in memory
.....................................................

 -- Sınıfı: lzma.LZMACompressor (format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None)

     Create a compressor object, which can be used to compress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data,
     see *note compress(): 2768.

     The 'format' argument specifies what container format should be
     used.  Possible values are:

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_XZ’: The ‘.xz’ container format.

               This is the default format.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_ALONE’: The legacy ‘.lzma’ container format.

               This format is more limited than ‘.xz’ – it does not
               support integrity checks or multiple filters.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’: A raw data stream, not using any container format.

               This format specifier does not support integrity checks,
               and requires that you always specify a custom filter
               chain (for both compression and decompression).
               Additionally, data compressed in this manner cannot be
               decompressed using ‘FORMAT_AUTO’ (see *note
               LZMADecompressor: 1577.).

     The 'check' argument specifies the type of integrity check to
     include in the compressed data.  This check is used when
     decompressing, to ensure that the data has not been corrupted.
     Possible values are:

        * ‘CHECK_NONE’: No integrity check.  This is the default (and
          the only acceptable value) for ‘FORMAT_ALONE’ and
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC32’: 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC64’: 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.  This is the
          default for ‘FORMAT_XZ’.

        * ‘CHECK_SHA256’: 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm.

     If the specified check is not supported, an *note LZMAError: 2763.
     is raised.

     The compression settings can be specified either as a preset
     compression level (with the 'preset' argument), or in detail as a
     custom filter chain (with the 'filters' argument).

     The 'preset' argument (if provided) should be an integer between
     ‘0’ and ‘9’ (inclusive), optionally OR-ed with the constant
     ‘PRESET_EXTREME’.  If neither 'preset' nor 'filters' are given, the
     default behavior is to use ‘PRESET_DEFAULT’ (preset level ‘6’).
     Higher presets produce smaller output, but make the compression
     process slower.

          Not: In addition to being more CPU-intensive, compression with
          higher presets also requires much more memory (and produces
          output that needs more memory to decompress).  With preset ‘9’
          for example, the overhead for an *note LZMACompressor: 1579.
          object can be as high as 800 MiB. For this reason, it is
          generally best to stick with the default preset.

     The 'filters' argument (if provided) should be a filter chain
     specifier.  See *note Specifying custom filter chains: 2769. for
     details.

      -- Yöntemi: compress (data)

          Compress 'data' (a *note bytes: 2cb. object), returning a
          *note bytes: 2cb. object containing compressed data for at
          least part of the input.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to *note compress(): 2768.
          and *note flush(): 276b.  The returned data should be
          concatenated with the output of any previous calls to *note
          compress(): 2768.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Finish the compression process, returning a *note bytes: 2cb.
          object containing any data stored in the compressor’s internal
          buffers.

          The compressor cannot be used after this method has been
          called.

 -- Sınıfı: lzma.LZMADecompressor (format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Create a decompressor object, which can be used to decompress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed
     stream at once, see *note decompress(): 276c.

     The 'format' argument specifies the container format that should be
     used.  The default is ‘FORMAT_AUTO’, which can decompress both
     ‘.xz’ and ‘.lzma’ files.  Other possible values are ‘FORMAT_XZ’,
     ‘FORMAT_ALONE’, and ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

     The 'memlimit' argument specifies a limit (in bytes) on the amount
     of memory that the decompressor can use.  When this argument is
     used, decompression will fail with an *note LZMAError: 2763. if it
     is not possible to decompress the input within the given memory
     limit.

     The 'filters' argument specifies the filter chain that was used to
     create the stream being decompressed.  This argument is required if
     'format' is ‘FORMAT_RAW’, but should not be used for other formats.
     See *note Specifying custom filter chains: 2769. for more
     information about filter chains.

          Not: This class does not transparently handle inputs
          containing multiple compressed streams, unlike *note
          decompress(): 276c. and *note LZMAFile: eb3.  To decompress a
          multi-stream input with *note LZMADecompressor: 1577, you must
          create a new decompressor for each stream.

      -- Yöntemi: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: bb5.), returning
          uncompressed data as bytes.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to *note decompress():
          276c.  The returned data should be concatenated with the
          output of any previous calls to *note decompress(): 276c.

          If 'max_length' is nonnegative, returns at most 'max_length'
          bytes of decompressed data.  If this limit is reached and
          further output can be produced, the *note needs_input: 276d.
          attribute will be set to ‘False’.  In this case, the next call
          to *note decompress(): cbe. may provide 'data' as ‘b''’ to
          obtain more of the output.

          If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
          because this was less than 'max_length' bytes, or because
          'max_length' was negative), the *note needs_input: 276d.
          attribute will be set to ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 1183.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 276e. attribute.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'max_length' parameter.

      -- Özniteliği: check

          The ID of the integrity check used by the input stream.  This
          may be ‘CHECK_UNKNOWN’ until enough of the input has been
          decoded to determine what integrity check it uses.

      -- Özniteliği: eof

          ‘True’ if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.

      -- Özniteliği: unused_data

          Data found after the end of the compressed stream.

          Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be ‘b""’.

      -- Özniteliği: needs_input

          ‘False’ if the *note decompress(): cbe. method can provide
          more decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed
          input.

          Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: lzma.compress (data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None)

     Compress 'data' (a *note bytes: 2cb. object), returning the
     compressed data as a *note bytes: 2cb. object.

     See *note LZMACompressor: 1579. above for a description of the
     'format', 'check', 'preset' and 'filters' arguments.

 -- Işlevi: lzma.decompress (data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes: 2cb. object), returning the
     uncompressed data as a *note bytes: 2cb. object.

     If 'data' is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed
     streams, decompress all of these streams, and return the
     concatenation of the results.

     See *note LZMADecompressor: 1577. above for a description of the
     'format', 'memlimit' and 'filters' arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous<2>,  Next: Specifying custom filter chains,  Prev: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.3 Miscellaneous
......................

 -- Işlevi: lzma.is_check_supported (check)

     Return ‘True’ if the given integrity check is supported on this
     system.

     ‘CHECK_NONE’ and ‘CHECK_CRC32’ are always supported.  ‘CHECK_CRC64’
     and ‘CHECK_SHA256’ may be unavailable if you are using a version of
     ‘liblzma’ that was compiled with a limited feature set.


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying custom filter chains,  Next: Examples<7>,  Prev: Miscellaneous<2>,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.4 Specifying custom filter chains
........................................

A filter chain specifier is a sequence of dictionaries, where each
dictionary contains the ID and options for a single filter.  Each
dictionary must contain the key ‘"id"’, and may contain additional keys
to specify filter-dependent options.  Valid filter IDs are as follows:

   * Compression filters:

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA1’ (for use with ‘FORMAT_ALONE’)

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA2’ (for use with ‘FORMAT_XZ’ and ‘FORMAT_RAW’)

   * Delta filter:

        * ‘FILTER_DELTA’

   * Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) filters:

        * ‘FILTER_X86’

        * ‘FILTER_IA64’

        * ‘FILTER_ARM’

        * ‘FILTER_ARMTHUMB’

        * ‘FILTER_POWERPC’

        * ‘FILTER_SPARC’

A filter chain can consist of up to 4 filters, and cannot be empty.  The
last filter in the chain must be a compression filter, and any other
filters must be delta or BCJ filters.

Compression filters support the following options (specified as
additional entries in the dictionary representing the filter):

   * ‘preset’: A compression preset to use as a source of default values
     for options that are not specified explicitly.

   * ‘dict_size’: Dictionary size in bytes.  This should be between 4
     KiB and 1.5 GiB (inclusive).

   * ‘lc’: Number of literal context bits.

   * ‘lp’: Number of literal position bits.  The sum ‘lc + lp’ must be
     at most 4.

   * ‘pb’: Number of position bits; must be at most 4.

   * ‘mode’: ‘MODE_FAST’ or ‘MODE_NORMAL’.

   * ‘nice_len’: What should be considered a “nice length” for a match.
     This should be 273 or less.

   * ‘mf’: What match finder to use – ‘MF_HC3’, ‘MF_HC4’, ‘MF_BT2’,
     ‘MF_BT3’, or ‘MF_BT4’.

   * ‘depth’: Maximum search depth used by match finder.  0 (default)
     means to select automatically based on other filter options.

The delta filter stores the differences between bytes, producing more
repetitive input for the compressor in certain circumstances.  It
supports one option, ‘dist’.  This indicates the distance between bytes
to be subtracted.  The default is 1, i.e.  take the differences between
adjacent bytes.

The BCJ filters are intended to be applied to machine code.  They
convert relative branches, calls and jumps in the code to use absolute
addressing, with the aim of increasing the redundancy that can be
exploited by the compressor.  These filters support one option,
‘start_offset’.  This specifies the address that should be mapped to the
beginning of the input data.  The default is 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<7>,  Prev: Specifying custom filter chains,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.13.4.5 Examples
.................

Reading in a compressed file:

     import lzma
     with lzma.open("file.xz") as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Creating a compressed file:

     import lzma
     data = b"Insert Data Here"
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w") as f:
         f.write(data)

Compressing data in memory:

     import lzma
     data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
     data_out = lzma.compress(data_in)

Incremental compression:

     import lzma
     lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor()
     out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n")
     out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
     out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n")
     out4 = lzc.flush()
     # Concatenate all the partial results:
     result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

Writing compressed data to an already-open file:

     import lzma
     with open("file.xz", "wb") as f:
         f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
         with lzma.open(f, "w") as lzf:
             lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
         f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

Creating a compressed file using a custom filter chain:

     import lzma
     my_filters = [
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5},
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME},
     ]
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f:
         f.write(b"blah blah blah")


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives,  Next: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files,  Prev: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.13.5 ‘zipfile’ — Work with ZIP archives
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/zipfile/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ZIP file format is a common archive and compression standard.  This
module provides tools to create, read, write, append, and list a ZIP
file.  Any advanced use of this module will require an understanding of
the format, as defined in PKZIP Application Note(2).

This module does not currently handle multi-disk ZIP files.  It can
handle ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions (that is ZIP files that
are more than 4 GiB in size).  It supports decryption of encrypted files
in ZIP archives, but it currently cannot create an encrypted file.
Decryption is extremely slow as it is implemented in native Python
rather than C.

The module defines the following items:

 -- Özel Durum: zipfile.BadZipFile

     The error raised for bad ZIP files.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Özel Durum: zipfile.BadZipfile

     Alias of *note BadZipFile: 1600, for compatibility with older
     Python versions.

     3.2 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Özel Durum: zipfile.LargeZipFile

     The error raised when a ZIP file would require ZIP64 functionality
     but that has not been enabled.

 -- Sınıfı: zipfile.ZipFile

     The class for reading and writing ZIP files.  See section *note
     ZipFile Objects: 2779. for constructor details.

 -- Sınıfı: zipfile.Path

     Class that implements a subset of the interface provided by *note
     pathlib.Path: 14f, including the full *note
     importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 232. interface.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Sınıfı: zipfile.PyZipFile

     Class for creating ZIP archives containing Python libraries.

 -- Sınıfı: zipfile.ZipInfo (filename='NoName', date_time=(1980, 1, 1,
          0, 0, 0))

     Class used to represent information about a member of an archive.
     Instances of this class are returned by the *note getinfo(): 277a.
     and *note infolist(): 277b. methods of *note ZipFile: 4dc. objects.
     Most users of the *note zipfile: 131. module will not need to
     create these, but only use those created by this module.
     'filename' should be the full name of the archive member, and
     'date_time' should be a tuple containing six fields which describe
     the time of the last modification to the file; the fields are
     described in section *note ZipInfo Objects: 277c.

 -- Işlevi: zipfile.is_zipfile (filename)

     Returns ‘True’ if 'filename' is a valid ZIP file based on its magic
     number, otherwise returns ‘False’.  'filename' may be a file or
     file-like object too.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Support for file and file-like objects.

 -- Verisi: zipfile.ZIP_STORED

     The numeric constant for an uncompressed archive member.

 -- Verisi: zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED

     The numeric constant for the usual ZIP compression method.  This
     requires the *note zlib: 133. module.

 -- Verisi: zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2

     The numeric constant for the BZIP2 compression method.  This
     requires the *note bz2: 13. module.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: zipfile.ZIP_LZMA

     The numeric constant for the LZMA compression method.  This
     requires the *note lzma: 89. module.

     Added in version 3.3.

          Not: The ZIP file format specification has included support
          for bzip2 compression since 2001, and for LZMA compression
          since 2006.  However, some tools (including older Python
          releases) do not support these compression methods, and may
          either refuse to process the ZIP file altogether, or fail to
          extract individual files.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PKZIP Application Note(3)

     Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of
     the format and algorithms used.

Info-ZIP Home Page(4)

     Information about the Info-ZIP project’s ZIP archive programs and
     development libraries.

* Menu:

* ZipFile Objects::
* Path Objects::
* PyZipFile Objects::
* ZipInfo Objects::
* Command-Line Interface::
* Decompression pitfalls::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zipfile/

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (4) https://infozip.sourceforge.net/


File: python.info,  Node: ZipFile Objects,  Next: Path Objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.1 ZipFile Objects
........................

 -- Sınıfı: zipfile.ZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, compresslevel=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True, metadata_encoding=None)

     Open a ZIP file, where 'file' can be a path to a file (a string), a
     file-like object or a *note path-like object: 98e.

     The 'mode' parameter should be ‘'r'’ to read an existing file,
     ‘'w'’ to truncate and write a new file, ‘'a'’ to append to an
     existing file, or ‘'x'’ to exclusively create and write a new file.
     If 'mode' is ‘'x'’ and 'file' refers to an existing file, a *note
     FileExistsError: ec8. will be raised.  If 'mode' is ‘'a'’ and
     'file' refers to an existing ZIP file, then additional files are
     added to it.  If 'file' does not refer to a ZIP file, then a new
     ZIP archive is appended to the file.  This is meant for adding a
     ZIP archive to another file (such as ‘python.exe’).  If 'mode' is
     ‘'a'’ and the file does not exist at all, it is created.  If 'mode'
     is ‘'r'’ or ‘'a'’, the file should be seekable.

     'compression' is the ZIP compression method to use when writing the
     archive, and should be *note ZIP_STORED: 277d, *note ZIP_DEFLATED:
     277e, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 277f. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 2780.; unrecognized
     values will cause *note NotImplementedError: bd6. to be raised.  If
     *note ZIP_DEFLATED: 277e, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 277f. or *note ZIP_LZMA:
     2780. is specified but the corresponding module (*note zlib: 133,
     *note bz2: 13. or *note lzma: 89.) is not available, *note
     RuntimeError: 180. is raised.  The default is *note ZIP_STORED:
     277d.

     If 'allowZip64' is ‘True’ (the default) zipfile will create ZIP
     files that use the ZIP64 extensions when the zipfile is larger than
     4 GiB. If it is ‘false’ *note zipfile: 131. will raise an exception
     when the ZIP file would require ZIP64 extensions.

     The 'compresslevel' parameter controls the compression level to use
     when writing files to the archive.  When using *note ZIP_STORED:
     277d. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 2780. it has no effect.  When using *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 277e. integers ‘0’ through ‘9’ are accepted (see
     *note zlib: 272e. for more information).  When using *note
     ZIP_BZIP2: 277f. integers ‘1’ through ‘9’ are accepted (see *note
     bz2: 6aa. for more information).

     The 'strict_timestamps' argument, when set to ‘False’, allows to
     zip files older than 1980-01-01 at the cost of setting the
     timestamp to 1980-01-01.  Similar behavior occurs with files newer
     than 2107-12-31, the timestamp is also set to the limit.

     When mode is ‘'r'’, 'metadata_encoding' may be set to the name of a
     codec, which will be used to decode metadata such as the names of
     members and ZIP comments.

     If the file is created with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’ and then
     *note closed: 2782. without adding any files to the archive, the
     appropriate ZIP structures for an empty archive will be written to
     the file.

     ZipFile is also a context manager and therefore supports the *note
     with: 3dd. statement.  In the example, 'myzip' is closed after the
     ‘with’ statement’s suite is finished—even if an exception occurs:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip', 'w') as myzip:
              myzip.write('eggs.txt')

          Not: 'metadata_encoding' is an instance-wide setting for the
          ZipFile.  It is not currently possible to set this on a
          per-member basis.

          This attribute is a workaround for legacy implementations
          which produce archives with names in the current locale
          encoding or code page (mostly on Windows).  According to the
          .ZIP standard, the encoding of metadata may be specified to be
          either IBM code page (default) or UTF-8 by a flag in the
          archive header.  That flag takes precedence over
          'metadata_encoding', which is a Python-specific extension.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the ability to use *note ZipFile: 4dc.
     as a context manager.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for *note bzip2: 13. and *note
     lzma: 89. compression.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for writing to unseekable
     streams.  Added support for the ‘'x'’ mode.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Previously, a plain *note RuntimeError: 180.
     was raised for unrecognized compression values.

     3.6.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'file' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Add the 'compresslevel' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'strict_timestamps' keyword-only
     parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying member name
     encoding for reading metadata in the zipfile’s directory and file
     headers.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.close ()

     Close the archive file.  You must call *note close(): 2782. before
     exiting your program or essential records will not be written.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.getinfo (name)

     Return a *note ZipInfo: b8e. object with information about the
     archive member 'name'.  Calling *note getinfo(): 277a. for a name
     not currently contained in the archive will raise a *note KeyError:
     903.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.infolist ()

     Return a list containing a *note ZipInfo: b8e. object for each
     member of the archive.  The objects are in the same order as their
     entries in the actual ZIP file on disk if an existing archive was
     opened.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.namelist ()

     Return a list of archive members by name.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.open (name, mode='r', pwd=None, *,
          force_zip64=False)

     Access a member of the archive as a binary file-like object.
     'name' can be either the name of a file within the archive or a
     *note ZipInfo: b8e. object.  The 'mode' parameter, if included,
     must be ‘'r'’ (the default) or ‘'w'’.  'pwd' is the password used
     to decrypt encrypted ZIP files as a *note bytes: 2cb. object.

     *note open(): b90. is also a context manager and therefore supports
     the *note with: 3dd. statement:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip') as myzip:
              with myzip.open('eggs.txt') as myfile:
                  print(myfile.read())

     With 'mode' ‘'r'’ the file-like object (‘ZipExtFile’) is read-only
     and provides the following methods: *note read(): 11d4, *note
     readline(): 11d5, *note readlines(): 2122, *note seek(): 1135,
     *note tell(): 2784, *note __iter__(): 1b0b, *note __next__(): 1176.
     These objects can operate independently of the ZipFile.

     With ‘mode='w'’, a writable file handle is returned, which supports
     the *note write(): b5e. method.  While a writable file handle is
     open, attempting to read or write other files in the ZIP file will
     raise a *note ValueError: 189.

     When writing a file, if the file size is not known in advance but
     may exceed 2 GiB, pass ‘force_zip64=True’ to ensure that the header
     format is capable of supporting large files.  If the file size is
     known in advance, construct a *note ZipInfo: b8e. object with *note
     file_size: 2785. set, and use that as the 'name' parameter.

          Not: The *note open(): b90, *note read(): 2786. and *note
          extract(): 2787. methods can take a filename or a *note
          ZipInfo: b8e. object.  You will appreciate this when trying to
          read a ZIP file that contains members with duplicate names.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Removed support of ‘mode='U'’.  Use *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. for reading compressed text files in *note
     universal newlines: bc2. mode.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note ZipFile.open(): b90. can now be used
     to write files into the archive with the ‘mode='w'’ option.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note open(): b90. on a closed
     ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError: 189.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 180. was raised.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.extract (member, path=None, pwd=None)

     Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory;
     'member' must be its full name or a *note ZipInfo: b8e. object.
     Its file information is extracted as accurately as possible.
     'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.  'member' can
     be a filename or a *note ZipInfo: b8e. object.  'pwd' is the
     password used for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 2cb. object.

     Returns the normalized path created (a directory or new file).

          Not: If a member filename is an absolute path, a drive/UNC
          sharepoint and leading (back)slashes will be stripped, e.g.:
          ‘///foo/bar’ becomes ‘foo/bar’ on Unix, and ‘C:\foo\bar’
          becomes ‘foo\bar’ on Windows.  And all ‘".."’ components in a
          member filename will be removed, e.g.: ‘../../foo../../ba..r’
          becomes ‘foo../ba..r’.  On Windows illegal characters (‘:’,
          ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘|’, ‘"’, ‘?’, and ‘*’) replaced by underscore
          (‘_’).

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note extract(): 2787. on a closed
     ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError: 189.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 180. was raised.

     3.6.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.extractall (path=None, members=None, pwd=None)

     Extract all members from the archive to the current working
     directory.  'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.
     'members' is optional and must be a subset of the list returned by
     *note namelist(): 2783.  'pwd' is the password used for encrypted
     files as a *note bytes: 2cb. object.

          Uyarı: Never extract archives from untrusted sources without
          prior inspection.  It is possible that files are created
          outside of 'path', e.g.  members that have absolute filenames
          starting with ‘"/"’ or filenames with two dots ‘".."’.  This
          module attempts to prevent that.  See *note extract(): 2787.
          note.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note extractall(): 2788. on a
     closed ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError: 189.  Previously, a
     *note RuntimeError: 180. was raised.

     3.6.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.printdir ()

     Print a table of contents for the archive to ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.setpassword (pwd)

     Set 'pwd' (a *note bytes: 2cb. object) as default password to
     extract encrypted files.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.read (name, pwd=None)

     Return the bytes of the file 'name' in the archive.  'name' is the
     name of the file in the archive, or a *note ZipInfo: b8e. object.
     The archive must be open for read or append.  'pwd' is the password
     used for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 2cb. object and, if
     specified, overrides the default password set with *note
     setpassword(): 278a.  Calling *note read(): 2786. on a ZipFile that
     uses a compression method other than *note ZIP_STORED: 277d, *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 277e, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 277f. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 2780.
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bd6.  An error will also be
     raised if the corresponding compression module is not available.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note read(): 2786. on a closed
     ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError: 189.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 180. was raised.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.testzip ()

     Read all the files in the archive and check their CRC’s and file
     headers.  Return the name of the first bad file, or else return
     ‘None’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note testzip(): 278b. on a closed
     ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError: 189.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 180. was raised.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.write (filename, arcname=None, compress_type=None,
          compresslevel=None)

     Write the file named 'filename' to the archive, giving it the
     archive name 'arcname' (by default, this will be the same as
     'filename', but without a drive letter and with leading path
     separators removed).  If given, 'compress_type' overrides the value
     given for the 'compression' parameter to the constructor for the
     new entry.  Similarly, 'compresslevel' will override the
     constructor if given.  The archive must be open with mode ‘'w'’,
     ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

          Not: The ZIP file standard historically did not specify a
          metadata encoding, but strongly recommended CP437 (the
          original IBM PC encoding) for interoperability.  Recent
          versions allow use of UTF-8 (only).  In this module, UTF-8
          will automatically be used to write the member names if they
          contain any non-ASCII characters.  It is not possible to write
          member names in any encoding other than ASCII or UTF-8.

          Not: Archive names should be relative to the archive root,
          that is, they should not start with a path separator.

          Not: If ‘arcname’ (or ‘filename’, if ‘arcname’ is not given)
          contains a null byte, the name of the file in the archive will
          be truncated at the null byte.

          Not: A leading slash in the filename may lead to the archive
          being impossible to open in some zip programs on Windows
          systems.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note write(): bd7. on a ZipFile
     created with mode ‘'r'’ or a closed ZipFile will raise a *note
     ValueError: 189.  Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 180. was
     raised.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.writestr (zinfo_or_arcname, data,
          compress_type=None, compresslevel=None)

     Write a file into the archive.  The contents is 'data', which may
     be either a *note str: 15d. or a *note bytes: 2cb. instance; if it
     is a *note str: 15d, it is encoded as UTF-8 first.
     'zinfo_or_arcname' is either the file name it will be given in the
     archive, or a *note ZipInfo: b8e. instance.  If it’s an instance,
     at least the filename, date, and time must be given.  If it’s a
     name, the date and time is set to the current date and time.  The
     archive must be opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     If given, 'compress_type' overrides the value given for the
     'compression' parameter to the constructor for the new entry, or in
     the 'zinfo_or_arcname' (if that is a *note ZipInfo: b8e. instance).
     Similarly, 'compresslevel' will override the constructor if given.

          Not: When passing a *note ZipInfo: b8e. instance as the
          'zinfo_or_arcname' parameter, the compression method used will
          be that specified in the 'compress_type' member of the given
          *note ZipInfo: b8e. instance.  By default, the *note ZipInfo:
          b8e. constructor sets this member to *note ZIP_STORED: 277d.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'compress_type' argument.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note writestr(): 11d7. on a ZipFile
     created with mode ‘'r'’ or a closed ZipFile will raise a *note
     ValueError: 189.  Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 180. was
     raised.

 -- Yöntemi: ZipFile.mkdir (zinfo_or_directory, mode=511)

     Create a directory inside the archive.  If 'zinfo_or_directory' is
     a string, a directory is created inside the archive with the mode
     that is specified in the 'mode' argument.  If, however,
     'zinfo_or_directory' is a *note ZipInfo: b8e. instance then the
     'mode' argument is ignored.

     The archive must be opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     Added in version 3.11.

The following data attributes are also available:

 -- Özniteliği: ZipFile.filename

     Name of the ZIP file.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipFile.debug

     The level of debug output to use.  This may be set from ‘0’ (the
     default, no output) to ‘3’ (the most output).  Debugging
     information is written to ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipFile.comment

     The comment associated with the ZIP file as a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object.  If assigning a comment to a *note ZipFile: 4dc. instance
     created with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’, it should be no longer
     than 65535 bytes.  Comments longer than this will be truncated.


File: python.info,  Node: Path Objects,  Next: PyZipFile Objects,  Prev: ZipFile Objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.2 Path Objects
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: zipfile.Path (root, at='')

     Construct a Path object from a ‘root’ zipfile (which may be a *note
     ZipFile: 4dc. instance or ‘file’ suitable for passing to the *note
     ZipFile: 4dc. constructor).

     ‘at’ specifies the location of this Path within the zipfile, e.g.
     ‘dir/file.txt’, ‘dir/’, or ‘’.  Defaults to the empty string,
     indicating the root.

          Not: The *note Path: 4e1. class does not sanitize filenames
          within the ZIP archive.  Unlike the *note ZipFile.extract():
          2787. and *note ZipFile.extractall(): 2788. methods, it is the
          caller’s responsibility to validate or sanitize filenames to
          prevent path traversal vulnerabilities (e.g., filenames
          containing “..” or absolute paths).  When handling untrusted
          archives, consider resolving filenames using *note
          os.path.abspath(): 11c6. and checking against the target
          directory with *note os.path.commonpath(): ccd.

Path objects expose the following features of *note pathlib.Path: 14f.
objects:

Path objects are traversable using the ‘/’ operator or ‘joinpath’.

 -- Özniteliği: Path.name

     The final path component.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.open (mode='r', *, pwd, **)

     Invoke *note ZipFile.open(): b90. on the current path.  Allows
     opening for read or write, text or binary through supported modes:
     ‘r’, ‘w’, ‘rb’, ‘wb’.  Positional and keyword arguments are passed
     through to *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. when opened as text and
     ignored otherwise.  ‘pwd’ is the ‘pwd’ parameter to *note
     ZipFile.open(): b90.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added support for text and binary modes for
     open.  Default mode is now text.

     3.11.2 sürümünde değişti: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied
     as a positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     As it could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched
     3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.iterdir ()

     Enumerate the children of the current directory.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_dir ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a directory.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.is_file ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a file.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.exists ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a file or directory
     in the zip file.

 -- Verisi: Path.suffix

     The file extension of the final component.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Path.suffix: 4df. property.

 -- Verisi: Path.stem

     The final path component, without its suffix.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Path.stem: 4de. property.

 -- Verisi: Path.suffixes

     A list of the path’s file extensions.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Path.suffixes: 4e0. property.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.read_text (*, **)

     Read the current file as unicode text.  Positional and keyword
     arguments are passed through to *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.
     (except ‘buffer’, which is implied by the context).

     3.11.2 sürümünde değişti: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied
     as a positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     As it could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched
     3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.read_bytes ()

     Read the current file as bytes.

 -- Yöntemi: Path.joinpath (*other)

     Return a new Path object with each of the 'other' arguments joined.
     The following are equivalent:

          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child').joinpath('grandchild')
          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child', 'grandchild')
          >>> Path(...) / 'child' / 'grandchild'

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Prior to 3.10, ‘joinpath’ was undocumented
     and accepted exactly one parameter.

The zipp(1) project provides backports of the latest path object
functionality to older Pythons.  Use ‘zipp.Path’ in place of
‘zipfile.Path’ for early access to changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/zipp/


File: python.info,  Node: PyZipFile Objects,  Next: ZipInfo Objects,  Prev: Path Objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.3 PyZipFile Objects
..........................

The *note PyZipFile: ea0. constructor takes the same parameters as the
*note ZipFile: 4dc. constructor, and one additional parameter,
'optimize'.

 -- Sınıfı: zipfile.PyZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, optimize=-1)

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'optimize' parameter.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.

     Instances have one method in addition to those of *note ZipFile:
     4dc. objects:

      -- Yöntemi: writepy (pathname, basename='', filterfunc=None)

          Search for files ‘*.py’ and add the corresponding file to the
          archive.

          If the 'optimize' parameter to *note PyZipFile: ea0. was not
          given or ‘-1’, the corresponding file is a ‘*.pyc’ file,
          compiling if necessary.

          If the 'optimize' parameter to *note PyZipFile: ea0. was ‘0’,
          ‘1’ or ‘2’, only files with that optimization level (see *note
          compile(): 56d.) are added to the archive, compiling if
          necessary.

          If 'pathname' is a file, the filename must end with ‘.py’, and
          just the (corresponding ‘*.pyc’) file is added at the top
          level (no path information).  If 'pathname' is a file that
          does not end with ‘.py’, a *note RuntimeError: 180. will be
          raised.  If it is a directory, and the directory is not a
          package directory, then all the files ‘*.pyc’ are added at the
          top level.  If the directory is a package directory, then all
          ‘*.pyc’ are added under the package name as a file path, and
          if any subdirectories are package directories, all of these
          are added recursively in sorted order.

          'basename' is intended for internal use only.

          'filterfunc', if given, must be a function taking a single
          string argument.  It will be passed each path (including each
          individual full file path) before it is added to the archive.
          If 'filterfunc' returns a false value, the path will not be
          added, and if it is a directory its contents will be ignored.
          For example, if our test files are all either in ‘test’
          directories or start with the string ‘test_’, we can use a
          'filterfunc' to exclude them:

               >>> zf = PyZipFile('myprog.zip')
               >>> def notests(s):
               ...     fn = os.path.basename(s)
               ...     return (not (fn == 'test' or fn.startswith('test_')))
               ...
               >>> zf.writepy('myprog', filterfunc=notests)

          The *note writepy(): e9f. method makes archives with file
          names like this:

               string.pyc                   # Top level name
               test/__init__.pyc            # Package directory
               test/testall.pyc             # Module test.testall
               test/bogus/__init__.pyc      # Subpackage directory
               test/bogus/myfile.pyc        # Submodule test.bogus.myfile

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'filterfunc' parameter.

          3.6.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'pathname' parameter accepts a
          *note path-like object: 98e.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: Recursion sorts directory entries.


File: python.info,  Node: ZipInfo Objects,  Next: Command-Line Interface,  Prev: PyZipFile Objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.4 ZipInfo Objects
........................

Instances of the *note ZipInfo: b8e. class are returned by the *note
getinfo(): 277a. and *note infolist(): 277b. methods of *note ZipFile:
4dc. objects.  Each object stores information about a single member of
the ZIP archive.

There is one classmethod to make a *note ZipInfo: b8e. instance for a
filesystem file:

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod ZipInfo.from_file (filename, arcname=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True)

     Construct a *note ZipInfo: b8e. instance for a file on the
     filesystem, in preparation for adding it to a zip file.

     'filename' should be the path to a file or directory on the
     filesystem.

     If 'arcname' is specified, it is used as the name within the
     archive.  If 'arcname' is not specified, the name will be the same
     as 'filename', but with any drive letter and leading path
     separators removed.

     The 'strict_timestamps' argument, when set to ‘False’, allows to
     zip files older than 1980-01-01 at the cost of setting the
     timestamp to 1980-01-01.  Similar behavior occurs with files newer
     than 2107-12-31, the timestamp is also set to the limit.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.6.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'filename' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'strict_timestamps' keyword-only
     parameter.

Instances have the following methods and attributes:

 -- Yöntemi: ZipInfo.is_dir ()

     Return ‘True’ if this archive member is a directory.

     This uses the entry’s name: directories should always end with ‘/’.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.filename

     Name of the file in the archive.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.date_time

     The time and date of the last modification to the archive member.
     This is a tuple of six values:

     Index       Value
                 
     -------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         Year (>= 1980)
                 
                 
     ‘1’         Month (one-based)
                 
                 
     ‘2’         Day of month (one-based)
                 
                 
     ‘3’         Hours (zero-based)
                 
                 
     ‘4’         Minutes (zero-based)
                 
                 
     ‘5’         Seconds (zero-based)
                 

          Not: The ZIP file format does not support timestamps before
          1980.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.compress_type

     Type of compression for the archive member.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.comment

     Comment for the individual archive member as a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.extra

     Expansion field data.  The PKZIP Application Note(1) contains some
     comments on the internal structure of the data contained in this
     *note bytes: 2cb. object.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.create_system

     System which created ZIP archive.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.create_version

     PKZIP version which created ZIP archive.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.extract_version

     PKZIP version needed to extract archive.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.reserved

     Must be zero.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.flag_bits

     ZIP flag bits.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.volume

     Volume number of file header.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.internal_attr

     Internal attributes.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.external_attr

     External file attributes.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.header_offset

     Byte offset to the file header.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.CRC

     CRC-32 of the uncompressed file.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.compress_size

     Size of the compressed data.

 -- Özniteliği: ZipInfo.file_size

     Size of the uncompressed file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface,  Next: Decompression pitfalls,  Prev: ZipInfo Objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.5 Command-Line Interface
...............................

The *note zipfile: 131. module provides a simple command-line interface
to interact with ZIP archives.

If you want to create a new ZIP archive, specify its name after the
*note -c: 27ad. option and then list the filename(s) that should be
included:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt

Passing a directory is also acceptable:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/

If you want to extract a ZIP archive into the specified directory, use
the *note -e: 27ae. option:

     $ python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/

For a list of the files in a ZIP archive, use the *note -l: 27af.
option:

     $ python -m zipfile -l monty.zip

* Menu:

* Command-line options::


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options,  Up: Command-Line Interface

5.13.5.6 Command-line options
.............................

 -- Option: -l <zipfile>
 -- Option: --list <zipfile>

     List files in a zipfile.

 -- Option: -c <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Create zipfile from source files.

 -- Option: -e <zipfile> <output_dir>
 -- Option: --extract <zipfile> <output_dir>

     Extract zipfile into target directory.

 -- Option: -t <zipfile>
 -- Option: --test <zipfile>

     Test whether the zipfile is valid or not.

 -- Option: --metadata-encoding <encoding>

     Specify encoding of member names for *note -l: 27af, *note -e:
     27ae. and *note -t: 27b4.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Decompression pitfalls,  Prev: Command-Line Interface,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.13.5.7 Decompression pitfalls
...............................

The extraction in zipfile module might fail due to some pitfalls listed
below.

* Menu:

* From file itself::
* File System limitations::
* Resources limitations::
* Interruption::
* Default behaviors of extraction::


File: python.info,  Node: From file itself,  Next: File System limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.8 From file itself
.........................

Decompression may fail due to incorrect password / CRC checksum / ZIP
format or unsupported compression method / decryption.


File: python.info,  Node: File System limitations,  Next: Resources limitations,  Prev: From file itself,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.9 File System limitations
................................

Exceeding limitations on different file systems can cause decompression
failed.  Such as allowable characters in the directory entries, length
of the file name, length of the pathname, size of a single file, and
number of files, etc.


File: python.info,  Node: Resources limitations,  Next: Interruption,  Prev: File System limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.10 Resources limitations
...............................

The lack of memory or disk volume would lead to decompression failed.
For example, decompression bombs (aka ZIP bomb(1)) apply to zipfile
library that can cause disk volume exhaustion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb


File: python.info,  Node: Interruption,  Next: Default behaviors of extraction,  Prev: Resources limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.11 Interruption
......................

Interruption during the decompression, such as pressing control-C or
killing the decompression process may result in incomplete decompression
of the archive.


File: python.info,  Node: Default behaviors of extraction,  Prev: Interruption,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.13.5.12 Default behaviors of extraction
.........................................

Not knowing the default extraction behaviors can cause unexpected
decompression results.  For example, when extracting the same archive
twice, it overwrites files without asking.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files,  Prev: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.13.6 ‘tarfile’ — Read and write tar archive files
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tarfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tarfile: dd. module makes it possible to read and write tar
archives, including those using gzip, bz2 and lzma compression.  Use the
*note zipfile: 131. module to read or write ‘.zip’ files, or the
higher-level functions in *note shutil: 10be.

Some facts and figures:

   * reads and writes *note gzip: 65, *note bz2: 13. and *note lzma: 89.
     compressed archives if the respective modules are available.

   * read/write support for the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.

   * read/write support for the GNU tar format including 'longname' and
     'longlink' extensions, read-only support for all variants of the
     'sparse' extension including restoration of sparse files.

   * read/write support for the POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.

   * handles directories, regular files, hardlinks, symbolic links,
     fifos, character devices and block devices and is able to acquire
     and restore file information like timestamp, access permissions and
     owner.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for *note lzma: 89. compression.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Archives are extracted using a *note filter:
18b, which makes it possible to either limit surprising/dangerous
features, or to acknowledge that they are expected and the archive is
fully trusted.  By default, archives are fully trusted, but this default
is deprecated and slated to change in Python 3.14.

 -- Işlevi: tarfile.open (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          bufsize=10240, **kwargs)

     Return a *note TarFile: 10b5. object for the pathname 'name'.  For
     detailed information on *note TarFile: 10b5. objects and the
     keyword arguments that are allowed, see *note TarFile Objects:
     27c0.

     'mode' has to be a string of the form ‘'filemode[:compression]'’,
     it defaults to ‘'r'’.  Here is a full list of mode combinations:

     mode                   action
                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
     ‘'r' or 'r:*'’         Open for reading with transparent compression
                            (recommended).
                            
                            
     ‘'r:'’                 Open for reading exclusively without
                            compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:gz'’               Open for reading with gzip compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:bz2'’              Open for reading with bzip2 compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:xz'’               Open for reading with lzma compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'x'’ or ‘'x:'’        Create a tarfile exclusively without
                            compression.  Raise a
                            *note FileExistsError: ec8. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:gz'’               Create a tarfile with gzip compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: ec8. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:bz2'’              Create a tarfile with bzip2 compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: ec8. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:xz'’               Create a tarfile with lzma compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: ec8. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'a' or 'a:'’          Open for appending with no compression.  The
                            file is created if it does not exist.
                            
                            
     ‘'w' or 'w:'’          Open for uncompressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:gz'’               Open for gzip compressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:bz2'’              Open for bzip2 compressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:xz'’               Open for lzma compressed writing.
                            

     Note that ‘'a:gz'’, ‘'a:bz2'’ or ‘'a:xz'’ is not possible.  If
     'mode' is not suitable to open a certain (compressed) file for
     reading, *note ReadError: 16c2. is raised.  Use 'mode' ‘'r'’ to
     avoid this.  If a compression method is not supported, *note
     CompressionError: 27c1. is raised.

     If 'fileobj' is specified, it is used as an alternative to a *note
     file object: 1068. opened in binary mode for 'name'.  It is
     supposed to be at position 0.

     For modes ‘'w:gz'’, ‘'x:gz'’, ‘'w|gz'’, ‘'w:bz2'’, ‘'x:bz2'’,
     ‘'w|bz2'’, *note tarfile.open(): d0c. accepts the keyword argument
     'compresslevel' (default ‘9’) to specify the compression level of
     the file.

     For modes ‘'w:xz'’ and ‘'x:xz'’, *note tarfile.open(): d0c. accepts
     the keyword argument 'preset' to specify the compression level of
     the file.

     For special purposes, there is a second format for 'mode':
     ‘'filemode|[compression]'’.  *note tarfile.open(): d0c. will return
     a *note TarFile: 10b5. object that processes its data as a stream
     of blocks.  No random seeking will be done on the file.  If given,
     'fileobj' may be any object that has a *note read(): cac. or *note
     write(): 27c2. method (depending on the 'mode') that works with
     bytes.  'bufsize' specifies the blocksize and defaults to ‘20 *
     512’ bytes.  Use this variant in combination with e.g.
     ‘sys.stdin.buffer’, a socket *note file object: 1068. or a tape
     device.  However, such a *note TarFile: 10b5. object is limited in
     that it does not allow random access, see *note Examples: 27c3.
     The currently possible modes:

     Mode              Action
                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
     ‘'r|*'’           Open a 'stream' of tar blocks for reading with
                       transparent compression.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|'’            Open a 'stream' of uncompressed tar blocks for
                       reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|gz'’          Open a gzip compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|bz2'’         Open a bzip2 compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|xz'’          Open an lzma compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|'’            Open an uncompressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|gz'’          Open a gzip compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|bz2'’         Open a bzip2 compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|xz'’          Open an lzma compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'compresslevel' keyword argument also
     works for streams.

 -- Sınıfı: tarfile.TarFile

     Class for reading and writing tar archives.  Do not use this class
     directly: use *note tarfile.open(): d0c. instead.  See *note
     TarFile Objects: 27c0.

 -- Işlevi: tarfile.is_tarfile (name)

     Return *note True: a86. if 'name' is a tar archive file, that the
     *note tarfile: dd. module can read.  'name' may be a *note str:
     15d, file, or file-like object.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Support for file and file-like objects.

The *note tarfile: dd. module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.TarError

     Base class for all *note tarfile: dd. exceptions.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.ReadError

     Is raised when a tar archive is opened, that either cannot be
     handled by the *note tarfile: dd. module or is somehow invalid.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.CompressionError

     Is raised when a compression method is not supported or when the
     data cannot be decoded properly.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.StreamError

     Is raised for the limitations that are typical for stream-like
     *note TarFile: 10b5. objects.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.ExtractError

     Is raised for 'non-fatal' errors when using *note
     TarFile.extract(): 39e, but only if *note TarFile.errorlevel:
     3a0.‘== 2’.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.HeaderError

     Is raised by *note TarInfo.frombuf(): 27c8. if the buffer it gets
     is invalid.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.FilterError

     Base class for members *note refused: 27ca. by filters.

      -- Özniteliği: tarinfo

          Information about the member that the filter refused to
          extract, as *note TarInfo: 27cc.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.AbsolutePathError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member with an absolute path.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.OutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member outside the destination
     directory.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.SpecialFileError

     Raised to refuse extracting a special file (e.g.  a device or
     pipe).

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.AbsoluteLinkError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link with an absolute path.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.LinkOutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link pointing outside the
     destination directory.

 -- Özel Durum: tarfile.LinkFallbackError

     Raised to refuse emulating a link (hard or symbolic) by extracting
     another archive member, when that member would be rejected by the
     filter location.  The exception that was raised to reject the
     replacement member is available as ‘BaseException.__context__’.

     Added in version 3.12.11.

The following constants are available at the module level:

 -- Verisi: tarfile.ENCODING

     The default character encoding: ‘'utf-8'’ on Windows, the value
     returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. otherwise.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.REGTYPE
 -- Verisi: tarfile.AREGTYPE

     A regular file *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.LNKTYPE

     A link (inside tarfile) *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.SYMTYPE

     A symbolic link *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.CHRTYPE

     A character special device *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.BLKTYPE

     A block special device *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.DIRTYPE

     A directory *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.FIFOTYPE

     A FIFO special device *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.CONTTYPE

     A contiguous file *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGNAME

     A GNU tar longname *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGLINK

     A GNU tar longlink *note type: 27d5.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.GNUTYPE_SPARSE

     A GNU tar sparse file *note type: 27d5.

Each of the following constants defines a tar archive format that the
*note tarfile: dd. module is able to create.  See section *note
Supported tar formats: 27e0. for details.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.GNU_FORMAT

     GNU tar format.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.PAX_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.

 -- Verisi: tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT

     The default format for creating archives.  This is currently *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 27e3.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The default format for new archives was
     changed to *note PAX_FORMAT: 27e3. from *note GNU_FORMAT: 27e2.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note zipfile: 131.

     Documentation of the *note zipfile: 131. standard module.

*note Archiving operations: 10be.

     Documentation of the higher-level archiving facilities provided by
     the standard *note shutil: c4. module.

GNU tar manual, Basic Tar Format(2)

     Documentation for tar archive files, including GNU tar extensions.

* Menu:

* TarFile Objects::
* TarInfo Objects::
* Extraction filters::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<2>.
* Examples: Examples<8>.
* Supported tar formats::
* Unicode issues::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tarfile.py

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html


File: python.info,  Node: TarFile Objects,  Next: TarInfo Objects,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.1 TarFile Objects
........................

The *note TarFile: 10b5. object provides an interface to a tar archive.
A tar archive is a sequence of blocks.  An archive member (a stored
file) is made up of a header block followed by data blocks.  It is
possible to store a file in a tar archive several times.  Each archive
member is represented by a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object, see *note
TarInfo Objects: 27cc. for details.

A *note TarFile: 10b5. object can be used as a context manager in a
*note with: 3dd. statement.  It will automatically be closed when the
block is completed.  Please note that in the event of an exception an
archive opened for writing will not be finalized; only the internally
used file object will be closed.  See the *note Examples: 27c3. section
for a use case.

Added in version 3.2: Added support for the context management protocol.

 -- Sınıfı: tarfile.TarFile (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, tarinfo=TarInfo, dereference=False,
          ignore_zeros=False, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape', pax_headers=None, debug=0,
          errorlevel=1)

     All following arguments are optional and can be accessed as
     instance attributes as well.

     'name' is the pathname of the archive.  'name' may be a *note
     path-like object: 98e.  It can be omitted if 'fileobj' is given.
     In this case, the file object’s ‘name’ attribute is used if it
     exists.

     'mode' is either ‘'r'’ to read from an existing archive, ‘'a'’ to
     append data to an existing file, ‘'w'’ to create a new file
     overwriting an existing one, or ‘'x'’ to create a new file only if
     it does not already exist.

     If 'fileobj' is given, it is used for reading or writing data.  If
     it can be determined, 'mode' is overridden by 'fileobj'’s mode.
     'fileobj' will be used from position 0.

          Not: 'fileobj' is not closed, when *note TarFile: 10b5. is
          closed.

     'format' controls the archive format for writing.  It must be one
     of the constants *note USTAR_FORMAT: 27e1, *note GNU_FORMAT: 27e2.
     or *note PAX_FORMAT: 27e3. that are defined at module level.  When
     reading, format will be automatically detected, even if different
     formats are present in a single archive.

     The 'tarinfo' argument can be used to replace the default *note
     TarInfo: 10b6. class with a different one.

     If 'dereference' is *note False: 9a8, add symbolic and hard links
     to the archive.  If it is *note True: a86, add the content of the
     target files to the archive.  This has no effect on systems that do
     not support symbolic links.

     If 'ignore_zeros' is *note False: 9a8, treat an empty block as the
     end of the archive.  If it is *note True: a86, skip empty (and
     invalid) blocks and try to get as many members as possible.  This
     is only useful for reading concatenated or damaged archives.

     'debug' can be set from ‘0’ (no debug messages) up to ‘3’ (all
     debug messages).  The messages are written to ‘sys.stderr’.

     'errorlevel' controls how extraction errors are handled, see *note
     the corresponding attribute: 3a0.

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments define the character encoding
     to be used for reading or writing the archive and how conversion
     errors are going to be handled.  The default settings will work for
     most users.  See section *note Unicode issues: 27e6. for in-depth
     information.

     The 'pax_headers' argument is an optional dictionary of strings
     which will be added as a pax global header if 'format' is *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 27e3.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Use ‘'surrogateescape'’ as the default for
     the 'errors' argument.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod TarFile.open (...)

     Alternative constructor.  The *note tarfile.open(): d0c. function
     is actually a shortcut to this classmethod.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.getmember (name)

     Return a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object for member 'name'.  If 'name'
     can not be found in the archive, *note KeyError: 903. is raised.

          Not: If a member occurs more than once in the archive, its
          last occurrence is assumed to be the most up-to-date version.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.getmembers ()

     Return the members of the archive as a list of *note TarInfo: 10b6.
     objects.  The list has the same order as the members in the
     archive.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.getnames ()

     Return the members as a list of their names.  It has the same order
     as the list returned by *note getmembers(): d0e.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.list (verbose=True, *, members=None)

     Print a table of contents to ‘sys.stdout’.  If 'verbose' is *note
     False: 9a8, only the names of the members are printed.  If it is
     *note True: a86, output similar to that of ‘ls -l’ is produced.  If
     optional 'members' is given, it must be a subset of the list
     returned by *note getmembers(): d0e.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'members' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.next ()

     Return the next member of the archive as a *note TarInfo: 10b6.
     object, when *note TarFile: 10b5. is opened for reading.  Return
     *note None: 488. if there is no more available.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.extractall (path='.', members=None, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extract all members from the archive to the current working
     directory or directory 'path'.  If optional 'members' is given, it
     must be a subset of the list returned by *note getmembers(): d0e.
     Directory information like owner, modification time and permissions
     are set after all members have been extracted.  This is done to
     work around two problems: A directory’s modification time is reset
     each time a file is created in it.  And, if a directory’s
     permissions do not allow writing, extracting files to it will fail.

     If 'numeric_owner' is *note True: a86, the uid and gid numbers from
     the tarfile are used to set the owner/group for the extracted
     files.  Otherwise, the named values from the tarfile are used.

     The 'filter' argument specifies how ‘members’ are modified or
     rejected before extraction.  See *note Extraction filters: 18b. for
     details.  It is recommended to set this explicitly depending on
     which 'tar' features you need to support.

          Uyarı: Never extract archives from untrusted sources without
          prior inspection.  It is possible that files are created
          outside of 'path', e.g.  members that have absolute filenames
          starting with ‘"/"’ or filenames with two dots ‘".."’.

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 18b. section
          for details.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'numeric_owner' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'filter' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.extract (member, path='', set_attrs=True, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory,
     using its full name.  Its file information is extracted as
     accurately as possible.  'member' may be a filename or a *note
     TarInfo: 10b6. object.  You can specify a different directory using
     'path'.  'path' may be a *note path-like object: 98e.  File
     attributes (owner, mtime, mode) are set unless 'set_attrs' is
     false.

     The 'numeric_owner' and 'filter' arguments are the same as for
     *note extractall(): 39d.

          Not: The *note extract(): 39e. method does not take care of
          several extraction issues.  In most cases you should consider
          using the *note extractall(): 39d. method.

          Uyarı: See the warning for *note extractall(): 39d.

          Set ‘filter='data'’ to prevent the most dangerous security
          issues, and read the *note Extraction filters: 18b. section
          for details.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'set_attrs' parameter.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'numeric_owner' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'filter' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.extractfile (member)

     Extract a member from the archive as a file object.  'member' may
     be a filename or a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object.  If 'member' is a
     regular file or a link, an *note io.BufferedReader: 10b3. object is
     returned.  For all other existing members, *note None: 488. is
     returned.  If 'member' does not appear in the archive, *note
     KeyError: 903. is raised.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Return an *note io.BufferedReader: 10b3.
     object.

 -- Özniteliği: TarFile.errorlevel: *note int: 184.

     If 'errorlevel' is ‘0’, errors are ignored when using *note
     TarFile.extract(): 39e. and *note TarFile.extractall(): 39d.
     Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output
     when 'debug' is greater than 0.  If ‘1’ (the default), all 'fatal'
     errors are raised as *note OSError: 65c. or *note FilterError:
     27c9. exceptions.  If ‘2’, all 'non-fatal' errors are raised as
     *note TarError: 27c4. exceptions as well.

     Some exceptions, e.g.  ones caused by wrong argument types or data
     corruption, are always raised.

     Custom *note extraction filters: 18b. should raise *note
     FilterError: 27c9. for 'fatal' errors and *note ExtractError: 27c6.
     for 'non-fatal' ones.

     Note that when an exception is raised, the archive may be partially
     extracted.  It is the user’s responsibility to clean up.

 -- Özniteliği: TarFile.extraction_filter

     Added in version 3.12.

     The *note extraction filter: 18b. used as a default for the
     'filter' argument of *note extract(): 39e. and *note extractall():
     39d.

     The attribute may be ‘None’ or a callable.  String names are not
     allowed for this attribute, unlike the 'filter' argument to *note
     extract(): 39e.

     If ‘extraction_filter’ is ‘None’ (the default), calling an
     extraction method without a 'filter' argument will raise a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’, and fall back to the *note fully_trusted:
     27eb. filter, whose dangerous behavior matches previous versions of
     Python.

     In Python 3.14+, leaving ‘extraction_filter=None’ will cause
     extraction methods to use the *note data: 39c. filter by default.

     The attribute may be set on instances or overridden in subclasses.
     It also is possible to set it on the ‘TarFile’ class itself to set
     a global default, although, since it affects all uses of 'tarfile',
     it is best practice to only do so in top-level applications or
     *note site configuration: c6.  To set a global default this way, a
     filter function needs to be wrapped in *note staticmethod(): 612.
     to prevent injection of a ‘self’ argument.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.add (name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *,
          filter=None)

     Add the file 'name' to the archive.  'name' may be any type of file
     (directory, fifo, symbolic link, etc.).  If given, 'arcname'
     specifies an alternative name for the file in the archive.
     Directories are added recursively by default.  This can be avoided
     by setting 'recursive' to *note False: 9a8.  Recursion adds entries
     in sorted order.  If 'filter' is given, it should be a function
     that takes a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object argument and returns the
     changed *note TarInfo: 10b6. object.  If it instead returns *note
     None: 488. the *note TarInfo: 10b6. object will be excluded from
     the archive.  See *note Examples: 27c3. for an example.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'filter' parameter.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Recursion adds entries in sorted order.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.addfile (tarinfo, fileobj=None)

     Add the *note TarInfo: 10b6. object 'tarinfo' to the archive.  If
     'fileobj' is given, it should be a *note binary file: 1ad0, and
     ‘tarinfo.size’ bytes are read from it and added to the archive.
     You can create *note TarInfo: 10b6. objects directly, or by using
     *note gettarinfo(): 27ed.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.gettarinfo (name=None, arcname=None, fileobj=None)

     Create a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object from the result of *note
     os.stat(): 1c5. or equivalent on an existing file.  The file is
     either named by 'name', or specified as a *note file object: 1068.
     'fileobj' with a file descriptor.  'name' may be a *note path-like
     object: 98e.  If given, 'arcname' specifies an alternative name for
     the file in the archive, otherwise, the name is taken from
     'fileobj'’s *note name: 27ee. attribute, or the 'name' argument.
     The name should be a text string.

     You can modify some of the *note TarInfo: 10b6.’s attributes before
     you add it using *note addfile(): 27ec.  If the file object is not
     an ordinary file object positioned at the beginning of the file,
     attributes such as *note size: 27ef. may need modifying.  This is
     the case for objects such as *note GzipFile: 296.  The *note name:
     27f0. may also be modified, in which case 'arcname' could be a
     dummy string.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Yöntemi: TarFile.close ()

     Close the *note TarFile: 10b5.  In write mode, two finishing zero
     blocks are appended to the archive.

 -- Özniteliği: TarFile.pax_headers: *note dict: 240.

     A dictionary containing key-value pairs of pax global headers.


File: python.info,  Node: TarInfo Objects,  Next: Extraction filters,  Prev: TarFile Objects,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.2 TarInfo Objects
........................

A *note TarInfo: 10b6. object represents one member in a *note TarFile:
10b5.  Aside from storing all required attributes of a file (like file
type, size, time, permissions, owner etc.), it provides some useful
methods to determine its type.  It does 'not' contain the file’s data
itself.

*note TarInfo: 10b6. objects are returned by *note TarFile: 10b5.’s
methods *note getmember(): 167b, *note getmembers(): d0e. and *note
gettarinfo(): 27ed.

Modifying the objects returned by *note getmember(): 167b. or *note
getmembers(): d0e. will affect all subsequent operations on the archive.
For cases where this is unwanted, you can use *note copy.copy(): 25. or
call the *note replace(): 27f4. method to create a modified copy in one
step.

Several attributes can be set to ‘None’ to indicate that a piece of
metadata is unused or unknown.  Different *note TarInfo: 10b6. methods
handle ‘None’ differently:

   - The *note extract(): 39e. or *note extractall(): 39d. methods will
     ignore the corresponding metadata, leaving it set to a default.

   - *note addfile(): 27ec. will fail.

   - *note list(): d0d. will print a placeholder string.

 -- Sınıfı: tarfile.TarInfo (name='')

     Create a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod TarInfo.frombuf (buf, encoding, errors)

     Create and return a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object from string buffer
     'buf'.

     Raises *note HeaderError: 27c7. if the buffer is invalid.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod TarInfo.fromtarfile (tarfile)

     Read the next member from the *note TarFile: 10b5. object 'tarfile'
     and return it as a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.tobuf (format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape')

     Create a string buffer from a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object.  For
     information on the arguments see the constructor of the *note
     TarFile: 10b5. class.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Use ‘'surrogateescape'’ as the default for
     the 'errors' argument.

A ‘TarInfo’ object has the following public data attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.name: *note str: 15d.

     Name of the archive member.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.size: *note int: 184.

     Size in bytes.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.mtime: *note int: 184. | *note float: 272.

     Time of last modification in seconds since the *note epoch: 27f8,
     as in *note os.stat_result.st_mtime: 273f.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     39e. and *note extractall(): 39d, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.mode: *note int: 184.

     Permission bits, as for *note os.chmod(): f90.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     39e. and *note extractall(): 39d, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.type

     File type.  'type' is usually one of these constants: *note
     REGTYPE: 27d3, *note AREGTYPE: 27d4, *note LNKTYPE: 27d6, *note
     SYMTYPE: 27d7, *note DIRTYPE: 27da, *note FIFOTYPE: 27db, *note
     CONTTYPE: 27dc, *note CHRTYPE: 27d8, *note BLKTYPE: 27d9, *note
     GNUTYPE_SPARSE: 27df.  To determine the type of a *note TarInfo:
     10b6. object more conveniently, use the ‘is*()’ methods below.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.linkname: *note str: 15d.

     Name of the target file name, which is only present in *note
     TarInfo: 10b6. objects of type *note LNKTYPE: 27d6. and *note
     SYMTYPE: 27d7.

     For symbolic links (‘SYMTYPE’), the 'linkname' is relative to the
     directory that contains the link.  For hard links (‘LNKTYPE’), the
     'linkname' is relative to the root of the archive.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.uid: *note int: 184.

     User ID of the user who originally stored this member.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     39e. and *note extractall(): 39d, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.gid: *note int: 184.

     Group ID of the user who originally stored this member.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     39e. and *note extractall(): 39d, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.uname: *note str: 15d.

     User name.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     39e. and *note extractall(): 39d, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.gname: *note str: 15d.

     Group name.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     39e. and *note extractall(): 39d, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.chksum: *note int: 184.

     Header checksum.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.devmajor: *note int: 184.

     Device major number.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.devminor: *note int: 184.

     Device minor number.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.offset: *note int: 184.

     The tar header starts here.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.offset_data: *note int: 184.

     The file’s data starts here.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.sparse

     Sparse member information.

 -- Özniteliği: TarInfo.pax_headers: *note dict: 240.

     A dictionary containing key-value pairs of an associated pax
     extended header.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.replace (name=..., mtime=..., mode=...,
          linkname=..., uid=..., gid=..., uname=..., gname=...,
          deep=True)

     Added in version 3.12.

     Return a 'new' copy of the ‘TarInfo’ object with the given
     attributes changed.  For example, to return a ‘TarInfo’ with the
     group name set to ‘'staff'’, use:

          new_tarinfo = old_tarinfo.replace(gname='staff')

     By default, a deep copy is made.  If 'deep' is false, the copy is
     shallow, i.e.  ‘pax_headers’ and any custom attributes are shared
     with the original ‘TarInfo’ object.

A *note TarInfo: 10b6. object also provides some convenient query
methods:

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.isfile ()

     Return *note True: a86. if the *note TarInfo: 10b6. object is a
     regular file.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.isreg ()

     Same as *note isfile(): 2806.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.isdir ()

     Return *note True: a86. if it is a directory.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.issym ()

     Return *note True: a86. if it is a symbolic link.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.islnk ()

     Return *note True: a86. if it is a hard link.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.ischr ()

     Return *note True: a86. if it is a character device.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.isblk ()

     Return *note True: a86. if it is a block device.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.isfifo ()

     Return *note True: a86. if it is a FIFO.

 -- Yöntemi: TarInfo.isdev ()

     Return *note True: a86. if it is one of character device, block
     device or FIFO.


File: python.info,  Node: Extraction filters,  Next: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Prev: TarInfo Objects,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.3 Extraction filters
...........................

Added in version 3.12.

The 'tar' format is designed to capture all details of a UNIX-like
filesystem, which makes it very powerful.  Unfortunately, the features
make it easy to create tar files that have unintended – and possibly
malicious – effects when extracted.  For example, extracting a tar file
can overwrite arbitrary files in various ways (e.g.  by using absolute
paths, ‘..’ path components, or symlinks that affect later members).

In most cases, the full functionality is not needed.  Therefore,
'tarfile' supports extraction filters: a mechanism to limit
functionality, and thus mitigate some of the security issues.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 706(1)

     Contains further motivation and rationale behind the design.

The 'filter' argument to *note TarFile.extract(): 39e. or *note
extractall(): 39d. can be:

   * the string ‘'fully_trusted'’: Honor all metadata as specified in
     the archive.  Should be used if the user trusts the archive
     completely, or implements their own complex verification.

   * the string ‘'tar'’: Honor most 'tar'-specific features (i.e.
     features of UNIX-like filesystems), but block features that are
     very likely to be surprising or malicious.  See *note tar_filter():
     2810. for details.

   * the string ‘'data'’: Ignore or block most features specific to
     UNIX-like filesystems.  Intended for extracting cross-platform data
     archives.  See *note data_filter(): 39c. for details.

   * ‘None’ (default): Use *note TarFile.extraction_filter: 27ea.

     If that is also ‘None’ (the default), raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’,
     and fall back to the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter, whose dangerous
     behavior matches previous versions of Python.

     In Python 3.14, the ‘'data'’ filter will become the default
     instead.  It’s possible to switch earlier; see *note
     TarFile.extraction_filter: 27ea.

   * A callable which will be called for each extracted member with a
     *note TarInfo: 27cc. describing the member and the destination path
     to where the archive is extracted (i.e.  the same path is used for
     all members):

          filter(member: TarInfo, path: str, /) -> TarInfo | None

     The callable is called just before each member is extracted, so it
     can take the current state of the disk into account.  It can:

        - return a *note TarInfo: 10b6. object which will be used
          instead of the metadata in the archive, or

        - return ‘None’, in which case the member will be skipped, or

        - raise an exception to abort the operation or skip the member,
          depending on *note errorlevel: 3a0.  Note that when extraction
          is aborted, *note extractall(): 39d. may leave the archive
          partially extracted.  It does not attempt to clean up.

* Menu:

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Default named filters,  Next: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.4 Default named filters
..............................

The pre-defined, named filters are available as functions, so they can
be reused in custom filters:

 -- Işlevi: tarfile.fully_trusted_filter (member, path)

     Return 'member' unchanged.

     This implements the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter.

 -- Işlevi: tarfile.tar_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'tar'’ filter.

        - Strip leading slashes (‘/’ and *note os.sep: 47d.) from
          filenames.

        - *note Refuse: 27ca. to extract files with absolute paths (in
          case the name is absolute even after stripping slashes, e.g.
          ‘C:/foo’ on Windows).  This raises *note AbsolutePathError:
          27cd.

        - *note Refuse: 27ca. to extract files whose absolute path
          (after following symlinks) would end up outside the
          destination.  This raises *note OutsideDestinationError: 27ce.

        - Clear high mode bits (setuid, setgid, sticky) and group/other
          write bits (*note S_IWGRP: 25e8. | *note S_IWOTH: 25eb.).

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

 -- Işlevi: tarfile.data_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'data'’ filter.  In addition to what ‘tar_filter’
     does:

        - Normalize link targets (*note TarInfo.linkname: 27fa.) using
          *note os.path.normpath(): 11c5.  Note that this removes
          internal ‘..’ components, which may change the meaning of the
          link if the path in ‘TarInfo.linkname’ traverses symbolic
          links.

        - *note Refuse: 27ca. to extract links (hard or soft) that link
          to absolute paths, or ones that link outside the destination.

          This raises *note AbsoluteLinkError: 27d0. or *note
          LinkOutsideDestinationError: 27d1.

          Note that such files are refused even on platforms that do not
          support symbolic links.

        - *note Refuse: 27ca. to extract device files (including pipes).
          This raises *note SpecialFileError: 27cf.

        - For regular files, including hard links:

             - Set the owner read and write permissions (*note S_IRUSR:
               25e3. | *note S_IWUSR: 25e4.).

             - Remove the group & other executable permission (*note
               S_IXGRP: 25df. | *note S_IXOTH: 25ec.) if the owner
               doesn’t have it (*note S_IXUSR: 25e5.).

        - For other files (directories), set ‘mode’ to ‘None’, so that
          extraction methods skip applying permission bits.

        - Set user and group info (‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘uname’, ‘gname’) to
          ‘None’, so that extraction methods skip setting it.

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

     3.12.11 sürümünde değişti: Link targets are now normalized.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter errors,  Next: Hints for further verification,  Prev: Default named filters,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.5 Filter errors
......................

When a filter refuses to extract a file, it will raise an appropriate
exception, a subclass of *note FilterError: 27c9.  This will abort the
extraction if *note TarFile.errorlevel: 3a0. is 1 or more.  With
‘errorlevel=0’ the error will be logged and the member will be skipped,
but extraction will continue.


File: python.info,  Node: Hints for further verification,  Next: Supporting older Python versions,  Prev: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.6 Hints for further verification
.......................................

Even with ‘filter='data'’, 'tarfile' is not suited for extracting
untrusted files without prior inspection.  Among other issues, the
pre-defined filters do not prevent denial-of-service attacks.  Users
should do additional checks.

Here is an incomplete list of things to consider:

   * Extract to a *note new temporary directory: 1c9. to prevent e.g.
     exploiting pre-existing links, and to make it easier to clean up
     after a failed extraction.

   * Disallow symbolic links if you do not need the functionality.

   * When working with untrusted data, use external (e.g.  OS-level)
     limits on disk, memory and CPU usage.

   * Check filenames against an allow-list of characters (to filter out
     control characters, confusables, foreign path separators, etc.).

   * Check that filenames have expected extensions (discouraging files
     that execute when you “click on them”, or extension-less files like
     Windows special device names).

   * Limit the number of extracted files, total size of extracted data,
     filename length (including symlink length), and size of individual
     files.

   * Check for files that would be shadowed on case-insensitive
     filesystems.

Also note that:

   * Tar files may contain multiple versions of the same file.  Later
     ones are expected to overwrite any earlier ones.  This feature is
     crucial to allow updating tape archives, but can be abused
     maliciously.

   * 'tarfile' does not protect against issues with “live” data, e.g.
     an attacker tinkering with the destination (or source) directory
     while extraction (or archiving) is in progress.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting older Python versions,  Next: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Hints for further verification,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.7 Supporting older Python versions
.........................................

Extraction filters were added to Python 3.12, but may be backported to
older versions as security updates.  To check whether the feature is
available, use e.g.  ‘hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter')’ rather than
checking the Python version.

The following examples show how to support Python versions with and
without the feature.  Note that setting ‘extraction_filter’ will affect
any subsequent operations.

   * Fully trusted archive:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = (lambda member, path: member)
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter if available, but revert to Python 3.11
     behavior (‘'fully_trusted'’) if this feature is not available:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = getattr(tarfile, 'data_filter',
                                                 (lambda member, path: member))
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'fail' if it is not available:

          my_tarfile.extractall(filter=tarfile.data_filter)

     or:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = tarfile.data_filter
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'warn' if it is not available:

          if hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter'):
              my_tarfile.extractall(filter='data')
          else:
              # remove this when no longer needed
              warn_the_user('Extracting may be unsafe; consider updating Python')
              my_tarfile.extractall()


File: python.info,  Node: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Supporting older Python versions,  Up: Extraction filters

5.13.6.8 Stateful extraction filter example
...........................................

While 'tarfile'’s extraction methods take a simple 'filter' callable,
custom filters may be more complex objects with an internal state.  It
may be useful to write these as context managers, to be used like this:

     with StatefulFilter() as filter_func:
         tar.extractall(path, filter=filter_func)

Such a filter can be written as, for example:

     class StatefulFilter:
         def __init__(self):
             self.file_count = 0

         def __enter__(self):
             return self

         def __call__(self, member, path):
             self.file_count += 1
             return member

         def __exit__(self, *exc_info):
             print(f'{self.file_count} files extracted')


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Next: Examples<8>,  Prev: Extraction filters,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.9 Command-Line Interface
...............................

Added in version 3.4.

The *note tarfile: dd. module provides a simple command-line interface
to interact with tar archives.

If you want to create a new tar archive, specify its name after the
*note -c: 2817. option and then list the filename(s) that should be
included:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt

Passing a directory is also acceptable:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/

If you want to extract a tar archive into the current directory, use the
*note -e: 2818. option:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar

You can also extract a tar archive into a different directory by passing
the directory’s name:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/

For a list of the files in a tar archive, use the *note -l: 2819.
option:

     $ python -m tarfile -l monty.tar

* Menu:

* Command-line options: Command-line options<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options<2>,  Up: Command-Line Interface<2>

5.13.6.10 Command-line options
..............................

 -- Option: -l <tarfile>
 -- Option: --list <tarfile>

     List files in a tarfile.

 -- Option: -c <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Create tarfile from source files.

 -- Option: -e <tarfile> [<output_dir>]
 -- Option: --extract <tarfile> [<output_dir>]

     Extract tarfile into the current directory if 'output_dir' is not
     specified.

 -- Option: -t <tarfile>
 -- Option: --test <tarfile>

     Test whether the tarfile is valid or not.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Verbose output.

 -- Option: --filter <filtername>

     Specifies the 'filter' for ‘--extract’.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 18b. for details.  Only string names are accepted (that
     is, ‘fully_trusted’, ‘tar’, and ‘data’).


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<8>,  Next: Supported tar formats,  Prev: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.11 Examples
..................

How to extract an entire tar archive to the current working directory:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(filter='data')
     tar.close()

How to extract a subset of a tar archive with *note
TarFile.extractall(): 39d. using a generator function instead of a list:

     import os
     import tarfile

     def py_files(members):
         for tarinfo in members:
             if os.path.splitext(tarinfo.name)[1] == ".py":
                 yield tarinfo

     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
     tar.close()

How to create an uncompressed tar archive from a list of filenames:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w")
     for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
         tar.add(name)
     tar.close()

The same example using the *note with: 3dd. statement:

     import tarfile
     with tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w") as tar:
         for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
             tar.add(name)

How to read a gzip compressed tar archive and display some member
information:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
     for tarinfo in tar:
         print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
         if tarinfo.isreg():
             print("a regular file.")
         elif tarinfo.isdir():
             print("a directory.")
         else:
             print("something else.")
     tar.close()

How to create an archive and reset the user information using the
'filter' parameter in *note TarFile.add(): a6c.:

     import tarfile
     def reset(tarinfo):
         tarinfo.uid = tarinfo.gid = 0
         tarinfo.uname = tarinfo.gname = "root"
         return tarinfo
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w:gz")
     tar.add("foo", filter=reset)
     tar.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Supported tar formats,  Next: Unicode issues,  Prev: Examples<8>,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.12 Supported tar formats
...............................

There are three tar formats that can be created with the *note tarfile:
dd. module:

   * The POSIX.1-1988 ustar format (*note USTAR_FORMAT: 27e1.).  It
     supports filenames up to a length of at best 256 characters and
     linknames up to 100 characters.  The maximum file size is 8 GiB.
     This is an old and limited but widely supported format.

   * The GNU tar format (*note GNU_FORMAT: 27e2.).  It supports long
     filenames and linknames, files bigger than 8 GiB and sparse files.
     It is the de facto standard on GNU/Linux systems.  *note tarfile:
     dd. fully supports the GNU tar extensions for long names, sparse
     file support is read-only.

   * The POSIX.1-2001 pax format (*note PAX_FORMAT: 27e3.).  It is the
     most flexible format with virtually no limits.  It supports long
     filenames and linknames, large files and stores pathnames in a
     portable way.  Modern tar implementations, including GNU tar,
     bsdtar/libarchive and star, fully support extended 'pax' features;
     some old or unmaintained libraries may not, but should treat 'pax'
     archives as if they were in the universally supported 'ustar'
     format.  It is the current default format for new archives.

     It extends the existing 'ustar' format with extra headers for
     information that cannot be stored otherwise.  There are two
     flavours of pax headers: Extended headers only affect the
     subsequent file header, global headers are valid for the complete
     archive and affect all following files.  All the data in a pax
     header is encoded in 'UTF-8' for portability reasons.

There are some more variants of the tar format which can be read, but
not created:

   * The ancient V7 format.  This is the first tar format from Unix
     Seventh Edition, storing only regular files and directories.  Names
     must not be longer than 100 characters, there is no user/group name
     information.  Some archives have miscalculated header checksums in
     case of fields with non-ASCII characters.

   * The SunOS tar extended format.  This format is a variant of the
     POSIX.1-2001 pax format, but is not compatible.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode issues,  Prev: Supported tar formats,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.13.6.13 Unicode issues
........................

The tar format was originally conceived to make backups on tape drives
with the main focus on preserving file system information.  Nowadays tar
archives are commonly used for file distribution and exchanging archives
over networks.  One problem of the original format (which is the basis
of all other formats) is that there is no concept of supporting
different character encodings.  For example, an ordinary tar archive
created on a 'UTF-8' system cannot be read correctly on a 'Latin-1'
system if it contains non-'ASCII' characters.  Textual metadata (like
filenames, linknames, user/group names) will appear damaged.
Unfortunately, there is no way to autodetect the encoding of an archive.
The pax format was designed to solve this problem.  It stores non-ASCII
metadata using the universal character encoding 'UTF-8'.

The details of character conversion in *note tarfile: dd. are controlled
by the 'encoding' and 'errors' keyword arguments of the *note TarFile:
10b5. class.

'encoding' defines the character encoding to use for the metadata in the
archive.  The default value is *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5.
or ‘'ascii'’ as a fallback.  Depending on whether the archive is read or
written, the metadata must be either decoded or encoded.  If 'encoding'
is not set appropriately, this conversion may fail.

The 'errors' argument defines how characters are treated that cannot be
converted.  Possible values are listed in section *note Error Handlers:
1608.  The default scheme is ‘'surrogateescape'’ which Python also uses
for its file system calls, see *note File Names, Command Line Arguments,
and Environment Variables: 2826.

For *note PAX_FORMAT: 27e3. archives (the default), 'encoding' is
generally not needed because all the metadata is stored using 'UTF-8'.
'encoding' is only used in the rare cases when binary pax headers are
decoded or when strings with surrogate characters are stored.


File: python.info,  Node: File Formats,  Next: Cryptographic Services,  Prev: Data Compression and Archiving,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.14 File Formats
=================

The modules described in this chapter parse various miscellaneous file
formats that aren’t markup languages and are not related to e-mail.

* Menu:

* csv — CSV File Reading and Writing::
* configparser — Configuration file parser::
* tomllib — Parse TOML files::
* netrc — netrc file processing::
* plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.


File: python.info,  Node: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing,  Next: configparser — Configuration file parser,  Up: File Formats

5.14.1 ‘csv’ — CSV File Reading and Writing
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/csv.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The so-called CSV (Comma Separated Values) format is the most common
import and export format for spreadsheets and databases.  CSV format was
used for many years prior to attempts to describe the format in a
standardized way in RFC 4180(2).  The lack of a well-defined standard
means that subtle differences often exist in the data produced and
consumed by different applications.  These differences can make it
annoying to process CSV files from multiple sources.  Still, while the
delimiters and quoting characters vary, the overall format is similar
enough that it is possible to write a single module which can
efficiently manipulate such data, hiding the details of reading and
writing the data from the programmer.

The *note csv: 29. module implements classes to read and write tabular
data in CSV format.  It allows programmers to say, “write this data in
the format preferred by Excel,” or “read data from this file which was
generated by Excel,” without knowing the precise details of the CSV
format used by Excel.  Programmers can also describe the CSV formats
understood by other applications or define their own special-purpose CSV
formats.

The *note csv: 29. module’s *note reader: 132a. and *note writer: 1a8.
objects read and write sequences.  Programmers can also read and write
data in dictionary form using the *note DictReader: 844. and *note
DictWriter: 10a3. classes.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 305(3) - CSV File API

     The Python Enhancement Proposal which proposed this addition to
     Python.

* Menu:

* Module Contents: Module Contents<3>.
* Dialects and Formatting Parameters::
* Reader Objects::
* Writer Objects::
* Examples: Examples<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/csv.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents<3>,  Next: Dialects and Formatting Parameters,  Up: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.1 Module Contents
........................

The *note csv: 29. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: csv.reader (csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     Return a *note reader object: 282e. that will process lines from
     the given 'csvfile'.  A csvfile must be an iterable of strings,
     each in the reader’s defined csv format.  A csvfile is most
     commonly a file-like object or list.  If 'csvfile' is a file
     object, it should be opened with ‘newline=''’.  (1)  An optional
     'dialect' parameter can be given which is used to define a set of
     parameters specific to a particular CSV dialect.  It may be an
     instance of a subclass of the *note Dialect: 16a8. class or one of
     the strings returned by the *note list_dialects(): 162c. function.
     The other optional 'fmtparams' keyword arguments can be given to
     override individual formatting parameters in the current dialect.
     For full details about the dialect and formatting parameters, see
     section *note Dialects and Formatting Parameters: 282f.

     Each row read from the csv file is returned as a list of strings.
     No automatic data type conversion is performed unless the
     ‘QUOTE_NONNUMERIC’ format option is specified (in which case
     unquoted fields are transformed into floats).

     A short usage example:

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('eggs.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     spamreader = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=' ', quotechar='|')
          ...     for row in spamreader:
          ...         print(', '.join(row))
          Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
          Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam

 -- Işlevi: csv.writer (csvfile, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     Return a writer object responsible for converting the user’s data
     into delimited strings on the given file-like object.  'csvfile'
     can be any object with a *note write(): 1abd. method.  If 'csvfile'
     is a file object, it should be opened with ‘newline=''’ (2).  An
     optional 'dialect' parameter can be given which is used to define a
     set of parameters specific to a particular CSV dialect.  It may be
     an instance of a subclass of the *note Dialect: 16a8. class or one
     of the strings returned by the *note list_dialects(): 162c.
     function.  The other optional 'fmtparams' keyword arguments can be
     given to override individual formatting parameters in the current
     dialect.  For full details about dialects and formatting
     parameters, see the *note Dialects and Formatting Parameters: 282f.
     section.  To make it as easy as possible to interface with modules
     which implement the DB API, the value *note None: 488. is written
     as the empty string.  While this isn’t a reversible transformation,
     it makes it easier to dump SQL NULL data values to CSV files
     without preprocessing the data returned from a ‘cursor.fetch*’
     call.  All other non-string data are stringified with *note str():
     15d. before being written.

     A short usage example:

          import csv
          with open('eggs.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              spamwriter = csv.writer(csvfile, delimiter=' ',
                                      quotechar='|', quoting=csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL)
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])

 -- Işlevi: csv.register_dialect (name[, dialect[, **fmtparams]])

     Associate 'dialect' with 'name'.  'name' must be a string.  The
     dialect can be specified either by passing a sub-class of *note
     Dialect: 16a8, or by 'fmtparams' keyword arguments, or both, with
     keyword arguments overriding parameters of the dialect.  For full
     details about dialects and formatting parameters, see section *note
     Dialects and Formatting Parameters: 282f.

 -- Işlevi: csv.unregister_dialect (name)

     Delete the dialect associated with 'name' from the dialect
     registry.  An *note Error: 2831. is raised if 'name' is not a
     registered dialect name.

 -- Işlevi: csv.get_dialect (name)

     Return the dialect associated with 'name'.  An *note Error: 2831.
     is raised if 'name' is not a registered dialect name.  This
     function returns an immutable *note Dialect: 16a8.

 -- Işlevi: csv.list_dialects ()

     Return the names of all registered dialects.

 -- Işlevi: csv.field_size_limit ([new_limit])

     Returns the current maximum field size allowed by the parser.  If
     'new_limit' is given, this becomes the new limit.

The *note csv: 29. module defines the following classes:

 -- Sınıfı: csv.DictReader (f, fieldnames=None, restkey=None,
          restval=None, dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     Create an object that operates like a regular reader but maps the
     information in each row to a *note dict: 240. whose keys are given
     by the optional 'fieldnames' parameter.

     The 'fieldnames' parameter is a *note sequence: 23f.  If
     'fieldnames' is omitted, the values in the first row of file 'f'
     will be used as the fieldnames and will be omitted from the
     results.  If 'fieldnames' is provided, they will be used and the
     first row will be included in the results.  Regardless of how the
     fieldnames are determined, the dictionary preserves their original
     ordering.

     If a row has more fields than fieldnames, the remaining data is put
     in a list and stored with the fieldname specified by 'restkey'
     (which defaults to ‘None’).  If a non-blank row has fewer fields
     than fieldnames, the missing values are filled-in with the value of
     'restval' (which defaults to ‘None’).

     All other optional or keyword arguments are passed to the
     underlying *note reader: 132a. instance.

     If the argument passed to 'fieldnames' is an iterator, it will be
     coerced to a *note list: 422.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Returned rows are now of type ‘OrderedDict’.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Returned rows are now of type *note dict:
     240.

     A short usage example:

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('names.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile)
          ...     for row in reader:
          ...         print(row['first_name'], row['last_name'])
          ...
          Eric Idle
          John Cleese

          >>> print(row)
          {'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Cleese'}

 -- Sınıfı: csv.DictWriter (f, fieldnames, restval='',
          extrasaction='raise', dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     Create an object which operates like a regular writer but maps
     dictionaries onto output rows.  The 'fieldnames' parameter is a
     *note sequence: 1e. of keys that identify the order in which values
     in the dictionary passed to the *note writerow(): c78. method are
     written to file 'f'.  The optional 'restval' parameter specifies
     the value to be written if the dictionary is missing a key in
     'fieldnames'.  If the dictionary passed to the *note writerow():
     c78. method contains a key not found in 'fieldnames', the optional
     'extrasaction' parameter indicates what action to take.  If it is
     set to ‘'raise'’, the default value, a *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised.  If it is set to ‘'ignore'’, extra values in the dictionary
     are ignored.  Any other optional or keyword arguments are passed to
     the underlying *note writer: 1a8. instance.

     Note that unlike the *note DictReader: 844. class, the 'fieldnames'
     parameter of the *note DictWriter: 10a3. class is not optional.

     If the argument passed to 'fieldnames' is an iterator, it will be
     coerced to a *note list: 422.

     A short usage example:

          import csv

          with open('names.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              fieldnames = ['first_name', 'last_name']
              writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames)

              writer.writeheader()
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Baked', 'last_name': 'Beans'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})

 -- Sınıfı: csv.Dialect

     The *note Dialect: 16a8. class is a container class whose
     attributes contain information for how to handle doublequotes,
     whitespace, delimiters, etc.  Due to the lack of a strict CSV
     specification, different applications produce subtly different CSV
     data.  *note Dialect: 16a8. instances define how *note reader:
     132a. and *note writer: 1a8. instances behave.

     All available *note Dialect: 16a8. names are returned by *note
     list_dialects(): 162c, and they can be registered with specific
     *note reader: 132a. and *note writer: 1a8. classes through their
     initializer (‘__init__’) functions like this:

          import csv

          with open('students.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              writer = csv.writer(csvfile, dialect='unix')

 -- Sınıfı: csv.excel

     The *note excel: 2832. class defines the usual properties of an
     Excel-generated CSV file.  It is registered with the dialect name
     ‘'excel'’.

 -- Sınıfı: csv.excel_tab

     The *note excel_tab: 2833. class defines the usual properties of an
     Excel-generated TAB-delimited file.  It is registered with the
     dialect name ‘'excel-tab'’.

 -- Sınıfı: csv.unix_dialect

     The *note unix_dialect: 10a2. class defines the usual properties of
     a CSV file generated on UNIX systems, i.e.  using ‘'\n'’ as line
     terminator and quoting all fields.  It is registered with the
     dialect name ‘'unix'’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: csv.Sniffer

     The *note Sniffer: 2834. class is used to deduce the format of a
     CSV file.

     The *note Sniffer: 2834. class provides two methods:

      -- Yöntemi: sniff (sample, delimiters=None)

          Analyze the given 'sample' and return a *note Dialect: 16a8.
          subclass reflecting the parameters found.  If the optional
          'delimiters' parameter is given, it is interpreted as a string
          containing possible valid delimiter characters.

      -- Yöntemi: has_header (sample)

          Analyze the sample text (presumed to be in CSV format) and
          return *note True: a86. if the first row appears to be a
          series of column headers.  Inspecting each column, one of two
          key criteria will be considered to estimate if the sample
          contains a header:

             - the second through n-th rows contain numeric values

             - the second through n-th rows contain strings where at
               least one value’s length differs from that of the
               putative header of that column.

          Twenty rows after the first row are sampled; if more than half
          of columns + rows meet the criteria, *note True: a86. is
          returned.

          Not: This method is a rough heuristic and may produce both
          false positives and negatives.

An example for *note Sniffer: 2834. use:

     with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
         dialect = csv.Sniffer().sniff(csvfile.read(1024))
         csvfile.seek(0)
         reader = csv.reader(csvfile, dialect)
         # ... process CSV file contents here ...
The *note csv: 29. module defines the following constants:

 -- Verisi: csv.QUOTE_ALL

     Instructs *note writer: 1a8. objects to quote all fields.

 -- Verisi: csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL

     Instructs *note writer: 1a8. objects to only quote those fields
     which contain special characters such as 'delimiter', 'quotechar'
     or any of the characters in 'lineterminator'.

 -- Verisi: csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC

     Instructs *note writer: 1a8. objects to quote all non-numeric
     fields.

     Instructs *note reader: 132a. objects to convert all non-quoted
     fields to type 'float'.

 -- Verisi: csv.QUOTE_NONE

     Instructs *note writer: 1a8. objects to never quote fields.  When
     the current 'delimiter' occurs in output data it is preceded by the
     current 'escapechar' character.  If 'escapechar' is not set, the
     writer will raise *note Error: 2831. if any characters that require
     escaping are encountered.

     Instructs *note reader: 132a. objects to perform no special
     processing of quote characters.

 -- Verisi: csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL

     Instructs *note writer: 1a8. objects to quote all fields which are
     not ‘None’.  This is similar to *note QUOTE_ALL: 2837, except that
     if a field value is ‘None’ an empty (unquoted) string is written.

     Instructs *note reader: 132a. objects to interpret an empty
     (unquoted) field as ‘None’ and to otherwise behave as *note
     QUOTE_ALL: 2837.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: csv.QUOTE_STRINGS

     Instructs *note writer: 1a8. objects to always place quotes around
     fields which are strings.  This is similar to *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1456, except that if a field value is ‘None’ an
     empty (unquoted) string is written.

     Instructs *note reader: 132a. objects to interpret an empty
     (unquoted) string as ‘None’ and to otherwise behave as *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1456.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Not: Due to a bug, constants *note QUOTE_NOTNULL: 1a6. and *note
     QUOTE_STRINGS: 1a7. do not affect behaviour of *note reader: 132a.
     objects.  This bug is fixed in Python 3.13.

The *note csv: 29. module defines the following exception:

 -- Özel Durum: csv.Error

     Raised by any of the functions when an error is detected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) If ‘newline=''’ is not specified, newlines embedded inside quoted
fields will not be interpreted correctly, and on platforms that use
‘\r\n’ linendings on write an extra ‘\r’ will be added.  It should
always be safe to specify ‘newline=''’, since the csv module does its
own (*note universal: bc2.) newline handling.

   (2) If ‘newline=''’ is not specified, newlines embedded inside quoted
fields will not be interpreted correctly, and on platforms that use
‘\r\n’ linendings on write an extra ‘\r’ will be added.  It should
always be safe to specify ‘newline=''’, since the csv module does its
own (*note universal: bc2.) newline handling.


File: python.info,  Node: Dialects and Formatting Parameters,  Next: Reader Objects,  Prev: Module Contents<3>,  Up: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.2 Dialects and Formatting Parameters
...........................................

To make it easier to specify the format of input and output records,
specific formatting parameters are grouped together into dialects.  A
dialect is a subclass of the *note Dialect: 16a8. class containing
various attributes describing the format of the CSV file.  When creating
*note reader: 132a. or *note writer: 1a8. objects, the programmer can
specify a string or a subclass of the *note Dialect: 16a8. class as the
dialect parameter.  In addition to, or instead of, the 'dialect'
parameter, the programmer can also specify individual formatting
parameters, which have the same names as the attributes defined below
for the *note Dialect: 16a8. class.

Dialects support the following attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.delimiter

     A one-character string used to separate fields.  It defaults to
     ‘','’.

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.doublequote

     Controls how instances of 'quotechar' appearing inside a field
     should themselves be quoted.  When *note True: a86, the character
     is doubled.  When *note False: 9a8, the 'escapechar' is used as a
     prefix to the 'quotechar'.  It defaults to *note True: a86.

     On output, if 'doublequote' is *note False: 9a8. and no
     'escapechar' is set, *note Error: 2831. is raised if a 'quotechar'
     is found in a field.

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.escapechar

     A one-character string used by the writer to escape the 'delimiter'
     if 'quoting' is set to *note QUOTE_NONE: 2839. and the 'quotechar'
     if 'doublequote' is *note False: 9a8.  On reading, the 'escapechar'
     removes any special meaning from the following character.  It
     defaults to *note None: 488, which disables escaping.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: An empty 'escapechar' is not allowed.

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.lineterminator

     The string used to terminate lines produced by the *note writer:
     1a8.  It defaults to ‘'\r\n'’.

          Not: The *note reader: 132a. is hard-coded to recognise either
          ‘'\r'’ or ‘'\n'’ as end-of-line, and ignores 'lineterminator'.
          This behavior may change in the future.

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.quotechar

     A one-character string used to quote fields containing special
     characters, such as the 'delimiter' or 'quotechar', or which
     contain new-line characters.  It defaults to ‘'"'’.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: An empty 'quotechar' is not allowed.

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.quoting

     Controls when quotes should be generated by the writer and
     recognised by the reader.  It can take on any of the *note QUOTE_*
     constants: 2836. and defaults to *note QUOTE_MINIMAL: 2838.

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.skipinitialspace

     When *note True: a86, spaces immediately following the 'delimiter'
     are ignored.  The default is *note False: 9a8.

 -- Özniteliği: Dialect.strict

     When ‘True’, raise exception *note Error: 2831. on bad CSV input.
     The default is ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Reader Objects,  Next: Writer Objects,  Prev: Dialects and Formatting Parameters,  Up: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.3 Reader Objects
.......................

Reader objects (*note DictReader: 844. instances and objects returned by
the *note reader(): 132a. function) have the following public methods:

 -- Yöntemi: csvreader.__next__ ()

     Return the next row of the reader’s iterable object as a list (if
     the object was returned from *note reader(): 132a.) or a dict (if
     it is a *note DictReader: 844. instance), parsed according to the
     current *note Dialect: 16a8.  Usually you should call this as
     ‘next(reader)’.

Reader objects have the following public attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: csvreader.dialect

     A read-only description of the dialect in use by the parser.

 -- Özniteliği: csvreader.line_num

     The number of lines read from the source iterator.  This is not the
     same as the number of records returned, as records can span
     multiple lines.

DictReader objects have the following public attribute:

 -- Özniteliği: DictReader.fieldnames

     If not passed as a parameter when creating the object, this
     attribute is initialized upon first access or when the first record
     is read from the file.


File: python.info,  Node: Writer Objects,  Next: Examples<9>,  Prev: Reader Objects,  Up: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.4 Writer Objects
.......................

*note writer: 1a8. objects (*note DictWriter: 10a3. instances and
objects returned by the *note writer(): 1a8. function) have the
following public methods.  A 'row' must be an iterable of strings or
numbers for *note writer: 1a8. objects and a dictionary mapping
fieldnames to strings or numbers (by passing them through *note str():
15d. first) for *note DictWriter: 10a3. objects.  Note that complex
numbers are written out surrounded by parens.  This may cause some
problems for other programs which read CSV files (assuming they support
complex numbers at all).

 -- Yöntemi: csvwriter.writerow (row)

     Write the 'row' parameter to the writer’s file object, formatted
     according to the current *note Dialect: 16a8.  Return the return
     value of the call to the 'write' method of the underlying file
     object.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support of arbitrary iterables.

 -- Yöntemi: csvwriter.writerows (rows)

     Write all elements in 'rows' (an iterable of 'row' objects as
     described above) to the writer’s file object, formatted according
     to the current dialect.

Writer objects have the following public attribute:

 -- Özniteliği: csvwriter.dialect

     A read-only description of the dialect in use by the writer.

DictWriter objects have the following public method:

 -- Yöntemi: DictWriter.writeheader ()

     Write a row with the field names (as specified in the constructor)
     to the writer’s file object, formatted according to the current
     dialect.  Return the return value of the *note
     csvwriter.writerow(): c78. call used internally.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note writeheader(): 10a4. now also returns
     the value returned by the *note csvwriter.writerow(): c78. method
     it uses internally.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<9>,  Prev: Writer Objects,  Up: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing

5.14.1.5 Examples
.................

The simplest example of reading a CSV file:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

Reading a file with an alternate format:

     import csv
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

The corresponding simplest possible writing example is:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', 'w', newline='') as f:
         writer = csv.writer(f)
         writer.writerows(someiterable)

Since *note open(): 2a6. is used to open a CSV file for reading, the
file will by default be decoded into unicode using the system default
encoding (see *note locale.getencoding(): 25d.).  To decode a file using
a different encoding, use the ‘encoding’ argument of open:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

The same applies to writing in something other than the system default
encoding: specify the encoding argument when opening the output file.

Registering a new dialect:

     import csv
     csv.register_dialect('unixpwd', delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, 'unixpwd')

A slightly more advanced use of the reader — catching and reporting
errors:

     import csv, sys
     filename = 'some.csv'
     with open(filename, newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         try:
             for row in reader:
                 print(row)
         except csv.Error as e:
             sys.exit('file {}, line {}: {}'.format(filename, reader.line_num, e))

And while the module doesn’t directly support parsing strings, it can
easily be done:

     import csv
     for row in csv.reader(['one,two,three']):
         print(row)


File: python.info,  Node: configparser — Configuration file parser,  Next: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Prev: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing,  Up: File Formats

5.14.2 ‘configparser’ — Configuration file parser
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/configparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides the *note ConfigParser: 28e. class which implements
a basic configuration language which provides a structure similar to
what’s found in Microsoft Windows INI files.  You can use this to write
Python programs which can be customized by end users easily.

     Not: This library does 'not' interpret or write the value-type
     prefixes used in the Windows Registry extended version of INI
     syntax.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note tomllib: fc.

     TOML is a well-specified format for application configuration
     files.  It is specifically designed to be an improved version of
     INI.

Module *note shlex: c3.

     Support for creating Unix shell-like mini-languages which can also
     be used for application configuration files.

Module *note json: 80.

     The ‘json’ module implements a subset of JavaScript syntax which is
     sometimes used for configuration, but does not support comments.

* Menu:

* Quick Start::
* Supported Datatypes::
* Fallback Values::
* Supported INI File Structure::
* Interpolation of values::
* Mapping Protocol Access::
* Customizing Parser Behaviour::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser Objects::
* RawConfigParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/configparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Start,  Next: Supported Datatypes,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.1 Quick Start
....................

Let’s take a very basic configuration file that looks like this:

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = 45
     Compression = yes
     CompressionLevel = 9
     ForwardX11 = yes

     [forge.example]
     User = hg

     [topsecret.server.example]
     Port = 50022
     ForwardX11 = no

The structure of INI files is described *note in the following section:
2850.  Essentially, the file consists of sections, each of which
contains keys with values.  *note configparser: 22. classes can read and
write such files.  Let’s start by creating the above configuration file
programmatically.

     >>> import configparser
     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '45',
     ...                      'Compression': 'yes',
     ...                      'CompressionLevel': '9'}
     >>> config['forge.example'] = {}
     >>> config['forge.example']['User'] = 'hg'
     >>> config['topsecret.server.example'] = {}
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['Port'] = '50022'     # mutates the parser
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11'] = 'no'  # same here
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['ForwardX11'] = 'yes'
     >>> with open('example.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...   config.write(configfile)
     ...

As you can see, we can treat a config parser much like a dictionary.
There are differences, *note outlined later: 2851, but the behavior is
very close to what you would expect from a dictionary.

Now that we have created and saved a configuration file, let’s read it
back and explore the data it holds.

     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config.sections()
     []
     >>> config.read('example.ini')
     ['example.ini']
     >>> config.sections()
     ['forge.example', 'topsecret.server.example']
     >>> 'forge.example' in config
     True
     >>> 'python.org' in config
     False
     >>> config['forge.example']['User']
     'hg'
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['Compression']
     'yes'
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11']
     'no'
     >>> topsecret['Port']
     '50022'
     >>> for key in config['forge.example']:
     ...     print(key)
     user
     compressionlevel
     serveraliveinterval
     compression
     forwardx11
     >>> config['forge.example']['ForwardX11']
     'yes'

As we can see above, the API is pretty straightforward.  The only bit of
magic involves the ‘DEFAULT’ section which provides default values for
all other sections (1).  Note also that keys in sections are
case-insensitive and stored in lowercase (2).

It is possible to read several configurations into a single *note
ConfigParser: 28e, where the most recently added configuration has the
highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more recent
configuration while the previously existing keys are retained.  The
example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which will override any
conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = -1

     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
     >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...     config_override.write(configfile)
     ...
     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
     ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
     >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
     -1

This behaviour is equivalent to a *note ConfigParser.read(): 12f0. call
with several files passed to the 'filenames' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported Datatypes,  Next: Fallback Values,  Prev: Quick Start,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.2 Supported Datatypes
............................

Config parsers do not guess datatypes of values in configuration files,
always storing them internally as strings.  This means that if you need
other datatypes, you should convert on your own:

     >>> int(topsecret['Port'])
     50022
     >>> float(topsecret['CompressionLevel'])
     9.0

Since this task is so common, config parsers provide a range of handy
getter methods to handle integers, floats and booleans.  The last one is
the most interesting because simply passing the value to ‘bool()’ would
do no good since ‘bool('False')’ is still ‘True’.  This is why config
parsers also provide *note getboolean(): 2854.  This method is
case-insensitive and recognizes Boolean values from ‘'yes'’/‘'no'’,
‘'on'’/‘'off'’, ‘'true'’/‘'false'’ and ‘'1'’/‘'0'’ (1).  For example:

     >>> topsecret.getboolean('ForwardX11')
     False
     >>> config['forge.example'].getboolean('ForwardX11')
     True
     >>> config.getboolean('forge.example', 'Compression')
     True

Apart from *note getboolean(): 2854, config parsers also provide
equivalent *note getint(): 2855. and *note getfloat(): 2856. methods.
You can register your own converters and customize the provided ones.
(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Fallback Values,  Next: Supported INI File Structure,  Prev: Supported Datatypes,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.3 Fallback Values
........................

As with a dictionary, you can use a section’s *note get(): 1114. method
to provide fallback values:

     >>> topsecret.get('Port')
     '50022'
     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel')
     '9'
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher')
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher', '3des-cbc')
     '3des-cbc'

Please note that default values have precedence over fallback values.
For instance, in our example the ‘'CompressionLevel'’ key was specified
only in the ‘'DEFAULT'’ section.  If we try to get it from the section
‘'topsecret.server.example'’, we will always get the default, even if we
specify a fallback:

     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel', '3')
     '9'

One more thing to be aware of is that the parser-level *note get():
1114. method provides a custom, more complex interface, maintained for
backwards compatibility.  When using this method, a fallback value can
be provided via the ‘fallback’ keyword-only argument:

     >>> config.get('forge.example', 'monster',
     ...            fallback='No such things as monsters')
     'No such things as monsters'

The same ‘fallback’ argument can be used with the *note getint(): 2855,
*note getfloat(): 2856. and *note getboolean(): 2854. methods, for
example:

     >>> 'BatchMode' in topsecret
     False
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     True
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['BatchMode'] = 'no'
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Supported INI File Structure,  Next: Interpolation of values,  Prev: Fallback Values,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.4 Supported INI File Structure
.....................................

A configuration file consists of sections, each led by a ‘[section]’
header, followed by key/value entries separated by a specific string
(‘=’ or ‘:’ by default (1)).  By default, section names are case
sensitive but keys are not (2).  Leading and trailing whitespace is
removed from keys and values.  Values can be omitted if the parser is
configured to allow it (3), in which case the key/value delimiter may
also be left out.  Values can also span multiple lines, as long as they
are indented deeper than the first line of the value.  Depending on the
parser’s mode, blank lines may be treated as parts of multiline values
or ignored.

By default, a valid section name can be any string that does not contain
‘\n’.  To change this, see *note ConfigParser.SECTCRE: 2858.

Configuration files may include comments, prefixed by specific
characters (‘#’ and ‘;’ by default (4)).  Comments may appear on their
own on an otherwise empty line, possibly indented.  (5)

For example:

     [Simple Values]
     key=value
     spaces in keys=allowed
     spaces in values=allowed as well
     spaces around the delimiter = obviously
     you can also use : to delimit keys from values

     [All Values Are Strings]
     values like this: 1000000
     or this: 3.14159265359
     are they treated as numbers? : no
     integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings
     can use the API to get converted values directly: true

     [Multiline Values]
     chorus: I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay
         I sleep all night and I work all day

     [No Values]
     key_without_value
     empty string value here =

     [You can use comments]
     # like this
     ; or this

     # By default only in an empty line.
     # Inline comments can be harmful because they prevent users
     # from using the delimiting characters as parts of values.
     # That being said, this can be customized.

         [Sections Can Be Indented]
             can_values_be_as_well = True
             does_that_mean_anything_special = False
             purpose = formatting for readability
             multiline_values = are
                 handled just fine as
                 long as they are indented
                 deeper than the first line
                 of a value
             # Did I mention we can indent comments, too?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.

   (3) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.

   (4) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.

   (5) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Interpolation of values,  Next: Mapping Protocol Access,  Prev: Supported INI File Structure,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.5 Interpolation of values
................................

On top of the core functionality, *note ConfigParser: 28e. supports
interpolation.  This means values can be preprocessed before returning
them from ‘get()’ calls.

 -- Sınıfı: configparser.BasicInterpolation

     The default implementation used by *note ConfigParser: 28e.  It
     enables values to contain format strings which refer to other
     values in the same section, or values in the special default
     section (1).  Additional default values can be provided on
     initialization.

     For example:

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack
          my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a %% to escape the % sign (% is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          gain: 80%%

     In the example above, *note ConfigParser: 28e. with 'interpolation'
     set to ‘BasicInterpolation()’ would resolve ‘%(home_dir)s’ to the
     value of ‘home_dir’ (‘/Users’ in this case).  ‘%(my_dir)s’ in
     effect would resolve to ‘/Users/lumberjack’.  All interpolations
     are done on demand so keys used in the chain of references do not
     have to be specified in any specific order in the configuration
     file.

     With ‘interpolation’ set to ‘None’, the parser would simply return
     ‘%(my_dir)s/Pictures’ as the value of ‘my_pictures’ and
     ‘%(home_dir)s/lumberjack’ as the value of ‘my_dir’.

 -- Sınıfı: configparser.ExtendedInterpolation

     An alternative handler for interpolation which implements a more
     advanced syntax, used for instance in ‘zc.buildout’.  Extended
     interpolation is using ‘${section:option}’ to denote a value from a
     foreign section.  Interpolation can span multiple levels.  For
     convenience, if the ‘section:’ part is omitted, interpolation
     defaults to the current section (and possibly the default values
     from the special section).

     For example, the configuration specified above with basic
     interpolation, would look like this with extended interpolation:

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a $$ to escape the $ sign ($ is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          cost: $$80

     Values from other sections can be fetched as well:

          [Common]
          home_dir: /Users
          library_dir: /Library
          system_dir: /System
          macports_dir: /opt/local

          [Frameworks]
          Python: 3.2
          path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/

          [Arthur]
          nickname: Two Sheds
          last_name: Jackson
          my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
          python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Protocol Access,  Next: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Prev: Interpolation of values,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.6 Mapping Protocol Access
................................

Added in version 3.2.

Mapping protocol access is a generic name for functionality that enables
using custom objects as if they were dictionaries.  In case of *note
configparser: 22, the mapping interface implementation is using the
‘parser['section']['option']’ notation.

‘parser['section']’ in particular returns a proxy for the section’s data
in the parser.  This means that the values are not copied but they are
taken from the original parser on demand.  What’s even more important is
that when values are changed on a section proxy, they are actually
mutated in the original parser.

*note configparser: 22. objects behave as close to actual dictionaries
as possible.  The mapping interface is complete and adheres to the *note
MutableMapping: f51. ABC. However, there are a few differences that
should be taken into account:

   * By default, all keys in sections are accessible in a
     case-insensitive manner (1).  E.g.  ‘for option in
     parser["section"]’ yields only ‘optionxform’’ed option key names.
     This means lowercased keys by default.  At the same time, for a
     section that holds the key ‘'a'’, both expressions return ‘True’:

          "a" in parser["section"]
          "A" in parser["section"]

   * All sections include ‘DEFAULTSECT’ values as well which means that
     ‘.clear()’ on a section may not leave the section visibly empty.
     This is because default values cannot be deleted from the section
     (because technically they are not there).  If they are overridden
     in the section, deleting causes the default value to be visible
     again.  Trying to delete a default value causes a *note KeyError:
     903.

   * ‘DEFAULTSECT’ cannot be removed from the parser:

        * trying to delete it raises *note ValueError: 189,

        * ‘parser.clear()’ leaves it intact,

        * ‘parser.popitem()’ never returns it.

   * ‘parser.get(section, option, **kwargs)’ - the second argument is
     'not' a fallback value.  Note however that the section-level
     ‘get()’ methods are compatible both with the mapping protocol and
     the classic configparser API.

   * ‘parser.items()’ is compatible with the mapping protocol (returns a
     list of 'section_name', 'section_proxy' pairs including the
     DEFAULTSECT). However, this method can also be invoked with
     arguments: ‘parser.items(section, raw, vars)’.  The latter call
     returns a list of 'option', 'value' pairs for a specified
     ‘section’, with all interpolations expanded (unless ‘raw=True’ is
     provided).

The mapping protocol is implemented on top of the existing legacy API so
that subclasses overriding the original interface still should have
mappings working as expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 2852. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Next: Legacy API Examples,  Prev: Mapping Protocol Access,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.7 Customizing Parser Behaviour
.....................................

There are nearly as many INI format variants as there are applications
using it.  *note configparser: 22. goes a long way to provide support
for the largest sensible set of INI styles available.  The default
functionality is mainly dictated by historical background and it’s very
likely that you will want to customize some of the features.

The most common way to change the way a specific config parser works is
to use the ‘__init__()’ options:

   * 'defaults', default value: ‘None’

     This option accepts a dictionary of key-value pairs which will be
     initially put in the ‘DEFAULT’ section.  This makes for an elegant
     way to support concise configuration files that don’t specify
     values which are the same as the documented default.

     Hint: if you want to specify default values for a specific section,
     use *note read_dict(): 285a. before you read the actual file.

   * 'dict_type', default value: *note dict: 240.

     This option has a major impact on how the mapping protocol will
     behave and how the written configuration files look.  With the
     standard dictionary, every section is stored in the order they were
     added to the parser.  Same goes for options within sections.

     An alternative dictionary type can be used for example to sort
     sections and options on write-back.

     Please note: there are ways to add a set of key-value pairs in a
     single operation.  When you use a regular dictionary in those
     operations, the order of the keys will be ordered.  For example:

          >>> parser = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> parser.read_dict({'section1': {'key1': 'value1',
          ...                                'key2': 'value2',
          ...                                'key3': 'value3'},
          ...                   'section2': {'keyA': 'valueA',
          ...                                'keyB': 'valueB',
          ...                                'keyC': 'valueC'},
          ...                   'section3': {'foo': 'x',
          ...                                'bar': 'y',
          ...                                'baz': 'z'}
          ... })
          >>> parser.sections()
          ['section1', 'section2', 'section3']
          >>> [option for option in parser['section3']]
          ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']

   * 'allow_no_value', default value: ‘False’

     Some configuration files are known to include settings without
     values, but which otherwise conform to the syntax supported by
     *note configparser: 22.  The 'allow_no_value' parameter to the
     constructor can be used to indicate that such values should be
     accepted:

          >>> import configparser

          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ...   user = mysql
          ...   pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ...   skip-external-locking
          ...   old_passwords = 1
          ...   skip-bdb
          ...   # we don't need ACID today
          ...   skip-innodb
          ... """
          >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.read_string(sample_config)

          >>> # Settings with values are treated as before:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["user"]
          'mysql'

          >>> # Settings without values provide None:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["skip-bdb"]

          >>> # Settings which aren't specified still raise an error:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["does-not-exist"]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          KeyError: 'does-not-exist'

   * 'delimiters', default value: ‘('=', ':')’

     Delimiters are substrings that delimit keys from values within a
     section.  The first occurrence of a delimiting substring on a line
     is considered a delimiter.  This means values (but not keys) can
     contain the delimiters.

     See also the 'space_around_delimiters' argument to *note
     ConfigParser.write(): 285b.

   * 'comment_prefixes', default value: ‘('#', ';')’

   * 'inline_comment_prefixes', default value: ‘None’

     Comment prefixes are strings that indicate the start of a valid
     comment within a config file.  'comment_prefixes' are used only on
     otherwise empty lines (optionally indented) whereas
     'inline_comment_prefixes' can be used after every valid value (e.g.
     section names, options and empty lines as well).  By default inline
     comments are disabled and ‘'#'’ and ‘';'’ are used as prefixes for
     whole line comments.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions of *note configparser:
     22. behaviour matched ‘comment_prefixes=('#',';')’ and
     ‘inline_comment_prefixes=(';',)’.

     Please note that config parsers don’t support escaping of comment
     prefixes so using 'inline_comment_prefixes' may prevent users from
     specifying option values with characters used as comment prefixes.
     When in doubt, avoid setting 'inline_comment_prefixes'.  In any
     circumstances, the only way of storing comment prefix characters at
     the beginning of a line in multiline values is to interpolate the
     prefix, for example:

          >>> from configparser import ConfigParser, ExtendedInterpolation
          >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
          >>> # the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well
          >>> parser.read_string("""
          ... [DEFAULT]
          ... hash = #
          ...
          ... [hashes]
          ... shebang =
          ...   ${hash}!/usr/bin/env python
          ...   ${hash} -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          ...
          ... extensions =
          ...   enabled_extension
          ...   another_extension
          ...   #disabled_by_comment
          ...   yet_another_extension
          ...
          ... interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start
          ... even in multiline values = line #1
          ...   line #2
          ...   line #3
          ... """)
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['shebang'])

          #!/usr/bin/env python
          # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['extensions'])

          enabled_extension
          another_extension
          yet_another_extension
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['interpolation not necessary'])
          if # is not at line start
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['even in multiline values'])
          line #1
          line #2
          line #3

   * 'strict', default value: ‘True’

     When set to ‘True’, the parser will not allow for any section or
     option duplicates while reading from a single source (using *note
     read_file(): 28f, *note read_string(): 285c. or *note read_dict():
     285a.).  It is recommended to use strict parsers in new
     applications.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions of *note configparser:
     22. behaviour matched ‘strict=False’.

   * 'empty_lines_in_values', default value: ‘True’

     In config parsers, values can span multiple lines as long as they
     are indented more than the key that holds them.  By default parsers
     also let empty lines to be parts of values.  At the same time, keys
     can be arbitrarily indented themselves to improve readability.  In
     consequence, when configuration files get big and complex, it is
     easy for the user to lose track of the file structure.  Take for
     instance:

          [Section]
          key = multiline
            value with a gotcha

           this = is still a part of the multiline value of 'key'

     This can be especially problematic for the user to see if she’s
     using a proportional font to edit the file.  That is why when your
     application does not need values with empty lines, you should
     consider disallowing them.  This will make empty lines split keys
     every time.  In the example above, it would produce two keys, ‘key’
     and ‘this’.

   * 'default_section', default value: ‘configparser.DEFAULTSECT’ (that
     is: ‘"DEFAULT"’)

     The convention of allowing a special section of default values for
     other sections or interpolation purposes is a powerful concept of
     this library, letting users create complex declarative
     configurations.  This section is normally called ‘"DEFAULT"’ but
     this can be customized to point to any other valid section name.
     Some typical values include: ‘"general"’ or ‘"common"’.  The name
     provided is used for recognizing default sections when reading from
     any source and is used when writing configuration back to a file.
     Its current value can be retrieved using the
     ‘parser_instance.default_section’ attribute and may be modified at
     runtime (i.e.  to convert files from one format to another).

   * 'interpolation', default value: ‘configparser.BasicInterpolation’

     Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom
     handler through the 'interpolation' argument.  ‘None’ can be used
     to turn off interpolation completely, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’
     provides a more advanced variant inspired by ‘zc.buildout’.  More
     on the subject in the *note dedicated documentation section: 2859.
     *note RawConfigParser: e04. has a default value of ‘None’.

   * 'converters', default value: not set

     Config parsers provide option value getters that perform type
     conversion.  By default *note getint(): 2855, *note getfloat():
     2856, and *note getboolean(): 2854. are implemented.  Should other
     getters be desirable, users may define them in a subclass or pass a
     dictionary where each key is a name of the converter and each value
     is a callable implementing said conversion.  For instance, passing
     ‘{'decimal': decimal.Decimal}’ would add ‘getdecimal()’ on both the
     parser object and all section proxies.  In other words, it will be
     possible to write both ‘parser_instance.getdecimal('section',
     'key', fallback=0)’ and
     ‘parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key', 0)’.

     If the converter needs to access the state of the parser, it can be
     implemented as a method on a config parser subclass.  If the name
     of this method starts with ‘get’, it will be available on all
     section proxies, in the dict-compatible form (see the
     ‘getdecimal()’ example above).

More advanced customization may be achieved by overriding default values
of these parser attributes.  The defaults are defined on the classes, so
they may be overridden by subclasses or by attribute assignment.

 -- Özniteliği: ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES

     By default when using *note getboolean(): 2854, config parsers
     consider the following values ‘True’: ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’,
     ‘'on'’ and the following values ‘False’: ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’,
     ‘'off'’.  You can override this by specifying a custom dictionary
     of strings and their Boolean outcomes.  For example:

          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom['section1'] = {'funky': 'nope'}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: Not a boolean: nope
          >>> custom.BOOLEAN_STATES = {'sure': True, 'nope': False}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          False

     Other typical Boolean pairs include ‘accept’/‘reject’ or
     ‘enabled’/‘disabled’.

 -- Yöntemi: ConfigParser.optionxform (option)

     This method transforms option names on every read, get, or set
     operation.  The default converts the name to lowercase.  This also
     means that when a configuration file gets written, all keys will be
     lowercase.  Override this method if that’s unsuitable.  For
     example:

          >>> config = """
          ... [Section1]
          ... Key = Value
          ...
          ... [Section2]
          ... AnotherKey = Value
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> list(typical['Section1'].keys())
          ['key']
          >>> list(typical['Section2'].keys())
          ['anotherkey']
          >>> custom = configparser.RawConfigParser()
          >>> custom.optionxform = lambda option: option
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> list(custom['Section1'].keys())
          ['Key']
          >>> list(custom['Section2'].keys())
          ['AnotherKey']

          Not: The optionxform function transforms option names to a
          canonical form.  This should be an idempotent function: if the
          name is already in canonical form, it should be returned
          unchanged.

 -- Özniteliği: ConfigParser.SECTCRE

     A compiled regular expression used to parse section headers.  The
     default matches ‘[section]’ to the name ‘"section"’.  Whitespace is
     considered part of the section name, thus ‘[ larch ]’ will be read
     as a section of name ‘" larch "’.  Override this attribute if
     that’s unsuitable.  For example:

          >>> import re
          >>> config = """
          ... [Section 1]
          ... option = value
          ...
          ... [  Section 2  ]
          ... another = val
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> typical.sections()
          ['Section 1', '  Section 2  ']
          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom.SECTCRE = re.compile(r"\[ *(?P<header>[^]]+?) *\]")
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> custom.sections()
          ['Section 1', 'Section 2']

          Not: While ConfigParser objects also use an ‘OPTCRE’ attribute
          for recognizing option lines, it’s not recommended to override
          it because that would interfere with constructor options
          'allow_no_value' and 'delimiters'.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy API Examples,  Next: ConfigParser Objects,  Prev: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.8 Legacy API Examples
............................

Mainly because of backwards compatibility concerns, *note configparser:
22. provides also a legacy API with explicit ‘get’/‘set’ methods.  While
there are valid use cases for the methods outlined below, mapping
protocol access is preferred for new projects.  The legacy API is at
times more advanced, low-level and downright counterintuitive.

An example of writing to a configuration file:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()

     # Please note that using RawConfigParser's set functions, you can assign
     # non-string values to keys internally, but will receive an error when
     # attempting to write to a file or when you get it in non-raw mode. Setting
     # values using the mapping protocol or ConfigParser's set() does not allow
     # such assignments to take place.
     config.add_section('Section1')
     config.set('Section1', 'an_int', '15')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_bool', 'true')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_float', '3.1415')
     config.set('Section1', 'baz', 'fun')
     config.set('Section1', 'bar', 'Python')
     config.set('Section1', 'foo', '%(bar)s is %(baz)s!')

     # Writing our configuration file to 'example.cfg'
     with open('example.cfg', 'w') as configfile:
         config.write(configfile)

An example of reading the configuration file again:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
     config.read('example.cfg')

     # getfloat() raises an exception if the value is not a float
     # getint() and getboolean() also do this for their respective types
     a_float = config.getfloat('Section1', 'a_float')
     an_int = config.getint('Section1', 'an_int')
     print(a_float + an_int)

     # Notice that the next output does not interpolate '%(bar)s' or '%(baz)s'.
     # This is because we are using a RawConfigParser().
     if config.getboolean('Section1', 'a_bool'):
         print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))

To get interpolation, use *note ConfigParser: 28e.:

     import configparser

     cfg = configparser.ConfigParser()
     cfg.read('example.cfg')

     # Set the optional *raw* argument of get() to True if you wish to disable
     # interpolation in a single get operation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=False))  # -> "Python is fun!"
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=True))   # -> "%(bar)s is %(baz)s!"

     # The optional *vars* argument is a dict with members that will take
     # precedence in interpolation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', vars={'bar': 'Documentation',
                                            'baz': 'evil'}))

     # The optional *fallback* argument can be used to provide a fallback value
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', fallback='Monty is not.'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback='No such things as monsters.'))
           # -> "No such things as monsters."

     # A bare print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster')) would raise NoOptionError
     # but we can also use:

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback=None))
           # -> None

Default values are available in both types of ConfigParsers.  They are
used in interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere.

     import configparser

     # New instance with 'bar' and 'baz' defaulting to 'Life' and 'hard' each
     config = configparser.ConfigParser({'bar': 'Life', 'baz': 'hard'})
     config.read('example.cfg')

     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Python is fun!"
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'bar')
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'baz')
     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Life is hard!"


File: python.info,  Node: ConfigParser Objects,  Next: RawConfigParser Objects,  Prev: Legacy API Examples,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.9 ConfigParser Objects
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: configparser.ConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={})

     The main configuration parser.  When 'defaults' is given, it is
     initialized into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults.  When
     'dict_type' is given, it will be used to create the dictionary
     objects for the list of sections, for the options within a section,
     and for the default values.

     When 'delimiters' is given, it is used as the set of substrings
     that divide keys from values.  When 'comment_prefixes' is given, it
     will be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in
     otherwise empty lines.  Comments can be indented.  When
     'inline_comment_prefixes' is given, it will be used as the set of
     substrings that prefix comments in non-empty lines.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the parser won’t allow for
     any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source
     (file, string or dictionary), raising *note DuplicateSectionError:
     1117. or *note DuplicateOptionError: 1118.  When
     'empty_lines_in_values' is ‘False’ (default: ‘True’), each empty
     line marks the end of an option.  Otherwise, internal empty lines
     of a multiline option are kept as part of the value.  When
     'allow_no_value' is ‘True’ (default: ‘False’), options without
     values are accepted; the value held for these is ‘None’ and they
     are serialized without the trailing delimiter.

     When 'default_section' is given, it specifies the name for the
     special section holding default values for other sections and
     interpolation purposes (normally named ‘"DEFAULT"’).  This value
     can be retrieved and changed at runtime using the ‘default_section’
     instance attribute.  This won’t re-evaluate an already parsed
     config file, but will be used when writing parsed settings to a new
     config file.

     Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom
     handler through the 'interpolation' argument.  ‘None’ can be used
     to turn off interpolation completely, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’
     provides a more advanced variant inspired by ‘zc.buildout’.  More
     on the subject in the *note dedicated documentation section: 2859.

     All option names used in interpolation will be passed through the
     *note optionxform(): 2861. method just like any other option name
     reference.  For example, using the default implementation of *note
     optionxform(): 2861. (which converts option names to lower case),
     the values ‘foo %(bar)s’ and ‘foo %(BAR)s’ are equivalent.

     When 'converters' is given, it should be a dictionary where each
     key represents the name of a type converter and each value is a
     callable implementing the conversion from string to the desired
     datatype.  Every converter gets its own corresponding ‘get*()’
     method on the parser object and section proxies.

     It is possible to read several configurations into a single *note
     ConfigParser: 28e, where the most recently added configuration has
     the highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more
     recent configuration while the previously existing keys are
     retained.  The example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which
     will override any conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

          [DEFAULT]
          ServerAliveInterval = -1

          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
          >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
          ...     config_override.write(configfile)
          ...
          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
          ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
          >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
          -1

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: The default 'dict_type' is *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 3e6.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' and 'interpolation' were added.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'converters' argument was added.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'defaults' argument is read with *note
     read_dict(): 285a, providing consistent behavior across the parser:
     non-string keys and values are implicitly converted to strings.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict: 240,
     since it now preserves insertion order.

      -- Yöntemi: defaults ()

          Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.

      -- Yöntemi: sections ()

          Return a list of the sections available; the 'default section'
          is not included in the list.

      -- Yöntemi: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' to the instance.  If a section
          by the given name already exists, *note DuplicateSectionError:
          1117. is raised.  If the 'default section' name is passed,
          *note ValueError: 189. is raised.  The name of the section
          must be a string; if not, *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Non-string section names raise *note
          TypeError: 2c4.

      -- Yöntemi: has_section (section)

          Indicates whether the named 'section' is present in the
          configuration.  The 'default section' is not acknowledged.

      -- Yöntemi: options (section)

          Return a list of options available in the specified 'section'.

      -- Yöntemi: has_option (section, option)

          If the given 'section' exists, and contains the given
          'option', return *note True: a86.; otherwise return *note
          False: 9a8.  If the specified 'section' is *note None: 488. or
          an empty string, DEFAULT is assumed.

      -- Yöntemi: read (filenames, encoding=None)

          Attempt to read and parse an iterable of filenames, returning
          a list of filenames which were successfully parsed.

          If 'filenames' is a string, a *note bytes: 2cb. object or a
          *note path-like object: 98e, it is treated as a single
          filename.  If a file named in 'filenames' cannot be opened,
          that file will be ignored.  This is designed so that you can
          specify an iterable of potential configuration file locations
          (for example, the current directory, the user’s home
          directory, and some system-wide directory), and all existing
          configuration files in the iterable will be read.

          If none of the named files exist, the *note ConfigParser: 28e.
          instance will contain an empty dataset.  An application which
          requires initial values to be loaded from a file should load
          the required file or files using *note read_file(): 28f.
          before calling *note read(): 12f0. for any optional files:

               import configparser, os

               config = configparser.ConfigParser()
               config.read_file(open('defaults.cfg'))
               config.read(['site.cfg', os.path.expanduser('~/.myapp.cfg')],
                           encoding='cp1250')

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'encoding' parameter.
          Previously, all files were read using the default encoding for
          *note open(): 2a6.

          3.6.1 sürümünde değişti: The 'filenames' parameter accepts a
          *note path-like object: 98e.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'filenames' parameter accepts a
          *note bytes: 2cb. object.

      -- Yöntemi: read_file (f, source=None)

          Read and parse configuration data from 'f' which must be an
          iterable yielding Unicode strings (for example files opened in
          text mode).

          Optional argument 'source' specifies the name of the file
          being read.  If not given and 'f' has a ‘name’ attribute, that
          is used for 'source'; the default is ‘'<???>'’.

          Added in version 3.2: Replaces ‘readfp()’.

      -- Yöntemi: read_string (string, source='<string>')

          Parse configuration data from a string.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the string passed.  If not given, ‘'<string>'’ is used.
          This should commonly be a filesystem path or a URL.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: read_dict (dictionary, source='<dict>')

          Load configuration from any object that provides a dict-like
          ‘items()’ method.  Keys are section names, values are
          dictionaries with keys and values that should be present in
          the section.  If the used dictionary type preserves order,
          sections and their keys will be added in order.  Values are
          automatically converted to strings.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the dictionary passed.  If not given, ‘<dict>’ is used.

          This method can be used to copy state between parsers.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: get (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          Get an 'option' value for the named 'section'.  If 'vars' is
          provided, it must be a dictionary.  The 'option' is looked up
          in 'vars' (if provided), 'section', and in 'DEFAULTSECT' in
          that order.  If the key is not found and 'fallback' is
          provided, it is used as a fallback value.  ‘None’ can be
          provided as a 'fallback' value.

          All the ‘'%'’ interpolations are expanded in the return
          values, unless the 'raw' argument is true.  Values for
          interpolation keys are looked up in the same manner as the
          option.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Arguments 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'
          are keyword only to protect users from trying to use the third
          argument as the 'fallback' fallback (especially when using the
          mapping protocol).

      -- Yöntemi: getint (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to an integer.  See *note get(): 1114. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Yöntemi: getfloat (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a floating-point number.  See *note
          get(): 1114. for explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Yöntemi: getboolean (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a Boolean value.  Note that the
          accepted values for the option are ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’,
          and ‘'on'’, which cause this method to return ‘True’, and
          ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’, and ‘'off'’, which cause it to
          return ‘False’.  These string values are checked in a
          case-insensitive manner.  Any other value will cause it to
          raise *note ValueError: 189.  See *note get(): 1114. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Yöntemi: items (raw=False, vars=None)

      -- Yöntemi: items (section, raw=False, vars=None)

          When 'section' is not given, return a list of 'section_name',
          'section_proxy' pairs, including DEFAULTSECT.

          Otherwise, return a list of 'name', 'value' pairs for the
          options in the given 'section'.  Optional arguments have the
          same meaning as for the *note get(): 1114. method.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: Items present in 'vars' no longer
          appear in the result.  The previous behaviour mixed actual
          parser options with variables provided for interpolation.

      -- Yöntemi: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 2868.
          'option' and 'value' must be strings; if not, *note TypeError:
          2c4. is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: write (fileobject, space_around_delimiters=True)

          Write a representation of the configuration to the specified
          *note file object: 1068, which must be opened in text mode
          (accepting strings).  This representation can be parsed by a
          future *note read(): 12f0. call.  If 'space_around_delimiters'
          is true, delimiters between keys and values are surrounded by
          spaces.

          Not: Comments in the original configuration file are not
          preserved when writing the configuration back.  What is
          considered a comment, depends on the given values for
          'comment_prefix' and 'inline_comment_prefix'.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_option (section, option)

          Remove the specified 'option' from the specified 'section'.
          If the section does not exist, raise *note NoSectionError:
          2868.  If the option existed to be removed, return *note True:
          a86.; otherwise return *note False: 9a8.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_section (section)

          Remove the specified 'section' from the configuration.  If the
          section in fact existed, return ‘True’.  Otherwise return
          ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: optionxform (option)

          Transforms the option name 'option' as found in an input file
          or as passed in by client code to the form that should be used
          in the internal structures.  The default implementation
          returns a lower-case version of 'option'; subclasses may
          override this or client code can set an attribute of this name
          on instances to affect this behavior.

          You don’t need to subclass the parser to use this method, you
          can also set it on an instance, to a function that takes a
          string argument and returns a string.  Setting it to ‘str’,
          for example, would make option names case sensitive:

               cfgparser = ConfigParser()
               cfgparser.optionxform = str

          Note that when reading configuration files, whitespace around
          the option names is stripped before *note optionxform(): 2861.
          is called.

 -- Verisi: configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH

     The maximum depth for recursive interpolation for *note get():
     1114. when the 'raw' parameter is false.  This is relevant only
     when the default 'interpolation' is used.


File: python.info,  Node: RawConfigParser Objects,  Next: Exceptions<6>,  Prev: ConfigParser Objects,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.10 RawConfigParser Objects
.................................

 -- Sınıfı: configparser.RawConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT[, interpolation])

     Legacy variant of the *note ConfigParser: 28e.  It has
     interpolation disabled by default and allows for non-string section
     names, option names, and values via its unsafe ‘add_section’ and
     ‘set’ methods, as well as the legacy ‘defaults=’ keyword argument
     handling.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict: 240,
     since it now preserves insertion order.

          Not: Consider using *note ConfigParser: 28e. instead which
          checks types of the values to be stored internally.  If you
          don’t want interpolation, you can use
          ‘ConfigParser(interpolation=None)’.

      -- Yöntemi: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' to the instance.  If a section
          by the given name already exists, *note DuplicateSectionError:
          1117. is raised.  If the 'default section' name is passed,
          *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

          Type of 'section' is not checked which lets users create
          non-string named sections.  This behaviour is unsupported and
          may cause internal errors.

      -- Yöntemi: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 2868.
          While it is possible to use *note RawConfigParser: e04. (or
          *note ConfigParser: 28e. with 'raw' parameters set to true)
          for 'internal' storage of non-string values, full
          functionality (including interpolation and output to files)
          can only be achieved using string values.

          This method lets users assign non-string values to keys
          internally.  This behaviour is unsupported and will cause
          errors when attempting to write to a file or get it in non-raw
          mode.  'Use the mapping protocol API' which does not allow
          such assignments to take place.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<6>,  Prev: RawConfigParser Objects,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.14.2.11 Exceptions
....................

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.Error

     Base class for all other *note configparser: 22. exceptions.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.NoSectionError

     Exception raised when a specified section is not found.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.DuplicateSectionError

     Exception raised if *note add_section(): 1116. is called with the
     name of a section that is already present or in strict parsers when
     a section if found more than once in a single input file, string or
     dictionary.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the optional 'source' and 'lineno'
     attributes and parameters to ‘__init__()’.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.DuplicateOptionError

     Exception raised by strict parsers if a single option appears twice
     during reading from a single file, string or dictionary.  This
     catches misspellings and case sensitivity-related errors, e.g.  a
     dictionary may have two keys representing the same case-insensitive
     configuration key.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.NoOptionError

     Exception raised when a specified option is not found in the
     specified section.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.InterpolationError

     Base class for exceptions raised when problems occur performing
     string interpolation.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.InterpolationDepthError

     Exception raised when string interpolation cannot be completed
     because the number of iterations exceeds *note
     MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH: 286b.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 2873.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError

     Exception raised when an option referenced from a value does not
     exist.  Subclass of *note InterpolationError: 2873.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError

     Exception raised when the source text into which substitutions are
     made does not conform to the required syntax.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 2873.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError

     Exception raised when attempting to parse a file which has no
     section headers.

 -- Özel Durum: configparser.ParsingError

     Exception raised when errors occur attempting to parse a file.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The ‘filename’ attribute and ‘__init__()’
     constructor argument were removed.  They have been available using
     the name ‘source’ since 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Next: netrc — netrc file processing,  Prev: configparser — Configuration file parser,  Up: File Formats

5.14.3 ‘tomllib’ — Parse TOML files
-----------------------------------

Added in version 3.11.

'Source code:' Lib/tomllib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for parsing TOML 1.0.0 (Tom’s Obvious
Minimal Language, https://toml.io(2)).  This module does not support
writing TOML.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The Tomli-W package(3) is a TOML writer that can be used in conjunction
with this module, providing a write API familiar to users of the
standard library *note marshal: 8c. and *note pickle: a5. modules.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The TOML Kit package(4) is a style-preserving TOML library with both
read and write capability.  It is a recommended replacement for this
module for editing already existing TOML files.

This module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: tomllib.load (fp, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Read a TOML file.  The first argument should be a readable and
     binary file object.  Return a *note dict: 240.  Convert TOML types
     to Python using this *note conversion table: 287b.

     'parse_float' will be called with the string of every TOML float to
     be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ‘float(num_str)’.
     This can be used to use another datatype or parser for TOML floats
     (e.g.  *note decimal.Decimal: 609.).  The callable must not return
     a *note dict: 240. or a *note list: 422, else a *note ValueError:
     189. is raised.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 287c. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

 -- Işlevi: tomllib.loads (s, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Load TOML from a *note str: 15d. object.  Return a *note dict: 240.
     Convert TOML types to Python using this *note conversion table:
     287b.  The 'parse_float' argument has the same meaning as in *note
     load(): 287a.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 287c. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

The following exceptions are available:

 -- Özel Durum: tomllib.TOMLDecodeError

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 189.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<10>.
* Conversion Table::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tomllib

   (2) https://toml.io/en/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tomli-w/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tomlkit/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<10>,  Next: Conversion Table,  Up: tomllib — Parse TOML files

5.14.3.1 Examples
.................

Parsing a TOML file:

     import tomllib

     with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
         data = tomllib.load(f)

Parsing a TOML string:

     import tomllib

     toml_str = """
     python-version = "3.11.0"
     python-implementation = "CPython"
     """

     data = tomllib.loads(toml_str)


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion Table,  Prev: Examples<10>,  Up: tomllib — Parse TOML files

5.14.3.2 Conversion Table
.........................

TOML                   Python
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
TOML document          dict
                       
                       
string                 str
                       
                       
integer                int
                       
                       
float                  float (configurable with 'parse_float')
                       
                       
boolean                bool
                       
                       
offset date-time       datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to an instance of ‘datetime.timezone’)
                       
                       
local date-time        datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to ‘None’)
                       
                       
local date             datetime.date
                       
                       
local time             datetime.time
                       
                       
array                  list
                       
                       
table                  dict
                       
                       
inline table           dict
                       
                       
array of tables        list of dicts
                       


File: python.info,  Node: netrc — netrc file processing,  Next: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files,  Prev: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Up: File Formats

5.14.4 ‘netrc’ — netrc file processing
--------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/netrc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note netrc: 16ea. class parses and encapsulates the netrc file
format used by the Unix ‘ftp’ program and other FTP clients.

 -- Sınıfı: netrc.netrc ([file])

     A *note netrc: 16ea. instance or subclass instance encapsulates
     data from a netrc file.  The initialization argument, if present,
     specifies the file to parse.  If no argument is given, the file
     ‘.netrc’ in the user’s home directory – as determined by *note
     os.path.expanduser(): 874. – will be read.  Otherwise, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: 39a. exception will be raised.  Parse errors
     will raise *note NetrcParseError: 2882. with diagnostic information
     including the file name, line number, and terminating token.  If no
     argument is specified on a POSIX system, the presence of passwords
     in the ‘.netrc’ file will raise a *note NetrcParseError: 2882. if
     the file ownership or permissions are insecure (owned by a user
     other than the user running the process, or accessible for read or
     write by any other user).  This implements security behavior
     equivalent to that of ftp and other programs that use ‘.netrc’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the POSIX permission check.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note os.path.expanduser(): 874. is used to
     find the location of the ‘.netrc’ file when 'file' is not passed as
     argument.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note netrc: 9a. try UTF-8 encoding before
     using locale specific encoding.  The entry in the netrc file no
     longer needs to contain all tokens.  The missing tokens’ value
     default to an empty string.  All the tokens and their values now
     can contain arbitrary characters, like whitespace and non-ASCII
     characters.  If the login name is anonymous, it won’t trigger the
     security check.

 -- Özel Durum: netrc.NetrcParseError

     Exception raised by the *note netrc: 16ea. class when syntactical
     errors are encountered in source text.  Instances of this exception
     provide three interesting attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: msg

          Textual explanation of the error.

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          The name of the source file.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number on which the error was found.

* Menu:

* netrc Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/netrc.py


File: python.info,  Node: netrc Objects,  Up: netrc — netrc file processing

5.14.4.1 netrc Objects
......................

A *note netrc: 16ea. instance has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: netrc.authenticators (host)

     Return a 3-tuple ‘(login, account, password)’ of authenticators for
     'host'.  If the netrc file did not contain an entry for the given
     host, return the tuple associated with the ‘default’ entry.  If
     neither matching host nor default entry is available, return
     ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: netrc.__repr__ ()

     Dump the class data as a string in the format of a netrc file.
     (This discards comments and may reorder the entries.)

Instances of *note netrc: 16ea. have public instance variables:

 -- Özniteliği: netrc.hosts

     Dictionary mapping host names to ‘(login, account, password)’
     tuples.  The ‘default’ entry, if any, is represented as a
     pseudo-host by that name.

 -- Özniteliği: netrc.macros

     Dictionary mapping macro names to string lists.


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files,  Prev: netrc — netrc file processing,  Up: File Formats

5.14.5 ‘plistlib’ — Generate and parse Apple ‘.plist’ files
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/plistlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for reading and writing the “property
list” files used by Apple, primarily on macOS and iOS. This module
supports both binary and XML plist files.

The property list (‘.plist’) file format is a simple serialization
supporting basic object types, like dictionaries, lists, numbers and
strings.  Usually the top level object is a dictionary.

To write out and to parse a plist file, use the *note dump(): 7ac. and
*note load(): 7aa. functions.

To work with plist data in bytes objects, use *note dumps(): 7ad. and
*note loads(): 7ab.

Values can be strings, integers, floats, booleans, tuples, lists,
dictionaries (but only with string keys), *note bytes: 2cb, *note
bytearray: 2ca. or *note datetime.datetime: 22b. objects.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: New API, old API deprecated.  Support for binary
format plists added.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Support added for reading and writing *note UID:
883. tokens in binary plists as used by NSKeyedArchiver and
NSKeyedUnarchiver.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Old API removed.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PList manual page(2)

     Apple’s documentation of the file format.

This module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: plistlib.load (fp, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict)

     Read a plist file.  'fp' should be a readable and binary file
     object.  Return the unpacked root object (which usually is a
     dictionary).

     The 'fmt' is the format of the file and the following values are
     valid:

        * *note None: 488.: Autodetect the file format

        * *note FMT_XML: e1a.: XML file format

        * *note FMT_BINARY: e1b.: Binary plist format

     The 'dict_type' is the type used for dictionaries that are read
     from the plist file.

     XML data for the *note FMT_XML: e1a. format is parsed using the
     Expat parser from *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. – see its
     documentation for possible exceptions on ill-formed XML. Unknown
     elements will simply be ignored by the plist parser.

     The parser raises *note InvalidFileException: 175a. when the file
     cannot be parsed.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: plistlib.loads (data, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict)

     Load a plist from a bytes object.  See *note load(): 7aa. for an
     explanation of the keyword arguments.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: plistlib.dump (value, fp, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False)

     Write 'value' to a plist file.  'fp' should be a writable, binary
     file object.

     The 'fmt' argument specifies the format of the plist file and can
     be one of the following values:

        * *note FMT_XML: e1a.: XML formatted plist file

        * *note FMT_BINARY: e1b.: Binary formatted plist file

     When 'sort_keys' is true (the default) the keys for dictionaries
     will be written to the plist in sorted order, otherwise they will
     be written in the iteration order of the dictionary.

     When 'skipkeys' is false (the default) the function raises *note
     TypeError: 2c4. when a key of a dictionary is not a string,
     otherwise such keys are skipped.

     A *note TypeError: 2c4. will be raised if the object is of an
     unsupported type or a container that contains objects of
     unsupported types.

     An *note OverflowError: 6c7. will be raised for integer values that
     cannot be represented in (binary) plist files.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: plistlib.dumps (value, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False)

     Return 'value' as a plist-formatted bytes object.  See the
     documentation for *note dump(): 7ac. for an explanation of the
     keyword arguments of this function.

     Added in version 3.4.

The following classes are available:

 -- Sınıfı: plistlib.UID (data)

     Wraps an *note int: 184.  This is used when reading or writing
     NSKeyedArchiver encoded data, which contains UID (see PList
     manual).

     It has one attribute, ‘data’, which can be used to retrieve the int
     value of the UID. ‘data’ must be in the range ‘0 <= data < 2**64’.

     Added in version 3.8.

The following constants are available:

 -- Verisi: plistlib.FMT_XML

     The XML format for plist files.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: plistlib.FMT_BINARY

     The binary format for plist files

     Added in version 3.4.

The module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Özel Durum: plistlib.InvalidFileException

     Raised when a file cannot be parsed.

     Added in version 3.4.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/plistlib.py

   (2) 
https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<11>,  Up: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files

5.14.5.1 Examples
.................

Generating a plist:

     import datetime
     import plistlib

     pl = dict(
         aString = "Doodah",
         aList = ["A", "B", 12, 32.1, [1, 2, 3]],
         aFloat = 0.1,
         anInt = 728,
         aDict = dict(
             anotherString = "<hello & hi there!>",
             aThirdString = "M\xe4ssig, Ma\xdf",
             aTrueValue = True,
             aFalseValue = False,
         ),
         someData = b"<binary gunk>",
         someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
         aDate = datetime.datetime.now()
     )
     print(plistlib.dumps(pl).decode())

Parsing a plist:

     import plistlib

     plist = b"""<plist version="1.0">
     <dict>
         <key>foo</key>
         <string>bar</string>
     </dict>
     </plist>"""
     pl = plistlib.loads(plist)
     print(pl["foo"])


File: python.info,  Node: Cryptographic Services,  Next: Generic Operating System Services,  Prev: File Formats,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.15 Cryptographic Services
===========================

The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms of a
cryptographic nature.  They are available at the discretion of the
installation.  On Unix systems, the *note crypt: 28. module may also be
available.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests::
* hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication::
* secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets::


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests,  Next: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Up: Cryptographic Services

5.15.1 ‘hashlib’ — Secure hashes and message digests
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/hashlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a common interface to many different secure hash
and message digest algorithms.  Included are the FIPS secure hash
algorithms SHA1, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, (defined in the FIPS
180-4 standard(2)), the SHA-3 series (defined in the FIPS 202
standard(3)) as well as RSA’s MD5 algorithm (defined in internet RFC
1321(4)).  The terms “secure hash” and “message digest” are
interchangeable.  Older algorithms were called message digests.  The
modern term is secure hash.

     Not: If you want the adler32 or crc32 hash functions, they are
     available in the *note zlib: 133. module.

* Menu:

* Hash algorithms::
* Usage::
* Constructors::
* Attributes::
* Hash Objects::
* SHAKE variable length digests::
* File hashing::
* Key derivation::
* BLAKE2::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/hashlib.py

   (2) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/180-4/upd1/final

   (3) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1321.html


File: python.info,  Node: Hash algorithms,  Next: Usage,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.1 Hash algorithms
........................

There is one constructor method named for each type of 'hash'.  All
return a hash object with the same simple interface.  For example: use
*note sha256(): 2896. to create a SHA-256 hash object.  You can now feed
this object with *note bytes-like objects: bb5. (normally *note bytes:
2cb.) using the *note update: 2897. method.  At any point you can ask it
for the 'digest' of the concatenation of the data fed to it so far using
the *note digest(): 2898. or *note hexdigest(): 2899. methods.

To allow multithreading, the Python *note GIL: 6fa. is released while
computing a hash supplied more than 2047 bytes of data at once in its
constructor or *note .update: 2897. method.

Constructors for hash algorithms that are always present in this module
are *note sha1(): 289a, *note sha224(): 289b, *note sha256(): 2896,
*note sha384(): 289c, *note sha512(): 289d, *note sha3_224(): b25, *note
sha3_256(): b26, *note sha3_384(): b27, *note sha3_512(): b28, *note
shake_128(): b29, *note shake_256(): b2a, *note blake2b(): 455, and
*note blake2s(): 456.  *note md5(): 289e. is normally available as well,
though it may be missing or blocked if you are using a rare “FIPS
compliant” build of Python.  These correspond to *note
algorithms_guaranteed: 121a.

Additional algorithms may also be available if your Python
distribution’s *note hashlib: 66. was linked against a build of OpenSSL
that provides others.  Others 'are not guaranteed available' on all
installations and will only be accessible by name via *note new(): 1773.
See *note algorithms_available: 121b.

     Uyarı: Some algorithms have known hash collision weaknesses
     (including MD5 and SHA1).  Refer to Attacks on cryptographic hash
     algorithms(1) and the *note hashlib-seealso: 289f. section at the
     end of this document.

Added in version 3.6: SHA3 (Keccak) and SHAKE constructors *note
sha3_224(): b25, *note sha3_256(): b26, *note sha3_384(): b27, *note
sha3_512(): b28, *note shake_128(): b29, *note shake_256(): b2a. were
added.  *note blake2b(): 455. and *note blake2s(): 456. were added.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: All hashlib constructors take a keyword-only
argument 'usedforsecurity' with default value ‘True’.  A false value
allows the use of insecure and blocked hashing algorithms in restricted
environments.  ‘False’ indicates that the hashing algorithm is not used
in a security context, e.g.  as a non-cryptographic one-way compression
function.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Hashlib now uses SHA3 and SHAKE from OpenSSL if
it provides it.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: For any of the MD5, SHA1, SHA2, or SHA3
algorithms that the linked OpenSSL does not provide we fall back to a
verified implementation from the HACL* project(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Attacks_on_cryptographic_hash_algorithms

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star


File: python.info,  Node: Usage,  Next: Constructors,  Prev: Hash algorithms,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.2 Usage
..............

To obtain the digest of the byte string ‘b"Nobody inspects the spammish
repetition"’:

     >>> import hashlib
     >>> m = hashlib.sha256()
     >>> m.update(b"Nobody inspects")
     >>> m.update(b" the spammish repetition")
     >>> m.digest()
     b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06'
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

More condensed:

     >>> hashlib.sha256(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition").hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'


File: python.info,  Node: Constructors,  Next: Attributes,  Prev: Usage,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.3 Constructors
.....................

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.new (name[, data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

     Is a generic constructor that takes the string 'name' of the
     desired algorithm as its first parameter.  It also exists to allow
     access to the above listed hashes as well as any other algorithms
     that your OpenSSL library may offer.

Using *note new(): 1773. with an algorithm name:

     >>> h = hashlib.new('sha256')
     >>> h.update(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition")
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.md5 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha1 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha3_224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha3_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha3_384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.sha3_512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

Named constructors such as these are faster than passing an algorithm
name to *note new(): 1773.


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes,  Next: Hash Objects,  Prev: Constructors,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.4 Attributes
...................

Hashlib provides the following constant module attributes:

 -- Verisi: hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed

     A set containing the names of the hash algorithms guaranteed to be
     supported by this module on all platforms.  Note that ‘md5’ is in
     this list despite some upstream vendors offering an odd “FIPS
     compliant” Python build that excludes it.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: hashlib.algorithms_available

     A set containing the names of the hash algorithms that are
     available in the running Python interpreter.  These names will be
     recognized when passed to *note new(): 1773.  *note
     algorithms_guaranteed: 121a. will always be a subset.  The same
     algorithm may appear multiple times in this set under different
     names (thanks to OpenSSL).

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Hash Objects,  Next: SHAKE variable length digests,  Prev: Attributes,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.5 Hash Objects
.....................

The following values are provided as constant attributes of the hash
objects returned by the constructors:

 -- Verisi: hash.digest_size

     The size of the resulting hash in bytes.

 -- Verisi: hash.block_size

     The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.

A hash object has the following attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: hash.name

     The canonical name of this hash, always lowercase and always
     suitable as a parameter to *note new(): 1773. to create another
     hash of this type.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The name attribute has been present in
     CPython since its inception, but until Python 3.4 was not formally
     specified, so may not exist on some platforms.

A hash object has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: hash.update (data)

     Update the hash object with the *note bytes-like object: bb5.
     Repeated calls are equivalent to a single call with the
     concatenation of all the arguments: ‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’ is
     equivalent to ‘m.update(a+b)’.

 -- Yöntemi: hash.digest ()

     Return the digest of the data passed to the *note update(): 2897.
     method so far.  This is a bytes object of size *note digest_size:
     28a5. which may contain bytes in the whole range from 0 to 255.

 -- Yöntemi: hash.hexdigest ()

     Like *note digest(): 2898. except the digest is returned as a
     string object of double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.
     This may be used to exchange the value safely in email or other
     non-binary environments.

 -- Yöntemi: hash.copy ()

     Return a copy (“clone”) of the hash object.  This can be used to
     efficiently compute the digests of data sharing a common initial
     substring.


File: python.info,  Node: SHAKE variable length digests,  Next: File hashing,  Prev: Hash Objects,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.6 SHAKE variable length digests
......................................

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.shake_128 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.shake_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

The *note shake_128(): b29. and *note shake_256(): b2a. algorithms
provide variable length digests with length_in_bits//2 up to 128 or 256
bits of security.  As such, their digest methods require a length.
Maximum length is not limited by the SHAKE algorithm.

 -- Yöntemi: shake.digest (length)

     Return the digest of the data passed to the *note update(): 2897.
     method so far.  This is a bytes object of size 'length' which may
     contain bytes in the whole range from 0 to 255.

 -- Yöntemi: shake.hexdigest (length)

     Like *note digest(): 1876. except the digest is returned as a
     string object of double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.
     This may be used to exchange the value in email or other non-binary
     environments.

Example use:

     >>> h = hashlib.shake_256(b'Nobody inspects the spammish repetition')
     >>> h.hexdigest(20)
     '44709d6fcb83d92a76dcb0b668c98e1b1d3dafe7'


File: python.info,  Node: File hashing,  Next: Key derivation,  Prev: SHAKE variable length digests,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.7 File hashing
.....................

The hashlib module provides a helper function for efficient hashing of a
file or file-like object.

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.file_digest (fileobj, digest, /)

     Return a digest object that has been updated with contents of file
     object.

     'fileobj' must be a file-like object opened for reading in binary
     mode.  It accepts file objects from builtin *note open(): 2a6,
     *note BytesIO: d38. instances, SocketIO objects from *note
     socket.socket.makefile(): 1045, and similar.  The function may
     bypass Python’s I/O and use the file descriptor from *note
     fileno(): 2629. directly.  'fileobj' must be assumed to be in an
     unknown state after this function returns or raises.  It is up to
     the caller to close 'fileobj'.

     'digest' must either be a hash algorithm name as a 'str', a hash
     constructor, or a callable that returns a hash object.

     Example:

          >>> import io, hashlib, hmac
          >>> with open(hashlib.__file__, "rb") as f:
          ...     digest = hashlib.file_digest(f, "sha256")
          ...
          >>> digest.hexdigest()
          '...'

          >>> buf = io.BytesIO(b"somedata")
          >>> mac1 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> digest = hashlib.file_digest(buf, lambda: mac1)

          >>> digest is mac1
          True
          >>> mac2 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", b"somedata", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> mac1.digest() == mac2.digest()
          True

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Key derivation,  Next: BLAKE2,  Prev: File hashing,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.8 Key derivation
.......................

Key derivation and key stretching algorithms are designed for secure
password hashing.  Naive algorithms such as ‘sha1(password)’ are not
resistant against brute-force attacks.  A good password hashing function
must be tunable, slow, and include a salt(1).

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac (hash_name, password, salt, iterations,
          dklen=None)

     The function provides PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function
     2.  It uses HMAC as pseudorandom function.

     The string 'hash_name' is the desired name of the hash digest
     algorithm for HMAC, e.g.  ‘sha1’ or ‘sha256’.  'password' and
     'salt' are interpreted as buffers of bytes.  Applications and
     libraries should limit 'password' to a sensible length (e.g.
     1024).  'salt' should be about 16 or more bytes from a proper
     source, e.g.  *note os.urandom(): 2ad.

     The number of 'iterations' should be chosen based on the hash
     algorithm and computing power.  As of 2022, hundreds of thousands
     of iterations of SHA-256 are suggested.  For rationale as to why
     and how to choose what is best for your application, read 'Appendix
     A.2.2' of NIST-SP-800-132(2).  The answers on the stackexchange
     pbkdf2 iterations question(3) explain in detail.

     'dklen' is the length of the derived key in bytes.  If 'dklen' is
     ‘None’ then the digest size of the hash algorithm 'hash_name' is
     used, e.g.  64 for SHA-512.

          >>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac
          >>> our_app_iters = 500_000  # Application specific, read above.
          >>> dk = pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', b'password', b'bad salt' * 2, our_app_iters)
          >>> dk.hex()
          '15530bba69924174860db778f2c6f8104d3aaf9d26241840c8c4a641c8d000a9'

     Function only available when Python is compiled with OpenSSL.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Function now only available when Python is
     built with OpenSSL. The slow pure Python implementation has been
     removed.

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.scrypt (password, *, salt, n, r, p, maxmem=0,
          dklen=64)

     The function provides scrypt password-based key derivation function
     as defined in RFC 7914(4).

     'password' and 'salt' must be *note bytes-like objects: bb5.
     Applications and libraries should limit 'password' to a sensible
     length (e.g.  1024).  'salt' should be about 16 or more bytes from
     a proper source, e.g.  *note os.urandom(): 2ad.

     'n' is the CPU/Memory cost factor, 'r' the block size, 'p'
     parallelization factor and 'maxmem' limits memory (OpenSSL 1.1.0
     defaults to 32 MiB). 'dklen' is the length of the derived key in
     bytes.

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28cryptography%29

   (2) 
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf

   (3) 
https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/3959/recommended-of-iterations-when-using-pbkdf2-sha256/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7914.html


File: python.info,  Node: BLAKE2,  Prev: Key derivation,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.15.1.9 BLAKE2
...............

BLAKE2(1) is a cryptographic hash function defined in RFC 7693(2) that
comes in two flavors:

   * 'BLAKE2b', optimized for 64-bit platforms and produces digests of
     any size between 1 and 64 bytes,

   * 'BLAKE2s', optimized for 8- to 32-bit platforms and produces
     digests of any size between 1 and 32 bytes.

BLAKE2 supports 'keyed mode' (a faster and simpler replacement for
HMAC(3)), 'salted hashing', 'personalization', and 'tree hashing'.

Hash objects from this module follow the API of standard library’s *note
hashlib: 66. objects.

* Menu:

* Creating hash objects::
* Constants: Constants<3>.
* Examples: Examples<12>.
* Credits::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7693.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code


File: python.info,  Node: Creating hash objects,  Next: Constants<3>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.10 Creating hash objects
...............................

New hash objects are created by calling constructor functions:

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.blake2b (data=b'', *, digest_size=64, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Işlevi: hashlib.blake2s (data=b'', *, digest_size=32, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

These functions return the corresponding hash objects for calculating
BLAKE2b or BLAKE2s.  They optionally take these general parameters:

   * 'data': initial chunk of data to hash, which must be *note
     bytes-like object: bb5.  It can be passed only as positional
     argument.

   * 'digest_size': size of output digest in bytes.

   * 'key': key for keyed hashing (up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 32
     bytes for BLAKE2s).

   * 'salt': salt for randomized hashing (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up
     to 8 bytes for BLAKE2s).

   * 'person': personalization string (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to
     8 bytes for BLAKE2s).

The following table shows limits for general parameters (in bytes):

Hash        digest_size     len(key)     len(salt)     len(person)
                                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
BLAKE2b     64              64           16            16
                                                       
                                                       
BLAKE2s     32              32           8             8
                                                       

     Not: BLAKE2 specification defines constant lengths for salt and
     personalization parameters, however, for convenience, this
     implementation accepts byte strings of any size up to the specified
     length.  If the length of the parameter is less than specified, it
     is padded with zeros, thus, for example, ‘b'salt'’ and
     ‘b'salt\x00'’ is the same value.  (This is not the case for 'key'.)

These sizes are available as module *note constants: 28ad. described
below.

Constructor functions also accept the following tree hashing parameters:

   * 'fanout': fanout (0 to 255, 0 if unlimited, 1 in sequential mode).

   * 'depth': maximal depth of tree (1 to 255, 255 if unlimited, 1 in
     sequential mode).

   * 'leaf_size': maximal byte length of leaf (0 to ‘2**32-1’, 0 if
     unlimited or in sequential mode).

   * 'node_offset': node offset (0 to ‘2**64-1’ for BLAKE2b, 0 to
     ‘2**48-1’ for BLAKE2s, 0 for the first, leftmost, leaf, or in
     sequential mode).

   * 'node_depth': node depth (0 to 255, 0 for leaves, or in sequential
     mode).

   * 'inner_size': inner digest size (0 to 64 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 32 for
     BLAKE2s, 0 in sequential mode).

   * 'last_node': boolean indicating whether the processed node is the
     last one (‘False’ for sequential mode).

[image src="python-figures/hashlib-blake2-tree.png" alt="Explanation of tree mode parameters."]


Figure
See section 2.10 in BLAKE2 specification(1) for comprehensive review of
tree hashing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<3>,  Next: Examples<12>,  Prev: Creating hash objects,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.11 Constants
...................

 -- Verisi: blake2b.SALT_SIZE

 -- Verisi: blake2s.SALT_SIZE

Salt length (maximum length accepted by constructors).

 -- Verisi: blake2b.PERSON_SIZE

 -- Verisi: blake2s.PERSON_SIZE

Personalization string length (maximum length accepted by constructors).

 -- Verisi: blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE

 -- Verisi: blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE

Maximum key size.

 -- Verisi: blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

 -- Verisi: blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

Maximum digest size that the hash function can output.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<12>,  Next: Credits,  Prev: Constants<3>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.12 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* Simple hashing::
* Using different digest sizes::
* Keyed hashing::
* Randomized hashing::
* Personalization::
* Tree mode::


File: python.info,  Node: Simple hashing,  Next: Using different digest sizes,  Up: Examples<12>

5.15.1.13 Simple hashing
........................

To calculate hash of some data, you should first construct a hash object
by calling the appropriate constructor function (*note blake2b(): 455.
or *note blake2s(): 456.), then update it with the data by calling *note
update(): 2897. on the object, and, finally, get the digest out of the
object by calling *note digest(): 2898. (or *note hexdigest(): 2899. for
hex-encoded string).

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> h.update(b'Hello world')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

As a shortcut, you can pass the first chunk of data to update directly
to the constructor as the positional argument:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> blake2b(b'Hello world').hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

You can call *note hash.update(): 2897. as many times as you need to
iteratively update the hash:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> items = [b'Hello', b' ', b'world']
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> for item in items:
     ...     h.update(item)
     ...
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'


File: python.info,  Node: Using different digest sizes,  Next: Keyed hashing,  Prev: Simple hashing,  Up: Examples<12>

5.15.1.14 Using different digest sizes
......................................

BLAKE2 has configurable size of digests up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b and
up to 32 bytes for BLAKE2s.  For example, to replace SHA-1 with BLAKE2b
without changing the size of output, we can tell BLAKE2b to produce
20-byte digests:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=20)
     >>> h.update(b'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c'
     >>> h.digest_size
     20
     >>> len(h.digest())
     20

Hash objects with different digest sizes have completely different
outputs (shorter hashes are 'not' prefixes of longer hashes); BLAKE2b
and BLAKE2s produce different outputs even if the output length is the
same:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b, blake2s
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '6fa1d8fcfd719046d762'
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     '567004bf96e4a25773ebf4'


File: python.info,  Node: Keyed hashing,  Next: Randomized hashing,  Prev: Using different digest sizes,  Up: Examples<12>

5.15.1.15 Keyed hashing
.......................

Keyed hashing can be used for authentication as a faster and simpler
replacement for Hash-based message authentication code(1) (HMAC). BLAKE2
can be securely used in prefix-MAC mode thanks to the
indifferentiability property inherited from BLAKE.

This example shows how to get a (hex-encoded) 128-bit authentication
code for message ‘b'message data'’ with key ‘b'pseudorandom key'’:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(key=b'pseudorandom key', digest_size=16)
     >>> h.update(b'message data')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced'

As a practical example, a web application can symmetrically sign cookies
sent to users and later verify them to make sure they weren’t tampered
with:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> from hmac import compare_digest
     >>>
     >>> SECRET_KEY = b'pseudorandomly generated server secret key'
     >>> AUTH_SIZE = 16
     >>>
     >>> def sign(cookie):
     ...     h = blake2b(digest_size=AUTH_SIZE, key=SECRET_KEY)
     ...     h.update(cookie)
     ...     return h.hexdigest().encode('utf-8')
     >>>
     >>> def verify(cookie, sig):
     ...     good_sig = sign(cookie)
     ...     return compare_digest(good_sig, sig)
     >>>
     >>> cookie = b'user-alice'
     >>> sig = sign(cookie)
     >>> print("{0},{1}".format(cookie.decode('utf-8'), sig))
     user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421'
     >>> verify(cookie, sig)
     True
     >>> verify(b'user-bob', sig)
     False
     >>> verify(cookie, b'0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00')
     False

Even though there’s a native keyed hashing mode, BLAKE2 can, of course,
be used in HMAC construction with *note hmac: 68. module:

     >>> import hmac, hashlib
     >>> m = hmac.new(b'secret key', digestmod=hashlib.blake2s)
     >>> m.update(b'message')
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMAC


File: python.info,  Node: Randomized hashing,  Next: Personalization,  Prev: Keyed hashing,  Up: Examples<12>

5.15.1.16 Randomized hashing
............................

By setting 'salt' parameter users can introduce randomization to the
hash function.  Randomized hashing is useful for protecting against
collision attacks on the hash function used in digital signatures.

     Randomized hashing is designed for situations where one party, the
     message preparer, generates all or part of a message to be signed
     by a second party, the message signer.  If the message preparer is
     able to find cryptographic hash function collisions (i.e., two
     messages producing the same hash value), then they might prepare
     meaningful versions of the message that would produce the same hash
     value and digital signature, but with different results (e.g.,
     transferring $1,000,000 to an account, rather than $10).
     Cryptographic hash functions have been designed with collision
     resistance as a major goal, but the current concentration on
     attacking cryptographic hash functions may result in a given
     cryptographic hash function providing less collision resistance
     than expected.  Randomized hashing offers the signer additional
     protection by reducing the likelihood that a preparer can generate
     two or more messages that ultimately yield the same hash value
     during the digital signature generation process — even if it is
     practical to find collisions for the hash function.  However, the
     use of randomized hashing may reduce the amount of security
     provided by a digital signature when all portions of the message
     are prepared by the signer.

     (NIST SP-800-106 "Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures"(1))

In BLAKE2 the salt is processed as a one-time input to the hash function
during initialization, rather than as an input to each compression
function.

     Uyarı: 'Salted hashing' (or just hashing) with BLAKE2 or any other
     general-purpose cryptographic hash function, such as SHA-256, is
     not suitable for hashing passwords.  See BLAKE2 FAQ(2) for more
     information.

     >>> import os
     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> msg = b'some message'
     >>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt.
     >>> salt1 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h1 = blake2b(salt=salt1)
     >>> h1.update(msg)
     >>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.
     >>> salt2 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h2 = blake2b(salt=salt2)
     >>> h2.update(msg)
     >>> # The digests are different.
     >>> h1.digest() != h2.digest()
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/106/final

   (2) https://www.blake2.net/#qa


File: python.info,  Node: Personalization,  Next: Tree mode,  Prev: Randomized hashing,  Up: Examples<12>

5.15.1.17 Personalization
.........................

Sometimes it is useful to force hash function to produce different
digests for the same input for different purposes.  Quoting the authors
of the Skein hash function:

     We recommend that all application designers seriously consider
     doing this; we have seen many protocols where a hash that is
     computed in one part of the protocol can be used in an entirely
     different part because two hash computations were done on similar
     or related data, and the attacker can force the application to make
     the hash inputs the same.  Personalizing each hash function used in
     the protocol summarily stops this type of attack.

     (The Skein Hash Function Family(1), p.  21)

BLAKE2 can be personalized by passing bytes to the 'person' argument:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Files Hash'
     >>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Block Hash'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=FILES_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=BLOCK_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3'

Personalization together with the keyed mode can also be used to derive
different keys from a single one.

     >>> from hashlib import blake2s
     >>> from base64 import b64decode, b64encode
     >>> orig_key = b64decode(b'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=')
     >>> enc_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kEncrypt').digest()
     >>> mac_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kMAC').digest()
     >>> print(b64encode(enc_key).decode('utf-8'))
     rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=
     >>> print(b64encode(mac_key).decode('utf-8'))
     G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.schneier.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/skein.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Tree mode,  Prev: Personalization,  Up: Examples<12>

5.15.1.18 Tree mode
...................

Here’s an example of hashing a minimal tree with two leaf nodes:

       10
      /  \
     00  01

This example uses 64-byte internal digests, and returns the 32-byte
final digest:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>>
     >>> FANOUT = 2
     >>> DEPTH = 2
     >>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096
     >>> INNER_SIZE = 64
     >>>
     >>> buf = bytearray(6000)
     >>>
     >>> # Left leaf
     ... h00 = blake2b(buf[0:LEAF_SIZE], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=0, last_node=False)
     >>> # Right leaf
     ... h01 = blake2b(buf[LEAF_SIZE:], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=1, node_depth=0, last_node=True)
     >>> # Root node
     ... h10 = blake2b(digest_size=32, fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=1, last_node=True)
     >>> h10.update(h00.digest())
     >>> h10.update(h01.digest())
     >>> h10.hexdigest()
     '3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa'


File: python.info,  Node: Credits,  Prev: Examples<12>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.15.1.19 Credits
.................

BLAKE2(1) was designed by 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Samuel Neves',
'Zooko Wilcox-O’Hearn', and 'Christian Winnerlein' based on SHA-3(2)
finalist BLAKE(3) created by 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Luca Henzen',
'Willi Meier', and 'Raphael C.-W. Phan'.

It uses core algorithm from ChaCha(4) cipher designed by 'Daniel J.
Bernstein'.

The stdlib implementation is based on pyblake2(5) module.  It was
written by 'Dmitry Chestnykh' based on C implementation written by
'Samuel Neves'.  The documentation was copied from pyblake2(6) and
written by 'Dmitry Chestnykh'.

The C code was partly rewritten for Python by 'Christian Heimes'.

The following public domain dedication applies for both C hash function
implementation, extension code, and this documentation:

     To the extent possible under law, the author(s) have dedicated all
     copyright and related and neighboring rights to this software to
     the public domain worldwide.  This software is distributed without
     any warranty.

     You should have received a copy of the CC0 Public Domain Dedication
     along with this software.  If not, see
     ‘https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/’.

The following people have helped with development or contributed their
changes to the project and the public domain according to the Creative
Commons Public Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal:

   * 'Alexandr Sokolovskiy'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note hmac: 68.

     A module to generate message authentication codes using hashes.

Module *note base64: e.

     Another way to encode binary hashes for non-binary environments.

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf’

     The FIPS 180-4 publication on Secure Hash Algorithms.

‘https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final’

     The FIPS 202 publication on the SHA-3 Standard.

‘https://www.blake2.net/’

     Official BLAKE2 website.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function’

     Wikipedia article with information on which algorithms have known
     issues and what that means regarding their use.

‘https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc8018.txt’

     PKCS #5: Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.1

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf’

     NIST Recommendation for Password-Based Key Derivation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Hash_Algorithms

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200918190133/https://131002.net/blake/

   (4) https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html

   (5) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/

   (6) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/


File: python.info,  Node: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Next: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets,  Prev: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests,  Up: Cryptographic Services

5.15.2 ‘hmac’ — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/hmac.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by RFC 2104(2).

 -- Işlevi: hmac.new (key, msg=None, digestmod)

     Return a new hmac object.  'key' is a bytes or bytearray object
     giving the secret key.  If 'msg' is present, the method call
     ‘update(msg)’ is made.  'digestmod' is the digest name, digest
     constructor or module for the HMAC object to use.  It may be any
     name suitable to *note hashlib.new(): 1773.  Despite its argument
     position, it is required.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Parameter 'key' can be a bytes or bytearray
     object.  Parameter 'msg' can be of any type supported by *note
     hashlib: 66.  Parameter 'digestmod' can be the name of a hash
     algorithm.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'digestmod' argument is now required.
     Pass it as a keyword argument to avoid awkwardness when you do not
     have an initial 'msg'.

 -- Işlevi: hmac.digest (key, msg, digest)

     Return digest of 'msg' for given secret 'key' and 'digest'.  The
     function is equivalent to ‘HMAC(key, msg, digest).digest()’, but
     uses an optimized C or inline implementation, which is faster for
     messages that fit into memory.  The parameters 'key', 'msg', and
     'digest' have the same meaning as in *note new(): 90a.

     CPython implementation detail, the optimized C implementation is
     only used when 'digest' is a string and name of a digest algorithm,
     which is supported by OpenSSL.

     Added in version 3.7.

An HMAC object has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: HMAC.update (msg)

     Update the hmac object with 'msg'.  Repeated calls are equivalent
     to a single call with the concatenation of all the arguments:
     ‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’ is equivalent to ‘m.update(a + b)’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Parameter 'msg' can be of any type supported
     by *note hashlib: 66.

 -- Yöntemi: HMAC.digest ()

     Return the digest of the bytes passed to the *note update(): dea.
     method so far.  This bytes object will be the same length as the
     'digest_size' of the digest given to the constructor.  It may
     contain non-ASCII bytes, including NUL bytes.

          Uyarı: When comparing the output of *note digest(): 9af. to an
          externally supplied digest during a verification routine, it
          is recommended to use the *note compare_digest(): f6c.
          function instead of the ‘==’ operator to reduce the
          vulnerability to timing attacks.

 -- Yöntemi: HMAC.hexdigest ()

     Like *note digest(): 9af. except the digest is returned as a string
     twice the length containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be
     used to exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary
     environments.

          Uyarı: When comparing the output of *note hexdigest(): 28c1.
          to an externally supplied digest during a verification
          routine, it is recommended to use the *note compare_digest():
          f6c. function instead of the ‘==’ operator to reduce the
          vulnerability to timing attacks.

 -- Yöntemi: HMAC.copy ()

     Return a copy (“clone”) of the hmac object.  This can be used to
     efficiently compute the digests of strings that share a common
     initial substring.

A hash object has the following attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: HMAC.digest_size

     The size of the resulting HMAC digest in bytes.

 -- Özniteliği: HMAC.block_size

     The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Özniteliği: HMAC.name

     The canonical name of this HMAC, always lowercase, e.g.
     ‘hmac-md5’.

     Added in version 3.4.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the undocumented attributes
‘HMAC.digest_cons’, ‘HMAC.inner’, and ‘HMAC.outer’.

This module also provides the following helper function:

 -- Işlevi: hmac.compare_digest (a, b)

     Return ‘a == b’.  This function uses an approach designed to
     prevent timing analysis by avoiding content-based short circuiting
     behaviour, making it appropriate for cryptography.  'a' and 'b'
     must both be of the same type: either *note str: 15d. (ASCII only,
     as e.g.  returned by *note HMAC.hexdigest(): 28c1.), or a *note
     bytes-like object: bb5.

          Not: If 'a' and 'b' are of different lengths, or if an error
          occurs, a timing attack could theoretically reveal information
          about the types and lengths of 'a' and 'b'—but not their
          values.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The function uses OpenSSL’s
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ internally when available.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note hashlib: 66.

     The Python module providing secure hash functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/hmac.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html


File: python.info,  Node: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets,  Prev: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Up: Cryptographic Services

5.15.3 ‘secrets’ — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.6.

'Source code:' Lib/secrets.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note secrets: bf. module is used for generating cryptographically
strong random numbers suitable for managing data such as passwords,
account authentication, security tokens, and related secrets.

In particular, *note secrets: bf. should be used in preference to the
default pseudo-random number generator in the *note random: b7. module,
which is designed for modelling and simulation, not security or
cryptography.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 506(2)

* Menu:

* Random numbers::
* Generating tokens::
* Other functions::
* Recipes and best practices::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/secrets.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: Random numbers,  Next: Generating tokens,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.1 Random numbers
.......................

The *note secrets: bf. module provides access to the most secure source
of randomness that your operating system provides.

 -- Sınıfı: secrets.SystemRandom

     A class for generating random numbers using the highest-quality
     sources provided by the operating system.  See *note
     random.SystemRandom: 24c8. for additional details.

 -- Işlevi: secrets.choice (seq)

     Return a randomly chosen element from a non-empty sequence.

 -- Işlevi: secrets.randbelow (exclusive_upper_bound)

     Return a random int in the range [0, 'exclusive_upper_bound').

 -- Işlevi: secrets.randbits (k)

     Return a non-negative int with 'k' random bits.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating tokens,  Next: Other functions,  Prev: Random numbers,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.2 Generating tokens
..........................

The *note secrets: bf. module provides functions for generating secure
tokens, suitable for applications such as password resets, hard-to-guess
URLs, and similar.

 -- Işlevi: secrets.token_bytes ([nbytes=None])

     Return a random byte string containing 'nbytes' number of bytes.
     If 'nbytes' is ‘None’ or not supplied, a reasonable default is
     used.

          >>> token_bytes(16)
          b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'

 -- Işlevi: secrets.token_hex ([nbytes=None])

     Return a random text string, in hexadecimal.  The string has
     'nbytes' random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits.  If
     'nbytes' is ‘None’ or not supplied, a reasonable default is used.

          >>> token_hex(16)
          'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'

 -- Işlevi: secrets.token_urlsafe ([nbytes=None])

     Return a random URL-safe text string, containing 'nbytes' random
     bytes.  The text is Base64 encoded, so on average each byte results
     in approximately 1.3 characters.  If 'nbytes' is ‘None’ or not
     supplied, a reasonable default is used.

          >>> token_urlsafe(16)
          'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'

* Menu:

* How many bytes should tokens use?::


File: python.info,  Node: How many bytes should tokens use?,  Up: Generating tokens

5.15.3.3 How many bytes should tokens use?
..........................................

To be secure against brute-force attacks(1), tokens need to have
sufficient randomness.  Unfortunately, what is considered sufficient
will necessarily increase as computers get more powerful and able to
make more guesses in a shorter period.  As of 2015, it is believed that
32 bytes (256 bits) of randomness is sufficient for the typical use-case
expected for the *note secrets: bf. module.

For those who want to manage their own token length, you can explicitly
specify how much randomness is used for tokens by giving an *note int:
184. argument to the various ‘token_*’ functions.  That argument is
taken as the number of bytes of randomness to use.

Otherwise, if no argument is provided, or if the argument is ‘None’, the
‘token_*’ functions will use a reasonable default instead.

     Not: That default is subject to change at any time, including
     during maintenance releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack


File: python.info,  Node: Other functions,  Next: Recipes and best practices,  Prev: Generating tokens,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.4 Other functions
........................

 -- Işlevi: secrets.compare_digest (a, b)

     Return ‘True’ if strings or *note bytes-like objects: bb5. 'a' and
     'b' are equal, otherwise ‘False’, using a “constant-time compare”
     to reduce the risk of timing attacks(1).  See *note
     hmac.compare_digest(): f6c. for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/


File: python.info,  Node: Recipes and best practices,  Prev: Other functions,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.15.3.5 Recipes and best practices
...................................

This section shows recipes and best practices for using *note secrets:
bf. to manage a basic level of security.

Generate an eight-character alphanumeric password:

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(8))

     Not: Applications should not store passwords in a recoverable
     format(1), whether plain text or encrypted.  They should be salted
     and hashed using a cryptographically strong one-way (irreversible)
     hash function.

Generate a ten-character alphanumeric password with at least one
lowercase character, at least one uppercase character, and at least
three digits:

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     while True:
         password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(10))
         if (any(c.islower() for c in password)
                 and any(c.isupper() for c in password)
                 and sum(c.isdigit() for c in password) >= 3):
             break

Generate an XKCD-style passphrase(2):

     import secrets
     # On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.
     # Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.
     with open('/usr/share/dict/words') as f:
         words = [word.strip() for word in f]
         password = ' '.join(secrets.choice(words) for i in range(4))

Generate a hard-to-guess temporary URL containing a security token
suitable for password recovery applications:

     import secrets
     url = 'https://example.com/reset=' + secrets.token_urlsafe()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html

   (2) https://xkcd.com/936/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Operating System Services,  Next: Concurrent Execution,  Prev: Cryptographic Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.16 Generic Operating System Services
======================================

The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating
system features that are available on (almost) all operating systems,
such as files and a clock.  The interfaces are generally modeled after
the Unix or C interfaces, but they are available on most other systems
as well.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces::
* io — Core tools for working with streams::
* time — Time access and conversions::
* argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
* getopt — C-style parser for command line options::
* logging — Logging facility for Python::
* logging.config — Logging configuration: logging config — Logging configuration.
* logging.handlers — Logging handlers: logging handlers — Logging handlers.
* getpass — Portable password input::
* curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays::
* curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
* curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
* curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses.
* platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data::
* errno — Standard errno system symbols::
* ctypes — A foreign function library for Python::


File: python.info,  Node: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Next: io — Core tools for working with streams,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.1 ‘os’ — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/os.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a portable way of using operating system dependent
functionality.  If you just want to read or write a file see *note
open(): 2a6, if you want to manipulate paths, see the *note os.path: a1.
module, and if you want to read all the lines in all the files on the
command line see the *note fileinput: 59. module.  For creating
temporary files and directories see the *note tempfile: df. module, and
for high-level file and directory handling see the *note shutil: c4.
module.

Notes on the availability of these functions:

   * The design of all built-in operating system dependent modules of
     Python is such that as long as the same functionality is available,
     it uses the same interface; for example, the function
     ‘os.stat(path)’ returns stat information about 'path' in the same
     format (which happens to have originated with the POSIX interface).

   * Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also
     available through the *note os: a0. module, but using them is of
     course a threat to portability.

   * All functions accepting path or file names accept both bytes and
     string objects, and result in an object of the same type, if a path
     or file name is returned.

   * On VxWorks, os.popen, os.fork, os.execv and os.spawn*p* are not
     supported.

   * On WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’,
     large parts of the *note os: a0. module are not available or behave
     differently.  API related to processes (e.g.  *note fork(): 23a,
     *note execve(): f9b.), signals (e.g.  *note kill(): 120e, *note
     wait(): c25.), and resources (e.g.  *note nice(): fa3.) are not
     available.  Others like *note getuid(): 28d5. and *note getpid():
     28d6. are emulated or stubs.

     Not: All functions in this module raise *note OSError: 65c. (or
     subclasses thereof) in the case of invalid or inaccessible file
     names and paths, or other arguments that have the correct type, but
     are not accepted by the operating system.

 -- Özel Durum: os.error

     An alias for the built-in *note OSError: 65c. exception.

 -- Verisi: os.name

     The name of the operating system dependent module imported.  The
     following names have currently been registered: ‘'posix'’, ‘'nt'’,
     ‘'java'’.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note sys.platform: 8f3. has a finer granularity.  *note
     os.uname(): fb8. gives system-dependent version information.

     The *note platform: a9. module provides detailed checks for the
     system’s identity.

* Menu:

* File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables.
* Python UTF-8 Mode::
* Process Parameters::
* File Object Creation::
* File Descriptor Operations::
* Files and Directories::
* Process Management::
* Interface to the scheduler::
* Miscellaneous System Information::
* Random numbers: Random numbers<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/os.py


File: python.info,  Node: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables,  Next: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.1 File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables
......................................................................

In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables
are represented using the string type.  On some systems, decoding these
strings to and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the
operating system.  Python uses the *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 2c7. to perform this conversion (see *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5.).

The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. are configured at
Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. function: see *note
filesystem_encoding: 34a. and *note filesystem_errors: 34b. members of
*note PyConfig: 34f.

3.1 sürümünde değişti: On some systems, conversion using the file system
encoding may fail.  In this case, Python uses the *note surrogateescape
encoding error handler: 21d4, which means that undecodable bytes are
replaced by a Unicode character U+DC'xx' on decoding, and these are
again translated to the original byte on encoding.

The *note file system encoding: 2c7. must guarantee to successfully
decode all bytes below 128.  If the file system encoding fails to
provide this guarantee, API functions can raise *note UnicodeError:
114c.

See also the *note locale encoding: 1479.


File: python.info,  Node: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Next: Process Parameters,  Prev: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.2 Python UTF-8 Mode
..........................

Added in version 3.7: See PEP 540(1) for more details.

The Python UTF-8 Mode ignores the *note locale encoding: 1479. and
forces the usage of the UTF-8 encoding:

   * Use UTF-8 as the *note filesystem encoding: 2c7.

   * *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. returns ‘'utf-8'’.

   * *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 2c6. returns ‘'utf-8'’ (the
     'do_setlocale' argument has no effect).

   * *note sys.stdin: 2c9, *note sys.stdout: 943, and *note sys.stderr:
     792. all use UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ *note error handler: 1608. being enabled for
     *note sys.stdin: 2c9. and *note sys.stdout: 943. (*note sys.stderr:
     792. continues to use ‘backslashreplace’ as it does in the default
     locale-aware mode)

   * On Unix, *note os.device_encoding(): 16ba. returns ‘'utf-8'’ rather
     than the device encoding.

Note that the standard stream settings in UTF-8 mode can be overridden
by *note PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. (just as they can be in the default
locale-aware mode).

As a consequence of the changes in those lower level APIs, other higher
level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:

   * Command line arguments, environment variables and filenames are
     decoded to text using the UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note os.fsdecode(): ad0. and *note os.fsencode(): ad1. use the
     UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note open(): 2a6, *note io.open(): 2a7, and *note codecs.open():
     56a. use the UTF-8 encoding by default.  However, they still use
     the strict error handler by default so that attempting to open a
     binary file in text mode is likely to raise an exception rather
     than producing nonsense data.

The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. is enabled if the LC_CTYPE locale is
‘C’ or ‘POSIX’ at Python startup (see the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3.
function).

It can be enabled or disabled using the *note -X utf8: 18e. command line
option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: 945. environment variable.

If the *note PYTHONUTF8: 945. environment variable is not set at all,
then the interpreter defaults to using the current locale settings,
'unless' the current locale is identified as a legacy ASCII-based locale
(as described for *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: 942.), and locale coercion
is either disabled or fails.  In such legacy locales, the interpreter
will default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless explicitly instructed not to
do so.

The Python UTF-8 Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.  Its
value can be read from *note sys.flags.utf8_mode: 4a1.

See also the *note UTF-8 mode on Windows: 1c2b. and the *note filesystem
encoding and error handler: 2c7.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 686(2)

     Python 3.15 will make *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: Process Parameters,  Next: File Object Creation,  Prev: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.3 Process Parameters
...........................

These functions and data items provide information and operate on the
current process and user.

 -- Işlevi: os.ctermid ()

     Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of
     the process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.environ

     A *note mapping: 1061. object where keys and values are strings
     that represent the process environment.  For example,
     ‘environ['HOME']’ is the pathname of your home directory (on some
     platforms), and is equivalent to ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C.

     This mapping is captured the first time the *note os: a0. module is
     imported, typically during Python startup as part of processing
     ‘site.py’.  Changes to the environment made after this time are not
     reflected in *note os.environ: 105f, except for changes made by
     modifying *note os.environ: 105f. directly.

     This mapping may be used to modify the environment as well as query
     the environment.  *note putenv(): 774. will be called automatically
     when the mapping is modified.

     On Unix, keys and values use *note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     ad5. and ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler.  Use *note environb:
     10bc. if you would like to use a different encoding.

     On Windows, the keys are converted to uppercase.  This also applies
     when getting, setting, or deleting an item.  For example,
     ‘environ['monty'] = 'python'’ maps the key ‘'MONTY'’ to the value
     ‘'python'’.

          Not: Calling *note putenv(): 774. directly does not change
          *note os.environ: 105f, so it’s better to modify *note
          os.environ: 105f.

          Not: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     You can delete items in this mapping to unset environment
     variables.  *note unsetenv(): 773. will be called automatically
     when an item is deleted from *note os.environ: 105f, and when one
     of the ‘pop()’ or ‘clear()’ methods is called.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Updated to support PEP 584(1)’s merge (‘|’)
     and update (‘|=’) operators.

 -- Verisi: os.environb

     Bytes version of *note environ: 105f.: a *note mapping: 1061.
     object where both keys and values are *note bytes: 2cb. objects
     representing the process environment.  *note environ: 105f. and
     *note environb: 10bc. are synchronized (modifying *note environb:
     10bc. updates *note environ: 105f, and vice versa).

     *note environb: 10bc. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 10ba. is ‘True’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Updated to support PEP 584(2)’s merge (‘|’)
     and update (‘|=’) operators.

 -- Işlevi: os.chdir (path)

 -- Işlevi: os.fchdir (fd)

 -- Işlevi: os.getcwd ()

     These functions are described in *note Files and Directories: 28df.

 -- Işlevi: os.fsencode (filename)

     Encode *note path-like: 98e. 'filename' to the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 2c7.; return *note bytes: 2cb.
     unchanged.

     *note fsdecode(): ad0. is the reverse function.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Support added to accept objects implementing
     the *note os.PathLike: acd. interface.

 -- Işlevi: os.fsdecode (filename)

     Decode the *note path-like: 98e. 'filename' from the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.; return *note str: 15d.
     unchanged.

     *note fsencode(): ad1. is the reverse function.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Support added to accept objects implementing
     the *note os.PathLike: acd. interface.

 -- Işlevi: os.fspath (path)

     Return the file system representation of the path.

     If *note str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. is passed in, it is
     returned unchanged.  Otherwise *note __fspath__(): ace. is called
     and its value is returned as long as it is a *note str: 15d. or
     *note bytes: 2cb. object.  In all other cases, *note TypeError:
     2c4. is raised.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: os.PathLike

     An *note abstract base class: 105b. for objects representing a file
     system path, e.g.  *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce.

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod __fspath__ ()

          Return the file system path representation of the object.

          The method should only return a *note str: 15d. or *note
          bytes: 2cb. object, with the preference being for *note str:
          15d.

 -- Işlevi: os.getenv (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as a string if
     it exists, or 'default' if it doesn’t.  'key' is a string.  Note
     that since *note getenv(): 28e0. uses *note os.environ: 105f, the
     mapping of *note getenv(): 28e0. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     On Unix, keys and values are decoded with *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. and ‘'surrogateescape'’ error
     handler.  Use *note os.getenvb(): 10bb. if you would like to use a
     different encoding.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.getenvb (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as bytes if it
     exists, or 'default' if it doesn’t.  'key' must be bytes.  Note
     that since *note getenvb(): 10bb. uses *note os.environb: 10bc, the
     mapping of *note getenvb(): 10bb. is similarly also captured on
     import, and the function may not reflect future environment
     changes.

     *note getenvb(): 10bb. is only available if *note
     supports_bytes_environ: 10ba. is ‘True’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.get_exec_path (env=None)

     Returns the list of directories that will be searched for a named
     executable, similar to a shell, when launching a process.  'env',
     when specified, should be an environment variable dictionary to
     lookup the PATH in.  By default, when 'env' is ‘None’, *note
     environ: 105f. is used.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.getegid ()

     Return the effective group id of the current process.  This
     corresponds to the “set id” bit on the file being executed in the
     current process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.geteuid ()

     Return the current process’s effective user id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.getgid ()

     Return the real group id of the current process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Işlevi: os.getgrouplist (user, group, /)

     Return list of group ids that 'user' belongs to.  If 'group' is not
     in the list, it is included; typically, 'group' is specified as the
     group ID field from the password record for 'user', because that
     group ID will otherwise be potentially omitted.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.getgroups ()

     Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current
     process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          Not: On macOS, *note getgroups(): 28e4. behavior differs
          somewhat from other Unix platforms.  If the Python interpreter
          was built with a deployment target of ‘10.5’ or earlier, *note
          getgroups(): 28e4. returns the list of effective group ids
          associated with the current user process; this list is limited
          to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16, and may
          be modified by calls to *note setgroups(): 28e5. if suitably
          privileged.  If built with a deployment target greater than
          ‘10.5’, *note getgroups(): 28e4. returns the current group
          access list for the user associated with the effective user id
          of the process; the group access list may change over the
          lifetime of the process, it is not affected by calls to *note
          setgroups(): 28e5, and its length is not limited to 16.  The
          deployment target value, ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’, can be
          obtained with *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): ed3.

 -- Işlevi: os.getlogin ()

     Return the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal
     of the process.  For most purposes, it is more useful to use *note
     getpass.getuser(): 28e7. since the latter checks the environment
     variables ‘LOGNAME’ or ‘USERNAME’ to find out who the user is, and
     falls back to ‘pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0]’ to get the login name
     of the current real user id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.getpgid (pid)

     Return the process group id of the process with process id 'pid'.
     If 'pid' is 0, the process group id of the current process is
     returned.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.getpgrp ()

     Return the id of the current process group.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.getpid ()

     Return the current process id.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Işlevi: os.getppid ()

     Return the parent’s process id.  When the parent process has
     exited, on Unix the id returned is the one of the init process (1),
     on Windows it is still the same id, which may be already reused by
     another process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.getpriority (which, who)

     Get program scheduling priority.  The value 'which' is one of *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 28eb, *note PRIO_PGRP: 28ec, or *note PRIO_USER:
     28ed, and 'who' is interpreted relative to 'which' (a process
     identifier for *note PRIO_PROCESS: 28eb, process group identifier
     for *note PRIO_PGRP: 28ec, and a user ID for *note PRIO_USER:
     28ed.).  A zero value for 'who' denotes (respectively) the calling
     process, the process group of the calling process, or the real user
     ID of the calling process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.PRIO_PROCESS
 -- Verisi: os.PRIO_PGRP
 -- Verisi: os.PRIO_USER

     Parameters for the *note getpriority(): fa1. and *note
     setpriority(): fa2. functions.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD
 -- Verisi: os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS
 -- Verisi: os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG
 -- Verisi: os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI

     Parameters for the *note getpriority(): fa1. and *note
     setpriority(): fa2. functions.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: macOS

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.getresuid ()

     Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process’s
     real, effective, and saved user ids.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.getresgid ()

     Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process’s
     real, effective, and saved group ids.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.getuid ()

     Return the current process’s real user id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Işlevi: os.initgroups (username, gid, /)

     Call the system initgroups() to initialize the group access list
     with all of the groups of which the specified username is a member,
     plus the specified group id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.putenv (key, value, /)

     Set the environment variable named 'key' to the string 'value'.
     Such changes to the environment affect subprocesses started with
     *note os.system(): 12e5, *note popen(): 8ec. or *note fork(): 23a.
     and *note execv(): 28f2.

     Assignments to items in *note os.environ: 105f. are automatically
     translated into corresponding calls to *note putenv(): 774.;
     however, calls to *note putenv(): 774. don’t update *note
     os.environ: 105f, so it is actually preferable to assign to items
     of *note os.environ: 105f.  This also applies to *note getenv():
     28e0. and *note getenvb(): 10bb, which respectively use *note
     os.environ: 105f. and *note os.environb: 10bc. in their
     implementations.

          Not: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS, setting
          ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.putenv’ with arguments
     ‘key’, ‘value’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function is now always available.

 -- Işlevi: os.setegid (egid, /)

     Set the current process’s effective group id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.seteuid (euid, /)

     Set the current process’s effective user id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.setgid (gid, /)

     Set the current process’ group id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.setgroups (groups, /)

     Set the list of supplemental group ids associated with the current
     process to 'groups'.  'groups' must be a sequence, and each element
     must be an integer identifying a group.  This operation is
     typically available only to the superuser.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          Not: On macOS, the length of 'groups' may not exceed the
          system-defined maximum number of effective group ids,
          typically 16.  See the documentation for *note getgroups():
          28e4. for cases where it may not return the same group list
          set by calling setgroups().

 -- Işlevi: os.setns (fd, nstype=0)

     Reassociate the current thread with a Linux namespace.  See the
     ‘setns(2)(3)’ and ‘namespaces(7)(4)’ man pages for more details.

     If 'fd' refers to a ‘/proc/`pid'/ns/’ link, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread with the namespace associated with that link,
     and 'nstype' may be set to one of the *note CLONE_NEW* constants:
     28f6. to impose constraints on the operation (‘0’ means no
     constraints).

     Since Linux 5.8, 'fd' may refer to a PID file descriptor obtained
     from *note pidfd_open(): 19b.  In this case, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread into one or more of the same namespaces as the
     thread referred to by 'fd'.  This is subject to any constraints
     imposed by 'nstype', which is a bit mask combining one or more of
     the *note CLONE_NEW* constants: 28f6, e.g.  ‘setns(fd,
     os.CLONE_NEWUTS | os.CLONE_NEWPID)’.  The caller’s memberships in
     unspecified namespaces are left unchanged.

     'fd' can be any object with a *note fileno(): 2629. method, or a
     raw file descriptor.

     This example reassociates the thread with the ‘init’ process’s
     network namespace:

          fd = os.open("/proc/1/ns/net", os.O_RDONLY)
          os.setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWNET)
          os.close(fd)

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.0 with glibc >= 2.14.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note unshare(): 15e3. function.

 -- Işlevi: os.setpgrp ()

     Call the system call ‘setpgrp()’ or ‘setpgrp(0, 0)’ depending on
     which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.setpgid (pid, pgrp, /)

     Call the system call ‘setpgid()’ to set the process group id of the
     process with id 'pid' to the process group with id 'pgrp'.  See the
     Unix manual for the semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.setpriority (which, who, priority)

     Set program scheduling priority.  The value 'which' is one of *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 28eb, *note PRIO_PGRP: 28ec, or *note PRIO_USER:
     28ed, and 'who' is interpreted relative to 'which' (a process
     identifier for *note PRIO_PROCESS: 28eb, process group identifier
     for *note PRIO_PGRP: 28ec, and a user ID for *note PRIO_USER:
     28ed.).  A zero value for 'who' denotes (respectively) the calling
     process, the process group of the calling process, or the real user
     ID of the calling process.  'priority' is a value in the range -20
     to 19.  The default priority is 0; lower priorities cause more
     favorable scheduling.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.setregid (rgid, egid, /)

     Set the current process’s real and effective group ids.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.setresgid (rgid, egid, sgid, /)

     Set the current process’s real, effective, and saved group ids.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.setresuid (ruid, euid, suid, /)

     Set the current process’s real, effective, and saved user ids.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.setreuid (ruid, euid, /)

     Set the current process’s real and effective user ids.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.getsid (pid, /)

     Call the system call ‘getsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.setsid ()

     Call the system call ‘setsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.setuid (uid, /)

     Set the current process’s user id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.strerror (code, /)

     Return the error message corresponding to the error code in 'code'.
     On platforms where ‘strerror()’ returns ‘NULL’ when given an
     unknown error number, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

 -- Verisi: os.supports_bytes_environ

     ‘True’ if the native OS type of the environment is bytes (eg.
     ‘False’ on Windows).

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: os.umask (mask, /)

     Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.

     The function is a stub on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Işlevi: os.uname ()

     Returns information identifying the current operating system.  The
     return value is an object with five attributes:

        * ‘sysname’ - operating system name

        * ‘nodename’ - name of machine on network
          (implementation-defined)

        * ‘release’ - operating system release

        * ‘version’ - operating system version

        * ‘machine’ - hardware identifier

     For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
     like a five-tuple containing ‘sysname’, ‘nodename’, ‘release’,
     ‘version’, and ‘machine’ in that order.

     Some systems truncate ‘nodename’ to 8 characters or to the leading
     component; a better way to get the hostname is *note
     socket.gethostname(): 28ff. or even
     ‘socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Return type changed from a tuple to a
     tuple-like object with named attributes.

 -- Işlevi: os.unsetenv (key, /)

     Unset (delete) the environment variable named 'key'.  Such changes
     to the environment affect subprocesses started with *note
     os.system(): 12e5, *note popen(): 8ec. or *note fork(): 23a. and
     *note execv(): 28f2.

     Deletion of items in *note os.environ: 105f. is automatically
     translated into a corresponding call to *note unsetenv(): 773.;
     however, calls to *note unsetenv(): 773. don’t update *note
     os.environ: 105f, so it is actually preferable to delete items of
     *note os.environ: 105f.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.unsetenv’ with argument
     ‘key’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function is now always available and is
     also available on Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.unshare (flags)

     Disassociate parts of the process execution context, and move them
     into a newly created namespace.  See the ‘unshare(2)(5)’ man page
     for more details.  The 'flags' argument is a bit mask, combining
     zero or more of the *note CLONE_* constants: 28f6, that specifies
     which parts of the execution context should be unshared from their
     existing associations and moved to a new namespace.  If the 'flags'
     argument is ‘0’, no changes are made to the calling process’s
     execution context.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.16.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note setns(): 15e2. function.

Flags to the *note unshare(): 15e3. function, if the implementation
supports them.  See ‘unshare(2)(6)’ in the Linux manual for their exact
effect and availability.

 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_FILES
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_FS
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWCGROUP
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWIPC
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWNET
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWNS
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWPID
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWTIME
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWUSER
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_NEWUTS
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_SIGHAND
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_SYSVSEM
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_THREAD
 -- Verisi: os.CLONE_VM

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/setns(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/namespaces(7)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)


File: python.info,  Node: File Object Creation,  Next: File Descriptor Operations,  Prev: Process Parameters,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.4 File Object Creation
.............................

These functions create new *note file objects: 1068.  (See also *note
open(): c1f. for opening file descriptors.)

 -- Işlevi: os.fdopen (fd, *args, **kwargs)

     Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor 'fd'.
     This is an alias of the *note open(): 2a6. built-in function and
     accepts the same arguments.  The only difference is that the first
     argument of *note fdopen(): 1d20. must always be an integer.


File: python.info,  Node: File Descriptor Operations,  Next: Files and Directories,  Prev: File Object Creation,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.5 File Descriptor Operations
...................................

These functions operate on I/O streams referenced using file
descriptors.

File descriptors are small integers corresponding to a file that has
been opened by the current process.  For example, standard input is
usually file descriptor 0, standard output is 1, and standard error is
2.  Further files opened by a process will then be assigned 3, 4, 5, and
so forth.  The name “file descriptor” is slightly deceptive; on Unix
platforms, sockets and pipes are also referenced by file descriptors.

The *note fileno(): 2629. method can be used to obtain the file
descriptor associated with a *note file object: 1068. when required.
Note that using the file descriptor directly will bypass the file object
methods, ignoring aspects such as internal buffering of data.

 -- Işlevi: os.close (fd)

     Close file descriptor 'fd'.

          Not: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be
          applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note os.open():
          c1f. or *note pipe(): 15fd.  To close a “file object” returned
          by the built-in function *note open(): 2a6. or by *note
          popen(): 8ec. or *note fdopen(): 1d20, use its *note close():
          1865. method.

 -- Işlevi: os.closerange (fd_low, fd_high, /)

     Close all file descriptors from 'fd_low' (inclusive) to 'fd_high'
     (exclusive), ignoring errors.  Equivalent to (but much faster
     than):

          for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
              try:
                  os.close(fd)
              except OSError:
                  pass

 -- Işlevi: os.copy_file_range (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from offset
     'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from
     the current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.

     In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by 'src' and
     'dst' must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised with *note errno: 207f. set to *note
     errno.EXDEV: 2914.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations,
     such as the use of reflinks (i.e., two or more inodes that share
     pointers to the same copy-on-write disk blocks; supported file
     systems include btrfs and XFS) and server-side copy (in the case of
     NFS).

     The function copies bytes between two file descriptors.  Text
     options, like the encoding and the line ending, are ignored.

     The return value is the amount of bytes copied.  This could be less
     than the amount requested.

          Not: On Linux, *note os.copy_file_range(): 2913. should not be
          used for copying a range of a pseudo file from a special
          filesystem like procfs and sysfs.  It will always copy no
          bytes and return 0 as if the file was empty because of a known
          Linux kernel issue.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.5 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: os.device_encoding (fd)

     Return a string describing the encoding of the device associated
     with 'fd' if it is connected to a terminal; else return *note None:
     488.

     On Unix, if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. is enabled, return
     ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: On Unix, the function now implements the
     Python UTF-8 Mode.

 -- Işlevi: os.dup (fd, /)

     Return a duplicate of file descriptor 'fd'.  The new file
     descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     On Windows, when duplicating a standard stream (0: stdin, 1:
     stdout, 2: stderr), the new file descriptor is *note inheritable:
     d90.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Işlevi: os.dup2 (fd, fd2, inheritable=True)

     Duplicate file descriptor 'fd' to 'fd2', closing the latter first
     if necessary.  Return 'fd2'.  The new file descriptor is *note
     inheritable: d90. by default or non-inheritable if 'inheritable' is
     ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Add the optional 'inheritable' parameter.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Return 'fd2' on success.  Previously, ‘None’
     was always returned.

 -- Işlevi: os.fchmod (fd, mode)

     Change the mode of the file given by 'fd' to the numeric 'mode'.
     See the docs for *note chmod(): f90. for possible values of 'mode'.
     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chmod(fd, mode)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chmod’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Işlevi: os.fchown (fd, uid, gid)

     Change the owner and group id of the file given by 'fd' to the
     numeric 'uid' and 'gid'.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it
     to -1.  See *note chown(): f91.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.chown(fd, uid, gid)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Işlevi: os.fdatasync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  Does not
     force update of metadata.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

          Not: This function is not available on MacOS.

 -- Işlevi: os.fpathconf (fd, name, /)

     Return system configuration information relevant to an open file.
     'name' specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a
     string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are
     specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and
     others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.  The
     names known to the host operating system are given in the
     ‘pathconf_names’ dictionary.  For configuration variables not
     included in that mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also
     accepted.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘pathconf_names’, an *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 1828. for the
     error number.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.pathconf(fd, name)’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: os.fstat (fd)

     Get the status of the file descriptor 'fd'.  Return a *note
     stat_result: 134c. object.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.stat(fd)’.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note stat(): 1c5. function.

 -- Işlevi: os.fstatvfs (fd, /)

     Return information about the filesystem containing the file
     associated with file descriptor 'fd', like *note statvfs(): f9e.
     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.statvfs(fd)’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: os.fsync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  On Unix,
     this calls the native ‘fsync()’ function; on Windows, the MS
     ‘_commit()’ function.

     If you’re starting with a buffered Python *note file object: 1068.
     'f', first do ‘f.flush()’, and then do ‘os.fsync(f.fileno())’, to
     ensure that all internal buffers associated with 'f' are written to
     disk.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.ftruncate (fd, length, /)

     Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor 'fd', so that it
     is at most 'length' bytes in size.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.truncate(fd, length)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.truncate’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘length’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Windows

 -- Işlevi: os.get_blocking (fd, /)

     Get the blocking mode of the file descriptor: ‘False’ if the *note
     O_NONBLOCK: ccb. flag is set, ‘True’ if the flag is cleared.

     See also *note set_blocking(): cca. and *note
     socket.socket.setblocking(): 2916.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.isatty (fd, /)

     Return ‘True’ if the file descriptor 'fd' is open and connected to
     a tty(-like) device, else ‘False’.

 -- Işlevi: os.lockf (fd, cmd, len, /)

     Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.
     'fd' is an open file descriptor.  'cmd' specifies the command to
     use - one of *note F_LOCK: 2917, *note F_TLOCK: 2918, *note
     F_ULOCK: 2919. or *note F_TEST: 291a.  'len' specifies the section
     of the file to lock.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.lockf’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.F_LOCK
 -- Verisi: os.F_TLOCK
 -- Verisi: os.F_ULOCK
 -- Verisi: os.F_TEST

     Flags that specify what action *note lockf(): fb5. will take.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.login_tty (fd, /)

     Prepare the tty of which fd is a file descriptor for a new login
     session.  Make the calling process a session leader; make the tty
     the controlling tty, the stdin, the stdout, and the stderr of the
     calling process; close fd.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: os.lseek (fd, pos, whence, /)

     Set the current position of file descriptor 'fd' to position 'pos',
     modified by 'whence', and return the new position in bytes relative
     to the start of the file.  Valid values for 'whence' are:

        * *note SEEK_SET: 1136. or ‘0’ – set 'pos' relative to the
          beginning of the file

        * *note SEEK_CUR: 1137. or ‘1’ – set 'pos' relative to the
          current file position

        * *note SEEK_END: 1138. or ‘2’ – set 'pos' relative to the end
          of the file

        * *note SEEK_HOLE: 291b. – set 'pos' to the next data location,
          relative to 'pos'

        * *note SEEK_DATA: 291c. – set 'pos' to the next data hole,
          relative to 'pos'

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Add support for ‘SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘SEEK_DATA’.

 -- Verisi: os.SEEK_SET
 -- Verisi: os.SEEK_CUR
 -- Verisi: os.SEEK_END

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): fb9. function and the *note
     seek(): 1135. method on *note file-like objects: 1068, for whence
     to adjust the file position indicator.

     *note SEEK_SET: 1136.

          Adjust the file position relative to the beginning of the
          file.

     *note SEEK_CUR: 1137.

          Adjust the file position relative to the current file
          position.

     *note SEEK_END: 1138.

          Adjust the file position relative to the end of the file.

     Their values are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.

 -- Verisi: os.SEEK_HOLE
 -- Verisi: os.SEEK_DATA

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): fb9. function and the *note
     seek(): 1135. method on *note file-like objects: 1068, for seeking
     file data and holes on sparsely allocated files.

     ‘SEEK_DATA’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing data,
          relative to the seek position.

     ‘SEEK_HOLE’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing a hole,
          relative to the seek position.  A hole is defined as a
          sequence of zeros.

          Not: These operations only make sense for filesystems that
          support them.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.1, macOS, Unix

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.open (path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Open the file 'path' and set various flags according to 'flags' and
     possibly its mode according to 'mode'.  When computing 'mode', the
     current umask value is first masked out.  Return the file
     descriptor for the newly opened file.  The new file descriptor is
     *note non-inheritable: d90.

     For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time
     documentation; flag constants (like *note O_RDONLY: 291d. and *note
     O_WRONLY: 291e.) are defined in the *note os: a0. module.  In
     particular, on Windows adding *note O_BINARY: 291f. is needed to
     open files in binary mode.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c. with the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘open’ with arguments ‘path’,
     ‘mode’, ‘flags’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

          Not: This function is intended for low-level I/O. For normal
          usage, use the built-in function *note open(): 2a6, which
          returns a *note file object: 1068. with ‘read()’ and ‘write()’
          methods (and many more).  To wrap a file descriptor in a file
          object, use *note fdopen(): 1d20.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: c14. exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale).

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

The following constants are options for the 'flags' parameter to the
*note open(): c1f. function.  They can be combined using the bitwise OR
operator ‘|’.  Some of them are not available on all platforms.  For
descriptions of their availability and use, consult the ‘open(2)(2)’
manual page on Unix or the MSDN(3) on Windows.

 -- Verisi: os.O_RDONLY
 -- Verisi: os.O_WRONLY
 -- Verisi: os.O_RDWR
 -- Verisi: os.O_APPEND
 -- Verisi: os.O_CREAT
 -- Verisi: os.O_EXCL
 -- Verisi: os.O_TRUNC

     The above constants are available on Unix and Windows.

 -- Verisi: os.O_DSYNC
 -- Verisi: os.O_RSYNC
 -- Verisi: os.O_SYNC
 -- Verisi: os.O_NDELAY
 -- Verisi: os.O_NONBLOCK
 -- Verisi: os.O_NOCTTY
 -- Verisi: os.O_CLOEXEC

     The above constants are only available on Unix.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Add *note O_CLOEXEC: f26. constant.

 -- Verisi: os.O_BINARY
 -- Verisi: os.O_NOINHERIT
 -- Verisi: os.O_SHORT_LIVED
 -- Verisi: os.O_TEMPORARY
 -- Verisi: os.O_RANDOM
 -- Verisi: os.O_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Verisi: os.O_TEXT

     The above constants are only available on Windows.

 -- Verisi: os.O_EVTONLY
 -- Verisi: os.O_FSYNC
 -- Verisi: os.O_SYMLINK
 -- Verisi: os.O_NOFOLLOW_ANY

     The above constants are only available on macOS.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Add *note O_EVTONLY: 657, *note O_FSYNC:
     658, *note O_SYMLINK: 659. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 65a.
     constants.

 -- Verisi: os.O_ASYNC
 -- Verisi: os.O_DIRECT
 -- Verisi: os.O_DIRECTORY
 -- Verisi: os.O_NOFOLLOW
 -- Verisi: os.O_NOATIME
 -- Verisi: os.O_PATH
 -- Verisi: os.O_TMPFILE
 -- Verisi: os.O_SHLOCK
 -- Verisi: os.O_EXLOCK

     The above constants are extensions and not present if they are not
     defined by the C library.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Add *note O_PATH: e13. on systems that
     support it.  Add *note O_TMPFILE: e14, only available on Linux
     Kernel 3.11 or newer.

 -- Işlevi: os.openpty ()

     Open a new pseudo-terminal pair.  Return a pair of file descriptors
     ‘(master, slave)’ for the pty and the tty, respectively.  The new
     file descriptors are *note non-inheritable: d90.  For a (slightly)
     more portable approach, use the *note pty: b0. module.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The new file descriptors are now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Işlevi: os.pipe ()

     Create a pipe.  Return a pair of file descriptors ‘(r, w)’ usable
     for reading and writing, respectively.  The new file descriptor is
     *note non-inheritable: d90.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The new file descriptors are now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Işlevi: os.pipe2 (flags, /)

     Create a pipe with 'flags' set atomically.  'flags' can be
     constructed by ORing together one or more of these values: *note
     O_NONBLOCK: ccb, *note O_CLOEXEC: f26.  Return a pair of file
     descriptors ‘(r, w)’ usable for reading and writing, respectively.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.posix_fallocate (fd, offset, len, /)

     Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified
     by 'fd' starting from 'offset' and continuing for 'len' bytes.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.posix_fadvise (fd, offset, len, advice, /)

     Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus
     allowing the kernel to make optimizations.  The advice applies to
     the region of the file specified by 'fd' starting at 'offset' and
     continuing for 'len' bytes.  'advice' is one of *note
     POSIX_FADV_NORMAL: 2935, *note POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL: 2936, *note
     POSIX_FADV_RANDOM: 2937, *note POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE: 2938, *note
     POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED: 2939. or *note POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED: 293a.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL
 -- Verisi: os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Verisi: os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM
 -- Verisi: os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE
 -- Verisi: os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED
 -- Verisi: os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED

     Flags that can be used in 'advice' in *note posix_fadvise(): c20.
     that specify the access pattern that is likely to be used.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.pread (fd, n, offset, /)

     Read at most 'n' bytes from file descriptor 'fd' at a position of
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.

     Return a bytestring containing the bytes read.  If the end of the
     file referred to by 'fd' has been reached, an empty bytes object is
     returned.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.preadv (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Read from a file descriptor 'fd' at a position of 'offset' into
     mutable *note bytes-like objects: bb5. 'buffers', leaving the file
     offset unchanged.  Transfer data into each buffer until it is full
     and then move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the
     rest of the data.

     The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the
     following flags:

        - *note RWF_HIPRI: 293b.

        - *note RWF_NOWAIT: 293c.

     Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less
     than the total capacity of all the objects.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 293d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     Combine the functionality of *note os.readv(): 9d2. and *note
     os.pread(): 9d3.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD
     >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: os.RWF_NOWAIT

     Do not wait for data which is not immediately available.  If this
     flag is specified, the system call will return instantly if it
     would have to read data from the backing storage or wait for a
     lock.

     If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of
     bytes read.  If no bytes were read, it will return ‘-1’ and set
     errno to *note errno.EAGAIN: 2090.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.14.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: os.RWF_HIPRI

     High priority read/write.  Allows block-based filesystems to use
     polling of the device, which provides lower latency, but may use
     additional resources.

     Currently, on Linux, this feature is usable only on a file
     descriptor opened using the *note O_DIRECT: 2930. flag.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: os.pwrite (fd, str, offset, /)

     Write the bytestring in 'str' to file descriptor 'fd' at position
     of 'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.

     Return the number of bytes actually written.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.pwritev (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Write the 'buffers' contents to file descriptor 'fd' at an offset
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.  'buffers' must be a
     sequence of *note bytes-like objects: bb5.  Buffers are processed
     in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is written
     before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the
     following flags:

        - *note RWF_DSYNC: 293e.

        - *note RWF_SYNC: 293f.

        - *note RWF_APPEND: 1772.

     Return the total number of bytes actually written.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 293d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     Combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): 9d5. and *note
     os.pwrite(): 9d6.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0, OpenBSD
     >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: os.RWF_DSYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_DSYNC: 2924. *note
     os.open(): c1f. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: os.RWF_SYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_SYNC: 2926. *note
     os.open(): c1f. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: os.RWF_APPEND

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_APPEND: 2921. *note
     os.open(): c1f. flag.  This flag is meaningful only for *note
     os.pwritev(): 9d4, and its effect applies only to the data range
     written by the system call.  The 'offset' argument does not affect
     the write operation; the data is always appended to the end of the
     file.  However, if the 'offset' argument is ‘-1’, the current file
     'offset' is updated.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.16.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: os.read (fd, n, /)

     Read at most 'n' bytes from file descriptor 'fd'.

     Return a bytestring containing the bytes read.  If the end of the
     file referred to by 'fd' has been reached, an empty bytes object is
     returned.

          Not: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be
          applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note os.open():
          c1f. or *note pipe(): 15fd.  To read a “file object” returned
          by the built-in function *note open(): 2a6. or by *note
          popen(): 8ec. or *note fdopen(): 1d20, or *note sys.stdin:
          2c9, use its ‘read()’ or ‘readline()’ methods.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: c14. exception (see PEP 475(4) for the
     rationale).

 -- Işlevi: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count)

 -- Işlevi: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count, headers=(),
          trailers=(), flags=0)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'in_fd' to file descriptor
     'out_fd' starting at 'offset'.  Return the number of bytes sent.
     When EOF is reached return ‘0’.

     The first function notation is supported by all platforms that
     define *note sendfile(): 97d.

     On Linux, if 'offset' is given as ‘None’, the bytes are read from
     the current position of 'in_fd' and the position of 'in_fd' is
     updated.

     The second case may be used on macOS and FreeBSD where 'headers'
     and 'trailers' are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written
     before and after the data from 'in_fd' is written.  It returns the
     same as the first case.

     On macOS and FreeBSD, a value of ‘0’ for 'count' specifies to send
     until the end of 'in_fd' is reached.

     All platforms support sockets as 'out_fd' file descriptor, and some
     platforms allow other types (e.g.  regular file, pipe) as well.

     Cross-platform applications should not use 'headers', 'trailers'
     and 'flags' arguments.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          Not: For a higher-level wrapper of *note sendfile(): 97d, see
          *note socket.socket.sendfile(): cf1.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Parameters 'out' and 'in' was renamed to
     'out_fd' and 'in_fd'.

 -- Verisi: os.SF_NODISKIO
 -- Verisi: os.SF_MNOWAIT
 -- Verisi: os.SF_SYNC

     Parameters to the *note sendfile(): 97d. function, if the
     implementation supports them.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.SF_NOCACHE

     Parameter to the *note sendfile(): 97d. function, if the
     implementation supports it.  The data won’t be cached in the
     virtual memory and will be freed afterwards.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: os.set_blocking (fd, blocking, /)

     Set the blocking mode of the specified file descriptor.  Set the
     *note O_NONBLOCK: ccb. flag if blocking is ‘False’, clear the flag
     otherwise.

     See also *note get_blocking(): cc9. and *note
     socket.socket.setblocking(): 2916.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.splice (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None)

     Transfer 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from
     offset 'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a
     pipe.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from the
     current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.  The offset
     associated to the file descriptor that refers to a pipe must be
     ‘None’.  The files pointed to by 'src' and 'dst' must reside in the
     same filesystem, otherwise an *note OSError: 65c. is raised with
     *note errno: 207f. set to *note errno.EXDEV: 2914.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations.
     The copy is done as if both files are opened as binary.

     Upon successful completion, returns the number of bytes spliced to
     or from the pipe.  A return value of 0 means end of input.  If
     'src' refers to a pipe, then this means that there was no data to
     transfer, and it would not make sense to block because there are no
     writers connected to the write end of the pipe.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.17 with glibc >= 2.5

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: os.SPLICE_F_MOVE
 -- Verisi: os.SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK
 -- Verisi: os.SPLICE_F_MORE

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: os.readv (fd, buffers, /)

     Read from a file descriptor 'fd' into a number of mutable *note
     bytes-like objects: bb5. 'buffers'.  Transfer data into each buffer
     until it is full and then move on to the next buffer in the
     sequence to hold the rest of the data.

     Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less
     than the total capacity of all the objects.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 293d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.tcgetpgrp (fd, /)

     Return the process group associated with the terminal given by 'fd'
     (an open file descriptor as returned by *note os.open(): c1f.).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.tcsetpgrp (fd, pg, /)

     Set the process group associated with the terminal given by 'fd'
     (an open file descriptor as returned by *note os.open(): c1f.) to
     'pg'.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.ttyname (fd, /)

     Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with
     file descriptor 'fd'.  If 'fd' is not associated with a terminal
     device, an exception is raised.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: os.write (fd, str, /)

     Write the bytestring in 'str' to file descriptor 'fd'.

     Return the number of bytes actually written.

          Not: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must be
          applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note os.open():
          c1f. or *note pipe(): 15fd.  To write a “file object” returned
          by the built-in function *note open(): 2a6. or by *note
          popen(): 8ec. or *note fdopen(): 1d20, or *note sys.stdout:
          943. or *note sys.stderr: 792, use its ‘write()’ method.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: c14. exception (see PEP 475(5) for the
     rationale).

 -- Işlevi: os.writev (fd, buffers, /)

     Write the contents of 'buffers' to file descriptor 'fd'.  'buffers'
     must be a sequence of *note bytes-like objects: bb5.  Buffers are
     processed in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is
     written before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     Returns the total number of bytes actually written.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 293d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Querying the size of a terminal::
* Inheritance of File Descriptors::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/open(2)

   (3) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the size of a terminal,  Next: Inheritance of File Descriptors,  Up: File Descriptor Operations

5.16.1.6 Querying the size of a terminal
........................................

Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.get_terminal_size (fd=STDOUT_FILENO, /)

     Return the size of the terminal window as ‘(columns, lines)’, tuple
     of type *note terminal_size: 2655.

     The optional argument ‘fd’ (default ‘STDOUT_FILENO’, or standard
     output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried.

     If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised.

     *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): fa5. is the high-level function
     which should normally be used, ‘os.get_terminal_size’ is the
     low-level implementation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Sınıfı: os.terminal_size

     A subclass of tuple, holding ‘(columns, lines)’ of the terminal
     window size.

      -- Özniteliği: columns

          Width of the terminal window in characters.

      -- Özniteliği: lines

          Height of the terminal window in characters.


File: python.info,  Node: Inheritance of File Descriptors,  Prev: Querying the size of a terminal,  Up: File Descriptor Operations

5.16.1.7 Inheritance of File Descriptors
........................................

Added in version 3.4.

A file descriptor has an “inheritable” flag which indicates if the file
descriptor can be inherited by child processes.  Since Python 3.4, file
descriptors created by Python are non-inheritable by default.

On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes
at the execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited.

On Windows, non-inheritable handles and file descriptors are closed in
child processes, except for standard streams (file descriptors 0, 1 and
2: stdin, stdout and stderr), which are always inherited.  Using *note
spawn*: 154c. functions, all inheritable handles and all inheritable
file descriptors are inherited.  Using the *note subprocess: d5. module,
all file descriptors except standard streams are closed, and inheritable
handles are only inherited if the 'close_fds' parameter is ‘False’.

On WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’, the file
descriptor cannot be modified.

 -- Işlevi: os.get_inheritable (fd, /)

     Get the “inheritable” flag of the specified file descriptor (a
     boolean).

 -- Işlevi: os.set_inheritable (fd, inheritable, /)

     Set the “inheritable” flag of the specified file descriptor.

 -- Işlevi: os.get_handle_inheritable (handle, /)

     Get the “inheritable” flag of the specified handle (a boolean).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.set_handle_inheritable (handle, inheritable, /)

     Set the “inheritable” flag of the specified handle.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Files and Directories,  Next: Process Management,  Prev: File Descriptor Operations,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.8 Files and Directories
..............................

On some Unix platforms, many of these functions support one or more of
these features:

   * 'specifying a file descriptor:' Normally the 'path' argument
     provided to functions in the *note os: a0. module must be a string
     specifying a file path.  However, some functions now alternatively
     accept an open file descriptor for their 'path' argument.  The
     function will then operate on the file referred to by the
     descriptor.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of
     the function prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.  call ‘fchdir’ instead of
     ‘chdir’).)

     You can check whether or not 'path' can be specified as a file
     descriptor for a particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_fd: f9f.  If this functionality is unavailable, using
     it will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

     If the function also supports 'dir_fd' or 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments, it’s an error to specify one of those when supplying
     'path' as a file descriptor.

   * 'paths relative to directory descriptors:' If 'dir_fd' is not
     ‘None’, it should be a file descriptor referring to a directory,
     and the path to operate on should be relative; path will then be
     relative to that directory.  If the path is absolute, 'dir_fd' is
     ignored.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the
     function with an ‘at’ suffix and possibly prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.
     call ‘faccessat’ instead of ‘access’).

     You can check whether or not 'dir_fd' is supported for a particular
     function on your platform using *note os.supports_dir_fd: f9a.  If
     it’s unavailable, using it will raise a *note NotImplementedError:
     bd6.

   * 'not following symlinks:' If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, and the
     last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link, the
     function will operate on the symbolic link itself rather than the
     file pointed to by the link.  (For POSIX systems, Python will call
     the ‘l...’ variant of the function.)

     You can check whether or not 'follow_symlinks' is supported for a
     particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_follow_symlinks: 2640.  If it’s unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

 -- Işlevi: os.access (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, effective_ids=False,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Use the real uid/gid to test for access to 'path'.  Note that most
     operations will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine
     can be used in a suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user
     has the specified access to 'path'.  'mode' should be *note F_OK:
     2950. to test the existence of 'path', or it can be the inclusive
     OR of one or more of *note R_OK: 2951, *note W_OK: 2952, and *note
     X_OK: 2953. to test permissions.  Return *note True: a86. if access
     is allowed, *note False: 9a8. if not.  See the Unix man page
     ‘access(2)(1)’ for more information.

     This function can support specifying *note paths relative to
     directory descriptors: f8c. and *note not following symlinks: f8d.

     If 'effective_ids' is ‘True’, *note access(): f8e. will perform its
     access checks using the effective uid/gid instead of the real
     uid/gid.  'effective_ids' may not be supported on your platform;
     you can check whether or not it is available using *note
     os.supports_effective_ids: fa0.  If it is unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

          Not: Using *note access(): f8e. to check if a user is
          authorized to e.g.  open a file before actually doing so using
          *note open(): 2a6. creates a security hole, because the user
          might exploit the short time interval between checking and
          opening the file to manipulate it.  It’s preferable to use
          *note EAFP: 2954. techniques.  For example:

               if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
                   with open("myfile") as fp:
                       return fp.read()
               return "some default data"

          is better written as:

               try:
                   fp = open("myfile")
               except PermissionError:
                   return "some default data"
               else:
                   with fp:
                       return fp.read()

          Not: I/O operations may fail even when *note access(): f8e.
          indicates that they would succeed, particularly for operations
          on network filesystems which may have permissions semantics
          beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd', 'effective_ids', and
     'follow_symlinks' parameters.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Verisi: os.F_OK
 -- Verisi: os.R_OK
 -- Verisi: os.W_OK
 -- Verisi: os.X_OK

     Values to pass as the 'mode' parameter of *note access(): f8e. to
     test the existence, readability, writability and executability of
     'path', respectively.

 -- Işlevi: os.chdir (path)

     Change the current working directory to 'path'.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.
     The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file.

     This function can raise *note OSError: 65c. and subclasses such as
     *note FileNotFoundError: 39a, *note PermissionError: bcb, and *note
     NotADirectoryError: f04.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chdir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying 'path' as a
     file descriptor on some platforms.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.chflags (path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the flags of 'path' to the numeric 'flags'.  'flags' may take a
     combination (bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the
     *note stat: d0. module):

        * *note stat.UF_NODUMP: 25f0.

        * *note stat.UF_IMMUTABLE: 25f1.

        * *note stat.UF_APPEND: 25f2.

        * *note stat.UF_OPAQUE: 25f3.

        * *note stat.UF_NOUNLINK: 25f4.

        * *note stat.UF_COMPRESSED: 25f5.

        * *note stat.UF_HIDDEN: 25f6.

        * *note stat.SF_ARCHIVED: 25f7.

        * *note stat.SF_IMMUTABLE: 25f8.

        * *note stat.SF_APPEND: 25f9.

        * *note stat.SF_NOUNLINK: 25fa.

        * *note stat.SF_SNAPSHOT: 25fb.

     This function can support *note not following symlinks: f8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chflags’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘flags’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'follow_symlinks' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.chmod (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the mode of 'path' to the numeric 'mode'.  'mode' may take
     one of the following values (as defined in the *note stat: d0.
     module) or bitwise ORed combinations of them:

        * *note stat.S_ISUID: 25dd.

        * *note stat.S_ISGID: 25de.

        * *note stat.S_ENFMT: 25e0.

        * *note stat.S_ISVTX: 25e1.

        * *note stat.S_IREAD: 25ed.

        * *note stat.S_IWRITE: 25ee.

        * *note stat.S_IEXEC: 25ef.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXU: 25e2.

        * *note stat.S_IRUSR: 25e3.

        * *note stat.S_IWUSR: 25e4.

        * *note stat.S_IXUSR: 25e5.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXG: 25e6.

        * *note stat.S_IRGRP: 25e7.

        * *note stat.S_IWGRP: 25e8.

        * *note stat.S_IXGRP: 25df.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXO: 25e9.

        * *note stat.S_IROTH: 25ea.

        * *note stat.S_IWOTH: 25eb.

        * *note stat.S_IXOTH: 25ec.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: f8c. and *note not
     following symlinks: f8d.

          Not: Although Windows supports *note chmod(): f90, you can
          only set the file’s read-only flag with it (via the
          ‘stat.S_IWRITE’ and ‘stat.S_IREAD’ constants or a
          corresponding integer value).  All other bits are ignored.

          The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
          WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chmod’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.chown (path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the owner and group id of 'path' to the numeric 'uid' and
     'gid'.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: f8c. and *note not
     following symlinks: f8d.

     See *note shutil.chown(): fd1. for a higher-level function that
     accepts names in addition to numeric ids.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Supports a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.chroot (path)

     Change the root directory of the current process to 'path'.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.fchdir (fd)

     Change the current working directory to the directory represented
     by the file descriptor 'fd'.  The descriptor must refer to an
     opened directory, not an open file.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.chdir(fd)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chdir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: os.getcwd ()

     Return a string representing the current working directory.

 -- Işlevi: os.getcwdb ()

     Return a bytestring representing the current working directory.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529(2) for the
     rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated on Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.lchflags (path, flags)

     Set the flags of 'path' to the numeric 'flags', like *note
     chflags(): f8f, but do not follow symbolic links.  As of Python
     3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chflags(path, flags,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chflags’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘flags’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.lchmod (path, mode)

     Change the mode of 'path' to the numeric 'mode'.  If path is a
     symlink, this affects the symlink rather than the target.  See the
     docs for *note chmod(): f90. for possible values of 'mode'.  As of
     Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chmod(path, mode,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     ‘lchmod()’ is not part of POSIX, but Unix implementations may have
     it if changing the mode of symbolic links is supported.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chmod’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Linux, FreeBSD >= 1.3, NetBSD
     >= 1.3, not OpenBSD

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.lchown (path, uid, gid)

     Change the owner and group id of 'path' to the numeric 'uid' and
     'gid'.  This function will not follow symbolic links.  As of Python
     3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chown(path, uid, gid,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.link (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Create a hard link pointing to 'src' named 'dst'.

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c, and *note not following symlinks: f8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.link’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added Windows support.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'src_dir_fd', 'dst_dir_fd', and
     'follow_symlinks' parameters.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Işlevi: os.listdir (path='.')

     Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory
     given by 'path'.  The list is in arbitrary order, and does not
     include the special entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ even if they are
     present in the directory.  If a file is removed from or added to
     the directory during the call of this function, whether a name for
     that file be included is unspecified.

     'path' may be a *note path-like object: 98e.  If 'path' is of type
     ‘bytes’ (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: acd.
     interface), the filenames returned will also be of type ‘bytes’; in
     all other circumstances, they will be of type ‘str’.

     This function can also support *note specifying a file descriptor:
     9d0.; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.listdir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

          Not: To encode ‘str’ filenames to ‘bytes’, use *note
          fsencode(): ad1.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note scandir(): 8c3. function returns directory entries along
     with file attribute information, giving better performance for many
     common use cases.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'path' parameter became optional.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.listdrives ()

     Return a list containing the names of drives on a Windows system.

     A drive name typically looks like ‘'C:\\'’.  Not every drive name
     will be associated with a volume, and some may be inaccessible for
     a variety of reasons, including permissions, network connectivity
     or missing media.  This function does not test for access.

     May raise *note OSError: 65c. if an error occurs collecting the
     drive names.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.listdrives’ with no
     arguments.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.listmounts (volume)

     Return a list containing the mount points for a volume on a Windows
     system.

     'volume' must be represented as a GUID path, like those returned by
     *note os.listvolumes(): 1c3.  Volumes may be mounted in multiple
     locations or not at all.  In the latter case, the list will be
     empty.  Mount points that are not associated with a volume will not
     be returned by this function.

     The mount points return by this function will be absolute paths,
     and may be longer than the drive name.

     Raises *note OSError: 65c. if the volume is not recognized or if an
     error occurs collecting the paths.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.listmounts’ with argument
     ‘volume’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.listvolumes ()

     Return a list containing the volumes in the system.

     Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path that looks like
     ‘\\?\Volume{xxxxxxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx}\’.  Files can
     usually be accessed through a GUID path, permissions allowing.
     However, users are generally not familiar with them, and so the
     recommended use of this function is to retrieve mount points using
     *note os.listmounts(): 1c4.

     May raise *note OSError: 65c. if an error occurs collecting the
     volumes.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.listvolumes’ with no
     arguments.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.lstat (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Perform the equivalent of an ‘lstat()’ system call on the given
     path.  Similar to *note stat(): 1c5, but does not follow symbolic
     links.  Return a *note stat_result: 134c. object.

     On platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias
     for *note stat(): 1c5.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.stat(path,
     dir_fd=dir_fd, follow_symlinks=False)’.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note stat(): 1c5. function.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista)
     symbolic links.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, now opens reparse points that
     represent another path (name surrogates), including symbolic links
     and directory junctions.  Other kinds of reparse points are
     resolved by the operating system as for *note stat(): 1c5.

 -- Işlevi: os.mkdir (path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a directory named 'path' with numeric mode 'mode'.

     If the directory already exists, *note FileExistsError: ec8. is
     raised.  If a parent directory in the path does not exist, *note
     FileNotFoundError: 39a. is raised.  On some systems, 'mode' is
     ignored.  Where it is used, the current umask value is first masked
     out.  If bits other than the last 9 (i.e.  the last 3 digits of the
     octal representation of the 'mode') are set, their meaning is
     platform-dependent.  On some platforms, they are ignored and you
     should call *note chmod(): f90. explicitly to set them.

     On Windows, a 'mode' of ‘0o700’ is specifically handled to apply
     access control to the new directory such that only the current user
     and administrators have access.  Other values of 'mode' are
     ignored.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the *note
     tempfile: df. module’s *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9. function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.mkdir’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.12.4 sürümünde değişti: Windows now handles a 'mode' of ‘0o700’.

 -- Işlevi: os.makedirs (name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)

     Recursive directory creation function.  Like *note mkdir(): 1c7,
     but makes all intermediate-level directories needed to contain the
     leaf directory.

     The 'mode' parameter is passed to *note mkdir(): 1c7. for creating
     the leaf directory; see *note the mkdir() description: 2957. for
     how it is interpreted.  To set the file permission bits of any
     newly created parent directories you can set the umask before
     invoking *note makedirs(): 1c8.  The file permission bits of
     existing parent directories are not changed.

     If 'exist_ok' is ‘False’ (the default), a *note FileExistsError:
     ec8. is raised if the target directory already exists.

          Not: *note makedirs(): 1c8. will become confused if the path
          elements to create include *note pardir: 2958. (eg.  “..” on
          UNIX systems).

     This function handles UNC paths correctly.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.mkdir’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'exist_ok' parameter.

     3.4.1 sürümünde değişti: Before Python 3.4.1, if 'exist_ok' was
     ‘True’ and the directory existed, *note makedirs(): 1c8. would
     still raise an error if 'mode' did not match the mode of the
     existing directory.  Since this behavior was impossible to
     implement safely, it was removed in Python 3.4.1.  See
     bpo-21082(3).

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'mode' argument no longer affects the
     file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level
     directories.

 -- Işlevi: os.mkfifo (path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named 'path' with numeric mode 'mode'.
     The current umask value is first masked out from the mode.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files.  FIFOs
     exist until they are deleted (for example with *note os.unlink():
     f98.).  Generally, FIFOs are used as rendezvous between “client”
     and “server” type processes: the server opens the FIFO for reading,
     and the client opens it for writing.  Note that *note mkfifo():
     c1d. doesn’t open the FIFO — it just creates the rendezvous point.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.mknod (path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe)
     named 'path'.  'mode' specifies both the permissions to use and the
     type of node to be created, being combined (bitwise OR) with one of
     ‘stat.S_IFREG’, ‘stat.S_IFCHR’, ‘stat.S_IFBLK’, and ‘stat.S_IFIFO’
     (those constants are available in *note stat: d0.).  For
     ‘stat.S_IFCHR’ and ‘stat.S_IFBLK’, 'device' defines the newly
     created device special file (probably using *note os.makedev():
     1481.), otherwise it is ignored.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.major (device, /)

     Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- Işlevi: os.minor (device, /)

     Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually
     the ‘st_dev’ or ‘st_rdev’ field from ‘stat’).

 -- Işlevi: os.makedev (major, minor, /)

     Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device
     numbers.

 -- Işlevi: os.pathconf (path, name)

     Return system configuration information relevant to a named file.
     'name' specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a
     string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are
     specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and
     others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.  The
     names known to the host operating system are given in the
     ‘pathconf_names’ dictionary.  For configuration variables not
     included in that mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also
     accepted.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘pathconf_names’, an *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 1828. for the
     error number.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Verisi: os.pathconf_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note pathconf(): f9d. and
     *note fpathconf(): 2915. to the integer values defined for those
     names by the host operating system.  This can be used to determine
     the set of names known to the system.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: os.readlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link
     points.  The result may be either an absolute or relative pathname;
     if it is relative, it may be converted to an absolute pathname
     using ‘os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result)’.

     If the 'path' is a string object (directly or indirectly through a
     *note PathLike: acd. interface), the result will also be a string
     object, and the call may raise a UnicodeDecodeError.  If the 'path'
     is a bytes object (direct or indirectly), the result will be a
     bytes object.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     When trying to resolve a path that may contain links, use *note
     realpath(): 398. to properly handle recursion and platform
     differences.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista)
     symbolic links.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. on
     Unix.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. and a
     bytes object on Windows.

     Added support for directory junctions, and changed to return the
     substitution path (which typically includes ‘\\?\’ prefix) rather
     than the optional “print name” field that was previously returned.

 -- Işlevi: os.remove (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  If 'path' is a directory, an
     *note OSError: 65c. is raised.  Use *note rmdir(): f96. to remove
     directories.  If the file does not exist, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: 39a. is raised.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     On Windows, attempting to remove a file that is in use causes an
     exception to be raised; on Unix, the directory entry is removed but
     the storage allocated to the file is not made available until the
     original file is no longer in use.

     This function is semantically identical to *note unlink(): f98.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.remove’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.removedirs (name)

     Remove directories recursively.  Works like *note rmdir(): f96.
     except that, if the leaf directory is successfully removed, *note
     removedirs(): 295a. tries to successively remove every parent
     directory mentioned in 'path' until an error is raised (which is
     ignored, because it generally means that a parent directory is not
     empty).  For example, ‘os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz')’ will first
     remove the directory ‘'foo/bar/baz'’, and then remove ‘'foo/bar'’
     and ‘'foo'’ if they are empty.  Raises *note OSError: 65c. if the
     leaf directory could not be successfully removed.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.remove’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.rename (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' exists, the
     operation will fail with an *note OSError: 65c. subclass in a
     number of cases:

     On Windows, if 'dst' exists a *note FileExistsError: ec8. is always
     raised.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on different
     filesystems.  Use *note shutil.move(): 8c0. to support moves to a
     different filesystem.

     On Unix, if 'src' is a file and 'dst' is a directory or vice-versa,
     an *note IsADirectoryError: f03. or a *note NotADirectoryError:
     f04. will be raised respectively.  If both are directories and
     'dst' is empty, 'dst' will be silently replaced.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, an *note OSError: 65c. is raised.  If both are
     files, 'dst' will be replaced silently if the user has permission.
     The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if 'src' and 'dst' are
     on different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     If you want cross-platform overwriting of the destination, use
     *note replace(): f95.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.rename’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'src_dir_fd' and 'dst_dir_fd'
     parameters.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Işlevi: os.renames (old, new)

     Recursive directory or file renaming function.  Works like *note
     rename(): f94, except creation of any intermediate directories
     needed to make the new pathname good is attempted first.  After the
     rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments of the
     old name will be pruned away using *note removedirs(): 295a.

          Not: This function can fail with the new directory structure
          made if you lack permissions needed to remove the leaf
          directory or file.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.rename’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'old' and 'new'.

 -- Işlevi: os.replace (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, *note OSError: 65c. will be raised.  If 'dst'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.rename’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Işlevi: os.rmdir (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the directory 'path'.  If the directory does not
     exist or is not empty, a *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. or an *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised respectively.  In order to remove whole
     directory trees, *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. can be used.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.rmdir’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.scandir (path='.')

     Return an iterator of *note os.DirEntry: 1c0. objects corresponding
     to the entries in the directory given by 'path'.  The entries are
     yielded in arbitrary order, and the special entries ‘'.'’ and
     ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed from or added to the
     directory after creating the iterator, whether an entry for that
     file be included is unspecified.

     Using *note scandir(): 8c3. instead of *note listdir(): f9c. can
     significantly increase the performance of code that also needs file
     type or file attribute information, because *note os.DirEntry: 1c0.
     objects expose this information if the operating system provides it
     when scanning a directory.  All *note os.DirEntry: 1c0. methods may
     perform a system call, but *note is_dir(): 295c. and *note
     is_file(): c10. usually only require a system call for symbolic
     links; *note os.DirEntry.stat(): 14cf. always requires a system
     call on Unix but only requires one for symbolic links on Windows.

     'path' may be a *note path-like object: 98e.  If 'path' is of type
     ‘bytes’ (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: acd.
     interface), the type of the *note name: 295d. and *note path: 295e.
     attributes of each *note os.DirEntry: 1c0. will be ‘bytes’; in all
     other circumstances, they will be of type ‘str’.

     This function can also support *note specifying a file descriptor:
     9d0.; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.scandir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     The *note scandir(): 8c3. iterator supports the *note context
     manager: 3df. protocol and has the following method:

      -- Yöntemi: scandir.close ()

          Close the iterator and free acquired resources.

          This is called automatically when the iterator is exhausted or
          garbage collected, or when an error happens during iterating.
          However it is advisable to call it explicitly or use the *note
          with: 3dd. statement.

          Added in version 3.6.

     The following example shows a simple use of *note scandir(): 8c3.
     to display all the files (excluding directories) in the given
     'path' that don’t start with ‘'.'’.  The ‘entry.is_file()’ call
     will generally not make an additional system call:

          with os.scandir(path) as it:
              for entry in it:
                  if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
                      print(entry.name)

          Not: On Unix-based systems, *note scandir(): 8c3. uses the
          system’s opendir()(4) and readdir()(5) functions.  On Windows,
          it uses the Win32 FindFirstFileW(6) and FindNextFileW(7)
          functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the *note context manager:
     3df. protocol and the *note close(): b3f. method.  If a *note
     scandir(): 8c3. iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed
     a *note ResourceWarning: ab9. will be emitted in its destructor.

     The function accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added support for *note file descriptors:
     9d0. on Unix.

 -- Sınıfı: os.DirEntry

     Object yielded by *note scandir(): 8c3. to expose the file path and
     other file attributes of a directory entry.

     *note scandir(): 8c3. will provide as much of this information as
     possible without making additional system calls.  When a ‘stat()’
     or ‘lstat()’ system call is made, the ‘os.DirEntry’ object will
     cache the result.

     ‘os.DirEntry’ instances are not intended to be stored in long-lived
     data structures; if you know the file metadata has changed or if a
     long time has elapsed since calling *note scandir(): 8c3, call
     ‘os.stat(entry.path)’ to fetch up-to-date information.

     Because the ‘os.DirEntry’ methods can make operating system calls,
     they may also raise *note OSError: 65c.  If you need very
     fine-grained control over errors, you can catch *note OSError: 65c.
     when calling one of the ‘os.DirEntry’ methods and handle as
     appropriate.

     To be directly usable as a *note path-like object: 98e,
     ‘os.DirEntry’ implements the *note PathLike: acd. interface.

     Attributes and methods on a ‘os.DirEntry’ instance are as follows:

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The entry’s base filename, relative to the *note scandir():
          8c3. 'path' argument.

          The *note name: 28d8. attribute will be ‘bytes’ if the *note
          scandir(): 8c3. 'path' argument is of type ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
          otherwise.  Use *note fsdecode(): ad0. to decode byte
          filenames.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          The entry’s full path name: equivalent to
          ‘os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name)’ where 'scandir_path'
          is the *note scandir(): 8c3. 'path' argument.  The path is
          only absolute if the *note scandir(): 8c3. 'path' argument was
          absolute.  If the *note scandir(): 8c3. 'path' argument was a
          *note file descriptor: 9d0, the *note path: a1. attribute is
          the same as the *note name: 28d8. attribute.

          The *note path: a1. attribute will be ‘bytes’ if the *note
          scandir(): 8c3. 'path' argument is of type ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
          otherwise.  Use *note fsdecode(): ad0. to decode byte
          filenames.

      -- Yöntemi: inode ()

          Return the inode number of the entry.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Use
          ‘os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino’ to fetch
          up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, a system call is required on
          Windows but not on Unix.

      -- Yöntemi: is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a directory or a symbolic link
          pointing to a directory; return ‘False’ if the entry is or
          points to any other kind of file, or if it doesn’t exist
          anymore.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if this
          entry is a directory (without following symlinks); return
          ‘False’ if the entry is any other kind of file or if it
          doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object, with a
          separate cache for 'follow_symlinks' ‘True’ and ‘False’.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 1c5. along with *note stat.S_ISDIR(): 25c4.
          to fetch up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in
          most cases.  Specifically, for non-symlinks, neither Windows
          or Unix require a system call, except on certain Unix file
          systems, such as network file systems, that return
          ‘dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN’.  If the entry is a symlink, a
          system call will be required to follow the symlink unless
          'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’.

          This method can raise *note OSError: 65c, such as *note
          PermissionError: bcb, but *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. is
          caught and not raised.

      -- Yöntemi: is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a file or a symbolic link
          pointing to a file; return ‘False’ if the entry is or points
          to a directory or other non-file entry, or if it doesn’t exist
          anymore.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if this
          entry is a file (without following symlinks); return ‘False’
          if the entry is a directory or other non-file entry, or if it
          doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Caching,
          system calls made, and exceptions raised are as per *note
          is_dir(): 295c.

      -- Yöntemi: is_symlink ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a symbolic link (even if
          broken); return ‘False’ if the entry points to a directory or
          any kind of file, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.islink(): 86d. to fetch up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in
          most cases.  Specifically, neither Windows or Unix require a
          system call, except on certain Unix file systems, such as
          network file systems, that return ‘dirent.d_type ==
          DT_UNKNOWN’.

          This method can raise *note OSError: 65c, such as *note
          PermissionError: bcb, but *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. is
          caught and not raised.

      -- Yöntemi: is_junction ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a junction (even if broken);
          return ‘False’ if the entry points to a regular directory, any
          kind of file, a symlink, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.isjunction(): 1cb. to fetch up-to-date information.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Yöntemi: stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return a *note stat_result: 134c. object for this entry.  This
          method follows symbolic links by default; to stat a symbolic
          link add the ‘follow_symlinks=False’ argument.

          On Unix, this method always requires a system call.  On
          Windows, it only requires a system call if 'follow_symlinks'
          is ‘True’ and the entry is a reparse point (for example, a
          symbolic link or directory junction).

          On Windows, the ‘st_ino’, ‘st_dev’ and ‘st_nlink’ attributes
          of the *note stat_result: 134c. are always set to zero.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 1c5. to get these attributes.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object, with a
          separate cache for 'follow_symlinks' ‘True’ and ‘False’.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 1c5. to fetch up-to-date information.

     Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
     and methods of ‘os.DirEntry’ and of *note pathlib.Path: 14f.  In
     particular, the ‘name’ attribute has the same meaning, as do the
     ‘is_dir()’, ‘is_file()’, ‘is_symlink()’, ‘is_junction()’, and
     ‘stat()’ methods.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the *note PathLike: acd.
     interface.  Added support for *note bytes: 2cb. paths on Windows.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The ‘st_ctime’ attribute of a stat result
     is deprecated on Windows.  The file creation time is properly
     available as ‘st_birthtime’, and in the future ‘st_ctime’ may be
     changed to return zero or the metadata change time, if available.

 -- Işlevi: os.stat (path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     Get the status of a file or a file descriptor.  Perform the
     equivalent of a ‘stat()’ system call on the given path.  'path' may
     be specified as either a string or bytes – directly or indirectly
     through the *note PathLike: acd. interface – or as an open file
     descriptor.  Return a *note stat_result: 134c. object.

     This function normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note lstat(): 1c6.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.
     and *note not following symlinks: f8d.

     On Windows, passing ‘follow_symlinks=False’ will disable following
     all name-surrogate reparse points, which includes symlinks and
     directory junctions.  Other types of reparse points that do not
     resemble links or that the operating system is unable to follow
     will be opened directly.  When following a chain of multiple links,
     this may result in the original link being returned instead of the
     non-link that prevented full traversal.  To obtain stat results for
     the final path in this case, use the *note os.path.realpath(): 398.
     function to resolve the path name as far as possible and call *note
     lstat(): 1c6. on the result.  This does not apply to dangling
     symlinks or junction points, which will raise the usual exceptions.

     Example:

          >>> import os
          >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
          >>> statinfo
          os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
          st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
          st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
          >>> statinfo.st_size
          264

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note fstat(): c19. and *note lstat(): 1c6. functions.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     parameters, specifying a file descriptor instead of a path.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, all reparse points that can be
     resolved by the operating system are now followed, and passing
     ‘follow_symlinks=False’ disables following all name surrogate
     reparse points.  If the operating system reaches a reparse point
     that it is not able to follow, 'stat' now returns the information
     for the original path as if ‘follow_symlinks=False’ had been
     specified instead of raising an error.

 -- Sınıfı: os.stat_result

     Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
     ‘stat’ structure.  It is used for the result of *note os.stat():
     1c5, *note os.fstat(): c19. and *note os.lstat(): 1c6.

     Attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: st_mode

          File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).

      -- Özniteliği: st_ino

          Platform dependent, but if non-zero, uniquely identifies the
          file for a given value of ‘st_dev’.  Typically:

             * the inode number on Unix,

             * the file index(8) on Windows

      -- Özniteliği: st_dev

          Identifier of the device on which this file resides.

      -- Özniteliği: st_nlink

          Number of hard links.

      -- Özniteliği: st_uid

          User identifier of the file owner.

      -- Özniteliği: st_gid

          Group identifier of the file owner.

      -- Özniteliği: st_size

          Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a
          symbolic link.  The size of a symbolic link is the length of
          the pathname it contains, without a terminating null byte.

     Timestamps:

      -- Özniteliği: st_atime

          Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.

      -- Özniteliği: st_mtime

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.

      -- Özniteliği: st_ctime

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated on Windows.
          Use ‘st_birthtime’ for the file creation time.  In the future,
          ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most recent metadata
          change, as for other platforms.

      -- Özniteliği: st_atime_ns

          Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an
          integer.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: st_mtime_ns

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in
          nanoseconds as an integer.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: st_ctime_ns

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds
          as an integer.

          Added in version 3.3.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘st_ctime_ns’ is deprecated on
          Windows.  Use ‘st_birthtime_ns’ for the file creation time.
          In the future, ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most
          recent metadata change, as for other platforms.

      -- Özniteliği: st_birthtime

          Time of file creation expressed in seconds.  This attribute is
          not always available, and may raise *note AttributeError: 3dc.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘st_birthtime’ is now available on
          Windows.

      -- Özniteliği: st_birthtime_ns

          Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
          This attribute is not always available, and may raise *note
          AttributeError: 3dc.

          Added in version 3.12.

          Not: The exact meaning and resolution of the *note st_atime:
          2967, *note st_mtime: 273f, *note st_ctime: 2968. and *note
          st_birthtime: 296c. attributes depend on the operating system
          and the file system.  For example, on Windows systems using
          the FAT32 file systems, *note st_mtime: 273f. has 2-second
          resolution, and *note st_atime: 2967. has only 1-day
          resolution.  See your operating system documentation for
          details.

          Similarly, although *note st_atime_ns: 2969, *note
          st_mtime_ns: 296a, *note st_ctime_ns: 296b. and *note
          st_birthtime_ns: 296d. are always expressed in nanoseconds,
          many systems do not provide nanosecond precision.  On systems
          that do provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point
          object used to store *note st_atime: 2967, *note st_mtime:
          273f, *note st_ctime: 2968. and *note st_birthtime: 296c.
          cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly
          inexact.  If you need the exact timestamps you should always
          use *note st_atime_ns: 2969, *note st_mtime_ns: 296a, *note
          st_ctime_ns: 296b. and *note st_birthtime_ns: 296d.

     On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may
     also be available:

      -- Özniteliği: st_blocks

          Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.  This may be
          smaller than *note st_size: 2966./512 when the file has holes.

      -- Özniteliği: st_blksize

          “Preferred” blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing
          to a file in smaller chunks may cause an inefficient
          read-modify-rewrite.

      -- Özniteliği: st_rdev

          Type of device if an inode device.

      -- Özniteliği: st_flags

          User defined flags for file.

     On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes
     may be available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use
     them):

      -- Özniteliği: st_gen

          File generation number.

     On Solaris and derivatives, the following attributes may also be
     available:

      -- Özniteliği: st_fstype

          String that uniquely identifies the type of the filesystem
          that contains the file.

     On macOS systems, the following attributes may also be available:

      -- Özniteliği: st_rsize

          Real size of the file.

      -- Özniteliği: st_creator

          Creator of the file.

      -- Özniteliği: st_type

          File type.

     On Windows systems, the following attributes are also available:

      -- Özniteliği: st_file_attributes

          Windows file attributes: ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of the
          ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
          ‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  See the ‘FILE_ATTRIBUTE_*
          <stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE>’ constants in the *note stat:
          d0. module.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Özniteliği: st_reparse_tag

          When *note st_file_attributes: cc8. has the *note
          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT: 2608. set, this field contains
          the tag identifying the type of reparse point.  See the *note
          IO_REPARSE_TAG_*: 260d. constants in the *note stat: d0.
          module.

     The standard module *note stat: d0. defines functions and constants
     that are useful for extracting information from a ‘stat’ structure.
     (On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)

     For backward compatibility, a *note stat_result: 134c. instance is
     also accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most
     important (and portable) members of the ‘stat’ structure, in the
     order *note st_mode: 2960, *note st_ino: 2961, *note st_dev: 2962,
     *note st_nlink: 2963, *note st_uid: 2964, *note st_gid: 2965, *note
     st_size: 2966, *note st_atime: 2967, *note st_mtime: 273f, *note
     st_ctime: 2968.  More items may be added at the end by some
     implementations.  For compatibility with older Python versions,
     accessing *note stat_result: 134c. as a tuple always returns
     integers.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Windows now returns the file index as *note
     st_ino: 2961. when available.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the *note st_fstype: 9d8. member to
     Solaris/derivatives.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the *note st_reparse_tag: 2976. member
     on Windows.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, the *note st_mode: 2960. member
     now identifies special files as ‘S_IFCHR’, ‘S_IFIFO’ or ‘S_IFBLK’
     as appropriate.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, *note st_ctime: 2968. is
     deprecated.  Eventually, it will contain the last metadata change
     time, for consistency with other platforms, but for now still
     contains creation time.  Use *note st_birthtime: 296c. for the
     creation time.

     On Windows, *note st_ino: 2961. may now be up to 128 bits,
     depending on the file system.  Previously it would not be above 64
     bits, and larger file identifiers would be arbitrarily packed.

     On Windows, *note st_rdev: 2970. no longer returns a value.
     Previously it would contain the same as *note st_dev: 2962, which
     was incorrect.

     Added the *note st_birthtime: 296c. member on Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.statvfs (path)

     Perform a ‘statvfs()’ system call on the given path.  The return
     value is an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the
     given path, and correspond to the members of the ‘statvfs’
     structure, namely: ‘f_bsize’, ‘f_frsize’, ‘f_blocks’, ‘f_bfree’,
     ‘f_bavail’, ‘f_files’, ‘f_ffree’, ‘f_favail’, ‘f_flag’,
     ‘f_namemax’, ‘f_fsid’.

     Two module-level constants are defined for the ‘f_flag’ attribute’s
     bit-flags: if ‘ST_RDONLY’ is set, the filesystem is mounted
     read-only, and if ‘ST_NOSUID’ is set, the semantics of
     setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.

     Additional module-level constants are defined for GNU/glibc based
     systems.  These are ‘ST_NODEV’ (disallow access to device special
     files), ‘ST_NOEXEC’ (disallow program execution), ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’
     (writes are synced at once), ‘ST_MANDLOCK’ (allow mandatory locks
     on an FS), ‘ST_WRITE’ (write on file/directory/symlink),
     ‘ST_APPEND’ (append-only file), ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’ (immutable file),
     ‘ST_NOATIME’ (do not update access times), ‘ST_NODIRATIME’ (do not
     update directory access times), ‘ST_RELATIME’ (update atime
     relative to mtime/ctime).

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The ‘ST_RDONLY’ and ‘ST_NOSUID’ constants
     were added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘ST_NODEV’, ‘ST_NOEXEC’,
     ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’, ‘ST_MANDLOCK’, ‘ST_WRITE’, ‘ST_APPEND’,
     ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’, ‘ST_NOATIME’, ‘ST_NODIRATIME’, and ‘ST_RELATIME’
     constants were added.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘f_fsid’ attribute.

 -- Verisi: os.supports_dir_fd

     A *note set: 3e4. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: a0. module accept an open file descriptor for their 'dir_fd'
     parameter.  Different platforms provide different features, and the
     underlying functionality Python uses to implement the 'dir_fd'
     parameter is not available on all platforms Python supports.  For
     consistency’s sake, functions that may support 'dir_fd' always
     allow specifying the parameter, but will throw an exception if the
     functionality is used when it’s not locally available.  (Specifying
     ‘None’ for 'dir_fd' is always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts an open file
     descriptor for its 'dir_fd' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_dir_fd’.  As an example, this expression evaluates to
     ‘True’ if *note os.stat(): 1c5. accepts open file descriptors for
     'dir_fd' on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd

     Currently 'dir_fd' parameters only work on Unix platforms; none of
     them work on Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.supports_effective_ids

     A *note set: 3e4. object indicating whether *note os.access(): f8e.
     permits specifying ‘True’ for its 'effective_ids' parameter on the
     local platform.  (Specifying ‘False’ for 'effective_ids' is always
     supported on all platforms.)  If the local platform supports it,
     the collection will contain *note os.access(): f8e.; otherwise it
     will be empty.

     This expression evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.access(): f8e.
     supports ‘effective_ids=True’ on the local platform:

          os.access in os.supports_effective_ids

     Currently 'effective_ids' is only supported on Unix platforms; it
     does not work on Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.supports_fd

     A *note set: 3e4. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: a0. module permit specifying their 'path' parameter as an open
     file descriptor on the local platform.  Different platforms provide
     different features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to
     accept open file descriptors as 'path' arguments is not available
     on all platforms Python supports.

     To determine whether a particular function permits specifying an
     open file descriptor for its 'path' parameter, use the ‘in’
     operator on ‘supports_fd’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.chdir(): 41e. accepts open file
     descriptors for 'path' on your local platform:

          os.chdir in os.supports_fd

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.supports_follow_symlinks

     A *note set: 3e4. object indicating which functions in the *note
     os: a0. module accept ‘False’ for their 'follow_symlinks' parameter
     on the local platform.  Different platforms provide different
     features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to implement
     'follow_symlinks' is not available on all platforms Python
     supports.  For consistency’s sake, functions that may support
     'follow_symlinks' always allow specifying the parameter, but will
     throw an exception if the functionality is used when it’s not
     locally available.  (Specifying ‘True’ for 'follow_symlinks' is
     always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts ‘False’ for its
     'follow_symlinks' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_follow_symlinks’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if you may specify ‘follow_symlinks=False’ when
     calling *note os.stat(): 1c5. on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.symlink (src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *,
          dir_fd=None)

     Create a symbolic link pointing to 'src' named 'dst'.

     On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and
     does not morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is
     present, the type of the symlink will be created to match.
     Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if
     'target_is_directory' is ‘True’ or a file symlink (the default)
     otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, 'target_is_directory' is
     ignored.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c.

          Not: On newer versions of Windows 10, unprivileged accounts
          can create symlinks if Developer Mode is enabled.  When
          Developer Mode is not available/enabled, the
          'SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege' privilege is required, or the
          process must be run as an administrator.

          *note OSError: 65c. is raised when the function is called by
          an unprivileged user.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.symlink’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on Emscripten and WASI, see *note
     WebAssembly platformları: 1603. for more information.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista)
     symbolic links.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter, and now allow
     'target_is_directory' on non-Windows platforms.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added support for unelevated symlinks on
     Windows with Developer Mode.

 -- Işlevi: os.sync ()

     Force write of everything to disk.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.truncate (path, length)

     Truncate the file corresponding to 'path', so that it is at most
     'length' bytes in size.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.truncate’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘length’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Windows

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.unlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  This function is semantically
     identical to *note remove(): f93.; the ‘unlink’ name is its
     traditional Unix name.  Please see the documentation for *note
     remove(): f93. for further information.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.remove’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.utime (path, times=None, *[, ns], dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the access and modified times of the file specified by 'path'.

     *note utime(): f99. takes two optional parameters, 'times' and
     'ns'.  These specify the times set on 'path' and are used as
     follows:

        - If 'ns' is specified, it must be a 2-tuple of the form
          ‘(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ where each member is an int expressing
          nanoseconds.

        - If 'times' is not ‘None’, it must be a 2-tuple of the form
          ‘(atime, mtime)’ where each member is an int or float
          expressing seconds.

        - If 'times' is ‘None’ and 'ns' is unspecified, this is
          equivalent to specifying ‘ns=(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ where both
          times are the current time.

     It is an error to specify tuples for both 'times' and 'ns'.

     Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a
     subsequent *note stat(): 1c5. call, depending on the resolution
     with which your operating system records access and modification
     times; see *note stat(): 1c5.  The best way to preserve exact times
     is to use the 'st_atime_ns' and 'st_mtime_ns' fields from the *note
     os.stat(): 1c5. result object with the 'ns' parameter to *note
     utime(): f99.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: f8c. and *note not
     following symlinks: f8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.utime’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd', 'follow_symlinks', and 'ns'
     parameters.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.walk (top, topdown=True, onerror=None, followlinks=False)

     Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
     either top-down or bottom-up.  For each directory in the tree
     rooted at directory 'top' (including 'top' itself), it yields a
     3-tuple ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a string, the path to the directory.  'dirnames' is a
     list of the names of the subdirectories in 'dirpath' (including
     symlinks to directories, and excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’).
     'filenames' is a list of the names of the non-directory files in
     'dirpath'.  Note that the names in the lists contain no path
     components.  To get a full path (which begins with 'top') to a file
     or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘os.path.join(dirpath, name)’.
     Whether or not the lists are sorted depends on the file system.  If
     a file is removed from or added to the 'dirpath' directory during
     generating the lists, whether a name for that file be included is
     unspecified.

     If optional argument 'topdown' is ‘True’ or not specified, the
     triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of
     its subdirectories (directories are generated top-down).  If
     'topdown' is ‘False’, the triple for a directory is generated after
     the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are
     generated bottom-up).  No matter the value of 'topdown', the list
     of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory
     and its subdirectories are generated.

     When 'topdown' is ‘True’, the caller can modify the 'dirnames' list
     in-place (perhaps using *note del: 15c5. or slice assignment), and
     *note walk(): 1d1. will only recurse into the subdirectories whose
     names remain in 'dirnames'; this can be used to prune the search,
     impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform *note
     walk(): 1d1. about directories the caller creates or renames before
     it resumes *note walk(): 1d1. again.  Modifying 'dirnames' when
     'topdown' is ‘False’ has no effect on the behavior of the walk,
     because in bottom-up mode the directories in 'dirnames' are
     generated before 'dirpath' itself is generated.

     By default, errors from the *note scandir(): 8c3. call are ignored.
     If optional argument 'onerror' is specified, it should be a
     function; it will be called with one argument, an *note OSError:
     65c. instance.  It can report the error to continue with the walk,
     or raise the exception to abort the walk.  Note that the filename
     is available as the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception object.

     By default, *note walk(): 1d1. will not walk down into symbolic
     links that resolve to directories.  Set 'followlinks' to ‘True’ to
     visit directories pointed to by symlinks, on systems that support
     them.

          Not: Be aware that setting 'followlinks' to ‘True’ can lead to
          infinite recursion if a link points to a parent directory of
          itself.  *note walk(): 1d1. does not keep track of the
          directories it visited already.

          Not: If you pass a relative pathname, don’t change the current
          working directory between resumptions of *note walk(): 1d1.
          *note walk(): 1d1. never changes the current directory, and
          assumes that its caller doesn’t either.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn’t look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          from os.path import join, getsize
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
              print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     In the next example (simple implementation of *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 1df.), walking the tree bottom-up is essential,
     *note rmdir(): f96. doesn’t allow deleting a directory before the
     directory is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
          os.rmdir(top)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.walk’ with arguments
     ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: This function now calls *note os.scandir():
     8c3. instead of *note os.listdir(): f9c, making it faster by
     reducing the number of calls to *note os.stat(): 1c5.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.fwalk (top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *,
          follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)

     This behaves exactly like *note walk(): 1d1, except that it yields
     a 4-tuple ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd)’, and it supports
     ‘dir_fd’.

     'dirpath', 'dirnames' and 'filenames' are identical to *note
     walk(): 1d1. output, and 'dirfd' is a file descriptor referring to
     the directory 'dirpath'.

     This function always supports *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: f8c. and *note not following symlinks: f8d.  Note
     however that, unlike other functions, the *note fwalk(): 9cf.
     default value for 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’.

          Not: Since *note fwalk(): 9cf. yields file descriptors, those
          are only valid until the next iteration step, so you should
          duplicate them (e.g.  with *note dup(): 1812.) if you want to
          keep them longer.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn’t look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end="")
              print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
                    end="")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential: *note
     rmdir(): f96. doesn’t allow deleting a directory before the
     directory is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.fwalk’ with arguments
     ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added support for *note bytes: 2cb. paths.

 -- Işlevi: os.memfd_create (name[, flags=os.MFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create an anonymous file and return a file descriptor that refers
     to it.  'flags' must be one of the ‘os.MFD_*’ constants available
     on the system (or a bitwise ORed combination of them).  By default,
     the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     The name supplied in 'name' is used as a filename and will be
     displayed as the target of the corresponding symbolic link in the
     directory ‘/proc/self/fd/’.  The displayed name is always prefixed
     with ‘memfd:’ and serves only for debugging purposes.  Names do not
     affect the behavior of the file descriptor, and as such multiple
     files can have the same name without any side effects.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: os.MFD_CLOEXEC
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_ALLOW_SEALING
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGETLB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_SHIFT
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_MASK
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_64KB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_512KB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_1MB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_2MB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_8MB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_16MB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_32MB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_256MB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_512MB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_1GB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_2GB
 -- Verisi: os.MFD_HUGE_16GB

     These flags can be passed to *note memfd_create(): 86c.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27

     The ‘MFD_HUGE*’ flags are only available since Linux 4.14.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: os.eventfd (initval[, flags=os.EFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create and return an event file descriptor.  The file descriptors
     supports raw *note read(): c22. and *note write(): c28. with a
     buffer size of 8, *note select(): c2d, *note poll(): 2988. and
     similar.  See man page ‘eventfd(2)(9)’ for more information.  By
     default, the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     'initval' is the initial value of the event counter.  The initial
     value must be a 32 bit unsigned integer.  Please note that the
     initial value is limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the
     event counter is an unsigned 64 bit integer with a maximum value of
     2^64-2.

     'flags' can be constructed from *note EFD_CLOEXEC: 15f0, *note
     EFD_NONBLOCK: 15f1, and *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 15f2.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 15f2. is specified and the event counter is
     non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 2989. returns 1 and decrements the
     counter by one.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 15f2. is not specified and the event
     counter is non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 2989. returns the
     current event counter value and resets the counter to zero.

     If the event counter is zero and *note EFD_NONBLOCK: 15f1. is not
     specified, *note eventfd_read(): 2989. blocks.

     *note eventfd_write(): 298a. increments the event counter.  Write
     blocks if the write operation would increment the counter to a
     value larger than 2^64-2.

     Example:

          import os

          # semaphore with start value '1'
          fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFC_CLOEXEC)
          try:
              # acquire semaphore
              v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
              try:
                  do_work()
              finally:
                  # release semaphore
                  os.eventfd_write(fd, v)
          finally:
              os.close(fd)

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: os.eventfd_read (fd)

     Read value from an *note eventfd(): 655. file descriptor and return
     a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that 'fd' is
     an *note eventfd(): 655.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: os.eventfd_write (fd, value)

     Add value to an *note eventfd(): 655. file descriptor.  'value'
     must be a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that
     'fd' is an *note eventfd(): 655.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: os.EFD_CLOEXEC

     Set close-on-exec flag for new *note eventfd(): 655. file
     descriptor.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: os.EFD_NONBLOCK

     Set *note O_NONBLOCK: ccb. status flag for new *note eventfd():
     655. file descriptor.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: os.EFD_SEMAPHORE

     Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an *note eventfd():
     655. file descriptor.  On read the internal counter is decremented
     by one.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.30

     Added in version 3.10.

* Menu:

* Linux extended attributes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/access(2)

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21082

   (4) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html

   (6) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx

   (7) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx

   (8) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363788

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/eventfd(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Linux extended attributes,  Up: Files and Directories

5.16.1.9 Linux extended attributes
..................................

Added in version 3.3.

These functions are all available on Linux only.

 -- Işlevi: os.getxattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the value of the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute'
     for 'path'.  'attribute' can be bytes or str (directly or
     indirectly through the *note PathLike: acd. interface).  If it is
     str, it is encoded with the filesystem encoding.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.
     and *note not following symlinks: f8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.getxattr’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘attribute’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'path' and 'attribute'.

 -- Işlevi: os.listxattr (path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return a list of the extended filesystem attributes on 'path'.  The
     attributes in the list are represented as strings decoded with the
     filesystem encoding.  If 'path' is ‘None’, *note listxattr(): fa7.
     will examine the current directory.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.
     and *note not following symlinks: f8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.listxattr’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os.removexattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Removes the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' from 'path'.
     'attribute' should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through
     the *note PathLike: acd. interface).  If it is a string, it is
     encoded with the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.
     and *note not following symlinks: f8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.removexattr’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘attribute’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'path' and 'attribute'.

 -- Işlevi: os.setxattr (path, attribute, value, flags=0, *,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' on 'path' to
     'value'.  'attribute' must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs
     (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: acd.
     interface).  If it is a str, it is encoded with the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.  'flags' may be *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 298c. or *note XATTR_CREATE: 298d.  If *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 298c. is given and the attribute does not exist,
     ‘ENODATA’ will be raised.  If *note XATTR_CREATE: 298d. is given
     and the attribute already exists, the attribute will not be created
     and ‘EEXISTS’ will be raised.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: 9d0.
     and *note not following symlinks: f8d.

          Not: A bug in Linux kernel versions less than 2.6.39 caused
          the flags argument to be ignored on some filesystems.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.setxattr’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e. for
     'path' and 'attribute'.

 -- Verisi: os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX

     The maximum size the value of an extended attribute can be.
     Currently, this is 64 KiB on Linux.

 -- Verisi: os.XATTR_CREATE

     This is a possible value for the flags argument in *note
     setxattr(): fa9.  It indicates the operation must create an
     attribute.

 -- Verisi: os.XATTR_REPLACE

     This is a possible value for the flags argument in *note
     setxattr(): fa9.  It indicates the operation must replace an
     existing attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Process Management,  Next: Interface to the scheduler,  Prev: Files and Directories,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.10 Process Management
............................

These functions may be used to create and manage processes.

The various *note exec*: 2991. functions take a list of arguments for
the new program loaded into the process.  In each case, the first of
these arguments is passed to the new program as its own name rather than
as an argument a user may have typed on a command line.  For the C
programmer, this is the ‘argv[0]’ passed to a program’s ‘main()’.  For
example, ‘os.execv('/bin/echo', ['foo', 'bar'])’ will only print ‘bar’
on standard output; ‘foo’ will seem to be ignored.

 -- Işlevi: os.abort ()

     Generate a ‘SIGABRT’ signal to the current process.  On Unix, the
     default behavior is to produce a core dump; on Windows, the process
     immediately returns an exit code of ‘3’.  Be aware that calling
     this function will not call the Python signal handler registered
     for ‘SIGABRT’ with *note signal.signal(): fd8.

 -- Işlevi: os.add_dll_directory (path)

     Add a path to the DLL search path.

     This search path is used when resolving dependencies for imported
     extension modules (the module itself is resolved through *note
     sys.path: 368.), and also by *note ctypes: 2a.

     Remove the directory by calling 'close()' on the returned object or
     using it in a *note with: 3dd. statement.

     See the Microsoft documentation(1) for more information about how
     DLLs are loaded.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.add_dll_directory’ with
     argument ‘path’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.8: Previous versions of CPython would resolve
     DLLs using the default behavior for the current process.  This led
     to inconsistencies, such as only sometimes searching ‘PATH’ or the
     current working directory, and OS functions such as
     ‘AddDllDirectory’ having no effect.

     In 3.8, the two primary ways DLLs are loaded now explicitly
     override the process-wide behavior to ensure consistency.  See the
     *note porting notes: 909. for information on updating libraries.

 -- Işlevi: os.execl (path, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- Işlevi: os.execle (path, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- Işlevi: os.execlp (file, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- Işlevi: os.execlpe (file, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- Işlevi: os.execv (path, args)
 -- Işlevi: os.execve (path, args, env)
 -- Işlevi: os.execvp (file, args)
 -- Işlevi: os.execvpe (file, args, env)

     These functions all execute a new program, replacing the current
     process; they do not return.  On Unix, the new executable is loaded
     into the current process, and will have the same process id as the
     caller.  Errors will be reported as *note OSError: 65c. exceptions.

     The current process is replaced immediately.  Open file objects and
     descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered on
     these open files, you should flush them using ‘sys.stdout.flush()’
     or *note os.fsync(): c1b. before calling an *note exec*: 2991.
     function.

     The “l” and “v” variants of the *note exec*: 2991. functions differ
     in how command-line arguments are passed.  The “l” variants are
     perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘execl*()’ functions.  The “v”
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process
     should start with the name of the command being run, but this is
     not enforced.

     The variants which include a “p” near the end (*note execlp():
     2994, *note execlpe(): 2995, *note execvp(): 2996, and *note
     execvpe(): 2997.) will use the ‘PATH’ environment variable to
     locate the program 'file'.  When the environment is being replaced
     (using one of the *note exec*e: 2991. variants, discussed in the
     next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source of the
     ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, *note execl(): 2991, *note
     execle(): 2993, *note execv(): 28f2, and *note execve(): f9b, will
     not use the ‘PATH’ variable to locate the executable; 'path' must
     contain an appropriate absolute or relative path.  Relative paths
     must include at least one slash, even on Windows, as plain names
     will not be resolved.

     For *note execle(): 2993, *note execlpe(): 2995, *note execve():
     f9b, and *note execvpe(): 2997. (note that these all end in “e”),
     the 'env' parameter must be a mapping which is used to define the
     environment variables for the new process (these are used instead
     of the current process’ environment); the functions *note execl():
     2991, *note execlp(): 2994, *note execv(): 28f2, and *note
     execvp(): 2996. all cause the new process to inherit the
     environment of the current process.

     For *note execve(): f9b. on some platforms, 'path' may also be
     specified as an open file descriptor.  This functionality may not
     be supported on your platform; you can check whether or not it is
     available using *note os.supports_fd: f9f.  If it is unavailable,
     using it will raise a *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.exec’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor for *note execve(): f9b.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: os._exit (n)

     Exit the process with status 'n', without calling cleanup handlers,
     flushing stdio buffers, etc.

          Not: The standard way to exit is *note sys.exit(n): 11f5.
          ‘_exit()’ should normally only be used in the child process
          after a *note fork(): 23a.

The following exit codes are defined and can be used with *note _exit():
208a, although they are not required.  These are typically used for
system programs written in Python, such as a mail server’s external
command delivery program.

     Not: Some of these may not be available on all Unix platforms,
     since there is some variation.  These constants are defined where
     they are defined by the underlying platform.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_OK

     Exit code that means no error occurred.  May be taken from the
     defined value of ‘EXIT_SUCCESS’ on some platforms.  Generally has a
     value of zero.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_USAGE

     Exit code that means the command was used incorrectly, such as when
     the wrong number of arguments are given.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_DATAERR

     Exit code that means the input data was incorrect.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_NOINPUT

     Exit code that means an input file did not exist or was not
     readable.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_NOUSER

     Exit code that means a specified user did not exist.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_NOHOST

     Exit code that means a specified host did not exist.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_UNAVAILABLE

     Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_SOFTWARE

     Exit code that means an internal software error was detected.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_OSERR

     Exit code that means an operating system error was detected, such
     as the inability to fork or create a pipe.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_OSFILE

     Exit code that means some system file did not exist, could not be
     opened, or had some other kind of error.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_CANTCREAT

     Exit code that means a user specified output file could not be
     created.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_IOERR

     Exit code that means that an error occurred while doing I/O on some
     file.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_TEMPFAIL

     Exit code that means a temporary failure occurred.  This indicates
     something that may not really be an error, such as a network
     connection that couldn’t be made during a retryable operation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_PROTOCOL

     Exit code that means that a protocol exchange was illegal, invalid,
     or not understood.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_NOPERM

     Exit code that means that there were insufficient permissions to
     perform the operation (but not intended for file system problems).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_CONFIG

     Exit code that means that some kind of configuration error
     occurred.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.EX_NOTFOUND

     Exit code that means something like “an entry was not found”.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.fork ()

     Fork a child process.  Return ‘0’ in the child and the child’s
     process id in the parent.  If an error occurs *note OSError: 65c.
     is raised.

     Note that some platforms including FreeBSD <= 6.3 and Cygwin have
     known issues when using ‘fork()’ from a thread.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.fork’ with no arguments.

          Uyarı: If you use TLS sockets in an application calling
          ‘fork()’, see the warning in the *note ssl: cf. documentation.

          Uyarı: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 10b.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Calling ‘fork()’ in a subinterpreter is no
     longer supported (*note RuntimeError: 180. is raised).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: If Python is able to detect that your
     process has multiple threads, *note os.fork(): 23a. now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.

     We chose to surface this as a warning, when detectable, to better
     inform developers of a design problem that the POSIX platform
     specifically notes as not supported.  Even in code that 'appears'
     to work, it has never been safe to mix threading with *note
     os.fork(): 23a. on POSIX platforms.  The CPython runtime itself has
     always made API calls that are not safe for use in the child
     process when threads existed in the parent (such as ‘malloc’ and
     ‘free’).

     Users of macOS or users of libc or malloc implementations other
     than those typically found in glibc to date are among those already
     more likely to experience deadlocks running such code.

     See this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads(2) for
     technical details of why we’re surfacing this longstanding platform
     compatibility problem to developers.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.forkpty ()

     Fork a child process, using a new pseudo-terminal as the child’s
     controlling terminal.  Return a pair of ‘(pid, fd)’, where 'pid' is
     ‘0’ in the child, the new child’s process id in the parent, and
     'fd' is the file descriptor of the master end of the
     pseudo-terminal.  For a more portable approach, use the *note pty:
     b0. module.  If an error occurs *note OSError: 65c. is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.forkpty’ with no
     arguments.

          Uyarı: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 10b.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Calling ‘forkpty()’ in a subinterpreter is
     no longer supported (*note RuntimeError: 180. is raised).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: If Python is able to detect that your
     process has multiple threads, this now raises a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f.  See the longer explanation on *note
     os.fork(): 23a.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.kill (pid, sig, /)

     Send signal 'sig' to the process 'pid'.  Constants for the specific
     signals available on the host platform are defined in the *note
     signal: c5. module.

     Windows: The *note signal.CTRL_C_EVENT: 120f. and *note
     signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 1210. signals are special signals which
     can only be sent to console processes which share a common console
     window, e.g., some subprocesses.  Any other value for 'sig' will
     cause the process to be unconditionally killed by the
     TerminateProcess API, and the exit code will be set to 'sig'.

     See also *note signal.pthread_kill(): fd5.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.kill’ with arguments
     ‘pid’, ‘sig’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added Windows support.

 -- Işlevi: os.killpg (pgid, sig, /)

     Send the signal 'sig' to the process group 'pgid'.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.killpg’ with arguments
     ‘pgid’, ‘sig’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.nice (increment, /)

     Add 'increment' to the process’s “niceness”.  Return the new
     niceness.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.pidfd_open (pid, flags=0)

     Return a file descriptor referring to the process 'pid' with
     'flags' set.  This descriptor can be used to perform process
     management without races and signals.

     See the ‘pidfd_open(2)(3)’ man page for more details.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 5.3

     Added in version 3.9.

      -- Verisi: os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK

          This flag indicates that the file descriptor will be
          non-blocking.  If the process referred to by the file
          descriptor has not yet terminated, then an attempt to wait on
          the file descriptor using ‘waitid(2)(4)’ will immediately
          return the error *note EAGAIN: 2090. rather than blocking.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 5.10

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: os.plock (op, /)

     Lock program segments into memory.  The value of 'op' (defined in
     ‘<sys/lock.h>’) determines which segments are locked.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.popen (cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)

     Open a pipe to or from command 'cmd'.  The return value is an open
     file object connected to the pipe, which can be read or written
     depending on whether 'mode' is ‘'r'’ (default) or ‘'w'’.  The
     'buffering' argument have the same meaning as the corresponding
     argument to the built-in *note open(): 2a6. function.  The returned
     file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.

     The ‘close’ method returns *note None: 488. if the subprocess
     exited successfully, or the subprocess’s return code if there was
     an error.  On POSIX systems, if the return code is positive it
     represents the return value of the process left-shifted by one
     byte.  If the return code is negative, the process was terminated
     by the signal given by the negated value of the return code.  (For
     example, the return value might be ‘- signal.SIGKILL’ if the
     subprocess was killed.)  On Windows systems, the return value
     contains the signed integer return code from the child process.

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. can be used to
     convert the ‘close’ method result (exit status) into an exit code
     if it is not ‘None’.  On Windows, the ‘close’ method result is
     directly the exit code (or ‘None’).

     This is implemented using *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa.; see that
     class’s documentation for more powerful ways to manage and
     communicate with subprocesses.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

          Not: The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. affects encodings used
          for 'cmd' and pipe contents.

          *note popen(): 8ec. is a simple wrapper around *note
          subprocess.Popen: 8fa.  Use *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. or
          *note subprocess.run(): 9fc. to control options like
          encodings.

 -- Işlevi: os.posix_spawn (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawn()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Most users should use *note subprocess.run(): 9fc. instead of *note
     posix_spawn(): 8bc.

     The positional-only arguments 'path', 'args', and 'env' are similar
     to *note execve(): f9b.

     The 'path' parameter is the path to the executable file.  The
     'path' should contain a directory.  Use *note posix_spawnp(): 1869.
     to pass an executable file without directory.

     The 'file_actions' argument may be a sequence of tuples describing
     actions to take on specific file descriptors in the child process
     between the C library implementation’s ‘fork()’ and ‘exec()’ steps.
     The first item in each tuple must be one of the three type
     indicator listed below describing the remaining tuple elements:

      -- Verisi: os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN’, 'fd', 'path', 'flags', 'mode')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(os.open(path, flags, mode), fd)’.

      -- Verisi: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE’, 'fd')

          Performs ‘os.close(fd)’.

      -- Verisi: os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2’, 'fd', 'new_fd')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(fd, new_fd)’.

     These tuples correspond to the C library
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose()’, and
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2()’ API calls used to prepare for
     the ‘posix_spawn()’ call itself.

     The 'setpgroup' argument will set the process group of the child to
     the value specified.  If the value specified is 0, the child’s
     process group ID will be made the same as its process ID. If the
     value of 'setpgroup' is not set, the child will inherit the
     parent’s process group ID. This argument corresponds to the C
     library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETPGROUP’ flag.

     If the 'resetids' argument is ‘True’ it will reset the effective
     UID and GID of the child to the real UID and GID of the parent
     process.  If the argument is ‘False’, then the child retains the
     effective UID and GID of the parent.  In either case, if the
     set-user-ID and set-group-ID permission bits are enabled on the
     executable file, their effect will override the setting of the
     effective UID and GID. This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_RESETIDS’ flag.

     If the 'setsid' argument is ‘True’, it will create a new session ID
     for ‘posix_spawn’.  'setsid' requires ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID’ or
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID_NP’ flag.  Otherwise, *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6. is raised.

     The 'setsigmask' argument will set the signal mask to the signal
     set specified.  If the parameter is not used, then the child
     inherits the parent’s signal mask.  This argument corresponds to
     the C library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGMASK’ flag.

     The 'sigdef' argument will reset the disposition of all signals in
     the set specified.  This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGDEF’ flag.

     The 'scheduler' argument must be a tuple containing the (optional)
     scheduler policy and an instance of *note sched_param: 1429. with
     the scheduler parameters.  A value of ‘None’ in the place of the
     scheduler policy indicates that is not being provided.  This
     argument is a combination of the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDPARAM’ and ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDULER’ flags.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.posix_spawn’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.posix_spawnp (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawnp()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Similar to *note posix_spawn(): 8bc. except that the system
     searches for the 'executable' file in the list of directories
     specified by the ‘PATH’ environment variable (in the same way as
     for ‘execvp(3)’).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.posix_spawn’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     See *note posix_spawn(): 8bc. documentation.

 -- Işlevi: os.register_at_fork (*, before=None, after_in_parent=None,
          after_in_child=None)

     Register callables to be executed when a new child process is
     forked using *note os.fork(): 23a. or similar process cloning APIs.
     The parameters are optional and keyword-only.  Each specifies a
     different call point.

        * 'before' is a function called before forking a child process.

        * 'after_in_parent' is a function called from the parent process
          after forking a child process.

        * 'after_in_child' is a function called from the child process.

     These calls are only made if control is expected to return to the
     Python interpreter.  A typical *note subprocess: d5. launch will
     not trigger them as the child is not going to re-enter the
     interpreter.

     Functions registered for execution before forking are called in
     reverse registration order.  Functions registered for execution
     after forking (either in the parent or in the child) are called in
     registration order.

     Note that ‘fork()’ calls made by third-party C code may not call
     those functions, unless it explicitly calls *note
     PyOS_BeforeFork(): a36, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a37. and
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376.

     There is no way to unregister a function.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: os.spawnl (mode, path, ...)
 -- Işlevi: os.spawnle (mode, path, ..., env)
 -- Işlevi: os.spawnlp (mode, file, ...)
 -- Işlevi: os.spawnlpe (mode, file, ..., env)
 -- Işlevi: os.spawnv (mode, path, args)
 -- Işlevi: os.spawnve (mode, path, args, env)
 -- Işlevi: os.spawnvp (mode, file, args)
 -- Işlevi: os.spawnvpe (mode, file, args, env)

     Execute the program 'path' in a new process.

     (Note that the *note subprocess: d5. module provides more powerful
     facilities for spawning new processes and retrieving their results;
     using that module is preferable to using these functions.  Check
     especially the *note Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess
     Module: 1030. section.)

     If 'mode' is *note P_NOWAIT: 29b4, this function returns the
     process id of the new process; if 'mode' is *note P_WAIT: 29b5,
     returns the process’s exit code if it exits normally, or ‘-signal’,
     where 'signal' is the signal that killed the process.  On Windows,
     the process id will actually be the process handle, so can be used
     with the *note waitpid(): c27. function.

     Note on VxWorks, this function doesn’t return ‘-signal’ when the
     new process is killed.  Instead it raises OSError exception.

     The “l” and “v” variants of the *note spawn*: 154c. functions
     differ in how command-line arguments are passed.  The “l” variants
     are perhaps the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is
     fixed when the code is written; the individual parameters simply
     become additional parameters to the ‘spawnl*()’ functions.  The “v”
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process must
     start with the name of the command being run.

     The variants which include a second “p” near the end (*note
     spawnlp(): 29ae, *note spawnlpe(): 29af, *note spawnvp(): 29b2, and
     *note spawnvpe(): 29b3.) will use the ‘PATH’ environment variable
     to locate the program 'file'.  When the environment is being
     replaced (using one of the *note spawn*e: 154c. variants, discussed
     in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as the source
     of the ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, *note spawnl(): 154c,
     *note spawnle(): 29ad, *note spawnv(): 29b0, and *note spawnve():
     29b1, will not use the ‘PATH’ variable to locate the executable;
     'path' must contain an appropriate absolute or relative path.

     For *note spawnle(): 29ad, *note spawnlpe(): 29af, *note spawnve():
     29b1, and *note spawnvpe(): 29b3. (note that these all end in “e”),
     the 'env' parameter must be a mapping which is used to define the
     environment variables for the new process (they are used instead of
     the current process’ environment); the functions *note spawnl():
     154c, *note spawnlp(): 29ae, *note spawnv(): 29b0, and *note
     spawnvp(): 29b2. all cause the new process to inherit the
     environment of the current process.  Note that keys and values in
     the 'env' dictionary must be strings; invalid keys or values will
     cause the function to fail, with a return value of ‘127’.

     As an example, the following calls to *note spawnlp(): 29ae. and
     *note spawnvpe(): 29b3. are equivalent:

          import os
          os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')

          L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
          os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.spawn’ with arguments
     ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     *note spawnlp(): 29ae, *note spawnlpe(): 29af, *note spawnvp():
     29b2. and *note spawnvpe(): 29b3. are not available on Windows.
     *note spawnle(): 29ad. and *note spawnve(): 29b1. are not
     thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the *note subprocess:
     d5. module instead.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Verisi: os.P_NOWAIT
 -- Verisi: os.P_NOWAITO

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 154c.
     family of functions.  If either of these values is given, the *note
     spawn*: 154c. functions will return as soon as the new process has
     been created, with the process id as the return value.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Verisi: os.P_WAIT

     Possible value for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 154c.
     family of functions.  If this is given as 'mode', the *note spawn*:
     154c. functions will not return until the new process has run to
     completion and will return the exit code of the process the run is
     successful, or ‘-signal’ if a signal kills the process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Verisi: os.P_DETACH
 -- Verisi: os.P_OVERLAY

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 154c.
     family of functions.  These are less portable than those listed
     above.  *note P_DETACH: 29b7. is similar to *note P_NOWAIT: 29b4,
     but the new process is detached from the console of the calling
     process.  If *note P_OVERLAY: 29b8. is used, the current process
     will be replaced; the *note spawn*: 154c. function will not return.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.startfile (path[, operation][, arguments][, cwd][,
          show_cmd])

     Start a file with its associated application.

     When 'operation' is not specified, this acts like double-clicking
     the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an
     argument to the ‘start’ command from the interactive command shell:
     the file is opened with whatever application (if any) its extension
     is associated.

     When another 'operation' is given, it must be a “command verb” that
     specifies what should be done with the file.  Common verbs
     documented by Microsoft are ‘'open'’, ‘'print'’ and ‘'edit'’ (to be
     used on files) as well as ‘'explore'’ and ‘'find'’ (to be used on
     directories).

     When launching an application, specify 'arguments' to be passed as
     a single string.  This argument may have no effect when using this
     function to launch a document.

     The default working directory is inherited, but may be overridden
     by the 'cwd' argument.  This should be an absolute path.  A
     relative 'path' will be resolved against this argument.

     Use 'show_cmd' to override the default window style.  Whether this
     has any effect will depend on the application being launched.
     Values are integers as supported by the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function.

     *note startfile(): 16f6. returns as soon as the associated
     application is launched.  There is no option to wait for the
     application to close, and no way to retrieve the application’s exit
     status.  The 'path' parameter is relative to the current directory
     or 'cwd'.  If you want to use an absolute path, make sure the first
     character is not a slash (‘'/'’) Use *note pathlib: a3. or the
     *note os.path.normpath(): 11c5. function to ensure that paths are
     properly encoded for Win32.

     To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function is not resolved until this function is first called.  If
     the function cannot be resolved, *note NotImplementedError: bd6.
     will be raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.startfile’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘operation’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.startfile/2’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'arguments', 'cwd' and 'show_cmd'
     arguments, and the ‘os.startfile/2’ audit event.

 -- Işlevi: os.system (command)

     Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented
     by calling the Standard C function ‘system()’, and has the same
     limitations.  Changes to *note sys.stdin: 2c9, etc.  are not
     reflected in the environment of the executed command.  If 'command'
     generates any output, it will be sent to the interpreter standard
     output stream.  The C standard does not specify the meaning of the
     return value of the C function, so the return value of the Python
     function is system-dependent.

     On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded
     in the format specified for *note wait(): c25.

     On Windows, the return value is that returned by the system shell
     after running 'command'.  The shell is given by the Windows
     environment variable ‘COMSPEC’: it is usually ‘cmd.exe’, which
     returns the exit status of the command run; on systems using a
     non-native shell, consult your shell documentation.

     The *note subprocess: d5. module provides more powerful facilities
     for spawning new processes and retrieving their results; using that
     module is preferable to using this function.  See the *note
     Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module: 1030. section
     in the *note subprocess: d5. documentation for some helpful
     recipes.

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. can be used to
     convert the result (exit status) into an exit code.  On Windows,
     the result is directly the exit code.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘os.system’ with argument
     ‘command’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.times ()

     Returns the current global process times.  The return value is an
     object with five attributes:

        * ‘user’ - user time

        * ‘system’ - system time

        * ‘children_user’ - user time of all child processes

        * ‘children_system’ - system time of all child processes

        * ‘elapsed’ - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past

     For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a
     five-tuple containing ‘user’, ‘system’, ‘children_user’,
     ‘children_system’, and ‘elapsed’ in that order.

     See the Unix manual page ‘times(2)(5)’ and times(3)(6) manual page
     on Unix or the GetProcessTimes MSDN(7) on Windows.  On Windows,
     only ‘user’ and ‘system’ are known; the other attributes are zero.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Return type changed from a tuple to a
     tuple-like object with named attributes.

 -- Işlevi: os.wait ()

     Wait for completion of a child process, and return a tuple
     containing its pid and exit status indication: a 16-bit number,
     whose low byte is the signal number that killed the process, and
     whose high byte is the exit status (if the signal number is zero);
     the high bit of the low byte is set if a core file was produced.

     If there are no children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: f02. is raised.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The other ‘wait*()’ functions documented below can be used to wait
     for the completion of a specific child process and have more
     options.  *note waitpid(): c27. is the only one also available on
     Windows.

 -- Işlevi: os.waitid (idtype, id, options, /)

     Wait for the completion of a child process.

     'idtype' can be *note P_PID: 29b9, *note P_PGID: 29ba, *note P_ALL:
     29bb, or (on Linux) *note P_PIDFD: 772.  The interpretation of 'id'
     depends on it; see their individual descriptions.

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  At least one of *note
     WEXITED: 29bc, *note WSTOPPED: 29bd. or *note WCONTINUED: 29be. is
     required; *note WNOHANG: 29bf. and *note WNOWAIT: 29c0. are
     additional optional flags.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure with the following attributes:

        * ‘si_pid’ (process ID)

        * ‘si_uid’ (real user ID of the child)

        * ‘si_signo’ (always *note SIGCHLD: 29c1.)

        * ‘si_status’ (the exit status or signal number, depending on
          ‘si_code’)

        * ‘si_code’ (see *note CLD_EXITED: 29c2. for possible values)

     If *note WNOHANG: 29bf. is specified and there are no matching
     children in the requested state, ‘None’ is returned.  Otherwise, if
     there are no matching children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: f02. is raised.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          Not: This function is not available on macOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: os.waitpid (pid, options, /)

     The details of this function differ on Unix and Windows.

     On Unix: Wait for completion of a child process given by process id
     'pid', and return a tuple containing its process id and exit status
     indication (encoded as for *note wait(): c25.).  The semantics of
     the call are affected by the value of the integer 'options', which
     should be ‘0’ for normal operation.

     If 'pid' is greater than ‘0’, *note waitpid(): c27. requests status
     information for that specific process.  If 'pid' is ‘0’, the
     request is for the status of any child in the process group of the
     current process.  If 'pid' is ‘-1’, the request pertains to any
     child of the current process.  If 'pid' is less than ‘-1’, status
     is requested for any process in the process group ‘-pid’ (the
     absolute value of 'pid').

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  If it contains *note
     WNOHANG: 29bf. and there are no matching children in the requested
     state, ‘(0, 0)’ is returned.  Otherwise, if there are no matching
     children that could be waited for, *note ChildProcessError: f02. is
     raised.  Other options that can be used are *note WUNTRACED: 29c3.
     and *note WCONTINUED: 29be.

     On Windows: Wait for completion of a process given by process
     handle 'pid', and return a tuple containing 'pid', and its exit
     status shifted left by 8 bits (shifting makes cross-platform use of
     the function easier).  A 'pid' less than or equal to ‘0’ has no
     special meaning on Windows, and raises an exception.  The value of
     integer 'options' has no effect.  'pid' can refer to any process
     whose id is known, not necessarily a child process.  The *note
     spawn*: 154c. functions called with *note P_NOWAIT: 29b4. return
     suitable process handles.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: c14. exception (see PEP 475(8) for the
     rationale).

 -- Işlevi: os.wait3 (options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): c27, except no process id argument is
     given and a 3-element tuple containing the child’s process id, exit
     status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
     Refer to *note resource.getrusage(): 12bb. for details on resource
     usage information.  The 'options' argument is the same as that
     provided to *note waitpid(): c27. and *note wait4(): c24.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.wait4 (pid, options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): c27, except a 3-element tuple,
     containing the child’s process id, exit status indication, and
     resource usage information is returned.  Refer to *note
     resource.getrusage(): 12bb. for details on resource usage
     information.  The arguments to *note wait4(): c24. are the same as
     those provided to *note waitpid(): c27.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.P_PID
 -- Verisi: os.P_PGID
 -- Verisi: os.P_ALL
 -- Verisi: os.P_PIDFD

     These are the possible values for 'idtype' in *note waitid(): c26.
     They affect how 'id' is interpreted:

        * ‘P_PID’ - wait for the child whose PID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_PGID’ - wait for any child whose progress group ID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_ALL’ - wait for any child; 'id' is ignored.

        * ‘P_PIDFD’ - wait for the child identified by the file
          descriptor 'id' (a process file descriptor created with *note
          pidfd_open(): 19b.).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

          Not: ‘P_PIDFD’ is only available on Linux >= 5.4.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Added in version 3.9: The ‘P_PIDFD’ constant.

 -- Verisi: os.WCONTINUED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): c27, *note wait3(): c23,
     *note wait4(): c24, and *note waitid(): c26. causes child processes
     to be reported if they have been continued from a job control stop
     since they were last reported.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.WEXITED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): c26. causes child processes
     that have terminated to be reported.

     The other ‘wait*’ functions always report children that have
     terminated, so this option is not available for them.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.WSTOPPED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): c26. causes child processes
     that have been stopped by the delivery of a signal to be reported.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: os.WUNTRACED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): c27, *note wait3(): c23,
     and *note wait4(): c24. causes child processes to also be reported
     if they have been stopped but their current state has not been
     reported since they were stopped.

     This option is not available for *note waitid(): c26.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.WNOHANG

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitpid(): c27, *note wait3():
     c23, *note wait4(): c24, and *note waitid(): c26. to return right
     away if no child process status is available immediately.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.WNOWAIT

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitid(): c26. to leave the child
     in a waitable state, so that a later ‘wait*()’ call can be used to
     retrieve the child status information again.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Verisi: os.CLD_EXITED
 -- Verisi: os.CLD_KILLED
 -- Verisi: os.CLD_DUMPED
 -- Verisi: os.CLD_TRAPPED
 -- Verisi: os.CLD_STOPPED
 -- Verisi: os.CLD_CONTINUED

     These are the possible values for ‘si_code’ in the result returned
     by *note waitid(): c26.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added *note CLD_KILLED: 770. and *note
     CLD_STOPPED: 771. values.

 -- Işlevi: os.waitstatus_to_exitcode (status)

     Convert a wait status to an exit code.

     On Unix:

        * If the process exited normally (if ‘WIFEXITED(status)’ is
          true), return the process exit status (return
          ‘WEXITSTATUS(status)’): result greater than or equal to 0.

        * If the process was terminated by a signal (if
          ‘WIFSIGNALED(status)’ is true), return ‘-signum’ where
          'signum' is the number of the signal that caused the process
          to terminate (return ‘-WTERMSIG(status)’): result less than 0.

        * Otherwise, raise a *note ValueError: 189.

     On Windows, return 'status' shifted right by 8 bits.

     On Unix, if the process is being traced or if *note waitpid(): c27.
     was called with *note WUNTRACED: 29c3. option, the caller must
     first check if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.  This function must
     not be called if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note WIFEXITED(): 29c7, *note WEXITSTATUS(): 29c8, *note
     WIFSIGNALED(): 29c9, *note WTERMSIG(): 29ca, *note WIFSTOPPED():
     29cb, *note WSTOPSIG(): 29cc. functions.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.9.

The following functions take a process status code as returned by *note
system(): 12e5, *note wait(): c25, or *note waitpid(): c27. as a
parameter.  They may be used to determine the disposition of a process.

 -- Işlevi: os.WCOREDUMP (status, /)

     Return ‘True’ if a core dump was generated for the process,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 29c9.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.WIFCONTINUED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if a stopped child has been resumed by delivery of
     *note SIGCONT: 29cf. (if the process has been continued from a job
     control stop), otherwise return ‘False’.

     See *note WCONTINUED: 29be. option.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.WIFSTOPPED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was stopped by delivery of a signal,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note WIFSTOPPED(): 29cb. only returns ‘True’ if the *note
     waitpid(): c27. call was done using *note WUNTRACED: 29c3. option
     or when the process is being traced (see ‘ptrace(2)(9)’).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.WIFSIGNALED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was terminated by a signal, otherwise
     return ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.WIFEXITED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process exited terminated normally, that is,
     by calling ‘exit()’ or ‘_exit()’, or by returning from ‘main()’;
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.WEXITSTATUS (status)

     Return the process exit status.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFEXITED(): 29c7.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.WSTOPSIG (status)

     Return the signal which caused the process to stop.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSTOPPED(): 29cb.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: os.WTERMSIG (status)

     Return the number of the signal that caused the process to
     terminate.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 29c9.
     is true.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/44228cf2-6306-466c-8f16-f513cd3ba8b5

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/t/33555

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_open(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/waitid(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/times(2)

   (6) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?time(3)

   (7) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/processthreadsapi/nf-processthreadsapi-getprocesstimes

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/ptrace(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Interface to the scheduler,  Next: Miscellaneous System Information,  Prev: Process Management,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.11 Interface to the scheduler
....................................

These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the
operating system.  They are only available on some Unix platforms.  For
more detailed information, consult your Unix manpages.

Added in version 3.3.

The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are supported by
the operating system.

 -- Verisi: os.SCHED_OTHER

     The default scheduling policy.

 -- Verisi: os.SCHED_BATCH

     Scheduling policy for CPU-intensive processes that tries to
     preserve interactivity on the rest of the computer.

 -- Verisi: os.SCHED_IDLE

     Scheduling policy for extremely low priority background tasks.

 -- Verisi: os.SCHED_SPORADIC

     Scheduling policy for sporadic server programs.

 -- Verisi: os.SCHED_FIFO

     A First In First Out scheduling policy.

 -- Verisi: os.SCHED_RR

     A round-robin scheduling policy.

 -- Verisi: os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK

     This flag can be OR’ed with any other scheduling policy.  When a
     process with this flag set forks, its child’s scheduling policy and
     priority are reset to the default.

 -- Sınıfı: os.sched_param (sched_priority)

     This class represents tunable scheduling parameters used in *note
     sched_setparam(): fb1, *note sched_setscheduler(): fb2, and *note
     sched_getparam(): fad.  It is immutable.

     At the moment, there is only one possible parameter:

      -- Özniteliği: sched_priority

          The scheduling priority for a scheduling policy.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_get_priority_min (policy)

     Get the minimum priority value for 'policy'.  'policy' is one of
     the scheduling policy constants above.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_get_priority_max (policy)

     Get the maximum priority value for 'policy'.  'policy' is one of
     the scheduling policy constants above.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_setscheduler (pid, policy, param, /)

     Set the scheduling policy for the process with PID 'pid'.  A 'pid'
     of 0 means the calling process.  'policy' is one of the scheduling
     policy constants above.  'param' is a *note sched_param: 1429.
     instance.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_getscheduler (pid, /)

     Return the scheduling policy for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  The result is one of the
     scheduling policy constants above.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_setparam (pid, param, /)

     Set the scheduling parameters for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  'param' is a *note
     sched_param: 1429. instance.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_getparam (pid, /)

     Return the scheduling parameters as a *note sched_param: 1429.
     instance for the process with PID 'pid'.  A 'pid' of 0 means the
     calling process.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_rr_get_interval (pid, /)

     Return the round-robin quantum in seconds for the process with PID
     'pid'.  A 'pid' of 0 means the calling process.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_yield ()

     Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. See ‘sched_yield(2)(1)’ for
     details.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_setaffinity (pid, mask, /)

     Restrict the process with PID 'pid' (or the current process if
     zero) to a set of CPUs.  'mask' is an iterable of integers
     representing the set of CPUs to which the process should be
     restricted.

 -- Işlevi: os.sched_getaffinity (pid, /)

     Return the set of CPUs the process with PID 'pid' is restricted to.

     If 'pid' is zero, return the set of CPUs the calling thread of the
     current process is restricted to.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sched_yield(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous System Information,  Next: Random numbers<2>,  Prev: Interface to the scheduler,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.12 Miscellaneous System Information
..........................................

 -- Işlevi: os.confstr (name, /)

     Return string-valued system configuration values.  'name' specifies
     the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is
     the name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a
     number of standards (POSIX, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some
     platforms define additional names as well.  The names known to the
     host operating system are given as the keys of the ‘confstr_names’
     dictionary.  For configuration variables not included in that
     mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also accepted.

     If the configuration value specified by 'name' isn’t defined,
     ‘None’ is returned.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘confstr_names’, an *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 1828. for the
     error number.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: os.confstr_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note confstr(): 29dc. to the
     integer values defined for those names by the host operating
     system.  This can be used to determine the set of names known to
     the system.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: os.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of logical CPUs in the system.  Returns ‘None’ if
     undetermined.

     This number is not equivalent to the number of logical CPUs the
     current process can use.  ‘len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))’ gets the
     number of logical CPUs the calling thread of the current process is
     restricted to

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: os.getloadavg ()

     Return the number of processes in the system run queue averaged
     over the last 1, 5, and 15 minutes or raises *note OSError: 65c. if
     the load average was unobtainable.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: os.sysconf (name, /)

     Return integer-valued system configuration values.  If the
     configuration value specified by 'name' isn’t defined, ‘-1’ is
     returned.  The comments regarding the 'name' parameter for *note
     confstr(): 29dc. apply here as well; the dictionary that provides
     information on the known names is given by ‘sysconf_names’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: os.sysconf_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note sysconf(): 293d. to the
     integer values defined for those names by the host operating
     system.  This can be used to determine the set of names known to
     the system.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Add ‘'SC_MINSIGSTKSZ'’ name.

The following data values are used to support path manipulation
operations.  These are defined for all platforms.

Higher-level operations on pathnames are defined in the *note os.path:
a1. module.

 -- Verisi: os.curdir

     The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the
     current directory.  This is ‘'.'’ for Windows and POSIX. Also
     available via *note os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.pardir

     The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the
     parent directory.  This is ‘'..'’ for Windows and POSIX. Also
     available via *note os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.sep

     The character used by the operating system to separate pathname
     components.  This is ‘'/'’ for POSIX and ‘'\\'’ for Windows.  Note
     that knowing this is not sufficient to be able to parse or
     concatenate pathnames — use *note os.path.split(): 25b1. and *note
     os.path.join(): 1547. — but it is occasionally useful.  Also
     available via *note os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.altsep

     An alternative character used by the operating system to separate
     pathname components, or ‘None’ if only one separator character
     exists.  This is set to ‘'/'’ on Windows systems where ‘sep’ is a
     backslash.  Also available via *note os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.extsep

     The character which separates the base filename from the extension;
     for example, the ‘'.'’ in ‘os.py’.  Also available via *note
     os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.pathsep

     The character conventionally used by the operating system to
     separate search path components (as in ‘PATH’), such as ‘':'’ for
     POSIX or ‘';'’ for Windows.  Also available via *note os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.defpath

     The default search path used by *note exec*p*: 2991. and *note
     spawn*p*: 154c. if the environment doesn’t have a ‘'PATH'’ key.
     Also available via *note os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.linesep

     The string used to separate (or, rather, terminate) lines on the
     current platform.  This may be a single character, such as ‘'\n'’
     for POSIX, or multiple characters, for example, ‘'\r\n'’ for
     Windows.  Do not use 'os.linesep' as a line terminator when writing
     files opened in text mode (the default); use a single ‘'\n'’
     instead, on all platforms.

 -- Verisi: os.devnull

     The file path of the null device.  For example: ‘'/dev/null'’ for
     POSIX, ‘'nul'’ for Windows.  Also available via *note os.path: a1.

 -- Verisi: os.RTLD_LAZY
 -- Verisi: os.RTLD_NOW
 -- Verisi: os.RTLD_GLOBAL
 -- Verisi: os.RTLD_LOCAL
 -- Verisi: os.RTLD_NODELETE
 -- Verisi: os.RTLD_NOLOAD
 -- Verisi: os.RTLD_DEEPBIND

     Flags for use with the *note setdlopenflags(): fc1. and *note
     getdlopenflags(): 139d. functions.  See the Unix manual page
     ‘dlopen(3)(1)’ for what the different flags mean.

     Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Random numbers<2>,  Prev: Miscellaneous System Information,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.16.1.13 Random numbers
........................

 -- Işlevi: os.getrandom (size, flags=0)

     Get up to 'size' random bytes.  The function can return less bytes
     than requested.

     These bytes can be used to seed user-space random number generators
     or for cryptographic purposes.

     ‘getrandom()’ relies on entropy gathered from device drivers and
     other sources of environmental noise.  Unnecessarily reading large
     quantities of data will have a negative impact on other users of
     the ‘/dev/random’ and ‘/dev/urandom’ devices.

     The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of
     the following values ORed together: *note os.GRND_RANDOM: 29e1. and
     *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 29e2.

     See also the Linux getrandom() manual page(1).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.17.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Işlevi: os.urandom (size, /)

     Return a bytestring of 'size' random bytes suitable for
     cryptographic use.

     This function returns random bytes from an OS-specific randomness
     source.  The returned data should be unpredictable enough for
     cryptographic applications, though its exact quality depends on the
     OS implementation.

     On Linux, if the ‘getrandom()’ syscall is available, it is used in
     blocking mode: block until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized (128 bits of entropy are collected by the kernel).  See
     the PEP 524(2) for the rationale.  On Linux, the *note getrandom():
     b40. function can be used to get random bytes in non-blocking mode
     (using the *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 29e2. flag) or to poll until the
     system urandom entropy pool is initialized.

     On a Unix-like system, random bytes are read from the
     ‘/dev/urandom’ device.  If the ‘/dev/urandom’ device is not
     available or not readable, the *note NotImplementedError: bd6.
     exception is raised.

     On Windows, it will use ‘BCryptGenRandom()’.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note secrets: bf. module provides higher level functions.  For
     an easy-to-use interface to the random number generator provided by
     your platform, please see *note random.SystemRandom: 24c8.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: On Linux 3.17 and newer, the ‘getrandom()’
     syscall is now used when available.  On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, the
     C ‘getentropy()’ function is now used.  These functions avoid the
     usage of an internal file descriptor.

     3.5.2 sürümünde değişti: On Linux, if the ‘getrandom()’ syscall
     blocks (the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet), fall back
     on reading ‘/dev/urandom’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: On Linux, ‘getrandom()’ is now used in
     blocking mode to increase the security.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, ‘BCryptGenRandom()’ is used
     instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.

 -- Verisi: os.GRND_NONBLOCK

     By default, when reading from ‘/dev/random’, *note getrandom():
     b40. blocks if no random bytes are available, and when reading from
     ‘/dev/urandom’, it blocks if the entropy pool has not yet been
     initialized.

     If the *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 29e2. flag is set, then *note
     getrandom(): b40. does not block in these cases, but instead
     immediately raises *note BlockingIOError: f01.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: os.GRND_RANDOM

     If this bit is set, then random bytes are drawn from the
     ‘/dev/random’ pool instead of the ‘/dev/urandom’ pool.

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: io — Core tools for working with streams,  Next: time — Time access and conversions,  Prev: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.2 ‘io’ — Core tools for working with streams
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/io.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Overview: Overview<2>.
* Text Encoding::
* High-level Module Interface::
* Class hierarchy::
* Performance: Performance<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/io.py


File: python.info,  Node: Overview<2>,  Next: Text Encoding,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.1 Overview
.................

The *note io: 7d. module provides Python’s main facilities for dealing
with various types of I/O. There are three main types of I/O: 'text
I/O', 'binary I/O' and 'raw I/O'. These are generic categories, and
various backing stores can be used for each of them.  A concrete object
belonging to any of these categories is called a *note file object:
1068.  Other common terms are 'stream' and 'file-like object'.

Independent of its category, each concrete stream object will also have
various capabilities: it can be read-only, write-only, or read-write.
It can also allow arbitrary random access (seeking forwards or backwards
to any location), or only sequential access (for example in the case of
a socket or pipe).

All streams are careful about the type of data you give to them.  For
example giving a *note str: 15d. object to the ‘write()’ method of a
binary stream will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.  So will giving a *note
bytes: 2cb. object to the ‘write()’ method of a text stream.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Operations that used to raise *note IOError: efc.
now raise *note OSError: 65c, since *note IOError: efc. is now an alias
of *note OSError: 65c.

* Menu:

* Text I/O::
* Binary I/O::
* Raw I/O::


File: python.info,  Node: Text I/O,  Next: Binary I/O,  Up: Overview<2>

5.16.2.2 Text I/O
.................

Text I/O expects and produces *note str: 15d. objects.  This means that
whenever the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the
case of a file), encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as
well as optional translation of platform-specific newline characters.

The easiest way to create a text stream is with *note open(): 2a6,
optionally specifying an encoding:

     f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")

In-memory text streams are also available as *note StringIO: dc4.
objects:

     f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")

The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation of *note
TextIOBase: 4aa.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary I/O,  Next: Raw I/O,  Prev: Text I/O,  Up: Overview<2>

5.16.2.3 Binary I/O
...................

Binary I/O (also called 'buffered I/O') expects *note bytes-like
objects: bb5. and produces *note bytes: 2cb. objects.  No encoding,
decoding, or newline translation is performed.  This category of streams
can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when manual control
over the handling of text data is desired.

The easiest way to create a binary stream is with *note open(): 2a6.
with ‘'b'’ in the mode string:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")

In-memory binary streams are also available as *note BytesIO: d38.
objects:

     f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")

The binary stream API is described in detail in the docs of *note
BufferedIOBase: 4a9.

Other library modules may provide additional ways to create text or
binary streams.  See *note socket.socket.makefile(): 1045. for example.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw I/O,  Prev: Binary I/O,  Up: Overview<2>

5.16.2.4 Raw I/O
................

Raw I/O (also called 'unbuffered I/O') is generally used as a low-level
building-block for binary and text streams; it is rarely useful to
directly manipulate a raw stream from user code.  Nevertheless, you can
create a raw stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering
disabled:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)

The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of *note
RawIOBase: f73.


File: python.info,  Node: Text Encoding,  Next: High-level Module Interface,  Prev: Overview<2>,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.5 Text Encoding
......................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. and *note open(): 2a6.
is locale-specific (*note locale.getencoding(): 25d.).

However, many developers forget to specify the encoding when opening
text files encoded in UTF-8 (e.g.  JSON, TOML, Markdown, etc…) since
most Unix platforms use UTF-8 locale by default.  This causes bugs
because the locale encoding is not UTF-8 for most Windows users.  For
example:

     # May not work on Windows when non-ASCII characters in the file.
     with open("README.md") as f:
         long_description = f.read()

Accordingly, it is highly recommended that you specify the encoding
explicitly when opening text files.  If you want to use UTF-8, pass
‘encoding="utf-8"’.  To use the current locale encoding,
‘encoding="locale"’ is supported since Python 3.10.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     Python UTF-8 Mode can be used to change the default encoding to
     UTF-8 from locale-specific encoding.

PEP 686(1)

     Python 3.15 will make *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. default.

* Menu:

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-in EncodingWarning,  Up: Text Encoding

5.16.2.6 Opt-in EncodingWarning
...............................

Added in version 3.10: See PEP 597(1) for more details.

To find where the default locale encoding is used, you can enable the
*note -X warn_default_encoding: 18e. command line option or set the
*note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 5f3. environment variable, which will
emit an *note EncodingWarning: 1b87. when the default encoding is used.

If you are providing an API that uses *note open(): 2a6. or *note
TextIOWrapper: 5f2. and passes ‘encoding=None’ as a parameter, you can
use *note text_encoding(): 14c4. so that callers of the API will emit an
*note EncodingWarning: 1b87. if they don’t pass an ‘encoding’.  However,
please consider using UTF-8 by default (i.e.  ‘encoding="utf-8"’) for
new APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: High-level Module Interface,  Next: Class hierarchy,  Prev: Text Encoding,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.7 High-level Module Interface
....................................

 -- Verisi: io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE

     An int containing the default buffer size used by the module’s
     buffered I/O classes.  *note open(): 2a6. uses the file’s blksize
     (as obtained by *note os.stat(): 1c5.) if possible.

 -- Işlevi: io.open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     This is an alias for the builtin *note open(): 2a6. function.

     This function raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘open’ with
     arguments 'path', 'mode' and 'flags'.  The 'mode' and 'flags'
     arguments may have been modified or inferred from the original
     call.

 -- Işlevi: io.open_code (path)

     Opens the provided file with mode ‘'rb'’.  This function should be
     used when the intent is to treat the contents as executable code.

     'path' should be a *note str: 15d. and an absolute path.

     The behavior of this function may be overridden by an earlier call
     to the *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1542.  However, assuming
     that 'path' is a *note str: 15d. and an absolute path,
     ‘open_code(path)’ should always behave the same as ‘open(path,
     'rb')’.  Overriding the behavior is intended for additional
     validation or preprocessing of the file.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: io.text_encoding (encoding, stacklevel=2, /)

     This is a helper function for callables that use *note open(): 2a6.
     or *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. and have an ‘encoding=None’ parameter.

     This function returns 'encoding' if it is not ‘None’.  Otherwise,
     it returns ‘"locale"’ or ‘"utf-8"’ depending on *note UTF-8 Mode:
     469.

     This function emits an *note EncodingWarning: 1b87. if *note
     sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 4a1. is true and 'encoding' is
     ‘None’.  'stacklevel' specifies where the warning is emitted.  For
     example:

          def read_text(path, encoding=None):
              encoding = io.text_encoding(encoding)  # stacklevel=2
              with open(path, encoding) as f:
                  return f.read()

     In this example, an *note EncodingWarning: 1b87. is emitted for the
     caller of ‘read_text()’.

     See *note Text Encoding: 5f4. for more information.

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note text_encoding(): 14c4. returns
     “utf-8” when UTF-8 mode is enabled and 'encoding' is ‘None’.

 -- Özel Durum: io.BlockingIOError

     This is a compatibility alias for the builtin *note
     BlockingIOError: f01. exception.

 -- Özel Durum: io.UnsupportedOperation

     An exception inheriting *note OSError: 65c. and *note ValueError:
     189. that is raised when an unsupported operation is called on a
     stream.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note sys: d8.

     contains the standard IO streams: *note sys.stdin: 2c9, *note
     sys.stdout: 943, and *note sys.stderr: 792.


File: python.info,  Node: Class hierarchy,  Next: Performance<3>,  Prev: High-level Module Interface,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.8 Class hierarchy
........................

The implementation of I/O streams is organized as a hierarchy of
classes.  First *note abstract base classes: 105b. (ABCs), which are
used to specify the various categories of streams, then concrete classes
providing the standard stream implementations.

     Not: The abstract base classes also provide default implementations
     of some methods in order to help implementation of concrete stream
     classes.  For example, *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. provides
     unoptimized implementations of ‘readinto()’ and ‘readline()’.

At the top of the I/O hierarchy is the abstract base class *note IOBase:
85b.  It defines the basic interface to a stream.  Note, however, that
there is no separation between reading and writing to streams;
implementations are allowed to raise *note UnsupportedOperation: 17c8.
if they do not support a given operation.

The *note RawIOBase: f73. ABC extends *note IOBase: 85b.  It deals with
the reading and writing of bytes to a stream.  *note FileIO: 11ba.
subclasses *note RawIOBase: f73. to provide an interface to files in the
machine’s file system.

The *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. ABC extends *note IOBase: 85b.  It deals
with buffering on a raw binary stream (*note RawIOBase: f73.).  Its
subclasses, *note BufferedWriter: 1f6b, *note BufferedReader: 10b3, and
*note BufferedRWPair: 29ee. buffer raw binary streams that are writable,
readable, and both readable and writable, respectively.  *note
BufferedRandom: 1f6c. provides a buffered interface to seekable streams.
Another *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. subclass, *note BytesIO: d38, is a
stream of in-memory bytes.

The *note TextIOBase: 4aa. ABC extends *note IOBase: 85b.  It deals with
streams whose bytes represent text, and handles encoding and decoding to
and from strings.  *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2, which extends *note
TextIOBase: 4aa, is a buffered text interface to a buffered raw stream
(*note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.).  Finally, *note StringIO: dc4. is an
in-memory stream for text.

Argument names are not part of the specification, and only the arguments
of *note open(): 2a6. are intended to be used as keyword arguments.

The following table summarizes the ABCs provided by the *note io: 7d.
module:

ABC                           Inherits               Stub Methods                 Mixin Methods and Properties
                                                                                  
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
*note IOBase: 85b.                                   ‘fileno’, ‘seek’, and        ‘close’, ‘closed’, ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘flush’,
                                                     ‘truncate’                   ‘isatty’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’, ‘readable’,
                                                                                  ‘readline’, ‘readlines’, ‘seekable’, ‘tell’,
                                                                                  ‘writable’, and ‘writelines’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note RawIOBase: f73.         *note IOBase: 85b.     ‘readinto’ and ‘write’       Inherited *note IOBase: 85b. methods, ‘read’, and
                                                                                  ‘readall’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.    *note IOBase: 85b.     ‘detach’, ‘read’, ‘read1’,   Inherited *note IOBase: 85b. methods, ‘readinto’,
                                                     and ‘write’                  and ‘readinto1’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note TextIOBase: 4aa.        *note IOBase: 85b.     ‘detach’, ‘read’,            Inherited *note IOBase: 85b. methods, ‘encoding’,
                                                     ‘readline’, and ‘write’      ‘errors’, and ‘newlines’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* I/O Base Classes::
* Raw File I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* Text I/O: Text I/O<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O Base Classes,  Next: Raw File I/O,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.9 I/O Base Classes
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: io.IOBase

     The abstract base class for all I/O classes.

     This class provides empty abstract implementations for many methods
     that derived classes can override selectively; the default
     implementations represent a file that cannot be read, written or
     seeked.

     Even though *note IOBase: 85b. does not declare ‘read()’ or
     ‘write()’ because their signatures will vary, implementations and
     clients should consider those methods part of the interface.  Also,
     implementations may raise a *note ValueError: 189. (or *note
     UnsupportedOperation: 17c8.) when operations they do not support
     are called.

     The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file
     is *note bytes: 2cb.  Other *note bytes-like objects: bb5. are
     accepted as method arguments too.  Text I/O classes work with *note
     str: 15d. data.

     Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is
     undefined.  Implementations may raise *note ValueError: 189. in
     this case.

     *note IOBase: 85b. (and its subclasses) supports the iterator
     protocol, meaning that an *note IOBase: 85b. object can be iterated
     over yielding the lines in a stream.  Lines are defined slightly
     differently depending on whether the stream is a binary stream
     (yielding bytes), or a text stream (yielding character strings).
     See *note readline(): 11d5. below.

     *note IOBase: 85b. is also a context manager and therefore supports
     the *note with: 3dd. statement.  In this example, 'file' is closed
     after the ‘with’ statement’s suite is finished—even if an exception
     occurs:

          with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
              file.write('Spam and eggs!')

     *note IOBase: 85b. provides these data attributes and methods:

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Flush and close this stream.  This method has no effect if the
          file is already closed.  Once the file is closed, any
          operation on the file (e.g.  reading or writing) will raise a
          *note ValueError: 189.

          As a convenience, it is allowed to call this method more than
          once; only the first call, however, will have an effect.

      -- Özniteliği: closed

          ‘True’ if the stream is closed.

      -- Yöntemi: fileno ()

          Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the
          stream if it exists.  An *note OSError: 65c. is raised if the
          IO object does not use a file descriptor.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Flush the write buffers of the stream if applicable.  This
          does nothing for read-only and non-blocking streams.

      -- Yöntemi: isatty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream is interactive (i.e., connected to
          a terminal/tty device).

      -- Yöntemi: readable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream can be read from.  If ‘False’,
          ‘read()’ will raise *note OSError: 65c.

      -- Yöntemi: readline (size=-1, /)

          Read and return one line from the stream.  If 'size' is
          specified, at most 'size' bytes will be read.

          The line terminator is always ‘b'\n'’ for binary files; for
          text files, the 'newline' argument to *note open(): 2a6. can
          be used to select the line terminator(s) recognized.

      -- Yöntemi: readlines (hint=-1, /)

          Read and return a list of lines from the stream.  'hint' can
          be specified to control the number of lines read: no more
          lines will be read if the total size (in bytes/characters) of
          all lines so far exceeds 'hint'.

          'hint' values of ‘0’ or less, as well as ‘None’, are treated
          as no hint.

          Note that it’s already possible to iterate on file objects
          using ‘for line in file: ...’ without calling
          ‘file.readlines()’.

      -- Yöntemi: seek (offset, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Change the stream position to the given byte 'offset',
          interpreted relative to the position indicated by 'whence',
          and return the new absolute position.  Values for 'whence'
          are:

             * *note os.SEEK_SET: 1136. or ‘0’ – start of the stream
               (the default); 'offset' should be zero or positive

             * *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1137. or ‘1’ – current stream
               position; 'offset' may be negative

             * *note os.SEEK_END: 1138. or ‘2’ – end of the stream;
               'offset' is usually negative

          Added in version 3.1: The ‘SEEK_*’ constants.

          Added in version 3.3: Some operating systems could support
          additional values, like *note os.SEEK_HOLE: 291b. or *note
          os.SEEK_DATA: 291c.  The valid values for a file could depend
          on it being open in text or binary mode.

      -- Yöntemi: seekable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream supports random access.  If
          ‘False’, *note seek(): 1135, *note tell(): 2784. and *note
          truncate(): 11bb. will raise *note OSError: 65c.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Return the current stream position.

      -- Yöntemi: truncate (size=None, /)

          Resize the stream to the given 'size' in bytes (or the current
          position if 'size' is not specified).  The current stream
          position isn’t changed.  This resizing can extend or reduce
          the current file size.  In case of extension, the contents of
          the new file area depend on the platform (on most systems,
          additional bytes are zero-filled).  The new file size is
          returned.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Windows will now zero-fill files when
          extending.

      -- Yöntemi: writable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream supports writing.  If ‘False’,
          ‘write()’ and *note truncate(): 11bb. will raise *note
          OSError: 65c.

      -- Yöntemi: writelines (lines, /)

          Write a list of lines to the stream.  Line separators are not
          added, so it is usual for each of the lines provided to have a
          line separator at the end.

      -- Yöntemi: __del__ ()

          Prepare for object destruction.  *note IOBase: 85b. provides a
          default implementation of this method that calls the
          instance’s *note close(): 1865. method.

 -- Sınıfı: io.RawIOBase

     Base class for raw binary streams.  It inherits from *note IOBase:
     85b.

     Raw binary streams typically provide low-level access to an
     underlying OS device or API, and do not try to encapsulate it in
     high-level primitives (this functionality is done at a higher-level
     in buffered binary streams and text streams, described later in
     this page).

     *note RawIOBase: f73. provides these methods in addition to those
     from *note IOBase: 85b.:

      -- Yöntemi: read (size=-1, /)

          Read up to 'size' bytes from the object and return them.  As a
          convenience, if 'size' is unspecified or -1, all bytes until
          EOF are returned.  Otherwise, only one system call is ever
          made.  Fewer than 'size' bytes may be returned if the
          operating system call returns fewer than 'size' bytes.

          If 0 bytes are returned, and 'size' was not 0, this indicates
          end of file.  If the object is in non-blocking mode and no
          bytes are available, ‘None’ is returned.

          The default implementation defers to *note readall(): 29f5.
          and *note readinto(): cad.

      -- Yöntemi: readall ()

          Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using
          multiple calls to the stream if necessary.

      -- Yöntemi: readinto (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: bb5. 'b', and return the number of bytes read.  For
          example, 'b' might be a *note bytearray: 2ca.  If the object
          is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available, ‘None’ is
          returned.

      -- Yöntemi: write (b, /)

          Write the given *note bytes-like object: bb5, 'b', to the
          underlying raw stream, and return the number of bytes written.
          This can be less than the length of 'b' in bytes, depending on
          specifics of the underlying raw stream, and especially if it
          is in non-blocking mode.  ‘None’ is returned if the raw stream
          is set not to block and no single byte could be readily
          written to it.  The caller may release or mutate 'b' after
          this method returns, so the implementation should only access
          'b' during the method call.

 -- Sınıfı: io.BufferedIOBase

     Base class for binary streams that support some kind of buffering.
     It inherits from *note IOBase: 85b.

     The main difference with *note RawIOBase: f73. is that methods
     *note read(): 11d4, *note readinto(): 29f6. and *note write(): b5e.
     will try (respectively) to read as much input as requested or to
     consume all given output, at the expense of making perhaps more
     than one system call.

     In addition, those methods can raise *note BlockingIOError: f01. if
     the underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode and cannot take
     or give enough data; unlike their *note RawIOBase: f73.
     counterparts, they will never return ‘None’.

     Besides, the *note read(): 11d4. method does not have a default
     implementation that defers to *note readinto(): 29f6.

     A typical *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. implementation should not
     inherit from a *note RawIOBase: f73. implementation, but wrap one,
     like *note BufferedWriter: 1f6b. and *note BufferedReader: 10b3.
     do.

     *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. provides or overrides these data
     attributes and methods in addition to those from *note IOBase:
     85b.:

      -- Özniteliği: raw

          The underlying raw stream (a *note RawIOBase: f73. instance)
          that *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. deals with.  This is not part
          of the *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. API and may not exist on
          some implementations.

      -- Yöntemi: detach ()

          Separate the underlying raw stream from the buffer and return
          it.

          After the raw stream has been detached, the buffer is in an
          unusable state.

          Some buffers, like *note BytesIO: d38, do not have the concept
          of a single raw stream to return from this method.  They raise
          *note UnsupportedOperation: 17c8.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes.  If the argument is
          omitted, ‘None’, or negative, data is read and returned until
          EOF is reached.  An empty *note bytes: 2cb. object is returned
          if the stream is already at EOF.

          If the argument is positive, and the underlying raw stream is
          not interactive, multiple raw reads may be issued to satisfy
          the byte count (unless EOF is reached first).  But for
          interactive raw streams, at most one raw read will be issued,
          and a short result does not imply that EOF is imminent.

          A *note BlockingIOError: f01. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

      -- Yöntemi: read1 (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes, with at most one call to
          the underlying raw stream’s *note read(): cac. (or *note
          readinto(): cad.) method.  This can be useful if you are
          implementing your own buffering on top of a *note
          BufferedIOBase: 4a9. object.

          If 'size' is ‘-1’ (the default), an arbitrary number of bytes
          are returned (more than zero unless EOF is reached).

      -- Yöntemi: readinto (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: bb5. 'b' and return the number of bytes read.  For
          example, 'b' might be a *note bytearray: 2ca.

          Like *note read(): 11d4, multiple reads may be issued to the
          underlying raw stream, unless the latter is interactive.

          A *note BlockingIOError: f01. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

      -- Yöntemi: readinto1 (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: bb5. 'b', using at most one call to the underlying raw
          stream’s *note read(): cac. (or *note readinto(): cad.)
          method.  Return the number of bytes read.

          A *note BlockingIOError: f01. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: write (b, /)

          Write the given *note bytes-like object: bb5, 'b', and return
          the number of bytes written (always equal to the length of 'b'
          in bytes, since if the write fails an *note OSError: 65c. will
          be raised).  Depending on the actual implementation, these
          bytes may be readily written to the underlying stream, or held
          in a buffer for performance and latency reasons.

          When in non-blocking mode, a *note BlockingIOError: f01. is
          raised if the data needed to be written to the raw stream but
          it couldn’t accept all the data without blocking.

          The caller may release or mutate 'b' after this method
          returns, so the implementation should only access 'b' during
          the method call.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw File I/O,  Next: Buffered Streams,  Prev: I/O Base Classes,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.10 Raw File I/O
......................

 -- Sınıfı: io.FileIO (name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)

     A raw binary stream representing an OS-level file containing bytes
     data.  It inherits from *note RawIOBase: f73.

     The 'name' can be one of two things:

        * a character string or *note bytes: 2cb. object representing
          the path to the file which will be opened.  In this case
          closefd must be ‘True’ (the default) otherwise an error will
          be raised.

        * an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level
          file descriptor to which the resulting *note FileIO: 11ba.
          object will give access.  When the FileIO object is closed
          this fd will be closed as well, unless 'closefd' is set to
          ‘False’.

     The 'mode' can be ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’ for reading
     (default), writing, exclusive creation or appending.  The file will
     be created if it doesn’t exist when opened for writing or
     appending; it will be truncated when opened for writing.  *note
     FileExistsError: ec8. will be raised if it already exists when
     opened for creating.  Opening a file for creating implies writing,
     so this mode behaves in a similar way to ‘'w'’.  Add a ‘'+'’ to the
     mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.

     The *note read(): cac. (when called with a positive argument),
     *note readinto(): cad. and *note write(): 27c2. methods on this
     class will only make one system call.

     A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as 'opener'.  The
     underlying file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by
     calling 'opener' with ('name', 'flags').  'opener' must return an
     open file descriptor (passing *note os.open: c1f. as 'opener'
     results in functionality similar to passing ‘None’).

     The newly created file is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     See the *note open(): 2a6. built-in function for examples on using
     the 'opener' parameter.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'opener' parameter was added.  The ‘'x'’
     mode was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The file is now non-inheritable.

     *note FileIO: 11ba. provides these data attributes in addition to
     those from *note RawIOBase: f73. and *note IOBase: 85b.:

      -- Özniteliği: mode

          The mode as given in the constructor.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The file name.  This is the file descriptor of the file when
          no name is given in the constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffered Streams,  Next: Text I/O<2>,  Prev: Raw File I/O,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.11 Buffered Streams
..........................

Buffered I/O streams provide a higher-level interface to an I/O device
than raw I/O does.

 -- Sınıfı: io.BytesIO (initial_bytes=b'')

     A binary stream using an in-memory bytes buffer.  It inherits from
     *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.  The buffer is discarded when the *note
     close(): 1865. method is called.

     The optional argument 'initial_bytes' is a *note bytes-like object:
     bb5. that contains initial data.

     *note BytesIO: d38. provides or overrides these methods in addition
     to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. and *note IOBase: 85b.:

      -- Yöntemi: getbuffer ()

          Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the
          buffer without copying them.  Also, mutating the view will
          transparently update the contents of the buffer:

               >>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
               >>> view = b.getbuffer()
               >>> view[2:4] = b"56"
               >>> b.getvalue()
               b'ab56ef'

               Not: As long as the view exists, the *note BytesIO: d38.
               object cannot be resized or closed.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: getvalue ()

          Return *note bytes: 2cb. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.

      -- Yöntemi: read1 (size=-1, /)

          In *note BytesIO: d38, this is the same as *note read(): 11d4.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'size' argument is now optional.

      -- Yöntemi: readinto1 (b, /)

          In *note BytesIO: d38, this is the same as *note readinto():
          29f6.

          Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: io.BufferedReader (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     readable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: f73. raw binary stream.  It
     inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.

     When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be
     requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal
     buffer.  The buffered data can then be returned directly on
     subsequent reads.

     The constructor creates a *note BufferedReader: 10b3. for the given
     readable 'raw' stream and 'buffer_size'.  If 'buffer_size' is
     omitted, *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 14c5. is used.

     *note BufferedReader: 10b3. provides or overrides these methods in
     addition to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. and *note IOBase:
     85b.:

      -- Yöntemi: peek (size=0, /)

          Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position.
          At most one single read on the raw stream is done to satisfy
          the call.  The number of bytes returned may be less or more
          than requested.

      -- Yöntemi: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return 'size' bytes, or if 'size' is not given or
          negative, until EOF or if the read call would block in
          non-blocking mode.

      -- Yöntemi: read1 (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes with only one call on the
          raw stream.  If at least one byte is buffered, only buffered
          bytes are returned.  Otherwise, one raw stream read call is
          made.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'size' argument is now optional.

 -- Sınıfı: io.BufferedWriter (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     writeable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: f73. raw binary stream.
     It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.

     When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an
     internal buffer.  The buffer will be written out to the underlying
     *note RawIOBase: f73. object under various conditions, including:

        * when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;

        * when *note flush(): 2a00. is called;

        * when a *note seek(): 1135. is requested (for *note
          BufferedRandom: 1f6c. objects);

        * when the *note BufferedWriter: 1f6b. object is closed or
          destroyed.

     The constructor creates a *note BufferedWriter: 1f6b. for the given
     writeable 'raw' stream.  If the 'buffer_size' is not given, it
     defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 14c5.

     *note BufferedWriter: 1f6b. provides or overrides these methods in
     addition to those from *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. and *note IOBase:
     85b.:

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream.  A *note
          BlockingIOError: f01. should be raised if the raw stream
          blocks.

      -- Yöntemi: write (b, /)

          Write the *note bytes-like object: bb5, 'b', and return the
          number of bytes written.  When in non-blocking mode, a *note
          BlockingIOError: f01. is raised if the buffer needs to be
          written out but the raw stream blocks.

 -- Sınıfı: io.BufferedRandom (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     seekable *note RawIOBase: f73. raw binary stream.  It inherits from
     *note BufferedReader: 10b3. and *note BufferedWriter: 1f6b.

     The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw
     stream, given in the first argument.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 14c5.

     *note BufferedRandom: 1f6c. is capable of anything *note
     BufferedReader: 10b3. or *note BufferedWriter: 1f6b. can do.  In
     addition, *note seek(): 1135. and *note tell(): 2784. are
     guaranteed to be implemented.

 -- Sınıfı: io.BufferedRWPair (reader, writer,
          buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE, /)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to two non
     seekable *note RawIOBase: f73. raw binary streams—one readable, the
     other writeable.  It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.

     'reader' and 'writer' are *note RawIOBase: f73. objects that are
     readable and writeable respectively.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 14c5.

     *note BufferedRWPair: 29ee. implements all of *note BufferedIOBase:
     4a9.'s methods except for *note detach(): 2750, which raises *note
     UnsupportedOperation: 17c8.

          Uyarı: *note BufferedRWPair: 29ee. does not attempt to
          synchronize accesses to its underlying raw streams.  You
          should not pass it the same object as reader and writer; use
          *note BufferedRandom: 1f6c. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Text I/O<2>,  Prev: Buffered Streams,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.16.2.12 Text I/O
..................

 -- Sınıfı: io.TextIOBase

     Base class for text streams.  This class provides a character and
     line based interface to stream I/O. It inherits from *note IOBase:
     85b.

     *note TextIOBase: 4aa. provides or overrides these data attributes
     and methods in addition to those from *note IOBase: 85b.:

      -- Özniteliği: encoding

          The name of the encoding used to decode the stream’s bytes
          into strings, and to encode strings into bytes.

      -- Özniteliği: errors

          The error setting of the decoder or encoder.

      -- Özniteliği: newlines

          A string, a tuple of strings, or ‘None’, indicating the
          newlines translated so far.  Depending on the implementation
          and the initial constructor flags, this may not be available.

      -- Özniteliği: buffer

          The underlying binary buffer (a *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.
          instance) that *note TextIOBase: 4aa. deals with.  This is not
          part of the *note TextIOBase: 4aa. API and may not exist in
          some implementations.

      -- Yöntemi: detach ()

          Separate the underlying binary buffer from the *note
          TextIOBase: 4aa. and return it.

          After the underlying buffer has been detached, the *note
          TextIOBase: 4aa. is in an unusable state.

          Some *note TextIOBase: 4aa. implementations, like *note
          StringIO: dc4, may not have the concept of an underlying
          buffer and calling this method will raise *note
          UnsupportedOperation: 17c8.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return at most 'size' characters from the stream as a
          single *note str: 15d.  If 'size' is negative or ‘None’, reads
          until EOF.

      -- Yöntemi: readline (size=-1, /)

          Read until newline or EOF and return a single *note str: 15d.
          If the stream is already at EOF, an empty string is returned.

          If 'size' is specified, at most 'size' characters will be
          read.

      -- Yöntemi: seek (offset, whence=SEEK_SET, /)

          Change the stream position to the given 'offset'.  Behaviour
          depends on the 'whence' parameter.  The default value for
          'whence' is ‘SEEK_SET’.

             * ‘SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’: seek from the start of the stream (the
               default); 'offset' must either be a number returned by
               *note TextIOBase.tell(): 2a07, or zero.  Any other
               'offset' value produces undefined behaviour.

             * ‘SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’: “seek” to the current position;
               'offset' must be zero, which is a no-operation (all other
               values are unsupported).

             * ‘SEEK_END’ or ‘2’: seek to the end of the stream;
               'offset' must be zero (all other values are unsupported).

          Return the new absolute position as an opaque number.

          Added in version 3.1: The ‘SEEK_*’ constants.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Return the current stream position as an opaque number.  The
          number does not usually represent a number of bytes in the
          underlying binary storage.

      -- Yöntemi: write (s, /)

          Write the string 's' to the stream and return the number of
          characters written.

 -- Sınıfı: io.TextIOWrapper (buffer, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None, line_buffering=False, write_through=False)

     A buffered text stream providing higher-level access to a *note
     BufferedIOBase: 4a9. buffered binary stream.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: 4aa.

     'encoding' gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be
     decoded or encoded with.  It defaults to *note
     locale.getencoding(): 25d.  ‘encoding="locale"’ can be used to
     specify the current locale’s encoding explicitly.  See *note Text
     Encoding: 5f4. for more information.

     'errors' is an optional string that specifies how encoding and
     decoding errors are to be handled.  Pass ‘'strict'’ to raise a
     *note ValueError: 189. exception if there is an encoding error (the
     default of ‘None’ has the same effect), or pass ‘'ignore'’ to
     ignore errors.  (Note that ignoring encoding errors can lead to
     data loss.)  ‘'replace'’ causes a replacement marker (such as
     ‘'?'’) to be inserted where there is malformed data.
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ causes malformed data to be replaced by a
     backslashed escape sequence.  When writing, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’
     (replace with the appropriate XML character reference) or
     ‘'namereplace'’ (replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences) can be
     used.  Any other error handling name that has been registered with
     *note codecs.register_error(): 1323. is also valid.

     'newline' controls how line endings are handled.  It can be ‘None’,
     ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, and ‘'\r\n'’.  It works as follows:

        * When reading input from the stream, if 'newline' is ‘None’,
          *note universal newlines: bc2. mode is enabled.  Lines in the
          input can end in ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, or ‘'\r\n'’, and these are
          translated into ‘'\n'’ before being returned to the caller.
          If 'newline' is ‘''’, universal newlines mode is enabled, but
          line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.  If
          'newline' has any of the other legal values, input lines are
          only terminated by the given string, and the line ending is
          returned to the caller untranslated.

        * When writing output to the stream, if 'newline' is ‘None’, any
          ‘'\n'’ characters written are translated to the system default
          line separator, *note os.linesep: 1f6a.  If 'newline' is ‘''’
          or ‘'\n'’, no translation takes place.  If 'newline' is any of
          the other legal values, any ‘'\n'’ characters written are
          translated to the given string.

     If 'line_buffering' is ‘True’, *note flush(): 29f0. is implied when
     a call to write contains a newline character or a carriage return.

     If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls to *note write(): b5e. are
     guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the *note
     TextIOWrapper: 5f2. object is immediately handled to its underlying
     binary 'buffer'.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'write_through' argument has been added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The default 'encoding' is now
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ instead of
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  Don’t change temporary the locale
     encoding using *note locale.setlocale(): 25c, use the current
     locale encoding instead of the user preferred encoding.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'encoding' argument now supports the
     ‘"locale"’ dummy encoding name.

     *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. provides these data attributes and
     methods in addition to those from *note TextIOBase: 4aa. and *note
     IOBase: 85b.:

      -- Özniteliği: line_buffering

          Whether line buffering is enabled.

      -- Özniteliği: write_through

          Whether writes are passed immediately to the underlying binary
          buffer.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: reconfigure (*, encoding=None, errors=None,
               newline=None, line_buffering=None, write_through=None)

          Reconfigure this text stream using new settings for
          'encoding', 'errors', 'newline', 'line_buffering' and
          'write_through'.

          Parameters not specified keep current settings, except
          ‘errors='strict'’ is used when 'encoding' is specified but
          'errors' is not specified.

          It is not possible to change the encoding or newline if some
          data has already been read from the stream.  On the other
          hand, changing encoding after write is possible.

          This method does an implicit stream flush before setting the
          new parameters.

          Added in version 3.7.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: The method supports
          ‘encoding="locale"’ option.

      -- Yöntemi: seek (cookie, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the stream position.  Return the new stream position as an
          *note int: 184.

          Four operations are supported, given by the following argument
          combinations:

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_SET)’: Rewind to the start of the stream.

             * ‘seek(cookie, SEEK_SET)’: Restore a previous position;
               'cookie' 'must be' a number returned by *note tell():
               2a0b.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_END)’: Fast-forward to the end of the
               stream.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_CUR)’: Leave the current stream position
               unchanged.

          Any other argument combinations are invalid, and may raise
          exceptions.

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          *note os.SEEK_SET: 1136, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1137, and *note
          os.SEEK_END: 1138.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Return the stream position as an opaque number.  The return
          value of ‘tell()’ can be given as input to *note seek(): 2a0a,
          to restore a previous stream position.

 -- Sınıfı: io.StringIO (initial_value='', newline='\n')

     A text stream using an in-memory text buffer.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: 4aa.

     The text buffer is discarded when the *note close(): 1865. method
     is called.

     The initial value of the buffer can be set by providing
     'initial_value'.  If newline translation is enabled, newlines will
     be encoded as if by *note write(): 1abd.  The stream is positioned
     at the start of the buffer which emulates opening an existing file
     in a ‘w+’ mode, making it ready for an immediate write from the
     beginning or for a write that would overwrite the initial value.
     To emulate opening a file in an ‘a+’ mode ready for appending, use
     ‘f.seek(0, io.SEEK_END)’ to reposition the stream at the end of the
     buffer.

     The 'newline' argument works like that of *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2,
     except that when writing output to the stream, if 'newline' is
     ‘None’, newlines are written as ‘\n’ on all platforms.

     *note StringIO: dc4. provides this method in addition to those from
     *note TextIOBase: 4aa. and *note IOBase: 85b.:

      -- Yöntemi: getvalue ()

          Return a *note str: 15d. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.  Newlines are decoded as if by *note read(): 1ace,
          although the stream position is not changed.

     Example usage:

          import io

          output = io.StringIO()
          output.write('First line.\n')
          print('Second line.', file=output)

          # Retrieve file contents -- this will be
          # 'First line.\nSecond line.\n'
          contents = output.getvalue()

          # Close object and discard memory buffer --
          # .getvalue() will now raise an exception.
          output.close()

 -- Sınıfı: io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder

     A helper codec that decodes newlines for *note universal newlines:
     bc2. mode.  It inherits from *note codecs.IncrementalDecoder: 21b9.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<3>,  Prev: Class hierarchy,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.16.2.13 Performance
.....................

This section discusses the performance of the provided concrete I/O
implementations.

* Menu:

* Binary I/O: Binary I/O<2>.
* Text I/O: Text I/O<3>.
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<2>.
* Reentrancy::


File: python.info,  Node: Binary I/O<2>,  Next: Text I/O<3>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.14 Binary I/O
....................

By reading and writing only large chunks of data even when the user asks
for a single byte, buffered I/O hides any inefficiency in calling and
executing the operating system’s unbuffered I/O routines.  The gain
depends on the OS and the kind of I/O which is performed.  For example,
on some modern OSes such as Linux, unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as
buffered I/O. The bottom line, however, is that buffered I/O offers
predictable performance regardless of the platform and the backing
device.  Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use buffered I/O
rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data.


File: python.info,  Node: Text I/O<3>,  Next: Multi-threading<2>,  Prev: Binary I/O<2>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.15 Text I/O
..................

Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower
than binary I/O over the same storage, because it requires conversions
between unicode and binary data using a character codec.  This can
become noticeable handling huge amounts of text data like large log
files.  Also, *note tell(): 2a07. and *note seek(): 2a06. are both quite
slow due to the reconstruction algorithm used.

*note StringIO: dc4, however, is a native in-memory unicode container
and will exhibit similar speed to *note BytesIO: d38.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading<2>,  Next: Reentrancy,  Prev: Text I/O<3>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.16 Multi-threading
.........................

*note FileIO: 11ba. objects are thread-safe to the extent that the
operating system calls (such as ‘read(2)(1)’ under Unix) they wrap are
thread-safe too.

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 10b3, *note
BufferedWriter: 1f6b, *note BufferedRandom: 1f6c. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 29ee.) protect their internal structures using a lock;
it is therefore safe to call them from multiple threads at once.

*note TextIOWrapper: 5f2. objects are not thread-safe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/read(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Reentrancy,  Prev: Multi-threading<2>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.16.2.17 Reentrancy
....................

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 10b3, *note
BufferedWriter: 1f6b, *note BufferedRandom: 1f6c. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 29ee.) are not reentrant.  While reentrant calls will
not happen in normal situations, they can arise from doing I/O in a
*note signal: c5. handler.  If a thread tries to re-enter a buffered
object which it is already accessing, a *note RuntimeError: 180. is
raised.  Note this doesn’t prohibit a different thread from entering the
buffered object.

The above implicitly extends to text files, since the *note open(): 2a6.
function will wrap a buffered object inside a *note TextIOWrapper: 5f2.
This includes standard streams and therefore affects the built-in *note
print(): e16. function as well.


File: python.info,  Node: time — Time access and conversions,  Next: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Prev: io — Core tools for working with streams,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.3 ‘time’ — Time access and conversions
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Bu modül zamanla alakalı çeşitli fonksiyonlar sağlar.  Alakalı
fonksiyonellik için, *note datetime: 30. ve *note calendar: 14.
modüllerine göz atın.

Bu modül her zaman kullanılabilir olmasına rağmen, bütün fonksiyonlar
bütün platformlarda kullanılamaz.  Bu modülde tanımlanmış fonksiyonlar
çoğu aynı isimli C platform kütüphanesinin fonksiyonlarını çağırır.
Fonksiyonların anlamları platformlar arasında değiştiğinden bazen
platform dokümantasyonuna başvurmak yardımcı olabilir.

Sırada biraz terminoloji ve kural açıklamaları var.

   * 'epoch' zamanın başladığı noktadır, ‘time.gmtime(0)’’nun dönüş
     değeridir.  Bütün platformlarda 1 Ocak, 1970, 00:00:00 (UTC)
     şeklindedir.

   * 'seconds since the epoch' terimi başlangıçtan beri geçen toplam
     saniyeyi ifade eder, tipik olarak leap seconds(1) hariç.  Artık
     saniyeler POSIX-uyumlu tüm platformlardan çıkarılmıştır.

   * Bu modüldeki fonksiyonlar *note epoch: 27f8. ‘den önce olan veya
     çok uzak gelecekte olan tarihleri ve zamanları
     çalıştıramayabilirler.  Sona erme noktası 32-bit sistemler için C
     kütüphanesi tarafından belirlenmiştir, tipik olarak 2038’dir.

   * *note strptime(): 12b5. fonksiyonu ‘%y’ biçimi verildiğinde 2
     haneli yılları ayrıştırabilir.  2 haneli yıllar ayrıştırıldığında,
     POSIX ve ISO C standartlarına göre dönüştürülürler; 69–99 değerleri
     1969–1999 değerlerine, 0–68 değerleri 2000–2068 değerlerine
     eşlenirler.

   * UTC is Coordinated Universal Time(2) and superseded Greenwich Mean
     Time(3) or GMT as the basis of international timekeeping.  The
     acronym UTC is not a mistake but conforms to an earlier,
     language-agnostic naming scheme for time standards such as UT0,
     UT1, and UT2.

   * DST, Yaz Saati Uygulaması, yılın bir kısmında saat diliminin
     (genellikle) bir saat ayarlanmasına denir.  DST kuralları büyülüdür
     (yerel yasalar tarafından belirlenir) ve yıldan yıla değişebilir.
     C kütüphanesi yerel kuralları (genellikle esneklik için bir sistem
     dosyasından okunur) içeren bir tabloya sahiptir ve Gerçek
     Bilgeliğin tek kaynağıdır.

   * Çeşitli gerçek-zamanlı fonksiyonların hassasiyeti birimlerin
     değerlerinin veya argümanlarının ifade edildiği önerilerden daha az
     olabilir.  Örneği çoğu Unix sistemlerinde, saat yalnızca 50 veya
     100 defa “çalışır”.

   * On the other hand, the precision of *note time(): 94f. and *note
     sleep(): 4b2. is better than their Unix equivalents: times are
     expressed as floating-point numbers, *note time(): 94f. returns the
     most accurate time available (using Unix ‘gettimeofday()’ where
     available), and *note sleep(): 4b2. will accept a time with a
     nonzero fraction (Unix ‘select()’ is used to implement this, where
     available).

   * *note gmtime(): 1065, *note localtime(): 1386, ve *note strptime():
     12b5, tarafından döndürülen ve *note asctime(): 108c, *note
     mktime(): 108d. ve *note strftime(): 108e, tarafından kabul edilen
     zaman değeri 9 tam sayılık bir dizidir.  *note gmtime(): 1065,
     *note localtime(): 1386, ve *note strptime(): 12b5. tarafından
     döndürülen değerler ayrıca ayrı alanlar için ayrı öznitelik
     isimleri sunar.

     Bu nesnelerin açıklamalarını görmek için *note struct_time: b6e.’a
     göz at.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The *note struct_time: b6e. type was
     extended to provide the *note tm_gmtoff: 2a14. and *note tm_zone:
     2a15. attributes when platform supports corresponding ‘struct tm’
     members.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The *note struct_time: b6e. attributes *note
     tm_gmtoff: 2a14. and *note tm_zone: 2a15. are now available on all
     platforms.

   * Zaman temsilleri arasında dönüşüm yapmak için belirtilen
     fonksiyonları kullanın:

     Den                           Karşı                         Kullan
                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 
     zamanın başlangıcından beri   UTC içinde                    *note gmtime(): 1065.
     geçen saniye                  *note struct_time: b6e.       
                                   
                                                                 
     zamanın başlangıcından beri   yerel zaman içinde            *note localtime(): 1386.
     geçen saniye                  *note struct_time: b6e.       
                                   
                                                                 
     UTC içinde                    zamanın başlangıcından beri   *note calendar.timegm(): 22ca.
     *note struct_time: b6e.       geçen saniye                  
                                   
                                                                 
     yerel zaman içinde            zamanın başlangıcından beri   *note mktime(): 108d.
     *note struct_time: b6e.       geçen saniye                  
                                   

* Menu:

* Fonksiyonlar: Fonksiyonlar<2>.
* Saat Kimliği Sabitleri::
* Saat dilimi Sabitleri::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time


File: python.info,  Node: Fonksiyonlar<2>,  Next: Saat Kimliği Sabitleri,  Up: time — Time access and conversions

5.16.3.1 Fonksiyonlar
.....................

 -- Işlevi: time.asctime ([t])

     *note gmtime(): 1065. veya *note localtime(): 1386. tarafından
     döndürülen bir zamanı temsil eden bir demet veya *note struct_time:
     b6e. öğesini şu forma sahip bir dizeye dönüştürün: ‘'Sun Jun 20
     23:21:05 1993'’.  Gün alanı iki karakter uzunluğundadır ve gün tek
     harfliyse boşluk karakteriyle doldurulur, örnek: ‘'Wed Jun 9
     04:26:40 1993'’.

     Eğer 't' sağlanmamışsa, *note localtime(): 1386. tarafından
     döndürülen şimdiki zaman kullanılır.  Yerel bilgi *note asctime():
     108c. tarafından kullanılmaz.

          Not: Aynı isimli C fonksiyonunun aksine, *note asctime():
          108c. sona yeni satır eklemez.

 -- Işlevi: time.pthread_getcpuclockid (thread_id)

     Belirtilen 'thread_id' için iş parçacığına özgü CPU-zaman saatinin
     'clk_id' değerini döndürür.

     'thread_id' için uygun bir değer elde etmek için *note
     threading.get_ident(): 1001. veya *note threading.Thread: 7a7.
     nesnelerinin *note ident: 2a18. özniteliğini kullanın.

          Uyarı: Geçersiz veya süresi geçmiş bir 'thread_id' girişi
          yapmak, bölümleme hatası gibi, tanımlanmamış bir davranış
          ortaya koyabilir.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix

     Daha fazla bilgi için ‘pthread_getcpuclockid(3)(1)’ el kitabına göz
     atın.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.clock_getres (clk_id)

     Belirtilen 'clk_id' saatinin netliğini (kesinliğini) döndür.
     'clk_id'’e uygun değerlerin bir listesi için *note Saat Kimliği
     Sabitleri: 2a19.’a bakınız.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: time.clock_gettime (clk_id) -> float

     Belirtilen 'clk_id' saatinin zamanını döndür.  'clk_id'’e uygun
     değerlerin bir listesi için *note Saat Kimliği Sabitleri: 2a19.’a
     bakınız.

     *note float: 272. türü sebebiyle oluşan kesinlik kaybından kaçınmak
     için *note clock_gettime_ns(): 950. kullanın.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: time.clock_gettime_ns (clk_id) -> int

     *note clock_gettime(): 1005.’a benzer şekilde ama zamanı
     nanosaniyeler şeklinde döndürür.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.clock_settime (clk_id, time: float)

     Belirtilen 'clk_id' saatinin zamanını ayarla.  Şu anda, 'clk_id'
     için kabul edilen tek değer *note CLOCK_REALTIME: 4af.’dır.

     *note float: 272. türü sebebiyle oluşan kesinlik kaybından kaçınmak
     için *note clock_settime_ns(): 951. kullanın.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: time.clock_settime_ns (clk_id, time: int)

     *note clock_settime(): 1006.’a benzer şekilde ama zamanı
     nanosaniyeler ile ayarlar.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.ctime ([secs])

     *note epoch: 27f8. ‘dan bu yana saniye cinsinden ifade edilen bir
     süreyi bir biçim dizisine dönüştürün: yerel zamanı temsil eden
     ‘'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'’.  Gün alanı iki karakter
     uzunluğundadır ve gün tek basamaklıysa boşluk bırakılır, örneğin:
     ‘'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'’.

     'secs' veya *note None: 488. sağlanmamışsa, *note time(): 94f.
     tarafından döndürülen mevcut zaman kullanılır.  ‘ctime(secs)’
     ‘asctime(localtime(secs))’’e karşılıktır.  Yerel ayar bilgisi *note
     ctime(): 2243. tarafından kullanılmaz.

 -- Işlevi: time.get_clock_info (name)

     Belirtilen saat için namespace nesnesi şeklinde bilgi edinin.
     Desteklenen saat isimleri ve onların değerlerini okumaya ilişkin
     fonksiyonlar şunlardır:

        * ‘'monotonic'’: *note time.monotonic(): d12.

        * ‘'perf_counter'’: *note time.perf_counter(): 8ed.

        * ‘'process_time'’: *note time.process_time(): 8ee.

        * ‘'thread_time'’: *note time.thread_time(): 78f.

        * ‘'time'’: *note time.time(): 94f.

     Sonuç şu özniteliklere sahiptir:

        - Saat otomatik bir şekilde (örneğin bir NTP daemon tarafından)
          veya sistem yöneticisi tarafından değiştirilebiliyorsa
          'adjustable': ‘True’, tersi için ‘False’

        - 'implementation': Saat değerini elde etmek için kullanılan
          temel C fonksiyonunun ismidir.  Muhtemel değerler için *note
          Saat Kimliği Sabitleri: 2a19.’a bakınız.

        - 'monotonic': Saat geriye doğru gidemiyorsa ‘True’, aksi halde
          ‘False’

        - 'resolution': Saatin saniyeler halindeki netliği (*note float:
          272.)

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: time.gmtime ([secs])

     *note epoch: 27f8. ‘dan bu yana saniye olarak ifade edilen bir
     zamanı, dst bayrağının her zaman sıfır olduğu UTC’de bir *note
     struct_time: b6e.’a dönüştürün.  'secs' sağlanmazsa veya *note
     None: 488, *note time(): 94f. tarafından döndürülen geçerli zaman
     kullanılır.  Saniyenin kesirleri dikkate alınmaz.  *note
     struct_time: b6e. nesnesinin açıklaması için yukarıya bakın.  Bu
     fonksiyonun tersi için *note calendar.timegm(): 22ca. konusuna
     bakın.

 -- Işlevi: time.localtime ([secs])

     *note gmtime(): 1065. gibi ama yerel zamana dönüştürür.  Eğer
     'secs' sağlanmazsa veya *note None: 488. ise, *note time(): 94f.
     tarafından döndürülen şimdiki zaman kullanılır.  Belirli bir süre
     için DST uygulandığında dst bayrağı ‘1’ olarak ayarlanır.

     Eğer zaman damgası C ‘localtime()’ veya ‘gmtime()’ fonksiyonları
     tarafından sağlanan değer aralıkları içerisinde değilse *note
     localtime(): 1386. *note OverflowError: 6c7. yükseltebilir, ve
     ‘localtime()’ üzerinde *note OSError: 65c. veya ‘gmtime()’
     hatasını.  Bunun 1970 ile 2038 arasındaki yıllarla sınırlı olması
     yaygın bir durumdur.

 -- Işlevi: time.mktime (t)

     This is the inverse function of *note localtime(): 1386.  Its
     argument is the *note struct_time: b6e. or full 9-tuple (since the
     dst flag is needed; use ‘-1’ as the dst flag if it is unknown)
     which expresses the time in 'local' time, not UTC. It returns a
     floating-point number, for compatibility with *note time(): 94f.
     If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either
     *note OverflowError: 6c7. or *note ValueError: 189. will be raised
     (which depends on whether the invalid value is caught by Python or
     the underlying C libraries).  The earliest date for which it can
     generate a time is platform-dependent.

 -- Işlevi: time.monotonic () -> float

     Monoton bir saatin değerini (kesirli saniye cinsinden) döndürür,
     yani bir geri gidemeyen bir saat.  Saat sistem saat
     güncellemelerinden etkilenmez.  Döndürülen değerin referans noktası
     tanımlanmamıştır, böylece sadece iki aramanın sonuçları arasındaki
     fark geçerlidir.

     *note float: 272. türünün sebep olduğu kesinlik kaybından kaçınmak
     için *note monotonic_ns(): 952. kullanın.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Fonksiyon artık her zaman mevcut ve her
     zaman sistem çapında.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: macOS için, fonksiyon artık sistem çapında.

 -- Işlevi: time.monotonic_ns () -> int

     *note monotonic(): d12.’e benzer şekilde, ama zamanı nanosaniyeler
     şeklinde döndürür.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.perf_counter () -> float

     Bir performans sayacının değerini (kesirli saniye cinsinden)
     döndürür, örnek olarak kısa bir süreyi ölçmek için mümkün olan en
     yüksek kesinliğe sahip bir saat.  Uyku sırasında geçen süreyi
     içerir ve sistem çapındadır.  Döndürülen değerin referans noktası
     tanımsızdır, yani sadece iki çağrının sonuçları arasındaki fark
     geçerlidir.

     *note float: 272. türü sebebiyle oluşan kesinlik kaybından kaçınmak
     için *note perf_counter_ns(): 953. kullanın.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Windows için, fonksiyon artık sistem
     çapında.

 -- Işlevi: time.perf_counter_ns () -> int

     *note perf_counter(): 8ed.’a benzer şekilde, ama zamanı
     nanosaniyeler şeklinde döndürür.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.process_time () -> float

     Geçerli işlemin sistem ve kullanıcı CPU zamanının toplamının
     değerini (kesirli saniye cinsinden) döndürür.  Uykuda geçen süreyi
     dahil etmez.  Tanım gereği işlem çapındadır.  Döndürülen değerin
     referans noktası tanımsızdır, yani sadece iki çağrının sonuçları
     arasındaki fark geçerlidir.

     *note float: 272. türü sebebiyle oluşan kesinlik kaybından kaçınmak
     için *note process_time_ns(): 954. kullanın.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: time.process_time_ns () -> int

     *note process_time(): 8ee.’a benzer şekilde, ama zamanı
     nanosaniyeler şeklinde döndürür.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.sleep (secs)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of
     seconds.  The argument may be a floating-point number to indicate a
     more precise sleep time.

     Eğer uyku bir sinyal tarafından kesintiye uğrarsa ve sinyal
     işleyicisi tarafından herhangi bir istisna yükseltilmezse, uyku
     yeniden hesaplanmış bir zaman aşımıyla tekrar başlar.

     Askıya alma süresi isteğe bağlı bir değer ile istenilenden daha
     uzun tutulabilir, sebebiyse diğer aktivitelerin sistem içerisindeki
     planlanmasıdır.

     Windows implementation
     ......................

     On Windows, if 'secs' is zero, the thread relinquishes the
     remainder of its time slice to any other thread that is ready to
     run.  If there are no other threads ready to run, the function
     returns immediately, and the thread continues execution.  On
     Windows 8.1 and newer the implementation uses a high-resolution
     timer(2) which provides resolution of 100 nanoseconds.  If 'secs'
     is zero, ‘Sleep(0)’ is used.

     Unix implementation
     ...................

        * Kullanılabilirse ‘clock_nanosleep()’ kullanın (netlik: 1
          nanosaniye);

        * Ya da kullanılabiliyorsa ‘nanosleep()’ kullanın (netlik: 1
          nanosaniye);

        * Ya da ‘select()’ kullanın (netlik: 1 mikrosaniye).

          Not: To emulate a “no-op”, use *note pass: 1a62. instead of
          ‘time.sleep(0)’.

          To voluntarily relinquish the CPU, specify a real-time *note
          scheduling policy: 29d1. and use *note os.sched_yield(): fb3.
          instead.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Fonksiyon artık bir sinyal tarafından
     kesilirse bile 'secs' süresince uyur, sinyal işleyicisi tarafından
     bir istisna yükseltilmesi durumu hariç (açıklaması için PEP
     475(3)’e göz atın).

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Unix’de, ‘clock_nanosleep()’ ve
     ‘nanosleep()’ fonksiyonları artık kullanılabiliyor.  Windows’da,
     artık beklenebilir bir zamanlayıcı kullanılıyor.

 -- Işlevi: time.strftime (format[, t])

     *note gmtime(): 1065. veya *note localtime(): 1386. tarafından
     döndürülen bir zamanı temsil eden bir demet veya *note struct_time:
     b6e.’ı 'format' bağımsız değişkeni tarafından belirtilen bir dizeye
     dönüştürün.  't' sağlanmazsa, *note localtime(): 1386. tarafından
     döndürülen geçerli saat kullanılır.  'format' bir dize olmalıdır.
     *note ValueError: 189, 't' içindeki herhangi bir alan izin verilen
     aralığın dışındaysa yükseltilir.

     0 zaman demeti içerisindeki herhangi bir pozisyon için geçerli bir
     argümandır; normalde geçersiz ise, değer doğru bir değere zorlanır.

     Aşağıdaki direktifler 'format' dizesine gömülebilir.  İsteğe bağlı
     alan genişliği ve kesinlik belirtimi olmadan gösterilirler ve *note
     strftime(): 108e. sonucunda belirtilen karakterlerle
     değiştirilirler:

     Yönerge         Anlamı                                               Notlar
                                                                          
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     ‘%a’            Yerel ayarın kısaltılmış hafta içi ismi.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%A’            Yerel ayarın tam hafta içi ismi.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%b’            Yerel ayarın kısaltılmış ay ismi.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%B’            Yerel ayarın tam ay ismi.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%c’            Yerel ayarın uygun tarih ve zaman gösterimi.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%d’            Onluk sayı şeklinde ayın günü [01,31].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%f’            Microseconds as a decimal number                     (1)
                                                                          
                          [000000,999999].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%H’            Onluk sayı şeklinde saat (24-saatlik sistem)
                     [00,23].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%I’            Onluk sayı şeklinde saat (12-saatlik sistem)
                     [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%j’            Onluk sayı şeklinde yılın günü [001,366].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%m’            Onluk sayı şeklinde ay [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%M’            Onluk sayı şeklinde dakika [00,59].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%p’            Yerel ayarın AM veya PM’e göre karşılığı.            (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%S’            Onluk sayı şeklinde saniye [00,61].                  (3)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%U’            Onluk sayı şeklinde yılın (Pazar haftanın ilk günü   (4)
                     olacak şekilde) hafta numarası [00,53].  Yeni bir    
                     yılın ilk Pazar gününden önceki tüm günleri 0.
                     hafta olarak kabul edilir.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%u’            Day of the week (Monday is 1; Sunday is 7) as a
                     decimal number [1, 7].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%w’            Onluk sayı şeklinde hafta içi [0(Sunday),6].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%W’            Onluk sayı şeklinde yılın (Pazartesi haftanın ilk    (4)
                     günü olacak şekilde) hafta numarası [00,53].  Yeni   
                     bir yılın ilk Pazartesi gününden önceki tüm
                     günleri 0.  hafta olarak kabul edilir.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%x’            Yerel ayarın uygun tarih gösterimi.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%X’            Yerel ayarın uygun zaman gösterimi.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%y’            Onluk sayı şeklinde yüzyıl olmadan yıl [00,99].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Y’            Onluk sayı şeklinde yüzyıl ile birlikte yıl.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%z’            +HHMM veya -HHMM biçimindeki UTC/GMT’den pozitif
                     veya negatif bir zaman farkını gösteren saat
                     dilimi farkı, burada H ondalık saat hanelerini ve
                     M ondalık dakika hanelerini temsil eder [-23:59,
                     +23:59].  (4)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Z’            Yerel zaman ismi (yerel zaman bulunmuyorsa
                     karakter girmeyin).  Kullanımdan kaldırıldı.  (5)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%G’            ISO 8601 year (similar to ‘%Y’ but follows the
                     rules for the ISO 8601 calendar year).  The year
                     starts with the week that contains the first
                     Thursday of the calendar year.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%V’            ISO 8601 week number (as a decimal number
                     [01,53]).  The first week of the year is the one
                     that contains the first Thursday of the year.
                     Weeks start on Monday.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%%’            Gerçek bir ‘'%'’ karakteri.
                     

     Notlar:

       1. The ‘%f’ format directive only applies to *note strptime():
          12b5, not to *note strftime(): 108e.  However, see also *note
          datetime.datetime.strptime(): 1468. and *note
          datetime.datetime.strftime(): b11. where the ‘%f’ format
          directive *note applies to microseconds: 2212.

       2. *note strptime(): 12b5. işleviyle kullanıldığında, ‘%p’
          yönergesi yalnızca, saati ayrıştırmak için ‘%I’ yönergesi
          kullanılıyorsa, çıkış saati alanını etkiler.

       3. Aralık gerçekten de ‘0’’dan ‘61’’e kadardır; ‘60’ değeri leap
          seconds(6) ‘u temsil eden zaman damgalarında geçerlidir ve
          ‘61’ değeriyse tarihsel nedenlerden ötürü desteklenmektedir.

       4. ‘%U’ ve ‘%W’ ifadeleri, *note strptime(): 12b5. fonksiyonu ile
          kullanıldığında, yalnızca haftanın günü ve yıl belirtilmişse
          hesaplamalarda kullanılır.

     İşte bir örnek, RFC 2822(7) İnternet e-posta standardında
     belirtilenle uyumlu tarih biçimi.  (8)

          >>> from time import gmtime, strftime
          >>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
          'Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000'

     Belirli platformlarda ek yönergeler desteklenebilir, ancak yalnızca
     burada listelenenlerin ANSI C tarafından standartlaştırılmış bir
     anlamı vardır.  Platformunuzda desteklenen tüm biçim kodlarını
     görmek için ‘strftime(3)(9)’ belgelerine bakın.

     Bazı platformlarda, isteğe bağlı bir alan genişliği ve kesinlik
     belirtimi, bir yönergenin ilk ‘'%'’ ifadesini aşağıdaki sırayla
     hemen takip edebilir; bu da taşınabilir değil.  Alan genişliği, 3
     olduğu ‘%j’ dışında normalde 2’dir.

 -- Işlevi: time.strptime (string[, format])

     Bir biçime göre bir zamanı temsil eden bir dizeyi ayrıştırın.
     Dönüş değeri, *note gmtime(): 1065. veya *note localtime(): 1386.
     tarafından döndürülen bir *note struct_time: b6e. şeklindedir.

     'format' parametresi, *note strftime(): 108e. tarafından
     kullanılanlarla aynı yönergeleri kullanır; varsayılan olarak *note
     ctime(): 2243. tarafından döndürülen biçimlendirmeyle eşleşen ‘"%a
     %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y"’ şeklindedir.  'string' 'format'’a göre
     ayrıştırılamazsa veya ayrıştırma sonrasında fazla veriye sahipse
     *note ValueError: 189. yükseltilir.  Daha doğru değerler
     çıkarılamadığında eksik verileri doldurmak için kullanılan
     varsayılan değerler ‘(1900, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, -1)’ şeklindedir.
     Hem 'string' hem de 'format' dize olmalıdır.

     Örnek olarak:

          >>> import time
          >>> time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")
          time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,
                           tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)

     ‘%Z’ yönergesi için destek, ‘tzname’ içinde bulunan değerlere ve
     ‘daylight’ ifadesinin doğru olup olmadığına bağlıdır.  Bu nedenle,
     her zaman bilinen (ve gün ışığından yararlanma saat dilimleri
     olarak kabul edilen) UTC ve GMT’yi tanımak dışında platforma
     özgüdür.

     Yalnızca belgelerde belirtilen yönergeler desteklenir.
     ‘strftime()’ platform başına uygulandığından, bazen
     listelenenlerden daha fazla yönerge sunabilir.  Ancak ‘strptime()’
     herhangi bir platformdan bağımsızdır ve bu nedenle desteklendiği
     belgelenmeyen mevcut tüm yönergeleri desteklemeyebilir.

 -- Sınıfı: time.struct_time

     *note gmtime(): 1065, *note localtime(): 1386. ve *note strptime():
     12b5. tarafından döndürülen zaman değeri dizisinin türü.  *note
     named tuple: 461. arayüzüne sahip bir nesnedir: değerlere dizin ve
     öznitelik adıyla erişilebilir.  Aşağıdaki değerler mevcuttur:

     Dizin                                 Öznitelik                             Değerler
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     0                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_year               (örnek olarak, 1993)
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     1                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_mon                [1, 12] aralığı
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     2                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_mday               [1, 31] aralığı
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     3                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_hour               [0, 23] aralığı
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     4                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_min                [0, 59] aralığa
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     5                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_sec                range [0, 61]; see
                                                                                 *note Note (2): 2a1a. in
                                                                                 *note strftime(): 108e.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     6                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_wday               range [0, 6]; Monday is 0
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     7                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_yday               [1, 366] aralığı
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     8                                      -- Özniteliği: tm_isdst              0, 1 veya -1; aşağıya bakınız
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- Özniteliği: tm_zone               saat diliminin adının kısaltması
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- Özniteliği: tm_gmtoff             UTC’nin doğusundaki saniye farkı
                                                                                 

     C yapısından farklı olarak, ay değerinin menzili [1, 12]
     arasındadır, [0, 11] değil.

     *note mktime(): 108d. çağrılarında, *note tm_isdst: 2254. yaz saati
     uygulaması etkinken 1, etkin değilken 0 olarak ayarlanabilir.  -1
     değeri bunun bilinmediğini gösterir ve genellikle doğru durumun
     doldurulmasıyla sonuçlanır.

     *note struct_time: b6e. bekleyen bir fonksiyona yanlış uzunluğa
     sahip bir demet iletildiğinde, veya yanlış türde elemanlara sahip
     olmak, bir *note TypeError: 2c4. yükseltir.

 -- Işlevi: time.time () -> float

     Return the time in seconds since the *note epoch: 27f8. as a
     floating-point number.  The handling of leap seconds(10) is
     platform dependent.  On Windows and most Unix systems, the leap
     seconds are not counted towards the time in seconds since the *note
     epoch: 27f8.  This is commonly referred to as Unix time(11).

     Note that even though the time is always returned as a
     floating-point number, not all systems provide time with a better
     precision than 1 second.  While this function normally returns
     non-decreasing values, it can return a lower value than a previous
     call if the system clock has been set back between the two calls.

     *note time(): 94f. tarafından döndürülen sayı UTC’de *note
     gmtime(): 1065. fonksiyonuna geçirerek veya yerel saatte *note
     localtime(): 1386. fonksiyonuna geçirerek daha yaygın bir zaman
     biçimine döndürülebilir (yıl, ay, gün, saat vb.  gibi).  Her iki
     durumda da, takvim tarihinin bileşenlerine nitelikler olarak
     erişilebilen bir *note struct_time: b6e. nesnesi döndürülür.

     *note float: 272. türünden kaynaklanan kesinlik kaybından kaçınmak
     için *note time_ns(): 955. kullanınız.

 -- Işlevi: time.time_ns () -> int

     *note time(): 94f.’ye benzer, ancak zamanı, *note epoch: 27f8. ‘den
     bu yana geçen nanosaniyelerin tamsayısı olarak döndürür.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.thread_time () -> float

     Geçerli iş parçacığının sistem ve kullanıcı CPU zamanının
     toplamının değerini (kesirli saniye cinsinden) döndürür.  Uykuda
     geçen süreyi dahil etmez.  Tanım gereği iş parçacığı çapındadır.
     Döndürülen değerin referans noktası tanımsızdır, böylece sadece
     aynı iş parçacığındaki iki çağrının sonuçları arasındaki fark
     geçerlidir.

     *note float: 272. türünün neden olduğu kesinlik kaybını önlemek
     için *note thread_time_ns(): a07. kullanın.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux, Unix, Windows.

     Unix sistemler ‘CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID’ destekliyor.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.thread_time_ns () -> int

     *note thread_time(): 78f. ile benzer şekilde ama zamanı
     nanosaniyeler şeklinde döndürür.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: time.tzset ()

     Kütüphane rutinleri tarafından kullanılan zaman dönüştürme
     kurallarını sıfırlayın.  ‘TZ’ ortam değişkeni bunun nasıl
     yapıldığını belirtir.  Ayrıca tzname ( ‘TZ’ ortam değişkeninden),
     ‘timezone’ (UTC’nin batısındaki DST olmayan saniyeler), ‘altzone’
     (UTC’nin batısındaki DST saniyeleri) değişkenlerini de
     ayarlayacaktır.  )  ve ‘daylight’ (bu saat diliminde herhangi bir
     yaz saati uygulaması kuralı yoksa 0’a veya gün ışığından yararlanma
     saatinin uygulandığı geçmiş, şimdi veya gelecek bir zaman varsa
     sıfırdan farklı).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

          Not: Çoğu durumda, ‘TZ’ ortam değişkenini değiştirmek, *note
          localtime(): 1386. gibi işlevlerin çıktısını *note tzset():
          2a22. çağırmadan etkileyebilirse de, bu davranışa
          güvenilmemelidir.

          ‘TZ’ çevre değişkeni boşluk karakteri içermemelidir.

     ‘TZ’ çevre değişkeninin standart biçimi (boşluk karakteri açıklık
     için eklenmiştir):

          std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

     Bileşenlerin olduğu yerde:

     ‘std’ ve ‘dst’

          Üç veya daha fazla harfler ve sayılar saat dilimi
          kısaltmalarını veriyor.  Bunlar time.tzname içine yayılacaktır

     ‘offset’

          Göreli konum şu biçimdedir: ‘± hh[:mm[:ss]]’.  Bu, UTC’ye
          varmak için yerel saate eklenen değeri gösterir.  Başında ‘-’
          varsa, saat dilimi Başlangıç Meridyeni’nin doğusundadır; aksi
          halde batıdır.  dst’yi takip eden herhangi bir sapma yoksa,
          yaz saatinin standart saatten bir saat ileri olduğu
          varsayılır.

     ‘start[/time], end[/time]’

          DST’ye ne zaman geçileceğini ve DST’den geri dönüleceğini
          gösterir.  Başlangıç ve bitiş tarihlerinin biçimi
          aşağıdakilerden biridir:

          ‘JN’

               Jülyen günü 'n' (1 <= 'n' <= 365).  Artık günler
               sayılmaz, yani bütün yıllarda 28 Şubat 59.  gün ve 1 Mart
               60.  gündür.

          ‘N’

               Sıfır tabanlı Jülyen günü (0 <= 'n' <= 365).  Artık
               günler dahil edilmiştir, ve 29 Şubat’tan bahsetmek
               mümkündür.

          ‘MM.N.D’

               Yılın 'm' ayının 'n' haftasının 'd'’inci günü (0 <= 'd'
               <= 6) (1 <= 'n' <= 5, 1 <= 'm' <= 12, burada 5.  hafta
               “the last 'd' day in month 'm'” anlamına gelir ve
               dördüncü veya beşinci haftada olabilir).

          ‘time’, ‘offset’ ile (‘-’ or ‘+’) ön işaretlerine izin
          verilmemesi haricinde aynı biçime sahiptir.  Zaman
          verilmemişse, varsayılan olarak 02:00:00’dır.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT'
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST'

     Bir çok Unix sisteminde (*BSD, Linux, Solaris, ve Darwin dahil),
     saat dilimi kurallarını belirlemek için sistemin zoneinfo
     (‘tzfile(5)(12)’) veritabanını kullanmak daha uygundur.  Bunu
     yapmak için, ‘TZ’ çevre değişkenini gerekli saat dilimi veri
     dosyasının konumuna ayarlayınız, sistemlerin ‘zoneinfo’ saat dilimi
     veritabanının köküne göre, genellikle ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo’
     konumunda bulunur.  Örnek olarak, ‘'US/Eastern'’,
     ‘'Australia/Melbourne'’, ‘'Egypt'’ veya ‘'Europe/Amsterdam'’.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'US/Eastern'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EST', 'EDT')
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'Egypt'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EET', 'EEST')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getcpuclockid(3)

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (4) ‘%Z’ kullanımı artık kullanımdan kaldırıldı, ancak tercih edilen
saat/dakika farkına genişleyen ‘%z’ çıkışı, tüm ANSI C kütüphaneleri
tarafından desteklenmez.  Ayrıca, orijinal 1982 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) standardının katı
bir okuması, iki basamaklı bir yıl gerektirir (‘%y’ yerine ‘%y’), ancak
uygulama 2000 yılından çok önce 4 basamaklı yıllara taşındı.  Bundan
sonra RFC 822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html)
geçerliliğini yitirdi ve 4 basamaklı yıl önce RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) tarafından önerildi
ve ardından RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html) tarafından zorunlu
kılındı.

   (5) ‘%Z’ kullanımı artık kullanımdan kaldırıldı, ancak tercih edilen
saat/dakika farkına genişleyen ‘%z’ çıkışı, tüm ANSI C kütüphaneleri
tarafından desteklenmez.  Ayrıca, orijinal 1982 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) standardının katı
bir okuması, iki basamaklı bir yıl gerektirir (‘%y’ yerine ‘%y’), ancak
uygulama 2000 yılından çok önce 4 basamaklı yıllara taşındı.  Bundan
sonra RFC 822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html)
geçerliliğini yitirdi ve 4 basamaklı yıl önce RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) tarafından önerildi
ve ardından RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html) tarafından zorunlu
kılındı.

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) ‘%Z’ kullanımı artık kullanımdan kaldırıldı, ancak tercih edilen
saat/dakika farkına genişleyen ‘%z’ çıkışı, tüm ANSI C kütüphaneleri
tarafından desteklenmez.  Ayrıca, orijinal 1982 RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) standardının katı
bir okuması, iki basamaklı bir yıl gerektirir (‘%y’ yerine ‘%y’), ancak
uygulama 2000 yılından çok önce 4 basamaklı yıllara taşındı.  Bundan
sonra RFC 822 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html)
geçerliliğini yitirdi ve 4 basamaklı yıl önce RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) tarafından önerildi
ve ardından RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html) tarafından zorunlu
kılındı.

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/tzfile(5)


File: python.info,  Node: Saat Kimliği Sabitleri,  Next: Saat dilimi Sabitleri,  Prev: Fonksiyonlar<2>,  Up: time — Time access and conversions

5.16.3.2 Saat Kimliği Sabitleri
...............................

Şu sabitler *note clock_getres(): 1004. ve *note clock_gettime(): 1005.
için parametre olarak kullanılırlar.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME

     *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 4ae. ile aynı şekilde, ancak o sistemin
     askıya alındığı herhangi bir zamanı da içerir.

     Bu, uygulamaların *note CLOCK_REALTIME: 4af. komplikasyonları ile
     uğraşmak zorunda kalmadan, zaman ‘settimeofday()’ veya benzeri
     kullanılarak değiştirildiğinde süreksizliklere sahip olabilecek,
     askıya alma farkında monoton bir saat elde etmelerini sağlar.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.39.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_HIGHRES

     Solaris OS, en uygun donanım kaynağını kullanmaya çalışan ve
     nanosaniyeye yakın kesinlik sağlayabilen bir ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’
     zamanlayıcıya sahiptir.  ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ ayarlanamaz, yüksek
     kesinlikli saattir.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Solaris.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC

     Belirsiz başlangıç noktasından beri ayarlanamayan ve monoton zamanı
     temsil eden saat.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW

     *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 4ae. ile benzer, ama NTP ayarlamalarına
     tabii olmayan donanım bazlı ham zamana erişim sağlar.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.28, macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID

     CPU’dan yüksek kesinlikli işlem başına zamanlayıcısı.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_PROF

     CPU’dan yüksek kesinlikli işlem başına zamanlayıcısı.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD, NetBSD >= 7, OpenBSD.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_TAI

     International Atomic Time(1)

     Bunun doğru cevabı verebilmesi için sistemin güncel bir artık
     saniye tablosuna sahip olması gerekir.  PTP veya NTP yazılımı artık
     saniye tablosunu sürdürebilir.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID

     İş parçacığına özgü CPU zamanlayıcı saati.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_UPTIME

     Mutlak değeri sistemin çalıştığı ve askıya alınmadığı süre olan
     süre, hem mutlak hem de aralıklı olarak doğru çalışma süresi ölçümü
     sağlar.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD, OpenBSD >= 5.5.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW

     Monoton bir şekilde artan saat, istenilen bir noktadan itibaren
     zamanı takip ediyor, sıklıktan ve zaman ayarlamalarından
     etkilenmiyor ve sistem uykudayken artmıyor.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.8.

Aşağıdaki sabit *note clock_settime(): 1006.’a gönderilebilecek tek
parametredir.

 -- Verisi: time.CLOCK_REALTIME

     Sistem çapında gerçek zamanlı saat.  Bu saati ayarlamak uygun
     izinleri gerektirir.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/nist-time-frequently-asked-questions-faq#tai


File: python.info,  Node: Saat dilimi Sabitleri,  Prev: Saat Kimliği Sabitleri,  Up: time — Time access and conversions

5.16.3.3 Saat dilimi Sabitleri
..............................

 -- Verisi: time.altzone

     Tanımlanmışsa, yerel DST saat diliminin UTC’nin batısındaki saniye
     cinsinden farkı.  Yerel DST saat dilimi UTC’nin doğusundaysa
     (Britanya dahil Batı Avrupa’da olduğu gibi) bu negatiftir.  Bunu
     yalnızca ‘daylight’ sıfır değilse kullanın.  Aşağıdaki nota bakın.

 -- Verisi: time.daylight

     Sıfırdan farklı, eğer bir DST saat dilimi tanımlanmışsa.  Aşağıdaki
     nota göz atın.

 -- Verisi: time.timezone

     Yerel (DST olmayan) saat diliminin farkı, UTC’nin batısında saniye
     cinsinden farkı (Batı Avrupa’nın çoğunda negatif, ABD’de pozitif,
     Birleşik Krallık’ta sıfır).  Aşağıdaki nota bakın.

 -- Verisi: time.tzname

     İki dizeden oluşan bir demet: ilki yerel DST olmayan saat diliminin
     ismi, ikincisi yerel DST saat diliminin ismi.  DST saat dilimi
     tanımlanmamışsa, ikinci dize kullanılmamalı.  Aşağıdaki nota bakın.

     Not: For the above Timezone constants (*note altzone: 2a2a, *note
     daylight: 2a2b, *note timezone: 2a2c, and *note tzname: 2a2d.), the
     value is determined by the timezone rules in effect at module load
     time or the last time *note tzset(): 2a22. is called and may be
     incorrect for times in the past.  It is recommended to use the
     *note tm_gmtoff: 2a14. and *note tm_zone: 2a15. results from *note
     localtime(): 1386. to obtain timezone information.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note datetime: 30. modülü

     Tarihler ve zamanlar için daha fazla nesne tabanlı arayüz.

*note locale: 85. modülü

     Uluslararasılaştırma servisleri.  Yerel ayar, *note strftime():
     108e. ve *note strptime(): 12b5. içindeki birçok biçim
     belirticisinin yorumlanmasını etkiler.

*note calendar: 14. modülü

     Genel takvim ile alakalı fonksiyonlar.  *note timegm(): 22ca. bu
     modüldeki *note gmtime(): 1065.’in tersidir.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Next: getopt — C-style parser for command line options,  Prev: time — Time access and conversions,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.4 ‘argparse’ — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/argparse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Tutorial
........

This page contains the API reference information.  For a more gentle
introduction to Python command-line parsing, have a look at the *note
argparse tutorial: 2a30.

The ‘argparse’ module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  The program defines what arguments it requires, and
‘argparse’ will figure out how to parse those out of *note sys.argv:
110d.  The ‘argparse’ module also automatically generates help and usage
messages.  The module will also issue errors when users give the program
invalid arguments.

The ‘argparse’ module’s support for command-line interfaces is built
around an instance of *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 2c5.  It is a
container for argument specifications and has options that apply to the
parser as whole:

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                         prog='ProgramName',
                         description='What the program does',
                         epilog='Text at the bottom of help')

The *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 1571. method attaches
individual argument specifications to the parser.  It supports
positional arguments, options that accept values, and on/off flags:

     parser.add_argument('filename')           # positional argument
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--count')      # option that takes a value
     parser.add_argument('-v', '--verbose',
                         action='store_true')  # on/off flag

The *note ArgumentParser.parse_args(): 2a31. method runs the parser and
places the extracted data in a *note argparse.Namespace: 2a32. object:

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.filename, args.count, args.verbose)

     Not: If you’re looking for a guide about how to upgrade *note
     optparse: 9f. code to ‘argparse’, see *note Upgrading Optparse
     Code: 1053.

* Menu:

* ArgumentParser objects::
* The add_argument() method: The add_argument method.
* The parse_args() method: The parse_args method.
* Other utilities::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/argparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: ArgumentParser objects,  Next: The add_argument method,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.1 ArgumentParser objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: argparse.ArgumentParser (prog=None, usage=None,
          description=None, epilog=None, parents=[],
          formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter, prefix_chars='-',
          fromfile_prefix_chars=None, argument_default=None,
          conflict_handler='error', add_help=True, allow_abbrev=True,
          exit_on_error=True)

     Create a new *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. object.  All parameters
     should be passed as keyword arguments.  Each parameter has its own
     more detailed description below, but in short they are:

        * *note prog: 2a34. - The name of the program (default:
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’)

        * *note usage: 2a35. - The string describing the program usage
          (default: generated from arguments added to parser)

        * *note description: 2a36. - Text to display before the argument
          help (by default, no text)

        * *note epilog: 2a37. - Text to display after the argument help
          (by default, no text)

        * *note parents: 2a38. - A list of *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.
          objects whose arguments should also be included

        * *note formatter_class: 2a39. - A class for customizing the
          help output

        * *note prefix_chars: 2a3a. - The set of characters that prefix
          optional arguments (default: ‘-‘)

        * *note fromfile_prefix_chars: 2a3b. - The set of characters
          that prefix files from which additional arguments should be
          read (default: ‘None’)

        * *note argument_default: 2a3c. - The global default value for
          arguments (default: ‘None’)

        * *note conflict_handler: 2a3d. - The strategy for resolving
          conflicting optionals (usually unnecessary)

        * *note add_help: 2a3e. - Add a ‘-h/--help’ option to the parser
          (default: ‘True’)

        * *note allow_abbrev: c4d. - Allows long options to be
          abbreviated if the abbreviation is unambiguous.  (default:
          ‘True’)

        * *note exit_on_error: 2a3f. - Determines whether or not
          ‘ArgumentParser’ exits with error info when an error occurs.
          (default: ‘True’)

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'allow_abbrev' parameter was added.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions, 'allow_abbrev' also
     disabled grouping of short flags such as ‘-vv’ to mean ‘-v -v’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: 'exit_on_error' parameter was added.

The following sections describe how each of these are used.

* Menu:

* prog::
* usage::
* description::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::


File: python.info,  Node: prog,  Next: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.2 prog
.............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. calculates the name of the
program to display in help messages depending on the way the Python
interpreter was run:

   * The *note base name: 25ac. of ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a file was passed as
     argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a
     directory or a zipfile was passed as argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘-m’ followed by the module
     or package name if the *note -m: 3ec. option was used.

This default is almost always desirable because it will make the help
messages match the string that was used to invoke the program on the
command line.  However, to change this default behavior, another value
can be supplied using the ‘prog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser:
2c5.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Note that the program name, whether determined from ‘sys.argv[0]’ or
from the ‘prog=’ argument, is available to help messages using the
‘%(prog)s’ format specifier.

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo of the %(prog)s program')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program


File: python.info,  Node: usage,  Next: description,  Prev: prog,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.3 usage
..............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. calculates the usage message from
the arguments it contains.  The default message can be overridden with
the ‘usage=’ keyword argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [options]

     positional arguments:
      bar          bar help

     options:
      -h, --help   show this help message and exit
      --foo [FOO]  foo help

The ‘%(prog)s’ format specifier is available to fill in the program name
in your usage messages.


File: python.info,  Node: description,  Next: epilog,  Prev: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.4 description
....................

Most calls to the *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. constructor will use the
‘description=’ keyword argument.  This argument gives a brief
description of what the program does and how it works.  In help
messages, the description is displayed between the command-line usage
string and the help messages for the various arguments.

By default, the description will be line-wrapped so that it fits within
the given space.  To change this behavior, see the *note
formatter_class: 2a39. argument.


File: python.info,  Node: epilog,  Next: parents,  Prev: description,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.5 epilog
...............

Some programs like to display additional description of the program
after the description of the arguments.  Such text can be specified
using the ‘epilog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     description='A foo that bars',
     ...     epilog="And that's how you'd foo a bar")
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: argparse.py [-h]

     A foo that bars

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     And that's how you'd foo a bar

As with the *note description: 2a36. argument, the ‘epilog=’ text is by
default line-wrapped, but this behavior can be adjusted with the *note
formatter_class: 2a39. argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.


File: python.info,  Node: parents,  Next: formatter_class,  Prev: epilog,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.6 parents
................

Sometimes, several parsers share a common set of arguments.  Rather than
repeating the definitions of these arguments, a single parser with all
the shared arguments and passed to ‘parents=’ argument to *note
ArgumentParser: 2c5. can be used.  The ‘parents=’ argument takes a list
of *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects, collects all the positional and
optional actions from them, and adds these actions to the *note
ArgumentParser: 2c5. object being constructed:

     >>> parent_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(add_help=False)
     >>> parent_parser.add_argument('--parent', type=int)

     >>> foo_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> foo_parser.add_argument('foo')
     >>> foo_parser.parse_args(['--parent', '2', 'XXX'])
     Namespace(foo='XXX', parent=2)

     >>> bar_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> bar_parser.add_argument('--bar')
     >>> bar_parser.parse_args(['--bar', 'YYY'])
     Namespace(bar='YYY', parent=None)

Note that most parent parsers will specify ‘add_help=False’.  Otherwise,
the *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. will see two ‘-h/--help’ options (one in
the parent and one in the child) and raise an error.

     Not: You must fully initialize the parsers before passing them via
     ‘parents=’.  If you change the parent parsers after the child
     parser, those changes will not be reflected in the child.


File: python.info,  Node: formatter_class,  Next: prefix_chars,  Prev: parents,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.7 formatter_class
........................

*note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects allow the help formatting to be
customized by specifying an alternate formatting class.  Currently,
there are four such classes:

 -- Sınıfı: argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
 -- Sınıfı: argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter
 -- Sınıfı: argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
 -- Sınıfı: argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter

*note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 2a43. and *note RawTextHelpFormatter:
2a44. give more control over how textual descriptions are displayed.  By
default, *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects line-wrap the *note
description: 2a36. and *note epilog: 2a37. texts in command-line help
messages:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     description='''this description
     ...         was indented weird
     ...             but that is okay''',
     ...     epilog='''
     ...             likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will
     ...         be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped
     ...         across a couple lines''')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     this description was indented weird but that is okay

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words
     will be wrapped across a couple lines

Passing *note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 2a43. as ‘formatter_class=’
indicates that *note description: 2a36. and *note epilog: 2a37. are
already correctly formatted and should not be line-wrapped:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
     ...     description=textwrap.dedent('''\
     ...         Please do not mess up this text!
     ...         --------------------------------
     ...             I have indented it
     ...             exactly the way
     ...             I want it
     ...         '''))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     Please do not mess up this text!
     --------------------------------
        I have indented it
        exactly the way
        I want it

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

*note RawTextHelpFormatter: 2a44. maintains whitespace for all sorts of
help text, including argument descriptions.  However, multiple newlines
are replaced with one.  If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines,
add spaces between the newlines.

*note ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 16c3. automatically adds
information about default values to each of the argument help messages:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int, default=42, help='FOO!')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='*', default=[1, 2, 3], help='BAR!')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar ...]

     positional arguments:
      bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)

*note MetavarTypeHelpFormatter: 2a45. uses the name of the *note type:
2a46. argument for each argument as the display name for its values
(rather than using the *note dest: 2a47. as the regular formatter does):

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float

     positional arguments:
       float

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --foo int


File: python.info,  Node: prefix_chars,  Next: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Prev: formatter_class,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.8 prefix_chars
.....................

Most command-line options will use ‘-’ as the prefix, e.g.  ‘-f/--foo’.
Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix characters,
e.g.  for options like ‘+f’ or ‘/foo’, may specify them using the
‘prefix_chars=’ argument to the *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. constructor:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('+f')
     >>> parser.add_argument('++bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('+f X ++bar Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='Y', f='X')

The ‘prefix_chars=’ argument defaults to ‘'-'’.  Supplying a set of
characters that does not include ‘-’ will cause ‘-f/--foo’ options to be
disallowed.


File: python.info,  Node: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Next: argument_default,  Prev: prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.9 fromfile_prefix_chars
..............................

Sometimes, when dealing with a particularly long argument list, it may
make sense to keep the list of arguments in a file rather than typing it
out at the command line.  If the ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ argument is
given to the *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. constructor, then arguments that
start with any of the specified characters will be treated as files, and
will be replaced by the arguments they contain.  For example:

     >>> with open('args.txt', 'w', encoding=sys.getfilesystemencoding()) as fp:
     ...     fp.write('-f\nbar')
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(fromfile_prefix_chars='@')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
     Namespace(f='bar')

Arguments read from a file must by default be one per line (but see also
*note convert_arg_line_to_args(): 2a48.) and are treated as if they were
in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the
command line.  So in the example above, the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'@args.txt']’ is considered equivalent to the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'-f', 'bar']’.

*note ArgumentParser: 2c5. uses *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 2c7. to read the file containing arguments.

The ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ argument defaults to ‘None’, meaning that
arguments will never be treated as file references.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. changed encoding and
errors to read arguments files from default (e.g.  *note
locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 2c6. and ‘"strict"’) to the *note
filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.  Arguments file should be
encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: argument_default,  Next: allow_abbrev,  Prev: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.10 argument_default
..........................

Generally, argument defaults are specified either by passing a default
to *note add_argument(): 1571. or by calling the *note set_defaults():
2a49. methods with a specific set of name-value pairs.  Sometimes
however, it may be useful to specify a single parser-wide default for
arguments.  This can be accomplished by passing the ‘argument_default=’
keyword argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.  For example, to globally
suppress attribute creation on *note parse_args(): 2a31. calls, we
supply ‘argument_default=SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(argument_default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='1')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()


File: python.info,  Node: allow_abbrev,  Next: conflict_handler,  Prev: argument_default,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.11 allow_abbrev
......................

Normally, when you pass an argument list to the *note parse_args():
2a31. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 2c5, it *note recognizes
abbreviations: c4c. of long options.

This feature can be disabled by setting ‘allow_abbrev’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', allow_abbrev=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foobar', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foonley', action='store_false')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foon'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon

Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: conflict_handler,  Next: add_help,  Prev: allow_abbrev,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.12 conflict_handler
..........................

*note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects do not allow two actions with the
same option string.  By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects
raise an exception if an attempt is made to create an argument with an
option string that is already in use:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ..
     ArgumentError: argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo

Sometimes (e.g.  when using *note parents: 2a38.) it may be useful to
simply override any older arguments with the same option string.  To get
this behavior, the value ‘'resolve'’ can be supplied to the
‘conflict_handler=’ argument of *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', conflict_handler='resolve')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      -f FOO      old foo help
      --foo FOO   new foo help

Note that *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects only remove an action if
all of its option strings are overridden.  So, in the example above, the
old ‘-f/--foo’ action is retained as the ‘-f’ action, because only the
‘--foo’ option string was overridden.


File: python.info,  Node: add_help,  Next: exit_on_error,  Prev: conflict_handler,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.13 add_help
..................

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects add an option which
simply displays the parser’s help message.  If ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ is
supplied at the command line, the ‘ArgumentParser’ help will be printed.

Occasionally, it may be useful to disable the addition of this help
option.  This can be achieved by passing ‘False’ as the ‘add_help=’
argument to *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [--foo FOO]

     options:
      --foo FOO  foo help

The help option is typically ‘-h/--help’.  The exception to this is if
the ‘prefix_chars=’ is specified and does not include ‘-’, in which case
‘-h’ and ‘--help’ are not valid options.  In this case, the first
character in ‘prefix_chars’ is used to prefix the help options:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='+/')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [+h]

     options:
       +h, ++help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: exit_on_error,  Prev: add_help,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.16.4.14 exit_on_error
.......................

Normally, when you pass an invalid argument list to the *note
parse_args(): 2a31. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 2c5, it will
print a 'message' to *note sys.stderr: 792. and exit with a status code
of 2.

If the user would like to catch errors manually, the feature can be
enabled by setting ‘exit_on_error’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(exit_on_error=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--integers', type=int)
     _StoreAction(option_strings=['--integers'], dest='integers', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type=<class 'int'>, choices=None, help=None, metavar=None)
     >>> try:
     ...     parser.parse_args('--integers a'.split())
     ... except argparse.ArgumentError:
     ...     print('Catching an argumentError')
     ...
     Catching an argumentError

Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: The add_argument method,  Next: The parse_args method,  Prev: ArgumentParser objects,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.15 The add_argument() method
...................................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.add_argument (name or flags..., *[,
          action][, nargs][, const][, default][, type][, choices][,
          required][, help][, metavar][, dest])

     Define how a single command-line argument should be parsed.  Each
     parameter has its own more detailed description below, but in short
     they are:

        * *note name or flags: 2a4c. - Either a name or a list of option
          strings, e.g.  ‘'foo'’ or ‘'-f', '--foo'’.

        * *note action: 2a4d. - The basic type of action to be taken
          when this argument is encountered at the command line.

        * *note nargs: 1440. - The number of command-line arguments that
          should be consumed.

        * *note const: 2a4e. - A constant value required by some *note
          action: 2a4d. and *note nargs: 1440. selections.

        * *note default: 2a4f. - The value produced if the argument is
          absent from the command line and if it is absent from the
          namespace object.

        * *note type: 2a46. - The type to which the command-line
          argument should be converted.

        * *note choices: 143f. - A sequence of the allowable values for
          the argument.

        * *note required: 2a50. - Whether or not the command-line option
          may be omitted (optionals only).

        * *note help: 2a51. - A brief description of what the argument
          does.

        * *note metavar: 2a52. - A name for the argument in usage
          messages.

        * *note dest: 2a47. - The name of the attribute to be added to
          the object returned by *note parse_args(): 2a31.

The following sections describe how each of these are used.

* Menu:

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* help::
* metavar::
* dest::
* Action classes::


File: python.info,  Node: name or flags,  Next: action,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.16 name or flags
.......................

The *note add_argument(): 1571. method must know whether an optional
argument, like ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’, or a positional argument, like a list of
filenames, is expected.  The first arguments passed to *note
add_argument(): 1571. must therefore be either a series of flags, or a
simple argument name.

For example, an optional argument could be created like:

     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')

while a positional argument could be created like:

     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')

When *note parse_args(): 2a31. is called, optional arguments will be
identified by the ‘-’ prefix, and the remaining arguments will be
assumed to be positional:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR', '--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='FOO')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar
     PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar


File: python.info,  Node: action,  Next: nargs,  Prev: name or flags,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.17 action
................

*note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects associate command-line arguments with
actions.  These actions can do just about anything with the command-line
arguments associated with them, though most actions simply add an
attribute to the object returned by *note parse_args(): 2a31.  The
‘action’ keyword argument specifies how the command-line arguments
should be handled.  The supplied actions are:

   * ‘'store'’ - This just stores the argument’s value.  This is the
     default action.

   * ‘'store_const'’ - This stores the value specified by the *note
     const: 2a4e. keyword argument; note that the *note const: 2a4e.
     keyword argument defaults to ‘None’.  The ‘'store_const'’ action is
     most commonly used with optional arguments that specify some sort
     of flag.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_const', const=42)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(foo=42)

   * ‘'store_true'’ and ‘'store_false'’ - These are special cases of
     ‘'store_const'’ used for storing the values ‘True’ and ‘False’
     respectively.  In addition, they create default values of ‘False’
     and ‘True’ respectively:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--baz', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
          Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)

   * ‘'append'’ - This stores a list, and appends each argument value to
     the list.  It is useful to allow an option to be specified multiple
     times.  If the default value is non-empty, the default elements
     will be present in the parsed value for the option, with any values
     from the command line appended after those default values.  Example
     usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
          Namespace(foo=['1', '2'])

   * ‘'append_const'’ - This stores a list, and appends the value
     specified by the *note const: 2a4e. keyword argument to the list;
     note that the *note const: 2a4e. keyword argument defaults to
     ‘None’.  The ‘'append_const'’ action is typically useful when
     multiple arguments need to store constants to the same list.  For
     example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--str', dest='types', action='append_const', const=str)
          >>> parser.add_argument('--int', dest='types', action='append_const', const=int)
          >>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
          Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])

   * ‘'extend'’ - This stores a list and appends each item from the
     multi-value argument list to it.  The ‘'extend'’ action is
     typically used with the *note nargs: 1440. keyword argument value
     ‘'+'’ or ‘'*'’.  Note that when *note nargs: 1440. is ‘None’ (the
     default) or ‘'?'’, each character of the argument string will be
     appended to the list.  Example usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
          >>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
          Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])

     Added in version 3.8.

   * ‘'count'’ - This counts the number of times a keyword argument
     occurs.  For example, this is useful for increasing verbosity
     levels:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--verbose', '-v', action='count', default=0)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
          Namespace(verbose=3)

     Note, the 'default' will be ‘None’ unless explicitly set to '0'.

   * ‘'help'’ - This prints a complete help message for all the options
     in the current parser and then exits.  By default a help action is
     automatically added to the parser.  See *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.
     for details of how the output is created.

   * ‘'version'’ - This expects a ‘version=’ keyword argument in the
     *note add_argument(): 1571. call, and prints version information
     and exits when invoked:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='%(prog)s 2.0')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
          PROG 2.0

Only actions that consume command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘'store'’,
‘'append'’ or ‘'extend'’) can be used with positional arguments.

 -- Sınıfı: argparse.BooleanOptionalAction

     You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an *note
     Action: 1622. subclass or other object that implements the same
     interface.  The ‘BooleanOptionalAction’ is available in ‘argparse’
     and adds support for boolean actions such as ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
          Namespace(foo=False)

     Added in version 3.9.

The recommended way to create a custom action is to extend *note Action:
1622, overriding the ‘__call__()’ method and optionally the ‘__init__()’
and ‘format_usage()’ methods.  You can also register custom actions
using the *note register(): 2a55. method and reference them by their
registered name.

An example of a custom action:

     >>> class FooAction(argparse.Action):
     ...     def __init__(self, option_strings, dest, nargs=None, **kwargs):
     ...         if nargs is not None:
     ...             raise ValueError("nargs not allowed")
     ...         super().__init__(option_strings, dest, **kwargs)
     ...     def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
     ...         print('%r %r %r' % (namespace, values, option_string))
     ...         setattr(namespace, self.dest, values)
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=FooAction)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', action=FooAction)
     >>> args = parser.parse_args('1 --foo 2'.split())
     Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) '1' None
     Namespace(bar='1', foo=None) '2' '--foo'
     >>> args
     Namespace(bar='1', foo='2')

For more details, see *note Action: 1622.


File: python.info,  Node: nargs,  Next: const,  Prev: action,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.18 nargs
...............

*note ArgumentParser: 2c5. objects usually associate a single
command-line argument with a single action to be taken.  The ‘nargs’
keyword argument associates a different number of command-line arguments
with a single action.  See also *note Specifying ambiguous arguments:
2a57.  The supported values are:

   * ‘N’ (an integer).  ‘N’ arguments from the command line will be
     gathered together into a list.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2)
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs=1)
          >>> parser.parse_args('c --foo a b'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['c'], foo=['a', 'b'])

     Note that ‘nargs=1’ produces a list of one item.  This is different
     from the default, in which the item is produced by itself.

   * ‘'?'’.  One argument will be consumed from the command line if
     possible, and produced as a single item.  If no command-line
     argument is present, the value from *note default: 2a4f. will be
     produced.  Note that for optional arguments, there is an additional
     case - the option string is present but not followed by a
     command-line argument.  In this case the value from *note const:
     2a4e. will be produced.  Some examples to illustrate this:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', const='c', default='d')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', default='d')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo', 'YY'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='YY')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='c')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(bar='d', foo='d')

     One of the more common uses of ‘nargs='?'’ is to allow optional
     input and output files:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('r'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdin)
          >>> parser.add_argument('outfile', nargs='?', type=argparse.FileType('w'),
          ...                     default=sys.stdout)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt', 'output.txt'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='input.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='output.txt' encoding='UTF-8'>)
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>,
                    outfile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdout>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

   * ‘'*'’.  All command-line arguments present are gathered into a
     list.  Note that it generally doesn’t make much sense to have more
     than one positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’, but multiple
     optional arguments with ‘nargs='*'’ is possible.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('baz', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.parse_args('a b --foo x y --bar 1 2'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['1', '2'], baz=['a', 'b'], foo=['x', 'y'])

   * ‘'+'’.  Just like ‘'*'’, all command-line args present are gathered
     into a list.  Additionally, an error message will be generated if
     there wasn’t at least one command-line argument present.  For
     example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='+')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', 'b'])
          Namespace(foo=['a', 'b'])
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]
          PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo

If the ‘nargs’ keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments
consumed is determined by the *note action: 2a4d.  Generally this means
a single command-line argument will be consumed and a single item (not a
list) will be produced.  Actions that do not consume command-line
arguments (e.g.  ‘'store_const'’) set ‘nargs=0’.


File: python.info,  Node: const,  Next: default,  Prev: nargs,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.19 const
...............

The ‘const’ argument of *note add_argument(): 1571. is used to hold
constant values that are not read from the command line but are required
for the various *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. actions.  The two most common
uses of it are:

   * When *note add_argument(): 1571. is called with
     ‘action='store_const'’ or ‘action='append_const'’.  These actions
     add the ‘const’ value to one of the attributes of the object
     returned by *note parse_args(): 2a31.  See the *note action: 2a4d.
     description for examples.  If ‘const’ is not provided to *note
     add_argument(): 1571, it will receive a default value of ‘None’.

   * When *note add_argument(): 1571. is called with option strings
     (like ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’) and ‘nargs='?'’.  This creates an optional
     argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line
     arguments.  When parsing the command line, if the option string is
     encountered with no command-line argument following it, the value
     of ‘const’ will be assumed to be ‘None’ instead.  See the *note
     nargs: 1440. description for examples.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘const=None’ by default, including when
‘action='append_const'’ or ‘action='store_const'’.


File: python.info,  Node: default,  Next: type,  Prev: const,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.20 default
.................

All optional arguments and some positional arguments may be omitted at
the command line.  The ‘default’ keyword argument of *note
add_argument(): 1571, whose value defaults to ‘None’, specifies what
value should be used if the command-line argument is not present.  For
optional arguments, the ‘default’ value is used when the option string
was not present at the command line:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '2'])
     Namespace(foo='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

If the target namespace already has an attribute set, the action
'default' will not overwrite it:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args([], namespace=argparse.Namespace(foo=101))
     Namespace(foo=101)

If the ‘default’ value is a string, the parser parses the value as if it
were a command-line argument.  In particular, the parser applies any
*note type: 2a46. conversion argument, if provided, before setting the
attribute on the *note Namespace: 2a32. return value.  Otherwise, the
parser uses the value as is:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--length', default='10', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--width', default=10.5, type=int)
     >>> parser.parse_args()
     Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)

For positional arguments with *note nargs: 1440. equal to ‘?’ or ‘*’,
the ‘default’ value is used when no command-line argument was present:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['a'])
     Namespace(foo='a')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

For *note required: 2a50. arguments, the ‘default’ value is ignored.
For example, this applies to positional arguments with *note nargs:
1440. values other than ‘?’ or ‘*’, or optional arguments marked as
‘required=True’.

Providing ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ causes no attribute to be added if
the command-line argument was not present:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1'])
     Namespace(foo='1')


File: python.info,  Node: type,  Next: choices,  Prev: default,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.21 type
..............

By default, the parser reads command-line arguments in as simple
strings.  However, quite often the command-line string should instead be
interpreted as another type, such as a *note float: 272. or *note int:
184.  The ‘type’ keyword for *note add_argument(): 1571. allows any
necessary type-checking and type conversions to be performed.

If the *note type: 2a46. keyword is used with the *note default: 2a4f.
keyword, the type converter is only applied if the default is a string.

The argument to ‘type’ can be a callable that accepts a single string or
the name of a registered type (see *note register(): 2a55.) If the
function raises *note ArgumentTypeError: 2a5b, *note TypeError: 2c4, or
*note ValueError: 189, the exception is caught and a nicely formatted
error message is displayed.  Other exception types are not handled.

Common built-in types and functions can be used as type converters:

     import argparse
     import pathlib

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('count', type=int)
     parser.add_argument('distance', type=float)
     parser.add_argument('street', type=ascii)
     parser.add_argument('code_point', type=ord)
     parser.add_argument('dest_file', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='latin-1'))
     parser.add_argument('datapath', type=pathlib.Path)

User defined functions can be used as well:

     >>> def hyphenated(string):
     ...     return '-'.join([word[:4] for word in string.casefold().split()])
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> _ = parser.add_argument('short_title', type=hyphenated)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['"The Tale of Two Cities"'])
     Namespace(short_title='"the-tale-of-two-citi')

The *note bool(): 183. function is not recommended as a type converter.
All it does is convert empty strings to ‘False’ and non-empty strings to
‘True’.  This is usually not what is desired.

In general, the ‘type’ keyword is a convenience that should only be used
for simple conversions that can only raise one of the three supported
exceptions.  Anything with more interesting error-handling or resource
management should be done downstream after the arguments are parsed.

For example, JSON or YAML conversions have complex error cases that
require better reporting than can be given by the ‘type’ keyword.  A
*note JSONDecodeError: cb0. would not be well formatted and a *note
FileNotFoundError: 39a. exception would not be handled at all.

Even *note FileType: db7. has its limitations for use with the ‘type’
keyword.  If one argument uses *note FileType: db7. and then a
subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file is not
automatically closed.  In this case, it would be better to wait until
after the parser has run and then use the *note with: 3dd.-statement to
manage the files.

For type checkers that simply check against a fixed set of values,
consider using the *note choices: 143f. keyword instead.


File: python.info,  Node: choices,  Next: required,  Prev: type,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.22 choices
.................

Some command-line arguments should be selected from a restricted set of
values.  These can be handled by passing a sequence object as the
'choices' keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 1571.  When the
command line is parsed, argument values will be checked, and an error
message will be displayed if the argument was not one of the acceptable
values:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='game.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('move', choices=['rock', 'paper', 'scissors'])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['rock'])
     Namespace(move='rock')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['fire'])
     usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}
     game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
     'paper', 'scissors')

Note that inclusion in the 'choices' sequence is checked after any *note
type: 2a46. conversions have been performed, so the type of the objects
in the 'choices' sequence should match the *note type: 2a46. specified.

Any sequence can be passed as the 'choices' value, so *note list: 422.
objects, *note tuple: 4ff. objects, and custom sequences are all
supported.

Use of *note enum.Enum: 443. is not recommended because it is difficult
to control its appearance in usage, help, and error messages.

Formatted choices override the default 'metavar' which is normally
derived from 'dest'.  This is usually what you want because the user
never sees the 'dest' parameter.  If this display isn’t desirable
(perhaps because there are many choices), just specify an explicit *note
metavar: 2a52.


File: python.info,  Node: required,  Next: help,  Prev: choices,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.23 required
..................

In general, the ‘argparse’ module assumes that flags like ‘-f’ and
‘--bar’ indicate 'optional' arguments, which can always be omitted at
the command line.  To make an option 'required', ‘True’ can be specified
for the ‘required=’ keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 1571.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', required=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(foo='BAR')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     usage: [-h] --foo FOO
     : error: the following arguments are required: --foo

As the example shows, if an option is marked as ‘required’, *note
parse_args(): 2a31. will report an error if that option is not present
at the command line.

     Not: Required options are generally considered bad form because
     users expect 'options' to be 'optional', and thus they should be
     avoided when possible.


File: python.info,  Node: help,  Next: metavar,  Prev: required,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.24 help
..............

The ‘help’ value is a string containing a brief description of the
argument.  When a user requests help (usually by using ‘-h’ or ‘--help’
at the command line), these ‘help’ descriptions will be displayed with
each argument.

The ‘help’ strings can include various format specifiers to avoid
repetition of things like the program name or the argument *note
default: 2a4f.  The available specifiers include the program name,
‘%(prog)s’ and most keyword arguments to *note add_argument(): 1571,
e.g.  ‘%(default)s’, ‘%(type)s’, etc.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', type=int, default=42,
     ...                     help='the bar to %(prog)s (default: %(default)s)')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h] [bar]

     positional arguments:
      bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

As the help string supports %-formatting, if you want a literal ‘%’ to
appear in the help string, you must escape it as ‘%%’.

‘argparse’ supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
setting the ‘help’ value to ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: metavar,  Next: dest,  Prev: help,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.25 metavar
.................

When *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. generates help messages, it needs some
way to refer to each expected argument.  By default, ‘ArgumentParser’
objects use the *note dest: 2a47. value as the “name” of each object.
By default, for positional argument actions, the *note dest: 2a47. value
is used directly, and for optional argument actions, the *note dest:
2a47. value is uppercased.  So, a single positional argument with
‘dest='bar'’ will be referred to as ‘bar’.  A single optional argument
‘--foo’ that should be followed by a single command-line argument will
be referred to as ‘FOO’.  An example:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar

     positional arguments:
      bar

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO

An alternative name can be specified with ‘metavar’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', metavar='YYY')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', metavar='XXX')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX

     positional arguments:
      XXX

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo YYY

Note that ‘metavar’ only changes the 'displayed' name - the name of the
attribute on the *note parse_args(): 2a31. object is still determined by
the *note dest: 2a47. value.

Different values of ‘nargs’ may cause the metavar to be used multiple
times.  Providing a tuple to ‘metavar’ specifies a different display for
each of the arguments:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', nargs=2)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2, metavar=('bar', 'baz'))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]

     options:
      -h, --help     show this help message and exit
      -x X X
      --foo bar baz


File: python.info,  Node: dest,  Next: Action classes,  Prev: metavar,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.26 dest
..............

Most *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. actions add some value as an attribute
of the object returned by *note parse_args(): 2a31.  The name of this
attribute is determined by the ‘dest’ keyword argument of *note
add_argument(): 1571.  For positional argument actions, ‘dest’ is
normally supplied as the first argument to *note add_argument(): 1571.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['XXX'])
     Namespace(bar='XXX')

For optional argument actions, the value of ‘dest’ is normally inferred
from the option strings.  *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. generates the value
of ‘dest’ by taking the first long option string and stripping away the
initial ‘--’ string.  If no long option strings were supplied, ‘dest’
will be derived from the first short option string by stripping the
initial ‘-’ character.  Any internal ‘-’ characters will be converted to
‘_’ characters to make sure the string is a valid attribute name.  The
examples below illustrate this behavior:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo-bar', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', '-y')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-f 1 -x 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 -y 2'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', x='2')

‘dest’ allows a custom attribute name to be provided:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', dest='bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
     Namespace(bar='XXX')


File: python.info,  Node: Action classes,  Prev: dest,  Up: The add_argument method

5.16.4.27 Action classes
........................

‘Action’ classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a
callable which processes arguments from the command-line.  Any object
which follows this API may be passed as the ‘action’ parameter to *note
add_argument(): 1571.

 -- Sınıfı: argparse.Action (option_strings, dest, nargs=None,
          const=None, default=None, type=None, choices=None,
          required=False, help=None, metavar=None)

     ‘Action’ objects are used by an *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. to
     represent the information needed to parse a single argument from
     one or more strings from the command line.  The ‘Action’ class must
     accept the two positional arguments plus any keyword arguments
     passed to *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 1571. except for the
     ‘action’ itself.

     Instances of ‘Action’ (or return value of any callable to the
     ‘action’ parameter) should have attributes ‘dest’,
     ‘option_strings’, ‘default’, ‘type’, ‘required’, ‘help’, etc.
     defined.  The easiest way to ensure these attributes are defined is
     to call ‘Action.__init__()’.

      -- Yöntemi: __call__ (parser, namespace, values,
               option_string=None)

          ‘Action’ instances should be callable, so subclasses must
          override the ‘__call__()’ method, which should accept four
          parameters:

             * 'parser' - The *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. object which
               contains this action.

             * 'namespace' - The *note Namespace: 2a32. object that will
               be returned by *note parse_args(): 2a31.  Most actions
               add an attribute to this object using *note setattr():
               1f47.

             * 'values' - The associated command-line arguments, with
               any type conversions applied.  Type conversions are
               specified with the *note type: 2a46. keyword argument to
               *note add_argument(): 1571.

             * 'option_string' - The option string that was used to
               invoke this action.  The ‘option_string’ argument is
               optional, and will be absent if the action is associated
               with a positional argument.

          The ‘__call__()’ method may perform arbitrary actions, but
          will typically set attributes on the ‘namespace’ based on
          ‘dest’ and ‘values’.

      -- Yöntemi: format_usage ()

          ‘Action’ subclasses can define a ‘format_usage()’ method that
          takes no argument and return a string which will be used when
          printing the usage of the program.  If such method is not
          provided, a sensible default will be used.


File: python.info,  Node: The parse_args method,  Next: Other utilities,  Prev: The add_argument method,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.28 The parse_args() method
.................................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.parse_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Convert argument strings to objects and assign them as attributes
     of the namespace.  Return the populated namespace.

     Previous calls to *note add_argument(): 1571. determine exactly
     what objects are created and how they are assigned.  See the
     documentation for ‘add_argument()’ for details.

        * *note args: 2a65. - List of strings to parse.  The default is
          taken from *note sys.argv: 110d.

        * *note namespace: 2a66. - An object to take the attributes.
          The default is a new empty *note Namespace: 2a32. object.

* Menu:

* Option value syntax::
* Invalid arguments::
* Arguments containing -::
* Argument abbreviations (prefix matching): Argument abbreviations prefix matching.
* Beyond sys.argv: Beyond sys argv.
* The Namespace object::


File: python.info,  Node: Option value syntax,  Next: Invalid arguments,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.29 Option value syntax
.............................

The *note parse_args(): 2a31. method supports several ways of specifying
the value of an option (if it takes one).  In the simplest case, the
option and its value are passed as two separate arguments:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

For long options (options with names longer than a single character),
the option and value can also be passed as a single command-line
argument, using ‘=’ to separate them:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo=FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

For short options (options only one character long), the option and its
value can be concatenated:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xX'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')

Several short options can be joined together, using only a single ‘-’
prefix, as long as only the last option (or none of them) requires a
value:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-y', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-z')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xyzZ'])
     Namespace(x=True, y=True, z='Z')


File: python.info,  Node: Invalid arguments,  Next: Arguments containing -,  Prev: Option value syntax,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.30 Invalid arguments
...........................

While parsing the command line, *note parse_args(): 2a31. checks for a
variety of errors, including ambiguous options, invalid types, invalid
options, wrong number of positional arguments, etc.  When it encounters
such an error, it exits and prints the error along with a usage message:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')

     >>> # invalid type
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'spam'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: 'spam'

     >>> # invalid option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: no such option: --bar

     >>> # wrong number of arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments containing -,  Next: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Prev: Invalid arguments,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.31 Arguments containing ‘-’
..................................

The *note parse_args(): 2a31. method attempts to give errors whenever
the user has clearly made a mistake, but some situations are inherently
ambiguous.  For example, the command-line argument ‘-1’ could either be
an attempt to specify an option or an attempt to provide a positional
argument.  The *note parse_args(): 2a31. method is cautious here:
positional arguments may only begin with ‘-’ if they look like negative
numbers and there are no options in the parser that look like negative
numbers:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='-1')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1', '-5'])
     Namespace(foo='-5', x='-1')

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-1', dest='one')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -1 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, one='X')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: no such option: -2

     >>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument

If you have positional arguments that must begin with ‘-’ and don’t look
like negative numbers, you can insert the pseudo-argument ‘'--'’ which
tells *note parse_args(): 2a31. that everything after that is a
positional argument:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(foo='-f', one=None)

See also *note the argparse howto on ambiguous arguments: 2a57. for more
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Next: Beyond sys argv,  Prev: Arguments containing -,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.32 Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)
..................................................

The *note parse_args(): 2a31. method *note by default: c4d. allows long
options to be abbreviated to a prefix, if the abbreviation is
unambiguous (the prefix matches a unique option):

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-bacon')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-badger')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bac MMM'.split())
     Namespace(bacon='MMM', badger=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bad WOOD'.split())
     Namespace(bacon=None, badger='WOOD')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-ba BA'.split())
     usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]
     PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon

An error is produced for arguments that could produce more than one
options.  This feature can be disabled by setting *note allow_abbrev:
c4d. to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Beyond sys argv,  Next: The Namespace object,  Prev: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.33 Beyond ‘sys.argv’
...........................

Sometimes it may be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. parse
arguments other than those of *note sys.argv: 110d.  This can be
accomplished by passing a list of strings to *note parse_args(): 2a31.
This is useful for testing at the interactive prompt:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     'integers', metavar='int', type=int, choices=range(10),
     ...     nargs='+', help='an integer in the range 0..9')
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     '--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const', const=sum,
     ...     default=max, help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function max>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4', '--sum'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])


File: python.info,  Node: The Namespace object,  Prev: Beyond sys argv,  Up: The parse_args method

5.16.4.34 The Namespace object
..............................

 -- Sınıfı: argparse.Namespace

     Simple class used by default by *note parse_args(): 2a31. to create
     an object holding attributes and return it.

     This class is deliberately simple, just an *note object: 8f2.
     subclass with a readable string representation.  If you prefer to
     have dict-like view of the attributes, you can use the standard
     Python idiom, *note vars(): 1882.:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
          >>> vars(args)
          {'foo': 'BAR'}

     It may also be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. assign
     attributes to an already existing object, rather than a new *note
     Namespace: 2a32. object.  This can be achieved by specifying the
     ‘namespace=’ keyword argument:

          >>> class C:
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
          >>> c.foo
          'BAR'


File: python.info,  Node: Other utilities,  Next: Exceptions<7>,  Prev: The parse_args method,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.35 Other utilities
.........................

* Menu:

* Sub-commands::
* FileType objects::
* Argument groups::
* Mutual exclusion::
* Parser defaults::
* Printing help::
* Partial parsing::
* Customizing file parsing::
* Exiting methods::
* Intermixed parsing::
* Registering custom types or actions::


File: python.info,  Node: Sub-commands,  Next: FileType objects,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.36 Sub-commands
......................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers (*[, title][, description][,
          prog][, parser_class][, action][, dest][, required][, help][,
          metavar])

     Many programs split up their functionality into a number of
     subcommands, for example, the ‘svn’ program can invoke subcommands
     like ‘svn checkout’, ‘svn update’, and ‘svn commit’.  Splitting up
     functionality this way can be a particularly good idea when a
     program performs several different functions which require
     different kinds of command-line arguments.  *note ArgumentParser:
     2c5. supports the creation of such subcommands with the
     ‘add_subparsers()’ method.  The ‘add_subparsers()’ method is
     normally called with no arguments and returns a special action
     object.  This object has a single method, ‘add_parser()’, which
     takes a command name and any ‘ArgumentParser’ constructor
     arguments, and returns an ‘ArgumentParser’ object that can be
     modified as usual.

     Description of parameters:

        * 'title' - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by
          default “subcommands” if description is provided, otherwise
          uses title for positional arguments

        * 'description' - description for the sub-parser group in help
          output, by default ‘None’

        * 'prog' - usage information that will be displayed with
          sub-command help, by default the name of the program and any
          positional arguments before the subparser argument

        * 'parser_class' - class which will be used to create sub-parser
          instances, by default the class of the current parser (e.g.
          *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.)

        * *note action: 2a4d. - the basic type of action to be taken
          when this argument is encountered at the command line

        * *note dest: 2a47. - name of the attribute under which
          sub-command name will be stored; by default ‘None’ and no
          value is stored

        * *note required: 2a50. - Whether or not a subcommand must be
          provided, by default ‘False’ (added in 3.7)

        * *note help: 2a51. - help for sub-parser group in help output,
          by default ‘None’

        * *note metavar: 2a52. - string presenting available subcommands
          in help; by default it is ‘None’ and presents subcommands in
          form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}

     Some example usage:

          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='subcommand help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "a" command
          >>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
          >>> parser_a.add_argument('bar', type=int, help='bar help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "b" command
          >>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
          >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices=('X', 'Y', 'Z'), help='baz help')
          >>>
          >>> # parse some argument lists
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
          Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'b', '--baz', 'Z'])
          Namespace(baz='Z', foo=True)

     Note that the object returned by *note parse_args(): 2a31. will
     only contain attributes for the main parser and the subparser that
     was selected by the command line (and not any other subparsers).
     So in the example above, when the ‘a’ command is specified, only
     the ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ attributes are present, and when the ‘b’
     command is specified, only the ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ attributes are
     present.

     Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only
     the help for that particular parser will be printed.  The help
     message will not include parent parser or sibling parser messages.
     (A help message for each subparser command, however, can be given
     by supplying the ‘help=’ argument to ‘add_parser()’ as above.)

          >>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...

          positional arguments:
            {a,b}   subcommand help
              a     a help
              b     b help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit
            --foo   foo help

          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '--help'])
          usage: PROG a [-h] bar

          positional arguments:
            bar     bar help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          >>> parser.parse_args(['b', '--help'])
          usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]

          options:
            -h, --help     show this help message and exit
            --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help

     The *note add_subparsers(): a90. method also supports ‘title’ and
     ‘description’ keyword arguments.  When either is present, the
     subparser’s commands will appear in their own group in the help
     output.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(title='subcommands',
          ...                                    description='valid subcommands',
          ...                                    help='additional help')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
          usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          subcommands:
            valid subcommands

            {foo,bar}   additional help

     Furthermore, ‘add_parser’ supports an additional ‘aliases’
     argument, which allows multiple strings to refer to the same
     subparser.  This example, like ‘svn’, aliases ‘co’ as a shorthand
     for ‘checkout’:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> checkout = subparsers.add_parser('checkout', aliases=['co'])
          >>> checkout.add_argument('foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['co', 'bar'])
          Namespace(foo='bar')

     One particularly effective way of handling sub-commands is to
     combine the use of the *note add_subparsers(): a90. method with
     calls to *note set_defaults(): 2a49. so that each subparser knows
     which Python function it should execute.  For example:

          >>> # subcommand functions
          >>> def foo(args):
          ...     print(args.x * args.y)
          ...
          >>> def bar(args):
          ...     print('((%s))' % args.z)
          ...
          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(required=True)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "foo" command
          >>> parser_foo = subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('-x', type=int, default=1)
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('y', type=float)
          >>> parser_foo.set_defaults(func=foo)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "bar" command
          >>> parser_bar = subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser_bar.add_argument('z')
          >>> parser_bar.set_defaults(func=bar)
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('foo 1 -x 2'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          2.0
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('bar XYZYX'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          ((XYZYX))

     This way, you can let *note parse_args(): 2a31. do the job of
     calling the appropriate function after argument parsing is
     complete.  Associating functions with actions like this is
     typically the easiest way to handle the different actions for each
     of your subparsers.  However, if it is necessary to check the name
     of the subparser that was invoked, the ‘dest’ keyword argument to
     the *note add_subparsers(): a90. call will work:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='subparser_name')
          >>> subparser1 = subparsers.add_parser('1')
          >>> subparser1.add_argument('-x')
          >>> subparser2 = subparsers.add_parser('2')
          >>> subparser2.add_argument('y')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['2', 'frobble'])
          Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: New 'required' keyword-only parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: FileType objects,  Next: Argument groups,  Prev: Sub-commands,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.37 FileType objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: argparse.FileType (mode='r', bufsize=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     The *note FileType: db7. factory creates objects that can be passed
     to the type argument of *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 1571.
     Arguments that have *note FileType: db7. objects as their type will
     open command-line arguments as files with the requested modes,
     buffer sizes, encodings and error handling (see the *note open():
     2a6. function for more details):

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--raw', type=argparse.FileType('wb', 0))
          >>> parser.add_argument('out', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='UTF-8'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--raw', 'raw.dat', 'file.txt'])
          Namespace(out=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='file.txt' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, raw=<_io.FileIO name='raw.dat' mode='wb'>)

     FileType objects understand the pseudo-argument ‘'-'’ and
     automatically convert this into *note sys.stdin: 2c9. for readable
     *note FileType: db7. objects and *note sys.stdout: 943. for
     writable *note FileType: db7. objects:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', type=argparse.FileType('r'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'encodings' and 'errors'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Argument groups,  Next: Mutual exclusion,  Prev: FileType objects,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.38 Argument groups
.........................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group (title=None,
          description=None, *[, argument_default][, conflict_handler])

     By default, *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. groups command-line
     arguments into “positional arguments” and “options” when displaying
     help messages.  When there is a better conceptual grouping of
     arguments than this default one, appropriate groups can be created
     using the ‘add_argument_group()’ method:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group.add_argument('bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar

          group:
            bar    bar help
            --foo FOO  foo help

     The *note add_argument_group(): 2a71. method returns an argument
     group object which has an *note add_argument(): 1571. method just
     like a regular *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.  When an argument is
     added to the group, the parser treats it just like a normal
     argument, but displays the argument in a separate group for help
     messages.  The ‘add_argument_group()’ method accepts 'title' and
     'description' arguments which can be used to customize this
     display:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group1 = parser.add_argument_group('group1', 'group1 description')
          >>> group1.add_argument('foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group2 = parser.add_argument_group('group2', 'group2 description')
          >>> group2.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo

          group1:
            group1 description

            foo    foo help

          group2:
            group2 description

            --bar BAR  bar help

     The optional, keyword-only parameters *note argument_default: 2a3c.
     and *note conflict_handler: 2a3d. allow for finer-grained control
     of the behavior of the argument group.  These parameters have the
     same meaning as in the *note ArgumentParser: 2c5. constructor, but
     apply specifically to the argument group rather than the entire
     parser.

     Note that any arguments not in your user-defined groups will end up
     back in the usual “positional arguments” and “optional arguments”
     sections.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note add_argument_group(): 2a71.
     on an argument group is deprecated.  This feature was never
     supported and does not always work correctly.  The function exists
     on the API by accident through inheritance and will be removed in
     the future.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutual exclusion,  Next: Parser defaults,  Prev: Argument groups,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.39 Mutual exclusion
..........................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group
          (required=False)

     Create a mutually exclusive group.  ‘argparse’ will make sure that
     only one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was
     present on the command line:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
          Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '--bar'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]
          PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo

     The *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2a73. method also accepts
     a 'required' argument, to indicate that at least one of the
     mutually exclusive arguments is required:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)
          PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required

     Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not
     support the 'title' and 'description' arguments of *note
     add_argument_group(): 2a71.  However, a mutually exclusive group
     can be added to an argument group that has a title and description.
     For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('Group title', 'Group description')
          >>> exclusive_group = group.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo FOO | --bar BAR)

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          Group title:
            Group description

            --foo FOO   foo help
            --bar BAR   bar help

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Calling *note add_argument_group(): 2a71.
     or *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2a73. on a mutually
     exclusive group is deprecated.  These features were never supported
     and do not always work correctly.  The functions exist on the API
     by accident through inheritance and will be removed in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: Parser defaults,  Next: Printing help,  Prev: Mutual exclusion,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.40 Parser defaults
.........................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.set_defaults (**kwargs)

     Most of the time, the attributes of the object returned by *note
     parse_args(): 2a31. will be fully determined by inspecting the
     command-line arguments and the argument actions.  *note
     set_defaults(): 2a49. allows some additional attributes that are
     determined without any inspection of the command line to be added:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
          >>> parser.set_defaults(bar=42, baz='badger')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
          Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)

     Note that parser-level defaults always override argument-level
     defaults:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
          >>> parser.set_defaults(foo='spam')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(foo='spam')

     Parser-level defaults can be particularly useful when working with
     multiple parsers.  See the *note add_subparsers(): a90. method for
     an example of this type.

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.get_default (dest)

     Get the default value for a namespace attribute, as set by either
     *note add_argument(): 1571. or by *note set_defaults(): 2a49.:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='badger')
          >>> parser.get_default('foo')
          'badger'


File: python.info,  Node: Printing help,  Next: Partial parsing,  Prev: Parser defaults,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.41 Printing help
.......................

In most typical applications, *note parse_args(): 2a31. will take care
of formatting and printing any usage or error messages.  However,
several formatting methods are available:

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Print a brief description of how the *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.
     should be invoked on the command line.  If 'file' is ‘None’, *note
     sys.stdout: 943. is assumed.

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.print_help (file=None)

     Print a help message, including the program usage and information
     about the arguments registered with the *note ArgumentParser: 2c5.
     If 'file' is ‘None’, *note sys.stdout: 943. is assumed.

There are also variants of these methods that simply return a string
instead of printing it:

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.format_usage ()

     Return a string containing a brief description of how the *note
     ArgumentParser: 2c5. should be invoked on the command line.

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.format_help ()

     Return a string containing a help message, including the program
     usage and information about the arguments registered with the *note
     ArgumentParser: 2c5.


File: python.info,  Node: Partial parsing,  Next: Customizing file parsing,  Prev: Printing help,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.42 Partial parsing
.........................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.parse_known_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Sometimes a script may only parse a few of the command-line
     arguments, passing the remaining arguments on to another script or
     program.  In these cases, the *note parse_known_args(): 2a7b.
     method can be useful.  It works much like *note parse_args(): 2a31.
     except that it does not produce an error when extra arguments are
     present.  Instead, it returns a two item tuple containing the
     populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
          (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])

     Uyarı: *note Prefix matching: c4c. rules apply to *note
     parse_known_args(): 2a7b.  The parser may consume an option even if
     it’s just a prefix of one of its known options, instead of leaving
     it in the remaining arguments list.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing file parsing,  Next: Exiting methods,  Prev: Partial parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.43 Customizing file parsing
..................................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args (arg_line)

     Arguments that are read from a file (see the
     'fromfile_prefix_chars' keyword argument to the *note
     ArgumentParser: 2c5. constructor) are read one argument per line.
     *note convert_arg_line_to_args(): 2a48. can be overridden for
     fancier reading.

     This method takes a single argument 'arg_line' which is a string
     read from the argument file.  It returns a list of arguments parsed
     from this string.  The method is called once per line read from the
     argument file, in order.

     A useful override of this method is one that treats each
     space-separated word as an argument.  The following example
     demonstrates how to do this:

          class MyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
                  return arg_line.split()


File: python.info,  Node: Exiting methods,  Next: Intermixed parsing,  Prev: Customizing file parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.44 Exiting methods
.........................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.exit (status=0, message=None)

     This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified
     'status' and, if given, it prints a 'message' to *note sys.stderr:
     792. before that.  The user can override this method to handle
     these steps differently:

          class ErrorCatchingArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def exit(self, status=0, message=None):
                  if status:
                      raise Exception(f'Exiting because of an error: {message}')
                  exit(status)

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.error (message)

     This method prints a usage message, including the 'message', to
     *note sys.stderr: 792. and terminates the program with a status
     code of 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Intermixed parsing,  Next: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: Exiting methods,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.45 Intermixed parsing
............................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

     A number of Unix commands allow the user to intermix optional
     arguments with positional arguments.  The *note
     parse_intermixed_args(): 96e. and *note
     parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2a81. methods support this parsing
     style.

     These parsers do not support all the ‘argparse’ features, and will
     raise exceptions if unsupported features are used.  In particular,
     subparsers, and mutually exclusive groups that include both
     optionals and positionals are not supported.

     The following example shows the difference between *note
     parse_known_args(): 2a7b. and *note parse_intermixed_args(): 96e.:
     the former returns ‘['2', '3']’ as unparsed arguments, while the
     latter collects all the positionals into ‘rest’.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
          >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
          >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
          >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])

     *note parse_known_intermixed_args(): 2a81. returns a two item tuple
     containing the populated namespace and the list of remaining
     argument strings.  *note parse_intermixed_args(): 96e. raises an
     error if there are any remaining unparsed argument strings.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: Intermixed parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.16.4.46 Registering custom types or actions
.............................................

 -- Yöntemi: ArgumentParser.register (registry_name, value, object)

     Sometimes it’s desirable to use a custom string in error messages
     to provide more user-friendly output.  In these cases, ‘register()’
     can be used to register custom actions or types with a parser and
     allow you to reference the type by their registered name instead of
     their callable name.

     The ‘register()’ method accepts three arguments - a
     'registry_name', specifying the internal registry where the object
     will be stored (e.g., ‘action’, ‘type’), 'value', which is the key
     under which the object will be registered, and object, the callable
     to be registered.

     The following example shows how to register a custom type with a
     parser:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.register('type', 'hexadecimal integer', lambda s: int(s, 16))
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type='hexadecimal integer')
          _StoreAction(option_strings=['--foo'], dest='foo', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type='hexadecimal integer', choices=None, required=False, help=None, metavar=None, deprecated=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '0xFA'])
          Namespace(foo=250)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1.2'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO]
          PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid 'hexadecimal integer' value: '1.2'


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<7>,  Prev: Other utilities,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.16.4.47 Exceptions
....................

 -- Özel Durum: argparse.ArgumentError

     An error from creating or using an argument (optional or
     positional).

     The string value of this exception is the message, augmented with
     information about the argument that caused it.

 -- Özel Durum: argparse.ArgumentTypeError

     Raised when something goes wrong converting a command line string
     to a type.

Guides and Tutorials
....................

* Menu:

* Argparse Tutorial::
* Upgrading optparse code::


File: python.info,  Node: Argparse Tutorial,  Next: Upgrading optparse code,  Up: Exceptions<7>

5.16.4.48 Argparse Tutorial
...........................


author: Tshepang Mbambo

This tutorial is intended to be a gentle introduction to *note argparse:
6, the recommended command-line parsing module in the Python standard
library.

     Not: There are two other modules that fulfill the same task, namely
     *note getopt: 5f. (an equivalent for ‘getopt()’ from the C
     language) and the deprecated *note optparse: 9f.  Note also that
     *note argparse: 6. is based on *note optparse: 9f, and therefore
     very similar in terms of usage.

* Menu:

* Concepts::
* The basics::
* Introducing Positional arguments::
* Introducing Optional arguments::
* Combining Positional and Optional arguments::
* Getting a little more advanced::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* Conclusion::


File: python.info,  Node: Concepts,  Next: The basics,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.49 Concepts
..................

Let’s show the sort of functionality that we are going to explore in
this introductory tutorial by making use of the ‘ls’ command:

     $ ls
     cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls pypy
     ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...
     $ ls -l
     total 20
     drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython
     drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide
     -rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py
     drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy
     -rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls --help
     Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
     List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
     Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
     ...

A few concepts we can learn from the four commands:

   * The ‘ls’ command is useful when run without any options at all.  It
     defaults to displaying the contents of the current directory.

   * If we want beyond what it provides by default, we tell it a bit
     more.  In this case, we want it to display a different directory,
     ‘pypy’.  What we did is specify what is known as a positional
     argument.  It’s named so because the program should know what to do
     with the value, solely based on where it appears on the command
     line.  This concept is more relevant to a command like ‘cp’, whose
     most basic usage is ‘cp SRC DEST’.  The first position is 'what you
     want copied,' and the second position is 'where you want it copied
     to'.

   * Now, say we want to change behaviour of the program.  In our
     example, we display more info for each file instead of just showing
     the file names.  The ‘-l’ in that case is known as an optional
     argument.

   * That’s a snippet of the help text.  It’s very useful in that you
     can come across a program you have never used before, and can
     figure out how it works simply by reading its help text.


File: python.info,  Node: The basics,  Next: Introducing Positional arguments,  Prev: Concepts,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.50 The basics
....................

Let us start with a very simple example which does (almost) nothing:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.parse_args()

Following is a result of running the code:

     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py --verbose
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose
     $ python prog.py foo
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo

Here is what is happening:

   * Running the script without any options results in nothing displayed
     to stdout.  Not so useful.

   * The second one starts to display the usefulness of the *note
     argparse: 6. module.  We have done almost nothing, but already we
     get a nice help message.

   * The ‘--help’ option, which can also be shortened to ‘-h’, is the
     only option we get for free (i.e.  no need to specify it).
     Specifying anything else results in an error.  But even then, we do
     get a useful usage message, also for free.


File: python.info,  Node: Introducing Positional arguments,  Next: Introducing Optional arguments,  Prev: The basics,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.51 Introducing Positional arguments
..........................................

An example:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

And running the code:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py foo
     foo

Here is what’s happening:

   * We’ve added the *note add_argument(): 1571. method, which is what
     we use to specify which command-line options the program is willing
     to accept.  In this case, I’ve named it ‘echo’ so that it’s in line
     with its function.

   * Calling our program now requires us to specify an option.

   * The *note parse_args(): 2a31. method actually returns some data
     from the options specified, in this case, ‘echo’.

   * The variable is some form of ‘magic’ that *note argparse: 6.
     performs for free (i.e.  no need to specify which variable that
     value is stored in).  You will also notice that its name matches
     the string argument given to the method, ‘echo’.

Note however that, although the help display looks nice and all, it
currently is not as helpful as it can be.  For example we see that we
got ‘echo’ as a positional argument, but we don’t know what it does,
other than by guessing or by reading the source code.  So, let’s make it
a bit more useful:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo", help="echo the string you use here")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

And we get:

     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo        echo the string you use here

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Now, how about doing something even more useful:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

Following is a result of running the code:

     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 5, in <module>
         print(args.square**2)
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'

That didn’t go so well.  That’s because *note argparse: 6. treats the
options we give it as strings, unless we tell it otherwise.  So, let’s
tell *note argparse: 6. to treat that input as an integer:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number",
                         type=int)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

Following is a result of running the code:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py four
     usage: prog.py [-h] square
     prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: 'four'

That went well.  The program now even helpfully quits on bad illegal
input before proceeding.


File: python.info,  Node: Introducing Optional arguments,  Next: Combining Positional and Optional arguments,  Prev: Introducing Positional arguments,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.52 Introducing Optional arguments
........................................

So far we have been playing with positional arguments.  Let us have a
look on how to add optional ones:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbosity", help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbosity:
         print("verbosity turned on")

And the output:

     $ python prog.py --verbosity 1
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --verbosity VERBOSITY
                             increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py --verbosity
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
     prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument

Here is what is happening:

   * The program is written so as to display something when
     ‘--verbosity’ is specified and display nothing when not.

   * To show that the option is actually optional, there is no error
     when running the program without it.  Note that by default, if an
     optional argument isn’t used, the relevant variable, in this case
     ‘args.verbosity’, is given ‘None’ as a value, which is the reason
     it fails the truth test of the *note if: 26e. statement.

   * The help message is a bit different.

   * When using the ‘--verbosity’ option, one must also specify some
     value, any value.

The above example accepts arbitrary integer values for ‘--verbosity’,
but for our simple program, only two values are actually useful, ‘True’
or ‘False’.  Let’s modify the code accordingly:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

And the output:

     $ python prog.py --verbose
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --verbose 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --verbose   increase output verbosity

Here is what is happening:

   * The option is now more of a flag than something that requires a
     value.  We even changed the name of the option to match that idea.
     Note that we now specify a new keyword, ‘action’, and give it the
     value ‘"store_true"’.  This means that, if the option is specified,
     assign the value ‘True’ to ‘args.verbose’.  Not specifying it
     implies ‘False’.

   * It complains when you specify a value, in true spirit of what flags
     actually are.

   * Notice the different help text.

* Menu:

* Short options::


File: python.info,  Node: Short options,  Up: Introducing Optional arguments

5.16.4.53 Short options
.......................

If you are familiar with command line usage, you will notice that I
haven’t yet touched on the topic of short versions of the options.  It’s
quite simple:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

And here goes:

     $ python prog.py -v
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity

Note that the new ability is also reflected in the help text.


File: python.info,  Node: Combining Positional and Optional arguments,  Next: Getting a little more advanced,  Prev: Introducing Optional arguments,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.54 Combining Positional and Optional arguments
.....................................................

Our program keeps growing in complexity:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbose:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And now the output:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square
     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbose
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py --verbose 4
     the square of 4 equals 16

   * We’ve brought back a positional argument, hence the complaint.

   * Note that the order does not matter.

How about we give this program of ours back the ability to have multiple
verbosity values, and actually get to use them:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And the output:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 2
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     16

These all look good except the last one, which exposes a bug in our
program.  Let’s fix it by restricting the values the ‘--verbosity’
option can accept:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int, choices=[0, 1, 2],
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And the output:

     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square

     positional arguments:
       square                display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v {0,1,2}, --verbosity {0,1,2}
                             increase output verbosity

Note that the change also reflects both in the error message as well as
the help string.

Now, let’s use a different approach of playing with verbosity, which is
pretty common.  It also matches the way the CPython executable handles
its own verbosity argument (check the output of ‘python --help’):

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display the square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

We have introduced another action, “count”, to count the number of
occurrences of specific options.

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbosity --verbosity
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square

     positional arguments:
       square           display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     16

   * Yes, it’s now more of a flag (similar to ‘action="store_true"’) in
     the previous version of our script.  That should explain the
     complaint.

   * It also behaves similar to “store_true” action.

   * Now here’s a demonstration of what the “count” action gives.
     You’ve probably seen this sort of usage before.

   * And if you don’t specify the ‘-v’ flag, that flag is considered to
     have ‘None’ value.

   * As should be expected, specifying the long form of the flag, we
     should get the same output.

   * Sadly, our help output isn’t very informative on the new ability
     our script has acquired, but that can always be fixed by improving
     the documentation for our script (e.g.  via the ‘help’ keyword
     argument).

   * That last output exposes a bug in our program.

Let’s fix:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2

     # bugfix: replace == with >=
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And this is what it gives:

     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 11, in <module>
         if args.verbosity >= 2:
     TypeError: '>=' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'int'

   * First output went well, and fixes the bug we had before.  That is,
     we want any value >= 2 to be as verbose as possible.

   * Third output not so good.

Let’s fix that bug:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

We’ve just introduced yet another keyword, ‘default’.  We’ve set it to
‘0’ in order to make it comparable to the other int values.  Remember
that by default, if an optional argument isn’t specified, it gets the
‘None’ value, and that cannot be compared to an int value (hence the
*note TypeError: 2c4. exception).

And:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16

You can go quite far just with what we’ve learned so far, and we have
only scratched the surface.  The *note argparse: 6. module is very
powerful, and we’ll explore a bit more of it before we end this
tutorial.


File: python.info,  Node: Getting a little more advanced,  Next: How to translate the argparse output,  Prev: Combining Positional and Optional arguments,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.55 Getting a little more advanced
........................................

What if we wanted to expand our tiny program to perform other powers,
not just squares:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Output:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y
     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y

     positional arguments:
       x                the base
       y                the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16

Notice that so far we’ve been using verbosity level to 'change' the text
that gets displayed.  The following example instead uses verbosity level
to display 'more' text instead:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"Running '{__file__}'")
     if args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == ", end="")
     print(answer)

Output:

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vv
     Running 'prog.py'
     4^2 == 16

* Menu:

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* Conflicting options::


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Next: Conflicting options,  Up: Getting a little more advanced

5.16.4.56 Specifying ambiguous arguments
........................................

When there is ambiguity in deciding whether an argument is positional or
for an argument, ‘--’ can be used to tell *note parse_args(): 2a31. that
everything after that is a positional argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-n', nargs='+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('args', nargs='*')

     >>> # ambiguous, so parse_args assumes it's an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-n N [N ...]] [args ...]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: -f

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(args=['-f'], n=None)

     >>> # ambiguous, so the -n option greedily accepts arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=[], n=['1', '2', '3'])

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '--', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=['2', '3'], n=['1'])


File: python.info,  Node: Conflicting options,  Prev: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Up: Getting a little more advanced

5.16.4.57 Conflicting options
.............................

So far, we have been working with two methods of an *note
argparse.ArgumentParser: 2c5. instance.  Let’s introduce a third one,
*note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 2a73.  It allows for us to specify
options that conflict with each other.  Let’s also change the rest of
the program so that the new functionality makes more sense: we’ll
introduce the ‘--quiet’ option, which will be the opposite of the
‘--verbose’ one:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Our program is now simpler, and we’ve lost some functionality for the
sake of demonstration.  Anyways, here’s the output:

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -q
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4 to the power 2 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vq
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v --quiet
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose

That should be easy to follow.  I’ve added that last output so you can
see the sort of flexibility you get, i.e.  mixing long form options with
short form ones.

Before we conclude, you probably want to tell your users the main
purpose of your program, just in case they don’t know:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="calculate X to the power of Y")
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Note that slight difference in the usage text.  Note the ‘[-v | -q]’,
which tells us that we can either use ‘-v’ or ‘-q’, but not both at the
same time:

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet


File: python.info,  Node: How to translate the argparse output,  Next: Custom type converters,  Prev: Getting a little more advanced,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.58 How to translate the argparse output
..............................................

The output of the *note argparse: 6. module such as its help text and
error messages are all made translatable using the *note gettext: 61.
module.  This allows applications to easily localize messages produced
by *note argparse: 6.  See also *note Internationalizing your programs
and modules: 2a91.

For instance, in this *note argparse: 6. output:

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet

The strings ‘usage:’, ‘positional arguments:’, ‘options:’ and ‘show this
help message and exit’ are all translatable.

In order to translate these strings, they must first be extracted into a
‘.po’ file.  For example, using Babel(1), run this command:

     $ pybabel extract -o messages.po /usr/lib/python3.12/argparse.py

This command will extract all translatable strings from the *note
argparse: 6. module and output them into a file named ‘messages.po’.
This command assumes that your Python installation is in ‘/usr/lib’.

You can find out the location of the *note argparse: 6. module on your
system using this script:

     import argparse
     print(argparse.__file__)

Once the messages in the ‘.po’ file are translated and the translations
are installed using *note gettext: 61, *note argparse: 6. will be able
to display the translated messages.

To translate your own strings in the *note argparse: 6. output, use
*note gettext: 61.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Custom type converters,  Next: Conclusion,  Prev: How to translate the argparse output,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.59 Custom type converters
................................

The *note argparse: 6. module allows you to specify custom type
converters for your command-line arguments.  This allows you to modify
user input before it’s stored in the *note argparse.Namespace: 2a32.
This can be useful when you need to pre-process the input before it is
used in your program.

When using a custom type converter, you can use any callable that takes
a single string argument (the argument value) and returns the converted
value.  However, if you need to handle more complex scenarios, you can
use a custom action class with the 'action' parameter instead.

For example, let’s say you want to handle arguments with different
prefixes and process them accordingly:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prefix_chars='-+')

     parser.add_argument('-a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('-', x))
     parser.add_argument('+a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('+', x))

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

Output:

     $ python prog.py -a value1 +a value2
     Namespace(a=[('-', 'value1'), ('+', 'value2')])

In this example, we:

   * Created a parser with custom prefix characters using the
     ‘prefix_chars’ parameter.

   * Defined two arguments, ‘-a’ and ‘+a’, which used the ‘type’
     parameter to create custom type converters to store the value in a
     tuple with the prefix.

Without the custom type converters, the arguments would have treated the
‘-a’ and ‘+a’ as the same argument, which would have been undesirable.
By using custom type converters, we were able to differentiate between
the two arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Conclusion,  Prev: Custom type converters,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.16.4.60 Conclusion
....................

The *note argparse: 6. module offers a lot more than shown here.  Its
docs are quite detailed and thorough, and full of examples.  Having gone
through this tutorial, you should easily digest them without feeling
overwhelmed.


File: python.info,  Node: Upgrading optparse code,  Prev: Argparse Tutorial,  Up: Exceptions<7>

5.16.4.61 Upgrading optparse code
.................................

Originally, the *note argparse: 6. module had attempted to maintain
compatibility with *note optparse: 9f.  However, *note optparse: 9f. was
difficult to extend transparently, particularly with the changes
required to support ‘nargs=’ specifiers and better usage messages.  When
most everything in *note optparse: 9f. had either been copy-pasted over
or monkey-patched, it no longer seemed practical to try to maintain the
backwards compatibility.

The *note argparse: 6. module improves on the *note optparse: 9f. module
in a number of ways including:

   * Handling positional arguments.

   * Supporting subcommands.

   * Allowing alternative option prefixes like ‘+’ and ‘/’.

   * Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.

   * Producing more informative usage messages.

   * Providing a much simpler interface for custom ‘type’ and ‘action’.

A partial upgrade path from *note optparse: 9f. to *note argparse: 6.:

   * Replace all *note optparse.OptionParser.add_option(): 2a96. calls
     with *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 1571. calls.

   * Replace ‘(options, args) = parser.parse_args()’ with ‘args =
     parser.parse_args()’ and add additional *note
     ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 1571. calls for the positional
     arguments.  Keep in mind that what was previously called ‘options’,
     now in the *note argparse: 6. context is called ‘args’.

   * Replace *note optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args():
     2a97. by using *note parse_intermixed_args(): 96e. instead of *note
     parse_args(): 2a31.

   * Replace callback actions and the ‘callback_*’ keyword arguments
     with ‘type’ or ‘action’ arguments.

   * Replace string names for ‘type’ keyword arguments with the
     corresponding type objects (e.g.  int, float, complex, etc).

   * Replace *note optparse.Values: 2a98. with *note Namespace: 2a32.
     and *note optparse.OptionError: 2a99. and *note
     optparse.OptionValueError: 2a9a. with *note ArgumentError: 2a84.

   * Replace strings with implicit arguments such as ‘%default’ or
     ‘%prog’ with the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to
     format strings, that is, ‘%(default)s’ and ‘%(prog)s’.

   * Replace the OptionParser constructor ‘version’ argument with a call
     to ‘parser.add_argument('--version', action='version',
     version='<the version>')’.


File: python.info,  Node: getopt — C-style parser for command line options,  Next: logging — Logging facility for Python,  Prev: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.5 ‘getopt’ — C-style parser for command line options
---------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/getopt.py(1)

     Not: The *note getopt: 5f. module is a parser for command line
     options whose API is designed to be familiar to users of the C
     ‘getopt()’ function.  Users who are unfamiliar with the C
     ‘getopt()’ function or who would like to write less code and get
     better help and error messages should consider using the *note
     argparse: 6. module instead.

__________________________________________________________________

This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in
‘sys.argv’.  It supports the same conventions as the Unix ‘getopt()’
function (including the special meanings of arguments of the form ‘‘-’’
and ‘‘--’‘).  Long options similar to those supported by GNU software
may be used as well via an optional third argument.

This module provides two functions and an exception:

 -- Işlevi: getopt.getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     Parses command line options and parameter list.  'args' is the
     argument list to be parsed, without the leading reference to the
     running program.  Typically, this means ‘sys.argv[1:]’.
     'shortopts' is the string of option letters that the script wants
     to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a
     colon (‘':'’; i.e., the same format that Unix ‘getopt()’ uses).

          Not: Unlike GNU ‘getopt()’, after a non-option argument, all
          further arguments are considered also non-options.  This is
          similar to the way non-GNU Unix systems work.

     'longopts', if specified, must be a list of strings with the names
     of the long options which should be supported.  The leading ‘'--'’
     characters should not be included in the option name.  Long options
     which require an argument should be followed by an equal sign
     (‘'='’).  Optional arguments are not supported.  To accept only
     long options, 'shortopts' should be an empty string.  Long options
     on the command line can be recognized so long as they provide a
     prefix of the option name that matches exactly one of the accepted
     options.  For example, if 'longopts' is ‘['foo', 'frob']’, the
     option ‘--fo’ will match as ‘--foo’, but ‘--f’ will not match
     uniquely, so *note GetoptError: 2a9d. will be raised.

     The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of
     ‘(option, value)’ pairs; the second is the list of program
     arguments left after the option list was stripped (this is a
     trailing slice of 'args').  Each option-and-value pair returned has
     the option as its first element, prefixed with a hyphen for short
     options (e.g., ‘'-x'’) or two hyphens for long options (e.g.,
     ‘'--long-option'’), and the option argument as its second element,
     or an empty string if the option has no argument.  The options
     occur in the list in the same order in which they were found, thus
     allowing multiple occurrences.  Long and short options may be
     mixed.

 -- Işlevi: getopt.gnu_getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     This function works like *note getopt(): 5f, except that GNU style
     scanning mode is used by default.  This means that option and
     non-option arguments may be intermixed.  The *note getopt(): 5f.
     function stops processing options as soon as a non-option argument
     is encountered.

     If the first character of the option string is ‘'+'’, or if the
     environment variable ‘POSIXLY_CORRECT’ is set, then option
     processing stops as soon as a non-option argument is encountered.

 -- Özel Durum: getopt.GetoptError

     This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument
     list or when an option requiring an argument is given none.  The
     argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the
     error.  For long options, an argument given to an option which does
     not require one will also cause this exception to be raised.  The
     attributes ‘msg’ and ‘opt’ give the error message and related
     option; if there is no specific option to which the exception
     relates, ‘opt’ is an empty string.

 -- Özel Durum: getopt.error

     Alias for *note GetoptError: 2a9d.; for backward compatibility.

An example using only Unix style options:

     >>> import getopt
     >>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
     >>> args
     ['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
     >>> optlist
     [('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

Using long option names is equally easy:

     >>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
     >>> args = s.split()
     >>> args
     ['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [
     ...     'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing'])
     >>> optlist
     [('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

In a script, typical usage is something like this:

     import getopt, sys

     def main():
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="])
         except getopt.GetoptError as err:
             # print help information and exit:
             print(err)  # will print something like "option -a not recognized"
             usage()
             sys.exit(2)
         output = None
         verbose = False
         for o, a in opts:
             if o == "-v":
                 verbose = True
             elif o in ("-h", "--help"):
                 usage()
                 sys.exit()
             elif o in ("-o", "--output"):
                 output = a
             else:
                 assert False, "unhandled option"
         # ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with
less code and more informative help and error messages by using the
*note argparse: 6. module:

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         # ... do something with args.output ...
         # ... do something with args.verbose ..

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note argparse: 6.

     Alternative command line option and argument parsing library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/getopt.py


File: python.info,  Node: logging — Logging facility for Python,  Next: logging config — Logging configuration,  Prev: getopt — C-style parser for command line options,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.6 ‘logging’ — Logging facility for Python
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/logging/__init__.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains the API reference information.  For tutorial
information and discussion of more advanced topics, see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 109a.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 109b.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 109c.

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines functions and classes which implement a flexible
event logging system for applications and libraries.

The key benefit of having the logging API provided by a standard library
module is that all Python modules can participate in logging, so your
application log can include your own messages integrated with messages
from third-party modules.

Here’s a simple example of idiomatic usage:

     # myapp.py
     import logging
     import mylib
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(filename='myapp.log', level=logging.INFO)
         logger.info('Started')
         mylib.do_something()
         logger.info('Finished')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

     # mylib.py
     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def do_something():
         logger.info('Doing something')

If you run 'myapp.py', you should see this in 'myapp.log':

     INFO:__main__:Started
     INFO:mylib:Doing something
     INFO:__main__:Finished

The key feature of this idiomatic usage is that the majority of code is
simply creating a module level logger with ‘getLogger(__name__)’, and
using that logger to do any needed logging.  This is concise, while
allowing downstream code fine-grained control if needed.  Logged
messages to the module-level logger get forwarded to handlers of loggers
in higher-level modules, all the way up to the highest-level logger
known as the root logger; this approach is known as hierarchical
logging.

For logging to be useful, it needs to be configured: setting the levels
and destinations for each logger, potentially changing how specific
modules log, often based on command-line arguments or application
configuration.  In most cases, like the one above, only the root logger
needs to be so configured, since all the lower level loggers at module
level eventually forward their messages to its handlers.  *note
basicConfig(): 860. provides a quick way to configure the root logger
that handles many use cases.

The module provides a lot of functionality and flexibility.  If you are
unfamiliar with logging, the best way to get to grips with it is to view
the tutorials ('see the links above and on the right').

The basic classes defined by the module, together with their attributes
and methods, are listed in the sections below.

   * Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.

   * Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the
     appropriate destination.

   * Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log
     records to output.

   * Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.

* Menu:

* Logger Objects::
* Logging Levels::
* Handler Objects::
* Formatter Objects::
* Filter Objects::
* LogRecord Objects::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter Objects::
* Thread Safety::
* Module-Level Functions::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/logging/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Logger Objects,  Next: Logging Levels,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.1 Logger Objects
.......................

Loggers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that Loggers
should 'NEVER' be instantiated directly, but always through the
module-level function ‘logging.getLogger(name)’.  Multiple calls to
*note getLogger(): 7bb. with the same name will always return a
reference to the same Logger object.

The ‘name’ is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like
‘foo.bar.baz’ (though it could also be just plain ‘foo’, for example).
Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of
loggers higher up in the list.  For example, given a logger with a name
of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’, ‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’
are all descendants of ‘foo’.  In addition, all loggers are descendants
of the root logger.  The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the
Python package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your
loggers on a per-module basis using the recommended construction
‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’.  That’s because in a module, ‘__name__’
is the module’s name in the Python package namespace.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.Logger

      -- Özniteliği: name

          This is the logger’s name, and is the value that was passed to
          *note getLogger(): 7bb. to obtain the logger.

               Not: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- Özniteliği: level

          The threshold of this logger, as set by the *note setLevel():
          131a. method.

               Not: Do not set this attribute directly - always use
               *note setLevel(): 131a, which has checks for the level
               passed to it.

      -- Özniteliği: parent

          The parent logger of this logger.  It may change based on
          later instantiation of loggers which are higher up in the
          namespace hierarchy.

               Not: This value should be treated as read-only.

      -- Özniteliği: propagate

          If this attribute evaluates to true, events logged to this
          logger will be passed to the handlers of higher level
          (ancestor) loggers, in addition to any handlers attached to
          this logger.  Messages are passed directly to the ancestor
          loggers’ handlers - neither the level nor filters of the
          ancestor loggers in question are considered.

          If this evaluates to false, logging messages are not passed to
          the handlers of ancestor loggers.

          Spelling it out with an example: If the propagate attribute of
          the logger named ‘A.B.C’ evaluates to true, any event logged
          to ‘A.B.C’ via a method call such as
          ‘logging.getLogger('A.B.C').error(...)’ will [subject to
          passing that logger’s level and filter settings] be passed in
          turn to any handlers attached to loggers named ‘A.B’, ‘A’ and
          the root logger, after first being passed to any handlers
          attached to ‘A.B.C’.  If any logger in the chain ‘A.B.C’,
          ‘A.B’, ‘A’ has its ‘propagate’ attribute set to false, then
          that is the last logger whose handlers are offered the event
          to handle, and propagation stops at that point.

          The constructor sets this attribute to ‘True’.

               Not: If you attach a handler to a logger 'and' one or
               more of its ancestors, it may emit the same record
               multiple times.  In general, you should not need to
               attach a handler to more than one logger - if you just
               attach it to the appropriate logger which is highest in
               the logger hierarchy, then it will see all events logged
               by all descendant loggers, provided that their propagate
               setting is left set to ‘True’.  A common scenario is to
               attach handlers only to the root logger, and to let
               propagation take care of the rest.

      -- Özniteliği: handlers

          The list of handlers directly attached to this logger
          instance.

               Not: This attribute should be treated as read-only; it is
               normally changed via the *note addHandler(): 2aa7. and
               *note removeHandler(): 2aa8. methods, which use locks to
               ensure thread-safe operation.

      -- Özniteliği: disabled

          This attribute disables handling of any events.  It is set to
          ‘False’ in the initializer, and only changed by logging
          configuration code.

               Not: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- Yöntemi: setLevel (level)

          Sets the threshold for this logger to 'level'.  Logging
          messages which are less severe than 'level' will be ignored;
          logging messages which have severity 'level' or higher will be
          emitted by whichever handler or handlers service this logger,
          unless a handler’s level has been set to a higher severity
          level than 'level'.

          When a logger is created, the level is set to *note NOTSET:
          2aaa. (which causes all messages to be processed when the
          logger is the root logger, or delegation to the parent when
          the logger is a non-root logger).  Note that the root logger
          is created with level *note WARNING: 1b3e.

          The term ‘delegation to the parent’ means that if a logger has
          a level of NOTSET, its chain of ancestor loggers is traversed
          until either an ancestor with a level other than NOTSET is
          found, or the root is reached.

          If an ancestor is found with a level other than NOTSET, then
          that ancestor’s level is treated as the effective level of the
          logger where the ancestor search began, and is used to
          determine how a logging event is handled.

          If the root is reached, and it has a level of NOTSET, then all
          messages will be processed.  Otherwise, the root’s level will
          be used as the effective level.

          See *note Logging Levels: 46d. for a list of levels.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'level' parameter now accepts a
          string representation of the level such as ‘INFO’ as an
          alternative to the integer constants such as *note INFO: 1b3d.
          Note, however, that levels are internally stored as integers,
          and methods such as e.g.  *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2aab. and
          *note isEnabledFor(): 11a0. will return/expect to be passed
          integers.

      -- Yöntemi: isEnabledFor (level)

          Indicates if a message of severity 'level' would be processed
          by this logger.  This method checks first the module-level
          level set by ‘logging.disable(level)’ and then the logger’s
          effective level as determined by *note getEffectiveLevel():
          2aab.

      -- Yöntemi: getEffectiveLevel ()

          Indicates the effective level for this logger.  If a value
          other than *note NOTSET: 2aaa. has been set using *note
          setLevel(): 131a, it is returned.  Otherwise, the hierarchy is
          traversed towards the root until a value other than *note
          NOTSET: 2aaa. is found, and that value is returned.  The value
          returned is an integer, typically one of *note logging.DEBUG:
          1b3c, *note logging.INFO: 1b3d. etc.

      -- Yöntemi: getChild (suffix)

          Returns a logger which is a descendant to this logger, as
          determined by the suffix.  Thus,
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi')’ would return
          the same logger as would be returned by
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi')’.  This is a convenience
          method, useful when the parent logger is named using e.g.
          ‘__name__’ rather than a literal string.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: getChildren ()

          Returns a set of loggers which are immediate children of this
          logger.  So for example ‘logging.getLogger().getChildren()’
          might return a set containing loggers named ‘foo’ and ‘bar’,
          but a logger named ‘foo.bar’ wouldn’t be included in the set.
          Likewise, ‘logging.getLogger('foo').getChildren()’ might
          return a set including a logger named ‘foo.bar’, but it
          wouldn’t include one named ‘foo.bar.baz’.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Yöntemi: debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note DEBUG: 1b3c. on this logger.
          The 'msg' is the message format string, and the 'args' are the
          arguments which are merged into 'msg' using the string
          formatting operator.  (Note that this means that you can use
          keywords in the format string, together with a single
          dictionary argument.)  No % formatting operation is performed
          on 'msg' when no 'args' are supplied.

          There are four keyword arguments in 'kwargs' which are
          inspected: 'exc_info', 'stack_info', 'stacklevel' and 'extra'.

          If 'exc_info' does not evaluate as false, it causes exception
          information to be added to the logging message.  If an
          exception tuple (in the format returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): 49f.) or an exception instance is provided, it
          is used; otherwise, *note sys.exc_info(): 49f. is called to
          get the exception information.

          The second optional keyword argument is 'stack_info', which
          defaults to ‘False’.  If true, stack information is added to
          the logging message, including the actual logging call.  Note
          that this is not the same stack information as that displayed
          through specifying 'exc_info': The former is stack frames from
          the bottom of the stack up to the logging call in the current
          thread, whereas the latter is information about stack frames
          which have been unwound, following an exception, while
          searching for exception handlers.

          You can specify 'stack_info' independently of 'exc_info', e.g.
          to just show how you got to a certain point in your code, even
          when no exceptions were raised.  The stack frames are printed
          following a header line which says:

               Stack (most recent call last):

          This mimics the ‘Traceback (most recent call last):’ which is
          used when displaying exception frames.

          The third optional keyword argument is 'stacklevel', which
          defaults to ‘1’.  If greater than 1, the corresponding number
          of stack frames are skipped when computing the line number and
          function name set in the *note LogRecord: e8c. created for the
          logging event.  This can be used in logging helpers so that
          the function name, filename and line number recorded are not
          the information for the helper function/method, but rather its
          caller.  The name of this parameter mirrors the equivalent one
          in the *note warnings: 112. module.

          The fourth keyword argument is 'extra' which can be used to
          pass a dictionary which is used to populate the *note
          __dict__: 2ec. of the *note LogRecord: e8c. created for the
          logging event with user-defined attributes.  These custom
          attributes can then be used as you like.  For example, they
          could be incorporated into logged messages.  For example:

               FORMAT = '%(asctime)s %(clientip)-15s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
               logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
               d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
               logger = logging.getLogger('tcpserver')
               logger.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)

          would print something like

               2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset

          The keys in the dictionary passed in 'extra' should not clash
          with the keys used by the logging system.  (See the section on
          *note LogRecord attributes: 2aac. for more information on
          which keys are used by the logging system.)

          If you choose to use these attributes in logged messages, you
          need to exercise some care.  In the above example, for
          instance, the *note Formatter: 131f. has been set up with a
          format string which expects ‘clientip’ and ‘user’ in the
          attribute dictionary of the *note LogRecord: e8c.  If these
          are missing, the message will not be logged because a string
          formatting exception will occur.  So in this case, you always
          need to pass the 'extra' dictionary with these keys.

          While this might be annoying, this feature is intended for use
          in specialized circumstances, such as multi-threaded servers
          where the same code executes in many contexts, and interesting
          conditions which arise are dependent on this context (such as
          remote client IP address and authenticated user name, in the
          above example).  In such circumstances, it is likely that
          specialized *note Formatter: 131f.s would be used with
          particular *note Handler: 131e.s.

          If no handler is attached to this logger (or any of its
          ancestors, taking into account the relevant *note
          Logger.propagate: 131d. attributes), the message will be sent
          to the handler set on *note lastResort: 109f.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'stack_info' parameter was added.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'exc_info' parameter can now accept
          exception instances.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'stacklevel' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note INFO: 1b3d. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2aae.

      -- Yöntemi: warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note WARNING: 1b3e. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2aae.

               Not: There is an obsolete method ‘warn’ which is
               functionally identical to ‘warning’.  As ‘warn’ is
               deprecated, please do not use it - use ‘warning’ instead.

      -- Yöntemi: error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1b3f. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2aae.

      -- Yöntemi: critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note CRITICAL: 1b40. on this
          logger.  The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug():
          2aae.

      -- Yöntemi: log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with integer level 'level' on this logger.  The
          other arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2aae.

      -- Yöntemi: exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1b3f. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 2aae.
          Exception info is added to the logging message.  This method
          should only be called from an exception handler.

      -- Yöntemi: addFilter (filter)

          Adds the specified filter 'filter' to this logger.

      -- Yöntemi: removeFilter (filter)

          Removes the specified filter 'filter' from this logger.

      -- Yöntemi: filter (record)

          Apply this logger’s filters to the record and return ‘True’ if
          the record is to be processed.  The filters are consulted in
          turn, until one of them returns a false value.  If none of
          them return a false value, the record will be processed
          (passed to handlers).  If one returns a false value, no
          further processing of the record occurs.

      -- Yöntemi: addHandler (hdlr)

          Adds the specified handler 'hdlr' to this logger.

      -- Yöntemi: removeHandler (hdlr)

          Removes the specified handler 'hdlr' from this logger.

      -- Yöntemi: findCaller (stack_info=False, stacklevel=1)

          Finds the caller’s source filename and line number.  Returns
          the filename, line number, function name and stack information
          as a 4-element tuple.  The stack information is returned as
          ‘None’ unless 'stack_info' is ‘True’.

          The 'stacklevel' parameter is passed from code calling the
          *note debug(): 2aae. and other APIs.  If greater than 1, the
          excess is used to skip stack frames before determining the
          values to be returned.  This will generally be useful when
          calling logging APIs from helper/wrapper code, so that the
          information in the event log refers not to the helper/wrapper
          code, but to the code that calls it.

      -- Yöntemi: handle (record)

          Handles a record by passing it to all handlers associated with
          this logger and its ancestors (until a false value of
          'propagate' is found).  This method is used for unpickled
          records received from a socket, as well as those created
          locally.  Logger-level filtering is applied using *note
          filter(): 2ab3.

      -- Yöntemi: makeRecord (name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info,
               func=None, extra=None, sinfo=None)

          This is a factory method which can be overridden in subclasses
          to create specialized *note LogRecord: e8c. instances.

      -- Yöntemi: hasHandlers ()

          Checks to see if this logger has any handlers configured.
          This is done by looking for handlers in this logger and its
          parents in the logger hierarchy.  Returns ‘True’ if a handler
          was found, else ‘False’.  The method stops searching up the
          hierarchy whenever a logger with the ‘propagate’ attribute set
          to false is found - that will be the last logger which is
          checked for the existence of handlers.

          Added in version 3.2.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Loggers can now be pickled and unpickled.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Levels,  Next: Handler Objects,  Prev: Logger Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.2 Logging Levels
.......................

The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table.
These are primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels,
and need them to have specific values relative to the predefined levels.
If you define a level with the same numeric value, it overwrites the
predefined value; the predefined name is lost.

Level                       Numeric value       What it means / When to use it
                                                
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
 -- Verisi:                 0                   When set on a logger, indicates that
          logging.NOTSET                        ancestor loggers are to be consulted to
                                                determine the effective level.  If that
                                                still resolves to ‘NOTSET’, then all
                                                events are logged.  When set on a
                                                handler, all events are handled.
                                                
                                                
 -- Verisi: logging.DEBUG   10                  Detailed information, typically only of
                                                interest to a developer trying to
                                                diagnose a problem.
                                                
                                                
 -- Verisi: logging.INFO    20                  Confirmation that things are working as
                                                expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- Verisi:                 30                  An indication that something unexpected
          logging.WARNING                       happened, or that a problem might occur
                                                in the near future (e.g.  ‘disk space
                                                low’).  The software is still working
                                                as expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- Verisi: logging.ERROR   40                  Due to a more serious problem, the
                                                software has not been able to perform
                                                some function.
                                                
                                                
 -- Verisi:                 50                  A serious error, indicating that the
          logging.CRITICAL                      program itself may be unable to
                                                continue running.
                                                


File: python.info,  Node: Handler Objects,  Next: Formatter Objects,  Prev: Logging Levels,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.3 Handler Objects
........................

Handlers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that *note
Handler: 131e. is never instantiated directly; this class acts as a base
for more useful subclasses.  However, the ‘__init__()’ method in
subclasses needs to call *note Handler.__init__(): 2abb.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.Handler

      -- Yöntemi: __init__ (level=NOTSET)

          Initializes the *note Handler: 131e. instance by setting its
          level, setting the list of filters to the empty list and
          creating a lock (using *note createLock(): 2abc.) for
          serializing access to an I/O mechanism.

      -- Yöntemi: createLock ()

          Initializes a thread lock which can be used to serialize
          access to underlying I/O functionality which may not be
          threadsafe.

      -- Yöntemi: acquire ()

          Acquires the thread lock created with *note createLock():
          2abc.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Releases the thread lock acquired with *note acquire(): 2abd.

      -- Yöntemi: setLevel (level)

          Sets the threshold for this handler to 'level'.  Logging
          messages which are less severe than 'level' will be ignored.
          When a handler is created, the level is set to *note NOTSET:
          2aaa. (which causes all messages to be processed).

          See *note Logging Levels: 46d. for a list of levels.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'level' parameter now accepts a
          string representation of the level such as ‘INFO’ as an
          alternative to the integer constants such as *note INFO: 1b3d.

      -- Yöntemi: setFormatter (fmt)

          Sets the formatter for this handler to 'fmt'.  The 'fmt'
          argument must be a *note Formatter: 131f. instance or ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: addFilter (filter)

          Adds the specified filter 'filter' to this handler.

      -- Yöntemi: removeFilter (filter)

          Removes the specified filter 'filter' from this handler.

      -- Yöntemi: filter (record)

          Apply this handler’s filters to the record and return ‘True’
          if the record is to be processed.  The filters are consulted
          in turn, until one of them returns a false value.  If none of
          them return a false value, the record will be emitted.  If one
          returns a false value, the handler will not emit the record.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Ensure all logging output has been flushed.  This version does
          nothing and is intended to be implemented by subclasses.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Tidy up any resources used by the handler.  This version does
          no output but removes the handler from an internal map of
          handlers, which is used for handler lookup by name.

          Subclasses should ensure that this gets called from overridden
          *note close(): 2ac5. methods.

      -- Yöntemi: handle (record)

          Conditionally emits the specified logging record, depending on
          filters which may have been added to the handler.  Wraps the
          actual emission of the record with acquisition/release of the
          I/O thread lock.

      -- Yöntemi: handleError (record)

          This method should be called from handlers when an exception
          is encountered during an *note emit(): 2ac8. call.  If the
          module-level attribute *note raiseExceptions: 109e. is
          ‘False’, exceptions get silently ignored.  This is what is
          mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care
          about errors in the logging system, they are more interested
          in application errors.  You could, however, replace this with
          a custom handler if you wish.  The specified record is the one
          which was being processed when the exception occurred.  (The
          default value of *note raiseExceptions: 109e. is ‘True’, as
          that is more useful during development).

      -- Yöntemi: format (record)

          Do formatting for a record - if a formatter is set, use it.
          Otherwise, use the default formatter for the module.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Do whatever it takes to actually log the specified logging
          record.  This version is intended to be implemented by
          subclasses and so raises a *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

               Uyarı: This method is called after a handler-level lock
               is acquired, which is released after this method returns.
               When you override this method, note that you should be
               careful when calling anything that invokes other parts of
               the logging API which might do locking, because that
               might result in a deadlock.  Specifically:

                  * Logging configuration APIs acquire the module-level
                    lock, and then individual handler-level locks as
                    those handlers are configured.

                  * Many logging APIs lock the module-level lock.  If
                    such an API is called from this method, it could
                    cause a deadlock if a configuration call is made on
                    another thread, because that thread will try to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'before' the
                    handler-level lock, whereas this thread tries to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'after' the
                    handler-level lock (because in this method, the
                    handler-level lock has already been acquired).

For a list of handlers included as standard, see *note logging.handlers:
88.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatter Objects,  Next: Filter Objects,  Prev: Handler Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.4 Formatter Objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: logging.Formatter (fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%',
          validate=True, *, defaults=None)

     Responsible for converting a *note LogRecord: e8c. to an output
     string to be interpreted by a human or external system.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fmt’ (*note str: 15d.) – A format string in the given 'style'
          for the logged output as a whole.  The possible mapping keys
          are drawn from the *note LogRecord: e8c. object’s *note
          LogRecord attributes: 2aac.  If not specified, ‘'%(message)s'’
          is used, which is just the logged message.

        * ‘datefmt’ (*note str: 15d.) – A format string in the given
          'style' for the date/time portion of the logged output.  If
          not specified, the default described in *note formatTime():
          2acc. is used.

        * ‘style’ (*note str: 15d.) – Can be one of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
          ‘'$'’ and determines how the format string will be merged with
          its data: using one of *note printf-style String Formatting:
          4e4. (‘%’), *note str.format(): 433. (‘{’) or *note
          string.Template: 49c. (‘$’).  This only applies to 'fmt' and
          'datefmt' (e.g.  ‘'%(message)s'’ versus ‘'{message}'’), not to
          the actual log messages passed to the logging methods.
          However, there are *note other ways: 2acd. to use ‘{’- and
          ‘$’-formatting for log messages.

        * ‘validate’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’ (the default),
          incorrect or mismatched 'fmt' and 'style' will raise a *note
          ValueError: 189.; for example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s
          - %(message)s', style='{')’.

        * ‘defaults’ (*note dict: 240.‘[’*note str: 15d.‘, ’‘Any’‘]’) –
          A dictionary with default values to use in custom fields.  For
          example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(ip)s %(message)s',
          defaults={"ip": None})’

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'style' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'validate' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'defaults' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: format (record)

          The record’s attribute dictionary is used as the operand to a
          string formatting operation.  Returns the resulting string.
          Before formatting the dictionary, a couple of preparatory
          steps are carried out.  The 'message' attribute of the record
          is computed using 'msg' % 'args'.  If the formatting string
          contains ‘'(asctime)'’, *note formatTime(): 2acc. is called to
          format the event time.  If there is exception information, it
          is formatted using *note formatException(): 2acf. and appended
          to the message.  Note that the formatted exception information
          is cached in attribute 'exc_text'.  This is useful because the
          exception information can be pickled and sent across the wire,
          but you should be careful if you have more than one *note
          Formatter: 131f. subclass which customizes the formatting of
          exception information.  In this case, you will have to clear
          the cached value (by setting the 'exc_text' attribute to
          ‘None’) after a formatter has done its formatting, so that the
          next formatter to handle the event doesn’t use the cached
          value, but recalculates it afresh.

          If stack information is available, it’s appended after the
          exception information, using *note formatStack(): 2ad0. to
          transform it if necessary.

      -- Yöntemi: formatTime (record, datefmt=None)

          This method should be called from *note format(): 431. by a
          formatter which wants to make use of a formatted time.  This
          method can be overridden in formatters to provide for any
          specific requirement, but the basic behavior is as follows: if
          'datefmt' (a string) is specified, it is used with *note
          time.strftime(): 108e. to format the creation time of the
          record.  Otherwise, the format ‘%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu’ is
          used, where the uuu part is a millisecond value and the other
          letters are as per the *note time.strftime(): 108e.
          documentation.  An example time in this format is ‘2003-01-23
          00:29:50,411’.  The resulting string is returned.

          This function uses a user-configurable function to convert the
          creation time to a tuple.  By default, *note time.localtime():
          1386. is used; to change this for a particular formatter
          instance, set the ‘converter’ attribute to a function with the
          same signature as *note time.localtime(): 1386. or *note
          time.gmtime(): 1065.  To change it for all formatters, for
          example if you want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set
          the ‘converter’ attribute in the ‘Formatter’ class.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Previously, the default format was
          hard-coded as in this example: ‘2010-09-06 22:38:15,292’ where
          the part before the comma is handled by a strptime format
          string (‘'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'’), and the part after the comma
          is a millisecond value.  Because strptime does not have a
          format placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value is
          appended using another format string, ‘'%s,%03d'’ — and both
          of these format strings have been hardcoded into this method.
          With the change, these strings are defined as class-level
          attributes which can be overridden at the instance level when
          desired.  The names of the attributes are
          ‘default_time_format’ (for the strptime format string) and
          ‘default_msec_format’ (for appending the millisecond value).

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: The ‘default_msec_format’ can be
          ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: formatException (exc_info)

          Formats the specified exception information (a standard
          exception tuple as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.) as
          a string.  This default implementation just uses *note
          traceback.print_exception(): 68e.  The resulting string is
          returned.

      -- Yöntemi: formatStack (stack_info)

          Formats the specified stack information (a string as returned
          by *note traceback.print_stack(): d1c, but with the last
          newline removed) as a string.  This default implementation
          just returns the input value.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.BufferingFormatter (linefmt=None)

     A base formatter class suitable for subclassing when you want to
     format a number of records.  You can pass a *note Formatter: 131f.
     instance which you want to use to format each line (that
     corresponds to a single record).  If not specified, the default
     formatter (which just outputs the event message) is used as the
     line formatter.

      -- Yöntemi: formatHeader (records)

          Return a header for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records, a title or a separator line.

      -- Yöntemi: formatFooter (records)

          Return a footer for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records or a separator line.

      -- Yöntemi: format (records)

          Return formatted text for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string if there are no
          records; otherwise, it returns the concatenation of the
          header, each record formatted with the line formatter, and the
          footer.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter Objects,  Next: LogRecord Objects,  Prev: Formatter Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.5 Filter Objects
.......................

‘Filters’ can be used by ‘Handlers’ and ‘Loggers’ for more sophisticated
filtering than is provided by levels.  The base filter class only allows
events which are below a certain point in the logger hierarchy.  For
example, a filter initialized with ‘A.B’ will allow events logged by
loggers ‘A.B’, ‘A.B.C’, ‘A.B.C.D’, ‘A.B.D’ etc.  but not ‘A.BB’, ‘B.A.B’
etc.  If initialized with the empty string, all events are passed.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.Filter (name='')

     Returns an instance of the *note Filter: 10a0. class.  If 'name' is
     specified, it names a logger which, together with its children,
     will have its events allowed through the filter.  If 'name' is the
     empty string, allows every event.

      -- Yöntemi: filter (record)

          Is the specified record to be logged?  Returns false for no,
          true for yes.  Filters can either modify log records in-place
          or return a completely different record instance which will
          replace the original log record in any future processing of
          the event.

Note that filters attached to handlers are consulted before an event is
emitted by the handler, whereas filters attached to loggers are
consulted whenever an event is logged (using *note debug(): 2aae, *note
info(): 2ad8, etc.), before sending an event to handlers.  This means
that events which have been generated by descendant loggers will not be
filtered by a logger’s filter setting, unless the filter has also been
applied to those descendant loggers.

You don’t actually need to subclass ‘Filter’: you can pass any instance
which has a ‘filter’ method with the same semantics.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: You don’t need to create specialized ‘Filter’
classes, or use other classes with a ‘filter’ method: you can use a
function (or other callable) as a filter.  The filtering logic will
check to see if the filter object has a ‘filter’ attribute: if it does,
it’s assumed to be a ‘Filter’ and its *note filter(): 2ad7. method is
called.  Otherwise, it’s assumed to be a callable and called with the
record as the single parameter.  The returned value should conform to
that returned by *note filter(): 2ad7.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: You can now return a *note LogRecord: e8c.
instance from filters to replace the log record rather than modifying it
in place.  This allows filters attached to a *note Handler: 131e. to
modify the log record before it is emitted, without having side effects
on other handlers.

Although filters are used primarily to filter records based on more
sophisticated criteria than levels, they get to see every record which
is processed by the handler or logger they’re attached to: this can be
useful if you want to do things like counting how many records were
processed by a particular logger or handler, or adding, changing or
removing attributes in the *note LogRecord: e8c. being processed.
Obviously changing the LogRecord needs to be done with some care, but it
does allow the injection of contextual information into logs (see *note
Using Filters to impart contextual information: 2ad9.).


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord Objects,  Next: LogRecord attributes,  Prev: Filter Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.6 LogRecord Objects
..........................

*note LogRecord: e8c. instances are created automatically by the *note
Logger: 9c2. every time something is logged, and can be created manually
via *note makeLogRecord(): 2adc. (for example, from a pickled event
received over the wire).

 -- Sınıfı: logging.LogRecord (name, level, pathname, lineno, msg, args,
          exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None)

     Contains all the information pertinent to the event being logged.

     The primary information is passed in 'msg' and 'args', which are
     combined using ‘msg % args’ to create the ‘message’ attribute of
     the record.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.) – The name of the logger used to log
          the event represented by this ‘LogRecord’.  Note that the
          logger name in the ‘LogRecord’ will always have this value,
          even though it may be emitted by a handler attached to a
          different (ancestor) logger.

        * ‘level’ (*note int: 184.) – The *note numeric level: 46d. of
          the logging event (such as ‘10’ for ‘DEBUG’, ‘20’ for ‘INFO’,
          etc).  Note that this is converted to 'two' attributes of the
          LogRecord: ‘levelno’ for the numeric value and ‘levelname’ for
          the corresponding level name.

        * ‘pathname’ (*note str: 15d.) – The full string path of the
          source file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘lineno’ (*note int: 184.) – The line number in the source
          file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘msg’ (*note Any: 4c2.) – The event description message, which
          can be a %-format string with placeholders for variable data,
          or an arbitrary object (see *note Using arbitrary objects as
          messages: 2add.).

        * ‘args’ (*note tuple: 4ff.‘ | ’*note dict: 240.‘[’*note str:
          15d.‘, ’*note Any: 4c2.‘]’) – Variable data to merge into the
          'msg' argument to obtain the event description.

        * ‘exc_info’ (*note tuple: 4ff.‘[’*note type: bd1.‘[’*note
          BaseException: 3c3.‘]’‘, ’*note BaseException: 3c3.‘, ’*note
          types.TracebackType: 960.‘] ’‘| ’‘None’) – An exception tuple
          with the current exception information, as returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): 49f, or ‘None’ if no exception information is
          available.

        * ‘func’ (*note str: 15d.‘ | ’‘None’) – The name of the function
          or method from which the logging call was invoked.

        * ‘sinfo’ (*note str: 15d.‘ | ’‘None’) – A text string
          representing stack information from the base of the stack in
          the current thread, up to the logging call.

      -- Yöntemi: getMessage ()

          Returns the message for this *note LogRecord: e8c. instance
          after merging any user-supplied arguments with the message.
          If the user-supplied message argument to the logging call is
          not a string, *note str(): 15d. is called on it to convert it
          to a string.  This allows use of user-defined classes as
          messages, whose ‘__str__’ method can return the actual format
          string to be used.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The creation of a *note LogRecord: e8c. has
     been made more configurable by providing a factory which is used to
     create the record.  The factory can be set using *note
     getLogRecordFactory(): 2adf. and *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ae0.
     (see this for the factory’s signature).

     This functionality can be used to inject your own values into a
     *note LogRecord: e8c. at creation time.  You can use the following
     pattern:

          old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

          def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
              record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
              record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
              return record

          logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

     With this pattern, multiple factories could be chained, and as long
     as they don’t overwrite each other’s attributes or unintentionally
     overwrite the standard attributes listed above, there should be no
     surprises.


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord attributes,  Next: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Prev: LogRecord Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.7 LogRecord attributes
.............................

The LogRecord has a number of attributes, most of which are derived from
the parameters to the constructor.  (Note that the names do not always
correspond exactly between the LogRecord constructor parameters and the
LogRecord attributes.)  These attributes can be used to merge data from
the record into the format string.  The following table lists (in
alphabetical order) the attribute names, their meanings and the
corresponding placeholder in a %-style format string.

If you are using {}-formatting (*note str.format(): 433.), you can use
‘{attrname}’ as the placeholder in the format string.  If you are using
$-formatting (*note string.Template: 49c.), use the form ‘${attrname}’.
In both cases, of course, replace ‘attrname’ with the actual attribute
name you want to use.

In the case of {}-formatting, you can specify formatting flags by
placing them after the attribute name, separated from it with a colon.
For example: a placeholder of ‘{msecs:03.0f}’ would format a millisecond
value of ‘4’ as ‘004’.  Refer to the *note str.format(): 433.
documentation for full details on the options available to you.

Attribute name       Format                        Description
                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
args                 You shouldn’t need to         The tuple of arguments merged into ‘msg’ to
                     format this yourself.         produce ‘message’, or a dict whose values are
                                                   used for the merge (when there is only one
                                                   argument, and it is a dictionary).
                                                   
                                                   
asctime              ‘%(asctime)s’                 Human-readable time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: e8c. was created.  By default
                                                   this is of the form ‘2003-07-08 16:49:45,896’
                                                   (the numbers after the comma are millisecond
                                                   portion of the time).
                                                   
                                                   
created              ‘%(created)f’                 Time when the *note LogRecord: e8c. was created
                                                   (as returned by *note time.time(): 94f.).
                                                   
                                                   
exc_info             You shouldn’t need to         Exception tuple (à la ‘sys.exc_info’) or, if no
                     format this yourself.         exception has occurred, ‘None’.
                                                   
                                                   
filename             ‘%(filename)s’                Filename portion of ‘pathname’.
                                                   
                                                   
funcName             ‘%(funcName)s’                Name of function containing the logging call.
                                                   
                                                   
levelname            ‘%(levelname)s’               Text logging level for the message (‘'DEBUG'’,
                                                   ‘'INFO'’, ‘'WARNING'’, ‘'ERROR'’, ‘'CRITICAL'’).
                                                   
                                                   
levelno              ‘%(levelno)s’                 Numeric logging level for the message
                                                   (*note DEBUG: 1b3c, *note INFO: 1b3d,
                                                   *note WARNING: 1b3e, *note ERROR: 1b3f,
                                                   *note CRITICAL: 1b40.).
                                                   
                                                   
lineno               ‘%(lineno)d’                  Source line number where the logging call was
                                                   issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
message              ‘%(message)s’                 The logged message, computed as ‘msg % args’.
                                                   This is set when *note Formatter.format(): 2ace.
                                                   is invoked.
                                                   
                                                   
module               ‘%(module)s’                  Module (name portion of ‘filename’).
                                                   
                                                   
msecs                ‘%(msecs)d’                   Millisecond portion of the time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: e8c. was created.
                                                   
                                                   
msg                  You shouldn’t need to         The format string passed in the original logging
                     format this yourself.         call.  Merged with ‘args’ to produce ‘message’,
                                                   or an arbitrary object (see
                                                   *note Using arbitrary objects as messages: 2add.).
                                                   
                                                   
name                 ‘%(name)s’                    Name of the logger used to log the call.
                                                   
                                                   
pathname             ‘%(pathname)s’                Full pathname of the source file where the
                                                   logging call was issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
process              ‘%(process)d’                 Process ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
processName          ‘%(processName)s’             Process name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
relativeCreated      ‘%(relativeCreated)d’         Time in milliseconds when the LogRecord was
                                                   created, relative to the time the logging module
                                                   was loaded.
                                                   
                                                   
stack_info           You shouldn’t need to         Stack frame information (where available) from
                     format this yourself.         the bottom of the stack in the current thread, up
                                                   to and including the stack frame of the logging
                                                   call which resulted in the creation of this
                                                   record.
                                                   
                                                   
thread               ‘%(thread)d’                  Thread ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
threadName           ‘%(threadName)s’              Thread name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
taskName             ‘%(taskName)s’                *note asyncio.Task: 20a. name (if available).
                                                   

3.1 sürümünde değişti: 'processName' was added.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: 'taskName' was added.


File: python.info,  Node: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Next: Thread Safety,  Prev: LogRecord attributes,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.8 LoggerAdapter Objects
..............................

*note LoggerAdapter: 119f. instances are used to conveniently pass
contextual information into logging calls.  For a usage example, see the
section on *note adding contextual information to your logging output:
2ae4.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.LoggerAdapter (logger, extra)

     Returns an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 119f. initialized with
     an underlying *note Logger: 9c2. instance and a dict-like object.

      -- Yöntemi: process (msg, kwargs)

          Modifies the message and/or keyword arguments passed to a
          logging call in order to insert contextual information.  This
          implementation takes the object passed as 'extra' to the
          constructor and adds it to 'kwargs' using key ‘extra’.  The
          return value is a ('msg', 'kwargs') tuple which has the
          (possibly modified) versions of the arguments passed in.

      -- Özniteliği: manager

          Delegates to the underlying ‘manager’ on 'logger'.

      -- Özniteliği: _log

          Delegates to the underlying ‘_log()’ method on 'logger'.

     In addition to the above, *note LoggerAdapter: 119f. supports the
     following methods of *note Logger: 9c2.: *note debug(): cba, *note
     info(): 2aad, *note warning(): 2aaf, *note error(): 2ab0, *note
     exception(): cb8, *note critical(): cb9, *note log(): cb7, *note
     isEnabledFor(): 11a0, *note getEffectiveLevel(): 2aab, *note
     setLevel(): 131a. and *note hasHandlers(): 2ab7.  These methods
     have the same signatures as their counterparts in *note Logger:
     9c2, so you can use the two types of instances interchangeably.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The *note isEnabledFor(): 11a0, *note
     getEffectiveLevel(): 2aab, *note setLevel(): 131a. and *note
     hasHandlers(): 2ab7. methods were added to *note LoggerAdapter:
     119f.  These methods delegate to the underlying logger.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Attribute ‘manager’ and method ‘_log()’ were
     added, which delegate to the underlying logger and allow adapters
     to be nested.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Safety,  Next: Module-Level Functions,  Prev: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.9 Thread Safety
......................

The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special
work needing to be done by its clients.  It achieves this though using
threading locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module’s
shared data, and each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to
its underlying I/O.

If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the *note
signal: c5. module, you may not be able to use logging from within such
handlers.  This is because lock implementations in the *note threading:
ec. module are not always re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such
signal handlers.


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions,  Next: Module-Level Attributes,  Prev: Thread Safety,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.10 Module-Level Functions
................................

In addition to the classes described above, there are a number of
module-level functions.

 -- Işlevi: logging.getLogger (name=None)

     Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is ‘None’,
     return the root logger of the hierarchy.  If specified, the name is
     typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like '‘a’', '‘a.b’' or
     '‘a.b.c.d’'.  Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer
     who is using logging, though it is recommended that ‘__name__’ be
     used unless you have a specific reason for not doing that, as
     mentioned in *note Logger Objects: 2aa1.

     All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger
     instance.  This means that logger instances never need to be passed
     between different parts of an application.

 -- Işlevi: logging.getLoggerClass ()

     Return either the standard *note Logger: 9c2. class, or the last
     class passed to *note setLoggerClass(): 2aeb.  This function may be
     called from within a new class definition, to ensure that
     installing a customized *note Logger: 9c2. class will not undo
     customizations already applied by other code.  For example:

          class MyLogger(logging.getLoggerClass()):
              # ... override behaviour here

 -- Işlevi: logging.getLogRecordFactory ()

     Return a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: e8c.

     Added in version 3.2: This function has been provided, along with
     *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ae0, to allow developers more control
     over how the *note LogRecord: e8c. representing a logging event is
     constructed.

     See *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ae0. for more information about
     the how the factory is called.

 -- Işlevi: logging.debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     This is a convenience function that calls *note Logger.debug():
     cba, on the root logger.  The handling of the arguments is in every
     way identical to what is described in that method.

     The only difference is that if the root logger has no handlers,
     then *note basicConfig(): 860. is called, prior to calling ‘debug’
     on the root logger.

     For very short scripts or quick demonstrations of ‘logging’
     facilities, ‘debug’ and the other module-level functions may be
     convenient.  However, most programs will want to carefully and
     explicitly control the logging configuration, and should therefore
     prefer creating a module-level logger and calling *note
     Logger.debug(): cba. (or other level-specific methods) on it, as
     described at the beginnning of this documentation.

 -- Işlevi: logging.info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note INFO: 1b3d. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2aae.

 -- Işlevi: logging.warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note WARNING: 1b3e. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2aae.

          Not: There is an obsolete function ‘warn’ which is
          functionally identical to ‘warning’.  As ‘warn’ is deprecated,
          please do not use it - use ‘warning’ instead.

 -- Işlevi: logging.error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1b3f. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2aae.

 -- Işlevi: logging.critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note CRITICAL: 1b40. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2aae.

 -- Işlevi: logging.exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 1b3f. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 2aae.  Exception info is added to the logging message.
     This function should only be called from an exception handler.

 -- Işlevi: logging.log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level 'level' on the root logger.  The
     arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note debug():
     2aae.

 -- Işlevi: logging.disable (level=CRITICAL)

     Provides an overriding level 'level' for all loggers which takes
     precedence over the logger’s own level.  When the need arises to
     temporarily throttle logging output down across the whole
     application, this function can be useful.  Its effect is to disable
     all logging calls of severity 'level' and below, so that if you
     call it with a value of INFO, then all INFO and DEBUG events would
     be discarded, whereas those of severity WARNING and above would be
     processed according to the logger’s effective level.  If
     ‘logging.disable(logging.NOTSET)’ is called, it effectively removes
     this overriding level, so that logging output again depends on the
     effective levels of individual loggers.

     Note that if you have defined any custom logging level higher than
     ‘CRITICAL’ (this is not recommended), you won’t be able to rely on
     the default value for the 'level' parameter, but will have to
     explicitly supply a suitable value.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'level' parameter was defaulted to level
     ‘CRITICAL’.  See bpo-28524(1) for more information about this
     change.

 -- Işlevi: logging.addLevelName (level, levelName)

     Associates level 'level' with text 'levelName' in an internal
     dictionary, which is used to map numeric levels to a textual
     representation, for example when a *note Formatter: 131f. formats a
     message.  This function can also be used to define your own levels.
     The only constraints are that all levels used must be registered
     using this function, levels should be positive integers and they
     should increase in increasing order of severity.

          Not: If you are thinking of defining your own levels, please
          see the section on *note Custom Levels: 2af1.

 -- Işlevi: logging.getLevelNamesMapping ()

     Returns a mapping from level names to their corresponding logging
     levels.  For example, the string “CRITICAL” maps to *note CRITICAL:
     1b40.  The returned mapping is copied from an internal mapping on
     each call to this function.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: logging.getLevelName (level)

     Returns the textual or numeric representation of logging level
     'level'.

     If 'level' is one of the predefined levels *note CRITICAL: 1b40,
     *note ERROR: 1b3f, *note WARNING: 1b3e, *note INFO: 1b3d. or *note
     DEBUG: 1b3c. then you get the corresponding string.  If you have
     associated levels with names using *note addLevelName(): 2af0. then
     the name you have associated with 'level' is returned.  If a
     numeric value corresponding to one of the defined levels is passed
     in, the corresponding string representation is returned.

     The 'level' parameter also accepts a string representation of the
     level such as ‘INFO’.  In such cases, this functions returns the
     corresponding numeric value of the level.

     If no matching numeric or string value is passed in, the string
     ‘Level %s’ % level is returned.

          Not: Levels are internally integers (as they need to be
          compared in the logging logic).  This function is used to
          convert between an integer level and the level name displayed
          in the formatted log output by means of the ‘%(levelname)s’
          format specifier (see *note LogRecord attributes: 2aac.), and
          vice versa.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: In Python versions earlier than 3.4, this
     function could also be passed a text level, and would return the
     corresponding numeric value of the level.  This undocumented
     behaviour was considered a mistake, and was removed in Python 3.4,
     but reinstated in 3.4.2 due to retain backward compatibility.

 -- Işlevi: logging.getHandlerByName (name)

     Returns a handler with the specified 'name', or ‘None’ if there is
     no handler with that name.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: logging.getHandlerNames ()

     Returns an immutable set of all known handler names.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: logging.makeLogRecord (attrdict)

     Creates and returns a new *note LogRecord: e8c. instance whose
     attributes are defined by 'attrdict'.  This function is useful for
     taking a pickled *note LogRecord: e8c. attribute dictionary, sent
     over a socket, and reconstituting it as a *note LogRecord: e8c.
     instance at the receiving end.

 -- Işlevi: logging.basicConfig (**kwargs)

     Does basic configuration for the logging system by creating a *note
     StreamHandler: 109d. with a default *note Formatter: 131f. and
     adding it to the root logger.  The functions *note debug(): 2aae,
     *note info(): 2ad8, *note warning(): 131b, *note error(): 2aec. and
     *note critical(): 2aed. will call *note basicConfig(): 860.
     automatically if no handlers are defined for the root logger.

     This function does nothing if the root logger already has handlers
     configured, unless the keyword argument 'force' is set to ‘True’.

          Not: This function should be called from the main thread
          before other threads are started.  In versions of Python prior
          to 2.7.1 and 3.2, if this function is called from multiple
          threads, it is possible (in rare circumstances) that a handler
          will be added to the root logger more than once, leading to
          unexpected results such as messages being duplicated in the
          log.

     The following keyword arguments are supported.

     Format             Description
                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     'filename'         Specifies that a *note FileHandler: 16c6. be
                        created, using the specified filename, rather
                        than a *note StreamHandler: 109d.
                        
                        
     'filemode'         If 'filename' is specified, open the file in
                        this *note mode: 1f67.  Defaults to ‘'a'’.
                        
                        
     'format'           Use the specified format string for the
                        handler.  Defaults to attributes ‘levelname’,
                        ‘name’ and ‘message’ separated by colons.
                        
                        
     'datefmt'          Use the specified date/time format, as accepted
                        by *note time.strftime(): 108e.
                        
                        
     'style'            If 'format' is specified, use this style for
                        the format string.  One of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
                        ‘'$'’ for *note printf-style: 4e4,
                        *note str.format(): 433. or
                        *note string.Template: 49c. respectively.
                        Defaults to ‘'%'’.
                        
                        
     'level'            Set the root logger level to the specified
                        *note level: 46d.
                        
                        
     'stream'           Use the specified stream to initialize the
                        *note StreamHandler: 109d.  Note that this
                        argument is incompatible with 'filename' - if
                        both are present, a ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'handlers'         If specified, this should be an iterable of
                        already created handlers to add to the root
                        logger.  Any handlers which don’t already have
                        a formatter set will be assigned the default
                        formatter created in this function.  Note that
                        this argument is incompatible with 'filename'
                        or 'stream' - if both are present, a
                        ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'force'            If this keyword argument is specified as true,
                        any existing handlers attached to the root
                        logger are removed and closed, before carrying
                        out the configuration as specified by the other
                        arguments.
                        
                        
     'encoding'         If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 16c6. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.
                        
                        
     'errors'           If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 16c6. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.  If not
                        specified, the value ‘backslashreplace’ is
                        used.  Note that if ‘None’ is specified, it
                        will be passed as such to *note open(): 2a6,
                        which means that it will be treated the same as
                        passing ‘errors’.
                        

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'style' argument was added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'handlers' argument was added.
     Additional checks were added to catch situations where incompatible
     arguments are specified (e.g.  'handlers' together with 'stream' or
     'filename', or 'stream' together with 'filename').

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'force' argument was added.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments were
     added.

 -- Işlevi: logging.shutdown ()

     Informs the logging system to perform an orderly shutdown by
     flushing and closing all handlers.  This should be called at
     application exit and no further use of the logging system should be
     made after this call.

     When the logging module is imported, it registers this function as
     an exit handler (see *note atexit: c.), so normally there’s no need
     to do that manually.

 -- Işlevi: logging.setLoggerClass (klass)

     Tells the logging system to use the class 'klass' when
     instantiating a logger.  The class should define ‘__init__()’ such
     that only a name argument is required, and the ‘__init__()’ should
     call ‘Logger.__init__()’.  This function is typically called before
     any loggers are instantiated by applications which need to use
     custom logger behavior.  After this call, as at any other time, do
     not instantiate loggers directly using the subclass: continue to
     use the *note logging.getLogger(): 7bb. API to get your loggers.

 -- Işlevi: logging.setLogRecordFactory (factory)

     Set a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: e8c.


     Parametreler: ‘factory’ – The factory callable to be used to
     instantiate a log record.

     Added in version 3.2: This function has been provided, along with
     *note getLogRecordFactory(): 2adf, to allow developers more control
     over how the *note LogRecord: e8c. representing a logging event is
     constructed.

     The factory has the following signature:

     ‘factory(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None,
     sinfo=None, **kwargs)’


          name: The logger name.


          level: The logging level (numeric).


          fn: The full pathname of the file where the logging call was
          made.


          lno: The line number in the file where the logging call was
          made.


          msg: The logging message.


          args: The arguments for the logging message.


          exc_info: An exception tuple, or ‘None’.


          func: The name of the function or method which invoked the
          logging call.


          sinfo: A stack traceback such as is provided by *note
          traceback.print_stack(): d1c, showing the call hierarchy.


          kwargs: Additional keyword arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28524


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Attributes,  Next: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Module-Level Functions,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.11 Module-Level Attributes
.................................

 -- Verisi: logging.lastResort

     A “handler of last resort” is available through this attribute.
     This is a *note StreamHandler: 109d. writing to ‘sys.stderr’ with a
     level of ‘WARNING’, and is used to handle logging events in the
     absence of any logging configuration.  The end result is to just
     print the message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This replaces the earlier error
     message saying that “no handlers could be found for logger XYZ”.
     If you need the earlier behaviour for some reason, ‘lastResort’ can
     be set to ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: logging.raiseExceptions

     Used to see if exceptions during handling should be propagated.

     Default: ‘True’.

     If *note raiseExceptions: 109e. is ‘False’, exceptions get silently
     ignored.  This is what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most
     users will not care about errors in the logging system, they are
     more interested in application errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Module-Level Attributes,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.16.6.12 Integration with the warnings module
..............................................

The *note captureWarnings(): 2af6. function can be used to integrate
*note logging: 86. with the *note warnings: 112. module.

 -- Işlevi: logging.captureWarnings (capture)

     This function is used to turn the capture of warnings by logging on
     and off.

     If 'capture' is ‘True’, warnings issued by the *note warnings: 112.
     module will be redirected to the logging system.  Specifically, a
     warning will be formatted using *note warnings.formatwarning():
     184e. and the resulting string logged to a logger named
     ‘'py.warnings'’ with a severity of *note WARNING: 1b3e.

     If 'capture' is ‘False’, the redirection of warnings to the logging
     system will stop, and warnings will be redirected to their original
     destinations (i.e.  those in effect before ‘captureWarnings(True)’
     was called).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     Configuration API for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

PEP 282(1) - A Logging System

     The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the
     Python standard library.

Original Python logging package(2)

     This is the original source for the *note logging: 86. package.
     The version of the package available from this site is suitable for
     use with Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x and 2.2.x, which do not include the
     *note logging: 86. package in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://old.red-dove.com/python_logging.html


File: python.info,  Node: logging config — Logging configuration,  Next: logging handlers — Logging handlers,  Prev: logging — Logging facility for Python,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.7 ‘logging.config’ — Logging configuration
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/logging/config.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains only reference information.  For tutorials, please
see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 109a.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 109b.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 109c.

__________________________________________________________________

This section describes the API for configuring the logging module.

* Menu:

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/logging/config.py


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration functions,  Next: Security considerations,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.16.7.1 Configuration functions
................................

The following functions configure the logging module.  They are located
in the *note logging.config: 87. module.  Their use is optional — you
can configure the logging module using these functions or by making
calls to the main API (defined in *note logging: 86. itself) and
defining handlers which are declared either in *note logging: 86. or
*note logging.handlers: 88.

 -- Işlevi: logging.config.dictConfig (config)

     Takes the logging configuration from a dictionary.  The contents of
     this dictionary are described in *note Configuration dictionary
     schema: 2afa. below.

     If an error is encountered during configuration, this function will
     raise a *note ValueError: 189, *note TypeError: 2c4, *note
     AttributeError: 3dc. or *note ImportError: 14b. with a suitably
     descriptive message.  The following is a (possibly incomplete) list
     of conditions which will raise an error:

        * A ‘level’ which is not a string or which is a string not
          corresponding to an actual logging level.

        * A ‘propagate’ value which is not a boolean.

        * An id which does not have a corresponding destination.

        * A non-existent handler id found during an incremental call.

        * An invalid logger name.

        * Inability to resolve to an internal or external object.

     Parsing is performed by the ‘DictConfigurator’ class, whose
     constructor is passed the dictionary used for configuration, and
     has a ‘configure()’ method.  The *note logging.config: 87. module
     has a callable attribute ‘dictConfigClass’ which is initially set
     to ‘DictConfigurator’.  You can replace the value of
     ‘dictConfigClass’ with a suitable implementation of your own.

     *note dictConfig(): 1055. calls ‘dictConfigClass’ passing the
     specified dictionary, and then calls the ‘configure()’ method on
     the returned object to put the configuration into effect:

          def dictConfig(config):
              dictConfigClass(config).configure()

     For example, a subclass of ‘DictConfigurator’ could call
     ‘DictConfigurator.__init__()’ in its own ‘__init__()’, then set up
     custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent
     ‘configure()’ call.  ‘dictConfigClass’ would be bound to this new
     subclass, and then *note dictConfig(): 1055. could be called
     exactly as in the default, uncustomized state.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: logging.config.fileConfig (fname, defaults=None,
          disable_existing_loggers=True, encoding=None)

     Reads the logging configuration from a *note configparser:
     22.-format file.  The format of the file should be as described in
     *note Configuration file format: 2afb.  This function can be called
     several times from an application, allowing an end user to select
     from various pre-canned configurations (if the developer provides a
     mechanism to present the choices and load the chosen
     configuration).

     It will raise *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. if the file doesn’t
     exist and *note RuntimeError: 180. if the file is invalid or empty.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fname’ – A filename, or a file-like object, or an instance
          derived from *note RawConfigParser: e04.  If a
          ‘RawConfigParser’-derived instance is passed, it is used as
          is.  Otherwise, a *note ConfigParser: 28e. is instantiated,
          and the configuration read by it from the object passed in
          ‘fname’.  If that has a *note readline(): b9. method, it is
          assumed to be a file-like object and read using *note
          read_file(): 28f.; otherwise, it is assumed to be a filename
          and passed to *note read(): 12f0.

        * ‘defaults’ – Defaults to be passed to the ‘ConfigParser’ can
          be specified in this argument.

        * ‘disable_existing_loggers’ – If specified as ‘False’, loggers
          which exist when this call is made are left enabled.  The
          default is ‘True’ because this enables old behaviour in a
          backward-compatible way.  This behaviour is to disable any
          existing non-root loggers unless they or their ancestors are
          explicitly named in the logging configuration.

        * ‘encoding’ – The encoding used to open file when 'fname' is
          filename.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: An instance of a subclass of *note
     RawConfigParser: e04. is now accepted as a value for ‘fname’.  This
     facilitates:

             * Use of a configuration file where logging configuration
               is just part of the overall application configuration.

             * Use of a configuration read from a file, and then
               modified by the using application (e.g.  based on
               command-line parameters or other aspects of the runtime
               environment) before being passed to ‘fileConfig’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'encoding' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: An exception will be thrown if the provided
     file doesn’t exist or is invalid or empty.

 -- Işlevi: logging.config.listen (port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT,
          verify=None)

     Starts up a socket server on the specified port, and listens for
     new configurations.  If no port is specified, the module’s default
     ‘DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT’ is used.  Logging configurations will
     be sent as a file suitable for processing by *note dictConfig():
     1055. or *note fileConfig(): 9c4.  Returns a *note Thread: 7a7.
     instance on which you can call *note start(): 2afc. to start the
     server, and which you can *note join(): 1089. when appropriate.  To
     stop the server, call *note stopListening(): 2afd.

     The ‘verify’ argument, if specified, should be a callable which
     should verify whether bytes received across the socket are valid
     and should be processed.  This could be done by encrypting and/or
     signing what is sent across the socket, such that the ‘verify’
     callable can perform signature verification and/or decryption.  The
     ‘verify’ callable is called with a single argument - the bytes
     received across the socket - and should return the bytes to be
     processed, or ‘None’ to indicate that the bytes should be
     discarded.  The returned bytes could be the same as the passed in
     bytes (e.g.  when only verification is done), or they could be
     completely different (perhaps if decryption were performed).

     To send a configuration to the socket, read in the configuration
     file and send it to the socket as a sequence of bytes preceded by a
     four-byte length string packed in binary using ‘struct.pack('>L',
     n)’.
          Not: Because portions of the configuration are passed through
          *note eval(): 6ca, use of this function may open its users to
          a security risk.  While the function only binds to a socket on
          ‘localhost’, and so does not accept connections from remote
          machines, there are scenarios where untrusted code could be
          run under the account of the process which calls *note
          listen(): e05.  Specifically, if the process calling *note
          listen(): e05. runs on a multi-user machine where users cannot
          trust each other, then a malicious user could arrange to run
          essentially arbitrary code in a victim user’s process, simply
          by connecting to the victim’s *note listen(): e05. socket and
          sending a configuration which runs whatever code the attacker
          wants to have executed in the victim’s process.  This is
          especially easy to do if the default port is used, but not
          hard even if a different port is used.  To avoid the risk of
          this happening, use the ‘verify’ argument to *note listen():
          e05. to prevent unrecognised configurations from being
          applied.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘verify’ argument was added.

          Not: If you want to send configurations to the listener which
          don’t disable existing loggers, you will need to use a JSON
          format for the configuration, which will use *note
          dictConfig(): 1055. for configuration.  This method allows you
          to specify ‘disable_existing_loggers’ as ‘False’ in the
          configuration you send.

 -- Işlevi: logging.config.stopListening ()

     Stops the listening server which was created with a call to *note
     listen(): e05.  This is typically called before calling ‘join()’ on
     the return value from *note listen(): e05.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations,  Next: Configuration dictionary schema,  Prev: Configuration functions,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.16.7.2 Security considerations
................................

The logging configuration functionality tries to offer convenience, and
in part this is done by offering the ability to convert text in
configuration files into Python objects used in logging configuration -
for example, as described in *note User-defined objects: 2b00.  However,
these same mechanisms (importing callables from user-defined modules and
calling them with parameters from the configuration) could be used to
invoke any code you like, and for this reason you should treat
configuration files from untrusted sources with 'extreme caution' and
satisfy yourself that nothing bad can happen if you load them, before
actually loading them.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration dictionary schema,  Next: Configuration file format,  Prev: Security considerations,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.16.7.3 Configuration dictionary schema
........................................

Describing a logging configuration requires listing the various objects
to create and the connections between them; for example, you may create
a handler named ‘console’ and then say that the logger named ‘startup’
will send its messages to the ‘console’ handler.  These objects aren’t
limited to those provided by the *note logging: 86. module because you
might write your own formatter or handler class.  The parameters to
these classes may also need to include external objects such as
‘sys.stderr’.  The syntax for describing these objects and connections
is defined in *note Object connections: 2b02. below.

* Menu:

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary Schema Details,  Next: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.4 Dictionary Schema Details
..................................

The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 1055. must contain the
following keys:

   * 'version' - to be set to an integer value representing the schema
     version.  The only valid value at present is 1, but having this key
     allows the schema to evolve while still preserving backwards
     compatibility.

All other keys are optional, but if present they will be interpreted as
described below.  In all cases below where a ‘configuring dict’ is
mentioned, it will be checked for the special ‘'()'’ key to see if a
custom instantiation is required.  If so, the mechanism described in
*note User-defined objects: 2b00. below is used to create an instance;
otherwise, the context is used to determine what to instantiate.

   * 'formatters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a formatter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding *note Formatter: 131f. instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following optional keys
     which correspond to the arguments passed to create a *note
     Formatter: 131f. object:

        * ‘format’

        * ‘datefmt’

        * ‘style’

        * ‘validate’ (since version >=3.8)

        * ‘defaults’ (since version >=3.12)

     An optional ‘class’ key indicates the name of the formatter’s class
     (as a dotted module and class name).  The instantiation arguments
     are as for *note Formatter: 131f, thus this key is most useful for
     instantiating a customised subclass of *note Formatter: 131f.  For
     example, the alternative class might present exception tracebacks
     in an expanded or condensed format.  If your formatter requires
     different or extra configuration keys, you should use *note
     User-defined objects: 2b00.

   * 'filters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a filter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Filter instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the key ‘name’ (defaulting to
     the empty string) and this is used to construct a *note
     logging.Filter: 10a0. instance.

   * 'handlers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a handler id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Handler instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘class’ (mandatory).  This is the fully qualified name of the
          handler class.

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the handler.

        * ‘formatter’ (optional).  The id of the formatter for this
          handler.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          handler.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘filters’ can take filter instances in
          addition to ids.

     All 'other' keys are passed through as keyword arguments to the
     handler’s constructor.  For example, given the snippet:

          handlers:
            console:
              class : logging.StreamHandler
              formatter: brief
              level   : INFO
              filters: [allow_foo]
              stream  : ext://sys.stdout
            file:
              class : logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler
              formatter: precise
              filename: logconfig.log
              maxBytes: 1024
              backupCount: 3

     the handler with id ‘console’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.StreamHandler: 109d, using ‘sys.stdout’ as the underlying
     stream.  The handler with id ‘file’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1454. with the keyword
     arguments ‘filename='logconfig.log', maxBytes=1024, backupCount=3’.

   * 'loggers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a logger name and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Logger instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the logger.

        * ‘propagate’ (optional).  The propagation setting of the
          logger.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          logger.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘filters’ can take filter instances in
          addition to ids.

        * ‘handlers’ (optional).  A list of ids of the handlers for this
          logger.

     The specified loggers will be configured according to the level,
     propagation, filters and handlers specified.

   * 'root' - this will be the configuration for the root logger.
     Processing of the configuration will be as for any logger, except
     that the ‘propagate’ setting will not be applicable.

   * 'incremental' - whether the configuration is to be interpreted as
     incremental to the existing configuration.  This value defaults to
     ‘False’, which means that the specified configuration replaces the
     existing configuration with the same semantics as used by the
     existing *note fileConfig(): 9c4. API.

     If the specified value is ‘True’, the configuration is processed as
     described in the section on *note Incremental Configuration: 2b05.

   * 'disable_existing_loggers' - whether any existing non-root loggers
     are to be disabled.  This setting mirrors the parameter of the same
     name in *note fileConfig(): 9c4.  If absent, this parameter
     defaults to ‘True’.  This value is ignored if 'incremental' is
     ‘True’.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Configuration,  Next: Object connections,  Prev: Dictionary Schema Details,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.5 Incremental Configuration
..................................

It is difficult to provide complete flexibility for incremental
configuration.  For example, because objects such as filters and
formatters are anonymous, once a configuration is set up, it is not
possible to refer to such anonymous objects when augmenting a
configuration.

Furthermore, there is not a compelling case for arbitrarily altering the
object graph of loggers, handlers, filters, formatters at run-time, once
a configuration is set up; the verbosity of loggers and handlers can be
controlled just by setting levels (and, in the case of loggers,
propagation flags).  Changing the object graph arbitrarily in a safe way
is problematic in a multi-threaded environment; while not impossible,
the benefits are not worth the complexity it adds to the implementation.

Thus, when the ‘incremental’ key of a configuration dict is present and
is ‘True’, the system will completely ignore any ‘formatters’ and
‘filters’ entries, and process only the ‘level’ settings in the
‘handlers’ entries, and the ‘level’ and ‘propagate’ settings in the
‘loggers’ and ‘root’ entries.

Using a value in the configuration dict lets configurations to be sent
over the wire as pickled dicts to a socket listener.  Thus, the logging
verbosity of a long-running application can be altered over time with no
need to stop and restart the application.


File: python.info,  Node: Object connections,  Next: User-defined objects,  Prev: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.6 Object connections
...........................

The schema describes a set of logging objects - loggers, handlers,
formatters, filters - which are connected to each other in an object
graph.  Thus, the schema needs to represent connections between the
objects.  For example, say that, once configured, a particular logger
has attached to it a particular handler.  For the purposes of this
discussion, we can say that the logger represents the source, and the
handler the destination, of a connection between the two.  Of course in
the configured objects this is represented by the logger holding a
reference to the handler.  In the configuration dict, this is done by
giving each destination object an id which identifies it unambiguously,
and then using the id in the source object’s configuration to indicate
that a connection exists between the source and the destination object
with that id.

So, for example, consider the following YAML snippet:

     formatters:
       brief:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'brief' goes here
       precise:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'precise' goes here
     handlers:
       h1: #This is an id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h1' goes here
        formatter: brief
       h2: #This is another id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h2' goes here
        formatter: precise
     loggers:
       foo.bar.baz:
         # other configuration for logger 'foo.bar.baz'
         handlers: [h1, h2]

(Note: YAML used here because it’s a little more readable than the
equivalent Python source form for the dictionary.)

The ids for loggers are the logger names which would be used
programmatically to obtain a reference to those loggers, e.g.
‘foo.bar.baz’.  The ids for Formatters and Filters can be any string
value (such as ‘brief’, ‘precise’ above) and they are transient, in that
they are only meaningful for processing the configuration dictionary and
used to determine connections between objects, and are not persisted
anywhere when the configuration call is complete.

The above snippet indicates that logger named ‘foo.bar.baz’ should have
two handlers attached to it, which are described by the handler ids ‘h1’
and ‘h2’.  The formatter for ‘h1’ is that described by id ‘brief’, and
the formatter for ‘h2’ is that described by id ‘precise’.


File: python.info,  Node: User-defined objects,  Next: Handler configuration order,  Prev: Object connections,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.7 User-defined objects
.............................

The schema supports user-defined objects for handlers, filters and
formatters.  (Loggers do not need to have different types for different
instances, so there is no support in this configuration schema for
user-defined logger classes.)

Objects to be configured are described by dictionaries which detail
their configuration.  In some places, the logging system will be able to
infer from the context how an object is to be instantiated, but when a
user-defined object is to be instantiated, the system will not know how
to do this.  In order to provide complete flexibility for user-defined
object instantiation, the user needs to provide a ‘factory’ - a callable
which is called with a configuration dictionary and which returns the
instantiated object.  This is signalled by an absolute import path to
the factory being made available under the special key ‘'()'’.  Here’s a
concrete example:

     formatters:
       brief:
         format: '%(message)s'
       default:
         format: '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s'
         datefmt: '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
       custom:
           (): my.package.customFormatterFactory
           bar: baz
           spam: 99.9
           answer: 42

The above YAML snippet defines three formatters.  The first, with id
‘brief’, is a standard *note logging.Formatter: 131f. instance with the
specified format string.  The second, with id ‘default’, has a longer
format and also defines the time format explicitly, and will result in a
*note logging.Formatter: 131f. initialized with those two format
strings.  Shown in Python source form, the ‘brief’ and ‘default’
formatters have configuration sub-dictionaries:

     {
       'format' : '%(message)s'
     }

and:

     {
       'format' : '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s',
       'datefmt' : '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
     }

respectively, and as these dictionaries do not contain the special key
‘'()'’, the instantiation is inferred from the context: as a result,
standard *note logging.Formatter: 131f. instances are created.  The
configuration sub-dictionary for the third formatter, with id ‘custom’,
is:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42
     }

and this contains the special key ‘'()'’, which means that user-defined
instantiation is wanted.  In this case, the specified factory callable
will be used.  If it is an actual callable it will be used directly -
otherwise, if you specify a string (as in the example) the actual
callable will be located using normal import mechanisms.  The callable
will be called with the 'remaining' items in the configuration
sub-dictionary as keyword arguments.  In the above example, the
formatter with id ‘custom’ will be assumed to be returned by the call:

     my.package.customFormatterFactory(bar='baz', spam=99.9, answer=42)

     Uyarı: The values for keys such as ‘bar’, ‘spam’ and ‘answer’ in
     the above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but passed to the
     callable as-is.

The key ‘'()'’ has been used as the special key because it is not a
valid keyword parameter name, and so will not clash with the names of
the keyword arguments used in the call.  The ‘'()'’ also serves as a
mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘filters’ member of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’
can take filter instances in addition to ids.

You can also specify a special key ‘'.'’ whose value is a dictionary is
a mapping of attribute names to values.  If found, the specified
attributes will be set on the user-defined object before it is returned.
Thus, with the following configuration:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42,
       '.' {
         'foo': 'bar',
         'baz': 'bozz'
       }
     }

the returned formatter will have attribute ‘foo’ set to ‘'bar'’ and
attribute ‘baz’ set to ‘'bozz'’.

     Uyarı: The values for attributes such as ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ in the
     above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but set as
     attribute values as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Handler configuration order,  Next: Access to external objects,  Prev: User-defined objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.8 Handler configuration order
....................................

Handlers are configured in alphabetical order of their keys, and a
configured handler replaces the configuration dictionary in (a working
copy of) the ‘handlers’ dictionary in the schema.  If you use a
construct such as ‘cfg://handlers.foo’, then initially ‘handlers['foo']’
points to the configuration dictionary for the handler named ‘foo’, and
later (once that handler has been configured) it points to the
configured handler instance.  Thus, ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ could resolve
to either a dictionary or a handler instance.  In general, it is wise to
name handlers in a way such that dependent handlers are configured
_after_ any handlers they depend on; that allows something like
‘cfg://handlers.foo’ to be used in configuring a handler that depends on
handler ‘foo’.  If that dependent handler were named ‘bar’, problems
would result, because the configuration of ‘bar’ would be attempted
before that of ‘foo’, and ‘foo’ would not yet have been configured.
However, if the dependent handler were named ‘foobar’, it would be
configured after ‘foo’, with the result that ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ would
resolve to configured handler ‘foo’, and not its configuration
dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to external objects,  Next: Access to internal objects,  Prev: Handler configuration order,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.9 Access to external objects
...................................

There are times where a configuration needs to refer to objects external
to the configuration, for example ‘sys.stderr’.  If the configuration
dict is constructed using Python code, this is straightforward, but a
problem arises when the configuration is provided via a text file (e.g.
JSON, YAML). In a text file, there is no standard way to distinguish
‘sys.stderr’ from the literal string ‘'sys.stderr'’.  To facilitate this
distinction, the configuration system looks for certain special prefixes
in string values and treat them specially.  For example, if the literal
string ‘'ext://sys.stderr'’ is provided as a value in the configuration,
then the ‘ext://’ will be stripped off and the remainder of the value
processed using normal import mechanisms.

The handling of such prefixes is done in a way analogous to protocol
handling: there is a generic mechanism to look for prefixes which match
the regular expression ‘^(?P<prefix>[a-z]+)://(?P<suffix>.*)$’ whereby,
if the ‘prefix’ is recognised, the ‘suffix’ is processed in a
prefix-dependent manner and the result of the processing replaces the
string value.  If the prefix is not recognised, then the string value
will be left as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to internal objects,  Next: Import resolution and custom importers,  Prev: Access to external objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.10 Access to internal objects
....................................

As well as external objects, there is sometimes also a need to refer to
objects in the configuration.  This will be done implicitly by the
configuration system for things that it knows about.  For example, the
string value ‘'DEBUG'’ for a ‘level’ in a logger or handler will
automatically be converted to the value ‘logging.DEBUG’, and the
‘handlers’, ‘filters’ and ‘formatter’ entries will take an object id and
resolve to the appropriate destination object.

However, a more generic mechanism is needed for user-defined objects
which are not known to the *note logging: 86. module.  For example,
consider *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2b0f, which takes a
‘target’ argument which is another handler to delegate to.  Since the
system already knows about this class, then in the configuration, the
given ‘target’ just needs to be the object id of the relevant target
handler, and the system will resolve to the handler from the id.  If,
however, a user defines a ‘my.package.MyHandler’ which has an
‘alternate’ handler, the configuration system would not know that the
‘alternate’ referred to a handler.  To cater for this, a generic
resolution system allows the user to specify:

     handlers:
       file:
         # configuration of file handler goes here

       custom:
         (): my.package.MyHandler
         alternate: cfg://handlers.file

The literal string ‘'cfg://handlers.file'’ will be resolved in an
analogous way to strings with the ‘ext://’ prefix, but looking in the
configuration itself rather than the import namespace.  The mechanism
allows access by dot or by index, in a similar way to that provided by
‘str.format’.  Thus, given the following snippet:

     handlers:
       email:
         class: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler
         mailhost: localhost
         fromaddr: my_app@domain.tld
         toaddrs:
           - support_team@domain.tld
           - dev_team@domain.tld
         subject: Houston, we have a problem.

in the configuration, the string ‘'cfg://handlers'’ would resolve to the
dict with key ‘handlers’, the string ‘'cfg://handlers.email’ would
resolve to the dict with key ‘email’ in the ‘handlers’ dict, and so on.
The string ‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1]’ would resolve to
‘'dev_team@domain.tld'’ and the string
‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]'’ would resolve to the value
‘'support_team@domain.tld'’.  The ‘subject’ value could be accessed
using either ‘'cfg://handlers.email.subject'’ or, equivalently,
‘'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'’.  The latter form only needs to be
used if the key contains spaces or non-alphanumeric characters.  If an
index value consists only of decimal digits, access will be attempted
using the corresponding integer value, falling back to the string value
if needed.

Given a string ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123’, this will resolve
to ‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’.  If the
string is specified as ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123]’, the system
will attempt to retrieve the value from
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123]’, and fall back to
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’ if that fails.


File: python.info,  Node: Import resolution and custom importers,  Next: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Access to internal objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.11 Import resolution and custom importers
................................................

Import resolution, by default, uses the builtin *note __import__(): 727.
function to do its importing.  You may want to replace this with your
own importing mechanism: if so, you can replace the ‘importer’ attribute
of the ‘DictConfigurator’ or its superclass, the ‘BaseConfigurator’
class.  However, you need to be careful because of the way functions are
accessed from classes via descriptors.  If you are using a Python
callable to do your imports, and you want to define it at class level
rather than instance level, you need to wrap it with *note
staticmethod(): 612.  For example:

     from importlib import import_module
     from logging.config import BaseConfigurator

     BaseConfigurator.importer = staticmethod(import_module)

You don’t need to wrap with *note staticmethod(): 612. if you’re setting
the import callable on a configurator 'instance'.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Import resolution and custom importers,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.16.7.12 Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener
....................................................

If you want to configure a *note QueueHandler: 15f9, noting that this is
normally used in conjunction with a *note QueueListener: cbc, you can
configure both together.  After the configuration, the ‘QueueListener’
instance will be available as the *note listener: 2b13. attribute of the
created handler, and that in turn will be available to you using *note
getHandlerByName(): 15fa. and passing the name you have used for the
‘QueueHandler’ in your configuration.  The dictionary schema for
configuring the pair is shown in the example YAML snippet below.

     handlers:
       qhand:
         class: logging.handlers.QueueHandler
         queue: my.module.queue_factory
         listener: my.package.CustomListener
         handlers:
           - hand_name_1
           - hand_name_2
           ...

The ‘queue’ and ‘listener’ keys are optional.

If the ‘queue’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the
following:

   * An object implementing the *note Queue.put_nowait: 2b14. and *note
     Queue.get: 2b15. public API. For instance, this may be an actual
     instance of *note queue.Queue: 1235. or a subclass thereof, or a
     proxy obtained by *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue(): 2b16.

     This is of course only possible if you are constructing or
     modifying the configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string that resolves to a callable which, when called with no
     arguments, returns the queue instance to use.  That callable could
     be a *note queue.Queue: 1235. subclass or a function which returns
     a suitable queue instance, such as ‘my.module.queue_factory()’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 2b00.  The result of this
     construction should be a *note queue.Queue: 1235. instance.

If the ‘queue’ key is absent, a standard unbounded *note queue.Queue:
1235. instance is created and used.

If the ‘listener’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of
the following:

   * A subclass of *note logging.handlers.QueueListener: cbc.  This is
     of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying the
     configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string which resolves to a class which is a subclass of
     ‘QueueListener’, such as ‘'my.package.CustomListener'’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 2b00.  The result of this
     construction should be a callable with the same signature as the
     ‘QueueListener’ initializer.

If the ‘listener’ key is absent, *note logging.handlers.QueueListener:
cbc. is used.

The values under the ‘handlers’ key are the names of other handlers in
the configuration (not shown in the above snippet) which will be passed
to the queue listener.

Any custom queue handler and listener classes will need to be defined
with the same initialization signatures as *note QueueHandler: 15f9. and
*note QueueListener: cbc.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration file format,  Prev: Configuration dictionary schema,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.16.7.13 Configuration file format
...................................

The configuration file format understood by *note fileConfig(): 9c4. is
based on *note configparser: 22. functionality.  The file must contain
sections called ‘[loggers]’, ‘[handlers]’ and ‘[formatters]’ which
identify by name the entities of each type which are defined in the
file.  For each such entity, there is a separate section which
identifies how that entity is configured.  Thus, for a logger named
‘log01’ in the ‘[loggers]’ section, the relevant configuration details
are held in a section ‘[logger_log01]’.  Similarly, a handler called
‘hand01’ in the ‘[handlers]’ section will have its configuration held in
a section called ‘[handler_hand01]’, while a formatter called ‘form01’
in the ‘[formatters]’ section will have its configuration specified in a
section called ‘[formatter_form01]’.  The root logger configuration must
be specified in a section called ‘[logger_root]’.

     Not: The *note fileConfig(): 9c4. API is older than the *note
     dictConfig(): 1055. API and does not provide functionality to cover
     certain aspects of logging.  For example, you cannot configure
     *note Filter: 10a0. objects, which provide for filtering of
     messages beyond simple integer levels, using *note fileConfig():
     9c4.  If you need to have instances of *note Filter: 10a0. in your
     logging configuration, you will need to use *note dictConfig():
     1055.  Note that future enhancements to configuration functionality
     will be added to *note dictConfig(): 1055, so it’s worth
     considering transitioning to this newer API when it’s convenient to
     do so.

Examples of these sections in the file are given below.

     [loggers]
     keys=root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07

     [handlers]
     keys=hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09

     [formatters]
     keys=form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09

The root logger must specify a level and a list of handlers.  An example
of a root logger section is given below.

     [logger_root]
     level=NOTSET
     handlers=hand01

The ‘level’ entry can be one of ‘DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL’
or ‘NOTSET’.  For the root logger only, ‘NOTSET’ means that all messages
will be logged.  Level values are *note evaluated: 1f58. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package’s namespace.

The ‘handlers’ entry is a comma-separated list of handler names, which
must appear in the ‘[handlers]’ section.  These names must appear in the
‘[handlers]’ section and have corresponding sections in the
configuration file.

For loggers other than the root logger, some additional information is
required.  This is illustrated by the following example.

     [logger_parser]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=hand01
     propagate=1
     qualname=compiler.parser

The ‘level’ and ‘handlers’ entries are interpreted as for the root
logger, except that if a non-root logger’s level is specified as
‘NOTSET’, the system consults loggers higher up the hierarchy to
determine the effective level of the logger.  The ‘propagate’ entry is
set to 1 to indicate that messages must propagate to handlers higher up
the logger hierarchy from this logger, or 0 to indicate that messages
are 'not' propagated to handlers up the hierarchy.  The ‘qualname’ entry
is the hierarchical channel name of the logger, that is to say the name
used by the application to get the logger.

Sections which specify handler configuration are exemplified by the
following.

     [handler_hand01]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form01
     args=(sys.stdout,)

The ‘class’ entry indicates the handler’s class (as determined by *note
eval(): 6ca. in the ‘logging’ package’s namespace).  The ‘level’ is
interpreted as for loggers, and ‘NOTSET’ is taken to mean ‘log
everything’.

The ‘formatter’ entry indicates the key name of the formatter for this
handler.  If blank, a default formatter (‘logging._defaultFormatter’) is
used.  If a name is specified, it must appear in the ‘[formatters]’
section and have a corresponding section in the configuration file.

The ‘args’ entry, when *note evaluated: 1f58. in the context of the
‘logging’ package’s namespace, is the list of arguments to the
constructor for the handler class.  Refer to the constructors for the
relevant handlers, or to the examples below, to see how typical entries
are constructed.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘()’.

The optional ‘kwargs’ entry, when *note evaluated: 1f58. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package’s namespace, is the keyword argument dict to
the constructor for the handler class.  If not provided, it defaults to
‘{}’.

     [handler_hand02]
     class=FileHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=form02
     args=('python.log', 'w')

     [handler_hand03]
     class=handlers.SocketHandler
     level=INFO
     formatter=form03
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand04]
     class=handlers.DatagramHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form04
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand05]
     class=handlers.SysLogHandler
     level=ERROR
     formatter=form05
     args=(('localhost', handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)

     [handler_hand06]
     class=handlers.NTEventLogHandler
     level=CRITICAL
     formatter=form06
     args=('Python Application', '', 'Application')

     [handler_hand07]
     class=handlers.SMTPHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form07
     args=('localhost', 'from@abc', ['user1@abc', 'user2@xyz'], 'Logger Subject')
     kwargs={'timeout': 10.0}

     [handler_hand08]
     class=handlers.MemoryHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form08
     target=
     args=(10, ERROR)

     [handler_hand09]
     class=handlers.HTTPHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form09
     args=('localhost:9022', '/log', 'GET')
     kwargs={'secure': True}

Sections which specify formatter configuration are typified by the
following.

     [formatter_form01]
     format=F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s %(customfield)s
     datefmt=
     style=%
     validate=True
     defaults={'customfield': 'defaultvalue'}
     class=logging.Formatter

The arguments for the formatter configuration are the same as the keys
in the dictionary schema *note formatters section: 2b04.

The ‘defaults’ entry, when *note evaluated: 1f58. in the context of the
‘logging’ package’s namespace, is a dictionary of default values for
custom formatting fields.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘None’.

     Not: Due to the use of *note eval(): 6ca. as described above, there
     are potential security risks which result from using the *note
     listen(): e05. to send and receive configurations via sockets.  The
     risks are limited to where multiple users with no mutual trust run
     code on the same machine; see the *note listen(): e05.
     documentation for more information.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note logging: 86.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.


File: python.info,  Node: logging handlers — Logging handlers,  Next: getpass — Portable password input,  Prev: logging config — Logging configuration,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.8 ‘logging.handlers’ — Logging handlers
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/logging/handlers.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains only reference information.  For tutorials, please
see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 109a.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 109b.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 109c.

__________________________________________________________________

The following useful handlers are provided in the package.  Note that
three of the handlers (*note StreamHandler: 109d, *note FileHandler:
16c6. and *note NullHandler: 112d.) are actually defined in the *note
logging: 86. module itself, but have been documented here along with the
other handlers.

* Menu:

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/logging/handlers.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamHandler,  Next: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.1 StreamHandler
......................

The *note StreamHandler: 109d. class, located in the core *note logging:
86. package, sends logging output to streams such as 'sys.stdout',
'sys.stderr' or any file-like object (or, more precisely, any object
which supports ‘write()’ and ‘flush()’ methods).

 -- Sınıfı: logging.StreamHandler (stream=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note StreamHandler: 109d. class.  If
     'stream' is specified, the instance will use it for logging output;
     otherwise, 'sys.stderr' will be used.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          If a formatter is specified, it is used to format the record.
          The record is then written to the stream followed by *note
          terminator: 2b1d.  If exception information is present, it is
          formatted using *note traceback.print_exception(): 68e. and
          appended to the stream.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Flushes the stream by calling its *note flush(): 2b1e. method.
          Note that the ‘close()’ method is inherited from *note
          Handler: 131e. and so does no output, so an explicit *note
          flush(): 2b1e. call may be needed at times.

      -- Yöntemi: setStream (stream)

          Sets the instance’s stream to the specified value, if it is
          different.  The old stream is flushed before the new stream is
          set.


          Parametreler: ‘stream’ – The stream that the handler should
          use.


          Dönüşler: the old stream, if the stream was changed, or ‘None’
          if it wasn’t.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: terminator

          String used as the terminator when writing a formatted record
          to a stream.  Default value is ‘'\n'’.

          If you don’t want a newline termination, you can set the
          handler instance’s ‘terminator’ attribute to the empty string.

          In earlier versions, the terminator was hardcoded as ‘'\n'’.

          Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler,  Next: NullHandler,  Prev: StreamHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.2 FileHandler
....................

The *note FileHandler: 16c6. class, located in the core *note logging:
86. package, sends logging output to a disk file.  It inherits the
output functionality from *note StreamHandler: 109d.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.FileHandler (filename, mode='a', encoding=None,
          delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note FileHandler: 16c6. class.  The
     specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging.  If
     'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding' is not
     ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If 'delay'
     is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to
     *note emit(): 2b21.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.  If
     'errors' is specified, it’s used to determine how encoding errors
     are handled.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: As well as string values, *note Path: 14f.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Closes the file.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file.

          Note that if the file was closed due to logging shutdown at
          exit and the file mode is ‘w’, the record will not be emitted
          (see bpo-42378(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42378


File: python.info,  Node: NullHandler,  Next: WatchedFileHandler,  Prev: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.3 NullHandler
....................

Added in version 3.1.

The *note NullHandler: 112d. class, located in the core *note logging:
86. package, does not do any formatting or output.  It is essentially a
‘no-op’ handler for use by library developers.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.NullHandler

     Returns a new instance of the *note NullHandler: 112d. class.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          This method does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: handle (record)

          This method does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: createLock ()

          This method returns ‘None’ for the lock, since there is no
          underlying I/O to which access needs to be serialized.

See *note Configuring Logging for a Library: 2b28. for more information
on how to use *note NullHandler: 112d.


File: python.info,  Node: WatchedFileHandler,  Next: BaseRotatingHandler,  Prev: NullHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.4 WatchedFileHandler
...........................

The *note WatchedFileHandler: 2b2b. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, is a ‘FileHandler’ which watches the file
it is logging to.  If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using
the file name.

A file change can happen because of usage of programs such as
'newsyslog' and 'logrotate' which perform log file rotation.  This
handler, intended for use under Unix/Linux, watches the file to see if
it has changed since the last emit.  (A file is deemed to have changed
if its device or inode have changed.)  If the file has changed, the old
file stream is closed, and the file opened to get a new stream.

This handler is not appropriate for use under Windows, because under
Windows open log files cannot be moved or renamed - logging opens the
files with exclusive locks - and so there is no need for such a handler.
Furthermore, 'ST_INO' is not supported under Windows; *note stat(): 1c5.
always returns zero for this value.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note WatchedFileHandler: 2b2b.
     class.  The specified file is opened and used as the stream for
     logging.  If 'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding'
     is not ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If
     'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call
     to *note emit(): 2b2c.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.
     If 'errors' is provided, it determines how encoding errors are
     handled.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: As well as string values, *note Path: 14f.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: reopenIfNeeded ()

          Checks to see if the file has changed.  If it has, the
          existing stream is flushed and closed and the file opened
          again, typically as a precursor to outputting the record to
          the file.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, but first calls *note
          reopenIfNeeded(): b39. to reopen the file if it has changed.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseRotatingHandler,  Next: RotatingFileHandler,  Prev: WatchedFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.5 BaseRotatingHandler
............................

The *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2b2f. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, is the base class for the rotating file
handlers, *note RotatingFileHandler: 1454. and *note
TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01.  You should not need to instantiate this
class, but it has attributes and methods you may need to override.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler (filename, mode,
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     The parameters are as for ‘FileHandler’.  The attributes are:

      -- Özniteliği: namer

          If this attribute is set to a callable, the *note
          rotation_filename(): 2b31. method delegates to this callable.
          The parameters passed to the callable are those passed to
          *note rotation_filename(): 2b31.

               Not: The namer function is called quite a few times
               during rollover, so it should be as simple and as fast as
               possible.  It should also return the same output every
               time for a given input, otherwise the rollover behaviour
               may not work as expected.

               It’s also worth noting that care should be taken when
               using a namer to preserve certain attributes in the
               filename which are used during rotation.  For example,
               *note RotatingFileHandler: 1454. expects to have a set of
               log files whose names contain successive integers, so
               that rotation works as expected, and *note
               TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01. deletes old log files
               (based on the ‘backupCount’ parameter passed to the
               handler’s initializer) by determining the oldest files to
               delete.  For this to happen, the filenames should be
               sortable using the date/time portion of the filename, and
               a namer needs to respect this.  (If a namer is wanted
               that doesn’t respect this scheme, it will need to be used
               in a subclass of *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01.
               which overrides the *note getFilesToDelete(): 2b32.
               method to fit in with the custom naming scheme.)

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: rotator

          If this attribute is set to a callable, the *note rotate():
          2b34. method delegates to this callable.  The parameters
          passed to the callable are those passed to *note rotate():
          2b34.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: rotation_filename (default_name)

          Modify the filename of a log file when rotating.

          This is provided so that a custom filename can be provided.

          The default implementation calls the ‘namer’ attribute of the
          handler, if it’s callable, passing the default name to it.  If
          the attribute isn’t callable (the default is ‘None’), the name
          is returned unchanged.


          Parametreler: ‘default_name’ – The default name for the log
          file.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: rotate (source, dest)

          When rotating, rotate the current log.

          The default implementation calls the ‘rotator’ attribute of
          the handler, if it’s callable, passing the source and dest
          arguments to it.  If the attribute isn’t callable (the default
          is ‘None’), the source is simply renamed to the destination.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘source’ – The source filename.  This is normally the
               base filename, e.g.  ‘test.log’.

             * ‘dest’ – The destination filename.  This is normally what
               the source is rotated to, e.g.  ‘test.log.1’.

          Added in version 3.3.

The reason the attributes exist is to save you having to subclass - you
can use the same callables for instances of *note RotatingFileHandler:
1454. and *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01.  If either the namer or
rotator callable raises an exception, this will be handled in the same
way as any other exception during an ‘emit()’ call, i.e.  via the
‘handleError()’ method of the handler.

If you need to make more significant changes to rotation processing, you
can override the methods.

For an example, see *note Using a rotator and namer to customize log
rotation processing: 2b35.


File: python.info,  Node: RotatingFileHandler,  Next: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Prev: BaseRotatingHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.6 RotatingFileHandler
............................

The *note RotatingFileHandler: 1454. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports rotation of disk log files.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          maxBytes=0, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False,
          errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note RotatingFileHandler: 1454.
     class.  The specified file is opened and used as the stream for
     logging.  If 'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding'
     is not ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If
     'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call
     to *note emit(): 2b38.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.
     If 'errors' is provided, it determines how encoding errors are
     handled.

     You can use the 'maxBytes' and 'backupCount' values to allow the
     file to 'rollover' at a predetermined size.  When the size is about
     to be exceeded, the file is closed and a new file is silently
     opened for output.  Rollover occurs whenever the current log file
     is nearly 'maxBytes' in length; but if either of 'maxBytes' or
     'backupCount' is zero, rollover never occurs, so you generally want
     to set 'backupCount' to at least 1, and have a non-zero 'maxBytes'.
     When 'backupCount' is non-zero, the system will save old log files
     by appending the extensions ‘.1’, ‘.2’ etc., to the filename.  For
     example, with a 'backupCount' of 5 and a base file name of
     ‘app.log’, you would get ‘app.log’, ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, up to
     ‘app.log.5’.  The file being written to is always ‘app.log’.  When
     this file is filled, it is closed and renamed to ‘app.log.1’, and
     if files ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, etc.  exist, then they are
     renamed to ‘app.log.2’, ‘app.log.3’ etc.  respectively.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: As well as string values, *note Path: 14f.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: doRollover ()

          Does a rollover, as described above.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as
          described previously.


File: python.info,  Node: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Next: SocketHandler,  Prev: RotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.7 TimedRotatingFileHandler
.................................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports rotation of disk log files at
certain timed intervals.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler (filename,
          when='h', interval=1, backupCount=0, encoding=None,
          delay=False, utc=False, atTime=None, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01.
     class.  The specified file is opened and used as the stream for
     logging.  On rotating it also sets the filename suffix.  Rotating
     happens based on the product of 'when' and 'interval'.

     You can use the 'when' to specify the type of 'interval'.  The list
     of possible values is below.  Note that they are not case
     sensitive.

     Value                Type of interval                 If/how 'atTime' is used
                                                           
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
     ‘'S'’                Seconds                          Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'M'’                Minutes                          Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'H'’                Hours                            Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'D'’                Days                             Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'W0'-'W6'’          Weekday (0=Monday)               Used to compute initial
                                                           rollover time
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'midnight'’         Roll over at midnight, if        Used to compute initial
                          'atTime' not specified, else     rollover time
                          at time 'atTime'                 
                          

     When using weekday-based rotation, specify ‘W0’ for Monday, ‘W1’
     for Tuesday, and so on up to ‘W6’ for Sunday.  In this case, the
     value passed for 'interval' isn’t used.

     The system will save old log files by appending extensions to the
     filename.  The extensions are date-and-time based, using the
     strftime format ‘%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S’ or a leading portion thereof,
     depending on the rollover interval.

     When computing the next rollover time for the first time (when the
     handler is created), the last modification time of an existing log
     file, or else the current time, is used to compute when the next
     rotation will occur.

     If the 'utc' argument is true, times in UTC will be used; otherwise
     local time is used.

     If 'backupCount' is nonzero, at most 'backupCount' files will be
     kept, and if more would be created when rollover occurs, the oldest
     one is deleted.  The deletion logic uses the interval to determine
     which files to delete, so changing the interval may leave old files
     lying around.

     If 'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first
     call to *note emit(): 2b3c.

     If 'atTime' is not ‘None’, it must be a ‘datetime.time’ instance
     which specifies the time of day when rollover occurs, for the cases
     where rollover is set to happen “at midnight” or “on a particular
     weekday”.  Note that in these cases, the 'atTime' value is
     effectively used to compute the 'initial' rollover, and subsequent
     rollovers would be calculated via the normal interval calculation.

     If 'errors' is specified, it’s used to determine how encoding
     errors are handled.

          Not: Calculation of the initial rollover time is done when the
          handler is initialised.  Calculation of subsequent rollover
          times is done only when rollover occurs, and rollover occurs
          only when emitting output.  If this is not kept in mind, it
          might lead to some confusion.  For example, if an interval of
          “every minute” is set, that does not mean you will always see
          log files with times (in the filename) separated by a minute;
          if, during application execution, logging output is generated
          more frequently than once a minute, 'then' you can expect to
          see log files with times separated by a minute.  If, on the
          other hand, logging messages are only output once every five
          minutes (say), then there will be gaps in the file times
          corresponding to the minutes where no output (and hence no
          rollover) occurred.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: 'atTime' parameter was added.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: As well as string values, *note Path: 14f.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: doRollover ()

          Does a rollover, as described above.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as
          described above.

      -- Yöntemi: getFilesToDelete ()

          Returns a list of filenames which should be deleted as part of
          rollover.  These are the absolute paths of the oldest backup
          log files written by the handler.


File: python.info,  Node: SocketHandler,  Next: DatagramHandler,  Prev: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.8 SocketHandler
......................

The *note SocketHandler: e02. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, sends logging output to a network socket.
The base class uses a TCP socket.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.SocketHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SocketHandler: e02. class
     intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is
     given by 'host' and 'port'.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a Unix
     domain socket is created using the value in ‘host’ - otherwise, a
     TCP socket is created.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Closes the socket.

      -- Yöntemi: emit ()

          Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  If the connection was
          previously lost, re-establishes the connection.  To unpickle
          the record at the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: e8c,
          use the *note makeLogRecord(): 2adc. function.

      -- Yöntemi: handleError ()

          Handles an error which has occurred during *note emit(): 2b41.
          The most likely cause is a lost connection.  Closes the socket
          so that we can retry on the next event.

      -- Yöntemi: makeSocket ()

          This is a factory method which allows subclasses to define the
          precise type of socket they want.  The default implementation
          creates a TCP socket (*note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 119d.).

      -- Yöntemi: makePickle (record)

          Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary in binary format
          with a length prefix, and returns it ready for transmission
          across the socket.  The details of this operation are
          equivalent to:

               data = pickle.dumps(record_attr_dict, 1)
               datalen = struct.pack('>L', len(data))
               return datalen + data

          Note that pickles aren’t completely secure.  If you are
          concerned about security, you may want to override this method
          to implement a more secure mechanism.  For example, you can
          sign pickles using HMAC and then verify them on the receiving
          end, or alternatively you can disable unpickling of global
          objects on the receiving end.

      -- Yöntemi: send (packet)

          Send a pickled byte-string 'packet' to the socket.  The format
          of the sent byte-string is as described in the documentation
          for *note makePickle(): 2b44.

          This function allows for partial sends, which can happen when
          the network is busy.

      -- Yöntemi: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket; on failure, uses an exponential
          back-off algorithm.  On initial failure, the handler will drop
          the message it was trying to send.  When subsequent messages
          are handled by the same instance, it will not try connecting
          until some time has passed.  The default parameters are such
          that the initial delay is one second, and if after that delay
          the connection still can’t be made, the handler will double
          the delay each time up to a maximum of 30 seconds.

          This behaviour is controlled by the following handler
          attributes:

             * ‘retryStart’ (initial delay, defaulting to 1.0 seconds).

             * ‘retryFactor’ (multiplier, defaulting to 2.0).

             * ‘retryMax’ (maximum delay, defaulting to 30.0 seconds).

          This means that if the remote listener starts up 'after' the
          handler has been used, you could lose messages (since the
          handler won’t even attempt a connection until the delay has
          elapsed, but just silently drop messages during the delay
          period).


File: python.info,  Node: DatagramHandler,  Next: SysLogHandler,  Prev: SocketHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.9 DatagramHandler
........................

The *note DatagramHandler: e03. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, inherits from *note SocketHandler: e02. to
support sending logging messages over UDP sockets.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.DatagramHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the *note DatagramHandler: e03. class
     intended to communicate with a remote machine whose address is
     given by 'host' and 'port'.

          Not: As UDP is not a streaming protocol, there is no
          persistent connection between an instance of this handler and
          'host'.  For this reason, when using a network socket, a DNS
          lookup might have to be made each time an event is logged,
          which can introduce some latency into the system.  If this
          affects you, you can do a lookup yourself and initialize this
          handler using the looked-up IP address rather than the
          hostname.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a Unix
     domain socket is created using the value in ‘host’ - otherwise, a
     UDP socket is created.

      -- Yöntemi: emit ()

          Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  To unpickle the record at
          the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: e8c, use the *note
          makeLogRecord(): 2adc. function.

      -- Yöntemi: makeSocket ()

          The factory method of *note SocketHandler: e02. is here
          overridden to create a UDP socket (*note socket.SOCK_DGRAM:
          119c.).

      -- Yöntemi: send (s)

          Send a pickled byte-string to a socket.  The format of the
          sent byte-string is as described in the documentation for
          *note SocketHandler.makePickle(): 2b44.


File: python.info,  Node: SysLogHandler,  Next: NTEventLogHandler,  Prev: DatagramHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.10 SysLogHandler
.......................

The *note SysLogHandler: 46f. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a
remote or local Unix syslog.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.SysLogHandler (address=('localhost',
          SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), facility=LOG_USER,
          socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SysLogHandler: 46f. class
     intended to communicate with a remote Unix machine whose address is
     given by 'address' in the form of a ‘(host, port)’ tuple.  If
     'address' is not specified, ‘('localhost', 514)’ is used.  The
     address is used to open a socket.  An alternative to providing a
     ‘(host, port)’ tuple is providing an address as a string, for
     example ‘/dev/log’.  In this case, a Unix domain socket is used to
     send the message to the syslog.  If 'facility' is not specified,
     ‘LOG_USER’ is used.  The type of socket opened depends on the
     'socktype' argument, which defaults to *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM:
     119c. and thus opens a UDP socket.  To open a TCP socket (for use
     with the newer syslog daemons such as rsyslog), specify a value of
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 119d.

     Note that if your server is not listening on UDP port 514, *note
     SysLogHandler: 46f. may appear not to work.  In that case, check
     what address you should be using for a domain socket - it’s system
     dependent.  For example, on Linux it’s usually ‘/dev/log’ but on
     OS/X it’s ‘/var/run/syslog’.  You’ll need to check your platform
     and use the appropriate address (you may need to do this check at
     runtime if your application needs to run on several platforms).  On
     Windows, you pretty much have to use the UDP option.

          Not: On macOS 12.x (Monterey), Apple has changed the behaviour
          of their syslog daemon - it no longer listens on a domain
          socket.  Therefore, you cannot expect *note SysLogHandler:
          46f. to work on this system.

          See gh-91070(1) for more information.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'socktype' was added.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Closes the socket to the remote host.

      -- Yöntemi: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket and, if it’s not a datagram socket,
          connect it to the other end.  This method is called during
          handler initialization, but it’s not regarded as an error if
          the other end isn’t listening at this point - the method will
          be called again when emitting an event, if there is no socket
          at that point.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          The record is formatted, and then sent to the syslog server.
          If exception information is present, it is 'not' sent to the
          server.

          3.2.1 sürümünde değişti: (See: bpo-12168(2).)  In earlier
          versions, the message sent to the syslog daemons was always
          terminated with a NUL byte, because early versions of these
          daemons expected a NUL terminated message - even though it’s
          not in the relevant specification ( RFC 5424(3)).  More recent
          versions of these daemons don’t expect the NUL byte but strip
          it off if it’s there, and even more recent daemons (which
          adhere more closely to RFC 5424) pass the NUL byte on as part
          of the message.

          To enable easier handling of syslog messages in the face of
          all these differing daemon behaviours, the appending of the
          NUL byte has been made configurable, through the use of a
          class-level attribute, ‘append_nul’.  This defaults to ‘True’
          (preserving the existing behaviour) but can be set to ‘False’
          on a ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to
          'not' append the NUL terminator.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: (See: bpo-12419(4).)  In earlier
          versions, there was no facility for an “ident” or “tag” prefix
          to identify the source of the message.  This can now be
          specified using a class-level attribute, defaulting to ‘""’ to
          preserve existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on a
          ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to prepend
          the ident to every message handled.  Note that the provided
          ident must be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message
          exactly as is.

      -- Yöntemi: encodePriority (facility, priority)

          Encodes the facility and priority into an integer.  You can
          pass in strings or integers - if strings are passed, internal
          mapping dictionaries are used to convert them to integers.

          The symbolic ‘LOG_’ values are defined in *note SysLogHandler:
          46f. and mirror the values defined in the ‘sys/syslog.h’
          header file.

          'Priorities'

          Name (string)                  Symbolic value
                                         
          ---------------------------------------------------
                                         
          ‘alert’                        LOG_ALERT
                                         
                                         
          ‘crit’ or ‘critical’           LOG_CRIT
                                         
                                         
          ‘debug’                        LOG_DEBUG
                                         
                                         
          ‘emerg’ or ‘panic’             LOG_EMERG
                                         
                                         
          ‘err’ or ‘error’               LOG_ERR
                                         
                                         
          ‘info’                         LOG_INFO
                                         
                                         
          ‘notice’                       LOG_NOTICE
                                         
                                         
          ‘warn’ or ‘warning’            LOG_WARNING
                                         

          'Facilities'

          Name (string)       Symbolic value
                              
          ----------------------------------------
                              
          ‘auth’              LOG_AUTH
                              
                              
          ‘authpriv’          LOG_AUTHPRIV
                              
                              
          ‘cron’              LOG_CRON
                              
                              
          ‘daemon’            LOG_DAEMON
                              
                              
          ‘ftp’               LOG_FTP
                              
                              
          ‘kern’              LOG_KERN
                              
                              
          ‘lpr’               LOG_LPR
                              
                              
          ‘mail’              LOG_MAIL
                              
                              
          ‘news’              LOG_NEWS
                              
                              
          ‘syslog’            LOG_SYSLOG
                              
                              
          ‘user’              LOG_USER
                              
                              
          ‘uucp’              LOG_UUCP
                              
                              
          ‘local0’            LOG_LOCAL0
                              
                              
          ‘local1’            LOG_LOCAL1
                              
                              
          ‘local2’            LOG_LOCAL2
                              
                              
          ‘local3’            LOG_LOCAL3
                              
                              
          ‘local4’            LOG_LOCAL4
                              
                              
          ‘local5’            LOG_LOCAL5
                              
                              
          ‘local6’            LOG_LOCAL6
                              
                              
          ‘local7’            LOG_LOCAL7
                              

      -- Yöntemi: mapPriority (levelname)

          Maps a logging level name to a syslog priority name.  You may
          need to override this if you are using custom levels, or if
          the default algorithm is not suitable for your needs.  The
          default algorithm maps ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and
          ‘CRITICAL’ to the equivalent syslog names, and all other level
          names to ‘warning’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12168

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12419


File: python.info,  Node: NTEventLogHandler,  Next: SMTPHandler,  Prev: SysLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.11 NTEventLogHandler
...........................

The *note NTEventLogHandler: 2b53. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a
local Windows NT, Windows 2000 or Windows XP event log.  Before you can
use it, you need Mark Hammond’s Win32 extensions for Python installed.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler (appname, dllname=None,
          logtype='Application')

     Returns a new instance of the *note NTEventLogHandler: 2b53. class.
     The 'appname' is used to define the application name as it appears
     in the event log.  An appropriate registry entry is created using
     this name.  The 'dllname' should give the fully qualified pathname
     of a .dll or .exe which contains message definitions to hold in the
     log (if not specified, ‘'win32service.pyd'’ is used - this is
     installed with the Win32 extensions and contains some basic
     placeholder message definitions.  Note that use of these
     placeholders will make your event logs big, as the entire message
     source is held in the log.  If you want slimmer logs, you have to
     pass in the name of your own .dll or .exe which contains the
     message definitions you want to use in the event log).  The
     'logtype' is one of ‘'Application'’, ‘'System'’ or ‘'Security'’,
     and defaults to ‘'Application'’.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          At this point, you can remove the application name from the
          registry as a source of event log entries.  However, if you do
          this, you will not be able to see the events as you intended
          in the Event Log Viewer - it needs to be able to access the
          registry to get the .dll name.  The current version does not
          do this.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Determines the message ID, event category and event type, and
          then logs the message in the NT event log.

      -- Yöntemi: getEventCategory (record)

          Returns the event category for the record.  Override this if
          you want to specify your own categories.  This version returns
          0.

      -- Yöntemi: getEventType (record)

          Returns the event type for the record.  Override this if you
          want to specify your own types.  This version does a mapping
          using the handler’s typemap attribute, which is set up in
          ‘__init__()’ to a dictionary which contains mappings for
          ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and ‘CRITICAL’.  If you
          are using your own levels, you will either need to override
          this method or place a suitable dictionary in the handler’s
          'typemap' attribute.

      -- Yöntemi: getMessageID (record)

          Returns the message ID for the record.  If you are using your
          own messages, you could do this by having the 'msg' passed to
          the logger being an ID rather than a format string.  Then, in
          here, you could use a dictionary lookup to get the message ID.
          This version returns 1, which is the base message ID in
          ‘win32service.pyd’.


File: python.info,  Node: SMTPHandler,  Next: MemoryHandler,  Prev: NTEventLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.12 SMTPHandler
.....................

The *note SMTPHandler: 13f9. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to an
email address via SMTP.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler (mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs,
          subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0)

     Returns a new instance of the *note SMTPHandler: 13f9. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the from and to addresses and subject
     line of the email.  The 'toaddrs' should be a list of strings.  To
     specify a non-standard SMTP port, use the (host, port) tuple format
     for the 'mailhost' argument.  If you use a string, the standard
     SMTP port is used.  If your SMTP server requires authentication,
     you can specify a (username, password) tuple for the 'credentials'
     argument.

     To specify the use of a secure protocol (TLS), pass in a tuple to
     the 'secure' argument.  This will only be used when authentication
     credentials are supplied.  The tuple should be either an empty
     tuple, or a single-value tuple with the name of a keyfile, or a
     2-value tuple with the names of the keyfile and certificate file.
     (This tuple is passed to the *note smtplib.SMTP.starttls(): fdc.
     method.)

     A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server
     using the 'timeout' argument.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'timeout' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees.

      -- Yöntemi: getSubject (record)

          If you want to specify a subject line which is
          record-dependent, override this method.


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryHandler,  Next: HTTPHandler,  Prev: SMTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.13 MemoryHandler
.......................

The *note MemoryHandler: 2b0f. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports buffering of logging records in
memory, periodically flushing them to a 'target' handler.  Flushing
occurs whenever the buffer is full, or when an event of a certain
severity or greater is seen.

*note MemoryHandler: 2b0f. is a subclass of the more general *note
BufferingHandler: 2b5f, which is an abstract class.  This buffers
logging records in memory.  Whenever each record is added to the buffer,
a check is made by calling ‘shouldFlush()’ to see if the buffer should
be flushed.  If it should, then ‘flush()’ is expected to do the
flushing.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.BufferingHandler (capacity)

     Initializes the handler with a buffer of the specified capacity.
     Here, 'capacity' means the number of logging records buffered.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Append the record to the buffer.  If *note shouldFlush():
          2b61. returns true, call *note flush(): 2b62. to process the
          buffer.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          For a *note BufferingHandler: 2b5f. instance, flushing means
          that it sets the buffer to an empty list.  This method can be
          overwritten to implement more useful flushing behavior.

      -- Yöntemi: shouldFlush (record)

          Return ‘True’ if the buffer is up to capacity.  This method
          can be overridden to implement custom flushing strategies.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.MemoryHandler (capacity, flushLevel=ERROR,
          target=None, flushOnClose=True)

     Returns a new instance of the *note MemoryHandler: 2b0f. class.
     The instance is initialized with a buffer size of 'capacity'
     (number of records buffered).  If 'flushLevel' is not specified,
     ‘ERROR’ is used.  If no 'target' is specified, the target will need
     to be set using *note setTarget(): 2b63. before this handler does
     anything useful.  If 'flushOnClose' is specified as ‘False’, then
     the buffer is 'not' flushed when the handler is closed.  If not
     specified or specified as ‘True’, the previous behaviour of
     flushing the buffer will occur when the handler is closed.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'flushOnClose' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Calls *note flush(): 2b65, sets the target to ‘None’ and
          clears the buffer.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          For a *note MemoryHandler: 2b0f. instance, flushing means just
          sending the buffered records to the target, if there is one.
          The buffer is also cleared when buffered records are sent to
          the target.  Override if you want different behavior.

      -- Yöntemi: setTarget (target)

          Sets the target handler for this handler.

      -- Yöntemi: shouldFlush (record)

          Checks for buffer full or a record at the 'flushLevel' or
          higher.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler,  Next: QueueHandler,  Prev: MemoryHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.14 HTTPHandler
.....................

The *note HTTPHandler: cbb. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a web
server, using either ‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.HTTPHandler (host, url, method='GET',
          secure=False, credentials=None, context=None)

     Returns a new instance of the *note HTTPHandler: cbb. class.  The
     'host' can be of the form ‘host:port’, should you need to use a
     specific port number.  If no 'method' is specified, ‘GET’ is used.
     If 'secure' is true, a HTTPS connection will be used.  The
     'context' parameter may be set to a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.
     instance to configure the SSL settings used for the HTTPS
     connection.  If 'credentials' is specified, it should be a 2-tuple
     consisting of userid and password, which will be placed in a HTTP
     ‘Authorization’ header using Basic authentication.  If you specify
     credentials, you should also specify secure=True so that your
     userid and password are not passed in cleartext across the wire.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'context' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: mapLogRecord (record)

          Provides a dictionary, based on ‘record’, which is to be
          URL-encoded and sent to the web server.  The default
          implementation just returns ‘record.__dict__’.  This method
          can be overridden if e.g.  only a subset of *note LogRecord:
          e8c. is to be sent to the web server, or if more specific
          customization of what’s sent to the server is required.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Sends the record to the web server as a URL-encoded
          dictionary.  The *note mapLogRecord(): 2b69. method is used to
          convert the record to the dictionary to be sent.

          Not: Since preparing a record for sending it to a web server
          is not the same as a generic formatting operation, using *note
          setFormatter(): 2ac0. to specify a *note Formatter: 131f. for
          a *note HTTPHandler: cbb. has no effect.  Instead of calling
          *note format(): 2ac9, this handler calls *note mapLogRecord():
          2b69. and then *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29. to encode
          the dictionary in a form suitable for sending to a web server.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueHandler,  Next: QueueListener,  Prev: HTTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.15 QueueHandler
......................

Added in version 3.2.

The *note QueueHandler: 15f9. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports sending logging messages to a
queue, such as those implemented in the *note queue: b5. or *note
multiprocessing: 93. modules.

Along with the *note QueueListener: cbc. class, *note QueueHandler:
15f9. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread
from the one which does the logging.  This is important in web
applications and also other service applications where threads servicing
clients need to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially
slow operations (such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 13f9.)
are done on a separate thread.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.QueueHandler (queue)

     Returns a new instance of the *note QueueHandler: 15f9. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to.  The
     'queue' can be any queue-like object; it’s used as-is by the *note
     enqueue(): 2b6d. method, which needs to know how to send messages
     to it.  The queue is not 'required' to have the task tracking API,
     which means that you can use *note SimpleQueue: 9df. instances for
     'queue'.

          Not: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 93, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: 9df. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 14ad.

      -- Yöntemi: emit (record)

          Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord.  Should an
          exception occur (e.g.  because a bounded queue has filled up),
          the *note handleError(): 2ac7. method is called to handle the
          error.  This can result in the record silently being dropped
          (if *note logging.raiseExceptions: 109e. is ‘False’) or a
          message printed to ‘sys.stderr’ (if *note
          logging.raiseExceptions: 109e. is ‘True’).

      -- Yöntemi: prepare (record)

          Prepares a record for queuing.  The object returned by this
          method is enqueued.

          The base implementation formats the record to merge the
          message, arguments, exception and stack information, if
          present.  It also removes unpickleable items from the record
          in-place.  Specifically, it overwrites the record’s ‘msg’ and
          ‘message’ attributes with the merged message (obtained by
          calling the handler’s *note format(): 431. method), and sets
          the ‘args’, ‘exc_info’ and ‘exc_text’ attributes to ‘None’.

          You might want to override this method if you want to convert
          the record to a dict or JSON string, or send a modified copy
          of the record while leaving the original intact.

               Not: The base implementation formats the message with
               arguments, sets the ‘message’ and ‘msg’ attributes to the
               formatted message and sets the ‘args’ and ‘exc_text’
               attributes to ‘None’ to allow pickling and to prevent
               further attempts at formatting.  This means that a
               handler on the *note QueueListener: cbc. side won’t have
               the information to do custom formatting, e.g.  of
               exceptions.  You may wish to subclass ‘QueueHandler’ and
               override this method to e.g.  avoid setting ‘exc_text’ to
               ‘None’.  Note that the ‘message’ / ‘msg’ / ‘args’ changes
               are related to ensuring the record is pickleable, and you
               might or might not be able to avoid doing that depending
               on whether your ‘args’ are pickleable.  (Note that you
               may have to consider not only your own code but also code
               in any libraries that you use.)

      -- Yöntemi: enqueue (record)

          Enqueues the record on the queue using ‘put_nowait()’; you may
          want to override this if you want to use blocking behaviour,
          or a timeout, or a customized queue implementation.

      -- Özniteliği: listener

          When created via configuration using *note dictConfig(): 1055,
          this attribute will contain a *note QueueListener: cbc.
          instance for use with this handler.  Otherwise, it will be
          ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueListener,  Prev: QueueHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.16.8.16 QueueListener
.......................

Added in version 3.2.

The *note QueueListener: cbc. class, located in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module, supports receiving logging messages from a
queue, such as those implemented in the *note queue: b5. or *note
multiprocessing: 93. modules.  The messages are received from a queue in
an internal thread and passed, on the same thread, to one or more
handlers for processing.  While *note QueueListener: cbc. is not itself
a handler, it is documented here because it works hand-in-hand with
*note QueueHandler: 15f9.

Along with the *note QueueHandler: 15f9. class, *note QueueListener:
cbc. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from
the one which does the logging.  This is important in web applications
and also other service applications where threads servicing clients need
to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially slow operations
(such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 13f9.) are done on a
separate thread.

 -- Sınıfı: logging.handlers.QueueListener (queue, *handlers,
          respect_handler_level=False)

     Returns a new instance of the *note QueueListener: cbc. class.  The
     instance is initialized with the queue to send messages to and a
     list of handlers which will handle entries placed on the queue.
     The queue can be any queue-like object; it’s passed as-is to the
     *note dequeue(): 2b72. method, which needs to know how to get
     messages from it.  The queue is not 'required' to have the task
     tracking API (though it’s used if available), which means that you
     can use *note SimpleQueue: 9df. instances for 'queue'.

          Not: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 93, you should
          avoid using *note SimpleQueue: 9df. and instead use *note
          multiprocessing.Queue: 14ad.

     If ‘respect_handler_level’ is ‘True’, a handler’s level is
     respected (compared with the level for the message) when deciding
     whether to pass messages to that handler; otherwise, the behaviour
     is as in previous Python versions - to always pass each message to
     each handler.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘respect_handler_level’ argument was
     added.

      -- Yöntemi: dequeue (block)

          Dequeues a record and return it, optionally blocking.

          The base implementation uses ‘get()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

      -- Yöntemi: prepare (record)

          Prepare a record for handling.

          This implementation just returns the passed-in record.  You
          may want to override this method if you need to do any custom
          marshalling or manipulation of the record before passing it to
          the handlers.

      -- Yöntemi: handle (record)

          Handle a record.

          This just loops through the handlers offering them the record
          to handle.  The actual object passed to the handlers is that
          which is returned from *note prepare(): 2b73.

      -- Yöntemi: start ()

          Starts the listener.

          This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for
          LogRecords to process.

      -- Yöntemi: stop ()

          Stops the listener.

          This asks the thread to terminate, and then waits for it to do
          so.  Note that if you don’t call this before your application
          exits, there may be some records still left on the queue,
          which won’t be processed.

      -- Yöntemi: enqueue_sentinel ()

          Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit.
          This implementation uses ‘put_nowait()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

          Added in version 3.3.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note logging: 86.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     Configuration API for the logging module.


File: python.info,  Node: getpass — Portable password input,  Next: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Prev: logging handlers — Logging handlers,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.9 ‘getpass’ — Portable password input
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/getpass.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The *note getpass: 60. module provides two functions:

 -- Işlevi: getpass.getpass (prompt='Password: ', stream=None)

     Prompt the user for a password without echoing.  The user is
     prompted using the string 'prompt', which defaults to ‘'Password:
     '’.  On Unix, the prompt is written to the file-like object
     'stream' using the replace error handler if needed.  'stream'
     defaults to the controlling terminal (‘/dev/tty’) or if that is
     unavailable to ‘sys.stderr’ (this argument is ignored on Windows).

     If echo free input is unavailable getpass() falls back to printing
     a warning message to 'stream' and reading from ‘sys.stdin’ and
     issuing a *note GetPassWarning: 2b7b.

          Not: If you call getpass from within IDLE, the input may be
          done in the terminal you launched IDLE from rather than the
          idle window itself.

 -- Özel Durum: getpass.GetPassWarning

     A *note UserWarning: 20a6. subclass issued when password input may
     be echoed.

 -- Işlevi: getpass.getuser ()

     Return the “login name” of the user.

     This function checks the environment variables ‘LOGNAME’, ‘USER’,
     ‘LNAME’ and ‘USERNAME’, in order, and returns the value of the
     first one which is set to a non-empty string.  If none are set, the
     login name from the password database is returned on systems which
     support the *note pwd: b1. module, otherwise, an exception is
     raised.

     In general, this function should be preferred over *note
     os.getlogin(): 28e6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/getpass.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Next: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs,  Prev: getpass — Portable password input,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.10 ‘curses’ — Terminal handling for character-cell displays
----------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/curses(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note curses: 2b. module provides an interface to the curses
library, the de-facto standard for portable advanced terminal handling.

While curses is most widely used in the Unix environment, versions are
available for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well.  This
extension module is designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source
curses library hosted on Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.

     Not: Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character' it can be
     specified as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a
     one-byte byte string.

     Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character string' it can be
     specified as a Unicode string or a byte string.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note curses.ascii: 2c.

     Utilities for working with ASCII characters, regardless of your
     locale settings.

Module *note curses.panel: 2d.

     A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows.

Module *note curses.textpad: 2e.

     Editable text widget for curses supporting ‘Emacs’-like bindings.

*note Curses Programming with Python: 2b7e.

     Tutorial material on using curses with Python, by Andrew Kuchling
     and Eric Raymond.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<4>.
* Window Objects::
* Constants: Constants<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/curses


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<4>,  Next: Window Objects,  Up: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.16.10.1 Functions
...................

The module *note curses: 2b. defines the following exception:

 -- Özel Durum: curses.error

     Exception raised when a curses library function returns an error.

     Not: Whenever 'x' or 'y' arguments to a function or a method are
     optional, they default to the current cursor location.  Whenever
     'attr' is optional, it defaults to *note A_NORMAL: 2b82.

The module *note curses: 2b. defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: curses.baudrate ()

     Return the output speed of the terminal in bits per second.  On
     software terminal emulators it will have a fixed high value.
     Included for historical reasons; in former times, it was used to
     write output loops for time delays and occasionally to change
     interfaces depending on the line speed.

 -- Işlevi: curses.beep ()

     Emit a short attention sound.

 -- Işlevi: curses.can_change_color ()

     Return ‘True’ or ‘False’, depending on whether the programmer can
     change the colors displayed by the terminal.

 -- Işlevi: curses.cbreak ()

     Enter cbreak mode.  In cbreak mode (sometimes called “rare” mode)
     normal tty line buffering is turned off and characters are
     available to be read one by one.  However, unlike raw mode, special
     characters (interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control) retain
     their effects on the tty driver and calling program.  Calling first
     *note raw(): 2b87. then *note cbreak(): 2b86. leaves the terminal
     in cbreak mode.

 -- Işlevi: curses.color_content (color_number)

     Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components
     in the color 'color_number', which must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS
     - 1’.  Return a 3-tuple, containing the R,G,B values for the given
     color, which will be between ‘0’ (no component) and ‘1000’ (maximum
     amount of component).

 -- Işlevi: curses.color_pair (pair_number)

     Return the attribute value for displaying text in the specified
     color pair.  Only the first 256 color pairs are supported.  This
     attribute value can be combined with *note A_STANDOUT: 2b89, *note
     A_REVERSE: 2b8a, and the other ‘A_*’ attributes.  *note
     pair_number(): 2b8b. is the counterpart to this function.

 -- Işlevi: curses.curs_set (visibility)

     Set the cursor state.  'visibility' can be set to ‘0’, ‘1’, or ‘2’,
     for invisible, normal, or very visible.  If the terminal supports
     the visibility requested, return the previous cursor state;
     otherwise raise an exception.  On many terminals, the “visible”
     mode is an underline cursor and the “very visible” mode is a block
     cursor.

 -- Işlevi: curses.def_prog_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the “program” mode, the mode when
     the running program is using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     “shell” mode, for when the program is not in curses.)  Subsequent
     calls to *note reset_prog_mode(): 2b8e. will restore this mode.

 -- Işlevi: curses.def_shell_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the “shell” mode, the mode when
     the running program is not using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     “program” mode, when the program is using curses capabilities.)
     Subsequent calls to *note reset_shell_mode(): 2b90. will restore
     this mode.

 -- Işlevi: curses.delay_output (ms)

     Insert an 'ms' millisecond pause in output.

 -- Işlevi: curses.doupdate ()

     Update the physical screen.  The curses library keeps two data
     structures, one representing the current physical screen contents
     and a virtual screen representing the desired next state.  The
     *note doupdate(): 2b92. ground updates the physical screen to match
     the virtual screen.

     The virtual screen may be updated by a *note noutrefresh(): 2b93.
     call after write operations such as *note addstr(): 2b94. have been
     performed on a window.  The normal *note refresh(): 2b95. call is
     simply ‘noutrefresh()’ followed by ‘doupdate()’; if you have to
     update multiple windows, you can speed performance and perhaps
     reduce screen flicker by issuing ‘noutrefresh()’ calls on all
     windows, followed by a single ‘doupdate()’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.echo ()

     Enter echo mode.  In echo mode, each character input is echoed to
     the screen as it is entered.

 -- Işlevi: curses.endwin ()

     De-initialize the library, and return terminal to normal status.

 -- Işlevi: curses.erasechar ()

     Return the user’s current erase character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- Işlevi: curses.filter ()

     The *note filter(): 2b99. routine, if used, must be called before
     *note initscr(): 2b9a. is called.  The effect is that, during those
     calls, ‘LINES’ is set to ‘1’; the capabilities ‘clear’, ‘cup’,
     ‘cud’, ‘cud1’, ‘cuu1’, ‘cuu’, ‘vpa’ are disabled; and the ‘home’
     string is set to the value of ‘cr’.  The effect is that the cursor
     is confined to the current line, and so are screen updates.  This
     may be used for enabling character-at-a-time line editing without
     touching the rest of the screen.

 -- Işlevi: curses.flash ()

     Flash the screen.  That is, change it to reverse-video and then
     change it back in a short interval.  Some people prefer such as
     ‘visible bell’ to the audible attention signal produced by *note
     beep(): 2b84.

 -- Işlevi: curses.flushinp ()

     Flush all input buffers.  This throws away any typeahead that has
     been typed by the user and has not yet been processed by the
     program.

 -- Işlevi: curses.getmouse ()

     After *note getch(): 2b9e. returns *note KEY_MOUSE: 2b9f. to signal
     a mouse event, this method should be called to retrieve the queued
     mouse event, represented as a 5-tuple ‘(id, x, y, z, bstate)’.
     'id' is an ID value used to distinguish multiple devices, and 'x',
     'y', 'z' are the event’s coordinates.  ('z' is currently unused.)
     'bstate' is an integer value whose bits will be set to indicate the
     type of event, and will be the bitwise OR of one or more of the
     following constants, where 'n' is the button number from 1 to 5:
     *note BUTTONn_PRESSED: 2ba0, *note BUTTONn_RELEASED: 2ba1, *note
     BUTTONn_CLICKED: 2ba2, *note BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED: 2ba3, *note
     BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED: 2ba4, *note BUTTON_SHIFT: 2ba5, *note
     BUTTON_CTRL: 2ba6, *note BUTTON_ALT: 2ba7.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed
     if they are provided by the underlying curses library.

 -- Işlevi: curses.getsyx ()

     Return the current coordinates of the virtual screen cursor as a
     tuple ‘(y, x)’.  If *note leaveok: 2ba9. is currently ‘True’, then
     return ‘(-1, -1)’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.getwin (file)

     Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier *note
     window.putwin(): 2bab. call.  The routine then creates and
     initializes a new window using that data, returning the new window
     object.

 -- Işlevi: curses.has_colors ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal can display colors; otherwise, return
     ‘False’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.has_extended_color_support ()

     Return ‘True’ if the module supports extended colors; otherwise,
     return ‘False’.  Extended color support allows more than 256 color
     pairs for terminals that support more than 16 colors (e.g.
     xterm-256color).

     Extended color support requires ncurses version 6.1 or later.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: curses.has_ic ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-character
     capabilities.  This function is included for historical reasons
     only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such
     capabilities.

 -- Işlevi: curses.has_il ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-line
     capabilities, or can simulate them using scrolling regions.  This
     function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern
     software terminal emulators have such capabilities.

 -- Işlevi: curses.has_key (ch)

     Take a key value 'ch', and return ‘True’ if the current terminal
     type recognizes a key with that value.

 -- Işlevi: curses.halfdelay (tenths)

     Used for half-delay mode, which is similar to cbreak mode in that
     characters typed by the user are immediately available to the
     program.  However, after blocking for 'tenths' tenths of seconds,
     raise an exception if nothing has been typed.  The value of
     'tenths' must be a number between ‘1’ and ‘255’.  Use *note
     nocbreak(): 2bb1. to leave half-delay mode.

 -- Işlevi: curses.init_color (color_number, r, g, b)

     Change the definition of a color, taking the number of the color to
     be changed followed by three RGB values (for the amounts of red,
     green, and blue components).  The value of 'color_number' must be
     between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS - 1’.  Each of 'r', 'g', 'b', must be a
     value between ‘0’ and ‘1000’.  When *note init_color(): 62c. is
     used, all occurrences of that color on the screen immediately
     change to the new definition.  This function is a no-op on most
     terminals; it is active only if *note can_change_color(): 2b85.
     returns ‘True’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.init_pair (pair_number, fg, bg)

     Change the definition of a color-pair.  It takes three arguments:
     the number of the color-pair to be changed, the foreground color
     number, and the background color number.  The value of
     'pair_number' must be between ‘1’ and ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’ (the ‘0’
     color pair is wired to white on black and cannot be changed).  The
     value of 'fg' and 'bg' arguments must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS -
     1’, or, after calling *note use_default_colors(): 2bb2, ‘-1’.  If
     the color-pair was previously initialized, the screen is refreshed
     and all occurrences of that color-pair are changed to the new
     definition.

 -- Işlevi: curses.initscr ()

     Initialize the library.  Return a *note window: 2bb3. object which
     represents the whole screen.

          Not: If there is an error opening the terminal, the underlying
          curses library may cause the interpreter to exit.

 -- Işlevi: curses.is_term_resized (nlines, ncols)

     Return ‘True’ if *note resize_term(): 1430. would modify the window
     structure, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: curses.isendwin ()

     Return ‘True’ if *note endwin(): 2b97. has been called (that is,
     the curses library has been deinitialized).

 -- Işlevi: curses.keyname (k)

     Return the name of the key numbered 'k' as a bytes object.  The
     name of a key generating printable ASCII character is the key’s
     character.  The name of a control-key combination is a two-byte
     bytes object consisting of a caret (‘b'^'’) followed by the
     corresponding printable ASCII character.  The name of an alt-key
     combination (128–255) is a bytes object consisting of the prefix
     ‘b'M-'’ followed by the name of the corresponding ASCII character.

 -- Işlevi: curses.killchar ()

     Return the user’s current line kill character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- Işlevi: curses.longname ()

     Return a bytes object containing the terminfo long name field
     describing the current terminal.  The maximum length of a verbose
     description is 128 characters.  It is defined only after the call
     to *note initscr(): 2b9a.

 -- Işlevi: curses.meta (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, allow 8-bit characters to be input.  If 'flag'
     is ‘False’, allow only 7-bit chars.

 -- Işlevi: curses.mouseinterval (interval)

     Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press
     and release events in order for them to be recognized as a click,
     and return the previous interval value.  The default value is 200
     milliseconds, or one fifth of a second.

 -- Işlevi: curses.mousemask (mousemask)

     Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple
     ‘(availmask, oldmask)’.  'availmask' indicates which of the
     specified mouse events can be reported; on complete failure it
     returns ‘0’.  'oldmask' is the previous value of the given window’s
     mouse event mask.  If this function is never called, no mouse
     events are ever reported.

 -- Işlevi: curses.napms (ms)

     Sleep for 'ms' milliseconds.

 -- Işlevi: curses.newpad (nlines, ncols)

     Create and return a pointer to a new pad data structure with the
     given number of lines and columns.  Return a pad as a window
     object.

     A pad is like a window, except that it is not restricted by the
     screen size, and is not necessarily associated with a particular
     part of the screen.  Pads can be used when a large window is
     needed, and only a part of the window will be on the screen at one
     time.  Automatic refreshes of pads (such as from scrolling or
     echoing of input) do not occur.  The *note refresh(): 2b95. and
     *note noutrefresh(): 2b93. methods of a pad require 6 arguments to
     specify the part of the pad to be displayed and the location on the
     screen to be used for the display.  The arguments are 'pminrow',
     'pmincol', 'sminrow', 'smincol', 'smaxrow', 'smaxcol'; the 'p'
     arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be
     displayed and the 's' arguments define a clipping box on the screen
     within which the pad region is to be displayed.

 -- Işlevi: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols)

 -- Işlevi: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a new *note window: 2bb3, whose left-upper corner is at
     ‘(begin_y, begin_x)’, and whose height/width is 'nlines'/'ncols'.

     By default, the window will extend from the specified position to
     the lower right corner of the screen.

 -- Işlevi: curses.nl ()

     Enter newline mode.  This mode translates the return key into
     newline on input, and translates newline into return and line-feed
     on output.  Newline mode is initially on.

 -- Işlevi: curses.nocbreak ()

     Leave cbreak mode.  Return to normal “cooked” mode with line
     buffering.

 -- Işlevi: curses.noecho ()

     Leave echo mode.  Echoing of input characters is turned off.

 -- Işlevi: curses.nonl ()

     Leave newline mode.  Disable translation of return into newline on
     input, and disable low-level translation of newline into
     newline/return on output (but this does not change the behavior of
     ‘addch('\n')’, which always does the equivalent of return and line
     feed on the virtual screen).  With translation off, curses can
     sometimes speed up vertical motion a little; also, it will be able
     to detect the return key on input.

 -- Işlevi: curses.noqiflush ()

     When the ‘noqiflush()’ routine is used, normal flush of input and
     output queues associated with the ‘INTR’, ‘QUIT’ and ‘SUSP’
     characters will not be done.  You may want to call ‘noqiflush()’ in
     a signal handler if you want output to continue as though the
     interrupt had not occurred, after the handler exits.

 -- Işlevi: curses.noraw ()

     Leave raw mode.  Return to normal “cooked” mode with line
     buffering.

 -- Işlevi: curses.pair_content (pair_number)

     Return a tuple ‘(fg, bg)’ containing the colors for the requested
     color pair.  The value of 'pair_number' must be between ‘0’ and
     ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.pair_number (attr)

     Return the number of the color-pair set by the attribute value
     'attr'.  *note color_pair(): 2b88. is the counterpart to this
     function.

 -- Işlevi: curses.putp (str)

     Equivalent to ‘tputs(str, 1, putchar)’; emit the value of a
     specified terminfo capability for the current terminal.  Note that
     the output of *note putp(): 2bc4. always goes to standard output.

 -- Işlevi: curses.qiflush ([flag])

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, the effect is the same as calling *note
     noqiflush(): 2bc2.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, or no argument is
     provided, the queues will be flushed when these control characters
     are read.

 -- Işlevi: curses.raw ()

     Enter raw mode.  In raw mode, normal line buffering and processing
     of interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control keys are turned off;
     characters are presented to curses input functions one by one.

 -- Işlevi: curses.reset_prog_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to “program” mode, as previously saved by
     *note def_prog_mode(): 2b8d.

 -- Işlevi: curses.reset_shell_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to “shell” mode, as previously saved by *note
     def_shell_mode(): 2b8f.

 -- Işlevi: curses.resetty ()

     Restore the state of the terminal modes to what it was at the last
     call to *note savetty(): 2bc7.

 -- Işlevi: curses.resize_term (nlines, ncols)

     Backend function used by *note resizeterm(): 142f, performing most
     of the work; when resizing the windows, *note resize_term(): 1430.
     blank-fills the areas that are extended.  The calling application
     should fill in these areas with appropriate data.  The
     ‘resize_term()’ function attempts to resize all windows.  However,
     due to the calling convention of pads, it is not possible to resize
     these without additional interaction with the application.

 -- Işlevi: curses.resizeterm (nlines, ncols)

     Resize the standard and current windows to the specified
     dimensions, and adjusts other bookkeeping data used by the curses
     library that record the window dimensions (in particular the
     SIGWINCH handler).

 -- Işlevi: curses.savetty ()

     Save the current state of the terminal modes in a buffer, usable by
     *note resetty(): 2bc6.

 -- Işlevi: curses.get_escdelay ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_escdelay(): 744.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: curses.set_escdelay (ms)

     Sets the number of milliseconds to wait after reading an escape
     character, to distinguish between an individual escape character
     entered on the keyboard from escape sequences sent by cursor and
     function keys.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: curses.get_tabsize ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_tabsize(): 746.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: curses.set_tabsize (size)

     Sets the number of columns used by the curses library when
     converting a tab character to spaces as it adds the tab to a
     window.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: curses.setsyx (y, x)

     Set the virtual screen cursor to 'y', 'x'.  If 'y' and 'x' are both
     ‘-1’, then *note leaveok: 2ba9. is set ‘True’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.setupterm (term=None, fd=-1)

     Initialize the terminal.  'term' is a string giving the terminal
     name, or ‘None’; if omitted or ‘None’, the value of the ‘TERM’
     environment variable will be used.  'fd' is the file descriptor to
     which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not supplied or
     ‘-1’, the file descriptor for ‘sys.stdout’ will be used.

 -- Işlevi: curses.start_color ()

     Must be called if the programmer wants to use colors, and before
     any other color manipulation routine is called.  It is good
     practice to call this routine right after *note initscr(): 2b9a.

     *note start_color(): 2bca. initializes eight basic colors (black,
     red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, and white), and two global
     variables in the *note curses: 2b. module, *note COLORS: 2bcb. and
     *note COLOR_PAIRS: 2bcc, containing the maximum number of colors
     and color-pairs the terminal can support.  It also restores the
     colors on the terminal to the values they had when the terminal was
     just turned on.

 -- Işlevi: curses.termattrs ()

     Return a logical OR of all video attributes supported by the
     terminal.  This information is useful when a curses program needs
     complete control over the appearance of the screen.

 -- Işlevi: curses.termname ()

     Return the value of the environment variable ‘TERM’, as a bytes
     object, truncated to 14 characters.

 -- Işlevi: curses.tigetflag (capname)

     Return the value of the Boolean capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-1’ if 'capname' is not a Boolean capability, or ‘0’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Işlevi: curses.tigetnum (capname)

     Return the value of the numeric capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-2’ if 'capname' is not a numeric capability, or ‘-1’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Işlevi: curses.tigetstr (capname)

     Return the value of the string capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as a bytes object.  Return
     ‘None’ if 'capname' is not a terminfo “string capability”, or is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Işlevi: curses.tparm (str[, ...])

     Instantiate the bytes object 'str' with the supplied parameters,
     where 'str' should be a parameterized string obtained from the
     terminfo database.  E.g.  ‘tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3)’ could
     result in ‘b'\033[6;4H'’, the exact result depending on terminal
     type.

 -- Işlevi: curses.typeahead (fd)

     Specify that the file descriptor 'fd' be used for typeahead
     checking.  If 'fd' is ‘-1’, then no typeahead checking is done.

     The curses library does “line-breakout optimization” by looking for
     typeahead periodically while updating the screen.  If input is
     found, and it is coming from a tty, the current update is postponed
     until refresh or doupdate is called again, allowing faster response
     to commands typed in advance.  This function allows specifying a
     different file descriptor for typeahead checking.

 -- Işlevi: curses.unctrl (ch)

     Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the
     character 'ch'.  Control characters are represented as a caret
     followed by the character, for example as ‘b'^C'’.  Printing
     characters are left as they are.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ungetch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note getch(): 2b9e. will return it.

          Not: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘getch()’ is called.

 -- Işlevi: curses.update_lines_cols ()

     Update the *note LINES: 1506. and *note COLS: 1507. module
     variables.  Useful for detecting manual screen resize.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: curses.unget_wch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note get_wch(): f41. will return it.

          Not: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘get_wch()’ is called.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ungetmouse (id, x, y, z, bstate)

     Push a *note KEY_MOUSE: 2b9f. event onto the input queue,
     associating the given state data with it.

 -- Işlevi: curses.use_env (flag)

     If used, this function should be called before *note initscr():
     2b9a. or newterm are called.  When 'flag' is ‘False’, the values of
     lines and columns specified in the terminfo database will be used,
     even if environment variables ‘LINES’ and ‘COLUMNS’ (used by
     default) are set, or if curses is running in a window (in which
     case default behavior would be to use the window size if ‘LINES’
     and ‘COLUMNS’ are not set).

 -- Işlevi: curses.use_default_colors ()

     Allow use of default values for colors on terminals supporting this
     feature.  Use this to support transparency in your application.
     The default color is assigned to the color number ‘-1’.  After
     calling this function, ‘init_pair(x, curses.COLOR_RED, -1)’
     initializes, for instance, color pair 'x' to a red foreground color
     on the default background.

 -- Işlevi: curses.wrapper (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Initialize curses and call another callable object, 'func', which
     should be the rest of your curses-using application.  If the
     application raises an exception, this function will restore the
     terminal to a sane state before re-raising the exception and
     generating a traceback.  The callable object 'func' is then passed
     the main window ‘stdscr’ as its first argument, followed by any
     other arguments passed to ‘wrapper()’.  Before calling 'func',
     ‘wrapper()’ turns on cbreak mode, turns off echo, enables the
     terminal keypad, and initializes colors if the terminal has color
     support.  On exit (whether normally or by exception) it restores
     cooked mode, turns on echo, and disables the terminal keypad.


File: python.info,  Node: Window Objects,  Next: Constants<4>,  Prev: Functions<4>,  Up: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.16.10.2 Window Objects
........................

Window objects, as returned by *note initscr(): 2b9a. and *note
newwin(): 2bbe. above, have the following methods and attributes:

 -- Yöntemi: window.addch (ch[, attr])

 -- Yöntemi: window.addch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr',
     overwriting any character previously painted at that location.  By
     default, the character position and attributes are the current
     settings for the window object.

          Not: Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises a
          *note curses.error: 2b81.  Attempting to write to the lower
          right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will cause an
          exception to be raised after the character is printed.

 -- Yöntemi: window.addnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- Yöntemi: window.addnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Paint at most 'n' characters of the character string 'str' at ‘(y,
     x)’ with attributes 'attr', overwriting anything previously on the
     display.

 -- Yöntemi: window.addstr (str[, attr])

 -- Yöntemi: window.addstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Paint the character string 'str' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes
     'attr', overwriting anything previously on the display.

          Not: 
             * Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises
               *note curses.error: 2b81.  Attempting to write to the
               lower right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will
               cause an exception to be raised after the string is
               printed.

             * A bug in ncurses(1), the backend for this Python module,
               can cause SegFaults when resizing windows.  This is fixed
               in ncurses-6.1-20190511.  If you are stuck with an
               earlier ncurses, you can avoid triggering this if you do
               not call *note addstr(): 2b94. with a 'str' that has
               embedded newlines.  Instead, call *note addstr(): 2b94.
               separately for each line.

 -- Yöntemi: window.attroff (attr)

     Remove attribute 'attr' from the “background” set applied to all
     writes to the current window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.attron (attr)

     Add attribute 'attr' from the “background” set applied to all
     writes to the current window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.attrset (attr)

     Set the “background” set of attributes to 'attr'.  This set is
     initially ‘0’ (no attributes).

 -- Yöntemi: window.bkgd (ch[, attr])

     Set the background property of the window to the character 'ch',
     with attributes 'attr'.  The change is then applied to every
     character position in that window:

        * The attribute of every character in the window is changed to
          the new background attribute.

        * Wherever the former background character appears, it is
          changed to the new background character.

 -- Yöntemi: window.bkgdset (ch[, attr])

     Set the window’s background.  A window’s background consists of a
     character and any combination of attributes.  The attribute part of
     the background is combined (OR’ed) with all non-blank characters
     that are written into the window.  Both the character and attribute
     parts of the background are combined with the blank characters.
     The background becomes a property of the character and moves with
     the character through any scrolling and insert/delete
     line/character operations.

 -- Yöntemi: window.border ([ls[, rs[, ts[, bs[, tl[, tr[, bl[,
          br]]]]]]]])

     Draw a border around the edges of the window.  Each parameter
     specifies the character to use for a specific part of the border;
     see the table below for more details.

          Not: A ‘0’ value for any parameter will cause the default
          character to be used for that parameter.  Keyword parameters
          can 'not' be used.  The defaults are listed in this table:

     Parameter       Description               Default value
                                               
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
     'ls'            Left side                 *note ACS_VLINE: 2be1.
                                               
                                               
     'rs'            Right side                *note ACS_VLINE: 2be1.
                                               
                                               
     'ts'            Top                       *note ACS_HLINE: 2be2.
                                               
                                               
     'bs'            Bottom                    *note ACS_HLINE: 2be2.
                                               
                                               
     'tl'            Upper-left corner         *note ACS_ULCORNER: 2be3.
                                               
                                               
     'tr'            Upper-right corner        *note ACS_URCORNER: 2be4.
                                               
                                               
     'bl'            Bottom-left corner        *note ACS_LLCORNER: 2be5.
                                               
                                               
     'br'            Bottom-right corner       *note ACS_LRCORNER: 2be6.
                                               

 -- Yöntemi: window.box ([vertch, horch])

     Similar to *note border(): 2be0, but both 'ls' and 'rs' are
     'vertch' and both 'ts' and 'bs' are 'horch'.  The default corner
     characters are always used by this function.

 -- Yöntemi: window.chgat (attr)

 -- Yöntemi: window.chgat (num, attr)

 -- Yöntemi: window.chgat (y, x, attr)

 -- Yöntemi: window.chgat (y, x, num, attr)

     Set the attributes of 'num' characters at the current cursor
     position, or at position ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  If 'num' is not
     given or is ‘-1’, the attribute will be set on all the characters
     to the end of the line.  This function moves cursor to position
     ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  The changed line will be touched using the
     *note touchline(): 2be9. method so that the contents will be
     redisplayed by the next window refresh.

 -- Yöntemi: window.clear ()

     Like *note erase(): 2beb, but also cause the whole window to be
     repainted upon next call to *note refresh(): 2b95.

 -- Yöntemi: window.clearok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, the next call to *note refresh(): 2b95. will
     clear the window completely.

 -- Yöntemi: window.clrtobot ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the window: all lines below the
     cursor are deleted, and then the equivalent of *note clrtoeol():
     2bee. is performed.

 -- Yöntemi: window.clrtoeol ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the line.

 -- Yöntemi: window.cursyncup ()

     Update the current cursor position of all the ancestors of the
     window to reflect the current cursor position of the window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.delch ([y, x])

     Delete any character at ‘(y, x)’.

 -- Yöntemi: window.deleteln ()

     Delete the line under the cursor.  All following lines are moved up
     by one line.

 -- Yöntemi: window.derwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Yöntemi: window.derwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     An abbreviation for “derive window”, *note derwin(): 2bf2. is the
     same as calling *note subwin(): 2bf3, except that 'begin_y' and
     'begin_x' are relative to the origin of the window, rather than
     relative to the entire screen.  Return a window object for the
     derived window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.echochar (ch[, attr])

     Add character 'ch' with attribute 'attr', and immediately call
     *note refresh(): 2b95. on the window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.enclose (y, x)

     Test whether the given pair of screen-relative character-cell
     coordinates are enclosed by the given window, returning ‘True’ or
     ‘False’.  It is useful for determining what subset of the screen
     windows enclose the location of a mouse event.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Previously it returned ‘1’ or ‘0’ instead
     of ‘True’ or ‘False’.

 -- Özniteliği: window.encoding

     Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and
     characters).  The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent
     window when a subwindow is created, for example with *note
     window.subwin(): 2bf3.  By default, current locale encoding is used
     (see *note locale.getencoding(): 25d.).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: window.erase ()

     Clear the window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getbegyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of coordinates of upper-left corner.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getbkgd ()

     Return the given window’s current background character/attribute
     pair.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getch ([y, x])

     Get a character.  Note that the integer returned does 'not' have to
     be in ASCII range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are
     represented by numbers higher than 255.  In no-delay mode, return
     ‘-1’ if there is no input, otherwise wait until a key is pressed.

 -- Yöntemi: window.get_wch ([y, x])

     Get a wide character.  Return a character for most keys, or an
     integer for function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getkey ([y, x])

     Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as *note
     getch(): 2b9e. does.  Function keys, keypad keys and other special
     keys return a multibyte string containing the key name.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getmaxyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of the height and width of the window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getparyx ()

     Return the beginning coordinates of this window relative to its
     parent window as a tuple ‘(y, x)’.  Return ‘(-1, -1)’ if this
     window has no parent.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getstr ()

 -- Yöntemi: window.getstr (n)

 -- Yöntemi: window.getstr (y, x)

 -- Yöntemi: window.getstr (y, x, n)

     Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing
     capacity.

 -- Yöntemi: window.getyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of current cursor position relative to the
     window’s upper-left corner.

 -- Yöntemi: window.hline (ch, n)

 -- Yöntemi: window.hline (y, x, ch, n)

     Display a horizontal line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch'.

 -- Yöntemi: window.idcok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, curses no longer considers using the hardware
     insert/delete character feature of the terminal; if 'flag' is
     ‘True’, use of character insertion and deletion is enabled.  When
     curses is first initialized, use of character insert/delete is
     enabled by default.

 -- Yöntemi: window.idlok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, *note curses: 2b. will try and use hardware
     line editing facilities.  Otherwise, line insertion/deletion are
     disabled.

 -- Yöntemi: window.immedok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, any change in the window image automatically
     causes the window to be refreshed; you no longer have to call *note
     refresh(): 2b95. yourself.  However, it may degrade performance
     considerably, due to repeated calls to wrefresh.  This option is
     disabled by default.

 -- Yöntemi: window.inch ([y, x])

     Return the character at the given position in the window.  The
     bottom 8 bits are the character proper, and upper bits are the
     attributes.

 -- Yöntemi: window.insch (ch[, attr])

 -- Yöntemi: window.insch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr', moving the
     line from position 'x' right by one character.

 -- Yöntemi: window.insdelln (nlines)

     Insert 'nlines' lines into the specified window above the current
     line.  The 'nlines' bottom lines are lost.  For negative 'nlines',
     delete 'nlines' lines starting with the one under the cursor, and
     move the remaining lines up.  The bottom 'nlines' lines are
     cleared.  The current cursor position remains the same.

 -- Yöntemi: window.insertln ()

     Insert a blank line under the cursor.  All following lines are
     moved down by one line.

 -- Yöntemi: window.insnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- Yöntemi: window.insnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor, up to 'n' characters.
     If 'n' is zero or negative, the entire string is inserted.  All
     characters to the right of the cursor are shifted right, with the
     rightmost characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position
     does not change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- Yöntemi: window.insstr (str[, attr])

 -- Yöntemi: window.insstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor.  All characters to the
     right of the cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost
     characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position does not
     change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- Yöntemi: window.instr ([n])

 -- Yöntemi: window.instr (y, x[, n])

     Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window
     starting at the current cursor position, or at 'y', 'x' if
     specified.  Attributes are stripped from the characters.  If 'n' is
     specified, *note instr(): 2c06. returns a string at most 'n'
     characters long (exclusive of the trailing NUL).

 -- Yöntemi: window.is_linetouched (line)

     Return ‘True’ if the specified line was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 2b95.; otherwise return ‘False’.  Raise a
     *note curses.error: 2b81. exception if 'line' is not valid for the
     given window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.is_wintouched ()

     Return ‘True’ if the specified window was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 2b95.; otherwise return ‘False’.

 -- Yöntemi: window.keypad (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences generated by some keys
     (keypad, function keys) will be interpreted by *note curses: 2b.
     If 'flag' is ‘False’, escape sequences will be left as is in the
     input stream.

 -- Yöntemi: window.leaveok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, cursor is left where it is on update, instead
     of being at “cursor position.” This reduces cursor movement where
     possible.  If possible the cursor will be made invisible.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, cursor will always be at “cursor position”
     after an update.

 -- Yöntemi: window.move (new_y, new_x)

     Move cursor to ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- Yöntemi: window.mvderwin (y, x)

     Move the window inside its parent window.  The screen-relative
     parameters of the window are not changed.  This routine is used to
     display different parts of the parent window at the same physical
     position on the screen.

 -- Yöntemi: window.mvwin (new_y, new_x)

     Move the window so its upper-left corner is at ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- Yöntemi: window.nodelay (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, *note getch(): 2b9e. will be non-blocking.

 -- Yöntemi: window.notimeout (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences will not be timed out.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, after a few milliseconds, an escape sequence
     will not be interpreted, and will be left in the input stream as
     is.

 -- Yöntemi: window.noutrefresh ()

     Mark for refresh but wait.  This function updates the data
     structure representing the desired state of the window, but does
     not force an update of the physical screen.  To accomplish that,
     call *note doupdate(): 2b92.

 -- Yöntemi: window.overlay (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overlay the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, only the overlapping region is copied.  This copy is
     non-destructive, which means that the current background character
     does not overwrite the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of *note overlay(): 2c0f. can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol' are
     the upper-left coordinates of the source window, and the other
     variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.overwrite (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overwrite the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, in which case only the overlapping region is copied.
     This copy is destructive, which means that the current background
     character overwrites the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of *note overwrite(): 2c10. can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol'
     are the upper-left coordinates of the source window, the other
     variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.putwin (file)

     Write all data associated with the window into the provided file
     object.  This information can be later retrieved using the *note
     getwin(): 2baa. function.

 -- Yöntemi: window.redrawln (beg, num)

     Indicate that the 'num' screen lines, starting at line 'beg', are
     corrupted and should be completely redrawn on the next *note
     refresh(): 2b95. call.

 -- Yöntemi: window.redrawwin ()

     Touch the entire window, causing it to be completely redrawn on the
     next *note refresh(): 2b95. call.

 -- Yöntemi: window.refresh ([pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol,
          smaxrow, smaxcol])

     Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous
     drawing/deleting methods).

     The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a
     pad created with *note newpad(): 2bbd.  The additional parameters
     are needed to indicate what part of the pad and screen are
     involved.  'pminrow' and 'pmincol' specify the upper left-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad.  'sminrow',
     'smincol', 'smaxrow', and 'smaxcol' specify the edges of the
     rectangle to be displayed on the screen.  The lower right-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad is calculated
     from the screen coordinates, since the rectangles must be the same
     size.  Both rectangles must be entirely contained within their
     respective structures.  Negative values of 'pminrow', 'pmincol',
     'sminrow', or 'smincol' are treated as if they were zero.

 -- Yöntemi: window.resize (nlines, ncols)

     Reallocate storage for a curses window to adjust its dimensions to
     the specified values.  If either dimension is larger than the
     current values, the window’s data is filled with blanks that have
     the current background rendition (as set by *note bkgdset(): 2bdf.)
     merged into them.

 -- Yöntemi: window.scroll ([lines=1])

     Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by 'lines' lines.

 -- Yöntemi: window.scrollok (flag)

     Control what happens when the cursor of a window is moved off the
     edge of the window or scrolling region, either as a result of a
     newline action on the bottom line, or typing the last character of
     the last line.  If 'flag' is ‘False’, the cursor is left on the
     bottom line.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, the window is scrolled up one
     line.  Note that in order to get the physical scrolling effect on
     the terminal, it is also necessary to call *note idlok(): 2bfe.

 -- Yöntemi: window.setscrreg (top, bottom)

     Set the scrolling region from line 'top' to line 'bottom'.  All
     scrolling actions will take place in this region.

 -- Yöntemi: window.standend ()

     Turn off the standout attribute.  On some terminals this has the
     side effect of turning off all attributes.

 -- Yöntemi: window.standout ()

     Turn on attribute 'A_STANDOUT'.

 -- Yöntemi: window.subpad (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Yöntemi: window.subpad (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

 -- Yöntemi: window.subwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Yöntemi: window.subwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

     By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position
     to the lower right corner of the window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.syncdown ()

     Touch each location in the window that has been touched in any of
     its ancestor windows.  This routine is called by *note refresh():
     2b95, so it should almost never be necessary to call it manually.

 -- Yöntemi: window.syncok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, then *note syncup(): 2c1c. is called
     automatically whenever there is a change in the window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.syncup ()

     Touch all locations in ancestors of the window that have been
     changed in the window.

 -- Yöntemi: window.timeout (delay)

     Set blocking or non-blocking read behavior for the window.  If
     'delay' is negative, blocking read is used (which will wait
     indefinitely for input).  If 'delay' is zero, then non-blocking
     read is used, and *note getch(): 2b9e. will return ‘-1’ if no input
     is waiting.  If 'delay' is positive, then *note getch(): 2b9e. will
     block for 'delay' milliseconds, and return ‘-1’ if there is still
     no input at the end of that time.

 -- Yöntemi: window.touchline (start, count[, changed])

     Pretend 'count' lines have been changed, starting with line
     'start'.  If 'changed' is supplied, it specifies whether the
     affected lines are marked as having been changed ('changed'‘=True’)
     or unchanged ('changed'‘=False’).

 -- Yöntemi: window.touchwin ()

     Pretend the whole window has been changed, for purposes of drawing
     optimizations.

 -- Yöntemi: window.untouchwin ()

     Mark all lines in the window as unchanged since the last call to
     *note refresh(): 2b95.

 -- Yöntemi: window.vline (ch, n[, attr])

 -- Yöntemi: window.vline (y, x, ch, n[, attr])

     Display a vertical line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch' with attributes 'attr'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue35924


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<4>,  Prev: Window Objects,  Up: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.16.10.3 Constants
...................

The *note curses: 2b. module defines the following data members:

 -- Verisi: curses.ERR

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note getch():
     2b9e, return *note ERR: 2c21. upon failure.

 -- Verisi: curses.OK

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note napms():
     2bbc, return *note OK: 2c22. upon success.

 -- Verisi: curses.version

 -- Verisi: curses.__version__

     A bytes object representing the current version of the module.

 -- Verisi: curses.ncurses_version

     A named tuple containing the three components of the ncurses
     library version: 'major', 'minor', and 'patch'.  All values are
     integers.  The components can also be accessed by name, so
     ‘curses.ncurses_version[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘curses.ncurses_version.major’ and so on.

     Availability: if the ncurses library is used.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: curses.COLORS

     The maximum number of colors the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2bca.

 -- Verisi: curses.COLOR_PAIRS

     The maximum number of color pairs the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 2bca.

 -- Verisi: curses.COLS

     The width of the screen, i.e., the number of columns.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note initscr(): 2b9a.  Updated by
     *note update_lines_cols(): c7a, *note resizeterm(): 142f. and *note
     resize_term(): 1430.

 -- Verisi: curses.LINES

     The height of the screen, i.e., the number of lines.  It is defined
     only after the call to *note initscr(): 2b9a.  Updated by *note
     update_lines_cols(): c7a, *note resizeterm(): 142f. and *note
     resize_term(): 1430.

Some constants are available to specify character cell attributes.  The
exact constants available are system dependent.

Attribute                    Meaning
                             
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- Verisi:                  Alternate character set mode
          curses.A_ALTCHARSET

 -- Verisi: curses.A_BLINK   Blink mode
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.A_BOLD    Bold mode
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.A_DIM     Dim mode
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.A_INVIS   Invisible or blank mode
                             
                             
 -- Verisi:                  Italic mode
          curses.A_ITALIC    

 -- Verisi:                  Normal attribute
          curses.A_NORMAL    

 -- Verisi:                  Protected mode
          curses.A_PROTECT   

 -- Verisi:                  Reverse background and foreground
          curses.A_REVERSE   colors
                             
                             
 -- Verisi:                  Standout mode
          curses.A_STANDOUT  

 -- Verisi:                  Underline mode
          curses.A_UNDERLINE 

 -- Verisi:                  Horizontal highlight
          curses.A_HORIZONTAL

 -- Verisi: curses.A_LEFT    Left highlight
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.A_LOW     Low highlight
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.A_RIGHT   Right highlight
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.A_TOP     Top highlight
                             
                             
 -- Verisi:                  Vertical highlight
          curses.A_VERTICAL  

Added in version 3.7: ‘A_ITALIC’ was added.

Several constants are available to extract corresponding attributes
returned by some methods.

Bit-mask                      Meaning
                              
------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Bit-mask to extract attributes
          curses.A_ATTRIBUTES 

 -- Verisi:                   Bit-mask to extract a character
          curses.A_CHARTEXT   

 -- Verisi: curses.A_COLOR    Bit-mask to extract color-pair
                              field information
                              

Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with
‘KEY_’.  The exact keycaps available are system dependent.

Key constant                  Key
                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_MIN    Minimum key value
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Break key (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_BREAK    

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_DOWN   Down-arrow
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_UP     Up-arrow
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_LEFT   Left-arrow
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Right-arrow
          curses.KEY_RIGHT    

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_HOME   Home key (upward+left arrow)
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Backspace (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_BACKSPACE

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_F0     Function keys.  Up to 64 function keys are
                              supported.
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_Fn     Value of function key 'n'
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_DL     Delete line
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_IL     Insert line
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_DC     Delete character
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_IC     Insert char or enter insert mode
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_EIC    Exit insert char mode
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Clear screen
          curses.KEY_CLEAR    

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_EOS    Clear to end of screen
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_EOL    Clear to end of line
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SF     Scroll 1 line forward
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SR     Scroll 1 line backward (reverse)
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Next page
          curses.KEY_NPAGE    

 -- Verisi:                   Previous page
          curses.KEY_PPAGE    

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_STAB   Set tab
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_CTAB   Clear tab
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Clear all tabs
          curses.KEY_CATAB    

 -- Verisi:                   Enter or send (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_ENTER    

 -- Verisi:                   Soft (partial) reset (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_SRESET   

 -- Verisi:                   Reset or hard reset (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_RESET    

 -- Verisi:                   Print
          curses.KEY_PRINT    

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_LL     Home down or bottom (lower left)
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_A1     Upper left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_A3     Upper right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_B2     Center of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_C1     Lower left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_C3     Lower right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_BTAB   Back tab
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_BEG    Beg (beginning)
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Cancel
          curses.KEY_CANCEL   

 -- Verisi:                   Close
          curses.KEY_CLOSE    

 -- Verisi:                   Cmd (command)
          curses.KEY_COMMAND  

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_COPY   Copy
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Create
          curses.KEY_CREATE   

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_END    End
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_EXIT   Exit
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_FIND   Find
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_HELP   Help
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_MARK   Mark
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Message
          curses.KEY_MESSAGE  

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_MOVE   Move
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_NEXT   Next
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_OPEN   Open
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Options
          curses.KEY_OPTIONS  

 -- Verisi:                   Prev (previous)
          curses.KEY_PREVIOUS 

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_REDO   Redo
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Ref (reference)
          curses.KEY_REFERENCE

 -- Verisi:                   Refresh
          curses.KEY_REFRESH  

 -- Verisi:                   Replace
          curses.KEY_REPLACE  

 -- Verisi:                   Restart
          curses.KEY_RESTART  

 -- Verisi:                   Resume
          curses.KEY_RESUME   

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SAVE   Save
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SBEG   Shifted Beg (beginning)
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Cancel
          curses.KEY_SCANCEL  

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Command
          curses.KEY_SCOMMAND 

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Copy
          curses.KEY_SCOPY    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Create
          curses.KEY_SCREATE  

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SDC    Shifted Delete char
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SDL    Shifted Delete line
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Select
          curses.KEY_SELECT   

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SEND   Shifted End
                              
                              
 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SEOL   Shifted Clear line
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Exit
          curses.KEY_SEXIT    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Find
          curses.KEY_SFIND    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Help
          curses.KEY_SHELP    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Home
          curses.KEY_SHOME    

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_SIC    Shifted Input
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Left arrow
          curses.KEY_SLEFT    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Message
          curses.KEY_SMESSAGE 

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Move
          curses.KEY_SMOVE    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Next
          curses.KEY_SNEXT    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Options
          curses.KEY_SOPTIONS 

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Prev
          curses.KEY_SPREVIOUS

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Print
          curses.KEY_SPRINT   

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Redo
          curses.KEY_SREDO    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Replace
          curses.KEY_SREPLACE 

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Right arrow
          curses.KEY_SRIGHT   

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Resume
          curses.KEY_SRSUME   

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Save
          curses.KEY_SSAVE    

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Suspend
          curses.KEY_SSUSPEND 

 -- Verisi:                   Shifted Undo
          curses.KEY_SUNDO    

 -- Verisi:                   Suspend
          curses.KEY_SUSPEND  

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_UNDO   Undo
                              
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Mouse event has occurred
          curses.KEY_MOUSE    

 -- Verisi:                   Terminal resize event
          curses.KEY_RESIZE   

 -- Verisi: curses.KEY_MAX    Maximum key value
                              

On VT100s and their software emulations, such as X terminal emulators,
there are normally at least four function keys (*note KEY_F1: 2c3f,
*note KEY_F2: 2c3f, *note KEY_F3: 2c3f, *note KEY_F4: 2c3f.) available,
and the arrow keys mapped to *note KEY_UP: 2c39, *note KEY_DOWN: 2c38,
*note KEY_LEFT: 2c3a. and *note KEY_RIGHT: 2c3b. in the obvious way.  If
your machine has a PC keyboard, it is safe to expect arrow keys and
twelve function keys (older PC keyboards may have only ten function
keys); also, the following keypad mappings are standard:

Keycap                 Constant
                       
---------------------------------------
                       
‘Insert’               KEY_IC
                       
                       
‘Delete’               KEY_DC
                       
                       
‘Home’                 KEY_HOME
                       
                       
‘End’                  KEY_END
                       
                       
‘Page Up’              KEY_PPAGE
                       
                       
‘Page Down’            KEY_NPAGE
                       

The following table lists characters from the alternate character set.
These are inherited from the VT100 terminal, and will generally be
available on software emulations such as X terminals.  When there is no
graphic available, curses falls back on a crude printable ASCII
approximation.

     Not: These are available only after *note initscr(): 2b9a. has been
     called.

ACS code                     Meaning
                             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for upper right corner
          curses.ACS_BBSS    

 -- Verisi:                  solid square block
          curses.ACS_BLOCK   

 -- Verisi:                  board of squares
          curses.ACS_BOARD   

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for horizontal line
          curses.ACS_BSBS    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for upper left corner
          curses.ACS_BSSB    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for top tee
          curses.ACS_BSSS    

 -- Verisi:                  bottom tee
          curses.ACS_BTEE    

 -- Verisi:                  bullet
          curses.ACS_BULLET  

 -- Verisi:                  checker board (stipple)
          curses.ACS_CKBOARD 

 -- Verisi:                  arrow pointing down
          curses.ACS_DARROW  

 -- Verisi:                  degree symbol
          curses.ACS_DEGREE  

 -- Verisi:                  diamond
          curses.ACS_DIAMOND 

 -- Verisi:                  greater-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_GEQUAL  

 -- Verisi:                  horizontal line
          curses.ACS_HLINE   

 -- Verisi:                  lantern symbol
          curses.ACS_LANTERN 

 -- Verisi:                  left arrow
          curses.ACS_LARROW  

 -- Verisi:                  less-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_LEQUAL  

 -- Verisi:                  lower left-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LLCORNER

 -- Verisi:                  lower right-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LRCORNER

 -- Verisi:                  left tee
          curses.ACS_LTEE    

 -- Verisi:                  not-equal sign
          curses.ACS_NEQUAL  

 -- Verisi: curses.ACS_PI    letter pi
                             
                             
 -- Verisi:                  plus-or-minus sign
          curses.ACS_PLMINUS 

 -- Verisi:                  big plus sign
          curses.ACS_PLUS    

 -- Verisi:                  right arrow
          curses.ACS_RARROW  

 -- Verisi:                  right tee
          curses.ACS_RTEE    

 -- Verisi: curses.ACS_S1    scan line 1
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.ACS_S3    scan line 3
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.ACS_S7    scan line 7
                             
                             
 -- Verisi: curses.ACS_S9    scan line 9
                             
                             
 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for lower right corner
          curses.ACS_SBBS    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for vertical line
          curses.ACS_SBSB    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for right tee
          curses.ACS_SBSS    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for lower left corner
          curses.ACS_SSBB    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for bottom tee
          curses.ACS_SSBS    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for left tee
          curses.ACS_SSSB    

 -- Verisi:                  alternate name for crossover or big plus
          curses.ACS_SSSS    

 -- Verisi:                  pound sterling
          curses.ACS_STERLING

 -- Verisi:                  top tee
          curses.ACS_TTEE    

 -- Verisi:                  up arrow
          curses.ACS_UARROW  

 -- Verisi:                  upper left corner
          curses.ACS_ULCORNER

 -- Verisi:                  upper right corner
          curses.ACS_URCORNER

 -- Verisi:                  vertical line
          curses.ACS_VLINE   

The following table lists mouse button constants used by *note
getmouse(): 2b9d.:

Mouse button constant                  Meaning
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
 -- Verisi: curses.BUTTONn_PRESSED     Mouse button 'n' pressed
                                       
                                       
 -- Verisi: curses.BUTTONn_RELEASED    Mouse button 'n' released
                                       
                                       
 -- Verisi: curses.BUTTONn_CLICKED     Mouse button 'n' clicked
                                       
                                       
 -- Verisi:                            Mouse button 'n' double clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED

 -- Verisi:                            Mouse button 'n' triple clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED

 -- Verisi: curses.BUTTON_SHIFT        Shift was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- Verisi: curses.BUTTON_CTRL         Control was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- Verisi: curses.BUTTON_ALT          Control was down during button state change
                                       

3.10 sürümünde değişti: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed if
they are provided by the underlying curses library.

The following table lists the predefined colors:

Constant                      Color
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Verisi:                   Black
          curses.COLOR_BLACK  

 -- Verisi:                   Blue
          curses.COLOR_BLUE   

 -- Verisi:                   Cyan (light greenish blue)
          curses.COLOR_CYAN   

 -- Verisi:                   Green
          curses.COLOR_GREEN  

 -- Verisi:                   Magenta (purplish red)
          curses.COLOR_MAGENTA

 -- Verisi:                   Red
          curses.COLOR_RED    

 -- Verisi:                   White
          curses.COLOR_WHITE  

 -- Verisi:                   Yellow
          curses.COLOR_YELLOW 


File: python.info,  Node: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs,  Next: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters,  Prev: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.11 ‘curses.textpad’ — Text input widget for curses programs
----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note curses.textpad: 2e. module provides a *note Textbox: 2cc2.
class that handles elementary text editing in a curses window,
supporting a set of keybindings resembling those of Emacs (thus, also of
Netscape Navigator, BBedit 6.x, FrameMaker, and many other programs).
The module also provides a rectangle-drawing function useful for framing
text boxes or for other purposes.

The module *note curses.textpad: 2e. defines the following function:

 -- Işlevi: curses.textpad.rectangle (win, uly, ulx, lry, lrx)

     Draw a rectangle.  The first argument must be a window object; the
     remaining arguments are coordinates relative to that window.  The
     second and third arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper
     left hand corner of the rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth
     arguments are the y and x coordinates of the lower right hand
     corner.  The rectangle will be drawn using VT100/IBM PC forms
     characters on terminals that make this possible (including xterm
     and most other software terminal emulators).  Otherwise it will be
     drawn with ASCII dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.

* Menu:

* Textbox objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Textbox objects,  Up: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs

5.16.11.1 Textbox objects
.........................

You can instantiate a *note Textbox: 2cc2. object as follows:

 -- Sınıfı: curses.textpad.Textbox (win)

     Return a textbox widget object.  The 'win' argument should be a
     curses *note window: 2bb3. object in which the textbox is to be
     contained.  The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at
     the upper left hand corner of the containing window, with
     coordinates ‘(0, 0)’.  The instance’s *note stripspaces: 2cc6. flag
     is initially on.

     *note Textbox: 2cc2. objects have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: edit ([validator])

          This is the entry point you will normally use.  It accepts
          editing keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is
          entered.  If 'validator' is supplied, it must be a function.
          It will be called for each keystroke entered with the
          keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch is done on the
          result.  This method returns the window contents as a string;
          whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the
          *note stripspaces: 2cc6. attribute.

      -- Yöntemi: do_command (ch)

          Process a single command keystroke.  Here are the supported
          special keystrokes:

          Keystroke              Action
                                 
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘A’          Go to left edge of window.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘B’          Cursor left, wrapping to previous line if
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘D’          Delete character under cursor.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘E’          Go to right edge (stripspaces off) or end of
                                 line (stripspaces on).
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘F’          Cursor right, wrapping to next line when
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘G’          Terminate, returning the window contents.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘H’          Delete character backward.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘J’          Terminate if the window is 1 line, otherwise
                                 insert newline.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘K’          If line is blank, delete it, otherwise clear
                                 to end of line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘L’          Refresh screen.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘N’          Cursor down; move down one line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘O’          Insert a blank line at cursor location.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘P’          Cursor up; move up one line.
                                 

          Move operations do nothing if the cursor is at an edge where
          the movement is not possible.  The following synonyms are
          supported where possible:

          Constant                             Keystroke
                                               
          ------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
          *note KEY_LEFT: 2c3a.                ‘Control’-‘B’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_RIGHT: 2c3b.               ‘Control’-‘F’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_UP: 2c39.                  ‘Control’-‘P’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_DOWN: 2c38.                ‘Control’-‘N’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_BACKSPACE: 2c3d.           ‘Control’-‘h’
                                               

          All other keystrokes are treated as a command to insert the
          given character and move right (with line wrapping).

      -- Yöntemi: gather ()

          Return the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the
          window are included is affected by the *note stripspaces:
          2cc6. member.

      -- Özniteliği: stripspaces

          This attribute is a flag which controls the interpretation of
          blanks in the window.  When it is on, trailing blanks on each
          line are ignored; any cursor motion that would land the cursor
          on a trailing blank goes to the end of that line instead, and
          trailing blanks are stripped when the window contents are
          gathered.


File: python.info,  Node: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters,  Next: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses,  Prev: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.12 ‘curses.ascii’ — Utilities for ASCII characters
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/curses/ascii.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note curses.ascii: 2c. module supplies name constants for ASCII
characters and functions to test membership in various ASCII character
classes.  The constants supplied are names for control characters as
follows:

Name                Meaning
                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
 -- Verisi:
          curses.ascii.NUL

 -- Verisi:         Start of heading, console interrupt
          curses.ascii.SOH

 -- Verisi:         Start of text
          curses.ascii.STX

 -- Verisi:         End of text
          curses.ascii.ETX

 -- Verisi:         End of transmission
          curses.ascii.EOT

 -- Verisi:         Enquiry, goes with *note ACK: 2cd2. flow control
          curses.ascii.ENQ

 -- Verisi:         Acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.ACK

 -- Verisi:         Bell
          curses.ascii.BEL

 -- Verisi:         Backspace
          curses.ascii.BS

 -- Verisi:         Tab
          curses.ascii.TAB

 -- Verisi:         Alias for *note TAB: 2cd5.: “Horizontal tab”
          curses.ascii.HT

 -- Verisi:         Line feed
          curses.ascii.LF

 -- Verisi:         Alias for *note LF: 2cd7.: “New line”
          curses.ascii.NL

 -- Verisi:         Vertical tab
          curses.ascii.VT

 -- Verisi:         Form feed
          curses.ascii.FF

 -- Verisi:         Carriage return
          curses.ascii.CR

 -- Verisi:         Shift-out, begin alternate character set
          curses.ascii.SO

 -- Verisi:         Shift-in, resume default character set
          curses.ascii.SI

 -- Verisi:         Data-link escape
          curses.ascii.DLE

 -- Verisi:         XON, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC1

 -- Verisi:         Device control 2, block-mode flow control
          curses.ascii.DC2

 -- Verisi:         XOFF, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC3

 -- Verisi:         Device control 4
          curses.ascii.DC4

 -- Verisi:         Negative acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.NAK

 -- Verisi:         Synchronous idle
          curses.ascii.SYN

 -- Verisi:         End transmission block
          curses.ascii.ETB

 -- Verisi:         Cancel
          curses.ascii.CAN

 -- Verisi:         End of medium
          curses.ascii.EM

 -- Verisi:         Substitute
          curses.ascii.SUB

 -- Verisi:         Escape
          curses.ascii.ESC

 -- Verisi:         File separator
          curses.ascii.FS

 -- Verisi:         Group separator
          curses.ascii.GS

 -- Verisi:         Record separator, block-mode terminator
          curses.ascii.RS

 -- Verisi:         Unit separator
          curses.ascii.US

 -- Verisi:         Space
          curses.ascii.SP

 -- Verisi:         Delete
          curses.ascii.DEL

Note that many of these have little practical significance in modern
usage.  The mnemonics derive from teleprinter conventions that predate
digital computers.

The module supplies the following functions, patterned on those in the
standard C library:

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isalnum (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphanumeric character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isalpha(c) or isdigit(c)’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isalpha (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphabetic character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isupper(c) or islower(c)’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isascii (c)

     Checks for a character value that fits in the 7-bit ASCII set.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isblank (c)

     Checks for an ASCII whitespace character; space or horizontal tab.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.iscntrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (in the range 0x00 to 0x1f or
     0x7f).

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII decimal digit, ‘'0'’ through ‘'9'’.  This is
     equivalent to ‘c in string.digits’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isgraph (c)

     Checks for ASCII any printable character except space.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.islower (c)

     Checks for an ASCII lower-case character.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isprint (c)

     Checks for any ASCII printable character including space.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.ispunct (c)

     Checks for any printable ASCII character which is not a space or an
     alphanumeric character.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isspace (c)

     Checks for ASCII white-space characters; space, line feed, carriage
     return, form feed, horizontal tab, vertical tab.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isupper (c)

     Checks for an ASCII uppercase letter.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isxdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII hexadecimal digit.  This is equivalent to ‘c in
     string.hexdigits’.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.isctrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31).

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.ismeta (c)

     Checks for a non-ASCII character (ordinal values 0x80 and above).

These functions accept either integers or single-character strings; when
the argument is a string, it is first converted using the built-in
function *note ord(): 1cdf.

Note that all these functions check ordinal bit values derived from the
character of the string you pass in; they do not actually know anything
about the host machine’s character encoding.

The following two functions take either a single-character string or
integer byte value; they return a value of the same type.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.ascii (c)

     Return the ASCII value corresponding to the low 7 bits of 'c'.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.ctrl (c)

     Return the control character corresponding to the given character
     (the character bit value is bitwise-anded with 0x1f).

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.alt (c)

     Return the 8-bit character corresponding to the given ASCII
     character (the character bit value is bitwise-ored with 0x80).

The following function takes either a single-character string or integer
value; it returns a string.

 -- Işlevi: curses.ascii.unctrl (c)

     Return a string representation of the ASCII character 'c'.  If 'c'
     is printable, this string is the character itself.  If the
     character is a control character (0x00–0x1f) the string consists of
     a caret (‘'^'’) followed by the corresponding uppercase letter.  If
     the character is an ASCII delete (0x7f) the string is ‘'^?'’.  If
     the character has its meta bit (0x80) set, the meta bit is
     stripped, the preceding rules applied, and ‘'!'’ prepended to the
     result.

 -- Verisi: curses.ascii.controlnames

     A 33-element string array that contains the ASCII mnemonics for the
     thirty-two ASCII control characters from 0 (NUL) to 0x1f (US), in
     order, plus the mnemonic ‘SP’ for the space character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/curses/ascii.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses,  Next: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data,  Prev: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.13 ‘curses.panel’ — A panel stack extension for curses
-----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Panels are windows with the added feature of depth, so they can be
stacked on top of each other, and only the visible portions of each
window will be displayed.  Panels can be added, moved up or down in the
stack, and removed.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<5>.
* Panel Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<5>,  Next: Panel Objects,  Up: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses

5.16.13.1 Functions
...................

The module *note curses.panel: 2d. defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: curses.panel.bottom_panel ()

     Returns the bottom panel in the panel stack.

 -- Işlevi: curses.panel.new_panel (win)

     Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window 'win'.
     Be aware that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced
     explicitly.  If you don’t, the panel object is garbage collected
     and removed from the panel stack.

 -- Işlevi: curses.panel.top_panel ()

     Returns the top panel in the panel stack.

 -- Işlevi: curses.panel.update_panels ()

     Updates the virtual screen after changes in the panel stack.  This
     does not call *note curses.doupdate(): 2b92, so you’ll have to do
     this yourself.


File: python.info,  Node: Panel Objects,  Prev: Functions<5>,  Up: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses

5.16.13.2 Panel Objects
.......................

Panel objects, as returned by *note new_panel(): 2d09. above, are
windows with a stacking order.  There’s always a window associated with
a panel which determines the content, while the panel methods are
responsible for the window’s depth in the panel stack.

Panel objects have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.above ()

     Returns the panel above the current panel.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.below ()

     Returns the panel below the current panel.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.bottom ()

     Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.hidden ()

     Returns ‘True’ if the panel is hidden (not visible), ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.hide ()

     Hide the panel.  This does not delete the object, it just makes the
     window on screen invisible.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.move (y, x)

     Move the panel to the screen coordinates ‘(y, x)’.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.replace (win)

     Change the window associated with the panel to the window 'win'.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.set_userptr (obj)

     Set the panel’s user pointer to 'obj'.  This is used to associate
     an arbitrary piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python
     object.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.show ()

     Display the panel (which might have been hidden).

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.top ()

     Push panel to the top of the stack.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.userptr ()

     Returns the user pointer for the panel.  This might be any Python
     object.

 -- Yöntemi: Panel.window ()

     Returns the window object associated with the panel.


File: python.info,  Node: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data,  Next: errno — Standard errno system symbols,  Prev: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.14 ‘platform’ — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data
---------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/platform.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     Not: Specific platforms listed alphabetically, with Linux included
     in the Unix section.

* Menu:

* Cross Platform::
* Java Platform::
* Windows Platform::
* macOS Platform::
* Unix Platforms::
* Linux Platforms::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/platform.py


File: python.info,  Node: Cross Platform,  Next: Java Platform,  Up: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

5.16.14.1 Cross Platform
........................

 -- Işlevi: platform.architecture (executable=sys.executable, bits='',
          linkage='')

     Queries the given executable (defaults to the Python interpreter
     binary) for various architecture information.

     Returns a tuple ‘(bits, linkage)’ which contain information about
     the bit architecture and the linkage format used for the
     executable.  Both values are returned as strings.

     Values that cannot be determined are returned as given by the
     parameter presets.  If bits is given as ‘''’, the ‘sizeof(pointer)’
     (or ‘sizeof(long)’ on Python version < 1.5.2) is used as indicator
     for the supported pointer size.

     The function relies on the system’s ‘file’ command to do the actual
     work.  This is available on most if not all Unix platforms and some
     non-Unix platforms and then only if the executable points to the
     Python interpreter.  Reasonable defaults are used when the above
     needs are not met.

          Not: On macOS (and perhaps other platforms), executable files
          may be universal files containing multiple architectures.

          To get at the “64-bitness” of the current interpreter, it is
          more reliable to query the *note sys.maxsize: 106a. attribute:

               is_64bits = sys.maxsize > 2**32

 -- Işlevi: platform.machine ()

     Returns the machine type, e.g.  ‘'AMD64'’.  An empty string is
     returned if the value cannot be determined.

 -- Işlevi: platform.node ()

     Returns the computer’s network name (may not be fully qualified!).
     An empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined.

 -- Işlevi: platform.platform (aliased=False, terse=False)

     Returns a single string identifying the underlying platform with as
     much useful information as possible.

     The output is intended to be 'human readable' rather than machine
     parseable.  It may look different on different platforms and this
     is intended.

     If 'aliased' is true, the function will use aliases for various
     platforms that report system names which differ from their common
     names, for example SunOS will be reported as Solaris.  The *note
     system_alias(): 2d1f. function is used to implement this.

     Setting 'terse' to true causes the function to return only the
     absolute minimum information needed to identify the platform.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On macOS, the function now uses *note
     mac_ver(): 186f, if it returns a non-empty release string, to get
     the macOS version rather than the darwin version.

 -- Işlevi: platform.processor ()

     Returns the (real) processor name, e.g.  ‘'amdk6'’.

     An empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined.
     Note that many platforms do not provide this information or simply
     return the same value as for *note machine(): 2d1d.  NetBSD does
     this.

 -- Işlevi: platform.python_build ()

     Returns a tuple ‘(buildno, builddate)’ stating the Python build
     number and date as strings.

 -- Işlevi: platform.python_compiler ()

     Returns a string identifying the compiler used for compiling
     Python.

 -- Işlevi: platform.python_branch ()

     Returns a string identifying the Python implementation SCM branch.

 -- Işlevi: platform.python_implementation ()

     Returns a string identifying the Python implementation.  Possible
     return values are: ‘CPython’, ‘IronPython’, ‘Jython’, ‘PyPy’.

 -- Işlevi: platform.python_revision ()

     Returns a string identifying the Python implementation SCM
     revision.

 -- Işlevi: platform.python_version ()

     Returns the Python version as string ‘'major.minor.patchlevel'’.

     Note that unlike the Python ‘sys.version’, the returned value will
     always include the patchlevel (it defaults to 0).

 -- Işlevi: platform.python_version_tuple ()

     Returns the Python version as tuple ‘(major, minor, patchlevel)’ of
     strings.

     Note that unlike the Python ‘sys.version’, the returned value will
     always include the patchlevel (it defaults to ‘'0'’).

 -- Işlevi: platform.release ()

     Returns the system’s release, e.g.  ‘'2.2.0'’ or ‘'NT'’.  An empty
     string is returned if the value cannot be determined.

 -- Işlevi: platform.system ()

     Returns the system/OS name, such as ‘'Linux'’, ‘'Darwin'’,
     ‘'Java'’, ‘'Windows'’.  An empty string is returned if the value
     cannot be determined.

 -- Işlevi: platform.system_alias (system, release, version)

     Returns ‘(system, release, version)’ aliased to common marketing
     names used for some systems.  It also does some reordering of the
     information in some cases where it would otherwise cause confusion.

 -- Işlevi: platform.version ()

     Returns the system’s release version, e.g.  ‘'#3 on degas'’.  An
     empty string is returned if the value cannot be determined.

 -- Işlevi: platform.uname ()

     Fairly portable uname interface.  Returns a *note namedtuple():
     74b. containing six attributes: *note system: 2d29, *note node:
     2d1e, *note release: 2d28, *note version: 2d2a, *note machine:
     2d1d, and *note processor: 2d20.

     *note processor: 2d20. is resolved late, on demand.

     Note: the first two attribute names differ from the names presented
     by *note os.uname(): fb8, where they are named ‘sysname’ and
     ‘nodename’.

     Entries which cannot be determined are set to ‘''’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Result changed from a tuple to a *note
     namedtuple(): 74b.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: *note processor: 2d20. is resolved late
     instead of immediately.


File: python.info,  Node: Java Platform,  Next: Windows Platform,  Prev: Cross Platform,  Up: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

5.16.14.2 Java Platform
.......................

 -- Işlevi: platform.java_ver (release='', vendor='', vminfo=('', '',
          ''), osinfo=('', '', ''))

     Version interface for Jython.

     Returns a tuple ‘(release, vendor, vminfo, osinfo)’ with 'vminfo'
     being a tuple ‘(vm_name, vm_release, vm_vendor)’ and 'osinfo' being
     a tuple ‘(os_name, os_version, os_arch)’.  Values which cannot be
     determined are set to the defaults given as parameters (which all
     default to ‘''’).


File: python.info,  Node: Windows Platform,  Next: macOS Platform,  Prev: Java Platform,  Up: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

5.16.14.3 Windows Platform
..........................

 -- Işlevi: platform.win32_ver (release='', version='', csd='',
          ptype='')

     Get additional version information from the Windows Registry and
     return a tuple ‘(release, version, csd, ptype)’ referring to OS
     release, version number, CSD level (service pack) and OS type
     (multi/single processor).  Values which cannot be determined are
     set to the defaults given as parameters (which all default to an
     empty string).

     As a hint: 'ptype' is ‘'Uniprocessor Free'’ on single processor NT
     machines and ‘'Multiprocessor Free'’ on multi processor machines.
     The ‘'Free'’ refers to the OS version being free of debugging code.
     It could also state ‘'Checked'’ which means the OS version uses
     debugging code, i.e.  code that checks arguments, ranges, etc.

 -- Işlevi: platform.win32_edition ()

     Returns a string representing the current Windows edition, or
     ‘None’ if the value cannot be determined.  Possible values include
     but are not limited to ‘'Enterprise'’, ‘'IoTUAP'’,
     ‘'ServerStandard'’, and ‘'nanoserver'’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: platform.win32_is_iot ()

     Return ‘True’ if the Windows edition returned by *note
     win32_edition(): 2d2d. is recognized as an IoT edition.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS Platform,  Next: Unix Platforms,  Prev: Windows Platform,  Up: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

5.16.14.4 macOS Platform
........................

 -- Işlevi: platform.mac_ver (release='', versioninfo=('', '', ''),
          machine='')

     Get macOS version information and return it as tuple ‘(release,
     versioninfo, machine)’ with 'versioninfo' being a tuple ‘(version,
     dev_stage, non_release_version)’.

     Entries which cannot be determined are set to ‘''’.  All tuple
     entries are strings.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix Platforms,  Next: Linux Platforms,  Prev: macOS Platform,  Up: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

5.16.14.5 Unix Platforms
........................

 -- Işlevi: platform.libc_ver (executable=sys.executable, lib='',
          version='', chunksize=16384)

     Tries to determine the libc version against which the file
     executable (defaults to the Python interpreter) is linked.  Returns
     a tuple of strings ‘(lib, version)’ which default to the given
     parameters in case the lookup fails.

     Note that this function has intimate knowledge of how different
     libc versions add symbols to the executable is probably only usable
     for executables compiled using ‘gcc’.

     The file is read and scanned in chunks of 'chunksize' bytes.


File: python.info,  Node: Linux Platforms,  Prev: Unix Platforms,  Up: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data

5.16.14.6 Linux Platforms
.........................

 -- Işlevi: platform.freedesktop_os_release ()

     Get operating system identification from ‘os-release’ file and
     return it as a dict.  The ‘os-release’ file is a freedesktop.org
     standard(1) and is available in most Linux distributions.  A
     noticeable exception is Android and Android-based distributions.

     Raises *note OSError: 65c. or subclass when neither
     ‘/etc/os-release’ nor ‘/usr/lib/os-release’ can be read.

     On success, the function returns a dictionary where keys and values
     are strings.  Values have their special characters like ‘"’ and ‘$’
     unquoted.  The fields ‘NAME’, ‘ID’, and ‘PRETTY_NAME’ are always
     defined according to the standard.  All other fields are optional.
     Vendors may include additional fields.

     Note that fields like ‘NAME’, ‘VERSION’, and ‘VARIANT’ are strings
     suitable for presentation to users.  Programs should use fields
     like ‘ID’, ‘ID_LIKE’, ‘VERSION_ID’, or ‘VARIANT_ID’ to identify
     Linux distributions.

     Example:

          def get_like_distro():
              info = platform.freedesktop_os_release()
              ids = [info["ID"]]
              if "ID_LIKE" in info:
                  # ids are space separated and ordered by precedence
                  ids.extend(info["ID_LIKE"].split())
              return ids

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html


File: python.info,  Node: errno — Standard errno system symbols,  Next: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.15 ‘errno’ — Standard errno system symbols
-----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module makes available standard ‘errno’ system symbols.  The value
of each symbol is the corresponding integer value.  The names and
descriptions are borrowed from ‘linux/include/errno.h’, which should be
all-inclusive.

 -- Verisi: errno.errorcode

     Dictionary providing a mapping from the errno value to the string
     name in the underlying system.  For instance,
     ‘errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM]’ maps to ‘'EPERM'’.

To translate a numeric error code to an error message, use *note
os.strerror(): 28fd.

Of the following list, symbols that are not used on the current platform
are not defined by the module.  The specific list of defined symbols is
available as ‘errno.errorcode.keys()’.  Symbols available can include:

 -- Verisi: errno.EPERM

     Operation not permitted.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: bcb.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOENT

     No such file or directory.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note FileNotFoundError: 39a.

 -- Verisi: errno.ESRCH

     No such process.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ProcessLookupError: f05.

 -- Verisi: errno.EINTR

     Interrupted system call.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note InterruptedError: c14.

 -- Verisi: errno.EIO

     I/O error

 -- Verisi: errno.ENXIO

     No such device or address

 -- Verisi: errno.E2BIG

     Arg list too long

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOEXEC

     Exec format error

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADF

     Bad file number

 -- Verisi: errno.ECHILD

     No child processes.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ChildProcessError: f02.

 -- Verisi: errno.EAGAIN

     Try again.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: f01.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOMEM

     Out of memory

 -- Verisi: errno.EACCES

     Permission denied.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     PermissionError: bcb.

 -- Verisi: errno.EFAULT

     Bad address

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTBLK

     Block device required

 -- Verisi: errno.EBUSY

     Device or resource busy

 -- Verisi: errno.EEXIST

     File exists.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     FileExistsError: ec8.

 -- Verisi: errno.EXDEV

     Cross-device link

 -- Verisi: errno.ENODEV

     No such device

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTDIR

     Not a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     NotADirectoryError: f04.

 -- Verisi: errno.EISDIR

     Is a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     IsADirectoryError: f03.

 -- Verisi: errno.EINVAL

     Invalid argument

 -- Verisi: errno.ENFILE

     File table overflow

 -- Verisi: errno.EMFILE

     Too many open files

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTTY

     Not a typewriter

 -- Verisi: errno.ETXTBSY

     Text file busy

 -- Verisi: errno.EFBIG

     File too large

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOSPC

     No space left on device

 -- Verisi: errno.ESPIPE

     Illegal seek

 -- Verisi: errno.EROFS

     Read-only file system

 -- Verisi: errno.EMLINK

     Too many links

 -- Verisi: errno.EPIPE

     Broken pipe.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BrokenPipeError: f06.

 -- Verisi: errno.EDOM

     Math argument out of domain of func

 -- Verisi: errno.ERANGE

     Math result not representable

 -- Verisi: errno.EDEADLK

     Resource deadlock would occur

 -- Verisi: errno.ENAMETOOLONG

     File name too long

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOLCK

     No record locks available

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOSYS

     Function not implemented

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTEMPTY

     Directory not empty

 -- Verisi: errno.ELOOP

     Too many symbolic links encountered

 -- Verisi: errno.EWOULDBLOCK

     Operation would block.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: f01.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOMSG

     No message of desired type

 -- Verisi: errno.EIDRM

     Identifier removed

 -- Verisi: errno.ECHRNG

     Channel number out of range

 -- Verisi: errno.EL2NSYNC

     Level 2 not synchronized

 -- Verisi: errno.EL3HLT

     Level 3 halted

 -- Verisi: errno.EL3RST

     Level 3 reset

 -- Verisi: errno.ELNRNG

     Link number out of range

 -- Verisi: errno.EUNATCH

     Protocol driver not attached

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOCSI

     No CSI structure available

 -- Verisi: errno.EL2HLT

     Level 2 halted

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADE

     Invalid exchange

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADR

     Invalid request descriptor

 -- Verisi: errno.EXFULL

     Exchange full

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOANO

     No anode

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADRQC

     Invalid request code

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADSLT

     Invalid slot

 -- Verisi: errno.EDEADLOCK

     File locking deadlock error

 -- Verisi: errno.EBFONT

     Bad font file format

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOSTR

     Device not a stream

 -- Verisi: errno.ENODATA

     No data available

 -- Verisi: errno.ETIME

     Timer expired

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOSR

     Out of streams resources

 -- Verisi: errno.ENONET

     Machine is not on the network

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOPKG

     Package not installed

 -- Verisi: errno.EREMOTE

     Object is remote

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOLINK

     Link has been severed

 -- Verisi: errno.EADV

     Advertise error

 -- Verisi: errno.ESRMNT

     Srmount error

 -- Verisi: errno.ECOMM

     Communication error on send

 -- Verisi: errno.EPROTO

     Protocol error

 -- Verisi: errno.EMULTIHOP

     Multihop attempted

 -- Verisi: errno.EDOTDOT

     RFS specific error

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADMSG

     Not a data message

 -- Verisi: errno.EOVERFLOW

     Value too large for defined data type

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTUNIQ

     Name not unique on network

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADFD

     File descriptor in bad state

 -- Verisi: errno.EREMCHG

     Remote address changed

 -- Verisi: errno.ELIBACC

     Can not access a needed shared library

 -- Verisi: errno.ELIBBAD

     Accessing a corrupted shared library

 -- Verisi: errno.ELIBSCN

     .lib section in a.out corrupted

 -- Verisi: errno.ELIBMAX

     Attempting to link in too many shared libraries

 -- Verisi: errno.ELIBEXEC

     Cannot exec a shared library directly

 -- Verisi: errno.EILSEQ

     Illegal byte sequence

 -- Verisi: errno.ERESTART

     Interrupted system call should be restarted

 -- Verisi: errno.ESTRPIPE

     Streams pipe error

 -- Verisi: errno.EUSERS

     Too many users

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTSOCK

     Socket operation on non-socket

 -- Verisi: errno.EDESTADDRREQ

     Destination address required

 -- Verisi: errno.EMSGSIZE

     Message too long

 -- Verisi: errno.EPROTOTYPE

     Protocol wrong type for socket

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOPROTOOPT

     Protocol not available

 -- Verisi: errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT

     Protocol not supported

 -- Verisi: errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT

     Socket type not supported

 -- Verisi: errno.EOPNOTSUPP

     Operation not supported on transport endpoint

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTSUP

     Operation not supported

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EPFNOSUPPORT

     Protocol family not supported

 -- Verisi: errno.EAFNOSUPPORT

     Address family not supported by protocol

 -- Verisi: errno.EADDRINUSE

     Address already in use

 -- Verisi: errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL

     Cannot assign requested address

 -- Verisi: errno.ENETDOWN

     Network is down

 -- Verisi: errno.ENETUNREACH

     Network is unreachable

 -- Verisi: errno.ENETRESET

     Network dropped connection because of reset

 -- Verisi: errno.ECONNABORTED

     Software caused connection abort.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note ConnectionAbortedError: f07.

 -- Verisi: errno.ECONNRESET

     Connection reset by peer.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note ConnectionResetError: f09.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOBUFS

     No buffer space available

 -- Verisi: errno.EISCONN

     Transport endpoint is already connected

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTCONN

     Transport endpoint is not connected

 -- Verisi: errno.ESHUTDOWN

     Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown.  This error is
     mapped to the exception *note BrokenPipeError: f06.

 -- Verisi: errno.ETOOMANYREFS

     Too many references: cannot splice

 -- Verisi: errno.ETIMEDOUT

     Connection timed out.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     TimeoutError: 673.

 -- Verisi: errno.ECONNREFUSED

     Connection refused.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ConnectionRefusedError: f08.

 -- Verisi: errno.EHOSTDOWN

     Host is down

 -- Verisi: errno.EHOSTUNREACH

     No route to host

 -- Verisi: errno.EALREADY

     Operation already in progress.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note BlockingIOError: f01.

 -- Verisi: errno.EINPROGRESS

     Operation now in progress.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note BlockingIOError: f01.

 -- Verisi: errno.ESTALE

     Stale NFS file handle

 -- Verisi: errno.EUCLEAN

     Structure needs cleaning

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTNAM

     Not a XENIX named type file

 -- Verisi: errno.ENAVAIL

     No XENIX semaphores available

 -- Verisi: errno.EISNAM

     Is a named type file

 -- Verisi: errno.EREMOTEIO

     Remote I/O error

 -- Verisi: errno.EDQUOT

     Quota exceeded

 -- Verisi: errno.EQFULL

     Interface output queue is full

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOMEDIUM

     No medium found

 -- Verisi: errno.EMEDIUMTYPE

     Wrong medium type

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOKEY

     Required key not available

 -- Verisi: errno.EKEYEXPIRED

     Key has expired

 -- Verisi: errno.EKEYREVOKED

     Key has been revoked

 -- Verisi: errno.EKEYREJECTED

     Key was rejected by service

 -- Verisi: errno.ERFKILL

     Operation not possible due to RF-kill

 -- Verisi: errno.ELOCKUNMAPPED

     Locked lock was unmapped

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTACTIVE

     Facility is not active

 -- Verisi: errno.EAUTH

     Authentication error

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADARCH

     Bad CPU type in executable

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADEXEC

     Bad executable (or shared library)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADMACHO

     Malformed Mach-o file

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EDEVERR

     Device error

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EFTYPE

     Inappropriate file type or format

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENEEDAUTH

     Need authenticator

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOATTR

     Attribute not found

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOPOLICY

     Policy not found

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EPROCLIM

     Too many processes

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EPROCUNAVAIL

     Bad procedure for program

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EPROGMISMATCH

     Program version wrong

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EPROGUNAVAIL

     RPC prog.  not avail

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EPWROFF

     Device power is off

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EBADRPC

     RPC struct is bad

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.ERPCMISMATCH

     RPC version wrong

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.ESHLIBVERS

     Shared library version mismatch

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTCAPABLE

     Capabilities insufficient.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: bcb.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: WASI, FreeBSD

     Added in version 3.11.1.

 -- Verisi: errno.ECANCELED

     Operation canceled

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.EOWNERDEAD

     Owner died

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: errno.ENOTRECOVERABLE

     State not recoverable

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: errno — Standard errno system symbols,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.16.16 ‘ctypes’ — A foreign function library for Python
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ctypes(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ctypes: 2a. is a foreign function library for Python.  It provides
C compatible data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared
libraries.  It can be used to wrap these libraries in pure Python.

* Menu:

* ctypes tutorial::
* ctypes reference::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ctypes


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes tutorial,  Next: ctypes reference,  Up: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

5.16.16.1 ctypes tutorial
.........................

Note: The code samples in this tutorial use *note doctest: 39. to make
sure that they actually work.  Since some code samples behave
differently under Linux, Windows, or macOS, they contain doctest
directives in comments.

Note: Some code samples reference the ctypes *note c_int: 2db9. type.
On platforms where ‘sizeof(long) == sizeof(int)’ it is an alias to *note
c_long: 2dba.  So, you should not be confused if *note c_long: 2dba. is
printed if you would expect *note c_int: 2db9. — they are actually the
same type.

* Menu:

* Loading dynamic link libraries::
* Accessing functions from loaded dlls::
* Calling functions::
* Fundamental data types::
* Calling functions, continued: Calling functions continued.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Calling functions with your own custom data types::
* Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes): Specifying the required argument types function prototypes.
* Return types::
* Passing pointers (or; passing parameters by reference): Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference.
* Structures and unions::
* Structure/union alignment and byte order::
* Bit fields in structures and unions::
* Arrays::
* Pointers::
* Type conversions::
* Incomplete Types::
* Callback functions::
* Accessing values exported from dlls::
* Surprises::
* Variable-sized data types::


File: python.info,  Node: Loading dynamic link libraries,  Next: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.2 Loading dynamic link libraries
........................................

*note ctypes: 2a. exports the 'cdll', and on Windows 'windll' and
'oledll' objects, for loading dynamic link libraries.

You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects.
'cdll' loads libraries which export functions using the standard ‘cdecl’
calling convention, while 'windll' libraries call functions using the
‘stdcall’ calling convention.  'oledll' also uses the ‘stdcall’ calling
convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows ‘HRESULT’ error
code.  The error code is used to automatically raise an *note OSError:
65c. exception when the function call fails.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Windows errors used to raise *note WindowsError:
efe, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

Here are some examples for Windows.  Note that ‘msvcrt’ is the MS
standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the
‘cdecl’ calling convention:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> print(windll.kernel32)
     <WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...>
     >>> print(cdll.msvcrt)
     <CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = cdll.msvcrt
     >>>

Windows appends the usual ‘.dll’ file suffix automatically.

     Not: Accessing the standard C library through ‘cdll.msvcrt’ will
     use an outdated version of the library that may be incompatible
     with the one being used by Python.  Where possible, use native
     Python functionality, or else import and use the ‘msvcrt’ module.

On Linux, it is required to specify the filename 'including' the
extension to load a library, so attribute access can not be used to load
libraries.  Either the *note LoadLibrary(): 2dbd. method of the dll
loaders should be used, or you should load the library by creating an
instance of CDLL by calling the constructor:

     >>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.so.6")
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")
     >>> libc
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Next: Calling functions,  Prev: Loading dynamic link libraries,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.3 Accessing functions from loaded dlls
..............................................

Functions are accessed as attributes of dll objects:

     >>> libc.printf
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA)
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.MyOwnFunction)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 239, in __getattr__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function 'MyOwnFunction' not found
     >>>

Note that win32 system dlls like ‘kernel32’ and ‘user32’ often export
ANSI as well as UNICODE versions of a function.  The UNICODE version is
exported with a ‘W’ appended to the name, while the ANSI version is
exported with an ‘A’ appended to the name.  The win32 ‘GetModuleHandle’
function, which returns a 'module handle' for a given module name, has
the following C prototype, and a macro is used to expose one of them as
‘GetModuleHandle’ depending on whether UNICODE is defined or not:

     /* ANSI version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleA(LPCSTR lpModuleName);
     /* UNICODE version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleW(LPCWSTR lpModuleName);

'windll' does not try to select one of them by magic, you must access
the version you need by specifying ‘GetModuleHandleA’ or
‘GetModuleHandleW’ explicitly, and then call it with bytes or string
objects respectively.

Sometimes, dlls export functions with names which aren’t valid Python
identifiers, like ‘"??2@YAPAXI@Z"’.  In this case you have to use *note
getattr(): a48. to retrieve the function:

     >>> getattr(cdll.msvcrt, "??2@YAPAXI@Z")
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>>

On Windows, some dlls export functions not by name but by ordinal.
These functions can be accessed by indexing the dll object with the
ordinal number:

     >>> cdll.kernel32[1]
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> cdll.kernel32[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 310, in __getitem__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function ordinal 0 not found
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions,  Next: Fundamental data types,  Prev: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.4 Calling functions
...........................

You can call these functions like any other Python callable.  This
example uses the ‘rand()’ function, which takes no arguments and returns
a pseudo-random integer:

     >>> print(libc.rand())
     1804289383

On Windows, you can call the ‘GetModuleHandleA()’ function, which
returns a win32 module handle (passing ‘None’ as single argument to call
it with a ‘NULL’ pointer):

     >>> print(hex(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)))
     0x1d000000
     >>>

*note ValueError: 189. is raised when you call an ‘stdcall’ function
with the ‘cdecl’ calling convention, or vice versa:

     >>> cdll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)
     >>>

     >>> windll.msvcrt.printf(b"spam")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)
     >>>

To find out the correct calling convention you have to look into the C
header file or the documentation for the function you want to call.

On Windows, *note ctypes: 2a. uses win32 structured exception handling
to prevent crashes from general protection faults when functions are
called with invalid argument values:

     >>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
     >>>

There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with *note ctypes: 2a,
so you should be careful anyway.  The *note faulthandler: 56. module can
be helpful in debugging crashes (e.g.  from segmentation faults produced
by erroneous C library calls).

‘None’, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only
native Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these
function calls.  ‘None’ is passed as a C ‘NULL’ pointer, bytes objects
and strings are passed as pointer to the memory block that contains
their data (char* or wchar_t*).  Python integers are passed as the
platforms default C int type, their value is masked to fit into the C
type.

Before we move on calling functions with other parameter types, we have
to learn more about *note ctypes: 2a. data types.


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental data types,  Next: Calling functions continued,  Prev: Calling functions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.5 Fundamental data types
................................

*note ctypes: 2a. defines a number of primitive C compatible data types:

ctypes type                C type                                         Python type
                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
*note c_bool: 2dc4.        _Bool                                          bool (1)
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char: 2dc5.        char                                           1-character bytes object
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar: 2dc6.       ‘wchar_t’                                      1-character string
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_byte: 158e.        char                                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ubyte: 158f.       unsigned char                                  int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_short: 2dc7.       short                                          int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ushort: 2dc8.      unsigned short                                 int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_int: 2db9.         int                                            int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_uint: 2dc9.        unsigned int                                   int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_long: 2dba.        long                                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulong: 2dca.       unsigned long                                  int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longlong: 2dcb.    __int64 or long long                           int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ulonglong: 2dcc.   unsigned __int64 or unsigned long long         int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_size_t: 2dcd.      ‘size_t’                                       int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_ssize_t: 10e3.     ‘ssize_t’ or *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.            int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_time_t: 15fc.      ‘time_t’                                       int
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_float: 2dce.       float                                          float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_double: 1725.      double                                         float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_longdouble: 1726.  long double                                    float
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_char_p: 2dcf.      char* (NUL terminated)                         bytes object or ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_wchar_p: 16f1.     wchar_t* (NUL terminated)                      string or ‘None’
                                                                          
                                                                          
*note c_void_p: 2dd0.      void*                                          int or ‘None’
                                                                          

  1. The constructor accepts any object with a truth value.

All these types can be created by calling them with an optional
initializer of the correct type and value:

     >>> c_int()
     c_long(0)
     >>> c_wchar_p("Hello, World")
     c_wchar_p(140018365411392)
     >>> c_ushort(-3)
     c_ushort(65533)
     >>>

Since these types are mutable, their value can also be changed
afterwards:

     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(42)
     >>> print(i.value)
     42
     >>> i.value = -99
     >>> print(i.value)
     -99
     >>>

Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types *note c_char_p:
2dcf, *note c_wchar_p: 16f1, and *note c_void_p: 2dd0. changes the
'memory location' they point to, 'not the contents' of the memory block
(of course not, because Python bytes objects are immutable):

     >>> s = "Hello, World"
     >>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
     >>> print(c_s)
     c_wchar_p(139966785747344)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hello World
     >>> c_s.value = "Hi, there"
     >>> print(c_s)              # the memory location has changed
     c_wchar_p(139966783348904)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hi, there
     >>> print(s)                # first object is unchanged
     Hello, World
     >>>

You should be careful, however, not to pass them to functions expecting
pointers to mutable memory.  If you need mutable memory blocks, ctypes
has a *note create_string_buffer(): 2dd1. function which creates these
in various ways.  The current memory block contents can be accessed (or
changed) with the ‘raw’ property; if you want to access it as NUL
terminated string, use the ‘value’ property:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(3)            # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     3 b'\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello")     # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     6 b'Hello\x00'
     >>> print(repr(p.value))
     b'Hello'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello", 10) # create a 10 byte buffer
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p.value = b"Hi"
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>>

The *note create_string_buffer(): 2dd1. function replaces the old
‘c_buffer()’ function (which is still available as an alias).  To create
a mutable memory block containing unicode characters of the C type
‘wchar_t’, use the *note create_unicode_buffer(): 1804. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions continued,  Next: Calling variadic functions,  Prev: Fundamental data types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.6 Calling functions, continued
......................................

Note that printf prints to the real standard output channel, 'not' to
*note sys.stdout: 943, so these examples will only work at the console
prompt, not from within 'IDLE' or 'PythonWin':

     >>> printf = libc.printf
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %s\n", b"World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %S\n", "World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", 42)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>> printf(b"%f bottles of beer\n", 42.5)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2
     >>>

As has been mentioned before, all Python types except integers, strings,
and bytes objects have to be wrapped in their corresponding *note
ctypes: 2a. type, so that they can be converted to the required C data
type:

     >>> printf(b"An int %d, a double %f\n", 1234, c_double(3.14))
     An int 1234, a double 3.140000
     31
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Calling variadic functions,  Next: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Prev: Calling functions continued,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.7 Calling variadic functions
....................................

On a lot of platforms calling variadic functions through ctypes is
exactly the same as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters.
On some platforms, and in particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the
calling convention for variadic functions is different than that for
regular functions.

On those platforms it is required to specify the *note argtypes: 2dd6.
attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:

     libc.printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]

Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is
advised to always specify *note argtypes: 2dd6. for all variadic
functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Next: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Prev: Calling variadic functions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.8 Calling functions with your own custom data types
...........................................................

You can also customize *note ctypes: 2a. argument conversion to allow
instances of your own classes be used as function arguments.  *note
ctypes: 2a. looks for an ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute and uses this as the
function argument.  The attribute must be an integer, string, bytes, a
*note ctypes: 2a. instance, or an object with an ‘_as_parameter_’
attribute:

     >>> class Bottles:
     ...     def __init__(self, number):
     ...         self._as_parameter_ = number
     ...
     >>> bottles = Bottles(42)
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", bottles)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>>

If you don’t want to store the instance’s data in the ‘_as_parameter_’
instance variable, you could define a *note property: 43c. which makes
the attribute available on request.


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Next: Return types,  Prev: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.9 Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
......................................................................

It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions
exported from DLLs by setting the *note argtypes: 2dd6. attribute.

*note argtypes: 2dd6. must be a sequence of C data types (the ‘printf()’
function is probably not a good example here, because it takes a
variable number and different types of parameters depending on the
format string, on the other hand this is quite handy to experiment with
this feature):

     >>> printf.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char_p, c_int, c_double]
     >>> printf(b"String '%s', Int %d, Double %f\n", b"Hi", 10, 2.2)
     String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000
     37
     >>>

Specifying a format protects against incompatible argument types (just
as a prototype for a C function), and tries to convert the arguments to
valid types:

     >>> printf(b"%d %d %d", 1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: wrong type
     >>> printf(b"%s %d %f\n", b"X", 2, 3)
     X 2 3.000000
     13
     >>>

If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls,
you have to implement a *note from_param(): 2ddb. class method for them
to be able to use them in the *note argtypes: 2dd6. sequence.  The *note
from_param(): 2ddb. class method receives the Python object passed to
the function call, it should do a typecheck or whatever is needed to
make sure this object is acceptable, and then return the object itself,
its ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute, or whatever you want to pass as the C
function argument in this case.  Again, the result should be an integer,
string, bytes, a *note ctypes: 2a. instance, or an object with an
‘_as_parameter_’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Return types,  Next: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Prev: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.10 Return types
.......................

By default functions are assumed to return the C int type.  Other return
types can be specified by setting the *note restype: 2dde. attribute of
the function object.

The C prototype of ‘time()’ is ‘time_t time(time_t *)’.  Because
‘time_t’ might be of a different type than the default return type int,
you should specify the ‘restype’ attribute:

     >>> libc.time.restype = c_time_t

The argument types can be specified using *note argtypes: 2dd6.:

     >>> libc.time.argtypes = (POINTER(c_time_t),)

To call the function with a ‘NULL’ pointer as first argument, use
‘None’:

     >>> print(libc.time(None))
     1150640792

Here is a more advanced example, it uses the ‘strchr()’ function, which
expects a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string:

     >>> strchr = libc.strchr
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     8059983
     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p    # c_char_p is a pointer to a string
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     b'def'
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", ord("x")))
     None
     >>>

If you want to avoid the *note ord("x"): 1cdf. calls above, you can set
the *note argtypes: 2dd6. attribute, and the second argument will be
converted from a single character Python bytes object into a C char:

     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p
     >>> strchr.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char]
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"def")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: one character bytes, bytearray or integer expected
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", b"x"))
     None
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>>

You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for
example) as the *note restype: 2dde. attribute, if the foreign function
returns an integer.  The callable will be called with the 'integer' the
C function returns, and the result of this call will be used as the
result of your function call.  This is useful to check for error return
values and automatically raise an exception:

     >>> GetModuleHandle = windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA
     >>> def ValidHandle(value):
     ...     if value == 0:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return value
     ...
     >>>
     >>> GetModuleHandle.restype = ValidHandle
     >>> GetModuleHandle(None)
     486539264
     >>> GetModuleHandle("something silly")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle
     OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.
     >>>

‘WinError’ is a function which will call Windows ‘FormatMessage()’ api
to get the string representation of an error code, and 'returns' an
exception.  ‘WinError’ takes an optional error code parameter, if no one
is used, it calls *note GetLastError(): 2ddf. to retrieve it.

Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is
available through the *note errcheck: 2de0. attribute; see the reference
manual for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Next: Structures and unions,  Prev: Return types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.11 Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
.................................................................

Sometimes a C api function expects a 'pointer' to a data type as
parameter, probably to write into the corresponding location, or if the
data is too large to be passed by value.  This is also known as 'passing
parameters by reference'.

*note ctypes: 2a. exports the *note byref(): 2de3. function which is
used to pass parameters by reference.  The same effect can be achieved
with the *note pointer(): 2de4. function, although *note pointer():
2de4. does a lot more work since it constructs a real pointer object, so
it is faster to use *note byref(): 2de3. if you don’t need the pointer
object in Python itself:

     >>> i = c_int()
     >>> f = c_float()
     >>> s = create_string_buffer(b'\000' * 32)
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     0 0.0 b''
     >>> libc.sscanf(b"1 3.14 Hello", b"%d %f %s",
     ...             byref(i), byref(f), s)
     3
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     1 3.1400001049 b'Hello'
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Structures and unions,  Next: Structure/union alignment and byte order,  Prev: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.12 Structures and unions
................................

Structures and unions must derive from the *note Structure: 14b1. and
*note Union: 14b0. base classes which are defined in the *note ctypes:
2a. module.  Each subclass must define a *note _fields_: 2de7.
attribute.  ‘_fields_’ must be a list of '2-tuples', containing a 'field
name' and a 'field type'.

The field type must be a *note ctypes: 2a. type like *note c_int: 2db9,
or any other derived *note ctypes: 2a. type: structure, union, array,
pointer.

Here is a simple example of a POINT structure, which contains two
integers named 'x' and 'y', and also shows how to initialize a structure
in the constructor:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_int),
     ...                 ("y", c_int)]
     ...
     >>> point = POINT(10, 20)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     10 20
     >>> point = POINT(y=5)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     0 5
     >>> POINT(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: too many initializers
     >>>

You can, however, build much more complicated structures.  A structure
can itself contain other structures by using a structure as a field
type.

Here is a RECT structure which contains two POINTs named 'upperleft' and
'lowerright':

     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("upperleft", POINT),
     ...                 ("lowerright", POINT)]
     ...
     >>> rc = RECT(point)
     >>> print(rc.upperleft.x, rc.upperleft.y)
     0 5
     >>> print(rc.lowerright.x, rc.lowerright.y)
     0 0
     >>>

Nested structures can also be initialized in the constructor in several
ways:

     >>> r = RECT(POINT(1, 2), POINT(3, 4))
     >>> r = RECT((1, 2), (3, 4))

Field *note descriptor: 1d5f.s can be retrieved from the 'class', they
are useful for debugging because they can provide useful information:

     >>> print(POINT.x)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0, size=4>
     >>> print(POINT.y)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=4, size=4>
     >>>
     Uyarı: *note ctypes: 2a. does not support passing unions or
     structures with bit-fields to functions by value.  While this may
     work on 32-bit x86, it’s not guaranteed by the library to work in
     the general case.  Unions and structures with bit-fields should
     always be passed to functions by pointer.


File: python.info,  Node: Structure/union alignment and byte order,  Next: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Prev: Structures and unions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.13 Structure/union alignment and byte order
...................................................

By default, Structure and Union fields are aligned in the same way the C
compiler does it.  It is possible to override this behavior by
specifying a *note _pack_: 2dea. class attribute in the subclass
definition.  This must be set to a positive integer and specifies the
maximum alignment for the fields.  This is what ‘#pragma pack(n)’ also
does in MSVC.

*note ctypes: 2a. uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions.
To build structures with non-native byte order, you can use one of the
*note BigEndianStructure: 2deb, *note LittleEndianStructure: 2dec, *note
BigEndianUnion: 164c, and *note LittleEndianUnion: 164d. base classes.
These classes cannot contain pointer fields.


File: python.info,  Node: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Next: Arrays,  Prev: Structure/union alignment and byte order,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.14 Bit fields in structures and unions
..............................................

It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields.
Bit fields are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is
specified as the third item in the *note _fields_: 2de7. tuples:

     >>> class Int(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("first_16", c_int, 16),
     ...                 ("second_16", c_int, 16)]
     ...
     >>> print(Int.first_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:0, bits=16>
     >>> print(Int.second_16)
     <Field type=c_long, ofs=0:16, bits=16>
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Arrays,  Next: Pointers,  Prev: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.15 Arrays
.................

Arrays are sequences, containing a fixed number of instances of the same
type.

The recommended way to create array types is by multiplying a data type
with a positive integer:

     TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10

Here is an example of a somewhat artificial data type, a structure
containing 4 POINTs among other stuff:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class MyStruct(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("a", c_int),
     ...                 ("b", c_float),
     ...                 ("point_array", POINT * 4)]
     >>>
     >>> print(len(MyStruct().point_array))
     4
     >>>

Instances are created in the usual way, by calling the class:

     arr = TenPointsArrayType()
     for pt in arr:
         print(pt.x, pt.y)

The above code print a series of ‘0 0’ lines, because the array contents
is initialized to zeros.

Initializers of the correct type can also be specified:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10
     >>> ii = TenIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
     >>> print(ii)
     <c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...>
     >>> for i in ii: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Pointers,  Next: Type conversions,  Prev: Arrays,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.16 Pointers
...................

Pointer instances are created by calling the *note pointer(): 2de4.
function on a *note ctypes: 2a. type:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> pi = pointer(i)
     >>>

Pointer instances have a *note contents: 2df3. attribute which returns
the object to which the pointer points, the ‘i’ object above:

     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(42)
     >>>

Note that *note ctypes: 2a. does not have OOR (original object return),
it constructs a new, equivalent object each time you retrieve an
attribute:

     >>> pi.contents is i
     False
     >>> pi.contents is pi.contents
     False
     >>>

Assigning another *note c_int: 2db9. instance to the pointer’s contents
attribute would cause the pointer to point to the memory location where
this is stored:

     >>> i = c_int(99)
     >>> pi.contents = i
     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(99)
     >>>

Pointer instances can also be indexed with integers:

     >>> pi[0]
     99
     >>>

Assigning to an integer index changes the pointed to value:

     >>> print(i)
     c_long(99)
     >>> pi[0] = 22
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(22)
     >>>

It is also possible to use indexes different from 0, but you must know
what you’re doing, just as in C: You can access or change arbitrary
memory locations.  Generally you only use this feature if you receive a
pointer from a C function, and you 'know' that the pointer actually
points to an array instead of a single item.

Behind the scenes, the *note pointer(): 2de4. function does more than
simply create pointer instances, it has to create pointer 'types' first.
This is done with the *note POINTER(): 2df4. function, which accepts any
*note ctypes: 2a. type, and returns a new type:

     >>> PI = POINTER(c_int)
     >>> PI
     <class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'>
     >>> PI(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: expected c_long instead of int
     >>> PI(c_int(42))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...>
     >>>

Calling the pointer type without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ pointer.
‘NULL’ pointers have a ‘False’ boolean value:

     >>> null_ptr = POINTER(c_int)()
     >>> print(bool(null_ptr))
     False
     >>>

*note ctypes: 2a. checks for ‘NULL’ when dereferencing pointers (but
dereferencing invalid non-‘NULL’ pointers would crash Python):

     >>> null_ptr[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>

     >>> null_ptr[0] = 1234
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Type conversions,  Next: Incomplete Types,  Prev: Pointers,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.17 Type conversions
...........................

Usually, ctypes does strict type checking.  This means, if you have
‘POINTER(c_int)’ in the *note argtypes: 2dd6. list of a function or as
the type of a member field in a structure definition, only instances of
exactly the same type are accepted.  There are some exceptions to this
rule, where ctypes accepts other objects.  For example, you can pass
compatible array instances instead of pointer types.  So, for
‘POINTER(c_int)’, ctypes accepts an array of c_int:

     >>> class Bar(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("count", c_int), ("values", POINTER(c_int))]
     ...
     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = (c_int * 3)(1, 2, 3)
     >>> bar.count = 3
     >>> for i in range(bar.count):
     ...     print(bar.values[i])
     ...
     1
     2
     3
     >>>

In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a
pointer type (such as ‘POINTER(c_int)’) in *note argtypes: 2dd6, an
object of the pointed type (‘c_int’ in this case) can be passed to the
function.  ctypes will apply the required *note byref(): 2de3.
conversion in this case automatically.

To set a POINTER type field to ‘NULL’, you can assign ‘None’:

     >>> bar.values = None
     >>>

Sometimes you have instances of incompatible types.  In C, you can cast
one type into another type.  *note ctypes: 2a. provides a *note cast():
2df7. function which can be used in the same way.  The ‘Bar’ structure
defined above accepts ‘POINTER(c_int)’ pointers or *note c_int: 2db9.
arrays for its ‘values’ field, but not instances of other types:

     >>> bar.values = (c_byte * 4)()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance
     >>>

For these cases, the *note cast(): 2df7. function is handy.

The *note cast(): 2df7. function can be used to cast a ctypes instance
into a pointer to a different ctypes data type.  *note cast(): 2df7.
takes two parameters, a ctypes object that is or can be converted to a
pointer of some kind, and a ctypes pointer type.  It returns an instance
of the second argument, which references the same memory block as the
first argument:

     >>> a = (c_byte * 4)()
     >>> cast(a, POINTER(c_int))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...>
     >>>

So, *note cast(): 2df7. can be used to assign to the ‘values’ field of
‘Bar’ the structure:

     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = cast((c_byte * 4)(), POINTER(c_int))
     >>> print(bar.values[0])
     0
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Incomplete Types,  Next: Callback functions,  Prev: Type conversions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.18 Incomplete Types
...........................

'Incomplete Types' are structures, unions or arrays whose members are
not yet specified.  In C, they are specified by forward declarations,
which are defined later:

     struct cell; /* forward declaration */

     struct cell {
         char *name;
         struct cell *next;
     };

The straightforward translation into ctypes code would be this, but it
does not work:

     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in cell
     NameError: name 'cell' is not defined
     >>>

because the new ‘class cell’ is not available in the class statement
itself.  In *note ctypes: 2a, we can define the ‘cell’ class and set the
*note _fields_: 2de7. attribute later, after the class statement:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> cell._fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                  ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     >>>

Let’s try it.  We create two instances of ‘cell’, and let them point to
each other, and finally follow the pointer chain a few times:

     >>> c1 = cell()
     >>> c1.name = b"foo"
     >>> c2 = cell()
     >>> c2.name = b"bar"
     >>> c1.next = pointer(c2)
     >>> c2.next = pointer(c1)
     >>> p = c1
     >>> for i in range(8):
     ...     print(p.name, end=" ")
     ...     p = p.next[0]
     ...
     foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Callback functions,  Next: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Prev: Incomplete Types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.19 Callback functions
.............................

*note ctypes: 2a. allows creating C callable function pointers from
Python callables.  These are sometimes called 'callback functions'.

First, you must create a class for the callback function.  The class
knows the calling convention, the return type, and the number and types
of arguments this function will receive.

The *note CFUNCTYPE(): 2dfc. factory function creates types for callback
functions using the ‘cdecl’ calling convention.  On Windows, the *note
WINFUNCTYPE(): 2dfd. factory function creates types for callback
functions using the ‘stdcall’ calling convention.

Both of these factory functions are called with the result type as first
argument, and the callback functions expected argument types as the
remaining arguments.

I will present an example here which uses the standard C library’s
‘qsort()’ function, that is used to sort items with the help of a
callback function.  ‘qsort()’ will be used to sort an array of integers:

     >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5
     >>> ia = IntArray5(5, 1, 7, 33, 99)
     >>> qsort = libc.qsort
     >>> qsort.restype = None
     >>>

‘qsort()’ must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number
of items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the
comparison function, the callback.  The callback will then be called
with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the
first item is smaller than the second, a zero if they are equal, and a
positive integer otherwise.

So our callback function receives pointers to integers, and must return
an integer.  First we create the ‘type’ for the callback function:

     >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     >>>

To get started, here is a simple callback that shows the values it gets
passed:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return 0
     ...
     >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)
     >>>

The result:

     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     >>>

Now we can actually compare the two items and return a useful result:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>>
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func))
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

As we can easily check, our array is sorted now:

     >>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 5 7 33 99
     >>>

The function factories can be used as decorator factories, so we may as
well write:

     >>> @CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     ... def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), py_cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

     Not: Make sure you keep references to *note CFUNCTYPE(): 2dfc.
     objects as long as they are used from C code.  *note ctypes: 2a.
     doesn’t, and if you don’t, they may be garbage collected, crashing
     your program when a callback is made.

     Also, note that if the callback function is called in a thread
     created outside of Python’s control (e.g.  by the foreign code that
     calls the callback), ctypes creates a new dummy Python thread on
     every invocation.  This behavior is correct for most purposes, but
     it means that values stored with *note threading.local: 1589. will
     'not' survive across different callbacks, even when those calls are
     made from the same C thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Next: Surprises,  Prev: Callback functions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.20 Accessing values exported from dlls
..............................................

Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export
variables.  An example in the Python library itself is the *note
Py_Version: 582, Python runtime version number encoded in a single
constant integer.

*note ctypes: 2a. can access values like this with the *note in_dll():
2e00. class methods of the type.  'pythonapi' is a predefined symbol
giving access to the Python C api:

     >>> version = ctypes.c_int.in_dll(ctypes.pythonapi, "Py_Version")
     >>> print(hex(version.value))
     0x30c00a0

An extended example which also demonstrates the use of pointers accesses
the *note PyImport_FrozenModules: 2e01. pointer exported by Python.

Quoting the docs for that value:

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     5a5. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

So manipulating this pointer could even prove useful.  To restrict the
example size, we show only how this table can be read with *note ctypes:
2a.:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>>
     >>> class struct_frozen(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),
     ...                 ("size", c_int),
     ...                 ("get_code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),  # Function pointer
     ...                ]
     ...
     >>>

We have defined the *note _frozen: 5a5. data type, so we can get the
pointer to the table:

     >>> FrozenTable = POINTER(struct_frozen)
     >>> table = FrozenTable.in_dll(pythonapi, "_PyImport_FrozenBootstrap")
     >>>

Since ‘table’ is a ‘pointer’ to the array of ‘struct_frozen’ records, we
can iterate over it, but we just have to make sure that our loop
terminates, because pointers have no size.  Sooner or later it would
probably crash with an access violation or whatever, so it’s better to
break out of the loop when we hit the ‘NULL’ entry:

     >>> for item in table:
     ...     if item.name is None:
     ...         break
     ...     print(item.name.decode("ascii"), item.size)
     ...
     _frozen_importlib 31764
     _frozen_importlib_external 41499
     zipimport 12345
     >>>

The fact that standard Python has a frozen module and a frozen package
(indicated by the negative ‘size’ member) is not well known, it is only
used for testing.  Try it out with ‘import __hello__’ for example.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprises,  Next: Variable-sized data types,  Prev: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.21 Surprises
....................

There are some edges in *note ctypes: 2a. where you might expect
something other than what actually happens.

Consider the following example:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("a", POINT), ("b", POINT)
     ...
     >>> p1 = POINT(1, 2)
     >>> p2 = POINT(3, 4)
     >>> rc = RECT(p1, p2)
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     1 2 3 4
     >>> # now swap the two points
     >>> rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     3 4 3 4
     >>>

Hm.  We certainly expected the last statement to print ‘3 4 1 2’.  What
happened?  Here are the steps of the ‘rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a’ line
above:

     >>> temp0, temp1 = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> rc.a = temp0
     >>> rc.b = temp1
     >>>

Note that ‘temp0’ and ‘temp1’ are objects still using the internal
buffer of the ‘rc’ object above.  So executing ‘rc.a = temp0’ copies the
buffer contents of ‘temp0’ into ‘rc’ ‘s buffer.  This, in turn, changes
the contents of ‘temp1’.  So, the last assignment ‘rc.b = temp1’,
doesn’t have the expected effect.

Keep in mind that retrieving sub-objects from Structure, Unions, and
Arrays doesn’t 'copy' the sub-object, instead it retrieves a wrapper
object accessing the root-object’s underlying buffer.

Another example that may behave differently from what one would expect
is this:

     >>> s = c_char_p()
     >>> s.value = b"abc def ghi"
     >>> s.value
     b'abc def ghi'
     >>> s.value is s.value
     False
     >>>

     Not: Objects instantiated from *note c_char_p: 2dcf. can only have
     their value set to bytes or integers.

Why is it printing ‘False’?  ctypes instances are objects containing a
memory block plus some *note descriptor: 1d5f.s accessing the contents
of the memory.  Storing a Python object in the memory block does not
store the object itself, instead the ‘contents’ of the object is stored.
Accessing the contents again constructs a new Python object each time!


File: python.info,  Node: Variable-sized data types,  Prev: Surprises,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.16.16.22 Variable-sized data types
....................................

*note ctypes: 2a. provides some support for variable-sized arrays and
structures.

The *note resize(): 2e06. function can be used to resize the memory
buffer of an existing ctypes object.  The function takes the object as
first argument, and the requested size in bytes as the second argument.
The memory block cannot be made smaller than the natural memory block
specified by the objects type, a *note ValueError: 189. is raised if
this is tried:

     >>> short_array = (c_short * 4)()
     >>> print(sizeof(short_array))
     8
     >>> resize(short_array, 4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: minimum size is 8
     >>> resize(short_array, 32)
     >>> sizeof(short_array)
     32
     >>> sizeof(type(short_array))
     8
     >>>

This is nice and fine, but how would one access the additional elements
contained in this array?  Since the type still only knows about 4
elements, we get errors accessing other elements:

     >>> short_array[:]
     [0, 0, 0, 0]
     >>> short_array[7]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     IndexError: invalid index
     >>>

Another way to use variable-sized data types with *note ctypes: 2a. is
to use the dynamic nature of Python, and (re-)define the data type after
the required size is already known, on a case by case basis.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes reference,  Prev: ctypes tutorial,  Up: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

5.16.16.23 ctypes reference
...........................

* Menu:

* Finding shared libraries::
* Loading shared libraries::
* Foreign functions::
* Function prototypes::
* Utility functions::
* Data types::
* Fundamental data types: Fundamental data types<2>.
* Structured data types::
* Arrays and pointers::


File: python.info,  Node: Finding shared libraries,  Next: Loading shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.24 Finding shared libraries
...................................

When programming in a compiled language, shared libraries are accessed
when compiling/linking a program, and when the program is run.

The purpose of the *note find_library(): bd3. function is to locate a
library in a way similar to what the compiler or runtime loader does (on
platforms with several versions of a shared library the most recent
should be loaded), while the ctypes library loaders act like when a
program is run, and call the runtime loader directly.

The ‘ctypes.util’ module provides a function which can help to determine
the library to load.

 -- Verisi: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     Try to find a library and return a pathname.  'name' is the library
     name without any prefix like 'lib', suffix like ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ or
     version number (this is the form used for the posix linker option
     ‘-l’).  If no library can be found, returns ‘None’.

The exact functionality is system dependent.

On Linux, *note find_library(): bd3. tries to run external programs
(‘/sbin/ldconfig’, ‘gcc’, ‘objdump’ and ‘ld’) to find the library file.
It returns the filename of the library file.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: On Linux, the value of the environment variable
‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ is used when searching for libraries, if a library
cannot be found by any other means.

Here are some examples:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("m")
     'libm.so.6'
     >>> find_library("c")
     'libc.so.6'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     'libbz2.so.1.0'
     >>>

On macOS, *note find_library(): bd3. tries several predefined naming
schemes and paths to locate the library, and returns a full pathname if
successful:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("c")
     '/usr/lib/libc.dylib'
     >>> find_library("m")
     '/usr/lib/libm.dylib'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     '/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib'
     >>> find_library("AGL")
     '/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL'
     >>>

On Windows, *note find_library(): bd3. searches along the system search
path, and returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined
naming scheme a call like ‘find_library("c")’ will fail and return
‘None’.

If wrapping a shared library with *note ctypes: 2a, it 'may' be better
to determine the shared library name at development time, and hardcode
that into the wrapper module instead of using *note find_library(): bd3.
to locate the library at runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading shared libraries,  Next: Foreign functions,  Prev: Finding shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.25 Loading shared libraries
...................................

There are several ways to load shared libraries into the Python process.
One way is to instantiate one of the following classes:

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.CDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries.
     Functions in these libraries use the standard C calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int.

     On Windows creating a *note CDLL: 848. instance may fail even if
     the DLL name exists.  When a dependent DLL of the loaded DLL is not
     found, a *note OSError: 65c. error is raised with the message
     '“[WinError 126] The specified module could not be found”.'  This
     error message does not contain the name of the missing DLL because
     the Windows API does not return this information making this error
     hard to diagnose.  To resolve this error and determine which DLL is
     not found, you need to find the list of dependent DLLs and
     determine which one is not found using Windows debugging and
     tracing tools.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Microsoft DUMPBIN tool(1) – A tool to find DLL dependents.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.OleDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
     functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention,
     and are assumed to return the windows specific *note HRESULT: 2e0d.
     code.  *note HRESULT: 2e0d. values contain information specifying
     whether the function call failed or succeeded, together with
     additional error code.  If the return value signals a failure, an
     *note OSError: 65c. is automatically raised.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note WindowsError: efe. used to be raised,
     which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.WinDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Instances of this class represent loaded shared libraries,
     functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int by default.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

The Python *note global interpreter lock: 147. is released before
calling any function exported by these libraries, and reacquired
afterwards.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.PyDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None)

     Instances of this class behave like *note CDLL: 848. instances,
     except that the Python GIL is 'not' released during the function
     call, and after the function execution the Python error flag is
     checked.  If the error flag is set, a Python exception is raised.

     Thus, this is only useful to call Python C api functions directly.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

All these classes can be instantiated by calling them with at least one
argument, the pathname of the shared library.  If you have an existing
handle to an already loaded shared library, it can be passed as the
‘handle’ named parameter, otherwise the underlying platforms ‘dlopen()’
or ‘LoadLibrary()’ function is used to load the library into the
process, and to get a handle to it.

The 'mode' parameter can be used to specify how the library is loaded.
For details, consult the ‘dlopen(3)(2)’ manpage.  On Windows, 'mode' is
ignored.  On posix systems, RTLD_NOW is always added, and is not
configurable.

The 'use_errno' parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes mechanism
that allows accessing the system *note errno: 55. error number in a safe
way.  *note ctypes: 2a. maintains a thread-local copy of the systems
*note errno: 55. variable; if you call foreign functions created with
‘use_errno=True’ then the *note errno: 55. value before the function
call is swapped with the ctypes private copy, the same happens
immediately after the function call.

The function *note ctypes.get_errno(): 2e0e. returns the value of the
ctypes private copy, and the function *note ctypes.set_errno(): 2e0f.
changes the ctypes private copy to a new value and returns the former
value.

The 'use_last_error' parameter, when set to true, enables the same
mechanism for the Windows error code which is managed by the *note
GetLastError(): 2ddf. and ‘SetLastError()’ Windows API functions; *note
ctypes.get_last_error(): 2e10. and *note ctypes.set_last_error(): 2e11.
are used to request and change the ctypes private copy of the windows
error code.

The 'winmode' parameter is used on Windows to specify how the library is
loaded (since 'mode' is ignored).  It takes any value that is valid for
the Win32 API ‘LoadLibraryEx’ flags parameter.  When omitted, the
default is to use the flags that result in the most secure DLL load,
which avoids issues such as DLL hijacking.  Passing the full path to the
DLL is the safest way to ensure the correct library and dependencies are
loaded.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'winmode' parameter.

 -- Verisi: ctypes.RTLD_GLOBAL

     Flag to use as 'mode' parameter.  On platforms where this flag is
     not available, it is defined as the integer zero.

 -- Verisi: ctypes.RTLD_LOCAL

     Flag to use as 'mode' parameter.  On platforms where this is not
     available, it is the same as 'RTLD_GLOBAL'.

 -- Verisi: ctypes.DEFAULT_MODE

     The default mode which is used to load shared libraries.  On OSX
     10.3, this is 'RTLD_GLOBAL', otherwise it is the same as
     'RTLD_LOCAL'.

Instances of these classes have no public methods.  Functions exported
by the shared library can be accessed as attributes or by index.  Please
note that accessing the function through an attribute caches the result
and therefore accessing it repeatedly returns the same object each time.
On the other hand, accessing it through an index returns a new object
each time:

     >>> from ctypes import CDLL
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")  # On Linux
     >>> libc.time == libc.time
     True
     >>> libc['time'] == libc['time']
     False

The following public attributes are available, their name starts with an
underscore to not clash with exported function names:

 -- Özniteliği: PyDLL._handle

     The system handle used to access the library.

 -- Özniteliği: PyDLL._name

     The name of the library passed in the constructor.

Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated
objects, which are instances of the *note LibraryLoader: 2e14. class,
either by calling the *note LoadLibrary(): 2dbd. method, or by
retrieving the library as attribute of the loader instance.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.LibraryLoader (dlltype)

     Class which loads shared libraries.  'dlltype' should be one of the
     *note CDLL: 848, *note PyDLL: 1592, *note WinDLL: 1591, or *note
     OleDLL: 1590. types.

     ‘__getattr__()’ has special behavior: It allows loading a shared
     library by accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance.
     The result is cached, so repeated attribute accesses return the
     same library each time.

      -- Yöntemi: LoadLibrary (name)

          Load a shared library into the process and return it.  This
          method always returns a new instance of the library.

These prefabricated library loaders are available:

 -- Verisi: ctypes.cdll

     Creates *note CDLL: 848. instances.

 -- Verisi: ctypes.windll

     Creates *note WinDLL: 1591. instances.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Verisi: ctypes.oledll

     Creates *note OleDLL: 1590. instances.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Verisi: ctypes.pydll

     Creates *note PyDLL: 1592. instances.

For accessing the C Python api directly, a ready-to-use Python shared
library object is available:

 -- Verisi: ctypes.pythonapi

     An instance of *note PyDLL: 1592. that exposes Python C API
     functions as attributes.  Note that all these functions are assumed
     to return C int, which is of course not always the truth, so you
     have to assign the correct ‘restype’ attribute to use these
     functions.

Loading a library through any of these objects raises an *note auditing
event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.dlopen’ with string argument ‘name’, the name used
to load the library.

Accessing a function on a loaded library raises an auditing event
‘ctypes.dlsym’ with arguments ‘library’ (the library object) and ‘name’
(the symbol’s name as a string or integer).

In cases when only the library handle is available rather than the
object, accessing a function raises an auditing event
‘ctypes.dlsym/handle’ with arguments ‘handle’ (the raw library handle)
and ‘name’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.microsoft.com/cpp/build/reference/dependents

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Foreign functions,  Next: Function prototypes,  Prev: Loading shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.26 Foreign functions
............................

As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed
as attributes of loaded shared libraries.  The function objects created
in this way by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes
data instances as arguments, and return the default result type
specified by the library loader.

They are instances of a private local class ‘_FuncPtr’ (not exposed in
‘ctypes’) which inherits from the private *note _CFuncPtr: 2e17. class:

     >>> import ctypes
     >>> lib = ctypes.CDLL(None)
     >>> issubclass(lib._FuncPtr, ctypes._CFuncPtr)
     True
     >>> lib._FuncPtr is ctypes._CFuncPtr
     False

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes._CFuncPtr

     Base class for C callable foreign functions.

     Instances of foreign functions are also C compatible data types;
     they represent C function pointers.

     This behavior can be customized by assigning to special attributes
     of the foreign function object.

      -- Özniteliği: restype

          Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign
          function.  Use ‘None’ for void, a function not returning
          anything.

          It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not
          a ctypes type, in this case the function is assumed to return
          a C int, and the callable will be called with this integer,
          allowing further processing or error checking.  Using this is
          deprecated, for more flexible post processing or error
          checking use a ctypes data type as ‘restype’ and assign a
          callable to the *note errcheck: 2de0. attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: argtypes

          Assign a tuple of ctypes types to specify the argument types
          that the function accepts.  Functions using the ‘stdcall’
          calling convention can only be called with the same number of
          arguments as the length of this tuple; functions using the C
          calling convention accept additional, unspecified arguments as
          well.

          When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is
          passed to the *note from_param(): 2ddb. class method of the
          items in the *note argtypes: 2dd6. tuple, this method allows
          adapting the actual argument to an object that the foreign
          function accepts.  For example, a *note c_char_p: 2dcf. item
          in the *note argtypes: 2dd6. tuple will convert a string
          passed as argument into a bytes object using ctypes conversion
          rules.

          New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not
          ctypes types, but each item must have a *note from_param():
          2ddb. method which returns a value usable as argument
          (integer, string, ctypes instance).  This allows defining
          adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.

      -- Özniteliği: errcheck

          Assign a Python function or another callable to this
          attribute.  The callable will be called with three or more
          arguments:

           -- Işlevi: callable (result, func, arguments)

               'result' is what the foreign function returns, as
               specified by the ‘restype’ attribute.

               'func' is the foreign function object itself, this allows
               reusing the same callable object to check or post process
               the results of several functions.

               'arguments' is a tuple containing the parameters
               originally passed to the function call, this allows
               specializing the behavior on the arguments used.

          The object that this function returns will be returned from
          the foreign function call, but it can also check the result
          value and raise an exception if the foreign function call
          failed.

 -- Özel Durum: ctypes.ArgumentError

     This exception is raised when a foreign function call cannot
     convert one of the passed arguments.

On Windows, when a foreign function call raises a system exception (for
example, due to an access violation), it will be captured and replaced
with a suitable Python exception.  Further, an auditing event
‘ctypes.set_exception’ with argument ‘code’ will be raised, allowing an
audit hook to replace the exception with its own.

Some ways to invoke foreign function calls may raise an auditing event
‘ctypes.call_function’ with arguments ‘function pointer’ and
‘arguments’.


File: python.info,  Node: Function prototypes,  Next: Utility functions,  Prev: Foreign functions,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.27 Function prototypes
..............................

Foreign functions can also be created by instantiating function
prototypes.  Function prototypes are similar to function prototypes in
C; they describe a function (return type, argument types, calling
convention) without defining an implementation.  The factory functions
must be called with the desired result type and the argument types of
the function, and can be used as decorator factories, and as such, be
applied to functions through the ‘@wrapper’ syntax.  See *note Callback
functions: 2dfb. for examples.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.CFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     standard C calling convention.  The function will release the GIL
     during the call.  If 'use_errno' is set to true, the ctypes private
     copy of the system *note errno: 55. variable is exchanged with the
     real *note errno: 55. value before and after the call;
     'use_last_error' does the same for the Windows error code.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     ‘stdcall’ calling convention.  The function will release the GIL
     during the call.  'use_errno' and 'use_last_error' have the same
     meaning as above.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     Python calling convention.  The function will 'not' release the GIL
     during the call.

Function prototypes created by these factory functions can be
instantiated in different ways, depending on the type and number of the
parameters in the call:

 -- Işlevi: prototype (address)

     Returns a foreign function at the specified address which must be
     an integer.

 -- Işlevi: prototype (callable)

     Create a C callable function (a callback function) from a Python
     'callable'.

 -- Işlevi: prototype (func_spec[, paramflags])

     Returns a foreign function exported by a shared library.
     'func_spec' must be a 2-tuple ‘(name_or_ordinal, library)’.  The
     first item is the name of the exported function as string, or the
     ordinal of the exported function as small integer.  The second item
     is the shared library instance.

 -- Işlevi: prototype (vtbl_index, name[, paramflags[, iid]])

     Returns a foreign function that will call a COM method.
     'vtbl_index' is the index into the virtual function table, a small
     non-negative integer.  'name' is name of the COM method.  'iid' is
     an optional pointer to the interface identifier which is used in
     extended error reporting.

     COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a
     pointer to the COM interface as first argument, in addition to
     those parameters that are specified in the ‘argtypes’ tuple.

The optional 'paramflags' parameter creates foreign function wrappers
with much more functionality than the features described above.

'paramflags' must be a tuple of the same length as *note argtypes: 2dd6.

Each item in this tuple contains further information about a parameter,
it must be a tuple containing one, two, or three items.

The first item is an integer containing a combination of direction flags
for the parameter:

     1

          Specifies an input parameter to the function.

     2

          Output parameter.  The foreign function fills in a value.

     4

          Input parameter which defaults to the integer zero.

The optional second item is the parameter name as string.  If this is
specified, the foreign function can be called with named parameters.

The optional third item is the default value for this parameter.

The following example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows ‘MessageBoxW’
function so that it supports default parameters and named arguments.
The C declaration from the windows header file is this:

     WINUSERAPI int WINAPI
     MessageBoxW(
         HWND hWnd,
         LPCWSTR lpText,
         LPCWSTR lpCaption,
         UINT uType);

Here is the wrapping with *note ctypes: 2a.:

     >>> from ctypes import c_int, WINFUNCTYPE, windll
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import HWND, LPCWSTR, UINT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(c_int, HWND, LPCWSTR, LPCWSTR, UINT)
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd", 0), (1, "text", "Hi"), (1, "caption", "Hello from ctypes"), (1, "flags", 0)
     >>> MessageBox = prototype(("MessageBoxW", windll.user32), paramflags)

The ‘MessageBox’ foreign function can now be called in these ways:

     >>> MessageBox()
     >>> MessageBox(text="Spam, spam, spam")
     >>> MessageBox(flags=2, text="foo bar")

A second example demonstrates output parameters.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ function retrieves the dimensions of a specified window
by copying them into ‘RECT’ structure that the caller has to supply.
Here is the C declaration:

     WINUSERAPI BOOL WINAPI
     GetWindowRect(
          HWND hWnd,
          LPRECT lpRect);

Here is the wrapping with *note ctypes: 2a.:

     >>> from ctypes import POINTER, WINFUNCTYPE, windll, WinError
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import BOOL, HWND, RECT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(BOOL, HWND, POINTER(RECT))
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd"), (2, "lprect")
     >>> GetWindowRect = prototype(("GetWindowRect", windll.user32), paramflags)
     >>>

Functions with output parameters will automatically return the output
parameter value if there is a single one, or a tuple containing the
output parameter values when there are more than one, so the
GetWindowRect function now returns a RECT instance, when called.

Output parameters can be combined with the *note errcheck: 2de0.
protocol to do further output processing and error checking.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ api function returns a ‘BOOL’ to signal success or
failure, so this function could do the error checking, and raises an
exception when the api call failed:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return args
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>

If the *note errcheck: 2de0. function returns the argument tuple it
receives unchanged, *note ctypes: 2a. continues the normal processing it
does on the output parameters.  If you want to return a tuple of window
coordinates instead of a ‘RECT’ instance, you can retrieve the fields in
the function and return them instead, the normal processing will no
longer take place:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     rc = args[1]
     ...     return rc.left, rc.top, rc.bottom, rc.right
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Utility functions,  Next: Data types,  Prev: Function prototypes,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.28 Utility functions
............................

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.addressof (obj)

     Returns the address of the memory buffer as integer.  'obj' must be
     an instance of a ctypes type.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.addressof’ with
     argument ‘obj’.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.alignment (obj_or_type)

     Returns the alignment requirements of a ctypes type.  'obj_or_type'
     must be a ctypes type or instance.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.byref (obj[, offset])

     Returns a light-weight pointer to 'obj', which must be an instance
     of a ctypes type.  'offset' defaults to zero, and must be an
     integer that will be added to the internal pointer value.

     ‘byref(obj, offset)’ corresponds to this C code:

          (((char *)&obj) + offset)

     The returned object can only be used as a foreign function call
     parameter.  It behaves similar to ‘pointer(obj)’, but the
     construction is a lot faster.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.cast (obj, type)

     This function is similar to the cast operator in C. It returns a
     new instance of 'type' which points to the same memory block as
     'obj'.  'type' must be a pointer type, and 'obj' must be an object
     that can be interpreted as a pointer.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.create_string_buffer (init_or_size, size=None)

     This function creates a mutable character buffer.  The returned
     object is a ctypes array of *note c_char: 2dc5.

     'init_or_size' must be an integer which specifies the size of the
     array, or a bytes object which will be used to initialize the array
     items.

     If a bytes object is specified as first argument, the buffer is
     made one item larger than its length so that the last element in
     the array is a NUL termination character.  An integer can be passed
     as second argument which allows specifying the size of the array if
     the length of the bytes should not be used.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.create_string_buffer’
     with arguments ‘init’, ‘size’.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer (init_or_size, size=None)

     This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer.  The
     returned object is a ctypes array of *note c_wchar: 2dc6.

     'init_or_size' must be an integer which specifies the size of the
     array, or a string which will be used to initialize the array
     items.

     If a string is specified as first argument, the buffer is made one
     item larger than the length of the string so that the last element
     in the array is a NUL termination character.  An integer can be
     passed as second argument which allows specifying the size of the
     array if the length of the string should not be used.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘ctypes.create_unicode_buffer’ with arguments ‘init’, ‘size’.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow
     function that the _ctypes extension dll exports.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.DllGetClassObject ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllGetClassObject
     function that the ‘_ctypes’ extension dll exports.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     Try to find a library and return a pathname.  'name' is the library
     name without any prefix like ‘lib’, suffix like ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ or
     version number (this is the form used for the posix linker option
     ‘-l’).  If no library can be found, returns ‘None’.

     The exact functionality is system dependent.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.util.find_msvcrt ()

     Returns the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python, and
     by the extension modules.  If the name of the library cannot be
     determined, ‘None’ is returned.

     If you need to free memory, for example, allocated by an extension
     module with a call to the ‘free(void *)’, it is important that you
     use the function in the same library that allocated the memory.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.FormatError ([code])

     Returns a textual description of the error code 'code'.  If no
     error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the
     Windows api function GetLastError.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.GetLastError ()

     Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
     This function calls the Windows ‘GetLastError()’ function directly,
     it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.get_errno ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 55. variable in the calling thread.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.get_errno’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.get_last_error ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.get_last_error’ with
     no arguments.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.memmove (dst, src, count)

     Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies 'count'
     bytes from 'src' to 'dst'.  'dst' and 'src' must be integers or
     ctypes instances that can be converted to pointers.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.memset (dst, c, count)

     Same as the standard C memset library function: fills the memory
     block at address 'dst' with 'count' bytes of value 'c'.  'dst' must
     be an integer specifying an address, or a ctypes instance.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.POINTER (type, /)

     Create and return a new ctypes pointer type.  Pointer types are
     cached and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly
     is cheap.  'type' must be a ctypes type.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.pointer (obj, /)

     Create a new pointer instance, pointing to 'obj'.  The returned
     object is of the type ‘POINTER(type(obj))’.

     Note: If you just want to pass a pointer to an object to a foreign
     function call, you should use ‘byref(obj)’ which is much faster.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.resize (obj, size)

     This function resizes the internal memory buffer of 'obj', which
     must be an instance of a ctypes type.  It is not possible to make
     the buffer smaller than the native size of the objects type, as
     given by ‘sizeof(type(obj))’, but it is possible to enlarge the
     buffer.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.set_errno (value)

     Set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 55. variable in the calling thread to 'value' and
     return the previous value.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.set_errno’ with
     argument ‘errno’.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.set_last_error (value)

     Sets the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread to 'value' and return
     the previous value.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.set_last_error’ with
     argument ‘error’.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.sizeof (obj_or_type)

     Returns the size in bytes of a ctypes type or instance memory
     buffer.  Does the same as the C ‘sizeof’ operator.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.string_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the byte string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is specified, it
     is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed to be
     zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.string_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.WinError (code=None, descr=None)

     This function is probably the worst-named thing in ctypes.  It
     creates an instance of *note OSError: 65c.  If 'code' is not
     specified, ‘GetLastError’ is called to determine the error code.
     If 'descr' is not specified, *note FormatError(): 2e23. is called
     to get a textual description of the error.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: An instance of *note WindowsError: efe. used
     to be created, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Işlevi: ctypes.wstring_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the wide-character string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is
     specified, it is used as the number of characters of the string,
     otherwise the string is assumed to be zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.wstring_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.


File: python.info,  Node: Data types,  Next: Fundamental data types<2>,  Prev: Utility functions,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.29 Data types
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes._CData

     This non-public class is the common base class of all ctypes data
     types.  Among other things, all ctypes type instances contain a
     memory block that hold C compatible data; the address of the memory
     block is returned by the *note addressof(): 2e1e. helper function.
     Another instance variable is exposed as *note _objects: 2e2d.; this
     contains other Python objects that need to be kept alive in case
     the memory block contains pointers.

     Common methods of ctypes data types, these are all class methods
     (to be exact, they are methods of the *note metaclass: 1d75.):

      -- Yöntemi: from_buffer (source[, offset])

          This method returns a ctypes instance that shares the buffer
          of the 'source' object.  The 'source' object must support the
          writeable buffer interface.  The optional 'offset' parameter
          specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the
          default is zero.  If the source buffer is not large enough a
          *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’
          with arguments ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’.

      -- Yöntemi: from_buffer_copy (source[, offset])

          This method creates a ctypes instance, copying the buffer from
          the 'source' object buffer which must be readable.  The
          optional 'offset' parameter specifies an offset into the
          source buffer in bytes; the default is zero.  If the source
          buffer is not large enough a *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’
          with arguments ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’.

      -- Yöntemi: from_address (address)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance using the memory
          specified by 'address' which must be an integer.

          This method, and others that indirectly call this method,
          raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ctypes.cdata’ with
          argument ‘address’.

      -- Yöntemi: from_param (obj)

          This method adapts 'obj' to a ctypes type.  It is called with
          the actual object used in a foreign function call when the
          type is present in the foreign function’s *note argtypes:
          2dd6. tuple; it must return an object that can be used as a
          function call parameter.

          All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this
          classmethod that normally returns 'obj' if that is an instance
          of the type.  Some types accept other objects as well.

      -- Yöntemi: in_dll (library, name)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance exported by a
          shared library.  'name' is the name of the symbol that exports
          the data, 'library' is the loaded shared library.

     Common instance variables of ctypes data types:

      -- Özniteliği: _b_base_

          Sometimes ctypes data instances do not own the memory block
          they contain, instead they share part of the memory block of a
          base object.  The *note _b_base_: 2e31. read-only member is
          the root ctypes object that owns the memory block.

      -- Özniteliği: _b_needsfree_

          This read-only variable is true when the ctypes data instance
          has allocated the memory block itself, false otherwise.

      -- Özniteliği: _objects

          This member is either ‘None’ or a dictionary containing Python
          objects that need to be kept alive so that the memory block
          contents is kept valid.  This object is only exposed for
          debugging; never modify the contents of this dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental data types<2>,  Next: Structured data types,  Prev: Data types,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.30 Fundamental data types
.................................

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes._SimpleCData

     This non-public class is the base class of all fundamental ctypes
     data types.  It is mentioned here because it contains the common
     attributes of the fundamental ctypes data types.  *note
     _SimpleCData: 2e35. is a subclass of *note _CData: 2e2c, so it
     inherits their methods and attributes.  ctypes data types that are
     not and do not contain pointers can now be pickled.

     Instances have a single attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: value

          This attribute contains the actual value of the instance.  For
          integer and pointer types, it is an integer, for character
          types, it is a single character bytes object or string, for
          character pointer types it is a Python bytes object or string.

          When the ‘value’ attribute is retrieved from a ctypes
          instance, usually a new object is returned each time.  *note
          ctypes: 2a. does 'not' implement original object return,
          always a new object is constructed.  The same is true for all
          other ctypes object instances.

Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results,
or, for example, by retrieving structure field members or array items,
are transparently converted to native Python types.  In other words, if
a foreign function has a *note restype: 2dde. of *note c_char_p: 2dcf,
you will always receive a Python bytes object, 'not' a *note c_char_p:
2dcf. instance.

Subclasses of fundamental data types do 'not' inherit this behavior.
So, if a foreign functions ‘restype’ is a subclass of *note c_void_p:
2dd0, you will receive an instance of this subclass from the function
call.  Of course, you can get the value of the pointer by accessing the
‘value’ attribute.

These are the fundamental ctypes data types:

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_byte

     Represents the C signed char datatype, and interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_char

     Represents the C char datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character.  The constructor accepts an optional string
     initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one
     character.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_char_p

     Represents the C char* datatype when it points to a zero-terminated
     string.  For a general character pointer that may also point to
     binary data, ‘POINTER(c_char)’ must be used.  The constructor
     accepts an integer address, or a bytes object.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_double

     Represents the C double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_longdouble

     Represents the C long double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.  On platforms where ‘sizeof(long
     double) == sizeof(double)’ it is an alias to *note c_double: 1725.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_float

     Represents the C float datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_int

     Represents the C signed int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias to
     *note c_long: 2dba.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_int8

     Represents the C 8-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_byte: 158e.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_int16

     Represents the C 16-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_short: 2dc7.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_int32

     Represents the C 32-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_int: 2db9.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_int64

     Represents the C 64-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_longlong: 2dcb.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_long

     Represents the C signed long datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_longlong

     Represents the C signed long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_short

     Represents the C signed short datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_size_t

     Represents the C ‘size_t’ datatype.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_ssize_t

     Represents the C ‘ssize_t’ datatype.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_time_t

     Represents the C ‘time_t’ datatype.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_ubyte

     Represents the C unsigned char datatype, it interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_uint

     Represents the C unsigned int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias for
     *note c_ulong: 2dca.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_uint8

     Represents the C 8-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_ubyte: 158f.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_uint16

     Represents the C 16-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ushort: 2dc8.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_uint32

     Represents the C 32-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_uint: 2dc9.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_uint64

     Represents the C 64-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ulonglong: 2dcc.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_ulong

     Represents the C unsigned long datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_ulonglong

     Represents the C unsigned long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_ushort

     Represents the C unsigned short datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_void_p

     Represents the C void* type.  The value is represented as integer.
     The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_wchar

     Represents the C ‘wchar_t’ datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character unicode string.  The constructor accepts an
     optional string initializer, the length of the string must be
     exactly one character.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_wchar_p

     Represents the C wchar_t* datatype, which must be a pointer to a
     zero-terminated wide character string.  The constructor accepts an
     integer address, or a string.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.c_bool

     Represent the C bool datatype (more accurately, _Bool from C99).
     Its value can be ‘True’ or ‘False’, and the constructor accepts any
     object that has a truth value.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.HRESULT

     Represents a ‘HRESULT’ value, which contains success or error
     information for a function or method call.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.py_object

     Represents the C *note PyObject: 6eb.* datatype.  Calling this
     without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ *note PyObject: 6eb.* pointer.

The ‘ctypes.wintypes’ module provides quite some other Windows specific
data types, for example ‘HWND’, ‘WPARAM’, or ‘DWORD’.  Some useful
structures like ‘MSG’ or ‘RECT’ are also defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Structured data types,  Next: Arrays and pointers,  Prev: Fundamental data types<2>,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.31 Structured data types
................................

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.Union (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in native byte order.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.BigEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'big endian' byte order.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.LittleEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'little endian' byte order.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.BigEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'big endian' byte order.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.LittleEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'little endian' byte order.

Structures and unions with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer
type fields, or any other data types containing pointer type fields.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.Structure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'native' byte order.

     Concrete structure and union types must be created by subclassing
     one of these types, and at least define a *note _fields_: 2de7.
     class variable.  *note ctypes: 2a. will create *note descriptor:
     1d5f.s which allow reading and writing the fields by direct
     attribute accesses.  These are the

      -- Özniteliği: _fields_

          A sequence defining the structure fields.  The items must be
          2-tuples or 3-tuples.  The first item is the name of the
          field, the second item specifies the type of the field; it can
          be any ctypes data type.

          For integer type fields like *note c_int: 2db9, a third
          optional item can be given.  It must be a small positive
          integer defining the bit width of the field.

          Field names must be unique within one structure or union.
          This is not checked, only one field can be accessed when names
          are repeated.

          It is possible to define the *note _fields_: 2de7. class
          variable 'after' the class statement that defines the
          Structure subclass, this allows creating data types that
          directly or indirectly reference themselves:

               class List(Structure):
                   pass
               List._fields_ = [("pnext", POINTER(List)),
                                ...
                               ]

          The *note _fields_: 2de7. class variable must, however, be
          defined before the type is first used (an instance is created,
          *note sizeof(): 2e26. is called on it, and so on).  Later
          assignments to the *note _fields_: 2de7. class variable will
          raise an AttributeError.

          It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structure types,
          they inherit the fields of the base class plus the *note
          _fields_: 2de7. defined in the sub-subclass, if any.

      -- Özniteliği: _pack_

          An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment
          of structure fields in the instance.  *note _pack_: 2dea. must
          already be defined when *note _fields_: 2de7. is assigned,
          otherwise it will have no effect.  Setting this attribute to 0
          is the same as not setting it at all.

      -- Özniteliği: _anonymous_

          An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed
          (anonymous) fields.  *note _anonymous_: 2e41. must be already
          defined when *note _fields_: 2de7. is assigned, otherwise it
          will have no effect.

          The fields listed in this variable must be structure or union
          type fields.  *note ctypes: 2a. will create descriptors in the
          structure type that allows accessing the nested fields
          directly, without the need to create the structure or union
          field.

          Here is an example type (Windows):

               class _U(Union):
                   _fields_ = [("lptdesc", POINTER(TYPEDESC)),
                               ("lpadesc", POINTER(ARRAYDESC)),
                               ("hreftype", HREFTYPE)]

               class TYPEDESC(Structure):
                   _anonymous_ = ("u",)
                   _fields_ = [("u", _U),
                               ("vt", VARTYPE)]

          The ‘TYPEDESC’ structure describes a COM data type, the ‘vt’
          field specifies which one of the union fields is valid.  Since
          the ‘u’ field is defined as anonymous field, it is now
          possible to access the members directly off the TYPEDESC
          instance.  ‘td.lptdesc’ and ‘td.u.lptdesc’ are equivalent, but
          the former is faster since it does not need to create a
          temporary union instance:

               td = TYPEDESC()
               td.vt = VT_PTR
               td.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
               td.u.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)

     It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structures, they inherit
     the fields of the base class.  If the subclass definition has a
     separate *note _fields_: 2de7. variable, the fields specified in
     this are appended to the fields of the base class.

     Structure and union constructors accept both positional and keyword
     arguments.  Positional arguments are used to initialize member
     fields in the same order as they are appear in *note _fields_:
     2de7.  Keyword arguments in the constructor are interpreted as
     attribute assignments, so they will initialize *note _fields_:
     2de7. with the same name, or create new attributes for names not
     present in *note _fields_: 2de7.


File: python.info,  Node: Arrays and pointers,  Prev: Structured data types,  Up: ctypes reference

5.16.16.32 Arrays and pointers
..............................

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes.Array (*args)

     Abstract base class for arrays.

     The recommended way to create concrete array types is by
     multiplying any *note ctypes: 2a. data type with a non-negative
     integer.  Alternatively, you can subclass this type and define
     *note _length_: 2e44. and *note _type_: 2e45. class variables.
     Array elements can be read and written using standard subscript and
     slice accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is 'not'
     itself an *note Array: 1863.

      -- Özniteliği: _length_

          A positive integer specifying the number of elements in the
          array.  Out-of-range subscripts result in an *note IndexError:
          13c2.  Will be returned by *note len(): 441.

      -- Özniteliği: _type_

          Specifies the type of each element in the array.

     Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to
     initialize the elements in order.

 -- Sınıfı: ctypes._Pointer

     Private, abstract base class for pointers.

     Concrete pointer types are created by calling *note POINTER():
     2df4. with the type that will be pointed to; this is done
     automatically by *note pointer(): 2de4.

     If a pointer points to an array, its elements can be read and
     written using standard subscript and slice accesses.  Pointer
     objects have no size, so *note len(): 441. will raise *note
     TypeError: 2c4.  Negative subscripts will read from the memory
     'before' the pointer (as in C), and out-of-range subscripts will
     probably crash with an access violation (if you’re lucky).

      -- Özniteliği: _type_

          Specifies the type pointed to.

      -- Özniteliği: contents

          Returns the object to which to pointer points.  Assigning to
          this attribute changes the pointer to point to the assigned
          object.


File: python.info,  Node: Concurrent Execution,  Next: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Prev: Generic Operating System Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.17 Concurrent Execution
=========================

The modules described in this chapter provide support for concurrent
execution of code.  The appropriate choice of tool will depend on the
task to be executed (CPU bound vs IO bound) and preferred style of
development (event driven cooperative multitasking vs preemptive
multitasking).  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* threading — Thread-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing.shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
* The concurrent package::
* concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks.
* subprocess — Subprocess management::
* sched — Event scheduler::
* queue — A synchronized queue class::
* contextvars — Context Variables::
* _thread — Low-level threading API::


File: python.info,  Node: threading — Thread-based parallelism,  Next: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.1 ‘threading’ — Thread-based parallelism
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/threading.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the
lower level *note _thread: 2. module.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: This module used to be optional, it is now always
available.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background thread without blocking
execution of the calling thread, while still being able to retrieve
their results when needed.

*note queue: b5. provides a thread-safe interface for exchanging data
between running threads.

*note asyncio: a. offers an alternative approach to achieving task level
concurrency without requiring the use of multiple operating system
threads.

     Not: In the Python 2.x series, this module contained ‘camelCase’
     names for some methods and functions.  These are deprecated as of
     Python 3.10, but they are still supported for compatibility with
     Python 2.5 and lower.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' In CPython, due to the *note Global
Interpreter Lock: 147, only one thread can execute Python code at once
(even though certain performance-oriented libraries might overcome this
limitation).  If you want your application to make better use of the
computational resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use
*note multiprocessing: 93. or *note
concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741.  However, threading is
still an appropriate model if you want to run multiple I/O-bound tasks
simultaneously.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

This module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: threading.active_count ()

     Return the number of *note Thread: 7a7. objects currently alive.
     The returned count is equal to the length of the list returned by
     *note enumerate(): 16cd.

     The function ‘activeCount’ is a deprecated alias for this function.

 -- Işlevi: threading.current_thread ()

     Return the current *note Thread: 7a7. object, corresponding to the
     caller’s thread of control.  If the caller’s thread of control was
     not created through the *note threading: ec. module, a dummy thread
     object with limited functionality is returned.

     The function ‘currentThread’ is a deprecated alias for this
     function.

 -- Işlevi: threading.excepthook (args, /)

     Handle uncaught exception raised by *note Thread.run(): 89f.

     The 'args' argument has the following attributes:

        * 'exc_type': Exception type.

        * 'exc_value': Exception value, can be ‘None’.

        * 'exc_traceback': Exception traceback, can be ‘None’.

        * 'thread': Thread which raised the exception, can be ‘None’.

     If 'exc_type' is *note SystemExit: bc8, the exception is silently
     ignored.  Otherwise, the exception is printed out on *note
     sys.stderr: 792.

     If this function raises an exception, *note sys.excepthook(): 646.
     is called to handle it.

     *note threading.excepthook(): 68a. can be overridden to control how
     uncaught exceptions raised by *note Thread.run(): 89f. are handled.

     Storing 'exc_value' using a custom hook can create a reference
     cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to break the reference
     cycle when the exception is no longer needed.

     Storing 'thread' using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is set
     to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing 'thread'
     after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting objects.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note sys.excepthook(): 646. handles uncaught exceptions.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: threading.__excepthook__

     Holds the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 68a.  It
     is saved so that the original value can be restored in case they
     happen to get replaced with broken or alternative objects.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: threading.get_ident ()

     Return the ‘thread identifier’ of the current thread.  This is a
     nonzero integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended
     as a magic cookie to be used e.g.  to index a dictionary of
     thread-specific data.  Thread identifiers may be recycled when a
     thread exits and another thread is created.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: threading.get_native_id ()

     Return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread assigned
     by the kernel.  This is a non-negative integer.  Its value may be
     used to uniquely identify this particular thread system-wide (until
     the thread terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the
     OS).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: threading.enumerate ()

     Return a list of all *note Thread: 7a7. objects currently active.
     The list includes daemonic threads and dummy thread objects created
     by *note current_thread(): 27f.  It excludes terminated threads and
     threads that have not yet been started.  However, the main thread
     is always part of the result, even when terminated.

 -- Işlevi: threading.main_thread ()

     Return the main *note Thread: 7a7. object.  In normal conditions,
     the main thread is the thread from which the Python interpreter was
     started.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: threading.settrace (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: ec. module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note
     sys.settrace(): 138d. for each thread, before its *note run(): 89f.
     method is called.

 -- Işlevi: threading.settrace_all_threads (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: ec. module and all Python threads that are currently
     executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.settrace(): 138d. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): 89f. method is called.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: threading.gettrace ()

     Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): 687.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: threading.setprofile (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: ec. module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note
     sys.setprofile(): 138c. for each thread, before its *note run():
     89f. method is called.

 -- Işlevi: threading.setprofile_all_threads (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the *note
     threading: ec. module and all Python threads that are currently
     executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.setprofile(): 138c. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): 89f. method is called.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: threading.getprofile ()

     Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): 688.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: threading.stack_size ([size])

     Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The
     optional 'size' argument specifies the stack size to be used for
     subsequently created threads, and must be 0 (use platform or
     configured default) or a positive integer value of at least 32,768
     (32 KiB). If 'size' is not specified, 0 is used.  If changing the
     thread stack size is unsupported, a *note RuntimeError: 180. is
     raised.  If the specified stack size is invalid, a *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32
     KiB is currently the minimum supported stack size value to
     guarantee sufficient stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note
     that some platforms may have particular restrictions on values for
     the stack size, such as requiring a minimum stack size > 32 KiB or
     requiring allocation in multiples of the system memory page size -
     platform documentation should be referred to for more information
     (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size
     is the suggested approach in the absence of more specific
     information).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

This module also defines the following constant:

 -- Verisi: threading.TIMEOUT_MAX

     The maximum value allowed for the 'timeout' parameter of blocking
     functions (*note Lock.acquire(): 4ad, *note RLock.acquire(): d10,
     *note Condition.wait(): 16da, etc.).  Specifying a timeout greater
     than this value will raise an *note OverflowError: 6c7.

     Added in version 3.2.

This module defines a number of classes, which are detailed in the
sections below.

The design of this module is loosely based on Java’s threading model.
However, where Java makes locks and condition variables basic behavior
of every object, they are separate objects in Python.  Python’s *note
Thread: 7a7. class supports a subset of the behavior of Java’s Thread
class; currently, there are no priorities, no thread groups, and threads
cannot be destroyed, stopped, suspended, resumed, or interrupted.  The
static methods of Java’s Thread class, when implemented, are mapped to
module-level functions.

All of the methods described below are executed atomically.

* Menu:

* Thread-Local Data::
* Thread Objects::
* Lock Objects::
* RLock Objects::
* Condition Objects::
* Semaphore Objects::
* Event Objects::
* Timer Objects::
* Barrier Objects::
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/threading.py


File: python.info,  Node: Thread-Local Data,  Next: Thread Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.1 Thread-Local Data
..........................

Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific.  To manage
thread-local data, just create an instance of *note local: 1589. (or a
subclass) and store attributes on it:

     mydata = threading.local()
     mydata.x = 1

The instance’s values will be different for separate threads.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.local

     A class that represents thread-local data.

     For more details and extensive examples, see the documentation
     string of the ‘_threading_local’ module:
     Lib/_threading_local.py(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/_threading_local.py


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Objects,  Next: Lock Objects,  Prev: Thread-Local Data,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.2 Thread Objects
.......................

The *note Thread: 7a7. class represents an activity that is run in a
separate thread of control.  There are two ways to specify the activity:
by passing a callable object to the constructor, or by overriding the
*note run(): 89f. method in a subclass.  No other methods (except for
the constructor) should be overridden in a subclass.  In other words,
'only' override the ‘__init__()’ and *note run(): 89f. methods of this
class.

Once a thread object is created, its activity must be started by calling
the thread’s *note start(): 2afc. method.  This invokes the *note run():
89f. method in a separate thread of control.

Once the thread’s activity is started, the thread is considered ‘alive’.
It stops being alive when its *note run(): 89f. method terminates –
either normally, or by raising an unhandled exception.  The *note
is_alive(): 7a8. method tests whether the thread is alive.

Other threads can call a thread’s *note join(): 1089. method.  This
blocks the calling thread until the thread whose *note join(): 1089.
method is called is terminated.

A thread has a name.  The name can be passed to the constructor, and
read or changed through the *note name: 27e. attribute.

If the *note run(): 89f. method raises an exception, *note
threading.excepthook(): 68a. is called to handle it.  By default, *note
threading.excepthook(): 68a. ignores silently *note SystemExit: bc8.

A thread can be flagged as a “daemon thread”.  The significance of this
flag is that the entire Python program exits when only daemon threads
are left.  The initial value is inherited from the creating thread.  The
flag can be set through the *note daemon: 27c. property or the 'daemon'
constructor argument.

     Not: Daemon threads are abruptly stopped at shutdown.  Their
     resources (such as open files, database transactions, etc.)  may
     not be released properly.  If you want your threads to stop
     gracefully, make them non-daemonic and use a suitable signalling
     mechanism such as an *note Event: fff.

There is a “main thread” object; this corresponds to the initial thread
of control in the Python program.  It is not a daemon thread.

There is the possibility that “dummy thread objects” are created.  These
are thread objects corresponding to “alien threads”, which are threads
of control started outside the threading module, such as directly from C
code.  Dummy thread objects have limited functionality; they are always
considered alive and daemonic, and cannot be *note joined: 2e52.  They
are never deleted, since it is impossible to detect the termination of
alien threads.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.Thread (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     This constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     Arguments are:

     'group' should be ‘None’; reserved for future extension when a
     ‘ThreadGroup’ class is implemented.

     'target' is the callable object to be invoked by the *note run():
     89f. method.  Defaults to ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.

     'name' is the thread name.  By default, a unique name is
     constructed of the form “Thread-'N'” where 'N' is a small decimal
     number, or “Thread-'N' (target)” where “target” is
     ‘target.__name__’ if the 'target' argument is specified.

     'args' is a list or tuple of arguments for the target invocation.
     Defaults to ‘()’.

     'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword arguments for the target
     invocation.  Defaults to ‘{}’.

     If not ‘None’, 'daemon' explicitly sets whether the thread is
     daemonic.  If ‘None’ (the default), the daemonic property is
     inherited from the current thread.

     If the subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure to
     invoke the base class constructor (‘Thread.__init__()’) before
     doing anything else to the thread.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'daemon' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Use the 'target' name if 'name' argument is
     omitted.

      -- Yöntemi: start ()

          Start the thread’s activity.

          It must be called at most once per thread object.  It arranges
          for the object’s *note run(): 89f. method to be invoked in a
          separate thread of control.

          This method will raise a *note RuntimeError: 180. if called
          more than once on the same thread object.

      -- Yöntemi: run ()

          Method representing the thread’s activity.

          You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard
          *note run(): 89f. method invokes the callable object passed to
          the object’s constructor as the 'target' argument, if any,
          with positional and keyword arguments taken from the 'args'
          and 'kwargs' arguments, respectively.

          Using list or tuple as the 'args' argument which passed to the
          *note Thread: 7a7. could achieve the same effect.

          Example:

               >>> from threading import Thread
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> t.run()
               1
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> t.run()
               1

      -- Yöntemi: join (timeout=None)

          Wait until the thread terminates.  This blocks the calling
          thread until the thread whose *note join(): 1089. method is
          called terminates – either normally or through an unhandled
          exception – or until the optional timeout occurs.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds (or fractions thereof).  As *note join():
          1089. always returns ‘None’, you must call *note is_alive():
          7a8. after *note join(): 1089. to decide whether a timeout
          happened – if the thread is still alive, the *note join():
          1089. call timed out.

          When the 'timeout' argument is not present or ‘None’, the
          operation will block until the thread terminates.

          A thread can be joined many times.

          *note join(): 1089. raises a *note RuntimeError: 180. if an
          attempt is made to join the current thread as that would cause
          a deadlock.  It is also an error to *note join(): 1089. a
          thread before it has been started and attempts to do so raise
          the same exception.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          A string used for identification purposes only.  It has no
          semantics.  Multiple threads may be given the same name.  The
          initial name is set by the constructor.

      -- Yöntemi: getName ()
      -- Yöntemi: setName ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note name: 27e.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

      -- Özniteliği: ident

          The ‘thread identifier’ of this thread or ‘None’ if the thread
          has not been started.  This is a nonzero integer.  See the
          *note get_ident(): 1001. function.  Thread identifiers may be
          recycled when a thread exits and another thread is created.
          The identifier is available even after the thread has exited.

      -- Özniteliği: native_id

          The Thread ID (‘TID’) of this thread, as assigned by the OS
          (kernel).  This is a non-negative integer, or ‘None’ if the
          thread has not been started.  See the *note get_native_id():
          8a0. function.  This value may be used to uniquely identify
          this particular thread system-wide (until the thread
          terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the OS).

               Not: Similar to Process IDs, Thread IDs are only valid
               (guaranteed unique system-wide) from the time the thread
               is created until the thread has been terminated.

          *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS,
          OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: is_alive ()

          Return whether the thread is alive.

          This method returns ‘True’ just before the *note run(): 89f.
          method starts until just after the *note run(): 89f. method
          terminates.  The module function *note enumerate(): 16cd.
          returns a list of all alive threads.

      -- Özniteliği: daemon

          A boolean value indicating whether this thread is a daemon
          thread (‘True’) or not (‘False’).  This must be set before
          *note start(): 2afc. is called, otherwise *note RuntimeError:
          180. is raised.  Its initial value is inherited from the
          creating thread; the main thread is not a daemon thread and
          therefore all threads created in the main thread default to
          *note daemon: 27c. = ‘False’.

          The entire Python program exits when no alive non-daemon
          threads are left.

      -- Yöntemi: isDaemon ()
      -- Yöntemi: setDaemon ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note daemon: 27c.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.


File: python.info,  Node: Lock Objects,  Next: RLock Objects,  Prev: Thread Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.3 Lock Objects
.....................

A primitive lock is a synchronization primitive that is not owned by a
particular thread when locked.  In Python, it is currently the lowest
level synchronization primitive available, implemented directly by the
*note _thread: 2. extension module.

A primitive lock is in one of two states, “locked” or “unlocked”.  It is
created in the unlocked state.  It has two basic methods, *note
acquire(): 4ad. and *note release(): 116b.  When the state is unlocked,
*note acquire(): 4ad. changes the state to locked and returns
immediately.  When the state is locked, *note acquire(): 4ad. blocks
until a call to *note release(): 116b. in another thread changes it to
unlocked, then the *note acquire(): 4ad. call resets it to locked and
returns.  The *note release(): 116b. method should only be called in the
locked state; it changes the state to unlocked and returns immediately.
If an attempt is made to release an unlocked lock, a *note RuntimeError:
180. will be raised.

Locks also support the *note context management protocol: 2e57.

When more than one thread is blocked in *note acquire(): 4ad. waiting
for the state to turn to unlocked, only one thread proceeds when a *note
release(): 116b. call resets the state to unlocked; which one of the
waiting threads proceeds is not defined, and may vary across
implementations.

All methods are executed atomically.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.Lock

     The class implementing primitive lock objects.  Once a thread has
     acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it block, until it
     is released; any thread may release it.

     Note that ‘Lock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of the most efficient version of the concrete Lock class
     that is supported by the platform.

      -- Yöntemi: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default), block until the lock is unlocked, then set it to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’, do
          not block.  If a call with 'blocking' set to ‘True’ would
          block, return ‘False’ immediately; otherwise, set the lock to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the floating-point 'timeout' argument set to
          a positive value, block for at most the number of seconds
          specified by 'timeout' and as long as the lock cannot be
          acquired.  A 'timeout' argument of ‘-1’ specifies an unbounded
          wait.  It is forbidden to specify a 'timeout' when 'blocking'
          is ‘False’.

          The return value is ‘True’ if the lock is acquired
          successfully, ‘False’ if not (for example if the 'timeout'
          expired).

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Lock acquisition can now be interrupted
          by signals on POSIX if the underlying threading implementation
          supports it.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release a lock.  This can be called from any thread, not only
          the thread which has acquired the lock.

          When the lock is locked, reset it to unlocked, and return.  If
          any other threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become
          unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.

          When invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note RuntimeError: 180.
          is raised.

          There is no return value.

      -- Yöntemi: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the lock is acquired.


File: python.info,  Node: RLock Objects,  Next: Condition Objects,  Prev: Lock Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.4 RLock Objects
......................

A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired
multiple times by the same thread.  Internally, it uses the concepts of
“owning thread” and “recursion level” in addition to the locked/unlocked
state used by primitive locks.  In the locked state, some thread owns
the lock; in the unlocked state, no thread owns it.

Threads call a lock’s *note acquire(): d10. method to lock it, and its
*note release(): 116b. method to unlock it.

     Not: Reentrant locks support the *note context management protocol:
     2e57, so it is recommended to use *note with: 3dd. instead of
     manually calling *note acquire(): d10. and *note release(): 2e5c.
     to handle acquiring and releasing the lock for a block of code.

RLock’s *note acquire(): d10./*note release(): 2e5c. call pairs may be
nested, unlike Lock’s *note acquire(): 4ad./*note release(): 116b.  Only
the final *note release(): 2e5c. (the *note release(): 116b. of the
outermost pair) resets the lock to an unlocked state and allows another
thread blocked in *note acquire(): d10. to proceed.

*note acquire(): d10./*note release(): 2e5c. must be used in pairs: each
acquire must have a release in the thread that has acquired the lock.
Failing to call release as many times the lock has been acquired can
lead to deadlock.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.RLock

     This class implements reentrant lock objects.  A reentrant lock
     must be released by the thread that acquired it.  Once a thread has
     acquired a reentrant lock, the same thread may acquire it again
     without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it
     has acquired it.

     Note that ‘RLock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of the most efficient version of the concrete RLock class
     that is supported by the platform.

      -- Yöntemi: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          *note Using RLock as a context manager: 2e57.

               Recommended over manual ‘acquire()’ and *note release():
               2e5c. calls whenever practical.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default):

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, block until we are
                    able to acquire lock, or 'timeout', if set to a
                    positive float value.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again, and return immediately.  This is the
                    difference between *note Lock: 2e58. and ‘RLock’;
                    *note Lock: 2e58. handles this case the same as the
                    previous, blocking until the lock can be acquired.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’:

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, return immediately.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again and return immediately.

          In all cases, if the thread was able to acquire the lock,
          return ‘True’.  If the thread was unable to acquire the lock
          (i.e.  if not blocking or the timeout was reached) return
          ‘False’.

          If called multiple times, failing to call *note release():
          2e5c. as many times may lead to deadlock.  Consider using
          ‘RLock’ as a context manager rather than calling
          acquire/release directly.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after
          the decrement it is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not
          owned by any thread), and if any other threads are blocked
          waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of
          them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level
          is still nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the
          calling thread.

          Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock.
          A *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised if this method is called
          when the lock is not acquired.

          There is no return value.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition Objects,  Next: Semaphore Objects,  Prev: RLock Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.5 Condition Objects
..........................

A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this
can be passed in or one will be created by default.  Passing one in is
useful when several condition variables must share the same lock.  The
lock is part of the condition object: you don’t have to track it
separately.

A condition variable obeys the *note context management protocol: 2e57.:
using the ‘with’ statement acquires the associated lock for the duration
of the enclosed block.  The *note acquire(): 2e5f. and *note release():
2e60. methods also call the corresponding methods of the associated
lock.

Other methods must be called with the associated lock held.  The *note
wait(): 16da. method releases the lock, and then blocks until another
thread awakens it by calling *note notify(): 15ff. or *note
notify_all(): 279.  Once awakened, *note wait(): 16da. re-acquires the
lock and returns.  It is also possible to specify a timeout.

The *note notify(): 15ff. method wakes up one of the threads waiting for
the condition variable, if any are waiting.  The *note notify_all():
279. method wakes up all threads waiting for the condition variable.

Note: the *note notify(): 15ff. and *note notify_all(): 279. methods
don’t release the lock; this means that the thread or threads awakened
will not return from their *note wait(): 16da. call immediately, but
only when the thread that called *note notify(): 15ff. or *note
notify_all(): 279. finally relinquishes ownership of the lock.

The typical programming style using condition variables uses the lock to
synchronize access to some shared state; threads that are interested in
a particular change of state call *note wait(): 16da. repeatedly until
they see the desired state, while threads that modify the state call
*note notify(): 15ff. or *note notify_all(): 279. when they change the
state in such a way that it could possibly be a desired state for one of
the waiters.  For example, the following code is a generic
producer-consumer situation with unlimited buffer capacity:

     # Consume one item
     with cv:
         while not an_item_is_available():
             cv.wait()
         get_an_available_item()

     # Produce one item
     with cv:
         make_an_item_available()
         cv.notify()

The ‘while’ loop checking for the application’s condition is necessary
because *note wait(): 16da. can return after an arbitrary long time, and
the condition which prompted the *note notify(): 15ff. call may no
longer hold true.  This is inherent to multi-threaded programming.  The
*note wait_for(): 2e61. method can be used to automate the condition
checking, and eases the computation of timeouts:

     # Consume an item
     with cv:
         cv.wait_for(an_item_is_available)
         get_an_available_item()

To choose between *note notify(): 15ff. and *note notify_all(): 279,
consider whether one state change can be interesting for only one or
several waiting threads.  E.g.  in a typical producer-consumer
situation, adding one item to the buffer only needs to wake up one
consumer thread.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.Condition (lock=None)

     This class implements condition variable objects.  A condition
     variable allows one or more threads to wait until they are notified
     by another thread.

     If the 'lock' argument is given and not ‘None’, it must be a *note
     Lock: 2e58. or *note RLock: 262. object, and it is used as the
     underlying lock.  Otherwise, a new *note RLock: 262. object is
     created and used as the underlying lock.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Yöntemi: acquire (*args)

          Acquire the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; the return value
          is whatever that method returns.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; there is no
          return value.

      -- Yöntemi: wait (timeout=None)

          Wait until notified or until a timeout occurs.  If the calling
          thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
          *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

          This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks
          until it is awakened by a *note notify(): 15ff. or *note
          notify_all(): 279. call for the same condition variable in
          another thread, or until the optional timeout occurs.  Once
          awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds (or fractions thereof).

          When the underlying lock is an *note RLock: 262, it is not
          released using its *note release(): 2e60. method, since this
          may not actually unlock the lock when it was acquired multiple
          times recursively.  Instead, an internal interface of the
          *note RLock: 262. class is used, which really unlocks it even
          when it has been recursively acquired several times.  Another
          internal interface is then used to restore the recursion level
          when the lock is reacquired.

          The return value is ‘True’ unless a given 'timeout' expired,
          in which case it is ‘False’.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Previously, the method always returned
          ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: wait_for (predicate, timeout=None)

          Wait until a condition evaluates to true.  'predicate' should
          be a callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean
          value.  A 'timeout' may be provided giving the maximum time to
          wait.

          This utility method may call *note wait(): 16da. repeatedly
          until the predicate is satisfied, or until a timeout occurs.
          The return value is the last return value of the predicate and
          will evaluate to ‘False’ if the method timed out.

          Ignoring the timeout feature, calling this method is roughly
          equivalent to writing:

               while not predicate():
                   cv.wait()

          Therefore, the same rules apply as with *note wait(): 16da.:
          The lock must be held when called and is re-acquired on
          return.  The predicate is evaluated with the lock held.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: notify (n=1)

          By default, wake up one thread waiting on this condition, if
          any.  If the calling thread has not acquired the lock when
          this method is called, a *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

          This method wakes up at most 'n' of the threads waiting for
          the condition variable; it is a no-op if no threads are
          waiting.

          The current implementation wakes up exactly 'n' threads, if at
          least 'n' threads are waiting.  However, it’s not safe to rely
          on this behavior.  A future, optimized implementation may
          occasionally wake up more than 'n' threads.

          Note: an awakened thread does not actually return from its
          *note wait(): 16da. call until it can reacquire the lock.
          Since *note notify(): 15ff. does not release the lock, its
          caller should.

      -- Yöntemi: notify_all ()

          Wake up all threads waiting on this condition.  This method
          acts like *note notify(): 15ff, but wakes up all waiting
          threads instead of one.  If the calling thread has not
          acquired the lock when this method is called, a *note
          RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

          The method ‘notifyAll’ is a deprecated alias for this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore Objects,  Next: Event Objects,  Prev: Condition Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.6 Semaphore Objects
..........................

This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of
computer science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger
W. Dijkstra (he used the names ‘P()’ and ‘V()’ instead of *note
acquire(): 10fb. and *note release(): 2e64.).

A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
*note acquire(): 10fb. call and incremented by each *note release():
2e64. call.  The counter can never go below zero; when *note acquire():
10fb. finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other thread
calls *note release(): 2e64.

Semaphores also support the *note context management protocol: 2e57.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.Semaphore (value=1)

     This class implements semaphore objects.  A semaphore manages an
     atomic counter representing the number of *note release(): 2e64.
     calls minus the number of *note acquire(): 10fb. calls, plus an
     initial value.  The *note acquire(): 10fb. method blocks if
     necessary until it can return without making the counter negative.
     If not given, 'value' defaults to 1.

     The optional argument gives the initial 'value' for the internal
     counter; it defaults to ‘1’.  If the 'value' given is less than 0,
     *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Yöntemi: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a semaphore.

          When invoked without arguments:

             * If the internal counter is larger than zero on entry,
               decrement it by one and return ‘True’ immediately.

             * If the internal counter is zero on entry, block until
               awoken by a call to *note release(): 2e64.  Once awoken
               (and the counter is greater than 0), decrement the
               counter by 1 and return ‘True’.  Exactly one thread will
               be awoken by each call to *note release(): 2e64.  The
               order in which threads are awoken should not be relied
               on.

          When invoked with 'blocking' set to ‘False’, do not block.  If
          a call without an argument would block, return ‘False’
          immediately; otherwise, do the same thing as when called
          without arguments, and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with a 'timeout' other than ‘None’, it will block
          for at most 'timeout' seconds.  If acquire does not complete
          successfully in that interval, return ‘False’.  Return ‘True’
          otherwise.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

      -- Yöntemi: release (n=1)

          Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by 'n'.
          When it was zero on entry and other threads are waiting for it
          to become larger than zero again, wake up 'n' of those
          threads.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'n' parameter to release
          multiple waiting threads at once.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     Class implementing bounded semaphore objects.  A bounded semaphore
     checks to make sure its current value doesn’t exceed its initial
     value.  If it does, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.  In most
     situations semaphores are used to guard resources with limited
     capacity.  If the semaphore is released too many times it’s a sign
     of a bug.  If not given, 'value' defaults to 1.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: changed from a factory function to a class.

* Menu:

* Semaphore Example::


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore Example,  Up: Semaphore Objects

5.17.1.7 ‘Semaphore’ Example
............................

Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for
example, a database server.  In any situation where the size of the
resource is fixed, you should use a bounded semaphore.  Before spawning
any worker threads, your main thread would initialize the semaphore:

     maxconnections = 5
     # ...
     pool_sema = BoundedSemaphore(value=maxconnections)

Once spawned, worker threads call the semaphore’s acquire and release
methods when they need to connect to the server:

     with pool_sema:
         conn = connectdb()
         try:
             # ... use connection ...
         finally:
             conn.close()

The use of a bounded semaphore reduces the chance that a programming
error which causes the semaphore to be released more than it’s acquired
will go undetected.


File: python.info,  Node: Event Objects,  Next: Timer Objects,  Prev: Semaphore Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.8 Event Objects
......................

This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between
threads: one thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.

An event object manages an internal flag that can be set to true with
the *note set(): 2e69. method and reset to false with the *note clear():
2e6a. method.  The *note wait(): 11d2. method blocks until the flag is
true.

 -- Sınıfı: threading.Event

     Class implementing event objects.  An event manages a flag that can
     be set to true with the *note set(): 2e69. method and reset to
     false with the *note clear(): 2e6a. method.  The *note wait():
     11d2. method blocks until the flag is true.  The flag is initially
     false.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Yöntemi: is_set ()

          Return ‘True’ if and only if the internal flag is true.

          The method ‘isSet’ is a deprecated alias for this method.

      -- Yöntemi: set ()

          Set the internal flag to true.  All threads waiting for it to
          become true are awakened.  Threads that call *note wait():
          11d2. once the flag is true will not block at all.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Reset the internal flag to false.  Subsequently, threads
          calling *note wait(): 11d2. will block until *note set():
          2e69. is called to set the internal flag to true again.

      -- Yöntemi: wait (timeout=None)

          Block as long as the internal flag is false and the timeout,
          if given, has not expired.  The return value represents the
          reason that this blocking method returned; ‘True’ if returning
          because the internal flag is set to true, or ‘False’ if a
          timeout is given and the internal flag did not become true
          within the given wait time.

          When the timeout argument is present and not ‘None’, it should
          be a floating-point number specifying a timeout for the
          operation in seconds, or fractions thereof.

          3.1 sürümünde değişti: Previously, the method always returned
          ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Timer Objects,  Next: Barrier Objects,  Prev: Event Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.9 Timer Objects
......................

This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain
amount of time has passed — a timer.  *note Timer: 1000. is a subclass
of *note Thread: 7a7. and as such also functions as an example of
creating custom threads.

Timers are started, as with threads, by calling their *note Timer.start:
2afc. method.  The timer can be stopped (before its action has begun) by
calling the *note cancel(): 2e6d. method.  The interval the timer will
wait before executing its action may not be exactly the same as the
interval specified by the user.

For example:

     def hello():
         print("hello, world")

     t = Timer(30.0, hello)
     t.start()  # after 30 seconds, "hello, world" will be printed

 -- Sınıfı: threading.Timer (interval, function, args=None, kwargs=None)

     Create a timer that will run 'function' with arguments 'args' and
     keyword arguments 'kwargs', after 'interval' seconds have passed.
     If 'args' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty list will be used.
     If 'kwargs' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty dict will be
     used.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel ()

          Stop the timer, and cancel the execution of the timer’s
          action.  This will only work if the timer is still in its
          waiting stage.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier Objects,  Next: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Prev: Timer Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.10 Barrier Objects
.........................

Added in version 3.2.

This class provides a simple synchronization primitive for use by a
fixed number of threads that need to wait for each other.  Each of the
threads tries to pass the barrier by calling the *note wait(): 2e6f.
method and will block until all of the threads have made their *note
wait(): 2e6f. calls.  At this point, the threads are released
simultaneously.

The barrier can be reused any number of times for the same number of
threads.

As an example, here is a simple way to synchronize a client and server
thread:

     b = Barrier(2, timeout=5)

     def server():
         start_server()
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = accept_connection()
             process_server_connection(connection)

     def client():
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = make_connection()
             process_client_connection(connection)

 -- Sınıfı: threading.Barrier (parties, action=None, timeout=None)

     Create a barrier object for 'parties' number of threads.  An
     'action', when provided, is a callable to be called by one of the
     threads when they are released.  'timeout' is the default timeout
     value if none is specified for the *note wait(): 2e6f. method.

      -- Yöntemi: wait (timeout=None)

          Pass the barrier.  When all the threads party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all released
          simultaneously.  If a 'timeout' is provided, it is used in
          preference to any that was supplied to the class constructor.

          The return value is an integer in the range 0 to 'parties' –
          1, different for each thread.  This can be used to select a
          thread to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               i = barrier.wait()
               if i == 0:
                   # Only one thread needs to print this
                   print("passed the barrier")

          If an 'action' was provided to the constructor, one of the
          threads will have called it prior to being released.  Should
          this call raise an error, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          If the call times out, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 108a.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a thread is
          waiting.

      -- Yöntemi: reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any threads
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 108a.
          exception.

          Note that using this function may require some external
          synchronization if there are other threads whose state is
          unknown.  If a barrier is broken it may be better to just
          leave it and create a new one.

      -- Yöntemi: abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 2e6f. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 108a.  Use this for example if one of the
          threads needs to abort, to avoid deadlocking the application.

          It may be preferable to simply create the barrier with a
          sensible 'timeout' value to automatically guard against one of
          the threads going awry.

      -- Özniteliği: parties

          The number of threads required to pass the barrier.

      -- Özniteliği: n_waiting

          The number of threads currently waiting in the barrier.

      -- Özniteliği: broken

          A boolean that is ‘True’ if the barrier is in the broken
          state.

 -- Özel Durum: threading.BrokenBarrierError

     This exception, a subclass of *note RuntimeError: 180, is raised
     when the *note Barrier: 1088. object is reset or broken.


File: python.info,  Node: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Prev: Barrier Objects,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.17.1.11 Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the ‘with’ statement
.........................................................................

All of the objects provided by this module that have ‘acquire’ and
‘release’ methods can be used as context managers for a *note with: 3dd.
statement.  The ‘acquire’ method will be called when the block is
entered, and ‘release’ will be called when the block is exited.  Hence,
the following snippet:

     with some_lock:
         # do something...

is equivalent to:

     some_lock.acquire()
     try:
         # do something...
     finally:
         some_lock.release()

Currently, *note Lock: 2e58, *note RLock: 262, *note Condition: ffc,
*note Semaphore: ffd, and *note BoundedSemaphore: ffe. objects may be
used as *note with: 3dd. statement context managers.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Next: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Prev: threading — Thread-based parallelism,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.2 ‘multiprocessing’ — Process-based parallelism
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/multiprocessing/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* Programming guidelines::
* Examples: Examples<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/multiprocessing/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<5>,  Next: Reference<2>,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.17.2.1 Introduction
.....................

*note multiprocessing: 93. is a package that supports spawning processes
using an API similar to the *note threading: ec. module.  The *note
multiprocessing: 93. package offers both local and remote concurrency,
effectively side-stepping the *note Global Interpreter Lock: 147. by
using subprocesses instead of threads.  Due to this, the *note
multiprocessing: 93. module allows the programmer to fully leverage
multiple processors on a given machine.  It runs on both POSIX and
Windows.

The *note multiprocessing: 93. module also introduces APIs which do not
have analogs in the *note threading: ec. module.  A prime example of
this is the *note Pool: e0b. object which offers a convenient means of
parallelizing the execution of a function across multiple input values,
distributing the input data across processes (data parallelism).  The
following example demonstrates the common practice of defining such
functions in a module so that child processes can successfully import
that module.  This basic example of data parallelism using *note Pool:
e0b,

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(5) as p:
             print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))

will print to standard output

     [1, 4, 9]

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background process without blocking
execution of the calling process.  Compared to using the *note Pool:
e0b. interface directly, the *note concurrent.futures: 21. API more
readily allows the submission of work to the underlying process pool to
be separated from waiting for the results.

* Menu:

* The Process class::
* Contexts and start methods::
* Exchanging objects between processes::
* Synchronization between processes::
* Sharing state between processes::
* Using a pool of workers::


File: python.info,  Node: The Process class,  Next: Contexts and start methods,  Up: Introduction<5>

5.17.2.2 The ‘Process’ class
............................

In *note multiprocessing: 93, processes are spawned by creating a *note
Process: 9cd. object and then calling its *note start(): 2e7a. method.
*note Process: 9cd. follows the API of *note threading.Thread: 7a7.  A
trivial example of a multiprocess program is

     from multiprocessing import Process

     def f(name):
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

To show the individual process IDs involved, here is an expanded
example:

     from multiprocessing import Process
     import os

     def info(title):
         print(title)
         print('module name:', __name__)
         print('parent process:', os.getppid())
         print('process id:', os.getpid())

     def f(name):
         info('function f')
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         info('main line')
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

For an explanation of why the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ part is
necessary, see *note Programming guidelines: 2e7b.


File: python.info,  Node: Contexts and start methods,  Next: Exchanging objects between processes,  Prev: The Process class,  Up: Introduction<5>

5.17.2.3 Contexts and start methods
...................................

Depending on the platform, *note multiprocessing: 93. supports three
ways to start a process.  These 'start methods' are

     'spawn'

          The parent process starts a fresh Python interpreter process.
          The child process will only inherit those resources necessary
          to run the process object’s *note run(): 2e7d. method.  In
          particular, unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the
          parent process will not be inherited.  Starting a process
          using this method is rather slow compared to using 'fork' or
          'forkserver'.

          Available on POSIX and Windows platforms.  The default on
          Windows and macOS.

     'fork'

          The parent process uses *note os.fork(): 23a. to fork the
          Python interpreter.  The child process, when it begins, is
          effectively identical to the parent process.  All resources of
          the parent are inherited by the child process.  Note that
          safely forking a multithreaded process is problematic.

          Available on POSIX systems.  Currently the default on POSIX
          except macOS.

               Not: The default start method will change away from
               'fork' in Python 3.14.  Code that requires 'fork' should
               explicitly specify that via *note get_context(): 234. or
               *note set_start_method(): 235.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: If Python is able to detect that your
          process has multiple threads, the *note os.fork(): 23a.
          function that this start method calls internally will raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.  Use a different start method.
          See the *note os.fork(): 23a. documentation for further
          explanation.

     'forkserver'

          When the program starts and selects the 'forkserver' start
          method, a server process is spawned.  From then on, whenever a
          new process is needed, the parent process connects to the
          server and requests that it fork a new process.  The fork
          server process is single threaded unless system libraries or
          preloaded imports spawn threads as a side-effect so it is
          generally safe for it to use *note os.fork(): 23a.  No
          unnecessary resources are inherited.

          Available on POSIX platforms which support passing file
          descriptors over Unix pipes such as Linux.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: 'spawn' added on all POSIX platforms, and
'forkserver' added for some POSIX platforms.  Child processes no longer
inherit all of the parents inheritable handles on Windows.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now the
default.  The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe as it can
lead to crashes of the subprocess as macOS system libraries may start
threads.  See bpo-33725(1).

On POSIX using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods will also start
a 'resource tracker' process which tracks the unlinked named system
resources (such as named semaphores or *note SharedMemory: 1493.
objects) created by processes of the program.  When all processes have
exited the resource tracker unlinks any remaining tracked object.
Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal
there may be some “leaked” resources.  (Neither leaked semaphores nor
shared memory segments will be automatically unlinked until the next
reboot.  This is problematic for both objects because the system allows
only a limited number of named semaphores, and shared memory segments
occupy some space in the main memory.)

To select a start method you use the *note set_start_method(): 235. in
the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ clause of the main module.  For example:

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         mp.set_start_method('spawn')
         q = mp.Queue()
         p = mp.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

*note set_start_method(): 235. should not be used more than once in the
program.

Alternatively, you can use *note get_context(): 234. to obtain a context
object.  Context objects have the same API as the multiprocessing
module, and allow one to use multiple start methods in the same program.

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         ctx = mp.get_context('spawn')
         q = ctx.Queue()
         p = ctx.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

Note that objects related to one context may not be compatible with
processes for a different context.  In particular, locks created using
the 'fork' context cannot be passed to processes started using the
'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods.

A library which wants to use a particular start method should probably
use *note get_context(): 234. to avoid interfering with the choice of
the library user.

     Uyarı: The ‘'spawn'’ and ‘'forkserver'’ start methods generally
     cannot be used with “frozen” executables (i.e., binaries produced
     by packages like 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze') on POSIX systems.
     The ‘'fork'’ start method may work if code does not use threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Exchanging objects between processes,  Next: Synchronization between processes,  Prev: Contexts and start methods,  Up: Introduction<5>

5.17.2.4 Exchanging objects between processes
.............................................

*note multiprocessing: 93. supports two types of communication channel
between processes:

'Queues'

     The *note Queue: 14ad. class is a near clone of *note queue.Queue:
     1235.  For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put([42, None, 'hello'])

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              q = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
              p.start()
              print(q.get())    # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     Queues are thread and process safe.  Any object put into a *note
     multiprocessing: 93. queue will be serialized.

'Pipes'

     The *note Pipe(): 2e7f. function returns a pair of connection
     objects connected by a pipe which by default is duplex (two-way).
     For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe

          def f(conn):
              conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
              conn.close()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
              p.start()
              print(parent_conn.recv())   # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     The two connection objects returned by *note Pipe(): 2e7f.
     represent the two ends of the pipe.  Each connection object has
     ‘send()’ and ‘recv()’ methods (among others).  Note that data in a
     pipe may become corrupted if two processes (or threads) try to read
     from or write to the 'same' end of the pipe at the same time.  Of
     course there is no risk of corruption from processes using
     different ends of the pipe at the same time.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object and ‘recv()’ re-creates
     the object.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization between processes,  Next: Sharing state between processes,  Prev: Exchanging objects between processes,  Up: Introduction<5>

5.17.2.5 Synchronization between processes
..........................................

*note multiprocessing: 93. contains equivalents of all the
synchronization primitives from *note threading: ec.  For instance one
can use a lock to ensure that only one process prints to standard output
at a time:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

     def f(l, i):
         l.acquire()
         try:
             print('hello world', i)
         finally:
             l.release()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         for num in range(10):
             Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()

Without using the lock output from the different processes is liable to
get all mixed up.


File: python.info,  Node: Sharing state between processes,  Next: Using a pool of workers,  Prev: Synchronization between processes,  Up: Introduction<5>

5.17.2.6 Sharing state between processes
........................................

As mentioned above, when doing concurrent programming it is usually best
to avoid using shared state as far as possible.  This is particularly
true when using multiple processes.

However, if you really do need to use some shared data then *note
multiprocessing: 93. provides a couple of ways of doing so.

'Shared memory'

     Data can be stored in a shared memory map using *note Value: 2e82.
     or *note Array: 2e83.  For example, the following code

          from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array

          def f(n, a):
              n.value = 3.1415927
              for i in range(len(a)):
                  a[i] = -a[i]

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              num = Value('d', 0.0)
              arr = Array('i', range(10))

              p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))
              p.start()
              p.join()

              print(num.value)
              print(arr[:])

     will print

          3.1415927
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]

     The ‘'d'’ and ‘'i'’ arguments used when creating ‘num’ and ‘arr’
     are typecodes of the kind used by the *note array: 7. module: ‘'d'’
     indicates a double precision float and ‘'i'’ indicates a signed
     integer.  These shared objects will be process and thread-safe.

     For more flexibility in using shared memory one can use the *note
     multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 99. module which supports the
     creation of arbitrary ctypes objects allocated from shared memory.

'Server process'

     A manager object returned by *note Manager(): b3d. controls a
     server process which holds Python objects and allows other
     processes to manipulate them using proxies.

     A manager returned by *note Manager(): b3d. will support types
     *note list: 422, *note dict: 240, *note Namespace: 2e84, *note
     Lock: 1424, *note RLock: 1425, *note Semaphore: 2e85, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: 2e86, *note Condition: 2e87, *note Event: 168b,
     *note Barrier: 2e88, *note Queue: 14ad, *note Value: 2e82. and
     *note Array: 2e83.  For example,

          from multiprocessing import Process, Manager

          def f(d, l):
              d[1] = '1'
              d['2'] = 2
              d[0.25] = None
              l.reverse()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              with Manager() as manager:
                  d = manager.dict()
                  l = manager.list(range(10))

                  p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l))
                  p.start()
                  p.join()

                  print(d)
                  print(l)

     will print

          {0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}
          [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

     Server process managers are more flexible than using shared memory
     objects because they can be made to support arbitrary object types.
     Also, a single manager can be shared by processes on different
     computers over a network.  They are, however, slower than using
     shared memory.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a pool of workers,  Prev: Sharing state between processes,  Up: Introduction<5>

5.17.2.7 Using a pool of workers
................................

The *note Pool: e0b. class represents a pool of worker processes.  It
has methods which allows tasks to be offloaded to the worker processes
in a few different ways.

For example:

     from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError
     import time
     import os

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # start 4 worker processes
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:

             # print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))

             # print same numbers in arbitrary order
             for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
                 print(i)

             # evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,))      # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints "400"

             # evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints the PID of that process

             # launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes
             multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
             print([res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results])

             # make a single worker sleep for 10 seconds
             res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             try:
                 print(res.get(timeout=1))
             except TimeoutError:
                 print("We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError")

             print("For the moment, the pool remains available for more work")

         # exiting the 'with'-block has stopped the pool
         print("Now the pool is closed and no longer available")

Note that the methods of a pool should only ever be used by the process
which created it.

     Not: Functionality within this package requires that the ‘__main__’
     module be importable by the children.  This is covered in *note
     Programming guidelines: 2e7b. however it is worth pointing out
     here.  This means that some examples, such as the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.Pool: e0b. examples will not work in the
     interactive interpreter.  For example:

          >>> from multiprocessing import Pool
          >>> p = Pool(5)
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     return x*x
          ...
          >>> with p:
          ...     p.map(f, [1,2,3])
          Process PoolWorker-1:
          Process PoolWorker-2:
          Process PoolWorker-3:
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>

     (If you try this it will actually output three full tracebacks
     interleaved in a semi-random fashion, and then you may have to stop
     the parent process somehow.)


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<2>,  Next: Programming guidelines,  Prev: Introduction<5>,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.17.2.8 Reference
..................

The *note multiprocessing: 93. package mostly replicates the API of the
*note threading: ec. module.

* Menu:

* Process and exceptions::
* Pipes and Queues::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<3>.
* Connection Objects::
* Synchronization primitives::
* Shared ctypes Objects::
* Managers::
* Proxy Objects::
* Process Pools::
* Listeners and Clients::
* Authentication keys::
* Logging::
* The multiprocessing.dummy module: The multiprocessing dummy module.


File: python.info,  Node: Process and exceptions,  Next: Pipes and Queues,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.9 ‘Process’ and exceptions
.................................

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.Process (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     Process objects represent activity that is run in a separate
     process.  The *note Process: 9cd. class has equivalents of all the
     methods of *note threading.Thread: 7a7.

     The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     'group' should always be ‘None’; it exists solely for compatibility
     with *note threading.Thread: 7a7.  'target' is the callable object
     to be invoked by the *note run(): 2e7d. method.  It defaults to
     ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.  'name' is the process name (see
     *note name: 2e8c. for more details).  'args' is the argument tuple
     for the target invocation.  'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword
     arguments for the target invocation.  If provided, the keyword-only
     'daemon' argument sets the process *note daemon: 2e8d. flag to
     ‘True’ or ‘False’.  If ‘None’ (the default), this flag will be
     inherited from the creating process.

     By default, no arguments are passed to 'target'.  The 'args'
     argument, which defaults to ‘()’, can be used to specify a list or
     tuple of the arguments to pass to 'target'.

     If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it
     invokes the base class constructor (‘Process.__init__()’) before
     doing anything else to the process.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'daemon' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: run ()

          Method representing the process’s activity.

          You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard
          *note run(): 2e7d. method invokes the callable object passed
          to the object’s constructor as the target argument, if any,
          with sequential and keyword arguments taken from the 'args'
          and 'kwargs' arguments, respectively.

          Using a list or tuple as the 'args' argument passed to *note
          Process: 9cd. achieves the same effect.

          Example:

               >>> from multiprocessing import Process
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> p.run()
               1
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> p.run()
               1

      -- Yöntemi: start ()

          Start the process’s activity.

          This must be called at most once per process object.  It
          arranges for the object’s *note run(): 2e7d. method to be
          invoked in a separate process.

      -- Yöntemi: join ([timeout])

          If the optional argument 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default),
          the method blocks until the process whose *note join(): 2e8e.
          method is called terminates.  If 'timeout' is a positive
          number, it blocks at most 'timeout' seconds.  Note that the
          method returns ‘None’ if its process terminates or if the
          method times out.  Check the process’s *note exitcode: 2e8f.
          to determine if it terminated.

          A process can be joined many times.

          A process cannot join itself because this would cause a
          deadlock.  It is an error to attempt to join a process before
          it has been started.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The process’s name.  The name is a string used for
          identification purposes only.  It has no semantics.  Multiple
          processes may be given the same name.

          The initial name is set by the constructor.  If no explicit
          name is provided to the constructor, a name of the form
          ‘Process-N[1]:N[2]:…:N[k]’ is constructed, where each N[k] is
          the N-th child of its parent.

      -- Yöntemi: is_alive ()

          Return whether the process is alive.

          Roughly, a process object is alive from the moment the *note
          start(): 2e7a. method returns until the child process
          terminates.

      -- Özniteliği: daemon

          The process’s daemon flag, a Boolean value.  This must be set
          before *note start(): 2e7a. is called.

          The initial value is inherited from the creating process.

          When a process exits, it attempts to terminate all of its
          daemonic child processes.

          Note that a daemonic process is not allowed to create child
          processes.  Otherwise a daemonic process would leave its
          children orphaned if it gets terminated when its parent
          process exits.  Additionally, these are 'not' Unix daemons or
          services, they are normal processes that will be terminated
          (and not joined) if non-daemonic processes have exited.

     In addition to the *note threading.Thread: 7a7. API, *note Process:
     9cd. objects also support the following attributes and methods:

      -- Özniteliği: pid

          Return the process ID. Before the process is spawned, this
          will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: exitcode

          The child’s exit code.  This will be ‘None’ if the process has
          not yet terminated.

          If the child’s *note run(): 2e7d. method returned normally,
          the exit code will be 0.  If it terminated via *note
          sys.exit(): 11f5. with an integer argument 'N', the exit code
          will be 'N'.

          If the child terminated due to an exception not caught within
          *note run(): 2e7d, the exit code will be 1.  If it was
          terminated by signal 'N', the exit code will be the negative
          value '-N'.

      -- Özniteliği: authkey

          The process’s authentication key (a byte string).

          When *note multiprocessing: 93. is initialized the main
          process is assigned a random string using *note os.urandom():
          2ad.

          When a *note Process: 9cd. object is created, it will inherit
          the authentication key of its parent process, although this
          may be changed by setting *note authkey: 2e92. to another byte
          string.

          See *note Authentication keys: 2e93.

      -- Özniteliği: sentinel

          A numeric handle of a system object which will become “ready”
          when the process ends.

          You can use this value if you want to wait on several events
          at once using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f82.
          Otherwise calling *note join(): 2e8e. is simpler.

          On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the
          ‘WaitForSingleObject’ and ‘WaitForMultipleObjects’ family of
          API calls.  On POSIX, this is a file descriptor usable with
          primitives from the *note select: c0. module.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: terminate ()

          Terminate the process.  On POSIX this is done using the *note
          SIGTERM: 1266. signal; on Windows ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          used.  Note that exit handlers and finally clauses, etc., will
          not be executed.

          Note that descendant processes of the process will 'not' be
          terminated – they will simply become orphaned.

               Uyarı: If this method is used when the associated process
               is using a pipe or queue then the pipe or queue is liable
               to become corrupted and may become unusable by other
               process.  Similarly, if the process has acquired a lock
               or semaphore etc.  then terminating it is liable to cause
               other processes to deadlock.

      -- Yöntemi: kill ()

          Same as *note terminate(): 2e94. but using the ‘SIGKILL’
          signal on POSIX.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the *note Process: 9cd. object, releasing all resources
          associated with it.  *note ValueError: 189. is raised if the
          underlying process is still running.  Once *note close(): 9cb.
          returns successfully, most other methods and attributes of the
          *note Process: 9cd. object will raise *note ValueError: 189.

          Added in version 3.7.

     Note that the *note start(): 2e7a, *note join(): 2e8e, *note
     is_alive(): 2e90, *note terminate(): 2e94. and *note exitcode:
     2e8f. methods should only be called by the process that created the
     process object.

     Example usage of some of the methods of *note Process: 9cd.:

          >>> import multiprocessing, time, signal
          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> p = mp_context.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... initial> False
          >>> p.start()
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... started> True
          >>> p.terminate()
          >>> time.sleep(0.1)
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... stopped exitcode=-SIGTERM> False
          >>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
          True

 -- Özel Durum: multiprocessing.ProcessError

     The base class of all *note multiprocessing: 93. exceptions.

 -- Özel Durum: multiprocessing.BufferTooShort

     Exception raised by ‘Connection.recv_bytes_into()’ when the
     supplied buffer object is too small for the message read.

     If ‘e’ is an instance of *note BufferTooShort: 2e96. then
     ‘e.args[0]’ will give the message as a byte string.

 -- Özel Durum: multiprocessing.AuthenticationError

     Raised when there is an authentication error.

 -- Özel Durum: multiprocessing.TimeoutError

     Raised by methods with a timeout when the timeout expires.


File: python.info,  Node: Pipes and Queues,  Next: Miscellaneous<3>,  Prev: Process and exceptions,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.10 Pipes and Queues
..........................

When using multiple processes, one generally uses message passing for
communication between processes and avoids having to use any
synchronization primitives like locks.

For passing messages one can use *note Pipe(): 2e7f. (for a connection
between two processes) or a queue (which allows multiple producers and
consumers).

The *note Queue: 14ad, *note SimpleQueue: 76a. and *note JoinableQueue:
2e9a. types are multi-producer, multi-consumer FIFO queues modelled on
the *note queue.Queue: 1235. class in the standard library.  They differ
in that *note Queue: 14ad. lacks the *note task_done(): 2e9b. and *note
join(): 2e9c. methods introduced into Python 2.5’s *note queue.Queue:
1235. class.

If you use *note JoinableQueue: 2e9a. then you 'must' call *note
JoinableQueue.task_done(): 2e9d. for each task removed from the queue or
else the semaphore used to count the number of unfinished tasks may
eventually overflow, raising an exception.

One difference from other Python queue implementations, is that *note
multiprocessing: 93. queues serializes all objects that are put into
them using *note pickle: a5.  The object return by the get method is a
re-created object that does not share memory with the original object.

Note that one can also create a shared queue by using a manager object –
see *note Managers: 2e9e.

     Not: *note multiprocessing: 93. uses the usual *note queue.Empty:
     2e9f. and *note queue.Full: 2ea0. exceptions to signal a timeout.
     They are not available in the *note multiprocessing: 93. namespace
     so you need to import them from *note queue: b5.

     Not: When an object is put on a queue, the object is pickled and a
     background thread later flushes the pickled data to an underlying
     pipe.  This has some consequences which are a little surprising,
     but should not cause any practical difficulties – if they really
     bother you then you can instead use a queue created with a *note
     manager: 2e9e.

       1. After putting an object on an empty queue there may be an
          infinitesimal delay before the queue’s *note empty(): 146d.
          method returns *note False: 9a8. and *note get_nowait(): 2ea1.
          can return without raising *note queue.Empty: 2e9f.

       2. If multiple processes are enqueuing objects, it is possible
          for the objects to be received at the other end out-of-order.
          However, objects enqueued by the same process will always be
          in the expected order with respect to each other.

     Uyarı: If a process is killed using *note Process.terminate():
     2e94. or *note os.kill(): 120e. while it is trying to use a *note
     Queue: 14ad, then the data in the queue is likely to become
     corrupted.  This may cause any other process to get an exception
     when it tries to use the queue later on.

     Uyarı: As mentioned above, if a child process has put items on a
     queue (and it has not used *note JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread:
     2ea2.), then that process will not terminate until all buffered
     items have been flushed to the pipe.

     This means that if you try joining that process you may get a
     deadlock unless you are sure that all items which have been put on
     the queue have been consumed.  Similarly, if the child process is
     non-daemonic then the parent process may hang on exit when it tries
     to join all its non-daemonic children.

     Note that a queue created using a manager does not have this issue.
     See *note Programming guidelines: 2e7b.

For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
*note Examples: 2ea3.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.Pipe ([duplex])

     Returns a pair ‘(conn1, conn2)’ of *note Connection: 14a9. objects
     representing the ends of a pipe.

     If 'duplex' is ‘True’ (the default) then the pipe is bidirectional.
     If 'duplex' is ‘False’ then the pipe is unidirectional: ‘conn1’ can
     only be used for receiving messages and ‘conn2’ can only be used
     for sending messages.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object using *note pickle: a5.
     and the ‘recv()’ re-creates the object.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.Queue ([maxsize])

     Returns a process shared queue implemented using a pipe and a few
     locks/semaphores.  When a process first puts an item on the queue a
     feeder thread is started which transfers objects from a buffer into
     the pipe.

     The usual *note queue.Empty: 2e9f. and *note queue.Full: 2ea0.
     exceptions from the standard library’s *note queue: b5. module are
     raised to signal timeouts.

     *note Queue: 14ad. implements all the methods of *note queue.Queue:
     1235. except for *note task_done(): 2e9b. and *note join(): 2e9c.

      -- Yöntemi: qsize ()

          Return the approximate size of the queue.  Because of
          multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this number is not
          reliable.

          Note that this may raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. on
          platforms like macOS where ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not
          implemented.

      -- Yöntemi: empty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.
          Because of multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is
          not reliable.

          May raise an *note OSError: 65c. on closed queues.  (not
          guaranteed)

      -- Yöntemi: full ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is full, ‘False’ otherwise.
          Because of multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is
          not reliable.

      -- Yöntemi: put (obj[, block[, timeout]])

          Put obj into the queue.  If the optional argument 'block' is
          ‘True’ (the default) and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default),
          block if necessary until a free slot is available.  If
          'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at most 'timeout'
          seconds and raises the *note queue.Full: 2ea0. exception if no
          free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise ('block'
          is ‘False’), put an item on the queue if a free slot is
          immediately available, else raise the *note queue.Full: 2ea0.
          exception ('timeout' is ignored in that case).

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: If the queue is closed, *note
          ValueError: 189. is raised instead of *note AssertionError:
          4bf.

      -- Yöntemi: put_nowait (obj)

          Equivalent to ‘put(obj, False)’.

      -- Yöntemi: get ([block[, timeout]])

          Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args
          'block' is ‘True’ (the default) and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the
          default), block if necessary until an item is available.  If
          'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at most 'timeout'
          seconds and raises the *note queue.Empty: 2e9f. exception if
          no item was available within that time.  Otherwise (block is
          ‘False’), return an item if one is immediately available, else
          raise the *note queue.Empty: 2e9f. exception ('timeout' is
          ignored in that case).

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: If the queue is closed, *note
          ValueError: 189. is raised instead of *note OSError: 65c.

      -- Yöntemi: get_nowait ()

          Equivalent to ‘get(False)’.

     *note multiprocessing.Queue: 14ad. has a few additional methods not
     found in *note queue.Queue: 1235.  These methods are usually
     unnecessary for most code:

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Indicate that no more data will be put on this queue by the
          current process.  The background thread will quit once it has
          flushed all buffered data to the pipe.  This is called
          automatically when the queue is garbage collected.

      -- Yöntemi: join_thread ()

          Join the background thread.  This can only be used after *note
          close(): 1620. has been called.  It blocks until the
          background thread exits, ensuring that all data in the buffer
          has been flushed to the pipe.

          By default if a process is not the creator of the queue then
          on exit it will attempt to join the queue’s background thread.
          The process can call *note cancel_join_thread(): 2ea2. to make
          *note join_thread(): 2ea7. do nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel_join_thread ()

          Prevent *note join_thread(): 2ea7. from blocking.  In
          particular, this prevents the background thread from being
          joined automatically when the process exits – see *note
          join_thread(): 2ea7.

          A better name for this method might be
          ‘allow_exit_without_flush()’.  It is likely to cause enqueued
          data to be lost, and you almost certainly will not need to use
          it.  It is really only there if you need the current process
          to exit immediately without waiting to flush enqueued data to
          the underlying pipe, and you don’t care about lost data.

          Not: This class’s functionality requires a functioning shared
          semaphore implementation on the host operating system.
          Without one, the functionality in this class will be disabled,
          and attempts to instantiate a *note Queue: 14ad. will result
          in an *note ImportError: 14b.  See bpo-3770(1) for additional
          information.  The same holds true for any of the specialized
          queue types listed below.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.SimpleQueue

     It is a simplified *note Queue: 14ad. type, very close to a locked
     *note Pipe: 2e7f.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the queue: release internal resources.

          A queue must not be used anymore after it is closed.  For
          example, *note get(): 2ea8, *note put(): 2ea9. and *note
          empty(): 146e. methods must no longer be called.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Yöntemi: empty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.

          Always raises an *note OSError: 65c. if the SimpleQueue is
          closed.

      -- Yöntemi: get ()

          Remove and return an item from the queue.

      -- Yöntemi: put (item)

          Put 'item' into the queue.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.JoinableQueue ([maxsize])

     *note JoinableQueue: 2e9a, a *note Queue: 14ad. subclass, is a
     queue which additionally has *note task_done(): 2e9d. and *note
     join(): 2eaa. methods.

      -- Yöntemi: task_done ()

          Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.  Used by
          queue consumers.  For each *note get(): 187b. used to fetch a
          task, a subsequent call to *note task_done(): 2e9d. tells the
          queue that the processing on the task is complete.

          If a *note join(): 2e9c. is currently blocking, it will resume
          when all items have been processed (meaning that a *note
          task_done(): 2e9d. call was received for every item that had
          been *note put(): 187a. into the queue).

          Raises a *note ValueError: 189. if called more times than
          there were items placed in the queue.

      -- Yöntemi: join ()

          Block until all items in the queue have been gotten and
          processed.

          The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is
          added to the queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer
          calls *note task_done(): 2e9d. to indicate that the item was
          retrieved and all work on it is complete.  When the count of
          unfinished tasks drops to zero, *note join(): 2e9c. unblocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous<3>,  Next: Connection Objects,  Prev: Pipes and Queues,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.11 Miscellaneous
.......................

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.active_children ()

     Return list of all live children of the current process.

     Calling this has the side effect of “joining” any processes which
     have already finished.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of CPUs in the system.

     This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current
     process can use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
     ‘len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))’

     When the number of CPUs cannot be determined a *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6. is raised.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note os.cpu_count(): 654.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.current_process ()

     Return the *note Process: 9cd. object corresponding to the current
     process.

     An analogue of *note threading.current_thread(): 27f.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.parent_process ()

     Return the *note Process: 9cd. object corresponding to the parent
     process of the *note current_process(): 2ead.  For the main
     process, ‘parent_process’ will be ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.freeze_support ()

     Add support for when a program which uses *note multiprocessing:
     93. has been frozen to produce a Windows executable.  (Has been
     tested with 'py2exe', 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze'.)

     One needs to call this function straight after the ‘if __name__ ==
     '__main__'’ line of the main module.  For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

          def f():
              print('hello world!')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              Process(target=f).start()

     If the ‘freeze_support()’ line is omitted then trying to run the
     frozen executable will raise *note RuntimeError: 180.

     Calling ‘freeze_support()’ has no effect when invoked on any
     operating system other than Windows.  In addition, if the module is
     being run normally by the Python interpreter on Windows (the
     program has not been frozen), then ‘freeze_support()’ has no
     effect.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods ()

     Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which
     is the default.  The possible start methods are ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’
     and ‘'forkserver'’.  Not all platforms support all methods.  See
     *note Contexts and start methods: 236.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.get_context (method=None)

     Return a context object which has the same attributes as the *note
     multiprocessing: 93. module.

     If 'method' is ‘None’ then the default context is returned.
     Otherwise 'method' should be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’.
     *note ValueError: 189. is raised if the specified start method is
     not available.  See *note Contexts and start methods: 236.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.get_start_method (allow_none=False)

     Return the name of start method used for starting processes.

     If the start method has not been fixed and 'allow_none' is false,
     then the start method is fixed to the default and the name is
     returned.  If the start method has not been fixed and 'allow_none'
     is true then ‘None’ is returned.

     The return value can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’ or
     ‘None’.  See *note Contexts and start methods: 236.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now
     the default.  The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe
     as it can lead to crashes of the subprocess.  See bpo-33725(1).

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.set_executable (executable)

     Set the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child
     process.  (By default *note sys.executable: 36c. is used).
     Embedders will probably need to do some thing like

          set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))

     before they can create child processes.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Now supported on POSIX when the ‘'spawn'’
     start method is used.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload (module_names)

     Set a list of module names for the forkserver main process to
     attempt to import so that their already imported state is inherited
     by forked processes.  Any *note ImportError: 14b. when doing so is
     silently ignored.  This can be used as a performance enhancement to
     avoid repeated work in every process.

     For this to work, it must be called before the forkserver process
     has been launched (before creating a ‘Pool’ or starting a *note
     Process: 9cd.).

     Only meaningful when using the ‘'forkserver'’ start method.  See
     *note Contexts and start methods: 236.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.set_start_method (method, force=False)

     Set the method which should be used to start child processes.  The
     'method' argument can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’ or ‘'forkserver'’.
     Raises *note RuntimeError: 180. if the start method has already
     been set and 'force' is not ‘True’.  If 'method' is ‘None’ and
     'force' is ‘True’ then the start method is set to ‘None’.  If
     'method' is ‘None’ and 'force' is ‘False’ then the context is set
     to the default context.

     Note that this should be called at most once, and it should be
     protected inside the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ clause of the main
     module.

     See *note Contexts and start methods: 236.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Not: *note multiprocessing: 93. contains no analogues of *note
     threading.active_count(): 280, *note threading.enumerate(): 16cd,
     *note threading.settrace(): 687, *note threading.setprofile(): 688,
     *note threading.Timer: 1000, or *note threading.local: 1589.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Connection Objects,  Next: Synchronization primitives,  Prev: Miscellaneous<3>,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.12 Connection Objects
............................

Connection objects allow the sending and receiving of picklable objects
or strings.  They can be thought of as message oriented connected
sockets.

Connection objects are usually created using *note Pipe: 2e7f. – see
also *note Listeners and Clients: 2eb1.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.connection.Connection

      -- Yöntemi: send (obj)

          Send an object to the other end of the connection which should
          be read using *note recv(): 2eb3.

          The object must be picklable.  Very large pickles
          (approximately 32 MiB+, though it depends on the OS) may raise
          a *note ValueError: 189. exception.

      -- Yöntemi: recv ()

          Return an object sent from the other end of the connection
          using *note send(): 2eb2.  Blocks until there is something to
          receive.  Raises *note EOFError: 1183. if there is nothing
          left to receive and the other end was closed.

      -- Yöntemi: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor or handle used by the connection.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the connection.

          This is called automatically when the connection is garbage
          collected.

      -- Yöntemi: poll ([timeout])

          Return whether there is any data available to be read.

          If 'timeout' is not specified then it will return immediately.
          If 'timeout' is a number then this specifies the maximum time
          in seconds to block.  If 'timeout' is ‘None’ then an infinite
          timeout is used.

          Note that multiple connection objects may be polled at once by
          using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): f82.

      -- Yöntemi: send_bytes (buffer[, offset[, size]])

          Send byte data from a *note bytes-like object: bb5. as a
          complete message.

          If 'offset' is given then data is read from that position in
          'buffer'.  If 'size' is given then that many bytes will be
          read from buffer.  Very large buffers (approximately 32 MiB+,
          though it depends on the OS) may raise a *note ValueError:
          189. exception

      -- Yöntemi: recv_bytes ([maxlength])

          Return a complete message of byte data sent from the other end
          of the connection as a string.  Blocks until there is
          something to receive.  Raises *note EOFError: 1183. if there
          is nothing left to receive and the other end has closed.

          If 'maxlength' is specified and the message is longer than
          'maxlength' then *note OSError: 65c. is raised and the
          connection will no longer be readable.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: This function used to raise *note
          IOError: efc, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

      -- Yöntemi: recv_bytes_into (buffer[, offset])

          Read into 'buffer' a complete message of byte data sent from
          the other end of the connection and return the number of bytes
          in the message.  Blocks until there is something to receive.
          Raises *note EOFError: 1183. if there is nothing left to
          receive and the other end was closed.

          'buffer' must be a writable *note bytes-like object: bb5.  If
          'offset' is given then the message will be written into the
          buffer from that position.  Offset must be a non-negative
          integer less than the length of 'buffer' (in bytes).

          If the buffer is too short then a ‘BufferTooShort’ exception
          is raised and the complete message is available as ‘e.args[0]’
          where ‘e’ is the exception instance.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Connection objects themselves can now be
     transferred between processes using *note Connection.send(): 2eb2.
     and *note Connection.recv(): 2eb3.

     Connection objects also now support the context management protocol
     – see *note Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri: 1dae.  *note __enter__():
     203b. returns the connection object, and *note __exit__(): 203c.
     calls *note close(): 2eb5.

For example:

     >>> from multiprocessing import Pipe
     >>> a, b = Pipe()
     >>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
     >>> b.recv()
     [1, 'hello', None]
     >>> b.send_bytes(b'thank you')
     >>> a.recv_bytes()
     b'thank you'
     >>> import array
     >>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
     >>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
     >>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
     >>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
     >>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
     >>> arr2
     array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
     Uyarı: The *note Connection.recv(): 2eb3. method automatically
     unpickles the data it receives, which can be a security risk unless
     you can trust the process which sent the message.

     Therefore, unless the connection object was produced using ‘Pipe()’
     you should only use the *note recv(): 2eb3. and *note send(): 2eb2.
     methods after performing some sort of authentication.  See *note
     Authentication keys: 2e93.

     Uyarı: If a process is killed while it is trying to read or write
     to a pipe then the data in the pipe is likely to become corrupted,
     because it may become impossible to be sure where the message
     boundaries lie.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization primitives,  Next: Shared ctypes Objects,  Prev: Connection Objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.13 Synchronization primitives
....................................

Generally synchronization primitives are not as necessary in a
multiprocess program as they are in a multithreaded program.  See the
documentation for *note threading: ec. module.

Note that one can also create synchronization primitives by using a
manager object – see *note Managers: 2e9e.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

     A barrier object: a clone of *note threading.Barrier: 1088.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore ([value])

     A bounded semaphore object: a close analog of *note
     threading.BoundedSemaphore: ffe.

     A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ‘acquire’
     method’s first argument is named 'block', as is consistent with
     *note Lock.acquire(): 2ebc.

          Not: On macOS, this is indistinguishable from *note Semaphore:
          2e85. because ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not implemented on that
          platform.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.Condition ([lock])

     A condition variable: an alias for *note threading.Condition: ffc.

     If 'lock' is specified then it should be a *note Lock: 1424. or
     *note RLock: 1425. object from *note multiprocessing: 93.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The *note wait_for(): 2e61. method was
     added.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.Event

     A clone of *note threading.Event: fff.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.Lock

     A non-recursive lock object: a close analog of *note
     threading.Lock: 2e58.  Once a process or thread has acquired a
     lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it from any process or thread
     will block until it is released; any process or thread may release
     it.  The concepts and behaviors of *note threading.Lock: 2e58. as
     it applies to threads are replicated here in *note
     multiprocessing.Lock: 1424. as it applies to either processes or
     threads, except as noted.

     Note that *note Lock: 1424. is actually a factory function which
     returns an instance of ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock’
     initialized with a default context.

     *note Lock: 1424. supports the *note context manager: 3df. protocol
     and thus may be used in *note with: 3dd. statements.

      -- Yöntemi: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          With the 'block' argument set to ‘True’ (the default), the
          method call will block until the lock is in an unlocked state,
          then set it to locked and return ‘True’.  Note that the name
          of this first argument differs from that in *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): 4ad.

          With the 'block' argument set to ‘False’, the method call does
          not block.  If the lock is currently in a locked state, return
          ‘False’; otherwise set the lock to a locked state and return
          ‘True’.

          When invoked with a positive, floating-point value for
          'timeout', block for at most the number of seconds specified
          by 'timeout' as long as the lock can not be acquired.
          Invocations with a negative value for 'timeout' are equivalent
          to a 'timeout' of zero.  Invocations with a 'timeout' value of
          ‘None’ (the default) set the timeout period to infinite.  Note
          that the treatment of negative or ‘None’ values for 'timeout'
          differs from the implemented behavior in *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): 4ad.  The 'timeout' argument has no
          practical implications if the 'block' argument is set to
          ‘False’ and is thus ignored.  Returns ‘True’ if the lock has
          been acquired or ‘False’ if the timeout period has elapsed.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release a lock.  This can be called from any process or
          thread, not only the process or thread which originally
          acquired the lock.

          Behavior is the same as in *note threading.Lock.release():
          116b. except that when invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note
          ValueError: 189. is raised.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.RLock

     A recursive lock object: a close analog of *note threading.RLock:
     262.  A recursive lock must be released by the process or thread
     that acquired it.  Once a process or thread has acquired a
     recursive lock, the same process or thread may acquire it again
     without blocking; that process or thread must release it once for
     each time it has been acquired.

     Note that *note RLock: 1425. is actually a factory function which
     returns an instance of ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock’
     initialized with a default context.

     *note RLock: 1425. supports the *note context manager: 3df.
     protocol and thus may be used in *note with: 3dd. statements.

      -- Yöntemi: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          When invoked with the 'block' argument set to ‘True’, block
          until the lock is in an unlocked state (not owned by any
          process or thread) unless the lock is already owned by the
          current process or thread.  The current process or thread then
          takes ownership of the lock (if it does not already have
          ownership) and the recursion level inside the lock increments
          by one, resulting in a return value of ‘True’.  Note that
          there are several differences in this first argument’s
          behavior compared to the implementation of *note
          threading.RLock.acquire(): d10, starting with the name of the
          argument itself.

          When invoked with the 'block' argument set to ‘False’, do not
          block.  If the lock has already been acquired (and thus is
          owned) by another process or thread, the current process or
          thread does not take ownership and the recursion level within
          the lock is not changed, resulting in a return value of
          ‘False’.  If the lock is in an unlocked state, the current
          process or thread takes ownership and the recursion level is
          incremented, resulting in a return value of ‘True’.

          Use and behaviors of the 'timeout' argument are the same as in
          *note Lock.acquire(): 2ebc.  Note that some of these behaviors
          of 'timeout' differ from the implemented behaviors in *note
          threading.RLock.acquire(): d10.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after
          the decrement the recursion level is zero, reset the lock to
          unlocked (not owned by any process or thread) and if any other
          processes or threads are blocked waiting for the lock to
          become unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.  If
          after the decrement the recursion level is still nonzero, the
          lock remains locked and owned by the calling process or
          thread.

          Only call this method when the calling process or thread owns
          the lock.  An *note AssertionError: 4bf. is raised if this
          method is called by a process or thread other than the owner
          or if the lock is in an unlocked (unowned) state.  Note that
          the type of exception raised in this situation differs from
          the implemented behavior in *note threading.RLock.release():
          2e5c.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.Semaphore ([value])

     A semaphore object: a close analog of *note threading.Semaphore:
     ffd.

     A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ‘acquire’
     method’s first argument is named 'block', as is consistent with
     *note Lock.acquire(): 2ebc.

     Not: On macOS, ‘sem_timedwait’ is unsupported, so calling
     ‘acquire()’ with a timeout will emulate that function’s behavior
     using a sleeping loop.

     Not: Some of this package’s functionality requires a functioning
     shared semaphore implementation on the host operating system.
     Without one, the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module will be
     disabled, and attempts to import it will result in an *note
     ImportError: 14b.  See bpo-3770(1) for additional information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: Shared ctypes Objects,  Next: Managers,  Prev: Synchronization primitives,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.14 Shared ‘ctypes’ Objects
.................................

It is possible to create shared objects using shared memory which can be
inherited by child processes.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.Value (typecode_or_type, *args, lock=True)

     Return a *note ctypes: 2a. object allocated from shared memory.  By
     default the return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the
     object.  The object itself can be accessed via the 'value'
     attribute of a *note Value: 2e82.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the returned object: it
     is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind
     used by the *note array: 7. module.  '*args' is passed on to the
     constructor for the type.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new recursive lock object
     is created to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a
     *note Lock: 1424. or *note RLock: 1425. object then that will be
     used to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then
     access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
     by a lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

     Operations like ‘+=’ which involve a read and write are not atomic.
     So if, for instance, you want to atomically increment a shared
     value it is insufficient to just do

          counter.value += 1

     Assuming the associated lock is recursive (which it is by default)
     you can instead do

          with counter.get_lock():
              counter.value += 1

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword-only argument.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

     Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.  By default the
     return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the array.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the elements of the
     returned array: it is either a ctypes type or a one character
     typecode of the kind used by the *note array: 7. module.  If
     'size_or_initializer' is an integer, then it determines the length
     of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.  Otherwise,
     'size_or_initializer' is a sequence which is used to initialize the
     array and whose length determines the length of the array.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     1424. or *note RLock: 1425. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword only argument.

     Note that an array of *note ctypes.c_char: 2dc5. has 'value' and
     'raw' attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve
     strings.

* Menu:

* The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.


File: python.info,  Node: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module,  Up: Shared ctypes Objects

5.17.2.15 The ‘multiprocessing.sharedctypes’ module
...................................................

The *note multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 99. module provides functions
for allocating *note ctypes: 2a. objects from shared memory which can be
inherited by child processes.

     Not: Although it is possible to store a pointer in shared memory
     remember that this will refer to a location in the address space of
     a specific process.  However, the pointer is quite likely to be
     invalid in the context of a second process and trying to
     dereference the pointer from the second process may cause a crash.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer)

     Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the elements of the
     returned array: it is either a ctypes type or a one character
     typecode of the kind used by the *note array: 7. module.  If
     'size_or_initializer' is an integer then it determines the length
     of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.  Otherwise
     'size_or_initializer' is a sequence which is used to initialize the
     array and whose length determines the length of the array.

     Note that setting and getting an element is potentially non-atomic
     – use *note Array(): 2ec3. instead to make sure that access is
     automatically synchronized using a lock.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue (typecode_or_type,
          *args)

     Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the returned object: it
     is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind
     used by the *note array: 7. module.  '*args' is passed on to the
     constructor for the type.

     Note that setting and getting the value is potentially non-atomic –
     use *note Value(): 2ec5. instead to make sure that access is
     automatically synchronized using a lock.

     Note that an array of *note ctypes.c_char: 2dc5. has ‘value’ and
     ‘raw’ attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve
     strings – see documentation for *note ctypes: 2a.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

     The same as *note RawArray(): 2ec2. except that depending on the
     value of 'lock' a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be
     returned instead of a raw ctypes array.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     1424. or *note RLock: 1425. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword-only argument.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value (typecode_or_type, *args,
          lock=True)

     The same as *note RawValue(): 2ec4. except that depending on the
     value of 'lock' a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be
     returned instead of a raw ctypes object.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     1424. or *note RLock: 1425. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword-only argument.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy (obj)

     Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory which is a copy
     of the ctypes object 'obj'.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized (obj[, lock])

     Return a process-safe wrapper object for a ctypes object which uses
     'lock' to synchronize access.  If 'lock' is ‘None’ (the default)
     then a *note multiprocessing.RLock: 1425. object is created
     automatically.

     A synchronized wrapper will have two methods in addition to those
     of the object it wraps: ‘get_obj()’ returns the wrapped object and
     ‘get_lock()’ returns the lock object used for synchronization.

     Note that accessing the ctypes object through the wrapper can be a
     lot slower than accessing the raw ctypes object.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Synchronized objects support the *note
     context manager: 3df. protocol.

The table below compares the syntax for creating shared ctypes objects
from shared memory with the normal ctypes syntax.  (In the table
‘MyStruct’ is some subclass of *note ctypes.Structure: 14b1.)

ctypes                   sharedctypes using type        sharedctypes using typecode
                                                        
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
c_double(2.4)            RawValue(c_double, 2.4)        RawValue(‘d’, 2.4)
                                                        
                                                        
MyStruct(4, 6)           RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)
                         
                                                        
(c_short * 7)()          RawArray(c_short, 7)           RawArray(‘h’, 7)
                                                        
                                                        
(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8)     RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8))     RawArray(‘i’, (9, 2, 8))
                                                        

Below is an example where a number of ctypes objects are modified by a
child process:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
     from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
     from ctypes import Structure, c_double

     class Point(Structure):
         _fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]

     def modify(n, x, s, A):
         n.value **= 2
         x.value **= 2
         s.value = s.value.upper()
         for a in A:
             a.x **= 2
             a.y **= 2

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         n = Value('i', 7)
         x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
         s = Array('c', b'hello world', lock=lock)
         A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)

         p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         print(n.value)
         print(x.value)
         print(s.value)
         print([(a.x, a.y) for a in A])

The results printed are

     49
     0.1111111111111111
     HELLO WORLD
     [(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]


File: python.info,  Node: Managers,  Next: Proxy Objects,  Prev: Shared ctypes Objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.16 Managers
..................

Managers provide a way to create data which can be shared between
different processes, including sharing over a network between processes
running on different machines.  A manager object controls a server
process which manages 'shared objects'.  Other processes can access the
shared objects by using proxies.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.Manager ()

     Returns a started *note SyncManager: 2ec8. object which can be used
     for sharing objects between processes.  The returned manager object
     corresponds to a spawned child process and has methods which will
     create shared objects and return corresponding proxies.

Manager processes will be shutdown as soon as they are garbage collected
or their parent process exits.  The manager classes are defined in the
*note multiprocessing.managers: 96. module:

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager (address=None,
          authkey=None, serializer='pickle', ctx=None, *,
          shutdown_timeout=1.0)

     Create a BaseManager object.

     Once created one should call *note start(): 2eca. or
     ‘get_server().serve_forever()’ to ensure that the manager object
     refers to a started manager process.

     'address' is the address on which the manager process listens for
     new connections.  If 'address' is ‘None’ then an arbitrary one is
     chosen.

     'authkey' is the authentication key which will be used to check the
     validity of incoming connections to the server process.  If
     'authkey' is ‘None’ then ‘current_process().authkey’ is used.
     Otherwise 'authkey' is used and it must be a byte string.

     'serializer' must be ‘'pickle'’ (use *note pickle: a5.
     serialization) or ‘'xmlrpclib'’ (use *note xmlrpc.client: 12e.
     serialization).

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).
     See the ‘get_context()’ function.

     'shutdown_timeout' is a timeout in seconds used to wait until the
     process used by the manager completes in the *note shutdown():
     2ecb. method.  If the shutdown times out, the process is
     terminated.  If terminating the process also times out, the process
     is killed.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'shutdown_timeout' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: start ([initializer[, initargs]])

          Start a subprocess to start the manager.  If 'initializer' is
          not ‘None’ then the subprocess will call
          ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

      -- Yöntemi: get_server ()

          Returns a ‘Server’ object which represents the actual server
          under the control of the Manager.  The ‘Server’ object
          supports the ‘serve_forever()’ method:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> server = manager.get_server()
               >>> server.serve_forever()

          ‘Server’ additionally has an *note address: 2ecd. attribute.

      -- Yöntemi: connect ()

          Connect a local manager object to a remote manager process:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> m.connect()

      -- Yöntemi: shutdown ()

          Stop the process used by the manager.  This is only available
          if *note start(): 2eca. has been used to start the server
          process.

          This can be called multiple times.

      -- Yöntemi: register (typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[,
               method_to_typeid[, create_method]]]]])

          A classmethod which can be used for registering a type or
          callable with the manager class.

          'typeid' is a “type identifier” which is used to identify a
          particular type of shared object.  This must be a string.

          'callable' is a callable used for creating objects for this
          type identifier.  If a manager instance will be connected to
          the server using the *note connect(): 2ece. method, or if the
          'create_method' argument is ‘False’ then this can be left as
          ‘None’.

          'proxytype' is a subclass of *note BaseProxy: 2ed0. which is
          used to create proxies for shared objects with this 'typeid'.
          If ‘None’ then a proxy class is created automatically.

          'exposed' is used to specify a sequence of method names which
          proxies for this typeid should be allowed to access using
          *note BaseProxy._callmethod(): 2ed1.  (If 'exposed' is ‘None’
          then ‘proxytype._exposed_’ is used instead if it exists.)  In
          the case where no exposed list is specified, all “public
          methods” of the shared object will be accessible.  (Here a
          “public method” means any attribute which has a *note
          __call__(): 2e7. method and whose name does not begin with
          ‘'_'’.)

          'method_to_typeid' is a mapping used to specify the return
          type of those exposed methods which should return a proxy.  It
          maps method names to typeid strings.  (If 'method_to_typeid'
          is ‘None’ then ‘proxytype._method_to_typeid_’ is used instead
          if it exists.)  If a method’s name is not a key of this
          mapping or if the mapping is ‘None’ then the object returned
          by the method will be copied by value.

          'create_method' determines whether a method should be created
          with name 'typeid' which can be used to tell the server
          process to create a new shared object and return a proxy for
          it.  By default it is ‘True’.

     *note BaseManager: 2ec9. instances also have one read-only
     property:

      -- Özniteliği: address

          The address used by the manager.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Manager objects support the context
     management protocol – see *note Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri: 1dae.
     *note __enter__(): 203b. starts the server process (if it has not
     already started) and then returns the manager object.  *note
     __exit__(): 203c. calls *note shutdown(): 2ecb.

     In previous versions *note __enter__(): 203b. did not start the
     manager’s server process if it was not already started.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager

     A subclass of *note BaseManager: 2ec9. which can be used for the
     synchronization of processes.  Objects of this type are returned by
     *note multiprocessing.Manager(): b3d.

     Its methods create and return *note Proxy Objects: b3c. for a
     number of commonly used data types to be synchronized across
     processes.  This notably includes shared lists and dictionaries.

      -- Yöntemi: Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

          Create a shared *note threading.Barrier: 1088. object and
          return a proxy for it.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: BoundedSemaphore ([value])

          Create a shared *note threading.BoundedSemaphore: ffe. object
          and return a proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: Condition ([lock])

          Create a shared *note threading.Condition: ffc. object and
          return a proxy for it.

          If 'lock' is supplied then it should be a proxy for a *note
          threading.Lock: 2e58. or *note threading.RLock: 262. object.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: The *note wait_for(): 2e61. method was
          added.

      -- Yöntemi: Event ()

          Create a shared *note threading.Event: fff. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: Lock ()

          Create a shared *note threading.Lock: 2e58. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: Namespace ()

          Create a shared *note Namespace: 2e84. object and return a
          proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: Queue ([maxsize])

          Create a shared *note queue.Queue: 1235. object and return a
          proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: RLock ()

          Create a shared *note threading.RLock: 262. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: Semaphore ([value])

          Create a shared *note threading.Semaphore: ffd. object and
          return a proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: Array (typecode, sequence)

          Create an array and return a proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: Value (typecode, value)

          Create an object with a writable ‘value’ attribute and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Yöntemi: dict ()

      -- Yöntemi: dict (mapping)

      -- Yöntemi: dict (sequence)

          Create a shared *note dict: 240. object and return a proxy for
          it.

      -- Yöntemi: list ()

      -- Yöntemi: list (sequence)

          Create a shared *note list: 422. object and return a proxy for
          it.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Shared objects are capable of being nested.
     For example, a shared container object such as a shared list can
     contain other shared objects which will all be managed and
     synchronized by the *note SyncManager: 2ec8.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.managers.Namespace

     A type that can register with *note SyncManager: 2ec8.

     A namespace object has no public methods, but does have writable
     attributes.  Its representation shows the values of its attributes.

     However, when using a proxy for a namespace object, an attribute
     beginning with ‘'_'’ will be an attribute of the proxy and not an
     attribute of the referent:

          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
          >>> Global = manager.Namespace()
          >>> Global.x = 10
          >>> Global.y = 'hello'
          >>> Global._z = 12.3    # this is an attribute of the proxy
          >>> print(Global)
          Namespace(x=10, y='hello')

* Menu:

* Customized managers::
* Using a remote manager::


File: python.info,  Node: Customized managers,  Next: Using a remote manager,  Up: Managers

5.17.2.17 Customized managers
.............................

To create one’s own manager, one creates a subclass of *note
BaseManager: 2ec9. and uses the *note register(): 2ecf. classmethod to
register new types or callables with the manager class.  For example:

     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager

     class MathsClass:
         def add(self, x, y):
             return x + y
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with MyManager() as manager:
             maths = manager.Maths()
             print(maths.add(4, 3))         # prints 7
             print(maths.mul(7, 8))         # prints 56


File: python.info,  Node: Using a remote manager,  Prev: Customized managers,  Up: Managers

5.17.2.18 Using a remote manager
................................

It is possible to run a manager server on one machine and have clients
use it from other machines (assuming that the firewalls involved allow
it).

Running the following commands creates a server for a single shared
queue which remote clients can access:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> from queue import Queue
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()

One client can access the server as follows:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.put('hello')

Another client can also use it:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.get()
     'hello'

Local processes can also access that queue, using the code from above on
the client to access it remotely:

     >>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class Worker(Process):
     ...     def __init__(self, q):
     ...         self.q = q
     ...         super().__init__()
     ...     def run(self):
     ...         self.q.put('local hello')
     ...
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> w = Worker(queue)
     >>> w.start()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     ...
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()


File: python.info,  Node: Proxy Objects,  Next: Process Pools,  Prev: Managers,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.19 Proxy Objects
.......................

A proxy is an object which 'refers' to a shared object which lives
(presumably) in a different process.  The shared object is said to be
the 'referent' of the proxy.  Multiple proxy objects may have the same
referent.

A proxy object has methods which invoke corresponding methods of its
referent (although not every method of the referent will necessarily be
available through the proxy).  In this way, a proxy can be used just
like its referent can:

     >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
     >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
     >>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
     >>> print(l)
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
     >>> print(repr(l))
     <ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
     >>> l[4]
     16
     >>> l[2:5]
     [4, 9, 16]

Notice that applying *note str(): 15d. to a proxy will return the
representation of the referent, whereas applying *note repr(): 637. will
return the representation of the proxy.

An important feature of proxy objects is that they are picklable so they
can be passed between processes.  As such, a referent can contain *note
Proxy Objects: b3c.  This permits nesting of these managed lists, dicts,
and other *note Proxy Objects: b3c.:

     >>> a = manager.list()
     >>> b = manager.list()
     >>> a.append(b)         # referent of a now contains referent of b
     >>> print(a, b)
     [<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at ...>] []
     >>> b.append('hello')
     >>> print(a[0], b)
     ['hello'] ['hello']

Similarly, dict and list proxies may be nested inside one another:

     >>> l_outer = manager.list([ manager.dict() for i in range(2) ])
     >>> d_first_inner = l_outer[0]
     >>> d_first_inner['a'] = 1
     >>> d_first_inner['b'] = 2
     >>> l_outer[1]['c'] = 3
     >>> l_outer[1]['z'] = 26
     >>> print(l_outer[0])
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> print(l_outer[1])
     {'c': 3, 'z': 26}

If standard (non-proxy) *note list: 422. or *note dict: 240. objects are
contained in a referent, modifications to those mutable values will not
be propagated through the manager because the proxy has no way of
knowing when the values contained within are modified.  However, storing
a value in a container proxy (which triggers a ‘__setitem__’ on the
proxy object) does propagate through the manager and so to effectively
modify such an item, one could re-assign the modified value to the
container proxy:

     # create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)
     lproxy = manager.list()
     lproxy.append({})
     # now mutate the dictionary
     d = lproxy[0]
     d['a'] = 1
     d['b'] = 2
     # at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
     # updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
     lproxy[0] = d

This approach is perhaps less convenient than employing nested *note
Proxy Objects: b3c. for most use cases but also demonstrates a level of
control over the synchronization.

     Not: The proxy types in *note multiprocessing: 93. do nothing to
     support comparisons by value.  So, for instance, we have:

          >>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]
          False

     One should just use a copy of the referent instead when making
     comparisons.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy

     Proxy objects are instances of subclasses of *note BaseProxy: 2ed0.

      -- Yöntemi: _callmethod (methodname[, args[, kwds]])

          Call and return the result of a method of the proxy’s
          referent.

          If ‘proxy’ is a proxy whose referent is ‘obj’ then the
          expression

               proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)

          will evaluate the expression

               getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)

          in the manager’s process.

          The returned value will be a copy of the result of the call or
          a proxy to a new shared object – see documentation for the
          'method_to_typeid' argument of *note BaseManager.register():
          2ecf.

          If an exception is raised by the call, then is re-raised by
          *note _callmethod(): 2ed1.  If some other exception is raised
          in the manager’s process then this is converted into a
          ‘RemoteError’ exception and is raised by *note _callmethod():
          2ed1.

          Note in particular that an exception will be raised if
          'methodname' has not been 'exposed'.

          An example of the usage of *note _callmethod(): 2ed1.:

               >>> l = manager.list(range(10))
               >>> l._callmethod('__len__')
               10
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (slice(2, 7),)) # equivalent to l[2:7]
               [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,))          # equivalent to l[20]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               IndexError: list index out of range

      -- Yöntemi: _getvalue ()

          Return a copy of the referent.

          If the referent is unpicklable then this will raise an
          exception.

      -- Yöntemi: __repr__ ()

          Return a representation of the proxy object.

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ ()

          Return the representation of the referent.

* Menu:

* Cleanup::


File: python.info,  Node: Cleanup,  Up: Proxy Objects

5.17.2.20 Cleanup
.................

A proxy object uses a weakref callback so that when it gets garbage
collected it deregisters itself from the manager which owns its
referent.

A shared object gets deleted from the manager process when there are no
longer any proxies referring to it.


File: python.info,  Node: Process Pools,  Next: Listeners and Clients,  Prev: Proxy Objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.21 Process Pools
.......................

One can create a pool of processes which will carry out tasks submitted
to it with the *note Pool: e0b. class.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.pool.Pool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs[, maxtasksperchild[, context]]]]])

     A process pool object which controls a pool of worker processes to
     which jobs can be submitted.  It supports asynchronous results with
     timeouts and callbacks and has a parallel map implementation.

     'processes' is the number of worker processes to use.  If
     'processes' is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note
     os.cpu_count(): 654. is used.

     If 'initializer' is not ‘None’ then each worker process will call
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

     'maxtasksperchild' is the number of tasks a worker process can
     complete before it will exit and be replaced with a fresh worker
     process, to enable unused resources to be freed.  The default
     'maxtasksperchild' is ‘None’, which means worker processes will
     live as long as the pool.

     'context' can be used to specify the context used for starting the
     worker processes.  Usually a pool is created using the function
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool()’ or the *note Pool(): e0b. method of a
     context object.  In both cases 'context' is set appropriately.

     Note that the methods of the pool object should only be called by
     the process which created the pool.

          Uyarı: *note multiprocessing.pool: 97. objects have internal
          resources that need to be properly managed (like any other
          resource) by using the pool as a context manager or by calling
          *note close(): 2ee6. and *note terminate(): 2ee7. manually.
          Failure to do this can lead to the process hanging on
          finalization.

          Note that it is 'not correct' to rely on the garbage collector
          to destroy the pool as CPython does not assure that the
          finalizer of the pool will be called (see *note
          object.__del__(): 1d4e. for more information).

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'context' parameter.

          Not: Worker processes within a *note Pool: e0b. typically live
          for the complete duration of the Pool’s work queue.  A
          frequent pattern found in other systems (such as Apache,
          mod_wsgi, etc) to free resources held by workers is to allow a
          worker within a pool to complete only a set amount of work
          before being exiting, being cleaned up and a new process
          spawned to replace the old one.  The 'maxtasksperchild'
          argument to the *note Pool: e0b. exposes this ability to the
          end user.

      -- Yöntemi: apply (func[, args[, kwds]])

          Call 'func' with arguments 'args' and keyword arguments
          'kwds'.  It blocks until the result is ready.  Given this
          blocks, *note apply_async(): 2ee9. is better suited for
          performing work in parallel.  Additionally, 'func' is only
          executed in one of the workers of the pool.

      -- Yöntemi: apply_async (func[, args[, kwds[, callback[,
               error_callback]]]])

          A variant of the *note apply(): 2ee8. method which returns a
          *note AsyncResult: 2eea. object.

          If 'callback' is specified then it should be a callable which
          accepts a single argument.  When the result becomes ready
          'callback' is applied to it, that is unless the call failed,
          in which case the 'error_callback' is applied instead.

          If 'error_callback' is specified then it should be a callable
          which accepts a single argument.  If the target function
          fails, then the 'error_callback' is called with the exception
          instance.

          Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the
          thread which handles the results will get blocked.

      -- Yöntemi: map (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          A parallel equivalent of the *note map(): 6a7. built-in
          function (it supports only one 'iterable' argument though, for
          multiple iterables see *note starmap(): f84.).  It blocks
          until the result is ready.

          This method chops the iterable into a number of chunks which
          it submits to the process pool as separate tasks.  The
          (approximate) size of these chunks can be specified by setting
          'chunksize' to a positive integer.

          Note that it may cause high memory usage for very long
          iterables.  Consider using *note imap(): 2eeb. or *note
          imap_unordered(): 2eec. with explicit 'chunksize' option for
          better efficiency.

      -- Yöntemi: map_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          A variant of the *note map(): f87. method which returns a
          *note AsyncResult: 2eea. object.

          If 'callback' is specified then it should be a callable which
          accepts a single argument.  When the result becomes ready
          'callback' is applied to it, that is unless the call failed,
          in which case the 'error_callback' is applied instead.

          If 'error_callback' is specified then it should be a callable
          which accepts a single argument.  If the target function
          fails, then the 'error_callback' is called with the exception
          instance.

          Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the
          thread which handles the results will get blocked.

      -- Yöntemi: imap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          A lazier version of *note map(): f87.

          The 'chunksize' argument is the same as the one used by the
          *note map(): f87. method.  For very long iterables using a
          large value for 'chunksize' can make the job complete 'much'
          faster than using the default value of ‘1’.

          Also if 'chunksize' is ‘1’ then the ‘next()’ method of the
          iterator returned by the *note imap(): 2eeb. method has an
          optional 'timeout' parameter: ‘next(timeout)’ will raise *note
          multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 2e98. if the result cannot be
          returned within 'timeout' seconds.

      -- Yöntemi: imap_unordered (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          The same as *note imap(): 2eeb. except that the ordering of
          the results from the returned iterator should be considered
          arbitrary.  (Only when there is only one worker process is the
          order guaranteed to be “correct”.)

      -- Yöntemi: starmap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Like *note map(): f87. except that the elements of the
          'iterable' are expected to be iterables that are unpacked as
          arguments.

          Hence an 'iterable' of ‘[(1,2), (3, 4)]’ results in
          ‘[func(1,2), func(3,4)]’.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: starmap_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          A combination of *note starmap(): f84. and *note map_async():
          f88. that iterates over 'iterable' of iterables and calls
          'func' with the iterables unpacked.  Returns a result object.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Prevents any more tasks from being submitted to the pool.
          Once all the tasks have been completed the worker processes
          will exit.

      -- Yöntemi: terminate ()

          Stops the worker processes immediately without completing
          outstanding work.  When the pool object is garbage collected
          *note terminate(): 2ee7. will be called immediately.

      -- Yöntemi: join ()

          Wait for the worker processes to exit.  One must call *note
          close(): 2ee6. or *note terminate(): 2ee7. before using *note
          join(): 2eed.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Pool objects now support the context
     management protocol – see *note Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri: 1dae.
     *note __enter__(): 203b. returns the pool object, and *note
     __exit__(): 203c. calls *note terminate(): 2ee7.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult

     The class of the result returned by *note Pool.apply_async(): 2ee9.
     and *note Pool.map_async(): f88.

      -- Yöntemi: get ([timeout])

          Return the result when it arrives.  If 'timeout' is not ‘None’
          and the result does not arrive within 'timeout' seconds then
          *note multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 2e98. is raised.  If the
          remote call raised an exception then that exception will be
          reraised by *note get(): 2eee.

      -- Yöntemi: wait ([timeout])

          Wait until the result is available or until 'timeout' seconds
          pass.

      -- Yöntemi: ready ()

          Return whether the call has completed.

      -- Yöntemi: successful ()

          Return whether the call completed without raising an
          exception.  Will raise *note ValueError: 189. if the result is
          not ready.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: If the result is not ready, *note
          ValueError: 189. is raised instead of *note AssertionError:
          4bf.

The following example demonstrates the use of a pool:

     from multiprocessing import Pool
     import time

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:         # start 4 worker processes
             result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single process
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow

             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))       # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

             it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
             print(next(it))                     # prints "0"
             print(next(it))                     # prints "1"
             print(it.next(timeout=1))           # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow

             result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError


File: python.info,  Node: Listeners and Clients,  Next: Authentication keys,  Prev: Process Pools,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.22 Listeners and Clients
...............................

Usually message passing between processes is done using queues or by
using *note Connection: 14a9. objects returned by *note Pipe(): 2e7f.

However, the *note multiprocessing.connection: 94. module allows some
extra flexibility.  It basically gives a high level message oriented API
for dealing with sockets or Windows named pipes.  It also has support
for 'digest authentication' using the *note hmac: 68. module, and for
polling multiple connections at the same time.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Send a randomly generated message to the other end of the
     connection and wait for a reply.

     If the reply matches the digest of the message using 'authkey' as
     the key then a welcome message is sent to the other end of the
     connection.  Otherwise *note AuthenticationError: 2e97. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Receive a message, calculate the digest of the message using
     'authkey' as the key, and then send the digest back.

     If a welcome message is not received, then *note
     AuthenticationError: 2e97. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.connection.Client (address[, family[,
          authkey]])

     Attempt to set up a connection to the listener which is using
     address 'address', returning a *note Connection: 14a9.

     The type of the connection is determined by 'family' argument, but
     this can generally be omitted since it can usually be inferred from
     the format of 'address'.  (See *note Address Formats: 2ef6.)

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 2e97. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Authentication keys: 2e93.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.connection.Listener ([address[, family[,
          backlog[, authkey]]]])

     A wrapper for a bound socket or Windows named pipe which is
     ‘listening’ for connections.

     'address' is the address to be used by the bound socket or named
     pipe of the listener object.

          Not: If an address of ‘0.0.0.0’ is used, the address will not
          be a connectable end point on Windows.  If you require a
          connectable end-point, you should use ‘127.0.0.1’.

     'family' is the type of socket (or named pipe) to use.  This can be
     one of the strings ‘'AF_INET'’ (for a TCP socket), ‘'AF_UNIX'’ (for
     a Unix domain socket) or ‘'AF_PIPE'’ (for a Windows named pipe).
     Of these only the first is guaranteed to be available.  If 'family'
     is ‘None’ then the family is inferred from the format of 'address'.
     If 'address' is also ‘None’ then a default is chosen.  This default
     is the family which is assumed to be the fastest available.  See
     *note Address Formats: 2ef6.  Note that if 'family' is ‘'AF_UNIX'’
     and address is ‘None’ then the socket will be created in a private
     temporary directory created using *note tempfile.mkstemp(): 2627.

     If the listener object uses a socket then 'backlog' (1 by default)
     is passed to the *note listen(): cf2. method of the socket once it
     has been bound.

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 2e97. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Authentication keys: 2e93.

      -- Yöntemi: accept ()

          Accept a connection on the bound socket or named pipe of the
          listener object and return a *note Connection: 14a9. object.
          If authentication is attempted and fails, then *note
          AuthenticationError: 2e97. is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object.
          This is called automatically when the listener is garbage
          collected.  However it is advisable to call it explicitly.

     Listener objects have the following read-only properties:

      -- Özniteliği: address

          The address which is being used by the Listener object.

      -- Özniteliği: last_accepted

          The address from which the last accepted connection came.  If
          this is unavailable then it is ‘None’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Listener objects now support the context
     management protocol – see *note Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri: 1dae.
     *note __enter__(): 203b. returns the listener object, and *note
     __exit__(): 203c. calls *note close(): 2ef7.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.connection.wait (object_list, timeout=None)

     Wait till an object in 'object_list' is ready.  Returns the list of
     those objects in 'object_list' which are ready.  If 'timeout' is a
     float then the call blocks for at most that many seconds.  If
     'timeout' is ‘None’ then it will block for an unlimited period.  A
     negative timeout is equivalent to a zero timeout.

     For both POSIX and Windows, an object can appear in 'object_list'
     if it is

        * a readable *note Connection: 14a9. object;

        * a connected and readable *note socket.socket: c2e. object; or

        * the *note sentinel: f83. attribute of a *note Process: 9cd.
          object.

     A connection or socket object is ready when there is data available
     to be read from it, or the other end has been closed.

     'POSIX': ‘wait(object_list, timeout)’ almost equivalent
     ‘select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout)’.  The difference is
     that, if *note select.select(): c2d. is interrupted by a signal, it
     can raise *note OSError: 65c. with an error number of ‘EINTR’,
     whereas *note wait(): f82. will not.

     'Windows': An item in 'object_list' must either be an integer
     handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the
     documentation of the Win32 function ‘WaitForMultipleObjects()’) or
     it can be an object with a *note fileno(): 2629. method which
     returns a socket handle or pipe handle.  (Note that pipe handles
     and socket handles are 'not' waitable handles.)

     Added in version 3.3.

'Examples'

The following server code creates a listener which uses ‘'secret
password'’ as an authentication key.  It then waits for a connection and
sends some data to the client:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Listener
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)     # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'

     with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener:
         with listener.accept() as conn:
             print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted)

             conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])

             conn.send_bytes(b'hello')

             conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))

The following code connects to the server and receives some data from
the server:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Client
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)

     with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn:
         print(conn.recv())                  # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]

         print(conn.recv_bytes())            # => 'hello'

         arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
         print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr))    # => 8
         print(arr)                          # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])

The following code uses *note wait(): f82. to wait for messages from
multiple processes at once:

     import time, random
     from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process
     from multiprocessing.connection import wait

     def foo(w):
         for i in range(10):
             w.send((i, current_process().name))
         w.close()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         readers = []

         for i in range(4):
             r, w = Pipe(duplex=False)
             readers.append(r)
             p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,))
             p.start()
             # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that
             # p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This
             # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,
             # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.
             w.close()

         while readers:
             for r in wait(readers):
                 try:
                     msg = r.recv()
                 except EOFError:
                     readers.remove(r)
                 else:
                     print(msg)

* Menu:

* Address Formats::


File: python.info,  Node: Address Formats,  Up: Listeners and Clients

5.17.2.23 Address Formats
.........................

   * An ‘'AF_INET'’ address is a tuple of the form ‘(hostname, port)’
     where 'hostname' is a string and 'port' is an integer.

   * An ‘'AF_UNIX'’ address is a string representing a filename on the
     filesystem.

   * An ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address is a string of the form
     ‘r'\\.\pipe\PIPENAME'’.  To use *note Client(): 2ef5. to connect to
     a named pipe on a remote computer called 'ServerName' one should
     use an address of the form ‘r'\\SERVERNAME\pipe\PIPENAME'’ instead.

Note that any string beginning with two backslashes is assumed by
default to be an ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address rather than an ‘'AF_UNIX'’ address.


File: python.info,  Node: Authentication keys,  Next: Logging,  Prev: Listeners and Clients,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.24 Authentication keys
.............................

When one uses *note Connection.recv: 2eb3, the data received is
automatically unpickled.  Unfortunately unpickling data from an
untrusted source is a security risk.  Therefore *note Listener: 14a8.
and *note Client(): 2ef5. use the *note hmac: 68. module to provide
digest authentication.

An authentication key is a byte string which can be thought of as a
password: once a connection is established both ends will demand proof
that the other knows the authentication key.  (Demonstrating that both
ends are using the same key does 'not' involve sending the key over the
connection.)

If authentication is requested but no authentication key is specified
then the return value of ‘current_process().authkey’ is used (see *note
Process: 9cd.).  This value will be automatically inherited by any *note
Process: 9cd. object that the current process creates.  This means that
(by default) all processes of a multi-process program will share a
single authentication key which can be used when setting up connections
between themselves.

Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using *note
os.urandom(): 2ad.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging,  Next: The multiprocessing dummy module,  Prev: Authentication keys,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.25 Logging
.................

Some support for logging is available.  Note, however, that the *note
logging: 86. package does not use process shared locks so it is possible
(depending on the handler type) for messages from different processes to
get mixed up.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.get_logger ()

     Returns the logger used by *note multiprocessing: 93.  If
     necessary, a new one will be created.

     When first created the logger has level *note logging.NOTSET: 2aaa.
     and no default handler.  Messages sent to this logger will not by
     default propagate to the root logger.

     Note that on Windows child processes will only inherit the level of
     the parent process’s logger – any other customization of the logger
     will not be inherited.

 -- Işlevi: multiprocessing.log_to_stderr (level=None)

     This function performs a call to *note get_logger(): 2efd. but in
     addition to returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a
     handler which sends output to *note sys.stderr: 792. using format
     ‘'[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s'’.  You can modify
     ‘levelname’ of the logger by passing a ‘level’ argument.

Below is an example session with logging turned on:

     >>> import multiprocessing, logging
     >>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
     >>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     >>> logger.warning('doomed')
     [WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
     >>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
     >>> del m
     [INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

For a full table of logging levels, see the *note logging: 86. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The multiprocessing dummy module,  Prev: Logging,  Up: Reference<2>

5.17.2.26 The ‘multiprocessing.dummy’ module
............................................

*note multiprocessing.dummy: 95. replicates the API of *note
multiprocessing: 93. but is no more than a wrapper around the *note
threading: ec. module.

In particular, the ‘Pool’ function provided by *note
multiprocessing.dummy: 95. returns an instance of *note ThreadPool:
173b, which is a subclass of *note Pool: e0b. that supports all the same
method calls but uses a pool of worker threads rather than worker
processes.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs]]])

     A thread pool object which controls a pool of worker threads to
     which jobs can be submitted.  *note ThreadPool: 173b. instances are
     fully interface compatible with *note Pool: e0b. instances, and
     their resources must also be properly managed, either by using the
     pool as a context manager or by calling *note close(): 2ee6. and
     *note terminate(): 2ee7. manually.

     'processes' is the number of worker threads to use.  If 'processes'
     is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note os.cpu_count(): 654. is
     used.

     If 'initializer' is not ‘None’ then each worker process will call
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

     Unlike *note Pool: e0b, 'maxtasksperchild' and 'context' cannot be
     provided.

          Not: A *note ThreadPool: 173b. shares the same interface as
          *note Pool: e0b, which is designed around a pool of processes
          and predates the introduction of the *note concurrent.futures:
          21. module.  As such, it inherits some operations that don’t
          make sense for a pool backed by threads, and it has its own
          type for representing the status of asynchronous jobs, *note
          AsyncResult: 2eea, that is not understood by any other
          libraries.

          Users should generally prefer to use *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e, which has a
          simpler interface that was designed around threads from the
          start, and which returns *note concurrent.futures.Future:
          1057. instances that are compatible with many other libraries,
          including *note asyncio: a.


File: python.info,  Node: Programming guidelines,  Next: Examples<13>,  Prev: Reference<2>,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.17.2.27 Programming guidelines
................................

There are certain guidelines and idioms which should be adhered to when
using *note multiprocessing: 93.

* Menu:

* All start methods::
* The spawn and forkserver start methods::


File: python.info,  Node: All start methods,  Next: The spawn and forkserver start methods,  Up: Programming guidelines

5.17.2.28 All start methods
...........................

The following applies to all start methods.

Avoid shared state

     As far as possible one should try to avoid shifting large amounts
     of data between processes.

     It is probably best to stick to using queues or pipes for
     communication between processes rather than using the lower level
     synchronization primitives.

Picklability

     Ensure that the arguments to the methods of proxies are picklable.

Thread safety of proxies

     Do not use a proxy object from more than one thread unless you
     protect it with a lock.

     (There is never a problem with different processes using the 'same'
     proxy.)

Joining zombie processes

     On POSIX when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes
     a zombie.  There should never be very many because each time a new
     process starts (or *note active_children(): 2eac. is called) all
     completed processes which have not yet been joined will be joined.
     Also calling a finished process’s *note Process.is_alive: 2e90.
     will join the process.  Even so it is probably good practice to
     explicitly join all the processes that you start.

Better to inherit than pickle/unpickle

     When using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods many types
     from *note multiprocessing: 93. need to be picklable so that child
     processes can use them.  However, one should generally avoid
     sending shared objects to other processes using pipes or queues.
     Instead you should arrange the program so that a process which
     needs access to a shared resource created elsewhere can inherit it
     from an ancestor process.

Avoid terminating processes

     Using the *note Process.terminate: 2e94. method to stop a process
     is liable to cause any shared resources (such as locks, semaphores,
     pipes and queues) currently being used by the process to become
     broken or unavailable to other processes.

     Therefore it is probably best to only consider using *note
     Process.terminate: 2e94. on processes which never use any shared
     resources.

Joining processes that use queues

     Bear in mind that a process that has put items in a queue will wait
     before terminating until all the buffered items are fed by the
     “feeder” thread to the underlying pipe.  (The child process can
     call the *note Queue.cancel_join_thread: 2ea2. method of the queue
     to avoid this behaviour.)

     This means that whenever you use a queue you need to make sure that
     all items which have been put on the queue will eventually be
     removed before the process is joined.  Otherwise you cannot be sure
     that processes which have put items on the queue will terminate.
     Remember also that non-daemonic processes will be joined
     automatically.

     An example which will deadlock is the following:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put('X' * 1000000)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              queue = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
              p.start()
              p.join()                    # this deadlocks
              obj = queue.get()

     A fix here would be to swap the last two lines (or simply remove
     the ‘p.join()’ line).

Explicitly pass resources to child processes

     On POSIX using the 'fork' start method, a child process can make
     use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a global
     resource.  However, it is better to pass the object as an argument
     to the constructor for the child process.

     Apart from making the code (potentially) compatible with Windows
     and the other start methods this also ensures that as long as the
     child process is still alive the object will not be garbage
     collected in the parent process.  This might be important if some
     resource is freed when the object is garbage collected in the
     parent process.

     So for instance

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f():
              ... do something using "lock" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f).start()

     should be rewritten as

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f(l):
              ... do something using "l" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()

Beware of replacing *note sys.stdin: 2c9. with a “file like object”

     *note multiprocessing: 93. originally unconditionally called:

          os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())

     in the ‘multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap()’ method — this
     resulted in issues with processes-in-processes.  This has been
     changed to:

          sys.stdin.close()
          sys.stdin = open(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDONLY), closefd=False)

     Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each
     other resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a
     potential danger to applications which replace *note sys.stdin():
     2c9. with a “file-like object” with output buffering.  This danger
     is that if multiple processes call *note close(): 1865. on this
     file-like object, it could result in the same data being flushed to
     the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.

     If you write a file-like object and implement your own caching, you
     can make it fork-safe by storing the pid whenever you append to the
     cache, and discarding the cache when the pid changes.  For example:

          @property
          def cache(self):
              pid = os.getpid()
              if pid != self._pid:
                  self._pid = pid
                  self._cache = []
              return self._cache

     For more information, see bpo-5155(1), bpo-5313(2) and bpo-5331(3)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5331


File: python.info,  Node: The spawn and forkserver start methods,  Prev: All start methods,  Up: Programming guidelines

5.17.2.29 The 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods
....................................................

There are a few extra restrictions which don’t apply to the 'fork' start
method.

More picklability

     Ensure that all arguments to ‘Process.__init__()’ are picklable.
     Also, if you subclass *note Process: 9cd. then make sure that
     instances will be picklable when the *note Process.start: 2e7a.
     method is called.

Global variables

     Bear in mind that if code run in a child process tries to access a
     global variable, then the value it sees (if any) may not be the
     same as the value in the parent process at the time that *note
     Process.start: 2e7a. was called.

     However, global variables which are just module level constants
     cause no problems.
Safe importing of main module

     Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new
     Python interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such as
     starting a new process).

     For example, using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start method running
     the following module would fail with a *note RuntimeError: 180.:

          from multiprocessing import Process

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          p = Process(target=foo)
          p.start()

     Instead one should protect the “entry point” of the program by
     using ‘if __name__ == '__main__':’ as follows:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support, set_start_method

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              set_start_method('spawn')
              p = Process(target=foo)
              p.start()

     (The ‘freeze_support()’ line can be omitted if the program will be
     run normally instead of frozen.)

     This allows the newly spawned Python interpreter to safely import
     the module and then run the module’s ‘foo()’ function.

     Similar restrictions apply if a pool or manager is created in the
     main module.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<13>,  Prev: Programming guidelines,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.17.2.30 Examples
..................

Demonstration of how to create and use customized managers and proxies:

     from multiprocessing import freeze_support
     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager, BaseProxy
     import operator

     ##

     class Foo:
         def f(self):
             print('you called Foo.f()')
         def g(self):
             print('you called Foo.g()')
         def _h(self):
             print('you called Foo._h()')

     # A simple generator function
     def baz():
         for i in range(10):
             yield i*i

     # Proxy type for generator objects
     class GeneratorProxy(BaseProxy):
         _exposed_ = ['__next__']
         def __iter__(self):
             return self
         def __next__(self):
             return self._callmethod('__next__')

     # Function to return the operator module
     def get_operator_module():
         return operator

     ##

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     # register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo1', Foo)

     # register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo2', Foo, exposed=('g', '_h'))

     # register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies
     MyManager.register('baz', baz, proxytype=GeneratorProxy)

     # register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('operator', get_operator_module)

     ##

     def test():
         manager = MyManager()
         manager.start()

         print('-' * 20)

         f1 = manager.Foo1()
         f1.f()
         f1.g()
         assert not hasattr(f1, '_h')
         assert sorted(f1._exposed_) == sorted(['f', 'g'])

         print('-' * 20)

         f2 = manager.Foo2()
         f2.g()
         f2._h()
         assert not hasattr(f2, 'f')
         assert sorted(f2._exposed_) == sorted(['g', '_h'])

         print('-' * 20)

         it = manager.baz()
         for i in it:
             print('<%d>' % i, end=' ')
         print()

         print('-' * 20)

         op = manager.operator()
         print('op.add(23, 45) =', op.add(23, 45))
         print('op.pow(2, 94) =', op.pow(2, 94))
         print('op._exposed_ =', op._exposed_)

     ##

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()

Using *note Pool: e0b.:

     import multiprocessing
     import time
     import random
     import sys

     #
     # Functions used by test code
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % (
             multiprocessing.current_process().name,
             func.__name__, args, result
             )

     def calculatestar(args):
         return calculate(*args)

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a + b

     def f(x):
         return 1.0 / (x - 5.0)

     def pow3(x):
         return x ** 3

     def noop(x):
         pass

     #
     # Test code
     #

     def test():
         PROCESSES = 4
         print('Creating pool with %d processes\n' % PROCESSES)

         with multiprocessing.Pool(PROCESSES) as pool:
             #
             # Tests
             #

             TASKS = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(10)] + \
                     [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

             results = [pool.apply_async(calculate, t) for t in TASKS]
             imap_it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             imap_unordered_it = pool.imap_unordered(calculatestar, TASKS)

             print('Ordered results using pool.apply_async():')
             for r in results:
                 print('\t', r.get())
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.imap():')
             for x in imap_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():')
             for x in imap_unordered_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:')
             for x in pool.map(calculatestar, TASKS):
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             #
             # Test error handling
             #

             print('Testing error handling:')

             try:
                 print(pool.apply(f, (5,)))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(pool.map(f, list(range(10))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(list(pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             it = pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))
             for i in range(10):
                 try:
                     x = next(it)
                 except ZeroDivisionError:
                     if i == 5:
                         pass
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 else:
                     if i == 5:
                         raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             assert i == 9
             print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()')
             print()

             #
             # Testing timeouts
             #

             print('Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:', end=' ')
             res = pool.apply_async(calculate, TASKS[0])
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % res.get(0.02))
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()

             print('Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:', end=' ')
             it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % it.next(0.02))
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         multiprocessing.freeze_support()
         test()

An example showing how to use queues to feed tasks to a collection of
worker processes and collect the results:

     import time
     import random

     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, current_process, freeze_support

     #
     # Function run by worker processes
     #

     def worker(input, output):
         for func, args in iter(input.get, 'STOP'):
             result = calculate(func, args)
             output.put(result)

     #
     # Function used to calculate result
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % \
             (current_process().name, func.__name__, args, result)

     #
     # Functions referenced by tasks
     #

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a + b

     #
     #
     #

     def test():
         NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4
         TASKS1 = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(20)]
         TASKS2 = [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

         # Create queues
         task_queue = Queue()
         done_queue = Queue()

         # Submit tasks
         for task in TASKS1:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Start worker processes
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             Process(target=worker, args=(task_queue, done_queue)).start()

         # Get and print results
         print('Unordered results:')
         for i in range(len(TASKS1)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Add more tasks using `put()`
         for task in TASKS2:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Get and print some more results
         for i in range(len(TASKS2)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Tell child processes to stop
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             task_queue.put('STOP')


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Next: The concurrent package,  Prev: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.3 ‘multiprocessing.shared_memory’ — Shared memory for direct access across processes
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py(1)

Added in version 3.8.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a class, *note SharedMemory: 1493, for the
allocation and management of shared memory to be accessed by one or more
processes on a multicore or symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) machine.  To
assist with the life-cycle management of shared memory especially across
distinct processes, a *note BaseManager: 2ec9. subclass, *note
SharedMemoryManager: 2f07, is also provided in the *note
multiprocessing.managers: 96. module.

In this module, shared memory refers to “POSIX style” shared memory
blocks (though is not necessarily implemented explicitly as such) and
does not refer to “distributed shared memory”.  This style of shared
memory permits distinct processes to potentially read and write to a
common (or shared) region of volatile memory.  Processes are
conventionally limited to only have access to their own process memory
space but shared memory permits the sharing of data between processes,
avoiding the need to instead send messages between processes containing
that data.  Sharing data directly via memory can provide significant
performance benefits compared to sharing data via disk or socket or
other communications requiring the serialization/deserialization and
copying of data.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory (name=None,
          create=False, size=0)

     Create an instance of the ‘SharedMemory’ class for either creating
     a new shared memory block or attaching to an existing shared memory
     block.  Each shared memory block is assigned a unique name.  In
     this way, one process can create a shared memory block with a
     particular name and a different process can attach to that same
     shared memory block using that same name.

     As a resource for sharing data across processes, shared memory
     blocks may outlive the original process that created them.  When
     one process no longer needs access to a shared memory block that
     might still be needed by other processes, the *note close(): 2f08.
     method should be called.  When a shared memory block is no longer
     needed by any process, the *note unlink(): 2f09. method should be
     called to ensure proper cleanup.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 15d.‘ | ’‘None’) – The unique name for the
          requested shared memory, specified as a string.  When creating
          a new shared memory block, if ‘None’ (the default) is supplied
          for the name, a novel name will be generated.

        * ‘create’ (*note bool: 183.) – Control whether a new shared
          memory block is created (‘True’) or an existing shared memory
          block is attached (‘False’).

        * ‘size’ (*note int: 184.) – The requested number of bytes when
          creating a new shared memory block.  Because some platforms
          choose to allocate chunks of memory based upon that platform’s
          memory page size, the exact size of the shared memory block
          may be larger or equal to the size requested.  When attaching
          to an existing shared memory block, the 'size' parameter is
          ignored.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close access to the shared memory from this instance.  In
          order to ensure proper cleanup of resources, all instances
          should call *note close(): 2f08. once the instance is no
          longer needed.  Note that calling ‘close()’ does not cause the
          shared memory block itself to be destroyed.

      -- Yöntemi: unlink ()

          Request that the underlying shared memory block be destroyed.
          In order to ensure proper cleanup of resources, *note
          unlink(): 2f09. should be called once (and only once) across
          all processes which have need for the shared memory block.
          After requesting its destruction, a shared memory block may or
          may not be immediately destroyed and this behavior may differ
          across platforms.  Attempts to access data inside the shared
          memory block after ‘unlink()’ has been called may result in
          memory access errors.  Note: the last process relinquishing
          its hold on a shared memory block may call ‘unlink()’ and
          *note close(): 2f08. in either order.

      -- Özniteliği: buf

          A memoryview of contents of the shared memory block.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          Read-only access to the unique name of the shared memory
          block.

      -- Özniteliği: size

          Read-only access to size in bytes of the shared memory block.

The following example demonstrates low-level use of *note SharedMemory:
1493. instances:

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm_a = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=10)
     >>> type(shm_a.buf)
     <class 'memoryview'>
     >>> buffer = shm_a.buf
     >>> len(buffer)
     10
     >>> buffer[:4] = bytearray([22, 33, 44, 55])  # Modify multiple at once
     >>> buffer[4] = 100                           # Modify single byte at a time
     >>> # Attach to an existing shared memory block
     >>> shm_b = shared_memory.SharedMemory(shm_a.name)
     >>> import array
     >>> array.array('b', shm_b.buf[:5])  # Copy the data into a new array.array
     array('b', [22, 33, 44, 55, 100])
     >>> shm_b.buf[:5] = b'howdy'  # Modify via shm_b using bytes
     >>> bytes(shm_a.buf[:5])      # Access via shm_a
     b'howdy'
     >>> shm_b.close()   # Close each SharedMemory instance
     >>> shm_a.close()
     >>> shm_a.unlink()  # Call unlink only once to release the shared memory

The following example demonstrates a practical use of the *note
SharedMemory: 1493. class with NumPy arrays(2), accessing the same
‘numpy.ndarray’ from two distinct Python shells:

     >>> # In the first Python interactive shell
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> a = np.array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])  # Start with an existing NumPy array
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=a.nbytes)
     >>> # Now create a NumPy array backed by shared memory
     >>> b = np.ndarray(a.shape, dtype=a.dtype, buffer=shm.buf)
     >>> b[:] = a[:]  # Copy the original data into shared memory
     >>> b
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> type(b)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> type(a)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> shm.name  # We did not specify a name so one was chosen for us
     'psm_21467_46075'

     >>> # In either the same shell or a new Python shell on the same machine
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> # Attach to the existing shared memory block
     >>> existing_shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(name='psm_21467_46075')
     >>> # Note that a.shape is (6,) and a.dtype is np.int64 in this example
     >>> c = np.ndarray((6,), dtype=np.int64, buffer=existing_shm.buf)
     >>> c
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> c[-1] = 888
     >>> c
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Back in the first Python interactive shell, b reflects this change
     >>> b
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Clean up from within the second Python shell
     >>> del c  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> existing_shm.close()

     >>> # Clean up from within the first Python shell
     >>> del b  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> shm.close()
     >>> shm.unlink()  # Free and release the shared memory block at the very end

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager ([address[,
          authkey]])

     A subclass of *note multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager: 2ec9.
     which can be used for the management of shared memory blocks across
     processes.

     A call to *note start(): 2eca. on a ‘SharedMemoryManager’ instance
     causes a new process to be started.  This new process’s sole
     purpose is to manage the life cycle of all shared memory blocks
     created through it.  To trigger the release of all shared memory
     blocks managed by that process, call *note shutdown(): 2ecb. on the
     instance.  This triggers a *note unlink(): 2f09. call on all of the
     *note SharedMemory: 2f0d. objects managed by that process and then
     stops the process itself.  By creating ‘SharedMemory’ instances
     through a ‘SharedMemoryManager’, we avoid the need to manually
     track and trigger the freeing of shared memory resources.

     This class provides methods for creating and returning *note
     SharedMemory: 2f0d. instances and for creating a list-like object
     (*note ShareableList: 2f0e.) backed by shared memory.

     Refer to *note BaseManager: 2ec9. for a description of the
     inherited 'address' and 'authkey' optional input arguments and how
     they may be used to connect to an existing ‘SharedMemoryManager’
     service from other processes.

      -- Yöntemi: SharedMemory (size)

          Create and return a new *note SharedMemory: 2f0d. object with
          the specified 'size' in bytes.

      -- Yöntemi: ShareableList (sequence)

          Create and return a new *note ShareableList: 2f0e. object,
          initialized by the values from the input 'sequence'.

The following example demonstrates the basic mechanisms of a *note
SharedMemoryManager: 2f07.:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import SharedMemoryManager
     >>> smm = SharedMemoryManager()
     >>> smm.start()  # Start the process that manages the shared memory blocks
     >>> sl = smm.ShareableList(range(4))
     >>> sl
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3], name='psm_6572_7512')
     >>> raw_shm = smm.SharedMemory(size=128)
     >>> another_sl = smm.ShareableList('alpha')
     >>> another_sl
     ShareableList(['a', 'l', 'p', 'h', 'a'], name='psm_6572_12221')
     >>> smm.shutdown()  # Calls unlink() on sl, raw_shm, and another_sl

The following example depicts a potentially more convenient pattern for
using *note SharedMemoryManager: 2f07. objects via the *note with: 3dd.
statement to ensure that all shared memory blocks are released after
they are no longer needed:

     >>> with SharedMemoryManager() as smm:
     ...     sl = smm.ShareableList(range(2000))
     ...     # Divide the work among two processes, storing partial results in sl
     ...     p1 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 0, 1000))
     ...     p2 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 1000, 2000))
     ...     p1.start()
     ...     p2.start()  # A multiprocessing.Pool might be more efficient
     ...     p1.join()
     ...     p2.join()   # Wait for all work to complete in both processes
     ...     total_result = sum(sl)  # Consolidate the partial results now in sl

When using a *note SharedMemoryManager: 2f07. in a *note with: 3dd.
statement, the shared memory blocks created using that manager are all
released when the ‘with’ statement’s code block finishes execution.

 -- Sınıfı: multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList (sequence=None,
          *, name=None)

     Provide a mutable list-like object where all values stored within
     are stored in a shared memory block.  This constrains storable
     values to the following built-in data types:

        * *note int: 184. (signed 64-bit)

        * *note float: 272.

        * *note bool: 183.

        * *note str: 15d. (less than 10M bytes each when encoded as
          UTF-8)

        * *note bytes: 2cb. (less than 10M bytes each)

        * ‘None’

     It also notably differs from the built-in *note list: 422. type in
     that these lists can not change their overall length (i.e.  no
     ‘append()’, ‘insert()’, etc.)  and do not support the dynamic
     creation of new ‘ShareableList’ instances via slicing.

     'sequence' is used in populating a new ‘ShareableList’ full of
     values.  Set to ‘None’ to instead attach to an already existing
     ‘ShareableList’ by its unique shared memory name.

     'name' is the unique name for the requested shared memory, as
     described in the definition for *note SharedMemory: 1493.  When
     attaching to an existing ‘ShareableList’, specify its shared memory
     block’s unique name while leaving 'sequence' set to ‘None’.

          Not: A known issue exists for *note bytes: 2cb. and *note str:
          15d. values.  If they end with ‘\x00’ nul bytes or characters,
          those may be 'silently stripped' when fetching them by index
          from the ‘ShareableList’.  This ‘.rstrip(b'\x00')’ behavior is
          considered a bug and may go away in the future.  See
          gh-106939(3).

     For applications where rstripping of trailing nulls is a problem,
     work around it by always unconditionally appending an extra non-0
     byte to the end of such values when storing and unconditionally
     removing it when fetching:

          >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
          >>> nul_bug_demo = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'])
          >>> nul_bug_demo[0]
          '?'
          >>> nul_bug_demo[1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01'
          >>> nul_bug_demo.shm.unlink()
          >>> padded = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00\x07', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00\x07'])
          >>> padded[0][:-1]
          '?\x00'
          >>> padded[1][:-1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'
          >>> padded.shm.unlink()

      -- Yöntemi: count (value)

          Return the number of occurrences of 'value'.

      -- Yöntemi: index (value)

          Return first index position of 'value'.  Raise *note
          ValueError: 189. if 'value' is not present.

      -- Özniteliği: format

          Read-only attribute containing the *note struct: d4. packing
          format used by all currently stored values.

      -- Özniteliği: shm

          The *note SharedMemory: 1493. instance where the values are
          stored.

The following example demonstrates basic use of a *note ShareableList:
179f. instance:

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> a = shared_memory.ShareableList(['howdy', b'HoWdY', -273.154, 100, None, True, 42])
     >>> [ type(entry) for entry in a ]
     [<class 'str'>, <class 'bytes'>, <class 'float'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'NoneType'>, <class 'bool'>, <class 'int'>]
     >>> a[2]
     -273.154
     >>> a[2] = -78.5
     >>> a[2]
     -78.5
     >>> a[2] = 'dry ice'  # Changing data types is supported as well
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> a[2] = 'larger than previously allocated storage space'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: exceeds available storage for existing str
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> len(a)
     7
     >>> a.index(42)
     6
     >>> a.count(b'howdy')
     0
     >>> a.count(b'HoWdY')
     1
     >>> a.shm.close()
     >>> a.shm.unlink()
     >>> del a  # Use of a ShareableList after call to unlink() is unsupported

The following example depicts how one, two, or many processes may access
the same *note ShareableList: 179f. by supplying the name of the shared
memory block behind it:

     >>> b = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(5))         # In a first process
     >>> c = shared_memory.ShareableList(name=b.shm.name)  # In a second process
     >>> c
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], name='...')
     >>> c[-1] = -999
     >>> b[-1]
     -999
     >>> b.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.unlink()

The following examples demonstrates that *note ShareableList: 179f. (and
underlying *note SharedMemory: 1493.) objects can be pickled and
unpickled if needed.  Note, that it will still be the same shared
object.  This happens, because the deserialized object has the same
unique name and is just attached to an existing object with the same
name (if the object is still alive):

     >>> import pickle
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> sl = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(10))
     >>> list(sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> deserialized_sl = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(sl))
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl[0] = -1
     >>> deserialized_sl[1] = -2
     >>> list(sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl.shm.close()
     >>> sl.shm.unlink()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py

   (2) https://numpy.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106939


File: python.info,  Node: The concurrent package,  Next: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks,  Prev: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.4 The ‘concurrent’ package
-------------------------------

Currently, there is only one module in this package:

   * *note concurrent.futures: 21. – Launching parallel tasks


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks,  Next: subprocess — Subprocess management,  Prev: The concurrent package,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.5 ‘concurrent.futures’ — Launching parallel tasks
------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py(1) and
Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note concurrent.futures: 21. module provides a high-level interface
for asynchronously executing callables.

The asynchronous execution can be performed with threads, using *note
ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e, or separate processes, using *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 741.  Both implement the same interface, which is
defined by the abstract *note Executor: 2f17. class.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Executor Objects::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future Objects::
* Module Functions::
* Exception classes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py


File: python.info,  Node: Executor Objects,  Next: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.17.5.1 Executor Objects
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: concurrent.futures.Executor

     An abstract class that provides methods to execute calls
     asynchronously.  It should not be used directly, but through its
     concrete subclasses.

      -- Yöntemi: submit (fn, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Schedules the callable, 'fn', to be executed as ‘fn(*args,
          **kwargs)’ and returns a *note Future: 1057. object
          representing the execution of the callable.

               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1) as executor:
                   future = executor.submit(pow, 323, 1235)
                   print(future.result())

      -- Yöntemi: map (fn, *iterables, timeout=None, chunksize=1)

          Similar to *note map(fn, *iterables): 6a7. except:

             * the 'iterables' are collected immediately rather than
               lazily;

             * 'fn' is executed asynchronously and several calls to 'fn'
               may be made concurrently.

          The returned iterator raises a *note TimeoutError: 673. if
          *note __next__(): 1176. is called and the result isn’t
          available after 'timeout' seconds from the original call to
          *note Executor.map(): c72.  'timeout' can be an int or a
          float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there is no
          limit to the wait time.

          If a 'fn' call raises an exception, then that exception will
          be raised when its value is retrieved from the iterator.

          When using *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741, this method chops
          'iterables' into a number of chunks which it submits to the
          pool as separate tasks.  The (approximate) size of these
          chunks can be specified by setting 'chunksize' to a positive
          integer.  For very long iterables, using a large value for
          'chunksize' can significantly improve performance compared to
          the default size of 1.  With *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e,
          'chunksize' has no effect.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'chunksize' argument.

      -- Yöntemi: shutdown (wait=True, *, cancel_futures=False)

          Signal the executor that it should free any resources that it
          is using when the currently pending futures are done
          executing.  Calls to *note Executor.submit(): 8e7. and *note
          Executor.map(): c72. made after shutdown will raise *note
          RuntimeError: 180.

          If 'wait' is ‘True’ then this method will not return until all
          the pending futures are done executing and the resources
          associated with the executor have been freed.  If 'wait' is
          ‘False’ then this method will return immediately and the
          resources associated with the executor will be freed when all
          pending futures are done executing.  Regardless of the value
          of 'wait', the entire Python program will not exit until all
          pending futures are done executing.

          If 'cancel_futures' is ‘True’, this method will cancel all
          pending futures that the executor has not started running.
          Any futures that are completed or running won’t be cancelled,
          regardless of the value of 'cancel_futures'.

          If both 'cancel_futures' and 'wait' are ‘True’, all futures
          that the executor has started running will be completed prior
          to this method returning.  The remaining futures are
          cancelled.

          You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use
          the *note with: 3dd. statement, which will shutdown the *note
          Executor: 2f17. (waiting as if *note Executor.shutdown(): 740.
          were called with 'wait' set to ‘True’):

               import shutil
               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt')

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added 'cancel_futures'.


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Next: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Prev: Executor Objects,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.17.5.2 ThreadPoolExecutor
...........................

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. is an *note Executor: 2f17. subclass that
uses a pool of threads to execute calls asynchronously.

Deadlocks can occur when the callable associated with a *note Future:
1057. waits on the results of another *note Future: 1057.  For example:

     import time
     def wait_on_b():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(b.result())  # b will never complete because it is waiting on a.
         return 5

     def wait_on_a():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(a.result())  # a will never complete because it is waiting on b.
         return 6


     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=2)
     a = executor.submit(wait_on_b)
     b = executor.submit(wait_on_a)

And:

     def wait_on_future():
         f = executor.submit(pow, 5, 2)
         # This will never complete because there is only one worker thread and
         # it is executing this function.
         print(f.result())

     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
     executor.submit(wait_on_future)

 -- Sınıfı: concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

     An *note Executor: 2f17. subclass that uses a pool of at most
     'max_workers' threads to execute calls asynchronously.

     All threads enqueued to ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ will be joined before
     the interpreter can exit.  Note that the exit handler which does
     this is executed 'before' any exit handlers added using ‘atexit’.
     This means exceptions in the main thread must be caught and handled
     in order to signal threads to exit gracefully.  For this reason, it
     is recommended that ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ not be used for
     long-running tasks.

     'initializer' is an optional callable that is called at the start
     of each worker thread; 'initargs' is a tuple of arguments passed to
     the initializer.  Should 'initializer' raise an exception, all
     currently pending jobs will raise a *note BrokenThreadPool: 2f1a,
     as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If 'max_workers' is ‘None’ or not given, it
     will default to the number of processors on the machine, multiplied
     by ‘5’, assuming that *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. is often used
     to overlap I/O instead of CPU work and the number of workers should
     be higher than the number of workers for *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
     741.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'thread_name_prefix' parameter to
     allow users to control the *note threading.Thread: 7a7. names for
     worker threads created by the pool for easier debugging.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'initializer' and 'initargs'
     arguments.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Default value of 'max_workers' is changed to
     ‘min(32, os.cpu_count() + 4)’.  This default value preserves at
     least 5 workers for I/O bound tasks.  It utilizes at most 32 CPU
     cores for CPU bound tasks which release the GIL. And it avoids
     using very large resources implicitly on many-core machines.

     ThreadPoolExecutor now reuses idle worker threads before starting
     'max_workers' worker threads too.

* Menu:

* ThreadPoolExecutor Example::


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor Example,  Up: ThreadPoolExecutor

5.17.5.3 ThreadPoolExecutor Example
...................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import urllib.request

     URLS = ['http://www.foxnews.com/',
             'http://www.cnn.com/',
             'http://europe.wsj.com/',
             'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
             'http://nonexistant-subdomain.python.org/']

     # Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents
     def load_url(url, timeout):
         with urllib.request.urlopen(url, timeout=timeout) as conn:
             return conn.read()

     # We can use a with statement to ensure threads are cleaned up promptly
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
         # Start the load operations and mark each future with its URL
         future_to_url = {executor.submit(load_url, url, 60): url for url in URLS}
         for future in concurrent.futures.as_completed(future_to_url):
             url = future_to_url[future]
             try:
                 data = future.result()
             except Exception as exc:
                 print('%r generated an exception: %s' % (url, exc))
             else:
                 print('%r page is %d bytes' % (url, len(data)))


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Future Objects,  Prev: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.17.5.4 ProcessPoolExecutor
............................

The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. class is an *note Executor: 2f17.
subclass that uses a pool of processes to execute calls asynchronously.
*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. uses the *note multiprocessing: 93.
module, which allows it to side-step the *note Global Interpreter Lock:
147. but also means that only picklable objects can be executed and
returned.

The ‘__main__’ module must be importable by worker subprocesses.  This
means that *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. will not work in the
interactive interpreter.

Calling *note Executor: 2f17. or *note Future: 1057. methods from a
callable submitted to a *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. will result in
deadlock.

 -- Sınıfı: concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=(),
          max_tasks_per_child=None)

     An *note Executor: 2f17. subclass that executes calls
     asynchronously using a pool of at most 'max_workers' processes.  If
     'max_workers' is ‘None’ or not given, it will default to the number
     of processors on the machine.  If 'max_workers' is less than or
     equal to ‘0’, then a *note ValueError: 189. will be raised.  On
     Windows, 'max_workers' must be less than or equal to ‘61’.  If it
     is not then *note ValueError: 189. will be raised.  If
     'max_workers' is ‘None’, then the default chosen will be at most
     ‘61’, even if more processors are available.  'mp_context' can be a
     *note multiprocessing: 93. context or ‘None’.  It will be used to
     launch the workers.  If 'mp_context' is ‘None’ or not given, the
     default *note multiprocessing: 93. context is used.  See *note
     Contexts and start methods: 236.

     'initializer' is an optional callable that is called at the start
     of each worker process; 'initargs' is a tuple of arguments passed
     to the initializer.  Should 'initializer' raise an exception, all
     currently pending jobs will raise a *note BrokenProcessPool: 2f1d,
     as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

     'max_tasks_per_child' is an optional argument that specifies the
     maximum number of tasks a single process can execute before it will
     exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process.  By default
     'max_tasks_per_child' is ‘None’ which means worker processes will
     live as long as the pool.  When a max is specified, the “spawn”
     multiprocessing start method will be used by default in absence of
     a 'mp_context' parameter.  This feature is incompatible with the
     “fork” start method.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: When one of the worker processes terminates
     abruptly, a *note BrokenProcessPool: 2f1d. error is now raised.
     Previously, behaviour was undefined but operations on the executor
     or its futures would often freeze or deadlock.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'mp_context' argument was added to allow
     users to control the start_method for worker processes created by
     the pool.

     Added the 'initializer' and 'initargs' arguments.

          Not: The default *note multiprocessing: 93. start method (see
          *note Contexts and start methods: 236.) will change away from
          'fork' in Python 3.14.  Code that requires 'fork' be used for
          their *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. should explicitly
          specify that by passing a
          ‘mp_context=multiprocessing.get_context("fork")’ parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'max_tasks_per_child' argument was
     added to allow users to control the lifetime of workers in the
     pool.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: On POSIX systems, if your application has
     multiple threads and the *note multiprocessing: 93. context uses
     the ‘"fork"’ start method: The *note os.fork(): 23a. function
     called internally to spawn workers may raise a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f.  Pass a 'mp_context' configured to use a
     different start method.  See the *note os.fork(): 23a.
     documentation for further explanation.

* Menu:

* ProcessPoolExecutor Example::


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor Example,  Up: ProcessPoolExecutor

5.17.5.5 ProcessPoolExecutor Example
....................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import math

     PRIMES = [
         112272535095293,
         112582705942171,
         112272535095293,
         115280095190773,
         115797848077099,
         1099726899285419]

     def is_prime(n):
         if n < 2:
             return False
         if n == 2:
             return True
         if n % 2 == 0:
             return False

         sqrt_n = int(math.floor(math.sqrt(n)))
         for i in range(3, sqrt_n + 1, 2):
             if n % i == 0:
                 return False
         return True

     def main():
         with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
             for number, prime in zip(PRIMES, executor.map(is_prime, PRIMES)):
                 print('%d is prime: %s' % (number, prime))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Future Objects,  Next: Module Functions,  Prev: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.17.5.6 Future Objects
.......................

The *note Future: 1057. class encapsulates the asynchronous execution of
a callable.  *note Future: 1057. instances are created by *note
Executor.submit(): 8e7.

 -- Sınıfı: concurrent.futures.Future

     Encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable.  *note
     Future: 1057. instances are created by *note Executor.submit():
     8e7. and should not be created directly except for testing.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel ()

          Attempt to cancel the call.  If the call is currently being
          executed or finished running and cannot be cancelled then the
          method will return ‘False’, otherwise the call will be
          cancelled and the method will return ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call was successfully cancelled.

      -- Yöntemi: running ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call is currently being executed and
          cannot be cancelled.

      -- Yöntemi: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call was successfully cancelled or
          finished running.

      -- Yöntemi: result (timeout=None)

          Return the value returned by the call.  If the call hasn’t yet
          completed then this method will wait up to 'timeout' seconds.
          If the call hasn’t completed in 'timeout' seconds, then a
          *note TimeoutError: 673. will be raised.  'timeout' can be an
          int or float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there
          is no limit to the wait time.

          If the future is cancelled before completing then *note
          CancelledError: 839. will be raised.

          If the call raised an exception, this method will raise the
          same exception.

      -- Yöntemi: exception (timeout=None)

          Return the exception raised by the call.  If the call hasn’t
          yet completed then this method will wait up to 'timeout'
          seconds.  If the call hasn’t completed in 'timeout' seconds,
          then a *note TimeoutError: 673. will be raised.  'timeout' can
          be an int or float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’,
          there is no limit to the wait time.

          If the future is cancelled before completing then *note
          CancelledError: 839. will be raised.

          If the call completed without raising, ‘None’ is returned.

      -- Yöntemi: add_done_callback (fn)

          Attaches the callable 'fn' to the future.  'fn' will be
          called, with the future as its only argument, when the future
          is cancelled or finishes running.

          Added callables are called in the order that they were added
          and are always called in a thread belonging to the process
          that added them.  If the callable raises an *note Exception:
          838. subclass, it will be logged and ignored.  If the callable
          raises a *note BaseException: 3c3. subclass, the behavior is
          undefined.

          If the future has already completed or been cancelled, 'fn'
          will be called immediately.

     The following *note Future: 1057. methods are meant for use in unit
     tests and *note Executor: 2f17. implementations.

      -- Yöntemi: set_running_or_notify_cancel ()

          This method should only be called by *note Executor: 2f17.
          implementations before executing the work associated with the
          *note Future: 1057. and by unit tests.

          If the method returns ‘False’ then the *note Future: 1057. was
          cancelled, i.e.  *note Future.cancel(): 2f20. was called and
          returned ‘True’.  Any threads waiting on the *note Future:
          1057. completing (i.e.  through *note as_completed(): 2f28. or
          *note wait(): 168a.) will be woken up.

          If the method returns ‘True’ then the *note Future: 1057. was
          not cancelled and has been put in the running state, i.e.
          calls to *note Future.running(): 2f22. will return ‘True’.

          This method can only be called once and cannot be called after
          *note Future.set_result(): 2f29. or *note
          Future.set_exception(): 2f2a. have been called.

      -- Yöntemi: set_result (result)

          Sets the result of the work associated with the *note Future:
          1057. to 'result'.

          This method should only be used by *note Executor: 2f17.
          implementations and unit tests.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: This method raises *note
          concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1469. if the *note
          Future: 1057. is already done.

      -- Yöntemi: set_exception (exception)

          Sets the result of the work associated with the *note Future:
          1057. to the *note Exception: 838. 'exception'.

          This method should only be used by *note Executor: 2f17.
          implementations and unit tests.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: This method raises *note
          concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1469. if the *note
          Future: 1057. is already done.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Functions,  Next: Exception classes,  Prev: Future Objects,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.17.5.7 Module Functions
.........................

 -- Işlevi: concurrent.futures.wait (fs, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Wait for the *note Future: 1057. instances (possibly created by
     different *note Executor: 2f17. instances) given by 'fs' to
     complete.  Duplicate futures given to 'fs' are removed and will be
     returned only once.  Returns a named 2-tuple of sets.  The first
     set, named ‘done’, contains the futures that completed (finished or
     cancelled futures) before the wait completed.  The second set,
     named ‘not_done’, contains the futures that did not complete
     (pending or running futures).

     'timeout' can be used to control the maximum number of seconds to
     wait before returning.  'timeout' can be an int or float.  If
     'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there is no limit to the wait
     time.

     'return_when' indicates when this function should return.  It must
     be one of the following constants:

     Constant                                               Description
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- Verisi: concurrent.futures.FIRST_COMPLETED         The function will return when any future finishes or
                                                            is cancelled.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Verisi: concurrent.futures.FIRST_EXCEPTION         The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 2f2e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Verisi: concurrent.futures.ALL_COMPLETED           The function will return when all futures finish or
                                                            are cancelled.
                                                            

 -- Işlevi: concurrent.futures.as_completed (fs, timeout=None)

     Returns an iterator over the *note Future: 1057. instances
     (possibly created by different *note Executor: 2f17. instances)
     given by 'fs' that yields futures as they complete (finished or
     cancelled futures).  Any futures given by 'fs' that are duplicated
     will be returned once.  Any futures that completed before *note
     as_completed(): 2f28. is called will be yielded first.  The
     returned iterator raises a *note TimeoutError: 673. if *note
     __next__(): 1176. is called and the result isn’t available after
     'timeout' seconds from the original call to *note as_completed():
     2f28.  'timeout' can be an int or float.  If 'timeout' is not
     specified or ‘None’, there is no limit to the wait time.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 3148(1) – futures - execute computations asynchronously

     The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the
     Python standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: Exception classes,  Prev: Module Functions,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.17.5.8 Exception classes
..........................

 -- Özel Durum: concurrent.futures.CancelledError

     Raised when a future is cancelled.

 -- Özel Durum: concurrent.futures.TimeoutError

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: 673, raised when a future
     operation exceeds the given timeout.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: This class was made an alias of *note
     TimeoutError: 673.

 -- Özel Durum: concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor

     Derived from *note RuntimeError: 180, this exception class is
     raised when an executor is broken for some reason, and cannot be
     used to submit or execute new tasks.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Özel Durum: concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError

     Raised when an operation is performed on a future that is not
     allowed in the current state.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Özel Durum: concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool

     Derived from *note BrokenExecutor: 2f31, this exception class is
     raised when one of the workers of a *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e.
     has failed initializing.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Özel Durum: concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool

     Derived from *note BrokenExecutor: 2f31. (formerly *note
     RuntimeError: 180.), this exception class is raised when one of the
     workers of a *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. has terminated in a
     non-clean fashion (for example, if it was killed from the outside).

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess — Subprocess management,  Next: sched — Event scheduler,  Prev: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.6 ‘subprocess’ — Subprocess management
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/subprocess.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note subprocess: d5. module allows you to spawn new processes,
connect to their input/output/error pipes, and obtain their return
codes.  This module intends to replace several older modules and
functions:

     os.system
     os.spawn*

Information about how the *note subprocess: d5. module can be used to
replace these modules and functions can be found in the following
sections.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 324(2) – PEP proposing the subprocess module

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Using the subprocess Module::
* Security Considerations::
* Popen Objects::
* Windows Popen Helpers::
* Older high-level API::
* Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module::
* Legacy Shell Invocation Functions::
* Notes: Notes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/subprocess.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: Using the subprocess Module,  Next: Security Considerations,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.1 Using the ‘subprocess’ Module
......................................

The recommended approach to invoking subprocesses is to use the *note
run(): 9fc. function for all use cases it can handle.  For more advanced
use cases, the underlying *note Popen: 8fa. interface can be used
directly.

 -- Işlevi: subprocess.run (args, *, stdin=None, input=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, capture_output=False, shell=False,
          cwd=None, timeout=None, check=False, encoding=None,
          errors=None, text=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run the command described by 'args'.  Wait for command to complete,
     then return a *note CompletedProcess: d07. instance.

     The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones,
     described below in *note Frequently Used Arguments: 2f35. (hence
     the use of keyword-only notation in the abbreviated signature).
     The full function signature is largely the same as that of the
     *note Popen: 8fa. constructor - most of the arguments to this
     function are passed through to that interface.  ('timeout',
     'input', 'check', and 'capture_output' are not.)

     If 'capture_output' is true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
     When used, the internal *note Popen: 8fa. object is automatically
     created with 'stdout' and 'stderr' both set to *note PIPE: 9fd.
     The 'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments may not be supplied at the same
     time as 'capture_output'.  If you wish to capture and combine both
     streams into one, set 'stdout' to *note PIPE: 9fd. and 'stderr' to
     *note STDOUT: 2f36, instead of using 'capture_output'.

     A 'timeout' may be specified in seconds, it is internally passed on
     to *note Popen.communicate(): 2f37.  If the timeout expires, the
     child process will be killed and waited for.  The *note
     TimeoutExpired: 2f38. exception will be re-raised after the child
     process has terminated.  The initial process creation itself cannot
     be interrupted on many platform APIs so you are not guaranteed to
     see a timeout exception until at least after however long process
     creation takes.

     The 'input' argument is passed to *note Popen.communicate(): 2f37.
     and thus to the subprocess’s stdin.  If used it must be a byte
     sequence, or a string if 'encoding' or 'errors' is specified or
     'text' is true.  When used, the internal *note Popen: 8fa. object
     is automatically created with 'stdin' set to *note PIPE: 9fd, and
     the 'stdin' argument may not be used as well.

     If 'check' is true, and the process exits with a non-zero exit
     code, a *note CalledProcessError: 11d0. exception will be raised.
     Attributes of that exception hold the arguments, the exit code, and
     stdout and stderr if they were captured.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' is true, file
     objects for stdin, stdout and stderr are opened in text mode using
     the specified 'encoding' and 'errors' or the *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. default.  The 'universal_newlines' argument
     is equivalent to 'text' and is provided for backwards
     compatibility.  By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process’
     environment.  It is passed directly to *note Popen: 8fa.  This
     mapping can be str to str on any platform or bytes to bytes on
     POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 105f. or *note
     os.environb: 10bc.

     Examples:

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

          >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], capture_output=True)
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
          stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n', stderr=b'')

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'text' parameter, as a more
     understandable alias of 'universal_newlines'.  Added the
     'capture_output' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Sınıfı: subprocess.CompletedProcess

     The return value from *note run(): 9fc, representing a process that
     has finished.

      -- Özniteliği: args

          The arguments used to launch the process.  This may be a list
          or a string.

      -- Özniteliği: returncode

          Exit status of the child process.  Typically, an exit status
          of 0 indicates that it ran successfully.

          A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated
          by signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).

      -- Özniteliği: stdout

          Captured stdout from the child process.  A bytes sequence, or
          a string if *note run(): 9fc. was called with an encoding,
          errors, or text=True.  ‘None’ if stdout was not captured.

          If you ran the process with ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’, stdout
          and stderr will be combined in this attribute, and *note
          stderr: 2f3c. will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: stderr

          Captured stderr from the child process.  A bytes sequence, or
          a string if *note run(): 9fc. was called with an encoding,
          errors, or text=True.  ‘None’ if stderr was not captured.

      -- Yöntemi: check_returncode ()

          If *note returncode: 2f3a. is non-zero, raise a *note
          CalledProcessError: 11d0.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.DEVNULL

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to *note Popen: 8fa. and indicates that the special file
     *note os.devnull: 186e. will be used.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.PIPE

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to *note Popen: 8fa. and indicates that a pipe to the
     standard stream should be opened.  Most useful with *note
     Popen.communicate(): 2f37.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.STDOUT

     Special value that can be used as the 'stderr' argument to *note
     Popen: 8fa. and indicates that standard error should go into the
     same handle as standard output.

 -- Özel Durum: subprocess.SubprocessError

     Base class for all other exceptions from this module.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: subprocess.TimeoutExpired

     Subclass of *note SubprocessError: 2f3e, raised when a timeout
     expires while waiting for a child process.

      -- Özniteliği: cmd

          Command that was used to spawn the child process.

      -- Özniteliği: timeout

          Timeout in seconds.

      -- Özniteliği: output

          Output of the child process if it was captured by *note run():
          9fc. or *note check_output(): e64.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This
          is always *note bytes: 2cb. when any output was captured
          regardless of the ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’
          instead of ‘b''’ when no output was observed.

      -- Özniteliği: stdout

          Alias for output, for symmetry with *note stderr: 2f43.

      -- Özniteliği: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): 9fc.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This is always *note bytes:
          2cb. when stderr output was captured regardless of the
          ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’
          when no stderr output was observed.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'stdout' and 'stderr' attributes added

 -- Özel Durum: subprocess.CalledProcessError

     Subclass of *note SubprocessError: 2f3e, raised when a process run
     by *note check_call(): 2f44, *note check_output(): e64, or *note
     run(): 9fc. (with ‘check=True’) returns a non-zero exit status.

      -- Özniteliği: returncode

          Exit status of the child process.  If the process exited due
          to a signal, this will be the negative signal number.

      -- Özniteliği: cmd

          Command that was used to spawn the child process.

      -- Özniteliği: output

          Output of the child process if it was captured by *note run():
          9fc. or *note check_output(): e64.  Otherwise, ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: stdout

          Alias for output, for symmetry with *note stderr: 2f49.

      -- Özniteliği: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): 9fc.  Otherwise, ‘None’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'stdout' and 'stderr' attributes added

* Menu:

* Frequently Used Arguments::
* Popen Constructor::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Frequently Used Arguments,  Next: Popen Constructor,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.17.6.2 Frequently Used Arguments
..................................

To support a wide variety of use cases, the *note Popen: 8fa.
constructor (and the convenience functions) accept a large number of
optional arguments.  For most typical use cases, many of these arguments
can be safely left at their default values.  The arguments that are most
commonly needed are:

     'args' is required for all calls and should be a string, or a
     sequence of program arguments.  Providing a sequence of arguments
     is generally preferred, as it allows the module to take care of any
     required escaping and quoting of arguments (e.g.  to permit spaces
     in file names).  If passing a single string, either 'shell' must be
     *note True: a86. (see below) or else the string must simply name
     the program to be executed without specifying any arguments.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program’s
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: 9fd, *note
     DEVNULL: ff4, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), and
     an existing *note file object: 1068. with a valid file descriptor.
     With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection will occur.
     *note PIPE: 9fd. indicates that a new pipe to the child should be
     created.  *note DEVNULL: ff4. indicates that the special file *note
     os.devnull: 186e. will be used.  Additionally, 'stderr' can be
     *note STDOUT: 2f36, which indicates that the stderr data from the
     child process should be captured into the same file handle as for
     'stdout'.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' (also known as
     'universal_newlines') is true, the file objects 'stdin', 'stdout'
     and 'stderr' will be opened in text mode using the 'encoding' and
     'errors' specified in the call or the defaults for *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.

     For 'stdin', line ending characters ‘'\n'’ in the input will be
     converted to the default line separator *note os.linesep: 1f6a.
     For 'stdout' and 'stderr', all line endings in the output will be
     converted to ‘'\n'’.  For more information see the documentation of
     the *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. class when the 'newline' argument
     to its constructor is ‘None’.

     If text mode is not used, 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' will be
     opened as binary streams.  No encoding or line ending conversion is
     performed.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'text' parameter as an alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

          Not: The newlines attribute of the file objects *note
          Popen.stdin: 2f4b, *note Popen.stdout: 2f4c. and *note
          Popen.stderr: 2f4d. are not updated by the *note
          Popen.communicate(): 2f37. method.

     If 'shell' is ‘True’, the specified command will be executed
     through the shell.  This can be useful if you are using Python
     primarily for the enhanced control flow it offers over most system
     shells and still want convenient access to other shell features
     such as shell pipes, filename wildcards, environment variable
     expansion, and expansion of ‘~’ to a user’s home directory.
     However, note that Python itself offers implementations of many
     shell-like features (in particular, *note glob: 62, *note fnmatch:
     5a, *note os.walk(): 1d1, *note os.path.expandvars(): 1260, *note
     os.path.expanduser(): 874, and *note shutil: c4.).

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: When 'universal_newlines' is ‘True’, the
     class uses the encoding *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False):
     2c6. instead of ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  See the *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. class for more information on this change.

          Not: Read the *note Security Considerations: 2f4e. section
          before using ‘shell=True’.

These options, along with all of the other options, are described in
more detail in the *note Popen: 8fa. constructor documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Popen Constructor,  Next: Exceptions<8>,  Prev: Frequently Used Arguments,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.17.6.3 Popen Constructor
..........................

The underlying process creation and management in this module is handled
by the *note Popen: 8fa. class.  It offers a lot of flexibility so that
developers are able to handle the less common cases not covered by the
convenience functions.

 -- Sınıfı: subprocess.Popen (args, bufsize=-1, executable=None,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, preexec_fn=None,
          close_fds=True, shell=False, cwd=None, env=None,
          universal_newlines=None, startupinfo=None, creationflags=0,
          restore_signals=True, start_new_session=False, pass_fds=(), *,
          group=None, extra_groups=None, user=None, umask=-1,
          encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, pipesize=-1,
          process_group=None)

     Execute a child program in a new process.  On POSIX, the class uses
     *note os.execvpe(): 2997.-like behavior to execute the child
     program.  On Windows, the class uses the Windows ‘CreateProcess()’
     function.  The arguments to *note Popen: 8fa. are as follows.

     'args' should be a sequence of program arguments or else a single
     string or *note path-like object: 98e.  By default, the program to
     execute is the first item in 'args' if 'args' is a sequence.  If
     'args' is a string, the interpretation is platform-dependent and
     described below.  See the 'shell' and 'executable' arguments for
     additional differences from the default behavior.  Unless otherwise
     stated, it is recommended to pass 'args' as a sequence.

          Uyarı: For maximum reliability, use a fully qualified path for
          the executable.  To search for an unqualified name on ‘PATH’,
          use *note shutil.which(): 1e0.  On all platforms, passing
          *note sys.executable: 36c. is the recommended way to launch
          the current Python interpreter again, and use the ‘-m’
          command-line format to launch an installed module.

          Resolving the path of 'executable' (or the first item of
          'args') is platform dependent.  For POSIX, see *note
          os.execvpe(): 2997, and note that when resolving or searching
          for the executable path, 'cwd' overrides the current working
          directory and 'env' can override the ‘PATH’ environment
          variable.  For Windows, see the documentation of the
          ‘lpApplicationName’ and ‘lpCommandLine’ parameters of WinAPI
          ‘CreateProcess’, and note that when resolving or searching for
          the executable path with ‘shell=False’, 'cwd' does not
          override the current working directory and 'env' cannot
          override the ‘PATH’ environment variable.  Using a full path
          avoids all of these variations.

     An example of passing some arguments to an external program as a
     sequence is:

          Popen(["/usr/bin/git", "commit", "-m", "Fixes a bug."])

     On POSIX, if 'args' is a string, the string is interpreted as the
     name or path of the program to execute.  However, this can only be
     done if not passing arguments to the program.

          Not: It may not be obvious how to break a shell command into a
          sequence of arguments, especially in complex cases.  *note
          shlex.split(): 2c8. can illustrate how to determine the
          correct tokenization for 'args':

               >>> import shlex, subprocess
               >>> command_line = input()
               /bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output "spam spam.txt" -cmd "echo '$MONEY'"
               >>> args = shlex.split(command_line)
               >>> print(args)
               ['/bin/vikings', '-input', 'eggs.txt', '-output', 'spam spam.txt', '-cmd', "echo '$MONEY'"]
               >>> p = subprocess.Popen(args) # Success!

          Note in particular that options (such as '-input') and
          arguments (such as 'eggs.txt') that are separated by
          whitespace in the shell go in separate list elements, while
          arguments that need quoting or backslash escaping when used in
          the shell (such as filenames containing spaces or the 'echo'
          command shown above) are single list elements.

     On Windows, if 'args' is a sequence, it will be converted to a
     string in a manner described in *note Converting an argument
     sequence to a string on Windows: 2f50.  This is because the
     underlying ‘CreateProcess()’ operates on strings.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'args' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 98e. if 'shell' is ‘False’ and a sequence containing
     path-like objects on POSIX.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: 'args' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 98e. if 'shell' is ‘False’ and a sequence containing bytes
     and path-like objects on Windows.

     The 'shell' argument (which defaults to ‘False’) specifies whether
     to use the shell as the program to execute.  If 'shell' is ‘True’,
     it is recommended to pass 'args' as a string rather than as a
     sequence.

     On POSIX with ‘shell=True’, the shell defaults to ‘/bin/sh’.  If
     'args' is a string, the string specifies the command to execute
     through the shell.  This means that the string must be formatted
     exactly as it would be when typed at the shell prompt.  This
     includes, for example, quoting or backslash escaping filenames with
     spaces in them.  If 'args' is a sequence, the first item specifies
     the command string, and any additional items will be treated as
     additional arguments to the shell itself.  That is to say, *note
     Popen: 8fa. does the equivalent of:

          Popen(['/bin/sh', '-c', args[0], args[1], ...])

     On Windows with ‘shell=True’, the ‘COMSPEC’ environment variable
     specifies the default shell.  The only time you need to specify
     ‘shell=True’ on Windows is when the command you wish to execute is
     built into the shell (e.g.  ‘dir’ or ‘copy’).  You do not need
     ‘shell=True’ to run a batch file or console-based executable.

          Not: Read the *note Security Considerations: 2f4e. section
          before using ‘shell=True’.

     'bufsize' will be supplied as the corresponding argument to the
     *note open(): 2a6. function when creating the stdin/stdout/stderr
     pipe file objects:

        - ‘0’ means unbuffered (read and write are one system call and
          can return short)

        - ‘1’ means line buffered (only usable if ‘text=True’ or
          ‘universal_newlines=True’)

        - any other positive value means use a buffer of approximately
          that size

        - negative bufsize (the default) means the system default of
          io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE will be used.

     3.3.1 sürümünde değişti: 'bufsize' now defaults to -1 to enable
     buffering by default to match the behavior that most code expects.
     In versions prior to Python 3.2.4 and 3.3.1 it incorrectly
     defaulted to ‘0’ which was unbuffered and allowed short reads.
     This was unintentional and did not match the behavior of Python 2
     as most code expected.

     The 'executable' argument specifies a replacement program to
     execute.  It is very seldom needed.  When ‘shell=False’,
     'executable' replaces the program to execute specified by 'args'.
     However, the original 'args' is still passed to the program.  Most
     programs treat the program specified by 'args' as the command name,
     which can then be different from the program actually executed.  On
     POSIX, the 'args' name becomes the display name for the executable
     in utilities such as ‘ps’.  If ‘shell=True’, on POSIX the
     'executable' argument specifies a replacement shell for the default
     ‘/bin/sh’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'executable' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e. on POSIX.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: 'executable' parameter accepts a bytes and
     *note path-like object: 98e. on Windows.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program’s
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: 9fd, *note
     DEVNULL: ff4, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), and
     an existing *note file object: 1068. with a valid file descriptor.
     With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection will occur.
     *note PIPE: 9fd. indicates that a new pipe to the child should be
     created.  *note DEVNULL: ff4. indicates that the special file *note
     os.devnull: 186e. will be used.  Additionally, 'stderr' can be
     *note STDOUT: 2f36, which indicates that the stderr data from the
     applications should be captured into the same file handle as for
     'stdout'.

     If 'preexec_fn' is set to a callable object, this object will be
     called in the child process just before the child is executed.
     (POSIX only)

          Uyarı: The 'preexec_fn' parameter is NOT SAFE to use in the
          presence of threads in your application.  The child process
          could deadlock before exec is called.

          Not: If you need to modify the environment for the child use
          the 'env' parameter rather than doing it in a 'preexec_fn'.
          The 'start_new_session' and 'process_group' parameters should
          take the place of code using 'preexec_fn' to call *note
          os.setsid(): 180a. or *note os.setpgid(): 28f8. in the child.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'preexec_fn' parameter is no longer
     supported in subinterpreters.  The use of the parameter in a
     subinterpreter raises *note RuntimeError: 180.  The new restriction
     may affect applications that are deployed in mod_wsgi, uWSGI, and
     other embedded environments.

     If 'close_fds' is true, all file descriptors except ‘0’, ‘1’ and
     ‘2’ will be closed before the child process is executed.  Otherwise
     when 'close_fds' is false, file descriptors obey their inheritable
     flag as described in *note Inheritance of File Descriptors: d90.

     On Windows, if 'close_fds' is true then no handles will be
     inherited by the child process unless explicitly passed in the
     ‘handle_list’ element of *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: a87, or
     by standard handle redirection.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The default for 'close_fds' was changed from
     *note False: 9a8. to what is described above.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was
     changed from *note False: 9a8. to *note True: a86. when redirecting
     the standard handles.  It’s now possible to set 'close_fds' to
     *note True: a86. when redirecting the standard handles.

     'pass_fds' is an optional sequence of file descriptors to keep open
     between the parent and child.  Providing any 'pass_fds' forces
     'close_fds' to be *note True: a86.  (POSIX only)

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'pass_fds' parameter was added.

     If 'cwd' is not ‘None’, the function changes the working directory
     to 'cwd' before executing the child.  'cwd' can be a string, bytes
     or *note path-like: 98e. object.  On POSIX, the function looks for
     'executable' (or for the first item in 'args') relative to 'cwd' if
     the executable path is a relative path.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'cwd' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 98e. on POSIX.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: 'cwd' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 98e. on Windows.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: 'cwd' parameter accepts a bytes object on
     Windows.

     If 'restore_signals' is true (the default) all signals that Python
     has set to SIG_IGN are restored to SIG_DFL in the child process
     before the exec.  Currently this includes the SIGPIPE, SIGXFZ and
     SIGXFSZ signals.  (POSIX only)

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'restore_signals' was added.

     If 'start_new_session' is true the ‘setsid()’ system call will be
     made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'start_new_session' was added.

     If 'process_group' is a non-negative integer, the ‘setpgid(0,
     value)’ system call will be made in the child process prior to the
     execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'process_group' was added.

     If 'group' is not ‘None’, the setregid() system call will be made
     in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If
     the provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     grp.getgrnam(): 2f51. and the value in ‘gr_gid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'extra_groups' is not ‘None’, the setgroups() system call will
     be made in the child process prior to the execution of the
     subprocess.  Strings provided in 'extra_groups' will be looked up
     via *note grp.getgrnam(): 2f51. and the values in ‘gr_gid’ will be
     used.  Integer values will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'user' is not ‘None’, the setreuid() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If the
     provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     pwd.getpwnam(): 2f52. and the value in ‘pw_uid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'umask' is not negative, the umask() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process’
     environment.  This mapping can be str to str on any platform or
     bytes to bytes on POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 105f.
     or *note os.environb: 10bc.

          Not: If specified, 'env' must provide any variables required
          for the program to execute.  On Windows, in order to run a
          side-by-side assembly(1) the specified 'env' 'must' include a
          valid ‘SystemRoot’.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' is true, the
     file objects 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' are opened in text mode
     with the specified 'encoding' and 'errors', as described above in
     *note Frequently Used Arguments: 2f35.  The 'universal_newlines'
     argument is equivalent to 'text' and is provided for backwards
     compatibility.  By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.

     Added in version 3.6: 'encoding' and 'errors' were added.

     Added in version 3.7: 'text' was added as a more readable alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

     If given, 'startupinfo' will be a *note STARTUPINFO: 2f53. object,
     which is passed to the underlying ‘CreateProcess’ function.

     If given, 'creationflags', can be one or more of the following
     flags:

        * *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 2f54.

        * *note CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP: 2f55.

        * *note ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2f56.

        * *note BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2f57.

        * *note HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2f58.

        * *note IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2f59.

        * *note NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2f5a.

        * *note REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS: 2f5b.

        * *note CREATE_NO_WINDOW: 2f5c.

        * *note DETACHED_PROCESS: 2f5d.

        * *note CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE: 2f5e.

        * *note CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB: 2f5f.

     'pipesize' can be used to change the size of the pipe when *note
     PIPE: 9fd. is used for 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'.  The size of
     the pipe is only changed on platforms that support this (only Linux
     at this time of writing).  Other platforms will ignore this
     parameter.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'pipesize' parameter.

     Popen objects are supported as context managers via the *note with:
     3dd. statement: on exit, standard file descriptors are closed, and
     the process is waited for.

          with Popen(["ifconfig"], stdout=PIPE) as proc:
              log.write(proc.stdout.read())

     Popen and the other functions in this module that use it raise an
     *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘subprocess.Popen’ with arguments
     ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, and ‘env’.  The value for ‘args’ may
     be a single string or a list of strings, depending on platform.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added context manager support.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Popen destructor now emits a *note
     ResourceWarning: ab9. warning if the child process is still
     running.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Popen can use *note os.posix_spawn(): 8bc.
     in some cases for better performance.  On Windows Subsystem for
     Linux and QEMU User Emulation, Popen constructor using *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 8bc. no longer raise an exception on errors like
     missing program, but the child process fails with a non-zero *note
     returncode: 17da.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<8>,  Prev: Popen Constructor,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.17.6.4 Exceptions
...................

Exceptions raised in the child process, before the new program has
started to execute, will be re-raised in the parent.

The most common exception raised is *note OSError: 65c.  This occurs,
for example, when trying to execute a non-existent file.  Applications
should prepare for *note OSError: 65c. exceptions.  Note that, when
‘shell=True’, *note OSError: 65c. will be raised by the child only if
the selected shell itself was not found.  To determine if the shell
failed to find the requested application, it is necessary to check the
return code or output from the subprocess.

A *note ValueError: 189. will be raised if *note Popen: 8fa. is called
with invalid arguments.

*note check_call(): 2f44. and *note check_output(): e64. will raise
*note CalledProcessError: 11d0. if the called process returns a non-zero
return code.

All of the functions and methods that accept a 'timeout' parameter, such
as *note run(): 9fc. and *note Popen.communicate(): 2f37. will raise
*note TimeoutExpired: 2f38. if the timeout expires before the process
exits.

Exceptions defined in this module all inherit from *note
SubprocessError: 2f3e.

Added in version 3.3: The *note SubprocessError: 2f3e. base class was
added.


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations,  Next: Popen Objects,  Prev: Using the subprocess Module,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.5 Security Considerations
................................

Unlike some other popen functions, this library will not implicitly
choose to call a system shell.  This means that all characters,
including shell metacharacters, can safely be passed to child processes.
If the shell is invoked explicitly, via ‘shell=True’, it is the
application’s responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
metacharacters are quoted appropriately to avoid shell injection(1)
vulnerabilities.  On *note some platforms: 2f62, it is possible to use
*note shlex.quote(): fce. for this escaping.

On Windows, batch files (‘*.bat’ or ‘*.cmd’) may be launched by the
operating system in a system shell regardless of the arguments passed to
this library.  This could result in arguments being parsed according to
shell rules, but without any escaping added by Python.  If you are
intentionally launching a batch file with arguments from untrusted
sources, consider passing ‘shell=True’ to allow Python to escape special
characters.  See gh-114539(2) for additional discussion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114539


File: python.info,  Node: Popen Objects,  Next: Windows Popen Helpers,  Prev: Security Considerations,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.6 Popen Objects
......................

Instances of the *note Popen: 8fa. class have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Popen.poll ()

     Check if child process has terminated.  Set and return *note
     returncode: 17da. attribute.  Otherwise, returns ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: Popen.wait (timeout=None)

     Wait for child process to terminate.  Set and return *note
     returncode: 17da. attribute.

     If the process does not terminate after 'timeout' seconds, raise a
     *note TimeoutExpired: 2f38. exception.  It is safe to catch this
     exception and retry the wait.

          Not: This will deadlock when using ‘stdout=PIPE’ or
          ‘stderr=PIPE’ and the child process generates enough output to
          a pipe such that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to
          accept more data.  Use *note Popen.communicate(): 2f37. when
          using pipes to avoid that.

          Not: When the ‘timeout’ parameter is not ‘None’, then (on
          POSIX) the function is implemented using a busy loop
          (non-blocking call and short sleeps).  Use the *note asyncio:
          a. module for an asynchronous wait: see *note
          asyncio.create_subprocess_exec: 8dc.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'timeout' was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Popen.communicate (input=None, timeout=None)

     Interact with process: Send data to stdin.  Read data from stdout
     and stderr, until end-of-file is reached.  Wait for process to
     terminate and set the *note returncode: 17da. attribute.  The
     optional 'input' argument should be data to be sent to the child
     process, or ‘None’, if no data should be sent to the child.  If
     streams were opened in text mode, 'input' must be a string.
     Otherwise, it must be bytes.

     *note communicate(): 2f37. returns a tuple ‘(stdout_data,
     stderr_data)’.  The data will be strings if streams were opened in
     text mode; otherwise, bytes.

     Note that if you want to send data to the process’s stdin, you need
     to create the Popen object with ‘stdin=PIPE’.  Similarly, to get
     anything other than ‘None’ in the result tuple, you need to give
     ‘stdout=PIPE’ and/or ‘stderr=PIPE’ too.

     If the process does not terminate after 'timeout' seconds, a *note
     TimeoutExpired: 2f38. exception will be raised.  Catching this
     exception and retrying communication will not lose any output.

     The child process is not killed if the timeout expires, so in order
     to cleanup properly a well-behaved application should kill the
     child process and finish communication:

          proc = subprocess.Popen(...)
          try:
              outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15)
          except TimeoutExpired:
              proc.kill()
              outs, errs = proc.communicate()

          Not: The data read is buffered in memory, so do not use this
          method if the data size is large or unlimited.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'timeout' was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Popen.send_signal (signal)

     Sends the signal 'signal' to the child.

     Do nothing if the process completed.

          Not: On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for *note terminate():
          1263.  CTRL_C_EVENT and CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be sent to
          processes started with a 'creationflags' parameter which
          includes ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

 -- Yöntemi: Popen.terminate ()

     Stop the child.  On POSIX OSs the method sends *note SIGTERM: 1266.
     to the child.  On Windows the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the child.

 -- Yöntemi: Popen.kill ()

     Kills the child.  On POSIX OSs the function sends SIGKILL to the
     child.  On Windows *note kill(): 1264. is an alias for *note
     terminate(): 1263.

The following attributes are also set by the class for you to access.
Reassigning them to new values is unsupported:

 -- Özniteliği: Popen.args

     The 'args' argument as it was passed to *note Popen: 8fa. – a
     sequence of program arguments or else a single string.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özniteliği: Popen.stdin

     If the 'stdin' argument was *note PIPE: 9fd, this attribute is a
     writeable stream object as returned by *note open(): 2a6.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdin' argument was
     not *note PIPE: 9fd, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- Özniteliği: Popen.stdout

     If the 'stdout' argument was *note PIPE: 9fd, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 2a6.  Reading
     from the stream provides output from the child process.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdout' argument
     was not *note PIPE: 9fd, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- Özniteliği: Popen.stderr

     If the 'stderr' argument was *note PIPE: 9fd, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 2a6.  Reading
     from the stream provides error output from the child process.  If
     the 'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text'
     or 'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stderr' argument
     was not *note PIPE: 9fd, this attribute is ‘None’.

     Uyarı: Use *note communicate(): 2f37. rather than *note
     .stdin.write: 2f4b, *note .stdout.read: 2f4c. or *note
     .stderr.read: 2f4d. to avoid deadlocks due to any of the other OS
     pipe buffers filling up and blocking the child process.

 -- Özniteliği: Popen.pid

     The process ID of the child process.

     Note that if you set the 'shell' argument to ‘True’, this is the
     process ID of the spawned shell.

 -- Özniteliği: Popen.returncode

     The child return code.  Initially ‘None’, *note returncode: 17da.
     is set by a call to the *note poll(): 2f64, *note wait(): b67, or
     *note communicate(): 2f37. methods if they detect that the process
     has terminated.

     A ‘None’ value indicates that the process hadn’t yet terminated at
     the time of the last method call.

     A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated by
     signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).


File: python.info,  Node: Windows Popen Helpers,  Next: Older high-level API,  Prev: Popen Objects,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.7 Windows Popen Helpers
..............................

The *note STARTUPINFO: 2f53. class and following constants are only
available on Windows.

 -- Sınıfı: subprocess.STARTUPINFO (*, dwFlags=0, hStdInput=None,
          hStdOutput=None, hStdError=None, wShowWindow=0,
          lpAttributeList=None)

     Partial support of the Windows STARTUPINFO(1) structure is used for
     *note Popen: 8fa. creation.  The following attributes can be set by
     passing them as keyword-only arguments.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Keyword-only argument support was added.

      -- Özniteliği: dwFlags

          A bit field that determines whether certain *note STARTUPINFO:
          2f53. attributes are used when the process creates a window.

               si = subprocess.STARTUPINFO()
               si.dwFlags = subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES | subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

      -- Özniteliği: hStdInput

          If *note dwFlags: 2f68. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          2f6a, this attribute is the standard input handle for the
          process.  If *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES: 2f6a. is not
          specified, the default for standard input is the keyboard
          buffer.

      -- Özniteliği: hStdOutput

          If *note dwFlags: 2f68. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          2f6a, this attribute is the standard output handle for the
          process.  Otherwise, this attribute is ignored and the default
          for standard output is the console window’s buffer.

      -- Özniteliği: hStdError

          If *note dwFlags: 2f68. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          2f6a, this attribute is the standard error handle for the
          process.  Otherwise, this attribute is ignored and the default
          for standard error is the console window’s buffer.

      -- Özniteliği: wShowWindow

          If *note dwFlags: 2f68. specifies *note STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW:
          2f6e, this attribute can be any of the values that can be
          specified in the ‘nCmdShow’ parameter for the ShowWindow(2)
          function, except for ‘SW_SHOWDEFAULT’.  Otherwise, this
          attribute is ignored.

          *note SW_HIDE: 2f6f. is provided for this attribute.  It is
          used when *note Popen: 8fa. is called with ‘shell=True’.

      -- Özniteliği: lpAttributeList

          A dictionary of additional attributes for process creation as
          given in ‘STARTUPINFOEX’, see UpdateProcThreadAttribute(3).

          Supported attributes:

          'handle_list'

               Sequence of handles that will be inherited.  'close_fds'
               must be true if non-empty.

               The handles must be temporarily made inheritable by *note
               os.set_handle_inheritable(): d94. when passed to the
               *note Popen: 8fa. constructor, else *note OSError: 65c.
               will be raised with Windows error
               ‘ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER’ (87).

                    Uyarı: In a multithreaded process, use caution to
                    avoid leaking handles that are marked inheritable
                    when combining this feature with concurrent calls to
                    other process creation functions that inherit all
                    handles such as *note os.system(): 12e5.  This also
                    applies to standard handle redirection, which
                    temporarily creates inheritable handles.

          Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Windows Constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx

   (2) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Windows Constants,  Up: Windows Popen Helpers

5.17.6.8 Windows Constants
..........................

The *note subprocess: d5. module exposes the following constants.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE

     The standard input device.  Initially, this is the console input
     buffer, ‘CONIN$’.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE

     The standard output device.  Initially, this is the active console
     screen buffer, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE

     The standard error device.  Initially, this is the active console
     screen buffer, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.SW_HIDE

     Hides the window.  Another window will be activated.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES

     Specifies that the *note STARTUPINFO.hStdInput: 2f69, *note
     STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput: 2f6b, and *note STARTUPINFO.hStdError:
     2f6c. attributes contain additional information.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

     Specifies that the *note STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow: 2f6d. attribute
     contains additional information.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE

     The new process has a new console, instead of inheriting its
     parent’s console (the default).

 -- Verisi: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process group will be created.  This flag is necessary for using
     *note os.kill(): 120e. on the subprocess.

     This flag is ignored if *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 2f54. is
     specified.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have an above average priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a below average priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a high priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have an idle (lowest) priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a normal priority.  (default)

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have realtime priority.  You should almost never use
     REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS, because this interrupts system threads
     that manage mouse input, keyboard input, and background disk
     flushing.  This class can be appropriate for applications that
     “talk” directly to hardware or that perform brief tasks that should
     have limited interruptions.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will not create a window.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will not inherit its parent’s console.  This value cannot
     be used with CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process does not inherit the error mode of the calling process.
     Instead, the new process gets the default error mode.  This feature
     is particularly useful for multithreaded shell applications that
     run with hard errors disabled.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB

     A *note Popen: 8fa. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process is not associated with the job.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Older high-level API,  Next: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Prev: Windows Popen Helpers,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.9 Older high-level API
.............................

Prior to Python 3.5, these three functions comprised the high level API
to subprocess.  You can now use *note run(): 9fc. in many cases, but
lots of existing code calls these functions.

 -- Işlevi: subprocess.call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run the command described by 'args'.  Wait for command to complete,
     then return the *note returncode: 17da. attribute.

     Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use *note run():
     9fc. instead:

          run(...).returncode

     To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of *note DEVNULL: ff4.

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is the same as that of the *note Popen: 8fa.
     constructor - this function passes all supplied arguments other
     than 'timeout' directly through to that interface.

          Not: Do not use ‘stdout=PIPE’ or ‘stderr=PIPE’ with this
          function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
          output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes
          are not being read from.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'timeout' was added.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Işlevi: subprocess.check_call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run command with arguments.  Wait for command to complete.  If the
     return code was zero then return, otherwise raise *note
     CalledProcessError: 11d0.  The *note CalledProcessError: 11d0.
     object will have the return code in the *note returncode: 2f45.
     attribute.  If *note check_call(): 2f44. was unable to start the
     process it will propagate the exception that was raised.

     Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use *note run():
     9fc. instead:

          run(..., check=True)

     To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of *note DEVNULL: ff4.

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is the same as that of the *note Popen: 8fa.
     constructor - this function passes all supplied arguments other
     than 'timeout' directly through to that interface.

          Not: Do not use ‘stdout=PIPE’ or ‘stderr=PIPE’ with this
          function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
          output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes
          are not being read from.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'timeout' was added.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Işlevi: subprocess.check_output (args, *, stdin=None, stderr=None,
          shell=False, cwd=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          universal_newlines=None, timeout=None, text=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run command with arguments and return its output.

     If the return code was non-zero it raises a *note
     CalledProcessError: 11d0.  The *note CalledProcessError: 11d0.
     object will have the return code in the *note returncode: 2f45.
     attribute and any output in the *note output: 2f47. attribute.

     This is equivalent to:

          run(..., check=True, stdout=PIPE).stdout

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is largely the same as that of *note run(): 9fc.
     - most arguments are passed directly through to that interface.
     One API deviation from *note run(): 9fc. behavior exists: passing
     ‘input=None’ will behave the same as ‘input=b''’ (or ‘input=''’,
     depending on other arguments) rather than using the parent’s
     standard input file handle.

     By default, this function will return the data as encoded bytes.
     The actual encoding of the output data may depend on the command
     being invoked, so the decoding to text will often need to be
     handled at the application level.

     This behaviour may be overridden by setting 'text', 'encoding',
     'errors', or 'universal_newlines' to ‘True’ as described in *note
     Frequently Used Arguments: 2f35. and *note run(): 9fc.

     To also capture standard error in the result, use
     ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’:

          >>> subprocess.check_output(
          ...     "ls non_existent_file; exit 0",
          ...     stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
          ...     shell=True)
          'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n'

     Added in version 3.1.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'timeout' was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Support for the 'input' keyword argument was
     added.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'encoding' and 'errors' were added.  See
     *note run(): 9fc. for details.

     Added in version 3.7: 'text' was added as a more readable alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Next: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Prev: Older high-level API,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.10 Replacing Older Functions with the ‘subprocess’ Module
................................................................

In this section, “a becomes b” means that b can be used as a replacement
for a.

     Not: All “a” functions in this section fail (more or less) silently
     if the executed program cannot be found; the “b” replacements raise
     *note OSError: 65c. instead.

     In addition, the replacements using *note check_output(): e64. will
     fail with a *note CalledProcessError: 11d0. if the requested
     operation produces a non-zero return code.  The output is still
     available as the *note output: 2f47. attribute of the raised
     exception.

In the following examples, we assume that the relevant functions have
already been imported from the *note subprocess: d5. module.

* Menu:

* Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution::
* Replacing shell pipeline::
* Replacing os.system(): Replacing os system.
* Replacing the os.spawn family: Replacing the os spawn family.
* Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3(): Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3.
* Replacing functions from the popen2 module::


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution,  Next: Replacing shell pipeline,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.11 Replacing ‘/bin/sh’ shell command substitution
........................................................

     output=$(mycmd myarg)

becomes:

     output = check_output(["mycmd", "myarg"])


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing shell pipeline,  Next: Replacing os system,  Prev: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.12 Replacing shell pipeline
..................................

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

becomes:

     p1 = Popen(["dmesg"], stdout=PIPE)
     p2 = Popen(["grep", "hda"], stdin=p1.stdout, stdout=PIPE)
     p1.stdout.close()  # Allow p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits.
     output = p2.communicate()[0]

The ‘p1.stdout.close()’ call after starting the p2 is important in order
for p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits before p1.

Alternatively, for trusted input, the shell’s own pipeline support may
still be used directly:

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

becomes:

     output = check_output("dmesg | grep hda", shell=True)


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing os system,  Next: Replacing the os spawn family,  Prev: Replacing shell pipeline,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.13 Replacing ‘os.system()’
.................................

     sts = os.system("mycmd" + " myarg")
     # becomes
     retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)

Notes:

   * Calling the program through the shell is usually not required.

   * The *note call(): 9fe. return value is encoded differently to that
     of *note os.system(): 12e5.

   * The *note os.system(): 12e5. function ignores SIGINT and SIGQUIT
     signals while the command is running, but the caller must do this
     separately when using the *note subprocess: d5. module.

A more realistic example would look like this:

     try:
         retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
         if retcode < 0:
             print("Child was terminated by signal", -retcode, file=sys.stderr)
         else:
             print("Child returned", retcode, file=sys.stderr)
     except OSError as e:
         print("Execution failed:", e, file=sys.stderr)


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing the os spawn family,  Next: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Prev: Replacing os system,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.14 Replacing the ‘os.spawn’ family
.........................................

P_NOWAIT example:

     pid = os.spawnlp(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     pid = Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"]).pid

P_WAIT example:

     retcode = os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     retcode = call(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"])

Vector example:

     os.spawnvp(os.P_NOWAIT, path, args)
     ==>
     Popen([path] + args[1:])

Environment example:

     os.spawnlpe(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg", env)
     ==>
     Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"], env={"PATH": "/usr/bin"})


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Next: Replacing functions from the popen2 module,  Prev: Replacing the os spawn family,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.15 Replacing ‘os.popen()’, ‘os.popen2()’, ‘os.popen3()’
..............................................................

     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = os.popen2(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = os.popen3(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin,
      child_stdout,
      child_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout, p.stderr)

     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = os.popen4(cmd, mode, bufsize)
     ==>
     p = Popen(cmd, shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=STDOUT, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdin, child_stdout_and_stderr) = (p.stdin, p.stdout)

Return code handling translates as follows:

     pipe = os.popen(cmd, 'w')
     ...
     rc = pipe.close()
     if rc is not None and rc >> 8:
         print("There were some errors")
     ==>
     process = Popen(cmd, stdin=PIPE)
     ...
     process.stdin.close()
     if process.wait() != 0:
         print("There were some errors")


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing functions from the popen2 module,  Prev: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.17.6.16 Replacing functions from the ‘popen2’ module
......................................................

     Not: If the cmd argument to popen2 functions is a string, the
     command is executed through /bin/sh.  If it is a list, the command
     is directly executed.

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2("somestring", bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen("somestring", shell=True, bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = popen2.popen2(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize, mode)
     ==>
     p = Popen(["mycmd", "myarg"], bufsize=bufsize,
               stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, close_fds=True)
     (child_stdout, child_stdin) = (p.stdout, p.stdin)

‘popen2.Popen3’ and ‘popen2.Popen4’ basically work as *note
subprocess.Popen: 8fa, except that:

   * *note Popen: 8fa. raises an exception if the execution fails.

   * The 'capturestderr' argument is replaced with the 'stderr'
     argument.

   * ‘stdin=PIPE’ and ‘stdout=PIPE’ must be specified.

   * popen2 closes all file descriptors by default, but you have to
     specify ‘close_fds=True’ with *note Popen: 8fa. to guarantee this
     behavior on all platforms or past Python versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Next: Notes<2>,  Prev: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.17 Legacy Shell Invocation Functions
...........................................

This module also provides the following legacy functions from the 2.x
‘commands’ module.  These operations implicitly invoke the system shell
and none of the guarantees described above regarding security and
exception handling consistency are valid for these functions.

 -- Işlevi: subprocess.getstatusoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Return ‘(exitcode, output)’ of executing 'cmd' in a shell.

     Execute the string 'cmd' in a shell with ‘Popen.check_output()’ and
     return a 2-tuple ‘(exitcode, output)’.  'encoding' and 'errors' are
     used to decode output; see the notes on *note Frequently Used
     Arguments: 2f35. for more details.

     A trailing newline is stripped from the output.  The exit code for
     the command can be interpreted as the return code of subprocess.
     Example:

          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          (0, '/bin/ls')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('cat /bin/junk')
          (1, 'cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/junk')
          (127, 'sh: /bin/junk: not found')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/kill $$')
          (-15, '')

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.3.4 sürümünde değişti: Windows support was added.

     The function now returns (exitcode, output) instead of (status,
     output) as it did in Python 3.3.3 and earlier.  exitcode has the
     same value as *note returncode: 17da.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

 -- Işlevi: subprocess.getoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Return output (stdout and stderr) of executing 'cmd' in a shell.

     Like *note getstatusoutput(): e65, except the exit code is ignored
     and the return value is a string containing the command’s output.
     Example:

          >>> subprocess.getoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          '/bin/ls'

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.3.4 sürümünde değişti: Windows support added

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Notes<2>,  Prev: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.17.6.18 Notes
...............

* Menu:

* Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows::
* Disabling use of vfork() or posix_spawn(): Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn.


File: python.info,  Node: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows,  Next: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn,  Up: Notes<2>

5.17.6.19 Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows
................................................................

On Windows, an 'args' sequence is converted to a string that can be
parsed using the following rules (which correspond to the rules used by
the MS C runtime):

  1. Arguments are delimited by white space, which is either a space or
     a tab.

  2. A string surrounded by double quotation marks is interpreted as a
     single argument, regardless of white space contained within.  A
     quoted string can be embedded in an argument.

  3. A double quotation mark preceded by a backslash is interpreted as a
     literal double quotation mark.

  4. Backslashes are interpreted literally, unless they immediately
     precede a double quotation mark.

  5. If backslashes immediately precede a double quotation mark, every
     pair of backslashes is interpreted as a literal backslash.  If the
     number of backslashes is odd, the last backslash escapes the next
     double quotation mark as described in rule 3.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note shlex: c3.

     Module which provides function to parse and escape command lines.


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn,  Prev: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows,  Up: Notes<2>

5.17.6.20 Disabling use of ‘vfork()’ or ‘posix_spawn()’
.......................................................

On Linux, *note subprocess: d5. defaults to using the ‘vfork()’ system
call internally when it is safe to do so rather than ‘fork()’.  This
greatly improves performance.

If you ever encounter a presumed highly unusual situation where you need
to prevent ‘vfork()’ from being used by Python, you can set the
‘subprocess._USE_VFORK’ attribute to a false value.

     subprocess._USE_VFORK = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

Setting this has no impact on use of ‘posix_spawn()’ which could use
‘vfork()’ internally within its libc implementation.  There is a similar
‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ attribute if you need to prevent use of
that.

     subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

It is safe to set these to false on any Python version.  They will have
no effect on older versions when unsupported.  Do not assume the
attributes are available to read.  Despite their names, a true value
does not indicate that the corresponding function will be used, only
that it may be.

Please file issues any time you have to use these private knobs with a
way to reproduce the issue you were seeing.  Link to that issue from a
comment in your code.

Added in version 3.8: ‘_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’

Added in version 3.11: ‘_USE_VFORK’


File: python.info,  Node: sched — Event scheduler,  Next: queue — A synchronized queue class,  Prev: subprocess — Subprocess management,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.7 ‘sched’ — Event scheduler
--------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/sched.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note sched: be. module defines a class which implements a general
purpose event scheduler:

 -- Sınıfı: sched.scheduler (timefunc=time.monotonic,
          delayfunc=time.sleep)

     The *note scheduler: fc9. class defines a generic interface to
     scheduling events.  It needs two functions to actually deal with
     the “outside world” — 'timefunc' should be callable without
     arguments, and return a number (the “time”, in any units
     whatsoever).  The 'delayfunc' function should be callable with one
     argument, compatible with the output of 'timefunc', and should
     delay that many time units.  'delayfunc' will also be called with
     the argument ‘0’ after each event is run to allow other threads an
     opportunity to run in multi-threaded applications.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'timefunc' and 'delayfunc' parameters are
     optional.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note scheduler: fc9. class can be safely
     used in multi-threaded environments.

Example:

     >>> import sched, time
     >>> s = sched.scheduler(time.time, time.sleep)
     >>> def print_time(a='default'):
     ...     print("From print_time", time.time(), a)
     ...
     >>> def print_some_times():
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...     s.enter(10, 1, print_time)
     ...     s.enter(5, 2, print_time, argument=('positional',))
     ...     # despite having higher priority, 'keyword' runs after 'positional' as enter() is relative
     ...     s.enter(5, 1, print_time, kwargs={'a': 'keyword'})
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 10, print_time, argument=("first enterabs",))
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 5, print_time, argument=("second enterabs",))
     ...     s.run()
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...
     >>> print_some_times()
     1652342830.3640375
     From print_time 1652342830.3642538 second enterabs
     From print_time 1652342830.3643398 first enterabs
     From print_time 1652342835.3694863 positional
     From print_time 1652342835.3696074 keyword
     From print_time 1652342840.369612 default
     1652342840.3697174

* Menu:

* Scheduler Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sched.py


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduler Objects,  Up: sched — Event scheduler

5.17.7.1 Scheduler Objects
..........................

*note scheduler: fc9. instances have the following methods and
attributes:

 -- Yöntemi: scheduler.enterabs (time, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     Schedule a new event.  The 'time' argument should be a numeric type
     compatible with the return value of the 'timefunc' function passed
     to the constructor.  Events scheduled for the same 'time' will be
     executed in the order of their 'priority'.  A lower number
     represents a higher priority.

     Executing the event means executing ‘action(*argument, **kwargs)’.
     'argument' is a sequence holding the positional arguments for
     'action'.  'kwargs' is a dictionary holding the keyword arguments
     for 'action'.

     Return value is an event which may be used for later cancellation
     of the event (see *note cancel(): 175b.).

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'argument' parameter is optional.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'kwargs' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: scheduler.enter (delay, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     Schedule an event for 'delay' more time units.  Other than the
     relative time, the other arguments, the effect and the return value
     are the same as those for *note enterabs(): fcb.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'argument' parameter is optional.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'kwargs' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: scheduler.cancel (event)

     Remove the event from the queue.  If 'event' is not an event
     currently in the queue, this method will raise a *note ValueError:
     189.

 -- Yöntemi: scheduler.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the event queue is empty.

 -- Yöntemi: scheduler.run (blocking=True)

     Run all scheduled events.  This method will wait (using the
     'delayfunc' function passed to the constructor) for the next event,
     then execute it and so on until there are no more scheduled events.

     If 'blocking' is false executes the scheduled events due to expire
     soonest (if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled
     call in the scheduler (if any).

     Either 'action' or 'delayfunc' can raise an exception.  In either
     case, the scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate
     the exception.  If an exception is raised by 'action', the event
     will not be attempted in future calls to *note run(): fc8.

     If a sequence of events takes longer to run than the time available
     before the next event, the scheduler will simply fall behind.  No
     events will be dropped; the calling code is responsible for
     canceling events which are no longer pertinent.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'blocking' parameter was added.

 -- Özniteliği: scheduler.queue

     Read-only attribute returning a list of upcoming events in the
     order they will be run.  Each event is shown as a *note named
     tuple: 461. with the following fields: time, priority, action,
     argument, kwargs.


File: python.info,  Node: queue — A synchronized queue class,  Next: contextvars — Context Variables,  Prev: sched — Event scheduler,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.8 ‘queue’ — A synchronized queue class
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/queue.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note queue: b5. module implements multi-producer, multi-consumer
queues.  It is especially useful in threaded programming when
information must be exchanged safely between multiple threads.  The
*note Queue: 1235. class in this module implements all the required
locking semantics.

The module implements three types of queue, which differ only in the
order in which the entries are retrieved.  In a FIFO queue, the first
tasks added are the first retrieved.  In a LIFO queue, the most recently
added entry is the first retrieved (operating like a stack).  With a
priority queue, the entries are kept sorted (using the *note heapq: 67.
module) and the lowest valued entry is retrieved first.

Internally, those three types of queues use locks to temporarily block
competing threads; however, they are not designed to handle reentrancy
within a thread.

In addition, the module implements a “simple” FIFO queue type, *note
SimpleQueue: 9df, whose specific implementation provides additional
guarantees in exchange for the smaller functionality.

The *note queue: b5. module defines the following classes and
exceptions:

 -- Sınıfı: queue.Queue (maxsize=0)

     Constructor for a FIFO queue.  'maxsize' is an integer that sets
     the upperbound limit on the number of items that can be placed in
     the queue.  Insertion will block once this size has been reached,
     until queue items are consumed.  If 'maxsize' is less than or equal
     to zero, the queue size is infinite.

 -- Sınıfı: queue.LifoQueue (maxsize=0)

     Constructor for a LIFO queue.  'maxsize' is an integer that sets
     the upperbound limit on the number of items that can be placed in
     the queue.  Insertion will block once this size has been reached,
     until queue items are consumed.  If 'maxsize' is less than or equal
     to zero, the queue size is infinite.

 -- Sınıfı: queue.PriorityQueue (maxsize=0)

     Constructor for a priority queue.  'maxsize' is an integer that
     sets the upperbound limit on the number of items that can be placed
     in the queue.  Insertion will block once this size has been
     reached, until queue items are consumed.  If 'maxsize' is less than
     or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.

     The lowest valued entries are retrieved first (the lowest valued
     entry is the one that would be returned by ‘min(entries)’).  A
     typical pattern for entries is a tuple in the form:
     ‘(priority_number, data)’.

     If the 'data' elements are not comparable, the data can be wrapped
     in a class that ignores the data item and only compares the
     priority number:

          from dataclasses import dataclass, field
          from typing import Any

          @dataclass(order=True)
          class PrioritizedItem:
              priority: int
              item: Any=field(compare=False)

 -- Sınıfı: queue.SimpleQueue

     Constructor for an unbounded FIFO queue.  Simple queues lack
     advanced functionality such as task tracking.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Özel Durum: queue.Empty

     Exception raised when non-blocking *note get(): 2b15. (or *note
     get_nowait(): 2f8b.) is called on a *note Queue: 1235. object which
     is empty.

 -- Özel Durum: queue.Full

     Exception raised when non-blocking *note put(): 2f8c. (or *note
     put_nowait(): 2b14.) is called on a *note Queue: 1235. object which
     is full.

* Menu:

* Queue Objects::
* SimpleQueue Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/queue.py


File: python.info,  Node: Queue Objects,  Next: SimpleQueue Objects,  Up: queue — A synchronized queue class

5.17.8.1 Queue Objects
......................

Queue objects (*note Queue: 1235, *note LifoQueue: 204a, or *note
PriorityQueue: 204b.) provide the public methods described below.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.qsize ()

     Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() > 0
     doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block, nor will
     qsize() < maxsize guarantee that put() will not block.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  If empty()
     returns ‘True’ it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to put()
     will not block.  Similarly, if empty() returns ‘False’ it doesn’t
     guarantee that a subsequent call to get() will not block.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.full ()

     Return ‘True’ if the queue is full, ‘False’ otherwise.  If full()
     returns ‘True’ it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to get()
     will not block.  Similarly, if full() returns ‘False’ it doesn’t
     guarantee that a subsequent call to put() will not block.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     Put 'item' into the queue.  If optional args 'block' is true and
     'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default), block if necessary until a free
     slot is available.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at
     most 'timeout' seconds and raises the *note Full: 2ea0. exception
     if no free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise ('block'
     is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot is immediately
     available, else raise the *note Full: 2ea0. exception ('timeout' is
     ignored in that case).

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.put_nowait (item)

     Equivalent to ‘put(item, block=False)’.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args 'block'
     is true and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default), block if necessary
     until an item is available.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it
     blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises the *note Empty: 2e9f.
     exception if no item was available within that time.  Otherwise
     ('block' is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
     else raise the *note Empty: 2e9f. exception ('timeout' is ignored
     in that case).

     Prior to 3.0 on POSIX systems, and for all versions on Windows, if
     'block' is true and 'timeout' is ‘None’, this operation goes into
     an uninterruptible wait on an underlying lock.  This means that no
     exceptions can occur, and in particular a SIGINT will not trigger a
     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.get_nowait ()

     Equivalent to ‘get(False)’.

Two methods are offered to support tracking whether enqueued tasks have
been fully processed by daemon consumer threads.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.task_done ()

     Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.  Used by queue
     consumer threads.  For each *note get(): 2b15. used to fetch a
     task, a subsequent call to *note task_done(): 2e9b. tells the queue
     that the processing on the task is complete.

     If a *note join(): 2e9c. is currently blocking, it will resume when
     all items have been processed (meaning that a *note task_done():
     2e9b. call was received for every item that had been *note put():
     2f8c. into the queue).

     Raises a *note ValueError: 189. if called more times than there
     were items placed in the queue.

 -- Yöntemi: Queue.join ()

     Blocks until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed.

     The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to
     the queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls
     *note task_done(): 2e9b. to indicate that the item was retrieved
     and all work on it is complete.  When the count of unfinished tasks
     drops to zero, *note join(): 2e9c. unblocks.

Example of how to wait for enqueued tasks to be completed:

     import threading
     import queue

     q = queue.Queue()

     def worker():
         while True:
             item = q.get()
             print(f'Working on {item}')
             print(f'Finished {item}')
             q.task_done()

     # Turn-on the worker thread.
     threading.Thread(target=worker, daemon=True).start()

     # Send thirty task requests to the worker.
     for item in range(30):
         q.put(item)

     # Block until all tasks are done.
     q.join()
     print('All work completed')


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleQueue Objects,  Prev: Queue Objects,  Up: queue — A synchronized queue class

5.17.8.2 SimpleQueue Objects
............................

*note SimpleQueue: 9df. objects provide the public methods described
below.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleQueue.qsize ()

     Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() > 0
     doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleQueue.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  If empty()
     returns ‘False’ it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to
     get() will not block.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleQueue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     Put 'item' into the queue.  The method never blocks and always
     succeeds (except for potential low-level errors such as failure to
     allocate memory).  The optional args 'block' and 'timeout' are
     ignored and only provided for compatibility with *note Queue.put():
     2f8c.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This method has a C implementation
     which is reentrant.  That is, a ‘put()’ or ‘get()’ call can be
     interrupted by another ‘put()’ call in the same thread without
     deadlocking or corrupting internal state inside the queue.  This
     makes it appropriate for use in destructors such as ‘__del__’
     methods or *note weakref: 114. callbacks.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleQueue.put_nowait (item)

     Equivalent to ‘put(item, block=False)’, provided for compatibility
     with *note Queue.put_nowait(): 2b14.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleQueue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args 'block'
     is true and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default), block if necessary
     until an item is available.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it
     blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises the *note Empty: 2e9f.
     exception if no item was available within that time.  Otherwise
     ('block' is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
     else raise the *note Empty: 2e9f. exception ('timeout' is ignored
     in that case).

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleQueue.get_nowait ()

     Equivalent to ‘get(False)’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Class *note multiprocessing.Queue: 14ad.

     A queue class for use in a multi-processing (rather than
     multi-threading) context.

*note collections.deque: 3e7. is an alternative implementation of
unbounded queues with fast atomic *note append(): 22fd. and *note
popleft(): 2303. operations that do not require locking and also support
indexing.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars — Context Variables,  Next: _thread — Low-level threading API,  Prev: queue — A synchronized queue class,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.9 ‘contextvars’ — Context Variables
----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides APIs to manage, store, and access context-local
state.  The *note ContextVar: 13ee. class is used to declare and work
with 'Context Variables'.  The *note copy_context(): 2f9b. function and
the *note Context: 142e. class should be used to manage the current
context in asynchronous frameworks.

Context managers that have state should use Context Variables instead of
*note threading.local(): 1589. to prevent their state from bleeding to
other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.

See also PEP 567(1) for additional details.

Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Context Variables::
* Manual Context Management::
* asyncio support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Context Variables,  Next: Manual Context Management,  Up: contextvars — Context Variables

5.17.9.1 Context Variables
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: contextvars.ContextVar (name[, *, default])

     This class is used to declare a new Context Variable, e.g.:

          var: ContextVar[int] = ContextVar('var', default=42)

     The required 'name' parameter is used for introspection and debug
     purposes.

     The optional keyword-only 'default' parameter is returned by *note
     ContextVar.get(): 2f9d. when no value for the variable is found in
     the current context.

     'Important:' Context Variables should be created at the top module
     level and never in closures.  *note Context: 142e. objects hold
     strong references to context variables which prevents context
     variables from being properly garbage collected.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the variable.  This is a read-only property.

          Added in version 3.7.1.

      -- Yöntemi: get ([default])

          Return a value for the context variable for the current
          context.

          If there is no value for the variable in the current context,
          the method will:

             * return the value of the 'default' argument of the method,
               if provided; or

             * return the default value for the context variable, if it
               was created with one; or

             * raise a *note LookupError: 1fbf.

      -- Yöntemi: set (value)

          Call to set a new value for the context variable in the
          current context.

          The required 'value' argument is the new value for the context
          variable.

          Returns a *note Token: 2fa0. object that can be used to
          restore the variable to its previous value via the *note
          ContextVar.reset(): 2fa1. method.

      -- Yöntemi: reset (token)

          Reset the context variable to the value it had before the
          *note ContextVar.set(): 2f9f. that created the 'token' was
          used.

          For example:

               var = ContextVar('var')

               token = var.set('new value')
               # code that uses 'var'; var.get() returns 'new value'.
               var.reset(token)

               # After the reset call the var has no value again, so
               # var.get() would raise a LookupError.

 -- Sınıfı: contextvars.Token

     'Token' objects are returned by the *note ContextVar.set(): 2f9f.
     method.  They can be passed to the *note ContextVar.reset(): 2fa1.
     method to revert the value of the variable to what it was before
     the corresponding 'set'.

      -- Özniteliği: var

          A read-only property.  Points to the *note ContextVar: 13ee.
          object that created the token.

      -- Özniteliği: old_value

          A read-only property.  Set to the value the variable had
          before the *note ContextVar.set(): 2f9f. method call that
          created the token.  It points to *note Token.MISSING: 2fa4. if
          the variable was not set before the call.

      -- Özniteliği: MISSING

          A marker object used by *note Token.old_value: 2fa3.


File: python.info,  Node: Manual Context Management,  Next: asyncio support,  Prev: Context Variables,  Up: contextvars — Context Variables

5.17.9.2 Manual Context Management
..................................

 -- Işlevi: contextvars.copy_context ()

     Returns a copy of the current *note Context: 142e. object.

     The following snippet gets a copy of the current context and prints
     all variables and their values that are set in it:

          ctx: Context = copy_context()
          print(list(ctx.items()))

     The function has an 'O'(1) complexity, i.e.  works equally fast for
     contexts with a few context variables and for contexts that have a
     lot of them.

 -- Sınıfı: contextvars.Context

     A mapping of *note ContextVars: 13ee. to their values.

     ‘Context()’ creates an empty context with no values in it.  To get
     a copy of the current context use the *note copy_context(): 2f9b.
     function.

     Every thread will have a different top-level *note Context: 142e.
     object.  This means that a *note ContextVar: 13ee. object behaves
     in a similar fashion to *note threading.local(): 1589. when values
     are assigned in different threads.

     Context implements the *note collections.abc.Mapping: 71c.
     interface.

      -- Yöntemi: run (callable, *args, **kwargs)

          Execute ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’ code in the context object
          the 'run' method is called on.  Return the result of the
          execution or propagate an exception if one occurred.

          Any changes to any context variables that 'callable' makes
          will be contained in the context object:

               var = ContextVar('var')
               var.set('spam')

               def main():
                   # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
                   # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
                   # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'spam'

                   var.set('ham')

                   # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
                   # var.get() == ctx[var] == 'ham'

               ctx = copy_context()

               # Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
               # will be contained in 'ctx'.
               ctx.run(main)

               # The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
               # so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
               # ctx[var] == 'ham'

               # However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
               # var.get() == 'spam'

          The method raises a *note RuntimeError: 180. when called on
          the same context object from more than one OS thread, or when
          called recursively.

      -- Yöntemi: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the context object.

      -- Describe: var in context

          Return ‘True’ if the 'context' has a value for 'var' set;
          return ‘False’ otherwise.

      -- Describe: context[var]

          Return the value of the 'var' *note ContextVar: 13ee.
          variable.  If the variable is not set in the context object, a
          *note KeyError: 903. is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: get (var[, default])

          Return the value for 'var' if 'var' has the value in the
          context object.  Return 'default' otherwise.  If 'default' is
          not given, return ‘None’.

      -- Describe: iter(context)

          Return an iterator over the variables stored in the context
          object.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Return the number of variables set in the context object.

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          Return a list of all variables in the context object.

      -- Yöntemi: values ()

          Return a list of all variables’ values in the context object.

      -- Yöntemi: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all variables and their
          values in the context object.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio support,  Prev: Manual Context Management,  Up: contextvars — Context Variables

5.17.9.3 asyncio support
........................

Context variables are natively supported in *note asyncio: a. and are
ready to be used without any extra configuration.  For example, here is
a simple echo server, that uses a context variable to make the address
of a remote client available in the Task that handles that client:

     import asyncio
     import contextvars

     client_addr_var = contextvars.ContextVar('client_addr')

     def render_goodbye():
         # The address of the currently handled client can be accessed
         # without passing it explicitly to this function.

         client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
         return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\r\n'.encode()

     async def handle_request(reader, writer):
         addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
         client_addr_var.set(addr)

         # In any code that we call is now possible to get
         # client's address by calling 'client_addr_var.get()'.

         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             print(line)
             if not line.strip():
                 break

         writer.write(b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n')  # status line
         writer.write(b'\r\n')  # headers
         writer.write(render_goodbye())  # body
         writer.close()

     async def main():
         srv = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_request, '127.0.0.1', 8081)

         async with srv:
             await srv.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

     # To test it you can use telnet or curl:
     #     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
     #     curl 127.0.0.1:8081

The following are support modules for some of the above services:


File: python.info,  Node: _thread — Low-level threading API,  Prev: contextvars — Context Variables,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.17.10 ‘_thread’ — Low-level threading API
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides low-level primitives for working with multiple
threads (also called 'light-weight processes' or 'tasks') — multiple
threads of control sharing their global data space.  For
synchronization, simple locks (also called 'mutexes' or 'binary
semaphores') are provided.  The *note threading: ec. module provides an
easier to use and higher-level threading API built on top of this
module.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: This module used to be optional, it is now always
available.

This module defines the following constants and functions:

 -- Özel Durum: _thread.error

     Raised on thread-specific errors.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This is now a synonym of the built-in *note
     RuntimeError: 180.

 -- Verisi: _thread.LockType

     This is the type of lock objects.

 -- Işlevi: _thread.start_new_thread (function, args[, kwargs])

     Start a new thread and return its identifier.  The thread executes
     the function 'function' with the argument list 'args' (which must
     be a tuple).  The optional 'kwargs' argument specifies a dictionary
     of keyword arguments.

     When the function returns, the thread silently exits.

     When the function terminates with an unhandled exception, *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 491. is called to handle the exception.  The
     'object' attribute of the hook argument is 'function'.  By default,
     a stack trace is printed and then the thread exits (but other
     threads continue to run).

     When the function raises a *note SystemExit: bc8. exception, it is
     silently ignored.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘_thread.start_new_thread’
     with arguments ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491. is now used
     to handle unhandled exceptions.

 -- Işlevi: _thread.interrupt_main (signum=signal.SIGINT, /)

     Simulate the effect of a signal arriving in the main thread.  A
     thread can use this function to interrupt the main thread, though
     there is no guarantee that the interruption will happen
     immediately.

     If given, 'signum' is the number of the signal to simulate.  If
     'signum' is not given, *note signal.SIGINT: 683. is simulated.

     If the given signal isn’t handled by Python (it was set to *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 1647. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1646.), this
     function does nothing.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'signum' argument is added to customize
     the signal number.

          Not: This does not emit the corresponding signal but schedules
          a call to the associated handler (if it exists).  If you want
          to truly emit the signal, use *note signal.raise_signal():
          1625.

 -- Işlevi: _thread.exit ()

     Raise the *note SystemExit: bc8. exception.  When not caught, this
     will cause the thread to exit silently.

 -- Işlevi: _thread.allocate_lock ()

     Return a new lock object.  Methods of locks are described below.
     The lock is initially unlocked.

 -- Işlevi: _thread.get_ident ()

     Return the ‘thread identifier’ of the current thread.  This is a
     nonzero integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended
     as a magic cookie to be used e.g.  to index a dictionary of
     thread-specific data.  Thread identifiers may be recycled when a
     thread exits and another thread is created.

 -- Işlevi: _thread.get_native_id ()

     Return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread assigned
     by the kernel.  This is a non-negative integer.  Its value may be
     used to uniquely identify this particular thread system-wide (until
     the thread terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the
     OS).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, OpenBSD,
     NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: _thread.stack_size ([size])

     Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The
     optional 'size' argument specifies the stack size to be used for
     subsequently created threads, and must be 0 (use platform or
     configured default) or a positive integer value of at least 32,768
     (32 KiB). If 'size' is not specified, 0 is used.  If changing the
     thread stack size is unsupported, a *note RuntimeError: 180. is
     raised.  If the specified stack size is invalid, a *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32
     KiB is currently the minimum supported stack size value to
     guarantee sufficient stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note
     that some platforms may have particular restrictions on values for
     the stack size, such as requiring a minimum stack size > 32 KiB or
     requiring allocation in multiples of the system memory page size -
     platform documentation should be referred to for more information
     (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size
     is the suggested approach in the absence of more specific
     information).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

 -- Verisi: _thread.TIMEOUT_MAX

     The maximum value allowed for the 'timeout' parameter of *note
     Lock.acquire: 4ad.  Specifying a timeout greater than this value
     will raise an *note OverflowError: 6c7.

     Added in version 3.2.

Lock objects have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: lock.acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

     Without any optional argument, this method acquires the lock
     unconditionally, if necessary waiting until it is released by
     another thread (only one thread at a time can acquire a lock —
     that’s their reason for existence).

     If the 'blocking' argument is present, the action depends on its
     value: if it is false, the lock is only acquired if it can be
     acquired immediately without waiting, while if it is true, the lock
     is acquired unconditionally as above.

     If the floating-point 'timeout' argument is present and positive,
     it specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning.  A
     negative 'timeout' argument specifies an unbounded wait.  You
     cannot specify a 'timeout' if 'blocking' is false.

     The return value is ‘True’ if the lock is acquired successfully,
     ‘False’ if not.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Lock acquires can now be interrupted by
     signals on POSIX.

 -- Yöntemi: lock.release ()

     Releases the lock.  The lock must have been acquired earlier, but
     not necessarily by the same thread.

 -- Yöntemi: lock.locked ()

     Return the status of the lock: ‘True’ if it has been acquired by
     some thread, ‘False’ if not.

In addition to these methods, lock objects can also be used via the
*note with: 3dd. statement, e.g.:

     import _thread

     a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()

     with a_lock:
         print("a_lock is locked while this executes")

'Caveats:'

   * Interrupts always go to the main thread (the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. exception will be received by that thread.)

   * Calling *note sys.exit(): 11f5. or raising the *note SystemExit:
     bc8. exception is equivalent to calling *note _thread.exit(): 2fb0.

   * It is platform-dependent whether the *note acquire(): 4ad. method
     on a lock can be interrupted (so that the *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     82f. exception will happen immediately, rather than only after the
     lock has been acquired or the operation has timed out).  It can be
     interrupted on POSIX, but not on Windows.

   * When the main thread exits, it is system defined whether the other
     threads survive.  On most systems, they are killed without
     executing *note try: 503. … *note finally: 828. clauses or
     executing object destructors.


File: python.info,  Node: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Next: Internet Data Handling,  Prev: Concurrent Execution,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.18 Networking and Interprocess Communication
==============================================

The modules described in this chapter provide mechanisms for networking
and inter-processes communication.

Some modules only work for two processes that are on the same machine,
e.g.  *note signal: c5. and *note mmap: 8f.  Other modules support
networking protocols that two or more processes can use to communicate
across machines.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O::
* socket — Low-level networking interface::
* ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects::
* select — Waiting for I/O completion::
* selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing::
* signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events::
* mmap — Memory-mapped file support::


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O,  Next: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.1 ‘asyncio’ — Eşzamansız I/O
---------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Merhaba Dünya!
..............

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         print('Hello ...')
         await asyncio.sleep(1)
         print('... World!')

     asyncio.run(main())

asyncio 'async/await' sözdizimini kullanarak 'eş zamanlı' kod yazmak
için kullanılan bir kütüphanedir.

asyncio yüksek performanslı ağ ve web sunucuları , veritabanı bağlantı
kütüphaneleri , dağıtık görev kuyrukları vb.  pek çok Python eş zamanlı
çatısı için bir temel olarak kullanılmıştır.

asyncio, IO ağırlıklı ve yüksek seviyeli 'yapılandırılmış' ağ kodu için
genellikle mükemmel bir seçimdir.

asyncio aşağıdakiler için bir takım 'yüksek seviyeli' API’lar sağlar:

   * *note Python coroutine’lerini: 2fbe. eş zamanlı olarak çalıştırın
     ve yürütmeleri üzerinde tam kontrole sahip olun;

   * *note ağ IO ve IPC: 2fbf. gerçekleştirimi;

   * *note alt işlemlerin: 2fc0. kontrolü;

   * *note kuyruklar: 2fc1. aracılığı ile görevlerin dağıtımı;

   * eş zamanlı kodun *note senkronize edilmesi: 2fc2.;

Ek olarak , kütüphane ve dil çatısı geliştiricileri için 'düşük
seviyeli' API’lar bulunmaktadır:

   * *note ağ: 2fc3, *note alt işlemler: 2fc4. çalıştırmak, *note
     işletim sistemi sinyallerini: 2fc5. işlemek vb.  işlemler için
     asenkron API’ler sağlayan *note olay döngüleri: c04. oluşturun ve
     yönetin;

   * *note aktarımları: 2fc6. kullanarak verimli protokoller uygulayın ;

   * geribildirim tabanlı kütüphane ve kodları *note köprüleyerek: 2fc7.
     async/await sözdizimi ile birleştirin.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

Bu modül ‘wasm32-emscripten’ ve ‘wasm32-wasi’ WebAssembly platformları
üzerinde çalışmaz veya mevcut değildir.  Daha fazla bilgi için *note
WebAssembly platformları: 1603. bölümüne bakınız.

asyncio REPL
............

REPL üzerinde ‘asyncio’ ile eşzamanlı bağlamda denemeler yapabilirsiniz:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL ...
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     'hello'

Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
arguments.

3.12.5 sürümünde değişti: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20)
Emits audit events.

Referans
........

* Menu:

* Runners::
* Coroutines and Tasks::
* Streams::
* Synchronization Primitives::
* Subprocesses::
* Queues::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<10>.
* Event Loop::
* Futures::
* Transports and Protocols::
* Policies::
* Platform Support::
* Extending::
* High-level API Index::
* Low-level API Index::
* Developing with asyncio::


File: python.info,  Node: Runners,  Next: Coroutines and Tasks,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.1 Runners
................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/runners.py(1)

This section outlines high-level asyncio primitives to run asyncio code.

They are built on top of an *note event loop: c04. with the aim to
simplify async code usage for common wide-spread scenarios.

* Menu:

* Running an asyncio Program::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/runners.py


File: python.info,  Node: Running an asyncio Program,  Next: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners

5.18.1.2 Running an asyncio Program
...................................

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.run (coro, *, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     Execute the *note coroutine: 1b4. 'coro' and return the result.

     This function runs the passed coroutine, taking care of managing
     the asyncio event loop, 'finalizing asynchronous generators', and
     closing the executor.

     This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop is
     running in the same thread.

     If 'debug' is ‘True’, the event loop will be run in debug mode.
     ‘False’ disables debug mode explicitly.  ‘None’ is used to respect
     the global *note Debug Mode: 1b96. settings.

     If 'loop_factory' is not ‘None’, it is used to create a new event
     loop; otherwise *note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 2fcc. is used.  The
     loop is closed at the end.  This function should be used as a main
     entry point for asyncio programs, and should ideally only be called
     once.  It is recommended to use 'loop_factory' to configure the
     event loop instead of policies.

     The executor is given a timeout duration of 5 minutes to shutdown.
     If the executor hasn’t finished within that duration, a warning is
     emitted and the executor is closed.

     Example:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          asyncio.run(main())

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Updated to use *note
     loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 73a.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: 'debug' is ‘None’ by default to respect the
     global debug mode settings.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added 'loop_factory' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Runner context manager,  Next: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: Running an asyncio Program,  Up: Runners

5.18.1.3 Runner context manager
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Runner (*, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     A context manager that simplifies 'multiple' async function calls
     in the same context.

     Sometimes several top-level async functions should be called in the
     same *note event loop: c04. and *note contextvars.Context: 142e.

     If 'debug' is ‘True’, the event loop will be run in debug mode.
     ‘False’ disables debug mode explicitly.  ‘None’ is used to respect
     the global *note Debug Mode: 1b96. settings.

     'loop_factory' could be used for overriding the loop creation.  It
     is the responsibility of the 'loop_factory' to set the created loop
     as the current one.  By default *note asyncio.new_event_loop():
     2fcc. is used and set as current event loop with *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 15ec. if 'loop_factory' is ‘None’.

     Basically, *note asyncio.run(): 19d. example can be rewritten with
     the runner usage:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
              runner.run(main())

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: run (coro, *, context=None)

          Run a *note coroutine: 1b4. 'coro' in the embedded loop.

          Return the coroutine’s result or raise its exception.

          An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying
          a custom *note contextvars.Context: 142e. for the 'coro' to
          run in.  The runner’s default context is used if ‘None’.

          This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop
          is running in the same thread.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the runner.

          Finalize asynchronous generators, shutdown default executor,
          close the event loop and release embedded *note
          contextvars.Context: 142e.

      -- Yöntemi: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop associated with the runner instance.

          Not: *note Runner: 40f. uses the lazy initialization strategy,
          its constructor doesn’t initialize underlying low-level
          structures.

          Embedded 'loop' and 'context' are created at the *note with:
          3dd. body entering or the first call of *note run(): 19d. or
          *note get_loop(): 2fcf.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners

5.18.1.4 Handling Keyboard Interruption
.......................................

Added in version 3.11.

When *note signal.SIGINT: 683. is raised by ‘Ctrl’-‘C’, *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. exception is raised in the main thread by
default.  However this doesn’t work with *note asyncio: a. because it
can interrupt asyncio internals and can hang the program from exiting.

To mitigate this issue, *note asyncio: a. handles *note signal.SIGINT:
683. as follows:

  1. *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 14ac. installs a custom *note
     signal.SIGINT: 683. handler before any user code is executed and
     removes it when exiting from the function.

  2. The *note Runner: 40f. creates the main task for the passed
     coroutine for its execution.

  3. When *note signal.SIGINT: 683. is raised by ‘Ctrl’-‘C’, the custom
     signal handler cancels the main task by calling *note
     asyncio.Task.cancel(): 163f. which raises *note
     asyncio.CancelledError: 837. inside the main task.  This causes the
     Python stack to unwind, ‘try/except’ and ‘try/finally’ blocks can
     be used for resource cleanup.  After the main task is cancelled,
     *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 14ac. raises *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     82f.

  4. A user could write a tight loop which cannot be interrupted by
     *note asyncio.Task.cancel(): 163f, in which case the second
     following ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ immediately raises the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. without cancelling the main task.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines and Tasks,  Next: Streams,  Prev: Runners,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.5 Coroutines and Tasks
.............................

This section outlines high-level asyncio APIs to work with coroutines
and Tasks.

* Menu:

* Coroutines: Coroutines<3>.
* Awaitables::
* Creating Tasks::
* Task Cancellation::
* Task Groups::
* Sleeping::
* Running Tasks Concurrently::
* Eager Task Factory::
* Shielding From Cancellation::
* Timeouts::
* Waiting Primitives::
* Running in Threads::
* Scheduling From Other Threads::
* Introspection::
* Task Object::


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines<3>,  Next: Awaitables,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.6 Coroutines
...................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Coroutines: 1b4. declared with the async/await syntax is the
preferred way of writing asyncio applications.  For example, the
following snippet of code prints “hello”, waits 1 second, and then
prints “world”:

     >>> import asyncio

     >>> async def main():
     ...     print('hello')
     ...     await asyncio.sleep(1)
     ...     print('world')

     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     hello
     world

Note that simply calling a coroutine will not schedule it to be
executed:

     >>> main()
     <coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8>

To actually run a coroutine, asyncio provides the following mechanisms:

   * The *note asyncio.run(): 19d. function to run the top-level entry
     point “main()” function (see the above example.)

   * Awaiting on a coroutine.  The following snippet of code will print
     “hello” after waiting for 1 second, and then print “world” after
     waiting for 'another' 2 seconds:

          import asyncio
          import time

          async def say_after(delay, what):
              await asyncio.sleep(delay)
              print(what)

          async def main():
              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await say_after(1, 'hello')
              await say_after(2, 'world')

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          asyncio.run(main())

     Expected output:

          started at 17:13:52
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:13:55

   * The *note asyncio.create_task(): 40b. function to run coroutines
     concurrently as asyncio *note Tasks: 20a.

     Let’s modify the above example and run two ‘say_after’ coroutines
     'concurrently':

          async def main():
              task1 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(1, 'hello'))

              task2 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(2, 'world'))

              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # Wait until both tasks are completed (should take
              # around 2 seconds.)
              await task1
              await task2

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     Note that expected output now shows that the snippet runs 1 second
     faster than before:

          started at 17:14:32
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:14:34

   * The *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. class provides a more modern
     alternative to *note create_task(): 40b.  Using this API, the last
     example becomes:

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
                  task1 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(1, 'hello'))

                  task2 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(2, 'world'))

                  print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # The await is implicit when the context manager exits.

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     The timing and output should be the same as for the previous
     version.

     Added in version 3.11: *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 409.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py


File: python.info,  Node: Awaitables,  Next: Creating Tasks,  Prev: Coroutines<3>,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.7 Awaitables
...................

We say that an object is an 'awaitable' object if it can be used in an
*note await: 55b. expression.  Many asyncio APIs are designed to accept
awaitables.

There are three main types of 'awaitable' objects: 'coroutines',
'Tasks', and 'Futures'.

Coroutines
..........

Python coroutines are 'awaitables' and therefore can be awaited from
other coroutines:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
         # A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
         # so it *won't run at all*.
         nested()  # will raise a "RuntimeWarning".

         # Let's do it differently now and await it:
         print(await nested())  # will print "42".

     asyncio.run(main())

     Önemli: In this documentation the term “coroutine” can be used for
     two closely related concepts:

        * a 'coroutine function': an *note async def: 3db. function;

        * a 'coroutine object': an object returned by calling a
          'coroutine function'.

Tasks
.....

'Tasks' are used to schedule coroutines 'concurrently'.

When a coroutine is wrapped into a 'Task' with functions like *note
asyncio.create_task(): 40b. the coroutine is automatically scheduled to
run soon:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently
         # with "main()".
         task = asyncio.create_task(nested())

         # "task" can now be used to cancel "nested()", or
         # can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:
         await task

     asyncio.run(main())

Futures
.......

A *note Future: a44. is a special 'low-level' awaitable object that
represents an 'eventual result' of an asynchronous operation.

When a Future object is 'awaited' it means that the coroutine will wait
until the Future is resolved in some other place.

Future objects in asyncio are needed to allow callback-based code to be
used with async/await.

Normally 'there is no need' to create Future objects at the application
level code.

Future objects, sometimes exposed by libraries and some asyncio APIs,
can be awaited:

     async def main():
         await function_that_returns_a_future_object()

         # this is also valid:
         await asyncio.gather(
             function_that_returns_a_future_object(),
             some_python_coroutine()
         )

A good example of a low-level function that returns a Future object is
*note loop.run_in_executor(): 73c.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Tasks,  Next: Task Cancellation,  Prev: Awaitables,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.8 Creating Tasks
.......................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/tasks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

     Wrap the 'coro' *note coroutine: 2fbe. into a *note Task: 20a. and
     schedule its execution.  Return the Task object.

     If 'name' is not ‘None’, it is set as the name of the task using
     *note Task.set_name(): 83c.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 142e. for the 'coro' to run in.
     The current context copy is created when no 'context' is provided.

     The task is executed in the loop returned by *note
     get_running_loop(): 979, *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised if
     there is no running loop in current thread.

          Not: *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 140c. is a new
          alternative leveraging structural concurrency; it allows for
          waiting for a group of related tasks with strong safety
          guarantees.

          Önemli: Save a reference to the result of this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop only
          keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn’t referenced
          elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time, even before
          it’s done.  For reliable “fire-and-forget” background tasks,
          gather them in a collection:

               background_tasks = set()

               for i in range(10):
                   task = asyncio.create_task(some_coro(param=i))

                   # Add task to the set. This creates a strong reference.
                   background_tasks.add(task)

                   # To prevent keeping references to finished tasks forever,
                   # make each task remove its own reference from the set after
                   # completion:
                   task.add_done_callback(background_tasks.discard)

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'name' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'context' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/tasks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Task Cancellation,  Next: Task Groups,  Prev: Creating Tasks,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.9 Task Cancellation
..........................

Tasks can easily and safely be cancelled.  When a task is cancelled,
*note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. will be raised in the task at the
next opportunity.

It is recommended that coroutines use ‘try/finally’ blocks to robustly
perform clean-up logic.  In case *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. is
explicitly caught, it should generally be propagated when clean-up is
complete.  *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. directly subclasses *note
BaseException: 3c3. so most code will not need to be aware of it.

The asyncio components that enable structured concurrency, like *note
asyncio.TaskGroup: 409. and *note asyncio.timeout(): 40d, are
implemented using cancellation internally and might misbehave if a
coroutine swallows *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837.  Similarly, user
code should not generally call *note uncancel: 41a.  However, in cases
when suppressing *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. is truly desired, it
is necessary to also call ‘uncancel()’ to completely remove the
cancellation state.


File: python.info,  Node: Task Groups,  Next: Sleeping,  Prev: Task Cancellation,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.10 Task Groups
.....................

Task groups combine a task creation API with a convenient and reliable
way to wait for all tasks in the group to finish.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.TaskGroup

     An *note asynchronous context manager: 40a. holding a group of
     tasks.  Tasks can be added to the group using *note create_task():
     40b.  All tasks are awaited when the context manager exits.

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

          Create a task in this task group.  The signature matches that
          of *note asyncio.create_task(): 40b.

Example:

     async def main():
         async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
             task1 = tg.create_task(some_coro(...))
             task2 = tg.create_task(another_coro(...))
         print(f"Both tasks have completed now: {task1.result()}, {task2.result()}")

The ‘async with’ statement will wait for all tasks in the group to
finish.  While waiting, new tasks may still be added to the group (for
example, by passing ‘tg’ into one of the coroutines and calling
‘tg.create_task()’ in that coroutine).  Once the last task has finished
and the ‘async with’ block is exited, no new tasks may be added to the
group.

The first time any of the tasks belonging to the group fails with an
exception other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837, the remaining
tasks in the group are cancelled.  No further tasks can then be added to
the group.  At this point, if the body of the ‘async with’ statement is
still active (i.e., *note __aexit__(): 1dc0. hasn’t been called yet),
the task directly containing the ‘async with’ statement is also
cancelled.  The resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. will
interrupt an ‘await’, but it will not bubble out of the containing
‘async with’ statement.

Once all tasks have finished, if any tasks have failed with an exception
other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837, those exceptions are
combined in an *note ExceptionGroup: 181. or *note BaseExceptionGroup:
3be. (as appropriate; see their documentation) which is then raised.

Two base exceptions are treated specially: If any task fails with *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. or *note SystemExit: bc8, the task group still
cancels the remaining tasks and waits for them, but then the initial
*note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. or *note SystemExit: bc8. is re-raised
instead of *note ExceptionGroup: 181. or *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be.

If the body of the ‘async with’ statement exits with an exception (so
*note __aexit__(): 1dc0. is called with an exception set), this is
treated the same as if one of the tasks failed: the remaining tasks are
cancelled and then waited for, and non-cancellation exceptions are
grouped into an exception group and raised.  The exception passed into
*note __aexit__(): 1dc0, unless it is *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837,
is also included in the exception group.  The same special case is made
for *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. and *note SystemExit: bc8. as in the
previous paragraph.

* Menu:

* Terminating a Task Group::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminating a Task Group,  Up: Task Groups

5.18.1.11 Terminating a Task Group
..................................

While terminating a task group is not natively supported by the standard
library, termination can be achieved by adding an exception-raising task
to the task group and ignoring the raised exception:

     import asyncio
     from asyncio import TaskGroup

     class TerminateTaskGroup(Exception):
         """Exception raised to terminate a task group."""

     async def force_terminate_task_group():
         """Used to force termination of a task group."""
         raise TerminateTaskGroup()

     async def job(task_id, sleep_time):
         print(f'Task {task_id}: start')
         await asyncio.sleep(sleep_time)
         print(f'Task {task_id}: done')

     async def main():
         try:
             async with TaskGroup() as group:
                 # spawn some tasks
                 group.create_task(job(1, 0.5))
                 group.create_task(job(2, 1.5))
                 # sleep for 1 second
                 await asyncio.sleep(1)
                 # add an exception-raising task to force the group to terminate
                 group.create_task(force_terminate_task_group())
         except* TerminateTaskGroup:
             pass

     asyncio.run(main())

Expected output:

     Task 1: start
     Task 2: start
     Task 1: done


File: python.info,  Node: Sleeping,  Next: Running Tasks Concurrently,  Prev: Task Groups,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.12 Sleeping
..................

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.sleep (delay, result=None)

     Block for 'delay' seconds.

     If 'result' is provided, it is returned to the caller when the
     coroutine completes.

     ‘sleep()’ always suspends the current task, allowing other tasks to
     run.

     Setting the delay to 0 provides an optimized path to allow other
     tasks to run.  This can be used by long-running functions to avoid
     blocking the event loop for the full duration of the function call.
     Example of coroutine displaying the current date every second for 5
     seconds:

          import asyncio
          import datetime

          async def display_date():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
              end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
              while True:
                  print(datetime.datetime.now())
                  if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
                      break
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)

          asyncio.run(display_date())

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Running Tasks Concurrently,  Next: Eager Task Factory,  Prev: Sleeping,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.13 Running Tasks Concurrently
....................................

 -- Işlevi: awaitable asyncio.gather (*aws, return_exceptions=False)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 2fd4. in the 'aws' sequence
     'concurrently'.

     If any awaitable in 'aws' is a coroutine, it is automatically
     scheduled as a Task.

     If all awaitables are completed successfully, the result is an
     aggregate list of returned values.  The order of result values
     corresponds to the order of awaitables in 'aws'.

     If 'return_exceptions' is ‘False’ (default), the first raised
     exception is immediately propagated to the task that awaits on
     ‘gather()’.  Other awaitables in the 'aws' sequence 'won’t be
     cancelled' and will continue to run.

     If 'return_exceptions' is ‘True’, exceptions are treated the same
     as successful results, and aggregated in the result list.

     If ‘gather()’ is 'cancelled', all submitted awaitables (that have
     not completed yet) are also 'cancelled'.

     If any Task or Future from the 'aws' sequence is 'cancelled', it is
     treated as if it raised *note CancelledError: 837. – the ‘gather()’
     call is 'not' cancelled in this case.  This is to prevent the
     cancellation of one submitted Task/Future to cause other
     Tasks/Futures to be cancelled.

          Not: A new alternative to create and run tasks concurrently
          and wait for their completion is *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 409.
          'TaskGroup' provides stronger safety guarantees than 'gather'
          for scheduling a nesting of subtasks: if a task (or a subtask,
          a task scheduled by a task) raises an exception, 'TaskGroup'
          will, while 'gather' will not, cancel the remaining scheduled
          tasks).
     Example:

          import asyncio

          async def factorial(name, number):
              f = 1
              for i in range(2, number + 1):
                  print(f"Task {name}: Compute factorial({number}), currently i={i}...")
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)
                  f *= i
              print(f"Task {name}: factorial({number}) = {f}")
              return f

          async def main():
              # Schedule three calls *concurrently*:
              L = await asyncio.gather(
                  factorial("A", 2),
                  factorial("B", 3),
                  factorial("C", 4),
              )
              print(L)

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     Task A: Compute factorial(2), currently i=2...
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=2...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=2...
          #     Task A: factorial(2) = 2
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=3...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=3...
          #     Task B: factorial(3) = 6
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=4...
          #     Task C: factorial(4) = 24
          #     [2, 6, 24]

          Not: If 'return_exceptions' is false, cancelling gather()
          after it has been marked done won’t cancel any submitted
          awaitables.  For instance, gather can be marked done after
          propagating an exception to the caller, therefore, calling
          ‘gather.cancel()’ after catching an exception (raised by one
          of the awaitables) from gather won’t cancel any other
          awaitables.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: If the 'gather' itself is cancelled, the
     cancellation is propagated regardless of 'return_exceptions'.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if no positional arguments are provided or not all positional
     arguments are Future-like objects and there is no running event
     loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Eager Task Factory,  Next: Shielding From Cancellation,  Prev: Running Tasks Concurrently,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.14 Eager Task Factory
............................

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.eager_task_factory (loop, coro, *, name=None,
          context=None)

     A task factory for eager task execution.

     When using this factory (via *note
     loop.set_task_factory(asyncio.eager_task_factory): c53.),
     coroutines begin execution synchronously during *note Task: 20a.
     construction.  Tasks are only scheduled on the event loop if they
     block.  This can be a performance improvement as the overhead of
     loop scheduling is avoided for coroutines that complete
     synchronously.

     A common example where this is beneficial is coroutines which
     employ caching or memoization to avoid actual I/O when possible.

          Not: Immediate execution of the coroutine is a semantic
          change.  If the coroutine returns or raises, the task is never
          scheduled to the event loop.  If the coroutine execution
          blocks, the task is scheduled to the event loop.  This change
          may introduce behavior changes to existing applications.  For
          example, the application’s task execution order is likely to
          change.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.create_eager_task_factory (custom_task_constructor)

     Create an eager task factory, similar to *note
     eager_task_factory(): 198, using the provided
     'custom_task_constructor' when creating a new task instead of the
     default *note Task: 20a.

     'custom_task_constructor' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching the signature of *note Task.__init__: 20a.  The callable
     must return a *note asyncio.Task: 20a.-compatible object.

     This function returns a 'callable' intended to be used as a task
     factory of an event loop via *note loop.set_task_factory(factory):
     c53.).

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Shielding From Cancellation,  Next: Timeouts,  Prev: Eager Task Factory,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.15 Shielding From Cancellation
.....................................

 -- Işlevi: awaitable asyncio.shield (aw)

     Protect an *note awaitable object: 2fd4. from being *note
     cancelled: 163f.

     If 'aw' is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.

     The statement:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          res = await shield(task)

     is equivalent to:

          res = await something()

     'except' that if the coroutine containing it is cancelled, the Task
     running in ‘something()’ is not cancelled.  From the point of view
     of ‘something()’, the cancellation did not happen.  Although its
     caller is still cancelled, so the “await” expression still raises a
     *note CancelledError: 837.

     If ‘something()’ is cancelled by other means (i.e.  from within
     itself) that would also cancel ‘shield()’.

     If it is desired to completely ignore cancellation (not
     recommended) the ‘shield()’ function should be combined with a
     try/except clause, as follows:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          try:
              res = await shield(task)
          except CancelledError:
              res = None

          Önemli: Save a reference to tasks passed to this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop only
          keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn’t referenced
          elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time, even before
          it’s done.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if 'aw' is not Future-like object and there is no running event
     loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts,  Next: Waiting Primitives,  Prev: Shielding From Cancellation,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.16 Timeouts
..................

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.timeout (delay)

     Return an *note asynchronous context manager: 40a. that can be used
     to limit the amount of time spent waiting on something.

     'delay' can either be ‘None’, or a float/int number of seconds to
     wait.  If 'delay' is ‘None’, no time limit will be applied; this
     can be useful if the delay is unknown when the context manager is
     created.

     In either case, the context manager can be rescheduled after
     creation using *note Timeout.reschedule(): 2fe3.

     Example:

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                  await long_running_task()

     If ‘long_running_task’ takes more than 10 seconds to complete, the
     context manager will cancel the current task and handle the
     resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. internally,
     transforming it into a *note TimeoutError: 673. which can be caught
     and handled.

          Not: The *note asyncio.timeout(): 40d. context manager is what
          transforms the *note asyncio.CancelledError: 837. into a *note
          TimeoutError: 673, which means the *note TimeoutError: 673.
          can only be caught 'outside' of the context manager.

     Example of catching *note TimeoutError: 673.:

          async def main():
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     The context manager produced by *note asyncio.timeout(): 40d. can
     be rescheduled to a different deadline and inspected.

      -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Timeout (when)

          An *note asynchronous context manager: 40a. for cancelling
          overdue coroutines.

          ‘when’ should be an absolute time at which the context should
          time out, as measured by the event loop’s clock:

             - If ‘when’ is ‘None’, the timeout will never trigger.

             - If ‘when < loop.time()’, the timeout will trigger on the
               next iteration of the event loop.

                -- Yöntemi: when () -> float | None

                    Return the current deadline, or ‘None’ if the
                    current deadline is not set.

                -- Yöntemi: reschedule (when: float | None)

                    Reschedule the timeout.

                -- Yöntemi: expired () -> bool

                    Return whether the context manager has exceeded its
                    deadline (expired).

     Example:

          async def main():
              try:
                  # We do not know the timeout when starting, so we pass ``None``.
                  async with asyncio.timeout(None) as cm:
                      # We know the timeout now, so we reschedule it.
                      new_deadline = get_running_loop().time() + 10
                      cm.reschedule(new_deadline)

                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  pass

              if cm.expired():
                  print("Looks like we haven't finished on time.")

     Timeout context managers can be safely nested.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.timeout_at (when)

     Similar to *note asyncio.timeout(): 40d, except 'when' is the
     absolute time to stop waiting, or ‘None’.

     Example:

          async def main():
              loop = get_running_loop()
              deadline = loop.time() + 20
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout_at(deadline):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.wait_for (aw, timeout)

     Wait for the 'aw' *note awaitable: 2fd4. to complete with a
     timeout.

     If 'aw' is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.

     'timeout' can either be ‘None’ or a float or int number of seconds
     to wait for.  If 'timeout' is ‘None’, block until the future
     completes.

     If a timeout occurs, it cancels the task and raises *note
     TimeoutError: 673.

     To avoid the task *note cancellation: 163f, wrap it in *note
     shield(): 8d5.

     The function will wait until the future is actually cancelled, so
     the total wait time may exceed the 'timeout'.  If an exception
     happens during cancellation, it is propagated.

     If the wait is cancelled, the future 'aw' is also cancelled.
     Example:

          async def eternity():
              # Sleep for one hour
              await asyncio.sleep(3600)
              print('yay!')

          async def main():
              # Wait for at most 1 second
              try:
                  await asyncio.wait_for(eternity(), timeout=1.0)
              except TimeoutError:
                  print('timeout!')

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     timeout!

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: When 'aw' is cancelled due to a timeout,
     ‘wait_for’ waits for 'aw' to be cancelled.  Previously, it raised
     *note TimeoutError: 673. immediately.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note TimeoutError: 673. instead of
     *note asyncio.TimeoutError: 155f.


File: python.info,  Node: Waiting Primitives,  Next: Running in Threads,  Prev: Timeouts,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.17 Waiting Primitives
............................

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.wait (aws, *, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Run *note Future: a44. and *note Task: 20a. instances in the 'aws'
     iterable concurrently and block until the condition specified by
     'return_when'.

     The 'aws' iterable must not be empty.

     Returns two sets of Tasks/Futures: ‘(done, pending)’.

     Usage:

          done, pending = await asyncio.wait(aws)

     'timeout' (a float or int), if specified, can be used to control
     the maximum number of seconds to wait before returning.

     Note that this function does not raise *note TimeoutError: 673.
     Futures or Tasks that aren’t done when the timeout occurs are
     simply returned in the second set.

     'return_when' indicates when this function should return.  It must
     be one of the following constants:

     Constant                                               Description
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- Verisi: asyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED                    The function will return when any future finishes or
                                                            is cancelled.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Verisi: asyncio.FIRST_EXCEPTION                    The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 2fea.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Verisi: asyncio.ALL_COMPLETED                      The function will return when all futures finish or
                                                            are cancelled.
                                                            

     Unlike *note wait_for(): 40e, ‘wait()’ does not cancel the futures
     when a timeout occurs.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Passing coroutine objects to ‘wait()’
     directly is forbidden.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added support for generators yielding
     tasks.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.as_completed (aws, *, timeout=None)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 2fd4. in the 'aws' iterable
     concurrently.  Return an iterator of coroutines.  Each coroutine
     returned can be awaited to get the earliest next result from the
     iterable of the remaining awaitables.

     Raises *note TimeoutError: 673. if the timeout occurs before all
     Futures are done.

     Example:

          for coro in as_completed(aws):
              earliest_result = await coro
              # ...

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if not all awaitable objects in the 'aws' iterable are Future-like
     objects and there is no running event loop.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added support for generators yielding
     tasks.


File: python.info,  Node: Running in Threads,  Next: Scheduling From Other Threads,  Prev: Waiting Primitives,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.18 Running in Threads
............................

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.to_thread (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Asynchronously run function 'func' in a separate thread.

     Any *args and **kwargs supplied for this function are directly
     passed to 'func'.  Also, the current *note contextvars.Context:
     142e. is propagated, allowing context variables from the event loop
     thread to be accessed in the separate thread.

     Return a coroutine that can be awaited to get the eventual result
     of 'func'.

     This coroutine function is primarily intended to be used for
     executing IO-bound functions/methods that would otherwise block the
     event loop if they were run in the main thread.  For example:

          def blocking_io():
              print(f"start blocking_io at {time.strftime('%X')}")
              # Note that time.sleep() can be replaced with any blocking
              # IO-bound operation, such as file operations.
              time.sleep(1)
              print(f"blocking_io complete at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          async def main():
              print(f"started main at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await asyncio.gather(
                  asyncio.to_thread(blocking_io),
                  asyncio.sleep(1))

              print(f"finished main at {time.strftime('%X')}")


          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          # started main at 19:50:53
          # start blocking_io at 19:50:53
          # blocking_io complete at 19:50:54
          # finished main at 19:50:54

     Directly calling ‘blocking_io()’ in any coroutine would block the
     event loop for its duration, resulting in an additional 1 second of
     run time.  Instead, by using ‘asyncio.to_thread()’, we can run it
     in a separate thread without blocking the event loop.

          Not: Due to the *note GIL: 6fa, ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can
          typically only be used to make IO-bound functions
          non-blocking.  However, for extension modules that release the
          GIL or alternative Python implementations that don’t have one,
          ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can also be used for CPU-bound
          functions.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduling From Other Threads,  Next: Introspection,  Prev: Running in Threads,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.19 Scheduling From Other Threads
.......................................

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe (coro, loop)

     Submit a coroutine to the given event loop.  Thread-safe.

     Return a *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1057. to wait for the
     result from another OS thread.

     This function is meant to be called from a different OS thread than
     the one where the event loop is running.  Example:

          # Create a coroutine
          coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

          # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
          future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

          # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
          assert future.result(timeout) == 3

     If an exception is raised in the coroutine, the returned Future
     will be notified.  It can also be used to cancel the task in the
     event loop:

          try:
              result = future.result(timeout)
          except TimeoutError:
              print('The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...')
              future.cancel()
          except Exception as exc:
              print(f'The coroutine raised an exception: {exc!r}')
          else:
              print(f'The coroutine returned: {result!r}')

     See the *note concurrency and multithreading: 2fed. section of the
     documentation.

     Unlike other asyncio functions this function requires the 'loop'
     argument to be passed explicitly.

     Added in version 3.5.1.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection,  Next: Task Object,  Prev: Scheduling From Other Threads,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.20 Introspection
.......................

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.current_task (loop=None)

     Return the currently running *note Task: 20a. instance, or ‘None’
     if no task is running.

     If 'loop' is ‘None’ *note get_running_loop(): 979. is used to get
     the current loop.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.all_tasks (loop=None)

     Return a set of not yet finished *note Task: 20a. objects run by
     the loop.

     If 'loop' is ‘None’, *note get_running_loop(): 979. is used for
     getting current loop.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.iscoroutine (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if 'obj' is a coroutine object.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Task Object,  Prev: Introspection,  Up: Coroutines and Tasks

5.18.1.21 Task Object
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Task (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None,
          eager_start=False)

     A *note Future-like: a44. object that runs a Python *note
     coroutine: 2fbe.  Not thread-safe.

     Tasks are used to run coroutines in event loops.  If a coroutine
     awaits on a Future, the Task suspends the execution of the
     coroutine and waits for the completion of the Future.  When the
     Future is 'done', the execution of the wrapped coroutine resumes.

     Event loops use cooperative scheduling: an event loop runs one Task
     at a time.  While a Task awaits for the completion of a Future, the
     event loop runs other Tasks, callbacks, or performs IO operations.

     Use the high-level *note asyncio.create_task(): 40b. function to
     create Tasks, or the low-level *note loop.create_task(): 83b. or
     *note ensure_future(): af4. functions.  Manual instantiation of
     Tasks is discouraged.

     To cancel a running Task use the *note cancel(): 163f. method.
     Calling it will cause the Task to throw a *note CancelledError:
     837. exception into the wrapped coroutine.  If a coroutine is
     awaiting on a Future object during cancellation, the Future object
     will be cancelled.

     *note cancelled(): 2ff0. can be used to check if the Task was
     cancelled.  The method returns ‘True’ if the wrapped coroutine did
     not suppress the *note CancelledError: 837. exception and was
     actually cancelled.

     *note asyncio.Task: 20a. inherits from *note Future: a44. all of
     its APIs except *note Future.set_result(): 2ff1. and *note
     Future.set_exception(): 2ff2.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 142e. for the 'coro' to run in.
     If no 'context' is provided, the Task copies the current context
     and later runs its coroutine in the copied context.

     An optional keyword-only 'eager_start' argument allows eagerly
     starting the execution of the *note asyncio.Task: 20a. at task
     creation time.  If set to ‘True’ and the event loop is running, the
     task will start executing the coroutine immediately, until the
     first time the coroutine blocks.  If the coroutine returns or
     raises without blocking, the task will be finished eagerly and will
     skip scheduling to the event loop.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the *note contextvars: 24.
     module.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'name' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if 'loop' is not specified and there is no running event loop.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'context' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'eager_start' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Task is 'done'.

          A Task is 'done' when the wrapped coroutine either returned a
          value, raised an exception, or the Task was cancelled.

      -- Yöntemi: result ()

          Return the result of the Task.

          If the Task is 'done', the result of the wrapped coroutine is
          returned (or if the coroutine raised an exception, that
          exception is re-raised.)

          If the Task has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 837. exception.

          If the Task’s result isn’t yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 2ff5. exception.

      -- Yöntemi: exception ()

          Return the exception of the Task.

          If the wrapped coroutine raised an exception that exception is
          returned.  If the wrapped coroutine returned normally this
          method returns ‘None’.

          If the Task has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 837. exception.

          If the Task isn’t 'done' yet, this method raises an *note
          InvalidStateError: 2ff5. exception.

      -- Yöntemi: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Add a callback to be run when the Task is 'done'.

          This method should only be used in low-level callback-based
          code.

          See the documentation of *note Future.add_done_callback():
          976. for more details.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_done_callback (callback)

          Remove 'callback' from the callbacks list.

          This method should only be used in low-level callback-based
          code.

          See the documentation of *note Future.remove_done_callback():
          142b. for more details.

      -- Yöntemi: get_stack (*, limit=None)

          Return the list of stack frames for this Task.

          If the wrapped coroutine is not done, this returns the stack
          where it is suspended.  If the coroutine has completed
          successfully or was cancelled, this returns an empty list.  If
          the coroutine was terminated by an exception, this returns the
          list of traceback frames.

          The frames are always ordered from oldest to newest.

          Only one stack frame is returned for a suspended coroutine.

          The optional 'limit' argument sets the maximum number of
          frames to return; by default all available frames are
          returned.  The ordering of the returned list differs depending
          on whether a stack or a traceback is returned: the newest
          frames of a stack are returned, but the oldest frames of a
          traceback are returned.  (This matches the behavior of the
          traceback module.)

      -- Yöntemi: print_stack (*, limit=None, file=None)

          Print the stack or traceback for this Task.

          This produces output similar to that of the traceback module
          for the frames retrieved by *note get_stack(): 2ff9.

          The 'limit' argument is passed to *note get_stack(): 2ff9.
          directly.

          The 'file' argument is an I/O stream to which the output is
          written; by default output is written to *note sys.stdout:
          943.

      -- Yöntemi: get_coro ()

          Return the coroutine object wrapped by the *note Task: 20a.

               Not: This will return ‘None’ for Tasks which have already
               completed eagerly.  See the *note Eager Task Factory:
               2fdf.

          Added in version 3.8.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: Newly added eager task execution means
          result may be ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 142e. object associated
          with the task.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Yöntemi: get_name ()

          Return the name of the Task.

          If no name has been explicitly assigned to the Task, the
          default asyncio Task implementation generates a default name
          during instantiation.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: set_name (value)

          Set the name of the Task.

          The 'value' argument can be any object, which is then
          converted to a string.

          In the default Task implementation, the name will be visible
          in the *note repr(): 637. output of a task object.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel (msg=None)

          Request the Task to be cancelled.

          This arranges for a *note CancelledError: 837. exception to be
          thrown into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of the
          event loop.

          The coroutine then has a chance to clean up or even deny the
          request by suppressing the exception with a *note try: 503. …
          … ‘except CancelledError’ … *note finally: 828. block.
          Therefore, unlike *note Future.cancel(): 163e, *note
          Task.cancel(): 163f. does not guarantee that the Task will be
          cancelled, although suppressing cancellation completely is not
          common and is actively discouraged.  Should the coroutine
          nevertheless decide to suppress the cancellation, it needs to
          call *note Task.uncancel(): 41a. in addition to catching the
          exception.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'msg' parameter.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘msg’ parameter is propagated from
          cancelled task to its awaiter.

          The following example illustrates how coroutines can intercept
          the cancellation request:

               async def cancel_me():
                   print('cancel_me(): before sleep')

                   try:
                       # Wait for 1 hour
                       await asyncio.sleep(3600)
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print('cancel_me(): cancel sleep')
                       raise
                   finally:
                       print('cancel_me(): after sleep')

               async def main():
                   # Create a "cancel_me" Task
                   task = asyncio.create_task(cancel_me())

                   # Wait for 1 second
                   await asyncio.sleep(1)

                   task.cancel()
                   try:
                       await task
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print("main(): cancel_me is cancelled now")

               asyncio.run(main())

               # Expected output:
               #
               #     cancel_me(): before sleep
               #     cancel_me(): cancel sleep
               #     cancel_me(): after sleep
               #     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now

      -- Yöntemi: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Task is 'cancelled'.

          The Task is 'cancelled' when the cancellation was requested
          with *note cancel(): 163f. and the wrapped coroutine
          propagated the *note CancelledError: 837. exception thrown
          into it.

      -- Yöntemi: uncancel ()

          Decrement the count of cancellation requests to this Task.

          Returns the remaining number of cancellation requests.

          Note that once execution of a cancelled task completed,
          further calls to *note uncancel(): 41a. are ineffective.

          Added in version 3.11.

          This method is used by asyncio’s internals and isn’t expected
          to be used by end-user code.  In particular, if a Task gets
          successfully uncancelled, this allows for elements of
          structured concurrency like *note Task Groups: 2fd9. and *note
          asyncio.timeout(): 40d. to continue running, isolating
          cancellation to the respective structured block.  For example:

               async def make_request_with_timeout():
                   try:
                       async with asyncio.timeout(1):
                           # Structured block affected by the timeout:
                           await make_request()
                           await make_another_request()
                   except TimeoutError:
                       log("There was a timeout")
                   # Outer code not affected by the timeout:
                   await unrelated_code()

          While the block with ‘make_request()’ and
          ‘make_another_request()’ might get cancelled due to the
          timeout, ‘unrelated_code()’ should continue running even in
          case of the timeout.  This is implemented with *note
          uncancel(): 41a.  *note TaskGroup: 409. context managers use
          *note uncancel(): 41a. in a similar fashion.

          If end-user code is, for some reason, suppressing cancellation
          by catching *note CancelledError: 837, it needs to call this
          method to remove the cancellation state.

      -- Yöntemi: cancelling ()

          Return the number of pending cancellation requests to this
          Task, i.e., the number of calls to *note cancel(): 163f. less
          the number of *note uncancel(): 41a. calls.

          Note that if this number is greater than zero but the Task is
          still executing, *note cancelled(): 2ff0. will still return
          ‘False’.  This is because this number can be lowered by
          calling *note uncancel(): 41a, which can lead to the task not
          being cancelled after all if the cancellation requests go down
          to zero.

          This method is used by asyncio’s internals and isn’t expected
          to be used by end-user code.  See *note uncancel(): 41a. for
          more details.

          Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Streams,  Next: Synchronization Primitives,  Prev: Coroutines and Tasks,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.22 Streams
.................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/streams.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Streams are high-level async/await-ready primitives to work with network
connections.  Streams allow sending and receiving data without using
callbacks or low-level protocols and transports.  Here is an example of
a TCP echo client written using asyncio streams:

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

See also the *note Examples: 2fff. section below.

Stream Functions
................

The following top-level asyncio functions can be used to create and work
with streams:

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.open_connection (host=None, port=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)

     Establish a network connection and return a pair of ‘(reader,
     writer)’ objects.

     The returned 'reader' and 'writer' objects are instances of *note
     StreamReader: 16ee. and *note StreamWriter: 14f2. classes.

     'limit' determines the buffer size limit used by the returned *note
     StreamReader: 16ee. instance.  By default the 'limit' is set to 64
     KiB.

     The rest of the arguments are passed directly to *note
     loop.create_connection(): 412.

          Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the *note StreamWriter: 14f2. created.  To close the socket,
          call its *note close(): 3000. method.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and
     'interleave' parameters.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.start_server (client_connected_cb, host=None,
          port=None, *, limit=None, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Start a socket server.

     The 'client_connected_cb' callback is called whenever a new client
     connection is established.  It receives a ‘(reader, writer)’ pair
     as two arguments, instances of the *note StreamReader: 16ee. and
     *note StreamWriter: 14f2. classes.

     'client_connected_cb' can be a plain callable or a *note coroutine
     function: 2fbe.; if it is a coroutine function, it will be
     automatically scheduled as a *note Task: 20a.

     'limit' determines the buffer size limit used by the returned *note
     StreamReader: 16ee. instance.  By default the 'limit' is set to 64
     KiB.

     The rest of the arguments are passed directly to *note
     loop.create_server(): 981.

          Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the server created.  To close the socket, call the server’s
          *note close(): 3001. method.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

Unix Sockets
............

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.open_unix_connection (path=None, *, limit=None,
          ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

 -- Işlevi: :async:

          Establish a Unix socket connection and return a pair of
          ‘(reader, writer)’.

          Similar to *note open_connection(): 987. but operates on Unix
          sockets.

          See also the documentation of *note
          loop.create_unix_connection(): 3003.

               Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the *note StreamWriter: 14f2. created.  To
               close the socket, call its *note close(): 3000. method.

          *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout'
          parameter.  The 'path' parameter can now be a *note path-like
          object: 98e.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.start_unix_server (client_connected_cb,
          path=None, *, limit=None, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Start a Unix socket server.

     Similar to *note start_server(): 988. but works with Unix sockets.

     See also the documentation of *note loop.create_unix_server(): 982.

          Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the socket to
          the server created.  To close the socket, call the server’s
          *note close(): 3001. method.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.  The 'path' parameter can now be a
     *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

* Menu:

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* Examples: Examples<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/streams.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader,  Next: StreamWriter,  Up: Streams

5.18.1.23 StreamReader
......................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.StreamReader

     Represents a reader object that provides APIs to read data from the
     IO stream.  As an *note asynchronous iterable: c03, the object
     supports the *note async for: 916. statement.

     It is not recommended to instantiate 'StreamReader' objects
     directly; use *note open_connection(): 987. and *note
     start_server(): 988. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: feed_eof ()

          Acknowledge the EOF.

      -- Yöntemi: async read (n=-1)

          Read up to 'n' bytes from the stream.

          If 'n' is not provided or set to ‘-1’, read until EOF, then
          return all read *note bytes: 2cb.  If EOF was received and the
          internal buffer is empty, return an empty ‘bytes’ object.

          If 'n' is ‘0’, return an empty ‘bytes’ object immediately.

          If 'n' is positive, return at most 'n' available ‘bytes’ as
          soon as at least 1 byte is available in the internal buffer.
          If EOF is received before any byte is read, return an empty
          ‘bytes’ object.

      -- Yöntemi: async readline ()

          Read one line, where “line” is a sequence of bytes ending with
          ‘\n’.

          If EOF is received and ‘\n’ was not found, the method returns
          partially read data.

          If EOF is received and the internal buffer is empty, return an
          empty ‘bytes’ object.

      -- Yöntemi: async readexactly (n)

          Read exactly 'n' bytes.

          Raise an *note IncompleteReadError: 174a. if EOF is reached
          before 'n' can be read.  Use the *note
          IncompleteReadError.partial: 3009. attribute to get the
          partially read data.

      -- Yöntemi: async readuntil (separator=b'\n')

          Read data from the stream until 'separator' is found.

          On success, the data and separator will be removed from the
          internal buffer (consumed).  Returned data will include the
          separator at the end.

          If the amount of data read exceeds the configured stream
          limit, a *note LimitOverrunError: 300a. exception is raised,
          and the data is left in the internal buffer and can be read
          again.

          If EOF is reached before the complete separator is found, an
          *note IncompleteReadError: 174a. exception is raised, and the
          internal buffer is reset.  The *note
          IncompleteReadError.partial: 3009. attribute may contain a
          portion of the separator.

          Added in version 3.5.2.

      -- Yöntemi: at_eof ()

          Return ‘True’ if the buffer is empty and *note feed_eof():
          3006. was called.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter,  Next: Examples<14>,  Prev: StreamReader,  Up: Streams

5.18.1.24 StreamWriter
......................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.StreamWriter

     Represents a writer object that provides APIs to write data to the
     IO stream.

     It is not recommended to instantiate 'StreamWriter' objects
     directly; use *note open_connection(): 987. and *note
     start_server(): 988. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: write (data)

          The method attempts to write the 'data' to the underlying
          socket immediately.  If that fails, the data is queued in an
          internal write buffer until it can be sent.

          The method should be used along with the ‘drain()’ method:

               stream.write(data)
               await stream.drain()

      -- Yöntemi: writelines (data)

          The method writes a list (or any iterable) of bytes to the
          underlying socket immediately.  If that fails, the data is
          queued in an internal write buffer until it can be sent.

          The method should be used along with the ‘drain()’ method:

               stream.writelines(lines)
               await stream.drain()

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          The method closes the stream and the underlying socket.

          The method should be used, though not mandatory, along with
          the ‘wait_closed()’ method:

               stream.close()
               await stream.wait_closed()

      -- Yöntemi: can_write_eof ()

          Return ‘True’ if the underlying transport supports the *note
          write_eof(): 3010. method, ‘False’ otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: write_eof ()

          Close the write end of the stream after the buffered write
          data is flushed.

      -- Özniteliği: transport

          Return the underlying asyncio transport.

      -- Yöntemi: get_extra_info (name, default=None)

          Access optional transport information; see *note
          BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): 907. for details.

      -- Yöntemi: async drain ()

          Wait until it is appropriate to resume writing to the stream.
          Example:

               writer.write(data)
               await writer.drain()

          This is a flow control method that interacts with the
          underlying IO write buffer.  When the size of the buffer
          reaches the high watermark, 'drain()' blocks until the size of
          the buffer is drained down to the low watermark and writing
          can be resumed.  When there is nothing to wait for, the *note
          drain(): 15cd. returns immediately.

      -- Yöntemi: async start_tls (sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None,
               ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

          Upgrade an existing stream-based connection to TLS.

          Parameters:

             * 'sslcontext': a configured instance of *note SSLContext:
               277.

             * 'server_hostname': sets or overrides the host name that
               the target server’s certificate will be matched against.

             * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait
               for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

             * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for
               the SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

          Added in version 3.11.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
          parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: is_closing ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream is closed or in the process of
          being closed.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: async wait_closed ()

          Wait until the stream is closed.

          Should be called after *note close(): 3000. to wait until the
          underlying connection is closed, ensuring that all data has
          been flushed before e.g.  exiting the program.

          Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<14>,  Prev: StreamWriter,  Up: Streams

5.18.1.25 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* TCP echo client using streams::
* TCP echo server using streams::
* Get HTTP headers::
* Register an open socket to wait for data using streams::


File: python.info,  Node: TCP echo client using streams,  Next: TCP echo server using streams,  Up: Examples<14>

5.18.1.26 TCP echo client using streams
.......................................

TCP echo client using the *note asyncio.open_connection(): 987.
function:

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note TCP echo client protocol: 3015. example uses the low-level
*note loop.create_connection(): 412. method.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP echo server using streams,  Next: Get HTTP headers,  Prev: TCP echo client using streams,  Up: Examples<14>

5.18.1.27 TCP echo server using streams
.......................................

TCP echo server using the *note asyncio.start_server(): 988. function:

     import asyncio

     async def handle_echo(reader, writer):
         data = await reader.read(100)
         message = data.decode()
         addr = writer.get_extra_info('peername')

         print(f"Received {message!r} from {addr!r}")

         print(f"Send: {message!r}")
         writer.write(data)
         await writer.drain()

         print("Close the connection")
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     async def main():
         server = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_echo, '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         addrs = ', '.join(str(sock.getsockname()) for sock in server.sockets)
         print(f'Serving on {addrs}')

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note TCP echo server protocol: 3018. example uses the *note
loop.create_server(): 981. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Get HTTP headers,  Next: Register an open socket to wait for data using streams,  Prev: TCP echo server using streams,  Up: Examples<14>

5.18.1.28 Get HTTP headers
..........................

Simple example querying HTTP headers of the URL passed on the command
line:

     import asyncio
     import urllib.parse
     import sys

     async def print_http_headers(url):
         url = urllib.parse.urlsplit(url)
         if url.scheme == 'https':
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 443, ssl=True)
         else:
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 80)

         query = (
             f"HEAD {url.path or '/'} HTTP/1.0\r\n"
             f"Host: {url.hostname}\r\n"
             f"\r\n"
         )

         writer.write(query.encode('latin-1'))
         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             if not line:
                 break

             line = line.decode('latin1').rstrip()
             if line:
                 print(f'HTTP header> {line}')

         # Ignore the body, close the socket
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     url = sys.argv[1]
     asyncio.run(print_http_headers(url))

Usage:

     python example.py http://example.com/path/page.html

or with HTTPS:

     python example.py https://example.com/path/page.html


File: python.info,  Node: Register an open socket to wait for data using streams,  Prev: Get HTTP headers,  Up: Examples<14>

5.18.1.29 Register an open socket to wait for data using streams
................................................................

Coroutine waiting until a socket receives data using the *note
open_connection(): 987. function:

     import asyncio
     import socket

     async def wait_for_data():
         # Get a reference to the current event loop because
         # we want to access low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets.
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the open socket to wait for data.
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         # Wait for data
         data = await reader.read(100)

         # Got data, we are done: close the socket
         print("Received:", data.decode())
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

         # Close the second socket
         wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(wait_for_data())

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol:
301c. example uses a low-level protocol and the *note
loop.create_connection(): 412. method.

The *note watch a file descriptor for read events: 301d. example uses
the low-level *note loop.add_reader(): 301e. method to watch a file
descriptor.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization Primitives,  Next: Subprocesses,  Prev: Streams,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.30 Synchronization Primitives
....................................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/locks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio synchronization primitives are designed to be similar to those
of the *note threading: ec. module with two important caveats:

   * asyncio primitives are not thread-safe, therefore they should not
     be used for OS thread synchronization (use *note threading: ec. for
     that);

   * methods of these synchronization primitives do not accept the
     'timeout' argument; use the *note asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. function
     to perform operations with timeouts.

asyncio has the following basic synchronization primitives:

   * *note Lock: 8d6.

   * *note Event: 8d7.

   * *note Condition: 8d8.

   * *note Semaphore: 8d9.

   * *note BoundedSemaphore: 8da.

   * *note Barrier: 410.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/locks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Lock,  Next: Event,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.31 Lock
..............

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Lock

     Implements a mutex lock for asyncio tasks.  Not thread-safe.

     An asyncio lock can be used to guarantee exclusive access to a
     shared resource.

     The preferred way to use a Lock is an *note async with: 3e0.
     statement:

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          async with lock:
              # access shared state

     which is equivalent to:

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          await lock.acquire()
          try:
              # access shared state
          finally:
              lock.release()

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: async acquire ()

          Acquire the lock.

          This method waits until the lock is 'unlocked', sets it to
          'locked' and returns ‘True’.

          When more than one coroutine is blocked in *note acquire():
          3022. waiting for the lock to be unlocked, only one coroutine
          eventually proceeds.

          Acquiring a lock is 'fair': the coroutine that proceeds will
          be the first coroutine that started waiting on the lock.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release the lock.

          When the lock is 'locked', reset it to 'unlocked' and return.

          If the lock is 'unlocked', a *note RuntimeError: 180. is
          raised.

      -- Yöntemi: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the lock is 'locked'.


File: python.info,  Node: Event,  Next: Condition,  Prev: Lock,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.32 Event
...............

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Event

     An event object.  Not thread-safe.

     An asyncio event can be used to notify multiple asyncio tasks that
     some event has happened.

     An Event object manages an internal flag that can be set to 'true'
     with the *note set(): 3026. method and reset to 'false' with the
     *note clear(): 3027. method.  The *note wait(): 3028. method blocks
     until the flag is set to 'true'.  The flag is set to 'false'
     initially.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Example:

          async def waiter(event):
              print('waiting for it ...')
              await event.wait()
              print('... got it!')

          async def main():
              # Create an Event object.
              event = asyncio.Event()

              # Spawn a Task to wait until 'event' is set.
              waiter_task = asyncio.create_task(waiter(event))

              # Sleep for 1 second and set the event.
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              event.set()

              # Wait until the waiter task is finished.
              await waiter_task

          asyncio.run(main())

      -- Yöntemi: async wait ()

          Wait until the event is set.

          If the event is set, return ‘True’ immediately.  Otherwise
          block until another task calls *note set(): 3026.

      -- Yöntemi: set ()

          Set the event.

          All tasks waiting for event to be set will be immediately
          awakened.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Clear (unset) the event.

          Tasks awaiting on *note wait(): 3028. will now block until the
          *note set(): 3026. method is called again.

      -- Yöntemi: is_set ()

          Return ‘True’ if the event is set.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition,  Next: Semaphore,  Prev: Event,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.33 Condition
...................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Condition (lock=None)

     A Condition object.  Not thread-safe.

     An asyncio condition primitive can be used by a task to wait for
     some event to happen and then get exclusive access to a shared
     resource.

     In essence, a Condition object combines the functionality of an
     *note Event: 8d7. and a *note Lock: 8d6.  It is possible to have
     multiple Condition objects share one Lock, which allows
     coordinating exclusive access to a shared resource between
     different tasks interested in particular states of that shared
     resource.

     The optional 'lock' argument must be a *note Lock: 8d6. object or
     ‘None’.  In the latter case a new Lock object is created
     automatically.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     The preferred way to use a Condition is an *note async with: 3e0.
     statement:

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          async with cond:
              await cond.wait()

     which is equivalent to:

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          await cond.acquire()
          try:
              await cond.wait()
          finally:
              cond.release()

      -- Yöntemi: async acquire ()

          Acquire the underlying lock.

          This method waits until the underlying lock is 'unlocked',
          sets it to 'locked' and returns ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: notify (n=1)

          Wake up at most 'n' tasks (1 by default) waiting on this
          condition.  The method is no-op if no tasks are waiting.

          The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
          released shortly after.  If called with an 'unlocked' lock a
          *note RuntimeError: 180. error is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the underlying lock is acquired.

      -- Yöntemi: notify_all ()

          Wake up all tasks waiting on this condition.

          This method acts like *note notify(): 302d, but wakes up all
          waiting tasks.

          The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
          released shortly after.  If called with an 'unlocked' lock a
          *note RuntimeError: 180. error is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release the underlying lock.

          When invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note RuntimeError: 180.
          is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: async wait ()

          Wait until notified.

          If the calling task has not acquired the lock when this method
          is called, a *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

          This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks
          until it is awakened by a *note notify(): 302d. or *note
          notify_all(): 302f. call.  Once awakened, the Condition
          re-acquires its lock and this method returns ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: async wait_for (predicate)

          Wait until a predicate becomes 'true'.

          The predicate must be a callable which result will be
          interpreted as a boolean value.  The method will repeatedly
          *note wait(): 3031. until the predicate evaluates to 'true'.
          The final value is the return value.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore,  Next: BoundedSemaphore,  Prev: Condition,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.34 Semaphore
...................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Semaphore (value=1)

     A Semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.

     A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by
     each *note acquire(): 3034. call and incremented by each *note
     release(): 3035. call.  The counter can never go below zero; when
     *note acquire(): 3034. finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting
     until some task calls *note release(): 3035.

     The optional 'value' argument gives the initial value for the
     internal counter (‘1’ by default).  If the given value is less than
     ‘0’ a *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     The preferred way to use a Semaphore is an *note async with: 3e0.
     statement:

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          async with sem:
              # work with shared resource

     which is equivalent to:

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          await sem.acquire()
          try:
              # work with shared resource
          finally:
              sem.release()

      -- Yöntemi: async acquire ()

          Acquire a semaphore.

          If the internal counter is greater than zero, decrement it by
          one and return ‘True’ immediately.  If it is zero, wait until
          a *note release(): 3035. is called and return ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: locked ()

          Returns ‘True’ if semaphore can not be acquired immediately.

      -- Yöntemi: release ()

          Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by one.
          Can wake up a task waiting to acquire the semaphore.

          Unlike *note BoundedSemaphore: 8da, *note Semaphore: 8d9.
          allows making more ‘release()’ calls than ‘acquire()’ calls.


File: python.info,  Node: BoundedSemaphore,  Next: Barrier,  Prev: Semaphore,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.35 BoundedSemaphore
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     A bounded semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.

     Bounded Semaphore is a version of *note Semaphore: 8d9. that raises
     a *note ValueError: 189. in *note release(): 3035. if it increases
     the internal counter above the initial 'value'.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier,  Prev: BoundedSemaphore,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.18.1.36 Barrier
.................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Barrier (parties)

     A barrier object.  Not thread-safe.

     A barrier is a simple synchronization primitive that allows to
     block until 'parties' number of tasks are waiting on it.  Tasks can
     wait on the *note wait(): 3039. method and would be blocked until
     the specified number of tasks end up waiting on *note wait(): 3039.
     At that point all of the waiting tasks would unblock
     simultaneously.

     *note async with: 3e0. can be used as an alternative to awaiting on
     *note wait(): 3039.

     The barrier can be reused any number of times.  Example:

          async def example_barrier():
             # barrier with 3 parties
             b = asyncio.Barrier(3)

             # create 2 new waiting tasks
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

             # The third .wait() call passes the barrier
             await b.wait()
             print(b)
             print("barrier passed")

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

          asyncio.run(example_barrier())

     Result of this example is:

          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:2/3]>
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [draining, waiters:0/3]>
          barrier passed
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:0/3]>

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: async wait ()

          Pass the barrier.  When all the tasks party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all unblocked
          simultaneously.

          When a waiting or blocked task in the barrier is cancelled,
          this task exits the barrier which stays in the same state.  If
          the state of the barrier is “filling”, the number of waiting
          task decreases by 1.

          The return value is an integer in the range of 0 to
          ‘parties-1’, different for each task.  This can be used to
          select a task to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               ...
               async with barrier as position:
                  if position == 0:
                     # Only one task prints this
                     print('End of *draining phase*')

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 411.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a task is
          waiting.  It could raise a *note CancelledError: 837. if a
          task is cancelled.

      -- Yöntemi: async reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any tasks
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 411.
          exception.

          If a barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and
          create a new one.

      -- Yöntemi: async abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 3039. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 411.  Use this for example if one of the
          tasks needs to abort, to avoid infinite waiting tasks.

      -- Özniteliği: parties

          The number of tasks required to pass the barrier.

      -- Özniteliği: n_waiting

          The number of tasks currently waiting in the barrier while
          filling.

      -- Özniteliği: broken

          A boolean that is ‘True’ if the barrier is in the broken
          state.

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.BrokenBarrierError

     This exception, a subclass of *note RuntimeError: 180, is raised
     when the *note Barrier: 410. object is reset or broken.

__________________________________________________________________

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Acquiring a lock using ‘await lock’ or ‘yield
from lock’ and/or *note with: 3dd. statement (‘with await lock’, ‘with
(yield from lock)’) was removed.  Use ‘async with lock’ instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocesses,  Next: Queues,  Prev: Synchronization Primitives,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.37 Subprocesses
......................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

This section describes high-level async/await asyncio APIs to create and
manage subprocesses.  Here’s an example of how asyncio can run a shell
command and obtain its result:

     import asyncio

     async def run(cmd):
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(
             cmd,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE,
             stderr=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         stdout, stderr = await proc.communicate()

         print(f'[{cmd!r} exited with {proc.returncode}]')
         if stdout:
             print(f'[stdout]\n{stdout.decode()}')
         if stderr:
             print(f'[stderr]\n{stderr.decode()}')

     asyncio.run(run('ls /zzz'))

will print:

     ['ls /zzz' exited with 1]
     [stderr]
     ls: /zzz: No such file or directory

Because all asyncio subprocess functions are asynchronous and asyncio
provides many tools to work with such functions, it is easy to execute
and monitor multiple subprocesses in parallel.  It is indeed trivial to
modify the above example to run several commands simultaneously:

     async def main():
         await asyncio.gather(
             run('ls /zzz'),
             run('sleep 1; echo "hello"'))

     asyncio.run(main())

See also the *note Examples: 3043. subsection.

* Menu:

* Creating Subprocesses::
* Constants: Constants<5>.
* Interacting with Subprocesses::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Subprocesses,  Next: Constants<5>,  Up: Subprocesses

5.18.1.38 Creating Subprocesses
...............................

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.create_subprocess_exec (program, *args,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Create a subprocess.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     16ee. wrappers for *note stdout: 3045. and *note stderr: 3046. (if
     *note subprocess.PIPE: 9fd. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Return a *note Process: 3047. instance.

     See the documentation of *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048. for
     other parameters.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: async asyncio.create_subprocess_shell (cmd, stdin=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Run the 'cmd' shell command.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     16ee. wrappers for *note stdout: 3045. and *note stderr: 3046. (if
     *note subprocess.PIPE: 9fd. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Return a *note Process: 3047. instance.

     See the documentation of *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3049. for
     other parameters.

          Önemli: It is the application’s responsibility to ensure that
          all whitespace and special characters are quoted appropriately
          to avoid shell injection(1) vulnerabilities.  The *note
          shlex.quote(): fce. function can be used to properly escape
          whitespace and special shell characters in strings that are
          going to be used to construct shell commands.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Not: Subprocesses are available for Windows if a *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 418. is used.  See *note Subprocess Support on
     Windows: 304a. for details.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

asyncio also has the following 'low-level' APIs to work with
subprocesses: *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048, *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 3049, *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 304b,
*note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 304c, as well as the *note Subprocess
Transports: 304d. and *note Subprocess Protocols: 304e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<5>,  Next: Interacting with Subprocesses,  Prev: Creating Subprocesses,  Up: Subprocesses

5.18.1.39 Constants
...................

 -- Verisi: asyncio.subprocess.PIPE

     Can be passed to the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr' parameters.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdin' argument, the *note Process.stdin:
     3051. attribute will point to a *note StreamWriter: 14f2. instance.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdout' or 'stderr' arguments, the *note
     Process.stdout: 3045. and *note Process.stderr: 3046. attributes
     will point to *note StreamReader: 16ee. instances.

 -- Verisi: asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT

     Special value that can be used as the 'stderr' argument and
     indicates that standard error should be redirected into standard
     output.

 -- Verisi: asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to process creation functions.  It indicates that the
     special file *note os.devnull: 186e. will be used for the
     corresponding subprocess stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Interacting with Subprocesses,  Prev: Constants<5>,  Up: Subprocesses

5.18.1.40 Interacting with Subprocesses
.......................................

Both *note create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc. and *note
create_subprocess_shell(): 8dd. functions return instances of the
'Process' class.  'Process' is a high-level wrapper that allows
communicating with subprocesses and watching for their completion.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.subprocess.Process

     An object that wraps OS processes created by the *note
     create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc. and *note create_subprocess_shell():
     8dd. functions.

     This class is designed to have a similar API to the *note
     subprocess.Popen: 8fa. class, but there are some notable
     differences:

        * unlike Popen, Process instances do not have an equivalent to
          the *note poll(): 2f64. method;

        * the *note communicate(): 1549. and *note wait(): 3055. methods
          don’t have a 'timeout' parameter: use the *note wait_for():
          40e. function;

        * the *note Process.wait(): 3055. method is asynchronous,
          whereas *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): b67. method is
          implemented as a blocking busy loop;

        * the 'universal_newlines' parameter is not supported.

     This class is *note not thread safe: 2fed.

     See also the *note Subprocess and Threads: 3056. section.

      -- Yöntemi: async wait ()

          Wait for the child process to terminate.

          Set and return the *note returncode: 3057. attribute.

               Not: This method can deadlock when using ‘stdout=PIPE’ or
               ‘stderr=PIPE’ and the child process generates so much
               output that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to
               accept more data.  Use the *note communicate(): 1549.
               method when using pipes to avoid this condition.

      -- Yöntemi: async communicate (input=None)

          Interact with process:

            1. send data to 'stdin' (if 'input' is not ‘None’);

            2. closes 'stdin';

            3. read data from 'stdout' and 'stderr', until EOF is
               reached;

            4. wait for process to terminate.

          The optional 'input' argument is the data (*note bytes: 2cb.
          object) that will be sent to the child process.

          Return a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

          If either *note BrokenPipeError: f06. or *note
          ConnectionResetError: f09. exception is raised when writing
          'input' into 'stdin', the exception is ignored.  This
          condition occurs when the process exits before all data are
          written into 'stdin'.

          If it is desired to send data to the process’ 'stdin', the
          process needs to be created with ‘stdin=PIPE’.  Similarly, to
          get anything other than ‘None’ in the result tuple, the
          process has to be created with ‘stdout=PIPE’ and/or
          ‘stderr=PIPE’ arguments.

          Note, that the data read is buffered in memory, so do not use
          this method if the data size is large or unlimited.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: 'stdin' gets closed when ‘input=None’
          too.

      -- Yöntemi: send_signal (signal)

          Sends the signal 'signal' to the child process.

               Not: On Windows, *note SIGTERM: 1266. is an alias for
               *note terminate(): 3059.  ‘CTRL_C_EVENT’ and
               ‘CTRL_BREAK_EVENT’ can be sent to processes started with
               a 'creationflags' parameter which includes
               ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

      -- Yöntemi: terminate ()

          Stop the child process.

          On POSIX systems this method sends *note SIGTERM: 1266. to the
          child process.

          On Windows the Win32 API function ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          called to stop the child process.

      -- Yöntemi: kill ()

          Kill the child process.

          On POSIX systems this method sends *note SIGKILL: 305b. to the
          child process.

          On Windows this method is an alias for *note terminate():
          3059.

      -- Özniteliği: stdin

          Standard input stream (*note StreamWriter: 14f2.) or ‘None’ if
          the process was created with ‘stdin=None’.

      -- Özniteliği: stdout

          Standard output stream (*note StreamReader: 16ee.) or ‘None’
          if the process was created with ‘stdout=None’.

      -- Özniteliği: stderr

          Standard error stream (*note StreamReader: 16ee.) or ‘None’ if
          the process was created with ‘stderr=None’.

          Uyarı: Use the *note communicate(): 1549. method rather than
          *note process.stdin.write(): 3051, *note await
          process.stdout.read(): 3045. or *note await
          process.stderr.read(): 3046.  This avoids deadlocks due to
          streams pausing reading or writing and blocking the child
          process.

      -- Özniteliği: pid

          Process identification number (PID).

          Note that for processes created by the *note
          create_subprocess_shell(): 8dd. function, this attribute is
          the PID of the spawned shell.

      -- Özniteliği: returncode

          Return code of the process when it exits.

          A ‘None’ value indicates that the process has not terminated
          yet.

          A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated
          by signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).

* Menu:

* Subprocess and Threads::
* Examples: Examples<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess and Threads,  Next: Examples<15>,  Up: Interacting with Subprocesses

5.18.1.41 Subprocess and Threads
................................

Standard asyncio event loop supports running subprocesses from different
threads by default.

On Windows subprocesses are provided by *note ProactorEventLoop: 418.
only (default), *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. has no subprocess support.

On UNIX 'child watchers' are used for subprocess finish waiting, see
*note Process Watchers: 305e. for more info.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: UNIX switched to use *note ThreadedChildWatcher:
19c. for spawning subprocesses from different threads without any
limitation.

Spawning a subprocess with 'inactive' current child watcher raises *note
RuntimeError: 180.

Note that alternative event loop implementations might have own
limitations; please refer to their documentation.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note Concurrency and multithreading in asyncio: 2fed. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<15>,  Prev: Subprocess and Threads,  Up: Interacting with Subprocesses

5.18.1.42 Examples
..................

An example using the *note Process: 3047. class to control a subprocess
and the *note StreamReader: 16ee. class to read from its standard
output.  The subprocess is created by the *note
create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc. function:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     async def get_date():
         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'

         # Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output
         # into a pipe.
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         # Read one line of output.
         data = await proc.stdout.readline()
         line = data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

         # Wait for the subprocess exit.
         await proc.wait()
         return line

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

See also the *note same example: 3060. written using low-level APIs.


File: python.info,  Node: Queues,  Next: Exceptions<10>,  Prev: Subprocesses,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.43 Queues
................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/queues.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio queues are designed to be similar to classes of the *note queue:
b5. module.  Although asyncio queues are not thread-safe, they are
designed to be used specifically in async/await code.

Note that methods of asyncio queues don’t have a 'timeout' parameter;
use *note asyncio.wait_for(): 40e. function to do queue operations with
a timeout.

See also the *note Examples: 3063. section below.

* Menu:

* Queue::
* Priority Queue::
* LIFO Queue::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<9>.
* Examples: Examples<16>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/queues.py


File: python.info,  Node: Queue,  Next: Priority Queue,  Up: Queues

5.18.1.44 Queue
...............

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Queue (maxsize=0)

     A first in, first out (FIFO) queue.

     If 'maxsize' is less than or equal to zero, the queue size is
     infinite.  If it is an integer greater than ‘0’, then ‘await put()’
     blocks when the queue reaches 'maxsize' until an item is removed by
     *note get(): 3065.

     Unlike the standard library threading *note queue: b5, the size of
     the queue is always known and can be returned by calling the *note
     qsize(): 3066. method.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     This class is *note not thread safe: 2fed.

      -- Özniteliği: maxsize

          Number of items allowed in the queue.

      -- Yöntemi: empty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: full ()

          Return ‘True’ if there are *note maxsize: 3067. items in the
          queue.

          If the queue was initialized with ‘maxsize=0’ (the default),
          then *note full(): 3069. never returns ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: async get ()

          Remove and return an item from the queue.  If queue is empty,
          wait until an item is available.

      -- Yöntemi: get_nowait ()

          Return an item if one is immediately available, else raise
          *note QueueEmpty: 306b.

      -- Yöntemi: async join ()

          Block until all items in the queue have been received and
          processed.

          The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is
          added to the queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer
          coroutine calls *note task_done(): c56. to indicate that the
          item was retrieved and all work on it is complete.  When the
          count of unfinished tasks drops to zero, *note join(): c55.
          unblocks.

      -- Yöntemi: async put (item)

          Put an item into the queue.  If the queue is full, wait until
          a free slot is available before adding the item.

      -- Yöntemi: put_nowait (item)

          Put an item into the queue without blocking.

          If no free slot is immediately available, raise *note
          QueueFull: 306e.

      -- Yöntemi: qsize ()

          Return the number of items in the queue.

      -- Yöntemi: task_done ()

          Indicate that a formerly enqueued work item is complete.

          Used by queue consumers.  For each *note get(): 3065. used to
          fetch a work item, a subsequent call to *note task_done():
          c56. tells the queue that the processing on the work item is
          complete.

          If a *note join(): c55. is currently blocking, it will resume
          when all items have been processed (meaning that a *note
          task_done(): c56. call was received for every item that had
          been *note put(): 306c. into the queue).

          Raises *note ValueError: 189. if called more times than there
          were items placed in the queue.


File: python.info,  Node: Priority Queue,  Next: LIFO Queue,  Prev: Queue,  Up: Queues

5.18.1.45 Priority Queue
........................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.PriorityQueue

     A variant of *note Queue: 8db.; retrieves entries in priority order
     (lowest first).

     Entries are typically tuples of the form ‘(priority_number, data)’.


File: python.info,  Node: LIFO Queue,  Next: Exceptions<9>,  Prev: Priority Queue,  Up: Queues

5.18.1.46 LIFO Queue
....................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.LifoQueue

     A variant of *note Queue: 8db. that retrieves most recently added
     entries first (last in, first out).


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<9>,  Next: Examples<16>,  Prev: LIFO Queue,  Up: Queues

5.18.1.47 Exceptions
....................

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.QueueEmpty

     This exception is raised when the *note get_nowait(): 306a. method
     is called on an empty queue.

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.QueueFull

     Exception raised when the *note put_nowait(): 306d. method is
     called on a queue that has reached its 'maxsize'.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<16>,  Prev: Exceptions<9>,  Up: Queues

5.18.1.48 Examples
..................

Queues can be used to distribute workload between several concurrent
tasks:

     import asyncio
     import random
     import time


     async def worker(name, queue):
         while True:
             # Get a "work item" out of the queue.
             sleep_for = await queue.get()

             # Sleep for the "sleep_for" seconds.
             await asyncio.sleep(sleep_for)

             # Notify the queue that the "work item" has been processed.
             queue.task_done()

             print(f'{name} has slept for {sleep_for:.2f} seconds')


     async def main():
         # Create a queue that we will use to store our "workload".
         queue = asyncio.Queue()

         # Generate random timings and put them into the queue.
         total_sleep_time = 0
         for _ in range(20):
             sleep_for = random.uniform(0.05, 1.0)
             total_sleep_time += sleep_for
             queue.put_nowait(sleep_for)

         # Create three worker tasks to process the queue concurrently.
         tasks = []
         for i in range(3):
             task = asyncio.create_task(worker(f'worker-{i}', queue))
             tasks.append(task)

         # Wait until the queue is fully processed.
         started_at = time.monotonic()
         await queue.join()
         total_slept_for = time.monotonic() - started_at

         # Cancel our worker tasks.
         for task in tasks:
             task.cancel()
         # Wait until all worker tasks are cancelled.
         await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)

         print('====')
         print(f'3 workers slept in parallel for {total_slept_for:.2f} seconds')
         print(f'total expected sleep time: {total_sleep_time:.2f} seconds')


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<10>,  Next: Event Loop,  Prev: Queues,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.49 Exceptions
....................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.TimeoutError

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: 673, raised when the
     operation has exceeded the given deadline.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: This class was made an alias of *note
     TimeoutError: 673.

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.CancelledError

     The operation has been cancelled.

     This exception can be caught to perform custom operations when
     asyncio Tasks are cancelled.  In almost all situations the
     exception must be re-raised.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note CancelledError: 837. is now a subclass
     of *note BaseException: 3c3. rather than *note Exception: 838.

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.InvalidStateError

     Invalid internal state of *note Task: 20a. or *note Future: a44.

     Can be raised in situations like setting a result value for a
     'Future' object that already has a result value set.

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError

     The “sendfile” syscall is not available for the given socket or
     file type.

     A subclass of *note RuntimeError: 180.

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.IncompleteReadError

     The requested read operation did not complete fully.

     Raised by the *note asyncio stream APIs: 2fbf.

     This exception is a subclass of *note EOFError: 1183.

      -- Özniteliği: expected

          The total number (*note int: 184.) of expected bytes.

      -- Özniteliği: partial

          A string of *note bytes: 2cb. read before the end of stream
          was reached.

 -- Özel Durum: asyncio.LimitOverrunError

     Reached the buffer size limit while looking for a separator.

     Raised by the *note asyncio stream APIs: 2fbf.

      -- Özniteliği: consumed

          The total number of to be consumed bytes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop,  Next: Futures,  Prev: Exceptions<10>,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.50 Event Loop
....................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/events.py(1), Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

Preface
.......

The event loop is the core of every asyncio application.  Event loops
run asynchronous tasks and callbacks, perform network IO operations, and
run subprocesses.

Application developers should typically use the high-level asyncio
functions, such as *note asyncio.run(): 19d, and should rarely need to
reference the loop object or call its methods.  This section is intended
mostly for authors of lower-level code, libraries, and frameworks, who
need finer control over the event loop behavior.

Obtaining the Event Loop
........................

The following low-level functions can be used to get, set, or create an
event loop:

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.get_running_loop ()

     Return the running event loop in the current OS thread.

     Raise a *note RuntimeError: 180. if there is no running event loop.

     This function can only be called from a coroutine or a callback.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.get_event_loop ()

     Get the current event loop.

     When called from a coroutine or a callback (e.g.  scheduled with
     call_soon or similar API), this function will always return the
     running event loop.

     If there is no running event loop set, the function will return the
     result of the ‘get_event_loop_policy().get_event_loop()’ call.

     Because this function has rather complex behavior (especially when
     custom event loop policies are in use), using the *note
     get_running_loop(): 979. function is preferred to *note
     get_event_loop(): 227. in coroutines and callbacks.

     As noted above, consider using the higher-level *note
     asyncio.run(): 19d. function, instead of using these lower level
     functions to manually create and close an event loop.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if there is no current event loop.  In some future Python release
     this will become an error.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.set_event_loop (loop)

     Set 'loop' as the current event loop for the current OS thread.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.new_event_loop ()

     Create and return a new event loop object.

Note that the behaviour of *note get_event_loop(): 227, *note
set_event_loop(): 15ec, and *note new_event_loop(): 2fcc. functions can
be altered by *note setting a custom event loop policy: 307d.

Contents
........

This documentation page contains the following sections:

   * The *note Event Loop Methods: 307e. section is the reference
     documentation of the event loop APIs;

   * The *note Callback Handles: 307f. section documents the *note
     Handle: 18e7. and *note TimerHandle: 158b. instances which are
     returned from scheduling methods such as *note loop.call_soon():
     972. and *note loop.call_later(): 974.;

   * The *note Server Objects: 3080. section documents types returned
     from event loop methods like *note loop.create_server(): 981.;

   * The *note Event Loop Implementations: 3081. section documents the
     *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 418.
     classes;

   * The *note Examples: 3082. section showcases how to work with some
     event loop APIs.

* Menu:

* Event Loop Methods::
* Callback Handles::
* Server Objects::
* Event Loop Implementations::
* Examples: Examples<17>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop Methods,  Next: Callback Handles,  Up: Event Loop

5.18.1.51 Event Loop Methods
............................

Event loops have 'low-level' APIs for the following:

* Menu:

* Running and stopping the loop::
* Scheduling callbacks::
* Scheduling delayed callbacks::
* Creating Futures and Tasks::
* Opening network connections::
* Creating network servers::
* Transferring files::
* TLS Upgrade::
* Watching file descriptors::
* Working with socket objects directly::
* DNS::
* Working with pipes::
* Unix signals::
* Executing code in thread or process pools::
* Error Handling API::
* Enabling debug mode::
* Running Subprocesses::


File: python.info,  Node: Running and stopping the loop,  Next: Scheduling callbacks,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.52 Running and stopping the loop
.......................................

 -- Yöntemi: loop.run_until_complete (future)

     Run until the 'future' (an instance of *note Future: a44.) has
     completed.

     If the argument is a *note coroutine object: 2fbe. it is implicitly
     scheduled to run as a *note asyncio.Task: 20a.

     Return the Future’s result or raise its exception.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.run_forever ()

     Run the event loop until *note stop(): afc. is called.

     If *note stop(): afc. is called before *note run_forever(): 3085.
     is called, the loop will poll the I/O selector once with a timeout
     of zero, run all callbacks scheduled in response to I/O events (and
     those that were already scheduled), and then exit.

     If *note stop(): afc. is called while *note run_forever(): 3085. is
     running, the loop will run the current batch of callbacks and then
     exit.  Note that new callbacks scheduled by callbacks will not run
     in this case; instead, they will run the next time *note
     run_forever(): 3085. or *note run_until_complete(): af5. is called.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.stop ()

     Stop the event loop.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.is_running ()

     Return ‘True’ if the event loop is currently running.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.is_closed ()

     Return ‘True’ if the event loop was closed.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.close ()

     Close the event loop.

     The loop must not be running when this function is called.  Any
     pending callbacks will be discarded.

     This method clears all queues and shuts down the executor, but does
     not wait for the executor to finish.

     This method is idempotent and irreversible.  No other methods
     should be called after the event loop is closed.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.shutdown_asyncgens ()

     Schedule all currently open *note asynchronous generator: 1e2d.
     objects to close with an *note aclose(): 72b. call.  After calling
     this method, the event loop will issue a warning if a new
     asynchronous generator is iterated.  This should be used to
     reliably finalize all scheduled asynchronous generators.

     Note that there is no need to call this function when *note
     asyncio.run(): 19d. is used.

     Example:

          try:
              loop.run_forever()
          finally:
              loop.run_until_complete(loop.shutdown_asyncgens())
              loop.close()

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.shutdown_default_executor (timeout=None)

     Schedule the closure of the default executor and wait for it to
     join all of the threads in the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e.  Once
     this method has been called, using the default executor with *note
     loop.run_in_executor(): 73c. will raise a *note RuntimeError: 180.

     The 'timeout' parameter specifies the amount of time (in *note
     float: 272. seconds) the executor will be given to finish joining.
     With the default, ‘None’, the executor is allowed an unlimited
     amount of time.

     If the 'timeout' is reached, a *note RuntimeWarning: 900. is
     emitted and the default executor is terminated without waiting for
     its threads to finish joining.

          Not: Do not call this method when using *note asyncio.run():
          19d, as the latter handles default executor shutdown
          automatically.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'timeout' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduling callbacks,  Next: Scheduling delayed callbacks,  Prev: Running and stopping the loop,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.53 Scheduling callbacks
..............................

 -- Yöntemi: loop.call_soon (callback, *args, context=None)

     Schedule the 'callback' *note callback: 26ed. to be called with
     'args' arguments at the next iteration of the event loop.

     Return an instance of *note asyncio.Handle: 18e7, which can be used
     later to cancel the callback.

     Callbacks are called in the order in which they are registered.
     Each callback will be called exactly once.

     The optional keyword-only 'context' argument specifies a custom
     *note contextvars.Context: 142e. for the 'callback' to run in.
     Callbacks use the current context when no 'context' is provided.

     Unlike *note call_soon_threadsafe(): 973, this method is not
     thread-safe.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.call_soon_threadsafe (callback, *args, context=None)

     A thread-safe variant of *note call_soon(): 972.  When scheduling
     callbacks from another thread, this function 'must' be used, since
     *note call_soon(): 972. is not thread-safe.

     This function is safe to be called from a reentrant context or
     signal handler, however, it is not safe or fruitful to use the
     returned handle in such contexts.

     Raises *note RuntimeError: 180. if called on a loop that’s been
     closed.  This can happen on a secondary thread when the main
     application is shutting down.

     See the *note concurrency and multithreading: 2fed. section of the
     documentation.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'context' keyword-only parameter was
     added.  See PEP 567(1) for more details.

     Not: Most *note asyncio: a. scheduling functions don’t allow
     passing keyword arguments.  To do that, use *note
     functools.partial(): d61.:

          # will schedule "print("Hello", flush=True)"
          loop.call_soon(
              functools.partial(print, "Hello", flush=True))

     Using partial objects is usually more convenient than using
     lambdas, as asyncio can render partial objects better in debug and
     error messages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduling delayed callbacks,  Next: Creating Futures and Tasks,  Prev: Scheduling callbacks,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.54 Scheduling delayed callbacks
......................................

Event loop provides mechanisms to schedule callback functions to be
called at some point in the future.  Event loop uses monotonic clocks to
track time.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.call_later (delay, callback, *args, context=None)

     Schedule 'callback' to be called after the given 'delay' number of
     seconds (can be either an int or a float).

     An instance of *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 158b. is returned which
     can be used to cancel the callback.

     'callback' will be called exactly once.  If two callbacks are
     scheduled for exactly the same time, the order in which they are
     called is undefined.

     The optional positional 'args' will be passed to the callback when
     it is called.  If you want the callback to be called with keyword
     arguments use *note functools.partial(): d61.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 142e. for the 'callback' to run
     in.  The current context is used when no 'context' is provided.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'context' keyword-only parameter was
     added.  See PEP 567(1) for more details.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: In Python 3.7 and earlier with the default
     event loop implementation, the 'delay' could not exceed one day.
     This has been fixed in Python 3.8.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.call_at (when, callback, *args, context=None)

     Schedule 'callback' to be called at the given absolute timestamp
     'when' (an int or a float), using the same time reference as *note
     loop.time(): 308c.

     This method’s behavior is the same as *note call_later(): 974.

     An instance of *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 158b. is returned which
     can be used to cancel the callback.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'context' keyword-only parameter was
     added.  See PEP 567(2) for more details.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: In Python 3.7 and earlier with the default
     event loop implementation, the difference between 'when' and the
     current time could not exceed one day.  This has been fixed in
     Python 3.8.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.time ()

     Return the current time, as a *note float: 272. value, according to
     the event loop’s internal monotonic clock.

     Not: 
     3.8 sürümünde değişti: In Python 3.7 and earlier timeouts (relative
     'delay' or absolute 'when') should not exceed one day.  This has
     been fixed in Python 3.8.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note asyncio.sleep(): 8d4. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Futures and Tasks,  Next: Opening network connections,  Prev: Scheduling delayed callbacks,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.55 Creating Futures and Tasks
....................................

 -- Yöntemi: loop.create_future ()

     Create an *note asyncio.Future: a44. object attached to the event
     loop.

     This is the preferred way to create Futures in asyncio.  This lets
     third-party event loops provide alternative implementations of the
     Future object (with better performance or instrumentation).

     Added in version 3.5.2.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None)

     Schedule the execution of *note coroutine: 2fbe. 'coro'.  Return a
     *note Task: 20a. object.

     Third-party event loops can use their own subclass of *note Task:
     20a. for interoperability.  In this case, the result type is a
     subclass of *note Task: 20a.

     If the 'name' argument is provided and not ‘None’, it is set as the
     name of the task using *note Task.set_name(): 83c.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 142e. for the 'coro' to run in.
     The current context copy is created when no 'context' is provided.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'name' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'context' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.set_task_factory (factory)

     Set a task factory that will be used by *note loop.create_task():
     83b.

     If 'factory' is ‘None’ the default task factory will be set.
     Otherwise, 'factory' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching ‘(loop, coro, context=None)’, where 'loop' is a reference
     to the active event loop, and 'coro' is a coroutine object.  The
     callable must return a *note asyncio.Future: a44.-compatible
     object.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.get_task_factory ()

     Return a task factory or ‘None’ if the default one is in use.


File: python.info,  Node: Opening network connections,  Next: Creating network servers,  Prev: Creating Futures and Tasks,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.56 Opening network connections
.....................................

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.create_connection (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, all_errors=False)

     Open a streaming transport connection to a given address specified
     by 'host' and 'port'.

     The socket family can be either *note AF_INET: 1643. or *note
     AF_INET6: 1644. depending on 'host' (or the 'family' argument, if
     provided).

     The socket type will be *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning an *note asyncio
     protocol: 308f. implementation.

     This method will try to establish the connection in the background.
     When successful, it returns a ‘(transport, protocol)’ pair.

     The chronological synopsis of the underlying operation is as
     follows:

       1. The connection is established and a *note transport: 3090. is
          created for it.

       2. 'protocol_factory' is called without arguments and is expected
          to return a *note protocol: 308f. instance.

       3. The protocol instance is coupled with the transport by calling
          its *note connection_made(): 3091. method.

       4. A ‘(transport, protocol)’ tuple is returned on success.

     The created transport is an implementation-dependent bidirectional
     stream.

     Other arguments:

        * 'ssl': if given and not false, a SSL/TLS transport is created
          (by default a plain TCP transport is created).  If 'ssl' is a
          *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object, this context is used to
          create the transport; if 'ssl' is *note True: a86, a default
          context returned from *note ssl.create_default_context(): e4a.
          is used.

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          *note SSL/TLS security considerations: 3092.

        * 'server_hostname' sets or overrides the hostname that the
          target server’s certificate will be matched against.  Should
          only be passed if 'ssl' is not ‘None’.  By default the value
          of the 'host' argument is used.  If 'host' is empty, there is
          no default and you must pass a value for 'server_hostname'.
          If 'server_hostname' is an empty string, hostname matching is
          disabled (which is a serious security risk, allowing for
          potential man-in-the-middle attacks).

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' are the optional address family,
          protocol and flags to be passed through to getaddrinfo() for
          'host' resolution.  If given, these should all be integers
          from the corresponding *note socket: cb. module constants.

        * 'happy_eyeballs_delay', if given, enables Happy Eyeballs for
          this connection.  It should be a floating-point number
          representing the amount of time in seconds to wait for a
          connection attempt to complete, before starting the next
          attempt in parallel.  This is the “Connection Attempt Delay”
          as defined in RFC 8305(1).  A sensible default value
          recommended by the RFC is ‘0.25’ (250 milliseconds).

        * 'interleave' controls address reordering when a host name
          resolves to multiple IP addresses.  If ‘0’ or unspecified, no
          reordering is done, and addresses are tried in the order
          returned by *note getaddrinfo(): a8d.  If a positive integer
          is specified, the addresses are interleaved by address family,
          and the given integer is interpreted as “First Address Family
          Count” as defined in RFC 8305(2).  The default is ‘0’ if
          'happy_eyeballs_delay' is not specified, and ‘1’ if it is.

        * 'sock', if given, should be an existing, already connected
          *note socket.socket: c2e. object to be used by the transport.
          If 'sock' is given, none of 'host', 'port', 'family', 'proto',
          'flags', 'happy_eyeballs_delay', 'interleave' and 'local_addr'
          should be specified.

               Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 3093. method.

        * 'local_addr', if given, is a ‘(local_host, local_port)’ tuple
          used to bind the socket locally.  The 'local_host' and
          'local_port' are looked up using ‘getaddrinfo()’, similarly to
          'host' and 'port'.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for a TLS connection) the time in
          seconds to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'all_errors' determines what exceptions are raised when a
          connection cannot be created.  By default, only a single
          ‘Exception’ is raised: the first exception if there is only
          one or all errors have same message, or a single ‘OSError’
          with the error messages combined.  When ‘all_errors’ is
          ‘True’, an ‘ExceptionGroup’ will be raised containing all
          exceptions (even if there is only one).

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for SSL/TLS in *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 418.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The socket option *note socket.TCP_NODELAY:
     3094. is set by default for all TCP connections.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and
     'interleave' parameters.

     Happy Eyeballs Algorithm: Success with Dual-Stack Hosts.  When a
     server’s IPv4 path and protocol are working, but the server’s IPv6
     path and protocol are not working, a dual-stack client application
     experiences significant connection delay compared to an IPv4-only
     client.  This is undesirable because it causes the dual-stack
     client to have a worse user experience.  This document specifies
     requirements for algorithms that reduce this user-visible delay and
     provides an algorithm.

     For more information:
     ‘https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6555’

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: 'all_errors' was added.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note open_connection(): 987. function is a high-level
     alternative API. It returns a pair of (*note StreamReader: 16ee,
     *note StreamWriter: 14f2.) that can be used directly in async/await
     code.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.create_datagram_endpoint (protocol_factory,
          local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, family=0, proto=0,
          flags=0, reuse_port=None, allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)

     Create a datagram connection.

     The socket family can be either *note AF_INET: 1643, *note
     AF_INET6: 1644, or *note AF_UNIX: 1645, depending on 'host' (or the
     'family' argument, if provided).

     The socket type will be *note SOCK_DGRAM: 119c.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a *note protocol:
     308f. implementation.

     A tuple of ‘(transport, protocol)’ is returned on success.

     Other arguments:

        * 'local_addr', if given, is a ‘(local_host, local_port)’ tuple
          used to bind the socket locally.  The 'local_host' and
          'local_port' are looked up using *note getaddrinfo(): a8d.

        * 'remote_addr', if given, is a ‘(remote_host, remote_port)’
          tuple used to connect the socket to a remote address.  The
          'remote_host' and 'remote_port' are looked up using *note
          getaddrinfo(): a8d.

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' are the optional address family,
          protocol and flags to be passed through to *note
          getaddrinfo(): a8d. for 'host' resolution.  If given, these
          should all be integers from the corresponding *note socket:
          cb. module constants.

        * 'reuse_port' tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be
          bound to the same port as other existing endpoints are bound
          to, so long as they all set this flag when being created.
          This option is not supported on Windows and some Unixes.  If
          the *note socket.SO_REUSEPORT: 3094. constant is not defined
          then this capability is unsupported.

        * 'allow_broadcast' tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to
          send messages to the broadcast address.

        * 'sock' can optionally be specified in order to use a
          preexisting, already connected, *note socket.socket: c2e.
          object to be used by the transport.  If specified,
          'local_addr' and 'remote_addr' should be omitted (must be
          *note None: 488.).

               Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 3093. method.

     See *note UDP echo client protocol: 3095. and *note UDP echo server
     protocol: 3096. examples.

     3.4.4 sürümünde değişti: The 'family', 'proto', 'flags',
     'reuse_address', 'reuse_port', 'allow_broadcast', and 'sock'
     parameters were added.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added support for Windows.

     3.8.1 sürümünde değişti: The 'reuse_address' parameter is no longer
     supported, as using *note socket.SO_REUSEADDR: 3094. poses a
     significant security concern for UDP. Explicitly passing
     ‘reuse_address=True’ will raise an exception.

     When multiple processes with differing UIDs assign sockets to an
     identical UDP socket address with ‘SO_REUSEADDR’, incoming packets
     can become randomly distributed among the sockets.

     For supported platforms, 'reuse_port' can be used as a replacement
     for similar functionality.  With 'reuse_port', *note
     socket.SO_REUSEPORT: 3094. is used instead, which specifically
     prevents processes with differing UIDs from assigning sockets to
     the same socket address.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'reuse_address' parameter, disabled
     since Python 3.8.1, 3.7.6 and 3.6.10, has been entirely removed.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.create_unix_connection (protocol_factory,
          path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Create a Unix connection.

     The socket family will be *note AF_UNIX: 1645.; socket type will be
     *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d.

     A tuple of ‘(transport, protocol)’ is returned on success.

     'path' is the name of a Unix domain socket and is required, unless
     a 'sock' parameter is specified.  Abstract Unix sockets, *note str:
     15d, *note bytes: 2cb, and *note Path: 14f. paths are supported.

     See the documentation of the *note loop.create_connection(): 412.
     method for information about arguments to this method.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' parameter.
     The 'path' parameter can now be a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html


File: python.info,  Node: Creating network servers,  Next: Transferring files,  Prev: Opening network connections,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.57 Creating network servers
..................................

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.create_server (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Create a TCP server (socket type *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d.)
     listening on 'port' of the 'host' address.

     Returns a *note Server: 980. object.

     Arguments:

        * 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a *note
          protocol: 308f. implementation.

        * The 'host' parameter can be set to several types which
          determine where the server would be listening:

             - If 'host' is a string, the TCP server is bound to a
               single network interface specified by 'host'.

             - If 'host' is a sequence of strings, the TCP server is
               bound to all network interfaces specified by the
               sequence.

             - If 'host' is an empty string or ‘None’, all interfaces
               are assumed and a list of multiple sockets will be
               returned (most likely one for IPv4 and another one for
               IPv6).

        * The 'port' parameter can be set to specify which port the
          server should listen on.  If ‘0’ or ‘None’ (the default), a
          random unused port will be selected (note that if 'host'
          resolves to multiple network interfaces, a different random
          port will be selected for each interface).

        * 'family' can be set to either *note socket.AF_INET: 1643. or
          *note AF_INET6: 1644. to force the socket to use IPv4 or IPv6.
          If not set, the 'family' will be determined from host name
          (defaults to *note AF_UNSPEC: 3098.).

        * 'flags' is a bitmask for *note getaddrinfo(): a8d.

        * 'sock' can optionally be specified in order to use a
          preexisting socket object.  If specified, 'host' and 'port'
          must not be specified.

               Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the server created.  To close the socket, call
               the server’s *note close(): 3001. method.

        * 'backlog' is the maximum number of queued connections passed
          to *note listen(): cf2. (defaults to 100).

        * 'ssl' can be set to an *note SSLContext: 277. instance to
          enable TLS over the accepted connections.

        * 'reuse_address' tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
          ‘TIME_WAIT’ state, without waiting for its natural timeout to
          expire.  If not specified will automatically be set to ‘True’
          on Unix.

        * 'reuse_port' tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be
          bound to the same port as other existing endpoints are bound
          to, so long as they all set this flag when being created.
          This option is not supported on Windows.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for a TLS server) the time in
          seconds to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'start_serving' set to ‘True’ (the default) causes the created
          server to start accepting connections immediately.  When set
          to ‘False’, the user should await on *note
          Server.start_serving(): 983. or *note Server.serve_forever():
          984. to make the server to start accepting connections.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for SSL/TLS in *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 418.

     3.5.1 sürümünde değişti: The 'host' parameter can be a sequence of
     strings.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.  The socket option *note
     socket.TCP_NODELAY: 3094. is set by default for all TCP
     connections.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note start_server(): 988. function is a higher-level
     alternative API that returns a pair of *note StreamReader: 16ee.
     and *note StreamWriter: 14f2. that can be used in an async/await
     code.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.create_unix_server (protocol_factory, path=None,
          *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Similar to *note loop.create_server(): 981. but works with the
     *note AF_UNIX: 1645. socket family.

     'path' is the name of a Unix domain socket, and is required, unless
     a 'sock' argument is provided.  Abstract Unix sockets, *note str:
     15d, *note bytes: 2cb, and *note Path: 14f. paths are supported.

     See the documentation of the *note loop.create_server(): 981.
     method for information about arguments to this method.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.  The 'path' parameter can now be a
     *note Path: 14f. object.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.connect_accepted_socket (protocol_factory, sock,
          *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None,
          ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Wrap an already accepted connection into a transport/protocol pair.

     This method can be used by servers that accept connections outside
     of asyncio but that use asyncio to handle them.

     Parameters:

        * 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a *note
          protocol: 308f. implementation.

        * 'sock' is a preexisting socket object returned from *note
          socket.accept: c2f.

               Not: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 3093. method.

        * 'ssl' can be set to an *note SSLContext: 277. to enable SSL
          over the accepted connections.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for an SSL connection) the time in
          seconds to wait for the SSL handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

     Returns a ‘(transport, protocol)’ pair.

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Transferring files,  Next: TLS Upgrade,  Prev: Creating network servers,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.58 Transferring files
............................

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sendfile (transport, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     Send a 'file' over a 'transport'.  Return the total number of bytes
     sent.

     The method uses high-performance *note os.sendfile(): 97d. if
     available.

     'file' must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.

     'offset' tells from where to start reading the file.  If specified,
     'count' is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
     sending the file until EOF is reached.  File position is always
     updated, even when this method raises an error, and *note
     file.tell(): 2784. can be used to obtain the actual number of bytes
     sent.

     'fallback' set to ‘True’ makes asyncio to manually read and send
     the file when the platform does not support the sendfile system
     call (e.g.  Windows or SSL socket on Unix).

     Raise *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3078. if the system does not
     support the 'sendfile' syscall and 'fallback' is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS Upgrade,  Next: Watching file descriptors,  Prev: Transferring files,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.59 TLS Upgrade
.....................

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.start_tls (transport, protocol, sslcontext, *,
          server_side=False, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Upgrade an existing transport-based connection to TLS.

     Create a TLS coder/decoder instance and insert it between the
     'transport' and the 'protocol'.  The coder/decoder implements both
     'transport'-facing protocol and 'protocol'-facing transport.

     Return the created two-interface instance.  After 'await', the
     'protocol' must stop using the original 'transport' and communicate
     with the returned object only because the coder caches
     'protocol'-side data and sporadically exchanges extra TLS session
     packets with 'transport'.

     In some situations (e.g.  when the passed transport is already
     closing) this may return ‘None’.

     Parameters:

        * 'transport' and 'protocol' instances that methods like *note
          create_server(): 981. and *note create_connection(): 412.
          return.

        * 'sslcontext': a configured instance of *note SSLContext: 277.

        * 'server_side' pass ‘True’ when a server-side connection is
          being upgraded (like the one created by *note create_server():
          981.).

        * 'server_hostname': sets or overrides the host name that the
          target server’s certificate will be matched against.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for a TLS connection) the time in
          seconds to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Watching file descriptors,  Next: Working with socket objects directly,  Prev: TLS Upgrade,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.60 Watching file descriptors
...................................

 -- Yöntemi: loop.add_reader (fd, callback, *args)

     Start monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for read availability and
     invoke 'callback' with the specified arguments once 'fd' is
     available for reading.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.remove_reader (fd)

     Stop monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for read availability.
     Returns ‘True’ if 'fd' was previously being monitored for reads.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.add_writer (fd, callback, *args)

     Start monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for write availability
     and invoke 'callback' with the specified arguments once 'fd' is
     available for writing.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

     Use *note functools.partial(): d61. *note to pass keyword
     arguments: 3089. to 'callback'.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.remove_writer (fd)

     Stop monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for write availability.
     Returns ‘True’ if 'fd' was previously being monitored for writes.

See also *note Platform Support: 30a0. section for some limitations of
these methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Working with socket objects directly,  Next: DNS,  Prev: Watching file descriptors,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.61 Working with socket objects directly
..............................................

In general, protocol implementations that use transport-based APIs such
as *note loop.create_connection(): 412. and *note loop.create_server():
981. are faster than implementations that work with sockets directly.
However, there are some use cases when performance is not critical, and
working with *note socket: c2e. objects directly is more convenient.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_recv (sock, nbytes)

     Receive up to 'nbytes' from 'sock'.  Asynchronous version of *note
     socket.recv(): c31.

     Return the received data as a bytes object.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Even though this method was always
     documented as a coroutine method, releases before Python 3.7
     returned a *note Future: a44.  Since Python 3.7 this is an ‘async
     def’ method.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_recv_into (sock, buf)

     Receive data from 'sock' into the 'buf' buffer.  Modeled after the
     blocking *note socket.recv_into(): 11c9. method.

     Return the number of bytes written to the buffer.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_recvfrom (sock, bufsize)

     Receive a datagram of up to 'bufsize' from 'sock'.  Asynchronous
     version of *note socket.recvfrom(): c32.

     Return a tuple of (received data, remote address).

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_recvfrom_into (sock, buf, nbytes=0)

     Receive a datagram of up to 'nbytes' from 'sock' into 'buf'.
     Asynchronous version of *note socket.recvfrom_into(): 11ca.

     Return a tuple of (number of bytes received, remote address).

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_sendall (sock, data)

     Send 'data' to the 'sock' socket.  Asynchronous version of *note
     socket.sendall(): c35.

     This method continues to send to the socket until either all data
     in 'data' has been sent or an error occurs.  ‘None’ is returned on
     success.  On error, an exception is raised.  Additionally, there is
     no way to determine how much data, if any, was successfully
     processed by the receiving end of the connection.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Even though the method was always documented
     as a coroutine method, before Python 3.7 it returned a *note
     Future: a44.  Since Python 3.7, this is an ‘async def’ method.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_sendto (sock, data, address)

     Send a datagram from 'sock' to 'address'.  Asynchronous version of
     *note socket.sendto(): c36.

     Return the number of bytes sent.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_connect (sock, address)

     Connect 'sock' to a remote socket at 'address'.

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.connect(): c30.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     3.5.2 sürümünde değişti: ‘address’ no longer needs to be resolved.
     ‘sock_connect’ will try to check if the 'address' is already
     resolved by calling *note socket.inet_pton(): 7bd.  If not, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): a8d. will be used to resolve the 'address'.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note loop.create_connection(): 412. and *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 987.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_accept (sock)

     Accept a connection.  Modeled after the blocking *note
     socket.accept(): c2f. method.

     The socket must be bound to an address and listening for
     connections.  The return value is a pair ‘(conn, address)’ where
     'conn' is a 'new' socket object usable to send and receive data on
     the connection, and 'address' is the address bound to the socket on
     the other end of the connection.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Even though the method was always documented
     as a coroutine method, before Python 3.7 it returned a *note
     Future: a44.  Since Python 3.7, this is an ‘async def’ method.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note loop.create_server(): 981. and *note start_server(): 988.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.sock_sendfile (sock, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     Send a file using high-performance *note os.sendfile: 97d. if
     possible.  Return the total number of bytes sent.

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.sendfile(): cf1.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 119d. *note
     socket: c2e.

     'file' must be a regular file object open in binary mode.

     'offset' tells from where to start reading the file.  If specified,
     'count' is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
     sending the file until EOF is reached.  File position is always
     updated, even when this method raises an error, and *note
     file.tell(): 2784. can be used to obtain the actual number of bytes
     sent.

     'fallback', when set to ‘True’, makes asyncio manually read and
     send the file when the platform does not support the sendfile
     syscall (e.g.  Windows or SSL socket on Unix).

     Raise *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3078. if the system does not
     support 'sendfile' syscall and 'fallback' is ‘False’.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: DNS,  Next: Working with pipes,  Prev: Working with socket objects directly,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.62 DNS
.............

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.getaddrinfo (host, port, *, family=0, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 156e.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags=0)

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.getnameinfo(): 153c.

     Not: Both 'getaddrinfo' and 'getnameinfo' internally utilize their
     synchronous versions through the loop’s default thread pool
     executor.  When this executor is saturated, these methods may
     experience delays, which higher-level networking libraries may
     report as increased timeouts.  To mitigate this, consider using a
     custom executor for other user tasks, or setting a default executor
     with a larger number of workers.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Both 'getaddrinfo' and 'getnameinfo' methods were
always documented to return a coroutine, but prior to Python 3.7 they
were, in fact, returning *note asyncio.Future: a44. objects.  Starting
with Python 3.7 both methods are coroutines.


File: python.info,  Node: Working with pipes,  Next: Unix signals,  Prev: DNS,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.63 Working with pipes
............................

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.connect_read_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     Register the read end of 'pipe' in the event loop.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning an *note asyncio
     protocol: 308f. implementation.

     'pipe' is a *note file-like object: 1068.

     Return pair ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport' supports the
     *note ReadTransport: 30a4. interface and 'protocol' is an object
     instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

     With *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. event loop, the 'pipe' is set to
     non-blocking mode.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.connect_write_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     Register the write end of 'pipe' in the event loop.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning an *note asyncio
     protocol: 308f. implementation.

     'pipe' is *note file-like object: 1068.

     Return pair ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport' supports
     *note WriteTransport: 30a5. interface and 'protocol' is an object
     instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

     With *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. event loop, the 'pipe' is set to
     non-blocking mode.

     Not: *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. does not support the above
     methods on Windows.  Use *note ProactorEventLoop: 418. instead for
     Windows.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048. and *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 3049. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix signals,  Next: Executing code in thread or process pools,  Prev: Working with pipes,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.64 Unix signals
......................

 -- Yöntemi: loop.add_signal_handler (signum, callback, *args)

     Set 'callback' as the handler for the 'signum' signal.

     The callback will be invoked by 'loop', along with other queued
     callbacks and runnable coroutines of that event loop.  Unlike
     signal handlers registered using *note signal.signal(): fd8, a
     callback registered with this function is allowed to interact with
     the event loop.

     Raise *note ValueError: 189. if the signal number is invalid or
     uncatchable.  Raise *note RuntimeError: 180. if there is a problem
     setting up the handler.

     Use *note functools.partial(): d61. *note to pass keyword
     arguments: 3089. to 'callback'.

     Like *note signal.signal(): fd8, this function must be invoked in
     the main thread.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.remove_signal_handler (sig)

     Remove the handler for the 'sig' signal.

     Return ‘True’ if the signal handler was removed, or ‘False’ if no
     handler was set for the given signal.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note signal: c5. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Executing code in thread or process pools,  Next: Error Handling API,  Prev: Unix signals,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.65 Executing code in thread or process pools
...................................................

 -- Yöntemi: awaitable loop.run_in_executor (executor, func, *args)

     Arrange for 'func' to be called in the specified executor.

     The 'executor' argument should be an *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor: 2f17. instance.  The default executor
     is used if 'executor' is ‘None’.  The default executor can be set
     by *note loop.set_default_executor(): 56f, otherwise, a *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. will be
     lazy-initialized and used by *note run_in_executor(): 73c. if
     needed.

     Example:

          import asyncio
          import concurrent.futures

          def blocking_io():
              # File operations (such as logging) can block the
              # event loop: run them in a thread pool.
              with open('/dev/urandom', 'rb') as f:
                  return f.read(100)

          def cpu_bound():
              # CPU-bound operations will block the event loop:
              # in general it is preferable to run them in a
              # process pool.
              return sum(i * i for i in range(10 ** 7))

          async def main():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

              ## Options:

              # 1. Run in the default loop's executor:
              result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                  None, blocking_io)
              print('default thread pool', result)

              # 2. Run in a custom thread pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, blocking_io)
                  print('custom thread pool', result)

              # 3. Run in a custom process pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, cpu_bound)
                  print('custom process pool', result)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              asyncio.run(main())

     Note that the entry point guard (‘if __name__ == '__main__'’) is
     required for option 3 due to the peculiarities of *note
     multiprocessing: 93, which is used by *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
     741.  See *note Safe importing of main module: 2f03.

     This method returns a *note asyncio.Future: a44. object.

     Use *note functools.partial(): d61. *note to pass keyword
     arguments: 3089. to 'func'.

     3.5.3 sürümünde değişti: *note loop.run_in_executor(): 73c. no
     longer configures the ‘max_workers’ of the thread pool executor it
     creates, instead leaving it up to the thread pool executor (*note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e.) to set the default.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.set_default_executor (executor)

     Set 'executor' as the default executor used by *note
     run_in_executor(): 73c.  'executor' must be an instance of *note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'executor' must be an instance of *note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e.


File: python.info,  Node: Error Handling API,  Next: Enabling debug mode,  Prev: Executing code in thread or process pools,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.66 Error Handling API
............................

Allows customizing how exceptions are handled in the event loop.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.set_exception_handler (handler)

     Set 'handler' as the new event loop exception handler.

     If 'handler' is ‘None’, the default exception handler will be set.
     Otherwise, 'handler' must be a callable with the signature matching
     ‘(loop, context)’, where ‘loop’ is a reference to the active event
     loop, and ‘context’ is a ‘dict’ object containing the details of
     the exception (see *note call_exception_handler(): 30ac.
     documentation for details about context).

     If the handler is called on behalf of a *note Task: 20a. or *note
     Handle: 18e7, it is run in the *note contextvars.Context: 142e. of
     that task or callback handle.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The handler may be called in the *note
     Context: 142e. of the task or handle where the exception
     originated.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.get_exception_handler ()

     Return the current exception handler, or ‘None’ if no custom
     exception handler was set.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.default_exception_handler (context)

     Default exception handler.

     This is called when an exception occurs and no exception handler is
     set.  This can be called by a custom exception handler that wants
     to defer to the default handler behavior.

     'context' parameter has the same meaning as in *note
     call_exception_handler(): 30ac.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.call_exception_handler (context)

     Call the current event loop exception handler.

     'context' is a ‘dict’ object containing the following keys (new
     keys may be introduced in future Python versions):

        * ‘message’: Error message;

        * ‘exception’ (optional): Exception object;

        * ‘future’ (optional): *note asyncio.Future: a44. instance;

        * ‘task’ (optional): *note asyncio.Task: 20a. instance;

        * ‘handle’ (optional): *note asyncio.Handle: 18e7. instance;

        * ‘protocol’ (optional): *note Protocol: 308f. instance;

        * ‘transport’ (optional): *note Transport: 3090. instance;

        * ‘socket’ (optional): *note socket.socket: c2e. instance;

        * 
          ‘asyncgen’ (optional): Asynchronous generator that caused

               the exception.

          Not: This method should not be overloaded in subclassed event
          loops.  For custom exception handling, use the *note
          set_exception_handler(): 30ab. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Enabling debug mode,  Next: Running Subprocesses,  Prev: Error Handling API,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.67 Enabling debug mode
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: loop.get_debug ()

     Get the debug mode (*note bool: 183.) of the event loop.

     The default value is ‘True’ if the environment variable *note
     PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1b95. is set to a non-empty string, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Yöntemi: loop.set_debug (enabled: bool)

     Set the debug mode of the event loop.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The new *note Python Development Mode: 71d.
     can now also be used to enable the debug mode.

 -- Özniteliği: loop.slow_callback_duration

     This attribute can be used to set the minimum execution duration in
     seconds that is considered “slow”.  When debug mode is enabled,
     “slow” callbacks are logged.

     Default value is 100 milliseconds.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note debug mode of asyncio: 1b96.


File: python.info,  Node: Running Subprocesses,  Prev: Enabling debug mode,  Up: Event Loop Methods

5.18.1.68 Running Subprocesses
..............................

Methods described in this subsections are low-level.  In regular
async/await code consider using the high-level *note
asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): 8dd. and *note
asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc. convenience functions instead.

     Not: On Windows, the default event loop *note ProactorEventLoop:
     418. supports subprocesses, whereas *note SelectorEventLoop: 417.
     does not.  See *note Subprocess Support on Windows: 304a. for
     details.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.subprocess_exec (protocol_factory, *args,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     Create a subprocess from one or more string arguments specified by
     'args'.

     'args' must be a list of strings represented by:

        * *note str: 15d.;

        * or *note bytes: 2cb, encoded to the *note filesystem encoding:
          28da.

     The first string specifies the program executable, and the
     remaining strings specify the arguments.  Together, string
     arguments form the ‘argv’ of the program.

     This is similar to the standard library *note subprocess.Popen:
     8fa. class called with ‘shell=False’ and the list of strings passed
     as the first argument; however, where *note Popen: 8fa. takes a
     single argument which is list of strings, 'subprocess_exec' takes
     multiple string arguments.

     The 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a subclass of
     the *note asyncio.SubprocessProtocol: 30b1. class.

     Other parameters:

        * 'stdin' can be any of these:

             * a file-like object

             * an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), for
               example those created with *note os.pipe(): 15fd.

             * the *note subprocess.PIPE: 9fd. constant (default) which
               will create a new pipe and connect it,

             * the value ‘None’ which will make the subprocess inherit
               the file descriptor from this process

             * the *note subprocess.DEVNULL: ff4. constant which
               indicates that the special *note os.devnull: 186e. file
               will be used

        * 'stdout' can be any of these:

             * a file-like object

             * the *note subprocess.PIPE: 9fd. constant (default) which
               will create a new pipe and connect it,

             * the value ‘None’ which will make the subprocess inherit
               the file descriptor from this process

             * the *note subprocess.DEVNULL: ff4. constant which
               indicates that the special *note os.devnull: 186e. file
               will be used

        * 'stderr' can be any of these:

             * a file-like object

             * the *note subprocess.PIPE: 9fd. constant (default) which
               will create a new pipe and connect it,

             * the value ‘None’ which will make the subprocess inherit
               the file descriptor from this process

             * the *note subprocess.DEVNULL: ff4. constant which
               indicates that the special *note os.devnull: 186e. file
               will be used

             * the *note subprocess.STDOUT: 2f36. constant which will
               connect the standard error stream to the process’
               standard output stream

        * All other keyword arguments are passed to *note
          subprocess.Popen: 8fa. without interpretation, except for
          'bufsize', 'universal_newlines', 'shell', 'text', 'encoding'
          and 'errors', which should not be specified at all.

          The ‘asyncio’ subprocess API does not support decoding the
          streams as text.  *note bytes.decode(): 729. can be used to
          convert the bytes returned from the stream to text.

     If a file-like object passed as 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     represents a pipe, then the other side of this pipe should be
     registered with *note connect_write_pipe(): 304c. or *note
     connect_read_pipe(): 304b. for use with the event loop.

     See the constructor of the *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. class for
     documentation on other arguments.

     Returns a pair of ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport'
     conforms to the *note asyncio.SubprocessTransport: 30b2. base class
     and 'protocol' is an object instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

 -- Yöntemi: async loop.subprocess_shell (protocol_factory, cmd, *,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     Create a subprocess from 'cmd', which can be a *note str: 15d. or a
     *note bytes: 2cb. string encoded to the *note filesystem encoding:
     28da, using the platform’s “shell” syntax.

     This is similar to the standard library *note subprocess.Popen:
     8fa. class called with ‘shell=True’.

     The 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a subclass of
     the *note SubprocessProtocol: 30b1. class.

     See *note subprocess_exec(): 3048. for more details about the
     remaining arguments.

     Returns a pair of ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport'
     conforms to the *note SubprocessTransport: 30b2. base class and
     'protocol' is an object instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

     Not: It is the application’s responsibility to ensure that all
     whitespace and special characters are quoted appropriately to avoid
     shell injection(1) vulnerabilities.  The *note shlex.quote(): fce.
     function can be used to properly escape whitespace and special
     characters in strings that are going to be used to construct shell
     commands.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Callback Handles,  Next: Server Objects,  Prev: Event Loop Methods,  Up: Event Loop

5.18.1.69 Callback Handles
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Handle

     A callback wrapper object returned by *note loop.call_soon(): 972,
     *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 973.

      -- Yöntemi: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 142e. object associated
          with the handle.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel ()

          Cancel the callback.  If the callback has already been
          canceled or executed, this method has no effect.

      -- Yöntemi: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the callback was cancelled.

          Added in version 3.7.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.TimerHandle

     A callback wrapper object returned by *note loop.call_later(): 974,
     and *note loop.call_at(): 975.

     This class is a subclass of *note Handle: 18e7.

      -- Yöntemi: when ()

          Return a scheduled callback time as *note float: 272. seconds.

          The time is an absolute timestamp, using the same time
          reference as *note loop.time(): 308c.

          Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Server Objects,  Next: Event Loop Implementations,  Prev: Callback Handles,  Up: Event Loop

5.18.1.70 Server Objects
........................

Server objects are created by *note loop.create_server(): 981, *note
loop.create_unix_server(): 982, *note start_server(): 988, and *note
start_unix_server(): 3004. functions.

Do not instantiate the *note Server: 980. class directly.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Server

     'Server' objects are asynchronous context managers.  When used in
     an ‘async with’ statement, it’s guaranteed that the Server object
     is closed and not accepting new connections when the ‘async with’
     statement is completed:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Server object is an asynchronous context
     manager since Python 3.7.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: This class was exposed publicly as
     ‘asyncio.Server’ in Python 3.9.11, 3.10.3 and 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Stop serving: close listening sockets and set the *note
          sockets: a8f. attribute to ‘None’.

          The sockets that represent existing incoming client
          connections are left open.

          The server is closed asynchronously; use the *note
          wait_closed(): 14c8. coroutine to wait until the server is
          closed (and no more connections are active).

      -- Yöntemi: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop associated with the server object.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: async start_serving ()

          Start accepting connections.

          This method is idempotent, so it can be called when the server
          is already serving.

          The 'start_serving' keyword-only parameter to *note
          loop.create_server(): 981. and *note asyncio.start_server():
          988. allows creating a Server object that is not accepting
          connections initially.  In this case ‘Server.start_serving()’,
          or *note Server.serve_forever(): 984. can be used to make the
          Server start accepting connections.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: async serve_forever ()

          Start accepting connections until the coroutine is cancelled.
          Cancellation of ‘serve_forever’ task causes the server to be
          closed.

          This method can be called if the server is already accepting
          connections.  Only one ‘serve_forever’ task can exist per one
          'Server' object.

          Example:

               async def client_connected(reader, writer):
                   # Communicate with the client with
                   # reader/writer streams.  For example:
                   await reader.readline()

               async def main(host, port):
                   srv = await asyncio.start_server(
                       client_connected, host, port)
                   await srv.serve_forever()

               asyncio.run(main('127.0.0.1', 0))

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: is_serving ()

          Return ‘True’ if the server is accepting new connections.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: async wait_closed ()

          Wait until the *note close(): 3001. method completes and all
          active connections have finished.

      -- Özniteliği: sockets

          List of socket-like objects, ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’,
          which the server is listening on.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.7 ‘Server.sockets’
          used to return an internal list of server sockets directly.
          In 3.7 a copy of that list is returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop Implementations,  Next: Examples<17>,  Prev: Server Objects,  Up: Event Loop

5.18.1.71 Event Loop Implementations
....................................

asyncio ships with two different event loop implementations: *note
SelectorEventLoop: 417. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 418.

By default asyncio is configured to use *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. on
Unix and *note ProactorEventLoop: 418. on Windows.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.SelectorEventLoop

     An event loop based on the *note selectors: c1. module.

     Uses the most efficient 'selector' available for the given
     platform.  It is also possible to manually configure the exact
     selector implementation to be used:

          import asyncio
          import selectors

          class MyPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):
             def new_event_loop(self):
                selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
                return asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)

          asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyPolicy())

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.ProactorEventLoop

     An event loop for Windows that uses “I/O Completion Ports” (IOCP).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports(1).

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop

     Abstract base class for asyncio-compliant event loops.

     The *note Event Loop Methods: 3083. section lists all methods that
     an alternative implementation of ‘AbstractEventLoop’ should have
     defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/fileio/i-o-completion-ports


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<17>,  Prev: Event Loop Implementations,  Up: Event Loop

5.18.1.72 Examples
..................

Note that all examples in this section 'purposefully' show how to use
the low-level event loop APIs, such as *note loop.run_forever(): 3085.
and *note loop.call_soon(): 972.  Modern asyncio applications rarely
need to be written this way; consider using the high-level functions
like *note asyncio.run(): 19d.

* Menu:

* Hello World with call_soon(): Hello World with call_soon.
* Display the current date with call_later(): Display the current date with call_later.
* Watch a file descriptor for read events::
* Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM::


File: python.info,  Node: Hello World with call_soon,  Next: Display the current date with call_later,  Up: Examples<17>

5.18.1.73 Hello World with call_soon()
......................................

An example using the *note loop.call_soon(): 972. method to schedule a
callback.  The callback displays ‘"Hello World"’ and then stops the
event loop:

     import asyncio

     def hello_world(loop):
         """A callback to print 'Hello World' and stop the event loop"""
         print('Hello World')
         loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule a call to hello_world()
     loop.call_soon(hello_world, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

A similar *note Hello World: 2fbe. example created with a coroutine and
the *note run(): 19d. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Display the current date with call_later,  Next: Watch a file descriptor for read events,  Prev: Hello World with call_soon,  Up: Examples<17>

5.18.1.74 Display the current date with call_later()
....................................................

An example of a callback displaying the current date every second.  The
callback uses the *note loop.call_later(): 974. method to reschedule
itself after 5 seconds, and then stops the event loop:

     import asyncio
     import datetime

     def display_date(end_time, loop):
         print(datetime.datetime.now())
         if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
             loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
         else:
             loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule the first call to display_date()
     end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
     loop.call_soon(display_date, end_time, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

A similar *note current date: 2fdc. example created with a coroutine and
the *note run(): 19d. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Watch a file descriptor for read events,  Next: Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM,  Prev: Display the current date with call_later,  Up: Examples<17>

5.18.1.75 Watch a file descriptor for read events
.................................................

Wait until a file descriptor received some data using the *note
loop.add_reader(): 301e. method and then close the event loop:

     import asyncio
     from socket import socketpair

     # Create a pair of connected file descriptors
     rsock, wsock = socketpair()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     def reader():
         data = rsock.recv(100)
         print("Received:", data.decode())

         # We are done: unregister the file descriptor
         loop.remove_reader(rsock)

         # Stop the event loop
         loop.stop()

     # Register the file descriptor for read event
     loop.add_reader(rsock, reader)

     # Simulate the reception of data from the network
     loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

     try:
         # Run the event loop
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         # We are done. Close sockets and the event loop.
         rsock.close()
         wsock.close()
         loop.close()

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * A similar *note example: 301c. using transports, protocols, and the
     *note loop.create_connection(): 412. method.

   * Another similar *note example: 301a. using the high-level *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): 987. function and streams.


File: python.info,  Node: Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM,  Prev: Watch a file descriptor for read events,  Up: Examples<17>

5.18.1.76 Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM
....................................................

(This ‘signals’ example only works on Unix.)

Register handlers for signals *note SIGINT: 683. and *note SIGTERM:
1266. using the *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 30a7. method:

     import asyncio
     import functools
     import os
     import signal

     def ask_exit(signame, loop):
         print("got signal %s: exit" % signame)
         loop.stop()

     async def main():
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         for signame in {'SIGINT', 'SIGTERM'}:
             loop.add_signal_handler(
                 getattr(signal, signame),
                 functools.partial(ask_exit, signame, loop))

         await asyncio.sleep(3600)

     print("Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.")
     print(f"pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.")

     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Futures,  Next: Transports and Protocols,  Prev: Event Loop,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.77 Futures
.................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/futures.py(1), Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

'Future' objects are used to bridge 'low-level callback-based code' with
high-level async/await code.

* Menu:

* Future Functions::
* Future Object::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/futures.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py


File: python.info,  Node: Future Functions,  Next: Future Object,  Up: Futures

5.18.1.78 Future Functions
..........................

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.isfuture (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if 'obj' is either of:

        * an instance of *note asyncio.Future: a44,

        * an instance of *note asyncio.Task: 20a,

        * a Future-like object with a ‘_asyncio_future_blocking’
          attribute.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.ensure_future (obj, *, loop=None)

     Return:

        * 'obj' argument as is, if 'obj' is a *note Future: a44, a *note
          Task: 20a, or a Future-like object (*note isfuture(): 30c1. is
          used for the test.)

        * a *note Task: 20a. object wrapping 'obj', if 'obj' is a
          coroutine (*note iscoroutine(): 19f. is used for the test); in
          this case the coroutine will be scheduled by
          ‘ensure_future()’.

        * a *note Task: 20a. object that would await on 'obj', if 'obj'
          is an awaitable (*note inspect.isawaitable(): ca7. is used for
          the test.)

     If 'obj' is neither of the above a *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

          Önemli: See also the *note create_task(): 40b. function which
          is the preferred way for creating new Tasks.

          Save a reference to the result of this function, to avoid a
          task disappearing mid-execution.

     3.5.1 sürümünde değişti: The function accepts any *note awaitable:
     af6. object.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if 'obj' is not a Future-like object and 'loop' is not specified
     and there is no running event loop.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.wrap_future (future, *, loop=None)

     Wrap a *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1057. object in a *note
     asyncio.Future: a44. object.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if 'future' is not a Future-like object and 'loop' is not specified
     and there is no running event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Future Object,  Prev: Future Functions,  Up: Futures

5.18.1.79 Future Object
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Future (*, loop=None)

     A Future represents an eventual result of an asynchronous
     operation.  Not thread-safe.

     Future is an *note awaitable: af6. object.  Coroutines can await on
     Future objects until they either have a result or an exception set,
     or until they are cancelled.  A Future can be awaited multiple
     times and the result is same.

     Typically Futures are used to enable low-level callback-based code
     (e.g.  in protocols implemented using asyncio *note transports:
     2fc6.) to interoperate with high-level async/await code.

     The rule of thumb is to never expose Future objects in user-facing
     APIs, and the recommended way to create a Future object is to call
     *note loop.create_future(): af8.  This way alternative event loop
     implementations can inject their own optimized implementations of a
     Future object.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the *note contextvars: 24.
     module.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecation warning is emitted
     if 'loop' is not specified and there is no running event loop.

      -- Yöntemi: result ()

          Return the result of the Future.

          If the Future is 'done' and has a result set by the *note
          set_result(): 2ff1. method, the result value is returned.

          If the Future is 'done' and has an exception set by the *note
          set_exception(): 2ff2. method, this method raises the
          exception.

          If the Future has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 837. exception.

          If the Future’s result isn’t yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 2ff5. exception.

      -- Yöntemi: set_result (result)

          Mark the Future as 'done' and set its result.

          Raises an *note InvalidStateError: 2ff5. error if the Future
          is already 'done'.

      -- Yöntemi: set_exception (exception)

          Mark the Future as 'done' and set an exception.

          Raises an *note InvalidStateError: 2ff5. error if the Future
          is already 'done'.

      -- Yöntemi: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Future is 'done'.

          A Future is 'done' if it was 'cancelled' or if it has a result
          or an exception set with *note set_result(): 2ff1. or *note
          set_exception(): 2ff2. calls.

      -- Yöntemi: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Future was 'cancelled'.

          The method is usually used to check if a Future is not
          'cancelled' before setting a result or an exception for it:

               if not fut.cancelled():
                   fut.set_result(42)

      -- Yöntemi: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Add a callback to be run when the Future is 'done'.

          The 'callback' is called with the Future object as its only
          argument.

          If the Future is already 'done' when this method is called,
          the callback is scheduled with *note loop.call_soon(): 972.

          An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying
          a custom *note contextvars.Context: 142e. for the 'callback'
          to run in.  The current context is used when no 'context' is
          provided.

          *note functools.partial(): d61. can be used to pass parameters
          to the callback, e.g.:

               # Call 'print("Future:", fut)' when "fut" is done.
               fut.add_done_callback(
                   functools.partial(print, "Future:"))

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'context' keyword-only parameter
          was added.  See PEP 567(1) for more details.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_done_callback (callback)

          Remove 'callback' from the callbacks list.

          Returns the number of callbacks removed, which is typically 1,
          unless a callback was added more than once.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel (msg=None)

          Cancel the Future and schedule callbacks.

          If the Future is already 'done' or 'cancelled', return
          ‘False’.  Otherwise, change the Future’s state to 'cancelled',
          schedule the callbacks, and return ‘True’.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'msg' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: exception ()

          Return the exception that was set on this Future.

          The exception (or ‘None’ if no exception was set) is returned
          only if the Future is 'done'.

          If the Future has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 837. exception.

          If the Future isn’t 'done' yet, this method raises an *note
          InvalidStateError: 2ff5. exception.

      -- Yöntemi: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop the Future object is bound to.

          Added in version 3.7.

This example creates a Future object, creates and schedules an
asynchronous Task to set result for the Future, and waits until the
Future has a result:

     async def set_after(fut, delay, value):
         # Sleep for *delay* seconds.
         await asyncio.sleep(delay)

         # Set *value* as a result of *fut* Future.
         fut.set_result(value)

     async def main():
         # Get the current event loop.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a new Future object.
         fut = loop.create_future()

         # Run "set_after()" coroutine in a parallel Task.
         # We are using the low-level "loop.create_task()" API here because
         # we already have a reference to the event loop at hand.
         # Otherwise we could have just used "asyncio.create_task()".
         loop.create_task(
             set_after(fut, 1, '... world'))

         print('hello ...')

         # Wait until *fut* has a result (1 second) and print it.
         print(await fut)

     asyncio.run(main())

     Önemli: The Future object was designed to mimic *note
     concurrent.futures.Future: 1057.  Key differences include:

        - unlike asyncio Futures, *note concurrent.futures.Future: 1057.
          instances cannot be awaited.

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 30c3. and *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 30c6. do not accept the 'timeout'
          argument.

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 30c3. and *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 30c6. raise an *note
          InvalidStateError: 2ff5. exception when the Future is not
          'done'.

        - Callbacks registered with *note
          asyncio.Future.add_done_callback(): 976. are not called
          immediately.  They are scheduled with *note loop.call_soon():
          972. instead.

        - asyncio Future is not compatible with the *note
          concurrent.futures.wait(): 168a. and *note
          concurrent.futures.as_completed(): 2f28. functions.

        - *note asyncio.Future.cancel(): 163e. accepts an optional ‘msg’
          argument, but *note concurrent.futures.Future.cancel(): 2f20.
          does not.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Transports and Protocols,  Next: Policies,  Prev: Futures,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.80 Transports and Protocols
..................................

Preface
.......

Transports and Protocols are used by the 'low-level' event loop APIs
such as *note loop.create_connection(): 412.  They use callback-based
programming style and enable high-performance implementations of network
or IPC protocols (e.g.  HTTP).

Essentially, transports and protocols should only be used in libraries
and frameworks and never in high-level asyncio applications.

This documentation page covers both *note Transports: 30ca. and *note
Protocols: 30cb.

Introduction
............

At the highest level, the transport is concerned with 'how' bytes are
transmitted, while the protocol determines 'which' bytes to transmit
(and to some extent when).

A different way of saying the same thing: a transport is an abstraction
for a socket (or similar I/O endpoint) while a protocol is an
abstraction for an application, from the transport’s point of view.

Yet another view is the transport and protocol interfaces together
define an abstract interface for using network I/O and interprocess I/O.

There is always a 1:1 relationship between transport and protocol
objects: the protocol calls transport methods to send data, while the
transport calls protocol methods to pass it data that has been received.

Most of connection oriented event loop methods (such as *note
loop.create_connection(): 412.) usually accept a 'protocol_factory'
argument used to create a 'Protocol' object for an accepted connection,
represented by a 'Transport' object.  Such methods usually return a
tuple of ‘(transport, protocol)’.

Contents
........

This documentation page contains the following sections:

   * The *note Transports: 30ca. section documents asyncio *note
     BaseTransport: 30cc, *note ReadTransport: 30a4, *note
     WriteTransport: 30a5, *note Transport: 30cd, *note
     DatagramTransport: 15cb, and *note SubprocessTransport: 30b2.
     classes.

   * The *note Protocols: 30cb. section documents asyncio *note
     BaseProtocol: 30ce, *note Protocol: 30cf, *note BufferedProtocol:
     908, *note DatagramProtocol: 4e6, and *note SubprocessProtocol:
     30b1. classes.

   * The *note Examples: 30d0. section showcases how to work with
     transports, protocols, and low-level event loop APIs.

* Menu:

* Transports::
* Protocols::
* Examples: Examples<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports,  Next: Protocols,  Up: Transports and Protocols

5.18.1.81 Transports
....................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/transports.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Transports are classes provided by *note asyncio: a. in order to
abstract various kinds of communication channels.

Transport objects are always instantiated by an *note asyncio event
loop: c04.

asyncio implements transports for TCP, UDP, SSL, and subprocess pipes.
The methods available on a transport depend on the transport’s kind.

The transport classes are *note not thread safe: 2fed.

* Menu:

* Transports Hierarchy::
* Base Transport::
* Read-only Transports::
* Write-only Transports::
* Datagram Transports::
* Subprocess Transports::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/transports.py


File: python.info,  Node: Transports Hierarchy,  Next: Base Transport,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.82 Transports Hierarchy
..............................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.BaseTransport

     Base class for all transports.  Contains methods that all asyncio
     transports share.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.WriteTransport (BaseTransport)

     A base transport for write-only connections.

     Instances of the 'WriteTransport' class are returned from the *note
     loop.connect_write_pipe(): 304c. event loop method and are also
     used by subprocess-related methods like *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.ReadTransport (BaseTransport)

     A base transport for read-only connections.

     Instances of the 'ReadTransport' class are returned from the *note
     loop.connect_read_pipe(): 304b. event loop method and are also used
     by subprocess-related methods like *note loop.subprocess_exec():
     3048.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Transport (WriteTransport, ReadTransport)

     Interface representing a bidirectional transport, such as a TCP
     connection.

     The user does not instantiate a transport directly; they call a
     utility function, passing it a protocol factory and other
     information necessary to create the transport and protocol.

     Instances of the 'Transport' class are returned from or used by
     event loop methods like *note loop.create_connection(): 412, *note
     loop.create_unix_connection(): 3003, *note loop.create_server():
     981, *note loop.sendfile(): 309a, etc.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.DatagramTransport (BaseTransport)

     A transport for datagram (UDP) connections.

     Instances of the 'DatagramTransport' class are returned from the
     *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. event loop method.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.SubprocessTransport (BaseTransport)

     An abstraction to represent a connection between a parent and its
     child OS process.

     Instances of the 'SubprocessTransport' class are returned from
     event loop methods *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3049. and *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048.


File: python.info,  Node: Base Transport,  Next: Read-only Transports,  Prev: Transports Hierarchy,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.83 Base Transport
........................

 -- Yöntemi: BaseTransport.close ()

     Close the transport.

     If the transport has a buffer for outgoing data, buffered data will
     be flushed asynchronously.  No more data will be received.  After
     all buffered data is flushed, the protocol’s *note
     protocol.connection_lost(): 30d3. method will be called with *note
     None: 488. as its argument.  The transport should not be used once
     it is closed.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseTransport.is_closing ()

     Return ‘True’ if the transport is closing or is closed.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseTransport.get_extra_info (name, default=None)

     Return information about the transport or underlying resources it
     uses.

     'name' is a string representing the piece of transport-specific
     information to get.

     'default' is the value to return if the information is not
     available, or if the transport does not support querying it with
     the given third-party event loop implementation or on the current
     platform.

     For example, the following code attempts to get the underlying
     socket object of the transport:

          sock = transport.get_extra_info('socket')
          if sock is not None:
              print(sock.getsockopt(...))

     Categories of information that can be queried on some transports:

        * socket:

             - ‘'peername'’: the remote address to which the socket is
               connected, result of *note socket.socket.getpeername():
               30d4. (‘None’ on error)

             - ‘'socket'’: *note socket.socket: c2e. instance

             - ‘'sockname'’: the socket’s own address, result of *note
               socket.socket.getsockname(): 30d5.

        * SSL socket:

             - ‘'compression'’: the compression algorithm being used as
               a string, or ‘None’ if the connection isn’t compressed;
               result of *note ssl.SSLSocket.compression(): feb.

             - ‘'cipher'’: a three-value tuple containing the name of
               the cipher being used, the version of the SSL protocol
               that defines its use, and the number of secret bits being
               used; result of *note ssl.SSLSocket.cipher(): 30d6.

             - ‘'peercert'’: peer certificate; result of *note
               ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e5a.

             - ‘'sslcontext'’: *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. instance

             - ‘'ssl_object'’: *note ssl.SSLObject: 9f7. or *note
               ssl.SSLSocket: 73d. instance

        * pipe:

             - ‘'pipe'’: pipe object

        * subprocess:

             - ‘'subprocess'’: *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. instance

 -- Yöntemi: BaseTransport.set_protocol (protocol)

     Set a new protocol.

     Switching protocol should only be done when both protocols are
     documented to support the switch.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseTransport.get_protocol ()

     Return the current protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Read-only Transports,  Next: Write-only Transports,  Prev: Base Transport,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.84 Read-only Transports
..............................

 -- Yöntemi: ReadTransport.is_reading ()

     Return ‘True’ if the transport is receiving new data.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Yöntemi: ReadTransport.pause_reading ()

     Pause the receiving end of the transport.  No data will be passed
     to the protocol’s *note protocol.data_received(): 15ac. method
     until *note resume_reading(): 98c. is called.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The method is idempotent, i.e.  it can be
     called when the transport is already paused or closed.

 -- Yöntemi: ReadTransport.resume_reading ()

     Resume the receiving end.  The protocol’s *note
     protocol.data_received(): 15ac. method will be called once again if
     some data is available for reading.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The method is idempotent, i.e.  it can be
     called when the transport is already reading.


File: python.info,  Node: Write-only Transports,  Next: Datagram Transports,  Prev: Read-only Transports,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.85 Write-only Transports
...............................

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.abort ()

     Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
     operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data
     will be received.  The protocol’s *note protocol.connection_lost():
     30d3. method will eventually be called with *note None: 488. as its
     argument.

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.can_write_eof ()

     Return *note True: a86. if the transport supports *note
     write_eof(): 30dd, *note False: 9a8. if not.

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size ()

     Return the current size of the output buffer used by the transport.

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits ()

     Get the 'high' and 'low' watermarks for write flow control.  Return
     a tuple ‘(low, high)’ where 'low' and 'high' are positive number of
     bytes.

     Use *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 30df. to set the limits.

     Added in version 3.4.2.

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits (high=None,
          low=None)

     Set the 'high' and 'low' watermarks for write flow control.

     These two values (measured in number of bytes) control when the
     protocol’s *note protocol.pause_writing(): 30e0. and *note
     protocol.resume_writing(): 30e1. methods are called.  If specified,
     the low watermark must be less than or equal to the high watermark.
     Neither 'high' nor 'low' can be negative.

     *note pause_writing(): 30e0. is called when the buffer size becomes
     greater than or equal to the 'high' value.  If writing has been
     paused, *note resume_writing(): 30e1. is called when the buffer
     size becomes less than or equal to the 'low' value.

     The defaults are implementation-specific.  If only the high
     watermark is given, the low watermark defaults to an
     implementation-specific value less than or equal to the high
     watermark.  Setting 'high' to zero forces 'low' to zero as well,
     and causes *note pause_writing(): 30e0. to be called whenever the
     buffer becomes non-empty.  Setting 'low' to zero causes *note
     resume_writing(): 30e1. to be called only once the buffer is empty.
     Use of zero for either limit is generally sub-optimal as it reduces
     opportunities for doing I/O and computation concurrently.

     Use *note get_write_buffer_limits(): c52. to get the limits.

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.write (data)

     Write some 'data' bytes to the transport.

     This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
     to be sent out asynchronously.

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.writelines (list_of_data)

     Write a list (or any iterable) of data bytes to the transport.
     This is functionally equivalent to calling *note write(): 30e2. on
     each element yielded by the iterable, but may be implemented more
     efficiently.

 -- Yöntemi: WriteTransport.write_eof ()

     Close the write end of the transport after flushing all buffered
     data.  Data may still be received.

     This method can raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. if the
     transport (e.g.  SSL) doesn’t support half-closed connections.


File: python.info,  Node: Datagram Transports,  Next: Subprocess Transports,  Prev: Write-only Transports,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.86 Datagram Transports
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: DatagramTransport.sendto (data, addr=None)

     Send the 'data' bytes to the remote peer given by 'addr' (a
     transport-dependent target address).  If 'addr' is *note None: 488,
     the data is sent to the target address given on transport creation.

     This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
     to be sent out asynchronously.

 -- Yöntemi: DatagramTransport.abort ()

     Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
     operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data
     will be received.  The protocol’s *note protocol.connection_lost():
     30d3. method will eventually be called with *note None: 488. as its
     argument.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Transports,  Prev: Datagram Transports,  Up: Transports

5.18.1.87 Subprocess Transports
...............................

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessTransport.get_pid ()

     Return the subprocess process id as an integer.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport (fd)

     Return the transport for the communication pipe corresponding to
     the integer file descriptor 'fd':

        * ‘0’: readable streaming transport of the standard input
          ('stdin'), or *note None: 488. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdin=PIPE’

        * ‘1’: writable streaming transport of the standard output
          ('stdout'), or *note None: 488. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdout=PIPE’

        * ‘2’: writable streaming transport of the standard error
          ('stderr'), or *note None: 488. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stderr=PIPE’

        * other 'fd': *note None: 488.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessTransport.get_returncode ()

     Return the subprocess return code as an integer or *note None: 488.
     if it hasn’t returned, which is similar to the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: 17da. attribute.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessTransport.kill ()

     Kill the subprocess.

     On POSIX systems, the function sends SIGKILL to the subprocess.  On
     Windows, this method is an alias for *note terminate(): 30eb.

     See also *note subprocess.Popen.kill(): 1264.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessTransport.send_signal (signal)

     Send the 'signal' number to the subprocess, as in *note
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 1265.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessTransport.terminate ()

     Stop the subprocess.

     On POSIX systems, this method sends *note SIGTERM: 1266. to the
     subprocess.  On Windows, the Windows API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the subprocess.

     See also *note subprocess.Popen.terminate(): 1263.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessTransport.close ()

     Kill the subprocess by calling the *note kill(): 30ea. method.

     If the subprocess hasn’t returned yet, and close transports of
     'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' pipes.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols,  Next: Examples<18>,  Prev: Transports,  Up: Transports and Protocols

5.18.1.88 Protocols
...................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/protocols.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio provides a set of abstract base classes that should be used to
implement network protocols.  Those classes are meant to be used
together with *note transports: 3090.

Subclasses of abstract base protocol classes may implement some or all
methods.  All these methods are callbacks: they are called by transports
on certain events, for example when some data is received.  A base
protocol method should be called by the corresponding transport.

* Menu:

* Base Protocols::
* Base Protocol::
* Streaming Protocols::
* Buffered Streaming Protocols::
* Datagram Protocols::
* Subprocess Protocols::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/protocols.py


File: python.info,  Node: Base Protocols,  Next: Base Protocol,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.89 Base Protocols
........................

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.BaseProtocol

     Base protocol with methods that all protocols share.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.Protocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing streaming protocols (TCP, Unix
     sockets, etc).

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.BufferedProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     A base class for implementing streaming protocols with manual
     control of the receive buffer.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.DatagramProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing datagram (UDP) protocols.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.SubprocessProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing protocols communicating with child
     processes (unidirectional pipes).


File: python.info,  Node: Base Protocol,  Next: Streaming Protocols,  Prev: Base Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.90 Base Protocol
.......................

All asyncio protocols can implement Base Protocol callbacks.

Connection Callbacks
....................

Connection callbacks are called on all protocols, exactly once per a
successful connection.  All other protocol callbacks can only be called
between those two methods.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseProtocol.connection_made (transport)

     Called when a connection is made.

     The 'transport' argument is the transport representing the
     connection.  The protocol is responsible for storing the reference
     to its transport.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseProtocol.connection_lost (exc)

     Called when the connection is lost or closed.

     The argument is either an exception object or *note None: 488.  The
     latter means a regular EOF is received, or the connection was
     aborted or closed by this side of the connection.

Flow Control Callbacks
......................

Flow control callbacks can be called by transports to pause or resume
writing performed by the protocol.

See the documentation of the *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 30df.
method for more details.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseProtocol.pause_writing ()

     Called when the transport’s buffer goes over the high watermark.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseProtocol.resume_writing ()

     Called when the transport’s buffer drains below the low watermark.

If the buffer size equals the high watermark, *note pause_writing():
30e0. is not called: the buffer size must go strictly over.

Conversely, *note resume_writing(): 30e1. is called when the buffer size
is equal or lower than the low watermark.  These end conditions are
important to ensure that things go as expected when either mark is zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Streaming Protocols,  Next: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Prev: Base Protocol,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.91 Streaming Protocols
.............................

Event methods, such as *note loop.create_server(): 981, *note
loop.create_unix_server(): 982, *note loop.create_connection(): 412,
*note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3003, *note
loop.connect_accepted_socket(): 989, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
304b, and *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 304c. accept factories that
return streaming protocols.

 -- Yöntemi: Protocol.data_received (data)

     Called when some data is received.  'data' is a non-empty bytes
     object containing the incoming data.

     Whether the data is buffered, chunked or reassembled depends on the
     transport.  In general, you shouldn’t rely on specific semantics
     and instead make your parsing generic and flexible.  However, data
     is always received in the correct order.

     The method can be called an arbitrary number of times while a
     connection is open.

     However, *note protocol.eof_received(): 30f1. is called at most
     once.  Once ‘eof_received()’ is called, ‘data_received()’ is not
     called anymore.

 -- Yöntemi: Protocol.eof_received ()

     Called when the other end signals it won’t send any more data (for
     example by calling *note transport.write_eof(): 30dd, if the other
     end also uses asyncio).

     This method may return a false value (including ‘None’), in which
     case the transport will close itself.  Conversely, if this method
     returns a true value, the protocol used determines whether to close
     the transport.  Since the default implementation returns ‘None’, it
     implicitly closes the connection.

     Some transports, including SSL, don’t support half-closed
     connections, in which case returning true from this method will
     result in the connection being closed.

State machine:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> data_received]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Next: Datagram Protocols,  Prev: Streaming Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.92 Buffered Streaming Protocols
......................................

Added in version 3.7.

Buffered Protocols can be used with any event loop method that supports
*note Streaming Protocols: 30f0.

‘BufferedProtocol’ implementations allow explicit manual allocation and
control of the receive buffer.  Event loops can then use the buffer
provided by the protocol to avoid unnecessary data copies.  This can
result in noticeable performance improvement for protocols that receive
big amounts of data.  Sophisticated protocol implementations can
significantly reduce the number of buffer allocations.

The following callbacks are called on *note BufferedProtocol: 908.
instances:

 -- Yöntemi: BufferedProtocol.get_buffer (sizehint)

     Called to allocate a new receive buffer.

     'sizehint' is the recommended minimum size for the returned buffer.
     It is acceptable to return smaller or larger buffers than what
     'sizehint' suggests.  When set to -1, the buffer size can be
     arbitrary.  It is an error to return a buffer with a zero size.

     ‘get_buffer()’ must return an object implementing the *note buffer
     protocol: 14e.

 -- Yöntemi: BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated (nbytes)

     Called when the buffer was updated with the received data.

     'nbytes' is the total number of bytes that were written to the
     buffer.

 -- Yöntemi: BufferedProtocol.eof_received ()

     See the documentation of the *note protocol.eof_received(): 30f1.
     method.

*note get_buffer(): 30f3. can be called an arbitrary number of times
during a connection.  However, *note protocol.eof_received(): 30f1. is
called at most once and, if called, *note get_buffer(): 30f3. and *note
buffer_updated(): 30f4. won’t be called after it.

State machine:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> get_buffer
             [-> buffer_updated]?
         ]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Datagram Protocols,  Next: Subprocess Protocols,  Prev: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.93 Datagram Protocols
............................

Datagram Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol factories
passed to the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c. method.

 -- Yöntemi: DatagramProtocol.datagram_received (data, addr)

     Called when a datagram is received.  'data' is a bytes object
     containing the incoming data.  'addr' is the address of the peer
     sending the data; the exact format depends on the transport.

 -- Yöntemi: DatagramProtocol.error_received (exc)

     Called when a previous send or receive operation raises an *note
     OSError: 65c.  'exc' is the *note OSError: 65c. instance.

     This method is called in rare conditions, when the transport (e.g.
     UDP) detects that a datagram could not be delivered to its
     recipient.  In many conditions though, undeliverable datagrams will
     be silently dropped.

     Not: On BSD systems (macOS, FreeBSD, etc.)  flow control is not
     supported for datagram protocols, because there is no reliable way
     to detect send failures caused by writing too many packets.

     The socket always appears ‘ready’ and excess packets are dropped.
     An *note OSError: 65c. with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.ENOBUFS:
     160a. may or may not be raised; if it is raised, it will be
     reported to *note DatagramProtocol.error_received(): 30f8. but
     otherwise ignored.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Protocols,  Prev: Datagram Protocols,  Up: Protocols

5.18.1.94 Subprocess Protocols
..............................

Subprocess Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol
factories passed to the *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048. and *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 3049. methods.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received (fd, data)

     Called when the child process writes data into its stdout or stderr
     pipe.

     'fd' is the integer file descriptor of the pipe.

     'data' is a non-empty bytes object containing the received data.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost (fd, exc)

     Called when one of the pipes communicating with the child process
     is closed.

     'fd' is the integer file descriptor that was closed.

 -- Yöntemi: SubprocessProtocol.process_exited ()

     Called when the child process has exited.

     It can be called before *note pipe_data_received(): 15e6. and *note
     pipe_connection_lost(): 30fa. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<18>,  Prev: Protocols,  Up: Transports and Protocols

5.18.1.95 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* TCP Echo Server::
* TCP Echo Client::
* UDP Echo Server::
* UDP Echo Client::
* Connecting Existing Sockets::
* loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP Echo Server,  Next: TCP Echo Client,  Up: Examples<18>

5.18.1.96 TCP Echo Server
.........................

Create a TCP echo server using the *note loop.create_server(): 981.
method, send back received data, and close the connection:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             peername = transport.get_extra_info('peername')
             print('Connection from {}'.format(peername))
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(message))

             print('Send: {!r}'.format(message))
             self.transport.write(data)

             print('Close the client socket')
             self.transport.close()


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         server = await loop.create_server(
             lambda: EchoServerProtocol(),
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()


     asyncio.run(main())

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note TCP echo server using streams: 3016. example uses the
high-level *note asyncio.start_server(): 988. function.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP Echo Client,  Next: UDP Echo Server,  Prev: TCP Echo Server,  Up: Examples<18>

5.18.1.97 TCP Echo Client
.........................

A TCP echo client using the *note loop.create_connection(): 412. method,
sends data, and waits until the connection is closed:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             transport.write(self.message.encode())
             print('Data sent: {!r}'.format(self.message))

         def data_received(self, data):
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(data.decode()))

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print('The server closed the connection')
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = 'Hello World!'

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         # Wait until the protocol signals that the connection
         # is lost and close the transport.
         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note TCP echo client using streams: 3013. example uses the
high-level *note asyncio.open_connection(): 987. function.


File: python.info,  Node: UDP Echo Server,  Next: UDP Echo Client,  Prev: TCP Echo Client,  Up: Examples<18>

5.18.1.98 UDP Echo Server
.........................

A UDP echo server, using the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c.
method, sends back received data:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol:
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Received %r from %s' % (message, addr))
             print('Send %r to %s' % (message, addr))
             self.transport.sendto(data, addr)


     async def main():
         print("Starting UDP server")

         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # One protocol instance will be created to serve all
         # client requests.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             lambda: EchoServerProtocol(),
             local_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await asyncio.sleep(3600)  # Serve for 1 hour.
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: UDP Echo Client,  Next: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Prev: UDP Echo Server,  Up: Examples<18>

5.18.1.99 UDP Echo Client
.........................

A UDP echo client, using the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c.
method, sends data and closes the transport when it receives the answer:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol:
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost
             self.transport = None

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport
             print('Send:', self.message)
             self.transport.sendto(self.message.encode())

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             print("Close the socket")
             self.transport.close()

         def error_received(self, exc):
             print('Error received:', exc)

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print("Connection closed")
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = "Hello World!"

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             remote_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Next: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: UDP Echo Client,  Up: Examples<18>

5.18.1.100 Connecting Existing Sockets
......................................

Wait until a socket receives data using the *note
loop.create_connection(): 412. method with a protocol:

     import asyncio
     import socket


     class MyProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):

         def __init__(self, on_con_lost):
             self.transport = None
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             # We are done: close the transport;
             # connection_lost() will be called automatically.
             self.transport.close()

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             # The socket has been closed
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the socket to wait for data.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: MyProtocol(on_con_lost), sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network.
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         try:
             await protocol.on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()
             wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(main())

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note watch a file descriptor for read events: 301d. example uses
the low-level *note loop.add_reader(): 301e. method to register an FD.

The *note register an open socket to wait for data using streams: 301a.
example uses high-level streams created by the *note open_connection():
987. function in a coroutine.


File: python.info,  Node: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Up: Examples<18>

5.18.1.101 loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol
........................................................

An example of a subprocess protocol used to get the output of a
subprocess and to wait for the subprocess exit.

The subprocess is created by the *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048.
method:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     class DateProtocol(asyncio.SubprocessProtocol):
         def __init__(self, exit_future):
             self.exit_future = exit_future
             self.output = bytearray()
             self.pipe_closed = False
             self.exited = False

         def pipe_connection_lost(self, fd, exc):
             self.pipe_closed = True
             self.check_for_exit()

         def pipe_data_received(self, fd, data):
             self.output.extend(data)

         def process_exited(self):
             self.exited = True
             # process_exited() method can be called before
             # pipe_connection_lost() method: wait until both methods are
             # called.
             self.check_for_exit()

         def check_for_exit(self):
             if self.pipe_closed and self.exited:
                 self.exit_future.set_result(True)

     async def get_date():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         code = 'import datetime; print(datetime.datetime.now())'
         exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)

         # Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;
         # redirect the standard output into a pipe.
         transport, protocol = await loop.subprocess_exec(
             lambda: DateProtocol(exit_future),
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdin=None, stderr=None)

         # Wait for the subprocess exit using the process_exited()
         # method of the protocol.
         await exit_future

         # Close the stdout pipe.
         transport.close()

         # Read the output which was collected by the
         # pipe_data_received() method of the protocol.
         data = bytes(protocol.output)
         return data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

See also the *note same example: 305f. written using high-level APIs.


File: python.info,  Node: Policies,  Next: Platform Support,  Prev: Transports and Protocols,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.102 Policies
...................

An event loop policy is a global object used to get and set the current
*note event loop: c04, as well as create new event loops.  The default
policy can be *note replaced: 3103. with *note built-in alternatives:
3104. to use different event loop implementations, or substituted by a
*note custom policy: 3105. that can override these behaviors.

The *note policy object: 3106. gets and sets a separate event loop per
'context'.  This is per-thread by default, though custom policies could
define 'context' differently.

Custom event loop policies can control the behavior of *note
get_event_loop(): 227, *note set_event_loop(): 15ec, and *note
new_event_loop(): 2fcc.

Policy objects should implement the APIs defined in the *note
AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 3107. abstract base class.

* Menu:

* Getting and Setting the Policy::
* Policy Objects::
* Process Watchers::
* Custom Policies::


File: python.info,  Node: Getting and Setting the Policy,  Next: Policy Objects,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.103 Getting and Setting the Policy
.........................................

The following functions can be used to get and set the policy for the
current process:

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.get_event_loop_policy ()

     Return the current process-wide policy.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.set_event_loop_policy (policy)

     Set the current process-wide policy to 'policy'.

     If 'policy' is set to ‘None’, the default policy is restored.


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Objects,  Next: Process Watchers,  Prev: Getting and Setting the Policy,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.104 Policy Objects
.........................

The abstract event loop policy base class is defined as follows:

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

     An abstract base class for asyncio policies.

      -- Yöntemi: get_event_loop ()

          Get the event loop for the current context.

          Return an event loop object implementing the *note
          AbstractEventLoop: 7ba. interface.

          This method should never return ‘None’.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti.

      -- Yöntemi: set_event_loop (loop)

          Set the event loop for the current context to 'loop'.

      -- Yöntemi: new_event_loop ()

          Create and return a new event loop object.

          This method should never return ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: get_child_watcher ()

          Get a child process watcher object.

          Return a watcher object implementing the *note
          AbstractChildWatcher: 221. interface.

          This function is Unix specific.

          3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

      -- Yöntemi: set_child_watcher (watcher)

          Set the current child process watcher to 'watcher'.

          This function is Unix specific.

          3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

asyncio ships with the following built-in policies:

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

     The default asyncio policy.  Uses *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. on
     Unix and *note ProactorEventLoop: 418. on Windows.

     There is no need to install the default policy manually.  asyncio
     is configured to use the default policy automatically.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, *note ProactorEventLoop: 418. is
     now used by default.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The *note get_event_loop():
     227. method of the default asyncio policy now emits a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. if there is no current event loop set and
     it decides to create one.  In some future Python release this will
     become an error.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

     An alternative event loop policy that uses the *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 417. event loop implementation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

     An alternative event loop policy that uses the *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 418. event loop implementation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Process Watchers,  Next: Custom Policies,  Prev: Policy Objects,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.105 Process Watchers
...........................

A process watcher allows customization of how an event loop monitors
child processes on Unix.  Specifically, the event loop needs to know
when a child process has exited.

In asyncio, child processes are created with *note
create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc. and *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048.
functions.

asyncio defines the *note AbstractChildWatcher: 221. abstract base
class, which child watchers should implement, and has four different
implementations: *note ThreadedChildWatcher: 19c. (configured to be used
by default), *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 21f, *note SafeChildWatcher:
222, and *note FastChildWatcher: 220.

See also the *note Subprocess and Threads: 3056. section.

The following two functions can be used to customize the child process
watcher implementation used by the asyncio event loop:

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.get_child_watcher ()

     Return the current child watcher for the current policy.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio.set_child_watcher (watcher)

     Set the current child watcher to 'watcher' for the current policy.
     'watcher' must implement methods defined in the *note
     AbstractChildWatcher: 221. base class.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

     Not: Third-party event loops implementations might not support
     custom child watchers.  For such event loops, using *note
     set_child_watcher(): 223. might be prohibited or have no effect.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher

      -- Yöntemi: add_child_handler (pid, callback, *args)

          Register a new child handler.

          Arrange for ‘callback(pid, returncode, *args)’ to be called
          when a process with PID equal to 'pid' terminates.  Specifying
          another callback for the same process replaces the previous
          handler.

          The 'callback' callable must be thread-safe.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_child_handler (pid)

          Removes the handler for process with PID equal to 'pid'.

          The function returns ‘True’ if the handler was successfully
          removed, ‘False’ if there was nothing to remove.

      -- Yöntemi: attach_loop (loop)

          Attach the watcher to an event loop.

          If the watcher was previously attached to an event loop, then
          it is first detached before attaching to the new loop.

          Note: loop may be ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: is_active ()

          Return ‘True’ if the watcher is ready to use.

          Spawning a subprocess with 'inactive' current child watcher
          raises *note RuntimeError: 180.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the watcher.

          This method has to be called to ensure that underlying
          resources are cleaned-up.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher

     This implementation starts a new waiting thread for every
     subprocess spawn.

     It works reliably even when the asyncio event loop is run in a
     non-main OS thread.

     There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
     children ('O'(1) each time a child terminates), but starting a
     thread per process requires extra memory.

     This watcher is used by default.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher

     This implementation registers a ‘SIGCHLD’ signal handler on
     instantiation.  That can break third-party code that installs a
     custom handler for ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.

     The watcher avoids disrupting other code spawning processes by
     polling every process explicitly on a ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.

     There is no limitation for running subprocesses from different
     threads once the watcher is installed.

     The solution is safe but it has a significant overhead when
     handling a big number of processes ('O'('n') each time a ‘SIGCHLD’
     is received).

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.SafeChildWatcher

     This implementation uses active event loop from the main thread to
     handle ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.  If the main thread has no running event
     loop another thread cannot spawn a subprocess (*note RuntimeError:
     180. is raised).

     The watcher avoids disrupting other code spawning processes by
     polling every process explicitly on a ‘SIGCHLD’ signal.

     This solution is as safe as *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 21f. and
     has the same 'O'('n') complexity but requires a running event loop
     in the main thread to work.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.FastChildWatcher

     This implementation reaps every terminated processes by calling
     ‘os.waitpid(-1)’ directly, possibly breaking other code spawning
     processes and waiting for their termination.

     There is no noticeable overhead when handling a big number of
     children ('O'(1) each time a child terminates).

     This solution requires a running event loop in the main thread to
     work, as *note SafeChildWatcher: 222.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Sınıfı: asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher

     This implementation polls process file descriptors (pidfds) to
     await child process termination.  In some respects, *note
     PidfdChildWatcher: 19a. is a “Goldilocks” child watcher
     implementation.  It doesn’t require signals or threads, doesn’t
     interfere with any processes launched outside the event loop, and
     scales linearly with the number of subprocesses launched by the
     event loop.  The main disadvantage is that pidfds are specific to
     Linux, and only work on recent (5.3+) kernels.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Policies,  Prev: Process Watchers,  Up: Policies

5.18.1.106 Custom Policies
..........................

To implement a new event loop policy, it is recommended to subclass
*note DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 310f. and override the methods for which
custom behavior is wanted, e.g.:

     class MyEventLoopPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):

         def get_event_loop(self):
             """Get the event loop.

             This may be None or an instance of EventLoop.
             """
             loop = super().get_event_loop()
             # Do something with loop ...
             return loop

     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyEventLoopPolicy())


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Support,  Next: Extending,  Prev: Policies,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.107 Platform Support
...........................

The *note asyncio: a. module is designed to be portable, but some
platforms have subtle differences and limitations due to the platforms’
underlying architecture and capabilities.

* Menu:

* All Platforms::
* Windows: Windows<77>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: All Platforms,  Next: Windows<77>,  Up: Platform Support

5.18.1.108 All Platforms
........................

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 301e. and *note loop.add_writer(): 309e.
     cannot be used to monitor file I/O.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<77>,  Next: macOS<48>,  Prev: All Platforms,  Up: Platform Support

5.18.1.109 Windows
..................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py(2), Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py(3)

__________________________________________________________________

3.8 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, *note ProactorEventLoop: 418. is now
the default event loop.

All event loops on Windows do not support the following methods:

   * *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3003. and *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 982. are not supported.  The *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 1645. socket family is specific to Unix.

   * *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 30a7. and *note
     loop.remove_signal_handler(): 30a8. are not supported.

*note SelectorEventLoop: 417. has the following limitations:

   * *note SelectSelector: 311c. is used to wait on socket events: it
     supports sockets and is limited to 512 sockets.

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 301e. and *note loop.add_writer(): 309e.
     only accept socket handles (e.g.  pipe file descriptors are not
     supported).

   * Pipes are not supported, so the *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
     304b. and *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 304c. methods are not
     implemented.

   * *note Subprocesses: 2fc0. are not supported, i.e.  *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048. and *note loop.subprocess_shell():
     3049. methods are not implemented.

*note ProactorEventLoop: 418. has the following limitations:

   * The *note loop.add_reader(): 301e. and *note loop.add_writer():
     309e. methods are not supported.

The resolution of the monotonic clock on Windows is usually around 15.6
milliseconds.  The best resolution is 0.5 milliseconds.  The resolution
depends on the hardware (availability of HPET(4)) and on the Windows
configuration.

* Menu:

* Subprocess Support on Windows::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Support on Windows,  Up: Windows<77>

5.18.1.110 Subprocess Support on Windows
........................................

On Windows, the default event loop *note ProactorEventLoop: 418.
supports subprocesses, whereas *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. does not.

The *note policy.set_child_watcher(): 225. function is also not
supported, as *note ProactorEventLoop: 418. has a different mechanism to
watch child processes.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<48>,  Prev: Windows<77>,  Up: Platform Support

5.18.1.111 macOS
................

Modern macOS versions are fully supported.

macOS <= 10.8
.............

On macOS 10.6, 10.7 and 10.8, the default event loop uses *note
selectors.KqueueSelector: 311f, which does not support character devices
on these versions.  The *note SelectorEventLoop: 417. can be manually
configured to use *note SelectSelector: 311c. or *note PollSelector:
a4d. to support character devices on these older versions of macOS.
Example:

     import asyncio
     import selectors

     selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
     loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)


File: python.info,  Node: Extending,  Next: High-level API Index,  Prev: Platform Support,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.112 Extending
....................

The main direction for *note asyncio: a. extending is writing custom
'event loop' classes.  Asyncio has helpers that could be used to
simplify this task.

     Not: Third-parties should reuse existing asyncio code with caution,
     a new Python version is free to break backward compatibility in
     'internal' part of API.

* Menu:

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Next: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: Extending

5.18.1.113 Writing a Custom Event Loop
......................................

*note asyncio.AbstractEventLoop: 7ba. declares very many methods.
Implementing all them from scratch is a tedious job.

A loop can get many common methods implementation for free by inheriting
from ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

In turn, the successor should implement a bunch of 'private' methods
declared but not implemented in ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

For example, ‘loop.create_connection()’ checks arguments, resolves DNS
addresses, and calls ‘loop._make_socket_transport()’ that should be
implemented by inherited class.  The ‘_make_socket_transport()’ method
is not documented and is considered as an 'internal' API.


File: python.info,  Node: Future and Task private constructors,  Next: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Up: Extending

5.18.1.114 Future and Task private constructors
...............................................

*note asyncio.Future: a44. and *note asyncio.Task: 20a. should be never
created directly, please use corresponding *note loop.create_future():
af8. and *note loop.create_task(): 83b, or *note asyncio.create_task():
40b. factories instead.

However, third-party 'event loops' may 'reuse' built-in future and task
implementations for the sake of getting a complex and highly optimized
code for free.

For this purpose the following, 'private' constructors are listed:

 -- Yöntemi: Future.__init__ (*, loop=None)

     Create a built-in future instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.

 -- Yöntemi: Task.__init__ (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None)

     Create a built-in task instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.  The rest of arguments
     are described in *note loop.create_task(): 83b. description.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'context' argument is added.


File: python.info,  Node: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: Extending

5.18.1.115 Task lifetime support
................................

A third party task implementation should call the following functions to
keep a task visible by *note asyncio.all_tasks(): 7b1. and *note
asyncio.current_task(): 19e.:

 -- Işlevi: asyncio._register_task (task)

     Register a new 'task' as managed by 'asyncio'.

     Call the function from a task constructor.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio._unregister_task (task)

     Unregister a 'task' from 'asyncio' internal structures.

     The function should be called when a task is about to finish.

 -- Işlevi: asyncio._enter_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task to the 'task' argument.

     Call the function just before executing a portion of embedded
     'coroutine' (*note coroutine.send(): 1dba. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 249.).

 -- Işlevi: asyncio._leave_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task back from 'task' to ‘None’.

     Call the function just after *note coroutine.send(): 1dba. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 249. execution.


File: python.info,  Node: High-level API Index,  Next: Low-level API Index,  Prev: Extending,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.116 High-level API Index
...............................

This page lists all high-level async/await enabled asyncio APIs.

* Menu:

* Tasks::
* Queues: Queues<2>.
* Subprocesses: Subprocesses<2>.
* Streams: Streams<2>.
* Synchronization::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tasks,  Next: Queues<2>,  Up: High-level API Index

5.18.1.117 Tasks
................

Utilities to run asyncio programs, create Tasks, and await on multiple
things with timeouts.

*note run(): 19d.                                      Create event loop, run a coroutine, close the loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Runner: 40f.                                     A context manager that simplifies multiple async
                                                       function calls.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Task: 20a.                                       Task object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note TaskGroup: 409.                                  A context manager that holds a group of tasks.
                                                       Provides a convenient and reliable way to wait for
                                                       all tasks in the group to finish.
                                                       
                                                       
*note create_task(): 40b.                              Start an asyncio Task, then returns it.
                                                       
                                                       
*note current_task(): 19e.                             Return the current Task.
                                                       
                                                       
*note all_tasks(): 7b1.                                Return all tasks that are not yet finished for an
                                                       event loop.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note sleep(): 8d4.                            Sleep for a number of seconds.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note gather(): 40c.                           Schedule and wait for things concurrently.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait_for(): 40e.                         Run with a timeout.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note shield(): 8d5.                           Shield from cancellation.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait(): 1a0.                             Monitor for completion.
                                                       
                                                       
*note timeout(): 40d.                                  Run with a timeout.  Useful in cases when ‘wait_for’
                                                       is not suitable.
                                                       
                                                       
*note to_thread(): 73b.                                Asynchronously run a function in a separate OS
                                                       thread.
                                                       
                                                       
*note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6c8.                 Schedule a coroutine from another OS thread.
                                                       
                                                       
‘for in’ *note as_completed(): 1a1.                    Monitor for completion with a ‘for’ loop.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.gather() to run things in parallel: 2fde.

   * *note Using asyncio.wait_for() to enforce a timeout: 2fe6.

   * *note Cancellation: 2ffb.

   * *note Using asyncio.sleep(): 2fdc.

   * See also the main *note Tasks documentation page: 2fbe.


File: python.info,  Node: Queues<2>,  Next: Subprocesses<2>,  Prev: Tasks,  Up: High-level API Index

5.18.1.118 Queues
.................

Queues should be used to distribute work amongst multiple asyncio Tasks,
implement connection pools, and pub/sub patterns.

*note Queue: 8db.                                      A FIFO queue.
                                                       
                                                       
*note PriorityQueue: 3070.                             A priority queue.
                                                       
                                                       
*note LifoQueue: 3072.                                 A LIFO queue.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.Queue to distribute workload between several
     Tasks: 3074.

   * See also the *note Queues documentation page: 2fc1.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocesses<2>,  Next: Streams<2>,  Prev: Queues<2>,  Up: High-level API Index

5.18.1.119 Subprocesses
.......................

Utilities to spawn subprocesses and run shell commands.

‘await’ *note create_subprocess_exec(): 8dc.           Create a subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note create_subprocess_shell(): 8dd.          Run a shell command.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Executing a shell command: 3042.

   * See also the *note subprocess APIs: 2fc0. documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Streams<2>,  Next: Synchronization,  Prev: Subprocesses<2>,  Up: High-level API Index

5.18.1.120 Streams
..................

High-level APIs to work with network IO.

‘await’ *note open_connection(): 987.                  Establish a TCP connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note open_unix_connection(): 3002.            Establish a Unix socket connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_server(): 988.                     Start a TCP server.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_unix_server(): 3004.               Start a Unix socket server.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamReader: 16ee.                              High-level async/await object to receive network
                                                       data.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamWriter: 14f2.                              High-level async/await object to send network data.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Example TCP client: 2ffe.

   * See also the *note streams APIs: 2fbf. documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization,  Next: Exceptions<11>,  Prev: Streams<2>,  Up: High-level API Index

5.18.1.121 Synchronization
..........................

Threading-like synchronization primitives that can be used in Tasks.

*note Lock: 8d6.                                       A mutex lock.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Event: 8d7.                                      An event object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Condition: 8d8.                                  A condition object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Semaphore: 8d9.                                  A semaphore.
                                                       
                                                       
*note BoundedSemaphore: 8da.                           A bounded semaphore.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Barrier: 410.                                    A barrier object.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.Event: 3029.

   * *note Using asyncio.Barrier: 303a.

   * See also the documentation of asyncio *note synchronization
     primitives: 2fc2.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<11>,  Prev: Synchronization,  Up: High-level API Index

5.18.1.122 Exceptions
.....................

*note asyncio.CancelledError: 837.                     Raised when a Task is cancelled.  See also
                                                       *note Task.cancel(): 163f.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.BrokenBarrierError: 411.                 Raised when a Barrier is broken.  See also
                                                       *note Barrier.wait(): 3039.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Handling CancelledError to run code on cancellation request:
     2ffb.

   * See also the full list of *note asyncio-specific exceptions: 3076.


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level API Index,  Next: Developing with asyncio,  Prev: High-level API Index,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.123 Low-level API Index
..............................

This page lists all low-level asyncio APIs.

* Menu:

* Obtaining the Event Loop::
* Event Loop Methods: Event Loop Methods<2>.
* Transports: Transports<2>.
* Protocols: Protocols<2>.
* Event Loop Policies::


File: python.info,  Node: Obtaining the Event Loop,  Next: Event Loop Methods<2>,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.18.1.124 Obtaining the Event Loop
...................................

*note asyncio.get_running_loop(): 979.                 The 'preferred' function to get the running event
                                                       loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 227.                   Get an event loop instance (running or current via
                                                       the current policy).
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop(): 15ec.                  Set the event loop as current via the current
                                                       policy.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 2fcc.                  Create a new event loop.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.get_running_loop(): 30c7.


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop Methods<2>,  Next: Transports<2>,  Prev: Obtaining the Event Loop,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.18.1.125 Event Loop Methods
.............................

See also the main documentation section about the *note Event Loop
Methods: 3083.

Lifecycle
.........

*note loop.run_until_complete(): af5.                  Run a Future/Task/awaitable until complete.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.run_forever(): 3085.                        Run the event loop forever.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.stop(): afc.                                Stop the event loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.close(): 3087.                              Close the event loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_running(): 3086.                         Return ‘True’ if the event loop is running.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_closed(): c51.                           Return ‘True’ if the event loop is closed.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): afd.          Close asynchronous generators.
                                                       

Debugging
.........

*note loop.set_debug(): c4f.                           Enable or disable the debug mode.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_debug(): c50.                           Get the current debug mode.
                                                       

Scheduling Callbacks
....................

*note loop.call_soon(): 972.                           Invoke a callback soon.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 973.                A thread-safe variant of
                                                       *note loop.call_soon(): 972.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_later(): 974.                          Invoke a callback 'after' the given time.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_at(): 975.                             Invoke a callback 'at' the given time.
                                                       

Thread/Process Pool
...................

‘await’ *note loop.run_in_executor(): 73c.             Run a CPU-bound or other blocking function in a
                                                       *note concurrent.futures: 21. executor.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_default_executor(): 56f.                Set the default executor for
                                                       *note loop.run_in_executor(): 73c.
                                                       

Tasks and Futures
.................

*note loop.create_future(): af8.                       Create a *note Future: a44. object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.create_task(): 83b.                         Schedule coroutine as a *note Task: 20a.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_task_factory(): c53.                    Set a factory used by *note loop.create_task(): 83b.
                                                       to create *note Tasks: 20a.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_task_factory(): c54.                    Get the factory *note loop.create_task(): 83b. uses
                                                       to create *note Tasks: 20a.
                                                       

DNS
...

‘await’ *note loop.getaddrinfo(): a8d.                 Asynchronous version of
                                                       *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 156e.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.getnameinfo(): a8e.                 Asynchronous version of
                                                       *note socket.getnameinfo(): 153c.
                                                       

Networking and IPC
..................

‘await’ *note loop.create_connection(): 412.           Open a TCP connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_server(): 981.               Create a TCP server.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3003.     Open a Unix socket connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_server(): 982.          Create a Unix socket server.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): 989.     Wrap a *note socket: c2e. into a ‘(transport,
                                                       protocol)’ pair.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c.    Open a datagram (UDP) connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sendfile(): 309a.                   Send a file over a transport.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.start_tls(): 977.                   Upgrade an existing connection to TLS.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 304b.          Wrap a read end of a pipe into a ‘(transport,
                                                       protocol)’ pair.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 304c.         Wrap a write end of a pipe into a ‘(transport,
                                                       protocol)’ pair.
                                                       

Sockets
.......

‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv(): a8a.                   Receive data from the *note socket: c2e.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv_into(): 978.              Receive data from the *note socket: c2e. into a
                                                       buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom(): 415.               Receive a datagram from the *note socket: c2e.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom_into(): 416.          Receive a datagram from the *note socket: c2e. into
                                                       a buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendall(): a8b.                Send data to the *note socket: c2e.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendto(): 414.                 Send a datagram via the *note socket: c2e. to the
                                                       given address.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_connect(): c57.                Connect the *note socket: c2e.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_accept(): a8c.                 Accept a *note socket: c2e. connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendfile(): 97c.               Send a file over the *note socket: c2e.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_reader(): 301e.                         Start watching a file descriptor for read
                                                       availability.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_reader(): 309d.                      Stop watching a file descriptor for read
                                                       availability.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_writer(): 309e.                         Start watching a file descriptor for write
                                                       availability.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_writer(): 309f.                      Stop watching a file descriptor for write
                                                       availability.
                                                       

Unix Signals
............

*note loop.add_signal_handler(): 30a7.                 Add a handler for a *note signal: c5.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_signal_handler(): 30a8.              Remove a handler for a *note signal: c5.
                                                       

Subprocesses
............

*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048.                    Spawn a subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3049.                   Spawn a subprocess from a shell command.
                                                       

Error Handling
..............

*note loop.call_exception_handler(): 30ac.             Call the exception handler.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_exception_handler(): 30ab.              Set a new exception handler.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_exception_handler(): af9.               Get the current exception handler.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.default_exception_handler(): 30ad.          The default exception handler implementation.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.new_event_loop() and loop.run_forever(): 30b7.

   * *note Using loop.call_later(): 30b9.

   * Using ‘loop.create_connection()’ to implement *note an echo-client:
     3015.

   * Using ‘loop.create_connection()’ to *note connect a socket: 301c.

   * *note Using add_reader() to watch an FD for read events: 301d.

   * *note Using loop.add_signal_handler(): 30bc.

   * *note Using loop.subprocess_exec(): 3060.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports<2>,  Next: Protocols<2>,  Prev: Event Loop Methods<2>,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.18.1.126 Transports
.....................

All transports implement the following methods:

*note transport.close(): 3093.                         Close the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.is_closing(): af7.                     Return ‘True’ if the transport is closing or is
                                                       closed.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_extra_info(): 907.                 Request for information about the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_protocol(): 30d7.                  Set a new protocol.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_protocol(): 30d8.                  Return the current protocol.
                                                       

Transports that can receive data (TCP and Unix connections, pipes, etc).
Returned from methods like *note loop.create_connection(): 412, *note
loop.create_unix_connection(): 3003, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
304b, etc:

Read Transports
...............

*note transport.is_reading(): 98b.                     Return ‘True’ if the transport is receiving.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.pause_reading(): 98d.                  Pause receiving.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.resume_reading(): 98c.                 Resume receiving.
                                                       

Transports that can Send data (TCP and Unix connections, pipes, etc).
Returned from methods like *note loop.create_connection(): 412, *note
loop.create_unix_connection(): 3003, *note loop.connect_write_pipe():
304c, etc:

Write Transports
................

*note transport.write(): 30e2.                         Write data to the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.writelines(): 1408.                    Write buffers to the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.can_write_eof(): 30dc.                 Return *note True: a86. if the transport supports
                                                       sending EOF.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.write_eof(): 30dd.                     Close and send EOF after flushing buffered data.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 30db.                         Close the transport immediately.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_size(): 30de.         Return the current size of the output buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): c52.        Return high and low water marks for write flow
                                                       control.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_write_buffer_limits(): 30df.       Set new high and low water marks for write flow
                                                       control.
                                                       

Transports returned by *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 55c.:

Datagram Transports
...................

*note transport.sendto(): 30e4.                        Send data to the remote peer.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 30e5.                         Close the transport immediately.
                                                       

Low-level transport abstraction over subprocesses.  Returned by *note
loop.subprocess_exec(): 3048. and *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3049.:

Subprocess Transports
.....................

*note transport.get_pid(): 30e7.                       Return the subprocess process id.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_pipe_transport(): 30e8.            Return the transport for the requested communication
                                                       pipe ('stdin', 'stdout', or 'stderr').
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_returncode(): 30e9.                Return the subprocess return code.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.kill(): 30ea.                          Kill the subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.send_signal(): 30ec.                   Send a signal to the subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.terminate(): 30eb.                     Stop the subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.close(): 30ed.                         Kill the subprocess and close all pipes.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols<2>,  Next: Event Loop Policies,  Prev: Transports<2>,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.18.1.127 Protocols
....................

Protocol classes can implement the following 'callback methods':

‘callback’ *note connection_made(): 3091.              Called when a connection is made.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note connection_lost(): 30d3.              Called when the connection is lost or closed.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pause_writing(): 30e0.                Called when the transport’s buffer goes over the
                                                       high water mark.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note resume_writing(): 30e1.               Called when the transport’s buffer drains below the
                                                       low water mark.
                                                       

Streaming Protocols (TCP, Unix Sockets, Pipes)
..............................................

‘callback’ *note data_received(): 15ac.                Called when some data is received.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 30f1.                 Called when an EOF is received.
                                                       

Buffered Streaming Protocols
............................

‘callback’ *note get_buffer(): 30f3.                   Called to allocate a new receive buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note buffer_updated(): 30f4.               Called when the buffer was updated with the received
                                                       data.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 30f5.                 Called when an EOF is received.
                                                       

Datagram Protocols
..................

‘callback’ *note datagram_received(): 30f7.            Called when a datagram is received.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note error_received(): 30f8.               Called when a previous send or receive operation
                                                       raises an *note OSError: 65c.
                                                       

Subprocess Protocols
....................

‘callback’ *note pipe_data_received(): 15e6.           Called when the child process writes data into its
                                                       'stdout' or 'stderr' pipe.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pipe_connection_lost(): 30fa.         Called when one of the pipes communicating with the
                                                       child process is closed.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note process_exited(): 15e5.               Called when the child process has exited.  It can be
                                                       called before *note pipe_data_received(): 15e6. and
                                                       *note pipe_connection_lost(): 30fa. methods.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop Policies,  Prev: Protocols<2>,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.18.1.128 Event Loop Policies
..............................

Policies is a low-level mechanism to alter the behavior of functions
like *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 227.  See also the main *note
policies section: 307d. for more details.

Accessing Policies
..................

*note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 3109.           Return the current process-wide policy.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 310a.           Set a new process-wide policy.
                                                       
                                                       
*note AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 3107.                   Base class for policy objects.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Developing with asyncio,  Prev: Low-level API Index,  Up: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O

5.18.1.129 Developing with asyncio
..................................

Asynchronous programming is different from classic “sequential”
programming.

This page lists common mistakes and traps and explains how to avoid
them.

* Menu:

* Debug Mode::
* Concurrency and Multithreading::
* Running Blocking Code::
* Logging: Logging<2>.
* Detect never-awaited coroutines::
* Detect never-retrieved exceptions::


File: python.info,  Node: Debug Mode,  Next: Concurrency and Multithreading,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.18.1.130 Debug Mode
.....................

By default asyncio runs in production mode.  In order to ease the
development asyncio has a 'debug mode'.

There are several ways to enable asyncio debug mode:

   * Setting the *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1b95. environment variable to
     ‘1’.

   * Using the *note Python Development Mode: 71d.

   * Passing ‘debug=True’ to *note asyncio.run(): 19d.

   * Calling *note loop.set_debug(): c4f.

In addition to enabling the debug mode, consider also:

   * setting the log level of the *note asyncio logger: 313d. to *note
     logging.DEBUG: 1b3c, for example the following snippet of code can
     be run at startup of the application:

          logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

   * configuring the *note warnings: 112. module to display *note
     ResourceWarning: ab9. warnings.  One way of doing that is by using
     the *note -W: 71a. ‘default’ command line option.

When the debug mode is enabled:

   * asyncio checks for *note coroutines that were not awaited: 313e.
     and logs them; this mitigates the “forgotten await” pitfall.

   * Many non-threadsafe asyncio APIs (such as *note loop.call_soon():
     972. and *note loop.call_at(): 975. methods) raise an exception if
     they are called from a wrong thread.

   * The execution time of the I/O selector is logged if it takes too
     long to perform an I/O operation.

   * Callbacks taking longer than 100 milliseconds are logged.  The
     *note loop.slow_callback_duration: 30af. attribute can be used to
     set the minimum execution duration in seconds that is considered
     “slow”.


File: python.info,  Node: Concurrency and Multithreading,  Next: Running Blocking Code,  Prev: Debug Mode,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.18.1.131 Concurrency and Multithreading
.........................................

An event loop runs in a thread (typically the main thread) and executes
all callbacks and Tasks in its thread.  While a Task is running in the
event loop, no other Tasks can run in the same thread.  When a Task
executes an ‘await’ expression, the running Task gets suspended, and the
event loop executes the next Task.

To schedule a *note callback: 26ed. from another OS thread, the *note
loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 973. method should be used.  Example:

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args)

Almost all asyncio objects are not thread safe, which is typically not a
problem unless there is code that works with them from outside of a Task
or a callback.  If there’s a need for such code to call a low-level
asyncio API, the *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): 973. method should
be used, e.g.:

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(fut.cancel)

To schedule a coroutine object from a different OS thread, the *note
run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 6c8. function should be used.  It returns a
*note concurrent.futures.Future: 1057. to access the result:

     async def coro_func():
          return await asyncio.sleep(1, 42)

     # Later in another OS thread:

     future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro_func(), loop)
     # Wait for the result:
     result = future.result()

To handle signals the event loop must be run in the main thread.

The *note loop.run_in_executor(): 73c. method can be used with a *note
concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. to execute blocking code in
a different OS thread without blocking the OS thread that the event loop
runs in.

There is currently no way to schedule coroutines or callbacks directly
from a different process (such as one started with *note
multiprocessing: 93.).  The *note Event Loop Methods: 3083. section
lists APIs that can read from pipes and watch file descriptors without
blocking the event loop.  In addition, asyncio’s *note Subprocess: 2fc0.
APIs provide a way to start a process and communicate with it from the
event loop.  Lastly, the aforementioned *note loop.run_in_executor():
73c. method can also be used with a *note
concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. to execute code in a
different process.


File: python.info,  Node: Running Blocking Code,  Next: Logging<2>,  Prev: Concurrency and Multithreading,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.18.1.132 Running Blocking Code
................................

Blocking (CPU-bound) code should not be called directly.  For example,
if a function performs a CPU-intensive calculation for 1 second, all
concurrent asyncio Tasks and IO operations would be delayed by 1 second.

An executor can be used to run a task in a different thread or even in a
different process to avoid blocking the OS thread with the event loop.
See the *note loop.run_in_executor(): 73c. method for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging<2>,  Next: Detect never-awaited coroutines,  Prev: Running Blocking Code,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.18.1.133 Logging
..................

asyncio uses the *note logging: 86. module and all logging is performed
via the ‘"asyncio"’ logger.

The default log level is *note logging.INFO: 1b3d, which can be easily
adjusted:

     logging.getLogger("asyncio").setLevel(logging.WARNING)

Network logging can block the event loop.  It is recommended to use a
separate thread for handling logs or use non-blocking IO. For example,
see *note Dealing with handlers that block: 3143.


File: python.info,  Node: Detect never-awaited coroutines,  Next: Detect never-retrieved exceptions,  Prev: Logging<2>,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.18.1.134 Detect never-awaited coroutines
..........................................

When a coroutine function is called, but not awaited (e.g.  ‘coro()’
instead of ‘await coro()’) or the coroutine is not scheduled with *note
asyncio.create_task(): 40b, asyncio will emit a *note RuntimeWarning:
900.:

     import asyncio

     async def test():
         print("never scheduled")

     async def main():
         test()

     asyncio.run(main())

Output:

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
       test()

Output in debug mode:

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
     Coroutine created at (most recent call last)
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

       < .. >

       File "../t.py", line 7, in main
         test()
       test()

The usual fix is to either await the coroutine or call the *note
asyncio.create_task(): 40b. function:

     async def main():
         await test()


File: python.info,  Node: Detect never-retrieved exceptions,  Prev: Detect never-awaited coroutines,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.18.1.135 Detect never-retrieved exceptions
............................................

If a *note Future.set_exception(): 2ff2. is called but the Future object
is never awaited on, the exception would never be propagated to the user
code.  In this case, asyncio would emit a log message when the Future
object is garbage collected.

Example of an unhandled exception:

     import asyncio

     async def bug():
         raise Exception("not consumed")

     async def main():
         asyncio.create_task(bug())

     asyncio.run(main())

Output:

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
       exception=Exception('not consumed')>

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "test.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

*note Enable the debug mode: 1b96. to get the traceback where the task
was created:

     asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

Output in debug mode:

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
         exception=Exception('not consumed') created at asyncio/tasks.py:321>

     source_traceback: Object created at (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

     < .. >

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

     Not: Asyncio için kaynak kodu Lib/asyncio/(1) dizininde
     bulunabilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/


File: python.info,  Node: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Next: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Prev: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.2 ‘socket’ — Low-level networking interface
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/socket.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the BSD 'socket' interface.  It is
available on all modern Unix systems, Windows, MacOS, and probably
additional platforms.

     Not: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made
     to the operating system socket APIs.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix
system call and library interface for sockets to Python’s
object-oriented style: the *note socket(): c2e. function returns a
'socket object' whose methods implement the various socket system calls.
Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than in the C interface: as
with ‘read()’ and ‘write()’ operations on Python files, buffer
allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length is
implicit on send operations.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note socketserver: cc.

     Classes that simplify writing network servers.

Module *note ssl: cf.

     A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.

* Menu:

* Socket families::
* Module contents::
* Socket Objects::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* Example: Example<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/socket.py


File: python.info,  Node: Socket families,  Next: Module contents,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.18.2.1 Socket families
........................

Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families
are supported by this module.

The address format required by a particular socket object is
automatically selected based on the address family specified when the
socket object was created.  Socket addresses are represented as follows:

   - The address of an *note AF_UNIX: 1645. socket bound to a file
     system node is represented as a string, using the file system
     encoding and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler (see PEP
     383(1)).  An address in Linux’s abstract namespace is returned as a
     *note bytes-like object: bb5. with an initial null byte; note that
     sockets in this namespace can communicate with normal file system
     sockets, so programs intended to run on Linux may need to deal with
     both types of address.  A string or bytes-like object can be used
     for either type of address when passing it as an argument.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Previously, *note AF_UNIX: 1645. socket
     paths were assumed to use UTF-8 encoding.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     now accepted.

   - A pair ‘(host, port)’ is used for the *note AF_INET: 1643. address
     family, where 'host' is a string representing either a hostname in
     internet domain notation like ‘'daring.cwi.nl'’ or an IPv4 address
     like ‘'100.50.200.5'’, and 'port' is an integer.

        - For IPv4 addresses, two special forms are accepted instead of
          a host address: ‘''’ represents ‘INADDR_ANY’, which is used to
          bind to all interfaces, and the string ‘'<broadcast>'’
          represents ‘INADDR_BROADCAST’.  This behavior is not
          compatible with IPv6, therefore, you may want to avoid these
          if you intend to support IPv6 with your Python programs.

   - For *note AF_INET6: 1644. address family, a four-tuple ‘(host,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ is used, where 'flowinfo' and 'scope_id'
     represent the ‘sin6_flowinfo’ and ‘sin6_scope_id’ members in
     ‘struct sockaddr_in6’ in C. For *note socket: cb. module methods,
     'flowinfo' and 'scope_id' can be omitted just for backward
     compatibility.  Note, however, omission of 'scope_id' can cause
     problems in manipulating scoped IPv6 addresses.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: For multicast addresses (with 'scope_id'
     meaningful) 'address' may not contain ‘%scope_id’ (or ‘zone id’)
     part.  This information is superfluous and may be safely omitted
     (recommended).

   - ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets are represented as pairs ‘(pid, groups)’.

   - Linux-only support for TIPC is available using the ‘AF_TIPC’
     address family.  TIPC is an open, non-IP based networked protocol
     designed for use in clustered computer environments.  Addresses are
     represented by a tuple, and the fields depend on the address type.
     The general tuple form is ‘(addr_type, v1, v2, v3 [, scope])’,
     where:

        - 'addr_type' is one of ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’,
          or ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’.

        - 'scope' is one of ‘TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE’, ‘TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE’, and
          ‘TIPC_NODE_SCOPE’.

        - If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the port identifier, and 'v3' should be 0.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the lower port number, and 'v3' is the upper
          port number.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’, then 'v1' is the node, 'v2'
          is the reference, and 'v3' should be set to 0.

   - A tuple ‘(interface, )’ is used for the *note AF_CAN: 314a. address
     family, where 'interface' is a string representing a network
     interface name like ‘'can0'’.  The network interface name ‘''’ can
     be used to receive packets from all network interfaces of this
     family.

        - *note CAN_ISOTP: 314b. protocol require a tuple ‘(interface,
          rx_addr, tx_addr)’ where both additional parameters are
          unsigned long integer that represent a CAN identifier
          (standard or extended).

        - *note CAN_J1939: 78b. protocol require a tuple ‘(interface,
          name, pgn, addr)’ where additional parameters are 64-bit
          unsigned integer representing the ECU name, a 32-bit unsigned
          integer representing the Parameter Group Number (PGN), and an
          8-bit integer representing the address.

   - A string or a tuple ‘(id, unit)’ is used for the ‘SYSPROTO_CONTROL’
     protocol of the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ family.  The string is the name of a
     kernel control using a dynamically assigned ID. The tuple can be
     used if ID and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a
     registered ID is used.

     Added in version 3.3.

   - ‘AF_BLUETOOTH’ supports the following protocols and address
     formats:

        - ‘BTPROTO_L2CAP’ accepts ‘(bdaddr, psm)’ where ‘bdaddr’ is the
          Bluetooth address as a string and ‘psm’ is an integer.

        - ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’ accepts ‘(bdaddr, channel)’ where ‘bdaddr’ is
          the Bluetooth address as a string and ‘channel’ is an integer.

        - ‘BTPROTO_HCI’ accepts ‘(device_id,)’ where ‘device_id’ is
          either an integer or a string with the Bluetooth address of
          the interface.  (This depends on your OS; NetBSD and
          DragonFlyBSD expect a Bluetooth address while everything else
          expects an integer.)

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD support added.

        - ‘BTPROTO_SCO’ accepts ‘bdaddr’ where ‘bdaddr’ is a *note
          bytes: 2cb. object containing the Bluetooth address in a
          string format.  (ex.  ‘b'12:23:34:45:56:67'’) This protocol is
          not supported under FreeBSD.

   - *note AF_ALG: b5a. is a Linux-only socket based interface to Kernel
     cryptography.  An algorithm socket is configured with a tuple of
     two to four elements ‘(type, name [, feat [, mask]])’, where:

        - 'type' is the algorithm type as string, e.g.  ‘aead’, ‘hash’,
          ‘skcipher’ or ‘rng’.

        - 'name' is the algorithm name and operation mode as string,
          e.g.  ‘sha256’, ‘hmac(sha256)’, ‘cbc(aes)’ or
          ‘drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256’.

        - 'feat' and 'mask' are unsigned 32bit integers.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.

     Added in version 3.6.

   - *note AF_VSOCK: 9eb. allows communication between virtual machines
     and their hosts.  The sockets are represented as a ‘(CID, port)’
     tuple where the context ID or CID and port are integers.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.9

     See ‘vsock(7)(2)’

     Added in version 3.7.

   - *note AF_PACKET: 314c. is a low-level interface directly to network
     devices.  The addresses are represented by the tuple ‘(ifname,
     proto[, pkttype[, hatype[, addr]]])’ where:

        - 'ifname' - String specifying the device name.

        - 'proto' - The Ethernet protocol number.  May be *note
          ETH_P_ALL: 15c7. to capture all protocols, one of the *note
          ETHERTYPE_* constants: 15c8. or any other Ethernet protocol
          number.

        - 'pkttype' - Optional integer specifying the packet type:

             - ‘PACKET_HOST’ (the default) - Packet addressed to the
               local host.

             - ‘PACKET_BROADCAST’ - Physical-layer broadcast packet.

             - ‘PACKET_MULTICAST’ - Packet sent to a physical-layer
               multicast address.

             - ‘PACKET_OTHERHOST’ - Packet to some other host that has
               been caught by a device driver in promiscuous mode.

             - ‘PACKET_OUTGOING’ - Packet originating from the local
               host that is looped back to a packet socket.

        - 'hatype' - Optional integer specifying the ARP hardware
          address type.

        - 'addr' - Optional bytes-like object specifying the hardware
          physical address, whose interpretation depends on the device.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.2.

   - *note AF_QIPCRTR: 314d. is a Linux-only socket based interface for
     communicating with services running on co-processors in Qualcomm
     platforms.  The address family is represented as a ‘(node, port)’
     tuple where the 'node' and 'port' are non-negative integers.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.8.

   - ‘IPPROTO_UDPLITE’ is a variant of UDP which allows you to specify
     what portion of a packet is covered with the checksum.  It adds two
     socket options that you can change.
     ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV, length)’ will
     change what portion of outgoing packets are covered by the checksum
     and ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV, length)’
     will filter out packets which cover too little of their data.  In
     both cases ‘length’ should be in ‘range(8, 2**16, 8)’.

     Such a socket should be constructed with ‘socket(AF_INET,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv4 or ‘socket(AF_INET6,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv6.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.20, FreeBSD >= 10.1

     Added in version 3.9.

   - *note AF_HYPERV: 314e. is a Windows-only socket based interface for
     communicating with Hyper-V hosts and guests.  The address family is
     represented as a ‘(vm_id, service_id)’ tuple where the ‘vm_id’ and
     ‘service_id’ are UUID strings.

     The ‘vm_id’ is the virtual machine identifier or a set of known
     VMID values if the target is not a specific virtual machine.  Known
     VMID constants defined on ‘socket’ are:

        - ‘HV_GUID_ZERO’

        - ‘HV_GUID_BROADCAST’

        - ‘HV_GUID_WILDCARD’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connections from all partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_CHILDREN’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connection from child partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_LOOPBACK’ - Used as a target to itself.

        - ‘HV_GUID_PARENT’ - When used as a bind accepts connection from
          the parent partition.  When used as an address target it will
          connect to the parent partition.

     The ‘service_id’ is the service identifier of the registered
     service.

     Added in version 3.12.

If you use a hostname in the 'host' portion of IPv4/v6 socket address,
the program may show a nondeterministic behavior, as Python uses the
first address returned from the DNS resolution.  The socket address will
be resolved differently into an actual IPv4/v6 address, depending on the
results from DNS resolution and/or the host configuration.  For
deterministic behavior use a numeric address in 'host' portion.

All errors raise exceptions.  The normal exceptions for invalid argument
types and out-of-memory conditions can be raised.  Errors related to
socket or address semantics raise *note OSError: 65c. or one of its
subclasses.

Non-blocking mode is supported through *note setblocking(): 2916.  A
generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through *note
settimeout(): 314f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsock(7)


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents,  Next: Socket Objects,  Prev: Socket families,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.18.2.2 Module contents
........................

The module *note socket: cb. exports the following elements.

* Menu:

* Exceptions: Exceptions<12>.
* Constants: Constants<6>.
* Functions: Functions<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<12>,  Next: Constants<6>,  Up: Module contents

5.18.2.3 Exceptions
...................

 -- Özel Durum: socket.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 65c.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made
     an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Özel Durum: socket.herror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 65c, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors, i.e.  for functions that use 'h_errno' in
     the POSIX C API, including *note gethostbyname_ex(): 16f8. and
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 16f7.  The accompanying value is a pair
     ‘(h_errno, string)’ representing an error returned by a library
     call.  'h_errno' is a numeric value, while 'string' represents the
     description of 'h_errno', as returned by the ‘hstrerror()’ C
     function.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This class was made a subclass of *note
     OSError: 65c.

 -- Özel Durum: socket.gaierror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 65c, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors by *note getaddrinfo(): 156e. and *note
     getnameinfo(): 153c.  The accompanying value is a pair ‘(error,
     string)’ representing an error returned by a library call.
     'string' represents the description of 'error', as returned by the
     ‘gai_strerror()’ C function.  The numeric 'error' value will match
     one of the ‘EAI_*’ constants defined in this module.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This class was made a subclass of *note
     OSError: 65c.

 -- Özel Durum: socket.timeout

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: 673.

     A subclass of *note OSError: 65c, this exception is raised when a
     timeout occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a
     prior call to *note settimeout(): 314f. (or implicitly through
     *note setdefaulttimeout(): 3153.).  The accompanying value is a
     string whose value is currently always “timed out”.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This class was made a subclass of *note
     OSError: 65c.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This class was made an alias of *note
     TimeoutError: 673.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<6>,  Next: Functions<6>,  Prev: Exceptions<12>,  Up: Module contents

5.18.2.4 Constants
..................

     The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now ‘AddressFamily’ and
     ‘SocketKind’ *note IntEnum: b62. collections.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_UNIX
 -- Verisi: socket.AF_INET
 -- Verisi: socket.AF_INET6

     These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used
     for the first argument to *note socket(): c2e.  If the *note
     AF_UNIX: 1645. constant is not defined then this protocol is
     unsupported.  More constants may be available depending on the
     system.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_UNSPEC

     *note AF_UNSPEC: 3098. means that *note getaddrinfo(): 156e. should
     return socket addresses for any address family (either IPv4, IPv6,
     or any other) that can be used.

 -- Verisi: socket.SOCK_STREAM
 -- Verisi: socket.SOCK_DGRAM
 -- Verisi: socket.SOCK_RAW
 -- Verisi: socket.SOCK_RDM
 -- Verisi: socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET

     These constants represent the socket types, used for the second
     argument to *note socket(): c2e.  More constants may be available
     depending on the system.  (Only *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d. and *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 119c. appear to be generally useful.)

 -- Verisi: socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC
 -- Verisi: socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK

     These two constants, if defined, can be combined with the socket
     types and allow you to set some flags atomically (thus avoiding
     possible race conditions and the need for separate calls).

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     Secure File Descriptor Handling(1) for a more thorough explanation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.27.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: SO_*
 -- Verisi: socket.SOMAXCONN

 -- Verisi: MSG_*

 -- Verisi: SOL_*

 -- Verisi: SCM_*

 -- Verisi: IPPROTO_*

 -- Verisi: IPPORT_*

 -- Verisi: INADDR_*

 -- Verisi: IP_*

 -- Verisi: IPV6_*

 -- Verisi: EAI_*

 -- Verisi: AI_*

 -- Verisi: NI_*

 -- Verisi: TCP_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation
     on sockets and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket
     module.  They are generally used in arguments to the *note
     setsockopt(): b59. and *note getsockopt(): b58. methods of socket
     objects.  In most cases, only those symbols that are defined in the
     Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values
     are provided.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’, ‘SO_PEERSEC’,
     ‘SO_PASSSEC’, ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’, ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added.

     3.6.5 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN’, ‘TCP_KEEPCNT’
     appear if run-time Windows supports.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: ‘TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ was added.

     On Windows, ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’, ‘TCP_KEEPINTVL’ appear if run-time
     Windows supports.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘IP_RECVTOS’ was added.  Added
     ‘TCP_KEEPALIVE’.  On MacOS this constant can be used in the same
     way that ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’ is used on Linux.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’.  On MacOS this
     constant can be used in the same way that ‘TCP_INFO’ is used on
     Linux and BSD.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’.  On
     OpenBSD and FreeBSD respectively those constants can be used in the
     same way that ‘SO_MARK’ is used on Linux.  Also added missing TCP
     socket options from Linux: ‘TCP_MD5SIG’,
     ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’, ‘TCP_REPAIR’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’,
     ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’, ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’,
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.  Added
     ‘IP_PKTINFO’, ‘IP_UNBLOCK_SOURCE’, ‘IP_BLOCK_SOURCE’,
     ‘IP_ADD_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’, ‘IP_DROP_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_CAN
 -- Verisi: socket.PF_CAN

 -- Verisi: SOL_CAN_*

 -- Verisi: CAN_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.25, NetBSD >= 8.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: NetBSD support was added.

 -- Verisi: socket.CAN_BCM

 -- Verisi: CAN_BCM_*

     CAN_BCM, in the CAN protocol family, is the broadcast manager (BCM)
     protocol.  Broadcast manager constants, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

          Not: The ‘CAN_BCM_CAN_FD_FRAME’ flag is only available on
          Linux >= 4.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES

     Enables CAN FD support in a CAN_RAW socket.  This is disabled by
     default.  This allows your application to send both CAN and CAN FD
     frames; however, you must accept both CAN and CAN FD frames when
     reading from the socket.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.6.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: socket.CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS

     Joins the applied CAN filters such that only CAN frames that match
     all given CAN filters are passed to user space.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Verisi: socket.CAN_ISOTP

     CAN_ISOTP, in the CAN protocol family, is the ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2)
     protocol.  ISO-TP constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: socket.CAN_J1939

     CAN_J1939, in the CAN protocol family, is the SAE J1939 protocol.
     J1939 constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 5.4.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_DIVERT
 -- Verisi: socket.PF_DIVERT

     These two constants, documented in the FreeBSD divert(4) manual
     page, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD >= 14.0.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_PACKET
 -- Verisi: socket.PF_PACKET

 -- Verisi: PACKET_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.2.

 -- Verisi: socket.ETH_P_ALL

     ‘ETH_P_ALL’ can be used in the *note socket: c2e. constructor as
     'proto' for the *note AF_PACKET: 314c. family in order to capture
     every packet, regardless of protocol.

     For more information, see the ‘packet(7)(2)’ manpage.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_RDS
 -- Verisi: socket.PF_RDS
 -- Verisi: socket.SOL_RDS

 -- Verisi: RDS_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.30.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: socket.SIO_RCVALL
 -- Verisi: socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS
 -- Verisi: socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH

 -- Verisi: RCVALL_*

     Constants for Windows’ WSAIoctl().  The constants are used as
     arguments to the *note ioctl(): b56. method of socket objects.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’ was added.

 -- Verisi: TIPC_*

     TIPC related constants, matching the ones exported by the C socket
     API. See the TIPC documentation for more information.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_ALG
 -- Verisi: socket.SOL_ALG

 -- Verisi: ALG_*

     Constants for Linux Kernel cryptography.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_VSOCK
 -- Verisi: socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID

 -- Verisi: VMADDR*

 -- Verisi: SO_VM*

     Constants for Linux host/guest communication.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.8.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_LINK

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: BSD, macOS.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: socket.has_ipv6

     This constant contains a boolean value which indicates if IPv6 is
     supported on this platform.

 -- Verisi: socket.BDADDR_ANY
 -- Verisi: socket.BDADDR_LOCAL

     These are string constants containing Bluetooth addresses with
     special meanings.  For example, *note BDADDR_ANY: 3164. can be used
     to indicate any address when specifying the binding socket with
     ‘BTPROTO_RFCOMM’.

 -- Verisi: socket.HCI_FILTER
 -- Verisi: socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP
 -- Verisi: socket.HCI_DATA_DIR

     For use with ‘BTPROTO_HCI’.  *note HCI_FILTER: 3166. is not
     available for NetBSD or DragonFlyBSD. *note HCI_TIME_STAMP: 3167.
     and *note HCI_DATA_DIR: 3168. are not available for FreeBSD,
     NetBSD, or DragonFlyBSD.

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_QIPCRTR

     Constant for Qualcomm’s IPC router protocol, used to communicate
     with service providing remote processors.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 4.7.

 -- Verisi: socket.SCM_CREDS2
 -- Verisi: socket.LOCAL_CREDS
 -- Verisi: socket.LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT

     LOCAL_CREDS and LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT can be used with SOCK_DGRAM,
     SOCK_STREAM sockets, equivalent to Linux/DragonFlyBSD SO_PASSCRED,
     while LOCAL_CREDS sends the credentials at first read,
     LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT sends for each read, SCM_CREDS2 must be then
     used for the latter for the message type.

     Added in version 3.11.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD.

 -- Verisi: socket.SO_INCOMING_CPU

          Constant to optimize CPU locality, to be used in conjunction
          with ‘SO_REUSEPORT’.

     Added in version 3.11.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 3.9

 -- Verisi: socket.AF_HYPERV
 -- Verisi: socket.HV_PROTOCOL_RAW
 -- Verisi: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
 -- Verisi: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX
 -- Verisi: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND
 -- Verisi: socket.HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU
 -- Verisi: socket.HV_GUID_ZERO
 -- Verisi: socket.HV_GUID_WILDCARD
 -- Verisi: socket.HV_GUID_BROADCAST
 -- Verisi: socket.HV_GUID_CHILDREN
 -- Verisi: socket.HV_GUID_LOOPBACK
 -- Verisi: socket.HV_GUID_PARENT

     Constants for Windows Hyper-V sockets for host/guest
     communications.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: socket.ETHERTYPE_ARP
 -- Verisi: socket.ETHERTYPE_IP
 -- Verisi: socket.ETHERTYPE_IPV6
 -- Verisi: socket.ETHERTYPE_VLAN

     IEEE 802.3 protocol number(3).  constants.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux, FreeBSD, macOS.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: socket.SHUT_RD
 -- Verisi: socket.SHUT_WR
 -- Verisi: socket.SHUT_RDWR

     These constants are used by the *note shutdown(): 317f. method of
     socket objects.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/packet(7)

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/ieee-802-numbers/ieee-802-numbers.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<6>,  Prev: Constants<6>,  Up: Module contents

5.18.2.5 Functions
..................

* Menu:

* Creating sockets::
* Other functions: Other functions<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating sockets,  Next: Other functions<2>,  Up: Functions<6>

5.18.2.6 Creating sockets
.........................

The following functions all create *note socket objects: 3182.

 -- Sınıfı: socket.socket (family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0,
          fileno=None)

     Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and
     protocol number.  The address family should be *note AF_INET: 1643.
     (the default), *note AF_INET6: 1644, *note AF_UNIX: 1645, *note
     AF_CAN: 314a, *note AF_PACKET: 314c, or *note AF_RDS: 315c.  The
     socket type should be *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d. (the default), *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 119c, *note SOCK_RAW: 3155. or perhaps one of the other
     ‘SOCK_’ constants.  The protocol number is usually zero and may be
     omitted or in the case where the address family is *note AF_CAN:
     314a. the protocol should be one of ‘CAN_RAW’, *note CAN_BCM: e43,
     *note CAN_ISOTP: 314b. or *note CAN_J1939: 78b.

     If 'fileno' is specified, the values for 'family', 'type', and
     'proto' are auto-detected from the specified file descriptor.
     Auto-detection can be overruled by calling the function with
     explicit 'family', 'type', or 'proto' arguments.  This only affects
     how Python represents e.g.  the return value of *note
     socket.getpeername(): 30d4. but not the actual OS resource.  Unlike
     *note socket.fromfd(): 3183, 'fileno' will return the same socket
     and not a duplicate.  This may help close a detached socket using
     *note socket.close(): 9e9.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.__new__’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The AF_CAN family was added.  The AF_RDS
     family was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The CAN_BCM protocol was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: When *note SOCK_NONBLOCK: a83. or *note
     SOCK_CLOEXEC: a84. bit flags are applied to 'type' they are
     cleared, and *note socket.type: a85. will not reflect them.  They
     are still passed to the underlying system ‘socket()’ call.
     Therefore,

          sock = socket.socket(
              socket.AF_INET,
              socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)

     will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
     ‘SOCK_NONBLOCK’, but ‘sock.type’ will be set to
     ‘socket.SOCK_STREAM’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The CAN_J1939 protocol was added.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The IPPROTO_MPTCP protocol was added.

 -- Işlevi: socket.socketpair ([family[, type[, proto]]])

     Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address
     family, socket type, and protocol number.  Address family, socket
     type, and protocol number are as for the *note socket(): c2e.
     function above.  The default family is *note AF_UNIX: 1645. if
     defined on the platform; otherwise, the default is *note AF_INET:
     1643.

     The newly created sockets are *note non-inheritable: d90.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The returned socket objects now support the
     whole socket API, rather than a subset.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The returned sockets are now
     non-inheritable.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Windows support added.

 -- Işlevi: socket.create_connection (address, timeout=GLOBAL_DEFAULT,
          source_address=None, *, all_errors=False)

     Connect to a TCP service listening on the internet 'address' (a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’), and return the socket object.  This is a
     higher-level function than *note socket.connect(): c30.: if 'host'
     is a non-numeric hostname, it will try to resolve it for both *note
     AF_INET: 1643. and *note AF_INET6: 1644, and then try to connect to
     all possible addresses in turn until a connection succeeds.  This
     makes it easy to write clients that are compatible to both IPv4 and
     IPv6.

     Passing the optional 'timeout' parameter will set the timeout on
     the socket instance before attempting to connect.  If no 'timeout'
     is supplied, the global default timeout setting returned by *note
     getdefaulttimeout(): 3184. is used.

     If supplied, 'source_address' must be a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for
     the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.  If
     host or port are ‘’ or 0 respectively the OS default behavior will
     be used.

     When a connection cannot be created, an exception is raised.  By
     default, it is the exception from the last address in the list.  If
     'all_errors' is ‘True’, it is an *note ExceptionGroup: 181.
     containing the errors of all attempts.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'source_address' was added.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'all_errors' was added.

 -- Işlevi: socket.create_server (address, *, family=AF_INET,
          backlog=None, reuse_port=False, dualstack_ipv6=False)

     Convenience function which creates a TCP socket bound to 'address'
     (a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’) and returns the socket object.

     'family' should be either *note AF_INET: 1643. or *note AF_INET6:
     1644.  'backlog' is the queue size passed to *note socket.listen():
     cf2.; if not specified , a default reasonable value is chosen.
     'reuse_port' dictates whether to set the ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ socket
     option.

     If 'dualstack_ipv6' is true, 'family' is *note AF_INET6: 1644. and
     the platform supports it the socket will be able to accept both
     IPv4 and IPv6 connections, else it will raise *note ValueError:
     189.  Most POSIX platforms and Windows are supposed to support this
     functionality.  When this functionality is enabled the address
     returned by *note socket.getpeername(): 30d4. when an IPv4
     connection occurs will be an IPv6 address represented as an
     IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  If 'dualstack_ipv6' is false it will
     explicitly disable this functionality on platforms that enable it
     by default (e.g.  Linux).  This parameter can be used in
     conjunction with *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): 88e.:

          import socket

          addr = ("", 8080)  # all interfaces, port 8080
          if socket.has_dualstack_ipv6():
              s = socket.create_server(addr, family=socket.AF_INET6, dualstack_ipv6=True)
          else:
              s = socket.create_server(addr)

          Not: On POSIX platforms the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ socket option is
          set in order to immediately reuse previous sockets which were
          bound on the same 'address' and remained in TIME_WAIT state.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: socket.has_dualstack_ipv6 ()

     Return ‘True’ if the platform supports creating a TCP socket which
     can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 connections.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: socket.fromfd (fd, family, type, proto=0)

     Duplicate the file descriptor 'fd' (an integer as returned by a
     file object’s *note fileno(): 2629. method) and build a socket
     object from the result.  Address family, socket type and protocol
     number are as for the *note socket(): c2e. function above.  The
     file descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked —
     subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file descriptor
     is invalid.  This function is rarely needed, but can be used to get
     or set socket options on a socket passed to a program as standard
     input or output (such as a server started by the Unix inet daemon).
     The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

 -- Işlevi: socket.fromshare (data)

     Instantiate a socket from data obtained from the *note
     socket.share(): a81. method.  The socket is assumed to be in
     blocking mode.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: socket.SocketType

     This is a Python type object that represents the socket object
     type.  It is the same as ‘type(socket(...))’.


File: python.info,  Node: Other functions<2>,  Prev: Creating sockets,  Up: Functions<6>

5.18.2.7 Other functions
........................

The *note socket: cb. module also offers various network-related
services:

 -- Işlevi: socket.close (fd)

     Close a socket file descriptor.  This is like *note os.close():
     9ea, but for sockets.  On some platforms (most noticeable Windows)
     *note os.close(): 9ea. does not work for socket file descriptors.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: socket.getaddrinfo (host, port, family=AF_UNSPEC, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     This function wraps the C function ‘getaddrinfo’ of the underlying
     system.

     Translate the 'host'/'port' argument into a sequence of 5-tuples
     that contain all the necessary arguments for creating a socket
     connected to that service.  'host' is a domain name, a string
     representation of an IPv4/v6 address or ‘None’.  'port' is a string
     service name such as ‘'http'’, a numeric port number or ‘None’.  By
     passing ‘None’ as the value of 'host' and 'port', you can pass
     ‘NULL’ to the underlying C API.

     The 'family', 'type' and 'proto' arguments can be optionally
     specified in order to provide options and limit the list of
     addresses returned.  Pass their default values (*note AF_UNSPEC:
     3098, 0, and 0, respectively) to not limit the results.  See the
     note below for details.

     The 'flags' argument can be one or several of the ‘AI_*’ constants,
     and will influence how results are computed and returned.  For
     example, ‘AI_NUMERICHOST’ will disable domain name resolution and
     will raise an error if 'host' is a domain name.

     The function returns a list of 5-tuples with the following
     structure:

     ‘(family, type, proto, canonname, sockaddr)’

     In these tuples, 'family', 'type', 'proto' are all integers and are
     meant to be passed to the *note socket(): c2e. function.
     'canonname' will be a string representing the canonical name of the
     'host' if ‘AI_CANONNAME’ is part of the 'flags' argument; else
     'canonname' will be empty.  'sockaddr' is a tuple describing a
     socket address, whose format depends on the returned 'family' (a
     ‘(address, port)’ 2-tuple for *note AF_INET: 1643, a ‘(address,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ 4-tuple for *note AF_INET6: 1644.), and
     is meant to be passed to the *note socket.connect(): c30. method.

          Not: If you intend to use results from ‘getaddrinfo()’ to
          create a socket (rather than, for example, retrieve
          'canonname'), consider limiting the results by 'type' (e.g.
          *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d. or *note SOCK_DGRAM: 119c.) and/or
          'proto' (e.g.  ‘IPPROTO_TCP’ or ‘IPPROTO_UDP’) that your
          application can handle.

          The behavior with default values of 'family', 'type', 'proto'
          and 'flags' is system-specific.

          Many systems (for example, most Linux configurations) will
          return a sorted list of all matching addresses.  These
          addresses should generally be tried in order until a
          connection succeeds (possibly tried in parallel, for example,
          using a Happy Eyeballs(1) algorithm).  In these cases,
          limiting the 'type' and/or 'proto' can help eliminate
          unsuccessful or unusable connection attempts.

          Some systems will, however, only return a single address.
          (For example, this was reported on Solaris and AIX
          configurations.)  On these systems, limiting the 'type' and/or
          'proto' helps ensure that this address is usable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.getaddrinfo’ with
     arguments ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’.

     The following example fetches address information for a
     hypothetical TCP connection to ‘example.org’ on port 80 (results
     may differ on your system if IPv6 isn’t enabled):

          >>> socket.getaddrinfo("example.org", 80, proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP)
          [(socket.AF_INET6, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946', 80, 0, 0)),
           (socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('93.184.216.34', 80))]

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: parameters can now be passed using keyword
     arguments.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: for IPv6 multicast addresses, string
     representing an address will not contain ‘%scope_id’ part.

 -- Işlevi: socket.getfqdn ([name])

     Return a fully qualified domain name for 'name'.  If 'name' is
     omitted or empty, it is interpreted as the local host.  To find the
     fully qualified name, the hostname returned by *note
     gethostbyaddr(): 16f7. is checked, followed by aliases for the
     host, if available.  The first name which includes a period is
     selected.  In case no fully qualified domain name is available and
     'name' was provided, it is returned unchanged.  If 'name' was empty
     or equal to ‘'0.0.0.0'’, the hostname from *note gethostname():
     28ff. is returned.

 -- Işlevi: socket.gethostbyname (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format.  The IPv4 address is
     returned as a string, such as ‘'100.50.200.5'’.  If the host name
     is an IPv4 address itself it is returned unchanged.  See *note
     gethostbyname_ex(): 16f8. for a more complete interface.  *note
     gethostbyname(): 3187. does not support IPv6 name resolution, and
     *note getaddrinfo(): 156e. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
     stack support.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.gethostbyname’ with
     argument ‘hostname’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.gethostbyname_ex (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface.
     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the host’s primary host name, 'aliaslist' is a
     (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same
     address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of IPv4 addresses for the same
     interface on the same host (often but not always a single address).
     *note gethostbyname_ex(): 16f8. does not support IPv6 name
     resolution, and *note getaddrinfo(): 156e. should be used instead
     for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.gethostbyname’ with
     argument ‘hostname’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.gethostname ()

     Return a string containing the hostname of the machine where the
     Python interpreter is currently executing.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.gethostname’ with no
     arguments.

     Note: *note gethostname(): 28ff. doesn’t always return the fully
     qualified domain name; use *note getfqdn(): 159a. for that.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.gethostbyaddr (ip_address)

     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the primary host name responding to the given
     'ip_address', 'aliaslist' is a (possibly empty) list of alternative
     host names for the same address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of
     IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same host (most
     likely containing only a single address).  To find the fully
     qualified domain name, use the function *note getfqdn(): 159a.
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 16f7. supports both IPv4 and IPv6.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.gethostbyaddr’ with
     argument ‘ip_address’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags)

     Translate a socket address 'sockaddr' into a 2-tuple ‘(host,
     port)’.  Depending on the settings of 'flags', the result can
     contain a fully qualified domain name or numeric address
     representation in 'host'.  Similarly, 'port' can contain a string
     port name or a numeric port number.

     For IPv6 addresses, ‘%scope_id’ is appended to the host part if
     'sockaddr' contains meaningful 'scope_id'.  Usually this happens
     for multicast addresses.

     For more information about 'flags' you can consult
     ‘getnameinfo(3)(2)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.getnameinfo’ with
     argument ‘sockaddr’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.getprotobyname (protocolname)

     Translate an internet protocol name (for example, ‘'icmp'’) to a
     constant suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to
     the *note socket(): c2e. function.  This is usually only needed for
     sockets opened in “raw” mode (*note SOCK_RAW: 3155.); for the
     normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen automatically
     if the protocol is omitted or zero.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.getservbyname (servicename[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet service name and protocol name to a port
     number for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.getservbyname’ with
     arguments ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.getservbyport (port[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet port number and protocol name to a service
     name for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.getservbyport’ with
     arguments ‘port’, ‘protocolname’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Işlevi: socket.ntohl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- Işlevi: socket.ntohs (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note OverflowError: 6c7. if 'x'
     does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- Işlevi: socket.htonl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- Işlevi: socket.htons (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note OverflowError: 6c7. if 'x'
     does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- Işlevi: socket.inet_aton (ip_string)

     Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for
     example, ‘123.45.67.89’) to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes
     object four characters in length.  This is useful when conversing
     with a program that uses the standard C library and needs objects
     of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary
     this function returns.

     *note inet_aton(): 7bc. also accepts strings with less than three
     dots; see the Unix manual page ‘inet(3)(3)’ for details.

     If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid,
     *note OSError: 65c. will be raised.  Note that exactly what is
     valid depends on the underlying C implementation of ‘inet_aton()’.

     *note inet_aton(): 7bc. does not support IPv6, and *note
     inet_pton(): 7bd. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack
     support.

 -- Işlevi: socket.inet_ntoa (packed_ip)

     Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a *note bytes-like object:
     bb5. four bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string
     representation (for example, ‘123.45.67.89’).  This is useful when
     conversing with a program that uses the standard C library and
     needs objects of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit
     packed binary data this function takes as an argument.

     If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes
     in length, *note OSError: 65c. will be raised.  *note inet_ntoa():
     318d. does not support IPv6, and *note inet_ntop(): e45. should be
     used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     now accepted.

 -- Işlevi: socket.inet_pton (address_family, ip_string)

     Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a
     packed, binary format.  *note inet_pton(): 7bd. is useful when a
     library or network protocol calls for an object of type ‘in_addr’
     (similar to *note inet_aton(): 7bc.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     1643. and *note AF_INET6: 1644.  If the IP address string
     'ip_string' is invalid, *note OSError: 65c. will be raised.  Note
     that exactly what is valid depends on both the value of
     'address_family' and the underlying implementation of
     ‘inet_pton()’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Windows support added

 -- Işlevi: socket.inet_ntop (address_family, packed_ip)

     Convert a packed IP address (a *note bytes-like object: bb5. of
     some number of bytes) to its standard, family-specific string
     representation (for example, ‘'7.10.0.5'’ or ‘'5aef:2b::8'’).
     *note inet_ntop(): e45. is useful when a library or network
     protocol returns an object of type ‘in_addr’ (similar to *note
     inet_ntoa(): 318d.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     1643. and *note AF_INET6: 1644.  If the bytes object 'packed_ip' is
     not the correct length for the specified address family, *note
     ValueError: 189. will be raised.  *note OSError: 65c. is raised for
     errors from the call to *note inet_ntop(): e45.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Windows support added

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     now accepted.

 -- Işlevi: socket.CMSG_LEN (length)

     Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary
     data item with associated data of the given 'length'.  This value
     can often be used as the buffer size for *note recvmsg(): c33. to
     receive a single item of ancillary data, but RFC 3542(4) requires
     portable applications to use *note CMSG_SPACE(): 1871. and thus
     include space for padding, even when the item will be the last in
     the buffer.  Raises *note OverflowError: 6c7. if 'length' is
     outside the permissible range of values.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: socket.CMSG_SPACE (length)

     Return the buffer size needed for *note recvmsg(): c33. to receive
     an ancillary data item with associated data of the given 'length',
     along with any trailing padding.  The buffer space needed to
     receive multiple items is the sum of the *note CMSG_SPACE(): 1871.
     values for their associated data lengths.  Raises *note
     OverflowError: 6c7. if 'length' is outside the permissible range of
     values.

     Note that some systems might support ancillary data without
     providing this function.  Also note that setting the buffer size
     using the results of this function may not precisely limit the
     amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional
     data may be able to fit into the padding area.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: socket.getdefaulttimeout ()

     Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket
     objects.  A value of ‘None’ indicates that new socket objects have
     no timeout.  When the socket module is first imported, the default
     is ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: socket.setdefaulttimeout (timeout)

     Set the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket objects.
     When the socket module is first imported, the default is ‘None’.
     See *note settimeout(): 314f. for possible values and their
     respective meanings.

 -- Işlevi: socket.sethostname (name)

     Set the machine’s hostname to 'name'.  This will raise an *note
     OSError: 65c. if you don’t have enough rights.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.sethostname’ with
     argument ‘name’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: socket.if_nameindex ()

     Return a list of network interface information (index int, name
     string) tuples.  *note OSError: 65c. if the system call fails.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Windows support was added.

          Not: On Windows network interfaces have different names in
          different contexts (all names are examples):

             * UUID: ‘{FB605B73-AAC2-49A6-9A2F-25416AEA0573}’

             * name: ‘ethernet_32770’

             * friendly name: ‘vEthernet (nat)’

             * description: ‘Hyper-V Virtual Ethernet Adapter’

          This function returns names of the second form from the list,
          ‘ethernet_32770’ in this example case.

 -- Işlevi: socket.if_nametoindex (if_name)

     Return a network interface index number corresponding to an
     interface name.  *note OSError: 65c. if no interface with the given
     name exists.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Windows support was added.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     “Interface name” is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     88f.

 -- Işlevi: socket.if_indextoname (if_index)

     Return a network interface name corresponding to an interface index
     number.  *note OSError: 65c. if no interface with the given index
     exists.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Windows support was added.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     “Interface name” is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     88f.

 -- Işlevi: socket.send_fds (sock, buffers, fds[, flags[, address]])

     Send the list of file descriptors 'fds' over an *note AF_UNIX:
     1645. socket 'sock'.  The 'fds' parameter is a sequence of file
     descriptors.  Consult *note sendmsg(): 197. for the documentation
     of these parameters.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 197. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: socket.recv_fds (sock, bufsize, maxfds[, flags])

     Receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors from an *note AF_UNIX:
     1645. socket 'sock'.  Return ‘(msg, list(fds), flags, addr)’.
     Consult *note recvmsg(): c33. for the documentation of these
     parameters.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, Windows, not Emscripten, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 197. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Added in version 3.9.

          Not: Any truncated integers at the end of the list of file
          descriptors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getnameinfo(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/inet(3)

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3542.html


File: python.info,  Node: Socket Objects,  Next: Notes on socket timeouts,  Prev: Module contents,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.18.2.8 Socket Objects
.......................

Socket objects have the following methods.  Except for *note makefile():
1045, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note context manager: 3df.
protocol was added.  Exiting the context manager is equivalent to
calling *note close(): 9e9.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.accept ()

     Accept a connection.  The socket must be bound to an address and
     listening for connections.  The return value is a pair ‘(conn,
     address)’ where 'conn' is a 'new' socket object usable to send and
     receive data on the connection, and 'address' is the address bound
     to the socket on the other end of the connection.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale).

 -- Yöntemi: socket.bind (address)

     Bind the socket to 'address'.  The socket must not already be
     bound.  (The format of 'address' depends on the address family —
     see above.)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.bind’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘address’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.close ()

     Mark the socket closed.  The underlying system resource (e.g.  a
     file descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from *note
     makefile(): 1045. are closed.  Once that happens, all future
     operations on the socket object will fail.  The remote end will
     receive no more data (after queued data is flushed).

     Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected,
     but it is recommended to *note close(): 9e9. them explicitly, or to
     use a *note with: 3dd. statement around them.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note OSError: 65c. is now raised if an
     error occurs when the underlying ‘close()’ call is made.

          Not: *note close(): 9e9. releases the resource associated with
          a connection but does not necessarily close the connection
          immediately.  If you want to close the connection in a timely
          fashion, call *note shutdown(): 317f. before *note close():
          9e9.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.connect (address)

     Connect to a remote socket at 'address'.  (The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family — see above.)

     If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits
     until the connection completes, or raise a *note TimeoutError: 673.
     on timeout, if the signal handler doesn’t raise an exception and
     the socket is blocking or has a timeout.  For non-blocking sockets,
     the method raises an *note InterruptedError: c14. exception if the
     connection is interrupted by a signal (or the exception raised by
     the signal handler).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The method now waits until the connection
     completes instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception if the connection is interrupted by a signal, the signal
     handler doesn’t raise an exception and the socket is blocking or
     has a timeout (see the PEP 475(2) for the rationale).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.connect_ex (address)

     Like ‘connect(address)’, but return an error indicator instead of
     raising an exception for errors returned by the C-level ‘connect()’
     call (other problems, such as “host not found,” can still raise
     exceptions).  The error indicator is ‘0’ if the operation
     succeeded, otherwise the value of the ‘errno’ variable.  This is
     useful to support, for example, asynchronous connects.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.detach ()

     Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing
     the underlying file descriptor.  The file descriptor is returned,
     and can be reused for other purposes.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.dup ()

     Duplicate the socket.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.fileno ()

     Return the socket’s file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on
     failure.  This is useful with *note select.select(): c2d.

     Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be
     used where a file descriptor can be used (such as *note
     os.fdopen(): 1d20.).  Unix does not have this limitation.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.get_inheritable ()

     Get the *note inheritable flag: d90. of the socket’s file
     descriptor or socket’s handle: ‘True’ if the socket can be
     inherited in child processes, ‘False’ if it cannot.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.getpeername ()

     Return the remote address to which the socket is connected.  This
     is useful to find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket,
     for instance.  (The format of the address returned depends on the
     address family — see above.)  On some systems this function is not
     supported.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.getsockname ()

     Return the socket’s own address.  This is useful to find out the
     port number of an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance.  (The format of the
     address returned depends on the address family — see above.)

 -- Yöntemi: socket.getsockopt (level, optname[, buflen])

     Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
     ‘getsockopt(2)(3)’).  The needed symbolic constants (*note SO_*
     etc.: 3094.) are defined in this module.  If 'buflen' is absent, an
     integer option is assumed and its integer value is returned by the
     function.  If 'buflen' is present, it specifies the maximum length
     of the buffer used to receive the option in, and this buffer is
     returned as a bytes object.  It is up to the caller to decode the
     contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module *note
     struct: d4. for a way to decode C structures encoded as byte
     strings).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.getblocking ()

     Return ‘True’ if socket is in blocking mode, ‘False’ if in
     non-blocking.

     This is equivalent to checking ‘socket.gettimeout() != 0’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.gettimeout ()

     Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket
     operations, or ‘None’ if no timeout is set.  This reflects the last
     call to *note setblocking(): 2916. or *note settimeout(): 314f.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.ioctl (control, option)


     Platform: Windows

     The *note ioctl(): b56. method is a limited interface to the
     WSAIoctl system interface.  Please refer to the Win32
     documentation(4) for more information.

     On other platforms, the generic *note fcntl.fcntl(): 3192. and
     *note fcntl.ioctl(): 1303. functions may be used; they accept a
     socket object as their first argument.

     Currently only the following control codes are supported:
     ‘SIO_RCVALL’, ‘SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS’, and ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’ was added.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.listen ([backlog])

     Enable a server to accept connections.  If 'backlog' is specified,
     it must be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it
     specifies the number of unaccepted connections that the system will
     allow before refusing new connections.  If not specified, a default
     reasonable value is chosen.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'backlog' parameter is now optional.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.makefile (mode='r', buffering=None, *,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Return a *note file object: 1068. associated with the socket.  The
     exact returned type depends on the arguments given to *note
     makefile(): 1045.  These arguments are interpreted the same way as
     by the built-in *note open(): 2a6. function, except the only
     supported 'mode' values are ‘'r'’ (default), ‘'w'’, ‘'b'’, or a
     combination of those.

     The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the
     file object’s internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state
     if a timeout occurs.

     Closing the file object returned by *note makefile(): 1045. won’t
     close the original socket unless all other file objects have been
     closed and *note socket.close(): 9e9. has been called on the socket
     object.

          Not: On Windows, the file-like object created by *note
          makefile(): 1045. cannot be used where a file object with a
          file descriptor is expected, such as the stream arguments of
          *note subprocess.Popen(): 8fa.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.recv (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a bytes object
     representing the data received.  The maximum amount of data to be
     received at once is specified by 'bufsize'.  A returned empty bytes
     object indicates that the client has disconnected.  See the Unix
     manual page ‘recv(2)(5)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(6) for the rationale).

 -- Yöntemi: socket.recvfrom (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a pair ‘(bytes,
     address)’ where 'bytes' is a bytes object representing the data
     received and 'address' is the address of the socket sending the
     data.  See the Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(7)’ for the meaning of the
     optional argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  (The format of
     'address' depends on the address family — see above.)

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(8) for the rationale).

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: For multicast IPv6 address, first item of
     'address' does not contain ‘%scope_id’ part anymore.  In order to
     get full IPv6 address use *note getnameinfo(): 153c.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.recvmsg (bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data (up to 'bufsize' bytes) and ancillary data from
     the socket.  The 'ancbufsize' argument sets the size in bytes of
     the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
     to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received.  Appropriate
     buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using *note
     CMSG_SPACE(): 1871. or *note CMSG_LEN(): 1872, and items which do
     not fit into the buffer might be truncated or discarded.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): c31.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(data, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’.  The 'data' item is a *note bytes: 2cb. object holding
     the non-ancillary data received.  The 'ancdata' item is a list of
     zero or more tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’
     representing the ancillary data (control messages) received:
     'cmsg_level' and 'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol
     level and protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     *note bytes: 2cb. object holding the associated data.  The
     'msg_flags' item is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating
     conditions on the received message; see your system documentation
     for details.  If the receiving socket is unconnected, 'address' is
     the address of the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its
     value is unspecified.

     On some systems, *note sendmsg(): 197. and *note recvmsg(): c33.
     can be used to pass file descriptors between processes over an
     *note AF_UNIX: 1645. socket.  When this facility is used (it is
     often restricted to *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d. sockets), *note
     recvmsg(): c33. will return, in its ancillary data, items of the
     form ‘(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)’, where 'fds' is
     a *note bytes: 2cb. object representing the new file descriptors as
     a binary array of the native C int type.  If *note recvmsg(): c33.
     raises an exception after the system call returns, it will first
     attempt to close any file descriptors received via this mechanism.

     Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
     items which have been only partially received.  If an item appears
     to extend beyond the end of the buffer, *note recvmsg(): c33. will
     issue a *note RuntimeWarning: 900, and will return the part of it
     which is inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated
     before the start of its associated data.

     On systems which support the ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism, the following
     function will receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors, returning
     the message data and a list containing the descriptors (while
     ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control messages
     being received).  See also *note sendmsg(): 197.

          import socket, array

          def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
              fds = array.array("i")   # Array of ints
              msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
              for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
                  if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
                      # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
                      fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
              return msg, list(fds)

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(9) for the rationale).

 -- Yöntemi: socket.recvmsg_into (buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
     *note recvmsg(): c33. would, but scatter the non-ancillary data
     into a series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object.
     The 'buffers' argument must be an iterable of objects that export
     writable buffers (e.g.  *note bytearray: 2ca. objects); these will
     be filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
     has all been written or there are no more buffers.  The operating
     system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 293d. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’)
     on the number of buffers that can be used.  The 'ancbufsize' and
     'flags' arguments have the same meaning as for *note recvmsg():
     c33.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’, where 'nbytes' is the total number of bytes of
     non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and 'ancdata',
     'msg_flags' and 'address' are the same as for *note recvmsg(): c33.

     Example:

          >>> import socket
          >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
          >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
          >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
          >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
          >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
          22
          >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
          (22, [], 0, None)
          >>> [b1, b2, b3]
          [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.recvfrom_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive data from the socket, writing it into 'buffer' instead of
     creating a new bytestring.  The return value is a pair ‘(nbytes,
     address)’ where 'nbytes' is the number of bytes received and
     'address' is the address of the socket sending the data.  See the
     Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(10)’ for the meaning of the optional
     argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  (The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family — see above.)

 -- Yöntemi: socket.recv_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive up to 'nbytes' bytes from the socket, storing the data into
     a buffer rather than creating a new bytestring.  If 'nbytes' is not
     specified (or 0), receive up to the size available in the given
     buffer.  Returns the number of bytes received.  See the Unix manual
     page ‘recv(2)(11)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.send (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): c31. above.  Returns the number of bytes sent.
     Applications are responsible for checking that all data has been
     sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the application
     needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data.  For further
     information on this topic, consult the *note Socket Programming
     HOWTO: 3193.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(12) for the rationale).

 -- Yöntemi: socket.sendall (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): c31. above.  Unlike *note send(): c34, this method
     continues to send data from 'bytes' until either all data has been
     sent or an error occurs.  ‘None’ is returned on success.  On error,
     an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how much
     data, if any, was successfully sent.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time data is sent successfully.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration to send all data.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(13) for the rationale).

 -- Yöntemi: socket.sendto (bytes, address)

 -- Yöntemi: socket.sendto (bytes, flags, address)

     Send data to the socket.  The socket should not be connected to a
     remote socket, since the destination socket is specified by
     'address'.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as
     for *note recv(): c31. above.  Return the number of bytes sent.
     (The format of 'address' depends on the address family — see
     above.)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.sendto’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(14) for the rationale).

 -- Yöntemi: socket.sendmsg (buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])

     Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
     non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
     into a single message.  The 'buffers' argument specifies the
     non-ancillary data as an iterable of *note bytes-like objects: bb5.
     (e.g.  *note bytes: 2cb. objects); the operating system may set a
     limit (*note sysconf(): 293d. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’) on the number of
     buffers that can be used.  The 'ancdata' argument specifies the
     ancillary data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more
     tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’, where 'cmsg_level' and
     'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol level and
     protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     bytes-like object holding the associated data.  Note that some
     systems (in particular, systems without *note CMSG_SPACE(): 1871.)
     might support sending only one control message per call.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note send(): c34.  If 'address' is supplied and not ‘None’, it
     sets a destination address for the message.  The return value is
     the number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.

     The following function sends the list of file descriptors 'fds'
     over an *note AF_UNIX: 1645. socket, on systems which support the
     ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism.  See also *note recvmsg(): c33.

          import socket, array

          def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
              return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘socket.sendmsg’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: c14.
     exception (see PEP 475(15) for the rationale).

 -- Yöntemi: socket.sendmsg_afalg ([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[,
          flags]]])

     Specialized version of *note sendmsg(): 197. for *note AF_ALG: b5a.
     socket.  Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags for
     *note AF_ALG: b5a. socket.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.sendfile (file, offset=0, count=None)

     Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance *note
     os.sendfile: 97d. and return the total number of bytes which were
     sent.  'file' must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.
     If *note os.sendfile: 97d. is not available (e.g.  Windows) or
     'file' is not a regular file *note send(): c34. will be used
     instead.  'offset' tells from where to start reading the file.  If
     specified, 'count' is the total number of bytes to transmit as
     opposed to sending the file until EOF is reached.  File position is
     updated on return or also in case of error in which case *note
     file.tell(): 2784. can be used to figure out the number of bytes
     which were sent.  The socket must be of *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d.
     type.  Non-blocking sockets are not supported.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.set_inheritable (inheritable)

     Set the *note inheritable flag: d90. of the socket’s file
     descriptor or socket’s handle.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.setblocking (flag)

     Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if 'flag' is
     false, the socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.

     This method is a shorthand for certain *note settimeout(): 314f.
     calls:

        * ‘sock.setblocking(True)’ is equivalent to
          ‘sock.settimeout(None)’

        * ‘sock.setblocking(False)’ is equivalent to
          ‘sock.settimeout(0.0)’

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The method no longer applies *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: a83. flag on *note socket.type: a85.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.settimeout (value)

     Set a timeout on blocking socket operations.  The 'value' argument
     can be a nonnegative floating-point number expressing seconds, or
     ‘None’.  If a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations
     will raise a *note timeout: 672. exception if the timeout period
     'value' has elapsed before the operation has completed.  If zero is
     given, the socket is put in non-blocking mode.  If ‘None’ is given,
     the socket is put in blocking mode.

     For further information, please consult the *note notes on socket
     timeouts: 3194.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The method no longer toggles *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: a83. flag on *note socket.type: a85.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: int)

 -- Yöntemi: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: buffer)

 -- Yöntemi: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, None, optlen: int)

     Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
     ‘setsockopt(2)(16)’).  The needed symbolic constants are defined in
     this module (SO_* etc.  <socket-unix-constants>).  The value can be
     an integer, ‘None’ or a *note bytes-like object: bb5. representing
     a buffer.  In the later case it is up to the caller to ensure that
     the bytestring contains the proper bits (see the optional built-in
     module *note struct: d4. for a way to encode C structures as
     bytestrings).  When 'value' is set to ‘None’, 'optlen' argument is
     required.  It’s equivalent to call ‘setsockopt()’ C function with
     ‘optval=NULL’ and ‘optlen=optlen’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     now accepted.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen:
     int) form added.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.shutdown (how)

     Shut down one or both halves of the connection.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RD: 317c, further receives are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_WR: 317d, further sends are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RDWR: 317e, further sends and receives are disallowed.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not WASI.

 -- Yöntemi: socket.share (process_id)

     Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target
     process.  The target process must be provided with 'process_id'.
     The resulting bytes object can then be passed to the target process
     using some form of interprocess communication and the socket can be
     recreated there using *note fromshare(): a80.  Once this method has
     been called, it is safe to close the socket since the operating
     system has already duplicated it for the target process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

Note that there are no methods ‘read()’ or ‘write()’; use *note recv():
c31. and *note send(): c34. without 'flags' argument instead.

Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to
the values given to the *note socket: c2e. constructor.

 -- Özniteliği: socket.family

     The socket family.

 -- Özniteliği: socket.type

     The socket type.

 -- Özniteliği: socket.proto

     The socket protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/getsockopt(2)

   (4) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/setsockopt(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on socket timeouts,  Next: Example<7>,  Prev: Socket Objects,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.18.2.9 Notes on socket timeouts
.................................

A socket object can be in one of three modes: blocking, non-blocking, or
timeout.  Sockets are by default always created in blocking mode, but
this can be changed by calling *note setdefaulttimeout(): 3153.

   * In 'blocking mode', operations block until complete or the system
     returns an error (such as connection timed out).

   * In 'non-blocking mode', operations fail (with an error that is
     unfortunately system-dependent) if they cannot be completed
     immediately: functions from the *note select: c0. module can be
     used to know when and whether a socket is available for reading or
     writing.

   * In 'timeout mode', operations fail if they cannot be completed
     within the timeout specified for the socket (they raise a *note
     timeout: 672. exception) or if the system returns an error.

     Not: At the operating system level, sockets in 'timeout mode' are
     internally set in non-blocking mode.  Also, the blocking and
     timeout modes are shared between file descriptors and socket
     objects that refer to the same network endpoint.  This
     implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g.  you
     decide to use the *note fileno(): 3190. of a socket.

* Menu:

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the connect method,  Next: Timeouts and the accept method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.18.2.10 Timeouts and the ‘connect’ method
...........................................

The *note connect(): c30. operation is also subject to the timeout
setting, and in general it is recommended to call *note settimeout():
314f. before calling *note connect(): c30. or pass a timeout parameter
to *note create_connection(): 485.  However, the system network stack
may also return a connection timeout error of its own regardless of any
Python socket timeout setting.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the accept method,  Prev: Timeouts and the connect method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.18.2.11 Timeouts and the ‘accept’ method
..........................................

If *note getdefaulttimeout(): 3184. is not *note None: 488, sockets
returned by the *note accept(): c2f. method inherit that timeout.
Otherwise, the behaviour depends on settings of the listening socket:

   * if the listening socket is in 'blocking mode' or in 'timeout mode',
     the socket returned by *note accept(): c2f. is in 'blocking mode';

   * if the listening socket is in 'non-blocking mode', whether the
     socket returned by *note accept(): c2f. is in blocking or
     non-blocking mode is operating system-dependent.  If you want to
     ensure cross-platform behaviour, it is recommended you manually
     override this setting.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<7>,  Prev: Notes on socket timeouts,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.18.2.12 Example
.................

Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a
server that echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one
client), and a client using it.  Note that a server must perform the
sequence *note socket(): c2e, *note bind(): 13c7, *note listen(): cf2,
*note accept(): c2f. (possibly repeating the *note accept(): c2f. to
service more than one client), while a client only needs the sequence
*note socket(): c2e, *note connect(): c30.  Also note that the server
does not *note sendall(): c35./*note recv(): c31. on the socket it is
listening on but on the new socket returned by *note accept(): c2f.

The first two examples support IPv4 only.

     # Echo server program
     import socket

     HOST = ''                 # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.bind((HOST, PORT))
         s.listen(1)
         conn, addr = s.accept()
         with conn:
             print('Connected by', addr)
             while True:
                 data = conn.recv(1024)
                 if not data: break
                 conn.sendall(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.connect((HOST, PORT))
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both
IPv4 and IPv6.  The server side will listen to the first address family
available (it should listen to both instead).  On most of IPv6-ready
systems, IPv6 will take precedence and the server may not accept IPv4
traffic.  The client side will try to connect to all the addresses
returned as a result of the name resolution, and sends traffic to the
first one connected successfully.

     # Echo server program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = None               # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC,
                                   socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0, socket.AI_PASSIVE):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.bind(sa)
             s.listen(1)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     conn, addr = s.accept()
     with conn:
         print('Connected by', addr)
         while True:
             data = conn.recv(1024)
             if not data: break
             conn.send(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.connect(sa)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     with s:
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with
raw sockets on Windows.  The example requires administrator privileges
to modify the interface:

     import socket

     # the public network interface
     HOST = socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname())

     # create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.IPPROTO_IP)
     s.bind((HOST, 0))

     # Include IP headers
     s.setsockopt(socket.IPPROTO_IP, socket.IP_HDRINCL, 1)

     # receive all packets
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_ON)

     # receive a packet
     print(s.recvfrom(65565))

     # disabled promiscuous mode
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF)

The next example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to
a CAN network using the raw socket protocol.  To use CAN with the
broadcast manager protocol instead, open a socket with:

     socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_DGRAM, socket.CAN_BCM)

After binding (‘CAN_RAW’) or connecting (*note CAN_BCM: e43.) the
socket, you can use the *note socket.send(): c34. and *note
socket.recv(): c31. operations (and their counterparts) on the socket
object as usual.

This last example might require special privileges:

     import socket
     import struct


     # CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>)

     can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s"
     can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt)

     def build_can_frame(can_id, data):
         can_dlc = len(data)
         data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00')
         return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data)

     def dissect_can_frame(frame):
         can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame)
         return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])


     # create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW)
     s.bind(('vcan0',))

     while True:
         cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size)

         print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf))

         try:
             s.send(cf)
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

         try:
             s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03'))
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

Running an example several times with too small delay between
executions, could lead to this error:

     OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use

This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, and can’t be immediately reused.

There is a *note socket: cb. flag to set, in order to prevent this,
‘socket.SO_REUSEADDR’:

     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     s.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
     s.bind((HOST, PORT))

the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ flag tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, without waiting for its natural timeout to expire.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

For an introduction to socket programming (in C), see the following
papers:

   - 'An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by
     Stuart Sechrest

   - 'An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by Samuel
     J. Leffler et al,

both in the UNIX Programmer’s Manual, Supplementary Documents 1
(sections PS1:7 and PS1:8).  The platform-specific reference material
for the various socket-related system calls are also a valuable source
of information on the details of socket semantics.  For Unix, refer to
the manual pages; for Windows, see the WinSock (or Winsock 2)
specification.  For IPv6-ready APIs, readers may want to refer to RFC
3493(1) titled Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3493.html


File: python.info,  Node: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Next: select — Waiting for I/O completion,  Prev: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.3 ‘ssl’ — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ssl.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as
“Secure Sockets Layer”) encryption and peer authentication facilities
for network sockets, both client-side and server-side.  This module uses
the OpenSSL library.  It is available on all modern Unix systems,
Windows, macOS, and probably additional platforms, as long as OpenSSL is
installed on that platform.

     Not: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made
     to the operating system socket APIs.  The installed version of
     OpenSSL may also cause variations in behavior.  For example,
     TLSv1.3 comes with OpenSSL version 1.1.1.

     Uyarı: Don’t use this module without reading the *note Security
     considerations: 3092.  Doing so may lead to a false sense of
     security, as the default settings of the ssl module are not
     necessarily appropriate for your application.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

This section documents the objects and functions in the ‘ssl’ module;
for more general information about TLS, SSL, and certificates, the
reader is referred to the documents in the “See Also” section at the
bottom.

This module provides a class, *note ssl.SSLSocket: 73d, which is derived
from the *note socket.socket: c2e. type, and provides a socket-like
wrapper that also encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket
with SSL. It supports additional methods such as ‘getpeercert()’, which
retrieves the certificate of the other side of the connection, and
‘cipher()’, which retrieves the cipher being used for the secure
connection.

For more sophisticated applications, the *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.
class helps manage settings and certificates, which can then be
inherited by SSL sockets created through the *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af. method.

3.5.3 sürümünde değişti: Updated to support linking with OpenSSL 1.1.0

3.6 sürümünde değişti: OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and
no longer supported.  In the future the ssl module will require at least
OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.0.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: PEP 644(2) has been implemented.  The ssl module
requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.

Use of deprecated constants and functions result in deprecation
warnings.

* Menu:

* Functions, Constants, and Exceptions: Functions Constants and Exceptions.
* SSL Sockets::
* SSL Contexts::
* Certificates::
* Examples: Examples<19>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO Support: Memory BIO Support<2>.
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ssl.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Functions Constants and Exceptions,  Next: SSL Sockets,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.1 Functions, Constants, and Exceptions
.............................................

* Menu:

* Socket creation::
* Context creation::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<13>.
* Random generation::
* Certificate handling::
* Constants: Constants<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Socket creation,  Next: Context creation,  Up: Functions Constants and Exceptions

5.18.3.2 Socket creation
........................

Instances of *note SSLSocket: 73d. must be created using the *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af. method.  The helper function *note
create_default_context(): e4a. returns a new context with secure default
settings.

Client socket example with default context and IPv4/IPv6 dual stack:

     import socket
     import ssl

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     context = ssl.create_default_context()

     with socket.create_connection((hostname, 443)) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

Client socket example with custom context and IPv4:

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     # PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname
     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     context.load_verify_locations('path/to/cabundle.pem')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

Server socket example listening on localhost IPv4:

     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
     context.load_cert_chain('/path/to/certchain.pem', '/path/to/private.key')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         sock.bind(('127.0.0.1', 8443))
         sock.listen(5)
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=True) as ssock:
             conn, addr = ssock.accept()
             ...


File: python.info,  Node: Context creation,  Next: Exceptions<13>,  Prev: Socket creation,  Up: Functions Constants and Exceptions

5.18.3.3 Context creation
.........................

A convenience function helps create *note SSLContext: 277. objects for
common purposes.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.create_default_context (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH,
          cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)

     Return a new *note SSLContext: 277. object with default settings
     for the given 'purpose'.  The settings are chosen by the *note ssl:
     cf. module, and usually represent a higher security level than when
     calling the *note SSLContext: 277. constructor directly.

     'cafile', 'capath', 'cadata' represent optional CA certificates to
     trust for certificate verification, as in *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d82.  If all three are *note
     None: 488, this function can choose to trust the system’s default
     CA certificates instead.

     The settings are: *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. or *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 677, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 678. with high encryption cipher suites without RC4
     and without unauthenticated cipher suites.  Passing *note
     SERVER_AUTH: e55. as 'purpose' sets *note verify_mode: 31a1. to
     *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2. and either loads CA certificates (when
     at least one of 'cafile', 'capath' or 'cadata' is given) or uses
     *note SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e54. to load default CA
     certificates.

     When *note keylog_filename: 31a3. is supported and the environment
     variable ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’ is set, *note create_default_context():
     e4a. enables key logging.

          Not: The protocol, options, cipher and other settings may
          change to more restrictive values anytime without prior
          deprecation.  The values represent a fair balance between
          compatibility and security.

          If your application needs specific settings, you should create
          a *note SSLContext: 277. and apply the settings yourself.

          Not: If you find that when certain older clients or servers
          attempt to connect with a *note SSLContext: 277. created by
          this function that they get an error stating “Protocol or
          cipher suite mismatch”, it may be that they only support
          SSL3.0 which this function excludes using the *note
          OP_NO_SSLv3: 678.  SSL3.0 is widely considered to be
          completely broken(1).  If you still wish to continue to use
          this function but still allow SSL 3.0 connections you can
          re-enable them using:

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context(Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
               ctx.options &= ~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.4.4 sürümünde değişti: RC4 was dropped from the default cipher
     string.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: ChaCha20/Poly1305 was added to the default
     cipher string.

     3DES was dropped from the default cipher string.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Support for key logging to ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’
     was added.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The context now uses *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7.
     protocol instead of generic *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<13>,  Next: Random generation,  Prev: Context creation,  Up: Functions Constants and Exceptions

5.18.3.4 Exceptions
...................

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.SSLError

     Raised to signal an error from the underlying SSL implementation
     (currently provided by the OpenSSL library).  This signifies some
     problem in the higher-level encryption and authentication layer
     that’s superimposed on the underlying network connection.  This
     error is a subtype of *note OSError: 65c.  The error code and
     message of *note SSLError: 1122. instances are provided by the
     OpenSSL library.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note SSLError: 1122. used to be a subtype
     of *note socket.error: eff.

      -- Özniteliği: library

          A string mnemonic designating the OpenSSL submodule in which
          the error occurred, such as ‘SSL’, ‘PEM’ or ‘X509’.  The range
          of possible values depends on the OpenSSL version.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: reason

          A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred,
          for example ‘CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  The range of
          possible values depends on the OpenSSL version.

          Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.SSLZeroReturnError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 1122. raised when trying to read or
     write and the SSL connection has been closed cleanly.  Note that
     this doesn’t mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been
     closed.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.SSLWantReadError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 1122. raised by a *note non-blocking
     SSL socket: 31a7. when trying to read or write data, but more data
     needs to be received on the underlying TCP transport before the
     request can be fulfilled.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.SSLWantWriteError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 1122. raised by a *note non-blocking
     SSL socket: 31a7. when trying to read or write data, but more data
     needs to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request
     can be fulfilled.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.SSLSyscallError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 1122. raised when a system error was
     encountered while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket.
     Unfortunately, there is no easy way to inspect the original errno
     number.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.SSLEOFError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 1122. raised when the SSL connection
     has been terminated abruptly.  Generally, you shouldn’t try to
     reuse the underlying transport when this error is encountered.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.SSLCertVerificationError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 1122. raised when certificate
     validation has failed.

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: verify_code

          A numeric error number that denotes the verification error.

      -- Özniteliği: verify_message

          A human readable string of the verification error.

 -- Özel Durum: ssl.CertificateError

     An alias for *note SSLCertVerificationError: 9f2.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The exception is now an alias for *note
     SSLCertVerificationError: 9f2.


File: python.info,  Node: Random generation,  Next: Certificate handling,  Prev: Exceptions<13>,  Up: Functions Constants and Exceptions

5.18.3.5 Random generation
..........................

 -- Işlevi: ssl.RAND_bytes (num)

     Return 'num' cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes.  Raises
     an *note SSLError: 1122. if the PRNG has not been seeded with
     enough data or if the operation is not supported by the current
     RAND method.  *note RAND_status(): 16f0. can be used to check the
     status of the PRNG and *note RAND_add(): 31ad. can be used to seed
     the PRNG.

     For almost all applications *note os.urandom(): 2ad. is preferable.

     Read the Wikipedia article, Cryptographically secure pseudorandom
     number generator (CSPRNG)(1), to get the requirements of a
     cryptographically strong generator.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.RAND_status ()

     Return ‘True’ if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been
     seeded with ‘enough’ randomness, and ‘False’ otherwise.  You can
     use ‘ssl.RAND_egd()’ and *note ssl.RAND_add(): 31ad. to increase
     the randomness of the pseudo-random number generator.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.RAND_add (bytes, entropy)

     Mix the given 'bytes' into the SSL pseudo-random number generator.
     The parameter 'entropy' (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy
     contained in string (so you can always use ‘0.0’).  See RFC 1750(2)
     for more information on sources of entropy.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     now accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1750.html


File: python.info,  Node: Certificate handling,  Next: Constants<7>,  Prev: Random generation,  Up: Functions Constants and Exceptions

5.18.3.6 Certificate handling
.............................

 -- Işlevi: ssl.cert_time_to_seconds (cert_time)

     Return the time in seconds since the Epoch, given the ‘cert_time’
     string representing the “notBefore” or “notAfter” date from a
     certificate in ‘"%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z"’ strptime format (C locale).

     Here’s an example:

          >>> import ssl
          >>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
          >>> timestamp
          1515144883
          >>> from datetime import datetime
          >>> print(datetime.utcfromtimestamp(timestamp))
          2018-01-05 09:34:43

     “notBefore” or “notAfter” dates must use GMT ( RFC 5280(1)).

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Interpret the input time as a time in UTC as
     specified by ‘GMT’ timezone in the input string.  Local timezone
     was used previously.  Return an integer (no fractions of a second
     in the input format)

 -- Işlevi: ssl.get_server_certificate (addr,
          ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, ca_certs=None[, timeout])

     Given the address ‘addr’ of an SSL-protected server, as a
     ('hostname', 'port-number') pair, fetches the server’s certificate,
     and returns it as a PEM-encoded string.  If ‘ssl_version’ is
     specified, uses that version of the SSL protocol to attempt to
     connect to the server.  If 'ca_certs' is specified, it should be a
     file containing a list of root certificates, the same format as
     used for the 'cafile' parameter in *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d82.  The call will attempt to
     validate the server certificate against that set of root
     certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails.  A
     timeout can be specified with the ‘timeout’ parameter.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This function is now IPv6-compatible.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The default 'ssl_version' is changed from
     *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 31af. to *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4. for
     maximum compatibility with modern servers.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'timeout' parameter was added.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert (DER_cert_bytes)

     Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a
     PEM-encoded string version of the same certificate.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert (PEM_cert_string)

     Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded
     sequence of bytes for that same certificate.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.get_default_verify_paths ()

     Returns a named tuple with paths to OpenSSL’s default cafile and
     capath.  The paths are the same as used by *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): e4c.  The return value is a
     *note named tuple: 461. ‘DefaultVerifyPaths’:

        * ‘cafile’ - resolved path to cafile or ‘None’ if the file
          doesn’t exist,

        * ‘capath’ - resolved path to capath or ‘None’ if the directory
          doesn’t exist,

        * ‘openssl_cafile_env’ - OpenSSL’s environment key that points
          to a cafile,

        * ‘openssl_cafile’ - hard coded path to a cafile,

        * ‘openssl_capath_env’ - OpenSSL’s environment key that points
          to a capath,

        * ‘openssl_capath’ - hard coded path to a capath directory

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.enum_certificates (store_name)

     Retrieve certificates from Windows’ system cert store.
     'store_name' may be one of ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ or ‘MY’.  Windows may
     provide additional cert stores, too.

     The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust)
     tuples.  The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes.
     It is either ‘x509_asn’ for X.509 ASN.1 data or ‘pkcs_7_asn’ for
     PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.  Trust specifies the purpose of the certificate
     as a set of OIDS or exactly ‘True’ if the certificate is
     trustworthy for all purposes.

     Example:

          >>> ssl.enum_certificates("CA")
          [(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}),
           (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)]

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: ssl.enum_crls (store_name)

     Retrieve CRLs from Windows’ system cert store.  'store_name' may be
     one of ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ or ‘MY’.  Windows may provide additional cert
     stores, too.

     The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust)
     tuples.  The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes.
     It is either ‘x509_asn’ for X.509 ASN.1 data or ‘pkcs_7_asn’ for
     PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<7>,  Prev: Certificate handling,  Up: Functions Constants and Exceptions

5.18.3.7 Constants
..................

     All constants are now *note enum.IntEnum: b62. or *note
     enum.IntFlag: 20ee. collections.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: ssl.CERT_NONE

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 31a1.  Except for
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6, it is the default mode.  With
     client-side sockets, just about any cert is accepted.  Validation
     errors, such as untrusted or expired cert, are ignored and do not
     abort the TLS/SSL handshake.

     In server mode, no certificate is requested from the client, so the
     client does not send any for client cert authentication.

     See the discussion of *note Security considerations: 3092. below.

 -- Verisi: ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 31a1.  In client
     mode, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 31b4. has the same meaning as *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2.  It is recommended to use *note CERT_REQUIRED:
     31a2. for client-side sockets instead.

     In server mode, a client certificate request is sent to the client.
     The client may either ignore the request or send a certificate in
     order perform TLS client cert authentication.  If the client
     chooses to send a certificate, it is verified.  Any verification
     error immediately aborts the TLS handshake.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d82.

 -- Verisi: ssl.CERT_REQUIRED

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 31a1.  In this
     mode, certificates are required from the other side of the socket
     connection; an *note SSLError: 1122. will be raised if no
     certificate is provided, or if its validation fails.  This mode is
     'not' sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as it does
     not match hostnames.  *note check_hostname: 31b5. must be enabled
     as well to verify the authenticity of a cert.  *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. uses *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2. and
     enables *note check_hostname: 31b5. by default.

     With server socket, this mode provides mandatory TLS client cert
     authentication.  A client certificate request is sent to the client
     and the client must provide a valid and trusted certificate.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d82.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.VerifyMode

     *note enum.IntEnum: b62. collection of CERT_* constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f.  In this
     mode, certificate revocation lists (CRLs) are not checked.  By
     default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify CRLs.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f.  In this
     mode, only the peer cert is checked but none of the intermediate CA
     certificates.  The mode requires a valid CRL that is signed by the
     peer cert’s issuer (its direct ancestor CA). If no proper CRL has
     been loaded with *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations: d82,
     validation will fail.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f.  In this
     mode, CRLs of all certificates in the peer cert chain are checked.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f. to disable
     workarounds for broken X.509 certificates.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: ssl.VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f. to enables
     proxy certificate verification.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f.  It
     instructs OpenSSL to prefer trusted certificates when building the
     trust chain to validate a certificate.  This flag is enabled by
     default.

     Added in version 3.4.4.

 -- Verisi: ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f.  It
     instructs OpenSSL to accept intermediate CAs in the trust store to
     be treated as trust-anchors, in the same way as the self-signed
     root CA certificates.  This makes it possible to trust certificates
     issued by an intermediate CA without having to trust its ancestor
     root CA.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.VerifyFlags

     *note enum.IntFlag: 20ee. collection of VERIFY_* constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

     Selects the highest protocol version that both the client and
     server support.  Despite the name, this option can select both
     “SSL” and “TLS” protocols.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: TLS clients and servers require
     different default settings for secure communication.  The generic
     TLS protocol constant is deprecated in favor of *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context client-side
     connections.  The protocol enables *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2. and
     *note check_hostname: 31b5. by default.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context server-side
     connections.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23

     Alias for *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.
     instead.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

     Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol.

     This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
     ‘no-ssl3’ option.

          Uyarı: SSL version 3 is insecure.  Its use is highly
          discouraged.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: OpenSSL has deprecated all
     version specific protocols.  Use the default protocol *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. with
     *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 6b4. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 6b5. instead.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

     Selects TLS version 1.0 as the channel encryption protocol.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: OpenSSL has deprecated all
     version specific protocols.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

     Selects TLS version 1.1 as the channel encryption protocol.
     Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: OpenSSL has deprecated all
     version specific protocols.

 -- Verisi: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

     Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol.
     Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: OpenSSL has deprecated all
     version specific protocols.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_ALL

     Enables workarounds for various bugs present in other SSL
     implementations.  This option is set by default.  It does not
     necessarily set the same flags as OpenSSL’s ‘SSL_OP_ALL’ constant.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2

     Prevents an SSLv2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing SSLv2 as the protocol version.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: SSLv2 is deprecated

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

     Prevents an SSLv3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing SSLv3 as the protocol version.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: SSLv3 is deprecated

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1

     Prevents a TLSv1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1 as the protocol version.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0, use the new *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 6b4.
     and *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 6b5. instead.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1

     Prevents a TLSv1.1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.1 as the protocol version.  Available only with
     openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2

     Prevents a TLSv1.2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.2 as the protocol version.  Available only with
     openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3

     Prevents a TLSv1.3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.3 as the protocol version.  TLS 1.3 is
     available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 or later.  When Python has been
     compiled against an older version of OpenSSL, the flag defaults to
     '0'.

     Added in version 3.6.3.

     3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The option is deprecated since
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.  It was added to 2.7.15 and 3.6.3 for backwards
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.0.2.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION

     Disable all renegotiation in TLSv1.2 and earlier.  Do not send
     HelloRequest messages, and ignore renegotiation requests via
     ClientHello.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h and later.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE

     Use the server’s cipher ordering preference, rather than the
     client’s.  This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2
     server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
     improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
     This option only applies to server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions.
     This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational
     resources.  This option only applies to server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT

     Send dummy Change Cipher Spec (CCS) messages in TLS 1.3 handshake
     to make a TLS 1.3 connection look more like a TLS 1.2 connection.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and later.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION

     Disable compression on the SSL channel.  This is useful if the
     application protocol supports its own compression scheme.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.Options

     *note enum.IntFlag: 20ee. collection of OP_* constants.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_NO_TICKET

     Prevent client side from requesting a session ticket.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF

     Ignore unexpected shutdown of TLS connections.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_ENABLE_KTLS

     Enable the use of the kernel TLS. To benefit from the feature,
     OpenSSL must have been compiled with support for it, and the
     negotiated cipher suites and extensions must be supported by it (a
     list of supported ones may vary by platform and kernel version).

     Note that with enabled kernel TLS some cryptographic operations are
     performed by the kernel directly and not via any available OpenSSL
     Providers.  This might be undesirable if, for example, the
     application requires all cryptographic operations to be performed
     by the FIPS provider.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT

     Allow legacy insecure renegotiation between OpenSSL and unpatched
     servers only.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_ALPN

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the
     'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as described
     in RFC 7301(1).

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support not checking
     subject common name and *note
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: 9f3. is writeable.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_ECDH

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Elliptic
     Curve-based Diffie-Hellman key exchange.  This should be true
     unless the feature was explicitly disabled by the distributor.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_SNI

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the 'Server
     Name Indication' extension (as defined in RFC 6066(2)).

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_NPN

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the 'Next
     Protocol Negotiation' as described in the Application Layer
     Protocol Negotiation(3).  When true, you can use the *note
     SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 278. method to advertise which
     protocols you want to support.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_SSLv2

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 2.0
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_SSLv3

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 3.0
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_TLSv1

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.0
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.1
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.2
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.3
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES

     List of supported TLS channel binding types.  Strings in this list
     can be used as arguments to *note SSLSocket.get_channel_binding():
     fea.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION

     The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the
     interpreter:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION
          'OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO

     A tuple of five integers representing version information about the
     OpenSSL library:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
          (1, 0, 2, 11, 15)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER

     The raw version number of the OpenSSL library, as a single integer:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
          268443839
          >>> hex(ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER)
          '0x100020bf'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE
 -- Verisi: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR

 -- Verisi: ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*

     Alert Descriptions from RFC 5246(4) and others.  The IANA TLS Alert
     Registry(5) contains this list and references to the RFCs where
     their meaning is defined.

     Used as the return value of the callback function in *note
     SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): e59.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.AlertDescription

     *note enum.IntEnum: b62. collection of ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*
     constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: Purpose.SERVER_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): e4a. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e54.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web servers (therefore, it
     will be used to create client-side sockets).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): e4a. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e54.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web clients (therefore, it
     will be used to create server-side sockets).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.SSLErrorNumber

     *note enum.IntEnum: b62. collection of SSL_ERROR_* constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.TLSVersion

     *note enum.IntEnum: b62. collection of SSL and TLS versions for
     *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 6b5. and *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: 6b4.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Özniteliği: TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED

 -- Özniteliği: TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED

     The minimum or maximum supported SSL or TLS version.  These are
     magic constants.  Their values don’t reflect the lowest and highest
     available TLS/SSL versions.

 -- Özniteliği: TLSVersion.SSLv3

 -- Özniteliği: TLSVersion.TLSv1

 -- Özniteliği: TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

 -- Özniteliği: TLSVersion.TLSv1_2

 -- Özniteliği: TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

     SSL 3.0 to TLS 1.3.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: All *note TLSVersion: 31d3.
     members except *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 31d9. and *note
     TLSVersion.TLSv1_3: 31da. are deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6


File: python.info,  Node: SSL Sockets,  Next: SSL Contexts,  Prev: Functions Constants and Exceptions,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.8 SSL Sockets
....................

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.SSLSocket (socket.socket)

     SSL sockets provide the following methods of *note Socket Objects:
     3182.:

        - *note accept(): c2f.

        - *note bind(): 13c7.

        - *note close(): bcc.

        - *note connect(): c30.

        - *note detach(): 10c2.

        - *note fileno(): 3190.

        - *note getpeername(): 30d4, *note getsockname(): 30d5.

        - *note getsockopt(): b58, *note setsockopt(): b59.

        - *note gettimeout(): 3191, *note settimeout(): 314f, *note
          setblocking(): 2916.

        - *note listen(): cf2.

        - *note makefile(): 1045.

        - *note recv(): c31, *note recv_into(): 11c9. (but passing a
          non-zero ‘flags’ argument is not allowed)

        - *note send(): c34, *note sendall(): c35. (with the same
          limitation)

        - *note sendfile(): cf1. (but *note os.sendfile: 97d. will be
          used for plain-text sockets only, else *note send(): c34. will
          be used)

        - *note shutdown(): 317f.

     However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop
     of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects,
     diverge from the specification of normal, OS-level sockets.  See
     especially the *note notes on non-blocking sockets: 31a7.

     Instances of *note SSLSocket: 73d. must be created using the *note
     SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af. method.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘sendfile()’ method was added.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘shutdown()’ does not reset the socket
     timeout each time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout
     is now the maximum total duration of the shutdown.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: It is deprecated to create a
     *note SSLSocket: 73d. instance directly, use *note
     SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af. to wrap a socket.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note SSLSocket: 73d. instances must to
     created with *note wrap_socket(): 2af.  In earlier versions, it was
     possible to create instances directly.  This was never documented
     or officially supported.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Python now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.read (len=1024, buffer=None)

     Read up to 'len' bytes of data from the SSL socket and return the
     result as a ‘bytes’ instance.  If 'buffer' is specified, then read
     into the buffer instead, and return the number of bytes read.

     Raise *note SSLWantReadError: cfd. or *note SSLWantWriteError: cfe.
     if the socket is *note non-blocking: 31a7. and the read would
     block.

     As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to *note
     read(): d02. can also cause write operations.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration to read up to 'len' bytes.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use ‘recv()’ instead of *note
     read(): d02.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.write (buf)

     Write 'buf' to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes
     written.  The 'buf' argument must be an object supporting the
     buffer interface.

     Raise *note SSLWantReadError: cfd. or *note SSLWantWriteError: cfe.
     if the socket is *note non-blocking: 31a7. and the write would
     block.

     As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to *note
     write(): d03. can also cause read operations.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration to write 'buf'.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use ‘send()’ instead of *note
     write(): d03.

     Not: The *note read(): d02. and *note write(): d03. methods are the
     low-level methods that read and write unencrypted,
     application-level data and decrypt/encrypt it to encrypted,
     wire-level data.  These methods require an active SSL connection,
     i.e.  the handshake was completed and *note SSLSocket.unwrap():
     31dc. was not called.

     Normally you should use the socket API methods like *note recv():
     c31. and *note send(): c34. instead of these methods.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.do_handshake ()

     Perform the SSL setup handshake.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The handshake method also performs
     ‘match_hostname()’ when the *note check_hostname: 31b5. attribute
     of the socket’s *note context: 31dd. is true.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration of the handshake.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Hostname or IP address is matched by OpenSSL
     during handshake.  The function ‘match_hostname()’ is no longer
     used.  In case OpenSSL refuses a hostname or IP address, the
     handshake is aborted early and a TLS alert message is sent to the
     peer.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.getpeercert (binary_form=False)

     If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the
     connection, return ‘None’.  If the SSL handshake hasn’t been done
     yet, raise *note ValueError: 189.

     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note False: 9a8, and a
     certificate was received from the peer, this method returns a *note
     dict: 240. instance.  If the certificate was not validated, the
     dict is empty.  If the certificate was validated, it returns a dict
     with several keys, amongst them ‘subject’ (the principal for which
     the certificate was issued) and ‘issuer’ (the principal issuing the
     certificate).  If a certificate contains an instance of the
     'Subject Alternative Name' extension (see RFC 3280(1)), there will
     also be a ‘subjectAltName’ key in the dictionary.

     The ‘subject’ and ‘issuer’ fields are tuples containing the
     sequence of relative distinguished names (RDNs) given in the
     certificate’s data structure for the respective fields, and each
     RDN is a sequence of name-value pairs.  Here is a real-world
     example:

          {'issuer': ((('countryName', 'IL'),),
                      (('organizationName', 'StartCom Ltd.'),),
                      (('organizationalUnitName',
                        'Secure Digital Certificate Signing'),),
                      (('commonName',
                        'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA'),)),
           'notAfter': 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT',
           'notBefore': 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT',
           'serialNumber': '95F0',
           'subject': ((('description', '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z'),),
                       (('countryName', 'US'),),
                       (('stateOrProvinceName', 'California'),),
                       (('localityName', 'San Francisco'),),
                       (('organizationName', 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.'),),
                       (('commonName', '*.eff.org'),),
                       (('emailAddress', 'hostmaster@eff.org'),)),
           'subjectAltName': (('DNS', '*.eff.org'), ('DNS', 'eff.org')),
           'version': 3}

     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note True: a86, and a
     certificate was provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form
     of the entire certificate as a sequence of bytes, or *note None:
     488. if the peer did not provide a certificate.  Whether the peer
     provides a certificate depends on the SSL socket’s role:

        * for a client SSL socket, the server will always provide a
          certificate, regardless of whether validation was required;

        * for a server SSL socket, the client will only provide a
          certificate when requested by the server; therefore *note
          getpeercert(): e5a. will return *note None: 488. if you used
          *note CERT_NONE: 31b3. (rather than *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 31b4.
          or *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2.).

     See also *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The returned dictionary includes additional
     items such as ‘issuer’ and ‘notBefore’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: *note ValueError: 189. is raised when the
     handshake isn’t done.  The returned dictionary includes additional
     X509v3 extension items such as ‘crlDistributionPoints’, ‘caIssuers’
     and ‘OCSP’ URIs.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: IPv6 address strings no longer have a
     trailing new line.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.cipher ()

     Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being
     used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the
     number of secret bits being used.  If no connection has been
     established, returns ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.shared_ciphers ()

     Return the list of ciphers available in both the client and server.
     Each entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing
     the name of the cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that
     defines its use, and the number of secret bits the cipher uses.
     *note shared_ciphers(): d00. returns ‘None’ if no connection has
     been established or the socket is a client socket.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.compression ()

     Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or ‘None’
     if the connection isn’t compressed.

     If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression
     mechanism, you can use *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: fec. to disable
     SSL-level compression.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.get_channel_binding (cb_type='tls-unique')

     Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object.
     Returns ‘None’ if not connected or the handshake has not been
     completed.

     The 'cb_type' parameter allow selection of the desired channel
     binding type.  Valid channel binding types are listed in the *note
     CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES: 31ce. list.  Currently only the ‘tls-unique’
     channel binding, defined by RFC 5929(2), is supported.  *note
     ValueError: 189. will be raised if an unsupported channel binding
     type is requested.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol ()

     Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  If
     *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): cf8. was not called, if the
     other party does not support ALPN, if this socket does not support
     any of the client’s proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not
     happened yet, ‘None’ is returned.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol ()

     Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the
     TLS/SSL handshake.  If *note SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 278.
     was not called, or if the other party does not support NPN, or if
     the handshake has not yet happened, this will return ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.unwrap ()

     Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer
     from the underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket
     object.  This can be used to go from encrypted operation over a
     connection to unencrypted.  The returned socket should always be
     used for further communication with the other side of the
     connection, rather than the original socket.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake ()

     Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client.
     PHA can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a
     server-side socket, after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA
     enabled on both sides, see *note SSLContext.post_handshake_auth:
     893.

     The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately.  The
     server-side sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event
     and expects the client to respond with a certificate on the next
     read event.

     If any precondition isn’t met (e.g.  not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled),
     an *note SSLError: 1122. is raised.

          Not: Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3 enabled.
          Without TLS 1.3 support, the method raises *note
          NotImplementedError: bd6.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.version ()

     Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection
     as a string, or ‘None’ if no secure connection is established.  As
     of this writing, possible return values include ‘"SSLv2"’,
     ‘"SSLv3"’, ‘"TLSv1"’, ‘"TLSv1.1"’ and ‘"TLSv1.2"’.  Recent OpenSSL
     versions may define more return values.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLSocket.pending ()

     Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read,
     pending on the connection.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLSocket.context

     The *note SSLContext: 277. object this SSL socket is tied to.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLSocket.server_side

     A boolean which is ‘True’ for server-side sockets and ‘False’ for
     client-side sockets.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLSocket.server_hostname

     Hostname of the server: *note str: 15d. type, or ‘None’ for
     server-side socket or if the hostname was not specified in the
     constructor.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The attribute is now always ASCII text.
     When ‘server_hostname’ is an internationalized domain name (IDN),
     this attribute now stores the A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’),
     rather than the U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’).

 -- Özniteliği: SSLSocket.session

     The *note SSLSession: b60. for this SSL connection.  The session is
     available for client and server side sockets after the TLS
     handshake has been performed.  For client sockets the session can
     be set before *note do_handshake(): d01. has been called to reuse a
     session.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLSocket.session_reused

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3280.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5929.html


File: python.info,  Node: SSL Contexts,  Next: Certificates,  Prev: SSL Sockets,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.9 SSL Contexts
.....................

Added in version 3.2.

An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL
connections, such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and
private key(s).  It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side
sockets, in order to speed up repeated connections from the same
clients.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.SSLContext (protocol=None)

     Create a new SSL context.  You may pass 'protocol' which must be
     one of the ‘PROTOCOL_*’ constants defined in this module.  The
     parameter specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use.
     Typically, the server chooses a particular protocol version, and
     the client must adapt to the server’s choice.  Most of the versions
     are not interoperable with the other versions.  If not specified,
     the default is *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.; it provides the most
     compatibility with other versions.

     Here’s a table showing which versions in a client (down the side)
     can connect to which versions in a server (along the top):

     'client' / 'server'          'SSLv2'          'SSLv3'          'TLS' (1)         'TLSv1'       'TLSv1.1'       'TLSv1.2'
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv2'                      yes              no               no (2)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv3'                      no               yes              no (3)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLS' ('SSLv23') (4)         no (5)           no (6)           yes               yes           yes             yes
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1'                      no               no               yes               yes           no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.1'                    no               no               yes               no            yes             no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.2'                    no               no               yes               no            no              yes
                                                                                                                    

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note create_default_context(): e4a. lets the *note ssl: cf. module
     choose security settings for a given purpose.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The context is created with secure default
     values.  The options *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: fec, *note
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: fef, *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 31c0,
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 31c1, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 677, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: 678. (except for *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 31af.) are set
     by default.  The initial cipher suite list contains only ‘HIGH’
     ciphers, no ‘NULL’ ciphers and no ‘MD5’ ciphers.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note SSLContext: 277. without
     protocol argument is deprecated.  The context class will either
     require *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. or *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7. protocol in the future.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The default cipher suites now include only
     secure AES and ChaCha20 ciphers with forward secrecy and security
     level 2.  RSA and DH keys with less than 2048 bits and ECC keys
     with less than 224 bits are prohibited.  *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4,
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7.
     use TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version.

          Not: *note SSLContext: 277. only supports limited mutation
          once it has been used by a connection.  Adding new
          certificates to the internal trust store is allowed, but
          changing ciphers, verification settings, or mTLS certificates
          may result in surprising behavior.

          Not: *note SSLContext: 277. is designed to be shared and used
          by multiple connections.  Thus, it is thread-safe as long as
          it is not reconfigured after being used by a connection.

*note SSLContext: 277. objects have the following methods and
attributes:

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.cert_store_stats ()

     Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count
     of X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate
     revocation lists as dictionary.

     Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert:

          >>> context.cert_store_stats()
          {'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2}

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.load_cert_chain (certfile, keyfile=None,
          password=None)

     Load a private key and the corresponding certificate.  The
     'certfile' string must be the path to a single file in PEM format
     containing the certificate as well as any number of CA certificates
     needed to establish the certificate’s authenticity.  The 'keyfile'
     string, if present, must point to a file containing the private
     key.  Otherwise the private key will be taken from 'certfile' as
     well.  See the discussion of *note Certificates: 31e2. for more
     information on how the certificate is stored in the 'certfile'.

     The 'password' argument may be a function to call to get the
     password for decrypting the private key.  It will only be called if
     the private key is encrypted and a password is necessary.  It will
     be called with no arguments, and it should return a string, bytes,
     or bytearray.  If the return value is a string it will be encoded
     as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key.  Alternatively a
     string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly as the
     'password' argument.  It will be ignored if the private key is not
     encrypted and no password is needed.

     If the 'password' argument is not specified and a password is
     required, OpenSSL’s built-in password prompting mechanism will be
     used to interactively prompt the user for a password.

     An *note SSLError: 1122. is raised if the private key doesn’t match
     with the certificate.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: New optional argument 'password'.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.load_default_certs (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH)

     Load a set of default “certification authority” (CA) certificates
     from default locations.  On Windows it loads CA certs from the ‘CA’
     and ‘ROOT’ system stores.  On all systems it calls *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): e4c.  In the future the
     method may load CA certificates from other locations, too.

     The 'purpose' flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are
     loaded.  The default settings *note Purpose.SERVER_AUTH: e55. loads
     certificates, that are flagged and trusted for TLS web server
     authentication (client side sockets).  *note Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH:
     e56. loads CA certificates for client certificate verification on
     the server side.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.load_verify_locations (cafile=None, capath=None,
          cadata=None)

     Load a set of “certification authority” (CA) certificates used to
     validate other peers’ certificates when *note verify_mode: 31a1. is
     other than *note CERT_NONE: 31b3.  At least one of 'cafile' or
     'capath' must be specified.

     This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in
     PEM or DER format.  In order to make use of CRLs, *note
     SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f. must be configured properly.

     The 'cafile' string, if present, is the path to a file of
     concatenated CA certificates in PEM format.  See the discussion of
     *note Certificates: 31e2. for more information about how to arrange
     the certificates in this file.

     The 'capath' string, if present, is the path to a directory
     containing several CA certificates in PEM format, following an
     OpenSSL specific layout(7).

     The 'cadata' object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one
     or more PEM-encoded certificates or a *note bytes-like object: bb5.
     of DER-encoded certificates.  Like with 'capath' extra lines around
     PEM-encoded certificates are ignored but at least one certificate
     must be present.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: New optional argument 'cadata'

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.get_ca_certs (binary_form=False)

     Get a list of loaded “certification authority” (CA) certificates.
     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note False: 9a8. each list entry
     is a dict like the output of *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e5a.
     Otherwise the method returns a list of DER-encoded certificates.
     The returned list does not contain certificates from 'capath'
     unless a certificate was requested and loaded by a SSL connection.

          Not: Certificates in a capath directory aren’t loaded unless
          they have been used at least once.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.get_ciphers ()

     Get a list of enabled ciphers.  The list is in order of cipher
     priority.  See *note SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 31e3.

     Example:

          >>> ctx = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23)
          >>> ctx.set_ciphers('ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA')
          >>> ctx.get_ciphers()
          [{'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 256,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380848,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 256,
            'symmetric': 'aes-256-gcm'},
           {'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 128,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380847,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 128,
            'symmetric': 'aes-128-gcm'}]

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths ()

     Load a set of default “certification authority” (CA) certificates
     from a filesystem path defined when building the OpenSSL library.
     Unfortunately, there’s no easy way to know whether this method
     succeeds: no error is returned if no certificates are to be found.
     When the OpenSSL library is provided as part of the operating
     system, though, it is likely to be configured properly.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.set_ciphers (ciphers)

     Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
     It should be a string in the OpenSSL cipher list format(8).  If no
     cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
     configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an *note
     SSLError: 1122. will be raised.

          Not: when connected, the *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 30d6.
          method of SSL sockets will give the currently selected cipher.

          TLS 1.3 cipher suites cannot be disabled with *note
          set_ciphers(): 31e3.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols (protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of ASCII strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to RFC 7301(9).  After a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): cf9. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. if *note
     HAS_ALPN: cfa. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols (protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to the Application Layer Protocol Negotiation(10).  After
     a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol(): 6b8. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. if *note
     HAS_NPN: 31c8. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.sni_callback

     Register a callback function that will be called after the TLS
     Client Hello handshake message has been received by the SSL/TLS
     server when the TLS client specifies a server name indication.  The
     server name indication mechanism is specified in RFC 6066(11)
     section 3 - Server Name Indication.

     Only one callback can be set per ‘SSLContext’.  If 'sni_callback'
     is set to ‘None’ then the callback is disabled.  Calling this
     function a subsequent time will disable the previously registered
     callback.

     The callback function will be called with three arguments; the
     first being the *note ssl.SSLSocket: 73d, the second is a string
     that represents the server name that the client is intending to
     communicate (or *note None: 488. if the TLS Client Hello does not
     contain a server name) and the third argument is the original *note
     SSLContext: 277.  The server name argument is text.  For
     internationalized domain name, the server name is an IDN A-label
     (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’).

     A typical use of this callback is to change the *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: 73d.’s *note SSLSocket.context: 31dd. attribute to a
     new object of type *note SSLContext: 277. representing a
     certificate chain that matches the server name.

     Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only
     limited methods and attributes are usable like *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): cf9. and *note
     SSLSocket.context: 31dd.  The *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e5a,
     *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 30d6. and *note SSLSocket.compression():
     feb. methods require that the TLS connection has progressed beyond
     the TLS Client Hello and therefore will not return meaningful
     values nor can they be called safely.

     The 'sni_callback' function must return ‘None’ to allow the TLS
     negotiation to continue.  If a TLS failure is required, a constant
     *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*: 31d0. can be returned.  Other return
     values will result in a TLS fatal error with *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR: 31d0.

     If an exception is raised from the 'sni_callback' function the TLS
     connection will terminate with a fatal TLS alert message *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE: 31cf.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. if the
     OpenSSL library had OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT defined when it was built.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.set_servername_callback
          (server_name_callback)

     This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility.  When
     possible, you should use *note sni_callback: 1700. instead.  The
     given 'server_name_callback' is similar to 'sni_callback', except
     that when the server hostname is an IDN-encoded internationalized
     domain name, the 'server_name_callback' receives a decoded U-label
     (‘"pythön.org"’).

     If there is a decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection
     will terminate with an *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR:
     31d0. fatal TLS alert message to the client.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.load_dh_params (dhfile)

     Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key
     exchange.  Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the
     expense of computational resources (both on the server and on the
     client).  The 'dhfile' parameter should be the path to a file
     containing DH parameters in PEM format.

     This setting doesn’t apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 31c0. option to further improve security.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve (curve_name)

     Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH)
     key exchange.  ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while
     arguably as secure.  The 'curve_name' parameter should be a string
     describing a well-known elliptic curve, for example ‘prime256v1’
     for a widely supported curve.

     This setting doesn’t apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 31c1. option to further improve security.

     This method is not available if *note HAS_ECDH: 31c6. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy(12)

          Vincent Bernat.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.wrap_socket (sock, server_side=False,
          do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap an existing Python socket 'sock' and return an instance of
     *note SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 31e4. (default *note SSLSocket:
     73d.).  The returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its
     settings and certificates.  'sock' must be a *note SOCK_STREAM:
     119d. socket; other socket types are unsupported.

     The parameter ‘server_side’ is a boolean which identifies whether
     server-side or client-side behavior is desired from this socket.

     For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the
     underlying socket isn’t connected yet, the context construction
     will be performed after ‘connect()’ is called on the socket.  For
     server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is
     assumed to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping
     is automatically performed on client connections accepted via the
     ‘accept()’ method.  The method may raise *note SSLError: 1122.

     On client connections, the optional parameter 'server_hostname'
     specifies the hostname of the service which we are connecting to.
     This allows a single server to host multiple SSL-based services
     with distinct certificates, quite similarly to HTTP virtual hosts.
     Specifying 'server_hostname' will raise a *note ValueError: 189. if
     'server_side' is true.

     The parameter ‘do_handshake_on_connect’ specifies whether to do the
     SSL handshake automatically after doing a ‘socket.connect()’, or
     whether the application program will call it explicitly, by
     invoking the *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): d01. method.  Calling
     *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): d01. explicitly gives the program
     control over the blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in
     the handshake.

     The parameter ‘suppress_ragged_eofs’ specifies how the
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ method should signal unexpected EOF from the
     other end of the connection.  If specified as *note True: a86. (the
     default), it returns a normal EOF (an empty bytes object) in
     response to unexpected EOF errors raised from the underlying
     socket; if *note False: 9a8, it will raise the exceptions back to
     the caller.

     'session', see *note session: 1441.

     To wrap an *note SSLSocket: 73d. in another *note SSLSocket: 73d,
     use *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): 9f8.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Always allow a server_hostname to be passed,
     even if OpenSSL does not have SNI.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'session' argument was added.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 31e4. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLSocket: 73d.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.sslsocket_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af, defaults to
     *note SSLSocket: 73d.  The attribute can be overridden on instance
     of class in order to return a custom subclass of *note SSLSocket:
     73d.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.wrap_bio (incoming, outgoing, server_side=False,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap the BIO objects 'incoming' and 'outgoing' and return an
     instance of *note SSLContext.sslobject_class: 31e5. (default *note
     SSLObject: 9f7.).  The SSL routines will read input data from the
     incoming BIO and write data to the outgoing BIO.

     The 'server_side', 'server_hostname' and 'session' parameters have
     the same meaning as in *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'session' argument was added.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslobject_class: 31e5. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLObject: 9f7.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.sslobject_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): 9f8, defaults to
     *note SSLObject: 9f7.  The attribute can be overridden on instance
     of class in order to return a custom subclass of *note SSLObject:
     9f7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Yöntemi: SSLContext.session_stats ()

     Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this
     context.  A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each
     piece of information(13) to their numeric values.  For example,
     here is the total number of hits and misses in the session cache
     since the context was created:

          >>> stats = context.session_stats()
          >>> stats['hits'], stats['misses']
          (0, 0)

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.check_hostname

     Whether to match the peer cert’s hostname in *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): d01.  The context’s *note verify_mode:
     31a1. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 31b4. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2, and you must pass 'server_hostname' to *note
     wrap_socket(): 2af. in order to match the hostname.  Enabling
     hostname checking automatically sets *note verify_mode: 31a1. from
     *note CERT_NONE: 31b3. to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2.  It cannot be
     set back to *note CERT_NONE: 31b3. as long as hostname checking is
     enabled.  The *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. protocol enables
     hostname checking by default.  With other protocols, hostname
     checking must be enabled explicitly.

     Example:

          import socket, ssl

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2)
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
          context.check_hostname = True
          context.load_default_certs()

          s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
          ssl_sock = context.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname='www.verisign.com')
          ssl_sock.connect(('www.verisign.com', 443))

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note verify_mode: 31a1. is now
     automatically changed to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2. when hostname
     checking is enabled and *note verify_mode: 31a1. is *note
     CERT_NONE: 31b3.  Previously the same operation would have failed
     with a *note ValueError: 189.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.keylog_filename

     Write TLS keys to a keylog file, whenever key material is generated
     or received.  The keylog file is designed for debugging purposes
     only.  The file format is specified by NSS and used by many traffic
     analyzers such as Wireshark.  The log file is opened in append-only
     mode.  Writes are synchronized between threads, but not between
     processes.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.maximum_version

     A *note TLSVersion: 31d3. enum member representing the highest
     supported TLS version.  The value defaults to *note
     TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED: 31d5.  The attribute is read-only for
     protocols other than *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4, *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7.

     The attributes *note maximum_version: 6b5, *note minimum_version:
     6b4. and *note SSLContext.options: 676. all affect the supported
     SSL and TLS versions of the context.  The implementation does not
     prevent invalid combination.  For example a context with *note
     OP_NO_TLSv1_2: 31be. in *note options: 676. and *note
     maximum_version: 6b5. set to *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 31d9. will
     not be able to establish a TLS 1.2 connection.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.minimum_version

     Like *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 6b5. except it is the lowest
     supported version or *note TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED: 31d4.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.num_tickets

     Control the number of TLS 1.3 session tickets of a *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7. context.  The setting has no impact on
     TLS 1.0 to 1.2 connections.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.options

     An integer representing the set of SSL options enabled on this
     context.  The default value is *note OP_ALL: 31bb, but you can
     specify other options such as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 677. by ORing them
     together.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note SSLContext.options: 676. returns *note
     Options: 31c3. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().options
          <Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391>

     3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: All ‘OP_NO_SSL*’ and
     ‘OP_NO_TLS*’ options have been deprecated since Python 3.7.  Use
     *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 6b4. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: 6b5. instead.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth

     Enable TLS 1.3 post-handshake client authentication.
     Post-handshake auth is disabled by default and a server can only
     request a TLS client certificate during the initial handshake.
     When enabled, a server may request a TLS client certificate at any
     time after the handshake.

     When enabled on client-side sockets, the client signals the server
     that it supports post-handshake authentication.

     When enabled on server-side sockets, *note SSLContext.verify_mode:
     31a1. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 31b4. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2, too.  The actual client cert exchange is
     delayed until *note SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): 894.
     is called and some I/O is performed.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.protocol

     The protocol version chosen when constructing the context.  This
     attribute is read-only.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name

     Whether *note check_hostname: 31b5. falls back to verify the cert’s
     subject common name in the absence of a subject alternative name
     extension (default: true).

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The flag had no effect with OpenSSL before
     version 1.1.1l.  Python 3.8.9, 3.9.3, and 3.10 include workarounds
     for previous versions.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.security_level

     An integer representing the security level(14) for the context.
     This attribute is read-only.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.verify_flags

     The flags for certificate verification operations.  You can set
     flags like *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: e51. by ORing them
     together.  By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify
     certificate revocation lists (CRLs).

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note SSLContext.verify_flags: e4f. returns
     *note VerifyFlags: 31b8. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_flags
          <VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768>

 -- Özniteliği: SSLContext.verify_mode

     Whether to try to verify other peers’ certificates and how to
     behave if verification fails.  This attribute must be one of *note
     CERT_NONE: 31b3, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 31b4. or *note CERT_REQUIRED:
     31a2.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 31a1. returns
     *note VerifyMode: 31b6. enum:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_mode
          <VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (2) *note SSLContext: 277. disables SSLv2 with *note OP_NO_SSLv2:
677. by default.

   (3) *note SSLContext: 277. disables SSLv3 with *note OP_NO_SSLv3:
678. by default.

   (4) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 31a4.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (5) *note SSLContext: 277. disables SSLv2 with *note OP_NO_SSLv2:
677. by default.

   (6) *note SSLContext: 277. disables SSLv3 with *note OP_NO_SSLv3:
678. by default.

   (7) 
https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations/

   (8) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man1/ciphers/

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (10) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (12) 
https://vincent.bernat.ch/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy

   (13) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number/

   (14) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level/


File: python.info,  Node: Certificates,  Next: Examples<19>,  Prev: SSL Contexts,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.10 Certificates
......................

Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system.
In this system, each 'principal', (which may be a machine, or a person,
or an organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key.  One
part of the key is public, and is called the 'public key'; the other
part is kept secret, and is called the 'private key'.  The two parts are
related, in that if you encrypt a message with one of the parts, you can
decrypt it with the other part, and 'only' with the other part.

A certificate contains information about two principals.  It contains
the name of a 'subject', and the subject’s public key.  It also contains
a statement by a second principal, the 'issuer', that the subject is who
they claim to be, and that this is indeed the subject’s public key.  The
issuer’s statement is signed with the issuer’s private key, which only
the issuer knows.  However, anyone can verify the issuer’s statement by
finding the issuer’s public key, decrypting the statement with it, and
comparing it to the other information in the certificate.  The
certificate also contains information about the time period over which
it is valid.  This is expressed as two fields, called “notBefore” and
“notAfter”.

In the Python use of certificates, a client or server can use a
certificate to prove who they are.  The other side of a network
connection can also be required to produce a certificate, and that
certificate can be validated to the satisfaction of the client or server
that requires such validation.  The connection attempt can be set to
raise an exception if the validation fails.  Validation is done
automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the application need
not concern itself with its mechanics.  But the application does usually
need to provide sets of certificates to allow this process to take
place.

Python uses files to contain certificates.  They should be formatted as
“PEM” (see RFC 1422(1)), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped with a
header line and a footer line:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----

* Menu:

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html


File: python.info,  Node: Certificate chains,  Next: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.11 Certificate chains
............................

The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence of
certificates, sometimes called a 'certificate chain'.  This chain should
start with the specific certificate for the principal who “is” the
client or server, and then the certificate for the issuer of that
certificate, and then the certificate for the issuer of 'that'
certificate, and so on up the chain till you get to a certificate which
is 'self-signed', that is, a certificate which has the same subject and
issuer, sometimes called a 'root certificate'.  The certificates should
just be concatenated together in the certificate file.  For example,
suppose we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate to
the certificate of the certification authority that signed our server
certificate, to the root certificate of the agency which issued the
certification authority’s certificate:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate for your server)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the certificate for the CA)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: CA certificates,  Next: Combined key and certificate,  Prev: Certificate chains,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.12 CA certificates
.........................

If you are going to require validation of the other side of the
connection’s certificate, you need to provide a “CA certs” file, filled
with the certificate chains for each issuer you are willing to trust.
Again, this file just contains these chains concatenated together.  For
validation, Python will use the first chain it finds in the file which
matches.  The platform’s certificates file can be used by calling *note
SSLContext.load_default_certs(): e54, this is done automatically with
*note create_default_context(): e4a.


File: python.info,  Node: Combined key and certificate,  Next: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.13 Combined key and certificate
......................................

Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in
this case, only the ‘certfile’ parameter to *note
SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): fe7. needs to be passed.  If the private
key is stored with the certificate, it should come before the first
certificate in the certificate chain:

     -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     ... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
     -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: Combined key and certificate,  Up: Certificates

5.18.3.14 Self-signed certificates
..................................

If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted
connection services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that
service.  There are many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates,
such as buying one from a certification authority.  Another common
practice is to generate a self-signed certificate.  The simplest way to
do this is with the OpenSSL package, using something like the following:

     % openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
     Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
     .......++++++
     .............................++++++
     writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
     -----
     You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
     into your certificate request.
     What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
     There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
     For some fields there will be a default value,
     If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
     -----
     Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
     State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
     Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
     Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
     Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
     Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     %

The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its own root
certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache of known (and
trusted) root certificates.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<19>,  Next: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Prev: Certificates,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.15 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::


File: python.info,  Node: Testing for SSL support,  Next: Client-side operation,  Up: Examples<19>

5.18.3.16 Testing for SSL support
.................................

To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user
code should use the following idiom:

     try:
         import ssl
     except ImportError:
         pass
     else:
         ...  # do something that requires SSL support


File: python.info,  Node: Client-side operation,  Next: Server-side operation,  Prev: Testing for SSL support,  Up: Examples<19>

5.18.3.17 Client-side operation
...............................

This example creates a SSL context with the recommended security
settings for client sockets, including automatic certificate
verification:

     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()

If you prefer to tune security settings yourself, you might create a
context from scratch (but beware that you might not get the settings
right):

     >>> context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> context.load_verify_locations("/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt")

(this snippet assumes your operating system places a bundle of all CA
certificates in ‘/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt’; if not, you’ll get an
error and have to adjust the location)

The *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. protocol configures the context for
cert validation and hostname verification.  *note verify_mode: 31a1. is
set to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2. and *note check_hostname: 31b5. is set
to ‘True’.  All other protocols create SSL contexts with insecure
defaults.

When you use the context to connect to a server, *note CERT_REQUIRED:
31a2. and *note check_hostname: 31b5. validate the server certificate:
it ensures that the server certificate was signed with one of the CA
certificates, checks the signature for correctness, and verifies other
properties like validity and identity of the hostname:

     >>> conn = context.wrap_socket(socket.socket(socket.AF_INET),
     ...                            server_hostname="www.python.org")
     >>> conn.connect(("www.python.org", 443))

You may then fetch the certificate:

     >>> cert = conn.getpeercert()

Visual inspection shows that the certificate does identify the desired
service (that is, the HTTPS host ‘www.python.org’):

     >>> pprint.pprint(cert)
     {'OCSP': ('http://ocsp.digicert.com',),
      'caIssuers': ('http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt',),
      'crlDistributionPoints': ('http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
                                'http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl'),
      'issuer': ((('countryName', 'US'),),
                 (('organizationName', 'DigiCert Inc'),),
                 (('organizationalUnitName', 'www.digicert.com'),),
                 (('commonName', 'DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA'),)),
      'notAfter': 'Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT',
      'notBefore': 'Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT',
      'serialNumber': '01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26',
      'subject': ((('businessCategory', 'Private Organization'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3', 'US'),),
                  (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2', 'Delaware'),),
                  (('serialNumber', '3359300'),),
                  (('streetAddress', '16 Allen Rd'),),
                  (('postalCode', '03894-4801'),),
                  (('countryName', 'US'),),
                  (('stateOrProvinceName', 'NH'),),
                  (('localityName', 'Wolfeboro'),),
                  (('organizationName', 'Python Software Foundation'),),
                  (('commonName', 'www.python.org'),)),
      'subjectAltName': (('DNS', 'www.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'docs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'testpypi.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'bugs.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'wiki.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'hg.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'mail.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'packaging.python.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'www.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'test.pythonhosted.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'us.pycon.org'),
                         ('DNS', 'id.python.org')),
      'version': 3}

Now the SSL channel is established and the certificate verified, you can
proceed to talk with the server:

     >>> conn.sendall(b"HEAD / HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: linuxfr.org\r\n\r\n")
     >>> pprint.pprint(conn.recv(1024).split(b"\r\n"))
     [b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK',
      b'Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT',
      b'Server: nginx',
      b'Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8',
      b'X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN',
      b'Content-Length: 45679',
      b'Accept-Ranges: bytes',
      b'Via: 1.1 varnish',
      b'Age: 2188',
      b'X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY',
      b'X-Cache: HIT',
      b'X-Cache-Hits: 11',
      b'Vary: Cookie',
      b'Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains',
      b'Connection: close',
      b'',
      b'']

See the discussion of *note Security considerations: 3092. below.


File: python.info,  Node: Server-side operation,  Prev: Client-side operation,  Up: Examples<19>

5.18.3.18 Server-side operation
...............................

For server operation, typically you’ll need to have a server
certificate, and private key, each in a file.  You’ll first create a
context holding the key and the certificate, so that clients can check
your authenticity.  Then you’ll open a socket, bind it to a port, call
‘listen()’ on it, and start waiting for clients to connect:

     import socket, ssl

     context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
     context.load_cert_chain(certfile="mycertfile", keyfile="mykeyfile")

     bindsocket = socket.socket()
     bindsocket.bind(('myaddr.example.com', 10023))
     bindsocket.listen(5)

When a client connects, you’ll call ‘accept()’ on the socket to get the
new socket from the other end, and use the context’s *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 2af. method to create a server-side SSL socket
for the connection:

     while True:
         newsocket, fromaddr = bindsocket.accept()
         connstream = context.wrap_socket(newsocket, server_side=True)
         try:
             deal_with_client(connstream)
         finally:
             connstream.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR)
             connstream.close()

Then you’ll read data from the ‘connstream’ and do something with it
till you are finished with the client (or the client is finished with
you):

     def deal_with_client(connstream):
         data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # empty data means the client is finished with us
         while data:
             if not do_something(connstream, data):
                 # we'll assume do_something returns False
                 # when we're finished with client
                 break
             data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # finished with client

And go back to listening for new client connections (of course, a real
server would probably handle each client connection in a separate
thread, or put the sockets in *note non-blocking mode: 31a7. and use an
event loop).


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Next: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Prev: Examples<19>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.19 Notes on non-blocking sockets
.......................................

SSL sockets behave slightly different than regular sockets in
non-blocking mode.  When working with non-blocking sockets, there are
thus several things you need to be aware of:

   - Most *note SSLSocket: 73d. methods will raise either *note
     SSLWantWriteError: cfe. or *note SSLWantReadError: cfd. instead of
     *note BlockingIOError: f01. if an I/O operation would block.  *note
     SSLWantReadError: cfd. will be raised if a read operation on the
     underlying socket is necessary, and *note SSLWantWriteError: cfe.
     for a write operation on the underlying socket.  Note that attempts
     to 'write' to an SSL socket may require 'reading' from the
     underlying socket first, and attempts to 'read' from the SSL socket
     may require a prior 'write' to the underlying socket.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: In earlier Python versions, the
     ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method returned zero instead of raising *note
     SSLWantWriteError: cfe. or *note SSLWantReadError: cfd.

   - Calling *note select(): c2d. tells you that the OS-level socket can
     be read from (or written to), but it does not imply that there is
     sufficient data at the upper SSL layer.  For example, only part of
     an SSL frame might have arrived.  Therefore, you must be ready to
     handle ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ and ‘SSLSocket.send()’ failures, and
     retry after another call to *note select(): c2d.

   - Conversely, since the SSL layer has its own framing, a SSL socket
     may still have data available for reading without *note select():
     c2d. being aware of it.  Therefore, you should first call
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ to drain any potentially available data, and
     then only block on a *note select(): c2d. call if still necessary.

     (of course, similar provisions apply when using other primitives
     such as *note poll(): 2988, or those in the *note selectors: c1.
     module)

   - The SSL handshake itself will be non-blocking: the *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): d01. method has to be retried until it
     returns successfully.  Here is a synopsis using *note select():
     c2d. to wait for the socket’s readiness:

          while True:
              try:
                  sock.do_handshake()
                  break
              except ssl.SSLWantReadError:
                  select.select([sock], [], [])
              except ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
                  select.select([], [sock], [])

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note asyncio: a. module supports *note non-blocking SSL sockets:
31a7. and provides a higher level *note Streams API: 2fbf.  It polls for
events using the *note selectors: c1. module and handles *note
SSLWantWriteError: cfe, *note SSLWantReadError: cfd. and *note
BlockingIOError: f01. exceptions.  It runs the SSL handshake
asynchronously as well.


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Next: SSL session,  Prev: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.20 Memory BIO Support
............................

Added in version 3.5.

Ever since the SSL module was introduced in Python 2.6, the *note
SSLSocket: 73d. class has provided two related but distinct areas of
functionality:

   - SSL protocol handling

   - Network IO

The network IO API is identical to that provided by *note socket.socket:
c2e, from which *note SSLSocket: 73d. also inherits.  This allows an SSL
socket to be used as a drop-in replacement for a regular socket, making
it very easy to add SSL support to an existing application.

Combining SSL protocol handling and network IO usually works well, but
there are some cases where it doesn’t.  An example is async IO
frameworks that want to use a different IO multiplexing model than the
“select/poll on a file descriptor” (readiness based) model that is
assumed by *note socket.socket: c2e. and by the internal OpenSSL socket
IO routines.  This is mostly relevant for platforms like Windows where
this model is not efficient.  For this purpose, a reduced scope variant
of *note SSLSocket: 73d. called *note SSLObject: 9f7. is provided.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.SSLObject

     A reduced-scope variant of *note SSLSocket: 73d. representing an
     SSL protocol instance that does not contain any network IO methods.
     This class is typically used by framework authors that want to
     implement asynchronous IO for SSL through memory buffers.

     This class implements an interface on top of a low-level SSL object
     as implemented by OpenSSL. This object captures the state of an SSL
     connection but does not provide any network IO itself.  IO needs to
     be performed through separate “BIO” objects which are OpenSSL’s IO
     abstraction layer.

     This class has no public constructor.  An *note SSLObject: 9f7.
     instance must be created using the *note wrap_bio(): 9f8. method.
     This method will create the *note SSLObject: 9f7. instance and bind
     it to a pair of BIOs.  The 'incoming' BIO is used to pass data from
     Python to the SSL protocol instance, while the 'outgoing' BIO is
     used to pass data the other way around.

     The following methods are available:

        - *note context: 31dd.

        - *note server_side: 31df.

        - *note server_hostname: 9f5.

        - *note session: 1441.

        - *note session_reused: 31e0.

        - *note read(): d02.

        - *note write(): d03.

        - *note getpeercert(): e5a.

        - *note selected_alpn_protocol(): cf9.

        - *note selected_npn_protocol(): 6b8.

        - *note cipher(): 30d6.

        - *note shared_ciphers(): d00.

        - *note compression(): feb.

        - *note pending(): 31de.

        - *note do_handshake(): d01.

        - *note verify_client_post_handshake(): 894.

        - *note unwrap(): 31dc.

        - *note get_channel_binding(): fea.

        - *note version(): cfc.

     When compared to *note SSLSocket: 73d, this object lacks the
     following features:

        - Any form of network IO; ‘recv()’ and ‘send()’ read and write
          only to the underlying *note MemoryBIO: cf6. buffers.

        - There is no 'do_handshake_on_connect' machinery.  You must
          always manually call *note do_handshake(): d01. to start the
          handshake.

        - There is no handling of 'suppress_ragged_eofs'.  All
          end-of-file conditions that are in violation of the protocol
          are reported via the *note SSLEOFError: 1563. exception.

        - The method *note unwrap(): 31dc. call does not return
          anything, unlike for an SSL socket where it returns the
          underlying socket.

        - The 'server_name_callback' callback passed to *note
          SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): e59. will get an *note
          SSLObject: 9f7. instance instead of a *note SSLSocket: 73d.
          instance as its first parameter.

     Some notes related to the use of *note SSLObject: 9f7.:

        - All IO on an *note SSLObject: 9f7. is *note non-blocking:
          31a7.  This means that for example *note read(): d02. will
          raise an *note SSLWantReadError: cfd. if it needs more data
          than the incoming BIO has available.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note SSLObject: 9f7. instances must be
     created with *note wrap_bio(): 9f8.  In earlier versions, it was
     possible to create instances directly.  This was never documented
     or officially supported.

An SSLObject communicates with the outside world using memory buffers.
The class *note MemoryBIO: cf6. provides a memory buffer that can be
used for this purpose.  It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO)
object:

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.MemoryBIO

     A memory buffer that can be used to pass data between Python and an
     SSL protocol instance.

      -- Özniteliği: pending

          Return the number of bytes currently in the memory buffer.

      -- Özniteliği: eof

          A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the
          end-of-file position.

      -- Yöntemi: read (n=-1)

          Read up to 'n' bytes from the memory buffer.  If 'n' is not
          specified or negative, all bytes are returned.

      -- Yöntemi: write (buf)

          Write the bytes from 'buf' to the memory BIO. The 'buf'
          argument must be an object supporting the buffer protocol.

          The return value is the number of bytes written, which is
          always equal to the length of 'buf'.

      -- Yöntemi: write_eof ()

          Write an EOF marker to the memory BIO. After this method has
          been called, it is illegal to call *note write(): 31f8.  The
          attribute *note eof: 31f6. will become true after all data
          currently in the buffer has been read.


File: python.info,  Node: SSL session,  Next: Security considerations<2>,  Prev: Memory BIO Support<2>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.21 SSL session
.....................

Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: ssl.SSLSession

     Session object used by *note session: 1441.

      -- Özniteliği: id

      -- Özniteliği: time

      -- Özniteliği: timeout

      -- Özniteliği: ticket_lifetime_hint

      -- Özniteliği: has_ticket


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations<2>,  Next: TLS 1 3,  Prev: SSL session,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.22 Security considerations
.................................

* Menu:

* Best defaults::
* Manual settings::
* Multi-processing::


File: python.info,  Node: Best defaults,  Next: Manual settings,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.18.3.23 Best defaults
.......................

For 'client use', if you don’t have any special requirements for your
security policy, it is highly recommended that you use the *note
create_default_context(): e4a. function to create your SSL context.  It
will load the system’s trusted CA certificates, enable certificate
validation and hostname checking, and try to choose reasonably secure
protocol and cipher settings.

For example, here is how you would use the *note smtplib.SMTP: 786.
class to create a trusted, secure connection to a SMTP server:

     >>> import ssl, smtplib
     >>> smtp = smtplib.SMTP("mail.python.org", port=587)
     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
     >>> smtp.starttls(context=context)
     (220, b'2.0.0 Ready to start TLS')

If a client certificate is needed for the connection, it can be added
with *note SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): fe7.

By contrast, if you create the SSL context by calling the *note
SSLContext: 277. constructor yourself, it will not have certificate
validation nor hostname checking enabled by default.  If you do so,
please read the paragraphs below to achieve a good security level.


File: python.info,  Node: Manual settings,  Next: Multi-processing,  Prev: Best defaults,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.18.3.24 Manual settings
.........................

* Menu:

* Verifying certificates::
* Protocol versions::
* Cipher selection::


File: python.info,  Node: Verifying certificates,  Next: Protocol versions,  Up: Manual settings

5.18.3.25 Verifying certificates
................................

When calling the *note SSLContext: 277. constructor directly, *note
CERT_NONE: 31b3. is the default.  Since it does not authenticate the
other peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of
the time you would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you’re
talking to.  Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to
use *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2.  However, it is in itself not sufficient;
you also have to check that the server certificate, which can be
obtained by calling *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): e5a, matches the
desired service.  For many protocols and applications, the service can
be identified by the hostname.  This common check is automatically
performed when *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. is enabled.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Hostname matchings is now performed by OpenSSL.
Python no longer uses ‘match_hostname()’.

In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL
layer (rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism),
you’ll also have to specify *note CERT_REQUIRED: 31a2. and similarly
check the client certificate.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocol versions,  Next: Cipher selection,  Prev: Verifying certificates,  Up: Manual settings

5.18.3.26 Protocol versions
...........................

SSL versions 2 and 3 are considered insecure and are therefore dangerous
to use.  If you want maximum compatibility between clients and servers,
it is recommended to use *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. or *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 6b7. as the protocol version.  SSLv2 and SSLv3 are
disabled by default.

     >>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
     >>> client_context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.3 and later (if
supported by your system) connections to a server.  *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 6b6. implies certificate validation and hostname
checks by default.  You have to load certificates into the context.


File: python.info,  Node: Cipher selection,  Prev: Protocol versions,  Up: Manual settings

5.18.3.27 Cipher selection
..........................

If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers
enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the *note
SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 31e3. method.  Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want to
further restrict the cipher choice.  Be sure to read OpenSSL’s
documentation about the cipher list format(1).  If you want to check
which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use *note
SSLContext.get_ciphers(): b61. or the ‘openssl ciphers’ command on your
system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-processing,  Prev: Manual settings,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.18.3.28 Multi-processing
..........................

If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using,
for example the *note multiprocessing: 93. or *note concurrent.futures:
21. modules), be aware that OpenSSL’s internal random number generator
does not properly handle forked processes.  Applications must change the
PRNG state of the parent process if they use any SSL feature with *note
os.fork(): 23a.  Any successful call of *note RAND_add(): 31ad. or *note
RAND_bytes(): 2ae. is sufficient.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS 1 3,  Prev: Security considerations<2>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.18.3.29 TLS 1.3
.................

Added in version 3.7.

The TLS 1.3 protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version
of TLS/SSL. Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.

   - TLS 1.3 uses a disjunct set of cipher suites.  All AES-GCM and
     ChaCha20 cipher suites are enabled by default.  The method *note
     SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 31e3. cannot enable or disable any TLS
     1.3 ciphers yet, but *note SSLContext.get_ciphers(): b61. returns
     them.

   - Session tickets are no longer sent as part of the initial handshake
     and are handled differently.  *note SSLSocket.session: 1441. and
     *note SSLSession: b60. are not compatible with TLS 1.3.

   - Client-side certificates are also no longer verified during the
     initial handshake.  A server can request a certificate at any time.
     Clients process certificate requests while they send or receive
     application data from the server.

   - TLS 1.3 features like early data, deferred TLS client cert request,
     signature algorithm configuration, and rekeying are not supported
     yet.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Class *note socket.socket: c2e.

     Documentation of underlying *note socket: cb. class

SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction(1)

     Intro from the Apache HTTP Server documentation

RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management(2)

     Steve Kent

RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security(3)

     Donald E., Jeffrey I. Schiller

RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile(4)

     D. Cooper

RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2(5)

     T. Dierks et.  al.

RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions(6)

     D. Eastlake

IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters(7)

     IANA

RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)(8)

     IETF

Mozilla's Server Side TLS recommendations(9)

     Mozilla

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4086.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (7) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7525.html

   (9) https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS


File: python.info,  Node: select — Waiting for I/O completion,  Next: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing,  Prev: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.4 ‘select’ — Waiting for I/O completion
--------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the ‘select()’ and ‘poll()’ functions
available in most operating systems, ‘devpoll()’ available on Solaris
and derivatives, ‘epoll()’ available on Linux 2.5+ and ‘kqueue()’
available on most BSD. Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets;
on other operating systems, it also works for other file types (in
particular, on Unix, it works on pipes).  It cannot be used on regular
files to determine whether a file has grown since it was last read.

     Not: The *note selectors: c1. module allows high-level and
     efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the *note select: c0. module
     primitives.  Users are encouraged to use the *note selectors: c1.
     module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
     primitives used.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The module defines the following:

 -- Özel Durum: select.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 65c.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made
     an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Işlevi: select.devpoll ()

     (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.)  Returns a ‘/dev/poll’
     polling object; see section *note /dev/poll Polling Objects: 320a.
     below for the methods supported by devpoll objects.

     ‘devpoll()’ objects are linked to the number of file descriptors
     allowed at the time of instantiation.  If your program reduces this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ will fail.  If your program increases this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ may return an incomplete list of active file
     descriptors.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Işlevi: select.epoll (sizehint=-1, flags=0)

     (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.)  Return an edge polling
     object, which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for
     I/O events.

     'sizehint' informs epoll about the expected number of events to be
     registered.  It must be positive, or ‘-1’ to use the default.  It
     is only used on older systems where ‘epoll_create1()’ is not
     available; otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still
     checked).

     'flags' is deprecated and completely ignored.  However, when
     supplied, its value must be ‘0’ or ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’,
     otherwise ‘OSError’ is raised.

     See the *note Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: 320b.
     section below for the methods supported by epolling objects.

     ‘epoll’ objects support the context management protocol: when used
     in a *note with: 3dd. statement, the new file descriptor is
     automatically closed at the end of the block.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'flags' parameter.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added.  The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

     3.4 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The 'flags' parameter.
     ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’ is used by default now.  Use *note
     os.set_inheritable(): d92. to make the file descriptor inheritable.

 -- Işlevi: select.poll ()

     (Not supported by all operating systems.)  Returns a polling
     object, which supports registering and unregistering file
     descriptors, and then polling them for I/O events; see section
     *note Polling Objects: 320c. below for the methods supported by
     polling objects.

 -- Işlevi: select.kqueue ()

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel queue object; see section
     *note Kqueue Objects: 320d. below for the methods supported by
     kqueue objects.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: d90.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Işlevi: select.kevent (ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ,
          flags=KQ_EV_ADD, fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel event object; see section
     *note Kevent Objects: 320f. below for the methods supported by
     kevent objects.

 -- Işlevi: select.select (rlist, wlist, xlist[, timeout])

     This is a straightforward interface to the Unix ‘select()’ system
     call.  The first three arguments are iterables of ‘waitable
     objects’: either integers representing file descriptors or objects
     with a parameterless method named *note fileno(): 2629. returning
     such an integer:

        * 'rlist': wait until ready for reading

        * 'wlist': wait until ready for writing

        * 'xlist': wait for an “exceptional condition” (see the manual
          page for what your system considers such a condition)

     Empty iterables are allowed, but acceptance of three empty
     iterables is platform-dependent.  (It is known to work on Unix but
     not on Windows.)  The optional 'timeout' argument specifies a
     time-out as a floating-point number in seconds.  When the 'timeout'
     argument is omitted the function blocks until at least one file
     descriptor is ready.  A time-out value of zero specifies a poll and
     never blocks.

     The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready:
     subsets of the first three arguments.  When the time-out is reached
     without a file descriptor becoming ready, three empty lists are
     returned.

     Among the acceptable object types in the iterables are Python *note
     file objects: 1068. (e.g.  ‘sys.stdin’, or objects returned by
     *note open(): 2a6. or *note os.popen(): 8ec.), socket objects
     returned by *note socket.socket(): c2e.  You may also define a
     'wrapper' class yourself, as long as it has an appropriate *note
     fileno(): 2629. method (that really returns a file descriptor, not
     just a random integer).

          Not: 
          File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are.
          On Windows, the underlying ‘select()’ function is provided by
          the WinSock library, and does not handle file descriptors that
          don’t originate from WinSock.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(2) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: c14.

 -- Verisi: select.PIPE_BUF

     The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking
     to a pipe when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by
     *note select(): c2d, ‘poll()’ or another interface in this module.
     This doesn’t apply to other kind of file-like objects such as
     sockets.

     This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Next: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.18.4.1 ‘/dev/poll’ Polling Objects
....................................

Solaris and derivatives have ‘/dev/poll’.  While ‘select()’ is
'O'('highest file descriptor') and ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors'), ‘/dev/poll’ is 'O'('active file descriptors').

‘/dev/poll’ behaviour is very close to the standard ‘poll()’ object.

 -- Yöntemi: devpoll.close ()

     Close the file descriptor of the polling object.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Özniteliği: devpoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the polling object is closed.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: devpoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the polling object.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: devpoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 2988. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 2629. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for.  The constants are the same that with
     ‘poll()’ object.  The default value is a combination of the
     constants ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’.

          Uyarı: Registering a file descriptor that’s already registered
          is not an error, but the result is undefined.  The appropriate
          action is to unregister or modify it first.  This is an
          important difference compared with ‘poll()’.

 -- Yöntemi: devpoll.modify (fd[, eventmask])

     This method does an *note unregister(): 3213. followed by a *note
     register(): 3211.  It is (a bit) more efficient that doing the same
     explicitly.

 -- Yöntemi: devpoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 3211. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 2629. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is
     safely ignored.

 -- Yöntemi: devpoll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor — ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted, -1, or
     *note None: 488, the call will block until there is an event for
     this poll object.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: c14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Next: Polling Objects,  Prev: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.18.4.2 Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
.......................................................

     ‘https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll’

     'eventmask'

     Constant                      Meaning
                                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
     ‘EPOLLIN’                     Available for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLOUT’                    Available for write
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLPRI’                    Urgent data for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLERR’                    Error condition happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLHUP’                    Hang up happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLET’                     Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is Level
                                   Trigger behavior
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLONESHOT’                Set one-shot behavior.  After one event is pulled
                                   out, the fd is internally disabled
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’              Wake only one epoll object when the associated fd
                                   has an event.  The default (if this flag is not
                                   set) is to wake all epoll objects polling on a
                                   fd.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDHUP’                  Stream socket peer closed connection or shut down
                                   writing half of connection.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDNORM’                 Equivalent to ‘EPOLLIN’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDBAND’                 Priority data band can be read.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRNORM’                 Equivalent to ‘EPOLLOUT’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRBAND’                 Priority data may be written.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLMSG’                    Ignored.
                                   

     Added in version 3.6: ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’ was added.  It’s only
     supported by Linux Kernel 4.5 or later.

 -- Yöntemi: epoll.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object.

 -- Özniteliği: epoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the epoll object is closed.

 -- Yöntemi: epoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- Yöntemi: epoll.fromfd (fd)

     Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor.

 -- Yöntemi: epoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.

 -- Yöntemi: epoll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modify a registered file descriptor.

 -- Yöntemi: epoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The method no longer ignores the *note
     EBADF: 7b6. error.

 -- Yöntemi: epoll.poll (timeout=None, maxevents=-1)

     Wait for events.  timeout in seconds (float)

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: c14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Polling Objects,  Next: Kqueue Objects,  Prev: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.18.4.3 Polling Objects
........................

The ‘poll()’ system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides
better scalability for network servers that service many, many clients
at the same time.  ‘poll()’ scales better because the system call only
requires listing the file descriptors of interest, while ‘select()’
builds a bitmap, turns on bits for the fds of interest, and then
afterward the whole bitmap has to be linearly scanned again.  ‘select()’
is 'O'('highest file descriptor'), while ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors').

 -- Yöntemi: poll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 2988. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 2629. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for, and can be a combination of the constants
     ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’, described in the table below.
     If not specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types
     of events.

     Constant                Meaning
                             
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
     ‘POLLIN’                There is data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLPRI’               There is urgent data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLOUT’               Ready for output: writing will not block
                             
                             
     ‘POLLERR’               Error condition of some sort
                             
                             
     ‘POLLHUP’               Hung up
                             
                             
     ‘POLLRDHUP’             Stream socket peer closed connection, or
                             shut down writing half of connection
                             
                             
     ‘POLLNVAL’              Invalid request: descriptor not open
                             

     Registering a file descriptor that’s already registered is not an
     error, and has the same effect as registering the descriptor
     exactly once.

 -- Yöntemi: poll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modifies an already registered fd.  This has the same effect as
     ‘register(fd, eventmask)’.  Attempting to modify a file descriptor
     that was never registered causes an *note OSError: 65c. exception
     with errno ‘ENOENT’ to be raised.

 -- Yöntemi: poll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 321b. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 2629. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered
     causes a *note KeyError: 903. exception to be raised.

 -- Yöntemi: poll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor — ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted,
     negative, or *note None: 488, the call will block until there is an
     event for this poll object.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: c14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kqueue Objects,  Next: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Polling Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.18.4.4 Kqueue Objects
.......................

 -- Yöntemi: kqueue.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object.

 -- Özniteliği: kqueue.closed

     ‘True’ if the kqueue object is closed.

 -- Yöntemi: kqueue.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- Yöntemi: kqueue.fromfd (fd)

     Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor.

 -- Yöntemi: kqueue.control (changelist, max_events[, timeout]) ->
          eventlist

     Low level interface to kevent

        - changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or ‘None’

        - max_events must be 0 or a positive integer

        - timeout in seconds (floats possible); the default is ‘None’,
          to wait forever

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: c14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Kqueue Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.18.4.5 Kevent Objects
.......................

‘https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2’

 -- Özniteliği: kevent.ident

     Value used to identify the event.  The interpretation depends on
     the filter but it’s usually the file descriptor.  In the
     constructor ident can either be an int or an object with a *note
     fileno(): 2629. method.  kevent stores the integer internally.

 -- Özniteliği: kevent.filter

     Name of the kernel filter.

     Constant                        Meaning
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’                Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to read
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’               Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to write
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_AIO’                 AIO requests
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’               Returns when one or more of the requested
                                     events watched in 'fflag' occurs
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’                Watch for events on a process id
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’              Watch for events on a network device [not
                                     available on macOS]
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL’              Returns whenever the watched signal is
                                     delivered to the process
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_TIMER’               Establishes an arbitrary timer
                                     

 -- Özniteliği: kevent.flags

     Filter action.

     Constant                        Meaning
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ADD’                     Adds or modifies an event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DELETE’                  Removes an event from the queue
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ENABLE’                  Permitscontrol() to returns the event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DISABLE’                 Disablesevent
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ONESHOT’                 Removes event after first occurrence
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_CLEAR’                   Reset the state after an event is retrieved
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS’                internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_FLAG1’                   internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_EOF’                     Filter specific EOF condition
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ERROR’                   See return values
                                     

 -- Özniteliği: kevent.fflags

     Filter specific flags.

     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’ and ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’ filter flags:

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LOWAT’                  low water mark of a socket buffer
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’ filter flags:

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_DELETE’                 'unlink()' was called
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_WRITE’                  a write occurred
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXTEND’                 the file was extended
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB’                 an attribute was changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINK’                   the link count has changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_RENAME’                 the file was renamed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_REVOKE’                 access to the file was revoked
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ filter flags:

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’                   the process has exited
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_FORK’                   the process has called 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXEC’                   the process has executed a new process
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACK’                  follow a process across 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_CHILD’                  returned on the child process for 'NOTE_TRACK'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR’               unable to attach to a child
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’ filter flags (not available on macOS):

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKUP’                 link is up
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN’               link is down
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKINV’                link state is invalid
                                      

 -- Özniteliği: kevent.data

     Filter specific data.

 -- Özniteliği: kevent.udata

     User defined value.


File: python.info,  Node: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing,  Next: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Prev: select — Waiting for I/O completion,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.5 ‘selectors’ — High-level I/O multiplexing
------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/selectors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<6>.
* Classes: Classes<3>.
* Examples: Examples<20>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/selectors.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<6>,  Next: Classes<3>,  Up: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

5.18.5.1 Introduction
.....................

This module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: c0. module primitives.  Users are encouraged to use
this module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
primitives used.

It defines a *note BaseSelector: 322d. abstract base class, along with
several concrete implementations (*note KqueueSelector: 311f, *note
EpollSelector: a4c.…), that can be used to wait for I/O readiness
notification on multiple file objects.  In the following, “file object”
refers to any object with a *note fileno(): 2629. method, or a raw file
descriptor.  See *note file object: 1068.

*note DefaultSelector: 322e. is an alias to the most efficient
implementation available on the current platform: this should be the
default choice for most users.

     Not: The type of file objects supported depends on the platform: on
     Windows, sockets are supported, but not pipes, whereas on Unix,
     both are supported (some other types may be supported as well, such
     as fifos or special file devices).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note select: c0.

     Low-level I/O multiplexing module.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<3>,  Next: Examples<20>,  Prev: Introduction<6>,  Up: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

5.18.5.2 Classes
................

Classes hierarchy:

     BaseSelector
     +-- SelectSelector
     +-- PollSelector
     +-- EpollSelector
     +-- DevpollSelector
     +-- KqueueSelector

In the following, 'events' is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events
should be waited for on a given file object.  It can be a combination of
the modules constants below:

     Constant                    Meaning
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
      -- Verisi:                 Available for read
               selectors.EVENT_READ

      -- Verisi:                 Available for write
               selectors.EVENT_WRITE

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.SelectorKey

     A *note SelectorKey: 3232. is a *note namedtuple: 74b. used to
     associate a file object to its underlying file descriptor, selected
     event mask and attached data.  It is returned by several *note
     BaseSelector: 322d. methods.

      -- Özniteliği: fileobj

          File object registered.

      -- Özniteliği: fd

          Underlying file descriptor.

      -- Özniteliği: events

          Events that must be waited for on this file object.

      -- Özniteliği: data

          Optional opaque data associated to this file object: for
          example, this could be used to store a per-client session ID.

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.BaseSelector

     A *note BaseSelector: 322d. is used to wait for I/O event readiness
     on multiple file objects.  It supports file stream registration,
     unregistration, and a method to wait for I/O events on those
     streams, with an optional timeout.  It’s an abstract base class, so
     cannot be instantiated.  Use *note DefaultSelector: 322e. instead,
     or one of *note SelectSelector: 311c, *note KqueueSelector: 311f.
     etc.  if you want to specifically use an implementation, and your
     platform supports it.  *note BaseSelector: 322d. and its concrete
     implementations support the *note context manager: 3df. protocol.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod register (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O
          events.

          'fileobj' is the file object to monitor.  It may either be an
          integer file descriptor or an object with a ‘fileno()’ method.
          'events' is a bitwise mask of events to monitor.  'data' is an
          opaque object.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 3232. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 189. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 903. if the file object
          is already registered.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod unregister (fileobj)

          Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from
          monitoring.  A file object shall be unregistered prior to
          being closed.

          'fileobj' must be a file object previously registered.

          This returns the associated *note SelectorKey: 3232. instance,
          or raises a *note KeyError: 903. if 'fileobj' is not
          registered.  It will raise *note ValueError: 189. if 'fileobj'
          is invalid (e.g.  it has no ‘fileno()’ method or its
          ‘fileno()’ method has an invalid return value).

      -- Yöntemi: modify (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Change a registered file object’s monitored events or attached
          data.

          This is equivalent to ‘BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj)’
          followed by ‘BaseSelector.register(fileobj, events, data)’,
          except that it can be implemented more efficiently.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 3232. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 189. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 903. if the file object
          is not registered.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod select (timeout=None)

          Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the
          timeout expires.

          If ‘timeout > 0’, this specifies the maximum wait time, in
          seconds.  If ‘timeout <= 0’, the call won’t block, and will
          report the currently ready file objects.  If 'timeout' is
          ‘None’, the call will block until a monitored file object
          becomes ready.

          This returns a list of ‘(key, events)’ tuples, one for each
          ready file object.

          'key' is the *note SelectorKey: 3232. instance corresponding
          to a ready file object.  'events' is a bitmask of events ready
          on this file object.

               Not: This method can return before any file object
               becomes ready or the timeout has elapsed if the current
               process receives a signal: in this case, an empty list
               will be returned.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: The selector is now retried with a
          recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal if the signal
          handler did not raise an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
          rationale), instead of returning an empty list of events
          before the timeout.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the selector.

          This must be called to make sure that any underlying resource
          is freed.  The selector shall not be used once it has been
          closed.

      -- Yöntemi: get_key (fileobj)

          Return the key associated with a registered file object.

          This returns the *note SelectorKey: 3232. instance associated
          to this file object, or raises *note KeyError: 903. if the
          file object is not registered.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod get_map ()

          Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.

          This returns a *note Mapping: 71c. instance mapping registered
          file objects to their associated *note SelectorKey: 3232.
          instance.

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.DefaultSelector

     The default selector class, using the most efficient implementation
     available on the current platform.  This should be the default
     choice for most users.

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.SelectSelector

     *note select.select(): c2d.-based selector.

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.PollSelector

     *note select.poll(): 2988.-based selector.

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.EpollSelector

     *note select.epoll(): e34.-based selector.

      -- Yöntemi: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.epoll(): e34. object.

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.DevpollSelector

     *note select.devpoll(): e36.-based selector.

      -- Yöntemi: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.devpoll(): e36. object.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: selectors.KqueueSelector

     *note select.kqueue(): 14cd.-based selector.

      -- Yöntemi: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.kqueue(): 14cd. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<20>,  Prev: Classes<3>,  Up: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

5.18.5.3 Examples
.................

Here is a simple echo server implementation:

     import selectors
     import socket

     sel = selectors.DefaultSelector()

     def accept(sock, mask):
         conn, addr = sock.accept()  # Should be ready
         print('accepted', conn, 'from', addr)
         conn.setblocking(False)
         sel.register(conn, selectors.EVENT_READ, read)

     def read(conn, mask):
         data = conn.recv(1000)  # Should be ready
         if data:
             print('echoing', repr(data), 'to', conn)
             conn.send(data)  # Hope it won't block
         else:
             print('closing', conn)
             sel.unregister(conn)
             conn.close()

     sock = socket.socket()
     sock.bind(('localhost', 1234))
     sock.listen(100)
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sel.register(sock, selectors.EVENT_READ, accept)

     while True:
         events = sel.select()
         for key, mask in events:
             callback = key.data
             callback(key.fileobj, mask)


File: python.info,  Node: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Next: mmap — Memory-mapped file support,  Prev: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.6 ‘signal’ — Set handlers for asynchronous events
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/signal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides mechanisms to use signal handlers in Python.

* Menu:

* General rules::
* Module contents: Module contents<2>.
* Examples: Examples<21>.
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/signal.py


File: python.info,  Node: General rules,  Next: Module contents<2>,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.18.6.1 General rules
......................

The *note signal.signal(): fd8. function allows defining custom handlers
to be executed when a signal is received.  A small number of default
handlers are installed: *note SIGPIPE: 3244. is ignored (so write errors
on pipes and sockets can be reported as ordinary Python exceptions) and
*note SIGINT: 683. is translated into a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.
exception if the parent process has not changed it.

A handler for a particular signal, once set, remains installed until it
is explicitly reset (Python emulates the BSD style interface regardless
of the underlying implementation), with the exception of the handler for
*note SIGCHLD: 29c1, which follows the underlying implementation.

On WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’, signals
are emulated and therefore behave differently.  Several functions and
signals are not available on these platforms.

* Menu:

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::


File: python.info,  Node: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Next: Signals and threads,  Up: General rules

5.18.6.2 Execution of Python signal handlers
............................................

A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C)
signal handler.  Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which
tells the *note virtual machine: 3246. to execute the corresponding
Python signal handler at a later point(for example at the next *note
bytecode: 3b7. instruction).  This has consequences:

   * It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like *note
     SIGFPE: 1b91. or *note SIGSEGV: 1b90. that are caused by an invalid
     operation in C code.  Python will return from the signal handler to
     the C code, which is likely to raise the same signal again, causing
     Python to apparently hang.  From Python 3.3 onwards, you can use
     the *note faulthandler: 56. module to report on synchronous errors.

   * A long-running calculation implemented purely in C (such as regular
     expression matching on a large body of text) may run uninterrupted
     for an arbitrary amount of time, regardless of any signals
     received.  The Python signal handlers will be called when the
     calculation finishes.

   * If the handler raises an exception, it will be raised “out of thin
     air” in the main thread.  See the *note note below: 207d. for a
     discussion.


File: python.info,  Node: Signals and threads,  Prev: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Up: General rules

5.18.6.3 Signals and threads
............................

Python signal handlers are always executed in the main Python thread of
the main interpreter, even if the signal was received in another thread.
This means that signals can’t be used as a means of inter-thread
communication.  You can use the synchronization primitives from the
*note threading: ec. module instead.

Besides, only the main thread of the main interpreter is allowed to set
a new signal handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<2>,  Next: Examples<21>,  Prev: General rules,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.18.6.4 Module contents
........................

3.5 sürümünde değişti: signal (SIG*), handler (*note SIG_DFL: 1647,
*note SIG_IGN: 1646.) and sigmask (*note SIG_BLOCK: 324a, *note
SIG_UNBLOCK: 324b, *note SIG_SETMASK: 324c.) related constants listed
below were turned into *note enums: b62. (*note Signals: 324d, *note
Handlers: 324e. and *note Sigmasks: 324f. respectively).  *note
getsignal(): 14ab, *note pthread_sigmask(): fd4, *note sigpending():
fd6. and *note sigwait(): fd7. functions return human-readable *note
enums: b62. as *note Signals: 324d. objects.

The signal module defines three enums:

 -- Sınıfı: signal.Signals

     *note enum.IntEnum: b62. collection of SIG* constants and the
     CTRL_* constants.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: signal.Handlers

     *note enum.IntEnum: b62. collection the constants *note SIG_DFL:
     1647. and *note SIG_IGN: 1646.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: signal.Sigmasks

     *note enum.IntEnum: b62. collection the constants *note SIG_BLOCK:
     324a, *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 324b. and *note SIG_SETMASK: 324c.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigprocmask(2)(1)’ and ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(2)’
     for further information.

     Added in version 3.5.

The variables defined in the *note signal: c5. module are:

 -- Verisi: signal.SIG_DFL

     This is one of two standard signal handling options; it will simply
     perform the default function for the signal.  For example, on most
     systems the default action for ‘SIGQUIT’ is to dump core and exit,
     while the default action for *note SIGCHLD: 29c1. is to simply
     ignore it.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIG_IGN

     This is another standard signal handler, which will simply ignore
     the given signal.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGABRT

     Abort signal from ‘abort(3)(3)’.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGALRM

     Timer signal from ‘alarm(2)(4)’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGBREAK

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + BREAK).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGBUS

     Bus error (bad memory access).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGCHLD

     Child process stopped or terminated.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGCLD

     Alias to *note SIGCHLD: 29c1.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: not macOS.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGCONT

     Continue the process if it is currently stopped

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGFPE

     Floating-point exception.  For example, division by zero.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note ZeroDivisionError: 79e. is raised when the second argument of
     a division or modulo operation is zero.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGHUP

     Hangup detected on controlling terminal or death of controlling
     process.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGILL

     Illegal instruction.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGINT

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + C).

     Default action is to raise *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGKILL

     Kill signal.

     It cannot be caught, blocked, or ignored.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGPIPE

     Broken pipe: write to pipe with no readers.

     Default action is to ignore the signal.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGSEGV

     Segmentation fault: invalid memory reference.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGSTKFLT

          Stack fault on coprocessor.  The Linux kernel does not raise
          this signal: it can only be raised in user space.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux.

     On architectures where the signal is available.  See the man page
     ‘signal(7)(5)’ for further information.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGTERM

     Termination signal.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGUSR1

     User-defined signal 1.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGUSR2

     User-defined signal 2.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIGWINCH

     Window resize signal.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Verisi: SIG*

     All the signal numbers are defined symbolically.  For example, the
     hangup signal is defined as *note signal.SIGHUP: 3253.; the
     variable names are identical to the names used in C programs, as
     found in ‘<signal.h>’.  The Unix man page for ‘‘signal()’’ lists
     the existing signals (on some systems this is ‘signal(2)(6)’, on
     others the list is in ‘signal(7)(7)’).  Note that not all systems
     define the same set of signal names; only those names defined by
     the system are defined by this module.

 -- Verisi: signal.CTRL_C_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ keystroke event.  This
     signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 120e.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl’+‘Break’ keystroke event.
     This signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 120e.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: signal.NSIG

     One more than the number of the highest signal number.  Use *note
     valid_signals(): 3257. to get valid signal numbers.

 -- Verisi: signal.ITIMER_REAL

     Decrements interval timer in real time, and delivers *note SIGALRM:
     3250. upon expiration.

 -- Verisi: signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL

     Decrements interval timer only when the process is executing, and
     delivers SIGVTALRM upon expiration.

 -- Verisi: signal.ITIMER_PROF

     Decrements interval timer both when the process executes and when
     the system is executing on behalf of the process.  Coupled with
     ITIMER_VIRTUAL, this timer is usually used to profile the time
     spent by the application in user and kernel space.  SIGPROF is
     delivered upon expiration.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIG_BLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): fd4. indicating that signals are to be blocked.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIG_UNBLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): fd4. indicating that signals are to be
     unblocked.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: signal.SIG_SETMASK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): fd4. indicating that the signal mask is to be
     replaced.

     Added in version 3.3.

The *note signal: c5. module defines one exception:

 -- Özel Durum: signal.ItimerError

     Raised to signal an error from the underlying *note setitimer():
     325c. or *note getitimer(): 325d. implementation.  Expect this
     error if an invalid interval timer or a negative time is passed to
     *note setitimer(): 325c.  This error is a subtype of *note OSError:
     65c.

     Added in version 3.3: This error used to be a subtype of *note
     IOError: efc, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

The *note signal: c5. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: signal.alarm (time)

     If 'time' is non-zero, this function requests that a *note SIGALRM:
     3250. signal be sent to the process in 'time' seconds.  Any
     previously scheduled alarm is canceled (only one alarm can be
     scheduled at any time).  The returned value is then the number of
     seconds before any previously set alarm was to have been delivered.
     If 'time' is zero, no alarm is scheduled, and any scheduled alarm
     is canceled.  If the return value is zero, no alarm is currently
     scheduled.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘alarm(2)(8)’ for further information.

 -- Işlevi: signal.getsignal (signalnum)

     Return the current signal handler for the signal 'signalnum'.  The
     returned value may be a callable Python object, or one of the
     special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1646, *note signal.SIG_DFL:
     1647. or *note None: 488.  Here, *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1646. means
     that the signal was previously ignored, *note signal.SIG_DFL: 1647.
     means that the default way of handling the signal was previously in
     use, and ‘None’ means that the previous signal handler was not
     installed from Python.

 -- Işlevi: signal.strsignal (signalnum)

     Returns the description of signal 'signalnum', such as “Interrupt”
     for *note SIGINT: 683.  Returns *note None: 488. if 'signalnum' has
     no description.  Raises *note ValueError: 189. if 'signalnum' is
     invalid.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: signal.valid_signals ()

     Return the set of valid signal numbers on this platform.  This can
     be less than ‘range(1, NSIG)’ if some signals are reserved by the
     system for internal use.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: signal.pause ()

     Cause the process to sleep until a signal is received; the
     appropriate handler will then be called.  Returns nothing.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘signal(2)(9)’ for further information.

     See also *note sigwait(): fd7, *note sigwaitinfo(): c38, *note
     sigtimedwait(): c37. and *note sigpending(): fd6.

 -- Işlevi: signal.raise_signal (signum)

     Sends a signal to the calling process.  Returns nothing.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: signal.pidfd_send_signal (pidfd, sig, siginfo=None, flags=0)

     Send signal 'sig' to the process referred to by file descriptor
     'pidfd'.  Python does not currently support the 'siginfo'
     parameter; it must be ‘None’.  The 'flags' argument is provided for
     future extensions; no flag values are currently defined.

     See the ‘pidfd_send_signal(2)(10)’ man page for more information.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 5.1

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: signal.pthread_kill (thread_id, signalnum)

     Send the signal 'signalnum' to the thread 'thread_id', another
     thread in the same process as the caller.  The target thread can be
     executing any code (Python or not).  However, if the target thread
     is executing the Python interpreter, the Python signal handlers
     will be *note executed by the main thread of the main interpreter:
     3248.  Therefore, the only point of sending a signal to a
     particular Python thread would be to force a running system call to
     fail with *note InterruptedError: c14.

     Use *note threading.get_ident(): 1001. or the *note ident: 2a18.
     attribute of *note threading.Thread: 7a7. objects to get a suitable
     value for 'thread_id'.

     If 'signalnum' is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is
     still performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is
     still running.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘signal.pthread_kill’ with
     arguments ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘pthread_kill(3)(11)’ for further information.

     See also *note os.kill(): 120e.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: signal.pthread_sigmask (how, mask)

     Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread.  The
     signal mask is the set of signals whose delivery is currently
     blocked for the caller.  Return the old signal mask as a set of
     signals.

     The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of 'how', as
     follows.

        * *note SIG_BLOCK: 324a.: The set of blocked signals is the
          union of the current set and the 'mask' argument.

        * *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 324b.: The signals in 'mask' are removed
          from the current set of blocked signals.  It is permissible to
          attempt to unblock a signal which is not blocked.

        * *note SIG_SETMASK: 324c.: The set of blocked signals is set to
          the 'mask' argument.

     'mask' is a set of signal numbers (e.g.  {*note signal.SIGINT: 683,
     *note signal.SIGTERM: 1266.}).  Use *note valid_signals(): 3257.
     for a full mask including all signals.

     For example, ‘signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, [])’ reads
     the signal mask of the calling thread.

     *note SIGKILL: 305b. and ‘SIGSTOP’ cannot be blocked.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigprocmask(2)(12)’ and ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(13)’
     for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 325f, *note sigpending(): fd6. and *note
     sigwait(): fd7.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: signal.setitimer (which, seconds, interval=0.0)

     Sets given interval timer (one of *note signal.ITIMER_REAL: 3258,
     *note signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 3259. or *note signal.ITIMER_PROF:
     325a.) specified by 'which' to fire after 'seconds' (float is
     accepted, different from *note alarm(): 325e.) and after that every
     'interval' seconds (if 'interval' is non-zero).  The interval timer
     specified by 'which' can be cleared by setting 'seconds' to zero.

     When an interval timer fires, a signal is sent to the process.  The
     signal sent is dependent on the timer being used; *note
     signal.ITIMER_REAL: 3258. will deliver *note SIGALRM: 3250, *note
     signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 3259. sends ‘SIGVTALRM’, and *note
     signal.ITIMER_PROF: 325a. will deliver ‘SIGPROF’.

     The old values are returned as a tuple: (delay, interval).

     Attempting to pass an invalid interval timer will cause an *note
     ItimerError: 325b.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: signal.getitimer (which)

     Returns current value of a given interval timer specified by
     'which'.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: signal.set_wakeup_fd (fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)

     Set the wakeup file descriptor to 'fd'.  When a signal is received,
     the signal number is written as a single byte into the fd.  This
     can be used by a library to wakeup a poll or select call, allowing
     the signal to be fully processed.

     The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was
     not enabled).  If 'fd' is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled.
     If not -1, 'fd' must be non-blocking.  It is up to the library to
     remove any bytes from 'fd' before calling poll or select again.

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 3248.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 189.
     exception to be raised.

     There are two common ways to use this function.  In both
     approaches, you use the fd to wake up when a signal arrives, but
     then they differ in how they determine 'which' signal or signals
     have arrived.

     In the first approach, we read the data out of the fd’s buffer, and
     the byte values give you the signal numbers.  This is simple, but
     in rare cases it can run into a problem: generally the fd will have
     a limited amount of buffer space, and if too many signals arrive
     too quickly, then the buffer may become full, and some signals may
     be lost.  If you use this approach, then you should set
     ‘warn_on_full_buffer=True’, which will at least cause a warning to
     be printed to stderr when signals are lost.

     In the second approach, we use the wakeup fd 'only' for wakeups,
     and ignore the actual byte values.  In this case, all we care about
     is whether the fd’s buffer is empty or non-empty; a full buffer
     doesn’t indicate a problem at all.  If you use this approach, then
     you should set ‘warn_on_full_buffer=False’, so that your users are
     not confused by spurious warning messages.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, the function now also supports
     socket handles.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘warn_on_full_buffer’ parameter.

 -- Işlevi: signal.siginterrupt (signalnum, flag)

     Change system call restart behaviour: if 'flag' is *note False:
     9a8, system calls will be restarted when interrupted by signal
     'signalnum', otherwise system calls will be interrupted.  Returns
     nothing.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘siginterrupt(3)(14)’ for further information.

     Note that installing a signal handler with *note signal(): c5. will
     reset the restart behaviour to interruptible by implicitly calling
     ‘siginterrupt()’ with a true 'flag' value for the given signal.

 -- Işlevi: signal.signal (signalnum, handler)

     Set the handler for signal 'signalnum' to the function 'handler'.
     'handler' can be a callable Python object taking two arguments (see
     below), or one of the special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1646. or
     *note signal.SIG_DFL: 1647.  The previous signal handler will be
     returned (see the description of *note getsignal(): 14ab. above).
     (See the Unix man page ‘signal(2)(15)’ for further information.)

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 3248.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 189.
     exception to be raised.

     The 'handler' is called with two arguments: the signal number and
     the current stack frame (‘None’ or a frame object; for a
     description of frame objects, see the *note description in the type
     hierarchy: 4f7. or see the attribute descriptions in the *note
     inspect: 7c. module).

     On Windows, *note signal(): c5. can only be called with *note
     SIGABRT: 1b92, *note SIGFPE: 1b91, *note SIGILL: 1b94, *note
     SIGINT: 683, *note SIGSEGV: 1b90, *note SIGTERM: 1266, or *note
     SIGBREAK: 3251.  A *note ValueError: 189. will be raised in any
     other case.  Note that not all systems define the same set of
     signal names; an *note AttributeError: 3dc. will be raised if a
     signal name is not defined as ‘SIG*’ module level constant.

 -- Işlevi: signal.sigpending ()

     Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the
     calling thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while
     blocked).  Return the set of the pending signals.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigpending(2)(16)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 325f, *note pthread_sigmask(): fd4. and
     *note sigwait(): fd7.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: signal.sigwait (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal (removes it from the pending list of signals),
     and returns the signal number.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigwait(3)(17)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 325f, *note pthread_sigmask(): fd4, *note
     sigpending(): fd6, *note sigwaitinfo(): c38. and *note
     sigtimedwait(): c37.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: signal.sigwaitinfo (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal and removes it from the pending list of signals.
     If one of the signals in 'sigset' is already pending for the
     calling thread, the function will return immediately with
     information about that signal.  The signal handler is not called
     for the delivered signal.  The function raises an *note
     InterruptedError: c14. if it is interrupted by a signal that is not
     in 'sigset'.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure, namely: ‘si_signo’, ‘si_code’,
     ‘si_errno’, ‘si_pid’, ‘si_uid’, ‘si_status’, ‘si_band’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigwaitinfo(2)(18)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 325f, *note sigwait(): fd7. and *note
     sigtimedwait(): c37.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The function is now retried if interrupted
     by a signal not in 'sigset' and the signal handler does not raise
     an exception (see PEP 475(19) for the rationale).

 -- Işlevi: signal.sigtimedwait (sigset, timeout)

     Like *note sigwaitinfo(): c38, but takes an additional 'timeout'
     argument specifying a timeout.  If 'timeout' is specified as ‘0’, a
     poll is performed.  Returns *note None: 488. if a timeout occurs.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigtimedwait(2)(20)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 325f, *note sigwait(): fd7. and *note
     sigwaitinfo(): c38.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The function is now retried with the
     recomputed 'timeout' if interrupted by a signal not in 'sigset' and
     the signal handler does not raise an exception (see PEP 475(21) for
     the rationale).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/abort(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (8) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_send_signal(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_kill(3)

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (13) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (14) https://manpages.debian.org/siginterrupt(3)

   (15) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/sigpending(2)

   (17) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwait(3)

   (18) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwaitinfo(2)

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (20) https://manpages.debian.org/sigtimedwait(2)

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<21>,  Next: Note on SIGPIPE,  Prev: Module contents<2>,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.18.6.5 Examples
.................

Here is a minimal example program.  It uses the *note alarm(): 325e.
function to limit the time spent waiting to open a file; this is useful
if the file is for a serial device that may not be turned on, which
would normally cause the *note os.open(): c1f. to hang indefinitely.
The solution is to set a 5-second alarm before opening the file; if the
operation takes too long, the alarm signal will be sent, and the handler
raises an exception.

     import signal, os

     def handler(signum, frame):
         signame = signal.Signals(signum).name
         print(f'Signal handler called with signal {signame} ({signum})')
         raise OSError("Couldn't open device!")

     # Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm
     signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler)
     signal.alarm(5)

     # This open() may hang indefinitely
     fd = os.open('/dev/ttyS0', os.O_RDWR)

     signal.alarm(0)          # Disable the alarm


File: python.info,  Node: Note on SIGPIPE,  Next: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: Examples<21>,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.18.6.6 Note on SIGPIPE
........................

Piping output of your program to tools like ‘head(1)(1)’ will cause a
*note SIGPIPE: 3244. signal to be sent to your process when the receiver
of its standard output closes early.  This results in an exception like
‘BrokenPipeError: [Errno 32] Broken pipe’.  To handle this case, wrap
your entry point to catch this exception as follows:

     import os
     import sys

     def main():
         try:
             # simulate large output (your code replaces this loop)
             for x in range(10000):
                 print("y")
             # flush output here to force SIGPIPE to be triggered
             # while inside this try block.
             sys.stdout.flush()
         except BrokenPipeError:
             # Python flushes standard streams on exit; redirect remaining output
             # to devnull to avoid another BrokenPipeError at shutdown
             devnull = os.open(os.devnull, os.O_WRONLY)
             os.dup2(devnull, sys.stdout.fileno())
             sys.exit(1)  # Python exits with error code 1 on EPIPE

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Do not set *note SIGPIPE: 3244.’s disposition to *note SIG_DFL: 1647. in
order to avoid *note BrokenPipeError: f06.  Doing that would cause your
program to exit unexpectedly whenever any socket connection is
interrupted while your program is still writing to it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/head(1)


File: python.info,  Node: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: Note on SIGPIPE,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.18.6.7 Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions
...............................................

If a signal handler raises an exception, the exception will be
propagated to the main thread and may be raised after any *note
bytecode: 3b7. instruction.  Most notably, a *note KeyboardInterrupt:
82f. may appear at any point during execution.  Most Python code,
including the standard library, cannot be made robust against this, and
so a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. (or any other exception resulting
from a signal handler) may on rare occasions put the program in an
unexpected state.

To illustrate this issue, consider the following code:

     class SpamContext:
         def __init__(self):
             self.lock = threading.Lock()

         def __enter__(self):
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, everything is fine
             self.lock.acquire()
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, __exit__ will not be called
             ...
             # KeyboardInterrupt could occur just before the function returns

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
             ...
             self.lock.release()

For many programs, especially those that merely want to exit on *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 82f, this is not a problem, but applications that are
complex or require high reliability should avoid raising exceptions from
signal handlers.  They should also avoid catching *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. as a means of gracefully shutting down.
Instead, they should install their own *note SIGINT: 683. handler.
Below is an example of an HTTP server that avoids *note
KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.:

     import signal
     import socket
     from selectors import DefaultSelector, EVENT_READ
     from http.server import HTTPServer, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     interrupt_read, interrupt_write = socket.socketpair()

     def handler(signum, frame):
         print('Signal handler called with signal', signum)
         interrupt_write.send(b'\0')
     signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, handler)

     def serve_forever(httpd):
         sel = DefaultSelector()
         sel.register(interrupt_read, EVENT_READ)
         sel.register(httpd, EVENT_READ)

         while True:
             for key, _ in sel.select():
                 if key.fileobj == interrupt_read:
                     interrupt_read.recv(1)
                     return
                 if key.fileobj == httpd:
                     httpd.handle_request()

     print("Serving on port 8000")
     httpd = HTTPServer(('', 8000), SimpleHTTPRequestHandler)
     serve_forever(httpd)
     print("Shutdown...")


File: python.info,  Node: mmap — Memory-mapped file support,  Prev: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.18.7 ‘mmap’ — Memory-mapped file support
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

Memory-mapped file objects behave like both *note bytearray: 2ca. and
like *note file objects: 1068.  You can use mmap objects in most places
where *note bytearray: 2ca. are expected; for example, you can use the
*note re: b8. module to search through a memory-mapped file.  You can
also change a single byte by doing ‘obj[index] = 97’, or change a
subsequence by assigning to a slice: ‘obj[i1:i2] = b'...'’.  You can
also read and write data starting at the current file position, and
‘seek()’ through the file to different positions.

A memory-mapped file is created by the *note mmap: 868. constructor,
which is different on Unix and on Windows.  In either case you must
provide a file descriptor for a file opened for update.  If you wish to
map an existing Python file object, use its *note fileno(): 2629. method
to obtain the correct value for the 'fileno' parameter.  Otherwise, you
can open the file using the *note os.open(): c1f. function, which
returns a file descriptor directly (the file still needs to be closed
when done).

     Not: If you want to create a memory-mapping for a writable,
     buffered file, you should *note flush(): 29f0. the file first.
     This is necessary to ensure that local modifications to the buffers
     are actually available to the mapping.

For both the Unix and Windows versions of the constructor, 'access' may
be specified as an optional keyword parameter.  'access' accepts one of
four values: ‘ACCESS_READ’, ‘ACCESS_WRITE’, or ‘ACCESS_COPY’ to specify
read-only, write-through or copy-on-write memory respectively, or
‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ to defer to 'prot'.  'access' can be used on both Unix
and Windows.  If 'access' is not specified, Windows mmap returns a
write-through mapping.  The initial memory values for all three access
types are taken from the specified file.  Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_READ’
memory map raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception.  Assignment to an
‘ACCESS_WRITE’ memory map affects both memory and the underlying file.
Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_COPY’ memory map affects memory but does not
update the underlying file.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with
the length.

 -- Sınıfı: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, tagname=None,
          access=ACCESS_DEFAULT[, offset])

     '(Windows version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by
     the file handle 'fileno', and creates a mmap object.  If 'length'
     is larger than the current size of the file, the file is extended
     to contain 'length' bytes.  If 'length' is ‘0’, the maximum length
     of the map is the current size of the file, except that if the file
     is empty Windows raises an exception (you cannot create an empty
     mapping on Windows).

     'tagname', if specified and not ‘None’, is a string giving a tag
     name for the mapping.  Windows allows you to have many different
     mappings against the same file.  If you specify the name of an
     existing tag, that tag is opened, otherwise a new tag of this name
     is created.  If this parameter is omitted or ‘None’, the mapping is
     created without a name.  Avoiding the use of the 'tagname'
     parameter will assist in keeping your code portable between Unix
     and Windows.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of the
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘mmap.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’.

 -- Sınıfı: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, flags=MAP_SHARED,
          prot=PROT_WRITE|PROT_READ, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT[, offset])

     '(Unix version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by the
     file descriptor 'fileno', and returns a mmap object.  If 'length'
     is ‘0’, the maximum length of the map will be the current size of
     the file when *note mmap: 868. is called.

     'flags' specifies the nature of the mapping.  *note MAP_PRIVATE:
     3266. creates a private copy-on-write mapping, so changes to the
     contents of the mmap object will be private to this process, and
     *note MAP_SHARED: 3267. creates a mapping that’s shared with all
     other processes mapping the same areas of the file.  The default
     value is *note MAP_SHARED: 3267.  Some systems have additional
     possible flags with the full list specified in *note MAP_*
     constants: 3268.

     'prot', if specified, gives the desired memory protection; the two
     most useful values are ‘PROT_READ’ and ‘PROT_WRITE’, to specify
     that the pages may be read or written.  'prot' defaults to
     ‘PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE’.

     'access' may be specified in lieu of 'flags' and 'prot' as an
     optional keyword parameter.  It is an error to specify both
     'flags', 'prot' and 'access'.  See the description of 'access'
     above for information on how to use this parameter.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’ which is equal to ‘PAGESIZE’ on Unix
     systems.

     To ensure validity of the created memory mapping the file specified
     by the descriptor 'fileno' is internally automatically synchronized
     with the physical backing store on macOS.

     This example shows a simple way of using *note mmap: 868.:

          import mmap

          # write a simple example file
          with open("hello.txt", "wb") as f:
              f.write(b"Hello Python!\n")

          with open("hello.txt", "r+b") as f:
              # memory-map the file, size 0 means whole file
              mm = mmap.mmap(f.fileno(), 0)
              # read content via standard file methods
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello Python!\n"
              # read content via slice notation
              print(mm[:5])  # prints b"Hello"
              # update content using slice notation;
              # note that new content must have same size
              mm[6:] = b" world!\n"
              # ... and read again using standard file methods
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello  world!\n"
              # close the map
              mm.close()

     *note mmap: 868. can also be used as a context manager in a *note
     with: 3dd. statement:

          import mmap

          with mmap.mmap(-1, 13) as mm:
              mm.write(b"Hello world!")

     Added in version 3.2: Context manager support.

     The next example demonstrates how to create an anonymous map and
     exchange data between the parent and child processes:

          import mmap
          import os

          mm = mmap.mmap(-1, 13)
          mm.write(b"Hello world!")

          pid = os.fork()

          if pid == 0:  # In a child process
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())

              mm.close()

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘mmap.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’.

     Memory-mapped file objects support the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Closes the mmap.  Subsequent calls to other methods of the
          object will result in a ValueError exception being raised.
          This will not close the open file.

      -- Özniteliği: closed

          ‘True’ if the file is closed.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: find (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the lowest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5.
          is now accepted.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ([offset[, size]])

          Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to
          disk.  Without use of this call there is no guarantee that
          changes are written back before the object is destroyed.  If
          'offset' and 'size' are specified, only changes to the given
          range of bytes will be flushed to disk; otherwise, the whole
          extent of the mapping is flushed.  'offset' must be a multiple
          of the ‘PAGESIZE’ or ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

          ‘None’ is returned to indicate success.  An exception is
          raised when the call failed.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: Previously, a nonzero value was
          returned on success; zero was returned on error under Windows.
          A zero value was returned on success; an exception was raised
          on error under Unix.

      -- Yöntemi: madvise (option[, start[, length]])

          Send advice 'option' to the kernel about the memory region
          beginning at 'start' and extending 'length' bytes.  'option'
          must be one of the *note MADV_* constants: 326c. available on
          the system.  If 'start' and 'length' are omitted, the entire
          mapping is spanned.  On some systems (including Linux),
          'start' must be a multiple of the ‘PAGESIZE’.

          Availability: Systems with the ‘madvise()’ system call.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: move (dest, src, count)

          Copy the 'count' bytes starting at offset 'src' to the
          destination index 'dest'.  If the mmap was created with
          ‘ACCESS_READ’, then calls to move will raise a *note
          TypeError: 2c4. exception.

      -- Yöntemi: read ([n])

          Return a *note bytes: 2cb. containing up to 'n' bytes starting
          from the current file position.  If the argument is omitted,
          ‘None’ or negative, return all bytes from the current file
          position to the end of the mapping.  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were returned.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Argument can be omitted or ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: read_byte ()

          Returns a byte at the current file position as an integer, and
          advances the file position by 1.

      -- Yöntemi: readline ()

          Returns a single line, starting at the current file position
          and up to the next newline.  The file position is updated to
          point after the bytes that were returned.

      -- Yöntemi: resize (newsize)

          Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any.  If the mmap
          was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’ or ‘ACCESS_COPY’, resizing the
          map will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception.

          'On Windows': Resizing the map will raise an *note OSError:
          65c. if there are other maps against the same named file.
          Resizing an anonymous map (ie against the pagefile) will
          silently create a new map with the original data copied over
          up to the length of the new size.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: Correctly fails if attempting to
          resize when another map is held Allows resize against an
          anonymous map on Windows

      -- Yöntemi: rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the highest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5.
          is now accepted.

      -- Yöntemi: seek (pos[, whence])

          Set the file’s current position.  'whence' argument is
          optional and defaults to ‘os.SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’ (absolute file
          positioning); other values are ‘os.SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’ (seek
          relative to the current position) and ‘os.SEEK_END’ or ‘2’
          (seek relative to the file’s end).

      -- Yöntemi: size ()

          Return the length of the file, which can be larger than the
          size of the memory-mapped area.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Returns the current position of the file pointer.

      -- Yöntemi: write (bytes)

          Write the bytes in 'bytes' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer and return the number of bytes written
          (never less than ‘len(bytes)’, since if the write fails, a
          *note ValueError: 189. will be raised).  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were written.  If the
          mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it will
          raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5.
          is now accepted.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: The number of bytes written is now
          returned.

      -- Yöntemi: write_byte (byte)

          Write the integer 'byte' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer; the file position is advanced by ‘1’.  If
          the mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it
          will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception.

* Menu:

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* Constants::


File: python.info,  Node: MADV_* Constants,  Next: MAP_* Constants,  Up: mmap — Memory-mapped file support

5.18.7.1 MADV_* Constants
.........................

 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_NORMAL
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_RANDOM
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_WILLNEED
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_DONTNEED
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_REMOVE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_DONTFORK
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_DOFORK
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_HWPOISON
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_MERGEABLE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_UNMERGEABLE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_HUGEPAGE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_NOHUGEPAGE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_DONTDUMP
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_DODUMP
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_FREE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_NOSYNC
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_AUTOSYNC
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_NOCORE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_CORE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_PROTECT
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSABLE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSE

     These options can be passed to *note mmap.madvise(): 869.  Not
     every option will be present on every system.

     Availability: Systems with the madvise() system call.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: MAP_* Constants,  Prev: MADV_* Constants,  Up: mmap — Memory-mapped file support

5.18.7.2 MAP_* Constants
........................

 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_SHARED
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_PRIVATE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_DENYWRITE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_EXECUTABLE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_ANON
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_ANONYMOUS
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_POPULATE
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_STACK
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER
 -- Verisi: mmap.MAP_CONCEAL

     These are the various flags that can be passed to *note
     mmap.mmap(): 868.  *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 1573. is only available
     at FreeBSD and *note MAP_CONCEAL: 1574. is only available at
     OpenBSD. Note that some options might not be present on some
     systems.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added *note MAP_POPULATE: 1774. constant.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note MAP_STACK: 3295. constant.

     Added in version 3.12: Added *note MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 1573.
     constant.  Added *note MAP_CONCEAL: 1574. constant.


File: python.info,  Node: Internet Data Handling,  Next: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Prev: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.19 Internet Data Handling
===========================

This chapter describes modules which support handling data formats
commonly used on the internet.

* Menu:

* email — An email and MIME handling package::
* json — JSON encoder and decoder::
* mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats::
* mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types::
* base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
* binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII::
* quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data::


File: python.info,  Node: email — An email and MIME handling package,  Next: json — JSON encoder and decoder,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.19.1 ‘email’ — An email and MIME handling package
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/email/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note email: 3a. package is a library for managing email messages.
It is specifically 'not' designed to do any sending of email messages to
SMTP ( RFC 2821(2)), NNTP, or other servers; those are functions of
modules such as *note smtplib: c9. and *note nntplib: 9c.  The *note
email: 3a. package attempts to be as RFC-compliant as possible,
supporting RFC 5322(3) and RFC 6532(4), as well as such MIME-related
RFCs as RFC 2045(5), RFC 2046(6), RFC 2047(7), RFC 2183(8), and RFC
2231(9).

The overall structure of the email package can be divided into three
major components, plus a fourth component that controls the behavior of
the other components.

The central component of the package is an “object model” that
represents email messages.  An application interacts with the package
primarily through the object model interface defined in the *note
message: 43. sub-module.  The application can use this API to ask
questions about an existing email, to construct a new email, or to add
or remove email subcomponents that themselves use the same object model
interface.  That is, following the nature of email messages and their
MIME subcomponents, the email object model is a tree structure of
objects that all provide the *note EmailMessage: b1c. API.

The other two major components of the package are the *note parser: 4d.
and the *note generator: 3f.  The parser takes the serialized version of
an email message (a stream of bytes) and converts it into a tree of
*note EmailMessage: b1c. objects.  The generator takes an *note
EmailMessage: b1c. and turns it back into a serialized byte stream.
(The parser and generator also handle streams of text characters, but
this usage is discouraged as it is too easy to end up with messages that
are not valid in one way or another.)

The control component is the *note policy: 4e. module.  Every *note
EmailMessage: b1c, every *note generator: 3f, and every *note parser:
4d. has an associated *note policy: 4e. object that controls its
behavior.  Usually an application only needs to specify the policy when
an *note EmailMessage: b1c. is created, either by directly instantiating
an *note EmailMessage: b1c. to create a new email, or by parsing an
input stream using a *note parser: 4d.  But the policy can be changed
when the message is serialized using a *note generator: 3f.  This
allows, for example, a generic email message to be parsed from disk, but
to serialize it using standard SMTP settings when sending it to an email
server.

The email package does its best to hide the details of the various
governing RFCs from the application.  Conceptually the application
should be able to treat the email message as a structured tree of
unicode text and binary attachments, without having to worry about how
these are represented when serialized.  In practice, however, it is
often necessary to be aware of at least some of the rules governing MIME
messages and their structure, specifically the names and nature of the
MIME “content types” and how they identify multipart documents.  For the
most part this knowledge should only be required for more complex
applications, and even then it should only be the high level structure
in question, and not the details of how those structures are
represented.  Since MIME content types are used widely in modern
internet software (not just email), this will be a familiar concept to
many programmers.

The following sections describe the functionality of the *note email:
3a. package.  We start with the *note message: 43. object model, which
is the primary interface an application will use, and follow that with
the *note parser: 4d. and *note generator: 3f. components.  Then we
cover the *note policy: 4e. controls, which completes the treatment of
the main components of the library.

The next three sections cover the exceptions the package may raise and
the defects (non-compliance with the RFCs) that the *note parser: 4d.
may detect.  Then we cover the *note headerregistry: 41. and the *note
contentmanager: 3c. sub-components, which provide tools for doing more
detailed manipulation of headers and payloads, respectively.  Both of
these components contain features relevant to consuming and producing
non-trivial messages, but also document their extensibility APIs, which
will be of interest to advanced applications.

Following those is a set of examples of using the fundamental parts of
the APIs covered in the preceding sections.

The foregoing represent the modern (unicode friendly) API of the email
package.  The remaining sections, starting with the *note Message: b1b.
class, cover the legacy *note compat32: b1a. API that deals much more
directly with the details of how email messages are represented.  The
*note compat32: b1a. API does 'not' hide the details of the RFCs from
the application, but for applications that need to operate at that
level, they can be useful tools.  This documentation is also relevant
for applications that are still using the *note compat32: b1a. API for
backward compatibility reasons.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Docs reorganized and rewritten to promote the new
*note EmailMessage: b1c./*note EmailPolicy: f5a. API.

Contents of the *note email: 3a. package documentation:

* Menu:

* email.message; Representing an email message: email message Representing an email message.
* email.parser; Parsing email messages: email parser Parsing email messages.
* email.generator; Generating MIME documents: email generator Generating MIME documents.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors; Exception and Defect classes: email errors Exception and Defect classes.
* email.headerregistry; Custom Header Objects: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
* email.contentmanager; Managing MIME Content: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
* email; Examples: email Examples.
* email.message.Message; Representing an email message using the compat32 API: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
* email.mime; Creating email and MIME objects from scratch: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
* email.header; Internationalized headers: email header Internationalized headers.
* email.charset; Representing character sets: email charset Representing character sets.
* email.encoders; Encoders: email encoders Encoders.
* email.utils; Miscellaneous utilities: email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
* email.iterators; Iterators: email iterators Iterators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/__init__.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email message Representing an email message,  Next: email parser Parsing email messages,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.1 ‘email.message’: Representing an email message
.......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/message.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

The central class in the *note email: 3a. package is the *note
EmailMessage: b1c. class, imported from the *note email.message: 43.
module.  It is the base class for the *note email: 3a. object model.
*note EmailMessage: b1c. provides the core functionality for setting and
querying header fields, for accessing message bodies, and for creating
or modifying structured messages.

An email message consists of 'headers' and a 'payload' (which is also
referred to as the 'content').  Headers are RFC 5322(3) or RFC 6532(4)
style field names and values, where the field name and value are
separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or
the field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary
object, or a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set
of headers and their own payload.  The latter type of payload is
indicated by the message having a MIME type such as ‘multipart/*’ or
‘message/rfc822’.

The conceptual model provided by an *note EmailMessage: b1c. object is
that of an ordered dictionary of headers coupled with a 'payload' that
represents the RFC 5322(5) body of the message, which might be a list of
sub-‘EmailMessage’ objects.  In addition to the normal dictionary
methods for accessing the header names and values, there are methods for
accessing specialized information from the headers (for example the MIME
content type), for operating on the payload, for generating a serialized
version of the message, and for recursively walking over the object
tree.

The *note EmailMessage: b1c. dictionary-like interface is indexed by the
header names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary
are strings with some extra methods.  Headers are stored and returned in
case-preserving form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.
The keys are ordered, but unlike a real dict, there can be duplicates.
Additional methods are provided for working with headers that have
duplicate keys.

The 'payload' is either a string or bytes object, in the case of simple
message objects, or a list of *note EmailMessage: b1c. objects, for MIME
container documents such as ‘multipart/*’ and ‘message/rfc822’ message
objects.

 -- Sınıfı: email.message.EmailMessage (policy=default)

     If 'policy' is specified use the rules it specifies to update and
     serialize the representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not
     set, use the *note default: 329e. policy, which follows the rules
     of the email RFCs except for line endings (instead of the RFC
     mandated ‘\r\n’, it uses the Python standard ‘\n’ line endings).
     For more information see the *note policy: 4e. documentation.

      -- Yöntemi: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None,
               policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  For
          backward compatibility with the base *note Message: b1b. class
          'maxheaderlen' is accepted, but defaults to ‘None’, which
          means that by default the line length is controlled by the
          *note max_line_length: 32a0. of the policy.  The 'policy'
          argument may be used to override the default policy obtained
          from the message instance.  This can be used to control some
          of the formatting produced by the method, since the specified
          'policy' will be passed to the *note Generator: 1073.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          EmailMessage: b1c. if defaults need to be filled in to
          complete the transformation to a string (for example, MIME
          boundaries may be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          be the most useful way to serialize messages in your
          application, especially if you are dealing with multiple
          messages.  See *note email.generator.Generator: 1073. for a
          more flexible API for serializing messages.  Note also that
          this method is restricted to producing messages serialized as
          “7 bit clean” when *note utf8: c86. is ‘False’, which is the
          default.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: the default behavior when
          'maxheaderlen' is not specified was changed from defaulting to
          0 to defaulting to the value of 'max_line_length' from the
          policy.

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ ()

          Equivalent to
          ‘as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True))’.  Allows
          ‘str(msg)’ to produce a string containing the serialized
          message in a readable format.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: the method was changed to use
          ‘utf8=True’, thus producing an RFC 6531(6)-like message
          representation, instead of being a direct alias for *note
          as_string(): 329f.

      -- Yöntemi: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  The
          'policy' argument may be used to override the default policy
          obtained from the message instance.  This can be used to
          control some of the formatting produced by the method, since
          the specified 'policy' will be passed to the *note
          BytesGenerator: 1074.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          EmailMessage: b1c. if defaults need to be filled in to
          complete the transformation to a string (for example, MIME
          boundaries may be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          be the most useful way to serialize messages in your
          application, especially if you are dealing with multiple
          messages.  See *note email.generator.BytesGenerator: 1074. for
          a more flexible API for serializing messages.

      -- Yöntemi: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): 32a2.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the serialized message.

      -- Yöntemi: is_multipart ()

          Return ‘True’ if the message’s payload is a list of sub-*note
          EmailMessage: b1c. objects, otherwise return ‘False’.  When
          *note is_multipart(): 32a4. returns ‘False’, the payload
          should be a string object (which might be a CTE encoded binary
          payload).  Note that *note is_multipart(): 32a4. returning
          ‘True’ does not necessarily mean that
          “msg.get_content_maintype() == ‘multipart’” will return the
          ‘True’.  For example, ‘is_multipart’ will return ‘True’ when
          the *note EmailMessage: b1c. is of type ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Set the message’s envelope header to 'unixfrom', which should
          be a string.  (See *note mboxMessage: 32a6. for a brief
          description of this header.)

      -- Yöntemi: get_unixfrom ()

          Return the message’s envelope header.  Defaults to ‘None’ if
          the envelope header was never set.

     The following methods implement the mapping-like interface for
     accessing the message’s headers.  Note that there are some semantic
     differences between these methods and a normal mapping (i.e.
     dictionary) interface.  For example, in a dictionary there are no
     duplicate keys, but here there may be duplicate message headers.
     Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed order to the keys
     returned by *note keys(): 32a8, but in an *note EmailMessage: b1c.
     object, headers are always returned in the order they appeared in
     the original message, or in which they were added to the message
     later.  Any header deleted and then re-added is always appended to
     the end of the header list.

     These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
     convenience in the most common use cases.

     Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message
     is not included in the mapping interface.

      -- Yöntemi: __len__ ()

          Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.

      -- Yöntemi: __contains__ (name)

          Return ‘True’ if the message object has a field named 'name'.
          Matching is done without regard to case and 'name' does not
          include the trailing colon.  Used for the ‘in’ operator.  For
          example:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- Yöntemi: __getitem__ (name)

          Return the value of the named header field.  'name' does not
          include the colon field separator.  If the header is missing,
          ‘None’ is returned; a *note KeyError: 903. is never raised.

          Note that if the named field appears more than once in the
          message’s headers, exactly which of those field values will be
          returned is undefined.  Use the *note get_all(): 32ac. method
          to get the values of all the extant headers named 'name'.

          Using the standard (non-‘compat32’) policies, the returned
          value is an instance of a subclass of *note
          email.headerregistry.BaseHeader: 32ad.

      -- Yöntemi: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Add a header to the message with field name 'name' and value
          'val'.  The field is appended to the end of the message’s
          existing headers.

          Note that this does 'not' overwrite or delete any existing
          header with the same name.  If you want to ensure that the new
          header is the only one present in the message with field name
          'name', delete the field first, e.g.:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

          If the *note policy: 4e. defines certain headers to be unique
          (as the standard policies do), this method may raise a *note
          ValueError: 189. when an attempt is made to assign a value to
          such a header when one already exists.  This behavior is
          intentional for consistency’s sake, but do not depend on it as
          we may choose to make such assignments do an automatic
          deletion of the existing header in the future.

      -- Yöntemi: __delitem__ (name)

          Delete all occurrences of the field with name 'name' from the
          message’s headers.  No exception is raised if the named field
          isn’t present in the headers.

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          Return a list of all the message’s header field names.

      -- Yöntemi: values ()

          Return a list of all the message’s field values.

      -- Yöntemi: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message’s field
          headers and values.

      -- Yöntemi: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 500. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing ('failobj' defaults to
          ‘None’).

     Here are some additional useful header related methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Return a list of all the values for the field named 'name'.
          If there are no such named headers in the message, 'failobj'
          is returned (defaults to ‘None’).

      -- Yöntemi: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Extended header setting.  This method is similar to *note
          __setitem__(): 32ae. except that additional header parameters
          can be provided as keyword arguments.  '_name' is the header
          field to add and '_value' is the 'primary' value for the
          header.

          For each item in the keyword argument dictionary '_params',
          the key is taken as the parameter name, with underscores
          converted to dashes (since dashes are illegal in Python
          identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will be added as
          ‘key="value"’ unless the value is ‘None’, in which case only
          the key will be added.

          If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and
          language may be explicitly controlled by specifying the value
          as a three tuple in the format ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’,
          where ‘CHARSET’ is a string naming the charset to be used to
          encode the value, ‘LANGUAGE’ can usually be set to ‘None’ or
          the empty string (see RFC 2231(7) for other possibilities),
          and ‘VALUE’ is the string value containing non-ASCII code
          points.  If a three tuple is not passed and the value contains
          non-ASCII characters, it is automatically encoded in RFC
          2231(8) format using a ‘CHARSET’ of ‘utf-8’ and a ‘LANGUAGE’
          of ‘None’.

          Here is an example:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          This will add a header that looks like

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          An example of the extended interface with non-ASCII
          characters:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

      -- Yöntemi: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the
          message that matches '_name', retaining header order and field
          name case of the original header.  If no matching header is
          found, raise a *note KeyError: 903.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_type ()

          Return the message’s content type, coerced to lower case of
          the form ‘maintype/subtype’.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’
          header in the message return the value returned by *note
          get_default_type(): 32b6.  If the ‘Content-Type’ header is
          invalid, return ‘text/plain’.

          (According to RFC 2045(9), messages always have a default
          type, *note get_content_type(): 32b5. will always return a
          value.  RFC 2045(10) defines a message’s default type to be
          ‘text/plain’ unless it appears inside a ‘multipart/digest’
          container, in which case it would be ‘message/rfc822’.  If the
          ‘Content-Type’ header has an invalid type specification, RFC
          2045(11) mandates that the default type be ‘text/plain’.)

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_maintype ()

          Return the message’s main content type.  This is the
          ‘maintype’ part of the string returned by *note
          get_content_type(): 32b5.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_subtype ()

          Return the message’s sub-content type.  This is the ‘subtype’
          part of the string returned by *note get_content_type(): 32b5.

      -- Yöntemi: get_default_type ()

          Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default
          content type of ‘text/plain’, except for messages that are
          subparts of ‘multipart/digest’ containers.  Such subparts have
          a default content type of ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_default_type (ctype)

          Set the default content type.  'ctype' should either be
          ‘text/plain’ or ‘message/rfc822’, although this is not
          enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
          ‘Content-Type’ header, so it only affects the return value of
          the ‘get_content_type’ methods when no ‘Content-Type’ header
          is present in the message.

      -- Yöntemi: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Set a parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
          parameter already exists in the header, replace its value with
          'value'.  When 'header' is ‘Content-Type’ (the default) and
          the header does not yet exist in the message, add it, set its
          value to ‘text/plain’, and append the new parameter value.
          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative header to
          ‘Content-Type’.

          If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and
          language may be explicitly specified using the optional
          'charset' and 'language' parameters.  Optional 'language'
          specifies the RFC 2231(12) language, defaulting to the empty
          string.  Both 'charset' and 'language' should be strings.  The
          default is to use the ‘utf8’ 'charset' and ‘None’ for the
          'language'.

          If 'replace' is ‘False’ (the default) the header is moved to
          the end of the list of headers.  If 'replace' is ‘True’, the
          header will be updated in place.

          Use of the 'requote' parameter with *note EmailMessage: b1c.
          objects is deprecated.

          Note that existing parameter values of headers may be accessed
          through the *note params: 32bb. attribute of the header value
          (for example, ‘msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']’).

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: ‘replace’ keyword was added.

      -- Yöntemi: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Remove the given parameter completely from the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  The header will be re-written in place without the
          parameter or its value.  Optional 'header' specifies an
          alternative to ‘Content-Type’.

          Use of the 'requote' parameter with *note EmailMessage: b1c.
          objects is deprecated.

      -- Yöntemi: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘filename’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header of the message.  If the header
          does not have a ‘filename’ parameter, this method falls back
          to looking for the ‘name’ parameter on the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  If neither is found, or the header is missing, then
          'failobj' is returned.  The returned string will always be
          unquoted as per *note email.utils.unquote(): 32be.

      -- Yöntemi: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘boundary’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header of the message, or 'failobj' if either
          the header is missing, or has no ‘boundary’ parameter.  The
          returned string will always be unquoted as per *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 32be.

      -- Yöntemi: set_boundary (boundary)

          Set the ‘boundary’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header to
          'boundary'.  *note set_boundary(): 32c0. will always quote
          'boundary' if necessary.  A *note HeaderParseError: 32c1. is
          raised if the message object has no ‘Content-Type’ header.

          Note that using this method is subtly different from deleting
          the old ‘Content-Type’ header and adding a new one with the
          new boundary via *note add_header(): 32b3, because *note
          set_boundary(): 32c0. preserves the order of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header in the list of headers.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Return the ‘charset’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header,
          coerced to lower case.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’ header,
          or if that header has no ‘charset’ parameter, 'failobj' is
          returned.

      -- Yöntemi: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Return a list containing the character set names in the
          message.  If the message is a ‘multipart’, then the list will
          contain one element for each subpart in the payload,
          otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.

          Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of
          the ‘charset’ parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header for the
          represented subpart.  If the subpart has no ‘Content-Type’
          header, no ‘charset’ parameter, or is not of the ‘text’ main
          MIME type, then that item in the returned list will be
          'failobj'.

      -- Yöntemi: is_attachment ()

          Return ‘True’ if there is a ‘Content-Disposition’ header and
          its (case insensitive) value is ‘attachment’, ‘False’
          otherwise.

          3.4.2 sürümünde değişti: is_attachment is now a method instead
          of a property, for consistency with *note is_multipart():
          32c5.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_disposition ()

          Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the
          message’s ‘Content-Disposition’ header if it has one, or
          ‘None’.  The possible values for this method are 'inline',
          'attachment' or ‘None’ if the message follows RFC 2183(13).

          Added in version 3.5.

     The following methods relate to interrogating and manipulating the
     content (payload) of the message.

      -- Yöntemi: walk ()

          The *note walk(): 32c7. method is an all-purpose generator
          which can be used to iterate over all the parts and subparts
          of a message object tree, in depth-first traversal order.  You
          will typically use *note walk(): 32c7. as the iterator in a
          ‘for’ loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.

          Here’s an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a
          multipart message structure:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ iterates over the subparts of any part where *note
          is_multipart(): 32a4. returns ‘True’, even though
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ may return
          ‘False’.  We can see this in our example by making use of the
          ‘_structure’ debug helper function:

               >>> from email.iterators import _structure
               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Here the ‘message’ parts are not ‘multiparts’, but they do
          contain subparts.  ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘True’ and ‘walk’
          descends into the subparts.

      -- Yöntemi: get_body (preferencelist=('related', 'html', 'plain'))

          Return the MIME part that is the best candidate to be the
          “body” of the message.

          'preferencelist' must be a sequence of strings from the set
          ‘related’, ‘html’, and ‘plain’, and indicates the order of
          preference for the content type of the part returned.

          Start looking for candidate matches with the object on which
          the ‘get_body’ method is called.

          If ‘related’ is not included in 'preferencelist', consider the
          root part (or subpart of the root part) of any related
          encountered as a candidate if the (sub-)part matches a
          preference.

          When encountering a ‘multipart/related’, check the ‘start’
          parameter and if a part with a matching ‘Content-ID’ is found,
          consider only it when looking for candidate matches.
          Otherwise consider only the first (default root) part of the
          ‘multipart/related’.

          If a part has a ‘Content-Disposition’ header, only consider
          the part a candidate match if the value of the header is
          ‘inline’.

          If none of the candidates matches any of the preferences in
          'preferencelist', return ‘None’.

          Notes: (1) For most applications the only 'preferencelist'
          combinations that really make sense are ‘('plain',)’,
          ‘('html', 'plain')’, and the default ‘('related', 'html',
          'plain')’.  (2) Because matching starts with the object on
          which ‘get_body’ is called, calling ‘get_body’ on a
          ‘multipart/related’ will return the object itself unless
          'preferencelist' has a non-default value.  (3) Messages (or
          message parts) that do not specify a ‘Content-Type’ or whose
          ‘Content-Type’ header is invalid will be treated as if they
          are of type ‘text/plain’, which may occasionally cause
          ‘get_body’ to return unexpected results.

      -- Yöntemi: iter_attachments ()

          Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the
          message that are not candidate “body” parts.  That is, skip
          the first occurrence of each of ‘text/plain’, ‘text/html’,
          ‘multipart/related’, or ‘multipart/alternative’ (unless they
          are explicitly marked as attachments via ‘Content-Disposition:
          attachment’), and return all remaining parts.  When applied
          directly to a ‘multipart/related’, return an iterator over the
          all the related parts except the root part (ie: the part
          pointed to by the ‘start’ parameter, or the first part if
          there is no ‘start’ parameter or the ‘start’ parameter doesn’t
          match the ‘Content-ID’ of any of the parts).  When applied
          directly to a ‘multipart/alternative’ or a non-‘multipart’,
          return an empty iterator.

      -- Yöntemi: iter_parts ()

          Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the
          message, which will be empty for a non-‘multipart’.  (See also
          *note walk(): 32c7.)

      -- Yöntemi: get_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Call the *note get_content(): 32cc. method of the
          'content_manager', passing self as the message object, and
          passing along any other arguments or keywords as additional
          arguments.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use the
          ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy: 4e.

      -- Yöntemi: set_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Call the *note set_content(): 32cd. method of the
          'content_manager', passing self as the message object, and
          passing along any other arguments or keywords as additional
          arguments.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use the
          ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy: 4e.

      -- Yöntemi: make_related (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’ message into a ‘multipart/related’
          message, moving any existing ‘Content-’ headers and payload
          into a (new) first part of the ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is
          specified, use it as the boundary string in the multipart,
          otherwise leave the boundary to be automatically created when
          it is needed (for example, when the message is serialized).

      -- Yöntemi: make_alternative (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’ or a ‘multipart/related’ into a
          ‘multipart/alternative’, moving any existing ‘Content-’
          headers and payload into a (new) first part of the
          ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is specified, use it as the
          boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the boundary
          to be automatically created when it is needed (for example,
          when the message is serialized).

      -- Yöntemi: make_mixed (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’, a ‘multipart/related’, or a
          ‘multipart-alternative’ into a ‘multipart/mixed’, moving any
          existing ‘Content-’ headers and payload into a (new) first
          part of the ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is specified, use it
          as the boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the
          boundary to be automatically created when it is needed (for
          example, when the message is serialized).

      -- Yöntemi: add_related (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/related’, create a new message
          object, pass all of the arguments to its *note set_content():
          16d0. method, and *note attach(): 32d2. it to the ‘multipart’.
          If the message is a non-‘multipart’, call *note
          make_related(): 32ce. and then proceed as above.  If the
          message is any other type of ‘multipart’, raise a *note
          TypeError: 2c4.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use
          the ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy:
          4e.  If the added part has no ‘Content-Disposition’ header,
          add one with the value ‘inline’.

      -- Yöntemi: add_alternative (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/alternative’, create a new
          message object, pass all of the arguments to its *note
          set_content(): 16d0. method, and *note attach(): 32d2. it to
          the ‘multipart’.  If the message is a non-‘multipart’ or
          ‘multipart/related’, call *note make_alternative(): 32cf. and
          then proceed as above.  If the message is any other type of
          ‘multipart’, raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.  If
          'content_manager' is not specified, use the ‘content_manager’
          specified by the current *note policy: 4e.

      -- Yöntemi: add_attachment (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/mixed’, create a new message
          object, pass all of the arguments to its *note set_content():
          16d0. method, and *note attach(): 32d2. it to the ‘multipart’.
          If the message is a non-‘multipart’, ‘multipart/related’, or
          ‘multipart/alternative’, call *note make_mixed(): 32d0. and
          then proceed as above.  If 'content_manager' is not specified,
          use the ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note
          policy: 4e.  If the added part has no ‘Content-Disposition’
          header, add one with the value ‘attachment’.  This method can
          be used both for explicit attachments (‘Content-Disposition:
          attachment’) and ‘inline’ attachments (‘Content-Disposition:
          inline’), by passing appropriate options to the
          ‘content_manager’.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Remove the payload and all of the headers.

      -- Yöntemi: clear_content ()

          Remove the payload and all of the ‘!Content-’ headers, leaving
          all other headers intact and in their original order.

     *note EmailMessage: b1c. objects have the following instance
     attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: preamble

          The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the
          blank line following the headers, and the first multipart
          boundary string.  Normally, this text is never visible in a
          MIME-aware mail reader because it falls outside the standard
          MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of the
          message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware
          reader, this text can become visible.

          The 'preamble' attribute contains this leading extra-armor
          text for MIME documents.  When the *note Parser: 1044.
          discovers some text after the headers but before the first
          boundary string, it assigns this text to the message’s
          'preamble' attribute.  When the *note Generator: 1073. is
          writing out the plain text representation of a MIME message,
          and it finds the message has a 'preamble' attribute, it will
          write this text in the area between the headers and the first
          boundary.  See *note email.parser: 4d. and *note
          email.generator: 3f. for details.

          Note that if the message object has no preamble, the
          'preamble' attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: epilogue

          The 'epilogue' attribute acts the same way as the 'preamble'
          attribute, except that it contains text that appears between
          the last boundary and the end of the message.  As with the
          *note preamble: 32d7, if there is no epilog text this
          attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: defects

          The 'defects' attribute contains a list of all the problems
          found when parsing this message.  See *note email.errors: 3e.
          for a detailed description of the possible parsing defects.

 -- Sınıfı: email.message.MIMEPart (policy=default)

     This class represents a subpart of a MIME message.  It is identical
     to *note EmailMessage: b1c, except that no ‘MIME-Version’ headers
     are added when *note set_content(): 16d0. is called, since
     sub-parts do not need their own ‘MIME-Version’ headers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/message.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.4 as a *note provisional module: eeb.  Docs
for legacy message class moved to *note email.message.Message;
Representing an email message using the compat32 API: 329d.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email parser Parsing email messages,  Next: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Prev: email message Representing an email message,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.2 ‘email.parser’: Parsing email messages
...............................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Message object structures can be created in one of two ways: they can be
created from whole cloth by creating an *note EmailMessage: b1c. object,
adding headers using the dictionary interface, and adding payload(s)
using *note set_content(): 16d0. and related methods, or they can be
created by parsing a serialized representation of the email message.

The *note email: 3a. package provides a standard parser that understands
most email document structures, including MIME documents.  You can pass
the parser a bytes, string or file object, and the parser will return to
you the root *note EmailMessage: b1c. instance of the object structure.
For simple, non-MIME messages the payload of this root object will
likely be a string containing the text of the message.  For MIME
messages, the root object will return ‘True’ from its *note
is_multipart(): 32a4. method, and the subparts can be accessed via the
payload manipulation methods, such as *note get_body(): 32c8, *note
iter_parts(): 32ca, and *note walk(): 32c7.

There are actually two parser interfaces available for use, the *note
Parser: 1044. API and the incremental *note FeedParser: 32dc. API. The
*note Parser: 1044. API is most useful if you have the entire text of
the message in memory, or if the entire message lives in a file on the
file system.  *note FeedParser: 32dc. is more appropriate when you are
reading the message from a stream which might block waiting for more
input (such as reading an email message from a socket).  The *note
FeedParser: 32dc. can consume and parse the message incrementally, and
only returns the root object when you close the parser.

Note that the parser can be extended in limited ways, and of course you
can implement your own parser completely from scratch.  All of the logic
that connects the *note email: 3a. package’s bundled parser and the
*note EmailMessage: b1c. class is embodied in the *note Policy: f56.
class, so a custom parser can create message object trees any way it
finds necessary by implementing custom versions of the appropriate
‘Policy’ methods.

* Menu:

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* Additional notes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: FeedParser API,  Next: Parser API,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.19.1.3 FeedParser API
.......................

The *note BytesFeedParser: 1070, imported from the ‘email.feedparser’
module, provides an API that is conducive to incremental parsing of
email messages, such as would be necessary when reading the text of an
email message from a source that can block (such as a socket).  The
*note BytesFeedParser: 1070. can of course be used to parse an email
message fully contained in a *note bytes-like object: bb5, string, or
file, but the *note BytesParser: 1071. API may be more convenient for
such use cases.  The semantics and results of the two parser APIs are
identical.

The *note BytesFeedParser: 1070.’s API is simple; you create an
instance, feed it a bunch of bytes until there’s no more to feed it,
then close the parser to retrieve the root message object.  The *note
BytesFeedParser: 1070. is extremely accurate when parsing
standards-compliant messages, and it does a very good job of parsing
non-compliant messages, providing information about how a message was
deemed broken.  It will populate a message object’s *note defects: 32d9.
attribute with a list of any problems it found in a message.  See the
*note email.errors: 3e. module for the list of defects that it can find.

Here is the API for the *note BytesFeedParser: 1070.:

 -- Sınıfı: email.parser.BytesFeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Create a *note BytesFeedParser: 1070. instance.  Optional
     '_factory' is a no-argument callable; if not specified use the
     *note message_factory: b19. from the 'policy'.  Call '_factory'
     whenever a new message object is needed.

     If 'policy' is specified use the rules it specifies to update the
     representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not set, use the
     *note compat32: f57. policy, which maintains backward compatibility
     with the Python 3.2 version of the email package and provides *note
     Message: b1b. as the default factory.  All other policies provide
     *note EmailMessage: b1c. as the default '_factory'.  For more
     information on what else 'policy' controls, see the *note policy:
     4e. documentation.

     Note: 'The policy keyword should always be specified'; The default
     will change to *note email.policy.default: 329e. in a future
     version of Python.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'policy' keyword.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: '_factory' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

      -- Yöntemi: feed (data)

          Feed the parser some more data.  'data' should be a *note
          bytes-like object: bb5. containing one or more lines.  The
          lines can be partial and the parser will stitch such partial
          lines together properly.  The lines can have any of the three
          common line endings: carriage return, newline, or carriage
          return and newline (they can even be mixed).

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Complete the parsing of all previously fed data and return the
          root message object.  It is undefined what happens if *note
          feed(): 32de. is called after this method has been called.

 -- Sınıfı: email.parser.FeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Works like *note BytesFeedParser: 1070. except that the input to
     the *note feed(): 32de. method must be a string.  This is of
     limited utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid
     is for it to contain only ASCII text or, if ‘utf8’ is ‘True’, no
     binary attachments.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'policy' keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Parser API,  Next: Additional notes,  Prev: FeedParser API,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.19.1.4 Parser API
...................

The *note BytesParser: 1071. class, imported from the *note
email.parser: 4d. module, provides an API that can be used to parse a
message when the complete contents of the message are available in a
*note bytes-like object: bb5. or file.  The *note email.parser: 4d.
module also provides *note Parser: 1044. for parsing strings, and
header-only parsers, *note BytesHeaderParser: f5e. and *note
HeaderParser: f5f, which can be used if you’re only interested in the
headers of the message.  *note BytesHeaderParser: f5e. and *note
HeaderParser: f5f. can be much faster in these situations, since they do
not attempt to parse the message body, instead setting the payload to
the raw body.

 -- Sınıfı: email.parser.BytesParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Create a *note BytesParser: 1071. instance.  The '_class' and
     'policy' arguments have the same meaning and semantics as the
     '_factory' and 'policy' arguments of *note BytesFeedParser: 1070.

     Note: 'The policy keyword should always be specified'; The default
     will change to *note email.policy.default: 329e. in a future
     version of Python.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'strict' argument that was
     deprecated in 2.4.  Added the 'policy' keyword.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: '_class' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

      -- Yöntemi: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Read all the data from the binary file-like object 'fp', parse
          the resulting bytes, and return the message object.  'fp' must
          support both the *note readline(): 11d5. and the ‘read()’
          methods.

          The bytes contained in 'fp' must be formatted as a block of
          RFC 5322(1) (or, if ‘utf8’ is ‘True’, RFC 6532(2)) style
          headers and header continuation lines, optionally preceded by
          an envelope header.  The header block is terminated either by
          the end of the data or by a blank line.  Following the header
          block is the body of the message (which may contain
          MIME-encoded subparts, including subparts with a
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of ‘8bit’).

          Optional 'headersonly' is a flag specifying whether to stop
          parsing after reading the headers or not.  The default is
          ‘False’, meaning it parses the entire contents of the file.

      -- Yöntemi: parsebytes (bytes, headersonly=False)

          Similar to the *note parse(): 32e1. method, except it takes a
          *note bytes-like object: bb5. instead of a file-like object.
          Calling this method on a *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
          equivalent to wrapping 'bytes' in a *note BytesIO: d38.
          instance first and calling *note parse(): 32e1.

          Optional 'headersonly' is as with the *note parse(): 32e1.
          method.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: email.parser.BytesHeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactly like *note BytesParser: 1071, except that 'headersonly'
     defaults to ‘True’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Sınıfı: email.parser.Parser (_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

     This class is parallel to *note BytesParser: 1071, but handles
     string input.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: '_class' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

      -- Yöntemi: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Read all the data from the text-mode file-like object 'fp',
          parse the resulting text, and return the root message object.
          'fp' must support both the *note readline(): 1b06. and the
          *note read(): 1ace. methods on file-like objects.

          Other than the text mode requirement, this method operates
          like *note BytesParser.parse(): 32e1.

      -- Yöntemi: parsestr (text, headersonly=False)

          Similar to the *note parse(): 32e3. method, except it takes a
          string object instead of a file-like object.  Calling this
          method on a string is equivalent to wrapping 'text' in a *note
          StringIO: dc4. instance first and calling *note parse(): 32e3.

          Optional 'headersonly' is as with the *note parse(): 32e3.
          method.

 -- Sınıfı: email.parser.HeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactly like *note Parser: 1044, except that 'headersonly' defaults
     to ‘True’.

Since creating a message object structure from a string or a file object
is such a common task, four functions are provided as a convenience.
They are available in the top-level *note email: 3a. package namespace.

 -- Işlevi: email.message_from_bytes (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure from a *note bytes-like object:
     bb5.  This is equivalent to ‘BytesParser().parsebytes(s)’.
     Optional '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted as with the *note
     BytesParser: 1071. class constructor.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

 -- Işlevi: email.message_from_binary_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure tree from an open binary *note
     file object: 1068.  This is equivalent to
     ‘BytesParser().parse(fp)’.  '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted
     as with the *note BytesParser: 1071. class constructor.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

 -- Işlevi: email.message_from_string (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure from a string.  This is
     equivalent to ‘Parser().parsestr(s)’.  '_class' and 'policy' are
     interpreted as with the *note Parser: 1044. class constructor.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

 -- Işlevi: email.message_from_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure tree from an open *note file
     object: 1068.  This is equivalent to ‘Parser().parse(fp)’.
     '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted as with the *note Parser:
     1044. class constructor.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: '_class' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

Here’s an example of how you might use *note message_from_bytes(): 106e.
at an interactive Python prompt:

     >>> import email
     >>> msg = email.message_from_bytes(myBytes)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html


File: python.info,  Node: Additional notes,  Prev: Parser API,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.19.1.5 Additional notes
.........................

Here are some notes on the parsing semantics:

   * Most non-‘multipart’ type messages are parsed as a single message
     object with a string payload.  These objects will return ‘False’
     for *note is_multipart(): 32a4, and *note iter_parts(): 32ca. will
     yield an empty list.

   * All ‘multipart’ type messages will be parsed as a container message
     object with a list of sub-message objects for their payload.  The
     outer container message will return ‘True’ for *note
     is_multipart(): 32a4, and *note iter_parts(): 32ca. will yield a
     list of subparts.

   * Most messages with a content type of ‘message/*’ (such as
     ‘message/delivery-status’ and ‘message/rfc822’) will also be parsed
     as container object containing a list payload of length 1.  Their
     *note is_multipart(): 32a4. method will return ‘True’.  The single
     element yielded by *note iter_parts(): 32ca. will be a sub-message
     object.

   * Some non-standards-compliant messages may not be internally
     consistent about their ‘multipart’-edness.  Such messages may have
     a ‘Content-Type’ header of type ‘multipart’, but their *note
     is_multipart(): 32a4. method may return ‘False’.  If such messages
     were parsed with the *note FeedParser: 32dc, they will have an
     instance of the *note MultipartInvariantViolationDefect: 32e8.
     class in their 'defects' attribute list.  See *note email.errors:
     3e. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Next: email policy Policy Objects,  Prev: email parser Parsing email messages,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.6 ‘email.generator’: Generating MIME documents
.....................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/generator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

One of the most common tasks is to generate the flat (serialized)
version of the email message represented by a message object structure.
You will need to do this if you want to send your message via *note
smtplib.SMTP.sendmail(): ceb. or the *note nntplib: 9c. module, or print
the message on the console.  Taking a message object structure and
producing a serialized representation is the job of the generator
classes.

As with the *note email.parser: 4d. module, you aren’t limited to the
functionality of the bundled generator; you could write one from scratch
yourself.  However the bundled generator knows how to generate most
email in a standards-compliant way, should handle MIME and non-MIME
email messages just fine, and is designed so that the bytes-oriented
parsing and generation operations are inverses, assuming the same
non-transforming *note policy: 4e. is used for both.  That is, parsing
the serialized byte stream via the *note BytesParser: 1071. class and
then regenerating the serialized byte stream using *note BytesGenerator:
1074. should produce output identical to the input (2).  (On the other
hand, using the generator on an *note EmailMessage: b1c. constructed by
program may result in changes to the *note EmailMessage: b1c. object as
defaults are filled in.)

The *note Generator: 1073. class can be used to flatten a message into a
text (as opposed to binary) serialized representation, but since Unicode
cannot represent binary data directly, the message is of necessity
transformed into something that contains only ASCII characters, using
the standard email RFC Content Transfer Encoding techniques for encoding
email messages for transport over channels that are not “8 bit clean”.

To accommodate reproducible processing of SMIME-signed messages *note
Generator: 1073. disables header folding for message parts of type
‘multipart/signed’ and all subparts.

 -- Sınıfı: email.generator.BytesGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Return a *note BytesGenerator: 1074. object that will write any
     message provided to the *note flatten(): 32ec. method, or any
     surrogateescape encoded text provided to the *note write(): 32ed.
     method, to the *note file-like object: 2379. 'outfp'.  'outfp' must
     support a ‘write’ method that accepts binary data.

     If optional 'mangle_from_' is ‘True’, put a ‘>’ character in front
     of any line in the body that starts with the exact string ‘"From
     "’, that is ‘From’ followed by a space at the beginning of a line.
     'mangle_from_' defaults to the value of the *note mangle_from_:
     c84. setting of the 'policy' (which is ‘True’ for the *note
     compat32: b1a. policy and ‘False’ for all others).  'mangle_from_'
     is intended for use when messages are stored in Unix mbox format
     (see *note mailbox: 8a. and WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(3)).

     If 'maxheaderlen' is not ‘None’, refold any header lines that are
     longer than 'maxheaderlen', or if ‘0’, do not rewrap any headers.
     If 'manheaderlen' is ‘None’ (the default), wrap headers and other
     message lines according to the 'policy' settings.

     If 'policy' is specified, use that policy to control message
     generation.  If 'policy' is ‘None’ (the default), use the policy
     associated with the *note Message: b1b. or *note EmailMessage: b1c.
     object passed to ‘flatten’ to control the message generation.  See
     *note email.policy: 4e. for details on what 'policy' controls.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'policy' keyword.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The default behavior of the 'mangle_from_'
     and 'maxheaderlen' parameters is to follow the policy.

      -- Yöntemi: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Print the textual representation of the message object
          structure rooted at 'msg' to the output file specified when
          the *note BytesGenerator: 1074. instance was created.

          If the *note policy: 4e. option *note cte_type: 32ee. is
          ‘8bit’ (the default), copy any headers in the original parsed
          message that have not been modified to the output with any
          bytes with the high bit set reproduced as in the original, and
          preserve the non-ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of any body
          parts that have them.  If ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’, convert the
          bytes with the high bit set as needed using an
          ASCII-compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.  That is,
          transform parts with non-ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit’) to an ASCII compatible
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’, and encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII
          bytes in headers using the MIME ‘unknown-8bit’ character set,
          thus rendering them RFC-compliant.

          If 'unixfrom' is ‘True’, print the envelope header delimiter
          used by the Unix mailbox format (see *note mailbox: 8a.)
          before the first of the RFC 5322(4) headers of the root
          message object.  If the root object has no envelope header,
          craft a standard one.  The default is ‘False’.  Note that for
          subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.

          If 'linesep' is not ‘None’, use it as the separator character
          between all the lines of the flattened message.  If 'linesep'
          is ‘None’ (the default), use the value specified in the
          'policy'.

      -- Yöntemi: clone (fp)

          Return an independent clone of this *note BytesGenerator:
          1074. instance with the exact same option settings, and 'fp'
          as the new 'outfp'.

      -- Yöntemi: write (s)

          Encode 's' using the ‘ASCII’ codec and the ‘surrogateescape’
          error handler, and pass it to the 'write' method of the
          'outfp' passed to the *note BytesGenerator: 1074.’s
          constructor.

As a convenience, *note EmailMessage: b1c. provides the methods *note
as_bytes(): 32a2. and ‘bytes(aMessage)’ (a.k.a.  *note __bytes__():
32a3.), which simplify the generation of a serialized binary
representation of a message object.  For more detail, see *note
email.message: 43.

Because strings cannot represent binary data, the *note Generator: 1073.
class must convert any binary data in any message it flattens to an
ASCII compatible format, by converting them to an ASCII compatible
‘Content-Transfer_Encoding’.  Using the terminology of the email RFCs,
you can think of this as *note Generator: 1073. serializing to an I/O
stream that is not “8 bit clean”.  In other words, most applications
will want to be using *note BytesGenerator: 1074, and not *note
Generator: 1073.

 -- Sınıfı: email.generator.Generator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Return a *note Generator: 1073. object that will write any message
     provided to the *note flatten(): 32f0. method, or any text provided
     to the *note write(): 32f1. method, to the *note file-like object:
     2379. 'outfp'.  'outfp' must support a ‘write’ method that accepts
     string data.

     If optional 'mangle_from_' is ‘True’, put a ‘>’ character in front
     of any line in the body that starts with the exact string ‘"From
     "’, that is ‘From’ followed by a space at the beginning of a line.
     'mangle_from_' defaults to the value of the *note mangle_from_:
     c84. setting of the 'policy' (which is ‘True’ for the *note
     compat32: b1a. policy and ‘False’ for all others).  'mangle_from_'
     is intended for use when messages are stored in Unix mbox format
     (see *note mailbox: 8a. and WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(5)).

     If 'maxheaderlen' is not ‘None’, refold any header lines that are
     longer than 'maxheaderlen', or if ‘0’, do not rewrap any headers.
     If 'manheaderlen' is ‘None’ (the default), wrap headers and other
     message lines according to the 'policy' settings.

     If 'policy' is specified, use that policy to control message
     generation.  If 'policy' is ‘None’ (the default), use the policy
     associated with the *note Message: b1b. or *note EmailMessage: b1c.
     object passed to ‘flatten’ to control the message generation.  See
     *note email.policy: 4e. for details on what 'policy' controls.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'policy' keyword.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The default behavior of the 'mangle_from_'
     and 'maxheaderlen' parameters is to follow the policy.

      -- Yöntemi: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Print the textual representation of the message object
          structure rooted at 'msg' to the output file specified when
          the *note Generator: 1073. instance was created.

          If the *note policy: 4e. option *note cte_type: 32ee. is
          ‘8bit’, generate the message as if the option were set to
          ‘7bit’.  (This is required because strings cannot represent
          non-ASCII bytes.)  Convert any bytes with the high bit set as
          needed using an ASCII-compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.
          That is, transform parts with non-ASCII
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding:
          8bit’) to an ASCII compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’, and
          encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII bytes in headers using the MIME
          ‘unknown-8bit’ character set, thus rendering them
          RFC-compliant.

          If 'unixfrom' is ‘True’, print the envelope header delimiter
          used by the Unix mailbox format (see *note mailbox: 8a.)
          before the first of the RFC 5322(6) headers of the root
          message object.  If the root object has no envelope header,
          craft a standard one.  The default is ‘False’.  Note that for
          subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.

          If 'linesep' is not ‘None’, use it as the separator character
          between all the lines of the flattened message.  If 'linesep'
          is ‘None’ (the default), use the value specified in the
          'policy'.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added support for re-encoding ‘8bit’
          message bodies, and the 'linesep' argument.

      -- Yöntemi: clone (fp)

          Return an independent clone of this *note Generator: 1073.
          instance with the exact same options, and 'fp' as the new
          'outfp'.

      -- Yöntemi: write (s)

          Write 's' to the 'write' method of the 'outfp' passed to the
          *note Generator: 1073.’s constructor.  This provides just
          enough file-like API for *note Generator: 1073. instances to
          be used in the *note print(): e16. function.

As a convenience, *note EmailMessage: b1c. provides the methods *note
as_string(): 329f. and ‘str(aMessage)’ (a.k.a.  *note __str__(): 32a1.),
which simplify the generation of a formatted string representation of a
message object.  For more detail, see *note email.message: 43.

The *note email.generator: 3f. module also provides a derived class,
*note DecodedGenerator: b18, which is like the *note Generator: 1073.
base class, except that non-‘text’ parts are not serialized, but are
instead represented in the output stream by a string derived from a
template filled in with information about the part.

 -- Sınıfı: email.generator.DecodedGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, fmt=None, *, policy=None)

     Act like *note Generator: 1073, except that for any subpart of the
     message passed to *note Generator.flatten(): 32f0, if the subpart
     is of main type ‘text’, print the decoded payload of the subpart,
     and if the main type is not ‘text’, instead of printing it fill in
     the string 'fmt' using information from the part and print the
     resulting filled-in string.

     To fill in 'fmt', execute ‘fmt % part_info’, where ‘part_info’ is a
     dictionary composed of the following keys and values:

        * ‘type’ – Full MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘maintype’ – Main MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘subtype’ – Sub-MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘filename’ – Filename of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘description’ – Description associated with the non-‘text’
          part

        * ‘encoding’ – Content transfer encoding of the non-‘text’ part

     If 'fmt' is ‘None’, use the following default 'fmt':

          “[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename
          %(filename)s]”

     Optional '_mangle_from_' and 'maxheaderlen' are as with the *note
     Generator: 1073. base class.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/generator.py

   (2) This statement assumes that you use the appropriate setting for
‘unixfrom’, and that there are no *note email.policy: 4e. settings
calling for automatic adjustments (for example, *note refold_source:
32eb. must be ‘none’, which is 'not' the default).  It is also not 100%
true, since if the message does not conform to the RFC standards
occasionally information about the exact original text is lost during
parsing error recovery.  It is a goal to fix these latter edge cases
when possible.

   (3) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email policy Policy Objects,  Next: email errors Exception and Defect classes,  Prev: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.7 ‘email.policy’: Policy Objects
.......................................

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/email/policy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note email: 3a. package’s prime focus is the handling of email
messages as described by the various email and MIME RFCs.  However, the
general format of email messages (a block of header fields each
consisting of a name followed by a colon followed by a value, the whole
block followed by a blank line and an arbitrary ‘body’), is a format
that has found utility outside of the realm of email.  Some of these
uses conform fairly closely to the main email RFCs, some do not.  Even
when working with email, there are times when it is desirable to break
strict compliance with the RFCs, such as generating emails that
interoperate with email servers that do not themselves follow the
standards, or that implement extensions you want to use in ways that
violate the standards.

Policy objects give the email package the flexibility to handle all
these disparate use cases.

A *note Policy: f56. object encapsulates a set of attributes and methods
that control the behavior of various components of the email package
during use.  *note Policy: f56. instances can be passed to various
classes and methods in the email package to alter the default behavior.
The settable values and their defaults are described below.

There is a default policy used by all classes in the email package.  For
all of the *note parser: 4d. classes and the related convenience
functions, and for the *note Message: b1b. class, this is the *note
Compat32: f57. policy, via its corresponding pre-defined instance *note
compat32: b1a.  This policy provides for complete backward compatibility
(in some cases, including bug compatibility) with the pre-Python3.3
version of the email package.

This default value for the 'policy' keyword to *note EmailMessage: b1c.
is the *note EmailPolicy: f5a. policy, via its pre-defined instance
*note default: 329e.

When a *note Message: b1b. or *note EmailMessage: b1c. object is
created, it acquires a policy.  If the message is created by a *note
parser: 4d, a policy passed to the parser will be the policy used by the
message it creates.  If the message is created by the program, then the
policy can be specified when it is created.  When a message is passed to
a *note generator: 3f, the generator uses the policy from the message by
default, but you can also pass a specific policy to the generator that
will override the one stored on the message object.

The default value for the 'policy' keyword for the *note email.parser:
4d. classes and the parser convenience functions 'will be changing' in a
future version of Python.  Therefore you should 'always specify
explicitly which policy you want to use' when calling any of the classes
and functions described in the *note parser: 4d. module.

The first part of this documentation covers the features of *note
Policy: f56, an *note abstract base class: 105b. that defines the
features that are common to all policy objects, including *note
compat32: b1a.  This includes certain hook methods that are called
internally by the email package, which a custom policy could override to
obtain different behavior.  The second part describes the concrete
classes *note EmailPolicy: f5a. and *note Compat32: f57, which implement
the hooks that provide the standard behavior and the backward compatible
behavior and features, respectively.

*note Policy: f56. instances are immutable, but they can be cloned,
accepting the same keyword arguments as the class constructor and
returning a new *note Policy: f56. instance that is a copy of the
original but with the specified attributes values changed.

As an example, the following code could be used to read an email message
from a file on disk and pass it to the system ‘sendmail’ program on a
Unix system:

     >>> from email import message_from_binary_file
     >>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator
     >>> from email import policy
     >>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     >>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'rb') as f:
     ...     msg = message_from_binary_file(f, policy=policy.default)
     ...
     >>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'].addresses[0]], stdin=PIPE)
     >>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n'))
     >>> g.flatten(msg)
     >>> p.stdin.close()
     >>> rc = p.wait()

Here we are telling *note BytesGenerator: 1074. to use the RFC correct
line separator characters when creating the binary string to feed into
‘sendmail's’ ‘stdin’, where the default policy would use ‘\n’ line
separators.

Some email package methods accept a 'policy' keyword argument, allowing
the policy to be overridden for that method.  For example, the following
code uses the *note as_bytes(): dd7. method of the 'msg' object from the
previous example and writes the message to a file using the native line
separators for the platform on which it is running:

     >>> import os
     >>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f:
     ...     f.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)))
     17

Policy objects can also be combined using the addition operator,
producing a policy object whose settings are a combination of the
non-default values of the summed objects:

     >>> compat_SMTP = policy.compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
     >>> compat_strict = policy.compat32.clone(raise_on_defect=True)
     >>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict

This operation is not commutative; that is, the order in which the
objects are added matters.  To illustrate:

     >>> policy100 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=100)
     >>> policy80 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=80)
     >>> apolicy = policy100 + policy80
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     80
     >>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     100

 -- Sınıfı: email.policy.Policy (**kw)

     This is the *note abstract base class: 105b. for all policy
     classes.  It provides default implementations for a couple of
     trivial methods, as well as the implementation of the immutability
     property, the *note clone(): f58. method, and the constructor
     semantics.

     The constructor of a policy class can be passed various keyword
     arguments.  The arguments that may be specified are any non-method
     properties on this class, plus any additional non-method properties
     on the concrete class.  A value specified in the constructor will
     override the default value for the corresponding attribute.

     This class defines the following properties, and thus values for
     the following may be passed in the constructor of any policy class:

      -- Özniteliği: max_line_length

          The maximum length of any line in the serialized output, not
          counting the end of line character(s).  Default is 78, per RFC
          5322(2).  A value of ‘0’ or *note None: 488. indicates that no
          line wrapping should be done at all.

      -- Özniteliği: linesep

          The string to be used to terminate lines in serialized output.
          The default is ‘\n’ because that’s the internal end-of-line
          discipline used by Python, though ‘\r\n’ is required by the
          RFCs.

      -- Özniteliği: cte_type

          Controls the type of Content Transfer Encodings that may be or
          are required to be used.  The possible values are:

          ‘7bit’       all data must be “7 bit clean” (ASCII-only).  This means that
                       where necessary data will be encoded using either
                       quoted-printable or base64 encoding.
                       
                       
          ‘8bit’       data is not constrained to be 7 bit clean.  Data in headers is
                       still required to be ASCII-only and so will be encoded (see
                       *note fold_binary(): 32f6. and *note utf8: c86. below for
                       exceptions), but body parts may use the ‘8bit’ CTE.
                       

          A ‘cte_type’ value of ‘8bit’ only works with ‘BytesGenerator’,
          not ‘Generator’, because strings cannot contain binary data.
          If a ‘Generator’ is operating under a policy that specifies
          ‘cte_type=8bit’, it will act as if ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’.

      -- Özniteliği: raise_on_defect

          If *note True: a86, any defects encountered will be raised as
          errors.  If *note False: 9a8. (the default), defects will be
          passed to the *note register_defect(): 32f8. method.

      -- Özniteliği: mangle_from_

          If *note True: a86, lines starting with '“From “' in the body
          are escaped by putting a ‘>’ in front of them.  This parameter
          is used when the message is being serialized by a generator.
          Default: *note False: 9a8.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Özniteliği: message_factory

          A factory function for constructing a new empty message
          object.  Used by the parser when building messages.  Defaults
          to ‘None’, in which case *note Message: b1b. is used.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Özniteliği: verify_generated_headers

          If ‘True’ (the default), the generator will raise *note
          HeaderWriteError: 32f9. instead of writing a header that is
          improperly folded or delimited, such that it would be parsed
          as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  Such
          headers can be generated by custom header classes or bugs in
          the ‘email’ module.

          As it’s a security feature, this defaults to ‘True’ even in
          the *note Compat32: f57. policy.  For backwards compatible,
          but unsafe, behavior, it must be set to ‘False’ explicitly.

          Added in version 3.12.5.

     The following *note Policy: f56. method is intended to be called by
     code using the email library to create policy instances with custom
     settings:

      -- Yöntemi: clone (**kw)

          Return a new *note Policy: f56. instance whose attributes have
          the same values as the current instance, except where those
          attributes are given new values by the keyword arguments.

     The remaining *note Policy: f56. methods are called by the email
     package code, and are not intended to be called by an application
     using the email package.  A custom policy must implement all of
     these methods.

      -- Yöntemi: handle_defect (obj, defect)

          Handle a 'defect' found on 'obj'.  When the email package
          calls this method, 'defect' will always be a subclass of *note
          MessageDefect: 32fb.

          The default implementation checks the *note raise_on_defect:
          32f7. flag.  If it is ‘True’, 'defect' is raised as an
          exception.  If it is ‘False’ (the default), 'obj' and 'defect'
          are passed to *note register_defect(): 32f8.

      -- Yöntemi: register_defect (obj, defect)

          Register a 'defect' on 'obj'.  In the email package, 'defect'
          will always be a subclass of *note MessageDefect: 32fb.

          The default implementation calls the ‘append’ method of the
          ‘defects’ attribute of 'obj'.  When the email package calls
          *note handle_defect: 32fa, 'obj' will normally have a
          ‘defects’ attribute that has an ‘append’ method.  Custom
          object types used with the email package (for example, custom
          ‘Message’ objects) should also provide such an attribute,
          otherwise defects in parsed messages will raise unexpected
          errors.

      -- Yöntemi: header_max_count (name)

          Return the maximum allowed number of headers named 'name'.

          Called when a header is added to an *note EmailMessage: b1c.
          or *note Message: b1b. object.  If the returned value is not
          ‘0’ or ‘None’, and there are already a number of headers with
          the name 'name' greater than or equal to the value returned, a
          *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

          Because the default behavior of ‘Message.__setitem__’ is to
          append the value to the list of headers, it is easy to create
          duplicate headers without realizing it.  This method allows
          certain headers to be limited in the number of instances of
          that header that may be added to a ‘Message’ programmatically.
          (The limit is not observed by the parser, which will
          faithfully produce as many headers as exist in the message
          being parsed.)

          The default implementation returns ‘None’ for all header
          names.

      -- Yöntemi: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The email package calls this method with a list of strings,
          each string ending with the line separation characters found
          in the source being parsed.  The first line includes the field
          header name and separator.  All whitespace in the source is
          preserved.  The method should return the ‘(name, value)’ tuple
          that is to be stored in the ‘Message’ to represent the parsed
          header.

          If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the
          existing email package policies, 'name' should be the case
          preserved name (all characters up to the ‘‘:’’ separator),
          while 'value' should be the unfolded value (all line separator
          characters removed, but whitespace kept intact), stripped of
          leading whitespace.

          'sourcelines' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.

          There is no default implementation

      -- Yöntemi: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the name and value
          provided by the application program when the application
          program is modifying a ‘Message’ programmatically (as opposed
          to a ‘Message’ created by a parser).  The method should return
          the ‘(name, value)’ tuple that is to be stored in the
          ‘Message’ to represent the header.

          If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the
          existing email package policies, the 'name' and 'value' should
          be strings or string subclasses that do not change the content
          of the passed in arguments.

          There is no default implementation

      -- Yöntemi: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the 'name' and
          'value' currently stored in the ‘Message’ when that header is
          requested by the application program, and whatever the method
          returns is what is passed back to the application as the value
          of the header being retrieved.  Note that there may be more
          than one header with the same name stored in the ‘Message’;
          the method is passed the specific name and value of the header
          destined to be returned to the application.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There
          should be no surrogateescaped binary data in the value
          returned by the method.

          There is no default implementation

      -- Yöntemi: fold (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the 'name' and
          'value' currently stored in the ‘Message’ for a given header.
          The method should return a string that represents that header
          “folded” correctly (according to the policy settings) by
          composing the 'name' with the 'value' and inserting *note
          linesep: 32f5. characters at the appropriate places.  See RFC
          5322(3) for a discussion of the rules for folding email
          headers.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There
          should be no surrogateescaped binary data in the string
          returned by the method.

      -- Yöntemi: fold_binary (name, value)

          The same as *note fold(): 3300, except that the returned value
          should be a bytes object rather than a string.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  These could
          be converted back into binary data in the returned bytes
          object.

 -- Sınıfı: email.policy.EmailPolicy (**kw)

     This concrete *note Policy: f56. provides behavior that is intended
     to be fully compliant with the current email RFCs.  These include
     (but are not limited to) RFC 5322(4), RFC 2047(5), and the current
     MIME RFCs.

     This policy adds new header parsing and folding algorithms.
     Instead of simple strings, headers are ‘str’ subclasses with
     attributes that depend on the type of the field.  The parsing and
     folding algorithm fully implement RFC 2047(6) and RFC 5322(7).

     The default value for the *note message_factory: b19. attribute is
     *note EmailMessage: b1c.

     In addition to the settable attributes listed above that apply to
     all policies, this policy adds the following additional attributes:

     Added in version 3.6: (8)

      -- Özniteliği: utf8

          If ‘False’, follow RFC 5322(9), supporting non-ASCII
          characters in headers by encoding them as “encoded words”.  If
          ‘True’, follow RFC 6532(10) and use ‘utf-8’ encoding for
          headers.  Messages formatted in this way may be passed to SMTP
          servers that support the ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension ( RFC 6531(11)).

      -- Özniteliği: refold_source

          If the value for a header in the ‘Message’ object originated
          from a *note parser: 4d. (as opposed to being set by a
          program), this attribute indicates whether or not a generator
          should refold that value when transforming the message back
          into serialized form.  The possible values are:

          ‘none’       all source values use original folding
                       
                       
          ‘long’       source values that have any line that is longer than
                       ‘max_line_length’ will be refolded
                       
                       
          ‘all’        all values are refolded.
                       

          The default is ‘long’.

      -- Özniteliği: header_factory

          A callable that takes two arguments, ‘name’ and ‘value’, where
          ‘name’ is a header field name and ‘value’ is an unfolded
          header field value, and returns a string subclass that
          represents that header.  A default ‘header_factory’ (see *note
          headerregistry: 41.) is provided that supports custom parsing
          for the various address and date RFC 5322(12) header field
          types, and the major MIME header field stypes.  Support for
          additional custom parsing will be added in the future.

      -- Özniteliği: content_manager

          An object with at least two methods: get_content and
          set_content.  When the *note get_content(): 32cb. or *note
          set_content(): 16d0. method of an *note EmailMessage: b1c.
          object is called, it calls the corresponding method of this
          object, passing it the message object as its first argument,
          and any arguments or keywords that were passed to it as
          additional arguments.  By default ‘content_manager’ is set to
          *note raw_data_manager: 3302.

          Added in version 3.4.

     The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
     abstract methods of *note Policy: f56.:

      -- Yöntemi: header_max_count (name)

          Returns the value of the *note max_count: 3304. attribute of
          the specialized class used to represent the header with the
          given name.

      -- Yöntemi: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The name is parsed as everything up to the ‘‘:’’ and returned
          unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading
          whitespace off the remainder of the first line, joining all
          subsequent lines together, and stripping any trailing carriage
          return or linefeed characters.

      -- Yöntemi: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The name is returned unchanged.  If the input value has a
          ‘name’ attribute and it matches 'name' ignoring case, the
          value is returned unchanged.  Otherwise the 'name' and 'value'
          are passed to ‘header_factory’, and the resulting header
          object is returned as the value.  In this case a ‘ValueError’
          is raised if the input value contains CR or LF characters.

      -- Yöntemi: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          If the value has a ‘name’ attribute, it is returned to
          unmodified.  Otherwise the 'name', and the 'value' with any CR
          or LF characters removed, are passed to the ‘header_factory’,
          and the resulting header object is returned.  Any
          surrogateescaped bytes get turned into the unicode
          unknown-character glyph.

      -- Yöntemi: fold (name, value)

          Header folding is controlled by the *note refold_source: 32eb.
          policy setting.  A value is considered to be a ‘source value’
          if and only if it does not have a ‘name’ attribute (having a
          ‘name’ attribute means it is a header object of some sort).
          If a source value needs to be refolded according to the
          policy, it is converted into a header object by passing the
          'name' and the 'value' with any CR and LF characters removed
          to the ‘header_factory’.  Folding of a header object is done
          by calling its ‘fold’ method with the current policy.

          Source values are split into lines using *note splitlines():
          10fe.  If the value is not to be refolded, the lines are
          rejoined using the ‘linesep’ from the policy and returned.
          The exception is lines containing non-ascii binary data.  In
          that case the value is refolded regardless of the
          ‘refold_source’ setting, which causes the binary data to be
          CTE encoded using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.

      -- Yöntemi: fold_binary (name, value)

          The same as *note fold(): 14a4. if *note cte_type: 32ee. is
          ‘7bit’, except that the returned value is bytes.

          If *note cte_type: 32ee. is ‘8bit’, non-ASCII binary data is
          converted back into bytes.  Headers with binary data are not
          refolded, regardless of the ‘refold_header’ setting, since
          there is no way to know whether the binary data consists of
          single byte characters or multibyte characters.

The following instances of *note EmailPolicy: f5a. provide defaults
suitable for specific application domains.  Note that in the future the
behavior of these instances (in particular the ‘HTTP’ instance) may be
adjusted to conform even more closely to the RFCs relevant to their
domains.

 -- Verisi: email.policy.default

     An instance of ‘EmailPolicy’ with all defaults unchanged.  This
     policy uses the standard Python ‘\n’ line endings rather than the
     RFC-correct ‘\r\n’.

 -- Verisi: email.policy.SMTP

     Suitable for serializing messages in conformance with the email
     RFCs.  Like ‘default’, but with ‘linesep’ set to ‘\r\n’, which is
     RFC compliant.

 -- Verisi: email.policy.SMTPUTF8

     The same as ‘SMTP’ except that *note utf8: c86. is ‘True’.  Useful
     for serializing messages to a message store without using encoded
     words in the headers.  Should only be used for SMTP transmission if
     the sender or recipient addresses have non-ASCII characters (the
     *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): cec. method handles this
     automatically).

 -- Verisi: email.policy.HTTP

     Suitable for serializing headers with for use in HTTP traffic.
     Like ‘SMTP’ except that ‘max_line_length’ is set to ‘None’
     (unlimited).

 -- Verisi: email.policy.strict

     Convenience instance.  The same as ‘default’ except that
     ‘raise_on_defect’ is set to ‘True’.  This allows any policy to be
     made strict by writing:

          somepolicy + policy.strict

With all of these *note EmailPolicies: f5a, the effective API of the
email package is changed from the Python 3.2 API in the following ways:

   * Setting a header on a *note Message: b1b. results in that header
     being parsed and a header object created.

   * Fetching a header value from a *note Message: b1b. results in that
     header being parsed and a header object created and returned.

   * Any header object, or any header that is refolded due to the policy
     settings, is folded using an algorithm that fully implements the
     RFC folding algorithms, including knowing where encoded words are
     required and allowed.

From the application view, this means that any header obtained through
the *note EmailMessage: b1c. is a header object with extra attributes,
whose string value is the fully decoded unicode value of the header.
Likewise, a header may be assigned a new value, or a new header created,
using a unicode string, and the policy will take care of converting the
unicode string into the correct RFC encoded form.

The header objects and their attributes are described in *note
headerregistry: 41.

 -- Sınıfı: email.policy.Compat32 (**kw)

     This concrete *note Policy: f56. is the backward compatibility
     policy.  It replicates the behavior of the email package in Python
     3.2.  The *note policy: 4e. module also defines an instance of this
     class, *note compat32: b1a, that is used as the default policy.
     Thus the default behavior of the email package is to maintain
     compatibility with Python 3.2.

     The following attributes have values that are different from the
     *note Policy: f56. default:

      -- Özniteliği: mangle_from_

          The default is ‘True’.

     The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
     abstract methods of *note Policy: f56.:

      -- Yöntemi: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The name is parsed as everything up to the ‘‘:’’ and returned
          unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading
          whitespace off the remainder of the first line, joining all
          subsequent lines together, and stripping any trailing carriage
          return or linefeed characters.

      -- Yöntemi: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The name and value are returned unmodified.

      -- Yöntemi: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          If the value contains binary data, it is converted into a
          *note Header: 16d1. object using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.
          Otherwise it is returned unmodified.

      -- Yöntemi: fold (name, value)

          Headers are folded using the *note Header: 16d1. folding
          algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value,
          and wraps each resulting line to the ‘max_line_length’.
          Non-ASCII binary data are CTE encoded using the ‘unknown-8bit’
          charset.

      -- Yöntemi: fold_binary (name, value)

          Headers are folded using the *note Header: 16d1. folding
          algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value,
          and wraps each resulting line to the ‘max_line_length’.  If
          ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’, non-ascii binary data is CTE encoded
          using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.  Otherwise the original
          source header is used, with its existing line breaks and any
          (RFC invalid) binary data it may contain.

 -- Verisi: email.policy.compat32

     An instance of *note Compat32: f57, providing backward
     compatibility with the behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/policy.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (8) Originally added in 3.3 as a *note provisional feature: eeb.

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email errors Exception and Defect classes,  Next: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Prev: email policy Policy Objects,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.8 ‘email.errors’: Exception and Defect classes
.....................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/errors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The following exception classes are defined in the *note email.errors:
3e. module:

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MessageError

     This is the base class for all exceptions that the *note email: 3a.
     package can raise.  It is derived from the standard *note
     Exception: 838. class and defines no additional methods.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MessageParseError

     This is the base class for exceptions raised by the *note Parser:
     1044. class.  It is derived from *note MessageError: 3313.  This
     class is also used internally by the parser used by *note
     headerregistry: 41.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.HeaderParseError

     Raised under some error conditions when parsing the RFC 5322(2)
     headers of a message, this class is derived from *note
     MessageParseError: 3314.  The *note set_boundary(): 32c0. method
     will raise this error if the content type is unknown when the
     method is called.  *note Header: 16d1. may raise this error for
     certain base64 decoding errors, and when an attempt is made to
     create a header that appears to contain an embedded header (that
     is, there is what is supposed to be a continuation line that has no
     leading whitespace and looks like a header).

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.BoundaryError

     Deprecated and no longer used.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MultipartConversionError

     Raised if the *note attach(): 32d2. method is called on an instance
     of a class derived from *note MIMENonMultipart: 3317. (e.g.  *note
     MIMEImage: 3318.).  *note MultipartConversionError: 3316. multiply
     inherits from *note MessageError: 3313. and the built-in *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.HeaderWriteError

     Raised when an error occurs when the *note generator: 3f. outputs
     headers.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MessageDefect

     This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email
     messages.  It is derived from *note ValueError: 189.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.HeaderDefect

     This is the base class for all defects found when parsing email
     headers.  It is derived from *note MessageDefect: 32fb.

Here is the list of the defects that the *note FeedParser: 32dc. can
find while parsing messages.  Note that the defects are added to the
message where the problem was found, so for example, if a message nested
inside a ‘multipart/alternative’ had a malformed header, that nested
message object would have a defect, but the containing messages would
not.

All defect classes are subclassed from *note email.errors.MessageDefect:
32fb.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect

     A message claimed to be a multipart, but had no ‘boundary’
     parameter.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     The start boundary claimed in the ‘Content-Type’ header was never
     found.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     A start boundary was found, but no corresponding close boundary was
     ever found.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect

     The message had a continuation line as its first header line.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect

     A “Unix From” header was found in the middle of a header block.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect

     A line was found while parsing headers that had no leading white
     space but contained no ‘:’.  Parsing continues assuming that the
     line represents the first line of the body.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MalformedHeaderDefect

     A header was found that was missing a colon, or was otherwise
     malformed.

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This defect has not been used
     for several Python versions.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.MultipartInvariantViolationDefect

     A message claimed to be a ‘multipart’, but no subparts were found.
     Note that when a message has this defect, its *note is_multipart():
     32c5. method may return ‘False’ even though its content type claims
     to be ‘multipart’.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.InvalidBase64PaddingDefect

     When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the padding was not
     correct.  Enough padding is added to perform the decode, but the
     resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.InvalidBase64CharactersDefect

     When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, characters outside
     the base64 alphabet were encountered.  The characters are ignored,
     but the resulting decoded bytes may be invalid.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.InvalidBase64LengthDefect

     When decoding a block of base64 encoded bytes, the number of
     non-padding base64 characters was invalid (1 more than a multiple
     of 4).  The encoded block was kept as-is.

 -- Özel Durum: email.errors.InvalidDateDefect

     When decoding an invalid or unparsable date field.  The original
     value is kept as-is.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/errors.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Next: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Prev: email errors Exception and Defect classes,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.9 ‘email.headerregistry’: Custom Header Objects
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/headerregistry.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

Headers are represented by customized subclasses of *note str: 15d.  The
particular class used to represent a given header is determined by the
*note header_factory: 3301. of the *note policy: 4e. in effect when the
headers are created.  This section documents the particular
‘header_factory’ implemented by the email package for handling RFC
5322(3) compliant email messages, which not only provides customized
header objects for various header types, but also provides an extension
mechanism for applications to add their own custom header types.

When using any of the policy objects derived from *note EmailPolicy:
f5a, all headers are produced by *note HeaderRegistry: 3327. and have
*note BaseHeader: 32ad. as their last base class.  Each header class has
an additional base class that is determined by the type of the header.
For example, many headers have the class *note UnstructuredHeader: 3328.
as their other base class.  The specialized second class for a header is
determined by the name of the header, using a lookup table stored in the
*note HeaderRegistry: 3327.  All of this is managed transparently for
the typical application program, but interfaces are provided for
modifying the default behavior for use by more complex applications.

The sections below first document the header base classes and their
attributes, followed by the API for modifying the behavior of *note
HeaderRegistry: 3327, and finally the support classes used to represent
the data parsed from structured headers.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.BaseHeader (name, value)

     'name' and 'value' are passed to ‘BaseHeader’ from the *note
     header_factory: 3301. call.  The string value of any header object
     is the 'value' fully decoded to unicode.

     This base class defines the following read-only properties:

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the header (the portion of the field before the
          ‘:’).  This is exactly the value passed in the *note
          header_factory: 3301. call for 'name'; that is, case is
          preserved.

      -- Özniteliği: defects

          A tuple of *note HeaderDefect: 3319. instances reporting any
          RFC compliance problems found during parsing.  The email
          package tries to be complete about detecting compliance
          issues.  See the *note errors: 3e. module for a discussion of
          the types of defects that may be reported.

      -- Özniteliği: max_count

          The maximum number of headers of this type that can have the
          same ‘name’.  A value of ‘None’ means unlimited.  The
          ‘BaseHeader’ value for this attribute is ‘None’; it is
          expected that specialized header classes will override this
          value as needed.

     ‘BaseHeader’ also provides the following method, which is called by
     the email library code and should not in general be called by
     application programs:

      -- Yöntemi: fold (*, policy)

          Return a string containing *note linesep: 32f5. characters as
          required to correctly fold the header according to 'policy'.
          A *note cte_type: 32ee. of ‘8bit’ will be treated as if it
          were ‘7bit’, since headers may not contain arbitrary binary
          data.  If *note utf8: c86. is ‘False’, non-ASCII data will be
          RFC 2047(4) encoded.

     ‘BaseHeader’ by itself cannot be used to create a header object.
     It defines a protocol that each specialized header cooperates with
     in order to produce the header object.  Specifically, ‘BaseHeader’
     requires that the specialized class provide a *note classmethod():
     252. named ‘parse’.  This method is called as follows:

          parse(string, kwds)

     ‘kwds’ is a dictionary containing one pre-initialized key,
     ‘defects’.  ‘defects’ is an empty list.  The parse method should
     append any detected defects to this list.  On return, the ‘kwds’
     dictionary 'must' contain values for at least the keys ‘decoded’
     and ‘defects’.  ‘decoded’ should be the string value for the header
     (that is, the header value fully decoded to unicode).  The parse
     method should assume that 'string' may contain
     content-transfer-encoded parts, but should correctly handle all
     valid unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded
     header values.

     ‘BaseHeader’’s ‘__new__’ then creates the header instance, and
     calls its ‘init’ method.  The specialized class only needs to
     provide an ‘init’ method if it wishes to set additional attributes
     beyond those provided by ‘BaseHeader’ itself.  Such an ‘init’
     method should look like this:

          def init(self, /, *args, **kw):
              self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr')
              super().init(*args, **kw)

     That is, anything extra that the specialized class puts in to the
     ‘kwds’ dictionary should be removed and handled, and the remaining
     contents of ‘kw’ (and ‘args’) passed to the ‘BaseHeader’ ‘init’
     method.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader

     An “unstructured” header is the default type of header in RFC
     5322(5).  Any header that does not have a specified syntax is
     treated as unstructured.  The classic example of an unstructured
     header is the ‘Subject’ header.

     In RFC 5322(6), an unstructured header is a run of arbitrary text
     in the ASCII character set.  RFC 2047(7), however, has an RFC
     5322(8) compatible mechanism for encoding non-ASCII text as ASCII
     characters within a header value.  When a 'value' containing
     encoded words is passed to the constructor, the
     ‘UnstructuredHeader’ parser converts such encoded words into
     unicode, following the RFC 2047(9) rules for unstructured text.
     The parser uses heuristics to attempt to decode certain
     non-compliant encoded words.  Defects are registered in such cases,
     as well as defects for issues such as invalid characters within the
     encoded words or the non-encoded text.

     This header type provides no additional attributes.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.DateHeader

     RFC 5322(10) specifies a very specific format for dates within
     email headers.  The ‘DateHeader’ parser recognizes that date
     format, as well as recognizing a number of variant forms that are
     sometimes found “in the wild”.

     This header type provides the following additional attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: datetime

          If the header value can be recognized as a valid date of one
          form or another, this attribute will contain a *note datetime:
          22b. instance representing that date.  If the timezone of the
          input date is specified as ‘-0000’ (indicating it is in UTC
          but contains no information about the source timezone), then
          *note datetime: 332d. will be a naive *note datetime: 22b.  If
          a specific timezone offset is found (including ‘+0000’), then
          *note datetime: 332d. will contain an aware ‘datetime’ that
          uses *note datetime.timezone: f62. to record the timezone
          offset.

     The ‘decoded’ value of the header is determined by formatting the
     ‘datetime’ according to the RFC 5322(11) rules; that is, it is set
     to:

          email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime)

     When creating a ‘DateHeader’, 'value' may be *note datetime: 22b.
     instance.  This means, for example, that the following code is
     valid and does what one would expect:

          msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21)

     Because this is a naive ‘datetime’ it will be interpreted as a UTC
     timestamp, and the resulting value will have a timezone of ‘-0000’.
     Much more useful is to use the *note localtime(): 231. function
     from the *note utils: 4f. module:

          msg['Date'] = utils.localtime()

     This example sets the date header to the current time and date
     using the current timezone offset.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.AddressHeader

     Address headers are one of the most complex structured header
     types.  The ‘AddressHeader’ class provides a generic interface to
     any address header.

     This header type provides the following additional attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: groups

          A tuple of *note Group: 3330. objects encoding the addresses
          and groups found in the header value.  Addresses that are not
          part of a group are represented in this list as single-address
          ‘Groups’ whose *note display_name: 3331. is ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: addresses

          A tuple of *note Address: 3333. objects encoding all of the
          individual addresses from the header value.  If the header
          value contains any groups, the individual addresses from the
          group are included in the list at the point where the group
          occurs in the value (that is, the list of addresses is
          “flattened” into a one dimensional list).

     The ‘decoded’ value of the header will have all encoded words
     decoded to unicode.  *note idna: 50. encoded domain names are also
     decoded to unicode.  The ‘decoded’ value is set by *note joining:
     1fba. the *note str: 15d. value of the elements of the ‘groups’
     attribute with ‘', '’.

     A list of *note Address: 3333. and *note Group: 3330. objects in
     any combination may be used to set the value of an address header.
     ‘Group’ objects whose ‘display_name’ is ‘None’ will be interpreted
     as single addresses, which allows an address list to be copied with
     groups intact by using the list obtained from the ‘groups’
     attribute of the source header.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader

     A subclass of *note AddressHeader: 332e. that adds one additional
     attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: address

          The single address encoded by the header value.  If the header
          value actually contains more than one address (which would be
          a violation of the RFC under the default *note policy: 4e.),
          accessing this attribute will result in a *note ValueError:
          189.

Many of the above classes also have a ‘Unique’ variant (for example,
‘UniqueUnstructuredHeader’).  The only difference is that in the
‘Unique’ variant, *note max_count: 3304. is set to 1.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader

     There is really only one valid value for the ‘MIME-Version’ header,
     and that is ‘1.0’.  For future proofing, this header class supports
     other valid version numbers.  If a version number has a valid value
     per RFC 2045(12), then the header object will have non-‘None’
     values for the following attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: version

          The version number as a string, with any whitespace and/or
          comments removed.

      -- Özniteliği: major

          The major version number as an integer

      -- Özniteliği: minor

          The minor version number as an integer

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader

     MIME headers all start with the prefix ‘Content-’.  Each specific
     header has a certain value, described under the class for that
     header.  Some can also take a list of supplemental parameters,
     which have a common format.  This class serves as a base for all
     the MIME headers that take parameters.

      -- Özniteliği: params

          A dictionary mapping parameter names to parameter values.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader

     A *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 333a. class that handles the
     ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- Özniteliği: content_type

          The content type string, in the form ‘maintype/subtype’.

      -- Özniteliği: maintype

      -- Özniteliği: subtype

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader

     A *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 333a. class that handles the
     ‘Content-Disposition’ header.

      -- Özniteliği: content_disposition

          ‘inline’ and ‘attachment’ are the only valid values in common
          use.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding

     Handles the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.

      -- Özniteliği: cte

          Valid values are ‘7bit’, ‘8bit’, ‘base64’, and
          ‘quoted-printable’.  See RFC 2045(13) for more information.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry (base_class=BaseHeader,
          default_class=UnstructuredHeader, use_default_map=True)

     This is the factory used by *note EmailPolicy: f5a. by default.
     ‘HeaderRegistry’ builds the class used to create a header instance
     dynamically, using 'base_class' and a specialized class retrieved
     from a registry that it holds.  When a given header name does not
     appear in the registry, the class specified by 'default_class' is
     used as the specialized class.  When 'use_default_map' is ‘True’
     (the default), the standard mapping of header names to classes is
     copied in to the registry during initialization.  'base_class' is
     always the last class in the generated class’s *note __bases__:
     1337. list.

     The default mappings are:


          subject: UniqueUnstructuredHeader


          date: UniqueDateHeader


          resent-date: DateHeader


          orig-date: UniqueDateHeader


          sender: UniqueSingleAddressHeader


          resent-sender: SingleAddressHeader


          to: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-to: AddressHeader


          cc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-cc: AddressHeader


          bcc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-bcc: AddressHeader


          from: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-from: AddressHeader


          reply-to: UniqueAddressHeader


          mime-version: MIMEVersionHeader


          content-type: ContentTypeHeader


          content-disposition: ContentDispositionHeader


          content-transfer-encoding: ContentTransferEncodingHeader


          message-id: MessageIDHeader

     ‘HeaderRegistry’ has the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: map_to_type (self, name, cls)

          'name' is the name of the header to be mapped.  It will be
          converted to lower case in the registry.  'cls' is the
          specialized class to be used, along with 'base_class', to
          create the class used to instantiate headers that match
          'name'.

      -- Yöntemi: __getitem__ (name)

          Construct and return a class to handle creating a 'name'
          header.

      -- Yöntemi: __call__ (name, value)

          Retrieves the specialized header associated with 'name' from
          the registry (using 'default_class' if 'name' does not appear
          in the registry) and composes it with 'base_class' to produce
          a class, calls the constructed class’s constructor, passing it
          the same argument list, and finally returns the class instance
          created thereby.

The following classes are the classes used to represent data parsed from
structured headers and can, in general, be used by an application
program to construct structured values to assign to specific headers.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.Address (display_name='', username='',
          domain='', addr_spec=None)

     The class used to represent an email address.  The general form of
     an address is:

          [display_name] <username@domain>

     or:

          username@domain

     where each part must conform to specific syntax rules spelled out
     in RFC 5322(14).

     As a convenience 'addr_spec' can be specified instead of 'username'
     and 'domain', in which case 'username' and 'domain' will be parsed
     from the 'addr_spec'.  An 'addr_spec' must be a properly RFC quoted
     string; if it is not ‘Address’ will raise an error.  Unicode
     characters are allowed and will be property encoded when
     serialized.  However, per the RFCs, unicode is 'not' allowed in the
     username portion of the address.

      -- Özniteliği: display_name

          The display name portion of the address, if any, with all
          quoting removed.  If the address does not have a display name,
          this attribute will be an empty string.

      -- Özniteliği: username

          The ‘username’ portion of the address, with all quoting
          removed.

      -- Özniteliği: domain

          The ‘domain’ portion of the address.

      -- Özniteliği: addr_spec

          The ‘username@domain’ portion of the address, correctly quoted
          for use as a bare address (the second form shown above).  This
          attribute is not mutable.

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ ()

          The ‘str’ value of the object is the address quoted according
          to RFC 5322(15) rules, but with no Content Transfer Encoding
          of any non-ASCII characters.

     To support SMTP ( RFC 5321(16)), ‘Address’ handles one special
     case: if ‘username’ and ‘domain’ are both the empty string (or
     ‘None’), then the string value of the ‘Address’ is ‘<>’.

 -- Sınıfı: email.headerregistry.Group (display_name=None,
          addresses=None)

     The class used to represent an address group.  The general form of
     an address group is:

          display_name: [address-list];

     As a convenience for processing lists of addresses that consist of
     a mixture of groups and single addresses, a ‘Group’ may also be
     used to represent single addresses that are not part of a group by
     setting 'display_name' to ‘None’ and providing a list of the single
     address as 'addresses'.

      -- Özniteliği: display_name

          The ‘display_name’ of the group.  If it is ‘None’ and there is
          exactly one ‘Address’ in ‘addresses’, then the ‘Group’
          represents a single address that is not in a group.

      -- Özniteliği: addresses

          A possibly empty tuple of *note Address: 3333. objects
          representing the addresses in the group.

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ ()

          The ‘str’ value of a ‘Group’ is formatted according to RFC
          5322(17), but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any
          non-ASCII characters.  If ‘display_name’ is none and there is
          a single ‘Address’ in the ‘addresses’ list, the ‘str’ value
          will be the same as the ‘str’ of that single ‘Address’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/headerregistry.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.3 as a *note provisional module: eeb.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Next: email Examples,  Prev: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.10 ‘email.contentmanager’: Managing MIME Content
.......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/contentmanager.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

 -- Sınıfı: email.contentmanager.ContentManager

     Base class for content managers.  Provides the standard registry
     mechanisms to register converters between MIME content and other
     representations, as well as the ‘get_content’ and ‘set_content’
     dispatch methods.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content (msg, *args, **kw)

          Look up a handler function based on the ‘mimetype’ of 'msg'
          (see next paragraph), call it, passing through all arguments,
          and return the result of the call.  The expectation is that
          the handler will extract the payload from 'msg' and return an
          object that encodes information about the extracted data.

          To find the handler, look for the following keys in the
          registry, stopping with the first one found:

             * the string representing the full MIME type
               (‘maintype/subtype’)

             * the string representing the ‘maintype’

             * the empty string

          If none of these keys produce a handler, raise a *note
          KeyError: 903. for the full MIME type.

      -- Yöntemi: set_content (msg, obj, *args, **kw)

          If the ‘maintype’ is ‘multipart’, raise a *note TypeError:
          2c4.; otherwise look up a handler function based on the type
          of 'obj' (see next paragraph), call *note clear_content():
          32d6. on the 'msg', and call the handler function, passing
          through all arguments.  The expectation is that the handler
          will transform and store 'obj' into 'msg', possibly making
          other changes to 'msg' as well, such as adding various MIME
          headers to encode information needed to interpret the stored
          data.

          To find the handler, obtain the type of 'obj' (‘typ =
          type(obj)’), and look for the following keys in the registry,
          stopping with the first one found:

             * the type itself (‘typ’)

             * the type’s fully qualified name (‘typ.__module__ + '.' +
               typ.__qualname__’).

             * the type’s *note qualname: 1d14. (‘typ.__qualname__’)

             * the type’s *note name: 1336. (‘typ.__name__’).

          If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for
          each of the types in the *note MRO: 3350. (*note typ.__mro__:
          1d17.).  Finally, if no other key yields a handler, check for
          a handler for the key ‘None’.  If there is no handler for
          ‘None’, raise a *note KeyError: 903. for the fully qualified
          name of the type.

          Also add a ‘MIME-Version’ header if one is not present (see
          also *note MIMEPart: dda.).

      -- Yöntemi: add_get_handler (key, handler)

          Record the function 'handler' as the handler for 'key'.  For
          the possible values of 'key', see *note get_content(): 3352.

      -- Yöntemi: add_set_handler (typekey, handler)

          Record 'handler' as the function to call when an object of a
          type matching 'typekey' is passed to *note set_content():
          3354.  For the possible values of 'typekey', see *note
          set_content(): 3354.

* Menu:

* Content Manager Instances::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/contentmanager.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.4 as a *note provisional module: eeb.


File: python.info,  Node: Content Manager Instances,  Up: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content

5.19.1.11 Content Manager Instances
...................................

Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
*note raw_data_manager: 3302, although more may be added in the future.
*note raw_data_manager: 3302. is the *note content_manager: ddb.
provided by *note EmailPolicy: f5a. and its derivatives.

 -- Verisi: email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager

     This content manager provides only a minimum interface beyond that
     provided by *note Message: b1b. itself: it deals only with text,
     raw byte strings, and *note Message: b1b. objects.  Nevertheless,
     it provides significant advantages compared to the base API:
     ‘get_content’ on a text part will return a unicode string without
     the application needing to manually decode it, ‘set_content’
     provides a rich set of options for controlling the headers added to
     a part and controlling the content transfer encoding, and it
     enables the use of the various ‘add_’ methods, thereby simplifying
     the creation of multipart messages.

      -- Yöntemi: email.contentmanager.get_content (msg,
               errors='replace')

          Return the payload of the part as either a string (for ‘text’
          parts), an *note EmailMessage: b1c. object (for
          ‘message/rfc822’ parts), or a ‘bytes’ object (for all other
          non-multipart types).  Raise a *note KeyError: 903. if called
          on a ‘multipart’.  If the part is a ‘text’ part and 'errors'
          is specified, use it as the error handler when decoding the
          payload to unicode.  The default error handler is ‘replace’.

      -- Yöntemi: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'str'>,
               subtype="plain", charset='utf-8', cte=None,
               disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None,
               headers=None)

      -- Yöntemi: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'bytes'>,
               maintype, subtype, cte="base64", disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

      -- Yöntemi: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg,
               <'EmailMessage'>, cte=None, disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

          Add headers and payload to 'msg':

          Add a ‘Content-Type’ header with a ‘maintype/subtype’ value.

             * For ‘str’, set the MIME ‘maintype’ to ‘text’, and set the
               subtype to 'subtype' if it is specified, or ‘plain’ if it
               is not.

             * For ‘bytes’, use the specified 'maintype' and 'subtype',
               or raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. if they are not
               specified.

             * For *note EmailMessage: b1c. objects, set the maintype to
               ‘message’, and set the subtype to 'subtype' if it is
               specified or ‘rfc822’ if it is not.  If 'subtype' is
               ‘partial’, raise an error (‘bytes’ objects must be used
               to construct ‘message/partial’ parts).

          If 'charset' is provided (which is valid only for ‘str’),
          encode the string to bytes using the specified character set.
          The default is ‘utf-8’.  If the specified 'charset' is a known
          alias for a standard MIME charset name, use the standard
          charset instead.

          If 'cte' is set, encode the payload using the specified
          content transfer encoding, and set the
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to that value.  Possible
          values for 'cte' are ‘quoted-printable’, ‘base64’, ‘7bit’,
          ‘8bit’, and ‘binary’.  If the input cannot be encoded in the
          specified encoding (for example, specifying a 'cte' of ‘7bit’
          for an input that contains non-ASCII values), raise a *note
          ValueError: 189.

             * For ‘str’ objects, if 'cte' is not set use heuristics to
               determine the most compact encoding.  Prior to encoding,
               *note str.splitlines(): 10fe. is used to normalize all
               line boundaries, ensuring that each line of the payload
               is terminated by the current policy’s *note linesep:
               32f5. property (even if the original string did not end
               with one).

             * For ‘bytes’ objects, 'cte' is taken to be base64 if not
               set, and the aforementioned newline translation is not
               performed.

             * For *note EmailMessage: b1c, per RFC 2046(1), raise an
               error if a 'cte' of ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’ is
               requested for 'subtype' ‘rfc822’, and for any 'cte' other
               than ‘7bit’ for 'subtype' ‘external-body’.  For
               ‘message/rfc822’, use ‘8bit’ if 'cte' is not specified.
               For all other values of 'subtype', use ‘7bit’.

               Not: A 'cte' of ‘binary’ does not actually work correctly
               yet.  The ‘EmailMessage’ object as modified by
               ‘set_content’ is correct, but *note BytesGenerator: 1074.
               does not serialize it correctly.

          If 'disposition' is set, use it as the value of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header.  If not specified, and
          'filename' is specified, add the header with the value
          ‘attachment’.  If 'disposition' is not specified and
          'filename' is also not specified, do not add the header.  The
          only valid values for 'disposition' are ‘attachment’ and
          ‘inline’.

          If 'filename' is specified, use it as the value of the
          ‘filename’ parameter of the ‘Content-Disposition’ header.

          If 'cid' is specified, add a ‘Content-ID’ header with 'cid' as
          its value.

          If 'params' is specified, iterate its ‘items’ method and use
          the resulting ‘(key, value)’ pairs to set additional
          parameters on the ‘Content-Type’ header.

          If 'headers' is specified and is a list of strings of the form
          ‘headername: headervalue’ or a list of ‘header’ objects
          (distinguished from strings by having a ‘name’ attribute), add
          the headers to 'msg'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html


File: python.info,  Node: email Examples,  Next: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Prev: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.12 ‘email’: Examples
...........................

Here are a few examples of how to use the *note email: 3a. package to
read, write, and send simple email messages, as well as more complex
MIME messages.

First, let’s see how to create and send a simple text message (both the
text content and the addresses may contain unicode characters):

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function
     import smtplib

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Open the plain text file whose name is in textfile for reading.
     with open(textfile) as fp:
         # Create a text/plain message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg.set_content(fp.read())

     # me == the sender's email address
     # you == the recipient's email address
     msg['Subject'] = f'The contents of {textfile}'
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = you

     # Send the message via our own SMTP server.
     s = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     s.send_message(msg)
     s.quit()

Parsing RFC 822(1) headers can easily be done by the using the classes
from the *note parser: 4d. module:

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     #from email.parser import BytesParser
     from email.parser import Parser
     from email.policy import default

     # If the e-mail headers are in a file, uncomment these two lines:
     # with open(messagefile, 'rb') as fp:
     #     headers = BytesParser(policy=default).parse(fp)

     #  Or for parsing headers in a string (this is an uncommon operation), use:
     headers = Parser(policy=default).parsestr(
             'From: Foo Bar <user@example.com>\n'
             'To: <someone_else@example.com>\n'
             'Subject: Test message\n'
             '\n'
             'Body would go here\n')

     #  Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary:
     print('To: {}'.format(headers['to']))
     print('From: {}'.format(headers['from']))
     print('Subject: {}'.format(headers['subject']))

     # You can also access the parts of the addresses:
     print('Recipient username: {}'.format(headers['to'].addresses[0].username))
     print('Sender name: {}'.format(headers['from'].addresses[0].display_name))

Here’s an example of how to send a MIME message containing a bunch of
family pictures that may be residing in a directory:

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function.
     import smtplib

     # Here are the email package modules we'll need.
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Create the container email message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = 'Our family reunion'
     # me == the sender's email address
     # family = the list of all recipients' email addresses
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = ', '.join(family)
     msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

     # Open the files in binary mode.  You can also omit the subtype
     # if you want MIMEImage to guess it.
     for file in pngfiles:
         with open(file, 'rb') as fp:
             img_data = fp.read()
         msg.add_attachment(img_data, maintype='image',
                                      subtype='png')

     # Send the email via our own SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

Here’s an example of how to send the entire contents of a directory as
an email message: (2)

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message."""

     import os
     import smtplib
     # For guessing MIME type based on file name extension
     import mimetypes

     from argparse import ArgumentParser

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.policy import SMTP


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.
     Unless the -o option is given, the email is sent by forwarding to your local
     SMTP server, which then does the normal delivery process.  Your local machine
     must be running an SMTP server.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory',
                             help="""Mail the contents of the specified directory,
                             otherwise use the current directory.  Only the regular
                             files in the directory are sent, and we don't recurse to
                             subdirectories.""")
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output',
                             metavar='FILE',
                             help="""Print the composed message to FILE instead of
                             sending the message to the SMTP server.""")
         parser.add_argument('-s', '--sender', required=True,
                             help='The value of the From: header (required)')
         parser.add_argument('-r', '--recipient', required=True,
                             action='append', metavar='RECIPIENT',
                             default=[], dest='recipients',
                             help='A To: header value (at least one required)')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         directory = args.directory
         if not directory:
             directory = '.'
         # Create the message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg['Subject'] = f'Contents of directory {os.path.abspath(directory)}'
         msg['To'] = ', '.join(args.recipients)
         msg['From'] = args.sender
         msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

         for filename in os.listdir(directory):
             path = os.path.join(directory, filename)
             if not os.path.isfile(path):
                 continue
             # Guess the content type based on the file's extension.  Encoding
             # will be ignored, although we should check for simple things like
             # gzip'd or compressed files.
             ctype, encoding = mimetypes.guess_type(path)
             if ctype is None or encoding is not None:
                 # No guess could be made, or the file is encoded (compressed), so
                 # use a generic bag-of-bits type.
                 ctype = 'application/octet-stream'
             maintype, subtype = ctype.split('/', 1)
             with open(path, 'rb') as fp:
                 msg.add_attachment(fp.read(),
                                    maintype=maintype,
                                    subtype=subtype,
                                    filename=filename)
         # Now send or store the message
         if args.output:
             with open(args.output, 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=SMTP))
         else:
             with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
                 s.send_message(msg)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Here’s an example of how to unpack a MIME message like the one above,
into a directory of files:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files."""

     import os
     import email
     import mimetypes

     from email.policy import default

     from argparse import ArgumentParser


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory', required=True,
                             help="""Unpack the MIME message into the named
                             directory, which will be created if it doesn't already
                             exist.""")
         parser.add_argument('msgfile')
         args = parser.parse_args()

         with open(args.msgfile, 'rb') as fp:
             msg = email.message_from_binary_file(fp, policy=default)

         try:
             os.mkdir(args.directory)
         except FileExistsError:
             pass

         counter = 1
         for part in msg.walk():
             # multipart/* are just containers
             if part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart':
                 continue
             # Applications should really sanitize the given filename so that an
             # email message can't be used to overwrite important files
             filename = part.get_filename()
             if not filename:
                 ext = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
                 if not ext:
                     # Use a generic bag-of-bits extension
                     ext = '.bin'
                 filename = f'part-{counter:03d}{ext}'
             counter += 1
             with open(os.path.join(args.directory, filename), 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(part.get_payload(decode=True))


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Here’s an example of how to create an HTML message with an alternative
plain text version.  To make things a bit more interesting, we include a
related image in the html part, and we save a copy of what we are going
to send to disk, as well as sending it.

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     import smtplib

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.headerregistry import Address
     from email.utils import make_msgid

     # Create the base text message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = "Ayons asperges pour le déjeuner"
     msg['From'] = Address("Pepé Le Pew", "pepe", "example.com")
     msg['To'] = (Address("Penelope Pussycat", "penelope", "example.com"),
                  Address("Fabrette Pussycat", "fabrette", "example.com"))
     msg.set_content("""\
     Salut!

     Cela ressemble à un excellent recipie[1] déjeuner.

     [1] http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718

     --Pepé
     """)

     # Add the html version.  This converts the message into a multipart/alternative
     # container, with the original text message as the first part and the new html
     # message as the second part.
     asparagus_cid = make_msgid()
     msg.add_alternative("""\
     <html>
       <head></head>
       <body>
         <p>Salut!</p>
         <p>Cela ressemble à un excellent
             <a href="http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718">
                 recipie
             </a> déjeuner.
         </p>
         <img src="cid:{asparagus_cid}">
       </body>
     </html>
     """.format(asparagus_cid=asparagus_cid[1:-1]), subtype='html')
     # note that we needed to peel the <> off the msgid for use in the html.

     # Now add the related image to the html part.
     with open("roasted-asparagus.jpg", 'rb') as img:
         msg.get_payload()[1].add_related(img.read(), 'image', 'jpeg',
                                          cid=asparagus_cid)

     # Make a local copy of what we are going to send.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(bytes(msg))

     # Send the message via local SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

If we were sent the message from the last example, here is one way we
could process it:

     import os
     import sys
     import tempfile
     import mimetypes
     import webbrowser

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email import policy
     from email.parser import BytesParser


     def magic_html_parser(html_text, partfiles):
         """Return safety-sanitized html linked to partfiles.

         Rewrite the href="cid:...." attributes to point to the filenames in partfiles.
         Though not trivial, this should be possible using html.parser.
         """
         raise NotImplementedError("Add the magic needed")


     # In a real program you'd get the filename from the arguments.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'rb') as fp:
         msg = BytesParser(policy=policy.default).parse(fp)

     # Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary, and any non-ASCII will
     # be converted to unicode:
     print('To:', msg['to'])
     print('From:', msg['from'])
     print('Subject:', msg['subject'])

     # If we want to print a preview of the message content, we can extract whatever
     # the least formatted payload is and print the first three lines.  Of course,
     # if the message has no plain text part printing the first three lines of html
     # is probably useless, but this is just a conceptual example.
     simplest = msg.get_body(preferencelist=('plain', 'html'))
     print()
     print(''.join(simplest.get_content().splitlines(keepends=True)[:3]))

     ans = input("View full message?")
     if ans.lower()[0] == 'n':
         sys.exit()

     # We can extract the richest alternative in order to display it:
     richest = msg.get_body()
     partfiles = {}
     if richest['content-type'].maintype == 'text':
         if richest['content-type'].subtype == 'plain':
             for line in richest.get_content().splitlines():
                 print(line)
             sys.exit()
         elif richest['content-type'].subtype == 'html':
             body = richest
         else:
             print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
             sys.exit()
     elif richest['content-type'].content_type == 'multipart/related':
         body = richest.get_body(preferencelist=('html'))
         for part in richest.iter_attachments():
             fn = part.get_filename()
             if fn:
                 extension = os.path.splitext(part.get_filename())[1]
             else:
                 extension = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
             with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=extension, delete=False) as f:
                 f.write(part.get_content())
                 # again strip the <> to go from email form of cid to html form.
                 partfiles[part['content-id'][1:-1]] = f.name
     else:
         print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
         sys.exit()
     with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False) as f:
         f.write(magic_html_parser(body.get_content(), partfiles))
     webbrowser.open(f.name)
     os.remove(f.name)
     for fn in partfiles.values():
         os.remove(fn)

     # Of course, there are lots of email messages that could break this simple
     # minded program, but it will handle the most common ones.

Up to the prompt, the output from the above is:

     To: Penelope Pussycat <penelope@example.com>, Fabrette Pussycat <fabrette@example.com>
     From: Pepé Le Pew <pepe@example.com>
     Subject: Ayons asperges pour le déjeuner

     Salut!

     Cela ressemble à un excellent recipie[1] déjeuner.

Legacy API:

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) Thanks to Matthew Dixon Cowles for the original inspiration and
examples.


File: python.info,  Node: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Next: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Prev: email Examples,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.13 ‘email.message.Message’: Representing an email message using the ‘compat32’ API
.........................................................................................

The *note Message: b1b. class is very similar to the *note EmailMessage:
b1c. class, without the methods added by that class, and with the
default behavior of certain other methods being slightly different.  We
also document here some methods that, while supported by the *note
EmailMessage: b1c. class, are not recommended unless you are dealing
with legacy code.

The philosophy and structure of the two classes is otherwise the same.

This document describes the behavior under the default (for *note
Message: b1b.) policy *note Compat32: f57.  If you are going to use
another policy, you should be using the *note EmailMessage: b1c. class
instead.

An email message consists of 'headers' and a 'payload'.  Headers must be
RFC 5322(1) style names and values, where the field name and value are
separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or
the field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary
object, or a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set
of headers and their own payload.  The latter type of payload is
indicated by the message having a MIME type such as ‘multipart/*’ or
‘message/rfc822’.

The conceptual model provided by a *note Message: b1b. object is that of
an ordered dictionary of headers with additional methods for accessing
both specialized information from the headers, for accessing the
payload, for generating a serialized version of the message, and for
recursively walking over the object tree.  Note that duplicate headers
are supported but special methods must be used to access them.

The *note Message: b1b. pseudo-dictionary is indexed by the header
names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary are
strings that are supposed to contain only ASCII characters; there is
some special handling for non-ASCII input, but it doesn’t always produce
the correct results.  Headers are stored and returned in case-preserving
form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.  There may also be
a single envelope header, also known as the 'Unix-From' header or the
‘From_’ header.  The 'payload' is either a string or bytes, in the case
of simple message objects, or a list of *note Message: b1b. objects, for
MIME container documents (e.g.  ‘multipart/*’ and ‘message/rfc822’).

Here are the methods of the *note Message: b1b. class:

 -- Sınıfı: email.message.Message (policy=compat32)

     If 'policy' is specified (it must be an instance of a *note policy:
     4e. class) use the rules it specifies to update and serialize the
     representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not set, use the
     *note compat32: f57. policy, which maintains backward compatibility
     with the Python 3.2 version of the email package.  For more
     information see the *note policy: 4e. documentation.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'policy' keyword argument was added.

      -- Yöntemi: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=0,
               policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  For
          backward compatibility reasons, 'maxheaderlen' defaults to
          ‘0’, so if you want a different value you must override it
          explicitly (the value specified for 'max_line_length' in the
          policy will be ignored by this method).  The 'policy' argument
          may be used to override the default policy obtained from the
          message instance.  This can be used to control some of the
          formatting produced by the method, since the specified
          'policy' will be passed to the ‘Generator’.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          Message: b1b. if defaults need to be filled in to complete the
          transformation to a string (for example, MIME boundaries may
          be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          always format the message the way you want.  For example, by
          default it does not do the mangling of lines that begin with
          ‘From’ that is required by the Unix mbox format.  For more
          flexibility, instantiate a *note Generator: 1073. instance and
          use its *note flatten(): 32f0. method directly.  For example:

               from io import StringIO
               from email.generator import Generator
               fp = StringIO()
               g = Generator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          If the message object contains binary data that is not encoded
          according to RFC standards, the non-compliant data will be
          replaced by unicode “unknown character” code points.  (See
          also *note as_bytes(): dd7. and *note BytesGenerator: 1074.)

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: the 'policy' keyword argument was
          added.

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_string(): dd6.  Allows ‘str(msg)’ to
          produce a string containing the formatted message.

      -- Yöntemi: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  The
          'policy' argument may be used to override the default policy
          obtained from the message instance.  This can be used to
          control some of the formatting produced by the method, since
          the specified 'policy' will be passed to the ‘BytesGenerator’.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the *note
          Message: b1b. if defaults need to be filled in to complete the
          transformation to a string (for example, MIME boundaries may
          be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          always format the message the way you want.  For example, by
          default it does not do the mangling of lines that begin with
          ‘From’ that is required by the Unix mbox format.  For more
          flexibility, instantiate a *note BytesGenerator: 1074.
          instance and use its *note flatten(): 32ec. method directly.
          For example:

               from io import BytesIO
               from email.generator import BytesGenerator
               fp = BytesIO()
               g = BytesGenerator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): dd7.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the formatted message.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: is_multipart ()

          Return ‘True’ if the message’s payload is a list of sub-*note
          Message: b1b. objects, otherwise return ‘False’.  When *note
          is_multipart(): 32c5. returns ‘False’, the payload should be a
          string object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).
          (Note that *note is_multipart(): 32c5. returning ‘True’ does
          not necessarily mean that “msg.get_content_maintype() ==
          ‘multipart’” will return the ‘True’.  For example,
          ‘is_multipart’ will return ‘True’ when the *note Message: b1b.
          is of type ‘message/rfc822’.)

      -- Yöntemi: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Set the message’s envelope header to 'unixfrom', which should
          be a string.

      -- Yöntemi: get_unixfrom ()

          Return the message’s envelope header.  Defaults to ‘None’ if
          the envelope header was never set.

      -- Yöntemi: attach (payload)

          Add the given 'payload' to the current payload, which must be
          ‘None’ or a list of *note Message: b1b. objects before the
          call.  After the call, the payload will always be a list of
          *note Message: b1b. objects.  If you want to set the payload
          to a scalar object (e.g.  a string), use *note set_payload():
          335d. instead.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by *note set_content(): 16d0. and
          the related ‘make’ and ‘add’ methods.

      -- Yöntemi: get_payload (i=None, decode=False)

          Return the current payload, which will be a list of *note
          Message: b1b. objects when *note is_multipart(): 32c5. is
          ‘True’, or a string when *note is_multipart(): 32c5. is
          ‘False’.  If the payload is a list and you mutate the list
          object, you modify the message’s payload in place.

          With optional argument 'i', *note get_payload(): 1072. will
          return the 'i'-th element of the payload, counting from zero,
          if *note is_multipart(): 32c5. is ‘True’.  An *note
          IndexError: 13c2. will be raised if 'i' is less than 0 or
          greater than or equal to the number of items in the payload.
          If the payload is a string (i.e.  *note is_multipart(): 32c5.
          is ‘False’) and 'i' is given, a *note TypeError: 2c4. is
          raised.

          Optional 'decode' is a flag indicating whether the payload
          should be decoded or not, according to the
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.  When ‘True’ and the
          message is not a multipart, the payload will be decoded if
          this header’s value is ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’.  If
          some other encoding is used, or ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          header is missing, the payload is returned as-is (undecoded).
          In all cases the returned value is binary data.  If the
          message is a multipart and the 'decode' flag is ‘True’, then
          ‘None’ is returned.  If the payload is base64 and it was not
          perfectly formed (missing padding, characters outside the
          base64 alphabet), then an appropriate defect will be added to
          the message’s defect property (*note
          InvalidBase64PaddingDefect: 3321. or *note
          InvalidBase64CharactersDefect: 3322, respectively).

          When 'decode' is ‘False’ (the default) the body is returned as
          a string without decoding the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.
          However, for a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of 8bit, an attempt
          is made to decode the original bytes using the ‘charset’
          specified by the ‘Content-Type’ header, using the ‘replace’
          error handler.  If no ‘charset’ is specified, or if the
          ‘charset’ given is not recognized by the email package, the
          body is decoded using the default ASCII charset.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by *note get_content(): 32cb. and
          *note iter_parts(): 32ca.

      -- Yöntemi: set_payload (payload, charset=None)

          Set the entire message object’s payload to 'payload'.  It is
          the client’s responsibility to ensure the payload invariants.
          Optional 'charset' sets the message’s default character set;
          see *note set_charset(): 335e. for details.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by *note set_content(): 16d0.

      -- Yöntemi: set_charset (charset)

          Set the character set of the payload to 'charset', which can
          either be a *note Charset: c88. instance (see *note
          email.charset: 3b.), a string naming a character set, or
          ‘None’.  If it is a string, it will be converted to a *note
          Charset: c88. instance.  If 'charset' is ‘None’, the ‘charset’
          parameter will be removed from the ‘Content-Type’ header (the
          message will not be otherwise modified).  Anything else will
          generate a *note TypeError: 2c4.

          If there is no existing ‘MIME-Version’ header one will be
          added.  If there is no existing ‘Content-Type’ header, one
          will be added with a value of ‘text/plain’.  Whether the
          ‘Content-Type’ header already exists or not, its ‘charset’
          parameter will be set to 'charset.output_charset'.  If
          'charset.input_charset' and 'charset.output_charset' differ,
          the payload will be re-encoded to the 'output_charset'.  If
          there is no existing ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header, then
          the payload will be transfer-encoded, if needed, using the
          specified *note Charset: c88, and a header with the
          appropriate value will be added.  If a
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header already exists, the payload
          is assumed to already be correctly encoded using that
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ and is not modified.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the 'charset' parameter of the
          ‘email.emailmessage.EmailMessage.set_content()’ method.

      -- Yöntemi: get_charset ()

          Return the *note Charset: c88. instance associated with the
          message’s payload.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class it
          always returns ‘None’.

     The following methods implement a mapping-like interface for
     accessing the message’s RFC 2822(2) headers.  Note that there are
     some semantic differences between these methods and a normal
     mapping (i.e.  dictionary) interface.  For example, in a dictionary
     there are no duplicate keys, but here there may be duplicate
     message headers.  Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed
     order to the keys returned by *note keys(): 3360, but in a *note
     Message: b1b. object, headers are always returned in the order they
     appeared in the original message, or were added to the message
     later.  Any header deleted and then re-added are always appended to
     the end of the header list.

     These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
     maximal convenience.

     Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message
     is not included in the mapping interface.

     In a model generated from bytes, any header values that (in
     contravention of the RFCs) contain non-ASCII bytes will, when
     retrieved through this interface, be represented as *note Header:
     16d1. objects with a charset of ‘unknown-8bit’.

      -- Yöntemi: __len__ ()

          Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.

      -- Yöntemi: __contains__ (name)

          Return ‘True’ if the message object has a field named 'name'.
          Matching is done case-insensitively and 'name' should not
          include the trailing colon.  Used for the ‘in’ operator, e.g.:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- Yöntemi: __getitem__ (name)

          Return the value of the named header field.  'name' should not
          include the colon field separator.  If the header is missing,
          ‘None’ is returned; a *note KeyError: 903. is never raised.

          Note that if the named field appears more than once in the
          message’s headers, exactly which of those field values will be
          returned is undefined.  Use the *note get_all(): 3363. method
          to get the values of all the extant named headers.

      -- Yöntemi: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Add a header to the message with field name 'name' and value
          'val'.  The field is appended to the end of the message’s
          existing fields.

          Note that this does 'not' overwrite or delete any existing
          header with the same name.  If you want to ensure that the new
          header is the only one present in the message with field name
          'name', delete the field first, e.g.:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

      -- Yöntemi: __delitem__ (name)

          Delete all occurrences of the field with name 'name' from the
          message’s headers.  No exception is raised if the named field
          isn’t present in the headers.

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          Return a list of all the message’s header field names.

      -- Yöntemi: values ()

          Return a list of all the message’s field values.

      -- Yöntemi: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message’s field
          headers and values.

      -- Yöntemi: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 500. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing (defaults to ‘None’).

     Here are some additional useful methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Return a list of all the values for the field named 'name'.
          If there are no such named headers in the message, 'failobj'
          is returned (defaults to ‘None’).

      -- Yöntemi: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Extended header setting.  This method is similar to *note
          __setitem__(): 3364. except that additional header parameters
          can be provided as keyword arguments.  '_name' is the header
          field to add and '_value' is the 'primary' value for the
          header.

          For each item in the keyword argument dictionary '_params',
          the key is taken as the parameter name, with underscores
          converted to dashes (since dashes are illegal in Python
          identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will be added as
          ‘key="value"’ unless the value is ‘None’, in which case only
          the key will be added.  If the value contains non-ASCII
          characters, it can be specified as a three tuple in the format
          ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’, where ‘CHARSET’ is a string
          naming the charset to be used to encode the value, ‘LANGUAGE’
          can usually be set to ‘None’ or the empty string (see RFC
          2231(3) for other possibilities), and ‘VALUE’ is the string
          value containing non-ASCII code points.  If a three tuple is
          not passed and the value contains non-ASCII characters, it is
          automatically encoded in RFC 2231(4) format using a ‘CHARSET’
          of ‘utf-8’ and a ‘LANGUAGE’ of ‘None’.

          Here’s an example:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          This will add a header that looks like

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          An example with non-ASCII characters:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

          Which produces

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename*="iso-8859-1''Fu%DFballer.ppt"

      -- Yöntemi: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the
          message that matches '_name', retaining header order and field
          name case.  If no matching header was found, a *note KeyError:
          903. is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_type ()

          Return the message’s content type.  The returned string is
          coerced to lower case of the form ‘maintype/subtype’.  If
          there was no ‘Content-Type’ header in the message the default
          type as given by *note get_default_type(): 336c. will be
          returned.  Since according to RFC 2045(5), messages always
          have a default type, *note get_content_type(): 336b. will
          always return a value.

          RFC 2045(6) defines a message’s default type to be
          ‘text/plain’ unless it appears inside a ‘multipart/digest’
          container, in which case it would be ‘message/rfc822’.  If the
          ‘Content-Type’ header has an invalid type specification, RFC
          2045(7) mandates that the default type be ‘text/plain’.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_maintype ()

          Return the message’s main content type.  This is the
          ‘maintype’ part of the string returned by *note
          get_content_type(): 336b.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_subtype ()

          Return the message’s sub-content type.  This is the ‘subtype’
          part of the string returned by *note get_content_type(): 336b.

      -- Yöntemi: get_default_type ()

          Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default
          content type of ‘text/plain’, except for messages that are
          subparts of ‘multipart/digest’ containers.  Such subparts have
          a default content type of ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_default_type (ctype)

          Set the default content type.  'ctype' should either be
          ‘text/plain’ or ‘message/rfc822’, although this is not
          enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
          ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- Yöntemi: get_params (failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Return the message’s ‘Content-Type’ parameters, as a list.
          The elements of the returned list are 2-tuples of key/value
          pairs, as split on the ‘'='’ sign.  The left hand side of the
          ‘'='’ is the key, while the right hand side is the value.  If
          there is no ‘'='’ sign in the parameter the value is the empty
          string, otherwise the value is as described in *note
          get_param(): 3371. and is unquoted if optional 'unquote' is
          ‘True’ (the default).

          Optional 'failobj' is the object to return if there is no
          ‘Content-Type’ header.  Optional 'header' is the header to
          search instead of ‘Content-Type’.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the 'params' property of the
          individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- Yöntemi: get_param (param, failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Return the value of the ‘Content-Type’ header’s parameter
          'param' as a string.  If the message has no ‘Content-Type’
          header or if there is no such parameter, then 'failobj' is
          returned (defaults to ‘None’).

          Optional 'header' if given, specifies the message header to
          use instead of ‘Content-Type’.

          Parameter keys are always compared case insensitively.  The
          return value can either be a string, or a 3-tuple if the
          parameter was RFC 2231(8) encoded.  When it’s a 3-tuple, the
          elements of the value are of the form ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE,
          VALUE)’.  Note that both ‘CHARSET’ and ‘LANGUAGE’ can be
          ‘None’, in which case you should consider ‘VALUE’ to be
          encoded in the ‘us-ascii’ charset.  You can usually ignore
          ‘LANGUAGE’.

          If your application doesn’t care whether the parameter was
          encoded as in RFC 2231(9), you can collapse the parameter
          value by calling *note email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value():
          3372, passing in the return value from *note get_param():
          3371.  This will return a suitably decoded Unicode string when
          the value is a tuple, or the original string unquoted if it
          isn’t.  For example:

               rawparam = msg.get_param('foo')
               param = email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(rawparam)

          In any case, the parameter value (either the returned string,
          or the ‘VALUE’ item in the 3-tuple) is always unquoted, unless
          'unquote' is set to ‘False’.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the 'params' property of the
          individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- Yöntemi: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Set a parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
          parameter already exists in the header, its value will be
          replaced with 'value'.  If the ‘Content-Type’ header as not
          yet been defined for this message, it will be set to
          ‘text/plain’ and the new parameter value will be appended as
          per RFC 2045(10).

          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative header to
          ‘Content-Type’, and all parameters will be quoted as necessary
          unless optional 'requote' is ‘False’ (the default is ‘True’).

          If optional 'charset' is specified, the parameter will be
          encoded according to RFC 2231(11).  Optional 'language'
          specifies the RFC 2231 language, defaulting to the empty
          string.  Both 'charset' and 'language' should be strings.

          If 'replace' is ‘False’ (the default) the header is moved to
          the end of the list of headers.  If 'replace' is ‘True’, the
          header will be updated in place.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: ‘replace’ keyword was added.

      -- Yöntemi: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Remove the given parameter completely from the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  The header will be re-written in place without the
          parameter or its value.  All values will be quoted as
          necessary unless 'requote' is ‘False’ (the default is ‘True’).
          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative to ‘Content-Type’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_type (type, header='Content-Type', requote=True)

          Set the main type and subtype for the ‘Content-Type’ header.
          'type' must be a string in the form ‘maintype/subtype’,
          otherwise a *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

          This method replaces the ‘Content-Type’ header, keeping all
          the parameters in place.  If 'requote' is ‘False’, this leaves
          the existing header’s quoting as is, otherwise the parameters
          will be quoted (the default).

          An alternative header can be specified in the 'header'
          argument.  When the ‘Content-Type’ header is set a
          ‘MIME-Version’ header is also added.

          This is a legacy method.  On the ‘EmailMessage’ class its
          functionality is replaced by the ‘make_’ and ‘add_’ methods.

      -- Yöntemi: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘filename’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header of the message.  If the header
          does not have a ‘filename’ parameter, this method falls back
          to looking for the ‘name’ parameter on the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  If neither is found, or the header is missing, then
          'failobj' is returned.  The returned string will always be
          unquoted as per *note email.utils.unquote(): 32be.

      -- Yöntemi: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘boundary’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header of the message, or 'failobj' if either
          the header is missing, or has no ‘boundary’ parameter.  The
          returned string will always be unquoted as per *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 32be.

      -- Yöntemi: set_boundary (boundary)

          Set the ‘boundary’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header to
          'boundary'.  *note set_boundary(): 3377. will always quote
          'boundary' if necessary.  A *note HeaderParseError: 32c1. is
          raised if the message object has no ‘Content-Type’ header.

          Note that using this method is subtly different than deleting
          the old ‘Content-Type’ header and adding a new one with the
          new boundary via *note add_header(): 3369, because *note
          set_boundary(): 3377. preserves the order of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header in the list of headers.  However, it
          does 'not' preserve any continuation lines which may have been
          present in the original ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Return the ‘charset’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header,
          coerced to lower case.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’ header,
          or if that header has no ‘charset’ parameter, 'failobj' is
          returned.

          Note that this method differs from *note get_charset(): 335f.
          which returns the *note Charset: c88. instance for the default
          encoding of the message body.

      -- Yöntemi: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Return a list containing the character set names in the
          message.  If the message is a ‘multipart’, then the list will
          contain one element for each subpart in the payload,
          otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.

          Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of
          the ‘charset’ parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header for the
          represented subpart.  However, if the subpart has no
          ‘Content-Type’ header, no ‘charset’ parameter, or is not of
          the ‘text’ main MIME type, then that item in the returned list
          will be 'failobj'.

      -- Yöntemi: get_content_disposition ()

          Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the
          message’s ‘Content-Disposition’ header if it has one, or
          ‘None’.  The possible values for this method are 'inline',
          'attachment' or ‘None’ if the message follows RFC 2183(12).

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: walk ()

          The *note walk(): 337a. method is an all-purpose generator
          which can be used to iterate over all the parts and subparts
          of a message object tree, in depth-first traversal order.  You
          will typically use *note walk(): 337a. as the iterator in a
          ‘for’ loop; each iteration returns the next subpart.

          Here’s an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a
          multipart message structure:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ iterates over the subparts of any part where *note
          is_multipart(): 32c5. returns ‘True’, even though
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ may return
          ‘False’.  We can see this in our example by making use of the
          ‘_structure’ debug helper function:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Here the ‘message’ parts are not ‘multiparts’, but they do
          contain subparts.  ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘True’ and ‘walk’
          descends into the subparts.

     *note Message: b1b. objects can also optionally contain two
     instance attributes, which can be used when generating the plain
     text of a MIME message.

      -- Özniteliği: preamble

          The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the
          blank line following the headers, and the first multipart
          boundary string.  Normally, this text is never visible in a
          MIME-aware mail reader because it falls outside the standard
          MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of the
          message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware
          reader, this text can become visible.

          The 'preamble' attribute contains this leading extra-armor
          text for MIME documents.  When the *note Parser: 1044.
          discovers some text after the headers but before the first
          boundary string, it assigns this text to the message’s
          'preamble' attribute.  When the *note Generator: 1073. is
          writing out the plain text representation of a MIME message,
          and it finds the message has a 'preamble' attribute, it will
          write this text in the area between the headers and the first
          boundary.  See *note email.parser: 4d. and *note
          email.generator: 3f. for details.

          Note that if the message object has no preamble, the
          'preamble' attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: epilogue

          The 'epilogue' attribute acts the same way as the 'preamble'
          attribute, except that it contains text that appears between
          the last boundary and the end of the message.

          You do not need to set the epilogue to the empty string in
          order for the *note Generator: 1073. to print a newline at the
          end of the file.

      -- Özniteliği: defects

          The 'defects' attribute contains a list of all the problems
          found when parsing this message.  See *note email.errors: 3e.
          for a detailed description of the possible parsing defects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Next: email header Internationalized headers,  Prev: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.14 ‘email.mime’: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
....................................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/mime/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. Its
functionality is partially replaced by the *note contentmanager: 3c. in
the new API, but in certain applications these classes may still be
useful, even in non-legacy code.

Ordinarily, you get a message object structure by passing a file or some
text to a parser, which parses the text and returns the root message
object.  However you can also build a complete message structure from
scratch, or even individual *note Message: b1b. objects by hand.  In
fact, you can also take an existing structure and add new *note Message:
b1b. objects, move them around, etc.  This makes a very convenient
interface for slicing-and-dicing MIME messages.

You can create a new object structure by creating *note Message: b1b.
instances, adding attachments and all the appropriate headers manually.
For MIME messages though, the *note email: 3a. package provides some
convenient subclasses to make things easier.

Here are the classes:

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.base.MIMEBase (_maintype, _subtype, *,
          policy=compat32, **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.base: 47.

     This is the base class for all the MIME-specific subclasses of
     *note Message: b1b.  Ordinarily you won’t create instances
     specifically of *note MIMEBase: 3380, although you could.  *note
     MIMEBase: 3380. is provided primarily as a convenient base class
     for more specific MIME-aware subclasses.

     '_maintype' is the ‘Content-Type’ major type (e.g.  ‘text’ or
     ‘image’), and '_subtype' is the ‘Content-Type’ minor type (e.g.
     ‘plain’ or ‘gif’).  '_params' is a parameter key/value dictionary
     and is passed directly to *note Message.add_header: 3369.

     If 'policy' is specified, (defaults to the *note compat32: f57.
     policy) it will be passed to *note Message: b1b.

     The *note MIMEBase: 3380. class always adds a ‘Content-Type’ header
     (based on '_maintype', '_subtype', and '_params'), and a
     ‘MIME-Version’ header (always set to ‘1.0’).

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart

     Module: *note email.mime.nonmultipart: 4b.

     A subclass of *note MIMEBase: 3380, this is an intermediate base
     class for MIME messages that are not ‘multipart’.  The primary
     purpose of this class is to prevent the use of the *note attach():
     32d2. method, which only makes sense for ‘multipart’ messages.  If
     *note attach(): 32d2. is called, a *note MultipartConversionError:
     3316. exception is raised.

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart (_subtype='mixed',
          boundary=None, _subparts=None, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.multipart: 4a.

     A subclass of *note MIMEBase: 3380, this is an intermediate base
     class for MIME messages that are ‘multipart’.  Optional '_subtype'
     defaults to ‘mixed’, but can be used to specify the subtype of the
     message.  A ‘Content-Type’ header of ‘multipart/_subtype’ will be
     added to the message object.  A ‘MIME-Version’ header will also be
     added.

     Optional 'boundary' is the multipart boundary string.  When ‘None’
     (the default), the boundary is calculated when needed (for example,
     when the message is serialized).

     '_subparts' is a sequence of initial subparts for the payload.  It
     must be possible to convert this sequence to a list.  You can
     always attach new subparts to the message by using the *note
     Message.attach: 32d2. method.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f57.

     Additional parameters for the ‘Content-Type’ header are taken from
     the keyword arguments, or passed into the '_params' argument, which
     is a keyword dictionary.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.application.MIMEApplication (_data,
          _subtype='octet-stream',
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.application: 45.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3317, the *note
     MIMEApplication: 3382. class is used to represent MIME message
     objects of major type ‘application’.  '_data' contains the bytes
     for the raw application data.  Optional '_subtype' specifies the
     MIME subtype and defaults to ‘octet-stream’.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the *note MIMEApplication:
     3382. instance.  It should use *note get_payload(): 1072. and *note
     set_payload(): 335d. to change the payload to encoded form.  It
     should also add any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to
     the message object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.
     See the *note email.encoders: 3d. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f57.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the base class
     constructor.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio (_audiodata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.audio: 46.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3317, the *note MIMEAudio:
     3383. class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
     ‘audio’.  '_audiodata' contains the bytes for the raw audio data.
     If this data can be decoded as au, wav, aiff, or aifc, then the
     subtype will be automatically included in the ‘Content-Type’
     header.  Otherwise you can explicitly specify the audio subtype via
     the '_subtype' argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed
     and '_subtype' was not given, then *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the audio data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the *note MIMEAudio: 3383.
     instance.  It should use *note get_payload(): 1072. and *note
     set_payload(): 335d. to change the payload to encoded form.  It
     should also add any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to
     the message object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.
     See the *note email.encoders: 3d. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f57.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the base class
     constructor.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.image.MIMEImage (_imagedata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.image: 48.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3317, the *note MIMEImage:
     3318. class is used to create MIME message objects of major type
     ‘image’.  '_imagedata' contains the bytes for the raw image data.
     If this data type can be detected (jpeg, png, gif, tiff, rgb, pbm,
     pgm, ppm, rast, xbm, bmp, webp, and exr attempted), then the
     subtype will be automatically included in the ‘Content-Type’
     header.  Otherwise you can explicitly specify the image subtype via
     the '_subtype' argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed
     and '_subtype' was not given, then *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the image data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the *note MIMEImage: 3318.
     instance.  It should use *note get_payload(): 1072. and *note
     set_payload(): 335d. to change the payload to encoded form.  It
     should also add any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to
     the message object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.
     See the *note email.encoders: 3d. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f57.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the *note MIMEBase: 3380.
     constructor.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.message.MIMEMessage (_msg, _subtype='rfc822', *,
          policy=compat32)

     Module: *note email.mime.message: 49.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3317, the *note MIMEMessage:
     3384. class is used to create MIME objects of main type ‘message’.
     '_msg' is used as the payload, and must be an instance of class
     *note Message: b1b. (or a subclass thereof), otherwise a *note
     TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

     Optional '_subtype' sets the subtype of the message; it defaults to
     ‘rfc822’.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f57.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: email.mime.text.MIMEText (_text, _subtype='plain',
          _charset=None, *, policy=compat32)

     Module: *note email.mime.text: 4c.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3317, the *note MIMEText:
     c87. class is used to create MIME objects of major type ‘text’.
     '_text' is the string for the payload.  '_subtype' is the minor
     type and defaults to ‘plain’.  '_charset' is the character set of
     the text and is passed as an argument to the *note
     MIMENonMultipart: 3317. constructor; it defaults to ‘us-ascii’ if
     the string contains only ‘ascii’ code points, and ‘utf-8’
     otherwise.  The '_charset' parameter accepts either a string or a
     *note Charset: c88. instance.

     Unless the '_charset' argument is explicitly set to ‘None’, the
     MIMEText object created will have both a ‘Content-Type’ header with
     a ‘charset’ parameter, and a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.
     This means that a subsequent ‘set_payload’ call will not result in
     an encoded payload, even if a charset is passed in the
     ‘set_payload’ command.  You can “reset” this behavior by deleting
     the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header, after which a ‘set_payload’
     call will automatically encode the new payload (and add a new
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header).

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: f57.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: '_charset' also accepts *note Charset: c88.
     instances.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/mime/


File: python.info,  Node: email header Internationalized headers,  Next: email charset Representing character sets,  Prev: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.15 ‘email.header’: Internationalized headers
...................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/header.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. In the current
API encoding and decoding of headers is handled transparently by the
dictionary-like API of the *note EmailMessage: b1c. class.  In addition
to uses in legacy code, this module can be useful in applications that
need to completely control the character sets used when encoding
headers.

The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the
module.

RFC 2822(2) is the base standard that describes the format of email
messages.  It derives from the older RFC 822(3) standard which came into
widespread use at a time when most email was composed of ASCII
characters only.  RFC 2822(4) is a specification written assuming email
contains only 7-bit ASCII characters.

Of course, as email has been deployed worldwide, it has become
internationalized, such that language specific character sets can now be
used in email messages.  The base standard still requires email messages
to be transferred using only 7-bit ASCII characters, so a slew of RFCs
have been written describing how to encode email containing non-ASCII
characters into RFC 2822(5)-compliant format.  These RFCs include RFC
2045(6), RFC 2046(7), RFC 2047(8), and RFC 2231(9).  The *note email:
3a. package supports these standards in its *note email.header: 40. and
*note email.charset: 3b. modules.

If you want to include non-ASCII characters in your email headers, say
in the ‘Subject’ or ‘To’ fields, you should use the *note Header: 16d1.
class and assign the field in the *note Message: b1b. object to an
instance of *note Header: 16d1. instead of using a string for the header
value.  Import the *note Header: 16d1. class from the *note
email.header: 40. module.  For example:

     >>> from email.message import Message
     >>> from email.header import Header
     >>> msg = Message()
     >>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')
     >>> msg['Subject'] = h
     >>> msg.as_string()
     'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n'

Notice here how we wanted the ‘Subject’ field to contain a non-ASCII
character?  We did this by creating a *note Header: 16d1. instance and
passing in the character set that the byte string was encoded in.  When
the subsequent *note Message: b1b. instance was flattened, the ‘Subject’
field was properly RFC 2047(10) encoded.  MIME-aware mail readers would
show this header using the embedded ISO-8859-1 character.

Here is the *note Header: 16d1. class description:

 -- Sınıfı: email.header.Header (s=None, charset=None, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ', errors='strict')

     Create a MIME-compliant header that can contain strings in
     different character sets.

     Optional 's' is the initial header value.  If ‘None’ (the default),
     the initial header value is not set.  You can later append to the
     header with *note append(): 3387. method calls.  's' may be an
     instance of *note bytes: 2cb. or *note str: 15d, but see the *note
     append(): 3387. documentation for semantics.

     Optional 'charset' serves two purposes: it has the same meaning as
     the 'charset' argument to the *note append(): 3387. method.  It
     also sets the default character set for all subsequent *note
     append(): 3387. calls that omit the 'charset' argument.  If
     'charset' is not provided in the constructor (the default), the
     ‘us-ascii’ character set is used both as 's'’s initial charset and
     as the default for subsequent *note append(): 3387. calls.

     The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via
     'maxlinelen'.  For splitting the first line to a shorter value (to
     account for the field header which isn’t included in 's', e.g.
     ‘Subject’) pass in the name of the field in 'header_name'.  The
     default 'maxlinelen' is 78, and the default value for 'header_name'
     is ‘None’, meaning it is not taken into account for the first line
     of a long, split header.

     Optional 'continuation_ws' must be RFC 2822(11)-compliant folding
     whitespace, and is usually either a space or a hard tab character.
     This character will be prepended to continuation lines.
     'continuation_ws' defaults to a single space character.

     Optional 'errors' is passed straight through to the *note append():
     3387. method.

      -- Yöntemi: append (s, charset=None, errors='strict')

          Append the string 's' to the MIME header.

          Optional 'charset', if given, should be a *note Charset: c88.
          instance (see *note email.charset: 3b.) or the name of a
          character set, which will be converted to a *note Charset:
          c88. instance.  A value of ‘None’ (the default) means that the
          'charset' given in the constructor is used.

          's' may be an instance of *note bytes: 2cb. or *note str: 15d.
          If it is an instance of *note bytes: 2cb, then 'charset' is
          the encoding of that byte string, and a *note UnicodeError:
          114c. will be raised if the string cannot be decoded with that
          character set.

          If 's' is an instance of *note str: 15d, then 'charset' is a
          hint specifying the character set of the characters in the
          string.

          In either case, when producing an RFC 2822(12)-compliant
          header using RFC 2047(13) rules, the string will be encoded
          using the output codec of the charset.  If the string cannot
          be encoded using the output codec, a UnicodeError will be
          raised.

          Optional 'errors' is passed as the errors argument to the
          decode call if 's' is a byte string.

      -- Yöntemi: encode (splitchars=';, \t', maxlinelen=None,
               linesep='\n')

          Encode a message header into an RFC-compliant format, possibly
          wrapping long lines and encapsulating non-ASCII parts in
          base64 or quoted-printable encodings.

          Optional 'splitchars' is a string containing characters which
          should be given extra weight by the splitting algorithm during
          normal header wrapping.  This is in very rough support of RFC
          2822(14)'s ‘higher level syntactic breaks’: split points
          preceded by a splitchar are preferred during line splitting,
          with the characters preferred in the order in which they
          appear in the string.  Space and tab may be included in the
          string to indicate whether preference should be given to one
          over the other as a split point when other split chars do not
          appear in the line being split.  Splitchars does not affect
          RFC 2047(15) encoded lines.

          'maxlinelen', if given, overrides the instance’s value for the
          maximum line length.

          'linesep' specifies the characters used to separate the lines
          of the folded header.  It defaults to the most useful value
          for Python application code (‘\n’), but ‘\r\n’ can be
          specified in order to produce headers with RFC-compliant line
          separators.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'linesep' argument.

     The *note Header: 16d1. class also provides a number of methods to
     support standard operators and built-in functions.

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ ()

          Returns an approximation of the *note Header: 16d1. as a
          string, using an unlimited line length.  All pieces are
          converted to unicode using the specified encoding and joined
          together appropriately.  Any pieces with a charset of
          ‘'unknown-8bit'’ are decoded as ASCII using the ‘'replace'’
          error handler.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added handling for the ‘'unknown-8bit'’
          charset.

      -- Yöntemi: __eq__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Header: 16d1.
          instances for equality.

      -- Yöntemi: __ne__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Header: 16d1.
          instances for inequality.

The *note email.header: 40. module also provides the following
convenient functions.

 -- Işlevi: email.header.decode_header (header)

     Decode a message header value without converting the character set.
     The header value is in 'header'.

     This function returns a list of ‘(decoded_string, charset)’ pairs
     containing each of the decoded parts of the header.  'charset' is
     ‘None’ for non-encoded parts of the header, otherwise a lower case
     string containing the name of the character set specified in the
     encoded string.

     Here’s an example:

          >>> from email.header import decode_header
          >>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
          [(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]

 -- Işlevi: email.header.make_header (decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')

     Create a *note Header: 16d1. instance from a sequence of pairs as
     returned by *note decode_header(): f5b.

     *note decode_header(): f5b. takes a header value string and returns
     a sequence of pairs of the format ‘(decoded_string, charset)’ where
     'charset' is the name of the character set.

     This function takes one of those sequence of pairs and returns a
     *note Header: 16d1. instance.  Optional 'maxlinelen',
     'header_name', and 'continuation_ws' are as in the *note Header:
     16d1. constructor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/header.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html


File: python.info,  Node: email charset Representing character sets,  Next: email encoders Encoders,  Prev: email header Internationalized headers,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.16 ‘email.charset’: Representing character sets
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/charset.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. In the new API
only the aliases table is used.

The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the
module.

This module provides a class *note Charset: c88. for representing
character sets and character set conversions in email messages, as well
as a character set registry and several convenience methods for
manipulating this registry.  Instances of *note Charset: c88. are used
in several other modules within the *note email: 3a. package.

Import this class from the *note email.charset: 3b. module.

 -- Sınıfı: email.charset.Charset (input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET)

     Map character sets to their email properties.

     This class provides information about the requirements imposed on
     email for a specific character set.  It also provides convenience
     routines for converting between character sets, given the
     availability of the applicable codecs.  Given a character set, it
     will do its best to provide information on how to use that
     character set in an email message in an RFC-compliant way.

     Certain character sets must be encoded with quoted-printable or
     base64 when used in email headers or bodies.  Certain character
     sets must be converted outright, and are not allowed in email.

     Optional 'input_charset' is as described below; it is always
     coerced to lower case.  After being alias normalized it is also
     used as a lookup into the registry of character sets to find out
     the header encoding, body encoding, and output conversion codec to
     be used for the character set.  For example, if 'input_charset' is
     ‘iso-8859-1’, then headers and bodies will be encoded using
     quoted-printable and no output conversion codec is necessary.  If
     'input_charset' is ‘euc-jp’, then headers will be encoded with
     base64, bodies will not be encoded, but output text will be
     converted from the ‘euc-jp’ character set to the ‘iso-2022-jp’
     character set.

     *note Charset: c88. instances have the following data attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: input_charset

          The initial character set specified.  Common aliases are
          converted to their 'official' email names (e.g.  ‘latin_1’ is
          converted to ‘iso-8859-1’).  Defaults to 7-bit ‘us-ascii’.

      -- Özniteliği: header_encoding

          If the character set must be encoded before it can be used in
          an email header, this attribute will be set to ‘charset.QP’
          (for quoted-printable), ‘charset.BASE64’ (for base64
          encoding), or ‘charset.SHORTEST’ for the shortest of QP or
          BASE64 encoding.  Otherwise, it will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: body_encoding

          Same as 'header_encoding', but describes the encoding for the
          mail message’s body, which indeed may be different than the
          header encoding.  ‘charset.SHORTEST’ is not allowed for
          'body_encoding'.

      -- Özniteliği: output_charset

          Some character sets must be converted before they can be used
          in email headers or bodies.  If the 'input_charset' is one of
          them, this attribute will contain the name of the character
          set output will be converted to.  Otherwise, it will be
          ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: input_codec

          The name of the Python codec used to convert the
          'input_charset' to Unicode.  If no conversion codec is
          necessary, this attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: output_codec

          The name of the Python codec used to convert Unicode to the
          'output_charset'.  If no conversion codec is necessary, this
          attribute will have the same value as the 'input_codec'.

     *note Charset: c88. instances also have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_body_encoding ()

          Return the content transfer encoding used for body encoding.

          This is either the string ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’
          depending on the encoding used, or it is a function, in which
          case you should call the function with a single argument, the
          Message object being encoded.  The function should then set
          the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header itself to whatever is
          appropriate.

          Returns the string ‘quoted-printable’ if 'body_encoding' is
          ‘QP’, returns the string ‘base64’ if 'body_encoding' is
          ‘BASE64’, and returns the string ‘7bit’ otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: get_output_charset ()

          Return the output character set.

          This is the 'output_charset' attribute if that is not ‘None’,
          otherwise it is 'input_charset'.

      -- Yöntemi: header_encode (string)

          Header-encode the string 'string'.

          The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be
          based on the 'header_encoding' attribute.

      -- Yöntemi: header_encode_lines (string, maxlengths)

          Header-encode a 'string' by converting it first to bytes.

          This is similar to *note header_encode(): 3396. except that
          the string is fit into maximum line lengths as given by the
          argument 'maxlengths', which must be an iterator: each element
          returned from this iterator will provide the next maximum line
          length.

      -- Yöntemi: body_encode (string)

          Body-encode the string 'string'.

          The type of encoding (base64 or quoted-printable) will be
          based on the 'body_encoding' attribute.

     The *note Charset: c88. class also provides a number of methods to
     support standard operations and built-in functions.

      -- Yöntemi: __str__ ()

          Returns 'input_charset' as a string coerced to lower case.
          ‘__repr__()’ is an alias for ‘__str__()’.

      -- Yöntemi: __eq__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Charset: c88.
          instances for equality.

      -- Yöntemi: __ne__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two *note Charset: c88.
          instances for inequality.

The *note email.charset: 3b. module also provides the following
functions for adding new entries to the global character set, alias, and
codec registries:

 -- Işlevi: email.charset.add_charset (charset, header_enc=None,
          body_enc=None, output_charset=None)

     Add character properties to the global registry.

     'charset' is the input character set, and must be the canonical
     name of a character set.

     Optional 'header_enc' and 'body_enc' is either ‘charset.QP’ for
     quoted-printable, ‘charset.BASE64’ for base64 encoding,
     ‘charset.SHORTEST’ for the shortest of quoted-printable or base64
     encoding, or ‘None’ for no encoding.  ‘SHORTEST’ is only valid for
     'header_enc'.  The default is ‘None’ for no encoding.

     Optional 'output_charset' is the character set that the output
     should be in.  Conversions will proceed from input charset, to
     Unicode, to the output charset when the method ‘Charset.convert()’
     is called.  The default is to output in the same character set as
     the input.

     Both 'input_charset' and 'output_charset' must have Unicode codec
     entries in the module’s character set-to-codec mapping; use *note
     add_codec(): 339d. to add codecs the module does not know about.
     See the *note codecs: 1b. module’s documentation for more
     information.

     The global character set registry is kept in the module global
     dictionary ‘CHARSETS’.

 -- Işlevi: email.charset.add_alias (alias, canonical)

     Add a character set alias.  'alias' is the alias name, e.g.
     ‘latin-1’.  'canonical' is the character set’s canonical name, e.g.
     ‘iso-8859-1’.

     The global charset alias registry is kept in the module global
     dictionary ‘ALIASES’.

 -- Işlevi: email.charset.add_codec (charset, codecname)

     Add a codec that map characters in the given character set to and
     from Unicode.

     'charset' is the canonical name of a character set.  'codecname' is
     the name of a Python codec, as appropriate for the second argument
     to the *note str: 15d.’s *note encode(): 728. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/charset.py


File: python.info,  Node: email encoders Encoders,  Next: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Prev: email charset Representing character sets,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.17 ‘email.encoders’: Encoders
....................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/encoders.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. In the new API
the functionality is provided by the 'cte' parameter of the *note
set_content(): 16d0. method.

This module is deprecated in Python 3.  The functions provided here
should not be called explicitly since the *note MIMEText: c87. class
sets the content type and CTE header using the '_subtype' and '_charset'
values passed during the instantiation of that class.

The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the
module.

When creating *note Message: b1b. objects from scratch, you often need
to encode the payloads for transport through compliant mail servers.
This is especially true for ‘image/*’ and ‘text/*’ type messages
containing binary data.

The *note email: 3a. package provides some convenient encoders in its
*note encoders: 3d. module.  These encoders are actually used by the
*note MIMEAudio: 3383. and *note MIMEImage: 3318. class constructors to
provide default encodings.  All encoder functions take exactly one
argument, the message object to encode.  They usually extract the
payload, encode it, and reset the payload to this newly encoded value.
They should also set the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header as
appropriate.

Note that these functions are not meaningful for a multipart message.
They must be applied to individual subparts instead, and will raise a
*note TypeError: 2c4. if passed a message whose type is multipart.

Here are the encoding functions provided:

 -- Işlevi: email.encoders.encode_quopri (msg)

     Encodes the payload into quoted-printable form and sets the
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to ‘quoted-printable’ (2).  This
     is a good encoding to use when most of your payload is normal
     printable data, but contains a few unprintable characters.

 -- Işlevi: email.encoders.encode_base64 (msg)

     Encodes the payload into base64 form and sets the
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to ‘base64’.  This is a good
     encoding to use when most of your payload is unprintable data since
     it is a more compact form than quoted-printable.  The drawback of
     base64 encoding is that it renders the text non-human readable.

 -- Işlevi: email.encoders.encode_7or8bit (msg)

     This doesn’t actually modify the message’s payload, but it does set
     the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to either ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’
     as appropriate, based on the payload data.

 -- Işlevi: email.encoders.encode_noop (msg)

     This does nothing; it doesn’t even set the
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/encoders.py

   (2) Note that encoding with *note encode_quopri(): 33a1. also encodes
all tabs and space characters in the data.


File: python.info,  Node: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Next: email iterators Iterators,  Prev: email encoders Encoders,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.18 ‘email.utils’: Miscellaneous utilities
................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/utils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

There are a couple of useful utilities provided in the *note
email.utils: 4f. module:

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.localtime (dt=None)

     Return local time as an aware datetime object.  If called without
     arguments, return current time.  Otherwise 'dt' argument should be
     a *note datetime: 22b. instance, and it is converted to the local
     time zone according to the system time zone database.  If 'dt' is
     naive (that is, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is ‘None’), it is assumed to be in
     local time.  The 'isdst' parameter is ignored.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: The
     'isdst' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.make_msgid (idstring=None, domain=None)

     Returns a string suitable for an RFC 2822(2)-compliant ‘Message-ID’
     header.  Optional 'idstring' if given, is a string used to
     strengthen the uniqueness of the message id.  Optional 'domain' if
     given provides the portion of the msgid after the ‘@’.  The default
     is the local hostname.  It is not normally necessary to override
     this default, but may be useful certain cases, such as a
     constructing distributed system that uses a consistent domain name
     across multiple hosts.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'domain' keyword.

The remaining functions are part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API.
There is no need to directly use these with the new API, since the
parsing and formatting they provide is done automatically by the header
parsing machinery of the new API.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.quote (str)

     Return a new string with backslashes in 'str' replaced by two
     backslashes, and double quotes replaced by backslash-double quote.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.unquote (str)

     Return a new string which is an 'unquoted' version of 'str'.  If
     'str' ends and begins with double quotes, they are stripped off.
     Likewise if 'str' ends and begins with angle brackets, they are
     stripped off.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.parseaddr (address, *, strict=True)

     Parse address – which should be the value of some
     address-containing field such as ‘To’ or ‘Cc’ – into its
     constituent 'realname' and 'email address' parts.  Returns a tuple
     of that information, unless the parse fails, in which case a
     2-tuple of ‘('', '')’ is returned.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     3.12.6 sürümünde değişti: Add 'strict' optional parameter and
     reject malformed inputs by default.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.formataddr (pair, charset='utf-8')

     The inverse of *note parseaddr(): 392, this takes a 2-tuple of the
     form ‘(realname, email_address)’ and returns the string value
     suitable for a ‘To’ or ‘Cc’ header.  If the first element of 'pair'
     is false, then the second element is returned unmodified.

     Optional 'charset' is the character set that will be used in the
     RFC 2047(3) encoding of the ‘realname’ if the ‘realname’ contains
     non-ASCII characters.  Can be an instance of *note str: 15d. or a
     *note Charset: c88.  Defaults to ‘utf-8’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'charset' option.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.getaddresses (fieldvalues, *, strict=True)

     This method returns a list of 2-tuples of the form returned by
     ‘parseaddr()’.  'fieldvalues' is a sequence of header field values
     as might be returned by *note Message.get_all: 3363.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     Here’s a simple example that gets all the recipients of a message:

          from email.utils import getaddresses

          tos = msg.get_all('to', [])
          ccs = msg.get_all('cc', [])
          resent_tos = msg.get_all('resent-to', [])
          resent_ccs = msg.get_all('resent-cc', [])
          all_recipients = getaddresses(tos + ccs + resent_tos + resent_ccs)

     3.12.6 sürümünde değişti: Add 'strict' optional parameter and
     reject malformed inputs by default.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.parsedate (date)

     Attempts to parse a date according to the rules in RFC 2822(4).
     however, some mailers don’t follow that format as specified, so
     *note parsedate(): 33a9. tries to guess correctly in such cases.
     'date' is a string containing an RFC 2822(5) date, such as ‘"Mon,
     20 Nov 1995 19:12:08 -0500"’.  If it succeeds in parsing the date,
     *note parsedate(): 33a9. returns a 9-tuple that can be passed
     directly to *note time.mktime(): 108d.; otherwise ‘None’ will be
     returned.  Note that indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result tuple are
     not usable.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.parsedate_tz (date)

     Performs the same function as *note parsedate(): 33a9, but returns
     either ‘None’ or a 10-tuple; the first 9 elements make up a tuple
     that can be passed directly to *note time.mktime(): 108d, and the
     tenth is the offset of the date’s timezone from UTC (which is the
     official term for Greenwich Mean Time) (6).  If the input string
     has no timezone, the last element of the tuple returned is ‘0’,
     which represents UTC. Note that indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result
     tuple are not usable.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime (date)

     The inverse of *note format_datetime(): f60.  Performs the same
     function as *note parsedate(): 33a9, but on success returns a *note
     datetime: 22b.; otherwise ‘ValueError’ is raised if 'date' contains
     an invalid value such as an hour greater than 23 or a timezone
     offset not between -24 and 24 hours.  If the input date has a
     timezone of ‘-0000’, the ‘datetime’ will be a naive ‘datetime’, and
     if the date is conforming to the RFCs it will represent a time in
     UTC but with no indication of the actual source timezone of the
     message the date comes from.  If the input date has any other valid
     timezone offset, the ‘datetime’ will be an aware ‘datetime’ with
     the corresponding a *note timezone: f62. *note tzinfo: 3e9.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.mktime_tz (tuple)

     Turn a 10-tuple as returned by *note parsedate_tz(): 16a6. into a
     UTC timestamp (seconds since the Epoch).  If the timezone item in
     the tuple is ‘None’, assume local time.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.formatdate (timeval=None, localtime=False,
          usegmt=False)

     Returns a date string as per RFC 2822(7), e.g.:

          Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000

     Optional 'timeval' if given is a floating-point time value as
     accepted by *note time.gmtime(): 1065. and *note time.localtime():
     1386, otherwise the current time is used.

     Optional 'localtime' is a flag that when ‘True’, interprets
     'timeval', and returns a date relative to the local timezone
     instead of UTC, properly taking daylight savings time into account.
     The default is ‘False’ meaning UTC is used.

     Optional 'usegmt' is a flag that when ‘True’, outputs a date string
     with the timezone as an ascii string ‘GMT’, rather than a numeric
     ‘-0000’.  This is needed for some protocols (such as HTTP). This
     only applies when 'localtime' is ‘False’.  The default is ‘False’.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.format_datetime (dt, usegmt=False)

     Like ‘formatdate’, but the input is a *note datetime: 30. instance.
     If it is a naive datetime, it is assumed to be “UTC with no
     information about the source timezone”, and the conventional
     ‘-0000’ is used for the timezone.  If it is an aware ‘datetime’,
     then the numeric timezone offset is used.  If it is an aware
     timezone with offset zero, then 'usegmt' may be set to ‘True’, in
     which case the string ‘GMT’ is used instead of the numeric timezone
     offset.  This provides a way to generate standards conformant HTTP
     date headers.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.decode_rfc2231 (s)

     Decode the string 's' according to RFC 2231(8).

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.encode_rfc2231 (s, charset=None, language=None)

     Encode the string 's' according to RFC 2231(9).  Optional 'charset'
     and 'language', if given is the character set name and language
     name to use.  If neither is given, 's' is returned as-is.  If
     'charset' is given but 'language' is not, the string is encoded
     using the empty string for 'language'.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value (value, errors='replace',
          fallback_charset='us-ascii')

     When a header parameter is encoded in RFC 2231(10) format, *note
     Message.get_param: 3371. may return a 3-tuple containing the
     character set, language, and value.  *note
     collapse_rfc2231_value(): 3372. turns this into a unicode string.
     Optional 'errors' is passed to the 'errors' argument of *note str:
     15d.’s *note encode(): 728. method; it defaults to ‘'replace'’.
     Optional 'fallback_charset' specifies the character set to use if
     the one in the RFC 2231(11) header is not known by Python; it
     defaults to ‘'us-ascii'’.

     For convenience, if the 'value' passed to *note
     collapse_rfc2231_value(): 3372. is not a tuple, it should be a
     string and it is returned unquoted.

 -- Işlevi: email.utils.decode_params (params)

     Decode parameters list according to RFC 2231(12).  'params' is a
     sequence of 2-tuples containing elements of the form
     ‘(content-type, string-value)’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/utils.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) Note that the sign of the timezone offset is the opposite of the
sign of the ‘time.timezone’ variable for the same timezone; the latter
variable follows the POSIX standard while this module follows RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email iterators Iterators,  Prev: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.19.1.19 ‘email.iterators’: Iterators
......................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/iterators.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Iterating over a message object tree is fairly easy with the *note
Message.walk: 337a. method.  The *note email.iterators: 42. module
provides some useful higher level iterations over message object trees.

 -- Işlevi: email.iterators.body_line_iterator (msg, decode=False)

     This iterates over all the payloads in all the subparts of 'msg',
     returning the string payloads line-by-line.  It skips over all the
     subpart headers, and it skips over any subpart with a payload that
     isn’t a Python string.  This is somewhat equivalent to reading the
     flat text representation of the message from a file using *note
     readline(): 1b06, skipping over all the intervening headers.

     Optional 'decode' is passed through to *note Message.get_payload:
     1072.

 -- Işlevi: email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator (msg,
          maintype='text', subtype=None)

     This iterates over all the subparts of 'msg', returning only those
     subparts that match the MIME type specified by 'maintype' and
     'subtype'.

     Note that 'subtype' is optional; if omitted, then subpart MIME type
     matching is done only with the main type.  'maintype' is optional
     too; it defaults to ‘text’.

     Thus, by default *note typed_subpart_iterator(): 33b1. returns each
     subpart that has a MIME type of ‘text/*’.

The following function has been added as a useful debugging tool.  It
should 'not' be considered part of the supported public interface for
the package.

 -- Işlevi: email.iterators._structure (msg, fp=None, level=0,
          include_default=False)

     Prints an indented representation of the content types of the
     message object structure.  For example:

          >>> msg = email.message_from_file(somefile)
          >>> _structure(msg)
          multipart/mixed
              text/plain
              text/plain
              multipart/digest
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
              text/plain

     Optional 'fp' is a file-like object to print the output to.  It
     must be suitable for Python’s *note print(): e16. function.
     'level' is used internally.  'include_default', if true, prints the
     default type as well.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note smtplib: c9.

     SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) client

Module *note poplib: ab.

     POP (Post Office Protocol) client

Module *note imaplib: 72.

     IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) client

Module *note nntplib: 9c.

     NNTP (Net News Transport Protocol) client

Module *note mailbox: 8a.

     Tools for creating, reading, and managing collections of messages
     on disk using a variety standard formats.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/email/iterators.py


File: python.info,  Node: json — JSON encoder and decoder,  Next: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Prev: email — An email and MIME handling package,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.19.2 ‘json’ — JSON encoder and decoder
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/json/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)(2), specified by RFC 7159(3) (which
obsoletes RFC 4627(4)) and by ECMA-404(5), is a lightweight data
interchange format inspired by JavaScript(6) object literal syntax
(although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript (7) ).

     Uyarı: Be cautious when parsing JSON data from untrusted sources.
     A malicious JSON string may cause the decoder to consume
     considerable CPU and memory resources.  Limiting the size of data
     to be parsed is recommended.

*note json: 80. exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
*note marshal: 8c. and *note pickle: a5. modules.

Encoding basic Python object hierarchies:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps(['foo', {'bar': ('baz', None, 1.0, 2)}])
     '["foo", {"bar": ["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]'
     >>> print(json.dumps("\"foo\bar"))
     "\"foo\bar"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\u1234'))
     "\u1234"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\\'))
     "\\"
     >>> print(json.dumps({"c": 0, "b": 0, "a": 0}, sort_keys=True))
     {"a": 0, "b": 0, "c": 0}
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO()
     >>> json.dump(['streaming API'], io)
     >>> io.getvalue()
     '["streaming API"]'

Compact encoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps([1, 2, 3, {'4': 5, '6': 7}], separators=(',', ':'))
     '[1,2,3,{"4":5,"6":7}]'

Pretty printing:

     >>> import json
     >>> print(json.dumps({'4': 5, '6': 7}, sort_keys=True, indent=4))
     {
         "4": 5,
         "6": 7
     }

Decoding JSON:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.loads('["foo", {"bar":["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]')
     ['foo', {'bar': ['baz', None, 1.0, 2]}]
     >>> json.loads('"\\"foo\\bar"')
     '"foo\x08ar'
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO('["streaming API"]')
     >>> json.load(io)
     ['streaming API']

Specializing JSON object decoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> def as_complex(dct):
     ...     if '__complex__' in dct:
     ...         return complex(dct['real'], dct['imag'])
     ...     return dct
     ...
     >>> json.loads('{"__complex__": true, "real": 1, "imag": 2}',
     ...     object_hook=as_complex)
     (1+2j)
     >>> import decimal
     >>> json.loads('1.1', parse_float=decimal.Decimal)
     Decimal('1.1')

Extending *note JSONEncoder: bcf.:

     >>> import json
     >>> class ComplexEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
     ...     def default(self, obj):
     ...         if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...             return [obj.real, obj.imag]
     ...         # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
     ...         return super().default(obj)
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(2 + 1j, cls=ComplexEncoder)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> ComplexEncoder().encode(2 + 1j)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> list(ComplexEncoder().iterencode(2 + 1j))
     ['[2.0', ', 1.0', ']']

Using *note json.tool: 81. from the shell to validate and pretty-print:

     $ echo '{"json":"obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

See *note Command Line Interface: 33b5. for detailed documentation.

     Not: JSON is a subset of YAML(8) 1.2.  The JSON produced by this
     module’s default settings (in particular, the default 'separators'
     value) is also a subset of YAML 1.0 and 1.1.  This module can thus
     also be used as a YAML serializer.

     Not: This module’s encoders and decoders preserve input and output
     order by default.  Order is only lost if the underlying containers
     are unordered.

* Menu:

* Basic Usage::
* Encoders and Decoders::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<14>.
* Standard Compliance and Interoperability::
* Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/json/__init__.py

   (2) https://json.org

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (5) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript

   (7) As noted in the errata for RFC 7159
(https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159), JSON permits
literal U+2028 (LINE SEPARATOR) and U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR)
characters in strings, whereas JavaScript (as of ECMAScript Edition 5.1)
does not.

   (8) https://yaml.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Usage,  Next: Encoders and Decoders,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.19.2.1 Basic Usage
....................

 -- Işlevi: json.dump (obj, fp, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     Serialize 'obj' as a JSON formatted stream to 'fp' (a
     ‘.write()’-supporting *note file-like object: 2379.) using this
     *note Python-to-JSON conversion table: 33b7.

          Not: Unlike *note pickle: a5. and *note marshal: 8c, JSON is
          not a framed protocol, so trying to serialize multiple objects
          with repeated calls to *note dump(): bcd. using the same 'fp'
          will result in an invalid JSON file.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘obj’ (*note object: 8f2.) – The Python object to be
          serialized.

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 2379.) – The file-like object
          'obj' will be serialized to.  The ‘json’ module always
          produces *note str: 15d. objects, not *note bytes: 2cb.
          objects, therefore ‘fp.write()’ must support *note str: 15d.
          input.

        * ‘skipkeys’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’, keys that are not
          of a basic type (*note str: 15d, *note int: 184, *note float:
          272, *note bool: 183, ‘None’) will be skipped instead of
          raising a *note TypeError: 2c4.  Default ‘False’.

        * ‘ensure_ascii’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’ (the default),
          the output is guaranteed to have all incoming non-ASCII
          characters escaped.  If ‘False’, these characters will be
          outputted as-is.

        * ‘check_circular’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘False’, the circular
          reference check for container types is skipped and a circular
          reference will result in a *note RecursionError: bf7. (or
          worse).  Default ‘True’.

        * ‘allow_nan’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘False’, serialization of
          out-of-range *note float: 272. values (‘nan’, ‘inf’, ‘-inf’)
          will result in a *note ValueError: 189, in strict compliance
          with the JSON specification.  If ‘True’ (the default), their
          JavaScript equivalents (‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’) are
          used.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONEncoder: bcf. subclass) – If set, a custom
          JSON encoder with the *note default(): 33b8. method
          overridden, for serializing into custom datatypes.  If ‘None’
          (the default), ‘JSONEncoder’ is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 184.‘ | ’*note str: 15d.‘ | ’‘None’) – If
          a positive integer or string, JSON array elements and object
          members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  A
          positive integer indents that many spaces per level; a string
          (such as ‘"\t"’) is used to indent each level.  If zero,
          negative, or ‘""’ (the empty string), only newlines are
          inserted.  If ‘None’ (the default), the most compact
          representation is used.

        * ‘separators’ (*note tuple: 4ff.‘ | ’‘None’) – A two-tuple:
          ‘(item_separator, key_separator)’.  If ‘None’ (the default),
          'separators' defaults to ‘(', ', ': ')’ if 'indent' is ‘None’,
          and ‘(',', ': ')’ otherwise.  For the most compact JSON,
          specify ‘(',', ':')’ to eliminate whitespace.

        * ‘default’ (*note callable: 26ca. | None) – A function that is
          called for objects that can’t otherwise be serialized.  It
          should return a JSON encodable version of the object or raise
          a *note TypeError: 2c4.  If ‘None’ (the default), ‘TypeError’
          is raised.

        * ‘sort_keys’ (*note bool: 183.) – If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be outputted sorted by key.  Default ‘False’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Allow strings for 'indent' in addition to
     integers.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Use ‘(',', ': ')’ as default if 'indent' is
     not ‘None’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: All optional parameters are now *note
     keyword-only: 8ef.

 -- Işlevi: json.dumps (obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     Serialize 'obj' to a JSON formatted *note str: 15d. using this
     *note conversion table: 33b7.  The arguments have the same meaning
     as in *note dump(): bcd.

          Not: Keys in key/value pairs of JSON are always of the type
          *note str: 15d.  When a dictionary is converted into JSON, all
          the keys of the dictionary are coerced to strings.  As a
          result of this, if a dictionary is converted into JSON and
          then back into a dictionary, the dictionary may not equal the
          original one.  That is, ‘loads(dumps(x)) != x’ if x has
          non-string keys.

 -- Işlevi: json.load (fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     Deserialize 'fp' to a Python object using the *note JSON-to-Python
     conversion table: 33b9.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 2379.) – A ‘.read()’-supporting
          *note text file: 1acf. or *note binary file: 1ad0. containing
          the JSON document to be deserialized.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONDecoder: bd0. subclass) – If set, a custom
          JSON decoder.  Additional keyword arguments to ‘load()’ will
          be passed to the constructor of 'cls'.  If ‘None’ (the
          default), ‘JSONDecoder’ is used.

        * ‘object_hook’ (*note callable: 26ca. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any object literal
          decoded (a *note dict: 240.).  The return value of this
          function will be used instead of the *note dict: 240.  This
          feature can be used to implement custom decoders, for example
          JSON-RPC(1) class hinting.  Default ‘None’.

        * ‘object_pairs_hook’ (*note callable: 26ca. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any object literal
          decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The return value of
          this function will be used instead of the *note dict: 240.
          This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.  If
          'object_hook' is also set, 'object_pairs_hook' takes priority.
          Default ‘None’.

        * ‘parse_float’ (*note callable: 26ca. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the string of every JSON float to
          be decoded.  If ‘None’ (the default), it is equivalent to
          ‘float(num_str)’.  This can be used to parse JSON floats into
          custom datatypes, for example *note decimal.Decimal: 609.

        * ‘parse_int’ (*note callable: 26ca. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the string of every JSON int to
          be decoded.  If ‘None’ (the default), it is equivalent to
          ‘int(num_str)’.  This can be used to parse JSON integers into
          custom datatypes, for example *note float: 272.

        * ‘parse_constant’ (*note callable: 26ca. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with one of the following strings:
          ‘'-Infinity'’, ‘'Infinity'’, or ‘'NaN'’.  This can be used to
          raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are encountered.
          Default ‘None’.


     Harekete geçirir:

        * *note JSONDecodeError: cb0. – When the data being deserialized
          is not a valid JSON document.

        * *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873. – When the data being
          deserialized does not contain UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32 encoded
          data.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti:

        * Added the optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter.

        * 'parse_constant' doesn’t get called on ‘null’, ‘true’, ‘false’
          anymore.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti:

        * All optional parameters are now *note keyword-only: 8ef.

        * 'fp' can now be a *note binary file: 1ad0.  The input encoding
          should be UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The default 'parse_int' of *note int():
     184. now limits the maximum length of the integer string via the
     interpreter’s *note integer string conversion length limitation:
     402. to help avoid denial of service attacks.

 -- Işlevi: json.loads (s, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, **kw)

     Identical to *note load(): b37, but instead of a file-like object,
     deserialize 's' (a *note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb. or *note
     bytearray: 2ca. instance containing a JSON document) to a Python
     object using this *note conversion table: 33b9.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: 's' can now be of type *note bytes: 2cb. or
     *note bytearray: 2ca.  The input encoding should be UTF-8, UTF-16
     or UTF-32.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The keyword argument 'encoding' has been
     removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: Encoders and Decoders,  Next: Exceptions<14>,  Prev: Basic Usage,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.19.2.2 Encoders and Decoders
..............................

 -- Sınıfı: json.JSONDecoder (*, object_hook=None, parse_float=None,
          parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, strict=True,
          object_pairs_hook=None)

     Simple JSON decoder.

     Performs the following translations in decoding by default:

     JSON                Python
                         
     --------------------------------------------
                         
     object              dict
                         
                         
     array               list
                         
                         
     string              str
                         
                         
     number (int)        int
                         
                         
     number (real)       float
                         
                         
     true                True
                         
                         
     false               False
                         
                         
     null                None
                         

     It also understands ‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, and ‘-Infinity’ as their
     corresponding ‘float’ values, which is outside the JSON spec.

     'object_hook' is an optional function that will be called with the
     result of every JSON object decoded and its return value will be
     used in place of the given *note dict: 240.  This can be used to
     provide custom deserializations (e.g.  to support JSON-RPC(1) class
     hinting).

     'object_pairs_hook' is an optional function that will be called
     with the result of every JSON object decoded with an ordered list
     of pairs.  The return value of 'object_pairs_hook' will be used
     instead of the *note dict: 240.  This feature can be used to
     implement custom decoders.  If 'object_hook' is also defined, the
     'object_pairs_hook' takes priority.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 'object_pairs_hook'.

     'parse_float' is an optional function that will be called with the
     string of every JSON float to be decoded.  By default, this is
     equivalent to ‘float(num_str)’.  This can be used to use another
     datatype or parser for JSON floats (e.g.  *note decimal.Decimal:
     609.).

     'parse_int' is an optional function that will be called with the
     string of every JSON int to be decoded.  By default, this is
     equivalent to ‘int(num_str)’.  This can be used to use another
     datatype or parser for JSON integers (e.g.  *note float: 272.).

     'parse_constant' is an optional function that will be called with
     one of the following strings: ‘'-Infinity'’, ‘'Infinity'’, ‘'NaN'’.
     This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are
     encountered.

     If 'strict' is false (‘True’ is the default), then control
     characters will be allowed inside strings.  Control characters in
     this context are those with character codes in the 0–31 range,
     including ‘'\t'’ (tab), ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\0'’.

     If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
     *note JSONDecodeError: cb0. will be raised.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: All parameters are now *note keyword-only:
     8ef.

      -- Yöntemi: decode (s)

          Return the Python representation of 's' (a *note str: 15d.
          instance containing a JSON document).

          *note JSONDecodeError: cb0. will be raised if the given JSON
          document is not valid.

      -- Yöntemi: raw_decode (s)

          Decode a JSON document from 's' (a *note str: 15d. beginning
          with a JSON document) and return a 2-tuple of the Python
          representation and the index in 's' where the document ended.

          This can be used to decode a JSON document from a string that
          may have extraneous data at the end.

 -- Sınıfı: json.JSONEncoder (*, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, sort_keys=False,
          indent=None, separators=None, default=None)

     Extensible JSON encoder for Python data structures.

     Supports the following objects and types by default:

     Python                                       JSON
                                                  
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     dict                                         object
                                                  
                                                  
     list, tuple                                  array
                                                  
                                                  
     str                                          string
                                                  
                                                  
     int, float, int- & float-derived Enums       number
                                                  
                                                  
     True                                         true
                                                  
                                                  
     False                                        false
                                                  
                                                  
     None                                         null
                                                  

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for int- and float-derived
     Enum classes.

     To extend this to recognize other objects, subclass and implement a
     *note default(): 33b8. method with another method that returns a
     serializable object for ‘o’ if possible, otherwise it should call
     the superclass implementation (to raise *note TypeError: 2c4.).

     If 'skipkeys' is false (the default), a *note TypeError: 2c4. will
     be raised when trying to encode keys that are not *note str: 15d,
     *note int: 184, *note float: 272, *note bool: 183. or ‘None’.  If
     'skipkeys' is true, such items are simply skipped.

     If 'ensure_ascii' is true (the default), the output is guaranteed
     to have all incoming non-ASCII characters escaped.  If
     'ensure_ascii' is false, these characters will be output as-is.

     If 'check_circular' is true (the default), then lists, dicts, and
     custom encoded objects will be checked for circular references
     during encoding to prevent an infinite recursion (which would cause
     a *note RecursionError: bf7.).  Otherwise, no such check takes
     place.

     If 'allow_nan' is true (the default), then ‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, and
     ‘-Infinity’ will be encoded as such.  This behavior is not JSON
     specification compliant, but is consistent with most JavaScript
     based encoders and decoders.  Otherwise, it will be a *note
     ValueError: 189. to encode such floats.

     If 'sort_keys' is true (default: ‘False’), then the output of
     dictionaries will be sorted by key; this is useful for regression
     tests to ensure that JSON serializations can be compared on a
     day-to-day basis.

     If 'indent' is a non-negative integer or string, then JSON array
     elements and object members will be pretty-printed with that indent
     level.  An indent level of 0, negative, or ‘""’ will only insert
     newlines.  ‘None’ (the default) selects the most compact
     representation.  Using a positive integer indent indents that many
     spaces per level.  If 'indent' is a string (such as ‘"\t"’), that
     string is used to indent each level.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Allow strings for 'indent' in addition to
     integers.

     If specified, 'separators' should be an ‘(item_separator,
     key_separator)’ tuple.  The default is ‘(', ', ': ')’ if 'indent'
     is ‘None’ and ‘(',', ': ')’ otherwise.  To get the most compact
     JSON representation, you should specify ‘(',', ':')’ to eliminate
     whitespace.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Use ‘(',', ': ')’ as default if 'indent' is
     not ‘None’.

     If specified, 'default' should be a function that gets called for
     objects that can’t otherwise be serialized.  It should return a
     JSON encodable version of the object or raise a *note TypeError:
     2c4.  If not specified, *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: All parameters are now *note keyword-only:
     8ef.

      -- Yöntemi: default (o)

          Implement this method in a subclass such that it returns a
          serializable object for 'o', or calls the base implementation
          (to raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.).

          For example, to support arbitrary iterators, you could
          implement *note default(): 33b8. like this:

               def default(self, o):
                  try:
                      iterable = iter(o)
                  except TypeError:
                      pass
                  else:
                      return list(iterable)
                  # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
                  return super().default(o)

      -- Yöntemi: encode (o)

          Return a JSON string representation of a Python data
          structure, 'o'.  For example:

               >>> json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]})
               '{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'

      -- Yöntemi: iterencode (o)

          Encode the given object, 'o', and yield each string
          representation as available.  For example:

               for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject):
                   mysocket.write(chunk)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<14>,  Next: Standard Compliance and Interoperability,  Prev: Encoders and Decoders,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.19.2.3 Exceptions
...................

 -- Özel Durum: json.JSONDecodeError (msg, doc, pos)

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 189. with the following additional
     attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: msg

          The unformatted error message.

      -- Özniteliği: doc

          The JSON document being parsed.

      -- Özniteliği: pos

          The start index of 'doc' where parsing failed.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line corresponding to 'pos'.

      -- Özniteliği: colno

          The column corresponding to 'pos'.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Compliance and Interoperability,  Next: Command Line Interface<2>,  Prev: Exceptions<14>,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.19.2.4 Standard Compliance and Interoperability
.................................................

The JSON format is specified by RFC 7159(1) and by ECMA-404(2).  This
section details this module’s level of compliance with the RFC. For
simplicity, *note JSONEncoder: bcf. and *note JSONDecoder: bd0.
subclasses, and parameters other than those explicitly mentioned, are
not considered.

This module does not comply with the RFC in a strict fashion,
implementing some extensions that are valid JavaScript but not valid
JSON. In particular:

   - Infinite and NaN number values are accepted and output;

   - Repeated names within an object are accepted, and only the value of
     the last name-value pair is used.

Since the RFC permits RFC-compliant parsers to accept input texts that
are not RFC-compliant, this module’s deserializer is technically
RFC-compliant under default settings.

* Menu:

* Character Encodings::
* Infinite and NaN Number Values::
* Repeated Names Within an Object::
* Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
* Implementation Limitations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (2) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/


File: python.info,  Node: Character Encodings,  Next: Infinite and NaN Number Values,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.19.2.5 Character Encodings
............................

The RFC requires that JSON be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or
UTF-32, with UTF-8 being the recommended default for maximum
interoperability.

As permitted, though not required, by the RFC, this module’s serializer
sets 'ensure_ascii=True' by default, thus escaping the output so that
the resulting strings only contain ASCII characters.

Other than the 'ensure_ascii' parameter, this module is defined strictly
in terms of conversion between Python objects and *note Unicode strings:
15d, and thus does not otherwise directly address the issue of character
encodings.

The RFC prohibits adding a byte order mark (BOM) to the start of a JSON
text, and this module’s serializer does not add a BOM to its output.
The RFC permits, but does not require, JSON deserializers to ignore an
initial BOM in their input.  This module’s deserializer raises a *note
ValueError: 189. when an initial BOM is present.

The RFC does not explicitly forbid JSON strings which contain byte
sequences that don’t correspond to valid Unicode characters (e.g.
unpaired UTF-16 surrogates), but it does note that they may cause
interoperability problems.  By default, this module accepts and outputs
(when present in the original *note str: 15d.) code points for such
sequences.


File: python.info,  Node: Infinite and NaN Number Values,  Next: Repeated Names Within an Object,  Prev: Character Encodings,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.19.2.6 Infinite and NaN Number Values
.......................................

The RFC does not permit the representation of infinite or NaN number
values.  Despite that, by default, this module accepts and outputs
‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’, and ‘NaN’ as if they were valid JSON number
literal values:

     >>> # Neither of these calls raises an exception, but the results are not valid JSON
     >>> json.dumps(float('-inf'))
     '-Infinity'
     >>> json.dumps(float('nan'))
     'NaN'
     >>> # Same when deserializing
     >>> json.loads('-Infinity')
     -inf
     >>> json.loads('NaN')
     nan

In the serializer, the 'allow_nan' parameter can be used to alter this
behavior.  In the deserializer, the 'parse_constant' parameter can be
used to alter this behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: Repeated Names Within an Object,  Next: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values,  Prev: Infinite and NaN Number Values,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.19.2.7 Repeated Names Within an Object
........................................

The RFC specifies that the names within a JSON object should be unique,
but does not mandate how repeated names in JSON objects should be
handled.  By default, this module does not raise an exception; instead,
it ignores all but the last name-value pair for a given name:

     >>> weird_json = '{"x": 1, "x": 2, "x": 3}'
     >>> json.loads(weird_json)
     {'x': 3}

The 'object_pairs_hook' parameter can be used to alter this behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values,  Next: Implementation Limitations,  Prev: Repeated Names Within an Object,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.19.2.8 Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values
...............................................

The old version of JSON specified by the obsolete RFC 4627(1) required
that the top-level value of a JSON text must be either a JSON object or
array (Python *note dict: 240. or *note list: 422.), and could not be a
JSON null, boolean, number, or string value.  RFC 7159(2) removed that
restriction, and this module does not and has never implemented that
restriction in either its serializer or its deserializer.

Regardless, for maximum interoperability, you may wish to voluntarily
adhere to the restriction yourself.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html


File: python.info,  Node: Implementation Limitations,  Prev: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.19.2.9 Implementation Limitations
...................................

Some JSON deserializer implementations may set limits on:

   * the size of accepted JSON texts

   * the maximum level of nesting of JSON objects and arrays

   * the range and precision of JSON numbers

   * the content and maximum length of JSON strings

This module does not impose any such limits beyond those of the relevant
Python datatypes themselves or the Python interpreter itself.

When serializing to JSON, beware any such limitations in applications
that may consume your JSON. In particular, it is common for JSON numbers
to be deserialized into IEEE 754 double precision numbers and thus
subject to that representation’s range and precision limitations.  This
is especially relevant when serializing Python *note int: 184. values of
extremely large magnitude, or when serializing instances of “exotic”
numerical types such as *note decimal.Decimal: 609.


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Interface<2>,  Prev: Standard Compliance and Interoperability,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.19.2.10 Command Line Interface
................................

'Source code:' Lib/json/tool.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note json.tool: 81. module provides a simple command line interface
to validate and pretty-print JSON objects.

If the optional ‘infile’ and ‘outfile’ arguments are not specified,
*note sys.stdin: 2c9. and *note sys.stdout: 943. will be used
respectively:

     $ echo '{"json": "obj"}' | python -m json.tool
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json.tool
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

3.5 sürümünde değişti: The output is now in the same order as the input.
Use the *note -sort-keys: 33cc. option to sort the output of
dictionaries alphabetically by key.

* Menu:

* Command line options: Command line options<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/json/tool.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command line options<2>,  Up: Command Line Interface<2>

5.19.2.11 Command line options
..............................

 -- Option: infile

     The JSON file to be validated or pretty-printed:

          $ python -m json.tool mp_films.json
          [
              {
                  "title": "And Now for Something Completely Different",
                  "year": 1971
              },
              {
                  "title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
                  "year": 1975
              }
          ]

     If 'infile' is not specified, read from *note sys.stdin: 2c9.

 -- Option: outfile

     Write the output of the 'infile' to the given 'outfile'.
     Otherwise, write it to *note sys.stdout: 943.

 -- Option: --sort-keys

     Sort the output of dictionaries alphabetically by key.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Option: --no-ensure-ascii

     Disable escaping of non-ascii characters, see *note json.dumps():
     bce. for more information.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --json-lines

     Parse every input line as separate JSON object.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Option: --indent, --tab, --no-indent, --compact

     Mutually exclusive options for whitespace control.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message.


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Next: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types,  Prev: json — JSON encoder and decoder,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.19.3 ‘mailbox’ — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/mailbox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines two classes, *note Mailbox: 10f4. and *note Message:
10f8, for accessing and manipulating on-disk mailboxes and the messages
they contain.  ‘Mailbox’ offers a dictionary-like mapping from keys to
messages.  ‘Message’ extends the *note email.message: 43. module’s *note
Message: b1b. class with format-specific state and behavior.  Supported
mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note email: 3a.

     Represent and manipulate messages.

* Menu:

* Mailbox objects::
* Message objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<15>.
* Examples: Examples<22>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/mailbox.py


File: python.info,  Node: Mailbox objects,  Next: Message objects,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.19.3.1 ‘Mailbox’ objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.Mailbox

     A mailbox, which may be inspected and modified.

     The ‘Mailbox’ class defines an interface and is not intended to be
     instantiated.  Instead, format-specific subclasses should inherit
     from ‘Mailbox’ and your code should instantiate a particular
     subclass.

     The ‘Mailbox’ interface is dictionary-like, with small keys
     corresponding to messages.  Keys are issued by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance with which they will be used and are only meaningful to
     that ‘Mailbox’ instance.  A key continues to identify a message
     even if the corresponding message is modified, such as by replacing
     it with another message.

     Messages may be added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance using the set-like
     method *note add(): 10f3. and removed using a ‘del’ statement or
     the set-like methods *note remove(): 33dc. and *note discard():
     33dd.

     ‘Mailbox’ interface semantics differ from dictionary semantics in
     some noteworthy ways.  Each time a message is requested, a new
     representation (typically a *note Message: 10f8. instance) is
     generated based upon the current state of the mailbox.  Similarly,
     when a message is added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance, the provided
     message representation’s contents are copied.  In neither case is a
     reference to the message representation kept by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance.

     The default ‘Mailbox’ *note iterator: 176e. iterates over message
     representations, not keys as the default *note dictionary: 240.
     iterator does.  Moreover, modification of a mailbox during
     iteration is safe and well-defined.  Messages added to the mailbox
     after an iterator is created will not be seen by the iterator.
     Messages removed from the mailbox before the iterator yields them
     will be silently skipped, though using a key from an iterator may
     result in a *note KeyError: 903. exception if the corresponding
     message is subsequently removed.

          Uyarı: Be very cautious when modifying mailboxes that might be
          simultaneously changed by some other process.  The safest
          mailbox format to use for such tasks is *note Maildir: 11be.;
          try to avoid using single-file formats such as *note mbox:
          14ae. for concurrent writing.  If you’re modifying a mailbox,
          you 'must' lock it by calling the *note lock(): 33de. and
          *note unlock(): 33df. methods 'before' reading any messages in
          the file or making any changes by adding or deleting a
          message.  Failing to lock the mailbox runs the risk of losing
          messages or corrupting the entire mailbox.

     ‘Mailbox’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: add (message)

          Add 'message' to the mailbox and return the key that has been
          assigned to it.

          Parameter 'message' may be a *note Message: 10f8. instance, an
          *note email.message.Message: b1b. instance, a string, a byte
          string, or a file-like object (which should be open in binary
          mode).  If 'message' is an instance of the appropriate
          format-specific *note Message: 10f8. subclass (e.g., if it’s
          an *note mboxMessage: 32a6. instance and this is an *note
          mbox: 14ae. instance), its format-specific information is
          used.  Otherwise, reasonable defaults for format-specific
          information are used.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Support for binary input was added.

      -- Yöntemi: remove (key)
      -- Yöntemi: __delitem__ (key)
      -- Yöntemi: discard (key)

          Delete the message corresponding to 'key' from the mailbox.

          If no such message exists, a *note KeyError: 903. exception is
          raised if the method was called as *note remove(): 33dc. or
          *note __delitem__(): 33e0. but no exception is raised if the
          method was called as *note discard(): 33dd.  The behavior of
          *note discard(): 33dd. may be preferred if the underlying
          mailbox format supports concurrent modification by other
          processes.

      -- Yöntemi: __setitem__ (key, message)

          Replace the message corresponding to 'key' with 'message'.
          Raise a *note KeyError: 903. exception if no message already
          corresponds to 'key'.

          As with *note add(): 10f3, parameter 'message' may be a *note
          Message: 10f8. instance, an *note email.message.Message: b1b.
          instance, a string, a byte string, or a file-like object
          (which should be open in binary mode).  If 'message' is an
          instance of the appropriate format-specific *note Message:
          10f8. subclass (e.g., if it’s an *note mboxMessage: 32a6.
          instance and this is an *note mbox: 14ae. instance), its
          format-specific information is used.  Otherwise, the
          format-specific information of the message that currently
          corresponds to 'key' is left unchanged.

      -- Yöntemi: iterkeys ()

          Return an *note iterator: 176e. over all keys

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          The same as *note iterkeys(): 33e2, except that a *note list:
          422. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 176e.

      -- Yöntemi: itervalues ()
      -- Yöntemi: __iter__ ()

          Return an *note iterator: 176e. over representations of all
          messages.  The messages are represented as instances of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10f8. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

               Not: The behavior of *note __iter__(): 33e5. is unlike
               that of dictionaries, which iterate over keys.

      -- Yöntemi: values ()

          The same as *note itervalues(): 33e4, except that a *note
          list: 422. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 176e.

      -- Yöntemi: iteritems ()

          Return an *note iterator: 176e. over ('key', 'message') pairs,
          where 'key' is a key and 'message' is a message
          representation.  The messages are represented as instances of
          the appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10f8. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Yöntemi: items ()

          The same as *note iteritems(): 33e7, except that a *note list:
          422. of pairs is returned rather than an *note iterator: 176e.
          of pairs.

      -- Yöntemi: get (key, default=None)
      -- Yöntemi: __getitem__ (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'.
          If no such message exists, 'default' is returned if the method
          was called as *note get(): 33e9. and a *note KeyError: 903.
          exception is raised if the method was called as
          ‘__getitem__()’.  The message is represented as an instance of
          the appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10f8. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Yöntemi: get_message (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          as an instance of the appropriate format-specific *note
          Message: 10f8. subclass, or raise a *note KeyError: 903.
          exception if no such message exists.

      -- Yöntemi: get_bytes (key)

          Return a byte representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 903. exception if no such
          message exists.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: get_string (key)

          Return a string representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 903. exception if no such
          message exists.  The message is processed through *note
          email.message.Message: b1b. to convert it to a 7bit clean
          representation.

      -- Yöntemi: get_file (key)

          Return a *note file-like: 2379. representation of the message
          corresponding to 'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 903.
          exception if no such message exists.  The file-like object
          behaves as if open in binary mode.  This file should be closed
          once it is no longer needed.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The file object really is a *note
          binary file: 1ad0.; previously it was incorrectly returned in
          text mode.  Also, the *note file-like object: 2379. now
          supports the *note context manager: 3df. protocol: you can use
          a *note with: 3dd. statement to automatically close it.

               Not: Unlike other representations of messages, *note
               file-like: 2379. representations are not necessarily
               independent of the ‘Mailbox’ instance that created them
               or of the underlying mailbox.  More specific
               documentation is provided by each subclass.

      -- Yöntemi: __contains__ (key)

          Return ‘True’ if 'key' corresponds to a message, ‘False’
          otherwise.

      -- Yöntemi: __len__ ()

          Return a count of messages in the mailbox.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Delete all messages from the mailbox.

      -- Yöntemi: pop (key, default=None)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          and delete the message.  If no such message exists, return
          'default'.  The message is represented as an instance of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 10f8. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Yöntemi: popitem ()

          Return an arbitrary ('key', 'message') pair, where 'key' is a
          key and 'message' is a message representation, and delete the
          corresponding message.  If the mailbox is empty, raise a *note
          KeyError: 903. exception.  The message is represented as an
          instance of the appropriate format-specific *note Message:
          10f8. subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
          when the ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Yöntemi: update (arg)

          Parameter 'arg' should be a 'key'-to-'message' mapping or an
          iterable of ('key', 'message') pairs.  Updates the mailbox so
          that, for each given 'key' and 'message', the message
          corresponding to 'key' is set to 'message' as if by using
          *note __setitem__(): 33e1.  As with *note __setitem__(): 33e1,
          each 'key' must already correspond to a message in the mailbox
          or else a *note KeyError: 903. exception will be raised, so in
          general it is incorrect for 'arg' to be a ‘Mailbox’ instance.

               Not: Unlike with dictionaries, keyword arguments are not
               supported.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Write any pending changes to the filesystem.  For some *note
          Mailbox: 10f4. subclasses, changes are always written
          immediately and ‘flush()’ does nothing, but you should still
          make a habit of calling this method.

      -- Yöntemi: lock ()

          Acquire an exclusive advisory lock on the mailbox so that
          other processes know not to modify it.  An *note
          ExternalClashError: 33f3. is raised if the lock is not
          available.  The particular locking mechanisms used depend upon
          the mailbox format.  You should 'always' lock the mailbox
          before making any modifications to its contents.

      -- Yöntemi: unlock ()

          Release the lock on the mailbox, if any.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Flush the mailbox, unlock it if necessary, and close any open
          files.  For some ‘Mailbox’ subclasses, this method does
          nothing.

* Menu:

* Maildir objects::
* mbox objects::
* MH objects::
* Babyl objects::
* MMDF objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Maildir objects,  Next: mbox objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.19.3.2 ‘Maildir’ objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.Maildir (dirname, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10f4. for mailboxes in Maildir format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MaildirMessage: 33f7. is used as the default message
     representation.  If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if
     it does not exist.

     If 'create' is ‘True’ and the 'dirname' path exists, it will be
     treated as an existing maildir without attempting to verify its
     directory layout.

     It is for historical reasons that 'dirname' is named as such rather
     than 'path'.

     Maildir is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the qmail
     mail transfer agent and now widely supported by other programs.
     Messages in a Maildir mailbox are stored in separate files within a
     common directory structure.  This design allows Maildir mailboxes
     to be accessed and modified by multiple unrelated programs without
     data corruption, so file locking is unnecessary.

     Maildir mailboxes contain three subdirectories, namely: ‘tmp’,
     ‘new’, and ‘cur’.  Messages are created momentarily in the ‘tmp’
     subdirectory and then moved to the ‘new’ subdirectory to finalize
     delivery.  A mail user agent may subsequently move the message to
     the ‘cur’ subdirectory and store information about the state of the
     message in a special “info” section appended to its file name.

     Folders of the style introduced by the Courier mail transfer agent
     are also supported.  Any subdirectory of the main mailbox is
     considered a folder if ‘'.'’ is the first character in its name.
     Folder names are represented by ‘Maildir’ without the leading
     ‘'.'’.  Each folder is itself a Maildir mailbox but should not
     contain other folders.  Instead, a logical nesting is indicated
     using ‘'.'’ to delimit levels, e.g., “Archived.2005.07”.

      -- Özniteliği: colon

          The Maildir specification requires the use of a colon (‘':'’)
          in certain message file names.  However, some operating
          systems do not permit this character in file names, If you
          wish to use a Maildir-like format on such an operating system,
          you should specify another character to use instead.  The
          exclamation point (‘'!'’) is a popular choice.  For example:

               import mailbox
               mailbox.Maildir.colon = '!'

          The ‘colon’ attribute may also be set on a per-instance basis.

     ‘Maildir’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 10f4.
     in addition to the following:

      -- Yöntemi: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- Yöntemi: get_folder (folder)

          Return a ‘Maildir’ instance representing the folder whose name
          is 'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 33fb. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- Yöntemi: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return a ‘Maildir’
          instance representing it.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 33fe. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- Yöntemi: clean ()

          Delete temporary files from the mailbox that have not been
          accessed in the last 36 hours.  The Maildir specification says
          that mail-reading programs should do this occasionally.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10f4. methods implemented by ‘Maildir’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Yöntemi: add (message)
      -- Yöntemi: __setitem__ (key, message)
      -- Yöntemi: update (arg)

               Uyarı: These methods generate unique file names based
               upon the current process ID. When using multiple threads,
               undetected name clashes may occur and cause corruption of
               the mailbox unless threads are coordinated to avoid using
               these methods to manipulate the same mailbox
               simultaneously.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          All changes to Maildir mailboxes are immediately applied, so
          this method does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: lock ()
      -- Yöntemi: unlock ()

          Maildir mailboxes do not support (or require) locking, so
          these methods do nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          ‘Maildir’ instances do not keep any open files and the
          underlying mailboxes do not support locking, so this method
          does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          modify or remove the underlying message while the returned
          file remains open.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

maildir man page from Courier(1)

     A specification of the format.  Describes a common extension for
     supporting folders.

Using maildir format(2)

     Notes on Maildir by its inventor.  Includes an updated
     name-creation scheme and details on “info” semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html

   (2) https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html


File: python.info,  Node: mbox objects,  Next: MH objects,  Prev: Maildir objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.19.3.3 ‘mbox’ objects
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.mbox (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10f4. for mailboxes in mbox format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     mboxMessage: 32a6. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     The mbox format is the classic format for storing mail on Unix
     systems.  All messages in an mbox mailbox are stored in a single
     file with the beginning of each message indicated by a line whose
     first five characters are “From “.

     Several variations of the mbox format exist to address perceived
     shortcomings in the original.  In the interest of compatibility,
     ‘mbox’ implements the original format, which is sometimes referred
     to as 'mboxo'.  This means that the ‘Content-Length’ header, if
     present, is ignored and that any occurrences of “From “ at the
     beginning of a line in a message body are transformed to “>From “
     when storing the message, although occurrences of “>From “ are not
     transformed to “From “ when reading the message.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10f4. methods implemented by ‘mbox’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Yöntemi: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Yöntemi: get_file (key, from_=False)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 33f2. or *note
          close(): 33f4. on the ‘mbox’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Yöntemi: get_string (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Yöntemi: lock ()
      -- Yöntemi: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

mbox man page from tin(1)

     A specification of the format, with details on locking.

Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad(2)

     An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a
     variation.

"mbox" is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats(3)

     A history of mbox variations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox

   (2) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (3) 
https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: MH objects,  Next: Babyl objects,  Prev: mbox objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.19.3.4 ‘MH’ objects
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.MH (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10f4. for mailboxes in MH format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MHMessage: 3412. is used as the default message representation.  If
     'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MH is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the MH Message
     Handling System, a mail user agent.  Each message in an MH mailbox
     resides in its own file.  An MH mailbox may contain other MH
     mailboxes (called 'folders') in addition to messages.  Folders may
     be nested indefinitely.  MH mailboxes also support 'sequences',
     which are named lists used to logically group messages without
     moving them to sub-folders.  Sequences are defined in a file called
     ‘.mh_sequences’ in each folder.

     The ‘MH’ class manipulates MH mailboxes, but it does not attempt to
     emulate all of ‘mh’’s behaviors.  In particular, it does not modify
     and is not affected by the ‘context’ or ‘.mh_profile’ files that
     are used by ‘mh’ to store its state and configuration.

     ‘MH’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 10f4. in
     addition to the following:

      -- Yöntemi: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- Yöntemi: get_folder (folder)

          Return an ‘MH’ instance representing the folder whose name is
          'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 33fb. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- Yöntemi: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return an ‘MH’
          instance representing it.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 33fe. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- Yöntemi: get_sequences ()

          Return a dictionary of sequence names mapped to key lists.  If
          there are no sequences, the empty dictionary is returned.

      -- Yöntemi: set_sequences (sequences)

          Re-define the sequences that exist in the mailbox based upon
          'sequences', a dictionary of names mapped to key lists, like
          returned by *note get_sequences(): 3417.

      -- Yöntemi: pack ()

          Rename messages in the mailbox as necessary to eliminate gaps
          in numbering.  Entries in the sequences list are updated
          correspondingly.

               Not: Already-issued keys are invalidated by this
               operation and should not be subsequently used.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10f4. methods implemented by ‘MH’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Yöntemi: remove (key)
      -- Yöntemi: __delitem__ (key)
      -- Yöntemi: discard (key)

          These methods immediately delete the message.  The MH
          convention of marking a message for deletion by prepending a
          comma to its name is not used.

      -- Yöntemi: lock ()
      -- Yöntemi: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.  For MH
          mailboxes, locking the mailbox means locking the
          ‘.mh_sequences’ file and, only for the duration of any
          operations that affect them, locking individual message files.

      -- Yöntemi: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          remove the underlying message while the returned file remains
          open.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          All changes to MH mailboxes are immediately applied, so this
          method does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          ‘MH’ instances do not keep any open files, so this method is
          equivalent to *note unlock(): 341e.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

nmh - Message Handling System(1)

     Home page of ‘nmh’, an updated version of the original ‘mh’.

MH & nmh: Email for Users & Programmers(2)

     A GPL-licensed book on ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’, with some information on the
     mailbox format.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nongnu.org/nmh/

   (2) https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/


File: python.info,  Node: Babyl objects,  Next: MMDF objects,  Prev: MH objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.19.3.5 ‘Babyl’ objects
........................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.Babyl (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10f4. for mailboxes in Babyl format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     BabylMessage: 3425. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     Babyl is a single-file mailbox format used by the Rmail mail user
     agent included with Emacs.  The beginning of a message is indicated
     by a line containing the two characters Control-Underscore
     (‘'\037'’) and Control-L (‘'\014'’).  The end of a message is
     indicated by the start of the next message or, in the case of the
     last message, a line containing a Control-Underscore (‘'\037'’)
     character.

     Messages in a Babyl mailbox have two sets of headers, original
     headers and so-called visible headers.  Visible headers are
     typically a subset of the original headers that have been
     reformatted or abridged to be more attractive.  Each message in a
     Babyl mailbox also has an accompanying list of 'labels', or short
     strings that record extra information about the message, and a list
     of all user-defined labels found in the mailbox is kept in the
     Babyl options section.

     ‘Babyl’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 10f4.
     in addition to the following:

      -- Yöntemi: get_labels ()

          Return a list of the names of all user-defined labels used in
          the mailbox.

               Not: The actual messages are inspected to determine which
               labels exist in the mailbox rather than consulting the
               list of labels in the Babyl options section, but the
               Babyl section is updated whenever the mailbox is
               modified.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10f4. methods implemented by ‘Babyl’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Yöntemi: get_file (key)

          In Babyl mailboxes, the headers of a message are not stored
          contiguously with the body of the message.  To generate a
          file-like representation, the headers and body are copied
          together into an *note io.BytesIO: d38. instance, which has an
          API identical to that of a file.  As a result, the file-like
          object is truly independent of the underlying mailbox but does
          not save memory compared to a string representation.

      -- Yöntemi: lock ()
      -- Yöntemi: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Format of Version 5 Babyl Files(1)

     A specification of the Babyl format.

Reading Mail with Rmail(2)

     The Rmail manual, with some information on Babyl semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html


File: python.info,  Node: MMDF objects,  Prev: Babyl objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.19.3.6 ‘MMDF’ objects
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.MMDF (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 10f4. for mailboxes in MMDF format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MMDFMessage: 342c. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MMDF is a single-file mailbox format invented for the Multichannel
     Memorandum Distribution Facility, a mail transfer agent.  Each
     message is in the same form as an mbox message but is bracketed
     before and after by lines containing four Control-A (‘'\001'’)
     characters.  As with the mbox format, the beginning of each message
     is indicated by a line whose first five characters are “From “, but
     additional occurrences of “From “ are not transformed to “>From “
     when storing messages because the extra message separator lines
     prevent mistaking such occurrences for the starts of subsequent
     messages.

     Some *note Mailbox: 10f4. methods implemented by ‘MMDF’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Yöntemi: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Yöntemi: get_file (key, from_=False)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 33f2. or *note
          close(): 33f4. on the ‘MMDF’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix “From “ line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Yöntemi: lock ()
      -- Yöntemi: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

mmdf man page from tin(1)

     A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a
     newsreader.

MMDF(2)

     A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum
     Distribution Facility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF


File: python.info,  Node: Message objects,  Next: Exceptions<15>,  Prev: Mailbox objects,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.19.3.7 ‘Message’ objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.Message (message=None)

     A subclass of the *note email.message: 43. module’s *note Message:
     b1b.  Subclasses of ‘mailbox.Message’ add mailbox-format-specific
     state and behavior.

     If 'message' is omitted, the new instance is created in a default,
     empty state.  If 'message' is an *note email.message.Message: b1b.
     instance, its contents are copied; furthermore, any format-specific
     information is converted insofar as possible if 'message' is a
     ‘Message’ instance.  If 'message' is a string, a byte string, or a
     file, it should contain an RFC 2822(1)-compliant message, which is
     read and parsed.  Files should be open in binary mode, but text
     mode files are accepted for backward compatibility.

     The format-specific state and behaviors offered by subclasses vary,
     but in general it is only the properties that are not specific to a
     particular mailbox that are supported (although presumably the
     properties are specific to a particular mailbox format).  For
     example, file offsets for single-file mailbox formats and file
     names for directory-based mailbox formats are not retained, because
     they are only applicable to the original mailbox.  But state such
     as whether a message has been read by the user or marked as
     important is retained, because it applies to the message itself.

     There is no requirement that ‘Message’ instances be used to
     represent messages retrieved using *note Mailbox: 10f4. instances.
     In some situations, the time and memory required to generate
     ‘Message’ representations might not be acceptable.  For such
     situations, ‘Mailbox’ instances also offer string and file-like
     representations, and a custom message factory may be specified when
     a ‘Mailbox’ instance is initialized.

* Menu:

* MaildirMessage objects::
* mboxMessage objects::
* MHMessage objects::
* BabylMessage objects::
* MMDFMessage objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: MaildirMessage objects,  Next: mboxMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.19.3.8 ‘MaildirMessage’ objects
.................................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.MaildirMessage (message=None)

     A message with Maildir-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10f8. constructor.

     Typically, a mail user agent application moves all of the messages
     in the ‘new’ subdirectory to the ‘cur’ subdirectory after the first
     time the user opens and closes the mailbox, recording that the
     messages are old whether or not they’ve actually been read.  Each
     message in ‘cur’ has an “info” section added to its file name to
     store information about its state.  (Some mail readers may also add
     an “info” section to messages in ‘new’.)  The “info” section may
     take one of two forms: it may contain “2,” followed by a list of
     standardized flags (e.g., “2,FR”) or it may contain “1,” followed
     by so-called experimental information.  Standard flags for Maildir
     messages are as follows:

     Flag       Meaning       Explanation
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     D          Draft         Under composition
                              
                              
     F          Flagged       Marked as important
                              
                              
     P          Passed        Forwarded, resent, or bounced
                              
                              
     R          Replied       Replied to
                              
                              
     S          Seen          Read
                              
                              
     T          Trashed       Marked for subsequent deletion
                              

     ‘MaildirMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_subdir ()

          Return either “new” (if the message should be stored in the
          ‘new’ subdirectory) or “cur” (if the message should be stored
          in the ‘cur’ subdirectory).

               Not: A message is typically moved from ‘new’ to ‘cur’
               after its mailbox has been accessed, whether or not the
               message is has been read.  A message ‘msg’ has been read
               if ‘"S" in msg.get_flags()’ is ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_subdir (subdir)

          Set the subdirectory the message should be stored in.
          Parameter 'subdir' must be either “new” or “cur”.

      -- Yöntemi: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the standard Maildir format, the
          result is the concatenation in alphabetical order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'P'’, ‘'R'’, ‘'S'’,
          and ‘'T'’.  The empty string is returned if no flags are set
          or if “info” contains experimental semantics.

      -- Yöntemi: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.

      -- Yöntemi: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.  The current “info” is
          overwritten whether or not it contains experimental
          information rather than flags.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.  If “info” contains
          experimental information rather than flags, the current “info”
          is not modified.

      -- Yöntemi: get_date ()

          Return the delivery date of the message as a floating-point
          number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- Yöntemi: set_date (date)

          Set the delivery date of the message to 'date', a
          floating-point number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- Yöntemi: get_info ()

          Return a string containing the “info” for a message.  This is
          useful for accessing and modifying “info” that is experimental
          (i.e., not a list of flags).

      -- Yöntemi: set_info (info)

          Set “info” to 'info', which should be a string.

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 32a6. or *note MMDFMessage: 342c. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 32a6. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 342c. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
“cur” subdirectory       O flag
                         
                         
F flag                   F flag
                         
                         
R flag                   A flag
                         
                         
S flag                   R flag
                         
                         
T flag                   D flag
                         

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MHMessage: 3412. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note MHMessage: 3412. state
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
“cur” subdirectory                  “unseen” sequence
                                    
                                    
“cur” subdirectory and S flag       no “unseen” sequence
                                    
                                    
F flag                              “flagged” sequence
                                    
                                    
R flag                              “replied” sequence
                                    

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3425. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note BabylMessage: 3425. state
                                    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
“cur” subdirectory                  “unseen” label
                                    
                                    
“cur” subdirectory and S flag       no “unseen” label
                                    
                                    
P flag                              “forwarded” or “resent” label
                                    
                                    
R flag                              “answered” label
                                    
                                    
T flag                              “deleted” label
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: mboxMessage objects,  Next: MHMessage objects,  Prev: MaildirMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.19.3.9 ‘mboxMessage’ objects
..............................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.mboxMessage (message=None)

     A message with mbox-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10f8. constructor.

     Messages in an mbox mailbox are stored together in a single file.
     The sender’s envelope address and the time of delivery are
     typically stored in a line beginning with “From “ that is used to
     indicate the start of a message, though there is considerable
     variation in the exact format of this data among mbox
     implementations.  Flags that indicate the state of the message,
     such as whether it has been read or marked as important, are
     typically stored in ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’ headers.

     Conventional flags for mbox messages are as follows:

     Flag       Meaning        Explanation
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The “R” and “O” flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     “D”, “F”, and “A” flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘mboxMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the “From “ line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading “From “
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- Yöntemi: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the “From “ line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading “From “ or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: b6e.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 108e, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          1065.).

      -- Yöntemi: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- Yöntemi: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 33f7. instance, a “From “ line is generated based upon
the *note MaildirMessage: 33f7. instance’s delivery date, and the
following conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 33f7. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                “cur” subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3412. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3412. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no “unseen” sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  “unseen” sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  “flagged” sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  “replied” sequence
                        

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3425. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 3425. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no “unseen” label
                        
                        
O flag                  “unseen” label
                        
                        
D flag                  “deleted” label
                        
                        
A flag                  “answered” label
                        

When a ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MMDFMessage: 342c. instance, the “From “ line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       *note MMDFMessage: 342c. state
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: MHMessage objects,  Next: BabylMessage objects,  Prev: mboxMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.19.3.10 ‘MHMessage’ objects
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.MHMessage (message=None)

     A message with MH-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has the
     same meaning as with the *note Message: 10f8. constructor.

     MH messages do not support marks or flags in the traditional sense,
     but they do support sequences, which are logical groupings of
     arbitrary messages.  Some mail reading programs (although not the
     standard ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’) use sequences in much the same way flags
     are used with other formats, as follows:

     Sequence       Explanation
                    
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     unseen         Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                    
                    
     replied        Replied to
                    
                    
     flagged        Marked as important
                    

     ‘MHMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_sequences ()

          Return a list of the names of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- Yöntemi: set_sequences (sequences)

          Set the list of sequences that include this message.

      -- Yöntemi: add_sequence (sequence)

          Add 'sequence' to the list of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_sequence (sequence)

          Remove 'sequence' from the list of sequences that include this
          message.

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 33f7. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note MaildirMessage: 33f7. state
                         
-------------------------------------------------------------
                         
“unseen” sequence        no S flag
                         
                         
“replied” sequence       R flag
                         
                         
“flagged” sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note mboxMessage:
32a6. or *note MMDFMessage: 342c. instance, the ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’
headers are omitted and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 32a6. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 342c. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
“unseen” sequence        no R flag
                         
                         
“replied” sequence       A flag
                         
                         
“flagged” sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note BabylMessage:
3425. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note BabylMessage: 3425. state
                         
-----------------------------------------------------------
                         
“unseen” sequence        “unseen” label
                         
                         
“replied” sequence       “answered” label
                         


File: python.info,  Node: BabylMessage objects,  Next: MMDFMessage objects,  Prev: MHMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.19.3.11 ‘BabylMessage’ objects
................................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.BabylMessage (message=None)

     A message with Babyl-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10f8. constructor.

     Certain message labels, called 'attributes', are defined by
     convention to have special meanings.  The attributes are as
     follows:

     Label           Explanation
                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     unseen          Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                     
                     
     deleted         Marked for subsequent deletion
                     
                     
     filed           Copied to another file or mailbox
                     
                     
     answered        Replied to
                     
                     
     forwarded       Forwarded
                     
                     
     edited          Modified by the user
                     
                     
     resent          Resent
                     

     By default, Rmail displays only visible headers.  The
     ‘BabylMessage’ class, though, uses the original headers because
     they are more complete.  Visible headers may be accessed explicitly
     if desired.

     ‘BabylMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_labels ()

          Return a list of labels on the message.

      -- Yöntemi: set_labels (labels)

          Set the list of labels on the message to 'labels'.

      -- Yöntemi: add_label (label)

          Add 'label' to the list of labels on the message.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_label (label)

          Remove 'label' from the list of labels on the message.

      -- Yöntemi: get_visible ()

          Return a *note Message: 10f8. instance whose headers are the
          message’s visible headers and whose body is empty.

      -- Yöntemi: set_visible (visible)

          Set the message’s visible headers to be the same as the
          headers in 'message'.  Parameter 'visible' should be a *note
          Message: 10f8. instance, an *note email.message.Message: b1b.
          instance, a string, or a file-like object (which should be
          open in text mode).

      -- Yöntemi: update_visible ()

          When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance’s original headers are
          modified, the visible headers are not automatically modified
          to correspond.  This method updates the visible headers as
          follows: each visible header with a corresponding original
          header is set to the value of the original header, each
          visible header without a corresponding original header is
          removed, and any of ‘Date’, ‘From’, ‘Reply-To’, ‘To’, ‘CC’,
          and ‘Subject’ that are present in the original headers but not
          the visible headers are added to the visible headers.

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 33f7. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MaildirMessage: 33f7. state
                        
------------------------------------------------------------
                        
“unseen” label          no S flag
                        
                        
“deleted” label         T flag
                        
                        
“answered” label        R flag
                        
                        
“forwarded” label       P flag
                        

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 32a6. or *note MMDFMessage: 342c. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state        *note mboxMessage: 32a6. or
                       *note MMDFMessage: 342c. state
                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
“unseen” label         no R flag
                       
                       
“deleted” label        D flag
                       
                       
“answered” label       A flag
                       

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3412. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state        *note MHMessage: 3412. state
                       
------------------------------------------------------
                       
“unseen” label         “unseen” sequence
                       
                       
“answered” label       “replied” sequence
                       


File: python.info,  Node: MMDFMessage objects,  Prev: BabylMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.19.3.12 ‘MMDFMessage’ objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: mailbox.MMDFMessage (message=None)

     A message with MMDF-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 10f8. constructor.

     As with message in an mbox mailbox, MMDF messages are stored with
     the sender’s address and the delivery date in an initial line
     beginning with “From “.  Likewise, flags that indicate the state of
     the message are typically stored in ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’
     headers.

     Conventional flags for MMDF messages are identical to those of mbox
     message and are as follows:

     Flag       Meaning        Explanation
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The “R” and “O” flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     “D”, “F”, and “A” flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘MMDFMessage’ instances offer the following methods, which are
     identical to those offered by *note mboxMessage: 32a6.:

      -- Yöntemi: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the “From “ line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading “From “
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- Yöntemi: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the “From “ line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading “From “ or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: b6e.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 108e, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          1065.).

      -- Yöntemi: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- Yöntemi: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' maybe a
          string of more than one character.

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 33f7. instance, a “From “ line is generated based upon
the *note MaildirMessage: 33f7. instance’s delivery date, and the
following conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 33f7. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                “cur” subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3412. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3412. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no “unseen” sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  “unseen” sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  “flagged” sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  “replied” sequence
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3425. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 3425. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no “unseen” label
                        
                        
O flag                  “unseen” label
                        
                        
D flag                  “deleted” label
                        
                        
A flag                  “answered” label
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 32a6. instance, the “From “ line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       *note mboxMessage: 32a6. state
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<15>,  Next: Examples<22>,  Prev: Message objects,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.19.3.13 Exceptions
....................

The following exception classes are defined in the ‘mailbox’ module:

 -- Özel Durum: mailbox.Error

     The based class for all other module-specific exceptions.

 -- Özel Durum: mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError

     Raised when a mailbox is expected but is not found, such as when
     instantiating a *note Mailbox: 10f4. subclass with a path that does
     not exist (and with the 'create' parameter set to ‘False’), or when
     opening a folder that does not exist.

 -- Özel Durum: mailbox.NotEmptyError

     Raised when a mailbox is not empty but is expected to be, such as
     when deleting a folder that contains messages.

 -- Özel Durum: mailbox.ExternalClashError

     Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of
     the program causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing
     to acquire a lock that another program already holds a lock, or
     when a uniquely generated file name already exists.

 -- Özel Durum: mailbox.FormatError

     Raised when the data in a file cannot be parsed, such as when an
     *note MH: 3411. instance attempts to read a corrupted
     ‘.mh_sequences’ file.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<22>,  Prev: Exceptions<15>,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.19.3.14 Examples
..................

A simple example of printing the subjects of all messages in a mailbox
that seem interesting:

     import mailbox
     for message in mailbox.mbox('~/mbox'):
         subject = message['subject']       # Could possibly be None.
         if subject and 'python' in subject.lower():
             print(subject)

To copy all mail from a Babyl mailbox to an MH mailbox, converting all
of the format-specific information that can be converted:

     import mailbox
     destination = mailbox.MH('~/Mail')
     destination.lock()
     for message in mailbox.Babyl('~/RMAIL'):
         destination.add(mailbox.MHMessage(message))
     destination.flush()
     destination.unlock()

This example sorts mail from several mailing lists into different
mailboxes, being careful to avoid mail corruption due to concurrent
modification by other programs, mail loss due to interruption of the
program, or premature termination due to malformed messages in the
mailbox:

     import mailbox
     import email.errors

     list_names = ('python-list', 'python-dev', 'python-bugs')

     boxes = {name: mailbox.mbox('~/email/%s' % name) for name in list_names}
     inbox = mailbox.Maildir('~/Maildir', factory=None)

     for key in inbox.iterkeys():
         try:
             message = inbox[key]
         except email.errors.MessageParseError:
             continue                # The message is malformed. Just leave it.

         for name in list_names:
             list_id = message['list-id']
             if list_id and name in list_id:
                 # Get mailbox to use
                 box = boxes[name]

                 # Write copy to disk before removing original.
                 # If there's a crash, you might duplicate a message, but
                 # that's better than losing a message completely.
                 box.lock()
                 box.add(message)
                 box.flush()
                 box.unlock()

                 # Remove original message
                 inbox.lock()
                 inbox.discard(key)
                 inbox.flush()
                 inbox.unlock()
                 break               # Found destination, so stop looking.

     for box in boxes.itervalues():
         box.close()


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types,  Next: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Prev: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.19.4 ‘mimetypes’ — Map filenames to MIME types
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/mimetypes.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note mimetypes: 8e. module converts between a filename or URL and
the MIME type associated with the filename extension.  Conversions are
provided from filename to MIME type and from MIME type to filename
extension; encodings are not supported for the latter conversion.

The module provides one class and a number of convenience functions.
The functions are the normal interface to this module, but some
applications may be interested in the class as well.

The functions described below provide the primary interface for this
module.  If the module has not been initialized, they will call *note
init(): 3465. if they rely on the information *note init(): 3465. sets
up.

 -- Işlevi: mimetypes.guess_type (url, strict=True)

     Guess the type of a file based on its filename, path or URL, given
     by 'url'.  URL can be a string or a *note path-like object: 98e.

     The return value is a tuple ‘(type, encoding)’ where 'type' is
     ‘None’ if the type can’t be guessed (missing or unknown suffix) or
     a string of the form ‘'type/subtype'’, usable for a MIME
     ‘content-type’ header.

     'encoding' is ‘None’ for no encoding or the name of the program
     used to encode (e.g.  ‘compress’ or ‘gzip’).  The encoding is
     suitable for use as a ‘Content-Encoding’ header, 'not' as a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.  The mappings are table driven.
     Encoding suffixes are case sensitive; type suffixes are first tried
     case sensitively, then case insensitively.

     The optional 'strict' argument is a flag specifying whether the
     list of known MIME types is limited to only the official types
     registered with IANA(2). When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default),
     only the IANA types are supported; when 'strict' is ‘False’, some
     additional non-standard but commonly used MIME types are also
     recognized.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added support for url being a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: mimetypes.guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extensions for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a list of strings giving all possible
     filename extensions, including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The
     extensions are not guaranteed to have been associated with any
     particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type 'type'
     by *note guess_type(): 13f5.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 13f5. function.

 -- Işlevi: mimetypes.guess_extension (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extension for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a string giving a filename extension,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The extension is not guaranteed
     to have been associated with any particular data stream, but would
     be mapped to the MIME type 'type' by *note guess_type(): 13f5.  If
     no extension can be guessed for 'type', ‘None’ is returned.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 13f5. function.

Some additional functions and data items are available for controlling
the behavior of the module.

 -- Işlevi: mimetypes.init (files=None)

     Initialize the internal data structures.  If given, 'files' must be
     a sequence of file names which should be used to augment the
     default type map.  If omitted, the file names to use are taken from
     *note knownfiles: 3467.; on Windows, the current registry settings
     are loaded.  Each file named in 'files' or *note knownfiles: 3467.
     takes precedence over those named before it.  Calling *note init():
     3465. repeatedly is allowed.

     Specifying an empty list for 'files' will prevent the system
     defaults from being applied: only the well-known values will be
     present from a built-in list.

     If 'files' is ‘None’ the internal data structure is completely
     rebuilt to its initial default value.  This is a stable operation
     and will produce the same results when called multiple times.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Previously, Windows registry settings were
     ignored.

 -- Işlevi: mimetypes.read_mime_types (filename)

     Load the type map given in the file 'filename', if it exists.  The
     type map is returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’), to strings of the form
     ‘'type/subtype'’.  If the file 'filename' does not exist or cannot
     be read, ‘None’ is returned.

 -- Işlevi: mimetypes.add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

     Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension 'ext'.
     When the extension is already known, the new type will replace the
     old one.  When the type is already known the extension will be
     added to the list of known extensions.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be added to
     the official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.

 -- Verisi: mimetypes.inited

     Flag indicating whether or not the global data structures have been
     initialized.  This is set to ‘True’ by *note init(): 3465.

 -- Verisi: mimetypes.knownfiles

     List of type map file names commonly installed.  These files are
     typically named ‘mime.types’ and are installed in different
     locations by different packages.

 -- Verisi: mimetypes.suffix_map

     Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow
     recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and the type
     are indicated by the same extension.  For example, the ‘.tgz’
     extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the encoding and type to
     be recognized separately.

 -- Verisi: mimetypes.encodings_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.

 -- Verisi: mimetypes.types_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to MIME types.

 -- Verisi: mimetypes.common_types

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to non-standard, but
     commonly found MIME types.

An example usage of the module:

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> mimetypes.init()
     >>> mimetypes.knownfiles
     ['/etc/mime.types', '/etc/httpd/mime.types', ... ]
     >>> mimetypes.suffix_map['.tgz']
     '.tar.gz'
     >>> mimetypes.encodings_map['.gz']
     'gzip'
     >>> mimetypes.types_map['.tgz']
     'application/x-tar-gz'

* Menu:

* MimeTypes Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/mimetypes.py

   (2) https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml


File: python.info,  Node: MimeTypes Objects,  Up: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types

5.19.4.1 MimeTypes Objects
..........................

The *note MimeTypes: 1388. class may be useful for applications which
may want more than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface
similar to the one of the *note mimetypes: 8e. module.

 -- Sınıfı: mimetypes.MimeTypes (filenames=(), strict=True)

     This class represents a MIME-types database.  By default, it
     provides access to the same database as the rest of this module.
     The initial database is a copy of that provided by the module, and
     may be extended by loading additional ‘mime.types’-style files into
     the database using the *note read(): 3470. or *note readfp(): 3471.
     methods.  The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before
     loading additional data if the default data is not desired.

     The optional 'filenames' parameter can be used to cause additional
     files to be loaded “on top” of the default database.

      -- Özniteliği: suffix_map

          Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to
          allow recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and
          the type are indicated by the same extension.  For example,
          the ‘.tgz’ extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the
          encoding and type to be recognized separately.  This is
          initially a copy of the global *note suffix_map: 346a. defined
          in the module.

      -- Özniteliği: encodings_map

          Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.
          This is initially a copy of the global *note encodings_map:
          346b. defined in the module.

      -- Özniteliği: types_map

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions
          to MIME types: the first dictionary is for the non-standards
          types and the second one is for the standard types.  They are
          initialized by *note common_types: 346d. and *note types_map:
          346c.

      -- Özniteliği: types_map_inv

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a
          list of filename extensions: the first dictionary is for the
          non-standards types and the second one is for the standard
          types.  They are initialized by *note common_types: 346d. and
          *note types_map: 346c.

      -- Yöntemi: guess_extension (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_extension(): 3466. function, using
          the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Yöntemi: guess_type (url, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_type(): 13f5. function, using the
          tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Yöntemi: guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_all_extensions(): 16bd. function,
          using the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Yöntemi: read (filename, strict=True)

          Load MIME information from a file named 'filename'.  This uses
          *note readfp(): 3471. to parse the file.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to list of
          standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- Yöntemi: readfp (fp, strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from an open file 'fp'.  The file
          must have the format of the standard ‘mime.types’ files.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- Yöntemi: read_windows_registry (strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from the Windows registry.

          *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

          Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension
          'ext'.  When the extension is already known, the new type will
          replace the old one.  When the type is already known the
          extension will be added to the list of known extensions.

          When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be
          added to the official MIME types, otherwise to the
          non-standard ones.


File: python.info,  Node: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Next: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII,  Prev: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.19.5 ‘base64’ — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/base64.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable
ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data.  It
provides encoding and decoding functions for the encodings specified in
RFC 4648(2), which defines the Base16, Base32, and Base64 algorithms,
and for the de-facto standard Ascii85 and Base85 encodings.

The RFC 4648(3) encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that
it can be safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as
part of an HTTP POST request.  The encoding algorithm is not the same as
the ‘uuencode’ program.

There are two interfaces provided by this module.  The modern interface
supports encoding *note bytes-like objects: bb5. to ASCII *note bytes:
2cb, and decoding *note bytes-like objects: bb5. or strings containing
ASCII to *note bytes: 2cb.  Both base-64 alphabets defined in RFC
4648(4) (normal, and URL- and filesystem-safe) are supported.

The legacy interface does not support decoding from strings, but it does
provide functions for encoding and decoding to and from *note file
objects: 1068.  It only supports the Base64 standard alphabet, and it
adds newlines every 76 characters as per RFC 2045(5).  Note that if you
are looking for RFC 2045(6) support you probably want to be looking at
the *note email: 3a. package instead.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by
the decoding functions of the modern interface.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Any *note bytes-like objects: bb5. are now
accepted by all encoding and decoding functions in this module.
Ascii85/Base85 support added.

The modern interface provides:

 -- Işlevi: base64.b64encode (s, altchars=None)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: bb5. 's' using Base64 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 2cb.

     Optional 'altchars' must be a *note bytes-like object: bb5. of
     length 2 which specifies an alternative alphabet for the ‘+’ and
     ‘/’ characters.  This allows an application to e.g.  generate URL
     or filesystem safe Base64 strings.  The default is ‘None’, for
     which the standard Base64 alphabet is used.

     May assert or raise a *note ValueError: 189. if the length of
     'altchars' is not 2.  Raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. if 'altchars'
     is not a *note bytes-like object: bb5.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b64decode (s, altchars=None, validate=False)

     Decode the Base64 encoded *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 2cb.

     Optional 'altchars' must be a *note bytes-like object: bb5. or
     ASCII string of length 2 which specifies the alternative alphabet
     used instead of the ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters.

     A *note binascii.Error: ece. exception is raised if 's' is
     incorrectly padded.

     If 'validate' is ‘False’ (the default), characters that are neither
     in the normal base-64 alphabet nor the alternative alphabet are
     discarded prior to the padding check.  If 'validate' is ‘True’,
     these non-alphabet characters in the input result in a *note
     binascii.Error: ece.

     For more information about the strict base64 check, see *note
     binascii.a2b_base64(): 1475.

     May assert or raise a *note ValueError: 189. if the length of
     'altchars' is not 2.

 -- Işlevi: base64.standard_b64encode (s)

     Encode *note bytes-like object: bb5. 's' using the standard Base64
     alphabet and return the encoded *note bytes: 2cb.

 -- Işlevi: base64.standard_b64decode (s)

     Decode *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII string 's' using the
     standard Base64 alphabet and return the decoded *note bytes: 2cb.

 -- Işlevi: base64.urlsafe_b64encode (s)

     Encode *note bytes-like object: bb5. 's' using the URL- and
     filesystem-safe alphabet, which substitutes ‘-’ instead of ‘+’ and
     ‘_’ instead of ‘/’ in the standard Base64 alphabet, and return the
     encoded *note bytes: 2cb.  The result can still contain ‘=’.

 -- Işlevi: base64.urlsafe_b64decode (s)

     Decode *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII string 's' using the
     URL- and filesystem-safe alphabet, which substitutes ‘-’ instead of
     ‘+’ and ‘_’ instead of ‘/’ in the standard Base64 alphabet, and
     return the decoded *note bytes: 2cb.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b32encode (s)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: bb5. 's' using Base32 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 2cb.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b32decode (s, casefold=False, map01=None)

     Decode the Base32 encoded *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 2cb.

     Optional 'casefold' is a flag specifying whether a lowercase
     alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes, the
     default is ‘False’.

     RFC 4648(7) allows for optional mapping of the digit 0 (zero) to
     the letter O (oh), and for optional mapping of the digit 1 (one) to
     either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el).  The optional argument
     'map01' when not ‘None’, specifies which letter the digit 1 should
     be mapped to (when 'map01' is not ‘None’, the digit 0 is always
     mapped to the letter O). For security purposes the default is
     ‘None’, so that 0 and 1 are not allowed in the input.

     A *note binascii.Error: ece. is raised if 's' is incorrectly padded
     or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the input.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b32hexencode (s)

     Similar to *note b32encode(): 3481. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(8).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b32hexdecode (s, casefold=False)

     Similar to *note b32decode(): ecd. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(9).

     This version does not allow the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O (oh)
     and digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el)
     mappings, all these characters are included in the Extended Hex
     Alphabet and are not interchangeable.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b16encode (s)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: bb5. 's' using Base16 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 2cb.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b16decode (s, casefold=False)

     Decode the Base16 encoded *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 2cb.

     Optional 'casefold' is a flag specifying whether a lowercase
     alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes, the
     default is ‘False’.

     A *note binascii.Error: ece. is raised if 's' is incorrectly padded
     or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the input.

 -- Işlevi: base64.a85encode (b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0,
          pad=False, adobe=False)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: bb5. 'b' using Ascii85 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 2cb.

     'foldspaces' is an optional flag that uses the special short
     sequence ‘y’ instead of 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20) as
     supported by ‘btoa’.  This feature is not supported by the
     “standard” Ascii85 encoding.

     'wrapcol' controls whether the output should have newline (‘b'\n'’)
     characters added to it.  If this is non-zero, each output line will
     be at most this many characters long, excluding the trailing
     newline.

     'pad' controls whether the input is padded to a multiple of 4
     before encoding.  Note that the ‘btoa’ implementation always pads.

     'adobe' controls whether the encoded byte sequence is framed with
     ‘<~’ and ‘~>’, which is used by the Adobe implementation.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: base64.a85decode (b, *, foldspaces=False, adobe=False,
          ignorechars=b' \t\n\r\x0b')

     Decode the Ascii85 encoded *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII
     string 'b' and return the decoded *note bytes: 2cb.

     'foldspaces' is a flag that specifies whether the ‘y’ short
     sequence should be accepted as shorthand for 4 consecutive spaces
     (ASCII 0x20).  This feature is not supported by the “standard”
     Ascii85 encoding.

     'adobe' controls whether the input sequence is in Adobe Ascii85
     format (i.e.  is framed with <~ and ~>).

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII
     string containing characters to ignore from the input.  This should
     only contain whitespace characters, and by default contains all
     whitespace characters in ASCII.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b85encode (b, pad=False)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: bb5. 'b' using base85 (as used
     in e.g.  git-style binary diffs) and return the encoded *note
     bytes: 2cb.

     If 'pad' is true, the input is padded with ‘b'\0'’ so its length is
     a multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: base64.b85decode (b)

     Decode the base85-encoded *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ASCII
     string 'b' and return the decoded *note bytes: 2cb.  Padding is
     implicitly removed, if necessary.

     Added in version 3.4.

The legacy interface:

 -- Işlevi: base64.decode (input, output)

     Decode the contents of the binary 'input' file and write the
     resulting binary data to the 'output' file.  'input' and 'output'
     must be *note file objects: 1068.  'input' will be read until
     ‘input.readline()’ returns an empty bytes object.

 -- Işlevi: base64.decodebytes (s)

     Decode the *note bytes-like object: bb5. 's', which must contain
     one or more lines of base64 encoded data, and return the decoded
     *note bytes: 2cb.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Işlevi: base64.encode (input, output)

     Encode the contents of the binary 'input' file and write the
     resulting base64 encoded data to the 'output' file.  'input' and
     'output' must be *note file objects: 1068.  'input' will be read
     until ‘input.read()’ returns an empty bytes object.  *note
     encode(): 3485. inserts a newline character (‘b'\n'’) after every
     76 bytes of the output, as well as ensuring that the output always
     ends with a newline, as per RFC 2045(10) (MIME).

 -- Işlevi: base64.encodebytes (s)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: bb5. 's', which can contain
     arbitrary binary data, and return *note bytes: 2cb. containing the
     base64-encoded data, with newlines (‘b'\n'’) inserted after every
     76 bytes of output, and ensuring that there is a trailing newline,
     as per RFC 2045(11) (MIME).

     Added in version 3.1.

An example usage of the module:

     >>> import base64
     >>> encoded = base64.b64encode(b'data to be encoded')
     >>> encoded
     b'ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk'
     >>> data = base64.b64decode(encoded)
     >>> data
     b'data to be encoded'

* Menu:

* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/base64.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations<2>,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings

5.19.5.1 Security Considerations
................................

A new security considerations section was added to RFC 4648(1) (section
12); it’s recommended to review the security section for any code
deployed to production.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note binascii: 10.

     Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII
     conversions.

RFC 1521(2) - MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies

     Section 5.2, “Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding,” provides the
     definition of the base64 encoding.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html


File: python.info,  Node: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII,  Next: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data,  Prev: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.19.6 ‘binascii’ — Convert between binary and ASCII
----------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note binascii: 10. module contains a number of methods to convert
between binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations.
Normally, you will not use these functions directly but use wrapper
modules like *note uu: 10f. or *note base64: e. instead.  The *note
binascii: 10. module contains low-level functions written in C for
greater speed that are used by the higher-level modules.

     Not: ‘a2b_*’ functions accept Unicode strings containing only ASCII
     characters.  Other functions only accept *note bytes-like objects:
     bb5. (such as *note bytes: 2cb, *note bytearray: 2ca. and other
     objects that support the buffer protocol).

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: ASCII-only unicode strings are now accepted
     by the ‘a2b_*’ functions.

The *note binascii: 10. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: binascii.a2b_uu (string)

     Convert a single line of uuencoded data back to binary and return
     the binary data.  Lines normally contain 45 (binary) bytes, except
     for the last line.  Line data may be followed by whitespace.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.b2a_uu (data, *, backtick=False)

     Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters, the return value
     is the converted line, including a newline char.  The length of
     'data' should be at most 45.  If 'backtick' is true, zeros are
     represented by ‘'`'’ instead of spaces.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'backtick' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.a2b_base64 (string, /, *, strict_mode=False)

     Convert a block of base64 data back to binary and return the binary
     data.  More than one line may be passed at a time.

     If 'strict_mode' is true, only valid base64 data will be converted.
     Invalid base64 data will raise *note binascii.Error: ece.

     Valid base64:

        * Conforms to RFC 3548(1).

        * Contains only characters from the base64 alphabet.

        * Contains no excess data after padding (including excess
          padding, newlines, etc.).

        * Does not start with a padding.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'strict_mode' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.b2a_base64 (data, *, newline=True)

     Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters in base64 coding.
     The return value is the converted line, including a newline char if
     'newline' is true.  The output of this function conforms to RFC
     3548(2).

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'newline' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.a2b_qp (data, header=False)

     Convert a block of quoted-printable data back to binary and return
     the binary data.  More than one line may be passed at a time.  If
     the optional argument 'header' is present and true, underscores
     will be decoded as spaces.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.b2a_qp (data, quotetabs=False, istext=True,
          header=False)

     Convert binary data to a line(s) of ASCII characters in
     quoted-printable encoding.  The return value is the converted
     line(s).  If the optional argument 'quotetabs' is present and true,
     all tabs and spaces will be encoded.  If the optional argument
     'istext' is present and true, newlines are not encoded but trailing
     whitespace will be encoded.  If the optional argument 'header' is
     present and true, spaces will be encoded as underscores per RFC
     1522(3).  If the optional argument 'header' is present and false,
     newline characters will be encoded as well; otherwise linefeed
     conversion might corrupt the binary data stream.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.crc_hqx (data, value)

     Compute a 16-bit CRC value of 'data', starting with 'value' as the
     initial CRC, and return the result.  This uses the CRC-CCITT
     polynomial 'x'^16 + 'x'^12 + 'x'^5 + 1, often represented as
     0x1021.  This CRC is used in the binhex4 format.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.crc32 (data[, value])

     Compute CRC-32, the unsigned 32-bit checksum of 'data', starting
     with an initial CRC of 'value'.  The default initial CRC is zero.
     The algorithm is consistent with the ZIP file checksum.  Since the
     algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not
     suitable for use as a general hash algorithm.  Use as follows:

          print(binascii.crc32(b"hello world"))
          # Or, in two pieces:
          crc = binascii.crc32(b"hello")
          crc = binascii.crc32(b" world", crc)
          print('crc32 = {:#010x}'.format(crc))

     3.0 sürümünde değişti: The result is always unsigned.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.b2a_hex (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])
 -- Işlevi: binascii.hexlify (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])

     Return the hexadecimal representation of the binary 'data'.  Every
     byte of 'data' is converted into the corresponding 2-digit hex
     representation.  The returned bytes object is therefore twice as
     long as the length of 'data'.

     Similar functionality (but returning a text string) is also
     conveniently accessible using the *note bytes.hex(): bf4. method.

     If 'sep' is specified, it must be a single character str or bytes
     object.  It will be inserted in the output after every
     'bytes_per_sep' input bytes.  Separator placement is counted from
     the right end of the output by default, if you wish to count from
     the left, supply a negative 'bytes_per_sep' value.

          >>> import binascii
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef')
          b'b901ef'
          >>> binascii.hexlify(b'\xb9\x01\xef', '-')
          b'b9-01-ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b'_', 2)
          b'b9_01ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b' ', -2)
          b'b901 ef'

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'sep' and 'bytes_per_sep' parameters
     were added.

 -- Işlevi: binascii.a2b_hex (hexstr)
 -- Işlevi: binascii.unhexlify (hexstr)

     Return the binary data represented by the hexadecimal string
     'hexstr'.  This function is the inverse of *note b2a_hex(): 2202.
     'hexstr' must contain an even number of hexadecimal digits (which
     can be upper or lower case), otherwise an *note Error: ece.
     exception is raised.

     Similar functionality (accepting only text string arguments, but
     more liberal towards whitespace) is also accessible using the *note
     bytes.fromhex(): 95d. class method.

 -- Özel Durum: binascii.Error

     Exception raised on errors.  These are usually programming errors.

 -- Özel Durum: binascii.Incomplete

     Exception raised on incomplete data.  These are usually not
     programming errors, but may be handled by reading a little more
     data and trying again.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note base64: e.

     Support for RFC compliant base64-style encoding in base 16, 32, 64,
     and 85.

Module *note uu: 10f.

     Support for UU encoding used on Unix.

Module *note quopri: b6.

     Support for quoted-printable encoding used in MIME email messages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data,  Prev: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.19.7 ‘quopri’ — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/quopri.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module performs quoted-printable transport encoding and decoding,
as defined in RFC 1521(2): “MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of
Internet Message Bodies”.  The quoted-printable encoding is designed for
data where there are relatively few nonprintable characters; the base64
encoding scheme available via the *note base64: e. module is more
compact if there are many such characters, as when sending a graphics
file.

 -- Işlevi: quopri.decode (input, output, header=False)

     Decode the contents of the 'input' file and write the resulting
     decoded binary data to the 'output' file.  'input' and 'output'
     must be *note binary file objects: 1068.  If the optional argument
     'header' is present and true, underscore will be decoded as space.
     This is used to decode “Q”-encoded headers as described in RFC
     1522(3): “MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part Two:
     Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text”.

 -- Işlevi: quopri.encode (input, output, quotetabs, header=False)

     Encode the contents of the 'input' file and write the resulting
     quoted-printable data to the 'output' file.  'input' and 'output'
     must be *note binary file objects: 1068.  'quotetabs', a
     non-optional flag which controls whether to encode embedded spaces
     and tabs; when true it encodes such embedded whitespace, and when
     false it leaves them unencoded.  Note that spaces and tabs
     appearing at the end of lines are always encoded, as per RFC
     1521(4).  'header' is a flag which controls if spaces are encoded
     as underscores as per RFC 1522(5).

 -- Işlevi: quopri.decodestring (s, header=False)

     Like *note decode(): 2205, except that it accepts a source *note
     bytes: 2cb. and returns the corresponding decoded *note bytes: 2cb.

 -- Işlevi: quopri.encodestring (s, quotetabs=False, header=False)

     Like *note encode(): 2204, except that it accepts a source *note
     bytes: 2cb. and returns the corresponding encoded *note bytes: 2cb.
     By default, it sends a ‘False’ value to 'quotetabs' parameter of
     the *note encode(): 2204. function.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note base64: e.

     Encode and decode MIME base64 data

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/quopri.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Next: Internet Protocols and Support,  Prev: Internet Data Handling,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.20 Structured Markup Processing Tools
=======================================

Python supports a variety of modules to work with various forms of
structured data markup.  This includes modules to work with the Standard
Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and the Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML), and several interfaces for working with the Extensible Markup
Language (XML).

* Menu:

* html — HyperText Markup Language support::
* html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
* html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
* XML Processing Modules::
* xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API.
* xml.dom — The Document Object Model API: xml dom — The Document Object Model API.
* xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
* xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
* xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
* xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
* xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
* xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.


File: python.info,  Node: html — HyperText Markup Language support,  Next: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.1 ‘html’ — HyperText Markup Language support
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines utilities to manipulate HTML.

 -- Işlevi: html.escape (s, quote=True)

     Convert the characters ‘&’, ‘<’ and ‘>’ in string 's' to HTML-safe
     sequences.  Use this if you need to display text that might contain
     such characters in HTML. If the optional flag 'quote' is true, the
     characters (‘"’) and (‘'’) are also translated; this helps for
     inclusion in an HTML attribute value delimited by quotes, as in ‘<a
     href="...">’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: html.unescape (s)

     Convert all named and numeric character references (e.g.  ‘&gt;’,
     ‘&#62;’, ‘&#x3e;’) in the string 's' to the corresponding Unicode
     characters.  This function uses the rules defined by the HTML 5
     standard for both valid and invalid character references, and the
     *note list of HTML 5 named character references: f75.

     Added in version 3.4.

__________________________________________________________________

Submodules in the ‘html’ package are:

   * *note html.parser: 6b. – HTML/XHTML parser with lenient parsing
     mode

   * *note html.entities: 6a. – HTML entity definitions

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/html/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Next: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities,  Prev: html — HyperText Markup Language support,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.2 ‘html.parser’ — Simple HTML and XHTML parser
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a class *note HTMLParser: 6bc. which serves as the
basis for parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up
Language) and XHTML.

 -- Sınıfı: html.parser.HTMLParser (*, convert_charrefs=True)

     Create a parser instance able to parse invalid markup.

     If 'convert_charrefs' is ‘True’ (the default), all character
     references (except the ones in ‘script’/‘style’ elements) are
     automatically converted to the corresponding Unicode characters.

     An *note HTMLParser: 6bc. instance is fed HTML data and calls
     handler methods when start tags, end tags, text, comments, and
     other markup elements are encountered.  The user should subclass
     *note HTMLParser: 6bc. and override its methods to implement the
     desired behavior.

     This parser does not check that end tags match start tags or call
     the end-tag handler for elements which are closed implicitly by
     closing an outer element.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: 'convert_charrefs' keyword argument added.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The default value for argument
     'convert_charrefs' is now ‘True’.

* Menu:

* Example HTML Parser Application::
* HTMLParser Methods::
* Examples: Examples<23>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/html/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: Example HTML Parser Application,  Next: HTMLParser Methods,  Up: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.20.2.1 Example HTML Parser Application
........................................

As a basic example, below is a simple HTML parser that uses the *note
HTMLParser: 6bc. class to print out start tags, end tags, and data as
they are encountered:

     from html.parser import HTMLParser

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Encountered a start tag:", tag)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("Encountered an end tag :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Encountered some data  :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()
     parser.feed('<html><head><title>Test</title></head>'
                 '<body><h1>Parse me!</h1></body></html>')

The output will then be:

     Encountered a start tag: html
     Encountered a start tag: head
     Encountered a start tag: title
     Encountered some data  : Test
     Encountered an end tag : title
     Encountered an end tag : head
     Encountered a start tag: body
     Encountered a start tag: h1
     Encountered some data  : Parse me!
     Encountered an end tag : h1
     Encountered an end tag : body
     Encountered an end tag : html


File: python.info,  Node: HTMLParser Methods,  Next: Examples<23>,  Prev: Example HTML Parser Application,  Up: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.20.2.2 ‘HTMLParser’ Methods
.............................

*note HTMLParser: 6bc. instances have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.feed (data)

     Feed some text to the parser.  It is processed insofar as it
     consists of complete elements; incomplete data is buffered until
     more data is fed or *note close(): 13e0. is called.  'data' must be
     *note str: 15d.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.close ()

     Force processing of all buffered data as if it were followed by an
     end-of-file mark.  This method may be redefined by a derived class
     to define additional processing at the end of the input, but the
     redefined version should always call the *note HTMLParser: 6bc.
     base class method *note close(): 13e0.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.reset ()

     Reset the instance.  Loses all unprocessed data.  This is called
     implicitly at instantiation time.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.getpos ()

     Return current line number and offset.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.get_starttag_text ()

     Return the text of the most recently opened start tag.  This should
     not normally be needed for structured processing, but may be useful
     in dealing with HTML “as deployed” or for re-generating input with
     minimal changes (whitespace between attributes can be preserved,
     etc.).

The following methods are called when data or markup elements are
encountered and they are meant to be overridden in a subclass.  The base
class implementations do nothing (except for *note handle_startendtag():
34a0.):

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_starttag (tag, attrs)

     This method is called to handle the start tag of an element (e.g.
     ‘<div id="main">’).

     The 'tag' argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case.
     The 'attrs' argument is a list of ‘(name, value)’ pairs containing
     the attributes found inside the tag’s ‘<>’ brackets.  The 'name'
     will be translated to lower case, and quotes in the 'value' have
     been removed, and character and entity references have been
     replaced.

     For instance, for the tag ‘<A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">’, this
     method would be called as ‘handle_starttag('a', [('href',
     'https://www.cwi.nl/')])’.

     All entity references from *note html.entities: 6a. are replaced in
     the attribute values.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_endtag (tag)

     This method is called to handle the end tag of an element (e.g.
     ‘</div>’).

     The 'tag' argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_startendtag (tag, attrs)

     Similar to *note handle_starttag(): 34a1, but called when the
     parser encounters an XHTML-style empty tag (‘<img ... />’).  This
     method may be overridden by subclasses which require this
     particular lexical information; the default implementation simply
     calls *note handle_starttag(): 34a1. and *note handle_endtag():
     34a2.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_data (data)

     This method is called to process arbitrary data (e.g.  text nodes
     and the content of ‘<script>...</script>’ and
     ‘<style>...</style>’).

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_entityref (name)

     This method is called to process a named character reference of the
     form ‘&name;’ (e.g.  ‘&gt;’), where 'name' is a general entity
     reference (e.g.  ‘'gt'’).  This method is never called if
     'convert_charrefs' is ‘True’.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_charref (name)

     This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric
     character references of the form ‘&#NNN;’ and ‘&#xNNN;’.  For
     example, the decimal equivalent for ‘&gt;’ is ‘&#62;’, whereas the
     hexadecimal is ‘&#x3E;’; in this case the method will receive
     ‘'62'’ or ‘'x3E'’.  This method is never called if
     'convert_charrefs' is ‘True’.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_comment (data)

     This method is called when a comment is encountered (e.g.
     ‘<!--comment-->’).

     For example, the comment ‘<!-- comment -->’ will cause this method
     to be called with the argument ‘' comment '’.

     The content of Internet Explorer conditional comments (condcoms)
     will also be sent to this method, so, for ‘<!--[if IE
     9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]-->’, this method will receive
     ‘'[if IE 9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]'’.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_decl (decl)

     This method is called to handle an HTML doctype declaration (e.g.
     ‘<!DOCTYPE html>’).

     The 'decl' parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration
     inside the ‘<!...>’ markup (e.g.  ‘'DOCTYPE html'’).

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.handle_pi (data)

     Method called when a processing instruction is encountered.  The
     'data' parameter will contain the entire processing instruction.
     For example, for the processing instruction ‘<?proc color='red'>’,
     this method would be called as ‘handle_pi("proc color='red'")’.  It
     is intended to be overridden by a derived class; the base class
     implementation does nothing.

          Not: The *note HTMLParser: 6bc. class uses the SGML syntactic
          rules for processing instructions.  An XHTML processing
          instruction using the trailing ‘'?'’ will cause the ‘'?'’ to
          be included in 'data'.

 -- Yöntemi: HTMLParser.unknown_decl (data)

     This method is called when an unrecognized declaration is read by
     the parser.

     The 'data' parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration
     inside the ‘<![...]>’ markup.  It is sometimes useful to be
     overridden by a derived class.  The base class implementation does
     nothing.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<23>,  Prev: HTMLParser Methods,  Up: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.20.2.3 Examples
.................

The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate
more examples:

     from html.parser import HTMLParser
     from html.entities import name2codepoint

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Start tag:", tag)
             for attr in attrs:
                 print("     attr:", attr)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("End tag  :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Data     :", data)

         def handle_comment(self, data):
             print("Comment  :", data)

         def handle_entityref(self, name):
             c = chr(name2codepoint[name])
             print("Named ent:", c)

         def handle_charref(self, name):
             if name.startswith('x'):
                 c = chr(int(name[1:], 16))
             else:
                 c = chr(int(name))
             print("Num ent  :", c)

         def handle_decl(self, data):
             print("Decl     :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()

Parsing a doctype:

     >>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
     ...             '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
     Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"

Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title:

     >>> parser.feed('<img src="python-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
     Start tag: img
          attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png')
          attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo')
     >>>
     >>> parser.feed('<h1>Python</h1>')
     Start tag: h1
     Data     : Python
     End tag  : h1

The content of ‘script’ and ‘style’ elements is returned as is, without
further parsing:

     >>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
     Start tag: style
          attr: ('type', 'text/css')
     Data     : #python { color: green }
     End tag  : style

     >>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
     ...             'alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");</script>')
     Start tag: script
          attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
     Data     : alert("<strong>hello!</strong>");
     End tag  : script

Parsing comments:

     >>> parser.feed('<!-- a comment -->'
     ...             '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
     Comment  :  a comment
     Comment  : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]

Parsing named and numeric character references and converting them to
the correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to ‘'>'’):

     >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
     Named ent: >
     Num ent  : >
     Num ent  : >

Feeding incomplete chunks to *note feed(): 349c. works, but *note
handle_data(): 34a3. might be called more than once (unless
'convert_charrefs' is set to ‘True’):

     >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered ', 'text</s', 'pan>']:
     ...     parser.feed(chunk)
     ...
     Start tag: span
     Data     : buff
     Data     : ered
     Data     : text
     End tag  : span

Parsing invalid HTML (e.g.  unquoted attributes) also works:

     >>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
     Start tag: p
     Start tag: a
          attr: ('class', 'link')
          attr: ('href', '#main')
     Data     : tag soup
     End tag  : p
     End tag  : a


File: python.info,  Node: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities,  Next: XML Processing Modules,  Prev: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.3 ‘html.entities’ — Definitions of HTML general entities
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/entities.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines four dictionaries, *note html5: f75, *note
name2codepoint: 34ae, *note codepoint2name: 34af, and *note entitydefs:
34b0.

 -- Verisi: html.entities.html5

     A dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references (2) to the
     equivalent Unicode character(s), e.g.  ‘html5['gt;'] == '>'’.  Note
     that the trailing semicolon is included in the name (e.g.
     ‘'gt;'’), however some of the names are accepted by the standard
     even without the semicolon: in this case the name is present with
     and without the ‘';'’.  See also *note html.unescape(): 7b2.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: html.entities.entitydefs

     A dictionary mapping XHTML 1.0 entity definitions to their
     replacement text in ISO Latin-1.

 -- Verisi: html.entities.name2codepoint

     A dictionary that maps HTML4 entity names to the Unicode code
     points.

 -- Verisi: html.entities.codepoint2name

     A dictionary that maps Unicode code points to HTML4 entity names.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/html/entities.py

   (2) See
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/named-characters.html#named-character-references’


File: python.info,  Node: XML Processing Modules,  Next: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API,  Prev: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.4 XML Processing Modules
-----------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Python’s interfaces for processing XML are grouped in the ‘xml’ package.

     Uyarı: The XML modules are not secure against erroneous or
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see the *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4. and
     *note The defusedxml Package: 34b5. sections.

It is important to note that modules in the *note xml: 120. package
require that there be at least one SAX-compliant XML parser available.
The Expat parser is included with Python, so the *note
xml.parsers.expat: 126. module will always be available.

The documentation for the *note xml.dom: 121. and *note xml.sax: 129.
packages are the definition of the Python bindings for the DOM and SAX
interfaces.

The XML handling submodules are:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: the ElementTree API, a simple
     and lightweight XML processor

   * *note xml.dom: 121.: the DOM API definition

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.: a minimal DOM implementation

   * *note xml.dom.pulldom: 123.: support for building partial DOM trees

   * *note xml.sax: 129.: SAX2 base classes and convenience functions

   * *note xml.parsers.expat: 126.: the Expat parser binding

* Menu:

* XML vulnerabilities::
* The defusedxml Package::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/


File: python.info,  Node: XML vulnerabilities,  Next: The defusedxml Package,  Up: XML Processing Modules

5.20.4.1 XML vulnerabilities
............................

The XML processing modules are not secure against maliciously
constructed data.  An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out
denial of service attacks, access local files, generate network
connections to other machines, or circumvent firewalls.

The following table gives an overview of the known attacks and whether
the various modules are vulnerable to them.

kind                          sax                    etree                  minidom                pulldom                xmlrpc
                                                                                                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                          
billion laughs                'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
quadratic blowup              'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)       'Vulnerable' (1)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
external entity expansion     Safe (5)               Safe (2)               Safe (3)               Safe (5)               Safe (4)
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
DTD(1) retrieval              Safe (5)               Safe                   Safe                   Safe (5)               Safe
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
decompression bomb            Safe                   Safe                   Safe                   Safe                   'Vulnerable'
                                                                                                                          
                                                                                                                          
large tokens                  'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)       'Vulnerable' (6)
                                                                                                                          

  1. Expat 2.4.1 and newer is not vulnerable to the “billion laughs” and
     “quadratic blowup” vulnerabilities.  Items still listed as
     vulnerable due to potential reliance on system-provided libraries.
     Check ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’.

  2. *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. doesn’t expand external entities
     and raises a *note ParseError: 1120. when an entity occurs.

  3. *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. doesn’t expand external entities and
     simply returns the unexpanded entity verbatim.

  4. *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. doesn’t expand external entities and
     omits them.

  5. Since Python 3.7.1, external general entities are no longer
     processed by default.

  6. Expat 2.6.0 and newer is not vulnerable to denial of service
     through quadratic runtime caused by parsing large tokens.  Items
     still listed as vulnerable due to potential reliance on
     system-provided libraries.  Check ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’.

billion laughs / exponential entity expansion

     The Billion Laughs(2) attack – also known as exponential entity
     expansion – uses multiple levels of nested entities.  Each entity
     refers to another entity several times, and the final entity
     definition contains a small string.  The exponential expansion
     results in several gigabytes of text and consumes lots of memory
     and CPU time.

quadratic blowup entity expansion

     A quadratic blowup attack is similar to a Billion Laughs(3) attack;
     it abuses entity expansion, too.  Instead of nested entities it
     repeats one large entity with a couple of thousand chars over and
     over again.  The attack isn’t as efficient as the exponential case
     but it avoids triggering parser countermeasures that forbid deeply
     nested entities.

external entity expansion

     Entity declarations can contain more than just text for
     replacement.  They can also point to external resources or local
     files.  The XML parser accesses the resource and embeds the content
     into the XML document.

DTD(4) retrieval

     Some XML libraries like Python’s *note xml.dom.pulldom: 123.
     retrieve document type definitions from remote or local locations.
     The feature has similar implications as the external entity
     expansion issue.

decompression bomb

     Decompression bombs (aka ZIP bomb(5)) apply to all XML libraries
     that can parse compressed XML streams such as gzipped HTTP streams
     or LZMA-compressed files.  For an attacker it can reduce the amount
     of transmitted data by three magnitudes or more.

large tokens

     Expat needs to re-parse unfinished tokens; without the protection
     introduced in Expat 2.6.0, this can lead to quadratic runtime that
     can be used to cause denial of service in the application parsing
     XML. The issue is known as CVE 2023-52425(6).

The documentation for defusedxml(7) on PyPI has further information
about all known attack vectors with examples and references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (7) https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/


File: python.info,  Node: The defusedxml Package,  Prev: XML vulnerabilities,  Up: XML Processing Modules

5.20.4.2 The ‘defusedxml’ Package
.................................

defusedxml(1) is a pure Python package with modified subclasses of all
stdlib XML parsers that prevent any potentially malicious operation.
Use of this package is recommended for any server code that parses
untrusted XML data.  The package also ships with example exploits and
extended documentation on more XML exploits such as XPath injection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/defusedxml/


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API,  Next: xml dom — The Document Object Model API,  Prev: XML Processing Modules,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.5 ‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ — The ElementTree XML API
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module implements a simple and
efficient API for parsing and creating XML data.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: This module will use a fast implementation
whenever available.

3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module
is deprecated.

     Uyarı: The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module is not secure
     against maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse
     untrusted or unauthenticated data see *note XML vulnerabilities:
     34b4.

* Menu:

* Tutorial: Tutorial<2>.
* XPath support::
* Reference: Reference<3>.
* XInclude support::
* Reference: Reference<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial<2>,  Next: XPath support,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.1 Tutorial
.................

This is a short tutorial for using *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.
(‘ET’ in short).  The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks
and basic concepts of the module.

* Menu:

* XML tree and elements::
* Parsing XML::
* Pull API for non-blocking parsing::
* Finding interesting elements::
* Modifying an XML File::
* Building XML documents::
* Parsing XML with Namespaces::


File: python.info,  Node: XML tree and elements,  Next: Parsing XML,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.20.5.2 XML tree and elements
..............................

XML is an inherently hierarchical data format, and the most natural way
to represent it is with a tree.  ‘ET’ has two classes for this purpose -
*note ElementTree: 7a9. represents the whole XML document as a tree, and
*note Element: 247. represents a single node in this tree.  Interactions
with the whole document (reading and writing to/from files) are usually
done on the *note ElementTree: 7a9. level.  Interactions with a single
XML element and its sub-elements are done on the *note Element: 247.
level.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing XML,  Next: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Prev: XML tree and elements,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.20.5.3 Parsing XML
....................

We’ll be using the fictive ‘country_data.xml’ XML document as the sample
data for this section:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank>1</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank>4</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank>68</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

We can import this data by reading from a file:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
     tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml')
     root = tree.getroot()

Or directly from a string:

     root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string)

*note fromstring(): 34be. parses XML from a string directly into an
*note Element: 247, which is the root element of the parsed tree.  Other
parsing functions may create an *note ElementTree: 7a9.  Check the
documentation to be sure.

As an *note Element: 247, ‘root’ has a tag and a dictionary of
attributes:

     >>> root.tag
     'data'
     >>> root.attrib
     {}

It also has children nodes over which we can iterate:

     >>> for child in root:
     ...     print(child.tag, child.attrib)
     ...
     country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'}
     country {'name': 'Singapore'}
     country {'name': 'Panama'}

Children are nested, and we can access specific child nodes by index:

     >>> root[0][1].text
     '2008'

     Not: Not all elements of the XML input will end up as elements of
     the parsed tree.  Currently, this module skips over any XML
     comments, processing instructions, and document type declarations
     in the input.  Nevertheless, trees built using this module’s API
     rather than parsing from XML text can have comments and processing
     instructions in them; they will be included when generating XML
     output.  A document type declaration may be accessed by passing a
     custom *note TreeBuilder: 8b8. instance to the *note XMLParser:
     8b7. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Next: Finding interesting elements,  Prev: Parsing XML,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.20.5.4 Pull API for non-blocking parsing
..........................................

Most parsing functions provided by this module require the whole
document to be read at once before returning any result.  It is possible
to use an *note XMLParser: 8b7. and feed data into it incrementally, but
it is a push API that calls methods on a callback target, which is too
low-level and inconvenient for most needs.  Sometimes what the user
really wants is to be able to parse XML incrementally, without blocking
operations, while enjoying the convenience of fully constructed *note
Element: 247. objects.

The most powerful tool for doing this is *note XMLPullParser: e99.  It
does not require a blocking read to obtain the XML data, and is instead
fed with data incrementally with *note XMLPullParser.feed(): 34c0.
calls.  To get the parsed XML elements, call *note
XMLPullParser.read_events(): 34c1.  Here is an example:

     >>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end'])
     >>> parser.feed('<mytag>sometext')
     >>> list(parser.read_events())
     [('start', <Element 'mytag' at 0x7fa66db2be58>)]
     >>> parser.feed(' more text</mytag>')
     >>> for event, elem in parser.read_events():
     ...     print(event)
     ...     print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text)
     ...
     end
     mytag text= sometext more text

The obvious use case is applications that operate in a non-blocking
fashion where the XML data is being received from a socket or read
incrementally from some storage device.  In such cases, blocking reads
are unacceptable.

Because it’s so flexible, *note XMLPullParser: e99. can be inconvenient
to use for simpler use-cases.  If you don’t mind your application
blocking on reading XML data but would still like to have incremental
parsing capabilities, take a look at *note iterparse(): ebb.  It can be
useful when you’re reading a large XML document and don’t want to hold
it wholly in memory.

Where 'immediate' feedback through events is wanted, calling method
*note XMLPullParser.flush(): 148d. can help reduce delay; please make
sure to study the related security notes.


File: python.info,  Node: Finding interesting elements,  Next: Modifying an XML File,  Prev: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.20.5.5 Finding interesting elements
.....................................

*note Element: 247. has some useful methods that help iterate
recursively over all the sub-tree below it (its children, their
children, and so on).  For example, *note Element.iter(): 11fb.:

     >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'):
     ...     print(neighbor.attrib)
     ...
     {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'}
     {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'}
     {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'}

*note Element.findall(): 13f8. finds only elements with a tag which are
direct children of the current element.  *note Element.find(): 13f6.
finds the 'first' child with a particular tag, and *note Element.text:
34c3. accesses the element’s text content.  *note Element.get(): 34c4.
accesses the element’s attributes:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     rank = country.find('rank').text
     ...     name = country.get('name')
     ...     print(name, rank)
     ...
     Liechtenstein 1
     Singapore 4
     Panama 68

More sophisticated specification of which elements to look for is
possible by using *note XPath: a24.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifying an XML File,  Next: Building XML documents,  Prev: Finding interesting elements,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.20.5.6 Modifying an XML File
..............................

*note ElementTree: 7a9. provides a simple way to build XML documents and
write them to files.  The *note ElementTree.write(): e9d. method serves
this purpose.

Once created, an *note Element: 247. object may be manipulated by
directly changing its fields (such as *note Element.text: 34c3.), adding
and modifying attributes (*note Element.set(): 34c6. method), as well as
adding new children (for example with *note Element.append(): 34c7.).

Let’s say we want to add one to each country’s rank, and add an
‘updated’ attribute to the rank element:

     >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'):
     ...     new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1
     ...     rank.text = str(new_rank)
     ...     rank.set('updated', 'yes')
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

Our XML now looks like this:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank updated="yes">69</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

We can remove elements using *note Element.remove(): 13fa.  Let’s say we
want to remove all countries with a rank higher than 50:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     # using root.findall() to avoid removal during traversal
     ...     rank = int(country.find('rank').text)
     ...     if rank > 50:
     ...         root.remove(country)
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

Note that concurrent modification while iterating can lead to problems,
just like when iterating and modifying Python lists or dicts.
Therefore, the example first collects all matching elements with
‘root.findall()’, and only then iterates over the list of matches.

Our XML now looks like this:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
     </data>


File: python.info,  Node: Building XML documents,  Next: Parsing XML with Namespaces,  Prev: Modifying an XML File,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.20.5.7 Building XML documents
...............................

The *note SubElement(): 34c9. function also provides a convenient way to
create new sub-elements for a given element:

     >>> a = ET.Element('a')
     >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b')
     >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c')
     >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd')
     >>> ET.dump(a)
     <a><b /><c><d /></c></a>


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing XML with Namespaces,  Prev: Building XML documents,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.20.5.8 Parsing XML with Namespaces
....................................

If the XML input has namespaces(1), tags and attributes with prefixes in
the form ‘prefix:sometag’ get expanded to ‘{uri}sometag’ where the
'prefix' is replaced by the full 'URI'. Also, if there is a default
namespace(2), that full URI gets prepended to all of the non-prefixed
tags.

Here is an XML example that incorporates two namespaces, one with the
prefix “fictional” and the other serving as the default namespace:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <actors xmlns:fictional="http://characters.example.com"
             xmlns="http://people.example.com">
         <actor>
             <name>John Cleese</name>
             <fictional:character>Lancelot</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Archie Leach</fictional:character>
         </actor>
         <actor>
             <name>Eric Idle</name>
             <fictional:character>Sir Robin</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Gunther</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Commander Clement</fictional:character>
         </actor>
     </actors>

One way to search and explore this XML example is to manually add the
URI to every tag or attribute in the xpath of a *note find(): 13f6. or
*note findall(): 13f8.:

     root = fromstring(xml_text)
     for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'):
         name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name')
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

A better way to search the namespaced XML example is to create a
dictionary with your own prefixes and use those in the search functions:

     ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com',
           'role': 'http://characters.example.com'}

     for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns):
         name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns)
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

These two approaches both output:

     John Cleese
      |--> Lancelot
      |--> Archie Leach
     Eric Idle
      |--> Sir Robin
      |--> Gunther
      |--> Commander Clement

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_namespace

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting


File: python.info,  Node: XPath support,  Next: Reference<3>,  Prev: Tutorial<2>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.9 XPath support
......................

This module provides limited support for XPath expressions(1) for
locating elements in a tree.  The goal is to support a small subset of
the abbreviated syntax; a full XPath engine is outside the scope of the
module.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<8>.
* Supported XPath syntax::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath


File: python.info,  Node: Example<8>,  Next: Supported XPath syntax,  Up: XPath support

5.20.5.10 Example
.................

Here’s an example that demonstrates some of the XPath capabilities of
the module.  We’ll be using the ‘countrydata’ XML document from the
*note Parsing XML: 34bc. section:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET

     root = ET.fromstring(countrydata)

     # Top-level elements
     root.findall(".")

     # All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level
     # elements
     root.findall("./country/neighbor")

     # Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child
     root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']")

     # 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore'
     root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year")

     # All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent
     root.findall(".//neighbor[2]")

For XML with namespaces, use the usual qualified ‘{namespace}tag’
notation:

     # All dublin-core "title" tags in the document
     root.findall(".//{http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/}title")


File: python.info,  Node: Supported XPath syntax,  Prev: Example<8>,  Up: XPath support

5.20.5.11 Supported XPath syntax
................................

Syntax                      Meaning
                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
‘tag’                       Selects all child elements with the given tag.  For
                            example, ‘spam’ selects all child elements named ‘spam’,
                            and ‘spam/egg’ selects all grandchildren named ‘egg’ in
                            all children named ‘spam’.  ‘{namespace}*’ selects all
                            tags in the given namespace, ‘{*}spam’ selects tags
                            named ‘spam’ in any (or no) namespace, and ‘{}*’ only
                            selects tags that are not in a namespace.
                            
                            3.8 sürümünde değişti: Support for star-wildcards was
                            added.
                            
                            
‘*’                         Selects all child elements, including comments and
                            processing instructions.  For example, ‘*/egg’ selects
                            all grandchildren named ‘egg’.
                            
                            
‘.’                         Selects the current node.  This is mostly useful at the
                            beginning of the path, to indicate that it’s a relative
                            path.
                            
                            
‘//’                        Selects all subelements, on all levels beneath the
                            current element.  For example, ‘.//egg’ selects all
                            ‘egg’ elements in the entire tree.
                            
                            
‘..’                        Selects the parent element.  Returns ‘None’ if the path
                            attempts to reach the ancestors of the start element
                            (the element ‘find’ was called on).
                            
                            
‘[@attrib]’                 Selects all elements that have the given attribute.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib='value']’         Selects all elements for which the given attribute has
                            the given value.  The value cannot contain quotes.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib!='value']’        Selects all elements for which the given attribute does
                            not have the given value.  The value cannot contain
                            quotes.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag]’                     Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’.
                            Only immediate children are supported.
                            
                            
‘[.='text']’                Selects all elements whose complete text content,
                            including descendants, equals the given ‘text’.
                            
                            Added in version 3.7.
                            
                            
‘[.!='text']’               Selects all elements whose complete text content,
                            including descendants, does not equal the given ‘text’.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag='text']’              Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose
                            complete text content, including descendants, equals the
                            given ‘text’.
                            
                            
‘[tag!='text']’             Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose
                            complete text content, including descendants, does not
                            equal the given ‘text’.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[position]’                Selects all elements that are located at the given
                            position.  The position can be either an integer (1 is
                            the first position), the expression ‘last()’ (for the
                            last position), or a position relative to the last
                            position (e.g.  ‘last()-1’).
                            

Predicates (expressions within square brackets) must be preceded by a
tag name, an asterisk, or another predicate.  ‘position’ predicates must
be preceded by a tag name.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<3>,  Next: XInclude support,  Prev: XPath support,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.12 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<7>,  Up: Reference<3>

5.20.5.13 Functions
...................

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize (xml_data=None, *,
          out=None, from_file=None, **options)

     C14N 2.0(1) transformation function.

     Canonicalization is a way to normalise XML output in a way that
     allows byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures.  It reduces
     the freedom that XML serializers have and instead generates a more
     constrained XML representation.  The main restrictions regard the
     placement of namespace declarations, the ordering of attributes,
     and ignorable whitespace.

     This function takes an XML data string ('xml_data') or a file path
     or file-like object ('from_file') as input, converts it to the
     canonical form, and writes it out using the 'out' file(-like)
     object, if provided, or returns it as a text string if not.  The
     output file receives text, not bytes.  It should therefore be
     opened in text mode with ‘utf-8’ encoding.

     Typical uses:

          xml_data = "<root>...</root>"
          print(canonicalize(xml_data))

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(xml_data, out=out_file)

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(from_file="inputfile.xml", out=out_file)

     The configuration 'options' are as follows:

        - 'with_comments': set to true to include comments (default:
          false)

        - 
          'strip_text': set to true to strip whitespace before and after text content

               (default: false)

        - 
          'rewrite_prefixes': set to true to replace namespace prefixes by “n{number}”

               (default: false)

        - 
          'qname_aware_tags': a set of qname aware tag names in which prefixes

               should be replaced in text content (default: empty)

        - 
          'qname_aware_attrs': a set of qname aware attribute names in which prefixes

               should be replaced in text content (default: empty)

        - 'exclude_attrs': a set of attribute names that should not be
          serialised

        - 'exclude_tags': a set of tag names that should not be
          serialised

     In the option list above, “a set” refers to any collection or
     iterable of strings, no ordering is expected.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment (text=None)

     Comment element factory.  This factory function creates a special
     element that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard
     serializer.  The comment string can be either a bytestring or a
     Unicode string.  'text' is a string containing the comment string.
     Returns an element instance representing a comment.

     Note that *note XMLParser: 8b7. skips over comments in the input
     instead of creating comment objects for them.  An *note
     ElementTree: 7a9. will only contain comment nodes if they have been
     inserted into to the tree using one of the *note Element: 247.
     methods.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.dump (elem)

     Writes an element tree or element structure to sys.stdout.  This
     function should be used for debugging only.

     The exact output format is implementation dependent.  In this
     version, it’s written as an ordinary XML file.

     'elem' is an element tree or an individual element.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note dump(): 34d3. function now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant.  Same as *note XML():
     34d4.  'text' is a string containing XML data.  'parser' is an
     optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard *note
     XMLParser: 8b7. parser is used.  Returns an *note Element: 247.
     instance.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist (sequence, parser=None)

     Parses an XML document from a sequence of string fragments.
     'sequence' is a list or other sequence containing XML data
     fragments.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If not given,
     the standard *note XMLParser: 8b7. parser is used.  Returns an
     *note Element: 247. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.indent (tree, space=' ', level=0)

     Appends whitespace to the subtree to indent the tree visually.
     This can be used to generate pretty-printed XML output.  'tree' can
     be an Element or ElementTree.  'space' is the whitespace string
     that will be inserted for each indentation level, two space
     characters by default.  For indenting partial subtrees inside of an
     already indented tree, pass the initial indentation level as
     'level'.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement (element)

     Check if an object appears to be a valid element object.  'element'
     is an element instance.  Return ‘True’ if this is an element
     object.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse (source, events=None,
          parser=None)

     Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and
     reports what’s going on to the user.  'source' is a filename or
     *note file object: 1068. containing XML data.  'events' is a
     sequence of events to report back.  The supported events are the
     strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and
     ‘"end-ns"’ (the “ns” events are used to get detailed namespace
     information).  If 'events' is omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are
     reported.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If not given,
     the standard *note XMLParser: 8b7. parser is used.  'parser' must
     be a subclass of *note XMLParser: 8b7. and can only use the default
     *note TreeBuilder: 8b8. as a target.  Returns an *note iterator:
     176e. providing ‘(event, elem)’ pairs; it has a ‘root’ attribute
     that references the root element of the resulting XML tree once
     'source' is fully read.

     Note that while *note iterparse(): ebb. builds the tree
     incrementally, it issues blocking reads on 'source' (or the file it
     names).  As such, it’s unsuitable for applications where blocking
     reads can’t be made.  For fully non-blocking parsing, see *note
     XMLPullParser: e99.

          Not: *note iterparse(): ebb. only guarantees that it has seen
          the “>” character of a starting tag when it emits a “start”
          event, so the attributes are defined, but the contents of the
          text and tail attributes are undefined at that point.  The
          same applies to the element children; they may or may not be
          present.

          If you need a fully populated element, look for “end” events
          instead.

     3.4 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The 'parser' argument.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The ‘comment’ and ‘pi’ events were added.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.parse (source, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section into an element tree.  'source' is a filename
     or file object containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser
     instance.  If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: 8b7. parser
     is used.  Returns an *note ElementTree: 7a9. instance.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction (target,
          text=None)

     PI element factory.  This factory function creates a special
     element that will be serialized as an XML processing instruction.
     'target' is a string containing the PI target.  'text' is a string
     containing the PI contents, if given.  Returns an element instance,
     representing a processing instruction.

     Note that *note XMLParser: 8b7. skips over processing instructions
     in the input instead of creating PI objects for them.  An *note
     ElementTree: 7a9. will only contain processing instruction nodes if
     they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the *note
     Element: 247. methods.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace (prefix, uri)

     Registers a namespace prefix.  The registry is global, and any
     existing mapping for either the given prefix or the namespace URI
     will be removed.  'prefix' is a namespace prefix.  'uri' is a
     namespace uri.  Tags and attributes in this namespace will be
     serialized with the given prefix, if at all possible.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement (parent, tag, attrib={},
          **extra)

     Subelement factory.  This function creates an element instance, and
     appends it to an existing element.

     The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be
     either bytestrings or Unicode strings.  'parent' is the parent
     element.  'tag' is the subelement name.  'attrib' is an optional
     dictionary, containing element attributes.  'extra' contains
     additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.  Returns an
     element instance.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
     subelements.  'element' is an *note Element: 247. instance.
     'encoding' (2) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use
     ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a
     bytestring is generated).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or
     ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration',
     'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning
     as in *note ElementTree.write(): e9d.  Returns an (optionally)
     encoded string containing the XML data.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'xml_declaration' and
     'default_namespace' parameters.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note tostring(): e9b. function now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
     subelements.  'element' is an *note Element: 247. instance.
     'encoding' (3) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use
     ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a
     bytestring is generated).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or
     ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration',
     'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning
     as in *note ElementTree.write(): e9d.  Returns a list of
     (optionally) encoded strings containing the XML data.  It does not
     guarantee any specific sequence, except that
     ‘b"".join(tostringlist(element)) == tostring(element)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'xml_declaration' and
     'default_namespace' parameters.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note tostringlist(): e9c. function now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.XML (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant.  This function can be
     used to embed “XML literals” in Python code.  'text' is a string
     containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If
     not given, the standard *note XMLParser: 8b7. parser is used.
     Returns an *note Element: 247. instance.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant, and also returns a
     dictionary which maps from element id:s to elements.  'text' is a
     string containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser
     instance.  If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: 8b7. parser
     is used.  Returns a tuple containing an *note Element: 247.
     instance and a dictionary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/

   (2) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (3) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: XInclude support,  Next: Reference<4>,  Prev: Reference<3>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.14 XInclude support
..........................

This module provides limited support for XInclude directives(1), via the
*note xml.etree.ElementInclude: 124. helper module.  This module can be
used to insert subtrees and text strings into element trees, based on
information in the tree.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xinclude/


File: python.info,  Node: Example<9>,  Up: XInclude support

5.20.5.15 Example
.................

Here’s an example that demonstrates use of the XInclude module.  To
include an XML document in the current document, use the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element and set the 'parse'
attribute to ‘"xml"’, and use the 'href' attribute to specify the
document to include.

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <xi:include href="source.xml" parse="xml" />
     </document>

By default, the 'href' attribute is treated as a file name.  You can use
custom loaders to override this behaviour.  Also note that the standard
helper does not support XPointer syntax.

To process this file, load it as usual, and pass the root element to the
*note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree, ElementInclude

     tree = ElementTree.parse("document.xml")
     root = tree.getroot()

     ElementInclude.include(root)

The ElementInclude module replaces the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element with the root element
from the 'source.xml' document.  The result might look something like
this:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <para>This is a paragraph.</para>
     </document>

If the 'parse' attribute is omitted, it defaults to “xml”.  The href
attribute is required.

To include a text document, use the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element, and set the 'parse'
attribute to “text”:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) <xi:include href="year.txt" parse="text" />.
     </document>

The result might look something like:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) 2003.
     </document>


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<4>,  Prev: XInclude support,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.20.5.16 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<8>.
* Element Objects::
* ElementTree Objects::
* QName Objects::
* TreeBuilder Objects::
* XMLParser Objects::
* XMLPullParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<8>,  Next: Element Objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.17 Functions
...................

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementInclude.default_loader (href, parse,
          encoding=None)

     Default loader.  This default loader reads an included resource
     from disk.  'href' is a URL. 'parse' is for parse mode either “xml”
     or “text”.  'encoding' is an optional text encoding.  If not given,
     encoding is ‘utf-8’.  Returns the expanded resource.  If the parse
     mode is ‘"xml"’, this is an *note Element: 247. instance.  If the
     parse mode is ‘"text"’, this is a string.  If the loader fails, it
     can return ‘None’ or raise an exception.

 -- Işlevi: xml.etree.ElementInclude.include (elem, loader=None,
          base_url=None, max_depth=6)

     This function expands XInclude directives in-place in tree pointed
     by 'elem'.  'elem' is either the root *note Element: 247. or an
     *note ElementTree: 7a9. instance to find such element.  'loader' is
     an optional resource loader.  If omitted, it defaults to *note
     default_loader(): 34e0.  If given, it should be a callable that
     implements the same interface as *note default_loader(): 34e0.
     'base_url' is base URL of the original file, to resolve relative
     include file references.  'max_depth' is the maximum number of
     recursive inclusions.  Limited to reduce the risk of malicious
     content explosion.  Pass ‘None’ to disable the limitation.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'base_url' and 'max_depth'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Element Objects,  Next: ElementTree Objects,  Prev: Functions<8>,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.18 Element Objects
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.Element (tag, attrib={}, **extra)

     Element class.  This class defines the Element interface, and
     provides a reference implementation of this interface.

     The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be
     either bytestrings or Unicode strings.  'tag' is the element name.
     'attrib' is an optional dictionary, containing element attributes.
     'extra' contains additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.

      -- Özniteliği: tag

          A string identifying what kind of data this element represents
          (the element type, in other words).

      -- Özniteliği: text
      -- Özniteliği: tail

          These attributes can be used to hold additional data
          associated with the element.  Their values are usually strings
          but may be any application-specific object.  If the element is
          created from an XML file, the 'text' attribute holds either
          the text between the element’s start tag and its first child
          or end tag, or ‘None’, and the 'tail' attribute holds either
          the text between the element’s end tag and the next tag, or
          ‘None’.  For the XML data

               <a><b>1<c>2<d/>3</c></b>4</a>

          the 'a' element has ‘None’ for both 'text' and 'tail'
          attributes, the 'b' element has 'text' ‘"1"’ and 'tail' ‘"4"’,
          the 'c' element has 'text' ‘"2"’ and 'tail' ‘None’, and the
          'd' element has 'text' ‘None’ and 'tail' ‘"3"’.

          To collect the inner text of an element, see *note itertext():
          107a, for example ‘"".join(element.itertext())’.

          Applications may store arbitrary objects in these attributes.

      -- Özniteliği: attrib

          A dictionary containing the element’s attributes.  Note that
          while the 'attrib' value is always a real mutable Python
          dictionary, an ElementTree implementation may choose to use
          another internal representation, and create the dictionary
          only if someone asks for it.  To take advantage of such
          implementations, use the dictionary methods below whenever
          possible.

     The following dictionary-like methods work on the element
     attributes.

      -- Yöntemi: clear ()

          Resets an element.  This function removes all subelements,
          clears all attributes, and sets the text and tail attributes
          to ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: get (key, default=None)

          Gets the element attribute named 'key'.

          Returns the attribute value, or 'default' if the attribute was
          not found.

      -- Yöntemi: items ()

          Returns the element attributes as a sequence of (name, value)
          pairs.  The attributes are returned in an arbitrary order.

      -- Yöntemi: keys ()

          Returns the elements attribute names as a list.  The names are
          returned in an arbitrary order.

      -- Yöntemi: set (key, value)

          Set the attribute 'key' on the element to 'value'.

     The following methods work on the element’s children (subelements).

      -- Yöntemi: append (subelement)

          Adds the element 'subelement' to the end of this element’s
          internal list of subelements.  Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if
          'subelement' is not an *note Element: 247.

      -- Yöntemi: extend (subelements)

          Appends 'subelements' from an iterable of elements.  Raises
          *note TypeError: 2c4. if a subelement is not an *note Element:
          247.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds the first subelement matching 'match'.  'match' may be a
          tag name or a *note path: a24.  Returns an element instance or
          ‘None’.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from namespace
          prefix to full name.  Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move all
          unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given
          namespace.

      -- Yöntemi: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path:
          a24.  Returns a list containing all matching elements in
          document order.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from
          namespace prefix to full name.  Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move
          all unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given
          namespace.

      -- Yöntemi: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Finds text for the first subelement matching 'match'.  'match'
          may be a tag name or a *note path: a24.  Returns the text
          content of the first matching element, or 'default' if no
          element was found.  Note that if the matching element has no
          text content an empty string is returned.  'namespaces' is an
          optional mapping from namespace prefix to full name.  Pass
          ‘''’ as prefix to move all unprefixed tag names in the
          expression into the given namespace.

      -- Yöntemi: insert (index, subelement)

          Inserts 'subelement' at the given position in this element.
          Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if 'subelement' is not an *note
          Element: 247.

      -- Yöntemi: iter (tag=None)

          Creates a tree *note iterator: 176e. with the current element
          as the root.  The iterator iterates over this element and all
          elements below it, in document (depth first) order.  If 'tag'
          is not ‘None’ or ‘'*'’, only elements whose tag equals 'tag'
          are returned from the iterator.  If the tree structure is
          modified during iteration, the result is undefined.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path:
          a24.  Returns an iterable yielding all matching elements in
          document order.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from
          namespace prefix to full name.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: itertext ()

          Creates a text iterator.  The iterator loops over this element
          and all subelements, in document order, and returns all inner
          text.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: makeelement (tag, attrib)

          Creates a new element object of the same type as this element.
          Do not call this method, use the *note SubElement(): 34c9.
          factory function instead.

      -- Yöntemi: remove (subelement)

          Removes 'subelement' from the element.  Unlike the find*
          methods this method compares elements based on the instance
          identity, not on tag value or contents.

     *note Element: 247. objects also support the following sequence
     type methods for working with subelements: *note __delitem__():
     1175, *note __getitem__(): 500, *note __setitem__(): 1174, *note
     __len__(): 1d50.

     Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ‘False’.  In a
     future release of Python, all elements will test as ‘True’
     regardless of whether subelements exist.  Instead, prefer explicit
     ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests.:

          element = root.find('foo')

          if not element:  # careful!
              print("element not found, or element has no subelements")

          if element is None:
              print("element not found")

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Testing the truth value of an Element emits
     *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.

     Prior to Python 3.8, the serialisation order of the XML attributes
     of elements was artificially made predictable by sorting the
     attributes by their name.  Based on the now guaranteed ordering of
     dicts, this arbitrary reordering was removed in Python 3.8 to
     preserve the order in which attributes were originally parsed or
     created by user code.

     In general, user code should try not to depend on a specific
     ordering of attributes, given that the XML Information Set(1)
     explicitly excludes the attribute order from conveying information.
     Code should be prepared to deal with any ordering on input.  In
     cases where deterministic XML output is required, e.g.  for
     cryptographic signing or test data sets, canonical serialisation is
     available with the *note canonicalize(): 34d1. function.

     In cases where canonical output is not applicable but a specific
     attribute order is still desirable on output, code should aim for
     creating the attributes directly in the desired order, to avoid
     perceptual mismatches for readers of the code.  In cases where this
     is difficult to achieve, a recipe like the following can be applied
     prior to serialisation to enforce an order independently from the
     Element creation:

          def reorder_attributes(root):
              for el in root.iter():
                  attrib = el.attrib
                  if len(attrib) > 1:
                      # adjust attribute order, e.g. by sorting
                      attribs = sorted(attrib.items())
                      attrib.clear()
                      attrib.update(attribs)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/


File: python.info,  Node: ElementTree Objects,  Next: QName Objects,  Prev: Element Objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.19 ElementTree Objects
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree (element=None, file=None)

     ElementTree wrapper class.  This class represents an entire element
     hierarchy, and adds some extra support for serialization to and
     from standard XML.

     'element' is the root element.  The tree is initialized with the
     contents of the XML 'file' if given.

      -- Yöntemi: _setroot (element)

          Replaces the root element for this tree.  This discards the
          current contents of the tree, and replaces it with the given
          element.  Use with care.  'element' is an element instance.

      -- Yöntemi: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.find(): 13f6, starting at the root of
          the tree.

      -- Yöntemi: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.findall(): 13f8, starting at the root of
          the tree.

      -- Yöntemi: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.findtext(): 13f7, starting at the root
          of the tree.

      -- Yöntemi: getroot ()

          Returns the root element for this tree.

      -- Yöntemi: iter (tag=None)

          Creates and returns a tree iterator for the root element.  The
          iterator loops over all elements in this tree, in section
          order.  'tag' is the tag to look for (default is to return all
          elements).

      -- Yöntemi: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.iterfind(): 1079, starting at the root
          of the tree.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: parse (source, parser=None)

          Loads an external XML section into this element tree.
          'source' is a file name or *note file object: 1068.  'parser'
          is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
          *note XMLParser: 8b7. parser is used.  Returns the section
          root element.

      -- Yöntemi: write (file, encoding='us-ascii',
               xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None,
               method='xml', *, short_empty_elements=True)

          Writes the element tree to a file, as XML. 'file' is a file
          name, or a *note file object: 1068. opened for writing.
          'encoding' (1) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII).
          'xml_declaration' controls if an XML declaration should be
          added to the file.  Use ‘False’ for never, ‘True’ for always,
          ‘None’ for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default
          is ‘None’).  'default_namespace' sets the default XML
          namespace (for “xmlns”).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’
          or ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  The keyword-only
          'short_empty_elements' parameter controls the formatting of
          elements that contain no content.  If ‘True’ (the default),
          they are emitted as a single self-closed tag, otherwise they
          are emitted as a pair of start/end tags.

          The output is either a string (*note str: 15d.) or binary
          (*note bytes: 2cb.).  This is controlled by the 'encoding'
          argument.  If 'encoding' is ‘"unicode"’, the output is a
          string; otherwise, it’s binary.  Note that this may conflict
          with the type of 'file' if it’s an open *note file object:
          1068.; make sure you do not try to write a string to a binary
          stream and vice versa.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'short_empty_elements'
          parameter.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note write(): e9d. method now
          preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

This is the XML file that is going to be manipulated:

     <html>
         <head>
             <title>Example page</title>
         </head>
         <body>
             <p>Moved to <a href="http://example.org/">example.org</a>
             or <a href="http://example.com/">example.com</a>.</p>
         </body>
     </html>

Example of changing the attribute “target” of every link in first
paragraph:

     >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree
     >>> tree = ElementTree()
     >>> tree.parse("index.xhtml")
     <Element 'html' at 0xb77e6fac>
     >>> p = tree.find("body/p")     # Finds first occurrence of tag p in body
     >>> p
     <Element 'p' at 0xb77ec26c>
     >>> links = list(p.iter("a"))   # Returns list of all links
     >>> links
     [<Element 'a' at 0xb77ec2ac>, <Element 'a' at 0xb77ec1cc>]
     >>> for i in links:             # Iterates through all found links
     ...     i.attrib["target"] = "blank"
     ...
     >>> tree.write("output.xhtml")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: QName Objects,  Next: TreeBuilder Objects,  Prev: ElementTree Objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.20 QName Objects
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.QName (text_or_uri, tag=None)

     QName wrapper.  This can be used to wrap a QName attribute value,
     in order to get proper namespace handling on output.  'text_or_uri'
     is a string containing the QName value, in the form {uri}local, or,
     if the tag argument is given, the URI part of a QName.  If 'tag' is
     given, the first argument is interpreted as a URI, and this
     argument is interpreted as a local name.  *note QName: 34f7.
     instances are opaque.


File: python.info,  Node: TreeBuilder Objects,  Next: XMLParser Objects,  Prev: QName Objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.21 TreeBuilder Objects
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder (element_factory=None, *,
          comment_factory=None, pi_factory=None, insert_comments=False,
          insert_pis=False)

     Generic element structure builder.  This builder converts a
     sequence of start, data, end, comment and pi method calls to a
     well-formed element structure.  You can use this class to build an
     element structure using a custom XML parser, or a parser for some
     other XML-like format.

     'element_factory', when given, must be a callable accepting two
     positional arguments: a tag and a dict of attributes.  It is
     expected to return a new element instance.

     The 'comment_factory' and 'pi_factory' functions, when given,
     should behave like the *note Comment(): 34d2. and *note
     ProcessingInstruction(): 34d8. functions to create comments and
     processing instructions.  When not given, the default factories
     will be used.  When 'insert_comments' and/or 'insert_pis' is true,
     comments/pis will be inserted into the tree if they appear within
     the root element (but not outside of it).

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Flushes the builder buffers, and returns the toplevel document
          element.  Returns an *note Element: 247. instance.

      -- Yöntemi: data (data)

          Adds text to the current element.  'data' is a string.  This
          should be either a bytestring, or a Unicode string.

      -- Yöntemi: end (tag)

          Closes the current element.  'tag' is the element name.
          Returns the closed element.

      -- Yöntemi: start (tag, attrs)

          Opens a new element.  'tag' is the element name.  'attrs' is a
          dictionary containing element attributes.  Returns the opened
          element.

      -- Yöntemi: comment (text)

          Creates a comment with the given 'text'.  If ‘insert_comments’
          is true, this will also add it to the tree.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: pi (target, text)

          Creates a process instruction with the given 'target' name and
          'text'.  If ‘insert_pis’ is true, this will also add it to the
          tree.

          Added in version 3.8.

     In addition, a custom *note TreeBuilder: 8b8. object can provide
     the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: doctype (name, pubid, system)

          Handles a doctype declaration.  'name' is the doctype name.
          'pubid' is the public identifier.  'system' is the system
          identifier.  This method does not exist on the default *note
          TreeBuilder: 8b8. class.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: start_ns (prefix, uri)

          Is called whenever the parser encounters a new namespace
          declaration, before the ‘start()’ callback for the opening
          element that defines it.  'prefix' is ‘''’ for the default
          namespace and the declared namespace prefix name otherwise.
          'uri' is the namespace URI.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: end_ns (prefix)

          Is called after the ‘end()’ callback of an element that
          declared a namespace prefix mapping, with the name of the
          'prefix' that went out of scope.

          Added in version 3.8.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.C14NWriterTarget (write, *,
          with_comments=False, strip_text=False, rewrite_prefixes=False,
          qname_aware_tags=None, qname_aware_attrs=None,
          exclude_attrs=None, exclude_tags=None)

     A C14N 2.0(1) writer.  Arguments are the same as for the *note
     canonicalize(): 34d1. function.  This class does not build a tree
     but translates the callback events directly into a serialised form
     using the 'write' function.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/


File: python.info,  Node: XMLParser Objects,  Next: XMLPullParser Objects,  Prev: TreeBuilder Objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.22 XMLParser Objects
...........................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser (*, target=None,
          encoding=None)

     This class is the low-level building block of the module.  It uses
     *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. for efficient, event-based parsing of
     XML. It can be fed XML data incrementally with the *note feed():
     3503. method, and parsing events are translated to a push API - by
     invoking callbacks on the 'target' object.  If 'target' is omitted,
     the standard *note TreeBuilder: 8b8. is used.  If 'encoding' (1) is
     given, the value overrides the encoding specified in the XML file.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Parameters are now *note keyword-only: 8ef.
     The 'html' argument is no longer supported.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Finishes feeding data to the parser.  Returns the result of
          calling the ‘close()’ method of the 'target' passed during
          construction; by default, this is the toplevel document
          element.

      -- Yöntemi: feed (data)

          Feeds data to the parser.  'data' is encoded data.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush():
          148c. temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if
          currently enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse
          deferral has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 148f.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 148c. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 148c. using *note hasattr():
          200. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          Added in version 3.12.3.

     *note XMLParser.feed(): 3503. calls 'target"s ‘start(tag,
     attrs_dict)’ method for each opening tag, its ‘end(tag)’ method for
     each closing tag, and data is processed by method ‘data(data)’.
     For further supported callback methods, see the *note TreeBuilder:
     8b8. class.  *note XMLParser.close(): 3504. calls 'target"s method
     ‘close()’.  *note XMLParser: 8b7. can be used not only for building
     a tree structure.  This is an example of counting the maximum depth
     of an XML file:

          >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser
          >>> class MaxDepth:                     # The target object of the parser
          ...     maxDepth = 0
          ...     depth = 0
          ...     def start(self, tag, attrib):   # Called for each opening tag.
          ...         self.depth += 1
          ...         if self.depth > self.maxDepth:
          ...             self.maxDepth = self.depth
          ...     def end(self, tag):             # Called for each closing tag.
          ...         self.depth -= 1
          ...     def data(self, data):
          ...         pass            # We do not need to do anything with data.
          ...     def close(self):    # Called when all data has been parsed.
          ...         return self.maxDepth
          ...
          >>> target = MaxDepth()
          >>> parser = XMLParser(target=target)
          >>> exampleXml = """
          ... <a>
          ...   <b>
          ...   </b>
          ...   <b>
          ...     <c>
          ...       <d>
          ...       </d>
          ...     </c>
          ...   </b>
          ... </a>"""
          >>> parser.feed(exampleXml)
          >>> parser.close()
          4

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: XMLPullParser Objects,  Next: Exceptions<16>,  Prev: XMLParser Objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.23 XMLPullParser Objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser (events=None)

     A pull parser suitable for non-blocking applications.  Its
     input-side API is similar to that of *note XMLParser: 8b7, but
     instead of pushing calls to a callback target, *note XMLPullParser:
     e99. collects an internal list of parsing events and lets the user
     read from it.  'events' is a sequence of events to report back.
     The supported events are the strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’,
     ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and ‘"end-ns"’ (the “ns” events
     are used to get detailed namespace information).  If 'events' is
     omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are reported.

      -- Yöntemi: feed (data)

          Feed the given bytes data to the parser.

      -- Yöntemi: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of *note flush():
          148d. temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if
          currently enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse
          deferral has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 148f.
          for details.

          Note that *note flush(): 148d. has been backported to some
          prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
          availability of *note flush(): 148d. using *note hasattr():
          200. if used in code running across a variety of Python
          versions.

          Added in version 3.12.3.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Signal the parser that the data stream is terminated.  Unlike
          *note XMLParser.close(): 3504, this method always returns
          *note None: 488.  Any events not yet retrieved when the parser
          is closed can still be read with *note read_events(): 34c1.

      -- Yöntemi: read_events ()

          Return an iterator over the events which have been encountered
          in the data fed to the parser.  The iterator yields ‘(event,
          elem)’ pairs, where 'event' is a string representing the type
          of event (e.g.  ‘"end"’) and 'elem' is the encountered *note
          Element: 247. object, or other context value as follows.

             * ‘start’, ‘end’: the current Element.

             * ‘comment’, ‘pi’: the current comment / processing
               instruction

             * ‘start-ns’: a tuple ‘(prefix, uri)’ naming the declared
               namespace mapping.

             * ‘end-ns’: *note None: 488. (this may change in a future
               version)

          Events provided in a previous call to *note read_events():
          34c1. will not be yielded again.  Events are consumed from the
          internal queue only when they are retrieved from the iterator,
          so multiple readers iterating in parallel over iterators
          obtained from *note read_events(): 34c1. will have
          unpredictable results.

          Not: *note XMLPullParser: e99. only guarantees that it has
          seen the “>” character of a starting tag when it emits a
          “start” event, so the attributes are defined, but the contents
          of the text and tail attributes are undefined at that point.
          The same applies to the element children; they may or may not
          be present.

          If you need a fully populated element, look for “end” events
          instead.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The ‘comment’ and ‘pi’ events were added.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<16>,  Prev: XMLPullParser Objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.20.5.24 Exceptions
....................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError

     XML parse error, raised by the various parsing methods in this
     module when parsing fails.  The string representation of an
     instance of this exception will contain a user-friendly error
     message.  In addition, it will have the following attributes
     available:

      -- Özniteliği: code

          A numeric error code from the expat parser.  See the
          documentation of *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. for the list of
          error codes and their meanings.

      -- Özniteliği: position

          A tuple of 'line', 'column' numbers, specifying where the
          error occurred.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom — The Document Object Model API,  Next: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.6 ‘xml.dom’ — The Document Object Model API
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Document Object Model, or “DOM,” is a cross-language API from the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML
documents.  A DOM implementation presents an XML document as a tree
structure, or allows client code to build such a structure from scratch.
It then gives access to the structure through a set of objects which
provided well-known interfaces.

The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications.  SAX only
allows you a view of one bit of the document at a time.  If you are
looking at one SAX element, you have no access to another.  If you are
looking at a text node, you have no access to a containing element.
When you write a SAX application, you need to keep track of your
program’s position in the document somewhere in your own code.  SAX does
not do it for you.  Also, if you need to look ahead in the XML document,
you are just out of luck.

Some applications are simply impossible in an event driven model with no
access to a tree.  Of course you could build some sort of tree yourself
in SAX events, but the DOM allows you to avoid writing that code.  The
DOM is a standard tree representation for XML data.

The Document Object Model is being defined by the W3C in stages, or
“levels” in their terminology.  The Python mapping of the API is
substantially based on the DOM Level 2 recommendation.

DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. How
this is accomplished is not covered at all by DOM Level 1, and Level 2
provides only limited improvements: There is a ‘DOMImplementation’
object class which provides access to ‘Document’ creation methods, but
no way to access an XML reader/parser/Document builder in an
implementation-independent way.  There is also no well-defined way to
access these methods without an existing ‘Document’ object.  In Python,
each DOM implementation will provide a function *note
getDOMImplementation(): 350d.  DOM Level 3 adds a Load/Store
specification, which defines an interface to the reader, but this is not
yet available in the Python standard library.

Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your
XML document through its properties and methods.  These properties are
defined in the DOM specification; this portion of the reference manual
describes the interpretation of the specification in Python.

The specification provided by the W3C defines the DOM API for Java,
ECMAScript, and OMG IDL. The Python mapping defined here is based in
large part on the IDL version of the specification, but strict
compliance is not required (though implementations are free to support
the strict mapping from IDL). See section *note Conformance: 350e. for a
detailed discussion of mapping requirements.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification(2)

     The W3C recommendation upon which the Python DOM API is based.

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(3)

     The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 122.

Python Language Mapping Specification(4)

     This specifies the mapping from OMG IDL to Python.

* Menu:

* Module Contents: Module Contents<4>.
* Objects in the DOM::
* Conformance::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/

   (4) https://www.omg.org/spec/PYTH/1.2/PDF


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents<4>,  Next: Objects in the DOM,  Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API

5.20.6.1 Module Contents
........................

The *note xml.dom: 121. contains the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation (name, factory)

     Register the 'factory' function with the name 'name'.  The factory
     function should return an object which implements the
     ‘DOMImplementation’ interface.  The factory function can return the
     same object every time, or a new one for each call, as appropriate
     for the specific implementation (e.g.  if that implementation
     supports some customization).

 -- Işlevi: xml.dom.getDOMImplementation (name=None, features=())

     Return a suitable DOM implementation.  The 'name' is either
     well-known, the module name of a DOM implementation, or ‘None’.  If
     it is not ‘None’, imports the corresponding module and returns a
     ‘DOMImplementation’ object if the import succeeds.  If no name is
     given, and if the environment variable ‘PYTHON_DOM’ is set, this
     variable is used to find the implementation.

     If name is not given, this examines the available implementations
     to find one with the required feature set.  If no implementation
     can be found, raise an *note ImportError: 14b.  The features list
     must be a sequence of ‘(feature, version)’ pairs which are passed
     to the ‘hasFeature()’ method on available ‘DOMImplementation’
     objects.

Some convenience constants are also provided:

 -- Verisi: xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE

     The value used to indicate that no namespace is associated with a
     node in the DOM. This is typically found as the ‘namespaceURI’ of a
     node, or used as the 'namespaceURI' parameter to a
     namespaces-specific method.

 -- Verisi: xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE

     The namespace URI associated with the reserved prefix ‘xml’, as
     defined by Namespaces in XML(1) (section 4).

 -- Verisi: xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE

     The namespace URI for namespace declarations, as defined by
     Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification(2) (section
     1.1.8).

 -- Verisi: xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE

     The URI of the XHTML namespace as defined by XHTML 1.0: The
     Extensible HyperText Markup Language(3) (section 3.1.1).

In addition, *note xml.dom: 121. contains a base ‘Node’ class and the
DOM exception classes.  The ‘Node’ class provided by this module does
not implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM
specification; concrete DOM implementations must provide those.  The
‘Node’ class provided as part of this module does provide the constants
used for the ‘nodeType’ attribute on concrete ‘Node’ objects; they are
located within the class rather than at the module level to conform with
the DOM specifications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/


File: python.info,  Node: Objects in the DOM,  Next: Conformance,  Prev: Module Contents<4>,  Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API

5.20.6.2 Objects in the DOM
...........................

The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from
the W3C.

Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as
simple strings.  It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so
this usage is not yet documented.

Interface                            Section                                 Purpose
                                                                             
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
‘DOMImplementation’                  *note DOMImplementation Objects: 3517.  Interface to the underlying
                                                                             implementation.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Node’                               *note Node Objects: 3518.               Base interface for most objects in
                                                                             a document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘NodeList’                           *note NodeList Objects: 3519.           Interface for a sequence of nodes.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘DocumentType’                       *note DocumentType Objects: 351a.       Information about the declarations
                                                                             needed to process a document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Document’                           *note Document Objects: 351b.           Object which represents an entire
                                                                             document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Element’                            *note Element Objects: 351c.            Element nodes in the document
                                                                             hierarchy.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Attr’                               *note Attr Objects: 351d.               Attribute value nodes on element
                                                                             nodes.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Comment’                            *note Comment Objects: 351e.            Representation of comments in the
                                                                             source document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Text’                               *note Text and CDATASection Objects: 351f.Nodes containing textual content
                                                                             from the document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘ProcessingInstruction’              *note ProcessingInstruction Objects: 3520.Processing instruction
                                                                             representation.
                                                                             

An additional section describes the exceptions defined for working with
the DOM in Python.

* Menu:

* DOMImplementation Objects::
* Node Objects::
* NodeList Objects::
* DocumentType Objects::
* Document Objects::
* Element Objects: Element Objects<2>.
* Attr Objects::
* NamedNodeMap Objects::
* Comment Objects::
* Text and CDATASection Objects::
* ProcessingInstruction Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: DOMImplementation Objects,  Next: Node Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.3 DOMImplementation Objects
..................................

The ‘DOMImplementation’ interface provides a way for applications to
determine the availability of particular features in the DOM they are
using.  DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new ‘Document’ and
‘DocumentType’ objects using the ‘DOMImplementation’ as well.

 -- Yöntemi: DOMImplementation.hasFeature (feature, version)

     Return ‘True’ if the feature identified by the pair of strings
     'feature' and 'version' is implemented.

 -- Yöntemi: DOMImplementation.createDocument (namespaceUri,
          qualifiedName, doctype)

     Return a new ‘Document’ object (the root of the DOM), with a child
     ‘Element’ object having the given 'namespaceUri' and
     'qualifiedName'.  The 'doctype' must be a ‘DocumentType’ object
     created by *note createDocumentType(): 3524, or ‘None’.  In the
     Python DOM API, the first two arguments can also be ‘None’ in order
     to indicate that no ‘Element’ child is to be created.

 -- Yöntemi: DOMImplementation.createDocumentType (qualifiedName,
          publicId, systemId)

     Return a new ‘DocumentType’ object that encapsulates the given
     'qualifiedName', 'publicId', and 'systemId' strings, representing
     the information contained in an XML document type declaration.


File: python.info,  Node: Node Objects,  Next: NodeList Objects,  Prev: DOMImplementation Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.4 Node Objects
.....................

All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of ‘Node’.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.nodeType

     An integer representing the node type.  Symbolic constants for the
     types are on the ‘Node’ object: ‘ELEMENT_NODE’, ‘ATTRIBUTE_NODE’,
     ‘TEXT_NODE’, ‘CDATA_SECTION_NODE’, ‘ENTITY_NODE’,
     ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’, ‘COMMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_NODE’,
     ‘DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE’, ‘NOTATION_NODE’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.parentNode

     The parent of the current node, or ‘None’ for the document node.
     The value is always a ‘Node’ object or ‘None’.  For ‘Element’
     nodes, this will be the parent element, except for the root
     element, in which case it will be the ‘Document’ object.  For
     ‘Attr’ nodes, this is always ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.attributes

     A ‘NamedNodeMap’ of attribute objects.  Only elements have actual
     values for this; others provide ‘None’ for this attribute.  This is
     a read-only attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.previousSibling

     The node that immediately precedes this one with the same parent.
     For instance the element with an end-tag that comes just before the
     'self' element’s start-tag.  Of course, XML documents are made up
     of more than just elements so the previous sibling could be text, a
     comment, or something else.  If this node is the first child of the
     parent, this attribute will be ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.nextSibling

     The node that immediately follows this one with the same parent.
     See also *note previousSibling: 3529.  If this is the last child of
     the parent, this attribute will be ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.childNodes

     A list of nodes contained within this node.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.firstChild

     The first child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’.  This is
     a read-only attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.lastChild

     The last child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’.  This is a
     read-only attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.localName

     The part of the ‘tagName’ following the colon if there is one, else
     the entire ‘tagName’.  The value is a string.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.prefix

     The part of the ‘tagName’ preceding the colon if there is one, else
     the empty string.  The value is a string, or ‘None’.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.namespaceURI

     The namespace associated with the element name.  This will be a
     string or ‘None’.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.nodeName

     This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM
     specification for details.  You can always get the information you
     would get here from another property such as the ‘tagName’ property
     for elements or the ‘name’ property for attributes.  For all node
     types, the value of this attribute will be either a string or
     ‘None’.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Node.nodeValue

     This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM
     specification for details.  The situation is similar to that with
     *note nodeName: 3531.  The value is a string or ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.hasAttributes ()

     Return ‘True’ if the node has any attributes.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.hasChildNodes ()

     Return ‘True’ if the node has any child nodes.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.isSameNode (other)

     Return ‘True’ if 'other' refers to the same node as this node.
     This is especially useful for DOM implementations which use any
     sort of proxy architecture (because more than one object can refer
     to the same node).

          Not: This is based on a proposed DOM Level 3 API which is
          still in the “working draft” stage, but this particular
          interface appears uncontroversial.  Changes from the W3C will
          not necessarily affect this method in the Python DOM interface
          (though any new W3C API for this would also be supported).

 -- Yöntemi: Node.appendChild (newChild)

     Add a new child node to this node at the end of the list of
     children, returning 'newChild'.  If the node was already in the
     tree, it is removed first.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.insertBefore (newChild, refChild)

     Insert a new child node before an existing child.  It must be the
     case that 'refChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised.  'newChild' is returned.  If 'refChild'
     is ‘None’, it inserts 'newChild' at the end of the children’s list.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.removeChild (oldChild)

     Remove a child node.  'oldChild' must be a child of this node; if
     not, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.  'oldChild' is returned on
     success.  If 'oldChild' will not be used further, its ‘unlink()’
     method should be called.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.replaceChild (newChild, oldChild)

     Replace an existing node with a new node.  It must be the case that
     'oldChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note ValueError: 189.
     is raised.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.normalize ()

     Join adjacent text nodes so that all stretches of text are stored
     as single ‘Text’ instances.  This simplifies processing text from a
     DOM tree for many applications.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.cloneNode (deep)

     Clone this node.  Setting 'deep' means to clone all child nodes as
     well.  This returns the clone.


File: python.info,  Node: NodeList Objects,  Next: DocumentType Objects,  Prev: Node Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.5 NodeList Objects
.........................

A ‘NodeList’ represents a sequence of nodes.  These objects are used in
two ways in the DOM Core recommendation: an ‘Element’ object provides
one as its list of child nodes, and the ‘getElementsByTagName()’ and
‘getElementsByTagNameNS()’ methods of ‘Node’ return objects with this
interface to represent query results.

The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines one method and one attribute for
these objects:

 -- Yöntemi: NodeList.item (i)

     Return the 'i'’th item from the sequence, if there is one, or
     ‘None’.  The index 'i' is not allowed to be less than zero or
     greater than or equal to the length of the sequence.

 -- Özniteliği: NodeList.length

     The number of nodes in the sequence.

In addition, the Python DOM interface requires that some additional
support is provided to allow ‘NodeList’ objects to be used as Python
sequences.  All ‘NodeList’ implementations must include support for
*note __len__(): 1d50. and *note __getitem__(): 500.; this allows
iteration over the ‘NodeList’ in *note for: 26d. statements and proper
support for the *note len(): 441. built-in function.

If a DOM implementation supports modification of the document, the
‘NodeList’ implementation must also support the *note __setitem__():
1174. and *note __delitem__(): 1175. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: DocumentType Objects,  Next: Document Objects,  Prev: NodeList Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.6 DocumentType Objects
.............................

Information about the notations and entities declared by a document
(including the external subset if the parser uses it and can provide the
information) is available from a ‘DocumentType’ object.  The
‘DocumentType’ for a document is available from the ‘Document’ object’s
‘doctype’ attribute; if there is no ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration for the
document, the document’s ‘doctype’ attribute will be set to ‘None’
instead of an instance of this interface.

‘DocumentType’ is a specialization of ‘Node’, and adds the following
attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: DocumentType.publicId

     The public identifier for the external subset of the document type
     definition.  This will be a string or ‘None’.

 -- Özniteliği: DocumentType.systemId

     The system identifier for the external subset of the document type
     definition.  This will be a URI as a string, or ‘None’.

 -- Özniteliği: DocumentType.internalSubset

     A string giving the complete internal subset from the document.
     This does not include the brackets which enclose the subset.  If
     the document has no internal subset, this should be ‘None’.

 -- Özniteliği: DocumentType.name

     The name of the root element as given in the ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration,
     if present.

 -- Özniteliği: DocumentType.entities

     This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of external
     entities.  For entity names defined more than once, only the first
     definition is provided (others are ignored as required by the XML
     recommendation).  This may be ‘None’ if the information is not
     provided by the parser, or if no entities are defined.

 -- Özniteliği: DocumentType.notations

     This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of notations.  For
     notation names defined more than once, only the first definition is
     provided (others are ignored as required by the XML
     recommendation).  This may be ‘None’ if the information is not
     provided by the parser, or if no notations are defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Document Objects,  Next: Element Objects<2>,  Prev: DocumentType Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.7 Document Objects
.........................

A ‘Document’ represents an entire XML document, including its
constituent elements, attributes, processing instructions, comments etc.
Remember that it inherits properties from ‘Node’.

 -- Özniteliği: Document.documentElement

     The one and only root element of the document.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.createElement (tagName)

     Create and return a new element node.  The element is not inserted
     into the document when it is created.  You need to explicitly
     insert it with one of the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or
     ‘appendChild()’.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.createElementNS (namespaceURI, tagName)

     Create and return a new element with a namespace.  The 'tagName'
     may have a prefix.  The element is not inserted into the document
     when it is created.  You need to explicitly insert it with one of
     the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or ‘appendChild()’.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.createTextNode (data)

     Create and return a text node containing the data passed as a
     parameter.  As with the other creation methods, this one does not
     insert the node into the tree.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.createComment (data)

     Create and return a comment node containing the data passed as a
     parameter.  As with the other creation methods, this one does not
     insert the node into the tree.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.createProcessingInstruction (target, data)

     Create and return a processing instruction node containing the
     'target' and 'data' passed as parameters.  As with the other
     creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the tree.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.createAttribute (name)

     Create and return an attribute node.  This method does not
     associate the attribute node with any particular element.  You must
     use ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use
     the newly created attribute instance.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.createAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qualifiedName)

     Create and return an attribute node with a namespace.  The
     'tagName' may have a prefix.  This method does not associate the
     attribute node with any particular element.  You must use
     ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use the
     newly created attribute instance.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children,
     etc.)  with a particular element type name.

 -- Yöntemi: Document.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children,
     etc.)  with a particular namespace URI and localname.  The
     localname is the part of the namespace after the prefix.


File: python.info,  Node: Element Objects<2>,  Next: Attr Objects,  Prev: Document Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.8 Element Objects
........................

‘Element’ is a subclass of ‘Node’, so inherits all the attributes of
that class.

 -- Özniteliği: Element.tagName

     The element type name.  In a namespace-using document it may have
     colons in it.  The value is a string.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.hasAttribute (name)

     Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by 'name'.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.hasAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by
     'namespaceURI' and 'localName'.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.getAttribute (name)

     Return the value of the attribute named by 'name' as a string.  If
     no such attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the
     attribute had no value.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.getAttributeNode (attrname)

     Return the ‘Attr’ node for the attribute named by 'attrname'.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.getAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return the value of the attribute named by 'namespaceURI' and
     'localName' as a string.  If no such attribute exists, an empty
     string is returned, as if the attribute had no value.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.getAttributeNodeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return an attribute value as a node, given a 'namespaceURI' and
     'localName'.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.removeAttribute (name)

     Remove an attribute by name.  If there is no matching attribute, a
     *note NotFoundErr: 355c. is raised.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.removeAttributeNode (oldAttr)

     Remove and return 'oldAttr' from the attribute list, if present.
     If 'oldAttr' is not present, *note NotFoundErr: 355c. is raised.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.removeAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Remove an attribute by name.  Note that it uses a localName, not a
     qname.  No exception is raised if there is no matching attribute.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.setAttribute (name, value)

     Set an attribute value from a string.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.setAttributeNode (newAttr)

     Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing
     attribute if necessary if the ‘name’ attribute matches.  If a
     replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned.  If
     'newAttr' is already in use, *note InuseAttributeErr: 3561. will be
     raised.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.setAttributeNodeNS (newAttr)

     Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing
     attribute if necessary if the ‘namespaceURI’ and ‘localName’
     attributes match.  If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node
     will be returned.  If 'newAttr' is already in use, *note
     InuseAttributeErr: 3561. will be raised.

 -- Yöntemi: Element.setAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qname, value)

     Set an attribute value from a string, given a 'namespaceURI' and a
     'qname'.  Note that a qname is the whole attribute name.  This is
     different than above.


File: python.info,  Node: Attr Objects,  Next: NamedNodeMap Objects,  Prev: Element Objects<2>,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.9 Attr Objects
.....................

‘Attr’ inherits from ‘Node’, so inherits all its attributes.

 -- Özniteliği: Attr.name

     The attribute name.  In a namespace-using document it may include a
     colon.

 -- Özniteliği: Attr.localName

     The part of the name following the colon if there is one, else the
     entire name.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Attr.prefix

     The part of the name preceding the colon if there is one, else the
     empty string.

 -- Özniteliği: Attr.value

     The text value of the attribute.  This is a synonym for the
     ‘nodeValue’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: NamedNodeMap Objects,  Next: Comment Objects,  Prev: Attr Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.10 NamedNodeMap Objects
..............................

‘NamedNodeMap’ does 'not' inherit from ‘Node’.

 -- Özniteliği: NamedNodeMap.length

     The length of the attribute list.

 -- Yöntemi: NamedNodeMap.item (index)

     Return an attribute with a particular index.  The order you get the
     attributes in is arbitrary but will be consistent for the life of a
     DOM. Each item is an attribute node.  Get its value with the
     ‘value’ attribute.

There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping
behavior.  You can use them or you can use the standardized
‘getAttribute*()’ family of methods on the ‘Element’ objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment Objects,  Next: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Prev: NamedNodeMap Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.11 Comment Objects
.........................

‘Comment’ represents a comment in the XML document.  It is a subclass of
‘Node’, but cannot have child nodes.

 -- Özniteliği: Comment.data

     The content of the comment as a string.  The attribute contains all
     characters between the leading ‘<!-’‘-’ and trailing ‘-’‘->’, but
     does not include them.


File: python.info,  Node: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Next: ProcessingInstruction Objects,  Prev: Comment Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.12 Text and CDATASection Objects
.......................................

The ‘Text’ interface represents text in the XML document.  If the parser
and DOM implementation support the DOM’s XML extension, portions of the
text enclosed in CDATA marked sections are stored in ‘CDATASection’
objects.  These two interfaces are identical, but provide different
values for the ‘nodeType’ attribute.

These interfaces extend the ‘Node’ interface.  They cannot have child
nodes.

 -- Özniteliği: Text.data

     The content of the text node as a string.

     Not: The use of a ‘CDATASection’ node does not indicate that the
     node represents a complete CDATA marked section, only that the
     content of the node was part of a CDATA section.  A single CDATA
     section may be represented by more than one node in the document
     tree.  There is no way to determine whether two adjacent
     ‘CDATASection’ nodes represent different CDATA marked sections.


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessingInstruction Objects,  Next: Exceptions<17>,  Prev: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.13 ProcessingInstruction Objects
.......................................

Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits
from the ‘Node’ interface and cannot have child nodes.

 -- Özniteliği: ProcessingInstruction.target

     The content of the processing instruction up to the first
     whitespace character.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: ProcessingInstruction.data

     The content of the processing instruction following the first
     whitespace character.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<17>,  Prev: ProcessingInstruction Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.20.6.14 Exceptions
....................

The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines a single exception, *note
DOMException: 3576, and a number of constants that allow applications to
determine what sort of error occurred.  *note DOMException: 3576.
instances carry a *note code: 1a. attribute that provides the
appropriate value for the specific exception.

The Python DOM interface provides the constants, but also expands the
set of exceptions so that a specific exception exists for each of the
exception codes defined by the DOM. The implementations must raise the
appropriate specific exception, each of which carries the appropriate
value for the *note code: 1a. attribute.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.DOMException

     Base exception class used for all specific DOM exceptions.  This
     exception class cannot be directly instantiated.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr

     Raised when a specified range of text does not fit into a string.
     This is not known to be used in the Python DOM implementations, but
     may be received from DOM implementations not written in Python.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to insert a node where the node type
     is not allowed.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.IndexSizeErr

     Raised when an index or size parameter to a method is negative or
     exceeds the allowed values.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to insert an ‘Attr’ node that is
     already present elsewhere in the document.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr

     Raised if a parameter or an operation is not supported on the
     underlying object.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr

     This exception is raised when a string parameter contains a
     character that is not permitted in the context it’s being used in
     by the XML 1.0 recommendation.  For example, attempting to create
     an ‘Element’ node with a space in the element type name will cause
     this error to be raised.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to modify the type of a node.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.InvalidStateErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to use an object that is not defined
     or is no longer usable.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.NamespaceErr

     If an attempt is made to change any object in a way that is not
     permitted with regard to the Namespaces in XML(1) recommendation,
     this exception is raised.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.NotFoundErr

     Exception when a node does not exist in the referenced context.
     For example, ‘NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem()’ will raise this if
     the node passed in does not exist in the map.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.NotSupportedErr

     Raised when the implementation does not support the requested type
     of object or operation.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr

     This is raised if data is specified for a node which does not
     support data.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr

     Raised on attempts to modify an object where modifications are not
     allowed (such as for read-only nodes).

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.SyntaxErr

     Raised when an invalid or illegal string is specified.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr

     Raised when a node is inserted in a different document than it
     currently belongs to, and the implementation does not support
     migrating the node from one document to the other.

The exception codes defined in the DOM recommendation map to the
exceptions described above according to this table:

Constant                                   Exception
                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                           
‘DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR’                       *note DomstringSizeErr: 3577.
                                           
                                           
‘HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR’                    *note HierarchyRequestErr: 3578.
                                           
                                           
‘INDEX_SIZE_ERR’                           *note IndexSizeErr: 3579.
                                           
                                           
‘INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR’                      *note InuseAttributeErr: 3561.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_ACCESS_ERR’                       *note InvalidAccessErr: 357a.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR’                    *note InvalidCharacterErr: 357b.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR’                 *note InvalidModificationErr: 357c.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_STATE_ERR’                        *note InvalidStateErr: 357d.
                                           
                                           
‘NAMESPACE_ERR’                            *note NamespaceErr: 357e.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_FOUND_ERR’                            *note NotFoundErr: 355c.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR’                        *note NotSupportedErr: 357f.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR’                      *note NoDataAllowedErr: 3580.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR’              *note NoModificationAllowedErr: 3581.
                                           
                                           
‘SYNTAX_ERR’                               *note SyntaxErr: 3582.
                                           
                                           
‘WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR’                       *note WrongDocumentErr: 3583.
                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/


File: python.info,  Node: Conformance,  Prev: Objects in the DOM,  Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API

5.20.6.15 Conformance
.....................

This section describes the conformance requirements and relationships
between the Python DOM API, the W3C DOM recommendations, and the OMG IDL
mapping for Python.

* Menu:

* Type Mapping::
* Accessor Methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Type Mapping,  Next: Accessor Methods,  Up: Conformance

5.20.6.16 Type Mapping
......................

The IDL types used in the DOM specification are mapped to Python types
according to the following table.

IDL Type               Python Type
                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘boolean’              ‘bool’ or ‘int’
                       
                       
‘int’                  ‘int’
                       
                       
‘long int’             ‘int’
                       
                       
‘unsigned int’         ‘int’
                       
                       
‘DOMString’            ‘str’ or ‘bytes’
                       
                       
‘null’                 ‘None’
                       


File: python.info,  Node: Accessor Methods,  Prev: Type Mapping,  Up: Conformance

5.20.6.17 Accessor Methods
..........................

The mapping from OMG IDL to Python defines accessor functions for IDL
‘attribute’ declarations in much the way the Java mapping does.  Mapping
the IDL declarations

     readonly attribute string someValue;
              attribute string anotherValue;

yields three accessor functions: a “get” method for ‘someValue’
(‘_get_someValue()’), and “get” and “set” methods for ‘anotherValue’
(‘_get_anotherValue()’ and ‘_set_anotherValue()’).  The mapping, in
particular, does not require that the IDL attributes are accessible as
normal Python attributes: ‘object.someValue’ is 'not' required to work,
and may raise an *note AttributeError: 3dc.

The Python DOM API, however, 'does' require that normal attribute access
work.  This means that the typical surrogates generated by Python IDL
compilers are not likely to work, and wrapper objects may be needed on
the client if the DOM objects are accessed via CORBA. While this does
require some additional consideration for CORBA DOM clients, the
implementers with experience using DOM over CORBA from Python do not
consider this a problem.  Attributes that are declared ‘readonly’ may
not restrict write access in all DOM implementations.

In the Python DOM API, accessor functions are not required.  If
provided, they should take the form defined by the Python IDL mapping,
but these methods are considered unnecessary since the attributes are
accessible directly from Python.  “Set” accessors should never be
provided for ‘readonly’ attributes.

The IDL definitions do not fully embody the requirements of the W3C DOM
API, such as the notion of certain objects, such as the return value of
‘getElementsByTagName()’, being “live”.  The Python DOM API does not
require implementations to enforce such requirements.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation,  Next: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees,  Prev: xml dom — The Document Object Model API,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.7 ‘xml.dom.minidom’ — Minimal DOM implementation
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note xml.dom.minidom: 122. is a minimal implementation of the Document
Object Model interface, with an API similar to that in other languages.
It is intended to be simpler than the full DOM and also significantly
smaller.  Users who are not already proficient with the DOM should
consider using the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module for their
XML processing instead.

     Uyarı: The *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4.

DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. With
*note xml.dom.minidom: 122, this is done through the parse functions:

     from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString

     dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')  # parse an XML file by name

     datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')
     dom2 = parse(datasource)  # parse an open file

     dom3 = parseString('<myxml>Some data<empty/> some more data</myxml>')

The *note parse(): 358b. function can take either a filename or an open
file object.

 -- Işlevi: xml.dom.minidom.parse (filename_or_file, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Return a ‘Document’ from the given input.  'filename_or_file' may
     be either a file name, or a file-like object.  'parser', if given,
     must be a SAX2 parser object.  This function will change the
     document handler of the parser and activate namespace support;
     other parser configuration (like setting an entity resolver) must
     have been done in advance.

If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 358c.
function instead:

 -- Işlevi: xml.dom.minidom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Return a ‘Document’ that represents the 'string'.  This method
     creates an *note io.StringIO: dc4. object for the string and passes
     that on to *note parse(): 358b.

Both functions return a ‘Document’ object representing the content of
the document.

What the *note parse(): 358b. and *note parseString(): 358c. functions
do is connect an XML parser with a “DOM builder” that can accept parse
events from any SAX parser and convert them into a DOM tree.  The name
of the functions are perhaps misleading, but are easy to grasp when
learning the interfaces.  The parsing of the document will be completed
before these functions return; it’s simply that these functions do not
provide a parser implementation themselves.

You can also create a ‘Document’ by calling a method on a “DOM
Implementation” object.  You can get this object either by calling the
‘getDOMImplementation()’ function in the *note xml.dom: 121. package or
the *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. module.  Once you have a ‘Document’, you
can add child nodes to it to populate the DOM:

     from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation

     impl = getDOMImplementation()

     newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None)
     top_element = newdoc.documentElement
     text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.')
     top_element.appendChild(text)

Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your
XML document through its properties and methods.  These properties are
defined in the DOM specification.  The main property of the document
object is the ‘documentElement’ property.  It gives you the main element
in the XML document: the one that holds all others.  Here is an example
program:

     dom3 = parseString("<myxml>Some data</myxml>")
     assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml"

When you are finished with a DOM tree, you may optionally call the
‘unlink()’ method to encourage early cleanup of the now-unneeded
objects.  ‘unlink()’ is an *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.-specific
extension to the DOM API that renders the node and its descendants
essentially useless.  Otherwise, Python’s garbage collector will
eventually take care of the objects in the tree.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(2)

     The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 122.

* Menu:

* DOM Objects::
* DOM Example::
* minidom and the DOM standard::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/


File: python.info,  Node: DOM Objects,  Next: DOM Example,  Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

5.20.7.1 DOM Objects
....................

The definition of the DOM API for Python is given as part of the *note
xml.dom: 121. module documentation.  This section lists the differences
between the API and *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.unlink ()

     Break internal references within the DOM so that it will be garbage
     collected on versions of Python without cyclic GC. Even when cyclic
     GC is available, using this can make large amounts of memory
     available sooner, so calling this on DOM objects as soon as they
     are no longer needed is good practice.  This only needs to be
     called on the ‘Document’ object, but may be called on child nodes
     to discard children of that node.

     You can avoid calling this method explicitly by using the *note
     with: 3dd. statement.  The following code will automatically unlink
     'dom' when the ‘with’ block is exited:

          with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom:
              ... # Work with dom.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.writexml (writer, indent='', addindent='', newl='',
          encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Write XML to the writer object.  The writer receives texts but not
     bytes as input, it should have a ‘write()’ method which matches
     that of the file object interface.  The 'indent' parameter is the
     indentation of the current node.  The 'addindent' parameter is the
     incremental indentation to use for subnodes of the current one.
     The 'newl' parameter specifies the string to use to terminate
     newlines.

     For the ‘Document’ node, an additional keyword argument 'encoding'
     can be used to specify the encoding field of the XML header.

     Similarly, explicitly stating the 'standalone' argument causes the
     standalone document declarations to be added to the prologue of the
     XML document.  If the value is set to ‘True’, ‘standalone="yes"’ is
     added, otherwise it is set to ‘"no"’.  Not stating the argument
     will omit the declaration from the document.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note writexml(): 3590. method now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'standalone' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.toxml (encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Return a string or byte string containing the XML represented by
     the DOM node.

     With an explicit 'encoding' (1) argument, the result is a byte
     string in the specified encoding.  With no 'encoding' argument, the
     result is a Unicode string, and the XML declaration in the
     resulting string does not specify an encoding.  Encoding this
     string in an encoding other than UTF-8 is likely incorrect, since
     UTF-8 is the default encoding of XML.

     The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml():
     3590.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note toxml(): 1354. method now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'standalone' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: Node.toprettyxml (indent='\t', newl='\n', encoding=None,
          standalone=None)

     Return a pretty-printed version of the document.  'indent'
     specifies the indentation string and defaults to a tabulator;
     'newl' specifies the string emitted at the end of each line and
     defaults to ‘\n’.

     The 'encoding' argument behaves like the corresponding argument of
     *note toxml(): 1354.

     The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml():
     3590.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note toprettyxml(): 1355. method now
     preserves the attribute order specified by the user.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'standalone' parameter was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding name included in the XML output should conform to
the appropriate standards.  For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
not valid in an XML document’s declaration, even though Python accepts
it as an encoding name.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM Example,  Next: minidom and the DOM standard,  Prev: DOM Objects,  Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

5.20.7.2 DOM Example
....................

This example program is a fairly realistic example of a simple program.
In this particular case, we do not take much advantage of the
flexibility of the DOM.

     import xml.dom.minidom

     document = """\
     <slideshow>
     <title>Demo slideshow</title>
     <slide><title>Slide title</title>
     <point>This is a demo</point>
     <point>Of a program for processing slides</point>
     </slide>

     <slide><title>Another demo slide</title>
     <point>It is important</point>
     <point>To have more than</point>
     <point>one slide</point>
     </slide>
     </slideshow>
     """

     dom = xml.dom.minidom.parseString(document)

     def getText(nodelist):
         rc = []
         for node in nodelist:
             if node.nodeType == node.TEXT_NODE:
                 rc.append(node.data)
         return ''.join(rc)

     def handleSlideshow(slideshow):
         print("<html>")
         handleSlideshowTitle(slideshow.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         slides = slideshow.getElementsByTagName("slide")
         handleToc(slides)
         handleSlides(slides)
         print("</html>")

     def handleSlides(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             handleSlide(slide)

     def handleSlide(slide):
         handleSlideTitle(slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         handlePoints(slide.getElementsByTagName("point"))

     def handleSlideshowTitle(title):
         print(f"<title>{getText(title.childNodes)}</title>")

     def handleSlideTitle(title):
         print(f"<h2>{getText(title.childNodes)}</h2>")

     def handlePoints(points):
         print("<ul>")
         for point in points:
             handlePoint(point)
         print("</ul>")

     def handlePoint(point):
         print(f"<li>{getText(point.childNodes)}</li>")

     def handleToc(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             title = slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]
             print(f"<p>{getText(title.childNodes)}</p>")

     handleSlideshow(dom)


File: python.info,  Node: minidom and the DOM standard,  Prev: DOM Example,  Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

5.20.7.3 minidom and the DOM standard
.....................................

The *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. module is essentially a DOM
1.0-compatible DOM with some DOM 2 features (primarily namespace
features).

Usage of the DOM interface in Python is straight-forward.  The following
mapping rules apply:

   * Interfaces are accessed through instance objects.  Applications
     should not instantiate the classes themselves; they should use the
     creator functions available on the ‘Document’ object.  Derived
     interfaces support all operations (and attributes) from the base
     interfaces, plus any new operations.

   * Operations are used as methods.  Since the DOM uses only *note in:
     26f. parameters, the arguments are passed in normal order (from
     left to right).  There are no optional arguments.  ‘void’
     operations return ‘None’.

   * IDL attributes map to instance attributes.  For compatibility with
     the OMG IDL language mapping for Python, an attribute ‘foo’ can
     also be accessed through accessor methods ‘_get_foo()’ and
     ‘_set_foo()’.  ‘readonly’ attributes must not be changed; this is
     not enforced at runtime.

   * The types ‘short int’, ‘unsigned int’, ‘unsigned long long’, and
     ‘boolean’ all map to Python integer objects.

   * The type ‘DOMString’ maps to Python strings.  *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 122. supports either bytes or strings, but will
     normally produce strings.  Values of type ‘DOMString’ may also be
     ‘None’ where allowed to have the IDL ‘null’ value by the DOM
     specification from the W3C.

   * ‘const’ declarations map to variables in their respective scope
     (e.g.  ‘xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’); they
     must not be changed.

   * ‘DOMException’ is currently not supported in *note xml.dom.minidom:
     122.  Instead, *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. uses standard Python
     exceptions such as *note TypeError: 2c4. and *note AttributeError:
     3dc.

   * ‘NodeList’ objects are implemented using Python’s built-in list
     type.  These objects provide the interface defined in the DOM
     specification, but with earlier versions of Python they do not
     support the official API. They are, however, much more “Pythonic”
     than the interface defined in the W3C recommendations.

The following interfaces have no implementation in *note
xml.dom.minidom: 122.:

   * ‘DOMTimeStamp’

   * ‘EntityReference’

Most of these reflect information in the XML document that is not of
general utility to most DOM users.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees,  Next: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers,  Prev: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.8 ‘xml.dom.pulldom’ — Support for building partial DOM trees
-----------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xml.dom.pulldom: 123. module provides a “pull parser” which
can also be asked to produce DOM-accessible fragments of the document
where necessary.  The basic concept involves pulling “events” from a
stream of incoming XML and processing them.  In contrast to SAX which
also employs an event-driven processing model together with callbacks,
the user of a pull parser is responsible for explicitly pulling events
from the stream, looping over those events until either processing is
finished or an error condition occurs.

     Uyarı: The *note xml.dom.pulldom: 123. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4.

3.7.1 sürümünde değişti: The SAX parser no longer processes general
external entities by default to increase security by default.  To enable
processing of external entities, pass a custom parser instance in:

     from xml.dom.pulldom import parse
     from xml.sax import make_parser
     from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges

     parser = make_parser()
     parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True)
     parse(filename, parser=parser)

Example:

     from xml.dom import pulldom

     doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml')
     for event, node in doc:
         if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item':
             if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50:
                 doc.expandNode(node)
                 print(node.toxml())

‘event’ is a constant and can be one of:

   * ‘START_ELEMENT’

   * ‘END_ELEMENT’

   * ‘COMMENT’

   * ‘START_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘END_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘CHARACTERS’

   * ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION’

   * ‘IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE’

‘node’ is an object of type ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’,
‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’.

Since the document is treated as a “flat” stream of events, the document
“tree” is implicitly traversed and the desired elements are found
regardless of their depth in the tree.  In other words, one does not
need to consider hierarchical issues such as recursive searching of the
document nodes, although if the context of elements were important, one
would either need to maintain some context-related state (i.e.
remembering where one is in the document at any given point) or to make
use of the *note DOMEventStream.expandNode(): 3597. method and switch to
DOM-related processing.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom (documentFactory=None)

     Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 3599.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM (documentFactory=None)

     Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 3599.

 -- Işlevi: xml.dom.pulldom.parse (stream_or_string, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Return a *note DOMEventStream: 55e. from the given input.
     'stream_or_string' may be either a file name, or a file-like
     object.  'parser', if given, must be an *note XMLReader: 359c.
     object.  This function will change the document handler of the
     parser and activate namespace support; other parser configuration
     (like setting an entity resolver) must have been done in advance.

If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 359d.
function instead:

 -- Işlevi: xml.dom.pulldom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Return a *note DOMEventStream: 55e. that represents the (Unicode)
     'string'.

 -- Verisi: xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize

     Default value for the 'bufsize' parameter to *note parse(): 359b.

     The value of this variable can be changed before calling *note
     parse(): 359b. and the new value will take effect.

* Menu:

* DOMEventStream Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py


File: python.info,  Node: DOMEventStream Objects,  Up: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees

5.20.8.1 DOMEventStream Objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream (stream, parser, bufsize)

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Support for *note __getitem__(): 500.
     method has been removed.

      -- Yöntemi: getEvent ()

          Return a tuple containing 'event' and the current 'node' as
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’ if event equals ‘START_DOCUMENT’,
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ if event equals ‘START_ELEMENT’ or
          ‘END_ELEMENT’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’ if event equals
          ‘CHARACTERS’.  The current node does not contain information
          about its children, unless *note expandNode(): 3597. is
          called.

      -- Yöntemi: expandNode (node)

          Expands all children of 'node' into 'node'.  Example:

               from xml.dom import pulldom

               xml = '<html><title>Foo</title> <p>Some text <div>and more</div></p> </html>'
               doc = pulldom.parseString(xml)
               for event, node in doc:
                   if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p':
                       # Following statement only prints '<p/>'
                       print(node.toxml())
                       doc.expandNode(node)
                       # Following statement prints node with all its children '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
                       print(node.toxml())

      -- Yöntemi: reset ()


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers,  Next: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers,  Prev: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.9 ‘xml.sax’ — Support for SAX2 parsers
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xml.sax: 129. package provides a number of modules which
implement the Simple API for XML (SAX) interface for Python.  The
package itself provides the SAX exceptions and the convenience functions
which will be most used by users of the SAX API.

     Uyarı: The *note xml.sax: 129. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4.

3.7.1 sürümünde değişti: The SAX parser no longer processes general
external entities by default to increase security.  Before, the parser
created network connections to fetch remote files or loaded local files
from the file system for DTD and entities.  The feature can be enabled
again with method *note setFeature(): 35a5. on the parser object and
argument *note feature_external_ges: 35a6.

The convenience functions are:

 -- Işlevi: xml.sax.make_parser (parser_list=[])

     Create and return a SAX *note XMLReader: 359c. object.  The first
     parser found will be used.  If 'parser_list' is provided, it must
     be an iterable of strings which name modules that have a function
     named ‘create_parser()’.  Modules listed in 'parser_list' will be
     used before modules in the default list of parsers.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'parser_list' argument can be any
     iterable, not just a list.

 -- Işlevi: xml.sax.parse (filename_or_stream, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Create a SAX parser and use it to parse a document.  The document,
     passed in as 'filename_or_stream', can be a filename or a file
     object.  The 'handler' parameter needs to be a SAX *note
     ContentHandler: 3599. instance.  If 'error_handler' is given, it
     must be a SAX *note ErrorHandler: 35a7. instance; if omitted, *note
     SAXParseException: 35a8. will be raised on all errors.  There is no
     return value; all work must be done by the 'handler' passed in.

 -- Işlevi: xml.sax.parseString (string, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Similar to *note parse(): 183d, but parses from a buffer 'string'
     received as a parameter.  'string' must be a *note str: 15d.
     instance or a *note bytes-like object: bb5.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support of *note str: 15d. instances.

A typical SAX application uses three kinds of objects: readers, handlers
and input sources.  “Reader” in this context is another term for parser,
i.e.  some piece of code that reads the bytes or characters from the
input source, and produces a sequence of events.  The events then get
distributed to the handler objects, i.e.  the reader invokes a method on
the handler.  A SAX application must therefore obtain a reader object,
create or open the input sources, create the handlers, and connect these
objects all together.  As the final step of preparation, the reader is
called to parse the input.  During parsing, methods on the handler
objects are called based on structural and syntactic events from the
input data.

For these objects, only the interfaces are relevant; they are normally
not instantiated by the application itself.  Since Python does not have
an explicit notion of interface, they are formally introduced as
classes, but applications may use implementations which do not inherit
from the provided classes.  The *note InputSource: d2f, *note Locator:
35a9, ‘Attributes’, ‘AttributesNS’, and *note XMLReader: 359c.
interfaces are defined in the module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c.  The
handler interfaces are defined in *note xml.sax.handler: 12a.  For
convenience, *note InputSource: d2f. (which is often instantiated
directly) and the handler classes are also available from *note xml.sax:
129.  These interfaces are described below.

In addition to these classes, *note xml.sax: 129. provides the following
exception classes.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.sax.SAXException (msg, exception=None)

     Encapsulate an XML error or warning.  This class can contain basic
     error or warning information from either the XML parser or the
     application: it can be subclassed to provide additional
     functionality or to add localization.  Note that although the
     handlers defined in the *note ErrorHandler: 35a7. interface receive
     instances of this exception, it is not required to actually raise
     the exception — it is also useful as a container for information.

     When instantiated, 'msg' should be a human-readable description of
     the error.  The optional 'exception' parameter, if given, should be
     ‘None’ or an exception that was caught by the parsing code and is
     being passed along as information.

     This is the base class for the other SAX exception classes.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.sax.SAXParseException (msg, exception, locator)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 35aa. raised on parse errors.
     Instances of this class are passed to the methods of the SAX *note
     ErrorHandler: 35a7. interface to provide information about the
     parse error.  This class supports the SAX *note Locator: 35a9.
     interface as well as the *note SAXException: 35aa. interface.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException (msg, exception=None)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 35aa. raised when a SAX *note
     XMLReader: 359c. is confronted with an unrecognized feature or
     property.  SAX applications and extensions may use this class for
     similar purposes.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException (msg, exception=None)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 35aa. raised when a SAX *note
     XMLReader: 359c. is asked to enable a feature that is not
     supported, or to set a property to a value that the implementation
     does not support.  SAX applications and extensions may use this
     class for similar purposes.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

SAX: The Simple API for XML(2)

     This site is the focal point for the definition of the SAX API. It
     provides a Java implementation and online documentation.  Links to
     implementations and historical information are also available.

Module *note xml.sax.handler: 12a.

     Definitions of the interfaces for application-provided objects.

Module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 12b.

     Convenience functions for use in SAX applications.

Module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c.

     Definitions of the interfaces for parser-provided objects.

* Menu:

* SAXException Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py

   (2) http://www.saxproject.org/


File: python.info,  Node: SAXException Objects,  Up: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers

5.20.9.1 SAXException Objects
.............................

The *note SAXException: 35aa. exception class supports the following
methods:

 -- Yöntemi: SAXException.getMessage ()

     Return a human-readable message describing the error condition.

 -- Yöntemi: SAXException.getException ()

     Return an encapsulated exception object, or ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers,  Next: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities,  Prev: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.10 ‘xml.sax.handler’ — Base classes for SAX handlers
---------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/handler.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The SAX API defines five kinds of handlers: content handlers, DTD
handlers, error handlers, entity resolvers and lexical handlers.
Applications normally only need to implement those interfaces whose
events they are interested in; they can implement the interfaces in a
single object or in multiple objects.  Handler implementations should
inherit from the base classes provided in the module *note
xml.sax.handler: 12a, so that all methods get default implementations.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler

     This is the main callback interface in SAX, and the one most
     important to applications.  The order of events in this interface
     mirrors the order of the information in the document.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler

     Handle DTD events.

     This interface specifies only those DTD events required for basic
     parsing (unparsed entities and attributes).

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver

     Basic interface for resolving entities.  If you create an object
     implementing this interface, then register the object with your
     Parser, the parser will call the method in your object to resolve
     all external entities.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler

     Interface used by the parser to present error and warning messages
     to the application.  The methods of this object control whether
     errors are immediately converted to exceptions or are handled in
     some other way.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler

     Interface used by the parser to represent low frequency events
     which may not be of interest to many applications.

In addition to these classes, *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. provides
symbolic constants for the feature and property names.

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"’
          true: Perform Namespace processing.
          false: Optionally do not perform Namespace processing (implies namespace-prefixes; default).
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"’
          true: Report the original prefixed names and attributes used for Namespace declarations.
          false: Do not report attributes used for Namespace declarations, and optionally do not report original prefixed names (default).
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"’
          true: All element names, prefixes, attribute names, Namespace URIs, and local names are interned using the built-in intern function.
          false: Names are not necessarily interned, although they may be (default).
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.feature_validation

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"’
          true: Report all validation errors (implies external-general-entities and external-parameter-entities).
          false: Do not report validation errors.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"’
          true: Include all external general (text) entities.
          false: Do not include external general entities.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"’
          true: Include all external parameter entities, including the external DTD subset.
          false: Do not include any external parameter entities, even the external DTD subset.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.all_features

     List of all features.

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"’
          data type: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler (not supported in Python 2)
          description: An optional extension handler for lexical events like comments.
          access: read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"’
          data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (not supported in Python 2)
          description: An optional extension handler for DTD-related events other than notations and unparsed entities.
          access: read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"’
          data type: org.w3c.dom.Node (not supported in Python 2)
          description: When parsing, the current DOM node being visited if this is a DOM iterator; when not parsing, the root DOM node for iteration.
          access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"’
          data type: Bytes
          description: The literal string of characters that was the source for the current event.
          access: read-only

 -- Verisi: xml.sax.handler.all_properties

     List of all known property names.

* Menu:

* ContentHandler Objects::
* DTDHandler Objects::
* EntityResolver Objects::
* ErrorHandler Objects::
* LexicalHandler Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py


File: python.info,  Node: ContentHandler Objects,  Next: DTDHandler Objects,  Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers

5.20.10.1 ContentHandler Objects
................................

Users are expected to subclass *note ContentHandler: 3599. to support
their application.  The following methods are called by the parser on
the appropriate events in the input document:

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator (locator)

     Called by the parser to give the application a locator for locating
     the origin of document events.

     SAX parsers are strongly encouraged (though not absolutely
     required) to supply a locator: if it does so, it must supply the
     locator to the application by invoking this method before invoking
     any of the other methods in the DocumentHandler interface.

     The locator allows the application to determine the end position of
     any document-related event, even if the parser is not reporting an
     error.  Typically, the application will use this information for
     reporting its own errors (such as character content that does not
     match an application’s business rules).  The information returned
     by the locator is probably not sufficient for use with a search
     engine.

     Note that the locator will return correct information only during
     the invocation of the events in this interface.  The application
     should not attempt to use it at any other time.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.startDocument ()

     Receive notification of the beginning of a document.

     The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, before any other
     methods in this interface or in DTDHandler (except for *note
     setDocumentLocator(): 35c2.).

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.endDocument ()

     Receive notification of the end of a document.

     The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, and it will be
     the last method invoked during the parse.  The parser shall not
     invoke this method until it has either abandoned parsing (because
     of an unrecoverable error) or reached the end of input.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping (prefix, uri)

     Begin the scope of a prefix-URI Namespace mapping.

     The information from this event is not necessary for normal
     Namespace processing: the SAX XML reader will automatically replace
     prefixes for element and attribute names when the
     ‘feature_namespaces’ feature is enabled (the default).

     There are cases, however, when applications need to use prefixes in
     character data or in attribute values, where they cannot safely be
     expanded automatically; the *note startPrefixMapping(): 35c5. and
     *note endPrefixMapping(): 35c6. events supply the information to
     the application to expand prefixes in those contexts itself, if
     necessary.

     Note that *note startPrefixMapping(): 35c5. and *note
     endPrefixMapping(): 35c6. events are not guaranteed to be properly
     nested relative to each-other: all *note startPrefixMapping():
     35c5. events will occur before the corresponding *note
     startElement(): 13d0. event, and all *note endPrefixMapping():
     35c6. events will occur after the corresponding *note endElement():
     13d1. event, but their order is not guaranteed.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping (prefix)

     End the scope of a prefix-URI mapping.

     See *note startPrefixMapping(): 35c5. for details.  This event will
     always occur after the corresponding *note endElement(): 13d1.
     event, but the order of *note endPrefixMapping(): 35c6. events is
     not otherwise guaranteed.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.startElement (name, attrs)

     Signals the start of an element in non-namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name of the element
     type as a string and the 'attrs' parameter holds an object of the
     ‘Attributes’ interface (see *note The Attributes Interface: 35c7.)
     containing the attributes of the element.  The object passed as
     'attrs' may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to
     it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.  To keep
     a copy of the attributes, use the *note copy(): 25. method of the
     'attrs' object.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.endElement (name)

     Signals the end of an element in non-namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type, just as
     with the *note startElement(): 13d0. event.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.startElementNS (name, qname, attrs)

     Signals the start of an element in namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type as a
     ‘(uri, localname)’ tuple, the 'qname' parameter contains the raw
     XML 1.0 name used in the source document, and the 'attrs' parameter
     holds an instance of the ‘AttributesNS’ interface (see *note The
     AttributesNS Interface: 35c9.) containing the attributes of the
     element.  If no namespace is associated with the element, the 'uri'
     component of 'name' will be ‘None’.  The object passed as 'attrs'
     may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is
     not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes.  To keep a
     copy of the attributes, use the *note copy(): 25. method of the
     'attrs' object.

     Parsers may set the 'qname' parameter to ‘None’, unless the
     ‘feature_namespace_prefixes’ feature is activated.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.endElementNS (name, qname)

     Signals the end of an element in namespace mode.

     The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type, just as
     with the *note startElementNS(): 35c8. method, likewise the 'qname'
     parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.characters (content)

     Receive notification of character data.

     The Parser will call this method to report each chunk of character
     data.  SAX parsers may return all contiguous character data in a
     single chunk, or they may split it into several chunks; however,
     all of the characters in any single event must come from the same
     external entity so that the Locator provides useful information.

     'content' may be a string or bytes instance; the ‘expat’ reader
     module always produces strings.

          Not: The earlier SAX 1 interface provided by the Python XML
          Special Interest Group used a more Java-like interface for
          this method.  Since most parsers used from Python did not take
          advantage of the older interface, the simpler signature was
          chosen to replace it.  To convert old code to the new
          interface, use 'content' instead of slicing content with the
          old 'offset' and 'length' parameters.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace (whitespace)

     Receive notification of ignorable whitespace in element content.

     Validating Parsers must use this method to report each chunk of
     ignorable whitespace (see the W3C XML 1.0 recommendation, section
     2.10): non-validating parsers may also use this method if they are
     capable of parsing and using content models.

     SAX parsers may return all contiguous whitespace in a single chunk,
     or they may split it into several chunks; however, all of the
     characters in any single event must come from the same external
     entity, so that the Locator provides useful information.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.processingInstruction (target, data)

     Receive notification of a processing instruction.

     The Parser will invoke this method once for each processing
     instruction found: note that processing instructions may occur
     before or after the main document element.

     A SAX parser should never report an XML declaration (XML 1.0,
     section 2.8) or a text declaration (XML 1.0, section 4.3.1) using
     this method.

 -- Yöntemi: ContentHandler.skippedEntity (name)

     Receive notification of a skipped entity.

     The Parser will invoke this method once for each entity skipped.
     Non-validating processors may skip entities if they have not seen
     the declarations (because, for example, the entity was declared in
     an external DTD subset).  All processors may skip external
     entities, depending on the values of the ‘feature_external_ges’ and
     the ‘feature_external_pes’ properties.


File: python.info,  Node: DTDHandler Objects,  Next: EntityResolver Objects,  Prev: ContentHandler Objects,  Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers

5.20.10.2 DTDHandler Objects
............................

*note DTDHandler: 35b3. instances provide the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: DTDHandler.notationDecl (name, publicId, systemId)

     Handle a notation declaration event.

 -- Yöntemi: DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl (name, publicId, systemId,
          ndata)

     Handle an unparsed entity declaration event.


File: python.info,  Node: EntityResolver Objects,  Next: ErrorHandler Objects,  Prev: DTDHandler Objects,  Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers

5.20.10.3 EntityResolver Objects
................................

 -- Yöntemi: EntityResolver.resolveEntity (publicId, systemId)

     Resolve the system identifier of an entity and return either the
     system identifier to read from as a string, or an InputSource to
     read from.  The default implementation returns 'systemId'.


File: python.info,  Node: ErrorHandler Objects,  Next: LexicalHandler Objects,  Prev: EntityResolver Objects,  Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers

5.20.10.4 ErrorHandler Objects
..............................

Objects with this interface are used to receive error and warning
information from the *note XMLReader: 359c.  If you create an object
that implements this interface, then register the object with your *note
XMLReader: 359c, the parser will call the methods in your object to
report all warnings and errors.  There are three levels of errors
available: warnings, (possibly) recoverable errors, and unrecoverable
errors.  All methods take a *note SAXParseException: 35a8. as the only
parameter.  Errors and warnings may be converted to an exception by
raising the passed-in exception object.

 -- Yöntemi: ErrorHandler.error (exception)

     Called when the parser encounters a recoverable error.  If this
     method does not raise an exception, parsing may continue, but
     further document information should not be expected by the
     application.  Allowing the parser to continue may allow additional
     errors to be discovered in the input document.

 -- Yöntemi: ErrorHandler.fatalError (exception)

     Called when the parser encounters an error it cannot recover from;
     parsing is expected to terminate when this method returns.

 -- Yöntemi: ErrorHandler.warning (exception)

     Called when the parser presents minor warning information to the
     application.  Parsing is expected to continue when this method
     returns, and document information will continue to be passed to the
     application.  Raising an exception in this method will cause
     parsing to end.


File: python.info,  Node: LexicalHandler Objects,  Prev: ErrorHandler Objects,  Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers

5.20.10.5 LexicalHandler Objects
................................

Optional SAX2 handler for lexical events.

This handler is used to obtain lexical information about an XML
document.  Lexical information includes information describing the
document encoding used and XML comments embedded in the document, as
well as section boundaries for the DTD and for any CDATA sections.  The
lexical handlers are used in the same manner as content handlers.

Set the LexicalHandler of an XMLReader by using the setProperty method
with the property identifier
‘'http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler'’.

 -- Yöntemi: LexicalHandler.comment (content)

     Reports a comment anywhere in the document (including the DTD and
     outside the document element).

 -- Yöntemi: LexicalHandler.startDTD (name, public_id, system_id)

     Reports the start of the DTD declarations if the document has an
     associated DTD.

 -- Yöntemi: LexicalHandler.endDTD ()

     Reports the end of DTD declaration.

 -- Yöntemi: LexicalHandler.startCDATA ()

     Reports the start of a CDATA marked section.

     The contents of the CDATA marked section will be reported through
     the characters handler.

 -- Yöntemi: LexicalHandler.endCDATA ()

     Reports the end of a CDATA marked section.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities,  Next: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers,  Prev: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.11 ‘xml.sax.saxutils’ — SAX Utilities
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 12b. contains a number of classes and
functions that are commonly useful when creating SAX applications,
either in direct use, or as base classes.

 -- Işlevi: xml.sax.saxutils.escape (data, entities={})

     Escape ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’, and ‘'>'’ in a string of data.

     You can escape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the
     optional 'entities' parameter.  The keys and values must all be
     strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value.
     The characters ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’ are always escaped, even if
     'entities' is provided.

          Not: This function should only be used to escape characters
          that can’t be used directly in XML. Do not use this function
          as a general string translation function.

 -- Işlevi: xml.sax.saxutils.unescape (data, entities={})

     Unescape ‘'&amp;'’, ‘'&lt;'’, and ‘'&gt;'’ in a string of data.

     You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as
     the optional 'entities' parameter.  The keys and values must all be
     strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value.
     ‘'&amp'’, ‘'&lt;'’, and ‘'&gt;'’ are always unescaped, even if
     'entities' is provided.

 -- Işlevi: xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr (data, entities={})

     Similar to *note escape(): 35e3, but also prepares 'data' to be
     used as an attribute value.  The return value is a quoted version
     of 'data' with any additional required replacements.  *note
     quoteattr(): 35e5. will select a quote character based on the
     content of 'data', attempting to avoid encoding any quote
     characters in the string.  If both single- and double-quote
     characters are already in 'data', the double-quote characters will
     be encoded and 'data' will be wrapped in double-quotes.  The
     resulting string can be used directly as an attribute value:

          >>> print("<element attr=%s>" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef"))
          <element attr="ab ' cd &quot; ef">

     This function is useful when generating attribute values for HTML
     or any SGML using the reference concrete syntax.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator (out=None,
          encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False)

     This class implements the *note ContentHandler: 3599. interface by
     writing SAX events back into an XML document.  In other words,
     using an *note XMLGenerator: 35e6. as the content handler will
     reproduce the original document being parsed.  'out' should be a
     file-like object which will default to 'sys.stdout'.  'encoding' is
     the encoding of the output stream which defaults to ‘'iso-8859-1'’.
     'short_empty_elements' controls the formatting of elements that
     contain no content: if ‘False’ (the default) they are emitted as a
     pair of start/end tags, if set to ‘True’ they are emitted as a
     single self-closed tag.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase (base)

     This class is designed to sit between an *note XMLReader: 359c. and
     the client application’s event handlers.  By default, it does
     nothing but pass requests up to the reader and events on to the
     handlers unmodified, but subclasses can override specific methods
     to modify the event stream or the configuration requests as they
     pass through.

 -- Işlevi: xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source (source, base='')

     This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and
     returns a fully resolved *note InputSource: d2f. object ready for
     reading.  The input source can be given as a string, a file-like
     object, or an *note InputSource: d2f. object; parsers will use this
     function to implement the polymorphic 'source' argument to their
     *note parse(): 35e9. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers,  Next: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat,  Prev: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.12 ‘xml.sax.xmlreader’ — Interface for XML parsers
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

SAX parsers implement the *note XMLReader: 359c. interface.  They are
implemented in a Python module, which must provide a function
‘create_parser()’.  This function is invoked by *note
xml.sax.make_parser(): 1878. with no arguments to create a new parser
object.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader

     Base class which can be inherited by SAX parsers.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser

     In some cases, it is desirable not to parse an input source at
     once, but to feed chunks of the document as they get available.
     Note that the reader will normally not read the entire file, but
     read it in chunks as well; still ‘parse()’ won’t return until the
     entire document is processed.  So these interfaces should be used
     if the blocking behaviour of ‘parse()’ is not desirable.

     When the parser is instantiated it is ready to begin accepting data
     from the feed method immediately.  After parsing has been finished
     with a call to close the reset method must be called to make the
     parser ready to accept new data, either from feed or using the
     parse method.

     Note that these methods must 'not' be called during parsing, that
     is, after parse has been called and before it returns.

     By default, the class also implements the parse method of the
     XMLReader interface using the feed, close and reset methods of the
     IncrementalParser interface as a convenience to SAX 2.0 driver
     writers.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator

     Interface for associating a SAX event with a document location.  A
     locator object will return valid results only during calls to
     DocumentHandler methods; at any other time, the results are
     unpredictable.  If information is not available, methods may return
     ‘None’.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource (system_id=None)

     Encapsulation of the information needed by the *note XMLReader:
     359c. to read entities.

     This class may include information about the public identifier,
     system identifier, byte stream (possibly with character encoding
     information) and/or the character stream of an entity.

     Applications will create objects of this class for use in the *note
     XMLReader.parse(): 35e9. method and for returning from
     EntityResolver.resolveEntity.

     An *note InputSource: d2f. belongs to the application, the *note
     XMLReader: 359c. is not allowed to modify *note InputSource: d2f.
     objects passed to it from the application, although it may make
     copies and modify those.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl (attrs)

     This is an implementation of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see
     section *note The Attributes Interface: 35c7.).  This is a
     dictionary-like object which represents the element attributes in a
     ‘startElement()’ call.  In addition to the most useful dictionary
     operations, it supports a number of other methods as described by
     the interface.  Objects of this class should be instantiated by
     readers; 'attrs' must be a dictionary-like object containing a
     mapping from attribute names to attribute values.

 -- Sınıfı: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl (attrs, qnames)

     Namespace-aware variant of *note AttributesImpl: 35ed, which will
     be passed to ‘startElementNS()’.  It is derived from *note
     AttributesImpl: 35ed, but understands attribute names as two-tuples
     of 'namespaceURI' and 'localname'.  In addition, it provides a
     number of methods expecting qualified names as they appear in the
     original document.  This class implements the ‘AttributesNS’
     interface (see section *note The AttributesNS Interface: 35c9.).

* Menu:

* XMLReader Objects::
* IncrementalParser Objects::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource Objects::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py


File: python.info,  Node: XMLReader Objects,  Next: IncrementalParser Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.20.12.1 XMLReader Objects
...........................

The *note XMLReader: 359c. interface supports the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.parse (source)

     Process an input source, producing SAX events.  The 'source' object
     can be a system identifier (a string identifying the input source –
     typically a file name or a URL), a *note pathlib.Path: 14f. or
     *note path-like: 98e. object, or an *note InputSource: d2f. object.
     When *note parse(): 35e9. returns, the input is completely
     processed, and the parser object can be discarded or reset.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support of character streams.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added support of path-like objects.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.getContentHandler ()

     Return the current *note ContentHandler: 3599.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.setContentHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note ContentHandler: 3599.  If no *note
     ContentHandler: 3599. is set, content events will be discarded.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.getDTDHandler ()

     Return the current *note DTDHandler: 35b3.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.setDTDHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note DTDHandler: 35b3.  If no *note DTDHandler:
     35b3. is set, DTD events will be discarded.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.getEntityResolver ()

     Return the current *note EntityResolver: 35b4.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.setEntityResolver (handler)

     Set the current *note EntityResolver: 35b4.  If no *note
     EntityResolver: 35b4. is set, attempts to resolve an external
     entity will result in opening the system identifier for the entity,
     and fail if it is not available.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.getErrorHandler ()

     Return the current *note ErrorHandler: 35a7.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.setErrorHandler (handler)

     Set the current error handler.  If no *note ErrorHandler: 35a7. is
     set, errors will be raised as exceptions, and warnings will be
     printed.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.setLocale (locale)

     Allow an application to set the locale for errors and warnings.

     SAX parsers are not required to provide localization for errors and
     warnings; if they cannot support the requested locale, however,
     they must raise a SAX exception.  Applications may request a locale
     change in the middle of a parse.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.getFeature (featurename)

     Return the current setting for feature 'featurename'.  If the
     feature is not recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.
     The well-known featurenames are listed in the module *note
     xml.sax.handler: 12a.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.setFeature (featurename, value)

     Set the 'featurename' to 'value'.  If the feature is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the feature
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.getProperty (propertyname)

     Return the current setting for property 'propertyname'.  If the
     property is not recognized, a ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is
     raised.  The well-known propertynames are listed in the module
     *note xml.sax.handler: 12a.

 -- Yöntemi: XMLReader.setProperty (propertyname, value)

     Set the 'propertyname' to 'value'.  If the property is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the property
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalParser Objects,  Next: Locator Objects,  Prev: XMLReader Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.20.12.2 IncrementalParser Objects
...................................

Instances of *note IncrementalParser: 35ec. offer the following
additional methods:

 -- Yöntemi: IncrementalParser.feed (data)

     Process a chunk of 'data'.

 -- Yöntemi: IncrementalParser.close ()

     Assume the end of the document.  That will check well-formedness
     conditions that can be checked only at the end, invoke handlers,
     and may clean up resources allocated during parsing.

 -- Yöntemi: IncrementalParser.reset ()

     This method is called after close has been called to reset the
     parser so that it is ready to parse new documents.  The results of
     calling parse or feed after close without calling reset are
     undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Locator Objects,  Next: InputSource Objects,  Prev: IncrementalParser Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.20.12.3 Locator Objects
.........................

Instances of *note Locator: 35a9. provide these methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Locator.getColumnNumber ()

     Return the column number where the current event begins.

 -- Yöntemi: Locator.getLineNumber ()

     Return the line number where the current event begins.

 -- Yöntemi: Locator.getPublicId ()

     Return the public identifier for the current event.

 -- Yöntemi: Locator.getSystemId ()

     Return the system identifier for the current event.


File: python.info,  Node: InputSource Objects,  Next: The Attributes Interface,  Prev: Locator Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.20.12.4 InputSource Objects
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.setPublicId (id)

     Sets the public identifier of this *note InputSource: d2f.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.getPublicId ()

     Returns the public identifier of this *note InputSource: d2f.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.setSystemId (id)

     Sets the system identifier of this *note InputSource: d2f.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.getSystemId ()

     Returns the system identifier of this *note InputSource: d2f.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.setEncoding (encoding)

     Sets the character encoding of this *note InputSource: d2f.

     The encoding must be a string acceptable for an XML encoding
     declaration (see section 4.3.3 of the XML recommendation).

     The encoding attribute of the *note InputSource: d2f. is ignored if
     the *note InputSource: d2f. also contains a character stream.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.getEncoding ()

     Get the character encoding of this InputSource.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.setByteStream (bytefile)

     Set the byte stream (a *note binary file: 1ad0.) for this input
     source.

     The SAX parser will ignore this if there is also a character stream
     specified, but it will use a byte stream in preference to opening a
     URI connection itself.

     If the application knows the character encoding of the byte stream,
     it should set it with the setEncoding method.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.getByteStream ()

     Get the byte stream for this input source.

     The getEncoding method will return the character encoding for this
     byte stream, or ‘None’ if unknown.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.setCharacterStream (charfile)

     Set the character stream (a *note text file: 1acf.) for this input
     source.

     If there is a character stream specified, the SAX parser will
     ignore any byte stream and will not attempt to open a URI
     connection to the system identifier.

 -- Yöntemi: InputSource.getCharacterStream ()

     Get the character stream for this input source.


File: python.info,  Node: The Attributes Interface,  Next: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: InputSource Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.20.12.5 The ‘Attributes’ Interface
....................................

‘Attributes’ objects implement a portion of the *note mapping protocol:
1061, including the methods ‘copy()’, ‘get()’, *note __contains__():
1d4b, ‘items()’, ‘keys()’, and ‘values()’.  The following methods are
also provided:

 -- Yöntemi: Attributes.getLength ()

     Return the number of attributes.

 -- Yöntemi: Attributes.getNames ()

     Return the names of the attributes.

 -- Yöntemi: Attributes.getType (name)

     Returns the type of the attribute 'name', which is normally
     ‘'CDATA'’.

 -- Yöntemi: Attributes.getValue (name)

     Return the value of attribute 'name'.


File: python.info,  Node: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: The Attributes Interface,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.20.12.6 The ‘AttributesNS’ Interface
......................................

This interface is a subtype of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see section
*note The Attributes Interface: 35c7.).  All methods supported by that
interface are also available on ‘AttributesNS’ objects.

The following methods are also available:

 -- Yöntemi: AttributesNS.getValueByQName (name)

     Return the value for a qualified name.

 -- Yöntemi: AttributesNS.getNameByQName (name)

     Return the ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair for a qualified 'name'.

 -- Yöntemi: AttributesNS.getQNameByName (name)

     Return the qualified name for a ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair.

 -- Yöntemi: AttributesNS.getQNames ()

     Return the qualified names of all attributes.


File: python.info,  Node: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat,  Prev: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.20.13 ‘xml.parsers.expat’ — Fast XML parsing using Expat
----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

     Uyarı: The ‘pyexpat’ module is not secure against maliciously
     constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4.

The *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. module is a Python interface to the
Expat non-validating XML parser.  The module provides a single extension
type, ‘xmlparser’, that represents the current state of an XML parser.
After an ‘xmlparser’ object has been created, various attributes of the
object can be set to handler functions.  When an XML document is then
fed to the parser, the handler functions are called for the character
data and markup in the XML document.

This module uses the ‘pyexpat’ module to provide access to the Expat
parser.  Direct use of the ‘pyexpat’ module is deprecated.

This module provides one exception and one type object:

 -- Özel Durum: xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError

     The exception raised when Expat reports an error.  See section
     *note ExpatError Exceptions: 3620. for more information on
     interpreting Expat errors.

 -- Özel Durum: xml.parsers.expat.error

     Alias for *note ExpatError: 1121.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType

     The type of the return values from the *note ParserCreate(): 3623.
     function.

The *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. module contains two functions:

 -- Işlevi: xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString (errno)

     Returns an explanatory string for a given error number 'errno'.

 -- Işlevi: xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate (encoding=None,
          namespace_separator=None)

     Creates and returns a new ‘xmlparser’ object.  'encoding', if
     specified, must be a string naming the encoding used by the XML
     data.  Expat doesn’t support as many encodings as Python does, and
     its repertoire of encodings can’t be extended; it supports UTF-8,
     UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1), and ASCII. If 'encoding' (1) is given
     it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the document.

     Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled
     by providing a value for 'namespace_separator'.  The value must be
     a one-character string; a *note ValueError: 189. will be raised if
     the string has an illegal length (‘None’ is considered the same as
     omission).  When namespace processing is enabled, element type
     names and attribute names that belong to a namespace will be
     expanded.  The element name passed to the element handlers
     ‘StartElementHandler’ and ‘EndElementHandler’ will be the
     concatenation of the namespace URI, the namespace separator
     character, and the local part of the name.  If the namespace
     separator is a zero byte (‘chr(0)’) then the namespace URI and the
     local part will be concatenated without any separator.

     For example, if 'namespace_separator' is set to a space character
     (‘' '’) and the following document is parsed:

          <?xml version="1.0"?>
          <root xmlns    = "http://default-namespace.org/"
                xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/">
            <py:elem1 />
            <elem2 xmlns="" />
          </root>

     ‘StartElementHandler’ will receive the following strings for each
     element:

          http://default-namespace.org/ root
          http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
          elem2

     Due to limitations in the ‘Expat’ library used by ‘pyexpat’, the
     ‘xmlparser’ instance returned can only be used to parse a single
     XML document.  Call ‘ParserCreate’ for each document to provide
     unique parser instances.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The Expat XML Parser(2)

     Home page of the Expat project.

* Menu:

* XMLParser Objects: XMLParser Objects<2>.
* ExpatError Exceptions::
* Example: Example<10>.
* Content Model Descriptions::
* Expat error constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (2) http://www.libexpat.org/


File: python.info,  Node: XMLParser Objects<2>,  Next: ExpatError Exceptions,  Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.20.13.1 XMLParser Objects
...........................

‘xmlparser’ objects have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.Parse (data[, isfinal])

     Parses the contents of the string 'data', calling the appropriate
     handler functions to process the parsed data.  'isfinal' must be
     true on the final call to this method; it allows the parsing of a
     single file in fragments, not the submission of multiple files.
     'data' can be the empty string at any time.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.ParseFile (file)

     Parse XML data reading from the object 'file'.  'file' only needs
     to provide the ‘read(nbytes)’ method, returning the empty string
     when there’s no more data.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.SetBase (base)

     Sets the base to be used for resolving relative URIs in system
     identifiers in declarations.  Resolving relative identifiers is
     left to the application: this value will be passed through as the
     'base' argument to the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 362a,
     *note NotationDeclHandler(): 362b, and *note
     UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(): 362c. functions.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.GetBase ()

     Returns a string containing the base set by a previous call to
     *note SetBase(): 3629, or ‘None’ if *note SetBase(): 3629. hasn’t
     been called.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.GetInputContext ()

     Returns the input data that generated the current event as a
     string.  The data is in the encoding of the entity which contains
     the text.  When called while an event handler is not active, the
     return value is ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate (context[, encoding])

     Create a “child” parser which can be used to parse an external
     parsed entity referred to by content parsed by the parent parser.
     The 'context' parameter should be the string passed to the *note
     ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 362a. handler function, described
     below.  The child parser is created with the *note
     ordered_attributes: 362f. and *note specified_attributes: 3630. set
     to the values of this parser.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing (flag)

     Control parsing of parameter entities (including the external DTD
     subset).  Possible 'flag' values are
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER’,
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE’ and
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS’.  Return true if setting the flag
     was successful.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.UseForeignDTD ([flag])

     Calling this with a true value for 'flag' (the default) will cause
     Expat to call the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 362a. with *note
     None: 488. for all arguments to allow an alternate DTD to be
     loaded.  If the document does not contain a document type
     declaration, the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 362a. will still
     be called, but the *note StartDoctypeDeclHandler: 3633. and *note
     EndDoctypeDeclHandler: 3634. will not be called.

     Passing a false value for 'flag' will cancel a previous call that
     passed a true value, but otherwise has no effect.

     This method can only be called before the *note Parse(): 3627. or
     *note ParseFile(): 3628. methods are called; calling it after
     either of those have been called causes *note ExpatError: 1121. to
     be raised with the *note code: 1a. attribute set to
     ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]’.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled (enabled)

          Uyarı: Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ has security
          implications, as detailed below; please make sure to
          understand these consequences prior to using the
          ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled’ method.

     Expat 2.6.0 introduced a security mechanism called “reparse
     deferral” where instead of causing denial of service through
     quadratic runtime from reparsing large tokens, reparsing of
     unfinished tokens is now delayed by default until a sufficient
     amount of input is reached.  Due to this delay, registered handlers
     may — depending of the sizing of input chunks pushed to Expat — no
     longer be called right after pushing new input to the parser.
     Where immediate feedback and taking over responsibility of
     protecting against denial of service from large tokens are both
     wanted, calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ disables reparse
     deferral for the current Expat parser instance, temporarily or
     altogether.  Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True)’ allows
     re-enabling reparse deferral.

     Note that *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 148f. has been
     backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix.
     Check for availability of *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 148f.
     using *note hasattr(): 200. if used in code running across a
     variety of Python versions.

     Added in version 3.12.3.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled ()

     Returns whether reparse deferral is currently enabled for the given
     Expat parser instance.

     Added in version 3.12.3.

‘xmlparser’ objects have the following attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.buffer_size

     The size of the buffer used when *note buffer_text: 134d. is true.
     A new buffer size can be set by assigning a new integer value to
     this attribute.  When the size is changed, the buffer will be
     flushed.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.buffer_text

     Setting this to true causes the ‘xmlparser’ object to buffer
     textual content returned by Expat to avoid multiple calls to the
     *note CharacterDataHandler(): 3636. callback whenever possible.
     This can improve performance substantially since Expat normally
     breaks character data into chunks at every line ending.  This
     attribute is false by default, and may be changed at any time.
     Note that when it is false, data that does not contain newlines may
     be chunked too.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.buffer_used

     If *note buffer_text: 134d. is enabled, the number of bytes stored
     in the buffer.  These bytes represent UTF-8 encoded text.  This
     attribute has no meaningful interpretation when *note buffer_text:
     134d. is false.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.ordered_attributes

     Setting this attribute to a non-zero integer causes the attributes
     to be reported as a list rather than a dictionary.  The attributes
     are presented in the order found in the document text.  For each
     attribute, two list entries are presented: the attribute name and
     the attribute value.  (Older versions of this module also used this
     format.)  By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at
     any time.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.specified_attributes

     If set to a non-zero integer, the parser will report only those
     attributes which were specified in the document instance and not
     those which were derived from attribute declarations.  Applications
     which set this need to be especially careful to use what additional
     information is available from the declarations as needed to comply
     with the standards for the behavior of XML processors.  By default,
     this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time.

The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent
error encountered by an ‘xmlparser’ object, and will only have correct
values once a call to ‘Parse()’ or ‘ParseFile()’ has raised an *note
xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 1121. exception.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex

     Byte index at which an error occurred.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.ErrorCode

     Numeric code specifying the problem.  This value can be passed to
     the *note ErrorString(): 3624. function, or compared to one of the
     constants defined in the ‘errors’ object.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber

     Column number at which an error occurred.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber

     Line number at which an error occurred.

The following attributes contain values relating to the current parse
location in an ‘xmlparser’ object.  During a callback reporting a parse
event they indicate the location of the first of the sequence of
characters that generated the event.  When called outside of a callback,
the position indicated will be just past the last parse event
(regardless of whether there was an associated callback).

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex

     Current byte index in the parser input.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber

     Current column number in the parser input.

 -- Özniteliği: xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber

     Current line number in the parser input.

Here is the list of handlers that can be set.  To set a handler on an
‘xmlparser’ object 'o', use ‘o.handlername = func’.  'handlername' must
be taken from the following list, and 'func' must be a callable object
accepting the correct number of arguments.  The arguments are all
strings, unless otherwise stated.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler (version, encoding, standalone)

     Called when the XML declaration is parsed.  The XML declaration is
     the (optional) declaration of the applicable version of the XML
     recommendation, the encoding of the document text, and an optional
     “standalone” declaration.  'version' and 'encoding' will be
     strings, and 'standalone' will be ‘1’ if the document is declared
     standalone, ‘0’ if it is declared not to be standalone, or ‘-1’ if
     the standalone clause was omitted.  This is only available with
     Expat version 1.95.0 or newer.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler (doctypeName, systemId,
          publicId, has_internal_subset)

     Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration
     (‘<!DOCTYPE ...’).  The 'doctypeName' is provided exactly as
     presented.  The 'systemId' and 'publicId' parameters give the
     system and public identifiers if specified, or ‘None’ if omitted.
     'has_internal_subset' will be true if the document contains and
     internal document declaration subset.  This requires Expat version
     1.2 or newer.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler ()

     Called when Expat is done parsing the document type declaration.
     This requires Expat version 1.2 or newer.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler (name, model)

     Called once for each element type declaration.  'name' is the name
     of the element type, and 'model' is a representation of the content
     model.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler (elname, attname, type,
          default, required)

     Called for each declared attribute for an element type.  If an
     attribute list declaration declares three attributes, this handler
     is called three times, once for each attribute.  'elname' is the
     name of the element to which the declaration applies and 'attname'
     is the name of the attribute declared.  The attribute type is a
     string passed as 'type'; the possible values are ‘'CDATA'’, ‘'ID'’,
     ‘'IDREF'’, … 'default' gives the default value for the attribute
     used when the attribute is not specified by the document instance,
     or ‘None’ if there is no default value (‘#IMPLIED’ values).  If the
     attribute is required to be given in the document instance,
     'required' will be true.  This requires Expat version 1.95.0 or
     newer.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.StartElementHandler (name, attributes)

     Called for the start of every element.  'name' is a string
     containing the element name, and 'attributes' is the element
     attributes.  If *note ordered_attributes: 362f. is true, this is a
     list (see *note ordered_attributes: 362f. for a full description).
     Otherwise it’s a dictionary mapping names to values.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.EndElementHandler (name)

     Called for the end of every element.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler (target, data)

     Called for every processing instruction.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler (data)

     Called for character data.  This will be called for normal
     character data, CDATA marked content, and ignorable whitespace.
     Applications which must distinguish these cases can use the *note
     StartCdataSectionHandler: 3645, *note EndCdataSectionHandler: 3646,
     and *note ElementDeclHandler: 3640. callbacks to collect the
     required information.  Note that the character data may be chunked
     even if it is short and so you may receive more than one call to
     *note CharacterDataHandler(): 3636.  Set the *note buffer_text:
     134d. instance attribute to ‘True’ to avoid that.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler (entityName, base,
          systemId, publicId, notationName)

     Called for unparsed (NDATA) entity declarations.  This is only
     present for version 1.2 of the Expat library; for more recent
     versions, use *note EntityDeclHandler: 3647. instead.  (The
     underlying function in the Expat library has been declared
     obsolete.)

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler (entityName,
          is_parameter_entity, value, base, systemId, publicId,
          notationName)

     Called for all entity declarations.  For parameter and internal
     entities, 'value' will be a string giving the declared contents of
     the entity; this will be ‘None’ for external entities.  The
     'notationName' parameter will be ‘None’ for parsed entities, and
     the name of the notation for unparsed entities.
     'is_parameter_entity' will be true if the entity is a parameter
     entity or false for general entities (most applications only need
     to be concerned with general entities).  This is only available
     starting with version 1.95.0 of the Expat library.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler (notationName, base,
          systemId, publicId)

     Called for notation declarations.  'notationName', 'base', and
     'systemId', and 'publicId' are strings if given.  If the public
     identifier is omitted, 'publicId' will be ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix, uri)

     Called when an element contains a namespace declaration.  Namespace
     declarations are processed before the *note StartElementHandler:
     3642. is called for the element on which declarations are placed.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix)

     Called when the closing tag is reached for an element that
     contained a namespace declaration.  This is called once for each
     namespace declaration on the element in the reverse of the order
     for which the *note StartNamespaceDeclHandler: 3648. was called to
     indicate the start of each namespace declaration’s scope.  Calls to
     this handler are made after the corresponding *note
     EndElementHandler: 3643. for the end of the element.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.CommentHandler (data)

     Called for comments.  'data' is the text of the comment, excluding
     the leading ‘'<!-’‘-'’ and trailing ‘'-’‘->'’.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler ()

     Called at the start of a CDATA section.  This and *note
     EndCdataSectionHandler: 3646. are needed to be able to identify the
     syntactical start and end for CDATA sections.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler ()

     Called at the end of a CDATA section.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.DefaultHandler (data)

     Called for any characters in the XML document for which no
     applicable handler has been specified.  This means characters that
     are part of a construct which could be reported, but for which no
     handler has been supplied.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand (data)

     This is the same as the *note DefaultHandler(): 364b, but doesn’t
     inhibit expansion of internal entities.  The entity reference will
     not be passed to the default handler.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler ()

     Called if the XML document hasn’t been declared as being a
     standalone document.  This happens when there is an external subset
     or a reference to a parameter entity, but the XML declaration does
     not set standalone to ‘yes’ in an XML declaration.  If this handler
     returns ‘0’, then the parser will raise an
     ‘XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE’ error.  If this handler is not set, no
     exception is raised by the parser for this condition.

 -- Yöntemi: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler (context, base,
          systemId, publicId)

     Called for references to external entities.  'base' is the current
     base, as set by a previous call to *note SetBase(): 3629.  The
     public and system identifiers, 'systemId' and 'publicId', are
     strings if given; if the public identifier is not given, 'publicId'
     will be ‘None’.  The 'context' value is opaque and should only be
     used as described below.

     For external entities to be parsed, this handler must be
     implemented.  It is responsible for creating the sub-parser using
     ‘ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)’, initializing it with the
     appropriate callbacks, and parsing the entity.  This handler should
     return an integer; if it returns ‘0’, the parser will raise an
     ‘XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING’ error, otherwise parsing will
     continue.

     If this handler is not provided, external entities are reported by
     the *note DefaultHandler: 364b. callback, if provided.


File: python.info,  Node: ExpatError Exceptions,  Next: Example<10>,  Prev: XMLParser Objects<2>,  Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.20.13.2 ExpatError Exceptions
...............................

*note ExpatError: 1121. exceptions have a number of interesting
attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: ExpatError.code

     Expat’s internal error number for the specific error.  The *note
     errors.messages: 3650. dictionary maps these error numbers to
     Expat’s error messages.  For example:

          from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors

          p = ParserCreate()
          try:
              p.Parse(some_xml_document)
          except ExpatError as err:
              print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code])

     The *note errors: 127. module also provides error message constants
     and a dictionary *note codes: 3651. mapping these messages back to
     the error codes, see below.

 -- Özniteliği: ExpatError.lineno

     Line number on which the error was detected.  The first line is
     numbered ‘1’.

 -- Özniteliği: ExpatError.offset

     Character offset into the line where the error occurred.  The first
     column is numbered ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<10>,  Next: Content Model Descriptions,  Prev: ExpatError Exceptions,  Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.20.13.3 Example
.................

The following program defines three handlers that just print out their
arguments.

     import xml.parsers.expat

     # 3 handler functions
     def start_element(name, attrs):
         print('Start element:', name, attrs)
     def end_element(name):
         print('End element:', name)
     def char_data(data):
         print('Character data:', repr(data))

     p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate()

     p.StartElementHandler = start_element
     p.EndElementHandler = end_element
     p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data

     p.Parse("""<?xml version="1.0"?>
     <parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1>
     <child2 name="fred">More text</child2>
     </parent>""", 1)

The output from this program is:

     Start element: parent {'id': 'top'}
     Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'}
     Character data: 'Text goes here'
     End element: child1
     Character data: '\n'
     Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'}
     Character data: 'More text'
     End element: child2
     Character data: '\n'
     End element: parent


File: python.info,  Node: Content Model Descriptions,  Next: Expat error constants,  Prev: Example<10>,  Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.20.13.4 Content Model Descriptions
....................................

Content models are described using nested tuples.  Each tuple contains
four values: the type, the quantifier, the name, and a tuple of
children.  Children are simply additional content model descriptions.

The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the *note
xml.parsers.expat.model: 128. module.  These constants can be collected
in two groups: the model type group and the quantifier group.

The constants in the model type group are:

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_ANY

     The element named by the model name was declared to have a content
     model of ‘ANY’.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_CHOICE

     The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is
     used for content models such as ‘(A | B | C)’.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_EMPTY

     Elements which are declared to be ‘EMPTY’ have this model type.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_MIXED

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_NAME

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_SEQ

     Models which represent a series of models which follow one after
     the other are indicated with this model type.  This is used for
     models such as ‘(A, B, C)’.

The constants in the quantifier group are:

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_NONE

     No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for ‘A’.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_OPT

     The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for
     ‘A?’.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_PLUS

     The model must occur one or more times (like ‘A+’).

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_REP

     The model must occur zero or more times, as for ‘A*’.


File: python.info,  Node: Expat error constants,  Prev: Content Model Descriptions,  Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat

5.20.13.5 Expat error constants
...............................

The following constants are provided in the *note
xml.parsers.expat.errors: 127. module.  These constants are useful in
interpreting some of the attributes of the ‘ExpatError’ exception
objects raised when an error has occurred.  Since for backwards
compatibility reasons, the constants’ value is the error 'message' and
not the numeric error 'code', you do this by comparing its *note code:
1a. attribute with ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CONSTANT_NAME]’.

The ‘errors’ module has the following attributes:

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes

     A dictionary mapping string descriptions to their error codes.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages

     A dictionary mapping numeric error codes to their string
     descriptions.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY

 -- Verisi:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference in an attribute value referred to an external
     entity instead of an internal entity.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF

     A character reference referred to a character which is illegal in
     XML (for example, character ‘0’, or ‘‘&#0;’’).

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference referred to an entity which was declared with a
     notation, so cannot be parsed.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE

     An attribute was used more than once in a start tag.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN

     Raised when an input byte could not properly be assigned to a
     character; for example, a NUL byte (value ‘0’) in a UTF-8 input
     stream.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT

     Something other than whitespace occurred after the document
     element.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI

     An XML declaration was found somewhere other than the start of the
     input data.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS

     The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to
     contain exactly one top-level element)..

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY

     Expat was not able to allocate memory internally.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF

     A parameter entity reference was found where it was not allowed.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR

     An incomplete character was found in the input.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF

     An entity reference contained another reference to the same entity;
     possibly via a different name, and possibly indirectly.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX

     Some unspecified syntax error was encountered.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH

     An end tag did not match the innermost open start tag.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN

     Some token (such as a start tag) was not closed before the end of
     the stream or the next token was encountered.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY

     A reference was made to an entity which was not defined.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING

     The document encoding is not supported by Expat.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION

     A CDATA marked section was not closed.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE

     The parser determined that the document was not “standalone” though
     it declared itself to be in the XML declaration, and the
     ‘NotStandaloneHandler’ was set and returned ‘0’.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD

     An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled
     in, but Expat was configured without DTD support.  This should
     never be reported by a standard build of the *note
     xml.parsers.expat: 126. module.

 -- Verisi:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING

     A behavioral change was requested after parsing started that can
     only be changed before parsing has started.  This is (currently)
     only raised by ‘UseForeignDTD()’.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX

     An undeclared prefix was found when namespace processing was
     enabled.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX

     The document attempted to remove the namespace declaration
     associated with a prefix.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE

     A parameter entity contained incomplete markup.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL

     The document contained no document element at all.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL

     There was an error parsing a text declaration in an external
     entity.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID

     Characters were found in the public id that are not allowed.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED

     The requested operation was made on a suspended parser, but isn’t
     allowed.  This includes attempts to provide additional input or to
     stop the parser.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED

     An attempt to resume the parser was made when the parser had not
     been suspended.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED

     The requested operation was made on a parser which was finished
     parsing input, but isn’t allowed.  This includes attempts to
     provide additional input or to stop the parser.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML

     An attempt was made to undeclare reserved namespace prefix ‘xml’ or
     to bind it to another namespace URI.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS

     An attempt was made to declare or undeclare reserved namespace
     prefix ‘xmlns’.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI

     An attempt was made to bind the URI of one the reserved namespace
     prefixes ‘xml’ and ‘xmlns’ to another namespace prefix.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- Verisi: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER

     This should not be reported to Python applications.

 -- Verisi:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH

     The limit on input amplification factor (from DTD and entities) has
     been breached.


File: python.info,  Node: Internet Protocols and Support,  Next: Multimedia Services,  Prev: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.21 Internet Protocols and Support
===================================

The modules described in this chapter implement internet protocols and
support for related technology.  They are all implemented in Python.
Most of these modules require the presence of the system-dependent
module *note socket: cb, which is currently supported on most popular
platforms.  Here is an overview:

* Menu:

* webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller::
* wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation::
* urllib — URL handling modules::
* urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
* urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
* http — HTTP modules::
* http.client — HTTP protocol client: http client — HTTP protocol client.
* ftplib — FTP protocol client::
* poplib — POP3 protocol client::
* imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client::
* smtplib — SMTP protocol client::
* uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122::
* socketserver — A framework for network servers::
* http.server — HTTP servers: http server — HTTP servers.
* http.cookies — HTTP state management: http cookies — HTTP state management.
* http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
* xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules::
* xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
* ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library::


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller,  Next: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.1 ‘webbrowser’ — Convenient web-browser controller
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/webbrowser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note webbrowser: 115. module provides a high-level interface to
allow displaying web-based documents to users.  Under most
circumstances, simply calling the *note open(): 368a. function from this
module will do the right thing.

Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode
browsers will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11
display isn’t available.  If text-mode browsers are used, the calling
process will block until the user exits the browser.

If the environment variable ‘BROWSER’ exists, it is interpreted as the
*note os.pathsep: 1b8b.-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the
platform defaults.  When the value of a list part contains the string
‘%s’, then it is interpreted as a literal browser command line to be
used with the argument URL substituted for ‘%s’; if the part does not
contain ‘%s’, it is simply interpreted as the name of the browser to
launch.  (2)

For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix,
the controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the
browser, but allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the
display.  If remote browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling
process will launch a new browser and wait.

The script ‘webbrowser’ can be used as a command-line interface for the
module.  It accepts a URL as the argument.  It accepts the following
optional parameters:

 -- Option: -n, --new-window

     Opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible.

 -- Option: -t, --new-tab

     Opens the URL in a new browser tab.

The options are, naturally, mutually exclusive.  Usage example:

     python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org"

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The following exception is defined:

 -- Özel Durum: webbrowser.Error

     Exception raised when a browser control error occurs.

The following functions are defined:

 -- Işlevi: webbrowser.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the default browser.  If 'new' is 0, the 'url'
     is opened in the same browser window if possible.  If 'new' is 1, a
     new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new' is 2, a new
     browser page (“tab”) is opened if possible.  If 'autoraise' is
     ‘True’, the window is raised if possible (note that under many
     window managers this will occur regardless of the setting of this
     variable).

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this
     function, may work and start the operating system’s associated
     program.  However, this is neither supported nor portable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘webbrowser.open’ with
     argument ‘url’.

 -- Işlevi: webbrowser.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the default browser, if possible,
     otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser window.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: webbrowser.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page (“tab”) of the default browser, if
     possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new(): 3690.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: webbrowser.get (using=None)

     Return a controller object for the browser type 'using'.  If
     'using' is ‘None’, return a controller for a default browser
     appropriate to the caller’s environment.

 -- Işlevi: webbrowser.register (name, constructor, instance=None, *,
          preferred=False)

     Register the browser type 'name'.  Once a browser type is
     registered, the *note get(): 3692. function can return a controller
     for that browser type.  If 'instance' is not provided, or is
     ‘None’, 'constructor' will be called without parameters to create
     an instance when needed.  If 'instance' is provided, 'constructor'
     will never be called, and may be ‘None’.

     Setting 'preferred' to ‘True’ makes this browser a preferred result
     for a *note get(): 3692. call with no argument.  Otherwise, this
     entry point is only useful if you plan to either set the ‘BROWSER’
     variable or call *note get(): 3692. with a nonempty argument
     matching the name of a handler you declare.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: 'preferred' keyword-only parameter was
     added.

A number of browser types are predefined.  This table gives the type
names that may be passed to the *note get(): 3692. function and the
corresponding instantiations for the controller classes, all defined in
this module.

Type Name                    Class Name                                    Notes
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'mozilla'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'firefox'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'epiphany'’                 ‘Epiphany('epiphany')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'kfmclient'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'konqueror'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'kfm'’                      ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'opera'’                    ‘Opera()’
                             
                                                                           
‘'links'’                    ‘GenericBrowser('links')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'elinks'’                   ‘Elinks('elinks')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'lynx'’                     ‘GenericBrowser('lynx')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'w3m'’                      ‘GenericBrowser('w3m')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'windows-default'’          ‘WindowsDefault’                              (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'macosx'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('default')’                  (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'safari'’                   ‘MacOSXOSAScript('safari')’                   (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'google-chrome'’            ‘Chrome('google-chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chrome'’                   ‘Chrome('chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium'’                 ‘Chromium('chromium')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium-browser'’         ‘Chromium('chromium-browser')’
                             

Notes:

  1. “Konqueror” is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for
     Unix, and only makes sense to use if KDE is running.  Some way of
     reliably detecting KDE would be nice; the ‘KDEDIR’ variable is not
     sufficient.  Note also that the name “kfm” is used even when using
     the ‘konqueror’ command with KDE 2 — the implementation selects the
     best strategy for running Konqueror.

  2. Only on Windows platforms.

  3. Only on macOS platform.

Added in version 3.3: Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Support for several obsolete browsers has been
removed.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
Skipstone, Iceape, and Firefox versions 35 and below.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: ‘MacOSX’
is deprecated, use ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ instead.

Here are some simple examples:

     url = 'https://docs.python.org/'

     # Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open.
     webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)

     # Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible.
     webbrowser.open_new(url)

* Menu:

* Browser Controller Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/webbrowser.py

   (2) Executables named here without a full path will be searched in
the directories given in the ‘PATH’ environment variable.


File: python.info,  Node: Browser Controller Objects,  Up: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller

5.21.1.1 Browser Controller Objects
...................................

Browser controllers provide these methods which parallel three of the
module-level convenience functions:

 -- Özniteliği: webbrowser.name

     System-dependent name for the browser.

 -- Yöntemi: controller.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the browser handled by this controller.  If
     'new' is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new'
     is 2, a new browser page (“tab”) is opened if possible.

 -- Yöntemi: controller.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser
     window.  Alias *note open_new(): 3690.

 -- Yöntemi: controller.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page (“tab”) of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new():
     3690.


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Next: urllib — URL handling modules,  Prev: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.2 ‘wsgiref’ — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/wsgiref(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a standard interface between
web server software and web applications written in Python.  Having a
standard interface makes it easy to use an application that supports
WSGI with a number of different web servers.

Only authors of web servers and programming frameworks need to know
every detail and corner case of the WSGI design.  You don’t need to
understand every detail of WSGI just to install a WSGI application or to
write a web application using an existing framework.

*note wsgiref: 118. is a reference implementation of the WSGI
specification that can be used to add WSGI support to a web server or
framework.  It provides utilities for manipulating WSGI environment
variables and response headers, base classes for implementing WSGI
servers, a demo HTTP server that serves WSGI applications, types for
static type checking, and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and
applications for conformance to the WSGI specification ( PEP 3333(2)).

See wsgi.readthedocs.io(3) for more information about WSGI, and links to
tutorials and other resources.

* Menu:

* wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
* wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.types – WSGI types for static type checking: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
* Examples: Examples<24>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/wsgiref

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities,  Next: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.21.2.1 ‘wsgiref.util’ – WSGI environment utilities
....................................................

This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with
WSGI environments.  A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP
request variables as described in PEP 3333(1).  All of the functions
taking an 'environ' parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be
supplied; please see PEP 3333(2) for a detailed specification and *note
WSGIEnvironment: 369d. for a type alias that can be used in type
annotations.

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.util.guess_scheme (environ)

     Return a guess for whether ‘wsgi.url_scheme’ should be “http” or
     “https”, by checking for a ‘HTTPS’ environment variable in the
     'environ' dictionary.  The return value is a string.

     This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a
     CGI-like protocol such as FastCGI. Typically, servers providing
     such protocols will include a ‘HTTPS’ variable with a value of “1”,
     “yes”, or “on” when a request is received via SSL. So, this
     function returns “https” if such a value is found, and “http”
     otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.util.request_uri (environ, include_query=True)

     Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string,
     using the algorithm found in the “URL Reconstruction” section of
     PEP 3333(3).  If 'include_query' is false, the query string is not
     included in the resulting URI.

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.util.application_uri (environ)

     Similar to *note request_uri(): 369f, except that the ‘PATH_INFO’
     and ‘QUERY_STRING’ variables are ignored.  The result is the base
     URI of the application object addressed by the request.

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.util.shift_path_info (environ)

     Shift a single name from ‘PATH_INFO’ to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ and return
     the name.  The 'environ' dictionary is 'modified' in-place; use a
     copy if you need to keep the original ‘PATH_INFO’ or ‘SCRIPT_NAME’
     intact.

     If there are no remaining path segments in ‘PATH_INFO’, ‘None’ is
     returned.

     Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a
     request URI path, for example to treat the path as a series of
     dictionary keys.  This routine modifies the passed-in environment
     to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI application that is
     located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI
     application at ‘/foo’, and the request URI path is ‘/foo/bar/baz’,
     and the WSGI application at ‘/foo’ calls *note shift_path_info():
     36a1, it will receive the string “bar”, and the environment will be
     updated to be suitable for passing to a WSGI application at
     ‘/foo/bar’.  That is, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ will change from ‘/foo’ to
     ‘/foo/bar’, and ‘PATH_INFO’ will change from ‘/bar/baz’ to ‘/baz’.

     When ‘PATH_INFO’ is just a “/”, this routine returns an empty
     string and appends a trailing slash to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, even though
     empty path segments are normally ignored, and ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ doesn’t
     normally end in a slash.  This is intentional behavior, to ensure
     that an application can tell the difference between URIs ending in
     ‘/x’ from ones ending in ‘/x/’ when using this routine to do object
     traversal.

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults (environ)

     Update 'environ' with trivial defaults for testing purposes.

     This routine adds various parameters required for WSGI, including
     ‘HTTP_HOST’, ‘SERVER_NAME’, ‘SERVER_PORT’, ‘REQUEST_METHOD’,
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, ‘PATH_INFO’, and all of the PEP 3333(4)-defined
     ‘wsgi.*’ variables.  It only supplies default values, and does not
     replace any existing settings for these variables.

     This routine is intended to make it easier for unit tests of WSGI
     servers and applications to set up dummy environments.  It should
     NOT be used by actual WSGI servers or applications, since the data
     is fake!

     Example usage (see also *note demo_app(): 36a3. for another
     example):

          from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the
          # environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              setup_testing_defaults(environ)

              status = '200 OK'
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]

              start_response(status, headers)

              ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
                     for key, value in environ.items()]
              return ret

          with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving on port 8000...")
              httpd.serve_forever()

In addition to the environment functions above, the *note wsgiref.util:
11d. module also provides these miscellaneous utilities:

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop (header_name)

     Return ‘True’ if ‘header_name’ is an HTTP/1.1 “Hop-by-Hop” header,
     as defined by RFC 2616(5).

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.util.FileWrapper (filelike, blksize=8192)

     A concrete implementation of the *note wsgiref.types.FileWrapper:
     36a5. protocol used to convert a file-like object to an *note
     iterator: 176e.  The resulting objects are *note iterable: 10ce.s.
     As the object is iterated over, the optional 'blksize' parameter
     will be repeatedly passed to the 'filelike' object’s ‘read()’
     method to obtain bytestrings to yield.  When ‘read()’ returns an
     empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable.

     If 'filelike' has a ‘close()’ method, the returned object will also
     have a ‘close()’ method, and it will invoke the 'filelike' object’s
     ‘close()’ method when called.

     Example usage:

          from io import StringIO
          from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper

          # We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object
          filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
          wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)

          for chunk in wrapper:
              print(chunk)

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Support for *note __getitem__(): 500.
     method has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools,  Next: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Prev: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.21.2.2 ‘wsgiref.headers’ – WSGI response header tools
.......................................................

This module provides a single class, *note Headers: d2c, for convenient
manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.headers.Headers ([headers])

     Create a mapping-like object wrapping 'headers', which must be a
     list of header name/value tuples as described in PEP 3333(1).  The
     default value of 'headers' is an empty list.

     *note Headers: d2c. objects support typical mapping operations
     including *note __getitem__(): 500, *note get(): 2035, *note
     __setitem__(): 1174, *note setdefault(): f23, *note __delitem__():
     1175. and *note __contains__(): 1d4b.  For each of these methods,
     the key is the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the
     value is the first value associated with that header name.  Setting
     a header deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a
     new value at the end of the wrapped header list.  Headers’ existing
     order is generally maintained, with new headers added to the end of
     the wrapped list.

     Unlike a dictionary, *note Headers: d2c. objects do not raise an
     error when you try to get or delete a key that isn’t in the wrapped
     header list.  Getting a nonexistent header just returns ‘None’, and
     deleting a nonexistent header does nothing.

     *note Headers: d2c. objects also support ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and
     ‘items()’ methods.  The lists returned by ‘keys()’ and ‘items()’
     can include the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued
     header.  The ‘len()’ of a *note Headers: d2c. object is the same as
     the length of its ‘items()’, which is the same as the length of the
     wrapped header list.  In fact, the ‘items()’ method just returns a
     copy of the wrapped header list.

     Calling ‘bytes()’ on a *note Headers: d2c. object returns a
     formatted bytestring suitable for transmission as HTTP response
     headers.  Each header is placed on a line with its value, separated
     by a colon and a space.  Each line is terminated by a carriage
     return and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a blank
     line.

     In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features,
     *note Headers: d2c. objects also have the following methods for
     querying and adding multi-valued headers, and for adding headers
     with MIME parameters:

      -- Yöntemi: get_all (name)

          Return a list of all the values for the named header.

          The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in
          the original header list or were added to this instance, and
          may contain duplicates.  Any fields deleted and re-inserted
          are always appended to the header list.  If no fields exist
          with the given name, returns an empty list.

      -- Yöntemi: add_header (name, value, **_params)

          Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME
          parameters specified via keyword arguments.

          'name' is the header field to add.  Keyword arguments can be
          used to set MIME parameters for the header field.  Each
          parameter must be a string or ‘None’.  Underscores in
          parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are
          illegal in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names
          include dashes.  If the parameter value is a string, it is
          added to the header value parameters in the form
          ‘name="value"’.  If it is ‘None’, only the parameter name is
          added.  (This is used for MIME parameters without a value.)
          Example usage:

               h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          The above will add a header that looks like this:

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'headers' parameter is optional.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Next: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker,  Prev: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.21.2.3 ‘wsgiref.simple_server’ – a simple WSGI HTTP server
............................................................

This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on *note http.server:
70.) that serves WSGI applications.  Each server instance serves a
single WSGI application on a given host and port.  If you want to serve
multiple applications on a single host and port, you should create a
WSGI application that parses ‘PATH_INFO’ to select which application to
invoke for each request.  (E.g., using the ‘shift_path_info()’ function
from *note wsgiref.util: 11d.)

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.simple_server.make_server (host, port, app,
          server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler)

     Create a new WSGI server listening on 'host' and 'port', accepting
     connections for 'app'.  The return value is an instance of the
     supplied 'server_class', and will process requests using the
     specified 'handler_class'.  'app' must be a WSGI application
     object, as defined by PEP 3333(1).

     Example usage:

          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app

          with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")

              # Respond to requests until process is killed
              httpd.serve_forever()

              # Alternative: serve one request, then exit
              httpd.handle_request()

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app (environ, start_response)

     This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns
     a text page containing the message “Hello world!” and a list of the
     key/value pairs provided in the 'environ' parameter.  It’s useful
     for verifying that a WSGI server (such as *note
     wsgiref.simple_server: 11b.) is able to run a simple WSGI
     application correctly.

     The 'start_response' callable should follow the *note
     StartResponse: 36ab. protocol.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     Create a *note WSGIServer: 36ac. instance.  'server_address' should
     be a ‘(host,port)’ tuple, and 'RequestHandlerClass' should be the
     subclass of *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. that
     will be used to process requests.

     You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the *note
     make_server(): 36aa. function can handle all the details for you.

     *note WSGIServer: 36ac. is a subclass of *note
     http.server.HTTPServer: 36ad, so all of its methods (such as
     ‘serve_forever()’ and ‘handle_request()’) are available.  *note
     WSGIServer: 36ac. also provides these WSGI-specific methods:

      -- Yöntemi: set_app (application)

          Sets the callable 'application' as the WSGI application that
          will receive requests.

      -- Yöntemi: get_app ()

          Returns the currently set application callable.

     Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods,
     as *note set_app(): 36ae. is normally called by *note
     make_server(): 36aa, and the *note get_app(): 36af. exists mainly
     for the benefit of request handler instances.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server)

     Create an HTTP handler for the given 'request' (i.e.  a socket),
     'client_address' (a ‘(host,port)’ tuple), and 'server' (*note
     WSGIServer: 36ac. instance).

     You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they
     are automatically created as needed by *note WSGIServer: 36ac.
     objects.  You can, however, subclass this class and supply it as a
     'handler_class' to the *note make_server(): 36aa. function.  Some
     possibly relevant methods for overriding in subclasses:

      -- Yöntemi: get_environ ()

          Return a *note WSGIEnvironment: 369d. dictionary for a
          request.  The default implementation copies the contents of
          the *note WSGIServer: 36ac. object’s ‘base_environ’ dictionary
          attribute and then adds various headers derived from the HTTP
          request.  Each call to this method should return a new
          dictionary containing all of the relevant CGI environment
          variables as specified in PEP 3333(2).

      -- Yöntemi: get_stderr ()

          Return the object that should be used as the ‘wsgi.errors’
          stream.  The default implementation just returns ‘sys.stderr’.

      -- Yöntemi: handle ()

          Process the HTTP request.  The default implementation creates
          a handler instance using a *note wsgiref.handlers: 119. class
          to implement the actual WSGI application interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker,  Next: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes,  Prev: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.21.2.4 ‘wsgiref.validate’ — WSGI conformance checker
......................................................

When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or
middleware, it can be useful to validate the new code’s conformance
using *note wsgiref.validate: 11e.  This module provides a function that
creates WSGI application objects that validate communications between a
WSGI server or gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both
sides for protocol conformance.

Note that this utility does not guarantee complete PEP 3333(1)
compliance; an absence of errors from this module does not necessarily
mean that errors do not exist.  However, if this module does produce an
error, then it is virtually certain that either the server or
application is not 100% compliant.

This module is based on the ‘paste.lint’ module from Ian Bicking’s
“Python Paste” library.

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.validate.validator (application)

     Wrap 'application' and return a new WSGI application object.  The
     returned application will forward all requests to the original
     'application', and will check that both the 'application' and the
     server invoking it are conforming to the WSGI specification and to
     RFC 2616(2).

     Any detected nonconformance results in an *note AssertionError:
     4bf. being raised; note, however, that how these errors are handled
     is server-dependent.  For example, *note wsgiref.simple_server:
     11b. and other servers based on *note wsgiref.handlers: 119. (that
     don’t override the error handling methods to do something else)
     will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and dump
     the traceback to ‘sys.stderr’ or some other error stream.

     This wrapper may also generate output using the *note warnings:
     112. module to indicate behaviors that are questionable but which
     may not actually be prohibited by PEP 3333(3).  Unless they are
     suppressed using Python command-line options or the *note warnings:
     112. API, any such warnings will be written to ‘sys.stderr’ ('not'
     ‘wsgi.errors’, unless they happen to be the same object).

     Example usage:

          from wsgiref.validate import validator
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the
          # standard, so the validator is going to break
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')]  # HTTP Headers
              start_response(status, headers)

              # This is going to break because we need to return a list, and
              # the validator is going to inform us
              return b"Hello World"

          # This is the application wrapped in a validator
          validator_app = validator(simple_app)

          with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
              print("Listening on port 8000....")
              httpd.serve_forever()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes,  Next: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking,  Prev: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.21.2.5 ‘wsgiref.handlers’ – server/gateway base classes
.........................................................

This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers
and gateways.  These base classes handle most of the work of
communicating with a WSGI application, as long as they are given a
CGI-like environment, along with input, output, and error streams.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler

     CGI-based invocation via ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, ‘sys.stderr’
     and ‘os.environ’.  This is useful when you have a WSGI application
     and want to run it as a CGI script.  Simply invoke
     ‘CGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application object
     you wish to invoke.

     This class is a subclass of *note BaseCGIHandler: 36b8. that sets
     ‘wsgi.run_once’ to true, ‘wsgi.multithread’ to false, and
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ to true, and always uses *note sys: d8. and
     *note os: a0. to obtain the necessary CGI streams and environment.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler

     A specialized alternative to *note CGIHandler: 36b7, for use when
     deploying on Microsoft’s IIS web server, without having set the
     config allowPathInfo option (IIS>=7) or metabase
     allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7).

     By default, IIS gives a ‘PATH_INFO’ that duplicates the
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ at the front, causing problems for WSGI applications
     that wish to implement routing.  This handler strips any such
     duplicated path.

     IIS can be configured to pass the correct ‘PATH_INFO’, but this
     causes another bug where ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ is wrong.  Luckily this
     variable is rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS<7,
     though, the setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting
     all other script mappings, many of which break when exposed to the
     ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ bug.  For this reason IIS<7 is almost never
     deployed with the fix (Even IIS7 rarely uses it because there is
     still no UI for it.).

     There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so
     a separate handler class is provided.  It is used in the same way
     as *note CGIHandler: 36b7, i.e., by calling
     ‘IISCGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application
     object you wish to invoke.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     Similar to *note CGIHandler: 36b7, but instead of using the *note
     sys: d8. and *note os: a0. modules, the CGI environment and I/O
     streams are specified explicitly.  The 'multithread' and
     'multiprocess' values are used to set the ‘wsgi.multithread’ and
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ flags for any applications run by the handler
     instance.

     This class is a subclass of *note SimpleHandler: 36ba. intended for
     use with software other than HTTP “origin servers”.  If you are
     writing a gateway protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI,
     SCGI, etc.)  that uses a ‘Status:’ header to send an HTTP status,
     you probably want to subclass this instead of *note SimpleHandler:
     36ba.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     Similar to *note BaseCGIHandler: 36b8, but designed for use with
     HTTP origin servers.  If you are writing an HTTP server
     implementation, you will probably want to subclass this instead of
     *note BaseCGIHandler: 36b8.

     This class is a subclass of *note BaseHandler: 1829.  It overrides
     the ‘__init__()’, *note get_stdin(): 36bb, *note get_stderr():
     36bc, *note add_cgi_vars(): 36bd, *note _write(): 36be, and *note
     _flush(): 36bf. methods to support explicitly setting the
     environment and streams via the constructor.  The supplied
     environment and streams are stored in the ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’,
     ‘stderr’, and ‘environ’ attributes.

     The *note write(): b5e. method of 'stdout' should write each chunk
     in full, like *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler

     This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications.  Each
     instance will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle
     you could create a subclass that was reusable for multiple
     requests.

     *note BaseHandler: 1829. instances have only one method intended
     for external use:

      -- Yöntemi: run (app)

          Run the specified WSGI application, 'app'.

     All of the other *note BaseHandler: 1829. methods are invoked by
     this method in the process of running the application, and thus
     exist primarily to allow customizing the process.

     The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass:

      -- Yöntemi: _write (data)

          Buffer the bytes 'data' for transmission to the client.  It’s
          okay if this method actually transmits the data; *note
          BaseHandler: 1829. just separates write and flush operations
          for greater efficiency when the underlying system actually has
          such a distinction.

      -- Yöntemi: _flush ()

          Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client.  It’s
          okay if this method is a no-op (i.e., if *note _write(): 36be.
          actually sends the data).

      -- Yöntemi: get_stdin ()

          Return an object compatible with *note InputStream: 36c1.
          suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.input’ of the request currently
          being processed.

      -- Yöntemi: get_stderr ()

          Return an object compatible with *note ErrorStream: 36c2.
          suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.errors’ of the request currently
          being processed.

      -- Yöntemi: add_cgi_vars ()

          Insert CGI variables for the current request into the
          ‘environ’ attribute.

     Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to
     override.  This list is only a summary, however, and does not
     include every method that can be overridden.  You should consult
     the docstrings and source code for additional information before
     attempting to create a customized *note BaseHandler: 1829.
     subclass.

     Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment:

      -- Özniteliği: wsgi_multithread

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multithread’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to true in *note BaseHandler: 1829, but
          may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in
          the other subclasses.

      -- Özniteliği: wsgi_multiprocess

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to true in *note BaseHandler: 1829, but
          may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in
          the other subclasses.

      -- Özniteliği: wsgi_run_once

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.run_once’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to false in *note BaseHandler: 1829,
          but *note CGIHandler: 36b7. sets it to true by default.

      -- Özniteliği: os_environ

          The default environment variables to be included in every
          request’s WSGI environment.  By default, this is a copy of
          ‘os.environ’ at the time that *note wsgiref.handlers: 119. was
          imported, but subclasses can either create their own at the
          class or instance level.  Note that the dictionary should be
          considered read-only, since the default value is shared
          between multiple classes and instances.

      -- Özniteliği: server_software

          If the *note origin_server: 36c8. attribute is set, this
          attribute’s value is used to set the default ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’
          WSGI environment variable, and also to set a default ‘Server:’
          header in HTTP responses.  It is ignored for handlers (such as
          *note BaseCGIHandler: 36b8. and *note CGIHandler: 36b7.) that
          are not HTTP origin servers.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: The term “Python” is replaced with
          implementation specific term like “CPython”, “Jython” etc.

      -- Yöntemi: get_scheme ()

          Return the URL scheme being used for the current request.  The
          default implementation uses the ‘guess_scheme()’ function from
          *note wsgiref.util: 11d. to guess whether the scheme should be
          “http” or “https”, based on the current request’s ‘environ’
          variables.

      -- Yöntemi: setup_environ ()

          Set the ‘environ’ attribute to a fully populated WSGI
          environment.  The default implementation uses all of the above
          methods and attributes, plus the *note get_stdin(): 36bb,
          *note get_stderr(): 36bc, and *note add_cgi_vars(): 36bd.
          methods and the *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 36cb. attribute.  It
          also inserts a ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ key if not present, as long
          as the *note origin_server: 36c8. attribute is a true value
          and the *note server_software: 36c7. attribute is set.

     Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling:

      -- Yöntemi: log_exception (exc_info)

          Log the 'exc_info' tuple in the server log.  'exc_info' is a
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’ tuple.  The default implementation
          simply writes the traceback to the request’s ‘wsgi.errors’
          stream and flushes it.  Subclasses can override this method to
          change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback
          to an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed
          suitable.

      -- Özniteliği: traceback_limit

          The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output
          by the default *note log_exception(): 36cc. method.  If
          ‘None’, all frames are included.

      -- Yöntemi: error_output (environ, start_response)

          This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page
          for the user.  It is only invoked if an error occurs before
          headers are sent to the client.

          This method can access the current error using
          ‘sys.exception()’, and should pass that information to
          'start_response' when calling it (as described in the “Error
          Handling” section of PEP 3333(1)).  In particular, the
          'start_response' callable should follow the *note
          StartResponse: 36ab. protocol.

          The default implementation just uses the *note error_status:
          36cf, *note error_headers: 36d0, and *note error_body: 36d1.
          attributes to generate an output page.  Subclasses can
          override this to produce more dynamic error output.

          Note, however, that it’s not recommended from a security
          perspective to spit out diagnostics to any old user; ideally,
          you should have to do something special to enable diagnostic
          output, which is why the default implementation doesn’t
          include any.

      -- Özniteliği: error_status

          The HTTP status used for error responses.  This should be a
          status string as defined in PEP 3333(2); it defaults to a 500
          code and message.

      -- Özniteliği: error_headers

          The HTTP headers used for error responses.  This should be a
          list of WSGI response headers (‘(name, value)’ tuples), as
          described in PEP 3333(3).  The default list just sets the
          content type to ‘text/plain’.

      -- Özniteliği: error_body

          The error response body.  This should be an HTTP response body
          bytestring.  It defaults to the plain text, “A server error
          occurred.  Please contact the administrator.”

     Methods and attributes for PEP 3333(4)’s “Optional
     Platform-Specific File Handling” feature:

      -- Özniteliği: wsgi_file_wrapper

          A ‘wsgi.file_wrapper’ factory, compatible with *note
          wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 36a5, or ‘None’.  The default value
          of this attribute is the *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 55f.
          class.

      -- Yöntemi: sendfile ()

          Override to implement platform-specific file transmission.
          This method is called only if the application’s return value
          is an instance of the class specified by the *note
          wsgi_file_wrapper: 36cb. attribute.  It should return a true
          value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so
          that the default transmission code will not be executed.  The
          default implementation of this method just returns a false
          value.

     Miscellaneous methods and attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: origin_server

          This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler’s
          *note _write(): 36be. and *note _flush(): 36bf. are being used
          to communicate directly to the client, rather than via a
          CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a
          special ‘Status:’ header.

          This attribute’s default value is true in *note BaseHandler:
          1829, but false in *note BaseCGIHandler: 36b8. and *note
          CGIHandler: 36b7.

      -- Özniteliği: http_version

          If *note origin_server: 36c8. is true, this string attribute
          is used to set the HTTP version of the response set to the
          client.  It defaults to ‘"1.0"’.

 -- Işlevi: wsgiref.handlers.read_environ ()

     Transcode CGI variables from ‘os.environ’ to PEP 3333(5) “bytes in
     unicode” strings, returning a new dictionary.  This function is
     used by *note CGIHandler: 36b7. and *note IISCGIHandler: 36b9. in
     place of directly using ‘os.environ’, which is not necessarily
     WSGI-compliant on all platforms and web servers using Python 3 –
     specifically, ones where the OS’s actual environment is Unicode
     (i.e.  Windows), or ones where the environment is bytes, but the
     system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything other than
     ISO-8859-1 (e.g.  Unix systems using UTF-8).

     If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you
     probably want to use this routine instead of just copying values
     out of ‘os.environ’ directly.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking,  Next: Examples<24>,  Prev: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.21.2.6 ‘wsgiref.types’ – WSGI types for static type checking
..............................................................

This module provides various types for static type checking as described
in PEP 3333(1).

Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.types.StartResponse

     A *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. describing start_response()(2)
     callables ( PEP 3333(3)).

 -- Verisi: wsgiref.types.WSGIEnvironment

     A type alias describing a WSGI environment dictionary.

 -- Verisi: wsgiref.types.WSGIApplication

     A type alias describing a WSGI application callable.

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.types.InputStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. describing a WSGI Input Stream(4).

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.types.ErrorStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. describing a WSGI Error Stream(5).

 -- Sınıfı: wsgiref.types.FileWrapper

     A *note typing.Protocol: 4c7. describing a file wrapper(6).  See
     *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 55f. for a concrete implementation
     of this protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (6) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<24>,  Prev: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.21.2.7 Examples
.................

This is a working “Hello World” WSGI application, where the
'start_response' callable should follow the *note StartResponse: 36ab.
protocol:

     """
     Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
     object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to
     use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can
     use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function
     is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the
     second variable is the callable object.
     """
     from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server


     def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
         status = "200 OK"  # HTTP Status
         headers = [("Content-type", "text/plain; charset=utf-8")]  # HTTP Headers
         start_response(status, headers)

         # The returned object is going to be printed
         return [b"Hello World"]

     with make_server("", 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
         print("Serving on port 8000...")

         # Serve until process is killed
         httpd.serve_forever()

Example of a WSGI application serving the current directory, accept
optional directory and port number (default: 8000) on the command line:

     """
     Small wsgiref based web server. Takes a path to serve from and an
     optional port number (defaults to 8000), then tries to serve files.
     MIME types are guessed from the file names, 404 errors are raised
     if the file is not found.
     """
     import mimetypes
     import os
     import sys
     from wsgiref import simple_server, util


     def app(environ, respond):
         # Get the file name and MIME type
         fn = os.path.join(path, environ["PATH_INFO"][1:])
         if "." not in fn.split(os.path.sep)[-1]:
             fn = os.path.join(fn, "index.html")
         mime_type = mimetypes.guess_type(fn)[0]

         # Return 200 OK if file exists, otherwise 404 Not Found
         if os.path.exists(fn):
             respond("200 OK", [("Content-Type", mime_type)])
             return util.FileWrapper(open(fn, "rb"))
         else:
             respond("404 Not Found", [("Content-Type", "text/plain")])
             return [b"not found"]


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Get the path and port from command-line arguments
         path = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) > 1 else os.getcwd()
         port = int(sys.argv[2]) if len(sys.argv) > 2 else 8000

         # Make and start the server until control-c
         httpd = simple_server.make_server("", port, app)
         print(f"Serving {path} on port {port}, control-C to stop")
         try:
             httpd.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("Shutting down.")
             httpd.server_close()


File: python.info,  Node: urllib — URL handling modules,  Next: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs,  Prev: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.3 ‘urllib’ — URL handling modules
--------------------------------------

'Kaynak kodu:' Lib/urllib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘urllib’, URL'lerle çalışmak için çeşitli modülleri bir araya getiren
bir pakettir:

   * *note urllib.request: 10b. URL’leri açar ve okur

   * *note urllib.error: 109, *note urllib.request: 10b. tarafından
     ortaya çıkarılan hatalı durumları içerir

   * *note urllib.parse: 10a. URL’leri ayrıştırır

   * *note urllib.robotparser: 10d. ‘robots.txt’ dosyalarını ayrıştırır

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs,  Next: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib,  Prev: urllib — URL handling modules,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.4 ‘urllib.request’ — Extensible library for opening URLs
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/request.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note urllib.request: 10b. module defines functions and classes
which help in opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world — basic and
digest authentication, redirections, cookies and more.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client
interface.

     Uyarı: On macOS it is unsafe to use this module in programs using
     *note os.fork(): 23a. because the *note getproxies(): 36db.
     implementation for macOS uses a higher-level system API. Set the
     environment variable ‘no_proxy’ to ‘*’ to avoid this problem (e.g.
     ‘os.environ["no_proxy"] = "*"’).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The *note urllib.request: 10b. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.urlopen (url, data=None[, timeout], *,
          cafile=None, capath=None, cadefault=False, context=None)

     Open 'url', which can be either a string containing a valid,
     properly encoded URL, or a *note Request: e7e. object.

     'data' must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to
     the server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed.  See *note
     Request: e7e. for details.

     urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes ‘Connection:close’
     header in its HTTP requests.

     The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified,
     the global default timeout setting will be used).  This actually
     only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

     If 'context' is specified, it must be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.
     instance describing the various SSL options.  See *note
     HTTPSConnection: 9b2. for more details.

     The optional 'cafile' and 'capath' parameters specify a set of
     trusted CA certificates for HTTPS requests.  'cafile' should point
     to a single file containing a bundle of CA certificates, whereas
     'capath' should point to a directory of hashed certificate files.
     More information can be found in *note
     ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): d82.

     The 'cadefault' parameter is ignored.

     This function always returns an object which can work as a *note
     context manager: 3df. and has the properties 'url', 'headers', and
     'status'.  See *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 36dc. for more
     detail on these properties.

     For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse: f71. object slightly modified.  In
     addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains
     the same information as the *note reason: 36dd. attribute — the
     reason phrase returned by server — instead of the response headers
     as it is specified in the documentation for *note HTTPResponse:
     f71.

     For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by
     legacy *note URLopener: 284. and *note FancyURLopener: 285.
     classes, this function returns a *note urllib.response.addinfourl:
     36dc. object.

     Raises *note URLError: 36de. on protocol errors.

     Note that ‘None’ may be returned if no handler handles the request
     (though the default installed global *note OpenerDirector: 36df.
     uses *note UnknownHandler: 36e0. to ensure this never happens).

     In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a
     ‘*_proxy’ environment variable like ‘http_proxy’ is set), *note
     ProxyHandler: 1805. is default installed and makes sure the
     requests are handled through the proxy.

     The legacy ‘urllib.urlopen’ function from Python 2.6 and earlier
     has been discontinued; *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 286.
     corresponds to the old ‘urllib2.urlopen’.  Proxy handling, which
     was done by passing a dictionary parameter to ‘urllib.urlopen’, can
     be obtained by using *note ProxyHandler: 1805. objects.

     The default opener raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘urllib.Request’ with arguments ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’,
     ‘method’ taken from the request object.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'cafile' and 'capath' were added.

     HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if
     *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7. is true).

     'data' can be an iterable object.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'cadefault' was added.

     3.4.3 sürümünde değişti: 'context' was added.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: HTTPS connection now send an ALPN extension
     with protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is given.
     Custom 'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): cf8.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: 'cafile', 'capath' and
     'cadefault' are deprecated in favor of 'context'.  Please use *note
     ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): fe7. instead, or let *note
     ssl.create_default_context(): e4a. select the system’s trusted CA
     certificates for you.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.install_opener (opener)

     Install an *note OpenerDirector: 36df. instance as the default
     global opener.  Installing an opener is only necessary if you want
     urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call *note
     OpenerDirector.open(): e82. instead of *note urlopen(): 286.  The
     code does not check for a real *note OpenerDirector: 36df, and any
     class with the appropriate interface will work.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.build_opener ([handler, ...])

     Return an *note OpenerDirector: 36df. instance, which chains the
     handlers in the order given.  'handler's can be either instances of
     *note BaseHandler: 36e3, or subclasses of *note BaseHandler: 36e3.
     (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without
     any parameters).  Instances of the following classes will be in
     front of the 'handler's, unless the 'handler's contain them,
     instances of them or subclasses of them: *note ProxyHandler: 1805.
     (if proxy settings are detected), *note UnknownHandler: 36e0, *note
     HTTPHandler: 36e4, *note HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 36e5, *note
     HTTPRedirectHandler: 36e6, *note FTPHandler: 36e7, *note
     FileHandler: 36e8, *note HTTPErrorProcessor: 36e9.

     If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the *note ssl:
     cf. module can be imported), *note HTTPSHandler: 10ca. will also be
     added.

     A *note BaseHandler: 36e3. subclass may also change its
     ‘handler_order’ attribute to modify its position in the handlers
     list.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.pathname2url (path)

     Convert the given local path to a ‘file:’ URL. This function uses
     *note quote(): a19. function to encode the path.  For historical
     reasons, the return value omits the ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  This
     example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import pathname2url
          >>> path = 'C:\\Program Files'
          >>> 'file:' + pathname2url(path)
          'file:///C:/Program%20Files'

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.url2pathname (url)

     Convert the given ‘file:’ URL to a local path.  This function uses
     *note unquote(): 15a5. to decode the URL. For historical reasons,
     the given value 'must' omit the ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  This
     example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import url2pathname
          >>> url = 'file:///C:/Program%20Files'
          >>> url2pathname(url.removeprefix('file:'))
          'C:\\Program Files'

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.getproxies ()

     This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server
     URL mappings.  It scans the environment for variables named
     ‘<scheme>_proxy’, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating
     systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy
     information from System Configuration for macOS and Windows Systems
     Registry for Windows.  If both lowercase and uppercase environment
     variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred.

          Not: If the environment variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set,
          which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI
          environment, the environment variable ‘HTTP_PROXY’ (uppercase
          ‘_PROXY’) will be ignored.  This is because that variable can
          be injected by a client using the “Proxy:” HTTP header.  If
          you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use
          ‘ProxyHandler’ explicitly, or make sure the variable name is
          in lowercase (or at least the ‘_proxy’ suffix).

The following classes are provided:

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.Request (url, data=None, headers={},
          origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)

     This class is an abstraction of a URL request.

     'url' should be a string containing a valid, properly encoded URL.

     'data' must be an object specifying additional data to send to the
     server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed.  Currently HTTP
     requests are the only ones that use 'data'.  The supported object
     types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables of bytes-like
     objects.  If no ‘Content-Length’ nor ‘Transfer-Encoding’ header
     field has been provided, *note HTTPHandler: 36e4. will set these
     headers according to the type of 'data'.  ‘Content-Length’ will be
     used to send bytes objects, while ‘Transfer-Encoding: chunked’ as
     specified in RFC 7230(3), Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files
     and other iterables.

     For an HTTP POST request method, 'data' should be a buffer in the
     standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format.  The *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29. function takes a mapping or sequence
     of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format.  It should
     be encoded to bytes before being used as the 'data' parameter.

     'headers' should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if *note
     add_header(): 36ea. was called with each key and value as
     arguments.  This is often used to “spoof” the ‘User-Agent’ header
     value, which is used by a browser to identify itself – some HTTP
     servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed
     to scripts.  For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as
     ‘"Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127
     Firefox/2.0.0.11"’, while *note urllib: 108.’s default user agent
     string is ‘"Python-urllib/2.6"’ (on Python 2.6).  All header keys
     are sent in camel case.

     An appropriate ‘Content-Type’ header should be included if the
     'data' argument is present.  If this header has not been provided
     and 'data' is not ‘None’, ‘Content-Type:
     application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ will be added as a default.

     The next two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of
     third-party HTTP cookies:

     'origin_req_host' should be the request-host of the origin
     transaction, as defined by RFC 2965(4).  It defaults to
     ‘http.cookiejar.request_host(self)’.  This is the host name or IP
     address of the original request that was initiated by the user.
     For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document,
     this should be the request-host of the request for the page
     containing the image.

     'unverifiable' should indicate whether the request is unverifiable,
     as defined by RFC 2965(5).  It defaults to ‘False’.  An
     unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the
     option to approve.  For example, if the request is for an image in
     an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the
     automatic fetching of the image, this should be true.

     'method' should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method
     that will be used (e.g.  ‘'HEAD'’).  If provided, its value is
     stored in the *note method: e7f. attribute and is used by *note
     get_method(): 1010.  The default is ‘'GET'’ if 'data' is ‘None’ or
     ‘'POST'’ otherwise.  Subclasses may indicate a different default
     method by setting the *note method: e7f. attribute in the class
     itself.

          Not: The request will not work as expected if the data object
          is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g.  a file
          or an iterable that can produce the content only once) and the
          request is retried for HTTP redirects or authentication.  The
          'data' is sent to the HTTP server right away after the
          headers.  There is no support for a 100-continue expectation
          in the library.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note Request.method: e7f. argument is added
     to the Request class.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Default *note Request.method: e7f. may be
     indicated at the class level.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Do not raise an error if the
     ‘Content-Length’ has not been provided and 'data' is neither ‘None’
     nor a bytes object.  Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding
     instead.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.OpenerDirector

     The *note OpenerDirector: 36df. class opens URLs via *note
     BaseHandler: 36e3.s chained together.  It manages the chaining of
     handlers, and recovery from errors.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.BaseHandler

     This is the base class for all registered handlers — and handles
     only the simple mechanics of registration.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler

     A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses;
     all responses are turned into *note HTTPError: e84. exceptions.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler

     A class to handle redirections.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor (cookiejar=None)

     A class to handle HTTP Cookies.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.ProxyHandler (proxies=None)

     Cause requests to go through a proxy.  If 'proxies' is given, it
     must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies.
     The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment
     variables ‘<protocol>_proxy’.  If no proxy environment variables
     are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained
     from the registry’s Internet Settings section, and in a macOS
     environment proxy information is retrieved from the System
     Configuration Framework.

     To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.

     The ‘no_proxy’ environment variable can be used to specify hosts
     which shouldn’t be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a
     comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with ‘:port’
     appended, for example ‘cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080’.

          Not: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable
          ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set; see the documentation on *note
          getproxies(): 36db.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.  A
     realm of ‘None’ is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched
     if no other realm fits.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth

     A variant of *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 36ed. that also
     has a database of ‘uri -> is_authenticated’ mappings.  Can be used
     by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication
     credentials immediately instead of waiting for a ‘401’ response
     first.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 36ec.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 36ee. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.  If
     'passwd_mgr' also provides ‘is_authenticated’ and
     ‘update_authenticated’ methods (see *note
     HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects: 36ef.), then the handler will
     use the ‘is_authenticated’ result for a given URI to determine
     whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request.
     If ‘is_authenticated’ returns ‘True’ for the URI, credentials are
     sent.  If ‘is_authenticated’ is ‘False’, credentials are not sent,
     and then if a ‘401’ response is received the request is re-sent
     with the authentication credentials.  If authentication succeeds,
     ‘update_authenticated’ is called to set ‘is_authenticated’ ‘True’
     for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its
     super-URIs will automatically include the authentication
     credentials.

     Added in version 3.5: Added ‘is_authenticated’ support.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 36ec.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     Objects: 36ee. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a *note ValueError:
     189. when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     36ec.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 36ee. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 36ec.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 36ee. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 36ec.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     Objects: 36ee. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic
     Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is
     always tried first.  If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x
     response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to
     Handle.  This Handler method will raise a *note ValueError: 189.
     when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or
     Basic.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note ValueError: 189. on unsupported
     Authentication Scheme.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     36ec.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 36ee. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPHandler

     A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPSHandler (debuglevel=0, context=None,
          check_hostname=None)

     A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs.  'context' and
     'check_hostname' have the same meaning as in *note
     http.client.HTTPSConnection: 9b2.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'context' and 'check_hostname' were added.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.FileHandler

     Open local files.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.DataHandler

     Open data URLs.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.FTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize
     delays.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.UnknownHandler

     A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor

     Process HTTP error responses.

* Menu:

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector Objects::
* BaseHandler Objects::
* HTTPRedirectHandler Objects::
* HTTPCookieProcessor Objects::
* ProxyHandler Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgr Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPHandler Objects::
* HTTPSHandler Objects::
* FileHandler Objects::
* DataHandler Objects::
* FTPHandler Objects::
* CacheFTPHandler Objects::
* UnknownHandler Objects::
* HTTPErrorProcessor Objects::
* Examples: Examples<25>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/request.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Request Objects,  Next: OpenerDirector Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.1 Request Objects
........................

The following methods describe *note Request: e7e.’s public interface,
and so all may be overridden in subclasses.  It also defines several
public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed
request.

 -- Özniteliği: Request.full_url

     The original URL passed to the constructor.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti.

     Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter.
     Getting *note full_url: e80. returns the original request URL with
     the fragment, if it was present.

 -- Özniteliği: Request.type

     The URI scheme.

 -- Özniteliği: Request.host

     The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port
     separated by a colon.

 -- Özniteliği: Request.origin_req_host

     The original host for the request, without port.

 -- Özniteliği: Request.selector

     The URI path.  If the *note Request: e7e. uses a proxy, then
     selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.

 -- Özniteliği: Request.data

     The entity body for the request, or ‘None’ if not specified.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Changing value of *note Request.data: e81.
     now deletes “Content-Length” header if it was previously set or
     calculated.

 -- Özniteliği: Request.unverifiable

     boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined
     by RFC 2965(1).

 -- Özniteliği: Request.method

     The HTTP request method to use.  By default its value is *note
     None: 488, which means that *note get_method(): 1010. will do its
     normal computation of the method to be used.  Its value can be set
     (thus overriding the default computation in *note get_method():
     1010.) either by providing a default value by setting it at the
     class level in a *note Request: e7e. subclass, or by passing a
     value in to the *note Request: e7e. constructor via the 'method'
     argument.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: A default value can now be set in
     subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor
     argument.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.get_method ()

     Return a string indicating the HTTP request method.  If *note
     Request.method: e7f. is not ‘None’, return its value, otherwise
     return ‘'GET'’ if *note Request.data: e81. is ‘None’, or ‘'POST'’
     if it’s not.  This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: get_method now looks at the value of *note
     Request.method: e7f.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.add_header (key, val)

     Add another header to the request.  Headers are currently ignored
     by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the
     list of headers sent to the server.  Note that there cannot be more
     than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite
     previous calls in case the 'key' collides.  Currently, this is no
     loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning
     when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining
     the same functionality using only one header.  Note that headers
     added using this method are also added to redirected requests.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.add_unredirected_header (key, header)

     Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.has_header (header)

     Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both
     regular and unredirected).

 -- Yöntemi: Request.remove_header (header)

     Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular
     and unredirected headers).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.get_full_url ()

     Return the URL given in the constructor.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti.

     Returns *note Request.full_url: e80.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.set_proxy (host, type)

     Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server.  The 'host'
     and 'type' will replace those of the instance, and the instance’s
     selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.get_header (header_name, default=None)

     Return the value of the given header.  If the header is not
     present, return the default value.

 -- Yöntemi: Request.header_items ()

     Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request
     headers.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The request methods add_data, has_data, get_data,
get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host and
is_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: OpenerDirector Objects,  Next: BaseHandler Objects,  Prev: Request Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.2 OpenerDirector Objects
...............................

*note OpenerDirector: 36df. instances have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: OpenerDirector.add_handler (handler)

     'handler' should be an instance of *note BaseHandler: 36e3.  The
     following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains
     (note that HTTP errors are a special case).  Note that, in the
     following, 'protocol' should be replaced with the actual protocol
     to handle, for example ‘http_response()’ would be the HTTP protocol
     response handler.  Also 'type' should be replaced with the actual
     HTTP code, for example ‘http_error_404()’ would handle HTTP 404
     errors.

        * ‘<protocol>_open()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          open 'protocol' URLs.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(): 3704. for more
          information.

        * ‘http_error_<type>()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code 'type'.

          See *note BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(): 3705. for more
          information.

        * ‘<protocol>_error()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          handle errors from (non-‘http’) 'protocol'.

        * ‘<protocol>_request()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          pre-process 'protocol' requests.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(): 3706. for more
          information.

        * ‘<protocol>_response()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          post-process 'protocol' responses.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(): 3707. for more
          information.

 -- Yöntemi: OpenerDirector.open (url, data=None[, timeout])

     Open the given 'url' (which can be a request object or a string),
     optionally passing the given 'data'.  Arguments, return values and
     exceptions raised are the same as those of *note urlopen(): 286.
     (which simply calls the *note open(): 2a6. method on the currently
     installed global *note OpenerDirector: 36df.).  The optional
     'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking
     operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the
     global default timeout setting will be used).  The timeout feature
     actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

 -- Yöntemi: OpenerDirector.error (proto, *args)

     Handle an error of the given protocol.  This will call the
     registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given
     arguments (which are protocol specific).  The HTTP protocol is a
     special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the
     specific error handler; refer to the ‘http_error_<type>()’ methods
     of the handler classes.

     Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of *note
     urlopen(): 286.

OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:

The order in which these methods are called within each stage is
determined by sorting the handler instances.

  1. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_request()’ has
     that method called to pre-process the request.

  2. Handlers with a method named like ‘<protocol>_open()’ are called to
     handle the request.  This stage ends when a handler either returns
     a non-*note None: 488. value (ie.  a response), or raises an
     exception (usually *note URLError: 36de.).  Exceptions are allowed
     to propagate.

     In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named *note
     default_open(): 3709.  If all such methods return *note None: 488,
     the algorithm is repeated for methods named like
     ‘<protocol>_open()’.  If all such methods return *note None: 488,
     the algorithm is repeated for methods named *note unknown_open():
     370a.

     Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 36df. instance’s *note open():
     e82. and *note error(): 3708. methods.

  3. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_response()’ has
     that method called to post-process the response.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Prev: OpenerDirector Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.3 BaseHandler Objects
............................

*note BaseHandler: 36e3. objects provide a couple of methods that are
directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived
classes.  These are intended for direct use:

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.add_parent (director)

     Add a director as parent.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.close ()

     Remove any parents.

The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes
derived from *note BaseHandler: 36e3.

     Not: The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining
     ‘<protocol>_request()’ or ‘<protocol>_response()’ methods are named
     ‘*Processor’; all others are named ‘*Handler’.

 -- Özniteliği: BaseHandler.parent

     A valid *note OpenerDirector: 36df, which can be used to open using
     a different protocol, or handle errors.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.default_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 36e3, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 36df.  It should return a file-like object as
     described in the return value of the *note open(): e82. method of
     *note OpenerDirector: 36df, or ‘None’.  It should raise *note
     URLError: 36de, unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for
     example, *note MemoryError: 1409. should not be mapped to *note
     URLError: 36de.).

     This method will be called before any protocol-specific open
     method.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 36e3, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the
     given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 36df.  Return values should be the same as for
     *note default_open(): 3709.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.unknown_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 36e3, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no
     specific registered handler to open it.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the *note parent:
     370f. *note OpenerDirector: 36df.  Return values should be the same
     as for *note default_open(): 3709.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.http_error_default (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 36e3, but
     subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all
     for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors.  It will be called
     automatically by the *note OpenerDirector: 36df. getting the error,
     and should not normally be called in other circumstances.

     'req' will be a *note Request: e7e. object, 'fp' will be a
     file-like object with the HTTP error body, 'code' will be the
     three-digit code of the error, 'msg' will be the user-visible
     explanation of the code and 'hdrs' will be a mapping object with
     the headers of the error.

     Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of
     *note urlopen(): 286.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     'nnn' should be a three-digit HTTP error code.  This method is also
     not defined in *note BaseHandler: 36e3, but will be called, if it
     exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code
     'nnn' occurs.

     Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP
     errors.

     Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same
     as for *note http_error_default(): 3710.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 36e3, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of
     the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 36df.  'req' will be a *note Request: e7e. object.
     The return value should be a *note Request: e7e. object.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 36e3, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses
     of the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 36df.  'req' will be a *note Request: e7e. object.
     'response' will be an object implementing the same interface as the
     return value of *note urlopen(): 286.  The return value should
     implement the same interface as the return value of *note
     urlopen(): 286.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Prev: BaseHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.4 HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
....................................

     Not: Some HTTP redirections require action from this module’s
     client code.  If this is the case, *note HTTPError: e84. is raised.
     See RFC 2616(1) for details of the precise meanings of the various
     redirection codes.

     An *note HTTPError: e84. exception raised as a security
     consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a
     redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs, newurl)

     Return a *note Request: e7e. or ‘None’ in response to a redirect.
     This is called by the default implementations of the
     ‘http_error_30*()’ methods when a redirection is received from the
     server.  If a redirection should take place, return a new *note
     Request: e7e. to allow ‘http_error_30*()’ to perform the redirect
     to 'newurl'.  Otherwise, raise *note HTTPError: e84. if no other
     handler should try to handle this URL, or return ‘None’ if you
     can’t but another handler might.

          Not: The default implementation of this method does not
          strictly follow RFC 2616(2), which says that 301 and 302
          responses to ‘POST’ requests must not be automatically
          redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality,
          browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses,
          changing the POST to a ‘GET’, and the default implementation
          reproduces this behavior.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Redirect to the ‘Location:’ or ‘URI:’ URL. This method is called by
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 36df. when getting an HTTP ‘moved
     permanently’ response.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3714, but called for the
     ‘found’ response.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3714, but called for the ‘see
     other’ response.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3714, but called for the
     ‘temporary redirect’ response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_308 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 3714, but called for the
     ‘permanent redirect’ response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

     Added in version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Next: ProxyHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.5 HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
....................................

*note HTTPCookieProcessor: 36eb. instances have one attribute:

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar

     The *note http.cookiejar.CookieJar: 371c. in which cookies are
     stored.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Prev: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.6 ProxyHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)

     The *note ProxyHandler: 1805. will have a method
     ‘<protocol>_open()’ for every 'protocol' which has a proxy in the
     'proxies' dictionary given in the constructor.  The method will
     modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling
     ‘request.set_proxy()’, and call the next handler in the chain to
     actually execute the protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Prev: ProxyHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.7 HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
................................

These methods are available on *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 36ec. and *note
HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 36ed. objects.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password (realm, uri, user, passwd)

     'uri' can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs.  'realm',
     'user' and 'passwd' must be strings.  This causes ‘(user, passwd)’
     to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for 'realm'
     and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password (realm, authuri)

     Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any.  This method
     will return ‘(None, None)’ if there is no matching user/password.

     For *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 36ed. objects, the realm
     ‘None’ will be searched if the given 'realm' has no matching
     user/password.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Next: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.8 HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
.............................................

This password manager extends *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm:
36ed. to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials
should always be sent.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password (realm, uri,
          user, passwd, is_authenticated=False)

     'realm', 'uri', 'user', 'passwd' are as for *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(): 3720.  'is_authenticated' sets the
     initial value of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given URI or
     list of URIs.  If 'is_authenticated' is specified as ‘True’,
     'realm' is ignored.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password (realm,
          authuri)

     Same as for *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 36ed. objects

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated (self,
          uri, is_authenticated=False)

     Update the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given 'uri' or list of
     URIs.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated (self,
          authuri)

     Returns the current state of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the
     given URI.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.9 AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
.........................................

 -- Yöntemi: AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair,
     and re-trying the request.  'authreq' should be the name of the
     header where the information about the realm is included in the
     request, 'host' specifies the URL and path to authenticate for,
     'req' should be the (failed) *note Request: e7e. object, and
     'headers' should be the error headers.

     'host' is either an authority (e.g.  ‘"python.org"’) or a URL
     containing an authority component (e.g.  ‘"http://python.org/"’).
     In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component
     (so, ‘"python.org"’ and ‘"python.org:80"’ are fine,
     ‘"joe:password@python.org"’ is not).


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.10 HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
......................................

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.11 ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
.......................................

 -- Yöntemi: ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.12 AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
...........................................

 -- Yöntemi: AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     'authreq' should be the name of the header where the information
     about the realm is included in the request, 'host' should be the
     host to authenticate to, 'req' should be the (failed) *note
     Request: e7e. object, and 'headers' should be the error headers.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.13 HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
.......................................

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.14 ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
........................................

 -- Yöntemi: ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Prev: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.15 HTTPHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPHandler.http_open (req)

     Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
     ‘req.has_data()’.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Next: FileHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.16 HTTPSHandler Objects
..............................

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPSHandler.https_open (req)

     Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending
     on ‘req.has_data()’.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler Objects,  Next: DataHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.17 FileHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: FileHandler.file_open (req)

     Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name
     is ‘'localhost'’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: This method is applicable only for local
     hostnames.  When a remote hostname is given, a *note URLError:
     36de. is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: DataHandler Objects,  Next: FTPHandler Objects,  Prev: FileHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.18 DataHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Yöntemi: DataHandler.data_open (req)

     Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in
     the URL itself.  The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397(1).
     This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data
     URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes
     from.  But even though some browsers don’t mind about a missing
     padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this
     implementation will raise a *note ValueError: 189. in that case.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2397.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTPHandler Objects,  Next: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Prev: DataHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.19 FTPHandler Objects
............................

 -- Yöntemi: FTPHandler.ftp_open (req)

     Open the FTP file indicated by 'req'.  The login is always done
     with empty username and password.


File: python.info,  Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Next: UnknownHandler Objects,  Prev: FTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.20 CacheFTPHandler Objects
.................................

*note CacheFTPHandler: 1541. objects are *note FTPHandler: 36e7. objects
with the following additional methods:

 -- Yöntemi: CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout (t)

     Set timeout of connections to 't' seconds.

 -- Yöntemi: CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns (m)

     Set maximum number of cached connections to 'm'.


File: python.info,  Node: UnknownHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Prev: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.21 UnknownHandler Objects
................................

 -- Yöntemi: UnknownHandler.unknown_open ()

     Raise a *note URLError: 36de. exception.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Next: Examples<25>,  Prev: UnknownHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.22 HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
....................................

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response (request, response)

     Process HTTP error responses.

     For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.

     For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the
     ‘http_error_<type>()’ handler methods, via *note
     OpenerDirector.error(): 3708.  Eventually, *note
     HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 36e5. will raise an *note HTTPError: e84.
     if no other handler handles the error.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response (request, response)

     Process HTTPS error responses.

     The behavior is same as *note http_response(): 374f.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<25>,  Next: Legacy interface,  Prev: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.23 Examples
..................

In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in *note
HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package: 3753.

This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300
bytes of it:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(300))
     ...
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 7]>      <html class="no-js ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">          <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 8]>      <html class="no-js ie8 lt-ie9">

Note that urlopen returns a bytes object.  This is because there is no
way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte
stream it receives from the HTTP server.  In general, a program will
decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses
the appropriate encoding.

The following HTML spec document,
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#charset’, lists the various ways in which
an HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding
information.

For additional information, see the W3C document:
‘https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-html-encoding-declarations’.

As the python.org website uses 'utf-8' encoding as specified in its meta
tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object:

     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!-

It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the *note
context manager: 3df. approach:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
     >>> try:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ... finally:
     ...     f.close()
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!--

In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a
CGI and reading the data it returns to us.  Note that this example will
only work when the Python installation supports SSL.

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
     ...                       data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"

The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import sys
     data = sys.stdin.read()
     print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)

Here is an example of doing a ‘PUT’ request using *note Request: e7e.:

     import urllib.request
     DATA = b'some data'
     req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA, method='PUT')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         pass
     print(f.status)
     print(f.reason)

Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:

     import urllib.request
     # Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
     auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
     auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
                               uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
                               user='klem',
                               passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
     # ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note build_opener(): 36e2. provides many handlers by default, including
a *note ProxyHandler: 1805.  By default, *note ProxyHandler: 1805. uses
the environment variables named ‘<scheme>_proxy’, where ‘<scheme>’ is
the URL scheme involved.  For example, the ‘http_proxy’ environment
variable is read to obtain the HTTP proxy’s URL.

This example replaces the default *note ProxyHandler: 1805. with one
that uses programmatically supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy
authorization support with *note ProxyBasicAuthHandler: 36f1.

     proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
     proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
     proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')

     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
     # This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Adding HTTP headers:

Use the 'headers' argument to the *note Request: e7e. constructor, or:

     import urllib.request
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
     req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
     # Customize the default User-Agent header value:
     req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note OpenerDirector: 36df. automatically adds a ‘User-Agent’ header to
every *note Request: e7e.  To change this:

     import urllib.request
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
     opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Also, remember that a few standard headers (‘Content-Length’,
‘Content-Type’ and ‘Host’) are added when the *note Request: e7e. is
passed to *note urlopen(): 286. (or *note OpenerDirector.open(): e82.).
Here is an example session that uses the ‘GET’ method to retrieve a URL
containing parameters:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses the ‘POST’ method instead.  Note that params
output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen
as data:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> data = data.encode('ascii')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy,
overriding environment settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener(proxies)
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...

The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment
settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> opener = urllib.request.FancyURLopener({})
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy interface,  Next: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: Examples<25>,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.24 Legacy interface
..........................

The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module
‘urllib’ (as opposed to ‘urllib2’).  They might become deprecated at
some point in the future.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.urlretrieve (url, filename=None,
          reporthook=None, data=None)

     Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file.  If the URL
     points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless
     filename is supplied.  Return a tuple ‘(filename, headers)’ where
     'filename' is the local file name under which the object can be
     found, and 'headers' is whatever the ‘info()’ method of the object
     returned by *note urlopen(): 286. returned (for a remote object).
     Exceptions are the same as for *note urlopen(): 286.

     The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to
     copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a
     generated name).  The third argument, if present, is a callable
     that will be called once on establishment of the network connection
     and once after each block read thereafter.  The callable will be
     passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a
     block size in bytes, and the total size of the file.  The third
     argument may be ‘-1’ on older FTP servers which do not return a
     file size in response to a retrieval request.

     The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:

          >>> import urllib.request
          >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
          >>> html = open(local_filename)
          >>> html.close()

     If the 'url' uses the ‘http:’ scheme identifier, the optional
     'data' argument may be given to specify a ‘POST’ request (normally
     the request type is ‘GET’).  The 'data' argument must be a bytes
     object in standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format; see
     the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29. function.

     *note urlretrieve(): 3756. will raise *note ContentTooShortError:
     3757. when it detects that the amount of data available was less
     than the expected amount (which is the size reported by a
     'Content-Length' header).  This can occur, for example, when the
     download is interrupted.

     The 'Content-Length' is treated as a lower bound: if there’s more
     data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is
     available, it raises the exception.

     You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is
     stored in the ‘content’ attribute of the exception instance.

     If no 'Content-Length' header was supplied, urlretrieve can not
     check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it.
     In this case you just have to assume that the download was
     successful.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.request.urlcleanup ()

     Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by
     previous calls to *note urlretrieve(): 3756.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.URLopener (proxies=None, **x509)

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

     Base class for opening and reading URLs.  Unless you need to
     support opening objects using schemes other than ‘http:’, ‘ftp:’,
     or ‘file:’, you probably want to use *note FancyURLopener: 285.

     By default, the *note URLopener: 284. class sends a ‘User-Agent’
     header of ‘urllib/VVV’, where 'VVV' is the *note urllib: 108.
     version number.  Applications can define their own ‘User-Agent’
     header by subclassing *note URLopener: 284. or *note
     FancyURLopener: 285. and setting the class attribute *note version:
     3758. to an appropriate string value in the subclass definition.

     The optional 'proxies' parameter should be a dictionary mapping
     scheme names to proxy URLs, where an empty dictionary turns proxies
     off completely.  Its default value is ‘None’, in which case
     environmental proxy settings will be used if present, as discussed
     in the definition of *note urlopen(): 286, above.

     Additional keyword parameters, collected in 'x509', may be used for
     authentication of the client when using the ‘https:’ scheme.  The
     keywords 'key_file' and 'cert_file' are supported to provide an SSL
     key and certificate; both are needed to support client
     authentication.

     *note URLopener: 284. objects will raise an *note OSError: 65c.
     exception if the server returns an error code.

      -- Yöntemi: open (fullurl, data=None)

          Open 'fullurl' using the appropriate protocol.  This method
          sets up cache and proxy information, then calls the
          appropriate open method with its input arguments.  If the
          scheme is not recognized, *note open_unknown(): 375a. is
          called.  The 'data' argument has the same meaning as the
          'data' argument of *note urlopen(): 286.

          This method always quotes 'fullurl' using *note quote(): a19.

      -- Yöntemi: open_unknown (fullurl, data=None)

          Overridable interface to open unknown URL types.

      -- Yöntemi: retrieve (url, filename=None, reporthook=None,
               data=None)

          Retrieves the contents of 'url' and places it in 'filename'.
          The return value is a tuple consisting of a local filename and
          either an *note email.message.Message: b1b. object containing
          the response headers (for remote URLs) or ‘None’ (for local
          URLs).  The caller must then open and read the contents of
          'filename'.  If 'filename' is not given and the URL refers to
          a local file, the input filename is returned.  If the URL is
          non-local and 'filename' is not given, the filename is the
          output of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 16b6. with a suffix that
          matches the suffix of the last path component of the input
          URL.  If 'reporthook' is given, it must be a function
          accepting three numeric parameters: A chunk number, the
          maximum size chunks are read in and the total size of the
          download (-1 if unknown).  It will be called once at the start
          and after each chunk of data is read from the network.
          'reporthook' is ignored for local URLs.

          If the 'url' uses the ‘http:’ scheme identifier, the optional
          'data' argument may be given to specify a ‘POST’ request
          (normally the request type is ‘GET’).  The 'data' argument
          must in standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format;
          see the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29. function.

      -- Özniteliği: version

          Variable that specifies the user agent of the opener object.
          To get *note urllib: 108. to tell servers that it is a
          particular user agent, set this in a subclass as a class
          variable or in the constructor before calling the base
          constructor.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.request.FancyURLopener (...)

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

     *note FancyURLopener: 285. subclasses *note URLopener: 284.
     providing default handling for the following HTTP response codes:
     301, 302, 303, 307 and 401.  For the 30x response codes listed
     above, the ‘Location’ header is used to fetch the actual URL. For
     401 response codes (authentication required), basic HTTP
     authentication is performed.  For the 30x response codes, recursion
     is bounded by the value of the 'maxtries' attribute, which defaults
     to 10.

     For all other response codes, the method *note
     http_error_default(): 3710. is called which you can override in
     subclasses to handle the error appropriately.

          Not: According to the letter of RFC 2616(1), 301 and 302
          responses to POST requests must not be automatically
          redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality,
          browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses,
          changing the POST to a GET, and *note urllib: 108. reproduces
          this behaviour.

     The parameters to the constructor are the same as those for *note
     URLopener: 284.

          Not: When performing basic authentication, a *note
          FancyURLopener: 285. instance calls its *note
          prompt_user_passwd(): 375b. method.  The default
          implementation asks the users for the required information on
          the controlling terminal.  A subclass may override this method
          to support more appropriate behavior if needed.

     The *note FancyURLopener: 285. class offers one additional method
     that should be overloaded to provide the appropriate behavior:

      -- Yöntemi: prompt_user_passwd (host, realm)

          Return information needed to authenticate the user at the
          given host in the specified security realm.  The return value
          should be a tuple, ‘(user, password)’, which can be used for
          basic authentication.

          The implementation prompts for this information on the
          terminal; an application should override this method to use an
          appropriate interaction model in the local environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: Legacy interface,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.21.4.25 ‘urllib.request’ Restrictions
.......................................

   * Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP
     (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for data URLs.

   * The caching feature of *note urlretrieve(): 3756. has been disabled
     until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of
     Expiration time headers.

   * There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in
     the cache.

   * For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local
     file but the file can’t be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using
     the FTP protocol.  This can sometimes cause confusing error
     messages.

   * The *note urlopen(): 286. and *note urlretrieve(): 3756. functions
     can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network
     connection to be set up.  This means that it is difficult to build
     an interactive web client using these functions without using
     threads.

   * The data returned by *note urlopen(): 286. or *note urlretrieve():
     3756. is the raw data returned by the server.  This may be binary
     data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP
     protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can
     be inspected by looking at the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
     returned data is HTML, you can use the module *note html.parser:
     6b. to parse it.

   * The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a
     file and a directory.  This can lead to unexpected behavior when
     attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not
     accessible.  If the URL ends in a ‘/’, it is assumed to refer to a
     directory and will be handled accordingly.  But if an attempt to
     read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found
     or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path
     is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a
     directory is specified by a URL but the trailing ‘/’ has been left
     off.  This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a
     file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will
     try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory
     listing for the unreadable file.  If fine-grained control is
     needed, consider using the *note ftplib: 5c. module, subclassing
     *note FancyURLopener: 285, or changing '_urlopener' to meet your
     needs.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib,  Next: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components,  Prev: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.5 ‘urllib.response’ — Response classes used by urllib
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note urllib.response: 10c. module defines functions and classes
which define a minimal file-like interface, including ‘read()’ and
‘readline()’.  Functions defined by this module are used internally by
the *note urllib.request: 10b. module.  The typical response object is a
*note urllib.response.addinfourl: 36dc. instance:

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.response.addinfourl

      -- Özniteliği: url

          URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a
          redirect was followed.

      -- Özniteliği: headers

          Returns the headers of the response in the form of an *note
          EmailMessage: b1c. instance.

      -- Özniteliği: status

          Added in version 3.9.

          Status code returned by server.

      -- Yöntemi: geturl ()

          3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecated in favor of
          *note url: 375e.

      -- Yöntemi: info ()

          3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecated in favor of
          *note headers: 375f.

      -- Özniteliği: code

          3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecated in favor of
          *note status: 3760.

      -- Yöntemi: getcode ()

          3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecated in favor of
          *note status: 3760.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components,  Next: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Prev: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.6 ‘urllib.parse’ — Parse URLs into components
--------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/parse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) strings up in components (addressing scheme, network
location, path etc.), to combine the components back into a URL string,
and to convert a “relative URL” to an absolute URL given a “base URL.”

The module has been designed to match the internet RFC on Relative
Uniform Resource Locators.  It supports the following URL schemes:
‘file’, ‘ftp’, ‘gopher’, ‘hdl’, ‘http’, ‘https’, ‘imap’, ‘mailto’,
‘mms’, ‘news’, ‘nntp’, ‘prospero’, ‘rsync’, ‘rtsp’, ‘rtsps’, ‘rtspu’,
‘sftp’, ‘shttp’, ‘sip’, ‘sips’, ‘snews’, ‘svn’, ‘svn+ssh’, ‘telnet’,
‘wais’, ‘ws’, ‘wss’.

The *note urllib.parse: 10a. module defines functions that fall into two
broad categories: URL parsing and URL quoting.  These are covered in
detail in the following sections.

This module’s functions use the deprecated term ‘netloc’ (or ‘net_loc’),
which was introduced in RFC 1808(2).  However, this term has been
obsoleted by RFC 3986(3), which introduced the term ‘authority’ as its
replacement.  The use of ‘netloc’ is continued for backward
compatibility.

* Menu:

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/parse.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL Parsing,  Next: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.21.6.1 URL Parsing
....................

The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its
components, or on combining URL components into a URL string.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.urlparse (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     Parse a URL into six components, returning a 6-item *note named
     tuple: 461.  This corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
     ‘scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment’.  Each tuple item
     is a string, possibly empty.  The components are not broken up into
     smaller parts (for example, the network location is a single
     string), and % escapes are not expanded.  The delimiters as shown
     above are not part of the result, except for a leading slash in the
     'path' component, which is retained if present.  For example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse("scheme://netloc/path;parameters?query#fragment")
          ParseResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path;parameters', params='',
                      query='query', fragment='fragment')
          >>> o = urlparse("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
          ...              "highlight=params#url-parsing")
          >>> o
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
                      path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html', params='',
                      query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
          >>> o.scheme
          'http'
          >>> o.netloc
          'docs.python.org:80'
          >>> o.hostname
          'docs.python.org'
          >>> o.port
          80
          >>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
          'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'

     Following the syntax specifications in RFC 1808(1), urlparse
     recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by ‘//’.
     Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to
     start with a path component.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlparse('help/Python.html')
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html', params='',
                      query='', fragment='')

     The 'scheme' argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
     used only if the URL does not specify one.  It should be the same
     type (text or bytes) as 'urlstring', except that the default value
     ‘''’ is always allowed, and is automatically converted to ‘b''’ if
     appropriate.

     If the 'allow_fragments' argument is false, fragment identifiers
     are not recognized.  Instead, they are parsed as part of the path,
     parameters or query component, and ‘fragment’ is set to the empty
     string in the return value.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 461, which means that its
     items can be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:

     Attribute              Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL scheme specifier          'scheme' parameter
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           Network location part         empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           Hierarchical path             empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘params’               3           Parameters for last path      empty string
                                        element                       
                                        
                                                                      
     ‘query’                4           Query component               empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             5           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         User name                     *note None: 488.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         Password                      *note None: 488.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         Host name (lower case)        *note None: 488.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             Port number as integer, if    *note None: 488.
                                        present                       
                                        

     Reading the ‘port’ attribute will raise a *note ValueError: 189. if
     an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section *note
     Structured Parse Results: 3768. for more information on the result
     object.

     Unmatched square brackets in the ‘netloc’ attribute will raise a
     *note ValueError: 189.

     Characters in the ‘netloc’ attribute that decompose under NFKC
     normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ‘/’, ‘?’,
     ‘#’, ‘@’, or ‘:’ will raise a *note ValueError: 189.  If the URL is
     decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

     As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few
     additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful.
     One such method is ‘_replace()’.  The ‘_replace()’ method will
     return a new ParseResult object replacing specified fields with new
     values.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlparse
          >>> u = urlparse('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          >>> u
          ParseResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')
          >>> u._replace(scheme='http')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      params='', query='', fragment='')

          Uyarı: *note urlparse(): 283. does not perform validation.
          See *note URL parsing security: 3769. for details.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The fragment is now parsed for all URL
     schemes (unless 'allow_fragments' is false), in accordance with RFC
     3986(2).  Previously, an allowlist of schemes that support
     fragments existed.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Out-of-range port numbers now raise *note
     ValueError: 189, instead of returning *note None: 488.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Characters that affect netloc parsing under
     NFKC normalization will now raise *note ValueError: 189.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.parse_qs (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a
     dictionary.  The dictionary keys are the unique query variable
     names and the values are lists of values for each name.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 189.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): 729. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 189. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29. function (with the
     ‘doseq’ parameter set to ‘True’) to convert such dictionaries into
     query strings.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'max_num_fields' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added 'separator' parameter with the
     default value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
     allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This
     has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as
     the default separator.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.parse_qsl (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a list
     of name, value pairs.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 189.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): 729. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 189. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29. function to convert
     such lists of pairs into query strings.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'max_num_fields' parameter.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added 'separator' parameter with the
     default value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
     allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This
     has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as
     the default separator.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.urlunparse (parts)

     Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by ‘urlparse()’.  The
     'parts' argument can be any six-item iterable.  This may result in
     a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the URL that was
     parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ‘?’
     with an empty query; the RFC states that these are equivalent).

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.urlsplit (urlstring, scheme='',
          allow_fragments=True)

     This is similar to *note urlparse(): 283, but does not split the
     params from the URL. This should generally be used instead of *note
     urlparse(): 283. if the more recent URL syntax allowing parameters
     to be applied to each segment of the 'path' portion of the URL (see
     RFC 2396(3)) is wanted.  A separate function is needed to separate
     the path segments and parameters.  This function returns a 5-item
     *note named tuple: 461.:

          (addressing scheme, network location, path, query, fragment identifier).

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 461, its items can be
     accessed by index or as named attributes:

     Attribute              Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL scheme specifier          'scheme' parameter
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           Network location part         empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           Hierarchical path             empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘query’                3           Query component               empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             4           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         User name                     *note None: 488.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         Password                      *note None: 488.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         Host name (lower case)        *note None: 488.
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             Port number as integer, if    *note None: 488.
                                        present                       
                                        

     Reading the ‘port’ attribute will raise a *note ValueError: 189. if
     an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section *note
     Structured Parse Results: 3768. for more information on the result
     object.

     Unmatched square brackets in the ‘netloc’ attribute will raise a
     *note ValueError: 189.

     Characters in the ‘netloc’ attribute that decompose under NFKC
     normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ‘/’, ‘?’,
     ‘#’, ‘@’, or ‘:’ will raise a *note ValueError: 189.  If the URL is
     decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

     Following some of the WHATWG spec(4) that updates RFC 3986, leading
     C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL. ‘\n’,
     ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are removed from the URL at any
     position.

          Uyarı: *note urlsplit(): bc7. does not perform validation.
          See *note URL parsing security: 3769. for details.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Out-of-range port numbers now raise *note
     ValueError: 189, instead of returning *note None: 488.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Characters that affect netloc parsing under
     NFKC normalization will now raise *note ValueError: 189.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ASCII newline and tab characters are
     stripped from the URL.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Leading WHATWG C0 control and space
     characters are stripped from the URL.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.urlunsplit (parts)

     Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by *note urlsplit():
     bc7. into a complete URL as a string.  The 'parts' argument can be
     any five-item iterable.  This may result in a slightly different,
     but equivalent URL, if the URL that was parsed originally had
     unnecessary delimiters (for example, a ?  with an empty query; the
     RFC states that these are equivalent).

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.urljoin (base, url, allow_fragments=True)

     Construct a full (“absolute”) URL by combining a “base URL”
     ('base') with another URL ('url').  Informally, this uses
     components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme,
     the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing
     components in the relative URL. For example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
          >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
          'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'

     The 'allow_fragments' argument has the same meaning and default as
     for *note urlparse(): 283.

          Not: If 'url' is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with ‘//’
          or ‘scheme://’), the 'url'’s hostname and/or scheme will be
          present in the result.  For example:

               >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
               ...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
               'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'

          If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the 'url' with
          *note urlsplit(): bc7. and *note urlunsplit(): 1452, removing
          possible 'scheme' and 'netloc' parts.

          Uyarı: Because an absolute URL may be passed as the ‘url’
          parameter, it is generally 'not secure' to use ‘urljoin’ with
          an attacker-controlled ‘url’.  For example in,
          ‘urljoin("https://website.com/users/", username)’, if
          ‘username’ can contain an absolute URL, the result of
          ‘urljoin’ will be the absolute URL.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Behavior updated to match the semantics
     defined in RFC 3986(5).

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.urldefrag (url)

     If 'url' contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version
     of 'url' with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier
     as a separate string.  If there is no fragment identifier in 'url',
     return 'url' unmodified and an empty string.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: 461, its items can be
     accessed by index or as named attributes:

     Attribute              Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘url’                  0           URL with no fragment          empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             1           Fragment identifier           empty string
                                                                      

     See section *note Structured Parse Results: 3768. for more
     information on the result object.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Result is a structured object rather than a
     simple 2-tuple.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.unwrap (url)

     Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as
     ‘<URL:scheme://host/path>’, ‘<scheme://host/path>’,
     ‘URL:scheme://host/path’ or ‘scheme://host/path’).  If 'url' is not
     a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (4) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL parsing security,  Next: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Prev: URL Parsing,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.21.6.2 URL parsing security
.............................

The *note urlsplit(): bc7. and *note urlparse(): 283. APIs do not
perform 'validation' of inputs.  They may not raise errors on inputs
that other applications consider invalid.  They may also succeed on some
inputs that might not be considered URLs elsewhere.  Their purpose is
for practical functionality rather than purity.

Instead of raising an exception on unusual input, they may instead
return some component parts as empty strings.  Or components may contain
more than perhaps they should.

We recommend that users of these APIs where the values may be used
anywhere with security implications code defensively.  Do some
verification within your code before trusting a returned component part.
Does that ‘scheme’ make sense?  Is that a sensible ‘path’?  Is there
anything strange about that ‘hostname’?  etc.

What constitutes a URL is not universally well defined.  Different
applications have different needs and desired constraints.  For instance
the living WHATWG spec(1) describes what user facing web clients such as
a web browser require.  While RFC 3986(2) is more general.  These
functions incorporate some aspects of both, but cannot be claimed
compliant with either.  The APIs and existing user code with
expectations on specific behaviors predate both standards leading us to
be very cautious about making API behavior changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Next: Structured Parse Results,  Prev: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.21.6.3 Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes
....................................

The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on
character strings only.  In practice, it is useful to be able to
manipulate properly quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes.
Accordingly, the URL parsing functions in this module all operate on
*note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. objects in addition to *note
str: 15d. objects.

If *note str: 15d. data is passed in, the result will also contain only
*note str: 15d. data.  If *note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca.
data is passed in, the result will contain only *note bytes: 2cb. data.

Attempting to mix *note str: 15d. data with *note bytes: 2cb. or *note
bytearray: 2ca. in a single function call will result in a *note
TypeError: 2c4. being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII byte
values will trigger *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873.

To support easier conversion of result objects between *note str: 15d.
and *note bytes: 2cb, all return values from URL parsing functions
provide either an ‘encode()’ method (when the result contains *note str:
15d. data) or a ‘decode()’ method (when the result contains *note bytes:
2cb. data).  The signatures of these methods match those of the
corresponding *note str: 15d. and *note bytes: 2cb. methods (except that
the default encoding is ‘'ascii'’ rather than ‘'utf-8'’).  Each produces
a value of a corresponding type that contains either *note bytes: 2cb.
data (for ‘encode()’ methods) or *note str: 15d. data (for ‘decode()’
methods).

Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs
that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from
bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods.

The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing
functions.  The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing
or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the
individual URL quoting functions.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded
byte sequences


File: python.info,  Node: Structured Parse Results,  Next: URL Quoting,  Prev: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.21.6.4 Structured Parse Results
.................................

The result objects from the *note urlparse(): 283, *note urlsplit():
bc7. and *note urldefrag(): 10ef. functions are subclasses of the *note
tuple: 4ff. type.  These subclasses add the attributes listed in the
documentation for those functions, the encoding and decoding support
described in the previous section, as well as an additional method:

 -- Yöntemi: urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl ()

     Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string.
     This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be
     normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped.
     Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers
     will be removed.

     For *note urldefrag(): 10ef. results, only empty fragment
     identifiers will be removed.  For *note urlsplit(): bc7. and *note
     urlparse(): 283. results, all noted changes will be made to the URL
     returned by this method.

     The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through
     the original parsing function:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
          >>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
          >>> r1.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
          >>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
          >>> r2.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'

The following classes provide the implementations of the structured
parse results when operating on *note str: 15d. objects:

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.parse.DefragResult (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 10ef. results containing
     *note str: 15d. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResultBytes: 3770. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.parse.ParseResult (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 283. results containing *note
     str: 15d. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResultBytes: 3772. instance.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.parse.SplitResult (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): bc7. results containing *note
     str: 15d. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResultBytes: 3774. instance.

The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results
when operating on *note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca. objects:

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 10ef. results containing
     *note bytes: 2cb. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResult: 376f. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 283. results containing *note
     bytes: 2cb. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResult: 3771. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): bc7. results containing *note
     bytes: 2cb. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResult: 3773. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: URL Quoting,  Prev: Structured Parse Results,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.21.6.5 URL Quoting
....................

The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it
safe for use as URL components by quoting special characters and
appropriately encoding non-ASCII text.  They also support reversing
these operations to recreate the original data from the contents of a
URL component if that task isn’t already covered by the URL parsing
functions above.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.quote (string, safe='/', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Replace special characters in 'string' using the ‘%XX’ escape.
     Letters, digits, and the characters ‘'_.-~'’ are never quoted.  By
     default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of
     a URL. The optional 'safe' parameter specifies additional ASCII
     characters that should not be quoted — its default value is ‘'/'’.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 15d. or a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Moved from RFC 2396(1) to RFC 3986(2) for
     quoting URL strings.  “~” is now included in the set of unreserved
     characters.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to deal
     with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the *note str.encode():
     728. method.  'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults
     to ‘'strict'’, meaning unsupported characters raise a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 48b.  'encoding' and 'errors' must not be
     supplied if 'string' is a *note bytes: 2cb, or a *note TypeError:
     2c4. is raised.

     Note that ‘quote(string, safe, encoding, errors)’ is equivalent to
     ‘quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe)’.

     Example: ‘quote('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'’.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.quote_plus (string, safe='', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Like *note quote(): a19, but also replace spaces with plus signs,
     as required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query
     string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are
     escaped unless they are included in 'safe'.  It also does not have
     'safe' default to ‘'/'’.

     Example: ‘quote_plus('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'’.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes (bytes, safe='/')

     Like *note quote(): a19, but accepts a *note bytes: 2cb. object
     rather than a *note str: 15d, and does not perform string-to-bytes
     encoding.

     Example: ‘quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef')’ yields ‘'a%26%EF'’.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.unquote (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-character equivalent.  The
     optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to decode
     percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by
     the *note bytes.decode(): 729. method.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 15d. or a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults to
     ‘'replace'’, meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a
     placeholder character.

     Example: ‘unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: 'string' parameter supports bytes and str
     objects (previously only str).

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.unquote_plus (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Like *note unquote(): 15a5, but also replace plus signs with
     spaces, as required for unquoting HTML form values.

     'string' must be a *note str: 15d.

     Example: ‘unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes (string)

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and
     return a *note bytes: 2cb. object.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 15d. or a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object.

     If it is a *note str: 15d, unescaped non-ASCII characters in
     'string' are encoded into UTF-8 bytes.

     Example: ‘unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')’ yields ‘b'a&\xef'’.

 -- Işlevi: urllib.parse.urlencode (query, doseq=False, safe='',
          encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)

     Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which
     may contain *note str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. objects, to a
     percent-encoded ASCII text string.  If the resultant string is to
     be used as a 'data' for POST operation with the *note urlopen():
     286. function, then it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it
     would result in a *note TypeError: 2c4.

     The resulting string is a series of ‘key=value’ pairs separated by
     ‘'&'’ characters, where both 'key' and 'value' are quoted using the
     'quote_via' function.  By default, *note quote_plus(): 10f0. is
     used to quote the values, which means spaces are quoted as a ‘'+'’
     character and ‘/’ characters are encoded as ‘%2F’, which follows
     the standard for GET requests
     (‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  An alternate function that
     can be passed as 'quote_via' is *note quote(): a19, which will
     encode spaces as ‘%20’ and not encode ‘/’ characters.  For maximum
     control of what is quoted, use ‘quote’ and specify a value for
     'safe'.

     When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the 'query'
     argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second
     is a value.  The value element in itself can be a sequence and in
     that case, if the optional parameter 'doseq' evaluates to ‘True’,
     individual ‘key=value’ pairs separated by ‘'&'’ are generated for
     each element of the value sequence for the key.  The order of
     parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter
     tuples in the sequence.

     The 'safe', 'encoding', and 'errors' parameters are passed down to
     'quote_via' (the 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters are only passed
     when a query element is a *note str: 15d.).

     To reverse this encoding process, *note parse_qs(): 69a. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 69b. are provided in this module to parse query
     strings into Python data structures.

     Refer to *note urllib examples: 3754. to find out how the *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29. method can be used for generating
     the query string of a URL or data for a POST request.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'query' supports bytes and string objects.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'quote_via' parameter.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

WHATWG(3) - URL Living standard

     Working Group for the URL Standard that defines URLs, domains, IP
     addresses, the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, and their
     API.

RFC 3986(4) - Uniform Resource Identifiers

     This is the current standard (STD66).  Any changes to urllib.parse
     module should conform to this.  Certain deviations could be
     observed, which are mostly for backward compatibility purposes and
     for certain de-facto parsing requirements as commonly observed in
     major browsers.

RFC 2732(5) - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL’s.

     This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.

RFC 2396(6) - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax

     Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both
     Uniform Resource Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).

RFC 2368(7) - The mailto URL scheme.

     Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.

RFC 1808(8) - Relative Uniform Resource Locators

     This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an
     absolute and a relative URL, including a fair number of “Abnormal
     Examples” which govern the treatment of border cases.

RFC 1738(9) - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

     This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2368.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt,  Prev: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.7 ‘urllib.error’ — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/error.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note urllib.error: 109. module defines the exception classes for
exceptions raised by *note urllib.request: 10b.  The base exception
class is *note URLError: 36de.

The following exceptions are raised by *note urllib.error: 109. as
appropriate:

 -- Özel Durum: urllib.error.URLError

     The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they
     run into a problem.  It is a subclass of *note OSError: 65c.

      -- Özniteliği: reason

          The reason for this error.  It can be a message string or
          another exception instance.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note URLError: 36de. used to be a subtype
     of *note IOError: efc, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Özel Durum: urllib.error.HTTPError (url, code, msg, hdrs, fp)

     Though being an exception (a subclass of *note URLError: 36de.), an
     *note HTTPError: e84. can also function as a non-exceptional
     file-like return value (the same thing that *note urlopen(): 286.
     returns).  This is useful when handling exotic HTTP errors, such as
     requests for authentication.

      -- Özniteliği: url

          Contains the request URL. An alias for 'filename' attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: code

          An HTTP status code as defined in RFC 2616(2).  This numeric
          value corresponds to a value found in the dictionary of codes
          as found in *note
          http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 377c.

      -- Özniteliği: reason

          This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error.
          An alias for 'msg' attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: headers

          The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the
          *note HTTPError: e84.  An alias for 'hdrs' attribute.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Özniteliği: fp

          A file-like object where the HTTP error body can be read from.

 -- Özel Durum: urllib.error.ContentTooShortError (msg, content)

     This exception is raised when the *note urlretrieve(): 3756.
     function detects that the amount of the downloaded data is less
     than the expected amount (given by the 'Content-Length' header).

      -- Özniteliği: content

          The downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/error.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt,  Next: http — HTTP modules,  Prev: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.8 ‘urllib.robotparser’ — Parser for robots.txt
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/robotparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a single class, *note RobotFileParser: b81, which
answers questions about whether or not a particular user agent can fetch
a URL on the web site that published the ‘robots.txt’ file.  For more
details on the structure of ‘robots.txt’ files, see
‘http://www.robotstxt.org/orig.html’.

 -- Sınıfı: urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser (url='')

     This class provides methods to read, parse and answer questions
     about the ‘robots.txt’ file at 'url'.

      -- Yöntemi: set_url (url)

          Sets the URL referring to a ‘robots.txt’ file.

      -- Yöntemi: read ()

          Reads the ‘robots.txt’ URL and feeds it to the parser.

      -- Yöntemi: parse (lines)

          Parses the lines argument.

      -- Yöntemi: can_fetch (useragent, url)

          Returns ‘True’ if the 'useragent' is allowed to fetch the
          'url' according to the rules contained in the parsed
          ‘robots.txt’ file.

      -- Yöntemi: mtime ()

          Returns the time the ‘robots.txt’ file was last fetched.  This
          is useful for long-running web spiders that need to check for
          new ‘robots.txt’ files periodically.

      -- Yöntemi: modified ()

          Sets the time the ‘robots.txt’ file was last fetched to the
          current time.

      -- Yöntemi: crawl_delay (useragent)

          Returns the value of the ‘Crawl-delay’ parameter from
          ‘robots.txt’ for the 'useragent' in question.  If there is no
          such parameter or it doesn’t apply to the 'useragent'
          specified or the ‘robots.txt’ entry for this parameter has
          invalid syntax, return ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: request_rate (useragent)

          Returns the contents of the ‘Request-rate’ parameter from
          ‘robots.txt’ as a *note named tuple: 461.
          ‘RequestRate(requests, seconds)’.  If there is no such
          parameter or it doesn’t apply to the 'useragent' specified or
          the ‘robots.txt’ entry for this parameter has invalid syntax,
          return ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: site_maps ()

          Returns the contents of the ‘Sitemap’ parameter from
          ‘robots.txt’ in the form of a *note list(): 422.  If there is
          no such parameter or the ‘robots.txt’ entry for this parameter
          has invalid syntax, return ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.8.

The following example demonstrates basic use of the *note
RobotFileParser: b81. class:

     >>> import urllib.robotparser
     >>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
     >>> rp.set_url("http://www.musi-cal.com/robots.txt")
     >>> rp.read()
     >>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
     >>> rrate.requests
     3
     >>> rrate.seconds
     20
     >>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
     6
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/search?city=San+Francisco")
     False
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.musi-cal.com/")
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/urllib/robotparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: http — HTTP modules,  Next: http client — HTTP protocol client,  Prev: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.9 ‘http’ — HTTP modules
----------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note http: 6c. is a package that collects several modules for working
with the HyperText Transfer Protocol:

   * *note http.client: 6d. is a low-level HTTP protocol client; for
     high-level URL opening use *note urllib.request: 10b.

   * *note http.server: 70. contains basic HTTP server classes based on
     *note socketserver: cc.

   * *note http.cookies: 6f. has utilities for implementing state
     management with cookies

   * *note http.cookiejar: 6e. provides persistence of cookies

The *note http: 6c. module also defines the following enums that help
you work with http related code:

 -- Sınıfı: http.HTTPStatus

     Added in version 3.5.

     A subclass of *note enum.IntEnum: b62. that defines a set of HTTP
     status codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in
     English.

     Usage:

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK
          HTTPStatus.OK
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK == 200
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.value
          200
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.phrase
          'OK'
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.description
          'Request fulfilled, document follows'
          >>> list(HTTPStatus)
          [HTTPStatus.CONTINUE, HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS, ...]

* Menu:

* HTTP status codes::
* HTTP status category::
* HTTP methods::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP status codes,  Next: HTTP status category,  Up: http — HTTP modules

5.21.9.1 HTTP status codes
..........................

Supported, IANA-registered status codes(1) available in *note
http.HTTPStatus: 755. are:

Code        Enum Name                               Details
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘100’       ‘CONTINUE’                              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(2), Section 6.2.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘101’       ‘SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS’                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(3), Section 6.2.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘102’       ‘PROCESSING’                            WebDAV RFC 2518(4), Section 10.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘103’       ‘EARLY_HINTS’                           An HTTP Status Code for Indicating Hints RFC 8297(5)
                                                    
                                                    
‘200’       ‘OK’                                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(6), Section 6.3.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘201’       ‘CREATED’                               HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(7), Section 6.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘202’       ‘ACCEPTED’                              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(8), Section 6.3.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘203’       ‘NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION’         HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(9), Section 6.3.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘204’       ‘NO_CONTENT’                            HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(10), Section 6.3.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘205’       ‘RESET_CONTENT’                         HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(11), Section 6.3.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘206’       ‘PARTIAL_CONTENT’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7233(12), Section 4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘207’       ‘MULTI_STATUS’                          WebDAV RFC 4918(13), Section 11.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘208’       ‘ALREADY_REPORTED’                      WebDAV Binding Extensions RFC 5842(14), Section 7.1 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘226’       ‘IM_USED’                               Delta Encoding in HTTP RFC 3229(15), Section 10.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘300’       ‘MULTIPLE_CHOICES’                      HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(16), Section 6.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘301’       ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’                     HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(17), Section 6.4.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘302’       ‘FOUND’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(18), Section 6.4.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘303’       ‘SEE_OTHER’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(19), Section 6.4.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘304’       ‘NOT_MODIFIED’                          HTTP/1.1 RFC 7232(20), Section 4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘305’       ‘USE_PROXY’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(21), Section 6.4.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘307’       ‘TEMPORARY_REDIRECT’                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(22), Section 6.4.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘308’       ‘PERMANENT_REDIRECT’                    Permanent Redirect RFC 7238(23), Section 3 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘400’       ‘BAD_REQUEST’                           HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(24), Section 6.5.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘401’       ‘UNAUTHORIZED’                          HTTP/1.1 Authentication RFC 7235(25), Section 3.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘402’       ‘PAYMENT_REQUIRED’                      HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(26), Section 6.5.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘403’       ‘FORBIDDEN’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(27), Section 6.5.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘404’       ‘NOT_FOUND’                             HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(28), Section 6.5.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘405’       ‘METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED’                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(29), Section 6.5.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘406’       ‘NOT_ACCEPTABLE’                        HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(30), Section 6.5.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘407’       ‘PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’         HTTP/1.1 Authentication RFC 7235(31), Section 3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘408’       ‘REQUEST_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(32), Section 6.5.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘409’       ‘CONFLICT’                              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(33), Section 6.5.8
                                                    
                                                    
‘410’       ‘GONE’                                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(34), Section 6.5.9
                                                    
                                                    
‘411’       ‘LENGTH_REQUIRED’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(35), Section 6.5.10
                                                    
                                                    
‘412’       ‘PRECONDITION_FAILED’                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7232(36), Section 4.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘413’       ‘REQUEST_ENTITY_TOO_LARGE’              HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(37), Section 6.5.11
                                                    
                                                    
‘414’       ‘REQUEST_URI_TOO_LONG’                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(38), Section 6.5.12
                                                    
                                                    
‘415’       ‘UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE’                HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(39), Section 6.5.13
                                                    
                                                    
‘416’       ‘REQUESTED_RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE’       HTTP/1.1 Range Requests RFC 7233(40), Section 4.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘417’       ‘EXPECTATION_FAILED’                    HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(41), Section 6.5.14
                                                    
                                                    
‘418’       ‘IM_A_TEAPOT’                           HTCPCP/1.0 RFC 2324(42), Section 2.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘421’       ‘MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’                   HTTP/2 RFC 7540(43), Section 9.1.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘422’       ‘UNPROCESSABLE_ENTITY’                  WebDAV RFC 4918(44), Section 11.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘423’       ‘LOCKED’                                WebDAV RFC 4918(45), Section 11.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘424’       ‘FAILED_DEPENDENCY’                     WebDAV RFC 4918(46), Section 11.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘425’       ‘TOO_EARLY’                             Using Early Data in HTTP RFC 8470(47)
                                                    
                                                    
‘426’       ‘UPGRADE_REQUIRED’                      HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(48), Section 6.5.15
                                                    
                                                    
‘428’       ‘PRECONDITION_REQUIRED’                 Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(49)
                                                    
                                                    
‘429’       ‘TOO_MANY_REQUESTS’                     Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(50)
                                                    
                                                    
‘431’       ‘REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE’       Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(51)
                                                    
                                                    
‘451’       ‘UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’         An HTTP Status Code to Report Legal Obstacles RFC 7725(52)
                                                    
                                                    
‘500’       ‘INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR’                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(53), Section 6.6.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘501’       ‘NOT_IMPLEMENTED’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(54), Section 6.6.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘502’       ‘BAD_GATEWAY’                           HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(55), Section 6.6.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘503’       ‘SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE’                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(56), Section 6.6.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘504’       ‘GATEWAY_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(57), Section 6.6.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘505’       ‘HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED’            HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(58), Section 6.6.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘506’       ‘VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES’               Transparent Content Negotiation in HTTP RFC 2295(59), Section 8.1 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘507’       ‘INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE’                  WebDAV RFC 4918(60), Section 11.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘508’       ‘LOOP_DETECTED’                         WebDAV Binding Extensions RFC 5842(61), Section 7.2 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘510’       ‘NOT_EXTENDED’                          An HTTP Extension Framework RFC 2774(62), Section 7 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘511’       ‘NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’       Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(63), Section 6
                                                    

In order to preserve backwards compatibility, enum values are also
present in the *note http.client: 6d. module in the form of constants.
The enum name is equal to the constant name (i.e.  ‘http.HTTPStatus.OK’
is also available as ‘http.client.OK’).

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘421 MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’ status code.

Added in version 3.8: Added ‘451 UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’ status
code.

Added in version 3.9: Added ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ and
‘425 TOO_EARLY’ status codes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2518.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8297.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7233.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3229.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7232.html

   (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (23) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7238.html

   (24) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (25) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7235.html

   (26) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (27) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (28) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (30) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (31) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7235.html

   (32) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (33) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (34) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (35) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7232.html

   (37) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (39) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (40) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7233.html

   (41) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (42) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2324.html

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7540.html

   (44) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (45) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (46) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (47) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8470.html

   (48) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (49) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (50) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (51) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (52) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7725.html

   (53) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (54) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (55) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (56) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (57) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (58) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (59) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2295.html

   (60) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (61) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (62) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2774.html

   (63) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP status category,  Next: HTTP methods,  Prev: HTTP status codes,  Up: http — HTTP modules

5.21.9.2 HTTP status category
.............................

Added in version 3.12.

The enum values have several properties to indicate the HTTP status
category:

Property                 Indicates that               Details
                                                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘is_informational’       ‘100 <= status <= 199’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(1), Section 6
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_success’             ‘200 <= status <= 299’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(2), Section 6
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_redirection’         ‘300 <= status <= 399’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(3), Section 6
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_client_error’        ‘400 <= status <= 499’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(4), Section 6
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_server_error’        ‘500 <= status <= 599’       HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(5), Section 6
                                                      

     Usage:

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_success
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_client_error
          False

 -- Sınıfı: http.HTTPMethod

     Added in version 3.11.

     A subclass of *note enum.StrEnum: 42c. that defines a set of HTTP
     methods and descriptions written in English.

     Usage:

          >>> from http import HTTPMethod
          >>>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET
          <HTTPMethod.GET>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET == 'GET'
          True
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.value
          'GET'
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.description
          'Retrieve the target.'
          >>> list(HTTPMethod)
          [<HTTPMethod.CONNECT>,
           <HTTPMethod.DELETE>,
           <HTTPMethod.GET>,
           <HTTPMethod.HEAD>,
           <HTTPMethod.OPTIONS>,
           <HTTPMethod.PATCH>,
           <HTTPMethod.POST>,
           <HTTPMethod.PUT>,
           <HTTPMethod.TRACE>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP methods,  Prev: HTTP status category,  Up: http — HTTP modules

5.21.9.3 HTTP methods
.....................

Supported, IANA-registered methods(1) available in *note
http.HTTPMethod: 378e. are:

Method          Enum Name                               Details
                                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘GET’           ‘GET’                                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(2), Section 4.3.1
                                                        
                                                        
‘HEAD’          ‘HEAD’                                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(3), Section 4.3.2
                                                        
                                                        
‘POST’          ‘POST’                                  HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(4), Section 4.3.3
                                                        
                                                        
‘PUT’           ‘PUT’                                   HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(5), Section 4.3.4
                                                        
                                                        
‘DELETE’        ‘DELETE’                                HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(6), Section 4.3.5
                                                        
                                                        
‘CONNECT’       ‘CONNECT’                               HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(7), Section 4.3.6
                                                        
                                                        
‘OPTIONS’       ‘OPTIONS’                               HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(8), Section 4.3.7
                                                        
                                                        
‘TRACE’         ‘TRACE’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 7231(9), Section 4.3.8
                                                        
                                                        
‘PATCH’         ‘PATCH’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 5789(10)
                                                        

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-methods/http-methods.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5789.html


File: python.info,  Node: http client — HTTP protocol client,  Next: ftplib — FTP protocol client,  Prev: http — HTTP modules,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.10 ‘http.client’ — HTTP protocol client
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines classes that implement the client side of the HTTP
and HTTPS protocols.  It is normally not used directly — the module
*note urllib.request: 10b. uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and
HTTPS.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client
interface.

     Not: HTTPS support is only available if Python was compiled with
     SSL support (through the *note ssl: cf. module).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The module provides the following classes:

 -- Sınıfı: http.client.HTTPConnection (host, port=None[, timeout],
          source_address=None, blocksize=8192)

     An *note HTTPConnection: 9b1. instance represents one transaction
     with an HTTP server.  It should be instantiated by passing it a
     host and optional port number.  If no port number is passed, the
     port is extracted from the host string if it has the form
     ‘host:port’, else the default HTTP port (80) is used.  If the
     optional 'timeout' parameter is given, blocking operations (like
     connection attempts) will timeout after that many seconds (if it is
     not given, the global default timeout setting is used).  The
     optional 'source_address' parameter may be a tuple of a (host,
     port) to use as the source address the HTTP connection is made
     from.  The optional 'blocksize' parameter sets the buffer size in
     bytes for sending a file-like message body.

     For example, the following calls all create instances that connect
     to the server at the same host and port:

          >>> h1 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
          >>> h2 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org:80')
          >>> h3 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80)
          >>> h4 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80, timeout=10)

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'source_address' was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9-style “Simple Responses” are no longer supported.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: 'blocksize' parameter was added.

 -- Sınıfı: http.client.HTTPSConnection (host, port=None, *[, timeout],
          source_address=None, context=None, blocksize=8192)

     A subclass of *note HTTPConnection: 9b1. that uses SSL for
     communication with secure servers.  Default port is ‘443’.  If
     'context' is specified, it must be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.
     instance describing the various SSL options.

     Please read *note Security considerations: 3092. for more
     information on best practices.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'source_address', 'context' and
     'check_hostname' were added.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: This class now supports HTTPS virtual hosts
     if possible (that is, if *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7. is true).

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9-style “Simple Responses” are no longer supported.

     3.4.3 sürümünde değişti: This class now performs all the necessary
     certificate and hostname checks by default.  To revert to the
     previous, unverified, behavior ‘ssl._create_unverified_context()’
     can be passed to the 'context' parameter.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: This class now enables TLS 1.3 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: 893. for the default 'context'
     or when 'cert_file' is passed with a custom 'context'.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This class now sends an ALPN extension with
     protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is given.  Custom
     'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): cf8.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The deprecated 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters have been removed.

 -- Sınıfı: http.client.HTTPResponse (sock, debuglevel=0, method=None,
          url=None)

     Class whose instances are returned upon successful connection.  Not
     instantiated directly by user.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9 style “Simple Responses” are no longer supported.

This module provides the following function:

 -- Işlevi: http.client.parse_headers (fp)

     Parse the headers from a file pointer 'fp' representing a HTTP
     request/response.  The file has to be a *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9.
     reader (i.e.  not text) and must provide a valid RFC 2822(3) style
     header.

     This function returns an instance of *note http.client.HTTPMessage:
     3793. that holds the header fields, but no payload (the same as
     *note HTTPResponse.msg: 3794. and *note
     http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers: 3795.).  After
     returning, the file pointer 'fp' is ready to read the HTTP body.

          Not: *note parse_headers(): 1889. does not parse the
          start-line of a HTTP message; it only parses the ‘Name: value’
          lines.  The file has to be ready to read these field lines, so
          the first line should already be consumed before calling the
          function.

The following exceptions are raised as appropriate:

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.HTTPException

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  It is a
     subclass of *note Exception: 838.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.NotConnected

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.InvalidURL

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796, raised if a port is given
     and is either non-numeric or empty.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.UnknownProtocol

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.UnimplementedFileMode

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.IncompleteRead

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.ImproperConnectionState

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.CannotSendRequest

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 379d.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.CannotSendHeader

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 379d.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.ResponseNotReady

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 379d.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.BadStatusLine

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.  Raised if a server
     responds with a HTTP status code that we don’t understand.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.LineTooLong

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 3796.  Raised if an excessively
     long line is received in the HTTP protocol from the server.

 -- Özel Durum: http.client.RemoteDisconnected

     A subclass of *note ConnectionResetError: f09. and *note
     BadStatusLine: 37a1.  Raised by *note HTTPConnection.getresponse():
     c96. when the attempt to read the response results in no data read
     from the connection, indicating that the remote end has closed the
     connection.

     Added in version 3.5: Previously, *note BadStatusLine: 37a1.‘('')’
     was raised.

The constants defined in this module are:

 -- Verisi: http.client.HTTP_PORT

     The default port for the HTTP protocol (always ‘80’).

 -- Verisi: http.client.HTTPS_PORT

     The default port for the HTTPS protocol (always ‘443’).

 -- Verisi: http.client.responses

     This dictionary maps the HTTP 1.1 status codes to the W3C names.

     Example: ‘http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND]’ is ‘'Not
     Found'’.

See *note HTTP status codes: 378b. for a list of HTTP status codes that
are available in this module as constants.

* Menu:

* HTTPConnection Objects::
* HTTPResponse Objects::
* Examples: Examples<26>.
* HTTPMessage Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/client.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/latest/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPConnection Objects,  Next: HTTPResponse Objects,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.21.10.1 HTTPConnection Objects
................................

*note HTTPConnection: 9b1. instances have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.request (method, url, body=None, headers={},
          *, encode_chunked=False)

     This will send a request to the server using the HTTP request
     method 'method' and the request URI 'url'.  The provided 'url' must
     be an absolute path to conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(1) (unless
     connecting to an HTTP proxy server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or
     ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     If 'body' is specified, the specified data is sent after the
     headers are finished.  It may be a *note str: 15d, a *note
     bytes-like object: bb5, an open *note file object: 1068, or an
     iterable of *note bytes: 2cb.  If 'body' is a string, it is encoded
     as ISO-8859-1, the default for HTTP. If it is a bytes-like object,
     the bytes are sent as is.  If it is a *note file object: 1068, the
     contents of the file is sent; this file object should support at
     least the ‘read()’ method.  If the file object is an instance of
     *note io.TextIOBase: 4aa, the data returned by the ‘read()’ method
     will be encoded as ISO-8859-1, otherwise the data returned by
     ‘read()’ is sent as is.  If 'body' is an iterable, the elements of
     the iterable are sent as is until the iterable is exhausted.

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the request.  A Host header(2) must be provided to
     conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(3) (unless connecting to an HTTP proxy
     server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     If 'headers' contains neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding,
     but there is a request body, one of those header fields will be
     added automatically.  If 'body' is ‘None’, the Content-Length
     header is set to ‘0’ for methods that expect a body (‘PUT’, ‘POST’,
     and ‘PATCH’).  If 'body' is a string or a bytes-like object that is
     not also a *note file: 1068, the Content-Length header is set to
     its length.  Any other type of 'body' (files and iterables in
     general) will be chunk-encoded, and the Transfer-Encoding header
     will automatically be set instead of Content-Length.

     The 'encode_chunked' argument is only relevant if Transfer-Encoding
     is specified in 'headers'.  If 'encode_chunked' is ‘False’, the
     HTTPConnection object assumes that all encoding is handled by the
     calling code.  If it is ‘True’, the body will be chunk-encoded.

     For example, to perform a ‘GET’ request to
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> host = "docs.python.org"
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection(host)
          >>> conn.request("GET", "/3/", headers={"Host": host})
          >>> response = conn.getresponse()
          >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
          200 OK

          Not: Chunked transfer encoding has been added to the HTTP
          protocol version 1.1.  Unless the HTTP server is known to
          handle HTTP 1.1, the caller must either specify the
          Content-Length, or must pass a *note str: 15d. or bytes-like
          object that is not also a file as the body representation.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'body' can now be an iterable.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: If neither Content-Length nor
     Transfer-Encoding are set in 'headers', file and iterable 'body'
     objects are now chunk-encoded.  The 'encode_chunked' argument was
     added.  No attempt is made to determine the Content-Length for file
     objects.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.getresponse ()

     Should be called after a request is sent to get the response from
     the server.  Returns an *note HTTPResponse: f71. instance.

          Not: Note that you must have read the whole response before
          you can send a new request to the server.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: If a *note ConnectionError: c98. or subclass
     is raised, the *note HTTPConnection: 9b1. object will be ready to
     reconnect when a new request is sent.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the debugging level.  The default debug level is ‘0’, meaning
     no debugging output is printed.  Any value greater than ‘0’ will
     cause all currently defined debug output to be printed to stdout.
     The ‘debuglevel’ is passed to any new *note HTTPResponse: f71.
     objects that are created.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.set_tunnel (host, port=None, headers=None)

     Set the host and the port for HTTP Connect Tunnelling.  This allows
     running the connection through a proxy server.

     The 'host' and 'port' arguments specify the endpoint of the
     tunneled connection (i.e.  the address included in the CONNECT
     request, 'not' the address of the proxy server).

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the CONNECT request.

     As HTTP/1.1 is used for HTTP CONNECT tunnelling request, as per the
     RFC(4), a HTTP ‘Host:’ header must be provided, matching the
     authority-form of the request target provided as the destination
     for the CONNECT request.  If a HTTP ‘Host:’ header is not provided
     via the headers argument, one is generated and transmitted
     automatically.

     For example, to tunnel through a HTTPS proxy server running locally
     on port 8080, we would pass the address of the proxy to the *note
     HTTPSConnection: 9b2. constructor, and the address of the host that
     we eventually want to reach to the *note set_tunnel(): 10cf.
     method:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("localhost", 8080)
          >>> conn.set_tunnel("www.python.org")
          >>> conn.request("HEAD","/index.html")

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: HTTP CONNECT tunnelling requests use
     protocol HTTP/1.1, upgraded from protocol HTTP/1.0.  ‘Host:’ HTTP
     headers are mandatory for HTTP/1.1, so one will be automatically
     generated and transmitted if not provided in the headers argument.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers ()

     Returns a dictionary with the headers of the response received from
     the proxy server to the CONNECT request.

     If the CONNECT request was not sent, the method returns ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.connect ()

     Connect to the server specified when the object was created.  By
     default, this is called automatically when making a request if the
     client does not already have a connection.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘http.client.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.close ()

     Close the connection to the server.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPConnection.blocksize

     Buffer size in bytes for sending a file-like message body.

     Added in version 3.7.

As an alternative to using the *note request(): b2c. method described
above, you can also send your request step by step, by using the four
functions below.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.putrequest (method, url, skip_host=False,
          skip_accept_encoding=False)

     This should be the first call after the connection to the server
     has been made.  It sends a line to the server consisting of the
     'method' string, the 'url' string, and the HTTP version
     (‘HTTP/1.1’).  To disable automatic sending of ‘Host:’ or
     ‘Accept-Encoding:’ headers (for example to accept additional
     content encodings), specify 'skip_host' or 'skip_accept_encoding'
     with non-False values.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.putheader (header, argument[, ...])

     Send an RFC 822(5)-style header to the server.  It sends a line to
     the server consisting of the header, a colon and a space, and the
     first argument.  If more arguments are given, continuation lines
     are sent, each consisting of a tab and an argument.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.endheaders (message_body=None, *,
          encode_chunked=False)

     Send a blank line to the server, signalling the end of the headers.
     The optional 'message_body' argument can be used to pass a message
     body associated with the request.

     If 'encode_chunked' is ‘True’, the result of each iteration of
     'message_body' will be chunk-encoded as specified in RFC 7230(6),
     Section 3.3.1.  How the data is encoded is dependent on the type of
     'message_body'.  If 'message_body' implements the *note buffer
     interface: 14e. the encoding will result in a single chunk.  If
     'message_body' is a *note collections.abc.Iterable: 2041, each
     iteration of 'message_body' will result in a chunk.  If
     'message_body' is a *note file object: 1068, each call to ‘.read()’
     will result in a chunk.  The method automatically signals the end
     of the chunk-encoded data immediately after 'message_body'.

          Not: Due to the chunked encoding specification, empty chunks
          yielded by an iterator body will be ignored by the
          chunk-encoder.  This is to avoid premature termination of the
          read of the request by the target server due to malformed
          encoding.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added chunked encoding support and the
     'encode_chunked' parameter.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPConnection.send (data)

     Send data to the server.  This should be used directly only after
     the *note endheaders(): b2d. method has been called and before
     *note getresponse(): c96. is called.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘http.client.send’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘data’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-14.23

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231#section-4.3.6

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPResponse Objects,  Next: Examples<26>,  Prev: HTTPConnection Objects,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.21.10.2 HTTPResponse Objects
..............................

An *note HTTPResponse: f71. instance wraps the HTTP response from the
server.  It provides access to the request headers and the entity body.
The response is an iterable object and can be used in a with statement.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: The *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. interface is
now implemented and all of its reader operations are supported.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.read ([amt])

     Reads and returns the response body, or up to the next 'amt' bytes.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.readinto (b)

     Reads up to the next len(b) bytes of the response body into the
     buffer 'b'.  Returns the number of bytes read.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.getheader (name, default=None)

     Return the value of the header 'name', or 'default' if there is no
     header matching 'name'.  If there is more than one header with the
     name 'name', return all of the values joined by ‘, ‘.  If 'default'
     is any iterable other than a single string, its elements are
     similarly returned joined by commas.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.getheaders ()

     Return a list of (header, value) tuples.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.fileno ()

     Return the ‘fileno’ of the underlying socket.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.msg

     A *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3793. instance containing the
     response headers.  *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3793. is a
     subclass of *note email.message.Message: b1b.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.version

     HTTP protocol version used by server.  10 for HTTP/1.0, 11 for
     HTTP/1.1.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.url

     URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a
     redirect was followed.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.headers

     Headers of the response in the form of an *note
     email.message.EmailMessage: b1c. instance.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.status

     Status code returned by server.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.reason

     Reason phrase returned by server.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.debuglevel

     A debugging hook.  If *note debuglevel: 37b8. is greater than zero,
     messages will be printed to stdout as the response is read and
     parsed.

 -- Özniteliği: HTTPResponse.closed

     Is ‘True’ if the stream is closed.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.geturl ()

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecated in favor of *note
     url: 37b5.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.info ()

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecated in favor of *note
     headers: 37b6.

 -- Yöntemi: HTTPResponse.getcode ()

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Deprecated in favor of *note
     status: 37b7.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<26>,  Next: HTTPMessage Objects,  Prev: HTTPResponse Objects,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.21.10.3 Examples
..................

Here is an example session that uses the ‘GET’ method:

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r1.status, r1.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data1 = r1.read()  # This will return entire content.
     >>> # The following example demonstrates reading data in chunks.
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> while chunk := r1.read(200):
     ...     print(repr(chunk))
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if"...
     ...
     >>> # Example of an invalid request
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("docs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")
     >>> r2 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r2.status, r2.reason)
     404 Not Found
     >>> data2 = r2.read()
     >>> conn.close()

Here is an example session that uses the ‘HEAD’ method.  Note that the
‘HEAD’ method never returns any data.

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("HEAD", "/")
     >>> res = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(res.status, res.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data = res.read()
     >>> print(len(data))
     0
     >>> data == b''
     True

Here is an example session that uses the ‘POST’ method:

     >>> import http.client, urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'@number': 12524, '@type': 'issue', '@action': 'show'})
     >>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded",
     ...            "Accept": "text/plain"}
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("bugs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("POST", "", params, headers)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     302 Found
     >>> data = response.read()
     >>> data
     b'Redirecting to <a href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12524">https://bugs.python.org/issue12524</a>'
     >>> conn.close()

Client side HTTP ‘PUT’ requests are very similar to ‘POST’ requests.
The difference lies only on the server side where HTTP servers will
allow resources to be created via ‘PUT’ requests.  It should be noted
that custom HTTP methods are also handled in *note
urllib.request.Request: e7e. by setting the appropriate method
attribute.  Here is an example session that uses the ‘PUT’ method:

     >>> # This creates an HTTP request
     >>> # with the content of BODY as the enclosed representation
     >>> # for the resource http://localhost:8080/file
     ...
     >>> import http.client
     >>> BODY = "***filecontents***"
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("localhost", 8080)
     >>> conn.request("PUT", "/file", BODY)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     200, OK


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPMessage Objects,  Prev: Examples<26>,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.21.10.4 HTTPMessage Objects
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: http.client.HTTPMessage (email.message.Message)

An *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3793. instance holds the headers from
an HTTP response.  It is implemented using the *note
email.message.Message: b1b. class.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib — FTP protocol client,  Next: poplib — POP3 protocol client,  Prev: http client — HTTP protocol client,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.11 ‘ftplib’ — FTP protocol client
--------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ftplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines the class *note FTP: 74f. and a few related items.
The *note FTP: 74f. class implements the client side of the FTP
protocol.  You can use this to write Python programs that perform a
variety of automated FTP jobs, such as mirroring other FTP servers.  It
is also used by the module *note urllib.request: 10b. to handle URLs
that use FTP. For more information on FTP (File Transfer Protocol), see
internet RFC 959(2).

The default encoding is UTF-8, following RFC 2640(3).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

Here’s a sample session using the *note ftplib: 5c. module:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> ftp = FTP('ftp.us.debian.org')  # connect to host, default port
     >>> ftp.login()                     # user anonymous, passwd anonymous@
     '230 Login successful.'
     >>> ftp.cwd('debian')               # change into "debian" directory
     '250 Directory successfully changed.'
     >>> ftp.retrlines('LIST')           # list directory contents
     -rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README
     ...
     drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool
     drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project
     drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools
     '226 Directory send OK.'
     >>> with open('README', 'wb') as fp:
     >>>     ftp.retrbinary('RETR README', fp.write)
     '226 Transfer complete.'
     >>> ftp.quit()
     '221 Goodbye.'

* Menu:

* Reference: Reference<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ftplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<5>,  Up: ftplib — FTP protocol client

5.21.11.1 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* FTP objects::
* FTP_TLS objects::
* Module variables::


File: python.info,  Node: FTP objects,  Next: FTP_TLS objects,  Up: Reference<5>

5.21.11.2 FTP objects
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: ftplib.FTP (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='',
          timeout=None, source_address=None, *, encoding='utf-8')

     Return a new instance of the *note FTP: 74f. class.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 15d.) – The hostname to connect to.  If
          given, ‘connect(host)’ is implicitly called by the
          constructor.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 15d.) – The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  If given, ‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ is implicitly called by the constructor.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 15d.) – The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 15d.) – Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(1) for more details.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 272.‘ | ’‘None’) – A timeout in
          seconds for blocking operations like *note connect(): 37c6.
          (default: the global default timeout setting).

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 4ff.‘ | ’‘None’) – A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 15d.) – The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     The *note FTP: 74f. class supports the *note with: 3dd. statement,
     e.g.:

          >>> from ftplib import FTP
          >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
          ...     ftp.login()
          ...     ftp.dir()
          ...
          '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
          dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
          dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
          >>>

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'source_address' parameter was added.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.  The 'encoding' parameter was
     added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow
     RFC 2640(2).

     Several ‘FTP’ methods are available in two flavors: one for
     handling text files and another for binary files.  The methods are
     named for the command which is used followed by ‘lines’ for the
     text version or ‘binary’ for the binary version.

     *note FTP: 74f. instances have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: set_debuglevel (level)

          Set the instance’s debugging level as an *note int: 184.  This
          controls the amount of debugging output printed.  The debug
          levels are:

             * ‘0’ (default): No debug output.

             * ‘1’: Produce a moderate amount of debug output, generally
               a single line per request.

             * ‘2’ or higher: Produce the maximum amount of debugging
               output, logging each line sent and received on the
               control connection.

      -- Yöntemi: connect (host='', port=0, timeout=None,
               source_address=None)

          Connect to the given host and port.  This function should be
          called only once for each instance; it should not be called if
          a 'host' argument was given when the *note FTP: 74f. instance
          was created.  All other ‘FTP’ methods can only be called after
          a connection has successfully been made.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘host’ (*note str: 15d.) – The host to connect to.

             * ‘port’ (*note int: 184.) – The TCP port to connect to
               (default: ‘21’, as specified by the FTP protocol
               specification).  It is rarely needed to specify a
               different port number.

             * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 272.‘ | ’‘None’) – A timeout in
               seconds for the connection attempt (default: the global
               default timeout setting).

             * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 4ff.‘ | ’‘None’) – A
               2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its
               source address before connecting.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ftplib.connect’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'source_address' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: getwelcome ()

          Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the
          initial connection.  (This message sometimes contains
          disclaimers or help information that may be relevant to the
          user.)

      -- Yöntemi: login (user='anonymous', passwd='', acct='')

          Log on to the connected FTP server.  This function should be
          called only once for each instance, after a connection has
          been established; it should not be called if the 'host' and
          'user' arguments were given when the *note FTP: 74f. instance
          was created.  Most FTP commands are only allowed after the
          client has logged in.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘user’ (*note str: 15d.) – The username to log in with
               (default: ‘'anonymous'’).

             * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 15d.) – The password to use when
               logging in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty
               string or ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically
               generated.

             * ‘acct’ (*note str: 15d.) – Account information to be used
               for the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.
               See RFC-959(3) for more details.

      -- Yöntemi: abort ()

          Abort a file transfer that is in progress.  Using this does
          not always work, but it’s worth a try.

      -- Yöntemi: sendcmd (cmd)

          Send a simple command string to the server and return the
          response string.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ftplib.sendcmd’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘cmd’.

      -- Yöntemi: voidcmd (cmd)

          Send a simple command string to the server and handle the
          response.  Return the response string if the response code
          corresponds to success (codes in the range 200–299).  Raise
          *note error_reply: 37cd. otherwise.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ftplib.sendcmd’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘cmd’.

      -- Yöntemi: retrbinary (cmd, callback, blocksize=8192, rest=None)

          Retrieve a file in binary transfer mode.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 15d.) – An appropriate ‘RETR’ command:
               ‘"RETR FILENAME"’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 26ca.) – A single parameter
               callable that is called for each block of data received,
               with its single argument being the data as *note bytes:
               2cb.

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 184.) – The maximum chunk size to
               read on the low-level *note socket: c2e. object created
               to do the actual transfer.  This also corresponds to the
               largest size of data that will be passed to 'callback'.
               Defaults to ‘8192’.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 184.) – A ‘REST’ command to be sent to
               the server.  See the documentation for the 'rest'
               parameter of the *note transfercmd(): 37cf. method.

      -- Yöntemi: retrlines (cmd, callback=None)

          Retrieve a file or directory listing in the encoding specified
          by the 'encoding' parameter at initialization.  'cmd' should
          be an appropriate ‘RETR’ command (see *note retrbinary():
          37ce.) or a command such as ‘LIST’ or ‘NLST’ (usually just the
          string ‘'LIST'’).  ‘LIST’ retrieves a list of files and
          information about those files.  ‘NLST’ retrieves a list of
          file names.  The 'callback' function is called for each line
          with a string argument containing the line with the trailing
          CRLF stripped.  The default 'callback' prints the line to
          *note sys.stdout: 943.

      -- Yöntemi: set_pasv (val)

          Enable “passive” mode if 'val' is true, otherwise disable
          passive mode.  Passive mode is on by default.

      -- Yöntemi: storbinary (cmd, fp, blocksize=8192, callback=None,
               rest=None)

          Store a file in binary transfer mode.


          Parametreler:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 15d.) – An appropriate ‘STOR’ command:
               ‘"STOR FILENAME"’.

             * ‘fp’ (*note file object: 1068.) – A file object (opened
               in binary mode) which is read until EOF, using its *note
               read(): cac. method in blocks of size 'blocksize' to
               provide the data to be stored.

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 184.) – The read block size.
               Defaults to ‘8192’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 26ca.) – A single parameter
               callable that is called for each block of data sent, with
               its single argument being the data as *note bytes: 2cb.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 184.) – A ‘REST’ command to be sent to
               the server.  See the documentation for the 'rest'
               parameter of the *note transfercmd(): 37cf. method.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'rest' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: storlines (cmd, fp, callback=None)

          Store a file in line mode.  'cmd' should be an appropriate
          ‘STOR’ command (see *note storbinary(): 11b4.).  Lines are
          read until EOF from the *note file object: 1068. 'fp' (opened
          in binary mode) using its *note readline(): 11d5. method to
          provide the data to be stored.  'callback' is an optional
          single parameter callable that is called on each line after it
          is sent.

      -- Yöntemi: transfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          Initiate a transfer over the data connection.  If the transfer
          is active, send an ‘EPRT’ or ‘PORT’ command and the transfer
          command specified by 'cmd', and accept the connection.  If the
          server is passive, send an ‘EPSV’ or ‘PASV’ command, connect
          to it, and start the transfer command.  Either way, return the
          socket for the connection.

          If optional 'rest' is given, a ‘REST’ command is sent to the
          server, passing 'rest' as an argument.  'rest' is usually a
          byte offset into the requested file, telling the server to
          restart sending the file’s bytes at the requested offset,
          skipping over the initial bytes.  Note however that the *note
          transfercmd(): 37cf. method converts 'rest' to a string with
          the 'encoding' parameter specified at initialization, but no
          check is performed on the string’s contents.  If the server
          does not recognize the ‘REST’ command, an *note error_reply:
          37cd. exception will be raised.  If this happens, simply call
          *note transfercmd(): 37cf. without a 'rest' argument.

      -- Yöntemi: ntransfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          Like *note transfercmd(): 37cf, but returns a tuple of the
          data connection and the expected size of the data.  If the
          expected size could not be computed, ‘None’ will be returned
          as the expected size.  'cmd' and 'rest' means the same thing
          as in *note transfercmd(): 37cf.

      -- Yöntemi: mlsd (path='', facts=[])

          List a directory in a standardized format by using ‘MLSD’
          command ( RFC 3659(4)).  If 'path' is omitted the current
          directory is assumed.  'facts' is a list of strings
          representing the type of information desired (e.g.  ‘["type",
          "size", "perm"]’).  Return a generator object yielding a tuple
          of two elements for every file found in path.  First element
          is the file name, the second one is a dictionary containing
          facts about the file name.  Content of this dictionary might
          be limited by the 'facts' argument but server is not
          guaranteed to return all requested facts.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: nlst (argument[, ...])

          Return a list of file names as returned by the ‘NLST’ command.
          The optional 'argument' is a directory to list (default is the
          current server directory).  Multiple arguments can be used to
          pass non-standard options to the ‘NLST’ command.

               Not: If your server supports the command, *note mlsd():
               f65. offers a better API.

      -- Yöntemi: dir (argument[, ...])

          Produce a directory listing as returned by the ‘LIST’ command,
          printing it to standard output.  The optional 'argument' is a
          directory to list (default is the current server directory).
          Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard options to
          the ‘LIST’ command.  If the last argument is a function, it is
          used as a 'callback' function as for *note retrlines(): 37d0.;
          the default prints to *note sys.stdout: 943.  This method
          returns ‘None’.

               Not: If your server supports the command, *note mlsd():
               f65. offers a better API.

      -- Yöntemi: rename (fromname, toname)

          Rename file 'fromname' on the server to 'toname'.

      -- Yöntemi: delete (filename)

          Remove the file named 'filename' from the server.  If
          successful, returns the text of the response, otherwise raises
          *note error_perm: 37d6. on permission errors or *note
          error_reply: 37cd. on other errors.

      -- Yöntemi: cwd (pathname)

          Set the current directory on the server.

      -- Yöntemi: mkd (pathname)

          Create a new directory on the server.

      -- Yöntemi: pwd ()

          Return the pathname of the current directory on the server.

      -- Yöntemi: rmd (dirname)

          Remove the directory named 'dirname' on the server.

      -- Yöntemi: size (filename)

          Request the size of the file named 'filename' on the server.
          On success, the size of the file is returned as an integer,
          otherwise ‘None’ is returned.  Note that the ‘SIZE’ command is
          not standardized, but is supported by many common server
          implementations.

      -- Yöntemi: quit ()

          Send a ‘QUIT’ command to the server and close the connection.
          This is the “polite” way to close a connection, but it may
          raise an exception if the server responds with an error to the
          ‘QUIT’ command.  This implies a call to the *note close():
          37dd. method which renders the *note FTP: 74f. instance
          useless for subsequent calls (see below).

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the connection unilaterally.  This should not be applied
          to an already closed connection such as after a successful
          call to *note quit(): 37dc.  After this call the *note FTP:
          74f. instance should not be used any more (after a call to
          *note close(): 37dd. or *note quit(): 37dc. you cannot reopen
          the connection by issuing another *note login(): 37c9.
          method).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3659.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTP_TLS objects,  Next: Module variables,  Prev: FTP objects,  Up: Reference<5>

5.21.11.3 FTP_TLS objects
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: ftplib.FTP_TLS (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', *,
          context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None,
          encoding='utf-8')

     An *note FTP: 74f. subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as
     described in RFC 4217(1).  Connect to port 21 implicitly securing
     the FTP control connection before authenticating.

          Not: The user must explicitly secure the data connection by
          calling the *note prot_p(): 37df. method.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 15d.) – The hostname to connect to.  If
          given, ‘connect(host)’ is implicitly called by the
          constructor.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 15d.) – The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  If given, ‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ is implicitly called by the constructor.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 15d.) – The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 15d.) – Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(2) for more details.

        * ‘context’ (*note ssl.SSLContext: 277.) – An SSL context object
          which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates
          and private keys into a single, potentially long-lived,
          structure.  Please read *note Security considerations: 3092.
          for best practices.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 272.‘ | ’‘None’) – A timeout in
          seconds for blocking operations like *note connect(): 37c6.
          (default: the global default timeout setting).

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 4ff.‘ | ’‘None’) – A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 15d.) – The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'source_address' parameter.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.  The 'encoding' parameter was
     added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow
     RFC 2640(3).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

     Here’s a sample session using the *note FTP_TLS: 750. class:

          >>> ftps = FTP_TLS('ftp.pureftpd.org')
          >>> ftps.login()
          '230 Anonymous user logged in'
          >>> ftps.prot_p()
          '200 Data protection level set to "private"'
          >>> ftps.nlst()
          ['6jack', 'OpenBSD', 'antilink', 'blogbench', 'bsdcam', 'clockspeed', 'djbdns-jedi', 'docs', 'eaccelerator-jedi', 'favicon.ico', 'francotone', 'fugu', 'ignore', 'libpuzzle', 'metalog', 'minidentd', 'misc', 'mysql-udf-global-user-variables', 'php-jenkins-hash', 'php-skein-hash', 'php-webdav', 'phpaudit', 'phpbench', 'pincaster', 'ping', 'posto', 'pub', 'public', 'public_keys', 'pure-ftpd', 'qscan', 'qtc', 'sharedance', 'skycache', 'sound', 'tmp', 'ucarp']

     ‘FTP_TLS’ class inherits from *note FTP: 74f, defining these
     additional methods and attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: ssl_version

          The SSL version to use (defaults to *note ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23:
          31b9.).

      -- Yöntemi: auth ()

          Set up a secure control connection by using TLS or SSL,
          depending on what is specified in the *note ssl_version: 37e0.
          attribute.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: The method now supports hostname check
          with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server
          Name Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

      -- Yöntemi: ccc ()

          Revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be useful
          to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
          with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: prot_p ()

          Set up secure data connection.

      -- Yöntemi: prot_c ()

          Set up clear text data connection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4217.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: Module variables,  Prev: FTP_TLS objects,  Up: Reference<5>

5.21.11.4 Module variables
..........................

 -- Özel Durum: ftplib.error_reply

     Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the
     server.

 -- Özel Durum: ftplib.error_temp

     Exception raised when an error code signifying a temporary error
     (response codes in the range 400–499) is received.

 -- Özel Durum: ftplib.error_perm

     Exception raised when an error code signifying a permanent error
     (response codes in the range 500–599) is received.

 -- Özel Durum: ftplib.error_proto

     Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does
     not fit the response specifications of the File Transfer Protocol,
     i.e.  begin with a digit in the range 1–5.

 -- Verisi: ftplib.all_errors

     The set of all exceptions (as a tuple) that methods of *note FTP:
     74f. instances may raise as a result of problems with the FTP
     connection (as opposed to programming errors made by the caller).
     This set includes the four exceptions listed above as well as *note
     OSError: 65c. and *note EOFError: 1183.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note netrc: 9a.

     Parser for the ‘.netrc’ file format.  The file ‘.netrc’ is
     typically used by FTP clients to load user authentication
     information before prompting the user.


File: python.info,  Node: poplib — POP3 protocol client,  Next: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client,  Prev: ftplib — FTP protocol client,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.12 ‘poplib’ — POP3 protocol client
---------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/poplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a class, *note POP3: 77c, which encapsulates a
connection to a POP3 server and implements the protocol as defined in
RFC 1939(2).  The *note POP3: 77c. class supports both the minimal and
optional command sets from RFC 1939(3).  The *note POP3: 77c. class also
supports the ‘STLS’ command introduced in RFC 2595(4) to enable
encrypted communication on an already established connection.

Additionally, this module provides a class *note POP3_SSL: 77d, which
provides support for connecting to POP3 servers that use SSL as an
underlying protocol layer.

Note that POP3, though widely supported, is obsolescent.  The
implementation quality of POP3 servers varies widely, and too many are
quite poor.  If your mailserver supports IMAP, you would be better off
using the *note imaplib.IMAP4: 758. class, as IMAP servers tend to be
better implemented.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The *note poplib: ab. module provides two classes:

 -- Sınıfı: poplib.POP3 (host, port=POP3_PORT[, timeout])

     This class implements the actual POP3 protocol.  The connection is
     created when the instance is initialized.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard POP3 port (110) is used.  The optional 'timeout'
     parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt
     (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be
     used).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘poplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘poplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Sınıfı: poplib.POP3_SSL (host, port=POP3_SSL_PORT, *, timeout=None,
          context=None)

     This is a subclass of *note POP3: 77c. that connects to the server
     over an SSL encrypted socket.  If 'port' is not specified, 995, the
     standard POP3-over-SSL port is used.  'timeout' works as in the
     *note POP3: 77c. constructor.  'context' is an optional *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 277. object which allows bundling SSL configuration
     options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
     long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security considerations:
     3092. for best practices.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘poplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘poplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'context' parameter added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

One exception is defined as an attribute of the *note poplib: ab.
module:

 -- Özel Durum: poplib.error_proto

     Exception raised on any errors from this module (errors from *note
     socket: cb. module are not caught).  The reason for the exception
     is passed to the constructor as a string.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note imaplib: 72.

     The standard Python IMAP module.

Frequently Asked Questions About Fetchmail(5)

     The FAQ for the ‘fetchmail’ POP/IMAP client collects information on
     POP3 server variations and RFC noncompliance that may be useful if
     you need to write an application based on the POP protocol.

* Menu:

* POP3 Objects::
* POP3 Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/poplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html

   (5) http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 Objects,  Next: POP3 Example,  Up: poplib — POP3 protocol client

5.21.12.1 POP3 Objects
......................

All POP3 commands are represented by methods of the same name, in
lowercase; most return the response text sent by the server.

A *note POP3: 77c. instance has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the instance’s debugging level.  This controls the amount of
     debugging output printed.  The default, ‘0’, produces no debugging
     output.  A value of ‘1’ produces a moderate amount of debugging
     output, generally a single line per request.  A value of ‘2’ or
     higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output, logging
     each line sent and received on the control connection.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.getwelcome ()

     Returns the greeting string sent by the POP3 server.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.capa ()

     Query the server’s capabilities as specified in RFC 2449(1).
     Returns a dictionary in the form ‘{'name': ['param'...]}’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.user (username)

     Send user command, response should indicate that a password is
     required.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.pass_ (password)

     Send password, response includes message count and mailbox size.
     Note: the mailbox on the server is locked until *note quit(): 1042.
     is called.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.apop (user, secret)

     Use the more secure APOP authentication to log into the POP3
     server.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.rpop (user)

     Use RPOP authentication (similar to UNIX r-commands) to log into
     POP3 server.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.stat ()

     Get mailbox status.  The result is a tuple of 2 integers: ‘(message
     count, mailbox size)’.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.list ([which])

     Request message list, result is in the form ‘(response, ['mesg_num
     octets', ...], octets)’.  If 'which' is set, it is the message to
     list.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.retr (which)

     Retrieve whole message number 'which', and set its seen flag.
     Result is in form ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.dele (which)

     Flag message number 'which' for deletion.  On most servers
     deletions are not actually performed until QUIT (the major
     exception is Eudora QPOP, which deliberately violates the RFCs by
     doing pending deletes on any disconnect).

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.rset ()

     Remove any deletion marks for the mailbox.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.noop ()

     Do nothing.  Might be used as a keep-alive.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.quit ()

     Signoff: commit changes, unlock mailbox, drop connection.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.top (which, howmuch)

     Retrieves the message header plus 'howmuch' lines of the message
     after the header of message number 'which'.  Result is in form
     ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

     The POP3 TOP command this method uses, unlike the RETR command,
     doesn’t set the message’s seen flag; unfortunately, TOP is poorly
     specified in the RFCs and is frequently broken in off-brand
     servers.  Test this method by hand against the POP3 servers you
     will use before trusting it.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.uidl (which=None)

     Return message digest (unique id) list.  If 'which' is specified,
     result contains the unique id for that message in the form
     ‘'response mesgnum uid’, otherwise result is list ‘(response,
     ['mesgnum uid', ...], octets)’.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.utf8 ()

     Try to switch to UTF-8 mode.  Returns the server response if
     successful, raises *note error_proto: 1043. if not.  Specified in
     RFC 6856(2).

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: POP3.stls (context=None)

     Start a TLS session on the active connection as specified in RFC
     2595(3).  This is only allowed before user authentication

     'context' parameter is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object which
     allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private
     keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read
     *note Security considerations: 3092. for best practices.

     This method supports hostname checking via *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

     Added in version 3.4.

Instances of *note POP3_SSL: 77d. have no additional methods.  The
interface of this subclass is identical to its parent.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2449.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 Example,  Prev: POP3 Objects,  Up: poplib — POP3 protocol client

5.21.12.2 POP3 Example
......................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, poplib

     M = poplib.POP3('localhost')
     M.user(getpass.getuser())
     M.pass_(getpass.getpass())
     numMessages = len(M.list()[1])
     for i in range(numMessages):
         for j in M.retr(i+1)[1]:
             print(j)

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client,  Next: smtplib — SMTP protocol client,  Prev: poplib — POP3 protocol client,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.13 ‘imaplib’ — IMAP4 protocol client
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/imaplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines three classes, *note IMAP4: 758, *note IMAP4_SSL:
759. and *note IMAP4_stream: 75b, which encapsulate a connection to an
IMAP4 server and implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client
protocol as defined in RFC 2060(2).  It is backward compatible with
IMAP4 ( RFC 1730(3)) servers, but note that the ‘STATUS’ command is not
supported in IMAP4.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

Three classes are provided by the *note imaplib: 72. module, *note
IMAP4: 758. is the base class:

 -- Sınıfı: imaplib.IMAP4 (host='', port=IMAP4_PORT, timeout=None)

     This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol.  The connection is
     created and protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined
     when the instance is initialized.  If 'host' is not specified, ‘''’
     (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted, the standard IMAP4
     port (143) is used.  The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a
     timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If timeout is not
     given or is ‘None’, the global default socket timeout is used.

     The *note IMAP4: 758. class supports the *note with: 3dd.
     statement.  When used like this, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’ command is
     issued automatically when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from imaplib import IMAP4
          >>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
          ...     M.noop()
          ...
          ('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The optional 'timeout' parameter was added.

Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the *note IMAP4: 758.
class:

 -- Özel Durum: IMAP4.error

     Exception raised on any errors.  The reason for the exception is
     passed to the constructor as a string.

 -- Özel Durum: IMAP4.abort

     IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised.  This is a
     sub-class of *note IMAP4.error: 37fd.  Note that closing the
     instance and instantiating a new one will usually allow recovery
     from this exception.

 -- Özel Durum: IMAP4.readonly

     This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status
     changed by the server.  This is a sub-class of *note IMAP4.error:
     37fd.  Some other client now has write permission, and the mailbox
     will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write permission.

There’s also a subclass for secure connections:

 -- Sınıfı: imaplib.IMAP4_SSL (host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, *,
          ssl_context=None, timeout=None)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 758. that connects
     over an SSL encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket
     module that was compiled with SSL support).  If 'host' is not
     specified, ‘''’ (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used.  'ssl_context' is a
     *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object which allows bundling SSL
     configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
     (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 3092. for best practices.

     The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     the connection attempt.  If timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the
     global default socket timeout is used.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'ssl_context' parameter was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The optional 'timeout' parameter was added.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:

 -- Sınıfı: imaplib.IMAP4_stream (command)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 758. that connects to
     the ‘stdin/stdout’ file descriptors created by passing 'command' to
     ‘subprocess.Popen()’.

The following utility functions are defined:

 -- Işlevi: imaplib.Internaldate2tuple (datestr)

     Parse an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ string and return corresponding local
     time.  The return value is a *note time.struct_time: b6e. tuple or
     ‘None’ if the string has wrong format.

 -- Işlevi: imaplib.Int2AP (num)

     Converts an integer into a bytes representation using characters
     from the set [‘A’ ..  ‘P’].

 -- Işlevi: imaplib.ParseFlags (flagstr)

     Converts an IMAP4 ‘FLAGS’ response to a tuple of individual flags.

 -- Işlevi: imaplib.Time2Internaldate (date_time)

     Convert 'date_time' to an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ representation.  The
     return value is a string in the form: ‘"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS
     +HHMM"’ (including double-quotes).  The 'date_time' argument can be
     a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as
     returned by *note time.time(): 94f.), a 9-tuple representing local
     time an instance of *note time.struct_time: b6e. (as returned by
     *note time.localtime(): 1386.), an aware instance of *note
     datetime.datetime: 22b, or a double-quoted string.  In the last
     case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.

Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in
particular, after an ‘EXPUNGE’ command performs deletions the remaining
messages are renumbered.  So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead,
with the UID command.

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Documents describing the protocol, sources for servers implementing it,
by the University of Washington’s IMAP Information Center can all be
found at ('Source Code') ‘https://github.com/uw-imap/imap’ ('Not
Maintained').

* Menu:

* IMAP4 Objects::
* IMAP4 Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/imaplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1730.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 Objects,  Next: IMAP4 Example,  Up: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client

5.21.13.1 IMAP4 Objects
.......................

All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name,
either uppercase or lowercase.

All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for
‘AUTHENTICATE’, and the last argument to ‘APPEND’ which is passed as an
IMAP4 literal.  If necessary (the string contains IMAP4
protocol-sensitive characters and isn’t enclosed with either parentheses
or double quotes) each string is quoted.  However, the 'password'
argument to the ‘LOGIN’ command is always quoted.  If you want to avoid
having an argument string quoted (eg: the 'flags' argument to ‘STORE’)
then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: ‘r'(\Deleted)'’).

Each command returns a tuple: ‘(type, [data, ...])’ where 'type' is
usually ‘'OK'’ or ‘'NO'’, and 'data' is either the text from the command
response, or mandated results from the command.  Each 'data' is either a
‘bytes’, or a tuple.  If a tuple, then the first part is the header of
the response, and the second part contains the data (ie: ‘literal’
value).

The 'message_set' options to commands below is a string specifying one
or more messages to be acted upon.  It may be a simple message number
(‘'1'’), a range of message numbers (‘'2:4'’), or a group of
non-contiguous ranges separated by commas (‘'1:3,6:9'’).  A range can
contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite upper bound (‘'3:*'’).

An *note IMAP4: 758. instance has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.append (mailbox, flags, date_time, message)

     Append 'message' to named mailbox.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.authenticate (mechanism, authobject)

     Authenticate command — requires response processing.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     - it should appear in the instance variable ‘capabilities’ in the
     form ‘AUTH=mechanism’.

     'authobject' must be a callable object:

          data = authobject(response)

     It will be called to process server continuation responses; the
     'response' argument it is passed will be ‘bytes’.  It should return
     ‘bytes’ 'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.
     It should return ‘None’ if the client abort response ‘*’ should be
     sent instead.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: string usernames and passwords are now
     encoded to ‘utf-8’ instead of being limited to ASCII.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.check ()

     Checkpoint mailbox on server.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.close ()

     Close currently selected mailbox.  Deleted messages are removed
     from writable mailbox.  This is the recommended command before
     ‘LOGOUT’.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.copy (message_set, new_mailbox)

     Copy 'message_set' messages onto end of 'new_mailbox'.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.create (mailbox)

     Create new mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.delete (mailbox)

     Delete old mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.deleteacl (mailbox, who)

     Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.enable (capability)

     Enable 'capability' (see RFC 5161(1)).  Most capabilities do not
     need to be enabled.  Currently only the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability is
     supported (see RFC 6855(2)).

     Added in version 3.5: The *note enable(): c9b. method itself, and
     RFC 6855(3) support.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.expunge ()

     Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox.  Generates
     an ‘EXPUNGE’ response for each deleted message.  Returned data
     contains a list of ‘EXPUNGE’ message numbers in order received.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.fetch (message_set, message_parts)

     Fetch (parts of) messages.  'message_parts' should be a string of
     message part names enclosed within parentheses, eg: ‘"(UID
     BODY[TEXT])"’.  Returned data are tuples of message part envelope
     and data.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.getacl (mailbox)

     Get the ‘ACL’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.getannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute)

     Retrieve the specified ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is
     non-standard, but is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.getquota (root)

     Get the ‘quota’ 'root'’s resource usage and limits.  This method is
     part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.getquotaroot (mailbox)

     Get the list of ‘quota’ ‘roots’ for the named 'mailbox'.  This
     method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.list ([directory[, pattern]])

     List mailbox names in 'directory' matching 'pattern'.  'directory'
     defaults to the top-level mail folder, and 'pattern' defaults to
     match anything.  Returned data contains a list of ‘LIST’ responses.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.login (user, password)

     Identify the client using a plaintext password.  The 'password'
     will be quoted.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.login_cram_md5 (user, password)

     Force use of ‘CRAM-MD5’ authentication when identifying the client
     to protect the password.  Will only work if the server ‘CAPABILITY’
     response includes the phrase ‘AUTH=CRAM-MD5’.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.logout ()

     Shutdown connection to server.  Returns server ‘BYE’ response.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The method no longer ignores silently
     arbitrary exceptions.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.lsub (directory='""', pattern='*')

     List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern.
     'directory' defaults to the top level directory and 'pattern'
     defaults to match any mailbox.  Returned data are tuples of message
     part envelope and data.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.myrights (mailbox)

     Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e.  the rights that I have on
     mailbox).

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.namespace ()

     Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in RFC 2342(4).

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.noop ()

     Send ‘NOOP’ to server.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.open (host, port, timeout=None)

     Opens socket to 'port' at 'host'.  The optional 'timeout' parameter
     specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If
     timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the global default socket
     timeout is used.  Also note that if the 'timeout' parameter is set
     to be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to reject
     creating a non-blocking socket.  This method is implicitly called
     by the *note IMAP4: 758. constructor.  The connection objects
     established by this method will be used in the *note IMAP4.read():
     381b, *note IMAP4.readline(): 381c, *note IMAP4.send(): 381d, and
     *note IMAP4.shutdown(): 381e. methods.  You may override this
     method.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘imaplib.open’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'timeout' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.partial (message_num, message_part, start, length)

     Fetch truncated part of a message.  Returned data is a tuple of
     message part envelope and data.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.proxyauth (user)

     Assume authentication as 'user'.  Allows an authorised
     administrator to proxy into any user’s mailbox.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.read (size)

     Reads 'size' bytes from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.readline ()

     Reads one line from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.recent ()

     Prompt server for an update.  Returned data is ‘None’ if no new
     messages, else value of ‘RECENT’ response.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.rename (oldmailbox, newmailbox)

     Rename mailbox named 'oldmailbox' to 'newmailbox'.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.response (code)

     Return data for response 'code' if received, or ‘None’.  Returns
     the given code, instead of the usual type.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.search (charset, criterion[, ...])

     Search mailbox for matching messages.  'charset' may be ‘None’, in
     which case no ‘CHARSET’ will be specified in the request to the
     server.  The IMAP protocol requires that at least one criterion be
     specified; an exception will be raised when the server returns an
     error.  'charset' must be ‘None’ if the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability
     was enabled using the *note enable(): c9b. command.

     Example:

          # M is a connected IMAP4 instance...
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')

          # or:
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.select (mailbox='INBOX', readonly=False)

     Select a mailbox.  Returned data is the count of messages in
     'mailbox' (‘EXISTS’ response).  The default 'mailbox' is ‘'INBOX'’.
     If the 'readonly' flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not
     allowed.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.send (data)

     Sends ‘data’ to the remote server.  You may override this method.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘imaplib.send’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘data’.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.setacl (mailbox, who, what)

     Set an ‘ACL’ for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.setannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute[, ...])

     Set ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but
     is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.setquota (root, limits)

     Set the ‘quota’ 'root'’s resource 'limits'.  This method is part of
     the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.shutdown ()

     Close connection established in ‘open’.  This method is implicitly
     called by *note IMAP4.logout(): 3816.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.socket ()

     Returns socket instance used to connect to server.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.sort (sort_criteria, charset, search_criterion[,
          ...])

     The ‘sort’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with sorting semantics
     for the results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of
     matching message numbers.

     Sort has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s); a
     parenthesized list of 'sort_criteria', and the searching 'charset'.
     Note that unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is
     mandatory.  There is also a ‘uid sort’ command which corresponds to
     ‘sort’ the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The
     ‘sort’ command first searches the mailbox for messages that match
     the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the numbers of matching messages.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.starttls (ssl_context=None)

     Send a ‘STARTTLS’ command.  The 'ssl_context' argument is optional
     and should be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object.  This will
     enable encryption on the IMAP connection.  Please read *note
     Security considerations: 3092. for best practices.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The method now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.status (mailbox, names)

     Request named status conditions for 'mailbox'.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.store (message_set, command, flag_list)

     Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox.  'command' is
     specified by section 6.4.6 of RFC 2060(5) as being one of “FLAGS”,
     “+FLAGS”, or “-FLAGS”, optionally with a suffix of “.SILENT”.

     For example, to set the delete flag on all messages:

          typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
          for num in data[0].split():
             M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
          M.expunge()

          Not: Creating flags containing ‘]’ (for example: “[test]”)
          violates RFC 3501(6) (the IMAP protocol).  However, imaplib
          has historically allowed creation of such tags, and popular
          IMAP servers, such as Gmail, accept and produce such flags.
          There are non-Python programs which also create such tags.
          Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and servers
          are supposed to be strict, imaplib nonetheless continues to
          allow such tags to be created for backward compatibility
          reasons, and as of Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent
          from the server, since this improves real-world compatibility.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.subscribe (mailbox)

     Subscribe to new mailbox.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.thread (threading_algorithm, charset,
          search_criterion[, ...])

     The ‘thread’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with threading
     semantics for the results.  Returned data contains a space
     separated list of thread members.

     Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited
     by spaces, indicating successive parent and child.

     Thread has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s);
     a 'threading_algorithm', and the searching 'charset'.  Note that
     unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is mandatory.
     There is also a ‘uid thread’ command which corresponds to ‘thread’
     the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The ‘thread’
     command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the
     given searching criteria using the 'charset' argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified
     threading algorithm.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.uid (command, arg[, ...])

     Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than
     message number.  Returns response appropriate to command.  At least
     one argument must be supplied; if none are provided, the server
     will return an error and an exception will be raised.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.unsubscribe (mailbox)

     Unsubscribe from old mailbox.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.unselect ()

     *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 75c. frees server’s resources
     associated with the selected mailbox and returns the server to the
     authenticated state.  This command performs the same actions as
     *note imaplib.IMAP4.close(): 75d, except that no messages are
     permanently removed from the currently selected mailbox.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Yöntemi: IMAP4.xatom (name[, ...])

     Allow simple extension commands notified by server in ‘CAPABILITY’
     response.

The following attributes are defined on instances of *note IMAP4: 758.:

 -- Özniteliği: IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION

     The most recent supported protocol in the ‘CAPABILITY’ response
     from the server.

 -- Özniteliği: IMAP4.debug

     Integer value to control debugging output.  The initialize value is
     taken from the module variable ‘Debug’.  Values greater than three
     trace each command.

 -- Özniteliği: IMAP4.utf8_enabled

     Boolean value that is normally ‘False’, but is set to ‘True’ if an
     *note enable(): c9b. command is successfully issued for the
     ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability.

     Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3501.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 Example,  Prev: IMAP4 Objects,  Up: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client

5.21.13.2 IMAP4 Example
.......................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, imaplib

     M = imaplib.IMAP4(host='example.org')
     M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
     M.select()
     typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
     for num in data[0].split():
         typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
         print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
     M.close()
     M.logout()


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib — SMTP protocol client,  Next: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122,  Prev: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.14 ‘smtplib’ — SMTP protocol client
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/smtplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note smtplib: c9. module defines an SMTP client session object that
can be used to send mail to any internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP
listener daemon.  For details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult RFC
821(2) (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and RFC 1869(3) (SMTP Service
Extensions).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Sınıfı: smtplib.SMTP (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[,
          timeout], source_address=None)

     An *note SMTP: 786. instance encapsulates an SMTP connection.  It
     has methods that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP
     operations.  If the optional 'host' and 'port' parameters are
     given, the SMTP *note connect(): 17fc. method is called with those
     parameters during initialization.  If specified, 'local_hostname'
     is used as the FQDN of the local host in the HELO/EHLO command.
     Otherwise, the local hostname is found using *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 159a.  If the *note connect(): 17fc. call returns
     anything other than a success code, an *note SMTPConnectError:
     3838. is raised.  The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a
     timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection
     attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will
     be used).  If the timeout expires, *note TimeoutError: 673. is
     raised.  The optional 'source_address' parameter allows binding to
     some specific source address in a machine with multiple network
     interfaces, and/or to some specific source TCP port.  It takes a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’, for the socket to bind to as its source
     address before connecting.  If omitted (or if 'host' or 'port' are
     ‘''’ and/or ‘0’ respectively) the OS default behavior will be used.

     For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect,
     *note sendmail(): ceb, and *note SMTP.quit(): 3839. methods.  An
     example is included below.

     The *note SMTP: 786. class supports the *note with: 3dd. statement.
     When used like this, the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command is issued
     automatically when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from smtplib import SMTP
          >>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp:
          ...     smtp.noop()
          ...
          (250, b'Ok')
          >>>

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘smtplib.SMTP.send’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘data’, where ‘data’
     is the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'source_address' argument was added.

     Added in version 3.5: The SMTPUTF8 extension ( RFC 6531(4)) is now
     supported.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Sınıfı: smtplib.SMTP_SSL (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, *[,
          timeout], context=None, source_address=None)

     An *note SMTP_SSL: 787. instance behaves exactly the same as
     instances of *note SMTP: 786.  *note SMTP_SSL: 787. should be used
     for situations where SSL is required from the beginning of the
     connection and using ‘starttls()’ is not appropriate.  If 'host' is
     not specified, the local host is used.  If 'port' is zero, the
     standard SMTP-over-SSL port (465) is used.  The optional arguments
     'local_hostname', 'timeout' and 'source_address' have the same
     meaning as they do in the *note SMTP: 786. class.  'context', also
     optional, can contain a *note SSLContext: 277. and allows
     configuring various aspects of the secure connection.  Please read
     *note Security considerations: 3092. for best practices.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'context' was added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'source_address' argument was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

 -- Sınıfı: smtplib.LMTP (host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None,
          source_address=None[, timeout])

     The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based
     on the standard SMTP client.  It’s common to use Unix sockets for
     LMTP, so our ‘connect()’ method must support that as well as a
     regular host:port server.  The optional arguments 'local_hostname'
     and 'source_address' have the same meaning as they do in the *note
     SMTP: 786. class.  To specify a Unix socket, you must use an
     absolute path for 'host', starting with a ‘/’.

     Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism.
     When using a Unix socket, LMTP generally don’t support or require
     any authentication, but your mileage might vary.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The optional 'timeout' parameter was added.

A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPException

     Subclass of *note OSError: 65c. that is the base exception class
     for all the other exceptions provided by this module.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: SMTPException became subclass of *note
     OSError: 65c.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected

     This exception is raised when the server unexpectedly disconnects,
     or when an attempt is made to use the *note SMTP: 786. instance
     before connecting it to a server.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPResponseException

     Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code.
     These exceptions are generated in some instances when the SMTP
     server returns an error code.  The error code is stored in the
     ‘smtp_code’ attribute of the error, and the ‘smtp_error’ attribute
     is set to the error message.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused

     Sender address refused.  In addition to the attributes set by on
     all *note SMTPResponseException: 383b. exceptions, this sets
     ‘sender’ to the string that the SMTP server refused.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused

     All recipient addresses refused.  The errors for each recipient are
     accessible through the attribute ‘recipients’, which is a
     dictionary of exactly the same sort as *note SMTP.sendmail(): ceb.
     returns.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPDataError

     The SMTP server refused to accept the message data.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPConnectError

     Error occurred during establishment of a connection with the
     server.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPHeloError

     The server refused our ‘HELO’ message.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError

     The command or option attempted is not supported by the server.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Özel Durum: smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError

     SMTP authentication went wrong.  Most probably the server didn’t
     accept the username/password combination provided.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

RFC 821(5) - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

     Protocol definition for SMTP. This document covers the model,
     operating procedure, and protocol details for SMTP.

RFC 1869(6) - SMTP Service Extensions

     Definition of the ESMTP extensions for SMTP. This describes a
     framework for extending SMTP with new commands, supporting dynamic
     discovery of the commands provided by the server, and defines a few
     additional commands.

* Menu:

* SMTP Objects::
* SMTP Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/smtplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP Objects,  Next: SMTP Example,  Up: smtplib — SMTP protocol client

5.21.14.1 SMTP Objects
......................

An *note SMTP: 786. instance has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the debug output level.  A value of 1 or ‘True’ for 'level'
     results in debug messages for connection and for all messages sent
     to and received from the server.  A value of 2 for 'level' results
     in these messages being timestamped.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added debuglevel 2.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.docmd (cmd, args='')

     Send a command 'cmd' to the server.  The optional argument 'args'
     is simply concatenated to the command, separated by a space.

     This returns a 2-tuple composed of a numeric response code and the
     actual response line (multiline responses are joined into one long
     line.)

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It is used to implement other methods and may be
     useful for testing private extensions.

     If the connection to the server is lost while waiting for the
     reply, *note SMTPServerDisconnected: 383a. will be raised.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.connect (host='localhost', port=0)

     Connect to a host on a given port.  The defaults are to connect to
     the local host at the standard SMTP port (25).  If the hostname
     ends with a colon (‘':'’) followed by a number, that suffix will be
     stripped off and the number interpreted as the port number to use.
     This method is automatically invoked by the constructor if a host
     is specified during instantiation.  Returns a 2-tuple of the
     response code and message sent by the server in its connection
     response.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘smtplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.helo (name='')

     Identify yourself to the SMTP server using ‘HELO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  The message returned by the server is stored as the
     ‘helo_resp’ attribute of the object.

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It will be implicitly called by the *note sendmail():
     ceb. when necessary.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.ehlo (name='')

     Identify yourself to an ESMTP server using ‘EHLO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  Examine the response for ESMTP option and store them for use
     by *note has_extn(): 3846.  Also sets several informational
     attributes: the message returned by the server is stored as the
     ‘ehlo_resp’ attribute, ‘does_esmtp’ is set to ‘True’ or ‘False’
     depending on whether the server supports ESMTP, and
     ‘esmtp_features’ will be a dictionary containing the names of the
     SMTP service extensions this server supports, and their parameters
     (if any).

     Unless you wish to use *note has_extn(): 3846. before sending mail,
     it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.  It will
     be implicitly called by *note sendmail(): ceb. when necessary.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed ()

     This method calls *note ehlo(): 3845. and/or *note helo(): 3844. if
     there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this session.
     It tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 383f.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.has_extn (name)

     Return *note True: a86. if 'name' is in the set of SMTP service
     extensions returned by the server, *note False: 9a8. otherwise.
     Case is ignored.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.verify (address)

     Check the validity of an address on this server using SMTP ‘VRFY’.
     Returns a tuple consisting of code 250 and a full RFC 822(1)
     address (including human name) if the user address is valid.
     Otherwise returns an SMTP error code of 400 or greater and an error
     string.

          Not: Many sites disable SMTP ‘VRFY’ in order to foil spammers.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.login (user, password, *, initial_response_ok=True)

     Log in on an SMTP server that requires authentication.  The
     arguments are the username and the password to authenticate with.
     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  This method will
     return normally if the authentication was successful, or may raise
     the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPHeloError: 383f.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPAuthenticationError: 3840.

          The server didn’t accept the username/password combination.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb.

          The ‘AUTH’ command is not supported by the server.

     *note SMTPException: e41.

          No suitable authentication method was found.

     Each of the authentication methods supported by *note smtplib: c9.
     are tried in turn if they are advertised as supported by the
     server.  See *note auth(): ce9. for a list of supported
     authentication methods.  'initial_response_ok' is passed through to
     *note auth(): ce9.

     Optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' specifies whether,
     for authentication methods that support it, an “initial response”
     as specified in RFC 4954(2) can be sent along with the ‘AUTH’
     command, rather than requiring a challenge/response.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb. may be
     raised, and the 'initial_response_ok' parameter was added.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.auth (mechanism, authobject, *,
          initial_response_ok=True)

     Issue an ‘SMTP’ ‘AUTH’ command for the specified authentication
     'mechanism', and handle the challenge response via 'authobject'.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     as argument to the ‘AUTH’ command; the valid values are those
     listed in the ‘auth’ element of ‘esmtp_features’.

     'authobject' must be a callable object taking an optional single
     argument:

          data = authobject(challenge=None)

     If optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' is true,
     ‘authobject()’ will be called first with no argument.  It can
     return the RFC 4954(3) “initial response” ASCII ‘str’ which will be
     encoded and sent with the ‘AUTH’ command as below.  If the
     ‘authobject()’ does not support an initial response (e.g.  because
     it requires a challenge), it should return ‘None’ when called with
     ‘challenge=None’.  If 'initial_response_ok' is false, then
     ‘authobject()’ will not be called first with ‘None’.

     If the initial response check returns ‘None’, or if
     'initial_response_ok' is false, ‘authobject()’ will be called to
     process the server’s challenge response; the 'challenge' argument
     it is passed will be a ‘bytes’.  It should return ASCII ‘str’
     'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.

     The ‘SMTP’ class provides ‘authobjects’ for the ‘CRAM-MD5’,
     ‘PLAIN’, and ‘LOGIN’ mechanisms; they are named
     ‘SMTP.auth_cram_md5’, ‘SMTP.auth_plain’, and ‘SMTP.auth_login’
     respectively.  They all require that the ‘user’ and ‘password’
     properties of the ‘SMTP’ instance are set to appropriate values.

     User code does not normally need to call ‘auth’ directly, but can
     instead call the *note login(): 3849. method, which will try each
     of the above mechanisms in turn, in the order listed.  ‘auth’ is
     exposed to facilitate the implementation of authentication methods
     not (or not yet) supported directly by *note smtplib: c9.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.starttls (*, context=None)

     Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode.
     All SMTP commands that follow will be encrypted.  You should then
     call *note ehlo(): 3845. again.

     If 'keyfile' and 'certfile' are provided, they are used to create
     an *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.

     Optional 'context' parameter is an *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.
     object; This is an alternative to using a keyfile and a certfile
     and if specified both 'keyfile' and 'certfile' should be ‘None’.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 383f.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb.

          The server does not support the STARTTLS extension.

     *note RuntimeError: 180.

          SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'context' was added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The method now supports hostname check with
     ‘SSLContext.check_hostname’ and 'Server Name Indicator' (see *note
     HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The error raised for lack of STARTTLS
     support is now the *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb. subclass
     instead of the base *note SMTPException: e41.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.sendmail (from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=(),
          rcpt_options=())

     Send mail.  The required arguments are an RFC 822(4) from-address
     string, a list of RFC 822(5) to-address strings (a bare string will
     be treated as a list with 1 address), and a message string.  The
     caller may pass a list of ESMTP options (such as ‘8bitmime’) to be
     used in ‘MAIL FROM’ commands as 'mail_options'.  ESMTP options
     (such as ‘DSN’ commands) that should be used with all ‘RCPT’
     commands can be passed as 'rcpt_options'.  (If you need to use
     different ESMTP options to different recipients you have to use the
     low-level methods such as ‘mail()’, ‘rcpt()’ and ‘data()’ to send
     the message.)

          Not: The 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' parameters are used to
          construct the message envelope used by the transport agents.
          ‘sendmail’ does not modify the message headers in any way.

     'msg' may be a string containing characters in the ASCII range, or
     a byte string.  A string is encoded to bytes using the ascii codec,
     and lone ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters are converted to ‘\r\n’
     characters.  A byte string is not modified.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  If the server does
     ESMTP, message size and each of the specified options will be
     passed to it (if the option is in the feature set the server
     advertises).  If ‘EHLO’ fails, ‘HELO’ will be tried and ESMTP
     options suppressed.

     This method will return normally if the mail is accepted for at
     least one recipient.  Otherwise it will raise an exception.  That
     is, if this method does not raise an exception, then someone should
     get your mail.  If this method does not raise an exception, it
     returns a dictionary, with one entry for each recipient that was
     refused.  Each entry contains a tuple of the SMTP error code and
     the accompanying error message sent by the server.

     If ‘SMTPUTF8’ is included in 'mail_options', and the server
     supports it, 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' may contain non-ASCII
     characters.

     This method may raise the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPRecipientsRefused: 383d.

          All recipients were refused.  Nobody got the mail.  The
          ‘recipients’ attribute of the exception object is a dictionary
          with information about the refused recipients (like the one
          returned when at least one recipient was accepted).

     *note SMTPHeloError: 383f.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPSenderRefused: 383c.

          The server didn’t accept the 'from_addr'.

     *note SMTPDataError: 383e.

          The server replied with an unexpected error code (other than a
          refusal of a recipient).

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb.

          ‘SMTPUTF8’ was given in the 'mail_options' but is not
          supported by the server.

     Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an
     exception is raised.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'msg' may be a byte string.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: ‘SMTPUTF8’ support added, and *note
     SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb. may be raised if ‘SMTPUTF8’ is
     specified but the server does not support it.

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.send_message (msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None,
          mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())

     This is a convenience method for calling *note sendmail(): ceb.
     with the message represented by an *note email.message.Message:
     b1b. object.  The arguments have the same meaning as for *note
     sendmail(): ceb, except that 'msg' is a ‘Message’ object.

     If 'from_addr' is ‘None’ or 'to_addrs' is ‘None’, ‘send_message’
     fills those arguments with addresses extracted from the headers of
     'msg' as specified in RFC 5322(6): 'from_addr' is set to the
     ‘Sender’ field if it is present, and otherwise to the ‘From’ field.
     'to_addrs' combines the values (if any) of the ‘To’, ‘Cc’, and
     ‘Bcc’ fields from 'msg'.  If exactly one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers
     appear in the message, the regular headers are ignored and the
     ‘Resent-*’ headers are used instead.  If the message contains more
     than one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers, a *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised, since there is no way to unambiguously detect the most
     recent set of ‘Resent-’ headers.

     ‘send_message’ serializes 'msg' using *note BytesGenerator: 1074.
     with ‘\r\n’ as the 'linesep', and calls *note sendmail(): ceb. to
     transmit the resulting message.  Regardless of the values of
     'from_addr' and 'to_addrs', ‘send_message’ does not transmit any
     ‘Bcc’ or ‘Resent-Bcc’ headers that may appear in 'msg'.  If any of
     the addresses in 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' contain non-ASCII
     characters and the server does not advertise ‘SMTPUTF8’ support, an
     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 17fb. is raised.  Otherwise the
     ‘Message’ is serialized with a clone of its *note policy: 4e. with
     the *note utf8: c86. attribute set to ‘True’, and ‘SMTPUTF8’ and
     ‘BODY=8BITMIME’ are added to 'mail_options'.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Added in version 3.5: Support for internationalized addresses
     (‘SMTPUTF8’).

 -- Yöntemi: SMTP.quit ()

     Terminate the SMTP session and close the connection.  Return the
     result of the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command.

Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands
‘HELP’, ‘RSET’, ‘NOOP’, ‘MAIL’, ‘RCPT’, and ‘DATA’ are also supported.
Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not
documented here.  For details, consult the module code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP Example,  Prev: SMTP Objects,  Up: smtplib — SMTP protocol client

5.21.14.2 SMTP Example
......................

This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message
envelope (‘To’ and ‘From’ addresses), and the message to be delivered.
Note that the headers to be included with the message must be included
in the message as entered; this example doesn’t do any processing of the
RFC 822(1) headers.  In particular, the ‘To’ and ‘From’ addresses must
be included in the message headers explicitly:

     import smtplib

     def prompt(title):
         return input(title).strip()

     from_addr = prompt("From: ")
     to_addrs  = prompt("To: ").split()
     print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")

     # Add the From: and To: headers at the start!
     lines = [f"From: {from_addr}", f"To: {', '.join(to_addrs)}", ""]
     while True:
         try:
             line = input()
         except EOFError:
             break
         else:
             lines.append(line)

     msg = "\r\n".join(lines)
     print("Message length is", len(msg))

     server = smtplib.SMTP("localhost")
     server.set_debuglevel(1)
     server.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg)
     server.quit()

     Not: In general, you will want to use the *note email: 3a.
     package’s features to construct an email message, which you can
     then send via *note send_message(): cec.; see *note email;
     Examples: ddc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122,  Next: socketserver — A framework for network servers,  Prev: smtplib — SMTP protocol client,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.15 ‘uuid’ — UUID objects according to
------------------------------------------

'RFC 4122'

'Source code:' Lib/uuid.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides immutable *note UUID: 8c5. objects (the *note UUID:
8c5. class) and the functions *note uuid1(): a1f, *note uuid3(): 13f0,
*note uuid4(): 13f1, *note uuid5(): 13f2. for generating version 1, 3,
4, and 5 UUIDs as specified in RFC 4122(2).

If all you want is a unique ID, you should probably call *note uuid1():
a1f. or *note uuid4(): 13f1.  Note that *note uuid1(): a1f. may
compromise privacy since it creates a UUID containing the computer’s
network address.  *note uuid4(): 13f1. creates a random UUID.

Depending on support from the underlying platform, *note uuid1(): a1f.
may or may not return a “safe” UUID. A safe UUID is one which is
generated using synchronization methods that ensure no two processes can
obtain the same UUID. All instances of *note UUID: 8c5. have an *note
is_safe: a1d. attribute which relays any information about the UUID’s
safety, using this enumeration:

 -- Sınıfı: uuid.SafeUUID

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: safe

          The UUID was generated by the platform in a
          multiprocessing-safe way.

      -- Özniteliği: unsafe

          The UUID was not generated in a multiprocessing-safe way.

      -- Özniteliği: unknown

          The platform does not provide information on whether the UUID
          was generated safely or not.

 -- Sınıfı: uuid.UUID (hex=None, bytes=None, bytes_le=None, fields=None,
          int=None, version=None, *, is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown)

     Create a UUID from either a string of 32 hexadecimal digits, a
     string of 16 bytes in big-endian order as the 'bytes' argument, a
     string of 16 bytes in little-endian order as the 'bytes_le'
     argument, a tuple of six integers (32-bit 'time_low', 16-bit
     'time_mid', 16-bit 'time_hi_version', 8-bit 'clock_seq_hi_variant',
     8-bit 'clock_seq_low', 48-bit 'node') as the 'fields' argument, or
     a single 128-bit integer as the 'int' argument.  When a string of
     hex digits is given, curly braces, hyphens, and a URN prefix are
     all optional.  For example, these expressions all yield the same
     UUID:

          UUID('{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}')
          UUID('12345678123456781234567812345678')
          UUID('urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678')
          UUID(bytes=b'\x12\x34\x56\x78'*4)
          UUID(bytes_le=b'\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56' +
                        b'\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78')
          UUID(fields=(0x12345678, 0x1234, 0x5678, 0x12, 0x34, 0x567812345678))
          UUID(int=0x12345678123456781234567812345678)

     Exactly one of 'hex', 'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields', or 'int' must
     be given.  The 'version' argument is optional; if given, the
     resulting UUID will have its variant and version number set
     according to RFC 4122(3), overriding bits in the given 'hex',
     'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields', or 'int'.

     Comparison of UUID objects are made by way of comparing their *note
     UUID.int: 3852. attributes.  Comparison with a non-UUID object
     raises a *note TypeError: 2c4.

     ‘str(uuid)’ returns a string in the form
     ‘12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678’ where the 32 hexadecimal
     digits represent the UUID.

*note UUID: 8c5. instances have these read-only attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.bytes

     The UUID as a 16-byte string (containing the six integer fields in
     big-endian byte order).

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.bytes_le

     The UUID as a 16-byte string (with 'time_low', 'time_mid', and
     'time_hi_version' in little-endian byte order).

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.fields

     A tuple of the six integer fields of the UUID, which are also
     available as six individual attributes and two derived attributes:

Field                                                  Meaning
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.time_low                          The first 32 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.time_mid                          The next 16 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.time_hi_version                   The next 16 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.clock_seq_hi_variant              The next 8 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.clock_seq_low                     The next 8 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.node                              The last 48 bits of the UUID.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.time                              The 60-bit timestamp.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Özniteliği: UUID.clock_seq                         The 14-bit sequence number.
                                                       

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.hex

     The UUID as a 32-character lowercase hexadecimal string.

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.int

     The UUID as a 128-bit integer.

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.urn

     The UUID as a URN as specified in RFC 4122(4).

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.variant

     The UUID variant, which determines the internal layout of the UUID.
     This will be one of the constants *note RESERVED_NCS: 3861, *note
     RFC_4122: 3862, *note RESERVED_MICROSOFT: 3863, or *note
     RESERVED_FUTURE: 3864.

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.version

     The UUID version number (1 through 5, meaningful only when the
     variant is *note RFC_4122: 3862.).

 -- Özniteliği: UUID.is_safe

     An enumeration of *note SafeUUID: 384e. which indicates whether the
     platform generated the UUID in a multiprocessing-safe way.

     Added in version 3.7.

The *note uuid: 110. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: uuid.getnode ()

     Get the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer.  The first
     time this runs, it may launch a separate program, which could be
     quite slow.  If all attempts to obtain the hardware address fail,
     we choose a random 48-bit number with the multicast bit (least
     significant bit of the first octet) set to 1 as recommended in RFC
     4122(5).  “Hardware address” means the MAC address of a network
     interface.  On a machine with multiple network interfaces,
     universally administered MAC addresses (i.e.  where the second
     least significant bit of the first octet is 'unset') will be
     preferred over locally administered MAC addresses, but with no
     other ordering guarantees.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Universally administered MAC addresses are
     preferred over locally administered MAC addresses, since the former
     are guaranteed to be globally unique, while the latter are not.

 -- Işlevi: uuid.uuid1 (node=None, clock_seq=None)

     Generate a UUID from a host ID, sequence number, and the current
     time.  If 'node' is not given, *note getnode(): a1e. is used to
     obtain the hardware address.  If 'clock_seq' is given, it is used
     as the sequence number; otherwise a random 14-bit sequence number
     is chosen.

 -- Işlevi: uuid.uuid3 (namespace, name)

     Generate a UUID based on the MD5 hash of a namespace identifier
     (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a *note bytes: 2cb. object
     or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8).

 -- Işlevi: uuid.uuid4 ()

     Generate a random UUID.

 -- Işlevi: uuid.uuid5 (namespace, name)

     Generate a UUID based on the SHA-1 hash of a namespace identifier
     (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a *note bytes: 2cb. object
     or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8).

The *note uuid: 110. module defines the following namespace identifiers
for use with *note uuid3(): 13f0. or *note uuid5(): 13f2.

 -- Verisi: uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is a fully
     qualified domain name.

 -- Verisi: uuid.NAMESPACE_URL

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is a URL.

 -- Verisi: uuid.NAMESPACE_OID

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is an ISO OID.

 -- Verisi: uuid.NAMESPACE_X500

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is an X.500 DN
     in DER or a text output format.

The *note uuid: 110. module defines the following constants for the
possible values of the *note variant: 3860. attribute:

 -- Verisi: uuid.RESERVED_NCS

     Reserved for NCS compatibility.

 -- Verisi: uuid.RFC_4122

     Specifies the UUID layout given in RFC 4122(6).

 -- Verisi: uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT

     Reserved for Microsoft compatibility.

 -- Verisi: uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE

     Reserved for future definition.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

RFC 4122(7) - A Universally Unique IDentifier (UUID) URN Namespace

     This specification defines a Uniform Resource Name namespace for
     UUIDs, the internal format of UUIDs, and methods of generating
     UUIDs.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.
* Example: Example<11>.
* Command-Line Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/uuid.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Next: Example<11>,  Up: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122

5.21.15.1 Command-Line Usage
............................

Added in version 3.12.

The *note uuid: 110. module can be executed as a script from the command
line.

     python -m uuid [-h] [-u {uuid1,uuid3,uuid4,uuid5}] [-n NAMESPACE] [-N NAME]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: -u <uuid>
 -- Option: --uuid <uuid>

     Specify the function name to use to generate the uuid.  By default
     *note uuid4(): 13f1. is used.

 -- Option: -n <namespace>
 -- Option: --namespace <namespace>

     The namespace is a ‘UUID’, or ‘@ns’ where ‘ns’ is a well-known
     predefined UUID addressed by namespace name.  Such as ‘@dns’,
     ‘@url’, ‘@oid’, and ‘@x500’.  Only required for *note uuid3():
     13f0. / *note uuid5(): 13f2. functions.

 -- Option: -N <name>
 -- Option: --name <name>

     The name used as part of generating the uuid.  Only required for
     *note uuid3(): 13f0. / *note uuid5(): 13f2. functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<11>,  Next: Command-Line Example,  Prev: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Up: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122

5.21.15.2 Example
.................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the *note uuid: 110. module:

     >>> import uuid

     >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
     >>> uuid.uuid1()
     UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

     >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

     >>> # make a random UUID
     >>> uuid.uuid4()
     UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

     >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     >>> # make a UUID from a string of hex digits (braces and hyphens ignored)
     >>> x = uuid.UUID('{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}')

     >>> # convert a UUID to a string of hex digits in standard form
     >>> str(x)
     '00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f'

     >>> # get the raw 16 bytes of the UUID
     >>> x.bytes
     b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f'

     >>> # make a UUID from a 16-byte string
     >>> uuid.UUID(bytes=x.bytes)
     UUID('00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f')


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Example,  Prev: Example<11>,  Up: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122

5.21.15.3 Command-Line Example
..............................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the *note uuid: 110. command
line interface:

     # generate a random uuid - by default uuid4() is used
     $ python -m uuid

     # generate a uuid using uuid1()
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid1

     # generate a uuid using uuid5
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid5 -n @url -N example.com


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver — A framework for network servers,  Next: http server — HTTP servers,  Prev: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.16 ‘socketserver’ — A framework for network servers
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/socketserver.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note socketserver: cc. module simplifies the task of writing
network servers.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

There are four basic concrete server classes:

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.TCPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     This uses the internet TCP protocol, which provides for continuous
     streams of data between the client and server.  If
     'bind_and_activate' is true, the constructor automatically attempts
     to invoke *note server_bind(): 3879. and *note server_activate():
     387a.  The other parameters are passed to the *note BaseServer:
     fe1. base class.

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.UDPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     This uses datagrams, which are discrete packets of information that
     may arrive out of order or be lost while in transit.  The
     parameters are the same as for *note TCPServer: 11cb.

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.UnixStreamServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.UnixDatagramServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

     These more infrequently used classes are similar to the TCP and UDP
     classes, but use Unix domain sockets; they’re not available on
     non-Unix platforms.  The parameters are the same as for *note
     TCPServer: 11cb.

These four classes process requests 'synchronously'; each request must
be completed before the next request can be started.  This isn’t
suitable if each request takes a long time to complete, because it
requires a lot of computation, or because it returns a lot of data which
the client is slow to process.  The solution is to create a separate
process or thread to handle each request; the *note ForkingMixIn: 9ed.
and *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. mix-in classes can be used to support
asynchronous behaviour.

Creating a server requires several steps.  First, you must create a
request handler class by subclassing the *note BaseRequestHandler: 387e.
class and overriding its *note handle(): 387f. method; this method will
process incoming requests.  Second, you must instantiate one of the
server classes, passing it the server’s address and the request handler
class.  It is recommended to use the server in a *note with: 3dd.
statement.  Then call the *note handle_request(): 11ce. or *note
serve_forever(): fe3. method of the server object to process one or many
requests.  Finally, call *note server_close(): 3880. to close the socket
(unless you used a ‘with’ statement).

When inheriting from *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. for threaded connection
behavior, you should explicitly declare how you want your threads to
behave on an abrupt shutdown.  The *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. class
defines an attribute 'daemon_threads', which indicates whether or not
the server should wait for thread termination.  You should set the flag
explicitly if you would like threads to behave autonomously; the default
is *note False: 9a8, meaning that Python will not exit until all threads
created by *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. have exited.

Server classes have the same external methods and attributes, no matter
what network protocol they use.

* Menu:

* Server Creation Notes::
* Server Objects: Server Objects<2>.
* Request Handler Objects::
* Examples: Examples<27>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/socketserver.py


File: python.info,  Node: Server Creation Notes,  Next: Server Objects<2>,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.21.16.1 Server Creation Notes
...............................

There are five classes in an inheritance diagram, four of which
represent synchronous servers of four types:

     +------------+
     | BaseServer |
     +------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +------------------+
     | TCPServer |------->| UnixStreamServer |
     +-----------+        +------------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +--------------------+
     | UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer |
     +-----------+        +--------------------+

Note that *note UnixDatagramServer: 387d. derives from *note UDPServer:
387b, not from *note UnixStreamServer: 387c. — the only difference
between an IP and a Unix server is the address family.

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ForkingMixIn
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn

     Forking and threading versions of each type of server can be
     created using these mix-in classes.  For instance, *note
     ThreadingUDPServer: 3882. is created as follows:

          class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer):
              pass

     The mix-in class comes first, since it overrides a method defined
     in *note UDPServer: 387b.  Setting the various attributes also
     changes the behavior of the underlying server mechanism.

     *note ForkingMixIn: 9ed. and the Forking classes mentioned below
     are only available on POSIX platforms that support *note fork():
     23a.

      -- Özniteliği: block_on_close

          *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3880. waits until all child
          processes complete, except if *note block_on_close: a76.
          attribute is ‘False’.

          *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3880. waits until all
          non-daemon threads complete, except if *note block_on_close:
          a76. attribute is ‘False’.

      -- Özniteliği: daemon_threads

          For *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. use daemonic threads by setting
          *note ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads: 3883. to ‘True’ to not
          wait until threads complete.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3880. and
     *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3880. now waits until all child
     processes and non-daemonic threads complete.  Add a new *note
     ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: a76. class attribute to opt-in for the
     pre-3.7 behaviour.

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ForkingTCPServer
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ForkingUDPServer
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ForkingUnixStreamServer
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ForkingUnixDatagramServer
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ThreadingUnixStreamServer
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.ThreadingUnixDatagramServer

     These classes are pre-defined using the mix-in classes.

Added in version 3.12: The ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and
‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes were added.

To implement a service, you must derive a class from *note
BaseRequestHandler: 387e. and redefine its *note handle(): 387f. method.
You can then run various versions of the service by combining one of the
server classes with your request handler class.  The request handler
class must be different for datagram or stream services.  This can be
hidden by using the handler subclasses *note StreamRequestHandler: b5d.
or *note DatagramRequestHandler: 388b.

Of course, you still have to use your head!  For instance, it makes no
sense to use a forking server if the service contains state in memory
that can be modified by different requests, since the modifications in
the child process would never reach the initial state kept in the parent
process and passed to each child.  In this case, you can use a threading
server, but you will probably have to use locks to protect the integrity
of the shared data.

On the other hand, if you are building an HTTP server where all data is
stored externally (for instance, in the file system), a synchronous
class will essentially render the service “deaf” while one request is
being handled – which may be for a very long time if a client is slow to
receive all the data it has requested.  Here a threading or forking
server is appropriate.

In some cases, it may be appropriate to process part of a request
synchronously, but to finish processing in a forked child depending on
the request data.  This can be implemented by using a synchronous server
and doing an explicit fork in the request handler class *note handle():
387f. method.

Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an
environment that supports neither threads nor *note fork(): 23a. (or
where these are too expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to
maintain an explicit table of partially finished requests and to use
*note selectors: c1. to decide which request to work on next (or whether
to handle a new incoming request).  This is particularly important for
stream services where each client can potentially be connected for a
long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).


File: python.info,  Node: Server Objects<2>,  Next: Request Handler Objects,  Prev: Server Creation Notes,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.21.16.2 Server Objects
........................

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.BaseServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     This is the superclass of all Server objects in the module.  It
     defines the interface, given below, but does not implement most of
     the methods, which is done in subclasses.  The two parameters are
     stored in the respective *note server_address: 388d. and *note
     RequestHandlerClass: 388e. attributes.

      -- Yöntemi: fileno ()

          Return an integer file descriptor for the socket on which the
          server is listening.  This function is most commonly passed to
          *note selectors: c1, to allow monitoring multiple servers in
          the same process.

      -- Yöntemi: handle_request ()

          Process a single request.  This function calls the following
          methods in order: *note get_request(): 3890, *note
          verify_request(): 3891, and *note process_request(): 3892.  If
          the user-provided *note handle(): 387f. method of the handler
          class raises an exception, the server’s *note handle_error():
          bc9. method will be called.  If no request is received within
          *note timeout: 11cc. seconds, *note handle_timeout(): 11cd.
          will be called and *note handle_request(): 11ce. will return.

      -- Yöntemi: serve_forever (poll_interval=0.5)

          Handle requests until an explicit *note shutdown(): 1870.
          request.  Poll for shutdown every 'poll_interval' seconds.
          Ignores the *note timeout: 11cc. attribute.  It also calls
          *note service_actions(): fe2, which may be used by a subclass
          or mixin to provide actions specific to a given service.  For
          example, the *note ForkingMixIn: 9ed. class uses *note
          service_actions(): fe2. to clean up zombie child processes.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘service_actions’ call to the
          ‘serve_forever’ method.

      -- Yöntemi: service_actions ()

          This is called in the *note serve_forever(): fe3. loop.  This
          method can be overridden by subclasses or mixin classes to
          perform actions specific to a given service, such as cleanup
          actions.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: shutdown ()

          Tell the *note serve_forever(): fe3. loop to stop and wait
          until it does.  *note shutdown(): 1870. must be called while
          *note serve_forever(): fe3. is running in a different thread
          otherwise it will deadlock.

      -- Yöntemi: server_close ()

          Clean up the server.  May be overridden.

      -- Özniteliği: address_family

          The family of protocols to which the server’s socket belongs.
          Common examples are *note socket.AF_INET: 1643, *note
          socket.AF_INET6: 1644, and *note socket.AF_UNIX: 1645.
          Subclass the TCP or UDP server classes in this module with
          class attribute ‘address_family = AF_INET6’ set if you want
          IPv6 server classes.

      -- Özniteliği: RequestHandlerClass

          The user-provided request handler class; an instance of this
          class is created for each request.

      -- Özniteliği: server_address

          The address on which the server is listening.  The format of
          addresses varies depending on the protocol family; see the
          documentation for the *note socket: cb. module for details.
          For internet protocols, this is a tuple containing a string
          giving the address, and an integer port number: ‘('127.0.0.1',
          80)’, for example.

      -- Özniteliği: socket

          The socket object on which the server will listen for incoming
          requests.

     The server classes support the following class variables:

      -- Özniteliği: allow_reuse_address

          Whether the server will allow the reuse of an address.  This
          defaults to *note False: 9a8, and can be set in subclasses to
          change the policy.

      -- Özniteliği: request_queue_size

          The size of the request queue.  If it takes a long time to
          process a single request, any requests that arrive while the
          server is busy are placed into a queue, up to *note
          request_queue_size: 3896. requests.  Once the queue is full,
          further requests from clients will get a “Connection denied”
          error.  The default value is usually 5, but this can be
          overridden by subclasses.

      -- Özniteliği: socket_type

          The type of socket used by the server; *note
          socket.SOCK_STREAM: 119d. and *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 119c.
          are two common values.

      -- Özniteliği: timeout

          Timeout duration, measured in seconds, or *note None: 488. if
          no timeout is desired.  If *note handle_request(): 11ce.
          receives no incoming requests within the timeout period, the
          *note handle_timeout(): 11cd. method is called.

     There are various server methods that can be overridden by
     subclasses of base server classes like *note TCPServer: 11cb.;
     these methods aren’t useful to external users of the server object.

      -- Yöntemi: finish_request (request, client_address)

          Actually processes the request by instantiating *note
          RequestHandlerClass: 388e. and calling its *note handle():
          387f. method.

      -- Yöntemi: get_request ()

          Must accept a request from the socket, and return a 2-tuple
          containing the 'new' socket object to be used to communicate
          with the client, and the client’s address.

      -- Yöntemi: handle_error (request, client_address)

          This function is called if the *note handle(): 387f. method of
          a *note RequestHandlerClass: 388e. instance raises an
          exception.  The default action is to print the traceback to
          standard error and continue handling further requests.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: Now only called for exceptions derived
          from the *note Exception: 838. class.

      -- Yöntemi: handle_timeout ()

          This function is called when the *note timeout: 11cc.
          attribute has been set to a value other than *note None: 488.
          and the timeout period has passed with no requests being
          received.  The default action for forking servers is to
          collect the status of any child processes that have exited,
          while in threading servers this method does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: process_request (request, client_address)

          Calls *note finish_request(): 3898. to create an instance of
          the *note RequestHandlerClass: 388e.  If desired, this
          function can create a new process or thread to handle the
          request; the *note ForkingMixIn: 9ed. and *note
          ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. classes do this.

      -- Yöntemi: server_activate ()

          Called by the server’s constructor to activate the server.
          The default behavior for a TCP server just invokes *note
          listen(): cf2. on the server’s socket.  May be overridden.

      -- Yöntemi: server_bind ()

          Called by the server’s constructor to bind the socket to the
          desired address.  May be overridden.

      -- Yöntemi: verify_request (request, client_address)

          Must return a Boolean value; if the value is *note True: a86,
          the request will be processed, and if it’s *note False: 9a8,
          the request will be denied.  This function can be overridden
          to implement access controls for a server.  The default
          implementation always returns *note True: a86.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note context manager: 3df.
     protocol was added.  Exiting the context manager is equivalent to
     calling *note server_close(): 3880.


File: python.info,  Node: Request Handler Objects,  Next: Examples<27>,  Prev: Server Objects<2>,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.21.16.3 Request Handler Objects
.................................

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.BaseRequestHandler

     This is the superclass of all request handler objects.  It defines
     the interface, given below.  A concrete request handler subclass
     must define a new *note handle(): 387f. method, and can override
     any of the other methods.  A new instance of the subclass is
     created for each request.

      -- Yöntemi: setup ()

          Called before the *note handle(): 387f. method to perform any
          initialization actions required.  The default implementation
          does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: handle ()

          This function must do all the work required to service a
          request.  The default implementation does nothing.  Several
          instance attributes are available to it; the request is
          available as *note request: 389b.; the client address as *note
          client_address: 389c.; and the server instance as *note
          server: 389d, in case it needs access to per-server
          information.

          The type of *note request: 389b. is different for datagram or
          stream services.  For stream services, *note request: 389b. is
          a socket object; for datagram services, *note request: 389b.
          is a pair of string and socket.

      -- Yöntemi: finish ()

          Called after the *note handle(): 387f. method to perform any
          clean-up actions required.  The default implementation does
          nothing.  If *note setup(): 389a. raises an exception, this
          function will not be called.

      -- Özniteliği: request

          The 'new' *note socket.socket: c2e. object to be used to
          communicate with the client.

      -- Özniteliği: client_address

          Client address returned by *note BaseServer.get_request():
          3890.

      -- Özniteliği: server

          *note BaseServer: fe1. object used for handling the request.

 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.StreamRequestHandler
 -- Sınıfı: socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler

     These *note BaseRequestHandler: 387e. subclasses override the *note
     setup(): 389a. and *note finish(): 389e. methods, and provide *note
     rfile: 389f. and *note wfile: 38a0. attributes.

      -- Özniteliği: rfile

          A file object from which receives the request is read.
          Support the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. readable interface.

      -- Özniteliği: wfile

          A file object to which the reply is written.  Support the
          *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. writable interface

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note wfile: 38a0. also supports the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. writable interface.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<27>,  Prev: Request Handler Objects,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.21.16.4 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* socketserver.TCPServer Example: socketserver TCPServer Example.
* socketserver.UDPServer Example: socketserver UDPServer Example.
* Asynchronous Mixins::


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver TCPServer Example,  Next: socketserver UDPServer Example,  Up: Examples<27>

5.21.16.5 ‘socketserver.TCPServer’ Example
..........................................

This is the server side:

     import socketserver

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         The request handler class for our server.

         It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must
         override the handle() method to implement communication to the
         client.
         """

         def handle(self):
             # self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client
             pieces = [b'']
             total = 0
             while b'\n' not in pieces[-1] and total < 10_000:
                 pieces.append(self.request.recv(2000))
                 total += len(pieces[-1])
             self.data = b''.join(pieces)
             print(f"Received from {self.client_address[0]}:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # just send back the same data, but upper-cased
             self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())
             # after we return, the socket will be closed.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999

         # Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999
         with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server:
             # Activate the server; this will keep running until you
             # interrupt the program with Ctrl-C
             server.serve_forever()

An alternative request handler class that makes use of streams
(file-like objects that simplify communication by providing the standard
file interface):

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler.
             # We can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls.
             # We limit ourselves to 10000 bytes to avoid abuse by the sender.
             self.data = self.rfile.readline(10000).rstrip()
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back
             # to the client
             self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())

The difference is that the ‘readline()’ call in the second handler will
call ‘recv()’ multiple times until it encounters a newline character,
while the the first handler had to use a ‘recv()’ loop to accumulate
data until a newline itself.  If it had just used a single ‘recv()’
without the loop it would just have returned what has been received so
far from the client.  TCP is stream based: data arrives in the order it
was sent, but there no correlation between client ‘send()’ or
‘sendall()’ calls and the number of ‘recv()’ calls on the server
required to receive it.

This is the client side:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket)
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
         # Connect to server and send data
         sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
         sock.sendall(bytes(data, "utf-8"))
         sock.sendall(b"\n")

         # Receive data from the server and shut down
         received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

The output of the example should look something like this:

Server:

     $ python TCPServer.py
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'hello world with TCP'
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'python is nice'

Client:

     $ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
     Sent:     hello world with TCP
     Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP
     $ python TCPClient.py python is nice
     Sent:     python is nice
     Received: PYTHON IS NICE


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver UDPServer Example,  Next: Asynchronous Mixins,  Prev: socketserver TCPServer Example,  Up: Examples<27>

5.21.16.6 ‘socketserver.UDPServer’ Example
..........................................

This is the server side:

     import socketserver

     class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that
         self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since
         there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly
         when sending data back via sendto().
         """

         def handle(self):
             data = self.request[0].strip()
             socket = self.request[1]
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(data)
             socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
         with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server:
             server.serve_forever()

This is the client side:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     # As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections.
     # Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto().
     sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
     received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

The output of the example should look exactly like for the TCP server
example.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Mixins,  Prev: socketserver UDPServer Example,  Up: Examples<27>

5.21.16.7 Asynchronous Mixins
.............................

To build asynchronous handlers, use the *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. and
*note ForkingMixIn: 9ed. classes.

An example for the *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee. class:

     import socket
     import threading
     import socketserver

     class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             cur_thread = threading.current_thread()
             response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii')
             self.request.sendall(response)

     class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer):
         pass

     def client(ip, port, message):
         with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
             sock.connect((ip, port))
             sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii'))
             response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             print("Received: {}".format(response))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0

         server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler)
         with server:
             ip, port = server.server_address

             # Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one
             # more thread for each request
             server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever)
             # Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates
             server_thread.daemon = True
             server_thread.start()
             print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name)

             client(ip, port, "Hello World 1")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 2")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 3")

             server.shutdown()

The output of the example should look something like this:

     $ python ThreadedTCPServer.py
     Server loop running in thread: Thread-1
     Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1
     Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2
     Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3

The *note ForkingMixIn: 9ed. class is used in the same way, except that
the server will spawn a new process for each request.  Available only on
POSIX platforms that support *note fork(): 23a.


File: python.info,  Node: http server — HTTP servers,  Next: http cookies — HTTP state management,  Prev: socketserver — A framework for network servers,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.17 ‘http.server’ — HTTP servers
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines classes for implementing HTTP servers.

     Uyarı: *note http.server: 70. is not recommended for production.
     It only implements *note basic security checks: 38a7.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

One class, *note HTTPServer: 36ad, is a *note socketserver.TCPServer:
11cb. subclass.  It creates and listens at the HTTP socket, dispatching
the requests to a handler.  Code to create and run the server looks like
this:

     def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler):
         server_address = ('', 8000)
         httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class)
         httpd.serve_forever()

 -- Sınıfı: http.server.HTTPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

     This class builds on the *note TCPServer: 11cb. class by storing
     the server address as instance variables named ‘server_name’ and
     ‘server_port’.  The server is accessible by the handler, typically
     through the handler’s ‘server’ instance variable.

 -- Sınıfı: http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     This class is identical to HTTPServer but uses threads to handle
     requests by using the *note ThreadingMixIn: 9ee.  This is useful to
     handle web browsers pre-opening sockets, on which *note HTTPServer:
     36ad. would wait indefinitely.

     Added in version 3.7.

The *note HTTPServer: 36ad. and *note ThreadingHTTPServer: 9b5. must be
given a 'RequestHandlerClass' on instantiation, of which this module
provides three different variants:

 -- Sınıfı: http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     This class is used to handle the HTTP requests that arrive at the
     server.  By itself, it cannot respond to any actual HTTP requests;
     it must be subclassed to handle each request method (e.g.  GET or
     POST). *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. provides a number of
     class and instance variables, and methods for use by subclasses.

     The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a
     method specific to the request type.  The method name is
     constructed from the request.  For example, for the request method
     ‘SPAM’, the ‘do_SPAM()’ method will be called with no arguments.
     All of the relevant information is stored in instance variables of
     the handler.  Subclasses should not need to override or extend the
     ‘__init__()’ method.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. has the following instance
     variables:

      -- Özniteliği: client_address

          Contains a tuple of the form ‘(host, port)’ referring to the
          client’s address.

      -- Özniteliği: server

          Contains the server instance.

      -- Özniteliği: close_connection

          Boolean that should be set before *note handle_one_request():
          38ab. returns, indicating if another request may be expected,
          or if the connection should be shut down.

      -- Özniteliği: requestline

          Contains the string representation of the HTTP request line.
          The terminating CRLF is stripped.  This attribute should be
          set by *note handle_one_request(): 38ab.  If no valid request
          line was processed, it should be set to the empty string.

      -- Özniteliği: command

          Contains the command (request type).  For example, ‘'GET'’.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          Contains the request path.  If query component of the URL is
          present, then ‘path’ includes the query.  Using the
          terminology of RFC 3986(2), ‘path’ here includes ‘hier-part’
          and the ‘query’.

      -- Özniteliği: request_version

          Contains the version string from the request.  For example,
          ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- Özniteliği: headers

          Holds an instance of the class specified by the *note
          MessageClass: 38b0. class variable.  This instance parses and
          manages the headers in the HTTP request.  The *note
          parse_headers(): 1889. function from *note http.client: 6d. is
          used to parse the headers and it requires that the HTTP
          request provide a valid RFC 2822(3) style header.

      -- Özniteliği: rfile

          An *note io.BufferedIOBase: 4a9. input stream, ready to read
          from the start of the optional input data.

      -- Özniteliği: wfile

          Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the
          client.  Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used
          when writing to this stream in order to achieve successful
          interoperation with HTTP clients.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: This is an *note io.BufferedIOBase:
          4a9. stream.

     *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. has the following attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: server_version

          Specifies the server software version.  You may want to
          override this.  The format is multiple whitespace-separated
          strings, where each string is of the form name[/version].  For
          example, ‘'BaseHTTP/0.2'’.

      -- Özniteliği: sys_version

          Contains the Python system version, in a form usable by the
          *note version_string: 38b5. method and the *note
          server_version: 38b3. class variable.  For example,
          ‘'Python/1.4'’.

      -- Özniteliği: error_message_format

          Specifies a format string that should be used by *note
          send_error(): df0. method for building an error response to
          the client.  The string is filled by default with variables
          from *note responses: 377c. based on the status code that
          passed to *note send_error(): df0.

      -- Özniteliği: error_content_type

          Specifies the Content-Type HTTP header of error responses sent
          to the client.  The default value is ‘'text/html'’.

      -- Özniteliği: protocol_version

          Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.
          It is sent in responses to let the client know the server’s
          communication capabilities for future requests.  If set to
          ‘'HTTP/1.1'’, the server will permit HTTP persistent
          connections; however, your server 'must' then include an
          accurate ‘Content-Length’ header (using *note send_header():
          38b9.) in all of its responses to clients.  For backwards
          compatibility, the setting defaults to ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- Özniteliği: MessageClass

          Specifies an *note email.message.Message: b1b.-like class to
          parse HTTP headers.  Typically, this is not overridden, and it
          defaults to *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3793.

      -- Özniteliği: responses

          This attribute contains a mapping of error code integers to
          two-element tuples containing a short and long message.  For
          example, ‘{code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}’.  The
          'shortmessage' is usually used as the 'message' key in an
          error response, and 'longmessage' as the 'explain' key.  It is
          used by *note send_response_only(): 38ba. and *note
          send_error(): df0. methods.

     A *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. instance has the following
     methods:

      -- Yöntemi: handle ()

          Calls *note handle_one_request(): 38ab. once (or, if
          persistent connections are enabled, multiple times) to handle
          incoming HTTP requests.  You should never need to override it;
          instead, implement appropriate ‘do_*()’ methods.

      -- Yöntemi: handle_one_request ()

          This method will parse and dispatch the request to the
          appropriate ‘do_*()’ method.  You should never need to
          override it.

      -- Yöntemi: handle_expect_100 ()

          When an HTTP/1.1 conformant server receives an ‘Expect:
          100-continue’ request header it responds back with a ‘100
          Continue’ followed by ‘200 OK’ headers.  This method can be
          overridden to raise an error if the server does not want the
          client to continue.  For e.g.  server can choose to send ‘417
          Expectation Failed’ as a response header and ‘return False’.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: send_error (code, message=None, explain=None)

          Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client.  The
          numeric 'code' specifies the HTTP error code, with 'message'
          as an optional, short, human readable description of the
          error.  The 'explain' argument can be used to provide more
          detailed information about the error; it will be formatted
          using the *note error_message_format: 38b6. attribute and
          emitted, after a complete set of headers, as the response
          body.  The *note responses: 377c. attribute holds the default
          values for 'message' and 'explain' that will be used if no
          value is provided; for unknown codes the default value for
          both is the string ‘???’.  The body will be empty if the
          method is HEAD or the response code is one of the following:
          ‘1XX’, ‘204 No Content’, ‘205 Reset Content’, ‘304 Not
          Modified’.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: The error response includes a
          Content-Length header.  Added the 'explain' argument.

      -- Yöntemi: send_response (code, message=None)

          Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the
          accepted request.  The HTTP response line is written to the
          internal buffer, followed by 'Server' and 'Date' headers.  The
          values for these two headers are picked up from the *note
          version_string(): 38b5. and *note date_time_string(): 38be.
          methods, respectively.  If the server does not intend to send
          any other headers using the *note send_header(): 38b9. method,
          then *note send_response(): 38bd. should be followed by an
          *note end_headers(): f6f. call.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Headers are stored to an internal
          buffer and *note end_headers(): f6f. needs to be called
          explicitly.

      -- Yöntemi: send_header (keyword, value)

          Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be
          written to the output stream when either *note end_headers():
          f6f. or *note flush_headers(): f70. is invoked.  'keyword'
          should specify the header keyword, with 'value' specifying its
          value.  Note that, after the send_header calls are done, *note
          end_headers(): f6f. MUST BE called in order to complete the
          operation.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Headers are stored in an internal
          buffer.

      -- Yöntemi: send_response_only (code, message=None)

          Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when
          ‘100 Continue’ response is sent by the server to the client.
          The headers not buffered and sent directly the output
          stream.If the 'message' is not specified, the HTTP message
          corresponding the response 'code' is sent.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: end_headers ()

          Adds a blank line (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in
          the response) to the headers buffer and calls *note
          flush_headers(): f70.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The buffered headers are written to the
          output stream.

      -- Yöntemi: flush_headers ()

          Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the
          internal headers buffer.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: log_request (code='-', size='-')

          Logs an accepted (successful) request.  'code' should specify
          the numeric HTTP code associated with the response.  If a size
          of the response is available, then it should be passed as the
          'size' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: log_error (...)

          Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled.  By default,
          it passes the message to *note log_message(): 38c1, so it
          takes the same arguments ('format' and additional values).

      -- Yöntemi: log_message (format, ...)

          Logs an arbitrary message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This is typically
          overridden to create custom error logging mechanisms.  The
          'format' argument is a standard printf-style format string,
          where the additional arguments to *note log_message(): 38c1.
          are applied as inputs to the formatting.  The client ip
          address and current date and time are prefixed to every
          message logged.

      -- Yöntemi: version_string ()

          Returns the server software’s version string.  This is a
          combination of the *note server_version: 38b3. and *note
          sys_version: 38b4. attributes.

      -- Yöntemi: date_time_string (timestamp=None)

          Returns the date and time given by 'timestamp' (which must be
          ‘None’ or in the format returned by *note time.time(): 94f.),
          formatted for a message header.  If 'timestamp' is omitted, it
          uses the current date and time.

          The result looks like ‘'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'’.

      -- Yöntemi: log_date_time_string ()

          Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging.

      -- Yöntemi: address_string ()

          Returns the client address.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Previously, a name lookup was
          performed.  To avoid name resolution delays, it now always
          returns the IP address.

 -- Sınıfı: http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server, directory=None)

     This class serves files from the directory 'directory' and below,
     or the current directory if 'directory' is not provided, directly
     mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'directory' parameter.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'directory' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

     A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base
     class *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e.  This class implements the
     *note do_GET(): 38c4. and *note do_HEAD(): 38c5. functions.

     The following are defined as class-level attributes of *note
     SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4.:

      -- Özniteliği: server_version

          This will be ‘"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__’, where
          ‘__version__’ is defined at the module level.

      -- Özniteliği: extensions_map

          A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types, contains custom
          overrides for the default system mappings.  The mapping is
          used case-insensitively, and so should contain only
          lower-cased keys.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: This dictionary is no longer filled
          with the default system mappings, but only contains overrides.

     The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. class defines the
     following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: do_HEAD ()

          This method serves the ‘'HEAD'’ request type: it sends the
          headers it would send for the equivalent ‘GET’ request.  See
          the *note do_GET(): 38c4. method for a more complete
          explanation of the possible headers.

      -- Yöntemi: do_GET ()

          The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the
          request as a path relative to the current working directory.

          If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is
          checked for a file named ‘index.html’ or ‘index.htm’ (in that
          order).  If found, the file’s contents are returned; otherwise
          a directory listing is generated by calling the
          ‘list_directory()’ method.  This method uses *note
          os.listdir(): f9c. to scan the directory, and returns a ‘404’
          error response if the *note listdir(): f9c. fails.

          If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened.  Any *note
          OSError: 65c. exception in opening the requested file is
          mapped to a ‘404’, ‘'File not found'’ error.  If there was an
          ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header in the request, and the file was
          not modified after this time, a ‘304’, ‘'Not Modified'’
          response is sent.  Otherwise, the content type is guessed by
          calling the ‘guess_type()’ method, which in turn uses the
          'extensions_map' variable, and the file contents are returned.

          A ‘'Content-type:'’ header with the guessed content type is
          output, followed by a ‘'Content-Length:'’ header with the
          file’s size and a ‘'Last-Modified:'’ header with the file’s
          modification time.

          Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers,
          and then the contents of the file are output.  If the file’s
          MIME type starts with ‘text/’ the file is opened in text mode;
          otherwise binary mode is used.

          For example usage, see the implementation of the ‘test’
          function in Lib/http/server.py(4).

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: Support of the ‘'If-Modified-Since'’
          header.

The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. class can be used in the
following manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files
relative to the current directory:

     import http.server
     import socketserver

     PORT = 8000

     Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
         print("serving at port", PORT)
         httpd.serve_forever()

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. can also be subclassed to enhance
behavior, such as using different index file names by overriding the
class attribute ‘index_pages’.

 -- Sınıfı: http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     This class is used to serve either files or output of CGI scripts
     from the current directory and below.  Note that mapping HTTP
     hierarchic structure to local directory structure is exactly as in
     *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4.

          Not: CGI scripts run by the *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 25a.
          class cannot execute redirects (HTTP code 302), because code
          200 (script output follows) is sent prior to execution of the
          CGI script.  This pre-empts the status code.

     The class will however, run the CGI script, instead of serving it
     as a file, if it guesses it to be a CGI script.  Only
     directory-based CGI are used — the other common server
     configuration is to treat special extensions as denoting CGI
     scripts.

     The ‘do_GET()’ and ‘do_HEAD()’ functions are modified to run CGI
     scripts and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the
     request leads to somewhere below the ‘cgi_directories’ path.

     The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 25a. defines the following data
     member:

      -- Özniteliği: cgi_directories

          This defaults to ‘['/cgi-bin', '/htbin']’ and describes
          directories to treat as containing CGI scripts.

     The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 25a. defines the following method:

      -- Yöntemi: do_POST ()

          This method serves the ‘'POST'’ request type, only allowed for
          CGI scripts.  Error 501, “Can only POST to CGI scripts”, is
          output when trying to POST to a non-CGI url.

     Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for
     security reasons.  Problems with the CGI script will be translated
     to error 403.

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.
* Security considerations: Security considerations<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/server.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<2>,  Next: Security considerations<3>,  Up: http server — HTTP servers

5.21.17.1 Command-line interface
................................

*note http.server: 70. can also be invoked directly using the *note -m:
3ec. switch of the interpreter.  The following example illustrates how
to serve files relative to the current directory:

     python -m http.server [OPTIONS] [port]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: port

     The server listens to port 8000 by default.  The default can be
     overridden by passing the desired port number as an argument:

          python -m http.server 9000

 -- Option: -b, --bind <address>

     Specifies a specific address to which it should bind.  Both IPv4
     and IPv6 addresses are supported.  By default, the server binds
     itself to all interfaces.  For example, the following command
     causes the server to bind to localhost only:

          python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Support IPv6 in the ‘--bind’ option.

 -- Option: -d, --directory <dir>

     Specifies a directory to which it should serve the files.  By
     default, the server uses the current directory.  For example, the
     following command uses a specific directory:

          python -m http.server --directory /tmp/

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: -p, --protocol <version>

     Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.  By
     default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0.  For example, the
     following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server:

          python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --cgi

     *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 25a. can be enabled in the command
     line by passing the ‘--cgi’ option:

          python -m http.server --cgi

     Uyarı: *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 25a. and the ‘--cgi’
     command-line option are not intended for use by untrusted clients
     and may be vulnerable to exploitation.  Always use within a secure
     environment.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations<3>,  Prev: Command-line interface<2>,  Up: http server — HTTP servers

5.21.17.2 Security considerations
.................................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 9b4. will follow symbolic links when
handling requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the
specified directory to be served.

Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the log
messages emitted to stderr from ‘python -m http.server’ or the default
*note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: f6e. ‘.log_message’ implementation.  This
could allow remote clients connecting to your server to send nefarious
control codes to your terminal.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Control characters are scrubbed in stderr logs.


File: python.info,  Node: http cookies — HTTP state management,  Next: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Prev: http server — HTTP servers,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.18 ‘http.cookies’ — HTTP state management
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/cookies.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note http.cookies: 6f. module defines classes for abstracting the
concept of cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism.  It supports
both simple string-only cookies, and provides an abstraction for having
any serializable data-type as cookie value.

The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the
RFC 2109(2) and RFC 2068(3) specifications.  It has since been
discovered that MSIE 3.0x didn’t follow the character rules outlined in
those specs; many current-day browsers and servers have also relaxed
parsing rules when it comes to cookie handling.  As a result, this
module now uses parsing rules that are a bit less strict than they once
were.

The character set, *note string.ascii_letters: 116c, *note
string.digits: 20b6. and ‘!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:’ denote the set of valid
characters allowed by this module in a cookie name (as *note key: a7a.).

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Allowed ‘:’ as a valid cookie name character.

     Not: On encountering an invalid cookie, *note CookieError: 38d6. is
     raised, so if your cookie data comes from a browser you should
     always prepare for invalid data and catch *note CookieError: 38d6.
     on parsing.

 -- Özel Durum: http.cookies.CookieError

     Exception failing because of RFC 2109(4) invalidity: incorrect
     attributes, incorrect ‘Set-Cookie’ header, etc.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookies.BaseCookie ([input])

     This class is a dictionary-like object whose keys are strings and
     whose values are *note Morsel: a7d. instances.  Note that upon
     setting a key to a value, the value is first converted to a *note
     Morsel: a7d. containing the key and the value.

     If 'input' is given, it is passed to the *note load(): 38d8.
     method.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookies.SimpleCookie ([input])

     This class derives from *note BaseCookie: 38d7. and overrides *note
     value_decode(): 38d9. and *note value_encode(): 38da.
     ‘SimpleCookie’ supports strings as cookie values.  When setting the
     value, ‘SimpleCookie’ calls the builtin *note str(): 15d. to
     convert the value to a string.  Values received from HTTP are kept
     as strings.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note http.cookiejar: 6e.

     HTTP cookie handling for web 'clients'.  The *note http.cookiejar:
     6e. and *note http.cookies: 6f. modules do not depend on each
     other.

RFC 2109(5) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     This is the state management specification implemented by this
     module.

* Menu:

* Cookie Objects::
* Morsel Objects::
* Example: Example<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/cookies.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2068.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie Objects,  Next: Morsel Objects,  Up: http cookies — HTTP state management

5.21.18.1 Cookie Objects
........................

 -- Yöntemi: BaseCookie.value_decode (val)

     Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’ from a string
     representation.  ‘real_value’ can be any type.  This method does no
     decoding in *note BaseCookie: 38d7. — it exists so it can be
     overridden.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseCookie.value_encode (val)

     Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’.  'val' can be any type,
     but ‘coded_value’ will always be converted to a string.  This
     method does no encoding in *note BaseCookie: 38d7. — it exists so
     it can be overridden.

     In general, it should be the case that *note value_encode(): 38da.
     and *note value_decode(): 38d9. are inverses on the range of
     'value_decode'.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseCookie.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:',
          sep='\r\n')

     Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers.
     'attrs' and 'header' are sent to each *note Morsel: a7d.’s *note
     output(): 38de. method.  'sep' is used to join the headers
     together, and is by default the combination ‘'\r\n'’ (CRLF).

 -- Yöntemi: BaseCookie.js_output (attrs=None)

     Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser
     which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP headers
     was sent.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 38dd.

 -- Yöntemi: BaseCookie.load (rawdata)

     If 'rawdata' is a string, parse it as an ‘HTTP_COOKIE’ and add the
     values found there as *note Morsel: a7d.s.  If it is a dictionary,
     it is equivalent to:

          for k, v in rawdata.items():
              cookie[k] = v


File: python.info,  Node: Morsel Objects,  Next: Example<12>,  Prev: Cookie Objects,  Up: http cookies — HTTP state management

5.21.18.2 Morsel Objects
........................

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookies.Morsel

     Abstract a key/value pair, which has some RFC 2109(1) attributes.

     Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant
     — the valid RFC 2109(2) attributes, which are:

           -- Özniteliği: expires
           -- Özniteliği: path
           -- Özniteliği: comment
           -- Özniteliği: domain

           -- Özniteliği: max-age
           -- Özniteliği: secure
           -- Özniteliği: version
           -- Özniteliği: httponly
           -- Özniteliği: samesite

     The attribute *note httponly: 1257. specifies that the cookie is
     only transferred in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through
     JavaScript.  This is intended to mitigate some forms of cross-site
     scripting.

     The attribute *note samesite: 38e8. specifies that the browser is
     not allowed to send the cookie along with cross-site requests.
     This helps to mitigate CSRF attacks.  Valid values for this
     attribute are “Strict” and “Lax”.

     The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is ‘''’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: ‘__eq__()’ now takes *note key: a7a. and
     *note value: a7b. into account.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Attributes *note key: a7a, *note value: a7b.
     and *note coded_value: a7c. are read-only.  Use *note set(): a7e.
     for setting them.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the *note samesite: 38e8.
     attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: Morsel.value

     The value of the cookie.

 -- Özniteliği: Morsel.coded_value

     The encoded value of the cookie — this is what should be sent.

 -- Özniteliği: Morsel.key

     The name of the cookie.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.set (key, value, coded_value)

     Set the 'key', 'value' and 'coded_value' attributes.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.isReservedKey (K)

     Whether 'K' is a member of the set of keys of a *note Morsel: a7d.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:')

     Return a string representation of the Morsel, suitable to be sent
     as an HTTP header.  By default, all the attributes are included,
     unless 'attrs' is given, in which case it should be a list of
     attributes to use.  'header' is by default ‘"Set-Cookie:"’.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.js_output (attrs=None)

     Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser
     which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP header
     was sent.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 38de.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.OutputString (attrs=None)

     Return a string representing the Morsel, without any surrounding
     HTTP or JavaScript.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 38de.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.update (values)

     Update the values in the Morsel dictionary with the values in the
     dictionary 'values'.  Raise an error if any of the keys in the
     'values' dict is not a valid RFC 2109(3) attribute.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: an error is raised for invalid keys.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.copy (value)

     Return a shallow copy of the Morsel object.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: return a Morsel object instead of a dict.

 -- Yöntemi: Morsel.setdefault (key, value=None)

     Raise an error if key is not a valid RFC 2109(4) attribute,
     otherwise behave the same as *note dict.setdefault(): f23.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Example<12>,  Prev: Morsel Objects,  Up: http cookies — HTTP state management

5.21.18.3 Example
.................

The following example demonstrates how to use the *note http.cookies:
6f. module.

     >>> from http import cookies
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["fig"] = "newton"
     >>> C["sugar"] = "wafer"
     >>> print(C) # generate HTTP headers
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> print(C.output()) # same thing
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["rocky"] = "road"
     >>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie"
     >>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie
     >>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # load from a string (HTTP header)
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
     Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=\\012;";')
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;"
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
     >>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["twix"] = "none for you"
     >>> C["twix"].value
     'none for you'
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["number"] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7)
     >>> C["string"] = "seven"
     >>> C["number"].value
     '7'
     >>> C["string"].value
     'seven'
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: number=7
     Set-Cookie: string=seven


File: python.info,  Node: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Next: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules,  Prev: http cookies — HTTP state management,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.19 ‘http.cookiejar’ — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/cookiejar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note http.cookiejar: 6e. module defines classes for automatic
handling of HTTP cookies.  It is useful for accessing web sites that
require small pieces of data – 'cookies' – to be set on the client
machine by an HTTP response from a web server, and then returned to the
server in later HTTP requests.

Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by
RFC 2965(2) are handled.  RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default.
RFC 2109(3) cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently
treated either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the ‘policy’
in effect.  Note that the great majority of cookies on the internet are
Netscape cookies.  *note http.cookiejar: 6e. attempts to follow the
de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which differs substantially from that
set out in the original Netscape specification), including taking note
of the ‘max-age’ and ‘port’ cookie-attributes introduced with RFC 2965.

     Not: The various named parameters found in ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers (eg.  ‘domain’ and ‘expires’) are
     conventionally referred to as 'attributes'.  To distinguish them
     from Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the
     term 'cookie-attribute' instead.

The module defines the following exception:

 -- Özel Durum: http.cookiejar.LoadError

     Instances of *note FileCookieJar: 38f2. raise this exception on
     failure to load cookies from a file.  *note LoadError: 38f1. is a
     subclass of *note OSError: 65c.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note LoadError: 38f1. used to be a subtype
     of *note IOError: efc, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

The following classes are provided:

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookiejar.CookieJar (policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 38f3.
     interface.

     The *note CookieJar: 371c. class stores HTTP cookies.  It extracts
     cookies from HTTP requests, and returns them in HTTP responses.
     *note CookieJar: 371c. instances automatically expire contained
     cookies when necessary.  Subclasses are also responsible for
     storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 38f3.
     interface.  For the other arguments, see the documentation for the
     corresponding attributes.

     A *note CookieJar: 371c. which can load cookies from, and perhaps
     save cookies to, a file on disk.  Cookies are 'NOT' loaded from the
     named file until either the *note load(): 38f4. or *note revert():
     38f5. method is called.  Subclasses of this class are documented in
     section *note FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web
     browsers: 38f6.

     This should not be initialized directly – use its subclasses below
     instead.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The filename parameter supports a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy

     This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should
     be accepted from / returned to the server.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy (blocked_domains=None,
          allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False,
          rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False,
          strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True,
          strict_ns_unverifiable=False,
          strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal,
          strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False,
          secure_protocols=('https', 'wss'))

     Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only.
     'blocked_domains' is a sequence of domain names that we never
     accept cookies from, nor return cookies to.  'allowed_domains' if
     not *note None: 488, this is a sequence of the only domains for
     which we accept and return cookies.  'secure_protocols' is a
     sequence of protocols for which secure cookies can be added to.  By
     default 'https' and 'wss' (secure websocket) are considered secure
     protocols.  For all other arguments, see the documentation for
     *note CookiePolicy: 38f3. and *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a.
     objects.

     *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a. implements the standard accept /
     reject rules for Netscape and RFC 2965(4) cookies.  By default, RFC
     2109(5) cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header
     with a version cookie-attribute of 1) are treated according to the
     RFC 2965 rules.  However, if RFC 2965 handling is turned off or
     *note rfc2109_as_netscape: 38f7. is ‘True’, RFC 2109 cookies are
     ‘downgraded’ by the *note CookieJar: 371c. instance to Netscape
     cookies, by setting the ‘version’ attribute of the *note Cookie:
     38f8. instance to 0.  *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a. also
     provides some parameters to allow some fine-tuning of policy.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookiejar.Cookie

     This class represents Netscape, RFC 2109(6) and RFC 2965(7)
     cookies.  It is not expected that users of *note http.cookiejar:
     6e. construct their own *note Cookie: 38f8. instances.  Instead, if
     necessary, call ‘make_cookies()’ on a *note CookieJar: 371c.
     instance.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note urllib.request: 10b.

     URL opening with automatic cookie handling.

Module *note http.cookies: 6f.

     HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code.  The
     *note http.cookiejar: 6e. and *note http.cookies: 6f. modules do
     not depend on each other.

‘https://curl.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html’

     The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol.  Though
     this is still the dominant protocol, the ‘Netscape cookie protocol’
     implemented by all the major browsers (and *note http.cookiejar:
     6e.) only bears a passing resemblance to the one sketched out in
     ‘cookie_spec.html’.

RFC 2109(8) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     Obsoleted by RFC 2965(9).  Uses ‘Set-Cookie’ with version=1.

RFC 2965(10) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed.  Uses ‘Set-Cookie2’ in
     place of ‘Set-Cookie’.  Not widely used.

‘https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html’

     Unfinished errata to RFC 2965(11).

RFC 2964(12) - Use of HTTP State Management

* Menu:

* CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy Objects::
* DefaultCookiePolicy Objects::
* Cookie Objects: Cookie Objects<2>.
* Examples: Examples<28>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/http/cookiejar.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2964.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects,  Next: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.21.19.1 CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
.............................................

*note CookieJar: 371c. objects support the *note iterator: 176e.
protocol for iterating over contained *note Cookie: 38f8. objects.

*note CookieJar: 371c. has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.add_cookie_header (request)

     Add correct ‘Cookie’ header to 'request'.

     If policy allows (ie.  the ‘rfc2965’ and ‘hide_cookie2’ attributes
     of the *note CookieJar: 371c.’s *note CookiePolicy: 38f3. instance
     are true and false respectively), the ‘Cookie2’ header is also
     added when appropriate.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: e7e.
     instance) must support the methods ‘get_full_url()’,
     ‘has_header()’, ‘get_header()’, ‘header_items()’,
     ‘add_unredirected_header()’ and the attributes ‘host’, ‘type’,
     ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’ as documented by *note
     urllib.request: 10b.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’
     attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.extract_cookies (response, request)

     Extract cookies from HTTP 'response' and store them in the *note
     CookieJar: 371c, where allowed by policy.

     The *note CookieJar: 371c. will look for allowable ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers in the 'response' argument, and store cookies
     as appropriate (subject to the *note CookiePolicy.set_ok(): 38fd.
     method’s approval).

     The 'response' object (usually the result of a call to *note
     urllib.request.urlopen(): 286, or similar) should support an
     ‘info()’ method, which returns an *note email.message.Message: b1b.
     instance.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: e7e.
     instance) must support the method ‘get_full_url()’ and the
     attributes ‘host’, ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’, as
     documented by *note urllib.request: 10b.  The request is used to
     set default values for cookie-attributes as well as for checking
     that the cookie is allowed to be set.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’
     attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.set_policy (policy)

     Set the *note CookiePolicy: 38f3. instance to be used.

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.make_cookies (response, request)

     Return sequence of *note Cookie: 38f8. objects extracted from
     'response' object.

     See the documentation for *note extract_cookies(): 38fc. for the
     interfaces required of the 'response' and 'request' arguments.

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok (cookie, request)

     Set a *note Cookie: 38f8. if policy says it’s OK to do so.

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.set_cookie (cookie)

     Set a *note Cookie: 38f8, without checking with policy to see
     whether or not it should be set.

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.clear ([domain[, path[, name]]])

     Clear some cookies.

     If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies.  If given a single
     argument, only cookies belonging to that 'domain' will be removed.
     If given two arguments, cookies belonging to the specified 'domain'
     and URL 'path' are removed.  If given three arguments, then the
     cookie with the specified 'domain', 'path' and 'name' is removed.

     Raises *note KeyError: 903. if no matching cookie exists.

 -- Yöntemi: CookieJar.clear_session_cookies ()

     Discard all session cookies.

     Discards all contained cookies that have a true ‘discard’ attribute
     (usually because they had either no ‘max-age’ or ‘expires’
     cookie-attribute, or an explicit ‘discard’ cookie-attribute).  For
     interactive browsers, the end of a session usually corresponds to
     closing the browser window.

     Note that the ‘save()’ method won’t save session cookies anyway,
     unless you ask otherwise by passing a true 'ignore_discard'
     argument.

*note FileCookieJar: 38f2. implements the following additional methods:

 -- Yöntemi: FileCookieJar.save (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Save cookies to a file.

     This base class raises *note NotImplementedError: bd6.  Subclasses
     may leave this method unimplemented.

     'filename' is the name of file in which to save cookies.  If
     'filename' is not specified, ‘self.filename’ is used (whose default
     is the value passed to the constructor, if any); if ‘self.filename’
     is *note None: 488, *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

     'ignore_discard': save even cookies set to be discarded.
     'ignore_expires': save even cookies that have expired

     The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the
     cookies it contains.  Saved cookies can be restored later using the
     *note load(): 38f4. or *note revert(): 38f5. methods.

 -- Yöntemi: FileCookieJar.load (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Load cookies from a file.

     Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones.

     Arguments are as for *note save(): 3904.

     The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or
     *note LoadError: 38f1. will be raised.  Also, *note OSError: 65c.
     may be raised, for example if the file does not exist.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note IOError: efc. used to be raised, it is
     now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Yöntemi: FileCookieJar.revert (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file.

     *note revert(): 38f5. can raise the same exceptions as *note
     load(): 38f4.  If there is a failure, the object’s state will not
     be altered.

*note FileCookieJar: 38f2. instances have the following public
attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: FileCookieJar.filename

     Filename of default file in which to keep cookies.  This attribute
     may be assigned to.

 -- Özniteliği: FileCookieJar.delayload

     If true, load cookies lazily from disk.  This attribute should not
     be assigned to.  This is only a hint, since this only affects
     performance, not behaviour (unless the cookies on disk are
     changing).  A *note CookieJar: 371c. object may ignore it.  None of
     the *note FileCookieJar: 38f2. classes included in the standard
     library lazily loads cookies.


File: python.info,  Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Next: CookiePolicy Objects,  Prev: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.21.19.2 FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
.....................................................................

The following *note CookieJar: 371c. subclasses are provided for reading
and writing.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar (filename=None,
          delayload=None, policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 38f2. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in the Mozilla ‘cookies.txt’ file format (which is also used
     by curl and the Lynx and Netscape browsers).

          Not: This loses information about RFC 2965(1) cookies, and
          also about newer or non-standard cookie-attributes such as
          ‘port’.

          Uyarı: Back up your cookies before saving if you have cookies
          whose loss / corruption would be inconvenient (there are some
          subtleties which may lead to slight changes in the file over a
          load / save round-trip).

     Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get
     clobbered by Mozilla.

 -- Sınıfı: http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 38f2. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in format compatible with the libwww-perl library’s
     ‘Set-Cookie3’ file format.  This is convenient if you want to store
     cookies in a human-readable file.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The filename parameter supports a *note
     path-like object: 98e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookiePolicy Objects,  Next: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Prev: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.21.19.3 CookiePolicy Objects
..............................

Objects implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 38f3. interface have the
following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: CookiePolicy.set_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted
     from server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 38f8. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.extract_cookies(): 38fc.

 -- Yöntemi: CookiePolicy.return_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned
     to server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 38f8. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.add_cookie_header(): 38fb.

 -- Yöntemi: CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok (domain, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     domain.

     This method is an optimization.  It removes the need for checking
     every cookie with a particular domain (which might involve reading
     many files).  Returning true from *note domain_return_ok(): 390d.
     and *note path_return_ok(): 390e. leaves all the work to *note
     return_ok(): 390c.

     If *note domain_return_ok(): 390d. returns true for the cookie
     domain, *note path_return_ok(): 390e. is called for the cookie
     path.  Otherwise, *note path_return_ok(): 390e. and *note
     return_ok(): 390c. are never called for that cookie domain.  If
     *note path_return_ok(): 390e. returns true, *note return_ok():
     390c. is called with the *note Cookie: 38f8. object itself for a
     full check.  Otherwise, *note return_ok(): 390c. is never called
     for that cookie path.

     Note that *note domain_return_ok(): 390d. is called for every
     'cookie' domain, not just for the 'request' domain.  For example,
     the function might be called with both ‘".example.com"’ and
     ‘"www.example.com"’ if the request domain is ‘"www.example.com"’.
     The same goes for *note path_return_ok(): 390e.

     The 'request' argument is as documented for *note return_ok():
     390c.

 -- Yöntemi: CookiePolicy.path_return_ok (path, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     path.

     See the documentation for *note domain_return_ok(): 390d.

In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the
*note CookiePolicy: 38f3. interface must also supply the following
attributes, indicating which protocols should be used, and how.  All of
these attributes may be assigned to.

 -- Özniteliği: CookiePolicy.netscape

     Implement Netscape protocol.

 -- Özniteliği: CookiePolicy.rfc2965

     Implement RFC 2965(1) protocol.

 -- Özniteliği: CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2

     Don’t add ‘Cookie2’ header to requests (the presence of this header
     indicates to the server that we understand RFC 2965(2) cookies).

The most useful way to define a *note CookiePolicy: 38f3. class is by
subclassing from *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a. and overriding some or
all of the methods above.  *note CookiePolicy: 38f3. itself may be used
as a ‘null policy’ to allow setting and receiving any and all cookies
(this is unlikely to be useful).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Next: Cookie Objects<2>,  Prev: CookiePolicy Objects,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.21.19.4 DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
.....................................

Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.

Both RFC 2965(1) and Netscape cookies are covered.  RFC 2965 handling is
switched off by default.

The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and
call its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your
own additional checks:

     import http.cookiejar
     class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy):
         def set_ok(self, cookie, request):
             if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request):
                 return False
             if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie):
                 return False
             return True

In addition to the features required to implement the *note
CookiePolicy: 38f3. interface, this class allows you to block and allow
domains from setting and receiving cookies.  There are also some
strictness switches that allow you to tighten up the rather loose
Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of blocking some
benign cookies).

A domain blocklist and allowlist is provided (both off by default).
Only domains not in the blocklist and present in the allowlist (if the
allowlist is active) participate in cookie setting and returning.  Use
the 'blocked_domains' constructor argument, and ‘blocked_domains()’ and
‘set_blocked_domains()’ methods (and the corresponding argument and
methods for 'allowed_domains').  If you set an allowlist, you can turn
it off again by setting it to *note None: 488.

Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal
the cookie domain to be matched.  For example, ‘"example.com"’ matches a
blocklist entry of ‘"example.com"’, but ‘"www.example.com"’ does not.
Domains that do start with a dot are matched by more specific domains
too.  For example, both ‘"www.example.com"’ and
‘"www.coyote.example.com"’ match ‘".example.com"’ (but ‘"example.com"’
itself does not).  IP addresses are an exception, and must match
exactly.  For example, if blocked_domains contains ‘"192.168.1.2"’ and
‘".168.1.2"’, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a. implements the following additional
methods:

 -- Yöntemi: DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains ()

     Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple).

 -- Yöntemi: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains (blocked_domains)

     Set the sequence of blocked domains.

 -- Yöntemi: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is on the blocklist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

 -- Yöntemi: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains ()

     Return *note None: 488, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a
     tuple).

 -- Yöntemi: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains (allowed_domains)

     Set the sequence of allowed domains, or *note None: 488.

 -- Yöntemi: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is not on the allowlist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a. instances have the following
attributes, which are all initialised from the constructor arguments of
the same name, and which may all be assigned to.

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape

     If true, request that the *note CookieJar: 371c. instance downgrade
     RFC 2109(2) cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header
     with a version cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by
     setting the version attribute of the *note Cookie: 38f8. instance
     to 0.  The default value is *note None: 488, in which case RFC 2109
     cookies are downgraded if and only if RFC 2965(3) handling is
     turned off.  Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.

General strictness switches:

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain

     Don’t allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code
     top-level domains like ‘.co.uk’, ‘.gov.uk’, ‘.co.nz’.etc.  This is
     far from perfect and isn’t guaranteed to work!

RFC 2965(4) protocol strictness switches:

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable

     Follow RFC 2965(5) rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an
     unverifiable transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a
     request for an image hosted on another site).  If this is false,
     cookies are 'never' blocked on the basis of verifiability

Netscape protocol strictness switches:

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable

     Apply RFC 2965(6) rules on unverifiable transactions even to
     Netscape cookies.

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain

     Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for
     Netscape cookies.  See below for acceptable values.

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar

     Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with
     ‘'$'’.

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path

     Don’t allow setting cookies whose path doesn’t path-match request
     URI.

‘strict_ns_domain’ is a collection of flags.  Its value is constructed
by or-ing together (for example,
‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’ means both flags are set).

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots

     When setting cookies, the ‘host prefix’ must not contain a dot (eg.
     ‘www.foo.bar.com’ can’t set a cookie for ‘.bar.com’, because
     ‘www.foo’ contains a dot).

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain

     Cookies that did not explicitly specify a ‘domain’ cookie-attribute
     can only be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the
     cookie (eg.  ‘spam.example.com’ won’t be returned cookies from
     ‘example.com’ that had no ‘domain’ cookie-attribute).

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match

     When setting cookies, require a full RFC 2965(7) domain-match.

The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most
useful combinations of the above flags:

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal

     Equivalent to 0 (ie.  all of the above Netscape domain strictness
     flags switched off).

 -- Özniteliği: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict

     Equivalent to ‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie Objects<2>,  Next: Examples<28>,  Prev: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.21.19.5 Cookie Objects
........................

*note Cookie: 38f8. instances have Python attributes roughly
corresponding to the standard cookie-attributes specified in the various
cookie standards.  The correspondence is not one-to-one, because there
are complicated rules for assigning default values, because the
‘max-age’ and ‘expires’ cookie-attributes contain equivalent
information, and because RFC 2109(1) cookies may be ‘downgraded’ by
*note http.cookiejar: 6e. from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape)
cookies.

Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in
rare circumstances in a *note CookiePolicy: 38f3. method.  The class
does not enforce internal consistency, so you should know what you’re
doing if you do that.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.version

     Integer or *note None: 488.  Netscape cookies have *note version:
     3926. 0.  RFC 2965(2) and RFC 2109(3) cookies have a ‘version’
     cookie-attribute of 1.  However, note that *note http.cookiejar:
     6e. may ‘downgrade’ RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which
     case *note version: 3926. is 0.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.name

     Cookie name (a string).

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.value

     Cookie value (a string), or *note None: 488.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.port

     String representing a port or a set of ports (eg.  ‘80’, or
     ‘80,8080’), or *note None: 488.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.domain

     Cookie domain (a string).

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.path

     Cookie path (a string, eg.  ‘'/acme/rocket_launchers'’).

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.secure

     ‘True’ if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.expires

     Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or *note None: 488.
     See also the *note is_expired(): 392e. method.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.discard

     ‘True’ if this is a session cookie.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.comment

     String comment from the server explaining the function of this
     cookie, or *note None: 488.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.comment_url

     URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of
     this cookie, or *note None: 488.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.rfc2109

     ‘True’ if this cookie was received as an RFC 2109(4) cookie (ie.
     the cookie arrived in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header, and the value of the
     Version cookie-attribute in that header was 1).  This attribute is
     provided because *note http.cookiejar: 6e. may ‘downgrade’ RFC 2109
     cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case *note version: 3926. is
     0.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.port_specified

     ‘True’ if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the
     server (in the ‘Set-Cookie’ / ‘Set-Cookie2’ header).

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.domain_specified

     ‘True’ if a domain was explicitly specified by the server.

 -- Özniteliği: Cookie.domain_initial_dot

     ‘True’ if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with
     a dot (‘'.'’).

Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes.  These may
be accessed using the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr (name)

     Return ‘True’ if cookie has the named cookie-attribute.

 -- Yöntemi: Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr (name, default=None)

     If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value.
     Otherwise, return 'default'.

 -- Yöntemi: Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr (name, value)

     Set the value of the named cookie-attribute.

The *note Cookie: 38f8. class also defines the following method:

 -- Yöntemi: Cookie.is_expired (now=None)

     ‘True’ if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested
     it should expire.  If 'now' is given (in seconds since the epoch),
     return whether the cookie has expired at the specified time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<28>,  Prev: Cookie Objects<2>,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.21.19.6 Examples
..................

The first example shows the most common usage of *note http.cookiejar:
6e.:

     import http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar()
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla,
or Lynx cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the
cookies file):

     import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar()
     cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt"))
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

The next example illustrates the use of *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 184a.
Turn on RFC 2965(1) cookies, be more strict about domains when setting
and returning Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting
cookies or having them returned:

     import urllib.request
     from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy
     policy = DefaultCookiePolicy(
         rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict,
         blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"])
     cj = CookieJar(policy)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules,  Next: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access,  Prev: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.20 ‘xmlrpc’ — XMLRPC server and client modules
---------------------------------------------------

XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP
as a transport.  With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a
remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured
data.

‘xmlrpc’ is a package that collects server and client modules
implementing XML-RPC. The modules are:

   * *note xmlrpc.client: 12e.

   * *note xmlrpc.server: 12f.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access,  Next: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers,  Prev: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.21 ‘xmlrpc.client’ — XML-RPC client access
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via
HTTP(S) as a transport.  With it, a client can call methods with
parameters on a remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get
back structured data.  This module supports writing XML-RPC client code;
it handles all the details of translating between conformable Python
objects and XML on the wire.

     Uyarı: The *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: For HTTPS URIs, *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. now
performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks by default.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy (uri, transport=None,
          encoding=None, verbose=False, allow_none=False,
          use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False, *, headers=(),
          context=None)

     A *note ServerProxy: 8ba. instance is an object that manages
     communication with a remote XML-RPC server.  The required first
     argument is a URI (Uniform Resource Indicator), and will normally
     be the URL of the server.  The optional second argument is a
     transport factory instance; by default it is an internal
     ‘SafeTransport’ instance for https: URLs and an internal HTTP
     ‘Transport’ instance otherwise.  The optional third argument is an
     encoding, by default UTF-8.  The optional fourth argument is a
     debugging flag.

     The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy
     instance.  If 'allow_none' is true, the Python constant ‘None’ will
     be translated into XML; the default behaviour is for ‘None’ to
     raise a *note TypeError: 2c4.  This is a commonly used extension to
     the XML-RPC specification, but isn’t supported by all clients and
     servers; see http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php(2) for a
     description.  The 'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause
     date/time values to be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 22b.
     objects and binary data to be presented as *note bytes: 2cb.
     objects; this flag is false by default.  *note datetime.datetime:
     22b, *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca. objects may be
     passed to calls.  The 'headers' parameter is an optional sequence
     of HTTP headers to send with each request, expressed as a sequence
     of 2-tuples representing the header name and value.  (e.g.
     ‘[('Header-Name', 'value')]’).  If an HTTPS URL is provided,
     'context' may be *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. and configures the SSL
     settings of the underlying HTTPS connection.  The obsolete
     'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types' but it
     applies only to date/time values.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'headers' parameter was added.

     Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension
     for HTTP Basic Authentication: ‘http://user:pass@host:port/path’.
     The ‘user:pass’ portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP
     ‘Authorization’ header, and sent to the remote server as part of
     the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC method.  You only
     need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic
     Authentication user and password.

     The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be
     used to invoke corresponding RPC calls on the remote server.  If
     the remote server supports the introspection API, the proxy can
     also be used to query the remote server for the methods it supports
     (service discovery) and fetch other server-associated metadata.

     Types that are conformable (e.g.  that can be marshalled through
     XML), include the following (and except where noted, they are
     unmarshalled as the same Python type):

     XML-RPC type               Python type
                                
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
     ‘boolean’                  *note bool: 183.
                                
                                
     ‘int’, ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i4’,   *note int: 184. in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
     ‘i8’ or ‘biginteger’       Values get the ‘<int>’ tag.
                                
                                
     ‘double’ or ‘float’        *note float: 272.  Values get the ‘<double>’ tag.
                                
                                
     ‘string’                   *note str: 15d.
                                
                                
     ‘array’                    *note list: 422. or *note tuple: 4ff. containing
                                conformable elements.  Arrays are returned as
                                *note lists: 422.
                                
                                
     ‘struct’                   *note dict: 240.  Keys must be strings, values may be any
                                conformable type.  Objects of user-defined classes can be
                                passed in; only their *note __dict__: 2ec. attribute is
                                transmitted.
                                
                                
     ‘dateTime.iso8601’         *note DateTime: 126a. or *note datetime.datetime: 22b.
                                Returned type depends on values of 'use_builtin_types'
                                and 'use_datetime' flags.
                                
                                
     ‘base64’                   *note Binary: 393e, *note bytes: 2cb. or
                                *note bytearray: 2ca.  Returned type depends on the value
                                of the 'use_builtin_types' flag.
                                
                                
     ‘nil’                      The ‘None’ constant.  Passing is allowed only if
                                'allow_none' is true.
                                
                                
     ‘bigdecimal’               *note decimal.Decimal: 609.  Returned type only.
                                

     This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC. Method
     calls may also raise a special *note Fault: 393f. instance, used to
     signal XML-RPC server errors, or *note ProtocolError: 3940. used to
     signal an error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer.  Both *note
     Fault: 393f. and *note ProtocolError: 3940. derive from a base
     class called ‘Error’.  Note that the xmlrpc client module currently
     does not marshal instances of subclasses of built-in types.

     When passing strings, characters special to XML such as ‘<’, ‘>’,
     and ‘&’ will be automatically escaped.  However, it’s the caller’s
     responsibility to ensure that the string is free of characters that
     aren’t allowed in XML, such as the control characters with ASCII
     values between 0 and 31 (except, of course, tab, newline and
     carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC
     request that isn’t well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary
     bytes via XML-RPC, use *note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca.
     classes or the *note Binary: 393e. wrapper class described below.

     ‘Server’ is retained as an alias for *note ServerProxy: 8ba. for
     backwards compatibility.  New code should use *note ServerProxy:
     8ba.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'context' argument.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support of type tags with prefixes
     (e.g.  ‘ex:nil’).  Added support of unmarshalling additional types
     used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics: ‘i1’, ‘i2’,
     ‘i8’, ‘biginteger’, ‘float’ and ‘bigdecimal’.  See
     ‘https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html’ for a description.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

XML-RPC HOWTO(3)

     A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in
     several languages.  Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC
     client developer needs to know.

XML-RPC Introspection(4)

     Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.

XML-RPC Specification(5)

     The official specification.

* Menu:

* ServerProxy Objects::
* DateTime Objects::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError Objects::
* MultiCall Objects::
* Convenience Functions::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php

   (3) https://tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html

   (4) https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html

   (5) http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html


File: python.info,  Node: ServerProxy Objects,  Next: DateTime Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.1 ServerProxy Objects
.............................

A *note ServerProxy: 8ba. instance has a method corresponding to each
remote procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server.  Calling the
method performs an RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature
(e.g.  the same method name can be overloaded with multiple argument
signatures).  The RPC finishes by returning a value, which may be either
returned data in a conformant type or a *note Fault: 393f. or *note
ProtocolError: 3940. object indicating an error.

Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common
methods grouped under the reserved ‘system’ attribute:

 -- Yöntemi: ServerProxy.system.listMethods ()

     This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system)
     method supported by the XML-RPC server.

 -- Yöntemi: ServerProxy.system.methodSignature (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns an array of possible signatures
     for this method.  A signature is an array of types.  The first of
     these types is the return type of the method, the rest are
     parameters.

     Because multiple signatures (ie.  overloading) is permitted, this
     method returns a list of signatures rather than a singleton.

     Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters
     expected by a method.  For instance if a method expects one array
     of structs as a parameter, and it returns a string, its signature
     is simply “string, array”.  If it expects three integers and
     returns a string, its signature is “string, int, int, int”.

     If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is
     returned.  In Python this means that the type of the returned value
     will be something other than list.

 -- Yöntemi: ServerProxy.system.methodHelp (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns a documentation string
     describing the use of that method.  If no such string is available,
     an empty string is returned.  The documentation string may contain
     HTML markup.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Instances of *note ServerProxy: 8ba. support the
*note context manager: 3df. protocol for closing the underlying
transport.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def is_even(n):
         return n % 2 == 0

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(is_even, "is_even")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy:
         print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3)))
         print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))


File: python.info,  Node: DateTime Objects,  Next: Binary Objects,  Prev: ServerProxy Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.2 DateTime Objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.client.DateTime

     This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time
     tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a *note datetime.datetime:
     22b. instance.  It has the following methods, supported mainly for
     internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- Yöntemi: decode (string)

          Accept a string as the instance’s new time value.

      -- Yöntemi: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC encoding of this *note DateTime: 126a. item
          to the 'out' stream object.

     It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through
     *note rich comparison: 1148. and *note __repr__(): 42e. methods.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     import datetime
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def today():
         today = datetime.datetime.today()
         return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(today, "today")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client
     import datetime

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")

     today = proxy.today()
     # convert the ISO8601 string to a datetime object
     converted = datetime.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
     print("Today: %s" % converted.strftime("%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M"))


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Objects,  Next: Fault Objects,  Prev: DateTime Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.3 Binary Objects
........................

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.client.Binary

     This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include
     NULs).  The primary access to the content of a *note Binary: 393e.
     object is provided by an attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: data

          The binary data encapsulated by the *note Binary: 393e.
          instance.  The data is provided as a *note bytes: 2cb. object.

     *note Binary: 393e. objects have the following methods, supported
     mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- Yöntemi: decode (bytes)

          Accept a base64 *note bytes: 2cb. object and decode it as the
          instance’s new data.

      -- Yöntemi: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the
          'out' stream object.

          The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per
          RFC 2045 section 6.8(1), which was the de facto standard
          base64 specification when the XML-RPC spec was written.

     It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through
     *note __eq__(): 968. and *note __ne__(): 13a5. methods.

Example usage of the binary objects.  We’re going to transfer an image
over XMLRPC:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def python_logo():
         with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle:
             return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read())

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo')

     server.serve_forever()

The client gets the image and saves it to a file:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle:
         handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8


File: python.info,  Node: Fault Objects,  Next: ProtocolError Objects,  Prev: Binary Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.4 Fault Objects
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.client.Fault

     A *note Fault: 393f. object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC
     fault tag.  Fault objects have the following attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: faultCode

          An int indicating the fault type.

      -- Özniteliği: faultString

          A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the
          fault.

In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a *note
Fault: 393f. by returning a complex type object.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     # A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a
     # complex number
     def add(x, y):
         return x+y+0j

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(add, 'add')

     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     try:
         proxy.add(2, 5)
     except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err:
         print("A fault occurred")
         print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode)
         print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)


File: python.info,  Node: ProtocolError Objects,  Next: MultiCall Objects,  Prev: Fault Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.5 ProtocolError Objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError

     A *note ProtocolError: 3940. object describes a protocol error in
     the underlying transport layer (such as a 404 ‘not found’ error if
     the server named by the URI does not exist).  It has the following
     attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: url

          The URI or URL that triggered the error.

      -- Özniteliği: errcode

          The error code.

      -- Özniteliği: errmsg

          The error message or diagnostic string.

      -- Özniteliği: headers

          A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that
          triggered the error.

In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a *note
ProtocolError: 3940. by providing an invalid URI:

     import xmlrpc.client

     # create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests
     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/")

     try:
         proxy.some_method()
     except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err:
         print("A protocol error occurred")
         print("URL: %s" % err.url)
         print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers)
         print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode)
         print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)


File: python.info,  Node: MultiCall Objects,  Next: Convenience Functions,  Prev: ProtocolError Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.6 MultiCall Objects
...........................

The *note MultiCall: 395a. object provides a way to encapsulate multiple
calls to a remote server into a single request (1).

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.client.MultiCall (server)

     Create an object used to boxcar method calls.  'server' is the
     eventual target of the call.  Calls can be made to the result
     object, but they will immediately return ‘None’, and only store the
     call name and parameters in the *note MultiCall: 395a. object.
     Calling the object itself causes all stored calls to be transmitted
     as a single ‘system.multicall’ request.  The result of this call is
     a *note generator: f0b.; iterating over this generator yields the
     individual results.

A usage example of this class follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def add(x, y):
         return x + y

     def subtract(x, y):
         return x - y

     def multiply(x, y):
         return x * y

     def divide(x, y):
         return x // y

     # A simple server with simple arithmetic functions
     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_multicall_functions()
     server.register_function(add, 'add')
     server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract')
     server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply')
     server.register_function(divide, 'divide')
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy)
     multicall.add(7, 3)
     multicall.subtract(7, 3)
     multicall.multiply(7, 3)
     multicall.divide(7, 3)
     result = multicall()

     print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This approach has been first presented in a discussion on
xmlrpc.com
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic).


File: python.info,  Node: Convenience Functions,  Next: Example of Client Usage,  Prev: MultiCall Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.7 Convenience Functions
...............................

 -- Işlevi: xmlrpc.client.dumps (params, methodname=None,
          methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)

     Convert 'params' into an XML-RPC request.  or into a response if
     'methodresponse' is true.  'params' can be either a tuple of
     arguments or an instance of the *note Fault: 393f. exception class.
     If 'methodresponse' is true, only a single value can be returned,
     meaning that 'params' must be of length 1.  'encoding', if
     supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default
     is UTF-8.  Python’s *note None: 488. value cannot be used in
     standard XML-RPC; to allow using it via an extension, provide a
     true value for 'allow_none'.

 -- Işlevi: xmlrpc.client.loads (data, use_datetime=False,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a
     ‘(params, methodname)’.  'params' is a tuple of argument;
     'methodname' is a string, or ‘None’ if no method name is present in
     the packet.  If the XML-RPC packet represents a fault condition,
     this function will raise a *note Fault: 393f. exception.  The
     'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause date/time values to
     be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 22b. objects and binary
     data to be presented as *note bytes: 2cb. objects; this flag is
     false by default.

     The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types'
     but it applies only to date/time values.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client Usage,  Next: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: Convenience Functions,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.8 Example of Client Usage
.................................

     # simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification)
     from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error

     # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server
     with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy:

         print(proxy)

         try:
             print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41))
         except Error as v:
             print("ERROR", v)

To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a
custom transport.  The following example shows how:

     import http.client
     import xmlrpc.client

     class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport):

         def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None):
             self.proxy = host, port
             self.proxy_headers = headers

         def make_connection(self, host):
             connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy)
             connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers)
             self._connection = host, connection
             return connection

     transport = ProxiedTransport()
     transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080)
     server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport)
     print(server.examples.getStateName(41))


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: Example of Client Usage,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.21.21.9 Example of Client and Server Usage
............................................

See *note SimpleXMLRPCServer Example: 3960.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers,  Next: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library,  Prev: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.22 ‘xmlrpc.server’ — Basic XML-RPC servers
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. module provides a basic server framework
for XML-RPC servers written in Python.  Servers can either be free
standing, using *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3963, or embedded in a CGI
environment, using *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3964.

     Uyarı: The *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data see *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new server instance.  This class provides methods for
     registration of functions that can be called by the XML-RPC
     protocol.  The 'requestHandler' parameter should be a factory for
     request handler instances; it defaults to *note
     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 11d3.  The 'addr' and 'requestHandler'
     parameters are passed to the *note socketserver.TCPServer: 11cb.
     constructor.  If 'logRequests' is true (the default), requests will
     be logged; setting this parameter to false will turn off logging.
     The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed on to *note
     xmlrpc.client: 12e. and control the XML-RPC responses that will be
     returned from the server.  The 'bind_and_activate' parameter
     controls whether ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ are called
     immediately by the constructor; it defaults to true.  Setting it to
     false allows code to manipulate the 'allow_reuse_address' class
     variable before the address is bound.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 12bf. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (allow_none=False,
          encoding=None, use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.  The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed
     on to *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. and control the XML-RPC responses
     that will be returned from the server.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 12bf. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports ‘POST’ requests and modifies logging so that the
     'logRequests' parameter to the *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3963.
     constructor parameter is honored.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer Objects::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects,  Next: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.21.22.1 SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects
....................................

The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3963. class is based on *note
socketserver.TCPServer: 11cb. and provides a means of creating simple,
stand alone XML-RPC servers.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 117e. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 117e. will be used.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note register_function(): 3967. can be used
     as a decorator.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance (instance,
          allow_dotted_names=False)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 3967.  If
     'instance' contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request.  Its API
     is ‘def _dispatch(self, method, params)’ (note that 'params' does
     not represent a variable argument list).  If it calls an underlying
     function to perform its task, that function is called as
     ‘func(*params)’, expanding the parameter list.  The return value
     from ‘_dispatch()’ is returned to the client as the result.  If
     'instance' does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for
     an attribute matching the name of the requested method.

     If the optional 'allow_dotted_names' argument is true and the
     instance does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, then if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

          Uyarı: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows
          intruders to access your module’s global variables and may
          allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine.
          Only use this option on a secure, closed network.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- Yöntemi: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC multicall function system.multicall.

 -- Özniteliği: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths

     An attribute value that must be a tuple listing valid path portions
     of the URL for receiving XML-RPC requests.  Requests posted to
     other paths will result in a 404 “no such page” HTTP error.  If
     this tuple is empty, all paths will be considered valid.  The
     default value is ‘('/', '/RPC2')’.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer Example::


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Example,  Up: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects

5.21.22.2 SimpleXMLRPCServer Example
....................................

Server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     # Restrict to a particular path.
     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     # Create server
     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y
         server.register_function(adder_function, 'add')

         # Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are
         # published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just 'mul').
         class MyFuncs:
             def mul(self, x, y):
                 return x * y

         server.register_instance(MyFuncs())

         # Run the server's main loop
         server.serve_forever()

The following client code will call the methods made available by the
preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000')
     print(s.pow(2,3))  # Returns 2**3 = 8
     print(s.add(2,3))  # Returns 5
     print(s.mul(5,2))  # Returns 5*2 = 10

     # Print list of available methods
     print(s.system.listMethods())

‘register_function()’ can also be used as a decorator.  The previous
server example can register functions in a decorator way:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name, using
         # register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given
         # as a keyword argument.
         @server.register_function(name='add')
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y

         # Register a function under function.__name__.
         @server.register_function
         def mul(x, y):
             return x * y

         server.serve_forever()

The following example included in the ‘Lib/xmlrpc/server.py’ module
shows a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall
function.

     Uyarı: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows intruders to
     access your module’s global variables and may allow intruders to
     execute arbitrary code on your machine.  Only use this example only
     within a secure, closed network.

     import datetime

     class ExampleService:
         def getData(self):
             return '42'

         class currentTime:
             @staticmethod
             def getCurrentTime():
                 return datetime.datetime.now()

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
         server.register_function(pow)
         server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
         server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True)
         server.register_multicall_functions()
         print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000')
         try:
             server.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.")
             sys.exit(0)

This ExampleService demo can be invoked from the command line:

     python -m xmlrpc.server

The client that interacts with the above server is included in
‘Lib/xmlrpc/client.py’:

     server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000")

     try:
         print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime())
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

     multi = MultiCall(server)
     multi.getData()
     multi.pow(2,9)
     multi.add(1,2)
     try:
         for response in multi():
             print(response)
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

This client which interacts with the demo XMLRPC server can be invoked
as:

     python -m xmlrpc.client


File: python.info,  Node: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Next: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Prev: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.21.22.3 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
.................................

The *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3964. class can be used to handle
XML-RPC requests sent to Python CGI scripts.

 -- Yöntemi: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 117e. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 117e. will be used.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note register_function(): 396e. can be used
     as a decorator.

 -- Yöntemi: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance (instance)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 396e.  If
     instance contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request; the
     return value is returned to the client as the result.  If instance
     does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for an
     attribute matching the name of the requested method; if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

 -- Yöntemi: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- Yöntemi: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC multicall function ‘system.multicall’.

 -- Yöntemi: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request (request_text=None)

     Handle an XML-RPC request.  If 'request_text' is given, it should
     be the POST data provided by the HTTP server, otherwise the
     contents of stdin will be used.

Example:

     class MyFuncs:
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y


     handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
     handler.register_function(pow)
     handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
     handler.register_introspection_functions()
     handler.register_instance(MyFuncs())
     handler.handle_request()


File: python.info,  Node: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Next: DocXMLRPCServer Objects,  Prev: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.21.22.4 Documenting XMLRPC server
...................................

These classes extend the above classes to serve HTML documentation in
response to HTTP GET requests.  Servers can either be free standing,
using *note DocXMLRPCServer: 17f0, or embedded in a CGI environment,
using *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3974.

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=True)

     Create a new server instance.  All parameters have the same meaning
     as for *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3963.; 'requestHandler' defaults
     to *note DocXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3975.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.

 -- Sınıfı: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports XML-RPC POST requests, documentation GET requests, and
     modifies logging so that the 'logRequests' parameter to the *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 17f0. constructor parameter is honored.


File: python.info,  Node: DocXMLRPCServer Objects,  Next: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.21.22.5 DocXMLRPCServer Objects
.................................

The *note DocXMLRPCServer: 17f0. class is derived from *note
SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3963. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, stand alone XML-RPC servers.  HTTP POST requests are
handled as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by
generating pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to
provide its own web-based documentation.

 -- Yöntemi: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML “title” element.

 -- Yöntemi: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a “h1”
     element.

 -- Yöntemi: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: DocXMLRPCServer Objects,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.21.22.6 DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
....................................

The *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3974. class is derived from *note
CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3964. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, XML-RPC CGI scripts.  HTTP POST requests are handled
as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by generating
pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to provide its own
web-based documentation.

 -- Yöntemi: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML “title” element.

 -- Yöntemi: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a “h1”
     element.

 -- Yöntemi: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library,  Prev: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers,  Up: Internet Protocols and Support

5.21.23 ‘ipaddress’ — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ipaddress.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note ipaddress: 7e. provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and
operate on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks.

The functions and classes in this module make it straightforward to
handle various tasks related to IP addresses, including checking whether
or not two hosts are on the same subnet, iterating over all hosts in a
particular subnet, checking whether or not a string represents a valid
IP address or network definition, and so on.

This is the full module API reference—for an overview and introduction,
see *note An introduction to the ipaddress module: 3981.

Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Convenience factory functions::
* IP Addresses::
* IP Network definitions::
* Interface objects::
* Other Module Level Functions::
* Custom Exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ipaddress.py


File: python.info,  Node: Convenience factory functions,  Next: IP Addresses,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.21.23.1 Convenience factory functions
.......................................

The *note ipaddress: 7e. module provides factory functions to
conveniently create IP addresses, networks and interfaces:

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.ip_address (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Address: 3984. or *note IPv6Address: 763.
     object depending on the IP address passed as argument.  Either IPv4
     or IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will
     be considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::')

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.ip_network (address, strict=True)

     Return an *note IPv4Network: 9bd. or *note IPv6Network: 9bc. object
     depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address' is a
     string or integer representing the IP network.  Either IPv4 or IPv6
     networks may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  'strict' is passed to *note
     IPv4Network: 9bd. or *note IPv6Network: 9bc. constructor.  A *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised if 'address' does not represent a valid
     IPv4 or IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28')
          IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28')

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.ip_interface (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Interface: 1631. or *note IPv6Interface: 1632.
     object depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address'
     is a string or integer representing the IP address.  Either IPv4 or
     IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 189. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

One downside of these convenience functions is that the need to handle
both IPv4 and IPv6 formats means that error messages provide minimal
information on the precise error, as the functions don’t know whether
the IPv4 or IPv6 format was intended.  More detailed error reporting can
be obtained by calling the appropriate version specific class
constructors directly.


File: python.info,  Node: IP Addresses,  Next: IP Network definitions,  Prev: Convenience factory functions,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.21.23.2 IP Addresses
......................

* Menu:

* Address objects::
* Conversion to Strings and Integers::
* Operators: Operators<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Address objects,  Next: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Up: IP Addresses

5.21.23.3 Address objects
.........................

The *note IPv4Address: 3984. and *note IPv6Address: 763. objects share a
lot of common attributes.  Some attributes that are only meaningful for
IPv6 addresses are also implemented by *note IPv4Address: 3984. objects,
in order to make it easier to write code that handles both IP versions
correctly.  Address objects are *note hashable: 421, so they can be used
as keys in dictionaries.

 -- Sınıfı: ipaddress.IPv4Address (address)

     Construct an IPv4 address.  An *note AddressValueError: 3989. is
     raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv4 address.

     The following constitutes a valid IPv4 address:

       1. A string in decimal-dot notation, consisting of four decimal
          integers in the inclusive range 0–255, separated by dots (e.g.
          ‘192.168.0.1’).  Each integer represents an octet (byte) in
          the address.  Leading zeroes are not tolerated to prevent
          confusion with octal notation.

       2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2cb. object of length 4
          (most significant octet first).

          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521)
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Leading zeros are tolerated, even in
     ambiguous cases that look like octal notation.

     3.9.5 sürümünde değişti: Leading zeros are no longer tolerated and
     are treated as an error.  IPv4 address strings are now parsed as
     strict as glibc *note inet_pton(): 7bd.

      -- Özniteliği: version

          The appropriate version number: ‘4’ for IPv4, ‘6’ for IPv6.

      -- Özniteliği: max_prefixlen

          The total number of bits in the address representation for
          this version: ‘32’ for IPv4, ‘128’ for IPv6.

          The prefix defines the number of leading bits in an address
          that are compared to determine whether or not an address is
          part of a network.

      -- Özniteliği: compressed

      -- Özniteliği: exploded

          The string representation in dotted decimal notation.  Leading
          zeroes are never included in the representation.

          As IPv4 does not define a shorthand notation for addresses
          with octets set to zero, these two attributes are always the
          same as ‘str(addr)’ for IPv4 addresses.  Exposing these
          attributes makes it easier to write display code that can
          handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.

      -- Özniteliği: packed

          The binary representation of this address - a *note bytes:
          2cb. object of the appropriate length (most significant octet
          first).  This is 4 bytes for IPv4 and 16 bytes for IPv6.

      -- Özniteliği: reverse_pointer

          The name of the reverse DNS PTR record for the IP address,
          e.g.:

               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa'

          This is the name that could be used for performing a PTR
          lookup, not the resolved hostname itself.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Özniteliği: is_multicast

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for multicast use.  See RFC
          3171(1) (for IPv4) or RFC 2373(2) (for IPv6).

      -- Özniteliği: is_private

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as not globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(3) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(4) (for IPv6) with the following
          exceptions:

             * ‘is_private’ is ‘False’ for the shared address space
               (‘100.64.0.0/10’)

             * For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
               determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4
               addresses and the following condition holds (see *note
               IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3991.):

                    address.is_private == address.ipv4_mapped.is_private

          ‘is_private’ has value opposite to *note is_global: dff,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          3.12.4 sürümünde değişti: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives.

             * ‘192.0.0.0/24’ is considered private with the exception
               of ‘192.0.0.9/32’ and ‘192.0.0.10/32’ (previously: only
               the ‘192.0.0.0/29’ sub-range was considered private).

             * ‘64:ff9b:1::/48’ is considered private.

             * ‘2002::/16’ is considered private.

             * There are exceptions within ‘2001::/23’ (otherwise
               considered private): ‘2001:1::1/128’, ‘2001:1::2/128’,
               ‘2001:3::/32’, ‘2001:4:112::/48’, ‘2001:20::/28’,
               ‘2001:30::/28’.  The exceptions are not considered
               private.

      -- Özniteliği: is_global

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(5) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(6) (for IPv6) with the following
          exception:

          For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
          determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses
          and the following condition holds (see *note
          IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3991.):

               address.is_global == address.ipv4_mapped.is_global

          ‘is_global’ has value opposite to *note is_private: 147c,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.4.

          3.12.4 sürümünde değişti: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives, see *note is_private: 147c. for details.

      -- Özniteliği: is_unspecified

          ‘True’ if the address is unspecified.  See RFC 5735(7) (for
          IPv4) or RFC 2373(8) (for IPv6).

      -- Özniteliği: is_reserved

          ‘True’ if the address is otherwise IETF reserved.

      -- Özniteliği: is_loopback

          ‘True’ if this is a loopback address.  See RFC 3330(9) (for
          IPv4) or RFC 2373(10) (for IPv6).

      -- Özniteliği: is_link_local

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for link-local usage.  See
          RFC 3927(11).

 -- Yöntemi: IPv4Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Returns a string representation of the IP address, controlled by an
     explicit format string.  'fmt' can be one of the following: ‘'s'’,
     the default option, equivalent to *note str(): 15d, ‘'b'’ for a
     zero-padded binary string, ‘'X'’ or ‘'x'’ for an uppercase or
     lowercase hexadecimal representation, or ‘'n'’, which is equivalent
     to ‘'b'’ for IPv4 addresses and ‘'x'’ for IPv6.  For binary and
     hexadecimal representations, the form specifier ‘'#'’ and the
     grouping option ‘'_'’ are available.  ‘__format__’ is used by
     ‘format’, ‘str.format’ and f-strings.

          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '192.168.0.1'
          >>> '{:#b}'.format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '0b11000000101010000000000000000001'
          >>> f'{ipaddress.IPv6Address("2001:db8::1000"):s}'
          '2001:db8::1000'
          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'), '_X')
          '2001_0DB8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'
          >>> '{:#_n}'.format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'))
          '0x2001_0db8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Sınıfı: ipaddress.IPv6Address (address)

     Construct an IPv6 address.  An *note AddressValueError: 3989. is
     raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv6 address.

     The following constitutes a valid IPv6 address:

       1. A string consisting of eight groups of four hexadecimal
          digits, each group representing 16 bits.  The groups are
          separated by colons.  This describes an 'exploded' (longhand)
          notation.  The string can also be 'compressed' (shorthand
          notation) by various means.  See RFC 4291(12) for details.
          For example, ‘"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"’ can
          be compressed to ‘"::abc:7:def"’.

          Optionally, the string may also have a scope zone ID,
          expressed with a suffix ‘%scope_id’.  If present, the scope ID
          must be non-empty, and may not contain ‘%’.  See RFC 4007(13)
          for details.  For example, ‘fe80::1234%1’ might identify
          address ‘fe80::1234’ on the first link of the node.

       2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2cb. object of length
          16, big-endian.

          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')
          IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')

      -- Özniteliği: compressed

     The short form of the address representation, with leading zeroes
     in groups omitted and the longest sequence of groups consisting
     entirely of zeroes collapsed to a single empty group.

     This is also the value returned by ‘str(addr)’ for IPv6 addresses.

      -- Özniteliği: exploded

     The long form of the address representation, with all leading
     zeroes and groups consisting entirely of zeroes included.

     For the following attributes and methods, see the corresponding
     documentation of the *note IPv4Address: 3984. class:

      -- Özniteliği: packed

      -- Özniteliği: reverse_pointer

      -- Özniteliği: version

      -- Özniteliği: max_prefixlen

      -- Özniteliği: is_multicast

      -- Özniteliği: is_private

      -- Özniteliği: is_global

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Özniteliği: is_unspecified

      -- Özniteliği: is_reserved

      -- Özniteliği: is_loopback

      -- Özniteliği: is_link_local

      -- Özniteliği: is_site_local

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for site-local usage.  Note
          that the site-local address space has been deprecated by RFC
          3879(14).  Use *note is_private: 147c. to test if this address
          is in the space of unique local addresses as defined by RFC
          4193(15).

      -- Özniteliği: ipv4_mapped

          For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses
          (starting with ‘::FFFF/96’), this property will report the
          embedded IPv4 address.  For any other address, this property
          will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: scope_id

          For scoped addresses as defined by RFC 4007(16), this property
          identifies the particular zone of the address’s scope that the
          address belongs to, as a string.  When no scope zone is
          specified, this property will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: sixtofour

          For addresses that appear to be 6to4 addresses (starting with
          ‘2002::/16’) as defined by RFC 3056(17), this property will
          report the embedded IPv4 address.  For any other address, this
          property will be ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: teredo

          For addresses that appear to be Teredo addresses (starting
          with ‘2001::/32’) as defined by RFC 4380(18), this property
          will report the embedded ‘(server, client)’ IP address pair.
          For any other address, this property will be ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: IPv6Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Refer to the corresponding method documentation in *note
     IPv4Address: 3984.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3171.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (4) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (6) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5735.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3330.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3927.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4193.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3056.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4380.html


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Next: Operators<3>,  Prev: Address objects,  Up: IP Addresses

5.21.23.4 Conversion to Strings and Integers
............................................

To interoperate with networking interfaces such as the socket module,
addresses must be converted to strings or integers.  This is handled
using the *note str(): 15d. and *note int(): 184. builtin functions:

     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     '192.168.0.1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     3232235521
     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     '::1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     1

Note that IPv6 scoped addresses are converted to integers without scope
zone ID.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<3>,  Prev: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Up: IP Addresses

5.21.23.5 Operators
...................

Address objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Comparison operators::
* Arithmetic operators::


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison operators,  Next: Arithmetic operators,  Up: Operators<3>

5.21.23.6 Comparison operators
..............................

Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison
operators.  Same IPv6 addresses with different scope zone IDs are not
equal.  Some examples:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     False
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234') == IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1')
     False
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') != IPv6Address('fe80::1234%2')
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Arithmetic operators,  Prev: Comparison operators,  Up: Operators<3>

5.21.23.7 Arithmetic operators
..............................

Integers can be added to or subtracted from address objects.  Some
examples:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3
     IPv4Address('127.0.0.5')
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3
     IPv4Address('126.255.255.255')
     >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address


File: python.info,  Node: IP Network definitions,  Next: Interface objects,  Prev: IP Addresses,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.21.23.8 IP Network definitions
................................

The *note IPv4Network: 9bd. and *note IPv6Network: 9bc. objects provide
a mechanism for defining and inspecting IP network definitions.  A
network definition consists of a 'mask' and a 'network address', and as
such defines a range of IP addresses that equal the network address when
masked (binary AND) with the mask.  For example, a network definition
with the mask ‘255.255.255.0’ and the network address ‘192.168.1.0’
consists of IP addresses in the inclusive range ‘192.168.1.0’ to
‘192.168.1.255’.

* Menu:

* Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask.
* Network objects::
* Operators: Operators<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix net mask and host mask,  Next: Network objects,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.21.23.9 Prefix, net mask and host mask
........................................

There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks.  A
'prefix' ‘/<nbits>’ is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits
are set in the network mask.  A 'net mask' is an IP address with some
number of high-order bits set.  Thus the prefix ‘/24’ is equivalent to
the net mask ‘255.255.255.0’ in IPv4, or ‘ffff:ff00::’ in IPv6.  In
addition, a 'host mask' is the logical inverse of a 'net mask', and is
sometimes used (for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a
network mask.  The host mask equivalent to ‘/24’ in IPv4 is ‘0.0.0.255’.


File: python.info,  Node: Network objects,  Next: Operators<4>,  Prev: Prefix net mask and host mask,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.21.23.10 Network objects
..........................

All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network
objects as well.  In addition, network objects implement additional
attributes.  All of these are common between *note IPv4Network: 9bd. and
*note IPv6Network: 9bc, so to avoid duplication they are only documented
for *note IPv4Network: 9bd.  Network objects are *note hashable: 421, so
they can be used as keys in dictionaries.

 -- Sınıfı: ipaddress.IPv4Network (address, strict=True)

     Construct an IPv4 network definition.  'address' can be one of the
     following:

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask,
          separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the network
          address, and the mask can be either a single number, which
          means it’s a 'prefix', or a string representation of an IPv4
          address.  If it’s the latter, the mask is interpreted as a
          'net mask' if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a 'host
          mask' if it starts with a zero field, with the single
          exception of an all-zero mask which is treated as a 'net
          mask'.  If no mask is provided, it’s considered to be ‘/32’.

          For example, the following 'address' specifications are
          equivalent: ‘192.168.1.0/24’, ‘192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0’ and
          ‘192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255’.

       2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/32’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2cb. object of length 4,
          big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a
          4-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv4Address object; and
          the netmask is either an integer representing the prefix
          length (e.g.  ‘24’) or a string representing the prefix mask
          (e.g.  ‘255.255.255.0’).

     An *note AddressValueError: 3989. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv4 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 39ab. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv4 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 189. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other
     network/address objects will raise *note TypeError: 2c4. if the
     argument’s IP version is incompatible to ‘self’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address'
     constructor parameter.

      -- Özniteliği: version

      -- Özniteliği: max_prefixlen

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Address: 3984.

      -- Özniteliği: is_multicast

      -- Özniteliği: is_private

      -- Özniteliği: is_unspecified

      -- Özniteliği: is_reserved

      -- Özniteliği: is_loopback

      -- Özniteliği: is_link_local

          These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they
          are true for both the network address and the broadcast
          address.

      -- Özniteliği: network_address

          The network address for the network.  The network address and
          the prefix length together uniquely define a network.

      -- Özniteliği: broadcast_address

          The broadcast address for the network.  Packets sent to the
          broadcast address should be received by every host on the
          network.

      -- Özniteliği: hostmask

          The host mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 3984. object.

      -- Özniteliği: netmask

          The net mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 3984. object.

      -- Özniteliği: with_prefixlen

      -- Özniteliği: compressed

      -- Özniteliği: exploded

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in
          prefix notation.

          ‘with_prefixlen’ and ‘compressed’ are always the same as
          ‘str(network)’.  ‘exploded’ uses the exploded form the network
          address.

      -- Özniteliği: with_netmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in net
          mask notation.

      -- Özniteliği: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in host
          mask notation.

      -- Özniteliği: num_addresses

          The total number of addresses in the network.

      -- Özniteliği: prefixlen

          Length of the network prefix, in bits.

      -- Yöntemi: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the network address itself and the network
          broadcast address.  For networks with a mask length of 31, the
          network address and network broadcast address are also
          included in the result.  Networks with a mask of 32 will
          return a list containing the single host address.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]

      -- Yöntemi: overlaps (other)

          ‘True’ if this network is partly or wholly contained in
          'other' or 'other' is wholly contained in this network.

      -- Yöntemi: address_exclude (network)

          Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the
          given 'network' from this one.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.  Raises *note ValueError: 189. if 'network' is not
          completely contained in this network.

               >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28')
               >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')
               >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')]

      -- Yöntemi: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The subnets that join to make the current network definition,
          depending on the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the
          amount our prefix length should be increased by.  'new_prefix'
          is the desired new prefix of the subnets; it must be larger
          than our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets())
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23))
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
                   raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer')
               ValueError: new prefix must be longer
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]

      -- Yöntemi: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The supernet containing this network definition, depending on
          the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the amount our
          prefix length should be decreased by.  'new_prefix' is the
          desired new prefix of the supernet; it must be smaller than
          our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns a single network object.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet()
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20')

      -- Yöntemi: subnet_of (other)

          Return ‘True’ if this network is a subnet of 'other'.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> b.subnet_of(a)
               True

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: supernet_of (other)

          Return ‘True’ if this network is a supernet of 'other'.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> a.supernet_of(b)
               True

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Yöntemi: compare_networks (other)

          Compare this network to 'other'.  In this comparison only the
          network addresses are considered; host bits aren’t.  Returns
          either ‘-1’, ‘0’ or ‘1’.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32'))
               -1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32'))
               1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32'))
               0

          3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: It uses the same ordering
          and comparison algorithm as “<”, “==”, and “>”

 -- Sınıfı: ipaddress.IPv6Network (address, strict=True)

     Construct an IPv6 network definition.  'address' can be one of the
     following:

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix
          length, separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the
          network address, and the prefix length must be a single
          number, the 'prefix'.  If no prefix length is provided, it’s
          considered to be ‘/128’.

          Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported.  That
          means ‘2001:db00::0/24’ is a valid argument while
          ‘2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::’ is not.

       2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/128’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 2cb. object of length
          16, big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a
          16-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv6Address object;
          and the netmask is an integer representing the prefix length.

     An *note AddressValueError: 3989. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv6 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 39ab. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv6 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 189. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address'
     constructor parameter.

      -- Özniteliği: version

      -- Özniteliği: max_prefixlen

      -- Özniteliği: is_multicast

      -- Özniteliği: is_private

      -- Özniteliği: is_unspecified

      -- Özniteliği: is_reserved

      -- Özniteliği: is_loopback

      -- Özniteliği: is_link_local

      -- Özniteliği: network_address

      -- Özniteliği: broadcast_address

      -- Özniteliği: hostmask

      -- Özniteliği: netmask

      -- Özniteliği: with_prefixlen

      -- Özniteliği: compressed

      -- Özniteliği: exploded

      -- Özniteliği: with_netmask

      -- Özniteliği: with_hostmask

      -- Özniteliği: num_addresses

      -- Özniteliği: prefixlen

      -- Yöntemi: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the Subnet-Router anycast address.  For
          networks with a mask length of 127, the Subnet-Router anycast
          address is also included in the result.  Networks with a mask
          of 128 will return a list containing the single host address.

      -- Yöntemi: overlaps (other)

      -- Yöntemi: address_exclude (network)

      -- Yöntemi: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- Yöntemi: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- Yöntemi: subnet_of (other)

      -- Yöntemi: supernet_of (other)

      -- Yöntemi: compare_networks (other)

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Network: 9bd.

      -- Özniteliği: is_site_local

          These attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is
          true for both the network address and the broadcast address.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<4>,  Prev: Network objects,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.21.23.11 Operators
....................

Network objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Logical operators::
* Iteration::
* Networks as containers of addresses::


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operators,  Next: Iteration,  Up: Operators<4>

5.21.23.12 Logical operators
............................

Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.
Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.


File: python.info,  Node: Iteration,  Next: Networks as containers of addresses,  Prev: Logical operators,  Up: Operators<4>

5.21.23.13 Iteration
....................

Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to
the network.  For iteration, 'all' hosts are returned, including
unusable hosts (for usable hosts, use the *note hosts(): 39bf. method).
An example:

     >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'):
     ...     addr
     ...
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.2')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.3')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.4')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.7')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.8')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.9')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.10')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.11')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.12')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.13')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.14')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')


File: python.info,  Node: Networks as containers of addresses,  Prev: Iteration,  Up: Operators<4>

5.21.23.14 Networks as containers of addresses
..............................................

Network objects can act as containers of addresses.  Some examples:

     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Interface objects,  Next: Other Module Level Functions,  Prev: IP Network definitions,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.21.23.15 Interface objects
............................

Interface objects are *note hashable: 421, so they can be used as keys
in dictionaries.

 -- Sınıfı: ipaddress.IPv4Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv4 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv4Network: 9bd, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     *note IPv4Interface: 1631. is a subclass of *note IPv4Address:
     3984, so it inherits all the attributes from that class.  In
     addition, the following attributes are available:

      -- Özniteliği: ip

          The address (*note IPv4Address: 3984.) without network
          information.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.ip
               IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')

      -- Özniteliği: network

          The network (*note IPv4Network: 9bd.) this interface belongs
          to.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.network
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

      -- Özniteliği: with_prefixlen

          A string representation of the interface with the mask in
          prefix notation.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_prefixlen
               '192.0.2.5/24'

      -- Özniteliği: with_netmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          net mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_netmask
               '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0'

      -- Özniteliği: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          host mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_hostmask
               '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255'

 -- Sınıfı: ipaddress.IPv6Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv6 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv6Network: 9bc, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     *note IPv6Interface: 1632. is a subclass of *note IPv6Address: 763,
     so it inherits all the attributes from that class.  In addition,
     the following attributes are available:

      -- Özniteliği: ip

      -- Özniteliği: network

      -- Özniteliği: with_prefixlen

      -- Özniteliği: with_netmask

      -- Özniteliği: with_hostmask

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Interface: 1631.

* Menu:

* Operators: Operators<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<5>,  Up: Interface objects

5.21.23.16 Operators
....................

Interface objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Logical operators: Logical operators<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operators<2>,  Up: Operators<5>

5.21.23.17 Logical operators
............................

Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical
operators.

For equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’), both the IP address and network
must be the same for the objects to be equal.  An interface will not
compare equal to any address or network object.

For ordering (‘<’, ‘>’, etc) the rules are different.  Interface and
address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the
address objects will always sort before the interface objects.  Two
interface objects are first compared by their networks and, if those are
the same, then by their IP addresses.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Module Level Functions,  Next: Custom Exceptions,  Prev: Interface objects,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.21.23.18 Other Module Level Functions
.......................................

The module also provides the following module level functions:

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 189. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv4 IP address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
          IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
          >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985)
          b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01'

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 189. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv6 IP address.

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.summarize_address_range (first, last)

     Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first
     and last IP addresses.  'first' is the first *note IPv4Address:
     3984. or *note IPv6Address: 763. in the range and 'last' is the
     last *note IPv4Address: 3984. or *note IPv6Address: 763. in the
     range.  A *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised if 'first' or 'last' are
     not IP addresses or are not of the same version.  A *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised if 'last' is not greater than 'first' or
     if 'first' address version is not 4 or 6.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range(
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'),
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')]

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.collapse_addresses (addresses)

     Return an iterator of the collapsed *note IPv4Network: 9bd. or
     *note IPv6Network: 9bc. objects.  'addresses' is an *note iterable:
     10ce. of *note IPv4Network: 9bd. or *note IPv6Network: 9bc.
     objects.  A *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised if 'addresses' contains
     mixed version objects.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in
          ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'),
          ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')]

 -- Işlevi: ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key (obj)

     Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses.
     Address and Network objects are not sortable by default; they’re
     fundamentally different, so the expression:

          IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

     doesn’t make sense.  There are some times however, where you may
     wish to have *note ipaddress: 7e. sort these anyway.  If you need
     to do this, you can use this function as the 'key' argument to
     *note sorted(): a45.

     'obj' is either a network or address object.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Exceptions,  Prev: Other Module Level Functions,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.21.23.19 Custom Exceptions
............................

To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the
module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Özel Durum: ipaddress.AddressValueError (ValueError)

     Any value error related to the address.

 -- Özel Durum: ipaddress.NetmaskValueError (ValueError)

     Any value error related to the net mask.


File: python.info,  Node: Multimedia Services,  Next: Internationalization,  Prev: Internet Protocols and Support,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.22 Multimedia Services
========================

The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms or
interfaces that are mainly useful for multimedia applications.  They are
available at the discretion of the installation.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* wave — Read and write WAV files::
* colorsys — Conversions between color systems::


File: python.info,  Node: wave — Read and write WAV files,  Next: colorsys — Conversions between color systems,  Up: Multimedia Services

5.22.1 ‘wave’ — Read and write WAV files
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/wave.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note wave: 113. module provides a convenient interface to the
Waveform Audio “WAVE” (or “WAV”) file format.  Only uncompressed PCM
encoded wave files are supported.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Support for ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ headers was
added, provided that the extended format is ‘KSDATAFORMAT_SUBTYPE_PCM’.

The *note wave: 113. module defines the following function and
exception:

 -- Işlevi: wave.open (file, mode=None)

     If 'file' is a string, open the file by that name, otherwise treat
     it as a file-like object.  'mode' can be:

     ‘'rb'’

          Read only mode.

     ‘'wb'’

          Write only mode.

     Note that it does not allow read/write WAV files.

     A 'mode' of ‘'rb'’ returns a *note Wave_read: 264. object, while a
     'mode' of ‘'wb'’ returns a *note Wave_write: 265. object.  If
     'mode' is omitted and a file-like object is passed as 'file',
     ‘file.mode’ is used as the default value for 'mode'.

     If you pass in a file-like object, the wave object will not close
     it when its ‘close()’ method is called; it is the caller’s
     responsibility to close the file object.

     The *note open(): 7a6. function may be used in a *note with: 3dd.
     statement.  When the ‘with’ block completes, the *note
     Wave_read.close(): 39fc. or *note Wave_write.close(): 39fd. method
     is called.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for unseekable files.

 -- Özel Durum: wave.Error

     An error raised when something is impossible because it violates
     the WAV specification or hits an implementation deficiency.

* Menu:

* Wave_read Objects::
* Wave_write Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/wave.py


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_read Objects,  Next: Wave_write Objects,  Up: wave — Read and write WAV files

5.22.1.1 Wave_read Objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: wave.Wave_read

     Read a WAV file.

     Wave_read objects, as returned by *note open(): 7a6, have the
     following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close the stream if it was opened by *note wave: 113, and make
          the instance unusable.  This is called automatically on object
          collection.

      -- Yöntemi: getnchannels ()

          Returns number of audio channels (‘1’ for mono, ‘2’ for
          stereo).

      -- Yöntemi: getsampwidth ()

          Returns sample width in bytes.

      -- Yöntemi: getframerate ()

          Returns sampling frequency.

      -- Yöntemi: getnframes ()

          Returns number of audio frames.

      -- Yöntemi: getcomptype ()

          Returns compression type (‘'NONE'’ is the only supported
          type).

      -- Yöntemi: getcompname ()

          Human-readable version of *note getcomptype(): 3a05.  Usually
          ‘'not compressed'’ parallels ‘'NONE'’.

      -- Yöntemi: getparams ()

          Returns a *note namedtuple(): 74b. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
          framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, equivalent to output
          of the ‘get*()’ methods.

      -- Yöntemi: readframes (n)

          Reads and returns at most 'n' frames of audio, as a *note
          bytes: 2cb. object.

      -- Yöntemi: rewind ()

          Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream.

     The following two methods are defined for compatibility with the
     *note aifc: 5. module, and don’t do anything interesting.

      -- Yöntemi: getmarkers ()

          Returns ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: getmark (id)

          Raise an error.

     The following two methods define a term “position” which is
     compatible between them, and is otherwise implementation dependent.

      -- Yöntemi: setpos (pos)

          Set the file pointer to the specified position.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Return current file pointer position.


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_write Objects,  Prev: Wave_read Objects,  Up: wave — Read and write WAV files

5.22.1.2 Wave_write Objects
...........................

 -- Sınıfı: wave.Wave_write

     Write a WAV file.

     Wave_write objects, as returned by *note open(): 7a6.

     For seekable output streams, the ‘wave’ header will automatically
     be updated to reflect the number of frames actually written.  For
     unseekable streams, the 'nframes' value must be accurate when the
     first frame data is written.  An accurate 'nframes' value can be
     achieved either by calling *note setnframes(): 3a0f. or *note
     setparams(): 3a10. with the number of frames that will be written
     before *note close(): 39fd. is called and then using *note
     writeframesraw(): e92. to write the frame data, or by calling *note
     writeframes(): e93. with all of the frame data to be written.  In
     the latter case *note writeframes(): e93. will calculate the number
     of frames in the data and set 'nframes' accordingly before writing
     the frame data.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for unseekable files.

     Wave_write objects have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Make sure 'nframes' is correct, and close the file if it was
          opened by *note wave: 113.  This method is called upon object
          collection.  It will raise an exception if the output stream
          is not seekable and 'nframes' does not match the number of
          frames actually written.

      -- Yöntemi: setnchannels (n)

          Set the number of channels.

      -- Yöntemi: setsampwidth (n)

          Set the sample width to 'n' bytes.

      -- Yöntemi: setframerate (n)

          Set the frame rate to 'n'.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: A non-integral input to this method is
          rounded to the nearest integer.

      -- Yöntemi: setnframes (n)

          Set the number of frames to 'n'.  This will be changed later
          if the number of frames actually written is different (this
          update attempt will raise an error if the output stream is not
          seekable).

      -- Yöntemi: setcomptype (type, name)

          Set the compression type and description.  At the moment, only
          compression type ‘NONE’ is supported, meaning no compression.

      -- Yöntemi: setparams (tuple)

          The 'tuple' should be ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate,
          nframes, comptype, compname)’, with values valid for the
          ‘set*()’ methods.  Sets all parameters.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer
          for the *note Wave_read.tell(): 3a0d. and *note
          Wave_read.setpos(): 3a0c. methods.

      -- Yöntemi: writeframesraw (data)

          Write audio frames, without correcting 'nframes'.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Any *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
          now accepted.

      -- Yöntemi: writeframes (data)

          Write audio frames and make sure 'nframes' is correct.  It
          will raise an error if the output stream is not seekable and
          the total number of frames that have been written after 'data'
          has been written does not match the previously set value for
          'nframes'.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Any *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
          now accepted.

          Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling
          *note writeframes(): e93. or *note writeframesraw(): e92, and
          any attempt to do so will raise *note wave.Error: 39fe.


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys — Conversions between color systems,  Prev: wave — Read and write WAV files,  Up: Multimedia Services

5.22.2 ‘colorsys’ — Conversions between color systems
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/colorsys.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note colorsys: 1f. module defines bidirectional conversions of
color values between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color
space used in computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ,
HLS (Hue Lightness Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value).
Coordinates in all of these color spaces are floating-point values.  In
the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between 0 and 1, but the I and Q
coordinates can be positive or negative.  In all other spaces, the
coordinates are all between 0 and 1.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

More information about color spaces can be found at
‘https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html’ and
‘https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm’.

The *note colorsys: 1f. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: colorsys.rgb_to_yiq (r, g, b)

     Convert the color from RGB coordinates to YIQ coordinates.

 -- Işlevi: colorsys.yiq_to_rgb (y, i, q)

     Convert the color from YIQ coordinates to RGB coordinates.

 -- Işlevi: colorsys.rgb_to_hls (r, g, b)

     Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HLS coordinates.

 -- Işlevi: colorsys.hls_to_rgb (h, l, s)

     Convert the color from HLS coordinates to RGB coordinates.

 -- Işlevi: colorsys.rgb_to_hsv (r, g, b)

     Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HSV coordinates.

 -- Işlevi: colorsys.hsv_to_rgb (h, s, v)

     Convert the color from HSV coordinates to RGB coordinates.

Example:

     >>> import colorsys
     >>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
     (0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     >>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     (0.2, 0.4, 0.4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/colorsys.py


File: python.info,  Node: Internationalization,  Next: Program Frameworks,  Prev: Multimedia Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.23 Internationalization
=========================

The modules described in this chapter help you write software that is
independent of language and locale by providing mechanisms for selecting
a language to be used in program messages or by tailoring output to
match local conventions.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* gettext — Multilingual internationalization services::
* locale — Internationalization services::


File: python.info,  Node: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services,  Next: locale — Internationalization services,  Up: Internationalization

5.23.1 ‘gettext’ — Multilingual internationalization services
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/gettext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note gettext: 61. module provides internationalization (I18N) and
localization (L10N) services for your Python modules and applications.
It supports both the GNU ‘gettext’ message catalog API and a higher
level, class-based API that may be more appropriate for Python files.
The interface described below allows you to write your module and
application messages in one natural language, and provide a catalog of
translated messages for running under different natural languages.

Some hints on localizing your Python modules and applications are also
given.

* Menu:

* GNU gettext API::
* Class-based API::
* Internationalizing your programs and modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/gettext.py


File: python.info,  Node: GNU gettext API,  Next: Class-based API,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.23.1.1 GNU ‘gettext’ API
..........................

The *note gettext: 61. module defines the following API, which is very
similar to the GNU ‘gettext’ API. If you use this API you will affect
the translation of your entire application globally.  Often this is what
you want if your application is monolingual, with the choice of language
dependent on the locale of your user.  If you are localizing a Python
module, or if your application needs to switch languages on the fly, you
probably want to use the class-based API instead.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.bindtextdomain (domain, localedir=None)

     Bind the 'domain' to the locale directory 'localedir'.  More
     concretely, *note gettext: 61. will look for binary ‘.mo’ files for
     the given domain using the path (on Unix):
     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’, where 'language'
     is searched for in the environment variables ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’,
     ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’ respectively.

     If 'localedir' is omitted or ‘None’, then the current binding for
     'domain' is returned.  (1)

 -- Işlevi: gettext.textdomain (domain=None)

     Change or query the current global domain.  If 'domain' is ‘None’,
     then the current global domain is returned, otherwise the global
     domain is set to 'domain', which is returned.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.gettext (message)

     Return the localized translation of 'message', based on the current
     global domain, language, and locale directory.  This function is
     usually aliased as ‘_()’ in the local namespace (see examples
     below).

 -- Işlevi: gettext.dgettext (domain, message)

     Like *note gettext(): 12f1, but look the message up in the
     specified 'domain'.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.ngettext (singular, plural, n)

     Like *note gettext(): 12f1, but consider plural forms.  If a
     translation is found, apply the plural formula to 'n', and return
     the resulting message (some languages have more than two plural
     forms).  If no translation is found, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1;
     return 'plural' otherwise.

     The Plural formula is taken from the catalog header.  It is a C or
     Python expression that has a free variable 'n'; the expression
     evaluates to the index of the plural in the catalog.  See the GNU
     gettext documentation(2) for the precise syntax to be used in ‘.po’
     files and the formulas for a variety of languages.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.dngettext (domain, singular, plural, n)

     Like *note ngettext(): 3a27, but look the message up in the
     specified 'domain'.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.pgettext (context, message)

 -- Işlevi: gettext.dpgettext (domain, context, message)

 -- Işlevi: gettext.npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

 -- Işlevi: gettext.dnpgettext (domain, context, singular, plural, n)

     Similar to the corresponding functions without the ‘p’ in the
     prefix (that is, *note gettext(): 61, *note dgettext(): 3a26, *note
     ngettext(): 3a27, *note dngettext(): 3a28.), but the translation is
     restricted to the given message 'context'.

     Added in version 3.8.

Note that GNU ‘gettext’ also defines a ‘dcgettext()’ method, but this
was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented.

Here’s an example of typical usage for this API:

     import gettext
     gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory')
     gettext.textdomain('myapplication')
     _ = gettext.gettext
     # ...
     print(_('This is a translatable string.'))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on
Red Hat Linux it is ‘/usr/share/locale’, but on Solaris it is
‘/usr/lib/locale’.  The ‘gettext’ module does not try to support these
system dependent defaults; instead its default is
‘`sys.base_prefix'/share/locale’ (see *note sys.base_prefix: 3a24.).
For this reason, it is always best to call *note bindtextdomain(): 3a23.
with an explicit absolute path at the start of your application.

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html


File: python.info,  Node: Class-based API,  Next: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Prev: GNU gettext API,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.23.1.2 Class-based API
........................

The class-based API of the *note gettext: 61. module gives you more
flexibility and greater convenience than the GNU ‘gettext’ API. It is
the recommended way of localizing your Python applications and modules.
‘gettext’ defines a *note GNUTranslations: 3a2d. class which implements
the parsing of GNU ‘.mo’ format files, and has methods for returning
strings.  Instances of this class can also install themselves in the
built-in namespace as the function ‘_()’.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.find (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          all=False)

     This function implements the standard ‘.mo’ file search algorithm.
     It takes a 'domain', identical to what *note textdomain(): 3a25.
     takes.  Optional 'localedir' is as in *note bindtextdomain(): 3a23.
     Optional 'languages' is a list of strings, where each string is a
     language code.

     If 'localedir' is not given, then the default system locale
     directory is used.  (1)  If 'languages' is not given, then the
     following environment variables are searched: ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’,
     ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’.  The first one returning a non-empty
     value is used for the 'languages' variable.  The environment
     variables should contain a colon separated list of languages, which
     will be split on the colon to produce the expected list of language
     code strings.

     *note find(): 3a2e. then expands and normalizes the languages, and
     then iterates through them, searching for an existing file built of
     these components:

     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’

     The first such file name that exists is returned by *note find():
     3a2e.  If no such file is found, then ‘None’ is returned.  If 'all'
     is given, it returns a list of all file names, in the order in
     which they appear in the languages list or the environment
     variables.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.translation (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          class_=None, fallback=False)

     Return a ‘*Translations’ instance based on the 'domain',
     'localedir', and 'languages', which are first passed to *note
     find(): 3a2e. to get a list of the associated ‘.mo’ file paths.
     Instances with identical ‘.mo’ file names are cached.  The actual
     class instantiated is 'class_' if provided, otherwise *note
     GNUTranslations: 3a2d.  The class’s constructor must take a single
     *note file object: 1068. argument.

     If multiple files are found, later files are used as fallbacks for
     earlier ones.  To allow setting the fallback, *note copy.copy():
     2bf. is used to clone each translation object from the cache; the
     actual instance data is still shared with the cache.

     If no ‘.mo’ file is found, this function raises *note OSError: 65c.
     if 'fallback' is false (which is the default), and returns a *note
     NullTranslations: 3a2f. instance if 'fallback' is true.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note IOError: efc. used to be raised, it is
     now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'codeset' parameter is removed.

 -- Işlevi: gettext.install (domain, localedir=None, *, names=None)

     This installs the function ‘_()’ in Python’s builtins namespace,
     based on 'domain' and 'localedir' which are passed to the function
     *note translation(): 8de.

     For the 'names' parameter, please see the description of the
     translation object’s *note install(): 3a30. method.

     As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application
     that are candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to
     the ‘_()’ function, like this:

          print(_('This string will be translated.'))

     For convenience, you want the ‘_()’ function to be installed in
     Python’s builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all
     modules of your application.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'names' is now a keyword-only parameter.

* Menu:

* The NullTranslations class::
* The GNUTranslations class::
* Solaris message catalog support::
* The Catalog constructor::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) See the footnote for *note bindtextdomain(): 3a23. above.


File: python.info,  Node: The NullTranslations class,  Next: The GNUTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.3 The ‘NullTranslations’ class
.....................................

Translation classes are what actually implement the translation of
original source file message strings to translated message strings.  The
base class used by all translation classes is *note NullTranslations:
3a2f.; this provides the basic interface you can use to write your own
specialized translation classes.  Here are the methods of
‘NullTranslations’:

 -- Sınıfı: gettext.NullTranslations (fp=None)

     Takes an optional *note file object: 1068. 'fp', which is ignored
     by the base class.  Initializes “protected” instance variables
     '_info' and '_charset' which are set by derived classes, as well as
     '_fallback', which is set through *note add_fallback(): 3a32.  It
     then calls ‘self._parse(fp)’ if 'fp' is not ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: _parse (fp)

          No-op in the base class, this method takes file object 'fp',
          and reads the data from the file, initializing its message
          catalog.  If you have an unsupported message catalog file
          format, you should override this method to parse your format.

      -- Yöntemi: add_fallback (fallback)

          Add 'fallback' as the fallback object for the current
          translation object.  A translation object should consult the
          fallback if it cannot provide a translation for a given
          message.

      -- Yöntemi: gettext (message)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘gettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return 'message'.  Overridden in derived
          classes.

      -- Yöntemi: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘ngettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1; return
          'plural' otherwise.  Overridden in derived classes.

      -- Yöntemi: pgettext (context, message)

          If a fallback has been set, forward *note pgettext(): 854. to
          the fallback.  Otherwise, return the translated message.
          Overridden in derived classes.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          If a fallback has been set, forward *note npgettext(): 3a2a.
          to the fallback.  Otherwise, return the translated message.
          Overridden in derived classes.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: info ()

          Return a dictionary containing the metadata found in the
          message catalog file.

      -- Yöntemi: charset ()

          Return the encoding of the message catalog file.

      -- Yöntemi: install (names=None)

          This method installs *note gettext(): 3a34. into the built-in
          namespace, binding it to ‘_’.

          If the 'names' parameter is given, it must be a sequence
          containing the names of functions you want to install in the
          builtins namespace in addition to ‘_()’.  Supported names are
          ‘'gettext'’, ‘'ngettext'’, ‘'pgettext'’, and ‘'npgettext'’.

          Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient
          way, to make the ‘_()’ function available to your application.
          Because it affects the entire application globally, and
          specifically the built-in namespace, localized modules should
          never install ‘_()’.  Instead, they should use this code to
          make ‘_()’ available to their module:

               import gettext
               t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...)
               _ = t.gettext

          This puts ‘_()’ only in the module’s global namespace and so
          only affects calls within this module.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘'pgettext'’ and ‘'npgettext'’.


File: python.info,  Node: The GNUTranslations class,  Next: Solaris message catalog support,  Prev: The NullTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.4 The ‘GNUTranslations’ class
....................................

The ‘gettext’ module provides one additional class derived from *note
NullTranslations: 3a2f.: *note GNUTranslations: 3a2d.  This class
overrides ‘_parse()’ to enable reading GNU ‘gettext’ format ‘.mo’ files
in both big-endian and little-endian format.

*note GNUTranslations: 3a2d. parses optional metadata out of the
translation catalog.  It is convention with GNU ‘gettext’ to include
metadata as the translation for the empty string.  This metadata is in
RFC 822(1)-style ‘key: value’ pairs, and should contain the
‘Project-Id-Version’ key.  If the key ‘Content-Type’ is found, then the
‘charset’ property is used to initialize the “protected” ‘_charset’
instance variable, defaulting to ‘None’ if not found.  If the charset
encoding is specified, then all message ids and message strings read
from the catalog are converted to Unicode using this encoding, else
ASCII is assumed.

Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all ‘*gettext()’
methods will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings.

The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set
as the “protected” ‘_info’ instance variable.

If the ‘.mo’ file’s magic number is invalid, the major version number is
unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file,
instantiating a *note GNUTranslations: 3a2d. class can raise *note
OSError: 65c.

 -- Sınıfı: gettext.GNUTranslations

     The following methods are overridden from the base class
     implementation:

      -- Yöntemi: gettext (message)

          Look up the 'message' id in the catalog and return the
          corresponding message string, as a Unicode string.  If there
          is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id, and a
          fallback has been set, the look up is forwarded to the
          fallback’s *note gettext(): 3a34. method.  Otherwise, the
          'message' id is returned.

      -- Yöntemi: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  'singular' is used
          as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while
          'n' is used to determine which plural form to use.  The
          returned message string is a Unicode string.

          If the message id is not found in the catalog, and a fallback
          is specified, the request is forwarded to the fallback’s *note
          ngettext(): 3a35. method.  Otherwise, when 'n' is 1 'singular'
          is returned, and 'plural' is returned in all other cases.

          Here is an example:

               n = len(os.listdir('.'))
               cat = GNUTranslations(somefile)
               message = cat.ngettext(
                   'There is %(num)d file in this directory',
                   'There are %(num)d files in this directory',
                   n) % {'num': n}

      -- Yöntemi: pgettext (context, message)

          Look up the 'context' and 'message' id in the catalog and
          return the corresponding message string, as a Unicode string.
          If there is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id and
          'context', and a fallback has been set, the look up is
          forwarded to the fallback’s *note pgettext(): 854. method.
          Otherwise, the 'message' id is returned.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  'singular' is used
          as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while
          'n' is used to determine which plural form to use.

          If the message id for 'context' is not found in the catalog,
          and a fallback is specified, the request is forwarded to the
          fallback’s *note npgettext(): 3a2a. method.  Otherwise, when
          'n' is 1 'singular' is returned, and 'plural' is returned in
          all other cases.

          Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Solaris message catalog support,  Next: The Catalog constructor,  Prev: The GNUTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.5 Solaris message catalog support
........................................

The Solaris operating system defines its own binary ‘.mo’ file format,
but since no documentation can be found on this format, it is not
supported at this time.


File: python.info,  Node: The Catalog constructor,  Prev: Solaris message catalog support,  Up: Class-based API

5.23.1.6 The Catalog constructor
................................

GNOME uses a version of the *note gettext: 61. module by James
Henstridge, but this version has a slightly different API. Its
documented usage was:

     import gettext
     cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir)
     _ = cat.gettext
     print(_('hello world'))

For compatibility with this older module, the function ‘Catalog()’ is an
alias for the *note translation(): 8de. function described above.

One difference between this module and Henstridge’s: his catalog objects
supported access through a mapping API, but this appears to be unused
and so is not currently supported.


File: python.info,  Node: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Next: Acknowledgements<9>,  Prev: Class-based API,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.23.1.7 Internationalizing your programs and modules
.....................................................

Internationalization (I18N) refers to the operation by which a program
is made aware of multiple languages.  Localization (L10N) refers to the
adaptation of your program, once internationalized, to the local
language and cultural habits.  In order to provide multilingual messages
for your Python programs, you need to take the following steps:

  1. prepare your program or module by specially marking translatable
     strings

  2. run a suite of tools over your marked files to generate raw
     messages catalogs

  3. create language-specific translations of the message catalogs

  4. use the *note gettext: 61. module so that message strings are
     properly translated

In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the
strings in your files.  Any string that needs to be translated should be
marked by wrapping it in ‘_('...')’ — that is, a call to the function
*note _: 61.  For example:

     filename = 'mylog.txt'
     message = _('writing a log message')
     with open(filename, 'w') as fp:
         fp.write(message)

In this example, the string ‘'writing a log message'’ is marked as a
candidate for translation, while the strings ‘'mylog.txt'’ and ‘'w'’ are
not.

There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation.  The
original GNU ‘gettext’ only supported C or C++ source code but its
extended version ‘xgettext’ scans code written in a number of languages,
including Python, to find strings marked as translatable.  Babel(1) is a
Python internationalization library that includes a ‘pybabel’ script to
extract and compile message catalogs.  François Pinard’s program called
‘xpot’ does a similar job and is available as part of his po-utils
package(2).

(Python also includes pure-Python versions of these programs, called
‘pygettext.py’ and ‘msgfmt.py’; some Python distributions will install
them for you.  ‘pygettext.py’ is similar to ‘xgettext’, but only
understands Python source code and cannot handle other programming
languages such as C or C++.  ‘pygettext.py’ supports a command-line
interface similar to ‘xgettext’; for details on its use, run
‘pygettext.py --help’.  ‘msgfmt.py’ is binary compatible with GNU
‘msgfmt’.  With these two programs, you may not need the GNU ‘gettext’
package to internationalize your Python applications.)

‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’, and similar tools generate ‘.po’ files that are
message catalogs.  They are structured human-readable files that contain
every marked string in the source code, along with a placeholder for the
translated versions of these strings.

Copies of these ‘.po’ files are then handed over to the individual human
translators who write translations for every supported natural language.
They send back the completed language-specific versions as a
‘<language-name>.po’ file that’s compiled into a machine-readable ‘.mo’
binary catalog file using the ‘msgfmt’ program.  The ‘.mo’ files are
used by the *note gettext: 61. module for the actual translation
processing at run-time.

How you use the *note gettext: 61. module in your code depends on
whether you are internationalizing a single module or your entire
application.  The next two sections will discuss each case.

* Menu:

* Localizing your module::
* Localizing your application::
* Changing languages on the fly::
* Deferred translations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/

   (2) https://github.com/pinard/po-utils


File: python.info,  Node: Localizing your module,  Next: Localizing your application,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.8 Localizing your module
...............................

If you are localizing your module, you must take care not to make global
changes, e.g.  to the built-in namespace.  You should not use the GNU
‘gettext’ API but instead the class-based API.

Let’s say your module is called “spam” and the module’s various natural
language translation ‘.mo’ files reside in ‘/usr/share/locale’ in GNU
‘gettext’ format.  Here’s what you would put at the top of your module:

     import gettext
     t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale')
     _ = t.gettext


File: python.info,  Node: Localizing your application,  Next: Changing languages on the fly,  Prev: Localizing your module,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.9 Localizing your application
....................................

If you are localizing your application, you can install the ‘_()’
function globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main
driver file of your application.  This will let all your
application-specific files just use ‘_('...')’ without having to
explicitly install it in each file.

In the simple case then, you need only add the following bit of code to
the main driver file of your application:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication')

If you need to set the locale directory, you can pass it into the *note
install(): 8df. function:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')


File: python.info,  Node: Changing languages on the fly,  Next: Deferred translations,  Prev: Localizing your application,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.10 Changing languages on the fly
.......................................

If your program needs to support many languages at the same time, you
may want to create multiple translation instances and then switch
between them explicitly, like so:

     import gettext

     lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en'])
     lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr'])
     lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de'])

     # start by using language1
     lang1.install()

     # ... time goes by, user selects language 2
     lang2.install()

     # ... more time goes by, user selects language 3
     lang3.install()


File: python.info,  Node: Deferred translations,  Prev: Changing languages on the fly,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.23.1.11 Deferred translations
...............................

In most coding situations, strings are translated where they are coded.
Occasionally however, you need to mark strings for translation, but
defer actual translation until later.  A classic example is:

     animals = ['mollusk',
                'albatross',
                'rat',
                'penguin',
                'python', ]
     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(a)

Here, you want to mark the strings in the ‘animals’ list as being
translatable, but you don’t actually want to translate them until they
are printed.

Here is one way you can handle this situation:

     def _(message): return message

     animals = [_('mollusk'),
                _('albatross'),
                _('rat'),
                _('penguin'),
                _('python'), ]

     del _

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

This works because the dummy definition of ‘_()’ simply returns the
string unchanged.  And this dummy definition will temporarily override
any definition of ‘_()’ in the built-in namespace (until the *note del:
15c5. command).  Take care, though if you have a previous definition of
‘_()’ in the local namespace.

Note that the second use of ‘_()’ will not identify “a” as being
translatable to the ‘gettext’ program, because the parameter is not a
string literal.

Another way to handle this is with the following example:

     def N_(message): return message

     animals = [N_('mollusk'),
                N_('albatross'),
                N_('rat'),
                N_('penguin'),
                N_('python'), ]

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function
‘N_()’, which won’t conflict with any definition of ‘_()’.  However, you
will need to teach your message extraction program to look for
translatable strings marked with ‘N_()’.  ‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’,
‘pybabel extract’, and ‘xpot’ all support this through the use of the
‘-k’ command-line switch.  The choice of ‘N_()’ here is totally
arbitrary; it could have just as easily been
‘MarkThisStringForTranslation()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<9>,  Prev: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.23.1.12 Acknowledgements
..........................

The following people contributed code, feedback, design suggestions,
previous implementations, and valuable experience to the creation of
this module:

   * Peter Funk

   * James Henstridge

   * Juan David Ibáñez Palomar

   * Marc-André Lemburg

   * Martin von Löwis

   * François Pinard

   * Barry Warsaw

   * Gustavo Niemeyer


File: python.info,  Node: locale — Internationalization services,  Prev: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services,  Up: Internationalization

5.23.2 ‘locale’ — Internationalization services
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/locale.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note locale: 85. module opens access to the POSIX locale database
and functionality.  The POSIX locale mechanism allows programmers to
deal with certain cultural issues in an application, without requiring
the programmer to know all the specifics of each country where the
software is executed.

The *note locale: 85. module is implemented on top of the ‘_locale’
module, which in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available.

The *note locale: 85. module defines the following exception and
functions:

 -- Özel Durum: locale.Error

     Exception raised when the locale passed to *note setlocale(): 25c.
     is not recognized.

 -- Işlevi: locale.setlocale (category, locale=None)

     If 'locale' is given and not ‘None’, *note setlocale(): 25c.
     modifies the locale setting for the 'category'.  The available
     categories are listed in the data description below.  'locale' may
     be a string, or an iterable of two strings (language code and
     encoding).  If it’s an iterable, it’s converted to a locale name
     using the locale aliasing engine.  An empty string specifies the
     user’s default settings.  If the modification of the locale fails,
     the exception *note Error: 3a49. is raised.  If successful, the new
     locale setting is returned.

     If 'locale' is omitted or ‘None’, the current setting for
     'category' is returned.

     *note setlocale(): 25c. is not thread-safe on most systems.
     Applications typically start with a call of

          import locale
          locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')

     This sets the locale for all categories to the user’s default
     setting (typically specified in the ‘LANG’ environment variable).
     If the locale is not changed thereafter, using multithreading
     should not cause problems.

 -- Işlevi: locale.localeconv ()

     Returns the database of the local conventions as a dictionary.
     This dictionary has the following strings as keys:

     Category                   Key                                       Meaning
                                                                          
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 3a4a.    ‘'decimal_point'’                         Decimal point character.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'grouping'’                              Sequence of numbers specifying
                                                                          which relative positions the
                                                                          ‘'thousands_sep'’ is expected.  If
                                                                          the sequence is terminated with
                                                                          *note CHAR_MAX: 3a4b, no further
                                                                          grouping is performed.  If the
                                                                          sequence terminates with a ‘0’,
                                                                          the last group size is repeatedly
                                                                          used.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'thousands_sep'’                         Character used between groups.
                                                                          
                                                                          
     *note LC_MONETARY: 3a4c.   ‘'int_curr_symbol'’                       International currency symbol.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'currency_symbol'’                       Local currency symbol.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'’           Whether the currency symbol
                                                                          precedes the value (for positive
                                                                          resp.  negative values).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'’         Whether the currency symbol is
                                                                          separated from the value by a
                                                                          space (for positive resp.
                                                                          negative values).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_decimal_point'’                     Decimal point used for monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'frac_digits'’                           Number of fractional digits used
                                                                          in local formatting of monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'int_frac_digits'’                       Number of fractional digits used
                                                                          in international formatting of
                                                                          monetary values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_thousands_sep'’                     Group separator used for monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_grouping'’                          Equivalent to ‘'grouping'’, used
                                                                          for monetary values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'positive_sign'’                         Symbol used to annotate a positive
                                                                          monetary value.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'negative_sign'’                         Symbol used to annotate a negative
                                                                          monetary value.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'’               The position of the sign (for
                                                                          positive resp.  negative values),
                                                                          see below.
                                                                          

     All numeric values can be set to *note CHAR_MAX: 3a4b. to indicate
     that there is no value specified in this locale.

     The possible values for ‘'p_sign_posn'’ and ‘'n_sign_posn'’ are
     given below.

     Value              Explanation
                        
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     ‘0’                Currency and value are surrounded by
                        parentheses.
                        
                        
     ‘1’                The sign should precede the value and
                        currency symbol.
                        
                        
     ‘2’                The sign should follow the value and
                        currency symbol.
                        
                        
     ‘3’                The sign should immediately precede the
                        value.
                        
                        
     ‘4’                The sign should immediately follow the
                        value.
                        
                        
     ‘CHAR_MAX’         Nothing is specified in this locale.
                        

     The function temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the
     ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale or the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if locales are
     different and numeric or monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The function now temporarily sets the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.

 -- Işlevi: locale.nl_langinfo (option)

     Return some locale-specific information as a string.  This function
     is not available on all systems, and the set of possible options
     might also vary across platforms.  The possible argument values are
     numbers, for which symbolic constants are available in the locale
     module.

     The *note nl_langinfo(): 3a4d. function accepts one of the
     following keys.  Most descriptions are taken from the corresponding
     description in the GNU C library.

      -- Verisi: locale.CODESET

          Get a string with the name of the character encoding used in
          the selected locale.

      -- Verisi: locale.D_T_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 108e. to represent date and time in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- Verisi: locale.D_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 108e. to represent a date in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- Verisi: locale.T_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 108e. to represent a time in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- Verisi: locale.T_FMT_AMPM

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 108e. to
          represent time in the am/pm format.

      -- Verisi: locale.DAY_1
      -- Verisi: locale.DAY_2
      -- Verisi: locale.DAY_3
      -- Verisi: locale.DAY_4
      -- Verisi: locale.DAY_5
      -- Verisi: locale.DAY_6
      -- Verisi: locale.DAY_7

          Get the name of the n-th day of the week.

               Not: This follows the US convention of *note DAY_1: 3a53.
               being Sunday, not the international convention (ISO 8601)
               that Monday is the first day of the week.

      -- Verisi: locale.ABDAY_1
      -- Verisi: locale.ABDAY_2
      -- Verisi: locale.ABDAY_3
      -- Verisi: locale.ABDAY_4
      -- Verisi: locale.ABDAY_5
      -- Verisi: locale.ABDAY_6
      -- Verisi: locale.ABDAY_7

          Get the abbreviated name of the n-th day of the week.

      -- Verisi: locale.MON_1
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_2
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_3
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_4
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_5
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_6
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_7
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_8
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_9
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_10
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_11
      -- Verisi: locale.MON_12

          Get the name of the n-th month.

      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_1
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_2
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_3
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_4
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_5
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_6
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_7
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_8
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_9
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_10
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_11
      -- Verisi: locale.ABMON_12

          Get the abbreviated name of the n-th month.

      -- Verisi: locale.RADIXCHAR

          Get the radix character (decimal dot, decimal comma, etc.).

      -- Verisi: locale.THOUSEP

          Get the separator character for thousands (groups of three
          digits).

      -- Verisi: locale.YESEXPR

          Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex
          function to recognize a positive response to a yes/no
          question.

      -- Verisi: locale.NOEXPR

          Get a regular expression that can be used with the ‘regex(3)’
          function to recognize a negative response to a yes/no
          question.

               Not: The regular expressions for *note YESEXPR: 3a7b. and
               *note NOEXPR: 3a7c. use syntax suitable for the ‘regex’
               function from the C library, which might differ from the
               syntax used in *note re: b8.

      -- Verisi: locale.CRNCYSTR

          Get the currency symbol, preceded by “-” if the symbol should
          appear before the value, “+” if the symbol should appear after
          the value, or “.” if the symbol should replace the radix
          character.

      -- Verisi: locale.ERA

          Get a string which describes how years are counted and
          displayed for each era in a locale.

          Most locales do not define this value.  An example of a locale
          which does define this value is the Japanese one.  In Japan,
          the traditional representation of dates includes the name of
          the era corresponding to the then-emperor’s reign.

          Normally it should not be necessary to use this value
          directly.  Specifying the ‘E’ modifier in their format strings
          causes the *note time.strftime(): 108e. function to use this
          information.  The format of the returned string is specified
          in 'The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 8', paragraph
          7.3.5.2 LC_TIME C-Language Access(2).

      -- Verisi: locale.ERA_D_T_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 108e. to
          represent date and time in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- Verisi: locale.ERA_D_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 108e. to
          represent a date in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- Verisi: locale.ERA_T_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 108e. to
          represent a time in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- Verisi: locale.ALT_DIGITS

          Get a string consisting of up to 100 semicolon-separated
          symbols used to represent the values 0 to 99 in a
          locale-specific way.  In most locales this is an empty string.

 -- Işlevi: locale.getdefaultlocale ([envvars])

     Tries to determine the default locale settings and returns them as
     a tuple of the form ‘(language code, encoding)’.

     According to POSIX, a program which has not called
     ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ runs using the portable ‘'C'’ locale.
     Calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ lets it use the default locale as
     defined by the ‘LANG’ variable.  Since we do not want to interfere
     with the current locale setting we thus emulate the behavior in the
     way described above.

     To maintain compatibility with other platforms, not only the ‘LANG’
     variable is tested, but a list of variables given as envvars
     parameter.  The first found to be defined will be used.  'envvars'
     defaults to the search path used in GNU gettext; it must always
     contain the variable name ‘'LANG'’.  The GNU gettext search path
     contains ‘'LC_ALL'’, ‘'LC_CTYPE'’, ‘'LANG'’ and ‘'LANGUAGE'’, in
     that order.

     Except for the code ‘'C'’, the language code corresponds to RFC
     1766(3).  'language code' and 'encoding' may be ‘None’ if their
     values cannot be determined.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15.

 -- Işlevi: locale.getlocale (category=LC_CTYPE)

     Returns the current setting for the given locale category as
     sequence containing 'language code', 'encoding'.  'category' may be
     one of the ‘LC_*’ values except *note LC_ALL: 3a83.  It defaults to
     *note LC_CTYPE: 3a84.

     Except for the code ‘'C'’, the language code corresponds to RFC
     1766(4).  'language code' and 'encoding' may be ‘None’ if their
     values cannot be determined.

 -- Işlevi: locale.getpreferredencoding (do_setlocale=True)

     Return the *note locale encoding: 1479. used for text data,
     according to user preferences.  User preferences are expressed
     differently on different systems, and might not be available
     programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a
     guess.

     On some systems, it is necessary to invoke *note setlocale(): 25c.
     to obtain the user preferences, so this function is not
     thread-safe.  If invoking setlocale is not necessary or desired,
     'do_setlocale' should be set to ‘False’.

     On Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. is enabled,
     always return ‘'utf-8'’, the *note locale encoding: 1479. and the
     'do_setlocale' argument are ignored.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3a85. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     2c7.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The function now always returns ‘"utf-8"’ on
     Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. is enabled.

 -- Işlevi: locale.getencoding ()

     Get the current *note locale encoding: 1479.:

        * On Android and VxWorks, return ‘"utf-8"’.

        * On Unix, return the encoding of the current *note LC_CTYPE:
          3a84. locale.  Return ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
          returns an empty string: for example, if the current LC_CTYPE
          locale is not supported.

        * On Windows, return the ANSI code page.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 3a85. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     2c7.

     This function is similar to *note getpreferredencoding(False): 2c6.
     except this function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: locale.normalize (localename)

     Returns a normalized locale code for the given locale name.  The
     returned locale code is formatted for use with *note setlocale():
     25c.  If normalization fails, the original name is returned
     unchanged.

     If the given encoding is not known, the function defaults to the
     default encoding for the locale code just like *note setlocale():
     25c.

 -- Işlevi: locale.resetlocale (category=LC_ALL)

     Sets the locale for 'category' to the default setting.

     The default setting is determined by calling *note
     getdefaultlocale(): 25b.  'category' defaults to *note LC_ALL:
     3a83.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13.

 -- Işlevi: locale.strcoll (string1, string2)

     Compares two strings according to the current *note LC_COLLATE:
     3a88. setting.  As any other compare function, returns a negative,
     or a positive value, or ‘0’, depending on whether 'string1'
     collates before or after 'string2' or is equal to it.

 -- Işlevi: locale.strxfrm (string)

     Transforms a string to one that can be used in locale-aware
     comparisons.  For example, ‘strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2)’ is
     equivalent to ‘strcoll(s1, s2) < 0’.  This function can be used
     when the same string is compared repeatedly, e.g.  when collating a
     sequence of strings.

 -- Işlevi: locale.format_string (format, val, grouping=False,
          monetary=False)

     Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_NUMERIC:
     3a4a. setting.  The format follows the conventions of the ‘%’
     operator.  For floating-point values, the decimal point is modified
     if appropriate.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’, also takes the grouping
     into account.

     If 'monetary' is true, the conversion uses monetary thousands
     separator and grouping strings.

     Processes formatting specifiers as in ‘format % val’, but takes the
     current locale settings into account.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'monetary' keyword parameter was added.

 -- Işlevi: locale.currency (val, symbol=True, grouping=False,
          international=False)

     Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_MONETARY:
     3a4c. settings.

     The returned string includes the currency symbol if 'symbol' is
     true, which is the default.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’ (which is not
     the default), grouping is done with the value.  If 'international'
     is ‘True’ (which is not the default), the international currency
     symbol is used.

          Not: This function will not work with the ‘C’ locale, so you
          have to set a locale via *note setlocale(): 25c. first.

 -- Işlevi: locale.str (float)

     Formats a floating-point number using the same format as the
     built-in function ‘str(float)’, but takes the decimal point into
     account.

 -- Işlevi: locale.delocalize (string)

     Converts a string into a normalized number string, following the
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 3a4a. settings.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: locale.localize (string, grouping=False, monetary=False)

     Converts a normalized number string into a formatted string
     following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 3a4a. settings.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: locale.atof (string, func=float)

     Converts a string to a number, following the *note LC_NUMERIC:
     3a4a. settings, by calling 'func' on the result of calling *note
     delocalize(): cb5. on 'string'.

 -- Işlevi: locale.atoi (string)

     Converts a string to an integer, following the *note LC_NUMERIC:
     3a4a. conventions.

 -- Verisi: locale.LC_CTYPE

     Locale category for the character type functions.  Most
     importantly, this category defines the text encoding, i.e.  how
     bytes are interpreted as Unicode codepoints.  See PEP 538(5) and
     PEP 540(6) for how this variable might be automatically coerced to
     ‘C.UTF-8’ to avoid issues created by invalid settings in containers
     or incompatible settings passed over remote SSH connections.

     Python doesn’t internally use locale-dependent character
     transformation functions from ‘ctype.h’.  Instead, an internal
     ‘pyctype.h’ provides locale-independent equivalents like
     ‘Py_TOLOWER’.

 -- Verisi: locale.LC_COLLATE

     Locale category for sorting strings.  The functions *note
     strcoll(): 3a87. and *note strxfrm(): 3a89. of the *note locale:
     85. module are affected.

 -- Verisi: locale.LC_TIME

     Locale category for the formatting of time.  The function *note
     time.strftime(): 108e. follows these conventions.

 -- Verisi: locale.LC_MONETARY

     Locale category for formatting of monetary values.  The available
     options are available from the *note localeconv(): a77. function.

 -- Verisi: locale.LC_MESSAGES

     Locale category for message display.  Python currently does not
     support application specific locale-aware messages.  Messages
     displayed by the operating system, like those returned by *note
     os.strerror(): 28fd. might be affected by this category.

     This value may not be available on operating systems not conforming
     to the POSIX standard, most notably Windows.

 -- Verisi: locale.LC_NUMERIC

     Locale category for formatting numbers.  The functions *note
     format_string(): 2a9, *note atoi(): 3a8e, *note atof(): 3a8d. and
     *note str(): 3a8b. of the *note locale: 85. module are affected by
     that category.  All other numeric formatting operations are not
     affected.

 -- Verisi: locale.LC_ALL

     Combination of all locale settings.  If this flag is used when the
     locale is changed, setting the locale for all categories is
     attempted.  If that fails for any category, no category is changed
     at all.  When the locale is retrieved using this flag, a string
     indicating the setting for all categories is returned.  This string
     can be later used to restore the settings.

 -- Verisi: locale.CHAR_MAX

     This is a symbolic constant used for different values returned by
     *note localeconv(): a77.

Example:

     >>> import locale
     >>> loc = locale.getlocale()  # get current locale
     # use German locale; name might vary with platform
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE')
     >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo')  # compare a string containing an umlaut
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')   # use user's preferred locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C')  # use default (C) locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc)  # restore saved locale

* Menu:

* Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats.
* For extension writers and programs that embed Python::
* Access to message catalogs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/locale.py

   (2) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap07.html#tag_07_03_05_02

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1766.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1766.html

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Background details hints tips and caveats,  Next: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Up: locale — Internationalization services

5.23.2.1 Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
.....................................................

The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be
relatively expensive to change.  On top of that, some implementations
are broken in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core
dumps.  This makes the locale somewhat painful to use correctly.

Initially, when a program is started, the locale is the ‘C’ locale, no
matter what the user’s preferred locale is.  There is one exception: the
*note LC_CTYPE: 3a84. category is changed at startup to set the current
locale encoding to the user’s preferred locale encoding.  The program
must explicitly say that it wants the user’s preferred locale settings
for other categories by calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’.

It is generally a bad idea to call *note setlocale(): 25c. in some
library routine, since as a side effect it affects the entire program.
Saving and restoring it is almost as bad: it is expensive and affects
other threads that happen to run before the settings have been restored.

If, when coding a module for general use, you need a locale independent
version of an operation that is affected by the locale (such as certain
formats used with *note time.strftime(): 108e.), you will have to find a
way to do it without using the standard library routine.  Even better is
convincing yourself that using locale settings is okay.  Only as a last
resort should you document that your module is not compatible with
non-‘C’ locale settings.

The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to
use the special functions defined by this module: *note atof(): 3a8d,
*note atoi(): 3a8e, *note format_string(): 2a9, *note str(): 3a8b.

There is no way to perform case conversions and character
classifications according to the locale.  For (Unicode) text strings
these are done according to the character value only, while for byte
strings, the conversions and classifications are done according to the
ASCII value of the byte, and bytes whose high bit is set (i.e.,
non-ASCII bytes) are never converted or considered part of a character
class such as letter or whitespace.


File: python.info,  Node: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Next: Access to message catalogs,  Prev: Background details hints tips and caveats,  Up: locale — Internationalization services

5.23.2.2 For extension writers and programs that embed Python
.............................................................

Extension modules should never call *note setlocale(): 25c, except to
find out what the current locale is.  But since the return value can
only be used portably to restore it, that is not very useful (except
perhaps to find out whether or not the locale is ‘C’).

When Python code uses the *note locale: 85. module to change the locale,
this also affects the embedding application.  If the embedding
application doesn’t want this to happen, it should remove the ‘_locale’
extension module (which does all the work) from the table of built-in
modules in the ‘config.c’ file, and make sure that the ‘_locale’ module
is not accessible as a shared library.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to message catalogs,  Prev: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Up: locale — Internationalization services

5.23.2.3 Access to message catalogs
...................................

 -- Işlevi: locale.gettext (msg)

 -- Işlevi: locale.dgettext (domain, msg)

 -- Işlevi: locale.dcgettext (domain, msg, category)

 -- Işlevi: locale.textdomain (domain)

 -- Işlevi: locale.bindtextdomain (domain, dir)

 -- Işlevi: locale.bind_textdomain_codeset (domain, codeset)

The locale module exposes the C library’s gettext interface on systems
that provide this interface.  It consists of the functions *note
gettext(): 61, *note dgettext(): 3a97, *note dcgettext(): 3a98, *note
textdomain(): 3a99, *note bindtextdomain(): 3a9a, and *note
bind_textdomain_codeset(): 3a9b.  These are similar to the same
functions in the *note gettext: 61. module, but use the C library’s
binary format for message catalogs, and the C library’s search
algorithms for locating message catalogs.

Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these
functions, and should use *note gettext: 61. instead.  A known exception
to this rule are applications that link with additional C libraries
which internally invoke C functions ‘gettext’ or ‘dcgettext’.  For these
applications, it may be necessary to bind the text domain, so that the
libraries can properly locate their message catalogs.


File: python.info,  Node: Program Frameworks,  Next: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri,  Prev: Internationalization,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.24 Program Frameworks
=======================

The modules described in this chapter are frameworks that will largely
dictate the structure of your program.  Currently the modules described
here are all oriented toward writing command-line interfaces.

The full list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* turtle — Turtle graphics::
* cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters::
* shlex — Simple lexical analysis::


File: python.info,  Node: turtle — Turtle graphics,  Next: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Up: Program Frameworks

5.24.1 ‘turtle’ — Turtle graphics
---------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/turtle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<7>.
* Tutorial: Tutorial<3>.
* How to…::
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions::
* Public classes::
* Explanation: Explanation<2>.
* Help and configuration::
* turtledemo — Demo scripts::
* Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6.
* Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/turtle.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<7>,  Next: Tutorial<3>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.1 Introduction
.....................

Turtle graphics is an implementation of the popular geometric drawing
tools introduced in Logo(1), developed by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert
and Cynthia Solomon in 1967.

Turtle star
...........

Turtle can draw intricate shapes using programs that repeat simple
moves.

[image src="python-figures/turtle-star.png"]


In Python, turtle graphics provides a representation of a physical
“turtle” (a little robot with a pen) that draws on a sheet of paper on
the floor.

It’s an effective and well-proven way for learners to encounter
programming concepts and interaction with software, as it provides
instant, visible feedback.  It also provides convenient access to
graphical output in general.

Turtle drawing was originally created as an educational tool, to be used
by teachers in the classroom.  For the programmer who needs to produce
some graphical output it can be a way to do that without the overhead of
introducing more complex or external libraries into their work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial<3>,  Next: How to…,  Prev: Introduction<7>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.2 Tutorial
.................

New users should start here.  In this tutorial we’ll explore some of the
basics of turtle drawing.

* Menu:

* Starting a turtle environment::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: Starting a turtle environment,  Next: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.24.1.3 Starting a turtle environment
......................................

In a Python shell, import all the objects of the ‘turtle’ module:

     from turtle import *

If you run into a ‘No module named '_tkinter'’ error, you’ll have to
install the *note Tk interface package: ef. on your system.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic drawing,  Next: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: Starting a turtle environment,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.24.1.4 Basic drawing
......................

Send the turtle forward 100 steps:

     forward(100)

You should see (most likely, in a new window on your display) a line
drawn by the turtle, heading East.  Change the direction of the turtle,
so that it turns 120 degrees left (anti-clockwise):

     left(120)

Let’s continue by drawing a triangle:

     forward(100)
     left(120)
     forward(100)

Notice how the turtle, represented by an arrow, points in different
directions as you steer it.

Experiment with those commands, and also with ‘backward()’ and
‘right()’.

* Menu:

* Pen control::
* The turtle’s position::


File: python.info,  Node: Pen control,  Next: The turtle’s position,  Up: Basic drawing

5.24.1.5 Pen control
....................

Try changing the color - for example, ‘color('blue')’ - and width of the
line - for example, ‘width(3)’ - and then drawing again.

You can also move the turtle around without drawing, by lifting up the
pen: ‘up()’ before moving.  To start drawing again, use ‘down()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The turtle’s position,  Prev: Pen control,  Up: Basic drawing

5.24.1.6 The turtle’s position
..............................

Send your turtle back to its starting-point (useful if it has
disappeared off-screen):

     home()

The home position is at the center of the turtle’s screen.  If you ever
need to know them, get the turtle’s x-y coordinates with:

     pos()

Home is at ‘(0, 0)’.

And after a while, it will probably help to clear the window so we can
start anew:

     clearscreen()


File: python.info,  Node: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.24.1.7 Making algorithmic patterns
....................................

Using loops, it’s possible to build up geometric patterns:

     for steps in range(100):
         for c in ('blue', 'red', 'green'):
             color(c)
             forward(steps)
             right(30)

- which of course, are limited only by the imagination!

Let’s draw the star shape at the top of this page.  We want red lines,
filled in with yellow:

     color('red')
     fillcolor('yellow')

Just as ‘up()’ and ‘down()’ determine whether lines will be drawn,
filling can be turned on and off:

     begin_fill()

Next we’ll create a loop:

     while True:
         forward(200)
         left(170)
         if abs(pos()) < 1:
             break

‘abs(pos()) < 1’ is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its
home position.

Finally, complete the filling:

     end_fill()

(Note that filling only actually takes place when you give the
‘end_fill()’ command.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to…,  Next: Turtle graphics reference,  Prev: Tutorial<3>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.8 How to…
................

This section covers some typical turtle use-cases and approaches.

* Menu:

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::


File: python.info,  Node: Get started as quickly as possible,  Next: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to…

5.24.1.9 Get started as quickly as possible
...........................................

One of the joys of turtle graphics is the immediate, visual feedback
that’s available from simple commands - it’s an excellent way to
introduce children to programming ideas, with a minimum of overhead (not
just children, of course).

The turtle module makes this possible by exposing all its basic
functionality as functions, available with ‘from turtle import *’.  The
*note turtle graphics tutorial: 3aa2. covers this approach.

It’s worth noting that many of the turtle commands also have even more
terse equivalents, such as ‘fd()’ for *note forward(): 3aac.  These are
especially useful when working with learners for whom typing is not a
skill.

     You’ll need to have the *note Tk interface package: ef. installed
     on your system for turtle graphics to work.  Be warned that this is
     not always straightforward, so check this in advance if you’re
     planning to use turtle graphics with a learner.


File: python.info,  Node: Use the turtle module namespace,  Next: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Prev: Get started as quickly as possible,  Up: How to…

5.24.1.10 Use the ‘turtle’ module namespace
...........................................

Using ‘from turtle import *’ is convenient - but be warned that it
imports a rather large collection of objects, and if you’re doing
anything but turtle graphics you run the risk of a name conflict (this
becomes even more an issue if you’re using turtle graphics in a script
where other modules might be imported).

The solution is to use ‘import turtle’ - ‘fd()’ becomes ‘turtle.fd()’,
‘width()’ becomes ‘turtle.width()’ and so on.  (If typing “turtle” over
and over again becomes tedious, use for example ‘import turtle as t’
instead.)


File: python.info,  Node: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Next: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to…

5.24.1.11 Use turtle graphics in a script
.........................................

It’s recommended to use the ‘turtle’ module namespace as described
immediately above, for example:

     import turtle as t
     from random import random

     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

Another step is also required though - as soon as the script ends,
Python will also close the turtle’s window.  Add:

     t.mainloop()

to the end of the script.  The script will now wait to be dismissed and
will not exit until it is terminated, for example by closing the turtle
graphics window.


File: python.info,  Node: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Up: How to…

5.24.1.12 Use object-oriented turtle graphics
.............................................

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Explanation of the object-oriented interface: 3ab1.

Other than for very basic introductory purposes, or for trying things
out as quickly as possible, it’s more usual and much more powerful to
use the object-oriented approach to turtle graphics.  For example, this
allows multiple turtles on screen at once.

In this approach, the various turtle commands are methods of objects
(mostly of ‘Turtle’ objects).  You 'can' use the object-oriented
approach in the shell, but it would be more typical in a Python script.

The example above then becomes:

     from turtle import Turtle
     from random import random

     t = Turtle()
     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

     t.screen.mainloop()

Note the last line.  ‘t.screen’ is an instance of the *note Screen:
3ab2. that a Turtle instance exists on; it’s created automatically along
with the turtle.

The turtle’s screen can be customised, for example:

     t.screen.title('Object-oriented turtle demo')
     t.screen.bgcolor("orange")


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle graphics reference,  Next: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Prev: How to…,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.13 Turtle graphics reference
...................................

     Not: In the following documentation the argument list for functions
     is given.  Methods, of course, have the additional first argument
     'self' which is omitted here.

* Menu:

* Turtle methods::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen::


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle methods,  Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.24.1.14 Turtle methods
........................

Turtle motion

     Move and draw

               *note forward(): 3aac. | *note fd(): 3ab5.
               *note backward(): 3ab6. | *note bk(): 3ab7. | *note back(): 3ab8.
               *note right(): 3ab9. | *note rt(): 3aba.
               *note left(): 3abb. | *note lt(): 3abc.
               *note goto(): 3abd. | *note setpos(): 3abe. | *note setposition(): 3abf.
               *note teleport(): 153e.
               *note setx(): 3ac0.
               *note sety(): 3ac1.
               *note setheading(): 3ac2. | *note seth(): 3ac3.
               *note home(): 3ac4.
               *note circle(): 3ac5.
               *note dot(): 3ac6.
               *note stamp(): 3ac7.
               *note clearstamp(): 3ac8.
               *note clearstamps(): 3ac9.
               *note undo(): 3aca.
               *note speed(): 3acb.

     Tell Turtle’s state

               *note position(): 3acc. | *note pos(): 3acd.
               *note towards(): 3ace.
               *note xcor(): 3acf.
               *note ycor(): 3ad0.
               *note heading(): 3ad1.
               *note distance(): 3ad2.

     Setting and measurement

               *note degrees(): 3ad3.
               *note radians(): 3ad4.

Pen control

     Drawing state

               *note pendown(): 3ad5. | *note pd(): 3ad6. | *note down(): 3ad7.
               *note penup(): 3ad8. | *note pu(): 3ad9. | *note up(): 3ada.
               *note pensize(): 3adb. | *note width(): 3adc.
               *note pen(): 3add.
               *note isdown(): 3ade.

     Color control

               *note color(): 3adf.
               *note pencolor(): 3ae0.
               *note fillcolor(): 3ae1.

     Filling

               *note filling(): 3ae2.
               *note begin_fill(): 3ae3.
               *note end_fill(): 3ae4.

     More drawing control

               *note reset(): 3ae5.
               *note clear(): 3ae6.
               *note write(): 3ae7.

Turtle state

     Visibility

               *note showturtle(): 3ae8. | *note st(): 3ae9.
               *note hideturtle(): 3aea. | *note ht(): 3aeb.
               *note isvisible(): 3aec.

     Appearance

               *note shape(): 3aed.
               *note resizemode(): 3aee.
               *note shapesize(): 3aef. | *note turtlesize(): 3af0.
               *note shearfactor(): 3af1.
               *note settiltangle(): 549.
               *note tiltangle(): 54a.
               *note tilt(): 3af2.
               *note shapetransform(): 3af3.
               *note get_shapepoly(): 3af4.

Using events

          *note onclick(): 3af5.
          *note onrelease(): 3af6.
          *note ondrag(): 3af7.

Special Turtle methods

          *note begin_poly(): 3af8.
          *note end_poly(): 3af9.
          *note get_poly(): 3afa.
          *note clone(): 3afb.
          *note getturtle(): 3afc. | *note getpen(): 3afd.
          *note getscreen(): 3afe.
          *note setundobuffer(): 3aff.
          *note undobufferentries(): 3b00.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen,  Prev: Turtle methods,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.24.1.15 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
........................................

Window control

          *note bgcolor(): 3b02.
          *note bgpic(): 3b03.
          *note clearscreen(): 3b04.
          *note resetscreen(): 3b05.
          *note screensize(): 3b06.
          *note setworldcoordinates(): 3b07.

Animation control

          *note delay(): 3b08.
          *note tracer(): 3b09.
          *note update(): 3b0a.

Using screen events

          *note listen(): 3b0b.
          *note onkey(): 3b0c. | *note onkeyrelease(): 3b0d.
          *note onkeypress(): 3b0e.
          *note onclick(): 3af5. | *note onscreenclick(): 3b0f.
          *note ontimer(): 3b10.
          *note mainloop(): 3b11. | *note done(): 3b12.

Settings and special methods

          *note mode(): 3b13.
          *note colormode(): 3b14.
          *note getcanvas(): 3b15.
          *note getshapes(): 3b16.
          *note register_shape(): 3b17. | *note addshape(): 3b18.
          *note turtles(): 3b19.
          *note window_height(): 3b1a.
          *note window_width(): 3b1b.

Input methods

          *note textinput(): 16eb.
          *note numinput(): 16ec.

Methods specific to Screen

          *note bye(): 3b1c.
          *note exitonclick(): 3b1d.
          *note setup(): 3b1e.
          *note title(): 3b1f.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Prev: Turtle graphics reference,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.16 Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
.................................................................

Most of the examples in this section refer to a Turtle instance called
‘turtle’.

* Menu:

* Turtle motion::
* Tell Turtle’s state::
* Settings for measurement::
* Pen control: Pen control<2>.
* Turtle state::
* Using events::
* Special Turtle methods::
* Compound shapes::


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle motion,  Next: Tell Turtle’s state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.17 Turtle motion
.......................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.forward (distance)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.fd (distance)


     Parametreler: ‘distance’ – a number (integer or float)

     Move the turtle forward by the specified 'distance', in the
     direction the turtle is headed.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(25)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (25.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(-75)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-50.00,0.00)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.back (distance)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.bk (distance)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.backward (distance)


     Parametreler: ‘distance’ – a number

     Move the turtle backward by 'distance', opposite to the direction
     the turtle is headed.  Do not change the turtle’s heading.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.backward(30)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-30.00,0.00)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.right (angle)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.rt (angle)


     Parametreler: ‘angle’ – a number (integer or float)

     Turn turtle right by 'angle' units.  (Units are by default degrees,
     but can be set via the *note degrees(): 3ad3. and *note radians():
     3ad4. functions.)  Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode,
     see *note mode(): 3b13.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.right(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          337.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.left (angle)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.lt (angle)


     Parametreler: ‘angle’ – a number (integer or float)

     Turn turtle left by 'angle' units.  (Units are by default degrees,
     but can be set via the *note degrees(): 3ad3. and *note radians():
     3ad4. functions.)  Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode,
     see *note mode(): 3b13.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.left(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.goto (x, y=None)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.setpos (x, y=None)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.setposition (x, y=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers

        * ‘y’ – a number or ‘None’

     If 'y' is ‘None’, 'x' must be a pair of coordinates or a *note
     Vec2D: 3b22. (e.g.  as returned by *note pos(): 3acd.).

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  If the pen is down, draw
     line.  Do not change the turtle’s orientation.

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,30.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,80.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(tp)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (0.00,0.00)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.teleport (x, y=None, *, fill_gap=False)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘x’ – a number or ‘None’

        * ‘y’ – a number or ‘None’

        * ‘fill_gap’ – a boolean

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  Unlike goto(x, y), a line
     will not be drawn.  The turtle’s orientation does not change.  If
     currently filling, the polygon(s) teleported from will be filled
     after leaving, and filling will begin again after teleporting.
     This can be disabled with fill_gap=True, which makes the imaginary
     line traveled during teleporting act as a fill barrier like in
     goto(x, y).

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(60)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(y=10)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,10.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(20, 30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,30.00)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.setx (x)


     Parametreler: ‘x’ – a number (integer or float)

     Set the turtle’s first coordinate to 'x', leave second coordinate
     unchanged.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.setx(10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (10.00,240.00)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.sety (y)


     Parametreler: ‘y’ – a number (integer or float)

     Set the turtle’s second coordinate to 'y', leave first coordinate
     unchanged.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,40.00)
          >>> turtle.sety(-10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.setheading (to_angle)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.seth (to_angle)


     Parametreler: ‘to_angle’ – a number (integer or float)

     Set the orientation of the turtle to 'to_angle'.  Here are some
     common directions in degrees:

     standard mode           logo mode
                             
     -------------------------------------------------
                             
     0 - east                0 - north
                             
                             
     90 - north              90 - east
                             
                             
     180 - west              180 - south
                             
                             
     270 - south             270 - west
                             

          >>> turtle.setheading(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.home ()

     Move turtle to the origin – coordinates (0,0) – and set its heading
     to its start-orientation (which depends on the mode, see *note
     mode(): 3b13.).

          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)
          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.circle (radius, extent=None, steps=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘radius’ – a number

        * ‘extent’ – a number (or ‘None’)

        * ‘steps’ – an integer (or ‘None’)

     Draw a circle with given 'radius'.  The center is 'radius' units
     left of the turtle; 'extent' – an angle – determines which part of
     the circle is drawn.  If 'extent' is not given, draw the entire
     circle.  If 'extent' is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc
     is the current pen position.  Draw the arc in counterclockwise
     direction if 'radius' is positive, otherwise in clockwise
     direction.  Finally the direction of the turtle is changed by the
     amount of 'extent'.

     As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon,
     'steps' determines the number of steps to use.  If not given, it
     will be calculated automatically.  May be used to draw regular
     polygons.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(120, 180)  # draw a semicircle
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          180.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.dot (size=None, *color)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘size’ – an integer >= 1 (if given)

        * ‘color’ – a colorstring or a numeric color tuple

     Draw a circular dot with diameter 'size', using 'color'.  If 'size'
     is not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.dot()
          >>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (100.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.stamp ()

     Stamp a copy of the turtle shape onto the canvas at the current
     turtle position.  Return a stamp_id for that stamp, which can be
     used to delete it by calling ‘clearstamp(stamp_id)’.

          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.clearstamp (stampid)


     Parametreler: ‘stampid’ – an integer, must be return value of
     previous *note stamp(): 3ac7. call

     Delete stamp with given 'stampid'.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (150.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.clearstamps (n=None)


     Parametreler: ‘n’ – an integer (or ‘None’)

     Delete all or first/last 'n' of turtle’s stamps.  If 'n' is ‘None’,
     delete all stamps, if 'n' > 0 delete first 'n' stamps, else if 'n'
     < 0 delete last 'n' stamps.

          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          ...     turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps()

 -- Işlevi: turtle.undo ()

     Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s).  Number of available
     undo actions is determined by the size of the undobuffer.

          >>> for i in range(4):
          ...     turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
          ...
          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     turtle.undo()

 -- Işlevi: turtle.speed (speed=None)


     Parametreler: ‘speed’ – an integer in the range 0..10 or a
     speedstring (see below)

     Set the turtle’s speed to an integer value in the range 0..10.  If
     no argument is given, return current speed.

     If input is a number greater than 10 or smaller than 0.5, speed is
     set to 0.  Speedstrings are mapped to speedvalues as follows:

        * “fastest”: 0

        * “fast”: 10

        * “normal”: 6

        * “slow”: 3

        * “slowest”: 1

     Speeds from 1 to 10 enforce increasingly faster animation of line
     drawing and turtle turning.

     Attention: 'speed' = 0 means that 'no' animation takes place.
     forward/back makes turtle jump and likewise left/right make the
     turtle turn instantly.

          >>> turtle.speed()
          3
          >>> turtle.speed('normal')
          >>> turtle.speed()
          6
          >>> turtle.speed(9)
          >>> turtle.speed()
          9


File: python.info,  Node: Tell Turtle’s state,  Next: Settings for measurement,  Prev: Turtle motion,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.18 Tell Turtle’s state
.............................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.position ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.pos ()

     Return the turtle’s current location (x,y) (as a *note Vec2D: 3b22.
     vector).

          >>> turtle.pos()
          (440.00,-0.00)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.towards (x, y=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle
          instance

        * ‘y’ – a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’

     Return the angle between the line from turtle position to position
     specified by (x,y), the vector or the other turtle.  This depends
     on the turtle’s start orientation which depends on the mode -
     “standard”/”world” or “logo”.

          >>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
          >>> turtle.towards(0,0)
          225.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.xcor ()

     Return the turtle’s x coordinate.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(50)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (64.28,76.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
          64.27876

 -- Işlevi: turtle.ycor ()

     Return the turtle’s y coordinate.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> print(turtle.pos())
          (50.00,86.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
          86.60254

 -- Işlevi: turtle.heading ()

     Return the turtle’s current heading (value depends on the turtle
     mode, see *note mode(): 3b13.).

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(67)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.distance (x, y=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle
          instance

        * ‘y’ – a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’

     Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or
     the given other turtle, in turtle step units.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.distance(30,40)
          50.0
          >>> turtle.distance((30,40))
          50.0
          >>> joe = Turtle()
          >>> joe.forward(77)
          >>> turtle.distance(joe)
          77.0


File: python.info,  Node: Settings for measurement,  Next: Pen control<2>,  Prev: Tell Turtle’s state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.19 Settings for measurement
..................................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.degrees (fullcircle=360.0)


     Parametreler: ‘fullcircle’ – a number

     Set angle measurement units, i.e.  set number of “degrees” for a
     full circle.  Default value is 360 degrees.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

          >>> # Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
          >>> # grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
          >>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.degrees(360)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.radians ()

     Set the angle measurement units to radians.  Equivalent to
     ‘degrees(2*math.pi)’.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.radians()
          >>> turtle.heading()
          1.5707963267948966


File: python.info,  Node: Pen control<2>,  Next: Turtle state,  Prev: Settings for measurement,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.20 Pen control
.....................

* Menu:

* Drawing state::
* Color control::
* Filling::
* More drawing control::


File: python.info,  Node: Drawing state,  Next: Color control,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.21 Drawing state
.......................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.pendown ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.pd ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.down ()

     Pull the pen down – drawing when moving.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.penup ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.pu ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.up ()

     Pull the pen up – no drawing when moving.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.pensize (width=None)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.width (width=None)


     Parametreler: ‘width’ – a positive number

     Set the line thickness to 'width' or return it.  If resizemode is
     set to “auto” and turtleshape is a polygon, that polygon is drawn
     with the same line thickness.  If no argument is given, the current
     pensize is returned.

          >>> turtle.pensize()
          1
          >>> turtle.pensize(10)   # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn

 -- Işlevi: turtle.pen (pen=None, **pendict)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘pen’ – a dictionary with some or all of the below listed keys

        * ‘pendict’ – one or more keyword-arguments with the below
          listed keys as keywords

     Return or set the pen’s attributes in a “pen-dictionary” with the
     following key/value pairs:

        * “shown”: True/False

        * “pendown”: True/False

        * “pencolor”: color-string or color-tuple

        * “fillcolor”: color-string or color-tuple

        * “pensize”: positive number

        * “speed”: number in range 0..10

        * “resizemode”: “auto” or “user” or “noresize”

        * “stretchfactor”: (positive number, positive number)

        * “outline”: positive number

        * “tilt”: number

     This dictionary can be used as argument for a subsequent call to
     *note pen(): 3add. to restore the former pen-state.  Moreover one
     or more of these attributes can be provided as keyword-arguments.
     This can be used to set several pen attributes in one statement.

          >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
          [('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
           ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
           ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
           ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
          >>> penstate=turtle.pen()
          >>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
          >>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]

 -- Işlevi: turtle.isdown ()

     Return ‘True’ if pen is down, ‘False’ if it’s up.

          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          False
          >>> turtle.pendown()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Color control,  Next: Filling,  Prev: Drawing state,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.22 Color control
.......................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.pencolor (*args)

     Return or set the pencolor.

     Four input formats are allowed:

     ‘pencolor()’

          Return the current pencolor as color specification string or
          as a tuple (see example).  May be used as input to another
          color/pencolor/fillcolor call.

     ‘pencolor(colorstring)’

          Set pencolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color
          specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or
          ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘pencolor((r, g, b))’

          Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of 'r',
          'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see *note
          colormode(): 3b14.).

     ‘pencolor(r, g, b)’

          Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and
          'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, the outline of that polygon is drawn
     with the newly set pencolor.

          >>> colormode()
          1.0
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'red'
          >>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'brown'
          >>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
          >>> colormode(255)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
          >>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.fillcolor (*args)

     Return or set the fillcolor.

     Four input formats are allowed:

     ‘fillcolor()’

          Return the current fillcolor as color specification string,
          possibly in tuple format (see example).  May be used as input
          to another color/pencolor/fillcolor call.

     ‘fillcolor(colorstring)’

          Set fillcolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color
          specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or
          ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘fillcolor((r, g, b))’

          Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of
          'r', 'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the
          range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see
          *note colormode(): 3b14.).

     ‘fillcolor(r, g, b)’

          Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and
          'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn
     with the newly set fillcolor.

          >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          'violet'
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143))  # Integers, not floats
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (255.0, 255.0, 255.0)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.color (*args)

     Return or set pencolor and fillcolor.

     Several input formats are allowed.  They use 0 to 3 arguments as
     follows:

     ‘color()’

          Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a
          pair of color specification strings or tuples as returned by
          *note pencolor(): 3ae0. and *note fillcolor(): 3ae1.

     ‘color(colorstring)’, ‘color((r,g,b))’, ‘color(r,g,b)’

          Inputs as in *note pencolor(): 3ae0, set both, fillcolor and
          pencolor, to the given value.

     ‘color(colorstring1, colorstring2)’, ‘color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))’

          Equivalent to ‘pencolor(colorstring1)’ and
          ‘fillcolor(colorstring2)’ and analogously if the other input
          format is used.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon
     is drawn with the newly set colors.

          >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
          >>> turtle.color()
          ('red', 'green')
          >>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
          >>> color()
          ((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))

See also: Screen method *note colormode(): 3b14.


File: python.info,  Node: Filling,  Next: More drawing control,  Prev: Color control,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.23 Filling
.................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.filling ()

     Return fillstate (‘True’ if filling, ‘False’ else).

          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> if turtle.filling():
          ...    turtle.pensize(5)
          ... else:
          ...    turtle.pensize(3)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.begin_fill ()

     To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.end_fill ()

     Fill the shape drawn after the last call to *note begin_fill():
     3ae3.

     Whether or not overlap regions for self-intersecting polygons or
     multiple shapes are filled depends on the operating system
     graphics, type of overlap, and number of overlaps.  For example,
     the Turtle star above may be either all yellow or have some white
     regions.

          >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> turtle.circle(80)
          >>> turtle.end_fill()


File: python.info,  Node: More drawing control,  Prev: Filling,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.24.1.24 More drawing control
..............................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.reset ()

     Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen, re-center the turtle
     and set variables to the default values.

          >>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
          >>> turtle.left(100)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-22.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.clear ()

     Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen.  Do not move turtle.
     State and position of the turtle as well as drawings of other
     turtles are not affected.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.write (arg, move=False, align='left', font=('Arial',
          8, 'normal'))


     Parametreler:

        * ‘arg’ – object to be written to the TurtleScreen

        * ‘move’ – True/False

        * ‘align’ – one of the strings “left”, “center” or right”

        * ‘font’ – a triple (fontname, fontsize, fonttype)

     Write text - the string representation of 'arg' - at the current
     turtle position according to 'align' (“left”, “center” or “right”)
     and with the given font.  If 'move' is true, the pen is moved to
     the bottom-right corner of the text.  By default, 'move' is
     ‘False’.

          >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
          >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle state,  Next: Using events,  Prev: Pen control<2>,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.25 Turtle state
......................

* Menu:

* Visibility::
* Appearance::


File: python.info,  Node: Visibility,  Next: Appearance,  Up: Turtle state

5.24.1.26 Visibility
....................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.hideturtle ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.ht ()

     Make the turtle invisible.  It’s a good idea to do this while
     you’re in the middle of doing some complex drawing, because hiding
     the turtle speeds up the drawing observably.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()

 -- Işlevi: turtle.showturtle ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.st ()

     Make the turtle visible.

          >>> turtle.showturtle()

 -- Işlevi: turtle.isvisible ()

     Return ‘True’ if the Turtle is shown, ‘False’ if it’s hidden.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          False
          >>> turtle.showturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Appearance,  Prev: Visibility,  Up: Turtle state

5.24.1.27 Appearance
....................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.shape (name=None)


     Parametreler: ‘name’ – a string which is a valid shapename

     Set turtle shape to shape with given 'name' or, if name is not
     given, return name of current shape.  Shape with 'name' must exist
     in the TurtleScreen’s shape dictionary.  Initially there are the
     following polygon shapes: “arrow”, “turtle”, “circle”, “square”,
     “triangle”, “classic”.  To learn about how to deal with shapes see
     Screen method *note register_shape(): 3b17.

          >>> turtle.shape()
          'classic'
          >>> turtle.shape("turtle")
          >>> turtle.shape()
          'turtle'

 -- Işlevi: turtle.resizemode (rmode=None)


     Parametreler: ‘rmode’ – one of the strings “auto”, “user”,
     “noresize”

     Set resizemode to one of the values: “auto”, “user”, “noresize”.
     If 'rmode' is not given, return current resizemode.  Different
     resizemodes have the following effects:

        - “auto”: adapts the appearance of the turtle corresponding to
          the value of pensize.

        - “user”: adapts the appearance of the turtle according to the
          values of stretchfactor and outlinewidth (outline), which are
          set by *note shapesize(): 3aef.

        - “noresize”: no adaption of the turtle’s appearance takes
          place.

     ‘resizemode("user")’ is called by *note shapesize(): 3aef. when
     used with arguments.

          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'noresize'
          >>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'auto'

 -- Işlevi: turtle.shapesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.turtlesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘stretch_wid’ – positive number

        * ‘stretch_len’ – positive number

        * ‘outline’ – positive number

     Return or set the pen’s attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or
     outline.  Set resizemode to “user”.  If and only if resizemode is
     set to “user”, the turtle will be displayed stretched according to
     its stretchfactors: 'stretch_wid' is stretchfactor perpendicular to
     its orientation, 'stretch_len' is stretchfactor in direction of its
     orientation, 'outline' determines the width of the shape’s outline.

          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (1.0, 1.0, 1)
          >>> turtle.resizemode("user")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 8)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.shearfactor (shear=None)


     Parametreler: ‘shear’ – number (optional)

     Set or return the current shearfactor.  Shear the turtleshape
     according to the given shearfactor shear, which is the tangent of
     the shear angle.  Do 'not' change the turtle’s heading (direction
     of movement).  If shear is not given: return the current
     shearfactor, i.  e.  the tangent of the shear angle, by which lines
     parallel to the heading of the turtle are sheared.

          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor()
          0.5

 -- Işlevi: turtle.tilt (angle)


     Parametreler: ‘angle’ – a number

     Rotate the turtleshape by 'angle' from its current tilt-angle, but
     do 'not' change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.settiltangle (angle)


     Parametreler: ‘angle’ – a number

     Rotate the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by
     'angle', regardless of its current tilt-angle.  'Do not' change the
     turtle’s heading (direction of movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.settiltangle(45)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.settiltangle(-45)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

     3.1 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.tiltangle (angle=None)


     Parametreler: ‘angle’ – a number (optional)

     Set or return the current tilt-angle.  If angle is given, rotate
     the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle,
     regardless of its current tilt-angle.  Do 'not' change the turtle’s
     heading (direction of movement).  If angle is not given: return the
     current tilt-angle, i.  e.  the angle between the orientation of
     the turtleshape and the heading of the turtle (its direction of
     movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(45)
          >>> turtle.tiltangle()
          45.0

 -- Işlevi: turtle.shapetransform (t11=None, t12=None, t21=None,
          t22=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘t11’ – a number (optional)

        * ‘t12’ – a number (optional)

        * ‘t21’ – a number (optional)

        * ‘t12’ – a number (optional)

     Set or return the current transformation matrix of the turtle
     shape.

     If none of the matrix elements are given, return the transformation
     matrix as a tuple of 4 elements.  Otherwise set the given elements
     and transform the turtleshape according to the matrix consisting of
     first row t11, t12 and second row t21, t22.  The determinant t11 *
     t22 - t12 * t21 must not be zero, otherwise an error is raised.
     Modify stretchfactor, shearfactor and tiltangle according to the
     given matrix.

          >>> turtle = Turtle()
          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
          >>> turtle.shapetransform()
          (4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.get_shapepoly ()

     Return the current shape polygon as tuple of coordinate pairs.
     This can be used to define a new shape or components of a compound
     shape.

          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
          >>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
          ((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))


File: python.info,  Node: Using events,  Next: Special Turtle methods,  Prev: Turtle state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.28 Using events
......................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this turtle.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.  Example for the anonymous
     turtle, i.e.  the procedural way:

          >>> def turn(x, y):
          ...     left(180)
          ...
          >>> onclick(turn)  # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.
          >>> onclick(None)  # event-binding will be removed

 -- Işlevi: turtle.onrelease (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-button-release events on this turtle.  If 'fun'
     is ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

          >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
          ...     def glow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("red")
          ...     def unglow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("")
          ...
          >>> turtle = MyTurtle()
          >>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow)     # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,
          >>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.ondrag (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-move events on this turtle.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

     Remark: Every sequence of mouse-move-events on a turtle is preceded
     by a mouse-click event on that turtle.

          >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)

     Subsequently, clicking and dragging the Turtle will move it across
     the screen thereby producing handdrawings (if pen is down).


File: python.info,  Node: Special Turtle methods,  Next: Compound shapes,  Prev: Using events,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.29 Special Turtle methods
................................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.begin_poly ()

     Start recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position
     is first vertex of polygon.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.end_poly ()

     Stop recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position
     is last vertex of polygon.  This will be connected with the first
     vertex.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.get_poly ()

     Return the last recorded polygon.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.begin_poly()
          >>> turtle.fd(100)
          >>> turtle.left(20)
          >>> turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.end_poly()
          >>> p = turtle.get_poly()
          >>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.clone ()

     Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading
     and turtle properties.

          >>> mick = Turtle()
          >>> joe = mick.clone()

 -- Işlevi: turtle.getturtle ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.getpen ()

     Return the Turtle object itself.  Only reasonable use: as a
     function to return the “anonymous turtle”:

          >>> pet = getturtle()
          >>> pet.fd(50)
          >>> pet
          <turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>

 -- Işlevi: turtle.getscreen ()

     Return the *note TurtleScreen: 3b2f. object the turtle is drawing
     on.  TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object.

          >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
          >>> ts
          <turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
          >>> ts.bgcolor("pink")

 -- Işlevi: turtle.setundobuffer (size)


     Parametreler: ‘size’ – an integer or ‘None’

     Set or disable undobuffer.  If 'size' is an integer, an empty
     undobuffer of given size is installed.  'size' gives the maximum
     number of turtle actions that can be undone by the *note undo():
     3aca. method/function.  If 'size' is ‘None’, the undobuffer is
     disabled.

          >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.undobufferentries ()

     Return number of entries in the undobuffer.

          >>> while undobufferentries():
          ...     undo()


File: python.info,  Node: Compound shapes,  Prev: Special Turtle methods,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.24.1.30 Compound shapes
.........................

To use compound turtle shapes, which consist of several polygons of
different color, you must use the helper class *note Shape: 3b32.
explicitly as described below:

  1. Create an empty Shape object of type “compound”.

  2. Add as many components to this object as desired, using the *note
     addcomponent(): 3b33. method.

     For example:

          >>> s = Shape("compound")
          >>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
          >>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")

  3. Now add the Shape to the Screen’s shapelist and use it:

          >>> register_shape("myshape", s)
          >>> shape("myshape")

     Not: The *note Shape: 3b32. class is used internally by the *note
     register_shape(): 3b17. method in different ways.  The application
     programmer has to deal with the Shape class 'only' when using
     compound shapes like shown above!


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Next: Public classes,  Prev: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.31 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
....................................................................

Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance
called ‘screen’.

* Menu:

* Window control::
* Animation control::
* Using screen events::
* Input methods::
* Settings and special methods::
* Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.


File: python.info,  Node: Window control,  Next: Animation control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.32 Window control
........................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.bgcolor (*args)


     Parametreler: ‘args’ – a color string or three numbers in the range
     0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers

     Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen.

          >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          'orange'
          >>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          (128.0, 0.0, 128.0)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.bgpic (picname=None)


     Parametreler: ‘picname’ – a string, name of a gif-file or
     ‘"nopic"’, or ‘None’

     Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage.  If
     'picname' is a filename, set the corresponding image as background.
     If 'picname' is ‘"nopic"’, delete background image, if present.  If
     'picname' is ‘None’, return the filename of the current
     backgroundimage.

          >>> screen.bgpic()
          'nopic'
          >>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
          >>> screen.bgpic()
          "landscape.gif"

 -- Işlevi: turtle.clear ()

          Not: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘clearscreen’.  The global
          function ‘clear’ is a different one derived from the Turtle
          method ‘clear’.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.clearscreen ()

     Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen.  Reset
     the now empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background,
     no background image, no event bindings and tracing on.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.reset ()

          Not: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘resetscreen’.  The global
          function ‘reset’ is another one derived from the Turtle method
          ‘reset’.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.resetscreen ()

     Reset all Turtles on the Screen to their initial state.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.screensize (canvwidth=None, canvheight=None, bg=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘canvwidth’ – positive integer, new width of canvas in pixels

        * ‘canvheight’ – positive integer, new height of canvas in
          pixels

        * ‘bg’ – colorstring or color-tuple, new background color

     If no arguments are given, return current (canvaswidth,
     canvasheight).  Else resize the canvas the turtles are drawing on.
     Do not alter the drawing window.  To observe hidden parts of the
     canvas, use the scrollbars.  With this method, one can make visible
     those parts of a drawing which were outside the canvas before.

          >>> screen.screensize()
          (400, 300)
          >>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
          >>> screen.screensize()
          (2000, 1500)

     e.g.  to search for an erroneously escaped turtle ;-)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.setworldcoordinates (llx, lly, urx, ury)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘llx’ – a number, x-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas

        * ‘lly’ – a number, y-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas

        * ‘urx’ – a number, x-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas

        * ‘ury’ – a number, y-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas

     Set up user-defined coordinate system and switch to mode “world” if
     necessary.  This performs a ‘screen.reset()’.  If mode “world” is
     already active, all drawings are redrawn according to the new
     coordinates.

     'ATTENTION': in user-defined coordinate systems angles may appear
     distorted.

          >>> screen.reset()
          >>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
          >>> for _ in range(72):
          ...     left(10)
          ...
          >>> for _ in range(8):
          ...     left(45); fd(2)   # a regular octagon


File: python.info,  Node: Animation control,  Next: Using screen events,  Prev: Window control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.33 Animation control
...........................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.delay (delay=None)


     Parametreler: ‘delay’ – positive integer

     Set or return the drawing 'delay' in milliseconds.  (This is
     approximately the time interval between two consecutive canvas
     updates.)  The longer the drawing delay, the slower the animation.

     Optional argument:

          >>> screen.delay()
          10
          >>> screen.delay(5)
          >>> screen.delay()
          5

 -- Işlevi: turtle.tracer (n=None, delay=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘n’ – nonnegative integer

        * ‘delay’ – nonnegative integer

     Turn turtle animation on/off and set delay for update drawings.  If
     'n' is given, only each n-th regular screen update is really
     performed.  (Can be used to accelerate the drawing of complex
     graphics.)  When called without arguments, returns the currently
     stored value of n.  Second argument sets delay value (see *note
     delay(): 3b08.).

          >>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
          >>> dist = 2
          >>> for i in range(200):
          ...     fd(dist)
          ...     rt(90)
          ...     dist += 2

 -- Işlevi: turtle.update ()

     Perform a TurtleScreen update.  To be used when tracer is turned
     off.

See also the RawTurtle/Turtle method *note speed(): 3acb.


File: python.info,  Node: Using screen events,  Next: Input methods,  Prev: Animation control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.34 Using screen events
.............................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.listen (xdummy=None, ydummy=None)

     Set focus on TurtleScreen (in order to collect key-events).  Dummy
     arguments are provided in order to be able to pass *note listen():
     3b0b. to the onclick method.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.onkey (fun, key)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.onkeyrelease (fun, key)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments or ‘None’

        * ‘key’ – a string: key (e.g.  “a”) or key-symbol (e.g.
          “space”)

     Bind 'fun' to key-release event of key.  If 'fun' is ‘None’, event
     bindings are removed.  Remark: in order to be able to register
     key-events, TurtleScreen must have the focus.  (See method *note
     listen(): 3b0b.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...     lt(60)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- Işlevi: turtle.onkeypress (fun, key=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments or ‘None’

        * ‘key’ – a string: key (e.g.  “a”) or key-symbol (e.g.
          “space”)

     Bind 'fun' to key-press event of key if key is given, or to any
     key-press-event if no key is given.  Remark: in order to be able to
     register key-events, TurtleScreen must have focus.  (See method
     *note listen(): 3b0b.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- Işlevi: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.onscreenclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this screen.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

     Example for a TurtleScreen instance named ‘screen’ and a Turtle
     instance named ‘turtle’:

          >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will
          >>>                             # make the turtle move to the clicked point.
          >>> screen.onclick(None)        # remove event binding again

          Not: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘onscreenclick’.  The global
          function ‘onclick’ is another one derived from the Turtle
          method ‘onclick’.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.ontimer (fun, t=0)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments

        * ‘t’ – a number >= 0

     Install a timer that calls 'fun' after 't' milliseconds.

          >>> running = True
          >>> def f():
          ...     if running:
          ...         fd(50)
          ...         lt(60)
          ...         screen.ontimer(f, 250)
          >>> f()   ### makes the turtle march around
          >>> running = False

 -- Işlevi: turtle.mainloop ()
 -- Işlevi: turtle.done ()

     Starts event loop - calling Tkinter’s mainloop function.  Must be
     the last statement in a turtle graphics program.  Must 'not' be
     used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode (No subprocess)
     - for interactive use of turtle graphics.

          >>> screen.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Input methods,  Next: Settings and special methods,  Prev: Using screen events,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.35 Input methods
.......................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.textinput (title, prompt)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘title’ – string

        * ‘prompt’ – string

     Pop up a dialog window for input of a string.  Parameter title is
     the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing
     what information to input.  Return the string input.  If the dialog
     is canceled, return ‘None’.

          >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")

 -- Işlevi: turtle.numinput (title, prompt, default=None, minval=None,
          maxval=None)


     Parametreler:

        * ‘title’ – string

        * ‘prompt’ – string

        * ‘default’ – number (optional)

        * ‘minval’ – number (optional)

        * ‘maxval’ – number (optional)

     Pop up a dialog window for input of a number.  title is the title
     of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what
     numerical information to input.  default: default value, minval:
     minimum value for input, maxval: maximum value for input.  The
     number input must be in the range minval ..  maxval if these are
     given.  If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for
     correction.  Return the number input.  If the dialog is canceled,
     return ‘None’.

          >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)


File: python.info,  Node: Settings and special methods,  Next: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen,  Prev: Input methods,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.36 Settings and special methods
......................................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.mode (mode=None)


     Parametreler: ‘mode’ – one of the strings “standard”, “logo” or
     “world”

     Set turtle mode (“standard”, “logo” or “world”) and perform reset.
     If mode is not given, current mode is returned.

     Mode “standard” is compatible with old *note turtle: 101.  Mode
     “logo” is compatible with most Logo turtle graphics.  Mode “world”
     uses user-defined “world coordinates”.  'Attention': in this mode
     angles appear distorted if ‘x/y’ unit-ratio doesn’t equal 1.

     Mode             Initial turtle heading        positive angles
                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
     “standard”       to the right (east)           counterclockwise
                                                    
                                                    
     “logo”           upward (north)                clockwise
                                                    

          >>> mode("logo")   # resets turtle heading to north
          >>> mode()
          'logo'

 -- Işlevi: turtle.colormode (cmode=None)


     Parametreler: ‘cmode’ – one of the values 1.0 or 255

     Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255.  Subsequently 'r',
     'g', 'b' values of color triples have to be in the range
     0..*cmode*.

          >>> screen.colormode(1)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
          TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          1.0
          >>> screen.colormode(255)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          255
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)

 -- Işlevi: turtle.getcanvas ()

     Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen.  Useful for insiders who
     know what to do with a Tkinter Canvas.

          >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
          >>> cv
          <turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>

 -- Işlevi: turtle.getshapes ()

     Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes.

          >>> screen.getshapes()
          ['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']

 -- Işlevi: turtle.register_shape (name, shape=None)
 -- Işlevi: turtle.addshape (name, shape=None)

     There are three different ways to call this function:

       1. 'name' is the name of a gif-file and 'shape' is ‘None’:
          Install the corresponding image shape.

               >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")

               Not: Image shapes 'do not' rotate when turning the
               turtle, so they do not display the heading of the turtle!

       2. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a tuple of pairs
          of coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape.

               >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))

       3. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a (compound)
          *note Shape: 3b32. object: Install the corresponding compound
          shape.

     Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen’s shapelist.  Only thusly
     registered shapes can be used by issuing the command
     ‘shape(shapename)’.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.turtles ()

     Return the list of turtles on the screen.

          >>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
          ...     turtle.color("red")

 -- Işlevi: turtle.window_height ()

     Return the height of the turtle window.

          >>> screen.window_height()
          480

 -- Işlevi: turtle.window_width ()

     Return the width of the turtle window.

          >>> screen.window_width()
          640


File: python.info,  Node: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen,  Prev: Settings and special methods,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.24.1.37 Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen
.....................................................................

 -- Işlevi: turtle.bye ()

     Shut the turtlegraphics window.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.exitonclick ()

     Bind ‘bye()’ method to mouse clicks on the Screen.

     If the value “using_IDLE” in the configuration dictionary is
     ‘False’ (default value), also enter mainloop.  Remark: If IDLE with
     the ‘-n’ switch (no subprocess) is used, this value should be set
     to ‘True’ in ‘turtle.cfg’.  In this case IDLE’s own mainloop is
     active also for the client script.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.setup (width=_CFG['width'], height=_CFG['height'],
          startx=_CFG['leftright'], starty=_CFG['topbottom'])

     Set the size and position of the main window.  Default values of
     arguments are stored in the configuration dictionary and can be
     changed via a ‘turtle.cfg’ file.


     Parametreler:

        * ‘width’ – if an integer, a size in pixels, if a float, a
          fraction of the screen; default is 50% of screen

        * ‘height’ – if an integer, the height in pixels, if a float, a
          fraction of the screen; default is 75% of screen

        * ‘startx’ – if positive, starting position in pixels from the
          left edge of the screen, if negative from the right edge, if
          ‘None’, center window horizontally

        * ‘starty’ – if positive, starting position in pixels from the
          top edge of the screen, if negative from the bottom edge, if
          ‘None’, center window vertically

          >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
          >>>              # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen
          >>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
          >>>              # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers

 -- Işlevi: turtle.title (titlestring)


     Parametreler: ‘titlestring’ – a string that is shown in the
     titlebar of the turtle graphics window

     Set title of turtle window to 'titlestring'.

          >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")


File: python.info,  Node: Public classes,  Next: Explanation<2>,  Prev: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.38 Public classes
........................

 -- Sınıfı: turtle.RawTurtle (canvas)
 -- Sınıfı: turtle.RawPen (canvas)


     Parametreler: ‘canvas’ – a ‘tkinter.Canvas’, a *note
     ScrolledCanvas: 3b3f. or a *note TurtleScreen: 3b2f.

     Create a turtle.  The turtle has all methods described above as
     “methods of Turtle/RawTurtle”.

 -- Sınıfı: turtle.Turtle

     Subclass of RawTurtle, has the same interface but draws on a
     default *note Screen: 3ab2. object created automatically when
     needed for the first time.

 -- Sınıfı: turtle.TurtleScreen (cv)


     Parametreler: ‘cv’ – a ‘tkinter.Canvas’

     Provides screen oriented methods like *note bgcolor(): 3b02. etc.
     that are described above.

 -- Sınıfı: turtle.Screen

     Subclass of TurtleScreen, with *note four methods added: 3b3b.

 -- Sınıfı: turtle.ScrolledCanvas (master)


     Parametreler: ‘master’ – some Tkinter widget to contain the
     ScrolledCanvas, i.e.  a Tkinter-canvas with scrollbars added

     Used by class Screen, which thus automatically provides a
     ScrolledCanvas as playground for the turtles.

 -- Sınıfı: turtle.Shape (type_, data)


     Parametreler: ‘type_’ – one of the strings “polygon”, “image”,
     “compound”

     Data structure modeling shapes.  The pair ‘(type_, data)’ must
     follow this specification:

     'type_'         'data'
                     
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     “polygon”       a polygon-tuple, i.e.  a tuple of pairs of coordinates
                     
                     
     “image”         an image (in this form only used internally!)
                     
                     
     “compound”      ‘None’ (a compound shape has to be constructed using the
                     *note addcomponent(): 3b33. method)
                     

      -- Yöntemi: addcomponent (poly, fill, outline=None)


          Parametreler:

             * ‘poly’ – a polygon, i.e.  a tuple of pairs of numbers

             * ‘fill’ – a color the 'poly' will be filled with

             * ‘outline’ – a color for the poly’s outline (if given)

          Example:

               >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
               >>> s = Shape("compound")
               >>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
               >>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape()

          See *note Compound shapes: 3b31.

 -- Sınıfı: turtle.Vec2D (x, y)

     A two-dimensional vector class, used as a helper class for
     implementing turtle graphics.  May be useful for turtle graphics
     programs too.  Derived from tuple, so a vector is a tuple!

     Provides (for 'a', 'b' vectors, 'k' number):

        * ‘a + b’ vector addition

        * ‘a - b’ vector subtraction

        * ‘a * b’ inner product

        * ‘k * a’ and ‘a * k’ multiplication with scalar

        * ‘abs(a)’ absolute value of a

        * ‘a.rotate(angle)’ rotation


File: python.info,  Node: Explanation<2>,  Next: Help and configuration,  Prev: Public classes,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.39 Explanation
.....................

A turtle object draws on a screen object, and there a number of key
classes in the turtle object-oriented interface that can be used to
create them and relate them to each other.

A *note Turtle: 3b40. instance will automatically create a *note Screen:
3ab2. instance if one is not already present.

‘Turtle’ is a subclass of *note RawTurtle: 3b3d, which 'doesn’t'
automatically create a drawing surface - a 'canvas' will need to be
provided or created for it.  The 'canvas' can be a ‘tkinter.Canvas’,
*note ScrolledCanvas: 3b3f. or *note TurtleScreen: 3b2f.

*note TurtleScreen: 3b2f. is the basic drawing surface for a turtle.
*note Screen: 3ab2. is a subclass of ‘TurtleScreen’, and includes *note
some additional methods: 3b3b. for managing its appearance (including
size and title) and behaviour.  ‘TurtleScreen’’s constructor needs a
‘tkinter.Canvas’ or a *note ScrolledCanvas: 3b3f. as an argument.

The functional interface for turtle graphics uses the various methods of
‘Turtle’ and ‘TurtleScreen’/‘Screen’.  Behind the scenes, a screen
object is automatically created whenever a function derived from a
‘Screen’ method is called.  Similarly, a turtle object is automatically
created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method is
called.

To use multiple turtles on a screen, the object-oriented interface must
be used.


File: python.info,  Node: Help and configuration,  Next: turtledemo — Demo scripts,  Prev: Explanation<2>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.40 Help and configuration
................................

* Menu:

* How to use help::
* Translation of docstrings into different languages::
* How to configure Screen and Turtles::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use help,  Next: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Up: Help and configuration

5.24.1.41 How to use help
.........................

The public methods of the Screen and Turtle classes are documented
extensively via docstrings.  So these can be used as online-help via the
Python help facilities:

   - When using IDLE, tooltips show the signatures and first lines of
     the docstrings of typed in function-/method calls.

   - Calling *note help(): 72a. on methods or functions displays the
     docstrings:

          >>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
          Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.


              >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "orange"
              >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "#800080"

          >>> help(Turtle.penup)
          Help on method penup in module turtle:

          penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              >>> turtle.penup()

   - The docstrings of the functions which are derived from methods have
     a modified form:

          >>> help(bgcolor)
          Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(*args)
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.

              Example::

                >>> bgcolor("orange")
                >>> bgcolor()
                "orange"
                >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
                >>> bgcolor()
                "#800080"

          >>> help(penup)
          Help on function penup in module turtle:

          penup()
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              Example:
              >>> penup()

These modified docstrings are created automatically together with the
function definitions that are derived from the methods at import time.


File: python.info,  Node: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Next: How to configure Screen and Turtles,  Prev: How to use help,  Up: Help and configuration

5.24.1.42 Translation of docstrings into different languages
............................................................

There is a utility to create a dictionary the keys of which are the
method names and the values of which are the docstrings of the public
methods of the classes Screen and Turtle.

 -- Işlevi: turtle.write_docstringdict (filename='turtle_docstringdict')


     Parametreler: ‘filename’ – a string, used as filename

     Create and write docstring-dictionary to a Python script with the
     given filename.  This function has to be called explicitly (it is
     not used by the turtle graphics classes).  The docstring dictionary
     will be written to the Python script ‘`filename'.py’.  It is
     intended to serve as a template for translation of the docstrings
     into different languages.

If you (or your students) want to use *note turtle: 101. with online
help in your native language, you have to translate the docstrings and
save the resulting file as e.g.  ‘turtle_docstringdict_german.py’.

If you have an appropriate entry in your ‘turtle.cfg’ file this
dictionary will be read in at import time and will replace the original
English docstrings.

At the time of this writing there are docstring dictionaries in German
and in Italian.  (Requests please to <glingl@aon.at>.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to configure Screen and Turtles,  Prev: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Up: Help and configuration

5.24.1.43 How to configure Screen and Turtles
.............................................

The built-in default configuration mimics the appearance and behaviour
of the old turtle module in order to retain best possible compatibility
with it.

If you want to use a different configuration which better reflects the
features of this module or which better fits to your needs, e.g.  for
use in a classroom, you can prepare a configuration file ‘turtle.cfg’
which will be read at import time and modify the configuration according
to its settings.

The built in configuration would correspond to the following
‘turtle.cfg’:

     width = 0.5
     height = 0.75
     leftright = None
     topbottom = None
     canvwidth = 400
     canvheight = 300
     mode = standard
     colormode = 1.0
     delay = 10
     undobuffersize = 1000
     shape = classic
     pencolor = black
     fillcolor = black
     resizemode = noresize
     visible = True
     language = english
     exampleturtle = turtle
     examplescreen = screen
     title = Python Turtle Graphics
     using_IDLE = False

Short explanation of selected entries:

   - The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the *note
     Screen.setup: 3b1e. method.

   - Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method *note
     Screen.screensize: 3b06.

   - 'shape' can be any of the built-in shapes, e.g: arrow, turtle, etc.
     For more info try ‘help(shape)’.

   - If you want to use no fill color (i.e.  make the turtle
     transparent), you have to write ‘fillcolor = ""’ (but all nonempty
     strings must not have quotes in the cfg file).

   - If you want to reflect the turtle its state, you have to use
     ‘resizemode = auto’.

   - If you set e.g.  ‘language = italian’ the docstringdict
     ‘turtle_docstringdict_italian.py’ will be loaded at import time (if
     present on the import path, e.g.  in the same directory as *note
     turtle: 101.).

   - The entries 'exampleturtle' and 'examplescreen' define the names of
     these objects as they occur in the docstrings.  The transformation
     of method-docstrings to function-docstrings will delete these names
     from the docstrings.

   - 'using_IDLE': Set this to ‘True’ if you regularly work with IDLE
     and its ‘-n’ switch (“no subprocess”).  This will prevent *note
     exitonclick(): 3b1d. to enter the mainloop.

There can be a ‘turtle.cfg’ file in the directory where *note turtle:
101. is stored and an additional one in the current working directory.
The latter will override the settings of the first one.

The ‘Lib/turtledemo’ directory contains a ‘turtle.cfg’ file.  You can
study it as an example and see its effects when running the demos
(preferably not from within the demo-viewer).


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo — Demo scripts,  Next: Changes since Python 2 6,  Prev: Help and configuration,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.44 ‘turtledemo’ — Demo scripts
.....................................

The *note turtledemo: 102. package includes a set of demo scripts.
These scripts can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as
follows:

     python -m turtledemo

Alternatively, you can run the demo scripts individually.  For example,

     python -m turtledemo.bytedesign

The *note turtledemo: 102. package directory contains:

   - A demo viewer ‘__main__.py’ which can be used to view the
     sourcecode of the scripts and run them at the same time.

   - Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the *note
     turtle: 101. module.  Examples can be accessed via the Examples
     menu.  They can also be run standalone.

   - A ‘turtle.cfg’ file which serves as an example of how to write and
     use such files.

The demo scripts are:

Name                 Description                        Features
                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
bytedesign           complex classical turtle           *note tracer(): 3b09,
                     graphics pattern                   delay,
                                                        *note update(): 3b0a.
                                                        
                                                        
chaos                graphs Verhulst dynamics, shows    world coordinates
                     that computer’s computations can   
                     generate results sometimes
                     against the common sense
                     expectations
                     
                                                        
clock                analog clock showing time of       turtles as clock’s hands,
                     your computer                      ontimer
                                                        
                                                        
colormixer           experiment with r, g, b            *note ondrag(): 3af7.
                                                        
                                                        
forest               3 breadth-first trees              randomization
                                                        
                                                        
fractalcurves        Hilbert & Koch curves              recursion
                                                        
                                                        
lindenmayer          ethnomathematics (indian kolams)   L-System
                                                        
                                                        
minimal_hanoi        Towers of Hanoi                    Rectangular Turtles as
                                                        Hanoi discs (shape,
                                                        shapesize)
                                                        
                                                        
nim                  play the classical nim game with   turtles as nimsticks,
                     three heaps of sticks against      event driven (mouse,
                     the computer.                      keyboard)
                                                        
                                                        
paint                super minimalistic drawing         *note onclick(): 3af5.
                     program                            
                     
                                                        
peace                elementary                         turtle: appearance and
                                                        animation
                                                        
                                                        
penrose              aperiodic tiling with kites and    *note stamp(): 3ac7.
                     darts                              
                     
                                                        
planet_and_moon      simulation of gravitational        compound shapes,
                     system                             *note Vec2D: 3b22.
                                                        
                                                        
rosette              a pattern from the wikipedia       *note clone(): 3afb,
                     article on turtle graphics         *note undo(): 3aca.
                                                        
                                                        
round_dance          dancing turtles rotating           compound shapes, clone
                     pairwise in opposite direction     shapesize, tilt,
                                                        get_shapepoly, update
                                                        
                                                        
sorting_animate      visual demonstration of            simple alignment,
                     different sorting methods          randomization
                                                        
                                                        
tree                 a (graphical) breadth first tree   *note clone(): 3afb.
                     (using generators)                 
                     
                                                        
two_canvases         simple design                      turtles on two canvases
                                                        
                                                        
yinyang              another elementary example         *note circle(): 3ac5.
                                                        

Have fun!


File: python.info,  Node: Changes since Python 2 6,  Next: Changes since Python 3 0,  Prev: turtledemo — Demo scripts,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.45 Changes since Python 2.6
..................................

   - The methods *note Turtle.tracer: 3b09, *note Turtle.window_width:
     3b1b. and *note Turtle.window_height: 3b1a. have been eliminated.
     Methods with these names and functionality are now available only
     as methods of *note Screen: 3ab2.  The functions derived from these
     remain available.  (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods
     were merely duplications of the corresponding *note TurtleScreen:
     3b2f./*note Screen: 3ab2. methods.)

   - The method ‘Turtle.fill()’ has been eliminated.  The behaviour of
     *note begin_fill(): 3ae3. and *note end_fill(): 3ae4. have changed
     slightly: now every filling process must be completed with an
     ‘end_fill()’ call.

   - A method *note Turtle.filling: 3ae2. has been added.  It returns a
     boolean value: ‘True’ if a filling process is under way, ‘False’
     otherwise.  This behaviour corresponds to a ‘fill()’ call without
     arguments in Python 2.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes since Python 3 0,  Prev: Changes since Python 2 6,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.24.1.46 Changes since Python 3.0
..................................

   - The *note Turtle: 3b40. methods *note shearfactor(): 3af1, *note
     shapetransform(): 3af3. and *note get_shapepoly(): 3af4. have been
     added.  Thus the full range of regular linear transforms is now
     available for transforming turtle shapes.  *note tiltangle(): 54a.
     has been enhanced in functionality: it now can be used to get or
     set the tilt angle.  *note settiltangle(): 549. has been
     deprecated.

   - The *note Screen: 3ab2. method *note onkeypress(): 3b0e. has been
     added as a complement to *note onkey(): 3b0c.  As the latter binds
     actions to the key release event, an alias: *note onkeyrelease():
     3b0d. was also added for it.

   - The method *note Screen.mainloop: 3b11. has been added, so there is
     no longer a need to use the standalone *note mainloop(): 3b11.
     function when working with *note Screen: 3ab2. and *note Turtle:
     3b40. objects.

   - Two input methods have been added: *note Screen.textinput: 16eb.
     and *note Screen.numinput: 16ec.  These pop up input dialogs and
     return strings and numbers respectively.

   - Two example scripts ‘tdemo_nim.py’ and ‘tdemo_round_dance.py’ have
     been added to the ‘Lib/turtledemo’ directory.


File: python.info,  Node: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Next: shlex — Simple lexical analysis,  Prev: turtle — Turtle graphics,  Up: Program Frameworks

5.24.2 ‘cmd’ — Support for line-oriented command interpreters
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/cmd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note Cmd: 3b4c. class provides a simple framework for writing
line-oriented command interpreters.  These are often useful for test
harnesses, administrative tools, and prototypes that will later be
wrapped in a more sophisticated interface.

 -- Sınıfı: cmd.Cmd (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None)

     A *note Cmd: 3b4c. instance or subclass instance is a line-oriented
     interpreter framework.  There is no good reason to instantiate
     *note Cmd: 3b4c. itself; rather, it’s useful as a superclass of an
     interpreter class you define yourself in order to inherit *note
     Cmd: 3b4c.’s methods and encapsulate action methods.

     The optional argument 'completekey' is the *note readline: b9. name
     of a completion key; it defaults to ‘Tab’.  If 'completekey' is not
     *note None: 488. and *note readline: b9. is available, command
     completion is done automatically.

     The optional arguments 'stdin' and 'stdout' specify the input and
     output file objects that the Cmd instance or subclass instance will
     use for input and output.  If not specified, they will default to
     *note sys.stdin: 2c9. and *note sys.stdout: 943.

     If you want a given 'stdin' to be used, make sure to set the
     instance’s *note use_rawinput: 3b4d. attribute to ‘False’,
     otherwise 'stdin' will be ignored.

* Menu:

* Cmd Objects::
* Cmd Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/cmd.py


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd Objects,  Next: Cmd Example,  Up: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

5.24.2.1 Cmd Objects
....................

A *note Cmd: 3b4c. instance has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.cmdloop (intro=None)

     Repeatedly issue a prompt, accept input, parse an initial prefix
     off the received input, and dispatch to action methods, passing
     them the remainder of the line as argument.

     The optional argument is a banner or intro string to be issued
     before the first prompt (this overrides the *note intro: 3b51.
     class attribute).

     If the *note readline: b9. module is loaded, input will
     automatically inherit ‘bash’-like history-list editing (e.g.
     ‘Control’-‘P’ scrolls back to the last command, ‘Control’-‘N’
     forward to the next one, ‘Control’-‘F’ moves the cursor to the
     right non-destructively, ‘Control’-‘B’ moves the cursor to the left
     non-destructively, etc.).

     An end-of-file on input is passed back as the string ‘'EOF'’.

     An interpreter instance will recognize a command name ‘foo’ if and
     only if it has a method ‘do_foo()’.  As a special case, a line
     beginning with the character ‘'?'’ is dispatched to the method
     *note do_help(): 3b52.  As another special case, a line beginning
     with the character ‘'!'’ is dispatched to the method ‘do_shell()’
     (if such a method is defined).

     This method will return when the *note postcmd(): 3b53. method
     returns a true value.  The 'stop' argument to *note postcmd():
     3b53. is the return value from the command’s corresponding ‘do_*()’
     method.

     If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done
     automatically, and completing of commands args is done by calling
     ‘complete_foo()’ with arguments 'text', 'line', 'begidx', and
     'endidx'.  'text' is the string prefix we are attempting to match:
     all returned matches must begin with it.  'line' is the current
     input line with leading whitespace removed, 'begidx' and 'endidx'
     are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which
     could be used to provide different completion depending upon which
     position the argument is in.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.do_help (arg)

     All subclasses of *note Cmd: 3b4c. inherit a predefined
     ‘do_help()’.  This method, called with an argument ‘'bar'’, invokes
     the corresponding method ‘help_bar()’, and if that is not present,
     prints the docstring of ‘do_bar()’, if available.  With no
     argument, ‘do_help()’ lists all available help topics (that is, all
     commands with corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods or commands that
     have docstrings), and also lists any undocumented commands.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.onecmd (str)

     Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to
     the prompt.  This may be overridden, but should not normally need
     to be; see the *note precmd(): 3b55. and *note postcmd(): 3b53.
     methods for useful execution hooks.  The return value is a flag
     indicating whether interpretation of commands by the interpreter
     should stop.  If there is a ‘do_*()’ method for the command 'str',
     the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return
     value from the *note default(): 3b56. method is returned.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.emptyline ()

     Method called when an empty line is entered in response to the
     prompt.  If this method is not overridden, it repeats the last
     nonempty command entered.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.default (line)

     Method called on an input line when the command prefix is not
     recognized.  If this method is not overridden, it prints an error
     message and returns.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.completedefault (text, line, begidx, endidx)

     Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific
     ‘complete_*()’ method is available.  By default, it returns an
     empty list.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.columnize (list, displaywidth=80)

     Method called to display a list of strings as a compact set of
     columns.  Each column is only as wide as necessary.  Columns are
     separated by two spaces for readability.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.precmd (line)

     Hook method executed just before the command line 'line' is
     interpreted, but after the input prompt is generated and issued.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3b4c.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.  The return value is used as the command
     which will be executed by the *note onecmd(): 3b54. method; the
     *note precmd(): 3b55. implementation may re-write the command or
     simply return 'line' unchanged.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.postcmd (stop, line)

     Hook method executed just after a command dispatch is finished.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3b4c.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.  'line' is the command line which was
     executed, and 'stop' is a flag which indicates whether execution
     will be terminated after the call to *note postcmd(): 3b53.; this
     will be the return value of the *note onecmd(): 3b54. method.  The
     return value of this method will be used as the new value for the
     internal flag which corresponds to 'stop'; returning false will
     cause interpretation to continue.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.preloop ()

     Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3b50. is called.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3b4c.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.

 -- Yöntemi: Cmd.postloop ()

     Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3b50. is about to
     return.  This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 3b4c.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.

Instances of *note Cmd: 3b4c. subclasses have some public instance
variables:

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.prompt

     The prompt issued to solicit input.

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.identchars

     The string of characters accepted for the command prefix.

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.lastcmd

     The last nonempty command prefix seen.

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.cmdqueue

     A list of queued input lines.  The cmdqueue list is checked in
     *note cmdloop(): 3b50. when new input is needed; if it is nonempty,
     its elements will be processed in order, as if entered at the
     prompt.

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.intro

     A string to issue as an intro or banner.  May be overridden by
     giving the *note cmdloop(): 3b50. method an argument.

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.doc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for documented
     commands.

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.misc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     miscellaneous help topics (that is, there are ‘help_*()’ methods
     without corresponding ‘do_*()’ methods).

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.undoc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     undocumented commands (that is, there are ‘do_*()’ methods without
     corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods).

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.ruler

     The character used to draw separator lines under the help-message
     headers.  If empty, no ruler line is drawn.  It defaults to ‘'='’.

 -- Özniteliği: Cmd.use_rawinput

     A flag, defaulting to true.  If true, *note cmdloop(): 3b50. uses
     *note input(): 1182. to display a prompt and read the next command;
     if false, *note sys.stdout.write(): 943. and *note
     sys.stdin.readline(): 2c9. are used.  (This means that by importing
     *note readline: b9, on systems that support it, the interpreter
     will automatically support ‘Emacs’-like line editing and
     command-history keystrokes.)


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd Example,  Prev: Cmd Objects,  Up: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

5.24.2.2 Cmd Example
....................

The *note cmd: 19. module is mainly useful for building custom shells
that let a user work with a program interactively.

This section presents a simple example of how to build a shell around a
few of the commands in the *note turtle: 101. module.

Basic turtle commands such as *note forward(): 3aac. are added to a
*note Cmd: 3b4c. subclass with method named ‘do_forward()’.  The
argument is converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module.
The docstring is used in the help utility provided by the shell.

The example also includes a basic record and playback facility
implemented with the *note precmd(): 3b55. method which is responsible
for converting the input to lowercase and writing the commands to a
file.  The ‘do_playback()’ method reads the file and adds the recorded
commands to the *note cmdqueue: 3b5e. for immediate playback:

     import cmd, sys
     from turtle import *

     class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd):
         intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.\n'
         prompt = '(turtle) '
         file = None

         # ----- basic turtle commands -----
         def do_forward(self, arg):
             'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10'
             forward(*parse(arg))
         def do_right(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20'
             right(*parse(arg))
         def do_left(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90'
             left(*parse(arg))
         def do_goto(self, arg):
             'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200'
             goto(*parse(arg))
         def do_home(self, arg):
             'Return turtle to the home position:  HOME'
             home()
         def do_circle(self, arg):
             'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50'
             circle(*parse(arg))
         def do_position(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle position:  POSITION'
             print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position())
         def do_heading(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING'
             print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),))
         def do_color(self, arg):
             'Set the color:  COLOR BLUE'
             color(arg.lower())
         def do_undo(self, arg):
             'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO'
         def do_reset(self, arg):
             'Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET'
             reset()
         def do_bye(self, arg):
             'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE'
             print('Thank you for using Turtle')
             self.close()
             bye()
             return True

         # ----- record and playback -----
         def do_record(self, arg):
             'Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd'
             self.file = open(arg, 'w')
         def do_playback(self, arg):
             'Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd'
             self.close()
             with open(arg) as f:
                 self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines())
         def precmd(self, line):
             line = line.lower()
             if self.file and 'playback' not in line:
                 print(line, file=self.file)
             return line
         def close(self):
             if self.file:
                 self.file.close()
                 self.file = None

     def parse(arg):
         'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple'
         return tuple(map(int, arg.split()))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         TurtleShell().cmdloop()

Here is a sample session with the turtle shell showing the help
functions, using blank lines to repeat commands, and the simple record
and playback facility:

     Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.

     (turtle) ?

     Documented commands (type help <topic>):
     ========================================
     bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
     circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo

     (turtle) help forward
     Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
     (turtle) record spiral.cmd
     (turtle) position
     Current position is 0 0

     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 0

     (turtle) reset
     (turtle) circle 20
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 40
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 60
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 80
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 100
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 500
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 300
     (turtle) playback spiral.cmd
     Current position is 0 0

     Current heading is 0

     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) bye
     Thank you for using Turtle


File: python.info,  Node: shlex — Simple lexical analysis,  Prev: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Up: Program Frameworks

5.24.3 ‘shlex’ — Simple lexical analysis
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/shlex.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note shlex: b50. class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers for
simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell.  This will often be
useful for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files for
Python applications) or for parsing quoted strings.

The *note shlex: c3. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: shlex.split (s, comments=False, posix=True)

     Split the string 's' using shell-like syntax.  If 'comments' is
     *note False: 9a8. (the default), the parsing of comments in the
     given string will be disabled (setting the *note commenters: 3b67.
     attribute of the *note shlex: b50. instance to the empty string).
     This function operates in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX
     mode if the 'posix' argument is false.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now raises
     an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 2c9.

 -- Işlevi: shlex.join (split_command)

     Concatenate the tokens of the list 'split_command' and return a
     string.  This function is the inverse of *note split(): 2c8.

          >>> from shlex import join
          >>> print(join(['echo', '-n', 'Multiple words']))
          echo -n 'Multiple words'

     The returned value is shell-escaped to protect against injection
     vulnerabilities (see *note quote(): fce.).

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: shlex.quote (s)

     Return a shell-escaped version of the string 's'.  The returned
     value is a string that can safely be used as one token in a shell
     command line, for cases where you cannot use a list.
          Uyarı: The ‘shlex’ module is 'only designed for Unix shells'.

          The *note quote(): fce. function is not guaranteed to be
          correct on non-POSIX compliant shells or shells from other
          operating systems such as Windows.  Executing commands quoted
          by this module on such shells can open up the possibility of a
          command injection vulnerability.

          Consider using functions that pass command arguments with
          lists such as *note subprocess.run(): 9fc. with ‘shell=False’.

     This idiom would be unsafe:

          >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename)
          >>> print(command)  # executed by a shell: boom!
          ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~

     *note quote(): fce. lets you plug the security hole:

          >>> from shlex import quote
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename))
          >>> print(command)
          ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command))
          >>> print(remote_command)
          ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"''

     The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with *note split():
     2c8.:

          >>> from shlex import split
          >>> remote_command = split(remote_command)
          >>> remote_command
          ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"]
          >>> command = split(remote_command[-1])
          >>> command
          ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~']

     Added in version 3.3.

The *note shlex: c3. module defines the following class:

 -- Sınıfı: shlex.shlex (instream=None, infile=None, posix=False,
          punctuation_chars=False)

     A *note shlex: b50. instance or subclass instance is a lexical
     analyzer object.  The initialization argument, if present,
     specifies where to read characters from.  It must be a
     file-/stream-like object with *note read(): 1ace. and *note
     readline(): 1b06. methods, or a string.  If no argument is given,
     input will be taken from ‘sys.stdin’.  The second optional argument
     is a filename string, which sets the initial value of the *note
     infile: 3b68. attribute.  If the 'instream' argument is omitted or
     equal to ‘sys.stdin’, this second argument defaults to “stdin”.
     The 'posix' argument defines the operational mode: when 'posix' is
     not true (default), the *note shlex: b50. instance will operate in
     compatibility mode.  When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex:
     b50. will try to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell parsing
     rules.  The 'punctuation_chars' argument provides a way to make the
     behaviour even closer to how real shells parse.  This can take a
     number of values: the default value, ‘False’, preserves the
     behaviour seen under Python 3.5 and earlier.  If set to ‘True’,
     then parsing of the characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of
     these characters (considered punctuation characters) is returned as
     a single token.  If set to a non-empty string of characters, those
     characters will be used as the punctuation characters.  Any
     characters in the *note wordchars: 3b69. attribute that appear in
     'punctuation_chars' will be removed from *note wordchars: 3b69.
     See *note Improved Compatibility with Shells: b51. for more
     information.  'punctuation_chars' can be set only upon *note shlex:
     b50. instance creation and can’t be modified later.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'punctuation_chars' parameter was added.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note configparser: 22.

     Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows ‘.ini’ files.

* Menu:

* shlex Objects::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/shlex.py


File: python.info,  Node: shlex Objects,  Next: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis

5.24.3.1 shlex Objects
......................

A *note shlex: b50. instance has the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: shlex.get_token ()

     Return a token.  If tokens have been stacked using *note
     push_token(): 3b6d, pop a token off the stack.  Otherwise, read one
     from the input stream.  If reading encounters an immediate
     end-of-file, *note eof: 3b6e. is returned (the empty string (‘''’)
     in non-POSIX mode, and ‘None’ in POSIX mode).

 -- Yöntemi: shlex.push_token (str)

     Push the argument onto the token stack.

 -- Yöntemi: shlex.read_token ()

     Read a raw token.  Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret
     source requests.  (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and
     is documented here only for the sake of completeness.)

 -- Yöntemi: shlex.sourcehook (filename)

     When *note shlex: b50. detects a source request (see *note source:
     3b71. below) this method is given the following token as argument,
     and expected to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open
     file-like object.

     Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument.  If
     the result is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source
     request in effect, or the previous source was a stream (such as
     ‘sys.stdin’), the result is left alone.  Otherwise, if the result
     is a relative pathname, the directory part of the name of the file
     immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is prepended
     (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles ‘#include
     "file.h"’).

     The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and
     returned as the first component of the tuple, with *note open():
     2a6. called on it to yield the second component.  (Note: this is
     the reverse of the order of arguments in instance initialization!)

     This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory
     search paths, addition of file extensions, and other namespace
     hacks.  There is no corresponding ‘close’ hook, but a shlex
     instance will call the *note close(): 1865. method of the sourced
     input stream when it returns EOF.

     For more explicit control of source stacking, use the *note
     push_source(): 3b72. and *note pop_source(): 3b73. methods.

 -- Yöntemi: shlex.push_source (newstream, newfile=None)

     Push an input source stream onto the input stack.  If the filename
     argument is specified it will later be available for use in error
     messages.  This is the same method used internally by the *note
     sourcehook(): 3b70. method.

 -- Yöntemi: shlex.pop_source ()

     Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack.  This is the
     same method used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked
     input stream.

 -- Yöntemi: shlex.error_leader (infile=None, lineno=None)

     This method generates an error message leader in the format of a
     Unix C compiler error label; the format is ‘'"%s", line %d: '’,
     where the ‘%s’ is replaced with the name of the current source file
     and the ‘%d’ with the current input line number (the optional
     arguments can be used to override these).

     This convenience is provided to encourage *note shlex: c3. users to
     generate error messages in the standard, parseable format
     understood by Emacs and other Unix tools.

Instances of *note shlex: b50. subclasses have some public instance
variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for
debugging:

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.commenters

     The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners.
     All characters from the comment beginner to end of line are
     ignored.  Includes just ‘'#'’ by default.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.wordchars

     The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character
     tokens.  By default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and
     underscore.  In POSIX mode, the accented characters in the Latin-1
     set are also included.  If *note punctuation_chars: 1806. is not
     empty, the characters ‘~-./*?=’, which can appear in filename
     specifications and command line parameters, will also be included
     in this attribute, and any characters which appear in
     ‘punctuation_chars’ will be removed from ‘wordchars’ if they are
     present there.  If *note whitespace_split: 3b75. is set to ‘True’,
     this will have no effect.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.whitespace

     Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped.
     Whitespace bounds tokens.  By default, includes space, tab,
     linefeed and carriage-return.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.escape

     Characters that will be considered as escape.  This will be only
     used in POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'\'’ by default.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.quotes

     Characters that will be considered string quotes.  The token
     accumulates until the same quote is encountered again (thus,
     different quote types protect each other as in the shell.)  By
     default, includes ASCII single and double quotes.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.escapedquotes

     Characters in *note quotes: 3b78. that will interpret escape
     characters defined in *note escape: 3b77.  This is only used in
     POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'"'’ by default.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.whitespace_split

     If ‘True’, tokens will only be split in whitespaces.  This is
     useful, for example, for parsing command lines with *note shlex:
     b50, getting tokens in a similar way to shell arguments.  When used
     in combination with *note punctuation_chars: 1806, tokens will be
     split on whitespace in addition to those characters.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note punctuation_chars: 1806. attribute
     was made compatible with the *note whitespace_split: 3b75.
     attribute.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.infile

     The name of the current input file, as initially set at class
     instantiation time or stacked by later source requests.  It may be
     useful to examine this when constructing error messages.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.instream

     The input stream from which this *note shlex: b50. instance is
     reading characters.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.source

     This attribute is ‘None’ by default.  If you assign a string to it,
     that string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request
     similar to the ‘source’ keyword in various shells.  That is, the
     immediately following token will be opened as a filename and input
     will be taken from that stream until EOF, at which point the *note
     close(): 1865. method of that stream will be called and the input
     source will again become the original input stream.  Source
     requests may be stacked any number of levels deep.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.debug

     If this attribute is numeric and ‘1’ or more, a *note shlex: b50.
     instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior.  If
     you need to use this, you can read the module source code to learn
     the details.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.lineno

     Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one).

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.token

     The token buffer.  It may be useful to examine this when catching
     exceptions.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.eof

     Token used to determine end of file.  This will be set to the empty
     string (‘''’), in non-POSIX mode, and to ‘None’ in POSIX mode.

 -- Özniteliği: shlex.punctuation_chars

     A read-only property.  Characters that will be considered
     punctuation.  Runs of punctuation characters will be returned as a
     single token.  However, note that no semantic validity checking
     will be performed: for example, ‘>>>’ could be returned as a token,
     even though it may not be recognised as such by shells.

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing Rules,  Next: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: shlex Objects,  Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis

5.24.3.2 Parsing Rules
......................

When operating in non-POSIX mode, *note shlex: b50. will try to obey to
the following rules.

   * Quote characters are not recognized within words (‘Do"Not"Separate’
     is parsed as the single word ‘Do"Not"Separate’);

   * Escape characters are not recognized;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all
     characters within the quotes;

   * Closing quotes separate words (‘"Do"Separate’ is parsed as ‘"Do"’
     and ‘Separate’);

   * If *note whitespace_split: 3b75. is ‘False’, any character not
     declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be
     returned as a single-character token.  If it is ‘True’, *note
     shlex: b50. will only split words in whitespaces;

   * EOF is signaled with an empty string (‘''’);

   * It’s not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.

When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex: b50. will try to obey to the
following parsing rules.

   * Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words
     (‘"Do"Not"Separate"’ is parsed as the single word ‘DoNotSeparate’);

   * Non-quoted escape characters (e.g.  ‘'\'’) preserve the literal
     value of the next character that follows;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of *note
     escapedquotes: 3b79. (e.g.  ‘"'"’)  preserve the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of *note
     escapedquotes: 3b79. (e.g.  ‘'"'’)  preserves the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the
     characters mentioned in *note escape: 3b77.  The escape characters
     retain its special meaning only when followed by the quote in use,
     or the escape character itself.  Otherwise the escape character
     will be considered a normal character.

   * EOF is signaled with a *note None: 488. value;

   * Quoted empty strings (‘''’) are allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis

5.24.3.3 Improved Compatibility with Shells
...........................................

Added in version 3.6.

The *note shlex: c3. class provides compatibility with the parsing
performed by common Unix shells like ‘bash’, ‘dash’, and ‘sh’.  To take
advantage of this compatibility, specify the ‘punctuation_chars’
argument in the constructor.  This defaults to ‘False’, which preserves
pre-3.6 behaviour.  However, if it is set to ‘True’, then parsing of the
characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of these characters is returned
as a single token.  While this is short of a full parser for shells
(which would be out of scope for the standard library, given the
multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow you to perform
processing of command lines more easily than you could otherwise.  To
illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")"
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b;', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e;', 'f', '>abc;', '(def', 'ghi)']
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True, punctuation_chars=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', 'abc', ';',
     '(', 'def', 'ghi', ')']

Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and
you’ll need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens.

Instead of passing ‘True’ as the value for the punctuation_chars
parameter, you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be
used to determine which characters constitute punctuation.  For example:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|")
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c']

     Not: When ‘punctuation_chars’ is specified, the *note wordchars:
     3b69. attribute is augmented with the characters ‘~-./*?=’.  That
     is because these characters can appear in file names (including
     wildcards) and command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘--color=auto’).
     Hence:

          >>> import shlex
          >>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?',
          ...                 punctuation_chars=True)
          >>> list(s)
          ['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?']

     However, to match the shell as closely as possible, it is
     recommended to always use ‘posix’ and *note whitespace_split: 3b75.
     when using *note punctuation_chars: 1806, which will negate *note
     wordchars: 3b69. entirely.

For best effect, ‘punctuation_chars’ should be set in conjunction with
‘posix=True’.  (Note that ‘posix=False’ is the default for *note shlex:
b50.)


File: python.info,  Node: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri,  Next: Development Tools,  Prev: Program Frameworks,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.25 Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri
=======================================

Tk/Tcl uzun zamandır Python’ın ayrılmaz bir parçası olmuştur.  Python
programcılarının *note tkinter: ef. paketini ve onun uzantısı olan *note
tkinter.tix: f8. ve *note tkinter.ttk: f9. modüllerini kullanarak
programcıların kullanabilecekleri sağlam ve platformdan bağımsız bir
pencereleme araç seti sunar.

*note tkinter: ef. paketi Tcl/Tk üzerinde ince bir nesne yönelimli
katmandır.  *note tkinter: ef. kullanmak için Tcl kodu yazmanıza gerek
yoktur, ancak Tk belgelerine ve bazen de Tcl belgelerine başvurmanız
gerekecektir.  *note tkinter: ef, Tk widget’larını Python sınıfları
olarak uygulayan bir dizi sarmalayıcıdır.

*note tkinter: ef.’ın başlıca özellikleri hızlı olması ve genellikle
Python ile birlikte gelmesidir.  Standart dokümantasyonu zayıf olmasına
rağmen, referanslar, öğreticiler, bir kitap ve diğer öğeleri içeren iyi
bir materyal mevcuttur.  Ayrıca *note tkinter: ef. modası geçmiş ve eski
bir görünüme sahip olmasına rağmen, Tk 8.5’te bu durum büyük ölçüde
geliştirilmiştir.  Bununla birlikte, ilginizi çekebilecek başka birçok
GUI kütüphanesi vardır.  Python wiki, birkaç alternatif GUI geliştirme
çerçevesi ve aracını(1) sizler için listeler.

* Menu:

* tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk::
* tkinter.colorchooser — Color choosing dialog: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
* tkinter.font — Tkinter font wrapper: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
* Tkinter Dialogs::
* tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter message prompts: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
* tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
* tkinter.dnd — Drag and drop support: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
* tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
* tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk.
* IDLE — Python editor and shell: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk,  Next: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.1 ‘tkinter’ — Python interface to Tcl/Tk
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter: ef. package (“Tk interface”) is the standard Python
interface to the Tcl/Tk GUI toolkit.  Both Tk and *note tkinter: ef. are
available on most Unix platforms, including macOS, as well as on Windows
systems.

Running ‘python -m tkinter’ from the command line should open a window
demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that *note
tkinter: ef. is properly installed on your system, and also showing what
version of Tcl/Tk is installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation
specific to that version.

Tkinter supports a range of Tcl/Tk versions, built either with or
without thread support.  The official Python binary release bundles
Tcl/Tk 8.6 threaded.  See the source code for the *note _tkinter: 3.
module for more information about supported versions.

Tkinter is not a thin wrapper, but adds a fair amount of its own logic
to make the experience more pythonic.  This documentation will
concentrate on these additions and changes, and refer to the official
Tcl/Tk documentation for details that are unchanged.

     Not: Tcl/Tk 8.5 (2007) introduced a modern set of themed user
     interface components along with a new API to use them.  Both old
     and new APIs are still available.  Most documentation you will find
     online still uses the old API and can be woefully outdated.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * 
     TkDocs(2)

          Extensive tutorial on creating user interfaces with Tkinter.
          Explains key concepts, and illustrates recommended approaches
          using the modern API.

   * 
     Tkinter 8.5 reference: a GUI for Python(3)

          Reference documentation for Tkinter 8.5 detailing available
          classes, methods, and options.

Tcl/Tk Resources:

   * 
     Tk commands(4)

          Comprehensive reference to each of the underlying Tcl/Tk
          commands used by Tkinter.

   * 
     Tcl/Tk Home Page(5)

          Additional documentation, and links to Tcl/Tk core
          development.

Books:

   * 
     Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers(6)

          By Mark Roseman.  (ISBN 978-1999149567)

   * 
     Python GUI programming with Tkinter(7)

          By Alan D. Moore.  (ISBN 978-1788835886)

   * 
     Programming Python(8)

          By Mark Lutz; has excellent coverage of Tkinter.  (ISBN
          978-0596158101)

   * 
     Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)(9)

          By John Ousterhout, inventor of Tcl/Tk, and Ken Jones; does
          not cover Tkinter.  (ISBN 978-0321336330)

* Menu:

* Architecture::
* Tkinter Modules::
* Tkinter Life Preserver::
* Threading model::
* Handy Reference::
* File Handlers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py

   (2) https://tkdocs.com/

   (3) https://www.tkdocs.com/shipman/

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk

   (6) https://tkdocs.com/book.html

   (7) 
https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter-9781788835886

   (8) https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html

   (9) https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/032133633X


File: python.info,  Node: Architecture,  Next: Tkinter Modules,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.25.1.1 Architecture
.....................

Tcl/Tk is not a single library but rather consists of a few distinct
modules, each with separate functionality and its own official
documentation.  Python’s binary releases also ship an add-on module
together with it.

Tcl

     Tcl is a dynamic interpreted programming language, just like
     Python.  Though it can be used on its own as a general-purpose
     programming language, it is most commonly embedded into C
     applications as a scripting engine or an interface to the Tk
     toolkit.  The Tcl library has a C interface to create and manage
     one or more instances of a Tcl interpreter, run Tcl commands and
     scripts in those instances, and add custom commands implemented in
     either Tcl or C. Each interpreter has an event queue, and there are
     facilities to send events to it and process them.  Unlike Python,
     Tcl’s execution model is designed around cooperative multitasking,
     and Tkinter bridges this difference (see *note Threading model:
     3b87. for details).

Tk

     Tk is a Tcl package(1) implemented in C that adds custom commands
     to create and manipulate GUI widgets.  Each *note Tk: 14d9. object
     embeds its own Tcl interpreter instance with Tk loaded into it.
     Tk’s widgets are very customizable, though at the cost of a dated
     appearance.  Tk uses Tcl’s event queue to generate and process GUI
     events.

Ttk

     Themed Tk (Ttk) is a newer family of Tk widgets that provide a much
     better appearance on different platforms than many of the classic
     Tk widgets.  Ttk is distributed as part of Tk, starting with Tk
     version 8.5.  Python bindings are provided in a separate module,
     *note tkinter.ttk: f9.

Internally, Tk and Ttk use facilities of the underlying operating
system, i.e., Xlib on Unix/X11, Cocoa on macOS, GDI on Windows.

When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, e.g., to create a
widget, the *note tkinter: ef. module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command
string.  It passes that Tcl command string to an internal *note
_tkinter: 3. binary module, which then calls the Tcl interpreter to
evaluate it.  The Tcl interpreter will then call into the Tk and/or Ttk
packages, which will in turn make calls to Xlib, Cocoa, or GDI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.tcl-lang.org/37432


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Modules,  Next: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Prev: Architecture,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.25.1.2 Tkinter Modules
........................

Support for Tkinter is spread across several modules.  Most applications
will need the main *note tkinter: ef. module, as well as the *note
tkinter.ttk: f9. module, which provides the modern themed widget set and
API:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)

     Construct a toplevel Tk widget, which is usually the main window of
     an application, and initialize a Tcl interpreter for this widget.
     Each instance has its own associated Tcl interpreter.

     The *note Tk: 14d9. class is typically instantiated using all
     default values.  However, the following keyword arguments are
     currently recognized:

     'screenName'

          When given (as a string), sets the ‘DISPLAY’ environment
          variable.  (X11 only)

     'baseName'

          Name of the profile file.  By default, 'baseName' is derived
          from the program name (‘sys.argv[0]’).

     'className'

          Name of the widget class.  Used as a profile file and also as
          the name with which Tcl is invoked ('argv0' in 'interp').

     'useTk'

          If ‘True’, initialize the Tk subsystem.  The *note
          tkinter.Tcl(): 3b89. function sets this to ‘False’.

     'sync'

          If ‘True’, execute all X server commands synchronously, so
          that errors are reported immediately.  Can be used for
          debugging.  (X11 only)

     'use'

          Specifies the 'id' of the window in which to embed the
          application, instead of it being created as an independent
          toplevel window.  'id' must be specified in the same way as
          the value for the -use option for toplevel widgets (that is,
          it has a form like that returned by ‘winfo_id()’).

          Note that on some platforms this will only work correctly if
          'id' refers to a Tk frame or toplevel that has its -container
          option enabled.

     *note Tk: 14d9. reads and interprets profile files, named
     ‘.`className'.tcl’ and ‘.`baseName'.tcl’, into the Tcl interpreter
     and calls *note exec(): 6cb. on the contents of ‘.`className'.py’
     and ‘.`baseName'.py’.  The path for the profile files is the ‘HOME’
     environment variable or, if that isn’t defined, then *note
     os.curdir: 25b7.

      -- Özniteliği: tk

          The Tk application object created by instantiating *note Tk:
          14d9.  This provides access to the Tcl interpreter.  Each
          widget that is attached the same instance of *note Tk: 14d9.
          has the same value for its *note tk: 3b8a. attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: master

          The widget object that contains this widget.  For *note Tk:
          14d9, the 'master' is *note None: 488. because it is the main
          window.  The terms 'master' and 'parent' are similar and
          sometimes used interchangeably as argument names; however,
          calling ‘winfo_parent()’ returns a string of the widget name
          whereas *note master: 3b8b. returns the object.
          'parent'/'child' reflects the tree-like relationship while
          'master'/'slave' reflects the container structure.

      -- Özniteliği: children

          The immediate descendants of this widget as a *note dict: 240.
          with the child widget names as the keys and the child instance
          objects as the values.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.Tcl (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=False)

     The *note Tcl(): 3b89. function is a factory function which creates
     an object much like that created by the *note Tk: 14d9. class,
     except that it does not initialize the Tk subsystem.  This is most
     often useful when driving the Tcl interpreter in an environment
     where one doesn’t want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or
     where one cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server).
     An object created by the *note Tcl(): 3b89. object can have a
     Toplevel window created (and the Tk subsystem initialized) by
     calling its ‘loadtk()’ method.

The modules that provide Tk support include:

*note tkinter: ef.

     Main Tkinter module.

*note tkinter.colorchooser: f0.

     Dialog to let the user choose a color.

*note tkinter.commondialog: f1.

     Base class for the dialogs defined in the other modules listed
     here.

*note tkinter.filedialog: f3.

     Common dialogs to allow the user to specify a file to open or save.

*note tkinter.font: f4.

     Utilities to help work with fonts.

*note tkinter.messagebox: f5.

     Access to standard Tk dialog boxes.

*note tkinter.scrolledtext: f6.

     Text widget with a vertical scroll bar built in.

*note tkinter.simpledialog: f7.

     Basic dialogs and convenience functions.

*note tkinter.ttk: f9.

     Themed widget set introduced in Tk 8.5, providing modern
     alternatives for many of the classic widgets in the main *note
     tkinter: ef. module.

Additional modules:

*note _tkinter: 3.

     A binary module that contains the low-level interface to Tcl/Tk.
     It is automatically imported by the main *note tkinter: ef. module,
     and should never be used directly by application programmers.  It
     is usually a shared library (or DLL), but might in some cases be
     statically linked with the Python interpreter.

*note idlelib: 71.

     Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE).
     Based on *note tkinter: ef.

‘tkinter.constants’

     Symbolic constants that can be used in place of strings when
     passing various parameters to Tkinter calls.  Automatically
     imported by the main *note tkinter: ef. module.

*note tkinter.dnd: f2.

     (experimental) Drag-and-drop support for *note tkinter: ef.  This
     will become deprecated when it is replaced with the Tk DND.

*note tkinter.tix: f8.

     (deprecated) An older third-party Tcl/Tk package that adds several
     new widgets.  Better alternatives for most can be found in *note
     tkinter.ttk: f9.

*note turtle: 101.

     Turtle graphics in a Tk window.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Next: Threading model,  Prev: Tkinter Modules,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.25.1.3 Tkinter Life Preserver
...............................

This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk
or Tkinter.  For that, refer to one of the external resources noted
earlier.  Instead, this section provides a very quick orientation to
what a Tkinter application looks like, identifies foundational Tk
concepts, and explains how the Tkinter wrapper is structured.

The remainder of this section will help you to identify the classes,
methods, and options you’ll need in your Tkinter application, and where
to find more detailed documentation on them, including in the official
Tcl/Tk reference manual.

* Menu:

* A Hello World Program::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I…? What option does…?::
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::


File: python.info,  Node: A Hello World Program,  Next: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.4 A Hello World Program
..............................

We’ll start by walking through a “Hello World” application in Tkinter.
This isn’t the smallest one we could write, but has enough to illustrate
some key concepts you’ll need to know.

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk
     root = Tk()
     frm = ttk.Frame(root, padding=10)
     frm.grid()
     ttk.Label(frm, text="Hello World!").grid(column=0, row=0)
     ttk.Button(frm, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).grid(column=1, row=0)
     root.mainloop()

After the imports, the next line creates an instance of the ‘Tk’ class,
which initializes Tk and creates its associated Tcl interpreter.  It
also creates a toplevel window, known as the root window, which serves
as the main window of the application.

The following line creates a frame widget, which in this case will
contain a label and a button we’ll create next.  The frame is fit inside
the root window.

The next line creates a label widget holding a static text string.  The
‘grid()’ method is used to specify the relative layout (position) of the
label within its containing frame widget, similar to how tables in HTML
work.

A button widget is then created, and placed to the right of the label.
When pressed, it will call the ‘destroy()’ method of the root window.

Finally, the ‘mainloop()’ method puts everything on the display, and
responds to user input until the program terminates.


File: python.info,  Node: Important Tk Concepts,  Next: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Prev: A Hello World Program,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.5 Important Tk Concepts
..............................

Even this simple program illustrates the following key Tk concepts:

widgets

     A Tkinter user interface is made up of individual 'widgets'.  Each
     widget is represented as a Python object, instantiated from classes
     like ‘ttk.Frame’, ‘ttk.Label’, and ‘ttk.Button’.

widget hierarchy

     Widgets are arranged in a 'hierarchy'.  The label and button were
     contained within a frame, which in turn was contained within the
     root window.  When creating each 'child' widget, its 'parent'
     widget is passed as the first argument to the widget constructor.

configuration options

     Widgets have 'configuration options', which modify their appearance
     and behavior, such as the text to display in a label or button.
     Different classes of widgets will have different sets of options.

geometry management

     Widgets aren’t automatically added to the user interface when they
     are created.  A 'geometry manager' like ‘grid’ controls where in
     the user interface they are placed.

event loop

     Tkinter reacts to user input, changes from your program, and even
     refreshes the display only when actively running an 'event loop'.
     If your program isn’t running the event loop, your user interface
     won’t update.


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Next: How do I…? What option does…?,  Prev: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.6 Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk
...............................................

When your application uses Tkinter’s classes and methods, internally
Tkinter is assembling strings representing Tcl/Tk commands, and
executing those commands in the Tcl interpreter attached to your
application’s ‘Tk’ instance.

Whether it’s trying to navigate reference documentation, trying to find
the right method or option, adapting some existing code, or debugging
your Tkinter application, there are times that it will be useful to
understand what those underlying Tcl/Tk commands look like.

To illustrate, here is the Tcl/Tk equivalent of the main part of the
Tkinter script above.

     ttk::frame .frm -padding 10
     grid .frm
     grid [ttk::label .frm.lbl -text "Hello World!"] -column 0 -row 0
     grid [ttk::button .frm.btn -text "Quit" -command "destroy ."] -column 1 -row 0

Tcl’s syntax is similar to many shell languages, where the first word is
the command to be executed, with arguments to that command following it,
separated by spaces.  Without getting into too many details, notice the
following:

   * The commands used to create widgets (like ‘ttk::frame’) correspond
     to widget classes in Tkinter.

   * Tcl widget options (like ‘-text’) correspond to keyword arguments
     in Tkinter.

   * Widgets are referred to by a 'pathname' in Tcl (like ‘.frm.btn’),
     whereas Tkinter doesn’t use names but object references.

   * A widget’s place in the widget hierarchy is encoded in its
     (hierarchical) pathname, which uses a ‘.’ (dot) as a path
     separator.  The pathname for the root window is just ‘.’ (dot).  In
     Tkinter, the hierarchy is defined not by pathname but by specifying
     the parent widget when creating each child widget.

   * Operations which are implemented as separate 'commands' in Tcl
     (like ‘grid’ or ‘destroy’) are represented as 'methods' on Tkinter
     widget objects.  As you’ll see shortly, at other times Tcl uses
     what appear to be method calls on widget objects, which more
     closely mirror what would is used in Tkinter.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I…? What option does…?,  Next: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.7 How do I…? What option does…?
......................................

If you’re not sure how to do something in Tkinter, and you can’t
immediately find it in the tutorial or reference documentation you’re
using, there are a few strategies that can be helpful.

First, remember that the details of how individual widgets work may vary
across different versions of both Tkinter and Tcl/Tk.  If you’re
searching documentation, make sure it corresponds to the Python and
Tcl/Tk versions installed on your system.

When searching for how to use an API, it helps to know the exact name of
the class, option, or method that you’re using.  Introspection, either
in an interactive Python shell or with *note print(): e16, can help you
identify what you need.

To find out what configuration options are available on any widget, call
its ‘configure()’ method, which returns a dictionary containing a
variety of information about each object, including its default and
current values.  Use ‘keys()’ to get just the names of each option.

     btn = ttk.Button(frm, ...)
     print(btn.configure().keys())

As most widgets have many configuration options in common, it can be
useful to find out which are specific to a particular widget class.
Comparing the list of options to that of a simpler widget, like a frame,
is one way to do that.

     print(set(btn.configure().keys()) - set(frm.configure().keys()))

Similarly, you can find the available methods for a widget object using
the standard *note dir(): 445. function.  If you try it, you’ll see
there are over 200 common widget methods, so again identifying those
specific to a widget class is helpful.

     print(dir(btn))
     print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))


File: python.info,  Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: How do I…? What option does…?,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.25.1.8 Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual
...............................................

As noted, the official Tk commands(1) reference manual (man pages) is
often the most accurate description of what specific operations on
widgets do.  Even when you know the name of the option or method that
you need, you may still have a few places to look.

While all operations in Tkinter are implemented as method calls on
widget objects, you’ve seen that many Tcl/Tk operations appear as
commands that take a widget pathname as its first parameter, followed by
optional parameters, e.g.

     destroy .
     grid .frm.btn -column 0 -row 0

Others, however, look more like methods called on a widget object (in
fact, when you create a widget in Tcl/Tk, it creates a Tcl command with
the name of the widget pathname, with the first parameter to that
command being the name of a method to call).

     .frm.btn invoke
     .frm.lbl configure -text "Goodbye"

In the official Tcl/Tk reference documentation, you’ll find most
operations that look like method calls on the man page for a specific
widget (e.g., you’ll find the ‘invoke()’ method on the ttk::button(2)
man page), while functions that take a widget as a parameter often have
their own man page (e.g., grid(3)).

You’ll find many common options and methods in the options(4) or
ttk::widget(5) man pages, while others are found in the man page for a
specific widget class.

You’ll also find that many Tkinter methods have compound names, e.g.,
‘winfo_x()’, ‘winfo_height()’, ‘winfo_viewable()’.  You’d find
documentation for all of these in the winfo(6) man page.

     Not: Somewhat confusingly, there are also methods on all Tkinter
     widgets that don’t actually operate on the widget, but operate at a
     global scope, independent of any widget.  Examples are methods for
     accessing the clipboard or the system bell.  (They happen to be
     implemented as methods in the base ‘Widget’ class that all Tkinter
     widgets inherit from).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm

   (3) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm

   (6) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Threading model,  Next: Handy Reference,  Prev: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.25.1.9 Threading model
........................

Python and Tcl/Tk have very different threading models, which *note
tkinter: ef. tries to bridge.  If you use threads, you may need to be
aware of this.

A Python interpreter may have many threads associated with it.  In Tcl,
multiple threads can be created, but each thread has a separate Tcl
interpreter instance associated with it.  Threads can also create more
than one interpreter instance, though each interpreter instance can be
used only by the one thread that created it.

Each ‘Tk’ object created by *note tkinter: ef. contains a Tcl
interpreter.  It also keeps track of which thread created that
interpreter.  Calls to *note tkinter: ef. can be made from any Python
thread.  Internally, if a call comes from a thread other than the one
that created the ‘Tk’ object, an event is posted to the interpreter’s
event queue, and when executed, the result is returned to the calling
Python thread.

Tcl/Tk applications are normally event-driven, meaning that after
initialization, the interpreter runs an event loop (i.e.
‘Tk.mainloop()’) and responds to events.  Because it is single-threaded,
event handlers must respond quickly, otherwise they will block other
events from being processed.  To avoid this, any long-running
computations should not run in an event handler, but are either broken
into smaller pieces using timers, or run in another thread.  This is
different from many GUI toolkits where the GUI runs in a completely
separate thread from all application code including event handlers.

If the Tcl interpreter is not running the event loop and processing
events, any *note tkinter: ef. calls made from threads other than the
one running the Tcl interpreter will fail.

A number of special cases exist:

   * Tcl/Tk libraries can be built so they are not thread-aware.  In
     this case, *note tkinter: ef. calls the library from the
     originating Python thread, even if this is different than the
     thread that created the Tcl interpreter.  A global lock ensures
     only one call occurs at a time.

   * While *note tkinter: ef. allows you to create more than one
     instance of a ‘Tk’ object (with its own interpreter), all
     interpreters that are part of the same thread share a common event
     queue, which gets ugly fast.  In practice, don’t create more than
     one instance of ‘Tk’ at a time.  Otherwise, it’s best to create
     them in separate threads and ensure you’re running a thread-aware
     Tcl/Tk build.

   * Blocking event handlers are not the only way to prevent the Tcl
     interpreter from reentering the event loop.  It is even possible to
     run multiple nested event loops or abandon the event loop entirely.
     If you’re doing anything tricky when it comes to events or threads,
     be aware of these possibilities.

   * There are a few select *note tkinter: ef. functions that presently
     work only when called from the thread that created the Tcl
     interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Handy Reference,  Next: File Handlers,  Prev: Threading model,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.25.1.10 Handy Reference
.........................

* Menu:

* Setting Options::
* The Packer::
* Packer Options::
* Coupling Widget Variables::
* The Window Manager::
* Tk Option Data Types::
* Bindings and Events::
* The index Parameter::
* Images::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting Options,  Next: The Packer,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.11 Setting Options
.........................

Options control things like the color and border width of a widget.
Options can be set in three ways:

At object creation time, using keyword arguments

          fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue")

After object creation, treating the option name like a dictionary index

          fred["fg"] = "red"
          fred["bg"] = "blue"

Use the config() method to update multiple attrs subsequent to object creation

          fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")

For a complete explanation of a given option and its behavior, see the
Tk man pages for the widget in question.

Note that the man pages list “STANDARD OPTIONS” and “WIDGET SPECIFIC
OPTIONS” for each widget.  The former is a list of options that are
common to many widgets, the latter are the options that are
idiosyncratic to that particular widget.  The Standard Options are
documented on the ‘options(3)(1)’ man page.

No distinction between standard and widget-specific options is made in
this document.  Some options don’t apply to some kinds of widgets.
Whether a given widget responds to a particular option depends on the
class of the widget; buttons have a ‘command’ option, labels do not.

The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget’s man
page, or can be queried at runtime by calling the ‘config()’ method
without arguments, or by calling the ‘keys()’ method on that widget.
The return value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of
the option as a string (for example, ‘'relief'’) and whose values are
5-tuples.

Some options, like ‘bg’ are synonyms for common options with long names
(‘bg’ is shorthand for “background”).  Passing the ‘config()’ method the
name of a shorthand option will return a 2-tuple, not 5-tuple.  The
2-tuple passed back will contain the name of the synonym and the “real”
option (such as ‘('bg', 'background')’).

Index       Meaning                               Example
                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
0           option name                           ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
1           option name for database lookup       ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
2           option class for database lookup      ‘'Relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
3           default value                         ‘'raised'’
                                                  
                                                  
4           current value                         ‘'groove'’
                                                  

Example:

     >>> print(fred.config())
     {'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')}

Of course, the dictionary printed will include all the options available
and their values.  This is meant only as an example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/options(3)


File: python.info,  Node: The Packer,  Next: Packer Options,  Prev: Setting Options,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.12 The Packer
....................

The packer is one of Tk’s geometry-management mechanisms.  Geometry
managers are used to specify the relative positioning of widgets within
their container - their mutual 'master'.  In contrast to the more
cumbersome 'placer' (which is used less commonly, and we do not cover
here), the packer takes qualitative relationship specification -
'above', 'to the left of', 'filling', etc - and works everything out to
determine the exact placement coordinates for you.

The size of any 'master' widget is determined by the size of the “slave
widgets” inside.  The packer is used to control where slave widgets
appear inside the master into which they are packed.  You can pack
widgets into frames, and frames into other frames, in order to achieve
the kind of layout you desire.  Additionally, the arrangement is
dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental changes to the
configuration, once it is packed.

Note that widgets do not appear until they have had their geometry
specified with a geometry manager.  It’s a common early mistake to leave
out the geometry specification, and then be surprised when the widget is
created but nothing appears.  A widget will appear only after it has
had, for example, the packer’s ‘pack()’ method applied to it.

The pack() method can be called with keyword-option/value pairs that
control where the widget is to appear within its container, and how it
is to behave when the main application window is resized.  Here are some
examples:

     fred.pack()                     # defaults to side = "top"
     fred.pack(side="left")
     fred.pack(expand=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Packer Options,  Next: Coupling Widget Variables,  Prev: The Packer,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.13 Packer Options
........................

For more extensive information on the packer and the options that it can
take, see the man pages and page 183 of John Ousterhout’s book.

anchor

     Anchor type.  Denotes where the packer is to place each slave in
     its parcel.

expand

     Boolean, ‘0’ or ‘1’.

fill

     Legal values: ‘'x'’, ‘'y'’, ‘'both'’, ‘'none'’.

ipadx and ipady

     A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the slave
     widget.

padx and pady

     A distance - designating external padding on each side of the slave
     widget.

side

     Legal values are: ‘'left'’, ‘'right'’, ‘'top'’, ‘'bottom'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Coupling Widget Variables,  Next: The Window Manager,  Prev: Packer Options,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.14 Coupling Widget Variables
...................................

The current-value setting of some widgets (like text entry widgets) can
be connected directly to application variables by using special options.
These options are ‘variable’, ‘textvariable’, ‘onvalue’, ‘offvalue’, and
‘value’.  This connection works both ways: if the variable changes for
any reason, the widget it’s connected to will be updated to reflect the
new value.

Unfortunately, in the current implementation of *note tkinter: ef. it is
not possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget
through a ‘variable’ or ‘textvariable’ option.  The only kinds of
variables for which this works are variables that are subclassed from a
class called Variable, defined in *note tkinter: ef.

There are many useful subclasses of Variable already defined:
‘StringVar’, ‘IntVar’, ‘DoubleVar’, and ‘BooleanVar’.  To read the
current value of such a variable, call the ‘get()’ method on it, and to
change its value you call the ‘set()’ method.  If you follow this
protocol, the widget will always track the value of the variable, with
no further intervention on your part.

For example:

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

             self.entrythingy = tk.Entry()
             self.entrythingy.pack()

             # Create the application variable.
             self.contents = tk.StringVar()
             # Set it to some value.
             self.contents.set("this is a variable")
             # Tell the entry widget to watch this variable.
             self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents

             # Define a callback for when the user hits return.
             # It prints the current value of the variable.
             self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
                                  self.print_contents)

         def print_contents(self, event):
             print("Hi. The current entry content is:",
                   self.contents.get())

     root = tk.Tk()
     myapp = App(root)
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: The Window Manager,  Next: Tk Option Data Types,  Prev: Coupling Widget Variables,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.15 The Window Manager
............................

In Tk, there is a utility command, ‘wm’, for interacting with the window
manager.  Options to the ‘wm’ command allow you to control things like
titles, placement, icon bitmaps, and the like.  In *note tkinter: ef,
these commands have been implemented as methods on the ‘Wm’ class.
Toplevel widgets are subclassed from the ‘Wm’ class, and so can call the
‘Wm’ methods directly.

To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can
often just refer to the widget’s master.  Of course if the widget has
been packed inside of a frame, the master won’t represent a toplevel
window.  To get at the toplevel window that contains an arbitrary
widget, you can call the ‘_root()’ method.  This method begins with an
underscore to denote the fact that this function is part of the
implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality.

Here are some examples of typical usage:

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master=None):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

     # create the application
     myapp = App()

     #
     # here are method calls to the window manager class
     #
     myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
     myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)

     # start the program
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Tk Option Data Types,  Next: Bindings and Events,  Prev: The Window Manager,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.16 Tk Option Data Types
..............................

anchor

     Legal values are points of the compass: ‘"n"’, ‘"ne"’, ‘"e"’,
     ‘"se"’, ‘"s"’, ‘"sw"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"nw"’, and also ‘"center"’.

bitmap

     There are eight built-in, named bitmaps: ‘'error'’, ‘'gray25'’,
     ‘'gray50'’, ‘'hourglass'’, ‘'info'’, ‘'questhead'’, ‘'question'’,
     ‘'warning'’.  To specify an X bitmap filename, give the full path
     to the file, preceded with an ‘@’, as in
     ‘"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"’.

boolean

     You can pass integers 0 or 1 or the strings ‘"yes"’ or ‘"no"’.

callback

     This is any Python function that takes no arguments.  For example:

          def print_it():
              print("hi there")
          fred["command"] = print_it

color

     Colors can be given as the names of X colors in the rgb.txt file,
     or as strings representing RGB values in 4 bit: ‘"#RGB"’, 8 bit:
     ‘"#RRGGBB"’, 12 bit: ‘"#RRRGGGBBB"’, or 16 bit: ‘"#RRRRGGGGBBBB"’
     ranges, where R,G,B here represent any legal hex digit.  See page
     160 of Ousterhout’s book for details.

cursor

     The standard X cursor names from ‘cursorfont.h’ can be used,
     without the ‘XC_’ prefix.  For example to get a hand cursor
     (‘XC_hand2’), use the string ‘"hand2"’.  You can also specify a
     bitmap and mask file of your own.  See page 179 of Ousterhout’s
     book.

distance

     Screen distances can be specified in either pixels or absolute
     distances.  Pixels are given as numbers and absolute distances as
     strings, with the trailing character denoting units: ‘c’ for
     centimetres, ‘i’ for inches, ‘m’ for millimetres, ‘p’ for printer’s
     points.  For example, 3.5 inches is expressed as ‘"3.5i"’.

font

     Tk uses a list font name format, such as ‘{courier 10 bold}’.  Font
     sizes with positive numbers are measured in points; sizes with
     negative numbers are measured in pixels.

geometry

     This is a string of the form ‘widthxheight’, where width and height
     are measured in pixels for most widgets (in characters for widgets
     displaying text).  For example: ‘fred["geometry"] = "200x100"’.

justify

     Legal values are the strings: ‘"left"’, ‘"center"’, ‘"right"’, and
     ‘"fill"’.

region

     This is a string with four space-delimited elements, each of which
     is a legal distance (see above).  For example: ‘"2 3 4 5"’ and ‘"3i
     2i 4.5i 2i"’ and ‘"3c 2c 4c 10.43c"’ are all legal regions.

relief

     Determines what the border style of a widget will be.  Legal values
     are: ‘"raised"’, ‘"sunken"’, ‘"flat"’, ‘"groove"’, and ‘"ridge"’.

scrollcommand

     This is almost always the ‘set()’ method of some scrollbar widget,
     but can be any widget method that takes a single argument.

wrap

     Must be one of: ‘"none"’, ‘"char"’, or ‘"word"’.


File: python.info,  Node: Bindings and Events,  Next: The index Parameter,  Prev: Tk Option Data Types,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.17 Bindings and Events
.............................

The bind method from the widget command allows you to watch for certain
events and to have a callback function trigger when that event type
occurs.  The form of the bind method is:

     def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''):

where:

sequence

     is a string that denotes the target kind of event.  (See the
     ‘bind(3tk)(1)’ man page, and page 201 of John Ousterhout’s book,
     ‘Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)’, for details).

func

     is a Python function, taking one argument, to be invoked when the
     event occurs.  An Event instance will be passed as the argument.
     (Functions deployed this way are commonly known as 'callbacks'.)

add

     is optional, either ‘''’ or ‘'+'’.  Passing an empty string denotes
     that this binding is to replace any other bindings that this event
     is associated with.  Passing a ‘'+'’ means that this function is to
     be added to the list of functions bound to this event type.

For example:

     def turn_red(self, event):
         event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red"

     self.button.bind("<Enter>", self.turn_red)

Notice how the widget field of the event is being accessed in the
‘turn_red()’ callback.  This field contains the widget that caught the X
event.  The following table lists the other event fields you can access,
and how they are denoted in Tk, which can be useful when referring to
the Tk man pages.

Tk       Tkinter Event Field       Tk       Tkinter Event Field
                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
%f       focus                     %A       char
                                            
                                            
%h       height                    %E       send_event
                                            
                                            
%k       keycode                   %K       keysym
                                            
                                            
%s       state                     %N       keysym_num
                                            
                                            
%t       time                      %T       type
                                            
                                            
%w       width                     %W       widget
                                            
                                            
%x       x                         %X       x_root
                                            
                                            
%y       y                         %Y       y_root
                                            

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/bind(3tk)


File: python.info,  Node: The index Parameter,  Next: Images,  Prev: Bindings and Events,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.18 The index Parameter
.............................

A number of widgets require “index” parameters to be passed.  These are
used to point at a specific place in a Text widget, or to particular
characters in an Entry widget, or to particular menu items in a Menu
widget.

Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.)

     Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the
     text being displayed.  You can use these *note tkinter: ef.
     functions to access these special points in text widgets:

Text widget indexes

     The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best
     described in the Tk man pages.

Menu indexes (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.)

     Some options and methods for menus manipulate specific menu
     entries.  Anytime a menu index is needed for an option or a
     parameter, you may pass in:

        * an integer which refers to the numeric position of the entry
          in the widget, counted from the top, starting with 0;

        * the string ‘"active"’, which refers to the menu position that
          is currently under the cursor;

        * the string ‘"last"’ which refers to the last menu item;

        * An integer preceded by ‘@’, as in ‘@6’, where the integer is
          interpreted as a y pixel coordinate in the menu’s coordinate
          system;

        * the string ‘"none"’, which indicates no menu entry at all,
          most often used with menu.activate() to deactivate all
          entries, and finally,

        * a text string that is pattern matched against the label of the
          menu entry, as scanned from the top of the menu to the bottom.
          Note that this index type is considered after all the others,
          which means that matches for menu items labelled ‘last’,
          ‘active’, or ‘none’ may be interpreted as the above literals,
          instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Images,  Prev: The index Parameter,  Up: Handy Reference

5.25.1.19 Images
................

Images of different formats can be created through the corresponding
subclass of ‘tkinter.Image’:

   * ‘BitmapImage’ for images in XBM format.

   * ‘PhotoImage’ for images in PGM, PPM, GIF and PNG formats.  The
     latter is supported starting with Tk 8.6.

Either type of image is created through either the ‘file’ or the ‘data’
option (other options are available as well).

The image object can then be used wherever an ‘image’ option is
supported by some widget (e.g.  labels, buttons, menus).  In these
cases, Tk will not keep a reference to the image.  When the last Python
reference to the image object is deleted, the image data is deleted as
well, and Tk will display an empty box wherever the image was used.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The Pillow(1) package adds support for formats such as BMP, JPEG, TIFF,
and WebP, among others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://python-pillow.org/


File: python.info,  Node: File Handlers,  Prev: Handy Reference,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.25.1.20 File Handlers
.......................

Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will
be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file
descriptor.  Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor.
Example code:

     import tkinter
     widget = tkinter.Tk()
     mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
     widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
     ...
     widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)

This feature is not available on Windows.

Since you don’t know how many bytes are available for reading, you may
not want to use the *note BufferedIOBase: 4a9. or *note TextIOBase: 4aa.
*note read(): 11d4. or *note readline(): 11d5. methods, since these will
insist on reading a predefined number of bytes.  For sockets, the *note
recv(): c31. or *note recvfrom(): c32. methods will work fine; for other
files, use raw reads or ‘os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)’.

 -- Yöntemi: Widget.tk.createfilehandler (file, mask, func)

     Registers the file handler callback function 'func'.  The 'file'
     argument may either be an object with a *note fileno(): 2629.
     method (such as a file or socket object), or an integer file
     descriptor.  The 'mask' argument is an ORed combination of any of
     the three constants below.  The callback is called as follows:

          callback(file, mask)

 -- Yöntemi: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler (file)

     Unregisters a file handler.

 -- Verisi: _tkinter.READABLE
 -- Verisi: _tkinter.WRITABLE
 -- Verisi: _tkinter.EXCEPTION

     Constants used in the 'mask' arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog,  Next: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper,  Prev: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.2 ‘tkinter.colorchooser’ — Color choosing dialog
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.colorchooser: f0. module provides the *note Chooser:
3ba8. class as an interface to the native color picker dialog.
‘Chooser’ implements a modal color choosing dialog window.  The
‘Chooser’ class inherits from the *note Dialog: 3ba9. class.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.colorchooser.Chooser (master=None, **options)

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.colorchooser.askcolor (color=None, **options)

     Create a color choosing dialog.  A call to this method will show
     the window, wait for the user to make a selection, and return the
     selected color (or ‘None’) to the caller.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note tkinter.commondialog: f1.

     Tkinter standard dialog module

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper,  Next: Tkinter Dialogs,  Prev: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.3 ‘tkinter.font’ — Tkinter font wrapper
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/font.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.font: f4. module provides the *note Font: 1735. class
for creating and using named fonts.

The different font weights and slants are:

 -- Verisi: tkinter.font.NORMAL
 -- Verisi: tkinter.font.BOLD
 -- Verisi: tkinter.font.ITALIC
 -- Verisi: tkinter.font.ROMAN

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.font.Font (root=None, font=None, name=None,
          exists=False, **options)

     The *note Font: 1735. class represents a named font.  'Font'
     instances are given unique names and can be specified by their
     family, size, and style configuration.  Named fonts are Tk’s method
     of creating and identifying fonts as a single object, rather than
     specifying a font by its attributes with each occurrence.

          arguments:

                    'font' - font specifier tuple (family, size, options)
                    'name' - unique font name
                    'exists' - self points to existing named font if true

          additional keyword options (ignored if 'font' is specified):

                    'family' - font family i.e. Courier, Times
                    'size' - font size
                         If 'size' is positive it is interpreted as size in points.
                         If 'size' is a negative number its absolute value is treated
                         as size in pixels.
                    'weight' - font emphasis (NORMAL, BOLD)
                    'slant' - ROMAN, ITALIC
                    'underline' - font underlining (0 - none, 1 - underline)
                    'overstrike' - font strikeout (0 - none, 1 - strikeout)

      -- Yöntemi: actual (option=None, displayof=None)

          Return the attributes of the font.

      -- Yöntemi: cget (option)

          Retrieve an attribute of the font.

      -- Yöntemi: config (**options)

          Modify attributes of the font.

      -- Yöntemi: copy ()

          Return new instance of the current font.

      -- Yöntemi: measure (text, displayof=None)

          Return amount of space the text would occupy on the specified
          display when formatted in the current font.  If no display is
          specified then the main application window is assumed.

      -- Yöntemi: metrics (*options, **kw)

          Return font-specific data.  Options include:

          'ascent' - distance between baseline and highest point that a

               character of the font can occupy

          'descent' - distance between baseline and lowest point that a

               character of the font can occupy

          'linespace' - minimum vertical separation necessary between any two

               characters of the font that ensures no vertical overlap
               between lines.

          'fixed' - 1 if font is fixed-width else 0

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.font.families (root=None, displayof=None)

     Return the different font families.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.font.names (root=None)

     Return the names of defined fonts.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.font.nametofont (name, root=None)

     Return a *note Font: 1735. representation of a tk named font.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'root' parameter was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/font.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Dialogs,  Next: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts,  Prev: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.4 Tkinter Dialogs
----------------------

* Menu:

* tkinter.simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
* tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs.
* tkinter.commondialog — Dialog window templates: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs,  Next: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs,  Up: Tkinter Dialogs

5.25.4.1 ‘tkinter.simpledialog’ — Standard Tkinter input dialogs
................................................................

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.simpledialog: f7. module contains convenience classes
and functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the
user.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.simpledialog.askfloat (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- Işlevi: tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- Işlevi: tkinter.simpledialog.askstring (title, prompt, **kw)

     The above three functions provide dialogs that prompt the user to
     enter a value of the desired type.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog (parent, title=None)

     The base class for custom dialogs.

      -- Yöntemi: body (master)

          Override to construct the dialog’s interface and return the
          widget that should have initial focus.

      -- Yöntemi: buttonbox ()

          Default behaviour adds OK and Cancel buttons.  Override for
          custom button layouts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs,  Next: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates,  Prev: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs,  Up: Tkinter Dialogs

5.25.4.2 ‘tkinter.filedialog’ — File selection dialogs
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.filedialog: f3. module provides classes and factory
functions for creating file/directory selection windows.

* Menu:

* Native Load/Save Dialogs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs,  Up: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs

5.25.4.3 Native Load/Save Dialogs
.................................

The following classes and functions provide file dialog windows that
combine a native look-and-feel with configuration options to customize
behaviour.  The following keyword arguments are applicable to the
classes and functions listed below:

          'parent' - the window to place the dialog on top of

          'title' - the title of the window

          'initialdir' - the directory that the dialog starts in

          'initialfile' - the file selected upon opening of the dialog

          'filetypes' - a sequence of (label, pattern) tuples, ‘*’ wildcard is allowed

          'defaultextension' - default extension to append to file (save dialogs)

          'multiple' - when true, selection of multiple items is allowed

'Static factory functions'

The below functions when called create a modal, native look-and-feel
dialog, wait for the user’s selection, then return the selected value(s)
or ‘None’ to the caller.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfile (mode='r', **options)
 -- Işlevi: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfiles (mode='r', **options)

     The above two functions create an *note Open: 3bc5. dialog and
     return the opened file object(s) in read-only mode.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfile (mode='w', **options)

     Create a *note SaveAs: 3bc7. dialog and return a file object opened
     in write-only mode.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilename (**options)
 -- Işlevi: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilenames (**options)

     The above two functions create an *note Open: 3bc5. dialog and
     return the selected filename(s) that correspond to existing
     file(s).

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfilename (**options)

     Create a *note SaveAs: 3bc7. dialog and return the selected
     filename.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.filedialog.askdirectory (**options)

          Prompt user to select a directory.
          Additional keyword option:
               'mustexist' - determines if selection must be an existing directory.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.filedialog.Open (master=None, **options)
 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.filedialog.SaveAs (master=None, **options)

     The above two classes provide native dialog windows for saving and
     loading files.

'Convenience classes'

The below classes are used for creating file/directory windows from
scratch.  These do not emulate the native look-and-feel of the platform.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.filedialog.Directory (master=None, **options)

     Create a dialog prompting the user to select a directory.

     Not: The 'FileDialog' class should be subclassed for custom event
     handling and behaviour.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog (master, title=None)

     Create a basic file selection dialog.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel_command (event=None)

          Trigger the termination of the dialog window.

      -- Yöntemi: dirs_double_event (event)

          Event handler for double-click event on directory.

      -- Yöntemi: dirs_select_event (event)

          Event handler for click event on directory.

      -- Yöntemi: files_double_event (event)

          Event handler for double-click event on file.

      -- Yöntemi: files_select_event (event)

          Event handler for single-click event on file.

      -- Yöntemi: filter_command (event=None)

          Filter the files by directory.

      -- Yöntemi: get_filter ()

          Retrieve the file filter currently in use.

      -- Yöntemi: get_selection ()

          Retrieve the currently selected item.

      -- Yöntemi: go (dir_or_file=os.curdir, pattern='*', default='',
               key=None)

          Render dialog and start event loop.

      -- Yöntemi: ok_event (event)

          Exit dialog returning current selection.

      -- Yöntemi: quit (how=None)

          Exit dialog returning filename, if any.

      -- Yöntemi: set_filter (dir, pat)

          Set the file filter.

      -- Yöntemi: set_selection (file)

          Update the current file selection to 'file'.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog (master, title=None)

     A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting
     an existing file.

      -- Yöntemi: ok_command ()

          Test that a file is provided and that the selection indicates
          an already existing file.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog (master, title=None)

     A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting
     a destination file.

      -- Yöntemi: ok_command ()

          Test whether or not the selection points to a valid file that
          is not a directory.  Confirmation is required if an already
          existing file is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates,  Prev: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs,  Up: Tkinter Dialogs

5.25.4.4 ‘tkinter.commondialog’ — Dialog window templates
.........................................................

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.commondialog: f1. module provides the *note Dialog:
3ba9. class that is the base class for dialogs defined in other
supporting modules.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.commondialog.Dialog (master=None, **options)

      -- Yöntemi: show (color=None, **options)

          Render the Dialog window.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Modules *note tkinter.messagebox: f5, *note Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma:
1ac8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts,  Next: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget,  Prev: Tkinter Dialogs,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.5 ‘tkinter.messagebox’ — Tkinter message prompts
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.messagebox: f5. module provides a template base class
as well as a variety of convenience methods for commonly used
configurations.  The message boxes are modal and will return a subset of
(‘True’, ‘False’, ‘None’, *note OK: 3be3, *note CANCEL: 3be4, *note YES:
3be5, *note NO: 3be6.) based on the user’s selection.  Common message
box styles and layouts include but are not limited to:

[image src="python-figures/tk_msg.png"]


Figure
 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.messagebox.Message (master=None, **options)

     Create a message window with an application-specified message, an
     icon and a set of buttons.  Each of the buttons in the message
     window is identified by a unique symbolic name (see the 'type'
     options).

     The following options are supported:

          'command'

               Specifies the function to invoke when the user closes the
               dialog.  The name of the button clicked by the user to
               close the dialog is passed as argument.  This is only
               available on macOS.

          'default'

               Gives the *note symbolic name: 3be8. of the default
               button for this message window (*note OK: 3be3, *note
               CANCEL: 3be4, and so on).  If this option is not
               specified, the first button in the dialog will be made
               the default.

          'detail'

               Specifies an auxiliary message to the main message given
               by the 'message' option.  The message detail will be
               presented beneath the main message and, where supported
               by the OS, in a less emphasized font than the main
               message.

          'icon'

               Specifies an *note icon: 3be9. to display.  If this
               option is not specified, then the *note INFO: 3bea. icon
               will be displayed.

          'message'

               Specifies the message to display in this message box.
               The default value is an empty string.

          'parent'

               Makes the specified window the logical parent of the
               message box.  The message box is displayed on top of its
               parent window.

          'title'

               Specifies a string to display as the title of the message
               box.  This option is ignored on macOS, where platform
               guidelines forbid the use of a title on this kind of
               dialog.

          'type'

               Arranges for a *note predefined set of buttons: 3beb. to
               be displayed.

      -- Yöntemi: show (**options)

          Display a message window and wait for the user to select one
          of the buttons.  Then return the symbolic name of the selected
          button.  Keyword arguments can override options specified in
          the constructor.

'Information message box'

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.showinfo (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays an information message box with the specified
     title and message.

'Warning message boxes'

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.showwarning (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays a warning message box with the specified title
     and message.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.showerror (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays an error message box with the specified title
     and message.

'Question message boxes'

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.askquestion (title=None, message=None, *,
          type=YESNO, **options)

     Ask a question.  By default shows buttons *note YES: 3be5. and
     *note NO: 3be6.  Returns the symbolic name of the selected button.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.askokcancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask if operation should proceed.  Shows buttons *note OK: 3be3. and
     *note CANCEL: 3be4.  Returns ‘True’ if the answer is ok and ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.askretrycancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask if operation should be retried.  Shows buttons *note RETRY:
     3bf3. and *note CANCEL: 3be4.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes
     and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.askyesno (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 3be5. and *note NO: 3be6.
     Returns ‘True’ if the answer is yes and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.messagebox.askyesnocancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 3be5, *note NO: 3be6. and
     *note CANCEL: 3be4.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes, ‘None’ if
     cancelled, and ‘False’ otherwise.
Symbolic names of buttons:

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.ABORT = 'abort'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.RETRY = 'retry'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.IGNORE = 'ignore'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.CANCEL = 'cancel'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.YES = 'yes'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.NO = 'no'
Predefined sets of buttons:

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.ABORTRETRYIGNORE = 'abortretryignore'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note ABORT: 3bf6,
     *note RETRY: 3bf3. and *note IGNORE: 3bf7.

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

     Displays one button whose symbolic name is *note OK: 3be3.

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.OKCANCEL = 'okcancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note OK: 3be3. and
     *note CANCEL: 3be4.

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.RETRYCANCEL = 'retrycancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note RETRY: 3bf3.
     and *note CANCEL: 3be4.

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.YESNO = 'yesno'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3be5. and
     *note NO: 3be6.

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.YESNOCANCEL = 'yesnocancel'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3be5,
     *note NO: 3be6. and *note CANCEL: 3be4.
Icon images:

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.ERROR = 'error'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.INFO = 'info'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.QUESTION = 'question'

 -- Verisi: tkinter.messagebox.WARNING = 'warning'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget,  Next: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support,  Prev: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.6 ‘tkinter.scrolledtext’ — Scrolled Text Widget
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.scrolledtext: f6. module provides a class of the same
name which implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll
bar configured to do the “right thing.” Using the *note ScrolledText:
3c02. class is a lot easier than setting up a text widget and scroll bar
directly.

The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a ‘Frame’, and the
methods of the ‘Grid’ and ‘Pack’ geometry managers are acquired from the
‘Frame’ object.  This allows the *note ScrolledText: 3c02. widget to be
used directly to achieve most normal geometry management behavior.

Should more specific control be necessary, the following attributes are
available:

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText (master=None, **kw)

      -- Özniteliği: frame

          The frame which surrounds the text and scroll bar widgets.

      -- Özniteliği: vbar

          The scroll bar widget.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support,  Next: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets,  Prev: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.7 ‘tkinter.dnd’ — Drag and drop support
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/dnd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     Not: This is experimental and due to be deprecated when it is
     replaced with the Tk DND.

The *note tkinter.dnd: f2. module provides drag-and-drop support for
objects within a single application, within the same window or between
windows.  To enable an object to be dragged, you must create an event
binding for it that starts the drag-and-drop process.  Typically, you
bind a ButtonPress event to a callback function that you write (see
*note Bindings and Events: 3b9b.).  The function should call *note
dnd_start(): 3c07, where ‘source’ is the object to be dragged, and
‘event’ is the event that invoked the call (the argument to your
callback function).

Selection of a target object occurs as follows:

  1. Top-down search of area under mouse for target widget

        * Target widget should have a callable 'dnd_accept' attribute

        * If 'dnd_accept' is not present or returns ‘None’, search moves
          to parent widget

        * If no target widget is found, then the target object is ‘None’

  2. Call to '<old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)'

  3. Call to '<new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)'

  4. Call to '<target>.dnd_commit(source, event)' to notify of drop

  5. Call to '<source>.dnd_end(target, event)' to signal end of
     drag-and-drop

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.dnd.DndHandler (source, event)

     The 'DndHandler' class handles drag-and-drop events tracking Motion
     and ButtonRelease events on the root of the event widget.

      -- Yöntemi: cancel (event=None)

          Cancel the drag-and-drop process.

      -- Yöntemi: finish (event, commit=0)

          Execute end of drag-and-drop functions.

      -- Yöntemi: on_motion (event)

          Inspect area below mouse for target objects while drag is
          performed.

      -- Yöntemi: on_release (event)

          Signal end of drag when the release pattern is triggered.

 -- Işlevi: tkinter.dnd.dnd_start (source, event)

     Factory function for drag-and-drop process.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Bindings and Events: 3b9b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/dnd.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets,  Next: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk,  Prev: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.8 ‘tkinter.ttk’ — Tk themed widgets
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/ttk.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.ttk: f9. module provides access to the Tk themed
widget set, introduced in Tk 8.5.  It provides additional benefits
including anti-aliased font rendering under X11 and window transparency
(requiring a composition window manager on X11).

The basic idea for *note tkinter.ttk: f9. is to separate, to the extent
possible, the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the code
implementing its appearance.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Tk Widget Styling Support(2)

     A document introducing theming support for Tk

* Menu:

* Using Ttk::
* Ttk Widgets::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk Styling::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py

   (2) https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md


File: python.info,  Node: Using Ttk,  Next: Ttk Widgets,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.1 Using Ttk
..................

To start using Ttk, import its module:

     from tkinter import ttk

To override the basic Tk widgets, the import should follow the Tk
import:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter.ttk import *

That code causes several *note tkinter.ttk: f9. widgets (‘Button’,
‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’,
‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’ and ‘Scrollbar’) to automatically
replace the Tk widgets.

This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a
better look and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets
are not completely compatible.  The main difference is that widget
options such as “fg”, “bg” and others related to widget styling are no
longer present in Ttk widgets.  Instead, use the ‘ttk.Style’ class for
improved styling effects.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets(1)

     A monograph (using Tcl terminology) about differences typically
     encountered when moving applications to use the new widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk Widgets,  Next: Widget,  Prev: Using Ttk,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.2 Ttk Widgets
....................

Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter:
‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’,
‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’, ‘Scrollbar’, and
*note Spinbox: a0a.  The other six are new: *note Combobox: 3c11, *note
Notebook: 3c12, *note Progressbar: 3c13, ‘Separator’, ‘Sizegrip’ and
*note Treeview: 8fc.  And all them are subclasses of *note Widget: 3c14.

Using the Ttk widgets gives the application an improved look and feel.
As discussed above, there are differences in how the styling is coded.

Tk code:

     l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
     l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")

Ttk code:

     style = ttk.Style()
     style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white")

     l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
     l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")

For more information about *note TtkStyling: 3c15, see the *note Style:
3c16. class documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Widget,  Next: Combobox,  Prev: Ttk Widgets,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.3 Widget
...............

‘ttk.Widget’ defines standard options and methods supported by Tk themed
widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated.

* Menu:

* Standard Options::
* Scrollable Widget Options::
* Label Options::
* Compatibility Options::
* Widget States::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Options,  Next: Scrollable Widget Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.4 Standard Options
.........................

All the ‘ttk’ Widgets accept the following options:

Option          Description
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
class           Specifies the window class.  The class is used when querying the
                option database for the window’s other options, to determine the
                default bindtags for the window, and to select the widget’s
                default layout and style.  This option is read-only, and may
                only be specified when the window is created.
                
                
cursor          Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget.  If set to
                the empty string (the default), the cursor is inherited for the
                parent widget.
                
                
takefocus       Determines whether the window accepts the focus during keyboard
                traversal.  0, 1 or an empty string is returned.  If 0 is
                returned, it means that the window should be skipped entirely
                during keyboard traversal.  If 1, it means that the window
                should receive the input focus as long as it is viewable.  And
                an empty string means that the traversal scripts make the
                decision about whether or not to focus on the window.
                
                
style           May be used to specify a custom widget style.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Scrollable Widget Options,  Next: Label Options,  Prev: Standard Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.5 Scrollable Widget Options
..................................

The following options are supported by widgets that are controlled by a
scrollbar.

Option               Description
                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
xscrollcommand       Used to communicate with horizontal scrollbars.
                     
                     When the view in the widget’s window change, the widget
                     will generate a Tcl command based on the scrollcommand.
                     
                     Usually this option consists of the method
                     ‘Scrollbar.set()’ of some scrollbar.  This will cause the
                     scrollbar to be updated whenever the view in the window
                     changes.
                     
                     
yscrollcommand       Used to communicate with vertical scrollbars.  For some
                     more information, see above.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Label Options,  Next: Compatibility Options,  Prev: Scrollable Widget Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.6 Label Options
......................

The following options are supported by labels, buttons and other
button-like widgets.

Option             Description
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
text               Specifies a text string to be displayed inside the widget.
                   
                   
textvariable       Specifies a name whose value will be used in place of the
                   text option resource.
                   
                   
underline          If set, specifies the index (0-based) of a character to
                   underline in the text string.  The underline character is
                   used for mnemonic activation.
                   
                   
image              Specifies an image to display.  This is a list of 1 or more
                   elements.  The first element is the default image name.  The
                   rest of the list if a sequence of statespec/value pairs as
                   defined by *note Style.map(): 1748, specifying different
                   images to use when the widget is in a particular state or a
                   combination of states.  All images in the list should have
                   the same size.
                   
                   
compound           Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in
                   the case both text and images options are present.  Valid
                   values are:
                   
                      * text: display text only
                   
                      * image: display image only
                   
                      * top, bottom, left, right: display image above, below,
                        left of, or right of the text, respectively.
                   
                      * none: the default.  display the image if present,
                        otherwise the text.
                   
                   
width              If greater than zero, specifies how much space, in character
                   widths, to allocate for the text label, if less than zero,
                   specifies a minimum width.  If zero or unspecified, the
                   natural width of the text label is used.
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Compatibility Options,  Next: Widget States,  Prev: Label Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.7 Compatibility Options
..............................

Option       Description
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
state        May be set to “normal” or “disabled” to control the “disabled”
             state bit.  This is a write-only option: setting it changes the
             widget state, but the *note Widget.state(): 3c1c. method does not
             affect this option.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Widget States,  Next: ttk Widget,  Prev: Compatibility Options,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.8 Widget States
......................

The widget state is a bitmap of independent state flags.

Flag             Description
                 
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
active           The mouse cursor is over the widget and pressing a mouse button
                 will cause some action to occur
                 
                 
disabled         Widget is disabled under program control
                 
                 
focus            Widget has keyboard focus
                 
                 
pressed          Widget is being pressed
                 
                 
selected         “On”, “true”, or “current” for things like Checkbuttons and
                 radiobuttons
                 
                 
background       Windows and Mac have a notion of an “active” or foreground
                 window.  The 'background' state is set for widgets in a
                 background window, and cleared for those in the foreground
                 window
                 
                 
readonly         Widget should not allow user modification
                 
                 
alternate        A widget-specific alternate display format
                 
                 
invalid          The widget’s value is invalid
                 

A state specification is a sequence of state names, optionally prefixed
with an exclamation point indicating that the bit is off.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Widget,  Prev: Widget States,  Up: Widget

5.25.8.9 ttk.Widget
...................

Besides the methods described below, the ‘ttk.Widget’ supports the
methods ‘tkinter.Widget.cget()’ and ‘tkinter.Widget.configure()’.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.ttk.Widget

      -- Yöntemi: identify (x, y)

          Returns the name of the element at position 'x' 'y', or the
          empty string if the point does not lie within any element.

          'x' and 'y' are pixel coordinates relative to the widget.

      -- Yöntemi: instate (statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw)

          Test the widget’s state.  If a callback is not specified,
          returns ‘True’ if the widget state matches 'statespec' and
          ‘False’ otherwise.  If callback is specified then it is called
          with args if widget state matches 'statespec'.

      -- Yöntemi: state (statespec=None)

          Modify or inquire widget state.  If 'statespec' is specified,
          sets the widget state according to it and return a new
          'statespec' indicating which flags were changed.  If
          'statespec' is not specified, returns the currently enabled
          state flags.

     'statespec' will usually be a list or a tuple.


File: python.info,  Node: Combobox,  Next: Spinbox,  Prev: Widget,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.10 Combobox
..................

The ‘ttk.Combobox’ widget combines a text field with a pop-down list of
values.  This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’.

Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 3c14.: ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3c1f, *note
Widget.instate(): 3c20. and *note Widget.state(): 3c1c, and the
following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’,
‘Entry.selection()’, ‘Entry.xview()’, it has some other methods,
described at ‘ttk.Combobox’.

* Menu:

* Options::
* Virtual events::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.


File: python.info,  Node: Options,  Next: Virtual events,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.11 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option                Description
                      
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
exportselection       Boolean value.  If set, the widget selection is linked to
                      the Window Manager selection (which can be returned by
                      invoking Misc.selection_get, for example).
                      
                      
justify               Specifies how the text is aligned within the widget.  One
                      of “left”, “center”, or “right”.
                      
                      
height                Specifies the height of the pop-down listbox, in rows.
                      
                      
postcommand           A script (possibly registered with Misc.register) that is
                      called immediately before displaying the values.  It may
                      specify which values to display.
                      
                      
state                 One of “normal”, “readonly”, or “disabled”.  In the
                      “readonly” state, the value may not be edited directly,
                      and the user can only selection of the values from the
                      dropdown list.  In the “normal” state, the text field is
                      directly editable.  In the “disabled” state, no
                      interaction is possible.
                      
                      
textvariable          Specifies a name whose value is linked to the widget
                      value.  Whenever the value associated with that name
                      changes, the widget value is updated, and vice versa.  See
                      ‘tkinter.StringVar’.
                      
                      
values                Specifies the list of values to display in the drop-down
                      listbox.
                      
                      
width                 Specifies an integer value indicating the desired width of
                      the entry window, in average-size characters of the
                      widget’s font.
                      


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual events,  Next: ttk Combobox,  Prev: Options,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.12 Virtual events
........................

The combobox widgets generates a '<<ComboboxSelected>>' virtual event
when the user selects an element from the list of values.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Combobox,  Prev: Virtual events,  Up: Combobox

5.25.8.13 ttk.Combobox
......................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.ttk.Combobox

      -- Yöntemi: current (newindex=None)

          If 'newindex' is specified, sets the combobox value to the
          element position 'newindex'.  Otherwise, returns the index of
          the current value or -1 if the current value is not in the
          values list.

      -- Yöntemi: get ()

          Returns the current value of the combobox.

      -- Yöntemi: set (value)

          Sets the value of the combobox to 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Spinbox,  Next: Notebook,  Prev: Combobox,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.14 Spinbox
.................

The ‘ttk.Spinbox’ widget is a ‘ttk.Entry’ enhanced with increment and
decrement arrows.  It can be used for numbers or lists of string values.
This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’.

Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 3c14.: ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3c1f, *note
Widget.instate(): 3c20. and *note Widget.state(): 3c1c, and the
following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.xview()’,
it has some other methods, described at ‘ttk.Spinbox’.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<2>.
* Virtual events: Virtual events<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<2>,  Next: Virtual events<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.15 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option                     Description
                           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
from                       Float value.  If set, this is the minimum value to which
                           the decrement button will decrement.  Must be spelled as
                           ‘from_’ when used as an argument, since ‘from’ is a
                           Python keyword.
                           
                           
to                         Float value.  If set, this is the maximum value to which
                           the increment button will increment.
                           
                           
increment                  Float value.  Specifies the amount which the
                           increment/decrement buttons change the value.  Defaults
                           to 1.0.
                           
                           
values                     Sequence of string or float values.  If specified, the
                           increment/decrement buttons will cycle through the items
                           in this sequence rather than incrementing or
                           decrementing numbers.
                           
                           
wrap                       Boolean value.  If ‘True’, increment and decrement
                           buttons will cycle from the ‘to’ value to the ‘from’
                           value or the ‘from’ value to the ‘to’ value,
                           respectively.
                           
                           
format                     String value.  This specifies the format of numbers set
                           by the increment/decrement buttons.  It must be in the
                           form “%W.Pf”, where W is the padded width of the value,
                           P is the precision, and ‘%’ and ‘f’ are literal.
                           
                           
command                    Python callable.  Will be called with no arguments
                           whenever either of the increment or decrement buttons
                           are pressed.
                           


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual events<2>,  Next: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: Options<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.16 Virtual events
........................

The spinbox widget generates an '<<Increment>>' virtual event when the
user presses <Up>, and a '<<Decrement>>' virtual event when the user
presses <Down>.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: Virtual events<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.25.8.17 ttk.Spinbox
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.ttk.Spinbox

      -- Yöntemi: get ()

          Returns the current value of the spinbox.

      -- Yöntemi: set (value)

          Sets the value of the spinbox to 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Notebook,  Next: Progressbar,  Prev: Spinbox,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.18 Notebook
..................

Ttk Notebook widget manages a collection of windows and displays a
single one at a time.  Each child window is associated with a tab, which
the user may select to change the currently displayed window.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<3>.
* Tab Options::
* Tab Identifiers::
* Virtual Events::
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<3>,  Next: Tab Options,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.19 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option        Description
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
height        If present and greater than zero, specifies the desired height of
              the pane area (not including internal padding or tabs).
              Otherwise, the maximum height of all panes is used.
              
              
padding       Specifies the amount of extra space to add around the outside of
              the notebook.  The padding is a list up to four length
              specifications left top right bottom.  If fewer than four elements
              are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults to left, and
              top defaults to left.
              
              
width         If present and greater than zero, specified the desired width of
              the pane area (not including internal padding).  Otherwise, the
              maximum width of all panes is used.
              


File: python.info,  Node: Tab Options,  Next: Tab Identifiers,  Prev: Options<3>,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.20 Tab Options
.....................

There are also specific options for tabs:

Option          Description
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
state           Either “normal”, “disabled” or “hidden”.  If “disabled”, then
                the tab is not selectable.  If “hidden”, then the tab is not
                shown.
                
                
sticky          Specifies how the child window is positioned within the pane
                area.  Value is a string containing zero or more of the
                characters “n”, “s”, “e” or “w”.  Each letter refers to a side
                (north, south, east or west) that the child window will stick
                to, as per the ‘grid()’ geometry manager.
                
                
padding         Specifies the amount of extra space to add between the notebook
                and this pane.  Syntax is the same as for the option padding
                used by this widget.
                
                
text            Specifies a text to be displayed in the tab.
                
                
image           Specifies an image to display in the tab.  See the option image
                described in *note Widget: 3c14.
                
                
compound        Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in the
                case both options text and image are present.  See
                *note Label Options: 3c1a. for legal values.
                
                
underline       Specifies the index (0-based) of a character to underline in the
                text string.  The underlined character is used for mnemonic
                activation if *note Notebook.enable_traversal(): 3c31. is
                called.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Tab Identifiers,  Next: Virtual Events,  Prev: Tab Options,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.21 Tab Identifiers
.........................

The tab_id present in several methods of ‘ttk.Notebook’ may take any of
the following forms:

   * An integer between zero and the number of tabs

   * The name of a child window

   * A positional specification of the form “@x,y”, which identifies the
     tab

   * The literal string “current”, which identifies the currently
     selected tab

   * The literal string “end”, which returns the number of tabs (only
     valid for *note Notebook.index(): 3c33.)


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual Events,  Next: ttk Notebook,  Prev: Tab Identifiers,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.22 Virtual Events
........................

This widget generates a '<<NotebookTabChanged>>' virtual event after a
new tab is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Notebook,  Prev: Virtual Events,  Up: Notebook

5.25.8.23 ttk.Notebook
......................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.ttk.Notebook

      -- Yöntemi: add (child, **kw)

          Adds a new tab to the notebook.

          If window is currently managed by the notebook but hidden, it
          is restored to its previous position.

          See *note Tab Options: 3c30. for the list of available
          options.

      -- Yöntemi: forget (tab_id)

          Removes the tab specified by 'tab_id', unmaps and unmanages
          the associated window.

      -- Yöntemi: hide (tab_id)

          Hides the tab specified by 'tab_id'.

          The tab will not be displayed, but the associated window
          remains managed by the notebook and its configuration
          remembered.  Hidden tabs may be restored with the *note add():
          3c36. command.

      -- Yöntemi: identify (x, y)

          Returns the name of the tab element at position 'x', 'y', or
          the empty string if none.

      -- Yöntemi: index (tab_id)

          Returns the numeric index of the tab specified by 'tab_id', or
          the total number of tabs if 'tab_id' is the string “end”.

      -- Yöntemi: insert (pos, child, **kw)

          Inserts a pane at the specified position.

          'pos' is either the string “end”, an integer index, or the
          name of a managed child.  If 'child' is already managed by the
          notebook, moves it to the specified position.

          See *note Tab Options: 3c30. for the list of available
          options.

      -- Yöntemi: select (tab_id=None)

          Selects the specified 'tab_id'.

          The associated child window will be displayed, and the
          previously selected window (if different) is unmapped.  If
          'tab_id' is omitted, returns the widget name of the currently
          selected pane.

      -- Yöntemi: tab (tab_id, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options of the specific 'tab_id'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dictionary of the tab option
          values.  If 'option' is specified, returns the value of that
          'option'.  Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding
          values.

      -- Yöntemi: tabs ()

          Returns a list of windows managed by the notebook.

      -- Yöntemi: enable_traversal ()

          Enable keyboard traversal for a toplevel window containing
          this notebook.

          This will extend the bindings for the toplevel window
          containing the notebook as follows:

             * ‘Control’-‘Tab’: selects the tab following the currently
               selected one.

             * ‘Shift’-‘Control’-‘Tab’: selects the tab preceding the
               currently selected one.

             * ‘Alt’-‘K’: where 'K' is the mnemonic (underlined)
               character of any tab, will select that tab.

          Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for
          traversal, including nested notebooks.  However, notebook
          traversal only works properly if all panes have the notebook
          they are in as master.


File: python.info,  Node: Progressbar,  Next: Separator,  Prev: Notebook,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.24 Progressbar
.....................

The ‘ttk.Progressbar’ widget shows the status of a long-running
operation.  It can operate in two modes: 1) the determinate mode which
shows the amount completed relative to the total amount of work to be
done and 2) the indeterminate mode which provides an animated display to
let the user know that work is progressing.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<4>,  Next: ttk Progressbar,  Up: Progressbar

5.25.8.25 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option         Description
               
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
               
orient         One of “horizontal” or “vertical”.  Specifies the orientation of
               the progress bar.
               
               
length         Specifies the length of the long axis of the progress bar (width
               if horizontal, height if vertical).
               
               
mode           One of “determinate” or “indeterminate”.
               
               
maximum        A number specifying the maximum value.  Defaults to 100.
               
               
value          The current value of the progress bar.  In “determinate” mode,
               this represents the amount of work completed.  In “indeterminate”
               mode, it is interpreted as modulo 'maximum'; that is, the
               progress bar completes one “cycle” when its value increases by
               'maximum'.
               
               
variable       A name which is linked to the option value.  If specified, the
               value of the progress bar is automatically set to the value of
               this name whenever the latter is modified.
               
               
phase          Read-only option.  The widget periodically increments the value
               of this option whenever its value is greater than 0 and, in
               determinate mode, less than maximum.  This option may be used by
               the current theme to provide additional animation effects.
               


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Progressbar,  Prev: Options<4>,  Up: Progressbar

5.25.8.26 ttk.Progressbar
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.ttk.Progressbar

      -- Yöntemi: start (interval=None)

          Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer event
          that calls *note Progressbar.step(): 3c42. every 'interval'
          milliseconds.  If omitted, 'interval' defaults to 50
          milliseconds.

      -- Yöntemi: step (amount=None)

          Increments the progress bar’s value by 'amount'.

          'amount' defaults to 1.0 if omitted.

      -- Yöntemi: stop ()

          Stop autoincrement mode: cancels any recurring timer event
          initiated by *note Progressbar.start(): 3c41. for this
          progress bar.


File: python.info,  Node: Separator,  Next: Sizegrip,  Prev: Progressbar,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.27 Separator
...................

The ‘ttk.Separator’ widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator
bar.

It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<5>,  Up: Separator

5.25.8.28 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific option:

Option       Description
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
orient       One of “horizontal” or “vertical”.  Specifies the orientation of
             the separator.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Sizegrip,  Next: Treeview,  Prev: Separator,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.29 Sizegrip
..................

The ‘ttk.Sizegrip’ widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to
resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip.

This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides
the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* Platform-specific notes::
* Bugs::


File: python.info,  Node: Platform-specific notes,  Next: Bugs,  Up: Sizegrip

5.25.8.30 Platform-specific notes
.................................

   * On macOS, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size
     grip by default.  Adding a ‘Sizegrip’ is harmless, since the
     built-in grip will just mask the widget.


File: python.info,  Node: Bugs,  Prev: Platform-specific notes,  Up: Sizegrip

5.25.8.31 Bugs
..............

   * If the containing toplevel’s position was specified relative to the
     right or bottom of the screen (e.g.  ….), the ‘Sizegrip’ widget
     will not resize the window.

   * This widget supports only “southeast” resizing.


File: python.info,  Node: Treeview,  Next: Ttk Styling,  Prev: Sizegrip,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.32 Treeview
..................

The ‘ttk.Treeview’ widget displays a hierarchical collection of items.
Each item has a textual label, an optional image, and an optional list
of data values.  The data values are displayed in successive columns
after the tree label.

The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by
setting the widget option ‘displaycolumns’.  The tree widget can also
display column headings.  Columns may be accessed by number or symbolic
names listed in the widget option columns.  See *note Column
Identifiers: 3c4a.

Each item is identified by a unique name.  The widget will generate item
IDs if they are not supplied by the caller.  There is a distinguished
root item, named ‘{}’.  The root item itself is not displayed; its
children appear at the top level of the hierarchy.

Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate event
bindings with individual items and control the appearance of the item.

The Treeview widget supports horizontal and vertical scrolling,
according to the options described in *note Scrollable Widget Options:
3c19. and the methods *note Treeview.xview(): 3c4b. and *note
Treeview.yview(): 3c4c.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<6>.
* Item Options::
* Tag Options::
* Column Identifiers::
* Virtual Events: Virtual Events<2>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<6>,  Next: Item Options,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.33 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option               Description
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
columns              A list of column identifiers, specifying the number of
                     columns and their names.
                     
                     
displaycolumns       A list of column identifiers (either symbolic or integer
                     indices) specifying which data columns are displayed and
                     the order in which they appear, or the string “#all”.
                     
                     
height               Specifies the number of rows which should be visible.
                     Note: the requested width is determined from the sum of
                     the column widths.
                     
                     
padding              Specifies the internal padding for the widget.  The
                     padding is a list of up to four length specifications.
                     
                     
selectmode           Controls how the built-in class bindings manage the
                     selection.  One of “extended”, “browse” or “none”.  If set
                     to “extended” (the default), multiple items may be
                     selected.  If “browse”, only a single item will be
                     selected at a time.  If “none”, the selection will not be
                     changed.
                     
                     Note that the application code and tag bindings can set
                     the selection however they wish, regardless of the value
                     of this option.
                     
                     
show                 A list containing zero or more of the following values,
                     specifying which elements of the tree to display.
                     
                        * tree: display tree labels in column #0.
                     
                        * headings: display the heading row.
                     
                     The default is “tree headings”, i.e., show all elements.
                     
                     'Note': Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even
                     if show=”tree” is not specified.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Item Options,  Next: Tag Options,  Prev: Options<6>,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.34 Item Options
......................

The following item options may be specified for items in the insert and
item widget commands.

Option       Description
             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
text         The textual label to display for the item.
             
             
image        A Tk Image, displayed to the left of the label.
             
             
values       The list of values associated with the item.
             
             Each item should have the same number of values as the widget
             option columns.  If there are fewer values than columns, the
             remaining values are assumed empty.  If there are more values
             than columns, the extra values are ignored.
             
             
open         ‘True’/‘False’ value indicating whether the item’s children
             should be displayed or hidden.
             
             
tags         A list of tags associated with this item.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Tag Options,  Next: Column Identifiers,  Prev: Item Options,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.35 Tag Options
.....................

The following options may be specified on tags:

Option           Description
                 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
foreground       Specifies the text foreground color.
                 
                 
background       Specifies the cell or item background color.
                 
                 
font             Specifies the font to use when drawing text.
                 
                 
image            Specifies the item image, in case the item’s image option is
                 empty.
                 


File: python.info,  Node: Column Identifiers,  Next: Virtual Events<2>,  Prev: Tag Options,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.36 Column Identifiers
............................

Column identifiers take any of the following forms:

   * A symbolic name from the list of columns option.

   * An integer n, specifying the nth data column.

   * A string of the form #n, where n is an integer, specifying the nth
     display column.

Notes:

   * Item’s option values may be displayed in a different order than the
     order in which they are stored.

   * Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even if show=”tree” is
     not specified.

A data column number is an index into an item’s option values list; a
display column number is the column number in the tree where the values
are displayed.  Tree labels are displayed in column #0.  If option
displaycolumns is not set, then data column n is displayed in column
#n+1.  Again, 'column #0 always refers to the tree column'.


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual Events<2>,  Next: ttk Treeview,  Prev: Column Identifiers,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.37 Virtual Events
........................

The Treeview widget generates the following virtual events.

Event                    Description
                         
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
<<TreeviewSelect>>       Generated whenever the selection changes.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewOpen>>         Generated just before settings the focus item to
                         open=True.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewClose>>        Generated just after setting the focus item to
                         open=False.
                         

The *note Treeview.focus(): 3c51. and *note Treeview.selection(): 8fd.
methods can be used to determine the affected item or items.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Treeview,  Prev: Virtual Events<2>,  Up: Treeview

5.25.8.38 ttk.Treeview
......................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.ttk.Treeview

      -- Yöntemi: bbox (item, column=None)

          Returns the bounding box (relative to the treeview widget’s
          window) of the specified 'item' in the form (x, y, width,
          height).

          If 'column' is specified, returns the bounding box of that
          cell.  If the 'item' is not visible (i.e., if it is a
          descendant of a closed item or is scrolled offscreen), returns
          an empty string.

      -- Yöntemi: get_children (item=None)

          Returns the list of children belonging to 'item'.

          If 'item' is not specified, returns root children.

      -- Yöntemi: set_children (item, *newchildren)

          Replaces 'item'’s child with 'newchildren'.

          Children present in 'item' that are not present in
          'newchildren' are detached from the tree.  No items in
          'newchildren' may be an ancestor of 'item'.  Note that not
          specifying 'newchildren' results in detaching 'item'’s
          children.

      -- Yöntemi: column (column, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'column'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the column option
          values.  If 'option' is specified then the value for that
          'option' is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values.

          The valid options/values are:

          'id'

               Returns the column name.  This is a read-only option.

          'anchor': One of the standard Tk anchor values.

               Specifies how the text in this column should be aligned
               with respect to the cell.

          'minwidth': width

               The minimum width of the column in pixels.  The treeview
               widget will not make the column any smaller than
               specified by this option when the widget is resized or
               the user drags a column.

          'stretch': ‘True’/‘False’

               Specifies whether the column’s width should be adjusted
               when the widget is resized.

          'width': width

               The width of the column in pixels.

          To configure the tree column, call this with column = “#0”

      -- Yöntemi: delete (*items)

          Delete all specified 'items' and all their descendants.

          The root item may not be deleted.

      -- Yöntemi: detach (*items)

          Unlinks all of the specified 'items' from the tree.

          The items and all of their descendants are still present, and
          may be reinserted at another point in the tree, but will not
          be displayed.

          The root item may not be detached.

      -- Yöntemi: exists (item)

          Returns ‘True’ if the specified 'item' is present in the tree.

      -- Yöntemi: focus (item=None)

          If 'item' is specified, sets the focus item to 'item'.
          Otherwise, returns the current focus item, or ‘’ if there is
          none.

      -- Yöntemi: heading (column, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the heading options for the specified
          'column'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the heading option
          values.  If 'option' is specified then the value for that
          'option' is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values.

          The valid options/values are:

          'text': text

               The text to display in the column heading.

          'image': imageName

               Specifies an image to display to the right of the column
               heading.

          'anchor': anchor

               Specifies how the heading text should be aligned.  One of
               the standard Tk anchor values.

          'command': callback

               A callback to be invoked when the heading label is
               pressed.

          To configure the tree column heading, call this with column =
          “#0”.

      -- Yöntemi: identify (component, x, y)

          Returns a description of the specified 'component' under the
          point given by 'x' and 'y', or the empty string if no such
          'component' is present at that position.

      -- Yöntemi: identify_row (y)

          Returns the item ID of the item at position 'y'.

      -- Yöntemi: identify_column (x)

          Returns the data column identifier of the cell at position
          'x'.

          The tree column has ID #0.

      -- Yöntemi: identify_region (x, y)

          Returns one of:

          region          meaning
                          
          -----------------------------------------------------------
                          
          heading         Tree heading area.
                          
                          
          separator       Space between two columns headings.
                          
                          
          tree            The tree area.
                          
                          
          cell            A data cell.
                          

          Availability: Tk 8.6.

      -- Yöntemi: identify_element (x, y)

          Returns the element at position 'x', 'y'.

          Availability: Tk 8.6.

      -- Yöntemi: index (item)

          Returns the integer index of 'item' within its parent’s list
          of children.

      -- Yöntemi: insert (parent, index, iid=None, **kw)

          Creates a new item and returns the item identifier of the
          newly created item.

          'parent' is the item ID of the parent item, or the empty
          string to create a new top-level item.  'index' is an integer,
          or the value “end”, specifying where in the list of parent’s
          children to insert the new item.  If 'index' is less than or
          equal to zero, the new node is inserted at the beginning; if
          'index' is greater than or equal to the current number of
          children, it is inserted at the end.  If 'iid' is specified,
          it is used as the item identifier; 'iid' must not already
          exist in the tree.  Otherwise, a new unique identifier is
          generated.

          See *note Item Options: 3c4e. for the list of available
          options.

      -- Yöntemi: item (item, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'item'.

          If no options are given, a dict with options/values for the
          item is returned.  If 'option' is specified then the value for
          that option is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values as given by 'kw'.

      -- Yöntemi: move (item, parent, index)

          Moves 'item' to position 'index' in 'parent'’s list of
          children.

          It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants.
          If 'index' is less than or equal to zero, 'item' is moved to
          the beginning; if greater than or equal to the number of
          children, it is moved to the end.  If 'item' was detached it
          is reattached.

      -- Yöntemi: next (item)

          Returns the identifier of 'item'’s next sibling, or ‘’ if
          'item' is the last child of its parent.

      -- Yöntemi: parent (item)

          Returns the ID of the parent of 'item', or ‘’ if 'item' is at
          the top level of the hierarchy.

      -- Yöntemi: prev (item)

          Returns the identifier of 'item'’s previous sibling, or ‘’ if
          'item' is the first child of its parent.

      -- Yöntemi: reattach (item, parent, index)

          An alias for *note Treeview.move(): 3c63.

      -- Yöntemi: see (item)

          Ensure that 'item' is visible.

          Sets all of 'item'’s ancestors open option to ‘True’, and
          scrolls the widget if necessary so that 'item' is within the
          visible portion of the tree.

      -- Yöntemi: selection ()

          Returns a tuple of selected items.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: ‘selection()’ no longer takes
          arguments.  For changing the selection state use the following
          selection methods.

      -- Yöntemi: selection_set (*items)

          'items' becomes the new selection.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Yöntemi: selection_add (*items)

          Add 'items' to the selection.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Yöntemi: selection_remove (*items)

          Remove 'items' from the selection.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Yöntemi: selection_toggle (*items)

          Toggle the selection state of each item in 'items'.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Yöntemi: set (item, column=None, value=None)

          With one argument, returns a dictionary of column/value pairs
          for the specified 'item'.  With two arguments, returns the
          current value of the specified 'column'.  With three
          arguments, sets the value of given 'column' in given 'item' to
          the specified 'value'.

      -- Yöntemi: tag_bind (tagname, sequence=None, callback=None)

          Bind a callback for the given event 'sequence' to the tag
          'tagname'.  When an event is delivered to an item, the
          callbacks for each of the item’s tags option are called.

      -- Yöntemi: tag_configure (tagname, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'tagname'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the option settings
          for 'tagname'.  If 'option' is specified, returns the value
          for that 'option' for the specified 'tagname'.  Otherwise,
          sets the options to the corresponding values for the given
          'tagname'.

      -- Yöntemi: tag_has (tagname, item=None)

          If 'item' is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether
          the specified 'item' has the given 'tagname'.  Otherwise,
          returns a list of all items that have the specified tag.

          Availability: Tk 8.6

      -- Yöntemi: xview (*args)

          Query or modify horizontal position of the treeview.

      -- Yöntemi: yview (*args)

          Query or modify vertical position of the treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk Styling,  Prev: Treeview,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.25.8.39 Ttk Styling
.....................

Each widget in ‘ttk’ is assigned a style, which specifies the set of
elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with
dynamic and default settings for element options.  By default the style
name is the same as the widget’s class name, but it may be overridden by
the widget’s style option.  If you don’t know the class name of a
widget, use the method ‘Misc.winfo_class()’ (somewidget.winfo_class()).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Tcl'2004 conference presentation(1)

     This document explains how the theme engine works

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.ttk.Style

     This class is used to manipulate the style database.

      -- Yöntemi: configure (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Query or set the default value of the specified option(s) in
          'style'.

          Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value is a string
          identifying the value for that option.

          For example, to change every default button to be a flat
          button with some padding and a different background color:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat",
                  background="#ccc")

               btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample")
               btn.pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- Yöntemi: map (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Query or sets dynamic values of the specified option(s) in
          'style'.

          Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value should be a list
          or a tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples,
          lists, or some other preference.  A statespec is a compound of
          one or more states and then a value.

          An example may make it more understandable:

               import tkinter
               from tkinter import ttk

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.map("C.TButton",
                   foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')],
                   background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')]
                   )

               colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack()

               root.mainloop()

          Note that the order of the (states, value) sequences for an
          option does matter, if the order is changed to ‘[('active',
          'blue'), ('pressed', 'red')]’ in the foreground option, for
          example, the result would be a blue foreground when the widget
          were in active or pressed states.

      -- Yöntemi: lookup (style, option, state=None, default=None)

          Returns the value specified for 'option' in 'style'.

          If 'state' is specified, it is expected to be a sequence of
          one or more states.  If the 'default' argument is set, it is
          used as a fallback value in case no specification for option
          is found.

          To check what font a Button uses by default:

               from tkinter import ttk

               print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font"))

      -- Yöntemi: layout (style, layoutspec=None)

          Define the widget layout for given 'style'.  If 'layoutspec'
          is omitted, return the layout specification for given style.

          'layoutspec', if specified, is expected to be a list or some
          other sequence type (excluding strings), where each item
          should be a tuple and the first item is the layout name and
          the second item should have the format described in *note
          Layouts: 3c74.

          To understand the format, see the following example (it is not
          intended to do anything useful):

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.layout("TMenubutton", [
                  ("Menubutton.background", None),
                  ("Menubutton.button", {"children":
                      [("Menubutton.focus", {"children":
                          [("Menubutton.padding", {"children":
                              [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})]
                          })]
                      })]
                  }),
               ])

               mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text')
               mbtn.pack()
               root.mainloop()

      -- Yöntemi: element_create (elementname, etype, *args, **kw)

          Create a new element in the current theme, of the given
          'etype' which is expected to be either “image” or “from”.

          If “image” is used, 'args' should contain the default image
          name followed by statespec/value pairs (this is the
          imagespec), and 'kw' may have the following options:

          border=padding

               padding is a list of up to four integers, specifying the
               left, top, right, and bottom borders, respectively.

          height=height

               Specifies a minimum height for the element.  If less than
               zero, the base image’s height is used as a default.

          padding=padding

               Specifies the element’s interior padding.  Defaults to
               border’s value if not specified.

          sticky=spec

               Specifies how the image is placed within the final
               parcel.  spec contains zero or more characters “n”, “s”,
               “w”, or “e”.

          width=width

               Specifies a minimum width for the element.  If less than
               zero, the base image’s width is used as a default.

          Example:

               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-pressed.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-active.png')
               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('Button.button', 'image',
                                    img1, ('pressed', img2), ('active', img3),
                                    border=(2, 4), sticky='we')

          If “from” is used as the value of 'etype', *note
          element_create(): 14c7. will clone an existing element.
          'args' is expected to contain a themename, from which the
          element will be cloned, and optionally an element to clone
          from.  If this element to clone from is not specified, an
          empty element will be used.  'kw' is discarded.

          Example:

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('plain.background', 'from', 'default')

      -- Yöntemi: element_names ()

          Returns the list of elements defined in the current theme.

      -- Yöntemi: element_options (elementname)

          Returns the list of 'elementname'’s options.

      -- Yöntemi: theme_create (themename, parent=None, settings=None)

          Create a new theme.

          It is an error if 'themename' already exists.  If 'parent' is
          specified, the new theme will inherit styles, elements and
          layouts from the parent theme.  If 'settings' are present they
          are expected to have the same syntax used for *note
          theme_settings(): 3c78.

      -- Yöntemi: theme_settings (themename, settings)

          Temporarily sets the current theme to 'themename', apply
          specified 'settings' and then restore the previous theme.

          Each key in 'settings' is a style and each value may contain
          the keys ‘configure’, ‘map’, ‘layout’ and ‘element create’ and
          they are expected to have the same format as specified by the
          methods *note Style.configure(): 3c71, *note Style.map():
          1748, *note Style.layout(): 3c73. and *note
          Style.element_create(): 14c7. respectively.

          As an example, let’s change the Combobox for the default theme
          a bit:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.theme_settings("default", {
                  "TCombobox": {
                      "configure": {"padding": 5},
                      "map": {
                          "background": [("active", "green2"),
                                         ("!disabled", "green4")],
                          "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")],
                          "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"),
                                         ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")]
                      }
                  }
               })

               combo = ttk.Combobox().pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- Yöntemi: theme_names ()

          Returns a list of all known themes.

      -- Yöntemi: theme_use (themename=None)

          If 'themename' is not given, returns the theme in use.
          Otherwise, sets the current theme to 'themename', refreshes
          all widgets and emits a <<ThemeChanged>> event.

* Menu:

* Layouts::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Layouts,  Up: Ttk Styling

5.25.8.40 Layouts
.................

A layout can be just ‘None’, if it takes no options, or a dict of
options specifying how to arrange the element.  The layout mechanism
uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an initial
cavity, each element is allocated a parcel.

The valid options/values are:

'side': whichside

     Specifies which side of the cavity to place the element; one of
     top, right, bottom or left.  If omitted, the element occupies the
     entire cavity.

'sticky': nswe

     Specifies where the element is placed inside its allocated parcel.

'unit': 0 or 1

     If set to 1, causes the element and all of its descendants to be
     treated as a single element for the purposes of *note
     Widget.identify(): 3c1f. et al.  It’s used for things like
     scrollbar thumbs with grips.

'children': [sublayout… ]

     Specifies a list of elements to place inside the element.  Each
     element is a tuple (or other sequence type) where the first item is
     the layout name, and the other is a *note Layout: 3c74.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk,  Next: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>,  Prev: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.9 ‘tkinter.tix’ — Extension widgets for Tk
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/tix.py(1)

3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This Tk extension is unmaintained and
should not be used in new code.  Use *note tkinter.ttk: f9. instead.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tkinter.tix: f8. (Tk Interface Extension) module provides an
additional rich set of widgets.  Although the standard Tk library has
many useful widgets, they are far from complete.  The *note tkinter.tix:
f8. library provides most of the commonly needed widgets that are
missing from standard Tk: *note HList: 3c7e, *note ComboBox: 3c7f, *note
Control: 3c80. (a.k.a.  SpinBox) and an assortment of scrollable
widgets.  *note tkinter.tix: f8. also includes many more widgets that
are generally useful in a wide range of applications: *note NoteBook:
3c81, *note FileEntry: 3c82, *note PanedWindow: 3c83, etc; there are
more than 40 of them.

With all these new widgets, you can introduce new interaction techniques
into applications, creating more useful and more intuitive user
interfaces.  You can design your application by choosing the most
appropriate widgets to match the special needs of your application and
users.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Tix Homepage(2)

     The home page for ‘Tix’.  This includes links to additional
     documentation and downloads.

Tix Man Pages(3)

     On-line version of the man pages and reference material.

Tix Programming Guide(4)

     On-line version of the programmer’s reference material.

Tix Development Applications(5)

     Tix applications for development of Tix and Tkinter programs.  Tide
     applications work under Tk or Tkinter, and include ‘TixInspect’, an
     inspector to remotely modify and debug Tix/Tk/Tkinter applications.

* Menu:

* Using Tix::
* Tix Widgets::
* Tix Commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tkinter/tix.py

   (2) https://tix.sourceforge.net/

   (3) https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/

   (4) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/docs/tix-book/tix.book.html

   (5) https://tix.sourceforge.net/Tixapps/src/Tide.html


File: python.info,  Node: Using Tix,  Next: Tix Widgets,  Up: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk

5.25.9.1 Using Tix
..................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None,
          className='Tix')

     Toplevel widget of Tix which represents mostly the main window of
     an application.  It has an associated Tcl interpreter.

     Classes in the *note tkinter.tix: f8. module subclasses the classes
     in the *note tkinter: ef.  The former imports the latter, so to use
     *note tkinter.tix: f8. with Tkinter, all you need to do is to
     import one module.  In general, you can just import *note
     tkinter.tix: f8, and replace the toplevel call to *note tkinter.Tk:
     14d9. with ‘tix.Tk’:

          from tkinter import tix
          from tkinter.constants import *
          root = tix.Tk()

To use *note tkinter.tix: f8, you must have the Tix widgets installed,
usually alongside your installation of the Tk widgets.  To test your
installation, try the following:

     from tkinter import tix
     root = tix.Tk()
     root.tk.eval('package require Tix')


File: python.info,  Node: Tix Widgets,  Next: Tix Commands,  Prev: Using Tix,  Up: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk

5.25.9.2 Tix Widgets
....................

Tix(1) introduces over 40 widget classes to the *note tkinter: ef.
repertoire.

* Menu:

* Basic Widgets::
* File Selectors::
* Hierarchical ListBox::
* Tabular ListBox::
* Manager Widgets::
* Image Types::
* Miscellaneous Widgets::
* Form Geometry Manager::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/TixIntro.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Widgets,  Next: File Selectors,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.3 Basic Widgets
......................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.Balloon

     A Balloon(1) that pops up over a widget to provide help.  When the
     user moves the cursor inside a widget to which a Balloon widget has
     been bound, a small pop-up window with a descriptive message will
     be shown on the screen.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.ButtonBox

     The ButtonBox(2) widget creates a box of buttons, such as is
     commonly used for ‘Ok Cancel’.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.ComboBox

     The ComboBox(3) widget is similar to the combo box control in MS
     Windows.  The user can select a choice by either typing in the
     entry subwidget or selecting from the listbox subwidget.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.Control

     The Control(4) widget is also known as the ‘SpinBox’ widget.  The
     user can adjust the value by pressing the two arrow buttons or by
     entering the value directly into the entry.  The new value will be
     checked against the user-defined upper and lower limits.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.LabelEntry

     The LabelEntry(5) widget packages an entry widget and a label into
     one mega widget.  It can be used to simplify the creation of
     “entry-form” type of interface.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.LabelFrame

     The LabelFrame(6) widget packages a frame widget and a label into
     one mega widget.  To create widgets inside a LabelFrame widget, one
     creates the new widgets relative to the ‘frame’ subwidget and
     manage them inside the ‘frame’ subwidget.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.Meter

     The Meter(7) widget can be used to show the progress of a
     background job which may take a long time to execute.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.OptionMenu

     The OptionMenu(8) creates a menu button of options.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.PopupMenu

     The PopupMenu(9) widget can be used as a replacement of the
     ‘tk_popup’ command.  The advantage of the ‘Tix’ *note PopupMenu:
     3c8e. widget is it requires less application code to manipulate.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.Select

     The Select(10) widget is a container of button subwidgets.  It can
     be used to provide radio-box or check-box style of selection
     options for the user.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.StdButtonBox

     The StdButtonBox(11) widget is a group of standard buttons for
     Motif-like dialog boxes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixBalloon.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixButtonBox.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixComboBox.htm

   (4) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixControl.htm

   (5) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelEntry.htm

   (6) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixLabelFrame.htm

   (7) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixMeter.htm

   (8) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixOptionMenu.htm

   (9) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPopupMenu.htm

   (10) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixSelect.htm

   (11) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixStdButtonBox.htm


File: python.info,  Node: File Selectors,  Next: Hierarchical ListBox,  Prev: Basic Widgets,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.4 File Selectors
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.DirList

     The DirList(1) widget displays a list view of a directory, its
     previous directories and its sub-directories.  The user can choose
     one of the directories displayed in the list or change to another
     directory.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.DirTree

     The DirTree(2) widget displays a tree view of a directory, its
     previous directories and its sub-directories.  The user can choose
     one of the directories displayed in the list or change to another
     directory.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.DirSelectDialog

     The DirSelectDialog(3) widget presents the directories in the file
     system in a dialog window.  The user can use this dialog window to
     navigate through the file system to select the desired directory.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.DirSelectBox

     The *note DirSelectBox: 3c95. is similar to the standard Motif(TM)
     directory-selection box.  It is generally used for the user to
     choose a directory.  DirSelectBox stores the directories mostly
     recently selected into a ComboBox widget so that they can be
     quickly selected again.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.ExFileSelectBox

     The ExFileSelectBox(4) widget is usually embedded in a
     tixExFileSelectDialog widget.  It provides a convenient method for
     the user to select files.  The style of the *note ExFileSelectBox:
     3c96. widget is very similar to the standard file dialog on MS
     Windows 3.1.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.FileSelectBox

     The FileSelectBox(5) is similar to the standard Motif(TM)
     file-selection box.  It is generally used for the user to choose a
     file.  FileSelectBox stores the files mostly recently selected into
     a *note ComboBox: 3c7f. widget so that they can be quickly selected
     again.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.FileEntry

     The FileEntry(6) widget can be used to input a filename.  The user
     can type in the filename manually.  Alternatively, the user can
     press the button widget that sits next to the entry, which will
     bring up a file selection dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirList.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirTree.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixDirSelectDialog.htm

   (4) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixExFileSelectBox.htm

   (5) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileSelectBox.htm

   (6) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixFileEntry.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Hierarchical ListBox,  Next: Tabular ListBox,  Prev: File Selectors,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.5 Hierarchical ListBox
.............................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.HList

     The HList(1) widget can be used to display any data that have a
     hierarchical structure, for example, file system directory trees.
     The list entries are indented and connected by branch lines
     according to their places in the hierarchy.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.CheckList

     The CheckList(2) widget displays a list of items to be selected by
     the user.  CheckList acts similarly to the Tk checkbutton or
     radiobutton widgets, except it is capable of handling many more
     items than checkbuttons or radiobuttons.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.Tree

     The Tree(3) widget can be used to display hierarchical data in a
     tree form.  The user can adjust the view of the tree by opening or
     closing parts of the tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixHList.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixCheckList.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTree.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Tabular ListBox,  Next: Manager Widgets,  Prev: Hierarchical ListBox,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.6 Tabular ListBox
........................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.TList

     The TList(1) widget can be used to display data in a tabular
     format.  The list entries of a *note TList: 3c9c. widget are
     similar to the entries in the Tk listbox widget.  The main
     differences are (1) the *note TList: 3c9c. widget can display the
     list entries in a two dimensional format and (2) you can use
     graphical images as well as multiple colors and fonts for the list
     entries.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixTList.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Manager Widgets,  Next: Image Types,  Prev: Tabular ListBox,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.7 Manager Widgets
........................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.PanedWindow

     The PanedWindow(1) widget allows the user to interactively
     manipulate the sizes of several panes.  The panes can be arranged
     either vertically or horizontally.  The user changes the sizes of
     the panes by dragging the resize handle between two panes.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.ListNoteBook

     The ListNoteBook(2) widget is very similar to the ‘TixNoteBook’
     widget: it can be used to display many windows in a limited space
     using a notebook metaphor.  The notebook is divided into a stack of
     pages (windows).  At one time only one of these pages can be shown.
     The user can navigate through these pages by choosing the name of
     the desired page in the ‘hlist’ subwidget.

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.NoteBook

     The NoteBook(3) widget can be used to display many windows in a
     limited space using a notebook metaphor.  The notebook is divided
     into a stack of pages.  At one time only one of these pages can be
     shown.  The user can navigate through these pages by choosing the
     visual “tabs” at the top of the NoteBook widget.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixPanedWindow.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixListNoteBook.htm

   (3) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixNoteBook.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Image Types,  Next: Miscellaneous Widgets,  Prev: Manager Widgets,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.8 Image Types
....................

The *note tkinter.tix: f8. module adds:

   * pixmap(1) capabilities to all *note tkinter.tix: f8. and *note
     tkinter: ef. widgets to create color images from XPM files.

   * Compound(2) image types can be used to create images that consists
     of multiple horizontal lines; each line is composed of a series of
     items (texts, bitmaps, images or spaces) arranged from left to
     right.  For example, a compound image can be used to display a
     bitmap and a text string simultaneously in a Tk ‘Button’ widget.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/pixmap.htm

   (2) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/compound.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous Widgets,  Next: Form Geometry Manager,  Prev: Image Types,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.9 Miscellaneous Widgets
..............................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.InputOnly

     The InputOnly(1) widgets are to accept inputs from the user, which
     can be done with the ‘bind’ command (Unix only).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixInputOnly.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Form Geometry Manager,  Prev: Miscellaneous Widgets,  Up: Tix Widgets

5.25.9.10 Form Geometry Manager
...............................

In addition, *note tkinter.tix: f8. augments *note tkinter: ef. by
providing:

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.Form

     The Form(1) geometry manager based on attachment rules for all Tk
     widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tixForm.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Tix Commands,  Prev: Tix Widgets,  Up: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk

5.25.9.11 Tix Commands
......................

 -- Sınıfı: tkinter.tix.tixCommand

     The tix commands(1) provide access to miscellaneous elements of
     ‘Tix’’s internal state and the ‘Tix’ application context.  Most of
     the information manipulated by these methods pertains to the
     application as a whole, or to a screen or display, rather than to a
     particular window.

     To view the current settings, the common usage is:

          from tkinter import tix
          root = tix.Tk()
          print(root.tix_configure())

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_configure (cnf=None, **kw)

     Query or modify the configuration options of the Tix application
     context.  If no option is specified, returns a dictionary all of
     the available options.  If option is specified with no value, then
     the method returns a list describing the one named option (this
     list will be identical to the corresponding sublist of the value
     returned if no option is specified).  If one or more option-value
     pairs are specified, then the method modifies the given option(s)
     to have the given value(s); in this case the method returns an
     empty string.  Option may be any of the configuration options.

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_cget (option)

     Returns the current value of the configuration option given by
     'option'.  Option may be any of the configuration options.

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_getbitmap (name)

     Locates a bitmap file of the name ‘name.xpm’ or ‘name’ in one of
     the bitmap directories (see the *note tix_addbitmapdir(): 3ca9.
     method).  By using *note tix_getbitmap(): 3ca8, you can avoid hard
     coding the pathnames of the bitmap files in your application.  When
     successful, it returns the complete pathname of the bitmap file,
     prefixed with the character ‘@’.  The returned value can be used to
     configure the ‘bitmap’ option of the Tk and Tix widgets.

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_addbitmapdir (directory)

     Tix maintains a list of directories under which the *note
     tix_getimage(): 3caa. and *note tix_getbitmap(): 3ca8. methods will
     search for image files.  The standard bitmap directory is
     ‘$TIX_LIBRARY/bitmaps’.  The *note tix_addbitmapdir(): 3ca9. method
     adds 'directory' into this list.  By using this method, the image
     files of an applications can also be located using the *note
     tix_getimage(): 3caa. or *note tix_getbitmap(): 3ca8. method.

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_filedialog ([dlgclass])

     Returns the file selection dialog that may be shared among
     different calls from this application.  This method will create a
     file selection dialog widget when it is called the first time.
     This dialog will be returned by all subsequent calls to *note
     tix_filedialog(): 3cab.  An optional dlgclass parameter can be
     passed as a string to specified what type of file selection dialog
     widget is desired.  Possible options are ‘tix’, ‘FileSelectDialog’
     or ‘tixExFileSelectDialog’.

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_getimage (self, name)

     Locates an image file of the name ‘name.xpm’, ‘name.xbm’ or
     ‘name.ppm’ in one of the bitmap directories (see the *note
     tix_addbitmapdir(): 3ca9. method above).  If more than one file
     with the same name (but different extensions) exist, then the image
     type is chosen according to the depth of the X display: xbm images
     are chosen on monochrome displays and color images are chosen on
     color displays.  By using *note tix_getimage(): 3caa, you can avoid
     hard coding the pathnames of the image files in your application.
     When successful, this method returns the name of the newly created
     image, which can be used to configure the ‘image’ option of the Tk
     and Tix widgets.

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_option_get (name)

     Gets the options maintained by the Tix scheme mechanism.

 -- Yöntemi: tixCommand.tix_resetoptions (newScheme, newFontSet[,
          newScmPrio])

     Resets the scheme and fontset of the Tix application to 'newScheme'
     and 'newFontSet', respectively.  This affects only those widgets
     created after this call.  Therefore, it is best to call the
     resetoptions method before the creation of any widgets in a Tix
     application.

     The optional parameter 'newScmPrio' can be given to reset the
     priority level of the Tk options set by the Tix schemes.

     Because of the way Tk handles the X option database, after Tix has
     been has imported and inited, it is not possible to reset the color
     schemes and font sets using the ‘tix_config()’ method.  Instead,
     the *note tix_resetoptions(): 3cad. method must be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tix.sourceforge.net/dist/current/man/html/TixCmd/tix.htm


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>,  Prev: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk,  Up: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri

5.25.10 IDLE — Python editor and shell
--------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/idlelib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment.

IDLE has the following features:

   * cross-platform: works mostly the same on Windows, Unix, and macOS

   * Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing of
     code input, output, and error messages

   * multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing,
     smart indent, call tips, auto completion, and other features

   * search within any window, replace within editor windows, and search
     through multiple files (grep)

   * debugger with persistent breakpoints, stepping, and viewing of
     global and local namespaces

   * configuration, browsers, and other dialogs

* Menu:

* Menus::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib — implementation of IDLE application::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/idlelib/


File: python.info,  Node: Menus,  Next: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>

5.25.10.1 Menus
...............

IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window and the Editor window.
It is possible to have multiple editor windows simultaneously.  On
Windows and Linux, each has its own top menu.  Each menu documented
below indicates which window type it is associated with.

Output windows, such as used for Edit => Find in Files, are a subtype of
editor window.  They currently have the same top menu but a different
default title and context menu.

On macOS, there is one application menu.  It dynamically changes
according to the window currently selected.  It has an IDLE menu, and
some entries described below are moved around to conform to Apple
guidelines.

* Menu:

* File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor.
* Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor.
* Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only.
* Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only.
* Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only.
* Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only.
* Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor.
* Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor.
* Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor.
* Context menus::


File: python.info,  Node: File menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.2 File menu (Shell and Editor)
......................................

New File

     Create a new file editing window.

Open…

     Open an existing file with an Open dialog.

Open Module…

     Open an existing module (searches sys.path).

Recent Files

     Open a list of recent files.  Click one to open it.

Module Browser

     Show functions, classes, and methods in the current Editor file in
     a tree structure.  In the shell, open a module first.

Path Browser

     Show sys.path directories, modules, functions, classes and methods
     in a tree structure.

Save

     Save the current window to the associated file, if there is one.
     Windows that have been changed since being opened or last saved
     have a * before and after the window title.  If there is no
     associated file, do Save As instead.

Save As…

     Save the current window with a Save As dialog.  The file saved
     becomes the new associated file for the window.  (If your file
     namager is set to hide extensions, the current extension will be
     omitted in the file name box.  If the new filename has no ‘.’,
     ‘.py’ and ‘.txt’ will be added for Python and text files, except
     that on macOS Aqua,’.py’ is added for all files.)

Save Copy As…

     Save the current window to different file without changing the
     associated file.  (See Save As note above about filename
     extensions.)

Print Window

     Print the current window to the default printer.

Close Window

     Close the current window (if an unsaved editor, ask to save; if an
     unsaved Shell, ask to quit execution).  Calling ‘exit()’ or
     ‘close()’ in the Shell window also closes Shell.  If this is the
     only window, also exit IDLE.

Exit IDLE

     Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved edit windows).


File: python.info,  Node: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Format menu Editor window only,  Prev: File menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.3 Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
......................................

Undo

     Undo the last change to the current window.  A maximum of 1000
     changes may be undone.

Redo

     Redo the last undone change to the current window.

Select All

     Select the entire contents of the current window.

Cut

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the
     selection.

Copy

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste

     Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current
     window.

The clipboard functions are also available in context menus.

Find…

     Open a search dialog with many options

Find Again

     Repeat the last search, if there is one.

Find Selection

     Search for the currently selected string, if there is one.

Find in Files…

     Open a file search dialog.  Put results in a new output window.

Replace…

     Open a search-and-replace dialog.

Go to Line

     Move the cursor to the beginning of the line requested and make
     that line visible.  A request past the end of the file goes to the
     end.  Clear any selection and update the line and column status.

Show Completions

     Open a scrollable list allowing selection of existing names.  See
     *note Completions: 3cb3. in the Editing and navigation section
     below.

Expand Word

     Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same
     window; repeat to get a different expansion.

Show Call Tip

     After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window
     with function parameter hints.  See *note Calltips: 3cb4. in the
     Editing and navigation section below.

Show Surrounding Parens

     Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.


File: python.info,  Node: Format menu Editor window only,  Next: Run menu Editor window only,  Prev: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.4 Format menu (Editor window only)
..........................................

Format Paragraph

     Reformat the current blank-line-delimited paragraph in comment
     block or multiline string or selected line in a string.  All lines
     in the paragraph will be formatted to less than N columns, where N
     defaults to 72.

Indent Region

     Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Dedent Region

     Shift selected lines left by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Comment Out Region

     Insert ## in front of selected lines.

Uncomment Region

     Remove leading # or ## from selected lines.

Tabify Region

     Turn 'leading' stretches of spaces into tabs.  (Note: We recommend
     using 4 space blocks to indent Python code.)

Untabify Region

     Turn 'all' tabs into the correct number of spaces.

Toggle Tabs

     Open a dialog to switch between indenting with spaces and tabs.

New Indent Width

     Open a dialog to change indent width.  The accepted default by the
     Python community is 4 spaces.

Strip Trailing Chitespace

     Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the
     last non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip to
     each line, including lines within multiline strings.  Except for
     Shell windows, remove extra newlines at the end of the file.


File: python.info,  Node: Run menu Editor window only,  Next: Shell menu Shell window only,  Prev: Format menu Editor window only,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.5 Run menu (Editor window only)
.......................................

Run Module

     Do *note Check Module: 3cb9.  If no error, restart the shell to
     clean the environment, then execute the module.  Output is
     displayed in the Shell window.  Note that output requires use of
     ‘print’ or ‘write’.  When execution is complete, the Shell retains
     focus and displays a prompt.  At this point, one may interactively
     explore the result of execution.  This is similar to executing a
     file with ‘python -i file’ at a command line.

Run… Customized

     Same as *note Run Module: 3cb8, but run the module with customized
     settings.  'Command Line Arguments' extend *note sys.argv: 110d. as
     if passed on a command line.  The module can be run in the Shell
     without restarting.

Check Module

     Check the syntax of the module currently open in the Editor window.
     If the module has not been saved IDLE will either prompt the user
     to save or autosave, as selected in the General tab of the Idle
     Settings dialog.  If there is a syntax error, the approximate
     location is indicated in the Editor window.

Python Shell

     Open or wake up the Python Shell window.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell menu Shell window only,  Next: Debug menu Shell window only,  Prev: Run menu Editor window only,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.6 Shell menu (Shell window only)
........................................

View Last Restart

     Scroll the shell window to the last Shell restart.

Restart Shell

     Restart the shell to clean the environment and reset display and
     exception handling.

Previous History

     Cycle through earlier commands in history which match the current
     entry.

Next History

     Cycle through later commands in history which match the current
     entry.

Interrupt Execution

     Stop a running program.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug menu Shell window only,  Next: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Shell menu Shell window only,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.7 Debug menu (Shell window only)
........................................

Go to File/Line

     Look on the current line.  with the cursor, and the line above for
     a filename and line number.  If found, open the file if not already
     open, and show the line.  Use this to view source lines referenced
     in an exception traceback and lines found by Find in Files.  Also
     available in the context menu of the Shell window and Output
     windows.

Debugger (toggle)

     When activated, code entered in the Shell or run from an Editor
     will run under the debugger.  In the Editor, breakpoints can be set
     with the context menu.  This feature is still incomplete and
     somewhat experimental.

Stack Viewer

     Show the stack traceback of the last exception in a tree widget,
     with access to locals and globals.

Auto-open Stack Viewer

     Toggle automatically opening the stack viewer on an unhandled
     exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Debug menu Shell window only,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.8 Options menu (Shell and Editor)
.........................................

Configure IDLE

     Open a configuration dialog and change preferences for the
     following: fonts, indentation, keybindings, text color themes,
     startup windows and size, additional help sources, and extensions.
     On macOS, open the configuration dialog by selecting Preferences in
     the application menu.  For more details, see *note Setting
     preferences: 3cbf. under Help and preferences.

Most configuration options apply to all windows or all future windows.
The option items below only apply to the active window.

Show/Hide Code Context (Editor Window only)

     Open a pane at the top of the edit window which shows the block
     context of the code which has scrolled above the top of the window.
     See *note Code Context: 3cc0. in the Editing and Navigation section
     below.

Show/Hide Line Numbers (Editor Window only)

     Open a column to the left of the edit window which shows the number
     of each line of text.  The default is off, which may be changed in
     the preferences (see *note Setting preferences: 3cbf.).

Zoom/Restore Height

     Toggles the window between normal size and maximum height.  The
     initial size defaults to 40 lines by 80 chars unless changed on the
     General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog.  The maximum height for a
     screen is determined by momentarily maximizing a window the first
     time one is zoomed on the screen.  Changing screen settings may
     invalidate the saved height.  This toggle has no effect when a
     window is maximized.


File: python.info,  Node: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.9 Window menu (Shell and Editor)
........................................

Lists the names of all open windows; select one to bring it to the
foreground (deiconifying it if necessary).


File: python.info,  Node: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Context menus,  Prev: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.10 Help menu (Shell and Editor)
.......................................

About IDLE

     Display version, copyright, license, credits, and more.

IDLE Help

     Display this IDLE document, detailing the menu options, basic
     editing and navigation, and other tips.

Python Docs

     Access local Python documentation, if installed, or start a web
     browser and open docs.python.org showing the latest Python
     documentation.

Turtle Demo

     Run the turtledemo module with example Python code and turtle
     drawings.

Additional help sources may be added here with the Configure IDLE dialog
under the General tab.  See the *note Help sources: 3cc3. subsection
below for more on Help menu choices.


File: python.info,  Node: Context menus,  Prev: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.25.10.11 Context menus
........................

Open a context menu by right-clicking in a window (Control-click on
macOS). Context menus have the standard clipboard functions also on the
Edit menu.

Cut

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the
     selection.

Copy

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste

     Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current
     window.

Editor windows also have breakpoint functions.  Lines with a breakpoint
set are specially marked.  Breakpoints only have an effect when running
under the debugger.  Breakpoints for a file are saved in the user’s
‘.idlerc’ directory.

Set Breakpoint

     Set a breakpoint on the current line.

Clear Breakpoint

     Clear the breakpoint on that line.

Shell and Output windows also have the following.

Go to file/line

     Same as in Debug menu.

The Shell window also has an output squeezing facility explained in the
'Python Shell window' subsection below.

Squeeze

     If the cursor is over an output line, squeeze all the output
     between the code above and the prompt below down to a ‘Squeezed
     text’ label.


File: python.info,  Node: Editing and Navigation,  Next: Startup and Code Execution,  Prev: Menus,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>

5.25.10.12 Editing and Navigation
.................................

* Menu:

* Editor windows::
* Key bindings::
* Automatic indentation::
* Search and Replace::
* Completions::
* Calltips::
* Code Context::
* Shell window::
* Text colors::


File: python.info,  Node: Editor windows,  Next: Key bindings,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.13 Editor windows
.........................

IDLE may open editor windows when it starts, depending on settings and
how you start IDLE. Thereafter, use the File menu.  There can be only
one open editor window for a given file.

The title bar contains the name of the file, the full path, and the
version of Python and IDLE running the window.  The status bar contains
the line number (‘Ln’) and column number (‘Col’).  Line numbers start
with 1; column numbers with 0.

IDLE assumes that files with a known .py* extension contain Python code
and that other files do not.  Run Python code with the Run menu.


File: python.info,  Node: Key bindings,  Next: Automatic indentation,  Prev: Editor windows,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.14 Key bindings
.......................

The IDLE insertion cursor is a thin vertical bar between character
positions.  When characters are entered, the insertion cursor and
everything to its right moves right one character and the new character
is entered in the new space.

Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly delete
characters.  Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard, but IDLE has
an undo list.  Wherever this doc discusses keys, ‘C’ refers to the
‘Control’ key on Windows and Unix and the ‘Command’ key on macOS. (And
all such discussions assume that the keys have not been re-bound to
something else.)

   * Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line.

   * ‘C’-‘LeftArrow’ and ‘C’-‘RightArrow’ moves left or right one word.

   * ‘Home’ and ‘End’ go to the beginning or end of the line.

   * ‘Page Up’ and ‘Page Down’ go up or down one screen.

   * ‘C’-‘Home’ and ‘C’-‘End’ go to beginning or end of the file.

   * ‘Backspace’ and ‘Del’ (or ‘C’-‘d’) delete the previous or next
     character.

   * ‘C’-‘Backspace’ and ‘C’-‘Del’ delete one word left or right.

   * ‘C’-‘k’ deletes (‘kills’) everything to the right.

Standard keybindings (like ‘C’-‘c’ to copy and ‘C’-‘v’ to paste) may
work.  Keybindings are selected in the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Automatic indentation,  Next: Search and Replace,  Prev: Key bindings,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.15 Automatic indentation
................................

After a block-opening statement, the next line is indented by 4 spaces
(in the Python Shell window by one tab).  After certain keywords (break,
return etc.)  the next line is dedented.  In leading indentation,
‘Backspace’ deletes up to 4 spaces if they are there.  ‘Tab’ inserts
spaces (in the Python Shell window one tab), number depends on Indent
width.  Currently, tabs are restricted to four spaces due to Tcl/Tk
limitations.

See also the indent/dedent region commands on the *note Format menu:
3cb5.


File: python.info,  Node: Search and Replace,  Next: Completions,  Prev: Automatic indentation,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.16 Search and Replace
.............................

Any selection becomes a search target.  However, only selections within
a line work because searches are only performed within lines with the
terminal newline removed.  If ‘[x] Regular expression’ is checked, the
target is interpreted according to the Python re module.


File: python.info,  Node: Completions,  Next: Calltips,  Prev: Search and Replace,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.17 Completions
......................

Completions are supplied, when requested and available, for module
names, attributes of classes or functions, or filenames.  Each request
method displays a completion box with existing names.  (See tab
completions below for an exception.)  For any box, change the name being
completed and the item highlighted in the box by typing and deleting
characters; by hitting ‘Up’, ‘Down’, ‘PageUp’, ‘PageDown’, ‘Home’, and
‘End’ keys; and by a single click within the box.  Close the box with
‘Escape’, ‘Enter’, and double ‘Tab’ keys or clicks outside the box.  A
double click within the box selects and closes.

One way to open a box is to type a key character and wait for a
predefined interval.  This defaults to 2 seconds; customize it in the
settings dialog.  (To prevent auto popups, set the delay to a large
number of milliseconds, such as 100000000.)  For imported module names
or class or function attributes, type ‘.’.  For filenames in the root
directory, type *note os.sep: 47d. or *note os.altsep: 47e. immediately
after an opening quote.  (On Windows, one can specify a drive first.)
Move into subdirectories by typing a directory name and a separator.

Instead of waiting, or after a box is closed, open a completion box
immediately with Show Completions on the Edit menu.  The default hot key
is ‘C’-‘space’.  If one types a prefix for the desired name before
opening the box, the first match or near miss is made visible.  The
result is the same as if one enters a prefix after the box is displayed.
Show Completions after a quote completes filenames in the current
directory instead of a root directory.

Hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix usually has the same effect as Show
Completions.  (With no prefix, it indents.)  However, if there is only
one match to the prefix, that match is immediately added to the editor
text without opening a box.

Invoking ‘Show Completions’, or hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix, outside of
a string and without a preceding ‘.’ opens a box with keywords, builtin
names, and available module-level names.

When editing code in an editor (as oppose to Shell), increase the
available module-level names by running your code and not restarting the
Shell thereafter.  This is especially useful after adding imports at the
top of a file.  This also increases possible attribute completions.

Completion boxes initially exclude names beginning with ‘_’ or, for
modules, not included in ‘__all__’.  The hidden names can be accessed by
typing ‘_’ after ‘.’, either before or after the box is opened.


File: python.info,  Node: Calltips,  Next: Code Context,  Prev: Completions,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.18 Calltips
...................

A calltip is shown automatically when one types ‘(’ after the name of an
'accessible' function.  A function name expression may include dots and
subscripts.  A calltip remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved
out of the argument area, or ‘)’ is typed.  Whenever the cursor is in
the argument part of a definition, select Edit and “Show Call Tip” on
the menu or enter its shortcut to display a calltip.

The calltip consists of the function’s signature and docstring up to the
latter’s first blank line or the fifth non-blank line.  (Some builtin
functions lack an accessible signature.)  A ‘/’ or ‘*’ in the signature
indicates that the preceding or following arguments are passed by
position or name (keyword) only.  Details are subject to change.

In Shell, the accessible functions depends on what modules have been
imported into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself,
and which definitions have been run, all since the last restart.

For example, restart the Shell and enter ‘itertools.count(’.  A calltip
appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own
use.  (This could change.)  Enter ‘turtle.write(’ and nothing appears.
Idle does not itself import turtle.  The menu entry and shortcut also do
nothing.  Enter ‘import turtle’.  Thereafter, ‘turtle.write(’ will
display a calltip.

In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.
One might want to run a file after writing import statements, after
adding function definitions, or after opening an existing file.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Context,  Next: Shell window,  Prev: Calltips,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.19 Code Context
.......................

Within an editor window containing Python code, code context can be
toggled in order to show or hide a pane at the top of the window.  When
shown, this pane freezes the opening lines for block code, such as those
beginning with ‘class’, ‘def’, or ‘if’ keywords, that would have
otherwise scrolled out of view.  The size of the pane will be expanded
and contracted as needed to show the all current levels of context, up
to the maximum number of lines defined in the Configure IDLE dialog
(which defaults to 15).  If there are no current context lines and the
feature is toggled on, a single blank line will display.  Clicking on a
line in the context pane will move that line to the top of the editor.

The text and background colors for the context pane can be configured
under the Highlights tab in the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell window,  Next: Text colors,  Prev: Code Context,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.20 Shell window
.......................

In IDLE’s Shell, enter, edit, and recall complete statements.  (Most
consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time).

Submit a single-line statement for execution by hitting ‘Return’ with
the cursor anywhere on the line.  If a line is extended with Backslash
(‘\’), the cursor must be on the last physical line.  Submit a
multi-line compound statement by entering a blank line after the
statement.

When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly
executed until one hits ‘Return’, as specified above.  One may edit
pasted code first.  If one pastes more than one statement into Shell,
the result will be a *note SyntaxError: 14c. when multiple statements
are compiled as if they were one.

Lines containing ‘RESTART’ mean that the user execution process has been
re-started.  This occurs when the user execution process has crashed,
when one requests a restart on the Shell menu, or when one runs code in
an editor window.

The editing features described in previous subsections work when
entering code interactively.  IDLE’s Shell window also responds to the
following:

   * ‘C’-‘c’ attempts to interrupt statement execution (but may fail).

   * ‘C’-‘d’ closes Shell if typed at a ‘>>>’ prompt.

   * ‘Alt’-‘p’ and ‘Alt’-‘n’ (‘C’-‘p’ and ‘C’-‘n’ on macOS) retrieve to
     the current prompt the previous or next previously entered
     statement that matches anything already typed.

   * ‘Return’ while the cursor is on any previous statement appends the
     latter to anything already typed at the prompt.


File: python.info,  Node: Text colors,  Prev: Shell window,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.25.10.21 Text colors
......................

Idle defaults to black on white text, but colors text with special
meanings.  For the shell, these are shell output, shell error, user
output, and user error.  For Python code, at the shell prompt or in an
editor, these are keywords, builtin class and function names, names
following ‘class’ and ‘def’, strings, and comments.  For any text
window, these are the cursor (when present), found text (when possible),
and selected text.

IDLE also highlights the *note soft keywords: 647. *note match: 648,
*note case: 648, and *note _: 649. in pattern-matching statements.
However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some
rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.

Text coloring is done in the background, so uncolorized text is
occasionally visible.  To change the color scheme, use the Configure
IDLE dialog Highlighting tab.  The marking of debugger breakpoint lines
in the editor and text in popups and dialogs is not user-configurable.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup and Code Execution,  Next: Help and Preferences,  Prev: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>

5.25.10.22 Startup and Code Execution
.....................................

Upon startup with the ‘-s’ option, IDLE will execute the file referenced
by the environment variables ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e.
IDLE first checks for ‘IDLESTARTUP’; if ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is present the
file referenced is run.  If ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is not present, IDLE checks
for ‘PYTHONSTARTUP’.  Files referenced by these environment variables
are convenient places to store functions that are used frequently from
the IDLE shell, or for executing import statements to import common
modules.

In addition, ‘Tk’ also loads a startup file if it is present.  Note that
the Tk file is loaded unconditionally.  This additional file is
‘.Idle.py’ and is looked for in the user’s home directory.  Statements
in this file will be executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not
useful for importing functions to be used from IDLE’s Python shell.

* Menu:

* Command line usage::
* Startup failure::
* Running user code::
* User output in Shell::
* Developing tkinter applications::
* Running without a subprocess::


File: python.info,  Node: Command line usage,  Next: Startup failure,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.23 Command line usage
.............................

IDLE can be invoked from the command line with various options.  The
general syntax is:

     python -m idlelib [options] [file ...]

The following options are available:

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Run the specified Python command in the shell window.  For example,
     pass ‘-c "print('Hello, World!')"’.  On Windows, the outer quotes
     must be double quotes as shown.

 -- Option: -d

     Enable the debugger and open the shell window.

 -- Option: -e

     Open an editor window.

 -- Option: -h

     Print a help message with legal combinations of options and exit.

 -- Option: -i

     Open a shell window.

 -- Option: -r <file>

     Run the specified file in the shell window.

 -- Option: -s

     Run the startup file (as defined by the environment variables
     ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e.) before opening the
     shell window.

 -- Option: -t <title>

     Set the title of the shell window.

 -- Option: -

     Read and execute standard input in the shell window.  This option
     must be the last one before any arguments.

If arguments are provided:

   - If ‘-’, ‘-c’, or ‘-r’ is used, all arguments are placed in
     ‘sys.argv[1:]’, and ‘sys.argv[0]’ is set to ‘''’, ‘'-c'’, or ‘'-r'’
     respectively.  No editor window is opened, even if that is the
     default set in the 'Options' dialog.

   - Otherwise, arguments are treated as files to be opened for editing,
     and ‘sys.argv’ reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup failure,  Next: Running user code,  Prev: Command line usage,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.24 Startup failure
..........................

IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the
user code execution process.  A connection must be established whenever
the Shell starts or restarts.  (The latter is indicated by a divider
line that says ‘RESTART’).  If the user process fails to connect to the
GUI process, it usually displays a ‘Tk’ error box with a ‘cannot
connect’ message that directs the user here.  It then exits.

One specific connection failure on Unix systems results from
misconfigured masquerading rules somewhere in a system’s network setup.
When IDLE is started from a terminal, one will see a message starting
with ‘** Invalid host:’.  The valid value is ‘127.0.0.1
(idlelib.rpc.LOCALHOST)’.  One can diagnose with ‘tcpconnect -irv
127.0.0.1 6543’ in one terminal window and ‘tcplisten <same args>’ in
another.

A common cause of failure is a user-written file with the same name as a
standard library module, such as 'random.py' and 'tkinter.py'.  When
such a file is located in the same directory as a file that is about to
be run, IDLE cannot import the stdlib file.  The current fix is to
rename the user file.

Though less common than in the past, an antivirus or firewall program
may stop the connection.  If the program cannot be taught to allow the
connection, then it must be turned off for IDLE to work.  It is safe to
allow this internal connection because no data is visible on external
ports.  A similar problem is a network mis-configuration that blocks
connections.

Python installation issues occasionally stop IDLE: multiple versions can
clash, or a single installation might need admin access.  If one undo
the clash, or cannot or does not want to run as admin, it might be
easiest to completely remove Python and start over.

A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem.  On Windows, use Task
Manager to check for one and stop it if there is.  Sometimes a restart
initiated by a program crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail
to connect.  Dismissing the error box or using Restart Shell on the
Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.

When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in
‘~/.idlerc/’ (~ is one’s home directory).  If there is a problem, an
error message should be displayed.  Leaving aside random disk glitches,
this can be prevented by never editing the files by hand.  Instead, use
the configuration dialog, under Options.  Once there is an error in a
user configuration file, the best solution may be to delete it and start
over with the settings dialog.

If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console,
try starting it from a console or terminal (‘python -m idlelib’) and see
if this results in an error message.

On Unix-based systems with tcl/tk older than ‘8.6.11’ (see ‘About IDLE’)
certain characters of certain fonts can cause a tk failure with a
message to the terminal.  This can happen either if one starts IDLE to
edit a file with such a character or later when entering such a
character.  If one cannot upgrade tcl/tk, then re-configure IDLE to use
a font that works better.


File: python.info,  Node: Running user code,  Next: User output in Shell,  Prev: Startup failure,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.25 Running user code
............................

With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is
intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default
method, directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal
window.  However, the different interface and operation occasionally
affect visible results.  For instance, ‘sys.modules’ starts with more
entries, and ‘threading.active_count()’ returns 2 instead of 1.

By default, IDLE runs user code in a separate OS process rather than in
the user interface process that runs the shell and editor.  In the
execution process, it replaces ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, and
‘sys.stderr’ with objects that get input from and send output to the
Shell window.  The original values stored in ‘sys.__stdin__’,
‘sys.__stdout__’, and ‘sys.__stderr__’ are not touched, but may be
‘None’.

Sending print output from one process to a text widget in another is
slower than printing to a system terminal in the same process.  This has
the most effect when printing multiple arguments, as the string for each
argument, each separator, the newline are sent separately.  For
development, this is usually not a problem, but if one wants to print
faster in IDLE, format and join together everything one wants displayed
together and then print a single string.  Both format strings and *note
str.join(): 1f9c. can help combine fields and lines.

IDLE’s standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses
created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by
modules such as multiprocessing.  If such subprocess use ‘input’ from
sys.stdin or ‘print’ or ‘write’ to sys.stdout or sys.stderr, IDLE should
be started in a command line window.  (On Windows, use ‘python’ or ‘py’
rather than ‘pythonw’ or ‘pyw’.)  The secondary subprocess will then be
attached to that window for input and output.

If ‘sys’ is reset by user code, such as with ‘importlib.reload(sys)’,
IDLE’s changes are lost and input from the keyboard and output to the
screen will not work correctly.

When Shell has the focus, it controls the keyboard and screen.  This is
normally transparent, but functions that directly access the keyboard
and screen will not work.  These include system-specific functions that
determine whether a key has been pressed and if so, which.

The IDLE code running in the execution process adds frames to the call
stack that would not be there otherwise.  IDLE wraps
‘sys.getrecursionlimit’ and ‘sys.setrecursionlimit’ to reduce the effect
of the additional stack frames.

When user code raises SystemExit either directly or by calling sys.exit,
IDLE returns to a Shell prompt instead of exiting.


File: python.info,  Node: User output in Shell,  Next: Developing tkinter applications,  Prev: Running user code,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.26 User output in Shell
...............................

When a program outputs text, the result is determined by the
corresponding output device.  When IDLE executes user code, ‘sys.stdout’
and ‘sys.stderr’ are connected to the display area of IDLE’s Shell.
Some of its features are inherited from the underlying Tk Text widget.
Others are programmed additions.  Where it matters, Shell is designed
for development rather than production runs.

For instance, Shell never throws away output.  A program that sends
unlimited output to Shell will eventually fill memory, resulting in a
memory error.  In contrast, some system text windows only keep the last
n lines of output.  A Windows console, for instance, keeps a
user-settable 1 to 9999 lines, with 300 the default.

A Tk Text widget, and hence IDLE’s Shell, displays characters
(codepoints) in the BMP (Basic Multilingual Plane) subset of Unicode.
Which characters are displayed with a proper glyph and which with a
replacement box depends on the operating system and installed fonts.
Tab characters cause the following text to begin after the next tab
stop.  (They occur every 8 ‘characters’).  Newline characters cause
following text to appear on a new line.  Other control characters are
ignored or displayed as a space, box, or something else, depending on
the operating system and font.  (Moving the text cursor through such
output with arrow keys may exhibit some surprising spacing behavior.)

     >>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd'  # Enter 22 chars.
     >>> len(s)
     14
     >>> s  # Display repr(s)
     'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd'
     >>> print(s, end='')  # Display s as is.
     # Result varies by OS and font.  Try it.

The ‘repr’ function is used for interactive echo of expression values.
It returns an altered version of the input string in which control
codes, some BMP codepoints, and all non-BMP codepoints are replaced with
escape codes.  As demonstrated above, it allows one to identify the
characters in a string, regardless of how they are displayed.

Normal and error output are generally kept separate (on separate lines)
from code input and each other.  They each get different highlight
colors.

For SyntaxError tracebacks, the normal ‘^’ marking where the error was
detected is replaced by coloring the text with an error highlight.  When
code run from a file causes other exceptions, one may right click on a
traceback line to jump to the corresponding line in an IDLE editor.  The
file will be opened if necessary.

Shell has a special facility for squeezing output lines down to a
‘Squeezed text’ label.  This is done automatically for output over N
lines (N = 50 by default).  N can be changed in the PyShell section of
the General page of the Settings dialog.  Output with fewer lines can be
squeezed by right clicking on the output.  This can be useful lines long
enough to slow down scrolling.

Squeezed output is expanded in place by double-clicking the label.  It
can also be sent to the clipboard or a separate view window by
right-clicking the label.


File: python.info,  Node: Developing tkinter applications,  Next: Running without a subprocess,  Prev: User output in Shell,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.27 Developing tkinter applications
..........................................

IDLE is intentionally different from standard Python in order to
facilitate development of tkinter programs.  Enter ‘import tkinter as
tk; root = tk.Tk()’ in standard Python and nothing appears.  Enter the
same in IDLE and a tk window appears.  In standard Python, one must also
enter ‘root.update()’ to see the window.  IDLE does the equivalent in
the background, about 20 times a second, which is about every 50
milliseconds.  Next enter ‘b = tk.Button(root, text='button');
b.pack()’.  Again, nothing visibly changes in standard Python until one
enters ‘root.update()’.

Most tkinter programs run ‘root.mainloop()’, which usually does not
return until the tk app is destroyed.  If the program is run with
‘python -i’ or from an IDLE editor, a ‘>>>’ shell prompt does not appear
until ‘mainloop()’ returns, at which time there is nothing left to
interact with.

When running a tkinter program from an IDLE editor, one can comment out
the mainloop call.  One then gets a shell prompt immediately and can
interact with the live application.  One just has to remember to
re-enable the mainloop call when running in standard Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Running without a subprocess,  Prev: Developing tkinter applications,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.25.10.28 Running without a subprocess
.......................................

By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a
socket, which uses the internal loopback interface.  This connection is
not externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the
internet.  If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.

If the attempt to make the socket connection fails, Idle will notify
you.  Such failures are sometimes transient, but if persistent, the
problem may be either a firewall blocking the connection or
misconfiguration of a particular system.  Until the problem is fixed,
one can run Idle with the -n command line switch.

If IDLE is started with the -n command line switch it will run in a
single process and will not create the subprocess which runs the RPC
Python execution server.  This can be useful if Python cannot create the
subprocess or the RPC socket interface on your platform.  However, in
this mode user code is not isolated from IDLE itself.  Also, the
environment is not restarted when Run/Run Module (F5) is selected.  If
your code has been modified, you must reload() the affected modules and
re-import any specific items (e.g.  from foo import baz) if the changes
are to take effect.  For these reasons, it is preferable to run IDLE
with the default subprocess if at all possible.

3.4 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.


File: python.info,  Node: Help and Preferences,  Next: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application,  Prev: Startup and Code Execution,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>

5.25.10.29 Help and Preferences
...............................

* Menu:

* Help sources::
* Setting preferences::
* IDLE on macOS::
* Extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Help sources,  Next: Setting preferences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.30 Help sources
.......................

Help menu entry “IDLE Help” displays a formatted html version of the
IDLE chapter of the Library Reference.  The result, in a read-only
tkinter text window, is close to what one sees in a web browser.
Navigate through the text with a mousewheel, the scrollbar, or up and
down arrow keys held down.  Or click the TOC (Table of Contents) button
and select a section header in the opened box.

Help menu entry “Python Docs” opens the extensive sources of help,
including tutorials, available at ‘docs.python.org/x.y’, where ‘x.y’ is
the currently running Python version.  If your system has an off-line
copy of the docs (this may be an installation option), that will be
opened instead.

Selected URLs can be added or removed from the help menu at any time
using the General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Setting preferences,  Next: IDLE on macOS,  Prev: Help sources,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.31 Setting preferences
..............................

The font preferences, highlighting, keys, and general preferences can be
changed via Configure IDLE on the Option menu.  Non-default user
settings are saved in a ‘.idlerc’ directory in the user’s home
directory.  Problems caused by bad user configuration files are solved
by editing or deleting one or more of the files in ‘.idlerc’.

On the Font tab, see the text sample for the effect of font face and
size on multiple characters in multiple languages.  Edit the sample to
add other characters of personal interest.  Use the sample to select
monospaced fonts.  If particular characters have problems in Shell or an
editor, add them to the top of the sample and try changing first size
and then font.

On the Highlights and Keys tab, select a built-in or custom color theme
and key set.  To use a newer built-in color theme or key set with older
IDLEs, save it as a new custom theme or key set and it well be
accessible to older IDLEs.


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE on macOS,  Next: Extensions,  Prev: Setting preferences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.32 IDLE on macOS
........................

Under System Preferences: Dock, one can set “Prefer tabs when opening
documents” to “Always”.  This setting is not compatible with the
tk/tkinter GUI framework used by IDLE, and it breaks a few IDLE
features.


File: python.info,  Node: Extensions,  Prev: IDLE on macOS,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.25.10.33 Extensions
.....................

IDLE contains an extension facility.  Preferences for extensions can be
changed with the Extensions tab of the preferences dialog.  See the
beginning of config-extensions.def in the idlelib directory for further
information.  The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example
also used for testing.


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application,  Prev: Help and Preferences,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>

5.25.10.34 idlelib — implementation of IDLE application
.......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/idlelib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Lib/idlelib package implements the IDLE application.  See the rest
of this page for how to use IDLE.

The files in idlelib are described in idlelib/README.txt.  Access it
either in idlelib or click Help => About IDLE on the IDLE menu.  This
file also maps IDLE menu items to the code that implements the item.
Except for files listed under ‘Startup’, the idlelib code is ‘private’
in sense that feature changes can be backported (see PEP 434(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/idlelib

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: Development Tools,  Next: Debugging and Profiling,  Prev: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.26 Development Tools
======================

The modules described in this chapter help you write software.  For
example, the *note pydoc: b4. module takes a module and generates
documentation based on the module’s contents.  The *note doctest: 39.
and *note unittest: 106. modules contains frameworks for writing unit
tests that automatically exercise code and verify that the expected
output is produced.  ‘2to3’ can translate Python 2.x source code into
valid Python 3.x code.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* typing — Support for type hints::
* pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system::
* Python Development Mode::
* doctest — Test interactive Python examples::
* unittest — Unit testing framework::
* unittest.mock — mock object library: unittest mock — mock object library.
* unittest.mock — getting started: unittest mock — getting started.
* 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation::
* test — Regression tests package for Python::
* test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
* test.support.socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
* test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
* test.support.bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
* test.support.threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
* test.support.os_helper — Utilities for os tests: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
* test.support.import_helper — Utilities for import tests: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.


File: python.info,  Node: typing — Support for type hints,  Next: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.1 ‘typing’ — Support for type hints
----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

'Source code:' Lib/typing.py(1)

     Not: The Python runtime does not enforce function and variable type
     annotations.  They can be used by third party tools such as *note
     type checkers: 2213, IDEs, linters, etc.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides runtime support for type hints.

Consider the function below:

     def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
         return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."

The function ‘surface_area_of_cube’ takes an argument expected to be an
instance of *note float: 272, as indicated by the *note type hint: 1d70.
‘edge_length: float’.  The function is expected to return an instance of
*note str: 15d, as indicated by the ‘-> str’ hint.

While type hints can be simple classes like *note float: 272. or *note
str: 15d, they can also be more complex.  The *note typing: 104. module
provides a vocabulary of more advanced type hints.

New features are frequently added to the ‘typing’ module.  The
typing_extensions(2) package provides backports of these new features to
older versions of Python.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

"Typing cheat sheet"(3)

     A quick overview of type hints (hosted at the mypy docs)

“Type System Reference” section of the mypy docs(4)

     The Python typing system is standardised via PEPs, so this
     reference should broadly apply to most Python type checkers.  (Some
     parts may still be specific to mypy.)

"Static Typing with Python"(5)

     Type-checker-agnostic documentation written by the community
     detailing type system features, useful typing related tools and
     typing best practices.

* Menu:

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* Type aliases::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* Generics::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* User-defined generic types::
* The Any type::
* Nominal vs structural subtyping::
* Module contents: Module contents<3>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/typing.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/

   (3) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html

   (4) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html

   (5) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Specification for the Python Type System,  Next: Type aliases,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.1 Specification for the Python Type System
.................................................

The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can be
found at "Specification for the Python type system"(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/index.html


File: python.info,  Node: Type aliases,  Next: NewType,  Prev: Specification for the Python Type System,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.2 Type aliases
.....................

A type alias is defined using the *note type: 140. statement, which
creates an instance of *note TypeAliasType: 166.  In this example,
‘Vector’ and ‘list[float]’ will be treated equivalently by static type
checkers:

     type Vector = list[float]

     def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
         return [scalar * num for num in vector]

     # passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
     new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])

Type aliases are useful for simplifying complex type signatures.  For
example:

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str]
     type Address = tuple[str, int]
     type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]

     def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
         ...

     # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
     # being exactly equivalent to this one.
     def broadcast_message(
         message: str,
         servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
     ) -> None:
         ...

The *note type: 140. statement is new in Python 3.12.  For backwards
compatibility, type aliases can also be created through simple
assignment:

     Vector = list[float]

Or marked with *note TypeAlias: 600. to make it explicit that this is a
type alias, not a normal variable assignment:

     from typing import TypeAlias

     Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]


File: python.info,  Node: NewType,  Next: Annotating callable objects,  Prev: Type aliases,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.3 NewType
................

Use the *note NewType: b79. helper to create distinct types:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
of the original type.  This is useful in helping catch logical errors:

     def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
         ...

     # passes type checking
     user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))

     # fails type checking; an int is not a UserId
     user_b = get_user_name(-1)

You may still perform all ‘int’ operations on a variable of type
‘UserId’, but the result will always be of type ‘int’.  This lets you
pass in a ‘UserId’ wherever an ‘int’ might be expected, but will prevent
you from accidentally creating a ‘UserId’ in an invalid way:

     # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
     output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)

Note that these checks are enforced only by the static type checker.  At
runtime, the statement ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Base)’ will make
‘Derived’ a callable that immediately returns whatever parameter you
pass it.  That means the expression ‘Derived(some_value)’ does not
create a new class or introduce much overhead beyond that of a regular
function call.

More precisely, the expression ‘some_value is Derived(some_value)’ is
always true at runtime.

It is invalid to create a subtype of ‘Derived’:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     # Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking
     class AdminUserId(UserId): pass

However, it is possible to create a *note NewType: b79. based on a
‘derived’ ‘NewType’:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)

and typechecking for ‘ProUserId’ will work as expected.

See PEP 484(1) for more details.

     Not: Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to be
     'equivalent' to one another.  Doing ‘type Alias = Original’ will
     make the static type checker treat ‘Alias’ as being 'exactly
     equivalent' to ‘Original’ in all cases.  This is useful when you
     want to simplify complex type signatures.

     In contrast, ‘NewType’ declares one type to be a 'subtype' of
     another.  Doing ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)’ will make
     the static type checker treat ‘Derived’ as a 'subclass' of
     ‘Original’, which means a value of type ‘Original’ cannot be used
     in places where a value of type ‘Derived’ is expected.  This is
     useful when you want to prevent logic errors with minimal runtime
     cost.

Added in version 3.5.2.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a function.
As a result, there is some additional runtime cost when calling
‘NewType’ over a regular function.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: The performance of calling ‘NewType’ has been
restored to its level in Python 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating callable objects,  Next: Generics,  Prev: NewType,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.4 Annotating callable objects
....................................

Functions – or other *note callable: 26ca. objects – can be annotated
using *note collections.abc.Callable: 624. or deprecated *note
typing.Callable: 5fc.  ‘Callable[[int], str]’ signifies a function that
takes a single parameter of type *note int: 184. and returns a *note
str: 15d.

For example:

     from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable

     def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
                     on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     async def on_update(value: str) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update

The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two values: the
argument list and the return type.  The argument list must be a list of
types, a *note ParamSpec: 169, *note Concatenate: 5fb, or an ellipsis.
The return type must be a single type.

If a literal ellipsis ‘...’ is given as the argument list, it indicates
that a callable with any arbitrary parameter list would be acceptable:

     def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str:
         return x + y

     x: Callable[..., str]
     x = str     # OK
     x = concat  # Also OK

‘Callable’ cannot express complex signatures such as functions that take
a variadic number of arguments, *note overloaded functions: 3cf1, or
functions that have keyword-only parameters.  However, these signatures
can be expressed by defining a *note Protocol: 4c7. class with a *note
__call__(): 2e7. method:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import Protocol

     class Combiner(Protocol):
         def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ...

     def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
         for item in data:
             ...

     def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...
     def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...

     batch_proc([], good_cb)  # OK
     batch_proc([], bad_cb)   # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
                              # different name and kind in the callback

Callables which take other callables as arguments may indicate that
their parameter types are dependent on each other using *note ParamSpec:
169.  Additionally, if that callable adds or removes arguments from
other callables, the *note Concatenate: 5fb. operator may be used.  They
take the form ‘Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType]’ and
‘Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable],
ReturnType]’ respectively.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec: 169.
and *note Concatenate: 5fb.  See PEP 612(1) for more details.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The documentation for *note ParamSpec: 169. and *note Concatenate: 5fb.
provides examples of usage in ‘Callable’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Generics,  Next: Annotating tuples,  Prev: Annotating callable objects,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.5 Generics
.................

Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be
statically inferred in a generic way, many container classes in the
standard library support subscription to denote the expected types of
container elements.

     from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

     class Employee: ...

     # Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence
     # must be instances of "Employee".
     # Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping
     # must be strings.
     def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
                         overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...

Generic functions and classes can be parameterized by using *note type
parameter syntax: 16c.:

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T"
         return l[0]

Or by using the *note TypeVar: 16a. factory directly:

     from collections.abc import Sequence
     from typing import TypeVar

     U = TypeVar('U')                  # Declare type variable "U"

     def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U"
         return l[1]

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Syntactic support for generics is new in Python
3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating tuples,  Next: The type of class objects,  Prev: Generics,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.6 Annotating tuples
..........................

For most containers in Python, the typing system assumes that all
elements in the container will be of the same type.  For example:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     # Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints
     x: list[int] = []

     # Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument:
     y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo']

     # Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings,
     # and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints
     z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {}

*note list: 422. only accepts one type argument, so a type checker would
emit an error on the ‘y’ assignment above.  Similarly, *note Mapping:
71c. only accepts two type arguments: the first indicates the type of
the keys, and the second indicates the type of the values.

Unlike most other Python containers, however, it is common in idiomatic
Python code for tuples to have elements which are not all of the same
type.  For this reason, tuples are special-cased in Python’s typing
system.  *note tuple: 4ff. accepts 'any number' of type arguments:

     # OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int
     x: tuple[int] = (5,)

     # OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2;
     # element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str
     y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo")

     # Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1,
     # but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
     z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)

To denote a tuple which could be of 'any' length, and in which all
elements are of the same type ‘T’, use ‘tuple[T, ...]’.  To denote an
empty tuple, use ‘tuple[()]’.  Using plain ‘tuple’ as an annotation is
equivalent to using ‘tuple[Any, ...]’:

     x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2)
     # These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length
     x = (1, 2, 3)
     x = ()
     # This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints
     x = ("foo", "bar")

     # ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple
     y: tuple[()] = ()

     z: tuple = ("foo", "bar")
     # These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]``
     z = (1, 2, 3)
     z = ()


File: python.info,  Node: The type of class objects,  Next: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Prev: Annotating tuples,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.7 The type of class objects
..................................

A variable annotated with ‘C’ may accept a value of type ‘C’.  In
contrast, a variable annotated with ‘type[C]’ (or deprecated *note
typing.Type[C]: 3cf7.) may accept values that are classes themselves –
specifically, it will accept the 'class object' of ‘C’.  For example:

     a = 3         # Has type ``int``
     b = int       # Has type ``type[int]``
     c = type(a)   # Also has type ``type[int]``

Note that ‘type[C]’ is covariant:

     class User: ...
     class ProUser(User): ...
     class TeamUser(User): ...

     def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User:
         # ...
         return user_class()

     make_new_user(User)      # OK
     make_new_user(ProUser)   # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]``
     make_new_user(TeamUser)  # Still fine
     make_new_user(User())    # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User``
     make_new_user(int)       # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]``

The only legal parameters for *note type: bd1. are classes, *note Any:
4c2, *note type variables: 1d6e, and unions of any of these types.  For
example:

     def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ...

     new_non_team_user(BasicUser)  # OK
     new_non_team_user(ProUser)    # OK
     new_non_team_user(TeamUser)   # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype
                                   # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]``
     new_non_team_user(User)       # Also an error

‘type[Any]’ is equivalent to *note type: bd1, which is the root of
Python’s *note metaclass hierarchy: 1d62.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Next: User-defined generic types,  Prev: The type of class objects,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.8 Annotating generators and coroutines
.............................................

A generator can be annotated using the generic type *note
Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]: c69.  For example:

     def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
         sent = yield 0
         while sent >= 0:
             sent = yield round(sent)
         return 'Done'

Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library, the
‘SendType’ of *note Generator: c69. behaves contravariantly, not
covariantly or invariantly.

If your generator will only yield values, set the ‘SendType’ and
‘ReturnType’ to ‘None’:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Alternatively, annotate your generator as having a return type of either
‘Iterable[YieldType]’ or ‘Iterator[YieldType]’:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don’t expect a
‘ReturnType’ type argument (*note AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]:
b0a.):

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

As in the synchronous case, *note AsyncIterable[YieldType]: c6d. and
*note AsyncIterator[YieldType]: c6c. are available as well:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

Coroutines can be annotated using *note Coroutine[YieldType, SendType,
ReturnType]: c6b.  Generic arguments correspond to those of *note
Generator: c69, for example:

     from collections.abc import Coroutine
     c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int]  # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
     x = c.send('hi')                   # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
     async def bar() -> None:
         y = await c                    # Inferred type of 'y' is int


File: python.info,  Node: User-defined generic types,  Next: The Any type,  Prev: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.9 User-defined generic types
...................................

A user-defined class can be defined as a generic class.

     from logging import Logger

     class LoggedVar[T]:
         def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
             self.name = name
             self.logger = logger
             self.value = value

         def set(self, new: T) -> None:
             self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
             self.value = new

         def get(self) -> T:
             self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
             return self.value

         def log(self, message: str) -> None:
             self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)

This syntax indicates that the class ‘LoggedVar’ is parameterised around
a single *note type variable: 3cfa. ‘T’ .  This also makes ‘T’ valid as
a type within the class body.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note Generic: 1478.  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and lower, it is also possible to inherit
explicitly from *note Generic: 1478. to indicate a generic class:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
         ...

Generic classes have *note __class_getitem__(): 565. methods, meaning
they can be parameterised at runtime (e.g.  ‘LoggedVar[int]’ below):

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
         for var in vars:
             var.set(0)

A generic type can have any number of type variables.  All varieties of
*note TypeVar: 16a. are permissible as parameters for a generic type:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence

     class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]:
         ...

     OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True)
     OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True)
     OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str)

     class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]):
         ...

Each type variable argument to *note Generic: 1478. must be distinct.
This is thus invalid:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic
     ...

     class Pair[M, M]:  # SyntaxError
         ...

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
         ...

Generic classes can also inherit from other classes:

     from collections.abc import Sized

     class LinkedList[T](Sized):
         ...

When inheriting from generic classes, some type parameters could be
fixed:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]):
         ...

In this case ‘MyDict’ has a single parameter, ‘T’.

Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes *note
Any: 4c2. for each position.  In the following example, ‘MyIterable’ is
not generic but implicitly inherits from ‘Iterable[Any]’:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
         ...

User-defined generic type aliases are also supported.  Examples:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int

     # Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int
     def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
         ...

     type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]

     def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
         return sum(x*y for x, y in v)

For backward compatibility, generic type aliases can also be created
through a simple assignment:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import TypeVar

     S = TypeVar("S")
     Response = Iterable[S] | int

3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note Generic: 1478. no longer has a custom
metaclass.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Syntactic support for generics and type aliases
is new in version 3.12.  Previously, generic classes had to explicitly
inherit from *note Generic: 1478. or contain a type variable in one of
their bases.

User-defined generics for parameter expressions are also supported via
parameter specification variables in the form ‘[**P]’.  The behavior is
consistent with type variables’ described above as parameter
specification variables are treated by the typing module as a
specialized type variable.  The one exception to this is that a list of
types can be used to substitute a *note ParamSpec: 169.:

     >>> class Z[T, **P]: ...  # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
     ...
     >>> Z[int, [dict, float]]
     __main__.Z[int, [dict, float]]

Classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 169. can also be created using
explicit inheritance from *note Generic: 1478.  In this case, ‘**’ is
not used:

     from typing import ParamSpec, Generic

     P = ParamSpec('P')

     class Z(Generic[P]):
         ...

Another difference between *note TypeVar: 16a. and *note ParamSpec: 169.
is that a generic with only one parameter specification variable will
accept parameter lists in the forms ‘X[[Type1, Type2, ...]]’ and also
‘X[Type1, Type2, ...]’ for aesthetic reasons.  Internally, the latter is
converted to the former, so the following are equivalent:

     >>> class X[**P]: ...
     ...
     >>> X[int, str]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]
     >>> X[[int, str]]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]

Note that generics with *note ParamSpec: 169. may not have correct
‘__parameters__’ after substitution in some cases because they are
intended primarily for static type checking.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note Generic: 1478. can now be parameterized
over parameter expressions.  See *note ParamSpec: 169. and PEP 612(1)
for more details.

A user-defined generic class can have ABCs as base classes without a
metaclass conflict.  Generic metaclasses are not supported.  The outcome
of parameterizing generics is cached, and most types in the typing
module are *note hashable: 421. and comparable for equality.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: The Any type,  Next: Nominal vs structural subtyping,  Prev: User-defined generic types,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.10 The ‘Any’ type
........................

A special kind of type is *note Any: 4c2.  A static type checker will
treat every type as being compatible with *note Any: 4c2. and *note Any:
4c2. as being compatible with every type.

This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call
on a value of type *note Any: 4c2. and assign it to any variable:

     from typing import Any

     a: Any = None
     a = []          # OK
     a = 2           # OK

     s: str = ''
     s = a           # OK

     def foo(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type,
         # and that type might have a 'bar' method
         item.bar()
         ...

Notice that no type checking is performed when assigning a value of type
*note Any: 4c2. to a more precise type.  For example, the static type
checker did not report an error when assigning ‘a’ to ‘s’ even though
‘s’ was declared to be of type *note str: 15d. and receives an *note
int: 184. value at runtime!

Furthermore, all functions without a return type or parameter types will
implicitly default to using *note Any: 4c2.:

     def legacy_parser(text):
         ...
         return data

     # A static type checker will treat the above
     # as having the same signature as:
     def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
         ...
         return data

This behavior allows *note Any: 4c2. to be used as an 'escape hatch'
when you need to mix dynamically and statically typed code.

Contrast the behavior of *note Any: 4c2. with the behavior of *note
object: 8f2.  Similar to *note Any: 4c2, every type is a subtype of
*note object: 8f2.  However, unlike *note Any: 4c2, the reverse is not
true: *note object: 8f2. is 'not' a subtype of every other type.

That means when the type of a value is *note object: 8f2, a type checker
will reject almost all operations on it, and assigning it to a variable
(or using it as a return value) of a more specialized type is a type
error.  For example:

     def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
         # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
         item.magic()
         ...

     def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking
         item.magic()
         ...

     # Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
     hash_a(42)
     hash_a("foo")

     # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
     hash_b(42)
     hash_b("foo")

Use *note object: 8f2. to indicate that a value could be any type in a
typesafe manner.  Use *note Any: 4c2. to indicate that a value is
dynamically typed.


File: python.info,  Node: Nominal vs structural subtyping,  Next: Module contents<3>,  Prev: The Any type,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.11 Nominal vs structural subtyping
.........................................

Initially PEP 484(1) defined the Python static type system as using
'nominal subtyping'.  This means that a class ‘A’ is allowed where a
class ‘B’ is expected if and only if ‘A’ is a subclass of ‘B’.

This requirement previously also applied to abstract base classes, such
as *note Iterable: 2041.  The problem with this approach is that a class
had to be explicitly marked to support them, which is unpythonic and
unlike what one would normally do in idiomatic dynamically typed Python
code.  For example, this conforms to PEP 484(2):

     from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator

     class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]):
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

PEP 544(3) allows to solve this problem by allowing users to write the
above code without explicit base classes in the class definition,
allowing ‘Bucket’ to be implicitly considered a subtype of both ‘Sized’
and ‘Iterable[int]’ by static type checkers.  This is known as
'structural subtyping' (or static duck-typing):

     from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

     class Bucket:  # Note: no base classes
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

     def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ...
     result = collect(Bucket())  # Passes type check

Moreover, by subclassing a special class *note Protocol: 4c7, a user can
define new custom protocols to fully enjoy structural subtyping (see
examples below).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<3>,  Next: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: Nominal vs structural subtyping,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.12 Module contents
.........................

The ‘typing’ module defines the following classes, functions and
decorators.

* Menu:

* Special typing primitives::
* Protocols: Protocols<3>.
* ABCs for working with IO::
* Functions and decorators::
* Introspection helpers::
* Constant::
* Deprecated aliases::


File: python.info,  Node: Special typing primitives,  Next: Protocols<3>,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.26.1.13 Special typing primitives
...................................

* Menu:

* Special types::
* Special forms::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::


File: python.info,  Node: Special types,  Next: Special forms,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.26.1.14 Special types
.......................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They do not support
subscription using ‘[]’.

 -- Verisi: typing.Any

     Special type indicating an unconstrained type.

        * Every type is compatible with *note Any: 4c2.

        * *note Any: 4c2. is compatible with every type.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note Any: 4c2. can now be used as a base
     class.  This can be useful for avoiding type checker errors with
     classes that can duck type anywhere or are highly dynamic.

 -- Verisi: typing.AnyStr

     A *note constrained type variable: 3d01.

     Definition:

          AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)

     ‘AnyStr’ is meant to be used for functions that may accept *note
     str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. arguments but cannot allow the two
     to mix.

     For example:

          def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
              return a + b

          concat("foo", "bar")    # OK, output has type 'str'
          concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # OK, output has type 'bytes'
          concat("foo", b"bar")   # Error, cannot mix str and bytes

     Note that, despite its name, ‘AnyStr’ has nothing to do with the
     *note Any: 4c2. type, nor does it mean “any string”.  In
     particular, ‘AnyStr’ and ‘str | bytes’ are different from each
     other and have different use cases:

          # Invalid use of AnyStr:
          # The type variable is used only once in the function signature,
          # so cannot be "solved" by the type checker
          def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

          # The better way of annotating this function:
          def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

 -- Verisi: typing.LiteralString

     Special type that includes only literal strings.

     Any string literal is compatible with ‘LiteralString’, as is
     another ‘LiteralString’.  However, an object typed as just ‘str’ is
     not.  A string created by composing ‘LiteralString’-typed objects
     is also acceptable as a ‘LiteralString’.

     Example:

          def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None:
              ...

          def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None:
              run_query("SELECT * FROM students")  # OK
              run_query(literal_string)  # OK
              run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string)  # OK
              run_query(arbitrary_string)  # type checker error
              run_query(  # type checker error
                  f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
              )

     ‘LiteralString’ is useful for sensitive APIs where arbitrary
     user-generated strings could generate problems.  For example, the
     two cases above that generate type checker errors could be
     vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

     See PEP 675(1) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: typing.Never
 -- Verisi: typing.NoReturn

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ represent the bottom type(2), a type that
     has no members.

     They can be used to indicate that a function never returns, such as
     *note sys.exit(): 11f5.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def stop() -> Never:
              raise RuntimeError('no way')

     Or to define a function that should never be called, as there are
     no valid arguments, such as *note assert_never(): 4bd.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None:
              pass

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              never_call_me(arg)  # type checker error
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _:
                      never_call_me(arg)  # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn)

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ have the same meaning in the type system and
     static type checkers treat both equivalently.

     Added in version 3.6.2: Added *note NoReturn: 3d02.

     Added in version 3.11: Added *note Never: 4be.

 -- Verisi: typing.Self

     Special type to represent the current enclosed class.

     For example:

          from typing import Self, reveal_type

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

          class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass

          reveal_type(Foo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "Foo"
          reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo"

     This annotation is semantically equivalent to the following, albeit
     in a more succinct fashion:

          from typing import TypeVar

          Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo")

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self: Self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

     In general, if something returns ‘self’, as in the above examples,
     you should use ‘Self’ as the return annotation.  If
     ‘Foo.return_self’ was annotated as returning ‘"Foo"’, then the type
     checker would infer the object returned from
     ‘SubclassOfFoo.return_self’ as being of type ‘Foo’ rather than
     ‘SubclassOfFoo’.

     Other common use cases include:

        - *note classmethod: 252.s that are used as alternative
          constructors and return instances of the ‘cls’ parameter.

        - Annotating an *note __enter__(): 3d0. method which returns
          self.

     You should not use ‘Self’ as the return annotation if the method is
     not guaranteed to return an instance of a subclass when the class
     is subclassed:

          class Eggs:
              # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here,
              # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs,
              # even in subclasses
              def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs":
                  return Eggs()

     See PEP 673(3) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: typing.TypeAlias

     Special annotation for explicitly declaring a *note type alias:
     165.

     For example:

          from typing import TypeAlias

          Factors: TypeAlias = list[int]

     ‘TypeAlias’ is particularly useful on older Python versions for
     annotating aliases that make use of forward references, as it can
     be hard for type checkers to distinguish these from normal variable
     assignments:

          from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar

          T = TypeVar("T")

          # "Box" does not exist yet,
          # so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12.
          # Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration,
          # not a variable assignment to a string.
          BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]"

          class Box(Generic[T]):
              @classmethod
              def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ...

     See PEP 613(4) for more details.

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note TypeAlias: 600. is
     deprecated in favor of the *note type: 140. statement, which
     creates instances of *note TypeAliasType: 166. and which natively
     supports forward references.  Note that while *note TypeAlias: 600.
     and *note TypeAliasType: 166. serve similar purposes and have
     similar names, they are distinct and the latter is not the type of
     the former.  Removal of *note TypeAlias: 600. is not currently
     planned, but users are encouraged to migrate to *note type: 140.
     statements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_type

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/


File: python.info,  Node: Special forms,  Next: Building generic types and type aliases,  Prev: Special types,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.26.1.15 Special forms
.......................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They all support
subscription using ‘[]’, but each has a unique syntax.

 -- Verisi: typing.Union

     Union type; ‘Union[X, Y]’ is equivalent to ‘X | Y’ and means either
     X or Y.

     To define a union, use e.g.  ‘Union[int, str]’ or the shorthand
     ‘int | str’.  Using that shorthand is recommended.  Details:

        * The arguments must be types and there must be at least one.

        * Unions of unions are flattened, e.g.:

               Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]

        * Unions of a single argument vanish, e.g.:

               Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int

        * Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.:

               Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str

        * When comparing unions, the argument order is ignored, e.g.:

               Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]

        * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Union’.

        * You cannot write ‘Union[X][Y]’.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Don’t remove explicit subclasses from unions
     at runtime.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Unions can now be written as ‘X | Y’.  See
     *note union type expressions: 5f9.

 -- Verisi: typing.Optional

     ‘Optional[X]’ is equivalent to ‘X | None’ (or ‘Union[X, None]’).

     Note that this is not the same concept as an optional argument,
     which is one that has a default.  An optional argument with a
     default does not require the ‘Optional’ qualifier on its type
     annotation just because it is optional.  For example:

          def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
              ...

     On the other hand, if an explicit value of ‘None’ is allowed, the
     use of ‘Optional’ is appropriate, whether the argument is optional
     or not.  For example:

          def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
              ...

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Optional can now be written as ‘X | None’.
     See *note union type expressions: 5f9.

 -- Verisi: typing.Concatenate

     Special form for annotating higher-order functions.

     ‘Concatenate’ can be used in conjunction with *note Callable: 231c.
     and *note ParamSpec: 169. to annotate a higher-order callable which
     adds, removes, or transforms parameters of another callable.  Usage
     is in the form ‘Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ...,
     ParamSpecVariable]’.  ‘Concatenate’ is currently only valid when
     used as the first argument to a *note Callable: 231c.  The last
     parameter to ‘Concatenate’ must be a *note ParamSpec: 169. or
     ellipsis (‘...’).

     For example, to annotate a decorator ‘with_lock’ which provides a
     *note threading.Lock: 2e58. to the decorated function,
     ‘Concatenate’ can be used to indicate that ‘with_lock’ expects a
     callable which takes in a ‘Lock’ as the first argument, and returns
     a callable with a different type signature.  In this case, the
     *note ParamSpec: 169. indicates that the returned callable’s
     parameter types are dependent on the parameter types of the
     callable being passed in:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          from threading import Lock
          from typing import Concatenate

          # Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function
          # at any time.
          my_lock = Lock()

          def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
              '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R:
                  # Provide the lock as the first argument.
                  return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @with_lock
          def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float:
              '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.'''
              with lock:
                  return sum(numbers)

          # We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator.
          sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3])

     Added in version 3.10.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

        * PEP 612(1) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note ParamSpec: 169.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 231c.

 -- Verisi: typing.Literal

     Special typing form to define “literal types”.

     ‘Literal’ can be used to indicate to type checkers that the
     annotated object has a value equivalent to one of the provided
     literals.

     For example:

          def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]:  # always returns True
              ...

          type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb']
          def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str:
              ...

          open_helper('/some/path', 'r')      # Passes type check
          open_helper('/other/path', 'typo')  # Error in type checker

     ‘Literal[...]’ cannot be subclassed.  At runtime, an arbitrary
     value is allowed as type argument to ‘Literal[...]’, but type
     checkers may impose restrictions.  See PEP 586(2) for more details
     about literal types.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.9.1 sürümünde değişti: ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.
     Equality comparisons of ‘Literal’ objects are no longer order
     dependent.  ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError:
     2c4. exception during equality comparisons if one of their
     parameters are not *note hashable: 421.

 -- Verisi: typing.ClassVar

     Special type construct to mark class variables.

     As introduced in PEP 526(3), a variable annotation wrapped in
     ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as
     a class variable and should not be set on instances of that class.
     Usage:

          class Starship:
              stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
              damage: int = 10                     # instance variable

     *note ClassVar: 4cb. accepts only types and cannot be further
     subscribed.

     *note ClassVar: 4cb. is not a class itself, and should not be used
     with *note isinstance(): 151. or *note issubclass(): 5f8.  *note
     ClassVar: 4cb. does not change Python runtime behavior, but it can
     be used by third-party type checkers.  For example, a type checker
     might flag the following code as an error:

          enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
          enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
          Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK

     Added in version 3.5.3.

 -- Verisi: typing.Final

     Special typing construct to indicate final names to type checkers.

     Final names cannot be reassigned in any scope.  Final names
     declared in class scopes cannot be overridden in subclasses.

     For example:

          MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000
          MAX_SIZE += 1  # Error reported by type checker

          class Connection:
              TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10

          class FastConnector(Connection):
              TIMEOUT = 1  # Error reported by type checker

     There is no runtime checking of these properties.  See PEP 591(4)
     for more details.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: typing.Required

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 159. key as
     required.

     This is mainly useful for ‘total=False’ TypedDicts.  See *note
     TypedDict: 159. and PEP 655(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: typing.NotRequired

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 159. key as
     potentially missing.

     See *note TypedDict: 159. and PEP 655(6) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: typing.Annotated

     Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an
     annotation.

     Add metadata ‘x’ to a given type ‘T’ by using the annotation
     ‘Annotated[T, x]’.  Metadata added using ‘Annotated’ can be used by
     static analysis tools or at runtime.  At runtime, the metadata is
     stored in a ‘__metadata__’ attribute.

     If a library or tool encounters an annotation ‘Annotated[T, x]’ and
     has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the
     metadata and simply treat the annotation as ‘T’.  As such,
     ‘Annotated’ can be useful for code that wants to use annotations
     for purposes outside Python’s static typing system.

     Using ‘Annotated[T, x]’ as an annotation still allows for static
     typechecking of ‘T’, as type checkers will simply ignore the
     metadata ‘x’.  In this way, ‘Annotated’ differs from the *note
     @no_type_check: 4cc. decorator, which can also be used for adding
     annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely
     disables typechecking for a function or class.

     The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the
     tool or library encountering an ‘Annotated’ annotation.  A tool or
     library encountering an ‘Annotated’ type can scan through the
     metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using
     *note isinstance(): 151.).

      -- Describe: Annotated[<type>, <metadata>]

     Here is an example of how you might use ‘Annotated’ to add metadata
     to type annotations if you were doing range analysis:

          @dataclass
          class ValueRange:
              lo: int
              hi: int

          T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
          T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]

     The first argument to ‘Annotated’ must be a valid type.  Multiple
     metadata elements can be supplied as ‘Annotated’ supports variadic
     arguments.  The order of the metadata elements is preserved and
     matters for equality checks:

          @dataclass
          class ctype:
               kind: str

          a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
          a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)]

          assert a1 != a2  # Order matters

     It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether
     the client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one
     annotation and how to merge those annotations.

     Nested ‘Annotated’ types are flattened.  The order of the metadata
     elements starts with the innermost annotation:

          assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
          ]

     Duplicated metadata elements are not removed:

          assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
          ]

     ‘Annotated’ can be used with nested and generic aliases:

               @dataclass
               class MaxLen:
                   value: int

               type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)]

               # When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as
               # ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
               type V = Vec[int]

     ‘Annotated’ cannot be used with an unpacked *note TypeVarTuple:
     168.:

          type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]  # NOT valid

     where ‘T1’, ‘T2’, … are *note TypeVars: 16a.  This is invalid as
     only one type should be passed to Annotated.

     By default, *note get_type_hints(): 4c8. strips the metadata from
     annotations.  Pass ‘include_extras=True’ to have the metadata
     preserved:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints
               >>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass
               ...
               >>> get_type_hints(func)
               {'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
               >>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
               {'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}

     At runtime, the metadata associated with an ‘Annotated’ type can be
     retrieved via the ‘__metadata__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated
               >>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"]
               >>> X
               typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata']
               >>> X.__metadata__
               ('very', 'important', 'metadata')

     If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by ‘Annotated’,
     use the ‘__origin__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
               >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
               >>> Password.__origin__
               <class 'str'>

     Note that using *note get_origin(): 8aa. will return ‘Annotated’
     itself:

               >>> get_origin(Password)
               <class 'typing.Annotated'>

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 593(7) - Flexible function and variable annotations

          The PEP introducing ‘Annotated’ to the standard library.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Verisi: typing.TypeGuard

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type guard
     functions.

     ‘TypeGuard’ can be used to annotate the return type of a
     user-defined type guard function.  ‘TypeGuard’ only accepts a
     single type argument.  At runtime, functions marked this way should
     return a boolean.

     ‘TypeGuard’ aims to benefit 'type narrowing' – a technique used by
     static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an
     expression within a program’s code flow.  Usually type narrowing is
     done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing
     to a block of code.  The conditional expression here is sometimes
     referred to as a “type guard”:

          def is_str(val: str | float):
              # "isinstance" type guard
              if isinstance(val, str):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str``
                  ...
              else:
                  # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``.
                  ...

     Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean
     function as a type guard.  Such a function should use
     ‘TypeGuard[...]’ as its return type to alert static type checkers
     to this intention.

     Using ‘-> TypeGuard’ tells the static type checker that for a given
     function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          type inside ‘TypeGuard’.

     For example:

          def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
              '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings'''
              return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)

          def func1(val: list[object]):
              if is_str_list(val):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``.
                  print(" ".join(val))
              else:
                  # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``.
                  print("Not a list of strings!")

     If ‘is_str_list’ is a class or instance method, then the type in
     ‘TypeGuard’ maps to the type of the second parameter (after ‘cls’
     or ‘self’).

     In short, the form ‘def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeGuard[TypeB]: ...’,
     means that if ‘foo(arg)’ returns ‘True’, then ‘arg’ narrows from
     ‘TypeA’ to ‘TypeB’.

          Not: ‘TypeB’ need not be a narrower form of ‘TypeA’ – it can
          even be a wider form.  The main reason is to allow for things
          like narrowing ‘list[object]’ to ‘list[str]’ even though the
          latter is not a subtype of the former, since ‘list’ is
          invariant.  The responsibility of writing type-safe type
          guards is left to the user.

     ‘TypeGuard’ also works with type variables.  See PEP 647(8) for
     more details.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: typing.Unpack

     Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been
     unpacked.

     For example, using the unpack operator ‘*’ on a *note type variable
     tuple: 3d04. is equivalent to using ‘Unpack’ to mark the type
     variable tuple as having been unpacked:

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]
          # Effectively does:
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]

     In fact, ‘Unpack’ can be used interchangeably with ‘*’ in the
     context of *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 168. and *note
     builtins.tuple: 4ff. types.  You might see ‘Unpack’ being used
     explicitly in older versions of Python, where ‘*’ couldn’t be used
     in certain places:

          # In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack
          # are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package.
          from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]         # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10!
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]  # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible

     ‘Unpack’ can also be used along with *note typing.TypedDict: 159.
     for typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature:

          from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

          class Movie(TypedDict):
              name: str
              year: int

          # This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str`
          # and `year` of type `int`.
          def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

     See PEP 692(9) for more details on using ‘Unpack’ for ‘**kwargs’
     typing.

     Added in version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/


File: python.info,  Node: Building generic types and type aliases,  Next: Other special directives,  Prev: Special forms,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.26.1.16 Building generic types and type aliases
.................................................

The following classes should not be used directly as annotations.  Their
intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic types and
type aliases.

These objects can be created through special syntax (*note type
parameter lists: 16c. and the *note type: 140. statement).  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, they can also be created
without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Generic

     Abstract base class for generic types.

     A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type
     parameters after the class name:

          class Mapping[KT, VT]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

     Such a class implicitly inherits from ‘Generic’.  The runtime
     semantics of this syntax are discussed in the *note Language
     Reference: 163.

     This class can then be used as follows:

          def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
              try:
                  return mapping[key]
              except KeyError:
                  return default

     Here the brackets after the function name indicate a *note generic
     function: 164.

     For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared
     by explicitly inheriting from ‘Generic’.  In this case, the type
     parameters must be declared separately:

          KT = TypeVar('KT')
          VT = TypeVar('VT')

          class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.TypeVar (name, *constraints, bound=None,
          covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False)

     Type variable.

     The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated
     syntax for *note generic functions: 164, *note generic classes:
     163, and *note generic type aliases: 167.:

          class Sequence[T]:  # T is a TypeVar
              ...

     This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type
     variables:

          class StrSequence[S: str]:  # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound;
              ...                     # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`"


          class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]:  # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
              ...

     However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be
     constructed manually, like so:

          T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
          S = TypeVar('S', bound=str)  # Can be any subtype of str
          A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be exactly str or bytes

     Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
     checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
     as for generic function and type alias definitions.  See *note
     Generic: 1478. for more information on generic types.  Generic
     functions work as follows:

          def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
              """Return a list containing n references to x."""
              return [x]*n


          def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S:
              """Print x capitalized, and return x."""
              print(x.capitalize())
              return x


          def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A:
              """Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
              return x + y

     Note that type variables can be 'bounded', 'constrained', or
     neither, but cannot be both bounded 'and' constrained.

     The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when
     they are created through the *note type parameter syntax: 16c. or
     when ‘infer_variance=True’ is passed.  Manually created type
     variables may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by
     passing ‘covariant=True’ or ‘contravariant=True’.  By default,
     manually created type variables are invariant.  See PEP 484(1) and
     PEP 695(2) for more details.

     Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have
     different semantics in several important ways.  Using a 'bounded'
     type variable means that the ‘TypeVar’ will be solved using the
     most specific type possible:

          x = print_capitalized('a string')
          reveal_type(x)  # revealed type is str

          class StringSubclass(str):
              pass

          y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string'))
          reveal_type(y)  # revealed type is StringSubclass

          z = print_capitalized(45)  # error: int is not a subtype of str

     The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract
     type (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types:

          # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
          def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
              print("Absolute value:", abs(arg))

          U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes)  # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes
          V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs)  # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
     Using a 'constrained' type variable, however, means that the
     ‘TypeVar’ can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the
     constraints given:

          a = concatenate('one', 'two')
          reveal_type(a)  # revealed type is str

          b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two'))
          reveal_type(b)  # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in

          c = concatenate('one', b'two')  # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both

     At runtime, ‘isinstance(x, T)’ will raise *note TypeError: 2c4.

      -- Özniteliği: __name__

          The name of the type variable.

      -- Özniteliği: __covariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant.

      -- Özniteliği: __contravariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as
          contravariant.

      -- Özniteliği: __infer_variance__

          Whether the type variable’s variance should be inferred by
          type checkers.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Özniteliği: __bound__

          The upper bound of the type variable, if any.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: For type variables created through
          *note type parameter syntax: 16c, the bound is evaluated only
          when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is
          created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 16b.).

      -- Özniteliği: __constraints__

          A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if
          any.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: For type variables created through
          *note type parameter syntax: 16c, the constraints are
          evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the
          type variable is created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 16b.).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Type variables can now be declared using
     the *note type parameter: 16c. syntax introduced by PEP 695(3).
     The ‘infer_variance’ parameter was added.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.TypeVarTuple (name)

     Type variable tuple.  A specialized form of *note type variable:
     3cfa. that enables 'variadic' generics.

     Type variable tuples can be declared in *note type parameter lists:
     16c. using a single asterisk (‘*’) before the name:

          def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     Or by explicitly invoking the ‘TypeVarTuple’ constructor:

          T = TypeVar("T")
          Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts")

          def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type.
     A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an
     'arbitrary' number of types by acting like an 'arbitrary' number of
     type variables wrapped in a tuple.  For example:

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to ()
          # Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,)
          # Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam'))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float)
          # Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0))

          # This fails to type check (and fails at runtime)
          # because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts]
          # (at least one element is required)
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=())

     Note the use of the unpacking operator ‘*’ in ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’.
     Conceptually, you can think of ‘Ts’ as a tuple of type variables
     ‘(T1, T2, ...)’.  ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’ would then become ‘tuple[T, *(T1,
     T2, ...)]’, which is equivalent to ‘tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]’.  (Note
     that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using
     *note Unpack: 1477. instead, as ‘Unpack[Ts]’.)

     Type variable tuples must 'always' be unpacked.  This helps
     distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables:

          x: Ts          # Not valid
          x: tuple[Ts]   # Not valid
          x: tuple[*Ts]  # The correct way to do it

     Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal
     type variables.  For example, in class definitions, arguments, and
     return types:

          class Array[*Shape]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ...
              def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ...
              def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ...

     Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type
     variables:

          class Array[DType, *Shape]:  # This is fine
              pass

          class Array2[*Shape, DType]:  # This would also be fine
              pass

          class Height: ...
          class Width: ...

          float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array()     # Totally fine
          int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array()  # Yup, fine too

     However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a
     single list of type arguments or type parameters:

          x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts]            # Not valid
          class Array[*Shape, *Shape]:  # Not valid
              pass

     Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type
     annotation of ‘*args’:

          def call_soon[*Ts](
              callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
              *args: *Ts
          ) -> None:
              ...
              callback(*args)

     In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of ‘*args’ - e.g.  ‘*args:
     int’, which would specify that 'all' arguments are ‘int’ - ‘*args:
     *Ts’ enables reference to the types of the 'individual' arguments
     in ‘*args’.  Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the
     ‘*args’ passed to ‘call_soon’ match the types of the (positional)
     arguments of ‘callback’.

     See PEP 646(4) for more details on type variable tuples.

      -- Özniteliği: __name__

          The name of the type variable tuple.

     Added in version 3.11.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Type variable tuples can now be declared
     using the *note type parameter: 16c. syntax introduced by PEP
     695(5).

 -- Sınıfı: typing.ParamSpec (name, *, bound=None, covariant=False,
          contravariant=False)

     Parameter specification variable.  A specialized version of *note
     type variables: 3cfa.

     In *note type parameter lists: 16c, parameter specifications can be
     declared with two asterisks (‘**’):

          type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]

     For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, ‘ParamSpec’ objects
     can also be created as follows:

          P = ParamSpec('P')

     Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit
     of static type checkers.  They are used to forward the parameter
     types of one callable to another callable – a pattern commonly
     found in higher order functions and decorators.  They are only
     valid when used in ‘Concatenate’, or as the first argument to
     ‘Callable’, or as parameters for user-defined Generics.  See *note
     Generic: 1478. for more information on generic types.

     For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a
     decorator ‘add_logging’ to log function calls.  The parameter
     specification variable tells the type checker that the callable
     passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have
     inter-dependent type parameters:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          import logging

          def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
              '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T:
                  logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called')
                  return f(*args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @add_logging
          def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float:
              '''Add two numbers together.'''
              return x + y

     Without ‘ParamSpec’, the simplest way to annotate this previously
     was to use a *note TypeVar: 16a. with upper bound ‘Callable[...,
     Any]’.  However this causes two problems:

       1. The type checker can’t type check the ‘inner’ function because
          ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ have to be typed *note Any: 4c2.

       2. *note cast(): 3d0d. may be required in the body of the
          ‘add_logging’ decorator when returning the ‘inner’ function,
          or the static type checker must be told to ignore the ‘return
          inner’.

      -- Özniteliği: args

      -- Özniteliği: kwargs

          Since ‘ParamSpec’ captures both positional and keyword
          parameters, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ can be used to split a
          ‘ParamSpec’ into its components.  ‘P.args’ represents the
          tuple of positional parameters in a given call and should only
          be used to annotate ‘*args’.  ‘P.kwargs’ represents the
          mapping of keyword parameters to their values in a given call,
          and should be only be used to annotate ‘**kwargs’.  Both
          attributes require the annotated parameter to be in scope.  At
          runtime, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ are instances respectively of
          *note ParamSpecArgs: 5fd. and *note ParamSpecKwargs: 5fe.

      -- Özniteliği: __name__

          The name of the parameter specification.

     Parameter specification variables created with ‘covariant=True’ or
     ‘contravariant=True’ can be used to declare covariant or
     contravariant generic types.  The ‘bound’ argument is also
     accepted, similar to *note TypeVar: 16a.  However the actual
     semantics of these keywords are yet to be decided.

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Parameter specifications can now be
     declared using the *note type parameter: 16c. syntax introduced by
     PEP 695(6).

          Not: Only parameter specification variables defined in global
          scope can be pickled.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

        * PEP 612(7) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note Concatenate: 5fb.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 231c.

 -- Verisi: typing.ParamSpecArgs
 -- Verisi: typing.ParamSpecKwargs

     Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a *note ParamSpec:
     169.  The ‘P.args’ attribute of a ‘ParamSpec’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecArgs’, and ‘P.kwargs’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecKwargs’.  They are intended for runtime introspection and
     have no special meaning to static type checkers.

     Calling *note get_origin(): 8aa. on either of these objects will
     return the original ‘ParamSpec’:

          >>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin
          >>> P = ParamSpec("P")
          >>> get_origin(P.args) is P
          True
          >>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
          True

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.TypeAliasType (name, value, *, type_params=())

     The type of type aliases created through the *note type: 140.
     statement.

     Example:

          >>> type Alias = int
          >>> type(Alias)
          <class 'typing.TypeAliasType'>

     Added in version 3.12.

      -- Özniteliği: __name__

          The name of the type alias:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__name__
               'Alias'

      -- Özniteliği: __module__

          The module in which the type alias was defined:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__module__
               '__main__'

      -- Özniteliği: __type_params__

          The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if
          the alias is not generic:

               >>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]
               >>> ListOrSet.__type_params__
               (T,)
               >>> type NotGeneric = int
               >>> NotGeneric.__type_params__
               ()

      -- Özniteliği: __value__

          The type alias’s value.  This is *note lazily evaluated: 16b,
          so names used in the definition of the alias are not resolved
          until the ‘__value__’ attribute is accessed:

               >>> type Mutually = Recursive
               >>> type Recursive = Mutually
               >>> Mutually
               Mutually
               >>> Recursive
               Recursive
               >>> Mutually.__value__
               Recursive
               >>> Recursive.__value__
               Mutually

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Other special directives,  Prev: Building generic types and type aliases,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.26.1.17 Other special directives
..................................

These functions and classes should not be used directly as annotations.
Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating and
declaring types.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.NamedTuple

     Typed version of *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b.

     Usage:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int

     This is equivalent to:

          Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])

     To give a field a default value, you can assign to it in the class
     body:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int = 3

          employee = Employee('Guido')
          assert employee.id == 3

     Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a
     default.

     The resulting class has an extra attribute ‘__annotations__’ giving
     a dict that maps the field names to the field types.  (The field
     names are in the ‘_fields’ attribute and the default values are in
     the ‘_field_defaults’ attribute, both of which are part of the
     *note namedtuple(): 74b. API.)

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can also have docstrings and methods:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              """Represents an employee."""
              name: str
              id: int = 3

              def __repr__(self) -> str:
                  return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can be generic:

          class Group[T](NamedTuple):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     Backward-compatible usage:

          # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

          # A functional syntax is also supported
          Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support for PEP 526(1) variable
     annotation syntax.

     3.6.1 sürümünde değişti: Added support for default values, methods,
     and docstrings.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The ‘_field_types’ and ‘__annotations__’
     attributes are now regular dictionaries instead of instances of
     ‘OrderedDict’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute in
     favor of the more standard ‘__annotations__’ attribute which has
     the same information.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added support for generic namedtuples.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.NewType (name, tp)

     Helper class to create low-overhead *note distinct types: 3cee.

     A ‘NewType’ is considered a distinct type by a typechecker.  At
     runtime, however, calling a ‘NewType’ returns its argument
     unchanged.

     Usage:

          UserId = NewType('UserId', int)  # Declare the NewType "UserId"
          first_user = UserId(1)  # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime

      -- Özniteliği: __module__

          The module in which the new type is defined.

      -- Özniteliği: __name__

          The name of the new type.

      -- Özniteliği: __supertype__

          The type that the new type is based on.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a
     function.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Protocol (Generic)

     Base class for protocol classes.

     Protocol classes are defined like this:

          class Proto(Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  ...

     Such classes are primarily used with static type checkers that
     recognize structural subtyping (static duck-typing), for example:

          class C:
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  return 0

          def func(x: Proto) -> int:
              return x.meth()

          func(C())  # Passes static type check

     See PEP 544(2) for more details.  Protocol classes decorated with
     *note runtime_checkable(): 152. (described later) act as
     simple-minded runtime protocols that check only the presence of
     given attributes, ignoring their type signatures.

     Protocol classes can be generic, for example:

          class GenProto[T](Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older,
     generic Protocols can be written as follows:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class GenProto(Protocol[T]):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.runtime_checkable

     Mark a protocol class as a runtime protocol.

     Such a protocol can be used with *note isinstance(): 151. and *note
     issubclass(): 5f8.  This raises *note TypeError: 2c4. when applied
     to a non-protocol class.  This allows a simple-minded structural
     check, very similar to “one trick ponies” in *note collections.abc:
     1e. such as *note Iterable: 2041.  For example:

          @runtime_checkable
          class Closable(Protocol):
              def close(self): ...

          assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable)

          @runtime_checkable
          class Named(Protocol):
              name: str

          import threading
          assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)

          Not: ‘runtime_checkable()’ will check only the presence of the
          required methods or attributes, not their type signatures or
          types.  For example, *note ssl.SSLObject: 9f7. is a class,
          therefore it passes an *note issubclass(): 5f8. check against
          *note Callable: 231c.  However, the ‘ssl.SSLObject.__init__’
          method exists only to raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. with a
          more informative message, therefore making it impossible to
          call (instantiate) *note ssl.SSLObject: 9f7.

          Not: An *note isinstance(): 151. check against a
          runtime-checkable protocol can be surprisingly slow compared
          to an ‘isinstance()’ check against a non-protocol class.
          Consider using alternative idioms such as *note hasattr():
          200. calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive
          code.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The internal implementation of *note
     isinstance(): 151. checks against runtime-checkable protocols now
     uses *note inspect.getattr_static(): 1b8. to look up attributes
     (previously, *note hasattr(): 200. was used).  As a result, some
     objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The members of a runtime-checkable protocol
     are now considered “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has
     been created.  Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable
     protocol will still work, but will have no impact on *note
     isinstance(): 151. checks comparing objects to the protocol.  See
     *note “What’s new in Python 3.12”: 1ff. for more details.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.TypedDict (dict)

     Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary.  At runtime it
     is a plain *note dict: 240.

     ‘TypedDict’ declares a dictionary type that expects all of its
     instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is
     associated with a value of a consistent type.  This expectation is
     not checked at runtime but is only enforced by type checkers.
     Usage:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: str

          a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'}  # OK
          b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'}           # Fails type check

          assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first')

     To allow using this feature with older versions of Python that do
     not support PEP 526(3), ‘TypedDict’ supports two additional
     equivalent syntactic forms:

        * Using a literal *note dict: 240. as the second argument:

               Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str})

        * Using keyword arguments:

               Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', x=int, y=int, label=str)

          Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version
          3.13: The keyword-argument syntax is deprecated in 3.11 and
          will be removed in 3.13.  It may also be unsupported by static
          type checkers.

     This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid
     *note identifiers: 1c81, for example because they are keywords or
     contain hyphens, or when key names must not be *note mangled: 1b03.
     like regular private names:

          # raises SyntaxError
          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              in: int  # 'in' is a keyword
              x-y: int  # name with hyphens

          class Definition(TypedDict):
              __schema: str  # mangled to `_Definition__schema`

          # OK, functional syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})
          Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str})  # not mangled

     By default, all keys must be present in a ‘TypedDict’.  It is
     possible to mark individual keys as non-required using *note
     NotRequired: 3cd.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: NotRequired[str]

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]})

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have the ‘label’ key
     omitted.

     It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by
     specifying a totality of ‘False’:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: int
              y: int

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False)

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have any of the keys
     omitted.  A type checker is only expected to support a literal
     ‘False’ or ‘True’ as the value of the ‘total’ argument.  ‘True’ is
     the default, and makes all items defined in the class body
     required.

     Individual keys of a ‘total=False’ ‘TypedDict’ can be marked as
     required using *note Required: 3cc.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: Required[int]
              y: Required[int]
              label: str

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {
              'x': Required[int],
              'y': Required[int],
              'label': str
          }, total=False)

     It is possible for a ‘TypedDict’ type to inherit from one or more
     other ‘TypedDict’ types using the class-based syntax.  Usage:

          class Point3D(Point2D):
              z: int

     ‘Point3D’ has three items: ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’.  It is equivalent to
     this definition:

          class Point3D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              z: int

     A ‘TypedDict’ cannot inherit from a non-‘TypedDict’ class, except
     for *note Generic: 1478.  For example:

          class X(TypedDict):
              x: int

          class Y(TypedDict):
              y: int

          class Z(object): pass  # A non-TypedDict class

          class XY(X, Y): pass  # OK

          class XZ(X, Z): pass  # raises TypeError

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be generic:

          class Group[T](TypedDict):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     To create a generic ‘TypedDict’ that is compatible with Python 3.11
     or lower, inherit from *note Generic: 1478. explicitly:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be introspected via annotations dicts (see *note
     Annotations Best Practices: 613. for more information on
     annotations best practices), *note __total__: 3d19, *note
     __required_keys__: 3d1a, and *note __optional_keys__: 3d1b.

      -- Özniteliği: __total__

          ‘Point2D.__total__’ gives the value of the ‘total’ argument.
          Example:

               >>> from typing import TypedDict
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               True
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               False
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass
               >>> Point3D.__total__
               True

          This attribute reflects 'only' the value of the ‘total’
          argument to the current ‘TypedDict’ class, not whether the
          class is semantically total.  For example, a ‘TypedDict’ with
          ‘__total__’ set to ‘True’ may have keys marked with *note
          NotRequired: 3cd, or it may inherit from another ‘TypedDict’
          with ‘total=False’.  Therefore, it is generally better to use
          *note __required_keys__: 3d1a. and *note __optional_keys__:
          3d1b. for introspection.

      -- Özniteliği: __required_keys__

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Özniteliği: __optional_keys__

          ‘Point2D.__required_keys__’ and ‘Point2D.__optional_keys__’
          return *note frozenset: 3e5. objects containing required and
          non-required keys, respectively.

          Keys marked with *note Required: 3cc. will always appear in
          ‘__required_keys__’ and keys marked with *note NotRequired:
          3cd. will always appear in ‘__optional_keys__’.

          For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is
          also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and
          non-required keys in the same ‘TypedDict’ .  This is done by
          declaring a ‘TypedDict’ with one value for the ‘total’
          argument and then inheriting from it in another ‘TypedDict’
          with a different value for ‘total’:

               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
               ...     x: int
               ...     y: int
               ...
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D):
               ...     z: int
               ...
               >>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'})
               True
               >>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'})
               True

          Added in version 3.9.

               Not: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used or
               if annotations are given as strings, annotations are not
               evaluated when the ‘TypedDict’ is defined.  Therefore,
               the runtime introspection that ‘__required_keys__’ and
               ‘__optional_keys__’ rely on may not work properly, and
               the values of the attributes may be incorrect.

     See PEP 589(4) for more examples and detailed rules of using
     ‘TypedDict’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added support for marking individual keys
     as *note Required: 3cc. or *note NotRequired: 3cd.  See PEP 655(5).

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added support for generic ‘TypedDict’s.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols<3>,  Next: ABCs for working with IO,  Prev: Special typing primitives,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.26.1.18 Protocols
...................

The following protocols are provided by the typing module.  All are
decorated with *note @runtime_checkable: 152.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.SupportsAbs

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__abs__’ that is covariant in its
     return type.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.SupportsBytes

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__bytes__’.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.SupportsComplex

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__complex__’.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.SupportsFloat

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__float__’.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.SupportsIndex

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__index__’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.SupportsInt

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__int__’.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.SupportsRound

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__round__’ that is covariant in
     its return type.


File: python.info,  Node: ABCs for working with IO,  Next: Functions and decorators,  Prev: Protocols<3>,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.26.1.19 ABCs for working with IO
..................................

 -- Sınıfı: typing.IO
 -- Sınıfı: typing.TextIO
 -- Sınıfı: typing.BinaryIO

     Generic type ‘IO[AnyStr]’ and its subclasses ‘TextIO(IO[str])’ and
     ‘BinaryIO(IO[bytes])’ represent the types of I/O streams such as
     returned by *note open(): 2a6.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions and decorators,  Next: Introspection helpers,  Prev: ABCs for working with IO,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.26.1.20 Functions and decorators
..................................

 -- Işlevi: typing.cast (typ, val)

     Cast a value to a type.

     This returns the value unchanged.  To the type checker this signals
     that the return value has the designated type, but at runtime we
     intentionally don’t check anything (we want this to be as fast as
     possible).

 -- Işlevi: typing.assert_type (val, typ, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that 'val' has an inferred
     type of 'typ'.

     At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument
     unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type
     of the argument.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to ‘assert_type()’, it
     emits an error if the value is not of the specified type:

          def greet(name: str) -> None:
              assert_type(name, str)  # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str`
              assert_type(name, int)  # type checker error

     This function is useful for ensuring the type checker’s
     understanding of a script is in line with the developer’s
     intentions:

          def complex_function(arg: object):
              # Do some complex type-narrowing logic,
              # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int`
              ...
              # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function
              assert_type(arg, int)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: typing.assert_never (arg, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that a line of code is
     unreachable.

     Example:

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _ as unreachable:
                      assert_never(unreachable)

     Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last
     case can never execute, because ‘arg’ is either an *note int: 184.
     or a *note str: 15d, and both options are covered by earlier cases.

     If a type checker finds that a call to ‘assert_never()’ is
     reachable, it will emit an error.  For example, if the type
     annotation for ‘arg’ was instead ‘int | str | float’, the type
     checker would emit an error pointing out that ‘unreachable’ is of
     type *note float: 272.  For a call to ‘assert_never’ to pass type
     checking, the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the
     bottom type, *note Never: 4be, and nothing else.

     At runtime, this throws an exception when called.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking(1) has more
     information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: typing.reveal_type (obj, /)

     Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an
     expression.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it
     emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument.  For
     example:

          x: int = 1
          reveal_type(x)  # Revealed type is "builtins.int"

     This can be useful when you want to debug how your type checker
     handles a particular piece of code.

     At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument
     to *note sys.stderr: 792. and returns the argument unchanged
     (allowing the call to be used within an expression):

          x = reveal_type(1)  # prints "Runtime type is int"
          print(x)  # prints "1"

     Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less
     specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker.

     Most type checkers support ‘reveal_type()’ anywhere, even if the
     name is not imported from ‘typing’.  Importing the name from
     ‘typing’, however, allows your code to run without runtime errors
     and communicates intent more clearly.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.dataclass_transform (*, eq_default=True,
          order_default=False, kw_only_default=False,
          frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs)

     Decorator to mark an object as providing *note dataclass: 3d4.-like
     behavior.

     ‘dataclass_transform’ may be used to decorate a class, metaclass,
     or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
     ‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the
     decorated object performs runtime “magic” that transforms a class
     in a similar way to *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 3d4.

     Example usage with a decorator function:

          @dataclass_transform()
          def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
              ...
              return cls

          @create_model
          class CustomerModel:
              id: int
              name: str

     On a base class:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelBase: ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     On a metaclass:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelMeta(type): ...

          class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     The ‘CustomerModel’ classes defined above will be treated by type
     checkers similarly to classes created with *note
     @dataclasses.dataclass: 3d4.  For example, type checkers will
     assume these classes have ‘__init__’ methods that accept ‘id’ and
     ‘name’.

     The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the
     following bool arguments which type checkers will assume have the
     same effect as they would have on the *note @dataclasses.dataclass:
     3d4. decorator: ‘init’, ‘eq’, ‘order’, ‘unsafe_hash’, ‘frozen’,
     ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, and ‘slots’.  It must be possible for the
     value of these arguments (‘True’ or ‘False’) to be statically
     evaluated.

     The arguments to the ‘dataclass_transform’ decorator can be used to
     customize the default behaviors of the decorated class, metaclass,
     or function:


     Parametreler:

        * ‘eq_default’ (*note bool: 183.) – Indicates whether the ‘eq’
          parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted
          by the caller.  Defaults to ‘True’.

        * ‘order_default’ (*note bool: 183.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘order’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘kw_only_default’ (*note bool: 183.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘kw_only’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it
          is omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘frozen_default’ (*note bool: 183.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘frozen’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.12.

        * ‘field_specifiers’ (*note tuple: 4ff.‘[’*note Callable:
          624.‘[’‘...’‘, ’‘Any’‘]’‘, ’‘...’‘]’) – Specifies a static
          list of supported classes or functions that describe fields,
          similar to *note dataclasses.field(): 1859.  Defaults to ‘()’.

        * ‘**kwargs’ (‘Any’) – Arbitrary other keyword arguments are
          accepted in order to allow for possible future extensions.

     Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field
     specifiers: 'Recognised parameters for field specifiers'

     Parameter name           Description
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     ‘init’                   Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized ‘__init__’
                              method.  If unspecified, ‘init’ defaults to ‘True’.
                              
                              
     ‘default’                Provides the default value for the field.
                              
                              
     ‘default_factory’        Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field.  If
                              neither ‘default’ nor ‘default_factory’ are specified, the field is assumed to
                              have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is instantiated.
                              
                              
     ‘factory’                An alias for the ‘default_factory’ parameter on field specifiers.
                              
                              
     ‘kw_only’                Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only.  If ‘True’, the
                              field will be keyword-only.  If ‘False’, it will not be keyword-only.  If
                              unspecified, the value of the ‘kw_only’ parameter on the object decorated with
                              ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of
                              ‘kw_only_default’ on ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used.
                              
                              
     ‘alias’                  Provides an alternative name for the field.  This alternative name is used in the
                              synthesized ‘__init__’ method.
                              

     At runtime, this decorator records its arguments in the
     ‘__dataclass_transform__’ attribute on the decorated object.  It
     has no other runtime effect.

     See PEP 681(2) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.overload

     Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods.

     The ‘@overload’ decorator allows describing functions and methods
     that support multiple different combinations of argument types.  A
     series of ‘@overload’-decorated definitions must be followed by
     exactly one non-‘@overload’-decorated definition (for the same
     function/method).

     ‘@overload’-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type
     checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition.  The
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition, meanwhile, will be used at
     runtime but should be ignored by a type checker.  At runtime,
     calling an ‘@overload’-decorated function directly will raise *note
     NotImplementedError: bd6.

     An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be
     expressed using a union or a type variable:

          @overload
          def process(response: None) -> None:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: bytes) -> str:
              ...
          def process(response):
              ...  # actual implementation goes here

     See PEP 484(3) for more details and comparison with other typing
     semantics.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Overloaded functions can now be
     introspected at runtime using *note get_overloads(): 4c4.

 -- Işlevi: typing.get_overloads (func)

     Return a sequence of *note @overload: 3d24.-decorated definitions
     for 'func'.

     'func' is the function object for the implementation of the
     overloaded function.  For example, given the definition of
     ‘process’ in the documentation for *note @overload: 3d24,
     ‘get_overloads(process)’ will return a sequence of three function
     objects for the three defined overloads.  If called on a function
     with no overloads, ‘get_overloads()’ returns an empty sequence.

     ‘get_overloads()’ can be used for introspecting an overloaded
     function at runtime.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: typing.clear_overloads ()

     Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry.

     This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.final

     Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes.

     Decorating a method with ‘@final’ indicates to a type checker that
     the method cannot be overridden in a subclass.  Decorating a class
     with ‘@final’ indicates that it cannot be subclassed.

     For example:

          class Base:
              @final
              def done(self) -> None:
                  ...
          class Sub(Base):
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

          @final
          class Leaf:
              ...
          class Other(Leaf):  # Error reported by type checker
              ...

     There is no runtime checking of these properties.  See PEP 591(4)
     for more details.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The decorator will now attempt to set a
     ‘__final__’ attribute to ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a
     check like ‘if getattr(obj, "__final__", False)’ can be used at
     runtime to determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as
     final.  If the decorated object does not support setting
     attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without
     raising an exception.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.no_type_check

     Decorator to indicate that annotations are not type hints.

     This works as a class or function *note decorator: 559.  With a
     class, it applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in
     that class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or
     subclasses).  Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a
     function or class with this decorator.

     ‘@no_type_check’ mutates the decorated object in place.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.no_type_check_decorator

     Decorator to give another decorator the *note no_type_check(): 4cc.
     effect.

     This wraps the decorator with something that wraps the decorated
     function in *note no_type_check(): 4cc.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.override

     Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to
     override a method or attribute in a superclass.

     Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with
     ‘@override’ does not, in fact, override anything.  This helps
     prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an
     equivalent change to a child class.

     For example:

          class Base:
              def log_status(self) -> None:
                  ...

          class Sub(Base):
              @override
              def log_status(self) -> None:  # Okay: overrides Base.log_status
                  ...

              @override
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

     There is no runtime checking of this property.

     The decorator will attempt to set an ‘__override__’ attribute to
     ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a check like ‘if
     getattr(obj, "__override__", False)’ can be used at runtime to
     determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as an override.
     If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the
     decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an
     exception.

     See PEP 698(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: @typing.type_check_only

     Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime.

     This decorator is itself not available at runtime.  It is mainly
     intended to mark classes that are defined in type stub files if an
     implementation returns an instance of a private class:

          @type_check_only
          class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
              code: int
              def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...

          def fetch_response() -> Response: ...

     Note that returning instances of private classes is not
     recommended.  It is usually preferable to make such classes public.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection helpers,  Next: Constant,  Prev: Functions and decorators,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.26.1.21 Introspection helpers
...............................

 -- Işlevi: typing.get_type_hints (obj, globalns=None, localns=None,
          include_extras=False)

     Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method,
     module or class object.

     This is often the same as ‘obj.__annotations__’, but this function
     makes the following changes to the annotations dictionary:

        * Forward references encoded as string literals or *note
          ForwardRef: 166a. objects are handled by evaluating them in
          'globalns', 'localns', and (where applicable) 'obj'’s *note
          type parameter: 16c. namespace.  If 'globalns' or 'localns' is
          not given, appropriate namespace dictionaries are inferred
          from 'obj'.

        * ‘None’ is replaced with *note types.NoneType: 691.

        * If *note @no_type_check: 4cc. has been applied to 'obj', an
          empty dictionary is returned.

        * If 'obj' is a class ‘C’, the function returns a dictionary
          that merges annotations from ‘C’’s base classes with those on
          ‘C’ directly.  This is done by traversing *note C.__mro__:
          1d17. and iteratively combining ‘__annotations__’
          dictionaries.  Annotations on classes appearing earlier in the
          *note method resolution order: 1f71. always take precedence
          over annotations on classes appearing later in the method
          resolution order.

        * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of
          ‘Annotated[T, ...]’ with ‘T’, unless 'include_extras' is set
          to ‘True’ (see *note Annotated: 796. for more information).

     See also *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f, a lower-level
     function that returns annotations more directly.

          Not: If any forward references in the annotations of 'obj' are
          not resolvable or are not valid Python code, this function
          will raise an exception such as *note NameError: 14a.  For
          example, this can happen with imported *note type aliases:
          165. that include forward references, or with names imported
          under *note if TYPE_CHECKING: b78.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘include_extras’ parameter as part of
     PEP 593(1).  See the documentation on *note Annotated: 796. for
     more information.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, ‘Optional[t]’ was added for
     function and method annotations if a default value equal to ‘None’
     was set.  Now the annotation is returned unchanged.

 -- Işlevi: typing.get_origin (tp)

     Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the
     form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘X’.

     If ‘X’ is a typing-module alias for a builtin or *note collections:
     1d. class, it will be normalized to the original class.  If ‘X’ is
     an instance of *note ParamSpecArgs: 5fd. or *note ParamSpecKwargs:
     5fe, return the underlying *note ParamSpec: 169.  Return ‘None’ for
     unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_origin(str) is None
          assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
          assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
          assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
          P = ParamSpec('P')
          assert get_origin(P.args) is P
          assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: typing.get_args (tp)

     Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing
     object of the form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘(Y, Z, ...)’.

     If ‘X’ is a union or *note Literal: 694. contained in another
     generic type, the order of ‘(Y, Z, ...)’ may be different from the
     order of the original arguments ‘[Y, Z, ...]’ due to type caching.
     Return ‘()’ for unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_args(int) == ()
          assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str)
          assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str)

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: typing.is_typeddict (tp)

     Check if a type is a *note TypedDict: 159.

     For example:

          class Film(TypedDict):
              title: str
              year: int

          assert is_typeddict(Film)
          assert not is_typeddict(list | str)

          # TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts,
          # not a typed dict itself
          assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.ForwardRef

     Class used for internal typing representation of string forward
     references.

     For example, ‘List["SomeClass"]’ is implicitly transformed into
     ‘List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’.  ‘ForwardRef’ should not be
     instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools.

          Not: PEP 585(2) generic types such as ‘list["SomeClass"]’ will
          not be implicitly transformed into
          ‘list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’ and thus will not
          automatically resolve to ‘list[SomeClass]’.

     Added in version 3.7.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Constant,  Next: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: Introspection helpers,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.26.1.22 Constant
..................

 -- Verisi: typing.TYPE_CHECKING

     A special constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by 3rd party static
     type checkers.  It is ‘False’ at runtime.

     Usage:

          if TYPE_CHECKING:
              import expensive_mod

          def fun(arg: 'expensive_mod.SomeType') -> None:
              local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()

     The first type annotation must be enclosed in quotes, making it a
     “forward reference”, to hide the ‘expensive_mod’ reference from the
     interpreter runtime.  Type annotations for local variables are not
     evaluated, so the second annotation does not need to be enclosed in
     quotes.

          Not: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used,
          annotations are not evaluated at function definition time.
          Instead, they are stored as strings in ‘__annotations__’.
          This makes it unnecessary to use quotes around the annotation
          (see PEP 563(1)).

     Added in version 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: Constant,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.26.1.23 Deprecated aliases
............................

This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing standard
library classes.  These were originally included in the typing module in
order to support parameterizing these generic classes using ‘[]’.
However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the
corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support ‘[]’ (see
PEP 585(1)).

The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9.  However, while the
aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is not
currently planned.  As such, no deprecation warnings are currently
issued by the interpreter for these aliases.

If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a
deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two
releases prior to removal.  The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the
typing module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.

Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the
program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9 or
newer.

* Menu:

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to built-in types,  Next: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.24 Aliases to built-in types
...................................

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Dict (dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note dict: 240.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Mapping: 71c. rather than to use
     *note dict: 240. or ‘typing.Dict’.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note builtins.dict: 240. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Genel Takma
     Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.List (list, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note list: 422.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Sequence: 1069. or *note Iterable:
     2041. rather than to use *note list: 422. or ‘typing.List’.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note builtins.list: 422. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Genel Takma
     Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Set (set, MutableSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.set: 3e4.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note collections.abc.Set: 2039. rather
     than to use *note set: 3e4. or *note typing.Set: 3d30.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note builtins.set: 3e4. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Genel Takma
     Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.FrozenSet (frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.frozenset: 3e5.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note builtins.frozenset: 3e5.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Genel
     Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Verisi: typing.Tuple

     Deprecated alias for *note tuple: 4ff.

     *note tuple: 4ff. and ‘Tuple’ are special-cased in the type system;
     see *note Annotating tuples: 3cf3. for more details.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note builtins.tuple: 4ff. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Genel Takma
     Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Type (Generic[CT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note type: bd1.

     See *note The type of class objects: 3cf6. for details on using
     *note type: bd1. or ‘typing.Type’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note builtins.type: bd1. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note Genel Takma
     Ad Türü: 4c9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to types in collections,  Next: Aliases to other concrete types,  Prev: Aliases to built-in types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.25 Aliases to types in ‘collections’
...........................................

 -- Sınıfı: typing.DefaultDict (collections.defaultdict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.defaultdict: 1062.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.defaultdict:
     1062. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.OrderedDict (collections.OrderedDict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6.

     Added in version 3.7.2.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.OrderedDict:
     3e6. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.ChainMap (collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT,
          VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.ChainMap: a95.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.ChainMap: a95.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Genel
     Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Counter (collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.Counter: f3c.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.Counter: f3c.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Genel
     Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Deque (deque, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.deque: 3e7.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.deque: 3e7.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Genel
     Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other concrete types,  Next: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.26 Aliases to other concrete types
.........................................

     Deprecated since version 3.8, will be removed in version 3.13: The
     ‘typing.io’ namespace is deprecated and will be removed.  These
     types should be directly imported from ‘typing’ instead.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Pattern
 -- Sınıfı: typing.Match

     Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from *note
     re.compile(): a4a. and *note re.match(): 10d4.

     These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over
     *note AnyStr: 3d00.  ‘Pattern’ can be specialised as ‘Pattern[str]’
     or ‘Pattern[bytes]’; ‘Match’ can be specialised as ‘Match[str]’ or
     ‘Match[bytes]’.

     Deprecated since version 3.8, will be removed in version 3.13: The
     ‘typing.re’ namespace is deprecated and will be removed.  These
     types should be directly imported from ‘typing’ instead.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Classes ‘Pattern’ and ‘Match’
     from *note re: b8. now support ‘[]’.  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Text

     Deprecated alias for *note str: 15d.

     ‘Text’ is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2
     code: in Python 2, ‘Text’ is an alias for ‘unicode’.

     Use ‘Text’ to indicate that a value must contain a unicode string
     in a manner that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3:

          def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
              return text + u' \u2713'

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Python 2 is no longer
     supported, and most type checkers also no longer support type
     checking Python 2 code.  Removal of the alias is not currently
     planned, but users are encouraged to use *note str: 15d. instead of
     ‘Text’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to other concrete types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.27 Aliases to container ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
........................................................

 -- Sınıfı: typing.AbstractSet (Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Set: 2039.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Set: 2039.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Genel
     Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.ByteString (Sequence[int])

     This type represents the types *note bytes: 2cb, *note bytearray:
     2ca, and *note memoryview: 185. of byte sequences.

     Deprecated since version 3.9, will be removed in version 3.14:
     Prefer *note collections.abc.Buffer: 176, or a union like ‘bytes |
     bytearray | memoryview’.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Collection (Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Collection: b08.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.Collection: b08. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).
     See PEP 585(2) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Container (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Container: 2043.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Container:
     2043. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.ItemsView (MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co,
          VT_co]])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 2047.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.ItemsView:
     2047. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.KeysView (MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.KeysView: 2046.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.KeysView:
     2046. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Mapping (Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Mapping: 71c.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Mapping:
     71c. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.MappingView (Sized)

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MappingView: 2045.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.MappingView: 2045. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(7) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.MutableMapping (Mapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: f51.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: f51. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(8) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.MutableSequence (Sequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: c62.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.MutableSequence: c62. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(9) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.MutableSet (AbstractSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 2044.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.MutableSet: 2044. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).
     See PEP 585(10) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Sequence (Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     1069. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(11) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.ValuesView (MappingView, Collection[_VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 2048.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.ValuesView: 2048. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).
     See PEP 585(12) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.28 Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
...........................................................

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Coroutine (Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Coroutine: c6b.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 231d. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Coroutine: c6b. and
     ‘typing.Coroutine’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Coroutine:
     c6b. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.AsyncGenerator (AsyncIterator[YieldType],
          Generic[YieldType, SendType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: b0a.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 231d. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: b0a. and
     ‘typing.AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: b0a. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.AsyncIterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: c6d.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.AsyncIterable: c6d. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.AsyncIterator (AsyncIterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: c6c.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.AsyncIterator: c6c. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Awaitable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Awaitable: c6a.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Awaitable:
     c6a. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.29 Aliases to other ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
....................................................

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Iterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterable: 2041.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Iterable:
     2041. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Iterator (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterator: 2042.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Iterator:
     2042. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Verisi: typing.Callable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Callable: 624.

     See *note Annotating callable objects: 231c. for details on how to
     use *note collections.abc.Callable: 624. and ‘typing.Callable’ in
     type annotations.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Callable:
     624. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec:
     169. and *note Concatenate: 5fb.  See PEP 612(4) for more details.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Generator (Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Generator: c69.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 231d. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Generator: c69. and
     ‘typing.Generator’ in type annotations.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note collections.abc.Generator:
     c69. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note
     Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Hashable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Hashable: 244.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note
     collections.abc.Hashable: 244. directly instead.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Reversible (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Reversible: b09.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     collections.abc.Reversible: b09. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).
     See PEP 585(6) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.Sized

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sized: 245.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note
     collections.abc.Sized: 245. directly instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.26.1.30 Aliases to ‘contextlib’ ABCs
......................................

 -- Sınıfı: typing.ContextManager (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: b0e.

     Added in version 3.5.4.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     contextlib.AbstractContextManager: b0e. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü: 4c9.

 -- Sınıfı: typing.AsyncContextManager (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager:
     99b.

     Added in version 3.6.2.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note
     contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: 99b. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Genel Takma Ad Türü:
     4c9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: Module contents<3>,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.26.1.31 Deprecation Timeline of Major Features
................................................

Certain features in ‘typing’ are deprecated and may be removed in a
future version of Python.  The following table summarizes major
deprecations for your convenience.  This is subject to change, and not
all deprecations are listed.

Feature                       Deprecated in                 Projected removal             PEP/issue
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’   3.8                           3.13                          bpo-38291(1)
submodules                                                                                

‘typing’ versions of          3.9                           Undecided (see                PEP 585(2)
standard collections                                        *note Deprecated aliases: 3d2a.
                                                            for more information)
                                                            
                                                                                          
*note typing.ByteString: 246. 3.9                           3.14                          gh-91896(3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Text: 281.       3.11                          Undecided                     gh-92332(4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Hashable: 242.   3.12                          Undecided                     gh-94309(5)
and                                                                                       
*note typing.Sized: 243.

*note typing.TypeAlias: 600.  3.12                          Undecided                     PEP 695(6)
                                                                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system,  Next: Python Development Mode,  Prev: typing — Support for type hints,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.2 ‘pydoc’ — Documentation generator and online help system
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pydoc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pydoc’ module automatically generates documentation from Python
modules.  The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the
console, served to a web browser, or saved to HTML files.

For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation
is derived from the docstring (i.e.  the *note __doc__: 781. attribute)
of the object, and recursively of its documentable members.  If there is
no docstring, ‘pydoc’ tries to obtain a description from the block of
comment lines just above the definition of the class, function or method
in the source file, or at the top of the module (see *note
inspect.getcomments(): 3d5d.).

The built-in function *note help(): 72a. invokes the online help system
in the interactive interpreter, which uses ‘pydoc’ to generate its
documentation as text on the console.  The same text documentation can
also be viewed from outside the Python interpreter by running ‘pydoc’ as
a script at the operating system’s command prompt.  For example, running

     python -m pydoc sys

at a shell prompt will display documentation on the *note sys: d8.
module, in a style similar to the manual pages shown by the Unix ‘man’
command.  The argument to ‘pydoc’ can be the name of a function, module,
or package, or a dotted reference to a class, method, or function within
a module or module in a package.  If the argument to ‘pydoc’ looks like
a path (that is, it contains the path separator for your operating
system, such as a slash in Unix), and refers to an existing Python
source file, then documentation is produced for that file.

     Not: In order to find objects and their documentation, ‘pydoc’
     imports the module(s) to be documented.  Therefore, any code on
     module level will be executed on that occasion.  Use an ‘if
     __name__ == '__main__':’ guard to only execute code when a file is
     invoked as a script and not just imported.

When printing output to the console, ‘pydoc’ attempts to paginate the
output for easier reading.  If either the ‘MANPAGER’ or the ‘PAGER’
environment variable is set, ‘pydoc’ will use its value as a pagination
program.  When both are set, ‘MANPAGER’ is used.

Specifying a ‘-w’ flag before the argument will cause HTML documentation
to be written out to a file in the current directory, instead of
displaying text on the console.

Specifying a ‘-k’ flag before the argument will search the synopsis
lines of all available modules for the keyword given as the argument,
again in a manner similar to the Unix ‘man’ command.  The synopsis line
of a module is the first line of its documentation string.

You can also use ‘pydoc’ to start an HTTP server on the local machine
that will serve documentation to visiting web browsers.  ‘python -m
pydoc -p 1234’ will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to
browse the documentation at ‘http://localhost:1234/’ in your preferred
web browser.  Specifying ‘0’ as the port number will select an arbitrary
unused port.

‘python -m pydoc -n <hostname>’ will start the server listening at the
given hostname.  By default the hostname is ‘localhost’ but if you want
the server to be reached from other machines, you may want to change the
host name that the server responds to.  During development this is
especially useful if you want to run pydoc from within a container.

‘python -m pydoc -b’ will start the server and additionally open a web
browser to a module index page.  Each served page has a navigation bar
at the top where you can 'Get' help on an individual item, 'Search' all
modules with a keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the 'Module
index', 'Topics' and 'Keywords' pages.

When ‘pydoc’ generates documentation, it uses the current environment
and path to locate modules.  Thus, invoking ‘pydoc spam’ documents
precisely the version of the module you would get if you started the
Python interpreter and typed ‘import spam’.

Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in
‘https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/’ where ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are the major
and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter.  This can be
overridden by setting the ‘PYTHONDOCS’ environment variable to a
different URL or to a local directory containing the Library Reference
Manual pages.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘-b’ option.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: The ‘-g’ command line option was removed.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: ‘pydoc’ now uses *note inspect.signature(): 561.
rather than *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 562. to extract signature
information from callables.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘-n’ option.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pydoc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Python Development Mode,  Next: doctest — Test interactive Python examples,  Prev: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.3 Python Development Mode
------------------------------

Added in version 3.7.

The Python Development Mode introduces additional runtime checks that
are too expensive to be enabled by default.  It should not be more
verbose than the default if the code is correct; new warnings are only
emitted when an issue is detected.

It can be enabled using the *note -X dev: 18e. command line option or by
setting the *note PYTHONDEVMODE: 95b. environment variable to ‘1’.

See also *note Python debug build: 6b9.

* Menu:

* Effects of the Python Development Mode::
* ResourceWarning Example::
* Bad file descriptor error example::


File: python.info,  Node: Effects of the Python Development Mode,  Next: ResourceWarning Example,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.26.3.1 Effects of the Python Development Mode
...............................................

Enabling the Python Development Mode is similar to the following
command, but with additional effects described below:

     PYTHONMALLOC=debug PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG=1 python -W default -X faulthandler

Effects of the Python Development Mode:

   * Add ‘default’ *note warning filter: 1b83.  The following warnings
     are shown:

        * *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.

        * *note ImportWarning: 24e.

        * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.

        * *note ResourceWarning: ab9.

     Normally, the above warnings are filtered by the default *note
     warning filters: 1b83.

     It behaves as if the *note -W default: 71a. command line option is
     used.

     Use the *note -W error: 71a. command line option or set the *note
     PYTHONWARNINGS: a21. environment variable to ‘error’ to treat
     warnings as errors.

   * Install debug hooks on memory allocators to check for:

        * Buffer underflow

        * Buffer overflow

        * Memory allocator API violation

        * Unsafe usage of the GIL

     See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. C function.

     It behaves as if the *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable
     is set to ‘debug’.

     To enable the Python Development Mode without installing debug
     hooks on memory allocators, set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2.
     environment variable to ‘default’.

   * Call *note faulthandler.enable(): b21. at Python startup to install
     handlers for the *note SIGSEGV: 1b90, *note SIGFPE: 1b91, *note
     SIGABRT: 1b92, *note SIGBUS: 1b93. and *note SIGILL: 1b94. signals
     to dump the Python traceback on a crash.

     It behaves as if the *note -X faulthandler: 18e. command line
     option is used or if the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f2a. environment
     variable is set to ‘1’.

   * Enable *note asyncio debug mode: 1b96.  For example, *note asyncio:
     a. checks for coroutines that were not awaited and logs them.

     It behaves as if the *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1b95. environment
     variable is set to ‘1’.

   * Check the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments for string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 2a6, *note
     str.encode(): 728. and *note bytes.decode(): 729.

     By default, for best performance, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   * The *note io.IOBase: 85b. destructor logs ‘close()’ exceptions.

   * Set the *note dev_mode: 18e5. attribute of *note sys.flags: 4a1. to
     ‘True’.

The Python Development Mode does not enable the *note tracemalloc: ff.
module by default, because the overhead cost (to performance and memory)
would be too large.  Enabling the *note tracemalloc: ff. module provides
additional information on the origin of some errors.  For example, *note
ResourceWarning: ab9. logs the traceback where the resource was
allocated, and a buffer overflow error logs the traceback where the
memory block was allocated.

The Python Development Mode does not prevent the *note -O: c42. command
line option from removing *note assert: 7c4. statements nor from setting
*note __debug__: 614. to ‘False’.

The Python Development Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.
Its value can be read from *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 4a1.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: The *note io.IOBase: 85b. destructor now logs
‘close()’ exceptions.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments are now
checked for string encoding and decoding operations.


File: python.info,  Node: ResourceWarning Example,  Next: Bad file descriptor error example,  Prev: Effects of the Python Development Mode,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.26.3.2 ResourceWarning Example
................................

Example of a script counting the number of lines of the text file
specified in the command line:

     import sys

     def main():
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])
         nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)
         # The file is closed implicitly

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

The script does not close the file explicitly.  By default, Python does
not emit any warning.  Example using README.txt, which has 269 lines:

     $ python script.py README.txt
     269

Enabling the Python Development Mode displays a *note ResourceWarning:
ab9. warning:

     $ python -X dev script.py README.txt
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback

In addition, enabling *note tracemalloc: ff. shows the line where the
file was opened:

     $ python -X dev -X tracemalloc=5 script.py README.rst
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     Object allocated at (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", lineno 10
         main()
       File "script.py", lineno 4
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])

The fix is to close explicitly the file.  Example using a context
manager:

     def main():
         # Close the file explicitly when exiting the with block
         with open(sys.argv[1]) as fp:
             nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)

Not closing a resource explicitly can leave a resource open for way
longer than expected; it can cause severe issues upon exiting Python.
It is bad in CPython, but it is even worse in PyPy.  Closing resources
explicitly makes an application more deterministic and more reliable.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad file descriptor error example,  Prev: ResourceWarning Example,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.26.3.3 Bad file descriptor error example
..........................................

Script displaying the first line of itself:

     import os

     def main():
         fp = open(__file__)
         firstline = fp.readline()
         print(firstline.rstrip())
         os.close(fp.fileno())
         # The file is closed implicitly

     main()

By default, Python does not emit any warning:

     $ python script.py
     import os

The Python Development Mode shows a *note ResourceWarning: ab9. and logs
a “Bad file descriptor” error when finalizing the file object:

     $ python -X dev script.py
     import os
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback
     Exception ignored in: <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", line 10, in <module>
         main()
     OSError: [Errno 9] Bad file descriptor

‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ closes the file descriptor.  When the file
object finalizer tries to close the file descriptor again, it fails with
the ‘Bad file descriptor’ error.  A file descriptor must be closed only
once.  In the worst case scenario, closing it twice can lead to a crash
(see bpo-18748(1) for an example).

The fix is to remove the ‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ line, or open the file
with ‘closefd=False’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: doctest — Test interactive Python examples,  Next: unittest — Unit testing framework,  Prev: Python Development Mode,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.4 ‘doctest’ — Test interactive Python examples
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/doctest.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note doctest: 39. module searches for pieces of text that look like
interactive Python sessions, and then executes those sessions to verify
that they work exactly as shown.  There are several common ways to use
doctest:

   * To check that a module’s docstrings are up-to-date by verifying
     that all interactive examples still work as documented.

   * To perform regression testing by verifying that interactive
     examples from a test file or a test object work as expected.

   * To write tutorial documentation for a package, liberally
     illustrated with input-output examples.  Depending on whether the
     examples or the expository text are emphasized, this has the flavor
     of “literate testing” or “executable documentation”.

Here’s a complete but small example module:

     """
     This is the "example" module.

     The example module supplies one function, factorial().  For example,

     >>> factorial(5)
     120
     """

     def factorial(n):
         """Return the factorial of n, an exact integer >= 0.

         >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
         >>> factorial(30)
         265252859812191058636308480000000
         >>> factorial(-1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be >= 0

         Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer:
         >>> factorial(30.1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be exact integer
         >>> factorial(30.0)
         265252859812191058636308480000000

         It must also not be ridiculously large:
         >>> factorial(1e100)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
         """

         import math
         if not n >= 0:
             raise ValueError("n must be >= 0")
         if math.floor(n) != n:
             raise ValueError("n must be exact integer")
         if n+1 == n:  # catch a value like 1e300
             raise OverflowError("n too large")
         result = 1
         factor = 2
         while factor <= n:
             result *= factor
             factor += 1
         return result


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

If you run ‘example.py’ directly from the command line, *note doctest:
39. works its magic:

     $ python example.py
     $

There’s no output!  That’s normal, and it means all the examples worked.
Pass ‘-v’ to the script, and *note doctest: 39. prints a detailed log of
what it’s trying, and prints a summary at the end:

     $ python example.py -v
     Trying:
         factorial(5)
     Expecting:
         120
     ok
     Trying:
         [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     Expecting:
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     ok

And so on, eventually ending with:

     Trying:
         factorial(1e100)
     Expecting:
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
     ok
     2 items passed all tests:
        1 tests in __main__
        8 tests in __main__.factorial
     9 tests in 2 items.
     9 passed and 0 failed.
     Test passed.
     $

That’s all you need to know to start making productive use of *note
doctest: 39.!  Jump in.  The following sections provide full details.
Note that there are many examples of doctests in the standard Python
test suite and libraries.  Especially useful examples can be found in
the standard test file ‘Lib/test/test_doctest/test_doctest.py’.

* Menu:

* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings.
* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File.
* Command-line Usage::
* How It Works::
* Basic API::
* Unittest API::
* Advanced API::
* Debugging::
* Soapbox::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/doctest.py


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings,  Next: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.1 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings
......................................................

The simplest way to start using doctest (but not necessarily the way
you’ll continue to do it) is to end each module ‘M’ with:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

‘doctest’ then examines docstrings in module ‘M’.

Running the module as a script causes the examples in the docstrings to
get executed and verified:

     python M.py

This won’t display anything unless an example fails, in which case the
failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to
stdout, and the final line of output is ‘***Test Failed*** N failures.’,
where 'N' is the number of examples that failed.

Run it with the ‘-v’ switch instead:

     python M.py -v

and a detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard
output, along with assorted summaries at the end.

You can force verbose mode by passing ‘verbose=True’ to *note testmod():
12f5, or prohibit it by passing ‘verbose=False’.  In either of those
cases, ‘sys.argv’ is not examined by *note testmod(): 12f5. (so passing
‘-v’ or not has no effect).

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testmod(): 12f5,
see section *note Command-line Usage: 3d67.

For more information on *note testmod(): 12f5, see section *note Basic
API: 3d68.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Next: Command-line Usage,  Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.2 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File
.......................................................

Another simple application of doctest is testing interactive examples in
a text file.  This can be done with the *note testfile(): 3d6b.
function:

     import doctest
     doctest.testfile("example.txt")

That short script executes and verifies any interactive Python examples
contained in the file ‘example.txt’.  The file content is treated as if
it were a single giant docstring; the file doesn’t need to contain a
Python program!  For example, perhaps ‘example.txt’ contains this:

     The ``example`` module
     ======================

     Using ``factorial``
     -------------------

     This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
     ``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:

         >>> from example import factorial

     Now use it:

         >>> factorial(6)
         120

Running ‘doctest.testfile("example.txt")’ then finds the error in this
documentation:

     File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt
     Failed example:
         factorial(6)
     Expected:
         120
     Got:
         720

As with *note testmod(): 12f5, *note testfile(): 3d6b. won’t display
anything unless an example fails.  If an example does fail, then the
failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to
stdout, using the same format as *note testmod(): 12f5.

By default, *note testfile(): 3d6b. looks for files in the calling
module’s directory.  See section *note Basic API: 3d68. for a
description of the optional arguments that can be used to tell it to
look for files in other locations.

Like *note testmod(): 12f5, *note testfile(): 3d6b.’s verbosity can be
set with the ‘-v’ command-line switch or with the optional keyword
argument 'verbose'.

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testfile():
3d6b, see section *note Command-line Usage: 3d67.

For more information on *note testfile(): 3d6b, see section *note Basic
API: 3d68.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line Usage,  Next: How It Works,  Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.3 Command-line Usage
...........................

The *note doctest: 39. module can be invoked as a script from the
command line:

     python -m doctest [-v] [-o OPTION] [-f] file [file ...]

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard
     output, along with assorted summaries at the end:

          python -m doctest -v example.py

     This will import ‘example.py’ as a standalone module and run *note
     testmod(): 12f5. on it.  Note that this may not work correctly if
     the file is part of a package and imports other submodules from
     that package.

     If the file name does not end with ‘.py’, ‘doctest’ infers that it
     must be run with *note testfile(): 3d6b. instead:

          python -m doctest -v example.txt

 -- Option: -o, --option <option>

     Option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior, see
     section *note Option Flags: dd3.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Option: -f, --fail-fast

     This is shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: How It Works,  Next: Basic API,  Prev: Command-line Usage,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.4 How It Works
.....................

This section examines in detail how doctest works: which docstrings it
looks at, how it finds interactive examples, what execution context it
uses, how it handles exceptions, and how option flags can be used to
control its behavior.  This is the information that you need to know to
write doctest examples; for information about actually running doctest
on these examples, see the following sections.

* Menu:

* Which Docstrings Are Examined?::
* How are Docstring Examples Recognized?::
* What’s the Execution Context?::
* What About Exceptions?::
* Option Flags::
* Directives::
* Warnings::


File: python.info,  Node: Which Docstrings Are Examined?,  Next: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.5 Which Docstrings Are Examined?
.......................................

The module docstring, and all function, class and method docstrings are
searched.  Objects imported into the module are not searched.

In addition, there are cases when you want tests to be part of a module
but not part of the help text, which requires that the tests not be
included in the docstring.  Doctest looks for a module-level variable
called ‘__test__’ and uses it to locate other tests.  If ‘M.__test__’
exists, it must be a dict, and each entry maps a (string) name to a
function object, class object, or string.  Function and class object
docstrings found from ‘M.__test__’ are searched, and strings are treated
as if they were docstrings.  In output, a key ‘K’ in ‘M.__test__’
appears with name ‘M.__test__.K’.

For example, place this block of code at the top of ‘example.py’:

     __test__ = {
         'numbers': """
     >>> factorial(6)
     720

     >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     """
     }

The value of ‘example.__test__["numbers"]’ will be treated as a
docstring and all the tests inside it will be run.  It is important to
note that the value can be mapped to a function, class object, or
module; if so, ‘doctest’ searches them recursively for docstrings, which
are then scanned for tests.

Any classes found are recursively searched similarly, to test docstrings
in their contained methods and nested classes.


File: python.info,  Node: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Next: What’s the Execution Context?,  Prev: Which Docstrings Are Examined?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.6 How are Docstring Examples Recognized?
...............................................

In most cases a copy-and-paste of an interactive console session works
fine, but doctest isn’t trying to do an exact emulation of any specific
Python shell.

     >>> # comments are ignored
     >>> x = 12
     >>> x
     12
     >>> if x == 13:
     ...     print("yes")
     ... else:
     ...     print("no")
     ...     print("NO")
     ...     print("NO!!!")
     ...
     no
     NO
     NO!!!
     >>>

Any expected output must immediately follow the final ‘'>>> '’ or ‘'...
'’ line containing the code, and the expected output (if any) extends to
the next ‘'>>> '’ or all-whitespace line.

The fine print:

   * Expected output cannot contain an all-whitespace line, since such a
     line is taken to signal the end of expected output.  If expected
     output does contain a blank line, put ‘<BLANKLINE>’ in your doctest
     example each place a blank line is expected.

   * All hard tab characters are expanded to spaces, using 8-column tab
     stops.  Tabs in output generated by the tested code are not
     modified.  Because any hard tabs in the sample output 'are'
     expanded, this means that if the code output includes hard tabs,
     the only way the doctest can pass is if the *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3d79. option or *note directive: 3d7a. is in
     effect.  Alternatively, the test can be rewritten to capture the
     output and compare it to an expected value as part of the test.
     This handling of tabs in the source was arrived at through trial
     and error, and has proven to be the least error prone way of
     handling them.  It is possible to use a different algorithm for
     handling tabs by writing a custom *note DocTestParser: 3d7b. class.

   * Output to stdout is captured, but not output to stderr (exception
     tracebacks are captured via a different means).

   * If you continue a line via backslashing in an interactive session,
     or for any other reason use a backslash, you should use a raw
     docstring, which will preserve your backslashes exactly as you type
     them:

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

     Otherwise, the backslash will be interpreted as part of the string.
     For example, the ‘\n’ above would be interpreted as a newline
     character.  Alternatively, you can double each backslash in the
     doctest version (and not use a raw string):

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

   * The starting column doesn’t matter:

          >>> assert "Easy!"
                >>> import math
                    >>> math.floor(1.9)
                    1

     and as many leading whitespace characters are stripped from the
     expected output as appeared in the initial ‘'>>> '’ line that
     started the example.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s the Execution Context?,  Next: What About Exceptions?,  Prev: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.7 What’s the Execution Context?
......................................

By default, each time *note doctest: 39. finds a docstring to test, it
uses a 'shallow copy' of ‘M’’s globals, so that running tests doesn’t
change the module’s real globals, and so that one test in ‘M’ can’t
leave behind crumbs that accidentally allow another test to work.  This
means examples can freely use any names defined at top-level in ‘M’, and
names defined earlier in the docstring being run.  Examples cannot see
names defined in other docstrings.

You can force use of your own dict as the execution context by passing
‘globs=your_dict’ to *note testmod(): 12f5. or *note testfile(): 3d6b.
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: What About Exceptions?,  Next: Option Flags,  Prev: What’s the Execution Context?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.8 What About Exceptions?
...............................

No problem, provided that the traceback is the only output produced by
the example: just paste in the traceback.  (1)  Since tracebacks contain
details that are likely to change rapidly (for example, exact file paths
and line numbers), this is one case where doctest works hard to be
flexible in what it accepts.

Simple example:

     >>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

That doctest succeeds if *note ValueError: 189. is raised, with the
‘list.remove(x): x not in list’ detail as shown.

The expected output for an exception must start with a traceback header,
which may be either of the following two lines, indented the same as the
first line of the example:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
     Traceback (innermost last):

The traceback header is followed by an optional traceback stack, whose
contents are ignored by doctest.  The traceback stack is typically
omitted, or copied verbatim from an interactive session.

The traceback stack is followed by the most interesting part: the
line(s) containing the exception type and detail.  This is usually the
last line of a traceback, but can extend across multiple lines if the
exception has a multi-line detail:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

The last three lines (starting with *note ValueError: 189.) are compared
against the exception’s type and detail, and the rest are ignored.

Best practice is to omit the traceback stack, unless it adds significant
documentation value to the example.  So the last example is probably
better as:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

Note that tracebacks are treated very specially.  In particular, in the
rewritten example, the use of ‘...’ is independent of doctest’s *note
ELLIPSIS: 12f6. option.  The ellipsis in that example could be left out,
or could just as well be three (or three hundred) commas or digits, or
an indented transcript of a Monty Python skit.

Some details you should read once, but won’t need to remember:

   * Doctest can’t guess whether your expected output came from an
     exception traceback or from ordinary printing.  So, e.g., an
     example that expects ‘ValueError: 42 is prime’ will pass whether
     *note ValueError: 189. is actually raised or if the example merely
     prints that traceback text.  In practice, ordinary output rarely
     begins with a traceback header line, so this doesn’t create real
     problems.

   * Each line of the traceback stack (if present) must be indented
     further than the first line of the example, 'or' start with a
     non-alphanumeric character.  The first line following the traceback
     header indented the same and starting with an alphanumeric is taken
     to be the start of the exception detail.  Of course this does the
     right thing for genuine tracebacks.

   * When the *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 11b3. doctest option is
     specified, everything following the leftmost colon and any module
     information in the exception name is ignored.

   * The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some
     *note SyntaxError: 14c.s.  But doctest uses the traceback header
     line to distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions.  So in the rare
     case where you need to test a *note SyntaxError: 14c. that omits
     the traceback header, you will need to manually add the traceback
     header line to your test example.

   * For some exceptions, Python displays the position of the error
     using ‘^’ markers and tildes:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ~~^~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

     Since the lines showing the position of the error come before the
     exception type and detail, they are not checked by doctest.  For
     example, the following test would pass, even though it puts the ‘^’
     marker in the wrong location:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ^~~~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Examples containing both expected output and an exception are not
supported.  Trying to guess where one ends and the other begins is too
error-prone, and that also makes for a confusing test.


File: python.info,  Node: Option Flags,  Next: Directives,  Prev: What About Exceptions?,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.9 Option Flags
.....................

A number of option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior.
Symbolic names for the flags are supplied as module constants, which can
be *note bitwise ORed: 1e60. together and passed to various functions.
The names can also be used in *note doctest directives: 3d7a, and may be
passed to the doctest command line interface via the ‘-o’ option.

The first group of options define test semantics, controlling aspects of
how doctest decides whether actual output matches an example’s expected
output:

 -- Verisi: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1

     By default, if an expected output block contains just ‘1’, an
     actual output block containing just ‘1’ or just ‘True’ is
     considered to be a match, and similarly for ‘0’ versus ‘False’.
     When *note DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1: 3d82. is specified, neither
     substitution is allowed.  The default behavior caters to that
     Python changed the return type of many functions from integer to
     boolean; doctests expecting “little integer” output still work in
     these cases.  This option will probably go away, but not for
     several years.

 -- Verisi: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE

     By default, if an expected output block contains a line containing
     only the string ‘<BLANKLINE>’, then that line will match a blank
     line in the actual output.  Because a genuinely blank line delimits
     the expected output, this is the only way to communicate that a
     blank line is expected.  When *note DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE: 3d83. is
     specified, this substitution is not allowed.

 -- Verisi: doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE

     When specified, all sequences of whitespace (blanks and newlines)
     are treated as equal.  Any sequence of whitespace within the
     expected output will match any sequence of whitespace within the
     actual output.  By default, whitespace must match exactly.  *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 3d79. is especially useful when a line of
     expected output is very long, and you want to wrap it across
     multiple lines in your source.

 -- Verisi: doctest.ELLIPSIS

     When specified, an ellipsis marker (‘...’) in the expected output
     can match any substring in the actual output.  This includes
     substrings that span line boundaries, and empty substrings, so it’s
     best to keep usage of this simple.  Complicated uses can lead to
     the same kinds of “oops, it matched too much!” surprises that ‘.*’
     is prone to in regular expressions.

 -- Verisi: doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL

     When specified, doctests expecting exceptions pass so long as an
     exception of the expected type is raised, even if the details
     (message and fully qualified exception name) don’t match.

     For example, an example expecting ‘ValueError: 42’ will pass if the
     actual exception raised is ‘ValueError: 3*14’, but will fail if,
     say, a *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised instead.  It will also
     ignore any fully qualified name included before the exception
     class, which can vary between implementations and versions of
     Python and the code/libraries in use.  Hence, all three of these
     variations will work with the flag specified:

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          builtins.Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          __main__.Exception: message

     Note that *note ELLIPSIS: 12f6. can also be used to ignore the
     details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail
     based on whether the module name is present or matches exactly.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 11b3. now
     also ignores any information relating to the module containing the
     exception under test.

 -- Verisi: doctest.SKIP

     When specified, do not run the example at all.  This can be useful
     in contexts where doctest examples serve as both documentation and
     test cases, and an example should be included for documentation
     purposes, but should not be checked.  E.g., the example’s output
     might be random; or the example might depend on resources which
     would be unavailable to the test driver.

     The SKIP flag can also be used for temporarily “commenting out”
     examples.

 -- Verisi: doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS

     A bitmask or’ing together all the comparison flags above.

The second group of options controls how test failures are reported:

 -- Verisi: doctest.REPORT_UDIFF

     When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and
     actual outputs are displayed using a unified diff.

 -- Verisi: doctest.REPORT_CDIFF

     When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and
     actual outputs will be displayed using a context diff.

 -- Verisi: doctest.REPORT_NDIFF

     When specified, differences are computed by ‘difflib.Differ’, using
     the same algorithm as the popular ‘ndiff.py’ utility.  This is the
     only method that marks differences within lines as well as across
     lines.  For example, if a line of expected output contains digit
     ‘1’ where actual output contains letter ‘l’, a line is inserted
     with a caret marking the mismatching column positions.

 -- Verisi: doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE

     When specified, display the first failing example in each doctest,
     but suppress output for all remaining examples.  This will prevent
     doctest from reporting correct examples that break because of
     earlier failures; but it might also hide incorrect examples that
     fail independently of the first failure.  When *note
     REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE: 3d86. is specified, the remaining
     examples are still run, and still count towards the total number of
     failures reported; only the output is suppressed.

 -- Verisi: doctest.FAIL_FAST

     When specified, exit after the first failing example and don’t
     attempt to run the remaining examples.  Thus, the number of
     failures reported will be at most 1.  This flag may be useful
     during debugging, since examples after the first failure won’t even
     produce debugging output.

 -- Verisi: doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS

     A bitmask or’ing together all the reporting flags above.

There is also a way to register new option flag names, though this isn’t
useful unless you intend to extend *note doctest: 39. internals via
subclassing:

 -- Işlevi: doctest.register_optionflag (name)

     Create a new option flag with a given name, and return the new
     flag’s integer value.  *note register_optionflag(): 3d88. can be
     used when subclassing *note OutputChecker: 3d89. or *note
     DocTestRunner: 3d8a. to create new options that are supported by
     your subclasses.  *note register_optionflag(): 3d88. should always
     be called using the following idiom:

          MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')


File: python.info,  Node: Directives,  Next: Warnings,  Prev: Option Flags,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.10 Directives
....................

Doctest directives may be used to modify the *note option flags: dd3.
for an individual example.  Doctest directives are special Python
comments following an example’s source code:

     directive             ::= "#" "doctest:" *note directive_options: 3d8d.
     directive_options     ::= *note directive_option: 3d8e. ("," *note directive_option: 3d8e.)*
     directive_option      ::= *note on_or_off: 3d8f. *note directive_option_name: 3d90.
     on_or_off             ::= "+" | "-"
     directive_option_name ::= "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" | "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" | ...

Whitespace is not allowed between the ‘+’ or ‘-’ and the directive
option name.  The directive option name can be any of the option flag
names explained above.

An example’s doctest directives modify doctest’s behavior for that
single example.  Use ‘+’ to enable the named behavior, or ‘-’ to disable
it.

For example, this test passes:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,
     10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]

Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output
doesn’t have two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and
because the actual output is on a single line.  This test also passes,
and also requires a directive to do so:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, 1, ..., 18, 19]

Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by
commas:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they
are combined:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     ...                         # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

As the previous example shows, you can add ‘...’ lines to your example
containing only directives.  This can be useful when an example is too
long for a directive to comfortably fit on the same line:

     >>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40)))
     ... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]

Note that since all options are disabled by default, and directives
apply only to the example they appear in, enabling options (via ‘+’ in a
directive) is usually the only meaningful choice.  However, option flags
can also be passed to functions that run doctests, establishing
different defaults.  In such cases, disabling an option via ‘-’ in a
directive can be useful.


File: python.info,  Node: Warnings,  Prev: Directives,  Up: How It Works

5.26.4.11 Warnings
..................

*note doctest: 39. is serious about requiring exact matches in expected
output.  If even a single character doesn’t match, the test fails.  This
will probably surprise you a few times, as you learn exactly what Python
does and doesn’t guarantee about output.  For example, when printing a
set, Python doesn’t guarantee that the element is printed in any
particular order, so a test like

     >>> foo()
     {"spam", "eggs"}

is vulnerable!  One workaround is to do

     >>> foo() == {"spam", "eggs"}
     True

instead.  Another is to do

     >>> d = sorted(foo())
     >>> d
     ['eggs', 'spam']

There are others, but you get the idea.

Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like

     >>> id(1.0)  # certain to fail some of the time
     7948648
     >>> class C: pass
     >>> C()  # the default repr() for instances embeds an address
     <C object at 0x00AC18F0>

The *note ELLIPSIS: 12f6. directive gives a nice approach for the last
example:

     >>> C()  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     <C object at 0x...>

Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations
across platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for
float formatting, and C libraries vary widely in quality here.

     >>> 1./7  # risky
     0.14285714285714285
     >>> print(1./7) # safer
     0.142857142857
     >>> print(round(1./7, 6)) # much safer
     0.142857

Numbers of the form ‘I/2.**J’ are safe across all platforms, and I often
contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form:

     >>> 3./4  # utterly safe
     0.75

Simple fractions are also easier for people to understand, and that
makes for better documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic API,  Next: Unittest API,  Prev: How It Works,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.12 Basic API
...................

The functions *note testmod(): 12f5. and *note testfile(): 3d6b. provide
a simple interface to doctest that should be sufficient for most basic
uses.  For a less formal introduction to these two functions, see
sections *note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: 3d65. and
*note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: 3d69.

 -- Işlevi: doctest.testfile (filename, module_relative=True, name=None,
          package=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True,
          optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False,
          parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     All arguments except 'filename' are optional, and should be
     specified in keyword form.

     Test examples in the file named 'filename'.  Return
     ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filename
     should be interpreted:

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then 'filename'
          specifies an OS-independent module-relative path.  By default,
          this path is relative to the calling module’s directory; but
          if the 'package' argument is specified, then it is relative to
          that package.  To ensure OS-independence, 'filename' should
          use ‘/’ characters to separate path segments, and may not be
          an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with ‘/’).

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then 'filename' specifies an
          OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or relative;
          relative paths are resolved with respect to the current
          working directory.

     Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the test; by default, or
     if ‘None’, ‘os.path.basename(filename)’ is used.

     Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a
     Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory
     for a module-relative filename.  If no package is specified, then
     the calling module’s directory is used as the base directory for
     module-relative filenames.  It is an error to specify 'package' if
     'module_relative' is ‘False’.

     Optional argument 'globs' gives a dict to be used as the globals
     when executing examples.  A new shallow copy of this dict is
     created for the doctest, so its examples start with a clean slate.
     By default, or if ‘None’, a new empty dict is used.

     Optional argument 'extraglobs' gives a dict merged into the globals
     used to execute examples.  This works like *note dict.update():
     12ed.: if 'globs' and 'extraglobs' have a common key, the
     associated value in 'extraglobs' appears in the combined dict.  By
     default, or if ‘None’, no extra globals are used.  This is an
     advanced feature that allows parameterization of doctests.  For
     example, a doctest can be written for a base class, using a generic
     name for the class, then reused to test any number of subclasses by
     passing an 'extraglobs' dict mapping the generic name to the
     subclass to be tested.

     Optional argument 'verbose' prints lots of stuff if true, and
     prints only failures if false; by default, or if ‘None’, it’s true
     if and only if ‘'-v'’ is in ‘sys.argv’.

     Optional argument 'report' prints a summary at the end when true,
     else prints nothing at the end.  In verbose mode, the summary is
     detailed, else the summary is very brief (in fact, empty if all
     tests passed).

     Optional argument 'optionflags' (default value 0) takes the *note
     bitwise OR: 1e60. of option flags.  See section *note Option Flags:
     dd3.

     Optional argument 'raise_on_error' defaults to false.  If true, an
     exception is raised upon the first failure or unexpected exception
     in an example.  This allows failures to be post-mortem debugged.
     Default behavior is to continue running examples.

     Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 3d7b.
     (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files.
     It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’).

     Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be
     used to convert the file to unicode.

 -- Işlevi: doctest.testmod (m=None, name=None, globs=None,
          verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None,
          raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False)

     All arguments are optional, and all except for 'm' should be
     specified in keyword form.

     Test examples in docstrings in functions and classes reachable from
     module 'm' (or module *note __main__: 1. if 'm' is not supplied or
     is ‘None’), starting with ‘m.__doc__’.

     Also test examples reachable from dict ‘m.__test__’, if it exists.
     ‘m.__test__’ maps names (strings) to functions, classes and
     strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples;
     strings are searched directly, as if they were docstrings.

     Only docstrings attached to objects belonging to module 'm' are
     searched.

     Return ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the module; by default,
     or if ‘None’, ‘m.__name__’ is used.

     Optional argument 'exclude_empty' defaults to false.  If true,
     objects for which no doctests are found are excluded from
     consideration.  The default is a backward compatibility hack, so
     that code still using *note doctest.master.summarize: 3d94. in
     conjunction with *note testmod(): 12f5. continues to get output for
     objects with no tests.  The 'exclude_empty' argument to the newer
     *note DocTestFinder: 147a. constructor defaults to true.

     Optional arguments 'extraglobs', 'verbose', 'report',
     'optionflags', 'raise_on_error', and 'globs' are the same as for
     function *note testfile(): 3d6b. above, except that 'globs'
     defaults to ‘m.__dict__’.

 -- Işlevi: doctest.run_docstring_examples (f, globs, verbose=False,
          name='NoName', compileflags=None, optionflags=0)

     Test examples associated with object 'f'; for example, 'f' may be a
     string, a module, a function, or a class object.

     A shallow copy of dictionary argument 'globs' is used for the
     execution context.

     Optional argument 'name' is used in failure messages, and defaults
     to ‘"NoName"’.

     If optional argument 'verbose' is true, output is generated even if
     there are no failures.  By default, output is generated only in
     case of an example failure.

     Optional argument 'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should
     be used by the Python compiler when running the examples.  By
     default, or if ‘None’, flags are deduced corresponding to the set
     of future features found in 'globs'.

     Optional argument 'optionflags' works as for function *note
     testfile(): 3d6b. above.


File: python.info,  Node: Unittest API,  Next: Advanced API,  Prev: Basic API,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.13 Unittest API
......................

As your collection of doctest’ed modules grows, you’ll want a way to run
all their doctests systematically.  *note doctest: 39. provides two
functions that can be used to create *note unittest: 106. test suites
from modules and text files containing doctests.  To integrate with
*note unittest: 106. test discovery, include a *note load_tests: 3d98.
function in your test module:

     import unittest
     import doctest
     import my_module_with_doctests

     def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore):
         tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests))
         return tests

There are two main functions for creating *note unittest.TestSuite: c82.
instances from text files and modules with doctests:

 -- Işlevi: doctest.DocFileSuite (*paths, module_relative=True,
          package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None,
          optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     Convert doctest tests from one or more text files to a *note
     unittest.TestSuite: c82.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: c82. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs the interactive examples in each file.
     If an example in any file fails, then the synthesized unit test
     fails, and a *note failureException: 3d9a. exception is raised
     showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes
     approximate) line number.

     Pass one or more paths (as strings) to text files to be examined.

     Options may be provided as keyword arguments:

     Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filenames in
     'paths' should be interpreted:

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then each
          filename in 'paths' specifies an OS-independent
          module-relative path.  By default, this path is relative to
          the calling module’s directory; but if the 'package' argument
          is specified, then it is relative to that package.  To ensure
          OS-independence, each filename should use ‘/’ characters to
          separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e.,
          it may not begin with ‘/’).

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then each filename in 'paths'
          specifies an OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or
          relative; relative paths are resolved with respect to the
          current working directory.

     Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a
     Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory
     for module-relative filenames in 'paths'.  If no package is
     specified, then the calling module’s directory is used as the base
     directory for module-relative filenames.  It is an error to specify
     'package' if 'module_relative' is ‘False’.

     Optional argument 'setUp' specifies a set-up function for the test
     suite.  This is called before running the tests in each file.  The
     'setUp' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 14c2. object.  The
     setUp function can access the test globals as the 'globs' attribute
     of the test passed.

     Optional argument 'tearDown' specifies a tear-down function for the
     test suite.  This is called after running the tests in each file.
     The 'tearDown' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 14c2.
     object.  The setUp function can access the test globals as the
     'globs' attribute of the test passed.

     Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial
     global variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is
     created for each test.  By default, 'globs' is a new empty
     dictionary.

     Optional argument 'optionflags' specifies the default doctest
     options for the tests, created by or-ing together individual option
     flags.  See section *note Option Flags: dd3.  See function *note
     set_unittest_reportflags(): 3d9b. below for a better way to set
     reporting options.

     Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 3d7b.
     (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files.
     It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’).

     Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be
     used to convert the file to unicode.

     The global ‘__file__’ is added to the globals provided to doctests
     loaded from a text file using *note DocFileSuite(): 3d99.

 -- Işlevi: doctest.DocTestSuite (module=None, globs=None,
          extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None,
          optionflags=0, checker=None)

     Convert doctest tests for a module to a *note unittest.TestSuite:
     c82.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: c82. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs each doctest in the module.  If any of
     the doctests fail, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a
     *note failureException: 3d9a. exception is raised showing the name
     of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line
     number.

     Optional argument 'module' provides the module to be tested.  It
     can be a module object or a (possibly dotted) module name.  If not
     specified, the module calling this function is used.

     Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial
     global variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is
     created for each test.  By default, 'globs' is a new empty
     dictionary.

     Optional argument 'extraglobs' specifies an extra set of global
     variables, which is merged into 'globs'.  By default, no extra
     globals are used.

     Optional argument 'test_finder' is the *note DocTestFinder: 147a.
     object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests
     from the module.

     Optional arguments 'setUp', 'tearDown', and 'optionflags' are the
     same as for function *note DocFileSuite(): 3d99. above.

     This function uses the same search technique as *note testmod():
     12f5.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: *note DocTestSuite(): c81. returns an empty
     *note unittest.TestSuite: c82. if 'module' contains no docstrings
     instead of raising *note ValueError: 189.

 -- Özel Durum: doctest.failureException

     When doctests which have been converted to unit tests by *note
     DocFileSuite(): 3d99. or *note DocTestSuite(): c81. fail, this
     exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the
     test and a (sometimes approximate) line number.

Under the covers, *note DocTestSuite(): c81. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: c82. out of ‘doctest.DocTestCase’ instances, and
‘DocTestCase’ is a subclass of *note unittest.TestCase: 15f.
‘DocTestCase’ isn’t documented here (it’s an internal detail), but
studying its code can answer questions about the exact details of *note
unittest: 106. integration.

Similarly, *note DocFileSuite(): 3d99. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: c82. out of ‘doctest.DocFileCase’ instances, and
‘DocFileCase’ is a subclass of ‘DocTestCase’.

So both ways of creating a *note unittest.TestSuite: c82. run instances
of ‘DocTestCase’.  This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
*note doctest: 39. functions yourself, you can control the *note
doctest: 39. options in use directly, by passing option flags to *note
doctest: 39. functions.  However, if you’re writing a *note unittest:
106. framework, *note unittest: 106. ultimately controls when and how
tests get run.  The framework author typically wants to control *note
doctest: 39. reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line
options), but there’s no way to pass options through *note unittest:
106. to *note doctest: 39. test runners.

For this reason, *note doctest: 39. also supports a notion of *note
doctest: 39. reporting flags specific to *note unittest: 106. support,
via this function:

 -- Işlevi: doctest.set_unittest_reportflags (flags)

     Set the *note doctest: 39. reporting flags to use.

     Argument 'flags' takes the *note bitwise OR: 1e60. of option flags.
     See section *note Option Flags: dd3.  Only “reporting flags” can be
     used.

     This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests
     run by module *note unittest: 106.: the ‘runTest()’ method of
     ‘DocTestCase’ looks at the option flags specified for the test case
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed.  If no reporting
     flags were specified (which is the typical and expected case),
     ‘doctest’’s *note unittest: 106. reporting flags are *note bitwise
     ORed: 1e60. into the option flags, and the option flags so
     augmented are passed to the *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a. instance
     created to run the doctest.  If any reporting flags were specified
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed, ‘doctest’’s *note
     unittest: 106. reporting flags are ignored.

     The value of the *note unittest: 106. reporting flags in effect
     before the function was called is returned by the function.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced API,  Next: Debugging,  Prev: Unittest API,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.14 Advanced API
......................

The basic API is a simple wrapper that’s intended to make doctest easy
to use.  It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users’ needs;
however, if you require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish
to extend doctest’s capabilities, then you should use the advanced API.

The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used
to store the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases:

   * *note Example: 3d9e.: A single Python *note statement: 2560, paired
     with its expected output.

   * *note DocTest: 14c2.: A collection of *note Example: 3d9e.s,
     typically extracted from a single docstring or text file.

Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and
check doctest examples:

   * *note DocTestFinder: 147a.: Finds all docstrings in a given module,
     and uses a *note DocTestParser: 3d7b. to create a *note DocTest:
     14c2. from every docstring that contains interactive examples.

   * *note DocTestParser: 3d7b.: Creates a *note DocTest: 14c2. object
     from a string (such as an object’s docstring).

   * *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a.: Executes the examples in a *note
     DocTest: 14c2, and uses an *note OutputChecker: 3d89. to verify
     their output.

   * *note OutputChecker: 3d89.: Compares the actual output from a
     doctest example with the expected output, and decides whether they
     match.

The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the
following diagram:

                                 list of:
     +------+                   +---------+
     |module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results
     +------+    |        ^     +---------+     |       ^    (printed)
                 |        |     | Example |     |       |
                 v        |     |   ...   |     v       |
                DocTestParser   | Example |   OutputChecker
                                +---------+

* Menu:

* DocTest Objects::
* Example Objects::
* DocTestFinder objects::
* DocTestParser objects::
* DocTestRunner objects::
* OutputChecker objects::


File: python.info,  Node: DocTest Objects,  Next: Example Objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.15 DocTest Objects
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: doctest.DocTest (examples, globs, name, filename, lineno,
          docstring)

     A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single
     namespace.  The constructor arguments are used to initialize the
     attributes of the same names.

     *note DocTest: 14c2. defines the following attributes.  They are
     initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified
     directly.

      -- Özniteliği: examples

          A list of *note Example: 3d9e. objects encoding the individual
          interactive Python examples that should be run by this test.

      -- Özniteliği: globs

          The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run
          in.  This is a dictionary mapping names to values.  Any
          changes to the namespace made by the examples (such as binding
          new variables) will be reflected in *note globs: 3da2. after
          the test is run.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          A string name identifying the *note DocTest: 14c2.  Typically,
          this is the name of the object or file that the test was
          extracted from.

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          The name of the file that this *note DocTest: 14c2. was
          extracted from; or ‘None’ if the filename is unknown, or if
          the *note DocTest: 14c2. was not extracted from a file.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number within *note filename: 3da4. where this *note
          DocTest: 14c2. begins, or ‘None’ if the line number is
          unavailable.  This line number is zero-based with respect to
          the beginning of the file.

      -- Özniteliği: docstring

          The string that the test was extracted from, or ‘None’ if the
          string is unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a
          string.


File: python.info,  Node: Example Objects,  Next: DocTestFinder objects,  Prev: DocTest Objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.16 Example Objects
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: doctest.Example (source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0,
          indent=0, options=None)

     A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and
     its expected output.  The constructor arguments are used to
     initialize the attributes of the same names.

     *note Example: 3d9e. defines the following attributes.  They are
     initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified
     directly.

      -- Özniteliği: source

          A string containing the example’s source code.  This source
          code consists of a single Python statement, and always ends
          with a newline; the constructor adds a newline when necessary.

      -- Özniteliği: want

          The expected output from running the example’s source code
          (either from stdout, or a traceback in case of exception).
          *note want: 3da9. ends with a newline unless no output is
          expected, in which case it’s an empty string.  The constructor
          adds a newline when necessary.

      -- Özniteliği: exc_msg

          The exception message generated by the example, if the example
          is expected to generate an exception; or ‘None’ if it is not
          expected to generate an exception.  This exception message is
          compared against the return value of *note
          traceback.format_exception_only(): 68d.  *note exc_msg: 3daa.
          ends with a newline unless it’s ‘None’.  The constructor adds
          a newline if needed.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number within the string containing this example
          where the example begins.  This line number is zero-based with
          respect to the beginning of the containing string.

      -- Özniteliği: indent

          The example’s indentation in the containing string, i.e., the
          number of space characters that precede the example’s first
          prompt.

      -- Özniteliği: options

          A dictionary mapping from option flags to ‘True’ or ‘False’,
          which is used to override default options for this example.
          Any option flags not contained in this dictionary are left at
          their default value (as specified by the *note DocTestRunner:
          3d8a.’s *note optionflags: dd3.).  By default, no options are
          set.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestFinder objects,  Next: DocTestParser objects,  Prev: Example Objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.17 DocTestFinder objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: doctest.DocTestFinder (verbose=False,
          parser=DocTestParser(), recurse=True, exclude_empty=True)

     A processing class used to extract the *note DocTest: 14c2.s that
     are relevant to a given object, from its docstring and the
     docstrings of its contained objects.  *note DocTest: 14c2.s can be
     extracted from modules, classes, functions, methods, staticmethods,
     classmethods, and properties.

     The optional argument 'verbose' can be used to display the objects
     searched by the finder.  It defaults to ‘False’ (no output).

     The optional argument 'parser' specifies the *note DocTestParser:
     3d7b. object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract
     doctests from docstrings.

     If the optional argument 'recurse' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 14f1. will only examine the given object, and
     not any contained objects.

     If the optional argument 'exclude_empty' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 14f1. will include tests for objects with
     empty docstrings.

     *note DocTestFinder: 147a. defines the following method:

      -- Yöntemi: find (obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs])

          Return a list of the *note DocTest: 14c2.s that are defined by
          'obj'’s docstring, or by any of its contained objects’
          docstrings.

          The optional argument 'name' specifies the object’s name; this
          name will be used to construct names for the returned *note
          DocTest: 14c2.s.  If 'name' is not specified, then
          ‘obj.__name__’ is used.

          The optional parameter 'module' is the module that contains
          the given object.  If the module is not specified or is
          ‘None’, then the test finder will attempt to automatically
          determine the correct module.  The object’s module is used:

             * As a default namespace, if 'globs' is not specified.

             * To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests
               from objects that are imported from other modules.
               (Contained objects with modules other than 'module' are
               ignored.)

             * To find the name of the file containing the object.

             * To help find the line number of the object within its
               file.

          If 'module' is ‘False’, no attempt to find the module will be
          made.  This is obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest
          itself: if 'module' is ‘False’, or is ‘None’ but cannot be
          found automatically, then all objects are considered to belong
          to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will
          (recursively) be searched for doctests.

          The globals for each *note DocTest: 14c2. is formed by
          combining 'globs' and 'extraglobs' (bindings in 'extraglobs'
          override bindings in 'globs').  A new shallow copy of the
          globals dictionary is created for each *note DocTest: 14c2.
          If 'globs' is not specified, then it defaults to the module’s
          '__dict__', if specified, or ‘{}’ otherwise.  If 'extraglobs'
          is not specified, then it defaults to ‘{}’.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestParser objects,  Next: DocTestRunner objects,  Prev: DocTestFinder objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.18 DocTestParser objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: doctest.DocTestParser

     A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a
     string, and use them to create a *note DocTest: 14c2. object.

     *note DocTestParser: 3d7b. defines the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: get_doctest (string, globs, name, filename, lineno)

          Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and
          collect them into a *note DocTest: 14c2. object.

          'globs', 'name', 'filename', and 'lineno' are attributes for
          the new *note DocTest: 14c2. object.  See the documentation
          for *note DocTest: 14c2. for more information.

      -- Yöntemi: get_examples (string, name='<string>')

          Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return
          them as a list of *note Example: 3d9e. objects.  Line numbers
          are 0-based.  The optional argument 'name' is a name
          identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.

      -- Yöntemi: parse (string, name='<string>')

          Divide the given string into examples and intervening text,
          and return them as a list of alternating *note Example: 3d9e.s
          and strings.  Line numbers for the *note Example: 3d9e.s are
          0-based.  The optional argument 'name' is a name identifying
          this string, and is only used for error messages.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestRunner objects,  Next: OutputChecker objects,  Prev: DocTestParser objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.19 DocTestRunner objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: doctest.DocTestRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive
     examples in a *note DocTest: 14c2.

     The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done
     by an *note OutputChecker: 3d89.  This comparison may be customized
     with a number of option flags; see section *note Option Flags: dd3.
     for more information.  If the option flags are insufficient, then
     the comparison may also be customized by passing a subclass of
     *note OutputChecker: 3d89. to the constructor.

     The test runner’s display output can be controlled in two ways.
     First, an output function can be passed to *note run(): 3db7.; this
     function will be called with strings that should be displayed.  It
     defaults to ‘sys.stdout.write’.  If capturing the output is not
     sufficient, then the display output can be also customized by
     subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods *note
     report_start(): 3db8, *note report_success(): 3db9, *note
     report_unexpected_exception(): 3dba, and *note report_failure():
     3dbb.

     The optional keyword argument 'checker' specifies the *note
     OutputChecker: 3d89. object (or drop-in replacement) that should be
     used to compare the expected outputs to the actual outputs of
     doctest examples.

     The optional keyword argument 'verbose' controls the *note
     DocTestRunner: 3d8a.’s verbosity.  If 'verbose' is ‘True’, then
     information is printed about each example, as it is run.  If
     'verbose' is ‘False’, then only failures are printed.  If 'verbose'
     is unspecified, or ‘None’, then verbose output is used iff the
     command-line switch ‘-v’ is used.

     The optional keyword argument 'optionflags' can be used to control
     how the test runner compares expected output to actual output, and
     how it displays failures.  For more information, see section *note
     Option Flags: dd3.

     *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a. defines the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: report_start (out, test, example)

          Report that the test runner is about to process the given
          example.  This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note
          DocTestRunner: 3d8a. to customize their output; it should not
          be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'test' is the
          test 'containing example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3db7.

      -- Yöntemi: report_success (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example ran successfully.  This method
          is provided to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a.
          to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3db7.

      -- Yöntemi: report_failure (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example failed.  This method is provided
          to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a. to customize
          their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3db7.

      -- Yöntemi: report_unexpected_exception (out, test, example,
               exc_info)

          Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception.
          This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note
          DocTestRunner: 3d8a. to customize their output; it should not
          be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'exc_info' is
          a tuple containing information about the unexpected exception
          (as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.).  'test' is the
          test containing 'example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 3db7.

      -- Yöntemi: run (test, compileflags=None, out=None,
               clear_globs=True)

          Run the examples in 'test' (a *note DocTest: 14c2. object),
          and display the results using the writer function 'out'.

          The examples are run in the namespace ‘test.globs’.  If
          'clear_globs' is true (the default), then this namespace will
          be cleared after the test runs, to help with garbage
          collection.  If you would like to examine the namespace after
          the test completes, then use 'clear_globs=False'.

          'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should be used by
          the Python compiler when running the examples.  If not
          specified, then it will default to the set of future-import
          flags that apply to 'globs'.

          The output of each example is checked using the *note
          DocTestRunner: 3d8a.’s output checker, and the results are
          formatted by the ‘DocTestRunner.report_*()’ methods.

      -- Yöntemi: summarize (verbose=None)

          Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by
          this DocTestRunner, and return a *note named tuple: 461.
          ‘TestResults(failed, attempted)’.

          The optional 'verbose' argument controls how detailed the
          summary is.  If the verbosity is not specified, then the *note
          DocTestRunner: 3d8a.’s verbosity is used.


File: python.info,  Node: OutputChecker objects,  Prev: DocTestRunner objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.26.4.20 OutputChecker objects
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: doctest.OutputChecker

     A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest
     example matches the expected output.  *note OutputChecker: 3d89.
     defines two methods: *note check_output(): 3dbe, which compares a
     given pair of outputs, and returns ‘True’ if they match; and *note
     output_difference(): 3dbf, which returns a string describing the
     differences between two outputs.

     *note OutputChecker: 3d89. defines the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: check_output (want, got, optionflags)

          Return ‘True’ iff the actual output from an example ('got')
          matches the expected output ('want').  These strings are
          always considered to match if they are identical; but
          depending on what option flags the test runner is using,
          several non-exact match types are also possible.  See section
          *note Option Flags: dd3. for more information about option
          flags.

      -- Yöntemi: output_difference (example, got, optionflags)

          Return a string describing the differences between the
          expected output for a given example ('example') and the actual
          output ('got').  'optionflags' is the set of option flags used
          to compare 'want' and 'got'.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging,  Next: Soapbox,  Prev: Advanced API,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.21 Debugging
...................

Doctest provides several mechanisms for debugging doctest examples:

   * Several functions convert doctests to executable Python programs,
     which can be run under the Python debugger, *note pdb: a4.

   * The *note DebugRunner: 3dc2. class is a subclass of *note
     DocTestRunner: 3d8a. that raises an exception for the first failing
     example, containing information about that example.  This
     information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on the
     example.

   * The *note unittest: 106. cases generated by *note DocTestSuite():
     c81. support the *note debug(): 3dc3. method defined by *note
     unittest.TestCase: 15f.

   * You can add a call to *note pdb.set_trace(): 9db. in a doctest
     example, and you’ll drop into the Python debugger when that line is
     executed.  Then you can inspect current values of variables, and so
     on.  For example, suppose ‘a.py’ contains just this module
     docstring:

          """
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     g(x*2)
          >>> def g(x):
          ...     print(x+3)
          ...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          >>> f(3)
          9
          """

     Then an interactive Python session may look like this:

          >>> import a, doctest
          >>> doctest.testmod(a)
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None
          -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          (Pdb) list
            1     def g(x):
            2         print(x+3)
            3  ->     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          6
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None
          -> g(x*2)
          (Pdb) list
            1     def f(x):
            2  ->     g(x*2)
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          3
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None
          -> f(3)
          (Pdb) cont
          (0, 3)
          >>>

Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the
synthesized code under the debugger:

 -- Işlevi: doctest.script_from_examples (s)

     Convert text with examples to a script.

     Argument 's' is a string containing doctest examples.  The string
     is converted to a Python script, where doctest examples in 's' are
     converted to regular code, and everything else is converted to
     Python comments.  The generated script is returned as a string.
     For example,

          import doctest
          print(doctest.script_from_examples(r"""
              Set x and y to 1 and 2.
              >>> x, y = 1, 2

              Print their sum:
              >>> print(x+y)
              3
          """))

     displays:

          # Set x and y to 1 and 2.
          x, y = 1, 2
          #
          # Print their sum:
          print(x+y)
          # Expected:
          ## 3

     This function is used internally by other functions (see below),
     but can also be useful when you want to transform an interactive
     Python session into a Python script.

 -- Işlevi: doctest.testsource (module, name)

     Convert the doctest for an object to a script.

     Argument 'module' is a module object, or dotted name of a module,
     containing the object whose doctests are of interest.  Argument
     'name' is the name (within the module) of the object with the
     doctests of interest.  The result is a string, containing the
     object’s docstring converted to a Python script, as described for
     *note script_from_examples(): 3dc4. above.  For example, if module
     ‘a.py’ contains a top-level function ‘f()’, then

          import a, doctest
          print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f"))

     prints a script version of function ‘f()’’s docstring, with
     doctests converted to code, and the rest placed in comments.

 -- Işlevi: doctest.debug (module, name, pm=False)

     Debug the doctests for an object.

     The 'module' and 'name' arguments are the same as for function
     *note testsource(): 3dc5. above.  The synthesized Python script for
     the named object’s docstring is written to a temporary file, and
     then that file is run under the control of the Python debugger,
     *note pdb: a4.

     A shallow copy of ‘module.__dict__’ is used for both local and
     global execution context.

     Optional argument 'pm' controls whether post-mortem debugging is
     used.  If 'pm' has a true value, the script file is run directly,
     and the debugger gets involved only if the script terminates via
     raising an unhandled exception.  If it does, then post-mortem
     debugging is invoked, via *note pdb.post_mortem(): 1261, passing
     the traceback object from the unhandled exception.  If 'pm' is not
     specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from
     the start, via passing an appropriate *note exec(): 6cb. call to
     *note pdb.run(): 3dc6.

 -- Işlevi: doctest.debug_src (src, pm=False, globs=None)

     Debug the doctests in a string.

     This is like function *note debug(): 3dc3. above, except that a
     string containing doctest examples is specified directly, via the
     'src' argument.

     Optional argument 'pm' has the same meaning as in function *note
     debug(): 3dc3. above.

     Optional argument 'globs' gives a dictionary to use as both local
     and global execution context.  If not specified, or ‘None’, an
     empty dictionary is used.  If specified, a shallow copy of the
     dictionary is used.

The *note DebugRunner: 3dc2. class, and the special exceptions it may
raise, are of most interest to testing framework authors, and will only
be sketched here.  See the source code, and especially *note
DebugRunner: 3dc2.’s docstring (which is a doctest!)  for more details:

 -- Sınıfı: doctest.DebugRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A subclass of *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a. that raises an exception
     as soon as a failure is encountered.  If an unexpected exception
     occurs, an *note UnexpectedException: 3dc8. exception is raised,
     containing the test, the example, and the original exception.  If
     the output doesn’t match, then a *note DocTestFailure: 3dc9.
     exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the
     actual output.

     For information about the constructor parameters and methods, see
     the documentation for *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a. in section *note
     Advanced API: 3d9d.

There are two exceptions that may be raised by *note DebugRunner: 3dc2.
instances:

 -- Özel Durum: doctest.DocTestFailure (test, example, got)

     An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a. to signal that a
     doctest example’s actual output did not match its expected output.
     The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of
     the same names.

*note DocTestFailure: 3dc9. defines the following attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: DocTestFailure.test

     The *note DocTest: 14c2. object that was being run when the example
     failed.

 -- Özniteliği: DocTestFailure.example

     The *note Example: 3d9e. that failed.

 -- Özniteliği: DocTestFailure.got

     The example’s actual output.

 -- Özel Durum: doctest.UnexpectedException (test, example, exc_info)

     An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 3d8a. to signal that a
     doctest example raised an unexpected exception.  The constructor
     arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names.

*note UnexpectedException: 3dc8. defines the following attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: UnexpectedException.test

     The *note DocTest: 14c2. object that was being run when the example
     failed.

 -- Özniteliği: UnexpectedException.example

     The *note Example: 3d9e. that failed.

 -- Özniteliği: UnexpectedException.exc_info

     A tuple containing information about the unexpected exception, as
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.


File: python.info,  Node: Soapbox,  Prev: Debugging,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.26.4.22 Soapbox
.................

As mentioned in the introduction, *note doctest: 39. has grown to have
three primary uses:

  1. Checking examples in docstrings.

  2. Regression testing.

  3. Executable documentation / literate testing.

These uses have different requirements, and it is important to
distinguish them.  In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure
test cases makes for bad documentation.

When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care.  There’s
an art to this that needs to be learned—it may not be natural at first.
Examples should add genuine value to the documentation.  A good example
can often be worth many words.  If done with care, the examples will be
invaluable for your users, and will pay back the time it takes to
collect them many times over as the years go by and things change.  I’m
still amazed at how often one of my *note doctest: 39. examples stops
working after a “harmless” change.

Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially
if you don’t skimp on explanatory text.  By interleaving prose and
examples, it becomes much easier to keep track of what’s actually being
tested, and why.  When a test fails, good prose can make it much easier
to figure out what the problem is, and how it should be fixed.  It’s
true that you could write extensive comments in code-based testing, but
few programmers do.  Many have found that using doctest approaches
instead leads to much clearer tests.  Perhaps this is simply because
doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while
writing comments in code is a little harder.  I think it goes deeper
than just that: the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test
is that you want to explain the fine points of your software, and
illustrate them with examples.  This in turn naturally leads to test
files that start with the simplest features, and logically progress to
complications and edge cases.  A coherent narrative is the result,
instead of a collection of isolated functions that test isolated bits of
functionality seemingly at random.  It’s a different attitude, and
produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and
explaining.

Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files.
There are several options for organizing tests:

   * Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and
     test the files using *note testfile(): 3d6b. or *note
     DocFileSuite(): 3d99.  This is recommended, although is easiest to
     do for new projects, designed from the start to use doctest.

   * Define functions named ‘_regrtest_topic’ that consist of single
     docstrings, containing test cases for the named topics.  These
     functions can be included in the same file as the module, or
     separated out into a separate test file.

   * Define a ‘__test__’ dictionary mapping from regression test topics
     to docstrings containing test cases.

When you have placed your tests in a module, the module can itself be
the test runner.  When a test fails, you can arrange for your test
runner to re-run only the failing doctest while you debug the problem.
Here is a minimal example of such a test runner:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import doctest
         flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST
         if len(sys.argv) > 1:
             name = sys.argv[1]
             if name in globals():
                 obj = globals()[name]
             else:
                 obj = __test__[name]
             doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name,
                                            optionflags=flags)
         else:
             fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags)
             print("{} failures out of {} tests".format(fail, total))


File: python.info,  Node: unittest — Unit testing framework,  Next: unittest mock — mock object library,  Prev: doctest — Test interactive Python examples,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.5 ‘unittest’ — Unit testing framework
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/unittest/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

(If you are already familiar with the basic concepts of testing, you
might want to skip to *note the list of assert methods: 3dd4.)

The *note unittest: 106. unit testing framework was originally inspired
by JUnit and has a similar flavor as major unit testing frameworks in
other languages.  It supports test automation, sharing of setup and
shutdown code for tests, aggregation of tests into collections, and
independence of the tests from the reporting framework.

To achieve this, *note unittest: 106. supports some important concepts
in an object-oriented way:

test fixture

     A 'test fixture' represents the preparation needed to perform one
     or more tests, and any associated cleanup actions.  This may
     involve, for example, creating temporary or proxy databases,
     directories, or starting a server process.

test case

     A 'test case' is the individual unit of testing.  It checks for a
     specific response to a particular set of inputs.  *note unittest:
     106. provides a base class, *note TestCase: 15f, which may be used
     to create new test cases.

test suite

     A 'test suite' is a collection of test cases, test suites, or both.
     It is used to aggregate tests that should be executed together.

test runner

     A 'test runner' is a component which orchestrates the execution of
     tests and provides the outcome to the user.  The runner may use a
     graphical interface, a textual interface, or return a special value
     to indicate the results of executing the tests.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note doctest: 39.

     Another test-support module with a very different flavor.

Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns(2)

     Kent Beck’s original paper on testing frameworks using the pattern
     shared by *note unittest: 106.

pytest(3)

     Third-party unittest framework with a lighter-weight syntax for
     writing tests.  For example, ‘assert func(10) == 42’.

The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy(4)

     An extensive list of Python testing tools including functional
     testing frameworks and mock object libraries.

Testing in Python Mailing List(5)

     A special-interest-group for discussion of testing, and testing
     tools, in Python.

The script ‘Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py’ in the Python source
distribution is a GUI tool for test discovery and execution.  This is
intended largely for ease of use for those new to unit testing.  For
production environments it is recommended that tests be driven by a
continuous integration system such as Buildbot(6), Jenkins(7), GitHub
Actions(8), or AppVeyor(9).

* Menu:

* Basic example::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>.
* Test Discovery::
* Organizing test code::
* Re-using old test code::
* Skipping tests and expected failures::
* Distinguishing test iterations using subtests::
* Classes and functions::
* Class and Module Fixtures::
* Signal Handling::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/unittest/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm

   (3) https://docs.pytest.org/

   (4) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy

   (5) http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python

   (6) https://buildbot.net/

   (7) https://www.jenkins.io/

   (8) https://github.com/features/actions

   (9) https://www.appveyor.com/


File: python.info,  Node: Basic example,  Next: Command-Line Interface<3>,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.1 Basic example
......................

The *note unittest: 106. module provides a rich set of tools for
constructing and running tests.  This section demonstrates that a small
subset of the tools suffice to meet the needs of most users.

Here is a short script to test three string methods:

     import unittest

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_upper(self):
             self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')

         def test_isupper(self):
             self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
             self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
             # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 s.split(2)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

A testcase is created by subclassing *note unittest.TestCase: 15f.  The
three individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with
the letters ‘test’.  This naming convention informs the test runner
about which methods represent tests.

The crux of each test is a call to *note assertEqual(): 2b3. to check
for an expected result; *note assertTrue(): 2b1. or *note assertFalse():
2b2. to verify a condition; or *note assertRaises(): 2b7. to verify that
a specific exception gets raised.  These methods are used instead of the
*note assert: 7c4. statement so the test runner can accumulate all test
results and produce a report.

The *note setUp(): 11e5. and *note tearDown(): 11e6. methods allow you
to define instructions that will be executed before and after each test
method.  They are covered in more detail in the section *note Organizing
test code: 3dd7.

The final block shows a simple way to run the tests.  *note
unittest.main(): e89. provides a command-line interface to the test
script.  When run from the command line, the above script produces an
output that looks like this:

     ...
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.000s

     OK

Passing the ‘-v’ option to your test script will instruct *note
unittest.main(): e89. to enable a higher level of verbosity, and produce
the following output:

     test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_isupper) ... ok
     test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_split) ... ok
     test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_upper) ... ok

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.001s

     OK

The above examples show the most commonly used *note unittest: 106.
features which are sufficient to meet many everyday testing needs.  The
remainder of the documentation explores the full feature set from first
principles.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: The behavior of returning a value from a test
method (other than the default ‘None’ value), is now deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<3>,  Next: Test Discovery,  Prev: Basic example,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.2 Command-Line Interface
...............................

The unittest module can be used from the command line to run tests from
modules, classes or even individual test methods:

     python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method

You can pass in a list with any combination of module names, and fully
qualified class or method names.

Test modules can be specified by file path as well:

     python -m unittest tests/test_something.py

This allows you to use the shell filename completion to specify the test
module.  The file specified must still be importable as a module.  The
path is converted to a module name by removing the ‘.py’ and converting
path separators into ‘.’.  If you want to execute a test file that isn’t
importable as a module you should execute the file directly instead.

You can run tests with more detail (higher verbosity) by passing in the
-v flag:

     python -m unittest -v test_module

When executed without arguments *note Test Discovery: 3dda. is started:

     python -m unittest

For a list of all the command-line options:

     python -m unittest -h

3.2 sürümünde değişti: In earlier versions it was only possible to run
individual test methods and not modules or classes.

* Menu:

* Command-line options: Command-line options<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options<3>,  Up: Command-Line Interface<3>

5.26.5.3 Command-line options
.............................

‘unittest’ supports these command-line options:

 -- Option: -b, --buffer

     The standard output and standard error streams are buffered during
     the test run.  Output during a passing test is discarded.  Output
     is echoed normally on test fail or error and is added to the
     failure messages.

 -- Option: -c, --catch

     ‘Control’-‘C’ during the test run waits for the current test to end
     and then reports all the results so far.  A second ‘Control’-‘C’
     raises the normal *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. exception.

     See *note Signal Handling: 3dde. for the functions that provide
     this functionality.

 -- Option: -f, --failfast

     Stop the test run on the first error or failure.

 -- Option: -k

     Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or
     substring.  This option may be used multiple times, in which case
     all test cases that match any of the given patterns are included.

     Patterns that contain a wildcard character (‘*’) are matched
     against the test name using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 16c8.;
     otherwise simple case-sensitive substring matching is used.

     Patterns are matched against the fully qualified test method name
     as imported by the test loader.

     For example, ‘-k foo’ matches ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
     ‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not
     ‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’.

 -- Option: --locals

     Show local variables in tracebacks.

 -- Option: --durations N

     Show the N slowest test cases (N=0 for all).

Added in version 3.2: The command-line options ‘-b’, ‘-c’ and ‘-f’ were
added.

Added in version 3.5: The command-line option ‘--locals’.

Added in version 3.7: The command-line option ‘-k’.

Added in version 3.12: The command-line option ‘--durations’.

The command line can also be used for test discovery, for running all of
the tests in a project or just a subset.


File: python.info,  Node: Test Discovery,  Next: Organizing test code,  Prev: Command-Line Interface<3>,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.4 Test Discovery
.......................

Added in version 3.2.

Unittest supports simple test discovery.  In order to be compatible with
test discovery, all of the test files must be *note modules: 1a9f. or
*note packages: 1ab0. importable from the top-level directory of the
project (this means that their filenames must be valid *note
identifiers: 1c81.).

Test discovery is implemented in *note TestLoader.discover(): e8b, but
can also be used from the command line.  The basic command-line usage
is:

     cd project_directory
     python -m unittest discover

     Not: As a shortcut, ‘python -m unittest’ is the equivalent of
     ‘python -m unittest discover’.  If you want to pass arguments to
     test discovery the ‘discover’ sub-command must be used explicitly.

The ‘discover’ sub-command has the following options:

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Verbose output

 -- Option: -s, --start-directory directory

     Directory to start discovery (‘.’ default)

 -- Option: -p, --pattern pattern

     Pattern to match test files (‘test*.py’ default)

 -- Option: -t, --top-level-directory directory

     Top level directory of project (defaults to start directory)

The *note -s: 3de6, *note -p: 3de8, and *note -t: 3dea. options can be
passed in as positional arguments in that order.  The following two
command lines are equivalent:

     python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py"
     python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py"

As well as being a path it is possible to pass a package name, for
example ‘myproject.subpackage.test’, as the start directory.  The
package name you supply will then be imported and its location on the
filesystem will be used as the start directory.

     Uyarı: Test discovery loads tests by importing them.  Once test
     discovery has found all the test files from the start directory you
     specify it turns the paths into package names to import.  For
     example ‘foo/bar/baz.py’ will be imported as ‘foo.bar.baz’.

     If you have a package installed globally and attempt test discovery
     on a different copy of the package then the import 'could' happen
     from the wrong place.  If this happens test discovery will warn you
     and exit.

     If you supply the start directory as a package name rather than a
     path to a directory then discover assumes that whichever location
     it imports from is the location you intended, so you will not get
     the warning.

Test modules and packages can customize test loading and discovery by
through the *note load_tests protocol: 3dec.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Test discovery supports *note namespace packages:
1ab1. for the start directory.  Note that you need to specify the top
level directory too (e.g.  ‘python -m unittest discover -s
root/namespace -t root’).

3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note unittest: 106. dropped the *note namespace
packages: 1ab1. support in Python 3.11.  It has been broken since Python
3.7.  Start directory and subdirectories containing tests must be
regular package that have ‘__init__.py’ file.

Directories containing start directory still can be a namespace package.
In this case, you need to specify start directory as dotted package
name, and target directory explicitly.  For example:

     # proj/  <-- current directory
     #   namespace/
     #     mypkg/
     #       __init__.py
     #       test_mypkg.py

     python -m unittest discover -s namespace.mypkg -t .


File: python.info,  Node: Organizing test code,  Next: Re-using old test code,  Prev: Test Discovery,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.5 Organizing test code
.............................

The basic building blocks of unit testing are 'test cases' — single
scenarios that must be set up and checked for correctness.  In *note
unittest: 106, test cases are represented by *note unittest.TestCase:
15f. instances.  To make your own test cases you must write subclasses
of *note TestCase: 15f. or use *note FunctionTestCase: 14d1.

The testing code of a *note TestCase: 15f. instance should be entirely
self contained, such that it can be run either in isolation or in
arbitrary combination with any number of other test cases.

The simplest *note TestCase: 15f. subclass will simply implement a test
method (i.e.  a method whose name starts with ‘test’) in order to
perform specific testing code:

     import unittest

     class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             widget = Widget('The widget')
             self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50))

Note that in order to test something, we use one of the *note assert*
methods: 3dd4. provided by the *note TestCase: 15f. base class.  If the
test fails, an exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and
*note unittest: 106. will identify the test case as a 'failure'.  Any
other exceptions will be treated as 'errors'.

Tests can be numerous, and their set-up can be repetitive.  Luckily, we
can factor out set-up code by implementing a method called *note
setUp(): 11e5, which the testing framework will automatically call for
every single test we run:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50),
                              'incorrect default size')

         def test_widget_resize(self):
             self.widget.resize(100,150)
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150),
                              'wrong size after resize')

     Not: The order in which the various tests will be run is determined
     by sorting the test method names with respect to the built-in
     ordering for strings.

If the *note setUp(): 11e5. method raises an exception while the test is
running, the framework will consider the test to have suffered an error,
and the test method will not be executed.

Similarly, we can provide a *note tearDown(): 11e6. method that tidies
up after the test method has been run:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def tearDown(self):
             self.widget.dispose()

If *note setUp(): 11e5. succeeded, *note tearDown(): 11e6. will be run
whether the test method succeeded or not.

Such a working environment for the testing code is called a 'test
fixture'.  A new TestCase instance is created as a unique test fixture
used to execute each individual test method.  Thus *note setUp(): 11e5,
*note tearDown(): 11e6, and ‘__init__()’ will be called once per test.

It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests
together according to the features they test.  *note unittest: 106.
provides a mechanism for this: the 'test suite', represented by *note
unittest: 106.’s *note TestSuite: c82. class.  In most cases, calling
*note unittest.main(): e89. will do the right thing and collect all the
module’s test cases for you and execute them.

However, should you want to customize the building of your test suite,
you can do it yourself:

     def suite():
         suite = unittest.TestSuite()
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size'))
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize'))
         return suite

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         runner = unittest.TextTestRunner()
         runner.run(suite())

You can place the definitions of test cases and test suites in the same
modules as the code they are to test (such as ‘widget.py’), but there
are several advantages to placing the test code in a separate module,
such as ‘test_widget.py’:

   * The test module can be run standalone from the command line.

   * The test code can more easily be separated from shipped code.

   * There is less temptation to change test code to fit the code it
     tests without a good reason.

   * Test code should be modified much less frequently than the code it
     tests.

   * Tested code can be refactored more easily.

   * Tests for modules written in C must be in separate modules anyway,
     so why not be consistent?

   * If the testing strategy changes, there is no need to change the
     source code.


File: python.info,  Node: Re-using old test code,  Next: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Prev: Organizing test code,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.6 Re-using old test code
...............................

Some users will find that they have existing test code that they would
like to run from *note unittest: 106, without converting every old test
function to a *note TestCase: 15f. subclass.

For this reason, *note unittest: 106. provides a *note FunctionTestCase:
14d1. class.  This subclass of *note TestCase: 15f. can be used to wrap
an existing test function.  Set-up and tear-down functions can also be
provided.

Given the following test function:

     def testSomething():
         something = makeSomething()
         assert something.name is not None
         # ...

one can create an equivalent test case instance as follows, with
optional set-up and tear-down methods:

     testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething,
                                          setUp=makeSomethingDB,
                                          tearDown=deleteSomethingDB)

     Not: Even though *note FunctionTestCase: 14d1. can be used to
     quickly convert an existing test base over to a *note unittest:
     106.-based system, this approach is not recommended.  Taking the
     time to set up proper *note TestCase: 15f. subclasses will make
     future test refactorings infinitely easier.

In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the *note
doctest: 39. module.  If so, *note doctest: 39. provides a
‘DocTestSuite’ class that can automatically build *note
unittest.TestSuite: c82. instances from the existing *note doctest:
39.-based tests.


File: python.info,  Node: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Next: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Prev: Re-using old test code,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.7 Skipping tests and expected failures
.............................................

Added in version 3.1.

Unittest supports skipping individual test methods and even whole
classes of tests.  In addition, it supports marking a test as an
“expected failure,” a test that is broken and will fail, but shouldn’t
be counted as a failure on a *note TestResult: 100e.

Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the *note skip(): 180e.
*note decorator: 559. or one of its conditional variants, calling *note
TestCase.skipTest(): 3df2. within a *note setUp(): 11e5. or test method,
or raising *note SkipTest: e8a. directly.

Basic skipping looks like this:

     class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):

         @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping")
         def test_nothing(self):
             self.fail("shouldn't happen")

         @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3),
                          "not supported in this library version")
         def test_format(self):
             # Tests that work for only a certain version of the library.
             pass

         @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
         def test_windows_support(self):
             # windows specific testing code
             pass

         def test_maybe_skipped(self):
             if not external_resource_available():
                 self.skipTest("external resource not available")
             # test code that depends on the external resource
             pass

This is the output of running the example above in verbose mode:

     test_format (__main__.MyTestCase.test_format) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version'
     test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase.test_nothing) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping'
     test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase.test_maybe_skipped) ... skipped 'external resource not available'
     test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase.test_windows_support) ... skipped 'requires Windows'

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 4 tests in 0.005s

     OK (skipped=4)

Classes can be skipped just like methods:

     @unittest.skip("showing class skipping")
     class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_not_run(self):
             pass

*note TestCase.setUp(): 11e5. can also skip the test.  This is useful
when a resource that needs to be set up is not available.

Expected failures use the *note expectedFailure(): 3df3. decorator.

     class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         @unittest.expectedFailure
         def test_fail(self):
             self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken")

It’s easy to roll your own skipping decorators by making a decorator
that calls *note skip(): 180e. on the test when it wants it to be
skipped.  This decorator skips the test unless the passed object has a
certain attribute:

     def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr):
         if hasattr(obj, attr):
             return lambda func: func
         return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr))

The following decorators and exception implement test skipping and
expected failures:

 -- Işlevi: @unittest.skip (reason)

     Unconditionally skip the decorated test.  'reason' should describe
     why the test is being skipped.

 -- Işlevi: @unittest.skipIf (condition, reason)

     Skip the decorated test if 'condition' is true.

 -- Işlevi: @unittest.skipUnless (condition, reason)

     Skip the decorated test unless 'condition' is true.

 -- Işlevi: @unittest.expectedFailure

     Mark the test as an expected failure or error.  If the test fails
     or errors in the test function itself (rather than in one of the
     'test fixture' methods) then it will be considered a success.  If
     the test passes, it will be considered a failure.

 -- Özel Durum: unittest.SkipTest (reason)

     This exception is raised to skip a test.

     Usually you can use *note TestCase.skipTest(): 3df2. or one of the
     skipping decorators instead of raising this directly.

Skipped tests will not have *note setUp(): 11e5. or *note tearDown():
11e6. run around them.  Skipped classes will not have *note
setUpClass(): 8b2. or *note tearDownClass(): 11e3. run.  Skipped modules
will not have ‘setUpModule()’ or ‘tearDownModule()’ run.


File: python.info,  Node: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Next: Classes and functions,  Prev: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.8 Distinguishing test iterations using subtests
......................................................

Added in version 3.4.

When there are very small differences among your tests, for instance
some parameters, unittest allows you to distinguish them inside the body
of a test method using the *note subTest(): e87. context manager.

For example, the following test:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_even(self):
             """
             Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
             """
             for i in range(0, 6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will produce the following output:

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=1)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=3)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=5)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

Without using a subtest, execution would stop after the first failure,
and the error would be less easy to diagnose because the value of ‘i’
wouldn’t be displayed:

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
     AssertionError: 1 != 0


File: python.info,  Node: Classes and functions,  Next: Class and Module Fixtures,  Prev: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.9 Classes and functions
..............................

This section describes in depth the API of *note unittest: 106.

* Menu:

* Test cases::
* Grouping tests::
* Loading and running tests::


File: python.info,  Node: Test cases,  Next: Grouping tests,  Up: Classes and functions

5.26.5.10 Test cases
....................

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.TestCase (methodName='runTest')

     Instances of the *note TestCase: 15f. class represent the logical
     test units in the *note unittest: 106. universe.  This class is
     intended to be used as a base class, with specific tests being
     implemented by concrete subclasses.  This class implements the
     interface needed by the test runner to allow it to drive the tests,
     and methods that the test code can use to check for and report
     various kinds of failure.

     Each instance of *note TestCase: 15f. will run a single base
     method: the method named 'methodName'.  In most uses of *note
     TestCase: 15f, you will neither change the 'methodName' nor
     reimplement the default ‘runTest()’ method.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: *note TestCase: 15f. can be instantiated
     successfully without providing a 'methodName'.  This makes it
     easier to experiment with *note TestCase: 15f. from the interactive
     interpreter.

     *note TestCase: 15f. instances provide three groups of methods: one
     group used to run the test, another used by the test implementation
     to check conditions and report failures, and some inquiry methods
     allowing information about the test itself to be gathered.

     Methods in the first group (running the test) are:

      -- Yöntemi: setUp ()

          Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called
          immediately before calling the test method; other than *note
          AssertionError: 4bf. or *note SkipTest: e8a, any exception
          raised by this method will be considered an error rather than
          a test failure.  The default implementation does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: tearDown ()

          Method called immediately after the test method has been
          called and the result recorded.  This is called even if the
          test method raised an exception, so the implementation in
          subclasses may need to be particularly careful about checking
          internal state.  Any exception, other than *note
          AssertionError: 4bf. or *note SkipTest: e8a, raised by this
          method will be considered an additional error rather than a
          test failure (thus increasing the total number of reported
          errors).  This method will only be called if the *note
          setUp(): 11e5. succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test
          method.  The default implementation does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: setUpClass ()

          A class method called before tests in an individual class are
          run.  ‘setUpClass’ is called with the class as the only
          argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 252.:

               @classmethod
               def setUpClass(cls):
                   ...

          See *note Class and Module Fixtures: 3dfb. for more details.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: tearDownClass ()

          A class method called after tests in an individual class have
          run.  ‘tearDownClass’ is called with the class as the only
          argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 252.:

               @classmethod
               def tearDownClass(cls):
                   ...

          See *note Class and Module Fixtures: 3dfb. for more details.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: run (result=None)

          Run the test, collecting the result into the *note TestResult:
          100e. object passed as 'result'.  If 'result' is omitted or
          ‘None’, a temporary result object is created (by calling the
          *note defaultTestResult(): 3dfc. method) and used.  The result
          object is returned to *note run(): 100d.’s caller.

          The same effect may be had by simply calling the *note
          TestCase: 15f. instance.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Previous versions of ‘run’ did not
          return the result.  Neither did calling an instance.

      -- Yöntemi: skipTest (reason)

          Calling this during a test method or *note setUp(): 11e5.
          skips the current test.  See *note Skipping tests and expected
          failures: 3df1. for more information.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: subTest (msg=None, **params)

          Return a context manager which executes the enclosed code
          block as a subtest.  'msg' and 'params' are optional,
          arbitrary values which are displayed whenever a subtest fails,
          allowing you to identify them clearly.

          A test case can contain any number of subtest declarations,
          and they can be arbitrarily nested.

          See *note Distinguishing test iterations using subtests: e88.
          for more information.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: debug ()

          Run the test without collecting the result.  This allows
          exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the caller,
          and can be used to support running tests under a debugger.
     The *note TestCase: 15f. class provides several assert methods to
     check for and report failures.  The following table lists the most
     commonly used methods (see the tables below for more assert
     methods):

     Method                                        Checks that                       New in
                                                                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertEqual(a, b): 2b3.                 ‘a == b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 2b4.              ‘a != b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertTrue(x): 2b1.                     ‘bool(x) is True’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertFalse(x): 2b2.                    ‘bool(x) is False’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertIs(a, b): 11e7.                   ‘a is b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNot(a, b): 11e8.                ‘a is not b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNone(x): 1133.                  ‘x is None’                       3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNotNone(x): 1134.               ‘x is not None’                   3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIn(a, b): 11f0.                   ‘a in b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIn(a, b): 11f1.                ‘a not in b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsInstance(a, b): 11e9.           ‘isinstance(a, b)’                3.2
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIsInstance(a, b): 11ea.        ‘not isinstance(a, b)’            3.2
                                                                                     

     All the assert methods accept a 'msg' argument that, if specified,
     is used as the error message on failure (see also *note
     longMessage: 11e2.).  Note that the 'msg' keyword argument can be
     passed to *note assertRaises(): 2b7, *note assertRaisesRegex():
     2b9, *note assertWarns(): 100b, *note assertWarnsRegex(): 100c.
     only when they are used as a context manager.

      -- Yöntemi: assertEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are equal.  If the values do
          not compare equal, the test will fail.

          In addition, if 'first' and 'second' are the exact same type
          and one of list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset or str or any
          type that a subclass registers with *note
          addTypeEqualityFunc(): 11f4. the type-specific equality
          function will be called in order to generate a more useful
          default error message (see also the *note list of
          type-specific methods: 3dfd.).

          3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the automatic calling of
          type-specific equality function.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 11ef.
          added as the default type equality function for comparing
          strings.

      -- Yöntemi: assertNotEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are not equal.  If the values
          do compare equal, the test will fail.

      -- Yöntemi: assertTrue (expr, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertFalse (expr, msg=None)

          Test that 'expr' is true (or false).

          Note that this is equivalent to ‘bool(expr) is True’ and not
          to ‘expr is True’ (use ‘assertIs(expr, True)’ for the latter).
          This method should also be avoided when more specific methods
          are available (e.g.  ‘assertEqual(a, b)’ instead of
          ‘assertTrue(a == b)’), because they provide a better error
          message in case of failure.

      -- Yöntemi: assertIs (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertIsNot (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are (or are not) the same
          object.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertIsNone (expr, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertIsNotNone (expr, msg=None)

          Test that 'expr' is (or is not) ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertIn (member, container, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertNotIn (member, container, msg=None)

          Test that 'member' is (or is not) in 'container'.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertNotIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)

          Test that 'obj' is (or is not) an instance of 'cls' (which can
          be a class or a tuple of classes, as supported by *note
          isinstance(): 151.).  To check for the exact type, use *note
          assertIs(type(obj), cls): 11e7.

          Added in version 3.2.

     It is also possible to check the production of exceptions,
     warnings, and log messages using the following methods:

     Method                                                        Checks that                                New in
                                                                                                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds): 2b7.             ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc'
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 2b9.     ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc' and      3.1
                                                                   the message matches regex 'r'              
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds): 100b.            ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn'         3.2
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 100c.    ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn' and     3.2
                                                                   the message matches regex 'r'              
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertLogs(logger, level): 698.                         The ‘with’ block logs on 'logger' with     3.4
                                                                   minimum 'level'                            
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertNoLogs(logger, level): 697.                       The ‘with’ block does not log on           3.10
                                                                                                              
                                                                        'logger' with minimum 'level'
                                                                   

      -- Yöntemi: assertRaises (exception, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- Yöntemi: assertRaises (exception, *, msg=None)

          Test that an exception is raised when 'callable' is called
          with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed
          to *note assertRaises(): 2b7.  The test passes if 'exception'
          is raised, is an error if another exception is raised, or
          fails if no exception is raised.  To catch any of a group of
          exceptions, a tuple containing the exception classes may be
          passed as 'exception'.

          If only the 'exception' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are
          given, return a context manager so that the code under test
          can be written inline rather than as a function:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException):
                   do_something()

          When used as a context manager, *note assertRaises(): 2b7.
          accepts the additional keyword argument 'msg'.

          The context manager will store the caught exception object in
          its ‘exception’ attribute.  This can be useful if the
          intention is to perform additional checks on the exception
          raised:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
                   do_something()

               the_exception = cm.exception
               self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3)

          3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the ability to use *note
          assertRaises(): 2b7. as a context manager.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘exception’ attribute.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

      -- Yöntemi: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- Yöntemi: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, *, msg=None)

          Like *note assertRaises(): 2b7. but also tests that 'regex'
          matches on the string representation of the raised exception.
          'regex' may be a regular expression object or a string
          containing a regular expression suitable for use by *note
          re.search(): 10d3.  Examples:

               self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$",
                                      int, 'XYZ')

          or:

               with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'):
                  int('XYZ')

          Added in version 3.1: Added under the name
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Renamed to *note assertRaisesRegex():
          2b9.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

      -- Yöntemi: assertWarns (warning, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- Yöntemi: assertWarns (warning, *, msg=None)

          Test that a warning is triggered when 'callable' is called
          with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed
          to *note assertWarns(): 100b.  The test passes if 'warning' is
          triggered and fails if it isn’t.  Any exception is an error.
          To catch any of a group of warnings, a tuple containing the
          warning classes may be passed as 'warnings'.

          If only the 'warning' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are
          given, return a context manager so that the code under test
          can be written inline rather than as a function:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning):
                   do_something()

          When used as a context manager, *note assertWarns(): 100b.
          accepts the additional keyword argument 'msg'.

          The context manager will store the caught warning object in
          its ‘warning’ attribute, and the source line which triggered
          the warnings in the ‘filename’ and ‘lineno’ attributes.  This
          can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks
          on the warning caught:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm:
                   do_something()

               self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename)
               self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno)

          This method works regardless of the warning filters in place
          when it is called.

          Added in version 3.2.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

      -- Yöntemi: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- Yöntemi: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, *, msg=None)

          Like *note assertWarns(): 100b. but also tests that 'regex'
          matches on the message of the triggered warning.  'regex' may
          be a regular expression object or a string containing a
          regular expression suitable for use by *note re.search():
          10d3.  Example:

               self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning,
                                     r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated',
                                     legacy_function, 'XYZ')

          or:

               with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'):
                   frobnicate('/etc/passwd')

          Added in version 3.2.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

      -- Yöntemi: assertLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          A context manager to test that at least one message is logged
          on the 'logger' or one of its children, with at least the
          given 'level'.

          If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: 9c2.
          object or a *note str: 15d. giving the name of a logger.  The
          default is the root logger, which will catch all messages that
          were not blocked by a non-propagating descendent logger.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 1b3f.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          1b3d.

          The test passes if at least one message emitted inside the
          ‘with’ block matches the 'logger' and 'level' conditions,
          otherwise it fails.

          The object returned by the context manager is a recording
          helper which keeps tracks of the matching log messages.  It
          has two attributes:

           -- Özniteliği: records

               A list of *note logging.LogRecord: e8c. objects of the
               matching log messages.

           -- Özniteliği: output

               A list of *note str: 15d. objects with the formatted
               output of matching messages.

          Example:

               with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm:
                   logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message')
                   logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message')
               self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message',
                                            'ERROR:foo.bar:second message'])

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: assertNoLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          A context manager to test that no messages are logged on the
          'logger' or one of its children, with at least the given
          'level'.

          If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: 9c2.
          object or a *note str: 15d. giving the name of a logger.  The
          default is the root logger, which will catch all messages.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 1b3f.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          1b3d.

          Unlike *note assertLogs(): 698, nothing will be returned by
          the context manager.

          Added in version 3.10.

     There are also other methods used to perform more specific checks,
     such as:

     Method                                      Checks that                          New in
                                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 2b5.         ‘round(a-b, 7) == 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 2b6.      ‘round(a-b, 7) != 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreater(a, b): 11eb.            ‘a > b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreaterEqual(a, b): 11ec.       ‘a >= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLess(a, b): 11ed.               ‘a < b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLessEqual(a, b): 11ee.          ‘a <= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertRegex(s, r): 2b8.               ‘r.search(s)’                        3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotRegex(s, r): 2ba.            ‘not r.search(s)’                    3.2
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertCountEqual(a, b): 10d1.         'a' and 'b' have the same elements   3.2
                                                 in the same number, regardless of    
                                                 their order.
                                                 

      -- Yöntemi: assertAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None,
               delta=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertNotAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7,
               msg=None, delta=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are approximately (or not
          approximately) equal by computing the difference, rounding to
          the given number of decimal 'places' (default 7), and
          comparing to zero.  Note that these methods round the values
          to the given number of 'decimal places' (i.e.  like the *note
          round(): 1184. function) and not 'significant digits'.

          If 'delta' is supplied instead of 'places' then the difference
          between 'first' and 'second' must be less or equal to (or
          greater than) 'delta'.

          Supplying both 'delta' and 'places' raises a *note TypeError:
          2c4.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: *note assertAlmostEqual(): 2b5.
          automatically considers almost equal objects that compare
          equal.  *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 2b6. automatically fails
          if the objects compare equal.  Added the 'delta' keyword
          argument.

      -- Yöntemi: assertGreater (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertGreaterEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertLess (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertLessEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' is respectively >, >=, < or <= than 'second'
          depending on the method name.  If not, the test will fail:

               >>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4)
               AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4"

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertRegex (text, regex, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertNotRegex (text, regex, msg=None)

          Test that a 'regex' search matches (or does not match) 'text'.
          In case of failure, the error message will include the pattern
          and the 'text' (or the pattern and the part of 'text' that
          unexpectedly matched).  'regex' may be a regular expression
          object or a string containing a regular expression suitable
          for use by *note re.search(): 10d3.

          Added in version 3.1: Added under the name
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: The method ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ has
          been renamed to *note assertRegex(): 2b8.

          Added in version 3.2: *note assertNotRegex(): 2ba.

      -- Yöntemi: assertCountEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that sequence 'first' contains the same elements as
          'second', regardless of their order.  When they don’t, an
          error message listing the differences between the sequences
          will be generated.

          Duplicate elements are 'not' ignored when comparing 'first'
          and 'second'.  It verifies whether each element has the same
          count in both sequences.  Equivalent to:
          ‘assertEqual(Counter(list(first)), Counter(list(second)))’ but
          works with sequences of unhashable objects as well.

          Added in version 3.2.

     The *note assertEqual(): 2b3. method dispatches the equality check
     for objects of the same type to different type-specific methods.
     These methods are already implemented for most of the built-in
     types, but it’s also possible to register new methods using *note
     addTypeEqualityFunc(): 11f4.:

      -- Yöntemi: addTypeEqualityFunc (typeobj, function)

          Registers a type-specific method called by *note
          assertEqual(): 2b3. to check if two objects of exactly the
          same 'typeobj' (not subclasses) compare equal.  'function'
          must take two positional arguments and a third msg=None
          keyword argument just as *note assertEqual(): 2b3. does.  It
          must raise *note self.failureException(msg): 3e00. when
          inequality between the first two parameters is detected –
          possibly providing useful information and explaining the
          inequalities in details in the error message.

          Added in version 3.1.

     The list of type-specific methods automatically used by *note
     assertEqual(): 2b3. are summarized in the following table.  Note
     that it’s usually not necessary to invoke these methods directly.

     Method                                        Used to compare                   New in
                                                                                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertMultiLineEqual(a, b): 11ef.       strings                           3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSequenceEqual(a, b): 1132.        sequences                         3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertListEqual(a, b): 1130.            lists                             3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertTupleEqual(a, b): 1131.           tuples                            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSetEqual(a, b): 112e.             sets or frozensets                3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertDictEqual(a, b): 112f.            dicts                             3.1
                                                                                     

      -- Yöntemi: assertMultiLineEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that the multiline string 'first' is equal to the string
          'second'.  When not equal a diff of the two strings
          highlighting the differences will be included in the error
          message.  This method is used by default when comparing
          strings with *note assertEqual(): 2b3.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertSequenceEqual (first, second, msg=None,
               seq_type=None)

          Tests that two sequences are equal.  If a 'seq_type' is
          supplied, both 'first' and 'second' must be instances of
          'seq_type' or a failure will be raised.  If the sequences are
          different an error message is constructed that shows the
          difference between the two.

          This method is not called directly by *note assertEqual():
          2b3, but it’s used to implement *note assertListEqual(): 1130.
          and *note assertTupleEqual(): 1131.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertListEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Yöntemi: assertTupleEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Tests that two lists or tuples are equal.  If not, an error
          message is constructed that shows only the differences between
          the two.  An error is also raised if either of the parameters
          are of the wrong type.  These methods are used by default when
          comparing lists or tuples with *note assertEqual(): 2b3.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertSetEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Tests that two sets are equal.  If not, an error message is
          constructed that lists the differences between the sets.  This
          method is used by default when comparing sets or frozensets
          with *note assertEqual(): 2b3.

          Fails if either of 'first' or 'second' does not have a
          ‘set.difference()’ method.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: assertDictEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that two dictionaries are equal.  If not, an error
          message is constructed that shows the differences in the
          dictionaries.  This method will be used by default to compare
          dictionaries in calls to *note assertEqual(): 2b3.

          Added in version 3.1.

     Finally the *note TestCase: 15f. provides the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- Yöntemi: fail (msg=None)

          Signals a test failure unconditionally, with 'msg' or ‘None’
          for the error message.

      -- Özniteliği: failureException

          This class attribute gives the exception raised by the test
          method.  If a test framework needs to use a specialized
          exception, possibly to carry additional information, it must
          subclass this exception in order to “play fair” with the
          framework.  The initial value of this attribute is *note
          AssertionError: 4bf.

      -- Özniteliği: longMessage

          This class attribute determines what happens when a custom
          failure message is passed as the msg argument to an assertXYY
          call that fails.  ‘True’ is the default value.  In this case,
          the custom message is appended to the end of the standard
          failure message.  When set to ‘False’, the custom message
          replaces the standard message.

          The class setting can be overridden in individual test methods
          by assigning an instance attribute, self.longMessage, to
          ‘True’ or ‘False’ before calling the assert methods.

          The class setting gets reset before each test call.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Özniteliği: maxDiff

          This attribute controls the maximum length of diffs output by
          assert methods that report diffs on failure.  It defaults to
          80*8 characters.  Assert methods affected by this attribute
          are *note assertSequenceEqual(): 1132. (including all the
          sequence comparison methods that delegate to it), *note
          assertDictEqual(): 112f. and *note assertMultiLineEqual():
          11ef.

          Setting ‘maxDiff’ to ‘None’ means that there is no maximum
          length of diffs.

          Added in version 3.2.

     Testing frameworks can use the following methods to collect
     information on the test:

      -- Yöntemi: countTestCases ()

          Return the number of tests represented by this test object.
          For *note TestCase: 15f. instances, this will always be ‘1’.

      -- Yöntemi: defaultTestResult ()

          Return an instance of the test result class that should be
          used for this test case class (if no other result instance is
          provided to the *note run(): 100d. method).

          For *note TestCase: 15f. instances, this will always be an
          instance of *note TestResult: 100e.; subclasses of *note
          TestCase: 15f. should override this as necessary.

      -- Yöntemi: id ()

          Return a string identifying the specific test case.  This is
          usually the full name of the test method, including the module
          and class name.

      -- Yöntemi: shortDescription ()

          Returns a description of the test, or ‘None’ if no description
          has been provided.  The default implementation of this method
          returns the first line of the test method’s docstring, if
          available, or ‘None’.

          3.1 sürümünde değişti: In 3.1 this was changed to add the test
          name to the short description even in the presence of a
          docstring.  This caused compatibility issues with unittest
          extensions and adding the test name was moved to the *note
          TextTestResult: 2bc. in Python 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: addCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Add a function to be called after *note tearDown(): 11e6. to
          cleanup resources used during the test.  Functions will be
          called in reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO).
          They are called with any arguments and keyword arguments
          passed into *note addCleanup(): 8e6. when they are added.

          If *note setUp(): 11e5. fails, meaning that *note tearDown():
          11e6. is not called, then any cleanup functions added will
          still be called.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: enterContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 3df.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 11aa. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addCleanup(): 8e6. and return the result of
          the *note __enter__(): 3d0. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: doCleanups ()

          This method is called unconditionally after *note tearDown():
          11e6, or after *note setUp(): 11e5. if *note setUp(): 11e5.
          raises an exception.

          It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added
          by *note addCleanup(): 8e6.  If you need cleanup functions to
          be called 'prior' to *note tearDown(): 11e6. then you can call
          *note doCleanups(): 11e4. yourself.

          *note doCleanups(): 11e4. pops methods off the stack of
          cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any
          time.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod addClassCleanup (function, /, *args,
               **kwargs)

          Add a function to be called after *note tearDownClass(): 11e3.
          to cleanup resources used during the test class.  Functions
          will be called in reverse order to the order they are added
          (LIFO).  They are called with any arguments and keyword
          arguments passed into *note addClassCleanup(): 8b1. when they
          are added.

          If *note setUpClass(): 8b2. fails, meaning that *note
          tearDownClass(): 11e3. is not called, then any cleanup
          functions added will still be called.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod enterClassContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 3df.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 11aa. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addClassCleanup(): 8b1. and return the
          result of the *note __enter__(): 3d0. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod doClassCleanups ()

          This method is called unconditionally after *note
          tearDownClass(): 11e3, or after *note setUpClass(): 8b2. if
          *note setUpClass(): 8b2. raises an exception.

          It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added
          by *note addClassCleanup(): 8b1.  If you need cleanup
          functions to be called 'prior' to *note tearDownClass(): 11e3.
          then you can call *note doClassCleanups(): 3e06. yourself.

          *note doClassCleanups(): 3e06. pops methods off the stack of
          cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any
          time.

          Added in version 3.8.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (methodName='runTest')

     This class provides an API similar to *note TestCase: 15f. and also
     accepts coroutines as test functions.

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: async asyncSetUp ()

          Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called
          after ‘setUp()’.  This is called immediately before calling
          the test method; other than *note AssertionError: 4bf. or
          *note SkipTest: e8a, any exception raised by this method will
          be considered an error rather than a test failure.  The
          default implementation does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: async asyncTearDown ()

          Method called immediately after the test method has been
          called and the result recorded.  This is called before
          ‘tearDown()’.  This is called even if the test method raised
          an exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need to
          be particularly careful about checking internal state.  Any
          exception, other than *note AssertionError: 4bf. or *note
          SkipTest: e8a, raised by this method will be considered an
          additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing
          the total number of reported errors).  This method will only
          be called if the *note asyncSetUp(): 3e07. succeeds,
          regardless of the outcome of the test method.  The default
          implementation does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: addAsyncCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          This method accepts a coroutine that can be used as a cleanup
          function.

      -- Yöntemi: async enterAsyncContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note asynchronous context manager: 3e2.
          If successful, also add its *note __aexit__(): 1dc0. method as
          a cleanup function by *note addAsyncCleanup(): 3e09. and
          return the result of the *note __aenter__(): 1dbf. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: run (result=None)

          Sets up a new event loop to run the test, collecting the
          result into the *note TestResult: 100e. object passed as
          'result'.  If 'result' is omitted or ‘None’, a temporary
          result object is created (by calling the ‘defaultTestResult()’
          method) and used.  The result object is returned to *note
          run(): 3e0a.’s caller.  At the end of the test all the tasks
          in the event loop are cancelled.

     An example illustrating the order:

          from unittest import IsolatedAsyncioTestCase

          events = []


          class Test(IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):


              def setUp(self):
                  events.append("setUp")

              async def asyncSetUp(self):
                  self._async_connection = await AsyncConnection()
                  events.append("asyncSetUp")

              async def test_response(self):
                  events.append("test_response")
                  response = await self._async_connection.get("https://example.com")
                  self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
                  self.addAsyncCleanup(self.on_cleanup)

              def tearDown(self):
                  events.append("tearDown")

              async def asyncTearDown(self):
                  await self._async_connection.close()
                  events.append("asyncTearDown")

              async def on_cleanup(self):
                  events.append("cleanup")

          if __name__ == "__main__":
              unittest.main()

     After running the test, ‘events’ would contain ‘["setUp",
     "asyncSetUp", "test_response", "asyncTearDown", "tearDown",
     "cleanup"]’.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.FunctionTestCase (testFunc, setUp=None,
          tearDown=None, description=None)

     This class implements the portion of the *note TestCase: 15f.
     interface which allows the test runner to drive the test, but does
     not provide the methods which test code can use to check and report
     errors.  This is used to create test cases using legacy test code,
     allowing it to be integrated into a *note unittest: 106.-based test
     framework.


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping tests,  Next: Loading and running tests,  Prev: Test cases,  Up: Classes and functions

5.26.5.11 Grouping tests
........................

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.TestSuite (tests=())

     This class represents an aggregation of individual test cases and
     test suites.  The class presents the interface needed by the test
     runner to allow it to be run as any other test case.  Running a
     *note TestSuite: c82. instance is the same as iterating over the
     suite, running each test individually.

     If 'tests' is given, it must be an iterable of individual test
     cases or other test suites that will be used to build the suite
     initially.  Additional methods are provided to add test cases and
     suites to the collection later on.

     *note TestSuite: c82. objects behave much like *note TestCase: 15f.
     objects, except they do not actually implement a test.  Instead,
     they are used to aggregate tests into groups of tests that should
     be run together.  Some additional methods are available to add
     tests to *note TestSuite: c82. instances:

      -- Yöntemi: addTest (test)

          Add a *note TestCase: 15f. or *note TestSuite: c82. to the
          suite.

      -- Yöntemi: addTests (tests)

          Add all the tests from an iterable of *note TestCase: 15f. and
          *note TestSuite: c82. instances to this test suite.

          This is equivalent to iterating over 'tests', calling *note
          addTest(): 3e0d. for each element.

     *note TestSuite: c82. shares the following methods with *note
     TestCase: 15f.:

      -- Yöntemi: run (result)

          Run the tests associated with this suite, collecting the
          result into the test result object passed as 'result'.  Note
          that unlike *note TestCase.run(): 100d, *note TestSuite.run():
          3e0f. requires the result object to be passed in.

      -- Yöntemi: debug ()

          Run the tests associated with this suite without collecting
          the result.  This allows exceptions raised by the test to be
          propagated to the caller and can be used to support running
          tests under a debugger.

      -- Yöntemi: countTestCases ()

          Return the number of tests represented by this test object,
          including all individual tests and sub-suites.

      -- Yöntemi: __iter__ ()

          Tests grouped by a *note TestSuite: c82. are always accessed
          by iteration.  Subclasses can lazily provide tests by
          overriding ‘__iter__()’.  Note that this method may be called
          several times on a single suite (for example when counting
          tests or comparing for equality) so the tests returned by
          repeated iterations before *note TestSuite.run(): 3e0f. must
          be the same for each call iteration.  After *note
          TestSuite.run(): 3e0f, callers should not rely on the tests
          returned by this method unless the caller uses a subclass that
          overrides ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’ to preserve test
          references.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: In earlier versions the *note
          TestSuite: c82. accessed tests directly rather than through
          iteration, so overriding ‘__iter__()’ wasn’t sufficient for
          providing tests.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: In earlier versions the *note
          TestSuite: c82. held references to each *note TestCase: 15f.
          after *note TestSuite.run(): 3e0f.  Subclasses can restore
          that behavior by overriding ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’.

     In the typical usage of a *note TestSuite: c82. object, the *note
     run(): 3e0f. method is invoked by a ‘TestRunner’ rather than by the
     end-user test harness.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading and running tests,  Prev: Grouping tests,  Up: Classes and functions

5.26.5.12 Loading and running tests
...................................

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.TestLoader

     The *note TestLoader: 54b. class is used to create test suites from
     classes and modules.  Normally, there is no need to create an
     instance of this class; the *note unittest: 106. module provides an
     instance that can be shared as *note unittest.defaultTestLoader:
     3e13.  Using a subclass or instance, however, allows customization
     of some configurable properties.

     *note TestLoader: 54b. objects have the following attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: errors

          A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading
          tests.  Not reset by the loader at any point.  Fatal errors
          are signalled by the relevant method raising an exception to
          the caller.  Non-fatal errors are also indicated by a
          synthetic test that will raise the original error when run.

          Added in version 3.5.

     *note TestLoader: 54b. objects have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: loadTestsFromTestCase (testCaseClass)

          Return a suite of all test cases contained in the *note
          TestCase: 15f.-derived ‘testCaseClass’.

          A test case instance is created for each method named by *note
          getTestCaseNames(): 54d.  By default these are the method
          names beginning with ‘test’.  If *note getTestCaseNames():
          54d. returns no methods, but the ‘runTest()’ method is
          implemented, a single test case is created for that method
          instead.

      -- Yöntemi: loadTestsFromModule (module, *, pattern=None)

          Return a suite of all test cases contained in the given
          module.  This method searches 'module' for classes derived
          from *note TestCase: 15f. and creates an instance of the class
          for each test method defined for the class.

               Not: While using a hierarchy of *note TestCase:
               15f.-derived classes can be convenient in sharing
               fixtures and helper functions, defining test methods on
               base classes that are not intended to be instantiated
               directly does not play well with this method.  Doing so,
               however, can be useful when the fixtures are different
               and defined in subclasses.

          If a module provides a ‘load_tests’ function it will be called
          to load the tests.  This allows modules to customize test
          loading.  This is the *note load_tests protocol: 3dec.  The
          'pattern' argument is passed as the third argument to
          ‘load_tests’.

          3.2 sürümünde değişti: Support for ‘load_tests’ added.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Support for a keyword-only argument
          'pattern' has been added.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: The undocumented and unofficial
          'use_load_tests' parameter has been removed.

      -- Yöntemi: loadTestsFromName (name, module=None)

          Return a suite of all test cases given a string specifier.

          The specifier 'name' is a “dotted name” that may resolve
          either to a module, a test case class, a test method within a
          test case class, a *note TestSuite: c82. instance, or a
          callable object which returns a *note TestCase: 15f. or *note
          TestSuite: c82. instance.  These checks are applied in the
          order listed here; that is, a method on a possible test case
          class will be picked up as “a test method within a test case
          class”, rather than “a callable object”.

          For example, if you have a module ‘SampleTests’ containing a
          *note TestCase: 15f.-derived class ‘SampleTestCase’ with three
          test methods (‘test_one()’, ‘test_two()’, and ‘test_three()’),
          the specifier ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'’ would cause this
          method to return a suite which will run all three test
          methods.  Using the specifier
          ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'’ would cause it to
          return a test suite which will run only the ‘test_two()’ test
          method.  The specifier can refer to modules and packages which
          have not been imported; they will be imported as a
          side-effect.

          The method optionally resolves 'name' relative to the given
          'module'.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: If an *note ImportError: 14b. or *note
          AttributeError: 3dc. occurs while traversing 'name' then a
          synthetic test that raises that error when run will be
          returned.  These errors are included in the errors accumulated
          by self.errors.

      -- Yöntemi: loadTestsFromNames (names, module=None)

          Similar to *note loadTestsFromName(): 11f2, but takes a
          sequence of names rather than a single name.  The return value
          is a test suite which supports all the tests defined for each
          name.

      -- Yöntemi: getTestCaseNames (testCaseClass)

          Return a sorted sequence of method names found within
          'testCaseClass'; this should be a subclass of *note TestCase:
          15f.

      -- Yöntemi: discover (start_dir, pattern='test*.py',
               top_level_dir=None)

          Find all the test modules by recursing into subdirectories
          from the specified start directory, and return a TestSuite
          object containing them.  Only test files that match 'pattern'
          will be loaded.  (Using shell style pattern matching.)  Only
          module names that are importable (i.e.  are valid Python
          identifiers) will be loaded.

          All test modules must be importable from the top level of the
          project.  If the start directory is not the top level
          directory then 'top_level_dir' must be specified separately.

          If importing a module fails, for example due to a syntax
          error, then this will be recorded as a single error and
          discovery will continue.  If the import failure is due to
          *note SkipTest: e8a. being raised, it will be recorded as a
          skip instead of an error.

          If a package (a directory containing a file named
          ‘__init__.py’) is found, the package will be checked for a
          ‘load_tests’ function.  If this exists then it will be called
          ‘package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern)’.  Test discovery
          takes care to ensure that a package is only checked for tests
          once during an invocation, even if the load_tests function
          itself calls ‘loader.discover’.

          If ‘load_tests’ exists then discovery does 'not' recurse into
          the package, ‘load_tests’ is responsible for loading all tests
          in the package.

          The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute
          so that packages can continue discovery themselves.

          'top_level_dir' is stored internally, and used as a default to
          any nested calls to ‘discover()’.  That is, if a package’s
          ‘load_tests’ calls ‘loader.discover()’, it does not need to
          pass this argument.

          'start_dir' can be a dotted module name as well as a
          directory.

          Added in version 3.2.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Modules that raise *note SkipTest: e8a.
          on import are recorded as skips, not errors.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: 'start_dir' can be a *note namespace
          packages: 1ab1.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Paths are sorted before being imported
          so that execution order is the same even if the underlying
          file system’s ordering is not dependent on file name.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Found packages are now checked for
          ‘load_tests’ regardless of whether their path matches
          'pattern', because it is impossible for a package name to
          match the default pattern.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: 'start_dir' can not be a *note
          namespace packages: 1ab1.  It has been broken since Python 3.7
          and Python 3.11 officially remove it.

          3.12.4 sürümünde değişti: 'top_level_dir' is only stored for
          the duration of 'discover' call.

     The following attributes of a *note TestLoader: 54b. can be
     configured either by subclassing or assignment on an instance:

      -- Özniteliği: testMethodPrefix

          String giving the prefix of method names which will be
          interpreted as test methods.  The default value is ‘'test'’.

          This affects *note getTestCaseNames(): 54d. and all the
          ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- Özniteliği: sortTestMethodsUsing

          Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them
          in *note getTestCaseNames(): 54d. and all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’
          methods.

      -- Özniteliği: suiteClass

          Callable object that constructs a test suite from a list of
          tests.  No methods on the resulting object are needed.  The
          default value is the *note TestSuite: c82. class.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- Özniteliği: testNamePatterns

          List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test
          methods have to match to be included in test suites (see ‘-k’
          option).

          If this attribute is not ‘None’ (the default), all test
          methods to be included in test suites must match one of the
          patterns in this list.  Note that matches are always performed
          using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 16c8, so unlike patterns
          passed to the ‘-k’ option, simple substring patterns will have
          to be converted using ‘*’ wildcards.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

          Added in version 3.7.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.TestResult

     This class is used to compile information about which tests have
     succeeded and which have failed.

     A *note TestResult: 100e. object stores the results of a set of
     tests.  The *note TestCase: 15f. and *note TestSuite: c82. classes
     ensure that results are properly recorded; test authors do not need
     to worry about recording the outcome of tests.

     Testing frameworks built on top of *note unittest: 106. may want
     access to the *note TestResult: 100e. object generated by running a
     set of tests for reporting purposes; a *note TestResult: 100e.
     instance is returned by the ‘TestRunner.run()’ method for this
     purpose.

     *note TestResult: 100e. instances have the following attributes
     that will be of interest when inspecting the results of running a
     set of tests:

      -- Özniteliği: errors

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 15f. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents a test which raised an unexpected exception.

      -- Özniteliği: failures

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 15f. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents a test where a failure was explicitly signalled
          using the *note assert* methods: 3dd4.

      -- Özniteliği: skipped

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 15f. instances
          and strings holding the reason for skipping the test.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Özniteliği: expectedFailures

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 15f. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents an expected failure or error of the test case.

      -- Özniteliği: unexpectedSuccesses

          A list containing *note TestCase: 15f. instances that were
          marked as expected failures, but succeeded.

      -- Özniteliği: collectedDurations

          A list containing 2-tuples of test case names and floats
          representing the elapsed time of each test which was run.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Özniteliği: shouldStop

          Set to ‘True’ when the execution of tests should stop by *note
          stop(): 3e1e.

      -- Özniteliği: testsRun

          The total number of tests run so far.

      -- Özniteliği: buffer

          If set to true, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ will be buffered
          in between *note startTest(): 3e21. and *note stopTest():
          3e22. being called.  Collected output will only be echoed onto
          the real ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ if the test fails or
          errors.  Any output is also attached to the failure / error
          message.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Özniteliği: failfast

          If set to true *note stop(): 3e1e. will be called on the first
          failure or error, halting the test run.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Özniteliği: tb_locals

          If set to true then local variables will be shown in
          tracebacks.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: wasSuccessful ()

          Return ‘True’ if all tests run so far have passed, otherwise
          returns ‘False’.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Returns ‘False’ if there were any *note
          unexpectedSuccesses: 3e1c. from tests marked with the *note
          expectedFailure(): 3df3. decorator.

      -- Yöntemi: stop ()

          This method can be called to signal that the set of tests
          being run should be aborted by setting the *note shouldStop:
          3e1d. attribute to ‘True’.  ‘TestRunner’ objects should
          respect this flag and return without running any additional
          tests.

          For example, this feature is used by the *note TextTestRunner:
          1561. class to stop the test framework when the user signals
          an interrupt from the keyboard.  Interactive tools which
          provide ‘TestRunner’ implementations can use this in a similar
          manner.

     The following methods of the *note TestResult: 100e. class are used
     to maintain the internal data structures, and may be extended in
     subclasses to support additional reporting requirements.  This is
     particularly useful in building tools which support interactive
     reporting while tests are being run.

      -- Yöntemi: startTest (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' is about to be run.

      -- Yöntemi: stopTest (test)

          Called after the test case 'test' has been executed,
          regardless of the outcome.

      -- Yöntemi: startTestRun ()

          Called once before any tests are executed.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: stopTestRun ()

          Called once after all tests are executed.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: addError (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' raises an unexpected
          exception.  'err' is a tuple of the form returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): 49f.: ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note errors: 3e18.
          attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback
          derived from 'err'.

      -- Yöntemi: addFailure (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' signals a failure.  'err' is
          a tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.:
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note failures: 3e19.
          attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback
          derived from 'err'.

      -- Yöntemi: addSuccess (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' succeeds.

          The default implementation does nothing.

      -- Yöntemi: addSkip (test, reason)

          Called when the test case 'test' is skipped.  'reason' is the
          reason the test gave for skipping.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test, reason)’ to
          the instance’s *note skipped: 3e1a. attribute.

      -- Yöntemi: addExpectedFailure (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' fails or errors, but was
          marked with the *note expectedFailure(): 3df3. decorator.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note expectedFailures:
          3e1b. attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted
          traceback derived from 'err'.

      -- Yöntemi: addUnexpectedSuccess (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' was marked with the *note
          expectedFailure(): 3df3. decorator, but succeeded.

          The default implementation appends the test to the instance’s
          *note unexpectedSuccesses: 3e1c. attribute.

      -- Yöntemi: addSubTest (test, subtest, outcome)

          Called when a subtest finishes.  'test' is the test case
          corresponding to the test method.  'subtest' is a custom *note
          TestCase: 15f. instance describing the subtest.

          If 'outcome' is *note None: 488, the subtest succeeded.
          Otherwise, it failed with an exception where 'outcome' is a
          tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.:
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation does nothing when the outcome is a
          success, and records subtest failures as normal failures.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: addDuration (test, elapsed)

          Called when the test case finishes.  'elapsed' is the time
          represented in seconds, and it includes the execution of
          cleanup functions.

          Added in version 3.12.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.TextTestResult (stream, descriptions, verbosity, *,
          durations=None)

     A concrete implementation of *note TestResult: 100e. used by the
     *note TextTestRunner: 1561.  Subclasses should accept ‘**kwargs’ to
     ensure compatibility as the interface changes.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'durations' keyword parameter.

 -- Verisi: unittest.defaultTestLoader

     Instance of the *note TestLoader: 54b. class intended to be shared.
     If no customization of the *note TestLoader: 54b. is needed, this
     instance can be used instead of repeatedly creating new instances.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.TextTestRunner (stream=None, descriptions=True,
          verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None,
          warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False, durations=None)

     A basic test runner implementation that outputs results to a
     stream.  If 'stream' is ‘None’, the default, *note sys.stderr: 792.
     is used as the output stream.  This class has a few configurable
     parameters, but is essentially very simple.  Graphical applications
     which run test suites should provide alternate implementations.
     Such implementations should accept ‘**kwargs’ as the interface to
     construct runners changes when features are added to unittest.

     By default this runner shows *note DeprecationWarning: 17f, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: 719, *note ResourceWarning: ab9. and
     *note ImportWarning: 24e. even if they are *note ignored by
     default: 3e29.  This behavior can be overridden using Python’s
     ‘-Wd’ or ‘-Wa’ options (see *note Warning control: 1b82.) and
     leaving 'warnings' to ‘None’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'warnings' parameter.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The default stream is set to *note
     sys.stderr: 792. at instantiation time rather than import time.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'tb_locals' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'durations' parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: _makeResult ()

          This method returns the instance of ‘TestResult’ used by *note
          run(): 3e2b.  It is not intended to be called directly, but
          can be overridden in subclasses to provide a custom
          ‘TestResult’.

          ‘_makeResult()’ instantiates the class or callable passed in
          the ‘TextTestRunner’ constructor as the ‘resultclass’
          argument.  It defaults to *note TextTestResult: 2bc. if no
          ‘resultclass’ is provided.  The result class is instantiated
          with the following arguments:

               stream, descriptions, verbosity

      -- Yöntemi: run (test)

          This method is the main public interface to the
          ‘TextTestRunner’.  This method takes a *note TestSuite: c82.
          or *note TestCase: 15f. instance.  A *note TestResult: 100e.
          is created by calling *note _makeResult(): 3e2a. and the
          test(s) are run and the results printed to stdout.

 -- Işlevi: unittest.main (module='__main__', defaultTest=None,
          argv=None, testRunner=None,
          testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader, exit=True, verbosity=1,
          failfast=None, catchbreak=None, buffer=None, warnings=None)

     A command-line program that loads a set of tests from 'module' and
     runs them; this is primarily for making test modules conveniently
     executable.  The simplest use for this function is to include the
     following line at the end of a test script:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main()

     You can run tests with more detailed information by passing in the
     verbosity argument:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main(verbosity=2)

     The 'defaultTest' argument is either the name of a single test or
     an iterable of test names to run if no test names are specified via
     'argv'.  If not specified or ‘None’ and no test names are provided
     via 'argv', all tests found in 'module' are run.

     The 'argv' argument can be a list of options passed to the program,
     with the first element being the program name.  If not specified or
     ‘None’, the values of *note sys.argv: 110d. are used.

     The 'testRunner' argument can either be a test runner class or an
     already created instance of it.  By default ‘main’ calls *note
     sys.exit(): 11f5. with an exit code indicating success (0) or
     failure (1) of the tests run.  An exit code of 5 indicates that no
     tests were run or skipped.

     The 'testLoader' argument has to be a *note TestLoader: 54b.
     instance, and defaults to *note defaultTestLoader: 3e13.

     ‘main’ supports being used from the interactive interpreter by
     passing in the argument ‘exit=False’.  This displays the result on
     standard output without calling *note sys.exit(): 11f5.:

          >>> from unittest import main
          >>> main(module='test_module', exit=False)

     The 'failfast', 'catchbreak' and 'buffer' parameters have the same
     effect as the same-name *note command-line options: 3ddb.

     The 'warnings' argument specifies the *note warning filter: 71b.
     that should be used while running the tests.  If it’s not
     specified, it will remain ‘None’ if a ‘-W’ option is passed to
     ‘python’ (see *note Warning control: 1b82.), otherwise it will be
     set to ‘'default'’.

     Calling ‘main’ returns an object with the ‘result’ attribute that
     contains the result of the tests run as a *note
     unittest.TestResult: 100e.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: The 'exit' parameter was added.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'verbosity', 'failfast', 'catchbreak',
     'buffer' and 'warnings' parameters were added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The 'defaultTest' parameter was changed to
     also accept an iterable of test names.

* Menu:

* load_tests Protocol::


File: python.info,  Node: load_tests Protocol,  Up: Loading and running tests

5.26.5.13 load_tests Protocol
.............................

Added in version 3.2.

Modules or packages can customize how tests are loaded from them during
normal test runs or test discovery by implementing a function called
‘load_tests’.

If a test module defines ‘load_tests’ it will be called by *note
TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 2bb. with the following arguments:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

where 'pattern' is passed straight through from ‘loadTestsFromModule’.
It defaults to ‘None’.

It should return a *note TestSuite: c82.

'loader' is the instance of *note TestLoader: 54b. doing the loading.
'standard_tests' are the tests that would be loaded by default from the
module.  It is common for test modules to only want to add or remove
tests from the standard set of tests.  The third argument is used when
loading packages as part of test discovery.

A typical ‘load_tests’ function that loads tests from a specific set of
*note TestCase: 15f. classes may look like:

     test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3)

     def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern):
         suite = TestSuite()
         for test_class in test_cases:
             tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class)
             suite.addTests(tests)
         return suite

If discovery is started in a directory containing a package, either from
the command line or by calling *note TestLoader.discover(): e8b, then
the package ‘__init__.py’ will be checked for ‘load_tests’.  If that
function does not exist, discovery will recurse into the package as
though it were just another directory.  Otherwise, discovery of the
package’s tests will be left up to ‘load_tests’ which is called with the
following arguments:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

This should return a *note TestSuite: c82. representing all the tests
from the package.  (‘standard_tests’ will only contain tests collected
from ‘__init__.py’.)

Because the pattern is passed into ‘load_tests’ the package is free to
continue (and potentially modify) test discovery.  A ‘do nothing’
‘load_tests’ function for a test package would look like:

     def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern):
         # top level directory cached on loader instance
         this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
         package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern)
         standard_tests.addTests(package_tests)
         return standard_tests

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Discovery no longer checks package names for
matching 'pattern' due to the impossibility of package names matching
the default pattern.


File: python.info,  Node: Class and Module Fixtures,  Next: Signal Handling,  Prev: Classes and functions,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.14 Class and Module Fixtures
...................................

Class and module level fixtures are implemented in *note TestSuite: c82.
When the test suite encounters a test from a new class then
‘tearDownClass()’ from the previous class (if there is one) is called,
followed by ‘setUpClass()’ from the new class.

Similarly if a test is from a different module from the previous test
then ‘tearDownModule’ from the previous module is run, followed by
‘setUpModule’ from the new module.

After all the tests have run the final ‘tearDownClass’ and
‘tearDownModule’ are run.

Note that shared fixtures do not play well with [potential] features
like test parallelization and they break test isolation.  They should be
used with care.

The default ordering of tests created by the unittest test loaders is to
group all tests from the same modules and classes together.  This will
lead to ‘setUpClass’ / ‘setUpModule’ (etc) being called exactly once per
class and module.  If you randomize the order, so that tests from
different modules and classes are adjacent to each other, then these
shared fixture functions may be called multiple times in a single test
run.

Shared fixtures are not intended to work with suites with non-standard
ordering.  A ‘BaseTestSuite’ still exists for frameworks that don’t want
to support shared fixtures.

If there are any exceptions raised during one of the shared fixture
functions the test is reported as an error.  Because there is no
corresponding test instance an ‘_ErrorHolder’ object (that has the same
interface as a *note TestCase: 15f.) is created to represent the error.
If you are just using the standard unittest test runner then this detail
doesn’t matter, but if you are a framework author it may be relevant.

* Menu:

* setUpClass and tearDownClass::
* setUpModule and tearDownModule::


File: python.info,  Node: setUpClass and tearDownClass,  Next: setUpModule and tearDownModule,  Up: Class and Module Fixtures

5.26.5.15 setUpClass and tearDownClass
......................................

These must be implemented as class methods:

     import unittest

     class Test(unittest.TestCase):
         @classmethod
         def setUpClass(cls):
             cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject()

         @classmethod
         def tearDownClass(cls):
             cls._connection.destroy()

If you want the ‘setUpClass’ and ‘tearDownClass’ on base classes called
then you must call up to them yourself.  The implementations in *note
TestCase: 15f. are empty.

If an exception is raised during a ‘setUpClass’ then the tests in the
class are not run and the ‘tearDownClass’ is not run.  Skipped classes
will not have ‘setUpClass’ or ‘tearDownClass’ run.  If the exception is
a *note SkipTest: e8a. exception then the class will be reported as
having been skipped instead of as an error.


File: python.info,  Node: setUpModule and tearDownModule,  Prev: setUpClass and tearDownClass,  Up: Class and Module Fixtures

5.26.5.16 setUpModule and tearDownModule
........................................

These should be implemented as functions:

     def setUpModule():
         createConnection()

     def tearDownModule():
         closeConnection()

If an exception is raised in a ‘setUpModule’ then none of the tests in
the module will be run and the ‘tearDownModule’ will not be run.  If the
exception is a *note SkipTest: e8a. exception then the module will be
reported as having been skipped instead of as an error.

To add cleanup code that must be run even in the case of an exception,
use ‘addModuleCleanup’:

 -- Işlevi: unittest.addModuleCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Add a function to be called after ‘tearDownModule()’ to cleanup
     resources used during the test class.  Functions will be called in
     reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO).  They are called
     with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into *note
     addModuleCleanup(): 8b0. when they are added.

     If ‘setUpModule()’ fails, meaning that ‘tearDownModule()’ is not
     called, then any cleanup functions added will still be called.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Yöntemi: classmethod unittest.enterModuleContext (cm)

     Enter the supplied *note context manager: 3df.  If successful, also
     add its *note __exit__(): 11aa. method as a cleanup function by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): 8b0. and return the result of the *note
     __enter__(): 3d0. method.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: unittest.doModuleCleanups ()

     This function is called unconditionally after ‘tearDownModule()’,
     or after ‘setUpModule()’ if ‘setUpModule()’ raises an exception.

     It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): 8b0.  If you need cleanup functions to be
     called 'prior' to ‘tearDownModule()’ then you can call *note
     doModuleCleanups(): 1663. yourself.

     *note doModuleCleanups(): 1663. pops methods off the stack of
     cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Signal Handling,  Prev: Class and Module Fixtures,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.26.5.17 Signal Handling
.........................

Added in version 3.2.

The *note -c/-catch: 11df. command-line option to unittest, along with
the ‘catchbreak’ parameter to *note unittest.main(): e89, provide more
friendly handling of control-C during a test run.  With catch break
behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to
complete, and the test run will then end and report all the results so
far.  A second control-c will raise a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. in
the usual way.

The control-c handling signal handler attempts to remain compatible with
code or tests that install their own *note signal.SIGINT: 683. handler.
If the ‘unittest’ handler is called but 'isn’t' the installed *note
signal.SIGINT: 683. handler, i.e.  it has been replaced by the system
under test and delegated to, then it calls the default handler.  This
will normally be the expected behavior by code that replaces an
installed handler and delegates to it.  For individual tests that need
‘unittest’ control-c handling disabled the *note removeHandler(): 11e0.
decorator can be used.

There are a few utility functions for framework authors to enable
control-c handling functionality within test frameworks.

 -- Işlevi: unittest.installHandler ()

     Install the control-c handler.  When a *note signal.SIGINT: 683. is
     received (usually in response to the user pressing control-c) all
     registered results have *note stop(): 3e1e. called.

 -- Işlevi: unittest.registerResult (result)

     Register a *note TestResult: 100e. object for control-c handling.
     Registering a result stores a weak reference to it, so it doesn’t
     prevent the result from being garbage collected.

     Registering a *note TestResult: 100e. object has no side-effects if
     control-c handling is not enabled, so test frameworks can
     unconditionally register all results they create independently of
     whether or not handling is enabled.

 -- Işlevi: unittest.removeResult (result)

     Remove a registered result.  Once a result has been removed then
     *note stop(): 3e1e. will no longer be called on that result object
     in response to a control-c.

 -- Işlevi: unittest.removeHandler (function=None)

     When called without arguments this function removes the control-c
     handler if it has been installed.  This function can also be used
     as a test decorator to temporarily remove the handler while the
     test is being executed:

          @unittest.removeHandler
          def test_signal_handling(self):
              ...


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock — mock object library,  Next: unittest mock — getting started,  Prev: unittest — Unit testing framework,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.6 ‘unittest.mock’ — mock object library
--------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/unittest/mock.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note unittest.mock: 107. is a library for testing in Python.  It allows
you to replace parts of your system under test with mock objects and
make assertions about how they have been used.

*note unittest.mock: 107. provides a core *note Mock: 8af. class
removing the need to create a host of stubs throughout your test suite.
After performing an action, you can make assertions about which methods
/ attributes were used and arguments they were called with.  You can
also specify return values and set needed attributes in the normal way.

Additionally, mock provides a *note patch(): d26. decorator that handles
patching module and class level attributes within the scope of a test,
along with *note sentinel: a16. for creating unique objects.  See the
*note quick guide: 3e33. for some examples of how to use *note Mock:
8af, *note MagicMock: d25. and *note patch(): d26.

Mock is designed for use with *note unittest: 106. and is based on the
‘action -> assertion’ pattern instead of ‘record -> replay’ used by many
mocking frameworks.

There is a backport of *note unittest.mock: 107. for earlier versions of
Python, available as mock(2) on PyPI.

* Menu:

* Quick Guide::
* The Mock Class::
* The patchers::
* MagicMock and magic method support::
* Helpers::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/unittest/mock.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/mock/


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Guide,  Next: The Mock Class,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.26.6.1 Quick Guide
....................

*note Mock: 8af. and *note MagicMock: d25. objects create all attributes
and methods as you access them and store details of how they have been
used.  You can configure them, to specify return values or limit what
attributes are available, and then make assertions about how they have
been used:

     >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock
     >>> thing = ProductionClass()
     >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3)
     >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     3
     >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')

*note side_effect: 3e34. allows you to perform side effects, including
raising an exception when a mock is called:

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     KeyError: 'foo'

     >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def side_effect(arg):
     ...     return values[arg]
     ...
     >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
     >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
     (5, 4, 3)

Mock has many other ways you can configure it and control its behaviour.
For example the 'spec' argument configures the mock to take its
specification from another object.  Attempting to access attributes or
methods on the mock that don’t exist on the spec will fail with an *note
AttributeError: 3dc.

The *note patch(): d26. decorator / context manager makes it easy to
mock classes or objects in a module under test.  The object you specify
will be replaced with a mock (or other object) during the test and
restored when the test ends:

     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch('module.ClassName2')
     ... @patch('module.ClassName1')
     ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2):
     ...     module.ClassName1()
     ...     module.ClassName2()
     ...     assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1
     ...     assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2
     ...     assert MockClass1.called
     ...     assert MockClass2.called
     ...
     >>> test()

     Not: When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the
     decorated function in the same order they applied (the normal
     'Python' order that decorators are applied).  This means from the
     bottom up, so in the example above the mock for ‘module.ClassName1’
     is passed in first.

     With *note patch(): d26. it matters that you patch objects in the
     namespace where they are looked up.  This is normally
     straightforward, but for a quick guide read *note where to patch:
     3e35.

As well as a decorator *note patch(): d26. can be used as a context
manager in a with statement:

     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method:
     ...     thing = ProductionClass()
     ...     thing.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)

There is also *note patch.dict(): 182c. for setting values in a
dictionary just during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its
original state when the test ends:

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

Mock supports the mocking of Python *note magic methods: 3e36.  The
easiest way of using magic methods is with the *note MagicMock: d25.
class.  It allows you to do things like:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz'
     >>> str(mock)
     'foobarbaz'
     >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with()

Mock allows you to assign functions (or other Mock instances) to magic
methods and they will be called appropriately.  The *note MagicMock:
d25. class is just a Mock variant that has all of the magic methods
pre-created for you (well, all the useful ones anyway).

The following is an example of using magic methods with the ordinary
Mock class:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee')
     >>> str(mock)
     'wheeeeee'

For ensuring that the mock objects in your tests have the same api as
the objects they are replacing, you can use *note auto-speccing: 3e37.
Auto-speccing can be done through the 'autospec' argument to patch, or
the *note create_autospec(): 1466. function.  Auto-speccing creates mock
objects that have the same attributes and methods as the objects they
are replacing, and any functions and methods (including constructors)
have the same call signature as the real object.

This ensures that your mocks will fail in the same way as your
production code if they are used incorrectly:

     >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec
     >>> def function(a, b, c):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy')
     >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3)
     'fishy'
     >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock_function('wrong arguments')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: <lambda>() takes exactly 3 arguments (1 given)

*note create_autospec(): 1466. can also be used on classes, where it
copies the signature of the ‘__init__’ method, and on callable objects
where it copies the signature of the ‘__call__’ method.


File: python.info,  Node: The Mock Class,  Next: The patchers,  Prev: Quick Guide,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.26.6.2 The Mock Class
.......................

*note Mock: 8af. is a flexible mock object intended to replace the use
of stubs and test doubles throughout your code.  Mocks are callable and
create attributes as new mocks when you access them (1).  Accessing the
same attribute will always return the same mock.  Mocks record how you
use them, allowing you to make assertions about what your code has done
to them.

*note MagicMock: d25. is a subclass of *note Mock: 8af. with all the
magic methods pre-created and ready to use.  There are also non-callable
variants, useful when you are mocking out objects that aren’t callable:
*note NonCallableMock: 3e39. and *note NonCallableMagicMock: 3e3a.

The *note patch(): d26. decorators makes it easy to temporarily replace
classes in a particular module with a *note Mock: 8af. object.  By
default *note patch(): d26. will create a *note MagicMock: d25. for you.
You can specify an alternative class of *note Mock: 8af. using the
'new_callable' argument to *note patch(): d26.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.mock.Mock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     Create a new *note Mock: 8af. object.  *note Mock: 8af. takes
     several optional arguments that specify the behaviour of the Mock
     object:

        * 'spec': This can be either a list of strings or an existing
          object (a class or instance) that acts as the specification
          for the mock object.  If you pass in an object then a list of
          strings is formed by calling dir on the object (excluding
          unsupported magic attributes and methods).  Accessing any
          attribute not in this list will raise an *note AttributeError:
          3dc.

          If 'spec' is an object (rather than a list of strings) then
          *note __class__: 1338. returns the class of the spec object.
          This allows mocks to pass *note isinstance(): 151. tests.

        * 'spec_set': A stricter variant of 'spec'.  If used, attempting
          to 'set' or get an attribute on the mock that isn’t on the
          object passed as 'spec_set' will raise an *note
          AttributeError: 3dc.

        * 'side_effect': A function to be called whenever the Mock is
          called.  See the *note side_effect: 3e34. attribute.  Useful
          for raising exceptions or dynamically changing return values.
          The function is called with the same arguments as the mock,
          and unless it returns *note DEFAULT: 3e3b, the return value of
          this function is used as the return value.

          Alternatively 'side_effect' can be an exception class or
          instance.  In this case the exception will be raised when the
          mock is called.

          If 'side_effect' is an iterable then each call to the mock
          will return the next value from the iterable.

          A 'side_effect' can be cleared by setting it to ‘None’.

        * 'return_value': The value returned when the mock is called.
          By default this is a new Mock (created on first access).  See
          the *note return_value: 3e3c. attribute.

        * 'unsafe': By default, accessing any attribute whose name
          starts with 'assert', 'assret', 'asert', 'aseert' or 'assrt'
          will raise an *note AttributeError: 3dc.  Passing
          ‘unsafe=True’ will allow access to these attributes.

          Added in version 3.5.

        * 'wraps': Item for the mock object to wrap.  If 'wraps' is not
          ‘None’ then calling the Mock will pass the call through to the
          wrapped object (returning the real result).  Attribute access
          on the mock will return a Mock object that wraps the
          corresponding attribute of the wrapped object (so attempting
          to access an attribute that doesn’t exist will raise an *note
          AttributeError: 3dc.).

          If the mock has an explicit 'return_value' set then calls are
          not passed to the wrapped object and the 'return_value' is
          returned instead.

        * 'name': If the mock has a name then it will be used in the
          repr of the mock.  This can be useful for debugging.  The name
          is propagated to child mocks.

     Mocks can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments.  These
     will be used to set attributes on the mock after it is created.
     See the *note configure_mock(): 3e3d. method for details.

      -- Yöntemi: assert_called ()

          Assert that the mock was called at least once.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called()

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: assert_called_once ()

          Assert that the mock was called exactly once.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: assert_called_with (*args, **kwargs)

          This method is a convenient way of asserting that the last
          call has been made in a particular way:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow')

      -- Yöntemi: assert_called_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the mock was called exactly once and that call was
          with the specified arguments.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock('other', bar='values')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.

      -- Yöntemi: assert_any_call (*args, **kwargs)

          assert the mock has been called with the specified arguments.

          The assert passes if the mock has 'ever' been called, unlike
          *note assert_called_with(): 185a. and *note
          assert_called_once_with(): 3e3e. that only pass if the call is
          the most recent one, and in the case of *note
          assert_called_once_with(): 3e3e. it must also be the only
          call.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing')
               >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else')
               >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing')

      -- Yöntemi: assert_has_calls (calls, any_order=False)

          assert the mock has been called with the specified calls.  The
          *note mock_calls: 3e41. list is checked for the calls.

          If 'any_order' is false then the calls must be sequential.
          There can be extra calls before or after the specified calls.

          If 'any_order' is true then the calls can be in any order, but
          they must all appear in *note mock_calls: 3e41.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1)
               >>> mock(2)
               >>> mock(3)
               >>> mock(4)
               >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls)
               >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)

      -- Yöntemi: assert_not_called ()

          Assert the mock was never called.

               >>> m = Mock()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               >>> obj = m.hello()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: reset_mock (*, return_value=False, side_effect=False)

          The reset_mock method resets all the call attributes on a mock
          object:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('hello')
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.reset_mock()
               >>> mock.called
               False

          This can be useful where you want to make a series of
          assertions that reuse the same object.

          'return_value' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          return_value: 3e3c.:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=5)
               >>> mock('hello')
               5
               >>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          'side_effect' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          side_effect: 3e34.:

               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError)
               >>> mock('hello')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError
               >>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          Note that *note reset_mock(): b7e. 'doesn’t' clear the *note
          return_value: 3e3c, *note side_effect: 3e34. or any child
          attributes you have set using normal assignment by default.

          Child mocks are reset as well.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added two keyword-only arguments to the
          reset_mock function.

      -- Yöntemi: mock_add_spec (spec, spec_set=False)

          Add a spec to a mock.  'spec' can either be an object or a
          list of strings.  Only attributes on the 'spec' can be fetched
          as attributes from the mock.

          If 'spec_set' is true then only attributes on the spec can be
          set.

      -- Yöntemi: attach_mock (mock, attribute)

          Attach a mock as an attribute of this one, replacing its name
          and parent.  Calls to the attached mock will be recorded in
          the *note method_calls: 3e43. and *note mock_calls: 3e41.
          attributes of this one.

      -- Yöntemi: configure_mock (**kwargs)

          Set attributes on the mock through keyword arguments.

          Attributes plus return values and side effects can be set on
          child mocks using standard dot notation and unpacking a
          dictionary in the method call:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs)
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          The same thing can be achieved in the constructor call to
          mocks:

               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
               >>> mock.some_attribute
               'eggs'
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          *note configure_mock(): 3e3d. exists to make it easier to do
          configuration after the mock has been created.

      -- Yöntemi: __dir__ ()

          *note Mock: 8af. objects limit the results of ‘dir(some_mock)’
          to useful results.  For mocks with a 'spec' this includes all
          the permitted attributes for the mock.

          See *note FILTER_DIR: 3e45. for what this filtering does, and
          how to switch it off.

      -- Yöntemi: _get_child_mock (**kw)

          Create the child mocks for attributes and return value.  By
          default child mocks will be the same type as the parent.
          Subclasses of Mock may want to override this to customize the
          way child mocks are made.

          For non-callable mocks the callable variant will be used
          (rather than any custom subclass).

      -- Özniteliği: called

          A boolean representing whether or not the mock object has been
          called:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.called
               False
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True

      -- Özniteliği: call_count

          An integer telling you how many times the mock object has been
          called:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.call_count
               0
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_count
               2

      -- Özniteliği: return_value

          Set this to configure the value returned by calling the mock:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value = 'fish'
               >>> mock()
               'fish'

          The default return value is a mock object and you can
          configure it in the normal way:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute
               >>> mock.return_value()
               <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with()

          *note return_value: 3e3c. can also be set in the constructor:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> mock.return_value
               3
               >>> mock()
               3

      -- Özniteliği: side_effect

          This can either be a function to be called when the mock is
          called, an iterable or an exception (class or instance) to be
          raised.

          If you pass in a function it will be called with same
          arguments as the mock and unless the function returns the
          *note DEFAULT: 3e3b. singleton the call to the mock will then
          return whatever the function returns.  If the function returns
          *note DEFAULT: 3e3b. then the mock will return its normal
          value (from the *note return_value: 3e3c.).

          If you pass in an iterable, it is used to retrieve an iterator
          which must yield a value on every call.  This value can either
          be an exception instance to be raised, or a value to be
          returned from the call to the mock (*note DEFAULT: 3e3b.
          handling is identical to the function case).

          An example of a mock that raises an exception (to test
          exception handling of an API):

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!')
               >>> mock()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               Exception: Boom!

          Using *note side_effect: 3e34. to return a sequence of values:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1]
               >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
               (3, 2, 1)

          Using a callable:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     return DEFAULT
               ...
               >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
               >>> mock()
               3

          *note side_effect: 3e34. can be set in the constructor.
          Here’s an example that adds one to the value the mock is
          called with and returns it:

               >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1
               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
               >>> mock(3)
               4
               >>> mock(-8)
               -7

          Setting *note side_effect: 3e34. to ‘None’ clears it:

               >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3)
               >>> m()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                ...
               KeyError
               >>> m.side_effect = None
               >>> m()
               3

      -- Özniteliği: call_args

          This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been called), or the
          arguments that the mock was last called with.  This will be in
          the form of a tuple: the first member, which can also be
          accessed through the ‘args’ property, is any ordered arguments
          the mock was called with (or an empty tuple) and the second
          member, which can also be accessed through the ‘kwargs’
          property, is any keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary).

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> print(mock.call_args)
               None
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_args
               call()
               >>> mock.call_args == ()
               True
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),)
               True
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {}
               >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4, 5)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'}

          *note call_args: 17b2, along with members of the lists *note
          call_args_list: 3e49, *note method_calls: 3e43. and *note
          mock_calls: 3e41. are *note call: 1800. objects.  These are
          tuples, so they can be unpacked to get at the individual
          arguments and make more complex assertions.  See *note calls
          as tuples: 3e4a.

          3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties.

      -- Özniteliği: call_args_list

          This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in
          sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it
          has been called).  Before any calls have been made it is an
          empty list.  The *note call: 1800. object can be used for
          conveniently constructing lists of calls to compare with *note
          call_args_list: 3e49.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args_list
               [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')]
               >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)]
               >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
               True

          Members of *note call_args_list: 3e49. are *note call: 1800.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 3e4a.

      -- Özniteliği: method_calls

          As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track
          calls to methods and attributes, and 'their' methods and
          attributes:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.property.method.attribute()
               <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method_calls
               [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]

          Members of *note method_calls: 3e43. are *note call: 1800.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 3e4a.

      -- Özniteliği: mock_calls

          *note mock_calls: 3e41. records 'all' calls to the mock
          object, its methods, magic methods 'and' return value mocks.

               >>> mock = MagicMock()
               >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3)
               >>> mock.first(a=3)
               <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.second()
               <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'>
               >>> int(mock)
               1
               >>> result(1)
               <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(),
               ... call.__int__(), call()(1)]
               >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
               True

          Members of *note mock_calls: 3e41. are *note call: 1800.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 3e4a.

               Not: The way *note mock_calls: 3e41. are recorded means
               that where nested calls are made, the parameters of
               ancestor calls are not recorded and so will always
               compare equal:

                    >>> mock = MagicMock()
                    >>> mock.top(a=3).bottom()
                    <MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'>
                    >>> mock.mock_calls
                    [call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]
                    >>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom()
                    True

      -- Özniteliği: __class__

          Normally the ‘__class__’ attribute of an object will return
          its type.  For a mock object with a ‘spec’, ‘__class__’
          returns the spec class instead.  This allows mock objects to
          pass *note isinstance(): 151. tests for the object they are
          replacing / masquerading as:

               >>> mock = Mock(spec=3)
               >>> isinstance(mock, int)
               True

          ‘__class__’ is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
          *note isinstance(): 151. check without forcing you to use a
          spec:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.__class__ = dict
               >>> isinstance(mock, dict)
               True

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.mock.NonCallableMock (spec=None, wraps=None,
          name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs)

     A non-callable version of *note Mock: 8af.  The constructor
     parameters have the same meaning of *note Mock: 8af, with the
     exception of 'return_value' and 'side_effect' which have no meaning
     on a non-callable mock.

Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a ‘spec’ or ‘spec_set’
are able to pass *note isinstance(): 151. tests:

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True
     >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass())
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True

The *note Mock: 8af. classes have support for mocking magic methods.
See *note magic methods: 3e36. for the full details.

The mock classes and the *note patch(): d26. decorators all take
arbitrary keyword arguments for configuration.  For the *note patch():
d26. decorators the keywords are passed to the constructor of the mock
being created.  The keyword arguments are for configuring attributes of
the mock:

     >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish')
     >>> m.attribute
     3
     >>> m.other
     'fish'

The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same
way, using dotted notation.  As you can’t use dotted names directly in a
call you have to create a dictionary and unpack it using ‘**’:

     >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
     >>> mock.some_attribute
     'eggs'
     >>> mock.method()
     3
     >>> mock.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

A callable mock which was created with a 'spec' (or a 'spec_set') will
introspect the specification object’s signature when matching calls to
the mock.  Therefore, it can match the actual call’s arguments
regardless of whether they were passed positionally or by name:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, c=3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

This applies to *note assert_called_with(): 185a, *note
assert_called_once_with(): 3e3e, *note assert_has_calls(): 3e40. and
*note assert_any_call(): 3e3f.  When *note Autospeccing: 3e37, it will
also apply to method calls on the mock object.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added signature introspection on specced and
autospecced mock objects.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.mock.PropertyMock (*args, **kwargs)

     A mock intended to be used as a *note property: 43c, or other *note
     descriptor: 1d5f, on a class.  *note PropertyMock: 3e4c. provides
     *note __get__(): 1374. and *note __set__(): 1d57. methods so you
     can specify a return value when it is fetched.

     Fetching a *note PropertyMock: 3e4c. instance from an object calls
     the mock, with no args.  Setting it calls the mock with the value
     being set.

          >>> class Foo:
          ...     @property
          ...     def foo(self):
          ...         return 'something'
          ...     @foo.setter
          ...     def foo(self, value):
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo:
          ...     mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock'
          ...     this_foo = Foo()
          ...     print(this_foo.foo)
          ...     this_foo.foo = 6
          ...
          mockity-mock
          >>> mock_foo.mock_calls
          [call(), call(6)]

Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can’t directly attach
a *note PropertyMock: 3e4c. to a mock object.  Instead you can attach it
to the mock type object:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3)
     >>> type(m).foo = p
     >>> m.foo
     3
     >>> p.assert_called_once_with()

     Uyarı: If an *note AttributeError: 3dc. is raised by *note
     PropertyMock: 3e4c, it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor
     and *note __getattr__(): 201. will be called on the parent mock:

          >>> m = MagicMock()
          >>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError)
          >>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute
          >>> m.my_property
          <MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'>

     See *note __getattr__(): 201. for details.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.mock.AsyncMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     An asynchronous version of *note MagicMock: d25.  The *note
     AsyncMock: 8ae. object will behave so the object is recognized as
     an async function, and the result of a call is an awaitable.

          >>> mock = AsyncMock()
          >>> asyncio.iscoroutinefunction(mock)
          True
          >>> inspect.isawaitable(mock())
          True

     The result of ‘mock()’ is an async function which will have the
     outcome of ‘side_effect’ or ‘return_value’ after it has been
     awaited:

        - if ‘side_effect’ is a function, the async function will return
          the result of that function,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is an exception, the async function will
          raise the exception,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is an iterable, the async function will
          return the next value of the iterable, however, if the
          sequence of result is exhausted, ‘StopAsyncIteration’ is
          raised immediately,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is not defined, the async function will
          return the value defined by ‘return_value’, hence, by default,
          the async function returns a new *note AsyncMock: 8ae. object.

     Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: 8af. or *note MagicMock: d25.
     to an async function will result in a coroutine object being
     returned after calling.

          >>> async def async_func(): pass
          ...
          >>> mock = MagicMock(async_func)
          >>> mock
          <MagicMock spec='function' id='...'>
          >>> mock()
          <coroutine object AsyncMockMixin._mock_call at ...>

     Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: 8af, *note MagicMock: d25, or
     *note AsyncMock: 8ae. to a class with asynchronous and synchronous
     functions will automatically detect the synchronous functions and
     set them as *note MagicMock: d25. (if the parent mock is *note
     AsyncMock: 8ae. or *note MagicMock: d25.) or *note Mock: 8af. (if
     the parent mock is *note Mock: 8af.).  All asynchronous functions
     will be *note AsyncMock: 8ae.

          >>> class ExampleClass:
          ...     def sync_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...     async def async_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> a_mock = AsyncMock(ExampleClass)
          >>> a_mock.sync_foo
          <MagicMock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> a_mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock = Mock(ExampleClass)
          >>> mock.sync_foo
          <Mock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- Yöntemi: assert_awaited ()

          Assert that the mock was awaited at least once.  Note that
          this is separate from the object having been called, the
          ‘await’ keyword must be used:

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(coroutine_mock):
               ...     await coroutine_mock
               ...
               >>> coroutine_mock = mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited.
               >>> asyncio.run(main(coroutine_mock))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()

      -- Yöntemi: assert_awaited_once ()

          Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.method.assert_awaited_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- Yöntemi: assert_awaited_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the last await was with the specified arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: expected call not found.
               Expected: mock('other')
               Actual: mock('foo', bar='bar')

      -- Yöntemi: assert_awaited_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once and with the
          specified arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- Yöntemi: assert_any_await (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert the mock has ever been awaited with the specified
          arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('hello'))
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: mock('other') await not found

      -- Yöntemi: assert_has_awaits (calls, any_order=False)

          Assert the mock has been awaited with the specified calls.
          The *note await_args_list: 17b1. list is checked for the
          awaits.

          If 'any_order' is false then the awaits must be sequential.
          There can be extra calls before or after the specified awaits.

          If 'any_order' is true then the awaits can be in any order,
          but they must all appear in *note await_args_list: 17b1.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> calls = [call("foo"), call("bar")]
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Awaits not found.
               Expected: [call('foo'), call('bar')]
               Actual: []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)

      -- Yöntemi: assert_not_awaited ()

          Assert that the mock was never awaited.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> mock.assert_not_awaited()

      -- Yöntemi: reset_mock (*args, **kwargs)

          See *note Mock.reset_mock(): b7e.  Also sets *note
          await_count: 3e55. to 0, *note await_args: 3e56. to None, and
          clears the *note await_args_list: 17b1.

      -- Özniteliği: await_count

          An integer keeping track of how many times the mock object has
          been awaited.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               1
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               2

      -- Özniteliği: await_args

          This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been awaited), or
          the arguments that the mock was last awaited with.  Functions
          the same as *note Mock.call_args: 17b2.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('foo')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('bar')

      -- Özniteliği: await_args_list

          This is a list of all the awaits made to the mock object in
          sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it
          has been awaited).  Before any awaits have been made it is an
          empty list.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo')]
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo'), call('bar')]

* Menu:

* Calling::
* Deleting Attributes::
* Mock names and the name attribute::
* Attaching Mocks as Attributes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that
have leading and trailing double underscores).  Mock doesn’t create
these but instead raises an *note AttributeError: 3dc.  This is because
the interpreter will often implicitly request these methods, and gets
'very' confused to get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method.
If you need magic method support see *note magic methods: 3e36.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling,  Next: Deleting Attributes,  Up: The Mock Class

5.26.6.3 Calling
................

Mock objects are callable.  The call will return the value set as the
*note return_value: 3e3c. attribute.  The default return value is a new
Mock object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed
(either explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the
same one returned each time.

Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes like *note
call_args: 17b2. and *note call_args_list: 3e49.

If *note side_effect: 3e34. is set then it will be called after the call
has been recorded, so if ‘side_effect’ raises an exception the call is
still recorded.

The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to
make *note side_effect: 3e34. an exception class or instance:

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     IndexError
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3)]
     >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!')
     >>> m('two', 'three', 'four')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'Bang!'
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]

If *note side_effect: 3e34. is a function then whatever that function
returns is what calls to the mock return.  The ‘side_effect’ function is
called with the same arguments as the mock.  This allows you to vary the
return value of the call dynamically, based on the input:

     >>> def side_effect(value):
     ...     return value + 1
     ...
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> m(1)
     2
     >>> m(2)
     3
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1), call(2)]

If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new
mock), or any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this.
Either return *note return_value: 3e3c. from inside *note side_effect:
3e34, or return *note DEFAULT: 3e3b.:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return m.return_value
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m.return_value = 3
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return DEFAULT
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3

To remove a *note side_effect: 3e34, and return to the default
behaviour, set the ‘side_effect’ to ‘None’:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return 3
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m.side_effect = None
     >>> m()
     6

The *note side_effect: 3e34. can also be any iterable object.  Repeated
calls to the mock will return values from the iterable (until the
iterable is exhausted and a *note StopIteration: a73. is raised):

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3])
     >>> m()
     1
     >>> m()
     2
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     StopIteration

If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised
instead of returned:

     >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66)
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable)
     >>> m()
     33
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     ValueError
     >>> m()
     66


File: python.info,  Node: Deleting Attributes,  Next: Mock names and the name attribute,  Prev: Calling,  Up: The Mock Class

5.26.6.4 Deleting Attributes
............................

Mock objects create attributes on demand.  This allows them to pretend
to be objects of any type.

You may want a mock object to return ‘False’ to a *note hasattr(): 200.
call, or raise an *note AttributeError: 3dc. when an attribute is
fetched.  You can do this by providing an object as a ‘spec’ for a mock,
but that isn’t always convenient.

You “block” attributes by deleting them.  Once deleted, accessing an
attribute will raise an *note AttributeError: 3dc.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     True
     >>> del mock.m
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     False
     >>> del mock.f
     >>> mock.f
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: f


File: python.info,  Node: Mock names and the name attribute,  Next: Attaching Mocks as Attributes,  Prev: Deleting Attributes,  Up: The Mock Class

5.26.6.5 Mock names and the name attribute
..........................................

Since “name” is an argument to the *note Mock: 8af. constructor, if you
want your mock object to have a “name” attribute you can’t just pass it
in at creation time.  There are two alternatives.  One option is to use
*note configure_mock(): 3e3d.:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name')
     >>> mock.name
     'my_name'

A simpler option is to simply set the “name” attribute after mock
creation:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.name = "foo"


File: python.info,  Node: Attaching Mocks as Attributes,  Prev: Mock names and the name attribute,  Up: The Mock Class

5.26.6.6 Attaching Mocks as Attributes
......................................

When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return
value) it becomes a “child” of that mock.  Calls to the child are
recorded in the *note method_calls: 3e43. and *note mock_calls: 3e41.
attributes of the parent.  This is useful for configuring child mocks
and then attaching them to the parent, or for attaching mocks to a
parent that records all calls to the children and allows you to make
assertions about the order of calls between mocks:

     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> parent.child1 = child1
     >>> parent.child2 = child2
     >>> child1(1)
     >>> child2(2)
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]

The exception to this is if the mock has a name.  This allows you to
prevent the “parenting” if for some reason you don’t want it to happen.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child')
     >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child
     >>> mock.attribute()
     <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     []

Mocks created for you by *note patch(): d26. are automatically given
names.  To attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the *note
attach_mock(): 146a. method:

     >>> thing1 = object()
     >>> thing2 = object()
     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1:
     ...     with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2:
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1')
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2')
     ...         child1('one')
     ...         child2('two')
     ...
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]


File: python.info,  Node: The patchers,  Next: MagicMock and magic method support,  Prev: The Mock Class,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.26.6.7 The patchers
.....................

The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope
of the function they decorate.  They automatically handle the unpatching
for you, even if exceptions are raised.  All of these functions can also
be used in with statements or as class decorators.

* Menu:

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop.
* patch builtins::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* Nesting Patch Decorators::
* Where to patch::
* Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: patch,  Next: patch object,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.8 patch
..............

     Not: The key is to do the patching in the right namespace.  See the
     section *note where to patch: 3e5e.

 -- Işlevi: unittest.mock.patch (target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     *note patch(): d26. acts as a function decorator, class decorator
     or a context manager.  Inside the body of the function or with
     statement, the 'target' is patched with a 'new' object.  When the
     function/with statement exits the patch is undone.

     If 'new' is omitted, then the target is replaced with an *note
     AsyncMock: 8ae. if the patched object is an async function or a
     *note MagicMock: d25. otherwise.  If *note patch(): d26. is used as
     a decorator and 'new' is omitted, the created mock is passed in as
     an extra argument to the decorated function.  If *note patch():
     d26. is used as a context manager the created mock is returned by
     the context manager.

     'target' should be a string in the form
     ‘'package.module.ClassName'’.  The 'target' is imported and the
     specified object replaced with the 'new' object, so the 'target'
     must be importable from the environment you are calling *note
     patch(): d26. from.  The target is imported when the decorated
     function is executed, not at decoration time.

     The 'spec' and 'spec_set' keyword arguments are passed to the *note
     MagicMock: d25. if patch is creating one for you.

     In addition you can pass ‘spec=True’ or ‘spec_set=True’, which
     causes patch to pass in the object being mocked as the
     spec/spec_set object.

     'new_callable' allows you to specify a different class, or callable
     object, that will be called to create the 'new' object.  By default
     *note AsyncMock: 8ae. is used for async functions and *note
     MagicMock: d25. for the rest.

     A more powerful form of 'spec' is 'autospec'.  If you set
     ‘autospec=True’ then the mock will be created with a spec from the
     object being replaced.  All attributes of the mock will also have
     the spec of the corresponding attribute of the object being
     replaced.  Methods and functions being mocked will have their
     arguments checked and will raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. if they
     are called with the wrong signature.  For mocks replacing a class,
     their return value (the ‘instance’) will have the same spec as the
     class.  See the *note create_autospec(): 1466. function and *note
     Autospeccing: 3e37.

     Instead of ‘autospec=True’ you can pass ‘autospec=some_object’ to
     use an arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being
     replaced.

     By default *note patch(): d26. will fail to replace attributes that
     don’t exist.  If you pass in ‘create=True’, and the attribute
     doesn’t exist, patch will create the attribute for you when the
     patched function is called, and delete it again after the patched
     function has exited.  This is useful for writing tests against
     attributes that your production code creates at runtime.  It is off
     by default because it can be dangerous.  With it switched on you
     can write passing tests against APIs that don’t actually exist!

          Not: 
          3.5 sürümünde değişti: If you are patching builtins in a
          module then you don’t need to pass ‘create=True’, it will be
          added by default.

     Patch can be used as a *note TestCase: 15f. class decorator.  It
     works by decorating each test method in the class.  This reduces
     the boilerplate code when your test methods share a common
     patchings set.  *note patch(): d26. finds tests by looking for
     method names that start with ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.  By default this
     is ‘'test'’, which matches the way *note unittest: 106. finds
     tests.  You can specify an alternative prefix by setting
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.

     Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement.
     Here the patching applies to the indented block after the with
     statement.  If you use “as” then the patched object will be bound
     to the name after the “as”; very useful if *note patch(): d26. is
     creating a mock object for you.

     *note patch(): d26. takes arbitrary keyword arguments.  These will
     be passed to *note AsyncMock: 8ae. if the patched object is
     asynchronous, to *note MagicMock: d25. otherwise or to
     'new_callable' if specified.

     ‘patch.dict(...)’, ‘patch.multiple(...)’ and ‘patch.object(...)’
     are available for alternate use-cases.

*note patch(): d26. as function decorator, creating the mock for you and
passing it into the decorated function:

     >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass')
     ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class):
     ...     print(mock_class is SomeClass)
     ...
     >>> function(None)
     True

Patching a class replaces the class with a *note MagicMock: d25.
'instance'.  If the class is instantiated in the code under test then it
will be the *note return_value: 3e3c. of the mock that will be used.

If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use *note
side_effect: 3e34. to return a new mock each time.  Alternatively you
can set the 'return_value' to be anything you want.

To configure return values on methods of 'instances' on the patched
class you must do this on the *note return_value: 3e3c.  For example:

     >>> class Class:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass:
     ...     instance = MockClass.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'foo'
     ...     assert Class() is instance
     ...     assert Class().method() == 'foo'
     ...

If you use 'spec' or 'spec_set' and *note patch(): d26. is replacing a
'class', then the return value of the created mock will have the same
spec.

     >>> Original = Class
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True)
     >>> MockClass = patcher.start()
     >>> instance = MockClass()
     >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original)
     >>> patcher.stop()

The 'new_callable' argument is useful where you want to use an
alternative class to the default *note MagicMock: d25. for the created
mock.  For example, if you wanted a *note NonCallableMock: 3e39. to be
used:

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing:
     ...     assert thing is mock_thing
     ...     thing()
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable

Another use case might be to replace an object with an *note
io.StringIO: dc4. instance:

     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print('Something')
     ...
     >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     foo()
     ...     assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n'
     ...
     >>> test()

When *note patch(): d26. is creating a mock for you, it is common that
the first thing you need to do is to configure the mock.  Some of that
configuration can be done in the call to patch.  Any arbitrary keywords
you pass into the call will be used to set attributes on the created
mock:

     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two')
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.first
     'one'
     >>> mock_thing.second
     'two'

As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the *note
return_value: 3e3c. and *note side_effect: 3e34, of child mocks can also
be configured.  These aren’t syntactically valid to pass in directly as
keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be
expanded into a *note patch(): d26. call using ‘**’:

     >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config)
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.method()
     3
     >>> mock_thing.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

By default, attempting to patch a function in a module (or a method or
an attribute in a class) that does not exist will fail with *note
AttributeError: 3dc.:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing_attribute'

but adding ‘create=True’ in the call to *note patch(): d26. will make
the previous example work as expected:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()

3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note patch(): d26. now returns an *note
AsyncMock: 8ae. if the target is an async function.


File: python.info,  Node: patch object,  Next: patch dict,  Prev: patch,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.9 patch.object
.....................

 -- Işlevi: patch.object (target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     patch the named member ('attribute') on an object ('target') with a
     mock object.

     *note patch.object(): 1420. can be used as a decorator, class
     decorator or a context manager.  Arguments 'new', 'spec', 'create',
     'spec_set', 'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as
     for *note patch(): d26.  Like *note patch(): d26, *note
     patch.object(): 1420. takes arbitrary keyword arguments for
     configuring the mock object it creates.

     When used as a class decorator *note patch.object(): 1420. honours
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap.

You can either call *note patch.object(): 1420. with three arguments or
two arguments.  The three argument form takes the object to be patched,
the attribute name and the object to replace the attribute with.

When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object,
and a mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the
decorated function:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... def test(mock_method):
     ...     SomeClass.class_method(3)
     ...     mock_method.assert_called_with(3)
     ...
     >>> test()

'spec', 'create' and the other arguments to *note patch.object(): 1420.
have the same meaning as they do for *note patch(): d26.


File: python.info,  Node: patch dict,  Next: patch multiple,  Prev: patch object,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.10 patch.dict
....................

 -- Işlevi: patch.dict (in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs)

     Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the
     dictionary to its original state after the test.

     'in_dict' can be a dictionary or a mapping like container.  If it
     is a mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and
     deleting items plus iterating over keys.

     'in_dict' can also be a string specifying the name of the
     dictionary, which will then be fetched by importing it.

     'values' can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary.
     'values' can also be an iterable of ‘(key, value)’ pairs.

     If 'clear' is true then the dictionary will be cleared before the
     new values are set.

     *note patch.dict(): 182c. can also be called with arbitrary keyword
     arguments to set values in the dictionary.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note patch.dict(): 182c. now returns the
     patched dictionary when used as a context manager.

*note patch.dict(): 182c. can be used as a context manager, decorator or
class decorator:

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> @patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... def test():
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert foo == {}

When used as a class decorator *note patch.dict(): 182c. honours
‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ (default to ‘'test'’) for choosing which methods to
wrap:

     >>> import os
     >>> import unittest
     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... class TestSample(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def test_sample(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(os.environ['newkey'], 'newvalue')

If you want to use a different prefix for your test, you can inform the
patchers of the different prefix by setting ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.  For
more details about how to change the value of see *note TEST_PREFIX:
3e61.

*note patch.dict(): 182c. can be used to add members to a dictionary, or
simply let a test change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is
restored when the test ends.

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) as patched_foo:
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     assert patched_foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     # You can add, update or delete keys of foo (or patched_foo, it's the same dict)
     ...     patched_foo['spam'] = 'eggs'
     ...
     >>> assert foo == {}
     >>> assert patched_foo == {}

     >>> import os
     >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
     ...     print(os.environ['newkey'])
     ...
     newvalue
     >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ

Keywords can be used in the *note patch.dict(): 182c. call to set values
in the dictionary:

     >>> mymodule = MagicMock()
     >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish'
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule):
     ...     import mymodule
     ...     mymodule.function('some', 'args')
     ...
     'fish'

*note patch.dict(): 182c. can be used with dictionary like objects that
aren’t actually dictionaries.  At the very minimum they must support
item getting, setting, deleting and either iteration or membership test.
This corresponds to the magic methods *note __getitem__(): 500, *note
__setitem__(): 1174, *note __delitem__(): 1175. and either *note
__iter__(): 1b0b. or *note __contains__(): 1d4b.

     >>> class Container:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.values = {}
     ...     def __getitem__(self, name):
     ...         return self.values[name]
     ...     def __setitem__(self, name, value):
     ...         self.values[name] = value
     ...     def __delitem__(self, name):
     ...         del self.values[name]
     ...     def __iter__(self):
     ...         return iter(self.values)
     ...
     >>> thing = Container()
     >>> thing['one'] = 1
     >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3):
     ...     assert thing['one'] == 2
     ...     assert thing['two'] == 3
     ...
     >>> assert thing['one'] == 1
     >>> assert list(thing) == ['one']


File: python.info,  Node: patch multiple,  Next: patch methods start and stop,  Prev: patch dict,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.11 patch.multiple
........................

 -- Işlevi: patch.multiple (target, spec=None, create=False,
          spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

     Perform multiple patches in a single call.  It takes the object to
     be patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by
     importing) and keyword arguments for the patches:

          with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'):
              ...

     Use *note DEFAULT: 3e3b. as the value if you want *note
     patch.multiple(): 3e63. to create mocks for you.  In this case the
     created mocks are passed into a decorated function by keyword, and
     a dictionary is returned when *note patch.multiple(): 3e63. is used
     as a context manager.

     *note patch.multiple(): 3e63. can be used as a decorator, class
     decorator or a context manager.  The arguments 'spec', 'spec_set',
     'create', 'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as
     for *note patch(): d26.  These arguments will be applied to 'all'
     patches done by *note patch.multiple(): 3e63.

     When used as a class decorator *note patch.multiple(): 3e63.
     honours ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap.

If you want *note patch.multiple(): 3e63. to create mocks for you, then
you can use *note DEFAULT: 3e3b. as the value.  If you use *note
patch.multiple(): 3e63. as a decorator then the created mocks are passed
into the decorated function by keyword.

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> other = object()

     >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(thing, other):
     ...     assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock)
     ...     assert isinstance(other, MagicMock)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

*note patch.multiple(): 3e63. can be nested with other ‘patch’
decorators, but put arguments passed by keyword 'after' any of the
standard arguments created by *note patch(): d26.:

     >>> @patch('sys.exit')
     ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing):
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(other)
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(thing)
     ...     assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

If *note patch.multiple(): 3e63. is used as a context manager, the value
returned by the context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are
keyed by name:

     >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values:
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(values['other'])
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing'])
     ...     assert values['thing'] is thing
     ...     assert values['other'] is other
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: patch methods start and stop,  Next: patch builtins,  Prev: patch multiple,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.12 patch methods: start and stop
.......................................

All the patchers have ‘start()’ and ‘stop()’ methods.  These make it
simpler to do patching in ‘setUp’ methods or where you want to do
multiple patches without nesting decorators or with statements.

To use them call *note patch(): d26, *note patch.object(): 1420. or
*note patch.dict(): 182c. as normal and keep a reference to the returned
‘patcher’ object.  You can then call ‘start()’ to put the patch in place
and ‘stop()’ to undo it.

If you are using *note patch(): d26. to create a mock for you then it
will be returned by the call to ‘patcher.start’.

     >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName')
     >>> from package import module
     >>> original = module.ClassName
     >>> new_mock = patcher.start()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock
     >>> patcher.stop()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock

A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the
‘setUp’ method of a *note TestCase: 15f.:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1')
     ...         self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2')
     ...         self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start()
     ...         self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start()
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher1.stop()
     ...         self.patcher2.stop()
     ...
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1
     ...         assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').run()

     Uyarı: If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching
     is “undone” by calling ‘stop’.  This can be fiddlier than you might
     think, because if an exception is raised in the ‘setUp’ then
     ‘tearDown’ is not called.  *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup():
     8e6. makes this easier:

          >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
          ...     def setUp(self):
          ...         patcher = patch('package.module.Class')
          ...         self.MockClass = patcher.start()
          ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
          ...
          ...     def test_something(self):
          ...         assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass
          ...

     As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the
     ‘patcher’ object.

It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using
*note patch.stopall(): 3e66.

 -- Işlevi: patch.stopall ()

     Stop all active patches.  Only stops patches started with ‘start’.


File: python.info,  Node: patch builtins,  Next: TEST_PREFIX,  Prev: patch methods start and stop,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.13 patch builtins
........................

You can patch any builtins within a module.  The following example
patches builtin *note ord(): 1cdf.:

     >>> @patch('__main__.ord')
     ... def test(mock_ord):
     ...     mock_ord.return_value = 101
     ...     print(ord('c'))
     ...
     >>> test()
     101


File: python.info,  Node: TEST_PREFIX,  Next: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Prev: patch builtins,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.14 TEST_PREFIX
.....................

All of the patchers can be used as class decorators.  When used in this
way they wrap every test method on the class.  The patchers recognise
methods that start with ‘'test'’ as being test methods.  This is the
same way that the *note unittest.TestLoader: 54b. finds test methods by
default.

It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests.
You can inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting
‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’:

     >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo'
     >>> value = 3
     >>>
     >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three')
     ... class Thing:
     ...     def foo_one(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...     def foo_two(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...
     >>>
     >>> Thing().foo_one()
     not three
     >>> Thing().foo_two()
     not three
     >>> value
     3


File: python.info,  Node: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Next: Where to patch,  Prev: TEST_PREFIX,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.15 Nesting Patch Decorators
..................................

If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the
decorators.

You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ... def test(mock1, mock2):
     ...     assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1
     ...     assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2
     ...     SomeClass.static_method('foo')
     ...     SomeClass.class_method('bar')
     ...     return mock1, mock2
     ...
     >>> mock1, mock2 = test()
     >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar')

Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards.  This is
the standard way that Python applies decorators.  The order of the
created mocks passed into your test function matches this order.


File: python.info,  Node: Where to patch,  Next: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects,  Prev: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.16 Where to patch
........................

*note patch(): d26. works by (temporarily) changing the object that a
'name' points to with another one.  There can be many names pointing to
any individual object, so for patching to work you must ensure that you
patch the name used by the system under test.

The basic principle is that you patch where an object is 'looked up',
which is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined.  A
couple of examples will help to clarify this.

Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following
structure:

     a.py
         -> Defines SomeClass

     b.py
         -> from a import SomeClass
         -> some_function instantiates SomeClass

Now we want to test ‘some_function’ but we want to mock out ‘SomeClass’
using *note patch(): d26.  The problem is that when we import module b,
which we will have to do when it imports ‘SomeClass’ from module a.  If
we use *note patch(): d26. to mock out ‘a.SomeClass’ then it will have
no effect on our test; module b already has a reference to the 'real'
‘SomeClass’ and it looks like our patching had no effect.

The key is to patch out ‘SomeClass’ where it is used (or where it is
looked up).  In this case ‘some_function’ will actually look up
‘SomeClass’ in module b, where we have imported it.  The patching should
look like:

     @patch('b.SomeClass')

However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of ‘from a
import SomeClass’ module b does ‘import a’ and ‘some_function’ uses
‘a.SomeClass’.  Both of these import forms are common.  In this case the
class we want to patch is being looked up in the module and so we have
to patch ‘a.SomeClass’ instead:

     @patch('a.SomeClass')


File: python.info,  Node: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects,  Prev: Where to patch,  Up: The patchers

5.26.6.17 Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects
................................................

Both *note patch: 3e5d. and *note patch.object: 3e5f. correctly patch
and restore descriptors: class methods, static methods and properties.
You should patch these on the 'class' rather than an instance.  They
also work with 'some' objects that proxy attribute access, like the
django settings object(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200603181648/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198


File: python.info,  Node: MagicMock and magic method support,  Next: Helpers,  Prev: The patchers,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.26.6.18 MagicMock and magic method support
............................................

* Menu:

* Mocking Magic Methods::
* Magic Mock::


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking Magic Methods,  Next: Magic Mock,  Up: MagicMock and magic method support

5.26.6.19 Mocking Magic Methods
...............................

*note Mock: 8af. supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also
known as *note “magic methods”: 3e6e.  This allows mock objects to
replace containers or other objects that implement Python protocols.

Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods (1),
this support has been specially implemented.  This means that only
specific magic methods are supported.  The supported list includes
'almost' all of them.  If there are any missing that you need please let
us know.

You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a
function or a mock instance.  If you are using a function then it 'must'
take ‘self’ as the first argument (2).

     >>> def __str__(self):
     ...     return 'fooble'
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = __str__
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble'
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([]))
     >>> list(mock)
     []

One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in
a *note with: 3dd. statement:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo')
     >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False)
     >>> with mock as m:
     ...     assert m == 'foo'
     ...
     >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with()
     >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None)

Calls to magic methods do not appear in *note method_calls: 3e43, but
they are recorded in *note mock_calls: 3e41.

     Not: If you use the 'spec' keyword argument to create a mock then
     attempting to set a magic method that isn’t in the spec will raise
     an *note AttributeError: 3dc.

The full list of supported magic methods is:

   * ‘__hash__’, ‘__sizeof__’, ‘__repr__’ and ‘__str__’

   * ‘__dir__’, ‘__format__’ and ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__round__’, ‘__floor__’, ‘__trunc__’ and ‘__ceil__’

   * Comparisons: ‘__lt__’, ‘__gt__’, ‘__le__’, ‘__ge__’, ‘__eq__’ and
     ‘__ne__’

   * Container methods: ‘__getitem__’, ‘__setitem__’, ‘__delitem__’,
     ‘__contains__’, ‘__len__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’ and
     ‘__missing__’

   * Context manager: ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘__aenter__’ and
     ‘__aexit__’

   * Unary numeric methods: ‘__neg__’, ‘__pos__’ and ‘__invert__’

   * The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants):
     ‘__add__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__mul__’, ‘__matmul__’, ‘__truediv__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__lshift__’,
     ‘__rshift__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__xor__’, ‘__or__’, and ‘__pow__’

   * Numeric conversion methods: ‘__complex__’, ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’
     and ‘__index__’

   * Descriptor methods: ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ and ‘__delete__’

   * Pickling: ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’,
     ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’

   * File system path representation: ‘__fspath__’

   * Asynchronous iteration methods: ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added support for *note os.PathLike.__fspath__():
ace.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added support for ‘__aenter__’, ‘__aexit__’,
‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’.

The following methods exist but are 'not' supported as they are either
in use by mock, can’t be set dynamically, or can cause problems:

   * ‘__getattr__’, ‘__setattr__’, ‘__init__’ and ‘__new__’

   * ‘__prepare__’, ‘__instancecheck__’, ‘__subclasscheck__’, ‘__del__’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Magic methods 'should' be looked up on the class rather than the
instance.  Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying
this rule.  The supported protocol methods should work with all
supported versions of Python.

   (2) The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each ‘Mock’
instance is kept isolated from the others.


File: python.info,  Node: Magic Mock,  Prev: Mocking Magic Methods,  Up: MagicMock and magic method support

5.26.6.20 Magic Mock
....................

There are two ‘MagicMock’ variants: *note MagicMock: d25. and *note
NonCallableMagicMock: 3e3a.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.mock.MagicMock (*args, **kw)

     ‘MagicMock’ is a subclass of *note Mock: 8af. with default
     implementations of most of the *note magic methods: 3e6e.  You can
     use ‘MagicMock’ without having to configure the magic methods
     yourself.

     The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note Mock:
     8af.

     If you use the 'spec' or 'spec_set' arguments then 'only' magic
     methods that exist in the spec will be created.

 -- Sınıfı: unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock (*args, **kw)

     A non-callable version of *note MagicMock: d25.

     The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note
     MagicMock: d25, with the exception of 'return_value' and
     'side_effect' which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.

The magic methods are setup with *note MagicMock: d25. objects, so you
can configure them and use them in the usual way:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock[3] = 'fish'
     >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish')
     >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result'
     >>> mock[2]
     'result'

By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects
of a specific type.  These methods are preconfigured with a default
return value, so that they can be used without you having to do anything
if you aren’t interested in the return value.  You can still 'set' the
return value manually if you want to change the default.

Methods and their defaults:

   * ‘__lt__’: *note NotImplemented: 60b.

   * ‘__gt__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__le__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__ge__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__int__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__contains__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__len__’: ‘0’

   * ‘__iter__’: ‘iter([])’

   * ‘__exit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__aexit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__complex__’: ‘1j’

   * ‘__float__’: ‘1.0’

   * ‘__bool__’: ‘True’

   * ‘__index__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__hash__’: default hash for the mock

   * ‘__str__’: default str for the mock

   * ‘__sizeof__’: default sizeof for the mock

For example:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> int(mock)
     1
     >>> len(mock)
     0
     >>> list(mock)
     []
     >>> object() in mock
     False

The two equality methods, ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__ne__()’, are special.  They
do the default equality comparison on identity, using the *note
side_effect: 3e34. attribute, unless you change their return value to
return something else:

     >>> MagicMock() == 3
     False
     >>> MagicMock() != 3
     True
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True
     >>> mock == 3
     True

The return value of ‘MagicMock.__iter__()’ can be any iterable object
and isn’t required to be an iterator:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']

If the return value 'is' an iterator, then iterating over it once will
consume it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list:

     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c'])
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     []

‘MagicMock’ has all of the supported magic methods configured except for
some of the obscure and obsolete ones.  You can still set these up if
you want.

Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in ‘MagicMock’
are:

   * ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__dir__’

   * ‘__format__’

   * ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ and ‘__delete__’

   * ‘__reversed__’ and ‘__missing__’

   * ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’, ‘__getnewargs__’,
     ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’

   * ‘__getformat__’


File: python.info,  Node: Helpers,  Next: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: MagicMock and magic method support,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.26.6.21 Helpers
.................

* Menu:

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing::
* Sealing mocks::


File: python.info,  Node: sentinel,  Next: DEFAULT,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.22 sentinel
..................

 -- Verisi: unittest.mock.sentinel

     The ‘sentinel’ object provides a convenient way of providing unique
     objects for your tests.

     Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name.
     Accessing the same attribute will always return the same object.
     The objects returned have a sensible repr so that test failure
     messages are readable.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The ‘sentinel’ attributes now preserve their
     identity when they are *note copied: 25. or *note pickled: a5.

Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed
as an argument to another method, or returned.  It can be common to
create named sentinel objects to test this.  *note sentinel: a16.
provides a convenient way of creating and testing the identity of
objects like this.

In this example we monkey patch ‘method’ to return
‘sentinel.some_object’:

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.method = Mock(name="method")
     >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object
     >>> result = real.method()
     >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object
     >>> result
     sentinel.some_object


File: python.info,  Node: DEFAULT,  Next: call,  Prev: sentinel,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.23 DEFAULT
.................

 -- Verisi: unittest.mock.DEFAULT

     The *note DEFAULT: 3e3b. object is a pre-created sentinel (actually
     ‘sentinel.DEFAULT’).  It can be used by *note side_effect: 3e34.
     functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used.


File: python.info,  Node: call,  Next: create_autospec,  Prev: DEFAULT,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.24 call
..............

 -- Işlevi: unittest.mock.call (*args, **kwargs)

     *note call(): 1800. is a helper object for making simpler
     assertions, for comparing with *note call_args: 17b2, *note
     call_args_list: 3e49, *note mock_calls: 3e41. and *note
     method_calls: 3e43.  *note call(): 1800. can also be used with
     *note assert_has_calls(): 3e40.

          >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
          >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar')
          >>> m()
          >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()]
          True

 -- Yöntemi: call.call_list ()

     For a call object that represents multiple calls, *note
     call_list(): 3e74. returns a list of all the intermediate calls as
     well as the final call.

‘call_list’ is particularly useful for making assertions on “chained
calls”.  A chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code.
This results in multiple entries in *note mock_calls: 3e41. on a mock.
Manually constructing the sequence of calls can be tedious.

*note call_list(): 3e74. can construct the sequence of calls from the
same chained call:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     >>> kall.call_list()
     [call(1),
      call().method(arg='foo'),
      call().method().other('bar'),
      call().method().other()(2.0)]
     >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list()
     True
A ‘call’ object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or
(name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was
constructed.  When you construct them yourself this isn’t particularly
interesting, but the ‘call’ objects that are in the *note
Mock.call_args: 17b2, *note Mock.call_args_list: 3e49. and *note
Mock.mock_calls: 3e41. attributes can be introspected to get at the
individual arguments they contain.

The ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.call_args: 17b2. and *note
Mock.call_args_list: 3e49. are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword
args) whereas the ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.mock_calls: 3e41, along
with ones you construct yourself, are three-tuples of (name, positional
args, keyword args).

You can use their “tupleness” to pull out the individual arguments for
more complex introspection and assertions.  The positional arguments are
a tuple (an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the
keyword arguments are a dictionary:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two')
     >>> kall = m.call_args
     >>> kall.args
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> kall.kwargs
     {'arg': 'one', 'arg2': 'two'}
     >>> kall.args is kall[0]
     True
     >>> kall.kwargs is kall[1]
     True

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three')
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0]
     >>> name, args, kwargs = kall
     >>> name
     'foo'
     >>> args
     (4, 5, 6)
     >>> kwargs
     {'arg': 'two', 'arg2': 'three'}
     >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0]
     True


File: python.info,  Node: create_autospec,  Next: ANY,  Prev: call,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.25 create_autospec
.........................

 -- Işlevi: unittest.mock.create_autospec (spec, spec_set=False,
          instance=False, **kwargs)

     Create a mock object using another object as a spec.  Attributes on
     the mock will use the corresponding attribute on the 'spec' object
     as their spec.

     Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked
     to ensure that they are called with the correct signature.

     If 'spec_set' is ‘True’ then attempting to set attributes that
     don’t exist on the spec object will raise an *note AttributeError:
     3dc.

     If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the
     instance of the class) will have the same spec.  You can use a
     class as the spec for an instance object by passing
     ‘instance=True’.  The returned mock will only be callable if
     instances of the mock are callable.

     *note create_autospec(): 1466. also takes arbitrary keyword
     arguments that are passed to the constructor of the created mock.

See *note Autospeccing: 3e37. for examples of how to use auto-speccing
with *note create_autospec(): 1466. and the 'autospec' argument to *note
patch(): d26.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: *note create_autospec(): 1466. now returns an
*note AsyncMock: 8ae. if the target is an async function.


File: python.info,  Node: ANY,  Next: FILTER_DIR,  Prev: create_autospec,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.26 ANY
.............

 -- Verisi: unittest.mock.ANY

Sometimes you may need to make assertions about 'some' of the arguments
in a call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or
want to pull them individually out of *note call_args: 17b2. and make
more complex assertions on them.

To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal
to 'everything'.  Calls to *note assert_called_with(): 185a. and *note
assert_called_once_with(): 3e3e. will then succeed no matter what was
passed in.

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock('foo', bar=object())
     >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY)

*note ANY: 17fe. can also be used in comparisons with call lists like
*note mock_calls: 3e41.:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1)
     >>> m(1, 2)
     >>> m(object())
     >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY]
     True

*note ANY: 17fe. is not limited to comparisons with call objects and so
can also be used in test assertions:

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', ANY])


File: python.info,  Node: FILTER_DIR,  Next: mock_open,  Prev: ANY,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.27 FILTER_DIR
....................

 -- Verisi: unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR

*note FILTER_DIR: 3e45. is a module level variable that controls the way
mock objects respond to *note dir(): 445.  The default is ‘True’, which
uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members.  If you
dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic
purposes, then set ‘mock.FILTER_DIR = False’.

With filtering on, ‘dir(some_mock)’ shows only useful attributes and
will include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn’t normally
be shown.  If the mock was created with a 'spec' (or 'autospec' of
course) then all the attributes from the original are shown, even if
they haven’t been accessed yet:

     >>> dir(Mock())
     ['assert_any_call',
      'assert_called',
      'assert_called_once',
      'assert_called_once_with',
      'assert_called_with',
      'assert_has_calls',
      'assert_not_called',
      'attach_mock',
      ...
     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> dir(Mock(spec=request))
     ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler',
      'AbstractDigestAuthHandler',
      'AbstractHTTPHandler',
      'BaseHandler',
      ...

Many of the not-very-useful (private to *note Mock: 8af. rather than the
thing being mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes
have been filtered from the result of calling *note dir(): 445. on a
*note Mock: 8af.  If you dislike this behaviour you can switch it off by
setting the module level switch *note FILTER_DIR: 3e45.:

     >>> from unittest import mock
     >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False
     >>> dir(mock.Mock())
     ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect',
      '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect',
      '__call__',
      '__class__',
      ...

Alternatively you can just use ‘vars(my_mock)’ (instance members) and
‘dir(type(my_mock))’ (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective
of *note FILTER_DIR: 3e45.


File: python.info,  Node: mock_open,  Next: Autospeccing,  Prev: FILTER_DIR,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.28 mock_open
...................

 -- Işlevi: unittest.mock.mock_open (mock=None, read_data=None)

     A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of *note
     open(): 2a6.  It works for *note open(): 2a6. called directly or
     used as a context manager.

     The 'mock' argument is the mock object to configure.  If ‘None’
     (the default) then a *note MagicMock: d25. will be created for you,
     with the API limited to methods or attributes available on standard
     file handles.

     'read_data' is a string for the *note read(): cac, *note
     readline(): 11d5, and *note readlines(): 2122. methods of the file
     handle to return.  Calls to those methods will take data from
     'read_data' until it is depleted.  The mock of these methods is
     pretty simplistic: every time the 'mock' is called, the 'read_data'
     is rewound to the start.  If you need more control over the data
     that you are feeding to the tested code you will need to customize
     this mock for yourself.  When that is insufficient, one of the
     in-memory filesystem packages on PyPI(1) can offer a realistic
     filesystem for testing.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added *note readline(): 11d5. and *note
     readlines(): 2122. support.  The mock of *note read(): cac. changed
     to consume 'read_data' rather than returning it on each call.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'read_data' is now reset on each call to the
     'mock'.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added *note __iter__(): 1b0b. to
     implementation so that iteration (such as in for loops) correctly
     consumes 'read_data'.

Using *note open(): 2a6. as a context manager is a great way to ensure
your file handles are closed properly and is becoming common:

     with open('/some/path', 'w') as f:
         f.write('something')

The issue is that even if you mock out the call to *note open(): 2a6. it
is the 'returned object' that is used as a context manager (and has
*note __enter__(): 3d0. and *note __exit__(): 11aa. called).

Mocking context managers with a *note MagicMock: d25. is common enough
and fiddly enough that a helper function is useful.

     >>> m = mock_open()
     >>> with patch('__main__.open', m):
     ...     with open('foo', 'w') as h:
     ...         h.write('some stuff')
     ...
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call('foo', 'w'),
      call().__enter__(),
      call().write('some stuff'),
      call().__exit__(None, None, None)]
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w')
     >>> handle = m()
     >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff')

And for reading files:

     >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m:
     ...     with open('foo') as h:
     ...         result = h.read()
     ...
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> assert result == 'bibble'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Autospeccing,  Next: Sealing mocks,  Prev: mock_open,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.29 Autospeccing
......................

Autospeccing is based on the existing ‘spec’ feature of mock.  It limits
the api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is
recursive (implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the
same api as the attributes of the spec.  In addition mocked functions /
methods have the same call signature as the original so they raise a
*note TypeError: 2c4. if they are called incorrectly.

Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here’s why it is needed.

*note Mock: 8af. is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers
from a flaw which is general to mocking.  If you refactor some of your
code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using
the 'old api' but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still
pass.  This means your tests can all pass even though your code is
broken.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Before 3.5, tests with a typo in the word assert
would silently pass when they should raise an error.  You can still
achieve this behavior by passing ‘unsafe=True’ to Mock.

Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well
as unit tests.  Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy,
but if you don’t test how your units are “wired together” there is still
lots of room for bugs that tests might have caught.

*note unittest.mock: 107. already provides a feature to help with this,
called speccing.  If you use a class or instance as the ‘spec’ for a
mock then you can only access attributes on the mock that exist on the
real class:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request)
     >>> mock.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'

The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same
issue with any methods on the mock:

     >>> mock.has_data()
     <mock.Mock object at 0x...>
     >>> mock.has_data.assret_called_with()  # Intentional typo!

Auto-speccing solves this problem.  You can either pass ‘autospec=True’
to *note patch(): d26. / *note patch.object(): 1420. or use the *note
create_autospec(): 1466. function to create a mock with a spec.  If you
use the ‘autospec=True’ argument to *note patch(): d26. then the object
that is being replaced will be used as the spec object.  Because the
speccing is done “lazily” (the spec is created as attributes on the mock
are accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects
(like modules that import modules that import modules) without a big
performance hit.

Here’s an example of it in use:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True)
     >>> mock_request = patcher.start()
     >>> request is mock_request
     True
     >>> mock_request.Request
     <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>

You can see that ‘request.Request’ has a spec.  ‘request.Request’ takes
two arguments in the constructor (one of which is 'self').  Here’s what
happens if we try to call it incorrectly:

     >>> req = request.Request()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)

The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e.  the return value of
specced mocks):

     >>> req = request.Request('foo')
     >>> req
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

‘Request’ objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating
our mocked out ‘request.Request’ is a non-callable mock.  With the spec
in place any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error:

     >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
     <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'>
     >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
     >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs')

In many cases you will just be able to add ‘autospec=True’ to your
existing *note patch(): d26. calls and then be protected against bugs
due to typos and api changes.

As well as using 'autospec' through *note patch(): d26. there is a *note
create_autospec(): 1466. for creating autospecced mocks directly:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request)
     >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar')
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

This isn’t without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is
not the default behaviour.  In order to know what attributes are
available on the spec object, autospec has to introspect (access
attributes) the spec.  As you traverse attributes on the mock a
corresponding traversal of the original object is happening under the
hood.  If any of your specced objects have properties or descriptors
that can trigger code execution then you may not be able to use
autospec.  On the other hand it is much better to design your objects so
that introspection is safe (1).

A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to
be created in the *note __init__(): 4c6. method and not to exist on the
class at all.  'autospec' can’t know about any dynamically created
attributes and restricts the api to visible attributes.

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

There are a few different ways of resolving this problem.  The easiest,
but not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the
required attributes on the mock after creation.  Just because 'autospec'
doesn’t allow you to fetch attributes that don’t exist on the spec it
doesn’t prevent you setting them:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...

There is a more aggressive version of both 'spec' and 'autospec' that
'does' prevent you setting non-existent attributes.  This is useful if
you want to ensure your code only 'sets' valid attributes too, but
obviously it prevents this particular scenario:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes
as default values for instance members initialised in *note __init__():
4c6.  Note that if you are only setting default attributes in
‘__init__()’ then providing them via class attributes (shared between
instances of course) is faster too.  e.g.

     class Something:
         a = 33

This brings up another issue.  It is relatively common to provide a
default value of ‘None’ for members that will later be an object of a
different type.  ‘None’ would be useless as a spec because it wouldn’t
let you access 'any' attributes or methods on it.  As ‘None’ is 'never'
going to be useful as a spec, and probably indicates a member that will
normally of some other type, autospec doesn’t use a spec for members
that are set to ‘None’.  These will just be ordinary mocks (well -
MagicMocks):

     >>> class Something:
     ...     member = None
     ...
     >>> mock = create_autospec(Something)
     >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'>

If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn’t to your
liking then there are more options.  One of these is simply to use an
instance as the spec rather than the class.  The other is to create a
subclass of the production class and add the defaults to the subclass
without affecting the production class.  Both of these require you to
use an alternative object as the spec.  Thankfully *note patch(): d26.
supports this - you can simply pass the alternative object as the
'autospec' argument:

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> class SomethingForTest(Something):
     ...   a = 33
     ...
     >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest)
     >>> mock = p.start()
     >>> mock.a
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects.
Calling a mocked class to create a mock instance 'does not' create a
real instance.  It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to *note
dir(): 445. - that are done.


File: python.info,  Node: Sealing mocks,  Prev: Autospeccing,  Up: Helpers

5.26.6.30 Sealing mocks
.......................

 -- Işlevi: unittest.mock.seal (mock)

     Seal will disable the automatic creation of mocks when accessing an
     attribute of the mock being sealed or any of its attributes that
     are already mocks recursively.

     If a mock instance with a name or a spec is assigned to an
     attribute it won’t be considered in the sealing chain.  This allows
     one to prevent seal from fixing part of the mock object.

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2
          >>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name")
          >>> seal(mock)
          >>> mock.new_attribute  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.submock.attribute2  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.not_submock.attribute2  # This won't raise.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: Helpers,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.26.6.31 Order of precedence of ‘side_effect’, ‘return_value’ and 'wraps'
..........................................................................

The order of their precedence is:

  1. *note side_effect: 3e34.

  2. *note return_value: 3e3c.

  3. 'wraps'

If all three are set, mock will return the value from *note side_effect:
3e34, ignoring *note return_value: 3e3c. and the wrapped object
altogether.  If any two are set, the one with the higher precedence will
return the value.  Regardless of the order of which was set first, the
order of precedence remains unchanged.

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> class Order:
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def get_value():
     ...         return "third"
     ...
     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'

As ‘None’ is the default value of *note side_effect: 3e34, if you
reassign its value back to ‘None’, the order of precedence will be
checked between *note return_value: 3e3c. and the wrapped object,
ignoring *note side_effect: 3e34.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

If the value being returned by *note side_effect: 3e34. is *note
DEFAULT: 3e3b, it is ignored and the order of precedence moves to the
successor to obtain the value to return.

     >>> from unittest.mock import DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = [DEFAULT]
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

When *note Mock: 8af. wraps an object, the default value of *note
return_value: 3e3c. will be *note DEFAULT: 3e3b.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT

The order of precedence will ignore this value and it will move to the
last successor which is the wrapped object.

As the real call is being made to the wrapped object, creating an
instance of this mock will return the real instance of the class.  The
positional arguments, if any, required by the wrapped object must be
passed.

     >>> order_mock_instance = order_mock()
     >>> isinstance(order_mock_instance, Order)
     True
     >>> order_mock_instance.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

But if you assign ‘None’ to it, this will not be ignored as it is an
explicit assignment.  So, the order of precedence will not move to the
wrapped object.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value() is None
     True

Even if you set all three at once when initializing the mock, the order
of precedence remains the same:

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order,
     ...                   **{"get_value.side_effect": ["first"],
     ...                      "get_value.return_value": "second"}
     ...                   )
     ...
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

If *note side_effect: 3e34. is exhausted, the order of precedence will
not cause a value to be obtained from the successors.  Instead,
‘StopIteration’ exception is raised.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first side effect value",
     ...                                     "another side effect value"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first side effect value'
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'another side effect value'

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     StopIteration


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock — getting started,  Next: 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation,  Prev: unittest mock — mock object library,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.7 ‘unittest.mock’ — getting started
----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Using Mock::
* Patch Decorators::
* Further Examples::


File: python.info,  Node: Using Mock,  Next: Patch Decorators,  Up: unittest mock — getting started

5.26.7.1 Using Mock
...................

* Menu:

* Mock Patching Methods::
* Mock for Method Calls on an Object::
* Mocking Classes::
* Naming your mocks::
* Tracking all Calls::
* Setting Return Values and Attributes::
* Raising exceptions with mocks::
* Side effect functions and iterables::
* Mocking asynchronous iterators::
* Mocking asynchronous context manager::
* Creating a Mock from an Existing Object::
* Using side_effect to return per file content::


File: python.info,  Node: Mock Patching Methods,  Next: Mock for Method Calls on an Object,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.2 Mock Patching Methods
..............................

Common uses for *note Mock: 8af. objects include:

   * Patching methods

   * Recording method calls on objects

You might want to replace a method on an object to check that it is
called with the correct arguments by another part of the system:

     >>> real = SomeClass()
     >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method')
     >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'>

Once our mock has been used (‘real.method’ in this example) it has
methods and attributes that allow you to make assertions about how it
has been used.

     Not: In most of these examples the *note Mock: 8af. and *note
     MagicMock: d25. classes are interchangeable.  As the ‘MagicMock’ is
     the more capable class it makes a sensible one to use by default.

Once the mock has been called its *note called: 3e47. attribute is set
to ‘True’.  More importantly we can use the *note assert_called_with():
185a. or *note assert_called_once_with(): 3e3e. method to check that it
was called with the correct arguments.

This example tests that calling ‘ProductionClass().method’ results in a
call to the ‘something’ method:

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         self.something(1, 2, 3)
     ...     def something(self, a, b, c):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.something = MagicMock()
     >>> real.method()
     >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)


File: python.info,  Node: Mock for Method Calls on an Object,  Next: Mocking Classes,  Prev: Mock Patching Methods,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.3 Mock for Method Calls on an Object
...........................................

In the last example we patched a method directly on an object to check
that it was called correctly.  Another common use case is to pass an
object into a method (or some part of the system under test) and then
check that it is used in the correct way.

The simple ‘ProductionClass’ below has a ‘closer’ method.  If it is
called with an object then it calls ‘close’ on it.

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def closer(self, something):
     ...         something.close()
     ...

So to test it we need to pass in an object with a ‘close’ method and
check that it was called correctly.

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> real.closer(mock)
     >>> mock.close.assert_called_with()

We don’t have to do any work to provide the ‘close’ method on our mock.
Accessing close creates it.  So, if ‘close’ hasn’t already been called
then accessing it in the test will create it, but *note
assert_called_with(): 185a. will raise a failure exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking Classes,  Next: Naming your mocks,  Prev: Mock for Method Calls on an Object,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.4 Mocking Classes
........................

A common use case is to mock out classes instantiated by your code under
test.  When you patch a class, then that class is replaced with a mock.
Instances are created by 'calling the class'.  This means you access the
“mock instance” by looking at the return value of the mocked class.

In the example below we have a function ‘some_function’ that
instantiates ‘Foo’ and calls a method on it.  The call to *note patch():
d26. replaces the class ‘Foo’ with a mock.  The ‘Foo’ instance is the
result of calling the mock, so it is configured by modifying the mock
*note return_value: 3e3c.

     >>> def some_function():
     ...     instance = module.Foo()
     ...     return instance.method()
     ...
     >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock:
     ...     instance = mock.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'the result'
     ...     result = some_function()
     ...     assert result == 'the result'


File: python.info,  Node: Naming your mocks,  Next: Tracking all Calls,  Prev: Mocking Classes,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.5 Naming your mocks
..........................

It can be useful to give your mocks a name.  The name is shown in the
repr of the mock and can be helpful when the mock appears in test
failure messages.  The name is also propagated to attributes or methods
of the mock:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo')
     >>> mock
     <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'>
     >>> mock.method
     <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>


File: python.info,  Node: Tracking all Calls,  Next: Setting Return Values and Attributes,  Prev: Naming your mocks,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.6 Tracking all Calls
...........................

Often you want to track more than a single call to a method.  The *note
mock_calls: 3e41. attribute records all calls to child attributes of the
mock - and also to their children.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.method()
     <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53)
     <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]

If you make an assertion about ‘mock_calls’ and any unexpected methods
have been called, then the assertion will fail.  This is useful because
as well as asserting that the calls you expected have been made, you are
also checking that they were made in the right order and with no
additional calls:

You use the *note call: 1800. object to construct lists for comparing
with ‘mock_calls’:

     >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

However, parameters to calls that return mocks are not recorded, which
means it is not possible to track nested calls where the parameters used
to create ancestors are important:

     >>> m = Mock()
     >>> m.factory(important=True).deliver()
     <Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'>
     >>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver()
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Setting Return Values and Attributes,  Next: Raising exceptions with mocks,  Prev: Tracking all Calls,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.7 Setting Return Values and Attributes
.............................................

Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.return_value = 3
     >>> mock()
     3

Of course you can do the same for methods on the mock:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.method.return_value = 3
     >>> mock.method()
     3

The return value can also be set in the constructor:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
     >>> mock()
     3

If you need an attribute setting on your mock, just do it:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.x = 3
     >>> mock.x
     3

Sometimes you want to mock up a more complex situation, like for example
‘mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")’.  If we wanted this call
to return a list, then we have to configure the result of the nested
call.

We can use *note call: 1800. to construct the set of calls in a “chained
call” like this for easy assertion afterwards:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value
     >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo']
     >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")
     ['foo']
     >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list()
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

It is the call to ‘.call_list()’ that turns our call object into a list
of calls representing the chained calls.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising exceptions with mocks,  Next: Side effect functions and iterables,  Prev: Setting Return Values and Attributes,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.8 Raising exceptions with mocks
......................................

A useful attribute is *note side_effect: 3e34.  If you set this to an
exception class or instance then the exception will be raised when the
mock is called.

     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     Exception: Boom!


File: python.info,  Node: Side effect functions and iterables,  Next: Mocking asynchronous iterators,  Prev: Raising exceptions with mocks,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.9 Side effect functions and iterables
............................................

‘side_effect’ can also be set to a function or an iterable.  The use
case for ‘side_effect’ as an iterable is where your mock is going to be
called several times, and you want each call to return a different
value.  When you set ‘side_effect’ to an iterable every call to the mock
returns the next value from the iterable:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6])
     >>> mock()
     4
     >>> mock()
     5
     >>> mock()
     6

For more advanced use cases, like dynamically varying the return values
depending on what the mock is called with, ‘side_effect’ can be a
function.  The function will be called with the same arguments as the
mock.  Whatever the function returns is what the call returns:

     >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2}
     >>> def side_effect(*args):
     ...     return vals[args]
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> mock(1, 2)
     1
     >>> mock(2, 3)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking asynchronous iterators,  Next: Mocking asynchronous context manager,  Prev: Side effect functions and iterables,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.10 Mocking asynchronous iterators
........................................

Since Python 3.8, ‘AsyncMock’ and ‘MagicMock’ have support to mock *note
Asynchronous Iterators: c06. through ‘__aiter__’.  The *note
return_value: 3e3c. attribute of ‘__aiter__’ can be used to set the
return values to be used for iteration.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> mock.__aiter__.return_value = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> async def main():
     ...     return [i async for i in mock]
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     [1, 2, 3]


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking asynchronous context manager,  Next: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object,  Prev: Mocking asynchronous iterators,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.11 Mocking asynchronous context manager
..............................................

Since Python 3.8, ‘AsyncMock’ and ‘MagicMock’ have support to mock *note
Asynchronous Context Managers: 40a. through ‘__aenter__’ and
‘__aexit__’.  By default, ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ are ‘AsyncMock’
instances that return an async function.

     >>> class AsyncContextManager:
     ...     async def __aenter__(self):
     ...         return self
     ...     async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> mock_instance = MagicMock(AsyncContextManager())  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> async def main():
     ...     async with mock_instance as result:
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     >>> mock_instance.__aenter__.assert_awaited_once()
     >>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object,  Next: Using side_effect to return per file content,  Prev: Mocking asynchronous context manager,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.12 Creating a Mock from an Existing Object
.................................................

One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to
the implementation of your mocks rather than your real code.  Suppose
you have a class that implements ‘some_method’.  In a test for another
class, you provide a mock of this object that 'also' provides
‘some_method’.  If later you refactor the first class, so that it no
longer has ‘some_method’ - then your tests will continue to pass even
though your code is now broken!

*note Mock: 8af. allows you to provide an object as a specification for
the mock, using the 'spec' keyword argument.  Accessing methods /
attributes on the mock that don’t exist on your specification object
will immediately raise an attribute error.  If you change the
implementation of your specification, then tests that use that class
will start failing immediately without you having to instantiate the
class in those tests.

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> mock.old_method()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     AttributeError: object has no attribute 'old_method'

Using a specification also enables a smarter matching of calls made to
the mock, regardless of whether some parameters were passed as
positional or named arguments:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

If you want this smarter matching to also work with method calls on the
mock, you can use *note auto-speccing: 3e37.

If you want a stronger form of specification that prevents the setting
of arbitrary attributes as well as the getting of them then you can use
'spec_set' instead of 'spec'.


File: python.info,  Node: Using side_effect to return per file content,  Prev: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object,  Up: Using Mock

5.26.7.13 Using side_effect to return per file content
......................................................

*note mock_open(): 1826. is used to patch *note open(): 2a6. method.
*note side_effect: 3e34. can be used to return a new Mock object per
call.  This can be used to return different contents per file stored in
a dictionary:

     DEFAULT = "default"
     data_dict = {"file1": "data1",
                  "file2": "data2"}

     def open_side_effect(name):
         return mock_open(read_data=data_dict.get(name, DEFAULT))()

     with patch("builtins.open", side_effect=open_side_effect):
         with open("file1") as file1:
             assert file1.read() == "data1"

         with open("file2") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "data2"

         with open("file3") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "default"


File: python.info,  Node: Patch Decorators,  Next: Further Examples,  Prev: Using Mock,  Up: unittest mock — getting started

5.26.7.14 Patch Decorators
..........................

     Not: With *note patch(): d26. it matters that you patch objects in
     the namespace where they are looked up.  This is normally
     straightforward, but for a quick guide read *note where to patch:
     3e35.

A common need in tests is to patch a class attribute or a module
attribute, for example patching a builtin or patching a class in a
module to test that it is instantiated.  Modules and classes are
effectively global, so patching on them has to be undone after the test
or the patch will persist into other tests and cause hard to diagnose
problems.

mock provides three convenient decorators for this: *note patch(): d26,
*note patch.object(): 1420. and *note patch.dict(): 182c.  ‘patch’ takes
a single string, of the form ‘package.module.Class.attribute’ to specify
the attribute you are patching.  It also optionally takes a value that
you want the attribute (or class or whatever) to be replaced with.
‘patch.object’ takes an object and the name of the attribute you would
like patched, plus optionally the value to patch it with.

‘patch.object’:

     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

     >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import attribute
     ...     assert attribute is sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

If you are patching a module (including *note builtins: 12.) then use
*note patch(): d26. instead of *note patch.object(): 1420.:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle)
     >>> with patch('builtins.open', mock):
     ...     handle = open('filename', 'r')
     ...
     >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r')
     >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned"

The module name can be ‘dotted’, in the form ‘package.module’ if needed:

     >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import ClassName
     ...     assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

A nice pattern is to actually decorate test methods themselves:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute)
     ...
     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

If you want to patch with a Mock, you can use *note patch(): d26. with
only one argument (or *note patch.object(): 1420. with two arguments).
The mock will be created for you and passed into the test function /
method:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ...     def test_something(self, mock_method):
     ...         SomeClass.static_method()
     ...         mock_method.assert_called_with()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName1')
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName2')
     ...     def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1):
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1)
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated
function in the same order they applied (the normal 'Python' order that
decorators are applied).  This means from the bottom up, so in the
example above the mock for ‘test_module.ClassName2’ is passed in first.

There is also *note patch.dict(): 182c. for setting values in a
dictionary just during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its
original state when the test ends:

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ and ‘patch.dict’ can all be used as context
managers.

Where you use *note patch(): d26. to create a mock for you, you can get
a reference to the mock using the “as” form of the with statement:

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method:
     ...     mock_method.return_value = None
     ...     real = ProductionClass()
     ...     real.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)

As an alternative ‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ and ‘patch.dict’ can be used
as class decorators.  When used in this way it is the same as applying
the decorator individually to every method whose name starts with
“test”.


File: python.info,  Node: Further Examples,  Prev: Patch Decorators,  Up: unittest mock — getting started

5.26.7.15 Further Examples
..........................

Here are some more examples for some slightly more advanced scenarios.

* Menu:

* Mocking chained calls::
* Partial mocking::
* Mocking a Generator Method::
* Applying the same patch to every test method::
* Mocking Unbound Methods::
* Checking multiple calls with mock::
* Coping with mutable arguments::
* Nesting Patches::
* Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock::
* Mock subclasses and their attributes::
* Mocking imports with patch.dict: Mocking imports with patch dict.
* Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions::
* More complex argument matching::


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking chained calls,  Next: Partial mocking,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.16 Mocking chained calls
...............................

Mocking chained calls is actually straightforward with mock once you
understand the *note return_value: 3e3c. attribute.  When a mock is
called for the first time, or you fetch its ‘return_value’ before it has
been called, a new *note Mock: 8af. is created.

This means that you can see how the object returned from a call to a
mocked object has been used by interrogating the ‘return_value’ mock:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3)
     <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3)

From here it is a simple step to configure and then make assertions
about chained calls.  Of course another alternative is writing your code
in a more testable way in the first place…

So, suppose we have some code that looks a little bit like this:

     >>> class Something:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.backend = BackendProvider()
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     ...         # more code

Assuming that ‘BackendProvider’ is already well tested, how do we test
‘method()’?  Specifically, we want to test that the code section ‘# more
code’ uses the response object in the correct way.

As this chain of calls is made from an instance attribute we can monkey
patch the ‘backend’ attribute on a ‘Something’ instance.  In this
particular case we are only interested in the return value from the
final call to ‘start_call’ so we don’t have much configuration to do.
Let’s assume the object it returns is ‘file-like’, so we’ll ensure that
our response object uses the builtin *note open(): 2a6. as its ‘spec’.

To do this we create a mock instance as our mock backend and create a
mock response object for it.  To set the response as the return value
for that final ‘start_call’ we could do this:

     mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response

We can do that in a slightly nicer way using the *note configure_mock():
3e3d. method to directly set the return value for us:

     >>> something = Something()
     >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open)
     >>> mock_backend = Mock()
     >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response}
     >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config)

With these we monkey patch the “mock backend” in place and can make the
real call:

     >>> something.backend = mock_backend
     >>> something.method()

Using *note mock_calls: 3e41. we can check the chained call with a
single assert.  A chained call is several calls in one line of code, so
there will be several entries in ‘mock_calls’.  We can use *note
call.call_list(): 3e74. to create this list of calls for us:

     >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     >>> call_list = chained.call_list()
     >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list


File: python.info,  Node: Partial mocking,  Next: Mocking a Generator Method,  Prev: Mocking chained calls,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.17 Partial mocking
.........................

In some tests I wanted to mock out a call to *note
datetime.date.today(): 1357. to return a known date, but I didn’t want
to prevent the code under test from creating new date objects.
Unfortunately *note datetime.date: 749. is written in C, and so I
couldn’t just monkey-patch out the static *note datetime.date.today():
1357. method.

I found a simple way of doing this that involved effectively wrapping
the date class with a mock, but passing through calls to the constructor
to the real class (and returning real instances).

The *note patch decorator: d26. is used here to mock out the ‘date’
class in the module under test.  The *note side_effect: 3e34. attribute
on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns a
real date.  When the mock date class is called a real date will be
constructed and returned by ‘side_effect’.

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
     ...     mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw)
     ...
     ...     assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8)

Note that we don’t patch *note datetime.date: 749. globally, we patch
‘date’ in the module that 'uses' it.  See *note where to patch: 3e35.

When ‘date.today()’ is called a known date is returned, but calls to the
‘date(...)’ constructor still return normal dates.  Without this you can
find yourself having to calculate an expected result using exactly the
same algorithm as the code under test, which is a classic testing
anti-pattern.

Calls to the date constructor are recorded in the ‘mock_date’ attributes
(‘call_count’ and friends) which may also be useful for your tests.

An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin
classes, is discussed in this blog entry(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking a Generator Method,  Next: Applying the same patch to every test method,  Prev: Partial mocking,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.18 Mocking a Generator Method
....................................

A Python generator is a function or method that uses the *note yield:
82b. statement to return a series of values when iterated over (1).

A generator method / function is called to return the generator object.
It is the generator object that is then iterated over.  The protocol
method for iteration is *note __iter__(): 1b0b, so we can mock this
using a *note MagicMock: d25.

Here’s an example class with an “iter” method implemented as a
generator:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def iter(self):
     ...         for i in [1, 2, 3]:
     ...             yield i
     ...
     >>> foo = Foo()
     >>> list(foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

How would we mock this class, and in particular its “iter” method?

To configure the values returned from the iteration (implicit in the
call to *note list: 422.), we need to configure the object returned by
the call to ‘foo.iter()’.

     >>> mock_foo = MagicMock()
     >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3])
     >>> list(mock_foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) There are also generator expressions and more advanced uses
(http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html) of generators, but we
aren’t concerned about them here.  A very good introduction to
generators and how powerful they are is: Generator Tricks for Systems
Programmers (http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/).


File: python.info,  Node: Applying the same patch to every test method,  Next: Mocking Unbound Methods,  Prev: Mocking a Generator Method,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.19 Applying the same patch to every test method
......................................................

If you want several patches in place for multiple test methods the
obvious way is to apply the patch decorators to every method.  This can
feel like unnecessary repetition.  Instead, you can use *note patch():
d26. (in all its various forms) as a class decorator.  This applies the
patches to all test methods on the class.  A test method is identified
by methods whose names start with ‘test’:

     >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass')
     ... class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_one(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def test_two(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def not_a_test(self):
     ...         return 'something'
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test()
     'something'

An alternative way of managing patches is to use the *note patch
methods; start and stop: 3e65.  These allow you to move the patching
into your ‘setUp’ and ‘tearDown’ methods.

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher.stop()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()

If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is “undone”
by calling ‘stop’.  This can be fiddlier than you might think, because
if an exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called.
*note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): 8e6. makes this easier:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         self.mock_foo = patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking Unbound Methods,  Next: Checking multiple calls with mock,  Prev: Applying the same patch to every test method,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.20 Mocking Unbound Methods
.................................

Whilst writing tests today I needed to patch an 'unbound method'
(patching the method on the class rather than on the instance).  I
needed self to be passed in as the first argument because I want to make
asserts about which objects were calling this particular method.  The
issue is that you can’t patch with a mock for this, because if you
replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn’t become a bound method
when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn’t get self passed in.
The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real function
instead.  The *note patch(): d26. decorator makes it so simple to patch
out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a
nuisance.

If you pass ‘autospec=True’ to patch then it does the patching with a
'real' function object.  This function object has the same signature as
the one it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood.  You
still get your mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before.
What it means though, is that if you use it to patch out an unbound
method on a class the mocked function will be turned into a bound method
if it is fetched from an instance.  It will have ‘self’ passed in as the
first argument, which is exactly what I wanted:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...   def foo(self):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo:
     ...   mock_foo.return_value = 'foo'
     ...   foo = Foo()
     ...   foo.foo()
     ...
     'foo'
     >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo)

If we don’t use ‘autospec=True’ then the unbound method is patched out
with a Mock instance instead, and isn’t called with ‘self’.


File: python.info,  Node: Checking multiple calls with mock,  Next: Coping with mutable arguments,  Prev: Mocking Unbound Methods,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.21 Checking multiple calls with mock
...........................................

mock has a nice API for making assertions about how your mock objects
are used.

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None
     >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs')

If your mock is only being called once you can use the *note
assert_called_once_with(): 3e3e. method that also asserts that the *note
call_count: 3e48. is one.

     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected to be called once. Called 2 times.

Both ‘assert_called_with’ and ‘assert_called_once_with’ make assertions
about the 'most recent' call.  If your mock is going to be called
several times, and you want to make assertions about 'all' those calls
you can use *note call_args_list: 3e49.:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock(4, 5, 6)
     >>> mock()
     >>> mock.call_args_list
     [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]

The *note call: 1800. helper makes it easy to make assertions about
these calls.  You can build up a list of expected calls and compare it
to ‘call_args_list’.  This looks remarkably similar to the repr of the
‘call_args_list’:

     >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
     >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Coping with mutable arguments,  Next: Nesting Patches,  Prev: Checking multiple calls with mock,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.22 Coping with mutable arguments
.......................................

Another situation is rare, but can bite you, is when your mock is called
with mutable arguments.  ‘call_args’ and ‘call_args_list’ store
'references' to the arguments.  If the arguments are mutated by the code
under test then you can no longer make assertions about what the values
were when the mock was called.

Here’s some example code that shows the problem.  Imagine the following
functions defined in ‘mymodule’:

     def frob(val):
         pass

     def grob(val):
         "First frob and then clear val"
         frob(val)
         val.clear()

When we try to test that ‘grob’ calls ‘frob’ with the correct argument
look what happens:

     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> val
     set()
     >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {})
     Called with: ((set(),), {})

One possibility would be for mock to copy the arguments you pass in.
This could then cause problems if you do assertions that rely on object
identity for equality.

Here’s one solution that uses the *note side_effect: 3e34.
functionality.  If you provide a ‘side_effect’ function for a mock then
‘side_effect’ will be called with the same args as the mock.  This gives
us an opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later
assertions.  In this example I’m using 'another' mock to store the
arguments so that I can use the mock methods for doing the assertion.
Again a helper function sets this up for me.

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT
     >>> def copy_call_args(mock):
     ...     new_mock = Mock()
     ...     def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         new_mock(*args, **kwargs)
     ...         return DEFAULT
     ...     mock.side_effect = side_effect
     ...     return new_mock
     ...
     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob)
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6})
     >>> new_mock.call_args
     call({6})

‘copy_call_args’ is called with the mock that will be called.  It
returns a new mock that we do the assertion on.  The ‘side_effect’
function makes a copy of the args and calls our ‘new_mock’ with the
copy.

     Not: If your mock is only going to be used once there is an easier
     way of checking arguments at the point they are called.  You can
     simply do the checking inside a ‘side_effect’ function.

          >>> def side_effect(arg):
          ...     assert arg == {6}
          ...
          >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
          >>> mock({6})
          >>> mock(set())
          Traceback (most recent call last):
              ...
          AssertionError

An alternative approach is to create a subclass of *note Mock: 8af. or
*note MagicMock: d25. that copies (using *note copy.deepcopy(): 9e4.)
the arguments.  Here’s an example implementation:

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def __call__(self, /, *args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         return super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
     ...
     >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None)
     >>> arg = set()
     >>> c(arg)
     >>> arg.add(1)
     >>> c.assert_called_with(set())
     >>> c.assert_called_with(arg)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected call: mock({1})
     Actual call: mock(set())
     >>> c.foo
     <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>

When you subclass ‘Mock’ or ‘MagicMock’ all dynamically created
attributes, and the ‘return_value’ will use your subclass automatically.
That means all children of a ‘CopyingMock’ will also have the type
‘CopyingMock’.


File: python.info,  Node: Nesting Patches,  Next: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock,  Prev: Coping with mutable arguments,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.23 Nesting Patches
.........................

Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches
you can end up with nested with statements indenting further and further
to the right:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo:
     ...             with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar:
     ...                 with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam:
     ...                     assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...                     assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...                     assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original

With unittest ‘cleanup’ functions and the *note patch methods; start and
stop: 3e65. we can achieve the same effect without the nested
indentation.  A simple helper method, ‘create_patch’, puts the patch in
place and returns the created mock for us:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def create_patch(self, name):
     ...         patcher = patch(name)
     ...         thing = patcher.start()
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         return thing
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo')
     ...         mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar')
     ...         mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam')
     ...
     ...         assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...         assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...         assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock,  Next: Mock subclasses and their attributes,  Prev: Nesting Patches,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.24 Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock
.............................................

You may want to mock a dictionary, or other container object, recording
all access to it whilst having it still behave like a dictionary.

We can do this with *note MagicMock: d25, which will behave like a
dictionary, and using *note side_effect: 3e34. to delegate dictionary
access to a real underlying dictionary that is under our control.

When the *note __getitem__(): 500. and *note __setitem__(): 1174.
methods of our ‘MagicMock’ are called (normal dictionary access) then
‘side_effect’ is called with the key (and in the case of ‘__setitem__’
the value too).  We can also control what is returned.

After the ‘MagicMock’ has been used we can use attributes like *note
call_args_list: 3e49. to assert about how the dictionary was used:

     >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def getitem(name):
     ...      return my_dict[name]
     ...
     >>> def setitem(name, val):
     ...     my_dict[name] = val
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
     >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

     Not: An alternative to using ‘MagicMock’ is to use ‘Mock’ and
     'only' provide the magic methods you specifically want:

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem)
          >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem)

     A 'third' option is to use ‘MagicMock’ but passing in ‘dict’ as the
     'spec' (or 'spec_set') argument so that the ‘MagicMock’ created
     only has dictionary magic methods available:

          >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict)
          >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
          >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

With these side effect functions in place, the ‘mock’ will behave like a
normal dictionary but recording the access.  It even raises a *note
KeyError: 903. if you try to access a key that doesn’t exist.

     >>> mock['a']
     1
     >>> mock['c']
     3
     >>> mock['d']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     KeyError: 'd'
     >>> mock['b'] = 'fish'
     >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs'
     >>> mock['b']
     'fish'
     >>> mock['d']
     'eggs'

After it has been used you can make assertions about the access using
the normal mock methods and attributes:

     >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list
     [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')]
     >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list
     [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')]
     >>> my_dict
     {'a': 1, 'b': 'fish', 'c': 3, 'd': 'eggs'}


File: python.info,  Node: Mock subclasses and their attributes,  Next: Mocking imports with patch dict,  Prev: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.25 Mock subclasses and their attributes
..............................................

There are various reasons why you might want to subclass *note Mock:
8af.  One reason might be to add helper methods.  Here’s a silly
example:

     >>> class MyMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def has_been_called(self):
     ...         return self.called
     ...
     >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None)
     >>> mymock
     <MyMock id='...'>
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock()
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     True

The standard behaviour for ‘Mock’ instances is that attributes and the
return value mocks are of the same type as the mock they are accessed
on.  This ensures that ‘Mock’ attributes are ‘Mocks’ and ‘MagicMock’
attributes are ‘MagicMocks’ (1).  So if you’re subclassing to add helper
methods then they’ll also be available on the attributes and return
value mock of instances of your subclass.

     >>> mymock.foo
     <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock.foo()
     <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     True

Sometimes this is inconvenient.  For example, one user(2) is subclassing
mock to created a Twisted adaptor(3).  Having this applied to attributes
too actually causes errors.

‘Mock’ (in all its flavours) uses a method called ‘_get_child_mock’ to
create these “sub-mocks” for attributes and return values.  You can
prevent your subclass being used for attributes by overriding this
method.  The signature is that it takes arbitrary keyword arguments
(‘**kwargs’) which are then passed onto the mock constructor:

     >>> class Subclass(MagicMock):
     ...     def _get_child_mock(self, /, **kwargs):
     ...         return MagicMock(**kwargs)
     ...
     >>> mymock = Subclass()
     >>> mymock.foo
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) An exception to this rule are the non-callable mocks.  Attributes
use the callable variant because otherwise non-callable mocks couldn’t
have callable methods.

   (2) https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105

   (3) 
https://twisted.org/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking imports with patch dict,  Next: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions,  Prev: Mock subclasses and their attributes,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.26 Mocking imports with patch.dict
.........................................

One situation where mocking can be hard is where you have a local import
inside a function.  These are harder to mock because they aren’t using
an object from the module namespace that we can patch out.

Generally local imports are to be avoided.  They are sometimes done to
prevent circular dependencies, for which there is 'usually' a much
better way to solve the problem (refactor the code) or to prevent “up
front costs” by delaying the import.  This can also be solved in better
ways than an unconditional local import (store the module as a class or
module attribute and only do the import on first use).

That aside there is a way to use ‘mock’ to affect the results of an
import.  Importing fetches an 'object' from the *note sys.modules: 179b.
dictionary.  Note that it fetches an 'object', which need not be a
module.  Importing a module for the first time results in a module
object being put in ‘sys.modules’, so usually when you import something
you get a module back.  This need not be the case however.

This means you can use *note patch.dict(): 182c. to 'temporarily' put a
mock in place in *note sys.modules: 179b.  Any imports whilst this patch
is active will fetch the mock.  When the patch is complete (the
decorated function exits, the with statement body is complete or
‘patcher.stop()’ is called) then whatever was there previously will be
restored safely.

Here’s an example that mocks out the ‘fooble’ module.

     >>> import sys
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    import fooble
     ...    fooble.blob()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'>
     >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules
     >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with()

As you can see the ‘import fooble’ succeeds, but on exit there is no
‘fooble’ left in *note sys.modules: 179b.

This also works for the ‘from module import name’ form:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    from fooble import blob
     ...    blob.blip()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with()

With slightly more work you can also mock package imports:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module}
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules):
     ...    from package.module import fooble
     ...    fooble()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()


File: python.info,  Node: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions,  Next: More complex argument matching,  Prev: Mocking imports with patch dict,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.27 Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions
..................................................................

The *note Mock: 8af. class allows you to track the 'order' of method
calls on your mock objects through the *note method_calls: 3e43.
attribute.  This doesn’t allow you to track the order of calls between
separate mock objects, however we can use *note mock_calls: 3e41. to
achieve the same effect.

Because mocks track calls to child mocks in ‘mock_calls’, and accessing
an arbitrary attribute of a mock creates a child mock, we can create our
separate mocks from a parent one.  Calls to those child mock will then
all be recorded, in order, in the ‘mock_calls’ of the parent:

     >>> manager = Mock()
     >>> mock_foo = manager.foo
     >>> mock_bar = manager.bar

     >>> mock_foo.something()
     <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'>
     >>> mock_bar.other.thing()
     <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'>

     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]

We can then assert about the calls, including the order, by comparing
with the ‘mock_calls’ attribute on the manager mock:

     >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
     >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls
     True

If ‘patch’ is creating, and putting in place, your mocks then you can
attach them to a manager mock using the *note attach_mock(): 146a.
method.  After attaching calls will be recorded in ‘mock_calls’ of the
manager.

     >>> manager = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1:
     ...     with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2:
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1')
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2')
     ...         MockClass1().foo()
     ...         MockClass2().bar()
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'>
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'>
     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.MockClass1(),
     call.MockClass1().foo(),
     call.MockClass2(),
     call.MockClass2().bar()]

If many calls have been made, but you’re only interested in a particular
sequence of them then an alternative is to use the *note
assert_has_calls(): 3e40. method.  This takes a list of calls
(constructed with the *note call: 1800. object).  If that sequence of
calls are in *note mock_calls: 3e41. then the assert succeeds.

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m().foo().bar().baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'>
     >>> m.one().two().three()
     <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'>
     >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list()
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls)

Even though the chained call ‘m.one().two().three()’ aren’t the only
calls that have been made to the mock, the assert still succeeds.

Sometimes a mock may have several calls made to it, and you are only
interested in asserting about 'some' of those calls.  You may not even
care about the order.  In this case you can pass ‘any_order=True’ to
‘assert_has_calls’:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50')
     (...)
     >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)]
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)


File: python.info,  Node: More complex argument matching,  Prev: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions,  Up: Further Examples

5.26.7.28 More complex argument matching
........................................

Using the same basic concept as *note ANY: 17fe. we can implement
matchers to do more complex assertions on objects used as arguments to
mocks.

Suppose we expect some object to be passed to a mock that by default
compares equal based on object identity (which is the Python default for
user defined classes).  To use *note assert_called_with(): 185a. we
would need to pass in the exact same object.  If we are only interested
in some of the attributes of this object then we can create a matcher
that will check these attributes for us.

You can see in this example how a ‘standard’ call to
‘assert_called_with’ isn’t sufficient:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def __init__(self, a, b):
     ...         self.a, self.b = a, b
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
     Actual call: call(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)

A comparison function for our ‘Foo’ class might look something like
this:

     >>> def compare(self, other):
     ...     if not type(self) == type(other):
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.a != other.a:
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.b != other.b:
     ...         return False
     ...     return True
     ...

And a matcher object that can use comparison functions like this for its
equality operation would look something like this:

     >>> class Matcher:
     ...     def __init__(self, compare, some_obj):
     ...         self.compare = compare
     ...         self.some_obj = some_obj
     ...     def __eq__(self, other):
     ...         return self.compare(self.some_obj, other)
     ...

Putting all this together:

     >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo)

The ‘Matcher’ is instantiated with our compare function and the ‘Foo’
object we want to compare against.  In ‘assert_called_with’ the
‘Matcher’ equality method will be called, which compares the object the
mock was called with against the one we created our matcher with.  If
they match then ‘assert_called_with’ passes, and if they don’t an *note
AssertionError: 4bf. is raised:

     >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {})
     Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {})

With a bit of tweaking you could have the comparison function raise the
*note AssertionError: 4bf. directly and provide a more useful failure
message.

As of version 1.5, the Python testing library PyHamcrest(1) provides
similar functionality, that may be useful here, in the form of its
equality matcher (hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/

   (2) 
https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality


File: python.info,  Node: 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation,  Next: test — Regression tests package for Python,  Prev: unittest mock — getting started,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.8 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
------------------------------------------------------

2to3 is a Python program that reads Python 2.x source code and applies a
series of 'fixers' to transform it into valid Python 3.x code.  The
standard library contains a rich set of fixers that will handle almost
all code.  2to3 supporting library *note lib2to3: 83. is, however, a
flexible and generic library, so it is possible to write your own fixers
for 2to3.

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
‘lib2to3’ module was marked pending for deprecation in Python 3.9
(raising *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. on import) and fully
deprecated in Python 3.11 (raising *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.).  The
‘2to3’ tool is part of that.  It will be removed in Python 3.13.

* Menu:

* Using 2to3::
* Fixers::
* lib2to3 — 2to3’s library::


File: python.info,  Node: Using 2to3,  Next: Fixers,  Up: 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

5.26.8.1 Using 2to3
...................

2to3 will usually be installed with the Python interpreter as a script.
It is also located in the ‘Tools/scripts’ directory of the Python root.

2to3’s basic arguments are a list of files or directories to transform.
The directories are recursively traversed for Python sources.

Here is a sample Python 2.x source file, ‘example.py’:

     def greet(name):
         print "Hello, {0}!".format(name)
     print "What's your name?"
     name = raw_input()
     greet(name)

It can be converted to Python 3.x code via 2to3 on the command line:

     $ 2to3 example.py

A diff against the original source file is printed.  2to3 can also write
the needed modifications right back to the source file.  (A backup of
the original file is made unless ‘-n’ is also given.)  Writing the
changes back is enabled with the ‘-w’ flag:

     $ 2to3 -w example.py

After transformation, ‘example.py’ looks like this:

     def greet(name):
         print("Hello, {0}!".format(name))
     print("What's your name?")
     name = input()
     greet(name)

Comments and exact indentation are preserved throughout the translation
process.

By default, 2to3 runs a set of *note predefined fixers: 3ea0.  The ‘-l’
flag lists all available fixers.  An explicit set of fixers to run can
be given with ‘-f’.  Likewise the ‘-x’ explicitly disables a fixer.  The
following example runs only the ‘imports’ and ‘has_key’ fixers:

     $ 2to3 -f imports -f has_key example.py

This command runs every fixer except the ‘apply’ fixer:

     $ 2to3 -x apply example.py

Some fixers are 'explicit', meaning they aren’t run by default and must
be listed on the command line to be run.  Here, in addition to the
default fixers, the ‘idioms’ fixer is run:

     $ 2to3 -f all -f idioms example.py

Notice how passing ‘all’ enables all default fixers.

Sometimes 2to3 will find a place in your source code that needs to be
changed, but 2to3 cannot fix automatically.  In this case, 2to3 will
print a warning beneath the diff for a file.  You should address the
warning in order to have compliant 3.x code.

2to3 can also refactor doctests.  To enable this mode, use the ‘-d’
flag.  Note that 'only' doctests will be refactored.  This also doesn’t
require the module to be valid Python.  For example, doctest like
examples in a reST document could also be refactored with this option.

The ‘-v’ option enables output of more information on the translation
process.

Since some print statements can be parsed as function calls or
statements, 2to3 cannot always read files containing the print function.
When 2to3 detects the presence of the ‘from __future__ import
print_function’ compiler directive, it modifies its internal grammar to
interpret *note print(): e16. as a function.  This change can also be
enabled manually with the ‘-p’ flag.  Use ‘-p’ to run fixers on code
that already has had its print statements converted.  Also ‘-e’ can be
used to make *note exec(): 6cb. a function.

The ‘-o’ or ‘--output-dir’ option allows specification of an alternate
directory for processed output files to be written to.  The ‘-n’ flag is
required when using this as backup files do not make sense when not
overwriting the input files.

Added in version 3.2.3: The ‘-o’ option was added.

The ‘-W’ or ‘--write-unchanged-files’ flag tells 2to3 to always write
output files even if no changes were required to the file.  This is most
useful with ‘-o’ so that an entire Python source tree is copied with
translation from one directory to another.  This option implies the ‘-w’
flag as it would not make sense otherwise.

Added in version 3.2.3: The ‘-W’ flag was added.

The ‘--add-suffix’ option specifies a string to append to all output
filenames.  The ‘-n’ flag is required when specifying this as backups
are not necessary when writing to different filenames.  Example:

     $ 2to3 -n -W --add-suffix=3 example.py

Will cause a converted file named ‘example.py3’ to be written.

Added in version 3.2.3: The ‘--add-suffix’ option was added.

To translate an entire project from one directory tree to another use:

     $ 2to3 --output-dir=python3-version/mycode -W -n python2-version/mycode


File: python.info,  Node: Fixers,  Next: lib2to3 — 2to3’s library,  Prev: Using 2to3,  Up: 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

5.26.8.2 Fixers
...............

Each step of transforming code is encapsulated in a fixer.  The command
‘2to3 -l’ lists them.  As *note documented above: 3e9e, each can be
turned on and off individually.  They are described here in more detail.

 -- 2to3fixer: apply

     Removes usage of ‘apply()’.  For example ‘apply(function, *args,
     **kwargs)’ is converted to ‘function(*args, **kwargs)’.

 -- 2to3fixer: asserts

     Replaces deprecated *note unittest: 106. method names with the
     correct ones.

     From                                 To
                                          
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
     ‘failUnlessEqual(a, b)’              *note assertEqual(a, b): 2b3.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertEquals(a, b)’                 *note assertEqual(a, b): 2b3.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failIfEqual(a, b)’                  *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 2b4.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertNotEquals(a, b)’              *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 2b4.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failUnless(a)’                      *note assertTrue(a): 2b1.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assert_(a)’                         *note assertTrue(a): 2b1.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failIf(a)’                          *note assertFalse(a): 2b2.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failUnlessRaises(exc, cal)’         *note assertRaises(exc, cal): 2b7.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual(a, b)’        *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 2b5.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertAlmostEquals(a, b)’           *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 2b5.
                                          
                                          
     ‘failIfAlmostEqual(a, b)’            *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 2b6.
                                          
                                          
     ‘assertNotAlmostEquals(a, b)’        *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 2b6.
                                          

 -- 2to3fixer: basestring

     Converts ‘basestring’ to *note str: 15d.

 -- 2to3fixer: buffer

     Converts ‘buffer’ to *note memoryview: 185.  This fixer is optional
     because the *note memoryview: 185. API is similar but not exactly
     the same as that of ‘buffer’.

 -- 2to3fixer: dict

     Fixes dictionary iteration methods.  ‘dict.iteritems()’ is
     converted to *note dict.items(): 607, ‘dict.iterkeys()’ to *note
     dict.keys(): 605, and ‘dict.itervalues()’ to *note dict.values():
     606.  Similarly, ‘dict.viewitems()’, ‘dict.viewkeys()’ and
     ‘dict.viewvalues()’ are converted respectively to *note
     dict.items(): 607, *note dict.keys(): 605. and *note dict.values():
     606.  It also wraps existing usages of *note dict.items(): 607,
     *note dict.keys(): 605, and *note dict.values(): 606. in a call to
     *note list: 422.

 -- 2to3fixer: except

     Converts ‘except X, T’ to ‘except X as T’.

 -- 2to3fixer: exec

     Converts the ‘exec’ statement to the *note exec(): 6cb. function.

 -- 2to3fixer: execfile

     Removes usage of ‘execfile()’.  The argument to ‘execfile()’ is
     wrapped in calls to *note open(): 2a6, *note compile(): 56d, and
     *note exec(): 6cb.

 -- 2to3fixer: exitfunc

     Changes assignment of ‘sys.exitfunc’ to use of the *note atexit: c.
     module.

 -- 2to3fixer: filter

     Wraps *note filter(): 6a8. usage in a *note list: 422. call.

 -- 2to3fixer: funcattrs

     Fixes function attributes that have been renamed.  For example,
     ‘my_function.func_closure’ is converted to
     ‘my_function.__closure__’.

 -- 2to3fixer: future

     Removes ‘from __future__ import new_feature’ statements.

 -- 2to3fixer: getcwdu

     Renames ‘os.getcwdu()’ to *note os.getcwd(): 1423.

 -- 2to3fixer: has_key

     Changes ‘dict.has_key(key)’ to ‘key in dict’.

 -- 2to3fixer: idioms

     This optional fixer performs several transformations that make
     Python code more idiomatic.  Type comparisons like ‘type(x) is
     SomeClass’ and ‘type(x) == SomeClass’ are converted to
     ‘isinstance(x, SomeClass)’.  ‘while 1’ becomes ‘while True’.  This
     fixer also tries to make use of *note sorted(): a45. in appropriate
     places.  For example, this block

          L = list(some_iterable)
          L.sort()

     is changed to

          L = sorted(some_iterable)

 -- 2to3fixer: import

     Detects sibling imports and converts them to relative imports.

 -- 2to3fixer: imports

     Handles module renames in the standard library.

 -- 2to3fixer: imports2

     Handles other modules renames in the standard library.  It is
     separate from the *note imports: 3eb1. fixer only because of
     technical limitations.

 -- 2to3fixer: input

     Converts ‘input(prompt)’ to ‘eval(input(prompt))’.

 -- 2to3fixer: intern

     Converts ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 1185.

 -- 2to3fixer: isinstance

     Fixes duplicate types in the second argument of *note isinstance():
     151.  For example, ‘isinstance(x, (int, int))’ is converted to
     ‘isinstance(x, int)’ and ‘isinstance(x, (int, float, int))’ is
     converted to ‘isinstance(x, (int, float))’.

 -- 2to3fixer: itertools_imports

     Removes imports of ‘itertools.ifilter()’, ‘itertools.izip()’, and
     ‘itertools.imap()’.  Imports of ‘itertools.ifilterfalse()’ are also
     changed to *note itertools.filterfalse(): 1f5a.

 -- 2to3fixer: itertools

     Changes usage of ‘itertools.ifilter()’, ‘itertools.izip()’, and
     ‘itertools.imap()’ to their built-in equivalents.
     ‘itertools.ifilterfalse()’ is changed to *note
     itertools.filterfalse(): 1f5a.

 -- 2to3fixer: long

     Renames ‘long’ to *note int: 184.

 -- 2to3fixer: map

     Wraps *note map(): 6a7. in a *note list: 422. call.  It also
     changes ‘map(None, x)’ to ‘list(x)’.  Using ‘from future_builtins
     import map’ disables this fixer.

 -- 2to3fixer: metaclass

     Converts the old metaclass syntax (‘__metaclass__ = Meta’ in the
     class body) to the new (‘class X(metaclass=Meta)’).

 -- 2to3fixer: methodattrs

     Fixes old method attribute names.  For example, ‘meth.im_func’ is
     converted to ‘meth.__func__’.

 -- 2to3fixer: ne

     Converts the old not-equal syntax, ‘<>’, to ‘!=’.

 -- 2to3fixer: next

     Converts the use of iterator’s ‘next()’ methods to the *note
     next(): 611. function.  It also renames *note next(): 611. methods
     to *note __next__(): 1176.

 -- 2to3fixer: nonzero

     Renames definitions of methods called ‘__nonzero__()’ to *note
     __bool__(): 117f.

 -- 2to3fixer: numliterals

     Converts octal literals into the new syntax.

 -- 2to3fixer: operator

     Converts calls to various functions in the *note operator: 9e.
     module to other, but equivalent, function calls.  When needed, the
     appropriate ‘import’ statements are added, e.g.  ‘import
     collections.abc’.  The following mapping are made:

     From                                   To
                                            
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
     ‘operator.isCallable(obj)’             ‘callable(obj)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.sequenceIncludes(obj)’       ‘operator.contains(obj)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.isSequenceType(obj)’         ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Sequence)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.isMappingType(obj)’          ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Mapping)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.isNumberType(obj)’           ‘isinstance(obj, numbers.Number)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.repeat(obj, n)’              ‘operator.mul(obj, n)’
                                            
                                            
     ‘operator.irepeat(obj, n)’             ‘operator.imul(obj, n)’
                                            

 -- 2to3fixer: paren

     Add extra parenthesis where they are required in list
     comprehensions.  For example, ‘[x for x in 1, 2]’ becomes ‘[x for x
     in (1, 2)]’.

 -- 2to3fixer: print

     Converts the ‘print’ statement to the *note print(): e16. function.

 -- 2to3fixer: raise

     Converts ‘raise E, V’ to ‘raise E(V)’, and ‘raise E, V, T’ to
     ‘raise E(V).with_traceback(T)’.  If ‘E’ is a tuple, the translation
     will be incorrect because substituting tuples for exceptions has
     been removed in 3.0.

 -- 2to3fixer: raw_input

     Converts ‘raw_input()’ to *note input(): 1182.

 -- 2to3fixer: reduce

     Handles the move of ‘reduce()’ to *note functools.reduce(): 1186.

 -- 2to3fixer: reload

     Converts ‘reload()’ to *note importlib.reload(): 2a3.

 -- 2to3fixer: renames

     Changes ‘sys.maxint’ to *note sys.maxsize: 106a.

 -- 2to3fixer: repr

     Replaces backtick repr with the *note repr(): 637. function.

 -- 2to3fixer: set_literal

     Replaces use of the *note set: 3e4. constructor with set literals.
     This fixer is optional.

 -- 2to3fixer: standarderror

     Renames ‘StandardError’ to *note Exception: 838.

 -- 2to3fixer: sys_exc

     Changes the deprecated ‘sys.exc_value’, ‘sys.exc_type’,
     ‘sys.exc_traceback’ to use *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.

 -- 2to3fixer: throw

     Fixes the API change in generator’s ‘throw()’ method.

 -- 2to3fixer: tuple_params

     Removes implicit tuple parameter unpacking.  This fixer inserts
     temporary variables.

 -- 2to3fixer: types

     Fixes code broken from the removal of some members in the *note
     types: 103. module.

 -- 2to3fixer: unicode

     Renames ‘unicode’ to *note str: 15d.

 -- 2to3fixer: urllib

     Handles the rename of *note urllib: 108. and ‘urllib2’ to the *note
     urllib: 108. package.

 -- 2to3fixer: ws_comma

     Removes excess whitespace from comma separated items.  This fixer
     is optional.

 -- 2to3fixer: xrange

     Renames ‘xrange()’ to *note range(): 79c. and wraps existing *note
     range(): 79c. calls with *note list: 422.

 -- 2to3fixer: xreadlines

     Changes ‘for x in file.xreadlines()’ to ‘for x in file’.

 -- 2to3fixer: zip

     Wraps *note zip(): 608. usage in a *note list: 422. call.  This is
     disabled when ‘from future_builtins import zip’ appears.


File: python.info,  Node: lib2to3 — 2to3’s library,  Prev: Fixers,  Up: 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

5.26.8.3 ‘lib2to3’ — 2to3’s library
...................................

'Source code:' Lib/lib2to3/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: Python
3.9 switched to a PEG parser (see PEP 617(2)) while lib2to3 is using a
less flexible LL(1) parser.  Python 3.10 includes new language syntax
that is not parsable by lib2to3’s LL(1) parser (see PEP 634(3)).  The
‘lib2to3’ module was marked pending for deprecation in Python 3.9
(raising *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719. on import) and fully
deprecated in Python 3.11 (raising *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.).  It
will be removed from the standard library in Python 3.13.  Consider
third-party alternatives such as LibCST(4) or parso(5).

     Not: The *note lib2to3: 83. API should be considered unstable and
     may change drastically in the future.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/lib2to3/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: test — Regression tests package for Python,  Next: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite,  Prev: 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.9 ‘test’ — Regression tests package for Python
---------------------------------------------------

     Not: The *note test: e1. package is meant for internal use by
     Python only.  It is documented for the benefit of the core
     developers of Python.  Any use of this package outside of Python’s
     standard library is discouraged as code mentioned here can change
     or be removed without notice between releases of Python.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note test: e1. package contains all regression tests for Python as
well as the modules *note test.support: e3. and *note test.regrtest: e2.
*note test.support: e3. is used to enhance your tests while *note
test.regrtest: e2. drives the testing suite.

Each module in the *note test: e1. package whose name starts with
‘test_’ is a testing suite for a specific module or feature.  All new
tests should be written using the *note unittest: 106. or *note doctest:
39. module.  Some older tests are written using a “traditional” testing
style that compares output printed to ‘sys.stdout’; this style of test
is considered deprecated.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note unittest: 106.

     Writing PyUnit regression tests.

Module *note doctest: 39.

     Tests embedded in documentation strings.

* Menu:

* Writing Unit Tests for the test package::
* Running tests using the command-line interface::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Unit Tests for the test package,  Next: Running tests using the command-line interface,  Up: test — Regression tests package for Python

5.26.9.1 Writing Unit Tests for the ‘test’ package
..................................................

It is preferred that tests that use the *note unittest: 106. module
follow a few guidelines.  One is to name the test module by starting it
with ‘test_’ and end it with the name of the module being tested.  The
test methods in the test module should start with ‘test_’ and end with a
description of what the method is testing.  This is needed so that the
methods are recognized by the test driver as test methods.  Also, no
documentation string for the method should be included.  A comment (such
as ‘# Tests function returns only True or False’) should be used to
provide documentation for test methods.  This is done because
documentation strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test
is being run is not stated.

A basic boilerplate is often used:

     import unittest
     from test import support

     class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):

         # Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary

         def setUp(self):
             ... code to execute in preparation for tests ...

         def tearDown(self):
             ... code to execute to clean up after tests ...

         def test_feature_one(self):
             # Test feature one.
             ... testing code ...

         def test_feature_two(self):
             # Test feature two.
             ... testing code ...

         ... more test methods ...

     class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
         ... same structure as MyTestCase1 ...

     ... more test classes ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by *note
test.regrtest: e2, on its own as a script that supports the *note
unittest: 106. CLI, or via the ‘python -m unittest’ CLI.

The goal for regression testing is to try to break code.  This leads to
a few guidelines to be followed:

   * The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and
     constants.  This includes not just the external API that is to be
     presented to the outside world but also “private” code.

   * Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests
     are being written) is preferred.  Blackbox testing (testing only
     the published user interface) is not complete enough to make sure
     all boundary and edge cases are tested.

   * Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones.
     This makes sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but
     also that improper values are handled correctly.

   * Exhaust as many code paths as possible.  Test where branching
     occurs and thus tailor input to make sure as many different paths
     through the code are taken.

   * Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code.
     This will make sure that the error does not crop up again if the
     code is changed in the future.

   * Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove
     all temporary files).

   * If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating
     system then verify the condition already exists before attempting
     the test.

   * Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible.
     This minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes
     possible anomalous behavior from side-effects of importing a
     module.

   * Try to maximize code reuse.  On occasion, tests will vary by
     something as small as what type of input is used.  Minimize code
     duplication by subclassing a basic test class with a class that
     specifies the input:

          class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin:

              func = mySuperWhammyFunction

              def test_func(self):
                  self.func(self.arg)

          class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = [1, 2, 3]

          class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = 'abc'

          class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = (1, 2, 3)

     When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit
     from *note unittest.TestCase: 15f. are run as tests.  The
     ‘TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin’ class in the example above does not
     have any data and so can’t be run by itself, thus it does not
     inherit from *note unittest.TestCase: 15f.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Test Driven Development

     A book by Kent Beck on writing tests before code.


File: python.info,  Node: Running tests using the command-line interface,  Prev: Writing Unit Tests for the test package,  Up: test — Regression tests package for Python

5.26.9.2 Running tests using the command-line interface
.......................................................

The *note test: e1. package can be run as a script to drive Python’s
regression test suite, thanks to the *note -m: 3ec. option: ‘python -m
test’.  Under the hood, it uses *note test.regrtest: e2.; the call
‘python -m test.regrtest’ used in previous Python versions still works.
Running the script by itself automatically starts running all regression
tests in the *note test: e1. package.  It does this by finding all
modules in the package whose name starts with ‘test_’, importing them,
and executing the function ‘test_main()’ if present or loading the tests
via unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if ‘test_main’ does not
exist.  The names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script.
Specifying a single regression test (‘python -m test test_spam’) will
minimize output and only print whether the test passed or failed.

Running *note test: e1. directly allows what resources are available for
tests to use to be set.  You do this by using the ‘-u’ command-line
option.  Specifying ‘all’ as the value for the ‘-u’ option enables all
possible resources: ‘python -m test -uall’.  If all but one resource is
desired (a more common case), a comma-separated list of resources that
are not desired may be listed after ‘all’.  The command ‘python -m test
-uall,-audio,-largefile’ will run *note test: e1. with all resources
except the ‘audio’ and ‘largefile’ resources.  For a list of all
resources and more command-line options, run ‘python -m test -h’.

Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform
the tests are being executed on.  On Unix, you can run ‘make test’ at
the top-level directory where Python was built.  On Windows, executing
‘rt.bat’ from your ‘PCbuild’ directory will run all regression tests.


File: python.info,  Node: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite,  Next: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests,  Prev: test — Regression tests package for Python,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.10 ‘test.support’ — Utilities for the Python test suite
------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support: e3. module provides support for Python’s
regression test suite.

     Not: *note test.support: e3. is not a public module.  It is
     documented here to help Python developers write tests.  The API of
     this module is subject to change without backwards compatibility
     concerns between releases.

This module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Özel Durum: test.support.TestFailed

     Exception to be raised when a test fails.  This is deprecated in
     favor of *note unittest: 106.-based tests and *note
     unittest.TestCase: 15f.’s assertion methods.

 -- Özel Durum: test.support.ResourceDenied

     Subclass of *note unittest.SkipTest: e8a.  Raised when a resource
     (such as a network connection) is not available.  Raised by the
     *note requires(): 3edd. function.

The *note test.support: e3. module defines the following constants:

 -- Verisi: test.support.verbose

     ‘True’ when verbose output is enabled.  Should be checked when more
     detailed information is desired about a running test.  'verbose' is
     set by *note test.regrtest: e2.

 -- Verisi: test.support.is_jython

     ‘True’ if the running interpreter is Jython.

 -- Verisi: test.support.is_android

     ‘True’ if the system is Android.

 -- Verisi: test.support.unix_shell

     Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise ‘None’.

 -- Verisi: test.support.LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for tests using a network server listening on
     the network local loopback interface like ‘127.0.0.1’.

     The timeout is long enough to prevent test failure: it takes into
     account that the client and the server can run in different threads
     or even different processes.

     The timeout should be long enough for *note connect(): c30, *note
     recv(): c31. and *note send(): c34. methods of *note socket.socket:
     c2e.

     Its default value is 5 seconds.

     See also *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 17e7.

 -- Verisi: test.support.INTERNET_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for network requests going to the internet.

     The timeout is short enough to prevent a test to wait for too long
     if the internet request is blocked for whatever reason.

     Usually, a timeout using *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 17e7. should not
     mark a test as failed, but skip the test instead: see *note
     transient_internet(): 3ee2.

     Its default value is 1 minute.

     See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 17e6.

 -- Verisi: test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to mark a test as failed if the test takes “too
     long”.

     The timeout value depends on the regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line
     option.

     If a test using *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 16d7. starts to fail randomly
     on slow buildbots, use *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 17e8. instead.

     Its default value is 30 seconds.

 -- Verisi: test.support.LONG_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to detect when a test hangs.

     It is long enough to reduce the risk of test failure on the slowest
     Python buildbots.  It should not be used to mark a test as failed
     if the test takes “too long”.  The timeout value depends on the
     regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line option.

     Its default value is 5 minutes.

     See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 17e6, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT:
     17e7. and *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 16d7.

 -- Verisi: test.support.PGO

     Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO.

 -- Verisi: test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer
     size, to make writes blocking.

 -- Verisi: test.support.Py_DEBUG

     ‘True’ if Python was built with the *note Py_DEBUG: 3ee6. macro
     defined, that is, if Python was *note built in debug mode: 6b9.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket
     buffer size, to make writes blocking.

 -- Verisi: test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR

     Set to the top level directory that contains *note test.support:
     e3.

 -- Verisi: test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR

     Set to the top level directory for the test package.

 -- Verisi: test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR

     Set to the ‘data’ directory within the test package.

 -- Verisi: test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t

     Set to *note sys.maxsize: 106a. for big memory tests.

 -- Verisi: test.support.max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 3eed. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 3eeb.

 -- Verisi: test.support.real_max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 3eed. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Not limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 3eeb.

 -- Verisi: test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if Python is built without docstrings (the
     ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro is not defined).  See the *note configure
     -without-doc-strings: 1bca. option.

     See also the *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 3ef0. variable.

 -- Verisi: test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if function docstrings are available.  See the *note
     python -OO: c42. option, which strips docstrings of functions
     implemented in Python.

     See also the *note MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS: 3eef. variable.

 -- Verisi: test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL

     Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests.

 -- Verisi: test.support.ALWAYS_EQ

     Object that is equal to anything.  Used to test mixed type
     comparison.

 -- Verisi: test.support.NEVER_EQ

     Object that is not equal to anything (even to *note ALWAYS_EQ:
     3ef2.).  Used to test mixed type comparison.

 -- Verisi: test.support.LARGEST

     Object that is greater than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

 -- Verisi: test.support.SMALLEST

     Object that is less than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

The *note test.support: e3. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: test.support.busy_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          error=True)

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.

     After 'timeout' seconds, raise an *note AssertionError: 4bf. if
     'error' is true, or just stop the loop if 'error' is false.

     Example:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     Example of error=False usage:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- Işlevi: test.support.sleeping_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          init_delay=0.010, max_delay=1.0, error=True)

     Wait strategy that applies exponential backoff.

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.  Sleep at each loop
     iteration, but not at the first iteration.  The sleep delay is
     doubled at each iteration (up to 'max_delay' seconds).

     See *note busy_retry(): 3ef6. documentation for the parameters
     usage.

     Example raising an exception after SHORT_TIMEOUT seconds:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     Example of error=False usage:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- Işlevi: test.support.is_resource_enabled (resource)

     Return ‘True’ if 'resource' is enabled and available.  The list of
     available resources is only set when *note test.regrtest: e2. is
     executing the tests.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.python_is_optimized ()

     Return ‘True’ if Python was not built with ‘-O0’ or ‘-Og’.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.with_pymalloc ()

     Return ‘_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC’.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.requires (resource, msg=None)

     Raise *note ResourceDenied: 3edc. if 'resource' is not available.
     'msg' is the argument to *note ResourceDenied: 3edc. if it is
     raised.  Always returns ‘True’ if called by a function whose
     ‘__name__’ is ‘'__main__'’.  Used when tests are executed by *note
     test.regrtest: e2.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.sortdict (dict)

     Return a repr of 'dict' with keys sorted.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.findfile (filename, subdir=None)

     Return the path to the file named 'filename'.  If no match is found
     'filename' is returned.  This does not equal a failure since it
     could be the path to the file.

     Setting 'subdir' indicates a relative path to use to find the file
     rather than looking directly in the path directories.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.get_pagesize ()

     Get size of a page in bytes.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Set the *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 7a5. to the given
     'interval'.  Defines a minimum interval for Android systems to
     prevent the system from hanging.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.check_impl_detail (**guards)

     Use this check to guard CPython’s implementation-specific tests or
     to run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments.
     This function returns ‘True’ or ‘False’ depending on the host
     platform.  Example usage:

          check_impl_detail()               # Only on CPython (default).
          check_impl_detail(jython=True)    # Only on Jython.
          check_impl_detail(cpython=False)  # Everywhere except CPython.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.set_memlimit (limit)

     Set the values for *note max_memuse: 3eec. and *note
     real_max_memuse: 3eee. for big memory tests.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.record_original_stdout (stdout)

     Store the value from 'stdout'.  It is meant to hold the stdout at
     the time the regrtest began.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.get_original_stdout ()

     Return the original stdout set by *note record_original_stdout():
     3f00. or ‘sys.stdout’ if it’s not set.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     settings in ‘sys.flags’ and ‘sys.warnoptions’.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     optimization settings in ‘sys.flags’.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.captured_stdin ()
 -- Işlevi: test.support.captured_stdout ()
 -- Işlevi: test.support.captured_stderr ()

     A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with
     *note io.StringIO: dc4. object.

     Example use with output streams:

          with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr:
              print("hello")
              print("error", file=sys.stderr)
          assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n"
          assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n"

     Example use with input stream:

          with captured_stdin() as stdin:
              stdin.write('hello\n')
              stdin.seek(0)
              # call test code that consumes from sys.stdin
              captured = input()
          self.assertEqual(captured, "hello")

 -- Işlevi: test.support.disable_faulthandler ()

     A context manager that temporary disables *note faulthandler: 56.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.gc_collect ()

     Force as many objects as possible to be collected.  This is needed
     because timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage
     collector.  This means that ‘__del__’ methods may be called later
     than expected and weakrefs may remain alive for longer than
     expected.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.disable_gc ()

     A context manager that disables the garbage collector on entry.  On
     exit, the garbage collector is restored to its prior state.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.swap_attr (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object.

     Usage:

          with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj.attr’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’ block,
     restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘attr’ doesn’t
     exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the end of
     the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.swap_item (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an item with a new object.

     Usage:

          with swap_item(obj, "item", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj["item"]’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’
     block, restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘item’
     doesn’t exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the
     end of the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the “as” clause, if there is one.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.flush_std_streams ()

     Call the ‘flush()’ method on *note sys.stdout: 943. and then on
     *note sys.stderr: 792.  It can be used to make sure that the logs
     order is consistent before writing into stderr.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.print_warning (msg)

     Print a warning into *note sys.__stderr__: 3f0d.  Format the
     message as: ‘f"Warning -- {msg}"’.  If 'msg' is made of multiple
     lines, add ‘"Warning -- "’ prefix to each line.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.wait_process (pid, *, exitcode, timeout=None)

     Wait until process 'pid' completes and check that the process exit
     code is 'exitcode'.

     Raise an *note AssertionError: 4bf. if the process exit code is not
     equal to 'exitcode'.

     If the process runs longer than 'timeout' seconds (*note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 16d7. by default), kill the process and raise an
     *note AssertionError: 4bf.  The timeout feature is not available on
     Windows.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.calcobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyObject: 6eb. whose structure members
     are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size of the
     Python object header and alignment.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.calcvobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyVarObject: 3f10. whose structure
     members are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size
     of the Python object header and alignment.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.checksizeof (test, o, size)

     For testcase 'test', assert that the ‘sys.getsizeof’ for 'o' plus
     the GC header size equals 'size'.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.anticipate_failure (condition)

     A decorator to conditionally mark tests with *note
     unittest.expectedFailure(): 3df3.  Any use of this decorator should
     have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.system_must_validate_cert (f)

     A decorator that skips the decorated test on TLS certification
     validation failures.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.run_with_locale (catstr, *locales)

     A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly
     resetting it after it has finished.  'catstr' is the locale
     category as a string (for example ‘"LC_ALL"’).  The 'locales'
     passed will be tried sequentially, and the first valid locale will
     be used.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.run_with_tz (tz)

     A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone,
     correctly resetting it after it has finished.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_freebsd_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD. If
     the FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_linux_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux.  If
     the Linux version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_mac_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on macOS. If
     the macOS version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_IEEE_754

     Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_zlib

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note zlib: 133. doesn’t exist.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_gzip

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note gzip: 65. doesn’t exist.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_bz2

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note bz2: 13. doesn’t exist.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_lzma

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note lzma: 89. doesn’t exist.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_resource (resource)

     Decorator for skipping tests if 'resource' is not available.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_docstrings

     Decorator for only running the test if *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 3ef0.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.requires_limited_api

     Decorator for only running the test if *note Limited C API: 2de. is
     available.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.cpython_only

     Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.impl_detail (msg=None, **guards)

     Decorator for invoking *note check_impl_detail(): 3eff. on
     'guards'.  If that returns ‘False’, then uses 'msg' as the reason
     for skipping the test.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.no_tracing

     Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the
     test.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.refcount_test

     Decorator for tests which involve reference counting.  The
     decorator does not run the test if it is not run by CPython.  Any
     trace function is unset for the duration of the test to prevent
     unexpected refcounts caused by the trace function.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.bigmemtest (size, memuse, dry_run=True)

     Decorator for bigmem tests.

     'size' is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary,
     test-interpreted units.)  'memuse' is the number of bytes per unit
     for the test, or a good estimate of it.  For example, a test that
     needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB each, could be decorated with
     ‘@bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2)’.

     The 'size' argument is normally passed to the decorated test method
     as an extra argument.  If 'dry_run' is ‘True’, the value passed to
     the test method may be less than the requested value.  If 'dry_run'
     is ‘False’, it means the test doesn’t support dummy runs when ‘-M’
     is not specified.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.bigaddrspacetest

     Decorator for tests that fill the address space.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.check_syntax_error (testcase, statement,
          errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None)

     Test for syntax errors in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  'testcase' is the *note unittest: 106. instance for
     the test.  'errtext' is the regular expression which should match
     the string representation of the raised *note SyntaxError: 14c.  If
     'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the exception.  If
     'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the offset of the exception.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.open_urlresource (url, *args, **kw)

     Open 'url'.  If open fails, raises *note TestFailed: 3edb.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.reap_children ()

     Use this at the end of ‘test_main’ whenever sub-processes are
     started.  This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies)
     stick around to hog resources and create problems when looking for
     refleaks.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.get_attribute (obj, name)

     Get an attribute, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: e8a. if *note
     AttributeError: 3dc. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.catch_unraisable_exception ()

     Context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 491.

     Storing the exception value (‘cm.unraisable.exc_value’) creates a
     reference cycle.  The reference cycle is broken explicitly when the
     context manager exits.

     Storing the object (‘cm.unraisable.object’) can resurrect it if it
     is set to an object which is being finalized.  Exiting the context
     manager clears the stored object.

     Usage:

          with support.catch_unraisable_exception() as cm:
              # code creating an "unraisable exception"
              ...

              # check the unraisable exception: use cm.unraisable
              ...

          # cm.unraisable attribute no longer exists at this point
          # (to break a reference cycle)

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.load_package_tests (pkg_dir, loader,
          standard_tests, pattern)

     Generic implementation of the *note unittest: 106. ‘load_tests’
     protocol for use in test packages.  'pkg_dir' is the root directory
     of the package; 'loader', 'standard_tests', and 'pattern' are the
     arguments expected by ‘load_tests’.  In simple cases, the test
     package’s ‘__init__.py’ can be the following:

          import os
          from test.support import load_package_tests

          def load_tests(*args):
              return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args)

 -- Işlevi: test.support.detect_api_mismatch (ref_api, other_api, *,
          ignore=())

     Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of 'ref_api'
     not found on 'other_api', except for a defined list of items to be
     ignored in this check specified in 'ignore'.

     By default this skips private attributes beginning with ‘_’ but
     includes all magic methods, i.e.  those starting and ending in
     ‘__’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.patch (test_instance, object_to_patch,
          attr_name, new_value)

     Override 'object_to_patch.attr_name' with 'new_value'.  Also add
     cleanup procedure to 'test_instance' to restore 'object_to_patch'
     for 'attr_name'.  The 'attr_name' should be a valid attribute for
     'object_to_patch'.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.run_in_subinterp (code)

     Run 'code' in subinterpreter.  Raise *note unittest.SkipTest: e8a.
     if *note tracemalloc: ff. is enabled.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.check_free_after_iterating (test, iter, cls,
          args=())

     Assert instances of 'cls' are deallocated after iterating.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.missing_compiler_executable (cmd_names=[])

     Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are
     listed in 'cmd_names' or all the compiler executables when
     'cmd_names' is empty and return the first missing executable or
     ‘None’ when none is found missing.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.check__all__ (test_case, module,
          name_of_module=None, extra=(), not_exported=())

     Assert that the ‘__all__’ variable of 'module' contains all public
     names.

     The module’s public names (its API) are detected automatically
     based on whether they match the public name convention and were
     defined in 'module'.

     The 'name_of_module' argument can specify (as a string or tuple
     thereof) what module(s) an API could be defined in order to be
     detected as a public API. One case for this is when 'module'
     imports part of its public API from other modules, possibly a C
     backend (like ‘csv’ and its ‘_csv’).

     The 'extra' argument can be a set of names that wouldn’t otherwise
     be automatically detected as “public”, like objects without a
     proper *note __module__: 206a. attribute.  If provided, it will be
     added to the automatically detected ones.

     The 'not_exported' argument can be a set of names that must not be
     treated as part of the public API even though their names indicate
     otherwise.

     Example use:

          import bar
          import foo
          import unittest
          from test import support

          class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  support.check__all__(self, foo)

          class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'}
                  not_exported = {'baz'}  # Undocumented name.
                  # bar imports part of its API from _bar.
                  support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'),
                                       extra=extra, not_exported=not_exported)

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize ()

     Skip tests if the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module is missing,
     if there is no available semaphore implementation, or if creating a
     lock raises an *note OSError: 65c.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.check_disallow_instantiation (test_case, tp,
          *args, **kwds)

     Assert that type 'tp' cannot be instantiated using 'args' and
     'kwds'.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.adjust_int_max_str_digits (max_digits)

     This function returns a context manager that will change the global
     *note sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 15df. setting for the duration
     of the context to allow execution of test code that needs a
     different limit on the number of digits when converting between an
     integer and string.

     Added in version 3.11.

The *note test.support: e3. module defines the following classes:

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.SuppressCrashReport

     A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on
     tests that are expected to crash a subprocess.

     On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using
     SetErrorMode(1).

     On UNIX, *note resource.setrlimit(): 3f34. is used to set *note
     resource.RLIMIT_CORE: 3f35.’s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump
     file creation.

     On both platforms, the old value is restored by *note __exit__():
     11aa.

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.SaveSignals

     Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python
     signal handler.

      -- Yöntemi: save (self)

          Save the signal handlers to a dictionary mapping signal
          numbers to the current signal handler.

      -- Yöntemi: restore (self)

          Set the signal numbers from the *note save(): 3f37. dictionary
          to the saved handler.

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.Matcher

      -- Yöntemi: matches (self, d, **kwargs)

          Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments.

      -- Yöntemi: match_value (self, k, dv, v)

          Try to match a single stored value ('dv') with a supplied
          value ('v').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests,  Next: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Prev: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.11 ‘test.support.socket_helper’ — Utilities for socket tests
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.socket_helper: e8. module provides support for
socket tests.

Added in version 3.9.

 -- Verisi: test.support.socket_helper.IPV6_ENABLED

     Set to ‘True’ if IPv6 is enabled on this host, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.socket_helper.find_unused_port
          (family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM)

     Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding.  This
     is achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and
     type as the ‘sock’ parameter (default is *note AF_INET: 1643, *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 119d.), and binding it to the specified host address
     (defaults to ‘0.0.0.0’) with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused
     ephemeral port from the OS. The temporary socket is then closed and
     deleted, and the ephemeral port is returned.

     Either this method or *note bind_port(): 3f3f. should be used for
     any tests where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular
     port for the duration of the test.  Which one to use depends on
     whether the calling code is creating a Python socket, or if an
     unused port needs to be provided in a constructor or passed to an
     external program (i.e.  the ‘-accept’ argument to openssl’s
     s_server mode).  Always prefer *note bind_port(): 3f3f. over *note
     find_unused_port(): 3f3e. where possible.  Using a hard coded port
     is discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test
     impossible to run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.socket_helper.bind_port (sock, host=HOST)

     Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number.  Relies
     on ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port.
     This is important as many tests may be running simultaneously,
     especially in a buildbot environment.  This method raises an
     exception if the ‘sock.family’ is *note AF_INET: 1643. and
     ‘sock.type’ is *note SOCK_STREAM: 119d, and the socket has
     ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ or ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ set on it.  Tests should never set
     these socket options for TCP/IP sockets.  The only case for setting
     these options is testing multicasting via multiple UDP sockets.

     Additionally, if the ‘SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE’ socket option is
     available (i.e.  on Windows), it will be set on the socket.  This
     will prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the
     duration of the test.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.socket_helper.bind_unix_socket (sock, addr)

     Bind a Unix socket, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: e8a. if *note
     PermissionError: bcb. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.socket_helper.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket

     A decorator for running tests that require a functional ‘bind()’
     for Unix sockets.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.socket_helper.transient_internet
          (resource_name, *, timeout=30.0, errnos=())

     A context manager that raises *note ResourceDenied: 3edc. when
     various issues with the internet connection manifest themselves as
     exceptions.


File: python.info,  Node: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Next: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Prev: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.12 ‘test.support.script_helper’ — Utilities for the Python execution tests
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.script_helper: e7. module provides support for
Python’s script execution tests.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment
          ()

     Return ‘True’ if ‘sys.executable interpreter’ requires environment
     variables in order to be able to run at all.

     This is designed to be used with ‘@unittest.skipIf()’ to annotate
     tests that need to use an ‘assert_python*()’ function to launch an
     isolated mode (‘-I’) or no environment mode (‘-E’) sub-interpreter
     process.

     A normal build & test does not run into this situation but it can
     happen when trying to run the standard library test suite from an
     interpreter that doesn’t have an obvious home with Python’s current
     home finding logic.

     Setting *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. is one way to get most of the
     testsuite to run in that situation.  *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. or
     ‘PYTHONUSERSITE’ are other common environment variables that might
     impact whether or not the interpreter can start.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Set up the environment based on 'env_vars' for running the
     interpreter in a subprocess.  The values can include ‘__isolated’,
     ‘__cleanenv’, ‘__cwd’, and ‘TERM’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function no longer strips whitespaces
     from 'stderr'.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' succeeds (‘rc == 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     If the '__cleanenv' keyword-only parameter is set, 'env_vars' is
     used as a fresh environment.

     Python is started in isolated mode (command line option ‘-I’),
     except if the '__isolated' keyword-only parameter is set to
     ‘False’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function no longer strips whitespaces
     from 'stderr'.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' fails (‘rc != 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     See *note assert_python_ok(): 3f45. for more options.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function no longer strips whitespaces
     from 'stderr'.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.spawn_python (*args,
          stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw)

     Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments.

     'kw' is extra keyword args to pass to *note subprocess.Popen():
     8fa.  Returns a *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. object.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.kill_python (p)

     Run the given *note subprocess.Popen: 8fa. process until completion
     and return stdout.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.make_script (script_dir,
          script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False)

     Create script containing 'source' in path 'script_dir' and
     'script_basename'.  If 'omit_suffix' is ‘False’, append ‘.py’ to
     the name.  Return the full script path.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None)

     Create zip file at 'zip_dir' and 'zip_basename' with extension
     ‘zip’ which contains the files in 'script_name'.  'name_in_zip' is
     the archive name.  Return a tuple containing ‘(full path, full path
     of archive name)’.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.make_pkg (pkg_dir,
          init_source='')

     Create a directory named 'pkg_dir' containing an ‘__init__’ file
     with 'init_source' as its contents.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, source, depth=1,
          compiled=False)

     Create a zip package directory with a path of 'zip_dir' and
     'zip_basename' containing an empty ‘__init__’ file and a file
     'script_basename' containing the 'source'.  If 'compiled' is
     ‘True’, both source files will be compiled and added to the zip
     package.  Return a tuple of the full zip path and the archive name
     for the zip file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Next: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests,  Prev: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.13 ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’ — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.bytecode_helper: e4. module provides support for
testing and inspecting bytecode generation.

Added in version 3.9.

The module defines the following class:

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase
          (unittest.TestCase)

     This class has custom assertion methods for inspecting bytecode.

 -- Yöntemi: BytecodeTestCase.get_disassembly_as_string (co)

     Return the disassembly of 'co' as string.

 -- Yöntemi: BytecodeTestCase.assertInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Return instr if 'opname' is found, otherwise throws *note
     AssertionError: 4bf.

 -- Yöntemi: BytecodeTestCase.assertNotInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Throws *note AssertionError: 4bf. if 'opname' is found.


File: python.info,  Node: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests,  Next: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests,  Prev: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.14 ‘test.support.threading_helper’ — Utilities for threading tests
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.threading_helper: e9. module provides support for
threading tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.threading_helper.join_thread (thread,
          timeout=None)

     Join a 'thread' within 'timeout'.  Raise an *note AssertionError:
     4bf. if thread is still alive after 'timeout' seconds.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.threading_helper.reap_threads

     Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test
     fails.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.threading_helper.start_threads (threads,
          unlock=None)

     Context manager to start 'threads', which is a sequence of threads.
     'unlock' is a function called after the threads are started, even
     if an exception was raised; an example would be *note
     threading.Event.set(): 2e69.  ‘start_threads’ will attempt to join
     the started threads upon exit.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.threading_helper.threading_cleanup
          (*original_values)

     Cleanup up threads not specified in 'original_values'.  Designed to
     emit a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.threading_helper.threading_setup ()

     Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.threading_helper.wait_threads_exit
          (timeout=None)

     Context manager to wait until all threads created in the ‘with’
     statement exit.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.threading_helper.catch_threading_exception ()

     Context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 7a7. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): 68a.

     Attributes set when an exception is caught:

        * ‘exc_type’

        * ‘exc_value’

        * ‘exc_traceback’

        * ‘thread’

     See *note threading.excepthook(): 68a. documentation.

     These attributes are deleted at the context manager exit.

     Usage:

          with threading_helper.catch_threading_exception() as cm:
              # code spawning a thread which raises an exception
              ...

              # check the thread exception, use cm attributes:
              # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread
              ...

          # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread attributes of cm no longer
          # exists at this point
          # (to avoid reference cycles)

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests,  Next: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests,  Prev: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.15 ‘test.support.os_helper’ — Utilities for os tests
---------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.os_helper: e6. module provides support for os
tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: test.support.os_helper.FS_NONASCII

     A non-ASCII character encodable by *note os.fsencode(): ad1.

 -- Verisi: test.support.os_helper.SAVEDCWD

     Set to *note os.getcwd(): 1423.

 -- Verisi: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN

     Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file.
     Any temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked
     (removed).

 -- Verisi: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_NONASCII

     Set to a filename containing the *note FS_NONASCII: 3f5b.
     character, if it exists.  This guarantees that if the filename
     exists, it can be encoded and decoded with the default filesystem
     encoding.  This allows tests that require a non-ASCII filename to
     be easily skipped on platforms where they can’t work.

 -- Verisi: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE

     Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded
     by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’ if it’s
     not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- Verisi: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE

     Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be
     decoded by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’
     if it’s not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- Verisi: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNICODE

     Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file.

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard

     Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables.
     Instances can be used as a context manager and have a complete
     dictionary interface for querying/modifying the underlying
     ‘os.environ’.  After exit from the context manager all changes to
     environment variables done through this instance will be rolled
     back.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added dictionary interface.

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.os_helper.FakePath (path)

     Simple *note path-like object: 98e.  It implements the *note
     __fspath__(): ace. method which just returns the 'path' argument.
     If 'path' is an exception, it will be raised in ‘__fspath__()’.

 -- Yöntemi: EnvironmentVarGuard.set (envvar, value)

     Temporarily set the environment variable ‘envvar’ to the value of
     ‘value’.

 -- Yöntemi: EnvironmentVarGuard.unset (envvar)

     Temporarily unset the environment variable ‘envvar’.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.can_symlink ()

     Return ‘True’ if the OS supports symbolic links, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.can_xattr ()

     Return ‘True’ if the OS supports xattr, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.change_cwd (path, quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily changes the current working
     directory to 'path' and yields the directory.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context manager raises an exception on
     error.  Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current
     working directory the same.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.create_empty_file (filename)

     Create an empty file with 'filename'.  If it already exists,
     truncate it.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.fd_count ()

     Count the number of open file descriptors.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.fs_is_case_insensitive (directory)

     Return ‘True’ if the file system for 'directory' is
     case-insensitive.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.make_bad_fd ()

     Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a
     temporary file, and returning its descriptor.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.rmdir (filename)

     Call *note os.rmdir(): f96. on 'filename'.  On Windows platforms,
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the file, which is needed due to antivirus programs that can hold
     files open and prevent deletion.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.rmtree (path)

     Call *note shutil.rmtree(): 1df. on 'path' or call *note
     os.lstat(): 1c6. and *note os.rmdir(): f96. to remove a path and
     its contents.  As with *note rmdir(): 3f6c, on Windows platforms
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the files.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_symlink

     A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic
     links.

 -- Işlevi: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_xattr

     A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.temp_cwd (name='tempcwd',
          quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and
     changes the current working directory (CWD).

     The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current
     directory with name 'name' before temporarily changing the current
     working directory.  If 'name' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is
     created using *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ and it is not possible to create or change
     the CWD, an error is raised.  Otherwise, only a warning is raised
     and the original CWD is used.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.temp_dir (path=None, quiet=False)

     A context manager that creates a temporary directory at 'path' and
     yields the directory.

     If 'path' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is created using *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 1c9.  If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context
     manager raises an exception on error.  Otherwise, if 'path' is
     specified and cannot be created, only a warning is issued.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.temp_umask (umask)

     A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.os_helper.unlink (filename)

     Call *note os.unlink(): f98. on 'filename'.  As with *note rmdir():
     3f6c, on Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait loop that
     checks for the existence of the file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests,  Next: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests,  Prev: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.16 ‘test.support.import_helper’ — Utilities for import tests
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.import_helper: e5. module provides support for
import tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.import_helper.forget (module_name)

     Remove the module named 'module_name' from ‘sys.modules’ and delete
     any byte-compiled files of the module.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module (name,
          fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False)

     This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python
     module by removing the named module from ‘sys.modules’ before doing
     the import.  Note that unlike ‘reload()’, the original module is
     not affected by this operation.

     'fresh' is an iterable of additional module names that are also
     removed from the ‘sys.modules’ cache before doing the import.

     'blocked' is an iterable of module names that are replaced with
     ‘None’ in the module cache during the import to ensure that
     attempts to import them raise *note ImportError: 14b.

     The named module and any modules named in the 'fresh' and 'blocked'
     parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted
     into ‘sys.modules’ when the fresh import is complete.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.

     This function will raise *note ImportError: 14b. if the named
     module cannot be imported.

     Example use:

          # Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the
          # version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the
          # C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback
          # implementation
          py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings'])
          c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings'])

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.import_helper.import_module (name,
          deprecated=False, *, required_on=())

     This function imports and returns the named module.  Unlike a
     normal import, this function raises *note unittest.SkipTest: e8a.
     if the module cannot be imported.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.  If a module is required on a
     platform but optional for others, set 'required_on' to an iterable
     of platform prefixes which will be compared against *note
     sys.platform: 8f3.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.import_helper.modules_setup ()

     Return a copy of *note sys.modules: 179b.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.import_helper.modules_cleanup (oldmodules)

     Remove modules except for 'oldmodules' and ‘encodings’ in order to
     preserve internal cache.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.import_helper.unload (name)

     Delete 'name' from ‘sys.modules’.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.import_helper.make_legacy_pyc (source)

     Move a PEP 3147(1)/ PEP 488(2) pyc file to its legacy pyc location
     and return the file system path to the legacy pyc file.  The
     'source' value is the file system path to the source file.  It does
     not need to exist, however the PEP 3147/488 pyc file must exist.

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.import_helper.CleanImport (*module_names)

     A context manager to force import to return a new module reference.
     This is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the
     emission of a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. on import.  Example
     usage:

          with CleanImport('foo'):
              importlib.import_module('foo')  # New reference.

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.import_helper.DirsOnSysPath (*paths)

     A context manager to temporarily add directories to *note sys.path:
     368.

     This makes a copy of *note sys.path: 368, appends any directories
     given as positional arguments, then reverts *note sys.path: 368. to
     the copied settings when the context ends.

     Note that 'all' *note sys.path: 368. modifications in the body of
     the context manager, including replacement of the object, will be
     reverted at the end of the block.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests,  Prev: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests,  Up: Development Tools

5.26.17 ‘test.support.warnings_helper’ — Utilities for warnings tests
---------------------------------------------------------------------

The *note test.support.warnings_helper: ea. module provides support for
warnings tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.warnings_helper.ignore_warnings (*, category)

     Suppress warnings that are instances of 'category', which must be
     *note Warning: 20a5. or a subclass.  Roughly equivalent to *note
     warnings.catch_warnings(): 31d. with *note
     warnings.simplefilter('ignore', category=category): 4d9.  For
     example:

          @warning_helper.ignore_warnings(category=DeprecationWarning)
          def test_suppress_warning():
              # do something

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.warnings_helper.check_no_resource_warning
          (testcase)

     Context manager to check that no *note ResourceWarning: ab9. was
     raised.  You must remove the object which may emit *note
     ResourceWarning: ab9. before the end of the context manager.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.warnings_helper.check_syntax_warning (testcase,
          statement, errtext='', *, lineno=1, offset=None)

     Test for syntax warning in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  Test also that the *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. is
     emitted only once, and that it will be converted to a *note
     SyntaxError: 14c. when turned into error.  'testcase' is the *note
     unittest: 106. instance for the test.  'errtext' is the regular
     expression which should match the string representation of the
     emitted *note SyntaxWarning: 17e. and raised *note SyntaxError:
     14c.  If 'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the
     warning and exception.  If 'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the
     offset of the exception.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings (*filters,
          quiet=True)

     A convenience wrapper for *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 31d.
     that makes it easier to test that a warning was correctly raised.
     It is approximately equivalent to calling
     ‘warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)’ with *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): 4d9. set to ‘always’ and with the option
     to automatically validate the results that are recorded.

     ‘check_warnings’ accepts 2-tuples of the form ‘("message regexp",
     WarningCategory)’ as positional arguments.  If one or more
     'filters' are provided, or if the optional keyword argument 'quiet'
     is ‘False’, it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected:
     each specified filter must match at least one of the warnings
     raised by the enclosed code or the test fails, and if any warnings
     are raised that do not match any of the specified filters the test
     fails.  To disable the first of these checks, set 'quiet' to
     ‘True’.

     If no arguments are specified, it defaults to:

          check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True)

     In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised.

     On entry to the context manager, a ‘WarningRecorder’ instance is
     returned.  The underlying warnings list from *note
     catch_warnings(): 31d. is available via the recorder object’s *note
     warnings: 112. attribute.  As a convenience, the attributes of the
     object representing the most recent warning can also be accessed
     directly through the recorder object (see example below).  If no
     warning has been raised, then any of the attributes that would
     otherwise be expected on an object representing a warning will
     return ‘None’.

     The recorder object also has a ‘reset()’ method, which clears the
     warnings list.

     The context manager is designed to be used like this:

          with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning),
                              ("", UserWarning)):
              exec('assert(False, "Hey!")')
              warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!"))

     In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other
     warning was raised, *note check_warnings(): 3f81. would raise an
     error.

     When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather
     than just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can
     be used:

          with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w:
              warnings.warn("foo")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo"
              warnings.warn("bar")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar"
              assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo"
              assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar"
              w.reset()
              assert len(w.warnings) == 0

     Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the
     captured warnings directly.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: New optional arguments 'filters' and
     'quiet'.

 -- Sınıfı: test.support.warnings_helper.WarningsRecorder

     Class used to record warnings for unit tests.  See documentation of
     *note check_warnings(): 3f81. above for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging and Profiling,  Next: Software Packaging and Distribution,  Prev: Development Tools,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.27 Debugging and Profiling
============================

These libraries help you with Python development: the debugger enables
you to step through code, analyze stack frames and set breakpoints etc.,
and the profilers run code and give you a detailed breakdown of
execution times, allowing you to identify bottlenecks in your programs.
Auditing events provide visibility into runtime behaviors that would
otherwise require intrusive debugging or patching.

* Menu:

* Audit events table::
* bdb — Debugger framework::
* faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback::
* pdb — The Python Debugger::
* The Python Profilers::
* timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets::
* trace — Trace or track Python statement execution::
* tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations::


File: python.info,  Node: Audit events table,  Next: bdb — Debugger framework,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.1 Audit events table
-------------------------

This table contains all events raised by *note sys.audit(): 17a0. or
*note PySys_Audit(): 17b0. calls throughout the CPython runtime and the
standard library.  These calls were added in 3.8 or later (see PEP
578(1)).

See *note sys.addaudithook(): 3f87. and *note PySys_AddAuditHook():
3f88. for information on handling these events.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This table is generated from the CPython
documentation, and may not represent events raised by other
implementations.  See your runtime specific documentation for actual
events raised.

Audit event                        Arguments                                                   References
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
_thread.start_new_thread           ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’                                *note [1]: 3f89.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
array.__new__                      ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’                                   *note [1]: 195.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.breakpoint                ‘breakpointhook’                                            *note [1]: 930.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.id                        ‘id’                                                        *note [1]: 12ab.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input                     ‘prompt’                                                    *note [1]: 1182.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input/result              ‘result’                                                    *note [1]: 1182.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
code.__new__                       ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’,                     *note [1]: 263.
                                   ‘posonlyargcount’, ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’,             
                                   ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’
                                   
                                                                                               
compile                            ‘source’, ‘filename’                                        *note [1]: 56d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear                                                               *note [1]: 3f8a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_New                                                                 *note [1]: 3f8b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks                                                                 *note [1]: b9a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_command                ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 3eb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_file                   ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: 3f8c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_interactivehook        ‘hook’                                                      *note [1]: e6d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_module                 ‘module-name’                                               *note [1]: 3ec.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_startup                ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: e6e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_stdin                                                                              *note [1]: 3f8d.*note [2]: 3f8e.*note [3]: 3f8f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.addressof                   ‘obj’                                                       *note [1]: 2e1e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.call_function               ‘func_pointer’, ‘arguments’                                 *note [1]: 2e16.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata                       ‘address’                                                   *note [1]: 2e30.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata/buffer                ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’                                 *note [1]: 2e2e.*note [2]: 2e2f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_string_buffer        ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 2dd1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_unicode_buffer       ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 1804.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlopen                      ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 2e14.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym                       ‘library’, ‘name’                                           *note [1]: 2e14.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym/handle                ‘handle’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 2e14.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_errno                                                                               *note [1]: 2e0e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_last_error                                                                          *note [1]: 2e10.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_errno                   ‘errno’                                                     *note [1]: 2e0f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_exception               ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 2e16.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_last_error              ‘error’                                                     *note [1]: 2e11.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.string_at                   ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2e27.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.wstring_at                  ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 2e29.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ensurepip.bootstrap                ‘root’                                                      *note [1]: 3f90.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
exec                               ‘code_object’                                               *note [1]: 6ca.*note [2]: 6cb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.fcntl                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’                                          *note [1]: 3192.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.flock                        ‘fd’, ‘operation’                                           *note [1]: 3f91.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.ioctl                        ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’                                      *note [1]: 1303.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.lockf                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’                       *note [1]: 1273.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 37c6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.sendcmd                     ‘self’, ‘cmd’                                               *note [1]: 37cb.*note [2]: 37cc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
function.__new__                   ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 6c9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_objects                     ‘generation’                                                *note [1]: 63d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referents                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 63f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referrers                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: 63e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob                          ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’                                     *note [1]: 641.*note [2]: 642.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob/2                        ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’               *note [1]: 641.*note [2]: 642.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.connect                ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 37a9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.send                   ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 37ae.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.open                       ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 75a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 381d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
import                             ‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’,          *note [1]: 3ed.
                                   ‘sys.path_hooks’                                            
                                   
                                                                                               
marshal.dumps                      ‘value’, ‘version’                                          *note [1]: 2696.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.load                                                                                   *note [1]: 184c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.loads                      ‘bytes’                                                     *note [1]: 184c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
mmap.__new__                       ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’                      *note [1]: 868.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.get_osfhandle               ‘fd’                                                        *note [1]: 3f92.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.locking                     ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’                                      *note [1]: 3f93.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.open_osfhandle              ‘handle’, ‘flags’                                           *note [1]: 3f94.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
nntplib.connect                    ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 76d.*note [2]: 76e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
nntplib.putline                    ‘self’, ‘line’                                              *note [1]: 76d.*note [2]: 76e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__delattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: 1d1c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__getattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: a49.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__setattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’                                      *note [1]: 1d1b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
open                               ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’                                     *note [1]: 2a6.*note [2]: 2a7.*note [3]: c1f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.add_dll_directory               ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 849.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chdir                           ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 41e.*note [2]: c15.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chflags                         ‘path’, ‘flags’                                             *note [1]: f8f.*note [2]: 2955.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chmod                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: f90.*note [2]: c16.*note [3]: 1879.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chown                           ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’                              *note [1]: f91.*note [2]: c17.*note [3]: 2956.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.exec                            ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 2991.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fork                                                                                        *note [1]: 23a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.forkpty                                                                                     *note [1]: 15a1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fwalk                           ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’    *note [1]: 9cf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.getxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: fa6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.kill                            ‘pid’, ‘sig’                                                *note [1]: 120e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.killpg                          ‘pgid’, ‘sig’                                               *note [1]: 180b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.link                            ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: f92.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: f9c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdrives                                                                                  *note [1]: 1c2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listmounts                      ‘volume’                                                    *note [1]: 1c4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listvolumes                                                                                 *note [1]: 1c3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listxattr                       ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: fa7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.lockf                           ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’                                          *note [1]: fb5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.mkdir                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 1c8.*note [2]: 1c7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.posix_spawn                     ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 8bc.*note [2]: 1869.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.putenv                          ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 774.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.remove                          ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: f93.*note [2]: 295a.*note [3]: f98.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.removexattr                     ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: fa8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rename                          ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: f94.*note [2]: 295b.*note [3]: f95.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rmdir                           ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: f96.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.scandir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 8c3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.setxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’                       *note [1]: fa9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.spawn                           ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                               *note [1]: 154c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile                       ‘path’, ‘operation’                                         *note [1]: 16f6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile/2                     ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’         *note [1]: 16f6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.symlink                         ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’                                      *note [1]: f97.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.system                          ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 12e5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.truncate                        ‘fd’, ‘length’                                              *note [1]: c1c.*note [2]: ccc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.unsetenv                        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 773.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.utime                           ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’                             *note [1]: f99.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.walk                            ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’                  *note [1]: 1d1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.glob                  ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 1d5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.rglob                 ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 1d6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pdb.Pdb                                                                                        *note [1]: 77a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pickle.find_class                  ‘module’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 2672.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 77c.*note [2]: 77d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.putline                     ‘self’, ‘line’                                              *note [1]: 77c.*note [2]: 77d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pty.spawn                          ‘argv’                                                      *note [1]: e23.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.prlimit                   ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                 *note [1]: e2a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.setrlimit                 ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                        *note [1]: 3f34.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
setopencodehook                                                                                *note [1]: 1542.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.chown                       ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’                                     *note [1]: fd1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copyfile                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8be.*note [2]: 8bf.*note [3]: 8bd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copymode                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8be.*note [2]: 14aa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copystat                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8bf.*note [2]: fd2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copytree                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 88b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.make_archive                ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’               *note [1]: 1de.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.move                        ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: 8c0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.rmtree                      ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 1df.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.unpack_archive              ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’                         *note [1]: 18a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
signal.pthread_kill                ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’                                    *note [1]: fd5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.connect                    ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 17fc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 786.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.__new__                     ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                        *note [1]: c2e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.bind                        ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 13c7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.connect                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: c30.*note [2]: 13c6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getaddrinfo                 ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                *note [1]: 156e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyaddr               ‘ip_address’                                                *note [1]: 16f7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyname               ‘hostname’                                                  *note [1]: 3187.*note [2]: 16f8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostname                                                                             *note [1]: 28ff.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getnameinfo                 ‘sockaddr’                                                  *note [1]: 153c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyname               ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’                               *note [1]: 3189.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyport               ‘port’, ‘protocolname’                                      *note [1]: 318a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendmsg                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 197.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendto                      ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: c36.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sethostname                 ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: fdf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect                    ‘database’                                                  *note [1]: 1e4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect/handle             ‘connection_handle’                                         *note [1]: 1e4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.enable_load_extension      ‘connection’, ‘enabled’                                     *note [1]: 67d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.load_extension             ‘connection’, ‘path’                                        *note [1]: 1e6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
subprocess.Popen                   ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, ‘env’                          *note [1]: 8fa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_exceptions                                                                        *note [1]: 1f0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_frames                                                                            *note [1]: 12bd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframe                      ‘frame’                                                     *note [1]: 4f8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframemodulename            ‘depth’                                                     *note [1]: 158d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.addaudithook                                                                               *note [1]: 3f88.*note [2]: 3f87.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.excepthook                     ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’                        *note [1]: 646.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer                                                               *note [1]: 165a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter                                                               *note [1]: 165a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.setprofile                                                                                 *note [1]: 138c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.settrace                                                                                   *note [1]: 138d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.unraisablehook                 ‘hook’, ‘unraisable’                                        *note [1]: 491.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.closelog                                                                                *note [1]: 2cd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.openlog                     ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’                            *note [1]: 2cc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.setlogmask                  ‘maskpri’                                                   *note [1]: 3f95.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.syslog                      ‘priority’, ‘message’                                       *note [1]: 2ce.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
telnetlib.Telnet.open              ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 3f96.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
telnetlib.Telnet.write             ‘self’, ‘buffer’                                            *note [1]: 3f97.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkdtemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 10db.*note [2]: 1c9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkstemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 1f4.*note [2]: 2626.*note [3]: 2627.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
urllib.Request                     ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’, ‘method’                      *note [1]: 286.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
webbrowser.open                    ‘url’                                                       *note [1]: 368a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ConnectRegistry             ‘computer_name’, ‘key’                                      *note [1]: 3f98.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.CreateKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 3f99.*note [2]: 1209.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 3f9a.*note [2]: 120a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteValue                 ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 3f9b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DisableReflectionKey        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 120b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnableReflectionKey         ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 120c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumKey                     ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 3f9c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumValue                   ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 3f9d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings    ‘str’                                                       *note [1]: 127f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.LoadKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’                               *note [1]: 3f9e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 3f9f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey/result              ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 3f99.*note [2]: 1209.*note [3]: 3f9f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.PyHKEY.Detach               ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 3fa0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryInfoKey                ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 3fa1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryReflectionKey          ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 120d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryValue                  ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’                              *note [1]: 3fa2.*note [2]: 3fa3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SaveKey                     ‘key’, ‘file_name’                                          *note [1]: 3fa4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SetValue                    ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’                           *note [1]: 3fa5.*note [2]: 15ad.
                                                                                               

The following events are raised internally and do not correspond to any
public API of CPython:

Audit event                    Arguments
                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                               
_winapi.CreateFile             ‘file_name’, ‘desired_access’, ‘share_mode’,
                               ‘creation_disposition’,
                               ‘flags_and_attributes’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateJunction         ‘src_path’, ‘dst_path’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreateNamedPipe        ‘name’, ‘open_mode’, ‘pipe_mode’
                               
                               
_winapi.CreatePipe

_winapi.CreateProcess          ‘application_name’, ‘command_line’,
                               ‘current_directory’
                               
                               
_winapi.OpenProcess            ‘process_id’, ‘desired_access’
                               
                               
_winapi.TerminateProcess       ‘handle’, ‘exit_code’
                               
                               
ctypes.PyObj_FromPtr           ‘obj’
                               

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: bdb — Debugger framework,  Next: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback,  Prev: Audit events table,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.2 ‘bdb’ — Debugger framework
---------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/bdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note bdb: f. module handles basic debugger functions, like setting
breakpoints or managing execution via the debugger.

The following exception is defined:

 -- Özel Durum: bdb.BdbQuit

     Exception raised by the *note Bdb: 11ac. class for quitting the
     debugger.

The *note bdb: f. module also defines two classes:

 -- Sınıfı: bdb.Breakpoint (self, file, line, temporary=False,
          cond=None, funcname=None)

     This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts,
     disabling and (re-)enabling, and conditionals.

     Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called *note
     bpbynumber: 3faa. and by ‘(file, line)’ pairs through *note bplist:
     3fab.  The former points to a single instance of class *note
     Breakpoint: 3fa9.  The latter points to a list of such instances
     since there may be more than one breakpoint per line.

     When creating a breakpoint, its associated *note file name: 3fac.
     should be in canonical form.  If a *note funcname: 3fad. is
     defined, a breakpoint *note hit: 3fae. will be counted when the
     first line of that function is executed.  A *note conditional:
     3faf. breakpoint always counts a *note hit: 3fae.

     *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. instances have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: deleteMe ()

          Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line.
          If it is the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes
          the entry for the file/line.

      -- Yöntemi: enable ()

          Mark the breakpoint as enabled.

      -- Yöntemi: disable ()

          Mark the breakpoint as disabled.

      -- Yöntemi: bpformat ()

          Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint,
          nicely formatted:

             * Breakpoint number.

             * Temporary status (del or keep).

             * File/line position.

             * Break condition.

             * Number of times to ignore.

             * Number of times hit.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: bpprint (out=None)

          Print the output of *note bpformat(): 3fb3. to the file 'out',
          or if it is ‘None’, to standard output.

     *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. instances have the following attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: file

          File name of the *note Breakpoint: 3fa9.

      -- Özniteliği: line

          Line number of the *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. within *note file:
          3fac.

      -- Özniteliği: temporary

          ‘True’ if a *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. at (file, line) is
          temporary.

      -- Özniteliği: cond

          Condition for evaluating a *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. at (file,
          line).

      -- Özniteliği: funcname

          Function name that defines whether a *note Breakpoint: 3fa9.
          is hit upon entering the function.

      -- Özniteliği: enabled

          ‘True’ if *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. is enabled.

      -- Özniteliği: bpbynumber

          Numeric index for a single instance of a *note Breakpoint:
          3fa9.

      -- Özniteliği: bplist

          Dictionary of *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. instances indexed by
          (*note file: 3fac, *note line: 3fb5.) tuples.

      -- Özniteliği: ignore

          Number of times to ignore a *note Breakpoint: 3fa9.

      -- Özniteliği: hits

          Count of the number of times a *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. has
          been hit.

 -- Sınıfı: bdb.Bdb (skip=None)

     The *note Bdb: 11ac. class acts as a generic Python debugger base
     class.

     This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a
     derived class should implement user interaction.  The standard
     debugger class (*note pdb.Pdb: 77a.) is an example.

     The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
     module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
     originate in a module that matches one of these patterns.  Whether
     a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is
     determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'skip' parameter.

     The following methods of *note Bdb: 11ac. normally don’t need to be
     overridden.

      -- Yöntemi: canonic (filename)

          Return canonical form of 'filename'.

          For real file names, the canonical form is an
          operating-system-dependent, *note case-normalized: 25b6. *note
          absolute path: 11c6.  A 'filename' with angle brackets, such
          as ‘"<stdin>"’ generated in interactive mode, is returned
          unchanged.

      -- Yöntemi: reset ()

          Set the ‘botframe’, ‘stopframe’, ‘returnframe’ and *note
          quitting: 3fbb. attributes with values ready to start
          debugging.

      -- Yöntemi: trace_dispatch (frame, event, arg)

          This function is installed as the trace function of debugged
          frames.  Its return value is the new trace function (in most
          cases, that is, itself).

          The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame,
          depending on the type of event (passed as a string) that is
          about to be executed.  'event' can be one of the following:

             * ‘"line"’: A new line of code is going to be executed.

             * ‘"call"’: A function is about to be called, or another
               code block entered.

             * ‘"return"’: A function or other code block is about to
               return.

             * ‘"exception"’: An exception has occurred.

             * ‘"c_call"’: A C function is about to be called.

             * ‘"c_return"’: A C function has returned.

             * ‘"c_exception"’: A C function has raised an exception.

          For the Python events, specialized functions (see below) are
          called.  For the C events, no action is taken.

          The 'arg' parameter depends on the previous event.

          See the documentation for *note sys.settrace(): 138d. for more
          information on the trace function.  For more information on
          code and frame objects, refer to *note The standard type
          hierarchy: 1cd4.

      -- Yöntemi: dispatch_line (frame)

          If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the
          *note user_line(): 3fbe. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3fa8. exception if the
          *note quitting: 3fbb. flag is set (which can be set from *note
          user_line(): 3fbe.).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 3fbc. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- Yöntemi: dispatch_call (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the
          *note user_call(): 3fc0. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3fa8. exception if the
          *note quitting: 3fbb. flag is set (which can be set from *note
          user_call(): 3fc0.).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 3fbc. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- Yöntemi: dispatch_return (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke
          the *note user_return(): 3fc2. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3fa8.
          exception if the *note quitting: 3fbb. flag is set (which can
          be set from *note user_return(): 3fc2.).  Return a reference
          to the *note trace_dispatch(): 3fbc. method for further
          tracing in that scope.

      -- Yöntemi: dispatch_exception (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the
          *note user_exception(): 3fc4. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 3fa8.
          exception if the *note quitting: 3fbb. flag is set (which can
          be set from *note user_exception(): 3fc4.).  Return a
          reference to the *note trace_dispatch(): 3fbc. method for
          further tracing in that scope.

     Normally derived classes don’t override the following methods, but
     they may if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and
     breakpoints.

      -- Yöntemi: is_skipped_line (module_name)

          Return ‘True’ if 'module_name' matches any skip pattern.

      -- Yöntemi: stop_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if 'frame' is below the starting frame in the
          stack.

      -- Yöntemi: break_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if there is an effective breakpoint for this
          line.

          Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in
          effect.  Delete temporary breakpoints based on information
          from *note effective(): 3fc8.

      -- Yöntemi: break_anywhere (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if any breakpoint exists for 'frame'’s filename.

     Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over
     debugger operation.

      -- Yöntemi: user_call (frame, argument_list)

          Called from *note dispatch_call(): 3fbf. if a break might stop
          inside the called function.

          'argument_list' is not used anymore and will always be ‘None’.
          The argument is kept for backwards compatibility.

      -- Yöntemi: user_line (frame)

          Called from *note dispatch_line(): 3fbd. when either *note
          stop_here(): 3fc6. or *note break_here(): 3fc7. returns
          ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: user_return (frame, return_value)

          Called from *note dispatch_return(): 3fc1. when *note
          stop_here(): 3fc6. returns ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: user_exception (frame, exc_info)

          Called from *note dispatch_exception(): 3fc3. when *note
          stop_here(): 3fc6. returns ‘True’.

      -- Yöntemi: do_clear (arg)

          Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary
          one.

          This method must be implemented by derived classes.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     affect the stepping state.

      -- Yöntemi: set_step ()

          Stop after one line of code.

      -- Yöntemi: set_next (frame)

          Stop on the next line in or below the given frame.

      -- Yöntemi: set_return (frame)

          Stop when returning from the given frame.

      -- Yöntemi: set_until (frame, lineno=None)

          Stop when the line with the 'lineno' greater than the current
          one is reached or when returning from current frame.

      -- Yöntemi: set_trace ([frame])

          Start debugging from 'frame'.  If 'frame' is not specified,
          debugging starts from caller’s frame.

      -- Yöntemi: set_continue ()

          Stop only at breakpoints or when finished.  If there are no
          breakpoints, set the system trace function to ‘None’.

      -- Yöntemi: set_quit ()

          Set the ‘quitting’ attribute to ‘True’.  This raises *note
          BdbQuit: 3fa8. in the next call to one of the ‘dispatch_*()’
          methods.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     manipulate breakpoints.  These methods return a string containing
     an error message if something went wrong, or ‘None’ if all is well.

      -- Yöntemi: set_break (filename, lineno, temporary=False,
               cond=None, funcname=None)

          Set a new breakpoint.  If the 'lineno' line doesn’t exist for
          the 'filename' passed as argument, return an error message.
          The 'filename' should be in canonical form, as described in
          the *note canonic(): 3fb9. method.

      -- Yöntemi: clear_break (filename, lineno)

          Delete the breakpoints in 'filename' and 'lineno'.  If none
          were set, return an error message.

      -- Yöntemi: clear_bpbynumber (arg)

          Delete the breakpoint which has the index 'arg' in the *note
          Breakpoint.bpbynumber: 3faa.  If 'arg' is not numeric or out
          of range, return an error message.

      -- Yöntemi: clear_all_file_breaks (filename)

          Delete all breakpoints in 'filename'.  If none were set,
          return an error message.

      -- Yöntemi: clear_all_breaks ()

          Delete all existing breakpoints.  If none were set, return an
          error message.

      -- Yöntemi: get_bpbynumber (arg)

          Return a breakpoint specified by the given number.  If 'arg'
          is a string, it will be converted to a number.  If 'arg' is a
          non-numeric string, if the given breakpoint never existed or
          has been deleted, a *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Yöntemi: get_break (filename, lineno)

          Return ‘True’ if there is a breakpoint for 'lineno' in
          'filename'.

      -- Yöntemi: get_breaks (filename, lineno)

          Return all breakpoints for 'lineno' in 'filename', or an empty
          list if none are set.

      -- Yöntemi: get_file_breaks (filename)

          Return all breakpoints in 'filename', or an empty list if none
          are set.

      -- Yöntemi: get_all_breaks ()

          Return all breakpoints that are set.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a
     data structure representing a stack trace.

      -- Yöntemi: get_stack (f, t)

          Return a list of (frame, lineno) tuples in a stack trace, and
          a size.

          The most recently called frame is last in the list.  The size
          is the number of frames below the frame where the debugger was
          invoked.

      -- Yöntemi: format_stack_entry (frame_lineno, lprefix=': ')

          Return a string with information about a stack entry, which is
          a ‘(frame, lineno)’ tuple.  The return string contains:

             * The canonical filename which contains the frame.

             * The function name or ‘"<lambda>"’.

             * The input arguments.

             * The return value.

             * The line of code (if it exists).

     The following two methods can be called by clients to use a
     debugger to debug a *note statement: 2560, given as a string.

      -- Yöntemi: run (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug a statement executed via the *note exec(): 6cb.
          function.  'globals' defaults to ‘__main__.__dict__’, 'locals'
          defaults to 'globals'.

      -- Yöntemi: runeval (expr, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug an expression executed via the *note eval(): 6ca.
          function.  'globals' and 'locals' have the same meaning as in
          *note run(): 3fdd.

      -- Yöntemi: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          For backwards compatibility.  Calls the *note run(): 3fdd.
          method.

      -- Yöntemi: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Debug a single function call, and return its result.

Finally, the module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: bdb.checkfuncname (b, frame)

     Return ‘True’ if we should break here, depending on the way the
     *note Breakpoint: 3fa9. 'b' was set.

     If it was set via line number, it checks if *note b.line: 3fb5. is
     the same as the one in 'frame'.  If the breakpoint was set via
     *note function name: 3fad, we have to check we are in the right
     'frame' (the right function) and if we are on its first executable
     line.

 -- Işlevi: bdb.effective (file, line, frame)

     Return ‘(active breakpoint, delete temporary flag)’ or ‘(None,
     None)’ as the breakpoint to act upon.

     The 'active breakpoint' is the first entry in *note bplist: 3fab.
     for the (*note file: 3fac, *note line: 3fb5.) (which must exist)
     that is *note enabled: 3fb7, for which *note checkfuncname(): 3fe0.
     is true, and that has neither a false *note condition: 3faf. nor
     positive *note ignore: 3fb8. count.  The 'flag', meaning that a
     temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is ‘False’ only when the
     *note cond: 3faf. cannot be evaluated (in which case, *note ignore:
     3fb8. count is ignored).

     If no such entry exists, then ‘(None, None)’ is returned.

 -- Işlevi: bdb.set_trace ()

     Start debugging with a *note Bdb: 11ac. instance from caller’s
     frame.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/bdb.py


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback,  Next: pdb — The Python Debugger,  Prev: bdb — Debugger framework,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.3 ‘faulthandler’ — Dump the Python traceback
-------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on
a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): b21. to install fault handlers for the *note
SIGSEGV: 1b90, *note SIGFPE: 1b91, *note SIGABRT: 1b92, *note SIGBUS:
1b93, and *note SIGILL: 1b94. signals.  You can also enable them at
startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f2a. environment
variable or by using the *note -X: 18e. ‘faulthandler’ command line
option.

The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport
or the Windows fault handler.  The module uses an alternative stack for
signal handlers if the ‘sigaltstack()’ function is available.  This
allows it to dump the traceback even on a stack overflow.

The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only
use signal-safe functions (e.g.  it cannot allocate memory on the heap).
Because of this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to
normal Python tracebacks:

   * Only ASCII is supported.  The ‘backslashreplace’ error handler is
     used on encoding.

   * Each string is limited to 500 characters.

   * Only the filename, the function name and the line number are
     displayed.  (no source code)

   * It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads.

   * The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first.

By default, the Python traceback is written to *note sys.stderr: 792.
To see tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal.  A log file
can alternatively be passed to *note faulthandler.enable(): b21.

The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash
or when Python is deadlocked.

The *note Python Development Mode: 71d. calls *note
faulthandler.enable(): b21. at Python startup.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note pdb: a4.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

Module *note traceback: fe.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

* Menu:

* Dumping the traceback::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* Example: Example<13>.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback,  Next: Fault handler state,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.27.3.1 Dumping the traceback
..............................

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.dump_traceback (file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads into 'file'.  If 'all_threads'
     is ‘False’, dump only the current thread.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note traceback.print_tb(): d1b, which can be used to print a
     traceback object.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for passing file descriptor to
     this function.


File: python.info,  Node: Fault handler state,  Next: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Prev: Dumping the traceback,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.27.3.2 Fault handler state
............................

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.enable (file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True)

     Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the *note SIGSEGV:
     1b90, *note SIGFPE: 1b91, *note SIGABRT: 1b92, *note SIGBUS: 1b93.
     and *note SIGILL: 1b94. signals to dump the Python traceback.  If
     'all_threads' is ‘True’, produce tracebacks for every running
     thread.  Otherwise, dump only the current thread.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled:
     see *note issue with file descriptors: 3fe6.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for passing file descriptor to
     this function.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, a handler for Windows exception
     is also installed.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The dump now mentions if a garbage
     collector collection is running if 'all_threads' is true.

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.disable ()

     Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed
     by *note enable(): b21.

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.is_enabled ()

     Check if the fault handler is enabled.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Next: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Prev: Fault handler state,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.27.3.3 Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout
...............................................

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.dump_traceback_later (timeout, repeat=False,
          file=sys.stderr, exit=False)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of 'timeout'
     seconds, or every 'timeout' seconds if 'repeat' is ‘True’.  If
     'exit' is ‘True’, call ‘_exit()’ with status=1 after dumping the
     tracebacks.  (Note ‘_exit()’ exits the process immediately, which
     means it doesn’t do any cleanup like flushing file buffers.)  If
     the function is called twice, the new call replaces previous
     parameters and resets the timeout.  The timer has a sub-second
     resolution.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or *note
     cancel_dump_traceback_later(): 3fea. is called: see *note issue
     with file descriptors: 3fe6.

     This function is implemented using a watchdog thread.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for passing file descriptor to
     this function.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: This function is now always available.

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later ()

     Cancel the last call to *note dump_traceback_later(): c8d.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Next: Issue with file descriptors,  Prev: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.27.3.4 Dumping the traceback on a user signal
...............................................

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.register (signum, file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True, chain=False)

     Register a user signal: install a handler for the 'signum' signal
     to dump the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if
     'all_threads' is ‘False’, into 'file'.  Call the previous handler
     if chain is ‘True’.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by
     *note unregister(): 3fec.: see *note issue with file descriptors:
     3fe6.

     Not available on Windows.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for passing file descriptor to
     this function.

 -- Işlevi: faulthandler.unregister (signum)

     Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the 'signum'
     signal installed by *note register(): c8b.  Return ‘True’ if the
     signal was registered, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Not available on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Issue with file descriptors,  Next: Example<13>,  Prev: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.27.3.5 Issue with file descriptors
....................................

*note enable(): b21, *note dump_traceback_later(): c8d. and *note
register(): c8b. keep the file descriptor of their 'file' argument.  If
the file is closed and its file descriptor is reused by a new file, or
if *note os.dup2(): 9d7. is used to replace the file descriptor, the
traceback will be written into a different file.  Call these functions
again each time that the file is replaced.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<13>,  Prev: Issue with file descriptors,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.27.3.6 Example
................

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the
fault handler:

     $ python -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)"
     Segmentation fault

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: pdb — The Python Debugger,  Next: The Python Profilers,  Prev: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.4 ‘pdb’ — The Python Debugger
----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The module *note pdb: a4. defines an interactive source code debugger
for Python programs.  It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and
single stepping at the source line level, inspection of stack frames,
source code listing, and evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the
context of any stack frame.  It also supports post-mortem debugging and
can be called under program control.

The debugger is extensible – it is actually defined as the class *note
Pdb: 77a.  This is currently undocumented but easily understood by
reading the source.  The extension interface uses the modules *note bdb:
f. and *note cmd: 19.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note faulthandler: 56.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

Module *note traceback: fe.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

The typical usage to break into the debugger is to insert:

     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()

Or:

     breakpoint()

at the location you want to break into the debugger, and then run the
program.  You can then step through the code following this statement,
and continue running without the debugger using the *note continue:
3ff2. command.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: The built-in *note breakpoint(): 930, when called
with defaults, can be used instead of ‘import pdb; pdb.set_trace()’.

     def double(x):
        breakpoint()
        return x * 2
     val = 3
     print(f"{val} * 2 is {double(val)}")

The debugger’s prompt is ‘(Pdb)’, which is the indicator that you are in
debug mode:

     > ...(3)double()
     -> return x * 2
     (Pdb) p x
     3
     (Pdb) continue
     3 * 2 is 6

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Tab-completion via the *note readline: b9. module
is available for commands and command arguments, e.g.  the current
global and local names are offered as arguments of the ‘p’ command.

You can also invoke *note pdb: a4. from the command line to debug other
scripts.  For example:

     python -m pdb [-c command] (-m module | pyfile) [args ...]

When invoked as a module, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem
debugging if the program being debugged exits abnormally.  After
post-mortem debugging (or after normal exit of the program), pdb will
restart the program.  Automatic restarting preserves pdb’s state (such
as breakpoints) and in most cases is more useful than quitting the
debugger upon program’s exit.

 -- Option: -c, --command <command>

     To execute commands as if given in a ‘.pdbrc’ file; see *note
     Debugger Commands: 3ff5.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘-c’ option.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     To execute modules similar to the way ‘python -m’ does.  As with a
     script, the debugger will pause execution just before the first
     line of the module.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘-m’ option.

Typical usage to execute a statement under control of the debugger is:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     >>> pdb.run("f(2)")
     > <string>(1)<module>()
     (Pdb) continue
     0.5
     >>>

The typical usage to inspect a crashed program is:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     ...
     >>> f(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> pdb.pm()
     > <stdin>(2)f()
     (Pdb) p x
     0
     (Pdb)

The module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger in
a slightly different way:

 -- Işlevi: pdb.run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)

     Execute the 'statement' (given as a string or a code object) under
     debugger control.  The debugger prompt appears before any code is
     executed; you can set breakpoints and type *note continue: 3ff2, or
     you can step through the statement using *note step: 3ff7. or *note
     next: 3ff8. (all these commands are explained below).  The optional
     'globals' and 'locals' arguments specify the environment in which
     the code is executed; by default the dictionary of the module *note
     __main__: 1. is used.  (See the explanation of the built-in *note
     exec(): 6cb. or *note eval(): 6ca. functions.)

 -- Işlevi: pdb.runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)

     Evaluate the 'expression' (given as a string or a code object)
     under debugger control.  When *note runeval(): 3ff9. returns, it
     returns the value of the 'expression'.  Otherwise this function is
     similar to *note run(): 3dc6.

 -- Işlevi: pdb.runcall (function, *args, **kwds)

     Call the 'function' (a function or method object, not a string)
     with the given arguments.  When *note runcall(): 3ffa. returns, it
     returns whatever the function call returned.  The debugger prompt
     appears as soon as the function is entered.

 -- Işlevi: pdb.set_trace (*, header=None)

     Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame.  This is useful to
     hard-code a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the
     code is not otherwise being debugged (e.g.  when an assertion
     fails).  If given, 'header' is printed to the console just before
     debugging begins.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The keyword-only argument 'header'.

 -- Işlevi: pdb.post_mortem (traceback=None)

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the given 'traceback' object.  If no
     'traceback' is given, it uses the one of the exception that is
     currently being handled (an exception must be being handled if the
     default is to be used).

 -- Işlevi: pdb.pm ()

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the traceback found in *note
     sys.last_traceback: 1ef.

The ‘run*’ functions and *note set_trace(): 9db. are aliases for
instantiating the *note Pdb: 77a. class and calling the method of the
same name.  If you want to access further features, you have to do this
yourself:

 -- Sınıfı: pdb.Pdb (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None,
          skip=None, nosigint=False, readrc=True)

     *note Pdb: 77a. is the debugger class.

     The 'completekey', 'stdin' and 'stdout' arguments are passed to the
     underlying *note cmd.Cmd: 3b4c. class; see the description there.

     The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
     module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
     originate in a module that matches one of these patterns.  (2)

     By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent
     when the user presses ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ on the console) when you give a
     *note continue: 3ff2. command.  This allows you to break into the
     debugger again by pressing ‘Ctrl’-‘C’.  If you want Pdb not to
     touch the SIGINT handler, set 'nosigint' to true.

     The 'readrc' argument defaults to true and controls whether Pdb
     will load .pdbrc files from the filesystem.

     Example call to enable tracing with 'skip':

          import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace()

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘pdb.Pdb’ with no arguments.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'skip' parameter.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'nosigint' parameter.  Previously,
     a SIGINT handler was never set by Pdb.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The 'readrc' argument.

      -- Yöntemi: run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- Yöntemi: runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- Yöntemi: runcall (function, *args, **kwds)
      -- Yöntemi: set_trace ()

          See the documentation for the functions explained above.

* Menu:

* Debugger Commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pdb.py

   (2) Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is
determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugger Commands,  Up: pdb — The Python Debugger

5.27.4.1 Debugger Commands
..........................

The commands recognized by the debugger are listed below.  Most commands
can be abbreviated to one or two letters as indicated; e.g.  ‘h(elp)’
means that either ‘h’ or ‘help’ can be used to enter the help command
(but not ‘he’ or ‘hel’, nor ‘H’ or ‘Help’ or ‘HELP’).  Arguments to
commands must be separated by whitespace (spaces or tabs).  Optional
arguments are enclosed in square brackets (‘[]’) in the command syntax;
the square brackets must not be typed.  Alternatives in the command
syntax are separated by a vertical bar (‘|’).

Entering a blank line repeats the last command entered.  Exception: if
the last command was a *note list: 4001. command, the next 11 lines are
listed.

Commands that the debugger doesn’t recognize are assumed to be Python
statements and are executed in the context of the program being
debugged.  Python statements can also be prefixed with an exclamation
point (‘!’).  This is a powerful way to inspect the program being
debugged; it is even possible to change a variable or call a function.
When an exception occurs in such a statement, the exception name is
printed but the debugger’s state is not changed.

The debugger supports *note aliases: 4002.  Aliases can have parameters
which allows one a certain level of adaptability to the context under
examination.

Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by ‘;;’.
(A single ‘;’ is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands
in a line that is passed to the Python parser.)  No intelligence is
applied to separating the commands; the input is split at the first ‘;;’
pair, even if it is in the middle of a quoted string.  A workaround for
strings with double semicolons is to use implicit string concatenation
‘';'';'’ or ‘";"";"’.

To set a temporary global variable, use a 'convenience variable'.  A
'convenience variable' is a variable whose name starts with ‘$’.  For
example, ‘$foo = 1’ sets a global variable ‘$foo’ which you can use in
the debugger session.  The 'convenience variables' are cleared when the
program resumes execution so it’s less likely to interfere with your
program compared to using normal variables like ‘foo = 1’.

There are three preset 'convenience variables':

   * ‘$_frame’: the current frame you are debugging

   * ‘$_retval’: the return value if the frame is returning

   * ‘$_exception’: the exception if the frame is raising an exception

Added in version 3.12: Added the 'convenience variable' feature.

If a file ‘.pdbrc’ exists in the user’s home directory or in the current
directory, it is read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding and executed as if it had
been typed at the debugger prompt, with the exception that empty lines
and lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  This is particularly useful
for aliases.  If both files exist, the one in the home directory is read
first and aliases defined there can be overridden by the local file.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: ‘.pdbrc’ can now contain commands that continue
debugging, such as *note continue: 3ff2. or *note next: 3ff8.
Previously, these commands had no effect.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘.pdbrc’ is now read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.
Previously, it was read with the system locale encoding.

 -- Pdbcommand: h(elp) [command]

     Without argument, print the list of available commands.  With a
     'command' as argument, print help about that command.  ‘help pdb’
     displays the full documentation (the docstring of the *note pdb:
     a4. module).  Since the 'command' argument must be an identifier,
     ‘help exec’ must be entered to get help on the ‘!’ command.

 -- Pdbcommand: w(here)

     Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom.  An
     arrow (‘>’) indicates the current frame, which determines the
     context of most commands.

 -- Pdbcommand: d(own) [count]

     Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels down in the
     stack trace (to a newer frame).

 -- Pdbcommand: u(p) [count]

     Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels up in the stack
     trace (to an older frame).

 -- Pdbcommand: b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     With a 'lineno' argument, set a break there in the current file.
     With a 'function' argument, set a break at the first executable
     statement within that function.  The line number may be prefixed
     with a filename and a colon, to specify a breakpoint in another
     file (probably one that hasn’t been loaded yet).  The file is
     searched on *note sys.path: 368.  Note that each breakpoint is
     assigned a number to which all the other breakpoint commands refer.

     If a second argument is present, it is an expression which must
     evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored.

     Without argument, list all breaks, including for each breakpoint,
     the number of times that breakpoint has been hit, the current
     ignore count, and the associated condition if any.

 -- Pdbcommand: tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     Temporary breakpoint, which is removed automatically when it is
     first hit.  The arguments are the same as for *note break: 4007.

 -- Pdbcommand: cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber ...]

     With a 'filename:lineno' argument, clear all the breakpoints at
     this line.  With a space separated list of breakpoint numbers,
     clear those breakpoints.  Without argument, clear all breaks (but
     first ask confirmation).

 -- Pdbcommand: disable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Disable the breakpoints given as a space separated list of
     breakpoint numbers.  Disabling a breakpoint means it cannot cause
     the program to stop execution, but unlike clearing a breakpoint, it
     remains in the list of breakpoints and can be (re-)enabled.

 -- Pdbcommand: enable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Enable the breakpoints specified.

 -- Pdbcommand: ignore bpnumber [count]

     Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number.  If 'count'
     is omitted, the ignore count is set to 0.  A breakpoint becomes
     active when the ignore count is zero.  When non-zero, the 'count'
     is decremented each time the breakpoint is reached and the
     breakpoint is not disabled and any associated condition evaluates
     to true.

 -- Pdbcommand: condition bpnumber [condition]

     Set a new 'condition' for the breakpoint, an expression which must
     evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored.  If 'condition'
     is absent, any existing condition is removed; i.e., the breakpoint
     is made unconditional.

 -- Pdbcommand: commands [bpnumber]

     Specify a list of commands for breakpoint number 'bpnumber'.  The
     commands themselves appear on the following lines.  Type a line
     containing just ‘end’ to terminate the commands.  An example:

          (Pdb) commands 1
          (com) p some_variable
          (com) end
          (Pdb)

     To remove all commands from a breakpoint, type ‘commands’ and
     follow it immediately with ‘end’; that is, give no commands.

     With no 'bpnumber' argument, ‘commands’ refers to the last
     breakpoint set.

     You can use breakpoint commands to start your program up again.
     Simply use the *note continue: 3ff2. command, or *note step: 3ff7,
     or any other command that resumes execution.

     Specifying any command resuming execution (currently *note
     continue: 3ff2, *note step: 3ff7, *note next: 3ff8, *note return:
     400f, *note jump: 4010, *note quit: 4011. and their abbreviations)
     terminates the command list (as if that command was immediately
     followed by end).  This is because any time you resume execution
     (even with a simple next or step), you may encounter another
     breakpoint—which could have its own command list, leading to
     ambiguities about which list to execute.

     If you use the ‘silent’ command in the command list, the usual
     message about stopping at a breakpoint is not printed.  This may be
     desirable for breakpoints that are to print a specific message and
     then continue.  If none of the other commands print anything, you
     see no sign that the breakpoint was reached.

 -- Pdbcommand: s(tep)

     Execute the current line, stop at the first possible occasion
     (either in a function that is called or on the next line in the
     current function).

 -- Pdbcommand: n(ext)

     Continue execution until the next line in the current function is
     reached or it returns.  (The difference between *note next: 3ff8.
     and *note step: 3ff7. is that *note step: 3ff7. stops inside a
     called function, while *note next: 3ff8. executes called functions
     at (nearly) full speed, only stopping at the next line in the
     current function.)

 -- Pdbcommand: unt(il) [lineno]

     Without argument, continue execution until the line with a number
     greater than the current one is reached.

     With 'lineno', continue execution until a line with a number
     greater or equal to 'lineno' is reached.  In both cases, also stop
     when the current frame returns.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Allow giving an explicit line number.

 -- Pdbcommand: r(eturn)

     Continue execution until the current function returns.

 -- Pdbcommand: c(ont(inue))

     Continue execution, only stop when a breakpoint is encountered.

 -- Pdbcommand: j(ump) lineno

     Set the next line that will be executed.  Only available in the
     bottom-most frame.  This lets you jump back and execute code again,
     or jump forward to skip code that you don’t want to run.

     It should be noted that not all jumps are allowed – for instance it
     is not possible to jump into the middle of a *note for: 26d. loop
     or out of a *note finally: 828. clause.

 -- Pdbcommand: l(ist) [first[, last]]

     List source code for the current file.  Without arguments, list 11
     lines around the current line or continue the previous listing.
     With ‘.’ as argument, list 11 lines around the current line.  With
     one argument, list 11 lines around at that line.  With two
     arguments, list the given range; if the second argument is less
     than the first, it is interpreted as a count.

     The current line in the current frame is indicated by ‘->’.  If an
     exception is being debugged, the line where the exception was
     originally raised or propagated is indicated by ‘>>’, if it differs
     from the current line.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘>>’ marker.

 -- Pdbcommand: ll | longlist

     List all source code for the current function or frame.
     Interesting lines are marked as for *note list: 4001.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: a(rgs)

     Print the arguments of the current function and their current
     values.

 -- Pdbcommand: p expression

     Evaluate 'expression' in the current context and print its value.

          Not: ‘print()’ can also be used, but is not a debugger command
          — this executes the Python *note print(): e16. function.

 -- Pdbcommand: pp expression

     Like the *note p: e17. command, except the value of 'expression' is
     pretty-printed using the *note pprint: ad. module.

 -- Pdbcommand: whatis expression

     Print the type of 'expression'.

 -- Pdbcommand: source expression

     Try to get source code of 'expression' and display it.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: display [expression]

     Display the value of 'expression' if it changed, each time
     execution stops in the current frame.

     Without 'expression', list all display expressions for the current
     frame.

          Not: Display evaluates 'expression' and compares to the result
          of the previous evaluation of 'expression', so when the result
          is mutable, display may not be able to pick up the changes.

     Example:

          lst = []
          breakpoint()
          pass
          lst.append(1)
          print(lst)

     Display won’t realize ‘lst’ has been changed because the result of
     evaluation is modified in place by ‘lst.append(1)’ before being
     compared:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst
          display lst: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          (Pdb)

     You can do some tricks with copy mechanism to make it work:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst[:]
          display lst[:]: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          display lst[:]: [1]  [old: []]
          (Pdb)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: undisplay [expression]

     Do not display 'expression' anymore in the current frame.  Without
     'expression', clear all display expressions for the current frame.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: interact

     Start an interactive interpreter (using the *note code: 1a. module)
     whose global namespace contains all the (global and local) names
     found in the current scope.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: alias [name [command]]

     Create an alias called 'name' that executes 'command'.  The
     'command' must 'not' be enclosed in quotes.  Replaceable parameters
     can be indicated by ‘%1’, ‘%2’, and so on, while ‘%*’ is replaced
     by all the parameters.  If 'command' is omitted, the current alias
     for 'name' is shown.  If no arguments are given, all aliases are
     listed.

     Aliases may be nested and can contain anything that can be legally
     typed at the pdb prompt.  Note that internal pdb commands 'can' be
     overridden by aliases.  Such a command is then hidden until the
     alias is removed.  Aliasing is recursively applied to the first
     word of the command line; all other words in the line are left
     alone.

     As an example, here are two useful aliases (especially when placed
     in the ‘.pdbrc’ file):

          # Print instance variables (usage "pi classInst")
          alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print(f"%1.{k} = {%1.__dict__[k]}")
          # Print instance variables in self
          alias ps pi self

 -- Pdbcommand: unalias name

     Delete the specified alias 'name'.

 -- Pdbcommand: ! statement

     Execute the (one-line) 'statement' in the context of the current
     stack frame.  The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first
     word of the statement resembles a debugger command, e.g.:

          (Pdb) ! n=42
          (Pdb)

     To set a global variable, you can prefix the assignment command
     with a *note global: 1a67. statement on the same line, e.g.:

          (Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l']
          (Pdb)

 -- Pdbcommand: run [args ...]
 -- Pdbcommand: restart [args ...]

     Restart the debugged Python program.  If 'args' is supplied, it is
     split with *note shlex: c3. and the result is used as the new *note
     sys.argv: 110d.  History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options
     are preserved.  *note restart: 401f. is an alias for *note run:
     401e.

 -- Pdbcommand: q(uit)

     Quit from the debugger.  The program being executed is aborted.

 -- Pdbcommand: debug code

     Enter a recursive debugger that steps through 'code' (which is an
     arbitrary expression or statement to be executed in the current
     environment).

 -- Pdbcommand: retval

     Print the return value for the last return of the current function.


File: python.info,  Node: The Python Profilers,  Next: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets,  Prev: pdb — The Python Debugger,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.5 The Python Profilers
---------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/profile.py(1) and Lib/pstats.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction to the profilers::
* Instant User’s Manual::
* profile and cProfile Module Reference::
* The Stats Class::
* What Is Deterministic Profiling?::
* Limitations::
* Calibration::
* Using a custom timer::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/profile.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pstats.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction to the profilers,  Next: Instant User’s Manual,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.1 Introduction to the profilers
......................................

*note cProfile: 27. and *note profile: ae. provide 'deterministic
profiling' of Python programs.  A 'profile' is a set of statistics that
describes how often and for how long various parts of the program
executed.  These statistics can be formatted into reports via the *note
pstats: af. module.

The Python standard library provides two different implementations of
the same profiling interface:

  1. *note cProfile: 27. is recommended for most users; it’s a C
     extension with reasonable overhead that makes it suitable for
     profiling long-running programs.  Based on ‘lsprof’, contributed by
     Brett Rosen and Ted Czotter.

  2. *note profile: ae, a pure Python module whose interface is imitated
     by *note cProfile: 27, but which adds significant overhead to
     profiled programs.  If you’re trying to extend the profiler in some
     way, the task might be easier with this module.  Originally
     designed and written by Jim Roskind.

     Not: The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution
     profile for a given program, not for benchmarking purposes (for
     that, there is *note timeit: ee. for reasonably accurate results).
     This particularly applies to benchmarking Python code against C
     code: the profilers introduce overhead for Python code, but not for
     C-level functions, and so the C code would seem faster than any
     Python one.


File: python.info,  Node: Instant User’s Manual,  Next: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Prev: Introduction to the profilers,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.2 Instant User’s Manual
..............................

This section is provided for users that “don’t want to read the manual.”
It provides a very brief overview, and allows a user to rapidly perform
profiling on an existing application.

To profile a function that takes a single argument, you can do:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")')

(Use *note profile: ae. instead of *note cProfile: 27. if the latter is
not available on your system.)

The above action would run *note re.compile(): a4a. and print profile
results like the following:

           214 function calls (207 primitive calls) in 0.002 seconds

     Ordered by: cumulative time

     ncalls  tottime  percall  cumtime  percall filename:lineno(function)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.002    0.002 {built-in method builtins.exec}
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 <string>:1(<module>)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:250(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.001    0.001 __init__.py:289(_compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:759(compile)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:937(parse)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _compiler.py:598(_code)
          1    0.000    0.000    0.000    0.000 _parser.py:435(_parse_sub)

The first line indicates that 214 calls were monitored.  Of those calls,
207 were 'primitive', meaning that the call was not induced via
recursion.  The next line: ‘Ordered by: cumulative time’ indicates the
output is sorted by the ‘cumtime’ values.  The column headings include:

ncalls

     for the number of calls.

tottime

     for the total time spent in the given function (and excluding time
     made in calls to sub-functions)

percall

     is the quotient of ‘tottime’ divided by ‘ncalls’

cumtime

     is the cumulative time spent in this and all subfunctions (from
     invocation till exit).  This figure is accurate 'even' for
     recursive functions.

percall

     is the quotient of ‘cumtime’ divided by primitive calls

filename:lineno(function)

     provides the respective data of each function

When there are two numbers in the first column (for example ‘3/1’), it
means that the function recursed.  The second value is the number of
primitive calls and the former is the total number of calls.  Note that
when the function does not recurse, these two values are the same, and
only the single figure is printed.

Instead of printing the output at the end of the profile run, you can
save the results to a file by specifying a filename to the ‘run()’
function:

     import cProfile
     import re
     cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")', 'restats')

The *note pstats.Stats: 4029. class reads profile results from a file
and formats them in various ways.  The files *note cProfile: 27. and
*note profile: ae. can also be invoked as a script to profile another
script.  For example:

     python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py)

 -- Option: -o <output_file>

     Writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout.

 -- Option: -s <sort_order>

     Specifies one of the *note sort_stats(): 402d. sort values to sort
     the output by.  This only applies when *note -o: 402b. is not
     supplied.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     Specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script.

     Added in version 3.7: Added the ‘-m’ option to *note cProfile: 27.

     Added in version 3.8: Added the ‘-m’ option to *note profile: ae.

The *note pstats: af. module’s *note Stats: 4029. class has a variety of
methods for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile
results file:

     import pstats
     from pstats import SortKey
     p = pstats.Stats('restats')
     p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats()

The *note strip_dirs(): 402f. method removed the extraneous path from
all the module names.  The *note sort_stats(): 402d. method sorted all
the entries according to the standard module/line/name string that is
printed.  The *note print_stats(): 4030. method printed out all the
statistics.  You might try the following sort calls:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME)
     p.print_stats()

The first call will actually sort the list by function name, and the
second call will print out the statistics.  The following are some
interesting calls to experiment with:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)

This sorts the profile by cumulative time in a function, and then only
prints the ten most significant lines.  If you want to understand what
algorithms are taking time, the above line is what you would use.

If you were looking to see what functions were looping a lot, and taking
a lot of time, you would do:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10)

to sort according to time spent within each function, and then print the
statistics for the top ten functions.

You might also try:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('__init__')

This will sort all the statistics by file name, and then print out
statistics for only the class init methods (since they are spelled with
‘__init__’ in them).  As one final example, you could try:

     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME, SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(.5, 'init')

This line sorts statistics with a primary key of time, and a secondary
key of cumulative time, and then prints out some of the statistics.  To
be specific, the list is first culled down to 50% (re: ‘.5’) of its
original size, then only lines containing ‘init’ are maintained, and
that sub-sub-list is printed.

If you wondered what functions called the above functions, you could now
(‘p’ is still sorted according to the last criteria) do:

     p.print_callers(.5, 'init')

and you would get a list of callers for each of the listed functions.

If you want more functionality, you’re going to have to read the manual,
or guess what the following functions do:

     p.print_callees()
     p.add('restats')

Invoked as a script, the *note pstats: af. module is a statistics
browser for reading and examining profile dumps.  It has a simple
line-oriented interface (implemented using *note cmd: 19.) and
interactive help.


File: python.info,  Node: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Next: The Stats Class,  Prev: Instant User’s Manual,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.3 ‘profile’ and ‘cProfile’ Module Reference
..................................................

Both the *note profile: ae. and *note cProfile: 27. modules provide the
following functions:

 -- Işlevi: profile.run (command, filename=None, sort=-1)

     This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the
     *note exec(): 6cb. function, and an optional file name.  In all
     cases this routine executes:

          exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)

     and gathers profiling statistics from the execution.  If no file
     name is present, then this function automatically creates a *note
     Stats: 4029. instance and prints a simple profiling report.  If the
     sort value is specified, it is passed to this *note Stats: 4029.
     instance to control how the results are sorted.

 -- Işlevi: profile.runctx (command, globals, locals, filename=None,
          sort=-1)

     This function is similar to *note run(): 4032, with added arguments
     to supply the globals and locals dictionaries for the 'command'
     string.  This routine executes:

          exec(command, globals, locals)

     and gathers profiling statistics as in the *note run(): 4032.
     function above.

 -- Sınıfı: profile.Profile (timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True,
          builtins=True)

     This class is normally only used if more precise control over
     profiling is needed than what the ‘cProfile.run()’ function
     provides.

     A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to
     run via the 'timer' argument.  This must be a function that returns
     a single number representing the current time.  If the number is an
     integer, the 'timeunit' specifies a multiplier that specifies the
     duration of each unit of time.  For example, if the timer returns
     times measured in thousands of seconds, the time unit would be
     ‘.001’.

     Directly using the *note Profile: 842. class allows formatting
     profile results without writing the profile data to a file:

          import cProfile, pstats, io
          from pstats import SortKey
          pr = cProfile.Profile()
          pr.enable()
          # ... do something ...
          pr.disable()
          s = io.StringIO()
          sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE
          ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby)
          ps.print_stats()
          print(s.getvalue())

     The *note Profile: 842. class can also be used as a context manager
     (supported only in *note cProfile: 27. module.  see *note Bağlam
     Yöneticisi Türleri: 1dae.):

          import cProfile

          with cProfile.Profile() as pr:
              # ... do something ...

              pr.print_stats()

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added context manager support.

      -- Yöntemi: enable ()

          Start collecting profiling data.  Only in *note cProfile: 27.

      -- Yöntemi: disable ()

          Stop collecting profiling data.  Only in *note cProfile: 27.

      -- Yöntemi: create_stats ()

          Stop collecting profiling data and record the results
          internally as the current profile.

      -- Yöntemi: print_stats (sort=-1)

          Create a *note Stats: 4029. object based on the current
          profile and print the results to stdout.

      -- Yöntemi: dump_stats (filename)

          Write the results of the current profile to 'filename'.

      -- Yöntemi: run (cmd)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 6cb.

      -- Yöntemi: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 6cb. with the specified
          global and local environment.

      -- Yöntemi: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Profile ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’

Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function
actually returns.  If the interpreter is terminated (e.g.  via a *note
sys.exit(): 11f5. call during the called command/function execution) no
profiling results will be printed.


File: python.info,  Node: The Stats Class,  Next: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Prev: profile and cProfile Module Reference,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.4 The ‘Stats’ Class
..........................

Analysis of the profiler data is done using the *note Stats: 4029.
class.

 -- Sınıfı: pstats.Stats (*filenames or profile, stream=sys.stdout)

     This class constructor creates an instance of a “statistics object”
     from a 'filename' (or list of filenames) or from a ‘Profile’
     instance.  Output will be printed to the stream specified by
     'stream'.

     The file selected by the above constructor must have been created
     by the corresponding version of *note profile: ae. or *note
     cProfile: 27.  To be specific, there is 'no' file compatibility
     guaranteed with future versions of this profiler, and there is no
     compatibility with files produced by other profilers, or the same
     profiler run on a different operating system.  If several files are
     provided, all the statistics for identical functions will be
     coalesced, so that an overall view of several processes can be
     considered in a single report.  If additional files need to be
     combined with data in an existing *note Stats: 4029. object, the
     *note add(): 403d. method can be used.

     Instead of reading the profile data from a file, a
     ‘cProfile.Profile’ or *note profile.Profile: 842. object can be
     used as the profile data source.

     *note Stats: 4029. objects have the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: strip_dirs ()

          This method for the *note Stats: 4029. class removes all
          leading path information from file names.  It is very useful
          in reducing the size of the printout to fit within (close to)
          80 columns.  This method modifies the object, and the stripped
          information is lost.  After performing a strip operation, the
          object is considered to have its entries in a “random” order,
          as it was just after object initialization and loading.  If
          *note strip_dirs(): 402f. causes two function names to be
          indistinguishable (they are on the same line of the same
          filename, and have the same function name), then the
          statistics for these two entries are accumulated into a single
          entry.

      -- Yöntemi: add (*filenames)

          This method of the *note Stats: 4029. class accumulates
          additional profiling information into the current profiling
          object.  Its arguments should refer to filenames created by
          the corresponding version of *note profile.run(): 4032. or
          ‘cProfile.run()’.  Statistics for identically named (re: file,
          line, name) functions are automatically accumulated into
          single function statistics.

      -- Yöntemi: dump_stats (filename)

          Save the data loaded into the *note Stats: 4029. object to a
          file named 'filename'.  The file is created if it does not
          exist, and is overwritten if it already exists.  This is
          equivalent to the method of the same name on the *note
          profile.Profile: 842. and ‘cProfile.Profile’ classes.

      -- Yöntemi: sort_stats (*keys)

          This method modifies the *note Stats: 4029. object by sorting
          it according to the supplied criteria.  The argument can be
          either a string or a SortKey enum identifying the basis of a
          sort (example: ‘'time'’, ‘'name'’, ‘SortKey.TIME’ or
          ‘SortKey.NAME’).  The SortKey enums argument have advantage
          over the string argument in that it is more robust and less
          error prone.

          When more than one key is provided, then additional keys are
          used as secondary criteria when there is equality in all keys
          selected before them.  For example, ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME,
          SortKey.FILE)’ will sort all the entries according to their
          function name, and resolve all ties (identical function names)
          by sorting by file name.

          For the string argument, abbreviations can be used for any key
          names, as long as the abbreviation is unambiguous.

          The following are the valid string and SortKey:

          Valid String Arg       Valid enum Arg            Meaning
                                                           
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
          ‘'calls'’              SortKey.CALLS             call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumulative'’         SortKey.CUMULATIVE        cumulative time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'cumtime'’            N/A                       cumulative time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'file'’               N/A                       file name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'filename'’           SortKey.FILENAME          file name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'module'’             N/A                       file name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'ncalls'’             N/A                       call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'pcalls'’             SortKey.PCALLS            primitive call count
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'line'’               SortKey.LINE              line number
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'name'’               SortKey.NAME              function name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'nfl'’                SortKey.NFL               name/file/line
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'stdname'’            SortKey.STDNAME           standard name
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'time'’               SortKey.TIME              internal time
                                                           
                                                           
          ‘'tottime'’            N/A                       internal time
                                                           

          Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order
          (placing most time consuming items first), where as name,
          file, and line number searches are in ascending order
          (alphabetical).  The subtle distinction between ‘SortKey.NFL’
          and ‘SortKey.STDNAME’ is that the standard name is a sort of
          the name as printed, which means that the embedded line
          numbers get compared in an odd way.  For example, lines 3, 20,
          and 40 would (if the file names were the same) appear in the
          string order 20, 3 and 40.  In contrast, ‘SortKey.NFL’ does a
          numeric compare of the line numbers.  In fact,
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)’ is the same as
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE)’.

          For backward-compatibility reasons, the numeric arguments
          ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’, and ‘2’ are permitted.  They are interpreted
          as ‘'stdname'’, ‘'calls'’, ‘'time'’, and ‘'cumulative'’
          respectively.  If this old style format (numeric) is used,
          only one sort key (the numeric key) will be used, and
          additional arguments will be silently ignored.

          Added in version 3.7: Added the SortKey enum.

      -- Yöntemi: reverse_order ()

          This method for the *note Stats: 4029. class reverses the
          ordering of the basic list within the object.  Note that by
          default ascending vs descending order is properly selected
          based on the sort key of choice.

      -- Yöntemi: print_stats (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 4029. class prints out a
          report as described in the *note profile.run(): 4032.
          definition.

          The order of the printing is based on the last *note
          sort_stats(): 402d. operation done on the object (subject to
          caveats in *note add(): 403d. and *note strip_dirs(): 402f.).

          The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list
          down to the significant entries.  Initially, the list is taken
          to be the complete set of profiled functions.  Each
          restriction is either an integer (to select a count of lines),
          or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to select
          a percentage of lines), or a string that will interpreted as a
          regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is
          printed).  If several restrictions are provided, then they are
          applied sequentially.  For example:

               print_stats(.1, 'foo:')

          would first limit the printing to first 10% of list, and then
          only print functions that were part of filename ‘.*foo:’.  In
          contrast, the command:

               print_stats('foo:', .1)

          would limit the list to all functions having file names
          ‘.*foo:’, and then proceed to only print the first 10% of
          them.

      -- Yöntemi: print_callers (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 4029. class prints a list of
          all functions that called each function in the profiled
          database.  The ordering is identical to that provided by *note
          print_stats(): 4030, and the definition of the restricting
          argument is also identical.  Each caller is reported on its
          own line.  The format differs slightly depending on the
          profiler that produced the stats:

             * With *note profile: ae, a number is shown in parentheses
               after each caller to show how many times this specific
               call was made.  For convenience, a second
               non-parenthesized number repeats the cumulative time
               spent in the function at the right.

             * With *note cProfile: 27, each caller is preceded by three
               numbers: the number of times this specific call was made,
               and the total and cumulative times spent in the current
               function while it was invoked by this specific caller.

      -- Yöntemi: print_callees (*restrictions)

          This method for the *note Stats: 4029. class prints a list of
          all function that were called by the indicated function.
          Aside from this reversal of direction of calls (re: called vs
          was called by), the arguments and ordering are identical to
          the *note print_callers(): 4040. method.

      -- Yöntemi: get_stats_profile ()

          This method returns an instance of StatsProfile, which
          contains a mapping of function names to instances of
          FunctionProfile.  Each FunctionProfile instance holds
          information related to the function’s profile such as how long
          the function took to run, how many times it was called, etc…

          Added in version 3.9: Added the following dataclasses:
          StatsProfile, FunctionProfile.  Added the following function:
          get_stats_profile.


File: python.info,  Node: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Next: Limitations,  Prev: The Stats Class,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.5 What Is Deterministic Profiling?
.........................................

'Deterministic profiling' is meant to reflect the fact that all
'function call', 'function return', and 'exception' events are
monitored, and precise timings are made for the intervals between these
events (during which time the user’s code is executing).  In contrast,
'statistical profiling' (which is not done by this module) randomly
samples the effective instruction pointer, and deduces where time is
being spent.  The latter technique traditionally involves less overhead
(as the code does not need to be instrumented), but provides only
relative indications of where time is being spent.

In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the
presence of instrumented code is not required in order to do
deterministic profiling.  Python automatically provides a 'hook'
(optional callback) for each event.  In addition, the interpreted nature
of Python tends to add so much overhead to execution, that deterministic
profiling tends to only add small processing overhead in typical
applications.  The result is that deterministic profiling is not that
expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the
execution of a Python program.

Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising
counts), and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call
counts).  Internal time statistics can be used to identify “hot loops”
that should be carefully optimized.  Cumulative time statistics should
be used to identify high level errors in the selection of algorithms.
Note that the unusual handling of cumulative times in this profiler
allows statistics for recursive implementations of algorithms to be
directly compared to iterative implementations.


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations,  Next: Calibration,  Prev: What Is Deterministic Profiling?,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.6 Limitations
....................

One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information.  There is
a fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy.
The most obvious restriction is that the underlying “clock” is only
ticking at a rate (typically) of about .001 seconds.  Hence no
measurements will be more accurate than the underlying clock.  If enough
measurements are taken, then the “error” will tend to average out.
Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a second source of
error.

The second problem is that it “takes a while” from when an event is
dispatched until the profiler’s call to get the time actually 'gets' the
state of the clock.  Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the
profiler event handler from the time that the clock’s value was obtained
(and then squirreled away), until the user’s code is once again
executing.  As a result, functions that are called many times, or call
many functions, will typically accumulate this error.  The error that
accumulates in this fashion is typically less than the accuracy of the
clock (less than one clock tick), but it 'can' accumulate and become
very significant.

The problem is more important with *note profile: ae. than with the
lower-overhead *note cProfile: 27.  For this reason, *note profile: ae.
provides a means of calibrating itself for a given platform so that this
error can be probabilistically (on the average) removed.  After the
profiler is calibrated, it will be more accurate (in a least square
sense), but it will sometimes produce negative numbers (when call counts
are exceptionally low, and the gods of probability work against you :-).
)  Do 'not' be alarmed by negative numbers in the profile.  They should
'only' appear if you have calibrated your profiler, and the results are
actually better than without calibration.


File: python.info,  Node: Calibration,  Next: Using a custom timer,  Prev: Limitations,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.7 Calibration
....................

The profiler of the *note profile: ae. module subtracts a constant from
each event handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the
time function, and socking away the results.  By default, the constant
is 0.  The following procedure can be used to obtain a better constant
for a given platform (see *note Limitations: 4046.).

     import profile
     pr = profile.Profile()
     for i in range(5):
         print(pr.calibrate(10000))

The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument,
directly and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both.  It
then computes the hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that
as a float.  For example, on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running macOS, and
using Python’s time.process_time() as the timer, the magical number is
about 4.04e-6.

The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result.  If
your computer is 'very' fast, or your timer function has poor
resolution, you might have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get
consistent results.

When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it:

     import profile

     # 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter.
     profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance.
     pr = profile.Profile()
     pr.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor.
     pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias)

If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant,
and then your results will “less often” show up as negative in profile
statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom timer,  Prev: Calibration,  Up: The Python Profilers

5.27.5.8 Using a custom timer
.............................

If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to
force use of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing
function you want to the ‘Profile’ class constructor:

     pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func)

The resulting profiler will then call ‘your_time_func’.  Depending on
whether you are using *note profile.Profile: 842. or ‘cProfile.Profile’,
‘your_time_func’’s return value will be interpreted differently:

*note profile.Profile: 842.

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number, or a list of
     numbers whose sum is the current time (like what *note os.times():
     fb7. returns).  If the function returns a single time number, or
     the list of returned numbers has length 2, then you will get an
     especially fast version of the dispatch routine.

     Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the
     timer function that you choose (see *note Calibration: 4048.).  For
     most machines, a timer that returns a lone integer value will
     provide the best results in terms of low overhead during profiling.
     (*note os.times(): fb7. is 'pretty' bad, as it returns a tuple of
     floating-point values).  If you want to substitute a better timer
     in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a replacement
     dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the
     appropriate calibration constant.

‘cProfile.Profile’

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number.  If it returns
     integers, you can also invoke the class constructor with a second
     argument specifying the real duration of one unit of time.  For
     example, if ‘your_integer_time_func’ returns times measured in
     thousands of seconds, you would construct the ‘Profile’ instance as
     follows:

          pr = cProfile.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001)

     As the ‘cProfile.Profile’ class cannot be calibrated, custom timer
     functions should be used with care and should be as fast as
     possible.  For the best results with a custom timer, it might be
     necessary to hard-code it in the C source of the internal ‘_lsprof’
     module.

Python 3.3 adds several new functions in *note time: ed. that can be
used to make precise measurements of process or wall-clock time.  For
example, see *note time.perf_counter(): 8ed.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets,  Next: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution,  Prev: The Python Profilers,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.6 ‘timeit’ — Measure execution time of small code snippets
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/timeit.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a simple way to time small bits of Python code.  It
has both a *note Command-Line Interface: 404d. as well as a *note
callable: 404e. one.  It avoids a number of common traps for measuring
execution times.  See also Tim Peters’ introduction to the “Algorithms”
chapter in the second edition of 'Python Cookbook', published by
O’Reilly.

* Menu:

* Basic Examples: Basic Examples<2>.
* Python Interface::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<4>.
* Examples: Examples<29>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/timeit.py


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Examples<2>,  Next: Python Interface,  Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.27.6.1 Basic Examples
.......................

The following example shows how the *note Command-Line Interface: 404d.
can be used to compare three different expressions:

     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(str(n) for n in range(100))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(map(str, range(100)))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop

This can be achieved from the *note Python Interface: 404e. with:

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000)
     0.3018611848820001
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000)
     0.2727368790656328
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000)
     0.23702679807320237

A callable can also be passed from the *note Python Interface: 404e.:

     >>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000)
     0.19665591977536678

Note however that *note timeit(): d14. will automatically determine the
number of repetitions only when the command-line interface is used.  In
the *note Examples: 4050. section you can find more advanced examples.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Interface,  Next: Command-Line Interface<4>,  Prev: Basic Examples<2>,  Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.27.6.2 Python Interface
.........................

The module defines three convenience functions and a public class:

 -- Işlevi: timeit.timeit (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, number=1000000, globals=None)

     Create a *note Timer: 1353. instance with the given statement,
     'setup' code and 'timer' function and run its *note timeit(): b71.
     method with 'number' executions.  The optional 'globals' argument
     specifies a namespace in which to execute the code.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The optional 'globals' parameter was added.

 -- Işlevi: timeit.repeat (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None)

     Create a *note Timer: 1353. instance with the given statement,
     'setup' code and 'timer' function and run its *note repeat(): 4053.
     method with the given 'repeat' count and 'number' executions.  The
     optional 'globals' argument specifies a namespace in which to
     execute the code.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The optional 'globals' parameter was added.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Default value of 'repeat' changed from 3 to
     5.

 -- Işlevi: timeit.default_timer ()

     The default timer, which is always time.perf_counter(), returns
     float seconds.  An alternative, time.perf_counter_ns, returns
     integer nanoseconds.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note time.perf_counter(): 8ed. is now the
     default timer.

 -- Sınıfı: timeit.Timer (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer
          function>, globals=None)

     Class for timing execution speed of small code snippets.

     The constructor takes a statement to be timed, an additional
     statement used for setup, and a timer function.  Both statements
     default to ‘'pass'’; the timer function is platform-dependent (see
     the module doc string).  'stmt' and 'setup' may also contain
     multiple statements separated by ‘;’ or newlines, as long as they
     don’t contain multi-line string literals.  The statement will by
     default be executed within timeit’s namespace; this behavior can be
     controlled by passing a namespace to 'globals'.

     To measure the execution time of the first statement, use the *note
     timeit(): b71. method.  The *note repeat(): 4053. and *note
     autorange(): b70. methods are convenience methods to call *note
     timeit(): b71. multiple times.

     The execution time of 'setup' is excluded from the overall timed
     execution run.

     The 'stmt' and 'setup' parameters can also take objects that are
     callable without arguments.  This will embed calls to them in a
     timer function that will then be executed by *note timeit(): b71.
     Note that the timing overhead is a little larger in this case
     because of the extra function calls.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The optional 'globals' parameter was added.

      -- Yöntemi: timeit (number=1000000)

          Time 'number' executions of the main statement.  This executes
          the setup statement once, and then returns the time it takes
          to execute the main statement a number of times.  The default
          timer returns seconds as a float.  The argument is the number
          of times through the loop, defaulting to one million.  The
          main statement, the setup statement and the timer function to
          be used are passed to the constructor.

               Not: By default, *note timeit(): b71. temporarily turns
               off *note garbage collection: 1744. during the timing.
               The advantage of this approach is that it makes
               independent timings more comparable.  The disadvantage is
               that GC may be an important component of the performance
               of the function being measured.  If so, GC can be
               re-enabled as the first statement in the 'setup' string.
               For example:

                    timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit()

      -- Yöntemi: autorange (callback=None)

          Automatically determine how many times to call *note timeit():
          b71.

          This is a convenience function that calls *note timeit(): b71.
          repeatedly so that the total time >= 0.2 second, returning the
          eventual (number of loops, time taken for that number of
          loops).  It calls *note timeit(): b71. with increasing numbers
          from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, … until the time taken
          is at least 0.2 seconds.

          If 'callback' is given and is not ‘None’, it will be called
          after each trial with two arguments: ‘callback(number,
          time_taken)’.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: repeat (repeat=5, number=1000000)

          Call *note timeit(): b71. a few times.

          This is a convenience function that calls the *note timeit():
          b71. repeatedly, returning a list of results.  The first
          argument specifies how many times to call *note timeit(): b71.
          The second argument specifies the 'number' argument for *note
          timeit(): b71.

               Not: It’s tempting to calculate mean and standard
               deviation from the result vector and report these.
               However, this is not very useful.  In a typical case, the
               lowest value gives a lower bound for how fast your
               machine can run the given code snippet; higher values in
               the result vector are typically not caused by variability
               in Python’s speed, but by other processes interfering
               with your timing accuracy.  So the *note min(): d9f. of
               the result is probably the only number you should be
               interested in.  After that, you should look at the entire
               vector and apply common sense rather than statistics.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: Default value of 'repeat' changed from
          3 to 5.

      -- Yöntemi: print_exc (file=None)

          Helper to print a traceback from the timed code.

          Typical use:

               t = Timer(...)       # outside the try/except
               try:
                   t.timeit(...)    # or t.repeat(...)
               except Exception:
                   t.print_exc()

          The advantage over the standard traceback is that source lines
          in the compiled template will be displayed.  The optional
          'file' argument directs where the traceback is sent; it
          defaults to *note sys.stderr: 792.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<4>,  Next: Examples<29>,  Prev: Python Interface,  Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.27.6.3 Command-Line Interface
...............................

When called as a program from the command line, the following form is
used:

     python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-p] [-v] [-h] [statement ...]

Where the following options are understood:

 -- Option: -n N, --number=N

     how many times to execute ‘statement’

 -- Option: -r N, --repeat=N

     how many times to repeat the timer (default 5)

 -- Option: -s S, --setup=S

     statement to be executed once initially (default ‘pass’)

 -- Option: -p, --process

     measure process time, not wallclock time, using *note
     time.process_time(): 8ee. instead of *note time.perf_counter():
     8ed, which is the default

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Option: -u, --unit=U

     specify a time unit for timer output; can select ‘nsec’, ‘usec’,
     ‘msec’, or ‘sec’

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     print raw timing results; repeat for more digits precision

 -- Option: -h, --help

     print a short usage message and exit

A multi-line statement may be given by specifying each line as a
separate statement argument; indented lines are possible by enclosing an
argument in quotes and using leading spaces.  Multiple *note -s: 405b.
options are treated similarly.

If *note -n: 4057. is not given, a suitable number of loops is
calculated by trying increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10,
20, 50, … until the total time is at least 0.2 seconds.

*note default_timer(): 4054. measurements can be affected by other
programs running on the same machine, so the best thing to do when
accurate timing is necessary is to repeat the timing a few times and use
the best time.  The *note -r: 4059. option is good for this; the default
of 5 repetitions is probably enough in most cases.  You can use *note
time.process_time(): 8ee. to measure CPU time.

     Not: There is a certain baseline overhead associated with executing
     a pass statement.  The code here doesn’t try to hide it, but you
     should be aware of it.  The baseline overhead can be measured by
     invoking the program without arguments, and it might differ between
     Python versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<29>,  Prev: Command-Line Interface<4>,  Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets

5.27.6.4 Examples
.................

It is possible to provide a setup statement that is executed only once
at the beginning:

     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "char in text"
     5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "text.find(char)"
     1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop

In the output, there are three fields.  The loop count, which tells you
how many times the statement body was run per timing loop repetition.
The repetition count (‘best of 5’) which tells you how many times the
timing loop was repeated, and finally the time the statement body took
on average within the best repetition of the timing loop.  That is, the
time the fastest repetition took divided by the loop count.

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     0.41440500499993504
     >>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     1.7246671520006203

The same can be done using the *note Timer: 1353. class and its methods:

     >>> import timeit
     >>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     >>> t.timeit()
     0.3955516149999312
     >>> t.repeat()
     [0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]

The following examples show how to time expressions that contain
multiple lines.  Here we compare the cost of using *note hasattr(): 200.
vs.  *note try: 503./*note except: 3c0. to test for missing and present
object attributes:

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  str.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  int.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop

     >>> import timeit
     >>> # attribute is missing
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     str.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.9138244460009446
     >>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.5829014980008651
     >>>
     >>> # attribute is present
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     int.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.04215312199994514
     >>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.08588060699912603

To give the *note timeit: ee. module access to functions you define, you
can pass a 'setup' parameter which contains an import statement:

     def test():
         """Stupid test function"""
         L = [i for i in range(100)]

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import timeit
         print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test"))

Another option is to pass *note globals(): 168f. to the 'globals'
parameter, which will cause the code to be executed within your current
global namespace.  This can be more convenient than individually
specifying imports:

     def f(x):
         return x**2
     def g(x):
         return x**4
     def h(x):
         return x**8

     import timeit
     print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))


File: python.info,  Node: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution,  Next: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations,  Prev: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.7 ‘trace’ — Trace or track Python statement execution
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/trace.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note trace: fd. module allows you to trace program execution,
generate annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee
relationships and list functions executed during a program run.  It can
be used in another program or from the command line.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Coverage.py(2)

     A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML output along
     with advanced features such as branch coverage.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<3>.
* Programmatic Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/trace.py

   (2) https://coverage.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage<3>,  Next: Programmatic Interface,  Up: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution

5.27.7.1 Command-Line Usage
...........................

The *note trace: fd. module can be invoked from the command line.  It
can be as simple as

     python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ...

The above will execute ‘somefile.py’ and generate annotated listings of
all Python modules imported during the execution into the current
directory.

 -- Option: --help

     Display usage and exit.

 -- Option: --version

     Display the version of the module and exit.

Added in version 3.8: Added ‘--module’ option that allows to run an
executable module.

* Menu:

* Main options::
* Modifiers::
* Filters::


File: python.info,  Node: Main options,  Next: Modifiers,  Up: Command-Line Usage<3>

5.27.7.2 Main options
.....................

At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking
*note trace: fd.  The *note -listfuncs: 406d. option is mutually
exclusive with the *note -trace: 406e. and *note -count: 406f. options.
When *note -listfuncs: 406d. is provided, neither *note -count: 406f.
nor *note -trace: 406e. are accepted, and vice versa.

 -- Option: -c, --count

     Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion
     that shows how many times each statement was executed.  See also
     *note -coverdir: 4071, *note -file: 4072. and *note -no-report:
     4073. below.

 -- Option: -t, --trace

     Display lines as they are executed.

 -- Option: -l, --listfuncs

     Display the functions executed by running the program.

 -- Option: -r, --report

     Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the
     *note -count: 406f. and *note -file: 4072. option.  This does not
     execute any code.

 -- Option: -T, --trackcalls

     Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifiers,  Next: Filters,  Prev: Main options,  Up: Command-Line Usage<3>

5.27.7.3 Modifiers
..................

 -- Option: -f, --file=<file>

     Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs.
     Should be used with the *note -count: 406f. option.

 -- Option: -C, --coverdir=<dir>

     Directory where the report files go.  The coverage report for
     ‘package.module’ is written to file
     ‘`dir'/`package'/`module'.cover’.

 -- Option: -m, --missing

     When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not
     executed with ‘>>>>>>’.

 -- Option: -s, --summary

     When using *note -count: 406f. or *note -report: 4076, write a
     brief summary to stdout for each file processed.

 -- Option: -R, --no-report

     Do not generate annotated listings.  This is useful if you intend
     to make several runs with *note -count: 406f, and then produce a
     single set of annotated listings at the end.

 -- Option: -g, --timing

     Prefix each line with the time since the program started.  Only
     used while tracing.


File: python.info,  Node: Filters,  Prev: Modifiers,  Up: Command-Line Usage<3>

5.27.7.4 Filters
................

These options may be repeated multiple times.

 -- Option: --ignore-module=<mod>

     Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is
     a package).  The argument can be a list of names separated by a
     comma.

 -- Option: --ignore-dir=<dir>

     Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and
     subdirectories.  The argument can be a list of directories
     separated by *note os.pathsep: 1b8b.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic Interface,  Prev: Command-Line Usage<3>,  Up: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution

5.27.7.5 Programmatic Interface
...............................

 -- Sınıfı: trace.Trace (count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0,
          ignoremods=(), ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None,
          timing=False)

     Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or
     expression.  All parameters are optional.  'count' enables counting
     of line numbers.  'trace' enables line execution tracing.
     'countfuncs' enables listing of the functions called during the
     run.  'countcallers' enables call relationship tracking.
     'ignoremods' is a list of modules or packages to ignore.
     'ignoredirs' is a list of directories whose modules or packages
     should be ignored.  'infile' is the name of the file from which to
     read stored count information.  'outfile' is the name of the file
     in which to write updated count information.  'timing' enables a
     timestamp relative to when tracing was started to be displayed.

      -- Yöntemi: run (cmd)

          Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution
          with the current tracing parameters.  'cmd' must be a string
          or code object, suitable for passing into *note exec(): 6cb.

      -- Yöntemi: runctx (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution
          with the current tracing parameters, in the defined global and
          local environments.  If not defined, 'globals' and 'locals'
          default to empty dictionaries.

      -- Yöntemi: runfunc (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Call 'func' with the given arguments under control of the
          *note Trace: 4089. object with the current tracing parameters.

      -- Yöntemi: results ()

          Return a *note CoverageResults: 408d. object that contains the
          cumulative results of all previous calls to ‘run’, ‘runctx’
          and ‘runfunc’ for the given *note Trace: 4089. instance.  Does
          not reset the accumulated trace results.

 -- Sınıfı: trace.CoverageResults

     A container for coverage results, created by *note Trace.results():
     408c.  Should not be created directly by the user.

      -- Yöntemi: update (other)

          Merge in data from another *note CoverageResults: 408d.
          object.

      -- Yöntemi: write_results (show_missing=True, summary=False,
               coverdir=None)

          Write coverage results.  Set 'show_missing' to show lines that
          had no hits.  Set 'summary' to include in the output the
          coverage summary per module.  'coverdir' specifies the
          directory into which the coverage result files will be output.
          If ‘None’, the results for each source file are placed in its
          directory.

A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface:

     import sys
     import trace

     # create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to
     # do tracing or line-counting or both.
     tracer = trace.Trace(
         ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix],
         trace=0,
         count=1)

     # run the new command using the given tracer
     tracer.run('main()')

     # make a report, placing output in the current directory
     r = tracer.results()
     r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations,  Prev: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution,  Up: Debugging and Profiling

5.27.8 ‘tracemalloc’ — Trace memory allocations
-----------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/tracemalloc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated
by Python.  It provides the following information:

   * Traceback where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be
started as early as possible by setting the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:
1b86. environment variable to ‘1’, or by using *note -X: 18e.
‘tracemalloc’ command line option.  The *note tracemalloc.start(): 1b85.
function can be called at runtime to start tracing Python memory
allocations.

By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most
recent frame (1 frame).  To store 25 frames at startup: set the *note
PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b86. environment variable to ‘25’, or use the *note
-X: 18e. ‘tracemalloc=25’ command line option.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<30>.
* API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tracemalloc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<30>,  Next: API,  Up: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations

5.27.8.1 Examples
.................

* Menu:

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::


File: python.info,  Node: Display the top 10,  Next: Compute differences,  Up: Examples<30>

5.27.8.2 Display the top 10
...........................

Display the 10 files allocating the most memory:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     [ Top 10 ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
     <string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB

We can see that Python loaded ‘4855 KiB’ data (bytecode and constants)
from modules and that the *note collections: 1d. module allocated ‘244
KiB’ to build *note namedtuple: 74b. types.

See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4094. for more options.


File: python.info,  Node: Compute differences,  Next: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Prev: Display the top 10,  Up: Examples<30>

5.27.8.3 Compute differences
............................

Take two snapshots and display the differences:

     import tracemalloc
     tracemalloc.start()
     # ... start your application ...

     snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     # ... call the function leaking memory ...
     snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()

     top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test
suite:

     [ Top 10 differences ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
     /usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B

We can see that Python has loaded ‘8173 KiB’ of module data (bytecode
and constants), and that this is ‘4428 KiB’ more than had been loaded
before the tests, when the previous snapshot was taken.  Similarly, the
*note linecache: 84. module has cached ‘940 KiB’ of Python source code
to format tracebacks, all of it since the previous snapshot.

If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk
using the *note Snapshot.dump(): 4096. method to analyze the snapshot
offline.  Then use the *note Snapshot.load(): 4097. method reload the
snapshot.


File: python.info,  Node: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Next: Pretty top,  Prev: Compute differences,  Up: Examples<30>

5.27.8.4 Get the traceback of a memory block
............................................

Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block:

     import tracemalloc

     # Store 25 frames
     tracemalloc.start(25)

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')

     # pick the biggest memory block
     stat = top_stats[0]
     print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
     for line in stat.traceback.format():
         print(line)

Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25
frames):

     903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
         import pdb
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
         import doctest
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
         support.run_doctest(pickletools)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
         test_runner()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
         display_failure=not verbose)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
         match_tests=ns.match_tests)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
         main()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
         regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
         exec(code, run_globals)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
         "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)

We can see that the most memory was allocated in the *note importlib:
75. module to load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: ‘870.1
KiB’.  The traceback is where the *note importlib: 75. loaded data most
recently: on the ‘import pdb’ line of the *note doctest: 39. module.
The traceback may change if a new module is loaded.


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty top,  Prev: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Up: Examples<30>

5.27.8.5 Pretty top
...................

Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty
output, ignoring ‘<frozen importlib._bootstrap>’ and ‘<unknown>’ files:

     import linecache
     import os
     import tracemalloc

     def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
         snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
         ))
         top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)

         print("Top %s lines" % limit)
         for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
             frame = stat.traceback[0]
             print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
                   % (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
             line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
             if line:
                 print('    %s' % line)

         other = top_stats[limit:]
         if other:
             size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
             print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
         total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
         print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     display_top(snapshot)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     Top 10 lines
     #1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
         _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
     #2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
         _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
     #3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
         exec(class_definition, namespace)
     #4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
         cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
     #5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
         testMethod()
     #6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
         lines = fp.readlines()
     #7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
         for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
     #8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
     #9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
         self.data = set()
     #10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
         _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
     6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
     Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB

See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4094. for more options.

* Menu:

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::


File: python.info,  Node: Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks,  Up: Pretty top

5.27.8.6 Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks
.....................................................................

The following code computes two sums like ‘0 + 1 + 2 + ...’
inefficiently, by creating a list of those numbers.  This list consumes
a lot of memory temporarily.  We can use *note get_traced_memory():
409b. and *note reset_peak(): 794. to observe the small memory usage
after the sum is computed as well as the peak memory usage during the
computations:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a large temporary list
     large_sum = sum(list(range(100000)))

     first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     tracemalloc.reset_peak()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a small temporary list
     small_sum = sum(list(range(1000)))

     second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}")
     print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}")

Output:

     first_size=664, first_peak=3592984
     second_size=804, second_peak=29704

Using *note reset_peak(): 794. ensured we could accurately record the
peak during the computation of ‘small_sum’, even though it is much
smaller than the overall peak size of memory blocks since the *note
start(): 1b85. call.  Without the call to *note reset_peak(): 794,
‘second_peak’ would still be the peak from the computation ‘large_sum’
(that is, equal to ‘first_peak’).  In this case, both peaks are much
higher than the final memory usage, and which suggests we could optimise
(by removing the unnecessary call to *note list: 422, and writing
‘sum(range(...))’).


File: python.info,  Node: API,  Prev: Examples<30>,  Up: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations

5.27.8.7 API
............

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<9>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<9>,  Next: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.27.8.8 Functions
..................

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.clear_traces ()

     Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     See also *note stop(): 140b.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.get_object_traceback (obj)

     Get the traceback where the Python object 'obj' was allocated.
     Return a *note Traceback: a0c. instance, or ‘None’ if the *note
     tracemalloc: ff. module is not tracing memory allocations or did
     not trace the allocation of the object.

     See also *note gc.get_referrers(): 63e. and *note sys.getsizeof():
     1587. functions.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit ()

     Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a
     trace.

     The *note tracemalloc: ff. module must be tracing memory
     allocations to get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised.

     The limit is set by the *note start(): 1b85. function.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.get_traced_memory ()

     Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the
     *note tracemalloc: ff. module as a tuple: ‘(current: int, peak:
     int)’.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.reset_peak ()

     Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the *note tracemalloc:
     ff. module to the current size.

     Do nothing if the *note tracemalloc: ff. module is not tracing
     memory allocations.

     This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not
     modify or clear any traces, unlike *note clear_traces(): 409e.
     Snapshots taken with *note take_snapshot(): 40a0. before a call to
     *note reset_peak(): 794. can be meaningfully compared to snapshots
     taken after the call.

     See also *note get_traced_memory(): 409b.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory ()

     Get the memory usage in bytes of the *note tracemalloc: ff. module
     used to store traces of memory blocks.  Return an *note int: 184.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.is_tracing ()

     ‘True’ if the *note tracemalloc: ff. module is tracing Python
     memory allocations, ‘False’ otherwise.

     See also *note start(): 1b85. and *note stop(): 140b. functions.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.start (nframe: int = 1)

     Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited
     to 'nframe' frames.  By default, a trace of a memory block only
     stores the most recent frame: the limit is ‘1’.  'nframe' must be
     greater or equal to ‘1’.

     You can still read the original number of total frames that
     composed the traceback by looking at the *note
     Traceback.total_nframe: 40a3. attribute.

     Storing more than ‘1’ frame is only useful to compute statistics
     grouped by ‘'traceback'’ or to compute cumulative statistics: see
     the *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 40a4. and *note
     Snapshot.statistics(): 4094. methods.

     Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the
     *note tracemalloc: ff. module.  Use the *note
     get_tracemalloc_memory(): 40a1. function to measure how much memory
     is used by the *note tracemalloc: ff. module.

     The *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b86. environment variable
     (‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME’) and the *note -X: 18e.
     ‘tracemalloc=NFRAME’ command line option can be used to start
     tracing at startup.

     See also *note stop(): 140b, *note is_tracing(): 40a2. and *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 409f. functions.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.stop ()

     Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Also clears all previously collected traces of
     memory blocks allocated by Python.

     Call *note take_snapshot(): 40a0. function to take a snapshot of
     traces before clearing them.

     See also *note start(): 1b85, *note is_tracing(): 40a2. and *note
     clear_traces(): 409e. functions.

 -- Işlevi: tracemalloc.take_snapshot ()

     Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.
     Return a new *note Snapshot: 40a5. instance.

     The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the
     *note tracemalloc: ff. module started to trace memory allocations.

     Tracebacks of traces are limited to *note get_traceback_limit():
     409f. frames.  Use the 'nframe' parameter of the *note start():
     1b85. function to store more frames.

     The *note tracemalloc: ff. module must be tracing memory
     allocations to take a snapshot, see the *note start(): 1b85.
     function.

     See also the *note get_object_traceback(): 199c. function.


File: python.info,  Node: DomainFilter,  Next: Filter,  Prev: Functions<9>,  Up: API

5.27.8.9 DomainFilter
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.DomainFilter (inclusive: bool, domain: int)

     Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain).

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- Özniteliği: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), match memory blocks
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 40a8.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), match memory blocks not
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 40a8.

      -- Özniteliği: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter,  Next: Frame,  Prev: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.27.8.10 Filter
................

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.Filter (inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str,
          lineno: int = None, all_frames: bool = False, domain: int =
          None)

     Filter on traces of memory blocks.

     See the *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 16c7. function for the syntax of
     'filename_pattern'.  The ‘'.pyc'’ file extension is replaced with
     ‘'.py'’.

     Examples:

        * ‘Filter(True, subprocess.__file__)’ only includes traces of
          the *note subprocess: d5. module

        * ‘Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__)’ excludes traces of the
          *note tracemalloc: ff. module

        * ‘Filter(False, "<unknown>")’ excludes empty tracebacks

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘'.pyo'’ file extension is no longer
     replaced with ‘'.py'’.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the *note domain: 40ab. attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’ or ‘None’).

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- Özniteliği: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), only match memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 40ad. at line number *note lineno: 40ae.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), ignore memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 40ad. at line number *note lineno: 40ae.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          Line number (‘int’) of the filter.  If 'lineno' is ‘None’, the
          filter matches any line number.

      -- Özniteliği: filename_pattern

          Filename pattern of the filter (‘str’).  Read-only property.

      -- Özniteliği: all_frames

          If 'all_frames' is ‘True’, all frames of the traceback are
          checked.  If 'all_frames' is ‘False’, only the most recent
          frame is checked.

          This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is ‘1’.
          See the *note get_traceback_limit(): 409f. function and *note
          Snapshot.traceback_limit: 40b0. attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame,  Next: Snapshot,  Prev: Filter,  Up: API

5.27.8.11 Frame
...............

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.Frame

     Frame of a traceback.

     The *note Traceback: a0c. class is a sequence of *note Frame: 40b2.
     instances.

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          Filename (‘str’).

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          Line number (‘int’).


File: python.info,  Node: Snapshot,  Next: Statistic,  Prev: Frame,  Up: API

5.27.8.12 Snapshot
..................

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.Snapshot

     Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     The *note take_snapshot(): 40a0. function creates a snapshot
     instance.

      -- Yöntemi: compare_to (old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str,
               cumulative: bool = False)

          Compute the differences with an old snapshot.  Get statistics
          as a sorted list of *note StatisticDiff: 40b6. instances
          grouped by 'key_type'.

          See the *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4094. method for
          'key_type' and 'cumulative' parameters.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          absolute value of *note StatisticDiff.size_diff: 40b7, *note
          StatisticDiff.size: 40b8, absolute value of *note
          StatisticDiff.count_diff: 40b9, *note Statistic.count: 40ba.
          and then by *note StatisticDiff.traceback: 40bb.

      -- Yöntemi: dump (filename)

          Write the snapshot into a file.

          Use *note load(): 4097. to reload the snapshot.

      -- Yöntemi: filter_traces (filters)

          Create a new *note Snapshot: 40a5. instance with a filtered
          *note traces: 40bd. sequence, 'filters' is a list of *note
          DomainFilter: b75. and *note Filter: 40aa. instances.  If
          'filters' is an empty list, return a new *note Snapshot: 40a5.
          instance with a copy of the traces.

          All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored
          if no inclusive filters match it.  A trace is ignored if at
          least one exclusive filter matches it.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note DomainFilter: b75. instances are
          now also accepted in 'filters'.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod load (filename)

          Load a snapshot from a file.

          See also *note dump(): 4096.

      -- Yöntemi: statistics (key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False)

          Get statistics as a sorted list of *note Statistic: 40be.
          instances grouped by 'key_type':

          key_type                  description
                                    
          -------------------------------------------------------
                                    
          ‘'filename'’              filename
                                    
                                    
          ‘'lineno'’                filename and line number
                                    
                                    
          ‘'traceback'’             traceback
                                    

          If 'cumulative' is ‘True’, cumulate size and count of memory
          blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the
          most recent frame.  The cumulative mode can only be used with
          'key_type' equals to ‘'filename'’ and ‘'lineno'’.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          *note Statistic.size: 40bf, *note Statistic.count: 40ba. and
          then by *note Statistic.traceback: 40c0.

      -- Özniteliği: traceback_limit

          Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of *note
          traces: 40bd.: result of the *note get_traceback_limit():
          409f. when the snapshot was taken.

      -- Özniteliği: traces

          Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of
          *note Trace: 40c1. instances.

          The sequence has an undefined order.  Use the *note
          Snapshot.statistics(): 4094. method to get a sorted list of
          statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Statistic,  Next: StatisticDiff,  Prev: Snapshot,  Up: API

5.27.8.13 Statistic
...................

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.Statistic

     Statistic on memory allocations.

     *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4094. returns a list of *note
     Statistic: 40be. instances.

     See also the *note StatisticDiff: 40b6. class.

      -- Özniteliği: count

          Number of memory blocks (‘int’).

      -- Özniteliği: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes (‘int’).

      -- Özniteliği: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: a0c. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: StatisticDiff,  Next: Trace,  Prev: Statistic,  Up: API

5.27.8.14 StatisticDiff
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.StatisticDiff

     Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new
     *note Snapshot: 40a5. instance.

     *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 40a4. returns a list of *note
     StatisticDiff: 40b6. instances.  See also the *note Statistic:
     40be. class.

      -- Özniteliği: count

          Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (‘int’): ‘0’ if
          the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.

      -- Özniteliği: count_diff

          Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the
          new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been
          allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- Özniteliği: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot
          (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been released in the
          new snapshot.

      -- Özniteliği: size_diff

          Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the
          old and the new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks
          have been allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- Özniteliği: traceback

          Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, *note
          Traceback: a0c. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Trace,  Next: Traceback,  Prev: StatisticDiff,  Up: API

5.27.8.15 Trace
...............

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.Trace

     Trace of a memory block.

     The *note Snapshot.traces: 40bd. attribute is a sequence of *note
     Trace: 40c1. instances.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the *note domain: 40c6. attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- Özniteliği: size

          Size of the memory block in bytes (‘int’).

      -- Özniteliği: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: a0c. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Traceback,  Prev: Trace,  Up: API

5.27.8.16 Traceback
...................

 -- Sınıfı: tracemalloc.Traceback

     Sequence of *note Frame: 40b2. instances sorted from the oldest
     frame to the most recent frame.

     A traceback contains at least ‘1’ frame.  If the ‘tracemalloc’
     module failed to get a frame, the filename ‘"<unknown>"’ at line
     number ‘0’ is used.

     When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 409f. frames.  See the *note
     take_snapshot(): 40a0. function.  The original number of frames of
     the traceback is stored in the *note Traceback.total_nframe: 40a3.
     attribute.  That allows to know if a traceback has been truncated
     by the traceback limit.

     The *note Trace.traceback: 40c8. attribute is an instance of *note
     Traceback: a0c. instance.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the
     most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.

      -- Özniteliği: total_nframe

          Total number of frames that composed the traceback before
          truncation.  This attribute can be set to ‘None’ if the
          information is not available.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The *note Traceback.total_nframe: 40a3.
     attribute was added.

      -- Yöntemi: format (limit=None, most_recent_first=False)

          Format the traceback as a list of lines.  Use the *note
          linecache: 84. module to retrieve lines from the source code.
          If 'limit' is set, format the 'limit' most recent frames if
          'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, format the ‘abs(limit)’
          oldest frames.  If 'most_recent_first' is ‘True’, the order of
          the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent
          frame first instead of last.

          Similar to the *note traceback.format_tb(): 40ca. function,
          except that *note format(): a0d. does not include newlines.

          Example:

               print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
               for line in traceback:
                   print(line)

          Output:

               Traceback (most recent call first):
                 File "test.py", line 9
                   obj = Object()
                 File "test.py", line 12
                   tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())


File: python.info,  Node: Software Packaging and Distribution,  Next: Python Runtime Services,  Prev: Debugging and Profiling,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.28 Software Packaging and Distribution
========================================

These libraries help you with publishing and installing Python software.
While these modules are designed to work in conjunction with the Python
Package Index(1), they can also be used with a local index server, or
without any index server at all.

* Menu:

* ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer::
* venv — Creation of virtual environments::
* zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer,  Next: venv — Creation of virtual environments,  Up: Software Packaging and Distribution

5.28.1 ‘ensurepip’ — Bootstrapping the ‘pip’ installer
------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/ensurepip(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note ensurepip: 53. package provides support for bootstrapping the
‘pip’ installer into an existing Python installation or virtual
environment.  This bootstrapping approach reflects the fact that ‘pip’
is an independent project with its own release cycle, and the latest
available stable version is bundled with maintenance and feature
releases of the CPython reference interpreter.

In most cases, end users of Python shouldn’t need to invoke this module
directly (as ‘pip’ should be bootstrapped by default), but it may be
needed if installing ‘pip’ was skipped when installing Python (or when
creating a virtual environment) or after explicitly uninstalling ‘pip’.

     Not: This module 'does not' access the internet.  All of the
     components needed to bootstrap ‘pip’ are included as internal parts
     of the package.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Python Modüllerini Kurmak: d8c.

     The end user guide for installing Python packages

PEP 453(2): Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     The original rationale and specification for this module.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Command line interface::
* Module API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ensurepip

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Command line interface,  Next: Module API,  Up: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer

5.28.1.1 Command line interface
...............................

The command line interface is invoked using the interpreter’s ‘-m’
switch.

The simplest possible invocation is:

     python -m ensurepip

This invocation will install ‘pip’ if it is not already installed, but
otherwise does nothing.  To ensure the installed version of ‘pip’ is at
least as recent as the one available in ‘ensurepip’, pass the
‘--upgrade’ option:

     python -m ensurepip --upgrade

By default, ‘pip’ is installed into the current virtual environment (if
one is active) or into the system site packages (if there is no active
virtual environment).  The installation location can be controlled
through two additional command line options:

 -- Option: --root <dir>

     Installs ‘pip’ relative to the given root directory rather than the
     root of the currently active virtual environment (if any) or the
     default root for the current Python installation.

 -- Option: --user

     Installs ‘pip’ into the user site packages directory rather than
     globally for the current Python installation (this option is not
     permitted inside an active virtual environment).

By default, the scripts ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed (where X.Y
stands for the version of Python used to invoke ‘ensurepip’).  The
scripts installed can be controlled through two additional command line
options:

 -- Option: --altinstall

     If an alternate installation is requested, the ‘pipX’ script will
     'not' be installed.

 -- Option: --default-pip

     If a “default pip” installation is requested, the ‘pip’ script will
     be installed in addition to the two regular scripts.

Providing both of the script selection options will trigger an
exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Module API,  Prev: Command line interface,  Up: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer

5.28.1.2 Module API
...................

*note ensurepip: 53. exposes two functions for programmatic use:

 -- Işlevi: ensurepip.version ()

     Returns a string specifying the available version of pip that will
     be installed when bootstrapping an environment.

 -- Işlevi: ensurepip.bootstrap (root=None, upgrade=False, user=False,
          altinstall=False, default_pip=False, verbosity=0)

     Bootstraps ‘pip’ into the current or designated environment.

     'root' specifies an alternative root directory to install relative
     to.  If 'root' is ‘None’, then installation uses the default
     install location for the current environment.

     'upgrade' indicates whether or not to upgrade an existing
     installation of an earlier version of ‘pip’ to the available
     version.

     'user' indicates whether to use the user scheme rather than
     installing globally.

     By default, the scripts ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed
     (where X.Y stands for the current version of Python).

     If 'altinstall' is set, then ‘pipX’ will 'not' be installed.

     If 'default_pip' is set, then ‘pip’ will be installed in addition
     to the two regular scripts.

     Setting both 'altinstall' and 'default_pip' will trigger *note
     ValueError: 189.

     'verbosity' controls the level of output to *note sys.stdout: 943.
     from the bootstrapping operation.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘ensurepip.bootstrap’ with
     argument ‘root’.

          Not: The bootstrapping process has side effects on both
          ‘sys.path’ and ‘os.environ’.  Invoking the command line
          interface in a subprocess instead allows these side effects to
          be avoided.

          Not: The bootstrapping process may install additional modules
          required by ‘pip’, but other software should not assume those
          dependencies will always be present by default (as the
          dependencies may be removed in a future version of ‘pip’).


File: python.info,  Node: venv — Creation of virtual environments,  Next: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives,  Prev: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer,  Up: Software Packaging and Distribution

5.28.2 ‘venv’ — Creation of virtual environments
------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/venv/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘venv’ module supports creating lightweight “virtual environments”,
each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in
their *note site: c6. directories.  A virtual environment is created on
top of an existing Python installation, known as the virtual
environment’s “base” Python, and may optionally be isolated from the
packages in the base environment, so only those explicitly installed in
the virtual environment are available.

When used from within a virtual environment, common installation tools
such as pip(2) will install Python packages into a virtual environment
without needing to be told to do so explicitly.

A virtual environment is (amongst other things):

   * Used to contain a specific Python interpreter and software
     libraries and binaries which are needed to support a project
     (library or application).  These are by default isolated from
     software in other virtual environments and Python interpreters and
     libraries installed in the operating system.

   * Contained in a directory, conventionally named ‘.venv’ or ‘venv’ in
     the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of
     virtual environments, such as ‘~/.virtualenvs’.

   * Not checked into source control systems such as Git.

   * Considered as disposable – it should be simple to delete and
     recreate it from scratch.  You don’t place any project code in the
     environment.

   * Not considered as movable or copyable – you just recreate the same
     environment in the target location.

See PEP 405(3) for more background on Python virtual environments.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4)

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Creating virtual environments::
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* An example of extending EnvBuilder::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/venv/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: Creating virtual environments,  Next: How venvs work,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.28.2.1 Creating virtual environments
......................................

*note Virtual environments: 40d8. are created by executing the ‘venv’
module:

     python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment

This creates the target directory (including parent directories as
needed) and places a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file in it with a ‘home’ key pointing
to the Python installation from which the command was run.  It also
creates a ‘bin’ (or ‘Scripts’ on Windows) subdirectory containing a copy
or symlink of the Python executable (as appropriate for the platform or
arguments used at environment creation time).  It also creates a
‘lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages’ subdirectory (on Windows, this is
‘Libsite-packages’).  If an existing directory is specified, it will be
re-used.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: The use of ‘venv’ is now recommended for creating
virtual environments.

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.8: ‘pyvenv’ was the
recommended tool for creating virtual environments for Python 3.3 and
3.4, and replaced in 3.5 by executing ‘venv’ directly.

On Windows, invoke the ‘venv’ command as follows:

     PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment

The command, if run with ‘-h’, will show the available options:

     usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
                 [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
                 ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]

     Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.

     positional arguments:
       ENV_DIR               A directory to create the environment in.

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --system-site-packages
                             Give the virtual environment access to the system
                             site-packages dir.
       --symlinks            Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when
                             symlinks are not the default for the platform.
       --copies              Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when
                             symlinks are the default for the platform.
       --clear               Delete the contents of the environment directory
                             if it already exists, before environment creation.
       --upgrade             Upgrade the environment directory to use this
                             version of Python, assuming Python has been
                             upgraded in-place.
       --without-pip         Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual
                             environment (pip is bootstrapped by default)
       --prompt PROMPT       Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this
                             environment.
       --upgrade-deps        Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest
                             version in PyPI

     Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
     sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Installs pip by default, added the
‘--without-pip’ and ‘--copies’ options.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: In earlier versions, if the target directory
already existed, an error was raised, unless the ‘--clear’ or
‘--upgrade’ option was provided.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ option to upgrade pip +
setuptools to the latest on PyPI.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘setuptools’ is no longer a core venv
dependency.

     Not: While symlinks are supported on Windows, they are not
     recommended.  Of particular note is that double-clicking
     ‘python.exe’ in File Explorer will resolve the symlink eagerly and
     ignore the virtual environment.

     Not: On Microsoft Windows, it may be required to enable the
     ‘Activate.ps1’ script by setting the execution policy for the user.
     You can do this by issuing the following PowerShell command:

          PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser

     See About Execution Policies(1) for more information.

The created ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file also includes the
‘include-system-site-packages’ key, set to ‘true’ if ‘venv’ is run with
the ‘--system-site-packages’ option, ‘false’ otherwise.

Unless the ‘--without-pip’ option is given, *note ensurepip: 53. will be
invoked to bootstrap ‘pip’ into the virtual environment.

Multiple paths can be given to ‘venv’, in which case an identical
virtual environment will be created, according to the given options, at
each provided path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170


File: python.info,  Node: How venvs work,  Next: API<2>,  Prev: Creating virtual environments,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.28.2.2 How venvs work
.......................

When a Python interpreter is running from a virtual environment, *note
sys.prefix: 36a. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 366. point to the
directories of the virtual environment, whereas *note sys.base_prefix:
3a24. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 40dc. point to those of the base
Python used to create the environment.  It is sufficient to check
‘sys.prefix != sys.base_prefix’ to determine if the current interpreter
is running from a virtual environment.

A virtual environment may be “activated” using a script in its binary
directory (‘bin’ on POSIX; ‘Scripts’ on Windows).  This will prepend
that directory to your ‘PATH’, so that running ‘python’ will invoke the
environment’s Python interpreter and you can run installed scripts
without having to use their full path.  The invocation of the activation
script is platform-specific (‘<VENV>’ must be replaced by the path to
the directory containing the virtual environment):

Platform          Shell            Command to activate virtual environment
                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
POSIX             bash/zsh         ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate’
                                   
                  
fish              ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.fish’
                  
                  
csh/tcsh          ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.csh’
                  
                  
pwsh              ‘$
                  <VENV>/bin/Activate.ps1’
                  
                                   
Windows           cmd.exe          ‘C:\> <VENV>\Scripts\activate.bat’
                                   
                  
PowerShell        ‘PS C:\>
                  <VENV>\Scripts\Activate.ps1’
                  

Added in version 3.4: ‘fish’ and ‘csh’ activation scripts.

Added in version 3.8: PowerShell activation scripts installed under
POSIX for PowerShell Core support.

You don’t specifically 'need' to activate a virtual environment, as you
can just specify the full path to that environment’s Python interpreter
when invoking Python.  Furthermore, all scripts installed in the
environment should be runnable without activating it.

In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments
have a “shebang” line which points to the environment’s Python
interpreter, ‘#!/<PATH-TO-VENV>/bin/python’.  This means that the script
will run with that interpreter regardless of the value of ‘PATH’.  On
Windows, “shebang” line processing is supported if you have the *note
Python Launcher for Windows: 3c6. installed.  Thus, double-clicking an
installed script in a Windows Explorer window should run it with the
correct interpreter without the environment needing to be activated or
on the ‘PATH’.

When a virtual environment has been activated, the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’
environment variable is set to the path of the environment.  Since
explicitly activating a virtual environment is not required to use it,
‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ cannot be relied upon to determine whether a virtual
environment is being used.

     Uyarı: Because scripts installed in environments should not expect
     the environment to be activated, their shebang lines contain the
     absolute paths to their environment’s interpreters.  Because of
     this, environments are inherently non-portable, in the general
     case.  You should always have a simple means of recreating an
     environment (for example, if you have a requirements file
     ‘requirements.txt’, you can invoke ‘pip install -r
     requirements.txt’ using the environment’s ‘pip’ to install all of
     the packages needed by the environment).  If for any reason you
     need to move the environment to a new location, you should recreate
     it at the desired location and delete the one at the old location.
     If you move an environment because you moved a parent directory of
     it, you should recreate the environment in its new location.
     Otherwise, software installed into the environment may not work as
     expected.

You can deactivate a virtual environment by typing ‘deactivate’ in your
shell.  The exact mechanism is platform-specific and is an internal
implementation detail (typically, a script or shell function will be
used).


File: python.info,  Node: API<2>,  Next: An example of extending EnvBuilder,  Prev: How venvs work,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.28.2.3 API
............

The high-level method described above makes use of a simple API which
provides mechanisms for third-party virtual environment creators to
customize environment creation according to their needs, the *note
EnvBuilder: e8e. class.

 -- Sınıfı: venv.EnvBuilder (system_site_packages=False, clear=False,
          symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False)

     The *note EnvBuilder: e8e. class accepts the following keyword
     arguments on instantiation:

        * 'system_site_packages' – a boolean value indicating that the
          system Python site-packages should be available to the
          environment (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'clear' – a boolean value which, if true, will delete the
          contents of any existing target directory, before creating the
          environment.

        * 'symlinks' – a boolean value indicating whether to attempt to
          symlink the Python binary rather than copying.

        * 'upgrade' – a boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an
          existing environment with the running Python - for use when
          that Python has been upgraded in-place (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'with_pip' – a boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
          installed in the virtual environment.  This uses *note
          ensurepip: 53. with the ‘--default-pip’ option.

        * 'prompt' – a string to be used after virtual environment is
          activated (defaults to ‘None’ which means directory name of
          the environment would be used).  If the special string ‘"."’
          is provided, the basename of the current directory is used as
          the prompt.

        * 'upgrade_deps' – Update the base venv modules to the latest on
          PyPI

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘with_pip’ parameter

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘prompt’ parameter

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘upgrade_deps’ parameter

     *note EnvBuilder: e8e. may be used as a base class.

      -- Yöntemi: create (env_dir)

          Create a virtual environment by specifying the target
          directory (absolute or relative to the current directory)
          which is to contain the virtual environment.  The ‘create’
          method will either create the environment in the specified
          directory, or raise an appropriate exception.

          The ‘create’ method of the *note EnvBuilder: e8e. class
          illustrates the hooks available for subclass customization:

               def create(self, env_dir):
                   """
                   Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory.
                   env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in.
                   """
                   env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir)
                   context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir)
                   self.create_configuration(context)
                   self.setup_python(context)
                   self.setup_scripts(context)
                   self.post_setup(context)

          Each of the methods *note ensure_directories(): 40df, *note
          create_configuration(): 40e0, *note setup_python(): 40e1,
          *note setup_scripts(): 40e2. and *note post_setup(): 40e3. can
          be overridden.

      -- Yöntemi: ensure_directories (env_dir)

          Creates the environment directory and all necessary
          subdirectories that don’t already exist, and returns a context
          object.  This context object is just a holder for attributes
          (such as paths) for use by the other methods.  If the *note
          EnvBuilder: e8e. is created with the arg ‘clear=True’,
          contents of the environment directory will be cleared and then
          all necessary subdirectories will be recreated.

          The returned context object is a *note types.SimpleNamespace:
          77f. with the following attributes:

             * ‘env_dir’ - The location of the virtual environment.
               Used for ‘__VENV_DIR__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 40e4.).

             * ‘env_name’ - The name of the virtual environment.  Used
               for ‘__VENV_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 40e4.).

             * ‘prompt’ - The prompt to be used by the activation
               scripts.  Used for ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ in activation
               scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 40e4.).

             * ‘executable’ - The underlying Python executable used by
               the virtual environment.  This takes into account the
               case where a virtual environment is created from another
               virtual environment.

             * ‘inc_path’ - The include path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘lib_path’ - The purelib path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘bin_path’ - The script path for the virtual environment.

             * ‘bin_name’ - The name of the script path relative to the
               virtual environment location.  Used for
               ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 40e4.).

             * ‘env_exe’ - The name of the Python interpreter in the
               virtual environment.  Used for ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ in
               activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 40e4.).

             * ‘env_exec_cmd’ - The name of the Python interpreter,
               taking into account filesystem redirections.  This can be
               used to run Python in the virtual environment.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'venv' *note sysconfig
          installation scheme: 4a4. is used to construct the paths of
          the created directories.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: The attribute ‘lib_path’ was added to
          the context, and the context object was documented.

      -- Yöntemi: create_configuration (context)

          Creates the ‘pyvenv.cfg’ configuration file in the
          environment.

      -- Yöntemi: setup_python (context)

          Creates a copy or symlink to the Python executable in the
          environment.  On POSIX systems, if a specific executable
          ‘python3.x’ was used, symlinks to ‘python’ and ‘python3’ will
          be created pointing to that executable, unless files with
          those names already exist.

      -- Yöntemi: setup_scripts (context)

          Installs activation scripts appropriate to the platform into
          the virtual environment.

      -- Yöntemi: upgrade_dependencies (context)

          Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently pip(1))
          in the environment.  This is done by shelling out to the ‘pip’
          executable in the environment.

          Added in version 3.9.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: setuptools(2) is no longer a core venv
          dependency.

      -- Yöntemi: post_setup (context)

          A placeholder method which can be overridden in third party
          implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual
          environment or perform other post-creation steps.

      -- Yöntemi: install_scripts (context, path)

          This method can be called from *note setup_scripts(): 40e2. or
          *note post_setup(): 40e3. in subclasses to assist in
          installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.

          'path' is the path to a directory that should contain
          subdirectories ‘common’, ‘posix’, ‘nt’; each containing
          scripts destined for the ‘bin’ directory in the environment.
          The contents of ‘common’ and the directory corresponding to
          *note os.name: 28d8. are copied after some text replacement of
          placeholders:

             * ‘__VENV_DIR__’ is replaced with the absolute path of the
               environment directory.

             * ‘__VENV_NAME__’ is replaced with the environment name
               (final path segment of environment directory).

             * ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ is replaced with the prompt (the
               environment name surrounded by parentheses and with a
               following space)

             * ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ is replaced with the name of the bin
               directory (either ‘bin’ or ‘Scripts’).

             * ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ is replaced with the absolute path of
               the environment’s executable.

          The directories are allowed to exist (for when an existing
          environment is being upgraded).

     3.7.2 sürümünde değişti: Windows now uses redirector scripts for
     ‘python[w].exe’ instead of copying the actual binaries.  In 3.7.2
     only *note setup_python(): 40e1. does nothing unless running from a
     build in the source tree.

     3.7.3 sürümünde değişti: Windows copies the redirector scripts as
     part of *note setup_python(): 40e1. instead of *note
     setup_scripts(): 40e2.  This was not the case in 3.7.2.  When using
     symlinks, the original executables will be linked.

There is also a module-level convenience function:

 -- Işlevi: venv.create (env_dir, system_site_packages=False,
          clear=False, symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False)

     Create an *note EnvBuilder: e8e. with the given keyword arguments,
     and call its *note create(): 40de. method with the 'env_dir'
     argument.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'with_pip' parameter

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'prompt' parameter

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'upgrade_deps' parameter

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/setuptools/


File: python.info,  Node: An example of extending EnvBuilder,  Prev: API<2>,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.28.2.4 An example of extending ‘EnvBuilder’
.............................................

The following script shows how to extend *note EnvBuilder: e8e. by
implementing a subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created
virtual environment:

     import os
     import os.path
     from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     import sys
     from threading import Thread
     from urllib.parse import urlparse
     from urllib.request import urlretrieve
     import venv

     class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder):
         """
         This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or
         easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment.

         :param nodist: If true, setuptools and pip are not installed into the
                        created virtual environment.
         :param nopip: If true, pip is not installed into the created
                       virtual environment.
         :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the
                          installation can be monitored by passing a progress
                          callable. If specified, it is called with two
                          arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a
                          context indicating where the string is coming from.
                          The context argument can have one of three values:
                          'main', indicating that it is called from virtualize()
                          itself, and 'stdout' and 'stderr', which are obtained
                          by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess
                          which is used to install the app.

                          If a callable is not specified, default progress
                          information is output to sys.stderr.
         """

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False)
             self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False)
             self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None)
             self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def post_setup(self, context):
             """
             Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the
             virtual environment being created.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir
             if not self.nodist:
                 self.install_setuptools(context)
             # Can't install pip without setuptools
             if not self.nopip and not self.nodist:
                 self.install_pip(context)

         def reader(self, stream, context):
             """
             Read lines from a subprocess' output stream and either pass to a progress
             callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr.
             """
             progress = self.progress
             while True:
                 s = stream.readline()
                 if not s:
                     break
                 if progress is not None:
                     progress(s, context)
                 else:
                     if not self.verbose:
                         sys.stderr.write('.')
                     else:
                         sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8'))
                     sys.stderr.flush()
             stream.close()

         def install_script(self, context, name, url):
             _, _, path, _, _, _ = urlparse(url)
             fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
             binpath = context.bin_path
             distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
             # Download script into the virtual environment's binaries folder
             urlretrieve(url, distpath)
             progress = self.progress
             if self.verbose:
                 term = '\n'
             else:
                 term = ''
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term))
                 sys.stderr.flush()
             # Install in the virtual environment
             args = [context.env_exe, fn]
             p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath)
             t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout'))
             t1.start()
             t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr'))
             t2.start()
             p.wait()
             t1.join()
             t2.join()
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('done.', 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('done.\n')
             # Clean up - no longer needed
             os.unlink(distpath)

         def install_setuptools(self, context):
             """
             Install setuptools in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = "https://bootstrap.pypa.io/ez_setup.py"
             self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url)
             # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded
             pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz')
             files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path))
             for f in files:
                 f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f)
                 os.unlink(f)

         def install_pip(self, context):
             """
             Install pip in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = 'https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py'
             self.install_script(context, 'pip', url)


     def main(args=None):
         import argparse

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__,
                                          description='Creates virtual Python '
                                                      'environments in one or '
                                                      'more target '
                                                      'directories.')
         parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+',
                             help='A directory in which to create the '
                                  'virtual environment.')
         parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nodist',
                             help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the "
                                  "virtual environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nopip',
                             help="Don't install pip in the virtual "
                                  "environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='system_site',
                             help='Give the virtual environment access to the '
                                  'system site-packages dir.')
         if os.name == 'nt':
             use_symlinks = False
         else:
             use_symlinks = True
         parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks,
                             action='store_true', dest='symlinks',
                             help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, '
                                  'when symlinks are not the default for '
                                  'the platform.')
         parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the '
                                                'virtual environment '
                                                'directory if it already '
                                                'exists, before virtual '
                                                'environment creation.')
         parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual '
                                                  'environment directory to '
                                                  'use this version of '
                                                  'Python, assuming Python '
                                                  'has been upgraded '
                                                  'in-place.')
         parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='verbose', help='Display the output '
                                                  'from the scripts which '
                                                  'install setuptools and pip.')
         options = parser.parse_args(args)
         if options.upgrade and options.clear:
             raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.')
         builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site,
                                        clear=options.clear,
                                        symlinks=options.symlinks,
                                        upgrade=options.upgrade,
                                        nodist=options.nodist,
                                        nopip=options.nopip,
                                        verbose=options.verbose)
         for d in options.dirs:
             builder.create(d)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         rc = 1
         try:
             main()
             rc = 0
         except Exception as e:
             print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr)
         sys.exit(rc)

This script is also available for download online(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives,  Prev: venv — Creation of virtual environments,  Up: Software Packaging and Distribution

5.28.3 ‘zipapp’ — Manage executable Python zip archives
-------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

'Source code:' Lib/zipapp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides tools to manage the creation of zip files
containing Python code, which can be *note executed directly by the
Python interpreter: 1b73.  The module provides both a *note Command-Line
Interface: 40e9. and a *note Python API: 40ea.

* Menu:

* Basic Example::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<5>.
* Python API::
* Examples: Examples<31>.
* Specifying the Interpreter::
* Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp::
* The Python Zip Application Archive Format::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zipapp.py


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Example,  Next: Command-Line Interface<5>,  Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

5.28.3.1 Basic Example
......................

The following example shows how the *note Command-Line Interface: 40e9.
can be used to create an executable archive from a directory containing
Python code.  When run, the archive will execute the ‘main’ function
from the module ‘myapp’ in the archive.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main"
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<5>,  Next: Python API,  Prev: Basic Example,  Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

5.28.3.2 Command-Line Interface
...............................

When called as a program from the command line, the following form is
used:

     $ python -m zipapp source [options]

If 'source' is a directory, this will create an archive from the
contents of 'source'.  If 'source' is a file, it should be an archive,
and it will be copied to the target archive (or the contents of its
shebang line will be displayed if the –info option is specified).

The following options are understood:

 -- Option: -o <output>, --output=<output>

     Write the output to a file named 'output'.  If this option is not
     specified, the output filename will be the same as the input
     'source', with the extension ‘.pyz’ added.  If an explicit filename
     is given, it is used as is (so a ‘.pyz’ extension should be
     included if required).

     An output filename must be specified if the 'source' is an archive
     (and in that case, 'output' must not be the same as 'source').

 -- Option: -p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter>

     Add a ‘#!’ line to the archive specifying 'interpreter' as the
     command to run.  Also, on POSIX, make the archive executable.  The
     default is to write no ‘#!’ line, and not make the file executable.

 -- Option: -m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn>

     Write a ‘__main__.py’ file to the archive that executes 'mainfn'.
     The 'mainfn' argument should have the form “pkg.mod:fn”, where
     “pkg.mod” is a package/module in the archive, and “fn” is a
     callable in the given module.  The ‘__main__.py’ file will execute
     that callable.

     *note -main: 40f1. cannot be specified when copying an archive.

 -- Option: -c, --compress

     Compress files with the deflate method, reducing the size of the
     output file.  By default, files are stored uncompressed in the
     archive.

     *note -compress: 40f3. has no effect when copying an archive.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: --info

     Display the interpreter embedded in the archive, for diagnostic
     purposes.  In this case, any other options are ignored and SOURCE
     must be an archive, not a directory.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Print a short usage message and exit.


File: python.info,  Node: Python API,  Next: Examples<31>,  Prev: Command-Line Interface<5>,  Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

5.28.3.3 Python API
...................

The module defines two convenience functions:

 -- Işlevi: zipapp.create_archive (source, target=None,
          interpreter=None, main=None, filter=None, compressed=False)

     Create an application archive from 'source'.  The source can be any
     of the following:

        * The name of a directory, or a *note path-like object: 98e.
          referring to a directory, in which case a new application
          archive will be created from the content of that directory.

        * The name of an existing application archive file, or a *note
          path-like object: 98e. referring to such a file, in which case
          the file is copied to the target (modifying it to reflect the
          value given for the 'interpreter' argument).  The file name
          should include the ‘.pyz’ extension, if required.

        * A file object open for reading in bytes mode.  The content of
          the file should be an application archive, and the file object
          is assumed to be positioned at the start of the archive.

     The 'target' argument determines where the resulting archive will
     be written:

        * If it is the name of a file, or a *note path-like object: 98e,
          the archive will be written to that file.

        * If it is an open file object, the archive will be written to
          that file object, which must be open for writing in bytes
          mode.

        * If the target is omitted (or ‘None’), the source must be a
          directory and the target will be a file with the same name as
          the source, with a ‘.pyz’ extension added.

     The 'interpreter' argument specifies the name of the Python
     interpreter with which the archive will be executed.  It is written
     as a “shebang” line at the start of the archive.  On POSIX, this
     will be interpreted by the OS, and on Windows it will be handled by
     the Python launcher.  Omitting the 'interpreter' results in no
     shebang line being written.  If an interpreter is specified, and
     the target is a filename, the executable bit of the target file
     will be set.

     The 'main' argument specifies the name of a callable which will be
     used as the main program for the archive.  It can only be specified
     if the source is a directory, and the source does not already
     contain a ‘__main__.py’ file.  The 'main' argument should take the
     form “pkg.module:callable” and the archive will be run by importing
     “pkg.module” and executing the given callable with no arguments.
     It is an error to omit 'main' if the source is a directory and does
     not contain a ‘__main__.py’ file, as otherwise the resulting
     archive would not be executable.

     The optional 'filter' argument specifies a callback function that
     is passed a Path object representing the path to the file being
     added (relative to the source directory).  It should return ‘True’
     if the file is to be added.

     The optional 'compressed' argument determines whether files are
     compressed.  If set to ‘True’, files in the archive are compressed
     with the deflate method; otherwise, files are stored uncompressed.
     This argument has no effect when copying an existing archive.

     If a file object is specified for 'source' or 'target', it is the
     caller’s responsibility to close it after calling create_archive.

     When copying an existing archive, file objects supplied only need
     ‘read’ and ‘readline’, or ‘write’ methods.  When creating an
     archive from a directory, if the target is a file object it will be
     passed to the ‘zipfile.ZipFile’ class, and must supply the methods
     needed by that class.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'filter' and 'compressed'
     parameters.

 -- Işlevi: zipapp.get_interpreter (archive)

     Return the interpreter specified in the ‘#!’ line at the start of
     the archive.  If there is no ‘#!’ line, return *note None: 488.
     The 'archive' argument can be a filename or a file-like object open
     for reading in bytes mode.  It is assumed to be at the start of the
     archive.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<31>,  Next: Specifying the Interpreter,  Prev: Python API,  Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

5.28.3.4 Examples
.................

Pack up a directory into an archive, and run it.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

The same can be done using the *note create_archive(): a27. function:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp', 'myapp.pyz')

To make the application directly executable on POSIX, specify an
interpreter to use.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python"
     $ ./myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

To replace the shebang line on an existing archive, create a modified
archive using the *note create_archive(): a27. function:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3')

To update the file in place, do the replacement in memory using a *note
BytesIO: d38. object, and then overwrite the source afterwards.  Note
that there is a risk when overwriting a file in place that an error will
result in the loss of the original file.  This code does not protect
against such errors, but production code should do so.  Also, this
method will only work if the archive fits in memory:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> import io
     >>> temp = io.BytesIO()
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2')
     >>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f:
     >>>     f.write(temp.getvalue())


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying the Interpreter,  Next: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp,  Prev: Examples<31>,  Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

5.28.3.5 Specifying the Interpreter
...................................

Note that if you specify an interpreter and then distribute your
application archive, you need to ensure that the interpreter used is
portable.  The Python launcher for Windows supports most common forms of
POSIX ‘#!’ line, but there are other issues to consider:

   * If you use “/usr/bin/env python” (or other forms of the “python”
     command, such as “/usr/bin/python”), you need to consider that your
     users may have either Python 2 or Python 3 as their default, and
     write your code to work under both versions.

   * If you use an explicit version, for example “/usr/bin/env python3”
     your application will not work for users who do not have that
     version.  (This may be what you want if you have not made your code
     Python 2 compatible).

   * There is no way to say “python X.Y or later”, so be careful of
     using an exact version like “/usr/bin/env python3.4” as you will
     need to change your shebang line for users of Python 3.5, for
     example.

Typically, you should use an “/usr/bin/env python2” or “/usr/bin/env
python3”, depending on whether your code is written for Python 2 or 3.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp,  Next: The Python Zip Application Archive Format,  Prev: Specifying the Interpreter,  Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

5.28.3.6 Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp
.....................................................

Using the *note zipapp: 130. module, it is possible to create
self-contained Python programs, which can be distributed to end users
who only need to have a suitable version of Python installed on their
system.  The key to doing this is to bundle all of the application’s
dependencies into the archive, along with the application code.

The steps to create a standalone archive are as follows:

  1. Create your application in a directory as normal, so you have a
     ‘myapp’ directory containing a ‘__main__.py’ file, and any
     supporting application code.

  2. Install all of your application’s dependencies into the ‘myapp’
     directory, using pip:

          $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp

     (this assumes you have your project requirements in a
     ‘requirements.txt’ file - if not, you can just list the
     dependencies manually on the pip command line).

  3. Package the application using:

          $ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp

This will produce a standalone executable, which can be run on any
machine with the appropriate interpreter available.  See *note
Specifying the Interpreter: 40fd. for details.  It can be shipped to
users as a single file.

On Unix, the ‘myapp.pyz’ file is executable as it stands.  You can
rename the file to remove the ‘.pyz’ extension if you prefer a “plain”
command name.  On Windows, the ‘myapp.pyz[w]’ file is executable by
virtue of the fact that the Python interpreter registers the ‘.pyz’ and
‘.pyzw’ file extensions when installed.

* Menu:

* Caveats::


File: python.info,  Node: Caveats,  Up: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp

5.28.3.7 Caveats
................

If your application depends on a package that includes a C extension,
that package cannot be run from a zip file (this is an OS limitation, as
executable code must be present in the filesystem for the OS loader to
load it).  In this case, you can exclude that dependency from the
zipfile, and either require your users to have it installed, or ship it
alongside your zipfile and add code to your ‘__main__.py’ to include the
directory containing the unzipped module in ‘sys.path’.  In this case,
you will need to make sure to ship appropriate binaries for your target
architecture(s) (and potentially pick the correct version to add to
‘sys.path’ at runtime, based on the user’s machine).


File: python.info,  Node: The Python Zip Application Archive Format,  Prev: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp,  Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives

5.28.3.8 The Python Zip Application Archive Format
..................................................

Python has been able to execute zip files which contain a ‘__main__.py’
file since version 2.6.  In order to be executed by Python, an
application archive simply has to be a standard zip file containing a
‘__main__.py’ file which will be run as the entry point for the
application.  As usual for any Python script, the parent of the script
(in this case the zip file) will be placed on *note sys.path: 368. and
thus further modules can be imported from the zip file.

The zip file format allows arbitrary data to be prepended to a zip file.
The zip application format uses this ability to prepend a standard POSIX
“shebang” line to the file (‘#!/path/to/interpreter’).

Formally, the Python zip application format is therefore:

  1. An optional shebang line, containing the characters ‘b'#!'’
     followed by an interpreter name, and then a newline (‘b'\n'’)
     character.  The interpreter name can be anything acceptable to the
     OS “shebang” processing, or the Python launcher on Windows.  The
     interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows, and in *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. on POSIX.

  2. Standard zipfile data, as generated by the *note zipfile: 131.
     module.  The zipfile content 'must' include a file called
     ‘__main__.py’ (which must be in the “root” of the zipfile - i.e.,
     it cannot be in a subdirectory).  The zipfile data can be
     compressed or uncompressed.

If an application archive has a shebang line, it may have the executable
bit set on POSIX systems, to allow it to be executed directly.

There is no requirement that the tools in this module are used to create
application archives - the module is a convenience, but archives in the
above format created by any means are acceptable to Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Runtime Services,  Next: Custom Python Interpreters,  Prev: Software Packaging and Distribution,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.29 Python Runtime Services
============================

The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of services
related to the Python interpreter and its interaction with its
environment.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* sys — System-specific parameters and functions::
* sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
* sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information::
* builtins — Built-in objects::
* __main__ — Top-level code environment::
* warnings — Warning control::
* dataclasses — Data Classes::
* contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts::
* abc — Abstract Base Classes::
* atexit — Exit handlers::
* traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback::
* __future__ — Future statement definitions::
* gc — Garbage Collector interface::
* inspect — Inspect live objects::
* site — Site-specific configuration hook::


File: python.info,  Node: sys — System-specific parameters and functions,  Next: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.1 ‘sys’ — System-specific parameters and functions
-------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the
interpreter.  It is always available.  Unless explicitly noted
otherwise, all variables are read-only.

 -- Verisi: sys.abiflags

     On POSIX systems where Python was built with the standard
     ‘configure’ script, this contains the ABI flags as specified by PEP
     3149(1).

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Default flags became an empty string (‘m’
     flag for pymalloc has been removed).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: sys.addaudithook (hook)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks for
     the current (sub)interpreter.

     When an auditing event is raised through the *note sys.audit():
     17a0. function, each hook will be called in the order it was added
     with the event name and the tuple of arguments.  Native hooks added
     by *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 3f88. are called first, followed by
     hooks added in the current (sub)interpreter.  Hooks can then log
     the event, raise an exception to abort the operation, or terminate
     the process entirely.

     Note that audit hooks are primarily for collecting information
     about internal or otherwise unobservable actions, whether by Python
     or libraries written in Python.  They are not suitable for
     implementing a “sandbox”.  In particular, malicious code can
     trivially disable or bypass hooks added using this function.  At a
     minimum, any security-sensitive hooks must be added using the C API
     *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 3f88. before initialising the runtime,
     and any modules allowing arbitrary memory modification (such as
     *note ctypes: 2a.) should be completely removed or closely
     monitored.

     Calling *note sys.addaudithook(): 3f87. will itself raise an
     auditing event named ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments.  If any
     existing hooks raise an exception derived from *note RuntimeError:
     180, the new hook will not be added and the exception suppressed.
     As a result, callers cannot assume that their hook has been added
     unless they control all existing hooks.

     See the *note audit events table: 1698. for all events raised by
     CPython, and PEP 578(2) for the original design discussion.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.8.1 sürümünde değişti: Exceptions derived from *note Exception:
     838. but not *note RuntimeError: 180. are no longer suppressed.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' When tracing is enabled (see *note
     settrace(): 138d.), Python hooks are only traced if the callable
     has a ‘__cantrace__’ member that is set to a true value.
     Otherwise, trace functions will skip the hook.

 -- Verisi: sys.argv

     The list of command line arguments passed to a Python script.
     ‘argv[0]’ is the script name (it is operating system dependent
     whether this is a full pathname or not).  If the command was
     executed using the *note -c: 3eb. command line option to the
     interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is set to the string ‘'-c'’.  If no script
     name was passed to the Python interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is the empty
     string.

     To loop over the standard input, or the list of files given on the
     command line, see the *note fileinput: 59. module.

     See also *note sys.orig_argv: 67f.

          Not: On Unix, command line arguments are passed by bytes from
          OS. Python decodes them with filesystem encoding and
          “surrogateescape” error handler.  When you need original
          bytes, you can get it by ‘[os.fsencode(arg) for arg in
          sys.argv]’.

 -- Işlevi: sys.audit (event, *args)

     Raise an auditing event and trigger any active auditing hooks.
     'event' is a string identifying the event, and 'args' may contain
     optional arguments with more information about the event.  The
     number and types of arguments for a given event are considered a
     public and stable API and should not be modified between releases.

     For example, one auditing event is named ‘os.chdir’.  This event
     has one argument called 'path' that will contain the requested new
     working directory.

     *note sys.audit(): 17a0. will call the existing auditing hooks,
     passing the event name and arguments, and will re-raise the first
     exception from any hook.  In general, if an exception is raised, it
     should not be handled and the process should be terminated as
     quickly as possible.  This allows hook implementations to decide
     how to respond to particular events: they can merely log the event
     or abort the operation by raising an exception.

     Hooks are added using the *note sys.addaudithook(): 3f87. or *note
     PySys_AddAuditHook(): 3f88. functions.

     The native equivalent of this function is *note PySys_Audit():
     17b0.  Using the native function is preferred when possible.

     See the *note audit events table: 1698. for all events raised by
     CPython.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: sys.base_exec_prefix

     Set during Python startup, before ‘site.py’ is run, to the same
     value as *note exec_prefix: 366.  If not running in a *note virtual
     environment: 40d8, the values will stay the same; if ‘site.py’
     finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of *note
     prefix: 36a. and *note exec_prefix: 366. will be changed to point
     to the virtual environment, whereas *note base_prefix: 3a24. and
     *note base_exec_prefix: 40dc. will remain pointing to the base
     Python installation (the one which the virtual environment was
     created from).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: sys.base_prefix

     Set during Python startup, before ‘site.py’ is run, to the same
     value as *note prefix: 36a.  If not running in a *note virtual
     environment: 40d8, the values will stay the same; if ‘site.py’
     finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of *note
     prefix: 36a. and *note exec_prefix: 366. will be changed to point
     to the virtual environment, whereas *note base_prefix: 3a24. and
     *note base_exec_prefix: 40dc. will remain pointing to the base
     Python installation (the one which the virtual environment was
     created from).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: sys.byteorder

     An indicator of the native byte order.  This will have the value
     ‘'big'’ on big-endian (most-significant byte first) platforms, and
     ‘'little'’ on little-endian (least-significant byte first)
     platforms.

 -- Verisi: sys.builtin_module_names

     A tuple of strings containing the names of all modules that are
     compiled into this Python interpreter.  (This information is not
     available in any other way — ‘modules.keys()’ only lists the
     imported modules.)

     See also the *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 680. list.

 -- Işlevi: sys.call_tracing (func, args)

     Call ‘func(*args)’, while tracing is enabled.  The tracing state is
     saved, and restored afterwards.  This is intended to be called from
     a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug or profile some
     other code.

     Tracing is suspended while calling a tracing function set by *note
     settrace(): 138d. or *note setprofile(): 138c. to avoid infinite
     recursion.  ‘call_tracing()’ enables explicit recursion of the
     tracing function.

 -- Verisi: sys.copyright

     A string containing the copyright pertaining to the Python
     interpreter.

 -- Işlevi: sys._clear_type_cache ()

     Clear the internal type cache.  The type cache is used to speed up
     attribute and method lookups.  Use the function 'only' to drop
     unnecessary references during reference leak debugging.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

 -- Işlevi: sys._current_frames ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the
     function is called.  Note that functions in the *note traceback:
     fe. module can build the call stack given such a frame.

     This is most useful for debugging deadlock: this function does not
     require the deadlocked threads’ cooperation, and such threads’ call
     stacks are frozen for as long as they remain deadlocked.  The frame
     returned for a non-deadlocked thread may bear no relationship to
     that thread’s current activity by the time calling code examines
     the frame.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sys._current_frames’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Işlevi: sys._current_exceptions ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.  If a thread is not currently handling an exception, it
     is not included in the result dictionary.

     This is most useful for statistical profiling.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sys._current_exceptions’
     with no arguments.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Each value in the dictionary is now a
     single exception instance, rather than a 3-tuple as returned from
     ‘sys.exc_info()’.

 -- Işlevi: sys.breakpointhook ()

     This hook function is called by built-in *note breakpoint(): 930.
     By default, it drops you into the *note pdb: a4. debugger, but it
     can be set to any other function so that you can choose which
     debugger gets used.

     The signature of this function is dependent on what it calls.  For
     example, the default binding (e.g.  ‘pdb.set_trace()’) expects no
     arguments, but you might bind it to a function that expects
     additional arguments (positional and/or keyword).  The built-in
     ‘breakpoint()’ function passes its ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’ straight
     through.  Whatever ‘breakpointhooks()’ returns is returned from
     ‘breakpoint()’.

     The default implementation first consults the environment variable
     *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 948.  If that is set to ‘"0"’ then this
     function returns immediately; i.e.  it is a no-op.  If the
     environment variable is not set, or is set to the empty string,
     ‘pdb.set_trace()’ is called.  Otherwise this variable should name a
     function to run, using Python’s dotted-import nomenclature, e.g.
     ‘package.subpackage.module.function’.  In this case,
     ‘package.subpackage.module’ would be imported and the resulting
     module must have a callable named ‘function()’.  This is run,
     passing in ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’, and whatever ‘function()’ returns,
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ returns to the built-in *note breakpoint():
     930. function.

     Note that if anything goes wrong while importing the callable named
     by *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 948, a *note RuntimeWarning: 900. is
     reported and the breakpoint is ignored.

     Also note that if ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ is overridden
     programmatically, *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: 948. is 'not' consulted.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: sys._debugmallocstats ()

     Print low-level information to stderr about the state of CPython’s
     memory allocator.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 6b9. (*note configure
     -with-pydebug option: 1bcd.), it also performs some expensive
     internal consistency checks.

     Added in version 3.3.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This function is specific to CPython.
     The exact output format is not defined here, and may change.

 -- Verisi: sys.dllhandle

     Integer specifying the handle of the Python DLL.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- Işlevi: sys.displayhook (value)

     If 'value' is not ‘None’, this function prints ‘repr(value)’ to
     ‘sys.stdout’, and saves 'value' in ‘builtins._’.  If ‘repr(value)’
     is not encodable to ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘sys.stdout.errors’
     error handler (which is probably ‘'strict'’), encode it to
     ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler.

     ‘sys.displayhook’ is called on the result of evaluating an *note
     expression: 1d74. entered in an interactive Python session.  The
     display of these values can be customized by assigning another
     one-argument function to ‘sys.displayhook’.

     Pseudo-code:

          def displayhook(value):
              if value is None:
                  return
              # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion
              builtins._ = None
              text = repr(value)
              try:
                  sys.stdout.write(text)
              except UnicodeEncodeError:
                  bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace')
                  if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'):
                      sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes)
                  else:
                      text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict')
                      sys.stdout.write(text)
              sys.stdout.write("\n")
              builtins._ = value

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Use ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler on
     *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b.

 -- Verisi: sys.dont_write_bytecode

     If this is true, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
     import of source modules.  This value is initially set to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ depending on the *note -B: 1254. command line option and
     the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1255. environment variable, but
     you can set it yourself to control bytecode file generation.

 -- Verisi: sys._emscripten_info

     A *note named tuple: 461. holding information about the environment
     on the 'wasm32-emscripten' platform.  The named tuple is
     provisional and may change in the future.

      -- Özniteliği: _emscripten_info.emscripten_version

          Emscripten version as tuple of ints (major, minor, micro),
          e.g.  ‘(3, 1, 8)’.

      -- Özniteliği: _emscripten_info.runtime

          Runtime string, e.g.  browser user agent, ‘'Node.js
          v14.18.2'’, or ‘'UNKNOWN'’.

      -- Özniteliği: _emscripten_info.pthreads

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with Emscripten pthreads support.

      -- Özniteliği: _emscripten_info.shared_memory

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with shared memory support.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Emscripten.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Verisi: sys.pycache_prefix

     If this is set (not ‘None’), Python will write bytecode-cache
     ‘.pyc’ files to (and read them from) a parallel directory tree
     rooted at this directory, rather than from ‘__pycache__’
     directories in the source code tree.  Any ‘__pycache__’ directories
     in the source code tree will be ignored and new ‘.pyc’ files
     written within the pycache prefix.  Thus if you use *note
     compileall: 20. as a pre-build step, you must ensure you run it
     with the same pycache prefix (if any) that you will use at runtime.

     A relative path is interpreted relative to the current working
     directory.

     This value is initially set based on the value of the *note -X:
     18e. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ command-line option or the *note
     PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 801. environment variable (command-line takes
     precedence).  If neither are set, it is ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: sys.excepthook (type, value, traceback)

     This function prints out a given traceback and exception to
     ‘sys.stderr’.

     When an exception other than *note SystemExit: bc8. is raised and
     uncaught, the interpreter calls ‘sys.excepthook’ with three
     arguments, the exception class, exception instance, and a traceback
     object.  In an interactive session this happens just before control
     is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just
     before the program exits.  The handling of such top-level
     exceptions can be customized by assigning another three-argument
     function to ‘sys.excepthook’.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.excepthook’ with arguments ‘hook’,
     ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’ when an uncaught exception occurs.  If
     no hook has been set, ‘hook’ may be ‘None’.  If any hook raises an
     exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 180. the call to the
     hook will be suppressed.  Otherwise, the audit hook exception will
     be reported as unraisable and ‘sys.excepthook’ will be called.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491. function handles unraisable
     exceptions and the *note threading.excepthook(): 68a. function
     handles exception raised by *note threading.Thread.run(): 89f.

 -- Verisi: sys.__breakpointhook__
 -- Verisi: sys.__displayhook__
 -- Verisi: sys.__excepthook__
 -- Verisi: sys.__unraisablehook__

     These objects contain the original values of ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’, ‘excepthook’, and ‘unraisablehook’ at the start of
     the program.  They are saved so that ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’ and ‘excepthook’, ‘unraisablehook’ can be restored in
     case they happen to get replaced with broken or alternative
     objects.

     Added in version 3.7: __breakpointhook__

     Added in version 3.8: __unraisablehook__

 -- Işlevi: sys.exception ()

     This function, when called while an exception handler is executing
     (such as an ‘except’ or ‘except*’ clause), returns the exception
     instance that was caught by this handler.  When exception handlers
     are nested within one another, only the exception handled by the
     innermost handler is accessible.

     If no exception handler is executing, this function returns ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: sys.exc_info ()

     This function returns the old-style representation of the handled
     exception.  If an exception ‘e’ is currently handled (so *note
     exception(): 4a0. would return ‘e’), *note exc_info(): 49f. returns
     the tuple ‘(type(e), e, e.__traceback__)’.  That is, a tuple
     containing the type of the exception (a subclass of *note
     BaseException: 3c3.), the exception itself, and a *note traceback
     object: 962. which typically encapsulates the call stack at the
     point where the exception last occurred.

     If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, this
     function return a tuple containing three ‘None’ values.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields are now
     derived from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to *note exc_info():
     49f.

 -- Verisi: sys.exec_prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform-dependent Python files are installed; by default, this is
     also ‘'/usr/local'’.  This can be set at build time with the
     ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’ script.  Specifically,
     all configuration files (e.g.  the ‘pyconfig.h’ header file) are
     installed in the directory ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/config’,
     and shared library modules are installed in
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/lib-dynload’, where 'X.Y' is the
     version number of Python, for example ‘3.2’.

          Not: If a *note virtual environment: 40d8. is in effect, this
          value will be changed in ‘site.py’ to point to the virtual
          environment.  The value for the Python installation will still
          be available, via *note base_exec_prefix: 40dc.

 -- Verisi: sys.executable

     A string giving the absolute path of the executable binary for the
     Python interpreter, on systems where this makes sense.  If Python
     is unable to retrieve the real path to its executable, *note
     sys.executable: 36c. will be an empty string or ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: sys.exit ([arg])

     Raise a *note SystemExit: bc8. exception, signaling an intention to
     exit the interpreter.

     The optional argument 'arg' can be an integer giving the exit
     status (defaulting to zero), or another type of object.  If it is
     an integer, zero is considered “successful termination” and any
     nonzero value is considered “abnormal termination” by shells and
     the like.  Most systems require it to be in the range 0–127, and
     produce undefined results otherwise.  Some systems have a
     convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes,
     but these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use
     2 for command line syntax errors and 1 for all other kind of
     errors.  If another type of object is passed, ‘None’ is equivalent
     to passing zero, and any other object is printed to *note stderr:
     792. and results in an exit code of 1.  In particular,
     ‘sys.exit("some error message")’ is a quick way to exit a program
     when an error occurs.

     Since *note exit(): 1f7a. ultimately “only” raises an exception, it
     will only exit the process when called from the main thread, and
     the exception is not intercepted.  Cleanup actions specified by
     finally clauses of *note try: 503. statements are honored, and it
     is possible to intercept the exit attempt at an outer level.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: If an error occurs in the cleanup after the
     Python interpreter has caught *note SystemExit: bc8. (such as an
     error flushing buffered data in the standard streams), the exit
     status is changed to 120.

 -- Verisi: sys.flags

     The *note named tuple: 461. 'flags' exposes the status of command
     line flags.  The attributes are read only.

      -- Özniteliği: flags.debug                            *note -d: 1b7b.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.inspect                          *note -i: 1368.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.interactive                      *note -i: 1368.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.isolated                         *note -I: 7b8.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.optimize                         *note -O: c42. or *note -OO: c43.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.dont_write_bytecode              *note -B: 1254.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.no_user_site                     *note -s: 1232.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.no_site                          *note -S: 104e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.ignore_environment               *note -E: 7b7.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.verbose                          *note -v: 12ad.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.bytes_warning                    *note -b: 3ef.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.quiet                            *note -q: 1b7e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.hash_randomization               *note -R: 18d9.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.dev_mode                         *note -X dev: 18e.
                                                            (*note Python Development Mode: 71d.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.utf8_mode                        *note -X utf8: 18e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.safe_path                        *note -P: 3a9.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.int_max_str_digits               *note -X int_max_str_digits: 18e.
                                                            (*note integer string conversion length limitation: 402.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Özniteliği: flags.warn_default_encoding            *note -X warn_default_encoding: 18e.
                                                            

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘quiet’ attribute for the new *note
     -q: 1b7e. flag.

     Added in version 3.2.3: The ‘hash_randomization’ attribute.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Removed obsolete ‘division_warning’
     attribute.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘isolated’ attribute for *note -I:
     7b8. ‘isolated’ flag.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘dev_mode’ attribute for the new
     *note Python Development Mode: 71d. and the ‘utf8_mode’ attribute
     for the new *note -X: 18e. ‘utf8’ flag.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘warn_default_encoding’ attribute for
     *note -X: 18e. ‘warn_default_encoding’ flag.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘safe_path’ attribute for *note
     -P: 3a9. option.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘int_max_str_digits’ attribute.

 -- Verisi: sys.float_info

     A *note named tuple: 461. holding information about the float type.
     It contains low level information about the precision and internal
     representation.  The values correspond to the various
     floating-point constants defined in the standard header file
     ‘float.h’ for the ‘C’ programming language; see section 5.2.4.2.2
     of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard *note [C99]: 4123, ‘Characteristics
     of floating types’, for details.  Attributes of the ‘float_info’
     named tuple

     attribute                             float.h macro                         explanation
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.epsilon    ‘DBL_EPSILON’                         difference between 1.0 and the
                                                                                 least value greater than 1.0 that
                                                                                 is representable as a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 See also *note math.ulp(): 768.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.dig        ‘DBL_DIG’                             The maximum number of decimal
                                                                                 digits that can be faithfully
                                                                                 represented in a float; see below.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.mant_dig   ‘DBL_MANT_DIG’                        Float precision: the number of
                                                                                 base-‘radix’ digits in the
                                                                                 significand of a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.max        ‘DBL_MAX’                             The maximum representable positive
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.max_exp    ‘DBL_MAX_EXP’                         The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a representable
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği:                       ‘DBL_MAX_10_EXP’                      The maximum integer 'e' such that
               float_info.max_10_exp                                             ‘10**e’ is in the range of
                                                                                 representable finite floats.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.min        ‘DBL_MIN’                             The minimum representable positive
                                                                                 'normalized' float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 Use *note math.ulp(0.0): 768. to
                                                                                 get the smallest positive
                                                                                 'denormalized' representable float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.min_exp    ‘DBL_MIN_EXP’                         The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a normalized
                                                                                 float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği:                       ‘DBL_MIN_10_EXP’                      The minimum integer 'e' such that
               float_info.min_10_exp                                             ‘10**e’ is a normalized float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.radix      ‘FLT_RADIX’                           The radix of exponent
                                                                                 representation.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Özniteliği: float_info.rounds     ‘FLT_ROUNDS’                          An integer representing the
                                                                                 rounding mode for floating-point
                                                                                 arithmetic.  This reflects the
                                                                                 value of the system ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 macro at interpreter startup time:
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘-1’: indeterminable
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘0’: toward zero
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘1’: to nearest
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘2’: toward positive infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘3’: toward negative infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                 All other values for ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 characterize implementation-defined
                                                                                 rounding behavior.
                                                                                 

     The attribute *note sys.float_info.dig: 4125. needs further
     explanation.  If ‘s’ is any string representing a decimal number
     with at most ‘sys.float_info.dig’ significant digits, then
     converting ‘s’ to a float and back again will recover a string
     representing the same decimal value:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.float_info.dig
          15
          >>> s = '3.14159265358979'    # decimal string with 15 significant digits
          >>> format(float(s), '.15g')  # convert to float and back -> same value
          '3.14159265358979'

     But for strings with more than *note sys.float_info.dig: 4125.
     significant digits, this isn’t always true:

          >>> s = '9876543211234567'    # 16 significant digits is too many!
          >>> format(float(s), '.16g')  # conversion changes value
          '9876543211234568'

 -- Verisi: sys.float_repr_style

     A string indicating how the *note repr(): 637. function behaves for
     floats.  If the string has value ‘'short'’ then for a finite float
     ‘x’, ‘repr(x)’ aims to produce a short string with the property
     that ‘float(repr(x)) == x’.  This is the usual behaviour in Python
     3.1 and later.  Otherwise, ‘float_repr_style’ has value ‘'legacy'’
     and ‘repr(x)’ behaves in the same way as it did in versions of
     Python prior to 3.1.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getallocatedblocks ()

     Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the
     interpreter, regardless of their size.  This function is mainly
     useful for tracking and debugging memory leaks.  Because of the
     interpreter’s internal caches, the result can vary from call to
     call; you may have to call *note _clear_type_cache(): 4107. and
     *note gc.collect(): 89c. to get more predictable results.

     If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
     information, *note getallocatedblocks(): e6b. is allowed to return
     0 instead.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getunicodeinternedsize ()

     Return the number of unicode objects that have been interned.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getandroidapilevel ()

     Return the build time API version of Android as an integer.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Android.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getdefaultencoding ()

     Return ‘'utf-8'’.  This is the name of the default string encoding,
     used in methods like *note str.encode(): 728.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getdlopenflags ()

     Return the current value of the flags that are used for ‘dlopen()’
     calls.  Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the
     *note os: a0. module (‘RTLD_XXX’ constants, e.g.  *note
     os.RTLD_LAZY: fba.).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getfilesystemencoding ()

     Get the *note filesystem encoding: 2c7.: the encoding used with the
     *note filesystem error handler: 2c7. to convert between Unicode
     filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem error handler is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b69.

     For best compatibility, str should be used for filenames in all
     cases, although representing filenames as bytes is also supported.
     Functions accepting or returning filenames should support either
     str or bytes and internally convert to the system’s preferred
     representation.

     *note os.fsencode(): ad1. and *note os.fsdecode(): ad0. should be
     used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 34a. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 34b. members of *note PyConfig: 34f.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: *note getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. result
     cannot be ‘None’ anymore.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Windows is no longer guaranteed to return
     ‘'mbcs'’.  See PEP 529(3) and *note
     _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): ad7. for more information.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Return ‘'utf-8'’ if the *note Python UTF-8
     Mode: 469. is enabled.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors ()

     Get the *note filesystem error handler: 2c7.: the error handler
     used with the *note filesystem encoding: 2c7. to convert between
     Unicode filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem encoding is
     returned from *note getfilesystemencoding(): ad5.

     *note os.fsencode(): ad1. and *note os.fsdecode(): ad0. should be
     used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 34a. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 34b. members of *note PyConfig: 34f.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Işlevi: sys.get_int_max_str_digits ()

     Returns the current value for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 402.  See also *note set_int_max_str_digits():
     15df.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getrefcount (object)

     Return the reference count of the 'object'.  The count returned is
     generally one higher than you might expect, because it includes the
     (temporary) reference as an argument to *note getrefcount(): 4131.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are “immortal” and have a very high refcount that does not
     reflect the actual number of references.  Consequently, do not rely
     on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value of 0 or 1.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Immortal objects have very large refcounts
     that do not match the actual number of references to the object.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getrecursionlimit ()

     Return the current value of the recursion limit, the maximum depth
     of the Python interpreter stack.  This limit prevents infinite
     recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing
     Python.  It can be set by *note setrecursionlimit(): 1f1.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getsizeof (object[, default])

     Return the size of an object in bytes.  The object can be any type
     of object.  All built-in objects will return correct results, but
     this does not have to hold true for third-party extensions as it is
     implementation specific.

     Only the memory consumption directly attributed to the object is
     accounted for, not the memory consumption of objects it refers to.

     If given, 'default' will be returned if the object does not provide
     means to retrieve the size.  Otherwise a *note TypeError: 2c4. will
     be raised.

     *note getsizeof(): 1587. calls the object’s ‘__sizeof__’ method and
     adds an additional garbage collector overhead if the object is
     managed by the garbage collector.

     See recursive sizeof recipe(4) for an example of using *note
     getsizeof(): 1587. recursively to find the size of containers and
     all their contents.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getswitchinterval ()

     Return the interpreter’s “thread switch interval” in seconds; see
     *note setswitchinterval(): 7a5.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: sys._getframe ([depth])

     Return a frame object from the call stack.  If optional integer
     'depth' is given, return the frame object that many calls below the
     top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised.  The default for 'depth' is zero,
     returning the frame at the top of the call stack.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sys._getframe’ with argument
     ‘frame’.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This function should be used for
     internal and specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to
     exist in all implementations of Python.

 -- Işlevi: sys._getframemodulename ([depth])

     Return the name of a module from the call stack.  If optional
     integer 'depth' is given, return the module that many calls below
     the top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, or if
     the module is unidentifiable, ‘None’ is returned.  The default for
     'depth' is zero, returning the module at the top of the call stack.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sys._getframemodulename’
     with argument ‘depth’.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This function should be used for
     internal and specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to
     exist in all implementations of Python.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getobjects (limit[, type])

     This function only exists if CPython was built using the
     specialized configure option *note -with-trace-refs: 6ec.  It is
     intended only for debugging garbage-collection issues.

     Return a list of up to 'limit' dynamically allocated Python
     objects.  If 'type' is given, only objects of that exact type (not
     subtypes) are included.

     Objects from the list are not safe to use.  Specifically, the
     result will include objects from all interpreters that share their
     object allocator state (that is, ones created with *note
     PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4132. set to 1 or using
     *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 15d7, and the *note main interpreter:
     320.).  Mixing objects from different interpreters may lead to
     crashes or other unexpected behavior.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This function should be used for
     specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

     3.12.8 sürümünde değişti: The result may include objects from other
     interpreters.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getprofile ()

     Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): 138c.

 -- Işlevi: sys.gettrace ()

     Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): 138d.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' The *note gettrace(): 1268. function
     is intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage
     tools and the like.  Its behavior is part of the implementation
     platform, rather than part of the language definition, and thus may
     not be available in all Python implementations.

 -- Işlevi: sys.getwindowsversion ()

     Return a named tuple describing the Windows version currently
     running.  The named elements are 'major', 'minor', 'build',
     'platform', 'service_pack', 'service_pack_minor',
     'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', 'product_type' and
     'platform_version'.  'service_pack' contains a string,
     'platform_version' a 3-tuple and all other values are integers.
     The components can also be accessed by name, so
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion()[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion().major’.  For compatibility with prior
     versions, only the first 5 elements are retrievable by indexing.

     'platform' will be ‘2’ (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT).

     'product_type' may be one of the following values:

     Constant                                    Meaning
                                                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘1’ (VER_NT_WORKSTATION)                    The system is a workstation.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘2’ (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)              The system is a domain controller.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘3’ (VER_NT_SERVER)                         The system is a server, but not a
                                                 domain controller.
                                                 

     This function wraps the Win32 ‘GetVersionEx()’ function; see the
     Microsoft documentation on ‘OSVERSIONINFOEX()’ for more information
     about these fields.

     'platform_version' returns the major version, minor version and
     build number of the current operating system, rather than the
     version that is being emulated for the process.  It is intended for
     use in logging rather than for feature detection.

          Not: 'platform_version' derives the version from kernel32.dll
          which can be of a different version than the OS version.
          Please use *note platform: a9. module for achieving accurate
          OS version.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Changed to a named tuple and added
     'service_pack_minor', 'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', and
     'product_type'.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'platform_version'

 -- Işlevi: sys.get_asyncgen_hooks ()

     Returns an 'asyncgen_hooks' object, which is similar to a *note
     namedtuple: 74b. of the form ‘(firstiter, finalizer)’, where
     'firstiter' and 'finalizer' are expected to be either ‘None’ or
     functions which take an *note asynchronous generator iterator:
     4133. as an argument, and are used to schedule finalization of an
     asynchronous generator by an event loop.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 525(5) for more details.

          Not: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(6) for details.)

 -- Işlevi: sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth ()

     Get the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by *note
     set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): a02.

     Added in version 3.7.

          Not: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(7) for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.

 -- Verisi: sys.hash_info

     A *note named tuple: 461. giving parameters of the numeric hash
     implementation.  For more details about hashing of numeric types,
     see *note Sayısal türlerin hashlemesi: 1f91.

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.width

          The width in bits used for hash values

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.modulus

          The prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.inf

          The hash value returned for a positive infinity

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.nan

          (This attribute is no longer used)

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.imag

          The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.algorithm

          The name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and
          memoryview

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.hash_bits

          The internal output size of the hash algorithm

      -- Özniteliği: hash_info.seed_bits

          The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added 'algorithm', 'hash_bits' and
     'seed_bits'

 -- Verisi: sys.hexversion

     The version number encoded as a single integer.  This is guaranteed
     to increase with each version, including proper support for
     non-production releases.  For example, to test that the Python
     interpreter is at least version 1.5.2, use:

          if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0:
              # use some advanced feature
              ...
          else:
              # use an alternative implementation or warn the user
              ...

     This is called ‘hexversion’ since it only really looks meaningful
     when viewed as the result of passing it to the built-in *note
     hex(): 1178. function.  The *note named tuple: 461. *note
     sys.version_info: 4b5. may be used for a more human-friendly
     encoding of the same information.

     More details of ‘hexversion’ can be found at *note API and ABI
     Versioning: 413c.

 -- Verisi: sys.implementation

     An object containing information about the implementation of the
     currently running Python interpreter.  The following attributes are
     required to exist in all Python implementations.

     'name' is the implementation’s identifier, e.g.  ‘'cpython'’.  The
     actual string is defined by the Python implementation, but it is
     guaranteed to be lower case.

     'version' is a named tuple, in the same format as *note
     sys.version_info: 4b5.  It represents the version of the Python
     'implementation'.  This has a distinct meaning from the specific
     version of the Python 'language' to which the currently running
     interpreter conforms, which ‘sys.version_info’ represents.  For
     example, for PyPy 1.8 ‘sys.implementation.version’ might be
     ‘sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final', 0)’, whereas ‘sys.version_info’
     would be ‘sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0)’.  For CPython they
     are the same value, since it is the reference implementation.

     'hexversion' is the implementation version in hexadecimal format,
     like *note sys.hexversion: 413b.

     'cache_tag' is the tag used by the import machinery in the
     filenames of cached modules.  By convention, it would be a
     composite of the implementation’s name and version, like
     ‘'cpython-33'’.  However, a Python implementation may use some
     other value if appropriate.  If ‘cache_tag’ is set to ‘None’, it
     indicates that module caching should be disabled.

     *note sys.implementation: 2a1. may contain additional attributes
     specific to the Python implementation.  These non-standard
     attributes must start with an underscore, and are not described
     here.  Regardless of its contents, *note sys.implementation: 2a1.
     will not change during a run of the interpreter, nor between
     implementation versions.  (It may change between Python language
     versions, however.)  See PEP 421(8) for more information.

     Added in version 3.3.

          Not: The addition of new required attributes must go through
          the normal PEP process.  See PEP 421(9) for more information.

 -- Verisi: sys.int_info

     A *note named tuple: 461. that holds information about Python’s
     internal representation of integers.  The attributes are read only.

      -- Özniteliği: int_info.bits_per_digit

          The number of bits held in each digit.  Python integers are
          stored internally in base ‘2**int_info.bits_per_digit’.

      -- Özniteliği: int_info.sizeof_digit

          The size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit.

      -- Özniteliği: int_info.default_max_str_digits

          The default value for *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits():
          2070. when it is not otherwise explicitly configured.

      -- Özniteliği: int_info.str_digits_check_threshold

          The minimum non-zero value for *note
          sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 15df, *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 15de, or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
          18e.

     Added in version 3.1.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added *note default_max_str_digits: 206f.
     and *note str_digits_check_threshold: 413f.

 -- Verisi: sys.__interactivehook__

     When this attribute exists, its value is automatically called (with
     no arguments) when the interpreter is launched in *note interactive
     mode: e6c.  This is done after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e. file
     is read, so that you can set this hook there.  The *note site: c6.
     module *note sets this: e6f.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘cpython.run_interactivehook’
     with the hook object as the argument when the hook is called on
     startup.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: sys.intern (string)

     Enter 'string' in the table of “interned” strings and return the
     interned string – which is 'string' itself or a copy.  Interning
     strings is useful to gain a little performance on dictionary lookup
     – if the keys in a dictionary are interned, and the lookup key is
     interned, the key comparisons (after hashing) can be done by a
     pointer compare instead of a string compare.  Normally, the names
     used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the
     dictionaries used to hold module, class or instance attributes have
     interned keys.

     Interned strings are not immortal; you must keep a reference to the
     return value of *note intern(): 1185. around to benefit from it.

 -- Işlevi: sys.is_finalizing ()

     Return *note True: a86. if the Python interpreter is *note shutting
     down: d09, *note False: 9a8. otherwise.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: sys.last_exc

     This variable is not always defined; it is set to the exception
     instance when an exception is not handled and the interpreter
     prints an error message and a stack traceback.  Its intended use is
     to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module and engage
     in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command
     that caused the error.  (Typical use is ‘import pdb; pdb.pm()’ to
     enter the post-mortem debugger; see *note pdb: a4. module for more
     information.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: sys.last_type
 -- Verisi: sys.last_value
 -- Verisi: sys.last_traceback

     These three variables are deprecated; use *note sys.last_exc: 1ec.
     instead.  They hold the legacy representation of ‘sys.last_exc’, as
     returned from *note exc_info(): 49f. above.

 -- Verisi: sys.maxsize

     An integer giving the maximum value a variable of type *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8c4. can take.  It’s usually ‘2**31 - 1’ on a 32-bit
     platform and ‘2**63 - 1’ on a 64-bit platform.

 -- Verisi: sys.maxunicode

     An integer giving the value of the largest Unicode code point, i.e.
     ‘1114111’ (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Before PEP 393(10), ‘sys.maxunicode’ used to
     be either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’, depending on the configuration
     option that specified whether Unicode characters were stored as
     UCS-2 or UCS-4.

 -- Verisi: sys.meta_path

     A list of *note meta path finder: f1a. objects that have their
     *note find_spec(): 6ac. methods called to see if one of the objects
     can find the module to be imported.  By default, it holds entries
     that implement Python’s default import semantics.  The *note
     find_spec(): 6ac. method is called with at least the absolute name
     of the module being imported.  If the module to be imported is
     contained in a package, then the parent package’s *note __path__:
     1ab7. attribute is passed in as a second argument.  The method
     returns a *note module spec: 1d02, or ‘None’ if the module cannot
     be found.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2.

          The abstract base class defining the interface of finder
          objects on *note meta_path: bb3.

     *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1d05.

          The concrete class which *note find_spec(): 6ac. should return
          instances of.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: *note Module specs: 1d02. were introduced in
     Python 3.4, by PEP 451(11).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Removed the fallback that looked for a
     ‘find_module()’ method if a *note meta_path: bb3. entry didn’t have
     a *note find_spec(): 6ac. method.

 -- Verisi: sys.modules

     This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have
     already been loaded.  This can be manipulated to force reloading of
     modules and other tricks.  However, replacing the dictionary will
     not necessarily work as expected and deleting essential items from
     the dictionary may cause Python to fail.  If you want to iterate
     over this global dictionary always use ‘sys.modules.copy()’ or
     ‘tuple(sys.modules)’ to avoid exceptions as its size may change
     during iteration as a side effect of code or activity in other
     threads.

 -- Verisi: sys.orig_argv

     The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
     Python executable.

     The elements of *note sys.orig_argv: 67f. are the arguments to the
     Python interpreter, while the elements of *note sys.argv: 110d. are
     the arguments to the user’s program.  Arguments consumed by the
     interpreter itself will be present in *note sys.orig_argv: 67f. and
     missing from *note sys.argv: 110d.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: sys.path

     A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules.
     Initialized from the environment variable *note PYTHONPATH: ec5,
     plus an installation-dependent default.

     By default, as initialized upon program startup, a potentially
     unsafe path is prepended to *note sys.path: 368. ('before' the
     entries inserted as a result of *note PYTHONPATH: ec5.):

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: prepend the current working
          directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: prepend the script’s
          directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: prepend an
          empty string, which means the current working directory.

     To not prepend this potentially unsafe path, use the *note -P: 3a9.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 3aa. environment
     variable.

     A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes.  Only
     strings should be added to *note sys.path: 368.; all other data
     types are ignored during import.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

        * Module *note site: c6. This describes how to use .pth files to
          extend *note sys.path: 368.

 -- Verisi: sys.path_hooks

     A list of callables that take a path argument to try to create a
     *note finder: 1d0b. for the path.  If a finder can be created, it
     is to be returned by the callable, else raise *note ImportError:
     14b.

     Originally specified in PEP 302(12).

 -- Verisi: sys.path_importer_cache

     A dictionary acting as a cache for *note finder: 1d0b. objects.
     The keys are paths that have been passed to *note sys.path_hooks:
     ecc. and the values are the finders that are found.  If a path is a
     valid file system path but no finder is found on *note
     sys.path_hooks: ecc. then ‘None’ is stored.

     Originally specified in PEP 302(13).

 -- Verisi: sys.platform

     This string contains a platform identifier that can be used to
     append platform-specific components to *note sys.path: 368, for
     instance.

     For Unix systems, except on Linux and AIX, this is the lowercased
     OS name as returned by ‘uname -s’ with the first part of the
     version as returned by ‘uname -r’ appended, e.g.  ‘'sunos5'’ or
     ‘'freebsd8'’, 'at the time when Python was built'.  Unless you want
     to test for a specific system version, it is therefore recommended
     to use the following idiom:

          if sys.platform.startswith('freebsd'):
              # FreeBSD-specific code here...
          elif sys.platform.startswith('linux'):
              # Linux-specific code here...
          elif sys.platform.startswith('aix'):
              # AIX-specific code here...

     For other systems, the values are:

     System               ‘platform’ value
                          
     -----------------------------------------------------
                          
     AIX                  ‘'aix'’
                          
                          
     Emscripten           ‘'emscripten'’
                          
                          
     Linux                ‘'linux'’
                          
                          
     WASI                 ‘'wasi'’
                          
                          
     Windows              ‘'win32'’
                          
                          
     Windows/Cygwin       ‘'cygwin'’
                          
                          
     macOS                ‘'darwin'’
                          

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: On Linux, *note sys.platform: 8f3. doesn’t
     contain the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'linux'’, instead
     of ‘'linux2'’ or ‘'linux3'’.  Since older Python versions include
     the version number, it is recommended to always use the
     ‘startswith’ idiom presented above.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: On AIX, *note sys.platform: 8f3. doesn’t
     contain the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead
     of ‘'aix5'’ or ‘'aix7'’.  Since older Python versions include the
     version number, it is recommended to always use the ‘startswith’
     idiom presented above.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note os.name: 28d8. has a coarser granularity.  *note os.uname():
     fb8. gives system-dependent version information.

     The *note platform: a9. module provides detailed checks for the
     system’s identity.

 -- Verisi: sys.platlibdir

     Name of the platform-specific library directory.  It is used to
     build the path of standard library and the paths of installed
     extension modules.

     It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On Fedora and SuSE, it
     is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms which gives the following
     ‘sys.path’ paths (where ‘X.Y’ is the Python ‘major.minor’ version):

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/’: Standard library (like ‘os.py’ of the
          *note os: a0. module)

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload/’: C extension modules of
          the standard library (like the *note errno: 55. module, the
          exact filename is platform specific)

        * ‘/usr/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’ (always use ‘lib’, not
          *note sys.platlibdir: 791.): Third-party modules

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’: C extension modules of
          third-party packages

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Verisi: sys.prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform independent Python files are installed; on Unix, the
     default is ‘/usr/local’.  This can be set at build time with the
     *note -prefix: 1ba9. argument to the ‘configure’ script.  See *note
     Installation paths: 4a4. for derived paths.

          Not: If a *note virtual environment: 40d8. is in effect, this
          value will be changed in ‘site.py’ to point to the virtual
          environment.  The value for the Python installation will still
          be available, via *note base_prefix: 3a24.

 -- Verisi: sys.ps1
 -- Verisi: sys.ps2

     Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the
     interpreter.  These are only defined if the interpreter is in
     interactive mode.  Their initial values in this case are ‘'>>> '’
     and ‘'... '’.  If a non-string object is assigned to either
     variable, its *note str(): 15d. is re-evaluated each time the
     interpreter prepares to read a new interactive command; this can be
     used to implement a dynamic prompt.

 -- Işlevi: sys.setdlopenflags (n)

     Set the flags used by the interpreter for ‘dlopen()’ calls, such as
     when the interpreter loads extension modules.  Among other things,
     this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a
     module, if called as ‘sys.setdlopenflags(0)’.  To share symbols
     across extension modules, call as
     ‘sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)’.  Symbolic names for the flag
     values can be found in the *note os: a0. module (‘RTLD_XXX’
     constants, e.g.  *note os.RTLD_LAZY: fba.).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

 -- Işlevi: sys.set_int_max_str_digits (maxdigits)

     Set the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 402.
     used by this interpreter.  See also *note get_int_max_str_digits():
     2070.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: sys.setprofile (profilefunc)

     Set the system’s profile function, which allows you to implement a
     Python source code profiler in Python.  See chapter *note The
     Python Profilers: 4023. for more information on the Python
     profiler.  The system’s profile function is called similarly to the
     system’s trace function (see *note settrace(): 138d.), but it is
     called with different events, for example it isn’t called for each
     executed line of code (only on call and return, but the return
     event is reported even when an exception has been set).  The
     function is thread-specific, but there is no way for the profiler
     to know about context switches between threads, so it does not make
     sense to use this in the presence of multiple threads.  Also, its
     return value is not used, so it can simply return ‘None’.  Error in
     the profile function will cause itself unset.

          Not: The same tracing mechanism is used for ‘setprofile()’ as
          *note settrace(): 138d.  To trace calls with ‘setprofile()’
          inside a tracing function (e.g.  in a debugger breakpoint),
          see *note call_tracing(): 1658.

     Profile functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event',
     and 'arg'.  'frame' is the current stack frame.  'event' is a
     string: ‘'call'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'c_call'’, ‘'c_return'’, or
     ‘'c_exception'’.  'arg' depends on the event type.

     The events have the following meaning:

     ‘'call'’

          A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
          profile function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’.

     ‘'return'’

          A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The
          profile function is called; 'arg' is the value that will be
          returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception
          being raised.

     ‘'c_call'’

          A C function is about to be called.  This may be an extension
          function or a built-in.  'arg' is the C function object.

     ‘'c_return'’

          A C function has returned.  'arg' is the C function object.

     ‘'c_exception'’

          A C function has raised an exception.  'arg' is the C function
          object.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sys.setprofile’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Işlevi: sys.setrecursionlimit (limit)

     Set the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack to 'limit'.
     This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of
     the C stack and crashing Python.

     The highest possible limit is platform-dependent.  A user may need
     to set the limit higher when they have a program that requires deep
     recursion and a platform that supports a higher limit.  This should
     be done with care, because a too-high limit can lead to a crash.

     If the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth, a *note
     RecursionError: bf7. exception is raised.

     3.5.1 sürümünde değişti: A *note RecursionError: bf7. exception is
     now raised if the new limit is too low at the current recursion
     depth.

 -- Işlevi: sys.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Set the interpreter’s thread switch interval (in seconds).  This
     floating-point value determines the ideal duration of the
     “timeslices” allocated to concurrently running Python threads.
     Please note that the actual value can be higher, especially if
     long-running internal functions or methods are used.  Also, which
     thread becomes scheduled at the end of the interval is the
     operating system’s decision.  The interpreter doesn’t have its own
     scheduler.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: sys.settrace (tracefunc)

     Set the system’s trace function, which allows you to implement a
     Python source code debugger in Python.  The function is
     thread-specific; for a debugger to support multiple threads, it
     must register a trace function using *note settrace(): 138d. for
     each thread being debugged or use *note threading.settrace(): 687.

     Trace functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event', and
     'arg'.  'frame' is the current stack frame.  'event' is a string:
     ‘'call'’, ‘'line'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'exception'’ or ‘'opcode'’.  'arg'
     depends on the event type.

     The trace function is invoked (with 'event' set to ‘'call'’)
     whenever a new local scope is entered; it should return a reference
     to a local trace function to be used for the new scope, or ‘None’
     if the scope shouldn’t be traced.

     The local trace function should return a reference to itself, or to
     another function which would then be used as the local trace
     function for the scope.

     If there is any error occurred in the trace function, it will be
     unset, just like ‘settrace(None)’ is called.

          Not: Tracing is disabled while calling the trace function
          (e.g.  a function set by ‘settrace()’).  For recursive tracing
          see *note call_tracing(): 1658.

     The events have the following meaning:

     ‘'call'’

          A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
          global trace function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return
          value specifies the local trace function.

     ‘'line'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or
          re-execute the condition of a loop.  The local trace function
          is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for a
          detailed explanation of how this works.  Per-line events may
          be disabled for a frame by setting *note f_trace_lines: a52.
          to *note False: 9a8. on that *note frame: 4f7.

     ‘'return'’

          A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The
          local trace function is called; 'arg' is the value that will
          be returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception
          being raised.  The trace function’s return value is ignored.

     ‘'exception'’

          An exception has occurred.  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is a tuple ‘(exception, value, traceback)’; the
          return value specifies the new local trace function.

     ‘'opcode'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see *note
          dis: 37. for opcode details).  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  Per-opcode events are not emitted by
          default: they must be explicitly requested by setting *note
          f_trace_opcodes: a53. to *note True: a86. on the *note frame:
          4f7.

     Note that as an exception is propagated down the chain of callers,
     an ‘'exception'’ event is generated at each level.

     For more fine-grained usage, it’s possible to set a trace function
     by assigning ‘frame.f_trace = tracefunc’ explicitly, rather than
     relying on it being set indirectly via the return value from an
     already installed trace function.  This is also required for
     activating the trace function on the current frame, which *note
     settrace(): 138d. doesn’t do.  Note that in order for this to work,
     a global tracing function must have been installed with *note
     settrace(): 138d. in order to enable the runtime tracing machinery,
     but it doesn’t need to be the same tracing function (e.g.  it could
     be a low overhead tracing function that simply returns ‘None’ to
     disable itself immediately on each frame).

     For more information on code and frame objects, refer to *note The
     standard type hierarchy: 1cd4.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘sys.settrace’ with no
     arguments.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' The *note settrace(): 138d. function
     is intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage
     tools and the like.  Its behavior is part of the implementation
     platform, rather than part of the language definition, and thus may
     not be available in all Python implementations.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: ‘'opcode'’ event type added; *note
     f_trace_lines: a52. and *note f_trace_opcodes: a53. attributes
     added to frames

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘'opcode'’ event will only be emitted if
     *note f_trace_opcodes: a53. of at least one frame has been set to
     *note True: a86. before *note settrace(): 138d. is called.  This
     behavior will be changed back in 3.13 to be consistent with
     previous versions.

 -- Işlevi: sys.set_asyncgen_hooks ([firstiter] [, finalizer])

     Accepts two optional keyword arguments which are callables that
     accept an *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4133. as an
     argument.  The 'firstiter' callable will be called when an
     asynchronous generator is iterated for the first time.  The
     'finalizer' will be called when an asynchronous generator is about
     to be garbage collected.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter’ with no arguments.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer’ with no arguments.

     Two auditing events are raised because the underlying API consists
     of two calls, each of which must raise its own event.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 525(14) for more details, and for a
     reference example of a 'finalizer' method see the implementation of
     ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(15)

          Not: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(16) for details.)

 -- Işlevi: sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth (depth)

     Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking.  When
     enabled, the ‘cr_origin’ attribute on coroutine objects will
     contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
     describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
     with the most recent call first.  When disabled, ‘cr_origin’ will
     be ‘None’.

     To enable, pass a 'depth' value greater than zero; this sets the
     number of frames whose information will be captured.  To disable,
     pass set 'depth' to zero.

     This setting is thread-specific.

     Added in version 3.7.

          Not: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see
          PEP 411(17) for details.)  Use it only for debugging purposes.

 -- Işlevi: sys.activate_stack_trampoline (backend, /)

     Activate the stack profiler trampoline 'backend'.  The only
     supported backend is ‘"perf"’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

        * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 157.

        * ‘https://perf.wiki.kernel.org’

 -- Işlevi: sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline ()

     Deactivate the current stack profiler trampoline backend.

     If no stack profiler is activated, this function has no effect.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: sys.is_stack_trampoline_active ()

     Return ‘True’ if a stack profiler trampoline is active.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding ()

     Changes the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. to
     ‘mbcs’ and ‘replace’ respectively, for consistency with versions of
     Python prior to 3.6.

     This is equivalent to defining the *note
     PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ad6. environment variable before
     launching Python.

     See also *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b69.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 529(18) for more details.

 -- Verisi: sys.stdin
 -- Verisi: sys.stdout
 -- Verisi: sys.stderr

     *note File objects: 1068. used by the interpreter for standard
     input, output and errors:

        * ‘stdin’ is used for all interactive input (including calls to
          *note input(): 1182.);

        * ‘stdout’ is used for the output of *note print(): e16. and
          *note expression: 1d74. statements and for the prompts of
          *note input(): 1182.;

        * The interpreter’s own prompts and its error messages go to
          ‘stderr’.

     These streams are regular *note text files: 1acf. like those
     returned by the *note open(): 2a6. function.  Their parameters are
     chosen as follows:

        * The encoding and error handling are is initialized from *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 4140. and *note
          PyConfig.stdio_errors: 4141.

          On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device.
          Non-character devices such as disk files and pipes use the
          system locale encoding (i.e.  the ANSI codepage).  Non-console
          character devices such as NUL (i.e.  where ‘isatty()’ returns
          ‘True’) use the value of the console input and output
          codepages at startup, respectively for stdin and
          stdout/stderr.  This defaults to the system *note locale
          encoding: 1479. if the process is not initially attached to a
          console.

          The special behaviour of the console can be overridden by
          setting the environment variable PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO
          before starting Python.  In that case, the console codepages
          are used as for any other character device.

          Under all platforms, you can override the character encoding
          by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. environment
          variable before starting Python or by using the new *note -X:
          18e. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8: 945.
          environment variable.  However, for the Windows console, this
          only applies when *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ad9. is also
          set.

        * When interactive, the ‘stdout’ stream is line-buffered.
          Otherwise, it is block-buffered like regular text files.  The
          ‘stderr’ stream is line-buffered in both cases.  You can make
          both streams unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 17d6.
          command-line option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED:
          17d7. environment variable.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Non-interactive ‘stderr’ is now
     line-buffered instead of fully buffered.

          Not: To write or read binary data from/to the standard
          streams, use the underlying binary *note buffer: 114b. object.
          For example, to write bytes to *note stdout: 943, use
          ‘sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')’.

          However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in
          which context its code will be executed), be aware that the
          standard streams may be replaced with file-like objects like
          *note io.StringIO: dc4. which do not support the ‘buffer’
          attribute.

 -- Verisi: sys.__stdin__
 -- Verisi: sys.__stdout__
 -- Verisi: sys.__stderr__

     These objects contain the original values of ‘stdin’, ‘stderr’ and
     ‘stdout’ at the start of the program.  They are used during
     finalization, and could be useful to print to the actual standard
     stream no matter if the ‘sys.std*’ object has been redirected.

     It can also be used to restore the actual files to known working
     file objects in case they have been overwritten with a broken
     object.  However, the preferred way to do this is to explicitly
     save the previous stream before replacing it, and restore the saved
     object.

          Not: Under some conditions ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ as
          well as the original values ‘__stdin__’, ‘__stdout__’ and
          ‘__stderr__’ can be ‘None’.  It is usually the case for
          Windows GUI apps that aren’t connected to a console and Python
          apps started with ‘pythonw’.

 -- Verisi: sys.stdlib_module_names

     A frozenset of strings containing the names of standard library
     modules.

     It is the same on all platforms.  Modules which are not available
     on some platforms and modules disabled at Python build are also
     listed.  All module kinds are listed: pure Python, built-in, frozen
     and extension modules.  Test modules are excluded.

     For packages, only the main package is listed: sub-packages and
     sub-modules are not listed.  For example, the ‘email’ package is
     listed, but the ‘email.mime’ sub-package and the ‘email.message’
     sub-module are not listed.

     See also the *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1aa8. list.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Verisi: sys.thread_info

     A *note named tuple: 461. holding information about the thread
     implementation.

      -- Özniteliği: thread_info.name

          The name of the thread implementation:

             * ‘"nt"’: Windows threads

             * ‘"pthread"’: POSIX threads

             * ‘"pthread-stubs"’: stub POSIX threads (on WebAssembly
               platforms without threading support)

             * ‘"solaris"’: Solaris threads

      -- Özniteliği: thread_info.lock

          The name of the lock implementation:

             * ‘"semaphore"’: a lock uses a semaphore

             * ‘"mutex+cond"’: a lock uses a mutex and a condition
               variable

             * ‘None’ if this information is unknown

      -- Özniteliği: thread_info.version

          The name and version of the thread library.  It is a string,
          or ‘None’ if this information is unknown.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: sys.tracebacklimit

     When this variable is set to an integer value, it determines the
     maximum number of levels of traceback information printed when an
     unhandled exception occurs.  The default is ‘1000’.  When set to
     ‘0’ or less, all traceback information is suppressed and only the
     exception type and value are printed.

 -- Işlevi: sys.unraisablehook (unraisable, /)

     Handle an unraisable exception.

     Called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for
     Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor raises an
     exception or during garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): 89c.).

     The 'unraisable' argument has the following attributes:

        * ‘exc_type’: Exception type.

        * ‘exc_value’: Exception value, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘exc_traceback’: Exception traceback, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘err_msg’: Error message, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘object’: Object causing the exception, can be ‘None’.

     The default hook formats ‘err_msg’ and ‘object’ as: ‘f'{err_msg}:
     {object!r}'’; use “Exception ignored in” error message if ‘err_msg’
     is ‘None’.

     *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491. can be overridden to control how
     unraisable exceptions are handled.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note excepthook(): 646. which handles uncaught exceptions.

          Uyarı: Storing ‘exc_value’ using a custom hook can create a
          reference cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to break the
          reference cycle when the exception is no longer needed.

          Storing ‘object’ using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is
          set to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing
          ‘object’ after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting
          objects.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.unraisablehook’ with arguments 'hook',
     'unraisable' when an exception that cannot be handled occurs.  The
     'unraisable' object is the same as what will be passed to the hook.
     If no hook has been set, 'hook' may be ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: sys.version

     A string containing the version number of the Python interpreter
     plus additional information on the build number and compiler used.
     This string is displayed when the interactive interpreter is
     started.  Do not extract version information out of it, rather, use
     *note version_info: 4b5. and the functions provided by the *note
     platform: a9. module.

 -- Verisi: sys.api_version

     The C API version for this interpreter.  Programmers may find this
     useful when debugging version conflicts between Python and
     extension modules.

 -- Verisi: sys.version_info

     A tuple containing the five components of the version number:
     'major', 'minor', 'micro', 'releaselevel', and 'serial'.  All
     values except 'releaselevel' are integers; the release level is
     ‘'alpha'’, ‘'beta'’, ‘'candidate'’, or ‘'final'’.  The
     ‘version_info’ value corresponding to the Python version 2.0 is
     ‘(2, 0, 0, 'final', 0)’.  The components can also be accessed by
     name, so ‘sys.version_info[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘sys.version_info.major’ and so on.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added named component attributes.

 -- Verisi: sys.warnoptions

     This is an implementation detail of the warnings framework; do not
     modify this value.  Refer to the *note warnings: 112. module for
     more information on the warnings framework.

 -- Verisi: sys.winver

     The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms.
     This is stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL. The value
     is normally the major and minor versions of the running Python
     interpreter.  It is provided in the *note sys: d8. module for
     informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the
     registry keys used by Python.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- Verisi: sys.monitoring

     Namespace containing functions and constants for register callbacks
     and controlling monitoring events.  See *note sys.monitoring: d9.
     for details.

 -- Verisi: sys._xoptions

     A dictionary of the various implementation-specific flags passed
     through the *note -X: 18e. command-line option.  Option names are
     either mapped to their values, if given explicitly, or to *note
     True: a86.  Example:

          $ ./python -Xa=b -Xc
          Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)
          [GCC 4.4.3] on linux2
          Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
          >>> import sys
          >>> sys._xoptions
          {'a': 'b', 'c': True}

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This is a CPython-specific way of
     accessing options passed through *note -X: 18e.  Other
     implementations may export them through other means, or not at all.

     Added in version 3.2.

Citations
.........

(C99) ISO/IEC 9899:1999.  “Programming languages – C.” A public draft of
this standard is available at
‘https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504-compute-memory-footprint-of-an-object-and-its-cont/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (15) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Next: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information,  Prev: sys — System-specific parameters and functions,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.2 ‘sys.monitoring’ — Execution event monitoring
----------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.12.

__________________________________________________________________

     Not: *note sys.monitoring: d9. is a namespace within the *note sys:
     d8. module, not an independent module, so there is no need to
     ‘import sys.monitoring’, simply ‘import sys’ and then use
     ‘sys.monitoring’.

This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary
to activate and control event monitoring.

As programs execute, events occur that might be of interest to tools
that monitor execution.  The *note sys.monitoring: d9. namespace
provides means to receive callbacks when events of interest occur.

The monitoring API consists of three components:

   * *note Tool identifiers: 414b.

   * *note Events: 414c.

   * *note Callbacks: 414d.

* Menu:

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Tool identifiers,  Next: Events,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.1 Tool identifiers
.........................

A tool identifier is an integer and the associated name.  Tool
identifiers are used to discourage tools from interfering with each
other and to allow multiple tools to operate at the same time.
Currently tools are completely independent and cannot be used to monitor
each other.  This restriction may be lifted in the future.

Before registering or activating events, a tool should choose an
identifier.  Identifiers are integers in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

* Menu:

* Registering and using tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Registering and using tools,  Up: Tool identifiers

5.29.2.2 Registering and using tools
....................................

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.use_tool_id (tool_id: int, name: str, /) ->
          None

     Must be called before 'tool_id' can be used.  'tool_id' must be in
     the range 0 to 5 inclusive.  Raises a *note ValueError: 189. if
     'tool_id' is in use.

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.free_tool_id (tool_id: int, /) -> None

     Should be called once a tool no longer requires 'tool_id'.

     Not: *note free_tool_id(): 4150. will not disable global or local
     events associated with 'tool_id', nor will it unregister any
     callback functions.  This function is only intended to be used to
     notify the VM that the particular 'tool_id' is no longer in use.

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.get_tool (tool_id: int, /) -> str | None

     Returns the name of the tool if 'tool_id' is in use, otherwise it
     returns ‘None’.  'tool_id' must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

All IDs are treated the same by the VM with regard to events, but the
following IDs are pre-defined to make co-operation of tools easier:

     sys.monitoring.DEBUGGER_ID = 0
     sys.monitoring.COVERAGE_ID = 1
     sys.monitoring.PROFILER_ID = 2
     sys.monitoring.OPTIMIZER_ID = 5

There is no obligation to set an ID, nor is there anything preventing a
tool from using an ID even it is already in use.  However, tools are
encouraged to use a unique ID and respect other tools.


File: python.info,  Node: Events,  Next: Turning events on and off,  Prev: Tool identifiers,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.3 Events
...............

The following events are supported:

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH

     A conditional branch is taken (or not).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.CALL

     A call in Python code (event occurs before the call).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RAISE

     An exception raised from any callable, except for Python functions
     (event occurs after the exit).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RETURN

     Return from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs
     after the return).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.EXCEPTION_HANDLED

     An exception is handled.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.INSTRUCTION

     A VM instruction is about to be executed.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.JUMP

     An unconditional jump in the control flow graph is made.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.LINE

     An instruction is about to be executed that has a different line
     number from the preceding instruction.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RESUME

     Resumption of a Python function (for generator and coroutine
     functions), except for ‘throw()’ calls.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RETURN

     Return from a Python function (occurs immediately before the
     return, the callee’s frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_START

     Start of a Python function (occurs immediately after the call, the
     callee’s frame will be on the stack)

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_THROW

     A Python function is resumed by a ‘throw()’ call.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_UNWIND

     Exit from a Python function during exception unwinding.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_YIELD

     Yield from a Python function (occurs immediately before the yield,
     the callee’s frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RAISE

     An exception is raised, except those that cause a *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 4160. event.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RERAISE

     An exception is re-raised, for example at the end of a *note
     finally: 828. block.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.STOP_ITERATION

     An artificial *note StopIteration: a73. is raised; see *note the
     STOP_ITERATION event: 4162.

More events may be added in the future.

These events are attributes of the ‘sys.monitoring.events’ namespace.
Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant.  To define a
set of events, simply bitwise or the individual events together.  For
example, to specify both *note PY_RETURN: 415a. and *note PY_START:
415b. events, use the expression ‘PY_RETURN | PY_START’.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.NO_EVENTS

     An alias for ‘0’ so users can do explicit comparisons like:

          if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS:
              ...

Events are divided into three groups:

* Menu:

* Local events::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::


File: python.info,  Node: Local events,  Next: Ancillary events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.4 Local events
.....................

Local events are associated with normal execution of the program and
happen at clearly defined locations.  All local events can be disabled.
The local events are:

   * *note PY_START: 415b.

   * *note PY_RESUME: 4159.

   * *note PY_RETURN: 415a.

   * *note PY_YIELD: 415e.

   * *note CALL: 1491.

   * *note LINE: 4158.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 4156.

   * *note JUMP: 4157.

   * *note BRANCH: 4152.

   * *note STOP_ITERATION: 4160.


File: python.info,  Node: Ancillary events,  Next: Other events,  Prev: Local events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.5 Ancillary events
.........................

Ancillary events can be monitored like other events, but are controlled
by another event:

   * *note C_RAISE: 4153.

   * *note C_RETURN: 4154.

The *note C_RETURN: 4154. and *note C_RAISE: 4153. events are controlled
by the *note CALL: 1491. event.  *note C_RETURN: 4154. and *note
C_RAISE: 4153. events will only be seen if the corresponding *note CALL:
1491. event is being monitored.


File: python.info,  Node: Other events,  Next: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Ancillary events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.6 Other events
.....................

Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the
program and cannot be individually disabled.

The other events that can be monitored are:

   * *note PY_THROW: 415c.

   * *note PY_UNWIND: 415d.

   * *note RAISE: 415f.

   * *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 4155.


File: python.info,  Node: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Other events,  Up: Events

5.29.2.7 The STOP_ITERATION event
.................................

PEP 380(1) specifies that a *note StopIteration: a73. exception is
raised when returning a value from a generator or coroutine.  However,
this is a very inefficient way to return a value, so some Python
implementations, notably CPython 3.12+, do not raise an exception unless
it would be visible to other code.

To allow tools to monitor for real exceptions without slowing down
generators and coroutines, the *note STOP_ITERATION: 4160. event is
provided.  *note STOP_ITERATION: 4160. can be locally disabled, unlike
*note RAISE: 415f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values


File: python.info,  Node: Turning events on and off,  Next: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Events,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.8 Turning events on and off
..................................

In order to monitor an event, it must be turned on and a corresponding
callback must be registered.  Events can be turned on or off by setting
the events either globally or for a particular code object.

* Menu:

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting events globally,  Next: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.9 Setting events globally
................................

Events can be controlled globally by modifying the set of events being
monitored.

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.get_events (tool_id: int, /) -> int

     Returns the ‘int’ representing all the active events.

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.set_events (tool_id: int, event_set: int, /)
          -> None

     Activates all events which are set in 'event_set'.  Raises a *note
     ValueError: 189. if 'tool_id' is not in use.

No events are active by default.


File: python.info,  Node: Per code object events,  Next: Disabling events,  Prev: Setting events globally,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.10 Per code object events
................................

Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis.

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.get_local_events (tool_id: int, code:
          CodeType, /) -> int

     Returns all the local events for 'code'

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.set_local_events (tool_id: int, code:
          CodeType, event_set: int, /) -> None

     Activates all the local events for 'code' which are set in
     'event_set'.  Raises a *note ValueError: 189. if 'tool_id' is not
     in use.

Local events add to global events, but do not mask them.  In other
words, all global events will trigger for a code object, regardless of
the local events.


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling events,  Prev: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.29.2.11 Disabling events
..........................

 -- Verisi: sys.monitoring.DISABLE

     A special value that can be returned from a callback function to
     disable events for the current code location.

Local events can be disabled for a specific code location by returning
*note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 416f. from a callback function.  This does
not change which events are set, or any other code locations for the
same event.

Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high
performance monitoring.  For example, a program can be run under a
debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring except
for a few breakpoints.

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.restart_events () -> None

     Enable all the events that were disabled by *note
     sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 416f. for all tools.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Turning events on and off,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.29.2.12 Registering callback functions
........................................

To register a callable for events call

 -- Işlevi: sys.monitoring.register_callback (tool_id: int, event: int,
          func: Callable | None, /) -> Callable | None

     Registers the callable 'func' for the 'event' with the given
     'tool_id'

     If another callback was registered for the given 'tool_id' and
     'event', it is unregistered and returned.  Otherwise *note
     register_callback(): 4172. returns ‘None’.

Functions can be unregistered by calling
‘sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None)’.

Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time.

Registering or unregistering a callback function will generate a *note
sys.audit(): 17a0. event.

* Menu:

* Callback function arguments::


File: python.info,  Node: Callback function arguments,  Up: Registering callback functions

5.29.2.13 Callback function arguments
.....................................

 -- Verisi: sys.monitoring.MISSING

     A special value that is passed to a callback function to indicate
     that there are no arguments to the call.

When an active event occurs, the registered callback function is called.
Different events will provide the callback function with different
arguments, as follows:

   * *note PY_START: 415b. and *note PY_RESUME: 4159.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note PY_RETURN: 415a. and *note PY_YIELD: 415e.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, retval: object) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note CALL: 1491, *note C_RAISE: 4153. and *note C_RETURN: 4154.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, callable: object, arg0: object | MISSING) -> DISABLE | Any

     If there are no arguments, 'arg0' is set to *note
     sys.monitoring.MISSING: 4174.

   * *note RAISE: 415f, *note RERAISE: 4161, *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED:
     4155, *note PY_UNWIND: 415d, *note PY_THROW: 415c. and *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 4160.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, exception: BaseException) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note LINE: 4158.:

          func(code: CodeType, line_number: int) -> DISABLE | Any

   * *note BRANCH: 4152. and *note JUMP: 4157.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, destination_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any

     Note that the 'destination_offset' is where the code will next
     execute.  For an untaken branch this will be the offset of the
     instruction following the branch.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 4156.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information,  Next: builtins — Built-in objects,  Prev: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.3 ‘sysconfig’ — Provide access to Python’s configuration information
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/sysconfig.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note sysconfig: da. module provides access to Python’s
configuration information like the list of installation paths and the
configuration variables relevant for the current platform.

* Menu:

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* Installation path functions::
* Other functions: Other functions<3>.
* Using sysconfig as a script::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sysconfig.py


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration variables,  Next: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.1 Configuration variables
................................

A Python distribution contains a ‘Makefile’ and a ‘pyconfig.h’ header
file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and
third-party C extensions compiled using ‘setuptools’.

*note sysconfig: da. puts all variables found in these files in a
dictionary that can be accessed using *note get_config_vars(): ed4. or
*note get_config_var(): ed3.

Notice that on Windows, it’s a much smaller set.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_config_vars (*args)

     With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration
     variables relevant for the current platform.

     With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up
     each argument in the configuration variable dictionary.

     For each argument, if the value is not found, return ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_config_var (name)

     Return the value of a single variable 'name'.  Equivalent to
     ‘get_config_vars().get(name)’.

     If 'name' is not found, return ‘None’.

Example of usage:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED')
     0
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR')
     '/usr/local/lib'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX')
     ['ar', 'g++']


File: python.info,  Node: Installation paths,  Next: User scheme,  Prev: Configuration variables,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.2 Installation paths
...........................

Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the
platform and on the installation options.  These schemes are stored in
*note sysconfig: da. under unique identifiers based on the value
returned by *note os.name: 28d8.  The schemes are used by package
installers to determine where to copy files to.

Python currently supports nine schemes:

   - 'posix_prefix': scheme for POSIX platforms like Linux or macOS.
     This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is
     installed.

   - 'posix_home': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'home' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under a specific home
     prefix.

   - 'posix_user': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'user' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under the user’s home
     directory (*note site.USER_BASE: 11c8.).

   - 'posix_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 111. on
     POSIX platforms; by default it is the same as 'posix_prefix'.

   - 'nt': scheme for Windows.  This is the default scheme used when
     Python or a component is installed.

   - 'nt_user': scheme for Windows, when the 'user' option is used.

   - 'nt_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 111. on
     Windows; by default it is the same as 'nt'.

   - 'venv': a scheme with values from either 'posix_venv' or 'nt_venv'
     depending on the platform Python runs on.

   - 'osx_framework_user': scheme for macOS, when the 'user' option is
     used.

Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a
unique identifier.  Python currently uses eight paths:

   - 'stdlib': directory containing the standard Python library files
     that are not platform-specific.

   - 'platstdlib': directory containing the standard Python library
     files that are platform-specific.

   - 'platlib': directory for site-specific, platform-specific files.

   - 'purelib': directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files
     (‘pure’ Python).

   - 'include': directory for non-platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'platinclude': directory for platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'scripts': directory for script files.

   - 'data': directory for data files.


File: python.info,  Node: User scheme,  Next: Home scheme,  Prev: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.3 User scheme
....................

This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users
that don’t have write permission to the global site-packages directory
or don’t want to install into it.

Files will be installed into subdirectories of *note site.USER_BASE:
11c8. (written as ‘`userbase'’ hereafter).  This scheme installs pure
Python modules and extension modules in the same location (also known as
*note site.USER_SITE: 1b7f.).

* Menu:

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_user,  Next: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.4 ‘posix_user’
.....................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt_user,  Next: osx_framework_user,  Prev: posix_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.5 ‘nt_user’
..................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: osx_framework_user,  Prev: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.29.3.6 ‘osx_framework_user’
.............................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Home scheme,  Next: Prefix scheme,  Prev: User scheme,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.7 Home scheme
....................

The idea behind the “home scheme” is that you build and maintain a
personal stash of Python modules.  This scheme’s name is derived from
the idea of a “home” directory on Unix, since it’s not unusual for a
Unix user to make their home directory have a layout similar to ‘/usr/’
or ‘/usr/local/’.  This scheme can be used by anyone, regardless of the
operating system they are installing for.

* Menu:

* posix_home::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_home,  Up: Home scheme

5.29.3.8 ‘posix_home’
.....................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`home'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`home'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix scheme,  Next: Installation path functions,  Prev: Home scheme,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.9 Prefix scheme
......................

The “prefix scheme” is useful when you wish to use one Python
installation to perform the build/install (i.e., to run the setup
script), but install modules into the third-party module directory of a
different Python installation (or something that looks like a different
Python installation).  If this sounds a trifle unusual, it is—that’s why
the user and home schemes come before.  However, there are at least two
known cases where the prefix scheme will be useful.

First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in ‘/usr’,
rather than the more traditional ‘/usr/local’.  This is entirely
appropriate, since in those cases Python is part of “the system” rather
than a local add-on.  However, if you are installing Python modules from
source, you probably want them to go in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’
rather than ‘/usr/lib/python2.`X'’.

Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write
to a remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for
example, the Python interpreter accessed as ‘/usr/local/bin/python’
might search for modules in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’, but those
modules would have to be installed to, say,
‘/mnt/`@server'/export/lib/python2.`X'’.

* Menu:

* posix_prefix::
* nt::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_prefix,  Next: nt,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.29.3.10 ‘posix_prefix’
........................

Path               Installation directory
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt,  Prev: posix_prefix,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.29.3.11 ‘nt’
..............

Path               Installation directory
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Installation path functions,  Next: Other functions<3>,  Prev: Prefix scheme,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.12 Installation path functions
.....................................

*note sysconfig: da. provides some functions to determine these
installation paths.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_scheme_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in *note
     sysconfig: da.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_default_scheme ()

     Return the default scheme name for the current platform.

     Added in version 3.10: This function was previously named
     ‘_get_default_scheme()’ and considered an implementation detail.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: When Python runs from a virtual
     environment, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme (key)

     Return a preferred scheme name for an installation layout specified
     by 'key'.

     'key' must be either ‘"prefix"’, ‘"home"’, or ‘"user"’.

     The return value is a scheme name listed in *note
     get_scheme_names(): 4185.  It can be passed to *note sysconfig: da.
     functions that take a 'scheme' argument, such as *note get_paths():
     10eb.

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: When Python runs from a virtual environment
     and ‘key="prefix"’, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig._get_preferred_schemes ()

     Return a dict containing preferred scheme names on the current
     platform.  Python implementers and redistributors may add their
     preferred schemes to the ‘_INSTALL_SCHEMES’ module-level global
     value, and modify this function to return those scheme names, to
     e.g.  provide different schemes for system and language package
     managers to use, so packages installed by either do not mix with
     those by the other.

     End users should not use this function, but *note
     get_default_scheme(): 1649. and *note get_preferred_scheme(): 4a5.
     instead.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_path_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in
     *note sysconfig: da.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_path (name[, scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return an installation path corresponding to the path 'name', from
     the install scheme named 'scheme'.

     'name' has to be a value from the list returned by *note
     get_path_names(): 4187.

     *note sysconfig: da. stores installation paths corresponding to
     each path name, for each platform, with variables to be expanded.
     For instance the 'stdlib' path for the 'nt' scheme is:
     ‘{base}/Lib’.

     *note get_path(): 11da. will use the variables returned by *note
     get_config_vars(): ed4. to expand the path.  All variables have
     default values for each platform so one may call this function and
     get the default value.

     If 'scheme' is provided, it must be a value from the list returned
     by *note get_scheme_names(): 4185.  Otherwise, the default scheme
     for the current platform is used.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary returned by *note get_config_vars():
     ed4.

     If 'expand' is set to ‘False’, the path will not be expanded using
     the variables.

     If 'name' is not found, raise a *note KeyError: 903.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_paths ([scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding
     to an installation scheme.  See *note get_path(): 11da. for more
     information.

     If 'scheme' is not provided, will use the default scheme for the
     current platform.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary used to expand the paths.

     If 'expand' is set to false, the paths will not be expanded.

     If 'scheme' is not an existing scheme, *note get_paths(): 10eb.
     will raise a *note KeyError: 903.


File: python.info,  Node: Other functions<3>,  Next: Using sysconfig as a script,  Prev: Installation path functions,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.13 Other functions
.........................

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_python_version ()

     Return the ‘MAJOR.MINOR’ Python version number as a string.
     Similar to ‘'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]’.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_platform ()

     Return a string that identifies the current platform.

     This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build
     directories and platform-specific built distributions.  Typically
     includes the OS name and version and the architecture (as supplied
     by *note os.uname(): fb8.), although the exact information included
     depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version isn’t
     particularly important.

     Examples of returned values:

        - linux-i586

        - linux-alpha (?)

        - solaris-2.6-sun4u

     Windows will return one of:

        - win-amd64 (64-bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and
          EM64T)

        - win-arm64 (64-bit Windows on ARM64, aka AArch64)

        - win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)

     macOS can return:

        - macosx-10.6-ppc

        - macosx-10.4-ppc64

        - macosx-10.3-i386

        - macosx-10.4-fat

     For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns *note
     sys.platform: 8f3.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.is_python_build ()

     Return ‘True’ if the running Python interpreter was built from
     source and is being run from its built location, and not from a
     location resulting from e.g.  running ‘make install’ or installing
     via a binary installer.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.parse_config_h (fp[, vars])

     Parse a ‘config.h’-style file.

     'fp' is a file-like object pointing to the ‘config.h’-like file.

     A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned.  If an
     optional dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used
     instead of a new dictionary, and updated with the values read in
     the file.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_config_h_filename ()

     Return the path of ‘pyconfig.h’.

 -- Işlevi: sysconfig.get_makefile_filename ()

     Return the path of ‘Makefile’.


File: python.info,  Node: Using sysconfig as a script,  Prev: Other functions<3>,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.29.3.14 Using ‘sysconfig’ as a script
.......................................

You can use *note sysconfig: da. as a script with Python’s '-m' option:

     $ python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix"

     Paths:
             data = "/usr/local"
             include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include"
             platinclude = "."
             platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
             purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             scripts = "/usr/local/bin"
             stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"

     Variables:
             AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0"
             AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0"
             AR = "ar"
             ARFLAGS = "rc"
             ...

This call will print in the standard output the information returned by
*note get_platform(): 10e9, *note get_python_version(): 10ea, *note
get_path(): 11da. and *note get_config_vars(): ed4.


File: python.info,  Node: builtins — Built-in objects,  Next: __main__ — Top-level code environment,  Prev: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.4 ‘builtins’ — Built-in objects
------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides direct access to all ‘built-in’ identifiers of
Python; for example, ‘builtins.open’ is the full name for the built-in
function *note open(): 2a6.

This module is not normally accessed explicitly by most applications,
but can be useful in modules that provide objects with the same name as
a built-in value, but in which the built-in of that name is also needed.
For example, in a module that wants to implement an *note open(): 2a6.
function that wraps the built-in *note open(): 2a6, this module can be
used directly:

     import builtins

     def open(path):
         f = builtins.open(path, 'r')
         return UpperCaser(f)

     class UpperCaser:
         '''Wrapper around a file that converts output to uppercase.'''

         def __init__(self, f):
             self._f = f

         def read(self, count=-1):
             return self._f.read(count).upper()

         # ...

As an implementation detail, most modules have the name ‘__builtins__’
made available as part of their globals.  The value of ‘__builtins__’ is
normally either this module or the value of this module’s *note
__dict__: 2ec. attribute.  Since this is an implementation detail, it
may not be used by alternate implementations of Python.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * *note Built-in Constants: 1f75.

   * *note Gömülü İstisnalar: 16ac.

   * *note Gömülü Fonksiyonlar: 1105.

   * *note Gömülü Türler: 1f7f.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ — Top-level code environment,  Next: warnings — Warning control,  Prev: builtins — Built-in objects,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.5 ‘__main__’ — Top-level code environment
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

In Python, the special name ‘__main__’ is used for two important
constructs:

  1. the name of the top-level environment of the program, which can be
     checked using the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’ expression; and

  2. the ‘__main__.py’ file in Python packages.

Both of these mechanisms are related to Python modules; how users
interact with them and how they interact with each other.  They are
explained in detail below.  If you’re new to Python modules, see the
tutorial section *note Modüller: 1a9f. for an introduction.

* Menu:

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages.
* import __main__::


File: python.info,  Node: __name__ == '__main__',  Next: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment

5.29.5.1 ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
.................................

When a Python module or package is imported, ‘__name__’ is set to the
module’s name.  Usually, this is the name of the Python file itself
without the ‘.py’ extension:

     >>> import configparser
     >>> configparser.__name__
     'configparser'

If the file is part of a package, ‘__name__’ will also include the
parent package’s path:

     >>> from concurrent.futures import process
     >>> process.__name__
     'concurrent.futures.process'

However, if the module is executed in the top-level code environment,
its ‘__name__’ is set to the string ‘'__main__'’.

* Menu:

* What is the “top-level code environment”?::
* Idiomatic Usage::
* Packaging Considerations::


File: python.info,  Node: What is the “top-level code environment”?,  Next: Idiomatic Usage,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.2 What is the “top-level code environment”?
..................................................

‘__main__’ is the name of the environment where top-level code is run.
“Top-level code” is the first user-specified Python module that starts
running.  It’s “top-level” because it imports all other modules that the
program needs.  Sometimes “top-level code” is called an 'entry point' to
the application.

The top-level code environment can be:

   * the scope of an interactive prompt:

          >>> __name__
          '__main__'

   * the Python module passed to the Python interpreter as a file
     argument:

          $ python helloworld.py
          Hello, world!

   * the Python module or package passed to the Python interpreter with
     the *note -m: 3ec. argument:

          $ python -m tarfile
          usage: tarfile.py [-h] [-v] (...)

   * Python code read by the Python interpreter from standard input:

          $ echo "import this" | python
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

   * Python code passed to the Python interpreter with the *note -c:
     3eb. argument:

          $ python -c "import this"
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

In each of these situations, the top-level module’s ‘__name__’ is set to
‘'__main__'’.

As a result, a module can discover whether or not it is running in the
top-level environment by checking its own ‘__name__’, which allows a
common idiom for conditionally executing code when the module is not
initialized from an import statement:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # Execute when the module is not initialized from an import statement.
         ...

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

For a more detailed look at how ‘__name__’ is set in all situations, see
the tutorial section *note Modüller: 1a9f.


File: python.info,  Node: Idiomatic Usage,  Next: Packaging Considerations,  Prev: What is the “top-level code environment”?,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.3 Idiomatic Usage
........................

Some modules contain code that is intended for script use only, like
parsing command-line arguments or fetching data from standard input.  If
a module like this was imported from a different module, for example to
unit test it, the script code would unintentionally execute as well.

This is where using the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ code block comes in
handy.  Code within this block won’t run unless the module is executed
in the top-level environment.

Putting as few statements as possible in the block below ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’ can improve code clarity and correctness.  Most often, a
function named ‘main’ encapsulates the program’s primary behavior:

     # echo.py

     import shlex
     import sys

     def echo(phrase: str) -> None:
        """A dummy wrapper around print."""
        # for demonstration purposes, you can imagine that there is some
        # valuable and reusable logic inside this function
        print(phrase)

     def main() -> int:
         """Echo the input arguments to standard output"""
         phrase = shlex.join(sys.argv)
         echo(phrase)
         return 0

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())  # next section explains the use of sys.exit

Note that if the module didn’t encapsulate code inside the ‘main’
function but instead put it directly within the ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’ block, the ‘phrase’ variable would be global to the entire
module.  This is error-prone as other functions within the module could
be unintentionally using the global variable instead of a local name.  A
‘main’ function solves this problem.

Using a ‘main’ function has the added benefit of the ‘echo’ function
itself being isolated and importable elsewhere.  When ‘echo.py’ is
imported, the ‘echo’ and ‘main’ functions will be defined, but neither
of them will be called, because ‘__name__ != '__main__'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Packaging Considerations,  Prev: Idiomatic Usage,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.29.5.4 Packaging Considerations
.................................

‘main’ functions are often used to create command-line tools by
specifying them as entry points for console scripts.  When this is done,
pip(1) inserts the function call into a template script, where the
return value of ‘main’ is passed into *note sys.exit(): 11f5.  For
example:

     sys.exit(main())

Since the call to ‘main’ is wrapped in *note sys.exit(): 11f5, the
expectation is that your function will return some value acceptable as
an input to *note sys.exit(): 11f5.; typically, an integer or ‘None’
(which is implicitly returned if your function does not have a return
statement).

By proactively following this convention ourselves, our module will have
the same behavior when run directly (i.e.  ‘python echo.py’) as it will
have if we later package it as a console script entry-point in a
pip-installable package.

In particular, be careful about returning strings from your ‘main’
function.  *note sys.exit(): 11f5. will interpret a string argument as a
failure message, so your program will have an exit code of ‘1’,
indicating failure, and the string will be written to *note sys.stderr:
792.  The ‘echo.py’ example from earlier exemplifies using the
‘sys.exit(main())’ convention.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Packaging User Guide(2) contains a collection of tutorials and
references on how to distribute and install Python packages with modern
tools.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pip.pypa.io/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Next: import __main__,  Prev: __name__ == '__main__',  Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment

5.29.5.5 ‘__main__.py’ in Python Packages
.........................................

If you are not familiar with Python packages, see section *note
Paketler: 1ab0. of the tutorial.  Most commonly, the ‘__main__.py’ file
is used to provide a command-line interface for a package.  Consider the
following hypothetical package, “bandclass”:

     bandclass
       ├── __init__.py
       ├── __main__.py
       └── student.py

‘__main__.py’ will be executed when the package itself is invoked
directly from the command line using the *note -m: 3ec. flag.  For
example:

     $ python -m bandclass

This command will cause ‘__main__.py’ to run.  How you utilize this
mechanism will depend on the nature of the package you are writing, but
in this hypothetical case, it might make sense to allow the teacher to
search for students:

     # bandclass/__main__.py

     import sys
     from .student import search_students

     student_name = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) >= 2 else ''
     print(f'Found student: {search_students(student_name)}')

Note that ‘from .student import search_students’ is an example of a
relative import.  This import style can be used when referencing modules
within a package.  For more details, see *note Paket İçi Referanslar:
1ab5. in the *note Modüller: 1a9f. section of the tutorial.

* Menu:

* Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Idiomatic Usage<2>,  Up: __main__ py in Python Packages

5.29.5.6 Idiomatic Usage
........................

The content of ‘__main__.py’ typically isn’t fenced with an ‘if __name__
== '__main__'’ block.  Instead, those files are kept short and import
functions to execute from other modules.  Those other modules can then
be easily unit-tested and are properly reusable.

If used, an ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ block will still work as
expected for a ‘__main__.py’ file within a package, because its
‘__name__’ attribute will include the package’s path if imported:

     >>> import asyncio.__main__
     >>> asyncio.__main__.__name__
     'asyncio.__main__'

This won’t work for ‘__main__.py’ files in the root directory of a
‘.zip’ file though.  Hence, for consistency, a minimal ‘__main__.py’
without a ‘__name__’ check is preferred.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

See *note venv: 111. for an example of a package with a minimal
‘__main__.py’ in the standard library.  It doesn’t contain a ‘if
__name__ == '__main__'’ block.  You can invoke it with ‘python -m venv
[directory]’.

See *note runpy: bd. for more details on the *note -m: 3ec. flag to the
interpreter executable.

See *note zipapp: 130. for how to run applications packaged as '.zip'
files.  In this case Python looks for a ‘__main__.py’ file in the root
directory of the archive.


File: python.info,  Node: import __main__,  Prev: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment

5.29.5.7 ‘import __main__’
..........................

Regardless of which module a Python program was started with, other
modules running within that same program can import the top-level
environment’s scope (*note namespace: 1aa0.) by importing the ‘__main__’
module.  This doesn’t import a ‘__main__.py’ file but rather whichever
module that received the special name ‘'__main__'’.

Here is an example module that consumes the ‘__main__’ namespace:

     # namely.py

     import __main__

     def did_user_define_their_name():
         return 'my_name' in dir(__main__)

     def print_user_name():
         if not did_user_define_their_name():
             raise ValueError('Define the variable `my_name`!')

         if '__file__' in dir(__main__):
             print(__main__.my_name, "found in file", __main__.__file__)
         else:
             print(__main__.my_name)

Example usage of this module could be as follows:

     # start.py

     import sys

     from namely import print_user_name

     # my_name = "Dinsdale"

     def main():
         try:
             print_user_name()
         except ValueError as ve:
             return str(ve)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         sys.exit(main())

Now, if we started our program, the result would look like this:

     $ python start.py
     Define the variable `my_name`!

The exit code of the program would be 1, indicating an error.
Uncommenting the line with ‘my_name = "Dinsdale"’ fixes the program and
now it exits with status code 0, indicating success:

     $ python start.py
     Dinsdale found in file /path/to/start.py

Note that importing ‘__main__’ doesn’t cause any issues with
unintentionally running top-level code meant for script use which is put
in the ‘if __name__ == "__main__"’ block of the ‘start’ module.  Why
does this work?

Python inserts an empty ‘__main__’ module in *note sys.modules: 179b. at
interpreter startup, and populates it by running top-level code.  In our
example this is the ‘start’ module which runs line by line and imports
‘namely’.  In turn, ‘namely’ imports ‘__main__’ (which is really
‘start’).  That’s an import cycle!  Fortunately, since the partially
populated ‘__main__’ module is present in *note sys.modules: 179b,
Python passes that to ‘namely’.  See *note Special considerations for
__main__: 1dfa. in the import system’s reference for details on how this
works.

The Python REPL is another example of a “top-level environment”, so
anything defined in the REPL becomes part of the ‘__main__’ scope:

     >>> import namely
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     False
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Define the variable `my_name`!
     >>> my_name = 'Jabberwocky'
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     True
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Jabberwocky

Note that in this case the ‘__main__’ scope doesn’t contain a ‘__file__’
attribute as it’s interactive.

The ‘__main__’ scope is used in the implementation of *note pdb: a4. and
*note rlcompleter: bc.


File: python.info,  Node: warnings — Warning control,  Next: dataclasses — Data Classes,  Prev: __main__ — Top-level code environment,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.6 ‘warnings’ — Warning control
-----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/warnings.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Warning messages are typically issued in situations where it is useful
to alert the user of some condition in a program, where that condition
(normally) doesn’t warrant raising an exception and terminating the
program.  For example, one might want to issue a warning when a program
uses an obsolete module.

Python programmers issue warnings by calling the *note warn(): 13a7.
function defined in this module.  (C programmers use *note
PyErr_WarnEx(): 12d5.; see *note Exception Handling: 419c. for details).

Warning messages are normally written to *note sys.stderr: 792, but
their disposition can be changed flexibly, from ignoring all warnings to
turning them into exceptions.  The disposition of warnings can vary
based on the *note warning category: 20a4, the text of the warning
message, and the source location where it is issued.  Repetitions of a
particular warning for the same source location are typically
suppressed.

There are two stages in warning control: first, each time a warning is
issued, a determination is made whether a message should be issued or
not; next, if a message is to be issued, it is formatted and printed
using a user-settable hook.

The determination whether to issue a warning message is controlled by
the *note warning filter: 71b, which is a sequence of matching rules and
actions.  Rules can be added to the filter by calling *note
filterwarnings(): 1334. and reset to its default state by calling *note
resetwarnings(): 419d.

The printing of warning messages is done by calling *note showwarning():
419e, which may be overridden; the default implementation of this
function formats the message by calling *note formatwarning(): 184e,
which is also available for use by custom implementations.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note logging.captureWarnings(): 2af6. allows you to handle all warnings
with the standard logging infrastructure.

* Menu:

* Warning Categories::
* The Warnings Filter::
* Temporarily Suppressing Warnings::
* Testing Warnings::
* Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies::
* Available Functions::
* Available Context Managers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/warnings.py


File: python.info,  Node: Warning Categories,  Next: The Warnings Filter,  Up: warnings — Warning control

5.29.6.1 Warning Categories
...........................

There are a number of built-in exceptions that represent warning
categories.  This categorization is useful to be able to filter out
groups of warnings.

While these are technically *note built-in exceptions: 20a2, they are
documented here, because conceptually they belong to the warnings
mechanism.

User code can define additional warning categories by subclassing one of
the standard warning categories.  A warning category must always be a
subclass of the *note Warning: 20a5. class.

The following warnings category classes are currently defined:

Class                                  Description
                                       
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
*note Warning: 20a5.                   This is the base class of all warning category
                                       classes.  It is a subclass of
                                       *note Exception: 838.
                                       
                                       
*note UserWarning: 20a6.               The default category for *note warn(): 13a7.
                                       
                                       
*note DeprecationWarning: 17f.         Base category for warnings about deprecated
                                       features when those warnings are intended for
                                       other Python developers (ignored by default,
                                       unless triggered by code in ‘__main__’).
                                       
                                       
*note SyntaxWarning: 17e.              Base category for warnings about dubious
                                       syntactic features.
                                       
                                       
*note RuntimeWarning: 900.             Base category for warnings about dubious runtime
                                       features.
                                       
                                       
*note FutureWarning: 248.              Base category for warnings about deprecated
                                       features when those warnings are intended for end
                                       users of applications that are written in Python.
                                       
                                       
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.  Base category for warnings about features that
                                       will be deprecated in the future (ignored by
                                       default).
                                       
                                       
*note ImportWarning: 24e.              Base category for warnings triggered during the
                                       process of importing a module (ignored by
                                       default).
                                       
                                       
*note UnicodeWarning: 12ac.            Base category for warnings related to Unicode.
                                       
                                       
*note BytesWarning: a9e.               Base category for warnings related to
                                       *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca.
                                       
                                       
*note ResourceWarning: ab9.            Base category for warnings related to resource
                                       usage (ignored by default).
                                       

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Previously *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and
*note FutureWarning: 248. were distinguished based on whether a feature
was being removed entirely or changing its behaviour.  They are now
distinguished based on their intended audience and the way they’re
handled by the default warnings filters.


File: python.info,  Node: The Warnings Filter,  Next: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings,  Prev: Warning Categories,  Up: warnings — Warning control

5.29.6.2 The Warnings Filter
............................

The warnings filter controls whether warnings are ignored, displayed, or
turned into errors (raising an exception).

Conceptually, the warnings filter maintains an ordered list of filter
specifications; any specific warning is matched against each filter
specification in the list in turn until a match is found; the filter
determines the disposition of the match.  Each entry is a tuple of the
form ('action', 'message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno'), where:

   * 'action' is one of the following strings:

     Value               Disposition
                         
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
     ‘"default"’         print the first occurrence of matching warnings
                         for each location (module + line number) where
                         the warning is issued
                         
                         
     ‘"error"’           turn matching warnings into exceptions
                         
                         
     ‘"ignore"’          never print matching warnings
                         
                         
     ‘"always"’          always print matching warnings
                         
                         
     ‘"module"’          print the first occurrence of matching warnings
                         for each module where the warning is issued
                         (regardless of line number)
                         
                         
     ‘"once"’            print only the first occurrence of matching
                         warnings, regardless of location
                         

   * 'message' is a string containing a regular expression that the
     start of the warning message must match, case-insensitively.  In
     *note -W: 71a. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21, 'message' is a
     literal string that the start of the warning message must contain
     (case-insensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end
     of 'message'.

   * 'category' is a class (a subclass of *note Warning: 20a5.) of which
     the warning category must be a subclass in order to match.

   * 'module' is a string containing a regular expression that the start
     of the fully qualified module name must match, case-sensitively.
     In *note -W: 71a. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21, 'module' is a
     literal string that the fully qualified module name must be equal
     to (case-sensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end
     of 'module'.

   * 'lineno' is an integer that the line number where the warning
     occurred must match, or ‘0’ to match all line numbers.

Since the *note Warning: 20a5. class is derived from the built-in *note
Exception: 838. class, to turn a warning into an error we simply raise
‘category(message)’.

If a warning is reported and doesn’t match any registered filter then
the “default” action is applied (hence its name).

* Menu:

* Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria::
* Describing Warning Filters::
* Default Warning Filter::
* Overriding the default filter::


File: python.info,  Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Next: Describing Warning Filters,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.3 Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria
..............................................

The filters that suppress repeated warnings apply the following criteria
to determine if a warning is considered a repeat:

   - ‘"default"’: A warning is considered a repeat only if the
     ('message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno') are all the same.

   - ‘"module"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category', 'module') are the same, ignoring the line number.

   - ‘"once"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message',
     'category') are the same, ignoring the module and line number.


File: python.info,  Node: Describing Warning Filters,  Next: Default Warning Filter,  Prev: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.4 Describing Warning Filters
...................................

The warnings filter is initialized by *note -W: 71a. options passed to
the Python interpreter command line and the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21.
environment variable.  The interpreter saves the arguments for all
supplied entries without interpretation in *note sys.warnoptions: 364.;
the *note warnings: 112. module parses these when it is first imported
(invalid options are ignored, after printing a message to *note
sys.stderr: 792.).

Individual warnings filters are specified as a sequence of fields
separated by colons:

     action:message:category:module:line

The meaning of each of these fields is as described in *note The
Warnings Filter: 71b.  When listing multiple filters on a single line
(as for *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21.), the individual filters are
separated by commas and the filters listed later take precedence over
those listed before them (as they’re applied left-to-right, and the most
recently applied filters take precedence over earlier ones).

Commonly used warning filters apply to either all warnings, warnings in
a particular category, or warnings raised by particular modules or
packages.  Some examples:

     default                      # Show all warnings (even those ignored by default)
     ignore                       # Ignore all warnings
     error                        # Convert all warnings to errors
     error::ResourceWarning       # Treat ResourceWarning messages as errors
     default::DeprecationWarning  # Show DeprecationWarning messages
     ignore,default:::mymodule    # Only report warnings triggered by "mymodule"
     error:::mymodule             # Convert warnings to errors in "mymodule"


File: python.info,  Node: Default Warning Filter,  Next: Overriding the default filter,  Prev: Describing Warning Filters,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.5 Default Warning Filter
...............................

By default, Python installs several warning filters, which can be
overridden by the *note -W: 71a. command-line option, the *note
PYTHONWARNINGS: a21. environment variable and calls to *note
filterwarnings(): 1334.

In regular release builds, the default warning filter has the following
entries (in order of precedence):

     default::DeprecationWarning:__main__
     ignore::DeprecationWarning
     ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning
     ignore::ImportWarning
     ignore::ResourceWarning

In a *note debug build: 6b9, the list of default warning filters is
empty.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is now ignored by
default in addition to *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. is once again
shown by default when triggered directly by code in ‘__main__’.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note BytesWarning: a9e. no longer appears in the
default filter list and is instead configured via *note sys.warnoptions:
364. when *note -b: 3ef. is specified twice.


File: python.info,  Node: Overriding the default filter,  Prev: Default Warning Filter,  Up: The Warnings Filter

5.29.6.6 Overriding the default filter
......................................

Developers of applications written in Python may wish to hide 'all'
Python level warnings from their users by default, and only display them
when running tests or otherwise working on the application.  The *note
sys.warnoptions: 364. attribute used to pass filter configurations to
the interpreter can be used as a marker to indicate whether or not
warnings should be disabled:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")

Developers of test runners for Python code are advised to instead ensure
that 'all' warnings are displayed by default for the code under test,
using code like:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import os, warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("default") # Change the filter in this process
         os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # Also affect subprocesses

Finally, developers of interactive shells that run user code in a
namespace other than ‘__main__’ are advised to ensure that *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f. messages are made visible by default, using
code like the following (where ‘user_ns’ is the module used to execute
code entered interactively):

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning,
                                        module=user_ns.get("__name__"))


File: python.info,  Node: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings,  Next: Testing Warnings,  Prev: The Warnings Filter,  Up: warnings — Warning control

5.29.6.7 Temporarily Suppressing Warnings
.........................................

If you are using code that you know will raise a warning, such as a
deprecated function, but do not want to see the warning (even when
warnings have been explicitly configured via the command line), then it
is possible to suppress the warning using the *note catch_warnings: 31d.
context manager:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings():
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
         fxn()

While within the context manager all warnings will simply be ignored.
This allows you to use known-deprecated code without having to see the
warning while not suppressing the warning for other code that might not
be aware of its use of deprecated code.  Note: this can only be
guaranteed in a single-threaded application.  If two or more threads use
the *note catch_warnings: 31d. context manager at the same time, the
behavior is undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Testing Warnings,  Next: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies,  Prev: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings,  Up: warnings — Warning control

5.29.6.8 Testing Warnings
.........................

To test warnings raised by code, use the *note catch_warnings: 31d.
context manager.  With it you can temporarily mutate the warnings filter
to facilitate your testing.  For instance, do the following to capture
all raised warnings to check:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w:
         # Cause all warnings to always be triggered.
         warnings.simplefilter("always")
         # Trigger a warning.
         fxn()
         # Verify some things
         assert len(w) == 1
         assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning)
         assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message)

One can also cause all warnings to be exceptions by using ‘error’
instead of ‘always’.  One thing to be aware of is that if a warning has
already been raised because of a ‘once’/‘default’ rule, then no matter
what filters are set the warning will not be seen again unless the
warnings registry related to the warning has been cleared.

Once the context manager exits, the warnings filter is restored to its
state when the context was entered.  This prevents tests from changing
the warnings filter in unexpected ways between tests and leading to
indeterminate test results.  The *note showwarning(): 419e. function in
the module is also restored to its original value.  Note: this can only
be guaranteed in a single-threaded application.  If two or more threads
use the *note catch_warnings: 31d. context manager at the same time, the
behavior is undefined.

When testing multiple operations that raise the same kind of warning, it
is important to test them in a manner that confirms each operation is
raising a new warning (e.g.  set warnings to be raised as exceptions and
check the operations raise exceptions, check that the length of the
warning list continues to increase after each operation, or else delete
the previous entries from the warnings list before each new operation).


File: python.info,  Node: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies,  Next: Available Functions,  Prev: Testing Warnings,  Up: warnings — Warning control

5.29.6.9 Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies
.......................................................

Warning categories that are primarily of interest to Python developers
(rather than end users of applications written in Python) are ignored by
default.

Notably, this “ignored by default” list includes *note
DeprecationWarning: 17f. (for every module except ‘__main__’), which
means developers should make sure to test their code with typically
ignored warnings made visible in order to receive timely notifications
of future breaking API changes (whether in the standard library or third
party packages).

In the ideal case, the code will have a suitable test suite, and the
test runner will take care of implicitly enabling all warnings when
running tests (the test runner provided by the *note unittest: 106.
module does this).

In less ideal cases, applications can be checked for use of deprecated
interfaces by passing *note -Wd: 71a. to the Python interpreter (this is
shorthand for ‘-W default’) or setting ‘PYTHONWARNINGS=default’ in the
environment.  This enables default handling for all warnings, including
those that are ignored by default.  To change what action is taken for
encountered warnings you can change what argument is passed to *note -W:
71a. (e.g.  ‘-W error’).  See the *note -W: 71a. flag for more details
on what is possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Available Functions,  Next: Available Context Managers,  Prev: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies,  Up: warnings — Warning control

5.29.6.10 Available Functions
.............................

 -- Işlevi: warnings.warn (message, category=None, stacklevel=1,
          source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=())

     Issue a warning, or maybe ignore it or raise an exception.  The
     'category' argument, if given, must be a *note warning category
     class: 20a4.; it defaults to *note UserWarning: 20a6.
     Alternatively, 'message' can be a *note Warning: 20a5. instance, in
     which case 'category' will be ignored and ‘message.__class__’ will
     be used.  In this case, the message text will be ‘str(message)’.
     This function raises an exception if the particular warning issued
     is changed into an error by the *note warnings filter: 71b.  The
     'stacklevel' argument can be used by wrapper functions written in
     Python, like this:

          def deprecated_api(message):
              warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)

     This makes the warning refer to ‘deprecated_api’’s caller, rather
     than to the source of ‘deprecated_api’ itself (since the latter
     would defeat the purpose of the warning message).

     The 'skip_file_prefixes' keyword argument can be used to indicate
     which stack frames are ignored when counting stack levels.  This
     can be useful when you want the warning to always appear at call
     sites outside of a package when a constant 'stacklevel' does not
     fit all call paths or is otherwise challenging to maintain.  If
     supplied, it must be a tuple of strings.  When prefixes are
     supplied, stacklevel is implicitly overridden to be ‘max(2,
     stacklevel)’.  To cause a warning to be attributed to the caller
     from outside of the current package you might write:

          # example/lower.py
          _warn_skips = (os.path.dirname(__file__),)

          def one_way(r_luxury_yacht=None, t_wobbler_mangrove=None):
              if r_luxury_yacht:
                  warnings.warn("Please migrate to t_wobbler_mangrove=.",
                                skip_file_prefixes=_warn_skips)

          # example/higher.py
          from . import lower

          def another_way(**kw):
              lower.one_way(**kw)

     This makes the warning refer to both the ‘example.lower.one_way()’
     and ‘package.higher.another_way()’ call sites only from calling
     code living outside of ‘example’ package.

     'source', if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
     *note ResourceWarning: ab9.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'source' parameter.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added 'skip_file_prefixes'.

 -- Işlevi: warnings.warn_explicit (message, category, filename, lineno,
          module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None, source=None)

     This is a low-level interface to the functionality of *note warn():
     13a7, passing in explicitly the message, category, filename and
     line number, and optionally the module name and the registry (which
     should be the ‘__warningregistry__’ dictionary of the module).  The
     module name defaults to the filename with ‘.py’ stripped; if no
     registry is passed, the warning is never suppressed.  'message'
     must be a string and 'category' a subclass of *note Warning: 20a5.
     or 'message' may be a *note Warning: 20a5. instance, in which case
     'category' will be ignored.

     'module_globals', if supplied, should be the global namespace in
     use by the code for which the warning is issued.  (This argument is
     used to support displaying source for modules found in zipfiles or
     other non-filesystem import sources).

     'source', if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a
     *note ResourceWarning: ab9.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Add the 'source' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: warnings.showwarning (message, category, filename, lineno,
          file=None, line=None)

     Write a warning to a file.  The default implementation calls
     ‘formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line)’ and
     writes the resulting string to 'file', which defaults to *note
     sys.stderr: 792.  You may replace this function with any callable
     by assigning to ‘warnings.showwarning’.  'line' is a line of source
     code to be included in the warning message; if 'line' is not
     supplied, *note showwarning(): 419e. will try to read the line
     specified by 'filename' and 'lineno'.

 -- Işlevi: warnings.formatwarning (message, category, filename, lineno,
          line=None)

     Format a warning the standard way.  This returns a string which may
     contain embedded newlines and ends in a newline.  'line' is a line
     of source code to be included in the warning message; if 'line' is
     not supplied, *note formatwarning(): 184e. will try to read the
     line specified by 'filename' and 'lineno'.

 -- Işlevi: warnings.filterwarnings (action, message='',
          category=Warning, module='', lineno=0, append=False)

     Insert an entry into the list of *note warnings filter
     specifications: 71b.  The entry is inserted at the front by
     default; if 'append' is true, it is inserted at the end.  This
     checks the types of the arguments, compiles the 'message' and
     'module' regular expressions, and inserts them as a tuple in the
     list of warnings filters.  Entries closer to the front of the list
     override entries later in the list, if both match a particular
     warning.  Omitted arguments default to a value that matches
     everything.

 -- Işlevi: warnings.simplefilter (action, category=Warning, lineno=0,
          append=False)

     Insert a simple entry into the list of *note warnings filter
     specifications: 71b.  The meaning of the function parameters is as
     for *note filterwarnings(): 1334, but regular expressions are not
     needed as the filter inserted always matches any message in any
     module as long as the category and line number match.

 -- Işlevi: warnings.resetwarnings ()

     Reset the warnings filter.  This discards the effect of all
     previous calls to *note filterwarnings(): 1334, including that of
     the *note -W: 71a. command line options and calls to *note
     simplefilter(): 4d9.


File: python.info,  Node: Available Context Managers,  Prev: Available Functions,  Up: warnings — Warning control

5.29.6.11 Available Context Managers
....................................

 -- Sınıfı: warnings.catch_warnings (*, record=False, module=None,
          action=None, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)

     A context manager that copies and, upon exit, restores the warnings
     filter and the *note showwarning(): 419e. function.  If the
     'record' argument is *note False: 9a8. (the default) the context
     manager returns *note None: 488. on entry.  If 'record' is *note
     True: a86, a list is returned that is progressively populated with
     objects as seen by a custom *note showwarning(): 419e. function
     (which also suppresses output to ‘sys.stdout’).  Each object in the
     list has attributes with the same names as the arguments to *note
     showwarning(): 419e.

     The 'module' argument takes a module that will be used instead of
     the module returned when you import *note warnings: 112. whose
     filter will be protected.  This argument exists primarily for
     testing the *note warnings: 112. module itself.

     If the 'action' argument is not ‘None’, the remaining arguments are
     passed to *note simplefilter(): 4d9. as if it were called
     immediately on entering the context.

     See *note The Warnings Filter: 71b. for the meaning of the
     'category' and 'lineno' parameters.

          Not: The *note catch_warnings: 31d. manager works by replacing
          and then later restoring the module’s *note showwarning():
          419e. function and internal list of filter specifications.
          This means the context manager is modifying global state and
          therefore is not thread-safe.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'action', 'category', 'lineno',
     and 'append' parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses — Data Classes,  Next: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Prev: warnings — Warning control,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.7 ‘dataclasses’ — Data Classes
-----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/dataclasses.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a decorator and functions for automatically adding
generated *note special methods: 16d3. such as *note __init__(): 4c6.
and *note __repr__(): 42e. to user-defined classes.  It was originally
described in PEP 557(2).

The member variables to use in these generated methods are defined using
PEP 526(3) type annotations.  For example, this code:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory."""
         name: str
         unit_price: float
         quantity_on_hand: int = 0

         def total_cost(self) -> float:
             return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

will add, among other things, a ‘__init__()’ that looks like:

     def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0):
         self.name = name
         self.unit_price = unit_price
         self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand

Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not
directly specified in the ‘InventoryItem’ definition shown above.

Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Module contents: Module contents<4>.
* Post-init processing::
* Class variables::
* Init-only variables::
* Frozen instances::
* Inheritance::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* Default factory functions::
* Mutable default values::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dataclasses.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<4>,  Next: Post-init processing,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.1 Module contents
........................

 -- Işlevi: @dataclasses.dataclass (*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True,
          order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)

     This function is a *note decorator: 559. that is used to add
     generated *note special methods: 16d3. to classes, as described
     below.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator examines the class to find ‘field’s.  A
     ‘field’ is defined as a class variable that has a *note type
     annotation: be1.  With two exceptions described below, nothing in
     ‘@dataclass’ examines the type specified in the variable
     annotation.

     The order of the fields in all of the generated methods is the
     order in which they appear in the class definition.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator will add various “dunder” methods to the
     class, described below.  If any of the added methods already exist
     in the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented
     below.  The decorator returns the same class that it is called on;
     no new class is created.

     If ‘@dataclass’ is used just as a simple decorator with no
     parameters, it acts as if it has the default values documented in
     this signature.  That is, these three uses of ‘@dataclass’ are
     equivalent:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass()
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False,
                     match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)
          class C:
              ...

     The parameters to ‘@dataclass’ are:

        - 'init': If true (the default), a *note __init__(): 4c6. method
          will be generated.

          If the class already defines ‘__init__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), a *note __repr__(): 42e. method
          will be generated.  The generated repr string will have the
          class name and the name and repr of each field, in the order
          they are defined in the class.  Fields that are marked as
          being excluded from the repr are not included.  For example:
          ‘InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0,
          quantity_on_hand=10)’.

          If the class already defines ‘__repr__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'eq': If true (the default), an *note __eq__(): 968. method
          will be generated.  This method compares the class as if it
          were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both instances in the
          comparison must be of the identical type.

          If the class already defines ‘__eq__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'order': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __lt__():
          1148, *note __le__(): 11b5, *note __gt__(): 11b6, and *note
          __ge__(): 11b7. methods will be generated.  These compare the
          class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both
          instances in the comparison must be of the identical type.  If
          'order' is true and 'eq' is false, a *note ValueError: 189. is
          raised.

          If the class already defines any of ‘__lt__()’, ‘__le__()’,
          ‘__gt__()’, or ‘__ge__()’, then *note TypeError: 2c4. is
          raised.

        - 'unsafe_hash': If ‘False’ (the default), a *note __hash__():
          969. method is generated according to how 'eq' and 'frozen'
          are set.

          ‘__hash__()’ is used by built-in *note hash(): 3f7, and when
          objects are added to hashed collections such as dictionaries
          and sets.  Having a ‘__hash__()’ implies that instances of the
          class are immutable.  Mutability is a complicated property
          that depends on the programmer’s intent, the existence and
          behavior of ‘__eq__()’, and the values of the 'eq' and
          'frozen' flags in the ‘@dataclass’ decorator.

          By default, ‘@dataclass’ will not implicitly add a *note
          __hash__(): 969. method unless it is safe to do so.  Neither
          will it add or change an existing explicitly defined
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Setting the class attribute ‘__hash__ =
          None’ has a specific meaning to Python, as described in the
          ‘__hash__()’ documentation.

          If ‘__hash__()’ is not explicitly defined, or if it is set to
          ‘None’, then ‘@dataclass’ 'may' add an implicit ‘__hash__()’
          method.  Although not recommended, you can force ‘@dataclass’
          to create a ‘__hash__()’ method with ‘unsafe_hash=True’.  This
          might be the case if your class is logically immutable but can
          still be mutated.  This is a specialized use case and should
          be considered carefully.

          Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Note that you cannot both have an
          explicit ‘__hash__()’ method in your dataclass and set
          ‘unsafe_hash=True’; this will result in a *note TypeError:
          2c4.

          If 'eq' and 'frozen' are both true, by default ‘@dataclass’
          will generate a ‘__hash__()’ method for you.  If 'eq' is true
          and 'frozen' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be set to ‘None’,
          marking it unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable).  If
          'eq' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be left untouched meaning the
          ‘__hash__()’ method of the superclass will be used (if the
          superclass is *note object: 8f2, this means it will fall back
          to id-based hashing).

        - 'frozen': If true (the default is ‘False’), assigning to
          fields will generate an exception.  This emulates read-only
          frozen instances.  If *note __setattr__(): 1d1b. or *note
          __delattr__(): 1d1c. is defined in the class, then *note
          TypeError: 2c4. is raised.  See the discussion below.

        - 'match_args': If true (the default is ‘True’), the *note
          __match_args__: 16e8. tuple will be created from the list of
          non keyword-only parameters to the generated *note __init__():
          4c6. method (even if ‘__init__()’ is not generated, see
          above).  If false, or if ‘__match_args__’ is already defined
          in the class, then ‘__match_args__’ will not be generated.

          Added in version 3.10.

        - 'kw_only': If true (the default value is ‘False’), then all
          fields will be marked as keyword-only.  If a field is marked
          as keyword-only, then the only effect is that the *note
          __init__(): 4c6. parameter generated from a keyword-only field
          must be specified with a keyword when ‘__init__()’ is called.
          See the *note parameter: 1cec. glossary entry for details.
          Also see the *note KW_ONLY: 41b3. section.

          Keyword-only fields are not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Added in version 3.10.

        - 'slots': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __slots__:
          1377. attribute will be generated and new class will be
          returned instead of the original one.  If ‘__slots__’ is
          already defined in the class, then *note TypeError: 2c4. is
          raised.

               Uyarı: Calling no-arg *note super(): 20d. in dataclasses
               using ‘slots=True’ will result in the following exception
               being raised: ‘TypeError: super(type, obj): obj must be
               an instance or subtype of type’.  The two-arg *note
               super(): 20d. is a valid workaround.  See gh-90562(1) for
               full details.

               Uyarı: Passing parameters to a base class *note
               __init_subclass__(): 444. when using ‘slots=True’ will
               result in a *note TypeError: 2c4.  Either use
               ‘__init_subclass__’ with no parameters or use default
               values as a workaround.  See gh-91126(2) for full
               details.

          Added in version 3.10.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: If a field name is already included in
          the ‘__slots__’ of a base class, it will not be included in
          the generated ‘__slots__’ to prevent *note overriding them:
          1d5d.  Therefore, do not use ‘__slots__’ to retrieve the field
          names of a dataclass.  Use *note fields(): 155e. instead.  To
          be able to determine inherited slots, base class ‘__slots__’
          may be any iterable, but 'not' an iterator.

        - 'weakref_slot': If true (the default is ‘False’), add a slot
          named “__weakref__”, which is required to make an instance
          *note weakref-able: e96.  It is an error to specify
          ‘weakref_slot=True’ without also specifying ‘slots=True’.

          Added in version 3.11.

     ‘field’s may optionally specify a default value, using normal
     Python syntax:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: int       # 'a' has no default value
              b: int = 0   # assign a default value for 'b'

     In this example, both ‘a’ and ‘b’ will be included in the added
     *note __init__(): 4c6. method, which will be defined as:

          def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):

     *note TypeError: 2c4. will be raised if a field without a default
     value follows a field with a default value.  This is true whether
     this occurs in a single class, or as a result of class inheritance.

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.field (*, default=MISSING,
          default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None,
          compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING)

     For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is
     required.  There are, however, some dataclass features that require
     additional per-field information.  To satisfy this need for
     additional information, you can replace the default field value
     with a call to the provided ‘field()’ function.  For example:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list)

          c = C()
          c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]

     As shown above, the *note MISSING: 41b4. value is a sentinel object
     used to detect if some parameters are provided by the user.  This
     sentinel is used because ‘None’ is a valid value for some
     parameters with a distinct meaning.  No code should directly use
     the *note MISSING: 41b4. value.

     The parameters to ‘field()’ are:

        - 'default': If provided, this will be the default value for
          this field.  This is needed because the ‘field()’ call itself
          replaces the normal position of the default value.

        - 'default_factory': If provided, it must be a zero-argument
          callable that will be called when a default value is needed
          for this field.  Among other purposes, this can be used to
          specify fields with mutable default values, as discussed
          below.  It is an error to specify both 'default' and
          'default_factory'.

        - 'init': If true (the default), this field is included as a
          parameter to the generated *note __init__(): 4c6. method.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), this field is included in the
          string returned by the generated *note __repr__(): 42e.
          method.

        - 'hash': This can be a bool or ‘None’.  If true, this field is
          included in the generated *note __hash__(): 969. method.  If
          false, this field is excluded from the generated *note
          __hash__(): 969.  If ‘None’ (the default), use the value of
          'compare': this would normally be the expected behavior, since
          a field should be included in the hash if it’s used for
          comparisons.  Setting this value to anything other than ‘None’
          is discouraged.

          One possible reason to set ‘hash=False’ but ‘compare=True’
          would be if a field is expensive to compute a hash value for,
          that field is needed for equality testing, and there are other
          fields that contribute to the type’s hash value.  Even if a
          field is excluded from the hash, it will still be used for
          comparisons.

        - 'compare': If true (the default), this field is included in
          the generated equality and comparison methods (*note __eq__():
          968, *note __gt__(): 11b6, et al.).

        - 'metadata': This can be a mapping or ‘None’.  ‘None’ is
          treated as an empty dict.  This value is wrapped in *note
          MappingProxyType(): 18c. to make it read-only, and exposed on
          the *note Field: 2049. object.  It is not used at all by Data
          Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism.
          Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as
          a namespace in the metadata.

        - 'kw_only': If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only.
          This is used when the generated *note __init__(): 4c6.
          method’s parameters are computed.

          Keyword-only fields are also not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Added in version 3.10.

     If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
     ‘field()’, then the class attribute for this field will be replaced
     by the specified 'default' value.  If 'default' is not provided,
     then the class attribute will be deleted.  The intent is that after
     the *note @dataclass: 3d4. decorator runs, the class attributes
     will all contain the default values for the fields, just as if the
     default value itself were specified.  For example, after:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: int = field(repr=False)
              z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
              t: int = 20

     The class attribute ‘C.z’ will be ‘10’, the class attribute ‘C.t’
     will be ‘20’, and the class attributes ‘C.x’ and ‘C.y’ will not be
     set.

 -- Sınıfı: dataclasses.Field

     ‘Field’ objects describe each defined field.  These objects are
     created internally, and are returned by the *note fields(): 155e.
     module-level method (see below).  Users should never instantiate a
     ‘Field’ object directly.  Its documented attributes are:

        - ‘name’: The name of the field.

        - ‘type’: The type of the field.

        - ‘default’, ‘default_factory’, ‘init’, ‘repr’, ‘hash’,
          ‘compare’, ‘metadata’, and ‘kw_only’ have the identical
          meaning and values as they do in the *note field(): 1859.
          function.

     Other attributes may exist, but they are private and must not be
     inspected or relied on.

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.fields (class_or_instance)

     Returns a tuple of *note Field: 2049. objects that define the
     fields for this dataclass.  Accepts either a dataclass, or an
     instance of a dataclass.  Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if not
     passed a dataclass or instance of one.  Does not return
     pseudo-fields which are ‘ClassVar’ or ‘InitVar’.

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.asdict (obj, *, dict_factory=dict)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a dict (by using the factory
     function 'dict_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a dict of
     its fields, as ‘name: value’ pairs.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and
     tuples are recursed into.  Other objects are copied with *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9e4.

     Example of using ‘asdict()’ on nested dataclasses:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
               x: int
               y: int

          @dataclass
          class C:
               mylist: list[Point]

          p = Point(10, 20)
          assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

          c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
          assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          {field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)}

     ‘asdict()’ raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if 'obj' is not a dataclass
     instance.

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.astuple (obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a tuple (by using the factory
     function 'tuple_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a tuple
     of its field values.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are
     recursed into.  Other objects are copied with *note
     copy.deepcopy(): 9e4.

     Continuing from the previous example:

          assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
          assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj))

     ‘astuple()’ raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if 'obj' is not a
     dataclass instance.

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.make_dataclass (cls_name, fields, *, bases=(),
          namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False,
          unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None)

     Creates a new dataclass with name 'cls_name', fields as defined in
     'fields', base classes as given in 'bases', and initialized with a
     namespace as given in 'namespace'.  'fields' is an iterable whose
     elements are each either ‘name’, ‘(name, type)’, or ‘(name, type,
     Field)’.  If just ‘name’ is supplied, *note typing.Any: 4c2. is
     used for ‘type’.  The values of 'init', 'repr', 'eq', 'order',
     'unsafe_hash', 'frozen', 'match_args', 'kw_only', 'slots', and
     'weakref_slot' have the same meaning as they do in *note
     @dataclass: 3d4.

     If 'module' is defined, the ‘__module__’ attribute of the dataclass
     is set to that value.  By default, it is set to the module name of
     the caller.

     This function is not strictly required, because any Python
     mechanism for creating a new class with ‘__annotations__’ can then
     apply the *note @dataclass: 3d4. function to convert that class to
     a dataclass.  This function is provided as a convenience.  For
     example:

          C = make_dataclass('C',
                             [('x', int),
                               'y',
                              ('z', int, field(default=5))],
                             namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})

     Is equivalent to:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: 'typing.Any'
              z: int = 5

              def add_one(self):
                  return self.x + 1

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields
     with values from 'changes'.  If 'obj' is not a Data Class, raises
     *note TypeError: 2c4.  If keys in 'changes' are not field names of
     the given dataclass, raises *note TypeError: 2c4.

     The newly returned object is created by calling the *note
     __init__(): 4c6. method of the dataclass.  This ensures that *note
     __post_init__(): 41b5, if present, is also called.

     Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be
     specified on the call to ‘replace()’ so that they can be passed to
     ‘__init__()’ and *note __post_init__(): 41b5.

     It is an error for 'changes' to contain any fields that are defined
     as having ‘init=False’.  A *note ValueError: 189. will be raised in
     this case.

     Be forewarned about how ‘init=False’ fields work during a call to
     ‘replace()’.  They are not copied from the source object, but
     rather are initialized in *note __post_init__(): 41b5, if they’re
     initialized at all.  It is expected that ‘init=False’ fields will
     be rarely and judiciously used.  If they are used, it might be wise
     to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom
     ‘replace()’ (or similarly named) method which handles instance
     copying.

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.is_dataclass (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses
     of a dataclass) or an instance of one, otherwise return ‘False’.

     If you need to know if a class is an instance of a dataclass (and
     not a dataclass itself), then add a further check for ‘not
     isinstance(obj, type)’:

          def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
              return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)

 -- Verisi: dataclasses.MISSING

     A sentinel value signifying a missing default or default_factory.

 -- Verisi: dataclasses.KW_ONLY

     A sentinel value used as a type annotation.  Any fields after a
     pseudo-field with the type of ‘KW_ONLY’ are marked as keyword-only
     fields.  Note that a pseudo-field of type ‘KW_ONLY’ is otherwise
     completely ignored.  This includes the name of such a field.  By
     convention, a name of ‘_’ is used for a ‘KW_ONLY’ field.
     Keyword-only fields signify *note __init__(): 4c6. parameters that
     must be specified as keywords when the class is instantiated.

     In this example, the fields ‘y’ and ‘z’ will be marked as
     keyword-only fields:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
              x: float
              _: KW_ONLY
              y: float
              z: float

          p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0)

     In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one
     field whose type is ‘KW_ONLY’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Özel Durum: dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError

     Raised when an implicitly defined *note __setattr__(): 1d1b. or
     *note __delattr__(): 1d1c. is called on a dataclass which was
     defined with ‘frozen=True’.  It is a subclass of *note
     AttributeError: 3dc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90562

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91126


File: python.info,  Node: Post-init processing,  Next: Class variables,  Prev: Module contents<4>,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.2 Post-init processing
.............................

 -- Işlevi: dataclasses.__post_init__ ()

     When defined on the class, it will be called by the generated *note
     __init__(): 4c6, normally as ‘self.__post_init__()’.  However, if
     any ‘InitVar’ fields are defined, they will also be passed to
     ‘__post_init__()’ in the order they were defined in the class.  If
     no ‘__init__()’ method is generated, then ‘__post_init__()’ will
     not automatically be called.

     Among other uses, this allows for initializing field values that
     depend on one or more other fields.  For example:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: float
              b: float
              c: float = field(init=False)

              def __post_init__(self):
                  self.c = self.a + self.b

The *note __init__(): 4c6. method generated by *note @dataclass: 3d4.
does not call base class ‘__init__()’ methods.  If the base class has an
‘__init__()’ method that has to be called, it is common to call this
method in a *note __post_init__(): 41b5. method:

     class Rectangle:
         def __init__(self, height, width):
           self.height = height
           self.width = width

     @dataclass
     class Square(Rectangle):
         side: float

         def __post_init__(self):
             super().__init__(self.side, self.side)

Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated ‘__init__()’
methods don’t need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take
care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass
itself.

See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass parameters
to ‘__post_init__()’.  Also see the warning about how *note replace():
16ef. handles ‘init=False’ fields.


File: python.info,  Node: Class variables,  Next: Init-only variables,  Prev: Post-init processing,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.3 Class variables
........................

One of the few places where *note @dataclass: 3d4. actually inspects the
type of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as
defined in PEP 526(1).  It does this by checking if the type of the
field is *note typing.ClassVar: 4cb.  If a field is a ‘ClassVar’, it is
excluded from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass
mechanisms.  Such ‘ClassVar’ pseudo-fields are not returned by the
module-level *note fields(): 155e. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Init-only variables,  Next: Frozen instances,  Prev: Class variables,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.4 Init-only variables
............................

Another place where *note @dataclass: 3d4. inspects a type annotation is
to determine if a field is an init-only variable.  It does this by
seeing if the type of a field is of type ‘dataclasses.InitVar’.  If a
field is an ‘InitVar’, it is considered a pseudo-field called an
init-only field.  As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the
module-level *note fields(): 155e. function.  Init-only fields are added
as parameters to the generated *note __init__(): 4c6. method, and are
passed to the optional *note __post_init__(): 41b5. method.  They are
not otherwise used by dataclasses.

For example, suppose a field will be initialized from a database, if a
value is not provided when creating the class:

     @dataclass
     class C:
         i: int
         j: int | None = None
         database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None

         def __post_init__(self, database):
             if self.j is None and database is not None:
                 self.j = database.lookup('j')

     c = C(10, database=my_database)

In this case, *note fields(): 155e. will return *note Field: 2049.
objects for ‘i’ and ‘j’, but not for ‘database’.


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen instances,  Next: Inheritance,  Prev: Init-only variables,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.5 Frozen instances
.........................

It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects.  However,
by passing ‘frozen=True’ to the *note @dataclass: 3d4. decorator you can
emulate immutability.  In that case, dataclasses will add *note
__setattr__(): 1d1b. and *note __delattr__(): 1d1c. methods to the
class.  These methods will raise a *note FrozenInstanceError: 41b6. when
invoked.

There is a tiny performance penalty when using ‘frozen=True’: *note
__init__(): 4c6. cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
must use ‘object.__setattr__()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Inheritance,  Next: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Prev: Frozen instances,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.6 Inheritance
....................

When the dataclass is being created by the *note @dataclass: 3d4.
decorator, it looks through all of the class’s base classes in reverse
MRO (that is, starting at *note object: 8f2.) and, for each dataclass
that it finds, adds the fields from that base class to an ordered
mapping of fields.  After all of the base class fields are added, it
adds its own fields to the ordered mapping.  All of the generated
methods will use this combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields.
Because the fields are in insertion order, derived classes override base
classes.  An example:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         y: int = 0

     @dataclass
     class C(Base):
         z: int = 10
         x: int = 15

The final list of fields is, in order, ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’.  The final type of
‘x’ is *note int: 184, as specified in class ‘C’.

The generated *note __init__(): 4c6. method for ‘C’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):


File: python.info,  Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Next: Default factory functions,  Prev: Inheritance,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.7 Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in ‘__init__()’
...............................................................

After the parameters needed for *note __init__(): 4c6. are computed, any
keyword-only parameters are moved to come after all regular
(non-keyword-only) parameters.  This is a requirement of how
keyword-only parameters are implemented in Python: they must come after
non-keyword-only parameters.

In this example, ‘Base.y’, ‘Base.w’, and ‘D.t’ are keyword-only fields,
and ‘Base.x’ and ‘D.z’ are regular fields:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         _: KW_ONLY
         y: int = 0
         w: int = 1

     @dataclass
     class D(Base):
         z: int = 10
         t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0)

The generated ‘__init__()’ method for ‘D’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0):

Note that the parameters have been re-ordered from how they appear in
the list of fields: parameters derived from regular fields are followed
by parameters derived from keyword-only fields.

The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the
re-ordered ‘__init__()’ parameter list.


File: python.info,  Node: Default factory functions,  Next: Mutable default values,  Prev: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.8 Default factory functions
..................................

If a *note field(): 1859. specifies a 'default_factory', it is called
with zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed.  For
example, to create a new instance of a list, use:

     mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)

If a field is excluded from *note __init__(): 4c6. (using ‘init=False’)
and the field also specifies 'default_factory', then the default factory
function will always be called from the generated ‘__init__()’ function.
This happens because there is no other way to give the field an initial
value.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutable default values,  Next: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: Default factory functions,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.9 Mutable default values
...............................

Python stores default member variable values in class attributes.
Consider this example, not using dataclasses:

     class C:
         x = []
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     o1 = C()
     o2 = C()
     o1.add(1)
     o2.add(2)
     assert o1.x == [1, 2]
     assert o1.x is o2.x

Note that the two instances of class ‘C’ share the same class variable
‘x’, as expected.

Using dataclasses, 'if' this code was valid:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = []      # This code raises ValueError
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

it would generate code similar to:

     class D:
         x = []
         def __init__(self, x=x):
             self.x = x
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     assert D().x is D().x

This has the same issue as the original example using class ‘C’.  That
is, two instances of class ‘D’ that do not specify a value for ‘x’ when
creating a class instance will share the same copy of ‘x’.  Because
dataclasses just use normal Python class creation they also share this
behavior.  There is no general way for Data Classes to detect this
condition.  Instead, the *note @dataclass: 3d4. decorator will raise a
*note ValueError: 189. if it detects an unhashable default parameter.
The assumption is that if a value is unhashable, it is mutable.  This is
a partial solution, but it does protect against many common errors.

Using default factory functions is a way to create new instances of
mutable types as default values for fields:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = field(default_factory=list)

     assert D().x is not D().x

3.11 sürümünde değişti: Instead of looking for and disallowing objects
of type *note list: 422, *note dict: 240, or *note set: 3e4, unhashable
objects are now not allowed as default values.  Unhashability is used to
approximate mutability.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: Mutable default values,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.29.7.10 Descriptor-typed fields
.................................

Fields that are assigned *note descriptor objects: acb. as their default
value have the following special behaviors:

   * The value for the field passed to the dataclass’s *note __init__():
     4c6. method is passed to the descriptor’s *note __set__(): 1d57.
     method rather than overwriting the descriptor object.

   * Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor’s
     *note __get__(): 1374. or ‘__set__()’ method is called rather than
     returning or overwriting the descriptor object.

   * To determine whether a field contains a default value, *note
     @dataclass: 3d4. will call the descriptor’s ‘__get__()’ method
     using its class access form: ‘descriptor.__get__(obj=None,
     type=cls)’.  If the descriptor returns a value in this case, it
     will be used as the field’s default.  On the other hand, if the
     descriptor raises *note AttributeError: 3dc. in this situation, no
     default value will be provided for the field.

     class IntConversionDescriptor:
         def __init__(self, *, default):
             self._default = default

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self._name = "_" + name

         def __get__(self, obj, type):
             if obj is None:
                 return self._default

             return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             setattr(obj, self._name, int(value))

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100)

     i = InventoryItem()
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 100
     i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5    # calls __set__ with 2.5
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 2

Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not
assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act
like a normal field.


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Next: abc — Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: dataclasses — Data Classes,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.8 ‘contextlib’ — Utilities for ‘with’-statement contexts
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/contextlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the *note
with: 3dd. statement.  For more information see also *note Bağlam
Yöneticisi Türleri: 1dae. and *note With Statement Context Managers:
1dac.

* Menu:

* Utilities::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<3>.
* Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/contextlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities,  Next: Examples and Recipes<3>,  Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.29.8.1 Utilities
..................

Functions and classes provided:

 -- Sınıfı: contextlib.AbstractContextManager

     An *note abstract base class: 105b. for classes that implement
     *note object.__enter__(): 3d0. and *note object.__exit__(): 11aa.
     A default implementation for *note object.__enter__(): 3d0. is
     provided which returns ‘self’ while *note object.__exit__(): 11aa.
     is an abstract method which by default returns ‘None’.  See also
     the definition of *note Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri: 1dae.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Sınıfı: contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager

     An *note abstract base class: 105b. for classes that implement
     *note object.__aenter__(): 1dbf. and *note object.__aexit__():
     1dc0.  A default implementation for *note object.__aenter__():
     1dbf. is provided which returns ‘self’ while *note
     object.__aexit__(): 1dc0. is an abstract method which by default
     returns ‘None’.  See also the definition of *note Asynchronous
     Context Managers: 40a.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: @contextlib.contextmanager

     This function is a *note decorator: 559. that can be used to define
     a factory function for *note with: 3dd. statement context managers,
     without needing to create a class or separate *note __enter__():
     3d0. and *note __exit__(): 11aa. methods.

     While many objects natively support use in with statements,
     sometimes a resource needs to be managed that isn’t a context
     manager in its own right, and doesn’t implement a ‘close()’ method
     for use with ‘contextlib.closing’

     An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct
     resource management:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
              # Code to acquire resource, e.g.:
              resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
              try:
                  yield resource
              finally:
                  # Code to release resource, e.g.:
                  release_resource(resource)

     The function can then be used like this:

          >>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
          ...     # Resource is released at the end of this block,
          ...     # even if code in the block raises an exception

     The function being decorated must return a *note generator:
     f0b.-iterator when called.  This iterator must yield exactly one
     value, which will be bound to the targets in the *note with: 3dd.
     statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any.

     At the point where the generator yields, the block nested in the
     *note with: 3dd. statement is executed.  The generator is then
     resumed after the block is exited.  If an unhandled exception
     occurs in the block, it is reraised inside the generator at the
     point where the yield occurred.  Thus, you can use a *note try:
     503.…*note except: 3c0.…*note finally: 828. statement to trap the
     error (if any), or ensure that some cleanup takes place.  If an
     exception is trapped merely in order to log it or to perform some
     action (rather than to suppress it entirely), the generator must
     reraise that exception.  Otherwise the generator context manager
     will indicate to the ‘with’ statement that the exception has been
     handled, and execution will resume with the statement immediately
     following the ‘with’ statement.

     *note contextmanager(): 10a7. uses *note ContextDecorator: 10a6. so
     the context managers it creates can be used as decorators as well
     as in *note with: 3dd. statements.  When used as a decorator, a new
     generator instance is implicitly created on each function call
     (this allows the otherwise “one-shot” context managers created by
     *note contextmanager(): 10a7. to meet the requirement that context
     managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as
     decorators).

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Use of *note ContextDecorator: 10a6.

 -- Işlevi: @contextlib.asynccontextmanager

     Similar to *note contextmanager(): 10a7, but creates an *note
     asynchronous context manager: 40a.

     This function is a *note decorator: 559. that can be used to define
     a factory function for *note async with: 3e0. statement
     asynchronous context managers, without needing to create a class or
     separate *note __aenter__(): 1dbf. and *note __aexit__(): 1dc0.
     methods.  It must be applied to an *note asynchronous generator:
     1e2d. function.

     A simple example:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def get_connection():
              conn = await acquire_db_connection()
              try:
                  yield conn
              finally:
                  await release_db_connection(conn)

          async def get_all_users():
              async with get_connection() as conn:
                  return conn.query('SELECT ...')

     Added in version 3.7.

     Context managers defined with *note asynccontextmanager(): 99a. can
     be used either as decorators or with *note async with: 3e0.
     statements:

          import time
          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def timeit():
              now = time.monotonic()
              try:
                  yield
              finally:
                  print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run')

          @timeit()
          async def main():
              # ... async code ...

     When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly
     created on each function call.  This allows the otherwise
     “one-shot” context managers created by *note asynccontextmanager():
     99a. to meet the requirement that context managers support multiple
     invocations in order to be used as decorators.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Async context managers created with *note
     asynccontextmanager(): 99a. can be used as decorators.

 -- Işlevi: contextlib.closing (thing)

     Return a context manager that closes 'thing' upon completion of the
     block.  This is basically equivalent to:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def closing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  thing.close()

     And lets you write code like this:

          from contextlib import closing
          from urllib.request import urlopen

          with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page:
              for line in page:
                  print(line)

     without needing to explicitly close ‘page’.  Even if an error
     occurs, ‘page.close()’ will be called when the *note with: 3dd.
     block is exited.

          Not: Most types managing resources support the *note context
          manager: 3df. protocol, which closes 'thing' on leaving the
          *note with: 3dd. statement.  As such, ‘closing()’ is most
          useful for third party types that don’t support context
          managers.  This example is purely for illustration purposes,
          as *note urlopen(): 286. would normally be used in a context
          manager.

 -- Işlevi: contextlib.aclosing (thing)

     Return an async context manager that calls the ‘aclose()’ method of
     'thing' upon completion of the block.  This is basically equivalent
     to:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def aclosing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  await thing.aclose()

     Significantly, ‘aclosing()’ supports deterministic cleanup of async
     generators when they happen to exit early by *note break: 915. or
     an exception.  For example:

          from contextlib import aclosing

          async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values:
              async for value in values:
                  if value == 42:
                      break

     This pattern ensures that the generator’s async exit code is
     executed in the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions
     and context variables work as expected, and the exit code isn’t run
     after the lifetime of some task it depends on).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Işlevi: contextlib.nullcontext (enter_result=None)

     Return a context manager that returns 'enter_result' from
     ‘__enter__’, but otherwise does nothing.  It is intended to be used
     as a stand-in for an optional context manager, for example:

          def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
              if ignore_exceptions:
                  # Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.
                  cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
              else:
                  # Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.
                  cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
              with cm:
                  # Do something

     An example using 'enter_result':

          def process_file(file_or_path):
              if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
                  # If string, open file
                  cm = open(file_or_path)
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing file
                  cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)

              with cm as file:
                  # Perform processing on the file

     It can also be used as a stand-in for *note asynchronous context
     managers: 40a.:

          async def send_http(session=None):
              if not session:
                  # If no http session, create it with aiohttp
                  cm = aiohttp.ClientSession()
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing the session
                  cm = nullcontext(session)

              async with cm as session:
                  # Send http requests with session

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note asynchronous context manager: 3e2.
     support was added.

 -- Işlevi: contextlib.suppress (*exceptions)

     Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified
     exceptions if they occur in the body of a ‘with’ statement and then
     resumes execution with the first statement following the end of the
     ‘with’ statement.

     As with any other mechanism that completely suppresses exceptions,
     this context manager should be used only to cover very specific
     errors where silently continuing with program execution is known to
     be the right thing to do.

     For example:

          from contextlib import suppress

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')

     This code is equivalent to:

          try:
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

          try:
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 41c9.

     If the code within the ‘with’ block raises a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 3be, suppressed exceptions are removed from the
     group.  Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are
     re-raised in a new group which is created using the original
     group’s *note derive(): 20ac. method.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘suppress’ now supports suppressing
     exceptions raised as part of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be.

 -- Işlevi: contextlib.redirect_stdout (new_target)

     Context manager for temporarily redirecting *note sys.stdout: 943.
     to another file or file-like object.

     This tool adds flexibility to existing functions or classes whose
     output is hardwired to stdout.

     For example, the output of *note help(): 72a. normally is sent to
     'sys.stdout'.  You can capture that output in a string by
     redirecting the output to an *note io.StringIO: dc4. object.  The
     replacement stream is returned from the ‘__enter__’ method and so
     is available as the target of the *note with: 3dd. statement:

          with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
              help(pow)
          s = f.getvalue()

     To send the output of *note help(): 72a. to a file on disk,
     redirect the output to a regular file:

          with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
              with redirect_stdout(f):
                  help(pow)

     To send the output of *note help(): 72a. to 'sys.stderr':

          with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
              help(pow)

     Note that the global side effect on *note sys.stdout: 943. means
     that this context manager is not suitable for use in library code
     and most threaded applications.  It also has no effect on the
     output of subprocesses.  However, it is still a useful approach for
     many utility scripts.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 41c9.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: contextlib.redirect_stderr (new_target)

     Similar to *note redirect_stdout(): c76. but redirecting *note
     sys.stderr: 792. to another file or file-like object.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 41c9.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: contextlib.chdir (path)

     Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working
     directory.  As this changes a global state, the working directory,
     it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts.  It
     is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like
     generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished
     – unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context
     manager is active.

     This is a simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 41e, it changes the
     current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on
     exit.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 41c9.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: contextlib.ContextDecorator

     A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a
     decorator.

     Context managers inheriting from ‘ContextDecorator’ have to
     implement ‘__enter__’ and ‘__exit__’ as normal.  ‘__exit__’ retains
     its optional exception handling even when used as a decorator.

     ‘ContextDecorator’ is used by *note contextmanager(): 10a7, so you
     get this functionality automatically.

     Example of ‘ContextDecorator’:

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> function()
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> with mycontext():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     This change is just syntactic sugar for any construct of the
     following form:

          def f():
              with cm():
                  # Do stuff

     ‘ContextDecorator’ lets you instead write:

          @cm()
          def f():
              # Do stuff

     It makes it clear that the ‘cm’ applies to the whole function,
     rather than just a piece of it (and saving an indentation level is
     nice, too).

     Existing context managers that already have a base class can be
     extended by using ‘ContextDecorator’ as a mixin class:

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  return False

          Not: As the decorated function must be able to be called
          multiple times, the underlying context manager must support
          use in multiple *note with: 3dd. statements.  If this is not
          the case, then the original construct with the explicit ‘with’
          statement inside the function should be used.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Sınıfı: contextlib.AsyncContextDecorator

     Similar to *note ContextDecorator: 10a6. but only for asynchronous
     functions.

     Example of ‘AsyncContextDecorator’:

          from asyncio import run
          from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator

          class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator):
              async def __aenter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              async def __aexit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... async def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> async def function():
          ...    async with mycontext():
          ...         print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: contextlib.ExitStack

     A context manager that is designed to make it easy to
     programmatically combine other context managers and cleanup
     functions, especially those that are optional or otherwise driven
     by input data.

     For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with
     statement as follows:

          with ExitStack() as stack:
              files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
              # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
              # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
              # in the list raise an exception

     The *note __enter__(): 3d0. method returns the *note ExitStack:
     999. instance, and performs no additional operations.

     Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are
     called in reverse order when the instance is closed (either
     explicitly or implicitly at the end of a *note with: 3dd.
     statement).  Note that callbacks are 'not' invoked implicitly when
     the context stack instance is garbage collected.

     This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire
     their resources in their ‘__init__’ method (such as file objects)
     can be handled correctly.

     Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of
     registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested *note
     with: 3dd. statements had been used with the registered set of
     callbacks.  This even extends to exception handling - if an inner
     callback suppresses or replaces an exception, then outer callbacks
     will be passed arguments based on that updated state.

     This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details
     of correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks.  It provides a
     suitable foundation for higher level context managers that
     manipulate the exit stack in application specific ways.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- Yöntemi: enter_context (cm)

          Enters a new context manager and adds its *note __exit__():
          11aa. method to the callback stack.  The return value is the
          result of the context manager’s own *note __enter__(): 3d0.
          method.

          These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they
          normally would if used directly as part of a *note with: 3dd.
          statement.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. instead
          of *note AttributeError: 3dc. if 'cm' is not a context
          manager.

      -- Yöntemi: push (exit)

          Adds a context manager’s *note __exit__(): 11aa. method to the
          callback stack.

          As ‘__enter__’ is 'not' invoked, this method can be used to
          cover part of an *note __enter__(): 3d0. implementation with a
          context manager’s own *note __exit__(): 11aa. method.

          If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method
          assumes it is a callback with the same signature as a context
          manager’s *note __exit__(): 11aa. method and adds it directly
          to the callback stack.

          By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress
          exceptions the same way context manager *note __exit__():
          11aa. methods can.

          The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing
          this method to be used as a function decorator.

      -- Yöntemi: callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds
          it to the callback stack.

          Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot
          suppress exceptions (as they are never passed the exception
          details).

          The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing
          this method to be used as a function decorator.

      -- Yöntemi: pop_all ()

          Transfers the callback stack to a fresh *note ExitStack: 999.
          instance and returns it.  No callbacks are invoked by this
          operation - instead, they will now be invoked when the new
          stack is closed (either explicitly or implicitly at the end of
          a *note with: 3dd. statement).

          For example, a group of files can be opened as an “all or
          nothing” operation as follows:

               with ExitStack() as stack:
                   files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
                   # Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet.
                   close_files = stack.pop_all().close
                   # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be
                   # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,
                   # they will remain open even after the with statement ends.
                   # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in
          the reverse order of registration.  For any context managers
          and exit callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will
          indicate that no exception occurred.

 -- Sınıfı: contextlib.AsyncExitStack

     An *note asynchronous context manager: 40a, similar to *note
     ExitStack: 999, that supports combining both synchronous and
     asynchronous context managers, as well as having coroutines for
     cleanup logic.

     The *note close(): 41cc. method is not implemented; *note aclose():
     41cd. must be used instead.

      -- Yöntemi: async enter_async_context (cm)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.enter_context(): 3de. but expects
          an asynchronous context manager.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. instead
          of *note AttributeError: 3dc. if 'cm' is not an asynchronous
          context manager.

      -- Yöntemi: push_async_exit (exit)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.push(): 41ca. but expects either an
          asynchronous context manager or a coroutine function.

      -- Yöntemi: push_async_callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.callback(): 8e8. but expects a
          coroutine function.

      -- Yöntemi: async aclose ()

          Similar to *note ExitStack.close(): 41cc. but properly handles
          awaitables.

     Continuing the example for *note asynccontextmanager(): 99a.:

          async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
              connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
                  for i in range(5)]
              # All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of
              # the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection
              # later in the list raise an exception.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes<3>,  Next: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers,  Prev: Utilities,  Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.29.8.2 Examples and Recipes
.............................

This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective
use of the tools provided by *note contextlib: 23.

* Menu:

* Supporting a variable number of context managers::
* Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods::
* Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation::
* Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables::
* Using a context manager as a function decorator::


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting a variable number of context managers,  Next: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Up: Examples and Recipes<3>

5.29.8.3 Supporting a variable number of context managers
.........................................................

The primary use case for *note ExitStack: 999. is the one given in the
class documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers
and other cleanup operations in a single *note with: 3dd. statement.
The variability may come from the number of context managers needed
being driven by user input (such as opening a user specified collection
of files), or from some of the context managers being optional:

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         for resource in resources:
             stack.enter_context(resource)
         if need_special_resource():
             special = acquire_special_resource()
             stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
         # Perform operations that use the acquired resources

As shown, *note ExitStack: 999. also makes it quite easy to use *note
with: 3dd. statements to manage arbitrary resources that don’t natively
support the context management protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Next: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Prev: Supporting a variable number of context managers,  Up: Examples and Recipes<3>

5.29.8.4 Catching exceptions from ‘__enter__’ methods
.....................................................

It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an ‘__enter__’
method implementation, 'without' inadvertently catching exceptions from
the *note with: 3dd. statement body or the context manager’s ‘__exit__’
method.  By using *note ExitStack: 999. the steps in the context
management protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this:

     stack = ExitStack()
     try:
         x = stack.enter_context(cm)
     except Exception:
         # handle __enter__ exception
     else:
         with stack:
             # Handle normal case

Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying
API should be providing a direct resource management interface for use
with *note try: 503./*note except: 3c0./*note finally: 828. statements,
but not all APIs are well designed in that regard.  When a context
manager is the only resource management API provided, then *note
ExitStack: 999. can make it easier to handle various situations that
can’t be handled directly in a *note with: 3dd. statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Next: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Prev: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Up: Examples and Recipes<3>

5.29.8.5 Cleaning up in an ‘__enter__’ implementation
.....................................................

As noted in the documentation of *note ExitStack.push(): 41ca, this
method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if
later steps in the *note __enter__(): 3d0. implementation fail.

Here’s an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts
resource acquisition and release functions, along with an optional
validation function, and maps them to the context management protocol:

     from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack

     class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):

         def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
             self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
             self.release_resource = release_resource
             if check_resource_ok is None:
                 def check_resource_ok(resource):
                     return True
             self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok

         @contextmanager
         def _cleanup_on_error(self):
             with ExitStack() as stack:
                 stack.push(self)
                 yield
                 # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception
                 # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it
                 # back to our caller
                 stack.pop_all()

         def __enter__(self):
             resource = self.acquire_resource()
             with self._cleanup_on_error():
                 if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
                     msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
                     raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
             return resource

         def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
             # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic
             self.release_resource()


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Next: Using a context manager as a function decorator,  Prev: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Up: Examples and Recipes<3>

5.29.8.6 Replacing any use of ‘try-finally’ and flag variables
..............................................................

A pattern you will sometimes see is a ‘try-finally’ statement with a
flag variable to indicate whether or not the body of the ‘finally’
clause should be executed.  In its simplest form (that can’t already be
handled just by using an ‘except’ clause instead), it looks something
like this:

     cleanup_needed = True
     try:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cleanup_needed = False
     finally:
         if cleanup_needed:
             cleanup_resources()

As with any ‘try’ statement based code, this can cause problems for
development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can
end up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code.

*note ExitStack: 999. makes it possible to instead register a callback
for execution at the end of a ‘with’ statement, and then later decide to
skip executing that callback:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

This allows the intended cleanup behaviour to be made explicit up front,
rather than requiring a separate flag variable.

If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be
simplified even further by means of a small helper class:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     class Callback(ExitStack):
         def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds):
             super().__init__()
             self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)

         def cancel(self):
             self.pop_all()

     with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cb.cancel()

If the resource cleanup isn’t already neatly bundled into a standalone
function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of *note
ExitStack.callback(): 8e8. to declare the resource cleanup in advance:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         @stack.callback
         def cleanup_resources():
             ...
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function
declared this way cannot take any parameters.  Instead, any resources to
be released must be accessed as closure variables.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a context manager as a function decorator,  Prev: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Up: Examples and Recipes<3>

5.29.8.7 Using a context manager as a function decorator
........................................................

*note ContextDecorator: 10a6. makes it possible to use a context manager
in both an ordinary ‘with’ statement and also as a function decorator.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, inheriting from *note ContextDecorator: 10a6.
provides both capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import ContextDecorator
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def __enter__(self):
             logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
             logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)

Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

And also as a function decorator:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers
as function decorators: there’s no way to access the return value of
*note __enter__(): 3d0.  If that value is needed, then it is still
necessary to use an explicit ‘with’ statement.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 3dd. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers,  Prev: Examples and Recipes<3>,  Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.29.8.8 Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers
............................................................

Most context managers are written in a way that means they can only be
used effectively in a *note with: 3dd. statement once.  These single use
context managers must be created afresh each time they’re used -
attempting to use them a second time will trigger an exception or
otherwise not work correctly.

This common limitation means that it is generally advisable to create
context managers directly in the header of the *note with: 3dd.
statement where they are used (as shown in all of the usage examples
above).

Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since
the first *note with: 3dd. statement will close the file, preventing any
further IO operations using that file object.

Context managers created using *note contextmanager(): 10a7. are also
single use context managers, and will complain about the underlying
generator failing to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second
time:

     >>> from contextlib import contextmanager
     >>> @contextmanager
     ... def singleuse():
     ...     print("Before")
     ...     yield
     ...     print("After")
     ...
     >>> cm = singleuse()
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Before
     After
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     RuntimeError: generator didn't yield

* Menu:

* Reentrant context managers::
* Reusable context managers::


File: python.info,  Node: Reentrant context managers,  Next: Reusable context managers,  Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers

5.29.8.9 Reentrant context managers
...................................

More sophisticated context managers may be “reentrant”.  These context
managers can not only be used in multiple *note with: 3dd. statements,
but may also be used 'inside' a ‘with’ statement that is already using
the same context manager.

*note threading.RLock: 262. is an example of a reentrant context
manager, as are *note suppress(): dc3, *note redirect_stdout(): c76, and
*note chdir(): 41d.  Here’s a very simple example of reentrant use:

     >>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> stream = StringIO()
     >>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
     >>> with write_to_stream:
     ...     print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
     ...     with write_to_stream:
     ...         print("This is also written to the stream")
     ...
     >>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
     This is written directly to stdout
     >>> print(stream.getvalue())
     This is written to the stream rather than stdout
     This is also written to the stream

Real world examples of reentrancy are more likely to involve multiple
functions calling each other and hence be far more complicated than this
example.

Note also that being reentrant is 'not' the same thing as being thread
safe.  *note redirect_stdout(): c76, for example, is definitely not
thread safe, as it makes a global modification to the system state by
binding *note sys.stdout: 943. to a different stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Reusable context managers,  Prev: Reentrant context managers,  Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers

5.29.8.10 Reusable context managers
...................................

Distinct from both single use and reentrant context managers are
“reusable” context managers (or, to be completely explicit, “reusable,
but not reentrant” context managers, since reentrant context managers
are also reusable).  These context managers support being used multiple
times, but will fail (or otherwise not work correctly) if the specific
context manager instance has already been used in a containing with
statement.

*note threading.Lock: 2e58. is an example of a reusable, but not
reentrant, context manager (for a reentrant lock, it is necessary to use
*note threading.RLock: 262. instead).

Another example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager is
*note ExitStack: 999, as it invokes 'all' currently registered callbacks
when leaving any with statement, regardless of where those callbacks
were added:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> stack = ExitStack()
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
     ...     print("Leaving first context")
     ...
     Leaving first context
     Callback: from first context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
     ...     print("Leaving second context")
     ...
     Leaving second context
     Callback: from second context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with stack:
     ...         stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Callback: from outer context
     Leaving outer context

As the output from the example shows, reusing a single stack object
across multiple with statements works correctly, but attempting to nest
them will cause the stack to be cleared at the end of the innermost with
statement, which is unlikely to be desirable behaviour.

Using separate *note ExitStack: 999. instances instead of reusing a
single instance avoids that problem:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
     ...     outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
     ...         inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Leaving outer context
     Callback: from outer context


File: python.info,  Node: abc — Abstract Base Classes,  Next: atexit — Exit handlers,  Prev: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.9 ‘abc’ — Abstract Base Classes
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides the infrastructure for defining *note abstract base
classes: 105b. (ABCs) in Python, as outlined in PEP 3119(2); see the PEP
for why this was added to Python.  (See also PEP 3141(3) and the *note
numbers: 9d. module regarding a type hierarchy for numbers based on
ABCs.)

The *note collections: 1d. module has some concrete classes that derive
from ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived.  In addition, the
*note collections.abc: 1e. submodule has some ABCs that can be used to
test whether a class or instance provides a particular interface, for
example, if it is *note hashable: 421. or if it is a *note mapping:
1061.

This module provides the metaclass *note ABCMeta: db0. for defining ABCs
and a helper class *note ABC: daf. to alternatively define ABCs through
inheritance:

 -- Sınıfı: abc.ABC

     A helper class that has *note ABCMeta: db0. as its metaclass.  With
     this class, an abstract base class can be created by simply
     deriving from ‘ABC’ avoiding sometimes confusing metaclass usage,
     for example:

          from abc import ABC

          class MyABC(ABC):
              pass

     Note that the type of ‘ABC’ is still *note ABCMeta: db0, therefore
     inheriting from ‘ABC’ requires the usual precautions regarding
     metaclass usage, as multiple inheritance may lead to metaclass
     conflicts.  One may also define an abstract base class by passing
     the metaclass keyword and using ‘ABCMeta’ directly, for example:

          from abc import ABCMeta

          class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta):
              pass

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Sınıfı: abc.ABCMeta

     Metaclass for defining Abstract Base Classes (ABCs).

     Use this metaclass to create an ABC. An ABC can be subclassed
     directly, and then acts as a mix-in class.  You can also register
     unrelated concrete classes (even built-in classes) and unrelated
     ABCs as “virtual subclasses” – these and their descendants will be
     considered subclasses of the registering ABC by the built-in *note
     issubclass(): 5f8. function, but the registering ABC won’t show up
     in their MRO (Method Resolution Order) nor will method
     implementations defined by the registering ABC be callable (not
     even via *note super(): 20d.).  (4)

     Classes created with a metaclass of ‘ABCMeta’ have the following
     method:

      -- Yöntemi: register (subclass)

          Register 'subclass' as a “virtual subclass” of this ABC. For
          example:

               from abc import ABC

               class MyABC(ABC):
                   pass

               MyABC.register(tuple)

               assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC)
               assert isinstance((), MyABC)

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: Returns the registered subclass, to
          allow usage as a class decorator.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: To detect calls to ‘register()’, you
          can use the *note get_cache_token(): dae. function.

     You can also override this method in an abstract base class:

      -- Yöntemi: __subclasshook__ (subclass)

          (Must be defined as a class method.)

          Check whether 'subclass' is considered a subclass of this ABC.
          This means that you can customize the behavior of *note
          issubclass(): 5f8. further without the need to call *note
          register(): f33. on every class you want to consider a
          subclass of the ABC. (This class method is called from the
          *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d6c. method of the ABC.)

          This method should return ‘True’, ‘False’ or *note
          NotImplemented: 60b.  If it returns ‘True’, the 'subclass' is
          considered a subclass of this ABC. If it returns ‘False’, the
          'subclass' is not considered a subclass of this ABC, even if
          it would normally be one.  If it returns ‘NotImplemented’, the
          subclass check is continued with the usual mechanism.

     For a demonstration of these concepts, look at this example ABC
     definition:

          class Foo:
              def __getitem__(self, index):
                  ...
              def __len__(self):
                  ...
              def get_iterator(self):
                  return iter(self)

          class MyIterable(ABC):

              @abstractmethod
              def __iter__(self):
                  while False:
                      yield None

              def get_iterator(self):
                  return self.__iter__()

              @classmethod
              def __subclasshook__(cls, C):
                  if cls is MyIterable:
                      if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__):
                          return True
                  return NotImplemented

          MyIterable.register(Foo)

     The ABC ‘MyIterable’ defines the standard iterable method, *note
     __iter__(): 1d49, as an abstract method.  The implementation given
     here can still be called from subclasses.  The ‘get_iterator()’
     method is also part of the ‘MyIterable’ abstract base class, but it
     does not have to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes.

     The *note __subclasshook__(): 231a. class method defined here says
     that any class that has an *note __iter__(): 1d49. method in its
     *note __dict__: 2ec. (or in that of one of its base classes,
     accessed via the *note __mro__: 1d17. list) is considered a
     ‘MyIterable’ too.

     Finally, the last line makes ‘Foo’ a virtual subclass of
     ‘MyIterable’, even though it does not define an *note __iter__():
     1d49. method (it uses the old-style iterable protocol, defined in
     terms of *note __len__(): 1d50. and *note __getitem__(): 500.).
     Note that this will not make ‘get_iterator’ available as a method
     of ‘Foo’, so it is provided separately.

The ‘abc’ module also provides the following decorator:

 -- Işlevi: @abc.abstractmethod

     A decorator indicating abstract methods.

     Using this decorator requires that the class’s metaclass is *note
     ABCMeta: db0. or is derived from it.  A class that has a metaclass
     derived from ‘ABCMeta’ cannot be instantiated unless all of its
     abstract methods and properties are overridden.  The abstract
     methods can be called using any of the normal ‘super’ call
     mechanisms.  ‘abstractmethod()’ may be used to declare abstract
     methods for properties and descriptors.

     Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to
     modify the abstraction status of a method or class once it is
     created, are only supported using the *note
     update_abstractmethods(): 41db. function.  The ‘abstractmethod()’
     only affects subclasses derived using regular inheritance; “virtual
     subclasses” registered with the ABC’s *note register(): f33. method
     are not affected.

     When ‘abstractmethod()’ is applied in combination with other method
     descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as
     shown in the following usage examples:

          class C(ABC):
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_method(self, arg1):
                  ...
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg2):
                  ...
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg3):
                  ...

              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...
              @my_abstract_property.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self, val):
                  ...

              @abstractmethod
              def _get_x(self):
                  ...
              @abstractmethod
              def _set_x(self, val):
                  ...
              x = property(_get_x, _set_x)

     In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class
     machinery, the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using
     ‘__isabstractmethod__’.  In general, this attribute should be
     ‘True’ if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are
     abstract.  For example, Python’s built-in *note property: 43c. does
     the equivalent of:

          class Descriptor:
              ...
              @property
              def __isabstractmethod__(self):
                  return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for
                             f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel))

          Not: Unlike Java abstract methods, these abstract methods may
          have an implementation.  This implementation can be called via
          the *note super(): 20d. mechanism from the class that
          overrides it.  This could be useful as an end-point for a
          super-call in a framework that uses cooperative
          multiple-inheritance.

The ‘abc’ module also supports the following legacy decorators:

 -- Işlevi: @abc.abstractclassmethod

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: It is now possible to use *note
     classmethod: 252. with *note abstractmethod(): f30, making this
     decorator redundant.

     A subclass of the built-in *note classmethod(): 252, indicating an
     abstract classmethod.  Otherwise it is similar to *note
     abstractmethod(): f30.

     This special case is deprecated, as the *note classmethod(): 252.
     decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to
     an abstract method:

          class C(ABC):
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg):
                  ...

 -- Işlevi: @abc.abstractstaticmethod

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: It is now possible to use *note
     staticmethod: 612. with *note abstractmethod(): f30, making this
     decorator redundant.

     A subclass of the built-in *note staticmethod(): 612, indicating an
     abstract staticmethod.  Otherwise it is similar to *note
     abstractmethod(): f30.

     This special case is deprecated, as the *note staticmethod(): 612.
     decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to
     an abstract method:

          class C(ABC):
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg):
                  ...

 -- Işlevi: @abc.abstractproperty

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: It is now possible to use *note
     property: 43c, *note property.getter(): 1494, *note
     property.setter(): 1495. and *note property.deleter(): 1496. with
     *note abstractmethod(): f30, making this decorator redundant.

     A subclass of the built-in *note property(): 43c, indicating an
     abstract property.

     This special case is deprecated, as the *note property(): 43c.
     decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to
     an abstract method:

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...

     The above example defines a read-only property; you can also define
     a read-write abstract property by appropriately marking one or more
     of the underlying methods as abstract:

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  ...

              @x.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

     If only some components are abstract, only those components need to
     be updated to create a concrete property in a subclass:

          class D(C):
              @C.x.setter
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

The ‘abc’ module also provides the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: abc.get_cache_token ()

     Returns the current abstract base class cache token.

     The token is an opaque object (that supports equality testing)
     identifying the current version of the abstract base class cache
     for virtual subclasses.  The token changes with every call to *note
     ABCMeta.register(): f33. on any ABC.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: abc.update_abstractmethods (cls)

     A function to recalculate an abstract class’s abstraction status.
     This function should be called if a class’s abstract methods have
     been implemented or changed after it was created.  Usually, this
     function should be called from within a class decorator.

     Returns 'cls', to allow usage as a class decorator.

     If 'cls' is not an instance of *note ABCMeta: db0, does nothing.

          Not: This function assumes that 'cls'’s superclasses are
          already updated.  It does not update any subclasses.

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (4) C++ programmers should note that Python’s virtual base class
concept is not the same as C++’s.


File: python.info,  Node: atexit — Exit handlers,  Next: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Prev: abc — Abstract Base Classes,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.10 ‘atexit’ — Exit handlers
--------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note atexit: c. module defines functions to register and unregister
cleanup functions.  Functions thus registered are automatically executed
upon normal interpreter termination.  *note atexit: c. runs these
functions in the 'reverse' order in which they were registered; if you
register ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’, at interpreter termination time they will be
run in the order ‘C’, ‘B’, ‘A’.

'Note:' The functions registered via this module are not called when the
program is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal
internal error is detected, or when *note os._exit(): 208a. is called.

'Note:' The effect of registering or unregistering functions from within
a cleanup function is undefined.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: When used with C-API subinterpreters, registered
functions are local to the interpreter they were registered in.

 -- Işlevi: atexit.register (func, *args, **kwargs)

     Register 'func' as a function to be executed at termination.  Any
     optional arguments that are to be passed to 'func' must be passed
     as arguments to *note register(): 6c3.  It is possible to register
     the same function and arguments more than once.

     At normal program termination (for instance, if *note sys.exit():
     11f5. is called or the main module’s execution completes), all
     functions registered are called in last in, first out order.  The
     assumption is that lower level modules will normally be imported
     before higher level modules and thus must be cleaned up later.

     If an exception is raised during execution of the exit handlers, a
     traceback is printed (unless *note SystemExit: bc8. is raised) and
     the exception information is saved.  After all exit handlers have
     had a chance to run, the last exception to be raised is re-raised.

     This function returns 'func', which makes it possible to use it as
     a decorator.

          Uyarı: Starting new threads or calling *note os.fork(): 23a.
          from a registered function can lead to race condition between
          the main Python runtime thread freeing thread states while
          internal *note threading: ec. routines or the new process try
          to use that state.  This can lead to crashes rather than clean
          shutdown.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Attempts to start a new thread or *note
     os.fork(): 23a. a new process in a registered function now leads to
     *note RuntimeError: 180.

 -- Işlevi: atexit.unregister (func)

     Remove 'func' from the list of functions to be run at interpreter
     shutdown.  *note unregister(): 41de. silently does nothing if
     'func' was not previously registered.  If 'func' has been
     registered more than once, every occurrence of that function in the
     *note atexit: c. call stack will be removed.  Equality comparisons
     (‘==’) are used internally during unregistration, so function
     references do not need to have matching identities.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note readline: b9.

     Useful example of *note atexit: c. to read and write *note
     readline: b9. history files.

* Menu:

* atexit Example::


File: python.info,  Node: atexit Example,  Up: atexit — Exit handlers

5.29.10.1 ‘atexit’ Example
..........................

The following simple example demonstrates how a module can initialize a
counter from a file when it is imported and save the counter’s updated
value automatically when the program terminates without relying on the
application making an explicit call into this module at termination.

     try:
         with open('counterfile') as infile:
             _count = int(infile.read())
     except FileNotFoundError:
         _count = 0

     def incrcounter(n):
         global _count
         _count = _count + n

     def savecounter():
         with open('counterfile', 'w') as outfile:
             outfile.write('%d' % _count)

     import atexit

     atexit.register(savecounter)

Positional and keyword arguments may also be passed to *note register():
6c3. to be passed along to the registered function when it is called:

     def goodbye(name, adjective):
         print('Goodbye %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective))

     import atexit

     atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice')
     # or:
     atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny')

Usage as a *note decorator: 559.:

     import atexit

     @atexit.register
     def goodbye():
         print('You are now leaving the Python sector.')

This only works with functions that can be called without arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Next: __future__ — Future statement definitions,  Prev: atexit — Exit handlers,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.11 ‘traceback’ — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
---------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/traceback.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print
stack traces of Python programs.  It is more flexible than the
interpreter’s default traceback display, and therefore makes it possible
to configure certain aspects of the output.  Finally, it contains a
utility for capturing enough information about an exception to print it
later, without the need to save a reference to the actual exception.
Since exceptions can be the roots of large objects graph, this utility
can significantly improve memory management.

The module uses *note traceback objects: 962. — these are objects of
type *note types.TracebackType: 960, which are assigned to the *note
__traceback__: 116f. field of *note BaseException: 3c3. instances.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note faulthandler: 56.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

Module *note pdb: a4.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

The module’s API can be divided into two parts:

   * Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are
     useful for interactive inspection of exceptions and tracebacks.

   * *note TracebackException: 4ba. class and its helper classes *note
     StackSummary: d19. and *note FrameSummary: d1a.  These offer both
     more flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store
     the information necessary for later formatting without holding
     references to actual exception and traceback objects.

* Menu:

* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>.
* TracebackException Objects::
* StackSummary Objects::
* FrameSummary Objects::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/traceback.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions<2>,  Next: TracebackException Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.29.11.1 Module-Level Functions
................................

 -- Işlevi: traceback.print_tb (tb, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries from *note traceback
     object: 962. 'tb' (starting from the caller’s frame) if 'limit' is
     positive.  Otherwise, print the last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If
     'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all entries are printed.  If 'file'
     is omitted or ‘None’, the output goes to *note sys.stderr: 792.;
     otherwise it should be an open *note file: 1068. or *note file-like
     object: 2379. to receive the output.

          Not: The meaning of the 'limit' parameter is different than
          the meaning of *note sys.tracebacklimit: 4146.  A negative
          'limit' value corresponds to a positive value of
          ‘sys.tracebacklimit’, whereas the behaviour of a positive
          'limit' value cannot be achieved with ‘sys.tracebacklimit’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added negative 'limit' support.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.print_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None,
          file=None, chain=True)

     Print exception information and stack trace entries from *note
     traceback object: 962. 'tb' to 'file'.  This differs from *note
     print_tb(): d1b. in the following ways:

        * if 'tb' is not ‘None’, it prints a header ‘Traceback (most
          recent call last):’

        * it prints the exception type and 'value' after the stack trace

        * if 'type(value)' is *note SyntaxError: 14c. and 'value' has
          the appropriate format, it prints the line where the syntax
          error occurred with a caret indicating the approximate
          position of the error.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value' and 'tb', an
     exception object can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value'
     and 'tb' are provided, the first argument is ignored in order to
     provide backwards compatibility.

     The optional 'limit' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): d1b.  If 'chain' is true (the default), then chained
     exceptions (the *note __cause__: 1171. or *note __context__: 1170.
     attributes of the exception) will be printed as well, like the
     interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled exception.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'etype' argument is ignored and inferred
     from the type of 'value'.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to
     'exc' and is now positional-only.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.print_exc (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.exception(),
     limit=limit, file=file, chain=chain)’.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.print_last (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit=limit,
     file=file, chain=chain)’.  In general it will work only after an
     exception has reached an interactive prompt (see *note
     sys.last_exc: 1ec.).

 -- Işlevi: traceback.print_stack (f=None, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries (starting from the
     invocation point) if 'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, print the
     last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If 'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all
     entries are printed.  The optional 'f' argument can be used to
     specify an alternate *note stack frame: 4f7. to start.  The
     optional 'file' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): d1b.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added negative 'limit' support.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.extract_tb (tb, limit=None)

     Return a *note StackSummary: d19. object representing a list of
     “pre-processed” stack trace entries extracted from the *note
     traceback object: 962. 'tb'.  It is useful for alternate formatting
     of stack traces.  The optional 'limit' argument has the same
     meaning as for *note print_tb(): d1b.  A “pre-processed” stack
     trace entry is a *note FrameSummary: d1a. object containing
     attributes *note filename: 41e6, *note lineno: 41e7, *note name:
     41e8, and *note line: 41e9. representing the information that is
     usually printed for a stack trace.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.extract_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     Extract the raw traceback from the current *note stack frame: 4f7.
     The return value has the same format as for *note extract_tb():
     41e5.  The optional 'f' and 'limit' arguments have the same meaning
     as for *note print_stack(): d1c.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.print_list (extracted_list, file=None)

     Print the list of tuples as returned by *note extract_tb(): 41e5.
     or *note extract_stack(): 41ea. as a formatted stack trace to the
     given file.  If 'file' is ‘None’, the output is written to *note
     sys.stderr: 792.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.format_list (extracted_list)

     Given a list of tuples or *note FrameSummary: d1a. objects as
     returned by *note extract_tb(): 41e5. or *note extract_stack():
     41ea, return a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
     the resulting list corresponds to the item with the same index in
     the argument list.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings may
     contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source
     text line is not ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.format_exception_only (exc, /[, value])

     Format the exception part of a traceback using an exception value
     such as given by *note sys.last_value: 1ee.  The return value is a
     list of strings, each ending in a newline.  The list contains the
     exception’s message, which is normally a single string; however,
     for *note SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions, it contains several lines
     that (when printed) display detailed information about where the
     syntax error occurred.  Following the message, the list contains
     the exception’s *note notes: 2077.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value', an exception object
     can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value' is provided, the
     first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards
     compatibility.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to
     'exc' and is now positional-only.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The returned list now includes any *note
     notes: 2077. attached to the exception.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.format_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None,
          chain=True)

     Format a stack trace and the exception information.  The arguments
     have the same meaning as the corresponding arguments to *note
     print_exception(): 68e.  The return value is a list of strings,
     each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines.
     When these lines are concatenated and printed, exactly the same
     text is printed as does *note print_exception(): 68e.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'etype' argument is ignored and inferred
     from the type of 'value'.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function’s behavior and signature were
     modified to match *note print_exception(): 68e.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.format_exc (limit=None, chain=True)

     This is like ‘print_exc(limit)’ but returns a string instead of
     printing to a file.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.format_tb (tb, limit=None)

     A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit))’.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.format_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_stack(f, limit))’.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.clear_frames (tb)

     Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a *note
     traceback: 962. 'tb' by calling the *note clear(): da2. method of
     each *note frame object: 4f7.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.walk_stack (f)

     Walk a stack following *note f.f_back: 5bd. from the given frame,
     yielding the frame and line number for each frame.  If 'f' is
     ‘None’, the current stack is used.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 41ef.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: traceback.walk_tb (tb)

     Walk a traceback following *note tb_next: 961. yielding the frame
     and line number for each frame.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 41ef.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: TracebackException Objects,  Next: StackSummary Objects,  Prev: Module-Level Functions<2>,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.29.11.2 ‘TracebackException’ Objects
......................................

Added in version 3.5.

‘TracebackException’ objects are created from actual exceptions to
capture data for later printing.  They offer a more lightweight method
of storing this information by avoiding holding references to *note
traceback: 962. and *note frame: 4f7. objects.  In addition, they expose
more options to configure the output compared to the module-level
functions described above.

 -- Sınıfı: traceback.TracebackException (exc_type, exc_value,
          exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True,
          capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15,
          max_group_depth=10)

     Capture an exception for later rendering.  The meaning of 'limit',
     'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
     StackSummary: d19. class.

     If 'compact' is true, only data that is required by
     ‘TracebackException’’s *note format(): 431. method is saved in the
     class attributes.  In particular, the *note __context__: 41f1.
     field is calculated only if *note __cause__: 41f2. is ‘None’ and
     *note __suppress_context__: 41f3. is false.

     Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
     traceback.

     'max_group_width' and 'max_group_depth' control the formatting of
     exception groups (see *note BaseExceptionGroup: 3be.).  The depth
     refers to the nesting level of the group, and the width refers to
     the size of a single exception group’s exceptions array.  The
     formatted output is truncated when either limit is exceeded.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'compact' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'max_group_width' and
     'max_group_depth' parameters.

      -- Özniteliği: __cause__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __cause__: 1171.

      -- Özniteliği: __context__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __context__:
          1170.

      -- Özniteliği: exceptions

          If ‘self’ represents an *note ExceptionGroup: 181, this field
          holds a list of ‘TracebackException’ instances representing
          the nested exceptions.  Otherwise it is ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Özniteliği: __suppress_context__

          The *note __suppress_context__: 1ea6. value from the original
          exception.

      -- Özniteliği: __notes__

          The *note __notes__: 2077. value from the original exception,
          or ‘None’ if the exception does not have any notes.  If it is
          not ‘None’ is it formatted in the traceback after the
          exception string.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Özniteliği: stack

          A *note StackSummary: d19. representing the traceback.

      -- Özniteliği: exc_type

          The class of the original traceback.

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred.

      -- Özniteliği: end_lineno

          For syntax errors - the end line number where the error
          occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Özniteliği: text

          For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred.

      -- Özniteliği: offset

          For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error
          occurred.

      -- Özniteliği: end_offset

          For syntax errors - the end offset into the text where the
          error occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Özniteliği: msg

          For syntax errors - the compiler error message.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_exception (exc, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Capture an exception for later rendering.  'limit',
          'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
          StackSummary: d19. class.

          Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
          traceback.

      -- Yöntemi: print (*, file=None, chain=True)

          Print to 'file' (default ‘sys.stderr’) the exception
          information returned by *note format(): 431.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Yöntemi: format (*, chain=True)

          Format the exception.

          If 'chain' is not ‘True’, *note __cause__: 41f2. and *note
          __context__: 41f1. will not be formatted.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline and some containing internal newlines.  *note
          print_exception(): 68e. is a wrapper around this method which
          just prints the lines to a file.

      -- Yöntemi: format_exception_only ()

          Format the exception part of the traceback.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline.

          The generator emits the exception’s message followed by its
          notes (if it has any).  The exception message is normally a
          single string; however, for *note SyntaxError: 14c.
          exceptions, it consists of several lines that (when printed)
          display detailed information about where the syntax error
          occurred.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: The exception’s *note notes: 2077. are
          now included in the output.


File: python.info,  Node: StackSummary Objects,  Next: FrameSummary Objects,  Prev: TracebackException Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.29.11.3 ‘StackSummary’ Objects
................................

Added in version 3.5.

‘StackSummary’ objects represent a call stack ready for formatting.

 -- Sınıfı: traceback.StackSummary

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod extract (frame_gen, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a frame generator (such
          as is returned by *note walk_stack(): d17. or *note walk_tb():
          d18.).

          If 'limit' is supplied, only this many frames are taken from
          'frame_gen'.  If 'lookup_lines' is ‘False’, the returned *note
          FrameSummary: d1a. objects will not have read their lines in
          yet, making the cost of creating the ‘StackSummary’ cheaper
          (which may be valuable if it may not actually get formatted).
          If 'capture_locals' is ‘True’ the local variables in each
          ‘FrameSummary’ are captured as object representations.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: Exceptions raised from *note repr():
          637. on a local variable (when 'capture_locals' is ‘True’) are
          no longer propagated to the caller.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_list (a_list)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a supplied list of
          *note FrameSummary: d1a. objects or old-style list of tuples.
          Each tuple should be a 4-tuple with 'filename', 'lineno',
          'name', 'line' as the elements.

      -- Yöntemi: format ()

          Returns a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
          the resulting list corresponds to a single *note frame: 4f7.
          from the stack.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings
          may contain internal newlines as well, for those items with
          source text lines.

          For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few
          repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the
          exact number of further repetitions.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: Long sequences of repeated frames are
          now abbreviated.

      -- Yöntemi: format_frame_summary (frame_summary)

          Returns a string for printing one of the *note frames: 4f7.
          involved in the stack.  This method is called for each *note
          FrameSummary: d1a. object to be printed by *note
          StackSummary.format(): 4204.  If it returns ‘None’, the frame
          is omitted from the output.

          Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: FrameSummary Objects,  Next: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Prev: StackSummary Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.29.11.4 ‘FrameSummary’ Objects
................................

Added in version 3.5.

A ‘FrameSummary’ object represents a single *note frame: 4f7. in a *note
traceback: 962.

 -- Sınıfı: traceback.FrameSummary (filename, lineno, name, *,
          lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None, end_lineno=None,
          colno=None, end_colno=None)

     Represents a single *note frame: 4f7. in the *note traceback: 962.
     or stack that is being formatted or printed.  It may optionally
     have a stringified version of the frame’s locals included in it.
     If 'lookup_line' is ‘False’, the source code is not looked up until
     the ‘FrameSummary’ has the *note line: 41e9. attribute accessed
     (which also happens when casting it to a *note tuple: 4ff.).  *note
     line: 41e9. may be directly provided, and will prevent line lookups
     happening at all.  'locals' is an optional local variable
     dictionary, and if supplied the variable representations are stored
     in the summary for later display.

     ‘FrameSummary’ instances have the following attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          The filename of the source code for this frame.  Equivalent to
          accessing *note f.f_code.co_filename: 1214. on a *note frame
          object: 4f7. 'f'.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number of the source code for this frame.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          Equivalent to accessing *note f.f_code.co_name: 1d24. on a
          *note frame object: 4f7. 'f'.

      -- Özniteliği: line

          A string representing the source code for this frame, with
          leading and trailing whitespace stripped.  If the source is
          not available, it is ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: end_lineno

          The last line number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is set to ‘None’ and indexation starts from 1.

      -- Özniteliği: colno

          The column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.

      -- Özniteliği: end_colno

          The last column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Next: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: FrameSummary Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.29.11.5 Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions
......................................................

This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to
(but less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop.
For a more complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the
*note code: 1a. module.

     import sys, traceback

     def run_user_code(envdir):
         source = input(">>> ")
         try:
             exec(source, envdir)
         except Exception:
             print("Exception in user code:")
             print("-"*60)
             traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout)
             print("-"*60)

     envdir = {}
     while True:
         run_user_code(envdir)

The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and
format the exception and traceback:

     import sys, traceback

     def lumberjack():
         bright_side_of_life()

     def bright_side_of_life():
         return tuple()[0]

     try:
         lumberjack()
     except IndexError as exc:
         print("*** print_tb:")
         traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exception:")
         traceback.print_exception(exc, limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exc:")
         traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** format_exc, first and last line:")
         formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines()
         print(formatted_lines[0])
         print(formatted_lines[-1])
         print("*** format_exception:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc)))
         print("*** extract_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** format_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** tb_lineno:", exc.__traceback__.tb_lineno)

The output for the example would look similar to this:

     *** print_tb:
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
     *** print_exception:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** print_exc:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exc, first and last line:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exception:
     ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n',
      'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
     *** extract_tb:
     [<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_life>]
     *** format_tb:
     ['  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n']
     *** tb_lineno: 10

The following example shows the different ways to print and format the
stack:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> def another_function():
     ...     lumberstack()
     ...
     >>> def lumberstack():
     ...     traceback.print_stack()
     ...     print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))
     ...     print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))
     ...
     >>> another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>
         another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function
         lumberstack()
       File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack
         traceback.print_stack()
     [('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'),
      ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'),
      ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')]
     ['  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n    another_function()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n']

This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'),
     ...                        ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')])
     ['  File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n    spam.eggs()\n',
      '  File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n    return "bacon"\n']
     >>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
     >>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error)
     ['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.29.11.6 Examples of Using ‘TracebackException’
................................................

With the helper class, we have more options:

     >>> import sys
     >>> from traceback import TracebackException
     >>>
     >>> def lumberjack():
     ...     bright_side_of_life()
     ...
     >>> def bright_side_of_life():
     ...     t = "bright", "side", "of", "life"
     ...     return t[5]
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     lumberjack()
     ... except IndexError as e:
     ...     exc = e
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     try:
     ...         lumberjack()
     ...     except:
     ...         1/0
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     chained_exc = e
     ...
     >>> # limit works as with the module-level functions
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # capture_locals adds local variables in frames
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
         t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life")
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # The *chain* kwarg to print() controls whether chained
     >>> # exceptions are displayed
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: __future__ — Future statement definitions,  Next: gc — Garbage Collector interface,  Prev: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.12 ‘__future__’ — Future statement definitions
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/__future__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Imports of the form ‘from __future__ import feature’ are called *note
future statements: 3d7.  These are special-cased by the Python compiler
to allow the use of new Python features in modules containing the future
statement before the release in which the feature becomes standard.

While these future statements are given additional special meaning by
the Python compiler, they are still executed like any other import
statement and the *note __future__: 0. exists and is handled by the
import system the same way any other Python module would be.  This
design serves three purposes:

   * To avoid confusing existing tools that analyze import statements
     and expect to find the modules they’re importing.

   * To document when incompatible changes were introduced, and when
     they will be — or were — made mandatory.  This is a form of
     executable documentation, and can be inspected programmatically via
     importing *note __future__: 0. and examining its contents.

   * To ensure that *note future statements: 3d7. run under releases
     prior to Python 2.1 at least yield runtime exceptions (the import
     of *note __future__: 0. will fail, because there was no module of
     that name prior to 2.1).

* Menu:

* Module Contents: Module Contents<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/__future__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents<5>,  Up: __future__ — Future statement definitions

5.29.12.1 Module Contents
.........................

No feature description will ever be deleted from *note __future__: 0.
Since its introduction in Python 2.1 the following features have found
their way into the language using this mechanism:

feature                optional in       mandatory in       effect
                                                            
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
nested_scopes          2.1.0b1           2.2                PEP 227(1): 'Statically Nested Scopes'
                                                            
                                                            
generators             2.2.0a1           2.3                PEP 255(2): 'Simple Generators'
                                                            
                                                            
division               2.2.0a2           3.0                PEP 238(3): 'Changing the Division Operator'
                                                            
                                                            
absolute_import        2.5.0a1           3.0                PEP 328(4): 'Imports: Multi-Line and
                                                            Absolute/Relative'
                                                            
                                                            
with_statement         2.5.0a1           2.6                PEP 343(5): 'The “with” Statement'
                                                            
                                                            
print_function         2.6.0a2           3.0                PEP 3105(6): 'Make print a function'
                                                            
                                                            
unicode_literals       2.6.0a2           3.0                PEP 3112(7): 'Bytes literals in Python 3000'
                                                            
                                                            
generator_stop         3.5.0b1           3.7                PEP 479(8): 'StopIteration handling inside
                                                            generators'
                                                            
                                                            
annotations            3.7.0b1           TBD (9)            PEP 563(10): 'Postponed evaluation of
                                                            annotations'
                                                            

 -- Sınıfı: __future__._Feature

     Each statement in ‘__future__.py’ is of the form:

          FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease,
                                 CompilerFlag)

     where, normally, 'OptionalRelease' is less than 'MandatoryRelease',
     and both are 5-tuples of the same form as *note sys.version_info:
     4b5.:

          (PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int
           PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int
           PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int
           PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string
           PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int
          )

 -- Yöntemi: _Feature.getOptionalRelease ()

     'OptionalRelease' records the first release in which the feature
     was accepted.

 -- Yöntemi: _Feature.getMandatoryRelease ()

     In the case of a 'MandatoryRelease' that has not yet occurred,
     'MandatoryRelease' predicts the release in which the feature will
     become part of the language.

     Else 'MandatoryRelease' records when the feature became part of the
     language; in releases at or after that, modules no longer need a
     future statement to use the feature in question, but may continue
     to use such imports.

     'MandatoryRelease' may also be ‘None’, meaning that a planned
     feature got dropped or that it is not yet decided.

 -- Özniteliği: _Feature.compiler_flag

     'CompilerFlag' is the (bitfield) flag that should be passed in the
     fourth argument to the built-in function *note compile(): 56d. to
     enable the feature in dynamically compiled code.  This flag is
     stored in the *note _Feature.compiler_flag: 1f53. attribute on
     *note _Feature: 1f52. instances.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Future statements: 3d7.

     How the compiler treats future imports.

PEP 236(11) - Back to the __future__

     The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (9) ‘from __future__ import annotations’ was previously scheduled to
become mandatory in Python 3.10, but the Python Steering Council twice
decided to delay the change (announcement for Python 3.10
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/);
announcement for Python 3.11
(https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/)).
No final decision has been made yet.  See also PEP 563
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/) and PEP 649
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/).

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: gc — Garbage Collector interface,  Next: inspect — Inspect live objects,  Prev: __future__ — Future statement definitions,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.13 ‘gc’ — Garbage Collector interface
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the optional garbage collector.  It
provides the ability to disable the collector, tune the collection
frequency, and set debugging options.  It also provides access to
unreachable objects that the collector found but cannot free.  Since the
collector supplements the reference counting already used in Python, you
can disable the collector if you are sure your program does not create
reference cycles.  Automatic collection can be disabled by calling
‘gc.disable()’.  To debug a leaking program call
‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)’.  Notice that this includes
‘gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL’, causing garbage-collected objects to be saved in
gc.garbage for inspection.

The *note gc: 5e. module provides the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: gc.enable ()

     Enable automatic garbage collection.

 -- Işlevi: gc.disable ()

     Disable automatic garbage collection.

 -- Işlevi: gc.isenabled ()

     Return ‘True’ if automatic collection is enabled.

 -- Işlevi: gc.collect (generation=2)

     With no arguments, run a full collection.  The optional argument
     'generation' may be an integer specifying which generation to
     collect (from 0 to 2).  A *note ValueError: 189. is raised if the
     generation number is invalid.  The number of unreachable objects
     found is returned.

     The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are
     cleared whenever a full collection or collection of the highest
     generation (2) is run.  Not all items in some free lists may be
     freed due to the particular implementation, in particular *note
     float: 272.

     The effect of calling ‘gc.collect()’ while the interpreter is
     already performing a collection is undefined.

 -- Işlevi: gc.set_debug (flags)

     Set the garbage collection debugging flags.  Debugging information
     will be written to ‘sys.stderr’.  See below for a list of debugging
     flags which can be combined using bit operations to control
     debugging.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_debug ()

     Return the debugging flags currently set.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_objects (generation=None)

     Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding
     the list returned.  If 'generation' is not ‘None’, return only the
     objects tracked by the collector that are in that generation.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: New 'generation' parameter.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘gc.get_objects’ with
     argument ‘generation’.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_stats ()

     Return a list of three per-generation dictionaries containing
     collection statistics since interpreter start.  The number of keys
     may change in the future, but currently each dictionary will
     contain the following items:

        * ‘collections’ is the number of times this generation was
          collected;

        * ‘collected’ is the total number of objects collected inside
          this generation;

        * ‘uncollectable’ is the total number of objects which were
          found to be uncollectable (and were therefore moved to the
          *note garbage: 1066. list) inside this generation.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: gc.set_threshold (threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]])

     Set the garbage collection thresholds (the collection frequency).
     Setting 'threshold0' to zero disables collection.

     The GC classifies objects into three generations depending on how
     many collection sweeps they have survived.  New objects are placed
     in the youngest generation (generation ‘0’).  If an object survives
     a collection it is moved into the next older generation.  Since
     generation ‘2’ is the oldest generation, objects in that generation
     remain there after a collection.  In order to decide when to run,
     the collector keeps track of the number object allocations and
     deallocations since the last collection.  When the number of
     allocations minus the number of deallocations exceeds 'threshold0',
     collection starts.  Initially only generation ‘0’ is examined.  If
     generation ‘0’ has been examined more than 'threshold1' times since
     generation ‘1’ has been examined, then generation ‘1’ is examined
     as well.  With the third generation, things are a bit more
     complicated, see Collecting the oldest generation(1) for more
     information.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_count ()

     Return the current collection counts as a tuple of ‘(count0,
     count1, count2)’.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_threshold ()

     Return the current collection thresholds as a tuple of
     ‘(threshold0, threshold1, threshold2)’.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_referrers (*objs)

     Return the list of objects that directly refer to any of objs.
     This function will only locate those containers which support
     garbage collection; extension types which do refer to other objects
     but do not support garbage collection will not be found.

     Note that objects which have already been dereferenced, but which
     live in cycles and have not yet been collected by the garbage
     collector can be listed among the resulting referrers.  To get only
     currently live objects, call *note collect(): 89c. before calling
     *note get_referrers(): 63e.

          Uyarı: Care must be taken when using objects returned by *note
          get_referrers(): 63e. because some of them could still be
          under construction and hence in a temporarily invalid state.
          Avoid using *note get_referrers(): 63e. for any purpose other
          than debugging.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘gc.get_referrers’ with
     argument ‘objs’.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_referents (*objs)

     Return a list of objects directly referred to by any of the
     arguments.  The referents returned are those objects visited by the
     arguments’ C-level *note tp_traverse: 5ae. methods (if any), and
     may not be all objects actually directly reachable.  *note
     tp_traverse: 5ae. methods are supported only by objects that
     support garbage collection, and are only required to visit objects
     that may be involved in a cycle.  So, for example, if an integer is
     directly reachable from an argument, that integer object may or may
     not appear in the result list.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘gc.get_referents’ with
     argument ‘objs’.

 -- Işlevi: gc.is_tracked (obj)

     Returns ‘True’ if the object is currently tracked by the garbage
     collector, ‘False’ otherwise.  As a general rule, instances of
     atomic types aren’t tracked and instances of non-atomic types
     (containers, user-defined objects…) are.  However, some
     type-specific optimizations can be present in order to suppress the
     garbage collector footprint of simple instances (e.g.  dicts
     containing only atomic keys and values):

          >>> gc.is_tracked(0)
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked("a")
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked([])
          True
          >>> gc.is_tracked({})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": []})
          True

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Işlevi: gc.is_finalized (obj)

     Returns ‘True’ if the given object has been finalized by the
     garbage collector, ‘False’ otherwise.

          >>> x = None
          >>> class Lazarus:
          ...     def __del__(self):
          ...         global x
          ...         x = self
          ...
          >>> lazarus = Lazarus()
          >>> gc.is_finalized(lazarus)
          False
          >>> del lazarus
          >>> gc.is_finalized(x)
          True

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: gc.freeze ()

     Freeze all the objects tracked by the garbage collector; move them
     to a permanent generation and ignore them in all the future
     collections.

     If a process will ‘fork()’ without ‘exec()’, avoiding unnecessary
     copy-on-write in child processes will maximize memory sharing and
     reduce overall memory usage.  This requires both avoiding creation
     of freed “holes” in memory pages in the parent process and ensuring
     that GC collections in child processes won’t touch the ‘gc_refs’
     counter of long-lived objects originating in the parent process.
     To accomplish both, call ‘gc.disable()’ early in the parent
     process, ‘gc.freeze()’ right before ‘fork()’, and ‘gc.enable()’
     early in child processes.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: gc.unfreeze ()

     Unfreeze the objects in the permanent generation, put them back
     into the oldest generation.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: gc.get_freeze_count ()

     Return the number of objects in the permanent generation.

     Added in version 3.7.

The following variables are provided for read-only access (you can
mutate the values but should not rebind them):

 -- Verisi: gc.garbage

     A list of objects which the collector found to be unreachable but
     could not be freed (uncollectable objects).  Starting with Python
     3.4, this list should be empty most of the time, except when using
     instances of C extension types with a non-‘NULL’ ‘tp_del’ slot.

     If *note DEBUG_SAVEALL: 421c. is set, then all unreachable objects
     will be added to this list rather than freed.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: If this list is non-empty at *note
     interpreter shutdown: d09, a *note ResourceWarning: ab9. is
     emitted, which is silent by default.  If *note DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE:
     1067. is set, in addition all uncollectable objects are printed.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Following PEP 442(2), objects with a *note
     __del__(): 1d4e. method don’t end up in *note gc.garbage: 1066.
     anymore.

 -- Verisi: gc.callbacks

     A list of callbacks that will be invoked by the garbage collector
     before and after collection.  The callbacks will be called with two
     arguments, 'phase' and 'info'.

     'phase' can be one of two values:

          “start”: The garbage collection is about to start.

          “stop”: The garbage collection has finished.

     'info' is a dict providing more information for the callback.  The
     following keys are currently defined:

          “generation”: The oldest generation being collected.

          “collected”: When 'phase' is “stop”, the number of objects
          successfully collected.

          “uncollectable”: When 'phase' is “stop”, the number of objects
          that could not be collected and were put in *note garbage:
          1066.

     Applications can add their own callbacks to this list.  The primary
     use cases are:

          Gathering statistics about garbage collection, such as how
          often various generations are collected, and how long the
          collection takes.

          Allowing applications to identify and clear their own
          uncollectable types when they appear in *note garbage: 1066.

     Added in version 3.3.

The following constants are provided for use with *note set_debug():
4217.:

 -- Verisi: gc.DEBUG_STATS

     Print statistics during collection.  This information can be useful
     when tuning the collection frequency.

 -- Verisi: gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE

     Print information on collectable objects found.

 -- Verisi: gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE

     Print information of uncollectable objects found (objects which are
     not reachable but cannot be freed by the collector).  These objects
     will be added to the ‘garbage’ list.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Also print the contents of the *note
     garbage: 1066. list at *note interpreter shutdown: d09, if it isn’t
     empty.

 -- Verisi: gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL

     When set, all unreachable objects found will be appended to
     'garbage' rather than being freed.  This can be useful for
     debugging a leaking program.

 -- Verisi: gc.DEBUG_LEAK

     The debugging flags necessary for the collector to print
     information about a leaking program (equal to ‘DEBUG_COLLECTABLE |
     DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE | DEBUG_SAVEALL’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://devguide.python.org/garbage_collector/#collecting-the-oldest-generation

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: inspect — Inspect live objects,  Next: site — Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: gc — Garbage Collector interface,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.14 ‘inspect’ — Inspect live objects
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/inspect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note inspect: 7c. module provides several useful functions to help
get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods,
functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects.  For example, it
can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code
of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get
all the information you need to display a detailed traceback.

There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type
checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and
examining the interpreter stack.

* Menu:

* Types and members::
* Retrieving source code::
* Introspecting callables with the Signature object::
* Classes and functions: Classes and functions<2>.
* The interpreter stack::
* Fetching attributes statically::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Code Objects Bit Flags::
* Buffer flags::
* Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/inspect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Types and members,  Next: Retrieving source code,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.1 Types and members
...........................

The *note getmembers(): 167c. function retrieves the members of an
object such as a class or module.  The functions whose names begin with
“is” are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument
to *note getmembers(): 167c.  They also help you determine when you can
expect to find the following special attributes (see *note
Import-related attributes on module objects: 1d00. for module
attributes):

Type                  Attribute               Description
                                              
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
class                 __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this class
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              class was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 16c.
                                              of a generic class
                                              
                                              
method                __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this method
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __func__                function object containing
                                              implementation of method
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance to which this method
                                              is bound, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              method was defined
                                              
                                              
function              __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this function
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __code__                code object containing
                                              compiled function
                                              *note bytecode: 3b7.
                                              
                                              
                      __defaults__            tuple of any default values
                                              for positional or keyword
                                              parameters
                                              
                                              
                      __kwdefaults__          mapping of any default values
                                              for keyword-only parameters
                                              
                                              
                      __globals__             global namespace in which
                                              this function was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __builtins__            builtins namespace
                                              
                                              
                      __annotations__         mapping of parameters names
                                              to annotations; ‘"return"’
                                              key is reserved for return
                                              annotations.
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 16c.
                                              of a generic function
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              function was defined
                                              
                                              
traceback             tb_frame                frame object at this level
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lasti                index of last attempted
                                              instruction in bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lineno               current line number in Python
                                              source code
                                              
                                              
                      tb_next                 next inner traceback object
                                              (called by this level)
                                              
                                              
frame                 f_back                  next outer frame object (this
                                              frame’s caller)
                                              
                                              
                      f_builtins              builtins namespace seen by
                                              this frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_code                  code object being executed in
                                              this frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_globals               global namespace seen by this
                                              frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_lasti                 index of last attempted
                                              instruction in bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      f_lineno                current line number in Python
                                              source code
                                              
                                              
                      f_locals                local namespace seen by this
                                              frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_trace                 tracing function for this
                                              frame, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
code                  co_argcount             number of arguments (not
                                              including keyword only
                                              arguments, * or ** args)
                                              
                                              
                      co_code                 string of raw compiled
                                              bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      co_cellvars             tuple of names of cell
                                              variables (referenced by
                                              containing scopes)
                                              
                                              
                      co_consts               tuple of constants used in
                                              the bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      co_filename             name of file in which this
                                              code object was created
                                              
                                              
                      co_firstlineno          number of first line in
                                              Python source code
                                              
                                              
                      co_flags                bitmap of ‘CO_*’ flags, read
                                              more *note here: 1d33.
                                              
                                              
                      co_lnotab               encoded mapping of line
                                              numbers to bytecode indices
                                              
                                              
                      co_freevars             tuple of names of free
                                              variables (referenced via a
                                              function’s closure)
                                              
                                              
                      co_posonlyargcount      number of positional only
                                              arguments
                                              
                                              
                      co_kwonlyargcount       number of keyword only
                                              arguments (not including **
                                              arg)
                                              
                                              
                      co_name                 name with which this code
                                              object was defined
                                              
                                              
                      co_qualname             fully qualified name with
                                              which this code object was
                                              defined
                                              
                                              
                      co_names                tuple of names other than
                                              arguments and function locals
                                              
                                              
                      co_nlocals              number of local variables
                                              
                                              
                      co_stacksize            virtual machine stack space
                                              required
                                              
                                              
                      co_varnames             tuple of names of arguments
                                              and local variables
                                              
                                              
generator             __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      gi_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      gi_running              is the generator running?
                                              
                                              
                      gi_code                 code
                                              
                                              
                      gi_yieldfrom            object being iterated by
                                              ‘yield from’, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
async generator       __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      ag_await                object being awaited on, or
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      ag_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      ag_running              is the generator running?
                                              
                                              
                      ag_code                 code
                                              
                                              
coroutine             __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      cr_await                object being awaited on, or
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      cr_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      cr_running              is the coroutine running?
                                              
                                              
                      cr_code                 code
                                              
                                              
                      cr_origin               where coroutine was created,
                                              or ‘None’.  See
                                              *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): a02.
                                              
                                              
builtin               __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                original name of this
                                              function or method
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance to which a method is
                                              bound, or ‘None’
                                              

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Add ‘__qualname__’ and ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attributes
to generators.

The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function
name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Add ‘cr_origin’ attribute to coroutines.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Add ‘__builtins__’ attribute to functions.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getmembers (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name.  If the optional 'predicate' argument—which
     will be called with the ‘value’ object of each member—is supplied,
     only members for which the predicate returns a true value are
     included.

          Not: *note getmembers(): 167c. will only return class
          attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a
          class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass’
          custom *note __dir__(): 1d54.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getmembers_static (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__.  Optionally,
     only return members that satisfy a given predicate.

          Not: *note getmembers_static(): 45c. may not be able to
          retrieve all members that getmembers can fetch (like
          dynamically created attributes) and may find members that
          getmembers can’t (like descriptors that raise AttributeError).
          It can also return descriptor objects instead of instance
          members in some cases.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getmodulename (path)

     Return the name of the module named by the file 'path', without
     including the names of enclosing packages.  The file extension is
     checked against all of the entries in *note
     importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(): 4223.  If it matches, the final
     path component is returned with the extension removed.  Otherwise,
     ‘None’ is returned.

     Note that this function 'only' returns a meaningful name for actual
     Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages
     will still return ‘None’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: The function is based directly on *note
     importlib: 75.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.ismodule (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a module.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isclass (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a class, whether built-in or created
     in Python code.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.ismethod (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a bound method written in Python.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a Python function, which includes
     functions created by a *note lambda: 2518. expression.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isgeneratorfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a Python generator function.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partial(): d61. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function
     is a Python generator function.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isgenerator (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a generator.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.iscoroutinefunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine function: c02. (a
     function defined with an *note async def: 3db. syntax), a *note
     functools.partial(): d61. wrapping a *note coroutine function: c02,
     or a sync function marked with *note markcoroutinefunction(): 1b3.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partial(): d61. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function
     is a *note coroutine function: c02.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Sync functions marked with *note
     markcoroutinefunction(): 1b3. now return ‘True’.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.markcoroutinefunction (func)

     Decorator to mark a callable as a *note coroutine function: c02. if
     it would not otherwise be detected by *note iscoroutinefunction():
     1b5.

     This may be of use for sync functions that return a *note
     coroutine: 1b4, if the function is passed to an API that requires
     *note iscoroutinefunction(): 1b5.

     When possible, using an *note async def: 3db. function is
     preferred.  Also acceptable is calling the function and testing the
     return with *note iscoroutine(): ca6.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.iscoroutine (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine: 1b4. created by
     an *note async def: 3db. function.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isawaitable (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object can be used in *note await: 55b.
     expression.

     Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from
     regular generators:

          import types

          def gen():
              yield
          @types.coroutine
          def gen_coro():
              yield

          assert not isawaitable(gen())
          assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isasyncgenfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator:
     1e2d. function, for example:

          >>> async def agen():
          ...     yield 1
          ...
          >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
          True

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partial(): d61. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function
     is an *note asynchronous generator: 1e2d. function.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isasyncgen (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator
     iterator: 4133. created by an *note asynchronous generator: 1e2d.
     function.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.istraceback (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a traceback.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isframe (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a frame.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.iscode (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a code.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isbuiltin (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a built-in function or a bound
     built-in method.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.ismethodwrapper (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the type of object is a *note MethodWrapperType:
     45e.

     These are instances of *note MethodWrapperType: 45e, such as *note
     __str__(): 42f, *note __eq__(): 968. and *note __repr__(): 42e.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isroutine (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a user-defined or built-in function
     or method.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isabstract (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an abstract base class.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.ismethoddescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
     *note ismethod(): 4226, *note isclass(): 4225, *note isfunction():
     4227. or *note isbuiltin(): 422d. are true.

     This, for example, is true of ‘int.__add__’.  An object passing
     this test has a *note __get__(): 1374. method but not a *note
     __set__(): 1d57. method, but beyond that the set of attributes
     varies.  A *note __name__: f10. attribute is usually sensible, and
     *note __doc__: 781. often is.

     Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other
     tests return ‘False’ from the *note ismethoddescriptor(): 422f.
     test, simply because the other tests promise more – you can, e.g.,
     count on having the *note __func__: 11a6. attribute (etc) when an
     object passes *note ismethod(): 4226.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isdatadescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a data descriptor.

     Data descriptors have a *note __set__: 1d57. or a *note __delete__:
     1d58. method.  Examples are properties (defined in Python),
     getsets, and members.  The latter two are defined in C and there
     are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust
     across Python implementations.  Typically, data descriptors will
     also have *note __name__: f10. and ‘__doc__’ attributes
     (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes),
     but this is not guaranteed.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.isgetsetdescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a getset descriptor.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' getsets are attributes defined in
     extension modules via *note PyGetSetDef: a2f. structures.  For
     Python implementations without such types, this method will always
     return ‘False’.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.ismemberdescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a member descriptor.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Member descriptors are attributes
     defined in extension modules via *note PyMemberDef: 2dd.
     structures.  For Python implementations without such types, this
     method will always return ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Retrieving source code,  Next: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Prev: Types and members,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.2 Retrieving source code
................................

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getdoc (object)

     Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with *note
     cleandoc(): 4235.  If the documentation string for an object is not
     provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a
     descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance
     hierarchy.  Return ‘None’ if the documentation string is invalid or
     missing.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Documentation strings are now inherited if
     not overridden.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getcomments (object)

     Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately
     preceding the object’s source code (for a class, function, or
     method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is
     a module).  If the object’s source code is unavailable, return
     ‘None’.  This could happen if the object has been defined in C or
     the interactive shell.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getfile (object)

     Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was
     defined.  This will fail with a *note TypeError: 2c4. if the object
     is a built-in module, class, or function.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getmodule (object)

     Try to guess which module an object was defined in.  Return ‘None’
     if the module cannot be determined.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getsourcefile (object)

     Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was
     defined or ‘None’ if no way can be identified to get the source.
     This will fail with a *note TypeError: 2c4. if the object is a
     built-in module, class, or function.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getsourcelines (object)

     Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an
     object.  The argument may be a module, class, method, function,
     traceback, frame, or code object.  The source code is returned as a
     list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number
     indicates where in the original source file the first line of code
     was found.  An *note OSError: 65c. is raised if the source code
     cannot be retrieved.  A *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised if the
     object is a built-in module, class, or function.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note OSError: 65c. is raised instead of
     *note IOError: efc, now an alias of the former.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getsource (object)

     Return the text of the source code for an object.  The argument may
     be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
     object.  The source code is returned as a single string.  An *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  A
     *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised if the object is a built-in module,
     class, or function.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note OSError: 65c. is raised instead of
     *note IOError: efc, now an alias of the former.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.cleandoc (doc)

     Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up
     with blocks of code.

     All leading whitespace is removed from the first line.  Any leading
     whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line
     onwards is removed.  Empty lines at the beginning and end are
     subsequently removed.  Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Next: Classes and functions<2>,  Prev: Retrieving source code,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.3 Introspecting callables with the Signature object
...........................................................

Added in version 3.3.

The *note Signature: 563. object represents the call signature of a
callable object and its return annotation.  To retrieve a ‘Signature’
object, use the ‘signature()’ function.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.signature (callable, *, follow_wrapped=True,
          globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False)

     Return a *note Signature: 563. object for the given 'callable':

          >>> from inspect import signature
          >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
          ...     pass

          >>> sig = signature(foo)

          >>> str(sig)
          '(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)'

          >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
          'b: int'

          >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
          <class 'int'>

     Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and
     classes to *note functools.partial(): d61. objects.

     For objects defined in modules using stringized annotations (‘from
     __future__ import annotations’), *note signature(): 561. will
     attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using *note
     get_annotations(): 64f.  The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters are passed into *note get_annotations(): 64f. when
     resolving the annotations; see the documentation for *note
     get_annotations(): 64f. for instructions on how to use these
     parameters.

     Raises *note ValueError: 189. if no signature can be provided, and
     *note TypeError: 2c4. if that type of object is not supported.
     Also, if the annotations are stringized, and 'eval_str' is not
     false, the ‘eval()’ call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in
     *note get_annotations(): 64f. could potentially raise any kind of
     exception.

     A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the
     parameters prior to it are positional-only.  For more info, see
     *note the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters: 1f63.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'follow_wrapped' parameter was added.
     Pass ‘False’ to get a signature of 'callable' specifically
     (‘callable.__wrapped__’ will not be used to unwrap decorated
     callables.)

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters were added.

          Not: Some callables may not be introspectable in certain
          implementations of Python.  For example, in CPython, some
          built-in functions defined in C provide no metadata about
          their arguments.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' If the passed object has a
     ‘__signature__’ attribute, we may use it to create the signature.
     The exact semantics are an implementation detail and are subject to
     unannounced changes.  Consult the source code for current
     semantics.

 -- Sınıfı: inspect.Signature (parameters=None, *,
          return_annotation=Signature.empty)

     A ‘Signature’ object represents the call signature of a function
     and its return annotation.  For each parameter accepted by the
     function it stores a *note Parameter: ca4. object in its *note
     parameters: 4239. collection.

     The optional 'parameters' argument is a sequence of *note
     Parameter: ca4. objects, which is validated to check that there are
     no parameters with duplicate names, and that the parameters are in
     the right order, i.e.  positional-only first, then
     positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with defaults follow
     parameters without defaults.

     The optional 'return_annotation' argument can be an arbitrary
     Python object.  It represents the “return” annotation of the
     callable.

     ‘Signature’ objects are 'immutable'.  Use *note
     Signature.replace(): 423a. to make a modified copy.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: ‘Signature’ objects are now picklable and
     *note hashable: 421.

      -- Özniteliği: empty

          A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return
          annotation.

      -- Özniteliği: parameters

          An ordered mapping of parameters’ names to the corresponding
          *note Parameter: ca4. objects.  Parameters appear in strict
          definition order, including keyword-only parameters.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: Python only explicitly guaranteed that
          it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters
          as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always
          been preserved in Python 3.

      -- Özniteliği: return_annotation

          The “return” annotation for the callable.  If the callable has
          no “return” annotation, this attribute is set to *note
          Signature.empty: 423b.

      -- Yöntemi: bind (*args, **kwargs)

          Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to
          parameters.  Returns *note BoundArguments: f13. if ‘*args’ and
          ‘**kwargs’ match the signature, or raises a *note TypeError:
          2c4.

      -- Yöntemi: bind_partial (*args, **kwargs)

          Works the same way as *note Signature.bind(): 13f3, but allows
          the omission of some required arguments (mimics *note
          functools.partial(): d61. behavior.)  Returns *note
          BoundArguments: f13, or raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. if the
          passed arguments do not match the signature.

      -- Yöntemi: replace (*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

          Create a new *note Signature: 563. instance based on the
          instance *note replace(): 423a. was invoked on.  It is
          possible to pass different 'parameters' and/or
          'return_annotation' to override the corresponding properties
          of the base signature.  To remove ‘return_annotation’ from the
          copied ‘Signature’, pass in *note Signature.empty: 423b.

               >>> def test(a, b):
               ...     pass
               ...
               >>> sig = signature(test)
               >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
               >>> str(new_sig)
               "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_callable (obj, *,
               follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None,
               eval_str=False)

          Return a *note Signature: 563. (or its subclass) object for a
          given callable 'obj'.

          This method simplifies subclassing of *note Signature: 563.:

               class MySignature(Signature):
                   pass
               sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum)
               assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

          Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of *note
          signature(): 561.

          Added in version 3.5.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: The 'globals', 'locals', and
          'eval_str' parameters were added.

 -- Sınıfı: inspect.Parameter (name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty,
          annotation=Parameter.empty)

     ‘Parameter’ objects are 'immutable'.  Instead of modifying a
     ‘Parameter’ object, you can use *note Parameter.replace(): 423e. to
     create a modified copy.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Parameter objects are now picklable and
     *note hashable: 421.

      -- Özniteliği: empty

          A special class-level marker to specify absence of default
          values and annotations.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the parameter as a string.  The name must be a
          valid Python identifier.

          'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' CPython generates implicit
          parameter names of the form ‘.0’ on the code objects used to
          implement comprehensions and generator expressions.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: These parameter names are now exposed
          by this module as names like ‘implicit0’.

      -- Özniteliği: default

          The default value for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
          default value, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty:
          423f.

      -- Özniteliği: annotation

          The annotation for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
          annotation, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty:
          423f.

      -- Özniteliği: kind

          Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter.  The
          possible values are accessible via *note Parameter: ca4. (like
          ‘Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY’), and support comparison and
          ordering, in the following order:

          Name                         Meaning
                                       
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_ONLY'            Value must be supplied as a positional argument.
                                       Positional only parameters are those which
                                       appear before a ‘/’ entry (if present) in a
                                       Python function definition.
                                       
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD'      Value may be supplied as either a keyword or
                                       positional argument (this is the standard
                                       binding behaviour for functions implemented in
                                       Python.)
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_POSITIONAL'             A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t
                                       bound to any other parameter.  This corresponds
                                       to a ‘*args’ parameter in a Python function
                                       definition.
                                       
                                       
          'KEYWORD_ONLY'               Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.
                                       Keyword only parameters are those which appear
                                       after a ‘*’ or ‘*args’ entry in a Python
                                       function definition.
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_KEYWORD'                A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound to
                                       any other parameter.  This corresponds to a
                                       ‘**kwargs’ parameter in a Python function
                                       definition.
                                       

          Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default
          values:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
               ...                        param.default is param.empty):
               ...         print('Parameter:', param)
               Parameter: c

      -- Özniteliği: kind.description

          Describes an enum value of *note Parameter.kind: 4243.

          Added in version 3.8.

          Example: print all descriptions of arguments:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     print(param.kind.description)
               positional or keyword
               positional or keyword
               keyword-only
               keyword-only

      -- Yöntemi: replace (*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

          Create a new *note Parameter: ca4. instance based on the
          instance replaced was invoked on.  To override a ‘Parameter’
          attribute, pass the corresponding argument.  To remove a
          default value or/and an annotation from a ‘Parameter’, pass
          *note Parameter.empty: 423f.

               >>> from inspect import Parameter
               >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
               >>> str(param)
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
               "foo: 'spam'"

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: In Python 3.3 *note Parameter: ca4. objects
     were allowed to have ‘name’ set to ‘None’ if their ‘kind’ was set
     to ‘POSITIONAL_ONLY’.  This is no longer permitted.

 -- Sınıfı: inspect.BoundArguments

     Result of a *note Signature.bind(): 13f3. or *note
     Signature.bind_partial(): 423d. call.  Holds the mapping of
     arguments to the function’s parameters.

      -- Özniteliği: arguments

          A mutable mapping of parameters’ names to arguments’ values.
          Contains only explicitly bound arguments.  Changes in *note
          arguments: 761. will reflect in *note args: 4245. and *note
          kwargs: 4246.

          Should be used in conjunction with *note Signature.parameters:
          4239. for any argument processing purposes.

               Not: Arguments for which *note Signature.bind(): 13f3. or
               *note Signature.bind_partial(): 423d. relied on a default
               value are skipped.  However, if needed, use *note
               BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): ca5. to add them.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: *note arguments: 761. is now of type
          *note dict: 240.  Formerly, it was of type *note
          collections.OrderedDict: 3e6.

      -- Özniteliği: args

          A tuple of positional arguments values.  Dynamically computed
          from the *note arguments: 761. attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: kwargs

          A dict of keyword arguments values.  Dynamically computed from
          the *note arguments: 761. attribute.  Arguments that can be
          passed positionally are included in *note args: 4245. instead.

      -- Özniteliği: signature

          A reference to the parent *note Signature: 563. object.

      -- Yöntemi: apply_defaults ()

          Set default values for missing arguments.

          For variable-positional arguments (‘*args’) the default is an
          empty tuple.

          For variable-keyword arguments (‘**kwargs’) the default is an
          empty dict.

               >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
               >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
               >>> ba.apply_defaults()
               >>> ba.arguments
               {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}

          Added in version 3.5.

     The *note args: 4245. and *note kwargs: 4246. properties can be
     used to invoke functions:

          def test(a, *, b):
              ...

          sig = signature(test)
          ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
          test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 362(1) - Function Signature Object.

     The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: Classes and functions<2>,  Next: The interpreter stack,  Prev: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.4 Classes and functions
...............................

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getclasstree (classes, unique=False)

     Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists.
     Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the
     class whose entry immediately precedes the list.  Each entry is a
     2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes.  If the
     'unique' argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the
     returned structure for each class in the given list.  Otherwise,
     classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will
     appear multiple times.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getfullargspec (func)

     Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters.
     A *note named tuple: 461. is returned:

     ‘FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs,
     kwonlydefaults, annotations)’

     'args' is a list of the positional parameter names.  'varargs' is
     the name of the ‘*’ parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary positional
     arguments are not accepted.  'varkw' is the name of the ‘**’
     parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary keyword arguments are not
     accepted.  'defaults' is an 'n'-tuple of default argument values
     corresponding to the last 'n' positional parameters, or ‘None’ if
     there are no such defaults defined.  'kwonlyargs' is a list of
     keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
     'kwonlydefaults' is a dictionary mapping parameter names from
     'kwonlyargs' to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
     'annotations' is a dictionary mapping parameter names to
     annotations.  The special key ‘"return"’ is used to report the
     function return value annotation (if any).

     Note that *note signature(): 561. and *note Signature Object: 4237.
     provide the recommended API for callable introspection, and support
     additional behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are
     sometimes encountered in extension module APIs.  This function is
     retained primarily for use in code that needs to maintain
     compatibility with the Python 2 ‘inspect’ module API.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: This function is now based on *note
     signature(): 561, but still ignores ‘__wrapped__’ attributes and
     includes the already bound first parameter in the signature output
     for bound methods.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: This method was previously documented as
     deprecated in favour of *note signature(): 561. in Python 3.5, but
     that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly
     supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code
     migrating away from the legacy ‘getargspec()’ API.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it
     preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of
     version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been
     preserved in Python 3.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getargvalues (frame)

     Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame.  A
     *note named tuple: 461. ‘ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)’
     is returned.  'args' is a list of the argument names.  'varargs'
     and 'keywords' are the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’ arguments or
     ‘None’.  'locals' is the locals dictionary of the given frame.

          Not: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in
          Python 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.formatargvalues (args[, varargs, varkw, locals,
          formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

     Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
     *note getargvalues(): d53.  The format* arguments are the
     corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn
     names and values into strings.

          Not: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in
          Python 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getmro (cls)

     Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in
     method resolution order.  No class appears more than once in this
     tuple.  Note that the method resolution order depends on cls’s
     type.  Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls
     will be the first element of the tuple.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getcallargs (func, /, *args, **kwds)

     Bind the 'args' and 'kwds' to the argument names of the Python
     function or method 'func', as if it was called with them.  For
     bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named
     ‘self’) to the associated instance.  A dict is returned, mapping
     the argument names (including the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’
     arguments, if any) to their values from 'args' and 'kwds'.  In case
     of invoking 'func' incorrectly, i.e.  whenever ‘func(*args,
     **kwds)’ would raise an exception because of incompatible
     signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar
     message is raised.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.5 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note Signature.bind():
     13f3. and *note Signature.bind_partial(): 423d. instead.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getclosurevars (func)

     Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
     method 'func' to their current values.  A *note named tuple: 461.
     ‘ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)’ is returned.
     'nonlocals' maps referenced names to lexical closure variables,
     'globals' to the function’s module globals and 'builtins' to the
     builtins visible from the function body.  'unbound' is the set of
     names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all
     given the current module globals and builtins.

     *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised if 'func' is not a Python function
     or method.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.unwrap (func, *, stop=None)

     Get the object wrapped by 'func'.  It follows the chain of
     ‘__wrapped__’ attributes returning the last object in the chain.

     'stop' is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper
     chain as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be
     terminated early if the callback returns a true value.  If the
     callback never returns a true value, the last object in the chain
     is returned as usual.  For example, *note signature(): 561. uses
     this to stop unwrapping if any object in the chain has a
     ‘__signature__’ attribute defined.

     *note ValueError: 189. is raised if a cycle is encountered.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.get_annotations (obj, *, globals=None, locals=None,
          eval_str=False)

     Compute the annotations dict for an object.

     ‘obj’ may be a callable, class, or module.  Passing in an object of
     any other type raises *note TypeError: 2c4.

     Returns a dict.  ‘get_annotations()’ returns a new dict every time
     it’s called; calling it twice on the same object will return two
     different but equivalent dicts.

     This function handles several details for you:

        * If ‘eval_str’ is true, values of type ‘str’ will be
          un-stringized using *note eval(): 6ca.  This is intended for
          use with stringized annotations (‘from __future__ import
          annotations’).

        * If ‘obj’ doesn’t have an annotations dict, returns an empty
          dict.  (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict;
          classes, modules, and other types of callables may not.)

        * Ignores inherited annotations on classes.  If a class doesn’t
          have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict.

        * All accesses to object members and dict values are done using
          ‘getattr()’ and ‘dict.get()’ for safety.

        * Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict.

     ‘eval_str’ controls whether or not values of type ‘str’ are
     replaced with the result of calling *note eval(): 6ca. on those
     values:

        * If eval_str is true, *note eval(): 6ca. is called on values of
          type ‘str’.  (Note that ‘get_annotations’ doesn’t catch
          exceptions; if *note eval(): 6ca. raises an exception, it will
          unwind the stack past the ‘get_annotations’ call.)

        * If eval_str is false (the default), values of type ‘str’ are
          unchanged.

     ‘globals’ and ‘locals’ are passed in to *note eval(): 6ca.; see the
     documentation for *note eval(): 6ca. for more information.  If
     ‘globals’ or ‘locals’ is ‘None’, this function may replace that
     value with a context-specific default, contingent on ‘type(obj)’:

        * If ‘obj’ is a module, ‘globals’ defaults to ‘obj.__dict__’.

        * If ‘obj’ is a class, ‘globals’ defaults to
          ‘sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__’ and ‘locals’ defaults
          to the ‘obj’ class namespace.

        * If ‘obj’ is a callable, ‘globals’ defaults to *note
          obj.__globals__: 117d, although if ‘obj’ is a wrapped function
          (using *note functools.update_wrapper(): eca.) it is first
          unwrapped.

     Calling ‘get_annotations’ is best practice for accessing the
     annotations dict of any object.  See *note Annotations Best
     Practices: 613. for more information on annotations best practices.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: The interpreter stack,  Next: Fetching attributes statically,  Prev: Classes and functions<2>,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.5 The interpreter stack
...............................

Some of the following functions return *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects.
For backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on
all attributes except ‘positions’.  This behavior is considered
deprecated and may be removed in the future.

 -- Sınıfı: inspect.FrameInfo

      -- Özniteliği: frame

          The *note frame object: 4f7. that the record corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          record corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
          executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 4252. list.

      -- Özniteliği: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 4255. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Return a *note named tuple: 461. instead of
     a *note tuple: 4ff.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘FrameInfo’ is now a class instance (that
     is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 461.).

 -- Sınıfı: inspect.Traceback

      -- Özniteliği: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          traceback corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
          executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Özniteliği: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 4259. list.

      -- Özniteliği: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 4255. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘Traceback’ is now a class instance (that
     is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 461.).

     Not: Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first
     element of the frame records these functions return, can cause your
     program to create reference cycles.  Once a reference cycle has
     been created, the lifespan of all objects which can be accessed
     from the objects which form the cycle can become much longer even
     if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled.  If such cycles
     must be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly
     broken to avoid the delayed destruction of objects and increased
     memory consumption which occurs.

     Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the
     frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by removing
     the cycle in a *note finally: 828. clause.  This is also important
     if the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or
     using *note gc.disable(): 4215.  For example:

          def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
              frame = inspect.currentframe()
              try:
                  # do something with the frame
              finally:
                  del frame

     If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a
     traceback later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
     *note frame.clear(): da2. method.

The optional 'context' argument supported by most of these functions
specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered
around the current line.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getframeinfo (frame, context=1)

     Get information about a frame or traceback object.  A *note
     Traceback: 460. object is returned.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: A *note Traceback: 460. object is returned
     instead of a named tuple.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getouterframes (frame, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects for a frame and all
     outer frames.  These frames represent the calls that lead to the
     creation of 'frame'.  The first entry in the returned list
     represents 'frame'; the last entry represents the outermost call on
     'frame'’s stack.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note named tuples: 461.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects is
     returned.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getinnerframes (traceback, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects for a traceback’s frame
     and all inner frames.  These frames represent calls made as a
     consequence of 'frame'.  The first entry in the list represents
     'traceback'; the last entry represents where the exception was
     raised.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note named tuples: 461.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects is
     returned.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.currentframe ()

     Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This function relies on Python stack
     frame support in the interpreter, which isn’t guaranteed to exist
     in all implementations of Python.  If running in an implementation
     without Python stack frame support this function returns ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.stack (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects for the caller’s
     stack.  The first entry in the returned list represents the caller;
     the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note named tuples: 461.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects is
     returned.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.trace (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects for the stack
     between the current frame and the frame in which an exception
     currently being handled was raised in.  The first entry in the list
     represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
     exception was raised.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note named tuples: 461.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: A list of *note FrameInfo: 45f. objects is
     returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Fetching attributes statically,  Next: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: The interpreter stack,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.6 Fetching attributes statically
........................................

Both *note getattr(): a48. and *note hasattr(): 200. can trigger code
execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes.
Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and *note __getattr__():
201. and *note __getattribute__(): a49. may be called.

For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation
tools, this can be inconvenient.  *note getattr_static(): 1b8. has the
same signature as *note getattr(): a48. but avoids executing code when
it fetches attributes.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getattr_static (obj, attr, default=None)

     Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, *note __getattr__(): 201. or *note
     __getattribute__(): a49.

     Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that
     getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may
     find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors that raise
     AttributeError).  It can also return descriptors objects instead of
     instance members.

     If the instance *note __dict__: 2ec. is shadowed by another member
     (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find
     instance members.

     Added in version 3.2.

*note getattr_static(): 1b8. does not resolve descriptors, for example
slot descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The
descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute.

You can handle these with code like the following.  Note that for
arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code execution:

     # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
     class _foo:
         __slots__ = ['foo']

     slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
     getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
     wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
     descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

     result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
     if type(result) in descriptor_types:
         try:
             result = result.__get__()
         except AttributeError:
             # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
             # indicate there is no underlying value
             # in which case the descriptor itself will
             # have to do
             pass


File: python.info,  Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Next: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Prev: Fetching attributes statically,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.7 Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators
..............................................................................

When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
terminated.  *note getgeneratorstate(): 10dd. allows the current state
of a generator to be determined easily.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getgeneratorstate (generator)

     Get current state of a generator-iterator.

     Possible states are:

        * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

        * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getcoroutinestate (coroutine)

     Get current state of a coroutine object.  The function is intended
     to be used with coroutine objects created by *note async def: 3db.
     functions, but will accept any coroutine-like object that has
     ‘cr_running’ and ‘cr_frame’ attributes.

     Possible states are:

        * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.

        * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getasyncgenstate (agen)

     Get current state of an asynchronous generator object.  The
     function is intended to be used with asynchronous iterator objects
     created by *note async def: 3db. functions which use the *note
     yield: 82b. statement, but will accept any asynchronous
     generator-like object that has ‘ag_running’ and ‘ag_frame’
     attributes.

     Possible states are:

        * AGEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * AGEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * AGEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

        * AGEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     Added in version 3.12.

The current internal state of the generator can also be queried.  This
is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is
being updated as expected:

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getgeneratorlocals (generator)

     Get the mapping of live local variables in 'generator' to their
     current values.  A dictionary is returned that maps from variable
     names to values.  This is the equivalent of calling *note locals():
     179. in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply.

     If 'generator' is a *note generator: f0b. with no currently
     associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned.  *note
     TypeError: 2c4. is raised if 'generator' is not a Python generator
     object.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' This function relies on the generator
     exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which isn’t
     guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python.  In
     such cases, this function will always return an empty dictionary.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getcoroutinelocals (coroutine)

     This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): f79, but
     works for coroutine objects created by *note async def: 3db.
     functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: inspect.getasyncgenlocals (agen)

     This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): f79, but
     works for asynchronous generator objects created by *note async
     def: 3db. functions which use the *note yield: 82b. statement.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Next: Buffer flags,  Prev: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.8 Code Objects Bit Flags
................................

Python code objects have a *note co_flags: 1d32. attribute, which is a
bitmap of the following flags:

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

     The code object is optimized, using fast locals.

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

     If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s *note f_locals:
     5be. when the code object is executed.

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_VARARGS

     The code object has a variable positional parameter (‘*args’-like).

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

     The code object has a variable keyword parameter (‘**kwargs’-like).

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_NESTED

     The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_GENERATOR

     The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
     a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_COROUTINE

     The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.  When
     the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.  See PEP
     492(1) for more details.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

     The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
     coroutines.  Generator objects with this flag can be used in
     ‘await’ expression, and can ‘yield from’ coroutine objects.  See
     PEP 492(2) for more details.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Verisi: inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

     The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
     function.  When the code object is executed it returns an
     asynchronous generator object.  See PEP 525(3) for more details.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Not: The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in
     other Python implementations.  Furthermore, the flags are an
     implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future
     Python releases.  It’s recommended to use public APIs from the
     *note inspect: 7c. module for any introspection needs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer flags,  Next: Command Line Interface<3>,  Prev: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.9 Buffer flags
......................

 -- Sınıfı: inspect.BufferFlags

     This is an *note enum.IntFlag: 20ee. that represents the flags that
     can be passed to the *note __buffer__(): 175. method of objects
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 14e.

     The meaning of the flags is explained at *note Buffer request
     types: 4269.

      -- Özniteliği: SIMPLE

      -- Özniteliği: WRITABLE

      -- Özniteliği: FORMAT

      -- Özniteliği: ND

      -- Özniteliği: STRIDES

      -- Özniteliği: C_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Özniteliği: F_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Özniteliği: ANY_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Özniteliği: INDIRECT

      -- Özniteliği: CONTIG

      -- Özniteliği: CONTIG_RO

      -- Özniteliği: STRIDED

      -- Özniteliği: STRIDED_RO

      -- Özniteliği: RECORDS

      -- Özniteliği: RECORDS_RO

      -- Özniteliği: FULL

      -- Özniteliği: FULL_RO

      -- Özniteliği: READ

      -- Özniteliği: WRITE

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Interface<3>,  Prev: Buffer flags,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.29.14.10 Command Line Interface
.................................

The *note inspect: 7c. module also provides a basic introspection
capability from the command line.

By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
module.  A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object.

 -- Option: --details

     Print information about the specified object rather than the source
     code


File: python.info,  Node: site — Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: inspect — Inspect live objects,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.29.15 ‘site’ — Site-specific configuration hook
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/site.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'This module is automatically imported during initialization.'  The
automatic import can be suppressed using the interpreter’s *note -S:
104e. option.

Importing this module normally appends site-specific paths to the module
search path and adds *note callables: 1f78, including *note help(): 72a.
to the built-in namespace.  However, Python startup option *note -S:
104e. blocks this and this module can be safely imported with no
automatic modifications to the module search path or additions to the
builtins.  To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific additions, call
the *note main(): 1b80. function.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Importing the module used to trigger paths
manipulation even when using *note -S: 104e.

It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail
part.  For the head part, it uses ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’;
empty heads are skipped.  For the tail part, it uses the empty string
and then ‘lib/site-packages’ (on Windows) or
‘lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ (on Unix and macOS). For each of the
distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing
directory, and if so, adds it to ‘sys.path’ and also inspects the newly
added path for configuration files.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Support for the “site-python” directory has been
removed.

If a file named “pyvenv.cfg” exists one directory above sys.executable,
sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and it is also
checked for site-packages (sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix will
always be the “real” prefixes of the Python installation).  If
“pyvenv.cfg” (a bootstrap configuration file) contains the key
“include-system-site-packages” set to anything other than “true”
(case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will not be searched for
site-packages; otherwise they will.

A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form ‘`name'.pth’
and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents
are additional items (one per line) to be added to ‘sys.path’.
Non-existing items are never added to ‘sys.path’, and no check is made
that the item refers to a directory rather than a file.  No item is
added to ‘sys.path’ more than once.  Blank lines and lines beginning
with ‘#’ are skipped.  Lines starting with ‘import’ (followed by space
or tab) are executed.

     Not: An executable line in a ‘.pth’ file is run at every Python
     startup, regardless of whether a particular module is actually
     going to be used.  Its impact should thus be kept to a minimum.
     The primary intended purpose of executable lines is to make the
     corresponding module(s) importable (load 3rd-party import hooks,
     adjust ‘PATH’ etc).  Any other initialization is supposed to be
     done upon a module’s actual import, if and when it happens.
     Limiting a code chunk to a single line is a deliberate measure to
     discourage putting anything more complex here.

For example, suppose ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’ are set to
‘/usr/local’.  The Python X.Y library is then installed in
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’.  Suppose this has a subdirectory
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ with three subsubdirectories,
‘foo’, ‘bar’ and ‘spam’, and two path configuration files, ‘foo.pth’ and
‘bar.pth’.  Assume ‘foo.pth’ contains the following:

     # foo package configuration

     foo
     bar
     bletch

and ‘bar.pth’ contains:

     # bar package configuration

     bar

Then the following version-specific directories are added to ‘sys.path’,
in this order:

     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo

Note that ‘bletch’ is omitted because it doesn’t exist; the ‘bar’
directory precedes the ‘foo’ directory because ‘bar.pth’ comes
alphabetically before ‘foo.pth’; and ‘spam’ is omitted because it is not
mentioned in either path configuration file.

* Menu:

* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* Module contents: Module contents<5>.
* Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/site.py


File: python.info,  Node: sitecustomize,  Next: usercustomize,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.1 ‘sitecustomize’
.........................

After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module
named *note sitecustomize: c7, which can perform arbitrary site-specific
customizations.  It is typically created by a system administrator in
the site-packages directory.  If this import fails with an *note
ImportError: 14b. or its subclass exception, and the exception’s *note
name: 207b. attribute equals to ‘'sitecustomize'’, it is silently
ignored.  If Python is started without output streams available, as with
‘pythonw.exe’ on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE),
attempted output from *note sitecustomize: c7. is ignored.  Any other
exception causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.


File: python.info,  Node: usercustomize,  Next: Readline configuration,  Prev: sitecustomize,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.2 ‘usercustomize’
.........................

After this, an attempt is made to import a module named *note
usercustomize: 10e, which can perform arbitrary user-specific
customizations, if *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4283. is true.  This file is
intended to be created in the user site-packages directory (see below),
which is part of ‘sys.path’ unless disabled by *note -s: 1232.  If this
import fails with an *note ImportError: 14b. or its subclass exception,
and the exception’s *note name: 207b. attribute equals to
‘'usercustomize'’, it is silently ignored.

Note that for some non-Unix systems, ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’
are empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of
*note sitecustomize: c7. and *note usercustomize: 10e. is still
attempted.


File: python.info,  Node: Readline configuration,  Next: Module contents<5>,  Prev: usercustomize,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.3 Readline configuration
................................

On systems that support *note readline: b9, this module will also import
and configure the *note rlcompleter: bc. module, if Python is started in
*note interactive mode: e6c. and without the *note -S: 104e. option.
The default behavior is enable tab-completion and to use
‘~/.python_history’ as the history save file.  To disable it, delete (or
override) the *note sys.__interactivehook__: e6d. attribute in your
*note sitecustomize: c7. or *note usercustomize: 10e. module or your
*note PYTHONSTARTUP: e6e. file.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Activation of rlcompleter and history was made
automatic.


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<5>,  Next: Command Line Interface<4>,  Prev: Readline configuration,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.4 Module contents
.........................

 -- Verisi: site.PREFIXES

     A list of prefixes for site-packages directories.

 -- Verisi: site.ENABLE_USER_SITE

     Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory.
     ‘True’ means that it is enabled and was added to ‘sys.path’.
     ‘False’ means that it was disabled by user request (with *note -s:
     1232. or *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1233.).  ‘None’ means it was
     disabled for security reasons (mismatch between user or group id
     and effective id) or by an administrator.

 -- Verisi: site.USER_SITE

     Path to the user site-packages for the running Python.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getusersitepackages(): 10e7. hasn’t been called
     yet.  Default value is ‘~/.local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ for
     UNIX and non-framework macOS builds,
     ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'/lib/python/site-packages’ for macOS
     framework builds, and ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python\Python`XY'\site-packages’
     on Windows.  This directory is a site directory, which means that
     ‘.pth’ files in it will be processed.

 -- Verisi: site.USER_BASE

     Path to the base directory for the user site-packages.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getuserbase(): 10e6. hasn’t been called yet.
     Default value is ‘~/.local’ for UNIX and macOS non-framework
     builds, ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'’ for macOS framework builds, and
     ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python’ for Windows.  This value is used to compute
     the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python
     modules, etc.  for the *note user installation scheme: 1b8e.  See
     also *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1231.

 -- Işlevi: site.main ()

     Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module
     search path.  This function is called automatically when this
     module is imported, unless the Python interpreter was started with
     the *note -S: 104e. flag.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This function used to be called
     unconditionally.

 -- Işlevi: site.addsitedir (sitedir, known_paths=None)

     Add a directory to sys.path and process its ‘.pth’ files.
     Typically used in *note sitecustomize: c7. or *note usercustomize:
     10e. (see above).

 -- Işlevi: site.getsitepackages ()

     Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: site.getuserbase ()

     Return the path of the user base directory, *note USER_BASE: 11c8.
     If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it,
     respecting *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1231.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Işlevi: site.getusersitepackages ()

     Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory, *note
     USER_SITE: 1b7f.  If it is not initialized yet, this function will
     also set it, respecting *note USER_BASE: 11c8.  To determine if the
     user-specific site-packages was added to ‘sys.path’ *note
     ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4283. should be used.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Interface<4>,  Prev: Module contents<5>,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.29.15.5 Command Line Interface
................................

The *note site: c6. module also provides a way to get the user
directories from the command line:

     $ python -m site --user-site
     /home/user/.local/lib/python3.11/site-packages

If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of *note
sys.path: 368. on the standard output, followed by the value of *note
USER_BASE: 11c8. and whether the directory exists, then the same thing
for *note USER_SITE: 1b7f, and finally the value of *note
ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4283.

 -- Option: --user-base

     Print the path to the user base directory.

 -- Option: --user-site

     Print the path to the user site-packages directory.

If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed
(always in this order), separated by *note os.pathsep: 1b8b.

If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values:
‘0’ if the user site-packages directory is enabled, ‘1’ if it was
disabled by the user, ‘2’ if it is disabled for security reasons or by
an administrator, and a value greater than 2 if there is an error.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * PEP 370(1) – Per user site-packages directory

   * *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1aa9.
     – The initialization of *note sys.path: 368.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Python Interpreters,  Next: Importing Modules,  Prev: Python Runtime Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.30 Custom Python Interpreters
===============================

The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar
to Python’s interactive interpreter.  If you want a Python interpreter
that supports some special feature in addition to the Python language,
you should look at the *note code: 1a. module.  (The *note codeop: 1c.
module is lower-level, used to support compiling a possibly incomplete
chunk of Python code.)

The full list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* code — Interpreter base classes::
* codeop — Compile Python code::


File: python.info,  Node: code — Interpreter base classes,  Next: codeop — Compile Python code,  Up: Custom Python Interpreters

5.30.1 ‘code’ — Interpreter base classes
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/code.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘code’ module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops
in Python.  Two classes and convenience functions are included which can
be used to build applications which provide an interactive interpreter
prompt.

 -- Sınıfı: code.InteractiveInterpreter (locals=None)

     This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user’s
     namespace); it does not deal with input buffering or prompting or
     input file naming (the filename is always passed in explicitly).
     The optional 'locals' argument specifies the dictionary in which
     code will be executed; it defaults to a newly created dictionary
     with key ‘'__name__'’ set to ‘'__console__'’ and key ‘'__doc__'’
     set to ‘None’.

 -- Sınıfı: code.InteractiveConsole (locals=None, filename='<console>')

     Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter.
     This class builds on *note InteractiveInterpreter: 1455. and adds
     prompting using the familiar ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’, and input
     buffering.

 -- Işlevi: code.interact (banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None,
          exitmsg=None)

     Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop.  This creates a
     new instance of *note InteractiveConsole: 218b. and sets 'readfunc'
     to be used as the *note InteractiveConsole.raw_input(): 4292.
     method, if provided.  If 'local' is provided, it is passed to the
     *note InteractiveConsole: 218b. constructor for use as the default
     namespace for the interpreter loop.  The *note interact(): 4293.
     method of the instance is then run with 'banner' and 'exitmsg'
     passed as the banner and exit message to use, if provided.  The
     console object is discarded after use.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added 'exitmsg' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: code.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python’s
     interpreter main loop (a.k.a.  the read-eval-print loop).  The
     tricky part is to determine when the user has entered an incomplete
     command that can be completed by entering more text (as opposed to
     a complete command or a syntax error).  This function 'almost'
     always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main loop.

     'source' is the source string; 'filename' is the optional filename
     from which source was read, defaulting to ‘'<input>'’; and 'symbol'
     is the optional grammar start symbol, which should be ‘'single'’
     (the default), ‘'eval'’ or ‘'exec'’.

     Returns a code object (the same as ‘compile(source, filename,
     symbol)’) if the command is complete and valid; ‘None’ if the
     command is incomplete; raises *note SyntaxError: 14c. if the
     command is complete and contains a syntax error, or raises *note
     OverflowError: 6c7. or *note ValueError: 189. if the command
     contains an invalid literal.

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/code.py


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Next: Interactive Console Objects,  Up: code — Interpreter base classes

5.30.1.1 Interactive Interpreter Objects
........................................

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveInterpreter.runsource (source,
          filename='<input>', symbol='single')

     Compile and run some source in the interpreter.  Arguments are the
     same as for *note compile_command(): 4294.; the default for
     'filename' is ‘'<input>'’, and for 'symbol' is ‘'single'’.  One of
     several things can happen:

        * The input is incorrect; *note compile_command(): 4294. raised
          an exception (*note SyntaxError: 14c. or *note OverflowError:
          6c7.).  A syntax traceback will be printed by calling the
          *note showsyntaxerror(): 4298. method.  *note runsource():
          4297. returns ‘False’.

        * The input is incomplete, and more input is required; *note
          compile_command(): 4294. returned ‘None’.  *note runsource():
          4297. returns ‘True’.

        * The input is complete; *note compile_command(): 4294. returned
          a code object.  The code is executed by calling the *note
          runcode(): 4299. (which also handles run-time exceptions,
          except for *note SystemExit: bc8.).  *note runsource(): 4297.
          returns ‘False’.

     The return value can be used to decide whether to use ‘sys.ps1’ or
     ‘sys.ps2’ to prompt the next line.

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveInterpreter.runcode (code)

     Execute a code object.  When an exception occurs, *note
     showtraceback(): c5d. is called to display a traceback.  All
     exceptions are caught except *note SystemExit: bc8, which is
     allowed to propagate.

     A note about *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.: this exception may
     occur elsewhere in this code, and may not always be caught.  The
     caller should be prepared to deal with it.

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror (filename=None)

     Display the syntax error that just occurred.  This does not display
     a stack trace because there isn’t one for syntax errors.  If
     'filename' is given, it is stuffed into the exception instead of
     the default filename provided by Python’s parser, because it always
     uses ‘'<string>'’ when reading from a string.  The output is
     written by the *note write(): 429a. method.

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback ()

     Display the exception that just occurred.  We remove the first
     stack item because it is within the interpreter object
     implementation.  The output is written by the *note write(): 429a.
     method.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The full chained traceback is displayed
     instead of just the primary traceback.

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveInterpreter.write (data)

     Write a string to the standard error stream (‘sys.stderr’).
     Derived classes should override this to provide the appropriate
     output handling as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Console Objects,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Up: code — Interpreter base classes

5.30.1.2 Interactive Console Objects
....................................

The *note InteractiveConsole: 218b. class is a subclass of *note
InteractiveInterpreter: 1455, and so offers all the methods of the
interpreter objects as well as the following additions.

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveConsole.interact (banner=None, exitmsg=None)

     Closely emulate the interactive Python console.  The optional
     'banner' argument specify the banner to print before the first
     interaction; by default it prints a banner similar to the one
     printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed by the class
     name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse
     this with the real interpreter – since it’s so close!).

     The optional 'exitmsg' argument specifies an exit message printed
     when exiting.  Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message.
     If 'exitmsg' is not given or ‘None’, a default message is printed.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: To suppress printing any banner, pass an
     empty string.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Print an exit message when exiting.

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveConsole.push (line)

     Push a line of source text to the interpreter.  The line should not
     have a trailing newline; it may have internal newlines.  The line
     is appended to a buffer and the interpreter’s *note runsource():
     4297. method is called with the concatenated contents of the buffer
     as source.  If this indicates that the command was executed or
     invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is incomplete,
     and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended.  The
     return value is ‘True’ if more input is required, ‘False’ if the
     line was dealt with in some way (this is the same as
     ‘runsource()’).

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer ()

     Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer.

 -- Yöntemi: InteractiveConsole.raw_input (prompt='')

     Write a prompt and read a line.  The returned line does not include
     the trailing newline.  When the user enters the EOF key sequence,
     *note EOFError: 1183. is raised.  The base implementation reads
     from ‘sys.stdin’; a subclass may replace this with a different
     implementation.


File: python.info,  Node: codeop — Compile Python code,  Prev: code — Interpreter base classes,  Up: Custom Python Interpreters

5.30.2 ‘codeop’ — Compile Python code
-------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/codeop.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note codeop: 1c. module provides utilities upon which the Python
read-eval-print loop can be emulated, as is done in the *note code: 1a.
module.  As a result, you probably don’t want to use the module
directly; if you want to include such a loop in your program you
probably want to use the *note code: 1a. module instead.

There are two parts to this job:

  1. Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python statement:
     in short, telling whether to print ‘‘>>>’’ or ‘‘...’’ next.

  2. Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so
     subsequent input can be compiled with these in effect.

The *note codeop: 1c. module provides a way of doing each of these
things, and a way of doing them both.

To do just the former:

 -- Işlevi: codeop.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     Tries to compile 'source', which should be a string of Python code
     and return a code object if 'source' is valid Python code.  In that
     case, the filename attribute of the code object will be 'filename',
     which defaults to ‘'<input>'’.  Returns ‘None’ if 'source' is 'not'
     valid Python code, but is a prefix of valid Python code.

     If there is a problem with 'source', an exception will be raised.
     *note SyntaxError: 14c. is raised if there is invalid Python
     syntax, and *note OverflowError: 6c7. or *note ValueError: 189. if
     there is an invalid literal.

     The 'symbol' argument determines whether 'source' is compiled as a
     statement (‘'single'’, the default), as a sequence of *note
     statement: 2560. (‘'exec'’) or as an *note expression: 1d74.
     (‘'eval'’).  Any other value will cause *note ValueError: 189. to
     be raised.

          Not: It is possible (but not likely) that the parser stops
          parsing with a successful outcome before reaching the end of
          the source; in this case, trailing symbols may be ignored
          instead of causing an error.  For example, a backslash
          followed by two newlines may be followed by arbitrary garbage.
          This will be fixed once the API for the parser is better.

 -- Sınıfı: codeop.Compile

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 2e7. methods
     identical in signature to the built-in function *note compile():
     56d, but with the difference that if the instance compiles program
     text containing a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance
     ‘remembers’ and compiles all subsequent program texts with the
     statement in force.

 -- Sınıfı: codeop.CommandCompiler

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 2e7. methods
     identical in signature to *note compile_command(): 15ea.; the
     difference is that if the instance compiles program text containing
     a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance ‘remembers’ and
     compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/codeop.py


File: python.info,  Node: Importing Modules,  Next: Python Language Services,  Prev: Custom Python Interpreters,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.31 Importing Modules
======================

The modules described in this chapter provide new ways to import other
Python modules and hooks for customizing the import process.

The full list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives::
* pkgutil — Package extension utility::
* modulefinder — Find modules used by a script::
* runpy — Locating and executing Python modules::
* importlib — The implementation of import::
* importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
* importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
* importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata.
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives,  Next: pkgutil — Package extension utility,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.1 ‘zipimport’ — Import modules from Zip archives
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/zipimport.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module adds the ability to import Python modules (‘*.py’, ‘*.pyc’)
and packages from ZIP-format archives.  It is usually not needed to use
the *note zipimport: 132. module explicitly; it is automatically used by
the built-in *note import: 3ed. mechanism for *note sys.path: 368. items
that are paths to ZIP archives.

Typically, *note sys.path: 368. is a list of directory names as strings.
This module also allows an item of *note sys.path: 368. to be a string
naming a ZIP file archive.  The ZIP archive can contain a subdirectory
structure to support package imports, and a path within the archive can
be specified to only import from a subdirectory.  For example, the path
‘example.zip/lib/’ would only import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within
the archive.

Any files may be present in the ZIP archive, but importers are only
invoked for ‘.py’ and ‘.pyc’ files.  ZIP import of dynamic modules
(‘.pyd’, ‘.so’) is disallowed.  Note that if an archive only contains
‘.py’ files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t contain
‘.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Previously, ZIP archives with an archive comment
were not supported.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PKZIP Application Note(2)

     Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of
     the format and algorithms used.

PEP 273(3) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(4), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(5).

*note importlib: 75. - The implementation of the import machinery

     Package providing the relevant protocols for all importers to
     implement.

This module defines an exception:

 -- Özel Durum: zipimport.ZipImportError

     Exception raised by zipimporter objects.  It’s a subclass of *note
     ImportError: 14b, so it can be caught as *note ImportError: 14b,
     too.

* Menu:

* zipimporter Objects::
* Examples: Examples<32>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/zipimport.py

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: zipimporter Objects,  Next: Examples<32>,  Up: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives

5.31.1.1 zipimporter Objects
............................

*note zipimporter: 42ab. is the class for importing ZIP files.

 -- Sınıfı: zipimport.zipimporter (archivepath)

     Create a new zipimporter instance.  'archivepath' must be a path to
     a ZIP file, or to a specific path within a ZIP file.  For example,
     an 'archivepath' of ‘foo/bar.zip/lib’ will look for modules in the
     ‘lib’ directory inside the ZIP file ‘foo/bar.zip’ (provided that it
     exists).

     *note ZipImportError: 42a8. is raised if 'archivepath' doesn’t
     point to a valid ZIP archive.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Methods ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’, deprecated in 3.10 are now removed.  Use *note
     find_spec(): 6a1. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: create_module (spec)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module():
          b31. that returns *note None: 488. to explicitly request the
          default semantics.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Yöntemi: exec_module (module)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module():
          6ae.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Yöntemi: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 6b0.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Yöntemi: get_code (fullname)

          Return the code object for the specified module.  Raise *note
          ZipImportError: 42a8. if the module couldn’t be imported.

      -- Yöntemi: get_data (pathname)

          Return the data associated with 'pathname'.  Raise *note
          OSError: 65c. if the file wasn’t found.

          3.3 sürümünde değişti: *note IOError: efc. used to be raised,
          it is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

      -- Yöntemi: get_filename (fullname)

          Return the value ‘__file__’ would be set to if the specified
          module was imported.  Raise *note ZipImportError: 42a8. if the
          module couldn’t be imported.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Yöntemi: get_source (fullname)

          Return the source code for the specified module.  Raise *note
          ZipImportError: 42a8. if the module couldn’t be found, return
          *note None: 488. if the archive does contain the module, but
          has no source for it.

      -- Yöntemi: is_package (fullname)

          Return ‘True’ if the module specified by 'fullname' is a
          package.  Raise *note ZipImportError: 42a8. if the module
          couldn’t be found.

      -- Yöntemi: load_module (fullname)

          Load the module specified by 'fullname'.  'fullname' must be
          the fully qualified (dotted) module name.  Returns the
          imported module on success, raises *note ZipImportError: 42a8.
          on failure.

          3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note exec_module():
          288. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache of information about files found
          within the ZIP archive.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Özniteliği: archive

          The file name of the importer’s associated ZIP file, without a
          possible subpath.

      -- Özniteliği: prefix

          The subpath within the ZIP file where modules are searched.
          This is the empty string for zipimporter objects which point
          to the root of the ZIP file.

     The *note archive: 42b1. and *note prefix: 42b2. attributes, when
     combined with a slash, equal the original 'archivepath' argument
     given to the *note zipimporter: 42ab. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<32>,  Prev: zipimporter Objects,  Up: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives

5.31.1.2 Examples
.................

Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that
the *note zipimport: 132. module is not explicitly used.

     $ unzip -l example.zip
     Archive:  example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     $ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     'example.zip/jwzthreading.py'


File: python.info,  Node: pkgutil — Package extension utility,  Next: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script,  Prev: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.2 ‘pkgutil’ — Package extension utility
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pkgutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides utilities for the import system, in particular
package support.

 -- Sınıfı: pkgutil.ModuleInfo (module_finder, name, ispkg)

     A namedtuple that holds a brief summary of a module’s info.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.extend_path (path, name)

     Extend the search path for the modules which comprise a package.
     Intended use is to place the following code in a package’s
     ‘__init__.py’:

          from pkgutil import extend_path
          __path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)

     For each directory on *note sys.path: 368. that has a subdirectory
     that matches the package name, add the subdirectory to the
     package’s *note __path__: 1ab7.  This is useful if one wants to
     distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple
     directories.

     It also looks for ‘*.pkg’ files beginning where ‘*’ matches the
     'name' argument.  This feature is similar to ‘*.pth’ files (see the
     *note site: c6. module for more information), except that it
     doesn’t special-case lines starting with ‘import’.  A ‘*.pkg’ file
     is trusted at face value: apart from skipping blank lines and
     ignoring comments, all entries found in a ‘*.pkg’ file are added to
     the path, regardless of whether they exist on the filesystem (this
     is a feature).

     If the input path is not a list (as is the case for frozen
     packages) it is returned unchanged.  The input path is not
     modified; an extended copy is returned.  Items are only appended to
     the copy at the end.

     It is assumed that *note sys.path: 368. is a sequence.  Items of
     *note sys.path: 368. that are not strings referring to existing
     directories are ignored.  Unicode items on *note sys.path: 368.
     that cause errors when used as filenames may cause this function to
     raise an exception (in line with *note os.path.isdir(): 871.
     behavior).

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.find_loader (fullname)

     Retrieve a module *note loader: 14c0. for the given 'fullname'.

     This is a backwards compatibility wrapper around *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 239. that converts most failures to
     *note ImportError: 14b. and only returns the loader rather than the
     full *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1d05.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 75. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(2) import emulation.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based on PEP 451(3)

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 239. instead.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.get_importer (path_item)

     Retrieve a *note finder: 1d0b. for the given 'path_item'.

     The returned finder is cached in *note sys.path_importer_cache:
     3f0. if it was newly created by a path hook.

     The cache (or part of it) can be cleared manually if a rescan of
     *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. is necessary.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 75. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(4) import emulation.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.get_loader (module_or_name)

     Get a *note loader: 14c0. object for 'module_or_name'.

     If the module or package is accessible via the normal import
     mechanism, a wrapper around the relevant part of that machinery is
     returned.  Returns ‘None’ if the module cannot be found or
     imported.  If the named module is not already imported, its
     containing package (if any) is imported, in order to establish the
     package ‘__path__’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 75. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(5) import emulation.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based on PEP 451(6)

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 239. instead.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.iter_importers (fullname='')

     Yield *note finder: 1d0b. objects for the given module name.

     If fullname contains a ‘'.'’, the finders will be for the package
     containing fullname, otherwise they will be all registered top
     level finders (i.e.  those on both *note sys.meta_path: bb3. and
     *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.).

     If the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a
     side effect of invoking this function.

     If no module name is specified, all top level finders are produced.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 75. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(7) import emulation.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.iter_modules (path=None, prefix='')

     Yields *note ModuleInfo: bd5. for all submodules on 'path', or, if
     'path' is ‘None’, all top-level modules on *note sys.path: 368.

     'path' should be either ‘None’ or a list of paths to look for
     modules in.

     'prefix' is a string to output on the front of every module name on
     output.

          Not: Only works for a *note finder: 1d0b. which defines an
          ‘iter_modules()’ method.  This interface is non-standard, so
          the module also provides implementations for *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: f1c. and *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 42ab.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 75. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(8) import emulation.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.walk_packages (path=None, prefix='', onerror=None)

     Yields *note ModuleInfo: bd5. for all modules recursively on
     'path', or, if 'path' is ‘None’, all accessible modules.

     'path' should be either ‘None’ or a list of paths to look for
     modules in.

     'prefix' is a string to output on the front of every module name on
     output.

     Note that this function must import all 'packages' ('not' all
     modules!)  on the given 'path', in order to access the ‘__path__’
     attribute to find submodules.

     'onerror' is a function which gets called with one argument (the
     name of the package which was being imported) if any exception
     occurs while trying to import a package.  If no 'onerror' function
     is supplied, *note ImportError: 14b.s are caught and ignored, while
     all other exceptions are propagated, terminating the search.

     Examples:

          # list all modules python can access
          walk_packages()

          # list all submodules of ctypes
          walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.')

          Not: Only works for a *note finder: 1d0b. which defines an
          ‘iter_modules()’ method.  This interface is non-standard, so
          the module also provides implementations for *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: f1c. and *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 42ab.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 75. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(9) import emulation.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.get_data (package, resource)

     Get a resource from a package.

     This is a wrapper for the *note loader: 14c0. *note get_data: 42b9.
     API. The 'package' argument should be the name of a package, in
     standard module format (‘foo.bar’).  The 'resource' argument should
     be in the form of a relative filename, using ‘/’ as the path
     separator.  The parent directory name ‘..’ is not allowed, and nor
     is a rooted name (starting with a ‘/’).

     The function returns a binary string that is the contents of the
     specified resource.

     For packages located in the filesystem, which have already been
     imported, this is the rough equivalent of:

          d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
          data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()

     If the package cannot be located or loaded, or it uses a *note
     loader: 14c0. which does not support *note get_data: 42b9, then
     ‘None’ is returned.  In particular, the *note loader: 14c0. for
     *note namespace packages: 1ab1. does not support *note get_data:
     42b9.

 -- Işlevi: pkgutil.resolve_name (name)

     Resolve a name to an object.

     This functionality is used in numerous places in the standard
     library (see bpo-12915(10)) - and equivalent functionality is also
     in widely used third-party packages such as setuptools, Django and
     Pyramid.

     It is expected that 'name' will be a string in one of the following
     formats, where W is shorthand for a valid Python identifier and dot
     stands for a literal period in these pseudo-regexes:

        * ‘W(.W)*’

        * ‘W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)?’

     The first form is intended for backward compatibility only.  It
     assumes that some part of the dotted name is a package, and the
     rest is an object somewhere within that package, possibly nested
     inside other objects.  Because the place where the package stops
     and the object hierarchy starts can’t be inferred by inspection,
     repeated attempts to import must be done with this form.

     In the second form, the caller makes the division point clear
     through the provision of a single colon: the dotted name to the
     left of the colon is a package to be imported, and the dotted name
     to the right is the object hierarchy within that package.  Only one
     import is needed in this form.  If it ends with the colon, then a
     module object is returned.

     The function will return an object (which might be a module), or
     raise one of the following exceptions:

     *note ValueError: 189. – if 'name' isn’t in a recognised format.

     *note ImportError: 14b. – if an import failed when it shouldn’t
     have.

     *note AttributeError: 3dc. – If a failure occurred when traversing
     the object hierarchy within the imported package to get to the
     desired object.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pkgutil.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915


File: python.info,  Node: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script,  Next: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules,  Prev: pkgutil — Package extension utility,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.3 ‘modulefinder’ — Find modules used by a script
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/modulefinder.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a *note ModuleFinder: 183c. class that can be used
to determine the set of modules imported by a script.  ‘modulefinder.py’
can also be run as a script, giving the filename of a Python script as
its argument, after which a report of the imported modules will be
printed.

 -- Işlevi: modulefinder.AddPackagePath (pkg_name, path)

     Record that the package named 'pkg_name' can be found in the
     specified 'path'.

 -- Işlevi: modulefinder.ReplacePackage (oldname, newname)

     Allows specifying that the module named 'oldname' is in fact the
     package named 'newname'.

 -- Sınıfı: modulefinder.ModuleFinder (path=None, debug=0, excludes=[],
          replace_paths=[])

     This class provides *note run_script(): 42bf. and *note report():
     42c0. methods to determine the set of modules imported by a script.
     'path' can be a list of directories to search for modules; if not
     specified, ‘sys.path’ is used.  'debug' sets the debugging level;
     higher values make the class print debugging messages about what
     it’s doing.  'excludes' is a list of module names to exclude from
     the analysis.  'replace_paths' is a list of ‘(oldpath, newpath)’
     tuples that will be replaced in module paths.

      -- Yöntemi: report ()

          Print a report to standard output that lists the modules
          imported by the script and their paths, as well as modules
          that are missing or seem to be missing.

      -- Yöntemi: run_script (pathname)

          Analyze the contents of the 'pathname' file, which must
          contain Python code.

      -- Özniteliği: modules

          A dictionary mapping module names to modules.  See *note
          Example usage of ModuleFinder: 42c2.

* Menu:

* Example usage of ModuleFinder::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/modulefinder.py


File: python.info,  Node: Example usage of ModuleFinder,  Up: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script

5.31.3.1 Example usage of ‘ModuleFinder’
........................................

The script that is going to get analyzed later on (bacon.py):

     import re, itertools

     try:
         import baconhameggs
     except ImportError:
         pass

     try:
         import guido.python.ham
     except ImportError:
         pass

The script that will output the report of bacon.py:

     from modulefinder import ModuleFinder

     finder = ModuleFinder()
     finder.run_script('bacon.py')

     print('Loaded modules:')
     for name, mod in finder.modules.items():
         print('%s: ' % name, end='')
         print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3]))

     print('-'*50)
     print('Modules not imported:')
     print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys()))

Sample output (may vary depending on the architecture):

     Loaded modules:
     _types:
     copyreg:  _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__
     re._compiler:  isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode
     _sre:
     re._constants:  REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE
     sys:
     re:  __module__,finditer,_expand
     itertools:
     __main__:  re,itertools,baconhameggs
     re._parser:  _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE
     array:
     types:  __module__,IntType,TypeType
     ---------------------------------------------------
     Modules not imported:
     guido.python.ham
     baconhameggs


File: python.info,  Node: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules,  Next: importlib — The implementation of import,  Prev: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.4 ‘runpy’ — Locating and executing Python modules
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/runpy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note runpy: bd. module is used to locate and run Python modules
without importing them first.  Its main use is to implement the *note
-m: 3ec. command line switch that allows scripts to be located using the
Python module namespace rather than the filesystem.

Note that this is 'not' a sandbox module - all code is executed in the
current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other
modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned.

Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are
not guaranteed to work correctly after a *note runpy: bd. function has
returned.  If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case,
*note importlib: 75. is likely to be a more suitable choice than this
module.

The *note runpy: bd. module provides two functions:

 -- Işlevi: runpy.run_module (mod_name, init_globals=None,
          run_name=None, alter_sys=False)

     Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting
     module globals dictionary.  The module’s code is first located
     using the standard import mechanism (refer to PEP 302(2) for
     details) and then executed in a fresh module namespace.

     The 'mod_name' argument should be an absolute module name.  If the
     module name refers to a package rather than a normal module, then
     that package is imported and the *note __main__: 1. submodule
     within that package is then executed and the resulting module
     globals dictionary returned.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module’s globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  The supplied dictionary will not be modified.  If any of
     the special global variables below are defined in the supplied
     dictionary, those definitions are overridden by *note run_module():
     162f.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals
     dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
     minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as
     an interpreter implementation detail).

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: 488, to ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’ if the named module is
     a package and to the 'mod_name' argument otherwise.

     ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the 'actually' imported
     module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be 'mod_name' or
     ‘mod_name + '.__main__’, never 'run_name').

     ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are *note
     set as normal: 1d00. based on the module spec.

     If the argument 'alter_sys' is supplied and evaluates to *note
     True: a86, then ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of
     ‘__file__’ and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary
     module object for the module being executed.  Both ‘sys.argv[0]’
     and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ are restored to their original values
     before the function returns.

     Note that this manipulation of *note sys: d8. is not thread-safe.
     Other threads may see the partially initialised module, as well as
     the altered list of arguments.  It is recommended that the ‘sys’
     module be left alone when invoking this function from threaded
     code.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note -m: 3ec. option offering equivalent functionality from
     the command line.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added ability to execute packages by looking
     for a *note __main__: 1. submodule.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘__cached__’ global variable (see PEP
     3147(3)).

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Updated to take advantage of the module spec
     feature added by PEP 451(4).  This allows ‘__cached__’ to be set
     correctly for modules run this way, as well as ensuring the real
     module name is always accessible as ‘__spec__.name’.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’,
     and ‘__package__’ are deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 1d05. for
     alternatives.

 -- Işlevi: runpy.run_path (path_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None)

     Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the
     resulting module globals dictionary.  As with a script name
     supplied to the CPython command line, the supplied path may refer
     to a Python source file, a compiled bytecode file or a valid *note
     sys.path: 368. entry containing a *note __main__: 1. module (e.g.
     a zipfile containing a top-level ‘__main__.py’ file).

     For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a
     fresh module namespace.  For a valid *note sys.path: 368. entry
     (typically a zipfile or directory), the entry is first added to the
     beginning of ‘sys.path’.  The function then looks for and executes
     a *note __main__: 1. module using the updated path.  Note that
     there is no special protection against invoking an existing
     ‘__main__’ entry located elsewhere on ‘sys.path’ if there is no
     such module at the specified location.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module’s globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  The supplied dictionary will not be modified.  If any of
     the special global variables below are defined in the supplied
     dictionary, those definitions are overridden by *note run_path():
     11c7.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals
     dictionary before the module code is executed (Note that this is a
     minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as
     an interpreter implementation detail).

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: 488. and to ‘'<run_path>'’ otherwise.

     If the supplied path directly references a script file (whether as
     source or as precompiled byte code), then ‘__file__’ will be set to
     the supplied path, and ‘__spec__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ will all be set to *note None: 488.

     If the supplied path is a reference to a valid *note sys.path: 368.
     entry, then ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the imported
     *note __main__: 1. module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be
     ‘__main__’).  ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ will be *note set as normal: 1d00. based on the
     module spec.

     A number of alterations are also made to the *note sys: d8. module.
     Firstly, *note sys.path: 368. may be altered as described above.
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of ‘path_name’ and
     ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary module object
     for the module being executed.  All modifications to items in *note
     sys: d8. are reverted before the function returns.

     Note that, unlike *note run_module(): 162f, the alterations made to
     *note sys: d8. are not optional in this function as these
     adjustments are essential to allowing the execution of *note
     sys.path: 368. entries.  As the thread-safety limitations still
     apply, use of this function in threaded code should be either
     serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note Interface options: 1b73. for equivalent functionality on the
     command line (‘python path/to/script’).

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Updated to take advantage of the module spec
     feature added by PEP 451(5).  This allows ‘__cached__’ to be set
     correctly in the case where ‘__main__’ is imported from a valid
     *note sys.path: 368. entry rather than being executed directly.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’,
     and ‘__package__’ are deprecated.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 338(6) – Executing modules as scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 366(7) – Main module explicit relative imports

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 451(8) – A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow

*note Command line and environment: 17f1. - CPython command line details

The *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2. function

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/runpy.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib — The implementation of import,  Next: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access,  Prev: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.5 ‘importlib’ — The implementation of ‘import’
---------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.1.

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<8>.
* Functions: Functions<10>.
* importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
* importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
* importlib.util – Utility code for importers: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
* Examples: Examples<33>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<8>,  Next: Functions<10>,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.31.5.1 Introduction
.....................

The purpose of the *note importlib: 75. package is three-fold.

One is to provide the implementation of the *note import: 3ed. statement
(and thus, by extension, the *note __import__(): 727. function) in
Python source code.  This provides an implementation of ‘import’ which
is portable to any Python interpreter.  This also provides an
implementation which is easier to comprehend than one implemented in a
programming language other than Python.

Two, the components to implement *note import: 3ed. are exposed in this
package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects
(known generically as an *note importer: 1de4.) to participate in the
import process.

Three, the package contains modules exposing additional functionality
for managing aspects of Python packages:

   * *note importlib.metadata: 78. presents access to metadata from
     third-party distributions.

   * *note importlib.resources: 79. provides routines for accessing
     non-code “resources” from Python packages.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note The import statement: 3ed.

     The language reference for the *note import: 3ed. statement.

Packages specification(1)

     Original specification of packages.  Some semantics have changed
     since the writing of this document (e.g.  redirecting based on
     ‘None’ in *note sys.modules: 179b.).

The *note __import__(): f17. function

     The *note import: 3ed. statement is syntactic sugar for this
     function.

*note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1aa9.

     The initialization of *note sys.path: 368.

PEP 235(2)

     Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms

PEP 263(3)

     Defining Python Source Code Encodings

PEP 302(4)

     New Import Hooks

PEP 328(5)

     Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

PEP 366(6)

     Main module explicit relative imports

PEP 420(7)

     Implicit namespace packages

PEP 451(8)

     A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

PEP 488(9)

     Elimination of PYO files

PEP 489(10)

     Multi-phase extension module initialization

PEP 552(11)

     Deterministic pycs

PEP 3120(12)

     Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding

PEP 3147(13)

     PYC Repository Directories

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0235/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<10>,  Next: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import,  Prev: Introduction<8>,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.31.5.2 Functions
..................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.__import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None,
          fromlist=(), level=0)

     An implementation of the built-in *note __import__(): 727.
     function.

          Not: Programmatic importing of modules should use *note
          import_module(): 2a2. instead of this function.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.import_module (name, package=None)

     Import a module.  The 'name' argument specifies what module to
     import in absolute or relative terms (e.g.  either ‘pkg.mod’ or
     ‘..mod’).  If the name is specified in relative terms, then the
     'package' argument must be set to the name of the package which is
     to act as the anchor for resolving the package name (e.g.
     ‘import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg')’ will import ‘pkg.mod’).

     The *note import_module(): 2a2. function acts as a simplifying
     wrapper around *note importlib.__import__(): f17.  This means all
     semantics of the function are derived from *note
     importlib.__import__(): f17.  The most important difference between
     these two functions is that *note import_module(): 2a2. returns the
     specified package or module (e.g.  ‘pkg.mod’), while *note
     __import__(): 727. returns the top-level package or module (e.g.
     ‘pkg’).

     If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since
     the interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source
     file), you may need to call *note invalidate_caches(): a89. in
     order for the new module to be noticed by the import system.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Parent packages are automatically imported.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.invalidate_caches ()

     Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at *note
     sys.meta_path: bb3.  If a finder implements ‘invalidate_caches()’
     then it will be called to perform the invalidation.  This function
     should be called if any modules are created/installed while your
     program is running to guarantee all finders will notice the new
     module’s existence.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Namespace packages created/installed in a
     different *note sys.path: 368. location after the same namespace
     was already imported are noticed.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.reload (module)

     Reload a previously imported 'module'.  The argument must be a
     module object, so it must have been successfully imported before.
     This is useful if you have edited the module source file using an
     external editor and want to try out the new version without leaving
     the Python interpreter.  The return value is the module object
     (which can be different if re-importing causes a different object
     to be placed in *note sys.modules: 179b.).

     When *note reload(): 2a3. is executed:

        * Python module’s code is recompiled and the module-level code
          re-executed, defining a new set of objects which are bound to
          names in the module’s dictionary by reusing the *note loader:
          14c0. which originally loaded the module.  The ‘init’ function
          of extension modules is not called a second time.

        * As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only
          reclaimed after their reference counts drop to zero.

        * The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any
          new or changed objects.

        * Other references to the old objects (such as names external to
          the module) are not rebound to refer to the new objects and
          must be updated in each namespace where they occur if that is
          desired.

     There are a number of other caveats:

     When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module’s
     global variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will
     override the old definitions, so this is generally not a problem.
     If the new version of a module does not define a name that was
     defined by the old version, the old definition remains.  This
     feature can be used to the module’s advantage if it maintains a
     global table or cache of objects — with a *note try: 503. statement
     it can test for the table’s presence and skip its initialization if
     desired:

          try:
              cache
          except NameError:
              cache = {}

     It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
     loaded modules.  Reloading *note sys: d8, *note __main__: 1, *note
     builtins: 12. and other key modules is not recommended.  In many
     cases extension modules are not designed to be initialized more
     than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.

     If a module imports objects from another module using *note from:
     1154. … *note import: 3ed. …, calling *note reload(): 2a3. for the
     other module does not redefine the objects imported from it — one
     way around this is to re-execute the ‘from’ statement, another is
     to use ‘import’ and qualified names ('module.name') instead.

     If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module
     that defines the class does not affect the method definitions of
     the instances — they continue to use the old class definition.  The
     same is true for derived classes.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8. is raised
     when the module being reloaded lacks a *note ModuleSpec: 1d05.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import,  Next: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks,  Prev: Functions<10>,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.31.5.3 ‘importlib.abc’ – Abstract base classes related to import
..................................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note importlib.abc: 76. module contains all of the core abstract
base classes used by *note import: 3ed.  Some subclasses of the core
abstract base classes are also provided to help in implementing the core
ABCs.

ABC hierarchy:

     object
      +-- MetaPathFinder
      +-- PathEntryFinder
      +-- Loader
           +-- ResourceLoader --------+
           +-- InspectLoader          |
                +-- ExecutionLoader --+
                                      +-- FileLoader
                                      +-- SourceLoader

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note meta path finder: f1a.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- Yöntemi: find_spec (fullname, path, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1d02. for the
          specified module.  If this is a top-level import, 'path' will
          be ‘None’.  Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or
          module and 'path' will be the value of *note __path__: 1ab7.
          from the parent package.  If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is
          returned.  When passed in, ‘target’ is a module object that
          the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what
          spec to return.  *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 6b1.
          may be useful for implementing concrete ‘MetaPathFinders’.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.invalidate_caches(): a89. when invalidating the
          caches of all finders on *note sys.meta_path: bb3.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Returns ‘None’ when called instead of
          *note NotImplemented: 60b.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note path entry finder: f1b.
     Though it bears some similarities to *note MetaPathFinder: 6b2,
     ‘PathEntryFinder’ is meant for use only within the path-based
     import subsystem provided by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder:
     ecb.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- Yöntemi: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1d02. for the
          specified module.  The finder will search for the module only
          within the *note path entry: 1df3. to which it is assigned.
          If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is returned.  When passed
          in, ‘target’ is a module object that the finder may use to
          make a more educated guess about what spec to return.  *note
          importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 6b1. may be useful for
          implementing concrete ‘PathEntryFinders’.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): a88. when
          invalidating the caches of all cached finders.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.Loader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 14c0.  See PEP 302(2)
     for the exact definition for a loader.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a
     ‘get_resource_reader()’ method as specified by *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 42cd.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Introduced the optional
     ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.

      -- Yöntemi: create_module (spec)

          A method that returns the module object to use when importing
          a module.  This method may return ‘None’, indicating that
          default module creation semantics should take place.

          Added in version 3.4.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: This method is no longer optional when
          *note exec_module(): 6ae. is defined.

      -- Yöntemi: exec_module (module)

          An abstract method that executes the module in its own
          namespace when a module is imported or reloaded.  The module
          should already be initialized when *note exec_module(): 6ae.
          is called.  When this method exists, *note create_module():
          b31. must be defined.

          Added in version 3.4.

          3.6 sürümünde değişti: *note create_module(): b31. must also
          be defined.

      -- Yöntemi: load_module (fullname)

          A legacy method for loading a module.  If the module cannot be
          loaded, *note ImportError: 14b. is raised, otherwise the
          loaded module is returned.

          If the requested module already exists in *note sys.modules:
          179b, that module should be used and reloaded.  Otherwise the
          loader should create a new module and insert it into *note
          sys.modules: 179b. before any loading begins, to prevent
          recursion from the import.  If the loader inserted a module
          and the load fails, it must be removed by the loader from
          *note sys.modules: 179b.; modules already in *note
          sys.modules: 179b. before the loader began execution should be
          left alone.

          The loader should set several attributes on the module (note
          that some of these attributes can change when a module is
          reloaded):

             - *note module.__name__: 122f.

             - *note module.__file__: 1d0a.

             - *note module.__cached__: 24f.

             - *note module.__path__: 1ab7.

             - *note module.__package__: 24c.

             - *note module.__loader__: 267. '(deprecated)'

          When *note exec_module(): 6ae. is available then
          backwards-compatible functionality is provided.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note ImportError: 14b. when
          called instead of *note NotImplementedError: bd6.
          Functionality provided when *note exec_module(): 6ae. is
          available.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          The recommended API for loading a module is *note
          exec_module(): 6ae. (and *note create_module(): b31.).
          Loaders should implement it instead of *note load_module():
          6ad.  The import machinery takes care of all the other
          responsibilities of *note load_module(): 6ad. when *note
          exec_module(): 6ae. is implemented.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.ResourceLoader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

          An abstract base class for a *note loader: 14c0. which
          implements the optional PEP 302(3) protocol for loading
          arbitrary resources from the storage back-end.

          3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This ABC is deprecated in
          favour of supporting resource loading through *note
          importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 233.

           -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod get_data (path)

                    An abstract method to return the bytes for the data
                    located at 'path'.  Loaders that have a file-like
                    storage back-end that allows storing arbitrary data
                    can implement this abstract method to give direct
                    access to the data stored.  *note OSError: 65c. is
                    to be raised if the 'path' cannot be found.  The
                    'path' is expected to be constructed using a
                    module’s *note __file__: 1d0a. attribute or an item
                    from a package’s *note __path__: 1ab7.

                    3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note OSError: 65c.
                    instead of *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.InspectLoader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 14c0. which implements
     the optional PEP 302(4) protocol for loaders that inspect modules.

      -- Yöntemi: get_code (fullname)

          Return the code object for a module, or ‘None’ if the module
          does not have a code object (as would be the case, for
          example, for a built-in module).  Raise an *note ImportError:
          14b. if loader cannot find the requested module.

               Not: While the method has a default implementation, it is
               suggested that it be overridden if possible for
               performance.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: No longer abstract and a concrete
          implementation is provided.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod get_source (fullname)

               An abstract method to return the source of a module.  It
               is returned as a text string using *note universal
               newlines: bc2, translating all recognized line separators
               into ‘'\n'’ characters.  Returns ‘None’ if no source is
               available (e.g.  a built-in module).  Raises *note
               ImportError: 14b. if the loader cannot find the module
               specified.

               3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note ImportError: 14b.
               instead of *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

      -- Yöntemi: is_package (fullname)

          An optional method to return a true value if the module is a
          package, a false value otherwise.  *note ImportError: 14b. is
          raised if the *note loader: 14c0. cannot find the module.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note ImportError: 14b. instead
          of *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

      -- Yöntemi: static source_to_code (data, path='<string>')

          Create a code object from Python source.

          The 'data' argument can be whatever the *note compile(): 56d.
          function supports (i.e.  string or bytes).  The 'path'
          argument should be the “path” to where the source code
          originated from, which can be an abstract concept (e.g.
          location in a zip file).

          With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module
          by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.

          Added in version 3.4.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Made the method static.

      -- Yöntemi: exec_module (module)

          Implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): 6ae.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: load_module (fullname)

          Implementation of *note Loader.load_module(): 6ad.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          use *note exec_module(): eb9. instead.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note InspectLoader:
     df4. that, when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a
     script.  The ABC represents an optional PEP 302(5) protocol.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

               An abstract method that is to return the value of *note
               __file__: 1d0a. for the specified module.  If no path is
               available, *note ImportError: 14b. is raised.

               If source code is available, then the method should
               return the path to the source file, regardless of whether
               a bytecode was used to load the module.

               3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note ImportError: 14b.
               instead of *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.FileLoader (fullname, path)

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note ResourceLoader:
     a5f. and *note ExecutionLoader: 42d0, providing concrete
     implementations of *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 42b9. and *note
     ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 42d1.

     The 'fullname' argument is a fully resolved name of the module the
     loader is to handle.  The 'path' argument is the path to the file
     for the module.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the module the loader can handle.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          Path to the file of the module.

      -- Yöntemi: load_module (fullname)

          Calls super’s ‘load_module()’.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          Use *note Loader.exec_module(): 6ae. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 42d3.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod get_data (path)

          Reads 'path' as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.SourceLoader

     An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally
     bytecode) file loading.  The class inherits from both *note
     ResourceLoader: a5f. and *note ExecutionLoader: 42d0, requiring the
     implementation of:

        * *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 42b9.

        * 
          *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 42d1.

               Should only return the path to the source file;
               sourceless loading is not supported.

     The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional
     bytecode file support.  Not implementing these optional methods (or
     causing them to raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6.) causes the
     loader to only work with source code.  Implementing the methods
     allows the loader to work with source 'and' bytecode files; it does
     not allow for 'sourceless' loading where only bytecode is provided.
     Bytecode files are an optimization to speed up loading by removing
     the parsing step of Python’s compiler, and so no bytecode-specific
     API is exposed.

      -- Yöntemi: path_stats (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns a *note dict: 240.
          containing metadata about the specified path.  Supported
          dictionary keys are:

             - ‘'mtime'’ (mandatory): an integer or floating-point
               number representing the modification time of the source
               code;

             - ‘'size'’ (optional): the size in bytes of the source
               code.

          Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for
          future extensions.  If the path cannot be handled, *note
          OSError: 65c. is raised.

          Added in version 3.3.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note OSError: 65c. instead of
          *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

      -- Yöntemi: path_mtime (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns the modification time
          for the specified path.

          3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This method is deprecated
          in favour of *note path_stats(): 1032.  You don’t have to
          implement it, but it is still available for compatibility
          purposes.  Raise *note OSError: 65c. if the path cannot be
          handled.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: Raise *note OSError: 65c. instead of
          *note NotImplementedError: bd6.

      -- Yöntemi: set_data (path, data)

          Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a
          file path.  Any intermediate directories which do not exist
          are to be created automatically.

          When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only
          (*note errno.EACCES: 209f./*note PermissionError: bcb.), do
          not propagate the exception.

          3.4 sürümünde değişti: No longer raises *note
          NotImplementedError: bd6. when called.

      -- Yöntemi: get_code (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_code():
          df5.

      -- Yöntemi: exec_module (module)

          Concrete implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): 6ae.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: load_module (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note Loader.load_module(): 6ad.

          Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15:
          Use *note exec_module(): eba. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: get_source (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_source():
          df8.

      -- Yöntemi: is_package (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.is_package():
          42ce.  A module is determined to be a package if its file path
          (as provided by *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 42d1.)
          is a file named ‘__init__’ when the file extension is removed
          'and' the module name itself does not end in ‘__init__’.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 105b. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 98e. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the “directory”.  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC’s interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: 488.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     Added in version 3.7.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 233. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

               Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 2379. for
               binary reading of the 'resource'.

               If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError:
               39a. is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

               Returns the file system path to the 'resource'.

               If the resource does not concretely exist on the file
               system, raise *note FileNotFoundError: 39a.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

               Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a
               resource.  *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. is raised if
               'name' does not exist.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod contents ()

               Returns an *note iterable: 10ce. of strings over the
               contents of the package.  Do note that it is not required
               that all names returned by the iterator be actual
               resources, e.g.  it is acceptable to return names for
               which *note is_resource(): 42de. would be false.

               Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow
               for situations where how a package and its resources are
               stored are known a priori and the non-resource names
               would be useful.  For instance, returning subdirectory
               names is allowed so that when it is known that the
               package and resources are stored on the file system then
               those subdirectory names can be used directly.

               The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 14f. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 1b0.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 232. instead.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield ‘Traversable’ objects in ‘self’.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a directory.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a file.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod joinpath (child)

          Return Traversable child in ‘self’.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return ‘Traversable’ child in ‘self’.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be ‘r’ or ‘rb’ to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          259e.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.

      -- Yöntemi: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of ‘self’ as bytes.

      -- Yöntemi: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of ‘self’ as text.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 1b1. interface.  Subclasses
     *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 42cd. and provides
     concrete implementations of the *note
     importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 42cd.’s abstract methods.
     Therefore, any loader supplying *note
     importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 16ab. also supplies
     ResourceReader.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use
     *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 233. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 232.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks,  Next: importlib util – Utility code for importers,  Prev: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.31.5.4 ‘importlib.machinery’ – Importers and path hooks
.........................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/machinery.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help *note import: 3ed.
find and load modules.

 -- Verisi: importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     source modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Verisi: importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized
     bytecode modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES:
     2a0. instead.

 -- Verisi: importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized
     bytecode modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES:
     2a0. instead.

 -- Verisi: importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     bytecode modules (including the leading dot).

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The value is no longer dependent on
     ‘__debug__’.

 -- Verisi: importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     extension modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.machinery.all_suffixes ()

     Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes
     for modules recognized by the standard import machinery.  This is a
     helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path
     potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the
     kind of module (for example, *note inspect.getmodulename(): bc1.).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter

     An *note importer: 1de4. for built-in modules.  All known built-in
     modules are listed in *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1aa8.  This
     class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2. and
     *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: df4. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: As part of PEP 489(2), the builtin importer
     now implements ‘Loader.create_module()’ and ‘Loader.exec_module()’

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter

     An *note importer: 1de4. for frozen modules.  This class implements
     the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2. and *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader: df4. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Gained ‘create_module()’ and ‘exec_module()’
     methods.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder

     *note Finder: 1d0b. for modules declared in the Windows registry.
     This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2.
     ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.6 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note site: c6.
     configuration instead.  Future versions of Python may not enable
     this finder by default.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.PathFinder

     A *note Finder: 1d0b. for *note sys.path: 368. and package
     ‘__path__’ attributes.  This class implements the *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2. ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod find_spec (fullname, path=None,
               target=None)

          Class method that attempts to find a *note spec: 1d02. for the
          module specified by 'fullname' on *note sys.path: 368. or, if
          defined, on 'path'.  For each path entry that is searched,
          *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. is checked.  If a
          non-false object is found then it is used as the *note path
          entry finder: f1b. to look for the module being searched for.
          If no entry is found in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0,
          then *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. is searched for a finder for
          the path entry and, if found, is stored in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. along with being queried about
          the module.  If no finder is ever found then ‘None’ is both
          stored in the cache and returned.

          Added in version 3.4.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: If the current working directory –
          represented by an empty string – is no longer valid then
          ‘None’ is returned but no value is cached in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod invalidate_caches ()

          Calls *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches():
          42cc. on all finders stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache:
          3f0. that define the method.  Otherwise entries in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. set to ‘None’ are deleted.

          3.7 sürümünde değişti: Entries of ‘None’ in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. are deleted.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Calls objects in *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.
     with the current working directory for ‘''’ (i.e.  the empty
     string).

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.FileFinder (path, *loader_details)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder:
     6b3. which caches results from the file system.

     The 'path' argument is the directory for which the finder is in
     charge of searching.

     The 'loader_details' argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples
     each containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader
     recognizes.  The loaders are expected to be callables which accept
     two arguments of the module’s name and the path to the file found.

     The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making
     stat calls for each module search to verify the cache is not
     outdated.  Because cache staleness relies upon the granularity of
     the operating system’s state information of the file system, there
     is a potential race condition of searching for a module, creating a
     new file, and then searching for the module the new file
     represents.  If the operations happen fast enough to fit within the
     granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail.  To
     prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically,
     make sure to call *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): a89.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          The path the finder will search in.

      -- Yöntemi: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          Attempt to find the spec to handle 'fullname' within *note
          path: 42ec.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Yöntemi: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod path_hook (*loader_details)

          A class method which returns a closure for use on *note
          sys.path_hooks: ecc.  An instance of *note FileFinder: f1c. is
          returned by the closure using the path argument given to the
          closure directly and 'loader_details' indirectly.

          If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory,
          *note ImportError: 14b. is raised.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader:
     42d7. by subclassing *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: f1d. and
     providing some concrete implementations of other methods.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the module that this loader will handle.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          The path to the source file.

      -- Yöntemi: is_package (fullname)

          Return ‘True’ if *note path: 42f0. appears to be for a
          package.

      -- Yöntemi: path_stats (path)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 1032.

      -- Yöntemi: set_data (path, data)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data(): 42d8.

      -- Yöntemi: load_module (name=None)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 6ad. where specifying the
          name of the module to load is optional.

          Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15:
          Use *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 6ae. instead.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: f1d.
     which can import bytecode files (i.e.  no source code files exist).

     Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source
     code files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python
     implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode
     format.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the module the loader will handle.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          The path to the bytecode file.

      -- Yöntemi: is_package (fullname)

          Determines if the module is a package based on *note path:
          42f5.

      -- Yöntemi: get_code (fullname)

          Returns the code object for *note name: 42f4. created from
          *note path: 42f5.

      -- Yöntemi: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as bytecode files have no source when this
          loader is used.

      -- Yöntemi: load_module (name=None)

     Concrete implementation of *note
     importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 6ad. where specifying the name
     of the module to load is optional.

     Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15: Use
     *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 6ae. instead.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader:
     42d0. for extension modules.

     The 'fullname' argument specifies the name of the module the loader
     is to support.  The 'path' argument is the path to the extension
     module’s file.

     Note that, by default, importing an extension module will fail in
     subinterpreters if it doesn’t implement multi-phase init (see PEP
     489(3)), even if it would otherwise import successfully.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Multi-phase init is now required for use in
     subinterpreters.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          Name of the module the loader supports.

      -- Özniteliği: path

          Path to the extension module.

      -- Yöntemi: create_module (spec)

          Creates the module object from the given specification in
          accordance with PEP 489(4).

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: exec_module (module)

          Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP
          489(5).

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Yöntemi: is_package (fullname)

          Returns ‘True’ if the file path points to a package’s
          ‘__init__’ module based on *note EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 29f.

      -- Yöntemi: get_code (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules lack a code object.

      -- Yöntemi: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules do not have source code.

      -- Yöntemi: get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 42fa.

          Added in version 3.4.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader (name, path,
          path_finder)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader:
     df4. for namespace packages.  This is an alias for a private class
     and is only made public for introspecting the ‘__loader__’
     attribute on namespace packages:

          >>> from importlib.machinery import NamespaceLoader
          >>> import my_namespace
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, NamespaceLoader)
          True
          >>> import importlib.abc
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, importlib.abc.Loader)
          True

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec (name, loader, *,
          origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None)

     A specification for a module’s import-system-related state.  This
     is typically exposed as the module’s *note __spec__: 1d03.
     attribute.  Many of these attributes are also available directly on
     a module: for example, ‘module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__’.
     Note, however, that while the 'values' are usually equivalent, they
     can differ since there is no synchronization between the two
     objects.  For example, it is possible to update the module’s *note
     __file__: 1d0a. at runtime and this will not be automatically
     reflected in the module’s *note __spec__.origin: 4300, and vice
     versa.

     Added in version 3.4.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The module’s fully qualified name (see *note module.__name__:
          122f.).  The *note finder: 1d0b. should always set this
          attribute to a non-empty string.

      -- Özniteliği: loader

          The *note loader: 14c0. used to load the module (see *note
          module.__loader__: 267.).  The *note finder: 1d0b. should
          always set this attribute.

      -- Özniteliği: origin

          The location the *note loader: 14c0. should use to load the
          module (see *note module.__file__: 1d0a.).  For example, for
          modules loaded from a ‘.py’ file this is the filename.  The
          *note finder: 1d0b. should always set this attribute to a
          meaningful value for the *note loader: 14c0. to use.  In the
          uncommon case that there is not one (like for namespace
          packages), it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: submodule_search_locations

          A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 23f. of strings enumerating
          the locations in which a package’s submodules will be found
          (see *note module.__path__: 1ab7.).  Most of the time there
          will only be a single directory in this list.

          The *note finder: 1d0b. should set this attribute to a
          sequence, even an empty one, to indicate to the import system
          that the module is a package.  It should be set to ‘None’ for
          non-package modules.  It is set automatically later to a
          special object for namespace packages.

      -- Özniteliği: loader_state

          The *note finder: 1d0b. may set this attribute to an object
          containing additional, module-specific data to use when
          loading the module.  Otherwise it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- Özniteliği: cached

          The filename of a compiled version of the module’s code (see
          *note module.__cached__: 24f.).  The *note finder: 1d0b.
          should always set this attribute but it may be ‘None’ for
          modules that do not need compiled code stored.

      -- Özniteliği: parent

          (Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module
          is in (or the empty string for a top-level module).  See *note
          module.__package__: 24c.  If the module is a package then this
          is the same as *note name: 1d04.

      -- Özniteliği: has_location

          ‘True’ if the spec’s *note origin: 4300. refers to a loadable
          location, ‘False’ otherwise.  This value impacts how ‘origin’
          is interpreted and how the module’s *note __file__: 1d0a. is
          populated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/machinery.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib util – Utility code for importers,  Next: Examples<33>,  Prev: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.31.5.5 ‘importlib.util’ – Utility code for importers
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/util.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help in the construction
of an *note importer: 1de4.

 -- Verisi: importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER

     The bytes which represent the bytecode version number.  If you need
     help with loading/writing bytecode then consider *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 42d7.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.cache_from_source (path, debug_override=None,
          *, optimization=None)

     Return the PEP 3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path to the byte-compiled file
     associated with the source 'path'.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ the return value would be
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  The
     ‘cpython-32’ string comes from the current magic tag (see
     ‘get_tag()’; if ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is not defined then
     *note NotImplementedError: bd6. will be raised).

     The 'optimization' parameter is used to specify the optimization
     level of the bytecode file.  An empty string represents no
     optimization, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an 'optimization' of ‘''’
     will result in a bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’.  ‘None’ causes the
     interpreter’s optimization level to be used.  Any other value’s
     string representation is used, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an
     'optimization' of ‘2’ will lead to the bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc’.  The string
     representation of 'optimization' can only be alphanumeric, else
     *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

     The 'debug_override' parameter is deprecated and can be used to
     override the system’s value for ‘__debug__’.  A ‘True’ value is the
     equivalent of setting 'optimization' to the empty string.  A
     ‘False’ value is the same as setting 'optimization' to ‘1’.  If
     both 'debug_override' an 'optimization' are not ‘None’ then *note
     TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'optimization' parameter was added and
     the 'debug_override' parameter was deprecated.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.source_from_cache (path)

     Given the 'path' to a PEP 3147(4) file name, return the associated
     source code file path.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ the returned path would
     be ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’.  'path' need not exist, however if it does
     not conform to PEP 3147(5) or PEP 488(6) format, a *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised.  If ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is
     not defined, *note NotImplementedError: bd6. is raised.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.decode_source (source_bytes)

     Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a
     string with universal newlines (as required by *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source(): df8.).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.resolve_name (name, package)

     Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one.

     If 'name' has no leading dots, then 'name' is simply returned.
     This allows for usage such as ‘importlib.util.resolve_name('sys',
     __spec__.parent)’ without doing a check to see if the 'package'
     argument is needed.

     *note ImportError: 14b. is raised if 'name' is a relative module
     name but 'package' is a false value (e.g.  ‘None’ or the empty
     string).  *note ImportError: 14b. is also raised if a relative name
     would escape its containing package (e.g.  requesting ‘..bacon’
     from within the ‘spam’ package).

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: To improve consistency with import
     statements, raise *note ImportError: 14b. instead of *note
     ValueError: 189. for invalid relative import attempts.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.find_spec (name, package=None)

     Find the *note spec: 1d02. for a module, optionally relative to the
     specified 'package' name.  If the module is in *note sys.modules:
     179b, then ‘sys.modules[name].__spec__’ is returned (unless the
     spec would be ‘None’ or is not set, in which case *note ValueError:
     189. is raised).  Otherwise a search using *note sys.meta_path:
     bb3. is done.  ‘None’ is returned if no spec is found.

     If 'name' is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is
     automatically imported.

     'name' and 'package' work the same as for ‘import_module()’.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 3dc. if 'package' is in fact not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a *note __path__: 1ab7. attribute).

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.module_from_spec (spec)

     Create a new module based on 'spec' and *note
     spec.loader.create_module: b31.

     If *note spec.loader.create_module: b31. does not return ‘None’,
     then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset.  Also, no *note
     AttributeError: 3dc. will be raised if triggered while accessing
     'spec' or setting an attribute on the module.

     This function is preferred over using *note types.ModuleType: ca2.
     to create a new module as 'spec' is used to set as many
     import-controlled attributes on the module as possible.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.spec_from_loader (name, loader, *,
          origin=None, is_package=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1d05. instance
     based on a loader.  The parameters have the same meaning as they do
     for ModuleSpec.  The function uses available *note loader: 14c0.
     APIs, such as ‘InspectLoader.is_package()’, to fill in any missing
     information on the spec.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.spec_from_file_location (name, location, *,
          loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1d05. instance
     based on the path to a file.  Missing information will be filled in
     on the spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication
     that the module will be file-based.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util.source_hash (source_bytes)

     Return the hash of 'source_bytes' as bytes.  A hash-based ‘.pyc’
     file embeds the *note source_hash(): 4304. of the corresponding
     source file’s contents in its header.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.util._incompatible_extension_module_restrictions
          (*, disable_check)

     A context manager that can temporarily skip the compatibility check
     for extension modules.  By default the check is enabled and will
     fail when a single-phase init module is imported in a
     subinterpreter.  It will also fail for a multi-phase init module
     that doesn’t explicitly support a per-interpreter GIL, when
     imported in an interpreter with its own GIL.

     Note that this function is meant to accommodate an unusual case;
     one which is likely to eventually go away.  There’s is a pretty
     good chance this is not what you were looking for.

     You can get the same effect as this function by implementing the
     basic interface of multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)) and lying about
     support for multiple interpreters (or per-interpreter GIL).

          Uyarı: Using this function to disable the check can lead to
          unexpected behavior and even crashes.  It should only be used
          during extension module development.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.util.LazyLoader (loader)

     A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module
     until the module has an attribute accessed.

     This class 'only' works with loaders that define *note
     exec_module(): 6ae. as control over what module type is used for
     the module is required.  For those same reasons, the loader’s *note
     create_module(): b31. method must return ‘None’ or a type for which
     its ‘__class__’ attribute can be mutated along with not using *note
     slots: 3ea.  Finally, modules which substitute the object placed
     into *note sys.modules: 179b. will not work as there is no way to
     properly replace the module references throughout the interpreter
     safely; *note ValueError: 189. is raised if such a substitution is
     detected.

          Not: For projects where startup time is critical, this class
          allows for potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module
          if it is never used.  For projects where startup time is not
          essential then use of this class is 'heavily' discouraged due
          to error messages created during loading being postponed and
          thus occurring out of context.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Began calling *note create_module(): b31,
     removing the compatibility warning for *note
     importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: b32. and *note
     importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: b33.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod factory (loader)

          A class method which returns a callable that creates a lazy
          loader.  This is meant to be used in situations where the
          loader is passed by class instead of by instance.

               suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
               loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
               lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
               finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/util.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<33>,  Prev: importlib util – Utility code for importers,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.31.5.6 Examples
.................

* Menu:

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.


File: python.info,  Node: Importing programmatically,  Next: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: Examples<33>

5.31.5.7 Importing programmatically
...................................

To programmatically import a module, use *note
importlib.import_module(): 2a2.

     import importlib

     itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')


File: python.info,  Node: Checking if a module can be imported,  Next: Importing a source file directly,  Prev: Importing programmatically,  Up: Examples<33>

5.31.5.8 Checking if a module can be imported
.............................................

If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually
doing the import, then you should use *note importlib.util.find_spec():
239.

Note that if ‘name’ is a submodule (contains a dot), *note
importlib.util.find_spec(): 239. will import the parent module.

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes.
     name = 'itertools'

     if name in sys.modules:
         print(f"{name!r} already in sys.modules")
     elif (spec := importlib.util.find_spec(name)) is not None:
         # If you chose to perform the actual import ...
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         print(f"{name!r} has been imported")
     else:
         print(f"can't find the {name!r} module")


File: python.info,  Node: Importing a source file directly,  Next: Implementing lazy imports,  Prev: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: Examples<33>

5.31.5.9 Importing a source file directly
.........................................

This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an
import statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than
*note sys.path: 368. being searched.  Alternatives should first be
considered first, such as modifying *note sys.path: 368. when a proper
module is required, or using *note runpy.run_path(): 11c7. when the
global namespace resulting from running a Python file is appropriate.

To import a Python source file directly from a path, use the following
recipe:

     import importlib.util
     import sys


     def import_from_path(module_name, file_path):
         spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[module_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         return module


     # For illustrative purposes only (use of `json` is arbitrary).
     import json
     file_path = json.__file__
     module_name = json.__name__

     # Similar outcome as `import json`.
     json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing lazy imports,  Next: Setting up an importer,  Prev: Importing a source file directly,  Up: Examples<33>

5.31.5.10 Implementing lazy imports
...................................

The example below shows how to implement lazy imports:

     >>> import importlib.util
     >>> import sys
     >>> def lazy_import(name):
     ...     spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name)
     ...     loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader(spec.loader)
     ...     spec.loader = loader
     ...     module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
     ...     sys.modules[name] = module
     ...     loader.exec_module(module)
     ...     return module
     ...
     >>> lazy_typing = lazy_import("typing")
     >>> #lazy_typing is a real module object,
     >>> #but it is not loaded in memory yet.
     >>> lazy_typing.TYPE_CHECKING
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Setting up an importer,  Next: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Implementing lazy imports,  Up: Examples<33>

5.31.5.11 Setting up an importer
................................

For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an
*note importer: 1de4.  This means managing both the *note finder: 1d0b.
and *note loader: 14c0. side of things.  For finders there are two
flavours to choose from depending on your needs: a *note meta path
finder: f1a. or a *note path entry finder: f1b.  The former is what you
would put on *note sys.meta_path: bb3. while the latter is what you
create using a *note path entry hook: 1df5. on *note sys.path_hooks:
ecc. which works with *note sys.path: 368. entries to potentially create
a finder.  This example will show you how to register your own importers
so that import will use them (for creating an importer for yourself,
read the documentation for the appropriate classes defined within this
package):

     import importlib.machinery
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes only.
     SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder
     SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder
     loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader,
                       importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES)

     # Setting up a meta path finder.
     # Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of
     # priority.
     sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder)

     # Setting up a path entry finder.
     # Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms
     # of priority.
     sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Setting up an importer,  Up: Examples<33>

5.31.5.12 Approximating ‘importlib.import_module()’
...................................................

Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to
expose most of the import machinery through importlib.  The following
helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an
approximate implementation of *note importlib.import_module(): 2a2.:

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     def import_module(name, package=None):
         """An approximate implementation of import."""
         absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
         try:
             return sys.modules[absolute_name]
         except KeyError:
             pass

         path = None
         if '.' in absolute_name:
             parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.')
             parent_module = import_module(parent_name)
             path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations
         for finder in sys.meta_path:
             spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path)
             if spec is not None:
                 break
         else:
             msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}'
             raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[absolute_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         if path is not None:
             setattr(parent_module, child_name, module)
         return module


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access,  Next: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Prev: importlib — The implementation of import,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.6 ‘importlib.resources’ – Package resource reading, opening and access
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.7.

This module leverages Python’s import system to provide access to
'resources' within 'packages'.

“Resources” are file-like resources associated with a module or package
in Python.  The resources may be contained directly in a package, within
a subdirectory contained in that package, or adjacent to modules outside
a package.  Resources may be text or binary.  As a result, Python module
sources (.py) of a package and compilation artifacts (pycache) are
technically de-facto resources of that package.  In practice, however,
resources are primarily those non-Python artifacts exposed specifically
by the package author.

Resources can be opened or read in either binary or text mode.

Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it’s
important to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor.  Resources and
packages 'do not' have to exist as physical files and directories on the
file system: for example, a package and its resources can be imported
from a zip file using *note zipimport: 132.

     Not: This module provides functionality similar to pkg_resources(2)
     Basic Resource Access(3) without the performance overhead of that
     package.  This makes reading resources included in packages easier,
     with more stable and consistent semantics.

     The standalone backport of this module provides more information on
     using importlib.resources(4) and migrating from pkg_resources to
     importlib.resources(5).

*note Loaders: d5b. that wish to support resource reading should
implement a ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ method as specified by *note
importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 42cd.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.resources.Anchor

     Represents an anchor for resources, either a *note module object:
     ca2. or a module name as a string.  Defined as ‘Union[str,
     ModuleType]’.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.files (anchor: Anchor | None = None)

     Returns a *note Traversable: 232. object representing the resource
     container (think directory) and its resources (think files).  A
     Traversable may contain other containers (think subdirectories).

     'anchor' is an optional *note Anchor: 4311.  If the anchor is a
     package, resources are resolved from that package.  If a module,
     resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same package
     or the package root).  If the anchor is omitted, the caller’s
     module is used.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: 'package' parameter was renamed to
     'anchor'.  'anchor' can now be a non-package module and if omitted
     will default to the caller’s module.  'package' is still accepted
     for compatibility but will raise a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
     Consider passing the anchor positionally or using
     ‘importlib_resources >= 5.10’ for a compatible interface on older
     Pythons.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.as_file (traversable)

     Given a *note Traversable: 232. object representing a file or
     directory, typically from *note importlib.resources.files(): 1b1,
     return a context manager for use in a *note with: 3dd. statement.
     The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path: 14f. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file or
     directory created when the resource was extracted from e.g.  a zip
     file.

     Use ‘as_file’ when the Traversable methods (‘read_text’, etc) are
     insufficient and an actual file or directory on the file system is
     required.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 'traversable'
     representing a directory.

* Menu:

* Functional API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py

   (2) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html

   (3) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access

   (4) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html

   (5) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API,  Up: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access

5.31.6.1 Functional API
.......................

An older, previously deprecated set of functions is still available.
The main drawback of these functions is that they do not support
directories: they assume all resources are located directly within a
'package'.

 -- Verisi: importlib.resources.Package

     Whenever a function accepts a ‘Package’ argument, you can pass in
     either a *note module object: ca2. or a module name as a string.
     You can only pass module objects whose
     ‘__spec__.submodule_search_locations’ is not ‘None’.

     The ‘Package’ type is defined as ‘Union[str, ModuleType]’.

 -- Verisi: importlib.resources.Resource

     For 'resource' arguments of the functions below, you can pass in
     the name of a resource as a string or a *note path-like object:
     acd.

     The ‘Resource’ type is defined as ‘Union[str, os.PathLike]’.

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.open_binary (package, resource)

     Open for binary reading the 'resource' within 'package'.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).  This
     function returns a ‘typing.BinaryIO’ instance, a binary I/O stream
     open for reading.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).open('rb')

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.open_text (package, resource,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Open for text reading the 'resource' within 'package'.  By default,
     the resource is opened for reading as UTF-8.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).
     'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as with built-in
     *note open(): 2a6.

     This function returns a ‘typing.TextIO’ instance, a text I/O stream
     open for reading.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).open('r', encoding=encoding)

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.read_binary (package, resource)

     Read and return the contents of the 'resource' within 'package' as
     ‘bytes’.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).  This
     function returns the contents of the resource as *note bytes: 2cb.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).read_bytes()

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.read_text (package, resource,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Read and return the contents of 'resource' within 'package' as a
     ‘str’.  By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).
     'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as with built-in
     *note open(): 2a6.  This function returns the contents of the
     resource as *note str: 15d.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).read_text(encoding=encoding)

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.path (package, resource)

     Return the path to the 'resource' as an actual file system path.
     This function returns a context manager for use in a *note with:
     3dd. statement.  The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path:
     14f. object.

     Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file created
     when the resource needs to be extracted from e.g.  a zip file.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.  'resource' is the name of the resource to
     open within 'package'; it may not contain path separators and it
     may not have sub-resources (i.e.  it cannot be a directory).

     This function is roughly equivalent to

          as_file(files(package).joinpath(resource))

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.is_resource (package, name)

     Return ‘True’ if there is a resource named 'name' in the package,
     otherwise ‘False’.  This function does not consider directories to
     be resources.  'package' is either a name or a module object which
     conforms to the ‘Package’ requirements.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          files(package).joinpath(resource).is_file()

 -- Işlevi: importlib.resources.contents (package)

     Return an iterable over the named items within the package.  The
     iterable returns *note str: 15d. resources (e.g.  files) and
     non-resources (e.g.  directories).  The iterable does not recurse
     into subdirectories.

     'package' is either a name or a module object which conforms to the
     ‘Package’ requirements.

     This function is roughly equivalent to:

          (resource.name for resource in files(package).iterdir() if resource.is_file())


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Next: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata,  Prev: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.7 ‘importlib.resources.abc’ – Abstract base classes for resources
----------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 105b. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 98e. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the “directory”.  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC’s interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: 488.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note
     importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 233. instead.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

               Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 2379. for
               binary reading of the 'resource'.

               If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError:
               39a. is raised.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

               Returns the file system path to the 'resource'.

               If the resource does not concretely exist on the file
               system, raise *note FileNotFoundError: 39a.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod is_resource (name)

               Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a
               resource.  *note FileNotFoundError: 39a. is raised if
               'name' does not exist.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod contents ()

               Returns an *note iterable: 10ce. of strings over the
               contents of the package.  Do note that it is not required
               that all names returned by the iterator be actual
               resources, e.g.  it is acceptable to return names for
               which *note is_resource(): 4319. would be false.

               Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow
               for situations where how a package and its resources are
               stored are known a priori and the non-resource names
               would be useful.  For instance, returning subdirectory
               names is allowed so that when it is known that the
               package and resources are stored on the file system then
               those subdirectory names can be used directly.

               The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 14f. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 1b0.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield Traversable objects in self.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a directory.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a file.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod joinpath (*pathsegments)

          Traverse directories according to 'pathsegments' and return
          the result as ‘Traversable’.

          Each 'pathsegments' argument may contain multiple names
          separated by forward slashes (‘/’, ‘posixpath.sep’ ).  For
          example, the following are equivalent:

               files.joinpath('subdir', 'subsuddir', 'file.txt')
               files.joinpath('subdir/subsuddir/file.txt')

          Note that some ‘Traversable’ implementations might not be
          updated to the latest version of the protocol.  For
          compatibility with such implementations, provide a single
          argument without path separators to each call to ‘joinpath’.
          For example:

               files.joinpath('subdir').joinpath('subsubdir').joinpath('file.txt')

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘joinpath’ accepts multiple
          'pathsegments', and these segments may contain forward slashes
          as path separators.  Previously, only a single 'child'
          argument was accepted.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return Traversable child in self.  Equivalent to
          ‘joinpath(child)’.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be ‘r’ or ‘rb’ to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          259e.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2.

      -- Yöntemi: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of self as bytes.

      -- Yöntemi: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of self as text.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 1b1. interface.  Subclasses
     *note ResourceReader: 42cd. and provides concrete implementations
     of the ‘ResourceReader’’s abstract methods.  Therefore, any loader
     supplying ‘TraversableResources’ also supplies ‘ResourceReader’.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

      -- Yöntemi: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 232.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata,  Next: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.8 ‘importlib.metadata’ – Accessing package metadata
--------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.8.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘importlib.metadata’ is no longer provisional.

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py(1)

‘importlib.metadata’ is a library that provides access to the metadata
of an installed Distribution Package(2), such as its entry points or its
top-level names (Import Package(3)s, modules, if any).  Built in part on
Python’s import system, this library intends to replace similar
functionality in the entry point API(4) and metadata API(5) of
‘pkg_resources’.  Along with *note importlib.resources: 79, this package
can eliminate the need to use the older and less efficient
‘pkg_resources’ package.

‘importlib.metadata’ operates on third-party 'distribution packages'
installed into Python’s ‘site-packages’ directory via tools such as
pip(6).  Specifically, it works with distributions with discoverable
‘dist-info’ or ‘egg-info’ directories, and metadata defined by the Core
metadata specifications(7).

     Önemli: These are 'not' necessarily equivalent to or correspond 1:1
     with the top-level 'import package' names that can be imported
     inside Python code.  One 'distribution package' can contain
     multiple 'import packages' (and single modules), and one top-level
     'import package' may map to multiple 'distribution packages' if it
     is a namespace package.  You can use *note package_distributions():
     64c. to get a mapping between them.

By default, distribution metadata can live on the file system or in zip
archives on *note sys.path: 368.  Through an extension mechanism, the
metadata can live almost anywhere.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/’

     The documentation for ‘importlib_metadata’, which supplies a
     backport of ‘importlib.metadata’.  This includes an API
     reference(8) for this module’s classes and functions, as well as a
     migration guide(9) for existing users of ‘pkg_resources’.

* Menu:

* Overview: Overview<3>.
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Extending the search algorithm::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (4) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#entry-points

   (5) 
https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#metadata-api

   (6) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (7) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata

   (8) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html

   (9) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: Overview<3>,  Next: Functional API<2>,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.31.8.1 Overview
.................

Let’s say you wanted to get the version string for a Distribution
Package(1) you’ve installed using ‘pip’.  We start by creating a virtual
environment and installing something into it:

     $ python -m venv example
     $ source example/bin/activate
     (example) $ python -m pip install wheel

You can get the version string for ‘wheel’ by running the following:

     (example) $ python
     >>> from importlib.metadata import version
     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

You can also get a collection of entry points selectable by properties
of the EntryPoint (typically ‘group’ or ‘name’), such as
‘console_scripts’, ‘distutils.commands’ and others.  Each group contains
a collection of *note EntryPoint: 64b. objects.

You can get the *note metadata for a distribution: 4329.:

     >>> list(metadata('wheel'))
     ['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist']

You can also get a *note distribution’s version number: 432a, list its
*note constituent files: 432b, and get a list of the distribution’s
*note Distribution requirements: 432c.

 -- Özel Durum: importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError

     Subclass of *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8. raised by several
     functions in this module when queried for a distribution package
     which is not installed in the current Python environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API<2>,  Next: Distributions,  Prev: Overview<3>,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.31.8.2 Functional API
.......................

This package provides the following functionality via its public API.

* Menu:

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::


File: python.info,  Node: Entry points,  Next: Distribution metadata,  Up: Functional API<2>

5.31.8.3 Entry points
.....................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.metadata.entry_points (**select_params)

     Returns a *note EntryPoints: 4331. instance describing entry points
     for the current environment.  Any given keyword parameters are
     passed to the ‘select()’ method for comparison to the attributes of
     the individual entry point definitions.

     Note: it is not currently possible to query for entry points based
     on their ‘EntryPoint.dist’ attribute (as different ‘Distribution’
     instances do not currently compare equal, even if they have the
     same attributes)

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.metadata.EntryPoints

     Details of a collection of installed entry points.

     Also provides a ‘.groups’ attribute that reports all identified
     entry point groups, and a ‘.names’ attribute that reports all
     identified entry point names.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.metadata.EntryPoint

     Details of an installed entry point.

     Each ‘EntryPoint’ instance has ‘.name’, ‘.group’, and ‘.value’
     attributes and a ‘.load()’ method to resolve the value.  There are
     also ‘.module’, ‘.attr’, and ‘.extras’ attributes for getting the
     components of the ‘.value’ attribute, and ‘.dist’ for obtaining
     information regarding the distribution package that provides the
     entry point.

Query all entry points:

     >>> eps = entry_points()

The ‘entry_points()’ function returns a ‘EntryPoints’ object, a
collection of all ‘EntryPoint’ objects with ‘names’ and ‘groups’
attributes for convenience:

     >>> sorted(eps.groups)
     ['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation']

‘EntryPoints’ has a ‘select()’ method to select entry points matching
specific properties.  Select entry points in the ‘console_scripts’
group:

     >>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts')

Equivalently, since ‘entry_points()’ passes keyword arguments through to
select:

     >>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts')

Pick out a specific script named “wheel” (found in the wheel project):

     >>> 'wheel' in scripts.names
     True
     >>> wheel = scripts['wheel']

Equivalently, query for that entry point during selection:

     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')
     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points().select(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')

Inspect the resolved entry point:

     >>> wheel
     EntryPoint(name='wheel', value='wheel.cli:main', group='console_scripts')
     >>> wheel.module
     'wheel.cli'
     >>> wheel.attr
     'main'
     >>> wheel.extras
     []
     >>> main = wheel.load()
     >>> main
     <function main at 0x103528488>

The ‘group’ and ‘name’ are arbitrary values defined by the package
author and usually a client will wish to resolve all entry points for a
particular group.  Read the setuptools docs(1) for more information on
entry points, their definition, and usage.

'Compatibility Note'

The “selectable” entry points were introduced in ‘importlib_metadata’
3.6 and Python 3.10.  Prior to those changes, ‘entry_points’ accepted no
parameters and always returned a dictionary of entry points, keyed by
group.  With ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.0 and Python 3.12, ‘entry_points’
always returns an ‘EntryPoints’ object.  See
backports.entry_points_selectable(2) for compatibility options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/userguide/entry_point.html

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/backports.entry_points_selectable/


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution metadata,  Next: Distribution versions,  Prev: Entry points,  Up: Functional API<2>

5.31.8.4 Distribution metadata
..............................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.metadata.metadata (distribution_name)

     Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named
     distribution package as a *note PackageMetadata: 4335. instance.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 432d. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.metadata.PackageMetadata

     A concrete implementation of the PackageMetadata protocol(1).

     In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and
     attributes, subscripting the instance is equivalent to calling the
     ‘get()’ method.

Every Distribution Package(2) includes some metadata, which you can
extract using the ‘metadata()’ function:

     >>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel')

The keys of the returned data structure name the metadata keywords, and
the values are returned unparsed from the distribution metadata:

     >>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

*note PackageMetadata: 4335. also presents a ‘json’ attribute that
returns all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per PEP 566(3):

     >>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(4) for additional details.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: The ‘Description’ is now included in the
metadata when presented through the payload.  Line continuation
characters have been removed.

The ‘json’ attribute was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0566/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution versions,  Next: Distribution files,  Prev: Distribution metadata,  Up: Functional API<2>

5.31.8.5 Distribution versions
..............................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.metadata.version (distribution_name)

     Return the installed distribution package version(1) for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 432d. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

The ‘version()’ function is the quickest way to get a Distribution
Package(2)’s version number, as a string:

     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#version

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution files,  Next: Distribution requirements,  Prev: Distribution versions,  Up: Functional API<2>

5.31.8.6 Distribution files
...........................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.metadata.files (distribution_name)

     Return the full set of files contained within the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 432d. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

     Returns *note None: 488. if the distribution is found but the
     installation database records reporting the files associated with
     the distribuion package are missing.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.metadata.PackagePath

     A *note pathlib.PurePath: 1ce. derived object with additional
     ‘dist’, ‘size’, and ‘hash’ properties corresponding to the
     distribution package’s installation metadata for that file.

The ‘files()’ function takes a Distribution Package(1) name and returns
all of the files installed by this distribution.  Each file is reported
as a *note PackagePath: 4339. instance.  For example:

     >>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0]
     >>> util
     PackagePath('wheel/util.py')
     >>> util.size
     859
     >>> util.dist
     <importlib.metadata._hooks.PathDistribution object at 0x101e0cef0>
     >>> util.hash
     <FileHash mode: sha256 value: bYkw5oMccfazVCoYQwKkkemoVyMAFoR34mmKBx8R1NI>

Once you have the file, you can also read its contents:

     >>> print(util.read_text())
     import base64
     import sys
     ...
     def as_bytes(s):
         if isinstance(s, text_type):
             return s.encode('utf-8')
         return s

You can also use the ‘locate()’ method to get the absolute path to the
file:

     >>> util.locate()
     PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py')

In the case where the metadata file listing files (‘RECORD’ or
‘SOURCES.txt’) is missing, ‘files()’ will return *note None: 488.  The
caller may wish to wrap calls to ‘files()’ in always_iterable(2) or
otherwise guard against this condition if the target distribution is not
known to have the metadata present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution requirements,  Next: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution files,  Up: Functional API<2>

5.31.8.7 Distribution requirements
..................................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.metadata.requires (distribution_name)

     Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 432d. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

To get the full set of requirements for a Distribution Package(1), use
the ‘requires()’ function:

     >>> requires('wheel')
     ["pytest (>=3.0.0) ; extra == 'test'", "pytest-cov ; extra == 'test'"]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution requirements,  Up: Functional API<2>

5.31.8.8 Mapping import to distribution packages
................................................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.metadata.packages_distributions ()

     Return a mapping from the top level module and import package names
     found via *note sys.meta_path: bb3. to the names of the
     distribution packages (if any) that provide the corresponding
     files.

     To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by
     multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to
     a list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a
     single name.

A convenience method to resolve the Distribution Package(1) name (or
names, in the case of a namespace package) that provide each importable
top-level Python module or Import Package(2):

     >>> packages_distributions()
     {'importlib_metadata': ['importlib-metadata'], 'yaml': ['PyYAML'], 'jaraco': ['jaraco.classes', 'jaraco.functools'], ...}

Some editable installs, do not supply top-level names(3), and thus this
function is not reliable with such installs.

Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (3) https://github.com/pypa/packaging-problems/issues/609


File: python.info,  Node: Distributions,  Next: Distribution Discovery,  Prev: Functional API<2>,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.31.8.9 Distributions
......................

 -- Işlevi: importlib.metadata.distribution (distribution_name)

     Return a *note Distribution: 4341. instance describing the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 432d. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- Sınıfı: importlib.metadata.Distribution

     Details of an installed distribution package.

     Note: different ‘Distribution’ instances do not currently compare
     equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and
     accordingly have the same attributes.

While the module level API described above is the most common and
convenient usage, you can get all of that information from the
‘Distribution’ class.  ‘Distribution’ is an abstract object that
represents the metadata for a Python Distribution Package(1).  You can
get the concrete ‘Distribution’ subclass instance for an installed
distribution package by calling the *note distribution(): 4340.
function:

     >>> from importlib.metadata import distribution
     >>> dist = distribution('wheel')
     >>> type(dist)
     <class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'>

Thus, an alternative way to get the version number is through the
‘Distribution’ instance:

     >>> dist.version
     '0.32.3'

There are all kinds of additional metadata available on ‘Distribution’
instances:

     >>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
     >>> dist.metadata['License']
     'MIT'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(2) for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution Discovery,  Next: Extending the search algorithm,  Prev: Distributions,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.31.8.10 Distribution Discovery
................................

By default, this package provides built-in support for discovery of
metadata for file system and zip file Distribution Package(1)s.  This
metadata finder search defaults to ‘sys.path’, but varies slightly in
how it interprets those values from how other import machinery does.  In
particular:

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ does not honor *note bytes: 2cb. objects on
     ‘sys.path’.

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ will incidentally honor *note pathlib.Path:
     14f. objects on ‘sys.path’ even though such values will be ignored
     for imports.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Extending the search algorithm,  Prev: Distribution Discovery,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.31.8.11 Extending the search algorithm
........................................

Because Distribution Package(1) metadata is not available through *note
sys.path: 368. searches, or package loaders directly, the metadata for a
distribution is found through import system *note finders: 1de2.  To
find a distribution package’s metadata, ‘importlib.metadata’ queries the
list of *note meta path finders: f1a. on *note sys.meta_path: bb3.

By default ‘importlib.metadata’ installs a finder for distribution
packages found on the file system.  This finder doesn’t actually find
any 'distributions', but it can find their metadata.

The abstract class *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2. defines the
interface expected of finders by Python’s import system.
‘importlib.metadata’ extends this protocol by looking for an optional
‘find_distributions’ callable on the finders from *note sys.meta_path:
bb3. and presents this extended interface as the ‘DistributionFinder’
abstract base class, which defines this abstract method:

     @abc.abstractmethod
     def find_distributions(context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
         """Return an iterable of all Distribution instances capable of
         loading the metadata for packages for the indicated ``context``.
         """

The ‘DistributionFinder.Context’ object provides ‘.path’ and ‘.name’
properties indicating the path to search and name to match and may
supply other relevant context.

What this means in practice is that to support finding distribution
package metadata in locations other than the file system, subclass
‘Distribution’ and implement the abstract methods.  Then from a custom
finder, return instances of this derived ‘Distribution’ in the
‘find_distributions()’ method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata,  Up: Importing Modules

5.31.9 The initialization of the ‘sys.path’ module search path
--------------------------------------------------------------

A module search path is initialized when Python starts.  This module
search path may be accessed at *note sys.path: 368.

The first entry in the module search path is the directory that contains
the input script, if there is one.  Otherwise, the first entry is the
current directory, which is the case when executing the interactive
shell, a *note -c: 3eb. command, or *note -m: 3ec. module.

The *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. environment variable is often used to add
directories to the search path.  If this environment variable is found
then the contents are added to the module search path.

     Not: *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. will affect all installed Python
     versions/environments.  Be wary of setting this in your shell
     profile or global environment variables.  The *note site: c6.
     module offers more nuanced techniques as mentioned below.

The next items added are the directories containing standard Python
modules as well as any *note extension module: 4346.s that these modules
depend on.  Extension modules are ‘.pyd’ files on Windows and ‘.so’
files on other platforms.  The directory with the platform-independent
Python modules is called ‘prefix’.  The directory with the extension
modules is called ‘exec_prefix’.

The *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. environment variable may be used to set the
‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ locations.  Otherwise these directories are
found by using the Python executable as a starting point and then
looking for various ‘landmark’ files and directories.  Note that any
symbolic links are followed so the real Python executable location is
used as the search starting point.  The Python executable location is
called ‘home’.

Once ‘home’ is determined, the ‘prefix’ directory is found by first
looking for ‘python`majorversion'`minorversion'.zip’ (‘python311.zip’).
On Windows the zip archive is searched for in ‘home’ and on Unix the
archive is expected to be in ‘lib’.  Note that the expected zip archive
location is added to the module search path even if the archive does not
exist.  If no archive was found, Python on Windows will continue the
search for ‘prefix’ by looking for ‘Lib\os.py’.  Python on Unix will
look for ‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/os.py’
(‘lib/python3.11/os.py’).  On Windows ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are the
same, however on other platforms
‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/lib-dynload’
(‘lib/python3.11/lib-dynload’) is searched for and used as an anchor for
‘exec_prefix’.  On some platforms ‘lib’ may be ‘lib64’ or another value,
see *note sys.platlibdir: 791. and *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 176b.

Once found, ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are available at *note
sys.prefix: 36a. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 366. respectively.

Finally, the *note site: c6. module is processed and ‘site-packages’
directories are added to the module search path.  A common way to
customize the search path is to create *note sitecustomize: c7. or *note
usercustomize: 10e. modules as described in the *note site: c6. module
documentation.

     Not: Certain command line options may further affect path
     calculations.  See *note -E: 7b7, *note -I: 7b8, *note -s: 1232.
     and *note -S: 104e. for further details.

* Menu:

* Virtual environments: Virtual environments<2>.
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual environments<2>,  Next: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.31.9.1 Virtual environments
.............................

If Python is run in a virtual environment (as described at *note Sanal
Ortamlar ve Paketler: 1b48.) then ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are
specific to the virtual environment.

If a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found alongside the main executable, or in the
directory one level above the executable, the following variations
apply:

   * If ‘home’ is an absolute path and *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. is not
     set, this path is used instead of the path to the main executable
     when deducing ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’.


File: python.info,  Node: _pth files,  Next: Embedded Python,  Prev: Virtual environments<2>,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.31.9.2 _pth files
...................

To completely override *note sys.path: 368. create a ‘._pth’ file with
the same name as the shared library or executable (‘python._pth’ or
‘python311._pth’).  The shared library path is always known on Windows,
however it may not be available on other platforms.  In the ‘._pth’ file
specify one line for each path to add to *note sys.path: 368.  The file
based on the shared library name overrides the one based on the
executable, which allows paths to be restricted for any program loading
the runtime if desired.

When the file exists, all registry and environment variables are
ignored, isolated mode is enabled, and *note site: c6. is not imported
unless one line in the file specifies ‘import site’.  Blank paths and
lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  Each path may be absolute or
relative to the location of the file.  Import statements other than to
‘site’ are not permitted, and arbitrary code cannot be specified.

Note that ‘.pth’ files (without leading underscore) will be processed
normally by the *note site: c6. module when ‘import site’ has been
specified.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedded Python,  Prev: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.31.9.3 Embedded Python
........................

If Python is embedded within another application *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. and the *note PyConfig: 34f. structure
can be used to initialize Python.  The path specific details are
described at *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd.  Alternatively the
older *note Py_SetPath(): 1c3d. can be used to bypass the initialization
of the module search path.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

   * *note Finding modules: a9a. for detailed Windows notes.

   * *note Using Python on Unix platforms: 1b9f. for Unix details.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Language Services,  Next: MS Windows Specific Services,  Prev: Importing Modules,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.32 Python Language Services
=============================

Python provides a number of modules to assist in working with the Python
language.  These modules support tokenizing, parsing, syntax analysis,
bytecode disassembly, and various other facilities.

These modules include:

* Menu:

* ast — Abstract Syntax Trees::
* symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables::
* token — Constants used with Python parse trees::
* keyword — Testing for Python keywords::
* tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source::
* tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation::
* pyclbr — Python module browser support::
* py_compile — Compile Python source files::
* compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries::
* dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode::
* pickletools — Tools for pickle developers::


File: python.info,  Node: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees,  Next: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.1 ‘ast’ — Abstract Syntax Trees
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ast.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note ast: 8. module helps Python applications to process trees of
the Python abstract syntax grammar.  The abstract syntax itself might
change with each Python release; this module helps to find out
programmatically what the current grammar looks like.

An abstract syntax tree can be generated by passing *note
ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST: 434f. as a flag to the *note compile(): 56d. built-in
function, or using the *note parse(): 188. helper provided in this
module.  The result will be a tree of objects whose classes all inherit
from *note ast.AST: 56c.  An abstract syntax tree can be compiled into a
Python code object using the built-in *note compile(): 56d. function.

* Menu:

* Abstract Grammar::
* Node classes::
* ast Helpers::
* Compiler Flags::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/ast.py


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract Grammar,  Next: Node classes,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.1 Abstract Grammar
.........................

The abstract grammar is currently defined as follows:

     -- ASDL's 4 builtin types are:
     -- identifier, int, string, constant

     module Python
     {
         mod = Module(stmt* body, type_ignore* type_ignores)
             | Interactive(stmt* body)
             | Expression(expr body)
             | FunctionType(expr* argtypes, expr returns)

         stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                            stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                            string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)
               | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                                  stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                                  string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)

               | ClassDef(identifier name,
                  expr* bases,
                  keyword* keywords,
                  stmt* body,
                  expr* decorator_list,
                  type_param* type_params)
               | Return(expr? value)

               | Delete(expr* targets)
               | Assign(expr* targets, expr value, string? type_comment)
               | TypeAlias(expr name, type_param* type_params, expr value)
               | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value)
               -- 'simple' indicates that we annotate simple name without parens
               | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple)

               -- use 'orelse' because else is a keyword in target languages
               | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | With(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)

               | Match(expr subject, match_case* cases)

               | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause)
               | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | TryStar(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | Assert(expr test, expr? msg)

               | Import(alias* names)
               | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level)

               | Global(identifier* names)
               | Nonlocal(identifier* names)
               | Expr(expr value)
               | Pass | Break | Continue

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

               -- BoolOp() can use left & right?
         expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values)
              | NamedExpr(expr target, expr value)
              | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right)
              | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand)
              | Lambda(arguments args, expr body)
              | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse)
              | Dict(expr* keys, expr* values)
              | Set(expr* elts)
              | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | DictComp(expr key, expr value, comprehension* generators)
              | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur
              | Await(expr value)
              | Yield(expr? value)
              | YieldFrom(expr value)
              -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between
              -- x < 4 < 3 and (x < 4) < 3
              | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators)
              | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords)
              | FormattedValue(expr value, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
              | JoinedStr(expr* values)
              | Constant(constant value, string? kind)

              -- the following expression can appear in assignment context
              | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx)
              | Subscript(expr value, expr slice, expr_context ctx)
              | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx)
              | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx)
              | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
              | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)

              -- can appear only in Subscript
              | Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step)

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         expr_context = Load | Store | Del

         boolop = And | Or

         operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift
                      | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv

         unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub

         cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn

         comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async)

         excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body)
                         attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         arguments = (arg* posonlyargs, arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs,
                      expr* kw_defaults, arg? kwarg, expr* defaults)

         arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation, string? type_comment)
                attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs)
         keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- import name with optional 'as' alias.
         alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname)
                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars)

         match_case = (pattern pattern, expr? guard, stmt* body)

         pattern = MatchValue(expr value)
                 | MatchSingleton(constant value)
                 | MatchSequence(pattern* patterns)
                 | MatchMapping(expr* keys, pattern* patterns, identifier? rest)
                 | MatchClass(expr cls, pattern* patterns, identifier* kwd_attrs, pattern* kwd_patterns)

                 | MatchStar(identifier? name)
                 -- The optional "rest" MatchMapping parameter handles capturing extra mapping keys

                 | MatchAs(pattern? pattern, identifier? name)
                 | MatchOr(pattern* patterns)

                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)

         type_ignore = TypeIgnore(int lineno, string tag)

         type_param = TypeVar(identifier name, expr? bound)
                    | ParamSpec(identifier name)
                    | TypeVarTuple(identifier name)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Node classes,  Next: ast Helpers,  Prev: Abstract Grammar,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.2 Node classes
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.AST

     This is the base of all AST node classes.  The actual node classes
     are derived from the ‘Parser/Python.asdl’ file, which is reproduced
     *note above: 4350.  They are defined in the ‘_ast’ C module and
     re-exported in *note ast: 8.

     There is one class defined for each left-hand side symbol in the
     abstract grammar (for example, ‘ast.stmt’ or ‘ast.expr’).  In
     addition, there is one class defined for each constructor on the
     right-hand side; these classes inherit from the classes for the
     left-hand side trees.  For example, *note ast.BinOp: 17ff. inherits
     from ‘ast.expr’.  For production rules with alternatives (aka
     “sums”), the left-hand side class is abstract: only instances of
     specific constructor nodes are ever created.

      -- Özniteliği: _fields

          Each concrete class has an attribute *note _fields: 142a.
          which gives the names of all child nodes.

          Each instance of a concrete class has one attribute for each
          child node, of the type as defined in the grammar.  For
          example, *note ast.BinOp: 17ff. instances have an attribute
          ‘left’ of type ‘ast.expr’.

          If these attributes are marked as optional in the grammar
          (using a question mark), the value might be ‘None’.  If the
          attributes can have zero-or-more values (marked with an
          asterisk), the values are represented as Python lists.  All
          possible attributes must be present and have valid values when
          compiling an AST with *note compile(): 56d.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno
      -- Özniteliği: col_offset
      -- Özniteliği: end_lineno
      -- Özniteliği: end_col_offset

          Instances of ‘ast.expr’ and ‘ast.stmt’ subclasses have *note
          lineno: 4353, *note col_offset: 4354, *note end_lineno: 4355,
          and *note end_col_offset: 4356. attributes.  The *note lineno:
          4353. and *note end_lineno: 4355. are the first and last line
          numbers of source text span (1-indexed so the first line is
          line 1) and the *note col_offset: 4354. and *note
          end_col_offset: 4356. are the corresponding UTF-8 byte offsets
          of the first and last tokens that generated the node.  The
          UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses UTF-8
          internally.

          Note that the end positions are not required by the compiler
          and are therefore optional.  The end offset is 'after' the
          last symbol, for example one can get the source segment of a
          one-line expression node using ‘source_line[node.col_offset :
          node.end_col_offset]’.

     The constructor of a class ‘ast.T’ parses its arguments as follows:

        * If there are positional arguments, there must be as many as
          there are items in ‘T._fields’; they will be assigned as
          attributes of these names.

        * If there are keyword arguments, they will set the attributes
          of the same names to the given values.

     For example, to create and populate an *note ast.UnaryOp: 4357.
     node, you could use

          node = ast.UnaryOp()
          node.op = ast.USub()
          node.operand = ast.Constant()
          node.operand.value = 5
          node.operand.lineno = 0
          node.operand.col_offset = 0
          node.lineno = 0
          node.col_offset = 0

     or the more compact

          node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Constant(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0),
                             lineno=0, col_offset=0)

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Class *note ast.Constant: 21e. is now used for
all constants.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Simple indices are represented by their value,
extended slices are represented as tuples.

3.8 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Old classes ‘ast.Num’, ‘ast.Str’,
‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’ are still available,
but they will be removed in future Python releases.  In the meantime,
instantiating them will return an instance of a different class.

3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Old classes ‘ast.Index’ and
‘ast.ExtSlice’ are still available, but they will be removed in future
Python releases.  In the meantime, instantiating them will return an
instance of a different class.

     Not: The descriptions of the specific node classes displayed here
     were initially adapted from the fantastic Green Tree Snakes(1)
     project and all its contributors.

* Menu:

* Root nodes::
* Literals: Literals<3>.
* Variables::
* Expressions: Expressions<2>.
* Statements::
* Control flow::
* Pattern matching::
* Type parameters::
* Function and class definitions::
* Async and await::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Root nodes,  Next: Literals<3>,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.3 Root nodes
...................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Module (body, type_ignores)

     A Python module, as with *note file input: 1f2c.  Node type
     generated by *note ast.parse(): 188. in the default ‘"exec"’
     'mode'.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 422. of the module’s *note Statements:
     435b.

     ‘type_ignores’ is a *note list: 422. of the module’s type ignore
     comments; see *note ast.parse(): 188. for more details.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Expression (body)

     A single Python *note expression input: 1f32.  Node type generated
     by *note ast.parse(): 188. when 'mode' is ‘"eval"’.

     ‘body’ is a single node, one of the *note expression types: 435d.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Interactive (body)

     A single *note interactive input: 1f2f, like in *note Etkileşimli
     Mod: 1a30.  Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 188. when
     'mode' is ‘"single"’.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 422. of *note statement nodes: 435b.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1; y = 2', mode='single'), indent=4))
          Interactive(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1)),
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.FunctionType (argtypes, returns)

     A representation of an old-style type comments for functions, as
     Python versions prior to 3.5 didn’t support PEP 484(1) annotations.
     Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 188. when 'mode' is
     ‘"func_type"’.

     Such type comments would look like this:

          def sum_two_number(a, b):
              # type: (int, int) -> int
              return a + b

     ‘argtypes’ is a *note list: 422. of *note expression nodes: 435d.

     ‘returns’ is a single *note expression node: 435d.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(int, str) -> List[int]', mode='func_type'), indent=4))
          FunctionType(
              argtypes=[
                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  Name(id='str', ctx=Load())],
              returns=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='List', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Literals<3>,  Next: Variables,  Prev: Root nodes,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.4 Literals
.................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Constant (value)

     A constant value.  The ‘value’ attribute of the ‘Constant’ literal
     contains the Python object it represents.  The values represented
     can be simple types such as a number, string or ‘None’, but also
     immutable container types (tuples and frozensets) if all of their
     elements are constant.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.FormattedValue (value, conversion, format_spec)

     Node representing a single formatting field in an f-string.  If the
     string contains a single formatting field and nothing else the node
     can be isolated otherwise it appears in *note JoinedStr: 1512.

        * ‘value’ is any expression node (such as a literal, a variable,
          or a function call).

        * ‘conversion’ is an integer:

             * -1: no formatting

             * 115: ‘!s’ string formatting

             * 114: ‘!r’ repr formatting

             * 97: ‘!a’ ascii formatting

        * ‘format_spec’ is a *note JoinedStr: 1512. node representing
          the formatting of the value, or ‘None’ if no format was
          specified.  Both ‘conversion’ and ‘format_spec’ can be set at
          the same time.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.JoinedStr (values)

     An f-string, comprising a series of *note FormattedValue: 4361. and
     *note Constant: 21e. nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('f"sin({a}) is {sin(a):.3}"', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=JoinedStr(
                  values=[
                      Constant(value='sin('),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          conversion=-1),
                      Constant(value=') is '),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Call(
                              func=Name(id='sin', ctx=Load()),
                              args=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Load())],
                              keywords=[]),
                          conversion=-1,
                          format_spec=JoinedStr(
                              values=[
                                  Constant(value='.3')]))]))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.List (elts, ctx)
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Tuple (elts, ctx)

     A list or tuple.  ‘elts’ holds a list of nodes representing the
     elements.  ‘ctx’ is *note Store: 4364. if the container is an
     assignment target (i.e.  ‘(x,y)=something’), and *note Load: 4365.
     otherwise.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[1, 2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=List(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(1, 2, 3)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Tuple(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)],
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Set (elts)

     A set.  ‘elts’ holds a list of nodes representing the set’s
     elements.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{1, 2, 3}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Set(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)]))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Dict (keys, values)

     A dictionary.  ‘keys’ and ‘values’ hold lists of nodes representing
     the keys and the values respectively, in matching order (what would
     be returned when calling ‘dictionary.keys()’ and
     ‘dictionary.values()’).

     When doing dictionary unpacking using dictionary literals the
     expression to be expanded goes in the ‘values’ list, with a ‘None’
     at the corresponding position in ‘keys’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{"a":1, **d}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Dict(
                  keys=[
                      Constant(value='a'),
                      None],
                  values=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))


File: python.info,  Node: Variables,  Next: Expressions<2>,  Prev: Literals<3>,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.5 Variables
..................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Name (id, ctx)

     A variable name.  ‘id’ holds the name as a string, and ‘ctx’ is one
     of the following types.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Load
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Store
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Del

     Variable references can be used to load the value of a variable, to
     assign a new value to it, or to delete it.  Variable references are
     given a context to distinguish these cases.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Del())])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Starred (value, ctx)

     A ‘*var’ variable reference.  ‘value’ holds the variable, typically
     a *note Name: 176a. node.  This type must be used when building a
     *note Call: 436a. node with ‘*args’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a, *b = it'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='b', ctx=Store()),
                                      ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions<2>,  Next: Statements,  Prev: Variables,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.6 Expressions
....................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Expr (value)

     When an expression, such as a function call, appears as a statement
     by itself with its return value not used or stored, it is wrapped
     in this container.  ‘value’ holds one of the other nodes in this
     section, a *note Constant: 21e, a *note Name: 176a, a *note Lambda:
     436d, a *note Yield: 436e. or *note YieldFrom: 436f. node.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('-a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=UnaryOp(
                          op=USub(),
                          operand=Name(id='a', ctx=Load())))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.UnaryOp (op, operand)

     A unary operation.  ‘op’ is the operator, and ‘operand’ any
     expression node.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.UAdd
 -- Sınıfı: ast.USub
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Not
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Invert

     Unary operator tokens.  *note Not: 4372. is the ‘not’ keyword,
     *note Invert: 4373. is the ‘~’ operator.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('not x', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=UnaryOp(
                  op=Not(),
                  operand=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.BinOp (left, op, right)

     A binary operation (like addition or division).  ‘op’ is the
     operator, and ‘left’ and ‘right’ are any expression nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x + y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BinOp(
                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='y', ctx=Load())))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Add
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Sub
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Mult
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Div
 -- Sınıfı: ast.FloorDiv
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Mod
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Pow
 -- Sınıfı: ast.LShift
 -- Sınıfı: ast.RShift
 -- Sınıfı: ast.BitOr
 -- Sınıfı: ast.BitXor
 -- Sınıfı: ast.BitAnd
 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatMult

     Binary operator tokens.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.BoolOp (op, values)

     A boolean operation, ‘or’ or ‘and’.  ‘op’ is *note Or: 4382. or
     *note And: 4383.  ‘values’ are the values involved.  Consecutive
     operations with the same operator, such as ‘a or b or c’, are
     collapsed into one node with several values.

     This doesn’t include ‘not’, which is a *note UnaryOp: 4357.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x or y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BoolOp(
                  op=Or(),
                  values=[
                      Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      Name(id='y', ctx=Load())]))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.And
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Or

     Boolean operator tokens.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Compare (left, ops, comparators)

     A comparison of two or more values.  ‘left’ is the first value in
     the comparison, ‘ops’ the list of operators, and ‘comparators’ the
     list of values after the first element in the comparison.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('1 <= a < 10', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Compare(
                  left=Constant(value=1),
                  ops=[
                      LtE(),
                      Lt()],
                  comparators=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Constant(value=10)]))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Eq
 -- Sınıfı: ast.NotEq
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Lt
 -- Sınıfı: ast.LtE
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Gt
 -- Sınıfı: ast.GtE
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Is
 -- Sınıfı: ast.IsNot
 -- Sınıfı: ast.In
 -- Sınıfı: ast.NotIn

     Comparison operator tokens.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Call (func, args, keywords)

     A function call.  ‘func’ is the function, which will often be a
     *note Name: 176a. or *note Attribute: 438f. object.  Of the
     arguments:

        * ‘args’ holds a list of the arguments passed by position.

        * ‘keywords’ holds a list of *note keyword: 4390. objects
          representing arguments passed by keyword.

     When creating a ‘Call’ node, ‘args’ and ‘keywords’ are required,
     but they can be empty lists.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('func(a, b=c, *d, **e)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Call(
                  func=Name(id='func', ctx=Load()),
                  args=[
                      Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                      Starred(
                          value=Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load())],
                  keywords=[
                      keyword(
                          arg='b',
                          value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())),
                      keyword(
                          value=Name(id='e', ctx=Load()))]))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.keyword (arg, value)

     A keyword argument to a function call or class definition.  ‘arg’
     is a raw string of the parameter name, ‘value’ is a node to pass
     in.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.IfExp (test, body, orelse)

     An expression such as ‘a if b else c’.  Each field holds a single
     node, so in the following example, all three are *note Name: 176a.
     nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a if b else c', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=IfExp(
                  test=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                  body=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                  orelse=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Attribute (value, attr, ctx)

     Attribute access, e.g.  ‘d.keys’.  ‘value’ is a node, typically a
     *note Name: 176a.  ‘attr’ is a bare string giving the name of the
     attribute, and ‘ctx’ is *note Load: 4365, *note Store: 4364. or
     *note Del: 4368. according to how the attribute is acted on.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('snake.colour', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Attribute(
                  value=Name(id='snake', ctx=Load()),
                  attr='colour',
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.NamedExpr (target, value)

     A named expression.  This AST node is produced by the assignment
     expressions operator (also known as the walrus operator).  As
     opposed to the *note Assign: 4393. node in which the first argument
     can be multiple nodes, in this case both ‘target’ and ‘value’ must
     be single nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(x := 4)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=NamedExpr(
                  target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                  value=Constant(value=4)))

     Added in version 3.8.

* Menu:

* Subscripting::
* Comprehensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Subscripting,  Next: Comprehensions,  Up: Expressions<2>

5.32.1.7 Subscripting
.....................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Subscript (value, slice, ctx)

     A subscript, such as ‘l[1]’.  ‘value’ is the subscripted object
     (usually sequence or mapping).  ‘slice’ is an index, slice or key.
     It can be a *note Tuple: 4363. and contain a *note Slice: 4396.
     ‘ctx’ is *note Load: 4365, *note Store: 4364. or *note Del: 4368.
     according to the action performed with the subscript.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Tuple(
                      elts=[
                          Slice(
                              lower=Constant(value=1),
                              upper=Constant(value=2)),
                          Constant(value=3)],
                      ctx=Load()),
                  ctx=Load()))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Slice (lower, upper, step)

     Regular slicing (on the form ‘lower:upper’ or ‘lower:upper:step’).
     Can occur only inside the 'slice' field of *note Subscript: 4395,
     either directly or as an element of *note Tuple: 4363.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()),
                  slice=Slice(
                      lower=Constant(value=1),
                      upper=Constant(value=2)),
                  ctx=Load()))


File: python.info,  Node: Comprehensions,  Prev: Subscripting,  Up: Expressions<2>

5.32.1.8 Comprehensions
.......................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.ListComp (elt, generators)
 -- Sınıfı: ast.SetComp (elt, generators)
 -- Sınıfı: ast.GeneratorExp (elt, generators)
 -- Sınıfı: ast.DictComp (key, value, generators)

     List and set comprehensions, generator expressions, and dictionary
     comprehensions.  ‘elt’ (or ‘key’ and ‘value’) is a single node
     representing the part that will be evaluated for each item.

     ‘generators’ is a list of *note comprehension: 439c. nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[x for x in numbers]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{x: x**2 for x in numbers}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=DictComp(
                  key=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  value=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{x for x in numbers}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=SetComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))

 -- Sınıfı: ast.comprehension (target, iter, ifs, is_async)

     One ‘for’ clause in a comprehension.  ‘target’ is the reference to
     use for each element - typically a *note Name: 176a. or *note
     Tuple: 4363. node.  ‘iter’ is the object to iterate over.  ‘ifs’ is
     a list of test expressions: each ‘for’ clause can have multiple
     ‘ifs’.

     ‘is_async’ indicates a comprehension is asynchronous (using an
     ‘async for’ instead of ‘for’).  The value is an integer (0 or 1).

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[ord(c) for line in file for c in line]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Multiple comprehensions in one.
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Call(
                      func=Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()),
                      args=[
                          Name(id='c', ctx=Load())],
                      keywords=[]),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='line', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='file', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0),
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='line', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(n**2 for n in it if n>5 if n<10)', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # generator comprehension
          Expression(
              body=GeneratorExp(
                  elt=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='n', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Lt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=10)])],
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[i async for i in soc]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Async comprehension
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='soc', ctx=Load()),
                          ifs=[],
                          is_async=1)]))


File: python.info,  Node: Statements,  Next: Control flow,  Prev: Expressions<2>,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.9 Statements
...................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Assign (targets, value, type_comment)

     An assignment.  ‘targets’ is a list of nodes, and ‘value’ is a
     single node.

     Multiple nodes in ‘targets’ represents assigning the same value to
     each.  Unpacking is represented by putting a *note Tuple: 4363. or
     *note List: 4362. within ‘targets’.

      -- Özniteliği: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = b = 1'), indent=4)) # Multiple assignment
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                          Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a,b = c'), indent=4)) # Unpacking
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.AnnAssign (target, annotation, value, simple)

     An assignment with a type annotation.  ‘target’ is a single node
     and can be a *note Name: 176a, an *note Attribute: 438f. or a *note
     Subscript: 4395.  ‘annotation’ is the annotation, such as a *note
     Constant: 21e. or *note Name: 176a. node.  ‘value’ is a single
     optional node.

     ‘simple’ is always either 0 (indicating a “complex” target) or 1
     (indicating a “simple” target).  A “simple” target consists solely
     of a *note Name: 176a. node that does not appear between
     parentheses; all other targets are considered complex.  Only simple
     targets appear in the ‘__annotations__’ dictionary of modules and
     classes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('c: int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=1)],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(a): int = 1'), indent=4)) # Annotation with parenthesis
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      value=Constant(value=1),
                      simple=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a.b: int'), indent=4)) # Attribute annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Attribute(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          attr='b',
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a[1]: int'), indent=4)) # Subscript annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Constant(value=1),
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()),
                      simple=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.AugAssign (target, op, value)

     Augmented assignment, such as ‘a += 1’.  In the following example,
     ‘target’ is a *note Name: 176a. node for ‘x’ (with the *note Store:
     4364. context), ‘op’ is *note Add: 4374, and ‘value’ is a *note
     Constant: 21e. with value for 1.

     The ‘target’ attribute cannot be of class *note Tuple: 4363. or
     *note List: 4362, unlike the targets of *note Assign: 4393.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x += 2'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AugAssign(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      op=Add(),
                      value=Constant(value=2))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Raise (exc, cause)

     A ‘raise’ statement.  ‘exc’ is the exception object to be raised,
     normally a *note Call: 436a. or *note Name: 176a, or ‘None’ for a
     standalone ‘raise’.  ‘cause’ is the optional part for ‘y’ in ‘raise
     x from y’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('raise x from y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Raise(
                      exc=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cause=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Assert (test, msg)

     An assertion.  ‘test’ holds the condition, such as a *note Compare:
     4384. node.  ‘msg’ holds the failure message.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('assert x,y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assert(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      msg=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Delete (targets)

     Represents a ‘del’ statement.  ‘targets’ is a list of nodes, such
     as *note Name: 176a, *note Attribute: 438f. or *note Subscript:
     4395. nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='z', ctx=Del())])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Pass

     A ‘pass’ statement.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('pass'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Pass()],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.TypeAlias (name, type_params, value)

     A *note type alias: 165. created through the *note type: 140.
     statement.  ‘name’ is the name of the alias, ‘type_params’ is a
     list of *note type parameters: 43a5, and ‘value’ is the value of
     the type alias.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('type Alias = int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[],
                      value=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.12.

Other statements which are only applicable inside functions or loops are
described in other sections.

* Menu:

* Imports::


File: python.info,  Node: Imports,  Up: Statements

5.32.1.10 Imports
.................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Import (names)

     An import statement.  ‘names’ is a list of *note alias: 16e7.
     nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Import(
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.ImportFrom (module, names, level)

     Represents ‘from x import y’.  ‘module’ is a raw string of the
     ‘from’ name, without any leading dots, or ‘None’ for statements
     such as ‘from . import foo’.  ‘level’ is an integer holding the
     level of the relative import (0 means absolute import).

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from y import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='y',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')],
                      level=0)],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.alias (name, asname)

     Both parameters are raw strings of the names.  ‘asname’ can be
     ‘None’ if the regular name is to be used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from ..foo.bar import a as b, c'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='foo.bar',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='a', asname='b'),
                          alias(name='c')],
                      level=2)],
              type_ignores=[])


File: python.info,  Node: Control flow,  Next: Pattern matching,  Prev: Statements,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.11 Control flow
......................

     Not: Optional clauses such as ‘else’ are stored as an empty list if
     they’re not present.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.If (test, body, orelse)

     An ‘if’ statement.  ‘test’ holds a single node, such as a *note
     Compare: 4384. node.  ‘body’ and ‘orelse’ each hold a list of
     nodes.

     ‘elif’ clauses don’t have a special representation in the AST, but
     rather appear as extra *note If: 43aa. nodes within the ‘orelse’
     section of the previous one.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... if x:
          ...    ...
          ... elif y:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  If(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          If(
                              test=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                              orelse=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.For (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)

     A ‘for’ loop.  ‘target’ holds the variable(s) the loop assigns to,
     as a single *note Name: 176a, *note Tuple: 4363, *note List: 4362,
     *note Attribute: 438f. or *note Subscript: 4395. node.  ‘iter’
     holds the item to be looped over, again as a single node.  ‘body’
     and ‘orelse’ contain lists of nodes to execute.  Those in ‘orelse’
     are executed if the loop finishes normally, rather than via a
     ‘break’ statement.

      -- Özniteliği: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... for x in y:
          ...     ...
          ... else:
          ...     ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.While (test, body, orelse)

     A ‘while’ loop.  ‘test’ holds the condition, such as a *note
     Compare: 4384. node.

          >> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... while x:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  While(
                      test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Break
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Continue

     The ‘break’ and ‘continue’ statements.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... for a in b:
          ...     if a > 5:
          ...         break
          ...     else:
          ...         continue
          ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                      body=[
                          If(
                              test=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              body=[
                                  Break()],
                              orelse=[
                                  Continue()])],
                      orelse=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Try (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ blocks.  All attributes are list of nodes to execute, except
     for ‘handlers’, which is a list of *note ExceptHandler: 43b1.
     nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... except OtherException as e:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... finally:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='OtherException', ctx=Load()),
                              name='e',
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      finalbody=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.TryStar (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ blocks which are followed by ‘except*’ clauses.  The
     attributes are the same as for *note Try: 43b0. but the *note
     ExceptHandler: 43b1. nodes in ‘handlers’ are interpreted as
     ‘except*’ blocks rather then ‘except’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except* Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TryStar(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
                      orelse=[],
                      finalbody=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.ExceptHandler (type, name, body)

     A single ‘except’ clause.  ‘type’ is the exception type it will
     match, typically a *note Name: 176a. node (or ‘None’ for a
     catch-all ‘except:’ clause).  ‘name’ is a raw string for the name
     to hold the exception, or ‘None’ if the clause doesn’t have ‘as
     foo’.  ‘body’ is a list of nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... try:
          ...     a + 1
          ... except TypeError:
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=BinOp(
                                  left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                                  op=Add(),
                                  right=Constant(value=1)))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='TypeError', ctx=Load()),
                              body=[
                                  Pass()])],
                      orelse=[],
                      finalbody=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.With (items, body, type_comment)

     A ‘with’ block.  ‘items’ is a list of *note withitem: 43b4. nodes
     representing the context managers, and ‘body’ is the indented block
     inside the context.

      -- Özniteliği: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.withitem (context_expr, optional_vars)

     A single context manager in a ‘with’ block.  ‘context_expr’ is the
     context manager, often a *note Call: 436a. node.  ‘optional_vars’
     is a *note Name: 176a, *note Tuple: 4363. or *note List: 4362. for
     the ‘as foo’ part, or ‘None’ if that isn’t used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... with a as b, c as d:
          ...    something(b, d)
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  With(
                      items=[
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='b', ctx=Store())),
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='d', ctx=Store()))],
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Call(
                                  func=Name(id='something', ctx=Load()),
                                  args=[
                                      Name(id='b', ctx=Load()),
                                      Name(id='d', ctx=Load())],
                                  keywords=[]))])],
              type_ignores=[])


File: python.info,  Node: Pattern matching,  Next: Type parameters,  Prev: Control flow,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.12 Pattern matching
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Match (subject, cases)

     A ‘match’ statement.  ‘subject’ holds the subject of the match (the
     object that is being matched against the cases) and ‘cases’
     contains an iterable of *note match_case: 43b8. nodes with the
     different cases.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.match_case (pattern, guard, body)

     A single case pattern in a ‘match’ statement.  ‘pattern’ contains
     the match pattern that the subject will be matched against.  Note
     that the *note AST: 56c. nodes produced for patterns differ from
     those produced for expressions, even when they share the same
     syntax.

     The ‘guard’ attribute contains an expression that will be evaluated
     if the pattern matches the subject.

     ‘body’ contains a list of nodes to execute if the pattern matches
     and the result of evaluating the guard expression is true.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] if x>0:
          ...         ...
          ...     case tuple():
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(name='x')]),
                              guard=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=0)]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[],
                                  kwd_attrs=[],
                                  kwd_patterns=[]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchValue (value)

     A match literal or value pattern that compares by equality.
     ‘value’ is an expression node.  Permitted value nodes are
     restricted as described in the match statement documentation.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is equal to the evaluated
     value.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case "Relevant":
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchValue(
                                  value=Constant(value='Relevant')),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchSingleton (value)

     A match literal pattern that compares by identity.  ‘value’ is the
     singleton to be compared against: ‘None’, ‘True’, or ‘False’.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is the given constant.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case None:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSingleton(value=None),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchSequence (patterns)

     A match sequence pattern.  ‘patterns’ contains the patterns to be
     matched against the subject elements if the subject is a sequence.
     Matches a variable length sequence if one of the subpatterns is a
     ‘MatchStar’ node, otherwise matches a fixed length sequence.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchStar (name)

     Matches the rest of the sequence in a variable length match
     sequence pattern.  If ‘name’ is not ‘None’, a list containing the
     remaining sequence elements is bound to that name if the overall
     sequence pattern is successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2, *rest]:
          ...         ...
          ...     case [*_]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2)),
                                      MatchStar(name='rest')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchStar()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchMapping (keys, patterns, rest)

     A match mapping pattern.  ‘keys’ is a sequence of expression nodes.
     ‘patterns’ is a corresponding sequence of pattern nodes.  ‘rest’ is
     an optional name that can be specified to capture the remaining
     mapping elements.  Permitted key expressions are restricted as
     described in the match statement documentation.

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is a mapping, all evaluated
     key expressions are present in the mapping, and the value
     corresponding to each key matches the corresponding subpattern.  If
     ‘rest’ is not ‘None’, a dict containing the remaining mapping
     elements is bound to that name if the overall mapping pattern is
     successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case {1: _, 2: _}:
          ...         ...
          ...     case {**rest}:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(
                                  keys=[
                                      Constant(value=1),
                                      Constant(value=2)],
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(),
                                      MatchAs()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(keys=[], patterns=[], rest='rest'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchClass (cls, patterns, kwd_attrs, kwd_patterns)

     A match class pattern.  ‘cls’ is an expression giving the nominal
     class to be matched.  ‘patterns’ is a sequence of pattern nodes to
     be matched against the class defined sequence of pattern matching
     attributes.  ‘kwd_attrs’ is a sequence of additional attributes to
     be matched (specified as keyword arguments in the class pattern),
     ‘kwd_patterns’ are the corresponding patterns (specified as keyword
     values in the class pattern).

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is an instance of the
     nominated class, all positional patterns match the corresponding
     class-defined attributes, and any specified keyword attributes
     match their corresponding pattern.

     Note: classes may define a property that returns self in order to
     match a pattern node against the instance being matched.  Several
     builtin types are also matched that way, as described in the match
     statement documentation.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case Point2D(0, 0):
          ...         ...
          ...     case Point3D(x=0, y=0, z=0):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point2D', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))],
                                  kwd_attrs=[],
                                  kwd_patterns=[]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point3D', ctx=Load()),
                                  patterns=[],
                                  kwd_attrs=[
                                      'x',
                                      'y',
                                      'z'],
                                  kwd_patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchAs (pattern, name)

     A match “as-pattern”, capture pattern or wildcard pattern.
     ‘pattern’ contains the match pattern that the subject will be
     matched against.  If the pattern is ‘None’, the node represents a
     capture pattern (i.e a bare name) and will always succeed.

     The ‘name’ attribute contains the name that will be bound if the
     pattern is successful.  If ‘name’ is ‘None’, ‘pattern’ must also be
     ‘None’ and the node represents the wildcard pattern.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] as y:
          ...         ...
          ...     case _:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(
                                  pattern=MatchSequence(
                                      patterns=[
                                          MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                  name='y'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.MatchOr (patterns)

     A match “or-pattern”.  An or-pattern matches each of its
     subpatterns in turn to the subject, until one succeeds.  The
     or-pattern is then deemed to succeed.  If none of the subpatterns
     succeed the or-pattern fails.  The ‘patterns’ attribute contains a
     list of match pattern nodes that will be matched against the
     subject.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] | (y):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchOr(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchSequence(
                                          patterns=[
                                              MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                      MatchAs(name='y')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameters,  Next: Function and class definitions,  Prev: Pattern matching,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.13 Type parameters
.........................

*note Type parameters: 16c. can exist on classes, functions, and type
aliases.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.TypeVar (name, bound)

     A *note typing.TypeVar: 16a.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable.  ‘bound’ is the bound or constraints, if any.  If ‘bound’
     is a *note Tuple: 4363, it represents constraints; otherwise it
     represents the bound.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[T: int] = list[T]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVar(
                              name='T',
                              bound=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='list', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Name(id='T', ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.ParamSpec (name)

     A *note typing.ParamSpec: 169.  ‘name’ is the name of the parameter
     specification.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          ParamSpec(name='P')],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='Callable', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='P', ctx=Load()),
                                  Name(id='int', ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.TypeVarTuple (name)

     A *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 168.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable tuple.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[*Ts] = tuple[*Ts]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVarTuple(name='Ts')],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='Ts', ctx=Load()),
                                      ctx=Load())],
                              ctx=Load()),
                          ctx=Load()))],
              type_ignores=[])

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Function and class definitions,  Next: Async and await,  Prev: Type parameters,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.14 Function and class definitions
........................................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.FunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list, returns,
          type_comment, type_params)

     A function definition.

        * ‘name’ is a raw string of the function name.

        * ‘args’ is an *note arguments: 43c6. node.

        * ‘body’ is the list of nodes inside the function.

        * ‘decorator_list’ is the list of decorators to be applied,
          stored outermost first (i.e.  the first in the list will be
          applied last).

        * ‘returns’ is the return annotation.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 43a5.

      -- Özniteliği: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Lambda (args, body)

     ‘lambda’ is a minimal function definition that can be used inside
     an expression.  Unlike *note FunctionDef: 152c, ‘body’ holds a
     single node.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('lambda x,y: ...'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Lambda(
                          args=arguments(
                              posonlyargs=[],
                              args=[
                                  arg(arg='x'),
                                  arg(arg='y')],
                              kwonlyargs=[],
                              kw_defaults=[],
                              defaults=[]),
                          body=Constant(value=Ellipsis)))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.arguments (posonlyargs, args, vararg, kwonlyargs,
          kw_defaults, kwarg, defaults)

     The arguments for a function.

        * ‘posonlyargs’, ‘args’ and ‘kwonlyargs’ are lists of *note arg:
          43c8. nodes.

        * ‘vararg’ and ‘kwarg’ are single *note arg: 43c8. nodes,
          referring to the ‘*args, **kwargs’ parameters.

        * ‘kw_defaults’ is a list of default values for keyword-only
          arguments.  If one is ‘None’, the corresponding argument is
          required.

        * ‘defaults’ is a list of default values for arguments that can
          be passed positionally.  If there are fewer defaults, they
          correspond to the last n arguments.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.arg (arg, annotation, type_comment)

     A single argument in a list.  ‘arg’ is a raw string of the argument
     name; ‘annotation’ is its annotation, such as a *note Name: 176a.
     node.

      -- Özniteliği: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... def f(a: 'annotation', b=1, c=2, *d, e, f=3, **g) -> 'return annotation':
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  FunctionDef(
                      name='f',
                      args=arguments(
                          posonlyargs=[],
                          args=[
                              arg(
                                  arg='a',
                                  annotation=Constant(value='annotation')),
                              arg(arg='b'),
                              arg(arg='c')],
                          vararg=arg(arg='d'),
                          kwonlyargs=[
                              arg(arg='e'),
                              arg(arg='f')],
                          kw_defaults=[
                              None,
                              Constant(value=3)],
                          kwarg=arg(arg='g'),
                          defaults=[
                              Constant(value=1),
                              Constant(value=2)]),
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())],
                      returns=Constant(value='return annotation'),
                      type_params=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Return (value)

     A ‘return’ statement.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('return 4'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Return(
                      value=Constant(value=4))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Yield (value)
 -- Sınıfı: ast.YieldFrom (value)

     A ‘yield’ or ‘yield from’ expression.  Because these are
     expressions, they must be wrapped in an *note Expr: 436c. node if
     the value sent back is not used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Yield(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield from x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=YieldFrom(
                          value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Global (names)
 -- Sınıfı: ast.Nonlocal (names)

     ‘global’ and ‘nonlocal’ statements.  ‘names’ is a list of raw
     strings.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('global x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Global(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])],
              type_ignores=[])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('nonlocal x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Nonlocal(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])],
              type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.ClassDef (name, bases, keywords, body, decorator_list,
          type_params)

     A class definition.

        * ‘name’ is a raw string for the class name

        * ‘bases’ is a list of nodes for explicitly specified base
          classes.

        * ‘keywords’ is a list of *note keyword: 4390. nodes,
          principally for ‘metaclass’.  Other keywords will be passed to
          the metaclass, as per PEP 3115(1).

        * ‘body’ is a list of nodes representing the code within the
          class definition.

        * ‘decorator_list’ is a list of nodes, as in *note FunctionDef:
          152c.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 43a5.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... class Foo(base1, base2, metaclass=meta):
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ClassDef(
                      name='Foo',
                      bases=[
                          Name(id='base1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='base2', ctx=Load())],
                      keywords=[
                          keyword(
                              arg='metaclass',
                              value=Name(id='meta', ctx=Load()))],
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()),
                          Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())],
                      type_params=[])],
              type_ignores=[])

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘type_params’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Async and await,  Prev: Function and class definitions,  Up: Node classes

5.32.1.15 Async and await
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: ast.AsyncFunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list,
          returns, type_comment, type_params)

     An ‘async def’ function definition.  Has the same fields as *note
     FunctionDef: 152c.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.Await (value)

     An ‘await’ expression.  ‘value’ is what it waits for.  Only valid
     in the body of an *note AsyncFunctionDef: 152b.

     >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
     ... async def f():
     ...     await other_func()
     ... """), indent=4))
     Module(
         body=[
             AsyncFunctionDef(
                 name='f',
                 args=arguments(
                     posonlyargs=[],
                     args=[],
                     kwonlyargs=[],
                     kw_defaults=[],
                     defaults=[]),
                 body=[
                     Expr(
                         value=Await(
                             value=Call(
                                 func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()),
                                 args=[],
                                 keywords=[])))],
                 decorator_list=[],
                 type_params=[])],
         type_ignores=[])

 -- Sınıfı: ast.AsyncFor (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)
 -- Sınıfı: ast.AsyncWith (items, body, type_comment)

     ‘async for’ loops and ‘async with’ context managers.  They have the
     same fields as *note For: 43ab. and *note With: 43b3, respectively.
     Only valid in the body of an *note AsyncFunctionDef: 152b.

     Not: When a string is parsed by *note ast.parse(): 188, operator
     nodes (subclasses of ‘ast.operator’, ‘ast.unaryop’, ‘ast.cmpop’,
     ‘ast.boolop’ and ‘ast.expr_context’) on the returned tree will be
     singletons.  Changes to one will be reflected in all other
     occurrences of the same value (e.g.  *note ast.Add: 4374.).


File: python.info,  Node: ast Helpers,  Next: Compiler Flags,  Prev: Node classes,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.16 ‘ast’ Helpers
.......................

Apart from the node classes, the *note ast: 8. module defines these
utility functions and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees:

 -- Işlevi: ast.parse (source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec', *,
          type_comments=False, feature_version=None)

     Parse the source into an AST node.  Equivalent to ‘compile(source,
     filename, mode, ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST)’.

     If ‘type_comments=True’ is given, the parser is modified to check
     and return type comments as specified by PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2).
     This is equivalent to adding *note ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 43d2. to
     the flags passed to *note compile(): 56d.  This will report syntax
     errors for misplaced type comments.  Without this flag, type
     comments will be ignored, and the ‘type_comment’ field on selected
     AST nodes will always be ‘None’.  In addition, the locations of ‘#
     type: ignore’ comments will be returned as the ‘type_ignores’
     attribute of *note Module: 435a. (otherwise it is always an empty
     list).

     In addition, if ‘mode’ is ‘'func_type'’, the input syntax is
     modified to correspond to PEP 484(3) “signature type comments”,
     e.g.  ‘(str, int) -> List[str]’.

     Setting ‘feature_version’ to a tuple ‘(major, minor)’ will result
     in a “best-effort” attempt to parse using that Python version’s
     grammar.  For example, setting ‘feature_version=(3, 9)’ will
     attempt to disallow parsing of *note match: 648. statements.
     Currently ‘major’ must equal to ‘3’.  The lowest supported version
     is ‘(3, 4)’ (and this may increase in future Python versions); the
     highest is ‘sys.version_info[0:2]’.  “Best-effort” attempt means
     there is no guarantee that the parse (or success of the parse) is
     the same as when run on the Python version corresponding to
     ‘feature_version’.

     If source contains a null character (‘\0’), *note ValueError: 189.
     is raised.

          Uyarı: Note that successfully parsing source code into an AST
          object doesn’t guarantee that the source code provided is
          valid Python code that can be executed as the compilation step
          can raise further *note SyntaxError: 14c. exceptions.  For
          instance, the source ‘return 42’ generates a valid AST node
          for a return statement, but it cannot be compiled alone (it
          needs to be inside a function node).

          In particular, *note ast.parse(): 188. won’t do any scoping
          checks, which the compilation step does.

          Uyarı: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
          sufficiently large/complex string due to stack depth
          limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘type_comments’, ‘mode='func_type'’
     and ‘feature_version’.

 -- Işlevi: ast.unparse (ast_obj)

     Unparse an *note ast.AST: 56c. object and generate a string with
     code that would produce an equivalent *note ast.AST: 56c. object if
     parsed back with *note ast.parse(): 188.

          Uyarı: The produced code string will not necessarily be equal
          to the original code that generated the *note ast.AST: 56c.
          object (without any compiler optimizations, such as constant
          tuples/frozensets).

          Uyarı: Trying to unparse a highly complex expression would
          result with *note RecursionError: bf7.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Işlevi: ast.literal_eval (node_or_string)

     Evaluate an expression node or a string containing only a Python
     literal or container display.  The string or node provided may only
     consist of the following Python literal structures: strings, bytes,
     numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, ‘None’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’.

     This can be used for evaluating strings containing Python values
     without the need to parse the values oneself.  It is not capable of
     evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving
     operators or indexing.

     This function had been documented as “safe” in the past without
     defining what that meant.  That was misleading.  This is
     specifically designed not to execute Python code, unlike the more
     general *note eval(): 6ca.  There is no namespace, no name lookups,
     or ability to call out.  But it is not free from attack: A
     relatively small input can lead to memory exhaustion or to C stack
     exhaustion, crashing the process.  There is also the possibility
     for excessive CPU consumption denial of service on some inputs.
     Calling it on untrusted data is thus not recommended.

          Uyarı: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter due to
          stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

          It can raise *note ValueError: 189, *note TypeError: 2c4,
          *note SyntaxError: 14c, *note MemoryError: 1409. and *note
          RecursionError: bf7. depending on the malformed input.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Now allows bytes and set literals.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Now supports creating empty sets with
     ‘'set()'’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: For string inputs, leading spaces and tabs
     are now stripped.

 -- Işlevi: ast.get_docstring (node, clean=True)

     Return the docstring of the given 'node' (which must be a *note
     FunctionDef: 152c, *note AsyncFunctionDef: 152b, *note ClassDef:
     152a, or *note Module: 435a. node), or ‘None’ if it has no
     docstring.  If 'clean' is true, clean up the docstring’s
     indentation with *note inspect.cleandoc(): 4235.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: *note AsyncFunctionDef: 152b. is now
     supported.

 -- Işlevi: ast.get_source_segment (source, node, *, padded=False)

     Get source code segment of the 'source' that generated 'node'.  If
     some location information (*note lineno: 4353, *note end_lineno:
     4355, *note col_offset: 4354, or *note end_col_offset: 4356.) is
     missing, return ‘None’.

     If 'padded' is ‘True’, the first line of a multi-line statement
     will be padded with spaces to match its original position.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Işlevi: ast.fix_missing_locations (node)

     When you compile a node tree with *note compile(): 56d, the
     compiler expects *note lineno: 4353. and *note col_offset: 4354.
     attributes for every node that supports them.  This is rather
     tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper adds these
     attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to
     the values of the parent node.  It works recursively starting at
     'node'.

 -- Işlevi: ast.increment_lineno (node, n=1)

     Increment the line number and end line number of each node in the
     tree starting at 'node' by 'n'.  This is useful to “move code” to a
     different location in a file.

 -- Işlevi: ast.copy_location (new_node, old_node)

     Copy source location (*note lineno: 4353, *note col_offset: 4354,
     *note end_lineno: 4355, and *note end_col_offset: 4356.) from
     'old_node' to 'new_node' if possible, and return 'new_node'.

 -- Işlevi: ast.iter_fields (node)

     Yield a tuple of ‘(fieldname, value)’ for each field in
     ‘node._fields’ that is present on 'node'.

 -- Işlevi: ast.iter_child_nodes (node)

     Yield all direct child nodes of 'node', that is, all fields that
     are nodes and all items of fields that are lists of nodes.

 -- Işlevi: ast.walk (node)

     Recursively yield all descendant nodes in the tree starting at
     'node' (including 'node' itself), in no specified order.  This is
     useful if you only want to modify nodes in place and don’t care
     about the context.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.NodeVisitor

     A node visitor base class that walks the abstract syntax tree and
     calls a visitor function for every node found.  This function may
     return a value which is forwarded by the *note visit(): 43d8.
     method.

     This class is meant to be subclassed, with the subclass adding
     visitor methods.

      -- Yöntemi: visit (node)

          Visit a node.  The default implementation calls the method
          called ‘self.visit_CLASSNAME’ where 'classname' is the name of
          the node class, or *note generic_visit(): 43d9. if that method
          doesn’t exist.

      -- Yöntemi: generic_visit (node)

          This visitor calls *note visit(): 43d8. on all children of the
          node.

          Note that child nodes of nodes that have a custom visitor
          method won’t be visited unless the visitor calls *note
          generic_visit(): 43d9. or visits them itself.

      -- Yöntemi: visit_Constant (node)

          Handles all constant nodes.

     Don’t use the *note NodeVisitor: 8d2. if you want to apply changes
     to nodes during traversal.  For this a special visitor exists
     (*note NodeTransformer: 43da.) that allows modifications.

     3.8 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Methods ‘visit_Num()’,
     ‘visit_Str()’, ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and
     ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are deprecated now and will not be called in
     future Python versions.  Add the *note visit_Constant(): 8d3.
     method to handle all constant nodes.

 -- Sınıfı: ast.NodeTransformer

     A *note NodeVisitor: 8d2. subclass that walks the abstract syntax
     tree and allows modification of nodes.

     The *note NodeTransformer: 43da. will walk the AST and use the
     return value of the visitor methods to replace or remove the old
     node.  If the return value of the visitor method is ‘None’, the
     node will be removed from its location, otherwise it is replaced
     with the return value.  The return value may be the original node
     in which case no replacement takes place.

     Here is an example transformer that rewrites all occurrences of
     name lookups (‘foo’) to ‘data['foo']’:

          class RewriteName(NodeTransformer):

              def visit_Name(self, node):
                  return Subscript(
                      value=Name(id='data', ctx=Load()),
                      slice=Constant(value=node.id),
                      ctx=node.ctx
                  )

     Keep in mind that if the node you’re operating on has child nodes
     you must either transform the child nodes yourself or call the
     *note generic_visit(): 43d9. method for the node first.

     For nodes that were part of a collection of statements (that
     applies to all statement nodes), the visitor may also return a list
     of nodes rather than just a single node.

     If *note NodeTransformer: 43da. introduces new nodes (that weren’t
     part of original tree) without giving them location information
     (such as *note lineno: 4353.), *note fix_missing_locations(): 43d3.
     should be called with the new sub-tree to recalculate the location
     information:

          tree = ast.parse('foo', mode='eval')
          new_tree = fix_missing_locations(RewriteName().visit(tree))

     Usually you use the transformer like this:

          node = YourTransformer().visit(node)

 -- Işlevi: ast.dump (node, annotate_fields=True,
          include_attributes=False, *, indent=None)

     Return a formatted dump of the tree in 'node'.  This is mainly
     useful for debugging purposes.  If 'annotate_fields' is true (by
     default), the returned string will show the names and the values
     for fields.  If 'annotate_fields' is false, the result string will
     be more compact by omitting unambiguous field names.  Attributes
     such as line numbers and column offsets are not dumped by default.
     If this is wanted, 'include_attributes' can be set to true.

     If 'indent' is a non-negative integer or string, then the tree will
     be pretty-printed with that indent level.  An indent level of 0,
     negative, or ‘""’ will only insert newlines.  ‘None’ (the default)
     selects the single line representation.  Using a positive integer
     indent indents that many spaces per level.  If 'indent' is a string
     (such as ‘"\t"’), that string is used to indent each level.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'indent' option.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler Flags,  Next: Command-Line Usage<4>,  Prev: ast Helpers,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.17 Compiler Flags
........................

The following flags may be passed to *note compile(): 56d. in order to
change effects on the compilation of a program:

 -- Verisi: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT

     Enables support for top-level ‘await’, ‘async for’, ‘async with’
     and async comprehensions.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Verisi: ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST

     Generates and returns an abstract syntax tree instead of returning
     a compiled code object.

 -- Verisi: ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

     Enables support for PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2) style type comments
     (‘# type: <type>’, ‘# type: ignore <stuff>’).

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage<4>,  Prev: Compiler Flags,  Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

5.32.1.18 Command-Line Usage
............................

Added in version 3.9.

The *note ast: 8. module can be executed as a script from the command
line.  It is as simple as:

     python -m ast [-m <mode>] [-a] [infile]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: -m <mode>
 -- Option: --mode <mode>

     Specify what kind of code must be compiled, like the 'mode'
     argument in *note parse(): 188.

 -- Option: --no-type-comments

     Don’t parse type comments.

 -- Option: -a, --include-attributes

     Include attributes such as line numbers and column offsets.

 -- Option: -i <indent>
 -- Option: --indent <indent>

     Indentation of nodes in AST (number of spaces).

If ‘infile’ is specified its contents are parsed to AST and dumped to
stdout.  Otherwise, the content is read from stdin.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Green Tree Snakes(1), an external documentation resource, has good
details on working with Python ASTs.

ASTTokens(2) annotates Python ASTs with the positions of tokens and text
in the source code that generated them.  This is helpful for tools that
make source code transformations.

leoAst.py(3) unifies the token-based and parse-tree-based views of
python programs by inserting two-way links between tokens and ast nodes.

LibCST(4) parses code as a Concrete Syntax Tree that looks like an ast
tree and keeps all formatting details.  It’s useful for building
automated refactoring (codemod) applications and linters.

Parso(5) is a Python parser that supports error recovery and round-trip
parsing for different Python versions (in multiple Python versions).
Parso is also able to list multiple syntax errors in your Python file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/

   (2) https://asttokens.readthedocs.io/en/latest/user-guide.html

   (3) https://leo-editor.github.io/leo-editor/appendices.html#leoast-py

   (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io


File: python.info,  Node: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables,  Next: token — Constants used with Python parse trees,  Prev: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.2 ‘symtable’ — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/symtable.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Symbol tables are generated by the compiler from AST just before
bytecode is generated.  The symbol table is responsible for calculating
the scope of every identifier in the code.  *note symtable: d7. provides
an interface to examine these tables.

* Menu:

* Generating Symbol Tables::
* Examining Symbol Tables::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/symtable.py


File: python.info,  Node: Generating Symbol Tables,  Next: Examining Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

5.32.2.1 Generating Symbol Tables
.................................

 -- Işlevi: symtable.symtable (code, filename, compile_type)

     Return the toplevel *note SymbolTable: 43eb. for the Python source
     'code'.  'filename' is the name of the file containing the code.
     'compile_type' is like the 'mode' argument to *note compile(): 56d.


File: python.info,  Node: Examining Symbol Tables,  Prev: Generating Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

5.32.2.2 Examining Symbol Tables
................................

 -- Sınıfı: symtable.SymbolTable

     A namespace table for a block.  The constructor is not public.

      -- Yöntemi: get_type ()

          Return the type of the symbol table.  Possible values are
          ‘'class'’, ‘'module'’, ‘'function'’, ‘'annotation'’, ‘'TypeVar
          bound'’, ‘'type alias'’, and ‘'type parameter'’.  The latter
          four refer to different flavors of *note annotation scopes:
          16d.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘'annotation'’, ‘'TypeVar
          bound'’, ‘'type alias'’, and ‘'type parameter'’ as possible
          return values.

      -- Yöntemi: get_id ()

          Return the table’s identifier.

      -- Yöntemi: get_name ()

          Return the table’s name.  This is the name of the class if the
          table is for a class, the name of the function if the table is
          for a function, or ‘'top'’ if the table is global (*note
          get_type(): 43ed. returns ‘'module'’).  For type parameter
          scopes (which are used for generic classes, functions, and
          type aliases), it is the name of the underlying class,
          function, or type alias.  For type alias scopes, it is the
          name of the type alias.  For *note TypeVar: 16a. bound scopes,
          it is the name of the ‘TypeVar’.

      -- Yöntemi: get_lineno ()

          Return the number of the first line in the block this table
          represents.

      -- Yöntemi: is_optimized ()

          Return ‘True’ if the locals in this table can be optimized.

      -- Yöntemi: is_nested ()

          Return ‘True’ if the block is a nested class or function.

      -- Yöntemi: has_children ()

          Return ‘True’ if the block has nested namespaces within it.
          These can be obtained with *note get_children(): 43f4.

      -- Yöntemi: get_identifiers ()

          Return a view object containing the names of symbols in the
          table.  See the *note documentation of view objects: 2036.

      -- Yöntemi: lookup (name)

          Lookup 'name' in the table and return a *note Symbol: 43f7.
          instance.

      -- Yöntemi: get_symbols ()

          Return a list of *note Symbol: 43f7. instances for names in
          the table.

      -- Yöntemi: get_children ()

          Return a list of the nested symbol tables.

 -- Sınıfı: symtable.Function

     A namespace for a function or method.  This class inherits from
     *note SymbolTable: 43eb.

      -- Yöntemi: get_parameters ()

          Return a tuple containing names of parameters to this
          function.

      -- Yöntemi: get_locals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of locals in this function.

      -- Yöntemi: get_globals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of globals in this function.

      -- Yöntemi: get_nonlocals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of nonlocals in this function.

      -- Yöntemi: get_frees ()

          Return a tuple containing names of free variables in this
          function.

 -- Sınıfı: symtable.Class

     A namespace of a class.  This class inherits from *note
     SymbolTable: 43eb.

      -- Yöntemi: get_methods ()

          Return a tuple containing the names of method-like functions
          declared in the class.

          Here, the term ‘method’ designates 'any' function defined in
          the class body via *note def: 12e2. or *note async def: 3db.

          Functions defined in a deeper scope (e.g., in an inner class)
          are not picked up by *note get_methods(): 269.

          For example:

               >>> import symtable
               >>> st = symtable.symtable('''
               ... def outer(): pass
               ...
               ... class A:
               ...    def f():
               ...        def w(): pass
               ...
               ...    def g(self): pass
               ...
               ...    @classmethod
               ...    async def h(cls): pass
               ...
               ...    global outer
               ...    def outer(self): pass
               ... ''', 'test', 'exec')
               >>> class_A = st.get_children()[1]
               >>> class_A.get_methods()
               ('f', 'g', 'h')

          Although ‘A().f()’ raises *note TypeError: 2c4. at runtime,
          ‘A.f’ is still considered as a method-like function.

 -- Sınıfı: symtable.Symbol

     An entry in a *note SymbolTable: 43eb. corresponding to an
     identifier in the source.  The constructor is not public.

      -- Yöntemi: get_name ()

          Return the symbol’s name.

      -- Yöntemi: is_referenced ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is used in its block.

      -- Yöntemi: is_imported ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is created from an import
          statement.

      -- Yöntemi: is_parameter ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is a parameter.

      -- Yöntemi: is_global ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is global.

      -- Yöntemi: is_nonlocal ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is nonlocal.

      -- Yöntemi: is_declared_global ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is declared global with a global
          statement.

      -- Yöntemi: is_local ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is local to its block.

      -- Yöntemi: is_annotated ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is annotated.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Yöntemi: is_free ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is referenced in its block, but
          not assigned to.

      -- Yöntemi: is_assigned ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is assigned to in its block.

      -- Yöntemi: is_namespace ()

          Return ‘True’ if name binding introduces new namespace.

          If the name is used as the target of a function or class
          statement, this will be true.

          For example:

               >>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec")
               >>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace()
               True

          Note that a single name can be bound to multiple objects.  If
          the result is ‘True’, the name may also be bound to other
          objects, like an int or list, that does not introduce a new
          namespace.

      -- Yöntemi: get_namespaces ()

          Return a list of namespaces bound to this name.

      -- Yöntemi: get_namespace ()

          Return the namespace bound to this name.  If more than one or
          no namespace is bound to this name, a *note ValueError: 189.
          is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: token — Constants used with Python parse trees,  Next: keyword — Testing for Python keywords,  Prev: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.3 ‘token’ — Constants used with Python parse trees
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/token.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of
leaf nodes of the parse tree (terminal tokens).  Refer to the file
‘Grammar/Tokens’ in the Python distribution for the definitions of the
names in the context of the language grammar.  The specific numeric
values which the names map to may change between Python versions.

The module also provides a mapping from numeric codes to names and some
functions.  The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header
files.

 -- Verisi: token.tok_name

     Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in
     this module back to name strings, allowing more human-readable
     representation of parse trees to be generated.

 -- Işlevi: token.ISTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for terminal token values.

 -- Işlevi: token.ISNONTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for non-terminal token values.

 -- Işlevi: token.ISEOF (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is the marker indicating the end of input.

The token constants are:

 -- Verisi: token.ENDMARKER

 -- Verisi: token.NAME

 -- Verisi: token.NUMBER

 -- Verisi: token.STRING

 -- Verisi: token.NEWLINE

 -- Verisi: token.INDENT

 -- Verisi: token.DEDENT

 -- Verisi: token.LPAR

     Token value for ‘"("’.

 -- Verisi: token.RPAR

     Token value for ‘")"’.

 -- Verisi: token.LSQB

     Token value for ‘"["’.

 -- Verisi: token.RSQB

     Token value for ‘"]"’.

 -- Verisi: token.COLON

     Token value for ‘":"’.

 -- Verisi: token.COMMA

     Token value for ‘","’.

 -- Verisi: token.SEMI

     Token value for ‘";"’.

 -- Verisi: token.PLUS

     Token value for ‘"+"’.

 -- Verisi: token.MINUS

     Token value for ‘"-"’.

 -- Verisi: token.STAR

     Token value for ‘"*"’.

 -- Verisi: token.SLASH

     Token value for ‘"/"’.

 -- Verisi: token.VBAR

     Token value for ‘"|"’.

 -- Verisi: token.AMPER

     Token value for ‘"&"’.

 -- Verisi: token.LESS

     Token value for ‘"<"’.

 -- Verisi: token.GREATER

     Token value for ‘">"’.

 -- Verisi: token.EQUAL

     Token value for ‘"="’.

 -- Verisi: token.DOT

     Token value for ‘"."’.

 -- Verisi: token.PERCENT

     Token value for ‘"%"’.

 -- Verisi: token.LBRACE

     Token value for ‘"{"’.

 -- Verisi: token.RBRACE

     Token value for ‘"}"’.

 -- Verisi: token.EQEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"=="’.

 -- Verisi: token.NOTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"!="’.

 -- Verisi: token.LESSEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"<="’.

 -- Verisi: token.GREATEREQUAL

     Token value for ‘">="’.

 -- Verisi: token.TILDE

     Token value for ‘"~"’.

 -- Verisi: token.CIRCUMFLEX

     Token value for ‘"^"’.

 -- Verisi: token.LEFTSHIFT

     Token value for ‘"<<"’.

 -- Verisi: token.RIGHTSHIFT

     Token value for ‘">>"’.

 -- Verisi: token.DOUBLESTAR

     Token value for ‘"**"’.

 -- Verisi: token.PLUSEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"+="’.

 -- Verisi: token.MINEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"-="’.

 -- Verisi: token.STAREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"*="’.

 -- Verisi: token.SLASHEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"/="’.

 -- Verisi: token.PERCENTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"%="’.

 -- Verisi: token.AMPEREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"&="’.

 -- Verisi: token.VBAREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"|="’.

 -- Verisi: token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"^="’.

 -- Verisi: token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"<<="’.

 -- Verisi: token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL

     Token value for ‘">>="’.

 -- Verisi: token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL

     Token value for ‘"**="’.

 -- Verisi: token.DOUBLESLASH

     Token value for ‘"//"’.

 -- Verisi: token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"//="’.

 -- Verisi: token.AT

     Token value for ‘"@"’.

 -- Verisi: token.ATEQUAL

     Token value for ‘"@="’.

 -- Verisi: token.RARROW

     Token value for ‘"->"’.

 -- Verisi: token.ELLIPSIS

     Token value for ‘"..."’.

 -- Verisi: token.COLONEQUAL

     Token value for ‘":="’.

 -- Verisi: token.EXCLAMATION

     Token value for ‘"!"’.

 -- Verisi: token.OP

 -- Verisi: token.AWAIT

 -- Verisi: token.ASYNC

 -- Verisi: token.TYPE_IGNORE

 -- Verisi: token.TYPE_COMMENT

 -- Verisi: token.SOFT_KEYWORD

 -- Verisi: token.FSTRING_START

 -- Verisi: token.FSTRING_MIDDLE

 -- Verisi: token.FSTRING_END

 -- Verisi: token.COMMENT

 -- Verisi: token.NL

 -- Verisi: token.ERRORTOKEN

 -- Verisi: token.N_TOKENS

 -- Verisi: token.NT_OFFSET

The following token type values aren’t used by the C tokenizer but are
needed for the *note tokenize: fb. module.

 -- Verisi: token.COMMENT

     Token value used to indicate a comment.

 -- Verisi: token.NL

     Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline.  The *note
     NEWLINE: 4416. token indicates the end of a logical line of Python
     code; ‘NL’ tokens are generated when a logical line of code is
     continued over multiple physical lines.

 -- Verisi: token.ENCODING

     Token value that indicates the encoding used to decode the source
     bytes into text.  The first token returned by *note
     tokenize.tokenize(): 20b. will always be an ‘ENCODING’ token.

 -- Verisi: token.TYPE_COMMENT

     Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized.  Such
     tokens are only produced when *note ast.parse(): 188. is invoked
     with ‘type_comments=True’.

 -- Verisi: token.EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES

     A dictionary mapping the string representation of a token to its
     numeric code.

     Added in version 3.8.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added *note AWAIT: 4449. and *note ASYNC: 444a.
tokens.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added *note COMMENT: 4451, *note NL: 4452. and
*note ENCODING: 4456. tokens.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Removed *note AWAIT: 4449. and *note ASYNC: 444a.
tokens.  “async” and “await” are now tokenized as *note NAME: 4413.
tokens.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added *note TYPE_COMMENT: 444c, *note
TYPE_IGNORE: 444b, *note COLONEQUAL: 4446.  Added *note AWAIT: 4449. and
*note ASYNC: 444a. tokens back (they’re needed to support parsing older
Python versions for *note ast.parse(): 188. with ‘feature_version’ set
to 6 or lower).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/token.py


File: python.info,  Node: keyword — Testing for Python keywords,  Next: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source,  Prev: token — Constants used with Python parse trees,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.4 ‘keyword’ — Testing for Python keywords
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/keyword.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module allows a Python program to determine if a string is a *note
keyword: 1c89. or *note soft keyword: 647.

 -- Işlevi: keyword.iskeyword (s)

     Return ‘True’ if 's' is a Python *note keyword: 1c89.

 -- Verisi: keyword.kwlist

     Sequence containing all the *note keywords: 1c89. defined for the
     interpreter.  If any keywords are defined to only be active when
     particular *note __future__: 0. statements are in effect, these
     will be included as well.

 -- Işlevi: keyword.issoftkeyword (s)

     Return ‘True’ if 's' is a Python *note soft keyword: 647.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Verisi: keyword.softkwlist

     Sequence containing all the *note soft keywords: 647. defined for
     the interpreter.  If any soft keywords are defined to only be
     active when particular *note __future__: 0. statements are in
     effect, these will be included as well.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/keyword.py


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source,  Next: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Prev: keyword — Testing for Python keywords,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.5 ‘tokenize’ — Tokenizer for Python source
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tokenize.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tokenize: fb. module provides a lexical scanner for Python
source code, implemented in Python.  The scanner in this module returns
comments as tokens as well, making it useful for implementing
“pretty-printers”, including colorizers for on-screen displays.

To simplify token stream handling, all *note operator: 1ccc. and *note
delimiter: 1ccd. tokens and *note Ellipsis: 1f76. are returned using the
generic *note OP: 4448. token type.  The exact type can be determined by
checking the ‘exact_type’ property on the *note named tuple: 461.
returned from *note tokenize.tokenize(): 20b.

     Uyarı: Note that the functions in this module are only designed to
     parse syntactically valid Python code (code that does not raise
     when parsed using *note ast.parse(): 188.).  The behavior of the
     functions in this module is 'undefined' when providing invalid
     Python code and it can change at any point.

* Menu:

* Tokenizing Input::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<5>.
* Examples: Examples<34>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tokenize.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tokenizing Input,  Next: Command-Line Usage<5>,  Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

5.32.5.1 Tokenizing Input
.........................

The primary entry point is a *note generator: f0b.:

 -- Işlevi: tokenize.tokenize (readline)

     The *note tokenize(): 20b. generator requires one argument,
     'readline', which must be a callable object which provides the same
     interface as the *note io.IOBase.readline(): 11d5. method of file
     objects.  Each call to the function should return one line of input
     as bytes.

     The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type;
     the token string; a 2-tuple ‘(srow, scol)’ of ints specifying the
     row and column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple
     ‘(erow, ecol)’ of ints specifying the row and column where the
     token ends in the source; and the line on which the token was
     found.  The line passed (the last tuple item) is the 'physical'
     line.  The 5 tuple is returned as a *note named tuple: 461. with
     the field names: ‘type string start end line’.

     The returned *note named tuple: 461. has an additional property
     named ‘exact_type’ that contains the exact operator type for *note
     OP: 4448. tokens.  For all other token types ‘exact_type’ equals
     the named tuple ‘type’ field.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: Added support for named tuples.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Added support for ‘exact_type’.

     *note tokenize(): 20b. determines the source encoding of the file
     by looking for a UTF-8 BOM or encoding cookie, according to PEP
     263(1).

 -- Işlevi: tokenize.generate_tokens (readline)

     Tokenize a source reading unicode strings instead of bytes.

     Like *note tokenize(): 20b, the 'readline' argument is a callable
     returning a single line of input.  However, *note
     generate_tokens(): 20c. expects 'readline' to return a str object
     rather than bytes.

     The result is an iterator yielding named tuples, exactly like *note
     tokenize(): 20b.  It does not yield an *note ENCODING: 4456. token.

All constants from the *note token: fa. module are also exported from
*note tokenize: fb.

Another function is provided to reverse the tokenization process.  This
is useful for creating tools that tokenize a script, modify the token
stream, and write back the modified script.

 -- Işlevi: tokenize.untokenize (iterable)

     Converts tokens back into Python source code.  The 'iterable' must
     return sequences with at least two elements, the token type and the
     token string.  Any additional sequence elements are ignored.

     The result is guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so
     that the conversion is lossless and round-trips are assured.  The
     guarantee applies only to the token type and token string as the
     spacing between tokens (column positions) may change.

     It returns bytes, encoded using the *note ENCODING: 4456. token,
     which is the first token sequence output by *note tokenize(): 20b.
     If there is no encoding token in the input, it returns a str
     instead.

*note tokenize(): 20b. needs to detect the encoding of source files it
tokenizes.  The function it uses to do this is available:

 -- Işlevi: tokenize.detect_encoding (readline)

     The *note detect_encoding(): 263a. function is used to detect the
     encoding that should be used to decode a Python source file.  It
     requires one argument, readline, in the same way as the *note
     tokenize(): 20b. generator.

     It will call readline a maximum of twice, and return the encoding
     used (as a string) and a list of any lines (not decoded from bytes)
     it has read in.

     It detects the encoding from the presence of a UTF-8 BOM or an
     encoding cookie as specified in PEP 263(2).  If both a BOM and a
     cookie are present, but disagree, a *note SyntaxError: 14c. will be
     raised.  Note that if the BOM is found, ‘'utf-8-sig'’ will be
     returned as an encoding.

     If no encoding is specified, then the default of ‘'utf-8'’ will be
     returned.

     Use *note open(): 2639. to open Python source files: it uses *note
     detect_encoding(): 263a. to detect the file encoding.

 -- Işlevi: tokenize.open (filename)

     Open a file in read only mode using the encoding detected by *note
     detect_encoding(): 263a.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Özel Durum: tokenize.TokenError

     Raised when either a docstring or expression that may be split over
     several lines is not completed anywhere in the file, for example:

          """Beginning of
          docstring

     or:

          [1,
           2,
           3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage<5>,  Next: Examples<34>,  Prev: Tokenizing Input,  Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

5.32.5.2 Command-Line Usage
...........................

Added in version 3.3.

The *note tokenize: fb. module can be executed as a script from the
command line.  It is as simple as:

     python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     show this help message and exit

 -- Option: -e, --exact

     display token names using the exact type

If ‘filename.py’ is specified its contents are tokenized to stdout.
Otherwise, tokenization is performed on stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<34>,  Prev: Command-Line Usage<5>,  Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

5.32.5.3 Examples
.................

Example of a script rewriter that transforms float literals into Decimal
objects:

     from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP
     from io import BytesIO

     def decistmt(s):
         """Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements.

         >>> from decimal import Decimal
         >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)'
         >>> decistmt(s)
         "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))"

         The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library.
         Known cases are "e-007" (Windows) and "e-07" (not Windows).  Since
         we're only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn't close to 5, the
         rest of the output should be platform-independent.

         >>> exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
         -3.21716034272e-0...7

         Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all
         platforms.

         >>> exec(decistmt(s))
         -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7
         """
         result = []
         g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline)  # tokenize the string
         for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g:
             if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval:  # replace NUMBER tokens
                 result.extend([
                     (NAME, 'Decimal'),
                     (OP, '('),
                     (STRING, repr(tokval)),
                     (OP, ')')
                 ])
             else:
                 result.append((toknum, tokval))
         return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8')

Example of tokenizing from the command line.  The script:

     def say_hello():
         print("Hello, World!")

     say_hello()

will be tokenized to the following output where the first column is the
range of the line/column coordinates where the token is found, the
second column is the name of the token, and the final column is the
value of the token (if any)

     $ python -m tokenize hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          OP             '('
     1,14-1,15:          OP             ')'
     1,15-1,16:          OP             ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           OP             '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          OP             ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           OP             '('
     4,10-4,11:          OP             ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

The exact token type names can be displayed using the *note -e: 4463.
option:

     $ python -m tokenize -e hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          LPAR           '('
     1,14-1,15:          RPAR           ')'
     1,15-1,16:          COLON          ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           LPAR           '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          RPAR           ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           LPAR           '('
     4,10-4,11:          RPAR           ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

Example of tokenizing a file programmatically, reading unicode strings
instead of bytes with *note generate_tokens(): 20c.:

     import tokenize

     with tokenize.open('hello.py') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.generate_tokens(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)

Or reading bytes directly with *note tokenize(): 20b.:

     import tokenize

     with open('hello.py', 'rb') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.tokenize(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)


File: python.info,  Node: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Next: pyclbr — Python module browser support,  Prev: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.6 ‘tabnanny’ — Detection of ambiguous indentation
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tabnanny.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

For the time being this module is intended to be called as a script.
However it is possible to import it into an IDE and use the function
*note check(): 4468. described below.

     Not: The API provided by this module is likely to change in future
     releases; such changes may not be backward compatible.

 -- Işlevi: tabnanny.check (file_or_dir)

     If 'file_or_dir' is a directory and not a symbolic link, then
     recursively descend the directory tree named by 'file_or_dir',
     checking all ‘.py’ files along the way.  If 'file_or_dir' is an
     ordinary Python source file, it is checked for whitespace related
     problems.  The diagnostic messages are written to standard output
     using the *note print(): e16. function.

 -- Verisi: tabnanny.verbose

     Flag indicating whether to print verbose messages.  This is
     incremented by the ‘-v’ option if called as a script.

 -- Verisi: tabnanny.filename_only

     Flag indicating whether to print only the filenames of files
     containing whitespace related problems.  This is set to true by the
     ‘-q’ option if called as a script.

 -- Özel Durum: tabnanny.NannyNag

     Raised by *note process_tokens(): 446c. if detecting an ambiguous
     indent.  Captured and handled in *note check(): 4468.

 -- Işlevi: tabnanny.process_tokens (tokens)

     This function is used by *note check(): 4468. to process tokens
     generated by the *note tokenize: fb. module.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note tokenize: fb.

     Lexical scanner for Python source code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tabnanny.py


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr — Python module browser support,  Next: py_compile — Compile Python source files,  Prev: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.7 ‘pyclbr’ — Python module browser support
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pyclbr.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pyclbr: b3. module provides limited information about the
functions, classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module.  The
information is sufficient to implement a module browser.  The
information is extracted from the Python source code rather than by
importing the module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code.
This restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not
implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension
modules.

 -- Işlevi: pyclbr.readmodule (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class
     descriptors.  If possible, descriptors for imported base classes
     are included.  Parameter 'module' is a string with the name of the
     module to read; it may be the name of a module within a package.
     If given, 'path' is a sequence of directory paths prepended to
     ‘sys.path’, which is used to locate the module source code.

     This function is the original interface and is only kept for back
     compatibility.  It returns a filtered version of the following.

 -- Işlevi: pyclbr.readmodule_ex (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class
     descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with
     a ‘def’ or ‘class’ statement.  The returned dictionary maps
     module-level function and class names to their descriptors.  Nested
     objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent.
     As with readmodule, 'module' names the module to be read and 'path'
     is prepended to sys.path.  If the module being read is a package,
     the returned dictionary has a key ‘'__path__'’ whose value is a
     list containing the package search path.

Added in version 3.7: Descriptors for nested definitions.  They are
accessed through the new children attribute.  Each has a new parent
attribute.

The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of Function
and Class classes.  Users are not expected to create instances of these
classes.

* Menu:

* Function Objects::
* Class Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pyclbr.py


File: python.info,  Node: Function Objects,  Next: Class Objects,  Up: pyclbr — Python module browser support

5.32.7.1 Function Objects
.........................

 -- Sınıfı: pyclbr.Function

     Class ‘Function’ instances describe functions defined by def
     statements.  They have the following attributes:

      -- Özniteliği: file

          Name of the file in which the function is defined.

      -- Özniteliği: module

          The name of the module defining the function described.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the function.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- Özniteliği: parent

          For top-level functions, ‘None’.  For nested functions, the
          parent.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: children

          A *note dictionary: 240. mapping names to descriptors for
          nested functions and classes.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: is_async

          ‘True’ for functions that are defined with the *note async:
          3db. prefix, ‘False’ otherwise.

          Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Objects,  Prev: Function Objects,  Up: pyclbr — Python module browser support

5.32.7.2 Class Objects
......................

 -- Sınıfı: pyclbr.Class

     Class ‘Class’ instances describe classes defined by class
     statements.  They have the same attributes as *note Functions:
     4471. and two more.

      -- Özniteliği: file

          Name of the file in which the class is defined.

      -- Özniteliği: module

          The name of the module defining the class described.

      -- Özniteliği: name

          The name of the class.

      -- Özniteliği: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- Özniteliği: parent

          For top-level classes, ‘None’.  For nested classes, the
          parent.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: children

          A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions
          and classes.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: super

          A list of ‘Class’ objects which describe the immediate base
          classes of the class being described.  Classes which are named
          as superclasses but which are not discoverable by *note
          readmodule_ex(): 66a. are listed as a string with the class
          name instead of as ‘Class’ objects.

      -- Özniteliği: methods

          A *note dictionary: 240. mapping method names to line numbers.
          This can be derived from the newer *note children: 4481.
          dictionary, but remains for back-compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile — Compile Python source files,  Next: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries,  Prev: pyclbr — Python module browser support,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.8 ‘py_compile’ — Compile Python source files
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/py_compile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note py_compile: b2. module provides a function to generate a
byte-code file from a source file, and another function used when the
module source file is invoked as a script.

Though not often needed, this function can be useful when installing
modules for shared use, especially if some of the users may not have
permission to write the byte-code cache files in the directory
containing the source code.

 -- Özel Durum: py_compile.PyCompileError

     Exception raised when an error occurs while attempting to compile
     the file.

 -- Işlevi: py_compile.compile (file, cfile=None, dfile=None,
          doraise=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP, quiet=0)

     Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code
     cache file.  The source code is loaded from the file named 'file'.
     The byte-code is written to 'cfile', which defaults to the PEP
     3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path, ending in ‘.pyc’.  For example, if 'file'
     is ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ 'cfile' will default to
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  If
     'dfile' is specified, it is used instead of 'file' as the name of
     the source file from which source lines are obtained for display in
     exception tracebacks.  If 'doraise' is true, a *note
     PyCompileError: 4486. is raised when an error is encountered while
     compiling 'file'.  If 'doraise' is false (the default), an error
     string is written to ‘sys.stderr’, but no exception is raised.
     This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e.
     whatever 'cfile' value was used.

     The 'doraise' and 'quiet' arguments determine how errors are
     handled while compiling file.  If 'quiet' is 0 or 1, and 'doraise'
     is false, the default behaviour is enabled: an error string is
     written to ‘sys.stderr’, and the function returns ‘None’ instead of
     a path.  If 'doraise' is true, a *note PyCompileError: 4486. is
     raised instead.  However if 'quiet' is 2, no message is written,
     and 'doraise' has no effect.

     If the path that 'cfile' becomes (either explicitly specified or
     computed) is a symlink or non-regular file, *note FileExistsError:
     ec8. will be raised.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     turn those paths into regular files if it is allowed to write
     byte-compiled files to those paths.  This is a side-effect of
     import using file renaming to place the final byte-compiled file
     into place to prevent concurrent file writing issues.

     'optimize' controls the optimization level and is passed to the
     built-in *note compile(): 56d. function.  The default of ‘-1’
     selects the optimization level of the current interpreter.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     PycInvalidationMode: 4487. enum and controls how the generated
     bytecode cache is invalidated at runtime.  The default is *note
     PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 4488. if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’
     environment variable is set, otherwise the default is *note
     PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP: 4489.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Changed default value of 'cfile' to be PEP
     3147(4)-compliant.  Previous default was 'file' + ‘'c'’ (‘'o'’ if
     optimization was enabled).  Also added the 'optimize' parameter.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Changed code to use *note importlib: 75. for
     the byte-code cache file writing.  This means file creation/writing
     semantics now match what *note importlib: 75. does, e.g.
     permissions, write-and-move semantics, etc.  Also added the caveat
     that *note FileExistsError: ec8. is raised if 'cfile' is a symlink
     or non-regular file.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added
     as specified in PEP 552(5).  If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is set, 'invalidation_mode' will be forced to *note
     PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 4488.

     3.7.2 sürümünde değişti: The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable no longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode'
     argument, and determines its default value instead.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The 'quiet' parameter was added.

 -- Sınıfı: py_compile.PycInvalidationMode

     An enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to
     determine whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file.
     The ‘.pyc’ file indicates the desired invalidation mode in its
     header.  See *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 3f8. for more
     information on how Python invalidates ‘.pyc’ files at runtime.

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- Özniteliği: TIMESTAMP

          The ‘.pyc’ file includes the timestamp and size of the source
          file, which Python will compare against the metadata of the
          source file at runtime to determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs
          to be regenerated.

      -- Özniteliği: CHECKED_HASH

          The ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash of the source file content,
          which Python will compare against the source at runtime to
          determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs to be regenerated.

      -- Özniteliği: UNCHECKED_HASH

          Like *note CHECKED_HASH: 4488, the ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash
          of the source file content.  However, Python will at runtime
          assume the ‘.pyc’ file is up to date and not validate the
          ‘.pyc’ against the source file at all.

          This option is useful when the ‘.pycs’ are kept up to date by
          some system external to Python like a build system.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/py_compile.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<6>,  Up: py_compile — Compile Python source files

5.32.8.1 Command-Line Interface
...............................

This module can be invoked as a script to compile several source files.
The files named in 'filenames' are compiled and the resulting bytecode
is cached in the normal manner.  This program does not search a
directory structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named
explicitly.  The exit status is nonzero if one of the files could not be
compiled.

 -- Option: <file> ... <fileN>
 -- Option: -

     Positional arguments are files to compile.  If ‘-’ is the only
     parameter, the list of files is taken from standard input.

 -- Option: -q, --quiet

     Suppress errors output.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added support for ‘-’.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added support for *note -q: 448f.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note compileall: 20.

     Utilities to compile all Python source files in a directory tree.


File: python.info,  Node: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries,  Next: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Prev: py_compile — Compile Python source files,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.9 ‘compileall’ — Byte-compile Python libraries
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/compileall.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides some utility functions to support installing Python
libraries.  These functions compile Python source files in a directory
tree.  This module can be used to create the cached byte-code files at
library installation time, which makes them available for use even by
users who don’t have write permission to the library directories.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Command-line use::
* Public functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/compileall.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line use,  Next: Public functions,  Up: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries

5.32.9.1 Command-line use
.........................

This module can work as a script (using ‘python -m compileall’) to
compile Python sources.

 -- Option: directory ...
 -- Option: file ...

     Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that
     contain source files, traversed recursively.  If no argument is
     given, behave as if the command line was ‘-l <DIRECTORIES FROM
     SYS.PATH>’.

 -- Option: -l

     Do not recurse into subdirectories, only compile source code files
     directly contained in the named or implied directories.

 -- Option: -f

     Force rebuild even if timestamps are up-to-date.

 -- Option: -q

     Do not print the list of files compiled.  If passed once, error
     messages will still be printed.  If passed twice (‘-qq’), all
     output is suppressed.

 -- Option: -d destdir

     Directory prepended to the path to each file being compiled.  This
     will appear in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in
     to the byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and
     other messages in cases where the source file does not exist at the
     time the byte-code file is executed.

 -- Option: -s strip_prefix

 -- Option: -p prepend_prefix

     Remove (‘-s’) or append (‘-p’) the given prefix of paths recorded
     in the ‘.pyc’ files.  Cannot be combined with ‘-d’.

 -- Option: -x regex

     regex is used to search the full path to each file considered for
     compilation, and if the regex produces a match, the file is
     skipped.

 -- Option: -i list

     Read the file ‘list’ and add each line that it contains to the list
     of files and directories to compile.  If ‘list’ is ‘-’, read lines
     from ‘stdin’.

 -- Option: -b

     Write the byte-code files to their legacy locations and names,
     which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of
     Python.  The default is to write files to their PEP 3147(1)
     locations and names, which allows byte-code files from multiple
     versions of Python to coexist.

 -- Option: -r

     Control the maximum recursion level for subdirectories.  If this is
     given, then ‘-l’ option will not be taken into account.  ‘python -m
     compileall <directory> -r 0’ is equivalent to ‘python -m compileall
     <directory> -l’.

 -- Option: -j N

     Use 'N' workers to compile the files within the given directory.
     If ‘0’ is used, then the result of *note os.cpu_count(): 654. will
     be used.

 -- Option: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]

     Control how the generated byte-code files are invalidated at
     runtime.  The ‘timestamp’ value, means that ‘.pyc’ files with the
     source timestamp and size embedded will be generated.  The
     ‘checked-hash’ and ‘unchecked-hash’ values cause hash-based pycs to
     be generated.  Hash-based pycs embed a hash of the source file
     contents rather than a timestamp.  See *note Cached bytecode
     invalidation: 3f8. for more information on how Python validates
     bytecode cache files at runtime.  The default is ‘timestamp’ if the
     ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is not set, and
     ‘checked-hash’ if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set.

 -- Option: -o level

     Compile with the given optimization level.  May be used multiple
     times to compile for multiple levels at a time (for example,
     ‘compileall -o 1 -o 2’).

 -- Option: -e dir

     Ignore symlinks pointing outside the given directory.

 -- Option: --hardlink-dupes

     If two ‘.pyc’ files with different optimization level have the same
     content, use hard links to consolidate duplicate files.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘-i’, ‘-b’ and ‘-h’ options.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘-j’, ‘-r’, and ‘-qq’ options.  ‘-q’
option was changed to a multilevel value.  ‘-b’ will always produce a
byte-code file ending in ‘.pyc’, never ‘.pyo’.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘--invalidation-mode’ option.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘-s’, ‘-p’, ‘-e’ and ‘--hardlink-dupes’
options.  Raised the default recursion limit from 10 to *note
sys.getrecursionlimit(): 1f2.  Added the possibility to specify the ‘-o’
option multiple times.

There is no command-line option to control the optimization level used
by the *note compile(): 56d. function, because the Python interpreter
itself already provides the option: ‘python -O -m compileall’.

Similarly, the *note compile(): 56d. function respects the *note
sys.pycache_prefix: 802. setting.  The generated bytecode cache will
only be useful if *note compile(): 56d. is run with the same *note
sys.pycache_prefix: 802. (if any) that will be used at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Public functions,  Prev: Command-line use,  Up: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries

5.32.9.2 Public functions
.........................

 -- Işlevi: compileall.compile_dir (dir,
          maxlevels=sys.getrecursionlimit(), ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Recursively descend the directory tree named by 'dir', compiling
     all ‘.py’ files along the way.  Return a true value if all the
     files compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.

     The 'maxlevels' parameter is used to limit the depth of the
     recursion; it defaults to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’.

     If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to each file being
     compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also
     compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in
     tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does
     not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed.

     If 'force' is true, modules are re-compiled even if the timestamps
     are up to date.

     If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is called on the complete
     path to each file considered for compilation, and if it returns a
     true value, the file is skipped.  This can be used to exclude files
     matching a regular expression, given as a *note re.Pattern: e27.
     object.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other
     information are printed to standard out.  Set to ‘1’, only errors
     are printed.  Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed.

     If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy
     locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by
     another version of Python.  The default is to write files to their
     PEP 3147(1) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from
     multiple versions of Python to coexist.

     'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It
     is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 56d. function.  Accepts
     also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple
     compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call.

     The argument 'workers' specifies how many workers are used to
     compile files in parallel.  The default is to not use multiple
     workers.  If the platform can’t use multiple workers and 'workers'
     argument is given, then sequential compilation will be used as a
     fallback.  If 'workers' is 0, the number of cores in the system is
     used.  If 'workers' is lower than ‘0’, a *note ValueError: 189.
     will be raised.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 4487. enum and controls how the
     generated pycs are invalidated at runtime.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: acd.

     If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different
     optimization level have the same content, use hard links to
     consolidate duplicate files.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'legacy' and 'optimize' parameter.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'workers' parameter.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a
     multilevel value.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out
     ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of
     'optimize' is.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added.

     3.7.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Setting 'workers' to 0 now chooses the
     optimal number of cores.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir',
     'limit_sl_dest' and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments.  Default value of
     'maxlevels' was changed from ‘10’ to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’

 -- Işlevi: compileall.compile_file (fullname, ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Compile the file with path 'fullname'.  Return a true value if the
     file compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.

     If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to the file being
     compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also
     compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in
     tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does
     not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed.

     If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is passed the full path name
     to the file being compiled, and if it returns a true value, the
     file is not compiled and ‘True’ is returned.  This can be used to
     exclude files matching a regular expression, given as a *note
     re.Pattern: e27. object.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other
     information are printed to standard out.  Set to ‘1’, only errors
     are printed.  Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed.

     If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy
     locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by
     another version of Python.  The default is to write files to their
     PEP 3147(2) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from
     multiple versions of Python to coexist.

     'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It
     is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 56d. function.  Accepts
     also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple
     compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 4487. enum and controls how the
     generated pycs are invalidated at runtime.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: acd.

     If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different
     optimization level have the same content, use hard links to
     consolidate duplicate files.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a
     multilevel value.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out
     ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of
     'optimize' is.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added.

     3.7.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir',
     'limit_sl_dest' and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments.

 -- Işlevi: compileall.compile_path (skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0,
          force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None)

     Byte-compile all the ‘.py’ files found along ‘sys.path’.  Return a
     true value if all the files compiled successfully, and a false
     value otherwise.

     If 'skip_curdir' is true (the default), the current directory is
     not included in the search.  All other parameters are passed to the
     *note compile_dir(): 996. function.  Note that unlike the other
     compile functions, ‘maxlevels’ defaults to ‘0’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'legacy' and 'optimize' parameter.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a
     multilevel value.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out
     ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of
     'optimize' is.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added.

     3.7.2 sürümünde değişti: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

To force a recompile of all the ‘.py’ files in the ‘Lib/’ subdirectory
and all its subdirectories:

     import compileall

     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True)

     # Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories.
     import re
     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True)

     # pathlib.Path objects can also be used.
     import pathlib
     compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True)

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note py_compile: b2.

     Byte-compile a single source file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Next: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers,  Prev: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.10 ‘dis’ — Disassembler for Python bytecode
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/dis.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note dis: 37. module supports the analysis of CPython *note
bytecode: 3b7. by disassembling it.  The CPython bytecode which this
module takes as an input is defined in the file ‘Include/opcode.h’ and
used by the compiler and the interpreter.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Bytecode is an implementation detail of
the CPython interpreter.  No guarantees are made that bytecode will not
be added, removed, or changed between versions of Python.  Use of this
module should not be considered to work across Python VMs or Python
releases.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: Use 2 bytes for each instruction.  Previously the
number of bytes varied by instruction.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: The argument of jump, exception handling and
loop instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte
offset.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: Some instructions are accompanied by one or more
inline cache entries, which take the form of *note CACHE: 513.
instructions.  These instructions are hidden by default, but can be
shown by passing ‘show_caches=True’ to any *note dis: 37. utility.
Furthermore, the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it
for different runtime conditions.  The adaptive bytecode can be shown by
passing ‘adaptive=True’.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: The argument of a jump is the offset of the
target instruction relative to the instruction that appears immediately
after the jump instruction’s *note CACHE: 513. entries.

As a consequence, the presence of the *note CACHE: 513. instructions is
transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when
reasoning about backward jumps.

Example: Given the function ‘myfunc()’:

     def myfunc(alist):
         return len(alist)

the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
‘myfunc()’:

     >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
       2           0 RESUME                   0

       3           2 LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (NULL + len)
                  12 LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
                  14 CALL                     1
                  22 RETURN_VALUE

(The “2” is a line number).

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* Bytecode analysis::
* Analysis functions::
* Python Bytecode Instructions::
* Opcode collections::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/dis.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<3>,  Next: Bytecode analysis,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.1 Command-line interface
................................

The *note dis: 37. module can be invoked as a script from the command
line:

     python -m dis [-h] [infile]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Display usage and exit.

If ‘infile’ is specified, its disassembled code will be written to
stdout.  Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code
recieved from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: Bytecode analysis,  Next: Analysis functions,  Prev: Command-line interface<3>,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.2 Bytecode analysis
...........................

Added in version 3.4.

The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in
a *note Bytecode: dce. object that provides easy access to details of
the compiled code.

 -- Sınıfı: dis.Bytecode (x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator,
     asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, string of source code,
     or a code object (as returned by *note compile(): 56d.).

     This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed
     below, most notably *note get_instructions(): dcd, as iterating
     over a *note Bytecode: dce. instance yields the bytecode operations
     as *note Instruction: dcc. instances.

     If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that
     should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled
     code.  Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken
     directly from the disassembled code object.

     If 'current_offset' is not ‘None’, it refers to an instruction
     offset in the disassembled code.  Setting this means *note dis():
     dcf. will display a “current instruction” marker against the
     specified opcode.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, *note dis(): dcf. will display inline
     cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, *note dis(): dcf. will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

      -- Yöntemi: classmethod from_traceback (tb, *, show_caches=False)

          Construct a *note Bytecode: dce. instance from the given
          traceback, setting 'current_offset' to the instruction
          responsible for the exception.

      -- Verisi: codeobj

          The compiled code object.

      -- Verisi: first_line

          The first source line of the code object (if available)

      -- Yöntemi: dis ()

          Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same
          as printed by *note dis.dis(): 9a5, but returned as a
          multi-line string).

      -- Yöntemi: info ()

          Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information
          about the code object, like *note code_info(): 10e0.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: This can now handle coroutine and
     asynchronous generator objects.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

Example:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     ...
     RESUME
     LOAD_GLOBAL
     LOAD_FAST
     CALL
     RETURN_VALUE


File: python.info,  Node: Analysis functions,  Next: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Prev: Bytecode analysis,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.3 Analysis functions
............................

The *note dis: 37. module also defines the following analysis functions
that convert the input directly to the desired output.  They can be
useful if only a single operation is being performed, so the
intermediate analysis object isn’t useful:

 -- Işlevi: dis.code_info (x)

     Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object
     information for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous
     generator, coroutine, method, source code string or code object.

     Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly
     implementation dependent and they may change arbitrarily across
     Python VMs or Python releases.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: This can now handle coroutine and
     asynchronous generator objects.

 -- Işlevi: dis.show_code (x, *, file=None)

     Print detailed code object information for the supplied function,
     method, source code string or code object to 'file' (or
     ‘sys.stdout’ if 'file' is not specified).

     This is a convenient shorthand for ‘print(code_info(x),
     file=file)’, intended for interactive exploration at the
     interpreter prompt.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added 'file' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: dis.dis (x=None, *, file=None, depth=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Disassemble the 'x' object.  'x' can denote either a module, a
     class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous
     generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a
     byte sequence of raw bytecode.  For a module, it disassembles all
     functions.  For a class, it disassembles all methods (including
     class and static methods).  For a code object or sequence of raw
     bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction.  It also
     recursively disassembles nested code objects.  These can include
     generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested
     classes, and the code objects used for *note annotation scopes:
     16d.  Strings are first compiled to code objects with the *note
     compile(): 56d. built-in function before being disassembled.  If no
     object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     The maximal depth of recursion is limited by 'depth' unless it is
     ‘None’.  ‘depth=0’ means no recursion.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, this function will display inline cache
     entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, this function will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added 'file' parameter.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Implemented recursive disassembling and
     added 'depth' parameter.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: This can now handle coroutine and
     asynchronous generator objects.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

 -- Işlevi: dis.distb (tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False)

     Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the
     last traceback if none was passed.  The instruction causing the
     exception is indicated.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added 'file' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

 -- Işlevi: dis.disassemble (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)
 -- Işlevi: dis.disco (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False)

     Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if
     'lasti' was provided.  The output is divided in the following
     columns:

       1. the line number, for the first instruction of each line

       2. the current instruction, indicated as ‘-->’,

       3. a labelled instruction, indicated with ‘>>’,

       4. the address of the instruction,

       5. the operation code name,

       6. operation parameters, and

       7. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.

     The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable
     names, constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added 'file' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

 -- Işlevi: dis.get_instructions (x, *, first_line=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function,
     method, source code string or code object.

     The iterator generates a series of *note Instruction: dcc. named
     tuples giving the details of each operation in the supplied code.

     If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that
     should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled
     code.  Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken
     directly from the disassembled code object.

     The 'show_caches' and 'adaptive' parameters work as they do in
     *note dis(): 37.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

 -- Işlevi: dis.findlinestarts (code)

     This generator function uses the *note co_lines(): 274. method of
     the *note code object: 5e3. 'code' to find the offsets which are
     starts of lines in the source code.  They are generated as
     ‘(offset, lineno)’ pairs.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Line numbers can be decreasing.  Before,
     they were always increasing.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The PEP 626(1) *note co_lines(): 274.
     method is used instead of the *note co_firstlineno: 1d30. and *note
     co_lnotab: 250. attributes of the *note code object: 5e3.

 -- Işlevi: dis.findlabels (code)

     Detect all offsets in the raw compiled bytecode string 'code' which
     are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.

 -- Işlevi: dis.stack_effect (opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None)

     Compute the stack effect of 'opcode' with argument 'oparg'.

     If the code has a jump target and 'jump' is ‘True’, *note
     stack_effect(): dd1. will return the stack effect of jumping.  If
     'jump' is ‘False’, it will return the stack effect of not jumping.
     And if 'jump' is ‘None’ (default), it will return the maximal stack
     effect of both cases.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'jump' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Next: Opcode collections,  Prev: Analysis functions,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.4 Python Bytecode Instructions
......................................

The *note get_instructions(): dcd. function and *note Bytecode: dce.
class provide details of bytecode instructions as *note Instruction:
dcc. instances:

 -- Sınıfı: dis.Instruction

     Details for a bytecode operation

      -- Verisi: opcode

          numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values
          listed below and the bytecode values in the *note Opcode
          collections: 44b7.

      -- Verisi: opname

          human readable name for operation

      -- Verisi: arg

          numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- Verisi: argval

          resolved arg value (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- Verisi: argrepr

          human readable description of operation argument (if any),
          otherwise an empty string.

      -- Verisi: offset

          start index of operation within bytecode sequence

      -- Verisi: starts_line

          line started by this opcode (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- Verisi: is_jump_target

          ‘True’ if other code jumps to here, otherwise ‘False’

      -- Verisi: positions

          *note dis.Positions: 4255. object holding the start and end
          locations that are covered by this instruction.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Field ‘positions’ is added.

 -- Sınıfı: dis.Positions

     In case the information is not available, some fields might be
     ‘None’.

      -- Verisi: lineno

      -- Verisi: end_lineno

      -- Verisi: col_offset

      -- Verisi: end_col_offset

     Added in version 3.11.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode
instructions.

'General instructions'

In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as ‘STACK’ and
describe operations on it as if it was a Python list.  The top of the
stack corresponds to ‘STACK[-1]’ in this language.

 -- Opcode: NOP

     Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer,
     and to generate line tracing events.

 -- Opcode: POP_TOP

     Removes the top-of-stack item:

          STACK.pop()

 -- Opcode: END_FOR

     Removes the top two values from the stack.  Equivalent to
     ‘POP_TOP’; ‘POP_TOP’.  Used to clean up at the end of loops, hence
     the name.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: END_SEND

     Implements ‘del STACK[-2]’.  Used to clean up when a generator
     exits.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COPY (i)

     Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from
     its original location:

          assert i > 0
          STACK.append(STACK[-i])

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SWAP (i)

     Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element:

          STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i]

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CACHE

     Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to
     mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly
     in the bytecode itself.  It is automatically hidden by all ‘dis’
     utilities, but can be viewed with ‘show_caches=True’.

     Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction.  Many
     opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and
     will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime.

     Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great
     care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive
     bytecode containing quickened data.

     Added in version 3.11.

'Unary operations'

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and
push the result back on the stack.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NEGATIVE

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NOT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_INVERT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: GET_ITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

 -- Opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is a *note generator iterator: a55. or *note
     coroutine: 1b4. object it is left as is.  Otherwise, implements
     ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

     Added in version 3.5.

'Binary and in-place operations'

Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (‘STACK[-1]’
and ‘STACK[-2]’).  They perform the operation, then put the result back
on the stack.

In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is
done in-place when ‘STACK[-2]’ supports it, and the resulting
‘STACK[-1]’ may be (but does not have to be) the original ‘STACK[-2]’.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_OP (op)

     Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the
     value of 'op'):

          rhs = STACK.pop()
          lhs = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(lhs op rhs)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[key])

 -- Opcode: STORE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          container[key] = value

 -- Opcode: DELETE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          del container[key]

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[start:end])

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          values = STACK.pop()
          container[start:end] = value

     Added in version 3.12.

'Coroutine opcodes'

 -- Opcode: GET_AWAITABLE (where)

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1])’, where
     ‘get_awaitable(o)’ returns ‘o’ if ‘o’ is a coroutine object or a
     generator object with the *note CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 4266. flag,
     or resolves ‘o.__await__’.

          If the ‘where’ operand is nonzero, it indicates where the
          instruction occurs:

             * ‘1’: After a call to ‘__aenter__’

             * ‘2’: After a call to ‘__aexit__’

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this instruction did not have
     an oparg.

 -- Opcode: GET_AITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__()’.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Returning awaitable objects from ‘__aiter__’
     is no longer supported.

 -- Opcode: GET_ANEXT

     Implement ‘STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__()))’ to
     the stack.  See ‘GET_AWAITABLE’ for details about ‘get_awaitable’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Opcode: END_ASYNC_FOR

     Terminates an *note async for: 916. loop.  Handles an exception
     raised when awaiting a next item.  The stack contains the async
     iterable in ‘STACK[-2]’ and the raised exception in ‘STACK[-1]’.
     Both are popped.  If the exception is not *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1867, it is re-raised.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: CLEANUP_THROW

     Handles an exception raised during a *note throw(): 24a. or *note
     close(): 15e1. call through the current frame.  If ‘STACK[-1]’ is
     an instance of *note StopIteration: a73, pop three values from the
     stack and push its ‘value’ member.  Otherwise, re-raise
     ‘STACK[-1]’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH

     Resolves ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ from ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pushes
     ‘__aexit__’ and result of ‘__aenter__()’ to the stack:

          STACK.extend((__aexit__, __aenter__())

     Added in version 3.5.

'Miscellaneous opcodes'

 -- Opcode: SET_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          set.add(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement set comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: LIST_APPEND (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          list.append(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement list comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: MAP_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          value = STACK.pop()
          key = STACK.pop()
          dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value)

     Used to implement dict comprehensions.

     Added in version 3.1.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Map value is ‘STACK[-1]’ and map key is
     ‘STACK[-2]’.  Before, those were reversed.

For all of the *note SET_ADD: 44d1, *note LIST_APPEND: 44d2. and *note
MAP_ADD: 918. instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is
popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is
available for further iterations of the loop.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_VALUE

     Returns with ‘STACK[-1]’ to the caller of the function.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_CONST (consti)

     Returns with ‘co_consts[consti]’ to the caller of the function.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: YIELD_VALUE

     Yields ‘STACK.pop()’ from a *note generator: f0b.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: oparg set to be the stack depth.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: oparg set to be the exception block depth,
     for efficient closing of generators.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

     Checks whether ‘__annotations__’ is defined in ‘locals()’, if not
     it is set up to an empty ‘dict’.  This opcode is only emitted if a
     class or module body contains *note variable annotations: be1.
     statically.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: POP_EXCEPT

     Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception
     state.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: RERAISE

     Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack.  If oparg is
     non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to
     set *note f_lasti: 6d0. of the current frame.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_EXC_INFO

     Pops a value from the stack.  Pushes the current exception to the
     top of the stack.  Pushes the value originally popped back to the
     stack.  Used in exception handlers.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EXC_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except’.  Tests whether the
     ‘STACK[-2]’ is an exception matching ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pops ‘STACK[-1]’
     and pushes the boolean result of the test.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EG_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except*’.  Applies
     ‘split(STACK[-1])’ on the exception group representing ‘STACK[-2]’.

     In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the
     non-matching subgroup (‘None’ in case of full match) followed by
     the matching subgroup.  When there is no match, pops one item (the
     match type) and pushes ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: WITH_EXCEPT_START

     Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type,
     val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack.  Used
     to implement the call ‘context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info())’ when
     an exception has occurred in a *note with: 3dd. statement.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘__exit__’ function is in position 4 of
     the stack rather than 7.  Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR

     Pushes *note AssertionError: 4bf. onto the stack.  Used by the
     *note assert: 7c4. statement.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

     Pushes ‘builtins.__build_class__()’ onto the stack.  It is later
     called to construct a class.

 -- Opcode: BEFORE_WITH

     This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts.
     First, it loads *note __exit__(): 11aa. from the context manager
     and pushes it onto the stack for later use by *note
     WITH_EXCEPT_START: 44d5.  Then, *note __enter__(): 3d0. is called.
     Finally, the result of calling the ‘__enter__()’ method is pushed
     onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: GET_LEN

     Perform ‘STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))’.  Used in *note match: 648.
     statements where comparison with structure of pattern is needed.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_MAPPING

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Mapping:
     71c. (or, more technically: if it has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     16cb. flag set in its *note tp_flags: 16e6.), push ‘True’ onto the
     stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_SEQUENCE

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     1069. and is 'not' an instance of *note str: 15d./*note bytes:
     2cb./*note bytearray: 2ca. (or, more technically: if it has the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 16cc. flag set in its *note tp_flags:
     16e6.), push ‘True’ onto the stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_KEYS

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of mapping keys, and ‘STACK[-2]’ is the
     match subject.  If ‘STACK[-2]’ contains all of the keys in
     ‘STACK[-1]’, push a *note tuple: 4ff. containing the corresponding
     values.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: STORE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘name = STACK.pop()’.  'namei' is the index of 'name' in
     the attribute *note co_names: 1d2f. of the *note code object: 5e3.
     The compiler tries to use *note STORE_FAST: 44db. or *note
     STORE_GLOBAL: 44dc. if possible.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘del name’, where 'namei' is the index into *note
     co_names: 1d2f. attribute of the *note code object: 5e3.

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)

     Unpacks ‘STACK[-1]’ into 'count' individual values, which are put
     onto the stack right-to-left.  Require there to be exactly 'count'
     values.:

          assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count)
          STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1])

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_EX (counts)

     Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in
     ‘STACK[-1]’ into individual values, where the total number of
     values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one
     of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

     The number of values before and after the list value is limited to
     255.

     The number of values before the list value is encoded in the
     argument of the opcode.  The number of values after the list if any
     is encoded using an ‘EXTENDED_ARG’.  As a consequence, the argument
     can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of 'counts' is
     the number of values before the list value, the high byte of
     'counts' the number of values after it.

     The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e.
     ‘a, *b, c = d’ will be stored after execution as ‘STACK.extend((a,
     b, c))’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          obj.name = value

     where 'namei' is the index of name in *note co_names: 1d2f. of the
     *note code object: 5e3.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          del obj.name

     where 'namei' is the index of name into *note co_names: 1d2f. of
     the *note code object: 5e3.

 -- Opcode: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note STORE_NAME: 44da, but stores the name as a global.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note DELETE_NAME: 44dd, but deletes a global name.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CONST (consti)

     Pushes ‘co_consts[consti]’ onto the stack.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_NAME (namei)

     Pushes the value associated with ‘co_names[namei]’ onto the stack.
     The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the
     builtins.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_LOCALS

     Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack.  This
     is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 218. and *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS:
     219.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for
     ‘co_names[namei]’.  If the name is not found there, looks it up in
     the globals and then the builtins, similar to *note LOAD_GLOBAL:
     155c.  This is used for loading global variables in *note
     annotation scopes: 16d. within class bodies.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_TUPLE (count)

     Creates a tuple consuming 'count' items from the stack, and pushes
     the resulting tuple onto the stack:

          if count == 0:
              value = ()
          else:
              value = tuple(STACK[-count:])
              STACK = STACK[:-count]

          STACK.append(value)

 -- Opcode: BUILD_LIST (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 44e3, but creates a list.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SET (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 44e3, but creates a set.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_MAP (count)

     Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops ‘2 * count’
     items so that the dictionary holds 'count' entries: ‘{...,
     STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The dictionary is created from stack items
     instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold 'count'
     items.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (count)

     The version of *note BUILD_MAP: 14be. specialized for constant
     keys.  Pops the top element on the stack which contains a tuple of
     keys, then starting from ‘STACK[-2]’, pops 'count' values to form
     values in the built dictionary.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_STRING (count)

     Concatenates 'count' strings from the stack and pushes the
     resulting string onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: LIST_EXTEND (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          list.extend(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build lists.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: SET_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          set.update(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build sets.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          map = STACK.pop()
          dict.update(STACK[-i], map)

     Used to build dicts.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_MERGE (i)

     Like *note DICT_UPDATE: 44e8. but raises an exception for duplicate
     keys.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ATTR (namei)

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is not set, this replaces ‘STACK[-1]’
     with ‘getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1])’.

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, this will attempt to load a
     method named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ from the ‘STACK[-1]’ object.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.  This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if
     ‘STACK[-1]’ has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes
     the unbound method and ‘STACK[-1]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ will be used as
     the first argument (‘self’) by *note CALL: 522. when calling the
     unbound method.  Otherwise, ‘NULL’ and the object returned by the
     attribute lookup are pushed.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a
     ‘NULL’ or ‘self’ is pushed to the stack before the attribute or
     unbound method respectively.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (namei)

     This opcode implements *note super(): 20d, both in its
     zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g.  ‘super().method()’,
     ‘super().attr’ and ‘super(cls, self).method()’, ‘super(cls,
     self).attr’).

     It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down): -
     ‘self’: the first argument to the current method - ‘cls’: the class
     within which the current method was defined - the global ‘super’

     With respect to its argument, it works similarly to *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 210, except that ‘namei’ is shifted left by 2 bits
     instead of 1.

     The low bit of ‘namei’ signals to attempt a method load, as with
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 210, which results in pushing ‘NULL’ and the
     loaded method.  When it is unset a single value is pushed to the
     stack.

     The second-low bit of ‘namei’, if set, means that this was a
     two-argument call to *note super(): 20d. (unset means
     zero-argument).

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COMPARE_OP (opname)

     Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
     ‘cmp_op[opname >> 4]’.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The cmp_op index is now stored in the
     four-highest bits of oparg instead of the four-lowest bits of
     oparg.

 -- Opcode: IS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘is’ comparison, or ‘is not’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: CONTAINS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘in’ comparison, or ‘not in’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_NAME (namei)

     Imports the module ‘co_names[namei]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’
     are popped and provide the 'fromlist' and 'level' arguments of
     *note __import__(): 727.  The module object is pushed onto the
     stack.  The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import
     statement, a subsequent *note STORE_FAST: 44db. instruction
     modifies the namespace.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_FROM (namei)

     Loads the attribute ‘co_names[namei]’ from the module found in
     ‘STACK[-1]’.  The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be
     subsequently stored by a *note STORE_FAST: 44db. instruction.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)

     Increments bytecode counter by 'delta'.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Checks for interrupts.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Does not check for
     interrupts.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is true, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The oparg is now a relative delta rather
     than an absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction,
     replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions
     (forward/backward).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is false, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The oparg is now a relative delta rather
     than an absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction,
     replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions
     (forward/backward).

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is not ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by
     the directed versions (forward/backward).

     Added in version 3.11.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by
     the directed versions (forward/backward).

     Added in version 3.11.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: FOR_ITER (delta)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is an *note iterator: 176e.  Call its *note __next__():
     1176. method.  If this yields a new value, push it on the stack
     (leaving the iterator below it).  If the iterator indicates it is
     exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by 'delta'.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped when
     it was exhausted.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)

     Loads the global named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ onto the stack.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a
     ‘NULL’ is pushed to the stack before the global variable.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This opcode is now only used in situations
     where the local variable is guaranteed to be initialized.  It
     cannot raise *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_CHECK (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack, raising an *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. if the local
     variable has not been initialized.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack (or pushes ‘NULL’ onto the stack if the local variable has
     not been initialized) and sets ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST (var_num)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_FAST (var_num)

     Deletes local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_CELL (i)

     Creates a new cell in slot ‘i’.  If that slot is nonempty then that
     value is stored into the new cell.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)

     Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast
     locals” storage.  The name of the variable is
     ‘co_fastlocalnames[i]’.

     Note that ‘LOAD_CLOSURE’ is effectively an alias for ‘LOAD_FAST’.
     It exists to keep bytecode a little more readable.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     ‘co_varnames’.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_DEREF (i)

     Loads the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage.
     Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     *note co_varnames: 1d2a.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with
     slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage in this mapping.  If the name
     is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot ‘i’,
     similar to *note LOAD_DEREF: 44f1.  This is used for loading free
     variables in class bodies (which previously used ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’)
     and in *note annotation scopes: 16d. within class bodies.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_DEREF (i)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the
     “fast locals” storage.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     *note co_varnames: 1d2a.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_DEREF (i)

     Empties the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals”
     storage.  Used by the *note del: 15c5. statement.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     *note co_varnames: 1d2a.

 -- Opcode: COPY_FREE_VARS (n)

     Copies the ‘n’ free variables from the closure into the frame.
     Removes the need for special code on the caller’s side when calling
     closures.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)

     Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the ‘raise’
     statement, depending on the value of 'argc':

        * 0: ‘raise’ (re-raise previous exception)

        * 1: ‘raise STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance or type at
          ‘STACK[-1]’)

        * 2: ‘raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance
          or type at ‘STACK[-2]’ with ‘__cause__’ set to ‘STACK[-1]’)

 -- Opcode: CALL (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’, including the named arguments specified by the preceding
     *note KW_NAMES: 1540, if any.  On the stack are (in ascending
     order), either:

        * NULL

        * The callable

        * The positional arguments

        * The named arguments

     or:

        * The callable

        * ‘self’

        * The remaining positional arguments

        * The named arguments

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional and named arguments,
     excluding ‘self’ when a ‘NULL’ is not present.

     ‘CALL’ pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
     calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the
     return value returned by the callable object.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags)

     Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword
     arguments.  If the lowest bit of 'flags' is set, the top of the
     stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword
     arguments.  Before the callable is called, the mapping object and
     iterable object are each “unpacked” and their contents passed in as
     keyword and positional arguments respectively.  ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’
     pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the
     callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
     returned by the callable object.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_NULL

     Pushes a ‘NULL’ to the stack.  Used in the call sequence to match
     the ‘NULL’ pushed by *note LOAD_METHOD: a98. for non-method calls.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: KW_NAMES (consti)

     Prefixes *note CALL: 522.  Stores a reference to
     ‘co_consts[consti]’ into an internal variable for use by *note
     CALL: 522.  ‘co_consts[consti]’ must be a tuple of strings.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_FUNCTION (flags)

     Pushes a new function object on the stack.  From bottom to top, the
     consumed stack must consist of values if the argument carries a
     specified flag value

        * ‘0x01’ a tuple of default values for positional-only and
          positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

        * ‘0x02’ a dictionary of keyword-only parameters’ default values

        * ‘0x04’ a tuple of strings containing parameters’ annotations

        * ‘0x08’ a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a
          closure

        * the code associated with the function (at ‘STACK[-1]’)

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Flag value ‘0x04’ is a tuple of strings
     instead of dictionary

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Qualified name at ‘STACK[-1]’ was removed.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SLICE (argc)

     Pushes a slice object on the stack.  'argc' must be 2 or 3.  If it
     is 2, implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end))

     if it is 3, implements:

          step = STACK.pop()
          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end, step))

     See the *note slice(): 186. built-in function for more information.

 -- Opcode: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)

     Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the
     default one byte.  'ext' holds an additional byte which act as
     higher bits in the argument.  For each opcode, at most three
     prefixal ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ are allowed, forming an argument from
     two-byte to four-byte.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_VALUE (flags)

     Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).  Pops
     an optional 'fmt_spec' from the stack, then a required 'value'.
     'flags' is interpreted as follows:

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x00’: 'value' is formatted as-is.

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x01’: call *note str(): 15d. on 'value'
          before formatting it.

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x02’: call *note repr(): 637. on 'value'
          before formatting it.

        * ‘(flags & 0x03) == 0x03’: call *note ascii(): 126d. on 'value'
          before formatting it.

        * ‘(flags & 0x04) == 0x04’: pop 'fmt_spec' from the stack and
          use it, else use an empty 'fmt_spec'.

     Formatting is performed using *note PyObject_Format(): 44f6.  The
     result is pushed on the stack.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_CLASS (count)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of keyword attribute names, ‘STACK[-2]’ is
     the class being matched against, and ‘STACK[-3]’ is the match
     subject.  'count' is the number of positional sub-patterns.

     Pop ‘STACK[-1]’, ‘STACK[-2]’, and ‘STACK[-3]’.  If ‘STACK[-3]’ is
     an instance of ‘STACK[-2]’ and has the positional and keyword
     attributes required by 'count' and ‘STACK[-1]’, push a tuple of
     extracted attributes.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.10.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: RESUME (where)

     A no-op.  Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization
     checks.

     The ‘where’ operand marks where the ‘RESUME’ occurs:

        * ‘0’ The start of a function, which is neither a generator,
          coroutine nor an async generator

        * ‘1’ After a ‘yield’ expression

        * ‘2’ After a ‘yield from’ expression

        * ‘3’ After an ‘await’ expression

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_GENERATOR

     Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current
     frame.  Used as first opcode of in code object for the above
     mentioned callables.  Clear the current frame and return the newly
     created generator.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SEND (delta)

     Equivalent to ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1])’.  Used in
     ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ statements.

     If the call raises *note StopIteration: a73, pop the top value from
     the stack, push the exception’s ‘value’ attribute, and increment
     the bytecode counter by 'delta'.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: HAVE_ARGUMENT

     This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line
     between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don’t use their argument
     and those that do (‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ and ‘>= HAVE_ARGUMENT’,
     respectively).

     If your application uses pseudo instructions, use the *note hasarg:
     1ab. collection instead.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Now every instruction has an argument, but
     opcodes ‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ ignore it.  Before, only opcodes ‘>=
     HAVE_ARGUMENT’ had an argument.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Pseudo instructions were added to the *note
     dis: 37. module, and for them it is not true that comparison with
     ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ indicates whether they use their arg.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_1

     Calls an intrinsic function with one argument.  Passes ‘STACK[-1]’
     as the argument and sets ‘STACK[-1]’ to the result.  Used to
     implement functionality that is not performance critical.

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                 Description
                                             
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_1_INVALID’                   Not valid
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PRINT’                       Prints the argument to standard out.
                                             Used in the REPL.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR’                 Performs ‘import *’ for the named
                                             module.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR’         Extracts the return value from a
                                             ‘StopIteration’ exception.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’              Wraps an async generator value
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE’              Performs the unary ‘+’ operation
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE’               Converts a list to a tuple
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR’                     Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 16a.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.ParamSpec: 169.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE’                Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 168.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC’           Returns *note typing.Generic: 1478.
                                             subscripted with the argument
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeAliasType: 166.;
                                             used in the *note type: 140.
                                             statement.  The argument is a tuple
                                             of the type alias’s name, type
                                             parameters, and value.
                                             

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_2

     Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments.  Used to implement
     functionality that is not performance critical:

          arg2 = STACK.pop()
          arg1 = STACK.pop()
          result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2)
          STACK.push(result)

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                      Description
                                                  
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_2_INVALID’                        Not valid
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR’                Calculates the
                                                  *note ExceptionGroup: 181. to raise
                                                  from a ‘try-except*’.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND’               Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 16a.
                                                  with a bound.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS’         Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 16a.
                                                  with constraints.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS’         Sets the ‘__type_params__’ attribute
                                                  of a function.
                                                  

     Added in version 3.12.

'Pseudo-instructions'

These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode.  They are used by the
compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is
generated.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_FINALLY (target)

     Set up an exception handler for the following code block.  If an
     exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current
     state and control is transferred to the exception handler at
     ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_CLEANUP (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, but in case of an exception also pushes the
     last instruction (‘lasti’) to the stack so that ‘RERAISE’ can
     restore it.  If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the
     last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state,
     and control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_WITH (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’, but in case of an exception one more item is
     popped from the stack before control is transferred to the
     exception handler at ‘target’.

     This variant is used in *note with: 3dd. and *note async with: 3e0.
     constructs, which push the return value of the context manager’s
     *note __enter__(): 3d0. or *note __aenter__(): 1dbf. to the stack.

 -- Opcode: POP_BLOCK

     Marks the end of the code block associated with the last
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’ or ‘SETUP_WITH’.

 -- Opcode: JUMP

 -- Opcode: JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT

     Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their
     directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_METHOD

     Optimized unbound method lookup.  Emitted as a ‘LOAD_ATTR’ opcode
     with a flag set in the arg.


File: python.info,  Node: Opcode collections,  Prev: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.32.10.5 Opcode collections
............................

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
instructions:

3.12 sürümünde değişti: The collections now contain pseudo instructions
and instrumented instructions as well.  These are opcodes with values
‘>= MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘>= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE’.

 -- Verisi: dis.opname

     Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

 -- Verisi: dis.opmap

     Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

 -- Verisi: dis.cmp_op

     Sequence of all compare operation names.

 -- Verisi: dis.hasarg

     Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Verisi: dis.hasconst

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

 -- Verisi: dis.hasfree

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable.  ‘free’ in this
     context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by
     inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this
     scope.  It does 'not' include references to global or builtin
     scopes.

 -- Verisi: dis.hasname

     Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

 -- Verisi: dis.hasjrel

     Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

 -- Verisi: dis.hasjabs

     Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

 -- Verisi: dis.haslocal

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

 -- Verisi: dis.hascompare

     Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.

 -- Verisi: dis.hasexc

     Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers,  Prev: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Up: Python Language Services

5.32.11 ‘pickletools’ — Tools for pickle developers
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pickletools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains various constants relating to the intimate details
of the *note pickle: a5. module, some lengthy comments about the
implementation, and a few useful functions for analyzing pickled data.
The contents of this module are useful for Python core developers who
are working on the *note pickle: a5.; ordinary users of the *note
pickle: a5. module probably won’t find the *note pickletools: a6. module
relevant.

* Menu:

* Command line usage: Command line usage<2>.
* Programmatic Interface: Programmatic Interface<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pickletools.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command line usage<2>,  Next: Programmatic Interface<2>,  Up: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers

5.32.11.1 Command line usage
............................

Added in version 3.2.

When invoked from the command line, ‘python -m pickletools’ will
disassemble the contents of one or more pickle files.  Note that if you
want to see the Python object stored in the pickle rather than the
details of pickle format, you may want to use ‘-m pickle’ instead.
However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an
untrusted source, ‘-m pickletools’ is a safer option because it does not
execute pickle bytecode.

For example, with a tuple ‘(1, 2)’ pickled in file ‘x.pickle’:

     $ python -m pickle x.pickle
     (1, 2)

     $ python -m pickletools x.pickle
         0: \x80 PROTO      3
         2: K    BININT1    1
         4: K    BININT1    2
         6: \x86 TUPLE2
         7: q    BINPUT     0
         9: .    STOP
     highest protocol among opcodes = 2

* Menu:

* Command line options: Command line options<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Command line options<3>,  Up: Command line usage<2>

5.32.11.2 Command line options
..............................

 -- Option: -a, --annotate

     Annotate each line with a short opcode description.

 -- Option: -o, --output=<file>

     Name of a file where the output should be written.

 -- Option: -l, --indentlevel=<num>

     The number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK level.

 -- Option: -m, --memo

     When multiple objects are disassembled, preserve memo between
     disassemblies.

 -- Option: -p, --preamble=<preamble>

     When more than one pickle file are specified, print given preamble
     before each disassembly.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic Interface<2>,  Prev: Command line usage<2>,  Up: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers

5.32.11.3 Programmatic Interface
................................

 -- Işlevi: pickletools.dis (pickle, out=None, memo=None, indentlevel=4,
          annotate=0)

     Outputs a symbolic disassembly of the pickle to the file-like
     object 'out', defaulting to ‘sys.stdout’.  'pickle' can be a string
     or a file-like object.  'memo' can be a Python dictionary that will
     be used as the pickle’s memo; it can be used to perform
     disassemblies across multiple pickles created by the same pickler.
     Successive levels, indicated by ‘MARK’ opcodes in the stream, are
     indented by 'indentlevel' spaces.  If a nonzero value is given to
     'annotate', each opcode in the output is annotated with a short
     description.  The value of 'annotate' is used as a hint for the
     column where annotation should start.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'annotate' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: pickletools.genops (pickle)

     Provides an *note iterator: 176e. over all of the opcodes in a
     pickle, returning a sequence of ‘(opcode, arg, pos)’ triples.
     'opcode' is an instance of an ‘OpcodeInfo’ class; 'arg' is the
     decoded value, as a Python object, of the opcode’s argument; 'pos'
     is the position at which this opcode is located.  'pickle' can be a
     string or a file-like object.

 -- Işlevi: pickletools.optimize (picklestring)

     Returns a new equivalent pickle string after eliminating unused
     ‘PUT’ opcodes.  The optimized pickle is shorter, takes less
     transmission time, requires less storage space, and unpickles more
     efficiently.


File: python.info,  Node: MS Windows Specific Services,  Next: Unix Specific Services,  Prev: Python Language Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.33 MS Windows Specific Services
=================================

This chapter describes modules that are only available on MS Windows
platforms.

* Menu:

* msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime::
* winreg — Windows registry access::
* winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows::


File: python.info,  Node: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime,  Next: winreg — Windows registry access,  Up: MS Windows Specific Services

5.33.1 ‘msvcrt’ — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows
platforms.  Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the
Windows implementations of their services.  For example, the *note
getpass: 60. module uses this in the implementation of the *note
getpass(): 60. function.

Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform
API documentation.

The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the
console I/O api.  The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is
of limited use for internationalized applications.  The wide char API
should be used where ever possible.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Operations in this module now raise *note
OSError: 65c. where *note IOError: efc. was raised.

* Menu:

* File Operations::
* Console I/O::
* Other Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: File Operations,  Next: Console I/O,  Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.33.1.1 File Operations
........................

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.locking (fd, mode, nbytes)

     Lock part of a file based on file descriptor 'fd' from the C
     runtime.  Raises *note OSError: 65c. on failure.  The locked region
     of the file extends from the current file position for 'nbytes'
     bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the file.  'mode' must be
     one of the ‘LK_*’ constants listed below.  Multiple regions in a
     file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap.  Adjacent
     regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘msvcrt.locking’ with
     arguments ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’.

 -- Verisi: msvcrt.LK_LOCK
 -- Verisi: msvcrt.LK_RLCK

     Locks the specified bytes.  If the bytes cannot be locked, the
     program immediately tries again after 1 second.  If, after 10
     attempts, the bytes cannot be locked, *note OSError: 65c. is
     raised.

 -- Verisi: msvcrt.LK_NBLCK
 -- Verisi: msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK

     Locks the specified bytes.  If the bytes cannot be locked, *note
     OSError: 65c. is raised.

 -- Verisi: msvcrt.LK_UNLCK

     Unlocks the specified bytes, which must have been previously
     locked.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.setmode (fd, flags)

     Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor 'fd'.  To
     set it to text mode, 'flags' should be *note os.O_TEXT: 292e.; for
     binary, it should be *note os.O_BINARY: 291f.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.open_osfhandle (handle, flags)

     Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle 'handle'.
     The 'flags' parameter should be a bitwise OR of *note os.O_APPEND:
     2921, *note os.O_RDONLY: 291d, and *note os.O_TEXT: 292e.  The
     returned file descriptor may be used as a parameter to *note
     os.fdopen(): 1d20. to create a file object.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘msvcrt.open_osfhandle’ with
     arguments ‘handle’, ‘flags’.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.get_osfhandle (fd)

     Return the file handle for the file descriptor 'fd'.  Raises *note
     OSError: 65c. if 'fd' is not recognized.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘msvcrt.get_osfhandle’ with
     argument ‘fd’.


File: python.info,  Node: Console I/O,  Next: Other Functions,  Prev: File Operations,  Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.33.1.2 Console I/O
....................

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.kbhit ()

     Return ‘True’ if a keypress is waiting to be read.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.getch ()

     Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte
     string.  Nothing is echoed to the console.  This call will block if
     a keypress is not already available, but will not wait for ‘Enter’
     to be pressed.  If the pressed key was a special function key, this
     will return ‘'\000'’ or ‘'\xe0'’; the next call will return the
     keycode.  The ‘Control’-‘C’ keypress cannot be read with this
     function.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.getwch ()

     Wide char variant of *note getch(): 4527, returning a Unicode
     value.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.getche ()

     Similar to *note getch(): 4527, but the keypress will be echoed if
     it represents a printable character.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.getwche ()

     Wide char variant of *note getche(): 4528, returning a Unicode
     value.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.putch (char)

     Print the byte string 'char' to the console without buffering.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.putwch (unicode_char)

     Wide char variant of *note putch(): 4529, accepting a Unicode
     value.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.ungetch (char)

     Cause the byte string 'char' to be “pushed back” into the console
     buffer; it will be the next character read by *note getch(): 4527.
     or *note getche(): 4528.

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.ungetwch (unicode_char)

     Wide char variant of *note ungetch(): 452a, accepting a Unicode
     value.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Functions,  Prev: Console I/O,  Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.33.1.3 Other Functions
........................

 -- Işlevi: msvcrt.heapmin ()

     Force the ‘malloc()’ heap to clean itself up and return unused
     blocks to the operating system.  On failure, this raises *note
     OSError: 65c.

 -- Verisi: msvcrt.CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION

     The CRT Assembly version, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file.

 -- Verisi: msvcrt.VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN

     The VC Assembly public key token, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.

 -- Verisi: msvcrt.LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX

     The Libraries Assembly name prefix, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.


File: python.info,  Node: winreg — Windows registry access,  Next: winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows,  Prev: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime,  Up: MS Windows Specific Services

5.33.2 ‘winreg’ — Windows registry access
-----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python.  Instead of
using an integer as the registry handle, a *note handle object: 4531. is
used to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the
programmer neglects to explicitly close them.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Several functions in this module used to raise a
*note WindowsError: efe, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<11>.
* Constants: Constants<8>.
* Registry Handle Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<11>,  Next: Constants<8>,  Up: winreg — Windows registry access

5.33.2.1 Functions
..................

This module offers the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: winreg.CloseKey (hkey)

     Closes a previously opened registry key.  The 'hkey' argument
     specifies a previously opened key.

          Not: If 'hkey' is not closed using this method (or via *note
          hkey.Close(): 4536.), it is closed when the 'hkey' object is
          destroyed by Python.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.ConnectRegistry (computer_name, key)

     Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another
     computer, and returns a *note handle object: 4531.

     'computer_name' is the name of the remote computer, of the form
     ‘r"\\computername"’.  If ‘None’, the local computer is used.

     'key' is the predefined handle to connect to.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 65c. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.ConnectRegistry’ with
     arguments ‘computer_name’, ‘key’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.CreateKey (key, sub_key)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 4531.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 65c. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.CreateKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_WRITE)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 4531.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WRITE: 4538.  See *note Access Rights: 4539. for other allowed
     values.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 65c. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.DeleteKey (key, sub_key)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 65c.
     exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.DeleteKeyEx (key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY,
          reserved=0)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WOW64_64KEY: 453a.  On 32-bit Windows, the WOW64 constants are
     ignored.  See *note Access Rights: 4539. for other allowed values.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 65c.
     exception is raised.

     On unsupported Windows versions, *note NotImplementedError: bd6. is
     raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.DeleteValue (key, value)

     Removes a named value from a registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'value' is a string that identifies the value to remove.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.DeleteValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘value’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.EnumKey (key, index)

     Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the key to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly until an *note OSError:
     65c. exception is raised, indicating, no more values are available.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.EnumKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘index’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.EnumValue (key, index)

     Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the value to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly, until an *note OSError:
     65c. exception is raised, indicating no more values.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       Meaning
                 
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         A string that identifies the value name
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An object that holds the value data, and whose
                 type depends on the underlying registry type
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer that identifies the type of the
                 value data (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 15ad.)
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.EnumValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘index’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings (str)

     Expands environment variable placeholders ‘%NAME%’ in strings like
     *note REG_EXPAND_SZ: 453b.:

          >>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%')
          'C:\\Windows'

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings’ with argument ‘str’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.FlushKey (key)

     Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     It is not necessary to call *note FlushKey(): 453c. to change a
     key.  Registry changes are flushed to disk by the registry using
     its lazy flusher.  Registry changes are also flushed to disk at
     system shutdown.  Unlike *note CloseKey(): 4535, the *note
     FlushKey(): 453c. method returns only when all the data has been
     written to the registry.  An application should only call *note
     FlushKey(): 453c. if it requires absolute certainty that registry
     changes are on disk.

          Not: If you don’t know whether a *note FlushKey(): 453c. call
          is required, it probably isn’t.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.LoadKey (key, sub_key, file_name)

     Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration
     information from a specified file into that subkey.

     'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 3f98. or one
     of the constants *note HKEY_USERS: 453d. or *note
     HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE: 453e.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the subkey to load.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to load registry data from.
     This file must have been created with the *note SaveKey(): 3fa4.
     function.  Under the file allocation table (FAT) file system, the
     filename may not have an extension.

     A call to *note LoadKey(): 3f9e. fails if the calling process does
     not have the ‘SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE’ privilege.  Note that
     privileges are different from permissions – see the RegLoadKey
     documentation(1) for more details.

     If 'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 3f98,
     then the path specified in 'file_name' is relative to the remote
     computer.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.LoadKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.OpenKey (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)
 -- Işlevi: winreg.OpenKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ)

     Opens the specified key, returning a *note handle object: 4531.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the sub_key to open.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_READ: 4540.  See *note Access Rights: 4539. for other allowed
     values.

     The result is a new handle to the specified key.

     If the function fails, *note OSError: 65c. is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.OpenKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Allow the use of named arguments.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: See *note above: 4532.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.QueryInfoKey (key)

     Returns information about a key, as a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       Meaning
                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         An integer giving the number of sub keys this
                 key has.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the number of values this key
                 has.
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer giving when the key was last
                 modified (if available) as 100’s of nanoseconds
                 since Jan 1, 1601.
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.QueryInfoKey’ with
     argument ‘key’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.QueryValue (key, sub_key)

     Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'sub_key' is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which
     the value is associated.  If this parameter is ‘None’ or empty, the
     function retrieves the value set by the *note SetValue(): 3fa5.
     method for the key identified by 'key'.

     Values in the registry have name, type, and data components.  This
     method retrieves the data for a key’s first value that has a ‘NULL’
     name.  But the underlying API call doesn’t return the type, so
     always use *note QueryValueEx(): 3fa3. if possible.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.QueryValueEx (key, value_name)

     Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated
     with an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'value_name' is a string indicating the value to query.

     The result is a tuple of 2 items:

     Index       Meaning
                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The value of the registry item.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the registry type for
                 this value (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 15ad.)
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.SaveKey (key, file_name)

     Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to save registry data to.  This
     file cannot already exist.  If this filename includes an extension,
     it cannot be used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by
     the *note LoadKey(): 3f9e. method.

     If 'key' represents a key on a remote computer, the path described
     by 'file_name' is relative to the remote computer.  The caller of
     this method must possess the 'SeBackupPrivilege' security
     privilege.  Note that privileges are different than permissions –
     see the Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions
     documentation(2) for more details.

     This function passes ‘NULL’ for 'security_attributes' to the API.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.SaveKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘file_name’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.SetValue (key, sub_key, type, value)

     Associates a value with a specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the subkey with which the value is
     associated.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.
     Currently this must be *note REG_SZ: 4541, meaning only strings are
     supported.  Use the *note SetValueEx(): 15ad. function for support
     for other data types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     If the key specified by the 'sub_key' parameter does not exist, the
     SetValue function creates it.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     The key identified by the 'key' parameter must have been opened
     with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4542. access.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.SetValueEx (key, value_name, reserved, type, value)

     Stores data in the value field of an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     'value_name' is a string that names the subkey with which the value
     is associated.

     'reserved' can be anything – zero is always passed to the API.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.  See
     *note Value Types: 4543. for the available types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     This method can also set additional value and type information for
     the specified key.  The key identified by the key parameter must
     have been opened with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4542. access.

     To open the key, use the *note CreateKey(): 3f99. or *note
     OpenKey(): 3f9f. methods.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.DisableReflectionKey (key)

     Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a
     64-bit operating system.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but
     has no effect.  Disabling reflection for a key does not affect
     reflection of any subkeys.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.DisableReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.EnableReflectionKey (key)

     Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any
     subkeys.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.EnableReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

 -- Işlevi: winreg.QueryReflectionKey (key)

     Determines the reflection state for the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 4537.

     Returns ‘True’ if reflection is disabled.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: bd6. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.QueryReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<8>,  Next: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: Functions<11>,  Up: winreg — Windows registry access

5.33.2.2 Constants
..................

The following constants are defined for use in many *note winreg: 116.
functions.

* Menu:

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::


File: python.info,  Node: HKEY_* Constants,  Next: Access Rights,  Up: Constants<8>

5.33.2.3 HKEY_* Constants
.........................

 -- Verisi: winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes)
     of documents and the properties associated with those types.  Shell
     and COM applications use the information stored under this key.

 -- Verisi: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of
     the current user.  These preferences include the settings of
     environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers,
     network connections, and application preferences.

 -- Verisi: winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state
     of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory,
     and installed hardware and software.

 -- Verisi: winreg.HKEY_USERS

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user
     configuration for new users on the local computer and the user
     configuration for the current user.

 -- Verisi: winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA

     Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access
     performance data.  The data is not actually stored in the registry;
     the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from
     its source.

 -- Verisi: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG

     Contains information about the current hardware profile of the
     local computer system.

 -- Verisi: winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA

     This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.


File: python.info,  Node: Access Rights,  Next: Value Types,  Prev: HKEY_* Constants,  Up: Constants<8>

5.33.2.4 Access Rights
......................

For more information, see Registry Key Security and Access(1).

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 454e,
     *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4542, *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 454f, *note
     KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 4550, *note KEY_NOTIFY: 4551, and *note
     KEY_CREATE_LINK: 4552. access rights.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_WRITE

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 4542, and
     *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 454f. access rights.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_READ

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 454e,
     *note KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 4550, and *note KEY_NOTIFY: 4551.
     values.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_EXECUTE

     Equivalent to *note KEY_READ: 4540.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE

     Required to query the values of a registry key.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE

     Required to create, delete, or set a registry value.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY

     Required to create a subkey of a registry key.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS

     Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_NOTIFY

     Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for
     subkeys of a registry key.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK

     Reserved for system use.

* Menu:

* 64-bit Specific::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 64-bit Specific,  Up: Access Rights

5.33.2.5 64-bit Specific
........................

For more information, see Accessing an Alternate Registry View(1).

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 64-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

 -- Verisi: winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 32-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Value Types,  Prev: Access Rights,  Up: Constants<8>

5.33.2.6 Value Types
....................

For more information, see Registry Value Types(1).

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_BINARY

     Binary data in any form.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_DWORD

     32-bit number.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_DWORD: 4559.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in big-endian format.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ

     Null-terminated string containing references to environment
     variables (‘%PATH%’).

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_LINK

     A Unicode symbolic link.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ

     A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null
     characters.  (Python handles this termination automatically.)

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_NONE

     No defined value type.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_QWORD

     A 64-bit number.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 64-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_QWORD: b86.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST

     A device-driver resource list.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR

     A hardware setting.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST

     A hardware resource list.

 -- Verisi: winreg.REG_SZ

     A null-terminated string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: Constants<8>,  Up: winreg — Windows registry access

5.33.2.7 Registry Handle Objects
................................

This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when
the object is destroyed.  To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the
*note Close(): 4536. method on the object, or the *note CloseKey():
4535. function.

All registry functions in this module return one of these objects.

All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also
accept an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged.

Handle objects provide semantics for *note __bool__(): 117f. – thus

     if handle:
         print("Yes")

will print ‘Yes’ if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed
or detached).

The object also support comparison semantics, so handle objects will
compare true if they both reference the same underlying Windows handle
value.

Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in
*note int(): 184. function), in which case the underlying Windows handle
value is returned.  You can also use the *note Detach(): 3fa0. method to
return the integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from
the handle object.

 -- Yöntemi: PyHKEY.Close ()

     Closes the underlying Windows handle.

     If the handle is already closed, no error is raised.

 -- Yöntemi: PyHKEY.Detach ()

     Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object.

     The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before
     it is detached.  If the handle is already detached or closed, this
     will return zero.

     After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated,
     but the handle is not closed.  You would call this function when
     you need the underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime
     of the handle object.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘winreg.PyHKEY.Detach’ with
     argument ‘key’.

 -- Yöntemi: PyHKEY.__enter__ ()
 -- Yöntemi: PyHKEY.__exit__ (*exc_info)

     The HKEY object implements *note __enter__(): 3d0. and *note
     __exit__(): 11aa. and thus supports the context protocol for the
     *note with: 3dd. statement:

          with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key:
              ...  # work with key

     will automatically close 'key' when control leaves the *note with:
     3dd. block.


File: python.info,  Node: winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows,  Prev: winreg — Windows registry access,  Up: MS Windows Specific Services

5.33.3 ‘winsound’ — Sound-playing interface for Windows
-------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The *note winsound: 117. module provides access to the basic
sound-playing machinery provided by Windows platforms.  It includes
functions and several constants.

 -- Işlevi: winsound.Beep (frequency, duration)

     Beep the PC’s speaker.  The 'frequency' parameter specifies
     frequency, in hertz, of the sound, and must be in the range 37
     through 32,767.  The 'duration' parameter specifies the number of
     milliseconds the sound should last.  If the system is not able to
     beep the speaker, *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: winsound.PlaySound (sound, flags)

     Call the underlying ‘PlaySound()’ function from the Platform API.
     The 'sound' parameter may be a filename, a system sound alias,
     audio data as a *note bytes-like object: bb5, or ‘None’.  Its
     interpretation depends on the value of 'flags', which can be a
     bitwise ORed combination of the constants described below.  If the
     'sound' parameter is ‘None’, any currently playing waveform sound
     is stopped.  If the system indicates an error, *note RuntimeError:
     180. is raised.

 -- Işlevi: winsound.MessageBeep (type=MB_OK)

     Call the underlying ‘MessageBeep()’ function from the Platform API.
     This plays a sound as specified in the registry.  The 'type'
     argument specifies which sound to play; possible values are ‘-1’,
     ‘MB_ICONASTERISK’, ‘MB_ICONEXCLAMATION’, ‘MB_ICONHAND’,
     ‘MB_ICONQUESTION’, and ‘MB_OK’, all described below.  The value
     ‘-1’ produces a “simple beep”; this is the final fallback if a
     sound cannot be played otherwise.  If the system indicates an
     error, *note RuntimeError: 180. is raised.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_FILENAME

     The 'sound' parameter is the name of a WAV file.  Do not use with
     *note SND_ALIAS: 4568.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_ALIAS

     The 'sound' parameter is a sound association name from the
     registry.  If the registry contains no such name, play the system
     default sound unless *note SND_NODEFAULT: 4569. is also specified.
     If no default sound is registered, raise *note RuntimeError: 180.
     Do not use with *note SND_FILENAME: 4567.

     All Win32 systems support at least the following; most systems
     support many more:

     *note PlaySound(): b8a.        Corresponding Control Panel Sound name
     'name'                         

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
     ‘'SystemAsterisk'’             Asterisk
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExclamation'’          Exclamation
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExit'’                 Exit Windows
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemHand'’                 Critical Stop
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemQuestion'’             Question
                                    

     For example:

          import winsound
          # Play Windows exit sound.
          winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

          # Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because
          # "*" probably isn't the registered name of any sound).
          winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_LOOP

     Play the sound repeatedly.  The *note SND_ASYNC: 456b. flag must
     also be used to avoid blocking.  Cannot be used with *note
     SND_MEMORY: 456c.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_MEMORY

     The 'sound' parameter to *note PlaySound(): b8a. is a memory image
     of a WAV file, as a *note bytes-like object: bb5.

          Not: This module does not support playing from a memory image
          asynchronously, so a combination of this flag and *note
          SND_ASYNC: 456b. will raise *note RuntimeError: 180.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_PURGE

     Stop playing all instances of the specified sound.

          Not: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_ASYNC

     Return immediately, allowing sounds to play asynchronously.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_NODEFAULT

     If the specified sound cannot be found, do not play the system
     default sound.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_NOSTOP

     Do not interrupt sounds currently playing.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_NOWAIT

     Return immediately if the sound driver is busy.

          Not: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms.

 -- Verisi: winsound.SND_APPLICATION

     The 'sound' parameter is an application-specific alias in the
     registry.  This flag can be combined with the *note SND_ALIAS:
     4568. flag to specify an application-defined sound alias.

 -- Verisi: winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK

     Play the ‘SystemDefault’ sound.

 -- Verisi: winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION

     Play the ‘SystemExclamation’ sound.

 -- Verisi: winsound.MB_ICONHAND

     Play the ‘SystemHand’ sound.

 -- Verisi: winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION

     Play the ‘SystemQuestion’ sound.

 -- Verisi: winsound.MB_OK

     Play the ‘SystemDefault’ sound.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix Specific Services,  Next: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Prev: MS Windows Specific Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.34 Unix Specific Services
===========================

The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to features
that are unique to the Unix operating system, or in some cases to some
or many variants of it.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* posix — The most common POSIX system calls::
* pwd — The password database::
* grp — The group database::
* termios — POSIX style tty control::
* tty — Terminal control functions::
* pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities::
* fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls::
* resource — Resource usage information::
* syslog — Unix syslog library routines::


File: python.info,  Node: posix — The most common POSIX system calls,  Next: pwd — The password database,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.1 ‘posix’ — The most common POSIX system calls
---------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to operating system functionality that is
standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly
disguised Unix interface).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

'Do not import this module directly.'  Instead, import the module *note
os: a0, which provides a 'portable' version of this interface.  On Unix,
the *note os: a0. module provides a superset of the *note posix: ac.
interface.  On non-Unix operating systems the *note posix: ac. module is
not available, but a subset is always available through the *note os:
a0. interface.  Once *note os: a0. is imported, there is 'no'
performance penalty in using it instead of *note posix: ac.  In
addition, *note os: a0. provides some additional functionality, such as
automatically calling *note putenv(): 774. when an entry in ‘os.environ’
is changed.

Errors are reported as exceptions; the usual exceptions are given for
type errors, while errors reported by the system calls raise *note
OSError: 65c.

* Menu:

* Large File Support::
* Notable Module Contents::


File: python.info,  Node: Large File Support,  Next: Notable Module Contents,  Up: posix — The most common POSIX system calls

5.34.1.1 Large File Support
...........................

Several operating systems (including AIX and Solaris) provide support
for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where
int and long are 32-bit values.  This is typically accomplished by
defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values.  Such
files are sometimes referred to as 'large files'.

Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an ‘off_t’ is
larger than a long and the long long is at least as large as an ‘off_t’.
It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain
compiler flags to enable this mode.  For example, with Solaris 2.6 and
2.7 you need to do something like:

     CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure

On large-file-capable Linux systems, this might work:

     CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure


File: python.info,  Node: Notable Module Contents,  Prev: Large File Support,  Up: posix — The most common POSIX system calls

5.34.1.2 Notable Module Contents
................................

In addition to many functions described in the *note os: a0. module
documentation, *note posix: ac. defines the following data item:

 -- Verisi: posix.environ

     A dictionary representing the string environment at the time the
     interpreter was started.  Keys and values are bytes on Unix and str
     on Windows.  For example, ‘environ[b'HOME']’ (‘environ['HOME']’ on
     Windows) is the pathname of your home directory, equivalent to
     ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C.

     Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment
     passed on by *note execv(): 28f2, *note popen(): 8ec. or *note
     system(): 12e5.; if you need to change the environment, pass
     ‘environ’ to *note execve(): f9b. or add variable assignments and
     export statements to the command string for *note system(): 12e5.
     or *note popen(): 8ec.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: On Unix, keys and values are bytes.

          Not: The *note os: a0. module provides an alternate
          implementation of ‘environ’ which updates the environment on
          modification.  Note also that updating *note os.environ: 105f.
          will render this dictionary obsolete.  Use of the *note os:
          a0. module version of this is recommended over direct access
          to the *note posix: ac. module.


File: python.info,  Node: pwd — The password database,  Next: grp — The group database,  Prev: posix — The most common POSIX system calls,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.2 ‘pwd’ — The password database
------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix user account and password
database.  It is available on all Unix versions.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

Password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
attributes correspond to the members of the ‘passwd’ structure
(Attribute field below, see ‘<pwd.h>’):

Index       Attribute           Meaning
                                
------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
0           ‘pw_name’           Login name
                                
                                
1           ‘pw_passwd’         Optional encrypted password
                                
                                
2           ‘pw_uid’            Numerical user ID
                                
                                
3           ‘pw_gid’            Numerical group ID
                                
                                
4           ‘pw_gecos’          User name or comment field
                                
                                
5           ‘pw_dir’            User home directory
                                
                                
6           ‘pw_shell’          User command interpreter
                                

The uid and gid items are integers, all others are strings.  *note
KeyError: 903. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

     Not: 
     In traditional Unix the field ‘pw_passwd’ usually contains a
     password encrypted with a DES derived algorithm (see module *note
     crypt: 28.).  However most modern unices use a so-called 'shadow
     password' system.  On those unices the 'pw_passwd' field only
     contains an asterisk (‘'*'’) or the letter ‘'x'’ where the
     encrypted password is stored in a file ‘/etc/shadow’ which is not
     world readable.  Whether the 'pw_passwd' field contains anything
     useful is system-dependent.  If available, the *note spwd: cd.
     module should be used where access to the encrypted password is
     required.

It defines the following items:

 -- Işlevi: pwd.getpwuid (uid)

     Return the password database entry for the given numeric user ID.

 -- Işlevi: pwd.getpwnam (name)

     Return the password database entry for the given user name.

 -- Işlevi: pwd.getpwall ()

     Return a list of all available password database entries, in
     arbitrary order.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note grp: 64.

     An interface to the group database, similar to this.

Module *note spwd: cd.

     An interface to the shadow password database, similar to this.


File: python.info,  Node: grp — The group database,  Next: termios — POSIX style tty control,  Prev: pwd — The password database,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.3 ‘grp’ — The group database
---------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix group database.  It is available
on all Unix versions.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
attributes correspond to the members of the ‘group’ structure (Attribute
field below, see ‘<grp.h>’):

Index       Attribute       Meaning
                            
------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
0           gr_name         the name of the group
                            
                            
1           gr_passwd       the (encrypted) group password;
                            often empty
                            
                            
2           gr_gid          the numerical group ID
                            
                            
3           gr_mem          all the group member’s user names
                            

The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member
list is a list of strings.  (Note that most users are not explicitly
listed as members of the group they are in according to the password
database.  Check both databases to get complete membership information.
Also note that a ‘gr_name’ that starts with a ‘+’ or ‘-’ is likely to be
a YP/NIS reference and may not be accessible via *note getgrnam(): 2f51.
or *note getgrgid(): bae.)

It defines the following items:

 -- Işlevi: grp.getgrgid (id)

     Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID.
     *note KeyError: 903. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be
     found.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised for
     non-integer arguments like floats or strings.

 -- Işlevi: grp.getgrnam (name)

     Return the group database entry for the given group name.  *note
     KeyError: 903. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

 -- Işlevi: grp.getgrall ()

     Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note pwd: b1.

     An interface to the user database, similar to this.

Module *note spwd: cd.

     An interface to the shadow password database, similar to this.


File: python.info,  Node: termios — POSIX style tty control,  Next: tty — Terminal control functions,  Prev: grp — The group database,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.4 ‘termios’ — POSIX style tty control
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the POSIX calls for tty I/O
control.  For a complete description of these calls, see ‘termios(3)(1)’
Unix manual page.  It is only available for those Unix versions that
support POSIX 'termios' style tty I/O control configured during
installation.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first
argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or a *note file object: 1068, such as ‘sys.stdin’
itself.

This module also defines all the constants needed to work with the
functions provided here; these have the same name as their counterparts
in C. Please refer to your system documentation for more information on
using these terminal control interfaces.

The module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcgetattr (fd)

     Return a list containing the tty attributes for file descriptor
     'fd', as follows: ‘[iflag, oflag, cflag, lflag, ispeed, ospeed,
     cc]’ where 'cc' is a list of the tty special characters (each a
     string of length 1, except the items with indices ‘VMIN’ and
     ‘VTIME’, which are integers when these fields are defined).  The
     interpretation of the flags and the speeds as well as the indexing
     in the 'cc' array must be done using the symbolic constants defined
     in the *note termios: e0. module.

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcsetattr (fd, when, attributes)

     Set the tty attributes for file descriptor 'fd' from the
     'attributes', which is a list like the one returned by *note
     tcgetattr(): 14a5.  The 'when' argument determines when the
     attributes are changed:

      -- Verisi: termios.TCSANOW

          Change attributes immediately.

      -- Verisi: termios.TCSADRAIN

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output.

      -- Verisi: termios.TCSAFLUSH

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output and
          discarding all queued input.

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcsendbreak (fd, duration)

     Send a break on file descriptor 'fd'.  A zero 'duration' sends a
     break for 0.25–0.5 seconds; a nonzero 'duration' has a system
     dependent meaning.

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcdrain (fd)

     Wait until all output written to file descriptor 'fd' has been
     transmitted.

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcflush (fd, queue)

     Discard queued data on file descriptor 'fd'.  The 'queue' selector
     specifies which queue: ‘TCIFLUSH’ for the input queue, ‘TCOFLUSH’
     for the output queue, or ‘TCIOFLUSH’ for both queues.

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcflow (fd, action)

     Suspend or resume input or output on file descriptor 'fd'.  The
     'action' argument can be ‘TCOOFF’ to suspend output, ‘TCOON’ to
     restart output, ‘TCIOFF’ to suspend input, or ‘TCION’ to restart
     input.

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcgetwinsize (fd)

     Return a tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ containing the tty window size
     for file descriptor 'fd'.  Requires ‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’ or
     ‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Işlevi: termios.tcsetwinsize (fd, winsize)

     Set the tty window size for file descriptor 'fd' from 'winsize',
     which is a two-item tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ like the one returned
     by *note tcgetwinsize(): 458f.  Requires at least one of the pairs
     (‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’, ‘termios.TIOCSWINSZ’); (‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’,
     ‘termios.TIOCSSIZE’) to be defined.

     Added in version 3.11.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note tty: 100.

     Convenience functions for common terminal control operations.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Example<14>,  Up: termios — POSIX style tty control

5.34.4.1 Example
................

Here’s a function that prompts for a password with echoing turned off.
Note the technique using a separate *note tcgetattr(): 14a5. call and a
*note try: 503. … *note finally: 828. statement to ensure that the old
tty attributes are restored exactly no matter what happens:

     def getpass(prompt="Password: "):
         import termios, sys
         fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
         old = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO          # lflags
         try:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new)
             passwd = input(prompt)
         finally:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old)
         return passwd


File: python.info,  Node: tty — Terminal control functions,  Next: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities,  Prev: termios — POSIX style tty control,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.5 ‘tty’ — Terminal control functions
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note tty: 100. module defines functions for putting the tty into
cbreak and raw modes.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

Because it requires the *note termios: e0. module, it will work only on
Unix.

The *note tty: 100. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: tty.cfmakeraw (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 14a5, to that of a tty in
     raw mode.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Işlevi: tty.cfmakecbreak (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 14a5, to that of a tty in
     cbreak mode.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags in 'mode' as
     well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     Added in version 3.12.

     3.12.2 sürümünde değişti: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.
     This matches Linux and macOS ‘stty cbreak’ behavior and what *note
     setcbreak(): 14a6. historically did.

 -- Işlevi: tty.setraw (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     Change the mode of the file descriptor 'fd' to raw.  If 'when' is
     omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 458a, and is
     passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 14ce.  The return value of
     *note termios.tcgetattr(): 14a5. is saved before setting 'fd' to
     raw mode; this value is returned.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The return value is now the original tty
     attributes, instead of ‘None’.

 -- Işlevi: tty.setcbreak (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     Change the mode of file descriptor 'fd' to cbreak.  If 'when' is
     omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 458a, and is
     passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 14ce.  The return value of
     *note termios.tcgetattr(): 14a5. is saved before setting 'fd' to
     cbreak mode; this value is returned.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags as well as
     setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The return value is now the original tty
     attributes, instead of ‘None’.

     3.12.2 sürümünde değişti: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.
     This restores the behavior of Python 3.11 and earlier as well as
     matching what Linux, macOS, & BSDs describe in their ‘stty(1)’ man
     pages regarding cbreak mode.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note termios: e0.

     Low-level terminal control interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/tty.py


File: python.info,  Node: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities,  Next: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Prev: tty — Terminal control functions,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.6 ‘pty’ — Pseudo-terminal utilities
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pty: b0. module defines operations for handling the
pseudo-terminal concept: starting another process and being able to
write to and read from its controlling terminal programmatically.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix.

Pseudo-terminal handling is highly platform dependent.  This code is
mainly tested on Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS (it is supposed to work on
other POSIX platforms but it’s not been thoroughly tested).

The *note pty: b0. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: pty.fork ()

     Fork.  Connect the child’s controlling terminal to a
     pseudo-terminal.  Return value is ‘(pid, fd)’.  Note that the child
     gets 'pid' 0, and the 'fd' is 'invalid'.  The parent’s return value
     is the 'pid' of the child, and 'fd' is a file descriptor connected
     to the child’s controlling terminal (and also to the child’s
     standard input and output).

          Uyarı: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed
          with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using
          *note urllib.request: 10b.

 -- Işlevi: pty.openpty ()

     Open a new pseudo-terminal pair, using *note os.openpty(): 2934. if
     possible, or emulation code for generic Unix systems.  Return a
     pair of file descriptors ‘(master, slave)’, for the master and the
     slave end, respectively.

 -- Işlevi: pty.spawn (argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]])

     Spawn a process, and connect its controlling terminal with the
     current process’s standard io.  This is often used to baffle
     programs which insist on reading from the controlling terminal.  It
     is expected that the process spawned behind the pty will eventually
     terminate, and when it does 'spawn' will return.

     A loop copies STDIN of the current process to the child and data
     received from the child to STDOUT of the current process.  It is
     not signaled to the child if STDIN of the current process closes
     down.

     The functions 'master_read' and 'stdin_read' are passed a file
     descriptor which they should read from, and they should always
     return a byte string.  In order to force spawn to return before the
     child process exits an empty byte array should be returned to
     signal end of file.

     The default implementation for both functions will read and return
     up to 1024 bytes each time the function is called.  The
     'master_read' callback is passed the pseudoterminal’s master file
     descriptor to read output from the child process, and 'stdin_read'
     is passed file descriptor 0, to read from the parent process’s
     standard input.

     Returning an empty byte string from either callback is interpreted
     as an end-of-file (EOF) condition, and that callback will not be
     called after that.  If 'stdin_read' signals EOF the controlling
     terminal can no longer communicate with the parent process OR the
     child process.  Unless the child process will quit without any
     input, 'spawn' will then loop forever.  If 'master_read' signals
     EOF the same behavior results (on linux at least).

     Return the exit status value from *note os.waitpid(): c27. on the
     child process.

     *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 775. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘pty.spawn’ with argument
     ‘argv’.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: *note spawn(): e23. now returns the status
     value from *note os.waitpid(): c27. on the child process.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<15>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pty.py


File: python.info,  Node: Example<15>,  Up: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities

5.34.6.1 Example
................

The following program acts like the Unix command ‘script(1)(1)’, using a
pseudo-terminal to record all input and output of a terminal session in
a “typescript”.

     import argparse
     import os
     import pty
     import sys
     import time

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript')
     options = parser.parse_args()

     shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh')
     filename = options.filename
     mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb'

     with open(filename, mode) as script:
         def read(fd):
             data = os.read(fd, 1024)
             script.write(data)
             return data

         print('Script started, file is', filename)
         script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())

         pty.spawn(shell, read)

         script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
         print('Script done, file is', filename)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/script(1)


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Next: resource — Resource usage information,  Prev: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.7 ‘fcntl’ — The ‘fcntl’ and ‘ioctl’ system calls
-----------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module performs file and I/O control on file descriptors.  It is an
interface to the ‘fcntl()’ and ‘ioctl()’ Unix routines.  See the
‘fcntl(2)(1)’ and ‘ioctl(2)(2)’ Unix manual pages for full details.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first
argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or an *note io.IOBase: 85b. object, such as
‘sys.stdin’ itself, which provides a *note fileno(): 2629. that returns
a genuine file descriptor.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Operations in this module used to raise an *note
IOError: efc. where they now raise an *note OSError: 65c.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: The fcntl module now contains ‘F_ADD_SEALS’,
‘F_GET_SEALS’, and ‘F_SEAL_*’ constants for sealing of *note
os.memfd_create(): 86c. file descriptors.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: On macOS, the fcntl module exposes the
‘F_GETPATH’ constant, which obtains the path of a file from a file
descriptor.  On Linux(>=3.15), the fcntl module exposes the
‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ constants, which are
used when working with open file description locks.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: On Linux >= 2.6.11, the fcntl module exposes the
‘F_GETPIPE_SZ’ and ‘F_SETPIPE_SZ’ constants, which allow to check and
modify a pipe’s size respectively.

3.11 sürümünde değişti: On FreeBSD, the fcntl module exposes the
‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants, which allow to duplicate a
file descriptor, the latter setting ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: On Linux >= 4.5, the *note fcntl: 57. module
exposes the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants, which allow to share
some data of one file with another file by reflinking on some
filesystems (e.g., btrfs, OCFS2, and XFS). This behavior is commonly
referred to as “copy-on-write”.

The module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: fcntl.fcntl (fd, cmd, arg=0)

     Perform the operation 'cmd' on file descriptor 'fd' (file objects
     providing a *note fileno(): 2629. method are accepted as well).
     The values used for 'cmd' are operating system dependent, and are
     available as constants in the *note fcntl: 57. module, using the
     same names as used in the relevant C header files.  The argument
     'arg' can either be an integer value, or a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object.  With an integer value, the return value of this function
     is the integer return value of the C ‘fcntl()’ call.  When the
     argument is bytes it represents a binary structure, e.g.  created
     by *note struct.pack(): 111f.  The binary data is copied to a
     buffer whose address is passed to the C ‘fcntl()’ call.  The return
     value after a successful call is the contents of the buffer,
     converted to a *note bytes: 2cb. object.  The length of the
     returned object will be the same as the length of the 'arg'
     argument.  This is limited to 1024 bytes.  If the information
     returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024
     bytes, this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or
     a more subtle data corruption.

     If the ‘fcntl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 65c. is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘fcntl.fcntl’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’.

 -- Işlevi: fcntl.ioctl (fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True)

     This function is identical to the *note fcntl(): 3192. function,
     except that the argument handling is even more complicated.

     The 'request' parameter is limited to values that can fit in
     32-bits.  Additional constants of interest for use as the 'request'
     argument can be found in the *note termios: e0. module, under the
     same names as used in the relevant C header files.

     The parameter 'arg' can be one of an integer, an object supporting
     the read-only buffer interface (like *note bytes: 2cb.) or an
     object supporting the read-write buffer interface (like *note
     bytearray: 2ca.).

     In all but the last case, behaviour is as for the *note fcntl():
     3192. function.

     If a mutable buffer is passed, then the behaviour is determined by
     the value of the 'mutate_flag' parameter.

     If it is false, the buffer’s mutability is ignored and behaviour is
     as for a read-only buffer, except that the 1024 byte limit
     mentioned above is avoided – so long as the buffer you pass is at
     least as long as what the operating system wants to put there,
     things should work.

     If 'mutate_flag' is true (the default), then the buffer is (in
     effect) passed to the underlying *note ioctl(): 1303. system call,
     the latter’s return code is passed back to the calling Python, and
     the buffer’s new contents reflect the action of the *note ioctl():
     1303.  This is a slight simplification, because if the supplied
     buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied into a
     static buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to *note
     ioctl(): 1303. and copied back into the supplied buffer.

     If the ‘ioctl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 65c. exception is
     raised.

     An example:

          >>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
          >>> os.getpgrp()
          13341
          >>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, "  "))[0]
          13341
          >>> buf = array.array('h', [0])
          >>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1)
          0
          >>> buf
          array('h', [13341])

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘fcntl.ioctl’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’.

 -- Işlevi: fcntl.flock (fd, operation)

     Perform the lock operation 'operation' on file descriptor 'fd'
     (file objects providing a *note fileno(): 2629. method are accepted
     as well).  See the Unix manual ‘flock(2)(3)’ for details.  (On some
     systems, this function is emulated using ‘fcntl()’.)

     If the ‘flock()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 65c. exception is
     raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘fcntl.flock’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘operation’.

 -- Işlevi: fcntl.lockf (fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0)

     This is essentially a wrapper around the *note fcntl(): 3192.
     locking calls.  'fd' is the file descriptor (file objects providing
     a *note fileno(): 2629. method are accepted as well) of the file to
     lock or unlock, and 'cmd' is one of the following values:

      -- Verisi: fcntl.LOCK_UN

          Release an existing lock.

      -- Verisi: fcntl.LOCK_SH

          Acquire a shared lock.

      -- Verisi: fcntl.LOCK_EX

          Acquire an exclusive lock.

      -- Verisi: fcntl.LOCK_NB

          Bitwise OR with any of the other three ‘LOCK_*’ constants to
          make the request non-blocking.

     If ‘LOCK_NB’ is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an *note
     OSError: 65c. will be raised and the exception will have an 'errno'
     attribute set to *note EACCES: 209f. or *note EAGAIN: 2090.
     (depending on the operating system; for portability, check for both
     values).  On at least some systems, ‘LOCK_EX’ can only be used if
     the file descriptor refers to a file opened for writing.

     'len' is the number of bytes to lock, 'start' is the byte offset at
     which the lock starts, relative to 'whence', and 'whence' is as
     with *note io.IOBase.seek(): 1135, specifically:

        * ‘0’ – relative to the start of the file (*note os.SEEK_SET:
          1136.)

        * ‘1’ – relative to the current buffer position (*note
          os.SEEK_CUR: 1137.)

        * ‘2’ – relative to the end of the file (*note os.SEEK_END:
          1138.)

     The default for 'start' is 0, which means to start at the beginning
     of the file.  The default for 'len' is 0 which means to lock to the
     end of the file.  The default for 'whence' is also 0.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘fcntl.lockf’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’.

Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system):

     import struct, fcntl, os

     f = open(...)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY)

     lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata)

Note that in the first example the return value variable 'rv' will hold
an integer value; in the second example it will hold a *note bytes: 2cb.
object.  The structure lay-out for the 'lockdata' variable is system
dependent — therefore using the *note flock(): 3f91. call may be better.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note os: a0.

     If the locking flags *note O_SHLOCK: 12b9. and *note O_EXLOCK:
     12ba. are present in the *note os: a0. module (on BSD only), the
     *note os.open(): c1f. function provides an alternative to the *note
     lockf(): 1273. and *note flock(): 3f91. functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/fcntl(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/ioctl(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/flock(2)


File: python.info,  Node: resource — Resource usage information,  Next: syslog — Unix syslog library routines,  Prev: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.8 ‘resource’ — Resource usage information
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling
system resources utilized by a program.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and
to request usage information about either the current process or its
children.

An *note OSError: 65c. is raised on syscall failure.

 -- Özel Durum: resource.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 65c.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made
     an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

* Menu:

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Limits,  Next: Resource Usage,  Up: resource — Resource usage information

5.34.8.1 Resource Limits
........................

Resources usage can be limited using the *note setrlimit(): 3f34.
function described below.  Each resource is controlled by a pair of
limits: a soft limit and a hard limit.  The soft limit is the current
limit, and may be lowered or raised by a process over time.  The soft
limit can never exceed the hard limit.  The hard limit can be lowered to
any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised.  (Only processes
with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard limit.)

The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent.  They
are described in the ‘getrlimit(2)(1)’ man page.  The resources listed
below are supported when the underlying operating system supports them;
resources which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system
are not defined in this module for those platforms.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIM_INFINITY

     Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource.

 -- Işlevi: resource.getrlimit (resource)

     Returns a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ with the current soft and hard
     limits of 'resource'.  Raises *note ValueError: 189. if an invalid
     resource is specified, or *note error: 45a0. if the underlying
     system call fails unexpectedly.

 -- Işlevi: resource.setrlimit (resource, limits)

     Sets new limits of consumption of 'resource'.  The 'limits'
     argument must be a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ of two integers describing
     the new limits.  A value of *note RLIM_INFINITY: 45a2. can be used
     to request a limit that is unlimited.

     Raises *note ValueError: 189. if an invalid resource is specified,
     if the new soft limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries
     to raise its hard limit.  Specifying a limit of *note
     RLIM_INFINITY: 45a2. when the hard or system limit for that
     resource is not unlimited will result in a *note ValueError: 189.
     A process with the effective UID of super-user can request any
     valid limit value, including unlimited, but *note ValueError: 189.
     will still be raised if the requested limit exceeds the system
     imposed limit.

     ‘setrlimit’ may also raise *note error: 45a0. if the underlying
     system call fails.

     VxWorks only supports setting *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 45a4.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘resource.setrlimit’ with
     arguments ‘resource’, ‘limits’.

 -- Işlevi: resource.prlimit (pid, resource[, limits])

     Combines *note setrlimit(): 3f34. and *note getrlimit(): 45a3. in
     one function and supports to get and set the resources limits of an
     arbitrary process.  If 'pid' is 0, then the call applies to the
     current process.  'resource' and 'limits' have the same meaning as
     in *note setrlimit(): 3f34, except that 'limits' is optional.

     When 'limits' is not given the function returns the 'resource'
     limit of the process 'pid'.  When 'limits' is given the 'resource'
     limit of the process is set and the former resource limit is
     returned.

     Raises *note ProcessLookupError: f05. when 'pid' can’t be found and
     *note PermissionError: bcb. when the user doesn’t have
     ‘CAP_SYS_RESOURCE’ for the process.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘resource.prlimit’ with
     arguments ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc >= 2.13.

     Added in version 3.4.

These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using
the *note setrlimit(): 3f34. and *note getrlimit(): 45a3. functions
described below.  The values of these symbols are exactly the constants
used by C programs.

The Unix man page for ‘getrlimit(2)(2)’ lists the available resources.
Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote
the same resource.  This module does not attempt to mask platform
differences — symbols not defined for a platform will not be available
from this module on that platform.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_CORE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process
     can create.  This may result in the creation of a partial core file
     if a larger core would be required to contain the entire process
     image.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_CPU

     The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process
     can use.  If this limit is exceeded, a ‘SIGXCPU’ signal is sent to
     the process.  (See the *note signal: c5. module documentation for
     information about how to catch this signal and do something useful,
     e.g.  flush open files to disk.)

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE

     The maximum size of a file which the process may create.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_DATA

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the process’s heap.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_STACK

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current
     process.  This only affects the stack of the main thread in a
     multi-threaded process.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_RSS

     The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the
     process.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_NPROC

     The maximum number of processes the current process may create.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE

     The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current
     process.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_OFILE

     The BSD name for *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 45a4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK

     The maximum address space which may be locked in memory.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_VMEM

     The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD >= 11.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_AS

     The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by
     the process.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE

     The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_NICE

     The ceiling for the process’s nice level (calculated as 20 -
     rlim_cur).

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO

     The ceiling of the real-time priority.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME

     The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can
     spend under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING

     The number of signals which the process may queue.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user.
     This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of
     mbufs, that this user may hold at any time.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_SWAP

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved
     or used by all of this user id’s processes.  This limit is enforced
     only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set.  Please see
     tuning(7)(3) for a complete description of this sysctl.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_NPTS

     The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Verisi: resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES

     The maximum number of kqueues this user id is allowed to create.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: FreeBSD >= 11.

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (3) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Usage,  Prev: Resource Limits,  Up: resource — Resource usage information

5.34.8.2 Resource Usage
.......................

These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:

 -- Işlevi: resource.getrusage (who)

     This function returns an object that describes the resources
     consumed by either the current process or its children, as
     specified by the 'who' parameter.  The 'who' parameter should be
     specified using one of the ‘RUSAGE_*’ constants described below.

     A simple example:

          from resource import *
          import time

          # a non CPU-bound task
          time.sleep(3)
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

          # a CPU-bound task
          for i in range(10 ** 8):
             _ = 1 + 1
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

     The fields of the return value each describe how a particular
     system resource has been used, e.g.  amount of time spent running
     is user mode or number of times the process was swapped out of main
     memory.  Some values are dependent on the clock tick internal, e.g.
     the amount of memory the process is using.

     For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as
     a tuple of 16 elements.

     The fields ‘ru_utime’ and ‘ru_stime’ of the return value are
     floating-point values representing the amount of time spent
     executing in user mode and the amount of time spent executing in
     system mode, respectively.  The remaining values are integers.
     Consult the ‘getrusage(2)(1)’ man page for detailed information
     about these values.  A brief summary is presented here:

     Index        Field                     Resource
                                            
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
     ‘0’          ‘ru_utime’                time in user mode (float seconds)
                                            
                                            
     ‘1’          ‘ru_stime’                time in system mode (float seconds)
                                            
                                            
     ‘2’          ‘ru_maxrss’               maximum resident set size
                                            
                                            
     ‘3’          ‘ru_ixrss’                shared memory size
                                            
                                            
     ‘4’          ‘ru_idrss’                unshared memory size
                                            
                                            
     ‘5’          ‘ru_isrss’                unshared stack size
                                            
                                            
     ‘6’          ‘ru_minflt’               page faults not requiring I/O
                                            
                                            
     ‘7’          ‘ru_majflt’               page faults requiring I/O
                                            
                                            
     ‘8’          ‘ru_nswap’                number of swap outs
                                            
                                            
     ‘9’          ‘ru_inblock’              block input operations
                                            
                                            
     ‘10’         ‘ru_oublock’              block output operations
                                            
                                            
     ‘11’         ‘ru_msgsnd’               messages sent
                                            
                                            
     ‘12’         ‘ru_msgrcv’               messages received
                                            
                                            
     ‘13’         ‘ru_nsignals’             signals received
                                            
                                            
     ‘14’         ‘ru_nvcsw’                voluntary context switches
                                            
                                            
     ‘15’         ‘ru_nivcsw’               involuntary context switches
                                            

     This function will raise a *note ValueError: 189. if an invalid
     'who' parameter is specified.  It may also raise *note error: 45a0.
     exception in unusual circumstances.

 -- Işlevi: resource.getpagesize ()

     Returns the number of bytes in a system page.  (This need not be
     the same as the hardware page size.)

The following ‘RUSAGE_*’ symbols are passed to the *note getrusage():
12bb. function to specify which processes information should be provided
for.

 -- Verisi: resource.RUSAGE_SELF

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12bb. to request resources consumed by
     the calling process, which is the sum of resources used by all
     threads in the process.

 -- Verisi: resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12bb. to request resources consumed by
     child processes of the calling process which have been terminated
     and waited for.

 -- Verisi: resource.RUSAGE_BOTH

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12bb. to request resources consumed by
     both the current process and child processes.  May not be available
     on all systems.

 -- Verisi: resource.RUSAGE_THREAD

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 12bb. to request resources consumed by
     the current thread.  May not be available on all systems.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrusage(2)


File: python.info,  Node: syslog — Unix syslog library routines,  Prev: resource — Resource usage information,  Up: Unix Specific Services

5.34.9 ‘syslog’ — Unix syslog library routines
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the Unix ‘syslog’ library routines.
Refer to the Unix manual pages for a detailed description of the
‘syslog’ facility.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module wraps the system ‘syslog’ family of routines.  A pure Python
library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the *note
logging.handlers: 88. module as ‘SysLogHandler’.

The module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: syslog.syslog (message)

 -- Işlevi: syslog.syslog (priority, message)

     Send the string 'message' to the system logger.  A trailing newline
     is added if necessary.  Each message is tagged with a priority
     composed of a 'facility' and a 'level'.  The optional 'priority'
     argument, which defaults to ‘LOG_INFO’, determines the message
     priority.  If the facility is not encoded in 'priority' using
     logical-or (‘LOG_INFO | LOG_USER’), the value given in the *note
     openlog(): 2cc. call is used.

     If *note openlog(): 2cc. has not been called prior to the call to
     *note syslog(): db, *note openlog(): 2cc. will be called with no
     arguments.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘syslog.syslog’ with
     arguments ‘priority’, ‘message’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions, *note openlog(): 2cc.
     would not be called automatically if it wasn’t called prior to the
     call to *note syslog(): db, deferring to the syslog implementation
     to call ‘openlog()’.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)
     *note openlog(): 2cc. must be called in the main interpreter before
     *note syslog(): db. may be used in a subinterpreter.  Otherwise it
     will raise *note RuntimeError: 180.

 -- Işlevi: syslog.openlog ([ident[, logoption[, facility]]])

     Logging options of subsequent *note syslog(): db. calls can be set
     by calling *note openlog(): 2cc.  *note syslog(): db. will call
     *note openlog(): 2cc. with no arguments if the log is not currently
     open.

     The optional 'ident' keyword argument is a string which is
     prepended to every message, and defaults to ‘sys.argv[0]’ with
     leading path components stripped.  The optional 'logoption' keyword
     argument (default is 0) is a bit field – see below for possible
     values to combine.  The optional 'facility' keyword argument
     (default is ‘LOG_USER’) sets the default facility for messages
     which do not have a facility explicitly encoded.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘syslog.openlog’ with
     arguments ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions, keyword arguments were
     not allowed, and 'ident' was required.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This
     may only be called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 180. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- Işlevi: syslog.closelog ()

     Reset the syslog module values and call the system library
     ‘closelog()’.

     This causes the module to behave as it does when initially
     imported.  For example, *note openlog(): 2cc. will be called on the
     first *note syslog(): db. call (if *note openlog(): 2cc. hasn’t
     already been called), and 'ident' and other *note openlog(): 2cc.
     parameters are reset to defaults.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘syslog.closelog’ with no
     arguments.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This
     may only be called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 180. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- Işlevi: syslog.setlogmask (maskpri)

     Set the priority mask to 'maskpri' and return the previous mask
     value.  Calls to *note syslog(): db. with a priority level not set
     in 'maskpri' are ignored.  The default is to log all priorities.
     The function ‘LOG_MASK(pri)’ calculates the mask for the individual
     priority 'pri'.  The function ‘LOG_UPTO(pri)’ calculates the mask
     for all priorities up to and including 'pri'.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘syslog.setlogmask’ with
     argument ‘maskpri’.

The module defines the following constants:

Priority levels (high to low):

     ‘LOG_EMERG’, ‘LOG_ALERT’, ‘LOG_CRIT’, ‘LOG_ERR’, ‘LOG_WARNING’,
     ‘LOG_NOTICE’, ‘LOG_INFO’, ‘LOG_DEBUG’.

Facilities:

     ‘LOG_KERN’, ‘LOG_USER’, ‘LOG_MAIL’, ‘LOG_DAEMON’, ‘LOG_AUTH’,
     ‘LOG_LPR’, ‘LOG_NEWS’, ‘LOG_UUCP’, ‘LOG_CRON’, ‘LOG_SYSLOG’,
     ‘LOG_LOCAL0’ to ‘LOG_LOCAL7’, and, if defined in ‘<syslog.h>’,
     ‘LOG_AUTHPRIV’.

Log options:

     ‘LOG_PID’, ‘LOG_CONS’, ‘LOG_NDELAY’, and, if defined in
     ‘<syslog.h>’, ‘LOG_ODELAY’, ‘LOG_NOWAIT’, and ‘LOG_PERROR’.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<35>,  Up: syslog — Unix syslog library routines

5.34.9.1 Examples
.................

* Menu:

* Simple example::


File: python.info,  Node: Simple example,  Up: Examples<35>

5.34.9.2 Simple example
.......................

A simple set of examples:

     import syslog

     syslog.syslog('Processing started')
     if error:
         syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started')

An example of setting some log options, these would include the process
ID in logged messages, and write the messages to the destination
facility used for mail logging:

     syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL)
     syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')


File: python.info,  Node: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Next: Superseded Modules,  Prev: Unix Specific Services,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.35 Modules command-line interface (CLI)
=========================================

The following modules have a command-line interface.

   * *note ast: 43dd.

   * *note asyncio: 2fc8.

   * *note base64: e.

   * *note calendar: 22dc.

   * *note code: 1a.

   * *note compileall: 4494.

   * *note cProfile: 27.: see *note profile: 402a.

   * *note difflib: 2124.

   * *note dis: 44aa.

   * *note doctest: 3d67.

   * ‘encodings.rot_13’

   * *note ensurepip: 53.

   * *note filecmp: 58.

   * *note fileinput: 59.

   * *note ftplib: 5c.

   * *note gzip: 2744.

   * *note http.server: df1.

   * ‘idlelib’

   * *note inspect: dfb.

   * *note json.tool: 33b5.

   * *note mimetypes: 8e.

   * *note pdb: a4.

   * *note pickle: a5.

   * *note pickletools: 450a.

   * *note platform: a9.

   * *note poplib: ab.

   * *note profile: 402a.

   * *note pstats: af.

   * *note py_compile: 448c.

   * *note pyclbr: b3.

   * *note pydoc: b4.

   * *note quopri: b6.

   * *note runpy: bd.

   * *note site: 4289.

   * *note sqlite3: 150.

   * *note sysconfig: 418c.

   * *note tabnanny: dc.

   * *note tarfile: e71.

   * ‘this’

   * *note timeit: 404d.

   * *note tokenize: 4460.

   * *note trace: 4069.

   * *note turtledemo: 102.

   * *note unittest: 3dd9.

   * *note uuid: 153.

   * *note venv: 111.

   * *note webbrowser: 115.

   * *note zipapp: 40e9.

   * *note zipfile: 27ac.

See also the *note Python command-line interface: 17f1.


File: python.info,  Node: Superseded Modules,  Next: Removed Modules,  Prev: Modules command-line interface CLI,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.36 Superseded Modules
=======================

The modules described in this chapter are deprecated and only kept for
backwards compatibility.  They have been superseded by other modules.

* Menu:

* aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files::
* audioop — Manipulate raw audio data::
* cgi — Common Gateway Interface support::
* cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts::
* chunk — Read IFF chunked data::
* crypt — Function to check Unix passwords::
* imghdr — Determine the type of an image::
* mailcap — Mailcap file handling::
* msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files::
* nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages): nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
* nntplib — NNTP protocol client::
* optparse — Parser for command line options::
* ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices::
* pipes — Interface to shell pipelines::
* sndhdr — Determine type of sound file::
* spwd — The shadow password database::
* sunau — Read and write Sun AU files::
* telnetlib — Telnet client::
* uu — Encode and decode uuencode files::
* xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data::


File: python.info,  Node: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files,  Next: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.1 ‘aifc’ — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
--------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/aifc.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note aifc: 5. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for reading and writing AIFF and AIFF-C
files.  AIFF is Audio Interchange File Format, a format for storing
digital audio samples in a file.  AIFF-C is a newer version of the
format that includes the ability to compress the audio data.

Audio files have a number of parameters that describe the audio data.
The sampling rate or frame rate is the number of times per second the
sound is sampled.  The number of channels indicate if the audio is mono,
stereo, or quadro.  Each frame consists of one sample per channel.  The
sample size is the size in bytes of each sample.  Thus a frame consists
of ‘nchannels * samplesize’ bytes, and a second’s worth of audio
consists of ‘nchannels * samplesize * framerate’ bytes.

For example, CD quality audio has a sample size of two bytes (16 bits),
uses two channels (stereo) and has a frame rate of 44,100 frames/second.
This gives a frame size of 4 bytes (2*2), and a second’s worth occupies
2*2*44100 bytes (176,400 bytes).

Module *note aifc: 5. defines the following function:

 -- Işlevi: aifc.open (file, mode=None)

     Open an AIFF or AIFF-C file and return an object instance with
     methods that are described below.  The argument 'file' is either a
     string naming a file or a *note file object: 1068.  'mode' must be
     ‘'r'’ or ‘'rb'’ when the file must be opened for reading, or ‘'w'’
     or ‘'wb'’ when the file must be opened for writing.  If omitted,
     ‘file.mode’ is used if it exists, otherwise ‘'rb'’ is used.  When
     used for writing, the file object should be seekable, unless you
     know ahead of time how many samples you are going to write in total
     and use ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘setnframes()’.  The *note open():
     a58. function may be used in a *note with: 3dd. statement.  When
     the ‘with’ block completes, the *note close(): db3. method is
     called.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added.

Objects returned by *note open(): a58. when a file is opened for reading
have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getnchannels ()

     Return the number of audio channels (1 for mono, 2 for stereo).

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getsampwidth ()

     Return the size in bytes of individual samples.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getframerate ()

     Return the sampling rate (number of audio frames per second).

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getnframes ()

     Return the number of audio frames in the file.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getcomptype ()

     Return a bytes array of length 4 describing the type of compression
     used in the audio file.  For AIFF files, the returned value is
     ‘b'NONE'’.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getcompname ()

     Return a bytes array convertible to a human-readable description of
     the type of compression used in the audio file.  For AIFF files,
     the returned value is ‘b'not compressed'’.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getparams ()

     Returns a *note namedtuple(): 74b. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
     framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, equivalent to output of
     the ‘get*()’ methods.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getmarkers ()

     Return a list of markers in the audio file.  A marker consists of a
     tuple of three elements.  The first is the mark ID (an integer),
     the second is the mark position in frames from the beginning of the
     data (an integer), the third is the name of the mark (a string).

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.getmark (id)

     Return the tuple as described in *note getmarkers(): 45c6. for the
     mark with the given 'id'.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.readframes (nframes)

     Read and return the next 'nframes' frames from the audio file.  The
     returned data is a string containing for each frame the
     uncompressed samples of all channels.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.rewind ()

     Rewind the read pointer.  The next *note readframes(): 45c8. will
     start from the beginning.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setpos (pos)

     Seek to the specified frame number.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.tell ()

     Return the current frame number.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.close ()

     Close the AIFF file.  After calling this method, the object can no
     longer be used.

Objects returned by *note open(): a58. when a file is opened for writing
have all the above methods, except for ‘readframes()’ and ‘setpos()’.
In addition the following methods exist.  The ‘get*()’ methods can only
be called after the corresponding ‘set*()’ methods have been called.
Before the first ‘writeframes()’ or ‘writeframesraw()’, all parameters
except for the number of frames must be filled in.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.aiff ()

     Create an AIFF file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is
     created, unless the name of the file ends in ‘'.aiff'’ in which
     case the default is an AIFF file.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.aifc ()

     Create an AIFF-C file.  The default is that an AIFF-C file is
     created, unless the name of the file ends in ‘'.aiff'’ in which
     case the default is an AIFF file.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setnchannels (nchannels)

     Specify the number of channels in the audio file.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setsampwidth (width)

     Specify the size in bytes of audio samples.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setframerate (rate)

     Specify the sampling frequency in frames per second.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setnframes (nframes)

     Specify the number of frames that are to be written to the audio
     file.  If this parameter is not set, or not set correctly, the file
     needs to support seeking.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setcomptype (type, name)

     Specify the compression type.  If not specified, the audio data
     will not be compressed.  In AIFF files, compression is not
     possible.  The name parameter should be a human-readable
     description of the compression type as a bytes array, the type
     parameter should be a bytes array of length 4.  Currently the
     following compression types are supported: ‘b'NONE'’, ‘b'ULAW'’,
     ‘b'ALAW'’, ‘b'G722'’.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setparams (nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, comptype,
          compname)

     Set all the above parameters at once.  The argument is a tuple
     consisting of the various parameters.  This means that it is
     possible to use the result of a *note getparams(): db2. call as
     argument to *note setparams(): 45d3.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.setmark (id, pos, name)

     Add a mark with the given id (larger than 0), and the given name at
     the given position.  This method can be called at any time before
     *note close(): db3.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.tell ()

     Return the current write position in the output file.  Useful in
     combination with *note setmark(): 45d4.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.writeframes (data)

     Write data to the output file.  This method can only be called
     after the audio file parameters have been set.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Any *note bytes-like object: bb5. is now
     accepted.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.writeframesraw (data)

     Like *note writeframes(): db5, except that the header of the audio
     file is not updated.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Any *note bytes-like object: bb5. is now
     accepted.

 -- Yöntemi: aifc.close ()

     Close the AIFF file.  The header of the file is updated to reflect
     the actual size of the audio data.  After calling this method, the
     object can no longer be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/aifc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#aifc


File: python.info,  Node: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data,  Next: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support,  Prev: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.2 ‘audioop’ — Manipulate raw audio data
--------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note audioop: d. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(1) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note audioop: d. module contains some useful operations on sound
fragments.  It operates on sound fragments consisting of signed integer
samples 8, 16, 24 or 32 bits wide, stored in *note bytes-like objects:
bb5.  All scalar items are integers, unless specified otherwise.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: Support for 24-bit samples was added.  All
functions now accept any *note bytes-like object: bb5.  String input now
results in an immediate error.

This module provides support for a-LAW, u-LAW and Intel/DVI ADPCM
encodings.

A few of the more complicated operations only take 16-bit samples,
otherwise the sample size (in bytes) is always a parameter of the
operation.

The module defines the following variables and functions:

 -- Özel Durum: audioop.error

     This exception is raised on all errors, such as unknown number of
     bytes per sample, etc.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.add (fragment1, fragment2, width)

     Return a fragment which is the addition of the two samples passed
     as parameters.  'width' is the sample width in bytes, either ‘1’,
     ‘2’, ‘3’ or ‘4’.  Both fragments should have the same length.
     Samples are truncated in case of overflow.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.adpcm2lin (adpcmfragment, width, state)

     Decode an Intel/DVI ADPCM coded fragment to a linear fragment.  See
     the description of *note lin2adpcm(): 45da. for details on ADPCM
     coding.  Return a tuple ‘(sample, newstate)’ where the sample has
     the width specified in 'width'.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.alaw2lin (fragment, width)

     Convert sound fragments in a-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound
     fragments.  a-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so 'width'
     refers only to the sample width of the output fragment here.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.avg (fragment, width)

     Return the average over all samples in the fragment.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.avgpp (fragment, width)

     Return the average peak-peak value over all samples in the
     fragment.  No filtering is done, so the usefulness of this routine
     is questionable.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.bias (fragment, width, bias)

     Return a fragment that is the original fragment with a bias added
     to each sample.  Samples wrap around in case of overflow.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.byteswap (fragment, width)

     “Byteswap” all samples in a fragment and returns the modified
     fragment.  Converts big-endian samples to little-endian and vice
     versa.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.cross (fragment, width)

     Return the number of zero crossings in the fragment passed as an
     argument.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.findfactor (fragment, reference)

     Return a factor 'F' such that ‘rms(add(fragment, mul(reference,
     -F)))’ is minimal, i.e., return the factor with which you should
     multiply 'reference' to make it match as well as possible to
     'fragment'.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.

     The time taken by this routine is proportional to ‘len(fragment)’.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.findfit (fragment, reference)

     Try to match 'reference' as well as possible to a portion of
     'fragment' (which should be the longer fragment).  This is
     (conceptually) done by taking slices out of 'fragment', using *note
     findfactor(): 45e0. to compute the best match, and minimizing the
     result.  The fragments should both contain 2-byte samples.  Return
     a tuple ‘(offset, factor)’ where 'offset' is the (integer) offset
     into 'fragment' where the optimal match started and 'factor' is the
     (floating-point) factor as per *note findfactor(): 45e0.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.findmax (fragment, length)

     Search 'fragment' for a slice of length 'length' samples (not
     bytes!)  with maximum energy, i.e., return 'i' for which
     ‘rms(fragment[i*2:(i+length)*2])’ is maximal.  The fragments should
     both contain 2-byte samples.

     The routine takes time proportional to ‘len(fragment)’.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.getsample (fragment, width, index)

     Return the value of sample 'index' from the fragment.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.lin2adpcm (fragment, width, state)

     Convert samples to 4 bit Intel/DVI ADPCM encoding.  ADPCM coding is
     an adaptive coding scheme, whereby each 4 bit number is the
     difference between one sample and the next, divided by a (varying)
     step.  The Intel/DVI ADPCM algorithm has been selected for use by
     the IMA, so it may well become a standard.

     'state' is a tuple containing the state of the coder.  The coder
     returns a tuple ‘(adpcmfrag, newstate)’, and the 'newstate' should
     be passed to the next call of *note lin2adpcm(): 45da.  In the
     initial call, ‘None’ can be passed as the state.  'adpcmfrag' is
     the ADPCM coded fragment packed 2 4-bit values per byte.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.lin2alaw (fragment, width)

     Convert samples in the audio fragment to a-LAW encoding and return
     this as a bytes object.  a-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby
     you get a dynamic range of about 13 bits using only 8 bit samples.
     It is used by the Sun audio hardware, among others.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.lin2lin (fragment, width, newwidth)

     Convert samples between 1-, 2-, 3- and 4-byte formats.

          Not: In some audio formats, such as .WAV files, 16, 24 and 32
          bit samples are signed, but 8 bit samples are unsigned.  So
          when converting to 8 bit wide samples for these formats, you
          need to also add 128 to the result:

               new_frames = audioop.lin2lin(frames, old_width, 1)
               new_frames = audioop.bias(new_frames, 1, 128)

          The same, in reverse, has to be applied when converting from 8
          to 16, 24 or 32 bit width samples.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.lin2ulaw (fragment, width)

     Convert samples in the audio fragment to u-LAW encoding and return
     this as a bytes object.  u-LAW is an audio encoding format whereby
     you get a dynamic range of about 14 bits using only 8 bit samples.
     It is used by the Sun audio hardware, among others.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.max (fragment, width)

     Return the maximum of the 'absolute value' of all samples in a
     fragment.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.maxpp (fragment, width)

     Return the maximum peak-peak value in the sound fragment.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.minmax (fragment, width)

     Return a tuple consisting of the minimum and maximum values of all
     samples in the sound fragment.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.mul (fragment, width, factor)

     Return a fragment that has all samples in the original fragment
     multiplied by the floating-point value 'factor'.  Samples are
     truncated in case of overflow.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.ratecv (fragment, width, nchannels, inrate, outrate,
          state[, weightA[, weightB]])

     Convert the frame rate of the input fragment.

     'state' is a tuple containing the state of the converter.  The
     converter returns a tuple ‘(newfragment, newstate)’, and 'newstate'
     should be passed to the next call of *note ratecv(): 45eb.  The
     initial call should pass ‘None’ as the state.

     The 'weightA' and 'weightB' arguments are parameters for a simple
     digital filter and default to ‘1’ and ‘0’ respectively.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.reverse (fragment, width)

     Reverse the samples in a fragment and returns the modified
     fragment.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.rms (fragment, width)

     Return the root-mean-square of the fragment, i.e.
     ‘sqrt(sum(S_i^2)/n)’.

     This is a measure of the power in an audio signal.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.tomono (fragment, width, lfactor, rfactor)

     Convert a stereo fragment to a mono fragment.  The left channel is
     multiplied by 'lfactor' and the right channel by 'rfactor' before
     adding the two channels to give a mono signal.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.tostereo (fragment, width, lfactor, rfactor)

     Generate a stereo fragment from a mono fragment.  Each pair of
     samples in the stereo fragment are computed from the mono sample,
     whereby left channel samples are multiplied by 'lfactor' and right
     channel samples by 'rfactor'.

 -- Işlevi: audioop.ulaw2lin (fragment, width)

     Convert sound fragments in u-LAW encoding to linearly encoded sound
     fragments.  u-LAW encoding always uses 8 bits samples, so 'width'
     refers only to the sample width of the output fragment here.

Note that operations such as *note mul(): 45ea. or *note max(): 45e7.
make no distinction between mono and stereo fragments, i.e.  all samples
are treated equal.  If this is a problem the stereo fragment should be
split into two mono fragments first and recombined later.  Here is an
example of how to do that:

     def mul_stereo(sample, width, lfactor, rfactor):
         lsample = audioop.tomono(sample, width, 1, 0)
         rsample = audioop.tomono(sample, width, 0, 1)
         lsample = audioop.mul(lsample, width, lfactor)
         rsample = audioop.mul(rsample, width, rfactor)
         lsample = audioop.tostereo(lsample, width, 1, 0)
         rsample = audioop.tostereo(rsample, width, 0, 1)
         return audioop.add(lsample, rsample, width)

If you use the ADPCM coder to build network packets and you want your
protocol to be stateless (i.e.  to be able to tolerate packet loss) you
should not only transmit the data but also the state.  Note that you
should send the 'initial' state (the one you passed to *note
lin2adpcm(): 45da.) along to the decoder, not the final state (as
returned by the coder).  If you want to use *note struct.Struct: 14c1.
to store the state in binary you can code the first element (the
predicted value) in 16 bits and the second (the delta index) in 8.

The ADPCM coders have never been tried against other ADPCM coders, only
against themselves.  It could well be that I misinterpreted the
standards in which case they will not be interoperable with the
respective standards.

The ‘find*()’ routines might look a bit funny at first sight.  They are
primarily meant to do echo cancellation.  A reasonably fast way to do
this is to pick the most energetic piece of the output sample, locate
that in the input sample and subtract the whole output sample from the
input sample:

     def echocancel(outputdata, inputdata):
         pos = audioop.findmax(outputdata, 800)    # one tenth second
         out_test = outputdata[pos*2:]
         in_test = inputdata[pos*2:]
         ipos, factor = audioop.findfit(in_test, out_test)
         # Optional (for better cancellation):
         # factor = audioop.findfactor(in_test[ipos*2:ipos*2+len(out_test)],
         #              out_test)
         prefill = '\0'*(pos+ipos)*2
         postfill = '\0'*(len(inputdata)-len(prefill)-len(outputdata))
         outputdata = prefill + audioop.mul(outputdata, 2, -factor) + postfill
         return audioop.add(inputdata, outputdata, 2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#audioop


File: python.info,  Node: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support,  Next: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Prev: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.3 ‘cgi’ — Common Gateway Interface support
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/cgi.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note cgi: 15. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details and
alternatives).

The ‘FieldStorage’ class can typically be replaced with *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 69b. for ‘GET’ and ‘HEAD’ requests, and the
*note email.message: 43. module or multipart(3) for ‘POST’ and ‘PUT’.
Most *note utility functions: 45f3. have replacements.

__________________________________________________________________

Support module for Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts.

This module defines a number of utilities for use by CGI scripts written
in Python.

The global variable ‘maxlen’ can be set to an integer indicating the
maximum size of a POST request.  POST requests larger than this size
will result in a *note ValueError: 189. being raised during parsing.
The default value of this variable is ‘0’, meaning the request size is
unlimited.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<9>.
* Using the cgi module::
* Higher Level Interface::
* Functions: Functions<12>.
* Caring about security::
* Installing your CGI script on a Unix system::
* Testing your CGI script::
* Debugging CGI scripts::
* Common problems and solutions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/cgi.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#cgi

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<9>,  Next: Using the cgi module,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.1 Introduction
.....................

A CGI script is invoked by an HTTP server, usually to process user input
submitted through an HTML ‘<FORM>’ or ‘<ISINDEX>’ element.

Most often, CGI scripts live in the server’s special ‘cgi-bin’
directory.  The HTTP server places all sorts of information about the
request (such as the client’s hostname, the requested URL, the query
string, and lots of other goodies) in the script’s shell environment,
executes the script, and sends the script’s output back to the client.

The script’s input is connected to the client too, and sometimes the
form data is read this way; at other times the form data is passed via
the “query string” part of the URL. This module is intended to take care
of the different cases and provide a simpler interface to the Python
script.  It also provides a number of utilities that help in debugging
scripts, and the latest addition is support for file uploads from a form
(if your browser supports it).

The output of a CGI script should consist of two sections, separated by
a blank line.  The first section contains a number of headers, telling
the client what kind of data is following.  Python code to generate a
minimal header section looks like this:

     print("Content-Type: text/html")    # HTML is following
     print()                             # blank line, end of headers

The second section is usually HTML, which allows the client software to
display nicely formatted text with header, in-line images, etc.  Here’s
Python code that prints a simple piece of HTML:

     print("<TITLE>CGI script output</TITLE>")
     print("<H1>This is my first CGI script</H1>")
     print("Hello, world!")


File: python.info,  Node: Using the cgi module,  Next: Higher Level Interface,  Prev: Introduction<9>,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.2 Using the cgi module
.............................

Begin by writing ‘import cgi’.

When you write a new script, consider adding these lines:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable()

This activates a special exception handler that will display detailed
reports in the web browser if any errors occur.  If you’d rather not
show the guts of your program to users of your script, you can have the
reports saved to files instead, with code like this:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable(display=0, logdir="/path/to/logdir")

It’s very helpful to use this feature during script development.  The
reports produced by *note cgitb: 16. provide information that can save
you a lot of time in tracking down bugs.  You can always remove the
‘cgitb’ line later when you have tested your script and are confident
that it works correctly.

To get at submitted form data, use the ‘FieldStorage’ class.  If the
form contains non-ASCII characters, use the 'encoding' keyword parameter
set to the value of the encoding defined for the document.  It is
usually contained in the META tag in the HEAD section of the HTML
document or by the ‘Content-Type’ header.  This reads the form contents
from the standard input or the environment (depending on the value of
various environment variables set according to the CGI standard).  Since
it may consume standard input, it should be instantiated only once.

The ‘FieldStorage’ instance can be indexed like a Python dictionary.  It
allows membership testing with the *note in: 26f. operator, and also
supports the standard dictionary method *note keys(): 605. and the
built-in function *note len(): 441.  Form fields containing empty
strings are ignored and do not appear in the dictionary; to keep such
values, provide a true value for the optional 'keep_blank_values'
keyword parameter when creating the ‘FieldStorage’ instance.

For instance, the following code (which assumes that the ‘Content-Type’
header and blank line have already been printed) checks that the fields
‘name’ and ‘addr’ are both set to a non-empty string:

     form = cgi.FieldStorage()
     if "name" not in form or "addr" not in form:
         print("<H1>Error</H1>")
         print("Please fill in the name and addr fields.")
         return
     print("<p>name:", form["name"].value)
     print("<p>addr:", form["addr"].value)
     ...further form processing here...

Here the fields, accessed through ‘form[key]’, are themselves instances
of ‘FieldStorage’ (or ‘MiniFieldStorage’, depending on the form
encoding).  The ‘value’ attribute of the instance yields the string
value of the field.  The ‘getvalue()’ method returns this string value
directly; it also accepts an optional second argument as a default to
return if the requested key is not present.

If the submitted form data contains more than one field with the same
name, the object retrieved by ‘form[key]’ is not a ‘FieldStorage’ or
‘MiniFieldStorage’ instance but a list of such instances.  Similarly, in
this situation, ‘form.getvalue(key)’ would return a list of strings.  If
you expect this possibility (when your HTML form contains multiple
fields with the same name), use the *note getlist(): 45f8. method, which
always returns a list of values (so that you do not need to special-case
the single item case).  For example, this code concatenates any number
of username fields, separated by commas:

     value = form.getlist("username")
     usernames = ",".join(value)

If a field represents an uploaded file, accessing the value via the
‘value’ attribute or the ‘getvalue()’ method reads the entire file in
memory as bytes.  This may not be what you want.  You can test for an
uploaded file by testing either the ‘filename’ attribute or the ‘file’
attribute.  You can then read the data from the ‘file’ attribute before
it is automatically closed as part of the garbage collection of the
‘FieldStorage’ instance (the *note read(): cac. and *note readline():
11d5. methods will return bytes):

     fileitem = form["userfile"]
     if fileitem.file:
         # It's an uploaded file; count lines
         linecount = 0
         while True:
             line = fileitem.file.readline()
             if not line: break
             linecount = linecount + 1

‘FieldStorage’ objects also support being used in a *note with: 3dd.
statement, which will automatically close them when done.

If an error is encountered when obtaining the contents of an uploaded
file (for example, when the user interrupts the form submission by
clicking on a Back or Cancel button) the ‘done’ attribute of the object
for the field will be set to the value -1.

The file upload draft standard entertains the possibility of uploading
multiple files from one field (using a recursive ‘multipart/*’
encoding).  When this occurs, the item will be a dictionary-like
‘FieldStorage’ item.  This can be determined by testing its ‘type’
attribute, which should be ‘multipart/form-data’ (or perhaps another
MIME type matching ‘multipart/*’).  In this case, it can be iterated
over recursively just like the top-level form object.

When a form is submitted in the “old” format (as the query string or as
a single data part of type ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’), the
items will actually be instances of the class ‘MiniFieldStorage’.  In
this case, the ‘list’, ‘file’, and ‘filename’ attributes are always
‘None’.

A form submitted via POST that also has a query string will contain both
‘FieldStorage’ and ‘MiniFieldStorage’ items.

3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘file’ attribute is automatically closed upon
the garbage collection of the creating ‘FieldStorage’ instance.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Added support for the context management protocol
to the ‘FieldStorage’ class.


File: python.info,  Node: Higher Level Interface,  Next: Functions<12>,  Prev: Using the cgi module,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.3 Higher Level Interface
...............................

The previous section explains how to read CGI form data using the
‘FieldStorage’ class.  This section describes a higher level interface
which was added to this class to allow one to do it in a more readable
and intuitive way.  The interface doesn’t make the techniques described
in previous sections obsolete — they are still useful to process file
uploads efficiently, for example.

The interface consists of two simple methods.  Using the methods you can
process form data in a generic way, without the need to worry whether
only one or more values were posted under one name.

In the previous section, you learned to write following code anytime you
expected a user to post more than one value under one name:

     item = form.getvalue("item")
     if isinstance(item, list):
         # The user is requesting more than one item.
     else:
         # The user is requesting only one item.

This situation is common for example when a form contains a group of
multiple checkboxes with the same name:

     <input type="checkbox" name="item" value="1" />
     <input type="checkbox" name="item" value="2" />

In most situations, however, there’s only one form control with a
particular name in a form and then you expect and need only one value
associated with this name.  So you write a script containing for example
this code:

     user = form.getvalue("user").upper()

The problem with the code is that you should never expect that a client
will provide valid input to your scripts.  For example, if a curious
user appends another ‘user=foo’ pair to the query string, then the
script would crash, because in this situation the ‘getvalue("user")’
method call returns a list instead of a string.  Calling the *note
upper(): 1fc0. method on a list is not valid (since lists do not have a
method of this name) and results in an *note AttributeError: 3dc.
exception.

Therefore, the appropriate way to read form data values was to always
use the code which checks whether the obtained value is a single value
or a list of values.  That’s annoying and leads to less readable
scripts.

A more convenient approach is to use the methods *note getfirst(): 45fa.
and *note getlist(): 45f8. provided by this higher level interface.

 -- Yöntemi: FieldStorage.getfirst (name, default=None)

     This method always returns only one value associated with form
     field 'name'.  The method returns only the first value in case that
     more values were posted under such name.  Please note that the
     order in which the values are received may vary from browser to
     browser and should not be counted on.  (1)  If no such form field
     or value exists then the method returns the value specified by the
     optional parameter 'default'.  This parameter defaults to ‘None’ if
     not specified.

 -- Yöntemi: FieldStorage.getlist (name)

     This method always returns a list of values associated with form
     field 'name'.  The method returns an empty list if no such form
     field or value exists for 'name'.  It returns a list consisting of
     one item if only one such value exists.

Using these methods you can write nice compact code:

     import cgi
     form = cgi.FieldStorage()
     user = form.getfirst("user", "").upper()    # This way it's safe.
     for item in form.getlist("item"):
         do_something(item)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Note that some recent versions of the HTML specification do state
what order the field values should be supplied in, but knowing whether a
request was received from a conforming browser, or even from a browser
at all, is tedious and error-prone.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<12>,  Next: Caring about security,  Prev: Higher Level Interface,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.4 Functions
..................

These are useful if you want more control, or if you want to employ some
of the algorithms implemented in this module in other circumstances.

 -- Işlevi: cgi.parse (fp=None, environ=os.environ,
          keep_blank_values=False, strict_parsing=False, separator='&')

     Parse a query in the environment or from a file (the file defaults
     to ‘sys.stdin’).  The 'keep_blank_values', 'strict_parsing' and
     'separator' parameters are passed to *note urllib.parse.parse_qs():
     69a. unchanged.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13:
     This function, like the rest of the *note cgi: 15. module, is
     deprecated.  It can be replaced by calling *note
     urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 69a. directly on the desired query string
     (except for ‘multipart/form-data’ input, which can be handled as
     described for *note parse_multipart(): 69d.).

 -- Işlevi: cgi.parse_multipart (fp, pdict, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace', separator='&')

     Parse input of type ‘multipart/form-data’ (for file uploads).
     Arguments are 'fp' for the input file, 'pdict' for a dictionary
     containing other parameters in the ‘Content-Type’ header, and
     'encoding', the request encoding.

     Returns a dictionary just like *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 69a.:
     keys are the field names, each value is a list of values for that
     field.  For non-file fields, the value is a list of strings.

     This is easy to use but not much good if you are expecting
     megabytes to be uploaded — in that case, use the ‘FieldStorage’
     class instead which is much more flexible.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.  For non-file fields, the value is now a list of
     strings, not bytes.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'separator' parameter.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13:
     This function, like the rest of the *note cgi: 15. module, is
     deprecated.  It can be replaced with the functionality in the *note
     email: 3a. package (e.g.  *note email.message.EmailMessage:
     b1c./*note email.message.Message: b1b.) which implements the same
     MIME RFCs, or with the multipart(1) PyPI project.

 -- Işlevi: cgi.parse_header (string)

     Parse a MIME header (such as ‘Content-Type’) into a main value and
     a dictionary of parameters.

     Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13:
     This function, like the rest of the *note cgi: 15. module, is
     deprecated.  It can be replaced with the functionality in the *note
     email: 3a. package, which implements the same MIME RFCs.

     For example, with *note email.message.EmailMessage: b1c.:

          from email.message import EmailMessage
          msg = EmailMessage()
          msg['content-type'] = 'application/json; charset="utf8"'
          main, params = msg.get_content_type(), msg['content-type'].params

 -- Işlevi: cgi.test ()

     Robust test CGI script, usable as main program.  Writes minimal
     HTTP headers and formats all information provided to the script in
     HTML format.

 -- Işlevi: cgi.print_environ ()

     Format the shell environment in HTML.

 -- Işlevi: cgi.print_form (form)

     Format a form in HTML.

 -- Işlevi: cgi.print_directory ()

     Format the current directory in HTML.

 -- Işlevi: cgi.print_environ_usage ()

     Print a list of useful (used by CGI) environment variables in HTML.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/


File: python.info,  Node: Caring about security,  Next: Installing your CGI script on a Unix system,  Prev: Functions<12>,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.5 Caring about security
..............................

There’s one important rule: if you invoke an external program (via *note
os.system(): 12e5, *note os.popen(): 8ec. or other functions with
similar functionality), make very sure you don’t pass arbitrary strings
received from the client to the shell.  This is a well-known security
hole whereby clever hackers anywhere on the web can exploit a gullible
CGI script to invoke arbitrary shell commands.  Even parts of the URL or
field names cannot be trusted, since the request doesn’t have to come
from your form!

To be on the safe side, if you must pass a string gotten from a form to
a shell command, you should make sure the string contains only
alphanumeric characters, dashes, underscores, and periods.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing your CGI script on a Unix system,  Next: Testing your CGI script,  Prev: Caring about security,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.6 Installing your CGI script on a Unix system
....................................................

Read the documentation for your HTTP server and check with your local
system administrator to find the directory where CGI scripts should be
installed; usually this is in a directory ‘cgi-bin’ in the server tree.

Make sure that your script is readable and executable by “others”; the
Unix file mode should be ‘0o755’ octal (use ‘chmod 0755 filename’).
Make sure that the first line of the script contains ‘#!’ starting in
column 1 followed by the pathname of the Python interpreter, for
instance:

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

Make sure the Python interpreter exists and is executable by “others”.

Make sure that any files your script needs to read or write are readable
or writable, respectively, by “others” — their mode should be ‘0o644’
for readable and ‘0o666’ for writable.  This is because, for security
reasons, the HTTP server executes your script as user “nobody”, without
any special privileges.  It can only read (write, execute) files that
everybody can read (write, execute).  The current directory at execution
time is also different (it is usually the server’s cgi-bin directory)
and the set of environment variables is also different from what you get
when you log in.  In particular, don’t count on the shell’s search path
for executables ( ‘PATH’) or the Python module search path ( *note
PYTHONPATH: ec5.) to be set to anything interesting.

If you need to load modules from a directory which is not on Python’s
default module search path, you can change the path in your script,
before importing other modules.  For example:

     import sys
     sys.path.insert(0, "/usr/home/joe/lib/python")
     sys.path.insert(0, "/usr/local/lib/python")

(This way, the directory inserted last will be searched first!)

Instructions for non-Unix systems will vary; check your HTTP server’s
documentation (it will usually have a section on CGI scripts).


File: python.info,  Node: Testing your CGI script,  Next: Debugging CGI scripts,  Prev: Installing your CGI script on a Unix system,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.7 Testing your CGI script
................................

Unfortunately, a CGI script will generally not run when you try it from
the command line, and a script that works perfectly from the command
line may fail mysteriously when run from the server.  There’s one reason
why you should still test your script from the command line: if it
contains a syntax error, the Python interpreter won’t execute it at all,
and the HTTP server will most likely send a cryptic error to the client.

Assuming your script has no syntax errors, yet it does not work, you
have no choice but to read the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging CGI scripts,  Next: Common problems and solutions,  Prev: Testing your CGI script,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.8 Debugging CGI scripts
..............................

First of all, check for trivial installation errors — reading the
section above on installing your CGI script carefully can save you a lot
of time.  If you wonder whether you have understood the installation
procedure correctly, try installing a copy of this module file
(‘cgi.py’) as a CGI script.  When invoked as a script, the file will
dump its environment and the contents of the form in HTML format.  Give
it the right mode etc., and send it a request.  If it’s installed in the
standard ‘cgi-bin’ directory, it should be possible to send it a request
by entering a URL into your browser of the form:

     http://yourhostname/cgi-bin/cgi.py?name=Joe+Blow&addr=At+Home

If this gives an error of type 404, the server cannot find the script –
perhaps you need to install it in a different directory.  If it gives
another error, there’s an installation problem that you should fix
before trying to go any further.  If you get a nicely formatted listing
of the environment and form content (in this example, the fields should
be listed as “addr” with value “At Home” and “name” with value “Joe
Blow”), the ‘cgi.py’ script has been installed correctly.  If you follow
the same procedure for your own script, you should now be able to debug
it.

The next step could be to call the *note cgi: 15. module’s *note test():
e1. function from your script: replace its main code with the single
statement

     cgi.test()

This should produce the same results as those gotten from installing the
‘cgi.py’ file itself.

When an ordinary Python script raises an unhandled exception (for
whatever reason: of a typo in a module name, a file that can’t be
opened, etc.), the Python interpreter prints a nice traceback and exits.
While the Python interpreter will still do this when your CGI script
raises an exception, most likely the traceback will end up in one of the
HTTP server’s log files, or be discarded altogether.

Fortunately, once you have managed to get your script to execute 'some'
code, you can easily send tracebacks to the web browser using the *note
cgitb: 16. module.  If you haven’t done so already, just add the lines:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable()

to the top of your script.  Then try running it again; when a problem
occurs, you should see a detailed report that will likely make apparent
the cause of the crash.

If you suspect that there may be a problem in importing the *note cgitb:
16. module, you can use an even more robust approach (which only uses
built-in modules):

     import sys
     sys.stderr = sys.stdout
     print("Content-Type: text/plain")
     print()
     ...your code here...

This relies on the Python interpreter to print the traceback.  The
content type of the output is set to plain text, which disables all HTML
processing.  If your script works, the raw HTML will be displayed by
your client.  If it raises an exception, most likely after the first two
lines have been printed, a traceback will be displayed.  Because no HTML
interpretation is going on, the traceback will be readable.


File: python.info,  Node: Common problems and solutions,  Prev: Debugging CGI scripts,  Up: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

5.36.3.9 Common problems and solutions
......................................

   * Most HTTP servers buffer the output from CGI scripts until the
     script is completed.  This means that it is not possible to display
     a progress report on the client’s display while the script is
     running.

   * Check the installation instructions above.

   * Check the HTTP server’s log files.  (‘tail -f logfile’ in a
     separate window may be useful!)

   * Always check a script for syntax errors first, by doing something
     like ‘python script.py’.

   * If your script does not have any syntax errors, try adding ‘import
     cgitb; cgitb.enable()’ to the top of the script.

   * When invoking external programs, make sure they can be found.
     Usually, this means using absolute path names — ‘PATH’ is usually
     not set to a very useful value in a CGI script.

   * When reading or writing external files, make sure they can be read
     or written by the userid under which your CGI script will be
     running: this is typically the userid under which the web server is
     running, or some explicitly specified userid for a web server’s
     ‘suexec’ feature.

   * Don’t try to give a CGI script a set-uid mode.  This doesn’t work
     on most systems, and is a security liability as well.


File: python.info,  Node: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Next: chunk — Read IFF chunked data,  Prev: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.4 ‘cgitb’ — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
--------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/cgitb.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note cgitb: 16. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note cgitb: 16. module provides a special exception handler for
Python scripts.  (Its name is a bit misleading.  It was originally
designed to display extensive traceback information in HTML for CGI
scripts.  It was later generalized to also display this information in
plain text.)  After this module is activated, if an uncaught exception
occurs, a detailed, formatted report will be displayed.  The report
includes a traceback showing excerpts of the source code for each level,
as well as the values of the arguments and local variables to currently
running functions, to help you debug the problem.  Optionally, you can
save this information to a file instead of sending it to the browser.

To enable this feature, simply add this to the top of your CGI script:

     import cgitb
     cgitb.enable()

The options to the *note enable(): 460a. function control whether the
report is displayed in the browser and whether the report is logged to a
file for later analysis.

 -- Işlevi: cgitb.enable (display=1, logdir=None, context=5,
          format='html')

     This function causes the *note cgitb: 16. module to take over the
     interpreter’s default handling for exceptions by setting the value
     of *note sys.excepthook: 646.

     The optional argument 'display' defaults to ‘1’ and can be set to
     ‘0’ to suppress sending the traceback to the browser.  If the
     argument 'logdir' is present, the traceback reports are written to
     files.  The value of 'logdir' should be a directory where these
     files will be placed.  The optional argument 'context' is the
     number of lines of context to display around the current line of
     source code in the traceback; this defaults to ‘5’.  If the
     optional argument 'format' is ‘"html"’, the output is formatted as
     HTML. Any other value forces plain text output.  The default value
     is ‘"html"’.

 -- Işlevi: cgitb.text (info, context=5)

     This function handles the exception described by 'info' (a 3-tuple
     containing the result of *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.), formatting
     its traceback as text and returning the result as a string.  The
     optional argument 'context' is the number of lines of context to
     display around the current line of source code in the traceback;
     this defaults to ‘5’.

 -- Işlevi: cgitb.html (info, context=5)

     This function handles the exception described by 'info' (a 3-tuple
     containing the result of *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.), formatting
     its traceback as HTML and returning the result as a string.  The
     optional argument 'context' is the number of lines of context to
     display around the current line of source code in the traceback;
     this defaults to ‘5’.

 -- Işlevi: cgitb.handler (info=None)

     This function handles an exception using the default settings (that
     is, show a report in the browser, but don’t log to a file).  This
     can be used when you’ve caught an exception and want to report it
     using *note cgitb: 16.  The optional 'info' argument should be a
     3-tuple containing an exception type, exception value, and
     traceback object, exactly like the tuple returned by *note
     sys.exc_info(): 49f.  If the 'info' argument is not supplied, the
     current exception is obtained from *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/cgitb.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#cgitb


File: python.info,  Node: chunk — Read IFF chunked data,  Next: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords,  Prev: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.5 ‘chunk’ — Read IFF chunked data
--------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/chunk.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note chunk: 17. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for reading files that use EA IFF 85
chunks.  (3)  This format is used in at least the Audio Interchange File
Format (AIFF/AIFF-C) and the Real Media File Format (RMFF). The WAVE
audio file format is closely related and can also be read using this
module.

A chunk has the following structure:

Offset        Length       Contents
                           
---------------------------------------------------------------
                           
0             4            Chunk ID
                           
                           
4             4            Size of chunk in big-endian byte
                           order, not including the header
                           
                           
8             'n'          Data bytes, where 'n' is the size
                           given in the preceding field
                           
                           
8 + 'n'       0 or 1       Pad byte needed if 'n' is odd and
                           chunk alignment is used
                           

The ID is a 4-byte string which identifies the type of chunk.

The size field (a 32-bit value, encoded using big-endian byte order)
gives the size of the chunk data, not including the 8-byte header.

Usually an IFF-type file consists of one or more chunks.  The proposed
usage of the *note Chunk: 4610. class defined here is to instantiate an
instance at the start of each chunk and read from the instance until it
reaches the end, after which a new instance can be instantiated.  At the
end of the file, creating a new instance will fail with an *note
EOFError: 1183. exception.

 -- Sınıfı: chunk.Chunk (file, align=True, bigendian=True,
          inclheader=False)

     Class which represents a chunk.  The 'file' argument is expected to
     be a file-like object.  An instance of this class is specifically
     allowed.  The only method that is needed is ‘read()’.  If the
     methods *note seek(): 1135. and *note tell(): 2784. are present and
     don’t raise an exception, they are also used.  If these methods are
     present and raise an exception, they are expected to not have
     altered the object.  If the optional argument 'align' is true,
     chunks are assumed to be aligned on 2-byte boundaries.  If 'align'
     is false, no alignment is assumed.  The default value is true.  If
     the optional argument 'bigendian' is false, the chunk size is
     assumed to be in little-endian order.  This is needed for WAVE
     audio files.  The default value is true.  If the optional argument
     'inclheader' is true, the size given in the chunk header includes
     the size of the header.  The default value is false.

     A *note Chunk: 4610. object supports the following methods:

      -- Yöntemi: getname ()

          Returns the name (ID) of the chunk.  This is the first 4 bytes
          of the chunk.

      -- Yöntemi: getsize ()

          Returns the size of the chunk.

      -- Yöntemi: close ()

          Close and skip to the end of the chunk.  This does not close
          the underlying file.

     The remaining methods will raise *note OSError: 65c. if called
     after the *note close(): 4613. method has been called.  Before
     Python 3.3, they used to raise *note IOError: efc, now an alias of
     *note OSError: 65c.

      -- Yöntemi: isatty ()

          Returns ‘False’.

      -- Yöntemi: seek (pos, whence=0)

          Set the chunk’s current position.  The 'whence' argument is
          optional and defaults to ‘0’ (absolute file positioning);
          other values are ‘1’ (seek relative to the current position)
          and ‘2’ (seek relative to the file’s end).  There is no return
          value.  If the underlying file does not allow seek, only
          forward seeks are allowed.

      -- Yöntemi: tell ()

          Return the current position into the chunk.

      -- Yöntemi: read (size=-1)

          Read at most 'size' bytes from the chunk (less if the read
          hits the end of the chunk before obtaining 'size' bytes).  If
          the 'size' argument is negative or omitted, read all data
          until the end of the chunk.  An empty bytes object is returned
          when the end of the chunk is encountered immediately.

      -- Yöntemi: skip ()

          Skip to the end of the chunk.  All further calls to *note
          read(): 4617. for the chunk will return ‘b''’.  If you are not
          interested in the contents of the chunk, this method should be
          called so that the file points to the start of the next chunk.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/chunk.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#chunk

   (3) “EA IFF 85” Standard for Interchange Format Files, Jerry
Morrison, Electronic Arts, January 1985.


File: python.info,  Node: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords,  Next: imghdr — Determine the type of an image,  Prev: chunk — Read IFF chunked data,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.6 ‘crypt’ — Function to check Unix passwords
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/crypt.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note crypt: 28. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details and
alternatives).  The *note hashlib: 66. module is a potential replacement
for certain use cases.  The passlib(3) package can replace all use cases
of this module.

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements an interface to the ‘crypt(3)(4)’ routine, which
is a one-way hash function based upon a modified DES algorithm; see the
Unix man page for further details.  Possible uses include storing hashed
passwords so you can check passwords without storing the actual
password, or attempting to crack Unix passwords with a dictionary.

Notice that the behavior of this module depends on the actual
implementation of the ‘crypt(3)(5)’ routine in the running system.
Therefore, any extensions available on the current implementation will
also be available on this module.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not VxWorks.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

* Menu:

* Hashing Methods::
* Module Attributes::
* Module Functions: Module Functions<2>.
* Examples: Examples<36>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/crypt.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#crypt

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt(3)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Hashing Methods,  Next: Module Attributes,  Up: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords

5.36.6.1 Hashing Methods
........................

Added in version 3.3.

The *note crypt: 28. module defines the list of hashing methods (not all
methods are available on all platforms):

 -- Verisi: crypt.METHOD_SHA512

     A Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 86
     character hash based on the SHA-512 hash function.  This is the
     strongest method.

 -- Verisi: crypt.METHOD_SHA256

     Another Modular Crypt Format method with 16 character salt and 43
     character hash based on the SHA-256 hash function.

 -- Verisi: crypt.METHOD_BLOWFISH

     Another Modular Crypt Format method with 22 character salt and 31
     character hash based on the Blowfish cipher.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Verisi: crypt.METHOD_MD5

     Another Modular Crypt Format method with 8 character salt and 22
     character hash based on the MD5 hash function.

 -- Verisi: crypt.METHOD_CRYPT

     The traditional method with a 2 character salt and 13 characters of
     hash.  This is the weakest method.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Attributes,  Next: Module Functions<2>,  Prev: Hashing Methods,  Up: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords

5.36.6.2 Module Attributes
..........................

Added in version 3.3.

 -- Özniteliği: crypt.methods

     A list of available password hashing algorithms, as
     ‘crypt.METHOD_*’ objects.  This list is sorted from strongest to
     weakest.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Functions<2>,  Next: Examples<36>,  Prev: Module Attributes,  Up: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords

5.36.6.3 Module Functions
.........................

The *note crypt: 28. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: crypt.crypt (word, salt=None)

     'word' will usually be a user’s password as typed at a prompt or in
     a graphical interface.  The optional 'salt' is either a string as
     returned from *note mksalt(): 99f, one of the ‘crypt.METHOD_*’
     values (though not all may be available on all platforms), or a
     full encrypted password including salt, as returned by this
     function.  If 'salt' is not provided, the strongest method
     available in *note methods: 4621. will be used.

     Checking a password is usually done by passing the plain-text
     password as 'word' and the full results of a previous *note
     crypt(): 28. call, which should be the same as the results of this
     call.

     'salt' (either a random 2 or 16 character string, possibly prefixed
     with ‘$digit$’ to indicate the method) which will be used to
     perturb the encryption algorithm.  The characters in 'salt' must be
     in the set ‘[./a-zA-Z0-9]’, with the exception of Modular Crypt
     Format which prefixes a ‘$digit$’.

     Returns the hashed password as a string, which will be composed of
     characters from the same alphabet as the salt.

     Since a few ‘crypt(3)(1)’ extensions allow different values, with
     different sizes in the 'salt', it is recommended to use the full
     crypted password as salt when checking for a password.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Accept ‘crypt.METHOD_*’ values in addition
     to strings for 'salt'.

 -- Işlevi: crypt.mksalt (method=None, *, rounds=None)

     Return a randomly generated salt of the specified method.  If no
     'method' is given, the strongest method available in *note methods:
     4621. is used.

     The return value is a string suitable for passing as the 'salt'
     argument to *note crypt(): 28.

     'rounds' specifies the number of rounds for ‘METHOD_SHA256’,
     ‘METHOD_SHA512’ and ‘METHOD_BLOWFISH’.  For ‘METHOD_SHA256’ and
     ‘METHOD_SHA512’ it must be an integer between ‘1000’ and
     ‘999_999_999’, the default is ‘5000’.  For ‘METHOD_BLOWFISH’ it
     must be a power of two between ‘16’ (2^4) and ‘2_147_483_648’
     (2^31), the default is ‘4096’ (2^12).

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'rounds' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<36>,  Prev: Module Functions<2>,  Up: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords

5.36.6.4 Examples
.................

A simple example illustrating typical use (a constant-time comparison
operation is needed to limit exposure to timing attacks.  *note
hmac.compare_digest(): f6c. is suitable for this purpose):

     import pwd
     import crypt
     import getpass
     from hmac import compare_digest as compare_hash

     def login():
         username = input('Python login: ')
         cryptedpasswd = pwd.getpwnam(username)[1]
         if cryptedpasswd:
             if cryptedpasswd == 'x' or cryptedpasswd == '*':
                 raise ValueError('no support for shadow passwords')
             cleartext = getpass.getpass()
             return compare_hash(crypt.crypt(cleartext, cryptedpasswd), cryptedpasswd)
         else:
             return True

To generate a hash of a password using the strongest available method
and check it against the original:

     import crypt
     from hmac import compare_digest as compare_hash

     hashed = crypt.crypt(plaintext)
     if not compare_hash(hashed, crypt.crypt(plaintext, hashed)):
         raise ValueError("hashed version doesn't validate against original")


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr — Determine the type of an image,  Next: mailcap — Mailcap file handling,  Prev: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.7 ‘imghdr’ — Determine the type of an image
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/imghdr.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note imghdr: 73. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details and
alternatives).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note imghdr: 73. module determines the type of image contained in a
file or byte stream.

The *note imghdr: 73. module defines the following function:

 -- Işlevi: imghdr.what (file, h=None)

     Test the image data contained in the file named 'file' and return a
     string describing the image type.  If 'h' is provided, the 'file'
     argument is ignored and 'h' is assumed to contain the byte stream
     to test.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

The following image types are recognized, as listed below with the
return value from *note what(): c9e.:

Value            Image format
                 
---------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘'rgb'’          SGI ImgLib Files
                 
                 
‘'gif'’          GIF 87a and 89a Files
                 
                 
‘'pbm'’          Portable Bitmap Files
                 
                 
‘'pgm'’          Portable Graymap Files
                 
                 
‘'ppm'’          Portable Pixmap Files
                 
                 
‘'tiff'’         TIFF Files
                 
                 
‘'rast'’         Sun Raster Files
                 
                 
‘'xbm'’          X Bitmap Files
                 
                 
‘'jpeg'’         JPEG data in JFIF or Exif formats
                 
                 
‘'bmp'’          BMP files
                 
                 
‘'png'’          Portable Network Graphics
                 
                 
‘'webp'’         WebP files
                 
                 
‘'exr'’          OpenEXR Files
                 

Added in version 3.5: The 'exr' and 'webp' formats were added.

You can extend the list of file types *note imghdr: 73. can recognize by
appending to this variable:

 -- Verisi: imghdr.tests

     A list of functions performing the individual tests.  Each function
     takes two arguments: the byte-stream and an open file-like object.
     When *note what(): c9e. is called with a byte-stream, the file-like
     object will be ‘None’.

     The test function should return a string describing the image type
     if the test succeeded, or ‘None’ if it failed.

Example:

     >>> import imghdr
     >>> imghdr.what('bass.gif')
     'gif'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/imghdr.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#imghdr


File: python.info,  Node: mailcap — Mailcap file handling,  Next: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Prev: imghdr — Determine the type of an image,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.8 ‘mailcap’ — Mailcap file handling
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/mailcap.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note mailcap: 8b. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).
The *note mimetypes: 8e. module provides an alternative.

__________________________________________________________________

Mailcap files are used to configure how MIME-aware applications such as
mail readers and web browsers react to files with different MIME types.
(The name “mailcap” is derived from the phrase “mail capability”.)  For
example, a mailcap file might contain a line like ‘video/mpeg; xmpeg
%s’.  Then, if the user encounters an email message or web document with
the MIME type ‘video/mpeg’, ‘%s’ will be replaced by a filename (usually
one belonging to a temporary file) and the ‘xmpeg’ program can be
automatically started to view the file.

The mailcap format is documented in RFC 1524(3), “A User Agent
Configuration Mechanism For Multimedia Mail Format Information”, but is
not an internet standard.  However, mailcap files are supported on most
Unix systems.

 -- Işlevi: mailcap.findmatch (caps, MIMEtype, key='view',
          filename='/dev/null', plist=[])

     Return a 2-tuple; the first element is a string containing the
     command line to be executed (which can be passed to *note
     os.system(): 12e5.), and the second element is the mailcap entry
     for a given MIME type.  If no matching MIME type can be found,
     ‘(None, None)’ is returned.

     'key' is the name of the field desired, which represents the type
     of activity to be performed; the default value is ‘view’, since in
     the most common case you simply want to view the body of the
     MIME-typed data.  Other possible values might be ‘compose’ and
     ‘edit’, if you wanted to create a new body of the given MIME type
     or alter the existing body data.  See RFC 1524(4) for a complete
     list of these fields.

     'filename' is the filename to be substituted for ‘%s’ in the
     command line; the default value is ‘'/dev/null'’ which is almost
     certainly not what you want, so usually you’ll override it by
     specifying a filename.

     'plist' can be a list containing named parameters; the default
     value is simply an empty list.  Each entry in the list must be a
     string containing the parameter name, an equals sign (‘'='’), and
     the parameter’s value.  Mailcap entries can contain named
     parameters like ‘%{foo}’, which will be replaced by the value of
     the parameter named ‘foo’.  For example, if the command line
     ‘showpartial %{id} %{number} %{total}’ was in a mailcap file, and
     'plist' was set to ‘['id=1', 'number=2', 'total=3']’, the resulting
     command line would be ‘'showpartial 1 2 3'’.

     In a mailcap file, the “test” field can optionally be specified to
     test some external condition (such as the machine architecture, or
     the window system in use) to determine whether or not the mailcap
     line applies.  *note findmatch(): 462a. will automatically check
     such conditions and skip the entry if the check fails.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: To prevent security issues with shell
     metacharacters (symbols that have special effects in a shell
     command line), ‘findmatch’ will refuse to inject ASCII characters
     other than alphanumerics and ‘@+=:,./-_’ into the returned command
     line.

     If a disallowed character appears in 'filename', ‘findmatch’ will
     always return ‘(None, None)’ as if no entry was found.  If such a
     character appears elsewhere (a value in 'plist' or in 'MIMEtype'),
     ‘findmatch’ will ignore all mailcap entries which use that value.
     A *note warning: 112. will be raised in either case.

 -- Işlevi: mailcap.getcaps ()

     Returns a dictionary mapping MIME types to a list of mailcap file
     entries.  This dictionary must be passed to the *note findmatch():
     462a. function.  An entry is stored as a list of dictionaries, but
     it shouldn’t be necessary to know the details of this
     representation.

     The information is derived from all of the mailcap files found on
     the system.  Settings in the user’s mailcap file ‘$HOME/.mailcap’
     will override settings in the system mailcap files ‘/etc/mailcap’,
     ‘/usr/etc/mailcap’, and ‘/usr/local/etc/mailcap’.

An example usage:

     >>> import mailcap
     >>> d = mailcap.getcaps()
     >>> mailcap.findmatch(d, 'video/mpeg', filename='tmp1223')
     ('xmpeg tmp1223', {'view': 'xmpeg %s'})

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/mailcap.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#mailcap

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1524.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1524.html


File: python.info,  Node: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Next: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Prev: mailcap — Mailcap file handling,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.9 ‘msilib’ — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/msilib/__init__.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note msilib: 91. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note msilib: 91. supports the creation of Microsoft Installer
(‘.msi’) files.  Because these files often contain an embedded “cabinet”
file (‘.cab’), it also exposes an API to create CAB files.  Support for
reading ‘.cab’ files is currently not implemented; read support for the
‘.msi’ database is possible.

This package aims to provide complete access to all tables in an ‘.msi’
file, therefore, it is a fairly low-level API. One primary application
of this package is the creation of Python installer package itself
(although that currently uses a different version of ‘msilib’).

The package contents can be roughly split into four parts: low-level CAB
routines, low-level MSI routines, higher-level MSI routines, and
standard table structures.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.FCICreate (cabname, files)

     Create a new CAB file named 'cabname'.  'files' must be a list of
     tuples, each containing the name of the file on disk, and the name
     of the file inside the CAB file.

     The files are added to the CAB file in the order they appear in the
     list.  All files are added into a single CAB file, using the MSZIP
     compression algorithm.

     Callbacks to Python for the various steps of MSI creation are
     currently not exposed.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.UuidCreate ()

     Return the string representation of a new unique identifier.  This
     wraps the Windows API functions ‘UuidCreate()’ and
     ‘UuidToString()’.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.OpenDatabase (path, persist)

     Return a new database object by calling MsiOpenDatabase.  'path' is
     the file name of the MSI file; 'persist' can be one of the
     constants ‘MSIDBOPEN_CREATEDIRECT’, ‘MSIDBOPEN_CREATE’,
     ‘MSIDBOPEN_DIRECT’, ‘MSIDBOPEN_READONLY’, or ‘MSIDBOPEN_TRANSACT’,
     and may include the flag ‘MSIDBOPEN_PATCHFILE’.  See the Microsoft
     documentation for the meaning of these flags; depending on the
     flags, an existing database is opened, or a new one created.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.CreateRecord (count)

     Return a new record object by calling ‘MSICreateRecord()’.  'count'
     is the number of fields of the record.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.init_database (name, schema, ProductName,
          ProductCode, ProductVersion, Manufacturer)

     Create and return a new database 'name', initialize it with
     'schema', and set the properties 'ProductName', 'ProductCode',
     'ProductVersion', and 'Manufacturer'.

     'schema' must be a module object containing ‘tables’ and
     ‘_Validation_records’ attributes; typically, *note msilib.schema:
     4631. should be used.

     The database will contain just the schema and the validation
     records when this function returns.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.add_data (database, table, records)

     Add all 'records' to the table named 'table' in 'database'.

     The 'table' argument must be one of the predefined tables in the
     MSI schema, e.g.  ‘'Feature'’, ‘'File'’, ‘'Component'’, ‘'Dialog'’,
     ‘'Control'’, etc.

     'records' should be a list of tuples, each one containing all
     fields of a record according to the schema of the table.  For
     optional fields, ‘None’ can be passed.

     Field values can be ints, strings, or instances of the Binary
     class.

 -- Sınıfı: msilib.Binary (filename)

     Represents entries in the Binary table; inserting such an object
     using *note add_data(): 4632. reads the file named 'filename' into
     the table.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.add_tables (database, module)

     Add all table content from 'module' to 'database'.  'module' must
     contain an attribute 'tables' listing all tables for which content
     should be added, and one attribute per table that has the actual
     content.

     This is typically used to install the sequence tables.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.add_stream (database, name, path)

     Add the file 'path' into the ‘_Stream’ table of 'database', with
     the stream name 'name'.

 -- Işlevi: msilib.gen_uuid ()

     Return a new UUID, in the format that MSI typically requires (i.e.
     in curly braces, and with all hexdigits in uppercase).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

FCICreate(3) UuidCreate(4) UuidToString(5)

* Menu:

* Database Objects::
* View Objects::
* Summary Information Objects::
* Record Objects::
* Errors::
* CAB Objects::
* Directory Objects::
* Features: Features<3>.
* GUI classes::
* Precomputed tables::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/msilib/__init__.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#msilib

   (3) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb432265.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379205.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa379352.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Database Objects,  Next: View Objects,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.1 Database Objects
.........................

 -- Yöntemi: Database.OpenView (sql)

     Return a view object, by calling ‘MSIDatabaseOpenView()’.  'sql' is
     the SQL statement to execute.

 -- Yöntemi: Database.Commit ()

     Commit the changes pending in the current transaction, by calling
     ‘MSIDatabaseCommit()’.

 -- Yöntemi: Database.GetSummaryInformation (count)

     Return a new summary information object, by calling
     ‘MsiGetSummaryInformation()’.  'count' is the maximum number of
     updated values.

 -- Yöntemi: Database.Close ()

     Close the database object, through ‘MsiCloseHandle()’.

     Added in version 3.7.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

MSIDatabaseOpenView(1) MSIDatabaseCommit(2) MSIGetSummaryInformation(3)
MsiCloseHandle(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370082.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370075.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370301.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370067.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: View Objects,  Next: Summary Information Objects,  Prev: Database Objects,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.2 View Objects
.....................

 -- Yöntemi: View.Execute (params)

     Execute the SQL query of the view, through ‘MSIViewExecute()’.  If
     'params' is not ‘None’, it is a record describing actual values of
     the parameter tokens in the query.

 -- Yöntemi: View.GetColumnInfo (kind)

     Return a record describing the columns of the view, through calling
     ‘MsiViewGetColumnInfo()’.  'kind' can be either ‘MSICOLINFO_NAMES’
     or ‘MSICOLINFO_TYPES’.

 -- Yöntemi: View.Fetch ()

     Return a result record of the query, through calling
     ‘MsiViewFetch()’.

 -- Yöntemi: View.Modify (kind, data)

     Modify the view, by calling ‘MsiViewModify()’.  'kind' can be one
     of ‘MSIMODIFY_SEEK’, ‘MSIMODIFY_REFRESH’, ‘MSIMODIFY_INSERT’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_UPDATE’, ‘MSIMODIFY_ASSIGN’, ‘MSIMODIFY_REPLACE’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_MERGE’, ‘MSIMODIFY_DELETE’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_INSERT_TEMPORARY’, ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE’,
     ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_NEW’, ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_FIELD’, or
     ‘MSIMODIFY_VALIDATE_DELETE’.

     'data' must be a record describing the new data.

 -- Yöntemi: View.Close ()

     Close the view, through ‘MsiViewClose()’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

MsiViewExecute(1) MSIViewGetColumnInfo(2) MsiViewFetch(3)
MsiViewModify(4) MsiViewClose(5)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370513.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370516.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370514.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370519.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370510.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Summary Information Objects,  Next: Record Objects,  Prev: View Objects,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.3 Summary Information Objects
....................................

 -- Yöntemi: SummaryInformation.GetProperty (field)

     Return a property of the summary, through
     ‘MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty()’.  'field' is the name of the
     property, and can be one of the constants ‘PID_CODEPAGE’,
     ‘PID_TITLE’, ‘PID_SUBJECT’, ‘PID_AUTHOR’, ‘PID_KEYWORDS’,
     ‘PID_COMMENTS’, ‘PID_TEMPLATE’, ‘PID_LASTAUTHOR’, ‘PID_REVNUMBER’,
     ‘PID_LASTPRINTED’, ‘PID_CREATE_DTM’, ‘PID_LASTSAVE_DTM’,
     ‘PID_PAGECOUNT’, ‘PID_WORDCOUNT’, ‘PID_CHARCOUNT’, ‘PID_APPNAME’,
     or ‘PID_SECURITY’.

 -- Yöntemi: SummaryInformation.GetPropertyCount ()

     Return the number of summary properties, through
     ‘MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount()’.

 -- Yöntemi: SummaryInformation.SetProperty (field, value)

     Set a property through ‘MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty()’.  'field' can
     have the same values as in *note GetProperty(): 1823, 'value' is
     the new value of the property.  Possible value types are integer
     and string.

 -- Yöntemi: SummaryInformation.Persist ()

     Write the modified properties to the summary information stream,
     using ‘MsiSummaryInfoPersist()’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty(1) MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount(2)
MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty(3) MsiSummaryInfoPersist(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370409.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370488.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370491.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370490.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Record Objects,  Next: Errors,  Prev: Summary Information Objects,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.4 Record Objects
.......................

 -- Yöntemi: Record.GetFieldCount ()

     Return the number of fields of the record, through
     ‘MsiRecordGetFieldCount()’.

 -- Yöntemi: Record.GetInteger (field)

     Return the value of 'field' as an integer where possible.  'field'
     must be an integer.

 -- Yöntemi: Record.GetString (field)

     Return the value of 'field' as a string where possible.  'field'
     must be an integer.

 -- Yöntemi: Record.SetString (field, value)

     Set 'field' to 'value' through ‘MsiRecordSetString()’.  'field'
     must be an integer; 'value' a string.

 -- Yöntemi: Record.SetStream (field, value)

     Set 'field' to the contents of the file named 'value', through
     ‘MsiRecordSetStream()’.  'field' must be an integer; 'value' a
     string.

 -- Yöntemi: Record.SetInteger (field, value)

     Set 'field' to 'value' through ‘MsiRecordSetInteger()’.  Both
     'field' and 'value' must be an integer.

 -- Yöntemi: Record.ClearData ()

     Set all fields of the record to 0, through ‘MsiRecordClearData()’.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

MsiRecordGetFieldCount(1) MsiRecordSetString(2) MsiRecordSetStream(3)
MsiRecordSetInteger(4) MsiRecordClearData(5)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370366.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370373.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370372.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370371.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370364.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Errors,  Next: CAB Objects,  Prev: Record Objects,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.5 Errors
...............

All wrappers around MSI functions raise ‘MSIError’; the string inside
the exception will contain more detail.


File: python.info,  Node: CAB Objects,  Next: Directory Objects,  Prev: Errors,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.6 CAB Objects
....................

 -- Sınıfı: msilib.CAB (name)

     The class *note CAB: 4652. represents a CAB file.  During MSI
     construction, files will be added simultaneously to the ‘Files’
     table, and to a CAB file.  Then, when all files have been added,
     the CAB file can be written, then added to the MSI file.

     'name' is the name of the CAB file in the MSI file.

      -- Yöntemi: append (full, file, logical)

          Add the file with the pathname 'full' to the CAB file, under
          the name 'logical'.  If there is already a file named
          'logical', a new file name is created.

          Return the index of the file in the CAB file, and the new name
          of the file inside the CAB file.

      -- Yöntemi: commit (database)

          Generate a CAB file, add it as a stream to the MSI file, put
          it into the ‘Media’ table, and remove the generated file from
          the disk.


File: python.info,  Node: Directory Objects,  Next: Features<3>,  Prev: CAB Objects,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.7 Directory Objects
..........................

 -- Sınıfı: msilib.Directory (database, cab, basedir, physical, logical,
          default[, componentflags])

     Create a new directory in the Directory table.  There is a current
     component at each point in time for the directory, which is either
     explicitly created through *note start_component(): 1824, or
     implicitly when files are added for the first time.  Files are
     added into the current component, and into the cab file.  To create
     a directory, a base directory object needs to be specified (can be
     ‘None’), the path to the physical directory, and a logical
     directory name.  'default' specifies the DefaultDir slot in the
     directory table.  'componentflags' specifies the default flags that
     new components get.

      -- Yöntemi: start_component (component=None, feature=None,
               flags=None, keyfile=None, uuid=None)

          Add an entry to the Component table, and make this component
          the current component for this directory.  If no component
          name is given, the directory name is used.  If no 'feature' is
          given, the current feature is used.  If no 'flags' are given,
          the directory’s default flags are used.  If no 'keyfile' is
          given, the KeyPath is left null in the Component table.

      -- Yöntemi: add_file (file, src=None, version=None, language=None)

          Add a file to the current component of the directory, starting
          a new one if there is no current component.  By default, the
          file name in the source and the file table will be identical.
          If the 'src' file is specified, it is interpreted relative to
          the current directory.  Optionally, a 'version' and a
          'language' can be specified for the entry in the File table.

      -- Yöntemi: glob (pattern, exclude=None)

          Add a list of files to the current component as specified in
          the glob pattern.  Individual files can be excluded in the
          'exclude' list.

      -- Yöntemi: remove_pyc ()

          Remove ‘.pyc’ files on uninstall.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Directory Table(1) File Table(2) Component Table(3) FeatureComponents
Table(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368295.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368596.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368007.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368579.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Features<3>,  Next: GUI classes,  Prev: Directory Objects,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.8 Features
.................

 -- Sınıfı: msilib.Feature (db, id, title, desc, display, level=1,
          parent=None, directory=None, attributes=0)

     Add a new record to the ‘Feature’ table, using the values 'id',
     'parent.id', 'title', 'desc', 'display', 'level', 'directory', and
     'attributes'.  The resulting feature object can be passed to the
     ‘start_component()’ method of *note Directory: 4657.

      -- Yöntemi: set_current ()

          Make this feature the current feature of *note msilib: 91.
          New components are automatically added to the default feature,
          unless a feature is explicitly specified.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Feature Table(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368585.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: GUI classes,  Next: Precomputed tables,  Prev: Features<3>,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.9 GUI classes
....................

*note msilib: 91. provides several classes that wrap the GUI tables in
an MSI database.  However, no standard user interface is provided.

 -- Sınıfı: msilib.Control (dlg, name)

     Base class of the dialog controls.  'dlg' is the dialog object the
     control belongs to, and 'name' is the control’s name.

      -- Yöntemi: event (event, argument, condition=1, ordering=None)

          Make an entry into the ‘ControlEvent’ table for this control.

      -- Yöntemi: mapping (event, attribute)

          Make an entry into the ‘EventMapping’ table for this control.

      -- Yöntemi: condition (action, condition)

          Make an entry into the ‘ControlCondition’ table for this
          control.

 -- Sınıfı: msilib.RadioButtonGroup (dlg, name, property)

     Create a radio button control named 'name'.  'property' is the
     installer property that gets set when a radio button is selected.

      -- Yöntemi: add (name, x, y, width, height, text, value=None)

          Add a radio button named 'name' to the group, at the
          coordinates 'x', 'y', 'width', 'height', and with the label
          'text'.  If 'value' is ‘None’, it defaults to 'name'.

 -- Sınıfı: msilib.Dialog (db, name, x, y, w, h, attr, title, first,
          default, cancel)

     Return a new *note Dialog: 4667. object.  An entry in the ‘Dialog’
     table is made, with the specified coordinates, dialog attributes,
     title, name of the first, default, and cancel controls.

      -- Yöntemi: control (name, type, x, y, width, height, attributes,
               property, text, control_next, help)

          Return a new *note Control: 4661. object.  An entry in the
          ‘Control’ table is made with the specified parameters.

          This is a generic method; for specific types, specialized
          methods are provided.

      -- Yöntemi: text (name, x, y, width, height, attributes, text)

          Add and return a ‘Text’ control.

      -- Yöntemi: bitmap (name, x, y, width, height, text)

          Add and return a ‘Bitmap’ control.

      -- Yöntemi: line (name, x, y, width, height)

          Add and return a ‘Line’ control.

      -- Yöntemi: pushbutton (name, x, y, width, height, attributes,
               text, next_control)

          Add and return a ‘PushButton’ control.

      -- Yöntemi: radiogroup (name, x, y, width, height, attributes,
               property, text, next_control)

          Add and return a ‘RadioButtonGroup’ control.

      -- Yöntemi: checkbox (name, x, y, width, height, attributes,
               property, text, next_control)

          Add and return a ‘CheckBox’ control.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Dialog Table(1) Control Table(2) Control Types(3) ControlCondition
Table(4) ControlEvent Table(5) EventMapping Table(6) RadioButton
Table(7)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368286.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368044.aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368039.aspx

   (4) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368035.aspx

   (5) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368037.aspx

   (6) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa368559.aspx

   (7) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa370962.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Precomputed tables,  Prev: GUI classes,  Up: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

5.36.9.10 Precomputed tables
............................

*note msilib: 91. provides a few subpackages that contain only schema
and table definitions.  Currently, these definitions are based on MSI
version 2.0.

 -- Verisi: msilib.schema

     This is the standard MSI schema for MSI 2.0, with the 'tables'
     variable providing a list of table definitions, and
     '_Validation_records' providing the data for MSI validation.

 -- Verisi: msilib.sequence

     This module contains table contents for the standard sequence
     tables: 'AdminExecuteSequence', 'AdminUISequence',
     'AdvtExecuteSequence', 'InstallExecuteSequence', and
     'InstallUISequence'.

 -- Verisi: msilib.text

     This module contains definitions for the UIText and ActionText
     tables, for the standard installer actions.


File: python.info,  Node: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Next: nntplib — NNTP protocol client,  Prev: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.10 ‘nis’ — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
-----------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note nis: 9b. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(1) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note nis: 9b. module gives a thin wrapper around the NIS library,
useful for central administration of several hosts.

Because NIS exists only on Unix systems, this module is only available
for Unix.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

The *note nis: 9b. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: nis.match (key, mapname, domain=default_domain)

     Return the match for 'key' in map 'mapname', or raise an error
     (*note nis.error: 4675.) if there is none.  Both should be strings,
     'key' is 8-bit clean.  Return value is an arbitrary array of bytes
     (may contain ‘NULL’ and other joys).

     Note that 'mapname' is first checked if it is an alias to another
     name.

     The 'domain' argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the
     lookup.  If unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.

 -- Işlevi: nis.cat (mapname, domain=default_domain)

     Return a dictionary mapping 'key' to 'value' such that ‘match(key,
     mapname)==value’.  Note that both keys and values of the dictionary
     are arbitrary arrays of bytes.

     Note that 'mapname' is first checked if it is an alias to another
     name.

     The 'domain' argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the
     lookup.  If unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.

 -- Işlevi: nis.maps (domain=default_domain)

     Return a list of all valid maps.

     The 'domain' argument allows overriding the NIS domain used for the
     lookup.  If unspecified, lookup is in the default NIS domain.

 -- Işlevi: nis.get_default_domain ()

     Return the system default NIS domain.

The *note nis: 9b. module defines the following exception:

 -- Özel Durum: nis.error

     An error raised when a NIS function returns an error code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#nis


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib — NNTP protocol client,  Next: optparse — Parser for command line options,  Prev: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.11 ‘nntplib’ — NNTP protocol client
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/nntplib.py(1)

3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The *note nntplib: 9c. module is
deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines the class *note NNTP: 76d. which implements the
client side of the Network News Transfer Protocol.  It can be used to
implement a news reader or poster, or automated news processors.  It is
compatible with RFC 3977(3) as well as the older RFC 977(4) and RFC
2980(5).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

Here are two small examples of how it can be used.  To list some
statistics about a newsgroup and print the subjects of the last 10
articles:

     >>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.io')
     >>> resp, count, first, last, name = s.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
     >>> print('Group', name, 'has', count, 'articles, range', first, 'to', last)
     Group gmane.comp.python.committers has 1096 articles, range 1 to 1096
     >>> resp, overviews = s.over((last - 9, last))
     >>> for id, over in overviews:
     ...     print(id, nntplib.decode_header(over['subject']))
     ...
     1087 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
     1088 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
     1089 Re: 3.2 alpha 2 freeze
     1090 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
     1091 Re: Commit privileges for Łukasz Langa
     1092 Updated ssh key
     1093 Re: Updated ssh key
     1094 Re: Updated ssh key
     1095 Hello fellow committers!
     1096 Re: Hello fellow committers!
     >>> s.quit()
     '205 Bye!'

To post an article from a binary file (this assumes that the article has
valid headers, and that you have right to post on the particular
newsgroup):

     >>> s = nntplib.NNTP('news.gmane.io')
     >>> f = open('article.txt', 'rb')
     >>> s.post(f)
     '240 Article posted successfully.'
     >>> s.quit()
     '205 Bye!'

The module itself defines the following classes:

 -- Sınıfı: nntplib.NNTP (host, port=119, user=None, password=None,
          readermode=None, usenetrc=False[, timeout])

     Return a new *note NNTP: 76d. object, representing a connection to
     the NNTP server running on host 'host', listening at port 'port'.
     An optional 'timeout' can be specified for the socket connection.
     If the optional 'user' and 'password' are provided, or if suitable
     credentials are present in ‘/.netrc’ and the optional flag
     'usenetrc' is true, the ‘AUTHINFO USER’ and ‘AUTHINFO PASS’
     commands are used to identify and authenticate the user to the
     server.  If the optional flag 'readermode' is true, then a ‘mode
     reader’ command is sent before authentication is performed.  Reader
     mode is sometimes necessary if you are connecting to an NNTP server
     on the local machine and intend to call reader-specific commands,
     such as ‘group’.  If you get unexpected *note NNTPPermanentError:
     467a.s, you might need to set 'readermode'.  The *note NNTP: 76d.
     class supports the *note with: 3dd. statement to unconditionally
     consume *note OSError: 65c. exceptions and to close the NNTP
     connection when done, e.g.:

          >>> from nntplib import NNTP
          >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.io') as n:
          ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
          ...
          ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
          >>>

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘nntplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘nntplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'usenetrc' is now ‘False’ by default.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support for the *note with: 3dd. statement
     was added.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Sınıfı: nntplib.NNTP_SSL (host, port=563, user=None, password=None,
          ssl_context=None, readermode=None, usenetrc=False[, timeout])

     Return a new *note NNTP_SSL: 76e. object, representing an encrypted
     connection to the NNTP server running on host 'host', listening at
     port 'port'.  *note NNTP_SSL: 76e. objects have the same methods as
     *note NNTP: 76d. objects.  If 'port' is omitted, port 563 (NNTPS)
     is used.  'ssl_context' is also optional, and is a *note
     SSLContext: 277. object.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 3092. for best practices.  All other parameters
     behave the same as for *note NNTP: 76d.

     Note that SSL-on-563 is discouraged per RFC 4642(6), in favor of
     STARTTLS as described below.  However, some servers only support
     the former.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘nntplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘nntplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 189. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Özel Durum: nntplib.NNTPError

     Derived from the standard exception *note Exception: 838, this is
     the base class for all exceptions raised by the *note nntplib: 9c.
     module.  Instances of this class have the following attribute:

      -- Özniteliği: response

          The response of the server if available, as a *note str: 15d.
          object.

 -- Özel Durum: nntplib.NNTPReplyError

     Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the
     server.

 -- Özel Durum: nntplib.NNTPTemporaryError

     Exception raised when a response code in the range 400–499 is
     received.

 -- Özel Durum: nntplib.NNTPPermanentError

     Exception raised when a response code in the range 500–599 is
     received.

 -- Özel Durum: nntplib.NNTPProtocolError

     Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does
     not begin with a digit in the range 1–5.

 -- Özel Durum: nntplib.NNTPDataError

     Exception raised when there is some error in the response data.

* Menu:

* NNTP Objects::
* Utility functions: Utility functions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/nntplib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc977.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2980.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4642.html


File: python.info,  Node: NNTP Objects,  Next: Utility functions<2>,  Up: nntplib — NNTP protocol client

5.36.11.1 NNTP Objects
......................

When connected, *note NNTP: 76d. and *note NNTP_SSL: 76e. objects
support the following methods and attributes.

* Menu:

* Attributes: Attributes<2>.
* Methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes<2>,  Next: Methods,  Up: NNTP Objects

5.36.11.2 Attributes
....................

 -- Özniteliği: NNTP.nntp_version

     An integer representing the version of the NNTP protocol supported
     by the server.  In practice, this should be ‘2’ for servers
     advertising RFC 3977(1) compliance and ‘1’ for others.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Özniteliği: NNTP.nntp_implementation

     A string describing the software name and version of the NNTP
     server, or *note None: 488. if not advertised by the server.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html


File: python.info,  Node: Methods,  Prev: Attributes<2>,  Up: NNTP Objects

5.36.11.3 Methods
.................

The 'response' that is returned as the first item in the return tuple of
almost all methods is the server’s response: a string beginning with a
three-digit code.  If the server’s response indicates an error, the
method raises one of the above exceptions.

Many of the following methods take an optional keyword-only argument
'file'.  When the 'file' argument is supplied, it must be either a *note
file object: 1068. opened for binary writing, or the name of an on-disk
file to be written to.  The method will then write any data returned by
the server (except for the response line and the terminating dot) to the
file; any list of lines, tuples or objects that the method normally
returns will be empty.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Many of the following methods have been reworked
and fixed, which makes them incompatible with their 3.1 counterparts.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.quit ()

     Send a ‘QUIT’ command and close the connection.  Once this method
     has been called, no other methods of the NNTP object should be
     called.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.getwelcome ()

     Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the
     initial connection.  (This message sometimes contains disclaimers
     or help information that may be relevant to the user.)

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.getcapabilities ()

     Return the RFC 3977(1) capabilities advertised by the server, as a
     *note dict: 240. instance mapping capability names to (possibly
     empty) lists of values.  On legacy servers which don’t understand
     the ‘CAPABILITIES’ command, an empty dictionary is returned
     instead.

          >>> s = NNTP('news.gmane.io')
          >>> 'POST' in s.getcapabilities()
          True

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.login (user=None, password=None, usenetrc=True)

     Send ‘AUTHINFO’ commands with the user name and password.  If
     'user' and 'password' are ‘None’ and 'usenetrc' is true,
     credentials from ‘~/.netrc’ will be used if possible.

     Unless intentionally delayed, login is normally performed during
     the *note NNTP: 76d. object initialization and separately calling
     this function is unnecessary.  To force authentication to be
     delayed, you must not set 'user' or 'password' when creating the
     object, and must set 'usenetrc' to False.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.starttls (context=None)

     Send a ‘STARTTLS’ command.  This will enable encryption on the NNTP
     connection.  The 'context' argument is optional and should be a
     *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. object.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 3092. for best practices.

     Note that this may not be done after authentication information has
     been transmitted, and authentication occurs by default if possible
     during a *note NNTP: 76d. object initialization.  See *note
     NNTP.login(): 468a. for information on suppressing this behavior.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The method now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 31b5. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 31c7.).

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.newgroups (date, *, file=None)

     Send a ‘NEWGROUPS’ command.  The 'date' argument should be a *note
     datetime.date: 749. or *note datetime.datetime: 22b. object.
     Return a pair ‘(response, groups)’ where 'groups' is a list
     representing the groups that are new since the given 'date'.  If
     'file' is supplied, though, then 'groups' will be empty.

          >>> from datetime import date, timedelta
          >>> resp, groups = s.newgroups(date.today() - timedelta(days=3))
          >>> len(groups)
          85
          >>> groups[0]
          GroupInfo(group='gmane.network.tor.devel', last='4', first='1', flag='m')

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.newnews (group, date, *, file=None)

     Send a ‘NEWNEWS’ command.  Here, 'group' is a group name or ‘'*'’,
     and 'date' has the same meaning as for *note newgroups(): 468b.
     Return a pair ‘(response, articles)’ where 'articles' is a list of
     message ids.

     This command is frequently disabled by NNTP server administrators.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.list (group_pattern=None, *, file=None)

     Send a ‘LIST’ or ‘LIST ACTIVE’ command.  Return a pair ‘(response,
     list)’ where 'list' is a list of tuples representing all the groups
     available from this NNTP server, optionally matching the pattern
     string 'group_pattern'.  Each tuple has the form ‘(group, last,
     first, flag)’, where 'group' is a group name, 'last' and 'first'
     are the last and first article numbers, and 'flag' usually takes
     one of these values:

        * ‘y’: Local postings and articles from peers are allowed.

        * ‘m’: The group is moderated and all postings must be approved.

        * ‘n’: No local postings are allowed, only articles from peers.

        * ‘j’: Articles from peers are filed in the junk group instead.

        * ‘x’: No local postings, and articles from peers are ignored.

        * ‘=foo.bar’: Articles are filed in the ‘foo.bar’ group instead.

     If 'flag' has another value, then the status of the newsgroup
     should be considered unknown.

     This command can return very large results, especially if
     'group_pattern' is not specified.  It is best to cache the results
     offline unless you really need to refresh them.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: 'group_pattern' was added.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.descriptions (grouppattern)

     Send a ‘LIST NEWSGROUPS’ command, where 'grouppattern' is a wildmat
     string as specified in RFC 3977(2) (it’s essentially the same as
     DOS or UNIX shell wildcard strings).  Return a pair ‘(response,
     descriptions)’, where 'descriptions' is a dictionary mapping group
     names to textual descriptions.

          >>> resp, descs = s.descriptions('gmane.comp.python.*')
          >>> len(descs)
          295
          >>> descs.popitem()
          ('gmane.comp.python.bio.general', 'BioPython discussion list (Moderated)')

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.description (group)

     Get a description for a single group 'group'.  If more than one
     group matches (if ‘group’ is a real wildmat string), return the
     first match.  If no group matches, return an empty string.

     This elides the response code from the server.  If the response
     code is needed, use *note descriptions(): 7a2.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.group (name)

     Send a ‘GROUP’ command, where 'name' is the group name.  The group
     is selected as the current group, if it exists.  Return a tuple
     ‘(response, count, first, last, name)’ where 'count' is the
     (estimated) number of articles in the group, 'first' is the first
     article number in the group, 'last' is the last article number in
     the group, and 'name' is the group name.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.over (message_spec, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘OVER’ command, or an ‘XOVER’ command on legacy servers.
     'message_spec' can be either a string representing a message id, or
     a ‘(first, last)’ tuple of numbers indicating a range of articles
     in the current group, or a ‘(first, None)’ tuple indicating a range
     of articles starting from 'first' to the last article in the
     current group, or *note None: 488. to select the current article in
     the current group.

     Return a pair ‘(response, overviews)’.  'overviews' is a list of
     ‘(article_number, overview)’ tuples, one for each article selected
     by 'message_spec'.  Each 'overview' is a dictionary with the same
     number of items, but this number depends on the server.  These
     items are either message headers (the key is then the lower-cased
     header name) or metadata items (the key is then the metadata name
     prepended with ‘":"’).  The following items are guaranteed to be
     present by the NNTP specification:

        * the ‘subject’, ‘from’, ‘date’, ‘message-id’ and ‘references’
          headers

        * the ‘:bytes’ metadata: the number of bytes in the entire raw
          article (including headers and body)

        * the ‘:lines’ metadata: the number of lines in the article body

     The value of each item is either a string, or *note None: 488. if
     not present.

     It is advisable to use the *note decode_header(): 4690. function on
     header values when they may contain non-ASCII characters:

          >>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
          >>> resp, overviews = s.over((last, last))
          >>> art_num, over = overviews[0]
          >>> art_num
          117216
          >>> list(over.keys())
          ['xref', 'from', ':lines', ':bytes', 'references', 'date', 'message-id', 'subject']
          >>> over['from']
          '=?UTF-8?B?Ik1hcnRpbiB2LiBMw7Z3aXMi?= <martin@v.loewis.de>'
          >>> nntplib.decode_header(over['from'])
          '"Martin v. Löwis" <martin@v.loewis.de>'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.help (*, file=None)

     Send a ‘HELP’ command.  Return a pair ‘(response, list)’ where
     'list' is a list of help strings.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.stat (message_spec=None)

     Send a ‘STAT’ command, where 'message_spec' is either a message id
     (enclosed in ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’) or an article number in the current
     group.  If 'message_spec' is omitted or *note None: 488, the
     current article in the current group is considered.  Return a
     triple ‘(response, number, id)’ where 'number' is the article
     number and 'id' is the message id.

          >>> _, _, first, last, _ = s.group('gmane.comp.python.devel')
          >>> resp, number, message_id = s.stat(first)
          >>> number, message_id
          (9099, '<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.next ()

     Send a ‘NEXT’ command.  Return as for *note stat(): 4692.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.last ()

     Send a ‘LAST’ command.  Return as for *note stat(): 4692.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.article (message_spec=None, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘ARTICLE’ command, where 'message_spec' has the same
     meaning as for *note stat(): 4692.  Return a tuple ‘(response,
     info)’ where 'info' is a *note namedtuple: 74b. with three
     attributes 'number', 'message_id' and 'lines' (in that order).
     'number' is the article number in the group (or 0 if the
     information is not available), 'message_id' the message id as a
     string, and 'lines' a list of lines (without terminating newlines)
     comprising the raw message including headers and body.

          >>> resp, info = s.article('<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>')
          >>> info.number
          0
          >>> info.message_id
          '<20030112190404.GE29873@epoch.metaslash.com>'
          >>> len(info.lines)
          65
          >>> info.lines[0]
          b'Path: main.gmane.org!not-for-mail'
          >>> info.lines[1]
          b'From: Neal Norwitz <neal@metaslash.com>'
          >>> info.lines[-3:]
          [b'There is a patch for 2.3 as well as 2.2.', b'', b'Neal']

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.head (message_spec=None, *, file=None)

     Same as *note article(): 4695, but sends a ‘HEAD’ command.  The
     'lines' returned (or written to 'file') will only contain the
     message headers, not the body.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.body (message_spec=None, *, file=None)

     Same as *note article(): 4695, but sends a ‘BODY’ command.  The
     'lines' returned (or written to 'file') will only contain the
     message body, not the headers.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.post (data)

     Post an article using the ‘POST’ command.  The 'data' argument is
     either a *note file object: 1068. opened for binary reading, or any
     iterable of bytes objects (representing raw lines of the article to
     be posted).  It should represent a well-formed news article,
     including the required headers.  The *note post(): 4698. method
     automatically escapes lines beginning with ‘.’ and appends the
     termination line.

     If the method succeeds, the server’s response is returned.  If the
     server refuses posting, a *note NNTPReplyError: 467d. is raised.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.ihave (message_id, data)

     Send an ‘IHAVE’ command.  'message_id' is the id of the message to
     send to the server (enclosed in ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’).  The 'data'
     parameter and the return value are the same as for *note post():
     4698.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.date ()

     Return a pair ‘(response, date)’.  'date' is a *note datetime: 22b.
     object containing the current date and time of the server.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.slave ()

     Send a ‘SLAVE’ command.  Return the server’s 'response'.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the instance’s debugging level.  This controls the amount of
     debugging output printed.  The default, ‘0’, produces no debugging
     output.  A value of ‘1’ produces a moderate amount of debugging
     output, generally a single line per request or response.  A value
     of ‘2’ or higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output,
     logging each line sent and received on the connection (including
     message text).

The following are optional NNTP extensions defined in RFC 2980(3).  Some
of them have been superseded by newer commands in RFC 3977(4).

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.xhdr (hdr, str, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘XHDR’ command.  The 'hdr' argument is a header keyword,
     e.g.  ‘'subject'’.  The 'str' argument should have the form
     ‘'first-last'’ where 'first' and 'last' are the first and last
     article numbers to search.  Return a pair ‘(response, list)’, where
     'list' is a list of pairs ‘(id, text)’, where 'id' is an article
     number (as a string) and 'text' is the text of the requested header
     for that article.  If the 'file' parameter is supplied, then the
     output of the ‘XHDR’ command is stored in a file.  If 'file' is a
     string, then the method will open a file with that name, write to
     it then close it.  If 'file' is a *note file object: 1068, then it
     will start calling ‘write()’ on it to store the lines of the
     command output.  If 'file' is supplied, then the returned 'list' is
     an empty list.

 -- Yöntemi: NNTP.xover (start, end, *, file=None)

     Send an ‘XOVER’ command.  'start' and 'end' are article numbers
     delimiting the range of articles to select.  The return value is
     the same of for *note over(): 468f.  It is recommended to use *note
     over(): 468f. instead, since it will automatically use the newer
     ‘OVER’ command if available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2980.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3977.html


File: python.info,  Node: Utility functions<2>,  Prev: NNTP Objects,  Up: nntplib — NNTP protocol client

5.36.11.4 Utility functions
...........................

The module also defines the following utility function:

 -- Işlevi: nntplib.decode_header (header_str)

     Decode a header value, un-escaping any escaped non-ASCII
     characters.  'header_str' must be a *note str: 15d. object.  The
     unescaped value is returned.  Using this function is recommended to
     display some headers in a human readable form:

          >>> decode_header("Some subject")
          'Some subject'
          >>> decode_header("=?ISO-8859-15?Q?D=E9buter_en_Python?=")
          'Débuter en Python'
          >>> decode_header("Re: =?UTF-8?B?cHJvYmzDqG1lIGRlIG1hdHJpY2U=?=")
          'Re: problème de matrice'


File: python.info,  Node: optparse — Parser for command line options,  Next: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Prev: nntplib — NNTP protocol client,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.12 ‘optparse’ — Parser for command line options
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/optparse.py(1)

3.2 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The *note optparse: 9f. module is
deprecated and will not be developed further; development will continue
with the *note argparse: 6. module.

__________________________________________________________________

*note optparse: 9f. is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library
for parsing command-line options than the old *note getopt: 5f. module.
*note optparse: 9f. uses a more declarative style of command-line
parsing: you create an instance of *note OptionParser: 135a, populate it
with options, and parse the command line.  *note optparse: 9f. allows
users to specify options in the conventional GNU/POSIX syntax, and
additionally generates usage and help messages for you.

Here’s an example of using *note optparse: 9f. in a simple script:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()
     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                       help="write report to FILE", metavar="FILE")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="don't print status messages to stdout")

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

With these few lines of code, users of your script can now do the “usual
thing” on the command-line, for example:

     <yourscript> --file=outfile -q

As it parses the command line, *note optparse: 9f. sets attributes of
the ‘options’ object returned by *note parse_args(): 135b. based on
user-supplied command-line values.  When *note parse_args(): 135b.
returns from parsing this command line, ‘options.filename’ will be
‘"outfile"’ and ‘options.verbose’ will be ‘False’.  *note optparse: 9f.
supports both long and short options, allows short options to be merged
together, and allows options to be associated with their arguments in a
variety of ways.  Thus, the following command lines are all equivalent
to the above example:

     <yourscript> -f outfile --quiet
     <yourscript> --quiet --file outfile
     <yourscript> -q -foutfile
     <yourscript> -qfoutfile

Additionally, users can run one of the following

     <yourscript> -h
     <yourscript> --help

and *note optparse: 9f. will print out a brief summary of your script’s
options:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options]

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
       -q, --quiet           don't print status messages to stdout

where the value of 'yourscript' is determined at runtime (normally from
‘sys.argv[0]’).

* Menu:

* Background::
* Tutorial: Tutorial<4>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<18>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/optparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: Background,  Next: Tutorial<4>,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.36.12.1 Background
....................

*note optparse: 9f. was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of
programs with straightforward, conventional command-line interfaces.  To
that end, it supports only the most common command-line syntax and
semantics conventionally used under Unix.  If you are unfamiliar with
these conventions, read this section to acquaint yourself with them.

* Menu:

* Terminology::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminology,  Next: What are options for?,  Up: Background

5.36.12.2 Terminology
.....................

argument

     a string entered on the command-line, and passed by the shell to
     ‘execl()’ or ‘execv()’.  In Python, arguments are elements of
     ‘sys.argv[1:]’ (‘sys.argv[0]’ is the name of the program being
     executed).  Unix shells also use the term “word”.

     It is occasionally desirable to substitute an argument list other
     than ‘sys.argv[1:]’, so you should read “argument” as “an element
     of ‘sys.argv[1:]’, or of some other list provided as a substitute
     for ‘sys.argv[1:]’”.

option

     an argument used to supply extra information to guide or customize
     the execution of a program.  There are many different syntaxes for
     options; the traditional Unix syntax is a hyphen (“-”) followed by
     a single letter, e.g.  ‘-x’ or ‘-F’.  Also, traditional Unix syntax
     allows multiple options to be merged into a single argument, e.g.
     ‘-x -F’ is equivalent to ‘-xF’.  The GNU project introduced ‘--’
     followed by a series of hyphen-separated words, e.g.  ‘--file’ or
     ‘--dry-run’.  These are the only two option syntaxes provided by
     *note optparse: 9f.

     Some other option syntaxes that the world has seen include:

        * a hyphen followed by a few letters, e.g.  ‘-pf’ (this is 'not'
          the same as multiple options merged into a single argument)

        * a hyphen followed by a whole word, e.g.  ‘-file’ (this is
          technically equivalent to the previous syntax, but they aren’t
          usually seen in the same program)

        * a plus sign followed by a single letter, or a few letters, or
          a word, e.g.  ‘+f’, ‘+rgb’

        * a slash followed by a letter, or a few letters, or a word,
          e.g.  ‘/f’, ‘/file’

     These option syntaxes are not supported by *note optparse: 9f, and
     they never will be.  This is deliberate: the first three are
     non-standard on any environment, and the last only makes sense if
     you’re exclusively targeting Windows or certain legacy platforms
     (e.g.  VMS, MS-DOS).

option argument

     an argument that follows an option, is closely associated with that
     option, and is consumed from the argument list when that option is.
     With *note optparse: 9f, option arguments may either be in a
     separate argument from their option:

          -f foo
          --file foo

     or included in the same argument:

          -ffoo
          --file=foo

     Typically, a given option either takes an argument or it doesn’t.
     Lots of people want an “optional option arguments” feature, meaning
     that some options will take an argument if they see it, and won’t
     if they don’t.  This is somewhat controversial, because it makes
     parsing ambiguous: if ‘-a’ takes an optional argument and ‘-b’ is
     another option entirely, how do we interpret ‘-ab’?  Because of
     this ambiguity, *note optparse: 9f. does not support this feature.

positional argument

     something leftover in the argument list after options have been
     parsed, i.e.  after options and their arguments have been parsed
     and removed from the argument list.

required option

     an option that must be supplied on the command-line; note that the
     phrase “required option” is self-contradictory in English.  *note
     optparse: 9f. doesn’t prevent you from implementing required
     options, but doesn’t give you much help at it either.

For example, consider this hypothetical command-line:

     prog -v --report report.txt foo bar

‘-v’ and ‘--report’ are both options.  Assuming that ‘--report’ takes
one argument, ‘report.txt’ is an option argument.  ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ are
positional arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: What are options for?,  Next: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: Terminology,  Up: Background

5.36.12.3 What are options for?
...............................

Options are used to provide extra information to tune or customize the
execution of a program.  In case it wasn’t clear, options are usually
'optional'.  A program should be able to run just fine with no options
whatsoever.  (Pick a random program from the Unix or GNU toolsets.  Can
it run without any options at all and still make sense?  The main
exceptions are ‘find’, ‘tar’, and ‘dd’—all of which are mutant oddballs
that have been rightly criticized for their non-standard syntax and
confusing interfaces.)

Lots of people want their programs to have “required options”.  Think
about it.  If it’s required, then it’s 'not optional'!  If there is a
piece of information that your program absolutely requires in order to
run successfully, that’s what positional arguments are for.

As an example of good command-line interface design, consider the humble
‘cp’ utility, for copying files.  It doesn’t make much sense to try to
copy files without supplying a destination and at least one source.
Hence, ‘cp’ fails if you run it with no arguments.  However, it has a
flexible, useful syntax that does not require any options at all:

     cp SOURCE DEST
     cp SOURCE ... DEST-DIR

You can get pretty far with just that.  Most ‘cp’ implementations
provide a bunch of options to tweak exactly how the files are copied:
you can preserve mode and modification time, avoid following symlinks,
ask before clobbering existing files, etc.  But none of this distracts
from the core mission of ‘cp’, which is to copy either one file to
another, or several files to another directory.


File: python.info,  Node: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: What are options for?,  Up: Background

5.36.12.4 What are positional arguments for?
............................................

Positional arguments are for those pieces of information that your
program absolutely, positively requires to run.

A good user interface should have as few absolute requirements as
possible.  If your program requires 17 distinct pieces of information in
order to run successfully, it doesn’t much matter 'how' you get that
information from the user—most people will give up and walk away before
they successfully run the program.  This applies whether the user
interface is a command-line, a configuration file, or a GUI: if you make
that many demands on your users, most of them will simply give up.

In short, try to minimize the amount of information that users are
absolutely required to supply—use sensible defaults whenever possible.
Of course, you also want to make your programs reasonably flexible.
That’s what options are for.  Again, it doesn’t matter if they are
entries in a config file, widgets in the “Preferences” dialog of a GUI,
or command-line options—the more options you implement, the more
flexible your program is, and the more complicated its implementation
becomes.  Too much flexibility has drawbacks as well, of course; too
many options can overwhelm users and make your code much harder to
maintain.


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial<4>,  Next: Reference Guide,  Prev: Background,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.36.12.5 Tutorial
..................

While *note optparse: 9f. is quite flexible and powerful, it’s also
straightforward to use in most cases.  This section covers the code
patterns that are common to any *note optparse: 9f.-based program.

First, you need to import the OptionParser class; then, early in the
main program, create an OptionParser instance:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()

Then you can start defining options.  The basic syntax is:

     parser.add_option(opt_str, ...,
                       attr=value, ...)

Each option has one or more option strings, such as ‘-f’ or ‘--file’,
and several option attributes that tell *note optparse: 9f. what to
expect and what to do when it encounters that option on the command
line.

Typically, each option will have one short option string and one long
option string, e.g.:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", ...)

You’re free to define as many short option strings and as many long
option strings as you like (including zero), as long as there is at
least one option string overall.

The option strings passed to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a96. are
effectively labels for the option defined by that call.  For brevity, we
will frequently refer to 'encountering an option' on the command line;
in reality, *note optparse: 9f. encounters 'option strings' and looks up
options from them.

Once all of your options are defined, instruct *note optparse: 9f. to
parse your program’s command line:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

(If you like, you can pass a custom argument list to *note parse_args():
135b, but that’s rarely necessary: by default it uses ‘sys.argv[1:]’.)

*note parse_args(): 135b. returns two values:

   * ‘options’, an object containing values for all of your options—e.g.
     if ‘--file’ takes a single string argument, then ‘options.file’
     will be the filename supplied by the user, or ‘None’ if the user
     did not supply that option

   * ‘args’, the list of positional arguments leftover after parsing
     options

This tutorial section only covers the four most important option
attributes: *note action: 46ac, *note type: 46ad, *note dest: 46ae.
(destination), and *note help: 46af.  Of these, *note action: 46ac. is
the most fundamental.

* Menu:

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Default values::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding option actions,  Next: The store action,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.6 Understanding option actions
......................................

Actions tell *note optparse: 9f. what to do when it encounters an option
on the command line.  There is a fixed set of actions hard-coded into
*note optparse: 9f.; adding new actions is an advanced topic covered in
section *note Extending optparse: 46b2.  Most actions tell *note
optparse: 9f. to store a value in some variable—for example, take a
string from the command line and store it in an attribute of ‘options’.

If you don’t specify an option action, *note optparse: 9f. defaults to
‘store’.


File: python.info,  Node: The store action,  Next: Handling boolean flag options,  Prev: Understanding option actions,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.7 The store action
..........................

The most common option action is ‘store’, which tells *note optparse:
9f. to take the next argument (or the remainder of the current
argument), ensure that it is of the correct type, and store it to your
chosen destination.

For example:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file",
                       action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

Now let’s make up a fake command line and ask *note optparse: 9f. to
parse it:

     args = ["-f", "foo.txt"]
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(args)

When *note optparse: 9f. sees the option string ‘-f’, it consumes the
next argument, ‘foo.txt’, and stores it in ‘options.filename’.  So,
after this call to *note parse_args(): 135b, ‘options.filename’ is
‘"foo.txt"’.

Some other option types supported by *note optparse: 9f. are ‘int’ and
‘float’.  Here’s an option that expects an integer argument:

     parser.add_option("-n", type="int", dest="num")

Note that this option has no long option string, which is perfectly
acceptable.  Also, there’s no explicit action, since the default is
‘store’.

Let’s parse another fake command-line.  This time, we’ll jam the option
argument right up against the option: since ‘-n42’ (one argument) is
equivalent to ‘-n 42’ (two arguments), the code

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(["-n42"])
     print(options.num)

will print ‘42’.

If you don’t specify a type, *note optparse: 9f. assumes ‘string’.
Combined with the fact that the default action is ‘store’, that means
our first example can be a lot shorter:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename")

If you don’t supply a destination, *note optparse: 9f. figures out a
sensible default from the option strings: if the first long option
string is ‘--foo-bar’, then the default destination is ‘foo_bar’.  If
there are no long option strings, *note optparse: 9f. looks at the first
short option string: the default destination for ‘-f’ is ‘f’.

*note optparse: 9f. also includes the built-in ‘complex’ type.  Adding
types is covered in section *note Extending optparse: 46b2.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling boolean flag options,  Next: Other actions,  Prev: The store action,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.8 Handling boolean (flag) options
.........................................

Flag options—set a variable to true or false when a particular option is
seen—are quite common.  *note optparse: 9f. supports them with two
separate actions, ‘store_true’ and ‘store_false’.  For example, you
might have a ‘verbose’ flag that is turned on with ‘-v’ and off with
‘-q’:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Here we have two different options with the same destination, which is
perfectly OK. (It just means you have to be a bit careful when setting
default values—see below.)

When *note optparse: 9f. encounters ‘-v’ on the command line, it sets
‘options.verbose’ to ‘True’; when it encounters ‘-q’, ‘options.verbose’
is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Other actions,  Next: Default values,  Prev: Handling boolean flag options,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.9 Other actions
.......................

Some other actions supported by *note optparse: 9f. are:

‘"store_const"’

     store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 46b9.

‘"append"’

     append this option’s argument to a list

‘"count"’

     increment a counter by one

‘"callback"’

     call a specified function

These are covered in section *note Reference Guide: 46ba, and section
*note Option Callbacks: 46bb.


File: python.info,  Node: Default values,  Next: Generating help,  Prev: Other actions,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.10 Default values
.........................

All of the above examples involve setting some variable (the
“destination”) when certain command-line options are seen.  What happens
if those options are never seen?  Since we didn’t supply any defaults,
they are all set to ‘None’.  This is usually fine, but sometimes you
want more control.  *note optparse: 9f. lets you supply a default value
for each destination, which is assigned before the command line is
parsed.

First, consider the verbose/quiet example.  If we want *note optparse:
9f. to set ‘verbose’ to ‘True’ unless ‘-q’ is seen, then we can do this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Since default values apply to the 'destination' rather than to any
particular option, and these two options happen to have the same
destination, this is exactly equivalent:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Consider this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=False)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Again, the default value for ‘verbose’ will be ‘True’: the last default
value supplied for any particular destination is the one that counts.

A clearer way to specify default values is the ‘set_defaults()’ method
of OptionParser, which you can call at any time before calling *note
parse_args(): 135b.:

     parser.set_defaults(verbose=True)
     parser.add_option(...)
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

As before, the last value specified for a given option destination is
the one that counts.  For clarity, try to use one method or the other of
setting default values, not both.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating help,  Next: Printing a version string,  Prev: Default values,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.11 Generating help
..........................

*note optparse: 9f.’s ability to generate help and usage text
automatically is useful for creating user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  All you have to do is supply a *note help: 46af. value for
each option, and optionally a short usage message for your whole
program.  Here’s an OptionParser populated with user-friendly
(documented) options:

     usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
     parser = OptionParser(usage=usage)
     parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                       action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="make lots of noise [default]")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose",
                       help="be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)")
     parser.add_option("-f", "--filename",
                       metavar="FILE", help="write output to FILE")
     parser.add_option("-m", "--mode",
                       default="intermediate",
                       help="interaction mode: novice, intermediate, "
                            "or expert [default: %default]")

If *note optparse: 9f. encounters either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the
command-line, or if you just call ‘parser.print_help()’, it prints the
following to standard output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

(If the help output is triggered by a help option, *note optparse: 9f.
exits after printing the help text.)

There’s a lot going on here to help *note optparse: 9f. generate the
best possible help message:

   * the script defines its own usage message:

          usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"

     *note optparse: 9f. expands ‘%prog’ in the usage string to the name
     of the current program, i.e.  ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.  The
     expanded string is then printed before the detailed option help.

     If you don’t supply a usage string, *note optparse: 9f. uses a
     bland but sensible default: ‘"Usage: %prog [options]"’, which is
     fine if your script doesn’t take any positional arguments.

   * every option defines a help string, and doesn’t worry about
     line-wrapping—*note optparse: 9f. takes care of wrapping lines and
     making the help output look good.

   * options that take a value indicate this fact in their automatically
     generated help message, e.g.  for the “mode” option:

          -m MODE, --mode=MODE

     Here, “MODE” is called the meta-variable: it stands for the
     argument that the user is expected to supply to ‘-m’/‘--mode’.  By
     default, *note optparse: 9f. converts the destination variable name
     to uppercase and uses that for the meta-variable.  Sometimes,
     that’s not what you want—for example, the ‘--filename’ option
     explicitly sets ‘metavar="FILE"’, resulting in this automatically
     generated option description:

          -f FILE, --filename=FILE

     This is important for more than just saving space, though: the
     manually written help text uses the meta-variable ‘FILE’ to clue
     the user in that there’s a connection between the semi-formal
     syntax ‘-f FILE’ and the informal semantic description “write
     output to FILE”.  This is a simple but effective way to make your
     help text a lot clearer and more useful for end users.

   * options that have a default value can include ‘%default’ in the
     help string—*note optparse: 9f. will replace it with *note str():
     15d. of the option’s default value.  If an option has no default
     value (or the default value is ‘None’), ‘%default’ expands to
     ‘none’.

* Menu:

* Grouping Options::


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping Options,  Up: Generating help

5.36.12.12 Grouping Options
...........................

When dealing with many options, it is convenient to group these options
for better help output.  An *note OptionParser: 135a. can contain
several option groups, each of which can contain several options.

An option group is obtained using the class *note OptionGroup: 46c1.:

 -- Sınıfı: optparse.OptionGroup (parser, title, description=None)

     where

        * parser is the *note OptionParser: 135a. instance the group
          will be inserted in to

        * title is the group title

        * description, optional, is a long description of the group

*note OptionGroup: 46c1. inherits from ‘OptionContainer’ (like *note
OptionParser: 135a.) and so the ‘add_option()’ method can be used to add
an option to the group.

Once all the options are declared, using the *note OptionParser: 135a.
method ‘add_option_group()’ the group is added to the previously defined
parser.

Continuing with the parser defined in the previous section, adding an
*note OptionGroup: 46c1. to a parser is easy:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

This would result in the following help output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

A bit more complete example might involve using more than one group:
still extending the previous example:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Debug Options")
     group.add_option("-d", "--debug", action="store_true",
                      help="Print debug information")
     group.add_option("-s", "--sql", action="store_true",
                      help="Print all SQL statements executed")
     group.add_option("-e", action="store_true", help="Print every action done")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

that results in the following output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
                             [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

       Debug Options:
         -d, --debug         Print debug information
         -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
         -e                  Print every action done

Another interesting method, in particular when working programmatically
with option groups is:

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.get_option_group (opt_str)

     Return the *note OptionGroup: 46c1. to which the short or long
     option string 'opt_str' (e.g.  ‘'-o'’ or ‘'--option'’) belongs.  If
     there’s no such *note OptionGroup: 46c1, return ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Printing a version string,  Next: How optparse handles errors,  Prev: Generating help,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.13 Printing a version string
....................................

Similar to the brief usage string, *note optparse: 9f. can also print a
version string for your program.  You have to supply the string as the
‘version’ argument to OptionParser:

     parser = OptionParser(usage="%prog [-f] [-q]", version="%prog 1.0")

‘%prog’ is expanded just like it is in ‘usage’.  Apart from that,
‘version’ can contain anything you like.  When you supply it, *note
optparse: 9f. automatically adds a ‘--version’ option to your parser.
If it encounters this option on the command line, it expands your
‘version’ string (by replacing ‘%prog’), prints it to stdout, and exits.

For example, if your script is called ‘/usr/bin/foo’:

     $ /usr/bin/foo --version
     foo 1.0

The following two methods can be used to print and get the ‘version’
string:

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.print_version (file=None)

     Print the version message for the current program (‘self.version’)
     to 'file' (default stdout).  As with *note print_usage(): 46c6, any
     occurrence of ‘%prog’ in ‘self.version’ is replaced with the name
     of the current program.  Does nothing if ‘self.version’ is empty or
     undefined.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.get_version ()

     Same as *note print_version(): 46c5. but returns the version string
     instead of printing it.


File: python.info,  Node: How optparse handles errors,  Next: Putting it all together,  Prev: Printing a version string,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.14 How ‘optparse’ handles errors
........................................

There are two broad classes of errors that *note optparse: 9f. has to
worry about: programmer errors and user errors.  Programmer errors are
usually erroneous calls to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a96, e.g.
invalid option strings, unknown option attributes, missing option
attributes, etc.  These are dealt with in the usual way: raise an
exception (either *note optparse.OptionError: 2a99. or *note TypeError:
2c4.) and let the program crash.

Handling user errors is much more important, since they are guaranteed
to happen no matter how stable your code is.  *note optparse: 9f. can
automatically detect some user errors, such as bad option arguments
(passing ‘-n 4x’ where ‘-n’ takes an integer argument), missing
arguments (‘-n’ at the end of the command line, where ‘-n’ takes an
argument of any type).  Also, you can call ‘OptionParser.error()’ to
signal an application-defined error condition:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
     ...
     if options.a and options.b:
         parser.error("options -a and -b are mutually exclusive")

In either case, *note optparse: 9f. handles the error the same way: it
prints the program’s usage message and an error message to standard
error and exits with error status 2.

Consider the first example above, where the user passes ‘4x’ to an
option that takes an integer:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: '4x'

Or, where the user fails to pass a value at all:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: -n option requires an argument

*note optparse: 9f.-generated error messages take care always to mention
the option involved in the error; be sure to do the same when calling
‘OptionParser.error()’ from your application code.

If *note optparse: 9f.’s default error-handling behaviour does not suit
your needs, you’ll need to subclass OptionParser and override its
‘exit()’ and/or ‘error()’ methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Putting it all together,  Prev: How optparse handles errors,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.36.12.15 Putting it all together
..................................

Here’s what *note optparse: 9f.-based scripts usually look like:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     def main():
         usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg"
         parser = OptionParser(usage)
         parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                           help="read data from FILENAME")
         parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                           action="store_true", dest="verbose")
         parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                           action="store_false", dest="verbose")
         ...
         (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
         if len(args) != 1:
             parser.error("incorrect number of arguments")
         if options.verbose:
             print("reading %s..." % options.filename)
         ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Guide,  Next: Option Callbacks,  Prev: Tutorial<4>,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.36.12.16 Reference Guide
..........................

* Menu:

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* Parsing arguments::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Cleanup: Cleanup<2>.
* Other methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating the parser,  Next: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.17 Creating the parser
..............................

The first step in using *note optparse: 9f. is to create an OptionParser
instance.

 -- Sınıfı: optparse.OptionParser (...)

     The OptionParser constructor has no required arguments, but a
     number of optional keyword arguments.  You should always pass them
     as keyword arguments, i.e.  do not rely on the order in which the
     arguments are declared.

     ‘usage’ (default: ‘"%prog [options]"’)

          The usage summary to print when your program is run
          incorrectly or with a help option.  When *note optparse: 9f.
          prints the usage string, it expands ‘%prog’ to
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’ (or to ‘prog’ if you passed
          that keyword argument).  To suppress a usage message, pass the
          special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’.

     ‘option_list’ (default: ‘[]’)

          A list of Option objects to populate the parser with.  The
          options in ‘option_list’ are added after any options in
          ‘standard_option_list’ (a class attribute that may be set by
          OptionParser subclasses), but before any version or help
          options.  Deprecated; use *note add_option(): 2a96. after
          creating the parser instead.

     ‘option_class’ (default: optparse.Option)

          Class to use when adding options to the parser in *note
          add_option(): 2a96.

     ‘version’ (default: ‘None’)

          A version string to print when the user supplies a version
          option.  If you supply a true value for ‘version’, *note
          optparse: 9f. automatically adds a version option with the
          single option string ‘--version’.  The substring ‘%prog’ is
          expanded the same as for ‘usage’.

     ‘conflict_handler’ (default: ‘"error"’)

          Specifies what to do when options with conflicting option
          strings are added to the parser; see section *note Conflicts
          between options: 46cf.

     ‘description’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of text giving a brief overview of your program.
          *note optparse: 9f. reformats this paragraph to fit the
          current terminal width and prints it when the user requests
          help (after ‘usage’, but before the list of options).

     ‘formatter’ (default: a new ‘IndentedHelpFormatter’)

          An instance of optparse.HelpFormatter that will be used for
          printing help text.  *note optparse: 9f. provides two concrete
          classes for this purpose: IndentedHelpFormatter and
          TitledHelpFormatter.

     ‘add_help_option’ (default: ‘True’)

          If true, *note optparse: 9f. will add a help option (with
          option strings ‘-h’ and ‘--help’) to the parser.

     ‘prog’

          The string to use when expanding ‘%prog’ in ‘usage’ and
          ‘version’ instead of ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.

     ‘epilog’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of help text to print after the option help.


File: python.info,  Node: Populating the parser,  Next: Defining options,  Prev: Creating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.18 Populating the parser
................................

There are several ways to populate the parser with options.  The
preferred way is by using *note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a96, as
shown in section *note Tutorial: 46aa.  ‘add_option()’ can be called in
one of two ways:

   * pass it an Option instance (as returned by ‘make_option()’)

   * pass it any combination of positional and keyword arguments that
     are acceptable to ‘make_option()’ (i.e., to the Option
     constructor), and it will create the Option instance for you

The other alternative is to pass a list of pre-constructed Option
instances to the OptionParser constructor, as in:

     option_list = [
         make_option("-f", "--filename",
                     action="store", type="string", dest="filename"),
         make_option("-q", "--quiet",
                     action="store_false", dest="verbose"),
         ]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)

(‘make_option()’ is a factory function for creating Option instances;
currently it is an alias for the Option constructor.  A future version
of *note optparse: 9f. may split Option into several classes, and
‘make_option()’ will pick the right class to instantiate.  Do not
instantiate Option directly.)


File: python.info,  Node: Defining options,  Next: Option attributes,  Prev: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.19 Defining options
...........................

Each Option instance represents a set of synonymous command-line option
strings, e.g.  ‘-f’ and ‘--file’.  You can specify any number of short
or long option strings, but you must specify at least one overall option
string.

The canonical way to create an *note Option: 46d4. instance is with the
‘add_option()’ method of *note OptionParser: 135a.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.add_option (option)

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.add_option (*opt_str, attr=value, ...)

     To define an option with only a short option string:

          parser.add_option("-f", attr=value, ...)

     And to define an option with only a long option string:

          parser.add_option("--foo", attr=value, ...)

     The keyword arguments define attributes of the new Option object.
     The most important option attribute is *note action: 46ac, and it
     largely determines which other attributes are relevant or required.
     If you pass irrelevant option attributes, or fail to pass required
     ones, *note optparse: 9f. raises an *note OptionError: 2a99.
     exception explaining your mistake.

     An option’s 'action' determines what *note optparse: 9f. does when
     it encounters this option on the command-line.  The standard option
     actions hard-coded into *note optparse: 9f. are:

     ‘"store"’

          store this option’s argument (default)

     ‘"store_const"’

          store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 46b9.

     ‘"store_true"’

          store ‘True’

     ‘"store_false"’

          store ‘False’

     ‘"append"’

          append this option’s argument to a list

     ‘"append_const"’

          append a constant value to a list, pre-set via *note
          Option.const: 46b9.

     ‘"count"’

          increment a counter by one

     ‘"callback"’

          call a specified function

     ‘"help"’

          print a usage message including all options and the
          documentation for them

     (If you don’t supply an action, the default is ‘"store"’.  For this
     action, you may also supply *note type: 46ad. and *note dest: 46ae.
     option attributes; see *note Standard option actions: 46d5.)

As you can see, most actions involve storing or updating a value
somewhere.  *note optparse: 9f. always creates a special object for
this, conventionally called ‘options’, which is an instance of *note
optparse.Values: 2a98.

 -- Sınıfı: optparse.Values

     An object holding parsed argument names and values as attributes.
     Normally created by calling when calling *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 135b, and can be overridden by a custom
     subclass passed to the 'values' argument of *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 135b. (as described in *note Parsing
     arguments: 46d6.).

Option arguments (and various other values) are stored as attributes of
this object, according to the *note dest: 46ae. (destination) option
attribute.

For example, when you call

     parser.parse_args()

one of the first things *note optparse: 9f. does is create the ‘options’
object:

     options = Values()

If one of the options in this parser is defined with

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

and the command-line being parsed includes any of the following:

     -ffoo
     -f foo
     --file=foo
     --file foo

then *note optparse: 9f, on seeing this option, will do the equivalent
of

     options.filename = "foo"

The *note type: 46ad. and *note dest: 46ae. option attributes are almost
as important as *note action: 46ac, but *note action: 46ac. is the only
one that makes sense for 'all' options.


File: python.info,  Node: Option attributes,  Next: Standard option actions,  Prev: Defining options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.20 Option attributes
............................

 -- Sınıfı: optparse.Option

     A single command line argument, with various attributes passed by
     keyword to the constructor.  Normally created with *note
     OptionParser.add_option(): 2a96. rather than directly, and can be
     overridden by a custom class via the 'option_class' argument to
     *note OptionParser: 135a.

The following option attributes may be passed as keyword arguments to
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a96.  If you pass an option attribute
that is not relevant to a particular option, or fail to pass a required
option attribute, *note optparse: 9f. raises *note OptionError: 2a99.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.action

     (default: ‘"store"’)

     Determines *note optparse: 9f.’s behaviour when this option is seen
     on the command line; the available options are documented *note
     here: 46d5.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.type

     (default: ‘"string"’)

     The argument type expected by this option (e.g., ‘"string"’ or
     ‘"int"’); the available option types are documented *note here:
     46d9.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.dest

     (default: derived from option strings)

     If the option’s action implies writing or modifying a value
     somewhere, this tells *note optparse: 9f. where to write it: *note
     dest: 46ae. names an attribute of the ‘options’ object that *note
     optparse: 9f. builds as it parses the command line.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.default

     The value to use for this option’s destination if the option is not
     seen on the command line.  See also *note
     OptionParser.set_defaults(): 46db.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.nargs

     (default: 1)

     How many arguments of type *note type: 46ad. should be consumed
     when this option is seen.  If > 1, *note optparse: 9f. will store a
     tuple of values to *note dest: 46ae.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.const

     For actions that store a constant value, the constant value to
     store.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.choices

     For options of type ‘"choice"’, the list of strings the user may
     choose from.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.callback

     For options with action ‘"callback"’, the callable to call when
     this option is seen.  See section *note Option Callbacks: 46bb. for
     detail on the arguments passed to the callable.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.callback_args
 -- Özniteliği: Option.callback_kwargs

     Additional positional and keyword arguments to pass to ‘callback’
     after the four standard callback arguments.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.help

     Help text to print for this option when listing all available
     options after the user supplies a *note help: 46af. option (such as
     ‘--help’).  If no help text is supplied, the option will be listed
     without help text.  To hide this option, use the special value
     ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.metavar

     (default: derived from option strings)

     Stand-in for the option argument(s) to use when printing help text.
     See section *note Tutorial: 46aa. for an example.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option actions,  Next: Standard option types,  Prev: Option attributes,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.21 Standard option actions
..................................

The various option actions all have slightly different requirements and
effects.  Most actions have several relevant option attributes which you
may specify to guide *note optparse: 9f.’s behaviour; a few have
required attributes, which you must specify for any option using that
action.

   * ‘"store"’ [relevant: *note type: 46ad, *note dest: 46ae, *note
     nargs: 46dc, *note choices: 46dd.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is converted to a
     value according to *note type: 46ad. and stored in *note dest:
     46ae.  If *note nargs: 46dc. > 1, multiple arguments will be
     consumed from the command line; all will be converted according to
     *note type: 46ad. and stored to *note dest: 46ae. as a tuple.  See
     the *note Standard option types: 46d9. section.

     If *note choices: 46dd. is supplied (a list or tuple of strings),
     the type defaults to ‘"choice"’.

     If *note type: 46ad. is not supplied, it defaults to ‘"string"’.

     If *note dest: 46ae. is not supplied, *note optparse: 9f. derives a
     destination from the first long option string (e.g., ‘--foo-bar’
     implies ‘foo_bar’).  If there are no long option strings, *note
     optparse: 9f. derives a destination from the first short option
     string (e.g., ‘-f’ implies ‘f’).

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-f")
          parser.add_option("-p", type="float", nargs=3, dest="point")

     As it parses the command line

          -f foo.txt -p 1 -3.5 4 -fbar.txt

     *note optparse: 9f. will set

          options.f = "foo.txt"
          options.point = (1.0, -3.5, 4.0)
          options.f = "bar.txt"

   * ‘"store_const"’ [required: *note const: 46b9.; relevant: *note
     dest: 46ae.]

     The value *note const: 46b9. is stored in *note dest: 46ae.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                            action="store_const", const=0, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                            action="store_const", const=1, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("--noisy",
                            action="store_const", const=2, dest="verbose")

     If ‘--noisy’ is seen, *note optparse: 9f. will set

          options.verbose = 2

   * ‘"store_true"’ [relevant: *note dest: 46ae.]

     A special case of ‘"store_const"’ that stores ‘True’ to *note dest:
     46ae.

   * ‘"store_false"’ [relevant: *note dest: 46ae.]

     Like ‘"store_true"’, but stores ‘False’.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("--clobber", action="store_true", dest="clobber")
          parser.add_option("--no-clobber", action="store_false", dest="clobber")

   * ‘"append"’ [relevant: *note type: 46ad, *note dest: 46ae, *note
     nargs: 46dc, *note choices: 46dd.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is appended to
     the list in *note dest: 46ae.  If no default value for *note dest:
     46ae. is supplied, an empty list is automatically created when
     *note optparse: 9f. first encounters this option on the
     command-line.  If *note nargs: 46dc. > 1, multiple arguments are
     consumed, and a tuple of length *note nargs: 46dc. is appended to
     *note dest: 46ae.

     The defaults for *note type: 46ad. and *note dest: 46ae. are the
     same as for the ‘"store"’ action.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-t", "--tracks", action="append", type="int")

     If ‘-t3’ is seen on the command-line, *note optparse: 9f. does the
     equivalent of:

          options.tracks = []
          options.tracks.append(int("3"))

     If, a little later on, ‘--tracks=4’ is seen, it does:

          options.tracks.append(int("4"))

     The ‘append’ action calls the ‘append’ method on the current value
     of the option.  This means that any default value specified must
     have an ‘append’ method.  It also means that if the default value
     is non-empty, the default elements will be present in the parsed
     value for the option, with any values from the command line
     appended after those default values:

          >>> parser.add_option("--files", action="append", default=['~/.mypkg/defaults'])
          >>> opts, args = parser.parse_args(['--files', 'overrides.mypkg'])
          >>> opts.files
          ['~/.mypkg/defaults', 'overrides.mypkg']

   * ‘"append_const"’ [required: *note const: 46b9.; relevant: *note
     dest: 46ae.]

     Like ‘"store_const"’, but the value *note const: 46b9. is appended
     to *note dest: 46ae.; as with ‘"append"’, *note dest: 46ae.
     defaults to ‘None’, and an empty list is automatically created the
     first time the option is encountered.

   * ‘"count"’ [relevant: *note dest: 46ae.]

     Increment the integer stored at *note dest: 46ae.  If no default
     value is supplied, *note dest: 46ae. is set to zero before being
     incremented the first time.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-v", action="count", dest="verbosity")

     The first time ‘-v’ is seen on the command line, *note optparse:
     9f. does the equivalent of:

          options.verbosity = 0
          options.verbosity += 1

     Every subsequent occurrence of ‘-v’ results in

          options.verbosity += 1

   * ‘"callback"’ [required: *note callback: 46de.; relevant: *note
     type: 46ad, *note nargs: 46dc, *note callback_args: 46df, *note
     callback_kwargs: 46e0.]

     Call the function specified by *note callback: 46de, which is
     called as

          func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

     See section *note Option Callbacks: 46bb. for more detail.

   * ‘"help"’

     Prints a complete help message for all the options in the current
     option parser.  The help message is constructed from the ‘usage’
     string passed to OptionParser’s constructor and the *note help:
     46af. string passed to every option.

     If no *note help: 46af. string is supplied for an option, it will
     still be listed in the help message.  To omit an option entirely,
     use the special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

     *note optparse: 9f. automatically adds a *note help: 46af. option
     to all OptionParsers, so you do not normally need to create one.

     Example:

          from optparse import OptionParser, SUPPRESS_HELP

          # usually, a help option is added automatically, but that can
          # be suppressed using the add_help_option argument
          parser = OptionParser(add_help_option=False)

          parser.add_option("-h", "--help", action="help")
          parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose",
                            help="Be moderately verbose")
          parser.add_option("--file", dest="filename",
                            help="Input file to read data from")
          parser.add_option("--secret", help=SUPPRESS_HELP)

     If *note optparse: 9f. sees either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the command
     line, it will print something like the following help message to
     stdout (assuming ‘sys.argv[0]’ is ‘"foo.py"’):

          Usage: foo.py [options]

          Options:
            -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
            -v                Be moderately verbose
            --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from

     After printing the help message, *note optparse: 9f. terminates
     your process with ‘sys.exit(0)’.

   * ‘"version"’

     Prints the version number supplied to the OptionParser to stdout
     and exits.  The version number is actually formatted and printed by
     the ‘print_version()’ method of OptionParser.  Generally only
     relevant if the ‘version’ argument is supplied to the OptionParser
     constructor.  As with *note help: 46af. options, you will rarely
     create ‘version’ options, since *note optparse: 9f. automatically
     adds them when needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option types,  Next: Parsing arguments,  Prev: Standard option actions,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.22 Standard option types
................................

*note optparse: 9f. has five built-in option types: ‘"string"’, ‘"int"’,
‘"choice"’, ‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’.  If you need to add new option
types, see section *note Extending optparse: 46b2.

Arguments to string options are not checked or converted in any way: the
text on the command line is stored in the destination (or passed to the
callback) as-is.

Integer arguments (type ‘"int"’) are parsed as follows:

   * if the number starts with ‘0x’, it is parsed as a hexadecimal
     number

   * if the number starts with ‘0’, it is parsed as an octal number

   * if the number starts with ‘0b’, it is parsed as a binary number

   * otherwise, the number is parsed as a decimal number

The conversion is done by calling *note int(): 184. with the appropriate
base (2, 8, 10, or 16).  If this fails, so will *note optparse: 9f,
although with a more useful error message.

‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’ option arguments are converted directly with
*note float(): 272. and *note complex(): 273, with similar
error-handling.

‘"choice"’ options are a subtype of ‘"string"’ options.  The *note
choices: 46dd. option attribute (a sequence of strings) defines the set
of allowed option arguments.  ‘optparse.check_choice()’ compares
user-supplied option arguments against this master list and raises *note
OptionValueError: 2a9a. if an invalid string is given.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing arguments,  Next: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Prev: Standard option types,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.23 Parsing arguments
............................

The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call
its *note parse_args(): 135b. method.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.parse_args (args=None, values=None)

     Parse the command-line options found in 'args'.

     The input parameters are

     ‘args’

          the list of arguments to process (default: ‘sys.argv[1:]’)

     ‘values’

          a *note Values: 2a98. object to store option arguments in
          (default: a new instance of *note Values: 2a98.) – if you give
          an existing object, the option defaults will not be
          initialized on it

     and the return value is a pair ‘(options, args)’ where

     ‘options’

          the same object that was passed in as 'values', or the
          ‘optparse.Values’ instance created by *note optparse: 9f.

     ‘args’

          the leftover positional arguments after all options have been
          processed

The most common usage is to supply neither keyword argument.  If you
supply ‘values’, it will be modified with repeated *note setattr():
1f47. calls (roughly one for every option argument stored to an option
destination) and returned by *note parse_args(): 135b.

If *note parse_args(): 135b. encounters any errors in the argument list,
it calls the OptionParser’s ‘error()’ method with an appropriate
end-user error message.  This ultimately terminates your process with an
exit status of 2 (the traditional Unix exit status for command-line
errors).


File: python.info,  Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Next: Conflicts between options,  Prev: Parsing arguments,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.24 Querying and manipulating your option parser
.......................................................

The default behavior of the option parser can be customized slightly,
and you can also poke around your option parser and see what’s there.
OptionParser provides several methods to help you out:

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to stop on the first non-option.  For example, if ‘-a’
     and ‘-b’ are both simple options that take no arguments, *note
     optparse: 9f. normally accepts this syntax:

          prog -a arg1 -b arg2

     and treats it as equivalent to

          prog -a -b arg1 arg2

     To disable this feature, call *note disable_interspersed_args():
     2a97.  This restores traditional Unix syntax, where option parsing
     stops with the first non-option argument.

     Use this if you have a command processor which runs another command
     which has options of its own and you want to make sure these
     options don’t get confused.  For example, each command might have a
     different set of options.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to not stop on the first non-option, allowing
     interspersing switches with command arguments.  This is the default
     behavior.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.get_option (opt_str)

     Returns the Option instance with the option string 'opt_str', or
     ‘None’ if no options have that option string.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.has_option (opt_str)

     Return ‘True’ if the OptionParser has an option with option string
     'opt_str' (e.g., ‘-q’ or ‘--verbose’).

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.remove_option (opt_str)

     If the *note OptionParser: 135a. has an option corresponding to
     'opt_str', that option is removed.  If that option provided any
     other option strings, all of those option strings become invalid.
     If 'opt_str' does not occur in any option belonging to this *note
     OptionParser: 135a, raises *note ValueError: 189.


File: python.info,  Node: Conflicts between options,  Next: Cleanup<2>,  Prev: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.25 Conflicts between options
....................................

If you’re not careful, it’s easy to define options with conflicting
option strings:

     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ...)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ...)

(This is particularly true if you’ve defined your own OptionParser
subclass with some standard options.)

Every time you add an option, *note optparse: 9f. checks for conflicts
with existing options.  If it finds any, it invokes the current
conflict-handling mechanism.  You can set the conflict-handling
mechanism either in the constructor:

     parser = OptionParser(..., conflict_handler=handler)

or with a separate call:

     parser.set_conflict_handler(handler)

The available conflict handlers are:

     ‘"error"’ (default)

          assume option conflicts are a programming error and raise
          *note OptionConflictError: 46ec.

     ‘"resolve"’

          resolve option conflicts intelligently (see below)

As an example, let’s define an *note OptionParser: 135a. that resolves
conflicts intelligently and add conflicting options to it:

     parser = OptionParser(conflict_handler="resolve")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ..., help="do no harm")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ..., help="be noisy")

At this point, *note optparse: 9f. detects that a previously added
option is already using the ‘-n’ option string.  Since
‘conflict_handler’ is ‘"resolve"’, it resolves the situation by removing
‘-n’ from the earlier option’s list of option strings.  Now ‘--dry-run’
is the only way for the user to activate that option.  If the user asks
for help, the help message will reflect that:

     Options:
       --dry-run     do no harm
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy

It’s possible to whittle away the option strings for a previously added
option until there are none left, and the user has no way of invoking
that option from the command-line.  In that case, *note optparse: 9f.
removes that option completely, so it doesn’t show up in help text or
anywhere else.  Carrying on with our existing OptionParser:

     parser.add_option("--dry-run", ..., help="new dry-run option")

At this point, the original ‘-n’/‘--dry-run’ option is no longer
accessible, so *note optparse: 9f. removes it, leaving this help text:

     Options:
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy
       --dry-run     new dry-run option


File: python.info,  Node: Cleanup<2>,  Next: Other methods,  Prev: Conflicts between options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.26 Cleanup
..................

OptionParser instances have several cyclic references.  This should not
be a problem for Python’s garbage collector, but you may wish to break
the cyclic references explicitly by calling ‘destroy()’ on your
OptionParser once you are done with it.  This is particularly useful in
long-running applications where large object graphs are reachable from
your OptionParser.


File: python.info,  Node: Other methods,  Prev: Cleanup<2>,  Up: Reference Guide

5.36.12.27 Other methods
........................

OptionParser supports several other public methods:

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.set_usage (usage)

     Set the usage string according to the rules described above for the
     ‘usage’ constructor keyword argument.  Passing ‘None’ sets the
     default usage string; use ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’ to suppress a
     usage message.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Print the usage message for the current program (‘self.usage’) to
     'file' (default stdout).  Any occurrence of the string ‘%prog’ in
     ‘self.usage’ is replaced with the name of the current program.
     Does nothing if ‘self.usage’ is empty or not defined.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.get_usage ()

     Same as *note print_usage(): 46c6. but returns the usage string
     instead of printing it.

 -- Yöntemi: OptionParser.set_defaults (dest=value, ...)

     Set default values for several option destinations at once.  Using
     *note set_defaults(): 46db. is the preferred way to set default
     values for options, since multiple options can share the same
     destination.  For example, if several “mode” options all set the
     same destination, any one of them can set the default, and the last
     one wins:

          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced",
                            default="novice")    # overridden below
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice",
                            default="advanced")  # overrides above setting

     To avoid this confusion, use *note set_defaults(): 46db.:

          parser.set_defaults(mode="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice")


File: python.info,  Node: Option Callbacks,  Next: Extending optparse,  Prev: Reference Guide,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.36.12.28 Option Callbacks
...........................

When *note optparse: 9f.’s built-in actions and types aren’t quite
enough for your needs, you have two choices: extend *note optparse: 9f.
or define a callback option.  Extending *note optparse: 9f. is more
general, but overkill for a lot of simple cases.  Quite often a simple
callback is all you need.

There are two steps to defining a callback option:

   * define the option itself using the ‘"callback"’ action

   * write the callback; this is a function (or method) that takes at
     least four arguments, as described below

* Menu:

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining a callback option,  Next: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.29 Defining a callback option
.....................................

As always, the easiest way to define a callback option is by using the
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 2a96. method.  Apart from *note action:
46ac, the only option attribute you must specify is ‘callback’, the
function to call:

     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=my_callback)

‘callback’ is a function (or other callable object), so you must have
already defined ‘my_callback()’ when you create this callback option.
In this simple case, *note optparse: 9f. doesn’t even know if ‘-c’ takes
any arguments, which usually means that the option takes no
arguments—the mere presence of ‘-c’ on the command-line is all it needs
to know.  In some circumstances, though, you might want your callback to
consume an arbitrary number of command-line arguments.  This is where
writing callbacks gets tricky; it’s covered later in this section.

*note optparse: 9f. always passes four particular arguments to your
callback, and it will only pass additional arguments if you specify them
via *note callback_args: 46df. and *note callback_kwargs: 46e0.  Thus,
the minimal callback function signature is:

     def my_callback(option, opt, value, parser):

The four arguments to a callback are described below.

There are several other option attributes that you can supply when you
define a callback option:

*note type: 46ad.

     has its usual meaning: as with the ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’ actions,
     it instructs *note optparse: 9f. to consume one argument and
     convert it to *note type: 46ad.  Rather than storing the converted
     value(s) anywhere, though, *note optparse: 9f. passes it to your
     callback function.

*note nargs: 46dc.

     also has its usual meaning: if it is supplied and > 1, *note
     optparse: 9f. will consume *note nargs: 46dc. arguments, each of
     which must be convertible to *note type: 46ad.  It then passes a
     tuple of converted values to your callback.

*note callback_args: 46df.

     a tuple of extra positional arguments to pass to the callback

*note callback_kwargs: 46e0.

     a dictionary of extra keyword arguments to pass to the callback


File: python.info,  Node: How callbacks are called,  Next: Raising errors in a callback,  Prev: Defining a callback option,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.30 How callbacks are called
...................................

All callbacks are called as follows:

     func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

where

‘option’

     is the Option instance that’s calling the callback

‘opt_str’

     is the option string seen on the command-line that’s triggering the
     callback.  (If an abbreviated long option was used, ‘opt_str’ will
     be the full, canonical option string—e.g.  if the user puts ‘--foo’
     on the command-line as an abbreviation for ‘--foobar’, then
     ‘opt_str’ will be ‘"--foobar"’.)

‘value’

     is the argument to this option seen on the command-line.  *note
     optparse: 9f. will only expect an argument if *note type: 46ad. is
     set; the type of ‘value’ will be the type implied by the option’s
     type.  If *note type: 46ad. for this option is ‘None’ (no argument
     expected), then ‘value’ will be ‘None’.  If *note nargs: 46dc. > 1,
     ‘value’ will be a tuple of values of the appropriate type.

‘parser’

     is the OptionParser instance driving the whole thing, mainly useful
     because you can access some other interesting data through its
     instance attributes:

     ‘parser.largs’

          the current list of leftover arguments, ie.  arguments that
          have been consumed but are neither options nor option
          arguments.  Feel free to modify ‘parser.largs’, e.g.  by
          adding more arguments to it.  (This list will become ‘args’,
          the second return value of *note parse_args(): 135b.)

     ‘parser.rargs’

          the current list of remaining arguments, ie.  with ‘opt_str’
          and ‘value’ (if applicable) removed, and only the arguments
          following them still there.  Feel free to modify
          ‘parser.rargs’, e.g.  by consuming more arguments.

     ‘parser.values’

          the object where option values are by default stored (an
          instance of optparse.OptionValues).  This lets callbacks use
          the same mechanism as the rest of *note optparse: 9f. for
          storing option values; you don’t need to mess around with
          globals or closures.  You can also access or modify the
          value(s) of any options already encountered on the
          command-line.

‘args’

     is a tuple of arbitrary positional arguments supplied via the *note
     callback_args: 46df. option attribute.

‘kwargs’

     is a dictionary of arbitrary keyword arguments supplied via *note
     callback_kwargs: 46e0.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising errors in a callback,  Next: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Prev: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.31 Raising errors in a callback
.......................................

The callback function should raise *note OptionValueError: 2a9a. if
there are any problems with the option or its argument(s).  *note
optparse: 9f. catches this and terminates the program, printing the
error message you supply to stderr.  Your message should be clear,
concise, accurate, and mention the option at fault.  Otherwise, the user
will have a hard time figuring out what they did wrong.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Next: Callback example 2 check option order,  Prev: Raising errors in a callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.32 Callback example 1: trivial callback
...............................................

Here’s an example of a callback option that takes no arguments, and
simply records that the option was seen:

     def record_foo_seen(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         parser.values.saw_foo = True

     parser.add_option("--foo", action="callback", callback=record_foo_seen)

Of course, you could do that with the ‘"store_true"’ action.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 2 check option order,  Next: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Prev: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.33 Callback example 2: check option order
.................................................

Here’s a slightly more interesting example: record the fact that ‘-a’ is
seen, but blow up if it comes after ‘-b’ in the command-line.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use -a after -b")
         parser.values.a = 1
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order)
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Next: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Prev: Callback example 2 check option order,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.34 Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
...............................................................

If you want to reuse this callback for several similar options (set a
flag, but blow up if ‘-b’ has already been seen), it needs a bit of
work: the error message and the flag that it sets must be generalized.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use %s after -b" % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='a')
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='c')


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Next: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Prev: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.35 Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
........................................................

Of course, you could put any condition in there—you’re not limited to
checking the values of already-defined options.  For example, if you
have options that should not be called when the moon is full, all you
have to do is this:

     def check_moon(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if is_moon_full():
             raise OptionValueError("%s option invalid when moon is full"
                                    % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=check_moon, dest="foo")

(The definition of ‘is_moon_full()’ is left as an exercise for the
reader.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Next: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.36 Callback example 5: fixed arguments
..............................................

Things get slightly more interesting when you define callback options
that take a fixed number of arguments.  Specifying that a callback
option takes arguments is similar to defining a ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’
option: if you define *note type: 46ad, then the option takes one
argument that must be convertible to that type; if you further define
*note nargs: 46dc, then the option takes *note nargs: 46dc. arguments.

Here’s an example that just emulates the standard ‘"store"’ action:

     def store_value(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=store_value,
                       type="int", nargs=3, dest="foo")

Note that *note optparse: 9f. takes care of consuming 3 arguments and
converting them to integers for you; all you have to do is store them.
(Or whatever; obviously you don’t need a callback for this example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.36.12.37 Callback example 6: variable arguments
.................................................

Things get hairy when you want an option to take a variable number of
arguments.  For this case, you must write a callback, as *note optparse:
9f. doesn’t provide any built-in capabilities for it.  And you have to
deal with certain intricacies of conventional Unix command-line parsing
that *note optparse: 9f. normally handles for you.  In particular,
callbacks should implement the conventional rules for bare ‘--’ and ‘-’
arguments:

   * either ‘--’ or ‘-’ can be option arguments

   * bare ‘--’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing and discard the ‘--’

   * bare ‘-’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing but keep the ‘-’ (append it to ‘parser.largs’)

If you want an option that takes a variable number of arguments, there
are several subtle, tricky issues to worry about.  The exact
implementation you choose will be based on which trade-offs you’re
willing to make for your application (which is why *note optparse: 9f.
doesn’t support this sort of thing directly).

Nevertheless, here’s a stab at a callback for an option with variable
arguments:

     def vararg_callback(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         assert value is None
         value = []

         def floatable(str):
             try:
                 float(str)
                 return True
             except ValueError:
                 return False

         for arg in parser.rargs:
             # stop on --foo like options
             if arg[:2] == "--" and len(arg) > 2:
                 break
             # stop on -a, but not on -3 or -3.0
             if arg[:1] == "-" and len(arg) > 1 and not floatable(arg):
                 break
             value.append(arg)

         del parser.rargs[:len(value)]
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)

     ...
     parser.add_option("-c", "--callback", dest="vararg_attr",
                       action="callback", callback=vararg_callback)


File: python.info,  Node: Extending optparse,  Next: Exceptions<18>,  Prev: Option Callbacks,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.36.12.38 Extending ‘optparse’
...............................

Since the two major controlling factors in how *note optparse: 9f.
interprets command-line options are the action and type of each option,
the most likely direction of extension is to add new actions and new
types.

* Menu:

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new types,  Next: Adding new actions,  Up: Extending optparse

5.36.12.39 Adding new types
...........................

To add new types, you need to define your own subclass of *note
optparse: 9f.’s *note Option: 46d4. class.  This class has a couple of
attributes that define *note optparse: 9f.’s types: *note TYPES: 4709.
and *note TYPE_CHECKER: 470a.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.TYPES

     A tuple of type names; in your subclass, simply define a new tuple
     *note TYPES: 4709. that builds on the standard one.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.TYPE_CHECKER

     A dictionary mapping type names to type-checking functions.  A
     type-checking function has the following signature:

          def check_mytype(option, opt, value)

     where ‘option’ is an *note Option: 46d4. instance, ‘opt’ is an
     option string (e.g., ‘-f’), and ‘value’ is the string from the
     command line that must be checked and converted to your desired
     type.  ‘check_mytype()’ should return an object of the hypothetical
     type ‘mytype’.  The value returned by a type-checking function will
     wind up in the OptionValues instance returned by *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 135b, or be passed to a callback as the
     ‘value’ parameter.

     Your type-checking function should raise *note OptionValueError:
     2a9a. if it encounters any problems.  *note OptionValueError: 2a9a.
     takes a single string argument, which is passed as-is to *note
     OptionParser: 135a.’s ‘error()’ method, which in turn prepends the
     program name and the string ‘"error:"’ and prints everything to
     stderr before terminating the process.

Here’s a silly example that demonstrates adding a ‘"complex"’ option
type to parse Python-style complex numbers on the command line.  (This
is even sillier than it used to be, because *note optparse: 9f. 1.3
added built-in support for complex numbers, but never mind.)

First, the necessary imports:

     from copy import copy
     from optparse import Option, OptionValueError

You need to define your type-checker first, since it’s referred to later
(in the *note TYPE_CHECKER: 470a. class attribute of your Option
subclass):

     def check_complex(option, opt, value):
         try:
             return complex(value)
         except ValueError:
             raise OptionValueError(
                 "option %s: invalid complex value: %r" % (opt, value))

Finally, the Option subclass:

     class MyOption (Option):
         TYPES = Option.TYPES + ("complex",)
         TYPE_CHECKER = copy(Option.TYPE_CHECKER)
         TYPE_CHECKER["complex"] = check_complex

(If we didn’t make a *note copy(): 25. of *note Option.TYPE_CHECKER:
470a, we would end up modifying the *note TYPE_CHECKER: 470a. attribute
of *note optparse: 9f.’s Option class.  This being Python, nothing stops
you from doing that except good manners and common sense.)

That’s it!  Now you can write a script that uses the new option type
just like any other *note optparse: 9f.-based script, except you have to
instruct your OptionParser to use MyOption instead of Option:

     parser = OptionParser(option_class=MyOption)
     parser.add_option("-c", type="complex")

Alternately, you can build your own option list and pass it to
OptionParser; if you don’t use ‘add_option()’ in the above way, you
don’t need to tell OptionParser which option class to use:

     option_list = [MyOption("-c", action="store", type="complex", dest="c")]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new actions,  Prev: Adding new types,  Up: Extending optparse

5.36.12.40 Adding new actions
.............................

Adding new actions is a bit trickier, because you have to understand
that *note optparse: 9f. has a couple of classifications for actions:

“store” actions

     actions that result in *note optparse: 9f. storing a value to an
     attribute of the current OptionValues instance; these options
     require a *note dest: 46ae. attribute to be supplied to the Option
     constructor.

“typed” actions

     actions that take a value from the command line and expect it to be
     of a certain type; or rather, a string that can be converted to a
     certain type.  These options require a *note type: 46ad. attribute
     to the Option constructor.

These are overlapping sets: some default “store” actions are ‘"store"’,
‘"store_const"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, while the default “typed”
actions are ‘"store"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"callback"’.

When you add an action, you need to categorize it by listing it in at
least one of the following class attributes of Option (all are lists of
strings):

 -- Özniteliği: Option.ACTIONS

     All actions must be listed in ACTIONS.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.STORE_ACTIONS

     “store” actions are additionally listed here.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.TYPED_ACTIONS

     “typed” actions are additionally listed here.

 -- Özniteliği: Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS

     Actions that always take a type (i.e.  whose options always take a
     value) are additionally listed here.  The only effect of this is
     that *note optparse: 9f. assigns the default type, ‘"string"’, to
     options with no explicit type whose action is listed in *note
     ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 4710.

In order to actually implement your new action, you must override
Option’s ‘take_action()’ method and add a case that recognizes your
action.

For example, let’s add an ‘"extend"’ action.  This is similar to the
standard ‘"append"’ action, but instead of taking a single value from
the command-line and appending it to an existing list, ‘"extend"’ will
take multiple values in a single comma-delimited string, and extend an
existing list with them.  That is, if ‘--names’ is an ‘"extend"’ option
of type ‘"string"’, the command line

     --names=foo,bar --names blah --names ding,dong

would result in a list

     ["foo", "bar", "blah", "ding", "dong"]

Again we define a subclass of Option:

     class MyOption(Option):

         ACTIONS = Option.ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         STORE_ACTIONS = Option.STORE_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)

         def take_action(self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser):
             if action == "extend":
                 lvalue = value.split(",")
                 values.ensure_value(dest, []).extend(lvalue)
             else:
                 Option.take_action(
                     self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser)

Features of note:

   * ‘"extend"’ both expects a value on the command-line and stores that
     value somewhere, so it goes in both *note STORE_ACTIONS: 470e. and
     *note TYPED_ACTIONS: 470f.

   * to ensure that *note optparse: 9f. assigns the default type of
     ‘"string"’ to ‘"extend"’ actions, we put the ‘"extend"’ action in
     *note ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 4710. as well.

   * ‘MyOption.take_action()’ implements just this one new action, and
     passes control back to ‘Option.take_action()’ for the standard
     *note optparse: 9f. actions.

   * ‘values’ is an instance of the optparse_parser.Values class, which
     provides the very useful ‘ensure_value()’ method.  ‘ensure_value()’
     is essentially *note getattr(): a48. with a safety valve; it is
     called as

          values.ensure_value(attr, value)

     If the ‘attr’ attribute of ‘values’ doesn’t exist or is ‘None’,
     then ensure_value() first sets it to ‘value’, and then returns
     ‘value’.  This is very handy for actions like ‘"extend"’,
     ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, all of which accumulate data in a
     variable and expect that variable to be of a certain type (a list
     for the first two, an integer for the latter).  Using
     ‘ensure_value()’ means that scripts using your action don’t have to
     worry about setting a default value for the option destinations in
     question; they can just leave the default as ‘None’ and
     ‘ensure_value()’ will take care of getting it right when it’s
     needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<18>,  Prev: Extending optparse,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.36.12.41 Exceptions
.....................

 -- Özel Durum: optparse.OptionError

     Raised if an *note Option: 46d4. instance is created with invalid
     or inconsistent arguments.

 -- Özel Durum: optparse.OptionConflictError

     Raised if conflicting options are added to an *note OptionParser:
     135a.

 -- Özel Durum: optparse.OptionValueError

     Raised if an invalid option value is encountered on the command
     line.

 -- Özel Durum: optparse.BadOptionError

     Raised if an invalid option is passed on the command line.

 -- Özel Durum: optparse.AmbiguousOptionError

     Raised if an ambiguous option is passed on the command line.


File: python.info,  Node: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Next: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines,  Prev: optparse — Parser for command line options,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.13 ‘ossaudiodev’ — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
--------------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note ossaudiodev: a2. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(1) for
details).

__________________________________________________________________

This module allows you to access the OSS (Open Sound System) audio
interface.  OSS is available for a wide range of open-source and
commercial Unices, and is the standard audio interface for Linux and
recent versions of FreeBSD.

3.3 sürümünde değişti: Operations in this module now raise *note
OSError: 65c. where *note IOError: efc. was raised.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Open Sound System Programmer's Guide(2)

     the official documentation for the OSS C API

The module defines a large number of constants supplied by the OSS
device driver; see ‘<sys/soundcard.h>’ on either Linux or FreeBSD for a
listing.

*note ossaudiodev: a2. defines the following variables and functions:

 -- Özel Durum: ossaudiodev.OSSAudioError

     This exception is raised on certain errors.  The argument is a
     string describing what went wrong.

     (If *note ossaudiodev: a2. receives an error from a system call
     such as ‘open()’, ‘write()’, or ‘ioctl()’, it raises *note OSError:
     65c.  Errors detected directly by *note ossaudiodev: a2. result in
     *note OSSAudioError: 4716.)

     (For backwards compatibility, the exception class is also available
     as ‘ossaudiodev.error’.)

 -- Işlevi: ossaudiodev.open (mode)

 -- Işlevi: ossaudiodev.open (device, mode)

     Open an audio device and return an OSS audio device object.  This
     object supports many file-like methods, such as ‘read()’,
     ‘write()’, and ‘fileno()’ (although there are subtle differences
     between conventional Unix read/write semantics and those of OSS
     audio devices).  It also supports a number of audio-specific
     methods; see below for the complete list of methods.

     'device' is the audio device filename to use.  If it is not
     specified, this module first looks in the environment variable
     ‘AUDIODEV’ for a device to use.  If not found, it falls back to
     ‘/dev/dsp’.

     'mode' is one of ‘'r'’ for read-only (record) access, ‘'w'’ for
     write-only (playback) access and ‘'rw'’ for both.  Since many sound
     cards only allow one process to have the recorder or player open at
     a time, it is a good idea to open the device only for the activity
     needed.  Further, some sound cards are half-duplex: they can be
     opened for reading or writing, but not both at once.

     Note the unusual calling syntax: the 'first' argument is optional,
     and the second is required.  This is a historical artifact for
     compatibility with the older ‘linuxaudiodev’ module which *note
     ossaudiodev: a2. supersedes.

 -- Işlevi: ossaudiodev.openmixer ([device])

     Open a mixer device and return an OSS mixer device object.
     'device' is the mixer device filename to use.  If it is not
     specified, this module first looks in the environment variable
     ‘MIXERDEV’ for a device to use.  If not found, it falls back to
     ‘/dev/mixer’.

* Menu:

* Audio Device Objects::
* Mixer Device Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#ossaudiodev

   (2) http://www.opensound.com/pguide/oss.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Audio Device Objects,  Next: Mixer Device Objects,  Up: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

5.36.13.1 Audio Device Objects
..............................

Before you can write to or read from an audio device, you must call
three methods in the correct order:

  1. ‘setfmt()’ to set the output format

  2. ‘channels()’ to set the number of channels

  3. ‘speed()’ to set the sample rate

Alternately, you can use the ‘setparameters()’ method to set all three
audio parameters at once.  This is more convenient, but may not be as
flexible in all cases.

The audio device objects returned by *note open(): 4717. define the
following methods and (read-only) attributes:

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.close ()

     Explicitly close the audio device.  When you are done writing to or
     reading from an audio device, you should explicitly close it.  A
     closed device cannot be used again.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor associated with the device.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.read (size)

     Read 'size' bytes from the audio input and return them as a Python
     string.  Unlike most Unix device drivers, OSS audio devices in
     blocking mode (the default) will block *note read(): 471d. until
     the entire requested amount of data is available.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.write (data)

     Write a *note bytes-like object: bb5. 'data' to the audio device
     and return the number of bytes written.  If the audio device is in
     blocking mode (the default), the entire data is always written
     (again, this is different from usual Unix device semantics).  If
     the device is in non-blocking mode, some data may not be
     written—see *note writeall(): 471f.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     now accepted.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.writeall (data)

     Write a *note bytes-like object: bb5. 'data' to the audio device:
     waits until the audio device is able to accept data, writes as much
     data as it will accept, and repeats until 'data' has been
     completely written.  If the device is in blocking mode (the
     default), this has the same effect as *note write(): 471e.; *note
     writeall(): 471f. is only useful in non-blocking mode.  Has no
     return value, since the amount of data written is always equal to
     the amount of data supplied.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Writable *note bytes-like object: bb5. is
     now accepted.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Audio device objects also support the context
management protocol, i.e.  they can be used in a *note with: 3dd.
statement.

The following methods each map to exactly one ‘ioctl()’ system call.
The correspondence is obvious: for example, ‘setfmt()’ corresponds to
the ‘SNDCTL_DSP_SETFMT’ ioctl, and ‘sync()’ to ‘SNDCTL_DSP_SYNC’ (this
can be useful when consulting the OSS documentation).  If the underlying
‘ioctl()’ fails, they all raise *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.nonblock ()

     Put the device into non-blocking mode.  Once in non-blocking mode,
     there is no way to return it to blocking mode.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.getfmts ()

     Return a bitmask of the audio output formats supported by the
     soundcard.  Some of the formats supported by OSS are:

     Format                        Description
                                   
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
     ‘AFMT_MU_LAW’                 a logarithmic encoding (used by Sun ‘.au’ files
                                   and ‘/dev/audio’)
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_A_LAW’                  a logarithmic encoding
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_IMA_ADPCM’              a 4:1 compressed format defined by the
                                   Interactive Multimedia Association
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_U8’                     Unsigned, 8-bit audio
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_S16_LE’                 Signed, 16-bit audio, little-endian byte order
                                   (as used by Intel processors)
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_S16_BE’                 Signed, 16-bit audio, big-endian byte order (as
                                   used by 68k, PowerPC, Sparc)
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_S8’                     Signed, 8 bit audio
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_U16_LE’                 Unsigned, 16-bit little-endian audio
                                   
                                   
     ‘AFMT_U16_BE’                 Unsigned, 16-bit big-endian audio
                                   

     Consult the OSS documentation for a full list of audio formats, and
     note that most devices support only a subset of these formats.
     Some older devices only support ‘AFMT_U8’; the most common format
     used today is ‘AFMT_S16_LE’.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.setfmt (format)

     Try to set the current audio format to 'format'—see *note
     getfmts(): 4721. for a list.  Returns the audio format that the
     device was set to, which may not be the requested format.  May also
     be used to return the current audio format—do this by passing an
     “audio format” of ‘AFMT_QUERY’.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.channels (nchannels)

     Set the number of output channels to 'nchannels'.  A value of 1
     indicates monophonic sound, 2 stereophonic.  Some devices may have
     more than 2 channels, and some high-end devices may not support
     mono.  Returns the number of channels the device was set to.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.speed (samplerate)

     Try to set the audio sampling rate to 'samplerate' samples per
     second.  Returns the rate actually set.  Most sound devices don’t
     support arbitrary sampling rates.  Common rates are:

     Rate        Description
                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     8000        default rate for ‘/dev/audio’
                 
                 
     11025       speech recording
                 
                 
     22050

     44100       CD quality audio (at 16 bits/sample and 2
                 channels)
                 
                 
     96000       DVD quality audio (at 24 bits/sample)
                 

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.sync ()

     Wait until the sound device has played every byte in its buffer.
     (This happens implicitly when the device is closed.)  The OSS
     documentation recommends closing and re-opening the device rather
     than using *note sync(): 4725.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.reset ()

     Immediately stop playing or recording and return the device to a
     state where it can accept commands.  The OSS documentation
     recommends closing and re-opening the device after calling *note
     reset(): 4726.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.post ()

     Tell the driver that there is likely to be a pause in the output,
     making it possible for the device to handle the pause more
     intelligently.  You might use this after playing a spot sound
     effect, before waiting for user input, or before doing disk I/O.

The following convenience methods combine several ioctls, or one ioctl
and some simple calculations.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.setparameters (format, nchannels,
          samplerate[, strict=False])

     Set the key audio sampling parameters—sample format, number of
     channels, and sampling rate—in one method call.  'format',
     'nchannels', and 'samplerate' should be as specified in the *note
     setfmt(): 4722, *note channels(): 4723, and *note speed(): 4724.
     methods.  If 'strict' is true, *note setparameters(): 4728. checks
     to see if each parameter was actually set to the requested value,
     and raises *note OSSAudioError: 4716. if not.  Returns a tuple
     ('format', 'nchannels', 'samplerate') indicating the parameter
     values that were actually set by the device driver (i.e., the same
     as the return values of *note setfmt(): 4722, *note channels():
     4723, and *note speed(): 4724.).

     For example,

          (fmt, channels, rate) = dsp.setparameters(fmt, channels, rate)

     is equivalent to

          fmt = dsp.setfmt(fmt)
          channels = dsp.channels(channels)
          rate = dsp.rate(rate)

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.bufsize ()

     Returns the size of the hardware buffer, in samples.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.obufcount ()

     Returns the number of samples that are in the hardware buffer yet
     to be played.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_audio_device.obuffree ()

     Returns the number of samples that could be queued into the
     hardware buffer to be played without blocking.

Audio device objects also support several read-only attributes:

 -- Özniteliği: oss_audio_device.closed

     Boolean indicating whether the device has been closed.

 -- Özniteliği: oss_audio_device.name

     String containing the name of the device file.

 -- Özniteliği: oss_audio_device.mode

     The I/O mode for the file, either ‘"r"’, ‘"rw"’, or ‘"w"’.


File: python.info,  Node: Mixer Device Objects,  Prev: Audio Device Objects,  Up: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

5.36.13.2 Mixer Device Objects
..............................

The mixer object provides two file-like methods:

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.close ()

     This method closes the open mixer device file.  Any further
     attempts to use the mixer after this file is closed will raise an
     *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.fileno ()

     Returns the file handle number of the open mixer device file.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Mixer objects also support the context management
protocol.

The remaining methods are specific to audio mixing:

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.controls ()

     This method returns a bitmask specifying the available mixer
     controls (“Control” being a specific mixable “channel”, such as
     ‘SOUND_MIXER_PCM’ or ‘SOUND_MIXER_SYNTH’).  This bitmask indicates
     a subset of all available mixer controls—the ‘SOUND_MIXER_*’
     constants defined at module level.  To determine if, for example,
     the current mixer object supports a PCM mixer, use the following
     Python code:

          mixer=ossaudiodev.openmixer()
          if mixer.controls() & (1 << ossaudiodev.SOUND_MIXER_PCM):
              # PCM is supported
              ... code ...

     For most purposes, the ‘SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME’ (master volume) and
     ‘SOUND_MIXER_PCM’ controls should suffice—but code that uses the
     mixer should be flexible when it comes to choosing mixer controls.
     On the Gravis Ultrasound, for example, ‘SOUND_MIXER_VOLUME’ does
     not exist.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.stereocontrols ()

     Returns a bitmask indicating stereo mixer controls.  If a bit is
     set, the corresponding control is stereo; if it is unset, the
     control is either monophonic or not supported by the mixer (use in
     combination with *note controls(): 4733. to determine which).

     See the code example for the *note controls(): 4733. function for
     an example of getting data from a bitmask.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.reccontrols ()

     Returns a bitmask specifying the mixer controls that may be used to
     record.  See the code example for *note controls(): 4733. for an
     example of reading from a bitmask.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.get (control)

     Returns the volume of a given mixer control.  The returned volume
     is a 2-tuple ‘(left_volume,right_volume)’.  Volumes are specified
     as numbers from 0 (silent) to 100 (full volume).  If the control is
     monophonic, a 2-tuple is still returned, but both volumes are the
     same.

     Raises *note OSSAudioError: 4716. if an invalid control is
     specified, or *note OSError: 65c. if an unsupported control is
     specified.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.set (control, (left, right))

     Sets the volume for a given mixer control to ‘(left,right)’.
     ‘left’ and ‘right’ must be ints and between 0 (silent) and 100
     (full volume).  On success, the new volume is returned as a
     2-tuple.  Note that this may not be exactly the same as the volume
     specified, because of the limited resolution of some soundcard’s
     mixers.

     Raises *note OSSAudioError: 4716. if an invalid mixer control was
     specified, or if the specified volumes were out-of-range.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.get_recsrc ()

     This method returns a bitmask indicating which control(s) are
     currently being used as a recording source.

 -- Yöntemi: oss_mixer_device.set_recsrc (bitmask)

     Call this function to specify a recording source.  Returns a
     bitmask indicating the new recording source (or sources) if
     successful; raises *note OSError: 65c. if an invalid source was
     specified.  To set the current recording source to the microphone
     input:

          mixer.setrecsrc (1 << ossaudiodev.SOUND_MIXER_MIC)


File: python.info,  Node: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines,  Next: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file,  Prev: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.14 ‘pipes’ — Interface to shell pipelines
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pipes.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note pipes: a7. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).
Please use the *note subprocess: d5. module instead.

__________________________________________________________________

The *note pipes: a7. module defines a class to abstract the concept of a
'pipeline' — a sequence of converters from one file to another.

Because the module uses ‘/bin/sh’ command lines, a POSIX or compatible
shell for *note os.system(): 12e5. and *note os.popen(): 8ec. is
required.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: Unix, not VxWorks.

The *note pipes: a7. module defines the following class:

 -- Sınıfı: pipes.Template

     An abstraction of a pipeline.

Example:

     >>> import pipes
     >>> t = pipes.Template()
     >>> t.append('tr a-z A-Z', '--')
     >>> f = t.open('pipefile', 'w')
     >>> f.write('hello world')
     >>> f.close()
     >>> open('pipefile').read()
     'HELLO WORLD'

* Menu:

* Template Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/pipes.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#pipes


File: python.info,  Node: Template Objects,  Up: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines

5.36.14.1 Template Objects
..........................

Template objects following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Template.reset ()

     Restore a pipeline template to its initial state.

 -- Yöntemi: Template.clone ()

     Return a new, equivalent, pipeline template.

 -- Yöntemi: Template.debug (flag)

     If 'flag' is true, turn debugging on.  Otherwise, turn debugging
     off.  When debugging is on, commands to be executed are printed,
     and the shell is given ‘set -x’ command to be more verbose.

 -- Yöntemi: Template.append (cmd, kind)

     Append a new action at the end.  The 'cmd' variable must be a valid
     bourne shell command.  The 'kind' variable consists of two letters.

     The first letter can be either of ‘'-'’ (which means the command
     reads its standard input), ‘'f'’ (which means the commands reads a
     given file on the command line) or ‘'.'’ (which means the commands
     reads no input, and hence must be first.)

     Similarly, the second letter can be either of ‘'-'’ (which means
     the command writes to standard output), ‘'f'’ (which means the
     command writes a file on the command line) or ‘'.'’ (which means
     the command does not write anything, and hence must be last.)

 -- Yöntemi: Template.prepend (cmd, kind)

     Add a new action at the beginning.  See *note append(): 4742. for
     explanations of the arguments.

 -- Yöntemi: Template.open (file, mode)

     Return a file-like object, open to 'file', but read from or written
     to by the pipeline.  Note that only one of ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’ may be
     given.

 -- Yöntemi: Template.copy (infile, outfile)

     Copy 'infile' to 'outfile' through the pipe.


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file,  Next: spwd — The shadow password database,  Prev: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.15 ‘sndhdr’ — Determine type of sound file
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/sndhdr.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note sndhdr: ca. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details and
alternatives).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note sndhdr: ca. provides utility functions which attempt to
determine the type of sound data which is in a file.  When these
functions are able to determine what type of sound data is stored in a
file, they return a *note namedtuple(): 74b, containing five attributes:
(‘filetype’, ‘framerate’, ‘nchannels’, ‘nframes’, ‘sampwidth’).  The
value for 'type' indicates the data type and will be one of the strings
‘'aifc'’, ‘'aiff'’, ‘'au'’, ‘'hcom'’, ‘'sndr'’, ‘'sndt'’, ‘'voc'’,
‘'wav'’, ‘'8svx'’, ‘'sb'’, ‘'ub'’, or ‘'ul'’.  The 'sampling_rate' will
be either the actual value or ‘0’ if unknown or difficult to decode.
Similarly, 'channels' will be either the number of channels or ‘0’ if it
cannot be determined or if the value is difficult to decode.  The value
for 'frames' will be either the number of frames or ‘-1’.  The last item
in the tuple, 'bits_per_sample', will either be the sample size in bits
or ‘'A'’ for A-LAW or ‘'U'’ for u-LAW.

 -- Işlevi: sndhdr.what (filename)

     Determines the type of sound data stored in the file 'filename'
     using *note whathdr(): cef.  If it succeeds, returns a namedtuple
     as described above, otherwise ‘None’ is returned.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.

 -- Işlevi: sndhdr.whathdr (filename)

     Determines the type of sound data stored in a file based on the
     file header.  The name of the file is given by 'filename'.  This
     function returns a namedtuple as described above on success, or
     ‘None’.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Result changed from a tuple to a namedtuple.

The following sound header types are recognized, as listed below with
the return value from *note whathdr(): cef.: and *note what(): cee.:

Value            Sound header format
                 
----------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘'aifc'’         Compressed Audio Interchange Files
                 
                 
‘'aiff'’         Audio Interchange Files
                 
                 
‘'au'’           Au Files
                 
                 
‘'hcom'’         HCOM Files
                 
                 
‘'sndt'’         Sndtool Sound Files
                 
                 
‘'voc'’          Creative Labs Audio Files
                 
                 
‘'wav'’          Waveform Audio File Format Files
                 
                 
‘'8svx'’         8-Bit Sampled Voice Files
                 
                 
‘'sb'’           Signed Byte Audio Data Files
                 
                 
‘'ub'’           UB Files
                 
                 
‘'ul'’           uLAW Audio Files
                 

 -- Verisi: sndhdr.tests

     A list of functions performing the individual tests.  Each function
     takes two arguments: the byte-stream and an open file-like object.
     When *note what(): cee. is called with a byte-stream, the file-like
     object will be ‘None’.

     The test function should return a string describing the image type
     if the test succeeded, or ‘None’ if it failed.

Example:

     >>> import sndhdr
     >>> imghdr.what('bass.wav')
     'wav'
     >>> imghdr.whathdr('bass.wav')
     'wav'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sndhdr.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#sndhdr


File: python.info,  Node: spwd — The shadow password database,  Next: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files,  Prev: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.16 ‘spwd’ — The shadow password database
---------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note spwd: cd. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(1) for details and
alternatives).

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix shadow password database.  It is
available on various Unix versions.

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

You must have enough privileges to access the shadow password database
(this usually means you have to be root).

Shadow password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object,
whose attributes correspond to the members of the ‘spwd’ structure
(Attribute field below, see ‘<shadow.h>’):

Index       Attribute           Meaning
                                
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
0           ‘sp_namp’           Login name
                                
                                
1           ‘sp_pwdp’           Encrypted password
                                
                                
2           ‘sp_lstchg’         Date of last change
                                
                                
3           ‘sp_min’            Minimal number of days between
                                changes
                                
                                
4           ‘sp_max’            Maximum number of days between
                                changes
                                
                                
5           ‘sp_warn’           Number of days before password
                                expires to warn user about it
                                
                                
6           ‘sp_inact’          Number of days after password
                                expires until account is disabled
                                
                                
7           ‘sp_expire’         Number of days since 1970-01-01
                                when account expires
                                
                                
8           ‘sp_flag’           Reserved
                                

The sp_namp and sp_pwdp items are strings, all others are integers.
*note KeyError: 903. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

The following functions are defined:

 -- Işlevi: spwd.getspnam (name)

     Return the shadow password database entry for the given user name.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Raises a *note PermissionError: bcb. instead
     of *note KeyError: 903. if the user doesn’t have privileges.

 -- Işlevi: spwd.getspall ()

     Return a list of all available shadow password database entries, in
     arbitrary order.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note grp: 64.

     An interface to the group database, similar to this.

Module *note pwd: b1.

     An interface to the normal password database, similar to this.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#spwd


File: python.info,  Node: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files,  Next: telnetlib — Telnet client,  Prev: spwd — The shadow password database,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.17 ‘sunau’ — Read and write Sun AU files
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/sunau.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note sunau: d6. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note sunau: d6. module provides a convenient interface to the Sun
AU sound format.  Note that this module is interface-compatible with the
modules *note aifc: 5. and *note wave: 113.

An audio file consists of a header followed by the data.  The fields of
the header are:

Field               Contents
                    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
magic word          The four bytes ‘.snd’.
                    
                    
header size         Size of the header, including info, in bytes.
                    
                    
data size           Physical size of the data, in bytes.
                    
                    
encoding            Indicates how the audio samples are encoded.
                    
                    
sample rate         The sampling rate.
                    
                    
# of channels       The number of channels in the samples.
                    
                    
info                ASCII string giving a description of the audio
                    file (padded with null bytes).
                    

Apart from the info field, all header fields are 4 bytes in size.  They
are all 32-bit unsigned integers encoded in big-endian byte order.

The *note sunau: d6. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: sunau.open (file, mode)

     If 'file' is a string, open the file by that name, otherwise treat
     it as a seekable file-like object.  'mode' can be any of

     ‘'r'’

          Read only mode.

     ‘'w'’

          Write only mode.

     Note that it does not allow read/write files.

     A 'mode' of ‘'r'’ returns an ‘AU_read’ object, while a 'mode' of
     ‘'w'’ or ‘'wb'’ returns an ‘AU_write’ object.

The *note sunau: d6. module defines the following exception:

 -- Özel Durum: sunau.Error

     An error raised when something is impossible because of Sun AU
     specs or implementation deficiency.

The *note sunau: d6. module defines the following data items:

 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC

     An integer every valid Sun AU file begins with, stored in
     big-endian form.  This is the string ‘.snd’ interpreted as an
     integer.

 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8

     Values of the encoding field from the AU header which are supported
     by this module.

 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3
 -- Verisi: sunau.AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5

     Additional known values of the encoding field from the AU header,
     but which are not supported by this module.

* Menu:

* AU_read Objects::
* AU_write Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/sunau.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#sunau


File: python.info,  Node: AU_read Objects,  Next: AU_write Objects,  Up: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files

5.36.17.1 AU_read Objects
.........................

AU_read objects, as returned by *note open(): a66. above, have the
following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.close ()

     Close the stream, and make the instance unusable.  (This is called
     automatically on deletion.)

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getnchannels ()

     Returns number of audio channels (1 for mono, 2 for stereo).

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getsampwidth ()

     Returns sample width in bytes.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getframerate ()

     Returns sampling frequency.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getnframes ()

     Returns number of audio frames.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getcomptype ()

     Returns compression type.  Supported compression types are
     ‘'ULAW'’, ‘'ALAW'’ and ‘'NONE'’.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getcompname ()

     Human-readable version of *note getcomptype(): 4763.  The supported
     types have the respective names ‘'CCITT G.711 u-law'’, ‘'CCITT
     G.711 A-law'’ and ‘'not compressed'’.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getparams ()

     Returns a *note namedtuple(): 74b. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
     framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, equivalent to output of
     the ‘get*()’ methods.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.readframes (n)

     Reads and returns at most 'n' frames of audio, as a *note bytes:
     2cb. object.  The data will be returned in linear format.  If the
     original data is in u-LAW format, it will be converted.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.rewind ()

     Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream.

The following two methods define a term “position” which is compatible
between them, and is otherwise implementation dependent.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.setpos (pos)

     Set the file pointer to the specified position.  Only values
     returned from *note tell(): 4769. should be used for 'pos'.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.tell ()

     Return current file pointer position.  Note that the returned value
     has nothing to do with the actual position in the file.

The following two functions are defined for compatibility with the *note
aifc: 5, and don’t do anything interesting.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getmarkers ()

     Returns ‘None’.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_read.getmark (id)

     Raise an error.


File: python.info,  Node: AU_write Objects,  Prev: AU_read Objects,  Up: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files

5.36.17.2 AU_write Objects
..........................

AU_write objects, as returned by *note open(): a66. above, have the
following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.setnchannels (n)

     Set the number of channels.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.setsampwidth (n)

     Set the sample width (in bytes.)

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Added support for 24-bit samples.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.setframerate (n)

     Set the frame rate.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.setnframes (n)

     Set the number of frames.  This can be later changed, when and if
     more frames are written.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.setcomptype (type, name)

     Set the compression type and description.  Only ‘'NONE'’ and
     ‘'ULAW'’ are supported on output.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.setparams (tuple)

     The 'tuple' should be ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes,
     comptype, compname)’, with values valid for the ‘set*()’ methods.
     Set all parameters.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.tell ()

     Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer for
     the *note AU_read.tell(): 4769. and *note AU_read.setpos(): 4768.
     methods.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.writeframesraw (data)

     Write audio frames, without correcting 'nframes'.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Any *note bytes-like object: bb5. is now
     accepted.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.writeframes (data)

     Write audio frames and make sure 'nframes' is correct.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Any *note bytes-like object: bb5. is now
     accepted.

 -- Yöntemi: AU_write.close ()

     Make sure 'nframes' is correct, and close the file.

     This method is called upon deletion.

Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling
‘writeframes()’ or ‘writeframesraw()’.


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib — Telnet client,  Next: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files,  Prev: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.18 ‘telnetlib’ — Telnet client
-----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/telnetlib.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note telnetlib: de. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details
and alternatives).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note telnetlib: de. module provides a *note Telnet: b6c. class that
implements the Telnet protocol.  See RFC 854(3) for details about the
protocol.  In addition, it provides symbolic constants for the protocol
characters (see below), and for the telnet options.  The symbolic names
of the telnet options follow the definitions in ‘arpa/telnet.h’, with
the leading ‘TELOPT_’ removed.  For symbolic names of options which are
traditionally not included in ‘arpa/telnet.h’, see the module source
itself.

The symbolic constants for the telnet commands are: IAC, DONT, DO, WONT,
WILL, SE (Subnegotiation End), NOP (No Operation), DM (Data Mark), BRK
(Break), IP (Interrupt process), AO (Abort output), AYT (Are You There),
EC (Erase Character), EL (Erase Line), GA (Go Ahead), SB (Subnegotiation
Begin).

*note Availability: 1b9a.: not Emscripten, not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly platforms
‘wasm32-emscripten’ and ‘wasm32-wasi’.  See *note WebAssembly
platformları: 1603. for more information.

 -- Sınıfı: telnetlib.Telnet (host=None, port=0[, timeout])

     *note Telnet: b6c. represents a connection to a Telnet server.  The
     instance is initially not connected by default; the *note open():
     3f96. method must be used to establish a connection.
     Alternatively, the host name and optional port number can be passed
     to the constructor too, in which case the connection to the server
     will be established before the constructor returns.  The optional
     'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking
     operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the
     global default timeout setting will be used).

     Do not reopen an already connected instance.

     This class has many ‘read_*()’ methods.  Note that some of them
     raise *note EOFError: 1183. when the end of the connection is read,
     because they can return an empty string for other reasons.  See the
     individual descriptions below.

     A *note Telnet: b6c. object is a context manager and can be used in
     a *note with: 3dd. statement.  When the ‘with’ block ends, the
     *note close(): 4777. method is called:

          >>> from telnetlib import Telnet
          >>> with Telnet('localhost', 23) as tn:
          ...     tn.interact()
          ...

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Context manager support added

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

RFC 854(4) - Telnet Protocol Specification

     Definition of the Telnet protocol.

* Menu:

* Telnet Objects::
* Telnet Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/telnetlib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#telnetlib

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc854.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc854.html


File: python.info,  Node: Telnet Objects,  Next: Telnet Example,  Up: telnetlib — Telnet client

5.36.18.1 Telnet Objects
........................

*note Telnet: b6c. instances have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_until (expected, timeout=None)

     Read until a given byte string, 'expected', is encountered or until
     'timeout' seconds have passed.

     When no match is found, return whatever is available instead,
     possibly empty bytes.  Raise *note EOFError: 1183. if the
     connection is closed and no cooked data is available.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_all ()

     Read all data until EOF as bytes; block until connection closed.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_some ()

     Read at least one byte of cooked data unless EOF is hit.  Return
     ‘b''’ if EOF is hit.  Block if no data is immediately available.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_very_eager ()

     Read everything that can be without blocking in I/O (eager).

     Raise *note EOFError: 1183. if connection closed and no cooked data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do
     not block unless in the midst of an IAC sequence.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_eager ()

     Read readily available data.

     Raise *note EOFError: 1183. if connection closed and no cooked data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do
     not block unless in the midst of an IAC sequence.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_lazy ()

     Process and return data already in the queues (lazy).

     Raise *note EOFError: 1183. if connection closed and no data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.  Do
     not block unless in the midst of an IAC sequence.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_very_lazy ()

     Return any data available in the cooked queue (very lazy).

     Raise *note EOFError: 1183. if connection closed and no data
     available.  Return ‘b''’ if no cooked data available otherwise.
     This method never blocks.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.read_sb_data ()

     Return the data collected between a SB/SE pair (suboption
     begin/end).  The callback should access these data when it was
     invoked with a ‘SE’ command.  This method never blocks.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.open (host, port=0[, timeout])

     Connect to a host.  The optional second argument is the port
     number, which defaults to the standard Telnet port (23).  The
     optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified,
     the global default timeout setting will be used).

     Do not try to reopen an already connected instance.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘telnetlib.Telnet.open’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.msg (msg, *args)

     Print a debug message when the debug level is ‘>’ 0.  If extra
     arguments are present, they are substituted in the message using
     the standard string formatting operator.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.set_debuglevel (debuglevel)

     Set the debug level.  The higher the value of 'debuglevel', the
     more debug output you get (on ‘sys.stdout’).

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.close ()

     Close the connection.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.get_socket ()

     Return the socket object used internally.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor of the socket object used internally.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.write (buffer)

     Write a byte string to the socket, doubling any IAC characters.
     This can block if the connection is blocked.  May raise *note
     OSError: 65c. if the connection is closed.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘telnetlib.Telnet.write’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘buffer’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This method used to raise *note
     socket.error: eff, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 65c.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.interact ()

     Interaction function, emulates a very dumb Telnet client.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.mt_interact ()

     Multithreaded version of *note interact(): 4786.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.expect (list, timeout=None)

     Read until one from a list of a regular expressions matches.

     The first argument is a list of regular expressions, either
     compiled (*note regex objects: e27.) or uncompiled (byte strings).
     The optional second argument is a timeout, in seconds; the default
     is to block indefinitely.

     Return a tuple of three items: the index in the list of the first
     regular expression that matches; the match object returned; and the
     bytes read up till and including the match.

     If end of file is found and no bytes were read, raise *note
     EOFError: 1183.  Otherwise, when nothing matches, return ‘(-1,
     None, data)’ where 'data' is the bytes received so far (may be
     empty bytes if a timeout happened).

     If a regular expression ends with a greedy match (such as ‘.*’) or
     if more than one expression can match the same input, the results
     are non-deterministic, and may depend on the I/O timing.

 -- Yöntemi: Telnet.set_option_negotiation_callback (callback)

     Each time a telnet option is read on the input flow, this
     'callback' (if set) is called with the following parameters:
     callback(telnet socket, command (DO/DONT/WILL/WONT), option).  No
     other action is done afterwards by telnetlib.


File: python.info,  Node: Telnet Example,  Prev: Telnet Objects,  Up: telnetlib — Telnet client

5.36.18.2 Telnet Example
........................

A simple example illustrating typical use:

     import getpass
     import telnetlib

     HOST = "localhost"
     user = input("Enter your remote account: ")
     password = getpass.getpass()

     tn = telnetlib.Telnet(HOST)

     tn.read_until(b"login: ")
     tn.write(user.encode('ascii') + b"\n")
     if password:
         tn.read_until(b"Password: ")
         tn.write(password.encode('ascii') + b"\n")

     tn.write(b"ls\n")
     tn.write(b"exit\n")

     print(tn.read_all().decode('ascii'))


File: python.info,  Node: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files,  Next: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data,  Prev: telnetlib — Telnet client,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.19 ‘uu’ — Encode and decode uuencode files
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/uu.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note uu: 10f. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).  *note
base64: e. is a modern alternative.

__________________________________________________________________

This module encodes and decodes files in uuencode format, allowing
arbitrary binary data to be transferred over ASCII-only connections.
Wherever a file argument is expected, the methods accept a file-like
object.  For backwards compatibility, a string containing a pathname is
also accepted, and the corresponding file will be opened for reading and
writing; the pathname ‘'-'’ is understood to mean the standard input or
output.  However, this interface is deprecated; it’s better for the
caller to open the file itself, and be sure that, when required, the
mode is ‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’ on Windows.

This code was contributed by Lance Ellinghouse, and modified by Jack
Jansen.

The *note uu: 10f. module defines the following functions:

 -- Işlevi: uu.encode (in_file, out_file, name=None, mode=None, *,
          backtick=False)

     Uuencode file 'in_file' into file 'out_file'.  The uuencoded file
     will have the header specifying 'name' and 'mode' as the defaults
     for the results of decoding the file.  The default defaults are
     taken from 'in_file', or ‘'-'’ and ‘0o666’ respectively.  If
     'backtick' is true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’ instead of
     spaces.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Added the 'backtick' parameter.

 -- Işlevi: uu.decode (in_file, out_file=None, mode=None, quiet=False)

     This call decodes uuencoded file 'in_file' placing the result on
     file 'out_file'.  If 'out_file' is a pathname, 'mode' is used to
     set the permission bits if the file must be created.  Defaults for
     'out_file' and 'mode' are taken from the uuencode header.  However,
     if the file specified in the header already exists, a *note
     uu.Error: 478e. is raised.

     *note decode(): 1536. may print a warning to standard error if the
     input was produced by an incorrect uuencoder and Python could
     recover from that error.  Setting 'quiet' to a true value silences
     this warning.

 -- Özel Durum: uu.Error

     Subclass of *note Exception: 838, this can be raised by *note
     uu.decode(): 1536. under various situations, such as described
     above, but also including a badly formatted header, or truncated
     input file.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note binascii: 10.

     Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII
     conversions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/uu.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#uu-and-the-uu-encoding


File: python.info,  Node: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data,  Prev: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files,  Up: Superseded Modules

5.36.20 ‘xdrlib’ — Encode and decode XDR data
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xdrlib.py(1)

Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.13: The
*note xdrlib: 11f. module is deprecated (see PEP 594(2) for details).

__________________________________________________________________

The *note xdrlib: 11f. module supports the External Data Representation
Standard as described in RFC 1014(3), written by Sun Microsystems, Inc.
June 1987.  It supports most of the data types described in the RFC.

The *note xdrlib: 11f. module defines two classes, one for packing
variables into XDR representation, and another for unpacking from XDR
representation.  There are also two exception classes.

 -- Sınıfı: xdrlib.Packer

     *note Packer: 4791. is the class for packing data into XDR
     representation.  The *note Packer: 4791. class is instantiated with
     no arguments.

 -- Sınıfı: xdrlib.Unpacker (data)

     ‘Unpacker’ is the complementary class which unpacks XDR data values
     from a string buffer.  The input buffer is given as 'data'.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

RFC 1014(4) - XDR: External Data Representation Standard

     This RFC defined the encoding of data which was XDR at the time
     this module was originally written.  It has apparently been
     obsoleted by RFC 1832(5).

RFC 1832(6) - XDR: External Data Representation Standard

     Newer RFC that provides a revised definition of XDR.

* Menu:

* Packer Objects::
* Unpacker Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<19>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/xdrlib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/#xdrlib

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1014.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1014.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1832.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1832.html


File: python.info,  Node: Packer Objects,  Next: Unpacker Objects,  Up: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data

5.36.20.1 Packer Objects
........................

*note Packer: 4791. instances have the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.get_buffer ()

     Returns the current pack buffer as a string.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.reset ()

     Resets the pack buffer to the empty string.

In general, you can pack any of the most common XDR data types by
calling the appropriate ‘pack_type()’ method.  Each method takes a
single argument, the value to pack.  The following simple data type
packing methods are supported: ‘pack_uint()’, ‘pack_int()’,
‘pack_enum()’, ‘pack_bool()’, ‘pack_uhyper()’, and ‘pack_hyper()’.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_float (value)

     Packs the single-precision floating point number 'value'.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_double (value)

     Packs the double-precision floating point number 'value'.

The following methods support packing strings, bytes, and opaque data:

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_fstring (n, s)

     Packs a fixed length string, 's'.  'n' is the length of the string
     but it is 'not' packed into the data buffer.  The string is padded
     with null bytes if necessary to guaranteed 4 byte alignment.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_fopaque (n, data)

     Packs a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to *note
     pack_fstring(): 4799.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_string (s)

     Packs a variable length string, 's'.  The length of the string is
     first packed as an unsigned integer, then the string data is packed
     with *note pack_fstring(): 4799.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_opaque (data)

     Packs a variable length opaque data string, similarly to *note
     pack_string(): 479b.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_bytes (bytes)

     Packs a variable length byte stream, similarly to *note
     pack_string(): 479b.

The following methods support packing arrays and lists:

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_list (list, pack_item)

     Packs a 'list' of homogeneous items.  This method is useful for
     lists with an indeterminate size; i.e.  the size is not available
     until the entire list has been walked.  For each item in the list,
     an unsigned integer ‘1’ is packed first, followed by the data value
     from the list.  'pack_item' is the function that is called to pack
     the individual item.  At the end of the list, an unsigned integer
     ‘0’ is packed.

     For example, to pack a list of integers, the code might appear like
     this:

          import xdrlib
          p = xdrlib.Packer()
          p.pack_list([1, 2, 3], p.pack_int)

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_farray (n, array, pack_item)

     Packs a fixed length list ('array') of homogeneous items.  'n' is
     the length of the list; it is 'not' packed into the buffer, but a
     *note ValueError: 189. exception is raised if ‘len(array)’ is not
     equal to 'n'.  As above, 'pack_item' is the function used to pack
     each element.

 -- Yöntemi: Packer.pack_array (list, pack_item)

     Packs a variable length 'list' of homogeneous items.  First, the
     length of the list is packed as an unsigned integer, then each
     element is packed as in *note pack_farray(): 479f. above.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpacker Objects,  Next: Exceptions<19>,  Prev: Packer Objects,  Up: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data

5.36.20.2 Unpacker Objects
..........................

The *note Unpacker: 4792. class offers the following methods:

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.reset (data)

     Resets the string buffer with the given 'data'.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.get_position ()

     Returns the current unpack position in the data buffer.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.set_position (position)

     Sets the data buffer unpack position to 'position'.  You should be
     careful about using *note get_position(): 47a4. and *note
     set_position(): 47a5.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.get_buffer ()

     Returns the current unpack data buffer as a string.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.done ()

     Indicates unpack completion.  Raises an *note Error: 47a8.
     exception if all of the data has not been unpacked.

In addition, every data type that can be packed with a *note Packer:
4791, can be unpacked with an *note Unpacker: 4792.  Unpacking methods
are of the form ‘unpack_type()’, and take no arguments.  They return the
unpacked object.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_float ()

     Unpacks a single-precision floating point number.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_double ()

     Unpacks a double-precision floating point number, similarly to
     *note unpack_float(): 47a9.

In addition, the following methods unpack strings, bytes, and opaque
data:

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_fstring (n)

     Unpacks and returns a fixed length string.  'n' is the number of
     characters expected.  Padding with null bytes to guaranteed 4 byte
     alignment is assumed.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_fopaque (n)

     Unpacks and returns a fixed length opaque data stream, similarly to
     *note unpack_fstring(): 47ab.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_string ()

     Unpacks and returns a variable length string.  The length of the
     string is first unpacked as an unsigned integer, then the string
     data is unpacked with *note unpack_fstring(): 47ab.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_opaque ()

     Unpacks and returns a variable length opaque data string, similarly
     to *note unpack_string(): 47ad.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_bytes ()

     Unpacks and returns a variable length byte stream, similarly to
     *note unpack_string(): 47ad.

The following methods support unpacking arrays and lists:

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_list (unpack_item)

     Unpacks and returns a list of homogeneous items.  The list is
     unpacked one element at a time by first unpacking an unsigned
     integer flag.  If the flag is ‘1’, then the item is unpacked and
     appended to the list.  A flag of ‘0’ indicates the end of the list.
     'unpack_item' is the function that is called to unpack the items.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_farray (n, unpack_item)

     Unpacks and returns (as a list) a fixed length array of homogeneous
     items.  'n' is number of list elements to expect in the buffer.  As
     above, 'unpack_item' is the function used to unpack each element.

 -- Yöntemi: Unpacker.unpack_array (unpack_item)

     Unpacks and returns a variable length 'list' of homogeneous items.
     First, the length of the list is unpacked as an unsigned integer,
     then each element is unpacked as in *note unpack_farray(): 47b1.
     above.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<19>,  Prev: Unpacker Objects,  Up: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data

5.36.20.3 Exceptions
....................

Exceptions in this module are coded as class instances:

 -- Özel Durum: xdrlib.Error

     The base exception class.  *note Error: 47a8. has a single public
     attribute ‘msg’ containing the description of the error.

 -- Özel Durum: xdrlib.ConversionError

     Class derived from *note Error: 47a8.  Contains no additional
     instance variables.

Here is an example of how you would catch one of these exceptions:

     import xdrlib
     p = xdrlib.Packer()
     try:
         p.pack_double(8.01)
     except xdrlib.ConversionError as instance:
         print('packing the double failed:', instance.msg)


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Modules,  Next: Security Considerations<3>,  Prev: Superseded Modules,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.37 Removed Modules
====================

The modules described in this chapter have been removed from the Python
standard library.  They are documented here to help people find
replacements.

* Menu:

* asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler::
* asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler::
* distutils — Building and installing Python modules::
* imp — Access the import internals::
* smtpd — SMTP Server::


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler,  Next: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.1 ‘asynchat’ — Asynchronous socket command/response handler
----------------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 28a. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications should use the *note asyncio: a. module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘asynchat’ module was
Python 3.11(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asynchat.html


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler,  Next: distutils — Building and installing Python modules,  Prev: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.2 ‘asyncore’ — Asynchronous socket handler
-----------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 28a. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications should use the *note asyncio: a. module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘asyncore’ module was
Python 3.11(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asyncore.html


File: python.info,  Node: distutils — Building and installing Python modules,  Next: imp — Access the import internals,  Prev: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.3 ‘distutils’ — Building and installing Python modules
-----------------------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.10, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 291. after being deprecated in Python
3.10.  The removal was decided in PEP 632(1), which has migration
advice(2).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘distutils’ module was
Python 3.11(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/distutils.html


File: python.info,  Node: imp — Access the import internals,  Next: smtpd — SMTP Server,  Prev: distutils — Building and installing Python modules,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.4 ‘imp’ — Access the import internals
------------------------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.4, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 29c. after being deprecated in Python 3.4.

The *note removal notice: 29c. includes guidance for migrating code from
‘imp’ to *note importlib: 75.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘imp’ module was Python
3.11(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/imp.html


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd — SMTP Server,  Prev: imp — Access the import internals,  Up: Removed Modules

5.37.5 ‘smtpd’ — SMTP Server
----------------------------

Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 28a. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A possible replacement is the third-party aiosmtpd(2) library.  This
library is not maintained or supported by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘smtpd’ module was Python
3.11(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/smtpd.html


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations<3>,  Prev: Removed Modules,  Up: Python Standart Kütüphanesi

5.38 Security Considerations
============================

The following modules have specific security considerations:

   * *note base64: e.: *note base64 security considerations: 3486. in
     RFC 4648(1)

   * *note cgi: 15.: *note CGI security considerations: 4603.

   * *note hashlib: 66.: *note all constructors take a “usedforsecurity”
     keyword-only argument disabling known insecure and blocked
     algorithms: 28a0.

   * *note http.server: 70. is not suitable for production use, only
     implementing basic security checks.  See the *note security
     considerations: 38a7.

   * *note logging: 86.: *note Logging configuration uses eval(): 2afe.

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: *note Connection.recv() uses pickle:
     2eba.

   * *note pickle: a5.: *note Restricting globals in pickle: 2673.

   * *note random: b7. shouldn’t be used for security purposes, use
     *note secrets: bf. instead

   * *note shelve: c2.: *note shelve is based on pickle and thus
     unsuitable for dealing with untrusted sources: 2691.

   * *note ssl: cf.: *note SSL/TLS security considerations: 3092.

   * *note subprocess: d5.: *note Subprocess security considerations:
     2f61.

   * *note tempfile: df.: *note mktemp is deprecated due to
     vulnerability to race conditions: 2632.

   * *note xml: 120.: *note XML vulnerabilities: 34b4.

   * *note zipfile: 131.: *note maliciously prepared .zip files can
     cause disk volume exhaustion: 27bb.

The *note -I: 7b8. command line option can be used to run Python in
isolated mode.  When it cannot be used, the *note -P: 3a9. option or the
*note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 3aa. environment variable can be used to not
prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 368. such as the
current directory, the script’s directory or an empty string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme,  Next: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu,  Prev: Python Standart Kütüphanesi,  Up: Top

6 Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme
********************************************

Bu belge, Python yorumlayıcısını yeni modüllerle genişletmek için C veya
C++’da modüllerin nasıl yazılacağını açıklar.  Bu modüller sadece yeni
fonksiyonları değil, aynı zamanda yeni nesne tiplerini ve metotlarını da
tanımlayabilir.  Belge ayrıca Python yorumlayıcısının bir uzantı dili
olarak kullanılmak üzere başka bir uygulamaya nasıl yerleştirileceğini
de açıklar.  Son olarak, temeldeki işletim sistemi bu özelliği
destekliyorsa, uzantı modüllerinin yorumlayıcıya dinamik olarak (çalışma
zamanında) yüklenebilmesi için nasıl derleneceğini ve bağlanacağını
gösterir.

Bu belge, Python hakkında temel bilgiye sahip olduğunuzu varsayar.  Dile
gayri resmi bir giriş için bkz.  *note Python Standart Kütüphanesi: 143.
*note Python Standart Kütüphanesi: 143, dilin daha resmi bir tanımını
verir.  *note Python Standart Kütüphanesi: 143, dile geniş uygulama
yelpazesi sağlayan mevcut nesne türlerini, işlevleri ve modülleri (hem
yerleşik hem de Python’da yazılmış) belgeler.

Tüm Python/C API’sinin ayrıntılı açıklaması için ayrı *note Python/C API
Referans Kılavuzu: 1a20.’a bakın.

* Menu:

* Önerilen üçüncü taraf araçları::
* Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma::
* CPython çalışma zamanını daha büyük bir uygulamaya gömme::


File: python.info,  Node: Önerilen üçüncü taraf araçları,  Next: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma,  Up: Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme

6.1 Önerilen üçüncü taraf araçları
==================================

Bu kılavuz, yalnızca CPython’un bu sürümünün bir parçası olarak sağlanan
uzantıları oluşturmak için temel araçları kapsar.  Cython(1), cffi(2),
SWIG(3) ve Numba(4) gibi üçüncü taraf araçlar, Python için C ve C++
uzantıları oluşturmaya yönelik hem daha basit hem de daha karmaşık
yaklaşımlar sunar.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu: İkili Uzantılar(5)

     Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu, yalnızca ikili uzantıların
     oluşturulmasını basitleştiren çeşitli mevcut araçları kapsamakla
     kalmaz, aynı zamanda bir uzantı modülü oluşturmanın en başta neden
     istenebileceğinin çeşitli nedenlerini de tartışır.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://cffi.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://www.swig.org

   (4) https://numba.pydata.org/

   (5) https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma,  Next: CPython çalışma zamanını daha büyük bir uygulamaya gömme,  Prev: Önerilen üçüncü taraf araçları,  Up: Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme

6.2 Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma
=====================================================

Kılavuzun bu bölümü, üçüncü taraf araçlardan yardım almadan C ve C++
uzantıları oluşturmayı kapsar.  Kendi C uzantılarınızı oluşturmanız için
önerilen bir yol olmaktan ziyade, öncelikle bu araçların yaratıcılarına
yöneliktir.

* Menu:

* Extending Python with C or C++::
* Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial.
* Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics.
* Building C and C++ Extensions::
* Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak::


File: python.info,  Node: Extending Python with C or C++,  Next: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Up: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma

6.2.1 Extending Python with C or C++
------------------------------------

It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know how
to program in C. Such 'extension modules' can do two things that can’t
be done directly in Python: they can implement new built-in object
types, and they can call C library functions and system calls.

To support extensions, the Python API (Application Programmers
Interface) defines a set of functions, macros and variables that provide
access to most aspects of the Python run-time system.  The Python API is
incorporated in a C source file by including the header ‘"Python.h"’.

The compilation of an extension module depends on its intended use as
well as on your system setup; details are given in later chapters.

     Not: The C extension interface is specific to CPython, and
     extension modules do not work on other Python implementations.  In
     many cases, it is possible to avoid writing C extensions and
     preserve portability to other implementations.  For example, if
     your use case is calling C library functions or system calls, you
     should consider using the *note ctypes: 2a. module or the cffi(1)
     library rather than writing custom C code.  These modules let you
     write Python code to interface with C code and are more portable
     between implementations of Python than writing and compiling a C
     extension module.

* Menu:

* A Simple Example::
* Intermezzo; Errors and Exceptions: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions.
* Back to the Example::
* The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function::
* Compilation and Linkage::
* Calling Python Functions from C::
* Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions::
* Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions::
* Building Arbitrary Values::
* Reference Counts::
* Writing Extensions in C++::
* Providing a C API for an Extension Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: A Simple Example,  Next: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.1 A Simple Example
........................

Let’s create an extension module called ‘spam’ (the favorite food of
Monty Python fans…) and let’s say we want to create a Python interface
to the C library function ‘system()’ (1).  This function takes a
null-terminated character string as argument and returns an integer.  We
want this function to be callable from Python as follows:

     >>> import spam
     >>> status = spam.system("ls -l")

Begin by creating a file ‘spammodule.c’.  (Historically, if a module is
called ‘spam’, the C file containing its implementation is called
‘spammodule.c’; if the module name is very long, like ‘spammify’, the
module name can be just ‘spammify.c’.)

The first two lines of our file can be:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

which pulls in the Python API (you can add a comment describing the
purpose of the module and a copyright notice if you like).

     Not: Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which
     affect the standard headers on some systems, you 'must' include
     ‘Python.h’ before any standard headers are included.

     It is recommended to always define ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
     including ‘Python.h’.  See *note Extracting Parameters in Extension
     Functions: 47cf. for a description of this macro.

All user-visible symbols defined by ‘Python.h’ have a prefix of ‘Py’ or
‘PY’, except those defined in standard header files.  For convenience,
and since they are used extensively by the Python interpreter,
‘"Python.h"’ includes a few standard header files: ‘<stdio.h>’,
‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’, and ‘<stdlib.h>’.  If the latter header file
does not exist on your system, it declares the functions ‘malloc()’,
‘free()’ and ‘realloc()’ directly.

The next thing we add to our module file is the C function that will be
called when the Python expression ‘spam.system(string)’ is evaluated
(we’ll see shortly how it ends up being called):

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

There is a straightforward translation from the argument list in Python
(for example, the single expression ‘"ls -l"’) to the arguments passed
to the C function.  The C function always has two arguments,
conventionally named 'self' and 'args'.

The 'self' argument points to the module object for module-level
functions; for a method it would point to the object instance.

The 'args' argument will be a pointer to a Python tuple object
containing the arguments.  Each item of the tuple corresponds to an
argument in the call’s argument list.  The arguments are Python objects
— in order to do anything with them in our C function we have to convert
them to C values.  The function *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. in the
Python API checks the argument types and converts them to C values.  It
uses a template string to determine the required types of the arguments
as well as the types of the C variables into which to store the
converted values.  More about this later.

*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. returns true (nonzero) if all arguments
have the right type and its components have been stored in the variables
whose addresses are passed.  It returns false (zero) if an invalid
argument list was passed.  In the latter case it also raises an
appropriate exception so the calling function can return ‘NULL’
immediately (as we saw in the example).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) An interface for this function already exists in the standard
module *note os: a0. — it was chosen as a simple and straightforward
example.


File: python.info,  Node: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions,  Next: Back to the Example,  Prev: A Simple Example,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.2 Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
.........................................

An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the
following: when a function fails, it should set an exception condition
and return an error value (usually ‘-1’ or a ‘NULL’ pointer).  Exception
information is stored in three members of the interpreter’s thread
state.  These are ‘NULL’ if there is no exception.  Otherwise they are
the C equivalents of the members of the Python tuple returned by *note
sys.exc_info(): 49f.  These are the exception type, exception instance,
and a traceback object.  It is important to know about them to
understand how errors are passed around.

The Python API defines a number of functions to set various types of
exceptions.

The most common one is *note PyErr_SetString(): 315.  Its arguments are
an exception object and a C string.  The exception object is usually a
predefined object like ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’.  The C string
indicates the cause of the error and is converted to a Python string
object and stored as the “associated value” of the exception.

Another useful function is *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 47d2, which only
takes an exception argument and constructs the associated value by
inspection of the global variable ‘errno’.  The most general function is
*note PyErr_SetObject(): 314, which takes two object arguments, the
exception and its associated value.  You don’t need to *note
Py_INCREF(): 305. the objects passed to any of these functions.

You can test non-destructively whether an exception has been set with
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c.  This returns the current exception
object, or ‘NULL’ if no exception has occurred.  You normally don’t need
to call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to see whether an error occurred
in a function call, since you should be able to tell from the return
value.

When a function 'f' that calls another function 'g' detects that the
latter fails, 'f' should itself return an error value (usually ‘NULL’ or
‘-1’).  It should 'not' call one of the ‘PyErr_*’ functions — one has
already been called by 'g'.  'f'’s caller is then supposed to also
return an error indication to 'its' caller, again 'without' calling
‘PyErr_*’, and so on — the most detailed cause of the error was already
reported by the function that first detected it.  Once the error reaches
the Python interpreter’s main loop, this aborts the currently executing
Python code and tries to find an exception handler specified by the
Python programmer.

(There are situations where a module can actually give a more detailed
error message by calling another ‘PyErr_*’ function, and in such cases
it is fine to do so.  As a general rule, however, this is not necessary,
and can cause information about the cause of the error to be lost: most
operations can fail for a variety of reasons.)

To ignore an exception set by a function call that failed, the exception
condition must be cleared explicitly by calling *note PyErr_Clear():
ed9.  The only time C code should call *note PyErr_Clear(): ed9. is if
it doesn’t want to pass the error on to the interpreter but wants to
handle it completely by itself (possibly by trying something else, or
pretending nothing went wrong).

Every failing ‘malloc()’ call must be turned into an exception — the
direct caller of ‘malloc()’ (or ‘realloc()’) must call *note
PyErr_NoMemory(): 47d3. and return a failure indicator itself.  All the
object-creating functions (for example, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1660.)
already do this, so this note is only relevant to those who call
‘malloc()’ directly.

Also note that, with the important exception of *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. and friends, functions that return an integer
status usually return a positive value or zero for success and ‘-1’ for
failure, like Unix system calls.

Finally, be careful to clean up garbage (by making *note Py_XDECREF():
5c2. or *note Py_DECREF(): 306. calls for objects you have already
created) when you return an error indicator!

The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours.  There are
predeclared C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions,
such as ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’, which you can use directly.  Of
course, you should choose exceptions wisely — don’t use
‘PyExc_TypeError’ to mean that a file couldn’t be opened (that should
probably be ‘PyExc_OSError’).  If something’s wrong with the argument
list, the *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. function usually raises
‘PyExc_TypeError’.  If you have an argument whose value must be in a
particular range or must satisfy other conditions, ‘PyExc_ValueError’ is
appropriate.

You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module.  For
this, you usually declare a static object variable at the beginning of
your file:

     static PyObject *SpamError;

and initialize it in your module’s initialization function
(‘PyInit_spam()’) with an exception object:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;

         m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
         Py_XINCREF(SpamError);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "error", SpamError) < 0) {
             Py_XDECREF(SpamError);
             Py_CLEAR(SpamError);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Note that the Python name for the exception object is ‘spam.error’.  The
*note PyErr_NewException(): 1112. function may create a class with the
base class being *note Exception: 838. (unless another class is passed
in instead of ‘NULL’), described in *note Gömülü İstisnalar: 16ac.

Note also that the ‘SpamError’ variable retains a reference to the newly
created exception class; this is intentional!  Since the exception could
be removed from the module by external code, an owned reference to the
class is needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing
‘SpamError’ to become a dangling pointer.  Should it become a dangling
pointer, C code which raises the exception could cause a core dump or
other unintended side effects.

We discuss the use of *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1360. as a function return
type later in this sample.

The ‘spam.error’ exception can be raised in your extension module using
a call to *note PyErr_SetString(): 315. as shown below:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         if (sts < 0) {
             PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Back to the Example,  Next: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function,  Prev: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.3 Back to the Example
...........................

Going back to our example function, you should now be able to understand
this statement:

     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
         return NULL;

It returns ‘NULL’ (the error indicator for functions returning object
pointers) if an error is detected in the argument list, relying on the
exception set by *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.  Otherwise the string
value of the argument has been copied to the local variable ‘command’.
This is a pointer assignment and you are not supposed to modify the
string to which it points (so in Standard C, the variable ‘command’
should properly be declared as ‘const char *command’).

The next statement is a call to the Unix function ‘system()’, passing it
the string we just got from *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.:

     sts = system(command);

Our ‘spam.system()’ function must return the value of ‘sts’ as a Python
object.  This is done using the function *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1660.

     return PyLong_FromLong(sts);

In this case, it will return an integer object.  (Yes, even integers are
objects on the heap in Python!)

If you have a C function that returns no useful argument (a function
returning void), the corresponding Python function must return ‘None’.
You need this idiom to do so (which is implemented by the *note
Py_RETURN_NONE: 12fb. macro):

     Py_INCREF(Py_None);
     return Py_None;

*note Py_None: 47d6. is the C name for the special Python object ‘None’.
It is a genuine Python object rather than a ‘NULL’ pointer, which means
“error” in most contexts, as we have seen.


File: python.info,  Node: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function,  Next: Compilation and Linkage,  Prev: Back to the Example,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.4 The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
.............................................................

I promised to show how ‘spam_system()’ is called from Python programs.
First, we need to list its name and address in a “method table”:

     static PyMethodDef SpamMethods[] = {
         ...
         {"system",  spam_system, METH_VARARGS,
          "Execute a shell command."},
         ...
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
     };

Note the third entry (‘METH_VARARGS’).  This is a flag telling the
interpreter the calling convention to be used for the C function.  It
should normally always be ‘METH_VARARGS’ or ‘METH_VARARGS |
METH_KEYWORDS’; a value of ‘0’ means that an obsolete variant of *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. is used.

When using only ‘METH_VARARGS’, the function should expect the
Python-level parameters to be passed in as a tuple acceptable for
parsing via *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.; more information on this
function is provided below.

The *note METH_KEYWORDS: 47d9. bit may be set in the third field if
keyword arguments should be passed to the function.  In this case, the C
function should accept a third ‘PyObject *’ parameter which will be a
dictionary of keywords.  Use *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b.
to parse the arguments to such a function.

The method table must be referenced in the module definition structure:

     static struct PyModuleDef spammodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         "spam",   /* name of module */
         spam_doc, /* module documentation, may be NULL */
         -1,       /* size of per-interpreter state of the module,
                      or -1 if the module keeps state in global variables. */
         SpamMethods
     };

This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the
module’s initialization function.  The initialization function must be
named ‘PyInit_name()’, where 'name' is the name of the module, and
should be the only non-‘static’ item defined in the module file:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
     }

Note that *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1360. declares the function as ‘PyObject
*’ return type, declares any special linkage declarations required by
the platform, and for C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

When the Python program imports module ‘spam’ for the first time,
‘PyInit_spam()’ is called.  (See below for comments about embedding
Python.)  It calls *note PyModule_Create(): 47da, which returns a module
object, and inserts built-in function objects into the newly created
module based upon the table (an array of *note PyMethodDef: 1364.
structures) found in the module definition.  *note PyModule_Create():
47da. returns a pointer to the module object that it creates.  It may
abort with a fatal error for certain errors, or return ‘NULL’ if the
module could not be initialized satisfactorily.  The init function must
return the module object to its caller, so that it then gets inserted
into ‘sys.modules’.

When embedding Python, the ‘PyInit_spam()’ function is not called
automatically unless there’s an entry in the ‘PyImport_Inittab’ table.
To add the module to the initialization table, use *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2, optionally followed by an import of the
module:

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         wchar_t *program = Py_DecodeLocale(argv[0], NULL);
         if (program == NULL) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]\n");
             exit(1);
         }

         /* Add a built-in module, before Py_Initialize */
         if (PyImport_AppendInittab("spam", PyInit_spam) == -1) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not extend in-built modules table\n");
             exit(1);
         }

         /* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */
         Py_SetProgramName(program);

         /* Initialize the Python interpreter.  Required.
            If this step fails, it will be a fatal error. */
         Py_Initialize();

         /* Optionally import the module; alternatively,
            import can be deferred until the embedded script
            imports it. */
         PyObject *pmodule = PyImport_ImportModule("spam");
         if (!pmodule) {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not import module 'spam'\n");
         }

         ...

         PyMem_RawFree(program);
         return 0;
     }

     Not: Removing entries from ‘sys.modules’ or importing compiled
     modules into multiple interpreters within a process (or following a
     ‘fork()’ without an intervening ‘exec()’) can create problems for
     some extension modules.  Extension module authors should exercise
     caution when initializing internal data structures.

A more substantial example module is included in the Python source
distribution as ‘Modules/xxmodule.c’.  This file may be used as a
template or simply read as an example.

     Not: Unlike our ‘spam’ example, ‘xxmodule’ uses 'multi-phase
     initialization' (new in Python 3.5), where a PyModuleDef structure
     is returned from ‘PyInit_spam’, and creation of the module is left
     to the import machinery.  For details on multi-phase
     initialization, see PEP 489(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation and Linkage,  Next: Calling Python Functions from C,  Prev: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.5 Compilation and Linkage
...............................

There are two more things to do before you can use your new extension:
compiling and linking it with the Python system.  If you use dynamic
loading, the details may depend on the style of dynamic loading your
system uses; see the chapters about building extension modules (chapter
*note Building C and C++ Extensions: 47dd.) and additional information
that pertains only to building on Windows (chapter *note Windows’ta C ve
C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak: 1c43.) for more information about this.

If you can’t use dynamic loading, or if you want to make your module a
permanent part of the Python interpreter, you will have to change the
configuration setup and rebuild the interpreter.  Luckily, this is very
simple on Unix: just place your file (‘spammodule.c’ for example) in the
‘Modules/’ directory of an unpacked source distribution, add a line to
the file ‘Modules/Setup.local’ describing your file:

     spam spammodule.o

and rebuild the interpreter by running ‘make’ in the toplevel directory.
You can also run ‘make’ in the ‘Modules/’ subdirectory, but then you
must first rebuild ‘Makefile’ there by running ‘‘make’ Makefile’.  (This
is necessary each time you change the ‘Setup’ file.)

If your module requires additional libraries to link with, these can be
listed on the line in the configuration file as well, for instance:

     spam spammodule.o -lX11


File: python.info,  Node: Calling Python Functions from C,  Next: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Prev: Compilation and Linkage,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.6 Calling Python Functions from C
.......................................

So far we have concentrated on making C functions callable from Python.
The reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is
especially the case for libraries that support so-called “callback”
functions.  If a C interface makes use of callbacks, the equivalent
Python often needs to provide a callback mechanism to the Python
programmer; the implementation will require calling the Python callback
functions from a C callback.  Other uses are also imaginable.

Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and
there is a standard interface to call a Python function.  (I won’t dwell
on how to call the Python parser with a particular string as input — if
you’re interested, have a look at the implementation of the *note -c:
3eb. command line option in ‘Modules/main.c’ from the Python source
code.)

Calling a Python function is easy.  First, the Python program must
somehow pass you the Python function object.  You should provide a
function (or some other interface) to do this.  When this function is
called, save a pointer to the Python function object (be careful to
*note Py_INCREF(): 305. it!)  in a global variable — or wherever you see
fit.  For example, the following function might be part of a module
definition:

     static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;

     static PyObject *
     my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
     {
         PyObject *result = NULL;
         PyObject *temp;

         if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
             if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
                 PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
                 return NULL;
             }
             Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* Add a reference to new callback */
             Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* Dispose of previous callback */
             my_callback = temp;       /* Remember new callback */
             /* Boilerplate to return "None" */
             Py_INCREF(Py_None);
             result = Py_None;
         }
         return result;
     }

This function must be registered with the interpreter using the *note
METH_VARARGS: 1397. flag; this is described in section *note The
Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function: 47d7.  The *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. function and its arguments are documented in
section *note Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions: 47cf.

The macros *note Py_XINCREF(): 8c9. and *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2.
increment/decrement the reference count of an object and are safe in the
presence of ‘NULL’ pointers (but note that 'temp' will not be ‘NULL’ in
this context).  More info on them in section *note Reference Counts:
47e0.

Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1.  This function has two arguments,
both pointers to arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the
argument list.  The argument list must always be a tuple object, whose
length is the number of arguments.  To call the Python function with no
arguments, pass in ‘NULL’, or an empty tuple; to call it with one
argument, pass a singleton tuple.  *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. returns a
tuple when its format string consists of zero or more format codes
between parentheses.  For example:

     int arg;
     PyObject *arglist;
     PyObject *result;
     ...
     arg = 123;
     ...
     /* Time to call the callback */
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1. returns a Python object pointer: this
is the return value of the Python function.  *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1. is “reference-count-neutral” with respect
to its arguments.  In the example a new tuple was created to serve as
the argument list, which is *note Py_DECREF(): 306.-ed immediately after
the *note PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1. call.

The return value of *note PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1. is “new”: either
it is a brand new object, or it is an existing object whose reference
count has been incremented.  So, unless you want to save it in a global
variable, you should somehow *note Py_DECREF(): 306. the result, even
(especially!)  if you are not interested in its value.

Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return
value isn’t ‘NULL’.  If it is, the Python function terminated by raising
an exception.  If the C code that called *note PyObject_CallObject():
47e1. is called from Python, it should now return an error indication to
its Python caller, so the interpreter can print a stack trace, or the
calling Python code can handle the exception.  If this is not possible
or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling *note
PyErr_Clear(): ed9.  For example:

     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     ...use result...
     Py_DECREF(result);

Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you
may also have to provide an argument list to *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1.  In some cases the argument list is also
provided by the Python program, through the same interface that
specified the callback function.  It can then be saved and used in the
same manner as the function object.  In other cases, you may have to
construct a new tuple to pass as the argument list.  The simplest way to
do this is to call *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5.  For example, if you want
to pass an integral event code, you might use the following code:

     PyObject *arglist;
     ...
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);

Note the placement of ‘Py_DECREF(arglist)’ immediately after the call,
before the error check!  Also note that strictly speaking this code is
not complete: *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. may run out of memory, and
this should be checked.

You may also call a function with keyword arguments by using *note
PyObject_Call(): 7c1, which supports arguments and keyword arguments.
As in the above example, we use *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. to construct
the dictionary.

     PyObject *dict;
     ...
     dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
     result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
     Py_DECREF(dict);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);


File: python.info,  Node: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Next: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Prev: Calling Python Functions from C,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.7 Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
....................................................

The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. function is declared as follows:

     int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...);

The 'arg' argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list
passed from Python to a C function.  The 'format' argument must be a
format string, whose syntax is explained in *note Parsing arguments and
building values: 6f6. in the Python/C API Reference Manual.  The
remaining arguments must be addresses of variables whose type is
determined by the format string.

Note that while *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. checks that the Python
arguments have the required types, it cannot check the validity of the
addresses of C variables passed to the call: if you make mistakes there,
your code will probably crash or at least overwrite random bits in
memory.  So be careful!

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller
are 'borrowed' references; do not decrement their reference count!

Some example calls:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  /* Make "s#" use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */
     #include <Python.h>

     int ok;
     int i, j;
     long k, l;
     const char *s;
     Py_ssize_t size;

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* No arguments */
         /* Python call: f() */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */
         /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */
         /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
         /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */
         /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */

     {
         const char *file;
         const char *mode = "r";
         int bufsize = 0;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
         /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */
         /* Possible Python calls:
            f('spam')
            f('spam', 'w')
            f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
     }

     {
         int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
                  &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
         /* A rectangle and a point */
         /* Possible Python call:
            f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
     }

     {
         Py_complex c;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
         /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */
         /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Next: Building Arbitrary Values,  Prev: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.8 Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
..................................................

The *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. function is declared as
follows:

     int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
                                     const char *format, char *kwlist[], ...);

The 'arg' and 'format' parameters are identical to those of the *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. function.  The 'kwdict' parameter is the
dictionary of keywords received as the third parameter from the Python
runtime.  The 'kwlist' parameter is a ‘NULL’-terminated list of strings
which identify the parameters; the names are matched with the type
information from 'format' from left to right.  On success, *note
PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. returns true, otherwise it returns
false and raises an appropriate exception.

     Not: Nested tuples cannot be parsed when using keyword arguments!
     Keyword parameters passed in which are not present in the 'kwlist'
     will cause *note TypeError: 2c4. to be raised.

Here is an example module which uses keywords, based on an example by
Geoff Philbrick (<philbrick@hks.com>):

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN  /* Make "s#" use Py_ssize_t rather than int. */
     #include <Python.h>

     static PyObject *
     keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
     {
         int voltage;
         const char *state = "a stiff";
         const char *action = "voom";
         const char *type = "Norwegian Blue";

         static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist,
                                          &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
             return NULL;

         printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n",
                action, voltage);
         printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);

         Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

     static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
         /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
          * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
          * three.
          */
         {"parrot", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
          "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef keywdargmodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         "keywdarg",
         NULL,
         -1,
         keywdarg_methods
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_keywdarg(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&keywdargmodule);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Building Arbitrary Values,  Next: Reference Counts,  Prev: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.9 Building Arbitrary Values
.................................

This function is the counterpart to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.  It
is declared as follows:

     PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...);

It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308, but the arguments (which are input to the
function, not output) must not be pointers, just values.  It returns a
new Python object, suitable for returning from a C function called from
Python.

One difference with *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.: while the latter
requires its first argument to be a tuple (since Python argument lists
are always represented as tuples internally), *note Py_BuildValue():
6f5. does not always build a tuple.  It builds a tuple only if its
format string contains two or more format units.  If the format string
is empty, it returns ‘None’; if it contains exactly one format unit, it
returns whatever object is described by that format unit.  To force it
to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

Examples (to the left the call, to the right the resulting Python
value):

     Py_BuildValue("")                        None
     Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
     Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
     Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("y", "hello")              b'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
     Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4)          b'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
     Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
     Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
     Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
                   "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
     Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
                   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counts,  Next: Writing Extensions in C++,  Prev: Building Arbitrary Values,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.10 Reference Counts
.........................

In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic
allocation and deallocation of memory on the heap.  In C, this is done
using the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.  In C++, the operators
‘new’ and ‘delete’ are used with essentially the same meaning and we’ll
restrict the following discussion to the C case.

Every block of memory allocated with ‘malloc()’ should eventually be
returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to
‘free()’.  It is important to call ‘free()’ at the right time.  If a
block’s address is forgotten but ‘free()’ is not called for it, the
memory it occupies cannot be reused until the program terminates.  This
is called a 'memory leak'.  On the other hand, if a program calls
‘free()’ for a block and then continues to use the block, it creates a
conflict with reuse of the block through another ‘malloc()’ call.  This
is called 'using freed memory'.  It has the same bad consequences as
referencing uninitialized data — core dumps, wrong results, mysterious
crashes.

Common causes of memory leaks are unusual paths through the code.  For
instance, a function may allocate a block of memory, do some
calculation, and then free the block again.  Now a change in the
requirements for the function may add a test to the calculation that
detects an error condition and can return prematurely from the function.
It’s easy to forget to free the allocated memory block when taking this
premature exit, especially when it is added later to the code.  Such
leaks, once introduced, often go undetected for a long time: the error
exit is taken only in a small fraction of all calls, and most modern
machines have plenty of virtual memory, so the leak only becomes
apparent in a long-running process that uses the leaking function
frequently.  Therefore, it’s important to prevent leaks from happening
by having a coding convention or strategy that minimizes this kind of
errors.

Since Python makes heavy use of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, it needs a
strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory.  The
chosen method is called 'reference counting'.  The principle is simple:
every object contains a counter, which is incremented when a reference
to the object is stored somewhere, and which is decremented when a
reference to it is deleted.  When the counter reaches zero, the last
reference to the object has been deleted and the object is freed.

An alternative strategy is called 'automatic garbage collection'.
(Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage
collection strategy, hence my use of “automatic” to distinguish the
two.)  The big advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the
user doesn’t need to call ‘free()’ explicitly.  (Another claimed
advantage is an improvement in speed or memory usage — this is no hard
fact however.)  The disadvantage is that for C, there is no truly
portable automatic garbage collector, while reference counting can be
implemented portably (as long as the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’
are available — which the C Standard guarantees).  Maybe some day a
sufficiently portable automatic garbage collector will be available for
C. Until then, we’ll have to live with reference counts.

While Python uses the traditional reference counting implementation, it
also offers a cycle detector that works to detect reference cycles.
This allows applications to not worry about creating direct or indirect
circular references; these are the weakness of garbage collection
implemented using only reference counting.  Reference cycles consist of
objects which contain (possibly indirect) references to themselves, so
that each object in the cycle has a reference count which is non-zero.
Typical reference counting implementations are not able to reclaim the
memory belonging to any objects in a reference cycle, or referenced from
the objects in the cycle, even though there are no further references to
the cycle itself.

The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim
them.  The *note gc: 5e. module exposes a way to run the detector (the
*note collect(): 89c. function), as well as configuration interfaces and
the ability to disable the detector at runtime.

* Menu:

* Reference Counting in Python::
* Ownership Rules::
* Thin Ice::
* NULL Pointers::


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counting in Python,  Next: Ownership Rules,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.11 Reference Counting in Python
.....................................

There are two macros, ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and ‘Py_DECREF(x)’, which handle
the incrementing and decrementing of the reference count.  *note
Py_DECREF(): 306. also frees the object when the count reaches zero.
For flexibility, it doesn’t call ‘free()’ directly — rather, it makes a
call through a function pointer in the object’s 'type object'.  For this
purpose (and others), every object also contains a pointer to its type
object.

The big question now remains: when to use ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and
‘Py_DECREF(x)’?  Let’s first introduce some terms.  Nobody “owns” an
object; however, you can 'own a reference' to an object.  An object’s
reference count is now defined as the number of owned references to it.
The owner of a reference is responsible for calling *note Py_DECREF():
306. when the reference is no longer needed.  Ownership of a reference
can be transferred.  There are three ways to dispose of an owned
reference: pass it on, store it, or call *note Py_DECREF(): 306.
Forgetting to dispose of an owned reference creates a memory leak.

It is also possible to 'borrow' (1) a reference to an object.  The
borrower of a reference should not call *note Py_DECREF(): 306.  The
borrower must not hold on to the object longer than the owner from which
it was borrowed.  Using a borrowed reference after the owner has
disposed of it risks using freed memory and should be avoided completely
(2).

The advantage of borrowing over owning a reference is that you don’t
need to take care of disposing of the reference on all possible paths
through the code — in other words, with a borrowed reference you don’t
run the risk of leaking when a premature exit is taken.  The
disadvantage of borrowing over owning is that there are some subtle
situations where in seemingly correct code a borrowed reference can be
used after the owner from which it was borrowed has in fact disposed of
it.

A borrowed reference can be changed into an owned reference by calling
*note Py_INCREF(): 305.  This does not affect the status of the owner
from which the reference was borrowed — it creates a new owned
reference, and gives full owner responsibilities (the new owner must
dispose of the reference properly, as well as the previous owner).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The metaphor of “borrowing” a reference is not completely
correct: the owner still has a copy of the reference.

   (2) Checking that the reference count is at least 1 'does not work' —
the reference count itself could be in freed memory and may thus be
reused for another object!


File: python.info,  Node: Ownership Rules,  Next: Thin Ice,  Prev: Reference Counting in Python,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.12 Ownership Rules
........................

Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is
part of the function’s interface specification whether ownership is
transferred with the reference or not.

Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownership
with the reference.  In particular, all functions whose function it is
to create a new object, such as *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1660. and *note
Py_BuildValue(): 6f5, pass ownership to the receiver.  Even if the
object is not actually new, you still receive ownership of a new
reference to that object.  For instance, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1660.
maintains a cache of popular values and can return a reference to a
cached item.

Many functions that extract objects from other objects also transfer
ownership with the reference, for instance *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 47ec.  The picture is less clear, here,
however, since a few common routines are exceptions: *note
PyTuple_GetItem(): 47ed, *note PyList_GetItem(): 47ee, *note
PyDict_GetItem(): 6f9, and *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 47ef. all
return references that you borrow from the tuple, list or dictionary.

The function *note PyImport_AddModule(): 47f0. also returns a borrowed
reference, even though it may actually create the object it returns:
this is possible because an owned reference to the object is stored in
‘sys.modules’.

When you pass an object reference into another function, in general, the
function borrows the reference from you — if it needs to store it, it
will use *note Py_INCREF(): 305. to become an independent owner.  There
are exactly two important exceptions to this rule: *note
PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 47f2.  These
functions take over ownership of the item passed to them — even if they
fail!  (Note that *note PyDict_SetItem(): 47f3. and friends don’t take
over ownership — they are “normal.”)

When a C function is called from Python, it borrows references to its
arguments from the caller.  The caller owns a reference to the object,
so the borrowed reference’s lifetime is guaranteed until the function
returns.  Only when such a borrowed reference must be stored or passed
on, it must be turned into an owned reference by calling *note
Py_INCREF(): 305.

The object reference returned from a C function that is called from
Python must be an owned reference — ownership is transferred from the
function to its caller.


File: python.info,  Node: Thin Ice,  Next: NULL Pointers,  Prev: Ownership Rules,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.13 Thin Ice
.................

There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed
reference can lead to problems.  These all have to do with implicit
invocations of the interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference
to dispose of it.

The first and most important case to know about is using *note
Py_DECREF(): 306. on an unrelated object while borrowing a reference to
a list item.  For instance:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }

This function first borrows a reference to ‘list[0]’, then replaces
‘list[1]’ with the value ‘0’, and finally prints the borrowed reference.
Looks harmless, right?  But it’s not!

Let’s follow the control flow into *note PyList_SetItem(): 47f2.  The
list owns references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it
has to dispose of the original item 1.  Now let’s suppose the original
item 1 was an instance of a user-defined class, and let’s further
suppose that the class defined a ‘__del__()’ method.  If this class
instance has a reference count of 1, disposing of it will call its
‘__del__()’ method.

Since it is written in Python, the ‘__del__()’ method can execute
arbitrary Python code.  Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the
reference to ‘item’ in ‘bug()’?  You bet!  Assuming that the list passed
into ‘bug()’ is accessible to the ‘__del__()’ method, it could execute a
statement to the effect of ‘del list[0]’, and assuming this was the last
reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it,
thereby invalidating ‘item’.

The solution, once you know the source of the problem, is easy:
temporarily increment the reference count.  The correct version of the
function reads:

     void
     no_bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         Py_INCREF(item);
         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

This is a true story.  An older version of Python contained variants of
this bug and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger
to figure out why his ‘__del__()’ methods would fail…

The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant
involving threads.  Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter
can’t get in each other’s way, because there is a global lock protecting
Python’s entire object space.  However, it is possible to temporarily
release this lock using the macro *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 47f6,
and to re-acquire it using *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8f5.  This is
common around blocking I/O calls, to let other threads use the processor
while waiting for the I/O to complete.  Obviously, the following
function has the same problem as the previous one:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
         Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
         ...some blocking I/O call...
         Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: NULL Pointers,  Prev: Thin Ice,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.1.14 NULL Pointers
......................

In general, functions that take object references as arguments do not
expect you to pass them ‘NULL’ pointers, and will dump core (or cause
later core dumps) if you do so.  Functions that return object references
generally return ‘NULL’ only to indicate that an exception occurred.
The reason for not testing for ‘NULL’ arguments is that functions often
pass the objects they receive on to other function — if each function
were to test for ‘NULL’, there would be a lot of redundant tests and the
code would run more slowly.

It is better to test for ‘NULL’ only at the “source:” when a pointer
that may be ‘NULL’ is received, for example, from ‘malloc()’ or from a
function that may raise an exception.

The macros *note Py_INCREF(): 305. and *note Py_DECREF(): 306. do not
check for ‘NULL’ pointers — however, their variants *note Py_XINCREF():
8c9. and *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. do.

The macros for checking for a particular object type (‘Pytype_Check()’)
don’t check for ‘NULL’ pointers — again, there is much code that calls
several of these in a row to test an object against various different
expected types, and this would generate redundant tests.  There are no
variants with ‘NULL’ checking.

The C function calling mechanism guarantees that the argument list
passed to C functions (‘args’ in the examples) is never ‘NULL’ — in fact
it guarantees that it is always a tuple (1).

It is a severe error to ever let a ‘NULL’ pointer “escape” to the Python
user.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) These guarantees don’t hold when you use the “old” style calling
convention — this is still found in much existing code.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Extensions in C++,  Next: Providing a C API for an Extension Module,  Prev: Reference Counts,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.15 Writing Extensions in C++
..................................

It is possible to write extension modules in C++.  Some restrictions
apply.  If the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and
linked by the C compiler, global or static objects with constructors
cannot be used.  This is not a problem if the main program is linked by
the C++ compiler.  Functions that will be called by the Python
interpreter (in particular, module initialization functions) have to be
declared using ‘extern "C"’.  It is unnecessary to enclose the Python
header files in ‘extern "C" {...}’ — they use this form already if the
symbol ‘__cplusplus’ is defined (all recent C++ compilers define this
symbol).


File: python.info,  Node: Providing a C API for an Extension Module,  Prev: Writing Extensions in C++,  Up: Extending Python with C or C++

6.2.1.16 Providing a C API for an Extension Module
..................................................

Many extension modules just provide new functions and types to be used
from Python, but sometimes the code in an extension module can be useful
for other extension modules.  For example, an extension module could
implement a type “collection” which works like lists without order.
Just like the standard Python list type has a C API which permits
extension modules to create and manipulate lists, this new collection
type should have a set of C functions for direct manipulation from other
extension modules.

At first sight this seems easy: just write the functions (without
declaring them ‘static’, of course), provide an appropriate header file,
and document the C API. And in fact this would work if all extension
modules were always linked statically with the Python interpreter.  When
modules are used as shared libraries, however, the symbols defined in
one module may not be visible to another module.  The details of
visibility depend on the operating system; some systems use one global
namespace for the Python interpreter and all extension modules (Windows,
for example), whereas others require an explicit list of imported
symbols at module link time (AIX is one example), or offer a choice of
different strategies (most Unices).  And even if symbols are globally
visible, the module whose functions one wishes to call might not have
been loaded yet!

Portability therefore requires not to make any assumptions about symbol
visibility.  This means that all symbols in extension modules should be
declared ‘static’, except for the module’s initialization function, in
order to avoid name clashes with other extension modules (as discussed
in section *note The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function:
47d7.).  And it means that symbols that 'should' be accessible from
other extension modules must be exported in a different way.

Python provides a special mechanism to pass C-level information
(pointers) from one extension module to another one: Capsules.  A
Capsule is a Python data type which stores a pointer (void*).  Capsules
can only be created and accessed via their C API, but they can be passed
around like any other Python object.  In particular, they can be
assigned to a name in an extension module’s namespace.  Other extension
modules can then import this module, retrieve the value of this name,
and then retrieve the pointer from the Capsule.

There are many ways in which Capsules can be used to export the C API of
an extension module.  Each function could get its own Capsule, or all C
API pointers could be stored in an array whose address is published in a
Capsule.  And the various tasks of storing and retrieving the pointers
can be distributed in different ways between the module providing the
code and the client modules.

Whichever method you choose, it’s important to name your Capsules
properly.  The function *note PyCapsule_New(): 47fc. takes a name
parameter (const char*); you’re permitted to pass in a ‘NULL’ name, but
we strongly encourage you to specify a name.  Properly named Capsules
provide a degree of runtime type-safety; there is no feasible way to
tell one unnamed Capsule from another.

In particular, Capsules used to expose C APIs should be given a name
following this convention:

     modulename.attributename

The convenience function *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1695. makes it easy
to load a C API provided via a Capsule, but only if the Capsule’s name
matches this convention.  This behavior gives C API users a high degree
of certainty that the Capsule they load contains the correct C API.

The following example demonstrates an approach that puts most of the
burden on the writer of the exporting module, which is appropriate for
commonly used library modules.  It stores all C API pointers (just one
in the example!)  in an array of void pointers which becomes the value
of a Capsule.  The header file corresponding to the module provides a
macro that takes care of importing the module and retrieving its C API
pointers; client modules only have to call this macro before accessing
the C API.

The exporting module is a modification of the ‘spam’ module from section
*note A Simple Example: 47ce.  The function ‘spam.system()’ does not
call the C library function ‘system()’ directly, but a function
‘PySpam_System()’, which would of course do something more complicated
in reality (such as adding “spam” to every command).  This function
‘PySpam_System()’ is also exported to other extension modules.

The function ‘PySpam_System()’ is a plain C function, declared ‘static’
like everything else:

     static int
     PySpam_System(const char *command)
     {
         return system(command);
     }

The function ‘spam_system()’ is modified in a trivial way:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = PySpam_System(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

In the beginning of the module, right after the line

     #include <Python.h>

two more lines must be added:

     #define SPAM_MODULE
     #include "spammodule.h"

The ‘#define’ is used to tell the header file that it is being included
in the exporting module, not a client module.  Finally, the module’s
initialization function must take care of initializing the C API pointer
array:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
         PyObject *c_api_object;

         m = PyModule_Create(&spammodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
         PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;

         /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */
         c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);

         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) {
             Py_XDECREF(c_api_object);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Note that ‘PySpam_API’ is declared ‘static’; otherwise the pointer array
would disappear when ‘PyInit_spam()’ terminates!

The bulk of the work is in the header file ‘spammodule.h’, which looks
like this:

     #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #ifdef __cplusplus
     extern "C" {
     #endif

     /* Header file for spammodule */

     /* C API functions */
     #define PySpam_System_NUM 0
     #define PySpam_System_RETURN int
     #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)

     /* Total number of C API pointers */
     #define PySpam_API_pointers 1


     #ifdef SPAM_MODULE
     /* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */

     static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;

     #else
     /* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */

     static void **PySpam_API;

     #define PySpam_System \
      (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])

     /* Return -1 on error, 0 on success.
      * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there's an error.
      */
     static int
     import_spam(void)
     {
         PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0);
         return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
     }

     #endif

     #ifdef __cplusplus
     }
     #endif

     #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */

All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
‘PySpam_System()’ is to call the function (or rather macro)
‘import_spam()’ in its initialization function:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_client(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;

         m = PyModule_Create(&clientmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;
         if (import_spam() < 0)
             return NULL;
         /* additional initialization can happen here */
         return m;
     }

The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file ‘spammodule.h’
is rather complicated.  However, the basic structure is the same for
each function that is exported, so it has to be learned only once.

Finally it should be mentioned that Capsules offer additional
functionality, which is especially useful for memory allocation and
deallocation of the pointer stored in a Capsule.  The details are
described in the Python/C API Reference Manual in the section *note
Capsules: 47fd. and in the implementation of Capsules (files
‘Include/pycapsule.h’ and ‘Objects/pycapsule.c’ in the Python source
code distribution).


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Next: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Prev: Extending Python with C or C++,  Up: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma

6.2.2 Defining Extension Types: Tutorial
----------------------------------------

Python allows the writer of a C extension module to define new types
that can be manipulated from Python code, much like the built-in *note
str: 15d. and *note list: 422. types.  The code for all extension types
follows a pattern, but there are some details that you need to
understand before you can get started.  This document is a gentle
introduction to the topic.

* Menu:

* The Basics::
* Adding data and methods to the Basic example::
* Providing finer control over data attributes::
* Supporting cyclic garbage collection::
* Subclassing other types::


File: python.info,  Node: The Basics,  Next: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.1 The Basics
..................

The *note CPython: 510. runtime sees all Python objects as variables of
type *note PyObject: 6eb.*, which serves as a “base type” for all Python
objects.  The *note PyObject: 6eb. structure itself only contains the
object’s *note reference count: 4802. and a pointer to the object’s
“type object”.  This is where the action is; the type object determines
which (C) functions get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an
attribute gets looked up on an object, a method called, or it is
multiplied by another object.  These C functions are called “type
methods”.

So, if you want to define a new extension type, you need to create a new
type object.

This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here’s a
minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type named ‘Custom’
inside a C extension module ‘custom’:

     Not: What we’re showing here is the traditional way of defining
     'static' extension types.  It should be adequate for most uses.
     The C API also allows defining heap-allocated extension types using
     the *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316. function, which isn’t covered in
     this tutorial.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         /* Type-specific fields go here. */
     } CustomObject;

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Now that’s quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem
familiar from the previous chapter.  This file defines three things:

  1. What a ‘Custom’ 'object' contains: this is the ‘CustomObject’
     struct, which is allocated once for each ‘Custom’ instance.

  2. How the ‘Custom’ 'type' behaves: this is the ‘CustomType’ struct,
     which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the
     interpreter inspects when specific operations are requested.

  3. How to initialize the ‘custom’ module: this is the ‘PyInit_custom’
     function and the associated ‘custommodule’ struct.

The first bit is:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } CustomObject;

This is what a Custom object will contain.  ‘PyObject_HEAD’ is mandatory
at the start of each object struct and defines a field called ‘ob_base’
of type *note PyObject: 6eb, containing a pointer to a type object and a
reference count (these can be accessed using the macros *note Py_TYPE:
5b0. and *note Py_REFCNT: 6f7. respectively).  The reason for the macro
is to abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in *note
debug builds: 6b9.

     Not: There is no semicolon above after the *note PyObject_HEAD:
     1188. macro.  Be wary of adding one by accident: some compilers
     will complain.

Of course, objects generally store additional data besides the standard
‘PyObject_HEAD’ boilerplate; for example, here is the definition for
standard Python floats:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         double ob_fval;
     } PyFloatObject;

The second bit is the definition of the type object.

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     Not: We recommend using C99-style designated initializers as above,
     to avoid listing all the *note PyTypeObject: 911. fields that you
     don’t care about and also to avoid caring about the fields’
     declaration order.

The actual definition of *note PyTypeObject: 911. in ‘object.h’ has many
more *note fields: 7eb. than the definition above.  The remaining fields
will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and it’s common practice to
not specify them explicitly unless you need them.

We’re going to pick it apart, one field at a time:

     .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)

This line is mandatory boilerplate to initialize the ‘ob_base’ field
mentioned above.

     .tp_name = "custom.Custom",

The name of our type.  This will appear in the default textual
representation of our objects and in some error messages, for example:

     >>> "" + custom.Custom()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str

Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name
and the name of the type within the module.  The module in this case is
‘custom’ and the type is ‘Custom’, so we set the type name to
‘custom.Custom’.  Using the real dotted import path is important to make
your type compatible with the *note pydoc: b4. and *note pickle: a5.
modules.

     .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
     .tp_itemsize = 0,

This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
new ‘Custom’ instances.  *note tp_itemsize: 1d5e. is only used for
variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.

     Not: If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your
     type has the same *note tp_basicsize: 7e5. as its base type, you
     may have problems with multiple inheritance.  A Python subclass of
     your type will have to list your type first in its *note __bases__:
     1337, or else it will not be able to call your type’s *note
     __new__(): 319. method without getting an error.  You can avoid
     this problem by ensuring that your type has a larger value for
     *note tp_basicsize: 7e5. than its base type does.  Most of the
     time, this will be true anyway, because either your base type will
     be *note object: 8f2, or else you will be adding data members to
     your base type, and therefore increasing its size.

We set the class flags to *note Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT: 4803.

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,

All types should include this constant in their flags.  It enables all
of the members defined until at least Python 3.3.  If you need further
members, you will need to OR the corresponding flags.

We provide a doc string for the type in *note tp_doc: 4804.

     .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),

To enable object creation, we have to provide a *note tp_new: 318.
handler.  This is the equivalent of the Python method *note __new__():
319, but has to be specified explicitly.  In this case, we can just use
the default implementation provided by the API function *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 4805.

     .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,

Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
‘PyInit_custom()’:

     if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
         return;

This initializes the ‘Custom’ type, filling in a number of members to
the appropriate default values, including *note ob_type: 4806. that we
initially set to ‘NULL’.

     Py_INCREF(&CustomType);
     if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
         Py_DECREF(&CustomType);
         Py_DECREF(m);
         return NULL;
     }

This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
‘Custom’ instances by calling the ‘Custom’ class:

     >>> import custom
     >>> mycustom = custom.Custom()

That’s it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a
file called ‘custom.c’,

     [build-system]
     requires = ["setuptools"]
     build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta"

     [project]
     name = "custom"
     version = "1"

in a file called ‘pyproject.toml’, and

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])

in a file called ‘setup.py’; then typing

     $ python -m pip install .

in a shell should produce a file ‘custom.so’ in a subdirectory and
install it; now fire up Python — you should be able to ‘import custom’
and play around with ‘Custom’ objects.

That wasn’t so hard, was it?

Of course, the current Custom type is pretty uninteresting.  It has no
data and doesn’t do anything.  It can’t even be subclassed.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Next: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Prev: The Basics,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.2 Adding data and methods to the Basic example
....................................................

Let’s extend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let’s also
make the type usable as a base class.  We’ll create a new module,
‘custom2’ that adds these capabilities:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom2.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base =PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom2",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom2(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

This version of the module has a number of changes.

The ‘Custom’ type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
'first', 'last', and 'number'.  The 'first' and 'last' variables are
Python strings containing first and last names.  The 'number' attribute
is a C integer.

The object structure is updated accordingly:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about
object allocation and deallocation.  At a minimum, we need a
deallocation method:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

which is assigned to the *note tp_dealloc: 4808. member:

     .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,

This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python
attributes.  *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. correctly handles the case where
its argument is ‘NULL’ (which might happen here if ‘tp_new’ failed
midway).  It then calls the *note tp_free: 4809. member of the object’s
type (computed by ‘Py_TYPE(self)’) to free the object’s memory.  Note
that the object’s type might not be ‘CustomType’, because the object may
be an instance of a subclass.

     Not: The explicit cast to ‘destructor’ above is needed because we
     defined ‘Custom_dealloc’ to take a ‘CustomObject *’ argument, but
     the ‘tp_dealloc’ function pointer expects to receive a ‘PyObject *’
     argument.  Otherwise, the compiler will emit a warning.  This is
     object-oriented polymorphism, in C!

We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to
empty strings, so we provide a ‘tp_new’ implementation:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

and install it in the *note tp_new: 318. member:

     .tp_new = Custom_new,

The ‘tp_new’ handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to
initializing) objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the *note
__new__(): 319. method.  It is not required to define a ‘tp_new’ member,
and indeed many extension types will simply reuse *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 4805. as done in the first version of the ‘Custom’
type above.  In this case, we use the ‘tp_new’ handler to initialize the
‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes to non-‘NULL’ default values.

‘tp_new’ is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily
‘CustomType’, if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed
when the type was called, and is expected to return the instance
created.  ‘tp_new’ handlers always accept positional and keyword
arguments, but they often ignore the arguments, leaving the argument
handling to initializer (a.k.a.  ‘tp_init’ in C or ‘__init__’ in Python)
methods.

     Not: ‘tp_new’ shouldn’t call ‘tp_init’ explicitly, as the
     interpreter will do it itself.

The ‘tp_new’ implementation calls the *note tp_alloc: 480a. slot to
allocate memory:

     self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);

Since memory allocation may fail, we must check the *note tp_alloc:
480a. result against ‘NULL’ before proceeding.

     Not: We didn’t fill the *note tp_alloc: 480a. slot ourselves.
     Rather *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. fills it for us by inheriting it
     from our base class, which is *note object: 8f2. by default.  Most
     types use the default allocation strategy.

     Not: If you are creating a co-operative *note tp_new: 318. (one
     that calls a base type’s *note tp_new: 318. or *note __new__():
     319.), you must 'not' try to determine what method to call using
     method resolution order at runtime.  Always statically determine
     what type you are going to call, and call its *note tp_new: 318.
     directly, or via ‘type->tp_base->tp_new’.  If you do not do this,
     Python subclasses of your type that also inherit from other
     Python-defined classes may not work correctly.  (Specifically, you
     may not be able to create instances of such subclasses without
     getting a *note TypeError: 2c4.)

We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to
provide initial values for our instance:

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

by filling the *note tp_init: 31a. slot.

     .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,

The *note tp_init: 31a. slot is exposed in Python as the *note
__init__(): 4c6. method.  It is used to initialize an object after it’s
created.  Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
and they should return either ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error.

Unlike the ‘tp_new’ handler, there is no guarantee that ‘tp_init’ is
called at all (for example, the *note pickle: a5. module by default
doesn’t call *note __init__(): 4c6. on unpickled instances).  It can
also be called multiple times.  Anyone can call the ‘__init__()’ method
on our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when
assigning the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to
assign the ‘first’ member like this:

     if (first) {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_INCREF(first);
         self->first = first;
     }

But this would be risky.  Our type doesn’t restrict the type of the
‘first’ member, so it could be any kind of object.  It could have a
destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
‘first’ member; or that destructor could release the *note Global
interpreter Lock: 6fa. and let arbitrary code run in other threads that
accesses and modifies our object.

To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we almost
always reassign members before decrementing their reference counts.
When don’t we have to do this?

   * when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1;

   * when we know that deallocation of the object (1) will neither
     release the *note GIL: 6fa. nor cause any calls back into our
     type’s code;

   * when decrementing a reference count in a *note tp_dealloc: 4808.
     handler on a type which doesn’t support cyclic garbage collection
     (2).

We want to expose our instance variables as attributes.  There are a
number of ways to do that.  The simplest way is to define member
definitions:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

and put the definitions in the *note tp_members: 480b. slot:

     .tp_members = Custom_members,

Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and
documentation string.  See the *note Generic Attribute Management: 480c.
section below for details.

A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn’t provide a way to
restrict the types of objects that can be assigned to the Python
attributes.  We expect the first and last names to be strings, but any
Python objects can be assigned.  Further, the attributes can be deleted,
setting the C pointers to ‘NULL’.  Even though we can make sure the
members are initialized to non-‘NULL’ values, the members can be set to
‘NULL’ if the attributes are deleted.

We define a single method, ‘Custom.name()’, that outputs the objects
name as the concatenation of the first and last names.

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

The method is implemented as a C function that takes a ‘Custom’ (or
‘Custom’ subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take
an instance as the first argument.  Methods often take positional and
keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don’t take any and don’t
need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument
dictionary.  This method is equivalent to the Python method:

     def name(self):
         return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)

Note that we have to check for the possibility that our ‘first’ and
‘last’ members are ‘NULL’.  This is because they can be deleted, in
which case they are set to ‘NULL’.  It would be better to prevent
deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be
strings.  We’ll see how to do that in the next section.

Now that we’ve defined the method, we need to create an array of method
definitions:

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

(note that we used the *note METH_NOARGS: 1361. flag to indicate that
the method is expecting no arguments other than 'self')

and assign it to the *note tp_methods: 480d. slot:

     .tp_methods = Custom_methods,

Finally, we’ll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing.
We’ve written our methods carefully so far so that they don’t make any
assumptions about the type of the object being created or used, so all
we need to do is to add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 480e. to our
class flag definition:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,

We rename ‘PyInit_custom()’ to ‘PyInit_custom2()’, update the module
name in the *note PyModuleDef: 7db. struct, and update the full class
name in the *note PyTypeObject: 911. struct.

Finally, we update our ‘setup.py’ file to include the new module,

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[
         Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
         Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
     ])

and then we re-install so that we can ‘import custom2’:

     $ python -m pip install .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a
string or a float.

   (2) We relied on this in the *note tp_dealloc: 4808. handler in this
example, because our type doesn’t support garbage collection.


File: python.info,  Node: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Next: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Prev: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.3 Providing finer control over data attributes
....................................................

In this section, we’ll provide finer control over how the ‘first’ and
‘last’ attributes are set in the ‘Custom’ example.  In the previous
version of our module, the instance variables ‘first’ and ‘last’ could
be set to non-string values or even deleted.  We want to make sure that
these attributes always contain strings.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom3.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom3",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom3(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

To provide greater control, over the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes,
we’ll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions
for getting and setting the ‘first’ attribute:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         Py_INCREF(self->first);
         return self->first;
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         PyObject *tmp;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         tmp = self->first;
         Py_INCREF(value);
         self->first = value;
         Py_DECREF(tmp);
         return 0;
     }

The getter function is passed a ‘Custom’ object and a “closure”, which
is a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The closure
supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the
getter and setter.  This could, for example, be used to allow a single
set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to get or
set based on data in the closure.)

The setter function is passed the ‘Custom’ object, the new value, and
the closure.  The new value may be ‘NULL’, in which case the attribute
is being deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is
deleted or if its new value is not a string.

We create an array of *note PyGetSetDef: a2f. structures:

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

and register it in the *note tp_getset: 4810. slot:

     .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,

The last item in a *note PyGetSetDef: a2f. structure is the “closure”
mentioned above.  In this case, we aren’t using a closure, so we just
pass ‘NULL’.

We also remove the member definitions for these attributes:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

We also need to update the *note tp_init: 31a. handler to only allow
strings (1) to be passed:

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

With these changes, we can assure that the ‘first’ and ‘last’ members
are never ‘NULL’ so we can remove checks for ‘NULL’ values in almost all
cases.  This means that most of the *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. calls can
be converted to *note Py_DECREF(): 306. calls.  The only place we can’t
change these calls is in the ‘tp_dealloc’ implementation, where there is
the possibility that the initialization of these members failed in
‘tp_new’.

We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the
initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra
definition to the ‘setup.py’ file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) We now know that the first and last members are strings, so
perhaps we could be less careful about decrementing their reference
counts, however, we accept instances of string subclasses.  Even though
deallocating normal strings won’t call back into our objects, we can’t
guarantee that deallocating an instance of a string subclass won’t call
back into our objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Next: Subclassing other types,  Prev: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.4 Supporting cyclic garbage collection
............................................

Python has a *note cyclic garbage collector (GC): 1744. that can
identify unneeded objects even when their reference counts are not zero.
This can happen when objects are involved in cycles.  For example,
consider:

     >>> l = []
     >>> l.append(l)
     >>> del l

In this example, we create a list that contains itself.  When we delete
it, it still has a reference from itself.  Its reference count doesn’t
drop to zero.  Fortunately, Python’s cyclic garbage collector will
eventually figure out that the list is garbage and free it.

In the second version of the ‘Custom’ example, we allowed any kind of
object to be stored in the ‘first’ or ‘last’ attributes (1).  Besides,
in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing ‘Custom’, and
subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of those two reasons,
‘Custom’ objects can participate in cycles:

     >>> import custom3
     >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
     ...
     >>> n = Derived()
     >>> n.some_attribute = n

To allow a ‘Custom’ instance participating in a reference cycle to be
properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our ‘Custom’ type
needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables
these slots:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure)
     {
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored))
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom4.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc) Custom_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry) Custom_clear,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static PyModuleDef custommodule = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom4",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom4(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&custommodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects
that could participate in cycles:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         int vret;
         if (self->first) {
             vret = visit(self->first, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         if (self->last) {
             vret = visit(self->last, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         return 0;
     }

For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
‘visit()’ function, which is passed to the traversal method.  The
‘visit()’ function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra
argument 'arg' passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer
value that must be returned if it is non-zero.

Python provides a *note Py_VISIT(): 4812. macro that automates calling
visit functions.  With *note Py_VISIT(): 4812, we can minimize the
amount of boilerplate in ‘Custom_traverse’:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     Not: The *note tp_traverse: 5ae. implementation must name its
     arguments exactly 'visit' and 'arg' in order to use *note
     Py_VISIT(): 4812.

Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can
participate in cycles:

     static int
     Custom_clear(CustomObject *self)
     {
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

Notice the use of the *note Py_CLEAR(): 311. macro.  It is the
recommended and safe way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types
while decrementing their reference counts.  If you were to call *note
Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. instead on the attribute before setting it to ‘NULL’,
there is a possibility that the attribute’s destructor would call back
into code that reads the attribute again ('especially' if there is a
reference cycle).

     Not: You could emulate *note Py_CLEAR(): 311. by writing:

          PyObject *tmp;
          tmp = self->first;
          self->first = NULL;
          Py_XDECREF(tmp);

     Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always use
     *note Py_CLEAR(): 311. when deleting an attribute.  Don’t try to
     micro-optimize at the expense of robustness!

The deallocator ‘Custom_dealloc’ may call arbitrary code when clearing
attributes.  It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the
function.  Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to
untrack the object from the GC by calling *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack():
1394. before clearing members.  Here is our reimplemented deallocator
using *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394. and ‘Custom_clear’:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         Custom_clear(self);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }

Finally, we add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag to the class
flags:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,

That’s pretty much it.  If we had written custom *note tp_alloc: 480a.
or *note tp_free: 4809. handlers, we’d need to modify them for cyclic
garbage collection.  Most extensions will use the versions automatically
provided.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances,
the user could pass arbitrary *note str: 15d. subclasses and therefore
still create reference cycles.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing other types,  Prev: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.2.2.5 Subclassing other types
...............................

It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from
existing types.  It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since
an extension can easily use the *note PyTypeObject: 911. it needs.  It
can be difficult to share these *note PyTypeObject: 911. structures
between extension modules.

In this example we will create a ‘SubList’ type that inherits from the
built-in *note list: 422. type.  The new type will be completely
compatible with regular lists, but will have an additional ‘increment()’
method that increases an internal counter:

     >>> import sublist
     >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
     >>> s.extend(s)
     >>> print(len(s))
     6
     >>> print(s.increment())
     1
     >>> print(s.increment())
     2

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

     static PyObject *
     SubList_increment(SubListObject *self, PyObject *unused)
     {
         self->state++;
         return PyLong_FromLong(self->state);
     }

     static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = {
         {"increment", (PyCFunction) SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS,
          PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")},
         {NULL},
     };

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

     static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_init = (initproc) SubList_init,
         .tp_methods = SubList_methods,
     };

     static PyModuleDef sublistmodule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "sublist",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = -1,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         PyObject *m;
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         Py_INCREF(&SubListType);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(&SubListType);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

As you can see, the source code closely resembles the ‘Custom’ examples
in previous sections.  We will break down the main differences between
them.

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type’s
object structure must be the first value.  The base type will already
include the *note PyObject_HEAD(): 1188. at the beginning of its
structure.

When a Python object is a ‘SubList’ instance, its ‘PyObject *’ pointer
can be safely cast to both ‘PyListObject *’ and ‘SubListObject *’:

     static int
     SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

We see above how to call through to the *note __init__(): 4c6. method of
the base type.

This pattern is important when writing a type with custom *note tp_new:
318. and *note tp_dealloc: 4808. members.  The *note tp_new: 318.
handler should not actually create the memory for the object with its
*note tp_alloc: 480a, but let the base class handle it by calling its
own *note tp_new: 318.

The *note PyTypeObject: 911. struct supports a *note tp_base: 4814.
specifying the type’s concrete base class.  Due to cross-platform
compiler issues, you can’t fill that field directly with a reference to
*note PyList_Type: 4815.; it should be done later in the module
initialization function:

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         PyObject* m;
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0)
             return NULL;

         m = PyModule_Create(&sublistmodule);
         if (m == NULL)
             return NULL;

         Py_INCREF(&SubListType);
         if (PyModule_AddObject(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             Py_DECREF(&SubListType);
             Py_DECREF(m);
             return NULL;
         }

         return m;
     }

Before calling *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac, the type structure must have
the *note tp_base: 4814. slot filled in.  When we are deriving an
existing type, it is not necessary to fill out the *note tp_alloc: 480a.
slot with *note PyType_GenericNew(): 4805. – the allocation function
from the base type will be inherited.

After that, calling *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. and adding the type
object to the module is the same as with the basic ‘Custom’ examples.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Next: Building C and C++ Extensions,  Prev: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Up: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma

6.2.3 Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics
-----------------------------------------------

This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods you
can implement and what they do.

Here is the definition of *note PyTypeObject: 911, with some fields only
used in *note debug builds: 6b9. omitted:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;

Now that’s a 'lot' of methods.  Don’t worry too much though – if you
have a type you want to define, the chances are very good that you will
only implement a handful of these.

As you probably expect by now, we’re going to go over this and give more
information about the various handlers.  We won’t go in the order they
are defined in the structure, because there is a lot of historical
baggage that impacts the ordering of the fields.  It’s often easiest to
find an example that includes the fields you need and then change the
values to suit your new type.

     const char *tp_name; /* For printing */

The name of the type – as mentioned in the previous chapter, this will
appear in various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes.  Try
to choose something that will be helpful in such a situation!

     Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new
objects of this type are created.  Python has some built-in support for
variable length structures (think: strings, tuples) which is where the
*note tp_itemsize: 1d5e. field comes in.  This will be dealt with later.

     const char *tp_doc;

Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when
the Python script references ‘obj.__doc__’ to retrieve the doc string.

Now we come to the basic type methods – the ones most extension types
will implement.

* Menu:

* Finalization and De-allocation::
* Object Presentation::
* Attribute Management::
* Object Comparison::
* Abstract Protocol Support::
* Weak Reference Support::
* More Suggestions::


File: python.info,  Node: Finalization and De-allocation,  Next: Object Presentation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.1 Finalization and De-allocation
......................................

     destructor tp_dealloc;

This function is called when the reference count of the instance of your
type is reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to reclaim it.
If your type has memory to free or other clean-up to perform, you can
put it here.  The object itself needs to be freed here as well.  Here is
an example of this function:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

If your type supports garbage collection, the destructor should call
*note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394. before clearing any member fields:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(obj);
         Py_CLEAR(obj->other_obj);
         ...
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj);
     }

One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it leaves
any pending exceptions alone.  This is important since deallocators are
frequently called as the interpreter unwinds the Python stack; when the
stack is unwound due to an exception (rather than normal returns),
nothing is done to protect the deallocators from seeing that an
exception has already been set.  Any actions which a deallocator
performs which may cause additional Python code to be executed may
detect that an exception has been set.  This can lead to misleading
errors from the interpreter.  The proper way to protect against this is
to save a pending exception before performing the unsafe action, and
restoring it when done.  This can be done using the *note PyErr_Fetch():
2fe. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 2ff. functions:

     static void
     my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
     {
         MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
         PyObject *cbresult;

         if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
             PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;

             /* This saves the current exception state */
             PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);

             cbresult = PyObject_CallNoArgs(self->my_callback);
             if (cbresult == NULL)
                 PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
             else
                 Py_DECREF(cbresult);

             /* This restores the saved exception state */
             PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);

             Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
         }
         Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject*)self);
     }

     Not: There are limitations to what you can safely do in a
     deallocator function.  First, if your type supports garbage
     collection (using *note tp_traverse: 5ae. and/or *note tp_clear:
     481b.), some of the object’s members can have been cleared or
     finalized by the time *note tp_dealloc: 4808. is called.  Second,
     in *note tp_dealloc: 4808, your object is in an unstable state: its
     reference count is equal to zero.  Any call to a non-trivial object
     or API (as in the example above) might end up calling *note
     tp_dealloc: 4808. again, causing a double free and a crash.

     Starting with Python 3.4, it is recommended not to put any complex
     finalization code in *note tp_dealloc: 4808, and instead use the
     new *note tp_finalize: 912. type method.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 442(1) explains the new finalization scheme.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Object Presentation,  Next: Attribute Management,  Prev: Finalization and De-allocation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.2 Object Presentation
...........................

In Python, there are two ways to generate a textual representation of an
object: the *note repr(): 637. function, and the *note str(): 15d.
function.  (The *note print(): e16. function just calls *note str():
15d.)  These handlers are both optional.

     reprfunc tp_repr;
     reprfunc tp_str;

The *note tp_repr: 481d. handler should return a string object
containing a representation of the instance for which it is called.
Here is a simple example:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }

If no *note tp_repr: 481d. handler is specified, the interpreter will
supply a representation that uses the type’s *note tp_name: 171d. and a
uniquely identifying value for the object.

The *note tp_str: 481e. handler is to *note str(): 15d. what the *note
tp_repr: 481d. handler described above is to *note repr(): 637.; that
is, it is called when Python code calls *note str(): 15d. on an instance
of your object.  Its implementation is very similar to the *note
tp_repr: 481d. function, but the resulting string is intended for human
consumption.  If *note tp_str: 481e. is not specified, the *note
tp_repr: 481d. handler is used instead.

Here is a simple example:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Management,  Next: Object Comparison,  Prev: Object Presentation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.3 Attribute Management
............................

For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type
must provide the functions that control how the attributes are resolved.
There needs to be a function which can retrieve attributes (if any are
defined), and another to set attributes (if setting attributes is
allowed).  Removing an attribute is a special case, for which the new
value passed to the handler is ‘NULL’.

Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports
attributes only needs to implement the functions for one pair.  The
difference is that one pair takes the name of the attribute as a char*,
while the other accepts a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.  Each type can use
whichever pair makes more sense for the implementation’s convenience.

     getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
     setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
     /* ... */
     getattrofunc tp_getattro;       /* PyObject * version */
     setattrofunc tp_setattro;

If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation (this
will be explained shortly), there are generic implementations which can
be used to provide the *note PyObject: 6eb.* version of the attribute
management functions.  The actual need for type-specific attribute
handlers almost completely disappeared starting with Python 2.2, though
there are many examples which have not been updated to use some of the
new generic mechanism that is available.

* Menu:

* Generic Attribute Management::
* Type-specific Attribute Management::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Attribute Management,  Next: Type-specific Attribute Management,  Up: Attribute Management

6.2.3.4 Generic Attribute Management
....................................

Most extension types only use 'simple' attributes.  So, what makes the
attributes simple?  There are only a couple of conditions that must be
met:

  1. The name of the attributes must be known when *note PyType_Ready():
     5ac. is called.

  2. No special processing is needed to record that an attribute was
     looked up or set, nor do actions need to be taken based on the
     value.

Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of the
attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is
stored.

When *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. is called, it uses three tables
referenced by the type object to create *note descriptor: 1d5f.s which
are placed in the dictionary of the type object.  Each descriptor
controls access to one attribute of the instance object.  Each of the
tables is optional; if all three are ‘NULL’, instances of the type will
only have attributes that are inherited from their base type, and should
leave the *note tp_getattro: 4821. and *note tp_setattro: 4822. fields
‘NULL’ as well, allowing the base type to handle attributes.

The tables are declared as three fields of the type object:

     struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
     struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
     struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;

If *note tp_methods: 480d. is not ‘NULL’, it must refer to an array of
*note PyMethodDef: 1364. structures.  Each entry in the table is an
instance of this structure:

     typedef struct PyMethodDef {
         const char  *ml_name;       /* method name */
         PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
         int          ml_flags;      /* flags */
         const char  *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
     } PyMethodDef;

One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no
entries are needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One
additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the
end of the array.  The *note ml_name: 4823. field of the sentinel must
be ‘NULL’.

The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data
stored in the instance.  A variety of primitive C types are supported,
and access may be read-only or read-write.  The structures in the table
are defined as:

     typedef struct PyMemberDef {
         const char *name;
         int         type;
         int         offset;
         int         flags;
         const char *doc;
     } PyMemberDef;

For each entry in the table, a *note descriptor: 1d5f. will be
constructed and added to the type which will be able to extract a value
from the instance structure.  The *note type: 4824. field should contain
a type code like *note Py_T_INT: 352. or *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 353.; the
value will be used to determine how to convert Python values to and from
C values.  The *note flags: 4825. field is used to store flags which
control how the attribute can be accessed: you can set it to *note
Py_READONLY: 354. to prevent Python code from setting it.

An interesting advantage of using the *note tp_members: 480b. table to
build descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined
this way can have an associated doc string simply by providing the text
in the table.  An application can use the introspection API to retrieve
the descriptor from the class object, and get the doc string using its
*note __doc__: 1af5. attribute.

As with the *note tp_methods: 480d. table, a sentinel entry with a *note
ml_name: 4823. value of ‘NULL’ is required.


File: python.info,  Node: Type-specific Attribute Management,  Prev: Generic Attribute Management,  Up: Attribute Management

6.2.3.5 Type-specific Attribute Management
..........................................

For simplicity, only the char* version will be demonstrated here; the
type of the name parameter is the only difference between the char* and
*note PyObject: 6eb.* flavors of the interface.  This example
effectively does the same thing as the generic example above, but does
not use the generic support added in Python 2.2.  It explains how the
handler functions are called, so that if you do need to extend their
functionality, you’ll understand what needs to be done.

The *note tp_getattr: 4827. handler is called when the object requires
an attribute look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the
*note __getattr__(): 201. method of a class would be called.

Here is an example:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name)
     {
         if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0)
         {
             return PyLong_FromLong(obj->data);
         }

         PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError,
                      "'%.100s' object has no attribute '%.400s'",
                      Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name, name);
         return NULL;
     }

The *note tp_setattr: 4828. handler is called when the *note
__setattr__(): 1d1b. or *note __delattr__(): 1d1c. method of a class
instance would be called.  When an attribute should be deleted, the
third parameter will be ‘NULL’.  Here is an example that simply raises
an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the *note tp_setattr:
4828. handler should be set to ‘NULL’.

     static int
     newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v)
     {
         PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name);
         return -1;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Object Comparison,  Next: Abstract Protocol Support,  Prev: Attribute Management,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.6 Object Comparison
.........................

     richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

The *note tp_richcompare: 482a. handler is called when comparisons are
needed.  It is analogous to the *note rich comparison methods: 1d4f,
like ‘__lt__()’, and also called by *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 482b.
and *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 17d5.

This function is called with two Python objects and the operator as
arguments, where the operator is one of ‘Py_EQ’, ‘Py_NE’, ‘Py_LE’,
‘Py_GE’, ‘Py_LT’ or ‘Py_GT’.  It should compare the two objects with
respect to the specified operator and return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ if
the comparison is successful, ‘Py_NotImplemented’ to indicate that
comparison is not implemented and the other object’s comparison method
should be tried, or ‘NULL’ if an exception was set.

Here is a sample implementation, for a datatype that is considered equal
if the size of an internal pointer is equal:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_richcmp(newdatatypeobject *obj1, newdatatypeobject *obj2, int op)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         int c, size1, size2;

         /* code to make sure that both arguments are of type
            newdatatype omitted */

         size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
         size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;

         switch (op) {
         case Py_LT: c = size1 <  size2; break;
         case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break;
         case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break;
         case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break;
         case Py_GT: c = size1 >  size2; break;
         case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break;
         }
         result = c ? Py_True : Py_False;
         Py_INCREF(result);
         return result;
      }


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract Protocol Support,  Next: Weak Reference Support,  Prev: Object Comparison,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.7 Abstract Protocol Support
.................................

Python supports a variety of 'abstract' ‘protocols;’ the specific
interfaces provided to use these interfaces are documented in *note
Abstract Objects Layer: 482d.

A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the
development of the Python implementation.  In particular, the number,
mapping, and sequence protocols have been part of Python since the
beginning.  Other protocols have been added over time.  For protocols
which depend on several handler routines from the type implementation,
the older protocols have been defined as optional blocks of handlers
referenced by the type object.  For newer protocols there are additional
slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being set to indicate
that the slots are present and should be checked by the interpreter.
(The flag bit does not indicate that the slot values are non-‘NULL’.
The flag may be set to indicate the presence of a slot, but a slot may
still be unfilled.)

     PyNumberMethods   *tp_as_number;
     PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
     PyMappingMethods  *tp_as_mapping;

If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence, or
a mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that
implements the C type *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6, *note
PySequenceMethods: 482e, or *note PyMappingMethods: 482f, respectively.
It is up to you to fill in this structure with appropriate values.  You
can find examples of the use of each of these in the ‘Objects’ directory
of the Python source distribution.

     hashfunc tp_hash;

This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash number
for an instance of your data type.  Here is a simple example:

     static Py_hash_t
     newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj)
     {
         Py_hash_t result;
         result = obj->some_size + 32767 * obj->some_number;
         if (result == -1)
            result = -2;
         return result;
     }

‘Py_hash_t’ is a signed integer type with a platform-varying width.
Returning ‘-1’ from *note tp_hash: 4830. indicates an error, which is
why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash computation is
successful, as seen above.

     ternaryfunc tp_call;

This function is called when an instance of your data type is “called”,
for example, if ‘obj1’ is an instance of your data type and the Python
script contains ‘obj1('hello')’, the *note tp_call: 2e9. handler is
invoked.

This function takes three arguments:

  1. 'self' is the instance of the data type which is the subject of the
     call.  If the call is ‘obj1('hello')’, then 'self' is ‘obj1’.

  2. 'args' is a tuple containing the arguments to the call.  You can
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. to extract the arguments.

  3. 'kwds' is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed.  If
     this is non-‘NULL’ and you support keyword arguments, use *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. to extract the arguments.  If
     you do not want to support keyword arguments and this is
     non-‘NULL’, raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. with a message saying
     that keyword arguments are not supported.

Here is a toy ‘tp_call’ implementation:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *obj, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         PyObject *result;
         const char *arg1;
         const char *arg2;
         const char *arg3;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
             return NULL;
         }
         result = PyUnicode_FromFormat(
             "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n",
             obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
             arg1, arg2, arg3);
         return result;
     }

     /* Iterators */
     getiterfunc tp_iter;
     iternextfunc tp_iternext;

These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Both
handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are
being called, and return a new reference.  In the case of an error, they
should set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note tp_iter: 137b.
corresponds to the Python *note __iter__(): 1d49. method, while *note
tp_iternext: 137c. corresponds to the Python *note __next__(): 1176.
method.

Any *note iterable: 10ce. object must implement the *note tp_iter: 137b.
handler, which must return an *note iterator: 176e. object.  Here the
same guidelines apply as for Python classes:

   * For collections (such as lists and tuples) which can support
     multiple independent iterators, a new iterator should be created
     and returned by each call to *note tp_iter: 137b.

   * Objects which can only be iterated over once (usually due to side
     effects of iteration, such as file objects) can implement *note
     tp_iter: 137b. by returning a new reference to themselves – and
     should also therefore implement the *note tp_iternext: 137c.
     handler.

Any *note iterator: 176e. object should implement both *note tp_iter:
137b. and *note tp_iternext: 137c.  An iterator’s *note tp_iter: 137b.
handler should return a new reference to the iterator.  Its *note
tp_iternext: 137c. handler should return a new reference to the next
object in the iteration, if there is one.  If the iteration has reached
the end, *note tp_iternext: 137c. may return ‘NULL’ without setting an
exception, or it may set *note StopIteration: a73. 'in addition' to
returning ‘NULL’; avoiding the exception can yield slightly better
performance.  If an actual error occurs, *note tp_iternext: 137c. should
always set an exception and return ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Weak Reference Support,  Next: More Suggestions,  Prev: Abstract Protocol Support,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.8 Weak Reference Support
..............................

One of the goals of Python’s weak reference implementation is to allow
any type to participate in the weak reference mechanism without
incurring the overhead on performance-critical objects (such as
numbers).

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Documentation for the *note weakref: 114. module.

For an object to be weakly referenceable, the extension type must set
the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF’ bit of the *note tp_flags: 16e6. field.
The legacy *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6. field should be left as zero.

Concretely, here is how the statically declared type object would look:

     static PyTypeObject TrivialType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         /* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF | ...,
     };

The only further addition is that ‘tp_dealloc’ needs to clear any weak
references (by calling *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 30f.):

     static void
     Trivial_dealloc(TrivialObject *self)
     {
         /* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */
         PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject *) self);
         /* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: More Suggestions,  Prev: Weak Reference Support,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.2.3.9 More Suggestions
........................

In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new data
type, get the *note CPython: 510. source code.  Go to the ‘Objects’
directory, then search the C source files for ‘tp_’ plus the function
you want (for example, ‘tp_richcompare’).  You will find examples of the
function you want to implement.

When you need to verify that an object is a concrete instance of the
type you are implementing, use the *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 1722.
function.  A sample of its use might be something like the following:

     if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
         PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
         return NULL;
     }

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Download CPython source releases.

     ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/source/’

The CPython project on GitHub, where the CPython source code is developed.

     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython’


File: python.info,  Node: Building C and C++ Extensions,  Next: Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak,  Prev: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Up: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma

6.2.4 Building C and C++ Extensions
-----------------------------------

A C extension for CPython is a shared library (e.g.  a ‘.so’ file on
Linux, ‘.pyd’ on Windows), which exports an 'initialization function'.

To be importable, the shared library must be available on *note
PYTHONPATH: ec5, and must be named after the module name, with an
appropriate extension.  When using setuptools, the correct filename is
generated automatically.

The initialization function has the signature:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyInit_modulename (void)

It returns either a fully initialized module, or a *note PyModuleDef:
7db. instance.  See *note Initializing C modules: 4836. for details.

For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must be named
‘PyInit_<modulename>’, with ‘<modulename>’ replaced by the name of the
module.  When using *note Multi-phase initialization: 4837, non-ASCII
module names are allowed.  In this case, the initialization function
name is ‘PyInitU_<modulename>’, with ‘<modulename>’ encoded using
Python’s 'punycode' encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores.  In
Python:

     def initfunc_name(name):
         try:
             suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii')
         except UnicodeEncodeError:
             suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_')
         return b'PyInit' + suffix

It is possible to export multiple modules from a single shared library
by defining multiple initialization functions.  However, importing them
requires using symbolic links or a custom importer, because by default
only the function corresponding to the filename is found.  See the
'“Multiple modules in one library”' section in PEP 489(1) for details.
* Menu:

* Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools,  Up: Building C and C++ Extensions

6.2.4.1 Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools
.....................................................

Python 3.12 and newer no longer come with distutils.  Please refer to
the ‘setuptools’ documentation at
‘https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/setuptools.html’ to learn
more about how build and distribute C/C++ extensions with setuptools.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak,  Prev: Building C and C++ Extensions,  Up: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma

6.2.5 Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak
-----------------------------------------------

Bu bölüm, Microsoft Visual C++ kullanarak Python için bir Windows uzantı
modülünün nasıl oluşturulacağını kısaca açıklar ve nasıl çalıştığına
dair daha ayrıntılı arka plan bilgileri ile devam eder.  Açıklayıcı
materyal, hem Python uzantıları oluşturmayı öğrenen Windows programcısı
hem de Windows üzerinde başarılı bir şekilde yazılım oluşturulabilen ve
yazılım üretmekle ilgilenen Unix programcısı için yararlıdır.

Modül yazarları, bu bölümde açıklanan yaklaşım yerine, uzantı modülleri
oluşturmak için distutils yaklaşımını kullanmaları önerilir.  Yine de
Python’u oluşturmak için kullanılan C derleyicisine ihtiyacınız
olacaktır; tipik olarak Microsoft Visual C++.

     Not: Bu bölümde, kodlanmış bir Python sürüm numarası içeren bir
     dizi dosya adından bahsedilmektedir.  Bu dosya adları ‘XY’ olarak
     gösterilen sürüm numarası ile temsil edilir; pratikte, ‘'X'’ büyük
     sürüm numarası ve ‘'Y'’ çalıştığınız Python sürümünün küçük sürüm
     numarası olacaktır.  Örneğin, Python 2.2.1 kullanıyorsanız, ‘XY’
     aslında ‘22’ olacaktır.

* Menu:

* Bir Yemek Kitabı Yaklaşımı::
* Unix ve Windows Arasındaki Farklar::
* DLL’leri Uygulamada Kullanma::


File: python.info,  Node: Bir Yemek Kitabı Yaklaşımı,  Next: Unix ve Windows Arasındaki Farklar,  Up: Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak

6.2.5.1 Bir Yemek Kitabı Yaklaşımı
..................................

Unix’te olduğu gibi Windows’ta da uzantı modülleri oluşturmak için iki
yaklaşım vardır: oluşturma işlemini kontrol etmek için ‘setuptools’
paketini kullanın veya işleri manuel olarak yapın.  Setuptools yaklaşımı
çoğu uzantı için iyi çalışır; uzantı modüllerini oluşturmak ve
paketlemek için ‘setuptools’ kullanımına ilişkin belgeler *note Building
C and C++ Extensions with setuptools: d8e. içinde mevcuttur.  Eğer
işleri gerçekten elle yapmanız gerektiğini düşünüyorsanız, winsound(1)
standart kütüphane modülü için proje dosyasını incelemek öğretici
olabilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj


File: python.info,  Node: Unix ve Windows Arasındaki Farklar,  Next: DLL’leri Uygulamada Kullanma,  Prev: Bir Yemek Kitabı Yaklaşımı,  Up: Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak

6.2.5.2 Unix ve Windows Arasındaki Farklar
..........................................

Unix ve Windows, kodun çalışma zamanında yüklenmesi için tamamen farklı
paradigmalar kullanır.  Dinamik olarak yüklenebilen bir modül
oluşturmaya çalışmadan önce, sisteminizin nasıl çalıştığının farkında
olun.

Unix’te, paylaşılan bir nesne (‘.so’) dosyası, program tarafından
kullanılacak kodu ve ayrıca programda bulmayı beklediği işlevlerin ve
verilerin adlarını içerir.  Dosya programa eklendiğinde, dosyanın
kodundaki bu işlevlere ve verilere yapılan tüm referanslar, programdaki
işlevlerin ve verilerin belleğe yerleştirildiği gerçek konumları
gösterecek şekilde değiştirilir.  Bu temelde bir bağlantı işlemidir.

Windows’ta, bir dinamik bağlantı kitaplığı (‘.dll’) dosyasında sarkan
referanslar yoktur.  Bunun yerine, işlevlere veya verilere erişim bir
arama tablosundan geçer.  Dolayısıyla, DLL kodunun programın belleğine
başvurmak için çalışma zamanında düzeltilmesi gerekmez; bunun yerine,
kod zaten DLL’nin arama tablosunu kullanır ve arama tablosu çalışma
zamanında işlevlere ve verilere işaret edecek şekilde değiştirilir.

Unix’te, birkaç nesne dosyasından (‘.o’) kod içeren yalnızca bir tür
kütüphane dosyası (‘.a’) vardır.  Paylaşılan bir nesne dosyası (‘.so’)
oluşturmak için bağlantı adımı sırasında, bağlayıcı bir tanımlayıcının
nerede tanımlandığını bilmediğini fark edebilir.  Bağlayıcı bunu
kütüphanelerdeki nesne dosyalarında arayacaktır; bulursa, o nesne
dosyasındaki tüm kodu dahil edecektir.

Windows’ta iki tür kütüphane vardır: statik kütüphane ve içe aktarma
kütüphanesi (her ikisi de ‘.lib’ olarak adlandırılır).  Statik kütüphane
Unix ‘.a’ dosyası gibidir; gerektiğinde dahil edilecek kodu içerir.  Bir
içe aktarma kitaplığı temel olarak yalnızca bağlayıcıya belirli bir
tanımlayıcının yasal olduğu ve DLL yüklendiğinde programda bulunacağı
konusunda güvence vermek için kullanılır.  Böylece bağlayıcı, DLL’de
bulunmayan tanımlayıcıları kullanmak üzere arama tablosunu oluşturmak
için içe aktarma kitaplığındaki bilgileri kullanır.  Bir uygulama veya
DLL bağlandığında, uygulama veya DLL’deki sembollere bağlı olan
gelecekteki tüm DLL’ler için kullanılması gereken bir içe aktarma
kitaplığı oluşturulabilir.

Başka bir A kod bloğunu paylaşması gereken B ve C olmak üzere iki
dinamik yükleme modülü oluşturduğunuzu varsayalım.  Unix’te ‘B.so’ ve
‘C.so’ için ‘A.a’ dosyasını bağlayıcıya aktarmazsınız; bu, iki kez dahil
edilmesine neden olur, böylece B ve C’nin her biri kendi kopyasına sahip
olur.  Windows’ta, ‘A.dll’ dosyasını oluşturmak aynı zamanda ‘A.lib’
dosyasını da oluşturacaktır.  B ve C için bağlayıcıya ‘A.lib’ dosyasını
geçirirsiniz.  ‘A.lib’ kod içermez; sadece çalışma zamanında A’nın
koduna erişmek için kullanılacak bilgileri içerir.

Windows’ta, bir içe aktarma kütüphanesi kullanmak ‘import spam’
kullanmak gibidir; spam’in adlarına erişmenizi sağlar, ancak ayrı bir
kopya oluşturmaz.  Unix’te, bir kütüphane ile bağlantı kurmak daha çok
‘from spam import *’ gibidir; ayrı bir kopya oluşturur.


File: python.info,  Node: DLL’leri Uygulamada Kullanma,  Prev: Unix ve Windows Arasındaki Farklar,  Up: Windows’ta C ve C++ Uzantıları Oluşturmak

6.2.5.3 DLL’leri Uygulamada Kullanma
....................................

Windows Python Microsoft Visual C++ ile oluşturulmuştur; diğer
derleyicileri kullanmak işe yarayabilir veya yaramayabilir.  Bu bölümün
geri kalanı MSVC++’a özeldir.

Windows’ta DLL oluştururken, bağlayıcıya ‘pythonXY.lib’ komutunu
geçirmelisiniz.  İki DLL oluşturmak için, spam ve ni (spam içinde
bulunan C fonksiyonlarını kullanır), şu komutları kullanabilirsiniz:

     cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
     cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib

İlk komut üç dosya oluşturdu: ‘spam.obj’, ‘spam.dll’ ve ‘spam.lib’.
‘Spam.dll’ herhangi bir Python fonksiyonu içermiyor (örneğin *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.), ancak ‘pythonXY.lib’ sayesinde Python kodunu
nasıl bulacağını biliyor.

İkinci komut, spam’den ve ayrıca Python çalıştırılabilir dosyasından
gerekli işlevleri nasıl bulacağını bilen ‘ni.dll’ (ve ‘.obj’ ve ‘.lib’)
oluşturdu.

Her tanımlayıcı arama tablosuna aktarılmaz.  Diğer modüllerin (Python
dahil) tanımlayıcılarınızı görmesini istiyorsanız, ‘void
_declspec(dllexport) initspam(void)’ veya ‘PyObject _declspec(dllexport)
*NiGetSpamData(void)’ gibi ‘_declspec(dllexport)’ demeniz gerekir.

Developer Studio, gerçekten ihtiyacınız olmayan birçok içe aktarma
kütüphanesi ekleyerek çalıştırılabilir dosyanıza yaklaşık 100K kütüphane
ekleyecektir.  Bunlardan kurtulmak için Proje Ayarları iletişim
kutusunu, Bağlantı sekmesini kullanarak 'varsayılan kütüphaneleri
yoksay' seçeneğini belirleyin.  Kütüphaneler listesine doğru
‘msvcrt`xx'.lib’ dosyasını ekleyin.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython çalışma zamanını daha büyük bir uygulamaya gömme,  Prev: Üçüncü taraf araçları olmadan uzantılar oluşturma,  Up: Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme

6.3 CPython çalışma zamanını daha büyük bir uygulamaya gömme
============================================================

Bazen, ana uygulama olarak Python yorumlayıcısının içinde çalışan bir
uzantı oluşturmak yerine, bunun yerine CPython çalışma zamanını daha
büyük bir uygulamanın içine gömmek tercih edilir.  Bu bölüm, bunu
başarılı bir şekilde yapmakla ilgili bazı ayrıntıları içerir.

* Menu:

* Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme::


File: python.info,  Node: Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme,  Up: CPython çalışma zamanını daha büyük bir uygulamaya gömme

6.3.1 Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme
-----------------------------------------

Önceki bölümlerde Python’un nasıl genişletileceği, yani Python’a bir C
fonksiyonları kitaplığı ekleyerek Python’un işlevselliğinin nasıl
genişletileceği tartışıldı.  Bunu ayrıca tam tersi şekilde de yapmak
mümkündür: Python’u içine gömerek C/C++ uygulamanızı zenginleştirin.
Gömme işlemi, uygulamanıza bazı işlevlerini C veya C++ yerine Python’da
uygulama yeteneği sağlar.  Bu birçok amaç için kullanılabilir; bir örnek
olarak kullanıcıların Python’da bazı komut dosyaları yazarak uygulamayı
ihtiyaçlarına göre uyarlamalarına izin vermek olabilir.  Bazı işlevler
Python’da daha kolay yazılabilecekse kendiniz de kullanabilirsiniz.

Python’u gömmek, onu genişletmeye benzer, ancak tam olarak değil.
Aralarındaki farksa Python’u genişlettiğinizde, uygulamanın ana
programının hala Python yorumlayıcısı olması; Python’u gömerseniz, ana
programın Python ile hiçbir ilgisi olmayabilmesidir — bunun yerine,
uygulamanın bazı bölümleri bazı Python kodlarını çalıştırmak için zaman
zaman Python yorumlayıcısını çağırır.

Yani Python’u gömüyorsanız, kendi ana programınızı sağlıyorsunuz
demektir.  Bu ana programın yapması gereken şeylerden biri Python
yorumlayıcısını başlatmaktır.  En azından *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.
fonksiyonunu çağırmalısınız.  Python’a komut satırı argümanlarını
iletmek için opsiyonel çağrılar vardır.  Daha sonra uygulamanın herhangi
bir yerinden yorumlayıcıyı çağırabilirsiniz.

Yorumlayıcıyı çağırmanın birkaç farklı yolu vardır: Python deyimlerini
içeren bir dizeyi *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4845. öğesine veya bir
stdio dosya işaretçisini ve bir dosya adını (yalnızca hata mesajlarında
tanımlama için) *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4846. ‘a iletebilirsiniz.
Python nesnelerini oluşturmak ve kullanmak için önceki bölümlerde
açıklanan alt düzey işlemleri de çağırabilirsiniz.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu: 1a20.

     Python’un C arayüzünün detayları bu kılavuzda verilmiştir.  Çok
     sayıda gerekli bilgi burada bulunabilir.

* Menu:

* Çok Üst Düzey Gömme::
* Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde; Genel Bir Bakış: Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde Genel Bir Bakış.
* Saf Gömme::
* Gömülü Python’u Genişletme::
* Python’u C++’a Gömmek::
* Unix benzeri sistemler altında Derleme ve Bağlama::


File: python.info,  Node: Çok Üst Düzey Gömme,  Next: Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde Genel Bir Bakış,  Up: Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme

6.3.1.1 Çok Üst Düzey Gömme
...........................

Python’u gömmenin en basit şekli, çok yüksek seviyeli arayüzün
kullanılmasıdır.  Bu arabirim, uygulamayla doğrudan etkileşime girmeye
gerek kalmadan bir Python betiği yürütmeyi amaçlamaktadır.  Bu örnek
olarak bir dosya üzerinde bazı işlemler gerçekleştirmek için
kullanılabilir.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         wchar_t *program = Py_DecodeLocale(argv[0], NULL);
         if (program == NULL) {
             fprintf(stderr, "Fatal error: cannot decode argv[0]\n");
             exit(1);
         }
         Py_SetProgramName(program);  /* optional but recommended */
         Py_Initialize();
         PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
                            "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n");
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             exit(120);
         }
         PyMem_RawFree(program);
         return 0;
     }

*note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0. işlevi, yorumlayıcıyı Python çalışma
zamanı kütüphanelerine giden yollar hakkında bilgilendirmek için *note
Py_Initialize(): 6fc. öncesinde çağrılmalıdır.  Ardından, Python
yorumlayıcısı *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. ile başlatılır, ardından tarih
ve saati yazdıran sabit kodlanmış bir Python betiği yürütülür.  Daha
sonra, *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. çağrısı yorumlayıcıyı kapatır ve
ardından programın sonu gelir.  Gerçek bir programda, Python betiğini
başka bir kaynaktan, belki bir metin düzenleyici rutininden, bir
dosyadan veya bir veri tabanından almak isteyebilirsiniz.  Python kodunu
bir dosyadan almak, sizi bellek alanı ayırma ve dosya içeriğini yükleme
zahmetinden kurtaran *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4846. işlevi kullanılarak
daha iyi yapılabilir.


File: python.info,  Node: Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde Genel Bir Bakış,  Next: Saf Gömme,  Prev: Çok Üst Düzey Gömme,  Up: Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme

6.3.1.2 Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde: Genel Bir Bakış
.............................................................

Yüksek seviyeli arayüz size uygulamanızdan rastgele Python kodu
parçalarını yürütme yeteneği verir, ancak veri değerleri alışverişi en
hafif tabirle oldukça zahmetlidir.  Bunu istiyorsanız, daha düşük
seviyeli aramalar kullanmalısınız.  Daha fazla C kodu yazmak zorunda
kalma pahasına neredeyse her şeyi başarabilirsiniz.

Farklı amaçlara rağmen Python’u genişletmek ve Python’u gömmek tamamen
aynı aktivitedir.  Önceki bölümlerde tartışılan konuların çoğu hala
geçerlidir.  Bunu göstermek için Python’dan C’ye uzantı kodunun
gerçekten ne yaptığını düşünün:

  1. Veri değerlerini Python’dan C’ye çevirin,

  2. Çevrilen değerleri kullanarak bir C rutinine bir fonksiyon çağrısı
     yapın, ve

  3. Çağrıdaki veri değerlerini C’den Python’a çevirin.

Python’u yerleştirirken, arayüz kodu şunları yapar:

  1. Veri değerlerini C’den Python’a çevirin,

  2. Çevrilen değerleri kullanarak bir Python arabirim rutinine bir
     fonksiyon çağrısı gerçekleştirin ve

  3. Çağrıdaki veri değerlerini C’den Python’a dönüştürün.

Gördüğünüz gibi, veri dönüştürme adımları, diller arası aktarımın farklı
yönüne uyum sağlamak için basitçe değiştirilir.  Tek fark, her iki veri
dönüşümü arasında çağırdığınız rutindir.  Uzatırken C rutini
çağırırsınız, gömerken Python rutini çağırırsınız.

Bu bölüm, verilerin Python’dan C’ye nasıl dönüştürüleceğini ve bunun tam
tersini tartışmayacaktır.  Ayrıca, referansların doğru kullanımı ve
hataların ele alınmasının anlaşıldığı varsayılmaktadır.  Bu hususlar,
yorumlayıcının genişletilmesinden farklı olmadığı için, gerekli bilgiler
için önceki bölümlere başvurabilirsiniz.


File: python.info,  Node: Saf Gömme,  Next: Gömülü Python’u Genişletme,  Prev: Çok Yüksek Düzeyde Gömmenin Ötesinde Genel Bir Bakış,  Up: Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme

6.3.1.3 Saf Gömme
.................

İlk program, bir Python betiğinde bir fonksiyonu çalıştırmayı amaçlar.
Çok yüksek seviyeli arayüzle ilgili bölümde olduğu gibi, Python
yorumlayıcısı uygulama ile doğrudan etkileşime girmez (ancak bu bir
sonraki bölümde değişecektir).

Python betiğinde tanımlanan bir işlevi çalıştırma kodu:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyObject *pName, *pModule, *pFunc;
         PyObject *pArgs, *pValue;
         int i;

         if (argc < 3) {
             fprintf(stderr,"Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]\n");
             return 1;
         }

         Py_Initialize();
         pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
         /* Error checking of pName left out */

         pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
         Py_DECREF(pName);

         if (pModule != NULL) {
             pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
             /* pFunc is a new reference */

             if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
                 pArgs = PyTuple_New(argc - 3);
                 for (i = 0; i < argc - 3; ++i) {
                     pValue = PyLong_FromLong(atoi(argv[i + 3]));
                     if (!pValue) {
                         Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                         Py_DECREF(pModule);
                         fprintf(stderr, "Cannot convert argument\n");
                         return 1;
                     }
                     /* pValue reference stolen here: */
                     PyTuple_SetItem(pArgs, i, pValue);
                 }
                 pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
                 Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                 if (pValue != NULL) {
                     printf("Result of call: %ld\n", PyLong_AsLong(pValue));
                     Py_DECREF(pValue);
                 }
                 else {
                     Py_DECREF(pFunc);
                     Py_DECREF(pModule);
                     PyErr_Print();
                     fprintf(stderr,"Call failed\n");
                     return 1;
                 }
             }
             else {
                 if (PyErr_Occurred())
                     PyErr_Print();
                 fprintf(stderr, "Cannot find function \"%s\"\n", argv[2]);
             }
             Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
             Py_DECREF(pModule);
         }
         else {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Failed to load \"%s\"\n", argv[1]);
             return 1;
         }
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             return 120;
         }
         return 0;
     }

Bu kod, ‘argv[1]’ kullanarak bir Python betiği yükler ve ‘argv[2]’
içinde adlandırılan fonksiyonu çağırır.  Tamsayı argümanları, ‘argv’
dizisinin diğer değerleridir.  Bu programı *note derler,: 484d. ve
bağlarsanız (bitmiş yürütülebilir dosyayı ‘call’ olarak adlandıralım) ve
onu aşağıdaki gibi bir Python betiğini çalıştırmak için kullanırsanız:

     def multiply(a,b):
         print("Will compute", a, "times", b)
         c = 0
         for i in range(0, a):
             c = c + b
         return c

o zaman sonuç olmalıdır:

     $ call multiply multiply 3 2
     Will compute 3 times 2
     Result of call: 6

Program işlevselliği açısından oldukça büyük olmasına rağmen, kodun çoğu
Python ve C arasında veri dönüştürme ve hata raporlama içindir.
Python’u gömmekle ilgili ilginç kısım şununla başlar

     Py_Initialize();
     pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
     /* Error checking of pName left out */
     pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);

After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using *note
PyImport_Import(): 1285.  This routine needs a Python string as its
argument, which is constructed using the *note
PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 14fd. data conversion routine.

     pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
     /* pFunc is a new reference */

     if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_XDECREF(pFunc);

Komut dosyası yüklendikten sonra, aradığımız ad *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 47ec. kullanılarak alınır.  Ad varsa ve
döndürülen nesne çağrılabilirse bunun bir fonksiyon olduğunu güvenle
varsayabilirsiniz.  Program daha sonra normal olarak bir dizi argüman
oluşturarak devam eder.  Python işlevine yapılan çağrı şu şekilde
yapılır:

     pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);

Fonksiyon döndürüldüğünde, ‘pValue’ ya ‘NULL’ olur ya da fonksiyonun
dönüş değerine bir başvuru içerir.  Değeri inceledikten sonra referans
bıraktığınızdan emin olun.


File: python.info,  Node: Gömülü Python’u Genişletme,  Next: Python’u C++’a Gömmek,  Prev: Saf Gömme,  Up: Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme

6.3.1.4 Gömülü Python’u Genişletme
..................................

Şimdiye kadar, gömülü Python yorumlayıcısının uygulamanın kendisinden
işlevselliğe erişimi yoktu.  Python API, gömülü yorumlayıcıyı
genişleterek buna izin verir.  Yani, gömülü yorumlayıcı, uygulama
tarafından sağlanan rutinlerle genişletilir.  Kulağa karmaşık gelse de,
o kadar da kötü değil.  Uygulamanın Python yorumlayıcısını başlattığını
bir süreliğine unutun.  Bunun yerine, uygulamayı bir dizi altyordam
olarak düşünün ve tıpkı normal bir Python uzantısı yazacağınız gibi,
Python’un bu rutinlere erişmesini sağlayan bir tutkal kodu yazın.
Örneğin:

     static int numargs=0;

     /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
     static PyObject*
     emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
             return NULL;
         return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
     }

     static PyMethodDef EmbMethods[] = {
         {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
          "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef EmbModule = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, "emb", NULL, -1, EmbMethods,
         NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL
     };

     static PyObject*
     PyInit_emb(void)
     {
         return PyModule_Create(&EmbModule);
     }

Yukarıdaki kodu ‘main()’ fonksiyonunun hemen üstüne ekleyin.  Ayrıca,
*note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.: çağrısından önce aşağıdaki iki ifadeyi
ekleyin:

     numargs = argc;
     PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb);

These two lines initialize the ‘numargs’ variable, and make the
‘emb.numargs()’ function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter.
With these extensions, the Python script can do things like

     import emb
     print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs())

Gerçek bir uygulamada, yöntemler uygulamanın API’sini Python’a gösterir.


File: python.info,  Node: Python’u C++’a Gömmek,  Next: Unix benzeri sistemler altında Derleme ve Bağlama,  Prev: Gömülü Python’u Genişletme,  Up: Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme

6.3.1.5 Python’u C++’a Gömmek
.............................

Python’u bir C++ programına yerleştirmek de mümkündür; bunun tam olarak
nasıl yapılacağı, kullanılan C++ sisteminin ayrıntılarına bağlı
olacaktır; genel olarak ana programı C++ ile yazmanız ve programınızı
derlemek ve bağlamak için C++ derleyicisini kullanmanız gerekecektir.
Python’un kendisini C++ kullanarak yeniden derlemeye gerek yoktur.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix benzeri sistemler altında Derleme ve Bağlama,  Prev: Python’u C++’a Gömmek,  Up: Python’ı Başka Bir Uygulamaya Gömme

6.3.1.6 Unix benzeri sistemler altında Derleme ve Bağlama
.........................................................

Python yorumlayıcısını uygulamanıza gömmek için derleyicinize (ve
bağlayıcınıza) iletilecek doğru bayrakları bulmak mutlaka önemli
değildir, özellikle Python’un C dinamik uzantıları buna karşı bağlatılı
olan (‘.so’ dosyaları) olarak uygulanan kütüphane modüllerini yüklemesi
gerektiğinden.

Gerekli derleyici ve bağlayıcı bayraklarını bulmak için, yükleme
işleminin bir parçası olarak oluşturulan ‘python`X.Y'-config’ betiğini
çalıştırabilirsiniz (bir ‘python3-config’ betiği de mevcut olabilir).
Bu komut dosyası, size doğrudan yardımcı olacak birkaç seçeneğe
sahiptir:

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --cflags’ derleme sırasında size önerilen
     bayrakları verecektir:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --cflags
          -I/opt/include/python3.11 -I/opt/include/python3.11 -Wsign-compare  -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --ldflags --embed’, bağlantı kurarken size
     önerilen bayrakları verecektir:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --ldflags --embed
          -L/opt/lib/python3.11/config-3.11-x86_64-linux-gnu -L/opt/lib -lpython3.11 -lpthread -ldl  -lutil -lm

     Not: Birkaç Python kurulumu arasında (ve özellikle sistem Python
     ile kendi derlenmiş Python’unuz arasında) karışıklığı önlemek için,
     yukarıdaki örnekte olduğu gibi mutlak ‘python`X.Y'-config’ yolunu
     kullanmanız önerilir.

Bu prosedür sizin için işe yaramazsa (tüm Unix benzeri platformlar için
çalışması garanti edilmez; ancak, memnuniyetle karşılıyoruz: *note hata
raporları: 4853.) dinamik hakkında sisteminizin belgelerini okumanız
gerekecektir ve/veya Python’un ‘Makefile’ (konumunu bulmak için *note
sysconfig.get_makefile_filename(): 418b. kullanın) ve derleme
seçeneklerini bağlamayı inceleyin.  Bu durumda, *note sysconfig: da.
modülü, birleştirmek isteyeceğiniz konfigürasyon değerlerini programlı
olarak çıkarmak için kullanışlı bir araçtır.  Örneğin:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS')
     '-lpthread -ldl  -lutil'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
     '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'


File: python.info,  Node: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu,  Next: Python Modüllerini Kurmak,  Prev: Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme,  Up: Top

7 Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu
********************************

Bu kılavuz, genişletme modülleri yazmak veya Python’u gömmek isteyen C
ve C++ programcıları tarafından kullanılan API’yi belgelemektedir.
Uzantı yazmanın genel ilkelerini açıklayan ancak API işlevlerini
ayrıntılı olarak belgelemeyen *note Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve
Gömme: 1a1f.’in tamamlayıcısıdır.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<10>.
* C API Stability::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* Reference Counting::
* Exception Handling::
* Utilities: Utilities<2>.
* Abstract Objects Layer::
* Concrete Objects Layer::
* Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads.
* Python Initialization Configuration::
* Memory Management::
* Object Implementation Support::
* API and ABI Versioning::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<10>,  Next: C API Stability,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.1 Introduction
================

The Application Programmer’s Interface to Python gives C and C++
programmers access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels.
The API is equally usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally
referred to as the Python/C API. There are two fundamentally different
reasons for using the Python/C API. The first reason is to write
'extension modules' for specific purposes; these are C modules that
extend the Python interpreter.  This is probably the most common use.
The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger
application; this technique is generally referred to as 'embedding'
Python in an application.

Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process,
where a “cookbook” approach works well.  There are several tools that
automate the process to some extent.  While people have embedded Python
in other applications since its early existence, the process of
embedding Python is less straightforward than writing an extension.

Many API functions are useful independent of whether you’re embedding or
extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python will
need to provide a custom extension as well, so it’s probably a good idea
to become familiar with writing an extension before attempting to embed
Python in a real application.

* Menu:

* Coding standards::
* Include Files::
* Useful macros::
* Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<20>.
* Embedding Python: Embedding Python<2>.
* Debugging Builds::


File: python.info,  Node: Coding standards,  Next: Include Files,  Up: Introduction<10>

7.1.1 Coding standards
----------------------

If you’re writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you 'must' follow the
guidelines and standards defined in PEP 7(1).  These guidelines apply
regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to.  Following
these conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension
modules, unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


File: python.info,  Node: Include Files,  Next: Useful macros,  Prev: Coding standards,  Up: Introduction<10>

7.1.2 Include Files
-------------------

All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API
are included in your code by the following line:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: ‘<stdio.h>’,
‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’, ‘<limits.h>’, ‘<assert.h>’ and ‘<stdlib.h>’
(if available).

     Not: Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which
     affect the standard headers on some systems, you 'must' include
     ‘Python.h’ before any standard headers are included.

     It is recommended to always define ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
     including ‘Python.h’.  See *note Parsing arguments and building
     values: 6f6. for a description of this macro.

All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the
included standard headers) have one of the prefixes ‘Py’ or ‘_Py’.
Names beginning with ‘_Py’ are for internal use by the Python
implementation and should not be used by extension writers.  Structure
member names do not have a reserved prefix.

     Not: User code should never define names that begin with ‘Py’ or
     ‘_Py’.  This confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the portability
     of the user code to future Python versions, which may define
     additional names beginning with one of these prefixes.

The header files are typically installed with Python.  On Unix, these
are located in the directories ‘`prefix'/include/pythonversion/’ and
‘`exec_prefix'/include/pythonversion/’, where *note prefix: 1ba9. and
*note exec_prefix: 1baa. are defined by the corresponding parameters to
Python’s ‘configure’ script and 'version' is ‘'%d.%d' %
sys.version_info[:2]’.  On Windows, the headers are installed in
‘`prefix'/include’, where ‘prefix’ is the installation directory
specified to the installer.

To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your
compiler’s search path for includes.  Do 'not' place the parent
directories on the search path and then use ‘#include
<pythonX.Y/Python.h>’; this will break on multi-platform builds since
the platform independent headers under *note prefix: 1ba9. include the
platform specific headers from *note exec_prefix: 1baa.

C++ users should note that although the API is defined entirely using C,
the header files properly declare the entry points to be ‘extern "C"’.
As a result, there is no need to do anything special to use the API from
C++.


File: python.info,  Node: Useful macros,  Next: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Prev: Include Files,  Up: Introduction<10>

7.1.3 Useful macros
-------------------

Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files.  Many are
defined closer to where they are useful (e.g.  *note Py_RETURN_NONE:
12fb.).  Others of a more general utility are defined here.  This is not
necessarily a complete listing.

 -- C Makrosu: PyMODINIT_FUNC

     Declare an extension module ‘PyInit’ initialization function.  The
     function return type is *note PyObject: 6eb.*.  The macro declares
     any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for
     C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

     The initialization function must be named ‘PyInit_NAME’, where
     'name' is the name of the module, and should be the only
     non-‘static’ item defined in the module file.  Example:

          static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
              PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
              .m_name = "spam",
              ...
          };

          PyMODINIT_FUNC
          PyInit_spam(void)
          {
              return PyModule_Create(&spam_module);
          }

 -- C Makrosu: Py_ABS (x)

     Return the absolute value of ‘x’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_ALWAYS_INLINE

     Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decides to not inline the function.

     It can be used to inline performance critical static inline
     functions when building Python in debug mode with function inlining
     disabled.  For example, MSC disables function inlining when
     building in debug mode.

     Marking blindly a static inline function with Py_ALWAYS_INLINE can
     result in worse performances (due to increased code size for
     example).  The compiler is usually smarter than the developer for
     the cost/benefit analysis.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 6b9. (if the *note
     Py_DEBUG: 3ee6. macro is defined), the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE:
     16df. macro does nothing.

     It must be specified before the function return type.  Usage:

          static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; }

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_CHARMASK (c)

     Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127]
     or [0, 255].  This macro returns ‘c’ cast to an ‘unsigned char’.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_DEPRECATED (version)

     Use this for deprecated declarations.  The macro must be placed
     before the symbol name.

     Example:

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: MSVC support was added.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_GETENV (s)

     Like ‘getenv(s)’, but returns ‘NULL’ if *note -E: 7b7. was passed
     on the command line (see *note PyConfig.use_environment: 33a.).

 -- C Makrosu: Py_MAX (x, y)

     Return the maximum value between ‘x’ and ‘y’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_MEMBER_SIZE (type, member)

     Return the size of a structure (‘type’) ‘member’ in bytes.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_MIN (x, y)

     Return the minimum value between ‘x’ and ‘y’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_NO_INLINE

     Disable inlining on a function.  For example, it reduces the C
     stack consumption: useful on LTO+PGO builds which heavily inline
     code (see bpo-33720(1)).

     Usage:

          Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; }

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_STRINGIFY (x)

     Convert ‘x’ to a C string.  E.g.  ‘Py_STRINGIFY(123)’ returns
     ‘"123"’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_UNREACHABLE ()

     Use this when you have a code path that cannot be reached by
     design.  For example, in the ‘default:’ clause in a ‘switch’
     statement for which all possible values are covered in ‘case’
     statements.  Use this in places where you might be tempted to put
     an ‘assert(0)’ or ‘abort()’ call.

     In release mode, the macro helps the compiler to optimize the code,
     and avoids a warning about unreachable code.  For example, the
     macro is implemented with ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ on GCC in
     release mode.

     A use for ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ is following a call a function that
     never returns but that is not declared ‘_Py_NO_RETURN’.

     If a code path is very unlikely code but can be reached under
     exceptional case, this macro must not be used.  For example, under
     low memory condition or if a system call returns a value out of the
     expected range.  In this case, it’s better to report the error to
     the caller.  If the error cannot be reported to caller, *note
     Py_FatalError(): 7e1. can be used.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_UNUSED (arg)

     Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence
     compiler warnings.  Example: ‘int func(int a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) {
     return a; }’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Makrosu: PyDoc_STRVAR (name, str)

     Creates a variable with name ‘name’ that can be used in docstrings.
     If Python is built without docstrings, the value will be empty.

     Use *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 17a3. for docstrings to support building
     Python without docstrings, as specified in PEP 7(2).

     Example:

          PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element.");

          static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = {
              // ...
              {"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc},
              // ...
          }

 -- C Makrosu: PyDoc_STR (str)

     Creates a docstring for the given input string or an empty string
     if docstrings are disabled.

     Use *note PyDoc_STR: 162e. in specifying docstrings to support
     building Python without docstrings, as specified in PEP 7(3).

     Example:

          static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = {
              {"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS,
                  PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")},
              {NULL, NULL}
          };

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


File: python.info,  Node: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Next: Exceptions<20>,  Prev: Useful macros,  Up: Introduction<10>

7.1.4 Objects, Types and Reference Counts
-----------------------------------------

Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a
return value of type *note PyObject: 6eb.*.  This type is a pointer to
an opaque data type representing an arbitrary Python object.  Since all
Python object types are treated the same way by the Python language in
most situations (e.g., assignments, scope rules, and argument passing),
it is only fitting that they should be represented by a single C type.
Almost all Python objects live on the heap: you never declare an
automatic or static variable of type *note PyObject: 6eb, only pointer
variables of type *note PyObject: 6eb.* can be declared.  The sole
exception are the type objects; since these must never be deallocated,
they are typically static *note PyTypeObject: 911. objects.

All Python objects (even Python integers) have a 'type' and a 'reference
count'.  An object’s type determines what kind of object it is (e.g., an
integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as
explained in *note The standard type hierarchy: 1cd4.).  For each of the
well-known types there is a macro to check whether an object is of that
type; for instance, ‘PyList_Check(a)’ is true if (and only if) the
object pointed to by 'a' is a Python list.

* Menu:

* Reference Counts: Reference Counts<2>.
* Types::


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counts<2>,  Next: Types,  Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts

7.1.4.1 Reference Counts
........................

The reference count is important because today’s computers have a finite
(and often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many different
places there are that have a *note strong reference: 5c1. to an object.
Such a place could be another object, or a global (or static) C
variable, or a local variable in some C function.  When the last *note
strong reference: 5c1. to an object is released (i.e.  its reference
count becomes zero), the object is deallocated.  If it contains
references to other objects, those references are released.  Those other
objects may be deallocated in turn, if there are no more references to
them, and so on.  (There’s an obvious problem with objects that
reference each other here; for now, the solution is “don’t do that.”)

Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly.  The normal way is
to use the macro *note Py_INCREF(): 305. to take a new reference to an
object (i.e.  increment its reference count by one), and *note
Py_DECREF(): 306. to release that reference (i.e.  decrement the
reference count by one).  The *note Py_DECREF(): 306. macro is
considerably more complex than the incref one, since it must check
whether the reference count becomes zero and then cause the object’s
deallocator to be called.  The deallocator is a function pointer
contained in the object’s type structure.  The type-specific deallocator
takes care of releasing references for other objects contained in the
object if this is a compound object type, such as a list, as well as
performing any additional finalization that’s needed.  There’s no chance
that the reference count can overflow; at least as many bits are used to
hold the reference count as there are distinct memory locations in
virtual memory (assuming ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)’).  Thus,
the reference count increment is a simple operation.

It is not necessary to hold a *note strong reference: 5c1. (i.e.
increment the reference count) for every local variable that contains a
pointer to an object.  In theory, the object’s reference count goes up
by one when the variable is made to point to it and it goes down by one
when the variable goes out of scope.  However, these two cancel each
other out, so at the end the reference count hasn’t changed.  The only
real reason to use the reference count is to prevent the object from
being deallocated as long as our variable is pointing to it.  If we know
that there is at least one other reference to the object that lives at
least as long as our variable, there is no need to take a new *note
strong reference: 5c1. (i.e.  increment the reference count)
temporarily.  An important situation where this arises is in objects
that are passed as arguments to C functions in an extension module that
are called from Python; the call mechanism guarantees to hold a
reference to every argument for the duration of the call.

However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold
on to it for a while without taking a new reference.  Some other
operation might conceivably remove the object from the list, releasing
that reference, and possibly deallocating it.  The real danger is that
innocent-looking operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could
do this; there is a code path which allows control to flow back to the
user from a *note Py_DECREF(): 306, so almost any operation is
potentially dangerous.

A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions whose
name begins with ‘PyObject_’, ‘PyNumber_’, ‘PySequence_’ or
‘PyMapping_’).  These operations always create a new *note strong
reference: 5c1. (i.e.  increment the reference count) of the object they
return.  This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call *note
Py_DECREF(): 306. when they are done with the result; this soon becomes
second nature.

* Menu:

* Reference Count Details::


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Count Details,  Up: Reference Counts<2>

7.1.4.2 Reference Count Details
...............................

The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best
explained in terms of 'ownership of references'.  Ownership pertains to
references, never to objects (objects are not owned: they are always
shared).  “Owning a reference” means being responsible for calling
Py_DECREF on it when the reference is no longer needed.  Ownership can
also be transferred, meaning that the code that receives ownership of
the reference then becomes responsible for eventually releasing it by
calling *note Py_DECREF(): 306. or *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. when it’s no
longer needed—or passing on this responsibility (usually to its caller).
When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its caller, the
caller is said to receive a 'new' reference.  When no ownership is
transferred, the caller is said to 'borrow' the reference.  Nothing
needs to be done for a *note borrowed reference: 4869.

Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an object,
there are two possibilities: the function 'steals' a reference to the
object, or it does not.  'Stealing a reference' means that when you pass
a reference to a function, that function assumes that it now owns that
reference, and you are not responsible for it any longer.

Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are *note
PyList_SetItem(): 47f2. and *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1, which steal a
reference to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item
is put!).  These functions were designed to steal a reference because of
a common idiom for populating a tuple or list with newly created
objects; for example, the code to create the tuple ‘(1, 2, "three")’
could look like this (forgetting about error handling for the moment; a
better way to code this is shown below):

     PyObject *t;

     t = PyTuple_New(3);
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));

Here, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1660. returns a new reference which is
immediately stolen by *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1.  When you want to
keep using an object although the reference to it will be stolen, use
*note Py_INCREF(): 305. to grab another reference before calling the
reference-stealing function.

Incidentally, *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1. is the 'only' way to set
tuple items; *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1896. and *note
PyObject_SetItem(): 486a. refuse to do this since tuples are an
immutable data type.  You should only use *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1.
for tuples that you are creating yourself.

Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using *note
PyList_New(): 486b. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 47f2.

However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and
populating a tuple or list.  There’s a generic function, *note
Py_BuildValue(): 6f5, that can create most common objects from C values,
directed by a 'format string'.  For example, the above two blocks of
code could be replaced by the following (which also takes care of the
error checking):

     PyObject *tuple, *list;

     tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");
     list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");

It is much more common to use *note PyObject_SetItem(): 486a. and
friends with items whose references you are only borrowing, like
arguments that were passed in to the function you are writing.  In that
case, their behaviour regarding references is much saner, since you
don’t have to take a new reference just so you can give that reference
away (“have it be stolen”).  For example, this function sets all items
of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item:

     int
     set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;

         n = PyObject_Length(target);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1;
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);
             if (!index)
                 return -1;
             if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {
                 Py_DECREF(index);
                 return -1;
             }
             Py_DECREF(index);
         }
         return 0;
     }

The situation is slightly different for function return values.  While
passing a reference to most functions does not change your ownership
responsibilities for that reference, many functions that return a
reference to an object give you ownership of the reference.  The reason
is simple: in many cases, the returned object is created on the fly, and
the reference you get is the only reference to the object.  Therefore,
the generic functions that return object references, like *note
PyObject_GetItem(): 486c. and *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1895, always
return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference).

It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned by
a function depends on which function you call only — 'the plumage' (the
type of the object passed as an argument to the function) 'doesn’t enter
into it!'  Thus, if you extract an item from a list using *note
PyList_GetItem(): 47ee, you don’t own the reference — but if you obtain
the same item from the same list using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1895.
(which happens to take exactly the same arguments), you do own a
reference to the returned object.

Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the
sum of the items in a list of integers; once using *note
PyList_GetItem(): 47ee, and once using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1895.

     long
     sum_list(PyObject *list)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;

         n = PyList_Size(list);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Not a list */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */
             if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */
             value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
             if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                 /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                 return -1;
             total += value;
         }
         return total;
     }

     long
     sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;
         n = PySequence_Length(sequence);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Has no length */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);
             if (item == NULL)
                 return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */
             if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
                 value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
                 Py_DECREF(item);
                 if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                     /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                     return -1;
                 total += value;
             }
             else {
                 Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */
             }
         }
         return total;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Types,  Prev: Reference Counts<2>,  Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts

7.1.4.3 Types
.............

There are few other data types that play a significant role in the
Python/C API; most are simple C types such as int, long, double and
char*.  A few structure types are used to describe static tables used to
list the functions exported by a module or the data attributes of a new
object type, and another is used to describe the value of a complex
number.  These will be discussed together with the functions that use
them.

 -- C Türü: type Py_ssize_t
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  A signed integral type such
     that ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) == sizeof(size_t)’.  C99 doesn’t define
     such a thing directly (size_t is an unsigned integral type).  See
     PEP 353(1) for details.  ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ is the largest positive
     value of type *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<20>,  Next: Embedding Python<2>,  Prev: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Up: Introduction<10>

7.1.5 Exceptions
----------------

The Python programmer only needs to deal with exceptions if specific
error handling is required; unhandled exceptions are automatically
propagated to the caller, then to the caller’s caller, and so on, until
they reach the top-level interpreter, where they are reported to the
user accompanied by a stack traceback.

For C programmers, however, error checking always has to be explicit.
All functions in the Python/C API can raise exceptions, unless an
explicit claim is made otherwise in a function’s documentation.  In
general, when a function encounters an error, it sets an exception,
discards any object references that it owns, and returns an error
indicator.  If not documented otherwise, this indicator is either ‘NULL’
or ‘-1’, depending on the function’s return type.  A few functions
return a Boolean true/false result, with false indicating an error.
Very few functions return no explicit error indicator or have an
ambiguous return value, and require explicit testing for errors with
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c.  These exceptions are always explicitly
documented.

Exception state is maintained in per-thread storage (this is equivalent
to using global storage in an unthreaded application).  A thread can be
in one of two states: an exception has occurred, or not.  The function
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. can be used to check for this: it returns
a borrowed reference to the exception type object when an exception has
occurred, and ‘NULL’ otherwise.  There are a number of functions to set
the exception state: *note PyErr_SetString(): 315. is the most common
(though not the most general) function to set the exception state, and
*note PyErr_Clear(): ed9. clears the exception state.

The full exception state consists of three objects (all of which can be
‘NULL’): the exception type, the corresponding exception value, and the
traceback.  These have the same meanings as the Python result of
‘sys.exc_info()’; however, they are not the same: the Python objects
represent the last exception being handled by a Python *note try: 503. …
*note except: 3c0. statement, while the C level exception state only
exists while an exception is being passed on between C functions until
it reaches the Python bytecode interpreter’s main loop, which takes care
of transferring it to ‘sys.exc_info()’ and friends.

Note that starting with Python 1.5, the preferred, thread-safe way to
access the exception state from Python code is to call the function
*note sys.exc_info(): 49f, which returns the per-thread exception state
for Python code.  Also, the semantics of both ways to access the
exception state have changed so that a function which catches an
exception will save and restore its thread’s exception state so as to
preserve the exception state of its caller.  This prevents common bugs
in exception handling code caused by an innocent-looking function
overwriting the exception being handled; it also reduces the often
unwanted lifetime extension for objects that are referenced by the stack
frames in the traceback.

As a general principle, a function that calls another function to
perform some task should check whether the called function raised an
exception, and if so, pass the exception state on to its caller.  It
should discard any object references that it owns, and return an error
indicator, but it should 'not' set another exception — that would
overwrite the exception that was just raised, and lose important
information about the exact cause of the error.

A simple example of detecting exceptions and passing them on is shown in
the ‘sum_sequence()’ example above.  It so happens that this example
doesn’t need to clean up any owned references when it detects an error.
The following example function shows some error cleanup.  First, to
remind you why you like Python, we show the equivalent Python code:

     def incr_item(dict, key):
         try:
             item = dict[key]
         except KeyError:
             item = 0
         dict[key] = item + 1

Here is the corresponding C code, in all its glory:

     int
     incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key)
     {
         /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */
         PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL;
         int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */

         item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key);
         if (item == NULL) {
             /* Handle KeyError only: */
             if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError))
                 goto error;

             /* Clear the error and use zero: */
             PyErr_Clear();
             item = PyLong_FromLong(0L);
             if (item == NULL)
                 goto error;
         }
         const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L);
         if (const_one == NULL)
             goto error;

         incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one);
         if (incremented_item == NULL)
             goto error;

         if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0)
             goto error;
         rv = 0; /* Success */
         /* Continue with cleanup code */

      error:
         /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */

         /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */
         Py_XDECREF(item);
         Py_XDECREF(const_one);
         Py_XDECREF(incremented_item);

         return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */
     }

This example represents an endorsed use of the ‘goto’ statement in C! It
illustrates the use of *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 4871. and *note
PyErr_Clear(): ed9. to handle specific exceptions, and the use of *note
Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. to dispose of owned references that may be ‘NULL’
(note the ‘'X'’ in the name; *note Py_DECREF(): 306. would crash when
confronted with a ‘NULL’ reference).  It is important that the variables
used to hold owned references are initialized to ‘NULL’ for this to
work; likewise, the proposed return value is initialized to ‘-1’
(failure) and only set to success after the final call made is
successful.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedding Python<2>,  Next: Debugging Builds,  Prev: Exceptions<20>,  Up: Introduction<10>

7.1.6 Embedding Python
----------------------

The one important task that only embedders (as opposed to extension
writers) of the Python interpreter have to worry about is the
initialization, and possibly the finalization, of the Python
interpreter.  Most functionality of the interpreter can only be used
after the interpreter has been initialized.

The basic initialization function is *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.  This
initializes the table of loaded modules, and creates the fundamental
modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__: 1, and *note sys: d8.  It
also initializes the module search path (‘sys.path’).

*note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. does not set the “script argument list”
(‘sys.argv’).  If this variable is needed by Python code that will be
executed later, setting *note PyConfig.argv: 35a. and *note
PyConfig.parse_argv: 1753. must be set: see *note Python Initialization
Configuration: 5c6.

On most systems (in particular, on Unix and Windows, although the
details are slightly different), *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. calculates
the module search path based upon its best guess for the location of the
standard Python interpreter executable, assuming that the Python library
is found in a fixed location relative to the Python interpreter
executable.  In particular, it looks for a directory named
‘lib/python`X.Y'’ relative to the parent directory where the executable
named ‘python’ is found on the shell command search path (the
environment variable ‘PATH’).

For instance, if the Python executable is found in
‘/usr/local/bin/python’, it will assume that the libraries are in
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’.  (In fact, this particular path is also
the “fallback” location, used when no executable file named ‘python’ is
found along ‘PATH’.)  The user can override this behavior by setting the
environment variable *note PYTHONHOME: 36f, or insert additional
directories in front of the standard path by setting *note PYTHONPATH:
ec5.

The embedding application can steer the search by calling
‘Py_SetProgramName(file)’ 'before' calling *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.
Note that *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. still overrides this and *note
PYTHONPATH: ec5. is still inserted in front of the standard path.  An
application that requires total control has to provide its own
implementation of *note Py_GetPath(): 367, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 369,
*note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 365, and *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b.
(all defined in ‘Modules/getpath.c’).

Sometimes, it is desirable to “uninitialize” Python.  For instance, the
application may want to start over (make another call to *note
Py_Initialize(): 6fc.) or the application is simply done with its use of
Python and wants to free memory allocated by Python.  This can be
accomplished by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a.  The function *note
Py_IsInitialized(): 4874. returns true if Python is currently in the
initialized state.  More information about these functions is given in a
later chapter.  Notice that *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. does 'not' free
all memory allocated by the Python interpreter, e.g.  memory allocated
by extension modules currently cannot be released.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging Builds,  Prev: Embedding Python<2>,  Up: Introduction<10>

7.1.7 Debugging Builds
----------------------

Python can be built with several macros to enable extra checks of the
interpreter and extension modules.  These checks tend to add a large
amount of overhead to the runtime so they are not enabled by default.

A full list of the various types of debugging builds is in the file
‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution.  Builds are
available that support tracing of reference counts, debugging the memory
allocator, or low-level profiling of the main interpreter loop.  Only
the most frequently used builds will be described in the remainder of
this section.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_DEBUG

Compiling the interpreter with the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro defined produces
what is generally meant by *note a debug build of Python: 6b9.
‘Py_DEBUG’ is enabled in the Unix build by adding *note -with-pydebug:
1bcd. to the ‘./configure’ command.  It is also implied by the presence
of the not-Python-specific ‘_DEBUG’ macro.  When ‘Py_DEBUG’ is enabled
in the Unix build, compiler optimization is disabled.

In addition to the reference count debugging described below, extra
checks are performed, see *note Python Debug Build: 6b9.

Defining ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ enables reference tracing (see the *note
configure -with-trace-refs option: 6ec.).  When defined, a circular
doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra
fields to every *note PyObject: 6eb.  Total allocations are tracked as
well.  Upon exit, all existing references are printed.  (In interactive
mode this happens after every statement run by the interpreter.)

Please refer to ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source
distribution for more detailed information.


File: python.info,  Node: C API Stability,  Next: The Very High Level Layer,  Prev: Introduction<10>,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.2 C API Stability
===================

Unless documented otherwise, Python’s C API is covered by the Backwards
Compatibility Policy, PEP 387(1).  Most changes to it are
source-compatible (typically by only adding new API). Changing existing
API or removing API is only done after a deprecation period or to fix
serious issues.

CPython’s Application Binary Interface (ABI) is forward- and
backwards-compatible across a minor release (if these are compiled the
same way; see *note Platform Considerations: 4879. below).  So, code
compiled for Python 3.10.0 will work on 3.10.8 and vice versa, but will
need to be compiled separately for 3.9.x and 3.11.x.

There are two tiers of C API with different stability expectations:

   - *note Unstable API: 2d5, may change in minor versions without a
     deprecation period.  It is marked by the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix in
     names.

   - *note Limited API: 2de, is compatible across several minor
     releases.  When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 5cb. is defined, only this
     subset is exposed from ‘Python.h’.

These are discussed in more detail below.

Names prefixed by an underscore, such as ‘_Py_InternalState’, are
private API that can change without notice even in patch releases.  If
you need to use this API, consider reaching out to CPython developers(2)
to discuss adding public API for your use case.

* Menu:

* Unstable C API::
* Stable Application Binary Interface::
* Platform Considerations::
* Contents of Limited API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30


File: python.info,  Node: Unstable C API,  Next: Stable Application Binary Interface,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.1 Unstable C API
--------------------

Any API named with the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix exposes CPython
implementation details, and may change in every minor release (e.g.
from 3.9 to 3.10) without any deprecation warnings.  However, it will
not change in a bugfix release (e.g.  from 3.10.0 to 3.10.1).

It is generally intended for specialized, low-level tools like
debuggers.

Projects that use this API are expected to follow CPython development
and spend extra effort adjusting to changes.


File: python.info,  Node: Stable Application Binary Interface,  Next: Platform Considerations,  Prev: Unstable C API,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.2 Stable Application Binary Interface
-----------------------------------------

For simplicity, this document talks about 'extensions', but the Limited
API and Stable ABI work the same way for all uses of the API – for
example, embedding Python.

* Menu:

* Limited C API::
* Stable ABI::
* Limited API Scope and Performance::
* Limited API Caveats::


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API,  Next: Stable ABI,  Up: Stable Application Binary Interface

7.2.2.1 Limited C API
.....................

Python 3.2 introduced the 'Limited API', a subset of Python’s C API.
Extensions that only use the Limited API can be compiled once and be
loaded on multiple versions of Python.  Contents of the Limited API are
*note listed below: 5d0.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_LIMITED_API

     Define this macro before including ‘Python.h’ to opt in to only use
     the Limited API, and to select the Limited API version.

     Define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to the value of *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 583.
     corresponding to the lowest Python version your extension supports.
     The extension will be ABI-compatible with all Python 3 releases
     from the specified one onward, and can use Limited API introduced
     up to that version.

     Rather than using the ‘PY_VERSION_HEX’ macro directly, hardcode a
     minimum minor version (e.g.  ‘0x030A0000’ for Python 3.10) for
     stability when compiling with future Python versions.

     You can also define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to ‘3’.  This works the same
     as ‘0x03020000’ (Python 3.2, the version that introduced Limited
     API).


File: python.info,  Node: Stable ABI,  Next: Limited API Scope and Performance,  Prev: Limited C API,  Up: Stable Application Binary Interface

7.2.2.2 Stable ABI
..................

To enable this, Python provides a 'Stable ABI': a set of symbols that
will remain ABI-compatible across Python 3.x versions.

     Not: The Stable ABI prevents ABI issues, like linker errors due to
     missing symbols or data corruption due to changes in structure
     layouts or function signatures.  However, other changes in Python
     can change the 'behavior' of extensions.  See Python’s Backwards
     Compatibility Policy ( PEP 387(1)) for details.

The Stable ABI contains symbols exposed in the *note Limited API: 2de,
but also other ones – for example, functions necessary to support older
versions of the Limited API.

On Windows, extensions that use the Stable ABI should be linked against
‘python3.dll’ rather than a version-specific library such as
‘python39.dll’.

On some platforms, Python will look for and load shared library files
named with the ‘abi3’ tag (e.g.  ‘mymodule.abi3.so’).  It does not check
if such extensions conform to a Stable ABI. The user (or their packaging
tools) need to ensure that, for example, extensions built with the 3.10+
Limited API are not installed for lower versions of Python.

All functions in the Stable ABI are present as functions in Python’s
shared library, not solely as macros.  This makes them usable from
languages that don’t use the C preprocessor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: Limited API Scope and Performance,  Next: Limited API Caveats,  Prev: Stable ABI,  Up: Stable Application Binary Interface

7.2.2.3 Limited API Scope and Performance
.........................................

The goal for the Limited API is to allow everything that is possible
with the full C API, but possibly with a performance penalty.

For example, while *note PyList_GetItem(): 47ee. is available, its
“unsafe” macro variant *note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 4880. is not.  The macro
can be faster because it can rely on version-specific implementation
details of the list object.

Without ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ defined, some C API functions are inlined or
replaced by macros.  Defining ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ disables this inlining,
allowing stability as Python’s data structures are improved, but
possibly reducing performance.

By leaving out the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ definition, it is possible to
compile a Limited API extension with a version-specific ABI. This can
improve performance for that Python version, but will limit
compatibility.  Compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ will then yield an
extension that can be distributed where a version-specific one is not
available – for example, for prereleases of an upcoming Python version.


File: python.info,  Node: Limited API Caveats,  Prev: Limited API Scope and Performance,  Up: Stable Application Binary Interface

7.2.2.4 Limited API Caveats
...........................

Note that compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is 'not' a complete guarantee
that code conforms to the *note Limited API: 2de. or the *note Stable
ABI: 487e.  ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ only covers definitions, but an API also
includes other issues, such as expected semantics.

One issue that ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ does not guard against is calling a
function with arguments that are invalid in a lower Python version.  For
example, consider a function that starts accepting ‘NULL’ for an
argument.  In Python 3.9, ‘NULL’ now selects a default behavior, but in
Python 3.8, the argument will be used directly, causing a ‘NULL’
dereference and crash.  A similar argument works for fields of structs.

Another issue is that some struct fields are currently not hidden when
‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined, even though they’re part of the Limited
API.

For these reasons, we recommend testing an extension with 'all' minor
Python versions it supports, and preferably to build with the 'lowest'
such version.

We also recommend reviewing documentation of all used API to check if it
is explicitly part of the Limited API. Even with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
defined, a few private declarations are exposed for technical reasons
(or even unintentionally, as bugs).

Also note that the Limited API is not necessarily stable: compiling with
‘Py_LIMITED_API’ with Python 3.8 means that the extension will run with
Python 3.12, but it will not necessarily 'compile' with Python 3.12.  In
particular, parts of the Limited API may be deprecated and removed,
provided that the Stable ABI stays stable.


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Considerations,  Next: Contents of Limited API,  Prev: Stable Application Binary Interface,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.3 Platform Considerations
-----------------------------

ABI stability depends not only on Python, but also on the compiler used,
lower-level libraries and compiler options.  For the purposes of the
*note Stable ABI: 487e, these details define a “platform”.  They usually
depend on the OS type and processor architecture

It is the responsibility of each particular distributor of Python to
ensure that all Python versions on a particular platform are built in a
way that does not break the Stable ABI. This is the case with Windows
and macOS releases from ‘python.org’ and many third-party distributors.


File: python.info,  Node: Contents of Limited API,  Prev: Platform Considerations,  Up: C API Stability

7.2.4 Contents of Limited API
-----------------------------

Currently, the *note Limited API: 2de. includes the following items:

   * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2ef.

   * *note PyAIter_Check(): 4884.

   * *note PyArg_Parse(): 1819.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b.

   * *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 1395.

   * *note PyArg_VaParse(): 4885.

   * *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 12fe.

   * *note PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(): 4886.

   * *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887.

   * *note PyBool_FromLong(): 4888.

   * *note PyBool_Type: 4889.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 58d.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 58e.

   * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 58a.

   * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 587.

   * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 58c.

   * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f.

   * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 588.

   * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 589.

   * ‘PyByteArrayIter_Type’

   * *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 488a.

   * *note PyByteArray_Concat(): 488b.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromObject(): 123d.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 123e.

   * *note PyByteArray_Resize(): 488c.

   * *note PyByteArray_Size(): 488d.

   * *note PyByteArray_Type: 488e.

   * ‘PyBytesIter_Type’

   * *note PyBytes_AsString(): 6cf.

   * *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 488f.

   * *note PyBytes_Concat(): 4890.

   * *note PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(): 4891.

   * ‘PyBytes_DecodeEscape()’

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1862.

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormatV(): 4892.

   * *note PyBytes_FromObject(): 4893.

   * *note PyBytes_FromString(): 4894.

   * *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 123c.

   * ‘PyBytes_Repr()’

   * *note PyBytes_Size(): 4895.

   * *note PyBytes_Type: 4896.

   * *note PyCFunction: 1300.

   * *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 4897.

   * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFlags()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetFunction()’

   * ‘PyCFunction_GetSelf()’

   * *note PyCFunction_New(): 171e.

   * *note PyCFunction_NewEx(): 17bf.

   * ‘PyCFunction_Type’

   * *note PyCMethod_New(): 1718.

   * *note PyCallIter_New(): 4898.

   * *note PyCallIter_Type: 4899.

   * *note PyCallable_Check(): 489a.

   * *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 489b.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetContext(): 489c.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetDestructor(): 489d.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetName(): 489e.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 489f.

   * *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1695.

   * *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1203.

   * *note PyCapsule_New(): 47fc.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetContext(): 48a0.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetDestructor(): 48a1.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetName(): 48a2.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetPointer(): 48a3.

   * ‘PyCapsule_Type’

   * ‘PyClassMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(): 48a4.

   * *note PyCodec_Decode(): 37a.

   * *note PyCodec_Decoder(): 48a5.

   * *note PyCodec_Encode(): 37b.

   * *note PyCodec_Encoder(): 48a6.

   * *note PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(): 48a7.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(): 48a8.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(): 48a9.

   * *note PyCodec_KnownEncoding(): 48aa.

   * *note PyCodec_LookupError(): 48ab.

   * *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): d44.

   * *note PyCodec_Register(): 48ac.

   * *note PyCodec_RegisterError(): 48ad.

   * *note PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(): 48ae.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamReader(): 48af.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamWriter(): 48b0.

   * *note PyCodec_StrictErrors(): 48b1.

   * *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 6e0.

   * *note PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(): 48b2.

   * *note PyComplex_FromDoubles(): 48b3.

   * *note PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 48b4.

   * *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 48b5.

   * *note PyComplex_Type: 48b6.

   * *note PyDescr_NewClassMethod(): 48b7.

   * *note PyDescr_NewGetSet(): 48b8.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMember(): 48b9.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 17be.

   * ‘PyDictItems_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictKeys_Type’

   * *note PyDictProxy_New(): 48ba.

   * ‘PyDictProxy_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterItem_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterKey_Type’

   * ‘PyDictRevIterValue_Type’

   * ‘PyDictValues_Type’

   * *note PyDict_Clear(): 48bb.

   * *note PyDict_Contains(): 48bc.

   * *note PyDict_Copy(): 48bd.

   * *note PyDict_DelItem(): 48be.

   * *note PyDict_DelItemString(): 48bf.

   * *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6f9.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 47ef.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 48c0.

   * *note PyDict_Items(): 48c1.

   * *note PyDict_Keys(): 48c2.

   * *note PyDict_Merge(): 48c3.

   * *note PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(): 48c4.

   * *note PyDict_New(): 48c5.

   * *note PyDict_Next(): 48c6.

   * *note PyDict_SetItem(): 47f3.

   * *note PyDict_SetItemString(): 1447.

   * *note PyDict_Size(): 48c7.

   * *note PyDict_Type: 48c8.

   * *note PyDict_Update(): 48c9.

   * *note PyDict_Values(): 48ca.

   * *note PyEllipsis_Type: 48cb.

   * ‘PyEnum_Type’

   * *note PyErr_BadArgument(): 48cc.

   * *note PyErr_BadInternalCall(): 48cd.

   * *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 182.

   * *note PyErr_Clear(): ed9.

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’

   * *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 303.

   * *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 4871.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe.

   * *note PyErr_Format(): d46.

   * *note PyErr_FormatV(): d45.

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 5a2.

   * *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 59f.

   * *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc.

   * *note PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(): 48ce.

   * *note PyErr_NewException(): 1112.

   * *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 1111.

   * *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 47d3.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 372.

   * *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c.

   * *note PyErr_Print(): 1771.

   * *note PyErr_PrintEx(): 48cf.

   * ‘PyErr_ProgramText()’

   * *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): b9d.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 2ff.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 48d0.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14fb.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 48d1.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(): 48d2.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 5a1.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 47d2.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 14fa.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 48d3.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(): 48d4.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 48d5.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14fc.

   * *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 5a0.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): bc6.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): b9c.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterrupt(): 48d6.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 6e9.

   * *note PyErr_SetNone(): 48d7.

   * *note PyErr_SetObject(): 314.

   * *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2fd.

   * *note PyErr_SetString(): 315.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocation(): 48d8.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 48d9.

   * *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 12d5.

   * *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 1521.

   * *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 48da.

   * *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 181f.

   * *note PyEval_AcquireLock(): 48db.

   * *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 48dc.

   * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’

   * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’

   * ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’

   * *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 6ce.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1586.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrame(): 48dd.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ed6.

   * *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 48de.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 15dd.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncDesc(): 48df.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 48e0.

   * *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 48e1.

   * *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 48e2.

   * *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 48e3.

   * *note PyEval_ReleaseLock(): 48e4.

   * *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 48e5.

   * *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 1123.

   * *note PyEval_ThreadsInitialized(): 48e6.

   * ‘PyExc_ArithmeticError’

   * ‘PyExc_AssertionError’

   * ‘PyExc_AttributeError’

   * ‘PyExc_BaseException’

   * ‘PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup’

   * ‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’

   * ‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’

   * ‘PyExc_BufferError’

   * ‘PyExc_BytesWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’

   * ‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’

   * ‘PyExc_DeprecationWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_EOFError’

   * ‘PyExc_EncodingWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_EnvironmentError’

   * ‘PyExc_Exception’

   * ‘PyExc_FileExistsError’

   * ‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’

   * ‘PyExc_FloatingPointError’

   * ‘PyExc_FutureWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_GeneratorExit’

   * ‘PyExc_IOError’

   * ‘PyExc_ImportError’

   * ‘PyExc_ImportWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_IndentationError’

   * ‘PyExc_IndexError’

   * ‘PyExc_InterruptedError’

   * ‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_KeyError’

   * ‘PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt’

   * ‘PyExc_LookupError’

   * ‘PyExc_MemoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’

   * ‘PyExc_NameError’

   * ‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’

   * ‘PyExc_NotImplementedError’

   * ‘PyExc_OSError’

   * ‘PyExc_OverflowError’

   * ‘PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_PermissionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’

   * ‘PyExc_RecursionError’

   * ‘PyExc_ReferenceError’

   * ‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_RuntimeError’

   * ‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’

   * ‘PyExc_StopIteration’

   * ‘PyExc_SyntaxError’

   * ‘PyExc_SyntaxWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_SystemError’

   * ‘PyExc_SystemExit’

   * ‘PyExc_TabError’

   * ‘PyExc_TimeoutError’

   * ‘PyExc_TypeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnboundLocalError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError’

   * ‘PyExc_UnicodeWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_UserWarning’

   * ‘PyExc_ValueError’

   * ‘PyExc_Warning’

   * ‘PyExc_WindowsError’

   * ‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’

   * ‘PyExceptionClass_Name()’

   * *note PyException_GetArgs(): 300.

   * *note PyException_GetCause(): 48e7.

   * *note PyException_GetContext(): 48e8.

   * *note PyException_GetTraceback(): 48e9.

   * *note PyException_SetArgs(): 301.

   * *note PyException_SetCause(): 48ea.

   * *note PyException_SetContext(): 48eb.

   * *note PyException_SetTraceback(): 1820.

   * *note PyFile_FromFd(): 48ec.

   * *note PyFile_GetLine(): 48ed.

   * *note PyFile_WriteObject(): 48ee.

   * *note PyFile_WriteString(): 48ef.

   * ‘PyFilter_Type’

   * *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): 8ce.

   * *note PyFloat_FromDouble(): 48f0.

   * *note PyFloat_FromString(): 48f1.

   * *note PyFloat_GetInfo(): 1277.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 1275.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMin(): 1276.

   * *note PyFloat_Type: 48f2.

   * *note PyFrameObject: 5ba.

   * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 5bb.

   * *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5bc.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 12d0.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_Type: 48f3.

   * *note PyGC_Collect(): 7ec.

   * *note PyGC_Disable(): 6f2.

   * *note PyGC_Enable(): 6f1.

   * *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 6f3.

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6.

   * *note PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 48f4.

   * *note PyGILState_Release(): 1489.

   * ‘PyGILState_STATE’

   * *note PyGetSetDef: a2f.

   * ‘PyGetSetDescr_Type’

   * *note PyImport_AddModule(): 47f0.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleObject(): 48f5.

   * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 48f6.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 48f7.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 48f8.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 48f9.

   * *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 14dc.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1049.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicTag(): 48fa.

   * *note PyImport_GetModule(): a2a.

   * *note PyImport_GetModuleDict(): 48fb.

   * *note PyImport_Import(): 1285.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(): 48fc.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 48fd.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 104a.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 48fe.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 35e.

   * *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 48ff.

   * *note PyIndex_Check(): 7e8.

   * *note PyInterpreterState: 70f.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 3f8a.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Delete(): 4900.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 7ce.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetDict(): 4901.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): a3d.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_New(): 3f8b.

   * *note PyIter_Check(): 171f.

   * *note PyIter_Next(): 4902.

   * *note PyIter_Send(): 6e1.

   * ‘PyListIter_Type’

   * ‘PyListRevIter_Type’

   * *note PyList_Append(): 4903.

   * *note PyList_AsTuple(): 4904.

   * *note PyList_GetItem(): 47ee.

   * *note PyList_GetSlice(): 4905.

   * *note PyList_Insert(): 4906.

   * *note PyList_New(): 486b.

   * *note PyList_Reverse(): 4907.

   * *note PyList_SetItem(): 47f2.

   * *note PyList_SetSlice(): 4908.

   * *note PyList_Size(): 12a2.

   * *note PyList_Sort(): 4909.

   * *note PyList_Type: 4815.

   * *note PyLongObject: 321.

   * ‘PyLongRangeIter_Type’

   * *note PyLong_AsDouble(): 490a.

   * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 8ca.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 110f.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLong(): 490b.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 110e.

   * *note PyLong_AsSize_t(): 490c.

   * *note PyLong_AsSsize_t(): 490d.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(): 490e.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 113d.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 181b.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(): 490f.

   * *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 4910.

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 79b.

   * *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1660.

   * *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 1661.

   * *note PyLong_FromSize_t(): 17f5.

   * *note PyLong_FromSsize_t(): 4911.

   * *note PyLong_FromString(): 4912.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 17f3.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 17f4.

   * *note PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4913.

   * *note PyLong_GetInfo(): 4914.

   * *note PyLong_Type: 4915.

   * ‘PyMap_Type’

   * *note PyMapping_Check(): 4916.

   * *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 4917.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 4918.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 4919.

   * *note PyMapping_Items(): a35.

   * *note PyMapping_Keys(): a33.

   * *note PyMapping_Length(): 491a.

   * *note PyMapping_SetItemString(): 491b.

   * *note PyMapping_Size(): 1898.

   * *note PyMapping_Values(): a34.

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): d42.

   * *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd.

   * *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.

   * *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc.

   * *note PyMemberDef: 2dd.

   * ‘PyMemberDescr_Type’

   * *note PyMember_GetOne(): 350.

   * *note PyMember_SetOne(): 351.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 590.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1017.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromObject(): 491c.

   * *note PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(): 491d.

   * ‘PyMemoryView_Type’

   * *note PyMethodDef: 1364.

   * ‘PyMethodDescr_Type’

   * *note PyModuleDef: 7db.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Base’

   * *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 491e.

   * ‘PyModuleDef_Type’

   * *note PyModule_AddFunctions(): 491f.

   * *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 13c9.

   * *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6e4.

   * *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3.

   * *note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 13ca.

   * *note PyModule_AddType(): 7d3.

   * *note PyModule_Create2(): 4920.

   * *note PyModule_ExecDef(): d49.

   * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): d48.

   * *note PyModule_GetDef(): 4921.

   * *note PyModule_GetDict(): 4922.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 373.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 374.

   * *note PyModule_GetName(): 4923.

   * *note PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4924.

   * *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de.

   * *note PyModule_New(): 4925.

   * *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4926.

   * *note PyModule_SetDocString(): 4927.

   * *note PyModule_Type: 4928.

   * *note PyNumber_Absolute(): 4929.

   * *note PyNumber_Add(): 492a.

   * *note PyNumber_And(): 492b.

   * *note PyNumber_AsSsize_t(): 492c.

   * *note PyNumber_Check(): 8cb.

   * *note PyNumber_Divmod(): 492d.

   * *note PyNumber_Float(): 8cd.

   * *note PyNumber_FloorDivide(): 492e.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(): 492f.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4930.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(): 4931.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(): 4932.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): d4b.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(): 4933.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4934.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlacePower(): 4935.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(): 4936.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(): 4937.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4938.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(): 4939.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 493a.

   * *note PyNumber_Index(): 6db.

   * *note PyNumber_Invert(): 493b.

   * *note PyNumber_Long(): 8cc.

   * *note PyNumber_Lshift(): 493c.

   * *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): d4a.

   * *note PyNumber_Multiply(): 493d.

   * *note PyNumber_Negative(): 493e.

   * *note PyNumber_Or(): 493f.

   * *note PyNumber_Positive(): 4940.

   * *note PyNumber_Power(): 4941.

   * *note PyNumber_Remainder(): 4942.

   * *note PyNumber_Rshift(): 4943.

   * *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4944.

   * *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 160c.

   * *note PyNumber_TrueDivide(): 4945.

   * *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4946.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 375.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a37.

   * *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): a36.

   * *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 163a.

   * *note PyOS_FSPath(): b9e.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 31e.

   * ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’

   * *note PyOS_double_to_string(): 4947.

   * *note PyOS_getsig(): 13cb.

   * ‘PyOS_mystricmp()’

   * ‘PyOS_mystrnicmp()’

   * *note PyOS_setsig(): 13cc.

   * *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4948.

   * *note PyOS_snprintf(): 1398.

   * *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 113e.

   * *note PyOS_strtol(): 4949.

   * *note PyOS_strtoul(): 494a.

   * *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 1399.

   * *note PyObject: 6eb.

   * *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 6ea.

   * *note PyObject.ob_type: 4806.

   * *note PyObject_ASCII(): 494b.

   * *note PyObject_AsCharBuffer(): 494c.

   * *note PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(): 494d.

   * *note PyObject_AsReadBuffer(): 494e.

   * *note PyObject_AsWriteBuffer(): 494f.

   * *note PyObject_Bytes(): 4950.

   * *note PyObject_Call(): 7c1.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 90d.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4951.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 30b.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1836.

   * *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 7d0.

   * *note PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1.

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): d43.

   * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 585.

   * *note PyObject_CheckReadBuffer(): 4952.

   * *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 30f.

   * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 58b.

   * *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4953.

   * *note PyObject_DelItemString(): 4954.

   * *note PyObject_Dir(): 4955.

   * *note PyObject_Format(): 44f6.

   * *note PyObject_Free(): ae3.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 1392.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 7d5.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 7d4.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 1393.

   * *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4956.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1765.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4957.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetDict(): 4958.

   * *note PyObject_GetAIter(): 4959.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 47ec.

   * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586.

   * *note PyObject_GetItem(): 486c.

   * *note PyObject_GetIter(): 495b.

   * *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2d7.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 495c.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 1538.

   * *note PyObject_Hash(): 37d.

   * *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 124d.

   * *note PyObject_Init(): 8d0.

   * *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1784.

   * *note PyObject_IsInstance(): d3a.

   * *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): d3b.

   * *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 495d.

   * *note PyObject_Length(): 495e.

   * *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6.

   * *note PyObject_Not(): 495f.

   * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12ce.

   * *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 482b.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 17d5.

   * *note PyObject_SelfIter(): 4960.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4961.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1448.

   * *note PyObject_SetItem(): 486a.

   * *note PyObject_Size(): 4962.

   * *note PyObject_Str(): ed8.

   * *note PyObject_Type(): 4963.

   * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2ed.

   * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2ee.

   * *note PyProperty_Type: 4964.

   * ‘PyRangeIter_Type’

   * ‘PyRange_Type’

   * ‘PyReversed_Type’

   * *note PySeqIter_New(): 4965.

   * *note PySeqIter_Type: 4966.

   * *note PySequence_Check(): 4967.

   * *note PySequence_Concat(): 4968.

   * *note PySequence_Contains(): 4969.

   * *note PySequence_Count(): 496a.

   * *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1897.

   * *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 496b.

   * *note PySequence_Fast(): 496c.

   * *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1895.

   * *note PySequence_GetSlice(): 496d.

   * ‘PySequence_In()’

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 496e.

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 496f.

   * *note PySequence_Index(): 4970.

   * *note PySequence_Length(): 4971.

   * *note PySequence_List(): 4972.

   * *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4973.

   * *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1896.

   * *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 4974.

   * *note PySequence_Size(): 1894.

   * *note PySequence_Tuple(): 4975.

   * ‘PySetIter_Type’

   * *note PySet_Add(): 12d1.

   * *note PySet_Clear(): 4976.

   * *note PySet_Contains(): 12d3.

   * *note PySet_Discard(): 12d2.

   * *note PySet_New(): 12cf.

   * *note PySet_Pop(): 4977.

   * *note PySet_Size(): 12d4.

   * *note PySet_Type: 4978.

   * *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 379.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 4979.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 377.

   * *note PySlice_New(): 497a.

   * *note PySlice_Type: 497b.

   * *note PySlice_Unpack(): 378.

   * *note PyState_AddModule(): 497c.

   * *note PyState_FindModule(): 497d.

   * *note PyState_RemoveModule(): 497e.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Desc: a31.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Field: a30.

   * *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 497f.

   * *note PyStructSequence_New(): 4980.

   * *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 4981.

   * *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4982.

   * *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7e0.

   * ‘PySuper_Type’

   * *note PySys_AddWarnOption(): a9d.

   * *note PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode(): a9c.

   * *note PySys_AddXOption(): 4983.

   * *note PySys_FormatStderr(): 4984.

   * *note PySys_FormatStdout(): 4985.

   * *note PySys_GetObject(): 5c4.

   * *note PySys_GetXOptions(): 4986.

   * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

   * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 363.

   * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11ff.

   * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe.

   * *note PySys_SetObject(): 4987.

   * *note PySys_SetPath(): 1638.

   * *note PySys_WriteStderr(): 4988.

   * *note PySys_WriteStdout(): 4989.

   * *note PyThreadState: 5bf.

   * *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1488.

   * *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 17d2.

   * *note PyThreadState_Get(): 498a.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetDict(): 498b.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5c0.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 7cf.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 7cd.

   * *note PyThreadState_New(): 498c.

   * *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): a3b.

   * *note PyThreadState_Swap(): 498d.

   * ‘PyThread_GetInfo()’

   * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 388.

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock()’

   * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock_timed()’

   * ‘PyThread_allocate_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_create_key(): 37e.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 380.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 386.

   * ‘PyThread_exit_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_free_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 384.

   * ‘PyThread_get_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’

   * ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’

   * ‘PyThread_init_thread()’

   * ‘PyThread_release_lock()’

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 382.

   * ‘PyThread_set_stacksize()’

   * ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’

   * *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 37f.

   * *note PyThread_tss_create(): 498e.

   * *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 387.

   * *note PyThread_tss_free(): 381.

   * *note PyThread_tss_get(): 385.

   * *note PyThread_tss_is_created(): 498f.

   * *note PyThread_tss_set(): 383.

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Here()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Print()’

   * ‘PyTraceBack_Type’

   * ‘PyTupleIter_Type’

   * *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 47ed.

   * *note PyTuple_GetSlice(): 4990.

   * *note PyTuple_New(): 4991.

   * *note PyTuple_Pack(): 4992.

   * *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1.

   * *note PyTuple_Size(): 4993.

   * *note PyTuple_Type: 4994.

   * *note PyTypeObject: 911.

   * *note PyType_ClearCache(): 4995.

   * *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df.

   * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0.

   * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316.

   * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317.

   * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8cf.

   * *note PyType_GenericNew(): 4805.

   * *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1783.

   * *note PyType_GetModule(): 7ca.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7cb.

   * *note PyType_GetName(): 57e.

   * *note PyType_GetQualName(): 57f.

   * *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6e7.

   * *note PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 2d8.

   * *note PyType_IsSubtype(): 4996.

   * *note PyType_Modified(): 1614.

   * *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac.

   * *note PyType_Slot: 4997.

   * *note PyType_Spec: 14fe.

   * *note PyType_Type: 2db.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(): 4998.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(): 4999.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(): 499a.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(): 499b.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(): 499c.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(): 499d.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(): 499e.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(): 499f.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(): 49a0.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(): 49a1.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(): 49a2.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(): 49a3.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(): 49a4.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(): 49a5.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(): 49a6.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(): 49a7.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(): 49a8.

   * ‘PyUnicodeIter_Type’

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(): 49a9.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(): 49aa.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(): 49ab.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(): 49ac.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(): 49ad.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(): 49ae.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(): 49af.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Append()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AppendAndDel()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(): 103a.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(): 49b0.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(): 49b1.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’

   * *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(): 1039.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 103b.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1038.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 1020.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 70d.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(): 49b2.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(): 49b3.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6e2.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1036.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1037.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1899.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 70e.

   * ‘PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap()’

   * *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 709.

   * *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 1110.

   * *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1047.

   * *note PyUnicode_Contains(): 49b4.

   * *note PyUnicode_Count(): 49b5.

   * *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 1817.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(): 49b6.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(): 49b7.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(): 49b8.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 14fd.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 49b9.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(): 49ba.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(): 49bb.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a40.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 49bc.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 49bd.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(): 49be.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 49bf.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 49c0.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 49c1.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 49c2.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 49c3.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(): 49c4.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 49c5.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 15be.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(): 49c6.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 103c.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1892.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a41.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b9f.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 310.

   * *note PyUnicode_Find(): 49c7.

   * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 70b.

   * *note PyUnicode_Format(): 49c8.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(): 49c9.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 30d.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromObject(): 49ca.

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromOrdinal()’

   * *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 49cb.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(): 49cc.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1034.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(): 49cd.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 705.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1446.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 703.

   * *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 17cf.

   * *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1048.

   * *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 13ff.

   * *note PyUnicode_RPartition(): 1400.

   * *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 13fe.

   * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1018.

   * *note PyUnicode_Replace(): 49ce.

   * ‘PyUnicode_Resize()’

   * *note PyUnicode_RichCompare(): 49cf.

   * *note PyUnicode_Split(): 49d0.

   * *note PyUnicode_Splitlines(): 49d1.

   * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 708.

   * *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 70a.

   * *note PyUnicode_Translate(): 49d2.

   * *note PyUnicode_Type: 49d3.

   * *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1019.

   * *note PyVarObject: 3f10.

   * ‘PyVarObject.ob_base’

   * *note PyVarObject.ob_size: 49d4.

   * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2e5.

   * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2e4.

   * ‘PyWeakReference’

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 360.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewProxy(): 49d5.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1676.

   * ‘PyWrapperDescr_Type’

   * *note PyWrapper_New(): 49d6.

   * ‘PyZip_Type’

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 7df.

   * *note Py_AtExit(): 49d7.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 47f6.

   * *note Py_BLOCK_THREADS: 49d8.

   * *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): 81f.

   * *note Py_CompileString(): 6cd.

   * *note Py_DecRef(): 49d9.

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e.

   * *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8f5.

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f.

   * *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1687.

   * *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7d1.

   * *note Py_Exit(): bd9.

   * *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1.

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_Finalize(): 1200.

   * *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a.

   * *note Py_GenericAlias(): 49da.

   * *note Py_GenericAliasType: 49db.

   * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12bc.

   * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 49dc.

   * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 49dd.

   * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 365.

   * *note Py_GetPath(): 367.

   * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 49de.

   * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 369.

   * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b.

   * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d.

   * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 36e.

   * ‘Py_GetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_GetVersion(): 49df.

   * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_IncRef(): 49e0.

   * *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

   * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 49e1.

   * *note Py_Is(): 6ed.

   * *note Py_IsFalse(): 6f0.

   * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4874.

   * *note Py_IsNone(): 6ee.

   * *note Py_IsTrue(): 6ef.

   * *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7d2.

   * *note Py_Main(): aa0.

   * ‘Py_MakePendingCalls()’

   * *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 15d7.

   * *note Py_NewRef(): 6e5.

   * *note Py_ReprEnter(): 49e2.

   * *note Py_ReprLeave(): 49e3.

   * *note Py_SetPath(): 1c3d.

   * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0.

   * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 18e1.

   * ‘Py_SetRecursionLimit()’

   * *note Py_UCS4: 101c.

   * *note Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS: 49e4.

   * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’

   * *note Py_VaBuildValue(): 49e5.

   * *note Py_Version: 582.

   * *note Py_XNewRef(): 6e6.

   * *note Py_buffer: 584.

   * ‘Py_intptr_t’

   * *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

   * ‘Py_uintptr_t’

   * *note allocfunc: 49e6.

   * *note binaryfunc: 49e7.

   * *note descrgetfunc: 49e8.

   * *note descrsetfunc: 49e9.

   * *note destructor: 49ea.

   * *note getattrfunc: 49eb.

   * *note getattrofunc: 49ec.

   * *note getbufferproc: 49ed.

   * *note getiterfunc: 49ee.

   * *note getter: 49ef.

   * *note hashfunc: 49f0.

   * *note initproc: 49f1.

   * *note inquiry: 49f2.

   * *note iternextfunc: 49f3.

   * *note lenfunc: 49f4.

   * *note newfunc: 49f5.

   * *note objobjargproc: 49f6.

   * *note objobjproc: 49f7.

   * *note releasebufferproc: 49f8.

   * *note reprfunc: 49f9.

   * *note richcmpfunc: 49fa.

   * *note setattrfunc: 49fb.

   * *note setattrofunc: 49fc.

   * *note setter: 49fd.

   * *note ssizeargfunc: 49fe.

   * *note ssizeobjargproc: 49ff.

   * ‘ssizessizeargfunc’

   * ‘ssizessizeobjargproc’

   * ‘symtable’

   * *note ternaryfunc: 4a00.

   * *note traverseproc: 4a01.

   * *note unaryfunc: 4a02.

   * *note vectorcallfunc: 2e6.

   * *note visitproc: 4a03.


File: python.info,  Node: The Very High Level Layer,  Next: Reference Counting,  Prev: C API Stability,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.3 The Very High Level Layer
=============================

The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code
given in a file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a
more detailed way with the interpreter.

Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a
parameter.  The available start symbols are *note Py_eval_input: 4a07,
*note Py_file_input: 4a08, and *note Py_single_input: 4a09.  These are
described following the functions which accept them as parameters.

Note also that several of these functions take FILE* parameters.  One
particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the ‘FILE’
structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible.
Under Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked
extensions to actually use different libraries, so care should be taken
that FILE* parameters are only passed to these functions if it is
certain that they were created by the same library that the Python
runtime is using.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_Main (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The main program for the
     standard interpreter.  This is made available for programs which
     embed Python.  The 'argc' and 'argv' parameters should be prepared
     exactly as those which are passed to a C program’s ‘main()’
     function (converted to wchar_t according to the user’s locale).  It
     is important to note that the argument list may be modified (but
     the contents of the strings pointed to by the argument list are
     not).  The return value will be ‘0’ if the interpreter exits
     normally (i.e., without an exception), ‘1’ if the interpreter exits
     due to an exception, or ‘2’ if the parameter list does not
     represent a valid Python command line.

     Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: bc8. is
     raised, this function will not return ‘1’, but exit the process, as
     long as *note PyConfig.inspect: 330. is zero.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_BytesMain (int argc, char **argv)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.8 sürümünden beri.'
     Similar to *note Py_Main(): aa0. but 'argv' is an array of bytes
     strings.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_AnyFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4a0b. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_AnyFileFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4a0b. below, leaving the 'closeit' argument set to ‘0’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_AnyFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int
          closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     4a0b. below, leaving the 'flags' argument set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     If 'fp' refers to a file associated with an interactive device
     (console or terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the
     value of *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4a0e, otherwise return the
     result of *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4846.  'filename' is decoded
     from the filesystem encoding (*note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     ad5.).  If 'filename' is ‘NULL’, this function uses ‘"???"’ as the
     filename.  If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before
     ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_SimpleString (const char *command)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags():
     4a0f. below, leaving the *note PyCompilerFlags: 90c.* argument set
     to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (const char *command,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Executes the Python source code from 'command' in the *note
     __main__: 1. module according to the 'flags' argument.  If *note
     __main__: 1. does not already exist, it is created.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  If there was an error,
     there is no way to get the exception information.  For the meaning
     of 'flags', see below.

     Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: bc8. is
     raised, this function will not return ‘-1’, but exit the process,
     as long as *note PyConfig.inspect: 330. is zero.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_SimpleFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     1733. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     1733. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Similar to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 4a0f, but the Python
     source code is read from 'fp' instead of an in-memory string.
     'filename' should be the name of the file, it is decoded from *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.  If 'closeit' is true,
     the file is closed before ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

          Not: On Windows, 'fp' should be opened as binary mode (e.g.
          ‘fopen(filename, "rb")’).  Otherwise, Python may not handle
          script file with LF line ending correctly.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_InteractiveOne (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(): 4a12. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an
     interactive device according to the 'flags' argument.  The user
     will be prompted using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' is
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.

     Returns ‘0’ when the input was executed successfully, ‘-1’ if there
     was an exception, or an error code from the ‘errcode.h’ include
     file distributed as part of Python if there was a parse error.
     (Note that ‘errcode.h’ is not included by ‘Python.h’, so must be
     included specifically if needed.)

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(): 4a13. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute statements from a file associated with an
     interactive device until EOF is reached.  The user will be prompted
     using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' is decoded from the
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.  Returns ‘0’ at
     EOF or a negative number upon failure.

 -- C Değişkeni: int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Can be set to point to a
     function with the prototype ‘int func(void)’.  The function will be
     called when Python’s interpreter prompt is about to become idle and
     wait for user input from the terminal.  The return value is
     ignored.  Overriding this hook can be used to integrate the
     interpreter’s prompt with other event loops, as done in the
     ‘Modules/_tkinter.c’ in the Python source code.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This function is only called from the *note
     main interpreter: 320.

 -- C Değişkeni: char *(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE*, FILE*,
          const char*)

     Can be set to point to a function with the prototype ‘char
     *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt)’, overriding the
     default function used to read a single line of input at the
     interpreter’s prompt.  The function is expected to output the
     string 'prompt' if it’s not ‘NULL’, and then read a line of input
     from the provided standard input file, returning the resulting
     string.  For example, The *note readline: b9. module sets this hook
     to provide line-editing and tab-completion features.

     The result must be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
     eda. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb, or ‘NULL’ if an error
     occurred.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The result must be allocated by *note
     PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb, instead
     of being allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4. or *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): edc.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: This function is only called from the *note
     main interpreter: 320.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyRun_String (const char *str, int
          start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  This is a simplified interface
     to *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 4a14. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyRun_StringFlags (const char *str,
          int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Execute Python source code from
     'str' in the context specified by the objects 'globals' and
     'locals' with the compiler flags specified by 'flags'.  'globals'
     must be a dictionary; 'locals' can be any object that implements
     the mapping protocol.  The parameter 'start' specifies the start
     token that should be used to parse the source code.

     Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyRun_File (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  This is a simplified interface
     to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a16. below, leaving 'closeit' set to
     ‘0’ and 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyRun_FileEx (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int
          closeit)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  This is a simplified interface
     to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a16. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyRun_FileFlags (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  This is a simplified interface
     to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a16. below, leaving 'closeit' set to
     ‘0’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyRun_FileExFlags (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Similar to *note
     PyRun_StringFlags(): 4a14, but the Python source code is read from
     'fp' instead of an in-memory string.  'filename' should be the name
     of the file, it is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and
     error handler: 2c7.  If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed
     before *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4a16. returns.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_CompileString (const char *str,
          const char *filename, int start)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is a simplified interface to *note
     Py_CompileStringFlags(): 4a19. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_CompileStringFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  This is a simplified interface
     to *note Py_CompileStringExFlags(): 4a1a. below, with 'optimize'
     set to ‘-1’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_CompileStringObject (const char
          *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags,
          int optimize)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Parse and compile the Python
     source code in 'str', returning the resulting code object.  The
     start token is given by 'start'; this can be used to constrain the
     code which can be compiled and should be *note Py_eval_input: 4a07,
     *note Py_file_input: 4a08, or *note Py_single_input: 4a09.  The
     filename specified by 'filename' is used to construct the code
     object and may appear in tracebacks or *note SyntaxError: 14c.
     exception messages.  This returns ‘NULL’ if the code cannot be
     parsed or compiled.

     The integer 'optimize' specifies the optimization level of the
     compiler; a value of ‘-1’ selects the optimization level of the
     interpreter as given by *note -O: c42. options.  Explicit levels
     are ‘0’ (no optimization; ‘__debug__’ is true), ‘1’ (asserts are
     removed, ‘__debug__’ is false) or ‘2’ (docstrings are removed too).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_CompileStringExFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags,
          int optimize)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Like *note
     Py_CompileStringObject(): 4a1b, but 'filename' is a byte string
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyEval_EvalCode (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is a simplified interface to *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx():
     1586, with just the code object, and global and local variables.
     The other arguments are set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyEval_EvalCodeEx (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args,
          int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject
          *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject
          *closure)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Evaluate a precompiled code object, given a particular
     environment for its evaluation.  This environment consists of a
     dictionary of global variables, a mapping object of local
     variables, arrays of arguments, keywords and defaults, a dictionary
     of default values for *note keyword-only: 8ef. arguments and a
     closure tuple of cells.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyEval_EvalFrame (PyFrameObject *f)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Evaluate an execution frame.  This is a simplified interface
     to *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): ed6, for backward compatibility.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyEval_EvalFrameEx (PyFrameObject
          *f, int throwflag)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is the main, unvarnished function of Python
     interpretation.  The code object associated with the execution
     frame 'f' is executed, interpreting bytecode and executing calls as
     needed.  The additional 'throwflag' parameter can mostly be ignored
     - if true, then it causes an exception to immediately be thrown;
     this is used for the *note throw(): 24a. methods of generator
     objects.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: This function now includes a debug assertion
     to help ensure that it does not silently discard an active
     exception.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (PyCompilerFlags *cf)

     This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame,
     and returns true on success, false on failure.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_eval_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 6cd.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_file_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of
     statements as read from a file or other source; for use with *note
     Py_CompileString(): 6cd.  This is the symbol to use when compiling
     arbitrarily long Python source code.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_single_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 6cd.  This is the symbol
     used for the interactive interpreter loop.

 -- C Struct: struct PyCompilerFlags

     This is the structure used to hold compiler flags.  In cases where
     code is only being compiled, it is passed as ‘int flags’, and in
     cases where code is being executed, it is passed as
     ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’.  In this case, ‘from __future__ import’
     can modify 'flags'.

     Whenever ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’ is ‘NULL’, *note cf_flags: 4a1d.
     is treated as equal to ‘0’, and any modification due to ‘from
     __future__ import’ is discarded.

      -- C Üyesi: int cf_flags

          Compiler flags.

      -- C Üyesi: int cf_feature_version

          'cf_feature_version' is the minor Python version.  It should
          be initialized to ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’.

          The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if
          ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in *note cf_flags: 4a1d.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Added 'cf_feature_version' field.

 -- C Değişkeni: int CO_FUTURE_DIVISION

     This bit can be set in 'flags' to cause division operator ‘/’ to be
     interpreted as “true division” according to PEP 238(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counting,  Next: Exception Handling,  Prev: The Very High Level Layer,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.4 Reference Counting
======================

The functions and macros in this section are used for managing reference
counts of Python objects.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. Py_REFCNT (PyObject *o)

     Get the reference count of the Python object 'o'.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are “immortal” and have a very high refcount that does not
     reflect the actual number of references.  Consequently, do not rely
     on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value of 0 or 1.

     Use the *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 6f8. function to set an object
     reference count.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_REFCNT(): 6f7. is changed to the
     inline static function.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The parameter type is no longer const *note
     PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_SET_REFCNT (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t refcnt)

     Set the object 'o' reference counter to 'refcnt'.

     Note that this function has no effect on immortal(1) objects.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_INCREF (PyObject *o)

     Indicate taking a new *note strong reference: 5c1. to object 'o',
     indicating it is in use and should not be destroyed.

     This function is usually used to convert a *note borrowed
     reference: 4869. to a *note strong reference: 5c1. in-place.  The
     *note Py_NewRef(): 6e5. function can be used to create a new *note
     strong reference: 5c1.

     When done using the object, release it by calling *note
     Py_DECREF(): 306.

     The object must not be ‘NULL’; if you aren’t sure that it isn’t
     ‘NULL’, use *note Py_XINCREF(): 8c9.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(2), this function has no effect.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_XINCREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_INCREF(): 305, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.

     See also *note Py_XNewRef(): 6e6.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_NewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Create a new *note strong reference: 5c1. to an object: call *note
     Py_INCREF(): 305. on 'o' and return the object 'o'.

     When the *note strong reference: 5c1. is no longer needed, *note
     Py_DECREF(): 306. should be called on it to release the reference.

     The object 'o' must not be ‘NULL’; use *note Py_XNewRef(): 6e6. if
     'o' can be ‘NULL’.

     For example:

          Py_INCREF(obj);
          self->attr = obj;

     can be written as:

          self->attr = Py_NewRef(obj);

     See also *note Py_INCREF(): 305.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_XNewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Similar to *note Py_NewRef(): 6e5, but the object 'o' can be NULL.

     If the object 'o' is ‘NULL’, the function just returns ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_DECREF (PyObject *o)

     Release a *note strong reference: 5c1. to object 'o', indicating
     the reference is no longer used.

     Once the last *note strong reference: 5c1. is released (i.e.  the
     object’s reference count reaches 0), the object’s type’s
     deallocation function (which must not be ‘NULL’) is invoked.

     This function is usually used to delete a *note strong reference:
     5c1. before exiting its scope.

     The object must not be ‘NULL’; if you aren’t sure that it isn’t
     ‘NULL’, use *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(3), this function has no effect.

          Uyarı: The deallocation function can cause arbitrary Python
          code to be invoked (e.g.  when a class instance with a *note
          __del__(): 1d4e. method is deallocated).  While exceptions in
          such code are not propagated, the executed code has free
          access to all Python global variables.  This means that any
          object that is reachable from a global variable should be in a
          consistent state before *note Py_DECREF(): 306. is invoked.
          For example, code to delete an object from a list should copy
          a reference to the deleted object in a temporary variable,
          update the list data structure, and then call *note
          Py_DECREF(): 306. for the temporary variable.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_XDECREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_DECREF(): 306, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.  The same warning from
     *note Py_DECREF(): 306. applies here as well.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_CLEAR (PyObject *o)

     Release a *note strong reference: 5c1. for object 'o'.  The object
     may be ‘NULL’, in which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the
     effect is the same as for *note Py_DECREF(): 306, except that the
     argument is also set to ‘NULL’.  The warning for *note Py_DECREF():
     306. does not apply with respect to the object passed because the
     macro carefully uses a temporary variable and sets the argument to
     ‘NULL’ before releasing the reference.

     It is a good idea to use this macro whenever releasing a reference
     to an object that might be traversed during garbage collection.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The macro argument is now only evaluated
     once.  If the argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_IncRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Indicate taking a new *note
     strong reference: 5c1. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XINCREF(): 8c9.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_DecRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Release a *note strong
     reference: 5c1. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XDECREF(): 5c2.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_SETREF (dst, src)

     Macro safely releasing a *note strong reference: 5c1. to object
     'dst' and setting 'dst' to 'src'.

     As in case of *note Py_CLEAR(): 311, “the obvious” code can be
     deadly:

          Py_DECREF(dst);
          dst = src;

     The safe way is:

          Py_SETREF(dst, src);

     That arranges to set 'dst' to 'src' _before_ releasing the
     reference to the old value of 'dst', so that any code triggered as
     a side-effect of 'dst' getting torn down no longer believes 'dst'
     points to a valid object.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The macro arguments are now only evaluated
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_XSETREF (dst, src)

     Variant of *note Py_SETREF: 312. macro that uses *note
     Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. instead of *note Py_DECREF(): 306.

     Added in version 3.6.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The macro arguments are now only evaluated
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: Exception Handling,  Next: Utilities<2>,  Prev: Reference Counting,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.5 Exception Handling
======================

The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise
Python exceptions.  It is important to understand some of the basics of
Python exception handling.  It works somewhat like the POSIX ‘errno’
variable: there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error
that occurred.  Most C API functions don’t clear this on success, but
will set it to indicate the cause of the error on failure.  Most C API
functions also return an error indicator, usually ‘NULL’ if they are
supposed to return a pointer, or ‘-1’ if they return an integer
(exception: the ‘PyArg_*’ functions return ‘1’ for success and ‘0’ for
failure).

Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the
exception’s type, the exception’s value, and the traceback object.  Any
of those pointers can be ‘NULL’ if non-set (although some combinations
are forbidden, for example you can’t have a non-‘NULL’ traceback if the
exception type is ‘NULL’).

When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it
generally doesn’t set the error indicator; the function it called
already set it.  It is responsible for either handling the error and
clearing the exception or returning after cleaning up any resources it
holds (such as object references or memory allocations); it should 'not'
continue normally if it is not prepared to handle the error.  If
returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to the caller
that an error has been set.  If the error is not handled or carefully
propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as
intended and may fail in mysterious ways.

     Not: The error indicator is 'not' the result of *note
     sys.exc_info(): 49f.  The former corresponds to an exception that
     is not yet caught (and is therefore still propagating), while the
     latter returns an exception after it is caught (and has therefore
     stopped propagating).

* Menu:

* Printing and clearing::
* Raising exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>.
* Exception Classes::
* Exception Objects::
* Unicode Exception Objects::
* Recursion Control::
* Standard Exceptions::
* Standard Warning Categories::


File: python.info,  Node: Printing and clearing,  Next: Raising exceptions,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.1 Printing and clearing
---------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_Clear ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Clear the error indicator.
     If the error indicator is not set, there is no effect.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_PrintEx (int set_sys_last_vars)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Print a standard traceback
     to ‘sys.stderr’ and clear the error indicator.  'Unless' the error
     is a ‘SystemExit’, in that case no traceback is printed and the
     Python process will exit with the error code specified by the
     ‘SystemExit’ instance.

     Call this function 'only' when the error indicator is set.
     Otherwise it will cause a fatal error!

     If 'set_sys_last_vars' is nonzero, the variable *note sys.last_exc:
     1ec. is set to the printed exception.  For backwards compatibility,
     the deprecated variables *note sys.last_type: 1ed, *note
     sys.last_value: 1ee. and *note sys.last_traceback: 1ef. are also
     set to the type, value and traceback of this exception,
     respectively.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The setting of *note sys.last_exc: 1ec. was
     added.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_Print ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Alias for
     ‘PyErr_PrintEx(1)’.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_WriteUnraisable (PyObject *obj)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Call *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 491. using the current exception and 'obj'
     argument.

     This utility function prints a warning message to ‘sys.stderr’ when
     an exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter
     to actually raise the exception.  It is used, for example, when an
     exception occurs in an *note __del__(): 1d4e. method.

     The function is called with a single argument 'obj' that identifies
     the context in which the unraisable exception occurred.  If
     possible, the repr of 'obj' will be printed in the warning message.
     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed.

     An exception must be set when calling this function.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Print a traceback.  Print only traceback if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note sys.unraisablehook(): 491.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_DisplayException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Print
     the standard traceback display of ‘exc’ to ‘sys.stderr’, including
     chained exceptions and notes.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising exceptions,  Next: Issuing warnings,  Prev: Printing and clearing,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.2 Raising exceptions
------------------------

These functions help you set the current thread’s error indicator.  For
convenience, some of these functions will always return a ‘NULL’ pointer
for use in a ‘return’ statement.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SetString (PyObject *type, const char *message)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the most common way
     to set the error indicator.  The first argument specifies the
     exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions, e.g.
     ‘PyExc_RuntimeError’.  You need not create a new *note strong
     reference: 5c1. to it (e.g.  with *note Py_INCREF(): 305.).  The
     second argument is an error message; it is decoded from ‘'utf-8'’.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SetObject (PyObject *type, PyObject *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This function is similar to
     *note PyErr_SetString(): 315. but lets you specify an arbitrary
     Python object for the “value” of the exception.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_Format (PyObject *exception,
          const char *format, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This function sets the error indicator and returns ‘NULL’.
     'exception' should be a Python exception class.  The 'format' and
     subsequent parameters help format the error message; they have the
     same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c.
     'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_FormatV (PyObject *exception,
          const char *format, va_list vargs)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.5 sürümünden beri.'  Same as *note PyErr_Format(): d46, but
     taking a ‘va_list’ argument rather than a variable number of
     arguments.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SetNone (PyObject *type)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None)’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_BadArgument ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal
     argument.  It is mostly for internal use.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_NoMemory ()
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)’;
     it returns ‘NULL’ so an object allocation function can write
     ‘return PyErr_NoMemory();’ when it runs out of memory.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetFromErrno (PyObject *type)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C
     library function has returned an error and set the C variable
     ‘errno’.  It constructs a tuple object whose first item is the
     integer ‘errno’ value and whose second item is the corresponding
     error message (gotten from ‘strerror()’), and then calls
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, object)’.  On Unix, when the ‘errno’ value
     is ‘EINTR’, indicating an interrupted system call, this calls *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 182, and if that set the error indicator,
     leaves it set to that.  The function always returns ‘NULL’, so a
     wrapper function around a system call can write ‘return
     PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);’ when the system call returns an error.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject
          (PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 47d2, with the
     additional behavior that if 'filenameObject' is not ‘NULL’, it is
     passed to the constructor of 'type' as a third parameter.  In the
     case of *note OSError: 65c. exception, this is used to define the
     ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb.
          *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (PyObject *type,
          PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject *filenameObject2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 48d3, but takes a second
     filename object, for raising errors when a function that takes two
     filenames fails.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename
          (PyObject *type, const char *filename)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject():
     48d3, but the filename is given as a C string.  'filename' is
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (int ierr)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  This is a convenience
     function to raise *note OSError: 65c.  If called with 'ierr' of
     ‘0’, the error code returned by a call to ‘GetLastError()’ is used
     instead.  It calls the Win32 function ‘FormatMessage()’ to retrieve
     the Windows description of error code given by 'ierr' or
     ‘GetLastError()’, then it constructs a *note OSError: 65c. object
     with the *note winerror: 2080. attribute set to the error code, the
     *note strerror: 2081. attribute set to the corresponding error
     message (gotten from ‘FormatMessage()’), and then calls
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_OSError, object)’.  This function always
     returns ‘NULL’.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (PyObject
          *type, int ierr)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 48d5, with an additional parameter
     specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename
          (int ierr, const char *filename)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 48d5, with the additional behavior that
     if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is decoded from the filesystem
     encoding (*note os.fsdecode(): ad0.) and passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 65c. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type,
          int ierr, PyObject *filename)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 48d0, with the additional behavior
     that if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 65c. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (PyObject
          *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 48d1, but accepts a
     second filename object.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (PyObject *type, int
          ierr, const char *filename)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 14fc, with an additional
     parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetImportError (PyObject *msg,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  This is a convenience function to raise
     *note ImportError: 14b.  'msg' will be set as the exception’s
     message string.  'name' and 'path', both of which can be ‘NULL’,
     will be set as the *note ImportError: 14b.’s respective ‘name’ and
     ‘path’ attributes.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass
          (PyObject *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject
          *path)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.6 sürümünden beri.'  Much like *note PyErr_SetImportError():
     bc6. but this function allows for specifying a subclass of *note
     ImportError: 14b. to raise.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (PyObject *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)

     Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception.
     If the current exception is not a *note SyntaxError: 14c, then it
     sets additional attributes, which make the exception printing
     subsystem think the exception is a *note SyntaxError: 14c.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (const char *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Like
     *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(): 4a27, but 'filename' is a byte
     string decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 2c7.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation (const char *filename, int
          lineno)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Like *note
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 48d9, but the 'col_offset' parameter is
     omitted.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_BadInternalCall ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that an internal operation (e.g.  a Python/C API
     function) was invoked with an illegal argument.  It is mostly for
     internal use.


File: python.info,  Node: Issuing warnings,  Next: Querying the error indicator,  Prev: Raising exceptions,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.3 Issuing warnings
----------------------

Use these functions to issue warnings from C code.  They mirror similar
functions exported by the Python *note warnings: 112. module.  They
normally print a warning message to 'sys.stderr'; however, it is also
possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into
errors, and in that case they will raise an exception.  It is also
possible that the functions raise an exception because of a problem with
the warning machinery.  The return value is ‘0’ if no exception is
raised, or ‘-1’ if an exception is raised.  (It is not possible to
determine whether a warning message is actually printed, nor what the
reason is for the exception; this is intentional.)  If an exception is
raised, the caller should do its normal exception handling (for example,
*note Py_DECREF(): 306. owned references and return an error value).

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_WarnEx (PyObject *category, const char *message,
          Py_ssize_t stack_level)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Issue a warning message.
     The 'category' argument is a warning category (see below) or
     ‘NULL’; the 'message' argument is a UTF-8 encoded string.
     'stack_level' is a positive number giving a number of stack frames;
     the warning will be issued from the currently executing line of
     code in that stack frame.  A 'stack_level' of 1 is the function
     calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 12d5, 2 is the function above that,
     and so forth.

     Warning categories must be subclasses of ‘PyExc_Warning’;
     ‘PyExc_Warning’ is a subclass of ‘PyExc_Exception’; the default
     warning category is ‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’.  The standard Python
     warning categories are available as global variables whose names
     are enumerated at *note Standard Warning Categories: 4a29.

     For information about warning control, see the documentation for
     the *note warnings: 112. module and the *note -W: 71a. option in
     the command line documentation.  There is no C API for warning
     control.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (PyObject *category, PyObject
          *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject *module,
          PyObject *registry)

     Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning
     attributes.  This is a straightforward wrapper around the Python
     function *note warnings.warn_explicit(): b84.; see there for more
     information.  The 'module' and 'registry' arguments may be set to
     ‘NULL’ to get the default effect described there.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_WarnExplicit (PyObject *category, const char
          *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char
          *module, PyObject *registry)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(): 4a2a. except that 'message' and
     'module' are UTF-8 encoded strings, and 'filename' is decoded from
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_WarnFormat (PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Function similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnEx(): 12d5, but use *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. to
     format the warning message.  'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_ResourceWarning (PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.6 sürümünden beri.'
     Function similar to *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 48da, but 'category'
     is *note ResourceWarning: ab9. and it passes 'source' to
     ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the error indicator,  Next: Signal Handling<2>,  Prev: Issuing warnings,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.4 Querying the error indicator
----------------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_Occurred ()
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Test whether the error indicator is set.  If
     set, return the exception 'type' (the first argument to the last
     call to one of the ‘PyErr_Set*’ functions or to *note
     PyErr_Restore(): 2ff.).  If not set, return ‘NULL’.  You do not own
     a reference to the return value, so you do not need to *note
     Py_DECREF(): 306. it.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

          Not: Do not compare the return value to a specific exception;
          use *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 4871. instead, shown
          below.  (The comparison could easily fail since the exception
          may be an instance instead of a class, in the case of a class
          exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected exception.)

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_ExceptionMatches (PyObject *exc)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)’.  This should
     only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access
     violation will occur if no exception has been raised.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (PyObject *given, PyObject
          *exc)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return true if the 'given'
     exception matches the exception type in 'exc'.  If 'exc' is a class
     object, this also returns true when 'given' is an instance of a
     subclass.  If 'exc' is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple
     (and recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_GetRaisedException (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Return the exception currently being
     raised, clearing the error indicator at the same time.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if the error indicator is not set.

     This function is used by code that needs to catch exceptions, or
     code that needs to save and restore the error indicator
     temporarily.

     For example:

          {
             PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

             /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

             PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 59f, to save the exception
     currently being handled.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SetRaisedException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Set
     'exc' as the exception currently being raised, clearing the
     existing exception if one is set.

          Uyarı: This call steals a reference to 'exc', which must be a
          valid exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_Fetch (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue,
          PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc. instead.

     Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses
     are passed.  If the error indicator is not set, set all three
     variables to ‘NULL’.  If it is set, it will be cleared and you own
     a reference to each object retrieved.  The value and traceback
     object may be ‘NULL’ even when the type object is not.

          Not: This function is normally only used by legacy code that
          needs to catch exceptions or save and restore the error
          indicator temporarily.

          For example:

               {
                  PyObject *type, *value, *traceback;
                  PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback);

                  /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

                  PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback);
               }

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_Restore (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 2fd. instead.

     Set the error indicator from the three objects, 'type', 'value',
     and 'traceback', clearing the existing exception if one is set.  If
     the objects are ‘NULL’, the error indicator is cleared.  Do not
     pass a ‘NULL’ type and non-‘NULL’ value or traceback.  The
     exception type should be a class.  Do not pass an invalid exception
     type or value.  (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems
     later.)  This call takes away a reference to each object: you must
     own a reference to each object before the call and after the call
     you no longer own these references.  (If you don’t understand this,
     don’t use this function.  I warned you.)

          Not: This function is normally only used by legacy code that
          needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily.
          Use *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe. to save the current error
          indicator.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_NormalizeException (PyObject **exc, PyObject
          **val, PyObject **tb)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc. instead, to avoid any possible
     de-normalization.

     Under certain circumstances, the values returned by *note
     PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe. below can be “unnormalized”, meaning that
     ‘*exc’ is a class object but ‘*val’ is not an instance of the same
     class.  This function can be used to instantiate the class in that
     case.  If the values are already normalized, nothing happens.  The
     delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance.

          Not: This function 'does not' implicitly set the *note
          __traceback__: 116f. attribute on the exception value.  If
          setting the traceback appropriately is desired, the following
          additional snippet is needed:

               if (tb != NULL) {
                 PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb);
               }

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_GetHandledException (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'
     Retrieve the active exception instance, as would be returned by
     *note sys.exception(): 4a0.  This refers to an exception that was
     'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised.
     Returns a new reference to the exception or ‘NULL’.  Does not
     modify the interpreter’s exception state.

          Not: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_SetHandledException(): 5a0. to restore or clear the
          exception state.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SetHandledException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Set
     the active exception, as known from ‘sys.exception()’.  This refers
     to an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that
     was freshly raised.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’.

          Not: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_GetHandledException(): 59f. to get the exception state.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_GetExcInfo (PyObject **ptype, PyObject
          **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
     Retrieve the old-style representation of the exception info, as
     known from *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.  This refers to an exception
     that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly
     raised.  Returns new references for the three objects, any of which
     may be ‘NULL’.  Does not modify the exception info state.  This
     function is kept for backwards compatibility.  Prefer using *note
     PyErr_GetHandledException(): 59f.

          Not: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 5a1. to restore or clear the exception
          state.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SetExcInfo (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Set
     the exception info, as known from ‘sys.exc_info()’.  This refers to
     an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that
     was freshly raised.  This function steals the references of the
     arguments.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’ for all three
     arguments.  This function is kept for backwards compatibility.
     Prefer using *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 5a0.

          Not: This function is not normally used by code that wants to
          handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code needs to
          save and restore the exception state temporarily.  Use *note
          PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 5a2. to read the exception state.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ arguments are no
     longer used and can be NULL. The interpreter now derives them from
     the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function still
     steals references of all three arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Signal Handling<2>,  Next: Exception Classes,  Prev: Querying the error indicator,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.5 Signal Handling
---------------------

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_CheckSignals ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     This function interacts with Python’s signal handling.

     If the function is called from the main thread and under the main
     Python interpreter, it checks whether a signal has been sent to the
     processes and if so, invokes the corresponding signal handler.  If
     the *note signal: c5. module is supported, this can invoke a signal
     handler written in Python.

     The function attempts to handle all pending signals, and then
     returns ‘0’.  However, if a Python signal handler raises an
     exception, the error indicator is set and the function returns ‘-1’
     immediately (such that other pending signals may not have been
     handled yet: they will be on the next *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     182. invocation).

     If the function is called from a non-main thread, or under a
     non-main Python interpreter, it does nothing and returns ‘0’.

     This function can be called by long-running C code that wants to be
     interruptible by user requests (such as by pressing Ctrl-C).

          Not: The default Python signal handler for ‘SIGINT’ raises the
          *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. exception.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyErr_SetInterrupt ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Simulate the effect of a ‘SIGINT’ signal arriving.  This is
     equivalent to ‘PyErr_SetInterruptEx(SIGINT)’.

          Not: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 6fa. and from a C signal handler.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyErr_SetInterruptEx (int signum)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'

     Simulate the effect of a signal arriving.  The next time *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 182. is called, the Python signal handler for
     the given signal number will be called.

     This function can be called by C code that sets up its own signal
     handling and wants Python signal handlers to be invoked as expected
     when an interruption is requested (for example when the user
     presses Ctrl-C to interrupt an operation).

     If the given signal isn’t handled by Python (it was set to *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 1647. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1646.), it will be
     ignored.

     If 'signum' is outside of the allowed range of signal numbers, ‘-1’
     is returned.  Otherwise, ‘0’ is returned.  The error indicator is
     never changed by this function.

          Not: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be called
          without the *note GIL: 6fa. and from a C signal handler.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySignal_SetWakeupFd (int fd)

     This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the
     signal number is written as a single byte whenever a signal is
     received.  'fd' must be non-blocking.  It returns the previous such
     file descriptor.

     The value ‘-1’ disables the feature; this is the initial state.
     This is equivalent to *note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): 9e6. in Python,
     but without any error checking.  'fd' should be a valid file
     descriptor.  The function should only be called from the main
     thread.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: On Windows, the function now also supports
     socket handles.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception Classes,  Next: Exception Objects,  Prev: Signal Handling<2>,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.6 Exception Classes
-----------------------

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_NewException (const char
          *name, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This utility function creates and returns a new exception
     class.  The 'name' argument must be the name of the new exception,
     a C string of the form ‘module.classname’.  The 'base' and 'dict'
     arguments are normally ‘NULL’.  This creates a class object derived
     from *note Exception: 838. (accessible in C as ‘PyExc_Exception’).

     The *note __module__: b0b. attribute of the new class is set to the
     first part (up to the last dot) of the 'name' argument, and the
     class name is set to the last part (after the last dot).  The
     'base' argument can be used to specify alternate base classes; it
     can either be only one class or a tuple of classes.  The 'dict'
     argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and
     methods.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (const
          char *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Same as *note PyErr_NewException(): 1112, except that the
     new exception class can easily be given a docstring: If 'doc' is
     non-‘NULL’, it will be used as the docstring for the exception
     class.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception Objects,  Next: Unicode Exception Objects,  Prev: Exception Classes,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.7 Exception Objects
-----------------------

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyException_GetTraceback (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the traceback associated with the exception as a new
     reference, as accessible from Python through the *note
     __traceback__: 116f. attribute.  If there is no traceback
     associated, this returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyException_SetTraceback (PyObject *ex, PyObject *tb)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the traceback
     associated with the exception to 'tb'.  Use ‘Py_None’ to clear it.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyException_GetContext (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the context (another exception instance during whose
     handling 'ex' was raised) associated with the exception as a new
     reference, as accessible from Python through the *note __context__:
     1170. attribute.  If there is no context associated, this returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyException_SetContext (PyObject *ex, PyObject *ctx)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the context associated
     with the exception to 'ctx'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is no
     type check to make sure that 'ctx' is an exception instance.  This
     steals a reference to 'ctx'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyException_GetCause (PyObject *ex)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the cause (either an exception instance, or ‘None’,
     set by ‘raise ... from ...’) associated with the exception as a new
     reference, as accessible from Python through the *note __cause__:
     1171. attribute.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyException_SetCause (PyObject *ex, PyObject *cause)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the cause associated
     with the exception to 'cause'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is
     no type check to make sure that 'cause' is either an exception
     instance or ‘None’.  This steals a reference to 'cause'.

     The *note __suppress_context__: 1ea6. attribute is implicitly set
     to ‘True’ by this function.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyException_GetArgs (PyObject *ex)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Return *note args: 302. of exception
     'ex'.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyException_SetArgs (PyObject *ex, PyObject *args)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Set
     *note args: 302. of exception 'ex' to 'args'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar
          (PyObject *orig, PyObject *excs)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Implement part of the interpreter’s implementation of ‘except*’.
     'orig' is the original exception that was caught, and 'excs' is the
     list of the exceptions that need to be raised.  This list contains
     the unhandled part of 'orig', if any, as well as the exceptions
     that were raised from the ‘except*’ clauses (so they have a
     different traceback from 'orig') and those that were reraised (and
     have the same traceback as 'orig').  Return the *note
     ExceptionGroup: 181. that needs to be reraised in the end, or
     ‘None’ if there is nothing to reraise.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Exception Objects,  Next: Recursion Control,  Prev: Exception Objects,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.8 Unicode Exception Objects
-------------------------------

The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions
from C.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (const
          char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873. object with the
     attributes 'encoding', 'object', 'length', 'start', 'end' and
     'reason'.  'encoding' and 'reason' are UTF-8 encoded strings.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the 'encoding' attribute of the given exception
     object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the 'object' attribute of the given exception object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Get the 'start' attribute
     of the given exception object and place it into '*start'.  'start'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the 'start' attribute
     of the given exception object to 'start'.  Return ‘0’ on success,
     ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *end)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          *end)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Get the 'end' attribute of
     the given exception object and place it into '*end'.  'end' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          end)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t
          end)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the 'end' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'end'.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’
     on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the 'reason' attribute of the given exception object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const
          char *reason)
 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (PyObject *exc,
          const char *reason)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the 'reason' attribute
     of the given exception object to 'reason'.  Return ‘0’ on success,
     ‘-1’ on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Recursion Control,  Next: Standard Exceptions,  Prev: Unicode Exception Objects,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.9 Recursion Control
-----------------------

These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the
C level, both in the core and in extension modules.  They are needed if
the recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks
its recursion depth automatically).  They are also not needed for
'tp_call' implementations because the *note call protocol: 31c. takes
care of recursion handling.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_EnterRecursiveCall (const char *where)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'  Marks
     a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed.

     If ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is defined, this function checks if the OS
     stack overflowed using *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 163a.  If this is
     the case, it sets a *note MemoryError: 1409. and returns a nonzero
     value.

     The function then checks if the recursion limit is reached.  If
     this is the case, a *note RecursionError: bf7. is set and a nonzero
     value is returned.  Otherwise, zero is returned.

     'where' should be a UTF-8 encoded string such as ‘" in instance
     check"’ to be concatenated to the *note RecursionError: bf7.
     message caused by the recursion depth limit.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: This function is now also available in the
     *note limited API: 2de.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'  Ends a
     *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7d1.  Must be called once for each
     'successful' invocation of *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7d1.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: This function is now also available in the
     *note limited API: 2de.

Properly implementing *note tp_repr: 481d. for container types requires
special recursion handling.  In addition to protecting the stack, *note
tp_repr: 481d. also needs to track objects to prevent cycles.  The
following two functions facilitate this functionality.  Effectively,
these are the C equivalent to *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 1098.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_ReprEnter (PyObject *object)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Called at the beginning of
     the *note tp_repr: 481d. implementation to detect cycles.

     If the object has already been processed, the function returns a
     positive integer.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 481d.
     implementation should return a string object indicating a cycle.
     As examples, *note dict: 240. objects return ‘{...}’ and *note
     list: 422. objects return ‘[...]’.

     The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit
     is reached.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 481d. implementation
     should typically return ‘NULL’.

     Otherwise, the function returns zero and the *note tp_repr: 481d.
     implementation can continue normally.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_ReprLeave (PyObject *object)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Ends a *note
     Py_ReprEnter(): 49e2.  Must be called once for each invocation of
     *note Py_ReprEnter(): 49e2. that returns zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Exceptions,  Next: Standard Warning Categories,  Prev: Recursion Control,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.10 Standard Exceptions
--------------------------

All standard Python exceptions are available as global variables whose
names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python exception name.  These have
the type *note PyObject: 6eb.*; they are all class objects.  For
completeness, here are all the variables:

C Name                                        Python Name                           Notes
                                                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BaseException’                         *note BaseException: 3c3.             (1)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_Exception’                             *note Exception: 838.                 (2)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ArithmeticError’                       *note ArithmeticError: 2078.          (3)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_AssertionError’                        *note AssertionError: 4bf.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_AttributeError’                        *note AttributeError: 3dc.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’                       *note BlockingIOError: f01.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’                       *note BrokenPipeError: f06.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_BufferError’                           *note BufferError: 164a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’                     *note ChildProcessError: f02.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’                *note ConnectionAbortedError: f07.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionError’                       *note ConnectionError: c98.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’                *note ConnectionRefusedError: f08.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’                  *note ConnectionResetError: f09.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_EOFError’                              *note EOFError: 1183.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FileExistsError’                       *note FileExistsError: ec8.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’                     *note FileNotFoundError: 39a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_FloatingPointError’                    *note FloatingPointError: 2079.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_GeneratorExit’                         *note GeneratorExit: 124e.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ImportError’                           *note ImportError: 14b.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IndentationError’                      *note IndentationError: 5de.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IndexError’                            *note IndexError: 13c2.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_InterruptedError’                      *note InterruptedError: c14.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’                     *note IsADirectoryError: f03.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_KeyError’                              *note KeyError: 903.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt’                     *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_LookupError’                           *note LookupError: 1fbf.              (4)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_MemoryError’                           *note MemoryError: 1409.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’                   *note ModuleNotFoundError: 9b8.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NameError’                             *note NameError: 14a.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’                    *note NotADirectoryError: f04.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_NotImplementedError’                   *note NotImplementedError: bd6.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_OSError’                               *note OSError: 65c.                   (5)
                                                                                    
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_OverflowError’                         *note OverflowError: 6c7.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_PermissionError’                       *note PermissionError: bcb.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’                    *note ProcessLookupError: f05.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_RecursionError’                        *note RecursionError: bf7.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ReferenceError’                        *note ReferenceError: 139c.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_RuntimeError’                          *note RuntimeError: 180.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’                    *note StopAsyncIteration: 1867.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_StopIteration’                         *note StopIteration: a73.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SyntaxError’                           *note SyntaxError: 14c.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SystemError’                           *note SystemError: 30e.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_SystemExit’                            *note SystemExit: bc8.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TabError’                              *note TabError: 2d1.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TimeoutError’                          *note TimeoutError: 673.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_TypeError’                             *note TypeError: 2c4.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnboundLocalError’                     *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError’                    *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError’                    *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeError’                          *note UnicodeError: 114c.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError’                 *note UnicodeTranslateError: 208f.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ValueError’                            *note ValueError: 189.
                                              
                                                                                    
‘PyExc_ZeroDivisionError’                     *note ZeroDivisionError: 79e.
                                              

Added in version 3.3: ‘PyExc_BlockingIOError’, ‘PyExc_BrokenPipeError’,
‘PyExc_ChildProcessError’, ‘PyExc_ConnectionError’,
‘PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError’, ‘PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError’,
‘PyExc_ConnectionResetError’, ‘PyExc_FileExistsError’,
‘PyExc_FileNotFoundError’, ‘PyExc_InterruptedError’,
‘PyExc_IsADirectoryError’, ‘PyExc_NotADirectoryError’,
‘PyExc_PermissionError’, ‘PyExc_ProcessLookupError’ and
‘PyExc_TimeoutError’ were introduced following PEP 3151(6).

Added in version 3.5: ‘PyExc_StopAsyncIteration’ and
‘PyExc_RecursionError’.

Added in version 3.6: ‘PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError’.

These are compatibility aliases to ‘PyExc_OSError’:

C Name                                    Notes
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------
                                          
‘PyExc_EnvironmentError’

‘PyExc_IOError’

‘PyExc_WindowsError’                      (7)
                                          

3.3 sürümünde değişti: These aliases used to be separate exception
types.

Notes:

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (2) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (3) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (4) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (5) This is a base class for other standard exceptions.

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (7) Only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing
that the preprocessor macro ‘MS_WINDOWS’ is defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Warning Categories,  Prev: Standard Exceptions,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.11 Standard Warning Categories
----------------------------------

All standard Python warning categories are available as global variables
whose names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python exception name.  These
have the type *note PyObject: 6eb.*; they are all class objects.  For
completeness, here are all the variables:

C Name                                         Python Name                           Notes
                                                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_Warning’                                *note Warning: 20a5.                  (1)
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_BytesWarning’                           *note BytesWarning: a9e.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_DeprecationWarning’                     *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_FutureWarning’                          *note FutureWarning: 248.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_ImportWarning’                          *note ImportWarning: 24e.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning’              *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 719.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’                        *note ResourceWarning: ab9.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_RuntimeWarning’                         *note RuntimeWarning: 900.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_SyntaxWarning’                          *note SyntaxWarning: 17e.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_UnicodeWarning’                         *note UnicodeWarning: 12ac.
                                               
                                                                                     
‘PyExc_UserWarning’                            *note UserWarning: 20a6.
                                               

Added in version 3.2: ‘PyExc_ResourceWarning’.

Notes:

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is a base class for other standard warning categories.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities<2>,  Next: Abstract Objects Layer,  Prev: Exception Handling,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.6 Utilities
=============

The functions in this chapter perform various utility tasks, ranging
from helping C code be more portable across platforms, using Python
modules from C, and parsing function arguments and constructing Python
values from C values.

* Menu:

* Operating System Utilities::
* System Functions::
* Process Control::
* Importing Modules: Importing Modules<2>.
* Data marshalling support::
* Parsing arguments and building values::
* String conversion and formatting::
* PyHash API::
* Reflection::
* Codec registry and support functions::
* Support for Perf Maps::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating System Utilities,  Next: System Functions,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.1 Operating System Utilities
--------------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyOS_FSPath (PyObject *path)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.6 sürümünden beri.'  Return the file system representation
     for 'path'.  If the object is a *note str: 15d. or *note bytes:
     2cb. object, then a new *note strong reference: 5c1. is returned.
     If the object implements the *note os.PathLike: acd. interface,
     then *note __fspath__(): ace. is returned as long as it is a *note
     str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. object.  Otherwise *note TypeError:
     2c4. is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_FdIsInteractive (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file 'fp' with name
     'filename' is deemed interactive.  This is the case for files for
     which ‘isatty(fileno(fp))’ is true.  If the *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 32e. is non-zero, this function also returns
     true if the 'filename' pointer is ‘NULL’ or if the name is equal to
     one of the strings ‘'<stdin>'’ or ‘'???'’.

     This function must not be called before Python is initialized.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyOS_BeforeFork ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. on platforms with fork() 3.7
     sürümünden beri.'  Function to prepare some internal state before a
     process fork.  This should be called before calling ‘fork()’ or any
     similar function that clones the current process.  Only available
     on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Uyarı: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note
          “main” thread: 4a3e. (of the *note “main” interpreter: 320.).
          The same is true for ‘PyOS_BeforeFork()’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. on platforms with fork() 3.7
     sürümünden beri.'  Function to update some internal state after a
     process fork.  This should be called from the parent process after
     calling ‘fork()’ or any similar function that clones the current
     process, regardless of whether process cloning was successful.
     Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Uyarı: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note
          “main” thread: 4a3e. (of the *note “main” interpreter: 320.).
          The same is true for ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyOS_AfterFork_Child ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. on platforms with fork() 3.7
     sürümünden beri.'  Function to update internal interpreter state
     after a process fork.  This must be called from the child process
     after calling ‘fork()’, or any similar function that clones the
     current process, if there is any chance the process will call back
     into the Python interpreter.  Only available on systems where
     ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Uyarı: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note
          “main” thread: 4a3e. (of the *note “main” interpreter: 320.).
          The same is true for ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Child()’.

     Added in version 3.7.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note os.register_at_fork(): 276. allows registering custom Python
     functions to be called by *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): a36, *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): a37. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     376.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyOS_AfterFork ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. on platforms with fork().'
     Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this
     should be called in the new process if the Python interpreter will
     continue to be used.  If a new executable is loaded into the new
     process, this function does not need to be called.

     3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This function is superseded by
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyOS_CheckStack ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. on platforms with
     USE_STACKCHECK 3.7 sürümünden beri.'

     Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space.  This is
     a reliable check, but is only available when ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is
     defined (currently on certain versions of Windows using the
     Microsoft Visual C++ compiler).  ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ will be defined
     automatically; you should never change the definition in your own
     code.

 -- C Türü: typedef void (*PyOS_sighandler_t)(int)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4948. PyOS_getsig (int i)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the current signal
     handler for signal 'i'.  This is a thin wrapper around either
     ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not call those functions directly!

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4948. PyOS_setsig (int i,
          PyOS_sighandler_t h)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the signal handler for
     signal 'i' to be 'h'; return the old signal handler.  This is a
     thin wrapper around either ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not
     call those functions directly!

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *Py_DecodeLocale (const char *arg, size_t *size)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
          Uyarı: This function should not be called directly: use the
          *note PyConfig: 34f. API with the *note
          PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 812. function which ensures that
          *note Python is preinitialized: 3a85.

          This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 3a85. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 34d.
          function.

     Decode a byte string from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 2c7.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error
     handler: 21d4, undecodable bytes are decoded as characters in range
     U+DC80..U+DCFF; and if a byte sequence can be decoded as a
     surrogate character, the bytes are escaped using the
     surrogateescape error handler instead of decoding them.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use
     *note PyMem_RawFree(): 4a3f. to free the memory.  If size is not
     ‘NULL’, write the number of wide characters excluding the null
     character into ‘*size’

     Return ‘NULL’ on decoding error or memory allocation error.  If
     'size' is not ‘NULL’, ‘*size’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on memory
     error or set to ‘(size_t)-2’ on decoding error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 34a.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 34b. members of *note PyConfig: 34f.

     Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C
     library.

     Use the *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f. function to encode the
     character string back to a byte string.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 49b9. and *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a40. functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347. is
     zero;

 -- C Işlevi: char *Py_EncodeLocale (const wchar_t *text, size_t
          *error_pos)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Encode
     a wide character string to the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 2c7.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error
     handler: 21d4, surrogate characters in the range U+DC80..U+DCFF are
     converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 12cd. to free the memory.  Return ‘NULL’ on encoding
     error or memory allocation error.

     If error_pos is not ‘NULL’, ‘*error_pos’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on
     success, or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding
     error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 34a.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 34b. members of *note PyConfig: 34f.

     Use the *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. function to decode the bytes
     string back to a wide character string.

          Uyarı: This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 3a85. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 34d.
          function.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1892. and *note
     PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a41. functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347. is
     zero.


File: python.info,  Node: System Functions,  Next: Process Control,  Prev: Operating System Utilities,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.2 System Functions
----------------------

These are utility functions that make functionality from the *note sys:
d8. module accessible to C code.  They all work with the current
interpreter thread’s *note sys: d8. module’s dict, which is contained in
the internal thread state structure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySys_GetObject (const char *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the object 'name' from the *note sys:
     d8. module or ‘NULL’ if it does not exist, without setting an
     exception.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySys_SetObject (const char *name, PyObject *v)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set 'name' in the *note
     sys: d8. module to 'v' unless 'v' is ‘NULL’, in which case 'name'
     is deleted from the sys module.  Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_ResetWarnOptions ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Reset *note
     sys.warnoptions: 364. to an empty list.  This function may be
     called prior to *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_AddWarnOption (const wchar_t *s)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This API is kept for
     backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 4a42.
     should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 5c6.

     Append 's' to *note sys.warnoptions: 364.  This function must be
     called prior to *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. in order to affect the
     warnings filter list.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode (PyObject *unicode)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This API is kept for
     backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 4a42.
     should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 5c6.

     Append 'unicode' to *note sys.warnoptions: 364.

     Note: this function is not currently usable from outside the
     CPython implementation, as it must be called prior to the implicit
     import of *note warnings: 112. in *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. to be
     effective, but can’t be called until enough of the runtime has been
     initialized to permit the creation of Unicode objects.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_SetPath (const wchar_t *path)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This API is kept for
     backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.module_search_paths:
     3fc. and *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3fb. should be
     used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Set *note sys.path: 368. to a list object of paths found in 'path'
     which should be a list of paths separated with the platform’s
     search path delimiter (‘:’ on Unix, ‘;’ on Windows).

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_WriteStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Write the output string
     described by 'format' to *note sys.stdout: 943.  No exceptions are
     raised, even if truncation occurs (see below).

     'format' should limit the total size of the formatted output string
     to 1000 bytes or less – after 1000 bytes, the output string is
     truncated.  In particular, this means that no unrestricted “%s”
     formats should occur; these should be limited using “%.<N>s” where
     <N> is a decimal number calculated so that <N> plus the maximum
     size of other formatted text does not exceed 1000 bytes.  Also
     watch out for “%f”, which can print hundreds of digits for very
     large numbers.

     If a problem occurs, or *note sys.stdout: 943. is unset, the
     formatted message is written to the real (C level) 'stdout'.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_WriteStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  As *note
     PySys_WriteStdout(): 4989, but write to *note sys.stderr: 792. or
     'stderr' instead.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_FormatStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Function similar to
     PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 30d. and don’t truncate the message to an
     arbitrary length.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_FormatStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  As *note
     PySys_FormatStdout(): 4985, but write to *note sys.stderr: 792. or
     'stderr' instead.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_AddXOption (const wchar_t *s)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  This
     API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.xoptions: 4a43. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Parse 's' as a set of *note -X: 18e. options and add them to the
     current options mapping as returned by *note PySys_GetXOptions():
     4986.  This function may be called prior to *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySys_GetXOptions ()
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return the current
     dictionary of *note -X: 18e. options, similarly to *note
     sys._xoptions: 1b88.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception
     is set.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySys_Audit (const char *event, const char *format,
          ...)

     Raise an auditing event with any active hooks.  Return zero for
     success and non-zero with an exception set on failure.

     If any hooks have been added, 'format' and other arguments will be
     used to construct a tuple to pass.  Apart from ‘N’, the same format
     characters as used in *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. are available.
     If the built value is not a tuple, it will be added into a
     single-element tuple.  (The ‘N’ format option consumes a reference,
     but since there is no way to know whether arguments to this
     function will be consumed, using it may cause reference leaks.)

     Note that ‘#’ format characters should always be treated as *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8c4, regardless of whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was
     defined.

     *note sys.audit(): 17a0. performs the same function from Python
     code.

     Added in version 3.8.

     3.8.2 sürümünde değişti: Require *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. for ‘#’
     format characters.  Previously, an unavoidable deprecation warning
     was raised.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySys_AddAuditHook (Py_AuditHookFunction hook, void
          *userData)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks.
     Return zero on success and non-zero on failure.  If the runtime has
     been initialized, also set an error on failure.  Hooks added
     through this API are called for all interpreters created by the
     runtime.

     The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function.  Since
     hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer
     should not refer directly to Python state.

     This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.
     When called after runtime initialization, existing audit hooks are
     notified and may silently abort the operation by raising an error
     subclassed from *note Exception: 838. (other errors will not be
     silenced).

     The hook function is always called with the GIL held by the Python
     interpreter that raised the event.

     See PEP 578(1) for a detailed description of auditing.  Functions
     in the runtime and standard library that raise events are listed in
     the *note audit events table: 1698.  Details are in each function’s
     documentation.

     If the interpreter is initialized, this function raises an auditing
     event ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments.  If any existing hooks
     raise an exception derived from *note Exception: 838, the new hook
     will not be added and the exception is cleared.  As a result,
     callers cannot assume that their hook has been added unless they
     control all existing hooks.

      -- C Türü: typedef int (*Py_AuditHookFunction)(const char *event,
               *note PyObject: 6eb. *args, void *userData)

          The type of the hook function.  'event' is the C string event
          argument passed to *note PySys_Audit(): 17b0.  'args' is
          guaranteed to be a *note PyTupleObject: 4a45.  'userData' is
          the argument passed to PySys_AddAuditHook().

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: Process Control,  Next: Importing Modules<2>,  Prev: System Functions,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.3 Process Control
---------------------

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_FatalError (const char *message)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Print a fatal error message and kill the process.  No cleanup is
     performed.  This function should only be invoked when a condition
     is detected that would make it dangerous to continue using the
     Python interpreter; e.g., when the object administration appears to
     be corrupted.  On Unix, the standard C library function ‘abort()’
     is called which will attempt to produce a ‘core’ file.

     The ‘Py_FatalError()’ function is replaced with a macro which logs
     automatically the name of the current function, unless the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Log the function name automatically.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_Exit (int status)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Exit the current process.  This calls *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a.
     and then calls the standard C library function ‘exit(status)’.  If
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. indicates an error, the exit status is
     set to 120.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Errors from finalization no longer ignored.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_AtExit (void (*func)())
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Register a cleanup function to be called by *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     b9a.  The cleanup function will be called with no arguments and
     should return no value.  At most 32 cleanup functions can be
     registered.  When the registration is successful, *note
     Py_AtExit(): 49d7. returns ‘0’; on failure, it returns ‘-1’.  The
     cleanup function registered last is called first.  Each cleanup
     function will be called at most once.  Since Python’s internal
     finalization will have completed before the cleanup function, no
     Python APIs should be called by 'func'.


File: python.info,  Node: Importing Modules<2>,  Next: Data marshalling support,  Prev: Process Control,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.4 Importing Modules
-----------------------

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ImportModule (const char
          *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     This is a wrapper around *note PyImport_Import(): 1285. which takes
     a const char* as an argument instead of a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (const
          char *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This function is a deprecated alias of *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: This function used to fail immediately when
     the import lock was held by another thread.  In Python 3.3 though,
     the locking scheme switched to per-module locks for most purposes,
     so this function’s special behaviour isn’t needed anymore.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ImportModuleEx (const char
          *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'

     Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the
     built-in Python function *note __import__(): 727.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): 727, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Import a module.  This is best
     described by referring to the built-in Python function *note
     __import__(): 727, as the standard *note __import__(): 727.
     function calls this function directly.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): 727, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (const
          char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Similar to *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 48fe,
     but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Negative values for 'level' are no longer
     accepted.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_Import (PyObject *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is a higher-level interface that calls the current
     “import hook function” (with an explicit 'level' of 0, meaning
     absolute import).  It invokes the *note __import__(): 727. function
     from the ‘__builtins__’ of the current globals.  This means that
     the import is done using whatever import hooks are installed in the
     current environment.

     This function always uses absolute imports.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ReloadModule (PyObject *m)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Reload a module.  Return a new reference to the reloaded
     module, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure (the module
     still exists in this case).

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_AddModuleObject (PyObject
          *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return the module object
     corresponding to a module name.  The 'name' argument may be of the
     form ‘package.module’.  First check the modules dictionary if
     there’s one there, and if not, create a new one and insert it in
     the modules dictionary.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on
     failure.

          Not: This function does not load or import the module; if the
          module wasn’t already loaded, you will get an empty module
          object.  Use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f. or one of its
          variants to import a module.  Package structures implied by a
          dotted name for 'name' are not created if not already present.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_AddModule (const char
          *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Similar to *note PyImport_AddModuleObject():
     48f5, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode
     object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ExecCodeModule (const char
          *name, PyObject *co)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Given a module name (possibly of the form ‘package.module’) and a
     code object read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the
     built-in function *note compile(): 56d, load the module.  Return a
     new reference to the module object, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set
     if an error occurred.  'name' is removed from *note sys.modules:
     179b. in error cases, even if 'name' was already in *note
     sys.modules: 179b. on entry to *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule():
     48f6.  Leaving incompletely initialized modules in *note
     sys.modules: 179b. is dangerous, as imports of such modules have no
     way to know that the module object is an unknown (and probably
     damaged with respect to the module author’s intents) state.

     The module’s *note __spec__: 1d03. and *note __loader__: 267. will
     be set, if not set already, with the appropriate values.  The
     spec’s loader will be set to the module’s ‘__loader__’ (if set) and
     to an instance of *note SourceFileLoader: f1e. otherwise.

     The module’s *note __file__: 1d0a. attribute will be set to the
     code object’s *note co_filename: 1214.  If applicable, *note
     __cached__: 24f. will also be set.

     This function will reload the module if it was already imported.
     See *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 48ff. for the intended way to
     reload a module.

     If 'name' points to a dotted name of the form ‘package.module’, any
     package structures not already created will still not be created.

     See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 48f7. and *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 48f9.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The setting of *note __cached__: 24f. and
     *note __loader__: 267. is deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 1d05.
     for alternatives.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (const
          char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 48f6, but the *note
     __file__: 1d0a. attribute of the module object is set to 'pathname'
     if it is non-‘NULL’.

     See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 48f9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject
          *cpathname)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx():
     48f7, but the *note __cached__: 24f. attribute of the module object
     is set to 'cpathname' if it is non-‘NULL’.  Of the three functions,
     this is the preferred one to use.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Setting *note __cached__: 24f. is
     deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 1d05. for alternatives.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames
          (const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const
          char *cpathname)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 48f8, but
     'name', 'pathname' and 'cpathname' are UTF-8 encoded strings.
     Attempts are also made to figure out what the value for 'pathname'
     should be from 'cpathname' if the former is set to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Uses ‘imp.source_from_cache()’ in
     calculating the source path if only the bytecode path is provided.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: No longer uses the removed ‘imp’ module.

 -- C Işlevi: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the magic number for
     Python bytecode files (a.k.a.  ‘.pyc’ file).  The magic number
     should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode file, in
     little-endian byte order.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Return value of ‘-1’ upon failure.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyImport_GetMagicTag ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the magic tag string
     for PEP 3147(1) format Python bytecode file names.  Keep in mind
     that the value at ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is authoritative
     and should be used instead of this function.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_GetModuleDict ()
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the dictionary used for the module
     administration (a.k.a.  ‘sys.modules’).  Note that this is a
     per-interpreter variable.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_GetModule (PyObject *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.8 sürümünden beri.'  Return the already imported module with
     the given name.  If the module has not been imported yet then
     returns ‘NULL’ but does not set an error.  Returns ‘NULL’ and sets
     an error if the lookup failed.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyImport_GetImporter (PyObject
          *path)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a finder object for a *note sys.path:
     368./‘pkg.__path__’ item 'path', possibly by fetching it from the
     *note sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0. dict.  If it wasn’t yet cached,
     traverse *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. until a hook is found that can
     handle the path item.  Return ‘None’ if no hook could; this tells
     our caller that the *note path based finder: 1de8. could not find a
     finder for this path item.  Cache the result in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 3f0.  Return a new reference to the finder
     object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (PyObject *name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Load a
     frozen module named 'name'.  Return ‘1’ for success, ‘0’ if the
     module is not found, and ‘-1’ with an exception set if the
     initialization failed.  To access the imported module on a
     successful load, use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f.  (Note the
     misnomer — this function would reload the module if it was already
     imported.)

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The ‘__file__’ attribute is no longer set on
     the module.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (const char *name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Similar to *note
     PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 48fd, but the name is a UTF-8
     encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C Struct: struct _frozen

     This is the structure type definition for frozen module
     descriptors, as generated by the ‘freeze’ utility (see
     ‘Tools/freeze/’ in the Python source distribution).  Its
     definition, found in ‘Include/import.h’, is:

          struct _frozen {
              const char *name;
              const unsigned char *code;
              int size;
              bool is_package;
          };

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The new ‘is_package’ field indicates
     whether the module is a package or not.  This replaces setting the
     ‘size’ field to a negative value.

 -- C Değişkeni: const struct *note _frozen: 5a5.
          *PyImport_FrozenModules

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     5a5. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyImport_AppendInittab (const char *name, PyObject
          *(*initfunc)(void))
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Add a single module to the
     existing table of built-in modules.  This is a convenience wrapper
     around *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 15c3, returning ‘-1’ if the
     table could not be extended.  The new module can be imported by the
     name 'name', and uses the function 'initfunc' as the initialization
     function called on the first attempted import.  This should be
     called before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

 -- C Struct: struct _inittab

     Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in
     modules.  Programs which embed Python may use an array of these
     structures in conjunction with *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     15c3. to provide additional built-in modules.  The structure
     consists of two members:

      -- C Üyesi: const char *name

          The module name, as an ASCII encoded string.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*initfunc)(void)

          Initialization function for a module built into the
          interpreter.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyImport_ExtendInittab (struct _inittab *newtab)

     Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules.  The
     'newtab' array must end with a sentinel entry which contains ‘NULL’
     for the *note name: 4a4c. field; failure to provide the sentinel
     value can result in a memory fault.  Returns ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     if insufficient memory could be allocated to extend the internal
     table.  In the event of failure, no modules are added to the
     internal table.  This must be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc.

     If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     15c3. must be called before each Python initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Data marshalling support,  Next: Parsing arguments and building values,  Prev: Importing Modules<2>,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.5 Data marshalling support
------------------------------

These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the
same data format as the *note marshal: 8c. module.  There are functions
to write data into the serialization format, and additional functions
that can be used to read the data back.  Files used to store marshalled
data must be opened in binary mode.

Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.

The module supports two versions of the data format: version 0 is the
historical version, version 1 shares interned strings in the file, and
upon unmarshalling.  Version 2 uses a binary format for floating-point
numbers.  ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ indicates the current file format
(currently 2).

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (long value, FILE *file,
          int version)

     Marshal a long integer, 'value', to 'file'.  This will only write
     the least-significant 32 bits of 'value'; regardless of the size of
     the native long type.  'version' indicates the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to check for that.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (PyObject *value, FILE
          *file, int version)

     Marshal a Python object, 'value', to 'file'.  'version' indicates
     the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to check for that.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString
          (PyObject *value, int version)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a bytes object
     containing the marshalled representation of 'value'.  'version'
     indicates the file format.

The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.

 -- C Işlevi: long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C long from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.
     Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless
     of the native size of long.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 1183.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C short from the data stream in a FILE* opened for
     reading.  Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function,
     regardless of the native size of short.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 1183.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (FILE
          *file)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a Python object from the
     data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 1183,
     *note ValueError: 189. or *note TypeError: 2c4.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile
          (FILE *file)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a Python object from the
     data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.  Unlike *note
     PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(): 4a53, this function assumes that no
     further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to
     aggressively load file data into memory so that the
     de-serialization can operate from data in memory rather than
     reading a byte at a time from the file.  Only use these variant if
     you are certain that you won’t be reading anything else from the
     file.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 1183,
     *note ValueError: 189. or *note TypeError: 2c4.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString
          (const char *data, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a Python object from the
     data stream in a byte buffer containing 'len' bytes pointed to by
     'data'.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 1183,
     *note ValueError: 189. or *note TypeError: 2c4.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing arguments and building values,  Next: String conversion and formatting,  Prev: Data marshalling support,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.6 Parsing arguments and building values
-------------------------------------------

These functions are useful when creating your own extension functions
and methods.  Additional information and examples are available in *note
Python Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme: 1a1f.

The first three of these functions described, *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
308, *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b, and *note PyArg_Parse():
1819, all use 'format strings' which are used to tell the function about
the expected arguments.  The format strings use the same syntax for each
of these functions.

* Menu:

* Parsing arguments: Parsing arguments<2>.
* Building values::


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing arguments<2>,  Next: Building values,  Up: Parsing arguments and building values

7.6.6.1 Parsing arguments
.........................

A format string consists of zero or more “format units.” A format unit
describes one Python object; it is usually a single character or a
parenthesized sequence of format units.  With a few exceptions, a format
unit that is not a parenthesized sequence normally corresponds to a
single address argument to these functions.  In the following
description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in (round)
parentheses is the Python object type that matches the format unit; and
the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C variable(s) whose
address should be passed.

* Menu:

* Strings and buffers::
* Numbers::
* Other objects::
* API Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Strings and buffers,  Next: Numbers,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.6.6.2 Strings and buffers
...........................

These formats allow accessing an object as a contiguous chunk of memory.
You don’t have to provide raw storage for the returned unicode or bytes
area.

Unless otherwise stated, buffers are not NUL-terminated.

There are three ways strings and buffers can be converted to C:

   * Formats such as ‘y*’ and ‘s*’ fill a *note Py_buffer: 584.
     structure.  This locks the underlying buffer so that the caller can
     subsequently use the buffer even inside a *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 47f6. block without the risk of mutable
     data being resized or destroyed.  As a result, 'you have to call'
     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f. after you have finished processing
     the data (or in any early abort case).

   * The ‘es’, ‘es#’, ‘et’ and ‘et#’ formats allocate the result buffer.
     'You have to call' *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd. after you have
     finished processing the data (or in any early abort case).

   * Other formats take a *note str: 15d. or a read-only *note
     bytes-like object: bb5, such as *note bytes: 2cb, and provide a
     ‘const char *’ pointer to its buffer.  In this case the buffer is
     “borrowed”: it is managed by the corresponding Python object, and
     shares the lifetime of this object.  You won’t have to release any
     memory yourself.

     To ensure that the underlying buffer may be safely borrowed, the
     object’s *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 592. field must be
     ‘NULL’.  This disallows common mutable objects such as *note
     bytearray: 2ca, but also some read-only objects such as *note
     memoryview: 185. of *note bytes: 2cb.

     Besides this ‘bf_releasebuffer’ requirement, there is no check to
     verify whether the input object is immutable (e.g.  whether it
     would honor a request for a writable buffer, or whether another
     thread can mutate the data).

     Not: For all ‘#’ variants of formats (‘s#’, ‘y#’, etc.), the macro
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ must be defined before including ‘Python.h’.  On
     Python 3.9 and older, the type of the length argument is *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8c4. if the ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro is defined, or int
     otherwise.

‘s’ (*note str: 15d.) [const char *]

     Convert a Unicode object to a C pointer to a character string.  A
     pointer to an existing string is stored in the character pointer
     variable whose address you pass.  The C string is NUL-terminated.
     The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it
     does, a *note ValueError: 189. exception is raised.  Unicode
     objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If
     this conversion fails, a *note UnicodeError: 114c. is raised.

          Not: This format does not accept *note bytes-like objects:
          bb5.  If you want to accept filesystem paths and convert them
          to C character strings, it is preferable to use the ‘O&’
          format with *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b9f. as
          'converter'.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Previously, *note TypeError: 2c4. was raised
     when embedded null code points were encountered in the Python
     string.

‘s*’ (*note str: 15d. or *note bytes-like object: bb5.) [Py_buffer]

     This format accepts Unicode objects as well as bytes-like objects.
     It fills a *note Py_buffer: 584. structure provided by the caller.
     In this case the resulting C string may contain embedded NUL bytes.
     Unicode objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’
     encoding.

‘s#’ (*note str: 15d, read-only *note bytes-like object: bb5.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

     Like ‘s*’, except that it provides a *note borrowed buffer: 4a59.
     The result is stored into two C variables, the first one a pointer
     to a C string, the second one its length.  The string may contain
     embedded null bytes.  Unicode objects are converted to C strings
     using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.

‘z’ (*note str: 15d. or ‘None’) [const char *]

     Like ‘s’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘z*’ (*note str: 15d, *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ‘None’) [Py_buffer]

     Like ‘s*’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the ‘buf’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 584. structure is set to
     ‘NULL’.

‘z#’ (*note str: 15d, read-only *note bytes-like object: bb5. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

     Like ‘s#’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘y’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: bb5.) [const char *]

     This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a *note
     borrowed: 4a59. character string; it does not accept Unicode
     objects.  The bytes buffer must not contain embedded null bytes; if
     it does, a *note ValueError: 189. exception is raised.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Previously, *note TypeError: 2c4. was raised
     when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes buffer.

‘y*’ (*note bytes-like object: bb5.) [Py_buffer]

     This variant on ‘s*’ doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only
     bytes-like objects.  'This is the recommended way to accept binary
     data.'

‘y#’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: bb5.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

     This variant on ‘s#’ doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only
     bytes-like objects.

‘S’ (*note bytes: 2cb.) [PyBytesObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytes: 2cb. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if
     the object is not a bytes object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

‘Y’ (*note bytearray: 2ca.) [PyByteArrayObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytearray: 2ca. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if
     the object is not a *note bytearray: 2ca. object.  The C variable
     may also be declared as *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

‘U’ (*note str: 15d.) [PyObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without
     attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 2c4. if the
     object is not a Unicode object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

‘w*’ (read-write *note bytes-like object: bb5.) [Py_buffer]

     This format accepts any object which implements the read-write
     buffer interface.  It fills a *note Py_buffer: 584. structure
     provided by the caller.  The buffer may contain embedded null
     bytes.  The caller have to call *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f. when
     it is done with the buffer.

‘es’ (*note str: 15d.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     This variant on ‘s’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes.

     This format requires two arguments.  The first is only used as
     input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an
     encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case
     ‘'utf-8'’ encoding is used.  An exception is raised if the named
     encoding is not known to Python.  The second argument must be a
     char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a
     buffer with the contents of the argument text.  The text will be
     encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.

     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. will allocate a buffer of the needed
     size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and adjust '*buffer'
     to reference the newly allocated storage.  The caller is
     responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd. to free the
     allocated buffer after use.

‘et’ (*note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     Same as ‘es’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

‘es#’ (*note str: 15d.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *buffer_length]

     This variant on ‘s#’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  Unlike the ‘es’ format, this variant allows input data
     which contains NUL characters.

     It requires three arguments.  The first is only used as input, and
     must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a
     NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case ‘'utf-8'’ encoding
     is used.  An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known
     to Python.  The second argument must be a char**; the value of the
     pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of
     the argument text.  The text will be encoded in the encoding
     specified by the first argument.  The third argument must be a
     pointer to an integer; the referenced integer will be set to the
     number of bytes in the output buffer.

     There are two modes of operation:

     If '*buffer' points a ‘NULL’ pointer, the function will allocate a
     buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer
     and set '*buffer' to reference the newly allocated storage.  The
     caller is responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd. to free
     the allocated buffer after usage.

     If '*buffer' points to a non-‘NULL’ pointer (an already allocated
     buffer), *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. will use this location as
     the buffer and interpret the initial value of '*buffer_length' as
     the buffer size.  It will then copy the encoded data into the
     buffer and NUL-terminate it.  If the buffer is not large enough, a
     *note ValueError: 189. will be set.

     In both cases, '*buffer_length' is set to the length of the encoded
     data without the trailing NUL byte.

‘et#’ (*note str: 15d, *note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *buffer_length]

     Same as ‘es#’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘u’, ‘u#’, ‘Z’, and ‘Z#’ are removed because
they used a legacy ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation.


File: python.info,  Node: Numbers,  Next: Other objects,  Prev: Strings and buffers,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.6.6.3 Numbers
...............

These formats allow representing Python numbers or single characters as
C numbers.  Formats that require *note int: 184, *note float: 272. or
*note complex: 273. can also use the corresponding special methods *note
__index__(): 538, *note __float__(): 82a. or *note __complex__(): 3f3.
to convert the Python object to the required type.

For signed integer formats, *note OverflowError: 6c7. is raised if the
value is out of range for the C type.  For unsigned integer formats, no
range checking is done — the most significant bits are silently
truncated when the receiving field is too small to receive the value.

‘b’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned char]

     Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny integer,
     stored in a C unsigned char.

‘B’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned char]

     Convert a Python integer to a tiny integer without overflow
     checking, stored in a C unsigned char.

‘h’ (*note int: 184.) [short int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C short int.

‘H’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned short int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned short int, without
     overflow checking.

‘i’ (*note int: 184.) [int]

     Convert a Python integer to a plain C int.

‘I’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned int, without overflow
     checking.

‘l’ (*note int: 184.) [long int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C long int.

‘k’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned long]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long without overflow
     checking.

‘L’ (*note int: 184.) [long long]

     Convert a Python integer to a C long long.

‘K’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned long long]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long long without overflow
     checking.

‘n’ (*note int: 184.) [*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

     Convert a Python integer to a C *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

‘c’ (*note bytes: 2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca. of length 1) [char]

     Convert a Python byte, represented as a *note bytes: 2cb. or *note
     bytearray: 2ca. object of length 1, to a C char.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Allow *note bytearray: 2ca. objects.

‘C’ (*note str: 15d. of length 1) [int]

     Convert a Python character, represented as a *note str: 15d. object
     of length 1, to a C int.

‘f’ (*note float: 272.) [float]

     Convert a Python floating-point number to a C float.

‘d’ (*note float: 272.) [double]

     Convert a Python floating-point number to a C double.

‘D’ (*note complex: 273.) [Py_complex]

     Convert a Python complex number to a C *note Py_complex: 4a5b.
     structure.


File: python.info,  Node: Other objects,  Next: API Functions,  Prev: Numbers,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.6.6.4 Other objects
.....................

‘O’ (object) [PyObject *]

     Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object
     pointer.  The C program thus receives the actual object that was
     passed.  A new *note strong reference: 5c1. to the object is not
     created (i.e.  its reference count is not increased).  The pointer
     stored is not ‘NULL’.

‘O!’ (object) ['typeobject', PyObject *]

     Store a Python object in a C object pointer.  This is similar to
     ‘O’, but takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a
     Python type object, the second is the address of the C variable (of
     type *note PyObject: 6eb.*) into which the object pointer is
     stored.  If the Python object does not have the required type,
     *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.

‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'address']

     Convert a Python object to a C variable through a 'converter'
     function.  This takes two arguments: the first is a function, the
     second is the address of a C variable (of arbitrary type),
     converted to void*.  The 'converter' function in turn is called as
     follows:

          status = converter(object, address);

     where 'object' is the Python object to be converted and 'address'
     is the void* argument that was passed to the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     function.  The returned 'status' should be ‘1’ for a successful
     conversion and ‘0’ if the conversion has failed.  When the
     conversion fails, the 'converter' function should raise an
     exception and leave the content of 'address' unmodified.

     If the 'converter' returns ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’, it may get
     called a second time if the argument parsing eventually fails,
     giving the converter a chance to release any memory that it had
     already allocated.  In this second call, the 'object' parameter
     will be ‘NULL’; 'address' will have the same value as in the
     original call.

     Examples of converters: *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b9f. and
     *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 310.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’ was added.

‘p’ (*note bool: 183.) [int]

     Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean 'p'redicate) and
     converts the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value.
     Sets the int to ‘1’ if the expression was true and ‘0’ if it was
     false.  This accepts any valid Python value.  See *note Doğruluk
     Değeri Testi: 1f4a. for more information about how Python tests
     values for truth.

     Added in version 3.3.

‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 4ff.) ['matching-items']

     The object must be a Python sequence whose length is the number of
     format units in 'items'.  The C arguments must correspond to the
     individual format units in 'items'.  Format units for sequences may
     be nested.

A few other characters have a meaning in a format string.  These may not
occur inside nested parentheses.  They are:

‘|’

     Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list
     are optional.  The C variables corresponding to optional arguments
     should be initialized to their default value — when an optional
     argument is not specified, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. does not
     touch the contents of the corresponding C variable(s).

‘$’

     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. only: Indicates that the
     remaining arguments in the Python argument list are keyword-only.
     Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional
     arguments, so ‘|’ must always be specified before ‘$’ in the format
     string.

     Added in version 3.3.

‘:’

     The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is
     used as the function name in error messages (the “associated value”
     of the exception that *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. raises).

‘;’

     The list of format units ends here; the string after the semicolon
     is used as the error message 'instead' of the default error
     message.  ‘:’ and ‘;’ mutually exclude each other.

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller
are 'borrowed' references; do not release them (i.e.  do not decrement
their reference count)!

Additional arguments passed to these functions must be addresses of
variables whose type is determined by the format string; these are used
to store values from the input tuple.  There are a few cases, as
described in the list of format units above, where these parameters are
used as input values; they should match what is specified for the
corresponding format unit in that case.

For the conversion to succeed, the 'arg' object must match the format
and the format must be exhausted.  On success, the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
functions return true, otherwise they return false and raise an
appropriate exception.  When the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ functions fail due to
conversion failure in one of the format units, the variables at the
addresses corresponding to that and the following format units are left
untouched.


File: python.info,  Node: API Functions,  Prev: Other objects,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.6.6.5 API Functions
.....................

 -- C Işlevi: int PyArg_ParseTuple (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes only positional parameters into local
     variables.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false
     and raises the appropriate exception.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyArg_VaParse (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308, except that it accepts a va_list rather
     than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args, PyObject
          *kw, const char *format, char *keywords[], ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes both positional and keyword parameters into
     local variables.  The 'keywords' argument is a ‘NULL’-terminated
     array of keyword parameter names.  Empty names denote *note
     positional-only parameters: 8ea.  Returns true on success; on
     failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Added support for *note positional-only
     parameters: 8ea.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args,
          PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *keywords[], va_list
          vargs)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b, except that it accepts a
     va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (PyObject*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Ensure that the keys in the
     keywords argument dictionary are strings.  This is only needed if
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b. is not used, since the
     latter already does this check.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyArg_Parse (PyObject *args, const char *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Function used to
     deconstruct the argument lists of “old-style” functions — these are
     functions which use the ‘METH_OLDARGS’ parameter parsing method,
     which has been removed in Python 3.  This is not recommended for
     use in parameter parsing in new code, and most code in the standard
     interpreter has been modified to no longer use this for that
     purpose.  It does remain a convenient way to decompose other
     tuples, however, and may continue to be used for that purpose.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyArg_UnpackTuple (PyObject *args, const char *name,
          Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  A simpler form of parameter
     retrieval which does not use a format string to specify the types
     of the arguments.  Functions which use this method to retrieve
     their parameters should be declared as *note METH_VARARGS: 1397. in
     function or method tables.  The tuple containing the actual
     parameters should be passed as 'args'; it must actually be a tuple.
     The length of the tuple must be at least 'min' and no more than
     'max'; 'min' and 'max' may be equal.  Additional arguments must be
     passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a
     *note PyObject: 6eb.* variable; these will be filled in with the
     values from 'args'; they will contain *note borrowed references:
     4869.  The variables which correspond to optional parameters not
     given by 'args' will not be filled in; these should be initialized
     by the caller.  This function returns true on success and false if
     'args' is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an
     exception will be set if there was a failure.

     This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the
     sources for the ‘_weakref’ helper module for weak references:

          static PyObject *
          weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
          {
              PyObject *object;
              PyObject *callback = NULL;
              PyObject *result = NULL;

              if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) {
                  result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback);
              }
              return result;
          }

     The call to *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 1395. in this example is
     entirely equivalent to this call to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.:

          PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback)


File: python.info,  Node: Building values,  Prev: Parsing arguments<2>,  Up: Parsing arguments and building values

7.6.6.6 Building values
.......................

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_BuildValue (const char *format,
          ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a new value based on a format string similar to those
     accepted by the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ family of functions and a sequence
     of values.  Returns the value or ‘NULL’ in the case of an error; an
     exception will be raised if ‘NULL’ is returned.

     *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. does not always build a tuple.  It
     builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more
     format units.  If the format string is empty, it returns ‘None’; if
     it contains exactly one format unit, it returns whatever object is
     described by that format unit.  To force it to return a tuple of
     size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

     When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to
     build objects, as for the ‘s’ and ‘s#’ formats, the required data
     is copied.  Buffers provided by the caller are never referenced by
     the objects created by *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5.  In other words,
     if your code invokes ‘malloc()’ and passes the allocated memory to
     *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5, your code is responsible for calling
     ‘free()’ for that memory once *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. returns.

     In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit;
     the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that the
     format unit will return; and the entry in [square] brackets is the
     type of the C value(s) to be passed.

     The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format
     strings (but not within format units such as ‘s#’).  This can be
     used to make long format strings a tad more readable.

     ‘s’ (*note str: 15d. or ‘None’) [const char *]

          Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python *note str: 15d.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is used.

     ‘s#’ (*note str: 15d. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

          Convert a C string and its length to a Python *note str: 15d.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y’ (*note bytes: 2cb.) [const char *]

          This converts a C string to a Python *note bytes: 2cb. object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y#’ (*note bytes: 2cb.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

          This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘z’ (*note str: 15d. or ‘None’) [const char *]

          Same as ‘s’.

     ‘z#’ (*note str: 15d. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

          Same as ‘s#’.

     ‘u’ (*note str: 15d.) [const wchar_t *]

          Convert a null-terminated ‘wchar_t’ buffer of Unicode (UTF-16
          or UCS-4) data to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode
          buffer pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘u#’ (*note str: 15d.) [const wchar_t *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

          Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length
          to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode buffer pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘U’ (*note str: 15d. or ‘None’) [const char *]

          Same as ‘s’.

     ‘U#’ (*note str: 15d. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

          Same as ‘s#’.

     ‘i’ (*note int: 184.) [int]

          Convert a plain C int to a Python integer object.

     ‘b’ (*note int: 184.) [char]

          Convert a plain C char to a Python integer object.

     ‘h’ (*note int: 184.) [short int]

          Convert a plain C short int to a Python integer object.

     ‘l’ (*note int: 184.) [long int]

          Convert a C long int to a Python integer object.

     ‘B’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned char]

          Convert a C unsigned char to a Python integer object.

     ‘H’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned short int]

          Convert a C unsigned short int to a Python integer object.

     ‘I’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned int]

          Convert a C unsigned int to a Python integer object.

     ‘k’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned long]

          Convert a C unsigned long to a Python integer object.

     ‘L’ (*note int: 184.) [long long]

          Convert a C long long to a Python integer object.

     ‘K’ (*note int: 184.) [unsigned long long]

          Convert a C unsigned long long to a Python integer object.

     ‘n’ (*note int: 184.) [*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.]

          Convert a C *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. to a Python integer.

     ‘c’ (*note bytes: 2cb. of length 1) [char]

          Convert a C int representing a byte to a Python *note bytes:
          2cb. object of length 1.

     ‘C’ (*note str: 15d. of length 1) [int]

          Convert a C int representing a character to Python *note str:
          15d. object of length 1.

     ‘d’ (*note float: 272.) [double]

          Convert a C double to a Python floating-point number.

     ‘f’ (*note float: 272.) [float]

          Convert a C float to a Python floating-point number.

     ‘D’ (*note complex: 273.) [Py_complex *]

          Convert a C *note Py_complex: 4a5b. structure to a Python
          complex number.

     ‘O’ (object) [PyObject *]

          Pass a Python object untouched but create a new *note strong
          reference: 5c1. to it (i.e.  its reference count is
          incremented by one).  If the object passed in is a ‘NULL’
          pointer, it is assumed that this was caused because the call
          producing the argument found an error and set an exception.
          Therefore, *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. will return ‘NULL’ but
          won’t raise an exception.  If no exception has been raised
          yet, *note SystemError: 30e. is set.

     ‘S’ (object) [PyObject *]

          Same as ‘O’.

     ‘N’ (object) [PyObject *]

          Same as ‘O’, except it doesn’t create a new *note strong
          reference: 5c1.  Useful when the object is created by a call
          to an object constructor in the argument list.

     ‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'anything']

          Convert 'anything' to a Python object through a 'converter'
          function.  The function is called with 'anything' (which
          should be compatible with void*) as its argument and should
          return a “new” Python object, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     ‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 4ff.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same
          number of items.

     ‘[items]’ (*note list: 422.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same
          number of items.

     ‘{items}’ (*note dict: 240.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary.  Each
          pair of consecutive C values adds one item to the dictionary,
          serving as key and value, respectively.

     If there is an error in the format string, the *note SystemError:
     30e. exception is set and ‘NULL’ returned.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_VaBuildValue (const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Identical to *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5, except that it
     accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: String conversion and formatting,  Next: PyHash API,  Prev: Parsing arguments and building values,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.7 String conversion and formatting
--------------------------------------

Functions for number conversion and formatted string output.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyOS_snprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, ...)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Output not more than 'size'
     bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the
     extra arguments.  See the Unix man page ‘snprintf(3)(1)’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyOS_vsnprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, va_list va)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Output not more than 'size'
     bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the
     variable argument list 'va'.  Unix man page ‘vsnprintf(3)(2)’.

*note PyOS_snprintf(): 1398. and *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 1399. wrap the
Standard C library functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’.  Their
purpose is to guarantee consistent behavior in corner cases, which the
Standard C functions do not.

The wrappers ensure that ‘str[size-1]’ is always ‘'\0'’ upon return.
They never write more than 'size' bytes (including the trailing ‘'\0'’)
into str.  Both functions require that ‘str != NULL’, ‘size > 0’,
‘format != NULL’ and ‘size < INT_MAX’.  Note that this means there is no
equivalent to the C99 ‘n = snprintf(NULL, 0, ...)’ which would determine
the necessary buffer size.

The return value ('rv') for these functions should be interpreted as
follows:

   * When ‘0 <= rv < size’, the output conversion was successful and
     'rv' characters were written to 'str' (excluding the trailing
     ‘'\0'’ byte at ‘str[rv]’).

   * When ‘rv >= size’, the output conversion was truncated and a buffer
     with ‘rv + 1’ bytes would have been needed to succeed.
     ‘str[size-1]’ is ‘'\0'’ in this case.

   * When ‘rv < 0’, “something bad happened.” ‘str[size-1]’ is ‘'\0'’ in
     this case too, but the rest of 'str' is undefined.  The exact cause
     of the error depends on the underlying platform.

The following functions provide locale-independent string to number
conversions.

 -- C Işlevi: unsigned long PyOS_strtoul (const char *str, char **ptr,
          int base)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an unsigned long value according to the
     given ‘base’, which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be
     the special value ‘0’.

     Leading white space and case of characters are ignored.  If ‘base’
     is zero it looks for a leading ‘0b’, ‘0o’ or ‘0x’ to tell which
     base.  If these are absent it defaults to ‘10’.  Base must be 0 or
     between 2 and 36 (inclusive).  If ‘ptr’ is non-‘NULL’ it will
     contain a pointer to the end of the scan.

     If the converted value falls out of range of corresponding return
     type, range error occurs (‘errno’ is set to ‘ERANGE’) and
     ‘ULONG_MAX’ is returned.  If no conversion can be performed, ‘0’ is
     returned.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtoul(3)(3)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: long PyOS_strtol (const char *str, char **ptr, int base)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an long value according to the given ‘base’,
     which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be the special
     value ‘0’.

     Same as *note PyOS_strtoul(): 494a, but return a long value instead
     and ‘LONG_MAX’ on overflows.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtol(3)(4)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyOS_string_to_double (const char *s, char
          **endptr, PyObject *overflow_exception)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Convert a string ‘s’ to a
     double, raising a Python exception on failure.  The set of accepted
     strings corresponds to the set of strings accepted by Python’s
     *note float(): 272. constructor, except that ‘s’ must not have
     leading or trailing whitespace.  The conversion is independent of
     the current locale.

     If ‘endptr’ is ‘NULL’, convert the whole string.  Raise *note
     ValueError: 189. and return ‘-1.0’ if the string is not a valid
     representation of a floating-point number.

     If endptr is not ‘NULL’, convert as much of the string as possible
     and set ‘*endptr’ to point to the first unconverted character.  If
     no initial segment of the string is the valid representation of a
     floating-point number, set ‘*endptr’ to point to the beginning of
     the string, raise ValueError, and return ‘-1.0’.

     If ‘s’ represents a value that is too large to store in a float
     (for example, ‘"1e500"’ is such a string on many platforms) then if
     ‘overflow_exception’ is ‘NULL’ return ‘Py_HUGE_VAL’ (with an
     appropriate sign) and don’t set any exception.  Otherwise,
     ‘overflow_exception’ must point to a Python exception object; raise
     that exception and return ‘-1.0’.  In both cases, set ‘*endptr’ to
     point to the first character after the converted value.

     If any other error occurs during the conversion (for example an
     out-of-memory error), set the appropriate Python exception and
     return ‘-1.0’.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Işlevi: char *PyOS_double_to_string (double val, char format_code,
          int precision, int flags, int *ptype)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Convert a double 'val' to a
     string using supplied 'format_code', 'precision', and 'flags'.

     'format_code' must be one of ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’,
     ‘'G'’ or ‘'r'’.  For ‘'r'’, the supplied 'precision' must be 0 and
     is ignored.  The ‘'r'’ format code specifies the standard *note
     repr(): 637. format.

     'flags' can be zero or more of the values ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’,
     ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’, or ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’, or-ed together:

        * ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’ means to always precede the returned string
          with a sign character, even if 'val' is non-negative.

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’ means to ensure that the returned string
          will not look like an integer.

        * ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’ means to apply “alternate” formatting rules.
          See the documentation for the *note PyOS_snprintf(): 1398.
          ‘'#'’ specifier for details.

     If 'ptype' is non-‘NULL’, then the value it points to will be set
     to one of ‘Py_DTST_FINITE’, ‘Py_DTST_INFINITE’, or ‘Py_DTST_NAN’,
     signifying that 'val' is a finite number, an infinite number, or
     not a number, respectively.

     The return value is a pointer to 'buffer' with the converted string
     or ‘NULL’ if the conversion failed.  The caller is responsible for
     freeing the returned string by calling *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyOS_stricmp (const char *s1, const char *s2)

     Case insensitive comparison of strings.  The function works almost
     identically to ‘strcmp()’ except that it ignores the case.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyOS_strnicmp (const char *s1, const char *s2,
          Py_ssize_t size)

     Case insensitive comparison of strings.  The function works almost
     identically to ‘strncmp()’ except that it ignores the case.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/snprintf(3)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsnprintf(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/strtoul(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/strtol(3)


File: python.info,  Node: PyHash API,  Next: Reflection,  Prev: String conversion and formatting,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.8 PyHash API
----------------

See also the *note PyTypeObject.tp_hash: 4830. member.

 -- C Türü: type Py_hash_t

     Hash value type: signed integer.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Türü: type Py_uhash_t

     Hash value type: unsigned integer.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Türü: type PyHash_FuncDef

     Hash function definition used by *note PyHash_GetFuncDef(): 4a6a.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *name

          Hash function name (UTF-8 encoded string).

      -- C Üyesi: const int hash_bits

          Internal size of the hash value in bits.

      -- C Üyesi: const int seed_bits

          Size of seed input in bits.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyHash_FuncDef: 4a69. *PyHash_GetFuncDef (void)

     Get the hash function definition.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     PEP 456(1) “Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm”.

     Added in version 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/


File: python.info,  Node: Reflection,  Next: Codec registry and support functions,  Prev: PyHash API,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.9 Reflection
----------------

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyEval_GetBuiltins (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a dictionary of the builtins in the
     current execution frame, or the interpreter of the thread state if
     no frame is currently executing.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyEval_GetLocals (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a dictionary of the local variables in
     the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently
     executing.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyEval_GetGlobals (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a dictionary of the global variables in
     the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently
     executing.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. *PyEval_GetFrame (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the current thread state’s frame, which
     is ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing.

     See also *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 5c0.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyEval_GetFuncName (PyObject *func)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the name of 'func'
     if it is a function, class or instance object, else the name of
     'func's type.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyEval_GetFuncDesc (PyObject *func)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a description
     string, depending on the type of 'func'.  Return values include
     “()” for functions and methods, “ constructor”, “ instance”, and “
     object”.  Concatenated with the result of *note
     PyEval_GetFuncName(): 48e0, the result will be a description of
     'func'.


File: python.info,  Node: Codec registry and support functions,  Next: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: Reflection,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.10 Codec registry and support functions
-------------------------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCodec_Register (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Register a new codec search
     function.

     As side effect, this tries to load the ‘encodings’ package, if not
     yet done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of
     search functions.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCodec_Unregister (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry’s cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.  Return 0 on
     success.  Raise an exception and return -1 on error.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCodec_KnownEncoding (const char *encoding)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending
     on whether there is a registered codec for the given 'encoding'.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_Encode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Generic codec based encoding API.

     'object' is passed through the encoder function found for the given
     'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'.
     'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the
     codec.  Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. if no encoder can be
     found.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_Decode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Generic codec based decoding API.

     'object' is passed through the decoder function found for the given
     'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'.
     'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the
     codec.  Raises a *note LookupError: 1fbf. if no encoder can be
     found.

* Menu:

* Codec lookup API::
* Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers::


File: python.info,  Node: Codec lookup API,  Next: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers,  Up: Codec registry and support functions

7.6.10.1 Codec lookup API
.........................

In the following functions, the 'encoding' string is looked up converted
to all lower-case characters, which makes encodings looked up through
this mechanism effectively case-insensitive.  If no codec is found, a
*note KeyError: 903. is set and ‘NULL’ returned.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_Encoder (const char
          *encoding)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Get an encoder function for the given 'encoding'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_Decoder (const char
          *encoding)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Get a decoder function for the given 'encoding'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (const
          char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Get an *note IncrementalEncoder: 21b8. object for the given
     'encoding'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (const
          char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Get an *note IncrementalDecoder: 21b9. object for the given
     'encoding'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_StreamReader (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Get a *note StreamReader: 21bd. factory function for the
     given 'encoding'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_StreamWriter (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Get a *note StreamWriter: 21bc. factory function for the
     given 'encoding'.


File: python.info,  Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers,  Prev: Codec lookup API,  Up: Codec registry and support functions

7.6.10.2 Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers
.........................................................

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCodec_RegisterError (const char *name, PyObject
          *error)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Register the error handling
     callback function 'error' under the given 'name'.  This callback
     function will be called by a codec when it encounters unencodable
     characters/undecodable bytes and 'name' is specified as the error
     parameter in the call to the encode/decode function.

     The callback gets a single argument, an instance of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: 48b, *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873. or *note
     UnicodeTranslateError: 208f. that holds information about the
     problematic sequence of characters or bytes and their offset in the
     original string (see *note Unicode Exception Objects: 4a31. for
     functions to extract this information).  The callback must either
     raise the given exception, or return a two-item tuple containing
     the replacement for the problematic sequence, and an integer giving
     the offset in the original string at which encoding/decoding should
     be resumed.

     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_LookupError (const char
          *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Lookup the error handling callback function registered under
     'name'.  As a special case ‘NULL’ can be passed, in which case the
     error handling callback for “strict” will be returned.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_StrictErrors (PyObject *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Her zaman NULL.'' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Raise 'exc' as an exception.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (PyObject *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Ignore the unicode error, skipping the faulty input.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Replace the unicode encode error with ‘?’ or ‘U+FFFD’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Replace the unicode encode error with XML character
     references.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Replace the unicode encode error with backslash escapes
     (‘\x’, ‘\u’ and ‘\U’).

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Replace the unicode encode error with
     ‘\N{...}’ escapes.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: Codec registry and support functions,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.6.11 Support for Perf Maps
----------------------------

On supported platforms (as of this writing, only Linux), the runtime can
take advantage of 'perf map files' to make Python functions visible to
an external profiling tool (such as perf(1)).  A running process may
create a file in the ‘/tmp’ directory, which contains entries that can
map a section of executable code to a name.  This interface is described
in the documentation of the Linux Perf tool(2).

In Python, these helper APIs can be used by libraries and features that
rely on generating machine code on the fly.

Note that holding the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is not required for
these APIs.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (void)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Open the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file, unless it’s already opened, and
     create a lock to ensure thread-safe writes to the file (provided
     the writes are done through *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     1554.).  Normally, there’s no need to call this explicitly; just
     use *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(): 1554. and it will
     initialize the state on first call.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure to create/open the perf map
     file, or ‘-2’ on failure to create a lock.  Check ‘errno’ for more
     information about the cause of a failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (const void *code_addr,
          unsigned int code_size, const char *entry_name)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Write one single entry to the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file.  This
     function is thread safe.  Here is what an example entry looks like:

          # address      size  name
          7f3529fcf759 b     py::bar:/run/t.py

     Will call *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1555. before
     writing the entry, if the perf map file is not already opened.
     Returns ‘0’ on success, or the same error codes as *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1555. on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (void)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Close the perf map file opened by *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1555.  This is called by the
     runtime itself during interpreter shut-down.  In general, there
     shouldn’t be a reason to explicitly call this, except to handle
     specific scenarios such as forking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page

   (2) 
https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/tools/perf/Documentation/jit-interface.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract Objects Layer,  Next: Concrete Objects Layer,  Prev: Utilities<2>,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.7 Abstract Objects Layer
==========================

The functions in this chapter interact with Python objects regardless of
their type, or with wide classes of object types (e.g.  all numerical
types, or all sequence types).  When used on object types for which they
do not apply, they will raise a Python exception.

It is not possible to use these functions on objects that are not
properly initialized, such as a list object that has been created by
*note PyList_New(): 486b, but whose items have not been set to some
non-‘NULL’ value yet.

* Menu:

* Object Protocol::
* Call Protocol::
* Number Protocol::
* Sequence Protocol::
* Mapping Protocol::
* Iterator Protocol::
* Buffer Protocol::
* Old Buffer Protocol::


File: python.info,  Node: Object Protocol,  Next: Call Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.1 Object Protocol
---------------------

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_NotImplemented

     The ‘NotImplemented’ singleton, used to signal that an operation is
     not implemented for the given type combination.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED

     Properly handle returning *note Py_NotImplemented: 4a7d. from
     within a C function (that is, create a new *note strong reference:
     5c1. to *note NotImplemented: 60b. and return it).

 -- C Makrosu: Py_PRINT_RAW

     Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like
     *note PyObject_Print(): 1893. and *note PyFile_WriteObject():
     48ee.).  If passed, these function would use the *note str(): 15d.
     of the object instead of the *note repr(): 637.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_Print (PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags)

     Print an object 'o', on file 'fp'.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.  The
     flags argument is used to enable certain printing options.  The
     only option currently supported is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4a7f.; if
     given, the *note str(): 15d. of the object is written instead of
     the *note repr(): 637.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_HasAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns ‘1’ if 'o' has the
     attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘hasattr(o, attr_name)’.  This function
     always succeeds.

          Not: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 201. and *note __getattribute__(): a49. methods
          are silently ignored.  For proper error handling, use *note
          PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a. instead.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_HasAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_HasAttr(): 495c, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     6eb.*.

          Not: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 201. and *note __getattribute__(): a49. methods
          or while creating the temporary *note str: 15d. object are
          silently ignored.  For proper error handling, use *note
          PyObject_GetAttrString(): 47ec. instead.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_GetAttr (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *attr_name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Retrieve an attribute named 'attr_name' from object 'o'.
     Returns the attribute value on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o.attr_name’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_GetAttrString (PyObject *o,
          const char *attr_name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is the same as *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a, but
     'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes
     string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_GenericGetAttr (PyObject
          *o, PyObject *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Generic attribute getter function that is meant to be put
     into a type object’s ‘tp_getattro’ slot.  It looks for a descriptor
     in the dictionary of classes in the object’s MRO as well as an
     attribute in the object’s *note __dict__: 2ec. (if present).  As
     outlined in *note Implementing Descriptors: acb, data descriptors
     take preference over instance attributes, while non-data
     descriptors don’t.  Otherwise, an *note AttributeError: 3dc. is
     raised.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_SetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the value of the
     attribute named 'attr_name', for object 'o', to the value 'v'.
     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return ‘0’ on
     success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o.attr_name = v’.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted.  This behaviour is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 4a80, but
     there are currently no plans to remove it.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_SetAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name, PyObject *v)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 4961, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     6eb.*.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1449.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren’t known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 49cb.
     and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4961. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1446, which may be used
     internally to create a key object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Generic attribute setter
     and deleter function that is meant to be put into a type object’s
     *note tp_setattro: 4822. slot.  It looks for a data descriptor in
     the dictionary of classes in the object’s MRO, and if found it
     takes preference over setting or deleting the attribute in the
     instance dictionary.  Otherwise, the attribute is set or deleted in
     the object’s *note __dict__: 2ec. (if present).  On success, ‘0’ is
     returned, otherwise an *note AttributeError: 3dc. is raised and
     ‘-1’ is returned.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_DelAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)

     Delete attribute named 'attr_name', for object 'o'.  Returns ‘-1’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del
     o.attr_name’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_DelAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)

     This is the same as *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 4a80, but 'attr_name'
     is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather
     than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren’t known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 49cb.
     and *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 4a80. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1446, which may be used
     internally to create a key object for lookup.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_GenericGetDict (PyObject
          *o, void *context)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  A generic implementation for the
     getter of a ‘__dict__’ descriptor.  It creates the dictionary if
     necessary.

     This function may also be called to get the *note __dict__: 2ec. of
     the object 'o'.  Pass ‘NULL’ for 'context' when calling it.  Since
     this function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

     On failure, returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_GenericSetDict (PyObject *o, PyObject *value,
          void *context)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  A
     generic implementation for the setter of a ‘__dict__’ descriptor.
     This implementation does not allow the dictionary to be deleted.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **_PyObject_GetDictPtr (PyObject
          *obj)

     Return a pointer to *note __dict__: 2ec. of the object 'obj'.  If
     there is no ‘__dict__’, return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     This function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_RichCompare (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, int opid)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Compare the values of 'o1' and 'o2' using the operation
     specified by 'opid', which must be one of *note Py_LT: 4a82, *note
     Py_LE: 4a83, *note Py_EQ: 4a84, *note Py_NE: 4a85, *note Py_GT:
     4a86, or *note Py_GE: 4a87, corresponding to ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘==’, ‘!=’,
     ‘>’, or ‘>=’ respectively.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 op o2’, where ‘op’ is the operator corresponding to
     'opid'.  Returns the value of the comparison on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_RichCompareBool (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2,
          int opid)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Compare the values of 'o1'
     and 'o2' using the operation specified by 'opid', like *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 482b, but returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ if the
     result is false, ‘1’ otherwise.

     Not: If 'o1' and 'o2' are the same object, *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 17d5. will always return ‘1’ for *note
     Py_EQ: 4a84. and ‘0’ for *note Py_NE: 4a85.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Format (PyObject *obj,
          PyObject *format_spec)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Format 'obj' using
     'format_spec'.  This is equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘format(obj, format_spec)’.

     'format_spec' may be ‘NULL’.  In this case the call is equivalent
     to ‘format(obj)’.  Returns the formatted string on success, ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Repr (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Compute a string representation of object 'o'.  Returns the string
     representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘repr(o)’.  Called by the *note
     repr(): 637. built-in function.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: This function now includes a debug assertion
     to help ensure that it does not silently discard an active
     exception.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_ASCII (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     As *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7, compute a string representation of
     object 'o', but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string
     returned by *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7. with ‘\x’, ‘\u’ or ‘\U’
     escapes.  This generates a string similar to that returned by *note
     PyObject_Repr(): ed7. in Python 2.  Called by the *note ascii():
     126d. built-in function.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Str (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Compute a string representation of object 'o'.  Returns the
     string representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘str(o)’.  Called by the *note
     str(): 15d. built-in function and, therefore, by the *note print():
     e16. function.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: This function now includes a debug assertion
     to help ensure that it does not silently discard an active
     exception.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Bytes (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Compute a bytes representation of object 'o'.  ‘NULL’ is returned
     on failure and a bytes object on success.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘bytes(o)’, when 'o' is not an integer.
     Unlike ‘bytes(o)’, a TypeError is raised when 'o' is an integer
     instead of a zero-initialized bytes object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_IsSubclass (PyObject *derived, PyObject *cls)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if the class
     'derived' is identical to or derived from the class 'cls',
     otherwise return ‘0’.  In case of an error, return ‘-1’.

     If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in
     'cls'.  The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks
     returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d6c. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(1).  Otherwise, 'derived' is a subclass of 'cls' if it is a
     direct or indirect subclass, i.e.  contained in *note cls.__mro__:
     1d17.

     Normally only class objects, i.e.  instances of *note type: bd1. or
     a derived class, are considered classes.  However, objects can
     override this by having a *note __bases__: 1337. attribute (which
     must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_IsInstance (PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if 'inst' is an
     instance of the class 'cls' or a subclass of 'cls', or ‘0’ if not.
     On error, returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception.

     If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in
     'cls'.  The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks
     returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __instancecheck__(): 1d6b. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(2).  Otherwise, 'inst' is an instance of 'cls' if its class is
     a subclass of 'cls'.

     An instance 'inst' can override what is considered its class by
     having a *note __class__: 1338. attribute.

     An object 'cls' can override if it is considered a class, and what
     its base classes are, by having a *note __bases__: 1337. attribute
     (which must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_hash_t: 110c. PyObject_Hash (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Compute and return the hash value of an object 'o'.  On failure,
     return ‘-1’.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘hash(o)’.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The return type is now Py_hash_t.  This is a
     signed integer the same size as *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_hash_t: 110c. PyObject_HashNotImplemented
          (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set a *note TypeError: 2c4.
     indicating that ‘type(o)’ is not *note hashable: 421. and return
     ‘-1’.  This function receives special treatment when stored in a
     ‘tp_hash’ slot, allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the
     interpreter that it is not hashable.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_IsTrue (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object
     'o' is considered to be true, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘not not o’.  On failure,
     return ‘-1’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_Not (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns ‘0’ if the object
     'o' is considered to be true, and ‘1’ otherwise.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘not o’.  On failure, return
     ‘-1’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Type (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     When 'o' is non-‘NULL’, returns a type object corresponding to the
     object type of object 'o'.  On failure, raises *note SystemError:
     30e. and returns ‘NULL’.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘type(o)’.  This function creates a new *note strong
     reference: 5c1. to the return value.  There’s really no reason to
     use this function instead of the *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0. function,
     which returns a pointer of type *note PyTypeObject: 911.*, except
     when a new *note strong reference: 5c1. is needed.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_TypeCheck (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is of type 'type' or a subtype of
     'type', and ‘0’ otherwise.  Both parameters must be non-‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyObject_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyObject_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the length of object 'o'.  If the object 'o' provides either
     the sequence and mapping protocols, the sequence length is
     returned.  On error, ‘-1’ is returned.  This is the equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyObject_LengthHint (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t defaultvalue)

     Return an estimated length for the object 'o'.  First try to return
     its actual length, then an estimate using *note __length_hint__():
     da3, and finally return the default value.  On error return ‘-1’.
     This is the equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘operator.length_hint(o, defaultvalue)’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *key)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return element of 'o' corresponding to the object 'key' or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o[key]’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_SetItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key, PyObject
          *v)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Map the object 'key' to the
     value 'v'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return
     ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o[key] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a reference to 'v'.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Remove the mapping for the
     object 'key' from the object 'o'.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     equivalent to the Python statement ‘del o[key]’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 4953, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Dir (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘dir(o)’,
     returning a (possibly empty) list of strings appropriate for the
     object argument, or ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  If the argument
     is ‘NULL’, this is like the Python ‘dir()’, returning the names of
     the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame is active
     then ‘NULL’ is returned but *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. will
     return false.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_GetIter (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘iter(o)’.  It
     returns a new iterator for the object argument, or the object
     itself if the object is already an iterator.  Raises *note
     TypeError: 2c4. and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be
     iterated.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_SelfIter (PyObject *obj)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is equivalent to the Python ‘__iter__(self): return
     self’ method.  It is intended for *note iterator: 176e. types, to
     be used in the *note PyTypeObject.tp_iter: 137b. slot.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_GetAIter (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  This is the equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘aiter(o)’.  Takes an ‘AsyncIterable’ object and returns
     an ‘AsyncIterator’ for it.  This is typically a new iterator but if
     the argument is an ‘AsyncIterator’, this returns itself.  Raises
     *note TypeError: 2c4. and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be
     iterated.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyObject_GetTypeData (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject
          *cls)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Get a
     pointer to subclass-specific data reserved for 'cls'.

     The object 'o' must be an instance of 'cls', and 'cls' must have
     been created using negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6.
     Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyType_GetTypeDataSize
          (PyTypeObject *cls)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'
     Return the size of the instance memory space reserved for 'cls',
     i.e.  the size of the memory *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2d7.
     returns.

     This may be larger than requested using *note
     -PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6.; it is safe to use this larger size
     (e.g.  with ‘memset()’).

     The type 'cls' 'must' have been created using negative *note
     PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6.  Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return a negative value.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyObject_GetItemData (PyObject *o)

     Get a pointer to per-item data for a class with *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2d9.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note TypeError:
     2c4. is raised if 'o' does not have *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END:
     2d9. set.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: Call Protocol,  Next: Number Protocol,  Prev: Object Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.2 Call Protocol
-------------------

CPython supports two different calling protocols: 'tp_call' and
vectorcall.

* Menu:

* The tp_call Protocol::
* The Vectorcall Protocol::
* Object Calling API::
* Call Support API::


File: python.info,  Node: The tp_call Protocol,  Next: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.1 The 'tp_call' Protocol
..............................

Instances of classes that set *note tp_call: 2e9. are callable.  The
signature of the slot is:

     PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

A call is made using a tuple for the positional arguments and a dict for
the keyword arguments, similarly to ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’ in
Python code.  'args' must be non-NULL (use an empty tuple if there are
no arguments) but 'kwargs' may be 'NULL' if there are no keyword
arguments.

This convention is not only used by 'tp_call': *note tp_new: 318. and
*note tp_init: 31a. also pass arguments this way.

To call an object, use *note PyObject_Call(): 7c1. or another *note call
API: 4a8b.


File: python.info,  Node: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Next: Object Calling API,  Prev: The tp_call Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.2 The Vectorcall Protocol
...............................

Added in version 3.9.

The vectorcall protocol was introduced in PEP 590(1) as an additional
protocol for making calls more efficient.

As rule of thumb, CPython will prefer the vectorcall for internal calls
if the callable supports it.  However, this is not a hard rule.
Additionally, some third-party extensions use 'tp_call' directly (rather
than using *note PyObject_Call(): 7c1.).  Therefore, a class supporting
vectorcall must also implement *note tp_call: 2e9.  Moreover, the
callable must behave the same regardless of which protocol is used.  The
recommended way to achieve this is by setting *note tp_call: 2e9. to
*note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2e5.  This bears repeating:

     Uyarı: A class supporting vectorcall 'must' also implement *note
     tp_call: 2e9. with the same semantics.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag
is now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 2e7.
method is reassigned.  (This internally sets *note tp_call: 2e9. only,
and thus may make it behave differently than the vectorcall function.)
In earlier Python versions, vectorcall should only be used with *note
immutable: 2e8. or static types.

A class should not implement vectorcall if that would be slower than
'tp_call'.  For example, if the callee needs to convert the arguments to
an args tuple and kwargs dict anyway, then there is no point in
implementing vectorcall.

Classes can implement the vectorcall protocol by enabling the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag and setting *note
tp_vectorcall_offset: 4a8d. to the offset inside the object structure
where a 'vectorcallfunc' appears.  This is a pointer to a function with
the following signature:

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*vectorcallfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6eb. *callable, *note PyObject: 6eb. *const *args,
          size_t nargsf, *note PyObject: 6eb. *kwnames)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'

   - 'callable' is the object being called.

   - 
     'args' is a C array consisting of the positional arguments followed by the

          values of the keyword arguments.  This can be 'NULL' if there
          are no arguments.

   - 
     'nargsf' is the number of positional arguments plus possibly the

          *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2ef. flag.  To get the
          actual number of positional arguments from 'nargsf', use *note
          PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 2e4.

   - 
     'kwnames' is a tuple containing the names of the keyword arguments;

          in other words, the keys of the kwargs dict.  These names must
          be strings (instances of ‘str’ or a subclass) and they must be
          unique.  If there are no keyword arguments, then 'kwnames' can
          instead be 'NULL'.

 -- C Makrosu: PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  If
     this flag is set in a vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, the callee is
     allowed to temporarily change ‘args[-1]’.  In other words, 'args'
     points to argument 1 (not 0) in the allocated vector.  The callee
     must restore the value of ‘args[-1]’ before returning.

     For *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2ee, this flag means instead
     that ‘args[0]’ may be changed.

     Whenever they can do so cheaply (without additional allocation),
     callers are encouraged to use *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET:
     2ef.  Doing so will allow callables such as bound methods to make
     their onward calls (which include a prepended 'self' argument) very
     efficiently.

     Added in version 3.8.

To call an object that implements vectorcall, use a *note call API:
4a8b. function as with any other callable.  *note PyObject_Vectorcall():
2ed. will usually be most efficient.

     Not: In CPython 3.8, the vectorcall API and related functions were
     available provisionally under names with a leading underscore:
     ‘_PyObject_Vectorcall’, ‘_Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’,
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod’, ‘_PyVectorcall_Function’,
     ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg’, ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs’,
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg’.  Additionally,
     ‘PyObject_VectorcallDict’ was available as
     ‘_PyObject_FastCallDict’.  The old names are still defined as
     aliases of the new, non-underscored names.

* Menu:

* Recursion Control: Recursion Control<2>.
* Vectorcall Support API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Recursion Control<2>,  Next: Vectorcall Support API,  Up: The Vectorcall Protocol

7.7.2.3 Recursion Control
.........................

When using 'tp_call', callees do not need to worry about *note
recursion: 4a32.: CPython uses *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 7d1. and
*note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 7d2. for calls made using 'tp_call'.

For efficiency, this is not the case for calls done using vectorcall:
the callee should use 'Py_EnterRecursiveCall' and
'Py_LeaveRecursiveCall' if needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Vectorcall Support API,  Prev: Recursion Control<2>,  Up: The Vectorcall Protocol

7.7.2.4 Vectorcall Support API
..............................

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyVectorcall_NARGS (size_t nargsf)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Given
     a vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, return the actual number of
     arguments.  Currently equivalent to:

          (Py_ssize_t)(nargsf & ~PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET)

     However, the function ‘PyVectorcall_NARGS’ should be used to allow
     for future extensions.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Işlevi: *note vectorcallfunc: 2e6. PyVectorcall_Function (PyObject
          *op)

     If 'op' does not support the vectorcall protocol (either because
     the type does not or because the specific instance does not),
     return 'NULL'. Otherwise, return the vectorcall function pointer
     stored in 'op'.  This function never raises an exception.

     This is mostly useful to check whether or not 'op' supports
     vectorcall, which can be done by checking
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function(op) != NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyVectorcall_Call (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *tuple, PyObject *dict)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Call
     'callable'’s *note vectorcallfunc: 2e6. with positional and keyword
     arguments given in a tuple and dict, respectively.

     This is a specialized function, intended to be put in the *note
     tp_call: 2e9. slot or be used in an implementation of ‘tp_call’.
     It does not check the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag
     and it does not fall back to ‘tp_call’.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Object Calling API,  Next: Call Support API,  Prev: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.5 Object Calling API
..........................

Various functions are available for calling a Python object.  Each
converts its arguments to a convention supported by the called object –
either 'tp_call' or vectorcall.  In order to do as little conversion as
possible, pick one that best fits the format of data you have available.

The following table summarizes the available functions; please see
individual documentation for details.

Function                                       callable               args                     kwargs
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Call(): 7c1.                    ‘PyObject *’           tuple                    dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 7d0.              ‘PyObject *’           —                        —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 7d6.              ‘PyObject *’           1 object                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1.             ‘PyObject *’           tuple/‘NULL’             —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunction(): 90d.            ‘PyObject *’           format                   —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 30b.              obj + ‘char*’          format                   —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4951.    ‘PyObject *’           variadic                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1836.      obj + name             variadic                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(): 4a92.       obj + name             —                        —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(): 4a93.       obj + name             1 object                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2ed.              ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallDict(): 4a94.         ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 2ee.        arg + name             vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Call (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with arguments
     given by the tuple 'args', and named arguments given by the
     dictionary 'kwargs'.

     'args' must not be 'NULL'; use an empty tuple if no arguments are
     needed.  If no named arguments are needed, 'kwargs' can be 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args,
     **kwargs)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallNoArgs (PyObject
          *callable)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Call a callable Python object
     'callable' without any arguments.  It is the most efficient way to
     call a callable Python object without any argument.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallOneArg (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *arg)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Call a callable Python object
     'callable' with exactly 1 positional argument 'arg' and no keyword
     arguments.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallObject (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *args)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with arguments
     given by the tuple 'args'.  If no arguments are needed, then 'args'
     can be 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallFunction (PyObject
          *callable, const char *format, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a variable
     number of C arguments.  The C arguments are described using a *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. style format string.  The format can be
     'NULL', indicating that no arguments are provided.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args)’.

     Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 6eb.* args, *note
     PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4951. is a faster alternative.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The type of 'format' was changed from ‘char
     *’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallMethod (PyObject *obj,
          const char *name, const char *format, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Call the method named 'name' of object 'obj' with a variable
     number of C arguments.  The C arguments are described by a *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. format string that should produce a tuple.

     The format can be 'NULL', indicating that no arguments are
     provided.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘obj.name(arg1,
     arg2, ...)’.

     Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 6eb.* args, *note
     PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1836. is a faster alternative.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The types of 'name' and 'format' were
     changed from ‘char *’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs
          (PyObject *callable, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a variable
     number of *note PyObject: 6eb.* arguments.  The arguments are
     provided as a variable number of parameters followed by 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(arg1,
     arg2, ...)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Call a method of the Python object 'obj', where the name of
     the method is given as a Python string object in 'name'.  It is
     called with a variable number of *note PyObject: 6eb.* arguments.
     The arguments are provided as a variable number of parameters
     followed by 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name)

     Call a method of the Python object 'obj' without arguments, where
     the name of the method is given as a Python string object in
     'name'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (PyObject
          *obj, PyObject *name, PyObject *arg)

     Call a method of the Python object 'obj' with a single positional
     argument 'arg', where the name of the method is given as a Python
     string object in 'name'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Vectorcall (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Call
     a callable Python object 'callable'.  The arguments are the same as
     for *note vectorcallfunc: 2e6.  If 'callable' supports *note
     vectorcall: 2e1, this directly calls the vectorcall function stored
     in 'callable'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_VectorcallDict (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwdict)

     Call 'callable' with positional arguments passed exactly as in the
     *note vectorcall: 2e1. protocol, but with keyword arguments passed
     as a dictionary 'kwdict'.  The 'args' array contains only the
     positional arguments.

     Regardless of which protocol is used internally, a conversion of
     arguments needs to be done.  Therefore, this function should only
     be used if the caller already has a dictionary ready to use for the
     keyword arguments, but not a tuple for the positional arguments.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_VectorcallMethod (PyObject
          *name, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'  Call
     a method using the vectorcall calling convention.  The name of the
     method is given as a Python string 'name'.  The object whose method
     is called is 'args[0]', and the 'args' array starting at 'args[1]'
     represents the arguments of the call.  There must be at least one
     positional argument.  'nargsf' is the number of positional
     arguments including 'args[0]', plus *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 2ef. if the value of ‘args[0]’ may
     temporarily be changed.  Keyword arguments can be passed just like
     in *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 2ed.

     If the object has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: 4a95.
     feature, this will call the unbound method object with the full
     'args' vector as arguments.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Call Support API,  Prev: Object Calling API,  Up: Call Protocol

7.7.2.6 Call Support API
........................

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCallable_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Determine if the object 'o'
     is callable.  Return ‘1’ if the object is callable and ‘0’
     otherwise.  This function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Number Protocol,  Next: Sequence Protocol,  Prev: Call Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.3 Number Protocol
---------------------

 -- C Işlevi: int PyNumber_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object
     'o' provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise.  This function
     always succeeds.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Add (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 +
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Subtract (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 -
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Multiply (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 *
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Returns the result of matrix
     multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 @ o2’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_FloorDivide (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the floor of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 //
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_TrueDivide (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value
     of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return value is
     “approximate” because binary floating-point numbers are
     approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in
     base two.  This function can return a floating-point value when
     passed two integers.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 / o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Remainder (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 %
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Divmod (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     See the built-in function *note divmod(): 7ff.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘divmod(o1, o2)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Power (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 830.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘pow(o1,
     o2, o3)’, where 'o3' is optional.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass
     *note Py_None: 47d6. in its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would
     cause an illegal memory access).

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Negative (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘-o’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Positive (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘+o’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Absolute (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Returns the absolute value of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘abs(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Invert (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the bitwise negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘~o’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Lshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success,
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 << o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Rshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o1 >> o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_And (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the “bitwise and” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 & o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Xor (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the “bitwise exclusive or” of 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o1 ^ o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Or (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the “bitwise or” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 | o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 += o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports
     it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 -= o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports
     it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 *= o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Returns the result of matrix
     multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The
     operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 @= o2’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the mathematical floor of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1
     //= o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value
     of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return value is
     “approximate” because binary floating-point numbers are
     approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in
     base two.  This function can return a floating-point value when
     passed two integers.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 /=
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 %= o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlacePower (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 830.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 **= o2’ when o3
     is *note Py_None: 47d6, or an in-place variant of ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’
     otherwise.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass *note Py_None: 47d6. in
     its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would cause an illegal memory
     access).

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success,
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1
     <<= o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place'
     when 'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o1 >>= o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the “bitwise and” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 &=
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceXor (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the “bitwise exclusive or” of 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place'
     when 'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o1 ^= o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_InPlaceOr (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the “bitwise or” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 |=
     o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Long (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to an integer object on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘int(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Float (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to a float object on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘float(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_Index (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the 'o' converted to a Python int on success or
     ‘NULL’ with a *note TypeError: 2c4. exception raised on failure.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The result always has exact type *note int:
     184.  Previously, the result could have been an instance of a
     subclass of ‘int’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyNumber_ToBase (PyObject *n, int
          base)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Returns the integer 'n' converted to base 'base' as a
     string.  The 'base' argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16.  For
     base 2, 8, or 16, the returned string is prefixed with a base
     marker of ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, or ‘'0x'’, respectively.  If 'n' is not a
     Python int, it is converted with *note PyNumber_Index(): 6db.
     first.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyNumber_AsSsize_t (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns 'o' converted to a
     *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. value if 'o' can be interpreted as an
     integer.  If the call fails, an exception is raised and ‘-1’ is
     returned.

     If 'o' can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to convert
     to a *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. value would raise an *note
     OverflowError: 6c7, then the 'exc' argument is the type of
     exception that will be raised (usually *note IndexError: 13c2. or
     *note OverflowError: 6c7.).  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, then the exception
     is cleared and the value is clipped to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ for a
     negative integer or ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ for a positive integer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyIndex_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.8 sürümünden beri.'
     Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer (has the ‘nb_index’ slot of
     the ‘tp_as_number’ structure filled in), and ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Protocol,  Next: Mapping Protocol,  Prev: Number Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.4 Sequence Protocol
-----------------------

 -- C Işlevi: int PySequence_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if the object
     provides the sequence protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise.  Note that it
     returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a *note __getitem__(): 500.
     method, unless they are *note dict: 240. subclasses, since in
     general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class
     supports.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySequence_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySequence_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Returns the number of objects in sequence 'o' on success, and ‘-1’
     on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_Concat (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 + o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_Repeat (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t count)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count'
     times, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o * count’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_InPlaceConcat (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1
     += o2’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (PyObject
          *o, Py_ssize_t count)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count'
     times, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when
     'o' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o *= count’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the 'i'th element of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o[i]’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_GetSlice (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the slice of sequence object 'o' between 'i1' and
     'i2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySequence_SetItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Assign object 'v' to the
     'i'th element of 'o'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on
     failure; return ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python statement ‘o[i] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a
     reference to 'v'.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the element is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1897.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySequence_DelItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Delete the 'i'th element of
     object 'o'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of
     the Python statement ‘del o[i]’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySequence_SetSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Assign the sequence object
     'v' to the slice in sequence object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o[i1:i2] = v’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySequence_DelSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Delete the slice in
     sequence object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySequence_Count (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the number of
     occurrences of 'value' in 'o', that is, return the number of keys
     for which ‘o[key] == value’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.count(value)’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySequence_Contains (PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Determine if 'o' contains
     'value'.  If an item in 'o' is equal to 'value', return ‘1’,
     otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘value in o’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySequence_Index (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the first index 'i'
     for which ‘o[i] == value’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.index(value)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_List (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a list object with the same contents as the sequence
     or iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The returned list is
     guaranteed to be new.  This is equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘list(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_Tuple (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or
     iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'o' is a tuple, a new
     reference will be returned, otherwise a tuple will be constructed
     with the appropriate contents.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘tuple(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_Fast (PyObject *o, const
          char *m)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the sequence or iterable 'o' as an object usable by
     the other ‘PySequence_Fast*’ family of functions.  If the object is
     not a sequence or iterable, raises *note TypeError: 2c4. with 'm'
     as the message text.  Returns ‘NULL’ on failure.

     The ‘PySequence_Fast*’ functions are thus named because they assume
     'o' is a *note PyTupleObject: 4a45. or a *note PyListObject: 4a9d.
     and access the data fields of 'o' directly.

     As a CPython implementation detail, if 'o' is already a sequence or
     list, it will be returned.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *o)

     Returns the length of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note
     PySequence_Fast(): 496c. and that 'o' is not ‘NULL’.  The size can
     also be retrieved by calling *note PySequence_Size(): 1894. on 'o',
     but *note PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(): 4a9e. is faster because it
     can assume 'o' is a list or tuple.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (PyObject
          *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the 'i'th
     element of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note
     PySequence_Fast(): 496c, 'o' is not ‘NULL’, and that 'i' is within
     bounds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (PyObject *o)

     Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers.  Assumes that 'o'
     was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 496c. and 'o' is not
     ‘NULL’.

     Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the
     items array.  So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts
     where the sequence cannot change.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySequence_ITEM (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return the 'i'th element of 'o'
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  Faster form of *note PySequence_GetItem():
     1895. but without checking that *note PySequence_Check(): 4967. on
     'o' is true and without adjustment for negative indices.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Protocol,  Next: Iterator Protocol,  Prev: Sequence Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.5 Mapping Protocol
----------------------

See also *note PyObject_GetItem(): 486c, *note PyObject_SetItem(): 486a.
and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4953.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMapping_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if the object
     provides the mapping protocol or supports slicing, and ‘0’
     otherwise.  Note that it returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a
     *note __getitem__(): 500. method, since in general it is impossible
     to determine what type of keys the class supports.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyMapping_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyMapping_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Returns the number of keys in object 'o' on success, and ‘-1’ on
     failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMapping_GetItemString (PyObject
          *o, const char *key)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  This is the same as *note PyObject_GetItem(): 486c, but
     'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string,
     rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMapping_SetItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetItem(): 486a, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMapping_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

     This is an alias of *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4953.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMapping_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key)

     This is the same as *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4953, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMapping_HasKey (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if the mapping
     object has the key 'key' and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘key in o’.  This function always succeeds.

          Not: Exceptions which occur when this calls *note
          __getitem__(): 500. method are silently ignored.  For proper
          error handling, use *note PyObject_GetItem(): 486c. instead.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMapping_HasKeyString (PyObject *o, const char *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note
     PyMapping_HasKey(): 4918, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

          Not: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getitem__(): 500. method or while creating the temporary
          *note str: 15d. object are silently ignored.  For proper error
          handling, use *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 4917. instead.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMapping_Keys (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  On success, return a list of the keys in object 'o'.  On
     failure, return ‘NULL’.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Previously, the function returned a list or
     a tuple.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMapping_Values (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  On success, return a list of the values in object 'o'.  On
     failure, return ‘NULL’.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Previously, the function returned a list or
     a tuple.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMapping_Items (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  On success, return a list of the items in object 'o', where
     each item is a tuple containing a key-value pair.  On failure,
     return ‘NULL’.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Previously, the function returned a list or
     a tuple.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterator Protocol,  Next: Buffer Protocol,  Prev: Mapping Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.6 Iterator Protocol
-----------------------

There are two functions specifically for working with iterators.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.8 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     non-zero if the object 'o' can be safely passed to *note
     PyIter_Next(): 4902, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyAIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Return non-zero if the object 'o' provides the ‘AsyncIterator’
     protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always succeeds.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyIter_Next (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the next value from the iterator 'o'.  The object
     must be an iterator according to *note PyIter_Check(): 171f. (it is
     up to the caller to check this).  If there are no remaining values,
     returns ‘NULL’ with no exception set.  If an error occurs while
     retrieving the item, returns ‘NULL’ and passes along the exception.

To write a loop which iterates over an iterator, the C code should look
something like this:

     PyObject *iterator = PyObject_GetIter(obj);
     PyObject *item;

     if (iterator == NULL) {
         /* propagate error */
     }

     while ((item = PyIter_Next(iterator))) {
         /* do something with item */
         ...
         /* release reference when done */
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

     Py_DECREF(iterator);

     if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
         /* propagate error */
     }
     else {
         /* continue doing useful work */
     }

 -- C Türü: type PySendResult

     The enum value used to represent different results of *note
     PyIter_Send(): 6e1.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PySendResult: 4aaa. PyIter_Send (PyObject *iter,
          PyObject *arg, PyObject **presult)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Sends
     the 'arg' value into the iterator 'iter'.  Returns:

        - ‘PYGEN_RETURN’ if iterator returns.  Return value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_NEXT’ if iterator yields.  Yielded value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_ERROR’ if iterator has raised and exception.  'presult'
          is set to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer Protocol,  Next: Old Buffer Protocol,  Prev: Iterator Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.7 Buffer Protocol
---------------------

Certain objects available in Python wrap access to an underlying memory
array or 'buffer'.  Such objects include the built-in *note bytes: 2cb.
and *note bytearray: 2ca, and some extension types like *note
array.array: 195.  Third-party libraries may define their own types for
special purposes, such as image processing or numeric analysis.

While each of these types have their own semantics, they share the
common characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer.
It is then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly
and without intermediate copying.

Python provides such a facility at the C level in the form of the *note
buffer protocol: 14e.  This protocol has two sides:

   - on the producer side, a type can export a “buffer interface” which
     allows objects of that type to expose information about their
     underlying buffer.  This interface is described in the section
     *note Buffer Object Structures: 4aad.;

   - on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a
     pointer to the raw underlying data of an object (for example a
     method parameter).

Simple objects such as *note bytes: 2cb. and *note bytearray: 2ca.
expose their underlying buffer in byte-oriented form.  Other forms are
possible; for example, the elements exposed by an *note array.array:
195. can be multi-byte values.

An example consumer of the buffer interface is the *note write(): b5e.
method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes
through the buffer interface can be written to a file.  While ‘write()’
only needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object
passed to it, other methods such as *note readinto(): 29f6. need write
access to the contents of their argument.  The buffer interface allows
objects to selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and
read-only buffers.

There are two ways for a consumer of the buffer interface to acquire a
buffer over a target object:

   * call *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. with the right parameters;

   * call *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. (or one of its siblings) with
     one of the ‘y*’, ‘w*’ or ‘s*’ *note format codes: 6f6.

In both cases, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f. must be called when the
buffer isn’t needed anymore.  Failure to do so could lead to various
issues such as resource leaks.

* Menu:

* Buffer structure::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Buffer-related functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer structure,  Next: Buffer request types,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.1 Buffer structure
........................

Buffer structures (or simply “buffers”) are useful as a way to expose
the binary data from another object to the Python programmer.  They can
also be used as a zero-copy slicing mechanism.  Using their ability to
reference a block of memory, it is possible to expose any data to the
Python programmer quite easily.  The memory could be a large, constant
array in a C extension, it could be a raw block of memory for
manipulation before passing to an operating system library, or it could
be used to pass around structured data in its native, in-memory format.

Contrary to most data types exposed by the Python interpreter, buffers
are not *note PyObject: 6eb. pointers but rather simple C structures.
This allows them to be created and copied very simply.  When a generic
wrapper around a buffer is needed, a *note memoryview: 4ab0. object can
be created.

For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see *note
Buffer Object Structures: 4aad.  For obtaining a buffer, see *note
PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586.

 -- C Türü: type Py_buffer
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil) 3.11
     sürümünden beri.'
      -- C Üyesi: void *buf

          A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by
          the buffer fields.  This can be any location within the
          underlying physical memory block of the exporter.  For
          example, with negative *note strides: 4ab2. the value may
          point to the end of the memory block.

          For *note contiguous: 2019. arrays, the value points to the
          beginning of the memory block.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *obj

          A new reference to the exporting object.  The reference is
          owned by the consumer and automatically released (i.e.
          reference count decremented) and set to ‘NULL’ by *note
          PyBuffer_Release(): 58f.  The field is the equivalent of the
          return value of any standard C-API function.

          As a special case, for 'temporary' buffers that are wrapped by
          *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 590. or *note
          PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 58e. this field is ‘NULL’.  In general,
          exporting objects MUST NOT use this scheme.

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. len

          ‘product(shape) * itemsize’.  For contiguous arrays, this is
          the length of the underlying memory block.  For non-contiguous
          arrays, it is the length that the logical structure would have
          if it were copied to a contiguous representation.

          Accessing ‘((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1]’ is
          only valid if the buffer has been obtained by a request that
          guarantees contiguity.  In most cases such a request will be
          *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4ab5. or *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241.

      -- C Üyesi: int readonly

          An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only.  This field
          is controlled by the *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241. flag.

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. itemsize

          Item size in bytes of a single element.  Same as the value of
          *note struct.calcsize(): 17f6. called on non-‘NULL’ *note
          format: 4ab8. values.

          Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without
          the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4ab9. flag, *note format: 4ab8. will
          be set to ‘NULL’, but *note itemsize: 4ab7. still has the
          value for the original format.

          If *note shape: 4aba. is present, the equality ‘product(shape)
          * itemsize == len’ still holds and the consumer can use *note
          itemsize: 4ab7. to navigate the buffer.

          If *note shape: 4aba. is ‘NULL’ as a result of a *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4ab5. or a *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241. request,
          the consumer must disregard *note itemsize: 4ab7. and assume
          ‘itemsize == 1’.

      -- C Üyesi: char *format

          A 'NULL' terminated string in *note struct: d4. module style
          syntax describing the contents of a single item.  If this is
          ‘NULL’, ‘"B"’ (unsigned bytes) is assumed.

          This field is controlled by the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4ab9.
          flag.

      -- C Üyesi: int ndim

          The number of dimensions the memory represents as an
          n-dimensional array.  If it is ‘0’, *note buf: 4ab1. points to
          a single item representing a scalar.  In this case, *note
          shape: 4aba, *note strides: 4ab2. and *note suboffsets: 4abc.
          MUST be ‘NULL’.  The maximum number of dimensions is given by
          *note PyBUF_MAX_NDIM: 4abd.

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *shape

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. of length *note ndim: 4abb.
          indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array.
          Note that ‘shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize’ MUST be
          equal to *note len: 4ab4.

          Shape values are restricted to ‘shape[n] >= 0’.  The case
          ‘shape[n] == 0’ requires special attention.  See *note complex
          arrays: 4abe. for further information.

          The shape array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *strides

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. of length *note ndim: 4abb.
          giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in
          each dimension.

          Stride values can be any integer.  For regular arrays, strides
          are usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle
          the case ‘strides[n] <= 0’.  See *note complex arrays: 4abe.
          for further information.

          The strides array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *suboffsets

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. of length *note ndim: 4abb.
          If ‘suboffsets[n] >= 0’, the values stored along the nth
          dimension are pointers and the suboffset value dictates how
          many bytes to add to each pointer after de-referencing.  A
          suboffset value that is negative indicates that no
          de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous memory
          block).

          If all suboffsets are negative (i.e.  no de-referencing is
          needed), then this field must be ‘NULL’ (the default value).

          This type of array representation is used by the Python
          Imaging Library (PIL). See *note complex arrays: 4abe. for
          further information how to access elements of such an array.

          The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Üyesi: void *internal

          This is for use internally by the exporting object.  For
          example, this might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter
          and used to store flags about whether or not the shape,
          strides, and suboffsets arrays must be freed when the buffer
          is released.  The consumer MUST NOT alter this value.

Constants:

 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_MAX_NDIM

     The maximum number of dimensions the memory represents.  Exporters
     MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional buffers
     SHOULD be able to handle up to ‘PyBUF_MAX_NDIM’ dimensions.
     Currently set to 64.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer request types,  Next: Complex arrays,  Prev: Buffer structure,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.2 Buffer request types
............................

Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting
object via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586.  Since the complexity of the
logical structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses
the 'flags' argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle.

All *note Py_buffer: 584. fields are unambiguously defined by the
request type.

* Menu:

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::


File: python.info,  Node: request-independent fields,  Next: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.3 request-independent fields
..................................

The following fields are not influenced by 'flags' and must always be
filled in with the correct values: *note obj: 4ab3, *note buf: 4ab1,
*note len: 4ab4, *note itemsize: 4ab7, *note ndim: 4abb.


File: python.info,  Node: readonly format,  Next: shape strides suboffsets,  Prev: request-independent fields,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.4 readonly, format
........................

      -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_WRITABLE

          Controls the *note readonly: 4ab6. field.  If set, the
          exporter MUST provide a writable buffer or else report
          failure.  Otherwise, the exporter MAY provide either a
          read-only or writable buffer, but the choice MUST be
          consistent for all consumers.  For example, *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4ab5. | *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241. can be used
          to request a simple writable buffer.

      -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_FORMAT

          Controls the *note format: 4ab8. field.  If set, this field
          MUST be filled in correctly.  Otherwise, this field MUST be
          ‘NULL’.

*note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241. can be |’d to any of the flags in the next
section.  Since *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4ab5. is defined as 0, *note
PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241. can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a
simple writable buffer.

*note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4ab9. must be |’d to any of the flags except *note
PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4ab5, because the latter already implies format ‘B’
(unsigned bytes).  ‘PyBUF_FORMAT’ cannot be used on its own.


File: python.info,  Node: shape strides suboffsets,  Next: contiguity requests,  Prev: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.5 shape, strides, suboffsets
..................................

The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed in
decreasing order of complexity.  Note that each flag contains all bits
of the flags below it.

Request                           shape       strides       suboffsets
                                                            
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_INDIRECT     yes         yes           if needed
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_STRIDES      yes         yes           NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_ND           yes         NULL          NULL
                                                            
                                                            
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_SIMPLE       NULL        NULL          NULL
                                                            


File: python.info,  Node: contiguity requests,  Next: compound requests,  Prev: shape strides suboffsets,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.6 contiguity requests
...........................

C or Fortran *note contiguity: 2019. can be explicitly requested, with
and without stride information.  Without stride information, the buffer
must be C-contiguous.

Request                                 shape       strides       suboffsets       contig
                                                                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                   
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS       yes         yes           NULL             C
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS       yes         yes           NULL             F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS     yes         yes           NULL             C or F
                                                                                   
                                                                                   
*note PyBUF_ND: 4ac6.                   yes         NULL          NULL             C
                                                                                   


File: python.info,  Node: compound requests,  Prev: contiguity requests,  Up: Buffer request types

7.7.7.7 compound requests
.........................

All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags
in the previous section.  For convenience, the buffer protocol provides
frequently used combinations as single flags.

In the following table 'U' stands for undefined contiguity.  The
consumer would have to call *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 58c. to
determine contiguity.

Request                             shape       strides       suboffsets       contig       readonly       format
                                                                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_FULL           yes         yes           if needed        U            0              yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_FULL_RO        yes         yes           if needed        U            1 or 0         yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_RECORDS        yes         yes           NULL             U            0              yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO     yes         yes           NULL             U            1 or 0         yes
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_STRIDED        yes         yes           NULL             U            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO     yes         yes           NULL             U            1 or 0         NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_CONTIG         yes         NULL          NULL             C            0              NULL
                                                                                                           
                                                                                                           
 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO      yes         NULL          NULL             C            1 or 0         NULL
                                                                                                           


File: python.info,  Node: Complex arrays,  Next: Buffer-related functions,  Prev: Buffer request types,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.8 Complex arrays
......................

* Menu:

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.


File: python.info,  Node: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Next: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Up: Complex arrays

7.7.7.9 NumPy-style: shape and strides
......................................

The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by *note
itemsize: 4ab7, *note ndim: 4abb, *note shape: 4aba. and *note strides:
4ab2.

If ‘ndim == 0’, the memory location pointed to by *note buf: 4ab1. is
interpreted as a scalar of size *note itemsize: 4ab7.  In that case,
both *note shape: 4aba. and *note strides: 4ab2. are ‘NULL’.

If *note strides: 4ab2. is ‘NULL’, the array is interpreted as a
standard n-dimensional C-array.  Otherwise, the consumer must access an
n-dimensional array as follows:

     ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1];
     item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);

As noted above, *note buf: 4ab1. can point to any location within the
actual memory block.  An exporter can check the validity of a buffer
with this function:

     def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset):
         """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within
            the bounds of the allocated memory:
                char *mem: start of the physical memory block
                memlen: length of the physical memory block
                offset: (char *)buf - mem
         """
         if offset % itemsize:
             return False
         if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen:
             return False
         if any(v % itemsize for v in strides):
             return False

         if ndim <= 0:
             return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides
         if 0 in shape:
             return True

         imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] <= 0)
         imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] > 0)

         return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen


File: python.info,  Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Prev: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Up: Complex arrays

7.7.7.10 PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets
.................................................

In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers
that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a
dimension.  For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array ‘char
v[2][2][3]’ can also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2
two-dimensional arrays: ‘char (*v[2])[2][3]’.  In suboffsets
representation, those two pointers can be embedded at the start of *note
buf: 4ab1, pointing to two ‘char x[2][3]’ arrays that can be located
anywhere in memory.

Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array
pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-‘NULL’
strides and suboffsets:

     void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides,
                            Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) {
         char *pointer = (char*)buf;
         int i;
         for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) {
             pointer += strides[i] * indices[i];
             if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) {
                 pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i];
             }
         }
         return (void*)pointer;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer-related functions,  Prev: Complex arrays,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.7.7.11 Buffer-related functions
.................................

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_CheckBuffer (PyObject *obj)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'
     Return ‘1’ if 'obj' supports the buffer interface otherwise ‘0’.
     When ‘1’ is returned, it doesn’t guarantee that *note
     PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. will succeed.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_GetBuffer (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer
          *view, int flags)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Send
     a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by 'flags'.
     If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST
     raise *note BufferError: 164a, set ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return
     ‘-1’.

     On success, fill in 'view', set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to
     'exporter' and return 0.  In the case of chained buffer providers
     that redirect requests to a single object, ‘view->obj’ MAY refer to
     this object instead of 'exporter' (See *note Buffer Object
     Structures: 4aad.).

     Successful calls to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. must be paired
     with calls to *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f, similar to ‘malloc()’
     and ‘free()’.  Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer,
     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f. must be called exactly once.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyBuffer_Release (Py_buffer *view)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'
     Release the buffer 'view' and release the *note strong reference:
     5c1. (i.e.  decrement the reference count) to the view’s supporting
     object, ‘view->obj’.  This function MUST be called when the buffer
     is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur.

     It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not
     obtained via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (const char
          *format)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'
     Return the implied *note itemsize: 4ab7. from *note format: 4ab8.
     On error, raise an exception and return -1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, char
          order)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'
     Return ‘1’ if the memory defined by the 'view' is C-style ('order'
     is ‘'C'’) or Fortran-style ('order' is ‘'F'’) *note contiguous:
     2019. or either one ('order' is ‘'A'’).  Return ‘0’ otherwise.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyBuffer_GetPointer (const Py_buffer *view, const
          Py_ssize_t *indices)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Get
     the memory area pointed to by the 'indices' inside the given
     'view'.  'indices' must point to an array of ‘view->ndim’ indices.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBuffer_FromContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, const
          void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, char fort)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Copy
     contiguous 'len' bytes from 'buf' to 'view'.  'fort' can be ‘'C'’
     or ‘'F'’ (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering).  ‘0’ is returned
     on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBuffer_ToContiguous (void *buf, const Py_buffer
          *src, Py_ssize_t len, char order)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Copy
     'len' bytes from 'src' to its contiguous representation in 'buf'.
     'order' can be ‘'C'’ or ‘'F'’ or ‘'A'’ (for C-style or
     Fortran-style ordering or either one).  ‘0’ is returned on success,
     ‘-1’ on error.

     This function fails if 'len' != 'src->len'.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_CopyData (PyObject *dest, PyObject *src)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Copy
     data from 'src' to 'dest' buffer.  Can convert between C-style and
     or Fortran-style buffers.

     ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (int ndims, Py_ssize_t
          *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char order)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Fill
     the 'strides' array with byte-strides of a *note contiguous: 2019.
     (C-style if 'order' is ‘'C'’ or Fortran-style if 'order' is ‘'F'’)
     array of the given shape with the given number of bytes per
     element.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBuffer_FillInfo (Py_buffer *view, PyObject
          *exporter, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'
     Handle buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose 'buf'
     of size 'len' with writability set according to 'readonly'.  'buf'
     is interpreted as a sequence of unsigned bytes.

     The 'flags' argument indicates the request type.  This function
     always fills in 'view' as specified by flags, unless 'buf' has been
     designated as read-only and *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1241. is set in
     'flags'.

     On success, set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to 'exporter' and
     return 0.  Otherwise, raise *note BufferError: 164a, set
     ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’;

     If this function is used as part of a *note getbufferproc: 4aad,
     'exporter' MUST be set to the exporting object and 'flags' must be
     passed unmodified.  Otherwise, 'exporter' MUST be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Old Buffer Protocol,  Prev: Buffer Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.7.8 Old Buffer Protocol
-------------------------

3.0 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

These functions were part of the “old buffer protocol” API in Python 2.
In Python 3, this protocol doesn’t exist anymore but the functions are
still exposed to ease porting 2.x code.  They act as a compatibility
wrapper around the *note new buffer protocol: 14e, but they don’t give
you control over the lifetime of the resources acquired when a buffer is
exported.

Therefore, it is recommended that you call *note PyObject_GetBuffer():
586. (or the ‘y*’ or ‘w*’ *note format codes: 6f6. with the *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. family of functions) to get a buffer view over
an object, and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f. when the buffer view can
be released.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_AsCharBuffer (PyObject *obj, const char
          **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns a pointer to a
     read-only memory location usable as character-based input.  The
     'obj' argument must support the single-segment character buffer
     interface.  On success, returns ‘0’, sets 'buffer' to the memory
     location and 'buffer_len' to the buffer length.  Returns ‘-1’ and
     sets a *note TypeError: 2c4. on error.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_AsReadBuffer (PyObject *obj, const void
          **buffer, Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns a pointer to a
     read-only memory location containing arbitrary data.  The 'obj'
     argument must support the single-segment readable buffer interface.
     On success, returns ‘0’, sets 'buffer' to the memory location and
     'buffer_len' to the buffer length.  Returns ‘-1’ and sets a *note
     TypeError: 2c4. on error.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_CheckReadBuffer (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns ‘1’ if 'o' supports
     the single-segment readable buffer interface.  Otherwise returns
     ‘0’.  This function always succeeds.

     Note that this function tries to get and release a buffer, and
     exceptions which occur while calling corresponding functions will
     get suppressed.  To get error reporting use *note
     PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. instead.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_AsWriteBuffer (PyObject *obj, void **buffer,
          Py_ssize_t *buffer_len)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns a pointer to a
     writable memory location.  The 'obj' argument must support the
     single-segment, character buffer interface.  On success, returns
     ‘0’, sets 'buffer' to the memory location and 'buffer_len' to the
     buffer length.  Returns ‘-1’ and sets a *note TypeError: 2c4. on
     error.


File: python.info,  Node: Concrete Objects Layer,  Next: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Prev: Abstract Objects Layer,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.8 Concrete Objects Layer
==========================

The functions in this chapter are specific to certain Python object
types.  Passing them an object of the wrong type is not a good idea; if
you receive an object from a Python program and you are not sure that it
has the right type, you must perform a type check first; for example, to
check that an object is a dictionary, use *note PyDict_Check(): 4ada.
The chapter is structured like the “family tree” of Python object types.

     Uyarı: While the functions described in this chapter carefully
     check the type of the objects which are passed in, many of them do
     not check for ‘NULL’ being passed instead of a valid object.
     Allowing ‘NULL’ to be passed in can cause memory access violations
     and immediate termination of the interpreter.

* Menu:

* Fundamental Objects::
* Numeric Objects::
* Sequence Objects::
* Container Objects::
* Function Objects: Function Objects<2>.
* Other Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental Objects,  Next: Numeric Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.8.1 Fundamental Objects
-------------------------

This section describes Python type objects and the singleton object
‘None’.

* Menu:

* Type Objects: Type Objects<2>.
* The None Object::


File: python.info,  Node: Type Objects<2>,  Next: The None Object,  Up: Fundamental Objects

7.8.1.1 Type Objects
....................

 -- C Türü: type PyTypeObject
     ' Bir parçası *note Sınırlı API: 2e2. (bir opak yapı olarak).'  The
     C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyType_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the type object for
     type objects; it is the same object as *note type: bd1. in the
     Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, including
     instances of types derived from the standard type object.  Return 0
     in all other cases.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, but not a
     subtype of the standard type object.  Return 0 in all other cases.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: unsigned int PyType_ClearCache ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Clear the internal lookup
     cache.  Return the current version tag.

 -- C Işlevi: unsigned long PyType_GetFlags (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the *note tp_flags:
     16e6. member of 'type'.  This function is primarily meant for use
     with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’; the individual flag bits are guaranteed to
     be stable across Python releases, but access to *note tp_flags:
     16e6. itself is not part of the *note limited API: 2de.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The return type is now ‘unsigned long’
     rather than ‘long’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_GetDict (PyTypeObject *type)

     Return the type object’s internal namespace, which is otherwise
     only exposed via a read-only proxy (*note cls.__dict__: adb.).
     This is a replacement for accessing *note tp_dict: 151a. directly.
     The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only.

     This function is meant for specific embedding and language-binding
     cases, where direct access to the dict is necessary and indirect
     access (e.g.  via the proxy or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a.)
     isn’t adequate.

     Extension modules should continue to use ‘tp_dict’, directly or
     indirectly, when setting up their own types.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyType_Modified (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Invalidate the internal
     lookup cache for the type and all of its subtypes.  This function
     must be called after any manual modification of the attributes or
     base classes of the type.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_AddWatcher (PyType_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a type watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer ID which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyType_Watch(): 2f7.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' (previously returned from
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 2f6.).  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_ClearWatcher’ with a
     'watcher_id' that was not returned to it by a previous call to
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 2f6.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

     Mark 'type' as watched.  The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 2f6. will be called whenever *note
     PyType_Modified(): 1614. reports a change to 'type'.  (The callback
     may be called only once for a series of consecutive modifications
     to 'type', if ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ is not called on 'type' between
     the modifications; this is an implementation detail and subject to
     change.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_Watch’ with a 'watcher_id'
     that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 2f6.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(*note PyObject: 6eb.
          *type)

     Type of a type-watcher callback function.

     The callback must not modify 'type' or cause *note
     PyType_Modified(): 1614. to be called on 'type' or any type in its
     MRO; violating this rule could cause infinite recursion.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_HasFeature (PyTypeObject *o, int feature)

     Return non-zero if the type object 'o' sets the feature 'feature'.
     Type features are denoted by single bit flags.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_IS_GC (PyTypeObject *o)

     Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle
     detector; this tests the type flag *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_IsSubtype (PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return true if 'a' is a
     subtype of 'b'.

     This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that
     *note __subclasscheck__(): 1d6c. is not called on 'b'.  Call *note
     PyObject_IsSubclass(): d3b. to do the same check that *note
     issubclass(): 5f8. would do.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_GenericAlloc (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Generic handler for the *note tp_alloc: 480a. slot of a type
     object.  Use Python’s default memory allocation mechanism to
     allocate a new instance and initialize all its contents to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_GenericNew (PyTypeObject
          *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Generic handler for the *note tp_new: 318. slot of a type
     object.  Create a new instance using the type’s *note tp_alloc:
     480a. slot.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyType_Ready (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Finalize a type object.
     This should be called on all type objects to finish their
     initialization.  This function is responsible for adding inherited
     slots from a type’s base class.  Return ‘0’ on success, or return
     ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

          Not: If some of the base classes implements the GC protocol
          and the provided type does not include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. in its flags, then the GC protocol
          will be automatically implemented from its parents.  On the
          contrary, if the type being created does include *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. in its flags then it 'must' implement
          the GC protocol itself by at least implementing the *note
          tp_traverse: 5ae. handle.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_GetName (PyTypeObject *type)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Return the type’s name.  Equivalent to
     getting the type’s *note __name__: 1336. attribute.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_GetQualName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Return the type’s qualified name.
     Equivalent to getting the type’s *note __qualname__: 1d14.
     attribute.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyType_GetSlot (PyTypeObject *type, int slot)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.4 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     the function pointer stored in the given slot.  If the result is
     ‘NULL’, this indicates that either the slot is ‘NULL’, or that the
     function was called with invalid parameters.  Callers will
     typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate function
     type.

     See *note PyType_Slot.slot: 4ae3. for possible values of the 'slot'
     argument.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: *note PyType_GetSlot(): 6e7. can now accept
     all types.  Previously, it was limited to *note heap types: 7c0.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_GetModule (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Return the module object associated with the given type when the
     type was created using *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 2c4. and returns ‘NULL’.

     This function is usually used to get the module in which a method
     is defined.  Note that in such a method,
     ‘PyType_GetModule(Py_TYPE(self))’ may not return the intended
     result.  ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ may be a 'subclass' of the intended class,
     and subclasses are not necessarily defined in the same module as
     their superclass.  See *note PyCMethod: 594. to get the class that
     defines the method.  See *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 593. for
     cases when ‘PyCMethod’ cannot be used.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyType_GetModuleState (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Return the state of the module object associated with the given
     type.  This is a shortcut for calling *note PyModule_GetState():
     7de. on the result of *note PyType_GetModule(): 7ca.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 2c4. and returns ‘NULL’.

     If the 'type' has an associated module but its state is ‘NULL’,
     returns ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_GetModuleByDef (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyModuleDef *def)

     Find the first superclass whose module was created from the given
     *note PyModuleDef: 7db. 'def', and return that module.

     If no module is found, raises a *note TypeError: 2c4. and returns
     ‘NULL’.

     This function is intended to be used together with *note
     PyModule_GetState(): 7de. to get module state from slot methods
     (such as *note tp_init: 31a. or *note nb_add: 4ae4.) and other
     places where a method’s defining class cannot be passed using the
     *note PyCMethod: 594. calling convention.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (PyTypeObject *type)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type.

     Returns 1 if the type already had a valid version tag or a new one
     was assigned, or 0 if a new tag could not be assigned.

     Added in version 3.12.

* Menu:

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types,  Up: Type Objects<2>

7.8.1.2 Creating Heap-Allocated Types
.....................................

The following functions and structs are used to create *note heap types:
7c0.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_FromMetaclass (PyTypeObject
          *metaclass, PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject
          *bases)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'
     Create and return a *note heap type: 7c0. from the 'spec' (see
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 701.).

     The metaclass 'metaclass' is used to construct the resulting type
     object.  When 'metaclass' is ‘NULL’, the metaclass is derived from
     'bases' (or 'Py_tp_base[s]' slots if 'bases' is ‘NULL’, see below).

     Metaclasses that override *note tp_new: 318. are not supported,
     except if ‘tp_new’ is ‘NULL’.  (For backwards compatibility, other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions allow such metaclasses.  They ignore
     ‘tp_new’, which may result in incomplete initialization.  This is
     deprecated and in Python 3.14+ such metaclasses will not be
     supported.)

     The 'bases' argument can be used to specify base classes; it can
     either be only one class or a tuple of classes.  If 'bases' is
     ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_bases' slot is used instead.  If that also is
     ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_base' slot is used instead.  If that also is
     ‘NULL’, the new type derives from *note object: 8f2.

     The 'module' argument can be used to record the module in which the
     new class is defined.  It must be a module object or ‘NULL’.  If
     not ‘NULL’, the module is associated with the new type and can
     later be retrieved with *note PyType_GetModule(): 7ca.  The
     associated module is not inherited by subclasses; it must be
     specified for each class individually.

     This function calls *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. on the new type.

     Note that this function does 'not' fully match the behavior of
     calling *note type(): bd1. or using the *note class: 1181.
     statement.  With user-provided base types or metaclasses, prefer
     *note calling: 4a8b. *note type: bd1. (or the metaclass) over
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions.  Specifically:

        * *note __new__(): 319. is not called on the new class (and it
          must be set to ‘type.__new__’).

        * *note __init__(): 4c6. is not called on the new class.

        * *note __init_subclass__(): 444. is not called on any bases.

        * *note __set_name__(): aca. is not called on new descriptors.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (PyObject
          *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases)’.

     Added in version 3.9.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: The function now accepts a single class as
     the 'bases' argument and ‘NULL’ as the ‘tp_doc’ slot.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously, only *note
     type: bd1. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 318. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 318. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_FromSpecWithBases
          (PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.3 sürümünden beri.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases)’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously, only *note
     type: bd1. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 318. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 318. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyType_FromSpec (PyType_Spec *spec)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Equivalent to ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec,
     NULL)’.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: The function now finds and uses a metaclass
     corresponding to the base classes provided in 'Py_tp_base[s]'
     slots.  Previously, only *note type: bd1. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 318. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 318. is deprecated and in Python
     3.14+ it will be no longer allowed.

 -- C Türü: type PyType_Spec
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'
     Structure defining a type’s behavior.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *name

          Name of the type, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_name:
          171d.

      -- C Üyesi: int basicsize

          If positive, specifies the size of the instance in bytes.  It
          is used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 7e5.

          If zero, specifies that *note tp_basicsize: 7e5. should be
          inherited.

          If negative, the absolute value specifies how much space
          instances of the class need 'in addition' to the superclass.
          Use *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 2d7. to get a pointer to
          subclass-specific memory reserved this way.  For negative
          ‘basicsize’, Python will insert padding when needed to meet
          *note tp_basicsize: 7e5.’s alignment requirements.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this field could not be
          negative.

      -- C Üyesi: int itemsize

          Size of one element of a variable-size type, in bytes.  Used
          to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize: 1d5e.  See
          ‘tp_itemsize’ documentation for caveats.

          If zero, *note tp_itemsize: 1d5e. is inherited.  Extending
          arbitrary variable-sized classes is dangerous, since some
          types use a fixed offset for variable-sized memory, which can
          then overlap fixed-sized memory used by a subclass.  To help
          prevent mistakes, inheriting ‘itemsize’ is only possible in
          the following situations:

             - The base is not variable-sized (its *note tp_itemsize:
               1d5e.).

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6. is
               positive, suggesting that the memory layout of the base
               class is known.

             - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6. is zero,
               suggesting that the subclass does not access the
               instance’s memory directly.

             - With the *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 2d9. flag.

      -- C Üyesi: unsigned int flags

          Type flags, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 16e6.

          If the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE’ flag is not set, *note
          PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317. sets it automatically.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyType_Slot: 4997. *slots

          Array of *note PyType_Slot: 4997. structures.  Terminated by
          the special slot value ‘{0, NULL}’.

          Each slot ID should be specified at most once.

 -- C Türü: type PyType_Slot
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'
     Structure defining optional functionality of a type, containing a
     slot ID and a value pointer.

      -- C Üyesi: int slot

          A slot ID.

          Slot IDs are named like the field names of the structures
          *note PyTypeObject: 911, *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6, *note
          PySequenceMethods: 482e, *note PyMappingMethods: 482f. and
          *note PyAsyncMethods: 4aeb. with an added ‘Py_’ prefix.  For
          example, use:

             * ‘Py_tp_dealloc’ to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc:
               4808.

             * ‘Py_nb_add’ to set *note PyNumberMethods.nb_add: 4ae4.

             * ‘Py_sq_length’ to set *note PySequenceMethods.sq_length:
               4aec.

          The following “offset” fields cannot be set using *note
          PyType_Slot: 4997.:

             * *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6. (use *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2eb. instead if possible)

             * *note tp_dictoffset: 4aed. (use *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea. instead if possible)

             * *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4a8d. (use
               ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’ in *note PyMemberDef: 4aee.)

          If it is not possible to switch to a ‘MANAGED’ flag (for
          example, for vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12),
          specify the offset in *note Py_tp_members: 480b.  See *note
          PyMemberDef documentation: 4aee. for details.

          The following fields cannot be set at all when creating a heap
          type:

             * *note tp_vectorcall: 4aef. (use *note tp_new: 318. and/or
               *note tp_init: 31a.)

             * Internal fields: *note tp_dict: 151a, *note tp_mro: 4af0,
               *note tp_cache: 4af1, *note tp_subclasses: 309, and *note
               tp_weaklist: 4af2.

          Setting ‘Py_tp_bases’ or ‘Py_tp_base’ may be problematic on
          some platforms.  To avoid issues, use the 'bases' argument of
          *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317. instead.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: Slots in *note PyBufferProcs: 4af3. may
          be set in the unlimited API.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note bf_getbuffer: 591. and *note
          bf_releasebuffer: 592. are now available under the *note
          limited API: 2de.

      -- C Üyesi: void *pfunc

          The desired value of the slot.  In most cases, this is a
          pointer to a function.

          Slots other than ‘Py_tp_doc’ may not be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: The None Object,  Prev: Type Objects<2>,  Up: Fundamental Objects

7.8.1.3 The ‘None’ Object
.........................

Note that the *note PyTypeObject: 911. for ‘None’ is not directly
exposed in the Python/C API. Since ‘None’ is a singleton, testing for
object identity (using ‘==’ in C) is sufficient.  There is no
‘PyNone_Check()’ function for the same reason.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_None

     The Python ‘None’ object, denoting lack of value.  This object has
     no methods and is immortal(1).

3.12 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_None: 47d6. is immortal.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_RETURN_NONE

     Return *note Py_None: 47d6. from a function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: Numeric Objects,  Next: Sequence Objects,  Prev: Fundamental Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.8.2 Numeric Objects
---------------------

* Menu:

* Integer Objects::
* Boolean Objects::
* Floating-Point Objects::
* Complex Number Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Integer Objects,  Next: Boolean Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.8.2.1 Integer Objects
.......................

All integers are implemented as “long” integer objects of arbitrary
size.

On error, most ‘PyLong_As*’ APIs return ‘(return type)-1’ which cannot
be distinguished from a number.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
disambiguate.

 -- C Türü: type PyLongObject
     ' Bir parçası *note Sınırlı API: 2e2. (bir opak yapı olarak).'
     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python integer
     object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyLong_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python integer type.  This is the
     same object as *note int: 184. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyLong_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 321. or a
     subtype of *note PyLongObject: 321.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyLong_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 321, but not a
     subtype of *note PyLongObject: 321.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromLong (long v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. object from 'v', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

     The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for
     all integers between ‘-5’ and ‘256’.  When you create an int in
     that range you actually just get back a reference to the existing
     object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (unsigned
          long v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. object from a C
     unsigned long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromSsize_t (Py_ssize_t v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. object from a C *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8c4, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromSize_t (size_t v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. object from a C
     ‘size_t’, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromLongLong (long long v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. object from a C long
     long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong
          (unsigned long long v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. object from a C
     unsigned long long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromDouble (double v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. object from the
     integer part of 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromString (const char *str,
          char **pend, int base)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 321. based on the string
     value in 'str', which is interpreted according to the radix in
     'base', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'pend' is non-‘NULL’, '*pend'
     will point to the end of 'str' on success or to the first character
     that could not be processed on error.  If 'base' is ‘0’, 'str' is
     interpreted using the *note Integer literals: 1cb5. definition; in
     this case, leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number raises a
     *note ValueError: 189.  If 'base' is not ‘0’, it must be between
     ‘2’ and ‘36’, inclusive.  Leading and trailing whitespace and
     single underscores after a base specifier and between digits are
     ignored.  If there are no digits or 'str' is not NULL-terminated
     following the digits and trailing whitespace, *note ValueError:
     189. will be raised.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     Python methods *note int.to_bytes(): 16b8. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 1677. to convert a *note PyLongObject: 321.
     to/from an array of bytes in base ‘256’.  You can call those from C
     using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 30b.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (PyObject
          *u, int base)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Convert a sequence of Unicode
     digits in the string 'u' to a Python integer value.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_FromVoidPtr (void *p)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Python integer from the pointer 'p'.  The pointer
     value can be retrieved from the resulting value using *note
     PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 4910.

 -- C Işlevi: long PyLong_AsLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return a C long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 321, first call its *note
     __index__(): 538. method (if present) to convert it to a *note
     PyLongObject: 321.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 537.

      -- C Işlevi: long PyLong_AS_LONG (PyObject *obj)

          A *note soft deprecated: 4b00. alias.  Exactly equivalent to
          the preferred ‘PyLong_AsLong’.  In particular, it can fail
          with *note OverflowError: 6c7. or another exception.

          3.14 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: The function is soft
          deprecated.

 -- C Işlevi: long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int
          *overflow)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a C long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 321, first call its *note __index__(): 538. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 321.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 537.

 -- C Işlevi: long long PyLong_AsLongLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return a C long long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 321, first call its *note
     __index__(): 538. method (if present) to convert it to a *note
     PyLongObject: 321.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 537.

 -- C Işlevi: long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int
          *overflow)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a C long long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 321, first call its *note __index__(): 538. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 321.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LLONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LLONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 537.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyLong_AsSsize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return a C *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. representation of 'pylong'.
     'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 321.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return a C unsigned long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must
     be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 321.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a unsigned long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     171c. to disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: size_t PyLong_AsSize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return a C ‘size_t’ representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be
     an instance of *note PyLongObject: 321.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a ‘size_t’.

     Returns ‘(size_t)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c.
     to disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (PyObject
          *pylong)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return a C unsigned long long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong'
     must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 321.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for an unsigned long long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to disambiguate.

     3.1 sürümünde değişti: A negative 'pylong' now raises *note
     OverflowError: 6c7, not *note TypeError: 2c4.

 -- C Işlevi: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (PyObject *obj)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a C unsigned long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 321, first call its *note __index__(): 538. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 321.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long, return
     the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     171c. to disambiguate.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 537.

 -- C Işlevi: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (PyObject
          *obj)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a C unsigned long
     long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 321, first call its *note __index__(): 538. method
     (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 321.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long long,
     return the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULLONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to disambiguate.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 537.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyLong_AsDouble (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a C double
     representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 321.

     Raise *note OverflowError: 6c7. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a double.

     Returns ‘-1.0’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyLong_AsVoidPtr (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Convert a Python integer
     'pylong' to a C void pointer.  If 'pylong' cannot be converted, an
     *note OverflowError: 6c7. will be raised.  This is only assured to
     produce a usable void pointer for values created with *note
     PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4913.

     Returns ‘NULL’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyLong_GetInfo (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  On success, return a read
     only *note named tuple: 461, that holds information about Python’s
     internal representation of integers.  See *note sys.int_info: 113c.
     for description of individual fields.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (const PyLongObject *op)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Return 1 if 'op' is compact, 0 otherwise.

     This function makes it possible for performance-critical code to
     implement a “fast path” for small integers.  For compact values use
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 323.; for others fall back to
     a *note PyLong_As*: 490c. function or *note calling: 30b. *note
     int.to_bytes(): 16b8.

     The speedup is expected to be negligible for most users.

     Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation
     detail and is subject to change.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (const
          PyLongObject *op)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     If 'op' is compact, as determined by *note
     PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 322, return its value.

     Otherwise, the return value is undefined.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean Objects,  Next: Floating-Point Objects,  Prev: Integer Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.8.2.2 Boolean Objects
.......................

Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers.  There are
only two booleans, *note Py_False: 4b04. and *note Py_True: 4b05.  As
such, the normal creation and deletion functions don’t apply to
booleans.  The following macros are available, however.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyBool_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python boolean type; it is the
     same object as *note bool: 183. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBool_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyBool_Type: 4889.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_False

     The Python ‘False’ object.  This object has no methods and is
     immortal(1).

3.12 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_False: 4b04. is immortal.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_True

     The Python ‘True’ object.  This object has no methods and is
     immortal(2).

3.12 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_True: 4b05. is immortal.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_RETURN_FALSE

     Return *note Py_False: 4b04. from a function.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_RETURN_TRUE

     Return *note Py_True: 4b05. from a function.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyBool_FromLong (long v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return *note Py_True: 4b05. or *note Py_False: 4b04,
     depending on the truth value of 'v'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Objects,  Next: Complex Number Objects,  Prev: Boolean Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.8.2.3 Floating-Point Objects
..............................

 -- C Türü: type PyFloatObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python
     floating-point object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyFloat_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python floating-point type.  This
     is the same object as *note float: 272. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFloat_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4b0a. or a
     subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4b0a.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFloat_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4b0a, but not
     a subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4b0a.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFloat_FromString (PyObject *str)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a *note PyFloatObject: 4b0a. object based on the
     string value in 'str', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFloat_FromDouble (double v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a *note PyFloatObject: 4b0a. object from 'v', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyFloat_AsDouble (PyObject *pyfloat)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a C double
     representation of the contents of 'pyfloat'.  If 'pyfloat' is not a
     Python floating-point object but has a *note __float__(): 82a.
     method, this method will first be called to convert 'pyfloat' into
     a float.  If ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to
     *note __index__(): 538.  This method returns ‘-1.0’ upon failure,
     so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to check for
     errors.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (PyObject *pyfloat)

     Return a C double representation of the contents of 'pyfloat', but
     without error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFloat_GetInfo (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a structseq instance which contains information about
     the precision, minimum and maximum values of a float.  It’s a thin
     wrapper around the header file ‘float.h’.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyFloat_GetMax ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the maximum
     representable finite float 'DBL_MAX' as C double.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyFloat_GetMin ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the minimum
     normalized positive float 'DBL_MIN' as C double.

* Menu:

* Pack and Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack and Unpack functions,  Up: Floating-Point Objects

7.8.2.4 Pack and Unpack functions
.................................

The pack and unpack functions provide an efficient platform-independent
way to store floating-point values as byte strings.  The Pack routines
produce a bytes string from a C double, and the Unpack routines produce
a C double from such a bytes string.  The suffix (2, 4 or 8) specifies
the number of bytes in the bytes string.

On platforms that appear to use IEEE 754 formats these functions work by
copying bits.  On other platforms, the 2-byte format is identical to the
IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format, the 4-byte format (32-bit) is
identical to the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format, and the
8-byte format to the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format, although
the packing of INFs and NaNs (if such things exist on the platform)
isn’t handled correctly, and attempting to unpack a bytes string
containing an IEEE INF or NaN will raise an exception.

On non-IEEE platforms with more precision, or larger dynamic range, than
IEEE 754 supports, not all values can be packed; on non-IEEE platforms
with less precision, or smaller dynamic range, not all values can be
unpacked.  What happens in such cases is partly accidental (alas).

Added in version 3.11.

* Menu:

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack functions,  Next: Unpack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.5 Pack functions
......................

The pack routines write 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if you want the bytes string in little-endian
format (exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’, or ‘p+6’ ‘p+7’), zero if you
want big-endian format (exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’
constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big
endian processor, or ‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: ‘0’ if all is OK, ‘-1’ if error (and an exception is set,
most likely *note OverflowError: 6c7.).

There are two problems on non-IEEE platforms:

   * What this does is undefined if 'x' is a NaN or infinity.

   * ‘-0.0’ and ‘+0.0’ produce the same bytes string.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFloat_Pack2 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFloat_Pack4 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFloat_Pack8 (double x, unsigned char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpack functions,  Prev: Pack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.8.2.6 Unpack functions
........................

The unpack routines read 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if the bytes string is in little-endian format
(exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’ or ‘p+6’ and ‘p+7’), zero if big-endian
(exponent first, at 'p').  The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’ constant can be used to
use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big endian processor, or
‘0’ on little endian processor.

Return value: The unpacked double.  On error, this is ‘-1.0’ and *note
PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. is true (and an exception is set, most likely
*note OverflowError: 6c7.).

Note that on a non-IEEE platform this will refuse to unpack a bytes
string that represents a NaN or infinity.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyFloat_Unpack2 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyFloat_Unpack4 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyFloat_Unpack8 (const unsigned char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.


File: python.info,  Node: Complex Number Objects,  Prev: Floating-Point Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.8.2.7 Complex Number Objects
..............................

Python’s complex number objects are implemented as two distinct types
when viewed from the C API: one is the Python object exposed to Python
programs, and the other is a C structure which represents the actual
complex number value.  The API provides functions for working with both.

* Menu:

* Complex Numbers as C Structures::
* Complex Numbers as Python Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Complex Numbers as C Structures,  Next: Complex Numbers as Python Objects,  Up: Complex Number Objects

7.8.2.8 Complex Numbers as C Structures
.......................................

Note that the functions which accept these structures as parameters and
return them as results do so 'by value' rather than dereferencing them
through pointers.  This is consistent throughout the API.

 -- C Türü: type Py_complex

     The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python
     complex number object.  Most of the functions for dealing with
     complex number objects use structures of this type as input or
     output values, as appropriate.

      -- C Üyesi: double real
      -- C Üyesi: double imag

     The structure is defined as:

          typedef struct {
              double real;
              double imag;
          } Py_complex;

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_complex: 4a5b. _Py_c_sum (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Return the sum of two complex numbers, using the C *note
     Py_complex: 4a5b. representation.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_complex: 4a5b. _Py_c_diff (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Return the difference between two complex numbers, using the C
     *note Py_complex: 4a5b. representation.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_complex: 4a5b. _Py_c_neg (Py_complex num)

     Return the negation of the complex number 'num', using the C *note
     Py_complex: 4a5b. representation.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_complex: 4a5b. _Py_c_prod (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Return the product of two complex numbers, using the C *note
     Py_complex: 4a5b. representation.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_complex: 4a5b. _Py_c_quot (Py_complex dividend,
          Py_complex divisor)

     Return the quotient of two complex numbers, using the C *note
     Py_complex: 4a5b. representation.

     If 'divisor' is null, this method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to
     ‘EDOM’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_complex: 4a5b. _Py_c_pow (Py_complex num,
          Py_complex exp)

     Return the exponentiation of 'num' by 'exp', using the C *note
     Py_complex: 4a5b. representation.

     If 'num' is null and 'exp' is not a positive real number, this
     method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to ‘EDOM’.


File: python.info,  Node: Complex Numbers as Python Objects,  Prev: Complex Numbers as C Structures,  Up: Complex Number Objects

7.8.2.9 Complex Numbers as Python Objects
.........................................

 -- C Türü: type PyComplexObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python complex
     number object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyComplex_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python complex number type.  It
     is the same object as *note complex: 273. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyComplex_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 4b1d. or a
     subtype of *note PyComplexObject: 4b1d.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyComplex_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 4b1d, but
     not a subtype of *note PyComplexObject: 4b1d.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyComplex_FromCComplex (Py_complex
          v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a new Python complex
     number object from a C *note Py_complex: 4a5b. value.  Return
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyComplex_FromDoubles (double real,
          double imag)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note PyComplexObject: 4b1d. object from 'real'
     and 'imag'.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the real part of
     'op' as a C double.

     Upon failure, this method returns ‘-1.0’ with an exception set, so
     one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to check for errors.

 -- C Işlevi: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the imaginary part
     of 'op' as a C double.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_complex: 4a5b. PyComplex_AsCComplex (PyObject
          *op)

     Return the *note Py_complex: 4a5b. value of the complex number
     'op'.

     If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note
     __complex__(): 3f3. method, this method will first be called to
     convert 'op' to a Python complex number object.  If ‘__complex__()’
     is not defined then it falls back to *note __float__(): 82a.  If
     ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to *note
     __index__(): 538.

     Upon failure, this method returns *note Py_complex: 4a5b. with
     *note real: 4b15. set to ‘-1.0’ and with an exception set, so one
     should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to check for errors.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Use *note __index__(): 538. if available.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Objects,  Next: Container Objects,  Prev: Numeric Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.8.3 Sequence Objects
----------------------

Generic operations on sequence objects were discussed in the previous
chapter; this section deals with the specific kinds of sequence objects
that are intrinsic to the Python language.

* Menu:

* Bytes Objects: Bytes Objects<2>.
* Byte Array Objects::
* Unicode Objects and Codecs::
* Tuple Objects::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Bytes Objects<2>,  Next: Byte Array Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.8.3.1 Bytes Objects
.....................

These functions raise *note TypeError: 2c4. when expecting a bytes
parameter and called with a non-bytes parameter.

 -- C Türü: type PyBytesObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python bytes
     object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyBytes_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python bytes type; it is the same
     object as *note bytes: 2cb. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBytes_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object or an instance of a
     subtype of the bytes type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBytes_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the bytes type.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyBytes_FromString (const char *v)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v' as
     value on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.  The parameter 'v' must
     not be ‘NULL’; it will not be checked.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *v, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v' as
     value and length 'len' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'v'
     is ‘NULL’, the contents of the bytes object are uninitialized.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyBytes_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Take a C ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable
     number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python
     bytes object and return a bytes object with the values formatted
     into it.  The variable arguments must be C types and must
     correspond exactly to the format characters in the 'format' string.
     The following format characters are allowed:

     Format Characters       Type                Comment
                                                 
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘%%’                    'n/a'               The literal % character.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%c’                    int                 A single byte, represented as a C
                                                 int.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%d’                    int                 Equivalent to ‘printf("%d")’.  (1)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%u’                    unsigned int        Equivalent to ‘printf("%u")’.  (2)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%ld’                   long                Equivalent to ‘printf("%ld")’.
                                                 (3)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%lu’                   unsigned long       Equivalent to ‘printf("%lu")’.
                                                 (4)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zd’                   *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.Equivalent to ‘printf("%zd")’.
                                                 (5)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zu’                   size_t              Equivalent to ‘printf("%zu")’.
                                                 (6)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%i’                    int                 Equivalent to ‘printf("%i")’.  (7)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%x’                    int                 Equivalent to ‘printf("%x")’.  (8)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%s’                    const char*         A null-terminated C character
                                                 array.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%p’                    const void*         The hex representation of a C
                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what
                                                 the platform’s ‘printf’ yields.
                                                 

     An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format
     string to be copied as-is to the result object, and any extra
     arguments discarded.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyBytes_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Identical to *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1862. except that
     it takes exactly two arguments.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyBytes_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the bytes representation of object 'o' that
     implements the buffer protocol.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyBytes_Size (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the length of the
     bytes in bytes object 'o'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyBytes_GET_SIZE (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note PyBytes_Size(): 4895, but without error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: char *PyBytes_AsString (PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a pointer to the
     contents of 'o'.  The pointer refers to the internal buffer of 'o',
     which consists of ‘len(o) + 1’ bytes.  The last byte in the buffer
     is always null, regardless of whether there are any other null
     bytes.  The data must not be modified in any way, unless the object
     was just created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It
     must not be deallocated.  If 'o' is not a bytes object at all,
     *note PyBytes_AsString(): 6cf. returns ‘NULL’ and raises *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

 -- C Işlevi: char *PyBytes_AS_STRING (PyObject *string)

     Similar to *note PyBytes_AsString(): 6cf, but without error
     checking.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (PyObject *obj, char **buffer,
          Py_ssize_t *length)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the null-terminated
     contents of the object 'obj' through the output variables 'buffer'
     and 'length'.  Returns ‘0’ on success.

     If 'length' is ‘NULL’, the bytes object may not contain embedded
     null bytes; if it does, the function returns ‘-1’ and a *note
     ValueError: 189. is raised.

     The buffer refers to an internal buffer of 'obj', which includes an
     additional null byte at the end (not counted in 'length').  The
     data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just
     created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It must not
     be deallocated.  If 'obj' is not a bytes object at all, *note
     PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 488f. returns ‘-1’ and raises *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: Previously, *note TypeError: 2c4. was raised
     when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes object.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyBytes_Concat (PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Create a new bytes object
     in '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to
     'bytes'; the caller will own the new reference.  The reference to
     the old value of 'bytes' will be stolen.  If the new object cannot
     be created, the old reference to 'bytes' will still be discarded
     and the value of '*bytes' will be set to ‘NULL’; the appropriate
     exception will be set.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (PyObject **bytes, PyObject
          *newpart)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Create a new bytes object
     in '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to
     'bytes'.  This version releases the *note strong reference: 5c1. to
     'newpart' (i.e.  decrements its reference count).

 -- C Işlevi: int _PyBytes_Resize (PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t newsize)

     A way to resize a bytes object even though it is “immutable”.  Only
     use this to build up a brand new bytes object; don’t use this if
     the bytes may already be known in other parts of the code.  It is
     an error to call this function if the refcount on the input bytes
     object is not one.  Pass the address of an existing bytes object as
     an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size desired.  On
     success, '*bytes' holds the resized bytes object and ‘0’ is
     returned; the address in '*bytes' may differ from its input value.
     If the reallocation fails, the original bytes object at '*bytes' is
     deallocated, '*bytes' is set to ‘NULL’, *note MemoryError: 1409. is
     set, and ‘-1’ is returned.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (2) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (3) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (4) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (5) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (6) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (7) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (8) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.


File: python.info,  Node: Byte Array Objects,  Next: Unicode Objects and Codecs,  Prev: Bytes Objects<2>,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.8.3.2 Byte Array Objects
..........................

 -- C Türü: type PyByteArrayObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python bytearray
     object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyByteArray_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python bytearray type; it is the
     same object as *note bytearray: 2ca. in the Python layer.

* Menu:

* Type check macros::
* Direct API functions::
* Macros::


File: python.info,  Node: Type check macros,  Next: Direct API functions,  Up: Byte Array Objects

7.8.3.3 Type check macros
.........................

 -- C Işlevi: int PyByteArray_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytearray object or an instance
     of a subtype of the bytearray type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyByteArray_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytearray object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the bytearray type.  This function always
     succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Direct API functions,  Next: Macros,  Prev: Type check macros,  Up: Byte Array Objects

7.8.3.4 Direct API functions
............................

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyByteArray_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new bytearray object from any object, 'o', that
     implements the *note buffer protocol: 14e.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *string, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a new bytearray object from 'string' and its length,
     'len'.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyByteArray_Concat (PyObject *a,
          PyObject *b)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Concat bytearrays 'a' and 'b' and return a new bytearray
     with the result.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyByteArray_Size (PyObject
          *bytearray)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the size of
     'bytearray' after checking for a ‘NULL’ pointer.

 -- C Işlevi: char *PyByteArray_AsString (PyObject *bytearray)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the contents of
     'bytearray' as a char array after checking for a ‘NULL’ pointer.
     The returned array always has an extra null byte appended.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyByteArray_Resize (PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t
          len)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Resize the internal buffer
     of 'bytearray' to 'len'.


File: python.info,  Node: Macros,  Prev: Direct API functions,  Up: Byte Array Objects

7.8.3.5 Macros
..............

These macros trade safety for speed and they don’t check pointers.

 -- C Işlevi: char *PyByteArray_AS_STRING (PyObject *bytearray)

     Similar to *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 488a, but without error
     checking.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *bytearray)

     Similar to *note PyByteArray_Size(): 488d, but without error
     checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Objects and Codecs,  Next: Tuple Objects,  Prev: Byte Array Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.8.3.6 Unicode Objects and Codecs
..................................

* Menu:

* Unicode Objects::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Objects,  Next: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.8.3.7 Unicode Objects
.......................

Since the implementation of PEP 393(1) in Python 3.3, Unicode objects
internally use a variety of representations, in order to allow handling
the complete range of Unicode characters while staying memory efficient.
There are special cases for strings where all code points are below 128,
256, or 65536; otherwise, code points must be below 1114112 (which is
the full Unicode range).

UTF-8 representation is created on demand and cached in the Unicode
object.

     Not: The *note Py_UNICODE: 362. representation has been removed
     since Python 3.12 with deprecated APIs.  See PEP 623(2) for more
     information.

* Menu:

* Unicode Type::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Type,  Next: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.8.3.8 Unicode Type
....................

These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode
implementation in Python:

 -- C Türü: type Py_UCS4
 -- C Türü: type Py_UCS2
 -- C Türü: type Py_UCS1
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  These types are typedefs
     for unsigned integer types wide enough to contain characters of 32
     bits, 16 bits and 8 bits, respectively.  When dealing with single
     Unicode characters, use *note Py_UCS4: 101c.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Türü: type Py_UNICODE

     This is a typedef of ‘wchar_t’, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit
     type depending on the platform.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: In previous versions, this was a 16-bit type
     or a 32-bit type depending on whether you selected a “narrow” or
     “wide” Unicode version of Python at build time.

 -- C Türü: type PyASCIIObject
 -- C Türü: type PyCompactUnicodeObject
 -- C Türü: type PyUnicodeObject

     These subtypes of *note PyObject: 6eb. represent a Python Unicode
     object.  In almost all cases, they shouldn’t be used directly,
     since all API functions that deal with Unicode objects take and
     return *note PyObject: 6eb. pointers.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyUnicode_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python Unicode type.  It is
     exposed to Python code as ‘str’.

The following APIs are C macros and static inlined functions for fast
checks and access to internal read-only data of Unicode objects:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object or an instance
     of a Unicode subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_CheckExact (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object, but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_READY (PyObject *unicode)

     Returns ‘0’.  This API is kept only for backward compatibility.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.10 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This API does nothing since
     Python 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points.  'unicode'
     has to be a Unicode object in the “canonical” representation (not
     checked).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS1: 101a. *PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS2: 101b. *PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. *PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2
     or UCS4 integer types for direct character access.  No checks are
     performed if the canonical representation has the correct character
     size; use *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1025. to select the right
     function.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Makrosu: PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
 -- C Makrosu: PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
 -- C Makrosu: PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND

     Return values of the *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1025. macro.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’ has been removed.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_KIND (PyObject *unicode)

     Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that
     indicate how many bytes per character this Unicode object uses to
     store its data.  'unicode' has to be a Unicode object in the
     “canonical” representation (not checked).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyUnicode_DATA (PyObject *unicode)

     Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer.  'unicode' has to
     be a Unicode object in the “canonical” representation (not
     checked).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyUnicode_WRITE (int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 value)

     Write into a canonical representation 'data' (as obtained with
     *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 1021.).  This function performs no sanity
     checks, and is intended for usage in loops.  The caller should
     cache the 'kind' value and 'data' pointer as obtained from other
     calls.  'index' is the index in the string (starts at 0) and
     'value' is the new code point value which should be written to that
     location.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. PyUnicode_READ (int kind, void *data,
          Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a code point from a canonical representation 'data' (as
     obtained with *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 1021.).  No checks or ready
     calls are performed.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a character from a Unicode object 'unicode', which must be in
     the “canonical” representation.  This is less efficient than *note
     PyUnicode_READ(): 1029. if you do multiple consecutive reads.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another
     string based on 'unicode', which must be in the “canonical”
     representation.  This is always an approximation but more efficient
     than iterating over the string.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (PyObject *unicode)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if the string is
     a valid identifier according to the language definition, section
     *note Identifiers and keywords: 1c81.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function does not call *note
     Py_FatalError(): 7e1. anymore if the string is not ready.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Character Properties,  Next: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Prev: Unicode Type,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.8.3.9 Unicode Character Properties
....................................

Unicode provides many different character properties.  The most often
needed ones are available through these macros which are mapped to C
functions depending on the Python configuration.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a whitespace
     character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a lowercase
     character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an uppercase
     character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a titlecase
     character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a linebreak
     character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a decimal character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a digit character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a numeric character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphabetic
     character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphanumeric
     character.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a printable
     character, in the sense of *note str.isprintable(): c66.

These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to lower case.

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This function uses simple case
     mappings.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to upper case.

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This function uses simple case
     mappings.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to title case.

     3.3 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This function uses simple case
     mappings.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a decimal positive integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a single digit integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C Işlevi: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a double.  Return ‘-1.0’ if
     this is not possible.  This function does not raise exceptions.

These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a high surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF’).

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a low surrogate (‘0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (Py_UCS4
          high, Py_UCS4 low)

     Join two surrogate characters and return a single *note Py_UCS4:
     101c. value.  'high' and 'low' are respectively the leading and
     trailing surrogates in a surrogate pair.  'high' must be in the
     range [0xD800; 0xDBFF] and 'low' must be in the range [0xDC00;
     0xDFFF].


File: python.info,  Node: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Next: Locale Encoding,  Prev: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.8.3.10 Creating and accessing Unicode strings
...............................................

To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties,
use these APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_New (Py_ssize_t size,
          Py_UCS4 maxchar)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a new Unicode object.
     'maxchar' should be the true maximum code point to be placed in the
     string.  As an approximation, it can be rounded up to the nearest
     value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111.

     This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object.
     Objects created using this function are not resizable.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (int kind,
          const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a new Unicode object
     with the given 'kind' (possible values are *note
     PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1026. etc., as returned by *note
     PyUnicode_KIND(): 1025.).  The 'buffer' must point to an array of
     'size' units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the
     kind.

     If necessary, the input 'buffer' is copied and transformed into the
     canonical representation.  For example, if the 'buffer' is a UCS4
     string (*note PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1028.) and it consists only of
     codepoints in the UCS1 range, it will be transformed into UCS1
     (*note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1026.).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object from the char buffer 'str'.  The
     bytes will be interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded.  The buffer is
     copied into the new object.  The return value might be a shared
     object, i.e.  modification of the data is not allowed.

     This function raises *note SystemError: 30e. when:

        * 'size' < 0,

        * 'str' is ‘NULL’ and 'size' > 0

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: 'str' == ‘NULL’ with 'size' > 0 is not
     allowed anymore.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromString (const char
          *str)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded null-terminated
     char buffer 'str'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Take a C ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable
     number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python
     Unicode string and return a string with the values formatted into
     it.  The variable arguments must be C types and must correspond
     exactly to the format characters in the 'format' ASCII-encoded
     string.

     A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
     following components, which must occur in this order:

       1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

       2. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
          conversion types.

       3. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
          (asterisk), the actual width is given in the next argument,
          which must be of type int, and the object to convert comes
          after the minimum field width and optional precision.

       4. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
          precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
          precision is given in the next argument, which must be of type
          int, and the value to convert comes after the precision.

       5. Length modifier (optional).

       6. Conversion type.

     The conversion flag characters are:

     Flag        Meaning
                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
                 
                 
     ‘-’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘0’ flag if
                 both are given).
                 

     The length modifiers for following integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’,
     ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘x’, or ‘X’) specify the type of the argument (int by
     default):

     Modifier       Types
                    
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘l’            long or unsigned long
                    
                    
     ‘ll’           long long or unsigned long long
                    
                    
     ‘j’            ‘intmax_t’ or ‘uintmax_t’
                    
                    
     ‘z’            ‘size_t’ or ‘ssize_t’
                    
                    
     ‘t’            ‘ptrdiff_t’
                    

     The length modifier ‘l’ for following conversions ‘s’ or ‘V’
     specify that the type of the argument is const wchar_t*.

     The conversion specifiers are:

     Conversion Specifier                  Type                                  Comment
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
     ‘%’                                   'n/a'                                 The literal ‘%’ character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘d’, ‘i’                              Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of a
                                                                                 signed C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘u’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘o’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The octal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘x’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (lowercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘X’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (uppercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘c’                                   int                                   A single character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘s’                                   const char* or const wchar_t*         A null-terminated C character
                                                                                 array.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘p’                                   const void*                           The hex representation of a C
                                                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what the
                                                                                 platform’s ‘printf’ yields.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘A’                                   *note PyObject: 6eb.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note ascii(): 126d.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘U’                                   *note PyObject: 6eb.*                 A Unicode object.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘V’                                   *note PyObject: 6eb.*, const char*    A Unicode object (which may be
                                           or const wchar_t*                     ‘NULL’) and a null-terminated C
                                                                                 character array as a second
                                                                                 parameter (which will be used, if
                                                                                 the first parameter is ‘NULL’).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘S’                                   *note PyObject: 6eb.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Str(): ed8.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘R’                                   *note PyObject: 6eb.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7.
                                                                                 

          Not: The width formatter unit is number of characters rather
          than bytes.  The precision formatter unit is number of bytes
          or ‘wchar_t’ items (if the length modifier ‘l’ is used) for
          ‘"%s"’ and ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is ‘NULL’), and
          a number of characters for ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ and
          ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is not ‘NULL’).

          Not: Unlike to C ‘printf()’ the ‘0’ flag has effect even when
          a precision is given for integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’, ‘u’,
          ‘o’, ‘x’, or ‘X’).

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Support for ‘"%lld"’ and ‘"%llu"’ added.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: Support for ‘"%li"’, ‘"%lli"’ and ‘"%zi"’
     added.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: Support width and precision formatter for
     ‘"%s"’, ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%V"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ added.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Support for conversion specifiers ‘o’ and
     ‘X’.  Support for length modifiers ‘j’ and ‘t’.  Length modifiers
     are now applied to all integer conversions.  Length modifier ‘l’ is
     now applied to conversion specifiers ‘s’ and ‘V’.  Support for
     variable width and precision ‘*’.  Support for flag ‘-’.

     An unrecognized format character now sets a *note SystemError: 30e.
     In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to
     be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments
     discarded.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Identical to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 30c. except that
     it takes exactly two arguments.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromObject (PyObject *obj)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Copy an instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true Unicode
     object if necessary.  If 'obj' is already a true Unicode object
     (not a subtype), return a new *note strong reference: 5c1. to the
     object.

     Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject
          (PyObject *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Decode an encoded object 'obj' to a Unicode object.

     *note bytes: 2cb, *note bytearray: 2ca. and other *note bytes-like
     objects: bb5. are decoded according to the given 'encoding' and
     using the error handling defined by 'errors'.  Both can be ‘NULL’
     to have the interface use the default values (see *note Built-in
     Codecs: 4b50. for details).

     All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a *note
     TypeError: 2c4. to be set.

     The API returns ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  The caller is
     responsible for decref’ing the returned objects.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the name of the
     default string encoding, ‘"utf-8"’.  See *note
     sys.getdefaultencoding(): 4130.

     The returned string does not need to be freed, and is valid until
     interpreter shutdown.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_GetLength (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     the length of the Unicode object, in code points.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (PyObject
          *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t
          from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many)

     Copy characters from one Unicode object into another.  This
     function performs character conversion when necessary and falls
     back to ‘memcpy()’ if possible.  Returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception
     on error, otherwise returns the number of copied characters.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_Fill (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 fill_char)

     Fill a string with a character: write 'fill_char' into
     ‘unicode[start:start+length]’.

     Fail if 'fill_char' is bigger than the string maximum character, or
     if the string has more than 1 reference.

     Return the number of written character, or return ‘-1’ and raise an
     exception on error.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_WriteChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 character)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Write
     a character to a string.  The string must have been created through
     *note PyUnicode_New(): 6fb.  Since Unicode strings are supposed to
     be immutable, the string must not be shared, or have been hashed
     yet.

     This function checks that 'unicode' is a Unicode object, that the
     index is not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified
     safely (i.e.  that it its reference count is one).

     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. PyUnicode_ReadChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Read a
     character from a string.  This function checks that 'unicode' is a
     Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to
     *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(): 102a, which performs no error
     checking.

     Return character on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Substring (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return a substring of 'unicode', from
     character index 'start' (included) to character index 'end'
     (excluded).  Negative indices are not supported.  On error, set an
     exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_UCS4 *buffer, Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Copy
     the string 'unicode' into a UCS4 buffer, including a null
     character, if 'copy_null' is set.  Returns ‘NULL’ and sets an
     exception on error (in particular, a *note SystemError: 30e. if
     'buflen' is smaller than the length of 'unicode').  'buffer' is
     returned on success.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_UCS4: 101c. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Copy
     the string 'unicode' into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.  If this fails, ‘NULL’ is returned with
     a *note MemoryError: 1409. set.  The returned buffer always has an
     extra null code point appended.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Locale Encoding,  Next: File System Encoding,  Prev: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.8.3.11 Locale Encoding
........................

The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the
operating system.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Decode a string from UTF-8 on Android
     and VxWorks, or from the current locale encoding on other
     platforms.  The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and
     ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(1)).  The decoder uses ‘"strict"’
     error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’.  'str' must end with a null
     character but cannot contain embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 49b9. to decode a
     string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. function.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The function now also uses the current
     locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (const char
          *str, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a40, but compute the string length
     using ‘strlen()’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8 on
     Android and VxWorks, or to the current locale encoding on other
     platforms.  The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and
     ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(2)).  The encoder uses ‘"strict"’
     error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’.  Return a *note bytes: 2cb.
     object.  'unicode' cannot contain embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1892. to encode a string to
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f. function.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The function now also uses the current
     locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: File System Encoding,  Next: wchar_t Support,  Prev: Locale Encoding,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.8.3.12 File System Encoding
.............................

Functions encoding to and decoding from the *note filesystem encoding
and error handler: 2c7. ( PEP 383(1) and PEP 529(2)).

To encode file names to *note bytes: 2cb. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSConverter()’ as
the conversion function:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_FSConverter (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  *note PyArg_Parse*
     converter: 6f6.: encode *note str: 15d. objects – obtained directly
     or through the *note os.PathLike: acd. interface – to *note bytes:
     2cb. using *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1892.; *note bytes:
     2cb. objects are output as-is.  'result' must be an address of a C
     variable of type *note PyObject: 6eb.* (or *note PyBytesObject:
     5c7.*).  On success, set the variable to a new *note strong
     reference: 5c1. to a *note bytes object: 4b25. which must be
     released when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value
     (*note Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4a5e.).  Embedded null bytes are not
     allowed in the result.  On failure, return ‘0’ with an exception
     set.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, the function releases a strong reference stored
     in the variable referred by 'result' and returns ‘1’.

     Added in version 3.1.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

To decode file names to *note str: 15d. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSDecoder()’ as the
conversion function:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  *note PyArg_Parse*
     converter: 6f6.: decode *note bytes: 2cb. objects – obtained either
     directly or indirectly through the *note os.PathLike: acd.
     interface – to *note str: 15d. using *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 49b9.; *note str: 15d. objects
     are output as-is.  'result' must be an address of a C variable of
     type *note PyObject: 6eb.* (or *note PyUnicodeObject: 5c9.*).  On
     success, set the variable to a new *note strong reference: 5c1. to
     a *note Unicode object: 4b35. which must be released when it is no
     longer used and return a non-zero value (*note
     Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4a5e.).  Embedded null characters are not
     allowed in the result.  On failure, return ‘0’ with an exception
     set.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, release the strong reference to the object
     referred to by 'result' and return ‘1’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: Accepts a *note path-like object: 98e.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Decode a string from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 2c7.

     If you need to decode a string from the current locale encoding,
     use *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): a40.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. function.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The *note filesystem error handler: 2c7. is
     now used.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (const
          char *str)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Decode a null-terminated string from the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 2c7.

     If the string length is known, use *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 49b9.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The *note filesystem error handler: 2c7. is
     now used.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object to the *note filesystem encoding and
     error handler: 2c7, and return *note bytes: 2cb.  Note that the
     resulting *note bytes: 2cb. object can contain null bytes.

     If you need to encode a string to the current locale encoding, use
     *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): a41.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f. function.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.6 sürümünde değişti: The *note filesystem error handler: 2c7. is
     now used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: wchar_t Support,  Prev: File System Encoding,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.8.3.13 wchar_t Support
........................

‘wchar_t’ support for platforms which support it:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_FromWideChar (const
          wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object from the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr' of
     the given 'size'.  Passing ‘-1’ as the 'size' indicates that the
     function must itself compute the length, using ‘wcslen()’.  Return
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_AsWideChar (PyObject
          *unicode, wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Copy the Unicode object
     contents into the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr'.  At most 'size'
     ‘wchar_t’ characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing null
     termination character).  Return the number of ‘wchar_t’ characters
     copied or ‘-1’ in case of an error.

     When 'wstr' is ‘NULL’, instead return the 'size' that would be
     required to store all of 'unicode' including a terminating null.

     Note that the resulting wchar_t* string may or may not be
     null-terminated.  It is the responsibility of the caller to make
     sure that the wchar_t* string is null-terminated in case this is
     required by the application.  Also, note that the wchar_t* string
     might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be
     truncated when used with most C functions.

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
     Convert the Unicode object to a wide character string.  The output
     string always ends with a null character.  If 'size' is not ‘NULL’,
     write the number of wide characters (excluding the trailing null
     termination character) into '*size'.  Note that the resulting
     ‘wchar_t’ string might contain null characters, which would cause
     the string to be truncated when used with most C functions.  If
     'size' is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters a
     *note ValueError: 189. is raised.

     Returns a buffer allocated by *note PyMem_New: 13b2. (use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 12cd. to free it) on success.  On error, returns
     ‘NULL’ and '*size' is undefined.  Raises a *note MemoryError: 1409.
     if memory allocation is failed.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: Raises a *note ValueError: 189. if 'size' is
     ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in Codecs,  Next: Methods and Slot Functions,  Prev: Unicode Objects,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.8.3.14 Built-in Codecs
........................

Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for
speed.  All of these codecs are directly usable via the following
functions.

Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and
they have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in *note str():
15d. string object constructor.

Setting encoding to ‘NULL’ causes the default encoding to be used which
is UTF-8.  The file system calls should use *note
PyUnicode_FSConverter(): b9f. for encoding file names.  This uses the
*note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. internally.

Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to ‘NULL’ meaning
to use the default handling defined for the codec.  Default error
handling for all built-in codecs is “strict” (*note ValueError: 189. is
raised).

The codecs all use a similar interface.  Only deviations from the
following generic ones are documented for simplicity.

* Menu:

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 Codecs::
* UTF-32 Codecs::
* UTF-16 Codecs::
* UTF-7 Codecs::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 Codecs::
* ASCII Codecs::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::
* Methods & Slots::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Codecs,  Next: UTF-8 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.15 Generic Codecs
.......................

These are the generic codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Decode (const char *str,
          Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     encoded string 'str'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same
     meaning as the parameters of the same name in the *note str(): 15d.
     built-in function.  The codec to be used is looked up using the
     Python codec registry.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by
     the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python
     bytes object.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as the
     parameters of the same name in the Unicode *note encode(): 728.
     method.  The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec
     registry.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-8 Codecs,  Next: UTF-32 Codecs,  Prev: Generic Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.16 UTF-8 Codecs
.....................

These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     UTF-8 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 49c5.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’,
     trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be treated as an
     error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
     that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as
     Python bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return ‘NULL’ if
     an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Return a pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and
     store the size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in 'size'.
     The 'size' argument can be ‘NULL’; in this case no size will be
     stored.  The returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended
     (not included in 'size'), regardless of whether there are any other
     null code points.

     In the case of an error, ‘NULL’ is returned with an exception set
     and no 'size' is stored.

     This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode
     object, and subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same
     buffer.  The caller is not responsible for deallocating the buffer.
     The buffer is deallocated and pointers to it become invalid when
     the Unicode object is garbage collected.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The return type is now ‘const char *’ rather
     of ‘char *’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: This function is a part of the *note
     limited API: 2de.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (PyObject *unicode)

     As *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6e2, but does not store the
     size.

          Uyarı: This function does not have any special behavior for
          null characters(1) embedded within 'unicode'.  As a result,
          strings containing null characters will remain in the returned
          string, which some C functions might interpret as the end of
          the string, leading to truncation.  If truncation is an issue,
          it is recommended to use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 6e2.
          instead.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The return type is now ‘const char *’ rather
     of ‘char *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-32 Codecs,  Next: UTF-16 Codecs,  Prev: UTF-8 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.17 UTF-32 Codecs
......................

These are the UTF-32 codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and
     return the corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if non-‘NULL’)
     defines the error handling.  It defaults to “strict”.

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output.

     After completion, '*byteorder' is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 49c1.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 49c2. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not
     divisible by four) as an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded
     and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in
     'consumed'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in
     native byte order.  The string always starts with a BOM mark.
     Error handling is “strict”.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-16 Codecs,  Next: UTF-7 Codecs,  Prev: UTF-32 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.18 UTF-16 Codecs
......................

These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and
     return the corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if non-‘NULL’)
     defines the error handling.  It defaults to “strict”.

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output (where it will result in either a ‘\ufeff’ or a ‘\ufffe’
     character).

     After completion, ‘*byteorder’ is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 49bf.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 49c0. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or
     a split surrogate pair) as an error.  Those bytes will not be
     decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be
     stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in
     native byte order.  The string always starts with a BOM mark.
     Error handling is “strict”.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-7 Codecs,  Next: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-16 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.19 UTF-7 Codecs
.....................

These are the UTF-7 codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     UTF-7 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 49c3.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’,
     trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not be treated as
     an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
     that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-7 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.20 Unicode-Escape Codecs
..............................

These are the “Unicode Escape” codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception
     was raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the
     result as a bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Latin-1 Codecs,  Prev: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.21 Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs
..................................

These are the “Raw Unicode Escape” codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Raw-Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return
     the result as a bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Latin-1 Codecs,  Next: ASCII Codecs,  Prev: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.22 Latin-1 Codecs
.......................

These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256
Unicode ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during
encoding.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Latin-1 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result
     as Python bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return ‘NULL’
     if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: ASCII Codecs,  Next: Character Map Codecs,  Prev: Latin-1 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.23 ASCII Codecs
.....................

These are the ASCII codec APIs.  Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted.  All
other codes generate errors.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     ASCII encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as
     Python bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.  Return ‘NULL’ if
     an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Character Map Codecs,  Next: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Prev: ASCII Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.24 Character Map Codecs
.............................

This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different
codecs (and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard
codecs included in the ‘encodings’ package).  The codec uses mappings to
encode and decode characters.  The mapping objects provided must support
the *note __getitem__(): 500. mapping interface; dictionaries and
sequences work well.

These are the mapping codec APIs:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t length, PyObject *mapping, const char
          *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     encoded string 'str' using the given 'mapping' object.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     If 'mapping' is ‘NULL’, Latin-1 decoding will be applied.  Else
     'mapping' must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to
     255) to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as
     Unicode ordinals) or ‘None’.  Unmapped data bytes – ones which
     cause a *note LookupError: 1fbf, as well as ones which get mapped
     to ‘None’, ‘0xFFFE’ or ‘'\ufffe'’, are treated as undefined
     mappings and cause an error.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *mapping)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Encode a Unicode object using the given 'mapping' object and
     return the result as a bytes object.  Error handling is “strict”.
     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     The 'mapping' object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes
     objects, integers in the range from 0 to 255 or ‘None’.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 1fbf.) as
     well as mapped to ‘None’ are treated as “undefined mapping” and
     cause an error.

The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Translate (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *table, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to
     it and return the resulting Unicode object.  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.

     The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode
     ordinal integers or ‘None’ (causing deletion of the character).

     Mapping tables need only provide the *note __getitem__(): 500.
     interface; dictionaries and sequences work well.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 1fbf.)
     are left untouched and are copied as-is.

     'errors' has the usual meaning for codecs.  It may be ‘NULL’ which
     indicates to use the default error handling.


File: python.info,  Node: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Next: Methods & Slots,  Prev: Character Map Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.25 MBCS codecs for Windows
................................

These are the MBCS codec APIs.  They are currently only available on
Windows and use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions.
Note that MBCS (or DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one.  The
target encoding is defined by the user settings on the machine running
the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Create a Unicode object by
     decoding 'size' bytes of the MBCS encoded string 'str'.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t
          *consumed)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’,
     behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 49bc.  If 'consumed' is
     not ‘NULL’, *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 49bd. will not
     decode trailing lead byte and the number of bytes that have been
     decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful
          (int code_page, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char
          *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Similar to *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 49bd, except uses the code page
     specified by 'code_page'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Encode a Unicode object
     using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes object.  Error
     handling is “strict”.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by
     the codec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (int
          code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. on Windows 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Encode the Unicode object
     using the specified code page and return a Python bytes object.
     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  Use
     ‘CP_ACP’ code page to get the MBCS encoder.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods & Slots,  Prev: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.8.3.26 Methods & Slots
........................


File: python.info,  Node: Methods and Slot Functions,  Prev: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.8.3.27 Methods and Slot Functions
...................................

The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings
on input (we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return
Unicode objects or integers as appropriate.

They all return ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’ if an exception occurs.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Concat (PyObject *left,
          PyObject *right)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Split (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings.  If 'sep'
     is ‘NULL’, splitting will be done at all whitespace substrings.
     Otherwise, splits occur at the given separator.  At most 'maxsplit'
     splits will be done.  If negative, no limit is set.  Separators are
     not included in the resulting list.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.split(): d3e.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_RSplit (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_Split(): 49d0, but splitting will
     be done beginning at the end of the string.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.rsplit(): 10fd.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Splitlines (PyObject
          *unicode, int keepends)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of
     Unicode strings.  CRLF is considered to be one line break.  If
     'keepends' is ‘0’, the Line break characters are not included in
     the resulting strings.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Partition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Split a Unicode string at the first occurrence of 'sep', and
     return a 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the
     separator itself, and the part after the separator.  If the
     separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing the string
     itself, followed by two empty strings.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.partition(): d3f.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_RPartition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 13ff, but split a
     Unicode string at the last occurrence of 'sep'.  If the separator
     is not found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings,
     followed by the string itself.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.rpartition(): 1101.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Join (PyObject *separator,
          PyObject *seq)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Join a sequence of strings using the given 'separator' and
     return the resulting Unicode string.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_Tailmatch (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if 'substr'
     matches ‘unicode[start:end]’ at the given tail end ('direction' ==
     ‘-1’ means to do a prefix match, 'direction' == ‘1’ a suffix
     match), ‘0’ otherwise.  Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_Find (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the first position
     of 'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’ using the given 'direction'
     ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a forward search, 'direction' ==
     ‘-1’ a backward search).  The return value is the index of the
     first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates that no match was found, and
     ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been
     set.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_FindChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_UCS4 ch, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     the first position of the character 'ch' in ‘unicode[start:end]’
     using the given 'direction' ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a
     forward search, 'direction' == ‘-1’ a backward search).  The return
     value is the index of the first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates
     that no match was found, and ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred
     and an exception has been set.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: 'start' and 'end' are now adjusted to behave
     like ‘unicode[start:end]’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyUnicode_Count (PyObject *unicode,
          PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the number of
     non-overlapping occurrences of 'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’.
     Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Replace (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t
          maxcount)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Replace at most 'maxcount' occurrences of 'substr' in
     'unicode' with 'replstr' and return the resulting Unicode object.
     'maxcount' == ‘-1’ means replace all occurrences.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_Compare (PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Compare two strings and
     return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than, equal, and greater than,
     respectively.

     This function returns ‘-1’ upon failure, so one should call *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to check for errors.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (PyObject *unicode,
          const char *string)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Compare a Unicode object,
     'unicode', with 'string' and return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than,
     equal, and greater than, respectively.  It is best to pass only
     ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string
     as ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters.

     This function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_RichCompare (PyObject
          *left, PyObject *right, int op)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Rich compare two Unicode strings and return one of the
     following:

        * ‘NULL’ in case an exception was raised

        * *note Py_True: 4b05. or *note Py_False: 4b04. for successful
          comparisons

        * *note Py_NotImplemented: 4a7d. in case the type combination is
          unknown

     Possible values for 'op' are *note Py_GT: 4a86, *note Py_GE: 4a87,
     *note Py_EQ: 4a84, *note Py_NE: 4a85, *note Py_LT: 4a82, and *note
     Py_LE: 4a83.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_Format (PyObject *format,
          PyObject *args)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new string object from 'format' and 'args'; this is
     analogous to ‘format % args’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnicode_Contains (PyObject *unicode, PyObject
          *substr)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Check whether 'substr' is
     contained in 'unicode' and return true or false accordingly.

     'substr' has to coerce to a one element Unicode string.  ‘-1’ is
     returned if there was an error.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace (PyObject **p_unicode)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Intern the argument **note
     p_unicode: 703. in place.  The argument must be the address of a
     pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object.  If
     there is an existing interned string that is the same as **note
     p_unicode: 703, it sets **note p_unicode: 703. to it (releasing the
     reference to the old string object and creating a new *note strong
     reference: 5c1. to the interned string object), otherwise it leaves
     **note p_unicode: 703. alone and interns it.

     (Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about
     references, think of this function as reference-neutral.  You must
     own the object you pass in; after the call you no longer own the
     passed-in reference, but you newly own the result.)

     This function never raises an exception.  On error, it leaves its
     argument unchanged without interning it.

     Instances of subclasses of *note str: 15d. may not be interned,
     that is, *note PyUnicode_CheckExact: 4b39.(**note p_unicode: 703.)
     must be true.  If it is not, then – as with any other error – the
     argument is left unchanged.

     Note that interned strings are not “immortal”.  You must keep a
     reference to the result to benefit from interning.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnicode_InternFromString (const
          char *str)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  A combination of *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 49cb. and
     *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 703, meant for statically
     allocated strings.

     Return a new (“owned”) reference to either a new Unicode string
     object that has been interned, or an earlier interned string object
     with the same value.

     Python may keep a reference to the result, or prevent it from being
     garbage-collected promptly.  For interning an unbounded number of
     different strings, such as ones coming from user input, prefer
     calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 49cb. and *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 703. directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Tuple Objects,  Next: Struct Sequence Objects,  Prev: Unicode Objects and Codecs,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.8.3.28 Tuple Objects
......................

 -- C Türü: type PyTupleObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python tuple
     object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyTuple_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python tuple type; it is the same
     object as *note tuple: 4ff. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTuple_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of
     the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTuple_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTuple_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new tuple object of size 'len', or ‘NULL’ with an
     exception set on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTuple_Pack (Py_ssize_t n, ...)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new tuple object of size 'n', or ‘NULL’ with an
     exception set on failure.  The tuple values are initialized to the
     subsequent 'n' C arguments pointing to Python objects.
     ‘PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a,
     b)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyTuple_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Take a pointer to a tuple
     object, and return the size of that tuple.  On error, return ‘-1’
     and with an exception set.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyTuple_GET_SIZE (PyObject *p)

     Like *note PyTuple_Size(): 4993, but without error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTuple_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the object at position 'pos' in the
     tuple pointed to by 'p'.  If 'pos' is negative or out of bounds,
     return ‘NULL’ and set an *note IndexError: 13c2. exception.

     The returned reference is borrowed from the tuple 'p' (that is: it
     is only valid as long as you hold a reference to 'p').  To get a
     *note strong reference: 5c1, use *note
     Py_NewRef(PyTuple_GetItem(...)): 6e5. or *note
     PySequence_GetItem(): 1895.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTuple_GET_ITEM (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Like *note
     PyTuple_GetItem(): 47ed, but does no checking of its arguments.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTuple_GetSlice (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return the slice of the tuple pointed to by 'p' between
     'low' and 'high', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘p[low:high]’.
     Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTuple_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject
          *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Insert a reference to
     object 'o' at position 'pos' of the tuple pointed to by 'p'.
     Return ‘0’ on success.  If 'pos' is out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and
     set an *note IndexError: 13c2. exception.

          Not: This function “steals” a reference to 'o' and discards a
          reference to an item already in the tuple at the affected
          position.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos,
          PyObject *o)

     Like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1, but does no error checking, and
     should 'only' be used to fill in brand new tuples.

          Not: This function “steals” a reference to 'o', and, unlike
          *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1, does 'not' discard a reference
          to any item that is being replaced; any reference in the tuple
          at position 'pos' will be leaked.

 -- C Işlevi: int _PyTuple_Resize (PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)

     Can be used to resize a tuple.  'newsize' will be the new length of
     the tuple.  Because tuples are 'supposed' to be immutable, this
     should only be used if there is only one reference to the object.
     Do 'not' use this if the tuple may already be known to some other
     part of the code.  The tuple will always grow or shrink at the end.
     Think of this as destroying the old tuple and creating a new one,
     only more efficiently.  Returns ‘0’ on success.  Client code should
     never assume that the resulting value of ‘*p’ will be the same as
     before calling this function.  If the object referenced by ‘*p’ is
     replaced, the original ‘*p’ is destroyed.  On failure, returns ‘-1’
     and sets ‘*p’ to ‘NULL’, and raises *note MemoryError: 1409. or
     *note SystemError: 30e.


File: python.info,  Node: Struct Sequence Objects,  Next: List Objects,  Prev: Tuple Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.8.3.29 Struct Sequence Objects
................................

Struct sequence objects are the C equivalent of *note namedtuple(): 74b.
objects, i.e.  a sequence whose items can also be accessed through
attributes.  To create a struct sequence, you first have to create a
specific struct sequence type.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyTypeObject: 911. *PyStructSequence_NewType
          (PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a new struct sequence type from the data in 'desc',
     described below.  Instances of the resulting type can be created
     with *note PyStructSequence_New(): 4980.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyStructSequence_InitType (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     Initializes a struct sequence type 'type' from 'desc' in place.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyStructSequence_InitType2 (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)

     Like *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): eaa, but returns ‘0’ on
     success and ‘-1’ with an exception set on failure.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Türü: type PyStructSequence_Desc
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'
     Contains the meta information of a struct sequence type to create.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *name

          Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8
          encoded.  The name must contain the module name.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *doc

          Pointer to docstring for the type or ‘NULL’ to omit.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyStructSequence_Field: a30. *fields

          Pointer to ‘NULL’-terminated array with field names of the new
          type.

      -- C Üyesi: int n_in_sequence

          Number of fields visible to the Python side (if used as
          tuple).

 -- C Türü: type PyStructSequence_Field
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'
     Describes a field of a struct sequence.  As a struct sequence is
     modeled as a tuple, all fields are typed as *note PyObject: 6eb.*.
     The index in the *note fields: 4b6d. array of the *note
     PyStructSequence_Desc: a31. determines which field of the struct
     sequence is described.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *name

          Name for the field or ‘NULL’ to end the list of named fields,
          set to *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 7e0. to leave
          unnamed.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *doc

          Field docstring or ‘NULL’ to omit.

 -- C Değişkeni: const char *const PyStructSequence_UnnamedField
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'
     Special value for a field name to leave it unnamed.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The type was changed from ‘char *’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyStructSequence_New (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Creates an instance of 'type', which must have been created
     with *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 4981.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyStructSequence_GetItem (PyObject
          *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the object at position 'pos' in the
     struct sequence pointed to by 'p'.  No bounds checking is
     performed.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (PyObject
          *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Macro equivalent of
     *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 497f.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyStructSequence_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          pos, PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Sets the field at index
     'pos' of the struct sequence 'p' to value 'o'.  Like *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 6ff, this should only be used to fill in brand
     new instances.

          Not: This function “steals” a reference to 'o'.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          *pos, PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4982, but implemented
     as a static inlined function.

          Not: This function “steals” a reference to 'o'.


File: python.info,  Node: List Objects,  Prev: Struct Sequence Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.8.3.30 List Objects
.....................

 -- C Türü: type PyListObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python list
     object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyList_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python list type.  This is the
     same object as *note list: 422. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a list object or an instance of a subtype of
     the list type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a list object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the list type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyList_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new list of length 'len' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.

          Not: If 'len' is greater than zero, the returned list object’s
          items are set to ‘NULL’.  Thus you cannot use abstract API
          functions such as *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1896. or expose
          the object to Python code before setting all items to a real
          object with *note PyList_SetItem(): 47f2.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyList_Size (PyObject *list)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the length of the list object in 'list'; this is equivalent
     to ‘len(list)’ on a list object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyList_GET_SIZE (PyObject *list)

     Similar to *note PyList_Size(): 12a2, but without error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyList_GetItem (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the object at position 'index' in the
     list pointed to by 'list'.  The position must be non-negative;
     indexing from the end of the list is not supported.  If 'index' is
     out of bounds (<0 or >=len(list)), return ‘NULL’ and set an *note
     IndexError: 13c2. exception.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyList_GET_ITEM (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Similar to *note
     PyList_GetItem(): 47ee, but without error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_SetItem (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the item at index
     'index' in list to 'item'.  Return ‘0’ on success.  If 'index' is
     out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set an *note IndexError: 13c2.
     exception.

          Not: This function “steals” a reference to 'item' and discards
          a reference to an item already in the list at the affected
          position.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyList_SET_ITEM (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i,
          PyObject *o)

     Macro form of *note PyList_SetItem(): 47f2. without error checking.
     This is normally only used to fill in new lists where there is no
     previous content.

          Not: This macro “steals” a reference to 'item', and, unlike
          *note PyList_SetItem(): 47f2, does 'not' discard a reference
          to any item that is being replaced; any reference in 'list' at
          position 'i' will be leaked.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_Insert (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Insert the item 'item' into
     list 'list' in front of index 'index'.  Return ‘0’ if successful;
     return ‘-1’ and set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous to
     ‘list.insert(index, item)’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_Append (PyObject *list, PyObject *item)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Append the object 'item' at
     the end of list 'list'.  Return ‘0’ if successful; return ‘-1’ and
     set an exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous to
     ‘list.append(item)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyList_GetSlice (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a list of the objects in 'list' containing the
     objects 'between' 'low' and 'high'.  Return ‘NULL’ and set an
     exception if unsuccessful.  Analogous to ‘list[low:high]’.
     Indexing from the end of the list is not supported.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_SetSlice (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low,
          Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the slice of 'list'
     between 'low' and 'high' to the contents of 'itemlist'.  Analogous
     to ‘list[low:high] = itemlist’.  The 'itemlist' may be ‘NULL’,
     indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice deletion).
     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  Indexing from the end of
     the list is not supported.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_Sort (PyObject *list)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Sort the items of 'list' in
     place.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  This is equivalent
     to ‘list.sort()’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyList_Reverse (PyObject *list)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Reverse the items of 'list'
     in place.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of ‘list.reverse()’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyList_AsTuple (PyObject *list)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Return a new tuple object containing the contents of 'list';
     equivalent to ‘tuple(list)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Container Objects,  Next: Function Objects<2>,  Prev: Sequence Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.8.4 Container Objects
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Dictionary Objects::
* Set Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary Objects,  Next: Set Objects,  Up: Container Objects

7.8.4.1 Dictionary Objects
..........................

 -- C Türü: type PyDictObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python dictionary
     object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyDict_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python dictionary type.  This is
     the same object as *note dict: 240. in the Python layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a dict object or an instance of a subtype of
     the dict type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a dict object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the dict type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_New ()
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new empty dictionary, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDictProxy_New (PyObject *mapping)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a *note types.MappingProxyType: 18c. object for a
     mapping which enforces read-only behavior.  This is normally used
     to create a view to prevent modification of the dictionary for
     non-dynamic class types.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyDict_Clear (PyObject *p)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Empty an existing
     dictionary of all key-value pairs.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_Contains (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Determine if dictionary 'p'
     contains 'key'.  If an item in 'p' is matches 'key', return ‘1’,
     otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘key in p’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_Copy (PyObject *p)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new dictionary that contains the same key-value
     pairs as 'p'.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_SetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          *val)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Insert 'val' into the
     dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'.  'key' must be *note hashable:
     421.; if it isn’t, *note TypeError: 2c4. will be raised.  Return
     ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  This function 'does not' steal
     a reference to 'val'.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_SetItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject *val)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note
     PyDict_SetItem(): 47f3, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_DelItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Remove the entry in
     dictionary 'p' with key 'key'.  'key' must be *note hashable: 421.;
     if it isn’t, *note TypeError: 2c4. is raised.  If 'key' is not in
     the dictionary, *note KeyError: 903. is raised.  Return ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_DelItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note
     PyDict_DelItem(): 48be, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the object from dictionary 'p' which has
     a key 'key'.  Return ‘NULL’ if the key 'key' is not present, but
     'without' setting an exception.

          Not: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__():
          969. and *note __eq__(): 968. methods are silently ignored.
          Prefer the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 48c0. function
          instead.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: Calling this API without *note GIL: 6fa.
     held had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no longer
     allowed.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_GetItemWithError (PyObject
          *p, PyObject *key)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Variant of *note PyDict_GetItem(): 6f9. that
     does not suppress exceptions.  Return ‘NULL’ 'with' an exception
     set if an exception occurred.  Return ‘NULL’ 'without' an exception
     set if the key wasn’t present.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_GetItemString (PyObject *p,
          const char *key)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as *note PyDict_GetItem():
     6f9, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes
     string, rather than a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

          Not: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__():
          969. and *note __eq__(): 968. methods or while creating the
          temporary *note str: 15d. object are silently ignored.  Prefer
          using the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 48c0. function with
          your own *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 49cb. 'key' instead.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_SetDefault (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  This is the same as
     the Python-level *note dict.setdefault(): f23.  If present, it
     returns the value corresponding to 'key' from the dictionary 'p'.
     If the key is not in the dict, it is inserted with value
     'defaultobj' and 'defaultobj' is returned.  This function evaluates
     the hash function of 'key' only once, instead of evaluating it
     independently for the lookup and the insertion.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_Items (PyObject *p)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a *note PyListObject: 4a9d. containing all the items
     from the dictionary.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_Keys (PyObject *p)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a *note PyListObject: 4a9d. containing all the keys
     from the dictionary.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDict_Values (PyObject *p)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a *note PyListObject: 4a9d. containing all the values
     from the dictionary 'p'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyDict_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the number of items in the dictionary.  This is equivalent
     to ‘len(p)’ on a dictionary.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_Next (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject
          **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Iterate over all key-value
     pairs in the dictionary 'p'.  The *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. referred
     to by 'ppos' must be initialized to ‘0’ prior to the first call to
     this function to start the iteration; the function returns true for
     each pair in the dictionary, and false once all pairs have been
     reported.  The parameters 'pkey' and 'pvalue' should either point
     to *note PyObject: 6eb.* variables that will be filled in with each
     key and value, respectively, or may be ‘NULL’.  Any references
     returned through them are borrowed.  'ppos' should not be altered
     during iteration.  Its value represents offsets within the internal
     dictionary structure, and since the structure is sparse, the
     offsets are not consecutive.

     For example:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              /* do something interesting with the values... */
              ...
          }

     The dictionary 'p' should not be mutated during iteration.  It is
     safe to modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the
     dictionary, but only so long as the set of keys does not change.
     For example:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              long i = PyLong_AsLong(value);
              if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
                  return -1;
              }
              PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1);
              if (o == NULL)
                  return -1;
              if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
                  Py_DECREF(o);
                  return -1;
              }
              Py_DECREF(o);
          }

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_Merge (PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Iterate over mapping object
     'b' adding key-value pairs to dictionary 'a'.  'b' may be a
     dictionary, or any object supporting *note PyMapping_Keys(): a33.
     and *note PyObject_GetItem(): 486c.  If 'override' is true,
     existing pairs in 'a' will be replaced if a matching key is found
     in 'b', otherwise pairs will only be added if there is not a
     matching key in 'a'.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception
     was raised.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_Update (PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the same as
     ‘PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1)’ in C, and is similar to ‘a.update(b)’ in
     Python except that *note PyDict_Update(): 48c9. doesn’t fall back
     to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second
     argument has no “keys” attribute.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if
     an exception was raised.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2, int
          override)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Update or merge into
     dictionary 'a', from the key-value pairs in 'seq2'.  'seq2' must be
     an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2, viewed
     as key-value pairs.  In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if
     'override' is true, else the first wins.  Return ‘0’ on success or
     ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  Equivalent Python (except for the
     return value):

          def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
              for key, value in seq2:
                  if override or key not in a:
                      a[key] = value

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_AddWatcher (PyDict_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a dictionary watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer id which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyDict_Watch(): 2f5.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2f4.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2f4. will be called when
     'dict' is modified or deallocated.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     on error.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDict_Unwatch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)

     Mark dictionary 'dict' as no longer watched.  The callback granted
     'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 2f4. will no longer be
     called when 'dict' is modified or deallocated.  The dict must
     previously have been watched by this watcher.  Return ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ on error.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: type PyDict_WatchEvent

     Enumeration of possible dictionary watcher events:
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’, or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*PyDict_WatchCallback)(*note PyDict_WatchEvent:
          4b82. event, *note PyObject: 6eb. *dict, *note PyObject: 6eb.
          *key, *note PyObject: 6eb. *new_value)

     Type of a dict watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’,
     both 'key' and 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.  If 'event' is
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’, 'new_value' will
     be the new value for 'key'.  If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’,
     'key' is being deleted from the dictionary and 'new_value' will be
     ‘NULL’.

     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ occurs when 'dict' was previously empty and
     another dict is merged into it.  To maintain efficiency of this
     operation, per-key ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ events are not issued in
     this case; instead a single ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ is issued, and
     'key' will be the source dictionary.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'dict'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.  Do not
     trigger Python code execution in the callback, as it could modify
     the dict as a side effect.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’, taking a new reference in
     the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed dictionary will resurrect
     it and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the
     resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active
     at that time will be called again.

     Callbacks occur before the notified modification to 'dict' takes
     place, so the prior state of 'dict' can be inspected.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 181f.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Set Objects,  Prev: Dictionary Objects,  Up: Container Objects

7.8.4.2 Set Objects
...................

This section details the public API for *note set: 3e4. and *note
frozenset: 3e5. objects.  Any functionality not listed below is best
accessed using either the abstract object protocol (including *note
PyObject_CallMethod(): 30b, *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 17d5,
*note PyObject_Hash(): 37d, *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7, *note
PyObject_IsTrue(): 495d, *note PyObject_Print(): 1893, and *note
PyObject_GetIter(): 495b.) or the abstract number protocol (including
*note PyNumber_And(): 492b, *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4944, *note
PyNumber_Or(): 493f, *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4946, *note
PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4930, *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4938,
*note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4934, and *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor():
493a.).

 -- C Türü: type PySetObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. is used to hold the internal
     data for both *note set: 3e4. and *note frozenset: 3e5. objects.
     It is like a *note PyDictObject: 326. in that it is a fixed size
     for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will point to a
     separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized
     sets (much like list storage).  None of the fields of this
     structure should be considered public and all are subject to
     change.  All access should be done through the documented API
     rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PySet_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is an instance of
     *note PyTypeObject: 911. representing the Python *note set: 3e4.
     type.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyFrozenSet_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is an instance of
     *note PyTypeObject: 911. representing the Python *note frozenset:
     3e5. type.

The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object.
Likewise, the constructor functions work with any iterable Python
object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3e4. object or an instance of a
     subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFrozenSet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 3e5. object or an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyAnySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3e4. object, a *note frozenset:
     3e5. object, or an instance of a subtype.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3e4. object but not an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyAnySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 3e4. object or a *note
     frozenset: 3e5. object but not an instance of a subtype.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 3e5. object but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note set: 3e4. containing objects returned by
     the 'iterable'.  The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create a new empty
     set.  Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on failure.  Raise
     *note TypeError: 2c4. if 'iterable' is not actually iterable.  The
     constructor is also useful for copying a set (‘c=set(s)’).

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFrozenSet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new *note frozenset: 3e5. containing objects
     returned by the 'iterable'.  The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create
     a new empty frozenset.  Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  Raise *note TypeError: 2c4. if 'iterable' is not actually
     iterable.

The following functions and macros are available for instances of *note
set: 3e4. or *note frozenset: 3e5. or instances of their subtypes.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySet_Size (PyObject *anyset)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the length of a *note set: 3e4. or *note frozenset: 3e5.
     object.  Equivalent to ‘len(anyset)’.  Raises a *note SystemError:
     30e. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 3e4, *note frozenset: 3e5, or
     an instance of a subtype.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySet_GET_SIZE (PyObject *anyset)

     Macro form of *note PySet_Size(): 12d4. without error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySet_Contains (PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if found, ‘0’ if
     not found, and ‘-1’ if an error is encountered.  Unlike the Python
     *note __contains__(): 1d4b. method, this function does not
     automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets.
     Raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise
     *note SystemError: 30e. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 3e4, *note
     frozenset: 3e5, or an instance of a subtype.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySet_Add (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Add 'key' to a *note set:
     3e4. instance.  Also works with *note frozenset: 3e5. instances
     (like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 47f1. it can be used to fill in the
     values of brand new frozensets before they are exposed to other
     code).  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  Raise a *note
     TypeError: 2c4. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise a *note
     MemoryError: 1409. if there is no room to grow.  Raise a *note
     SystemError: 30e. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 3e4. or
     its subtype.

The following functions are available for instances of *note set: 3e4.
or its subtypes but not for instances of *note frozenset: 3e5. or its
subtypes.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySet_Discard (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return ‘1’ if found and
     removed, ‘0’ if not found (no action taken), and ‘-1’ if an error
     is encountered.  Does not raise *note KeyError: 903. for missing
     keys.  Raise a *note TypeError: 2c4. if the 'key' is unhashable.
     Unlike the Python *note discard(): 202f. method, this function does
     not automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary
     frozensets.  Raise *note SystemError: 30e. if 'set' is not an
     instance of *note set: 3e4. or its subtype.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySet_Pop (PyObject *set)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new reference to an arbitrary object in the 'set',
     and removes the object from the 'set'.  Return ‘NULL’ on failure.
     Raise *note KeyError: 903. if the set is empty.  Raise a *note
     SystemError: 30e. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 3e4. or
     its subtype.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySet_Clear (PyObject *set)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Empty an existing set of
     all elements.  Return ‘0’ on success.  Return ‘-1’ and raise *note
     SystemError: 30e. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 3e4. or
     its subtype.


File: python.info,  Node: Function Objects<2>,  Next: Other Objects,  Prev: Container Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.8.5 Function Objects
----------------------

* Menu:

* Function Objects: Function Objects<3>.
* Instance Method Objects::
* Method Objects::
* Cell Objects::
* Code Objects::
* Extra information::


File: python.info,  Node: Function Objects<3>,  Next: Instance Method Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.8.5.1 Function Objects
........................

There are a few functions specific to Python functions.

 -- C Türü: type PyFunctionObject

     The C structure used for functions.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyFunction_Type

     This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. and represents the
     Python function type.  It is exposed to Python programmers as
     ‘types.FunctionType’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFunction_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is a function object (has type *note
     PyFunction_Type: 4b93.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_New (PyObject *code,
          PyObject *globals)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a new function object
     associated with the code object 'code'.  'globals' must be a
     dictionary with the global variables accessible to the function.

     The function’s docstring and name are retrieved from the code
     object.  *note __module__: 1ceb. is retrieved from 'globals'.  The
     argument defaults, annotations and closure are set to ‘NULL’.
     *note __qualname__: 1cea. is set to the same value as the code
     object’s *note co_qualname: 1d25. field.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_NewWithQualName (PyObject
          *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  As *note PyFunction_New():
     4b95, but also allows setting the function object’s *note
     __qualname__: 1cea. attribute.  'qualname' should be a unicode
     object or ‘NULL’; if ‘NULL’, the ‘__qualname__’ attribute is set to
     the same value as the code object’s *note co_qualname: 1d25. field.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_GetCode (PyObject *op)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the code object
     associated with the function object 'op'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_GetGlobals (PyObject *op)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the globals
     dictionary associated with the function object 'op'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_GetModule (PyObject *op)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return a *note
     borrowed reference: 4869. to the *note __module__: 1ceb. attribute
     of the *note function object: 1b08. 'op'.  It can be 'NULL'.

     This is normally a *note string: 15d. containing the module name,
     but can be set to any other object by Python code.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_GetDefaults (PyObject
          *op)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the argument
     default values of the function object 'op'.  This can be a tuple of
     arguments or ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFunction_SetDefaults (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *defaults)

     Set the argument default values for the function object 'op'.
     'defaults' must be ‘Py_None’ or a tuple.

     Raises *note SystemError: 30e. and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyFunction_SetVectorcall (PyFunctionObject *func,
          vectorcallfunc vectorcall)

     Set the vectorcall field of a given function object 'func'.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered (default) vectorcall function!

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_GetClosure (PyObject *op)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the closure
     associated with the function object 'op'.  This can be ‘NULL’ or a
     tuple of cell objects.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFunction_SetClosure (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *closure)

     Set the closure associated with the function object 'op'.
     'closure' must be ‘Py_None’ or a tuple of cell objects.

     Raises *note SystemError: 30e. and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFunction_GetAnnotations (PyObject
          *op)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the annotations
     of the function object 'op'.  This can be a mutable dictionary or
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFunction_SetAnnotations (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *annotations)

     Set the annotations for the function object 'op'.  'annotations'
     must be a dictionary or ‘Py_None’.

     Raises *note SystemError: 30e. and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFunction_AddWatcher (PyFunction_WatchCallback
          callback)

     Register 'callback' as a function watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyFunction_ClearWatcher(): 4ba0.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFunction_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyFunction_AddWatcher(): 4b9f. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: type PyFunction_WatchEvent

          Enumeration of possible function watcher events:

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS’

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*PyFunction_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyFunction_WatchEvent: 4ba1. event, *note PyFunctionObject:
          2f3. *func, *note PyObject: 6eb. *new_value)

     Type of a function watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ or
     ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ then 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.
     Otherwise, 'new_value' will hold a *note borrowed reference: 4869.
     to the new value that is about to be stored in 'func' for the
     attribute that is being modified.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'func'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is
     invoked after ‘func’ has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the
     callback is invoked before the modification to 'func' takes place,
     so the prior state of 'func' can be inspected.  The runtime is
     permitted to optimize away the creation of function objects when
     possible.  In such cases no event will be emitted.  Although this
     creates the possibility of an observable difference of runtime
     behavior depending on optimization decisions, it does not change
     the semantics of the Python code being executed.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’, Taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed function will resurrect it,
     preventing it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 181f.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Instance Method Objects,  Next: Method Objects,  Prev: Function Objects<3>,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.8.5.2 Instance Method Objects
...............................

An instance method is a wrapper for a *note PyCFunction: 1300. and the
new way to bind a *note PyCFunction: 1300. to a class object.  It
replaces the former call ‘PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class)’.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyInstanceMethod_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python
     instance method type.  It is not exposed to Python programs.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyInstanceMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is an instance method object (has type *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Type: 4ba6.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyInstanceMethod_New (PyObject
          *func)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a new instance method
     object, with 'func' being any callable object.  'func' is the
     function that will be called when the instance method is called.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyInstanceMethod_Function (PyObject
          *im)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the function
     object associated with the instance method 'im'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION
          (PyObject *im)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Macro version of *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Function(): 4ba9. which avoids error checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Method Objects,  Next: Cell Objects,  Prev: Instance Method Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.8.5.3 Method Objects
......................

Methods are bound function objects.  Methods are always bound to an
instance of a user-defined class.  Unbound methods (methods bound to a
class object) are no longer available.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyMethod_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python
     method type.  This is exposed to Python programs as
     ‘types.MethodType’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is a method object (has type *note
     PyMethod_Type: 4bad.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMethod_New (PyObject *func,
          PyObject *self)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a new method object,
     with 'func' being any callable object and 'self' the instance the
     method should be bound.  'func' is the function that will be called
     when the method is called.  'self' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMethod_Function (PyObject *meth)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the function
     object associated with the method 'meth'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject
          *meth)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Macro version of *note
     PyMethod_Function(): 4bb0. which avoids error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMethod_Self (PyObject *meth)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the instance
     associated with the method 'meth'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMethod_GET_SELF (PyObject *meth)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Macro version of *note
     PyMethod_Self(): 4bb2. which avoids error checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Cell Objects,  Next: Code Objects,  Prev: Method Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.8.5.4 Cell Objects
....................

“Cell” objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple
scopes.  For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the
value; the local variables of each stack frame that references the value
contains a reference to the cells from outer scopes which also use that
variable.  When the value is accessed, the value contained in the cell
is used instead of the cell object itself.  This de-referencing of the
cell object requires support from the generated byte-code; these are not
automatically de-referenced when accessed.  Cell objects are not likely
to be useful elsewhere.

 -- C Türü: type PyCellObject

     The C structure used for cell objects.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyCell_Type

     The type object corresponding to cell objects.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCell_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a cell object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCell_New (PyObject *ob)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create and return a new cell
     object containing the value 'ob'.  The parameter may be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCell_Get (PyObject *cell)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return the contents of the cell
     'cell', which can be ‘NULL’.  If 'cell' is not a cell object,
     returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCell_GET (PyObject *cell)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Return the contents of
     the cell 'cell', but without checking that 'cell' is non-‘NULL’ and
     a cell object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCell_Set (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     Set the contents of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'.  This
     releases the reference to any current content of the cell.  'value'
     may be ‘NULL’.  'cell' must be non-‘NULL’.

     On success, return ‘0’.  If 'cell' is not a cell object, set an
     exception and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyCell_SET (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     Sets the value of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'.  No reference
     counts are adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; 'cell' must
     be non-‘NULL’ and must be a cell object.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Objects,  Next: Extra information,  Prev: Cell Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.8.5.5 Code Objects
....................

Code objects are a low-level detail of the CPython implementation.  Each
one represents a chunk of executable code that hasn’t yet been bound
into a function.

 -- C Türü: type PyCodeObject

     The C structure of the objects used to describe code objects.  The
     fields of this type are subject to change at any time.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyCode_Type

     This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. representing the
     Python *note code object: 5e3.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCode_Check (PyObject *co)

     Return true if 'co' is a *note code object: 5e3.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyCode_GetNumFree (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Return the number of free variables in a code object.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCode_GetFirstFree (PyCodeObject *co)

     Return the position of the first free variable in a code object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyCodeObject: 5a7. *PyUnstable_Code_New (int
          argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int
          flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names,
          PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars,
          PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int
          firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Return a new code object.  If you need a dummy code object to
     create a frame, use *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 11fd. instead.

     Since the definition of the bytecode changes often, calling *note
     PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4bc3. directly can bind you to a precise
     Python version.

     The many arguments of this function are inter-dependent in complex
     ways, meaning that subtle changes to values are likely to result in
     incorrect execution or VM crashes.  Use this function only with
     extreme care.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Renamed from ‘PyCode_New’ as part of *note
     Unstable C API: 2d5.  The old name is deprecated, but will remain
     available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyCodeObject: 5a7.
          *PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (int argcount, int
          posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int
          stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts,
          PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars,
          PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name,
          PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable,
          PyObject *exceptiontable)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Similar to *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4bc3, but with an extra
     “posonlyargcount” for positional-only arguments.  The same caveats
     that apply to ‘PyUnstable_Code_New’ also apply to this function.

     Added in version 3.8: as ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’.  The old name is deprecated,
     but will remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyCodeObject: 5a7. *PyCode_NewEmpty (const char
          *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a new empty code object
     with the specified filename, function name, and first line number.
     The resulting code object will raise an ‘Exception’ if executed.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCode_Addr2Line (PyCodeObject *co, int byte_offset)

     Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before
     ‘byte_offset’ and ends after it.  If you just need the line number
     of a frame, use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 5bc. instead.

     For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object,
     use the API described in PEP 626(1).

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCode_Addr2Location (PyObject *co, int byte_offset,
          int *start_line, int *start_column, int *end_line, int
          *end_column)

     Sets the passed ‘int’ pointers to the source code line and column
     numbers for the instruction at ‘byte_offset’.  Sets the value to
     ‘0’ when information is not available for any particular element.

     Returns ‘1’ if the function succeeds and 0 otherwise.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCode_GetCode (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_code')’.  Returns a
     strong reference to a *note PyBytesObject: 5c7. representing the
     bytecode in a code object.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an
     exception is raised.

     This ‘PyBytesObject’ may be created on-demand by the interpreter
     and does not necessarily represent the bytecode actually executed
     by CPython.  The primary use case for this function is debuggers
     and profilers.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCode_GetVarnames (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_varnames')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4a45. containing
     the names of the local variables.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and
     an exception is raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCode_GetCellvars (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_cellvars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4a45. containing
     the names of the local variables that are referenced by nested
     functions.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is
     raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCode_GetFreevars (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_freevars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4a45. containing
     the names of the free variables.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and
     an exception is raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCode_AddWatcher (PyCode_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a code object watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 2f9.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCode_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 2f8. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: type PyCodeEvent

     Enumeration of possible code object watcher events: -
     ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*PyCode_WatchCallback)(*note PyCodeEvent: 4bc5.
          event, *note PyCodeObject: 5a7. *co)

     Type of a code object watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is invoked
     after ‘co’ has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the callback is
     invoked before the destruction of 'co' takes place, so the prior
     state of 'co' can be inspected.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’, taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed code object will resurrect it
     and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     Users of this API should not rely on internal runtime
     implementation details.  Such details may include, but are not
     limited to, the exact order and timing of creation and destruction
     of code objects.  While changes in these details may result in
     differences observable by watchers (including whether a callback is
     invoked or not), it does not change the semantics of the Python
     code being executed.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 181f.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers


File: python.info,  Node: Extra information,  Prev: Code Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.8.5.6 Extra information
.........................

To support low-level extensions to frame evaluation, such as external
just-in-time compilers, it is possible to attach arbitrary extra data to
code objects.

These functions are part of the unstable C API tier: this functionality
is a CPython implementation detail, and the API may change without
deprecation warnings.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.
          PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (freefunc free)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Return a new an opaque index value used to adding data to code
     objects.

     You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the
     result with ‘PyCode_GetExtra’ and ‘PyCode_SetExtra’ to manipulate
     data on individual code objects.

     If 'free' is not ‘NULL’: when a code object is deallocated, 'free'
     will be called on non-‘NULL’ data stored under the new index.  Use
     *note Py_DecRef(): 49d9. when storing *note PyObject: 6eb.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’.  The old private name is
     deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void **extra)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Set 'extra' to the extra data stored under the given index.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     If no data was set under the index, set 'extra' to ‘NULL’ and
     return 0 without setting an exception.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra’.  The
     old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
     changes.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t
          index, void *extra)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Set the extra data stored under the given index to 'extra'.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra’.  The
     old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API
     changes.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Objects,  Prev: Function Objects<2>,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.8.6 Other Objects
-------------------

* Menu:

* File Objects::
* Module Objects::
* Iterator Objects::
* Descriptor Objects::
* Slice Objects::
* MemoryView objects::
* Weak Reference Objects: Weak Reference Objects<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Frame Objects::
* Generator Objects::
* Coroutine Objects: Coroutine Objects<2>.
* Context Variables Objects::
* DateTime Objects: DateTime Objects<2>.
* Objects for Type Hinting::


File: python.info,  Node: File Objects,  Next: Module Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.1 File Objects
....................

These APIs are a minimal emulation of the Python 2 C API for built-in
file objects, which used to rely on the buffered I/O (FILE*) support
from the C standard library.  In Python 3, files and streams use the new
*note io: 7d. module, which defines several layers over the low-level
unbuffered I/O of the operating system.  The functions described below
are convenience C wrappers over these new APIs, and meant mostly for
internal error reporting in the interpreter; third-party code is advised
to access the *note io: 7d. APIs instead.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFile_FromFd (int fd, const char
          *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding,
          const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a Python file object from the file descriptor of an
     already opened file 'fd'.  The arguments 'name', 'encoding',
     'errors' and 'newline' can be ‘NULL’ to use the defaults;
     'buffering' can be '-1' to use the default.  'name' is ignored and
     kept for backward compatibility.  Return ‘NULL’ on failure.  For a
     more comprehensive description of the arguments, please refer to
     the *note io.open(): 2a7. function documentation.

          Uyarı: Since Python streams have their own buffering layer,
          mixing them with OS-level file descriptors can produce various
          issues (such as unexpected ordering of data).

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: Ignore 'name' attribute.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (PyObject *p)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the file descriptor
     associated with 'p' as an int.  If the object is an integer, its
     value is returned.  If not, the object’s *note fileno(): 2629.
     method is called if it exists; the method must return an integer,
     which is returned as the file descriptor value.  Sets an exception
     and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFile_GetLine (PyObject *p, int n)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Equivalent to ‘p.readline([n])’, this function reads one line from
     the object 'p'.  'p' may be a file object or any object with a
     *note readline(): 11d5. method.  If 'n' is ‘0’, exactly one line is
     read, regardless of the length of the line.  If 'n' is greater than
     ‘0’, no more than 'n' bytes will be read from the file; a partial
     line can be returned.  In both cases, an empty string is returned
     if the end of the file is reached immediately.  If 'n' is less than
     ‘0’, however, one line is read regardless of length, but *note
     EOFError: 1183. is raised if the end of the file is reached
     immediately.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (Py_OpenCodeHookFunction
          handler)

     Overrides the normal behavior of *note io.open_code(): 153f. to
     pass its parameter through the provided handler.

     The 'handler' is a function of type:

      -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb.
               *(*Py_OpenCodeHookFunction)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, void*)

          Equivalent of *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*)(*note PyObject: 6eb.
          *path, void *userData), where 'path' is guaranteed to be *note
          PyUnicodeObject: 5c9.

     The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function.  Since
     hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer
     should not refer directly to Python state.

     As this hook is intentionally used during import, avoid importing
     new modules during its execution unless they are known to be frozen
     or available in ‘sys.modules’.

     Once a hook has been set, it cannot be removed or replaced, and
     later calls to *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1542. will fail.  On
     failure, the function returns -1 and sets an exception if the
     interpreter has been initialized.

     This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3. ‘setopencodehook’ with no
     arguments.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFile_WriteObject (PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int
          flags)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Write object 'obj' to file object 'p'.  The only supported flag for
     'flags' is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4a7f.; if given, the *note str():
     15d. of the object is written instead of the *note repr(): 637.
     Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure; the appropriate exception
     will be set.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFile_WriteString (const char *s, PyObject *p)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Write string 's' to file
     object 'p'.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure; the
     appropriate exception will be set.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Objects,  Next: Iterator Objects,  Prev: File Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.2 Module Objects
......................

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyModule_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python
     module type.  This is exposed to Python programs as
     ‘types.ModuleType’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, or a subtype of a module
     object.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, but not a subtype of *note
     PyModule_Type: 4928.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_NewObject (PyObject *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'

     Return a new module object with *note module.__name__: 122f. set to
     'name'.  The module’s ‘__name__’, *note __doc__: 167a, *note
     __package__: 24c. and *note __loader__: 267. attributes are filled
     in (all but ‘__name__’ are set to ‘None’).  The caller is
     responsible for setting a *note __file__: 1d0a. attribute.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

     Added in version 3.3.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: *note __package__: 24c. and *note
     __loader__: 267. are now set to ‘None’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_New (const char *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Similar to *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4926, but the name is
     a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_GetDict (PyObject *module)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the dictionary object that implements 'module'’s namespace;
     this object is the same as the *note __dict__: 2ec. attribute of
     the module object.  If 'module' is not a module object (or a
     subtype of a module object), *note SystemError: 30e. is raised and
     ‘NULL’ is returned.

     It is recommended extensions use other ‘PyModule_*’ and
     ‘PyObject_*’ functions rather than directly manipulate a module’s
     *note __dict__: 2ec.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_GetNameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'

     Return 'module'’s *note __name__: 122f. value.  If the module does
     not provide one, or if it is not a string, *note SystemError: 30e.
     is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyModule_GetName (PyObject *module)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4924. but return the name encoded to
     ‘'utf-8'’.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyModule_GetState (PyObject *module)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the “state” of the
     module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory allocated at
     module creation time, or ‘NULL’.  See *note PyModuleDef.m_size:
     7dd.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyModuleDef: 7db. *PyModule_GetDef (PyObject
          *module)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a pointer to the
     *note PyModuleDef: 7db. struct from which the module was created,
     or ‘NULL’ if the module wasn’t created from a definition.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_GetFilenameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

     Return the name of the file from which 'module' was loaded using
     'module'’s *note __file__: 1d0a. attribute.  If this is not
     defined, or if it is not a string, raise *note SystemError: 30e.
     and return ‘NULL’; otherwise return a reference to a Unicode
     object.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyModule_GetFilename (PyObject *module)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 374. but return the filename encoded
     to ‘utf-8’.

     3.2 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: *note PyModule_GetFilename():
     373. raises *note UnicodeEncodeError: 48b. on unencodable
     filenames, use *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 374. instead.

* Menu:

* Initializing C modules::
* Module lookup::


File: python.info,  Node: Initializing C modules,  Next: Module lookup,  Up: Module Objects

7.8.6.3 Initializing C modules
..............................

Modules objects are usually created from extension modules (shared
libraries which export an initialization function), or compiled-in
modules (where the initialization function is added using *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2.).  See *note Building C and C++
Extensions: 47dd. or *note Gömülü Python’u Genişletme: 484f. for
details.

The initialization function can either pass a module definition instance
to *note PyModule_Create(): 47da, and return the resulting module
object, or request “multi-phase initialization” by returning the
definition struct itself.

 -- C Türü: type PyModuleDef
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'  The
     module definition struct, which holds all information needed to
     create a module object.  There is usually only one statically
     initialized variable of this type for each module.

      -- C Üyesi: PyModuleDef_Base m_base

          Always initialize this member to ‘PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT’.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *m_name

          Name for the new module.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *m_doc

          Docstring for the module; usually a docstring variable created
          with *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 17a3. is used.

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. m_size

          Module state may be kept in a per-module memory area that can
          be retrieved with *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de, rather than
          in static globals.  This makes modules safe for use in
          multiple sub-interpreters.

          This memory area is allocated based on 'm_size' on module
          creation, and freed when the module object is deallocated,
          after the *note m_free: 7da. function has been called, if
          present.

          Setting ‘m_size’ to ‘-1’ means that the module does not
          support sub-interpreters, because it has global state.

          Setting it to a non-negative value means that the module can
          be re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of
          memory it requires for its state.  Non-negative ‘m_size’ is
          required for multi-phase initialization.

          See PEP 3121(1) for more details.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyMethodDef: 1364. *m_methods

          A pointer to a table of module-level functions, described by
          *note PyMethodDef: 1364. values.  Can be ‘NULL’ if no
          functions are present.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 4bdb. *m_slots

          An array of slot definitions for multi-phase initialization,
          terminated by a ‘{0, NULL}’ entry.  When using single-phase
          initialization, 'm_slots' must be ‘NULL’.

          3.5 sürümünde değişti: Prior to version 3.5, this member was
          always set to ‘NULL’, and was defined as:

                -- C Üyesi: *note inquiry: 49f2. m_reload

      -- C Üyesi: *note traverseproc: 4a01. m_traverse

          A traversal function to call during GC traversal of the module
          object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 7dc. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 7dd. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: No longer called before the module
          state is allocated.

      -- C Üyesi: *note inquiry: 49f2. m_clear

          A clear function to call during GC clearing of the module
          object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 7dc. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 7dd. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          Like *note PyTypeObject.tp_clear: 481b, this function is not
          'always' called before a module is deallocated.  For example,
          when reference counting is enough to determine that an object
          is no longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not
          involved and *note m_free: 7da. is called directly.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: No longer called before the module
          state is allocated.

      -- C Üyesi: *note freefunc: 4bdd. m_free

          A function to call during deallocation of the module object,
          or ‘NULL’ if not needed.

          This function is not called if the module state was requested
          but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after
          the module is created and before the module is executed (*note
          Py_mod_exec: 7dc. function).  More precisely, this function is
          not called if *note m_size: 7dd. is greater than 0 and the
          module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de.)
          is ‘NULL’.

          3.9 sürümünde değişti: No longer called before the module
          state is allocated.

* Menu:

* Single-phase initialization::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Low-level module creation functions::
* Support functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/


File: python.info,  Node: Single-phase initialization,  Next: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.4 Single-phase initialization
...................................

The module initialization function may create and return the module
object directly.  This is referred to as “single-phase initialization”,
and uses one of the following two module creation functions:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_Create (PyModuleDef *def)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a new module object,
     given the definition in 'def'.  This behaves like *note
     PyModule_Create2(): 4920. with 'module_api_version' set to
     ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_Create2 (PyModuleDef *def,
          int module_api_version)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a new module object, given the definition in 'def',
     assuming the API version 'module_api_version'.  If that version
     does not match the version of the running interpreter, a *note
     RuntimeWarning: 900. is emitted.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

          Not: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_Create(): 47da. instead; only use this if you are
          sure you need it.

Before it is returned from in the initialization function, the resulting
module object is typically populated using functions like *note
PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-phase initialization,  Next: Low-level module creation functions,  Prev: Single-phase initialization,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.5 Multi-phase initialization
..................................

An alternate way to specify extensions is to request “multi-phase
initialization”.  Extension modules created this way behave more like
Python modules: the initialization is split between the 'creation
phase', when the module object is created, and the 'execution phase',
when it is populated.  The distinction is similar to the ‘__new__()’ and
‘__init__()’ methods of classes.

Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules
are not singletons: if the 'sys.modules' entry is removed and the module
is re-imported, a new module object is created, and the old module is
subject to normal garbage collection – as with Python modules.  By
default, multiple modules created from the same definition should be
independent: changes to one should not affect the others.  This means
that all state should be specific to the module object (using e.g.
using *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de.), or its contents (such as the
module’s *note __dict__: 2ec. or individual classes created with *note
PyType_FromSpec(): 316.).

All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to
support *note sub-interpreters: 320.  Making sure multiple modules are
independent is typically enough to achieve this.

To request multi-phase initialization, the initialization function
(PyInit_modulename) returns a *note PyModuleDef: 7db. instance with
non-empty *note m_slots: 4bda.  Before it is returned, the ‘PyModuleDef’
instance must be initialized with the following function:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModuleDef_Init (PyModuleDef *def)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.5 sürümünden beri.'  Ensures a module
     definition is a properly initialized Python object that correctly
     reports its type and reference count.

     Returns 'def' cast to ‘PyObject*’, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     Added in version 3.5.

The 'm_slots' member of the module definition must point to an array of
‘PyModuleDef_Slot’ structures:

 -- C Türü: type PyModuleDef_Slot

      -- C Üyesi: int slot

          A slot ID, chosen from the available values explained below.

      -- C Üyesi: void *value

          Value of the slot, whose meaning depends on the slot ID.

     Added in version 3.5.

The 'm_slots' array must be terminated by a slot with id 0.

The available slot types are:

 -- C Makrosu: Py_mod_create

     Specifies a function that is called to create the module object
     itself.  The 'value' pointer of this slot must point to a function
     of the signature:

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *create_module (PyObject *spec,
               PyModuleDef *def)

     The function receives a *note ModuleSpec: 1d05. instance, as
     defined in PEP 451(1), and the module definition.  It should return
     a new module object, or set an error and return ‘NULL’.

     This function should be kept minimal.  In particular, it should not
     call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module
     again may result in an infinite loop.

     Multiple ‘Py_mod_create’ slots may not be specified in one module
     definition.

     If ‘Py_mod_create’ is not specified, the import machinery will
     create a normal module object using *note PyModule_New(): 4925.
     The name is taken from 'spec', not the definition, to allow
     extension modules to dynamically adjust to their place in the
     module hierarchy and be imported under different names through
     symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition.

     There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance
     of *note PyModule_Type: 4928.  Any type can be used, as long as it
     supports setting and getting import-related attributes.  However,
     only ‘PyModule_Type’ instances may be returned if the ‘PyModuleDef’
     has non-‘NULL’ ‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’, ‘m_free’; non-zero
     ‘m_size’; or slots other than ‘Py_mod_create’.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_mod_exec

     Specifies a function that is called to 'execute' the module.  This
     is equivalent to executing the code of a Python module: typically,
     this function adds classes and constants to the module.  The
     signature of the function is:

      -- C Işlevi: int exec_module (PyObject *module)

     If multiple ‘Py_mod_exec’ slots are specified, they are processed
     in the order they appear in the 'm_slots' array.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_mod_multiple_interpreters

     Specifies one of the following values:

      -- C Makrosu: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED

          The module does not support being imported in subinterpreters.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, but
          only when they share the main interpreter’s GIL. (See *note
          Isolating Extension Modules: 4be8.)

      -- C Makrosu: Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, even
          when they have their own GIL. (See *note Isolating Extension
          Modules: 4be8.)

     This slot determines whether or not importing this module in a
     subinterpreter will fail.

     Multiple ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ slots may not be specified
     in one module definition.

     If ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ is not specified, the import
     machinery defaults to ‘Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED’.

     Added in version 3.12.

See PEP 489(2) for more details on multi-phase initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level module creation functions,  Next: Support functions,  Prev: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.6 Low-level module creation functions
...........................................

The following functions are called under the hood when using multi-phase
initialization.  They can be used directly, for example when creating
module objects dynamically.  Note that both ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’
and ‘PyModule_ExecDef’ must be called to fully initialize a module.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (PyModuleDef
          *def, PyObject *spec)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a new module object,
     given the definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec'.  This
     behaves like *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): d48. with
     'module_api_version' set to ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2
          (PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Create a new module object, given the
     definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec', assuming the API
     version 'module_api_version'.  If that version does not match the
     version of the running interpreter, a *note RuntimeWarning: 900. is
     emitted.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

          Not: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): d47. instead; only use this if you
          are sure you need it.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_ExecDef (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
     Process any execution slots (*note Py_mod_exec: 7dc.) given in
     'def'.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_SetDocString (PyObject *module, const char
          *docstring)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Set
     the docstring for 'module' to 'docstring'.  This function is called
     automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using
     either ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_AddFunctions (PyObject *module, PyMethodDef
          *functions)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Add
     the functions from the ‘NULL’ terminated 'functions' array to
     'module'.  Refer to the *note PyMethodDef: 1364. documentation for
     details on individual entries (due to the lack of a shared module
     namespace, module level “functions” implemented in C typically
     receive the module as their first parameter, making them similar to
     instance methods on Python classes).  This function is called
     automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using
     either ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Support functions,  Prev: Low-level module creation functions,  Up: Initializing C modules

7.8.6.7 Support functions
.........................

The module initialization function (if using single phase
initialization) or a function called from a module execution slot (if
using multi-phase initialization), can use the following functions to
help initialize the module state:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_AddObjectRef (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Add
     an object to 'module' as 'name'.  This is a convenience function
     which can be used from the module’s initialization function.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, raise an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     Example usage:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (obj == NULL) {
                  return -1;
              }
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_DECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     To be convenient, the function accepts ‘NULL’ 'value' with an
     exception set.  In this case, return ‘-1’ and just leave the raised
     exception unchanged.

     The example can also be written without checking explicitly if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in
     this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’.

     The number of different 'name' strings passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated
     strings as 'name'.  For names that aren’t known at compile time,
     prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 49cb. and *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 4961. directly.  For more details, see *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1446, which may be used internally to
     create a key object.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_AddObject (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3, but steals a reference to 'value' on
     success (if it returns ‘0’).

     The new *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3. function is
     recommended, since it is easy to introduce reference leaks by
     misusing the *note PyModule_AddObject(): 6e4. function.

          Not: Unlike other functions that steal references,
          ‘PyModule_AddObject()’ only releases the reference to 'value'
          'on success'.

          This means that its return value must be checked, and calling
          code must *note Py_DECREF(): 306. 'value' manually on error.

     Example usage:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (obj == NULL) {
                  return -1;
              }
              if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
                  Py_DECREF(obj);
                  return -1;
              }
              // PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
              // Py_DECREF(obj) is not needed here
              return 0;
          }

     The example can also be written without checking explicitly if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
                  Py_XDECREF(obj);
                  return -1;
              }
              // PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
              // Py_DECREF(obj) is not needed here
              return 0;
          }

     Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in
     this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_AddIntConstant (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, long value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Add an integer constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module’s initialization function.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception
     set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note PyLong_FromLong():
     1660. and *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3.; see their
     documentation for details.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_AddStringConstant (PyObject *module, const
          char *name, const char *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Add a string constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module’s initialization function.  The string 'value' must be
     ‘NULL’-terminated.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’
     on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1446. and *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 6e3.; see their documentation for details.

 -- C Makrosu: PyModule_AddIntMacro (module, macro)

     Add an int constant to 'module'.  The name and the value are taken
     from 'macro'.  For example ‘PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)’
     adds the int constant 'AF_INET' with the value of 'AF_INET' to
     'module'.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on
     success.

 -- C Makrosu: PyModule_AddStringMacro (module, macro)

     Add a string constant to 'module'.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyModule_AddType (PyObject *module, PyTypeObject
          *type)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Add a
     type object to 'module'.  The type object is finalized by calling
     internally *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac.  The name of the type object
     is taken from the last component of *note tp_name: 171d. after dot.
     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Module lookup,  Prev: Initializing C modules,  Up: Module Objects

7.8.6.8 Module lookup
.....................

Single-phase initialization creates singleton modules that can be looked
up in the context of the current interpreter.  This allows the module
object to be retrieved later with only a reference to the module
definition.

These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase
initialization, since multiple such modules can be created from a single
definition.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyState_FindModule (PyModuleDef
          *def)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns the module object that was created from
     'def' for the current interpreter.  This method requires that the
     module object has been attached to the interpreter state with *note
     PyState_AddModule(): 497c. beforehand.  In case the corresponding
     module object is not found or has not been attached to the
     interpreter state yet, it returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyState_AddModule (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.3 sürümünden beri.'
     Attaches the module object passed to the function to the
     interpreter state.  This allows the module object to be accessible
     via *note PyState_FindModule(): 497d.

     Only effective on modules created using single-phase
     initialization.

     Python calls ‘PyState_AddModule’ automatically after importing a
     module, so it is unnecessary (but harmless) to call it from module
     initialization code.  An explicit call is needed only if the
     module’s own init code subsequently calls ‘PyState_FindModule’.
     The function is mainly intended for implementing alternative import
     mechanisms (either by calling it directly, or by referring to its
     implementation for details of the required state updates).

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyState_RemoveModule (PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.3 sürümünden beri.'
     Removes the module object created from 'def' from the interpreter
     state.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterator Objects,  Next: Descriptor Objects,  Prev: Module Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.9 Iterator Objects
........................

Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects.  The first, a
sequence iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the *note
__getitem__(): 500. method.  The second works with a callable object and
a sentinel value, calling the callable for each item in the sequence,
and ending the iteration when the sentinel value is returned.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PySeqIter_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Type object for iterator
     objects returned by *note PySeqIter_New(): 4965. and the
     one-argument form of the *note iter(): 610. built-in function for
     built-in sequence types.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySeqIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PySeqIter_Type: 4966.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySeqIter_New (PyObject *seq)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return an iterator that works with a general sequence
     object, 'seq'.  The iteration ends when the sequence raises *note
     IndexError: 13c2. for the subscripting operation.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyCallIter_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Type object for iterator
     objects returned by *note PyCallIter_New(): 4898. and the
     two-argument form of the *note iter(): 610. built-in function.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCallIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PyCallIter_Type: 4899.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCallIter_New (PyObject *callable,
          PyObject *sentinel)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new iterator.  The first parameter, 'callable', can
     be any Python callable object that can be called with no
     parameters; each call to it should return the next item in the
     iteration.  When 'callable' returns a value equal to 'sentinel',
     the iteration will be terminated.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor Objects,  Next: Slice Objects,  Prev: Iterator Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.10 Descriptor Objects
...........................

“Descriptors” are objects that describe some attribute of an object.
They are found in the dictionary of type objects.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyProperty_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The type object for the
     built-in descriptor types.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDescr_NewGetSet (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDescr_NewMember (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyMemberDef *meth)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDescr_NewMethod (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDescr_NewWrapper (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDescr_NewClassMethod (PyTypeObject
          *type, PyMethodDef *method)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDescr_IsData (PyObject *descr)

     Return non-zero if the descriptor objects 'descr' describes a data
     attribute, or ‘0’ if it describes a method.  'descr' must be a
     descriptor object; there is no error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyWrapper_New (PyObject*, PyObject*)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'


File: python.info,  Node: Slice Objects,  Next: MemoryView objects,  Prev: Descriptor Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.11 Slice Objects
......................

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PySlice_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The type object for slice
     objects.  This is the same as *note slice: 186. in the Python
     layer.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySlice_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a slice object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PySlice_New (PyObject *start,
          PyObject *stop, PyObject *step)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a new slice object with the given values.  The
     'start', 'stop', and 'step' parameters are used as the values of
     the slice object attributes of the same names.  Any of the values
     may be ‘NULL’, in which case the ‘None’ will be used for the
     corresponding attribute.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set if the new object could not be
     allocated.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySlice_GetIndices (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Retrieve the start, stop
     and step indices from the slice object 'slice', assuming a sequence
     of length 'length'.  Treats indices greater than 'length' as
     errors.

     Returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with no exception set
     (unless one of the indices was not ‘None’ and failed to be
     converted to an integer, in which case ‘-1’ is returned with an
     exception set).

     You probably do not want to use this function.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The parameter type for the 'slice' parameter
     was ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step,
          Py_ssize_t *slicelength)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Usable replacement for
     *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 4979.  Retrieve the start, stop, and
     step indices from the slice object 'slice' assuming a sequence of
     length 'length', and store the length of the slice in
     'slicelength'.  Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner
     consistent with the handling of normal slices.

     Return ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

          Not: This function is considered not safe for resizable
          sequences.  Its invocation should be replaced by a combination
          of *note PySlice_Unpack(): 378. and *note
          PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 379. where

               if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }

          is replaced by

               if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }
               slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step);

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: The parameter type for the 'slice' parameter
     was ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

     3.6.1 sürümünde değişti: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to
     the value between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not including) or
     ‘0x03060100’ or higher ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is implemented as a
     macro using ‘PySlice_Unpack()’ and ‘PySlice_AdjustIndices()’.
     Arguments 'start', 'stop' and 'step' are evaluated more than once.

     3.6.1 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is set to
     the value less than ‘0x03050400’ or between ‘0x03060000’ and
     ‘0x03060100’ (not including) ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is a
     deprecated function.

 -- C Işlevi: int PySlice_Unpack (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start,
          Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
     Extract the start, stop and step data members from a slice object
     as C integers.  Silently reduce values larger than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’
     to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’, silently boost the start and stop values less
     than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’, and silently boost the
     step values less than ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’.

     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PySlice_AdjustIndices (Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t step)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Adjust
     start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified
     length.  Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent
     with the handling of normal slices.

     Return the length of the slice.  Always successful.  Doesn’t call
     Python code.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

* Menu:

* Ellipsis Object::


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis Object,  Up: Slice Objects

7.8.6.12 Ellipsis Object
........................

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyEllipsis_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The type of Python *note
     Ellipsis: 1f76. object.  Same as *note types.EllipsisType: 690. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_Ellipsis

     The Python ‘Ellipsis’ object.  This object has no methods.  Like
     *note Py_None: 47d6, it is an immortal(1).  singleton object.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_Ellipsis: 4bfb. is immortal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryView objects,  Next: Weak Reference Objects<2>,  Prev: Slice Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.13 MemoryView objects
...........................

A *note memoryview: 185. object exposes the C level *note buffer
interface: 14e. as a Python object which can then be passed around like
any other object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMemoryView_FromObject (PyObject
          *obj)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a memoryview object from an object that provides the
     buffer interface.  If 'obj' supports writable buffer exports, the
     memoryview object will be read/write, otherwise it may be either
     read-only or read/write at the discretion of the exporter.

 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_READ

     Flag to request a readonly buffer.

 -- C Makrosu: PyBUF_WRITE

     Flag to request a writable buffer.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMemoryView_FromMemory (char *mem,
          Py_ssize_t size, int flags)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Create a memoryview object using 'mem'
     as the underlying buffer.  'flags' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ:
     4bfe. or *note PyBUF_WRITE: 4bff.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (const
          Py_buffer *view)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  Create a memoryview object wrapping
     the given buffer structure 'view'.  For simple byte buffers, *note
     PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1017. is the preferred function.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (PyObject
          *obj, int buffertype, char order)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a memoryview object to a *note contiguous: 2019.
     chunk of memory (in either ‘C’ or ‘F’ortran 'order') from an object
     that defines the buffer interface.  If memory is contiguous, the
     memoryview object points to the original memory.  Otherwise, a copy
     is made and the memoryview points to a new bytes object.

     'buffertype' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ: 4bfe. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 4bff.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMemoryView_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a memoryview object.  It is not
     currently allowed to create subclasses of *note memoryview: 185.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_buffer: 584. *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (PyObject
          *mview)

     Return a pointer to the memoryview’s private copy of the exporter’s
     buffer.  'mview' 'must' be a memoryview instance; this macro
     doesn’t check its type, you must do it yourself or you will risk
     crashes.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (PyObject
          *mview)

     Return either a pointer to the exporting object that the memoryview
     is based on or ‘NULL’ if the memoryview has been created by one of
     the functions *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1017. or *note
     PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 590.  'mview' 'must' be a memoryview
     instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Weak Reference Objects<2>,  Next: Capsules<2>,  Prev: MemoryView objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.14 Weak Reference Objects
...............................

Python supports 'weak references' as first-class objects.  There are two
specific object types which directly implement weak references.  The
first is a simple reference object, and the second acts as a proxy for
the original object as much as it can.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyWeakref_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is either a reference or proxy object.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyWeakref_CheckRef (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a reference object.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a proxy object.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyWeakref_NewRef (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a weak reference object for the object 'ob'.  This
     will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create
     a new object; an existing reference object may be returned.  The
     second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that
     receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should
     accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
     itself.  'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.  If 'ob' is not a
     weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable,
     ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyWeakref_NewProxy (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Return a weak reference proxy object for the object 'ob'.
     This will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to
     create a new object; an existing proxy object may be returned.  The
     second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that
     receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should
     accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
     itself.  'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.  If 'ob' is not a
     weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable,
     ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note
     TypeError: 2c4.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyWeakref_GetObject (PyObject *ref)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the referenced object from a weak
     reference, 'ref'.  If the referent is no longer live, returns
     ‘Py_None’.

          Not: This function returns a *note borrowed reference: 4869.
          to the referenced object.  This means that you should always
          call *note Py_INCREF(): 305. on the object except when it
          cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed
          reference.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (PyObject *ref)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.'  Similar to *note
     PyWeakref_GetObject(): 360, but does no error checking.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (PyObject *object)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This function is called by
     the *note tp_dealloc: 4808. handler to clear weak references.

     This iterates through the weak references for 'object' and calls
     callbacks for those references which have one.  It returns when all
     callbacks have been attempted.


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules<2>,  Next: Frame Objects,  Prev: Weak Reference Objects<2>,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.15 Capsules
.................

Refer to *note Providing a C API for an Extension Module: 1204. for more
information on using these objects.

Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Türü: type PyCapsule

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents an opaque value,
     useful for C extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as
     a void* pointer) through Python code to other C code.  It is often
     used to make a C function pointer defined in one module available
     to other modules, so the regular import mechanism can be used to
     access C APIs defined in dynamically loaded modules.

 -- C Türü: type PyCapsule_Destructor
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The type of a destructor
     callback for a capsule.  Defined as:

          typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *);

     See *note PyCapsule_New(): 47fc. for the semantics of
     PyCapsule_Destructor callbacks.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCapsule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyCapsule: 111b.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCapsule_New (void *pointer, const
          char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Create a *note PyCapsule: 111b. encapsulating the 'pointer'.
     The 'pointer' argument may not be ‘NULL’.

     On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' string may either be ‘NULL’ or a pointer to a valid C
     string.  If non-‘NULL’, this string must outlive the capsule.
     (Though it is permitted to free it inside the 'destructor'.)

     If the 'destructor' argument is not ‘NULL’, it will be called with
     the capsule as its argument when it is destroyed.

     If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the
     'name' should be specified as ‘modulename.attributename’.  This
     will enable other modules to import the capsule using *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 1695.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyCapsule_GetPointer (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Retrieve the 'pointer'
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the
     capsule.  If the name stored in the capsule is ‘NULL’, the 'name'
     passed in must also be ‘NULL’.  Python uses the C function
     ‘strcmp()’ to compare capsule names.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 489b. PyCapsule_GetDestructor
          (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the current
     destructor stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and
     return ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ destructor.  This makes
     a ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1203. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyCapsule_GetContext (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the current context
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ context.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1203. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *PyCapsule_GetName (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the current name
     stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ name.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1203. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 171c. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyCapsule_Import (const char *name, int no_block)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Import a pointer to a C
     object from a capsule attribute in a module.  The 'name' parameter
     should specify the full name to the attribute, as in
     ‘module.attribute’.  The 'name' stored in the capsule must match
     this string exactly.

     Return the capsule’s internal 'pointer' on success.  On failure,
     set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     3.3 sürümünde değişti: 'no_block' has no effect anymore.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCapsule_IsValid (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Determines whether or not
     'capsule' is a valid capsule.  A valid capsule is non-‘NULL’,
     passes *note PyCapsule_CheckExact(): 4c0b, has a non-‘NULL’ pointer
     stored in it, and its internal name matches the 'name' parameter.
     (See *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 489f. for information on how
     capsule names are compared.)

     In other words, if *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1203. returns a true
     value, calls to any of the accessors (any function starting with
     ‘PyCapsule_Get’) are guaranteed to succeed.

     Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name
     passed in.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.  This function will not fail.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCapsule_SetContext (PyObject *capsule, void
          *context)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the context pointer
     inside 'capsule' to 'context'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCapsule_SetDestructor (PyObject *capsule,
          PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the destructor inside
     'capsule' to 'destructor'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCapsule_SetName (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the name inside
     'capsule' to 'name'.  If non-‘NULL’, the name must outlive the
     capsule.  If the previous 'name' stored in the capsule was not
     ‘NULL’, no attempt is made to free it.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCapsule_SetPointer (PyObject *capsule, void
          *pointer)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the void pointer inside
     'capsule' to 'pointer'.  The pointer may not be ‘NULL’.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame Objects,  Next: Generator Objects,  Prev: Capsules<2>,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.16 Frame Objects
......................

 -- C Türü: type PyFrameObject
     ' Bir parçası *note Sınırlı API: 2e2. (bir opak yapı olarak).'  The
     C structure of the objects used to describe frame objects.

     There are no public members in this structure.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The members of this structure were removed
     from the public C API. Refer to the *note What’s New entry: 5b9.
     for details.

The *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 15dd. and *note PyThreadState_GetFrame():
5c0. functions can be used to get a frame object.

See also *note Reflection: 4a70.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyFrame_Type

     The type of frame objects.  It is the same object as *note
     types.FrameType: 1679. in the Python layer.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this type was only available
     after including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFrame_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame object.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: Previously, this function was only
     available after including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. *PyFrame_GetBack (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the 'frame' next outer frame.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5c1, or ‘NULL’ if 'frame' has no
     outer frame.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFrame_GetBuiltins (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the 'frame'’s *note f_builtins: 1d3a. attribute.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5c1.  The result cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyCodeObject: 5a7. *PyFrame_GetCode (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Get
     the 'frame' code.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5c1.

     The result (frame code) cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFrame_GetGenerator (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the generator, coroutine, or async generator that owns this
     frame, or ‘NULL’ if this frame is not owned by a generator.  Does
     not raise an exception, even if the return value is ‘NULL’.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5c1, or ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFrame_GetGlobals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the 'frame'’s *note f_globals: 1d39. attribute.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5c1.  The result cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFrame_GetLasti (PyFrameObject *frame)

     Get the 'frame'’s *note f_lasti: 6d0. attribute.

     Returns -1 if ‘frame.f_lasti’ is ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFrame_GetVar (PyFrameObject
          *frame, PyObject *name)

     Get the variable 'name' of 'frame'.

        * Return a *note strong reference: 5c1. to the variable value on
          success.

        * Raise *note NameError: 14a. and return ‘NULL’ if the variable
          does not exist.

        * Raise an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

     'name' type must be a *note str: 15d.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFrame_GetVarString (PyFrameObject
          *frame, const char *name)

     Similar to *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 2fa, but the variable name is a
     C string encoded in UTF-8.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyFrame_GetLocals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)

     Get the 'frame'’s *note f_locals: 5be. attribute (*note dict:
     240.).

     Return a *note strong reference: 5c1.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber (PyFrameObject *frame)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Return the line number that 'frame' is currently executing.

* Menu:

* Internal Frames::


File: python.info,  Node: Internal Frames,  Up: Frame Objects

7.8.6.17 Internal Frames
........................

Unless using PEP 523(1), you will not need this.

 -- C Struct: struct _PyInterpreterFrame

     The interpreter’s internal frame representation.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode
          (struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
          Return a *note strong reference: 5c1. to the code object for
          the frame.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Return the byte offset into the last executed instruction.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Return the currently executing line number, or -1 if there is no
     line number.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator Objects,  Next: Coroutine Objects<2>,  Prev: Frame Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.18 Generator Objects
..........................

Generator objects are what Python uses to implement generator iterators.
They are normally created by iterating over a function that yields
values, rather than explicitly calling *note PyGen_New(): 4c16. or *note
PyGen_NewWithQualName(): 4c17.

 -- C Türü: type PyGenObject

     The C structure used for generator objects.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyGen_Type

     The type object corresponding to generator objects.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyGen_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a generator object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyGen_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob'’s type is *note PyGen_Type: 4c19.; 'ob' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyGen_New (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create and return a new
     generator object based on the 'frame' object.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The argument must not be
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyGen_NewWithQualName (PyFrameObject
          *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create and return a new
     generator object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The 'frame' argument must not
     be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Objects<2>,  Next: Context Variables Objects,  Prev: Generator Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.19 Coroutine Objects
..........................

Added in version 3.5.

Coroutine objects are what functions declared with an ‘async’ keyword
return.

 -- C Türü: type PyCoroObject

     The C structure used for coroutine objects.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyCoro_Type

     The type object corresponding to coroutine objects.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyCoro_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob'’s type is *note PyCoro_Type: 4c1f.; 'ob' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCoro_New (PyFrameObject *frame,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create and return a new
     coroutine object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The 'frame' argument must not
     be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Context Variables Objects,  Next: DateTime Objects<2>,  Prev: Coroutine Objects<2>,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.20 Context Variables Objects
..................................

Added in version 3.7.

3.7.1 sürümünde değişti:

     Not: In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables C APIs
     were 'changed' to use *note PyObject: 6eb. pointers instead of
     *note PyContext: 4c24, *note PyContextVar: 4c25, and *note
     PyContextToken: 4c26, e.g.:

          // in 3.7.0:
          PyContext *PyContext_New(void);

          // in 3.7.1+:
          PyObject *PyContext_New(void);

     See bpo-34762(1) for more details.

This section details the public C API for the *note contextvars: 24.
module.

 -- C Türü: type PyContext

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Context:
     142e. object.

 -- C Türü: type PyContextVar

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.ContextVar:
     13ee. object.

 -- C Türü: type PyContextToken

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Token: 2fa0.
     object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyContext_Type

     The type object representing the 'context' type.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyContextVar_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable' type.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyContextToken_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable token' type.

Type-check macros:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyContext_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContext_Type: 4c27.  'o' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyContextVar_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextVar_Type: 4c28.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyContextToken_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextToken_Type: 4c29.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

Context object management functions:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyContext_New (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a new empty context
     object.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyContext_Copy (PyObject *ctx)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a shallow copy of the
     passed 'ctx' context object.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has
     occurred.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyContext_CopyCurrent (void)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a shallow copy of the
     current thread context.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyContext_Enter (PyObject *ctx)

     Set 'ctx' as the current context for the current thread.  Returns
     ‘0’ on success, and ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyContext_Exit (PyObject *ctx)

     Deactivate the 'ctx' context and restore the previous context as
     the current context for the current thread.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success, and ‘-1’ on error.

Context variable functions:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyContextVar_New (const char *name,
          PyObject *def)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create a new ‘ContextVar’
     object.  The 'name' parameter is used for introspection and debug
     purposes.  The 'def' parameter specifies a default value for the
     context variable, or ‘NULL’ for no default.  If an error has
     occurred, this function returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyContextVar_Get (PyObject *var, PyObject
          *default_value, PyObject **value)

     Get the value of a context variable.  Returns ‘-1’ if an error has
     occurred during lookup, and ‘0’ if no error occurred, whether or
     not a value was found.

     If the context variable was found, 'value' will be a pointer to it.
     If the context variable was 'not' found, 'value' will point to:

        - 'default_value', if not ‘NULL’;

        - the default value of 'var', if not ‘NULL’;

        - ‘NULL’

     Except for ‘NULL’, the function returns a new reference.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyContextVar_Set (PyObject *var,
          PyObject *value)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Set the value of 'var' to
     'value' in the current context.  Returns a new token object for
     this change, or ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyContextVar_Reset (PyObject *var, PyObject *token)

     Reset the state of the 'var' context variable to that it was in
     before *note PyContextVar_Set(): 4c34. that returned the 'token'
     was called.  This function returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on
     error.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762


File: python.info,  Node: DateTime Objects<2>,  Next: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: Context Variables Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.21 DateTime Objects
.........................

Various date and time objects are supplied by the *note datetime: 30.
module.  Before using any of these functions, the header file
‘datetime.h’ must be included in your source (note that this is not
included by ‘Python.h’), and the macro ‘PyDateTime_IMPORT’ must be
invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function.  The
macro puts a pointer to a C structure into a static variable,
‘PyDateTimeAPI’, that is used by the following macros.

 -- C Türü: type PyDateTime_Date

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python date
     object.

 -- C Türü: type PyDateTime_DateTime

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python datetime
     object.

 -- C Türü: type PyDateTime_Time

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents a Python time
     object.

 -- C Türü: type PyDateTime_Delta

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 6eb. represents the difference
     between two datetime values.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyDateTime_DateType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python
     date type; it is the same object as *note datetime.date: 749. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyDateTime_DateTimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python
     datetime type; it is the same object as *note datetime.datetime:
     22b. in the Python layer.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyDateTime_TimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python
     time type; it is the same object as *note datetime.time: 6df. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyDateTime_DeltaType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents Python type
     for the difference between two datetime values; it is the same
     object as *note datetime.timedelta: 82d. in the Python layer.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyDateTime_TZInfoType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: 911. represents the Python
     time zone info type; it is the same object as *note
     datetime.tzinfo: 3e9. in the Python layer.

Macro for access to the UTC singleton:

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC

     Returns the time zone singleton representing UTC, the same object
     as *note datetime.timezone.utc: 425.

     Added in version 3.7.

Type-check macros:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDate_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4c3d. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDate_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4c3d.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4c3e.
     or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateTimeType’.  'ob' must not be
     ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4c3e.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4c3f. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TimeType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4c3f.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDelta_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4c40. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DeltaType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDelta_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4c40.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTZInfo_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4c41.
     or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TZInfoType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4c41.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

Macros to create objects:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDate_FromDate (int year, int
          month, int day)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note datetime.date:
     749. object with the specified year, month and day.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (int
          year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second,
          int usecond)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note
     datetime.datetime: 22b. object with the specified year, month, day,
     hour, minute, second and microsecond.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold
          (int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int
          second, int usecond, int fold)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note
     datetime.datetime: 22b. object with the specified year, month, day,
     hour, minute, second, microsecond and fold.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTime_FromTime (int hour, int
          minute, int second, int usecond)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note datetime.time:
     6df. object with the specified hour, minute, second and
     microsecond.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (int hour,
          int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note datetime.time:
     6df. object with the specified hour, minute, second, microsecond
     and fold.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDelta_FromDSU (int days, int
          seconds, int useconds)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note
     datetime.timedelta: 82d. object representing the given number of
     days, seconds and microseconds.  Normalization is performed so that
     the resulting number of microseconds and seconds lie in the ranges
     documented for *note datetime.timedelta: 82d. objects.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTimeZone_FromOffset (PyObject
          *offset)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note
     datetime.timezone: f62. object with an unnamed fixed offset
     represented by the 'offset' argument.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName
          (PyObject *offset, PyObject *name)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Return a *note
     datetime.timezone: f62. object with a fixed offset represented by
     the 'offset' argument and with tzname 'name'.

     Added in version 3.7.

Macros to extract fields from date objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_Date: 4c39, including subclasses (such as
*note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4c3a.).  The argument must not be ‘NULL’, and
the type is not checked:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Return the year, as a positive int.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Return the month, as an int from 1 through 12.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Return the day, as an int from 1 through 31.

Macros to extract fields from datetime objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4c3a, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime
          *o)

     Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Added in version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_Time: 4c3b, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Added in version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time delta objects.  The argument must be
an instance of *note PyDateTime_Delta: 4c3c, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     Return the number of days, as an int from -999999999 to 999999999.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     Return the number of seconds, as an int from 0 through 86399.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta
          *o)

     Return the number of microseconds, as an int from 0 through 999999.

     Added in version 3.3.

Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (PyObject
          *args)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create and return a new *note
     datetime.datetime: 22b. object given an argument tuple suitable for
     passing to *note datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 22f.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyDate_FromTimestamp (PyObject
          *args)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'  Create and return a new *note
     datetime.date: 749. object given an argument tuple suitable for
     passing to *note datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 1467.


File: python.info,  Node: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: DateTime Objects<2>,  Up: Other Objects

7.8.6.22 Objects for Type Hinting
.................................

Various built-in types for type hinting are provided.  Currently, two
types exist – *note GenericAlias: 4c9. and *note Union: 5f9.  Only
‘GenericAlias’ is exposed to C.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *Py_GenericAlias (PyObject *origin,
          PyObject *args)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'  Create
     a *note GenericAlias: 4c9. object.  Equivalent to calling the
     Python class *note types.GenericAlias: 625.  The 'origin' and
     'args' arguments set the ‘GenericAlias’‘s ‘__origin__’ and
     ‘__args__’ attributes respectively.  'origin' should be a *note
     PyTypeObject: 911.*, and 'args' can be a *note PyTupleObject:
     4a45.* or any ‘PyObject*’.  If 'args' passed is not a tuple, a
     1-tuple is automatically constructed and ‘__args__’ is set to
     ‘(args,)’.  Minimal checking is done for the arguments, so the
     function will succeed even if 'origin' is not a type.  The
     ‘GenericAlias’‘s ‘__parameters__’ attribute is constructed lazily
     from ‘__args__’.  On failure, an exception is raised and ‘NULL’ is
     returned.

     Here’s an example of how to make an extension type generic:

          ...
          static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = {
              // Other methods.
              ...
              {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"}
              ...
          }

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     The data model method *note __class_getitem__(): 565.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. Py_GenericAliasType
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'  The C
     type of the object returned by *note Py_GenericAlias(): 49da.
     Equivalent to *note types.GenericAlias: 625. in Python.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Next: Python Initialization Configuration,  Prev: Concrete Objects Layer,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.9 Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
=============================================

See also *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

* Menu:

* Before Python Initialization::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Process-wide parameters::
* Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock::
* Sub-interpreter support::
* Asynchronous Notifications::
* Profiling and Tracing::
* Advanced Debugger Support::
* Thread Local Storage Support::


File: python.info,  Node: Before Python Initialization,  Next: Global configuration variables,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.1 Before Python Initialization
----------------------------------

In an application embedding Python, the *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.
function must be called before using any other Python/C API functions;
with the exception of a few functions and the *note global configuration
variables: 4c6a.

The following functions can be safely called before Python is
initialized:

   * Configuration functions:

        * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2.

        * *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 15c3.

        * ‘PyInitFrozenExtensions()’

        * *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 324.

        * *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8.

        * *note PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(): 4c6b.

        * *note Py_SetPath(): 1c3d.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0.

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 18e1.

        * *note Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): ea8.

        * *note PySys_AddWarnOption(): a9d.

        * *note PySys_AddXOption(): 4983.

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 363.

   * Informative functions:

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4874.

        * *note PyMem_GetAllocator(): 4c6c.

        * *note PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(): 4c6d.

        * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 12bc.

        * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 49dc.

        * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 49dd.

        * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 49de.

        * *note Py_GetVersion(): 49df.

   * Utilities:

        * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e.

   * Memory allocators:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d41.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 4a3f.

     Not: The following functions 'should not be called' before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6fc.: *note Py_EncodeLocale(): a3f, *note
     Py_GetPath(): 367, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 369, *note
     Py_GetExecPrefix(): 365, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b, *note
     Py_GetPythonHome(): 36e, *note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d. and *note
     PyEval_InitThreads(): 48e3.


File: python.info,  Node: Global configuration variables,  Next: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Prev: Before Python Initialization,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.2 Global configuration variables
------------------------------------

Python has variables for the global configuration to control different
features and options.  By default, these flags are controlled by *note
command line options: 1b73.

When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of
times that the option was set.  For example, ‘-b’ sets *note
Py_BytesWarningFlag: 335. to 1 and ‘-bb’ sets *note Py_BytesWarningFlag:
335. to 2.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_BytesWarningFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.bytes_warning: 336. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Issue a warning when comparing *note bytes: 2cb. or *note
     bytearray: 2ca. with *note str: 15d. or *note bytes: 2cb. with
     *note int: 184.  Issue an error if greater or equal to ‘2’.

     Set by the *note -b: 3ef. option.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_DebugFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.parser_debug: 328. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on
     compilation options).

     Set by the *note -d: 1b7b. option and the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1b7c.
     environment variable.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.write_bytecode: 33c. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     If set to non-zero, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
     import of source modules.

     Set by the *note -B: 1254. option and the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1255. environment variable.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_FrozenFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 338. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Suppress error messages when calculating the module search path in
     *note Py_GetPath(): 367.

     Private flag used by ‘_freeze_module’ and ‘frozenmain’ programs.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_HashRandomizationFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.hash_seed: 343. and *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 342.
     should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 5c6.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27. environment variable
     is set to a non-empty string.

     If the flag is non-zero, read the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27.
     environment variable to initialize the secret hash seed.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 33a. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     ec5. and *note PYTHONHOME: 36f, that might be set.

     Set by the *note -E: 7b7. and *note -I: 7b8. options.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_InspectFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.inspect: 330. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     When a script is passed as first argument or the *note -c: 3eb.
     option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script
     or the command, even when *note sys.stdin: 2c9. does not appear to
     be a terminal.

     Set by the *note -i: 1368. option and the *note PYTHONINSPECT:
     1367. environment variable.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_InteractiveFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 32e. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Set by the *note -i: 1368. option.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_IsolatedFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.isolated: 345. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Run Python in isolated mode.  In isolated mode *note sys.path: 368.
     contains neither the script’s directory nor the user’s
     site-packages directory.

     Set by the *note -I: 7b8. option.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     If the flag is non-zero, use the ‘mbcs’ encoding with ‘replace’
     error handler, instead of the UTF-8 encoding with ‘surrogatepass’
     error handler, for the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     2c7.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ad6.
     environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

     See PEP 529(1) for more details.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 349. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     If the flag is non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 11ba. instead of
     ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys: d8. standard streams.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ad9. environment
     variable is set to a non-empty string.

     See PEP 528(2) for more details.

     *note Availability: 1b9a.: Windows.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_NoSiteFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.site_import: 334. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Disable the import of the module *note site: c6. and the
     site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 368. that it
     entails.  Also disable these manipulations if *note site: c6. is
     explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1b80. if you
     want them to be triggered).

     Set by the *note -S: 104e. option.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_NoUserSiteDirectory

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.user_site_directory: 33e. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Don’t add the *note user site-packages directory: 1b7f. to *note
     sys.path: 368.

     Set by the *note -s: 1232. and *note -I: 7b8. options, and the
     *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1233. environment variable.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_OptimizeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.optimization_level: 332. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Set by the *note -O: c42. option and the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE:
     1b7d. environment variable.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_QuietFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.quiet: 32c. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Don’t display the copyright and version messages even in
     interactive mode.

     Set by the *note -q: 1b7e. option.

     Added in version 3.2.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 340. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.

     Set by the *note -u: 17d6. option and the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED:
     17d7. environment variable.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Değişkeni: int Py_VerboseFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.verbose: 32a. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the
     place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  If
     greater or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file that is
     checked for when searching for a module.  Also provides information
     on module cleanup at exit.

     Set by the *note -v: 12ad. option and the *note PYTHONVERBOSE:
     1b81. environment variable.

     3.12 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Next: Process-wide parameters,  Prev: Global configuration variables,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.3 Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
-------------------------------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_Initialize ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Initialize the Python interpreter.  In an application embedding
     Python, this should be called before using any other Python/C API
     functions; see *note Before Python Initialization: a3c. for the few
     exceptions.

     This initializes the table of loaded modules (‘sys.modules’), and
     creates the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__:
     1. and *note sys: d8.  It also initializes the module search path
     (‘sys.path’).  It does not set ‘sys.argv’; use *note
     PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe. for that.  This is a no-op when called for
     a second time (without calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. first).
     There is no return value; it is a fatal error if the initialization
     fails.

     Use the *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. function to customize
     the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

          Not: On Windows, changes the console mode from ‘O_TEXT’ to
          ‘O_BINARY’, which will also affect non-Python uses of the
          console using the C Runtime.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_InitializeEx (int initsigs)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This function works like
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. if 'initsigs' is ‘1’.  If 'initsigs' is
     ‘0’, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which
     might be useful when Python is embedded.

     Use the *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. function to customize
     the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_IsInitialized ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return true (nonzero) when
     the Python interpreter has been initialized, false (zero) if not.
     After *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. is called, this returns false
     until *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. is called again.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_FinalizeEx ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.6 sürümünden beri.'  Undo
     all initializations made by *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. and
     subsequent use of Python/C API functions, and destroy all
     sub-interpreters (see *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 15d7. below) that
     were created and not yet destroyed since the last call to *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6fc.  Ideally, this frees all memory allocated by
     the Python interpreter.  This is a no-op when called for a second
     time (without calling *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. again first).

     Since this is the reverse of *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc, it should
     be called in the same thread with the same interpreter active.
     That means the main thread and the main interpreter.  This should
     never be called while *note Py_RunMain(): 823. is running.

     Normally the return value is ‘0’.  If there were errors during
     finalization (flushing buffered data), ‘-1’ is returned.

     This function is provided for a number of reasons.  An embedding
     application might want to restart Python without having to restart
     the application itself.  An application that has loaded the Python
     interpreter from a dynamically loadable library (or DLL) might want
     to free all memory allocated by Python before unloading the DLL.
     During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a developer might
     want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from the
     application.

     'Bugs and caveats:' The destruction of modules and objects in
     modules is done in random order; this may cause destructors (*note
     __del__(): 1d4e. methods) to fail when they depend on other objects
     (even functions) or modules.  Dynamically loaded extension modules
     loaded by Python are not unloaded.  Small amounts of memory
     allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a
     leak, please report it).  Memory tied up in circular references
     between objects is not freed.  Some memory allocated by extension
     modules may not be freed.  Some extensions may not work properly if
     their initialization routine is called more than once; this can
     happen if an application calls *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. and
     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. more than once.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks’ with no arguments.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_Finalize ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is a
     backwards-compatible version of *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. that
     disregards the return value.


File: python.info,  Node: Process-wide parameters,  Next: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Prev: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.4 Process-wide parameters
-----------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding (const char *encoding,
          const char *errors)

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 4140. and *note PyConfig.stdio_errors:
     4141. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 5c6.

     This function should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc,
     if it is called at all.  It specifies which encoding and error
     handling to use with standard IO, with the same meanings as in
     *note str.encode(): 728.

     It overrides *note PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. values, and allows
     embedding code to control IO encoding when the environment variable
     does not work.

     'encoding' and/or 'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. and/or default values (depending on other
     settings).

     Note that *note sys.stderr: 792. always uses the “backslashreplace”
     error handler, regardless of this (or any other) setting.

     If *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. is called, this function will need
     to be called again in order to affect subsequent calls to *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

     Returns ‘0’ if successful, a nonzero value on error (e.g.  calling
     after the interpreter has already been initialized).

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_SetProgramName (const wchar_t *name)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 35b. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     This function should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.
     is called for the first time, if it is called at all.  It tells the
     interpreter the value of the ‘argv[0]’ argument to the ‘main()’
     function of the program (converted to wide characters).  This is
     used by *note Py_GetPath(): 367. and some other functions below to
     find the Python run-time libraries relative to the interpreter
     executable.  The default value is ‘'python'’.  The argument should
     point to a zero-terminated wide character string in static storage
     whose contents will not change for the duration of the program’s
     execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will change the
     contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramName ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the program name set with *note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0,
     or the default.  The returned string points into static storage;
     the caller should not modify its value.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *Py_GetPrefix ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the 'prefix' for
     installed platform-independent files.  This is derived through a
     number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into static
     storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This corresponds
     to the ‘prefix’ variable in the top-level ‘Makefile’ and the *note
     -prefix: 1ba9. argument to the ‘configure’ script at build time.
     The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.prefix’.  It is only
     useful on Unix.  See also the next function.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *Py_GetExecPrefix ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the 'exec-prefix'
     for installed platform-'dependent' files.  This is derived through
     a number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note
     Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0. and some environment variables; for
     example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the
     exec-prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  This
     corresponds to the ‘exec_prefix’ variable in the top-level
     ‘Makefile’ and the ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’
     script at build time.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.exec_prefix’.  It is only useful on Unix.

     Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform
     dependent files (such as executables and shared libraries) are
     installed in a different directory tree.  In a typical
     installation, platform dependent files may be installed in the
     ‘/usr/local/plat’ subtree while platform independent may be
     installed in ‘/usr/local’.

     Generally speaking, a platform is a combination of hardware and
     software families, e.g.  Sparc machines running the Solaris 2.x
     operating system are considered the same platform, but Intel
     machines running Solaris 2.x are another platform, and Intel
     machines running Linux are yet another platform.  Different major
     revisions of the same operating system generally also form
     different platforms.  Non-Unix operating systems are a different
     story; the installation strategies on those systems are so
     different that the prefix and exec-prefix are meaningless, and set
     to the empty string.  Note that compiled Python bytecode files are
     platform independent (but not independent from the Python version
     by which they were compiled!).

     System administrators will know how to configure the ‘mount’ or
     ‘automount’ programs to share ‘/usr/local’ between platforms while
     having ‘/usr/local/plat’ be a different filesystem for each
     platform.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramFullPath ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is
     computed as a side-effect of deriving the default module search
     path from the program name (set by *note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0.
     above).  The returned string points into static storage; the caller
     should not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code
     as ‘sys.executable’.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *Py_GetPath ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the default module search path; this is computed from the
     program name (set by *note Py_SetProgramName(): 18e0. above) and
     some environment variables.  The returned string consists of a
     series of directory names separated by a platform dependent
     delimiter character.  The delimiter character is ‘':'’ on Unix and
     macOS, ‘';'’ on Windows.  The returned string points into static
     storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The list *note
     sys.path: 368. is initialized with this value on interpreter
     startup; it can be (and usually is) modified later to change the
     search path for loading modules.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_SetPath (const wchar_t*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3fc. and *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3fb. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Set the default module search path.  If this function is called
     before *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc, then *note Py_GetPath(): 367.
     won’t attempt to compute a default search path but uses the one
     provided instead.  This is useful if Python is embedded by an
     application that has full knowledge of the location of all modules.
     The path components should be separated by the platform dependent
     delimiter character, which is ‘':'’ on Unix and macOS, ‘';'’ on
     Windows.

     This also causes *note sys.executable: 36c. to be set to the
     program full path (see *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b.) and for
     *note sys.prefix: 36a. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 366. to be empty.
     It is up to the caller to modify these if required after calling
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_* string.

     The path argument is copied internally, so the caller may free it
     after the call completes.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: The program full path is now used for *note
     sys.executable: 36c, instead of the program name.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *Py_GetVersion ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the version of this
     Python interpreter.  This is a string that looks something like

          "3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]"

     The first word (up to the first space character) is the current
     Python version; the first characters are the major and minor
     version separated by a period.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value
     is available to Python code as *note sys.version: ba3.

     See also the *note Py_Version: 582. constant.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *Py_GetPlatform ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Return the platform identifier for the current platform.  On Unix,
     this is formed from the “official” name of the operating system,
     converted to lower case, followed by the major revision number;
     e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is also known as SunOS 5.x, the value
     is ‘'sunos5'’.  On macOS, it is ‘'darwin'’.  On Windows, it is
     ‘'win'’.  The returned string points into static storage; the
     caller should not modify its value.  The value is available to
     Python code as ‘sys.platform’.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *Py_GetCopyright ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the official
     copyright string for the current Python version, for example

     ‘'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'’

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.copyright’.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *Py_GetCompiler ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return an indication of the
     compiler used to build the current Python version, in square
     brackets, for example:

          "[GCC 2.7.2.2]"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C Işlevi: const char *Py_GetBuildInfo ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return information about
     the sequence number and build date and time of the current Python
     interpreter instance, for example

          "#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_SetArgvEx (int argc, wchar_t **argv, int
          updatepath)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.argv: 35a, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1753. and *note
     PyConfig.safe_path: 5a3. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Set *note sys.argv: 110d. based on 'argc' and 'argv'.  These
     parameters are similar to those passed to the program’s ‘main()’
     function with the difference that the first entry should refer to
     the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting
     the Python interpreter.  If there isn’t a script that will be run,
     the first entry in 'argv' can be an empty string.  If this function
     fails to initialize *note sys.argv: 110d, a fatal condition is
     signalled using *note Py_FatalError(): 7e1.

     If 'updatepath' is zero, this is all the function does.  If
     'updatepath' is non-zero, the function also modifies *note
     sys.path: 368. according to the following algorithm:

        - If the name of an existing script is passed in ‘argv[0]’, the
          absolute path of the directory where the script is located is
          prepended to *note sys.path: 368.

        - Otherwise (that is, if 'argc' is ‘0’ or ‘argv[0]’ doesn’t
          point to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended
          to *note sys.path: 368, which is the same as prepending the
          current working directory (‘"."’).

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 6dc. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     35a. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

          Not: It is recommended that applications embedding the Python
          interpreter for purposes other than executing a single script
          pass ‘0’ as 'updatepath', and update *note sys.path: 368.
          themselves if desired.  See CVE 2008-5983(1).

          On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by
          manually popping the first *note sys.path: 368. element after
          having called *note PySys_SetArgv(): 11ff, for example using:

               PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n");

     Added in version 3.1.3.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: void PySys_SetArgv (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This API is kept for
     backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.argv: 35a. and *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 1753. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     This function works like *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 11fe. with
     'updatepath' set to ‘1’ unless the ‘python’ interpreter was started
     with the *note -I: 7b8.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 6dc. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     35a. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     3.4 sürümünde değişti: The 'updatepath' value depends on *note -I:
     7b8.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_SetPythonHome (const wchar_t *home)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This API is kept for
     backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.home: 35c. should be
     used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 5c6.

     Set the default “home” directory, that is, the location of the
     standard Python libraries.  See *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. for the
     meaning of the argument string.

     The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in
     static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of
     the program’s execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will
     change the contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     3.11 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: wchar_t *Py_GetPythonHome ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the default “home”,
     that is, the value set by a previous call to *note
     Py_SetPythonHome(): 18e1, or the value of the *note PYTHONHOME:
     36f. environment variable if it is set.

     This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     6fc, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983


File: python.info,  Node: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Next: Sub-interpreter support,  Prev: Process-wide parameters,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.5 Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
--------------------------------------------------

The Python interpreter is not fully thread-safe.  In order to support
multi-threaded Python programs, there’s a global lock, called the *note
global interpreter lock: 147. or *note GIL: 6fa, that must be held by
the current thread before it can safely access Python objects.  Without
the lock, even the simplest operations could cause problems in a
multi-threaded program: for example, when two threads simultaneously
increment the reference count of the same object, the reference count
could end up being incremented only once instead of twice.

Therefore, the rule exists that only the thread that has acquired the
*note GIL: 6fa. may operate on Python objects or call Python/C API
functions.  In order to emulate concurrency of execution, the
interpreter regularly tries to switch threads (see *note
sys.setswitchinterval(): 7a5.).  The lock is also released around
potentially blocking I/O operations like reading or writing a file, so
that other Python threads can run in the meantime.

The Python interpreter keeps some thread-specific bookkeeping
information inside a data structure called *note PyThreadState: 5bf.
There’s also one global variable pointing to the current *note
PyThreadState: 5bf.: it can be retrieved using *note
PyThreadState_Get(): 498a.

* Menu:

* Releasing the GIL from extension code::
* Non-Python created threads::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* High-level API::
* Low-level API::


File: python.info,  Node: Releasing the GIL from extension code,  Next: Non-Python created threads,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.1 Releasing the GIL from extension code
.............................................

Most extension code manipulating the *note GIL: 6fa. has the following
simple structure:

     Save the thread state in a local variable.
     Release the global interpreter lock.
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Reacquire the global interpreter lock.
     Restore the thread state from the local variable.

This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it:

     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

The *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 47f6. macro opens a new block and
declares a hidden local variable; the *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8f5.
macro closes the block.

The block above expands to the following code:

     PyThreadState *_save;

     _save = PyEval_SaveThread();
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);

Here is how these functions work: the global interpreter lock is used to
protect the pointer to the current thread state.  When releasing the
lock and saving the thread state, the current thread state pointer must
be retrieved before the lock is released (since another thread could
immediately acquire the lock and store its own thread state in the
global variable).  Conversely, when acquiring the lock and restoring the
thread state, the lock must be acquired before storing the thread state
pointer.

     Not: Calling system I/O functions is the most common use case for
     releasing the GIL, but it can also be useful before calling
     long-running computations which don’t need access to Python
     objects, such as compression or cryptographic functions operating
     over memory buffers.  For example, the standard *note zlib: 133.
     and *note hashlib: 66. modules release the GIL when compressing or
     hashing data.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-Python created threads,  Next: Cautions about fork,  Prev: Releasing the GIL from extension code,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.2 Non-Python created threads
..................................

When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the
*note threading: ec. module), a thread state is automatically associated
to them and the code showed above is therefore correct.  However, when
threads are created from C (for example by a third-party library with
its own thread management), they don’t hold the GIL, nor is there a
thread state structure for them.

If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be
part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party
library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter by
creating a thread state data structure, then acquiring the GIL, and
finally storing their thread state pointer, before you can start using
the Python/C API. When you are done, you should reset the thread state
pointer, release the GIL, and finally free the thread state data
structure.

The *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6. and *note PyGILState_Release():
1489. functions do all of the above automatically.  The typical idiom
for calling into Python from a C thread is:

     PyGILState_STATE gstate;
     gstate = PyGILState_Ensure();

     /* Perform Python actions here. */
     result = CallSomeFunction();
     /* evaluate result or handle exception */

     /* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */
     PyGILState_Release(gstate);

Note that the ‘PyGILState_*’ functions assume there is only one global
interpreter (created automatically by *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.).
Python supports the creation of additional interpreters (using *note
Py_NewInterpreter(): 15d7.), but mixing multiple interpreters and the
‘PyGILState_*’ API is unsupported.


File: python.info,  Node: Cautions about fork,  Next: High-level API,  Prev: Non-Python created threads,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.3 Cautions about fork()
.............................

Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the
face of the C ‘fork()’ call.  On most systems with ‘fork()’, after a
process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist.  This has
a concrete impact both on how locks must be handled and on all stored
state in CPython’s runtime.

The fact that only the “current” thread remains means any locks held by
other threads will never be released.  Python solves this for *note
os.fork(): 23a. by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the
fork, and releasing them afterwards.  In addition, it resets any *note
Lock Objects: 2e56. in the child.  When extending or embedding Python,
there is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that
need to be acquired before or reset after a fork.  OS facilities such as
‘pthread_atfork()’ would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling ‘fork()’
directly rather than through *note os.fork(): 23a. (and returning to or
calling into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python’s
internal locks being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.
*note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 376. tries to reset the necessary locks,
but is not always able to.

The fact that all other threads go away also means that CPython’s
runtime state there must be cleaned up properly, which *note os.fork():
23a. does.  This means finalizing all other *note PyThreadState: 5bf.
objects belonging to the current interpreter and all other *note
PyInterpreterState: 70f. objects.  Due to this and the special nature of
the *note “main” interpreter: 320, ‘fork()’ should only be called in
that interpreter’s “main” thread, where the CPython global runtime was
originally initialized.  The only exception is if ‘exec()’ will be
called immediately after.


File: python.info,  Node: High-level API,  Next: Low-level API,  Prev: Cautions about fork,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.4 High-level API
......................

These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing C
extension code, or when embedding the Python interpreter:

 -- C Türü: type PyInterpreterState
     ' Bir parçası *note Sınırlı API: 2e2. (bir opak yapı olarak).'
     This data structure represents the state shared by a number of
     cooperating threads.  Threads belonging to the same interpreter
     share their module administration and a few other internal items.
     There are no public members in this structure.

     Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share
     nothing, except process state like available memory, open file
     descriptors and such.  The global interpreter lock is also shared
     by all threads, regardless of to which interpreter they belong.

 -- C Türü: type PyThreadState
     ' Bir parçası *note Sınırlı API: 2e2. (bir opak yapı olarak).'
     This data structure represents the state of a single thread.  The
     only public data member is:

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. *interp

          This thread’s interpreter state.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_InitThreads ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Deprecated function which does nothing.

     In Python 3.6 and older, this function created the GIL if it didn’t
     exist.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function now does nothing.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: This function is now called by *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6fc, so you don’t have to call it yourself
     anymore.

     3.2 sürümünde değişti: This function cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 6fc. anymore.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyEval_ThreadsInitialized ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Returns a non-zero value if
     *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 48e3. has been called.  This function
     can be called without holding the GIL, and therefore can be used to
     avoid calls to the locking API when running single-threaded.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The *note GIL: 6fa. is now initialized by
     *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

     3.9 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *PyEval_SaveThread ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Release the global
     interpreter lock (if it has been created) and reset the thread
     state to ‘NULL’, returning the previous thread state (which is not
     ‘NULL’).  If the lock has been created, the current thread must
     have acquired it.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_RestoreThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Acquire the global
     interpreter lock (if it has been created) and set the thread state
     to 'tstate', which must not be ‘NULL’.  If the lock has been
     created, the current thread must not have acquired it, otherwise
     deadlock ensues.

          Not: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8f7. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *PyThreadState_Get ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the current thread
     state.  The global interpreter lock must be held.  When the current
     thread state is ‘NULL’, this issues a fatal error (so that the
     caller needn’t check for ‘NULL’).

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *PyThreadState_Swap
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Swap the current thread
     state with the thread state given by the argument 'tstate', which
     may be ‘NULL’.  The global interpreter lock must be held and is not
     released.

The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible
with sub-interpreters:

 -- C Işlevi: PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Ensure that the current
     thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless of the current
     state of Python, or of the global interpreter lock.  This may be
     called as many times as desired by a thread as long as each call is
     matched with a call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 1489.  In
     general, other thread-related APIs may be used between *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 1489.
     calls as long as the thread state is restored to its previous state
     before the Release().  For example, normal usage of the *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 47f6. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8f5.
     macros is acceptable.

     The return value is an opaque “handle” to the thread state when
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6. was called, and must be passed to
     *note PyGILState_Release(): 1489. to ensure Python is left in the
     same state.  Even though recursive calls are allowed, these handles
     'cannot' be shared - each unique call to *note PyGILState_Ensure():
     8f6. must save the handle for its call to *note
     PyGILState_Release(): 1489.

     When the function returns, the current thread will hold the GIL and
     be able to call arbitrary Python code.  Failure is a fatal error.

          Not: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8f7. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyGILState_Release (PyGILState_STATE)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Release any resources
     previously acquired.  After this call, Python’s state will be the
     same as it was prior to the corresponding *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6. call (but generally this state will be
     unknown to the caller, hence the use of the GILState API).

     Every call to *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6. must be matched by a
     call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 1489. on the same thread.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState
          ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Get the current thread
     state for this thread.  May return ‘NULL’ if no GILState API has
     been used on the current thread.  Note that the main thread always
     has such a thread-state, even if no auto-thread-state call has been
     made on the main thread.  This is mainly a helper/diagnostic
     function.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyGILState_Check ()

     Return ‘1’ if the current thread is holding the GIL and ‘0’
     otherwise.  This function can be called from any thread at any
     time.  Only if it has had its Python thread state initialized and
     currently is holding the GIL will it return ‘1’.  This is mainly a
     helper/diagnostic function.  It can be useful for example in
     callback contexts or memory allocation functions when knowing that
     the GIL is locked can allow the caller to perform sensitive actions
     or otherwise behave differently.

     Added in version 3.4.

The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon;
look for example usage in the Python source distribution.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This macro expands to ‘{
     PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();’.  Note that it
     contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8f5. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }’.  Note that it contains a closing
     brace; it must be matched with an earlier *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 47f6. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_BLOCK_THREADS
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: 8f5. without the closing brace.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This macro expands to
     ‘_save = PyEval_SaveThread();’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 47f6. without the opening brace and
     variable declaration.


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level API,  Prev: High-level API,  Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock

7.9.5.5 Low-level API
.....................

All of the following functions must be called after *note
Py_Initialize(): 6fc.

3.7 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc. now initializes the
*note GIL: 6fa.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. *PyInterpreterState_New ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Create a new interpreter
     state object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held, but
     may be held if it is necessary to serialize calls to this function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ with no arguments.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyInterpreterState_Clear (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Reset all information in an
     interpreter state object.  The global interpreter lock must be
     held.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 16e3.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear’ with no arguments.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyInterpreterState_Delete (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Destroy an interpreter
     state object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held.  The
     interpreter state must have been reset with a previous call to
     *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 3f8a.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *PyThreadState_New
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Create a new thread state
     object belonging to the given interpreter object.  The global
     interpreter lock need not be held, but may be held if it is
     necessary to serialize calls to this function.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThreadState_Clear (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Reset all information in a
     thread state object.  The global interpreter lock must be held.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: This function now calls the
     ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that happened in
     *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 17d2.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThreadState_Delete (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Destroy a thread state
     object.  The global interpreter lock need not be held.  The thread
     state must have been reset with a previous call to *note
     PyThreadState_Clear(): 1488.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (void)

     Destroy the current thread state and release the global interpreter
     lock.  Like *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 17d2, the global
     interpreter lock must be held.  The thread state must have been
     reset with a previous call to *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1488.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyFrameObject: 5ba. *PyThreadState_GetFrame
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Get
     the current frame of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Return a *note strong reference: 5c1.  Return ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.

     See also *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 15dd.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Get
     the unique thread state identifier of the Python thread state
     'tstate'.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyInterpreterState: 70f.
          *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Get
     the interpreter of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThreadState_EnterTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Resume them using the *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 581.
     function.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'
     suspended by the *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 580. function.

     See also *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 138b. and *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 138a. functions.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. *PyInterpreterState_Get
          (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'  Get
     the current interpreter.

     Issue a fatal error if there no current Python thread state or no
     current interpreter.  It cannot return NULL.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: int64_t PyInterpreterState_GetID (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     the interpreter’s unique ID. If there was any error in doing so
     then ‘-1’ is returned and an error is set.

     The caller must hold the GIL.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyInterpreterState_GetDict
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.8 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     a dictionary in which interpreter-specific data may be stored.  If
     this function returns ‘NULL’ then no exception has been raised and
     the caller should assume no interpreter-specific dict is available.

     This is not a replacement for *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de, which
     extensions should use to store interpreter-specific state
     information.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(*note
          PyThreadState: 5bf. *tstate, *note _PyInterpreterFrame: 4c0f.
          *frame, int throwflag)

     Type of a frame evaluation function.

     The 'throwflag' parameter is used by the ‘throw()’ method of
     generators: if non-zero, handle the current exception.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: The function now takes a 'tstate' parameter.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: The 'frame' parameter changed from
     ‘PyFrameObject*’ to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 5a6.
          _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)

     Get the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(1) “Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython”.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: void _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc
          (PyInterpreterState *interp, _PyFrameEvalFunction eval_frame)

     Set the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(2) “Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython”.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyThreadState_GetDict ()
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return a dictionary in which extensions can
     store thread-specific state information.  Each extension should use
     a unique key to use to store state in the dictionary.  It is okay
     to call this function when no current thread state is available.
     If this function returns ‘NULL’, no exception has been raised and
     the caller should assume no current thread state is available.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (unsigned long id, PyObject
          *exc)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Asynchronously raise an
     exception in a thread.  The 'id' argument is the thread id of the
     target thread; 'exc' is the exception object to be raised.  This
     function does not steal any references to 'exc'.  To prevent naive
     misuse, you must write your own C extension to call this.  Must be
     called with the GIL held.  Returns the number of thread states
     modified; this is normally one, but will be zero if the thread id
     isn’t found.  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, the pending exception (if any)
     for the thread is cleared.  This raises no exceptions.

     3.7 sürümünde değişti: The type of the 'id' parameter changed from
     long to unsigned long.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_AcquireThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Acquire the global
     interpreter lock and set the current thread state to 'tstate',
     which must not be ‘NULL’.  The lock must have been created earlier.
     If this thread already has the lock, deadlock ensues.

          Not: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8f7. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8f5, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6, and terminate the current thread if
     called while the interpreter is finalizing.

     *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4. is a higher-level function which
     is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_ReleaseThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Reset the current thread
     state to ‘NULL’ and release the global interpreter lock.  The lock
     must have been created earlier and must be held by the current
     thread.  The 'tstate' argument, which must not be ‘NULL’, is only
     used to check that it represents the current thread state — if it
     isn’t, a fatal error is reported.

     *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 1123. is a higher-level function which
     is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_AcquireLock ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Acquire the global
     interpreter lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.  If
     this thread already has the lock, a deadlock ensues.

     3.2 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This function does not update
     the current thread state.  Please use *note PyEval_RestoreThread():
     8f4. or *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 48dc. instead.

          Not: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
          finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was
          not created by Python.  You can use ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or
          *note sys.is_finalizing(): 8f7. to check if the interpreter is
          in process of being finalized before calling this function to
          avoid unwanted termination.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Updated to be consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 8f4, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): 8f5, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 8f6, and terminate the current thread if
     called while the interpreter is finalizing.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_ReleaseLock ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Release the global
     interpreter lock.  The lock must have been created earlier.

     3.2 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This function does not update
     the current thread state.  Please use *note PyEval_SaveThread():
     1123. or *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 48e5. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Sub-interpreter support,  Next: Asynchronous Notifications,  Prev: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.6 Sub-interpreter support
-----------------------------

While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter,
there are cases where you need to create several independent
interpreters in the same process and perhaps even in the same thread.
Sub-interpreters allow you to do that.

The “main” interpreter is the first one created when the runtime
initializes.  It is usually the only Python interpreter in a process.
Unlike sub-interpreters, the main interpreter has unique process-global
responsibilities like signal handling.  It is also responsible for
execution during runtime initialization and is usually the active
interpreter during runtime finalization.  The *note
PyInterpreterState_Main(): 4c7c. function returns a pointer to its
state.

You can switch between sub-interpreters using the *note
PyThreadState_Swap(): 498d. function.  You can create and destroy them
using the following functions:

 -- C Türü: type PyInterpreterConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure a
     sub-interpreter.  Its values are used only in *note
     Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 172. and never modified by the
     runtime.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Üyesi: int use_main_obmalloc

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter will use its own
          “object” allocator state.  Otherwise it will use (share) the
          main interpreter’s.

          If this is ‘0’ then *note check_multi_interp_extensions: 4c7d.
          must be ‘1’ (non-zero).  If this is ‘1’ then *note gil: 4c7e.
          must not be *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4c7f.

      -- C Üyesi: int allow_fork

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support forking the
          process in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently
          active.  Otherwise fork is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d5. module still works when
          fork is disallowed.

      -- C Üyesi: int allow_exec

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support replacing the
          current process via exec (e.g.  *note os.execv(): 28f2.) in
          any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active.
          Otherwise exec is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: d5. module still works when
          exec is disallowed.

      -- C Üyesi: int allow_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: ec.
          module won’t create threads.  Otherwise threads are allowed.

      -- C Üyesi: int allow_daemon_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: ec.
          module won’t create daemon threads.  Otherwise daemon threads
          are allowed (as long as *note allow_threads: 4c82. is
          non-zero).

      -- C Üyesi: int check_multi_interp_extensions

          If this is ‘0’ then all extension modules may be imported,
          including legacy (single-phase init) modules, in any thread
          where the sub-interpreter is currently active.  Otherwise only
          multi-phase init extension modules (see PEP 489(1)) may be
          imported.  (Also see *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters:
          4be5.)

          This must be ‘1’ (non-zero) if *note use_main_obmalloc: 4132.
          is ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int gil

          This determines the operation of the GIL for the
          sub-interpreter.  It may be one of the following:

           -- C Makrosu: PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL

               Use the default selection (*note
               PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL: 4c85.).

           -- C Makrosu: PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL

               Use (share) the main interpreter’s GIL.

           -- C Makrosu: PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL

               Use the sub-interpreter’s own GIL.

          If this is *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4c7f. then *note
          PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4132. must be ‘0’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig
          (PyThreadState **tstate_p, const PyInterpreterConfig *config)

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is an (almost) totally separate
     environment for the execution of Python code.  In particular, the
     new interpreter has separate, independent versions of all imported
     modules, including the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12,
     *note __main__: 1. and *note sys: d8.  The table of loaded modules
     (‘sys.modules’) and the module search path (‘sys.path’) are also
     separate.  The new environment has no ‘sys.argv’ variable.  It has
     new standard I/O stream file objects ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and
     ‘sys.stderr’ (however these refer to the same underlying file
     descriptors).

     The given 'config' controls the options with which the interpreter
     is initialized.

     Upon success, 'tstate_p' will be set to the first thread state
     created in the new sub-interpreter.  This thread state is made in
     the current thread state.  Note that no actual thread is created;
     see the discussion of thread states below.  If creation of the new
     interpreter is unsuccessful, 'tstate_p' is set to ‘NULL’; no
     exception is set since the exception state is stored in the current
     thread state and there may not be a current thread state.

     Like all other Python/C API functions, the global interpreter lock
     must be held before calling this function and is still held when it
     returns.  Likewise a current thread state must be set on entry.  On
     success, the returned thread state will be set as current.  If the
     sub-interpreter is created with its own GIL then the GIL of the
     calling interpreter will be released.  When the function returns,
     the new interpreter’s GIL will be held by the current thread and
     the previously interpreter’s GIL will remain released here.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Sub-interpreters are most effective when isolated from each other,
     with certain functionality restricted:

          PyInterpreterConfig config = {
              .use_main_obmalloc = 0,
              .allow_fork = 0,
              .allow_exec = 0,
              .allow_threads = 1,
              .allow_daemon_threads = 0,
              .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
              .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
          };
          PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
          PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
          if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
              Py_ExitStatusException(status);
          }

     Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get
     modified.  During initialization the config’s values are converted
     into various *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. values.  A read-only
     copy of the config may be stored internally on the *note
     PyInterpreterState: 70f.

     Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows:

        * For modules using multi-phase initialization, e.g.  *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): d47, a separate module object is
          created and initialized for each interpreter.  Only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these module
          objects.

        * For modules using single-phase initialization, e.g.  *note
          PyModule_Create(): 47da, the first time a particular extension
          is imported, it is initialized normally, and a (shallow) copy
          of its module’s dictionary is squirreled away.  When the same
          extension is imported by another (sub-)interpreter, a new
          module is initialized and filled with the contents of this
          copy; the extension’s ‘init’ function is not called.  Objects
          in the module’s dictionary thus end up shared across
          (sub-)interpreters, which might cause unwanted behavior (see
          *note Bugs and caveats: 4c86. below).

          Note that this is different from what happens when an
          extension is imported after the interpreter has been
          completely re-initialized by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx():
          b9a. and *note Py_Initialize(): 6fc.; in that case, the
          extension’s ‘initmodule’ function 'is' called again.  As with
          multi-phase initialization, this means that only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these modules.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *Py_NewInterpreter (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is essentially just a wrapper
     around *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 172. with a config that
     preserves the existing behavior.  The result is an unisolated
     sub-interpreter that shares the main interpreter’s GIL, allows
     fork/exec, allows daemon threads, and allows single-phase init
     modules.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_EndInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

     Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread
     state.  The given thread state must be the current thread state.
     See the discussion of thread states below.  When the call returns,
     the current thread state is ‘NULL’.  All thread states associated
     with this interpreter are destroyed.  The global interpreter lock
     used by the target interpreter must be held before calling this
     function.  No GIL is held when it returns.

     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. will destroy all sub-interpreters that
     haven’t been explicitly destroyed at that point.

* Menu:

* A Per-Interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: Bugs and caveats,  Up: Sub-interpreter support

7.9.6.1 A Per-Interpreter GIL
.............................

Using *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 172. you can create a
sub-interpreter that is completely isolated from other interpreters,
including having its own GIL. The most important benefit of this
isolation is that such an interpreter can execute Python code without
being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others.  Thus a
single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores
when running Python code.  The isolation also encourages a different
approach to concurrency than that of just using threads.  (See PEP
554(1).)

Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that
isolation.  That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable
state without guarantees about thread-safety.  Even objects that are
otherwise immutable (e.g.  ‘None’, ‘(1, 5)’) can’t normally be shared
because of the refcount.  One simple but less-efficient approach around
this is to use a global lock around all use of some state (or object).
Alternately, effectively immutable objects (like integers or strings)
can be made safe in spite of their refcounts by making them “immortal”.
In fact, this has been done for the builtin singletons, small integers,
and a number of other builtin objects.

If you preserve isolation then you will have access to proper multi-core
computing without the complications that come with free-threading.
Failure to preserve isolation will expose you to the full consequences
of free-threading, including races and hard-to-debug crashes.

Aside from that, one of the main challenges of using multiple isolated
interpreters is how to communicate between them safely (not break
isolation) and efficiently.  The runtime and stdlib do not provide any
standard approach to this yet.  A future stdlib module would help
mitigate the effort of preserving isolation and expose effective tools
for communicating (and sharing) data between interpreters.

Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/


File: python.info,  Node: Bugs and caveats,  Prev: A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: Sub-interpreter support

7.9.6.2 Bugs and caveats
........................

Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same
process, the insulation between them isn’t perfect — for example, using
low-level file operations like *note os.close(): 9ea. they can
(accidentally or maliciously) affect each other’s open files.  Because
of the way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some
extensions may not work properly; this is especially likely when using
single-phase initialization or (static) global variables.  It is
possible to insert objects created in one sub-interpreter into a
namespace of another (sub-)interpreter; this should be avoided if
possible.

Special care should be taken to avoid sharing user-defined functions,
methods, instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import
operations executed by such objects may affect the wrong
(sub-)interpreter’s dictionary of loaded modules.  It is equally
important to avoid sharing objects from which the above are reachable.

Also note that combining this functionality with ‘PyGILState_*’ APIs is
delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread
states and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of
sub-interpreters.  It is highly recommended that you don’t switch
sub-interpreters between a pair of matching *note PyGILState_Ensure():
8f6. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 1489. calls.  Furthermore,
extensions (such as *note ctypes: 2a.) using these APIs to allow calling
of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken
when using sub-interpreters.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Notifications,  Next: Profiling and Tracing,  Prev: Sub-interpreter support,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.7 Asynchronous Notifications
--------------------------------

A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
interpreter thread.  These notifications take the form of a function
pointer and a void pointer argument.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_AddPendingCall (int (*func)(void*), void *arg)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Schedule a function to be
     called from the main interpreter thread.  On success, ‘0’ is
     returned and 'func' is queued for being called in the main thread.
     On failure, ‘-1’ is returned without setting any exception.

     When successfully queued, 'func' will be 'eventually' called from
     the main interpreter thread with the argument 'arg'.  It will be
     called asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code,
     but with both these conditions met:

        * on a *note bytecode: 3b7. boundary;

        * with the main thread holding the *note global interpreter
          lock: 147. ('func' can therefore use the full C API).

     'func' must return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ on failure with an
     exception set.  'func' won’t be interrupted to perform another
     asynchronous notification recursively, but it can still be
     interrupted to switch threads if the global interpreter lock is
     released.

     This function doesn’t need a current thread state to run, and it
     doesn’t need the global interpreter lock.

     To call this function in a subinterpreter, the caller must hold the
     GIL. Otherwise, the function 'func' can be scheduled to be called
     from the wrong interpreter.

          Uyarı: This is a low-level function, only useful for very
          special cases.  There is no guarantee that 'func' will be
          called as quick as possible.  If the main thread is busy
          executing a system call, 'func' won’t be called before the
          system call returns.  This function is generally 'not'
          suitable for calling Python code from arbitrary C threads.
          Instead, use the *note PyGILState API: 4c74.

     Added in version 3.1.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: If this function is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function 'func' is now scheduled to be called
     from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main
     interpreter.  Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled
     calls.


File: python.info,  Node: Profiling and Tracing,  Next: Advanced Debugger Support,  Prev: Asynchronous Notifications,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.8 Profiling and Tracing
---------------------------

The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching
profiling and execution tracing facilities.  These are used for
profiling, debugging, and coverage analysis tools.

This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the
overhead of calling through Python-level callable objects, making a
direct C function call instead.  The essential attributes of the
facility have not changed; the interface allows trace functions to be
installed per-thread, and the basic events reported to the trace
function are the same as had been reported to the Python-level trace
functions in previous versions.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*Py_tracefunc)(*note PyObject: 6eb. *obj, *note
          PyFrameObject: 5ba. *frame, int what, *note PyObject: 6eb.
          *arg)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 138a. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 138b.  The
     first parameter is the object passed to the registration function
     as 'obj', 'frame' is the frame object to which the event pertains,
     'what' is one of the constants *note PyTrace_CALL: 4c8c, *note
     PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4c8d, *note PyTrace_LINE: 4c8e, *note
     PyTrace_RETURN: 4c8f, *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4c90, *note
     PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4c91, *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4c92, or *note
     PyTrace_OPCODE: 4c93, and 'arg' depends on the value of 'what':

     Value of 'what'                     Meaning of 'arg'
                                         
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         
     *note PyTrace_CALL: 4c8c.           Always *note Py_None: 47d6.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4c8d.      Exception information as returned by
                                         *note sys.exc_info(): 49f.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_LINE: 4c8e.           Always *note Py_None: 47d6.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_RETURN: 4c8f.         Value being returned to the caller, or
                                         ‘NULL’ if caused by an exception.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4c90.         Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4c91.    Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4c92.       Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4c93.         Always *note Py_None: 47d6.
                                         

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_CALL

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4c8b.
     function when a new call to a function or method is being reported,
     or a new entry into a generator.  Note that the creation of the
     iterator for a generator function is not reported as there is no
     control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding frame.

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_EXCEPTION

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4c8b.
     function when an exception has been raised.  The callback function
     is called with this value for 'what' when after any bytecode is
     processed after which the exception becomes set within the frame
     being executed.  The effect of this is that as exception
     propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is
     called upon return to each frame as the exception propagates.  Only
     trace functions receives these events; they are not needed by the
     profiler.

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_LINE

     The value passed as the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc:
     4c8b. function (but not a profiling function) when a line-number
     event is being reported.  It may be disabled for a frame by setting
     *note f_trace_lines: a52. to '0' on that frame.

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4c8b.
     functions when a call is about to return.

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_C_CALL

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4c8b.
     functions when a C function is about to be called.

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4c8b.
     functions when a C function has raised an exception.

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_C_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4c8b.
     functions when a C function has returned.

 -- C Değişkeni: int PyTrace_OPCODE

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4c8b.
     functions (but not profiling functions) when a new opcode is about
     to be executed.  This event is not emitted by default: it must be
     explicitly requested by setting *note f_trace_opcodes: a53. to '1'
     on the frame.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_SetProfile (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the profiler function to 'func'.  The 'obj' parameter is passed
     to the function as its first parameter, and may be any Python
     object, or ‘NULL’.  If the profile function needs to maintain
     state, using a different value for 'obj' for each thread provides a
     convenient and thread-safe place to store it.  The profile function
     is called for all monitored events except *note PyTrace_LINE: 4c8e.
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4c93. and *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4c8d.

     See also the *note sys.setprofile(): 138c. function.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 6fa.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 138a. but sets the profile function
     in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead
     of the setting it only on the current thread.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 6fa.

     As *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 138a, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the profile functions in all
     threads.

Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_SetTrace (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the tracing function to 'func'.  This is similar to *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 138a, except the tracing function does receive
     line-number events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any
     event related to C function objects being called.  Any trace
     function registered using *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 138b. will not
     receive *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4c90, *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION:
     4c91. or *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4c92. as a value for the 'what'
     parameter.

     See also the *note sys.settrace(): 138d. function.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 6fa.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 138b. but sets the tracing function
     in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead
     of the setting it only on the current thread.

     The caller must hold the *note GIL: 6fa.

     As *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 138b, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the trace functions in all threads.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced Debugger Support,  Next: Thread Local Storage Support,  Prev: Profiling and Tracing,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.9 Advanced Debugger Support
-------------------------------

These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging
tools.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. *PyInterpreterState_Head ()

     Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all
     such objects.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. *PyInterpreterState_Main ()

     Return the main interpreter state object.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyInterpreterState: 70f. *PyInterpreterState_Next
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the next interpreter state object after 'interp' from the
     list of all such objects.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the pointer to the first *note PyThreadState: 5bf. object in
     the list of threads associated with the interpreter 'interp'.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyThreadState: 5bf. *PyThreadState_Next
          (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Return the next thread state object after 'tstate' from the list of
     all such objects belonging to the same *note PyInterpreterState:
     70f. object.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Local Storage Support,  Prev: Advanced Debugger Support,  Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads

7.9.10 Thread Local Storage Support
-----------------------------------

The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local
storage (TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to
support the Python-level thread local storage API (*note
threading.local: 1589.).  The CPython C level APIs are similar to those
offered by pthreads and Windows: use a thread key and functions to
associate a void* value per thread.

The GIL does 'not' need to be held when calling these functions; they
supply their own locking.

Note that ‘Python.h’ does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs,
you need to include ‘pythread.h’ to use thread-local storage.

     Not: None of these API functions handle memory management on behalf
     of the void* values.  You need to allocate and deallocate them
     yourself.  If the void* values happen to be *note PyObject: 6eb.*,
     these functions don’t do refcount operations on them either.

* Menu:

* Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
* Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: Thread Local Storage TLS API.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Specific Storage TSS API,  Next: Thread Local Storage TLS API,  Up: Thread Local Storage Support

7.9.10.1 Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API
..........................................

TSS API is introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter.  This API uses a new type *note
Py_tss_t: 94c. instead of int to represent thread keys.

Added in version 3.7.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

“A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython” ( PEP 539(1))

 -- C Türü: type Py_tss_t

     This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the
     definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS
     implementation, and it has an internal field representing the key’s
     initialization state.  There are no public members in this
     structure.

     When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 2e2. is not defined, static allocation
     of this type by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4c99. is allowed.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT

     This macro expands to the initializer for *note Py_tss_t: 94c.
     variables.  Note that this macro won’t be defined with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 2e2.

* Menu:

* Dynamic Allocation::
* Methods: Methods<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic Allocation,  Next: Methods<2>,  Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API

7.9.10.2 Dynamic Allocation
...........................

Dynamic allocation of the *note Py_tss_t: 94c, required in extension
modules built with *note Py_LIMITED_API: 2e2, where static allocation of
this type is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at
build time.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_tss_t: 94c. *PyThread_tss_alloc ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     a value which is the same state as a value initialized with *note
     Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4c99, or ‘NULL’ in the case of dynamic
     allocation failure.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThread_tss_free (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Free
     the given 'key' allocated by *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 37f, after
     first calling *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 387. to ensure any
     associated thread locals have been unassigned.  This is a no-op if
     the 'key' argument is ‘NULL’.

          Not: A freed key becomes a dangling pointer.  You should reset
          the key to ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods<2>,  Prev: Dynamic Allocation,  Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API

7.9.10.3 Methods
................

The parameter 'key' of these functions must not be ‘NULL’.  Moreover,
the behaviors of *note PyThread_tss_set(): 383. and *note
PyThread_tss_get(): 385. are undefined if the given *note Py_tss_t: 94c.
has not been initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 498e.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyThread_tss_is_created (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     a non-zero value if the given *note Py_tss_t: 94c. has been
     initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 498e.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyThread_tss_create (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     a zero value on successful initialization of a TSS key.  The
     behavior is undefined if the value pointed to by the 'key' argument
     is not initialized by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4c99.  This function
     can be called repeatedly on the same key – calling it on an already
     initialized key is a no-op and immediately returns success.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThread_tss_delete (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
     Destroy a TSS key to forget the values associated with the key
     across all threads, and change the key’s initialization state to
     uninitialized.  A destroyed key is able to be initialized again by
     *note PyThread_tss_create(): 498e.  This function can be called
     repeatedly on the same key – calling it on an already destroyed key
     is a no-op.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyThread_tss_set (Py_tss_t *key, void *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     a zero value to indicate successfully associating a void* value
     with a TSS key in the current thread.  Each thread has a distinct
     mapping of the key to a void* value.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyThread_tss_get (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'  Return
     the void* value associated with a TSS key in the current thread.
     This returns ‘NULL’ if no value is associated with the key in the
     current thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Local Storage TLS API,  Prev: Thread Specific Storage TSS API,  Up: Thread Local Storage Support

7.9.10.4 Thread Local Storage (TLS) API
.......................................

3.7 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This API is superseded by *note
Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: 94b.

     Not: This version of the API does not support platforms where the
     native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to
     ‘int’.  On such platforms, *note PyThread_create_key(): 37e. will
     return immediately with a failure status, and the other TLS
     functions will all be no-ops on such platforms.

Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API
should not be used in new code.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyThread_create_key ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThread_delete_key (int key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: int PyThread_set_key_value (int key, void *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyThread_get_key_value (int key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThread_delete_key_value (int key)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Işlevi: void PyThread_ReInitTLS ()
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'


File: python.info,  Node: Python Initialization Configuration,  Next: Memory Management,  Prev: Initialization Finalization and Threads,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.10 Python Initialization Configuration
========================================

Added in version 3.8.

Python can be initialized with *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. and
the *note PyConfig: 34f. structure.  It can be preinitialized with *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 34d. and the *note PyPreConfig: 80a. structure.

There are two kinds of configuration:

   * The *note Python Configuration: 4c9f. can be used to build a
     customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.  For
     example, environment variables and command line arguments are used
     to configure Python.

   * The *note Isolated Configuration: 4ca0. can be used to embed Python
     into an application.  It isolates Python from the system.  For
     example, environment variables are ignored, the LC_CTYPE locale is
     left unchanged and no signal handler is registered.

The *note Py_RunMain(): 823. function can be used to write a customized
Python program.

See also *note Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: 4c67.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

PEP 587(1) “Python Initialization Configuration”.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<16>.
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::
* Py_RunMain(): Py_RunMain.
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/


File: python.info,  Node: Example<16>,  Next: PyWideStringList,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.1 Example
--------------

Example of customized Python always running in isolated mode:

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config.isolated = 1;

         /* Decode command line arguments.
            Implicitly preinitialize Python (in isolated mode). */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, argv);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         return Py_RunMain();

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_IsExit(status)) {
             return status.exitcode;
         }
         /* Display the error message and exit the process with
            non-zero exit code */
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyWideStringList,  Next: PyStatus,  Prev: Example<16>,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.2 PyWideStringList
-----------------------

 -- C Türü: type PyWideStringList

     List of ‘wchar_t*’ strings.

     If 'length' is non-zero, 'items' must be non-‘NULL’ and all strings
     must be non-‘NULL’.

     Methods:

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyWideStringList_Append
               (PyWideStringList *list, const wchar_t *item)

          Append 'item' to 'list'.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyWideStringList_Insert
               (PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t index, const wchar_t
               *item)

          Insert 'item' into 'list' at 'index'.

          If 'index' is greater than or equal to 'list' length, append
          'item' to 'list'.

          'index' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. length

          List length.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t **items

          List items.


File: python.info,  Node: PyStatus,  Next: PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyWideStringList,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.3 PyStatus
---------------

 -- C Türü: type PyStatus

     Structure to store an initialization function status: success,
     error or exit.

     For an error, it can store the C function name which created the
     error.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Üyesi: int exitcode

          Exit code.  Argument passed to ‘exit()’.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *err_msg

          Error message.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *func

          Name of the function which created an error, can be ‘NULL’.

     Functions to create a status:

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyStatus_Ok (void)

          Success.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyStatus_Error (const char
               *err_msg)

          Initialization error with a message.

          'err_msg' must not be ‘NULL’.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyStatus_NoMemory (void)

          Memory allocation failure (out of memory).

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyStatus_Exit (int exitcode)

          Exit Python with the specified exit code.

     Functions to handle a status:

      -- C Işlevi: int PyStatus_Exception (PyStatus status)

          Is the status an error or an exit?  If true, the exception
          must be handled; by calling *note Py_ExitStatusException():
          820. for example.

      -- C Işlevi: int PyStatus_IsError (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an error?

      -- C Işlevi: int PyStatus_IsExit (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an exit?

      -- C Işlevi: void Py_ExitStatusException (PyStatus status)

          Call ‘exit(exitcode)’ if 'status' is an exit.  Print the error
          message and exit with a non-zero exit code if 'status' is an
          error.  Must only be called if ‘PyStatus_Exception(status)’ is
          non-zero.

     Not: Internally, Python uses macros which set ‘PyStatus.func’,
     whereas functions to create a status set ‘func’ to ‘NULL’.

Example:

     PyStatus alloc(void **ptr, size_t size)
     {
         *ptr = PyMem_RawMalloc(size);
         if (*ptr == NULL) {
             return PyStatus_NoMemory();
         }
         return PyStatus_Ok();
     }

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         void *ptr;
         PyStatus status = alloc(&ptr, 16);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
         PyMem_Free(ptr);
         return 0;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyPreConfig,  Next: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyStatus,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.4 PyPreConfig
------------------

 -- C Türü: type PyPreConfig

     Structure used to preinitialize Python.

     Function to initialize a preconfiguration:

      -- C Işlevi: void PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Python
          Configuration: 4c9f.

      -- C Işlevi: void PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Isolated
          Configuration: 4ca0.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Üyesi: int allocator

          Name of the Python memory allocators:

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’ (‘0’): don’t change memory
               allocators (use defaults).

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEFAULT’ (‘1’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1b97.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEBUG’ (‘2’): *note default memory
               allocators: 1b97. with *note debug hooks: 1b99.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC’ (‘3’): use ‘malloc()’ of the C
               library.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘4’): force usage of
               ‘malloc()’ with *note debug hooks: 1b99.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ (‘5’): *note Python pymalloc
               memory allocator: b94.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘6’): *note Python
               pymalloc memory allocator: b94. with *note debug hooks:
               1b99.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-pymalloc: 1bc9.

          See *note Memory Management: 4cab.

          Default: ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

      -- C Üyesi: int configure_locale

          Set the LC_CTYPE locale to the user preferred locale.

          If equals to ‘0’, set *note coerce_c_locale: 4cad. and *note
          coerce_c_locale_warn: 4cae. members to ‘0’.

          See the *note locale encoding: 1479.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Üyesi: int coerce_c_locale

          If equals to ‘2’, coerce the C locale.

          If equals to ‘1’, read the LC_CTYPE locale to decide if it
          should be coerced.

          See the *note locale encoding: 1479.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Üyesi: int coerce_c_locale_warn

          If non-zero, emit a warning if the C locale is coerced.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Üyesi: int dev_mode

          *note Python Development Mode: 71d.: see *note
          PyConfig.dev_mode: 4cb0.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: int isolated

          Isolated mode: see *note PyConfig.isolated: 345.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: int legacy_windows_fs_encoding

          If non-zero:

             * Set *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 34c. to ‘0’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 34a. to ‘"mbcs"’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 34b. to
               ‘"replace"’.

          Initialized from the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: ad6.
          environment variable value.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int parse_argv

          If non-zero, *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 821. and *note
          Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 822. parse their ‘argv’
          argument the same way the regular Python parses command line
          arguments: see *note Command Line Arguments: eae.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Üyesi: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 3fe.?  See *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 33a.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Üyesi: int utf8_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

          Set to ‘0’ or ‘1’ by the *note -X utf8: 18e. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: 945. environment variable.

          Also set to ‘1’ if the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.


File: python.info,  Node: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Next: PyConfig,  Prev: PyPreConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.5 Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig
--------------------------------------------

The preinitialization of Python:

   * Set the Python memory allocators (*note PyPreConfig.allocator:
     4caa.)

   * Configure the LC_CTYPE locale (*note locale encoding: 1479.)

   * Set the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469. (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode:
     34c.)

The current preconfiguration (‘PyPreConfig’ type) is stored in
‘_PyRuntime.preconfig’.

Functions to preinitialize Python:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. Py_PreInitialize (const PyPreConfig
          *preconfig)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, char *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (bytes strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4cb2. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (wide strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 4cb2. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): 817. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
820.

For *note Python Configuration: 4c9f. (*note
PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 815.), if Python is initialized with
command line arguments, the command line arguments must also be passed
to preinitialize Python, since they have an effect on the
pre-configuration like encodings.  For example, the *note -X utf8: 18e.
command line option enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 469.

‘PyMem_SetAllocator()’ can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize():
34d. and before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. to install a
custom memory allocator.  It can be called before *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 34d. if *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4caa. is set to
‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

Python memory allocation functions like *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda.
must not be used before the Python preinitialization, whereas calling
directly ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ is always safe.  *note
Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. must not be called before the Python
preinitialization.

Example using the preinitialization to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: 469.:

     PyStatus status;
     PyPreConfig preconfig;
     PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(&preconfig);

     preconfig.utf8_mode = 1;

     status = Py_PreInitialize(&preconfig);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     /* at this point, Python speaks UTF-8 */

     Py_Initialize();
     /* ... use Python API here ... */
     Py_Finalize();


File: python.info,  Node: PyConfig,  Next: Initialization with PyConfig,  Prev: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.6 PyConfig
---------------

 -- C Türü: type PyConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure Python.

     When done, the *note PyConfig_Clear(): 80d. function must be used
     to release the configuration memory.

     Structure methods:

      -- C Işlevi: void PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Python Configuration:
          4c9f.

      -- C Işlevi: void PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Isolated
          Configuration: 4ca0.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyConfig_SetString (PyConfig
               *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const wchar_t *str)

          Copy the wide character string 'str' into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a85. if needed.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyConfig_SetBytesString
               (PyConfig *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const char
               *str)

          Decode 'str' using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e. and set the
          result into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a85. if needed.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyConfig_SetArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 35a. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of wide character strings.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a85. if needed.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, char *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 35a. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of bytes strings.  Decode bytes
          using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): a3e.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a85. if needed.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyConfig_SetWideStringList
               (PyConfig *config, PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t
               length, wchar_t **items)

          Set the list of wide strings 'list' to 'length' and 'items'.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a85. if needed.

      -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. PyConfig_Read (PyConfig *config)

          Read all Python configuration.

          Fields which are already initialized are left unchanged.

          Fields for *note path configuration: 6fd. are no longer
          calculated or modified when calling this function, as of
          Python 3.11.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 35a. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1753. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 35a, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 3a85. if needed.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: The *note PyConfig.argv: 35a.
          arguments are now only parsed once, *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1753. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed, and arguments
          are only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1753. equals
          ‘1’.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. no longer
          calculates all paths, and so fields listed under *note Python
          Path Configuration: 6fd. may no longer be updated until *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. is called.

      -- C Işlevi: void PyConfig_Clear (PyConfig *config)

          Release configuration memory.

     Most ‘PyConfig’ methods *note preinitialize Python: 3a85. if
     needed.  In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration
     (*note PyPreConfig: 80a.) in based on the *note PyConfig: 34f.  If
     configuration fields which are in common with *note PyPreConfig:
     80a. are tuned, they must be set before calling a *note PyConfig:
     34f. method:

        * *note PyConfig.dev_mode: 4cb0.

        * *note PyConfig.isolated: 345.

        * *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1753.

        * *note PyConfig.use_environment: 33a.

     Moreover, if *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 810. or *note
     PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 811. is used, this method must be called
     before other methods, since the preinitialization configuration
     depends on command line arguments (if *note parse_argv: 1753. is
     non-zero).

     The caller of these methods is responsible to handle exceptions
     (error or exit) using ‘PyStatus_Exception()’ and
     ‘Py_ExitStatusException()’.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyWideStringList: 80c. argv

          Command line arguments: *note sys.argv: 110d.

          Set *note parse_argv: 1753. to ‘1’ to parse *note argv: 35a.
          the same way the regular Python parses Python command line
          arguments and then to strip Python arguments from *note argv:
          35a.

          If *note argv: 35a. is empty, an empty string is added to
          ensure that *note sys.argv: 110d. always exists and is never
          empty.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          See also the *note orig_argv: 6dc. member.

      -- C Üyesi: int safe_path

          If equals to zero, ‘Py_RunMain()’ prepends a potentially
          unsafe path to *note sys.path: 368. at startup:

             * If *note argv[0]: 35a. is equal to ‘L"-m"’ (‘python -m
               module’), prepend the current working directory.

             * If running a script (‘python script.py’), prepend the
               script’s directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve
               symbolic links.

             * Otherwise (‘python -c code’ and ‘python’), prepend an
               empty string, which means the current working directory.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -P: 3a9. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 3aa. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python config, ‘1’ in isolated config.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *base_exec_prefix

          *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 40dc.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. output.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *base_executable

          Python base executable: ‘sys._base_executable’.

          Set by the ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable.

          Set from *note PyConfig.executable: 4cb8. if ‘NULL’.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. output.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *base_prefix

          *note sys.base_prefix: 3a24.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. output.

      -- C Üyesi: int buffered_stdio

          If equals to ‘0’ and *note configure_c_stdio: 4cba. is
          non-zero, disable buffering on the C streams stdout and
          stderr.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -u: 17d6. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 17d7. environment variable.

          stdin is always opened in buffered mode.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Üyesi: int bytes_warning

          If equals to ‘1’, issue a warning when comparing *note bytes:
          2cb. or *note bytearray: 2ca. with *note str: 15d, or
          comparing *note bytes: 2cb. with *note int: 184.

          If equal or greater to ‘2’, raise a *note BytesWarning: a9e.
          exception in these cases.

          Incremented by the *note -b: 3ef. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int warn_default_encoding

          If non-zero, emit a *note EncodingWarning: 1b87. warning when
          *note io.TextIOWrapper: 5f2. uses its default encoding.  See
          *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1b9b. for details.

          Default: ‘0’.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Üyesi: int code_debug_ranges

          If equals to ‘0’, disables the inclusion of the end line and
          column mappings in code objects.  Also disables traceback
          printing carets to specific error locations.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 3bc. environment
          variable and by the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 18e. command
          line option.

          Default: ‘1’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *check_hash_pycs_mode

          Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files:
          value of the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 1b7a. command line
          option.

          Valid values:

             - ‘L"always"’: Hash the source file for invalidation
               regardless of value of the ‘check_source’ flag.

             - ‘L"never"’: Assume that hash-based pycs always are valid.

             - ‘L"default"’: The ‘check_source’ flag in hash-based pycs
               determines invalidation.

          Default: ‘L"default"’.

          See also PEP 552(1) “Deterministic pycs”.

      -- C Üyesi: int configure_c_stdio

          If non-zero, configure C standard streams:

             * On Windows, set the binary mode (‘O_BINARY’) on stdin,
               stdout and stderr.

             * If *note buffered_stdio: 340. equals zero, disable
               buffering of stdin, stdout and stderr streams.

             * If *note interactive: 32e. is non-zero, enable stream
               buffering on stdin and stdout (only stdout on Windows).

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Üyesi: int dev_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python Development Mode: 71d.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -X dev: 18e. option and the *note
          PYTHONDEVMODE: 95b. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: int dump_refs

          Dump Python references?

          If non-zero, dump all objects which are still alive at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 804. environment
          variable.

          Need a special build of Python with the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro
          defined: see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 6ec.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *exec_prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the
          platform-dependent Python files are installed: *note
          sys.exec_prefix: 366.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. output.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *executable

          The absolute path of the executable binary for the Python
          interpreter: *note sys.executable: 36c.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. output.

      -- C Üyesi: int faulthandler

          Enable faulthandler?

          If non-zero, call *note faulthandler.enable(): b21. at
          startup.

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X faulthandler: 18e. and the *note
          PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: f2a. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *filesystem_encoding

          *note Filesystem encoding: 2c7.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5.

          On macOS, Android and VxWorks: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default.

          On Windows: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default, or ‘"mbcs"’ if *note
          legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347. of *note PyPreConfig: 80a. is
          non-zero.

          Default encoding on other platforms:

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 34c. is
               non-zero.

             * ‘"ascii"’ if Python detects that ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
               announces the ASCII encoding, whereas the ‘mbstowcs()’
               function decodes from a different encoding (usually
               Latin1).

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ returns an empty
               string.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 1479.:
               ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ result.

          At Python startup, the encoding name is normalized to the
          Python codec name.  For example, ‘"ANSI_X3.4-1968"’ is
          replaced with ‘"ascii"’.

          See also the *note filesystem_errors: 34b. member.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *filesystem_errors

          *note Filesystem error handler: 2c7.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b69.

          On Windows: use ‘"surrogatepass"’ by default, or ‘"replace"’
          if *note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347. of *note
          PyPreConfig: 80a. is non-zero.

          On other platforms: use ‘"surrogateescape"’ by default.

          Supported error handlers:

             * ‘"strict"’

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’

             * ‘"surrogatepass"’ (only supported with the UTF-8
               encoding)

          See also the *note filesystem_encoding: 34a. member.

      -- C Üyesi: unsigned long hash_seed

      -- C Üyesi: int use_hash_seed

          Randomized hash function seed.

          If *note use_hash_seed: 342. is zero, a seed is chosen
          randomly at Python startup, and *note hash_seed: 343. is
          ignored.

          Set by the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: f27. environment variable.

          Default 'use_hash_seed' value: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in
          isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *home

          Python home directory.

          If *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 18e1. has been called, use its
          argument if it is not ‘NULL’.

          Set by the *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. input.

      -- C Üyesi: int import_time

          If non-zero, profile import time.

          Set the ‘1’ by the *note -X importtime: 18e. option and the
          *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: 963. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int inspect

          Enter interactive mode after executing a script or a command.

          If greater than ‘0’, enable inspect: when a script is passed
          as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive
          mode after executing the script or the command, even when
          *note sys.stdin: 2c9. does not appear to be a terminal.

          Incremented by the *note -i: 1368. command line option.  Set
          to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 1367. environment variable
          is non-empty.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int install_signal_handlers

          Install Python signal handlers?

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: int interactive

          If greater than ‘0’, enable the interactive mode (REPL).

          Incremented by the *note -i: 1368. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int int_max_str_digits

          Configures the *note integer string conversion length
          limitation: 402.  An initial value of ‘-1’ means the value
          will be taken from the command line or environment or
          otherwise default to 4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 206f.).  A value of ‘0’
          disables the limitation.  Values greater than zero but less
          than 640 (*note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold:
          413f.) are unsupported and will produce an error.

          Configured by the *note -X int_max_str_digits: 18e. command
          line flag or the *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 15de.
          environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode.  4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 206f.) in isolated mode.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- C Üyesi: int isolated

          If greater than ‘0’, enable isolated mode:

             * Set *note safe_path: 5a3. to ‘1’: don’t prepend a
               potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 368. at Python
               startup, such as the current directory, the script’s
               directory or an empty string.

             * Set *note use_environment: 33a. to ‘0’: ignore ‘PYTHON’
               environment variables.

             * Set *note user_site_directory: 33e. to ‘0’: don’t add the
               user site directory to *note sys.path: 368.

             * Python REPL doesn’t import *note readline: b9. nor enable
               default readline configuration on interactive prompts.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -I: 7b8. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

          See also the *note Isolated Configuration: 4ca0. and *note
          PyPreConfig.isolated: 4cb1.

      -- C Üyesi: int legacy_windows_stdio

          If non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 11ba. instead of
          ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys.stdin: 2c9, *note
          sys.stdout: 943. and *note sys.stderr: 792.

          Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: ad9.
          environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          Default: ‘0’.

          See also the PEP 528(2) (Change Windows console encoding to
          UTF-8).

      -- C Üyesi: int malloc_stats

          If non-zero, dump statistics on *note Python pymalloc memory
          allocator: b94. at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 199a. environment
          variable.

          The option is ignored if Python is *note configured using the
          -without-pymalloc option: 1bc9.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *platlibdir

          Platform library directory name: *note sys.platlibdir: 791.

          Set by the *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 176b. environment variable.

          Default: value of the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ macro which is set by the
          *note configure -with-platlibdir option: 1bbf. (default:
          ‘"lib"’, or ‘"DLLs"’ on Windows).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. input.

          Added in version 3.9.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: This macro is now used on Windows to
          locate the standard library extension modules, typically under
          ‘DLLs’.  However, for compatibility, note that this value is
          ignored for any non-standard layouts, including in-tree builds
          and virtual environments.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *pythonpath_env

          Module search paths (*note sys.path: 368.) as a string
          separated by ‘DELIM’ (*note os.pathsep: 1b8b.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONPATH: ec5. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. input.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyWideStringList: 80c. module_search_paths

      -- C Üyesi: int module_search_paths_set

          Module search paths: *note sys.path: 368.

          If *note module_search_paths_set: 3fb. is equal to ‘0’, *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. will replace *note
          module_search_paths: 3fc. and sets *note
          module_search_paths_set: 3fb. to ‘1’.

          Default: empty list (‘module_search_paths’) and ‘0’
          (‘module_search_paths_set’).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. output.

      -- C Üyesi: int optimization_level

          Compilation optimization level:

             * ‘0’: Peephole optimizer, set ‘__debug__’ to ‘True’.

             * ‘1’: Level 0, remove assertions, set ‘__debug__’ to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘2’: Level 1, strip docstrings.

          Incremented by the *note -O: c42. command line option.  Set to
          the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1b7d. environment variable value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyWideStringList: 80c. orig_argv

          The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
          Python executable: *note sys.orig_argv: 67f.

          If *note orig_argv: 6dc. list is empty and *note argv: 35a. is
          not a list only containing an empty string, *note
          PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. copies *note argv: 35a. into *note
          orig_argv: 6dc. before modifying *note argv: 35a. (if *note
          parse_argv: 1753. is non-zero).

          See also the *note argv: 35a. member and the *note
          Py_GetArgcArgv(): 1785. function.

          Default: empty list.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Üyesi: int parse_argv

          Parse command line arguments?

          If equals to ‘1’, parse *note argv: 35a. the same way the
          regular Python parses *note command line arguments: eae, and
          strip Python arguments from *note argv: 35a.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 35a. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1753. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 35a, parsing
          arguments twice would parse the application options as Python
          options.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          3.10 sürümünde değişti: The *note PyConfig.argv: 35a.
          arguments are now only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1753. equals to ‘1’.

      -- C Üyesi: int parser_debug

          Parser debug mode.  If greater than ‘0’, turn on parser
          debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
          options).

          Incremented by the *note -d: 1b7b. command line option.  Set
          to the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1b7c. environment variable value.

          Need a *note debug build of Python: 6b9. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro
          must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int pathconfig_warnings

          If non-zero, calculation of path configuration is allowed to
          log warnings into ‘stderr’.  If equals to ‘0’, suppress these
          warnings.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. input.

          3.11 sürümünde değişti: Now also applies on Windows.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the platform
          independent Python files are installed: *note sys.prefix: 36a.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. output.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *program_name

          Program name used to initialize *note executable: 4cb8. and in
          early error messages during Python initialization.

             * If ‘Py_SetProgramName()’ has been called, use its
               argument.

             * On macOS, use *note PYTHONEXECUTABLE: 1b8f. environment
               variable if set.

             * If the ‘WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK’ macro is defined, use
               ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable if set.

             * Use ‘argv[0]’ of *note argv: 35a. if available and
               non-empty.

             * Otherwise, use ‘L"python"’ on Windows, or ‘L"python3"’ on
               other platforms.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 6fd. input.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *pycache_prefix

          Directory where cached ‘.pyc’ files are written: *note
          sys.pycache_prefix: 802.

          Set by the *note -X pycache_prefix=PATH: 18e. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 801. environment
          variable.

          If ‘NULL’, *note sys.pycache_prefix: 802. is set to ‘None’.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Üyesi: int quiet

          Quiet mode.  If greater than ‘0’, don’t display the copyright
          and version at Python startup in interactive mode.

          Incremented by the *note -q: 1b7e. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *run_command

          Value of the *note -c: 3eb. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 823.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *run_filename

          Filename passed on the command line: trailing command line
          argument without *note -c: 3eb. or *note -m: 3ec.  It is used
          by the *note Py_RunMain(): 823. function.

          For example, it is set to ‘script.py’ by the ‘python3
          script.py arg’ command line.

          See also the *note PyConfig.skip_source_first_line: 4cc9.
          option.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *run_module

          Value of the *note -m: 3ec. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 823.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Üyesi: int show_ref_count

          Show total reference count at exit (excluding immortal
          objects)?

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X showrefcount: 18e. command line option.

          Need a *note debug build of Python: 6b9. (the ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: int site_import

          Import the *note site: c6. module at startup?

          If equal to zero, disable the import of the module site and
          the site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 368. that
          it entails.

          Also disable these manipulations if the *note site: c6. module
          is explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1b80. if
          you want them to be triggered).

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -S: 104e. command line option.

          *note sys.flags.no_site: 4a1. is set to the inverted value of
          *note site_import: 334.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Üyesi: int skip_source_first_line

          If non-zero, skip the first line of the *note
          PyConfig.run_filename: 4cc8. source.

          It allows the usage of non-Unix forms of ‘#!cmd’.  This is
          intended for a DOS specific hack only.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -x: 1b84. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *stdio_encoding

      -- C Üyesi: wchar_t *stdio_errors

          Encoding and encoding errors of *note sys.stdin: 2c9, *note
          sys.stdout: 943. and *note sys.stderr: 792. (but *note
          sys.stderr: 792. always uses ‘"backslashreplace"’ error
          handler).

          If *note Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding(): ea8. has been called,
          use its 'error' and 'errors' arguments if they are not ‘NULL’.

          Use the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: eb1. environment variable if
          it is non-empty.

          Default encoding:

             * ‘"UTF-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 34c. is
               non-zero.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 1479.

          Default error handler:

             * On Windows: use ‘"surrogateescape"’.

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 34c.
               is non-zero, or if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C” or “POSIX”.

             * ‘"strict"’ otherwise.

      -- C Üyesi: int tracemalloc

          Enable tracemalloc?

          If non-zero, call *note tracemalloc.start(): 1b85. at startup.

          Set by *note -X tracemalloc=N: 18e. command line option and by
          the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1b86. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: int perf_profiling

          Enable compatibility mode with the perf profiler?

          If non-zero, initialize the perf trampoline.  See *note Python
          support for the Linux perf profiler: 157. for more
          information.

          Set by *note -X perf: 18e. command line option and by the
          *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 18d. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- C Üyesi: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 3fe.?

          If equals to zero, ignore the *note environment variables:
          3fe.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -E: 7b7. environment variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Üyesi: int user_site_directory

          If non-zero, add the user site directory to *note sys.path:
          368.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -s: 1232. and *note -I: 7b8. command
          line options.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1233. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Üyesi: int verbose

          Verbose mode.  If greater than ‘0’, print a message each time
          a module is imported, showing the place (filename or built-in
          module) from which it is loaded.

          If greater than or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file
          that is checked for when searching for a module.  Also
          provides information on module cleanup at exit.

          Incremented by the *note -v: 12ad. command line option.

          Set by the *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1b81. environment variable
          value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyWideStringList: 80c. warnoptions

          Options of the *note warnings: 112. module to build warnings
          filters, lowest to highest priority: *note sys.warnoptions:
          364.

          The *note warnings: 112. module adds *note sys.warnoptions:
          364. in the reverse order: the last *note
          PyConfig.warnoptions: 4a42. item becomes the first item of
          ‘warnings.filters’ which is checked first (highest priority).

          The *note -W: 71a. command line options adds its value to
          *note warnoptions: 4a42, it can be used multiple times.

          The *note PYTHONWARNINGS: a21. environment variable can also
          be used to add warning options.  Multiple options can be
          specified, separated by commas (‘,’).

          Default: empty list.

      -- C Üyesi: int write_bytecode

          If equal to ‘0’, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
          import of source modules.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -B: 1254. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1255. environment variable.

          *note sys.dont_write_bytecode: 410a. is initialized to the
          inverted value of *note write_bytecode: 33c.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyWideStringList: 80c. xoptions

          Values of the *note -X: 18e. command line options: *note
          sys._xoptions: 1b88.

          Default: empty list.

If *note parse_argv: 1753. is non-zero, *note argv: 35a. arguments are
parsed the same way the regular Python parses *note command line
arguments: eae, and Python arguments are stripped from *note argv: 35a.

The *note xoptions: 4a43. options are parsed to set other options: see
the *note -X: 18e. command line option.

3.9 sürümünde değişti: The ‘show_alloc_count’ field has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initialization with PyConfig,  Next: Isolated Configuration,  Prev: PyConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.7 Initialization with PyConfig
-----------------------------------

Function to initialize Python:

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. Py_InitializeFromConfig (const
          PyConfig *config)

     Initialize Python from 'config' configuration.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): 817. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
820.

If *note PyImport_FrozenModules(): 2e01, *note PyImport_AppendInittab():
15c2. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 15c3. are used, they must be
set or called after Python preinitialization and before the Python
initialization.  If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
PyImport_AppendInittab(): 15c2. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 15c3.
must be called before each Python initialization.

The current configuration (‘PyConfig’ type) is stored in
‘PyInterpreterState.config’.

Example setting the program name:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name. Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                     L"/path/to/my_program");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return;

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

More complete example modifying the default configuration, read the
configuration, and then override some parameters.  Note that since 3.11,
many parameters are not calculated until initialization, and so values
cannot be read from the configuration structure.  Any values set before
initialize is called will be left unchanged by initialization:

     PyStatus init_python(const char *program_name)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name before reading the configuration
            (decode byte string from the locale encoding).

            Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                          program_name);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Read all configuration at once */
         status = PyConfig_Read(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Specify sys.path explicitly */
         /* If you want to modify the default set of paths, finish
            initialization first and then use PySys_GetObject("path") */
         config.module_search_paths_set = 1;
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/stdlib");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/more/modules");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Override executable computed by PyConfig_Read() */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.executable,
                                     L"/path/to/my_executable");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);

     done:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return status;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Configuration,  Next: Python Configuration,  Prev: Initialization with PyConfig,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.8 Isolated Configuration
-----------------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 814. and *note
PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 80e. functions create a configuration to
isolate Python from the system.  For example, to embed Python into an
application.

This configuration ignores global configuration variables, environment
variables, command line arguments (*note PyConfig.argv: 35a. is not
parsed) and user site directory.  The C standard streams (ex: ‘stdout’)
and the LC_CTYPE locale are left unchanged.  Signal handlers are not
installed.

Configuration files are still used with this configuration to determine
paths that are unspecified.  Ensure *note PyConfig.home: 35c. is
specified to avoid computing the default path configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Configuration,  Next: Python Path Configuration,  Prev: Isolated Configuration,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.9 Python Configuration
---------------------------

*note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 815. and *note
PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 80f. functions create a configuration to
build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.

Environments variables and command line arguments are used to configure
Python, whereas global configuration variables are ignored.

This function enables C locale coercion ( PEP 538(1)) and *note Python
UTF-8 Mode: 469. ( PEP 540(2)) depending on the LC_CTYPE locale, *note
PYTHONUTF8: 945. and *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: 942. environment
variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Path Configuration,  Next: Py_RunMain,  Prev: Python Configuration,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.10 Python Path Configuration
---------------------------------

*note PyConfig: 34f. contains multiple fields for the path
configuration:

   * Path configuration inputs:

        * *note PyConfig.home: 35c.

        * *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1769.

        * *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 338.

        * *note PyConfig.program_name: 35b.

        * *note PyConfig.pythonpath_env: 4cc4.

        * current working directory: to get absolute paths

        * ‘PATH’ environment variable to get the program full path (from
          *note PyConfig.program_name: 35b.)

        * ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable

        * (Windows only) Application paths in the registry under
          “SoftwarePythonPythonCoreX.YPythonPath” of HKEY_CURRENT_USER
          and HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (where X.Y is the Python version).

   * Path configuration output fields:

        * *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4cb6.

        * *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4cb7.

        * *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4cb9.

        * *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4cbf.

        * *note PyConfig.executable: 4cb8.

        * *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 3fb, *note
          PyConfig.module_search_paths: 3fc.

        * *note PyConfig.prefix: 4cc5.

If at least one “output field” is not set, Python calculates the path
configuration to fill unset fields.  If *note module_search_paths_set:
3fb. is equal to ‘0’, *note module_search_paths: 3fc. is overridden and
*note module_search_paths_set: 3fb. is set to ‘1’.

It is possible to completely ignore the function calculating the default
path configuration by setting explicitly all path configuration output
fields listed above.  A string is considered as set even if it is
non-empty.  ‘module_search_paths’ is considered as set if
‘module_search_paths_set’ is set to ‘1’.  In this case,
‘module_search_paths’ will be used without modification.

Set *note pathconfig_warnings: 338. to ‘0’ to suppress warnings when
calculating the path configuration (Unix only, Windows does not log any
warning).

If *note base_prefix: 4cb9. or *note base_exec_prefix: 4cb6. fields are
not set, they inherit their value from *note prefix: 4cc5. and *note
exec_prefix: 4cbf. respectively.

*note Py_RunMain(): 823. and *note Py_Main(): aa0. modify *note
sys.path: 368.:

   * If *note run_filename: 4cc8. is set and is a directory which
     contains a ‘__main__.py’ script, prepend *note run_filename: 4cc8.
     to *note sys.path: 368.

   * If *note isolated: 345. is zero:

        * If *note run_module: 4cca. is set, prepend the current
          directory to *note sys.path: 368.  Do nothing if the current
          directory cannot be read.

        * If *note run_filename: 4cc8. is set, prepend the directory of
          the filename to *note sys.path: 368.

        * Otherwise, prepend an empty string to *note sys.path: 368.

If *note site_import: 334. is non-zero, *note sys.path: 368. can be
modified by the *note site: c6. module.  If *note user_site_directory:
33e. is non-zero and the user’s site-package directory exists, the *note
site: c6. module appends the user’s site-package directory to *note
sys.path: 368.

The following configuration files are used by the path configuration:

   * ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   * ‘._pth’ file (ex: ‘python._pth’)

   * ‘pybuilddir.txt’ (Unix only)

If a ‘._pth’ file is present:

   * Set *note isolated: 345. to ‘1’.

   * Set *note use_environment: 33a. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note site_import: 334. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note safe_path: 5a3. to ‘1’.

The ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable is used to set *note
PyConfig.base_executable: 4cb7.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_RunMain,  Next: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Prev: Python Path Configuration,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.11 Py_RunMain()
--------------------

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_RunMain (void)

     Execute the command (*note PyConfig.run_command: 4cc7.), the script
     (*note PyConfig.run_filename: 4cc8.) or the module (*note
     PyConfig.run_module: 4cca.) specified on the command line or in the
     configuration.

     By default and when if *note -i: 1368. option is used, run the
     REPL.

     Finally, finalizes Python and returns an exit status that can be
     passed to the ‘exit()’ function.

See *note Python Configuration: 4c9f. for an example of customized
Python always running in isolated mode using *note Py_RunMain(): 823.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Next: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: Py_RunMain,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.12 Py_GetArgcArgv()
------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_GetArgcArgv (int *argc, wchar_t ***argv)

     Get the original command line arguments, before Python modified
     them.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 6dc. member.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.10.13 Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API
----------------------------------------------------------

This section is a private provisional API introducing multi-phase
initialization, the core feature of PEP 432(1):

   * “Core” initialization phase, “bare minimum Python”:

        * Builtin types;

        * Builtin exceptions;

        * Builtin and frozen modules;

        * The *note sys: d8. module is only partially initialized (ex:
          *note sys.path: 368. doesn’t exist yet).

   * “Main” initialization phase, Python is fully initialized:

        * Install and configure *note importlib: 75.;

        * Apply the *note Path Configuration: 6fd.;

        * Install signal handlers;

        * Finish *note sys: d8. module initialization (ex: create *note
          sys.stdout: 943. and *note sys.path: 368.);

        * Enable optional features like *note faulthandler: 56. and
          *note tracemalloc: ff.;

        * Import the *note site: c6. module;

        * etc.

Private provisional API:

   * ‘PyConfig._init_main’: if set to ‘0’, *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. stops at the “Core” initialization
     phase.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyStatus: 80b. _Py_InitializeMain (void)

     Move to the “Main” initialization phase, finish the Python
     initialization.

No module is imported during the “Core” phase and the ‘importlib’ module
is not configured: the *note Path Configuration: 6fd. is only applied
during the “Main” phase.  It may allow to customize Python in Python to
override or tune the *note Path Configuration: 6fd, maybe install a
custom *note sys.meta_path: bb3. importer or an import hook, etc.

It may become possible to calculate the *note Path Configuration: 6fd.
in Python, after the Core phase and before the Main phase, which is one
of the PEP 432(2) motivation.

The “Core” phase is not properly defined: what should be and what should
not be available at this phase is not specified yet.  The API is marked
as private and provisional: the API can be modified or even be removed
anytime until a proper public API is designed.

Example running Python code between “Core” and “Main” initialization
phases:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config._init_main = 0;

         /* ... customize 'config' configuration ... */

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }

         /* Use sys.stderr because sys.stdout is only created
            by _Py_InitializeMain() */
         int res = PyRun_SimpleString(
             "import sys; "
             "print('Run Python code before _Py_InitializeMain', "
                    "file=sys.stderr)");
         if (res < 0) {
             exit(1);
         }

         /* ... put more configuration code here ... */

         status = _Py_InitializeMain();
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Management,  Next: Object Implementation Support,  Prev: Python Initialization Configuration,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.11 Memory Management
======================

* Menu:

* Overview: Overview<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* Memory Interface::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* Examples: Examples<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Overview<4>,  Next: Allocator Domains,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.1 Overview
---------------

Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all
Python objects and data structures.  The management of this private heap
is ensured internally by the 'Python memory manager'.  The Python memory
manager has different components which deal with various dynamic storage
management aspects, like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or
caching.

At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough
room in the private heap for storing all Python-related data by
interacting with the memory manager of the operating system.  On top of
the raw memory allocator, several object-specific allocators operate on
the same heap and implement distinct memory management policies adapted
to the peculiarities of every object type.  For example, integer objects
are managed differently within the heap than strings, tuples or
dictionaries because integers imply different storage requirements and
speed/space tradeoffs.  The Python memory manager thus delegates some of
the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter
operate within the bounds of the private heap.

It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is
performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control
over it, even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory
blocks inside that heap.  The allocation of heap space for Python
objects and other internal buffers is performed on demand by the Python
memory manager through the Python/C API functions listed in this
document.

To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to
operate on Python objects with the functions exported by the C library:
‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.  This will result in
mixed calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with
fatal consequences, because they implement different algorithms and
operate on different heaps.  However, one may safely allocate and
release memory blocks with the C library allocator for individual
purposes, as shown in the following example:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     ...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
     return res;

In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the
C library allocator.  The Python memory manager is involved only in the
allocation of the bytes object returned as a result.

In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from
the Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the
Python memory manager.  For example, this is required when the
interpreter is extended with new object types written in C. Another
reason for using the Python heap is the desire to 'inform' the Python
memory manager about the memory needs of the extension module.  Even
when the requested memory is used exclusively for internal, highly
specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python memory
manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
memory footprint as a whole.  Consequently, under certain circumstances,
the Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions,
like garbage collection, memory compaction or other preventive
procedures.  Note that by using the C library allocator as shown in the
previous example, the allocated memory for the I/O buffer escapes
completely the Python memory manager.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable can be used to
configure the memory allocators used by Python.

The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 199a. environment variable can be used to
print statistics of the *note pymalloc memory allocator: b94. every time
a new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.


File: python.info,  Node: Allocator Domains,  Next: Raw Memory Interface,  Prev: Overview<4>,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.2 Allocator Domains
------------------------

All allocating functions belong to one of three different “domains” (see
also *note PyMemAllocatorDomain: 4cdc.).  These domains represent
different allocation strategies and are optimized for different
purposes.  The specific details on how every domain allocates memory or
what internal functions each domain calls is considered an
implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified table can
be found at *note here: 1b97.  There is no hard requirement to use the
memory returned by the allocation functions belonging to a given domain
for only the purposes hinted by that domain (although this is the
recommended practice).  For example, one could use the memory returned
by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda. for allocating Python objects or the
memory returned by *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6. for allocating memory
for buffers.

The three allocation domains are:

   * Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose
     memory buffers where the allocation 'must' go to the system
     allocator or where the allocator can operate without the *note GIL:
     6fa.  The memory is requested directly to the system.

   * “Mem” domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and
     general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be
     performed with the *note GIL: 6fa. held.  The memory is taken from
     the Python private heap.

   * Object domain: intended for allocating memory belonging to Python
     objects.  The memory is taken from the Python private heap.

When freeing memory previously allocated by the allocating functions
belonging to a given domain,the matching specific deallocating functions
must be used.  For example, *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd. must be used to
free memory allocated using *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw Memory Interface,  Next: Memory Interface,  Prev: Allocator Domains,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.3 Raw Memory Interface
---------------------------

The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator.  These
functions are thread-safe, the *note GIL: 147. does not need to be held.

The *note default raw memory allocator: 1b97. uses the following
functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’; call
‘malloc(1)’ (or ‘calloc(1, 1)’) when requesting zero bytes.

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyMem_RawMalloc (size_t n)

     Allocates 'n' bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
     allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyMem_RawCalloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)

     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawCalloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyMem_RawRealloc (void *p, size_t n)

     Resizes the memory block pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The
     contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new
     sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb. or
     *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d41.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMem_RawFree (void *p)

     Frees the memory block pointed to by 'p', which must have been
     returned by a previous call to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda, *note
     PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb. or *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d41.
     Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_RawFree(p)’ has been called before,
     undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Interface,  Next: Object allocators,  Prev: Raw Memory Interface,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.4 Memory Interface
-----------------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

The *note default memory allocator: 1b97. uses the *note pymalloc memory
allocator: b94.

     Uyarı: The *note GIL: 147. must be held when using these functions.

3.6 sürümünde değişti: The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of
system ‘malloc()’.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyMem_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyMem_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)’
     had been called instead.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyMem_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_Malloc(n)’; else
     if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not
     freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4, *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc. or *note
     PyMem_Calloc(): d42.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMem_Free (void *p)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Frees the memory block
     pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4, *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc. or *note
     PyMem_Calloc(): d42.  Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_Free(p)’ has been
     called before, undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.

The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience.  Note
that 'TYPE' refers to any C type.

 -- C Makrosu: PyMem_New (TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4, but allocates ‘(n *
     sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes of memory.  Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’.
     The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Makrosu: PyMem_Resize (p, TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc, but the memory block is resized
     to ‘(n * sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes.  Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’.
     On return, 'p' will be a pointer to the new memory area, or ‘NULL’
     in the event of failure.

     This is a C preprocessor macro; 'p' is always reassigned.  Save the
     original value of 'p' to avoid losing memory when handling errors.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMem_Del (void *p)

     Same as *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd.

In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the
Python memory allocator directly, without involving the C API functions
listed above.  However, note that their use does not preserve binary
compatibility across Python versions and is therefore deprecated in
extension modules.

   * ‘PyMem_MALLOC(size)’

   * ‘PyMem_NEW(type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)’

   * ‘PyMem_FREE(ptr)’

   * ‘PyMem_DEL(ptr)’


File: python.info,  Node: Object allocators,  Next: Default Memory Allocators,  Prev: Memory Interface,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.5 Object allocators
------------------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

     Not: There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these
     allocators can be successfully cast to a Python object when
     intercepting the allocating functions in this domain by the methods
     described in the *note Customize Memory Allocators: 4ce2. section.

The *note default object allocator: 1b97. uses the *note pymalloc memory
allocator: b94.

     Uyarı: The *note GIL: 147. must be held when using these functions.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyObject_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyObject_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyObject_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.7 sürümünden beri.'
     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyObject_Calloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Işlevi: void *PyObject_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyObject_Malloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12ce. or
     *note PyObject_Calloc(): d43.

     If the request fails, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12ce. returns
     ‘NULL’ and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_Free (void *p)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Frees the memory block
     pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12ce. or
     *note PyObject_Calloc(): d43.  Otherwise, or if ‘PyObject_Free(p)’
     has been called before, undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: Default Memory Allocators,  Next: Customize Memory Allocators,  Prev: Object allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.6 Default Memory Allocators
--------------------------------

Default memory allocators:

Configuration                       Name                     PyMem_RawMalloc        PyMem_Malloc              PyObject_Malloc
                                                                                                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
Release build                       ‘"pymalloc"’             ‘malloc’               ‘pymalloc’                ‘pymalloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Debug build                         ‘"pymalloc_debug"’       ‘malloc’ + debug       ‘pymalloc’ + debug        ‘pymalloc’ + debug
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Release build, without pymalloc     ‘"malloc"’               ‘malloc’               ‘malloc’                  ‘malloc’
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
Debug build, without pymalloc       ‘"malloc_debug"’         ‘malloc’ + debug       ‘malloc’ + debug          ‘malloc’ + debug
                                                                                                              

Legend:

   * Name: value for *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable.

   * ‘malloc’: system allocators from the standard C library, C
     functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   * ‘pymalloc’: *note pymalloc memory allocator: b94.

   * “+ debug”: with *note debug hooks on the Python memory allocators:
     1b99.

   * “Debug build”: *note Python build in debug mode: 6b9.


File: python.info,  Node: Customize Memory Allocators,  Next: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Prev: Default Memory Allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.7 Customize Memory Allocators
----------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Türü: type PyMemAllocatorEx

     Structure used to describe a memory block allocator.  The structure
     has the following fields:

     Field                                                          Meaning
                                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
     ‘void *ctx’                                                    user context passed as first argument
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                         allocate a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)’         allocate a memory block initialized with
                                                                    zeros
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)’         allocate or resize a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)’                              free a memory block
                                                                    

     3.5 sürümünde değişti: The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed
     to *note PyMemAllocatorEx: d63. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added.

 -- C Türü: type PyMemAllocatorDomain

     Enum used to identify an allocator domain.  Domains:

      -- C Makrosu: PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW

          Functions:

             * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): eda.

             * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb.

             * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): d41.

             * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 4a3f.

      -- C Makrosu: PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM

          Functions:

             * *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4,

             * *note PyMem_Realloc(): edc.

             * *note PyMem_Calloc(): d42.

             * *note PyMem_Free(): 12cd.

      -- C Makrosu: PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ

          Functions:

             * *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6.

             * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 12ce.

             * *note PyObject_Calloc(): d43.

             * *note PyObject_Free(): ae3.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMem_GetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMem_SetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

     The new allocator must return a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer when
     requesting zero bytes.

     For the *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b98. domain, the allocator must be
     thread-safe: the *note GIL: 147. is not held when the allocator is
     called.

     For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe:
     the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not
     share a ‘GIL’.

     If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous
     allocator), the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. function must
     be called to reinstall the debug hooks on top on the new allocator.

     See also *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4caa. and *note Preinitialize
     Python with PyPreConfig: 3a85.

          Uyarı: *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 324. does have the
          following contract:

             * It can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize(): 34d. and
               before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. to install a
               custom memory allocator.  There are no restrictions over
               the installed allocator other than the ones imposed by
               the domain (for instance, the Raw Domain allows the
               allocator to be called without the GIL held).  See *note
               the section on allocator domains: 4cdb. for more
               information.

             * If called after Python has finish initializing (after
               *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. has been called)
               the allocator 'must' wrap the existing allocator.
               Substituting the current allocator for some other
               arbitrary one is 'not supported'.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: All allocators must be thread-safe.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (void)

     Setup *note debug hooks in the Python memory allocators: 1b99. to
     detect memory errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Next: The pymalloc allocator,  Prev: Customize Memory Allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.8 Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators
--------------------------------------------------

When *note Python is built in debug mode: 6b9, the *note
PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. function is called at the *note Python
preinitialization: 3a85. to setup debug hooks on Python memory
allocators to detect memory errors.

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable can be used to install
debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’).

The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. function can be used to set
debug hooks after calling *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 324.

These debug hooks fill dynamically allocated memory blocks with special,
recognizable bit patterns.  Newly allocated memory is filled with the
byte ‘0xCD’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), freed memory is filled with the byte
‘0xDD’ (‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’).  Memory blocks are surrounded by “forbidden
bytes” filled with the byte ‘0xFD’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’).  Strings of
these bytes are unlikely to be valid addresses, floats, or ASCII
strings.

Runtime checks:

   - Detect API violations.  For example, detect if *note
     PyObject_Free(): ae3. is called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.

   - Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow).

   - Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow).

   - Check that the *note GIL: 147. is held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.)
     domains are called.

On error, the debug hooks use the *note tracemalloc: ff. module to get
the traceback where a memory block was allocated.  The traceback is only
displayed if *note tracemalloc: ff. is tracing Python memory allocations
and the memory block was traced.

Let 'S' = ‘sizeof(size_t)’.  ‘2*S’ bytes are added at each end of each
block of 'N' bytes requested.  The memory layout is like so, where p
represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like
function (‘p[i:j]’ means the slice of bytes from ‘*(p+i)’ inclusive up
to ‘*(p+j)’ exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices
differs from a Python slice):

‘p[-2*S:-S]’

     Number of bytes originally asked for.  This is a size_t, big-endian
     (easier to read in a memory dump).

‘p[-S]’

     API identifier (ASCII character):

        * ‘'r'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1b98.

        * ‘'m'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7.

        * ‘'o'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5.

‘p[-S+1:0]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch under- writes and
     reads.

‘p[0:N]’

     The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used
     to catch reference to uninitialized memory.  When a realloc-like
     function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess
     bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE. When a free-like
     function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to
     catch reference to freed memory.  When a realloc- like function is
     called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are
     also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE.

‘p[N:N+S]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch over- writes and
     reads.

‘p[N+S:N+2*S]’

     Only used if the ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ macro is defined (not
     defined by default).

     A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or
     realloc-like function.  Big-endian ‘size_t’.  If “bad memory” is
     detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a
     breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this
     block was passed out.  The static function bumpserialno() in
     obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and
     exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily.

A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the
PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact.  If they’ve been
altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is
aborted via Py_FatalError().  The other main failure mode is provoking a
memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns and
tries to use it as an address.  If you get in a debugger then and look
at the object, you’re likely to see that it’s entirely filled with
PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or PYMEM_CLEANBYTE
(meaning uninitialized memory is getting used).

3.6 sürümünde değişti: The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): ae8. function
now also works on Python compiled in release mode.  On error, the debug
hooks now use *note tracemalloc: ff. to get the traceback where a memory
block was allocated.  The debug hooks now also check if the GIL is held
when functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5. and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7. domains are called.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: Byte patterns ‘0xCB’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), ‘0xDB’
(‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’) and ‘0xFB’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’) have been replaced
with ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The pymalloc allocator,  Next: tracemalloc C API,  Prev: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.9 The pymalloc allocator
-----------------------------

Python has a 'pymalloc' allocator optimized for small objects (smaller
or equal to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime.  It uses memory mappings
called “arenas” with a fixed size of either 256 KiB on 32-bit platforms
or 1 MiB on 64-bit platforms.  It falls back to *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
eda. and *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): edb. for allocations larger than 512
bytes.

'pymalloc' is the *note default allocator: 1b97. of the *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: ae7. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): ae4.) and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: ae5. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): ae6.) domains.

The arena allocator uses the following functions:

   * ‘VirtualAlloc()’ and ‘VirtualFree()’ on Windows,

   * ‘mmap()’ and ‘munmap()’ if available,

   * ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ otherwise.

This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the *note
-without-pymalloc: 1bc9. option.  It can also be disabled at runtime
using the *note PYTHONMALLOC: ae2. environment variable (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’).

* Menu:

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::


File: python.info,  Node: Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator,  Up: The pymalloc allocator

7.11.9.1 Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
...........................................

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Türü: type PyObjectArenaAllocator

     Structure used to describe an arena allocator.  The structure has
     three fields:

     Field                                                  Meaning
                                                            
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
     ‘void *ctx’                                            user context passed as first argument
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                  allocate an arena of size bytes
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)’         free an arena
                                                            

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Get the arena allocator.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Set the arena allocator.


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc C API,  Next: Examples<37>,  Prev: The pymalloc allocator,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.10 tracemalloc C API
-------------------------

Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTraceMalloc_Track (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t
          ptr, size_t size)

     Track an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: ff.
     module.

     Return ‘0’ on success, return ‘-1’ on error (failed to allocate
     memory to store the trace).  Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is
     disabled.

     If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t
          ptr)

     Untrack an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: ff.
     module.  Do nothing if the block was not tracked.

     Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<37>,  Prev: tracemalloc C API,  Up: Memory Management

7.11.11 Examples
----------------

Here is the example from section *note Overview: 4cd8, rewritten so that
the I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first
function set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
     return res;

The same code using the type-oriented function set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Del(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
     return res;

Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated
via functions belonging to the same set.  Indeed, it is required to use
the same memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of
mixing different allocators is reduced to a minimum.  The following code
sequence contains two errors, one of which is labeled as 'fatal' because
it mixes two different allocators operating on different heaps.

     char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
     char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
     char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
     ...
     PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
     free(buf2);       /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
     free(buf1);       /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del()  */

In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from
the Python heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with *note
PyObject_New: 7e3, *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4. and *note PyObject_Del():
135e.

These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing
new object types in C.


File: python.info,  Node: Object Implementation Support,  Next: API and ABI Versioning,  Prev: Memory Management,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.12 Object Implementation Support
==================================

This chapter describes the functions, types, and macros used when
defining new object types.

* Menu:

* Allocating Objects on the Heap::
* Common Object Structures::
* Type Object Structures::
* Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection::


File: python.info,  Node: Allocating Objects on the Heap,  Next: Common Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.1 Allocating Objects on the Heap
-------------------------------------

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *_PyObject_New (PyTypeObject *type)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyVarObject: 3f10. *_PyObject_NewVar (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.'

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyObject_Init (PyObject *op,
          PyTypeObject *type)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Initialize a newly allocated object 'op' with
     its type and initial reference.  Returns the initialized object.
     Other fields of the object are not affected.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyVarObject: 3f10. *PyObject_InitVar (PyVarObject
          *op, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Ödünç alınmış referans.''  Bir parçası *note
     Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This does everything *note PyObject_Init():
     8d0. does, and also initializes the length information for a
     variable-size object.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type 'TYPE' and
     the Python type object 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’).  Fields not
     defined by the Python object header are not initialized.  The
     caller will own the only reference to the object (i.e.  its
     reference count will be one).  The size of the memory allocation is
     determined from the *note tp_basicsize: 7e5. field of the type
     object.

     Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. set.  For such objects, use *note
     PyObject_GC_New(): 90e. instead.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type 'TYPE' and
     the Python type object 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’).  Fields not
     defined by the Python object header are not initialized.  The
     allocated memory allows for the 'TYPE' structure plus 'size'
     (‘Py_ssize_t’) fields of the size given by the *note tp_itemsize:
     1d5e. field of 'typeobj'.  This is useful for implementing objects
     like tuples, which are able to determine their size at construction
     time.  Embedding the array of fields into the same allocation
     decreases the number of allocations, improving the memory
     management efficiency.

     Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. set.  For such objects, use *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar(): 90f. instead.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_Del (void *op)

     Releases memory allocated to an object using *note PyObject_New:
     7e3. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4.  This is normally called from
     the *note tp_dealloc: 4808. handler specified in the object’s type.
     The fields of the object should not be accessed after this call as
     the memory is no longer a valid Python object.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyObject: 6eb. _Py_NoneStruct

     Object which is visible in Python as ‘None’.  This should only be
     accessed using the *note Py_None: 47d6. macro, which evaluates to a
     pointer to this object.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note PyModule_Create(): 47da.

     To allocate and create extension modules.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Object Structures,  Next: Type Object Structures,  Prev: Allocating Objects on the Heap,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.2 Common Object Structures
-------------------------------

There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition
of object types for Python.  This section describes these structures and
how they are used.

* Menu:

* Base object types and macros::
* Implementing functions and methods::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::


File: python.info,  Node: Base object types and macros,  Next: Implementing functions and methods,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.12.2.1 Base object types and macros
.....................................

All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the
beginning of the object’s representation in memory.  These are
represented by the *note PyObject: 6eb. and *note PyVarObject: 3f10.
types, which are defined, in turn, by the expansions of some macros also
used, whether directly or indirectly, in the definition of all other
Python objects.  Additional macros can be found under *note reference
counting: 4a21.

 -- C Türü: type PyObject
     ' Bir parçası *note Sınırlı API: 2e2.  (Sadece bazı üyeler kararlı
     ABI'ın bir parçasıdır.)'  All object types are extensions of this
     type.  This is a type which contains the information Python needs
     to treat a pointer to an object as an object.  In a normal
     “release” build, it contains only the object’s reference count and
     a pointer to the corresponding type object.  Nothing is actually
     declared to be a *note PyObject: 6eb, but every pointer to a Python
     object can be cast to a *note PyObject: 6eb.*.  Access to the
     members must be done by using the macros *note Py_REFCNT: 6f7. and
     *note Py_TYPE: 5b0.

 -- C Türü: type PyVarObject
     ' Bir parçası *note Sınırlı API: 2e2.  (Sadece bazı üyeler kararlı
     ABI'ın bir parçasıdır.)'  This is an extension of *note PyObject:
     6eb. that adds the *note ob_size: 49d4. field.  This is only used
     for objects that have some notion of 'length'.  This type does not
     often appear in the Python/C API. Access to the members must be
     done by using the macros *note Py_REFCNT: 6f7, *note Py_TYPE: 5b0,
     and *note Py_SIZE: 5b2.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects without a varying length.  The PyObject_HEAD macro expands
     to:

          PyObject ob_base;

     See documentation of *note PyObject: 6eb. above.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_VAR_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects with a length that varies from instance to instance.  The
     PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to:

          PyVarObject ob_base;

     See documentation of *note PyVarObject: 3f10. above.

 -- C Değişkeni: *note PyTypeObject: 911. PyBaseObject_Type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The base class of all other
     objects, the same as *note object: 8f2. in Python.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_Is (PyObject *x, PyObject *y)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Test
     if the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_IsNone (PyObject *x)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Test
     if an object is the ‘None’ singleton, the same as ‘x is None’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_IsTrue (PyObject *x)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Test
     if an object is the ‘True’ singleton, the same as ‘x is True’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_IsFalse (PyObject *x)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Test
     if an object is the ‘False’ singleton, the same as ‘x is False’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyTypeObject: 911. *Py_TYPE (PyObject *o)

     Get the type of the Python object 'o'.

     Return a *note borrowed reference: 4869.

     Use the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 5b1. function to set an object type.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_TYPE(): 5b0. is changed to an
     inline static function.  The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyObject: 6eb.*.

 -- C Işlevi: int Py_IS_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' type is 'type'.  Return zero
     otherwise.  Equivalent to: ‘Py_TYPE(o) == type’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_SET_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Set the object 'o' type to 'type'.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. Py_SIZE (PyVarObject *o)

     Get the size of the Python object 'o'.

     Use the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 5b3. function to set an object size.

     3.11 sürümünde değişti: *note Py_SIZE(): 5b2. is changed to an
     inline static function.  The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyVarObject: 3f10.*.

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_SET_SIZE (PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size)

     Set the object 'o' size to 'size'.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_HEAD_INIT (type)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyObject: 6eb. type.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type,

 -- C Makrosu: PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (type, size)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyVarObject: 3f10. type, including the *note ob_size: 49d4.
     field.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type, size,


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing functions and methods,  Next: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: Base object types and macros,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.12.2.2 Implementing functions and methods
...........................................

 -- C Türü: type PyCFunction
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Type of the functions used
     to implement most Python callables in C. Functions of this type
     take two *note PyObject: 6eb.* parameters and return one such
     value.  If the return value is ‘NULL’, an exception shall have been
     set.  If not ‘NULL’, the return value is interpreted as the return
     value of the function as exposed in Python.  The function must
     return a new reference.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self,
                                PyObject *args);

 -- C Türü: type PyCFunctionWithKeywords
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Type of the functions used
     to implement Python callables in C with signature *note
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4cfd.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                            PyObject *args,
                                            PyObject *kwargs);

 -- C Türü: type _PyCFunctionFast

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL: 1640.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *_PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self,
                                     PyObject *const *args,
                                     Py_ssize_t nargs);

 -- C Türü: type _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4d00.  The function
     signature is:

          PyObject *_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                                 PyObject *const *args,
                                                 Py_ssize_t nargs,
                                                 PyObject *kwnames);

 -- C Türü: type PyCMethod

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 14b9.
     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self,
                              PyTypeObject *defining_class,
                              PyObject *const *args,
                              Py_ssize_t nargs,
                              PyObject *kwnames)

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Türü: type PyMethodDef
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'
     Structure used to describe a method of an extension type.  This
     structure has four fields:

      -- C Üyesi: const char *ml_name

          Name of the method.

      -- C Üyesi: *note PyCFunction: 1300. ml_meth

          Pointer to the C implementation.

      -- C Üyesi: int ml_flags

          Flags bits indicating how the call should be constructed.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *ml_doc

          Points to the contents of the docstring.

The *note ml_meth: 4d01. is a C function pointer.  The functions may be
of different types, but they always return *note PyObject: 6eb.*.  If
the function is not of the *note PyCFunction: 1300, the compiler will
require a cast in the method table.  Even though *note PyCFunction:
1300. defines the first parameter as *note PyObject: 6eb.*, it is common
that the method implementation uses the specific C type of the 'self'
object.

The *note ml_flags: 4d02. field is a bitfield which can include the
following flags.  The individual flags indicate either a calling
convention or a binding convention.

There are these calling conventions:

 -- C Makrosu: METH_VARARGS

     This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the
     type *note PyCFunction: 1300.  The function expects two *note
     PyObject: 6eb.* values.  The first one is the 'self' object for
     methods; for module functions, it is the module object.  The second
     parameter (often called 'args') is a tuple object representing all
     arguments.  This parameter is typically processed using *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308. or *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 1395.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_KEYWORDS

     Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: *note
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4cfd, *note METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 4d00. and *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 14b9.

*note METH_VARARGS: 1397. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 47d9.

     Methods with these flags must be of type *note
     PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 4897.  The function expects three
     parameters: 'self', 'args', 'kwargs' where 'kwargs' is a dictionary
     of all the keyword arguments or possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no
     keyword arguments.  The parameters are typically processed using
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): b9b.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_FASTCALL

     Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments.  The
     methods have the type *note _PyCFunctionFast: 4cfe.  The first
     parameter is 'self', the second parameter is a C array of *note
     PyObject: 6eb.* values indicating the arguments and the third
     parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).

     Added in version 3.7.

     3.10 sürümünde değişti: ‘METH_FASTCALL’ is now part of the *note
     stable ABI: 487e.

*note METH_FASTCALL: 1640. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 47d9.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL: 1640. supporting also keyword
     arguments, with methods of type *note _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords:
     4cff.  Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the *note
     vectorcall protocol: 2e1.: there is an additional fourth *note
     PyObject: 6eb.* parameter which is a tuple representing the names
     of the keyword arguments (which are guaranteed to be strings) or
     possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no keywords.  The values of the
     keyword arguments are stored in the 'args' array, after the
     positional arguments.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_METHOD

     Can only be used in the combination with other flags: *note
     METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 14b9.

*note METH_METHOD: 7cc. | *note METH_FASTCALL: 1640. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 47d9.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4d00. supporting
     the 'defining class', that is, the class that contains the method
     in question.  The defining class might be a superclass of
     ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.

     The method needs to be of type *note PyCMethod: 594, the same as
     for ‘METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS’ with ‘defining_class’ argument
     added after ‘self’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_NOARGS

     Methods without parameters don’t need to check whether arguments
     are given if they are listed with the *note METH_NOARGS: 1361.
     flag.  They need to be of type *note PyCFunction: 1300.  The first
     parameter is typically named 'self' and will hold a reference to
     the module or object instance.  In all cases the second parameter
     will be ‘NULL’.

     The function must have 2 parameters.  Since the second parameter is
     unused, *note Py_UNUSED: 1414. can be used to prevent a compiler
     warning.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_O

     Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the *note
     METH_O: 1396. flag, instead of invoking *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     308. with a ‘"O"’ argument.  They have the type *note PyCFunction:
     1300, with the 'self' parameter, and a *note PyObject: 6eb.*
     parameter representing the single argument.

These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but
the binding when use with methods of classes.  These may not be used for
functions defined for modules.  At most one of these flags may be set
for any given method.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_CLASS

     The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter
     rather than an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'class
     methods', similar to what is created when using the *note
     classmethod(): 252. built-in function.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_STATIC

     The method will be passed ‘NULL’ as the first parameter rather than
     an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'static methods',
     similar to what is created when using the *note staticmethod():
     612. built-in function.

One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of
another definition with the same method name.

 -- C Makrosu: METH_COEXIST

     The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions.
     Without 'METH_COEXIST', the default is to skip repeated
     definitions.  Since slot wrappers are loaded before the method
     table, the existence of a 'sq_contains' slot, for example, would
     generate a wrapped method named *note __contains__(): 1d4b. and
     preclude the loading of a corresponding PyCFunction with the same
     name.  With the flag defined, the PyCFunction will be loaded in
     place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the slot.  This
     is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more than
     wrapper object calls.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCMethod_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'  Turn 'ml' into a Python *note callable:
     26ca. object.  The caller must ensure that 'ml' outlives the *note
     callable: 26ca.  Typically, 'ml' is defined as a static variable.

     The 'self' parameter will be passed as the 'self' argument to the C
     function in ‘ml->ml_meth’ when invoked.  'self' can be ‘NULL’.

     The *note callable: 26ca. object’s ‘__module__’ attribute can be
     set from the given 'module' argument.  'module' should be a Python
     string, which will be used as name of the module the function is
     defined in.  If unavailable, it can be set to *note None: 488. or
     ‘NULL’.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     *note function.__module__: 1ceb.

     The 'cls' parameter will be passed as the 'defining_class' argument
     to the C function.  Must be set if *note METH_METHOD: 7cc. is set
     on ‘ml->ml_flags’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCFunction_NewEx (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2.'  Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyCFunction_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self)
     'Döndürdüğü değer: Yeni referans.''  Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI:
     2e2. 3.4 sürümünden beri.'  Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self,
     NULL, NULL)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: Implementing functions and methods,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.12.2.3 Accessing attributes of extension types
................................................

 -- C Türü: type PyMemberDef
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'
     Structure which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds
     to a C struct member.  When defining a class, put a NULL-terminated
     array of these structures in the *note tp_members: 480b. slot.

     Its fields are, in order:

      -- C Üyesi: const char *name

          Name of the member.  A NULL value marks the end of a
          ‘PyMemberDef[]’ array.

          The string should be static, no copy is made of it.

      -- C Üyesi: int type

          The type of the member in the C struct.  See *note Member
          types: 14a2. for the possible values.

      -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. offset

          The offset in bytes that the member is located on the type’s
          object struct.

      -- C Üyesi: int flags

          Zero or more of the *note Member flags: 4d07, combined using
          bitwise OR.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *doc

          The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy
          is made of it.  Typically, it is defined using *note
          PyDoc_STR: 162e.

     By default (when *note flags: 4825. is ‘0’), members allow both
     read and write access.  Use the *note Py_READONLY: 354. flag for
     read-only access.  Certain types, like *note Py_T_STRING: 4d09,
     imply *note Py_READONLY: 354.  Only *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 357. (and
     legacy *note T_OBJECT: 356.) members can be deleted.  For
     heap-allocated types (created using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316.
     or similar), ‘PyMemberDef’ may contain a definition for the special
     member ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’, corresponding to *note
     tp_vectorcall_offset: 4a8d. in type objects.  These must be defined
     with ‘Py_T_PYSSIZET’ and ‘Py_READONLY’, for example:

          static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = {
              {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET,
               offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY},
              {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
          };

     (You may need to ‘#include <stddef.h>’ for ‘offsetof()’.)

     The legacy offsets *note tp_dictoffset: 4aed. and *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6. can be defined similarly using
     ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’ members, but
     extensions are strongly encouraged to use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     2eb. instead.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘PyMemberDef’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb. *PyMember_GetOne (const char
          *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Get an attribute belonging
     to the object at address 'obj_addr'.  The attribute is described by
     ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘NULL’ on error.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘PyMember_GetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyMember_SetOne (char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef
          *m, PyObject *o)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set an attribute belonging
     to the object at address 'obj_addr' to object 'o'.  The attribute
     to set is described by ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘0’ if
     successful and a negative value on failure.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: ‘PyMember_SetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

* Menu:

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::


File: python.info,  Node: Member flags,  Next: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.4 Member flags
.....................

The following flags can be used with *note PyMemberDef.flags: 4825.:

 -- C Makrosu: Py_READONLY

     Not writable.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_AUDIT_READ

     Emit an ‘object.__getattr__’ *note audit event: 1698. before
     reading.

 -- C Makrosu: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET

     Indicates that the *note offset: 4d06. of this ‘PyMemberDef’ entry
     indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than
     from ‘PyObject’.

     Can only be used as part of *note Py_tp_members: 480b. *note slot:
     4997. when creating a class using negative *note basicsize: 2d6.
     It is mandatory in that case.

     This flag is only used in *note PyType_Slot: 4997.  When setting
     *note tp_members: 480b. during class creation, Python clears it and
     sets *note PyMemberDef.offset: 4d06. to the offset from the
     ‘PyObject’ struct.

3.10 sürümünde değişti: The ‘RESTRICTED’, ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and
‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ macros available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ are
deprecated.  ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and ‘RESTRICTED’ are equivalent to *note
Py_AUDIT_READ: 355.; ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ does nothing.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: The ‘READONLY’ macro was renamed to *note
Py_READONLY: 354.  The ‘PY_AUDIT_READ’ macro was renamed with the ‘Py_’
prefix.  The new names are now always available.  Previously, these
required ‘#include "structmember.h"’.  The header is still available and
it provides the old names.


File: python.info,  Node: Member types,  Next: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member flags,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.5 Member types
.....................

*note PyMemberDef.type: 4824. can be one of the following macros
corresponding to various C types.  When the member is accessed in
Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type.  When it is
set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type.  If that is
not possible, an exception such as *note TypeError: 2c4. or *note
ValueError: 189. is raised.

Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using
e.g.  *note del: 15c5. or *note delattr(): 1f40.

Macro name                           C type                            Python type
                                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_BYTE             char                              *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_SHORT            short                             *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_INT              int                               *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_LONG             long                              *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_LONGLONG         long long                         *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_UBYTE            unsigned char                     *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_UINT             unsigned int                      *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_USHORT           unsigned short                    *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_ULONG            unsigned long                     *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_ULONGLONG        unsigned long long                *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_PYSSIZET         *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.            *note int: 184.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_FLOAT            float                             *note float: 272.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_DOUBLE           double                            *note float: 272.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_BOOL             char (written as 0 or 1)          *note bool: 183.
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_STRING           const char* (*)                   *note str: 15d. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_STRING_INPLACE   const char[] (*)                  *note str: 15d. (RO)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_CHAR             char (0-127)                      *note str: 15d. (**)
                                                                       
                                                                       
 -- C Makrosu: Py_T_OBJECT_EX        *note PyObject: 6eb.*             *note object: 8f2. (D)
                                                                       

     (*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string.  With ‘Py_T_STRING’
     the C representation is a pointer; with ‘Py_T_STRING_INPLACE’ the
     string is stored directly in the structure.

     (**): String of length 1.  Only ASCII is accepted.

     (RO): Implies *note Py_READONLY: 354.

     (D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to ‘NULL’.
     Reading a ‘NULL’ pointer raises *note AttributeError: 3dc.

Added in version 3.12: In previous versions, the macros were only
available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ and were named without the
‘Py_’ prefix (e.g.  as ‘T_INT’).  The header is still available and
contains the old names, along with the following deprecated types:

 -- C Makrosu: T_OBJECT

     Like ‘Py_T_OBJECT_EX’, but ‘NULL’ is converted to ‘None’.  This
     results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute
     effectively sets it to ‘None’.

 -- C Makrosu: T_NONE

     Always ‘None’.  Must be used with *note Py_READONLY: 354.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.12.2.6 Defining Getters and Setters
.....................................

 -- C Türü: type PyGetSetDef
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. (tüm üyeler dahil).'
     Structure to define property-like access for a type.  See also
     description of the *note PyTypeObject.tp_getset: 4810. slot.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *name

          attribute name

      -- C Üyesi: *note getter: 49ef. get

          C function to get the attribute.

      -- C Üyesi: *note setter: 49fd. set

          Optional C function to set or delete the attribute.  If
          ‘NULL’, the attribute is read-only.

      -- C Üyesi: const char *doc

          optional docstring

      -- C Üyesi: void *closure

          Optional user data pointer, providing additional data for
          getter and setter.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*getter)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*, void*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The ‘get’ function takes
     one *note PyObject: 6eb.* parameter (the instance) and a user data
     pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     It should return a new reference on success or ‘NULL’ with a set
     exception on failure.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*setter)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject:
          6eb.*, void*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  ‘set’ functions take two
     *note PyObject: 6eb.* parameters (the instance and the value to be
     set) and a user data pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is
     ‘NULL’.  Should return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ with a set exception
     on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Type Object Structures,  Next: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection,  Prev: Common Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.3 Type Object Structures
-----------------------------

Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system
is the structure that defines a new type: the *note PyTypeObject: 911.
structure.  Type objects can be handled using any of the ‘PyObject_*’ or
‘PyType_*’ functions, but do not offer much that’s interesting to most
Python applications.  These objects are fundamental to how objects
behave, so they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any
extension module that implements new types.

Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types.
The reason for the size is that each type object stores a large number
of values, mostly C function pointers, each of which implements a small
part of the type’s functionality.  The fields of the type object are
examined in detail in this section.  The fields will be described in the
order in which they occur in the structure.

In addition to the following quick reference, the *note Examples: 4d22.
section provides at-a-glance insight into the meaning and use of *note
PyTypeObject: 911.

* Menu:

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* Examples: Examples<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Reference,  Next: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.1 Quick Reference
........................

* Menu:

* “tp slots”::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::


File: python.info,  Node: “tp slots”,  Next: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.2 “tp slots”
...................

PyTypeObject Slot      *note Type: 4d26.      special                Info
(1)                                           methods/attrs          (2)
                                                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                     
O                      T                      D                      I
                                                                     
                                                                                       
<R>                    const char *           __name__               X     X
*note tp_name: 171d.                                                       

*note tp_basicsize: 7e5.*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_itemsize: 1d5e.*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.                             X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dealloc: 4808.*note destructor: 49ea.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4a8d.*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_getattr: 4827.)*note getattrfunc: 49eb.__getattribute__,                     G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_setattr: 4828.)*note setattrfunc: 49fb.__setattr__,                          G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_async: d64.*note PyAsyncMethods: 4aeb.*note sub-slots: 4d27.               %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_repr: 481d.   *note reprfunc: 49f9.  __repr__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_number: 7e9.*note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.*note sub-slots: 4d27.             %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_sequence: 4d28.*note PySequenceMethods: 482e.*note sub-slots: 4d27.        %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_mapping: 4d29.*note PyMappingMethods: 482f.*note sub-slots: 4d27.          %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_hash: 4830.   *note hashfunc: 49f0.  __hash__               X                 G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_call: 2e9.    *note ternaryfunc: 4a00.__call__                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_str: 481e.    *note reprfunc: 49f9.  __str__                X                 X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getattro: 4821.*note getattrofunc: 49ec.__getattribute__,   X     X           G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_setattro: 4822.*note setattrofunc: 49fc.__setattr__,        X     X           G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_buffer: 7e7.*note PyBufferProcs: 4af3.                                     %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_flags: 16e6.  unsigned long                                 X     X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_doc: 4804.    const char *           __doc__                X     X
                                                                           
                                                                                       
*note tp_traverse: 5ae.*note traverseproc: 4a01.                           X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_clear: 481b.  *note inquiry: 49f2.                                X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_richcompare: 482a.*note richcmpfunc: 49fa.__lt__, __le__,   X                 G
                                              __eq__, __ne__,                          
                                              __gt__, __ge__
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6.)*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.                      X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iter: 137b.   *note getiterfunc: 49ee.__iter__                                X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iternext: 137c.*note iternextfunc: 49f3.__next__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_methods: 480d.*note PyMethodDef: 1364.                      X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_members: 480b.*note PyMemberDef: 2dd.                             X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getset: 4810. *note PyGetSetDef: a2f.                       X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_base: 4814.   *note PyTypeObject: 911.__base__                          X
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dict: 151a.   *note PyObject: 6eb.   __dict__                           ?
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_get: 4d2a.*note descrgetfunc: 49e8.__get__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_set: 1721.*note descrsetfunc: 49e9.__set__, __delete__                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_dictoffset: 4aed.)*note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.                         X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_init: 31a.    *note initproc: 49f1.  __init__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_alloc: 480a.  *note allocfunc: 49e6.                        X           ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_new: 318.     *note newfunc: 49f5.   __new__                X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_free: 4809.   *note freefunc: 4bdd.                         X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_is_gc: 4d2b.  *note inquiry: 49f2.                                X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_bases: 4d2c.>*note PyObject: 6eb.   __bases__                          ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_mro: 4af0.>  *note PyObject: 6eb.   __mro__                            ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_cache: 4af1.]*note PyObject: 6eb.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_subclasses: 309.]void *             __subclasses__
                                              
                                                                                       
[*note tp_weaklist: 4af2.]*note PyObject: 6eb.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_del: 4d2d.)  *note destructor: 49ea.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_version_tag: 4d2e.]unsigned int
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_finalize: 912.*note destructor: 49ea.__del__                                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall: 4aef.*note vectorcallfunc: 2e6.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_watched: 4d2f.]unsigned char
                       

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) '()': A slot name in parentheses indicates it is (effectively)
deprecated.

'<>': Names in angle brackets should be initially set to ‘NULL’ and
treated as read-only.

'[]': Names in square brackets are for internal use only.

'<R>' (as a prefix) means the field is required (must be non-‘NULL’).

   (2) Columns:

'“O”': set on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887.

'“T”': set on *note PyType_Type: 2db.

'“D”': default (if slot is set to ‘NULL’)

     X - PyType_Ready sets this value if it is NULL
     ~ - PyType_Ready always sets this value (it should be NULL)
     ? - PyType_Ready may set this value depending on other slots

     Also see the inheritance column ("I").

'“I”': inheritance

     X - type slot is inherited via *PyType_Ready* if defined with a *NULL* value
     % - the slots of the sub-struct are inherited individually
     G - inherited, but only in combination with other slots; see the slot's description
     ? - it's complicated; see the slot's description

Note that some slots are effectively inherited through the normal
attribute lookup chain.


File: python.info,  Node: sub-slots,  Next: slot typedefs,  Prev: “tp slots”,  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.3 sub-slots
..................

Slot                           *note Type: 4d26.     special
                                                     methods
                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
*note am_await: 4d31.          *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__await__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_aiter: 4d32.          *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__aiter__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_anext: 4d33.          *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__anext__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_send: 4d34.           *note sendfunc: 4d35.
                               
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_add: 4ae4.            *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__add__
                                                     __radd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_add: 4d36.    *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_subtract: 4d37.       *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__sub__
                                                     __rsub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_subtract: 4d38.*note binaryfunc: 49e7.__isub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_multiply: 4d39.       *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__mul__
                                                     __rmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_multiply: 4d3a.*note binaryfunc: 49e7.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_remainder: 4d3b.      *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__mod__
                                                     __rmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_remainder: 4d3c.*note binaryfunc: 49e7.__imod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_divmod: 4d3d.         *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__divmod__
                                                     __rdivmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_power: 4d3e.          *note ternaryfunc: 4a00.__pow__
                                                     __rpow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_power: 4d3f.  *note ternaryfunc: 4a00.__ipow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_negative: 4d40.       *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__neg__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_positive: 4d41.       *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__pos__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_absolute: 4d42.       *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__abs__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_bool: 4d43.           *note inquiry: 49f2.  __bool__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_invert: 4d44.         *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__invert__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_lshift: 4d45.         *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__lshift__
                                                     __rlshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_lshift: 4d46. *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__ilshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_rshift: 4d47.         *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__rshift__
                                                     __rrshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_rshift: 4d48. *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__irshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_and: 4d49.            *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__and__
                                                     __rand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_and: 4d4a.    *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__iand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_xor: 4d4b.            *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__xor__
                                                     __rxor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_xor: 4d4c.    *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__ixor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_or: 4d4d.             *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__or__ __ror__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_or: 4d4e.     *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__ior__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_int: 4d4f.            *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__int__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_reserved: 4d50.       void *
                               
                                                     
*note nb_float: 4d51.          *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__float__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_floor_divide: 4d52.   *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__floordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_floor_divide: 4d53.*note binaryfunc: 49e7.__ifloordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_true_divide: 4d54.    *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__truediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_true_divide: 4d55.*note binaryfunc: 49e7.__itruediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_index: 12a5.          *note unaryfunc: 4a02.__index__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_matrix_multiply: 4d56.*note binaryfunc: 49e7.__matmul__
                                                     __rmatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_matrix_multiply: 4d57.*note binaryfunc: 49e7.__imatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_length: 4d58.         *note lenfunc: 49f4.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_subscript: 1758.      *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_ass_subscript: 4d59.  *note objobjargproc: 49f6.__setitem__,
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_length: 4aec.         *note lenfunc: 49f4.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_concat: 4d5a.         *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__add__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_repeat: 4d5b.         *note ssizeargfunc: 49fe.__mul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_item: 1757.           *note ssizeargfunc: 49fe.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_ass_item: 4d5c.       *note ssizeobjargproc: 49ff.__setitem__
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_contains: 4d5d.       *note objobjproc: 49f7.__contains__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_concat: 4d5e. *note binaryfunc: 49e7.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_repeat: 4d5f. *note ssizeargfunc: 49fe.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note bf_getbuffer: 591.       *note getbufferproc(): 49ed.
                               
                                                     
*note bf_releasebuffer: 592.   *note releasebufferproc(): 49f8.
                               


File: python.info,  Node: slot typedefs,  Prev: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.12.3.4 slot typedefs
......................

typedef                           Parameter Types                   Return Type
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
*note allocfunc: 49e6.                 *note PyTypeObject: 911. *   *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note destructor: 49ea.           *note PyObject: 6eb. *            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note freefunc: 4bdd.             void *                            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note traverseproc: 4a01.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note visitproc: 4a03.       
                                       void *
                                  
                                                                    
*note newfunc: 49f5.                   *note PyTypeObject: 911. *   *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note initproc: 49f1.                  *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note reprfunc: 49f9.             *note PyObject: 6eb. *            *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getattrfunc: 49eb.               *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       const char *                 
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrfunc: 49fb.               *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       const char *                 
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note getattrofunc: 49ec.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrofunc: 49fc.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrgetfunc: 49e8.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrsetfunc: 49e9.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note hashfunc: 49f0.             *note PyObject: 6eb. *            Py_hash_t
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note richcmpfunc: 49fa.               *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note getiterfunc: 49ee.          *note PyObject: 6eb. *            *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note iternextfunc: 49f3.         *note PyObject: 6eb. *            *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note lenfunc: 49f4.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *            *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getbufferproc: 49ed.             *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note Py_buffer: 584. *      
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note releasebufferproc: 49f8.         *note PyObject: 6eb. *       void
                                       *note Py_buffer: 584. *      
                                  
                                                                    
*note inquiry: 49f2.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *            int
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note unaryfunc: 4a02.                 *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note binaryfunc: 49e7.                *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ternaryfunc: 4a00.               *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeargfunc: 49fe.              *note PyObject: 6eb. *       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeobjargproc: 49ff.           *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjproc: 49f7.                *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjargproc: 49f6.             *note PyObject: 6eb. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 6eb. *
                                  

See *note Slot Type typedefs: 4d61. below for more detail.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Definition,  Next: PyObject Slots,  Prev: Quick Reference,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.5 PyTypeObject Definition
................................

The structure definition for *note PyTypeObject: 911. can be found in
‘Include/cpython/object.h’.  For convenience of reference, this repeats
the definition found there:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         struct _typeobject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache;
         PyObject *tp_subclasses;
         PyObject *tp_weaklist;
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;
     } PyTypeObject;


File: python.info,  Node: PyObject Slots,  Next: PyVarObject Slots,  Prev: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.6 PyObject Slots
.......................

The type object structure extends the *note PyVarObject: 3f10.
structure.  The *note ob_size: 49d4. field is used for dynamic types
(created by ‘type_new()’, usually called from a class statement).  Note
that *note PyType_Type: 2db. (the metatype) initializes *note
tp_itemsize: 1d5e, which means that its instances (i.e.  type objects)
'must' have the *note ob_size: 49d4. field.

 -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *note PyObject: 6eb.ob_refcnt
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the type object’s
     reference count, initialized to ‘1’ by the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’
     macro.  Note that for *note statically allocated type objects: 5af,
     the type’s instances (objects whose *note ob_type: 4806. points
     back to the type) do 'not' count as references.  But for *note
     dynamically allocated type objects: 7c0, the instances 'do' count
     as references.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyTypeObject: 911. **note PyObject: 6eb.ob_type
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  This is the type’s type, in
     other words its metatype.  It is initialized by the argument to the
     ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro, and its value should normally be
     ‘&PyType_Type’.  However, for dynamically loadable extension
     modules that must be usable on Windows (at least), the compiler
     complains that this is not a valid initializer.  Therefore, the
     convention is to pass ‘NULL’ to the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro and
     to initialize this field explicitly at the start of the module’s
     initialization function, before doing anything else.  This is
     typically done like this:

          Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;

     This should be done before any instances of the type are created.
     *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. checks if *note ob_type: 4806. is
     ‘NULL’, and if so, initializes it to the *note ob_type: 4806. field
     of the base class.  *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. will not change this
     field if it is non-zero.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **note PyObject: 6eb._ob_next
 -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **note PyObject: 6eb._ob_prev

     These fields are only present when the macro ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ is
     defined (see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 6ec.).

     Their initialization to ‘NULL’ is taken care of by the
     ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro.  For *note statically allocated
     objects: 5af, these fields always remain ‘NULL’.  For *note
     dynamically allocated objects: 7c0, these two fields are used to
     link the object into a doubly linked list of 'all' live objects on
     the heap.

     This could be used for various debugging purposes; currently the
     only uses are the *note sys.getobjects(): 395. function and to
     print the objects that are still alive at the end of a run when the
     environment variable *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 804. is set.

     'Inheritance:'

     These fields are not inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyVarObject Slots,  Next: PyTypeObject Slots,  Prev: PyObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.7 PyVarObject Slots
..........................

 -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *note PyVarObject: 3f10.ob_size
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  For *note statically
     allocated type objects: 5af, this should be initialized to zero.
     For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 7c0, this field has a
     special internal meaning.

     This field should be accessed using the *note Py_SIZE(): 5b2. and
     *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 5b3. macros.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Slots,  Next: Static Types,  Prev: PyVarObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.8 PyTypeObject Slots
...........................

Each slot has a section describing inheritance.  If *note
PyType_Ready(): 5ac. may set a value when the field is set to ‘NULL’
then there will also be a “Default” section.  (Note that many fields set
on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. and *note PyType_Type: 2db.
effectively act as defaults.)

 -- C Üyesi: const char **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_name

     Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type.
     For types that are accessible as module globals, the string should
     be the full module name, followed by a dot, followed by the type
     name; for built-in types, it should be just the type name.  If the
     module is a submodule of a package, the full package name is part
     of the full module name.  For example, a type named ‘T’ defined in
     module ‘M’ in subpackage ‘Q’ in package ‘P’ should have the *note
     tp_name: 171d. initializer ‘"P.Q.M.T"’.

     For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 7c0, this should just
     be the type name, and the module name explicitly stored in the type
     dict as the value for key ‘'__module__'’.

     For *note statically allocated type objects: 5af, the 'tp_name'
     field should contain a dot.  Everything before the last dot is made
     accessible as the *note __module__: b0b. attribute, and everything
     after the last dot is made accessible as the *note __name__: 1336.
     attribute.

     If no dot is present, the entire *note tp_name: 171d. field is made
     accessible as the *note __name__: 1336. attribute, and the *note
     __module__: b0b. attribute is undefined (unless explicitly set in
     the dictionary, as explained above).  This means your type will be
     impossible to pickle.  Additionally, it will not be listed in
     module documentations created with pydoc.

     This field must not be ‘NULL’.  It is the only required field in
     *note PyTypeObject(): 911. (other than potentially *note
     tp_itemsize: 1d5e.).

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_basicsize
 -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_itemsize

     These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of
     the type.

     There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances
     have a zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field, types with variable-length
     instances have a non-zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field.  For a type with
     fixed-length instances, all instances have the same size, given in
     ‘tp_basicsize’.  (Exceptions to this rule can be made using *note
     PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData(): 1553.)

     For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have
     an *note ob_size: 49d4. field, and the instance size is
     ‘tp_basicsize’ plus N times ‘tp_itemsize’, where N is the “length”
     of the object.

     Functions like *note PyObject_NewVar(): 7e4. will take the value of
     N as an argument, and store in the instance’s *note ob_size: 49d4.
     field.  Note that the *note ob_size: 49d4. field may later be used
     for other purposes.  For example, *note int: 184. instances use the
     bits of *note ob_size: 49d4. in an implementation-defined way; the
     underlying storage and its size should be acessed using
     ‘PyLong_Export()’.

          Not: The *note ob_size: 49d4. field should be accessed using
          the *note Py_SIZE(): 5b2. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 5b3.
          macros.

     Also, the presence of an *note ob_size: 49d4. field in the instance
     layout doesn’t mean that the instance structure is variable-length.
     For example, the *note list: 422. type has fixed-length instances,
     yet those instances have a *note ob_size: 49d4. field.  (As with
     *note int: 184, avoid reading lists’ ‘ob_size’ directly.  Call
     *note PyList_Size(): 12a2. instead.)

     The ‘tp_basicsize’ includes size needed for data of the type’s
     *note tp_base: 4814, plus any extra data needed by each instance.

     The correct way to set ‘tp_basicsize’ is to use the ‘sizeof’
     operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.  This
     struct must include the struct used to declare the base type.  In
     other words, ‘tp_basicsize’ must be greater than or equal to the
     base’s ‘tp_basicsize’.

     Since every type is a subtype of *note object: 8f2, this struct
     must include *note PyObject: 6eb. or *note PyVarObject: 3f10.
     (depending on whether *note ob_size: 49d4. should be included).
     These are usually defined by the macro *note PyObject_HEAD: 1188.
     or *note PyObject_VAR_HEAD: 4cf9, respectively.

     The basic size does not include the GC header size, as that header
     is not part of *note PyObject_HEAD: 1188.

     For cases where struct used to declare the base type is unknown,
     see *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 2d6. and *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 2df.

     Notes about alignment:

        - ‘tp_basicsize’ must be a multiple of ‘_Alignof(PyObject)’.
          When using ‘sizeof’ on a ‘struct’ that includes *note
          PyObject_HEAD: 1188, as recommended, the compiler ensures
          this.  When not using a C ‘struct’, or when using compiler
          extensions like ‘__attribute__((packed))’, it is up to you.

        - If the variable items require a particular alignment,
          ‘tp_basicsize’ and ‘tp_itemsize’ must each be a multiple of
          that alignment.  For example, if a type’s variable part stores
          a ‘double’, it is your responsibility that both fields are a
          multiple of ‘_Alignof(double)’.

     'Inheritance:'

     These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.  (That is, if
     the field is set to zero, *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. will copy the
     value from the base type, indicating that the instances do not need
     additional storage.)

     If the base type has a non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 1d5e, it is
     generally not safe to set *note tp_itemsize: 1d5e. to a different
     non-zero value in a subtype (though this depends on the
     implementation of the base type).

 -- C Üyesi: *note destructor: 49ea. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_dealloc

     A pointer to the instance destructor function.  This function must
     be defined unless the type guarantees that its instances will never
     be deallocated (as is the case for the singletons ‘None’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’).  The function signature is:

          void tp_dealloc(PyObject *self);

     The destructor function is called by the *note Py_DECREF(): 306.
     and *note Py_XDECREF(): 5c2. macros when the new reference count is
     zero.  At this point, the instance is still in existence, but there
     are no references to it.  The destructor function should free all
     references which the instance owns, free all memory buffers owned
     by the instance (using the freeing function corresponding to the
     allocation function used to allocate the buffer), and call the
     type’s *note tp_free: 4809. function.  If the type is not
     subtypable (doesn’t have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 480e. flag
     bit set), it is permissible to call the object deallocator directly
     instead of via *note tp_free: 4809.  The object deallocator should
     be the one used to allocate the instance; this is normally *note
     PyObject_Del(): 135e. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_New: 7e3. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4, or *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 1392. if the instance was allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: 90e. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: 90f.

     If the type supports garbage collection (has the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit set), the destructor should call
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394. before clearing any member
     fields.

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
              Py_CLEAR(self->ref);
              Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *)self);
          }

     Finally, if the type is heap allocated (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     701.), the deallocator should release the owned reference to its
     type object (via *note Py_DECREF(): 306.) after calling the type
     deallocator.  In order to avoid dangling pointers, the recommended
     way to achieve this is:

          static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) {
              PyTypeObject *tp = Py_TYPE(self);
              // free references and buffers here
              tp->tp_free(self);
              Py_DECREF(tp);
          }

          Uyarı: In a garbage collected Python, ‘tp_dealloc’ may be
          called from any Python thread, not just the thread which
          created the object (if the object becomes part of a refcount
          cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage collection
          on any thread).  This is not a problem for Python API calls,
          since the thread on which ‘tp_dealloc’ is called will own the
          Global Interpreter Lock (GIL). However, if the object being
          destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C or C++
          library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those
          objects on the thread which called ‘tp_dealloc’ will not
          violate any assumptions of the library.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_vectorcall_offset

     An optional offset to a per-instance function that implements
     calling the object using the *note vectorcall protocol: 2e1, a more
     efficient alternative of the simpler *note tp_call: 2e9.

     This field is only used if the flag *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. is set.  If so, this must be a
     positive integer containing the offset in the instance of a *note
     vectorcallfunc: 2e6. pointer.

     The 'vectorcallfunc' pointer may be ‘NULL’, in which case the
     instance behaves as if *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. was
     not set: calling the instance falls back to *note tp_call: 2e9.

     Any class that sets ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ must also set
     *note tp_call: 2e9. and make sure its behaviour is consistent with
     the 'vectorcallfunc' function.  This can be done by setting
     'tp_call' to *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2e5.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Before version 3.8, this slot was named
     ‘tp_print’.  In Python 2.x, it was used for printing to a file.  In
     Python 3.0 to 3.7, it was unused.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Before version 3.12, it was not recommended
     for *note mutable heap types: 7c0. to implement the vectorcall
     protocol.  When a user sets *note __call__: 2e7. in Python code,
     only 'tp_call' is updated, likely making it inconsistent with the
     vectorcall function.  Since 3.12, setting ‘__call__’ will disable
     vectorcall optimization by clearing the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is always inherited.  However, the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 2e3. flag is not always inherited.  If
     it’s not set, then the subclass won’t use *note vectorcall: 2e1,
     except when *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 2e5. is explicitly called.

 -- C Üyesi: *note getattrfunc: 49eb. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_getattr

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_getattro: 4821.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 4827, *note tp_getattro: 4821.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_getattro: 4821.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 4827.
     and *note tp_getattro: 4821. from its base type when the subtype’s
     *note tp_getattr: 4827. and *note tp_getattro: 4821. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Üyesi: *note setattrfunc: 49fb. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_setattr

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_setattro: 4822.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 4828, *note tp_setattro: 4822.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_setattro: 4822.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 4828.
     and *note tp_setattro: 4822. from its base type when the subtype’s
     *note tp_setattr: 4828. and *note tp_setattro: 4822. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyAsyncMethods: 4aeb. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_as_async

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement *note awaitable: af6. and *note
     asynchronous iterator: c05. protocols at the C-level.  See *note
     Async Object Structures: 4d68. for details.

     Added in version 3.5: Formerly known as ‘tp_compare’ and
     ‘tp_reserved’.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_async: d64. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Üyesi: *note reprfunc: 49f9. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_repr

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note repr(): 637.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7.:

          PyObject *tp_repr(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  Ideally,
     this function should return a string that, when passed to *note
     eval(): 6ca, given a suitable environment, returns an object with
     the same value.  If this is not feasible, it should return a string
     starting with ‘'<'’ and ending with ‘'>'’ from which both the type
     and the value of the object can be deduced.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     When this field is not set, a string of the form ‘<%s object at
     %p>’ is returned, where ‘%s’ is replaced by the type name, and ‘%p’
     by the object’s memory address.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_as_number

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the number protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Number Object Structures: 4d69.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_number: 7e9. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PySequenceMethods: 482e. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_as_sequence

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the sequence protocol.  These
     fields are documented in *note Sequence Object Structures: 4d6a.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_sequence: 4d28. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyMappingMethods: 482f. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_as_mapping

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the mapping protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Mapping Object Structures: 4d6b.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_mapping: 4d29. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Üyesi: *note hashfunc: 49f0. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_hash

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note hash(): 3f7.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Hash(): 37d.:

          Py_hash_t tp_hash(PyObject *);

     The value ‘-1’ should not be returned as a normal return value;
     when an error occurs during the computation of the hash value, the
     function should set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     When this field is not set ('and' *note tp_richcompare: 482a. is
     not set), an attempt to take the hash of the object raises *note
     TypeError: 2c4.  This is the same as setting it to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 124d.

     This field can be set explicitly to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 124d. to block inheritance of the
     hash method from a parent type.  This is interpreted as the
     equivalent of ‘__hash__ = None’ at the Python level, causing
     ‘isinstance(o, collections.Hashable)’ to correctly return ‘False’.
     Note that the converse is also true - setting ‘__hash__ = None’ on
     a class at the Python level will result in the ‘tp_hash’ slot being
     set to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 124d.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 4830, *note tp_richcompare: 482a.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_richcompare: 482a.: a subtype inherits both of *note
     tp_richcompare: 482a. and *note tp_hash: 4830, when the subtype’s
     *note tp_richcompare: 482a. and *note tp_hash: 4830. are both
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Üyesi: *note ternaryfunc: 4a00. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_call

     An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the
     object.  This should be ‘NULL’ if the object is not callable.  The
     signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Call(): 7c1.:

          PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note reprfunc: 49f9. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_str

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     operation *note str(): 15d.  (Note that *note str: 15d. is a type
     now, and *note str(): 15d. calls the constructor for that type.
     This constructor calls *note PyObject_Str(): ed8. to do the actual
     work, and *note PyObject_Str(): ed8. will call this handler.)

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Str(): ed8.:

          PyObject *tp_str(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  It should
     be a “friendly” string representation of the object, as this is the
     representation that will be used, among other things, by the *note
     print(): e16. function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     When this field is not set, *note PyObject_Repr(): ed7. is called
     to return a string representation.

 -- C Üyesi: *note getattrofunc: 49ec. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_getattro

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a.:

          PyObject *tp_getattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr);

     It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4956, which implements the normal way of
     looking for object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 4827, *note tp_getattro: 4821.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_getattr:
     4827.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 4827. and *note
     tp_getattro: 4821. from its base type when the subtype’s *note
     tp_getattr: 4827. and *note tp_getattro: 4821. are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4956.

 -- C Üyesi: *note setattrofunc: 49fc. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_setattro

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4961.:

          int tp_setattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value);

     In addition, setting 'value' to ‘NULL’ to delete an attribute must
     be supported.  It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4957, which implements the normal way of
     setting object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 4828, *note tp_setattro: 4822.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_setattr:
     4828.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 4828. and *note
     tp_setattro: 4822. from its base type when the subtype’s *note
     tp_setattr: 4828. and *note tp_setattro: 4822. are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4957.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyBufferProcs: 4af3. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_as_buffer

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the buffer interface.  These fields
     are documented in *note Buffer Object Structures: 4aad.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_buffer: 7e7. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Üyesi: unsigned long *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_flags

     This field is a bit mask of various flags.  Some flags indicate
     variant semantics for certain situations; others are used to
     indicate that certain fields in the type object (or in the
     extension structures referenced via *note tp_as_number: 7e9, *note
     tp_as_sequence: 4d28, *note tp_as_mapping: 4d29, and *note
     tp_as_buffer: 7e7.) that were historically not always present are
     valid; if such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must
     not be accessed and must be considered to have a zero or ‘NULL’
     value instead.

     'Inheritance:'

     Inheritance of this field is complicated.  Most flag bits are
     inherited individually, i.e.  if the base type has a flag bit set,
     the subtype inherits this flag bit.  The flag bits that pertain to
     extension structures are strictly inherited if the extension
     structure is inherited, i.e.  the base type’s value of the flag bit
     is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension
     structure.  The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit is
     inherited together with the *note tp_traverse: 5ae. and *note
     tp_clear: 481b. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad.
     flag bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 5ae.
     and *note tp_clear: 481b. fields in the subtype exist and have
     ‘NULL’ values.  ..  XXX are most flag bits 'really' inherited
     individually?

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. uses ‘Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT |
     Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE’.

     'Bit Masks:'

     The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed
     together using the ‘|’ operator to form the value of the *note
     tp_flags: 16e6. field.  The macro *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1782.
     takes a type and a flags value, 'tp' and 'f', and checks whether
     ‘tp->tp_flags & f’ is non-zero.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE

          This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on
          the heap, for example, types created dynamically using *note
          PyType_FromSpec(): 316.  In this case, the *note ob_type:
          4806. field of its instances is considered a reference to the
          type, and the type object is INCREF’ed when a new instance is
          created, and DECREF’ed when an instance is destroyed (this
          does not apply to instances of subtypes; only the type
          referenced by the instance’s ob_type gets INCREF’ed or
          DECREF’ed).  Heap types should also *note support garbage
          collection: 4d6c. as they can form a reference cycle with
          their own module object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE

          This bit is set when the type can be used as the base type of
          another type.  If this bit is clear, the type cannot be
          subtyped (similar to a “final” class in Java).

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_READY

          This bit is set when the type object has been fully
          initialized by *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_READYING

          This bit is set while *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. is in the
          process of initializing the type object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC

          This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection.
          If this bit is set, instances must be created using *note
          PyObject_GC_New: 90e. and destroyed using *note
          PyObject_GC_Del(): 1392.  More information in section *note
          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4d6c.  This bit also
          implies that the GC-related fields *note tp_traverse: 5ae. and
          *note tp_clear: 481b. are present in the type object.

          'Inheritance:'

          Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad, *note tp_traverse: 5ae,
          *note tp_clear: 481b.

          The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit is inherited
          together with the *note tp_traverse: 5ae. and *note tp_clear:
          481b. fields, i.e.  if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag
          bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 5ae.
          and *note tp_clear: 481b. fields in the subtype exist and have
          ‘NULL’ values.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT

          This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the
          existence of certain fields in the type object and its
          extension structures.  Currently, it includes the following
          bits: ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION’.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR

          This bit indicates that objects behave like unbound methods.

          If this flag is set for ‘type(meth)’, then:

             - ‘meth.__get__(obj, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ (with ‘obj’ not
               None) must be equivalent to ‘meth(obj, *args, **kwds)’.

             - ‘meth.__get__(None, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ must be
               equivalent to ‘meth(*args, **kwds)’.

          This flag enables an optimization for typical method calls
          like ‘obj.meth()’: it avoids creating a temporary “bound
          method” object for ‘obj.meth’.

          Added in version 3.8.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is never inherited by types without the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8. flag set.  For extension types,
          it is inherited whenever *note tp_descr_get: 4d2a. is
          inherited.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT

          This bit indicates that instances of the class have a
          ‘~object.__dict__’ attribute, and that the space for the
          dictionary is managed by the VM.

          If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. should
          also be set.

          Added in version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_dictoffset: 4aed.
          field is set in a superclass.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF

          This bit indicates that instances of the class should be
          weakly referenceable.

          Added in version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_weaklistoffset:
          7e6. field is set in a superclass.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END

          Only usable with variable-size types, i.e.  ones with non-zero
          *note tp_itemsize: 1d5e.

          Indicates that the variable-sized portion of an instance of
          this type is at the end of the instance’s memory area, at an
          offset of ‘Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_basicsize’ (which may be different
          in each subclass).

          When setting this flag, be sure that all superclasses either
          use this memory layout, or are not variable-sized.  Python
          does not check this.

          Added in version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS

          These flags are used by functions such as *note
          PyLong_Check(): 4afd. to quickly determine if a type is a
          subclass of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster
          than a generic check, like *note PyObject_IsInstance(): d3a.
          Custom types that inherit from built-ins should have their
          *note tp_flags: 16e6. set appropriately, or the code that
          interacts with such types will behave differently depending on
          what kind of check is used.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE

          This bit is set when the *note tp_finalize: 912. slot is
          present in the type structure.

          Added in version 3.4.

          3.8 sürümünden beri kullanım dışı: This flag isn’t necessary
          anymore, as the interpreter assumes the *note tp_finalize:
          912. slot is always present in the type structure.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL

          This bit is set when the class implements the *note vectorcall
          protocol: 2e1.  See *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4a8d. for
          details.

          'Inheritance:'

          This bit is inherited if *note tp_call: 2e9. is also
          inherited.

          Added in version 3.9.

          3.12 sürümünde değişti: This flag is now removed from a class
          when the class’s *note __call__(): 2e7. method is reassigned.

          This flag can now be inherited by mutable classes.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE

          This bit is set for type objects that are immutable: type
          attributes cannot be set nor deleted.

          *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. automatically applies this flag to
          *note static types: 5af.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION

          Disallow creating instances of the type: set *note tp_new:
          318. to NULL and don’t create the ‘__new__’ key in the type
          dictionary.

          The flag must be set before creating the type, not after.  For
          example, it must be set before *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. is
          called on the type.

          The flag is set automatically on *note static types: 5af. if
          *note tp_base: 4814. is NULL or ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ and *note
          tp_new: 318. is NULL.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.  However, subclasses will not be
          instantiable unless they provide a non-NULL *note tp_new: 318.
          (which is only possible via the C API).

               Not: To disallow instantiating a class directly but allow
               instantiating its subclasses (e.g.  for an *note abstract
               base class: 105b.), do not use this flag.  Instead, make
               *note tp_new: 318. only succeed for subclasses.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          mapping patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          648. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Mapping: 71c, and unset when
          registering *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069.

               Not: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 16cb. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 16cc. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 16cc.

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          sequence patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          648. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069, and unset
          when registering *note collections.abc.Mapping: 71c.

               Not: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 16cb. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 16cc. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 16cb.

          Ayrıca bakınız
          ..............

          PEP 634(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Makrosu: Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG

          Internal.  Do not set or unset this flag.  To indicate that a
          class has changed call *note PyType_Modified(): 1614.

               Uyarı: This flag is present in header files, but is an
               internal feature and should not be used.  It will be
               removed in a future version of CPython

 -- C Üyesi: const char **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_doc

     An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the
     docstring for this type object.  This is exposed as the *note
     __doc__: 1af5. attribute on the type and instances of the type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is 'not' inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note traverseproc: 4a01. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_traverse

     An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage
     collector.  This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad.
     flag bit is set.  The signature is:

          int tp_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg);

     More information about Python’s garbage collection scheme can be
     found in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4d6c.

     The *note tp_traverse: 5ae. pointer is used by the garbage
     collector to detect reference cycles.  A typical implementation of
     a *note tp_traverse: 5ae. function simply calls *note Py_VISIT():
     4812. on each of the instance’s members that are Python objects
     that the instance owns.  For example, this is function
     ‘local_traverse()’ from the ‘_thread’ extension module:

          static int
          local_traverse(localobject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->args);
              Py_VISIT(self->kw);
              Py_VISIT(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 4812. is called only on those members
     that can participate in reference cycles.  Although there is also a
     ‘self->key’ member, it can only be ‘NULL’ or a Python string and
     therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle.

     On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part of a
     cycle, as a debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway just so
     the *note gc: 5e. module’s *note get_referents(): 63f. function
     will include it.

          Uyarı: When implementing *note tp_traverse: 5ae, only the
          members that the instance 'owns' (by having *note strong
          references: 5c1. to them) must be visited.  For instance, if
          an object supports weak references via the *note tp_weaklist:
          4af2. slot, the pointer supporting the linked list (what
          'tp_weaklist' points to) must 'not' be visited as the instance
          does not directly own the weak references to itself (the
          weakreference list is there to support the weak reference
          machinery, but the instance has no strong reference to the
          elements inside it, as they are allowed to be removed even if
          the instance is still alive).

     Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 4812. requires the 'visit' and 'arg'
     parameters to ‘local_traverse()’ to have these specific names;
     don’t name them just anything.

     Instances of *note heap-allocated types: 7c0. hold a reference to
     their type.  Their traversal function must therefore either visit
     *note Py_TYPE(self): 5b0, or delegate this responsibility by
     calling ‘tp_traverse’ of another heap-allocated type (such as a
     heap-allocated superclass).  If they do not, the type object may
     not be garbage-collected.

     3.9 sürümünde değişti: Heap-allocated types are expected to visit
     ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ in ‘tp_traverse’.  In earlier versions of Python,
     due to bug 40217(3), doing this may lead to crashes in subclasses.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad, *note tp_traverse: 5ae, *note
     tp_clear: 481b.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_clear:
     481b. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit: the flag
     bit, *note tp_traverse: 5ae, and *note tp_clear: 481b. are all
     inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

 -- C Üyesi: *note inquiry: 49f2. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_clear

     An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector.
     This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit is
     set.  The signature is:

          int tp_clear(PyObject *);

     The *note tp_clear: 481b. member function is used to break
     reference cycles in cyclic garbage detected by the garbage
     collector.  Taken together, all *note tp_clear: 481b. functions in
     the system must combine to break all reference cycles.  This is
     subtle, and if in any doubt supply a *note tp_clear: 481b.
     function.  For example, the tuple type does not implement a *note
     tp_clear: 481b. function, because it’s possible to prove that no
     reference cycle can be composed entirely of tuples.  Therefore the
     *note tp_clear: 481b. functions of other types must be sufficient
     to break any cycle containing a tuple.  This isn’t immediately
     obvious, and there’s rarely a good reason to avoid implementing
     *note tp_clear: 481b.

     Implementations of *note tp_clear: 481b. should drop the instance’s
     references to those of its members that may be Python objects, and
     set its pointers to those members to ‘NULL’, as in the following
     example:

          static int
          local_clear(localobject *self)
          {
              Py_CLEAR(self->key);
              Py_CLEAR(self->args);
              Py_CLEAR(self->kw);
              Py_CLEAR(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     The *note Py_CLEAR(): 311. macro should be used, because clearing
     references is delicate: the reference to the contained object must
     not be released (via *note Py_DECREF(): 306.) until after the
     pointer to the contained object is set to ‘NULL’.  This is because
     releasing the reference may cause the contained object to become
     trash, triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include
     invoking arbitrary Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref
     callbacks, associated with the contained object).  If it’s possible
     for such code to reference 'self' again, it’s important that the
     pointer to the contained object be ‘NULL’ at that time, so that
     'self' knows the contained object can no longer be used.  The *note
     Py_CLEAR(): 311. macro performs the operations in a safe order.

     Note that *note tp_clear: 481b. is not 'always' called before an
     instance is deallocated.  For example, when reference counting is
     enough to determine that an object is no longer used, the cyclic
     garbage collector is not involved and *note tp_dealloc: 4808. is
     called directly.

     Because the goal of *note tp_clear: 481b. functions is to break
     reference cycles, it’s not necessary to clear contained objects
     like Python strings or Python integers, which can’t participate in
     reference cycles.  On the other hand, it may be convenient to clear
     all contained Python objects, and write the type’s *note
     tp_dealloc: 4808. function to invoke *note tp_clear: 481b.

     More information about Python’s garbage collection scheme can be
     found in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4d6c.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad, *note tp_traverse: 5ae, *note
     tp_clear: 481b.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_traverse: 5ae. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit:
     the flag bit, *note tp_traverse: 5ae, and *note tp_clear: 481b. are
     all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the
     subtype.

 -- C Üyesi: *note richcmpfunc: 49fa. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_richcompare

     An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose
     signature is:

          PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op);

     The first parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type
     that is defined by *note PyTypeObject: 911.

     The function should return the result of the comparison (usually
     ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’).  If the comparison is undefined, it must
     return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if another error occurred it must
     return ‘NULL’ and set an exception condition.

     The following constants are defined to be used as the third
     argument for *note tp_richcompare: 482a. and for *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 482b.:

     Constant                 Comparison
                              
     ------------------------------------------
                              
      -- C Makrosu: Py_LT     ‘<’
                              
                              
      -- C Makrosu: Py_LE     ‘<=’
                              
                              
      -- C Makrosu: Py_EQ     ‘==’
                              
                              
      -- C Makrosu: Py_NE     ‘!=’
                              
                              
      -- C Makrosu: Py_GT     ‘>’
                              
                              
      -- C Makrosu: Py_GE     ‘>=’
                              

     The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison
     functions:

      -- C Makrosu: Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (VAL_A, VAL_B, op)

          Return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ from the function, depending on
          the result of a comparison.  VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable
          by C comparison operators (for example, they may be C ints or
          floats).  The third argument specifies the requested
          operation, as for *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 482b.

          The returned value is a new *note strong reference: 5c1.

          On error, sets an exception and returns ‘NULL’ from the
          function.

          Added in version 3.7.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 4830, *note tp_richcompare: 482a.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_hash:
     4830.: a subtype inherits *note tp_richcompare: 482a. and *note
     tp_hash: 4830. when the subtype’s *note tp_richcompare: 482a. and
     *note tp_hash: 4830. are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. provides a *note tp_richcompare:
     482a. implementation, which may be inherited.  However, if only
     *note tp_hash: 4830. is defined, not even the inherited function is
     used and instances of the type will not be able to participate in
     any comparisons.

 -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_weaklistoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2eb. should be used instead, if at all
     possible.

     If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field
     is greater than zero and contains the offset in the instance
     structure of the weak reference list head (ignoring the GC header,
     if present); this offset is used by *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs():
     30f. and the ‘PyWeakref_*’ functions.  The instance structure needs
     to include a field of type *note PyObject: 6eb.* which is
     initialized to ‘NULL’.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_weaklist: 4af2.; that is
     the list head for weak references to the type object itself.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     2eb. bit and *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed
     below.  A subtype may override this offset; this means that the
     subtype uses a different weak reference list head than the base
     type.  Since the list head is always found via *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6, this should not be a problem.

     'Default:'

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 2eb. bit is set in the
     *note tp_flags: 16e6. field, then *note tp_weaklistoffset: 7e6.
     will be set to a negative value, to indicate that it is unsafe to
     use this field.

 -- C Üyesi: *note getiterfunc: 49ee. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_iter

     An optional pointer to a function that returns an *note iterator:
     176e. for the object.  Its presence normally signals that the
     instances of this type are *note iterable: 10ce. (although
     sequences may be iterable without this function).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyObject_GetIter():
     495b.:

          PyObject *tp_iter(PyObject *self);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note iternextfunc: 49f3. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_iternext

     An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an
     *note iterator: 176e.  The signature is:

          PyObject *tp_iternext(PyObject *self);

     When the iterator is exhausted, it must return ‘NULL’; a *note
     StopIteration: a73. exception may or may not be set.  When another
     error occurs, it must return ‘NULL’ too.  Its presence signals that
     the instances of this type are iterators.

     Iterator types should also define the *note tp_iter: 137b.
     function, and that function should return the iterator instance
     itself (not a new iterator instance).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyIter_Next(): 4902.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: struct *note PyMethodDef: 1364. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_methods

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMethodDef: 1364. structures, declaring regular methods of this
     type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 151a. below) containing a method
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C Üyesi: struct *note PyMemberDef: 2dd. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_members

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMemberDef: 2dd. structures, declaring regular data members
     (fields or slots) of instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 151a. below) containing a member
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C Üyesi: struct *note PyGetSetDef: a2f. **note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_getset

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyGetSetDef: a2f. structures, declaring computed attributes of
     instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 151a. below) containing a getset
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are
     inherited through a different mechanism).

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyTypeObject: 911. **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_base

     An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are
     inherited.  At this level, only single inheritance is supported;
     multiple inheritance require dynamically creating a type object by
     calling the metatype.

          Not: 
          Slot initialization is subject to the rules of initializing
          globals.  C99 requires the initializers to be “address
          constants”.  Function designators like *note
          PyType_GenericNew(): 4805, with implicit conversion to a
          pointer, are valid C99 address constants.

          However, the unary ‘&’ operator applied to a non-static
          variable like *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. is not required
          to produce an address constant.  Compilers may support this
          (gcc does), MSVC does not.  Both compilers are strictly
          standard conforming in this particular behavior.

          Consequently, *note tp_base: 4814. should be set in the
          extension module’s init function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously).

     'Default:'

     This field defaults to ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ (which to Python
     programmers is known as the type *note object: 8f2.).

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_dict

     The type’s dictionary is stored here by *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac.

     This field should normally be initialized to ‘NULL’ before
     PyType_Ready is called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary
     containing initial attributes for the type.  Once *note
     PyType_Ready(): 5ac. has initialized the type, extra attributes for
     the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don’t
     correspond to overloaded operations (like *note __add__(): 1d7b.).
     Once initialization for the type has finished, this field should be
     treated as read-only.

     Some types may not store their dictionary in this slot.  Use *note
     PyType_GetDict(): 1519. to retrieve the dictionary for an arbitrary
     type.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Internals detail: For static builtin types,
     this is always ‘NULL’.  Instead, the dict for such types is stored
     on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use *note PyType_GetDict(): 1519. to get
     the dict for an arbitrary type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes
     defined in here are inherited through a different mechanism).

     'Default:'

     If this field is ‘NULL’, *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. will assign a
     new dictionary to it.

          Uyarı: It is not safe to use *note PyDict_SetItem(): 47f3. on
          or otherwise modify *note tp_dict: 151a. with the dictionary
          C-API.

 -- C Üyesi: *note descrgetfunc: 49e8. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_descr_get

     An optional pointer to a “descriptor get” function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note descrsetfunc: 49e9. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_descr_set

     An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting a
     descriptor’s value.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value);

     The 'value' argument is set to ‘NULL’ to delete the value.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Üyesi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_dictoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT:
     2ea. should be used instead, if at all possible.

     If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance
     variables, this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the
     instances of the type of the instance variable dictionary; this
     offset is used by *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4956.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_dict: 151a.; that is the
     dictionary for attributes of the type object itself.

     The value specifies the offset of the dictionary from the start of
     the instance structure.

     The *note tp_dictoffset: 4aed. should be regarded as write-only.
     To get the pointer to the dictionary call *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1765.  Calling *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1765. may need to allocate memory for
     the dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call *note
     PyObject_GetAttr(): 495a. when accessing an attribute on the
     object.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea.
     bit and *note tp_dictoffset: 4aed.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.  A subtype should not override
     this offset; doing so could be unsafe, if C code tries to access
     the dictionary at the previous offset.  To properly support
     inheritance, use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea.

     'Default:'

     This slot has no default.  For *note static types: 5af, if the
     field is ‘NULL’ then no *note __dict__: 2ec. gets created for
     instances.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 2ea. bit is set in the *note
     tp_dict: 151a. field, then *note tp_dictoffset: 4aed. will be set
     to ‘-1’, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.

 -- C Üyesi: *note initproc: 49f1. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_init

     An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.

     This function corresponds to the *note __init__(): 4c6. method of
     classes.  Like ‘__init__()’, it is possible to create an instance
     without calling ‘__init__()’, and it is possible to reinitialize an
     instance by calling its ‘__init__()’ method again.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the 'args' and
     'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the
     call to *note __init__(): 4c6.

     The *note tp_init: 31a. function, if not ‘NULL’, is called when an
     instance is created normally by calling its type, after the type’s
     *note tp_new: 318. function has returned an instance of the type.
     If the *note tp_new: 318. function returns an instance of some
     other type that is not a subtype of the original type, no *note
     tp_init: 31a. function is called; if *note tp_new: 318. returns an
     instance of a subtype of the original type, the subtype’s *note
     tp_init: 31a. is called.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     For *note static types: 5af. this field does not have a default.

 -- C Üyesi: *note allocfunc: 49e6. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_alloc

     An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic
     subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement).

     'Default:'

     For dynamic subtypes, this field is always set to *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8cf, to force a standard heap allocation
     strategy.

     For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. uses *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8cf.  That is the recommended value for all
     statically defined types.

 -- C Üyesi: *note newfunc: 49f5. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_new

     An optional pointer to an instance creation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The 'subtype' argument is the type of the object being created; the
     'args' and 'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword
     arguments of the call to the type.  Note that 'subtype' doesn’t
     have to equal the type whose *note tp_new: 318. function is called;
     it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated type).

     The *note tp_new: 318. function should call
     ‘subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems)’ to allocate space for the
     object, and then do only as much further initialization as is
     absolutely necessary.  Initialization that can safely be ignored or
     repeated should be placed in the *note tp_init: 31a. handler.  A
     good rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization
     should take place in *note tp_new: 318, while for mutable types,
     most initialization should be deferred to *note tp_init: 31a.

     Set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 31b. flag to
     disallow creating instances of the type in Python.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by
     *note static types: 5af. whose *note tp_base: 4814. is ‘NULL’ or
     ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’.

     'Default:'

     For *note static types: 5af. this field has no default.  This means
     if the slot is defined as ‘NULL’, the type cannot be called to
     create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create
     instances, like a factory function.

 -- C Üyesi: *note freefunc: 4bdd. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_free

     An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function.  Its
     signature is:

          void tp_free(void *self);

     An initializer that is compatible with this signature is *note
     PyObject_Free(): ae3.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic
     subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement)

     'Default:'

     In dynamic subtypes, this field is set to a deallocator suitable to
     match *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): 8cf. and the value of the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit.

     For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4887. uses *note
     PyObject_Del(): 135e.

 -- C Üyesi: *note inquiry: 49f2. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_is_gc

     An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.

     The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is
     collectible or not.  Normally, it is sufficient to look at the
     object’s type’s *note tp_flags: 16e6. field, and check the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag bit.  But some types have a mixture
     of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and the
     statically allocated instances are not collectible.  Such types
     should define this function; it should return ‘1’ for a collectible
     instance, and ‘0’ for a non-collectible instance.  The signature
     is:

          int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self);

     (The only example of this are types themselves.  The metatype,
     *note PyType_Type: 2db, defines this function to distinguish
     between statically and *note dynamically allocated types: 7c0.)

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     This slot has no default.  If this field is ‘NULL’, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. is used as the functional equivalent.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_bases

     Tuple of base types.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 5ac.

     For dynamically created classes, the ‘Py_tp_bases’ *note slot:
     4997. can be used instead of the 'bases' argument of *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317.  The argument form is preferred.

          Uyarı: Multiple inheritance does not work well for statically
          defined types.  If you set ‘tp_bases’ to a tuple, Python will
          not raise an error, but some slots will only be inherited from
          the first base.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_mro

     Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the
     type itself and ending with *note object: 8f2, in Method Resolution
     Order.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 5ac.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by *note
     PyType_Ready(): 5ac.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_cache

     Unused.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Üyesi: void **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_subclasses

     A collection of subclasses.  Internal use only.  May be an invalid
     pointer.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 30a.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: For some types, this field does not hold a
     valid *note PyObject: 6eb.*.  The type was changed to void* to
     indicate this.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Üyesi: *note PyObject: 6eb. **note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_weaklist

     Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object.
     Not inherited.  Internal use only.

     3.12 sürümünde değişti: Internals detail: For the static builtin
     types this is always ‘NULL’, even if weakrefs are added.  Instead,
     the weakrefs for each are stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use the
     public C-API or the internal ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’
     macro to avoid the distinction.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Üyesi: *note destructor: 49ea. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_del

     This field is deprecated.  Use *note tp_finalize: 912. instead.

 -- C Üyesi: unsigned int *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_version_tag

     Used to index into the method cache.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Üyesi: *note destructor: 49ea. *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_finalize

     An optional pointer to an instance finalization function.  Its
     signature is:

          void tp_finalize(PyObject *self);

     If *note tp_finalize: 912. is set, the interpreter calls it once
     when finalizing an instance.  It is called either from the garbage
     collector (if the instance is part of an isolated reference cycle)
     or just before the object is deallocated.  Either way, it is
     guaranteed to be called before attempting to break reference
     cycles, ensuring that it finds the object in a sane state.

     *note tp_finalize: 912. should not mutate the current exception
     status; therefore, a recommended way to write a non-trivial
     finalizer is:

          static void
          local_finalize(PyObject *self)
          {
              PyObject *error_type, *error_value, *error_traceback;

              /* Save the current exception, if any. */
              PyErr_Fetch(&error_type, &error_value, &error_traceback);

              /* ... */

              /* Restore the saved exception. */
              PyErr_Restore(error_type, error_value, error_traceback);
          }

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     Added in version 3.4.

     3.8 sürümünde değişti: Before version 3.8 it was necessary to set
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 371. flags bit in order for
     this field to be used.  This is no longer required.

     Ayrıca bakınız
     ..............

     “Safe object finalization” ( PEP 442(4))

 -- C Üyesi: *note vectorcallfunc: 2e6. *note PyTypeObject:
          911.tp_vectorcall

     Vectorcall function to use for calls of this type object.  In other
     words, it is used to implement *note vectorcall: 2e1. for
     ‘type.__call__’.  If ‘tp_vectorcall’ is ‘NULL’, the default call
     implementation using *note __new__(): 319. and *note __init__():
     4c6. is used.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is never inherited.

     Added in version 3.9: (the field exists since 3.8 but it’s only
     used since 3.9)

 -- C Üyesi: unsigned char *note PyTypeObject: 911.tp_watched

     Internal.  Do not use.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue40217

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Static Types,  Next: Heap Types,  Prev: PyTypeObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.9 Static Types
.....................

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static', that is, a static
*note PyTypeObject: 911. structure is defined directly in code and
initialized using *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac.

This results in types that are limited relative to types defined in
Python:

   * Static types are limited to one base, i.e.  they cannot use
     multiple inheritance.

   * Static type objects (but not necessarily their instances) are
     immutable.  It is not possible to add or modify the type object’s
     attributes from Python.

   * Static type objects are shared across *note sub-interpreters: 320,
     so they should not include any subinterpreter-specific state.

Also, since *note PyTypeObject: 911. is only part of the *note Limited
API: 2de. as an opaque struct, any extension modules using static types
must be compiled for a specific Python minor version.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types,  Next: Number Object Structures,  Prev: Static Types,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.10 Heap Types
....................

An alternative to *note static types: 5af. is 'heap-allocated types', or
'heap types' for short, which correspond closely to classes created by
Python’s ‘class’ statement.  Heap types have the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 701. flag set.

This is done by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 14fe. structure and calling
*note PyType_FromSpec(): 316, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 317,
*note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0, or *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
2df.


File: python.info,  Node: Number Object Structures,  Next: Mapping Object Structures,  Prev: Heap Types,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.11 Number Object Structures
..................................

 -- C Türü: type PyNumberMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the number protocol.  Each function is used by the
     function of similar name documented in the *note Number Protocol:
     4a98. section.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
               binaryfunc nb_add;
               binaryfunc nb_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_remainder;
               binaryfunc nb_divmod;
               ternaryfunc nb_power;
               unaryfunc nb_negative;
               unaryfunc nb_positive;
               unaryfunc nb_absolute;
               inquiry nb_bool;
               unaryfunc nb_invert;
               binaryfunc nb_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_and;
               binaryfunc nb_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_or;
               unaryfunc nb_int;
               void *nb_reserved;
               unaryfunc nb_float;

               binaryfunc nb_inplace_add;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder;
               ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_and;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_or;

               binaryfunc nb_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_true_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide;

               unaryfunc nb_index;

               binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply;
          } PyNumberMethods;

          Not: Binary and ternary functions must check the type of all
          their operands, and implement the necessary conversions (at
          least one of the operands is an instance of the defined type).
          If the operation is not defined for the given operands, binary
          and ternary functions must return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if
          another error occurred they must return ‘NULL’ and set an
          exception.

          Not: The *note nb_reserved: 4d50. field should always be
          ‘NULL’.  It was previously called ‘nb_long’, and was renamed
          in Python 3.0.1.

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_add

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_subtract

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_multiply

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_remainder

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_divmod

 -- C Üyesi: *note ternaryfunc: 4a00. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_power

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_negative

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_positive

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_absolute

 -- C Üyesi: *note inquiry: 49f2. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_bool

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_invert

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_lshift

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_rshift

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_and

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_xor

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_or

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_int

 -- C Üyesi: void **note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_reserved

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_float

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_add

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_subtract

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_multiply

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_remainder

 -- C Üyesi: *note ternaryfunc: 4a00. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_power

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_lshift

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_rshift

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_and

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_xor

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_or

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_floor_divide

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_true_divide

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_floor_divide

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_true_divide

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyNumberMethods: 12a6.nb_index

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_matrix_multiply

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyNumberMethods:
          12a6.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Object Structures,  Next: Sequence Object Structures,  Prev: Number Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.12 Mapping Object Structures
...................................

 -- C Türü: type PyMappingMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the mapping protocol.  It has three members:

 -- C Üyesi: *note lenfunc: 49f4. *note PyMappingMethods: 482f.mp_length

     This function is used by *note PyMapping_Size(): 1898. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 4962, and has the same signature.  This slot may
     be set to ‘NULL’ if the object has no defined length.

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PyMappingMethods:
          482f.mp_subscript

     This function is used by *note PyObject_GetItem(): 486c. and *note
     PySequence_GetSlice(): 496d, and has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_GetItem()’.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PyMapping_Check(): 4916. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

 -- C Üyesi: *note objobjargproc: 49f6. *note PyMappingMethods:
          482f.mp_ass_subscript

     This function is used by *note PyObject_SetItem(): 486a, *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 4953, *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 4974. and
     *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 496b.  It has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_SetItem()’, but 'v' can also be set to ‘NULL’ to delete
     an item.  If this slot is ‘NULL’, the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Object Structures,  Next: Buffer Object Structures,  Prev: Mapping Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.13 Sequence Object Structures
....................................

 -- C Türü: type PySequenceMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the sequence protocol.

 -- C Üyesi: *note lenfunc: 49f4. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_length

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Size(): 1894. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 4962, and has the same signature.  It is also used
     for handling negative indices via the *note sq_item: 1757. and the
     *note sq_ass_item: 4d5c. slots.

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_concat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Concat(): 4968. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘+’ operator, after
     trying the numeric addition via the *note nb_add: 4ae4. slot.

 -- C Üyesi: *note ssizeargfunc: 49fe. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_repeat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4973. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘*’ operator, after
     trying numeric multiplication via the *note nb_multiply: 4d39.
     slot.

 -- C Üyesi: *note ssizeargfunc: 49fe. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_item

     This function is used by *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1895. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_GetItem():
     486c, after trying the subscription via the *note mp_subscript:
     1758. slot.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PySequence_Check(): 4967. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

     Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the *note sq_length:
     4aec. slot is filled, it is called and the sequence length is used
     to compute a positive index which is passed to *note sq_item: 1757.
     If ‘sq_length’ is ‘NULL’, the index is passed as is to the
     function.

 -- C Üyesi: *note ssizeobjargproc: 49ff. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_ass_item

     This function is used by *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1896. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_SetItem():
     486a. and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4953, after trying the item
     assignment and deletion via the *note mp_ass_subscript: 4d59. slot.
     This slot may be left to ‘NULL’ if the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.

 -- C Üyesi: *note objobjproc: 49f7. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_contains

     This function may be used by *note PySequence_Contains(): 4969. and
     has the same signature.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this
     case ‘PySequence_Contains()’ simply traverses the sequence until it
     finds a match.

 -- C Üyesi: *note binaryfunc: 49e7. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_inplace_concat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 496e.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceConcat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Concat(): 4968.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘+=’, after trying numeric in-place addition via the
     *note nb_inplace_add: 4d36. slot.

 -- C Üyesi: *note ssizeargfunc: 49fe. *note PySequenceMethods:
          482e.sq_inplace_repeat

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 496f.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Repeat(): 4973.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘*=’, after trying numeric in-place multiplication via
     the *note nb_inplace_multiply: 4d3a. slot.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer Object Structures,  Next: Async Object Structures,  Prev: Sequence Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.14 Buffer Object Structures
..................................

 -- C Türü: type PyBufferProcs

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the
     *note Buffer protocol: 14e.  The protocol defines how an exporter
     object can expose its internal data to consumer objects.

 -- C Üyesi: *note getbufferproc: 49ed. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4af3.bf_getbuffer

     The signature of this function is:

          int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);

     Handle a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by
     'flags'.  Except for point (3), an implementation of this function
     MUST take these steps:

       1. Check if the request can be met.  If not, raise *note
          BufferError: 164a, set view->obj to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’.

       2. Fill in the requested fields.

       3. Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.

       4. Set view->obj to 'exporter' and increment view->obj.

       5. Return ‘0’.

     If 'exporter' is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two
     main schemes can be used:

        * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting
          object and sets view->obj to a new reference to itself.

        * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object
          of the tree.  Here, view->obj will be a new reference to the
          root object.

     The individual fields of 'view' are described in section *note
     Buffer structure: 4aae, the rules how an exporter must react to
     specific requests are in section *note Buffer request types: 4269.

     All memory pointed to in the *note Py_buffer: 584. structure
     belongs to the exporter and must remain valid until there are no
     consumers left.  *note format: 4ab8, *note shape: 4aba, *note
     strides: 4ab2, *note suboffsets: 4abc. and *note internal: 4abf.
     are read-only for the consumer.

     *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 58e. provides an easy way of exposing a
     simple bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types.

     *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 586. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.

 -- C Üyesi: *note releasebufferproc: 49f8. *note PyBufferProcs:
          4af3.bf_releasebuffer

     The signature of this function is:

          void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);

     Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer.  If no
     resources need to be released, *note
     PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 592. may be ‘NULL’.  Otherwise, a
     standard implementation of this function will take these optional
     steps:

       1. Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports.

       2. If the counter is ‘0’, free all memory associated with 'view'.

     The exporter MUST use the *note internal: 4abf. field to keep track
     of buffer-specific resources.  This field is guaranteed to remain
     constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer
     as the 'view' argument.

     This function MUST NOT decrement view->obj, since that is done
     automatically in *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f. (this scheme is
     useful for breaking reference cycles).

     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 58f. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.


File: python.info,  Node: Async Object Structures,  Next: Slot Type typedefs,  Prev: Buffer Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.15 Async Object Structures
.................................

Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Türü: type PyAsyncMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required to
     implement *note awaitable: af6. and *note asynchronous iterator:
     c05. objects.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
              unaryfunc am_await;
              unaryfunc am_aiter;
              unaryfunc am_anext;
              sendfunc am_send;
          } PyAsyncMethods;

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4aeb.am_await

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self);

     The returned object must be an *note iterator: 176e, i.e.  *note
     PyIter_Check(): 171f. must return ‘1’ for it.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object is not an *note
     awaitable: af6.

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4aeb.am_aiter

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: c05. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 1402. for details.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object does not implement
     asynchronous iteration protocol.

 -- C Üyesi: *note unaryfunc: 4a02. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4aeb.am_anext

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note awaitable: af6. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 1402. for details.  This slot may be set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Üyesi: *note sendfunc: 4d35. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4aeb.am_send

     The signature of this function is:

          PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result);

     See *note PyIter_Send(): 6e1. for details.  This slot may be set to
     ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Slot Type typedefs,  Next: Examples<38>,  Prev: Async Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.16 Slot Type typedefs
............................

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*allocfunc)(*note
          PyTypeObject: 911. *cls, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. nitems)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  The purpose of this
     function is to separate memory allocation from memory
     initialization.  It should return a pointer to a block of memory of
     adequate length for the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized
     to zeros, but with *note ob_refcnt: 6ea. set to ‘1’ and *note
     ob_type: 4806. set to the type argument.  If the type’s *note
     tp_itemsize: 1d5e. is non-zero, the object’s *note ob_size: 49d4.
     field should be initialized to 'nitems' and the length of the
     allocated memory block should be ‘tp_basicsize +
     nitems*tp_itemsize’, rounded up to a multiple of ‘sizeof(void*)’;
     otherwise, 'nitems' is not used and the length of the block should
     be *note tp_basicsize: 7e5.

     This function should not do any other instance initialization, not
     even to allocate additional memory; that should be done by *note
     tp_new: 318.

 -- C Türü: typedef void (*destructor)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef void (*freefunc)(void*)

     See *note tp_free: 4809.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*newfunc)(*note PyTypeObject:
          911.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_new: 318.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*initproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note
          PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_init: 31a.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*reprfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_repr: 481d.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*getattrfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb. *self, char *attr)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the value of the
     named attribute for the object.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*setattrfunc)(*note PyObject: 6eb. *self, char
          *attr, *note PyObject: 6eb. *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*getattrofunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6eb. *self, *note PyObject: 6eb. *attr)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Return the value of the
     named attribute for the object.

     See *note tp_getattro: 4821.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*setattrofunc)(*note PyObject: 6eb. *self,
          *note PyObject: 6eb. *attr, *note PyObject: 6eb. *value)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

     See *note tp_setattro: 4822.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*descrgetfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_descr_get:
     4d2a.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*descrsetfunc)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note
          PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_descr_set:
     1721.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note Py_hash_t: 110c. (*hashfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_hash: 4830.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*richcmpfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*, int)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_richcompare:
     482a.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*getiterfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_iter: 137b.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*iternextfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  See *note tp_iternext:
     137c.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. (*lenfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*getbufferproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note
          Py_buffer: 584.*, int)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'

 -- C Türü: typedef void (*releasebufferproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*,
          *note Py_buffer: 584.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.12 sürümünden beri.'

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*unaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*binaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PySendResult: 4aaa. (*sendfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject:
          6eb.**)

     See *note am_send: 4d34.

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*ternaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef *note PyObject: 6eb. *(*ssizeargfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 6eb.*, *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4.)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*ssizeobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note
          Py_ssize_t: 8c4, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*objobjproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note
          PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*objobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb.*, *note
          PyObject: 6eb.*, *note PyObject: 6eb.*)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<38>,  Prev: Slot Type typedefs,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.12.3.17 Examples
..................

The following are simple examples of Python type definitions.  They
include common usage you may encounter.  Some demonstrate tricky corner
cases.  For more examples, practical info, and a tutorial, see *note
Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: 47ff. and *note Defining Extension
Types; Assorted Topics: 4818.

A basic *note static type: 5af.:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

You may also find older code (especially in the CPython code base) with
a more verbose initializer:

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         "mymod.MyObject",               /* tp_name */
         sizeof(MyObject),               /* tp_basicsize */
         0,                              /* tp_itemsize */
         (destructor)myobj_dealloc,      /* tp_dealloc */
         0,                              /* tp_vectorcall_offset */
         0,                              /* tp_getattr */
         0,                              /* tp_setattr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_async */
         (reprfunc)myobj_repr,           /* tp_repr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_number */
         0,                              /* tp_as_sequence */
         0,                              /* tp_as_mapping */
         0,                              /* tp_hash */
         0,                              /* tp_call */
         0,                              /* tp_str */
         0,                              /* tp_getattro */
         0,                              /* tp_setattro */
         0,                              /* tp_as_buffer */
         0,                              /* tp_flags */
         PyDoc_STR("My objects"),        /* tp_doc */
         0,                              /* tp_traverse */
         0,                              /* tp_clear */
         0,                              /* tp_richcompare */
         0,                              /* tp_weaklistoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_iter */
         0,                              /* tp_iternext */
         0,                              /* tp_methods */
         0,                              /* tp_members */
         0,                              /* tp_getset */
         0,                              /* tp_base */
         0,                              /* tp_dict */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_get */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_set */
         0,                              /* tp_dictoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_init */
         0,                              /* tp_alloc */
         myobj_new,                      /* tp_new */
     };

A type that supports weakrefs, instance dicts, and hashing:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE |
              Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT |
              Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF,
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc)myobj_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry)myobj_clear,
         .tp_alloc = PyType_GenericNew,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
         .tp_hash = (hashfunc)myobj_hash,
         .tp_richcompare = PyBaseObject_Type.tp_richcompare,
     };

A str subclass that cannot be subclassed and cannot be called to create
instances (e.g.  uses a separate factory func) using *note
Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 31b. flag:

     typedef struct {
         PyUnicodeObject raw;
         char *extra;
     } MyStr;

     static PyTypeObject MyStr_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyStr",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyStr),
         .tp_base = NULL,  // set to &PyUnicode_Type in module init
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("my custom str"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

The simplest *note static type: 5af. with fixed-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
     };

The simplest *note static type: 5af. with variable-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *data[1];
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject) - sizeof(char *),
         .tp_itemsize = sizeof(char *),
     };


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection,  Prev: Type Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.12.4 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection
-------------------------------------------

Python’s support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves
circular references requires support from object types which are
“containers” for other objects which may also be containers.  Types
which do not store references to other objects, or which only store
references to atomic types (such as numbers or strings), do not need to
provide any explicit support for garbage collection.

To create a container type, the *note tp_flags: 16e6. field of the type
object must include the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. and provide an
implementation of the *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handler.  If instances of
the type are mutable, a *note tp_clear: 481b. implementation must also
be provided.

*note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad.

     Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules
     documented here.  For convenience these objects will be referred to
     as container objects.

Constructors for container types must conform to two rules:

  1. The memory for the object must be allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: 90e. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: 90f.

  2. Once all the fields which may contain references to other
     containers are initialized, it must call *note PyObject_GC_Track():
     1393.

Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair
of rules:

  1. Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated,
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394. must be called.

  2. The object’s memory must be deallocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 1392.

          Uyarı: If a type adds the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, then it 'must'
          implement at least a *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handler or
          explicitly use one from its subclass or subclasses.

          When calling *note PyType_Ready(): 5ac. or some of the APIs
          that indirectly call it like *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases():
          317. or *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316. the interpreter will
          automatically populate the *note tp_flags: 16e6, *note
          tp_traverse: 5ae. and *note tp_clear: 481b. fields if the type
          inherits from a class that implements the garbage collector
          protocol and the child class does 'not' include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_GC_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_New: 7e3. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag set.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_GC_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag set.

 -- C Işlevi: *note PyObject: 6eb.
          *PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (PyTypeObject *type,
          size_t extra_size)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Analogous to *note PyObject_GC_New: 90e. but allocates 'extra_size'
     bytes at the end of the object (at offset *note tp_basicsize:
     7e5.).  The allocated memory is initialized to zeros, except for
     the *note Python object header: 6eb.

     The extra data will be deallocated with the object, but otherwise
     it is not managed by Python.

          Uyarı: The function is marked as unstable because the final
          mechanism for reserving extra data after an instance is not
          yet decided.  For allocating a variable number of fields,
          prefer using *note PyVarObject: 3f10. and *note tp_itemsize:
          1d5e. instead.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Makrosu: PyObject_GC_Resize (TYPE, op, newsize)

     Resize an object allocated by *note PyObject_NewVar: 7e4.  Returns
     the resized object of type ‘TYPE*’ (refers to any C type) or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

     'op' must be of type *note PyVarObject: 3f10.* and must not be
     tracked by the collector yet.  'newsize' must be of type *note
     Py_ssize_t: 8c4.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_GC_Track (PyObject *op)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Adds the object 'op' to the
     set of container objects tracked by the collector.  The collector
     can run at unexpected times so objects must be valid while being
     tracked.  This should be called once all the fields followed by the
     *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handler become valid, usually near the end
     of the constructor.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_IS_GC (PyObject *obj)

     Returns non-zero if the object implements the garbage collector
     protocol, otherwise returns 0.

     The object cannot be tracked by the garbage collector if this
     function returns 0.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_GC_IsTracked (PyObject *op)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'
     Returns 1 if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and
     'op' is being currently tracked by the garbage collector and 0
     otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_tracked():
     11b8.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (PyObject *op)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.9 sürümünden beri.'
     Returns 1 if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and
     'op' has been already finalized by the garbage collector and 0
     otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_finalized():
     752.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_GC_Del (void *op)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Releases memory allocated
     to an object using *note PyObject_GC_New: 90e. or *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar: 90f.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyObject_GC_UnTrack (void *op)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Remove the object 'op' from
     the set of container objects tracked by the collector.  Note that
     *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 1393. can be called again on this object
     to add it back to the set of tracked objects.  The deallocator
     (*note tp_dealloc: 4808. handler) should call this for the object
     before any of the fields used by the *note tp_traverse: 5ae.
     handler become invalid.

3.8 sürümünde değişti: The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C API.

The *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handler accepts a function parameter of this
type:

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*visitproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb. *object, void
          *arg)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Type of the visitor
     function passed to the *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handler.  The
     function should be called with an object to traverse as 'object'
     and the third parameter to the *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handler as
     'arg'.  The Python core uses several visitor functions to implement
     cyclic garbage detection; it’s not expected that users will need to
     write their own visitor functions.

The *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handler must have the following type:

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*traverseproc)(*note PyObject: 6eb. *self,
          *note visitproc: 4a03. visit, void *arg)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Traversal function for a
     container object.  Implementations must call the 'visit' function
     for each object directly contained by 'self', with the parameters
     to 'visit' being the contained object and the 'arg' value passed to
     the handler.  The 'visit' function must not be called with a ‘NULL’
     object argument.  If 'visit' returns a non-zero value that value
     should be returned immediately.

To simplify writing *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handlers, a *note
Py_VISIT(): 4812. macro is provided.  In order to use this macro, the
*note tp_traverse: 5ae. implementation must name its arguments exactly
'visit' and 'arg':

 -- C Işlevi: void Py_VISIT (PyObject *o)

     If 'o' is not ‘NULL’, call the 'visit' callback, with arguments 'o'
     and 'arg'.  If 'visit' returns a non-zero value, then return it.
     Using this macro, *note tp_traverse: 5ae. handlers look like:

          static int
          my_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              Py_VISIT(self->foo);
              Py_VISIT(self->bar);
              return 0;
          }

The *note tp_clear: 481b. handler must be of the *note inquiry: 49f2.
type, or ‘NULL’ if the object is immutable.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*inquiry)(*note PyObject: 6eb. *self)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Drop references that may
     have created reference cycles.  Immutable objects do not have to
     define this method since they can never directly create reference
     cycles.  Note that the object must still be valid after calling
     this method (don’t just call *note Py_DECREF(): 306. on a
     reference).  The collector will call this method if it detects that
     this object is involved in a reference cycle.

* Menu:

* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::


File: python.info,  Node: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Next: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

7.12.4.1 Controlling the Garbage Collector State
................................................

The C-API provides the following functions for controlling garbage
collection runs.

 -- C Işlevi: *note Py_ssize_t: 8c4. PyGC_Collect (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2.'  Perform a full garbage
     collection, if the garbage collector is enabled.  (Note that *note
     gc.collect(): 89c. runs it unconditionally.)

     Returns the number of collected + unreachable objects which cannot
     be collected.  If the garbage collector is disabled or already
     collecting, returns ‘0’ immediately.  Errors during garbage
     collection are passed to *note sys.unraisablehook: 491.  This
     function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyGC_Enable (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Enable the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.enable(): 4214.
     Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyGC_Disable (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'
     Disable the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.disable(): 4215.
     Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Işlevi: int PyGC_IsEnabled (void)
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.10 sürümünden beri.'  Query
     the state of the garbage collector: similar to *note
     gc.isenabled(): 4216.  Returns the current state, 0 for disabled
     and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Prev: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

7.12.4.2 Querying Garbage Collector State
.........................................

The C-API provides the following interface for querying information
about the garbage collector.

 -- C Işlevi: void PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (gcvisitobjects_t
          callback, void *arg)

          Bu Kararsız API. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir. 'Bu *note Kararsız API: 2d5. Bu, küçük (minor) sürümlerde uyarı olmadan değişebilir.': 
     Run supplied 'callback' on all live GC-capable objects.  'arg' is
     passed through to all invocations of 'callback'.

          Uyarı: If new objects are (de)allocated by the callback it is
          undefined if they will be visited.

          Garbage collection is disabled during operation.  Explicitly
          running a collection in the callback may lead to undefined
          behaviour e.g.  visiting the same objects multiple times or
          not at all.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Türü: typedef int (*gcvisitobjects_t)(*note PyObject: 6eb.
          *object, void *arg)

     Type of the visitor function to be passed to *note
     PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(): 4d85.  'arg' is the same as the 'arg'
     passed to ‘PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects’.  Return ‘0’ to continue
     iteration, return ‘1’ to stop iteration.  Other return values are
     reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is
     undefined.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: API and ABI Versioning,  Prev: Object Implementation Support,  Up: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu

7.13 API and ABI Versioning
===========================

CPython exposes its version number in the following macros.  Note that
these correspond to the version code is 'built' with, not necessarily
the version used at 'run time'.

See *note C API Stability: 2e2. for a discussion of API and ABI
stability across versions.

 -- C Makrosu: PY_MAJOR_VERSION

     The ‘3’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.

 -- C Makrosu: PY_MINOR_VERSION

     The ‘4’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.

 -- C Makrosu: PY_MICRO_VERSION

     The ‘1’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.

 -- C Makrosu: PY_RELEASE_LEVEL

     The ‘a’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.  This can be ‘0xA’ for alpha, ‘0xB’ for beta,
     ‘0xC’ for release candidate or ‘0xF’ for final.

 -- C Makrosu: PY_RELEASE_SERIAL

     The ‘2’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.  Zero for final releases.

 -- C Makrosu: PY_VERSION_HEX

     The Python version number encoded in a single integer.

     The underlying version information can be found by treating it as a
     32 bit number in the following manner:

     Bytes       Bits (big endian order)       Meaning                       Value for ‘3.4.1a2’
                                                                             
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
     1           1-8                           ‘PY_MAJOR_VERSION’            ‘0x03’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     2           9-16                          ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’            ‘0x04’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     3           17-24                         ‘PY_MICRO_VERSION’            ‘0x01’
                                                                             
                                                                             
     4           25-28                         ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL’            ‘0xA’
                                                                             
                                               
     29-32       ‘PY_RELEASE_SERIAL’           ‘0x2’
                                               

     Thus ‘3.4.1a2’ is hexversion ‘0x030401a2’ and ‘3.10.0’ is
     hexversion ‘0x030a00f0’.

     Use this for numeric comparisons, e.g.  ‘#if PY_VERSION_HEX >=
     ...’.

     This version is also available via the symbol *note Py_Version:
     582.

 -- C Değişkeni: const unsigned long Py_Version
     ' Bir parçası *note Kararlı ABI: 2e2. 3.11 sürümünden beri.'  The
     Python runtime version number encoded in a single constant integer,
     with the same format as the *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 583. macro.  This
     contains the Python version used at run time.

     Added in version 3.11.

All the given macros are defined in Include/patchlevel.h(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Include/patchlevel.h


File: python.info,  Node: Python Modüllerini Kurmak,  Next: Python NASIL’ları,  Prev: Python/C API Referans Kılavuzu,  Up: Top

8 Python Modüllerini Kurmak
***************************


E-posta: <distutils-sig@python.org>

Popüler bir açık kaynak geliştirme projesi olarak Python, yazılımlarını
diğer Python geliştiricilerinin açık kaynak lisansı koşulları altında
kullanmasını sağlayan, katkıda bulunanlardan ve kullanıcılardan oluşan
aktif bir destekleyici topluluğa sahiptir.

Bu, Python kullanıcılarının etkin bir şekilde paylaşımda bulunmasına ve
işbirliği yapmasına, başkalarının yaygın (ve hatta bazen nadir!)
sorunlara yönelik oluşturduğu çözümlerden faydalanmasına ve potansiyel
olarak ortak havuza kendi çözümleriyle katkıda bulunmasına olanak tanır.

This guide covers the installation part of the process.  For a guide to
creating and sharing your own Python projects, refer to the Python
packaging user guide(1).

     Not: Kurumsal kullanıcılar, birçok kuruluşun açık kaynak
     yazılımları kullanma ve bunlara katkıda bulunma konusunda kendi
     politikaları olduğunu unutmayın.  Python ile sağlanan dağıtım ve
     kurulum araçlarını kullanırken lütfen bu tür politikaları dikkate
     alın.

* Menu:

* Anahtar terimler::
* Temel kullanım::
* Nasıl yapabilirim …?::
* Genel yükleme sorunları::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


File: python.info,  Node: Anahtar terimler,  Next: Temel kullanım,  Up: Python Modüllerini Kurmak

8.1 Anahtar terimler
====================

   * ‘pip’, tercih edilen yükleyici programıdır.  Python 3.4’ten
     başlayarak, varsayılan olarak Python ikili yükleyicilerine dahil
     edilmiştir.

   * 'virtual environment', paketlerin sistem genelinde kurulmak yerine
     belirli bir uygulama tarafından kullanılmak üzere kurulmasına izin
     veren yarı izole bir Python ortamıdır.

   * ‘venv’, sanal ortamlar oluşturmaya yönelik standart bir araçtır ve
     Python 3.3’ten beri Python’un bir parçasıdır.  Python 3.4’ten
     başlayarak, ‘pip’ ‘in tüm oluşturulan sanal ortamlara yüklenmesi
     varsayılandır.

   * ‘virtualenv’, ‘venv’ ‘in üçüncü taraf alternatifidir (ve
     öncülüdür).  ‘venv’ ‘i hiç sağlamayan veya oluşturulan ortamlara
     ‘pip’ ‘i otomatik olarak yükleyemeyen 3.4’ten önceki Python
     sürümlerinde sanal ortamların kullanılmasına izin verir.

   * Python Package Index(1), diğer Python kullanıcılarının kullanımına
     sunulan, açık kaynaklı lisanslı paketlerin halka açık bir
     deposudur.

   * the Python Packaging Authority(2) is the group of developers and
     documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and evolution
     of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
     file format standards.  They maintain a variety of tools,
     documentation, and issue trackers on GitHub(3).

   * ‘distutils’, Python standart kitaplığına ilk olarak 1998 yılında
     eklenen orijinal oluşturma ve dağıtım sistemidir.  ‘distutils’ ‘in
     doğrudan kullanımı aşamalı olarak kaldırılırken, mevcut paketleme
     ve dağıtım altyapısının temelini atmaya devam etmektedir, ve
     yalnızca standard kütüphanenin bir parçası olmakla kalmamakla
     birlikte adı başka şekillerde de yaşıyor (Python paketleme
     standartlarının geliştirilmesini koordine etmek için kullanılan
     posta listesinin adı gibi).

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Artık sanal ortamlar oluşturmak için ‘venv’ ‘in
kullanılması önerilir.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu: Sanal ortamları oluşturma ve
kullanma(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.pypa.io/

   (3) https://github.com/pypa

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: Temel kullanım,  Next: Nasıl yapabilirim …?,  Prev: Anahtar terimler,  Up: Python Modüllerini Kurmak

8.2 Temel kullanım
==================

Standart paketleme araçlarının tümü, komut satırından kullanılmak üzere
tasarlanmıştır.

Aşağıdaki komut, bir modülün en son sürümünü ve bağımlılıklarını Python
Paket Dizininden yükleyecektir:

     python -m pip install SomePackage

     Not: POSIX kullanıcıları için (macOS ve Linux kullanıcıları dahil),
     bu kılavuzdaki örneklerde bir *note virtual environment: 1b4b.
     kullanıldığı varsayılmıştır.

     Windows kullanıcıları için bu kılavuzdaki örneklerde, Python
     yüklenirken sistem PATH ortam değişkenini ayarlama seçeneğinin
     seçildiği varsayılmaktadır.

Doğrudan komut satırında tam veya minimum bir sürüm belirtmek de
mümkündür.  ‘>’, ‘<’ gibi karşılaştırma operatörleri veya kabuk
tarafından yorumlanan diğer bazı özel karakterler kullanılırken, paket
adı ve sürüm çift tırnak içine alınmalıdır:

     python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # specific version
     python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4"  # minimum version

Normalde, uygun bir modül zaten kuruluysa, onu tekrar kurmayı denemenin
bir etkisi olmaz.  Mevcut modüllerin yükseltilmesi açıkça talep
edilmelidir:

     python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage

‘pip’ ve yapabilecekleri hakkında daha fazla bilgi ve kaynak Python
Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu(1) ‘nda bulunabilir.

Sanal ortamların oluşturulması, *note venv: 111. modülü aracılığıyla
yapılır.  Paketleri aktif bir sanal ortama kurmak, yukarıda gösterilen
komutları kullanır.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu: Python Dağıtma Paketlerini Kurma(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/installing/


File: python.info,  Node: Nasıl yapabilirim …?,  Next: Genel yükleme sorunları,  Prev: Temel kullanım,  Up: Python Modüllerini Kurmak

8.3 Nasıl yapabilirim …?
========================

Bunlar, bazı genel görevler için hızlı cevaplar veya bağlantılardır.

* Menu:

* … pip ‘i Python 3.4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?: … pip ‘i Python 3 4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?.
* … sadece mevcut kullanıcı için paketler kurabilirim?::
* … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?::
* … paralel olarak yüklenmiş birden çok Python sürümüyle çalışabilirim?::


File: python.info,  Node: … pip ‘i Python 3 4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?,  Next: … sadece mevcut kullanıcı için paketler kurabilirim?,  Up: Nasıl yapabilirim …?

8.3.1 … ‘pip’ ‘i Python 3.4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Python, ‘pip’ ‘i yalnızca Python 3.4 ile paketlemeye başladı.  Önceki
sürümler için, ‘pip’ ‘in Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu’nda
açıklandığı gibi “önyüklenmesi” gerekir.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu: Paketleri Kurmak için Gerekenler(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages


File: python.info,  Node: … sadece mevcut kullanıcı için paketler kurabilirim?,  Next: … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?,  Prev: … pip ‘i Python 3 4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?,  Up: Nasıl yapabilirim …?

8.3.2 … sadece mevcut kullanıcı için paketler kurabilirim?
----------------------------------------------------------

‘--user’ seçeneğinin ‘python -m pip install’ ‘e geçirilmesi, sistemin
tüm kullanıcıları yerine yalnızca geçerli kullanıcı için bir paket
yükleyecektir.


File: python.info,  Node: … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?,  Next: … paralel olarak yüklenmiş birden çok Python sürümüyle çalışabilirim?,  Prev: … sadece mevcut kullanıcı için paketler kurabilirim?,  Up: Nasıl yapabilirim …?

8.3.3 … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?
----------------------------------------------

Bir dizi bilimsel Python paketinin karmaşık ikili bağımlılıkları vardır
ve şu anda doğrudan ‘pip’ kullanılarak kurulumu kolay değildir.  Bu
noktada, kullanıcıların bu paketleri ‘pip’ ile kurmaya çalışmak yerine
başka yollar(1) ile kurması genellikle daha kolay olacaktır.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu: Bilimsel Paketler Kurma(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/science/


File: python.info,  Node: … paralel olarak yüklenmiş birden çok Python sürümüyle çalışabilirim?,  Prev: … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?,  Up: Nasıl yapabilirim …?

8.3.4 … paralel olarak yüklenmiş birden çok Python sürümüyle çalışabilirim?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Linux, macOS ve diğer POSIX sistemlerinde, ‘pip’ ‘in uygun kopyasını
çalıştırmak için ‘-m’ anahtarıyla birlikte sürümlü Python komutlarını
kullanın:

     python2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
     python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
     python3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4

Uygun sürüme sahip ‘pip’ komutları da mevcut olabilir.

Windows’ta, ‘py’ Python başlatıcısını ‘-m’ anahtarıyla birlikte
kullanın:

     py -2   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 2
     py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 2.7
     py -3   -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.4


File: python.info,  Node: Genel yükleme sorunları,  Prev: Nasıl yapabilirim …?,  Up: Python Modüllerini Kurmak

8.4 Genel yükleme sorunları
===========================

* Menu:

* Python’u Linux’te sisteme kurmak::
* Pip yüklü değil::
* İkili uzantıları yükleme::


File: python.info,  Node: Python’u Linux’te sisteme kurmak,  Next: Pip yüklü değil,  Up: Genel yükleme sorunları

8.4.1 Python’u Linux’te sisteme kurmak
--------------------------------------

Linux sistemlerinde, dağıtımın bir parçası olarak genellikle bir Python
kurulumu dahil edilir.  Bu Python kurulumuna paket yüklemek, sisteme
root erişimi gerektirir ve bir bileşen beklenmedik bir şekilde ‘pip’
kullanılarak güncellenirse, sistem paketi yöneticisinin ve sistemin
diğer bileşenlerinin çalışmasına müdahale edebilir.

Bu tür sistemlerde, ‘pip’ ile paketleri kurarken sanal ortam veya
kullanıcı başına kurulum kullanmak genellikle daha iyidir.


File: python.info,  Node: Pip yüklü değil,  Next: İkili uzantıları yükleme,  Prev: Python’u Linux’te sisteme kurmak,  Up: Genel yükleme sorunları

8.4.2 Pip yüklü değil
---------------------

‘pip’ ‘in varsayılan olarak yüklenmemesi mümkündür.  Bir olası düzeltme:

     python -m ensurepip --default-pip

pip'i yüklemek(1) için ek kaynaklar da vardır.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date


File: python.info,  Node: İkili uzantıları yükleme,  Prev: Pip yüklü değil,  Up: Genel yükleme sorunları

8.4.3 İkili uzantıları yükleme
------------------------------

Python tipik olarak büyük ölçüde kaynak tabanlı dağıtıma güvenmiştir ve
son kullanıcıların kurulum sürecinin bir parçası olarak uzantı
modüllerini kaynaktan derlemesi beklenir.

İkili ‘wheel’ formatı için desteğin sunulması ve Python Paket Dizini
aracılığıyla en azından Windows ve macOS için wheel’lar yayınlanabilmesi
ile, kullanıcılar önceden oluşturulmuş uzantıları kendileri inşa etmek
yerine daha düzenli bir şekilde yükleyebildiğinden bu sorunun zaman
içinde azalması bekleniyor.

Bilimsel yazılımı(1) yüklemek için önceden oluşturulmuş (pre-built)
‘wheel’ dosyaları olarak henüz mevcut olmayan çözümlerden bazıları,
diğer ikili uzantıları yerel olarak kurmaya gerek kalmadan edinmeye de
yardımcı olabilir.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Python Paketleme Kullanıcı Kılavuzu: İkili Uzantılar(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Python NASIL’ları,  Next: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular,  Prev: Python Modüllerini Kurmak,  Up: Top

9 Python NASIL’ları
*******************

Python HOWTOs are documents that cover a specific topic in-depth.
Modeled on the Linux Documentation Project’s HOWTO collection, this
collection is an effort to foster documentation that’s more detailed
than the Python Library Reference.

* Menu:

* Porting Extension Modules to Python 3::
* Curses Programming with Python::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Enum HOWTO::
* Functional Programming HOWTO::
* Logging HOWTO::
* Logging Cookbook::
* Regular Expression HOWTO::
* Socket Programming HOWTO::
* Sorting Techniques::
* Unicode HOWTO::
* HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package::
* An introduction to the ipaddress module::
* Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap::
* Python support for the Linux perf profiler::
* Annotations Best Practices::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3,  Next: Curses Programming with Python,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.1 Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
=========================================

We recommend the following resources for porting extension modules to
Python 3:

   * The Migrating C extensions(1) chapter from 'Supporting Python 3: An
     in-depth guide', a book on moving from Python 2 to Python 3 in
     general, guides the reader through porting an extension module.

   * The Porting guide(2) from the 'py3c' project provides opinionated
     suggestions with supporting code.

   * The Cython(3) and CFFI(4) libraries offer abstractions over
     Python’s C API. Extensions generally need to be re-written to use
     one of them, but the library then handles differences between
     various Python versions and implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html

   (2) https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html

   (3) https://cython.org/

   (4) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Curses Programming with Python,  Next: Descriptor Guide,  Prev: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.2 Curses Programming with Python
==================================


Author: A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond


Release: 2.04

Abstract
........

This document describes how to use the *note curses: 2b. extension
module to control text-mode displays.

* Menu:

* What is curses?::
* Starting and ending a curses application::
* Windows and Pads::
* Displaying Text::
* User Input::
* For More Information::


File: python.info,  Node: What is curses?,  Next: Starting and ending a curses application,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.1 What is curses?
---------------------

The curses library supplies a terminal-independent screen-painting and
keyboard-handling facility for text-based terminals; such terminals
include VT100s, the Linux console, and the simulated terminal provided
by various programs.  Display terminals support various control codes to
perform common operations such as moving the cursor, scrolling the
screen, and erasing areas.  Different terminals use widely differing
codes, and often have their own minor quirks.

In a world of graphical displays, one might ask “why bother”?  It’s true
that character-cell display terminals are an obsolete technology, but
there are niches in which being able to do fancy things with them are
still valuable.  One niche is on small-footprint or embedded Unixes that
don’t run an X server.  Another is tools such as OS installers and
kernel configurators that may have to run before any graphical support
is available.

The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the
programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple
non-overlapping windows of text.  The contents of a window can be
changed in various ways—adding text, erasing it, changing its
appearance—and the curses library will figure out what control codes
need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output.  curses
doesn’t provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons,
checkboxes, or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user
interface library such as Urwid(1).

The curses library was originally written for BSD Unix; the later System
V versions of Unix from AT&T added many enhancements and new functions.
BSD curses is no longer maintained, having been replaced by ncurses,
which is an open-source implementation of the AT&T interface.  If you’re
using an open-source Unix such as Linux or FreeBSD, your system almost
certainly uses ncurses.  Since most current commercial Unix versions are
based on System V code, all the functions described here will probably
be available.  The older versions of curses carried by some proprietary
Unixes may not support everything, though.

The Windows version of Python doesn’t include the *note curses: 2b.
module.  A ported version called UniCurses(2) is available.

* Menu:

* The Python curses module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses/


File: python.info,  Node: The Python curses module,  Up: What is curses?

9.2.1.1 The Python curses module
................................

The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions
provided by curses; if you’re already familiar with curses programming
in C, it’s really easy to transfer that knowledge to Python.  The
biggest difference is that the Python interface makes things simpler by
merging different C functions such as ‘addstr()’, ‘mvaddstr()’, and
‘mvwaddstr()’ into a single *note addstr(): 2b94. method.  You’ll see
this covered in more detail later.

This HOWTO is an introduction to writing text-mode programs with curses
and Python.  It doesn’t attempt to be a complete guide to the curses
API; for that, see the Python library guide’s section on ncurses, and
the C manual pages for ncurses.  It will, however, give you the basic
ideas.


File: python.info,  Node: Starting and ending a curses application,  Next: Windows and Pads,  Prev: What is curses?,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.2 Starting and ending a curses application
----------------------------------------------

Before doing anything, curses must be initialized.  This is done by
calling the *note initscr(): 2b9a. function, which will determine the
terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and create
various internal data structures.  If successful, ‘initscr()’ returns a
window object representing the entire screen; this is usually called
‘stdscr’ after the name of the corresponding C variable.

     import curses
     stdscr = curses.initscr()

Usually curses applications turn off automatic echoing of keys to the
screen, in order to be able to read keys and only display them under
certain circumstances.  This requires calling the *note noecho(): 2bc0.
function.

     curses.noecho()

Applications will also commonly need to react to keys instantly, without
requiring the Enter key to be pressed; this is called cbreak mode, as
opposed to the usual buffered input mode.

     curses.cbreak()

Terminals usually return special keys, such as the cursor keys or
navigation keys such as Page Up and Home, as a multibyte escape
sequence.  While you could write your application to expect such
sequences and process them accordingly, curses can do it for you,
returning a special value such as *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 2c3a.  To get
curses to do the job, you’ll have to enable keypad mode.

     stdscr.keypad(True)

Terminating a curses application is much easier than starting one.
You’ll need to call:

     curses.nocbreak()
     stdscr.keypad(False)
     curses.echo()

to reverse the curses-friendly terminal settings.  Then call the *note
endwin(): 2b97. function to restore the terminal to its original
operating mode.

     curses.endwin()

A common problem when debugging a curses application is to get your
terminal messed up when the application dies without restoring the
terminal to its previous state.  In Python this commonly happens when
your code is buggy and raises an uncaught exception.  Keys are no longer
echoed to the screen when you type them, for example, which makes using
the shell difficult.

In Python you can avoid these complications and make debugging much
easier by importing the *note curses.wrapper(): 8e5. function and using
it like this:

     from curses import wrapper

     def main(stdscr):
         # Clear screen
         stdscr.clear()

         # This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10.
         for i in range(0, 11):
             v = i-10
             stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))

         stdscr.refresh()
         stdscr.getkey()

     wrapper(main)

The *note wrapper(): 8e5. function takes a callable object and does the
initializations described above, also initializing colors if color
support is present.  ‘wrapper()’ then runs your provided callable.  Once
the callable returns, ‘wrapper()’ will restore the original state of the
terminal.  The callable is called inside a *note try: 503.…*note except:
3c0. that catches exceptions, restores the state of the terminal, and
then re-raises the exception.  Therefore your terminal won’t be left in
a funny state on exception and you’ll be able to read the exception’s
message and traceback.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows and Pads,  Next: Displaying Text,  Prev: Starting and ending a curses application,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.3 Windows and Pads
----------------------

Windows are the basic abstraction in curses.  A window object represents
a rectangular area of the screen, and supports methods to display text,
erase it, allow the user to input strings, and so forth.

The ‘stdscr’ object returned by the *note initscr(): 2b9a. function is a
window object that covers the entire screen.  Many programs may need
only this single window, but you might wish to divide the screen into
smaller windows, in order to redraw or clear them separately.  The *note
newwin(): 2bbe. function creates a new window of a given size, returning
the new window object.

     begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7
     height = 5; width = 40
     win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x)

Note that the coordinate system used in curses is unusual.  Coordinates
are always passed in the order 'y,x', and the top-left corner of a
window is coordinate (0,0).  This breaks the normal convention for
handling coordinates where the 'x' coordinate comes first.  This is an
unfortunate difference from most other computer applications, but it’s
been part of curses since it was first written, and it’s too late to
change things now.

Your application can determine the size of the screen by using the *note
curses.LINES: 1506. and *note curses.COLS: 1507. variables to obtain the
'y' and 'x' sizes.  Legal coordinates will then extend from ‘(0,0)’ to
‘(curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1)’.

When you call a method to display or erase text, the effect doesn’t
immediately show up on the display.  Instead you must call the *note
refresh(): 2b95. method of window objects to update the screen.

This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud
terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the time
required to redraw the screen was very important.  Instead curses
accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most
efficient manner when you call ‘refresh()’.  For example, if your
program displays some text in a window and then clears the window,
there’s no need to send the original text because they’re never visible.

In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn’t really
complicate programming with curses much.  Most programs go into a flurry
of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action
on the part of the user.  All you have to do is to be sure that the
screen has been redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first
calling ‘stdscr.refresh()’ or the ‘refresh()’ method of some other
relevant window.

A pad is a special case of a window; it can be larger than the actual
display screen, and only a portion of the pad displayed at a time.
Creating a pad requires the pad’s height and width, while refreshing a
pad requires giving the coordinates of the on-screen area where a
subsection of the pad will be displayed.

     pad = curses.newpad(100, 100)
     # These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is
     # explained in the next section
     for y in range(0, 99):
         for x in range(0, 99):
             pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26)

     # Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen.
     # (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display.
     # (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled
     #         with pad content.
     # (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be
     #          : filled with pad content.
     pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75)

The ‘refresh()’ call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle
extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the
upper left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the
pad.  Beyond that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and
support the same methods.

If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more
efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker
as each part of the screen gets updated.  ‘refresh()’ actually does two
things:

  1. Calls the *note noutrefresh(): 2b93. method of each window to
     update an underlying data structure representing the desired state
     of the screen.

  2. Calls the function *note doupdate(): 2b92. function to change the
     physical screen to match the desired state recorded in the data
     structure.

Instead you can call ‘noutrefresh()’ on a number of windows to update
the data structure, and then call ‘doupdate()’ to update the screen.


File: python.info,  Node: Displaying Text,  Next: User Input,  Prev: Windows and Pads,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.4 Displaying Text
---------------------

From a C programmer’s point of view, curses may sometimes look like a
twisty maze of functions, all subtly different.  For example, ‘addstr()’
displays a string at the current cursor location in the ‘stdscr’ window,
while ‘mvaddstr()’ moves to a given y,x coordinate first before
displaying the string.  ‘waddstr()’ is just like ‘addstr()’, but allows
specifying a window to use instead of using ‘stdscr’ by default.
‘mvwaddstr()’ allows specifying both a window and a coordinate.

Fortunately the Python interface hides all these details.  ‘stdscr’ is a
window object like any other, and methods such as *note addstr(): 2b94.
accept multiple argument forms.  Usually there are four different forms.

Form                                  Description
                                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
'str' or 'ch'                         Display the string 'str' or character 'ch' at the
                                      current position
                                      
                                      
'str' or 'ch', 'attr'                 Display the string 'str' or character 'ch', using
                                      attribute 'attr' at the current position
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' or 'ch'               Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and
                                      display 'str' or 'ch'
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' or 'ch', 'attr'       Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and
                                      display 'str' or 'ch', using attribute 'attr'
                                      

Attributes allow displaying text in highlighted forms such as boldface,
underline, reverse code, or in color.  They’ll be explained in more
detail in the next subsection.

The *note addstr(): 2b94. method takes a Python string or bytestring as
the value to be displayed.  The contents of bytestrings are sent to the
terminal as-is.  Strings are encoded to bytes using the value of the
window’s *note encoding: f40. attribute; this defaults to the default
system encoding as returned by *note locale.getencoding(): 25d.

The *note addch(): 2bd9. methods take a character, which can be either a
string of length 1, a bytestring of length 1, or an integer.

Constants are provided for extension characters; these constants are
integers greater than 255.  For example, *note ACS_PLMINUS: 2ca7. is a
+/- symbol, and *note ACS_ULCORNER: 2be3. is the upper left corner of a
box (handy for drawing borders).  You can also use the appropriate
Unicode character.

Windows remember where the cursor was left after the last operation, so
if you leave out the 'y,x' coordinates, the string or character will be
displayed wherever the last operation left off.  You can also move the
cursor with the ‘move(y,x)’ method.  Because some terminals always
display a flashing cursor, you may want to ensure that the cursor is
positioned in some location where it won’t be distracting; it can be
confusing to have the cursor blinking at some apparently random
location.

If your application doesn’t need a blinking cursor at all, you can call
‘curs_set(False)’ to make it invisible.  For compatibility with older
curses versions, there’s a ‘leaveok(bool)’ function that’s a synonym for
*note curs_set(): 2b8c.  When 'bool' is true, the curses library will
attempt to suppress the flashing cursor, and you won’t need to worry
about leaving it in odd locations.

* Menu:

* Attributes and Color::


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes and Color,  Up: Displaying Text

9.2.4.1 Attributes and Color
............................

Characters can be displayed in different ways.  Status lines in a
text-based application are commonly shown in reverse video, or a text
viewer may need to highlight certain words.  curses supports this by
allowing you to specify an attribute for each cell on the screen.

An attribute is an integer, each bit representing a different attribute.
You can try to display text with multiple attribute bits set, but curses
doesn’t guarantee that all the possible combinations are available, or
that they’re all visually distinct.  That depends on the ability of the
terminal being used, so it’s safest to stick to the most commonly
available attributes, listed here.

Attribute                  Description
                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
*note A_BLINK: 2c26.       Blinking text
                           
                           
*note A_BOLD: 2c27.        Extra bright or bold text
                           
                           
*note A_DIM: 2c28.         Half bright text
                           
                           
*note A_REVERSE: 2b8a.     Reverse-video text
                           
                           
*note A_STANDOUT: 2b89.    The best highlighting mode available
                           
                           
*note A_UNDERLINE: 2c2c.   Underlined text
                           

So, to display a reverse-video status line on the top line of the
screen, you could code:

     stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode",
                   curses.A_REVERSE)
     stdscr.refresh()

The curses library also supports color on those terminals that provide
it.  The most common such terminal is probably the Linux console,
followed by color xterms.

To use color, you must call the *note start_color(): 2bca. function soon
after calling *note initscr(): 2b9a, to initialize the default color set
(the *note curses.wrapper(): 8e5. function does this automatically).
Once that’s done, the *note has_colors(): 2bac. function returns TRUE if
the terminal in use can actually display color.  (Note: curses uses the
American spelling ‘color’, instead of the Canadian/British spelling
‘colour’.  If you’re used to the British spelling, you’ll have to resign
yourself to misspelling it for the sake of these functions.)

The curses library maintains a finite number of color pairs, containing
a foreground (or text) color and a background color.  You can get the
attribute value corresponding to a color pair with the *note
color_pair(): 2b88. function; this can be bitwise-OR’ed with other
attributes such as *note A_REVERSE: 2b8a, but again, such combinations
are not guaranteed to work on all terminals.

An example, which displays a line of text using color pair 1:

     stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1))
     stdscr.refresh()

As I said before, a color pair consists of a foreground and background
color.  The ‘init_pair(n, f, b)’ function changes the definition of
color pair 'n', to foreground color f and background color b.  Color
pair 0 is hard-wired to white on black, and cannot be changed.

Colors are numbered, and *note start_color(): 2bca. initializes 8 basic
colors when it activates color mode.  They are: 0:black, 1:red, 2:green,
3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and 7:white.  The *note curses: 2b.
module defines named constants for each of these colors: *note
curses.COLOR_BLACK: 2cb9, *note curses.COLOR_RED: 2cbe, and so forth.

Let’s put all this together.  To change color 1 to red text on a white
background, you would call:

     curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE)

When you change a color pair, any text already displayed using that
color pair will change to the new colors.  You can also display new text
in this color with:

     stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1))

Very fancy terminals can change the definitions of the actual colors to
a given RGB value.  This lets you change color 1, which is usually red,
to purple or blue or any other color you like.  Unfortunately, the Linux
console doesn’t support this, so I’m unable to try it out, and can’t
provide any examples.  You can check if your terminal can do this by
calling *note can_change_color(): 2b85, which returns ‘True’ if the
capability is there.  If you’re lucky enough to have such a talented
terminal, consult your system’s man pages for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: User Input,  Next: For More Information,  Prev: Displaying Text,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.5 User Input
----------------

The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms.  Python’s
*note curses: 2b. module adds a basic text-input widget.  (Other
libraries such as Urwid(1) have more extensive collections of widgets.)

There are two methods for getting input from a window:

   * *note getch(): 2b9e. refreshes the screen and then waits for the
     user to hit a key, displaying the key if *note echo(): 2b96. has
     been called earlier.  You can optionally specify a coordinate to
     which the cursor should be moved before pausing.

   * *note getkey(): 2bf7. does the same thing but converts the integer
     to a string.  Individual characters are returned as 1-character
     strings, and special keys such as function keys return longer
     strings containing a key name such as ‘KEY_UP’ or ‘^G’.

It’s possible to not wait for the user using the *note nodelay(): 2c0d.
window method.  After ‘nodelay(True)’, ‘getch()’ and ‘getkey()’ for the
window become non-blocking.  To signal that no input is ready, ‘getch()’
returns ‘curses.ERR’ (a value of -1) and ‘getkey()’ raises an exception.
There’s also a *note halfdelay(): 2bb0. function, which can be used to
(in effect) set a timer on each ‘getch()’; if no input becomes available
within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second), curses raises
an exception.

The ‘getch()’ method returns an integer; if it’s between 0 and 255, it
represents the ASCII code of the key pressed.  Values greater than 255
are special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys.  You can
compare the value returned to constants such as *note curses.KEY_PPAGE:
2c4b, *note curses.KEY_HOME: 2c3c, or *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 2c3a.  The
main loop of your program may look something like this:

     while True:
         c = stdscr.getch()
         if c == ord('p'):
             PrintDocument()
         elif c == ord('q'):
             break  # Exit the while loop
         elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
             x = y = 0

The *note curses.ascii: 2c. module supplies ASCII class membership
functions that take either integer or 1-character string arguments;
these may be useful in writing more readable tests for such loops.  It
also supplies conversion functions that take either integer or
1-character-string arguments and return the same type.  For example,
*note curses.ascii.ctrl(): 2d00. returns the control character
corresponding to its argument.

There’s also a method to retrieve an entire string, *note getstr():
2bfa.  It isn’t used very often, because its functionality is quite
limited; the only editing keys available are the backspace key and the
Enter key, which terminates the string.  It can optionally be limited to
a fixed number of characters.

     curses.echo()            # Enable echoing of characters

     # Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line
     s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)

The *note curses.textpad: 2e. module supplies a text box that supports
an Emacs-like set of keybindings.  Various methods of the *note Textbox:
2cc2. class support editing with input validation and gathering the edit
results either with or without trailing spaces.  Here’s an example:

     import curses
     from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle

     def main(stdscr):
         stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)")

         editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1)
         rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1)
         stdscr.refresh()

         box = Textbox(editwin)

         # Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck.
         box.edit()

         # Get resulting contents
         message = box.gather()

See the library documentation on *note curses.textpad: 2e. for more
details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/


File: python.info,  Node: For More Information,  Prev: User Input,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.2.6 For More Information
--------------------------

This HOWTO doesn’t cover some advanced topics, such as reading the
contents of the screen or capturing mouse events from an xterm instance,
but the Python library page for the *note curses: 2b. module is now
reasonably complete.  You should browse it next.

If you’re in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses functions,
consult the manual pages for your curses implementation, whether it’s
ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor’s.  The manual pages will document
any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the functions, attributes,
and *note ACS_*: 2c93. characters available to you.

Because the curses API is so large, some functions aren’t supported in
the Python interface.  Often this isn’t because they’re difficult to
implement, but because no one has needed them yet.  Also, Python doesn’t
yet support the menu library associated with ncurses.  Patches adding
support for these would be welcome; see the Python Developer's Guide(1)
to learn more about submitting patches to Python.

   * Writing Programs with NCURSES(2): a lengthy tutorial for C
     programmers.

   * The ncurses man page(3)

   * The ncurses FAQ(4)

   * "Use curses...  don't swear"(5): video of a PyCon 2013 talk on
     controlling terminals using curses or Urwid.

   * "Console Applications with Urwid"(6): video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk
     demonstrating some applications written using Urwid.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html

   (3) https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses

   (4) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html

   (5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU

   (6) https://pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor Guide,  Next: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Prev: Curses Programming with Python,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.3 Descriptor Guide
====================


Author: Raymond Hettinger


Contact: <python at rcn dot com>

*note Descriptors: 1d5f. let objects customize attribute lookup,
storage, and deletion.

This guide has four major sections:

  1. The “primer” gives a basic overview, moving gently from simple
     examples, adding one feature at a time.  Start here if you’re new
     to descriptors.

  2. The second section shows a complete, practical descriptor example.
     If you already know the basics, start there.

  3. The third section provides a more technical tutorial that goes into
     the detailed mechanics of how descriptors work.  Most people don’t
     need this level of detail.

  4. The last section has pure Python equivalents for built-in
     descriptors that are written in C. Read this if you’re curious
     about how functions turn into bound methods or about the
     implementation of common tools like *note classmethod(): 252, *note
     staticmethod(): 612, *note property(): 43c, and *note __slots__:
     3ea.

* Menu:

* Primer::
* Complete Practical Example::
* Technical Tutorial::
* Pure Python Equivalents::


File: python.info,  Node: Primer,  Next: Complete Practical Example,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.1 Primer
------------

In this primer, we start with the most basic possible example and then
we’ll add new capabilities one by one.

* Menu:

* Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant.
* Dynamic lookups::
* Managed attributes::
* Customized names::
* Closing thoughts::


File: python.info,  Node: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant,  Next: Dynamic lookups,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.1 Simple example: A descriptor that returns a constant
............................................................

The ‘Ten’ class is a descriptor whose *note __get__(): 1374. method
always returns the constant ‘10’:

     class Ten:
         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return 10

To use the descriptor, it must be stored as a class variable in another
class:

     class A:
         x = 5                       # Regular class attribute
         y = Ten()                   # Descriptor instance

An interactive session shows the difference between normal attribute
lookup and descriptor lookup:

     >>> a = A()                     # Make an instance of class A
     >>> a.x                         # Normal attribute lookup
     5
     >>> a.y                         # Descriptor lookup
     10

In the ‘a.x’ attribute lookup, the dot operator finds ‘'x': 5’ in the
class dictionary.  In the ‘a.y’ lookup, the dot operator finds a
descriptor instance, recognized by its ‘__get__’ method.  Calling that
method returns ‘10’.

Note that the value ‘10’ is not stored in either the class dictionary or
the instance dictionary.  Instead, the value ‘10’ is computed on demand.

This example shows how a simple descriptor works, but it isn’t very
useful.  For retrieving constants, normal attribute lookup would be
better.

In the next section, we’ll create something more useful, a dynamic
lookup.


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic lookups,  Next: Managed attributes,  Prev: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.2 Dynamic lookups
.......................

Interesting descriptors typically run computations instead of returning
constants:

     import os

     class DirectorySize:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return len(os.listdir(obj.dirname))

     class Directory:

         size = DirectorySize()              # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, dirname):
             self.dirname = dirname          # Regular instance attribute

An interactive session shows that the lookup is dynamic — it computes
different, updated answers each time:

     >>> s = Directory('songs')
     >>> g = Directory('games')
     >>> s.size                              # The songs directory has twenty files
     20
     >>> g.size                              # The games directory has three files
     3
     >>> os.remove('games/chess')            # Delete a game
     >>> g.size                              # File count is automatically updated
     2

Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also
reveals the purpose of the parameters to *note __get__(): 1374.  The
'self' parameter is 'size', an instance of 'DirectorySize'.  The 'obj'
parameter is either 'g' or 's', an instance of 'Directory'.  It is the
'obj' parameter that lets the *note __get__(): 1374. method learn the
target directory.  The 'objtype' parameter is the class 'Directory'.


File: python.info,  Node: Managed attributes,  Next: Customized names,  Prev: Dynamic lookups,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.3 Managed attributes
..........................

A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data.  The
descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary
while the actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance
dictionary.  The descriptor’s *note __get__(): 1374. and *note
__set__(): 1d57. methods are triggered when the public attribute is
accessed.

In the following example, 'age' is the public attribute and '_age' is
the private attribute.  When the public attribute is accessed, the
descriptor logs the lookup or update:

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAgeAccess:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = obj._age
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', 'age', value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', 'age', value)
             obj._age = value

     class Person:

         age = LoggedAgeAccess()             # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                # Regular instance attribute
             self.age = age                  # Calls __set__()

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1                   # Calls both __get__() and __set__()

An interactive session shows that all access to the managed attribute
'age' is logged, but that the regular attribute 'name' is not logged:

     >>> mary = Person('Mary M', 30)         # The initial age update is logged
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 30
     >>> dave = Person('David D', 40)
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 40

     >>> vars(mary)                          # The actual data is in a private attribute
     {'name': 'Mary M', '_age': 30}
     >>> vars(dave)
     {'name': 'David D', '_age': 40}

     >>> mary.age                            # Access the data and log the lookup
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     30
     >>> mary.birthday()                     # Updates are logged as well
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 31

     >>> dave.name                           # Regular attribute lookup isn't logged
     'David D'
     >>> dave.age                            # Only the managed attribute is logged
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 40
     40

One major issue with this example is that the private name '_age' is
hardwired in the 'LoggedAgeAccess' class.  That means that each instance
can only have one logged attribute and that its name is unchangeable.
In the next example, we’ll fix that problem.


File: python.info,  Node: Customized names,  Next: Closing thoughts,  Prev: Managed attributes,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.4 Customized names
........................

When a class uses descriptors, it can inform each descriptor about which
variable name was used.

In this example, the ‘Person’ class has two descriptor instances, 'name'
and 'age'.  When the ‘Person’ class is defined, it makes a callback to
*note __set_name__(): aca. in 'LoggedAccess' so that the field names can
be recorded, giving each descriptor its own 'public_name' and
'private_name':

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAccess:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.public_name = name
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = getattr(obj, self.private_name)
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', self.public_name, value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', self.public_name, value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

     class Person:

         name = LoggedAccess()                # First descriptor instance
         age = LoggedAccess()                 # Second descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                 # Calls the first descriptor
             self.age = age                   # Calls the second descriptor

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1

An interactive session shows that the ‘Person’ class has called *note
__set_name__(): aca. so that the field names would be recorded.  Here we
call *note vars(): 1882. to look up the descriptor without triggering
it:

     >>> vars(vars(Person)['name'])
     {'public_name': 'name', 'private_name': '_name'}
     >>> vars(vars(Person)['age'])
     {'public_name': 'age', 'private_name': '_age'}

The new class now logs access to both 'name' and 'age':

     >>> pete = Person('Peter P', 10)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Peter P'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 10
     >>> kate = Person('Catherine C', 20)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Catherine C'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 20

The two 'Person' instances contain only the private names:

     >>> vars(pete)
     {'_name': 'Peter P', '_age': 10}
     >>> vars(kate)
     {'_name': 'Catherine C', '_age': 20}


File: python.info,  Node: Closing thoughts,  Prev: Customized names,  Up: Primer

9.3.1.5 Closing thoughts
........................

A *note descriptor: 1d5f. is what we call any object that defines *note
__get__(): 1374, *note __set__(): 1d57, or *note __delete__(): 1d58.

Optionally, descriptors can have a *note __set_name__(): aca. method.
This is only used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the
class where it was created or the name of class variable it was assigned
to.  (This method, if present, is called even if the class is not a
descriptor.)

Descriptors get invoked by the dot operator during attribute lookup.  If
a descriptor is accessed indirectly with
‘vars(some_class)[descriptor_name]’, the descriptor instance is returned
without invoking it.

Descriptors only work when used as class variables.  When put in
instances, they have no effect.

The main motivation for descriptors is to provide a hook allowing
objects stored in class variables to control what happens during
attribute lookup.

Traditionally, the calling class controls what happens during lookup.
Descriptors invert that relationship and allow the data being looked-up
to have a say in the matter.

Descriptors are used throughout the language.  It is how functions turn
into bound methods.  Common tools like *note classmethod(): 252, *note
staticmethod(): 612, *note property(): 43c, and *note
functools.cached_property(): 2cf. are all implemented as descriptors.


File: python.info,  Node: Complete Practical Example,  Next: Technical Tutorial,  Prev: Primer,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.2 Complete Practical Example
--------------------------------

In this example, we create a practical and powerful tool for locating
notoriously hard to find data corruption bugs.

* Menu:

* Validator class::
* Custom validators::
* Practical application::


File: python.info,  Node: Validator class,  Next: Custom validators,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.3.2.1 Validator class
.......................

A validator is a descriptor for managed attribute access.  Prior to
storing any data, it verifies that the new value meets various type and
range restrictions.  If those restrictions aren’t met, it raises an
exception to prevent data corruption at its source.

This ‘Validator’ class is both an *note abstract base class: 105b. and a
managed attribute descriptor:

     from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

     class Validator(ABC):

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return getattr(obj, self.private_name)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             self.validate(value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

         @abstractmethod
         def validate(self, value):
             pass

Custom validators need to inherit from ‘Validator’ and must supply a
‘validate()’ method to test various restrictions as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom validators,  Next: Practical application,  Prev: Validator class,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.3.2.2 Custom validators
.........................

Here are three practical data validation utilities:

  1. ‘OneOf’ verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of
     options.

  2. ‘Number’ verifies that a value is either an *note int: 184. or
     *note float: 272.  Optionally, it verifies that a value is between
     a given minimum or maximum.

  3. ‘String’ verifies that a value is a *note str: 15d.  Optionally, it
     validates a given minimum or maximum length.  It can validate a
     user-defined predicate(1) as well.

     class OneOf(Validator):

         def __init__(self, *options):
             self.options = set(options)

         def validate(self, value):
             if value not in self.options:
                 raise ValueError(f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}')

     class Number(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None):
             self.minvalue = minvalue
             self.maxvalue = maxvalue

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, (int, float)):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an int or float')
             if self.minvalue is not None and value < self.minvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be at least {self.minvalue!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxvalue is not None and value > self.maxvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no more than {self.maxvalue!r}'
                 )

     class String(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minsize=None, maxsize=None, predicate=None):
             self.minsize = minsize
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.predicate = predicate

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, str):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an str')
             if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxsize is not None and len(value) > self.maxsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no bigger than {self.maxsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.predicate is not None and not self.predicate(value):
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {self.predicate} to be true for {value!r}'
                 )

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)


File: python.info,  Node: Practical application,  Prev: Custom validators,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.3.2.3 Practical application
.............................

Here’s how the data validators can be used in a real class:

     class Component:

         name = String(minsize=3, maxsize=10, predicate=str.isupper)
         kind = OneOf('wood', 'metal', 'plastic')
         quantity = Number(minvalue=0)

         def __init__(self, name, kind, quantity):
             self.name = name
             self.kind = kind
             self.quantity = quantity

The descriptors prevent invalid instances from being created:

     >>> Component('Widget', 'metal', 5)      # Blocked: 'Widget' is not all uppercase
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected <method 'isupper' of 'str' objects> to be true for 'Widget'

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metle', 5)      # Blocked: 'metle' is misspelled
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected 'metle' to be one of {'metal', 'plastic', 'wood'}

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', -5)     # Blocked: -5 is negative
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0
     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V')    # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     TypeError: Expected 'V' to be an int or float

     >>> c = Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 5)  # Allowed:  The inputs are valid


File: python.info,  Node: Technical Tutorial,  Next: Pure Python Equivalents,  Prev: Complete Practical Example,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.3 Technical Tutorial
------------------------

What follows is a more technical tutorial for the mechanics and details
of how descriptors work.

* Menu:

* Abstract::
* Definition and introduction::
* Descriptor protocol::
* Overview of descriptor invocation::
* Invocation from an instance::
* Invocation from a class::
* Invocation from super::
* Summary of invocation logic::
* Automatic name notification::
* ORM example::


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract,  Next: Definition and introduction,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.1 Abstract
................

Defines descriptors, summarizes the protocol, and shows how descriptors
are called.  Provides an example showing how object relational mappings
work.

Learning about descriptors not only provides access to a larger toolset,
it creates a deeper understanding of how Python works.


File: python.info,  Node: Definition and introduction,  Next: Descriptor protocol,  Prev: Abstract,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.2 Definition and introduction
...................................

In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the
methods in the descriptor protocol.  Those methods are *note __get__():
1374, *note __set__(): 1d57, and *note __delete__(): 1d58.  If any of
those methods are defined for an attribute, it is said to be a *note
descriptor: 1d5f.

The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
attribute from an object’s dictionary.  For instance, ‘a.x’ has a lookup
chain starting with ‘a.__dict__['x']’, then ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’, and
continuing through the method resolution order of ‘type(a)’.  If the
looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods,
then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor
method instead.  Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on
which descriptor methods were defined.

Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol.  They are the
mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and
*note super(): 20d.  They are used throughout Python itself.
Descriptors simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of
new tools for everyday Python programs.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor protocol,  Next: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Prev: Definition and introduction,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.3 Descriptor protocol
...........................

‘descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None)’

‘descr.__set__(self, obj, value)’

‘descr.__delete__(self, obj)’

That is all there is to it.  Define any of these methods and an object
is considered a descriptor and can override default behavior upon being
looked up as an attribute.

If an object defines *note __set__(): 1d57. or *note __delete__(): 1d58,
it is considered a data descriptor.  Descriptors that only define *note
__get__(): 1374. are called non-data descriptors (they are often used
for methods but other uses are possible).

Data and non-data descriptors differ in how overrides are calculated
with respect to entries in an instance’s dictionary.  If an instance’s
dictionary has an entry with the same name as a data descriptor, the
data descriptor takes precedence.  If an instance’s dictionary has an
entry with the same name as a non-data descriptor, the dictionary entry
takes precedence.

To make a read-only data descriptor, define both *note __get__(): 1374.
and *note __set__(): 1d57. with the *note __set__(): 1d57. raising an
*note AttributeError: 3dc. when called.  Defining the *note __set__():
1d57. method with an exception raising placeholder is enough to make it
a data descriptor.


File: python.info,  Node: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Next: Invocation from an instance,  Prev: Descriptor protocol,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.4 Overview of descriptor invocation
.........................................

A descriptor can be called directly with ‘desc.__get__(obj)’ or
‘desc.__get__(None, cls)’.

But it is more common for a descriptor to be invoked automatically from
attribute access.

The expression ‘obj.x’ looks up the attribute ‘x’ in the chain of
namespaces for ‘obj’.  If the search finds a descriptor outside of the
instance *note __dict__: 2ec, its *note __get__(): 1374. method is
invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.

The details of invocation depend on whether ‘obj’ is an object, class,
or instance of super.


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from an instance,  Next: Invocation from a class,  Prev: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.5 Invocation from an instance
...................................

Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data
descriptors the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then
non-data descriptors, then class variables, and lastly *note
__getattr__(): 201. if it is provided.

If a descriptor is found for ‘a.x’, then it is invoked with:
‘desc.__get__(a, type(a))’.

The logic for a dotted lookup is in *note object.__getattribute__():
a49.  Here is a pure Python equivalent:

     def find_name_in_mro(cls, name, default):
         "Emulate _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         for base in cls.__mro__:
             if name in vars(base):
                 return vars(base)[name]
         return default

     def object_getattribute(obj, name):
         "Emulate PyObject_GenericGetAttr() in Objects/object.c"
         null = object()
         objtype = type(obj)
         cls_var = find_name_in_mro(objtype, name, null)
         descr_get = getattr(type(cls_var), '__get__', null)
         if descr_get is not null:
             if (hasattr(type(cls_var), '__set__')
                 or hasattr(type(cls_var), '__delete__')):
                 return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)     # data descriptor
         if hasattr(obj, '__dict__') and name in vars(obj):
             return vars(obj)[name]                          # instance variable
         if descr_get is not null:
             return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)         # non-data descriptor
         if cls_var is not null:
             return cls_var                                  # class variable
         raise AttributeError(name)

Note, there is no *note __getattr__(): 201. hook in the *note
__getattribute__(): a49. code.  That is why calling *note
__getattribute__(): a49. directly or with ‘super().__getattribute__’
will bypass *note __getattr__(): 201. entirely.

Instead, it is the dot operator and the *note getattr(): a48. function
that are responsible for invoking *note __getattr__(): 201. whenever
*note __getattribute__(): a49. raises an *note AttributeError: 3dc.
Their logic is encapsulated in a helper function:

     def getattr_hook(obj, name):
         "Emulate slot_tp_getattr_hook() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         try:
             return obj.__getattribute__(name)
         except AttributeError:
             if not hasattr(type(obj), '__getattr__'):
                 raise
         return type(obj).__getattr__(obj, name)             # __getattr__


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from a class,  Next: Invocation from super,  Prev: Invocation from an instance,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.6 Invocation from a class
...............................

The logic for a dotted lookup such as ‘A.x’ is in
‘type.__getattribute__()’.  The steps are similar to those for
‘object.__getattribute__()’ but the instance dictionary lookup is
replaced by a search through the class’s *note method resolution order:
1f71.

If a descriptor is found, it is invoked with ‘desc.__get__(None, A)’.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘type_getattro()’ and
‘_PyType_Lookup()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from super,  Next: Summary of invocation logic,  Prev: Invocation from a class,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.7 Invocation from super
.............................

The logic for super’s dotted lookup is in the *note __getattribute__():
a49. method for object returned by *note super(): 20d.

A dotted lookup such as ‘super(A, obj).m’ searches
‘obj.__class__.__mro__’ for the base class ‘B’ immediately following ‘A’
and then returns ‘B.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A)’.  If not a
descriptor, ‘m’ is returned unchanged.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘super_getattro()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).  A pure Python equivalent can be found in
Guido's Tutorial(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/typeobject.c

   (2) 
https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation


File: python.info,  Node: Summary of invocation logic,  Next: Automatic name notification,  Prev: Invocation from super,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.8 Summary of invocation logic
...................................

The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the *note
__getattribute__(): a49. methods for *note object: 8f2, *note type: bd1,
and *note super(): 20d.

The important points to remember are:

   * Descriptors are invoked by the *note __getattribute__(): a49.
     method.

   * Classes inherit this machinery from *note object: 8f2, *note type:
     bd1, or *note super(): 20d.

   * Overriding *note __getattribute__(): a49. prevents automatic
     descriptor calls because all the descriptor logic is in that
     method.

   * ‘object.__getattribute__()’ and ‘type.__getattribute__()’ make
     different calls to *note __get__(): 1374.  The first includes the
     instance and may include the class.  The second puts in ‘None’ for
     the instance and always includes the class.

   * Data descriptors always override instance dictionaries.

   * Non-data descriptors may be overridden by instance dictionaries.


File: python.info,  Node: Automatic name notification,  Next: ORM example,  Prev: Summary of invocation logic,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.9 Automatic name notification
...................................

Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable
name it was assigned to.  When a new class is created, the *note type:
bd1. metaclass scans the dictionary of the new class.  If any of the
entries are descriptors and if they define *note __set_name__(): aca,
that method is called with two arguments.  The 'owner' is the class
where the descriptor is used, and the 'name' is the class variable the
descriptor was assigned to.

The implementation details are in ‘type_new()’ and ‘set_names()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).

Since the update logic is in ‘type.__new__()’, notifications only take
place at the time of class creation.  If descriptors are added to the
class afterwards, *note __set_name__(): aca. will need to be called
manually.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: ORM example,  Prev: Automatic name notification,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.3.3.10 ORM example
....................

The following code is a simplified skeleton showing how data descriptors
could be used to implement an object relational mapping(1).

The essential idea is that the data is stored in an external database.
The Python instances only hold keys to the database’s tables.
Descriptors take care of lookups or updates:

     class Field:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.fetch = f'SELECT {name} FROM {owner.table} WHERE {owner.key}=?;'
             self.store = f'UPDATE {owner.table} SET {name}=? WHERE {owner.key}=?;'

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return conn.execute(self.fetch, [obj.key]).fetchone()[0]

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key])
             conn.commit()

We can use the ‘Field’ class to define models(2) that describe the
schema for each table in a database:

     class Movie:
         table = 'Movies'                    # Table name
         key = 'title'                       # Primary key
         director = Field()
         year = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

     class Song:
         table = 'Music'
         key = 'title'
         artist = Field()
         year = Field()
         genre = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

To use the models, first connect to the database:

     >>> import sqlite3
     >>> conn = sqlite3.connect('entertainment.db')

An interactive session shows how data is retrieved from the database and
how it can be updated:

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'George Lucas'
     >>> jaws = Movie('Jaws')
     >>> f'Released in {jaws.year} by {jaws.director}'
     'Released in 1975 by Steven Spielberg'

     >>> Song('Country Roads').artist
     'John Denver'

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director = 'J.J. Abrams'
     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'J.J. Abrams'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93relational_mapping

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model


File: python.info,  Node: Pure Python Equivalents,  Prev: Technical Tutorial,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.3.4 Pure Python Equivalents
-----------------------------

The descriptor protocol is simple and offers exciting possibilities.
Several use cases are so common that they have been prepackaged into
built-in tools.  Properties, bound methods, static methods, class
methods, and __slots__ are all based on the descriptor protocol.

* Menu:

* Properties::
* Functions and methods::
* Kinds of methods::
* Static methods::
* Class methods::
* Member objects and __slots__::


File: python.info,  Node: Properties,  Next: Functions and methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.1 Properties
..................

Calling *note property(): 43c. is a succinct way of building a data
descriptor that triggers a function call upon access to an attribute.
Its signature is:

     property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property

The documentation shows a typical use to define a managed attribute ‘x’:

     class C:
         def getx(self): return self.__x
         def setx(self, value): self.__x = value
         def delx(self): del self.__x
         x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

To see how *note property(): 43c. is implemented in terms of the
descriptor protocol, here is a pure Python equivalent:

     class Property:
         "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"

         def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
             self.fget = fget
             self.fset = fset
             self.fdel = fdel
             if doc is None and fget is not None:
                 doc = fget.__doc__
             self.__doc__ = doc
             self._name = ''

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self._name = name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             if self.fget is None:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'property {self._name!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} object has no getter'
                  )
             return self.fget(obj)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             if self.fset is None:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'property {self._name!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} object has no setter'
                  )
             self.fset(obj, value)

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             if self.fdel is None:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'property {self._name!r} of {type(obj).__name__!r} object has no deleter'
                  )
             self.fdel(obj)

         def getter(self, fget):
             prop = type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
             prop._name = self._name
             return prop

         def setter(self, fset):
             prop = type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)
             prop._name = self._name
             return prop

         def deleter(self, fdel):
             prop = type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)
             prop._name = self._name
             return prop

The *note property(): 43c. builtin helps whenever a user interface has
granted attribute access and then subsequent changes require the
intervention of a method.

For instance, a spreadsheet class may grant access to a cell value
through ‘Cell('b10').value’.  Subsequent improvements to the program
require the cell to be recalculated on every access; however, the
programmer does not want to affect existing client code accessing the
attribute directly.  The solution is to wrap access to the value
attribute in a property data descriptor:

     class Cell:
         ...

         @property
         def value(self):
             "Recalculate the cell before returning value"
             self.recalc()
             return self._value

Either the built-in *note property(): 43c. or our ‘Property()’
equivalent would work in this example.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions and methods,  Next: Kinds of methods,  Prev: Properties,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.2 Functions and methods
.............................

Python’s object oriented features are built upon a function based
environment.  Using non-data descriptors, the two are merged seamlessly.

Functions stored in class dictionaries get turned into methods when
invoked.  Methods only differ from regular functions in that the object
instance is prepended to the other arguments.  By convention, the
instance is called 'self' but could be called 'this' or any other
variable name.

Methods can be created manually with *note types.MethodType: 161d. which
is roughly equivalent to:

     class MethodType:
         "Emulate PyMethod_Type in Objects/classobject.c"

         def __init__(self, func, obj):
             self.__func__ = func
             self.__self__ = obj

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             func = self.__func__
             obj = self.__self__
             return func(obj, *args, **kwargs)

To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the *note
__get__(): 1374. method for binding methods during attribute access.
This means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound
methods during dotted lookup from an instance.  Here’s how it works:

     class Function:
         ...

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c"
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             return MethodType(self, obj)

Running the following class in the interpreter shows how the function
descriptor works in practice:

     class D:
         def f(self, x):
              return x

The function has a *note qualified name: 176c. attribute to support
introspection:

     >>> D.f.__qualname__
     'D.f'

Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke
*note __get__(): 1374.  Instead, it just returns the underlying function
object:

     >>> D.__dict__['f']
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

Dotted access from a class calls *note __get__(): 1374. which just
returns the underlying function unchanged:

     >>> D.f
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance.
The dotted lookup calls *note __get__(): 1374. which returns a bound
method object:

     >>> d = D()
     >>> d.f
     <bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>>

Internally, the bound method stores the underlying function and the
bound instance:

     >>> d.f.__func__
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

     >>> d.f.__self__
     <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>

If you have ever wondered where 'self' comes from in regular methods or
where 'cls' comes from in class methods, this is it!


File: python.info,  Node: Kinds of methods,  Next: Static methods,  Prev: Functions and methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.3 Kinds of methods
........................

Non-data descriptors provide a simple mechanism for variations on the
usual patterns of binding functions into methods.

To recap, functions have a *note __get__(): 1374. method so that they
can be converted to a method when accessed as attributes.  The non-data
descriptor transforms an ‘obj.f(*args)’ call into ‘f(obj, *args)’.
Calling ‘cls.f(*args)’ becomes ‘f(*args)’.

This chart summarizes the binding and its two most useful variants:

     Transformation        Called from an object      Called from a class
                                                      
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
     function              f(obj, *args)              f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     staticmethod          f(*args)                   f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     classmethod           f(type(obj), *args)        f(cls, *args)
                                                      


File: python.info,  Node: Static methods,  Next: Class methods,  Prev: Kinds of methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.4 Static methods
......................

Static methods return the underlying function without changes.  Calling
either ‘c.f’ or ‘C.f’ is the equivalent of a direct lookup into
‘object.__getattribute__(c, "f")’ or ‘object.__getattribute__(C, "f")’.
As a result, the function becomes identically accessible from either an
object or a class.

Good candidates for static methods are methods that do not reference the
‘self’ variable.

For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for
experimental data.  The class provides normal methods for computing the
average, mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on
the data.  However, there may be useful functions which are conceptually
related but do not depend on the data.  For instance, ‘erf(x)’ is handy
conversion routine that comes up in statistical work but does not
directly depend on a particular dataset.  It can be called either from
an object or the class: ‘s.erf(1.5) --> .9332’ or ‘Sample.erf(1.5) -->
.9332’.

Since static methods return the underlying function with no changes, the
example calls are unexciting:

     class E:
         @staticmethod
         def f(x):
             return x * 10

     >>> E.f(3)
     30
     >>> E().f(3)
     30

Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note
staticmethod(): 612. would look like this:

     import functools

     class StaticMethod:
         "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return self.f

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwds):
             return self.f(*args, **kwds)

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): eca. call adds a ‘__wrapped__’
attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it carries
forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the
wrapped function: *note __name__: 117e, *note __qualname__: 1cea, *note
__doc__: 107e, and *note __annotations__: 107d.


File: python.info,  Node: Class methods,  Next: Member objects and __slots__,  Prev: Static methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.5 Class methods
.....................

Unlike static methods, class methods prepend the class reference to the
argument list before calling the function.  This format is the same for
whether the caller is an object or a class:

     class F:
         @classmethod
         def f(cls, x):
             return cls.__name__, x

     >>> F.f(3)
     ('F', 3)
     >>> F().f(3)
     ('F', 3)

This behavior is useful whenever the method only needs to have a class
reference and does not rely on data stored in a specific instance.  One
use for class methods is to create alternate class constructors.  For
example, the classmethod *note dict.fromkeys(): 2034. creates a new
dictionary from a list of keys.  The pure Python equivalent is:

     class Dict(dict):
         @classmethod
         def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
             "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c"
             d = cls()
             for key in iterable:
                 d[key] = value
             return d

Now a new dictionary of unique keys can be constructed like this:

     >>> d = Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra')
     >>> type(d) is Dict
     True
     >>> d
     {'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}

Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note
classmethod(): 252. would look like this:

     import functools

     class ClassMethod:
         "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, cls=None):
             if cls is None:
                 cls = type(obj)
             if hasattr(type(self.f), '__get__'):
                 # This code path was added in Python 3.9
                 # and was deprecated in Python 3.11.
                 return self.f.__get__(cls, cls)
             return MethodType(self.f, cls)

The code path for ‘hasattr(type(self.f), '__get__')’ was added in Python
3.9 and makes it possible for *note classmethod(): 252. to support
chained decorators.  For example, a classmethod and property could be
chained together.  In Python 3.11, this functionality was deprecated.

     class G:
         @classmethod
         @property
         def __doc__(cls):
             return f'A doc for {cls.__name__!r}'

     >>> G.__doc__
     "A doc for 'G'"

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): eca. call in ‘ClassMethod’ adds a
‘__wrapped__’ attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it
carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like
the wrapped function: *note __name__: 117e, *note __qualname__: 1cea,
*note __doc__: 107e, and *note __annotations__: 107d.


File: python.info,  Node: Member objects and __slots__,  Prev: Class methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.3.4.6 Member objects and __slots__
....................................

When a class defines ‘__slots__’, it replaces instance dictionaries with
a fixed-length array of slot values.  From a user point of view that has
several effects:

1.  Provides immediate detection of bugs due to misspelled attribute
assignments.  Only attribute names specified in ‘__slots__’ are allowed:

     class Vehicle:
         __slots__ = ('id_number', 'make', 'model')

     >>> auto = Vehicle()
     >>> auto.id_nubmer = 'VYE483814LQEX'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Vehicle' object has no attribute 'id_nubmer'

2.  Helps create immutable objects where descriptors manage access to
private attributes stored in ‘__slots__’:

     class Immutable:

         __slots__ = ('_dept', '_name')          # Replace the instance dictionary

         def __init__(self, dept, name):
             self._dept = dept                   # Store to private attribute
             self._name = name                   # Store to private attribute

         @property                               # Read-only descriptor
         def dept(self):
             return self._dept

         @property
         def name(self):                         # Read-only descriptor
             return self._name

     >>> mark = Immutable('Botany', 'Mark Watney')
     >>> mark.dept
     'Botany'
     >>> mark.dept = 'Space Pirate'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: property 'dept' of 'Immutable' object has no setter
     >>> mark.location = 'Mars'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Immutable' object has no attribute 'location'

3.  Saves memory.  On a 64-bit Linux build, an instance with two
attributes takes 48 bytes with ‘__slots__’ and 152 bytes without.  This
flyweight design pattern(1) likely only matters when a large number of
instances are going to be created.

4.  Improves speed.  Reading instance variables is 35% faster with
‘__slots__’ (as measured with Python 3.10 on an Apple M1 processor).

5.  Blocks tools like *note functools.cached_property(): 2cf. which
require an instance dictionary to function correctly:

     from functools import cached_property

     class CP:
         __slots__ = ()                          # Eliminates the instance dict

         @cached_property                        # Requires an instance dict
         def pi(self):
             return 4 * sum((-1.0)**n / (2.0*n + 1.0)
                            for n in reversed(range(100_000)))

     >>> CP().pi
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: No '__dict__' attribute on 'CP' instance to cache 'pi' property.

It is not possible to create an exact drop-in pure Python version of
‘__slots__’ because it requires direct access to C structures and
control over object memory allocation.  However, we can build a mostly
faithful simulation where the actual C structure for slots is emulated
by a private ‘_slotvalues’ list.  Reads and writes to that private
structure are managed by member descriptors:

     null = object()

     class Member:

         def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset):
             'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/structmember.h'
             # Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c
             self.name = name
             self.clsname = clsname
             self.offset = offset

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             'Emulate member_get() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             # Also see PyMember_GetOne() in Python/structmember.c
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             'Emulate member_set() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = value

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             'Emulate member_delete() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = null

         def __repr__(self):
             'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>'

The ‘type.__new__()’ method takes care of adding member objects to class
variables:

     class Type(type):
         'Simulate how the type metaclass adds member objects for slots'

         def __new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs):
             'Emulate type_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             # type_new() calls PyTypeReady() which calls add_methods()
             slot_names = mapping.get('slot_names', [])
             for offset, name in enumerate(slot_names):
                 mapping[name] = Member(name, clsname, offset)
             return type.__new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs)

The *note object.__new__(): 319. method takes care of creating instances
that have slots instead of an instance dictionary.  Here is a rough
simulation in pure Python:

     class Object:
         'Simulate how object.__new__() allocates memory for __slots__'

         def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
             'Emulate object_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             inst = super().__new__(cls)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names'):
                 empty_slots = [null] * len(cls.slot_names)
                 object.__setattr__(inst, '_slotvalues', empty_slots)
             return inst

         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__setattr__(name, value)

         def __delattr__(self, name):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__delattr__(name)

To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from ‘Object’ and
set the *note metaclass: 1d75. to ‘Type’:

     class H(Object, metaclass=Type):
         'Instance variables stored in slots'

         slot_names = ['x', 'y']

         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

At this point, the metaclass has loaded member objects for 'x' and 'y':

     >>> from pprint import pp
     >>> pp(dict(vars(H)))
     {'__module__': '__main__',
      '__doc__': 'Instance variables stored in slots',
      'slot_names': ['x', 'y'],
      '__init__': <function H.__init__ at 0x7fb5d302f9d0>,
      'x': <Member 'x' of 'H'>,
      'y': <Member 'y' of 'H'>}

When instances are created, they have a ‘slot_values’ list where the
attributes are stored:

     >>> h = H(10, 20)
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [10, 20]}
     >>> h.x = 55
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [55, 20]}

Misspelled or unassigned attributes will raise an exception:

     >>> h.xz
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'H' object has no attribute 'xz'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyweight_pattern


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Next: Enum HOWTO,  Prev: Descriptor Guide,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.4 Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB
=============================================================

This document explains how the Python GDB extension, ‘python-gdb.py’,
can be used with the GDB debugger to debug CPython extensions and the
CPython interpreter itself.

When debugging low-level problems such as crashes or deadlocks, a
low-level debugger, such as GDB, is useful to diagnose and correct the
issue.  By default, GDB (or any of its front-ends) doesn’t support
high-level information specific to the CPython interpreter.

The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension adds CPython interpreter information to
GDB. The extension helps introspect the stack of currently executing
Python functions.  Given a Python object represented by a *note
PyObject: 6eb.* pointer, the extension surfaces the type and value of
the object.

Developers who are working on CPython extensions or tinkering with parts
of CPython that are written in C can use this document to learn how to
use the ‘python-gdb.py’ extension with GDB.

     Not: This document assumes that you are familiar with the basics of
     GDB and the CPython C API. It consolidates guidance from the
     devguide(1) and the Python wiki(2).

* Menu:

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb


File: python.info,  Node: Prerequisites,  Next: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.1 Prerequisites
-------------------

You need to have:

   - GDB 7 or later.  (For earlier versions of GDB, see ‘Misc/gdbinit’
     in the sources of Python 3.11 or earlier.)

   - GDB-compatible debugging information for Python and any extension
     you are debugging.

   - The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension.

The extension is built with Python, but might be distributed separately
or not at all.  Below, we include tips for a few common systems as
examples.  Note that even if the instructions match your system, they
might be outdated.

* Menu:

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::


File: python.info,  Node: Setup with Python built from source,  Next: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Up: Prerequisites

9.4.1.1 Setup with Python built from source
...........................................

When you build CPython from source, debugging information should be
available, and the build should add a ‘python-gdb.py’ file to the root
directory of your repository.

To activate support, you must add the directory containing
‘python-gdb.py’ to GDB’s “auto-load-safe-path”.  If you haven’t done
this, recent versions of GDB will print out a warning with instructions
on how to do this.

     Not: If you do not see instructions for your version of GDB, put
     this in your configuration file (‘~/.gdbinit’ or
     ‘~/.config/gdb/gdbinit’):

          add-auto-load-safe-path /path/to/cpython

     You can also add multiple paths, separated by ‘:’.


File: python.info,  Node: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Prev: Setup with Python built from source,  Up: Prerequisites

9.4.1.2 Setup for Python from a Linux distro
............................................

Most Linux systems provide debug information for the system Python in a
package called ‘python-debuginfo’, ‘python-dbg’ or similar.  For
example:

   - Fedora:

               sudo dnf install gdb
               sudo dnf debuginfo-install python3

   - Ubuntu:

               sudo apt install gdb python3-dbg

On several recent Linux systems, GDB can download debugging symbols
automatically using 'debuginfod'.  However, this will not install the
‘python-gdb.py’ extension; you generally do need to install the debug
info package separately.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Next: Using the python-gdb extension,  Prev: Prerequisites,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.2 Using the Debug build and Development mode
------------------------------------------------

For easier debugging, you might want to:

   - Use a *note debug build: 6b9. of Python.  (When building from
     source, use ‘configure --with-pydebug’.  On Linux distros, install
     and run a package like ‘python-debug’ or ‘python-dbg’, if
     available.)

   - Use the runtime *note development mode: 71d. (‘-X dev’).

Both enable extra assertions and disable some optimizations.  Sometimes
this hides the bug you are trying to find, but in most cases they make
the process easier.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the python-gdb extension,  Next: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.3 Using the ‘python-gdb’ extension
--------------------------------------

When the extension is loaded, it provides two main features: pretty
printers for Python values, and additional commands.

* Menu:

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty-printers,  Next: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.1 Pretty-printers
.......................

This is what a GDB backtrace looks like (truncated) when this extension
is enabled:

     #0  0x000000000041a6b1 in PyObject_Malloc (nbytes=Cannot access memory at address 0x7fffff7fefe8
     ) at Objects/obmalloc.c:748
     #1  0x000000000041b7c0 in _PyObject_DebugMallocApi (id=111 'o', nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1445
     #2  0x000000000041b717 in _PyObject_DebugMalloc (nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1412
     #3  0x000000000044060a in _PyUnicode_New (length=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:346
     #4  0x00000000004466aa in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8Stateful (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0, consumed=
         0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2531
     #5  0x0000000000446647 in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8 (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2495
     #6  0x0000000000440d1b in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromStringAndSize (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:551
     #7  0x0000000000440d94 in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromString (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/unicodeobject.c:569
     #8  0x0000000000584abd in PyDict_GetItemString (v=
         {'Yuck': <type at remote 0xad4730>, '__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fd5ee8>, '__file__': 'Lib/test/crashers/nasty_eq_vs_dict.py', '__package__': None, 'y': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaacd80>, 'dict': {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3}, '__cached__': None, '__name__': '__main__', 'z': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaace60>, '__doc__': None}, key=
         0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/dictobject.c:2171

Notice how the dictionary argument to ‘PyDict_GetItemString’ is
displayed as its ‘repr()’, rather than an opaque ‘PyObject *’ pointer.

The extension works by supplying a custom printing routine for values of
type ‘PyObject *’.  If you need to access lower-level details of an
object, then cast the value to a pointer of the appropriate type.  For
example:

     (gdb) p globals
     $1 = {'__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>, '__name__':
     '__main__', 'ctypes': <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>, '__doc__': None,
     '__package__': None}

     (gdb) p *(PyDictObject*)globals
     $2 = {ob_refcnt = 3, ob_type = 0x3dbdf85820, ma_fill = 5, ma_used = 5,
     ma_mask = 7, ma_table = 0x63d0f8, ma_lookup = 0x3dbdc7ea70
     <lookdict_string>, ma_smalltable = {{me_hash = 7065186196740147912,
     me_key = '__builtins__', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>},
     {me_hash = -368181376027291943, me_key = '__name__',
     me_value ='__main__'}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = -9177857982131165996, me_key = 'ctypes',
     me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>},
     {me_hash = -8518757509529533123, me_key = '__doc__', me_value = None},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {
       me_hash = 6614918939584953775, me_key = '__package__', me_value = None}}}

Note that the pretty-printers do not actually call ‘repr()’.  For basic
types, they try to match its result closely.

An area that can be confusing is that the custom printer for some types
look a lot like GDB’s built-in printer for standard types.  For example,
the pretty-printer for a Python ‘int’ (*note PyLongObject: 321.*) gives
a representation that is not distinguishable from one of a regular
machine-level integer:

     (gdb) p some_machine_integer
     $3 = 42

     (gdb) p some_python_integer
     $4 = 42

The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyLongObject: 321.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyLongObject*)some_python_integer
     $5 = {ob_base = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1},
     ob_digit = {42}}

A similar confusion can arise with the ‘str’ type, where the output
looks a lot like gdb’s built-in printer for ‘char *’:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_python_str
     $6 = '__builtins__'

The pretty-printer for ‘str’ instances defaults to using single-quotes
(as does Python’s ‘repr’ for strings) whereas the standard printer for
‘char *’ values uses double-quotes and contains a hexadecimal address:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_char_star
     $7 = 0x6d72c0 "hello world"

Again, the implementation details can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyUnicodeObject: 5c9.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyUnicodeObject*)$6
     $8 = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 33, ob_type = 0x3dad3a95a0}, length = 12,
     str = 0x7ffff2128500, hash = 7065186196740147912, state = 1, defenc = 0x0}


File: python.info,  Node: py-list,  Next: py-up and py-down,  Prev: Pretty-printers,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.2 ‘py-list’
.................

     The extension adds a ‘py-list’ command, which lists the Python
     source code (if any) for the current frame in the selected thread.
     The current line is marked with a “>”:

          (gdb) py-list
           901        if options.profile:
           902            options.profile = False
           903            profile_me()
           904            return
           905
          >906        u = UI()
           907        if not u.quit:
           908            try:
           909                gtk.main()
           910            except KeyboardInterrupt:
           911                # properly quit on a keyboard interrupt...

     Use ‘py-list START’ to list at a different line number within the
     Python source, and ‘py-list START,END’ to list a specific range of
     lines within the Python source.


File: python.info,  Node: py-up and py-down,  Next: py-bt,  Prev: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.3 ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’
.............................

     The ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ commands are analogous to GDB’s regular
     ‘up’ and ‘down’ commands, but try to move at the level of CPython
     frames, rather than C frames.

     GDB is not always able to read the relevant frame information,
     depending on the optimization level with which CPython was
     compiled.  Internally, the commands look for C frames that are
     executing the default frame evaluation function (that is, the core
     bytecode interpreter loop within CPython) and look up the value of
     the related ‘PyFrameObject *’.

     They emit the frame number (at the C level) within the thread.

     For example:

          (gdb) py-up
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-up
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game(main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame

     so we’re at the top of the Python stack.

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.  The command skips C frames which are not
     executing Python code.

     Going back down:

          (gdb) py-down
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-down
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          (gdb) py-down
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          (gdb) py-down
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          Unable to find a newer python frame

     and we’re at the bottom of the Python stack.

     Note that in Python 3.12 and newer, the same C stack frame can be
     used for multiple Python stack frames.  This means that ‘py-up’ and
     ‘py-down’ may move multiple Python frames at once.  For example:

          (gdb) py-up
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb62b0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 5, in recursive_function (n=0)
             time.sleep(5)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6240, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=1)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb61d0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=2)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6160, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=3)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb60f0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=4)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6080, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=5)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6020, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 9, in <module> ()
             recursive_function(5)
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame


File: python.info,  Node: py-bt,  Next: py-print,  Prev: py-up and py-down,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.4 ‘py-bt’
...............

     The ‘py-bt’ command attempts to display a Python-level backtrace of
     the current thread.

     For example:

          (gdb) py-bt
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game (main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.


File: python.info,  Node: py-print,  Next: py-locals,  Prev: py-bt,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.5 ‘py-print’
..................

     The ‘py-print’ command looks up a Python name and tries to print
     it.  It looks in locals within the current thread, then globals,
     then finally builtins:

          (gdb) py-print self
          local 'self' = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          (gdb) py-print __name__
          global '__name__' = 'gnome_sudoku.dialog_swallower'
          (gdb) py-print len
          builtin 'len' = <built-in function len>
          (gdb) py-print scarlet_pimpernel
          'scarlet_pimpernel' not found

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     ‘py-print’ only considers the first one.


File: python.info,  Node: py-locals,  Prev: py-print,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.4.3.6 ‘py-locals’
...................

     The ‘py-locals’ command looks up all Python locals within the
     current Python frame in the selected thread, and prints their
     representations:

          (gdb) py-locals
          self = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          d = <gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     locals from all of them will be shown:

          (gdb) py-locals
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 0
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 1
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 2
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 3
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 4
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 5
          Locals for <module>


File: python.info,  Node: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the python-gdb extension,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.4.4 Use with GDB commands
---------------------------

The extension commands complement GDB’s built-in commands.  For example,
you can use a frame numbers shown by ‘py-bt’ with the ‘frame’ command to
go a specific frame within the selected thread, like this:

     (gdb) py-bt
     (output snipped)
     #68 Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> ()
             main()
     (gdb) frame 68
     #68 0x00000000004cd1e6 in PyEval_EvalFrameEx (f=Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> (), throwflag=0) at Python/ceval.c:2665
     2665                            x = call_function(&sp, oparg);
     (gdb) py-list
     1543        # Run the tests in a context manager that temporary changes the CWD to a
     1544        # temporary and writable directory. If it's not possible to create or
     1545        # change the CWD, the original CWD will be used. The original CWD is
     1546        # available from test_support.SAVEDCWD.
     1547        with test_support.temp_cwd(TESTCWD, quiet=True):
     >1548            main()

The ‘info threads’ command will give you a list of the threads within
the process, and you can use the ‘thread’ command to select a different
one:

     (gdb) info threads
       105 Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
       104 Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
     * 1 Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)  0x00000038e46d73e3 in select () at ../sysdeps/unix/syscall-template.S:82

You can use ‘thread apply all COMMAND’ or (‘t a a COMMAND’ for short) to
run a command on all threads.  With ‘py-bt’, this lets you see what
every thread is doing at the Python level:

     (gdb) t a a py-bt

     Thread 105 (Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffd00019d0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140737213728528), count=1, owner=140737213728528)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffac001640, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858a90>, saved_state=(1, 140737213728528))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffb8001a10, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffb8001c40, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140737213728528)
                     f()

     Thread 104 (Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffe4001580, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140736940992272), count=1, owner=140736940992272)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffc8002090, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858860>, saved_state=(1, 140736940992272))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffac001c90, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffac0011c0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140736940992272)
                     f()

     Thread 1 (Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)):
     #5 Frame 0xcb5380, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 16, in _wait ()
         time.sleep(0.01)
     #8 Frame 0x7fffd00024a0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 378, in _check_notify (self=<ConditionTests(_testMethodName='test_notify', _resultForDoCleanups=<TestResult(_original_stdout=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc191e0>, skipped=[], _mirrorOutput=False, testsRun=39, buffer=False, _original_stderr=<file at remote 0x7ffff7fc6340>, _stdout_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c7f8>, _stderr_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c790>, _moduleSetUpFailed=False, expectedFailures=[], errors=[], _previousTestClass=<type at remote 0x928310>, unexpectedSuccesses=[], failures=[], shouldStop=False, failfast=False) at remote 0xc185a0>, _threads=(0,), _cleanups=[], _type_equality_funcs={<type at remote 0x7eba00>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd750e0>, <type at remote 0x7e7820>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75160>, <type at remote 0x7e30e0>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75060>, <type at remote 0x7e7d20>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd751e0>, <type at remote 0x7f19e0...(truncated)
             _wait()


File: python.info,  Node: Enum HOWTO,  Next: Functional Programming HOWTO,  Prev: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.5 Enum HOWTO
==============

An *note Enum: 443. is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values.
They are similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful *note
repr(): 637, grouping, type-safety, and a few other features.

They are most useful when you have a variable that can take one of a
limited selection of values.  For example, the days of the week:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7

Or perhaps the RGB primary colors:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

As you can see, creating an *note Enum: 443. is as simple as writing a
class that inherits from *note Enum: 443. itself.

     Not: Case of Enum Members

     Because Enums are used to represent constants, and to help avoid
     issues with name clashes between mixin-class methods/attributes and
     enum names, we strongly recommend using UPPER_CASE names for
     members, and will be using that style in our examples.

Depending on the nature of the enum a member’s value may or may not be
important, but either way that value can be used to get the
corresponding member:

     >>> Weekday(3)
     <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 3>

As you can see, the ‘repr()’ of a member shows the enum name, the member
name, and the value.  The ‘str()’ of a member shows only the enum name
and member name:

     >>> print(Weekday.THURSDAY)
     Weekday.THURSDAY

The 'type' of an enumeration member is the enum it belongs to:

     >>> type(Weekday.MONDAY)
     <enum 'Weekday'>
     >>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday)
     True

Enum members have an attribute that contains just their ‘name’:

     >>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name)
     TUESDAY

Likewise, they have an attribute for their ‘value’:

     >>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value
     3

Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value
pairs, Python Enums can have behavior added.  For example, *note
datetime.date: 749. has two methods for returning the weekday: *note
weekday(): 223e. and *note isoweekday(): 223f.  The difference is that
one of them counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7.  Rather than keep
track of that ourselves we can add a method to the ‘Weekday’ enum to
extract the day from the *note date: 749. instance and return the
matching enum member:

     @classmethod
     def from_date(cls, date):
         return cls(date.isoweekday())

The complete ‘Weekday’ enum now looks like this:

     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7
     ...     #
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def from_date(cls, date):
     ...         return cls(date.isoweekday())

Now we can find out what today is!  Observe:

     >>> from datetime import date
     >>> Weekday.from_date(date.today())
     <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>

Of course, if you’re reading this on some other day, you’ll see that day
instead.

This ‘Weekday’ enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but
what if we need several?  Maybe we’re writing a function to plot chores
during a week, and don’t want to use a *note list: 422. – we could use a
different type of *note Enum: 443.:

     >>> from enum import Flag
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 4
     ...     THURSDAY = 8
     ...     FRIDAY = 16
     ...     SATURDAY = 32
     ...     SUNDAY = 64

We’ve changed two things: we’re inherited from *note Flag: 435, and the
values are all powers of 2.

Just like the original ‘Weekday’ enum above, we can have a single
selection:

     >>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY
     >>> first_week_day
     <Weekday.MONDAY: 1>

But *note Flag: 435. also allows us to combine several members into a
single variable:

     >>> weekend = Weekday.SATURDAY | Weekday.SUNDAY
     >>> weekend
     <Weekday.SATURDAY|SUNDAY: 96>

You can even iterate over a *note Flag: 435. variable:

     >>> for day in weekend:
     ...     print(day)
     Weekday.SATURDAY
     Weekday.SUNDAY

Okay, let’s get some chores set up:

     >>> chores_for_ethan = {
     ...     'feed the cat': Weekday.MONDAY | Weekday.WEDNESDAY | Weekday.FRIDAY,
     ...     'do the dishes': Weekday.TUESDAY | Weekday.THURSDAY,
     ...     'answer SO questions': Weekday.SATURDAY,
     ...     }

And a function to display the chores for a given day:

     >>> def show_chores(chores, day):
     ...     for chore, days in chores.items():
     ...         if day in days:
     ...             print(chore)
     ...
     >>> show_chores(chores_for_ethan, Weekday.SATURDAY)
     answer SO questions

In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can
save yourself some work and use *note auto(): b1f. for the values:

     >>> from enum import auto
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = auto()
     ...     TUESDAY = auto()
     ...     WEDNESDAY = auto()
     ...     THURSDAY = auto()
     ...     FRIDAY = auto()
     ...     SATURDAY = auto()
     ...     SUNDAY = auto()
     ...     WEEKEND = SATURDAY | SUNDAY

* Menu:

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration: Iteration<2>.
* Comparisons: Comparisons<2>.
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<3>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Next: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.1 Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes it’s useful to access members in enumerations programmatically
(i.e.  situations where ‘Color.RED’ won’t do because the exact color is
not known at program-writing time).  ‘Enum’ allows such access:

     >>> Color(1)
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color(3)
     <Color.BLUE: 3>

If you want to access enum members by 'name', use item access:

     >>> Color['RED']
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color['GREEN']
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

If you have an enum member and need its ‘name’ or ‘value’:

     >>> member = Color.RED
     >>> member.name
     'RED'
     >>> member.value
     1


File: python.info,  Node: Duplicating enum members and values,  Next: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Prev: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.2 Duplicating enum members and values
-----------------------------------------

Having two enum members with the same name is invalid:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     SQUARE = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: 'SQUARE' already defined as 2

However, an enum member can have other names associated with it.  Given
two entries ‘A’ and ‘B’ with the same value (and ‘A’ defined first), ‘B’
is an alias for the member ‘A’.  By-value lookup of the value of ‘A’
will return the member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘A’ will return the
member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘B’ will also return the member ‘A’:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     DIAMOND = 1
     ...     CIRCLE = 3
     ...     ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape(2)
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>

     Not: Attempting to create a member with the same name as an already
     defined attribute (another member, a method, etc.)  or attempting
     to create an attribute with the same name as a member is not
     allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Next: Using automatic values,  Prev: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.3 Ensuring unique enumeration values
----------------------------------------

By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same
value.  When this behavior isn’t desired, you can use the *note
unique(): 23a5. decorator:

     >>> from enum import Enum, unique
     >>> @unique
     ... class Mistake(Enum):
     ...     ONE = 1
     ...     TWO = 2
     ...     THREE = 3
     ...     FOUR = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE


File: python.info,  Node: Using automatic values,  Next: Iteration<2>,  Prev: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.4 Using automatic values
----------------------------

If the exact value is unimportant you can use *note auto: b1f.:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Color]
     [1, 2, 3]

The values are chosen by *note _generate_next_value_(): 23b9, which can
be overridden:

     >>> class AutoName(Enum):
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
     ...         return name
     ...
     >>> class Ordinal(AutoName):
     ...     NORTH = auto()
     ...     SOUTH = auto()
     ...     EAST = auto()
     ...     WEST = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Ordinal]
     ['NORTH', 'SOUTH', 'EAST', 'WEST']

     Not: The *note _generate_next_value_(): 23b9. method must be
     defined before any members.


File: python.info,  Node: Iteration<2>,  Next: Comparisons<2>,  Prev: Using automatic values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.5 Iteration
---------------

Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases:

     >>> list(Shape)
     [<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>]
     >>> list(Weekday)
     [<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>, <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>, <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 4>, <Weekday.THURSDAY: 8>, <Weekday.FRIDAY: 16>, <Weekday.SATURDAY: 32>, <Weekday.SUNDAY: 64>]

Note that the aliases ‘Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE’ and ‘Weekday.WEEKEND’
aren’t shown.

The special attribute ‘__members__’ is a read-only ordered mapping of
names to members.  It includes all names defined in the enumeration,
including the aliases:

     >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
     ...     name, member
     ...
     ('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
     ('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>)
     ('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>)
     ('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)

The ‘__members__’ attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access
to the enumeration members.  For example, finding all the aliases:

     >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
     ['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE']

     Not: Aliases for flags include values with multiple flags set, such
     as ‘3’, and no flags set, i.e.  ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons<2>,  Next: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Prev: Iteration<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.6 Comparisons
-----------------

Enumeration members are compared by identity:

     >>> Color.RED is Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
     False
     >>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE
     True

Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are 'not' supported.
Enum members are not integers (but see *note IntEnum: 4ddf. below):

     >>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color'

Equality comparisons are defined though:

     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED
     False
     >>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE
     True

Comparisons against non-enumeration values will always compare not equal
(again, *note IntEnum: b62. was explicitly designed to behave
differently, see below):

     >>> Color.BLUE == 2
     False

     Uyarı: It is possible to reload modules – if a reloaded module
     contains enums, they will be recreated, and the new members may not
     compare identical/equal to the original members.


File: python.info,  Node: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Next: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Prev: Comparisons<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.7 Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
----------------------------------------------------

Most of the examples above use integers for enumeration values.  Using
integers is short and handy (and provided by default by the *note
Functional API: 4de1.), but not strictly enforced.  In the vast majority
of use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an enumeration
is.  But if the value 'is' important, enumerations can have arbitrary
values.

Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special
methods as usual.  If we have this enumeration:

     >>> class Mood(Enum):
     ...     FUNKY = 1
     ...     HAPPY = 3
     ...
     ...     def describe(self):
     ...         # self is the member here
     ...         return self.name, self.value
     ...
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
     ...
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def favorite_mood(cls):
     ...         # cls here is the enumeration
     ...         return cls.HAPPY
     ...

Then:

     >>> Mood.favorite_mood()
     <Mood.HAPPY: 3>
     >>> Mood.HAPPY.describe()
     ('HAPPY', 3)
     >>> str(Mood.FUNKY)
     'my custom str! 1'

The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end
with a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all
other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of
this enumeration, with the exception of special methods (*note
__str__(): 42f, *note __add__(): 1d7b, etc.), descriptors (methods are
also descriptors), and variable names listed in *note _ignore_: 23b7.

Note: if your enumeration defines *note __new__(): 319. and/or *note
__init__(): 4c6, any value(s) given to the enum member will be passed
into those methods.  See *note Planet: 4de2. for an example.

     Not: The *note __new__(): 319. method, if defined, is used during
     creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s *note
     __new__(): 319. which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.  See *note When to use __new__() vs.  __init__():
     4de3. for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Next: Dataclass support,  Prev: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.8 Restricted Enum subclassing
---------------------------------

A new *note Enum: 443. class must have one base enum class, up to one
concrete data type, and as many *note object: 8f2.-based mixin classes
as needed.  The order of these base classes is:

     class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum):
         pass

Also, subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does
not define any members.  So this is forbidden:

     >>> class MoreColor(Color):
     ...     PINK = 17
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: <enum 'MoreColor'> cannot extend <enum 'Color'>

But this is allowed:

     >>> class Foo(Enum):
     ...     def some_behavior(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> class Bar(Foo):
     ...     HAPPY = 1
     ...     SAD = 2
     ...

Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a
violation of some important invariants of types and instances.  On the
other hand, it makes sense to allow sharing some common behavior between
a group of enumerations.  (See *note OrderedEnum: 4de5. for an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Dataclass support,  Next: Pickling,  Prev: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.9 Dataclass support
-----------------------

When inheriting from a *note dataclass: 3d4, the *note __repr__(): 15a4.
omits the inherited class’ name.  For example:

     >>> from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     >>> @dataclass
     ... class CreatureDataMixin:
     ...     size: str
     ...     legs: int
     ...     tail: bool = field(repr=False, default=True)
     ...
     >>> class Creature(CreatureDataMixin, Enum):
     ...     BEETLE = 'small', 6
     ...     DOG = 'medium', 4
     ...
     >>> Creature.DOG
     <Creature.DOG: size='medium', legs=4>

Use the ‘dataclass()’ argument ‘repr=False’ to use the standard *note
repr(): 637.

3.12 sürümünde değişti: Only the dataclass fields are shown in the value
area, not the dataclass’ name.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickling,  Next: Functional API<3>,  Prev: Dataclass support,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.10 Pickling
---------------

Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled:

     >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
     >>> from pickle import dumps, loads
     >>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO))
     True

The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be
defined in the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to
be importable from that module.

     Not: With pickle protocol version 4 it is possible to easily pickle
     enums nested in other classes.

It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by
defining *note __reduce_ex__(): 267a. in the enumeration class.  The
default method is by-value, but enums with complicated values may want
to use by-name:

     >>> import enum
     >>> class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
     ...     __reduce_ex__ = enum.pickle_by_enum_name

     Not: Using by-name for flags is not recommended, as unnamed aliases
     will not unpickle.


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API<3>,  Next: Derived Enumerations,  Prev: Pickling,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.11 Functional API
---------------------

The *note Enum: 443. class is callable, providing the following
functional API:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG')
     >>> Animal
     <enum 'Animal'>
     >>> Animal.ANT
     <Animal.ANT: 1>
     >>> list(Animal)
     [<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>]

The semantics of this API resemble *note namedtuple: 74b.  The first
argument of the call to *note Enum: 443. is the name of the enumeration.

The second argument is the 'source' of enumeration member names.  It can
be a whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a
sequence of 2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g.
dictionary) of names to values.  The last two options enable assigning
arbitrary values to enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing
integers starting with 1 (use the ‘start’ parameter to specify a
different starting value).  A new class derived from *note Enum: 443. is
returned.  In other words, the above assignment to ‘Animal’ is
equivalent to:

     >>> class Animal(Enum):
     ...     ANT = 1
     ...     BEE = 2
     ...     CAT = 3
     ...     DOG = 4
     ...

The reason for defaulting to ‘1’ as the starting number and not ‘0’ is
that ‘0’ is ‘False’ in a boolean sense, but by default enum members all
evaluate to ‘True’.

Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame
stack implementation details are used to try and figure out which module
the enumeration is being created in (e.g.  it will fail if you use a
utility function in a separate module, and also may not work on
IronPython or Jython).  The solution is to specify the module name
explicitly as follows:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__)

     Uyarı: If ‘module’ is not supplied, and Enum cannot determine what
     it is, the new Enum members will not be unpicklable; to keep errors
     closer to the source, pickling will be disabled.

The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on *note
__qualname__: 1d14. being set to the location where pickle will be able
to find the class.  For example, if the class was made available in
class SomeData in the global scope:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal')

The complete signature is:

     Enum(
         value='NewEnumName',
         names=<...>,
         *,
         module='...',
         qualname='...',
         type=<mixed-in class>,
         start=1,
         )

   * 'value': What the new enum class will record as its name.

   * 'names': The enum members.  This can be a whitespace- or
     comma-separated string (values will start at 1 unless otherwise
     specified):

          'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE'

     or an iterator of names:

          ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     or an iterator of (name, value) pairs:

          [('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)]

     or a mapping:

          {'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42}

   * 'module': name of module where new enum class can be found.

   * 'qualname': where in module new enum class can be found.

   * 'type': type to mix in to new enum class.

   * 'start': number to start counting at if only names are passed in.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: The 'start' parameter was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Derived Enumerations,  Next: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Prev: Functional API<3>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.12 Derived Enumerations
---------------------------

* Menu:

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Others: Others<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: IntEnum,  Next: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.1 IntEnum
................

The first variation of *note Enum: 443. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note int: 184.  Members of an *note IntEnum: b62. can be
compared to integers; by extension, integer enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other:

     >>> from enum import IntEnum
     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Request(IntEnum):
     ...     POST = 1
     ...     GET = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape == 1
     False
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1
     True
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST
     True

However, they still can’t be compared to standard *note Enum: 443.
enumerations:

     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED
     False

*note IntEnum: b62. values behave like integers in other ways you’d
expect:

     >>> int(Shape.CIRCLE)
     1
     >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE]
     'b'
     >>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)]
     [0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: StrEnum,  Next: IntFlag,  Prev: IntEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.2 StrEnum
................

The second variation of *note Enum: 443. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note str: 15d.  Members of a *note StrEnum: 42c. can be
compared to strings; by extension, string enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other.

Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: IntFlag,  Next: Flag,  Prev: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.3 IntFlag
................

The next variation of *note Enum: 443. provided, *note IntFlag: 20ee, is
also based on *note int: 184.  The difference being *note IntFlag: 20ee.
members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^, ~) and the
result is still an *note IntFlag: 20ee. member, if possible.  Like *note
IntEnum: b62, *note IntFlag: 20ee. members are also integers and can be
used wherever an *note int: 184. is used.

     Not: Any operation on an *note IntFlag: 20ee. member besides the
     bit-wise operations will lose the *note IntFlag: 20ee. membership.

     Bit-wise operations that result in invalid *note IntFlag: 20ee.
     values will lose the *note IntFlag: 20ee. membership.  See *note
     FlagBoundary: 436. for details.

Added in version 3.6.

3.11 sürümünde değişti.

Sample *note IntFlag: 20ee. class:

     >>> from enum import IntFlag
     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...
     >>> Perm.R | Perm.W
     <Perm.R|W: 6>
     >>> Perm.R + Perm.W
     6
     >>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W
     >>> Perm.R in RW
     True

It is also possible to name the combinations:

     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...     RWX = 7
     ...
     >>> Perm.RWX
     <Perm.RWX: 7>
     >>> ~Perm.RWX
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> Perm(7)
     <Perm.RWX: 7>

     Not: Named combinations are considered aliases.  Aliases do not
     show up during iteration, but can be returned from by-value
     lookups.

3.11 sürümünde değişti.

Another important difference between *note IntFlag: 20ee. and *note
Enum: 443. is that if no flags are set (the value is 0), its boolean
evaluation is *note False: 9a8.:

     >>> Perm.R & Perm.X
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X)
     False

Because *note IntFlag: 20ee. members are also subclasses of *note int:
184. they can be combined with them (but may lose *note IntFlag: 20ee.
membership:

     >>> Perm.X | 4
     <Perm.R|X: 5>

     >>> Perm.X + 8
     9

     Not: The negation operator, ‘~’, always returns an *note IntFlag:
     20ee. member with a positive value:

          >>> (~Perm.X).value == (Perm.R|Perm.W).value == 6
          True

*note IntFlag: 20ee. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> list(RW)
     [<Perm.R: 4>, <Perm.W: 2>]

Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag,  Next: Others<2>,  Prev: IntFlag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.4 Flag
.............

The last variation is *note Flag: 435.  Like *note IntFlag: 20ee, *note
Flag: 435. members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^,
~).  Unlike *note IntFlag: 20ee, they cannot be combined with, nor
compared against, any other *note Flag: 435. enumeration, nor *note int:
184.  While it is possible to specify the values directly it is
recommended to use *note auto: b1f. as the value and let *note Flag:
435. select an appropriate value.

Added in version 3.6.

Like *note IntFlag: 20ee, if a combination of *note Flag: 435. members
results in no flags being set, the boolean evaluation is *note False:
9a8.:

     >>> from enum import Flag, auto
     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN
     <Color: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN)
     False

Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8,
…), while combinations of flags will not:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN
     ...
     >>> Color.WHITE
     <Color.WHITE: 7>

Giving a name to the “no flags set” condition does not change its
boolean value:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.BLACK
     <Color.BLACK: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.BLACK)
     False

*note Flag: 435. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
     >>> list(purple)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>]

Added in version 3.11.

     Not: For the majority of new code, *note Enum: 443. and *note Flag:
     435. are strongly recommended, since *note IntEnum: b62. and *note
     IntFlag: 20ee. break some semantic promises of an enumeration (by
     being comparable to integers, and thus by transitivity to other
     unrelated enumerations).  *note IntEnum: b62. and *note IntFlag:
     20ee. should be used only in cases where *note Enum: 443. and *note
     Flag: 435. will not do; for example, when integer constants are
     replaced with enumerations, or for interoperability with other
     systems.


File: python.info,  Node: Others<2>,  Prev: Flag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.5.12.5 Others
...............

While *note IntEnum: b62. is part of the *note enum: 54. module, it
would be very simple to implement independently:

     class IntEnum(int, Enum):
         pass

This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for
example a ‘FloatEnum’ that mixes in *note float: 272. instead of *note
int: 184.

Some rules:

  1. When subclassing *note Enum: 443, mix-in types must appear before
     *note Enum: 443. itself in the sequence of bases, as in the *note
     IntEnum: b62. example above.

  2. Mix-in types must be subclassable.  For example, *note bool: 183.
     and *note range: 79c. are not subclassable and will throw an error
     during Enum creation if used as the mix-in type.

  3. While *note Enum: 443. can have members of any type, once you mix
     in an additional type, all the members must have values of that
     type, e.g.  *note int: 184. above.  This restriction does not apply
     to mix-ins which only add methods and don’t specify another type.

  4. When another data type is mixed in, the *note value: 23b2.
     attribute is 'not the same' as the enum member itself, although it
     is equivalent and will compare equal.

  5. A ‘data type’ is a mixin that defines *note __new__(): 319, or a
     *note dataclass: 3d4.

  6. %-style formatting: ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ call the *note Enum: 443. class’s
     *note __str__(): 42f. and *note __repr__(): 42e. respectively;
     other codes (such as ‘%i’ or ‘%h’ for IntEnum) treat the enum
     member as its mixed-in type.

  7. *note Formatted string literals: 807, *note str.format(): 433, and
     *note format(): 431. will use the enum’s *note __str__(): 42f.
     method.

     Not: Because *note IntEnum: b62, *note IntFlag: 20ee, and *note
     StrEnum: 42c. are designed to be drop-in replacements for existing
     constants, their *note __str__(): 42f. method has been reset to
     their data types’ *note __str__(): 42f. method.


File: python.info,  Node: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Next: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Prev: Derived Enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.13 When to use ‘__new__()’ vs. ‘__init__()’
-----------------------------------------------

*note __new__(): 319. must be used whenever you want to customize the
actual value of the *note Enum: 443. member.  Any other modifications
may go in either *note __new__(): 319. or *note __init__(): 4c6, with
*note __init__(): 4c6. being preferred.

For example, if you want to pass several items to the constructor, but
only want one of them to be the value:

     >>> class Coordinate(bytes, Enum):
     ...     """
     ...     Coordinate with binary codes that can be indexed by the int code.
     ...     """
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, label, unit):
     ...         obj = bytes.__new__(cls, [value])
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         obj.label = label
     ...         obj.unit = unit
     ...         return obj
     ...     PX = (0, 'P.X', 'km')
     ...     PY = (1, 'P.Y', 'km')
     ...     VX = (2, 'V.X', 'km/s')
     ...     VY = (3, 'V.Y', 'km/s')
     ...

     >>> print(Coordinate['PY'])
     Coordinate.PY

     >>> print(Coordinate(3))
     Coordinate.VY

     Uyarı: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only
     ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type
     directly.

* Menu:

* Finer Points::


File: python.info,  Node: Finer Points,  Up: When to use __new__ vs __init__

9.5.13.1 Finer Points
.....................

* Menu:

* Supported __dunder__ names: Supported __dunder__ names<2>.
* Supported _sunder_ names: Supported _sunder_ names<2>.
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::


File: python.info,  Node: Supported __dunder__ names<2>,  Next: Supported _sunder_ names<2>,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.2 Supported ‘__dunder__’ names
.....................................

*note __members__: 23af. is a read-only ordered mapping of
‘member_name’:‘member’ items.  It is only available on the class.

*note __new__(): 319, if specified, must create and return the enum
members; it is also a very good idea to set the member’s *note _value_:
23b5. appropriately.  Once all the members are created it is no longer
used.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported _sunder_ names<2>,  Next: _Private__names,  Prev: Supported __dunder__ names<2>,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.3 Supported ‘_sunder_’ names
...................................

   - *note _name_: 23b4. – name of the member

   - *note _value_: 23b5. – value of the member; can be set / modified
     in ‘__new__’

   - *note _missing_(): 23bc. – a lookup function used when a value is
     not found; may be overridden

   - *note _ignore_: 23b7. – a list of names, either as a *note list:
     422. or a *note str: 15d, that will not be transformed into
     members, and will be removed from the final class

   - *note _order_: 23b6. – used in Python 2/3 code to ensure member
     order is consistent (class attribute, removed during class
     creation)

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 23b9. – used by the *note Functional
     API: 4de1. and by *note auto: b1f. to get an appropriate value for
     an enum member; may be overridden

     Not: For standard *note Enum: 443. classes the next value chosen is
     the last value seen incremented by one.

     For *note Flag: 435. classes the next value chosen will be the next
     highest power-of-two, regardless of the last value seen.

Added in version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’, ‘_generate_next_value_’

Added in version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’

To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an *note _order_: 23b6.
attribute can be provided.  It will be checked against the actual order
of the enumeration and raise an error if the two do not match:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
       ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
       ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     Not: In Python 2 code the *note _order_: 23b6. attribute is
     necessary as definition order is lost before it can be recorded.


File: python.info,  Node: _Private__names,  Next: Enum member type,  Prev: Supported _sunder_ names<2>,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.4 _Private__names
........................

*note Private names: 1b03. are not converted to enum members, but remain
normal attributes.

3.11 sürümünde değişti.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum member type,  Next: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Prev: _Private__names,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.5 ‘Enum’ member type
...........................

Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally
accessed as ‘EnumClass.member’.  In certain situations, such as writing
custom enum behavior, being able to access one member directly from
another is useful, and is supported; however, in order to avoid name
clashes between member names and attributes/methods from mixed-in
classes, upper-case names are strongly recommended.

3.5 sürümünde değişti.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Next: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Prev: Enum member type,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.6 Creating members that are mixed with other data types
..............................................................

When subclassing other data types, such as *note int: 184. or *note str:
15d, with an *note Enum: 443, all values after the ‘=’ are passed to
that data type’s constructor.  For example:

     >>> class MyEnum(IntEnum):      # help(int) -> int(x, base=10) -> integer
     ...     example = '11', 16      # so x='11' and base=16
     ...
     >>> MyEnum.example.value        # and hex(11) is...
     17


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Next: Enum classes with methods,  Prev: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.7 Boolean value of ‘Enum’ classes and members
....................................................

Enum classes that are mixed with non-*note Enum: 443. types (such as
*note int: 184, *note str: 15d, etc.)  are evaluated according to the
mixed-in type’s rules; otherwise, all members evaluate as *note True:
a86.  To make your own enum’s boolean evaluation depend on the member’s
value add the following to your class:

     def __bool__(self):
         return bool(self.value)

Plain *note Enum: 443. classes always evaluate as *note True: a86.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum classes with methods,  Next: Combining members of Flag,  Prev: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.8 ‘Enum’ classes with methods
....................................

If you give your enum subclass extra methods, like the *note Planet:
4de2. class below, those methods will show up in a *note dir(): 445. of
the member, but not of the class:

     >>> dir(Planet)
     ['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']
     >>> dir(Planet.EARTH)
     ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'mass', 'name', 'radius', 'surface_gravity', 'value']


File: python.info,  Node: Combining members of Flag,  Next: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Enum classes with methods,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.9 Combining members of ‘Flag’
....................................

Iterating over a combination of *note Flag: 435. members will only
return the members that are comprised of a single bit:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     MAGENTA = RED | BLUE
     ...     YELLOW = RED | GREEN
     ...     CYAN = GREEN | BLUE
     ...
     >>> Color(3)  # named combination
     <Color.YELLOW: 3>
     >>> Color(7)      # not named combination
     <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>


File: python.info,  Node: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Combining members of Flag,  Up: Finer Points

9.5.13.10 ‘Flag’ and ‘IntFlag’ minutia
......................................

Using the following snippet for our examples:

     >>> class Color(IntFlag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 4
     ...     PURPLE = RED | BLUE
     ...     WHITE = RED | GREEN | BLUE
     ...

the following are true:

   - single-bit flags are canonical

   - multi-bit and zero-bit flags are aliases

   - only canonical flags are returned during iteration:

          >>> list(Color.WHITE)
          [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

   - negating a flag or flag set returns a new flag/flag set with the
     corresponding positive integer value:

          >>> Color.BLUE
          <Color.BLUE: 4>

          >>> ~Color.BLUE
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

   - names of pseudo-flags are constructed from their members’ names:

          >>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name
          'RED|GREEN'

          >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
          ...     R = 4
          ...     W = 2
          ...     X = 1
          ...
          >>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None  # effectively Perm(0)
          True

   - multi-bit flags, aka aliases, can be returned from operations:

          >>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE
          <Color.PURPLE: 5>

          >>> Color(7)  # or Color(-1)
          <Color.WHITE: 7>

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color.BLACK: 0>

   - membership / containment checking: zero-valued flags are always
     considered to be contained:

          >>> Color.BLACK in Color.WHITE
          True

     otherwise, only if all bits of one flag are in the other flag will
     True be returned:

          >>> Color.PURPLE in Color.WHITE
          True

          >>> Color.GREEN in Color.PURPLE
          False

There is a new boundary mechanism that controls how out-of-range /
invalid bits are handled: ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’, and ‘KEEP’:

   * STRICT –> raises an exception when presented with invalid values

   * CONFORM –> discards any invalid bits

   * EJECT –> lose Flag status and become a normal int with the given
     value

   * KEEP –> keep the extra bits

        - keeps Flag status and extra bits

        - extra bits do not show up in iteration

        - extra bits do show up in repr() and str()

The default for Flag is ‘STRICT’, the default for ‘IntFlag’ is ‘EJECT’,
and the default for ‘_convert_’ is ‘KEEP’ (see ‘ssl.Options’ for an
example of when ‘KEEP’ is needed).


File: python.info,  Node: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Next: Enum Cookbook,  Prev: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.14 How are Enums and Flags different?
-----------------------------------------

Enums have a custom metaclass that affects many aspects of both derived
*note Enum: 443. classes and their instances (members).

* Menu:

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Classes,  Next: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.1 Enum Classes
.....................

The *note EnumType: 42b. metaclass is responsible for providing the
*note __contains__(): 1d4b, *note __dir__(): 1d54, *note __iter__():
1d49. and other methods that allow one to do things with an *note Enum:
443. class that fail on a typical class, such as ‘list(Color)’ or
‘some_enum_var in Color’.  *note EnumType: 42b. is responsible for
ensuring that various other methods on the final *note Enum: 443. class
are correct (such as *note __new__(): 319, *note __getnewargs__(): 1330,
*note __str__(): 42f. and *note __repr__(): 42e.).


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Classes,  Next: Enum Members aka instances,  Prev: Enum Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.2 Flag Classes
.....................

Flags have an expanded view of aliasing: to be canonical, the value of a
flag needs to be a power-of-two value, and not a duplicate name.  So, in
addition to the *note Enum: 443. definition of alias, a flag with no
value (a.k.a.  ‘0’) or with more than one power-of-two value (e.g.  ‘3’)
is considered an alias.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Members aka instances,  Next: Flag Members,  Prev: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.3 Enum Members (aka instances)
.....................................

The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are
singletons.  *note EnumType: 42b. creates them all while it is creating
the enum class itself, and then puts a custom *note __new__(): 319. in
place to ensure that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only
the existing member instances.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Members,  Prev: Enum Members aka instances,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.5.14.4 Flag Members
.....................

Flag members can be iterated over just like the *note Flag: 435. class,
and only the canonical members will be returned.  For example:

     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

(Note that ‘BLACK’, ‘PURPLE’, and ‘WHITE’ do not show up.)

Inverting a flag member returns the corresponding positive value, rather
than a negative value — for example:

     >>> ~Color.RED
     <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

Flag members have a length corresponding to the number of power-of-two
values they contain.  For example:

     >>> len(Color.PURPLE)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Cookbook,  Next: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.15 Enum Cookbook
--------------------

While *note Enum: 443, *note IntEnum: b62, *note StrEnum: 42c, *note
Flag: 435, and *note IntFlag: 20ee. are expected to cover the majority
of use-cases, they cannot cover them all.  Here are recipes for some
different types of enumerations that can be used directly, or as
examples for creating one’s own.

* Menu:

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::


File: python.info,  Node: Omitting values,  Next: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.1 Omitting values
........................

In many use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an
enumeration is.  There are several ways to define this type of simple
enumeration:

   - use instances of *note auto: b1f. for the value

   - use instances of *note object: 8f2. as the value

   - use a descriptive string as the value

   - use a tuple as the value and a custom *note __new__(): 319. to
     replace the tuple with an *note int: 184. value

Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are
not important, and also enables one to add, remove, or reorder members
without having to renumber the remaining members.

* Menu:

* Using auto::
* Using object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.


File: python.info,  Node: Using auto,  Next: Using object,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.2 Using ‘auto’
.....................

Using *note auto: b1f. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 3>


File: python.info,  Node: Using object,  Next: Using a descriptive string,  Prev: Using auto,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.3 Using ‘object’
.......................

Using *note object: 8f2. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>>

This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own
*note __repr__(): 42e.:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return "<%s.%s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self._name_)
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a descriptive string,  Next: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Using object,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.4 Using a descriptive string
...................................

Using a string as the value would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 'stop'
     ...     GREEN = 'go'
     ...     BLUE = 'too fast!'
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 'go'>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Using a descriptive string,  Up: Omitting values

9.5.15.5 Using a custom ‘__new__()’
...................................

Using an auto-numbering *note __new__(): 319. would look like:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls):
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...
     >>> class Color(AutoNumber):
     ...     RED = ()
     ...     GREEN = ()
     ...     BLUE = ()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

To make a more general purpose ‘AutoNumber’, add ‘*args’ to the
signature:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, *args):      # this is the only change from above
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...

Then when you inherit from ‘AutoNumber’ you can write your own
‘__init__’ to handle any extra arguments:

     >>> class Swatch(AutoNumber):
     ...     def __init__(self, pantone='unknown'):
     ...         self.pantone = pantone
     ...     AUBURN = '3497'
     ...     SEA_GREEN = '1246'
     ...     BLEACHED_CORAL = () # New color, no Pantone code yet!
     ...
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN
     <Swatch.SEA_GREEN: 2>
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN.pantone
     '1246'
     >>> Swatch.BLEACHED_CORAL.pantone
     'unknown'

     Not: The *note __new__(): 319. method, if defined, is used during
     creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s *note
     __new__(): 319. which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.

     Uyarı: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only
     ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type
     directly – e.g.:

          obj = int.__new__(cls, value)


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedEnum,  Next: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Prev: Omitting values,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.6 OrderedEnum
....................

An ordered enumeration that is not based on *note IntEnum: b62. and so
maintains the normal *note Enum: 443. invariants (such as not being
comparable to other enumerations):

     >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __ge__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value >= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __gt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value > other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __le__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value <= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __lt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value < other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...
     >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
     ...     A = 5
     ...     B = 4
     ...     C = 3
     ...     D = 2
     ...     F = 1
     ...
     >>> Grade.C < Grade.A
     True


File: python.info,  Node: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Next: Planet,  Prev: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.7 DuplicateFreeEnum
..........................

Raises an error if a duplicate member value is found instead of creating
an alias:

     >>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __init__(self, *args):
     ...         cls = self.__class__
     ...         if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
     ...             a = self.name
     ...             e = cls(self.value).name
     ...             raise ValueError(
     ...                 "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  %r --> %r"
     ...                 % (a, e))
     ...
     >>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GRENE = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  'GRENE' --> 'GREEN'

     Not: This is a useful example for subclassing Enum to add or change
     other behaviors as well as disallowing aliases.  If the only
     desired change is disallowing aliases, the *note unique(): 23a5.
     decorator can be used instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Planet,  Next: TimePeriod,  Prev: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.8 Planet
...............

If *note __new__(): 319. or *note __init__(): 4c6. is defined, the value
of the enum member will be passed to those methods:

     >>> class Planet(Enum):
     ...     MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
     ...     VENUS   = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
     ...     EARTH   = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
     ...     MARS    = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
     ...     JUPITER = (1.9e+27,   7.1492e7)
     ...     SATURN  = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
     ...     URANUS  = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
     ...     NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
     ...     def __init__(self, mass, radius):
     ...         self.mass = mass       # in kilograms
     ...         self.radius = radius   # in meters
     ...     @property
     ...     def surface_gravity(self):
     ...         # universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)
     ...         G = 6.67300E-11
     ...         return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
     ...
     >>> Planet.EARTH.value
     (5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
     >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
     9.802652743337129


File: python.info,  Node: TimePeriod,  Prev: Planet,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.5.15.9 TimePeriod
...................

An example to show the *note _ignore_: 23b7. attribute in use:

     >>> from datetime import timedelta
     >>> class Period(timedelta, Enum):
     ...     "different lengths of time"
     ...     _ignore_ = 'Period i'
     ...     Period = vars()
     ...     for i in range(367):
     ...         Period['day_%d' % i] = i
     ...
     >>> list(Period)[:2]
     [<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>]
     >>> list(Period)[-2:]
     [<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: Enum Cookbook,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.5.16 Subclassing EnumType
---------------------------

While most enum needs can be met by customizing *note Enum: 443.
subclasses, either with class decorators or custom functions, *note
EnumType: 42b. can be subclassed to provide a different Enum experience.


File: python.info,  Node: Functional Programming HOWTO,  Next: Logging HOWTO,  Prev: Enum HOWTO,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.6 Functional Programming HOWTO
================================


Author: A. M. Kuchling


Release: 0.32

In this document, we’ll take a tour of Python’s features suitable for
implementing programs in a functional style.  After an introduction to
the concepts of functional programming, we’ll look at language features
such as *note iterator: 176e.s and *note generator: f0b.s and relevant
library modules such as *note itertools: 7f. and *note functools: 5d.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<11>.
* Iterators::
* Generator expressions and list comprehensions::
* Generators::
* Built-in functions: Built-in functions<2>.
* The itertools module::
* The functools module::
* Small functions and the lambda expression::
* Revision History and Acknowledgements::
* References: References<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<11>,  Next: Iterators,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.1 Introduction
------------------

This section explains the basic concept of functional programming; if
you’re just interested in learning about Python language features, skip
to the next section on *note Iterators: 4e0a.

Programming languages support decomposing problems in several different
ways:

   * Most programming languages are 'procedural': programs are lists of
     instructions that tell the computer what to do with the program’s
     input.  C, Pascal, and even Unix shells are procedural languages.

   * In 'declarative' languages, you write a specification that
     describes the problem to be solved, and the language implementation
     figures out how to perform the computation efficiently.  SQL is the
     declarative language you’re most likely to be familiar with; a SQL
     query describes the data set you want to retrieve, and the SQL
     engine decides whether to scan tables or use indexes, which
     subclauses should be performed first, etc.

   * 'Object-oriented' programs manipulate collections of objects.
     Objects have internal state and support methods that query or
     modify this internal state in some way.  Smalltalk and Java are
     object-oriented languages.  C++ and Python are languages that
     support object-oriented programming, but don’t force the use of
     object-oriented features.

   * 'Functional' programming decomposes a problem into a set of
     functions.  Ideally, functions only take inputs and produce
     outputs, and don’t have any internal state that affects the output
     produced for a given input.  Well-known functional languages
     include the ML family (Standard ML, OCaml, and other variants) and
     Haskell.

The designers of some computer languages choose to emphasize one
particular approach to programming.  This often makes it difficult to
write programs that use a different approach.  Other languages are
multi-paradigm languages that support several different approaches.
Lisp, C++, and Python are multi-paradigm; you can write programs or
libraries that are largely procedural, object-oriented, or functional in
all of these languages.  In a large program, different sections might be
written using different approaches; the GUI might be object-oriented
while the processing logic is procedural or functional, for example.

In a functional program, input flows through a set of functions.  Each
function operates on its input and produces some output.  Functional
style discourages functions with side effects that modify internal state
or make other changes that aren’t visible in the function’s return
value.  Functions that have no side effects at all are called 'purely
functional'.  Avoiding side effects means not using data structures that
get updated as a program runs; every function’s output must only depend
on its input.

Some languages are very strict about purity and don’t even have
assignment statements such as ‘a=3’ or ‘c = a + b’, but it’s difficult
to avoid all side effects, such as printing to the screen or writing to
a disk file.  Another example is a call to the *note print(): e16. or
*note time.sleep(): 4b2. function, neither of which returns a useful
value.  Both are called only for their side effects of sending some text
to the screen or pausing execution for a second.

Python programs written in functional style usually won’t go to the
extreme of avoiding all I/O or all assignments; instead, they’ll provide
a functional-appearing interface but will use non-functional features
internally.  For example, the implementation of a function will still
use assignments to local variables, but won’t modify global variables or
have other side effects.

Functional programming can be considered the opposite of object-oriented
programming.  Objects are little capsules containing some internal state
along with a collection of method calls that let you modify this state,
and programs consist of making the right set of state changes.
Functional programming wants to avoid state changes as much as possible
and works with data flowing between functions.  In Python you might
combine the two approaches by writing functions that take and return
instances representing objects in your application (e-mail messages,
transactions, etc.).

Functional design may seem like an odd constraint to work under.  Why
should you avoid objects and side effects?  There are theoretical and
practical advantages to the functional style:

   * Formal provability.

   * Modularity.

   * Composability.

   * Ease of debugging and testing.

* Menu:

* Formal provability::
* Modularity::
* Ease of debugging and testing::
* Composability::


File: python.info,  Node: Formal provability,  Next: Modularity,  Up: Introduction<11>

9.6.1.1 Formal provability
..........................

A theoretical benefit is that it’s easier to construct a mathematical
proof that a functional program is correct.

For a long time researchers have been interested in finding ways to
mathematically prove programs correct.  This is different from testing a
program on numerous inputs and concluding that its output is usually
correct, or reading a program’s source code and concluding that the code
looks right; the goal is instead a rigorous proof that a program
produces the right result for all possible inputs.

The technique used to prove programs correct is to write down
'invariants', properties of the input data and of the program’s
variables that are always true.  For each line of code, you then show
that if invariants X and Y are true 'before' the line is executed, the
slightly different invariants X’ and Y’ are true 'after' the line is
executed.  This continues until you reach the end of the program, at
which point the invariants should match the desired conditions on the
program’s output.

Functional programming’s avoidance of assignments arose because
assignments are difficult to handle with this technique; assignments can
break invariants that were true before the assignment without producing
any new invariants that can be propagated onward.

Unfortunately, proving programs correct is largely impractical and not
relevant to Python software.  Even trivial programs require proofs that
are several pages long; the proof of correctness for a moderately
complicated program would be enormous, and few or none of the programs
you use daily (the Python interpreter, your XML parser, your web
browser) could be proven correct.  Even if you wrote down or generated a
proof, there would then be the question of verifying the proof; maybe
there’s an error in it, and you wrongly believe you’ve proved the
program correct.


File: python.info,  Node: Modularity,  Next: Ease of debugging and testing,  Prev: Formal provability,  Up: Introduction<11>

9.6.1.2 Modularity
..................

A more practical benefit of functional programming is that it forces you
to break apart your problem into small pieces.  Programs are more
modular as a result.  It’s easier to specify and write a small function
that does one thing than a large function that performs a complicated
transformation.  Small functions are also easier to read and to check
for errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Ease of debugging and testing,  Next: Composability,  Prev: Modularity,  Up: Introduction<11>

9.6.1.3 Ease of debugging and testing
.....................................

Testing and debugging a functional-style program is easier.

Debugging is simplified because functions are generally small and
clearly specified.  When a program doesn’t work, each function is an
interface point where you can check that the data are correct.  You can
look at the intermediate inputs and outputs to quickly isolate the
function that’s responsible for a bug.

Testing is easier because each function is a potential subject for a
unit test.  Functions don’t depend on system state that needs to be
replicated before running a test; instead you only have to synthesize
the right input and then check that the output matches expectations.


File: python.info,  Node: Composability,  Prev: Ease of debugging and testing,  Up: Introduction<11>

9.6.1.4 Composability
.....................

As you work on a functional-style program, you’ll write a number of
functions with varying inputs and outputs.  Some of these functions will
be unavoidably specialized to a particular application, but others will
be useful in a wide variety of programs.  For example, a function that
takes a directory path and returns all the XML files in the directory,
or a function that takes a filename and returns its contents, can be
applied to many different situations.

Over time you’ll form a personal library of utilities.  Often you’ll
assemble new programs by arranging existing functions in a new
configuration and writing a few functions specialized for the current
task.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterators,  Next: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Prev: Introduction<11>,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.2 Iterators
---------------

I’ll start by looking at a Python language feature that’s an important
foundation for writing functional-style programs: iterators.

An iterator is an object representing a stream of data; this object
returns the data one element at a time.  A Python iterator must support
a method called *note __next__(): 1176. that takes no arguments and
always returns the next element of the stream.  If there are no more
elements in the stream, *note __next__(): 1176. must raise the *note
StopIteration: a73. exception.  Iterators don’t have to be finite,
though; it’s perfectly reasonable to write an iterator that produces an
infinite stream of data.

The built-in *note iter(): 610. function takes an arbitrary object and
tries to return an iterator that will return the object’s contents or
elements, raising *note TypeError: 2c4. if the object doesn’t support
iteration.  Several of Python’s built-in data types support iteration,
the most common being lists and dictionaries.  An object is called *note
iterable: 10ce. if you can get an iterator for it.

You can experiment with the iteration interface manually:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> it = iter(L)
     >>> it
     <...iterator object at ...>
     >>> it.__next__()  # same as next(it)
     1
     >>> next(it)
     2
     >>> next(it)
     3
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     StopIteration
     >>>

Python expects iterable objects in several different contexts, the most
important being the *note for: 26d. statement.  In the statement ‘for X
in Y’, Y must be an iterator or some object for which *note iter(): 610.
can create an iterator.  These two statements are equivalent:

     for i in iter(obj):
         print(i)

     for i in obj:
         print(i)

Iterators can be materialized as lists or tuples by using the *note
list(): 422. or *note tuple(): 4ff. constructor functions:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> t = tuple(iterator)
     >>> t
     (1, 2, 3)

Sequence unpacking also supports iterators: if you know an iterator will
return N elements, you can unpack them into an N-tuple:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> a, b, c = iterator
     >>> a, b, c
     (1, 2, 3)

Built-in functions such as *note max(): da0. and *note min(): d9f. can
take a single iterator argument and will return the largest or smallest
element.  The ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’ operators also support iterators: ‘X
in iterator’ is true if X is found in the stream returned by the
iterator.  You’ll run into obvious problems if the iterator is infinite;
*note max(): da0, *note min(): d9f. will never return, and if the
element X never appears in the stream, the ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’
operators won’t return either.

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.
Iterator objects can optionally provide these additional capabilities,
but the iterator protocol only specifies the *note __next__(): 1176.
method.  Functions may therefore consume all of the iterator’s output,
and if you need to do something different with the same stream, you’ll
have to create a new iterator.

* Menu:

* Data Types That Support Iterators::


File: python.info,  Node: Data Types That Support Iterators,  Up: Iterators

9.6.2.1 Data Types That Support Iterators
.........................................

We’ve already seen how lists and tuples support iterators.  In fact, any
Python sequence type, such as strings, will automatically support
creation of an iterator.

Calling *note iter(): 610. on a dictionary returns an iterator that will
loop over the dictionary’s keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m:
     ...     print(key, m[key])
     Jan 1
     Feb 2
     Mar 3
     Apr 4
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     Oct 10
     Nov 11
     Dec 12

Note that starting with Python 3.7, dictionary iteration order is
guaranteed to be the same as the insertion order.  In earlier versions,
the behaviour was unspecified and could vary between implementations.

Applying *note iter(): 610. to a dictionary always loops over the keys,
but dictionaries have methods that return other iterators.  If you want
to iterate over values or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the
*note values(): 606. or *note items(): 607. methods to get an
appropriate iterator.

The *note dict(): 240. constructor can accept an iterator that returns a
finite stream of ‘(key, value)’ tuples:

     >>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')]
     >>> dict(iter(L))
     {'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'}

Files also support iteration by calling the *note readline(): 1b06.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
read each line of a file like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Sets can take their contents from an iterable and let you iterate over
the set’s elements:

     >>> S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
     >>> for i in S:
     ...     print(i)
     2
     3
     5
     7
     11
     13


File: python.info,  Node: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Next: Generators,  Prev: Iterators,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.3 Generator expressions and list comprehensions
---------------------------------------------------

Two common operations on an iterator’s output are 1) performing some
operation for every element, 2) selecting a subset of elements that meet
some condition.  For example, given a list of strings, you might want to
strip off trailing whitespace from each line or extract all the strings
containing a given substring.

List comprehensions and generator expressions (short form: “listcomps”
and “genexps”) are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from
the functional programming language Haskell
(‘https://www.haskell.org/’).  You can strip all the whitespace from a
stream of strings with the following code:

     >>> line_list = ['  line 1\n', 'line 2  \n', ' \n', '']

     >>> # Generator expression -- returns iterator
     >>> stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list)

     >>> # List comprehension -- returns list
     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list]

You can select only certain elements by adding an ‘"if"’ condition:

     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list
     ...                  if line != ""]

With a list comprehension, you get back a Python list; ‘stripped_list’
is a list containing the resulting lines, not an iterator.  Generator
expressions return an iterator that computes the values as necessary,
not needing to materialize all the values at once.  This means that list
comprehensions aren’t useful if you’re working with iterators that
return an infinite stream or a very large amount of data.  Generator
expressions are preferable in these situations.

Generator expressions are surrounded by parentheses (“()”) and list
comprehensions are surrounded by square brackets (“[]”).  Generator
expressions have the form:

     ( expression for expr in sequence1
                  if condition1
                  for expr2 in sequence2
                  if condition2
                  for expr3 in sequence3
                  ...
                  if condition3
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if conditionN )

Again, for a list comprehension only the outside brackets are different
(square brackets instead of parentheses).

The elements of the generated output will be the successive values of
‘expression’.  The ‘if’ clauses are all optional; if present,
‘expression’ is only evaluated and added to the result when ‘condition’
is true.

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, but
the parentheses signalling a function call also count.  If you want to
create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you can
write:

     obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

The ‘for...in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are iterated
over from left to right, 'not' in parallel.  For each element in
‘sequence1’, ‘sequence2’ is looped over from the beginning.  ‘sequence3’
is then looped over for each resulting pair of elements from ‘sequence1’
and ‘sequence2’.

To put it another way, a list comprehension or generator expression is
equivalent to the following Python code:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         if not (condition1):
             continue   # Skip this element
         for expr2 in sequence2:
             if not (condition2):
                 continue   # Skip this element
             ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                 if not (conditionN):
                     continue   # Skip this element

                 # Output the value of
                 # the expression.

This means that when there are multiple ‘for...in’ clauses but no ‘if’
clauses, the length of the resulting output will be equal to the product
of the lengths of all the sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3,
the output list is 9 elements long:

     >>> seq1 = 'abc'
     >>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3)
     >>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3),
      ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3),
      ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if ‘expression’
is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first
list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is
correct:

     # Syntax error
     [x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # Correct
     [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]


File: python.info,  Node: Generators,  Next: Built-in functions<2>,  Prev: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.4 Generators
----------------

Generators are a special class of functions that simplify the task of
writing iterators.  Regular functions compute a value and return it, but
generators return an iterator that returns a stream of values.

You’re doubtless familiar with how regular function calls work in Python
or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its
local variables are created.  When the function reaches a ‘return’
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the value is returned
to the caller.  A later call to the same function creates a new private
namespace and a fresh set of local variables.  But, what if the local
variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could
later resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators
provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     >>> def generate_ints(N):
     ...    for i in range(N):
     ...        yield i

Any function containing a *note yield: 82b. keyword is a generator
function; this is detected by Python’s *note bytecode: 3b7. compiler
which compiles the function specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the ‘yield’ expression, the generator outputs
the value of ‘i’, similar to a ‘return’ statement.  The big difference
between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on reaching a ‘yield’
the generator’s state of execution is suspended and local variables are
preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s *note __next__(): 1b0f.
method, the function will resume executing.

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object generate_ints at ...>
     >>> next(gen)
     0
     >>> next(gen)
     1
     >>> next(gen)
     2
     >>> next(gen)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in <module>
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a, b, c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, ‘return value’ causes
‘StopIteration(value)’ to be raised from the *note __next__(): 1b0f.
method.  Once this happens, or the bottom of the function is reached,
the procession of values ends and the generator cannot yield any further
values.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note __next__(): 1176. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class can be much
messier.

The test suite included with Python’s library,
Lib/test/test_generators.py(1), contains a number of more interesting
examples.  Here’s one generator that implements an in-order traversal of
a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x

             yield t.label

             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘test_generators.py’ produce solutions for the
N-Queens problem (placing N queens on an NxN chess board so that no
queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (finding a route that
takes a knight to every square of an NxN chessboard without visiting any
square twice).

* Menu:

* Passing values into a generator::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Lib/test/test_generators.py


File: python.info,  Node: Passing values into a generator,  Up: Generators

9.6.4.1 Passing values into a generator
.......................................

In Python 2.4 and earlier, generators only produced output.  Once a
generator’s code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  You could hack together this ability by making the generator
look at a global variable or by passing in some mutable object that
callers then modify, but these approaches are messy.

In Python 2.5 there’s a simple way to pass values into a generator.
*note yield: 82b. became an expression, returning a value that can be
assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you 'always' put parentheses around a ‘yield’
expression when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they’re
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a
‘yield’-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there’s an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its *note send(value): 1dbb.
method.  This method resumes the generator’s code and the ‘yield’
expression returns the specified value.  If the regular *note
__next__(): 1b0f. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns ‘None’.

Here’s a simple counter that increments by 1 and allows changing the
value of the internal counter.

     def counter(maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here’s an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> next(it)
     0
     >>> next(it)
     1
     >>> it.send(8)
     8
     >>> next(it)
     9
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in <module>
         it.next()
     StopIteration

Because ‘yield’ will often be returning ‘None’, you should always check
for this case.  Don’t just use its value in expressions unless you’re
sure that the *note send(): 1dbb. method will be the only method used to
resume your generator function.

In addition to *note send(): 1dbb, there are two other methods on
generators:

   * *note throw(value): 24a. is used to raise an exception inside the
     generator; the exception is raised by the ‘yield’ expression where
     the generator’s execution is paused.

   * *note close(): 15e1. raises a *note GeneratorExit: 124e. exception
     inside the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator’s code must either raise *note
     GeneratorExit: 124e. or *note StopIteration: a73.; catching the
     exception and doing anything else is illegal and will trigger a
     *note RuntimeError: 180.  *note close(): 15e1. will also be called
     by Python’s garbage collector when the generator is
     garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 124e.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching *note GeneratorExit: 124e.

The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from
one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a ‘return’ statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the ‘yield’ statements).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in functions<2>,  Next: The itertools module,  Prev: Generators,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.5 Built-in functions
------------------------

Let’s look in more detail at built-in functions often used with
iterators.

Two of Python’s built-in functions, *note map(): 6a7. and *note
filter(): 6a8. duplicate the features of generator expressions:

*note map(f, iterA, iterB, ...): 6a7. returns an iterator over the sequence

     ‘f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2],
     iterB[2]), ...’.

          >>> def upper(s):
          ...     return s.upper()

          >>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment']))
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
          >>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']]
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']

You can of course achieve the same effect with a list comprehension.

*note filter(predicate, iter): 6a8. returns an iterator over all the
sequence elements that meet a certain condition, and is similarly
duplicated by list comprehensions.  A 'predicate' is a function that
returns the truth value of some condition; for use with *note filter():
6a8, the predicate must take a single value.

     >>> def is_even(x):
     ...     return (x % 2) == 0

     >>> list(filter(is_even, range(10)))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

This can also be written as a list comprehension:

     >>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

*note enumerate(iter, start=0): 1308. counts off the elements in the
iterable returning 2-tuples containing the count (from 'start') and each
element.

     >>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']):
     ...     print(item)
     (0, 'subject')
     (1, 'verb')
     (2, 'object')

*note enumerate(): 1308. is often used when looping through a list and
recording the indexes at which certain conditions are met:

     f = open('data.txt', 'r')
     for i, line in enumerate(f):
         if line.strip() == '':
             print('Blank line at line #%i' % i)

*note sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False): a45. collects all the
elements of the iterable into a list, sorts the list, and returns the
sorted result.  The 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are passed through to
the constructed list’s *note sort(): a46. method.

     >>> import random
     >>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)
     >>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8)
     >>> rand_list
     [769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]
     >>> sorted(rand_list)
     [769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]
     >>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True)
     [9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]

(For a more detailed discussion of sorting, see the *note Sorting
Techniques: 1f6f.)

The *note any(iter): 12a9. and *note all(iter): 12aa. built-ins look at
the truth values of an iterable’s contents.  *note any(): 12a9. returns
‘True’ if any element in the iterable is a true value, and *note all():
12aa. returns ‘True’ if all of the elements are true values:

     >>> any([0, 1, 0])
     True
     >>> any([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> any([1, 1, 1])
     True
     >>> all([0, 1, 0])
     False
     >>> all([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> all([1, 1, 1])
     True

*note zip(iterA, iterB, ...): 608. takes one element from each iterable
and returns them in a tuple:

     zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)

It doesn’t construct an in-memory list and exhaust all the input
iterators before returning; instead tuples are constructed and returned
only if they’re requested.  (The technical term for this behaviour is
lazy evaluation(1).)

This iterator is intended to be used with iterables that are all of the
same length.  If the iterables are of different lengths, the resulting
stream will be the same length as the shortest iterable.

     zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2)

You should avoid doing this, though, because an element may be taken
from the longer iterators and discarded.  This means you can’t go on to
use the iterators further because you risk skipping a discarded element.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation


File: python.info,  Node: The itertools module,  Next: The functools module,  Prev: Built-in functions<2>,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.6 The itertools module
--------------------------

The *note itertools: 7f. module contains a number of commonly used
iterators as well as functions for combining several iterators.  This
section will introduce the module’s contents by showing small examples.

The module’s functions fall into a few broad classes:

   * Functions that create a new iterator based on an existing iterator.

   * Functions for treating an iterator’s elements as function
     arguments.

   * Functions for selecting portions of an iterator’s output.

   * A function for grouping an iterator’s output.

* Menu:

* Creating new iterators::
* Calling functions on elements::
* Selecting elements::
* Combinatoric functions::
* Grouping elements::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating new iterators,  Next: Calling functions on elements,  Up: The itertools module

9.6.6.1 Creating new iterators
..............................

*note itertools.count(start, step): 112c. returns an infinite stream of
evenly spaced values.  You can optionally supply the starting number,
which defaults to 0, and the interval between numbers, which defaults to
1:

     itertools.count() =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
     itertools.count(10) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
     itertools.count(10, 5) =>
       10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ...

*note itertools.cycle(iter): 2509. saves a copy of the contents of a
provided iterable and returns a new iterator that returns its elements
from first to last.  The new iterator will repeat these elements
infinitely.

     itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

*note itertools.repeat(elem, [n]): 250a. returns the provided element
'n' times, or returns the element endlessly if 'n' is not provided.

     itertools.repeat('abc') =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ...
     itertools.repeat('abc', 5) =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc

*note itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...): 1f70. takes an arbitrary
number of iterables as input, and returns all the elements of the first
iterator, then all the elements of the second, and so on, until all of
the iterables have been exhausted.

     itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       a, b, c, 1, 2, 3

*note itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]): 9bf. returns a
stream that’s a slice of the iterator.  With a single 'stop' argument,
it will return the first 'stop' elements.  If you supply a starting
index, you’ll get 'stop-start' elements, and if you supply a value for
'step', elements will be skipped accordingly.  Unlike Python’s string
and list slicing, you can’t use negative values for 'start', 'stop', or
'step'.

     itertools.islice(range(10), 8) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) =>
       2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) =>
       2, 4, 6

*note itertools.tee(iter, [n]): 250f. replicates an iterator; it returns
'n' independent iterators that will all return the contents of the
source iterator.  If you don’t supply a value for 'n', the default is 2.
Replicating iterators requires saving some of the contents of the source
iterator, so this can consume significant memory if the iterator is
large and one of the new iterators is consumed more than the others.

     itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) =>
        iterA, iterB

     where iterA ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...

     and   iterB ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions on elements,  Next: Selecting elements,  Prev: Creating new iterators,  Up: The itertools module

9.6.6.2 Calling functions on elements
.....................................

The *note operator: 9e. module contains a set of functions corresponding
to Python’s operators.  Some examples are *note operator.add(a, b):
2532. (adds two values), *note operator.ne(a, b): 2522. (same as ‘a !=
b’), and *note operator.attrgetter('id'): cc3. (returns a callable that
fetches the ‘.id’ attribute).

*note itertools.starmap(func, iter): f86. assumes that the iterable will
return a stream of tuples, and calls 'func' using these tuples as the
arguments:

     itertools.starmap(os.path.join,
                       [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'),
                        ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')])
     =>
       /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby


File: python.info,  Node: Selecting elements,  Next: Combinatoric functions,  Prev: Calling functions on elements,  Up: The itertools module

9.6.6.3 Selecting elements
..........................

Another group of functions chooses a subset of an iterator’s elements
based on a predicate.

*note itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter): 1f5a. is the opposite of
*note filter(): 6a8, returning all elements for which the predicate
returns false:

     itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...

*note itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter): 250e. returns elements for
as long as the predicate returns true.  Once the predicate returns
false, the iterator will signal the end of its results.

     def less_than_10(x):
         return x < 10

     itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

     itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       0

*note itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter): 250c. discards elements
while the predicate returns true, and then returns the rest of the
iterable’s results.

     itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...

     itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...

*note itertools.compress(data, selectors): 112b. takes two iterators and
returns only those elements of 'data' for which the corresponding
element of 'selectors' is true, stopping whenever either one is
exhausted:

     itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) =>
        1, 2, 5


File: python.info,  Node: Combinatoric functions,  Next: Grouping elements,  Prev: Selecting elements,  Up: The itertools module

9.6.6.4 Combinatoric functions
..............................

The *note itertools.combinations(iterable, r): 11bc. returns an iterator
giving all possible 'r'-tuple combinations of the elements contained in
'iterable'.

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 5)

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) =>
       (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5),
       (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5),
       (3, 4, 5)

The elements within each tuple remain in the same order as 'iterable'
returned them.  For example, the number 1 is always before 2, 3, 4, or 5
in the examples above.  A similar function, *note
itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None): 1745, removes this constraint
on the order, returning all possible arrangements of length 'r':

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5),
       (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5),
       ...
       (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)

If you don’t supply a value for 'r' the length of the iterable is used,
meaning that all the elements are permuted.

Note that these functions produce all of the possible combinations by
position and don’t require that the contents of 'iterable' are unique:

     itertools.permutations('aba', 3) =>
       ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'),
       ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a')

The identical tuple ‘('a', 'a', 'b')’ occurs twice, but the two ‘a’
strings came from different positions.

The *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r): 112a.
function relaxes a different constraint: elements can be repeated within
a single tuple.  Conceptually an element is selected for the first
position of each tuple and then is replaced before the second element is
selected.

     itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 4), (4, 5),
       (5, 5)


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping elements,  Prev: Combinatoric functions,  Up: The itertools module

9.6.6.5 Grouping elements
.........................

The last function I’ll discuss, *note itertools.groupby(iter,
key_func=None): 250d, is the most complicated.  ‘key_func(elem)’ is a
function that can compute a key value for each element returned by the
iterable.  If you don’t supply a key function, the key is simply each
element itself.

*note groupby(): 250d. collects all the consecutive elements from the
underlying iterable that have the same key value, and returns a stream
of 2-tuples containing a key value and an iterator for the elements with
that key.

     city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'),
                  ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'),
                  ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'),
                  ...
                 ]

     def get_state(city_state):
         return city_state[1]

     itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) =>
       ('AL', iterator-1),
       ('AK', iterator-2),
       ('AZ', iterator-3), ...

     where
     iterator-1 =>
       ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL')
     iterator-2 =>
       ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK')
     iterator-3 =>
       ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ')

*note groupby(): 250d. assumes that the underlying iterable’s contents
will already be sorted based on the key.  Note that the returned
iterators also use the underlying iterable, so you have to consume the
results of iterator-1 before requesting iterator-2 and its corresponding
key.


File: python.info,  Node: The functools module,  Next: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Prev: The itertools module,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.7 The functools module
--------------------------

The *note functools: 5d. module contains some higher-order functions.  A
'higher-order function' takes one or more functions as input and returns
a new function.  The most useful tool in this module is the *note
functools.partial(): d61. function.

For programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you may
wish to create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that’s equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’; you’re filling in a value for one of ‘f()’’s parameters.  This is
called “partial function application”.

The constructor for *note partial(): d61. takes the arguments
‘(function, arg1, arg2, ..., kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The
resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke
‘function’ with the filled-in arguments.

Here’s a small but realistic example:

     import functools

     def log(message, subsystem):
         """Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."""
         print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message))
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

*note functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]): 1186. cumulatively
performs an operation on all the iterable’s elements and, therefore,
can’t be applied to infinite iterables.  'func' must be a function that
takes two elements and returns a single value.  *note
functools.reduce(): 1186. takes the first two elements A and B returned
by the iterator and calculates ‘func(A, B)’.  It then requests the third
element, C, calculates ‘func(func(A, B), C)’, combines this result with
the fourth element returned, and continues until the iterable is
exhausted.  If the iterable returns no values at all, a *note TypeError:
2c4. exception is raised.  If the initial value is supplied, it’s used
as a starting point and ‘func(initial_value, A)’ is the first
calculation.

     >>> import operator, functools
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C'])
     'ABBC'
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
     6
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
     1

If you use *note operator.add(): 2532. with *note functools.reduce():
1186, you’ll add up all the elements of the iterable.  This case is so
common that there’s a special built-in called *note sum(): 187. to
compute it:

     >>> import functools, operator
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0)
     10
     >>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
     10
     >>> sum([])
     0

For many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 1186, though, it can be
clearer to just write the obvious *note for: 26d. loop:

     import functools
     # Instead of:
     product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)

     # You can write:
     product = 1
     for i in [1, 2, 3]:
         product *= i

A related function is *note itertools.accumulate(iterable,
func=operator.add): 85d.  It performs the same calculation, but instead
of returning only the final result, *note accumulate(): 85d. returns an
iterator that also yields each partial result:

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 3, 6, 10, 15

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) =>
       1, 2, 6, 24, 120

* Menu:

* The operator module::


File: python.info,  Node: The operator module,  Up: The functools module

9.6.7.1 The operator module
...........................

The *note operator: 9e. module was mentioned earlier.  It contains a set
of functions corresponding to Python’s operators.  These functions are
often useful in functional-style code because they save you from writing
trivial functions that perform a single operation.

Some of the functions in this module are:

   * Math operations: ‘add()’, ‘sub()’, ‘mul()’, ‘floordiv()’, ‘abs()’,
     …

   * Logical operations: ‘not_()’, ‘truth()’.

   * Bitwise operations: ‘and_()’, ‘or_()’, ‘invert()’.

   * Comparisons: ‘eq()’, ‘ne()’, ‘lt()’, ‘le()’, ‘gt()’, and ‘ge()’.

   * Object identity: ‘is_()’, ‘is_not()’.

Consult the operator module’s documentation for a complete list.


File: python.info,  Node: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Next: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Prev: The functools module,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.8 Small functions and the lambda expression
-----------------------------------------------

When writing functional-style programs, you’ll often need little
functions that act as predicates or that combine elements in some way.

If there’s a Python built-in or a module function that’s suitable, you
don’t need to define a new function at all:

     stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines]
     existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list)

If the function you need doesn’t exist, you need to write it.  One way
to write small functions is to use the *note lambda: 1145. expression.
‘lambda’ takes a number of parameters and an expression combining these
parameters, and creates an anonymous function that returns the value of
the expression:

     adder = lambda x, y: x+y

     print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value)

An alternative is to just use the ‘def’ statement and define a function
in the usual way:

     def adder(x, y):
         return x + y

     def print_assign(name, value):
         return name + '=' + str(value)

Which alternative is preferable?  That’s a style question; my usual
course is to avoid using ‘lambda’.

One reason for my preference is that ‘lambda’ is quite limited in the
functions it can define.  The result has to be computable as a single
expression, which means you can’t have multiway ‘if... elif... else’
comparisons or ‘try... except’ statements.  If you try to do too much in
a ‘lambda’ statement, you’ll end up with an overly complicated
expression that’s hard to read.  Quick, what’s the following code doing?

     import functools
     total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1]

You can figure it out, but it takes time to disentangle the expression
to figure out what’s going on.  Using a short nested ‘def’ statements
makes things a little bit better:

     import functools
     def combine(a, b):
         return 0, a[1] + b[1]

     total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1]

But it would be best of all if I had simply used a ‘for’ loop:

     total = 0
     for a, b in items:
         total += b

Or the *note sum(): 187. built-in and a generator expression:

     total = sum(b for a, b in items)

Many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 1186. are clearer when written as
‘for’ loops.

Fredrik Lundh once suggested the following set of rules for refactoring
uses of ‘lambda’:

  1. Write a lambda function.

  2. Write a comment explaining what the heck that lambda does.

  3. Study the comment for a while, and think of a name that captures
     the essence of the comment.

  4. Convert the lambda to a def statement, using that name.

  5. Remove the comment.

I really like these rules, but you’re free to disagree about whether
this lambda-free style is better.


File: python.info,  Node: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Next: References<2>,  Prev: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.9 Revision History and Acknowledgements
-------------------------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Ian Bicking, Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond Hettinger, Jim
Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro Lameiro, Jussi Salmela, Collin Winter, Blake
Winton.

Version 0.1: posted June 30 2006.

Version 0.11: posted July 1 2006.  Typo fixes.

Version 0.2: posted July 10 2006.  Merged genexp and listcomp sections
into one.  Typo fixes.

Version 0.21: Added more references suggested on the tutor mailing list.

Version 0.30: Adds a section on the ‘functional’ module written by
Collin Winter; adds short section on the operator module; a few other
edits.


File: python.info,  Node: References<2>,  Prev: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.6.10 References
-----------------

* Menu:

* General::
* Python-specific::
* Python documentation::


File: python.info,  Node: General,  Next: Python-specific,  Up: References<2>

9.6.10.1 General
................

'Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs', by Harold Abelson
and Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman.  The book can be found at
‘https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp’.  In this classic textbook of computer
science, chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to
organize the data flow inside a program.  The book uses Scheme for its
examples, but many of the design approaches described in these chapters
are applicable to functional-style Python code.

‘https://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html’: A general introduction to
functional programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy
historical introduction.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming’: General
Wikipedia entry describing functional programming.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’: Entry for coroutines.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_application’: Entry for the
concept of partial function application.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying’: Entry for the concept of
currying.


File: python.info,  Node: Python-specific,  Next: Python documentation,  Prev: General,  Up: References<2>

9.6.10.2 Python-specific
........................

‘https://gnosis.cx/TPiP/’: The first chapter of David Mertz’s book ‘Text
Processing in Python’ discusses functional programming for text
processing, in the section titled “Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in
Text Processing”.

Mertz also wrote a 3-part series of articles on functional programming
for IBM’s DeveloperWorks site; see part 1(1), part 2(2), and part 3(3),

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.ibm.com/articles/l-prog/

   (2) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog2/

   (3) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog3/


File: python.info,  Node: Python documentation,  Prev: Python-specific,  Up: References<2>

9.6.10.3 Python documentation
.............................

Documentation for the *note itertools: 7f. module.

Documentation for the *note functools: 5d. module.

Documentation for the *note operator: 9e. module.

PEP 289(1): “Generator Expressions”

PEP 342(2): “Coroutines via Enhanced Generators” describes the new
generator features in Python 2.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Logging HOWTO,  Next: Logging Cookbook,  Prev: Functional Programming HOWTO,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.7 Logging HOWTO
=================


Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains tutorial information.  For links to reference
information and a logging cookbook, please see *note Other resources:
4e26.

* Menu:

* Basic Logging Tutorial::
* Advanced Logging Tutorial::
* Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>.
* Useful Handlers::
* Exceptions raised during logging::
* Using arbitrary objects as messages::
* Optimization::
* Other resources::


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Logging Tutorial,  Next: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.1 Basic Logging Tutorial
----------------------------

Logging is a means of tracking events that happen when some software
runs.  The software’s developer adds logging calls to their code to
indicate that certain events have occurred.  An event is described by a
descriptive message which can optionally contain variable data (i.e.
data that is potentially different for each occurrence of the event).
Events also have an importance which the developer ascribes to the
event; the importance can also be called the 'level' or 'severity'.

* Menu:

* When to use logging::
* A simple example::
* Logging to a file::
* Logging variable data::
* Changing the format of displayed messages::
* Displaying the date/time in messages::
* Next Steps::


File: python.info,  Node: When to use logging,  Next: A simple example,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.7.1.1 When to use logging
...........................

You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via ‘logger =
getLogger(__name__)’, and then calling the logger’s *note debug(): cba,
*note info(): 2aad, *note warning(): 2aaf, *note error(): 2ab0. and
*note critical(): cb9. methods.  To determine when to use logging, and
to see which logger methods to use when, see the table below.  It
states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for that
task.

Task you want to perform                  The best tool for the task
                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
Display console output for ordinary       *note print(): e16.
usage of a command line script or         
program

Report events that occur during normal    A logger’s *note info(): 2aad. (or
operation of a program (e.g.  for         *note debug(): cba. method for very
status monitoring or fault                detailed output for diagnostic purposes)
investigation)                            

Issue a warning regarding a particular    *note warnings.warn(): 13a7. in library
runtime event                             code if the issue is avoidable and the
                                          client application should be modified to
                                          eliminate the warning
                                          
                                          A logger’s *note warning(): 2aaf. method
                                          if there is nothing the client
                                          application can do about the situation,
                                          but the event should still be noted
                                          
                                          
Report an error regarding a particular    Raise an exception
runtime event                             

Report suppression of an error without    A logger’s *note error(): 2ab0,
raising an exception (e.g.  error         *note exception(): cb8. or
handler in a long-running server          *note critical(): cb9. method as
process)                                  appropriate for the specific error and
                                          application domain
                                          

The logger methods are named after the level or severity of the events
they are used to track.  The standard levels and their applicability are
described below (in increasing order of severity):

Level              When it’s used
                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
‘DEBUG’            Detailed information, typically of interest
                   only when diagnosing problems.
                   
                   
‘INFO’             Confirmation that things are working as
                   expected.
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          An indication that something unexpected
                   happened, or indicative of some problem in the
                   near future (e.g.  ‘disk space low’).  The
                   software is still working as expected.
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            Due to a more serious problem, the software has
                   not been able to perform some function.
                   
                   
‘CRITICAL’         A serious error, indicating that the program
                   itself may be unable to continue running.
                   

The default level is ‘WARNING’, which means that only events of this
level and above will be tracked, unless the logging package is
configured to do otherwise.

Events that are tracked can be handled in different ways.  The simplest
way of handling tracked events is to print them to the console.  Another
common way is to write them to a disk file.


File: python.info,  Node: A simple example,  Next: Logging to a file,  Prev: When to use logging,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.7.1.2 A simple example
........................

A very simple example is:

     import logging
     logging.warning('Watch out!')  # will print a message to the console
     logging.info('I told you so')  # will not print anything

If you type these lines into a script and run it, you’ll see:

     WARNING:root:Watch out!

printed out on the console.  The ‘INFO’ message doesn’t appear because
the default level is ‘WARNING’.  The printed message includes the
indication of the level and the description of the event provided in the
logging call, i.e.  ‘Watch out!’.  The actual output can be formatted
quite flexibly if you need that; formatting options will also be
explained later.

Notice that in this example, we use functions directly on the ‘logging’
module, like ‘logging.debug’, rather than creating a logger and calling
functions on it.  These functions operation on the root logger, but can
be useful as they will call *note basicConfig(): 860. for you if it has
not been called yet, like in this example.  In larger programs you’ll
usually want to control the logging configuration explicitly however -
so for that reason as well as others, it’s better to create loggers and
call their methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to a file,  Next: Logging variable data,  Prev: A simple example,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.7.1.3 Logging to a file
.........................

A very common situation is that of recording logging events in a file,
so let’s look at that next.  Be sure to try the following in a newly
started Python interpreter, and don’t just continue from the session
described above:

     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', encoding='utf-8', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logger.debug('This message should go to the log file')
     logger.info('So should this')
     logger.warning('And this, too')
     logger.error('And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö')

3.9 sürümünde değişti: The 'encoding' argument was added.  In earlier
Python versions, or if not specified, the encoding used is the default
value used by *note open(): 2a6.  While not shown in the above example,
an 'errors' argument can also now be passed, which determines how
encoding errors are handled.  For available values and the default, see
the documentation for *note open(): 2a6.

And now if we open the file and look at what we have, we should find the
log messages:

     DEBUG:__main__:This message should go to the log file
     INFO:__main__:So should this
     WARNING:__main__:And this, too
     ERROR:__main__:And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö

This example also shows how you can set the logging level which acts as
the threshold for tracking.  In this case, because we set the threshold
to ‘DEBUG’, all of the messages were printed.

If you want to set the logging level from a command-line option such as:

     --log=INFO

and you have the value of the parameter passed for ‘--log’ in some
variable 'loglevel', you can use:

     getattr(logging, loglevel.upper())

to get the value which you’ll pass to *note basicConfig(): 860. via the
'level' argument.  You may want to error check any user input value,
perhaps as in the following example:

     # assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the
     # command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to
     # specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug
     numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None)
     if not isinstance(numeric_level, int):
         raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel)
     logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...)

The call to *note basicConfig(): 860. should come 'before' any calls to
a logger’s methods such as *note debug(): cba, *note info(): 2aad, etc.
Otherwise, that logging event may not be handled in the desired manner.

If you run the above script several times, the messages from successive
runs are appended to the file 'example.log'.  If you want each run to
start afresh, not remembering the messages from earlier runs, you can
specify the 'filemode' argument, by changing the call in the above
example to:

     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG)

The output will be the same as before, but the log file is no longer
appended to, so the messages from earlier runs are lost.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging variable data,  Next: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Prev: Logging to a file,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.7.1.4 Logging variable data
.............................

To log variable data, use a format string for the event description
message and append the variable data as arguments.  For example:

     import logging
     logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!')

will display:

     WARNING:root:Look before you leap!

As you can see, merging of variable data into the event description
message uses the old, %-style of string formatting.  This is for
backwards compatibility: the logging package pre-dates newer formatting
options such as *note str.format(): 433. and *note string.Template: 49c.
These newer formatting options 'are' supported, but exploring them is
outside the scope of this tutorial: see *note Using particular
formatting styles throughout your application: 2acd. for more
information.


File: python.info,  Node: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Next: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Prev: Logging variable data,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.7.1.5 Changing the format of displayed messages
.................................................

To change the format which is used to display messages, you need to
specify the format you want to use:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logging.debug('This message should appear on the console')
     logging.info('So should this')
     logging.warning('And this, too')

which would print:

     DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
     INFO:So should this
     WARNING:And this, too

Notice that the ‘root’ which appeared in earlier examples has
disappeared.  For a full set of things that can appear in format
strings, you can refer to the documentation for *note LogRecord
attributes: 2aac, but for simple usage, you just need the 'levelname'
(severity), 'message' (event description, including variable data) and
perhaps to display when the event occurred.  This is described in the
next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Next: Next Steps,  Prev: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.7.1.6 Displaying the date/time in messages
............................................

To display the date and time of an event, you would place ‘%(asctime)s’
in your format string:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

which should print something like this:

     2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.

The default format for date/time display (shown above) is like ISO8601
or RFC 3339(1).  If you need more control over the formatting of the
date/time, provide a 'datefmt' argument to ‘basicConfig’, as in this
example:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

which would display something like this:

     12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.

The format of the 'datefmt' argument is the same as supported by *note
time.strftime(): 108e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3339.html


File: python.info,  Node: Next Steps,  Prev: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.7.1.7 Next Steps
..................

That concludes the basic tutorial.  It should be enough to get you up
and running with logging.  There’s a lot more that the logging package
offers, but to get the best out of it, you’ll need to invest a little
more of your time in reading the following sections.  If you’re ready
for that, grab some of your favourite beverage and carry on.

If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to
incorporate logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems
or don’t understand something, please post a question on the
comp.lang.python Usenet group (available at
‘https://groups.google.com/g/comp.lang.python’) and you should receive
help before too long.

Still here?  You can carry on reading the next few sections, which
provide a slightly more advanced/in-depth tutorial than the basic one
above.  After that, you can take a look at the *note Logging Cookbook:
109c.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Next: Logging Levels<2>,  Prev: Basic Logging Tutorial,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.2 Advanced Logging Tutorial
-------------------------------

The logging library takes a modular approach and offers several
categories of components: loggers, handlers, filters, and formatters.

   * Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.

   * Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the
     appropriate destination.

   * Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log
     records to output.

   * Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.

Log event information is passed between loggers, handlers, filters and
formatters in a *note LogRecord: e8c. instance.

Logging is performed by calling methods on instances of the *note
Logger: 9c2. class (hereafter called 'loggers').  Each instance has a
name, and they are conceptually arranged in a namespace hierarchy using
dots (periods) as separators.  For example, a logger named ‘scan’ is the
parent of loggers ‘scan.text’, ‘scan.html’ and ‘scan.pdf’.  Logger names
can be anything you want, and indicate the area of an application in
which a logged message originates.

A good convention to use when naming loggers is to use a module-level
logger, in each module which uses logging, named as follows:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

This means that logger names track the package/module hierarchy, and
it’s intuitively obvious where events are logged just from the logger
name.

The root of the hierarchy of loggers is called the root logger.  That’s
the logger used by the functions *note debug(): 2aae, *note info():
2ad8, *note warning(): 131b, *note error(): 2aec. and *note critical():
2aed, which just call the same-named method of the root logger.  The
functions and the methods have the same signatures.  The root logger’s
name is printed as ‘root’ in the logged output.

It is, of course, possible to log messages to different destinations.
Support is included in the package for writing log messages to files,
HTTP GET/POST locations, email via SMTP, generic sockets, queues, or
OS-specific logging mechanisms such as syslog or the Windows NT event
log.  Destinations are served by 'handler' classes.  You can create your
own log destination class if you have special requirements not met by
any of the built-in handler classes.

By default, no destination is set for any logging messages.  You can
specify a destination (such as console or file) by using *note
basicConfig(): 860. as in the tutorial examples.  If you call the
functions *note debug(): 2aae, *note info(): 2ad8, *note warning():
131b, *note error(): 2aec. and *note critical(): 2aed, they will check
to see if no destination is set; and if one is not set, they will set a
destination of the console (‘sys.stderr’) and a default format for the
displayed message before delegating to the root logger to do the actual
message output.

The default format set by *note basicConfig(): 860. for messages is:

     severity:logger name:message

You can change this by passing a format string to *note basicConfig():
860. with the 'format' keyword argument.  For all options regarding how
a format string is constructed, see *note Formatter Objects: 2aca.

* Menu:

* Logging Flow::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuring Logging::
* What happens if no configuration is provided::
* Configuring Logging for a Library::


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Flow,  Next: Loggers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.1 Logging Flow
....................

The flow of log event information in loggers and handlers is illustrated
in the following diagram.

[image src="python-figures/logging_flow.png"]



File: python.info,  Node: Loggers,  Next: Handlers,  Prev: Logging Flow,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.2 Loggers
...............

*note Logger: 9c2. objects have a threefold job.  First, they expose
several methods to application code so that applications can log
messages at runtime.  Second, logger objects determine which log
messages to act upon based upon severity (the default filtering
facility) or filter objects.  Third, logger objects pass along relevant
log messages to all interested log handlers.

The most widely used methods on logger objects fall into two categories:
configuration and message sending.

These are the most common configuration methods:

   * *note Logger.setLevel(): 131a. specifies the lowest-severity log
     message a logger will handle, where debug is the lowest built-in
     severity level and critical is the highest built-in severity.  For
     example, if the severity level is INFO, the logger will handle only
     INFO, WARNING, ERROR, and CRITICAL messages and will ignore DEBUG
     messages.

   * *note Logger.addHandler(): 2aa7. and *note Logger.removeHandler():
     2aa8. add and remove handler objects from the logger object.
     Handlers are covered in more detail in *note Handlers: 4e33.

   * *note Logger.addFilter(): 2ab1. and *note Logger.removeFilter():
     2ab2. add and remove filter objects from the logger object.
     Filters are covered in more detail in *note Filter Objects: 2ad5.

You don’t need to always call these methods on every logger you create.
See the last two paragraphs in this section.

With the logger object configured, the following methods create log
messages:

   * *note Logger.debug(): cba, *note Logger.info(): 2aad, *note
     Logger.warning(): 2aaf, *note Logger.error(): 2ab0, and *note
     Logger.critical(): cb9. all create log records with a message and a
     level that corresponds to their respective method names.  The
     message is actually a format string, which may contain the standard
     string substitution syntax of ‘%s’, ‘%d’, ‘%f’, and so on.  The
     rest of their arguments is a list of objects that correspond with
     the substitution fields in the message.  With regard to ‘**kwargs’,
     the logging methods care only about a keyword of ‘exc_info’ and use
     it to determine whether to log exception information.

   * *note Logger.exception(): cb8. creates a log message similar to
     *note Logger.error(): 2ab0.  The difference is that *note
     Logger.exception(): cb8. dumps a stack trace along with it.  Call
     this method only from an exception handler.

   * *note Logger.log(): cb7. takes a log level as an explicit argument.
     This is a little more verbose for logging messages than using the
     log level convenience methods listed above, but this is how to log
     at custom log levels.

*note getLogger(): 7bb. returns a reference to a logger instance with
the specified name if it is provided, or ‘root’ if not.  The names are
period-separated hierarchical structures.  Multiple calls to *note
getLogger(): 7bb. with the same name will return a reference to the same
logger object.  Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list
are children of loggers higher up in the list.  For example, given a
logger with a name of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’,
‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’ are all descendants of ‘foo’.

Loggers have a concept of 'effective level'.  If a level is not
explicitly set on a logger, the level of its parent is used instead as
its effective level.  If the parent has no explicit level set, 'its'
parent is examined, and so on - all ancestors are searched until an
explicitly set level is found.  The root logger always has an explicit
level set (‘WARNING’ by default).  When deciding whether to process an
event, the effective level of the logger is used to determine whether
the event is passed to the logger’s handlers.

Child loggers propagate messages up to the handlers associated with
their ancestor loggers.  Because of this, it is unnecessary to define
and configure handlers for all the loggers an application uses.  It is
sufficient to configure handlers for a top-level logger and create child
loggers as needed.  (You can, however, turn off propagation by setting
the 'propagate' attribute of a logger to ‘False’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Handlers,  Next: Formatters,  Prev: Loggers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.3 Handlers
................

*note Handler: 131e. objects are responsible for dispatching the
appropriate log messages (based on the log messages’ severity) to the
handler’s specified destination.  *note Logger: 9c2. objects can add
zero or more handler objects to themselves with an *note addHandler():
2aa7. method.  As an example scenario, an application may want to send
all log messages to a log file, all log messages of error or higher to
stdout, and all messages of critical to an email address.  This scenario
requires three individual handlers where each handler is responsible for
sending messages of a specific severity to a specific location.

The standard library includes quite a few handler types (see *note
Useful Handlers: 4e35.); the tutorials use mainly *note StreamHandler:
109d. and *note FileHandler: 16c6. in its examples.

There are very few methods in a handler for application developers to
concern themselves with.  The only handler methods that seem relevant
for application developers who are using the built-in handler objects
(that is, not creating custom handlers) are the following configuration
methods:

   * The *note setLevel(): 2abf. method, just as in logger objects,
     specifies the lowest severity that will be dispatched to the
     appropriate destination.  Why are there two *note setLevel(): 2abf.
     methods?  The level set in the logger determines which severity of
     messages it will pass to its handlers.  The level set in each
     handler determines which messages that handler will send on.

   * *note setFormatter(): 2ac0. selects a Formatter object for this
     handler to use.

   * *note addFilter(): 2ac1. and *note removeFilter(): 2ac2.
     respectively configure and deconfigure filter objects on handlers.

Application code should not directly instantiate and use instances of
*note Handler: 131e.  Instead, the *note Handler: 131e. class is a base
class that defines the interface that all handlers should have and
establishes some default behavior that child classes can use (or
override).


File: python.info,  Node: Formatters,  Next: Configuring Logging,  Prev: Handlers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.4 Formatters
..................

Formatter objects configure the final order, structure, and contents of
the log message.  Unlike the base *note logging.Handler: 131e. class,
application code may instantiate formatter classes, although you could
likely subclass the formatter if your application needs special
behavior.  The constructor takes three optional arguments – a message
format string, a date format string and a style indicator.

 -- Yöntemi: logging.Formatter.__init__ (fmt=None, datefmt=None,
          style='%')

If there is no message format string, the default is to use the raw
message.  If there is no date format string, the default date format is:

     %Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S

with the milliseconds tacked on at the end.  The ‘style’ is one of
‘'%'’, ‘'{'’, or ‘'$'’.  If one of these is not specified, then ‘'%'’
will be used.

If the ‘style’ is ‘'%'’, the message format string uses ‘%(<dictionary
key>)s’ styled string substitution; the possible keys are documented in
*note LogRecord attributes: 2aac.  If the style is ‘'{'’, the message
format string is assumed to be compatible with *note str.format(): 433.
(using keyword arguments), while if the style is ‘'$'’ then the message
format string should conform to what is expected by *note
string.Template.substitute(): 1b34.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: Added the ‘style’ parameter.

The following message format string will log the time in a
human-readable format, the severity of the message, and the contents of
the message, in that order:

     '%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'

Formatters use a user-configurable function to convert the creation time
of a record to a tuple.  By default, *note time.localtime(): 1386. is
used; to change this for a particular formatter instance, set the
‘converter’ attribute of the instance to a function with the same
signature as *note time.localtime(): 1386. or *note time.gmtime(): 1065.
To change it for all formatters, for example if you want all logging
times to be shown in GMT, set the ‘converter’ attribute in the Formatter
class (to ‘time.gmtime’ for GMT display).


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring Logging,  Next: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Prev: Formatters,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.5 Configuring Logging
...........................

Programmers can configure logging in three ways:

  1. Creating loggers, handlers, and formatters explicitly using Python
     code that calls the configuration methods listed above.

  2. Creating a logging config file and reading it using the *note
     fileConfig(): 9c4. function.

  3. Creating a dictionary of configuration information and passing it
     to the *note dictConfig(): 1055. function.

For the reference documentation on the last two options, see *note
Configuration functions: 119b.  The following example configures a very
simple logger, a console handler, and a simple formatter using Python
code:

     import logging

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create console handler and set level to debug
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create formatter
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')

     # add formatter to ch
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)

     # add ch to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Running this module from the command line produces the following output:

     $ python simple_logging_module.py
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message

The following Python module creates a logger, handler, and formatter
nearly identical to those in the example listed above, with the only
difference being the names of the objects:

     import logging
     import logging.config

     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Here is the logging.conf file:

     [loggers]
     keys=root,simpleExample

     [handlers]
     keys=consoleHandler

     [formatters]
     keys=simpleFormatter

     [logger_root]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler

     [logger_simpleExample]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler
     qualname=simpleExample
     propagate=0

     [handler_consoleHandler]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=simpleFormatter
     args=(sys.stdout,)

     [formatter_simpleFormatter]
     format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s

The output is nearly identical to that of the non-config-file-based
example:

     $ python simple_logging_config.py
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message

You can see that the config file approach has a few advantages over the
Python code approach, mainly separation of configuration and code and
the ability of noncoders to easily modify the logging properties.

     Uyarı: The *note fileConfig(): 9c4. function takes a default
     parameter, ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which defaults to ‘True’ for
     reasons of backward compatibility.  This may or may not be what you
     want, since it will cause any non-root loggers existing before the
     *note fileConfig(): 9c4. call to be disabled unless they (or an
     ancestor) are explicitly named in the configuration.  Please refer
     to the reference documentation for more information, and specify
     ‘False’ for this parameter if you wish.

     The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 1055. can also specify
     a Boolean value with key ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which if not
     specified explicitly in the dictionary also defaults to being
     interpreted as ‘True’.  This leads to the logger-disabling
     behaviour described above, which may not be what you want - in
     which case, provide the key explicitly with a value of ‘False’.

Note that the class names referenced in config files need to be either
relative to the logging module, or absolute values which can be resolved
using normal import mechanisms.  Thus, you could use either *note
WatchedFileHandler: 2b2b. (relative to the logging module) or
‘mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler’ (for a class defined in package
‘mypackage’ and module ‘mymodule’, where ‘mypackage’ is available on the
Python import path).

In Python 3.2, a new means of configuring logging has been introduced,
using dictionaries to hold configuration information.  This provides a
superset of the functionality of the config-file-based approach outlined
above, and is the recommended configuration method for new applications
and deployments.  Because a Python dictionary is used to hold
configuration information, and since you can populate that dictionary
using different means, you have more options for configuration.  For
example, you can use a configuration file in JSON format, or, if you
have access to YAML processing functionality, a file in YAML format, to
populate the configuration dictionary.  Or, of course, you can construct
the dictionary in Python code, receive it in pickled form over a socket,
or use whatever approach makes sense for your application.

Here’s an example of the same configuration as above, in YAML format for
the new dictionary-based approach:

     version: 1
     formatters:
       simple:
         format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
     handlers:
       console:
         class: logging.StreamHandler
         level: DEBUG
         formatter: simple
         stream: ext://sys.stdout
     loggers:
       simpleExample:
         level: DEBUG
         handlers: [console]
         propagate: no
     root:
       level: DEBUG
       handlers: [console]

For more information about logging using a dictionary, see *note
Configuration functions: 119b.


File: python.info,  Node: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Next: Configuring Logging for a Library,  Prev: Configuring Logging,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.6 What happens if no configuration is provided
....................................................

If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a
situation where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can
be found to output the event.

The event is output using a ‘handler of last resort’, stored in *note
lastResort: 109f.  This internal handler is not associated with any
logger, and acts like a *note StreamHandler: 109d. which writes the
event description message to the current value of ‘sys.stderr’
(therefore respecting any redirections which may be in effect).  No
formatting is done on the message - just the bare event description
message is printed.  The handler’s level is set to ‘WARNING’, so all
events at this and greater severities will be output.

3.2 sürümünde değişti: For versions of Python prior to 3.2, the
behaviour is as follows:

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 109e. is ‘False’ (production mode), the
     event is silently dropped.

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 109e. is ‘True’ (development mode), a
     message ‘No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z’ is printed
     once.

To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, *note lastResort: 109f. can be set to
‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring Logging for a Library,  Prev: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.7.2.7 Configuring Logging for a Library
.........................................

When developing a library which uses logging, you should take care to
document how the library uses logging - for example, the names of
loggers used.  Some consideration also needs to be given to its logging
configuration.  If the using application does not use logging, and
library code makes logging calls, then (as described in the previous
section) events of severity ‘WARNING’ and greater will be printed to
‘sys.stderr’.  This is regarded as the best default behaviour.

If for some reason you 'don’t' want these messages printed in the
absence of any logging configuration, you can attach a do-nothing
handler to the top-level logger for your library.  This avoids the
message being printed, since a handler will always be found for the
library’s events: it just doesn’t produce any output.  If the library
user configures logging for application use, presumably that
configuration will add some handlers, and if levels are suitably
configured then logging calls made in library code will send output to
those handlers, as normal.

A do-nothing handler is included in the logging package: *note
NullHandler: 112d. (since Python 3.1).  An instance of this handler
could be added to the top-level logger of the logging namespace used by
the library ('if' you want to prevent your library’s logged events being
output to ‘sys.stderr’ in the absence of logging configuration).  If all
logging by a library 'foo' is done using loggers with names matching
‘foo.x’, ‘foo.x.y’, etc.  then the code:

     import logging
     logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

should have the desired effect.  If an organisation produces a number of
libraries, then the logger name specified can be ‘orgname.foo’ rather
than just ‘foo’.

     Not: It is strongly advised that you 'do not log to the root
     logger' in your library.  Instead, use a logger with a unique and
     easily identifiable name, such as the ‘__name__’ for your library’s
     top-level package or module.  Logging to the root logger will make
     it difficult or impossible for the application developer to
     configure the logging verbosity or handlers of your library as they
     wish.

     Not: It is strongly advised that you 'do not add any handlers other
     than' *note NullHandler: 112d. 'to your library’s loggers'.  This
     is because the configuration of handlers is the prerogative of the
     application developer who uses your library.  The application
     developer knows their target audience and what handlers are most
     appropriate for their application: if you add handlers ‘under the
     hood’, you might well interfere with their ability to carry out
     unit tests and deliver logs which suit their requirements.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Levels<2>,  Next: Useful Handlers,  Prev: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.3 Logging Levels
--------------------

The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table.
These are primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels,
and need them to have specific values relative to the predefined levels.
If you define a level with the same numeric value, it overwrites the
predefined value; the predefined name is lost.

Level              Numeric value
                   
---------------------------------------
                   
‘CRITICAL’         50
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            40
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          30
                   
                   
‘INFO’             20
                   
                   
‘DEBUG’            10
                   
                   
‘NOTSET’           0
                   

Levels can also be associated with loggers, being set either by the
developer or through loading a saved logging configuration.  When a
logging method is called on a logger, the logger compares its own level
with the level associated with the method call.  If the logger’s level
is higher than the method call’s, no logging message is actually
generated.  This is the basic mechanism controlling the verbosity of
logging output.

Logging messages are encoded as instances of the *note LogRecord: e8c.
class.  When a logger decides to actually log an event, a *note
LogRecord: e8c. instance is created from the logging message.

Logging messages are subjected to a dispatch mechanism through the use
of 'handlers', which are instances of subclasses of the *note Handler:
131e. class.  Handlers are responsible for ensuring that a logged
message (in the form of a *note LogRecord: e8c.) ends up in a particular
location (or set of locations) which is useful for the target audience
for that message (such as end users, support desk staff, system
administrators, developers).  Handlers are passed *note LogRecord: e8c.
instances intended for particular destinations.  Each logger can have
zero, one or more handlers associated with it (via the *note
addHandler(): 2aa7. method of *note Logger: 9c2.).  In addition to any
handlers directly associated with a logger, 'all handlers associated
with all ancestors of the logger' are called to dispatch the message
(unless the 'propagate' flag for a logger is set to a false value, at
which point the passing to ancestor handlers stops).

Just as for loggers, handlers can have levels associated with them.  A
handler’s level acts as a filter in the same way as a logger’s level
does.  If a handler decides to actually dispatch an event, the *note
emit(): 2ac8. method is used to send the message to its destination.
Most user-defined subclasses of *note Handler: 131e. will need to
override this *note emit(): 2ac8.

* Menu:

* Custom Levels::


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Levels,  Up: Logging Levels<2>

9.7.3.1 Custom Levels
.....................

Defining your own levels is possible, but should not be necessary, as
the existing levels have been chosen on the basis of practical
experience.  However, if you are convinced that you need custom levels,
great care should be exercised when doing this, and it is possibly 'a
very bad idea to define custom levels if you are developing a library'.
That’s because if multiple library authors all define their own custom
levels, there is a chance that the logging output from such multiple
libraries used together will be difficult for the using developer to
control and/or interpret, because a given numeric value might mean
different things for different libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Useful Handlers,  Next: Exceptions raised during logging,  Prev: Logging Levels<2>,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.4 Useful Handlers
---------------------

In addition to the base *note Handler: 131e. class, many useful
subclasses are provided:

  1. *note StreamHandler: 109d. instances send messages to streams
     (file-like objects).

  2. *note FileHandler: 16c6. instances send messages to disk files.

  3. *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2b2f. is the base class for handlers
     that rotate log files at a certain point.  It is not meant to be
     instantiated directly.  Instead, use *note RotatingFileHandler:
     1454. or *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01.

  4. *note RotatingFileHandler: 1454. instances send messages to disk
     files, with support for maximum log file sizes and log file
     rotation.

  5. *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: e01. instances send messages to
     disk files, rotating the log file at certain timed intervals.

  6. *note SocketHandler: e02. instances send messages to TCP/IP
     sockets.  Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.

  7. *note DatagramHandler: e03. instances send messages to UDP sockets.
     Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.

  8. *note SMTPHandler: 13f9. instances send messages to a designated
     email address.

  9. *note SysLogHandler: 46f. instances send messages to a Unix syslog
     daemon, possibly on a remote machine.

  10. *note NTEventLogHandler: 2b53. instances send messages to a
     Windows NT/2000/XP event log.

  11. *note MemoryHandler: 2b0f. instances send messages to a buffer in
     memory, which is flushed whenever specific criteria are met.

  12. *note HTTPHandler: cbb. instances send messages to an HTTP server
     using either ‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics.

  13. *note WatchedFileHandler: 2b2b. instances watch the file they are
     logging to.  If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using
     the file name.  This handler is only useful on Unix-like systems;
     Windows does not support the underlying mechanism used.

  14. *note QueueHandler: 15f9. instances send messages to a queue, such
     as those implemented in the *note queue: b5. or *note
     multiprocessing: 93. modules.

  15. *note NullHandler: 112d. instances do nothing with error messages.
     They are used by library developers who want to use logging, but
     want to avoid the ‘No handlers could be found for logger 'XXX'’
     message which can be displayed if the library user has not
     configured logging.  See *note Configuring Logging for a Library:
     2b28. for more information.

Added in version 3.1: The *note NullHandler: 112d. class.

Added in version 3.2: The *note QueueHandler: 15f9. class.

The *note NullHandler: 112d, *note StreamHandler: 109d. and *note
FileHandler: 16c6. classes are defined in the core logging package.  The
other handlers are defined in a sub-module, *note logging.handlers: 88.
(There is also another sub-module, *note logging.config: 87, for
configuration functionality.)

Logged messages are formatted for presentation through instances of the
*note Formatter: 131f. class.  They are initialized with a format string
suitable for use with the % operator and a dictionary.

For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of *note
BufferingFormatter: 2ad1. can be used.  In addition to the format string
(which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for
header and trailer format strings.

When filtering based on logger level and/or handler level is not enough,
instances of *note Filter: 10a0. can be added to both *note Logger: 9c2.
and *note Handler: 131e. instances (through their *note addFilter():
2ac1. method).  Before deciding to process a message further, both
loggers and handlers consult all their filters for permission.  If any
filter returns a false value, the message is not processed further.

The basic *note Filter: 10a0. functionality allows filtering by specific
logger name.  If this feature is used, messages sent to the named logger
and its children are allowed through the filter, and all others dropped.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions raised during logging,  Next: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Prev: Useful Handlers,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.5 Exceptions raised during logging
--------------------------------------

The logging package is designed to swallow exceptions which occur while
logging in production.  This is so that errors which occur while
handling logging events - such as logging misconfiguration, network or
other similar errors - do not cause the application using logging to
terminate prematurely.

*note SystemExit: bc8. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: 82f. exceptions are
never swallowed.  Other exceptions which occur during the *note emit():
2ac8. method of a *note Handler: 131e. subclass are passed to its *note
handleError(): 2ac7. method.

The default implementation of *note handleError(): 2ac7. in *note
Handler: 131e. checks to see if a module-level variable, *note
raiseExceptions: 109e, is set.  If set, a traceback is printed to *note
sys.stderr: 792.  If not set, the exception is swallowed.

     Not: The default value of *note raiseExceptions: 109e. is ‘True’.
     This is because during development, you typically want to be
     notified of any exceptions that occur.  It’s advised that you set
     *note raiseExceptions: 109e. to ‘False’ for production usage.


File: python.info,  Node: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Next: Optimization,  Prev: Exceptions raised during logging,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.6 Using arbitrary objects as messages
-----------------------------------------

In the preceding sections and examples, it has been assumed that the
message passed when logging the event is a string.  However, this is not
the only possibility.  You can pass an arbitrary object as a message,
and its *note __str__(): 42f. method will be called when the logging
system needs to convert it to a string representation.  In fact, if you
want to, you can avoid computing a string representation altogether -
for example, the *note SocketHandler: e02. emits an event by pickling it
and sending it over the wire.


File: python.info,  Node: Optimization,  Next: Other resources,  Prev: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.7 Optimization
------------------

Formatting of message arguments is deferred until it cannot be avoided.
However, computing the arguments passed to the logging method can also
be expensive, and you may want to avoid doing it if the logger will just
throw away your event.  To decide what to do, you can call the *note
isEnabledFor(): 11a0. method which takes a level argument and returns
true if the event would be created by the Logger for that level of call.
You can write code like this:

     if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
         logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(),
                                             expensive_func2())

so that if the logger’s threshold is set above ‘DEBUG’, the calls to
‘expensive_func1’ and ‘expensive_func2’ are never made.

     Not: In some cases, *note isEnabledFor(): 11a0. can itself be more
     expensive than you’d like (e.g.  for deeply nested loggers where an
     explicit level is only set high up in the logger hierarchy).  In
     such cases (or if you want to avoid calling a method in tight
     loops), you can cache the result of a call to *note isEnabledFor():
     11a0. in a local or instance variable, and use that instead of
     calling the method each time.  Such a cached value would only need
     to be recomputed when the logging configuration changes dynamically
     while the application is running (which is not all that common).

There are other optimizations which can be made for specific
applications which need more precise control over what logging
information is collected.  Here’s a list of things you can do to avoid
processing during logging which you don’t need:

What you don’t want to collect                            How to avoid collecting it
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
Information about where calls were made from.             Set ‘logging._srcfile’ to ‘None’.  This avoids
                                                          calling *note sys._getframe(): 4f8, which may help to
                                                          speed up your code in environments like PyPy (which
                                                          can’t speed up code that uses
                                                          *note sys._getframe(): 4f8.).
                                                          
                                                          
Threading information.                                    Set ‘logging.logThreads’ to ‘False’.
                                                          
                                                          
Current process ID (*note os.getpid(): 28d6.)             Set ‘logging.logProcesses’ to ‘False’.
                                                          
                                                          
Current process name when using ‘multiprocessing’ to      Set ‘logging.logMultiprocessing’ to ‘False’.
manage multiple processes.                                

Current *note asyncio.Task: 20a. name when using          Set ‘logging.logAsyncioTasks’ to ‘False’.
‘asyncio’.                                                

Also note that the core logging module only includes the basic handlers.
If you don’t import *note logging.handlers: 88. and *note
logging.config: 87, they won’t take up any memory.


File: python.info,  Node: Other resources,  Prev: Optimization,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.7.8 Other resources
---------------------

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note logging: 86.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     Configuration API for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

*note A logging cookbook: 109c.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Cookbook,  Next: Regular Expression HOWTO,  Prev: Logging HOWTO,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.8 Logging Cookbook
====================


Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains a number of recipes related to logging, which have
been found useful in the past.  For links to tutorial and reference
information, please see *note Other resources: 4e45.

* Menu:

* Using logging in multiple modules::
* Logging from multiple threads::
* Multiple handlers and formatters::
* Logging to multiple destinations::
* Custom handling of levels::
* Configuration server example::
* Dealing with handlers that block::
* Sending and receiving logging events across a network::
* Adding contextual information to your logging output::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* Logging to a single file from multiple processes::
* Using file rotation::
* Use of alternative formatting styles::
* Customizing LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* An example dictionary-based configuration::
* Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing::
* A more elaborate multiprocessing example::
* Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler::
* Implementing structured logging::
* Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources: Other resources<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Using logging in multiple modules,  Next: Logging from multiple threads,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.1 Using logging in multiple modules
---------------------------------------

Multiple calls to ‘logging.getLogger('someLogger')’ return a reference
to the same logger object.  This is true not only within the same
module, but also across modules as long as it is in the same Python
interpreter process.  It is true for references to the same object;
additionally, application code can define and configure a parent logger
in one module and create (but not configure) a child logger in a
separate module, and all logger calls to the child will pass up to the
parent.  Here is a main module:

     import logging
     import auxiliary_module

     # create logger with 'spam_application'
     logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to the logger
     logger.addHandler(fh)
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary()
     logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     a.do_something()
     logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()')
     auxiliary_module.some_function()
     logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()')

Here is the auxiliary module:

     import logging

     # create logger
     module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary')

     class Auxiliary:
         def __init__(self):
             self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary')
             self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary')

         def do_something(self):
             self.logger.info('doing something')
             a = 1 + 1
             self.logger.info('done doing something')

     def some_function():
         module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"')

The output looks like this:

     2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
        creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        creating an instance of Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
        created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        done doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
        finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
        received a call to 'some_function'
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
        done with auxiliary_module.some_function()


File: python.info,  Node: Logging from multiple threads,  Next: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Prev: Using logging in multiple modules,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.2 Logging from multiple threads
-----------------------------------

Logging from multiple threads requires no special effort.  The following
example shows logging from the main (initial) thread and another thread:

     import logging
     import threading
     import time

     def worker(arg):
         while not arg['stop']:
             logging.debug('Hi from myfunc')
             time.sleep(0.5)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s')
         info = {'stop': False}
         thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,))
         thread.start()
         while True:
             try:
                 logging.debug('Hello from main')
                 time.sleep(0.75)
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 info['stop'] = True
                 break
         thread.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When run, the script should print something like the following:

        0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
        3 MainThread Hello from main
      505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
      755 MainThread Hello from main
     1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     1507 MainThread Hello from main
     1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2258 MainThread Hello from main
     2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3009 MainThread Hello from main
     3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3761 MainThread Hello from main
     4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     4513 MainThread Hello from main
     4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc

This shows the logging output interspersed as one might expect.  This
approach works for more threads than shown here, of course.


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Next: Logging to multiple destinations,  Prev: Logging from multiple threads,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.3 Multiple handlers and formatters
--------------------------------------

Loggers are plain Python objects.  The *note addHandler(): 2aa7. method
has no minimum or maximum quota for the number of handlers you may add.
Sometimes it will be beneficial for an application to log all messages
of all severities to a text file while simultaneously logging errors or
above to the console.  To set this up, simply configure the appropriate
handlers.  The logging calls in the application code will remain
unchanged.  Here is a slight modification to the previous simple
module-based configuration example:

     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)
     logger.addHandler(fh)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Notice that the ‘application’ code does not care about multiple
handlers.  All that changed was the addition and configuration of a new
handler named 'fh'.

The ability to create new handlers with higher- or lower-severity
filters can be very helpful when writing and testing an application.
Instead of using many ‘print’ statements for debugging, use
‘logger.debug’: Unlike the print statements, which you will have to
delete or comment out later, the logger.debug statements can remain
intact in the source code and remain dormant until you need them again.
At that time, the only change that needs to happen is to modify the
severity level of the logger and/or handler to debug.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to multiple destinations,  Next: Custom handling of levels,  Prev: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.4 Logging to multiple destinations
--------------------------------------

Let’s say you want to log to console and file with different message
formats and in differing circumstances.  Say you want to log messages
with levels of DEBUG and higher to file, and those messages at level
INFO and higher to the console.  Let’s also assume that the file should
contain timestamps, but the console messages should not.  Here’s how you
can achieve this:

     import logging

     # set up logging to file - see previous section for more details
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s',
                         datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M',
                         filename='/tmp/myapp.log',
                         filemode='w')
     # define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr
     console = logging.StreamHandler()
     console.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     # set a format which is simpler for console use
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
     # tell the handler to use this format
     console.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handler to the root logger
     logging.getLogger('').addHandler(console)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

When you run this, on the console you will see

     root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

and in the file you will see something like

     10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

As you can see, the DEBUG message only shows up in the file.  The other
messages are sent to both destinations.

This example uses console and file handlers, but you can use any number
and combination of handlers you choose.

Note that the above choice of log filename ‘/tmp/myapp.log’ implies use
of a standard location for temporary files on POSIX systems.  On
Windows, you may need to choose a different directory name for the log -
just ensure that the directory exists and that you have the permissions
to create and update files in it.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom handling of levels,  Next: Configuration server example,  Prev: Logging to multiple destinations,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.5 Custom handling of levels
-------------------------------

Sometimes, you might want to do something slightly different from the
standard handling of levels in handlers, where all levels above a
threshold get processed by a handler.  To do this, you need to use
filters.  Let’s look at a scenario where you want to arrange things as
follows:

   * Send messages of severity ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ to ‘sys.stdout’

   * Send messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and above to ‘sys.stderr’

   * Send messages of severity ‘DEBUG’ and above to file ‘app.log’

Suppose you configure logging with the following JSON:

     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }

This configuration does 'almost' what we want, except that ‘sys.stdout’
would show messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and above as well as ‘INFO’ and
‘WARNING’ messages.  To prevent this, we can set up a filter which
excludes those messages and add it to the relevant handler.  This can be
configured by adding a ‘filters’ section parallel to ‘formatters’ and
‘handlers’:

     {
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         }
     }

and changing the section on the ‘stdout’ handler to add it:

     {
         "stdout": {
             "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
             "level": "INFO",
             "formatter": "simple",
             "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
             "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
         }
     }

A filter is just a function, so we can define the ‘filter_maker’ (a
factory function) as follows:

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

This converts the string argument passed in to a numeric level, and
returns a function which only returns ‘True’ if the level of the passed
in record is at or below the specified level.  Note that in this example
I have defined the ‘filter_maker’ in a test script ‘main.py’ that I run
from the command line, so its module will be ‘__main__’ - hence the
‘__main__.filter_maker’ in the filter configuration.  You will need to
change that if you define it in a different module.

With the filter added, we can run ‘main.py’, which in full is:

     import json
     import logging
     import logging.config

     CONFIG = '''
     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
                 "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }
     '''

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

     logging.config.dictConfig(json.loads(CONFIG))
     logging.debug('A DEBUG message')
     logging.info('An INFO message')
     logging.warning('A WARNING message')
     logging.error('An ERROR message')
     logging.critical('A CRITICAL message')

And after running it like this:

     python main.py 2>stderr.log >stdout.log

We can see the results are as expected:

     $ more *.log
     ::::::::::::::
     app.log
     ::::::::::::::
     DEBUG    - A DEBUG message
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stderr.log
     ::::::::::::::
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stdout.log
     ::::::::::::::
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration server example,  Next: Dealing with handlers that block,  Prev: Custom handling of levels,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.6 Configuration server example
----------------------------------

Here is an example of a module using the logging configuration server:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time
     import os

     # read initial config file
     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create and start listener on port 9999
     t = logging.config.listen(9999)
     t.start()

     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     try:
         # loop through logging calls to see the difference
         # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed
         while True:
             logger.debug('debug message')
             logger.info('info message')
             logger.warning('warn message')
             logger.error('error message')
             logger.critical('critical message')
             time.sleep(5)
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         # cleanup
         logging.config.stopListening()
         t.join()

And here is a script that takes a filename and sends that file to the
server, properly preceded with the binary-encoded length, as the new
logging configuration:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import socket, sys, struct

     with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f:
         data_to_send = f.read()

     HOST = 'localhost'
     PORT = 9999
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     print('connecting...')
     s.connect((HOST, PORT))
     print('sending config...')
     s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send)))
     s.send(data_to_send)
     s.close()
     print('complete')


File: python.info,  Node: Dealing with handlers that block,  Next: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Prev: Configuration server example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.7 Dealing with handlers that block
--------------------------------------

Sometimes you have to get your logging handlers to do their work without
blocking the thread you’re logging from.  This is common in web
applications, though of course it also occurs in other scenarios.

A common culprit which demonstrates sluggish behaviour is the *note
SMTPHandler: 13f9.: sending emails can take a long time, for a number of
reasons outside the developer’s control (for example, a poorly
performing mail or network infrastructure).  But almost any
network-based handler can block: Even a *note SocketHandler: e02.
operation may do a DNS query under the hood which is too slow (and this
query can be deep in the socket library code, below the Python layer,
and outside your control).

One solution is to use a two-part approach.  For the first part, attach
only a *note QueueHandler: 15f9. to those loggers which are accessed
from performance-critical threads.  They simply write to their queue,
which can be sized to a large enough capacity or initialized with no
upper bound to their size.  The write to the queue will typically be
accepted quickly, though you will probably need to catch the *note
queue.Full: 2ea0. exception as a precaution in your code.  If you are a
library developer who has performance-critical threads in their code, be
sure to document this (together with a suggestion to attach only
‘QueueHandlers’ to your loggers) for the benefit of other developers who
will use your code.

The second part of the solution is *note QueueListener: cbc, which has
been designed as the counterpart to *note QueueHandler: 15f9.  A *note
QueueListener: cbc. is very simple: it’s passed a queue and some
handlers, and it fires up an internal thread which listens to its queue
for LogRecords sent from ‘QueueHandlers’ (or any other source of
‘LogRecords’, for that matter).  The ‘LogRecords’ are removed from the
queue and passed to the handlers for processing.

The advantage of having a separate *note QueueListener: cbc. class is
that you can use the same instance to service multiple ‘QueueHandlers’.
This is more resource-friendly than, say, having threaded versions of
the existing handler classes, which would eat up one thread per handler
for no particular benefit.

An example of using these two classes follows (imports omitted):

     que = queue.Queue(-1)  # no limit on size
     queue_handler = QueueHandler(que)
     handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     listener = QueueListener(que, handler)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.addHandler(queue_handler)
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s')
     handler.setFormatter(formatter)
     listener.start()
     # The log output will display the thread which generated
     # the event (the main thread) rather than the internal
     # thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what
     # you want to happen.
     root.warning('Look out!')
     listener.stop()

which, when run, will produce:

     MainThread: Look out!

     Not: Although the earlier discussion wasn’t specifically talking
     about async code, but rather about slow logging handlers, it should
     be noted that when logging from async code, network and even file
     handlers could lead to problems (blocking the event loop) because
     some logging is done from *note asyncio: a. internals.  It might be
     best, if any async code is used in an application, to use the above
     approach for logging, so that any blocking code runs only in the
     ‘QueueListener’ thread.

3.5 sürümünde değişti: Prior to Python 3.5, the *note QueueListener:
cbc. always passed every message received from the queue to every
handler it was initialized with.  (This was because it was assumed that
level filtering was all done on the other side, where the queue is
filled.)  From 3.5 onwards, this behaviour can be changed by passing a
keyword argument ‘respect_handler_level=True’ to the listener’s
constructor.  When this is done, the listener compares the level of each
message with the handler’s level, and only passes a message to a handler
if it’s appropriate to do so.


File: python.info,  Node: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Next: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Prev: Dealing with handlers that block,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.8 Sending and receiving logging events across a network
-----------------------------------------------------------

Let’s say you want to send logging events across a network, and handle
them at the receiving end.  A simple way of doing this is attaching a
*note SocketHandler: e02. instance to the root logger at the sending
end:

     import logging, logging.handlers

     rootLogger = logging.getLogger('')
     rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
                         logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
     # don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as
     # an unformatted pickle
     rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

At the receiving end, you can set up a receiver using the *note
socketserver: cc. module.  Here is a basic working example:

     import pickle
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import socketserver
     import struct


     class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
         """Handler for a streaming logging request.

         This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is
         configured locally.
         """

         def handle(self):
             """
             Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,
             followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record
             according to whatever policy is configured locally.
             """
             while True:
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(4)
                 if len(chunk) < 4:
                     break
                 slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0]
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(slen)
                 while len(chunk) < slen:
                     chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk))
                 obj = self.unPickle(chunk)
                 record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj)
                 self.handleLogRecord(record)

         def unPickle(self, data):
             return pickle.loads(data)

         def handleLogRecord(self, record):
             # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one
             # implied by the record.
             if self.server.logname is not None:
                 name = self.server.logname
             else:
                 name = record.name
             logger = logging.getLogger(name)
             # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle
             # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want
             # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting
             # cycles and network bandwidth!
             logger.handle(record)

     class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer):
         """
         Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.
         """

         allow_reuse_address = True

         def __init__(self, host='localhost',
                      port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT,
                      handler=LogRecordStreamHandler):
             socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler)
             self.abort = 0
             self.timeout = 1
             self.logname = None

         def serve_until_stopped(self):
             import select
             abort = 0
             while not abort:
                 rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()],
                                            [], [],
                                            self.timeout)
                 if rd:
                     self.handle_request()
                 abort = self.abort

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(
             format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver()
         print('About to start TCP server...')
         tcpserver.serve_until_stopped()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

First run the server, and then the client.  On the client side, nothing
is printed on the console; on the server side, you should see something
like:

     About to start TCP server...
        59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
        59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
        69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
        69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
        69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios.
If these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by
overriding the *note makePickle(): 2b44. method and implementing your
alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your
alternative serialization.

* Menu:

* Running a logging socket listener in production::


File: python.info,  Node: Running a logging socket listener in production,  Up: Sending and receiving logging events across a network

9.8.8.1 Running a logging socket listener in production
.......................................................

To run a logging listener in production, you may need to use a
process-management tool such as Supervisor(1).  Here is a Gist(2) which
provides the bare-bones files to run the above functionality using
Supervisor.  It consists of the following files:

File                          Purpose
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘prepare.sh’                  A Bash script to prepare the environment for testing
                              
                              
‘supervisor.conf’             The Supervisor configuration file, which has entries
                              for the listener and a multi-process web application
                              
                              
‘ensure_app.sh’               A Bash script to ensure that Supervisor is running
                              with the above configuration
                              
                              
‘log_listener.py’             The socket listener program which receives log events
                              and records them to a file
                              
                              
‘main.py’                     A simple web application which performs logging via a
                              socket connected to the listener
                              
                              
‘webapp.json’                 A JSON configuration file for the web application
                              
                              
‘client.py’                   A Python script to exercise the web application
                              

The web application uses Gunicorn(3), which is a popular web application
server that starts multiple worker processes to handle requests.  This
example setup shows how the workers can write to the same log file
without conflicting with one another — they all go through the socket
listener.

To test these files, do the following in a POSIX environment:

  1. Download the Gist(4) as a ZIP archive using the Download ZIP
     button.

  2. Unzip the above files from the archive into a scratch directory.

  3. In the scratch directory, run ‘bash prepare.sh’ to get things
     ready.  This creates a ‘run’ subdirectory to contain
     Supervisor-related and log files, and a ‘venv’ subdirectory to
     contain a virtual environment into which ‘bottle’, ‘gunicorn’ and
     ‘supervisor’ are installed.

  4. Run ‘bash ensure_app.sh’ to ensure that Supervisor is running with
     the above configuration.

  5. Run ‘venv/bin/python client.py’ to exercise the web application,
     which will lead to records being written to the log.

  6. Inspect the log files in the ‘run’ subdirectory.  You should see
     the most recent log lines in files matching the pattern ‘app.log*’.
     They won’t be in any particular order, since they have been handled
     concurrently by different worker processes in a non-deterministic
     way.

  7. You can shut down the listener and the web application by running
     ‘venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown’.

You may need to tweak the configuration files in the unlikely event that
the configured ports clash with something else in your test environment.

The default configuration uses a TCP socket on port 9020.  You can use a
Unix Domain socket instead of a TCP socket by doing the following:

  1. In ‘listener.json’, add a ‘socket’ key with the path to the domain
     socket you want to use.  If this key is present, the listener
     listens on the corresponding domain socket and not on a TCP socket
     (the ‘port’ key is ignored).

  2. In ‘webapp.json’, change the socket handler configuration
     dictionary so that the ‘host’ value is the path to the domain
     socket, and set the ‘port’ value to ‘null’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://supervisord.org/

   (2) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b

   (3) https://gunicorn.org/

   (4) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b


File: python.info,  Node: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Next: Use of contextvars,  Prev: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.9 Adding contextual information to your logging output
----------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want logging output to contain contextual information in
addition to the parameters passed to the logging call.  For example, in
a networked application, it may be desirable to log client-specific
information in the log (e.g.  remote client’s username, or IP address).
Although you could use the 'extra' parameter to achieve this, it’s not
always convenient to pass the information in this way.  While it might
be tempting to create *note Logger: 9c2. instances on a per-connection
basis, this is not a good idea because these instances are not garbage
collected.  While this is not a problem in practice, when the number of
*note Logger: 9c2. instances is dependent on the level of granularity
you want to use in logging an application, it could be hard to manage if
the number of *note Logger: 9c2. instances becomes effectively
unbounded.

* Menu:

* Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information::
* Using Filters to impart contextual information::


File: python.info,  Node: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information,  Next: Using Filters to impart contextual information,  Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output

9.8.9.1 Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information
.............................................................

An easy way in which you can pass contextual information to be output
along with logging event information is to use the *note LoggerAdapter:
119f. class.  This class is designed to look like a *note Logger: 9c2,
so that you can call *note debug(): 2aae, *note info(): 2ad8, *note
warning(): 131b, *note error(): 2aec, *note exception(): 131c, *note
critical(): 2aed. and *note log(): 2aee.  These methods have the same
signatures as their counterparts in *note Logger: 9c2, so you can use
the two types of instances interchangeably.

When you create an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 119f, you pass it a
*note Logger: 9c2. instance and a dict-like object which contains your
contextual information.  When you call one of the logging methods on an
instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 119f, it delegates the call to the
underlying instance of *note Logger: 9c2. passed to its constructor, and
arranges to pass the contextual information in the delegated call.
Here’s a snippet from the code of *note LoggerAdapter: 119f.:

     def debug(self, msg, /, *args, **kwargs):
         """
         Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding
         contextual information from this adapter instance.
         """
         msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
         self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

The *note process(): 2ae5. method of *note LoggerAdapter: 119f. is where
the contextual information is added to the logging output.  It’s passed
the message and keyword arguments of the logging call, and it passes
back (potentially) modified versions of these to use in the call to the
underlying logger.  The default implementation of this method leaves the
message alone, but inserts an ‘extra’ key in the keyword argument whose
value is the dict-like object passed to the constructor.  Of course, if
you had passed an ‘extra’ keyword argument in the call to the adapter,
it will be silently overwritten.

The advantage of using ‘extra’ is that the values in the dict-like
object are merged into the *note LogRecord: e8c. instance’s __dict__,
allowing you to use customized strings with your *note Formatter: 131f.
instances which know about the keys of the dict-like object.  If you
need a different method, e.g.  if you want to prepend or append the
contextual information to the message string, you just need to subclass
*note LoggerAdapter: 119f. and override *note process(): 2ae5. to do
what you need.  Here is a simple example:

     class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         """
         This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a
         'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.
         """
         def process(self, msg, kwargs):
             return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs

which you can use like this:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id})

Then any events that you log to the adapter will have the value of
‘some_conn_id’ prepended to the log messages.

* Menu:

* Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information::


File: python.info,  Node: Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information,  Up: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

9.8.9.2 Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information
.....................................................................

You don’t need to pass an actual dict to a *note LoggerAdapter: 119f. -
you could pass an instance of a class which implements ‘__getitem__’ and
‘__iter__’ so that it looks like a dict to logging.  This would be
useful if you want to generate values dynamically (whereas the values in
a dict would be constant).


File: python.info,  Node: Using Filters to impart contextual information,  Prev: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information,  Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output

9.8.9.3 Using Filters to impart contextual information
......................................................

You can also add contextual information to log output using a
user-defined *note Filter: 10a0.  ‘Filter’ instances are allowed to
modify the ‘LogRecords’ passed to them, including adding additional
attributes which can then be output using a suitable format string, or
if needed a custom *note Formatter: 131f.

For example in a web application, the request being processed (or at
least, the interesting parts of it) can be stored in a threadlocal
(*note threading.local: 1589.) variable, and then accessed from a
‘Filter’ to add, say, information from the request - say, the remote IP
address and remote user’s username - to the ‘LogRecord’, using the
attribute names ‘ip’ and ‘user’ as in the ‘LoggerAdapter’ example above.
In that case, the same format string can be used to get similar output
to that shown above.  Here’s an example script:

     import logging
     from random import choice

     class ContextFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.

         Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random
         data in this demo.
         """

         USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila']
         IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1']

         def filter(self, record):

             record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS)
             record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS)
             return True

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL)
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                             format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s')
         a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c')
         a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f')

         f = ContextFilter()
         a1.addFilter(f)
         a2.addFilter(f)
         a1.debug('A debug message')
         a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters')
         for x in range(10):
             lvl = choice(levels)
             lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl)
             a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters')

which, when run, produces something like:

     2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters


File: python.info,  Node: Use of contextvars,  Next: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Prev: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.10 Use of ‘contextvars’
---------------------------

Since Python 3.7, the *note contextvars: 24. module has provided
context-local storage which works for both *note threading: ec. and
*note asyncio: a. processing needs.  This type of storage may thus be
generally preferable to thread-locals.  The following example shows how,
in a multi-threaded environment, logs can populated with contextual
information such as, for example, request attributes handled by web
applications.

For the purposes of illustration, say that you have different web
applications, each independent of the other but running in the same
Python process and using a library common to them.  How can each of
these applications have their own log, where all logging messages from
the library (and other request processing code) are directed to the
appropriate application’s log file, while including in the log
additional contextual information such as client IP, HTTP request method
and client username?

Let’s assume that the library can be simulated by the following code:

     # webapplib.py
     import logging
     import time

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def useful():
         # Just a representative event logged from the library
         logger.debug('Hello from webapplib!')
         # Just sleep for a bit so other threads get to run
         time.sleep(0.01)

We can simulate the multiple web applications by means of two simple
classes, ‘Request’ and ‘WebApp’.  These simulate how real threaded web
applications work - each request is handled by a thread:

     # main.py
     import argparse
     from contextvars import ContextVar
     import logging
     import os
     from random import choice
     import threading
     import webapplib

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     class Request:
         """
         A simple dummy request class which just holds dummy HTTP request method,
         client IP address and client username
         """
         def __init__(self, method, ip, user):
             self.method = method
             self.ip = ip
             self.user = user

     # A dummy set of requests which will be used in the simulation - we'll just pick
     # from this list randomly. Note that all GET requests are from 192.168.2.XXX
     # addresses, whereas POST requests are from 192.16.3.XXX addresses. Three users
     # are represented in the sample requests.

     REQUESTS = [
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.20', 'jim'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.20', 'fred'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.21', 'sheila'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.21', 'jim'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.22', 'fred'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.22', 'sheila'),
     ]

     # Note that the format string includes references to request context information
     # such as HTTP method, client IP and username

     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)-11s %(appName)s %(name)-9s %(user)-6s %(ip)s %(method)-4s %(message)s')

     # Create our context variables. These will be filled at the start of request
     # processing, and used in the logging that happens during that processing

     ctx_request = ContextVar('request')
     ctx_appname = ContextVar('appname')

     class InjectingFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         A filter which injects context-specific information into logs and ensures
         that only information for a specific webapp is included in its log
         """
         def __init__(self, app):
             self.app = app

         def filter(self, record):
             request = ctx_request.get()
             record.method = request.method
             record.ip = request.ip
             record.user = request.user
             record.appName = appName = ctx_appname.get()
             return appName == self.app.name

     class WebApp:
         """
         A dummy web application class which has its own handler and filter for a
         webapp-specific log.
         """
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             handler = logging.FileHandler(name + '.log', 'w')
             f = InjectingFilter(self)
             handler.setFormatter(formatter)
             handler.addFilter(f)
             root.addHandler(handler)
             self.num_requests = 0

         def process_request(self, request):
             """
             This is the dummy method for processing a request. It's called on a
             different thread for every request. We store the context information into
             the context vars before doing anything else.
             """
             ctx_request.set(request)
             ctx_appname.set(self.name)
             self.num_requests += 1
             logger.debug('Request processing started')
             webapplib.useful()
             logger.debug('Request processing finished')

     def main():
         fn = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(__file__))[0]
         adhf = argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=adhf, prog=fn,
                                      description='Simulate a couple of web '
                                                  'applications handling some '
                                                  'requests, showing how request '
                                                  'context can be used to '
                                                  'populate logs')
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('--count', '-c', type=int, default=100, help='How many requests to simulate')
         options = ap.parse_args()

         # Create the dummy webapps and put them in a list which we can use to select
         # from randomly
         app1 = WebApp('app1')
         app2 = WebApp('app2')
         apps = [app1, app2]
         threads = []
         # Add a common handler which will capture all events
         handler = logging.FileHandler('app.log', 'w')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         root.addHandler(handler)

         # Generate calls to process requests
         for i in range(options.count):
             try:
                 # Pick an app at random and a request for it to process
                 app = choice(apps)
                 request = choice(REQUESTS)
                 # Process the request in its own thread
                 t = threading.Thread(target=app.process_request, args=(request,))
                 threads.append(t)
                 t.start()
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 break

         # Wait for the threads to terminate
         for t in threads:
             t.join()

         for app in apps:
             print('%s processed %s requests' % (app.name, app.num_requests))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

If you run the above, you should find that roughly half the requests go
into ‘app1.log’ and the rest into ‘app2.log’, and the all the requests
are logged to ‘app.log’.  Each webapp-specific log will contain only log
entries for only that webapp, and the request information will be
displayed consistently in the log (i.e.  the information in each dummy
request will always appear together in a log line).  This is illustrated
by the following shell output:

     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ python main.py
     app1 processed 51 requests
     app2 processed 49 requests
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ wc -l *.log
       153 app1.log
       147 app2.log
       300 app.log
       600 total
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app1.log
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app2.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head app.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 webapplib jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 __main__  fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 webapplib fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-6 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app1.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app2.log | wc -l
     147
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app.log | wc -l
     147


File: python.info,  Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Next: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Prev: Use of contextvars,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.11 Imparting contextual information in handlers
---------------------------------------------------

Each *note Handler: 131e. has its own chain of filters.  If you want to
add contextual information to a *note LogRecord: e8c. without leaking it
to other handlers, you can use a filter that returns a new *note
LogRecord: e8c. instead of modifying it in-place, as shown in the
following script:

     import copy
     import logging

     def filter(record: logging.LogRecord):
         record = copy.copy(record)
         record.user = 'jim'
         return record

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         formatter = logging.Formatter('%(message)s from %(user)-8s')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         handler.addFilter(filter)
         logger.addHandler(handler)

         logger.info('A log message')


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Next: Using file rotation,  Prev: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.12 Logging to a single file from multiple processes
-------------------------------------------------------

Although logging is thread-safe, and logging to a single file from
multiple threads in a single process 'is' supported, logging to a single
file from 'multiple processes' is 'not' supported, because there is no
standard way to serialize access to a single file across multiple
processes in Python.  If you need to log to a single file from multiple
processes, one way of doing this is to have all the processes log to a
*note SocketHandler: e02, and have a separate process which implements a
socket server which reads from the socket and logs to file.  (If you
prefer, you can dedicate one thread in one of the existing processes to
perform this function.)  *note This section: 4e4f. documents this
approach in more detail and includes a working socket receiver which can
be used as a starting point for you to adapt in your own applications.

You could also write your own handler which uses the *note Lock: 1424.
class from the *note multiprocessing: 93. module to serialize access to
the file from your processes.  The existing *note FileHandler: 16c6. and
subclasses do not make use of *note multiprocessing: 93. at present,
though they may do so in the future.  Note that at present, the *note
multiprocessing: 93. module does not provide working lock functionality
on all platforms (see ‘https://bugs.python.org/issue3770’).

Alternatively, you can use a ‘Queue’ and a *note QueueHandler: 15f9. to
send all logging events to one of the processes in your multi-process
application.  The following example script demonstrates how you can do
this; in the example a separate listener process listens for events sent
by other processes and logs them according to its own logging
configuration.  Although the example only demonstrates one way of doing
it (for example, you may want to use a listener thread rather than a
separate listener process – the implementation would be analogous) it
does allow for completely different logging configurations for the
listener and the other processes in your application, and can be used as
the basis for code meeting your own specific requirements:

     # You'll need these imports in your own code
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import multiprocessing

     # Next two import lines for this demo only
     from random import choice, random
     import time

     #
     # Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the
     # listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable
     # for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,
     # which they use for communication.
     #
     # In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this
     # simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.
     # In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid
     # sending events which would be filtered out between processes.
     #
     # The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.
     def listener_configurer():
         root = logging.getLogger()
         h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10)
         f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         h.setFormatter(f)
         root.addHandler(h)

     # This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events
     # (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a
     # LogRecord.
     def listener_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer()
         while True:
             try:
                 record = queue.get()
                 if record is None:  # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.
                     break
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
                 logger.handle(record)  # No level or filter logic applied - just do it!
             except Exception:
                 import sys, traceback
                 print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr)
                 traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr)

     # Arrays used for random selections in this demo

     LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING,
               logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL]

     LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f']

     MESSAGES = [
         'Random message #1',
         'Random message #2',
         'Random message #3',
     ]

     # The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.
     # Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process
     # will run the logging configuration code when it starts.
     def worker_configurer(queue):
         h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)  # Just the one handler needed
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with
     # random intervening delays before terminating.
     # The print messages are just so you know it's doing something!
     def worker_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer(queue)
         name = multiprocessing.current_process().name
         print('Worker started: %s' % name)
         for i in range(10):
             time.sleep(random())
             logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS))
             level = choice(LEVELS)
             message = choice(MESSAGES)
             logger.log(level, message)
         print('Worker finished: %s' % name)

     # Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start
     # the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,
     # then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.
     def main():
         queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)
         listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process,
                                            args=(queue, listener_configurer))
         listener.start()
         workers = []
         for i in range(10):
             worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                              args=(queue, worker_configurer))
             workers.append(worker)
             worker.start()
         for w in workers:
             w.join()
         queue.put_nowait(None)
         listener.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

A variant of the above script keeps the logging in the main process, in
a separate thread:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     import random
     import threading
     import time

     def logger_thread(q):
         while True:
             record = q.get()
             if record is None:
                 break
             logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
             logger.handle(record)


     def worker_process(q):
         qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(qh)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         q = Queue()
         d = {
             'version': 1,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO',
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'level': 'ERROR',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'level': 'DEBUG',
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
             },
         }
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
         logging.config.dictConfig(d)
         lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,))
         lp.start()
         # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own
         # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too
         q.put(None)
         lp.join()

This variant shows how you can e.g.  apply configuration for particular
loggers - e.g.  the ‘foo’ logger has a special handler which stores all
events in the ‘foo’ subsystem in a file ‘mplog-foo.log’.  This will be
used by the logging machinery in the main process (even though the
logging events are generated in the worker processes) to direct the
messages to the appropriate destinations.

* Menu:

* Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::


File: python.info,  Node: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes

9.8.12.1 Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor
.....................................................

If you want to use *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. to
start your worker processes, you need to create the queue slightly
differently.  Instead of

     queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)

you should use

     queue = multiprocessing.Manager().Queue(-1)  # also works with the examples above

and you can then replace the worker creation from this:

     workers = []
     for i in range(10):
         worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                          args=(queue, worker_configurer))
         workers.append(worker)
         worker.start()
     for w in workers:
         w.join()

to this (remembering to first import *note concurrent.futures: 21.):

     with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor:
         for i in range(10):
             executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)


File: python.info,  Node: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Prev: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes

9.8.12.2 Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI
............................................................

When deploying Web applications using Gunicorn(1) or uWSGI(2) (or
similar), multiple worker processes are created to handle client
requests.  In such environments, avoid creating file-based handlers
directly in your web application.  Instead, use a *note SocketHandler:
e02. to log from the web application to a listener in a separate
process.  This can be set up using a process management tool such as
Supervisor - see *note Running a logging socket listener in production:
4e51. for more details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gunicorn.org/

   (2) https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Using file rotation,  Next: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Prev: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.13 Using file rotation
--------------------------

Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a
new file and log to that.  You may want to keep a certain number of
these files, and when that many files have been created, rotate the
files so that the number of files and the size of the files both remain
bounded.  For this usage pattern, the logging package provides a *note
RotatingFileHandler: 1454.:

     import glob
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out'

     # Set up a specific logger with our desired output level
     my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger')
     my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # Add the log message handler to the logger
     handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(
                   LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5)

     my_logger.addHandler(handler)

     # Log some messages
     for i in range(20):
         my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i)

     # See what files are created
     logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME)

     for filename in logfiles:
         print(filename)

The result should be 6 separate files, each with part of the log history
for the application:

     logging_rotatingfile_example.out
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5

The most current file is always ‘logging_rotatingfile_example.out’, and
each time it reaches the size limit it is renamed with the suffix ‘.1’.
Each of the existing backup files is renamed to increment the suffix
(‘.1’ becomes ‘.2’, etc.)  and the ‘.6’ file is erased.

Obviously this example sets the log length much too small as an extreme
example.  You would want to set 'maxBytes' to an appropriate value.


File: python.info,  Node: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Next: Customizing LogRecord,  Prev: Using file rotation,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.14 Use of alternative formatting styles
-------------------------------------------

When logging was added to the Python standard library, the only way of
formatting messages with variable content was to use the %-formatting
method.  Since then, Python has gained two new formatting approaches:
*note string.Template: 49c. (added in Python 2.4) and *note
str.format(): 433. (added in Python 2.6).

Logging (as of 3.2) provides improved support for these two additional
formatting styles.  The *note Formatter: 131f. class been enhanced to
take an additional, optional keyword parameter named ‘style’.  This
defaults to ‘'%'’, but other possible values are ‘'{'’ and ‘'$'’, which
correspond to the other two formatting styles.  Backwards compatibility
is maintained by default (as you would expect), but by explicitly
specifying a style parameter, you get the ability to specify format
strings which work with *note str.format(): 433. or *note
string.Template: 49c.  Here’s an example console session to show the
possibilities:

     >>> import logging
     >>> root = logging.getLogger()
     >>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     >>> handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     >>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}',
     ...                        style='{')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(bf)
     >>> root.addHandler(handler)
     >>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar')
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message',
     ...                        style='$')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(df)
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>>

Note that the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs is
completely independent of how an individual logging message is
constructed.  That can still use %-formatting, as shown here:

     >>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message')
     2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message
     >>>

Logging calls (‘logger.debug()’, ‘logger.info()’ etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the actual logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to
indicate that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’
keyword parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be
added to the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using
*note str.format(): 433. or *note string.Template: 49c. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There is, however, a way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to
construct your individual log messages.  Recall that for a message you
can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the
logging package will call ‘str()’ on that object to get the actual
format string.  Consider the following two classes:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
$-formatting to be used to build the actual “message” part which appears
in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or
“$message”.  It’s a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you
want to log something, but it’s quite palatable if you use an alias such
as __ (double underscore — not to be confused with _, the single
underscore used as a synonym/alias for *note gettext.gettext(): 12f1. or
its brethren).

The above classes are not included in Python, though they’re easy enough
to copy and paste into your own code.  They can be used as follows
(assuming that they’re declared in a module called ‘wherever’):

     >>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})',
     ...       point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
     >>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

While the above examples use ‘print()’ to show how the formatting works,
you would of course use ‘logger.debug()’ or similar to actually log
using this approach.

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes.

If you prefer, you can use a *note LoggerAdapter: 119f. to achieve a
similar effect to the above, as in the following example:

     import logging

     class Message:
         def __init__(self, fmt, args):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args)

     class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         def log(self, level, msg, /, *args, stacklevel=1, **kwargs):
             if self.isEnabledFor(level):
                 msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
                 self.logger.log(level, Message(msg, args), **kwargs,
                                 stacklevel=stacklevel+1)

     logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__))

     def main():
         logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         main()

The above script should log the message ‘Hello, world!’ when run with
Python 3.8 or later.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing LogRecord,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Prev: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.15 Customizing ‘LogRecord’
------------------------------

Every logging event is represented by a *note LogRecord: e8c. instance.
When an event is logged and not filtered out by a logger’s level, a
*note LogRecord: e8c. is created, populated with information about the
event and then passed to the handlers for that logger (and its
ancestors, up to and including the logger where further propagation up
the hierarchy is disabled).  Before Python 3.2, there were only two
places where this creation was done:

   * *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2ab6, which is called in the normal
     process of logging an event.  This invoked *note LogRecord: e8c.
     directly to create an instance.

   * *note makeLogRecord(): 2adc, which is called with a dictionary
     containing attributes to be added to the LogRecord.  This is
     typically invoked when a suitable dictionary has been received over
     the network (e.g.  in pickle form via a *note SocketHandler: e02,
     or in JSON form via an *note HTTPHandler: cbb.).

This has usually meant that if you need to do anything special with a
*note LogRecord: e8c, you’ve had to do one of the following.

   * Create your own *note Logger: 9c2. subclass, which overrides *note
     Logger.makeRecord(): 2ab6, and set it using *note setLoggerClass():
     2aeb. before any loggers that you care about are instantiated.

   * Add a *note Filter: 10a0. to a logger or handler, which does the
     necessary special manipulation you need when its *note filter():
     2ad7. method is called.

The first approach would be a little unwieldy in the scenario where
(say) several different libraries wanted to do different things.  Each
would attempt to set its own *note Logger: 9c2. subclass, and the one
which did this last would win.

The second approach works reasonably well for many cases, but does not
allow you to e.g.  use a specialized subclass of *note LogRecord: e8c.
Library developers can set a suitable filter on their loggers, but they
would have to remember to do this every time they introduced a new
logger (which they would do simply by adding new packages or modules and
doing

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

at module level).  It’s probably one too many things to think about.
Developers could also add the filter to a *note NullHandler: 112d.
attached to their top-level logger, but this would not be invoked if an
application developer attached a handler to a lower-level library logger
— so output from that handler would not reflect the intentions of the
library developer.

In Python 3.2 and later, *note LogRecord: e8c. creation is done through
a factory, which you can specify.  The factory is just a callable you
can set with *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ae0, and interrogate with
*note getLogRecordFactory(): 2adf.  The factory is invoked with the same
signature as the *note LogRecord: e8c. constructor, as *note LogRecord:
e8c. is the default setting for the factory.

This approach allows a custom factory to control all aspects of
LogRecord creation.  For example, you could return a subclass, or just
add some additional attributes to the record once created, using a
pattern similar to this:

     old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

     def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
         record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
         record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
         return record

     logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

This pattern allows different libraries to chain factories together, and
as long as they don’t overwrite each other’s attributes or
unintentionally overwrite the attributes provided as standard, there
should be no surprises.  However, it should be borne in mind that each
link in the chain adds run-time overhead to all logging operations, and
the technique should only be used when the use of a *note Filter: 10a0.
does not provide the desired result.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Prev: Customizing LogRecord,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.16 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example
-------------------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler,  Next: Subclass QueueListener,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.8.16.1 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

You can use a *note QueueHandler: 15f9. subclass to send messages to
other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ ‘publish’ socket.  In the
example below,the socket is created separately and passed to the handler
(as its ‘queue’):

     import zmq   # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ
     import json  # for serializing records portably

     ctx = zmq.Context()
     sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB)  # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value
     sock.bind('tcp://*:5556')        # or wherever

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)


     handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock)

Of course there are other ways of organizing this, for example passing
in the data needed by the handler to create the socket:

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None):
             self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype)
             socket.bind(uri)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener,  Prev: Subclass QueueHandler,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.8.16.2 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

You can also subclass *note QueueListener: cbc. to get messages from
other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ ‘subscribe’ socket.  Here’s
an example:

     class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener):
         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB)
             socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '')  # subscribe to everything
             socket.connect(uri)
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self):
             msg = self.queue.recv_json()
             return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Next: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.17 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ‘pynng’ example
--------------------------------------------------------------------

In a similar way to the above section, we can implement a listener and
handler using pynng(1), which is a Python binding to NNG(2), billed as a
spiritual successor to ZeroMQ. The following snippets illustrate – you
can test them in an environment which has ‘pynng’ installed.  Just for
variety, we present the listener first.

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pynng/

   (2) https://nng.nanomsg.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Next: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.8.17.1 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

     # listener.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     interrupted = False

     class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener):

         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a
             # subscriber socket
             socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500)
             # The b'' subscription matches all topics
             topics = kwargs.pop('topics', None) or b''
             socket.subscribe(topics)
             # We treat the socket as a queue
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self, block):
             data = None
             # Keep looping while not interrupted and no data received over the
             # socket
             while not interrupted:
                 try:
                     data = self.queue.recv(block=block)
                     break
                 except pynng.Timeout:
                     pass
                 except pynng.Closed:  # sometimes happens when you hit Ctrl-C
                     break
             if data is None:
                 return None
             # Get the logging event sent from a publisher
             event = json.loads(data.decode('utf-8'))
             return logging.makeLogRecord(event)

         def enqueue_sentinel(self):
             # Not used in this implementation, as the socket isn't really a
             # queue
             pass

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     listener = NNGSocketListener(DEFAULT_ADDR, logging.StreamHandler(), topics=b'')
     listener.start()
     print('Press Ctrl-C to stop.')
     try:
         while True:
             pass
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         interrupted = True
     finally:
         listener.stop()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Prev: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.8.17.2 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

     # sender.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import time
     import random

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     class NNGSocketHandler(logging.handlers.QueueHandler):

         def __init__(self, uri):
             socket = pynng.Pub0(dial=uri, send_timeout=500)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             # Send the record as UTF-8 encoded JSON
             d = dict(record.__dict__)
             data = json.dumps(d)
             self.queue.send(data.encode('utf-8'))

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     handler = NNGSocketHandler(DEFAULT_ADDR)
     # Make sure the process ID is in the output
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         handlers=[logging.StreamHandler(), handler],
                         format='%(levelname)-8s %(name)10s %(process)6s %(message)s')
     levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)
     logger_names = ('myapp', 'myapp.lib1', 'myapp.lib2')
     msgno = 1
     while True:
         # Just randomly select some loggers and levels and log away
         level = random.choice(levels)
         logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(logger_names))
         logger.log(level, 'Message no. %5d' % msgno)
         msgno += 1
         delay = random.random() * 2 + 0.5
         time.sleep(delay)

You can run the above two snippets in separate command shells.  If we
run the listener in one shell and run the sender in two separate shells,
we should see something like the following.  In the first sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the second sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the listener shell:

     $ python listener.py
     Press Ctrl-C to stop.
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

As you can see, the logging from the two sender processes is interleaved
in the listener’s output.


File: python.info,  Node: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Next: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.18 An example dictionary-based configuration
------------------------------------------------

Below is an example of a logging configuration dictionary - it’s taken
from the documentation on the Django project(1).  This dictionary is
passed to *note dictConfig(): 1055. to put the configuration into
effect:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'verbose': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {asctime} {module} {process:d} {thread:d} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
             'simple': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
         },
         'filters': {
             'special': {
                 '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter',
                 'foo': 'bar',
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'simple',
             },
             'mail_admins': {
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         },
         'loggers': {
             'django': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'propagate': True,
             },
             'django.request': {
                 'handlers': ['mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'propagate': False,
             },
             'myproject.custom': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         }
     }

For more information about this configuration, you can see the relevant
section(2) of the Django documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging

   (2) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging


File: python.info,  Node: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Next: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Prev: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.19 Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
---------------------------------------------------------------------

An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the
following runnable script, which shows gzip compression of the log file:

     import gzip
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import os
     import shutil

     def namer(name):
         return name + ".gz"

     def rotator(source, dest):
         with open(source, 'rb') as f_in:
             with gzip.open(dest, 'wb') as f_out:
                 shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)
         os.remove(source)


     rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('rotated.log', maxBytes=128, backupCount=5)
     rh.rotator = rotator
     rh.namer = namer

     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     root.addHandler(rh)
     f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     rh.setFormatter(f)
     for i in range(1000):
         root.info(f'Message no. {i + 1}')

After running this, you will see six new files, five of which are
compressed:

     $ ls rotated.log*
     rotated.log       rotated.log.2.gz  rotated.log.4.gz
     rotated.log.1.gz  rotated.log.3.gz  rotated.log.5.gz
     $ zcat rotated.log.1.gz
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 996
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 997
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 998


File: python.info,  Node: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Next: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Prev: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.20 A more elaborate multiprocessing example
-----------------------------------------------

The following working example shows how logging can be used with
multiprocessing using configuration files.  The configurations are
fairly simple, but serve to illustrate how more complex ones could be
implemented in a real multiprocessing scenario.

In the example, the main process spawns a listener process and some
worker processes.  Each of the main process, the listener and the
workers have three separate configurations (the workers all share the
same configuration).  We can see logging in the main process, how the
workers log to a QueueHandler and how the listener implements a
QueueListener and a more complex logging configuration, and arranges to
dispatch events received via the queue to the handlers specified in the
configuration.  Note that these configurations are purely illustrative,
but you should be able to adapt this example to your own scenario.

Here’s the script - the docstrings and the comments hopefully explain
how it works:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process
     import os
     import random
     import time

     class MyHandler:
         """
         A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and
         dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,
         which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers
         configured for those loggers.
         """

         def handle(self, record):
             if record.name == "root":
                 logger = logging.getLogger()
             else:
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)

             if logger.isEnabledFor(record.levelno):
                 # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener
                 # doing the logging to files and console
                 record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName)
                 logger.handle(record)

     def listener_process(q, stop_event, config):
         """
         This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate
         process for illustrative purposes.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion
         via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler())
         listener.start()
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         stop_event.wait()
         listener.stop()

     def worker_process(config):
         """
         A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In
         practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than
         ones which are identical to each other.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected
         loggers.

         A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This
         is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different
         processes a bit more than if it's left out.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
             time.sleep(0.01)

     def main():
         q = Queue()
         # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.
         config_initial = {
             'version': 1,
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the
         # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_worker = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'handlers': {
                 'queue': {
                     'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler',
                     'queue': q
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['queue'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of
         # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however
         # you want.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_listener = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 },
                 'simple': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'formatter': 'simple',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                     'level': 'ERROR'
                 }
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works
         # normally.
         logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial)
         logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
         logger.info('About to create workers ...')
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1),
                          args=(config_worker,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
             logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name)
         logger.info('About to create listener ...')
         stop_event = Event()
         lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener',
                      args=(q, stop_event, config_listener))
         lp.start()
         logger.info('Started listener')
         # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # Workers all done, listening can now stop.
         # Logging in the parent still works normally.
         logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...')
         stop_event.set()
         lp.join()
         logger.info('All done.')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Next: Implementing structured logging,  Prev: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.21 Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
------------------------------------------------------------

RFC 5424(1) requires that a Unicode message be sent to a syslog daemon
as a set of bytes which have the following structure: an optional
pure-ASCII component, followed by a UTF-8 Byte Order Mark (BOM),
followed by Unicode encoded using UTF-8.  (See the relevant section of
the specification(2).)

In Python 3.1, code was added to *note SysLogHandler: 46f. to insert a
BOM into the message, but unfortunately, it was implemented incorrectly,
with the BOM appearing at the beginning of the message and hence not
allowing any pure-ASCII component to appear before it.

As this behaviour is broken, the incorrect BOM insertion code is being
removed from Python 3.2.4 and later.  However, it is not being replaced,
and if you want to produce RFC 5424(3)-compliant messages which include
a BOM, an optional pure-ASCII sequence before it and arbitrary Unicode
after it, encoded using UTF-8, then you need to do the following:

  1. Attach a *note Formatter: 131f. instance to your *note
     SysLogHandler: 46f. instance, with a format string such as:

          'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section'

     The Unicode code point U+FEFF, when encoded using UTF-8, will be
     encoded as a UTF-8 BOM – the byte-string ‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’.

  2. Replace the ASCII section with whatever placeholders you like, but
     make sure that the data that appears in there after substitution is
     always ASCII (that way, it will remain unchanged after UTF-8
     encoding).

  3. Replace the Unicode section with whatever placeholders you like; if
     the data which appears there after substitution contains characters
     outside the ASCII range, that’s fine – it will be encoded using
     UTF-8.

The formatted message 'will' be encoded using UTF-8 encoding by
‘SysLogHandler’.  If you follow the above rules, you should be able to
produce RFC 5424(4)-compliant messages.  If you don’t, logging may not
complain, but your messages will not be RFC 5424-compliant, and your
syslog daemon may complain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html#section-6

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing structured logging,  Next: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Prev: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.22 Implementing structured logging
--------------------------------------

Although most logging messages are intended for reading by humans, and
thus not readily machine-parseable, there might be circumstances where
you want to output messages in a structured format which 'is' capable of
being parsed by a program (without needing complex regular expressions
to parse the log message).  This is straightforward to achieve using the
logging package.  There are a number of ways in which this could be
achieved, but the following is a simple approach which uses JSON to
serialise the event in a machine-parseable manner:

     import json
     import logging

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs))

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
     logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456))

If the above script is run, it prints:

     message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"}

Note that the order of items might be different according to the version
of Python used.

If you need more specialised processing, you can use a custom JSON
encoder, as in the following complete example:

     import json
     import logging


     class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder):
         def default(self, o):
             if isinstance(o, set):
                 return tuple(o)
             elif isinstance(o, str):
                 return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii')
             return super().default(o)

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs)
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s)

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
         logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603'))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When the above script is run, it prints:

     message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]}

Note that the order of items might be different according to the version
of Python used.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Next: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Prev: Implementing structured logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.23 Customizing handlers with ‘dictConfig()’
-----------------------------------------------

There are times when you want to customize logging handlers in
particular ways, and if you use *note dictConfig(): 1055. you may be
able to do this without subclassing.  As an example, consider that you
may want to set the ownership of a log file.  On POSIX, this is easily
done using *note shutil.chown(): fd1, but the file handlers in the
stdlib don’t offer built-in support.  You can customize handler creation
using a plain function such as:

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

You can then specify, in a logging configuration passed to *note
dictConfig(): 1055, that a logging handler be created by calling this
function:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

In this example I am setting the ownership using the ‘pulse’ user and
group, just for the purposes of illustration.  Putting it together into
a working script, ‘chowntest.py’:

     import logging, logging.config, os, shutil

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

     logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
     logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger')
     logger.debug('A debug message')

To run this, you will probably need to run as ‘root’:

     $ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
     $ cat chowntest.log
     2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message
     $ ls -l chowntest.log
     -rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log

Note that this example uses Python 3.3 because that’s where *note
shutil.chown(): fd1. makes an appearance.  This approach should work
with any Python version that supports *note dictConfig(): 1055. -
namely, Python 2.7, 3.2 or later.  With pre-3.3 versions, you would need
to implement the actual ownership change using e.g.  *note os.chown():
f91.

In practice, the handler-creating function may be in a utility module
somewhere in your project.  Instead of the line in the configuration:

     '()': owned_file_handler,

you could use e.g.:

     '()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler',

where ‘project.util’ can be replaced with the actual name of the package
where the function resides.  In the above working script, using
‘'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'’ should work.  Here, the actual
callable is resolved by *note dictConfig(): 1055. from the ‘ext://’
specification.

This example hopefully also points the way to how you could implement
other types of file change - e.g.  setting specific POSIX permission
bits - in the same way, using *note os.chmod(): f90.

Of course, the approach could also be extended to types of handler other
than a *note FileHandler: 16c6. - for example, one of the rotating file
handlers, or a different type of handler altogether.


File: python.info,  Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Next: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Prev: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.24 Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
---------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python 3.2, the *note Formatter: 131f. gained a ‘style’ keyword
parameter which, while defaulting to ‘%’ for backward compatibility,
allowed the specification of ‘{’ or ‘$’ to support the formatting
approaches supported by *note str.format(): 433. and *note
string.Template: 49c.  Note that this governs the formatting of logging
messages for final output to logs, and is completely orthogonal to how
an individual logging message is constructed.

Logging calls (*note debug(): cba, *note info(): 2aad. etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to indicate
that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’ keyword
parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to
the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using *note
str.format(): 433. or *note string.Template: 49c. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific
loggers, but that approach also runs into backward compatibility
problems because any existing code could be using a given logger name
and using %-formatting.

For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and
your code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of
the individual logging call.  This opens up a couple of ways in which
alternative formatting styles can be accommodated.

* Menu:

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Using LogRecord factories,  Next: Using custom message objects,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.8.24.1 Using LogRecord factories
..................................

In Python 3.2, along with the *note Formatter: 131f. changes mentioned
above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set
their own *note LogRecord: e8c. subclasses, using the *note
setLogRecordFactory(): 2ae0. function.  You can use this to set your own
subclass of *note LogRecord: e8c, which does the Right Thing by
overriding the *note getMessage(): 2ade. method.  The base class
implementation of this method is where the ‘msg % args’ formatting
happens, and where you can substitute your alternate formatting;
however, you should be careful to support all formatting styles and
allow %-formatting as the default, to ensure interoperability with other
code.  Care should also be taken to call ‘str(self.msg)’, just as the
base implementation does.

Refer to the reference documentation on *note setLogRecordFactory():
2ae0. and *note LogRecord: e8c. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Using custom message objects,  Prev: Using LogRecord factories,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.8.24.2 Using custom message objects
.....................................

There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $-
formatting to construct your individual log messages.  You may recall
(from *note Using arbitrary objects as messages: 2add.) that when
logging you can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and
that the logging package will call *note str(): 15d. on that object to
get the actual format string.  Consider the following two classes:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
$-formatting to be used to build the actual “message” part which appears
in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or
“$message”.  If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names
whenever you want to log something, you can make it more palatable if
you use an alias such as ‘M’ or ‘_’ for the message (or perhaps ‘__’, if
you are using ‘_’ for localization).

Examples of this approach are given below.  Firstly, formatting with
*note str.format(): 433.:

     >>> __ = BraceMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)

Secondly, formatting with *note string.Template: 49c.:

     >>> __ = DollarMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes shown above.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Next: Customized exception formatting,  Prev: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.25 Configuring filters with ‘dictConfig()’
----------------------------------------------

You 'can' configure filters using *note dictConfig(): 1055, though it
might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe).
Since *note Filter: 10a0. is the only filter class included in the
standard library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it’s
only there as a base class), you will typically need to define your own
*note Filter: 10a0. subclass with an overridden *note filter(): 2ad7.
method.  To do this, specify the ‘()’ key in the configuration
dictionary for the filter, specifying a callable which will be used to
create the filter (a class is the most obvious, but you can provide any
callable which returns a *note Filter: 10a0. instance).  Here is a
complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import sys

     class MyFilter(logging.Filter):
         def __init__(self, param=None):
             self.param = param

         def filter(self, record):
             if self.param is None:
                 allow = True
             else:
                 allow = self.param not in record.msg
             if allow:
                 record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg
             return allow

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'filters': {
             'myfilter': {
                 '()': MyFilter,
                 'param': 'noshow',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'filters': ['myfilter']
             }
         },
         'root': {
             'level': 'DEBUG',
             'handlers': ['console']
         },
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.debug('hello')
         logging.debug('hello - noshow')

This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable
which constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters.  When
run, the above script will print:

     changed: hello

which shows that the filter is working as configured.

A couple of extra points to note:

   * If you can’t refer to the callable directly in the configuration
     (e.g.  if it lives in a different module, and you can’t import it
     directly where the configuration dictionary is), you can use the
     form ‘ext://...’ as described in *note Access to external objects:
     2b0c.  For example, you could have used the text
     ‘'ext://__main__.MyFilter'’ instead of ‘MyFilter’ in the above
     example.

   * As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to
     configure custom handlers and formatters.  See *note User-defined
     objects: 2b00. for more information on how logging supports using
     user-defined objects in its configuration, and see the other
     cookbook recipe *note Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): 4e6e.
     above.


File: python.info,  Node: Customized exception formatting,  Next: Speaking logging messages,  Prev: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.26 Customized exception formatting
--------------------------------------

There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting
- for argument’s sake, let’s say you want exactly one line per logged
event, even when exception information is present.  You can do this with
a custom formatter class, as shown in the following example:

     import logging

     class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         def formatException(self, exc_info):
             """
             Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.
             """
             result = super().formatException(exc_info)
             return repr(result)  # or format into one line however you want to

         def format(self, record):
             s = super().format(record)
             if record.exc_text:
                 s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|'
             return s

     def configure_logging():
         fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w')
         f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|',
                                       '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')
         fh.setFormatter(f)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(fh)

     def main():
         configure_logging()
         logging.info('Sample message')
         try:
             x = 1 / 0
         except ZeroDivisionError as e:
             logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines:

     28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
     28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero'|

While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how
exception information can be formatted to your liking.  The *note
traceback: fe. module may be helpful for more specialized needs.


File: python.info,  Node: Speaking logging messages,  Next: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Prev: Customized exception formatting,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.27 Speaking logging messages
--------------------------------

There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages
rendered in an audible rather than a visible format.  This is easy to do
if you have text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system,
even if it doesn’t have a Python binding.  Most TTS systems have a
command line program you can run, and this can be invoked from a handler
using *note subprocess: d5.  It’s assumed here that TTS command line
programs won’t expect to interact with users or take a long time to
complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so high
as to swamp the user with messages, and that it’s acceptable to have the
messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example
implementation below waits for one message to be spoken before the next
is processed, and this might cause other handlers to be kept waiting.
Here is a short example showing the approach, which assumes that the
‘espeak’ TTS package is available:

     import logging
     import subprocess
     import sys

     class TTSHandler(logging.Handler):
         def emit(self, record):
             msg = self.format(record)
             # Speak slowly in a female English voice
             cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg]
             p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
                                  stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
             # wait for the program to finish
             p.communicate()

     def configure_logging():
         h = TTSHandler()
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # the default formatter just returns the message
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     def main():
         logging.info('Hello')
         logging.debug('Goodbye')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         configure_logging()
         sys.exit(main())

When run, this script should say “Hello” and then “Goodbye” in a female
voice.

The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and
even other systems altogether which can process messages via external
programs run from a command line.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Next: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Prev: Speaking logging messages,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.28 Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
-------------------------------------------------------------------

There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary
area and only output them if a certain condition occurs.  For example,
you may want to start logging debug events in a function, and if the
function completes without errors, you don’t want to clutter the log
with the collected debug information, but if there is an error, you want
all the debug information to be output as well as the error.

Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator
for your functions where you want logging to behave this way.  It makes
use of the *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2b0f, which allows
buffering of logged events until some condition occurs, at which point
the buffered events are ‘flushed’ - passed to another handler (the
‘target’ handler) for processing.  By default, the ‘MemoryHandler’
flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose level is
greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen.  You can use
this recipe with a more specialised subclass of ‘MemoryHandler’ if you
want custom flushing behavior.

The example script has a simple function, ‘foo’, which just cycles
through all the logging levels, writing to ‘sys.stderr’ to say what
level it’s about to log at, and then actually logging a message at that
level.  You can pass a parameter to ‘foo’ which, if true, will log at
ERROR and CRITICAL levels - otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and
WARNING levels.

The script just arranges to decorate ‘foo’ with a decorator which will
do the conditional logging that’s required.  The decorator takes a
logger as a parameter and attaches a memory handler for the duration of
the call to the decorated function.  The decorator can be additionally
parameterised using a target handler, a level at which flushing should
occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of records buffered).
These default to a *note StreamHandler: 109d. which writes to
‘sys.stderr’, ‘logging.ERROR’ and ‘100’ respectively.

Here’s the script:

     import logging
     from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler
     import sys

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

     def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None):
         if target_handler is None:
             target_handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         if flush_level is None:
             flush_level = logging.ERROR
         if capacity is None:
             capacity = 100
         handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler)

         def decorator(fn):
             def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
                 logger.addHandler(handler)
                 try:
                     return fn(*args, **kwargs)
                 except Exception:
                     logger.exception('call failed')
                     raise
                 finally:
                     super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush()
                     logger.removeHandler(handler)
             return wrapper

         return decorator

     def write_line(s):
         sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s)

     def foo(fail=False):
         write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...')
         logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG')
         write_line('about to log at INFO ...')
         logger.info('Actually logged at INFO')
         write_line('about to log at WARNING ...')
         logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING')
         if fail:
             write_line('about to log at ERROR ...')
             logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR')
             write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...')
             logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL')
         return fail

     decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False')
         assert not foo(False)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True')
         assert foo(True)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with False')
         assert not decorated_foo(False)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with True')
         assert decorated_foo(True)

When this script is run, the following output should be observed:

     Calling undecorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling undecorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Calling decorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling decorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     Actually logged at DEBUG
     Actually logged at INFO
     Actually logged at WARNING
     Actually logged at ERROR
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Actually logged at CRITICAL

As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is
logged whose severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any
previous events at lower severities are also logged.

You can of course use the conventional means of decoration:

     @log_if_errors(logger)
     def foo(fail=False):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Next: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Prev: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.29 Sending logging messages to email, with buffering
--------------------------------------------------------

To illustrate how you can send log messages via email, so that a set
number of messages are sent per email, you can subclass *note
BufferingHandler: 2b5f.  In the following example, which you can adapt
to suit your specific needs, a simple test harness is provided which
allows you to run the script with command line arguments specifying what
you typically need to send things via SMTP. (Run the downloaded script
with the ‘-h’ argument to see the required and optional arguments.)

     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import smtplib

     class BufferingSMTPHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler):
         def __init__(self, mailhost, port, username, password, fromaddr, toaddrs,
                      subject, capacity):
             logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.__init__(self, capacity)
             self.mailhost = mailhost
             self.mailport = port
             self.username = username
             self.password = password
             self.fromaddr = fromaddr
             if isinstance(toaddrs, str):
                 toaddrs = [toaddrs]
             self.toaddrs = toaddrs
             self.subject = subject
             self.setFormatter(logging.Formatter("%(asctime)s %(levelname)-5s %(message)s"))

         def flush(self):
             if len(self.buffer) > 0:
                 try:
                     smtp = smtplib.SMTP(self.mailhost, self.mailport)
                     smtp.starttls()
                     smtp.login(self.username, self.password)
                     msg = "From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\nSubject: %s\r\n\r\n" % (self.fromaddr, ','.join(self.toaddrs), self.subject)
                     for record in self.buffer:
                         s = self.format(record)
                         msg = msg + s + "\r\n"
                     smtp.sendmail(self.fromaddr, self.toaddrs, msg)
                     smtp.quit()
                 except Exception:
                     if logging.raiseExceptions:
                         raise
                 self.buffer = []

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import argparse

         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('host', metavar='HOST', help='SMTP server')
         aa('--port', '-p', type=int, default=587, help='SMTP port')
         aa('user', metavar='USER', help='SMTP username')
         aa('password', metavar='PASSWORD', help='SMTP password')
         aa('to', metavar='TO', help='Addressee for emails')
         aa('sender', metavar='SENDER', help='Sender email address')
         aa('--subject', '-s',
            default='Test Logging email from Python logging module (buffering)',
            help='Subject of email')
         options = ap.parse_args()
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         h = BufferingSMTPHandler(options.host, options.port, options.user,
                                  options.password, options.sender,
                                  options.to, options.subject, 10)
         logger.addHandler(h)
         for i in range(102):
             logger.info("Info index = %d", i)
         h.flush()
         h.close()

If you run this script and your SMTP server is correctly set up, you
should find that it sends eleven emails to the addressee you specify.
The first ten emails will each have ten log messages, and the eleventh
will have two messages.  That makes up 102 messages as specified in the
script.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Next: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Prev: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.30 Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
---------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a
class such as ‘UTCFormatter’, shown below:

     import logging
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

and you can then use the ‘UTCFormatter’ in your code instead of *note
Formatter: 131f.  If you want to do that via configuration, you can use
the *note dictConfig(): 1055. API with an approach illustrated by the
following complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'utc': {
                 '()': UTCFormatter,
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             },
             'local': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console1': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'utc',
             },
             'console2': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'local',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'],
        }
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime())

When this script is run, it should print something like:

     2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
     2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015

showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for
each handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Next: A CLI application starter template,  Prev: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.31 Using a context manager for selective logging
----------------------------------------------------

There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the
logging configuration and revert it back after doing something.  For
this, a context manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring
the logging context.  Here is a simple example of such a context
manager, which allows you to optionally change the logging level and add
a logging handler purely in the scope of the context manager:

     import logging
     import sys

     class LoggingContext:
         def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level
             self.handler = handler
             self.close = close

         def __enter__(self):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.old_level = self.logger.level
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.addHandler(self.handler)

         def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler)
             if self.handler and self.close:
                 self.handler.close()
             # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions

If you specify a level value, the logger’s level is set to that value in
the scope of the with block covered by the context manager.  If you
specify a handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and
removed on exit from the block.  You can also ask the manager to close
the handler for you on block exit - you could do this if you don’t need
the handler any more.

To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to
the above:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger('foo')
         logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('2. This should not appear.')
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG):
             logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('4. This should not appear.')
         h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout)
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True):
             logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.')
         logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('7. This should not appear.')

We initially set the logger’s level to ‘INFO’, so message #1 appears and
message #2 doesn’t.  We then change the level to ‘DEBUG’ temporarily in
the following ‘with’ block, and so message #3 appears.  After the block
exits, the logger’s level is restored to ‘INFO’ and so message #4
doesn’t appear.  In the next ‘with’ block, we set the level to ‘DEBUG’
again but also add a handler writing to ‘sys.stdout’.  Thus, message #5
appears twice on the console (once via ‘stderr’ and once via ‘stdout’).
After the ‘with’ statement’s completion, the status is as it was before
so message #6 appears (like message #1) whereas message #7 doesn’t (just
like message #2).

If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows:

     $ python logctx.py
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

If we run it again, but pipe ‘stderr’ to ‘/dev/null’, we see the
following, which is the only message written to ‘stdout’:

     $ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.

Once again, but piping ‘stdout’ to ‘/dev/null’, we get:

     $ python logctx.py >/dev/null
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

In this case, the message #5 printed to ‘stdout’ doesn’t appear, as
expected.

Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example
to attach logging filters temporarily.  Note that the above code works
in Python 2 as well as Python 3.


File: python.info,  Node: A CLI application starter template,  Next: A Qt GUI for logging,  Prev: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.32 A CLI application starter template
-----------------------------------------

Here’s an example which shows how you can:

   * Use a logging level based on command-line arguments

   * Dispatch to multiple subcommands in separate files, all logging at
     the same level in a consistent way

   * Make use of simple, minimal configuration

Suppose we have a command-line application whose job is to stop, start
or restart some services.  This could be organised for the purposes of
illustration as a file ‘app.py’ that is the main script for the
application, with individual commands implemented in ‘start.py’,
‘stop.py’ and ‘restart.py’.  Suppose further that we want to control the
verbosity of the application via a command-line argument, defaulting to
‘logging.INFO’.  Here’s one way that ‘app.py’ could be written:

     import argparse
     import importlib
     import logging
     import os
     import sys

     def main(args=None):
         scriptname = os.path.basename(__file__)
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(scriptname)
         levels = ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL')
         parser.add_argument('--log-level', default='INFO', choices=levels)
         subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='command',
                                            help='Available commands:')
         start_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('start', help='Start a service')
         start_cmd.add_argument('name', metavar='NAME',
                                help='Name of service to start')
         stop_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('stop',
                                          help='Stop one or more services')
         stop_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                               help='Name of service to stop')
         restart_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('restart',
                                             help='Restart one or more services')
         restart_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                                  help='Name of service to restart')
         options = parser.parse_args()
         # the code to dispatch commands could all be in this file. For the purposes
         # of illustration only, we implement each command in a separate module.
         try:
             mod = importlib.import_module(options.command)
             cmd = getattr(mod, 'command')
         except (ImportError, AttributeError):
             print('Unable to find the code for command \'%s\'' % options.command)
             return 1
         # Could get fancy here and load configuration from file or dictionary
         logging.basicConfig(level=options.log_level,
                             format='%(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s')
         cmd(options)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())

And the ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘restart’ commands can be implemented in
separate modules, like so for starting:

     # start.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         logger.debug('About to start %s', options.name)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Started the \'%s\' service.', options.name)

and thus for stopping:

     # stop.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to stop %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Stopped the %s service%s.', services, plural)

and similarly for restarting:

     # restart.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to restart %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Restarted the %s service%s.', services, plural)

If we run this application with the default log level, we get output
like this:

     $ python app.py start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py stop foo bar
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py restart foo bar baz
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

The first word is the logging level, and the second word is the module
or package name of the place where the event was logged.

If we change the logging level, then we can change the information sent
to the log.  For example, if we want more information:

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG start foo
     DEBUG start About to start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG stop foo bar
     DEBUG stop About to stop 'foo' and 'bar'
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG restart foo bar baz
     DEBUG restart About to restart 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz'
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

And if we want less:

     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING start foo
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING stop foo bar
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING restart foo bar baz

In this case, the commands don’t print anything to the console, since
nothing at ‘WARNING’ level or above is logged by them.


File: python.info,  Node: A Qt GUI for logging,  Next: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Prev: A CLI application starter template,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.33 A Qt GUI for logging
---------------------------

A question that comes up from time to time is about how to log to a GUI
application.  The Qt(1) framework is a popular cross-platform UI
framework with Python bindings using PySide2(2) or PyQt5(3) libraries.

The following example shows how to log to a Qt GUI. This introduces a
simple ‘QtHandler’ class which takes a callable, which should be a slot
in the main thread that does GUI updates.  A worker thread is also
created to show how you can log to the GUI from both the UI itself (via
a button for manual logging) as well as a worker thread doing work in
the background (here, just logging messages at random levels with random
short delays in between).

The worker thread is implemented using Qt’s ‘QThread’ class rather than
the *note threading: ec. module, as there are circumstances where one
has to use ‘QThread’, which offers better integration with other ‘Qt’
components.

The code should work with recent releases of any of ‘PySide6’, ‘PyQt6’,
‘PySide2’ or ‘PyQt5’.  You should be able to adapt the approach to
earlier versions of Qt.  Please refer to the comments in the code
snippet for more detailed information.

     import datetime
     import logging
     import random
     import sys
     import time

     # Deal with minor differences between different Qt packages
     try:
         from PySide6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
         Signal = QtCore.Signal
         Slot = QtCore.Slot
     except ImportError:
         try:
             from PyQt6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
             Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
             Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot
         except ImportError:
             try:
                 from PySide2 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.Signal
                 Slot = QtCore.Slot
             except ImportError:
                 from PyQt5 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
                 Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)


     #
     # Signals need to be contained in a QObject or subclass in order to be correctly
     # initialized.
     #
     class Signaller(QtCore.QObject):
         signal = Signal(str, logging.LogRecord)

     #
     # Output to a Qt GUI is only supposed to happen on the main thread. So, this
     # handler is designed to take a slot function which is set up to run in the main
     # thread. In this example, the function takes a string argument which is a
     # formatted log message, and the log record which generated it. The formatted
     # string is just a convenience - you could format a string for output any way
     # you like in the slot function itself.
     #
     # You specify the slot function to do whatever GUI updates you want. The handler
     # doesn't know or care about specific UI elements.
     #
     class QtHandler(logging.Handler):
         def __init__(self, slotfunc, *args, **kwargs):
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
             self.signaller = Signaller()
             self.signaller.signal.connect(slotfunc)

         def emit(self, record):
             s = self.format(record)
             self.signaller.signal.emit(s, record)

     #
     # This example uses QThreads, which means that the threads at the Python level
     # are named something like "Dummy-1". The function below gets the Qt name of the
     # current thread.
     #
     def ctname():
         return QtCore.QThread.currentThread().objectName()


     #
     # Used to generate random levels for logging.
     #
     LEVELS = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)

     #
     # This worker class represents work that is done in a thread separate to the
     # main thread. The way the thread is kicked off to do work is via a button press
     # that connects to a slot in the worker.
     #
     # Because the default threadName value in the LogRecord isn't much use, we add
     # a qThreadName which contains the QThread name as computed above, and pass that
     # value in an "extra" dictionary which is used to update the LogRecord with the
     # QThread name.
     #
     # This example worker just outputs messages sequentially, interspersed with
     # random delays of the order of a few seconds.
     #
     class Worker(QtCore.QObject):
         @Slot()
         def start(self):
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.debug('Started work', extra=extra)
             i = 1
             # Let the thread run until interrupted. This allows reasonably clean
             # thread termination.
             while not QtCore.QThread.currentThread().isInterruptionRequested():
                 delay = 0.5 + random.random() * 2
                 time.sleep(delay)
                 try:
                     if random.random() < 0.1:
                         raise ValueError('Exception raised: %d' % i)
                     else:
                         level = random.choice(LEVELS)
                         logger.log(level, 'Message after delay of %3.1f: %d', delay, i, extra=extra)
                 except ValueError as e:
                     logger.exception('Failed: %s', e, extra=extra)
                 i += 1

     #
     # Implement a simple UI for this cookbook example. This contains:
     #
     # * A read-only text edit window which holds formatted log messages
     # * A button to start work and log stuff in a separate thread
     # * A button to log something from the main thread
     # * A button to clear the log window
     #
     class Window(QtWidgets.QWidget):

         COLORS = {
             logging.DEBUG: 'black',
             logging.INFO: 'blue',
             logging.WARNING: 'orange',
             logging.ERROR: 'red',
             logging.CRITICAL: 'purple',
         }

         def __init__(self, app):
             super().__init__()
             self.app = app
             self.textedit = te = QtWidgets.QPlainTextEdit(self)
             # Set whatever the default monospace font is for the platform
             f = QtGui.QFont('nosuchfont')
             if hasattr(f, 'Monospace'):
                 f.setStyleHint(f.Monospace)
             else:
                 f.setStyleHint(f.StyleHint.Monospace)  # for Qt6
             te.setFont(f)
             te.setReadOnly(True)
             PB = QtWidgets.QPushButton
             self.work_button = PB('Start background work', self)
             self.log_button = PB('Log a message at a random level', self)
             self.clear_button = PB('Clear log window', self)
             self.handler = h = QtHandler(self.update_status)
             # Remember to use qThreadName rather than threadName in the format string.
             fs = '%(asctime)s %(qThreadName)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s'
             formatter = logging.Formatter(fs)
             h.setFormatter(formatter)
             logger.addHandler(h)
             # Set up to terminate the QThread when we exit
             app.aboutToQuit.connect(self.force_quit)

             # Lay out all the widgets
             layout = QtWidgets.QVBoxLayout(self)
             layout.addWidget(te)
             layout.addWidget(self.work_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.log_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.clear_button)
             self.setFixedSize(900, 400)

             # Connect the non-worker slots and signals
             self.log_button.clicked.connect(self.manual_update)
             self.clear_button.clicked.connect(self.clear_display)

             # Start a new worker thread and connect the slots for the worker
             self.start_thread()
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(self.worker.start)
             # Once started, the button should be disabled
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(lambda : self.work_button.setEnabled(False))

         def start_thread(self):
             self.worker = Worker()
             self.worker_thread = QtCore.QThread()
             self.worker.setObjectName('Worker')
             self.worker_thread.setObjectName('WorkerThread')  # for qThreadName
             self.worker.moveToThread(self.worker_thread)
             # This will start an event loop in the worker thread
             self.worker_thread.start()

         def kill_thread(self):
             # Just tell the worker to stop, then tell it to quit and wait for that
             # to happen
             self.worker_thread.requestInterruption()
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.worker_thread.quit()
                 self.worker_thread.wait()
             else:
                 print('worker has already exited.')

         def force_quit(self):
             # For use when the window is closed
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.kill_thread()

         # The functions below update the UI and run in the main thread because
         # that's where the slots are set up

         @Slot(str, logging.LogRecord)
         def update_status(self, status, record):
             color = self.COLORS.get(record.levelno, 'black')
             s = '<pre><font color="%s">%s</font></pre>' % (color, status)
             self.textedit.appendHtml(s)

         @Slot()
         def manual_update(self):
             # This function uses the formatted message passed in, but also uses
             # information from the record to format the message in an appropriate
             # color according to its severity (level).
             level = random.choice(LEVELS)
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.log(level, 'Manually logged!', extra=extra)

         @Slot()
         def clear_display(self):
             self.textedit.clear()


     def main():
         QtCore.QThread.currentThread().setObjectName('MainThread')
         logging.getLogger().setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         app = QtWidgets.QApplication(sys.argv)
         example = Window(app)
         example.show()
         if hasattr(app, 'exec'):
             rc = app.exec()
         else:
             rc = app.exec_()
         sys.exit(rc)

     if __name__=='__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.qt.io/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/PySide2/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/PyQt5/


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Next: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Prev: A Qt GUI for logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.34 Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support
---------------------------------------------

Although RFC 5424(1) dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured
by default to use the older RFC 3164(2), which hails from 2001.  When
‘logging’ was added to Python in 2003, it supported the earlier (and
only existing) protocol at the time.  Since RFC5424 came out, as there
has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog servers, the *note
SysLogHandler: 46f. functionality has not been updated.

RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured
data, and if you need to be able to log to a syslog server with support
for it, you can do so with a subclassed handler which looks something
like this:

     import datetime
     import logging.handlers
     import re
     import socket
     import time

     class SysLogHandler5424(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler):

         tz_offset = re.compile(r'([+-]\d{2})(\d{2})$')
         escaped = re.compile(r'([\]"\\])')

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.msgid = kwargs.pop('msgid', None)
             self.appname = kwargs.pop('appname', None)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def format(self, record):
             version = 1
             asctime = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
             m = self.tz_offset.match(time.strftime('%z'))
             has_offset = False
             if m and time.timezone:
                 hrs, mins = m.groups()
                 if int(hrs) or int(mins):
                     has_offset = True
             if not has_offset:
                 asctime += 'Z'
             else:
                 asctime += f'{hrs}:{mins}'
             try:
                 hostname = socket.gethostname()
             except Exception:
                 hostname = '-'
             appname = self.appname or '-'
             procid = record.process
             msgid = '-'
             msg = super().format(record)
             sdata = '-'
             if hasattr(record, 'structured_data'):
                 sd = record.structured_data
                 # This should be a dict where the keys are SD-ID and the value is a
                 # dict mapping PARAM-NAME to PARAM-VALUE (refer to the RFC for what these
                 # mean)
                 # There's no error checking here - it's purely for illustration, and you
                 # can adapt this code for use in production environments
                 parts = []

                 def replacer(m):
                     g = m.groups()
                     return '\\' + g[0]

                 for sdid, dv in sd.items():
                     part = f'[{sdid}'
                     for k, v in dv.items():
                         s = str(v)
                         s = self.escaped.sub(replacer, s)
                         part += f' {k}="{s}"'
                     part += ']'
                     parts.append(part)
                 sdata = ''.join(parts)
             return f'{version} {asctime} {hostname} {appname} {procid} {msgid} {sdata} {msg}'

You’ll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above
code, and it may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g.  for
how you pass structural data to the log).  Nevertheless, the above
should be adaptable to your speciric needs.  With the above handler,
you’d pass structured data using something like this:

     sd = {
         'foo@12345': {'bar': 'baz', 'baz': 'bozz', 'fizz': r'buzz'},
         'foo@54321': {'rab': 'baz', 'zab': 'bozz', 'zzif': r'buzz'}
     }
     extra = {'structured_data': sd}
     i = 1
     logger.debug('Message %d', i, extra=extra)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3164.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Next: Patterns to avoid,  Prev: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.35 How to treat a logger like an output stream
--------------------------------------------------

Sometimes, you need to interface to a third-party API which expects a
file-like object to write to, but you want to direct the API’s output to
a logger.  You can do this using a class which wraps a logger with a
file-like API. Here’s a short script illustrating such a class:

     import logging

     class LoggerWriter:
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level

         def write(self, message):
             if message != '\n':  # avoid printing bare newlines, if you like
                 self.logger.log(self.level, message)

         def flush(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation
             pass

         def close(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation. You might want
             # to set a flag so that later calls to write raise an exception
             pass

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         logger = logging.getLogger('demo')
         info_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
         debug_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.DEBUG)
         print('An INFO message', file=info_fp)
         print('A DEBUG message', file=debug_fp)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

When this script is run, it prints

     INFO:demo:An INFO message
     DEBUG:demo:A DEBUG message

You could also use ‘LoggerWriter’ to redirect ‘sys.stdout’ and
‘sys.stderr’ by doing something like this:

     import sys

     sys.stdout = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)

You should do this 'after' configuring logging for your needs.  In the
above example, the *note basicConfig(): 860. call does this (using the
‘sys.stderr’ value 'before' it is overwritten by a ‘LoggerWriter’
instance).  Then, you’d get this kind of result:

     >>> print('Foo')
     INFO:demo:Foo
     >>> print('Bar', file=sys.stderr)
     WARNING:demo:Bar
     >>>

Of course, the examples above show output according to the format used
by *note basicConfig(): 860, but you can use a different formatter when
you configure logging.

Note that with the above scheme, you are somewhat at the mercy of
buffering and the sequence of write calls which you are intercepting.
For example, with the definition of ‘LoggerWriter’ above, if you have
the snippet

     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)
     1 / 0

then running the script results in

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):

     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 53, in <module>

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 49, in main

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:1 / 0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError
     WARNING:demo::
     WARNING:demo:division by zero

As you can see, this output isn’t ideal.  That’s because the underlying
code which writes to ‘sys.stderr’ makes multiple writes, each of which
results in a separate logged line (for example, the last three lines
above).  To get around this problem, you need to buffer things and only
output log lines when newlines are seen.  Let’s use a slightly better
implementation of ‘LoggerWriter’:

     class BufferingLoggerWriter(LoggerWriter):
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             super().__init__(logger, level)
             self.buffer = ''

         def write(self, message):
             if '\n' not in message:
                 self.buffer += message
             else:
                 parts = message.split('\n')
                 if self.buffer:
                     s = self.buffer + parts.pop(0)
                     self.logger.log(self.level, s)
                 self.buffer = parts.pop()
                 for part in parts:
                     self.logger.log(self.level, part)

This just buffers up stuff until a newline is seen, and then logs
complete lines.  With this approach, you get better output:

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 55, in <module>
     WARNING:demo:    main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 52, in main
     WARNING:demo:    1/0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns to avoid,  Next: Other resources<2>,  Prev: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.36 Patterns to avoid
------------------------

Although the preceding sections have described ways of doing things you
might need to do or deal with, it is worth mentioning some usage
patterns which are 'unhelpful', and which should therefore be avoided in
most cases.  The following sections are in no particular order.

* Menu:

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::


File: python.info,  Node: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Next: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.1 Opening the same log file multiple times
.................................................

On Windows, you will generally not be able to open the same file
multiple times as this will lead to a “file is in use by another
process” error.  However, on POSIX platforms you’ll not get any errors
if you open the same file multiple times.  This could be done
accidentally, for example by:

   * Adding a file handler more than once which references the same file
     (e.g.  by a copy/paste/forget-to-change error).

   * Opening two files that look different, as they have different
     names, but are the same because one is a symbolic link to the
     other.

   * Forking a process, following which both parent and child have a
     reference to the same file.  This might be through use of the *note
     multiprocessing: 93. module, for example.

Opening a file multiple times might 'appear' to work most of the time,
but can lead to a number of problems in practice:

   * Logging output can be garbled because multiple threads or processes
     try to write to the same file.  Although logging guards against
     concurrent use of the same handler instance by multiple threads,
     there is no such protection if concurrent writes are attempted by
     two different threads using two different handler instances which
     happen to point to the same file.

   * An attempt to delete a file (e.g.  during file rotation) silently
     fails, because there is another reference pointing to it.  This can
     lead to confusion and wasted debugging time - log entries end up in
     unexpected places, or are lost altogether.  Or a file that was
     supposed to be moved remains in place, and grows in size
     unexpectedly despite size-based rotation being supposedly in place.

Use the techniques outlined in *note Logging to a single file from
multiple processes: 4e59. to circumvent such issues.


File: python.info,  Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Next: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Prev: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.2 Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters
.............................................................................

While there might be unusual cases where you’ll need to do this, in
general there is no point because loggers are singletons.  Code can
always access a given logger instance by name using
‘logging.getLogger(name)’, so passing instances around and holding them
as instance attributes is pointless.  Note that in other languages such
as Java and C#, loggers are often static class attributes.  However,
this pattern doesn’t make sense in Python, where the module (and not the
class) is the unit of software decomposition.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Next: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.3 Adding handlers other than ‘NullHandler’ to a logger in a library
..........................................................................

Configuring logging by adding handlers, formatters and filters is the
responsibility of the application developer, not the library developer.
If you are maintaining a library, ensure that you don’t add handlers to
any of your loggers other than a *note NullHandler: 112d. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.8.36.4 Creating a lot of loggers
..................................

Loggers are singletons that are never freed during a script execution,
and so creating lots of loggers will use up memory which can’t then be
freed.  Rather than create a logger per e.g.  file processed or network
connection made, use the *note existing mechanisms: 2ae4. for passing
contextual information into your logs and restrict the loggers created
to those describing areas within your application (generally modules,
but occasionally slightly more fine-grained than that).


File: python.info,  Node: Other resources<2>,  Prev: Patterns to avoid,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.8.37 Other resources
----------------------

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

Module *note logging: 86.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.config: 87.

     Configuration API for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 88.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

*note Basic Tutorial: 109a.

*note Advanced Tutorial: 109b.


File: python.info,  Node: Regular Expression HOWTO,  Next: Socket Programming HOWTO,  Prev: Logging Cookbook,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.9 Regular Expression HOWTO
============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling <<amk@amk.ca>>

Abstract
........

This document is an introductory tutorial to using regular expressions
in Python with the *note re: b8. module.  It provides a gentler
introduction than the corresponding section in the Library Reference.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<12>.
* Simple Patterns::
* Using Regular Expressions::
* More Pattern Power::
* Modifying Strings::
* Common Problems::
* Feedback::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<12>,  Next: Simple Patterns,  Up: Regular Expression HOWTO

9.9.1 Introduction
------------------

Regular expressions (called REs, or regexes, or regex patterns) are
essentially a tiny, highly specialized programming language embedded
inside Python and made available through the *note re: b8. module.
Using this little language, you specify the rules for the set of
possible strings that you want to match; this set might contain English
sentences, or e-mail addresses, or TeX commands, or anything you like.
You can then ask questions such as “Does this string match the
pattern?”, or “Is there a match for the pattern anywhere in this
string?”.  You can also use REs to modify a string or to split it apart
in various ways.

Regular expression patterns are compiled into a series of bytecodes
which are then executed by a matching engine written in C. For advanced
use, it may be necessary to pay careful attention to how the engine will
execute a given RE, and write the RE in a certain way in order to
produce bytecode that runs faster.  Optimization isn’t covered in this
document, because it requires that you have a good understanding of the
matching engine’s internals.

The regular expression language is relatively small and restricted, so
not all possible string processing tasks can be done using regular
expressions.  There are also tasks that 'can' be done with regular
expressions, but the expressions turn out to be very complicated.  In
these cases, you may be better off writing Python code to do the
processing; while Python code will be slower than an elaborate regular
expression, it will also probably be more understandable.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Patterns,  Next: Using Regular Expressions,  Prev: Introduction<12>,  Up: Regular Expression HOWTO

9.9.2 Simple Patterns
---------------------

We’ll start by learning about the simplest possible regular expressions.
Since regular expressions are used to operate on strings, we’ll begin
with the most common task: matching characters.

For a detailed explanation of the computer science underlying regular
expressions (deterministic and non-deterministic finite automata), you
can refer to almost any textbook on writing compilers.

* Menu:

* Matching Characters::
* Repeating Things::


File: python.info,  Node: Matching Characters,  Next: Repeating Things,  Up: Simple Patterns

9.9.2.1 Matching Characters
...........................

Most letters and characters will simply match themselves.  For example,
the regular expression ‘test’ will match the string ‘test’ exactly.
(You can enable a case-insensitive mode that would let this RE match
‘Test’ or ‘TEST’ as well; more about this later.)

There are exceptions to this rule; some characters are special
'metacharacters', and don’t match themselves.  Instead, they signal that
some out-of-the-ordinary thing should be matched, or they affect other
portions of the RE by repeating them or changing their meaning.  Much of
this document is devoted to discussing various metacharacters and what
they do.

Here’s a complete list of the metacharacters; their meanings will be
discussed in the rest of this HOWTO.

     . ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )

The first metacharacters we’ll look at are ‘[’ and ‘]’.  They’re used
for specifying a character class, which is a set of characters that you
wish to match.  Characters can be listed individually, or a range of
characters can be indicated by giving two characters and separating them
by a ‘'-'’.  For example, ‘[abc]’ will match any of the characters ‘a’,
‘b’, or ‘c’; this is the same as ‘[a-c]’, which uses a range to express
the same set of characters.  If you wanted to match only lowercase
letters, your RE would be ‘[a-z]’.

Metacharacters (except ‘\’) are not active inside classes.  For example,
‘[akm$]’ will match any of the characters ‘'a'’, ‘'k'’, ‘'m'’, or ‘'$'’;
‘'$'’ is usually a metacharacter, but inside a character class it’s
stripped of its special nature.

You can match the characters not listed within the class by
'complementing' the set.  This is indicated by including a ‘'^'’ as the
first character of the class.  For example, ‘[^5]’ will match any
character except ‘'5'’.  If the caret appears elsewhere in a character
class, it does not have special meaning.  For example: ‘[5^]’ will match
either a ‘'5'’ or a ‘'^'’.

Perhaps the most important metacharacter is the backslash, ‘\’.  As in
Python string literals, the backslash can be followed by various
characters to signal various special sequences.  It’s also used to
escape all the metacharacters so you can still match them in patterns;
for example, if you need to match a ‘[’ or ‘\’, you can precede them
with a backslash to remove their special meaning: ‘\[’ or ‘\\’.

Some of the special sequences beginning with ‘'\'’ represent predefined
sets of characters that are often useful, such as the set of digits, the
set of letters, or the set of anything that isn’t whitespace.

Let’s take an example: ‘\w’ matches any alphanumeric character.  If the
regex pattern is expressed in bytes, this is equivalent to the class
‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the regex pattern is a string, ‘\w’ will match all
the characters marked as letters in the Unicode database provided by the
*note unicodedata: 105. module.  You can use the more restricted
definition of ‘\w’ in a string pattern by supplying the *note re.ASCII:
43f. flag when compiling the regular expression.

The following list of special sequences isn’t complete.  For a complete
list of sequences and expanded class definitions for Unicode string
patterns, see the last part of *note Regular Expression Syntax: 548. in
the Standard Library reference.  In general, the Unicode versions match
any character that’s in the appropriate category in the Unicode
database.

‘\d’

     Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to the class ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any non-digit character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[^0-9]’.

‘\s’

     Matches any whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Matches any non-whitespace character; this is equivalent to the
     class ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\w’

     Matches any alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

‘\W’

     Matches any non-alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the
     class ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

These sequences can be included inside a character class.  For example,
‘[\s,.]’ is a character class that will match any whitespace character,
or ‘','’ or ‘'.'’.

The final metacharacter in this section is ‘.’.  It matches anything
except a newline character, and there’s an alternate mode (*note
re.DOTALL: 20e1.) where it will match even a newline.  ‘.’ is often used
where you want to match “any character”.


File: python.info,  Node: Repeating Things,  Prev: Matching Characters,  Up: Simple Patterns

9.9.2.2 Repeating Things
........................

Being able to match varying sets of characters is the first thing
regular expressions can do that isn’t already possible with the methods
available on strings.  However, if that was the only additional
capability of regexes, they wouldn’t be much of an advance.  Another
capability is that you can specify that portions of the RE must be
repeated a certain number of times.

The first metacharacter for repeating things that we’ll look at is ‘*’.
‘*’ doesn’t match the literal character ‘'*'’; instead, it specifies
that the previous character can be matched zero or more times, instead
of exactly once.

For example, ‘ca*t’ will match ‘'ct'’ (0 ‘'a'’ characters), ‘'cat'’ (1
‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’ characters), and so forth.

Repetitions such as ‘*’ are 'greedy'; when repeating a RE, the matching
engine will try to repeat it as many times as possible.  If later
portions of the pattern don’t match, the matching engine will then back
up and try again with fewer repetitions.

A step-by-step example will make this more obvious.  Let’s consider the
expression ‘a[bcd]*b’.  This matches the letter ‘'a'’, zero or more
letters from the class ‘[bcd]’, and finally ends with a ‘'b'’.  Now
imagine matching this RE against the string ‘'abcbd'’.

Step       Matched         Explanation
                           
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                           
1          ‘a’             The ‘a’ in the RE matches.
                           
                           
2          ‘abcbd’         The engine matches ‘[bcd]*’, going
                           as far as it can, which is to the
                           end of the string.
                           
                           
3          'Failure'       The engine tries to match ‘b’, but
                           the current position is at the end
                           of the string, so it fails.
                           
                           
4          ‘abcb’          Back up, so that ‘[bcd]*’ matches
                           one less character.
                           
                           
5          'Failure'       Try ‘b’ again, but the current
                           position is at the last character,
                           which is a ‘'d'’.
                           
                           
6          ‘abc’           Back up again, so that ‘[bcd]*’ is
                           only matching ‘bc’.
                           
                           
6          ‘abcb’          Try ‘b’ again.  This time the
                           character at the current position
                           is ‘'b'’, so it succeeds.
                           

The end of the RE has now been reached, and it has matched ‘'abcb'’.
This demonstrates how the matching engine goes as far as it can at
first, and if no match is found it will then progressively back up and
retry the rest of the RE again and again.  It will back up until it has
tried zero matches for ‘[bcd]*’, and if that subsequently fails, the
engine will conclude that the string doesn’t match the RE at all.

Another repeating metacharacter is ‘+’, which matches one or more times.
Pay careful attention to the difference between ‘*’ and ‘+’; ‘*’ matches
'zero' or more times, so whatever’s being repeated may not be present at
all, while ‘+’ requires at least 'one' occurrence.  To use a similar
example, ‘ca+t’ will match ‘'cat'’ (1 ‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’s), but
won’t match ‘'ct'’.

There are two more repeating operators or quantifiers.  The question
mark character, ‘?’, matches either once or zero times; you can think of
it as marking something as being optional.  For example, ‘home-?brew’
matches either ‘'homebrew'’ or ‘'home-brew'’.

The most complicated quantifier is ‘{m,n}’, where 'm' and 'n' are
decimal integers.  This quantifier means there must be at least 'm'
repetitions, and at most 'n'.  For example, ‘a/{1,3}b’ will match
‘'a/b'’, ‘'a//b'’, and ‘'a///b'’.  It won’t match ‘'ab'’, which has no
slashes, or ‘'a////b'’, which has four.

You can omit either 'm' or 'n'; in that case, a reasonable value is
assumed for the missing value.  Omitting 'm' is interpreted as a lower
limit of 0, while omitting 'n' results in an upper bound of infinity.

The simplest case ‘{m}’ matches the preceding item exactly 'm' times.
For example, ‘a/{2}b’ will only match ‘'a//b'’.

Readers of a reductionist bent may notice that the three other
quantifiers can all be expressed using this notation.  ‘{0,}’ is the
same as ‘*’, ‘{1,}’ is equivalent to ‘+’, and ‘{0,1}’ is the same as
‘?’.  It’s better to use ‘*’, ‘+’, or ‘?’ when you can, simply because
they’re shorter and easier to read.


File: python.info,  Node: Using Regular Expressions,  Next: More Pattern Power,  Prev: Simple Patterns,  Up: Regular Expression HOWTO

9.9.3 Using Regular Expressions
-------------------------------

Now that we’ve looked at some simple regular expressions, how do we
actually use them in Python?  The *note re: b8. module provides an
interface to the regular expression engine, allowing you to compile REs
into objects and then perform matches with them.

* Menu:

* Compiling Regular Expressions::
* The Backslash Plague::
* Performing Matches::
* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<3>.
* Compilation Flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling Regular Expressions,  Next: The Backslash Plague,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.1 Compiling Regular Expressions
.....................................

Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have
methods for various operations such as searching for pattern matches or
performing string substitutions.

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('ab*')
     >>> p
     re.compile('ab*')

*note re.compile(): a4a. also accepts an optional 'flags' argument, used
to enable various special features and syntax variations.  We’ll go over
the available settings later, but for now a single example will do:

     >>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE)

The RE is passed to *note re.compile(): a4a. as a string.  REs are
handled as strings because regular expressions aren’t part of the core
Python language, and no special syntax was created for expressing them.
(There are applications that don’t need REs at all, so there’s no need
to bloat the language specification by including them.)  Instead, the
*note re: b8. module is simply a C extension module included with
Python, just like the *note socket: cb. or *note zlib: 133. modules.

Putting REs in strings keeps the Python language simpler, but has one
disadvantage which is the topic of the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: The Backslash Plague,  Next: Performing Matches,  Prev: Compiling Regular Expressions,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.2 The Backslash Plague
............................

As stated earlier, regular expressions use the backslash character
(‘'\'’) to indicate special forms or to allow special characters to be
used without invoking their special meaning.  This conflicts with
Python’s usage of the same character for the same purpose in string
literals.

Let’s say you want to write a RE that matches the string ‘\section’,
which might be found in a LaTeX file.  To figure out what to write in
the program code, start with the desired string to be matched.  Next,
you must escape any backslashes and other metacharacters by preceding
them with a backslash, resulting in the string ‘\\section’.  The
resulting string that must be passed to *note re.compile(): a4a. must be
‘\\section’.  However, to express this as a Python string literal, both
backslashes must be escaped 'again'.

Characters              Stage
                        
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
‘\section’              Text string to be matched
                        
                        
‘\\section’             Escaped backslash for
                        *note re.compile(): a4a.
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         Escaped backslashes for a string literal
                        

In short, to match a literal backslash, one has to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the
RE string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each
backslash must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string
literal.  In REs that feature backslashes repeatedly, this leads to lots
of repeated backslashes and makes the resulting strings difficult to
understand.

The solution is to use Python’s raw string notation for regular
expressions; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string
literal prefixed with ‘'r'’, so ‘r"\n"’ is a two-character string
containing ‘'\'’ and ‘'n'’, while ‘"\n"’ is a one-character string
containing a newline.  Regular expressions will often be written in
Python code using this raw string notation.

In addition, special escape sequences that are valid in regular
expressions, but not valid as Python string literals, now result in a
*note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and will eventually become a *note
SyntaxError: 14c, which means the sequences will be invalid if raw
string notation or escaping the backslashes isn’t used.

Regular String          Raw string
                        
-----------------------------------------------
                        
‘"ab*"’                 ‘r"ab*"’
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         ‘r"\\section"’
                        
                        
‘"\\w+\\s+\\1"’         ‘r"\w+\s+\1"’
                        


File: python.info,  Node: Performing Matches,  Next: Module-Level Functions<3>,  Prev: The Backslash Plague,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.3 Performing Matches
..........................

Once you have an object representing a compiled regular expression, what
do you do with it?  Pattern objects have several methods and attributes.
Only the most significant ones will be covered here; consult the *note
re: b8. docs for a complete listing.

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘match()’              Determine if the RE matches at the beginning of
                       the string.
                       
                       
‘search()’             Scan through a string, looking for any location
                       where this RE matches.
                       
                       
‘findall()’            Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       returns them as a list.
                       
                       
‘finditer()’           Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       returns them as an *note iterator: 176e.
                       

*note match(): 20f3. and *note search(): 20f4. return ‘None’ if no match
can be found.  If they’re successful, a *note match object: e28.
instance is returned, containing information about the match: where it
starts and ends, the substring it matched, and more.

You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the *note
re: b8. module.

This HOWTO uses the standard Python interpreter for its examples.
First, run the Python interpreter, import the *note re: b8. module, and
compile a RE:

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+')
     >>> p
     re.compile('[a-z]+')

Now, you can try matching various strings against the RE ‘[a-z]+’.  An
empty string shouldn’t match at all, since ‘+’ means ‘one or more
repetitions’.  *note match(): 20f3. should return ‘None’ in this case,
which will cause the interpreter to print no output.  You can explicitly
print the result of ‘match()’ to make this clear.

     >>> p.match("")
     >>> print(p.match(""))
     None

Now, let’s try it on a string that it should match, such as ‘tempo’.  In
this case, *note match(): 20f3. will return a *note match object: e28,
so you should store the result in a variable for later use.

     >>> m = p.match('tempo')
     >>> m
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'>

Now you can query the *note match object: e28. for information about the
matching string.  Match object instances also have several methods and
attributes; the most important ones are:

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘group()’              Return the string matched by the RE
                       
                       
‘start()’              Return the starting position of the match
                       
                       
‘end()’                Return the ending position of the match
                       
                       
‘span()’               Return a tuple containing the (start, end)
                       positions of the match
                       

Trying these methods will soon clarify their meaning:

     >>> m.group()
     'tempo'
     >>> m.start(), m.end()
     (0, 5)
     >>> m.span()
     (0, 5)

*note group(): 2104. returns the substring that was matched by the RE.
*note start(): 2108. and *note end(): 2109. return the starting and
ending index of the match.  *note span(): 210a. returns both start and
end indexes in a single tuple.  Since the *note match(): 20f3. method
only checks if the RE matches at the start of a string, ‘start()’ will
always be zero.  However, the *note search(): 20f4. method of patterns
scans through the string, so the match may not start at zero in that
case.

     >>> print(p.match('::: message'))
     None
     >>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m)
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'>
     >>> m.group()
     'message'
     >>> m.span()
     (4, 11)

In actual programs, the most common style is to store the *note match
object: e28. in a variable, and then check if it was ‘None’.  This
usually looks like:

     p = re.compile( ... )
     m = p.match( 'string goes here' )
     if m:
         print('Match found: ', m.group())
     else:
         print('No match')

Two pattern methods return all of the matches for a pattern.  *note
findall(): 20fa. returns a list of matching strings:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping')
     ['12', '11', '10']

The ‘r’ prefix, making the literal a raw string literal, is needed in
this example because escape sequences in a normal “cooked” string
literal that are not recognized by Python, as opposed to regular
expressions, now result in a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. and will
eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 14c.  See *note The Backslash
Plague: 4e96.

*note findall(): 20fa. has to create the entire list before it can be
returned as the result.  The *note finditer(): 20fb. method returns a
sequence of *note match object: e28. instances as an *note iterator:
176e.:

     >>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...')
     >>> iterator
     <callable_iterator object at 0x...>
     >>> for match in iterator:
     ...     print(match.span())
     ...
     (0, 2)
     (22, 24)
     (29, 31)


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions<3>,  Next: Compilation Flags,  Prev: Performing Matches,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.4 Module-Level Functions
..............................

You don’t have to create a pattern object and call its methods; the
*note re: b8. module also provides top-level functions called *note
match(): 10d4, *note search(): 10d3, *note findall(): ed2, *note sub():
208, and so forth.  These functions take the same arguments as the
corresponding pattern method with the RE string added as the first
argument, and still return either ‘None’ or a *note match object: e28.
instance.

     >>> print(re.match(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk'))
     None
     >>> re.match(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998')
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '>

Under the hood, these functions simply create a pattern object for you
and call the appropriate method on it.  They also store the compiled
object in a cache, so future calls using the same RE won’t need to parse
the pattern again and again.

Should you use these module-level functions, or should you get the
pattern and call its methods yourself?  If you’re accessing a regex
within a loop, pre-compiling it will save a few function calls.  Outside
of loops, there’s not much difference thanks to the internal cache.


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation Flags,  Prev: Module-Level Functions<3>,  Up: Using Regular Expressions

9.9.3.5 Compilation Flags
.........................

Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions
work.  Flags are available in the *note re: b8. module under two names,
a long name such as *note IGNORECASE: 153d. and a short, one-letter form
such as *note I: 20e5.  (If you’re familiar with Perl’s pattern
modifiers, the one-letter forms use the same letters; the short form of
*note re.VERBOSE: 20f1. is *note re.X: 20ea, for example.)  Multiple
flags can be specified by bitwise OR-ing them; ‘re.I | re.M’ sets both
the *note I: 20e5. and *note M: 20e7. flags, for example.

Here’s a table of the available flags, followed by a more detailed
explanation of each one.

Flag                                  Meaning
                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
*note ASCII: 43f, *note A: 20e4.      Makes several escapes like ‘\w’, ‘\b’, ‘\s’
                                      and ‘\d’ match only on ASCII characters with
                                      the respective property.
                                      
                                      
*note DOTALL: 20e1, *note S: 20e8.    Make ‘.’ match any character, including
                                      newlines.
                                      
                                      
*note IGNORECASE: 153d,               Do case-insensitive matches.
*note I: 20e5.                        

*note LOCALE: 9e1, *note L: 20e6.     Do a locale-aware match.
                                      
                                      
*note MULTILINE: 20e2,                Multi-line matching, affecting ‘^’ and ‘$’.
*note M: 20e7.                        

*note VERBOSE: 20f1, *note X: 20ea.   Enable verbose REs, which can be organized
(for ‘extended’)                      more cleanly and understandably.
                                      

 -- Verisi: re.I

 -- Verisi: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal
     strings will match letters by ignoring case.  For example, ‘[A-Z]’
     will match lowercase letters, too.  Full Unicode matching also
     works unless the *note ASCII: 43f. flag is used to disable
     non-ASCII matches.  When the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’
     are used in combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 153d. flag, they
     will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters:
     ‘İ’ (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), ‘ı’ (U+0131,
     Latin small letter dotless i), ‘ſ’ (U+017F, Latin small letter long
     s) and ‘K’ (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  ‘Spam’ will match ‘'Spam'’,
     ‘'spam'’, ‘'spAM'’, or ‘'ſpam'’ (the latter is matched only in
     Unicode mode).  This lowercasing doesn’t take the current locale
     into account; it will if you also set the *note LOCALE: 9e1. flag.

 -- Verisi: re.L

 -- Verisi: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale instead of the Unicode database.

     Locales are a feature of the C library intended to help in writing
     programs that take account of language differences.  For example,
     if you’re processing encoded French text, you’d want to be able to
     write ‘\w+’ to match words, but ‘\w’ only matches the character
     class ‘[A-Za-z]’ in bytes patterns; it won’t match bytes
     corresponding to ‘é’ or ‘ç’.  If your system is configured properly
     and a French locale is selected, certain C functions will tell the
     program that the byte corresponding to ‘é’ should also be
     considered a letter.  Setting the *note LOCALE: 9e1. flag when
     compiling a regular expression will cause the resulting compiled
     object to use these C functions for ‘\w’; this is slower, but also
     enables ‘\w+’ to match French words as you’d expect.  The use of
     this flag is discouraged in Python 3 as the locale mechanism is
     very unreliable, it only handles one “culture” at a time, and it
     only works with 8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is already enabled
     by default in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able
     to handle different locales/languages.

 -- Verisi: re.M

 -- Verisi: re.MULTILINE

     (‘^’ and ‘$’ haven’t been explained yet; they’ll be introduced in
     section *note More Metacharacters: 4e9a.)

     Usually ‘^’ matches only at the beginning of the string, and ‘$’
     matches only at the end of the string and immediately before the
     newline (if any) at the end of the string.  When this flag is
     specified, ‘^’ matches at the beginning of the string and at the
     beginning of each line within the string, immediately following
     each newline.  Similarly, the ‘$’ metacharacter matches either at
     the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately
     preceding each newline).

 -- Verisi: re.S

 -- Verisi: re.DOTALL

     Makes the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

 -- Verisi: re.A

 -- Verisi: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform ASCII-only
     matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only meaningful
     for Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns.

 -- Verisi: re.X

 -- Verisi: re.VERBOSE

     This flag allows you to write regular expressions that are more
     readable by granting you more flexibility in how you can format
     them.  When this flag has been specified, whitespace within the RE
     string is ignored, except when the whitespace is in a character
     class or preceded by an unescaped backslash; this lets you organize
     and indent the RE more clearly.  This flag also lets you put
     comments within a RE that will be ignored by the engine; comments
     are marked by a ‘'#'’ that’s neither in a character class or
     preceded by an unescaped backslash.

     For example, here’s a RE that uses *note re.VERBOSE: 20f1.; see how
     much easier it is to read?

          charref = re.compile(r"""
           &[#]                # Start of a numeric entity reference
           (
               0[0-7]+         # Octal form
             | [0-9]+          # Decimal form
             | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # Hexadecimal form
           )
           ;                   # Trailing semicolon
          """, re.VERBOSE)

     Without the verbose setting, the RE would look like this:

          charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+"
                               "|[0-9]+"
                               "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);")

     In the above example, Python’s automatic concatenation of string
     literals has been used to break up the RE into smaller pieces, but
     it’s still more difficult to understand than the version using
     *note re.VERBOSE: 20f1.


File: python.info,  Node: More Pattern Power,  Next: Modifying Strings,  Prev: Using Regular Expressions,  Up: Regular Expression HOWTO

9.9.4 More Pattern Power
------------------------

So far we’ve only covered a part of the features of regular expressions.
In this section, we’ll cover some new metacharacters, and how to use
groups to retrieve portions of the text that was matched.

* Menu:

* More Metacharacters::
* Grouping::
* Non-capturing and Named Groups::
* Lookahead Assertions::


File: python.info,  Node: More Metacharacters,  Next: Grouping,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.1 More Metacharacters
...........................

There are some metacharacters that we haven’t covered yet.  Most of them
will be covered in this section.

Some of the remaining metacharacters to be discussed are 'zero-width
assertions'.  They don’t cause the engine to advance through the string;
instead, they consume no characters at all, and simply succeed or fail.
For example, ‘\b’ is an assertion that the current position is located
at a word boundary; the position isn’t changed by the ‘\b’ at all.  This
means that zero-width assertions should never be repeated, because if
they match once at a given location, they can obviously be matched an
infinite number of times.

‘|’

     Alternation, or the “or” operator.  If 'A' and 'B' are regular
     expressions, ‘A|B’ will match any string that matches either 'A' or
     'B'. ‘|’ has very low precedence in order to make it work
     reasonably when you’re alternating multi-character strings.
     ‘Crow|Servo’ will match either ‘'Crow'’ or ‘'Servo'’, not ‘'Cro'’,
     a ‘'w'’ or an ‘'S'’, and ‘'ervo'’.

     To match a literal ‘'|'’, use ‘\|’, or enclose it inside a
     character class, as in ‘[|]’.

‘^’

     Matches at the beginning of lines.  Unless the *note MULTILINE:
     20e2. flag has been set, this will only match at the beginning of
     the string.  In *note MULTILINE: 20e2. mode, this also matches
     immediately after each newline within the string.

     For example, if you wish to match the word ‘From’ only at the
     beginning of a line, the RE to use is ‘^From’.

          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'>
          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory'))
          None

     To match a literal ‘'^'’, use ‘\^’.

‘$’

     Matches at the end of a line, which is defined as either the end of
     the string, or any location followed by a newline character.

          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} '))
          None
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>

     To match a literal ‘'$'’, use ‘\$’ or enclose it inside a character
     class, as in ‘[$]’.

‘\A’

     Matches only at the start of the string.  When not in *note
     MULTILINE: 20e2. mode, ‘\A’ and ‘^’ are effectively the same.  In
     *note MULTILINE: 20e2. mode, they’re different: ‘\A’ still matches
     only at the beginning of the string, but ‘^’ may match at any
     location inside the string that follows a newline character.

‘\Z’

     Matches only at the end of the string.

‘\b’

     Word boundary.  This is a zero-width assertion that matches only at
     the beginning or end of a word.  A word is defined as a sequence of
     alphanumeric characters, so the end of a word is indicated by
     whitespace or a non-alphanumeric character.

     The following example matches ‘class’ only when it’s a complete
     word; it won’t match when it’s contained inside another word.

          >>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          <re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'>
          >>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('one subclass is'))
          None

     There are two subtleties you should remember when using this
     special sequence.  First, this is the worst collision between
     Python’s string literals and regular expression sequences.  In
     Python’s string literals, ‘\b’ is the backspace character, ASCII
     value 8.  If you’re not using raw strings, then Python will convert
     the ‘\b’ to a backspace, and your RE won’t match as you expect it
     to.  The following example looks the same as our previous RE, but
     omits the ‘'r'’ in front of the RE string.

          >>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'>

     Second, inside a character class, where there’s no use for this
     assertion, ‘\b’ represents the backspace character, for
     compatibility with Python’s string literals.

‘\B’

     Another zero-width assertion, this is the opposite of ‘\b’, only
     matching when the current position is not at a word boundary.


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping,  Next: Non-capturing and Named Groups,  Prev: More Metacharacters,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.2 Grouping
................

Frequently you need to obtain more information than just whether the RE
matched or not.  Regular expressions are often used to dissect strings
by writing a RE divided into several subgroups which match different
components of interest.  For example, an RFC-822 header line is divided
into a header name and a value, separated by a ‘':'’, like this:

     From: author@example.com
     User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
     MIME-Version: 1.0
     To: editor@example.com

This can be handled by writing a regular expression which matches an
entire header line, and has one group which matches the header name, and
another group which matches the header’s value.

Groups are marked by the ‘'('’, ‘')'’ metacharacters.  ‘'('’ and ‘')'’
have much the same meaning as they do in mathematical expressions; they
group together the expressions contained inside them, and you can repeat
the contents of a group with a quantifier, such as ‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, or
‘{m,n}’.  For example, ‘(ab)*’ will match zero or more repetitions of
‘ab’.

     >>> p = re.compile('(ab)*')
     >>> print(p.match('ababababab').span())
     (0, 10)

Groups indicated with ‘'('’, ‘')'’ also capture the starting and ending
index of the text that they match; this can be retrieved by passing an
argument to *note group(): 2104, *note start(): 2108, *note end(): 2109,
and *note span(): 210a.  Groups are numbered starting with 0.  Group 0
is always present; it’s the whole RE, so *note match object: e28.
methods all have group 0 as their default argument.  Later we’ll see how
to express groups that don’t capture the span of text that they match.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a)b')
     >>> m = p.match('ab')
     >>> m.group()
     'ab'
     >>> m.group(0)
     'ab'

Subgroups are numbered from left to right, from 1 upward.  Groups can be
nested; to determine the number, just count the opening parenthesis
characters, going from left to right.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d')
     >>> m = p.match('abcd')
     >>> m.group(0)
     'abcd'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'abc'
     >>> m.group(2)
     'b'

*note group(): 2104. can be passed multiple group numbers at a time, in
which case it will return a tuple containing the corresponding values
for those groups.

     >>> m.group(2,1,2)
     ('b', 'abc', 'b')

The *note groups(): 2106. method returns a tuple containing the strings
for all the subgroups, from 1 up to however many there are.

     >>> m.groups()
     ('abc', 'b')

Backreferences in a pattern allow you to specify that the contents of an
earlier capturing group must also be found at the current location in
the string.  For example, ‘\1’ will succeed if the exact contents of
group 1 can be found at the current position, and fails otherwise.
Remember that Python’s string literals also use a backslash followed by
numbers to allow including arbitrary characters in a string, so be sure
to use a raw string when incorporating backreferences in a RE.

For example, the following RE detects doubled words in a string.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'

Backreferences like this aren’t often useful for just searching through
a string — there are few text formats which repeat data in this way —
but you’ll soon find out that they’re 'very' useful when performing
string substitutions.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-capturing and Named Groups,  Next: Lookahead Assertions,  Prev: Grouping,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.3 Non-capturing and Named Groups
......................................

Elaborate REs may use many groups, both to capture substrings of
interest, and to group and structure the RE itself.  In complex REs, it
becomes difficult to keep track of the group numbers.  There are two
features which help with this problem.  Both of them use a common syntax
for regular expression extensions, so we’ll look at that first.

Perl 5 is well known for its powerful additions to standard regular
expressions.  For these new features the Perl developers couldn’t choose
new single-keystroke metacharacters or new special sequences beginning
with ‘\’ without making Perl’s regular expressions confusingly different
from standard REs.  If they chose ‘&’ as a new metacharacter, for
example, old expressions would be assuming that ‘&’ was a regular
character and wouldn’t have escaped it by writing ‘\&’ or ‘[&]’.

The solution chosen by the Perl developers was to use ‘(?...)’ as the
extension syntax.  ‘?’ immediately after a parenthesis was a syntax
error because the ‘?’ would have nothing to repeat, so this didn’t
introduce any compatibility problems.  The characters immediately after
the ‘?’ indicate what extension is being used, so ‘(?=foo)’ is one thing
(a positive lookahead assertion) and ‘(?:foo)’ is something else (a
non-capturing group containing the subexpression ‘foo’).

Python supports several of Perl’s extensions and adds an extension
syntax to Perl’s extension syntax.  If the first character after the
question mark is a ‘P’, you know that it’s an extension that’s specific
to Python.

Now that we’ve looked at the general extension syntax, we can return to
the features that simplify working with groups in complex REs.

Sometimes you’ll want to use a group to denote a part of a regular
expression, but aren’t interested in retrieving the group’s contents.
You can make this fact explicit by using a non-capturing group:
‘(?:...)’, where you can replace the ‘...’ with any other regular
expression.

     >>> m = re.match("([abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ('c',)
     >>> m = re.match("(?:[abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ()

Except for the fact that you can’t retrieve the contents of what the
group matched, a non-capturing group behaves exactly the same as a
capturing group; you can put anything inside it, repeat it with a
repetition metacharacter such as ‘*’, and nest it within other groups
(capturing or non-capturing).  ‘(?:...)’ is particularly useful when
modifying an existing pattern, since you can add new groups without
changing how all the other groups are numbered.  It should be mentioned
that there’s no performance difference in searching between capturing
and non-capturing groups; neither form is any faster than the other.

A more significant feature is named groups: instead of referring to them
by numbers, groups can be referenced by a name.

The syntax for a named group is one of the Python-specific extensions:
‘(?P<name>...)’.  'name' is, obviously, the name of the group.  Named
groups behave exactly like capturing groups, and additionally associate
a name with a group.  The *note match object: e28. methods that deal
with capturing groups all accept either integers that refer to the group
by number or strings that contain the desired group’s name.  Named
groups are still given numbers, so you can retrieve information about a
group in two ways:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)')
     >>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' )
     >>> m.group('word')
     'Lots'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'Lots'

Additionally, you can retrieve named groups as a dictionary with *note
groupdict(): 2107.:

     >>> m = re.match(r'(?P<first>\w+) (?P<last>\w+)', 'Jane Doe')
     >>> m.groupdict()
     {'first': 'Jane', 'last': 'Doe'}

Named groups are handy because they let you use easily remembered names,
instead of having to remember numbers.  Here’s an example RE from the
*note imaplib: 72. module:

     InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "'
             r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-'
             r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])'
             r'"')

It’s obviously much easier to retrieve ‘m.group('zonem')’, instead of
having to remember to retrieve group 9.

The syntax for backreferences in an expression such as ‘(...)\1’ refers
to the number of the group.  There’s naturally a variant that uses the
group name instead of the number.  This is another Python extension:
‘(?P=name)’ indicates that the contents of the group called 'name'
should again be matched at the current point.  The regular expression
for finding doubled words, ‘\b(\w+)\s+\1\b’ can also be written as
‘\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b’:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'


File: python.info,  Node: Lookahead Assertions,  Prev: Non-capturing and Named Groups,  Up: More Pattern Power

9.9.4.4 Lookahead Assertions
............................

Another zero-width assertion is the lookahead assertion.  Lookahead
assertions are available in both positive and negative form, and look
like this:

‘(?=...)’

     Positive lookahead assertion.  This succeeds if the contained
     regular expression, represented here by ‘...’, successfully matches
     at the current location, and fails otherwise.  But, once the
     contained expression has been tried, the matching engine doesn’t
     advance at all; the rest of the pattern is tried right where the
     assertion started.

‘(?!...)’

     Negative lookahead assertion.  This is the opposite of the positive
     assertion; it succeeds if the contained expression 'doesn’t' match
     at the current position in the string.

To make this concrete, let’s look at a case where a lookahead is useful.
Consider a simple pattern to match a filename and split it apart into a
base name and an extension, separated by a ‘.’.  For example, in
‘news.rc’, ‘news’ is the base name, and ‘rc’ is the filename’s
extension.

The pattern to match this is quite simple:

‘.*[.].*$’

Notice that the ‘.’ needs to be treated specially because it’s a
metacharacter, so it’s inside a character class to only match that
specific character.  Also notice the trailing ‘$’; this is added to
ensure that all the rest of the string must be included in the
extension.  This regular expression matches ‘foo.bar’ and ‘autoexec.bat’
and ‘sendmail.cf’ and ‘printers.conf’.

Now, consider complicating the problem a bit; what if you want to match
filenames where the extension is not ‘bat’?  Some incorrect attempts:

‘.*[.][^b].*$’ The first attempt above tries to exclude ‘bat’ by
requiring that the first character of the extension is not a ‘b’.  This
is wrong, because the pattern also doesn’t match ‘foo.bar’.

‘.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$’

The expression gets messier when you try to patch up the first solution
by requiring one of the following cases to match: the first character of
the extension isn’t ‘b’; the second character isn’t ‘a’; or the third
character isn’t ‘t’.  This accepts ‘foo.bar’ and rejects ‘autoexec.bat’,
but it requires a three-letter extension and won’t accept a filename
with a two-letter extension such as ‘sendmail.cf’.  We’ll complicate the
pattern again in an effort to fix it.

‘.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$’

In the third attempt, the second and third letters are all made optional
in order to allow matching extensions shorter than three characters,
such as ‘sendmail.cf’.

The pattern’s getting really complicated now, which makes it hard to
read and understand.  Worse, if the problem changes and you want to
exclude both ‘bat’ and ‘exe’ as extensions, the pattern would get even
more complicated and confusing.

A negative lookahead cuts through all this confusion:

‘.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$’ The negative lookahead means: if the expression
‘bat’ doesn’t match at this point, try the rest of the pattern; if
‘bat$’ does match, the whole pattern will fail.  The trailing ‘$’ is
required to ensure that something like ‘sample.batch’, where the
extension only starts with ‘bat’, will be allowed.  The ‘[^.]*’ makes
sure that the pattern works when there are multiple dots in the
filename.

Excluding another filename extension is now easy; simply add it as an
alternative inside the assertion.  The following pattern excludes
filenames that end in either ‘bat’ or ‘exe’:

‘.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$’


File: python.info,  Node: Modifying Strings,  Next: Common Problems,  Prev: More Pattern Power,  Up: Regular Expression HOWTO

9.9.5 Modifying Strings
-----------------------

Up to this point, we’ve simply performed searches against a static
string.  Regular expressions are also commonly used to modify strings in
various ways, using the following pattern methods:

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘split()’              Split the string into a list, splitting it
                       wherever the RE matches
                       
                       
‘sub()’                Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       replace them with a different string
                       
                       
‘subn()’               Does the same thing as ‘sub()’, but returns the
                       new string and the number of replacements
                       

* Menu:

* Splitting Strings::
* Search and Replace: Search and Replace<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Splitting Strings,  Next: Search and Replace<2>,  Up: Modifying Strings

9.9.5.1 Splitting Strings
.........................

The *note split(): 20f9. method of a pattern splits a string apart
wherever the RE matches, returning a list of the pieces.  It’s similar
to the *note split(): d3e. method of strings but provides much more
generality in the delimiters that you can split by; string ‘split()’
only supports splitting by whitespace or by a fixed string.  As you’d
expect, there’s a module-level *note re.split(): 9e3. function, too.

 -- Yöntemi: .split (string[, maxsplit=0])

     Split 'string' by the matches of the regular expression.  If
     capturing parentheses are used in the RE, then their contents will
     also be returned as part of the resulting list.  If 'maxsplit' is
     nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits are performed.

You can limit the number of splits made, by passing a value for
'maxsplit'.  When 'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits will
be made, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final
element of the list.  In the following example, the delimiter is any
sequence of non-alphanumeric characters.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', '']
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3)
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().']

Sometimes you’re not only interested in what the text between delimiters
is, but also need to know what the delimiter was.  If capturing
parentheses are used in the RE, then their values are also returned as
part of the list.  Compare the following calls:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)')
     >>> p.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', '']
     >>> p2.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', '']

The module-level function *note re.split(): 9e3. adds the RE to be used
as the first argument, but is otherwise the same.

     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
     >>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
     ['Words', 'words, words.']


File: python.info,  Node: Search and Replace<2>,  Prev: Splitting Strings,  Up: Modifying Strings

9.9.5.2 Search and Replace
..........................

Another common task is to find all the matches for a pattern, and
replace them with a different string.  The *note sub(): 20fc. method
takes a replacement value, which can be either a string or a function,
and the string to be processed.

 -- Yöntemi: .sub (replacement, string[, count=0])

     Returns the string obtained by replacing the leftmost
     non-overlapping occurrences of the RE in 'string' by the
     replacement 'replacement'.  If the pattern isn’t found, 'string' is
     returned unchanged.

     The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern
     occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer.
     The default value of 0 means to replace all occurrences.

Here’s a simple example of using the *note sub(): 20fc. method.  It
replaces colour names with the word ‘colour’:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     'colour socks and colour shoes'
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1)
     'colour socks and red shoes'

The *note subn(): 20fd. method does the same work, but returns a 2-tuple
containing the new string value and the number of replacements that were
performed:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     ('colour socks and colour shoes', 2)
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all')
     ('no colours at all', 0)

Empty matches are replaced only when they’re not adjacent to a previous
empty match.

     >>> p = re.compile('x*')
     >>> p.sub('-', 'abxd')
     '-a-b--d-'

If 'replacement' is a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.
That is, ‘\n’ is converted to a single newline character, ‘\r’ is
converted to a carriage return, and so forth.  Unknown escapes such as
‘\&’ are left alone.  Backreferences, such as ‘\6’, are replaced with
the substring matched by the corresponding group in the RE. This lets
you incorporate portions of the original text in the resulting
replacement string.

This example matches the word ‘section’ followed by a string enclosed in
‘{’, ‘}’, and changes ‘section’ to ‘subsection’:

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}')
     'subsection{First} subsection{second}'

There’s also a syntax for referring to named groups as defined by the
‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax.  ‘\g<name>’ will use the substring matched by
the group named ‘name’, and ‘\g<number>’ uses the corresponding group
number.  ‘\g<2>’ is therefore equivalent to ‘\2’, but isn’t ambiguous in
a replacement string such as ‘\g<2>0’.  (‘\20’ would be interpreted as a
reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the
literal character ‘'0'’.)  The following substitutions are all
equivalent, but use all three variations of the replacement string.

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'

'replacement' can also be a function, which gives you even more control.
If 'replacement' is a function, the function is called for every
non-overlapping occurrence of 'pattern'.  On each call, the function is
passed a *note match object: e28. argument for the match and can use
this information to compute the desired replacement string and return
it.

In the following example, the replacement function translates decimals
into hexadecimal:

     >>> def hexrepl(match):
     ...     "Return the hex string for a decimal number"
     ...     value = int(match.group())
     ...     return hex(value)
     ...
     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.')
     'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.'

When using the module-level *note re.sub(): 208. function, the pattern
is passed as the first argument.  The pattern may be provided as an
object or as a string; if you need to specify regular expression flags,
you must either use a pattern object as the first parameter, or use
embedded modifiers in the pattern string, e.g.  ‘sub("(?i)b+", "x",
"bbbb BBBB")’ returns ‘'x x'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Problems,  Next: Feedback,  Prev: Modifying Strings,  Up: Regular Expression HOWTO

9.9.6 Common Problems
---------------------

Regular expressions are a powerful tool for some applications, but in
some ways their behaviour isn’t intuitive and at times they don’t behave
the way you may expect them to.  This section will point out some of the
most common pitfalls.

* Menu:

* Use String Methods::
* match() versus search(): match versus search.
* Greedy versus Non-Greedy::
* Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE.


File: python.info,  Node: Use String Methods,  Next: match versus search,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.1 Use String Methods
..........................

Sometimes using the *note re: b8. module is a mistake.  If you’re
matching a fixed string, or a single character class, and you’re not
using any *note re: b8. features such as the *note IGNORECASE: 153d.
flag, then the full power of regular expressions may not be required.
Strings have several methods for performing operations with fixed
strings and they’re usually much faster, because the implementation is a
single small C loop that’s been optimized for the purpose, instead of
the large, more generalized regular expression engine.

One example might be replacing a single fixed string with another one;
for example, you might replace ‘word’ with ‘deed’.  *note re.sub(): 208.
seems like the function to use for this, but consider the *note
replace(): 10ff. method.  Note that ‘replace()’ will also replace ‘word’
inside words, turning ‘swordfish’ into ‘sdeedfish’, but the naive RE
‘word’ would have done that, too.  (To avoid performing the substitution
on parts of words, the pattern would have to be ‘\bword\b’, in order to
require that ‘word’ have a word boundary on either side.  This takes the
job beyond ‘replace()’’s abilities.)

Another common task is deleting every occurrence of a single character
from a string or replacing it with another single character.  You might
do this with something like ‘re.sub('\n', ' ', S)’, but *note
translate(): 1fbb. is capable of doing both tasks and will be faster
than any regular expression operation can be.

In short, before turning to the *note re: b8. module, consider whether
your problem can be solved with a faster and simpler string method.


File: python.info,  Node: match versus search,  Next: Greedy versus Non-Greedy,  Prev: Use String Methods,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.2 match() versus search()
...............................

The *note match(): 10d4. function only checks if the RE matches at the
beginning of the string while *note search(): 10d3. will scan forward
through the string for a match.  It’s important to keep this distinction
in mind.  Remember, ‘match()’ will only report a successful match which
will start at 0; if the match wouldn’t start at zero, ‘match()’ will
'not' report it.

     >>> print(re.match('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.match('super', 'insuperable'))
     None

On the other hand, *note search(): 10d3. will scan forward through the
string, reporting the first match it finds.

     >>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span())
     (2, 7)

Sometimes you’ll be tempted to keep using *note re.match(): 10d4, and
just add ‘.*’ to the front of your RE. Resist this temptation and use
*note re.search(): 10d3. instead.  The regular expression compiler does
some analysis of REs in order to speed up the process of looking for a
match.  One such analysis figures out what the first character of a
match must be; for example, a pattern starting with ‘Crow’ must match
starting with a ‘'C'’.  The analysis lets the engine quickly scan
through the string looking for the starting character, only trying the
full match if a ‘'C'’ is found.

Adding ‘.*’ defeats this optimization, requiring scanning to the end of
the string and then backtracking to find a match for the rest of the RE.
Use *note re.search(): 10d3. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Greedy versus Non-Greedy,  Next: Using re VERBOSE,  Prev: match versus search,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.3 Greedy versus Non-Greedy
................................

When repeating a regular expression, as in ‘a*’, the resulting action is
to consume as much of the pattern as possible.  This fact often bites
you when you’re trying to match a pair of balanced delimiters, such as
the angle brackets surrounding an HTML tag.  The naive pattern for
matching a single HTML tag doesn’t work because of the greedy nature of
‘.*’.

     >>> s = '<html><head><title>Title</title>'
     >>> len(s)
     32
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).span())
     (0, 32)
     >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).group())
     <html><head><title>Title</title>

The RE matches the ‘'<'’ in ‘'<html>'’, and the ‘.*’ consumes the rest
of the string.  There’s still more left in the RE, though, and the ‘>’
can’t match at the end of the string, so the regular expression engine
has to backtrack character by character until it finds a match for the
‘>’.  The final match extends from the ‘'<'’ in ‘'<html>'’ to the ‘'>'’
in ‘'</title>'’, which isn’t what you want.

In this case, the solution is to use the non-greedy quantifiers ‘*?’,
‘+?’, ‘??’, or ‘{m,n}?’, which match as 'little' text as possible.  In
the above example, the ‘'>'’ is tried immediately after the first ‘'<'’
matches, and when it fails, the engine advances a character at a time,
retrying the ‘'>'’ at every step.  This produces just the right result:

     >>> print(re.match('<.*?>', s).group())
     <html>

(Note that parsing HTML or XML with regular expressions is painful.
Quick-and-dirty patterns will handle common cases, but HTML and XML have
special cases that will break the obvious regular expression; by the
time you’ve written a regular expression that handles all of the
possible cases, the patterns will be 'very' complicated.  Use an HTML or
XML parser module for such tasks.)


File: python.info,  Node: Using re VERBOSE,  Prev: Greedy versus Non-Greedy,  Up: Common Problems

9.9.6.4 Using re.VERBOSE
........................

By now you’ve probably noticed that regular expressions are a very
compact notation, but they’re not terribly readable.  REs of moderate
complexity can become lengthy collections of backslashes, parentheses,
and metacharacters, making them difficult to read and understand.

For such REs, specifying the *note re.VERBOSE: 20f1. flag when compiling
the regular expression can be helpful, because it allows you to format
the regular expression more clearly.

The ‘re.VERBOSE’ flag has several effects.  Whitespace in the regular
expression that 'isn’t' inside a character class is ignored.  This means
that an expression such as ‘dog | cat’ is equivalent to the less
readable ‘dog|cat’, but ‘[a b]’ will still match the characters ‘'a'’,
‘'b'’, or a space.  In addition, you can also put comments inside a RE;
comments extend from a ‘#’ character to the next newline.  When used
with triple-quoted strings, this enables REs to be formatted more
neatly:

     pat = re.compile(r"""
      \s*                 # Skip leading whitespace
      (?P<header>[^:]+)   # Header name
      \s* :               # Whitespace, and a colon
      (?P<value>.*?)      # The header's value -- *? used to
                          # lose the following trailing whitespace
      \s*$                # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line
     """, re.VERBOSE)

This is far more readable than:

     pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P<header>[^:]+)\s*:(?P<value>.*?)\s*$")


File: python.info,  Node: Feedback,  Prev: Common Problems,  Up: Regular Expression HOWTO

9.9.7 Feedback
--------------

Regular expressions are a complicated topic.  Did this document help you
understand them?  Were there parts that were unclear, or Problems you
encountered that weren’t covered here?  If so, please send suggestions
for improvements to the author.

The most complete book on regular expressions is almost certainly
Jeffrey Friedl’s Mastering Regular Expressions, published by O’Reilly.
Unfortunately, it exclusively concentrates on Perl and Java’s flavours
of regular expressions, and doesn’t contain any Python material at all,
so it won’t be useful as a reference for programming in Python.  (The
first edition covered Python’s now-removed ‘regex’ module, which won’t
help you much.)  Consider checking it out from your library.


File: python.info,  Node: Socket Programming HOWTO,  Next: Sorting Techniques,  Prev: Regular Expression HOWTO,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.10 Socket Programming HOWTO
=============================


Author: Gordon McMillan

Abstract
........

Sockets are used nearly everywhere, but are one of the most severely
misunderstood technologies around.  This is a 10,000 foot overview of
sockets.  It’s not really a tutorial - you’ll still have work to do in
getting things operational.  It doesn’t cover the fine points (and there
are a lot of them), but I hope it will give you enough background to
begin using them decently.

* Menu:

* Sockets::
* Creating a Socket::
* Using a Socket::
* Disconnecting::
* Non-blocking Sockets::


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets,  Next: Creating a Socket,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.10.1 Sockets
--------------

I’m only going to talk about INET (i.e.  IPv4) sockets, but they account
for at least 99% of the sockets in use.  And I’ll only talk about STREAM
(i.e.  TCP) sockets - unless you really know what you’re doing (in which
case this HOWTO isn’t for you!), you’ll get better behavior and
performance from a STREAM socket than anything else.  I will try to
clear up the mystery of what a socket is, as well as some hints on how
to work with blocking and non-blocking sockets.  But I’ll start by
talking about blocking sockets.  You’ll need to know how they work
before dealing with non-blocking sockets.

Part of the trouble with understanding these things is that “socket” can
mean a number of subtly different things, depending on context.  So
first, let’s make a distinction between a “client” socket - an endpoint
of a conversation, and a “server” socket, which is more like a
switchboard operator.  The client application (your browser, for
example) uses “client” sockets exclusively; the web server it’s talking
to uses both “server” sockets and “client” sockets.

* Menu:

* History::


File: python.info,  Node: History,  Up: Sockets

9.10.1.1 History
................

Of the various forms of IPC (Inter Process Communication), sockets are
by far the most popular.  On any given platform, there are likely to be
other forms of IPC that are faster, but for cross-platform
communication, sockets are about the only game in town.

They were invented in Berkeley as part of the BSD flavor of Unix.  They
spread like wildfire with the internet.  With good reason — the
combination of sockets with INET makes talking to arbitrary machines
around the world unbelievably easy (at least compared to other schemes).


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a Socket,  Next: Using a Socket,  Prev: Sockets,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.10.2 Creating a Socket
------------------------

Roughly speaking, when you clicked on the link that brought you to this
page, your browser did something like the following:

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port
     s.connect(("www.python.org", 80))

When the ‘connect’ completes, the socket ‘s’ can be used to send in a
request for the text of the page.  The same socket will read the reply,
and then be destroyed.  That’s right, destroyed.  Client sockets are
normally only used for one exchange (or a small set of sequential
exchanges).

What happens in the web server is a bit more complex.  First, the web
server creates a “server socket”:

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port
     serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80))
     # become a server socket
     serversocket.listen(5)

A couple things to notice: we used ‘socket.gethostname()’ so that the
socket would be visible to the outside world.  If we had used
‘s.bind(('localhost', 80))’ or ‘s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80))’ we would
still have a “server” socket, but one that was only visible within the
same machine.  ‘s.bind(('', 80))’ specifies that the socket is reachable
by any address the machine happens to have.

A second thing to note: low number ports are usually reserved for “well
known” services (HTTP, SNMP etc).  If you’re playing around, use a nice
high number (4 digits).

Finally, the argument to ‘listen’ tells the socket library that we want
it to queue up as many as 5 connect requests (the normal max) before
refusing outside connections.  If the rest of the code is written
properly, that should be plenty.

Now that we have a “server” socket, listening on port 80, we can enter
the mainloop of the web server:

     while True:
         # accept connections from outside
         (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
         # now do something with the clientsocket
         # in this case, we'll pretend this is a threaded server
         ct = client_thread(clientsocket)
         ct.run()

There’s actually 3 general ways in which this loop could work -
dispatching a thread to handle ‘clientsocket’, create a new process to
handle ‘clientsocket’, or restructure this app to use non-blocking
sockets, and multiplex between our “server” socket and any active
‘clientsocket’s using ‘select’.  More about that later.  The important
thing to understand now is this: this is 'all' a “server” socket does.
It doesn’t send any data.  It doesn’t receive any data.  It just
produces “client” sockets.  Each ‘clientsocket’ is created in response
to some 'other' “client” socket doing a ‘connect()’ to the host and port
we’re bound to.  As soon as we’ve created that ‘clientsocket’, we go
back to listening for more connections.  The two “clients” are free to
chat it up - they are using some dynamically allocated port which will
be recycled when the conversation ends.

* Menu:

* IPC::


File: python.info,  Node: IPC,  Up: Creating a Socket

9.10.2.1 IPC
............

If you need fast IPC between two processes on one machine, you should
look into pipes or shared memory.  If you do decide to use AF_INET
sockets, bind the “server” socket to ‘'localhost'’.  On most platforms,
this will take a shortcut around a couple of layers of network code and
be quite a bit faster.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note multiprocessing: 93. integrates cross-platform IPC into a
higher-level API.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a Socket,  Next: Disconnecting,  Prev: Creating a Socket,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.10.3 Using a Socket
---------------------

The first thing to note, is that the web browser’s “client” socket and
the web server’s “client” socket are identical beasts.  That is, this is
a “peer to peer” conversation.  Or to put it another way, 'as the
designer, you will have to decide what the rules of etiquette are for a
conversation'.  Normally, the ‘connect’ing socket starts the
conversation, by sending in a request, or perhaps a signon.  But that’s
a design decision - it’s not a rule of sockets.

Now there are two sets of verbs to use for communication.  You can use
‘send’ and ‘recv’, or you can transform your client socket into a
file-like beast and use ‘read’ and ‘write’.  The latter is the way Java
presents its sockets.  I’m not going to talk about it here, except to
warn you that you need to use ‘flush’ on sockets.  These are buffered
“files”, and a common mistake is to ‘write’ something, and then ‘read’
for a reply.  Without a ‘flush’ in there, you may wait forever for the
reply, because the request may still be in your output buffer.

Now we come to the major stumbling block of sockets - ‘send’ and ‘recv’
operate on the network buffers.  They do not necessarily handle all the
bytes you hand them (or expect from them), because their major focus is
handling the network buffers.  In general, they return when the
associated network buffers have been filled (‘send’) or emptied
(‘recv’).  They then tell you how many bytes they handled.  It is 'your'
responsibility to call them again until your message has been completely
dealt with.

When a ‘recv’ returns 0 bytes, it means the other side has closed (or is
in the process of closing) the connection.  You will not receive any
more data on this connection.  Ever.  You may be able to send data
successfully; I’ll talk more about this later.

A protocol like HTTP uses a socket for only one transfer.  The client
sends a request, then reads a reply.  That’s it.  The socket is
discarded.  This means that a client can detect the end of the reply by
receiving 0 bytes.

But if you plan to reuse your socket for further transfers, you need to
realize that 'there is no' EOT (End of Transfer) 'on a socket.'  I
repeat: if a socket ‘send’ or ‘recv’ returns after handling 0 bytes, the
connection has been broken.  If the connection has 'not' been broken,
you may wait on a ‘recv’ forever, because the socket will 'not' tell you
that there’s nothing more to read (for now).  Now if you think about
that a bit, you’ll come to realize a fundamental truth of sockets:
'messages must either be fixed length' (yuck), 'or be delimited'
(shrug), 'or indicate how long they are' (much better), 'or end by
shutting down the connection'.  The choice is entirely yours, (but some
ways are righter than others).

Assuming you don’t want to end the connection, the simplest solution is
a fixed length message:

     class MySocket:
         """demonstration class only
           - coded for clarity, not efficiency
         """

         def __init__(self, sock=None):
             if sock is None:
                 self.sock = socket.socket(
                                 socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
             else:
                 self.sock = sock

         def connect(self, host, port):
             self.sock.connect((host, port))

         def mysend(self, msg):
             totalsent = 0
             while totalsent < MSGLEN:
                 sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:])
                 if sent == 0:
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 totalsent = totalsent + sent

         def myreceive(self):
             chunks = []
             bytes_recd = 0
             while bytes_recd < MSGLEN:
                 chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048))
                 if chunk == b'':
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 chunks.append(chunk)
                 bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk)
             return b''.join(chunks)

The sending code here is usable for almost any messaging scheme - in
Python you send strings, and you can use ‘len()’ to determine its length
(even if it has embedded ‘\0’ characters).  It’s mostly the receiving
code that gets more complex.  (And in C, it’s not much worse, except you
can’t use ‘strlen’ if the message has embedded ‘\0’s.)

The easiest enhancement is to make the first character of the message an
indicator of message type, and have the type determine the length.  Now
you have two ‘recv’s - the first to get (at least) that first character
so you can look up the length, and the second in a loop to get the rest.
If you decide to go the delimited route, you’ll be receiving in some
arbitrary chunk size, (4096 or 8192 is frequently a good match for
network buffer sizes), and scanning what you’ve received for a
delimiter.

One complication to be aware of: if your conversational protocol allows
multiple messages to be sent back to back (without some kind of reply),
and you pass ‘recv’ an arbitrary chunk size, you may end up reading the
start of a following message.  You’ll need to put that aside and hold
onto it, until it’s needed.

Prefixing the message with its length (say, as 5 numeric characters)
gets more complex, because (believe it or not), you may not get all 5
characters in one ‘recv’.  In playing around, you’ll get away with it;
but in high network loads, your code will very quickly break unless you
use two ‘recv’ loops - the first to determine the length, the second to
get the data part of the message.  Nasty.  This is also when you’ll
discover that ‘send’ does not always manage to get rid of everything in
one pass.  And despite having read this, you will eventually get bit by
it!

In the interests of space, building your character, (and preserving my
competitive position), these enhancements are left as an exercise for
the reader.  Lets move on to cleaning up.

* Menu:

* Binary Data::


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Data,  Up: Using a Socket

9.10.3.1 Binary Data
....................

It is perfectly possible to send binary data over a socket.  The major
problem is that not all machines use the same formats for binary data.
For example, network byte order(1) is big-endian, with the most
significant byte first, so a 16 bit integer with the value ‘1’ would be
the two hex bytes ‘00 01’.  However, most common processors (x86/AMD64,
ARM, RISC-V), are little-endian, with the least significant byte first -
that same ‘1’ would be ‘01 00’.

Socket libraries have calls for converting 16 and 32 bit integers -
‘ntohl, htonl, ntohs, htons’ where “n” means 'network' and “h” means
'host', “s” means 'short' and “l” means 'long'.  Where network order is
host order, these do nothing, but where the machine is byte-reversed,
these swap the bytes around appropriately.

In these days of 64-bit machines, the ASCII representation of binary
data is frequently smaller than the binary representation.  That’s
because a surprising amount of the time, most integers have the value 0,
or maybe 1.  The string ‘"0"’ would be two bytes, while a full 64-bit
integer would be 8.  Of course, this doesn’t fit well with fixed-length
messages.  Decisions, decisions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness#Networking


File: python.info,  Node: Disconnecting,  Next: Non-blocking Sockets,  Prev: Using a Socket,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.10.4 Disconnecting
--------------------

Strictly speaking, you’re supposed to use ‘shutdown’ on a socket before
you ‘close’ it.  The ‘shutdown’ is an advisory to the socket at the
other end.  Depending on the argument you pass it, it can mean “I’m not
going to send anymore, but I’ll still listen”, or “I’m not listening,
good riddance!”.  Most socket libraries, however, are so used to
programmers neglecting to use this piece of etiquette that normally a
‘close’ is the same as ‘shutdown(); close()’.  So in most situations, an
explicit ‘shutdown’ is not needed.

One way to use ‘shutdown’ effectively is in an HTTP-like exchange.  The
client sends a request and then does a ‘shutdown(1)’.  This tells the
server “This client is done sending, but can still receive.” The server
can detect “EOF” by a receive of 0 bytes.  It can assume it has the
complete request.  The server sends a reply.  If the ‘send’ completes
successfully then, indeed, the client was still receiving.

Python takes the automatic shutdown a step further, and says that when a
socket is garbage collected, it will automatically do a ‘close’ if it’s
needed.  But relying on this is a very bad habit.  If your socket just
disappears without doing a ‘close’, the socket at the other end may hang
indefinitely, thinking you’re just being slow.  'Please' ‘close’ your
sockets when you’re done.

* Menu:

* When Sockets Die::


File: python.info,  Node: When Sockets Die,  Up: Disconnecting

9.10.4.1 When Sockets Die
.........................

Probably the worst thing about using blocking sockets is what happens
when the other side comes down hard (without doing a ‘close’).  Your
socket is likely to hang.  TCP is a reliable protocol, and it will wait
a long, long time before giving up on a connection.  If you’re using
threads, the entire thread is essentially dead.  There’s not much you
can do about it.  As long as you aren’t doing something dumb, like
holding a lock while doing a blocking read, the thread isn’t really
consuming much in the way of resources.  Do 'not' try to kill the thread
- part of the reason that threads are more efficient than processes is
that they avoid the overhead associated with the automatic recycling of
resources.  In other words, if you do manage to kill the thread, your
whole process is likely to be screwed up.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-blocking Sockets,  Prev: Disconnecting,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.10.5 Non-blocking Sockets
---------------------------

If you’ve understood the preceding, you already know most of what you
need to know about the mechanics of using sockets.  You’ll still use the
same calls, in much the same ways.  It’s just that, if you do it right,
your app will be almost inside-out.

In Python, you use ‘socket.setblocking(False)’ to make it non-blocking.
In C, it’s more complex, (for one thing, you’ll need to choose between
the BSD flavor ‘O_NONBLOCK’ and the almost indistinguishable POSIX
flavor ‘O_NDELAY’, which is completely different from ‘TCP_NODELAY’),
but it’s the exact same idea.  You do this after creating the socket,
but before using it.  (Actually, if you’re nuts, you can switch back and
forth.)

The major mechanical difference is that ‘send’, ‘recv’, ‘connect’ and
‘accept’ can return without having done anything.  You have (of course)
a number of choices.  You can check return code and error codes and
generally drive yourself crazy.  If you don’t believe me, try it
sometime.  Your app will grow large, buggy and suck CPU. So let’s skip
the brain-dead solutions and do it right.

Use ‘select’.

In C, coding ‘select’ is fairly complex.  In Python, it’s a piece of
cake, but it’s close enough to the C version that if you understand
‘select’ in Python, you’ll have little trouble with it in C:

     ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \
                    select.select(
                       potential_readers,
                       potential_writers,
                       potential_errs,
                       timeout)

You pass ‘select’ three lists: the first contains all sockets that you
might want to try reading; the second all the sockets you might want to
try writing to, and the last (normally left empty) those that you want
to check for errors.  You should note that a socket can go into more
than one list.  The ‘select’ call is blocking, but you can give it a
timeout.  This is generally a sensible thing to do - give it a nice long
timeout (say a minute) unless you have good reason to do otherwise.

In return, you will get three lists.  They contain the sockets that are
actually readable, writable and in error.  Each of these lists is a
subset (possibly empty) of the corresponding list you passed in.

If a socket is in the output readable list, you can be
as-close-to-certain-as-we-ever-get-in-this-business that a ‘recv’ on
that socket will return 'something'.  Same idea for the writable list.
You’ll be able to send 'something'.  Maybe not all you want to, but
'something' is better than nothing.  (Actually, any reasonably healthy
socket will return as writable - it just means outbound network buffer
space is available.)

If you have a “server” socket, put it in the potential_readers list.  If
it comes out in the readable list, your ‘accept’ will (almost certainly)
work.  If you have created a new socket to ‘connect’ to someone else,
put it in the potential_writers list.  If it shows up in the writable
list, you have a decent chance that it has connected.

Actually, ‘select’ can be handy even with blocking sockets.  It’s one
way of determining whether you will block - the socket returns as
readable when there’s something in the buffers.  However, this still
doesn’t help with the problem of determining whether the other end is
done, or just busy with something else.

'Portability alert': On Unix, ‘select’ works both with the sockets and
files.  Don’t try this on Windows.  On Windows, ‘select’ works with
sockets only.  Also note that in C, many of the more advanced socket
options are done differently on Windows.  In fact, on Windows I usually
use threads (which work very, very well) with my sockets.


File: python.info,  Node: Sorting Techniques,  Next: Unicode HOWTO,  Prev: Socket Programming HOWTO,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.11 Sorting Techniques
=======================


Yazar: Andrew Dalke and Raymond Hettinger

Python listeleri, listeyi yerinde değiştiren yerleşik bir *note
list.sort(): a46. yöntemine sahiptir.  Ayrıca, bir yinelenebilirden yeni
bir sıralanmış liste oluşturan bir *note sorted(): a45. yerleşik işlevi
de vardır.

Bu belgede, Python kullanarak verileri sıralamak için çeşitli teknikleri
keşfediyor olacağız.

* Menu:

* Sıralama Temelleri::
* Anahtar Fonksiyonları::
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* Yükselen ve Alçalan::
* Sıralama Kararlılığı ve Karmaşık Sıralamalar::
* Süsle-Sırala-Boz::
* Karşılaştırma Fonksiyonları::
* Tuhaflıklar ve Sonlar::
* Partial Sorts::


File: python.info,  Node: Sıralama Temelleri,  Next: Anahtar Fonksiyonları,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.1 Sıralama Temelleri
-------------------------

Basit bir artan sıralama yaratmak çok kolaydır: *note sorted(): a45.
fonksiyonunu çağırmanız yeterlidir.  Bu fonksiyon, yeni bir sıralanmış
liste döndürür:

     >>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4])
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Ayrıca *note list.sort(): a46. yöntemini de kullanabilirsiniz.  Listeyi
yerinde modifiye eder (ve karışıklığı önlemek için ‘None’ döndürür).
Genellikle *note sorted(): a45. yönteminden daha az kullanışlıdır -
ancak orijinal listeye ihtiyacınız yoksa, biraz daha verimlidir.

     >>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4]
     >>> a.sort()
     >>> a
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Diğer bir fark ise *note list.sort(): a46. metodunun sadece listeler
için tanımlanmış olmasıdır.  Buna karşılık, *note sorted(): a45.
fonksiyonu herhangi bir yinelenebiliri kabul eder.

     >>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'})
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]


File: python.info,  Node: Anahtar Fonksiyonları,  Next: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Prev: Sıralama Temelleri,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.2 Anahtar Fonksiyonları
----------------------------

Hem *note list.sort(): a46. hem de *note sorted(): a45, karşılaştırma
yapmadan önce listenin her öğesi üzerinde çağrılacak bir işlevi (veya
başka bir çağrılabiliri) özellikle belirtmek için bir 'key'
parametresine sahiptir.

Örneğin, büyük/küçük harfe duyarlı olmayan bir dize karşılaştırması bu
şekilde yapılmaktadır:

     >>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.casefold)
     ['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This']

'key' (anahtar) parametresinin değeri, tek bir argüman alan ve sıralama
amacıyla kullanılacak bir anahtarı döndürecek bir fonksiyon (veya başka
bir çağrılabilir) olmalıdır.  Bu teknik, hızlı çalışır çünkü anahtar
işlevi her girdi (input) kaydı için tam olarak bir kez çağrılır.

Yaygın bir model, nesnenin bazı indislerini anahtar olarak kullanarak
karmaşık nesneleri sıralamaktır.  Örneğin:

     >>> student_tuples = [
     ...     ('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     ('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     ('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2])   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Aynı teknik, adlandırılmış niteliklere sahip nesneler için de
geçerlidir.  Örneğin:

     >>> class Student:
     ...     def __init__(self, name, grade, age):
     ...         self.name = name
     ...         self.grade = grade
     ...         self.age = age
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age))

     >>> student_objects = [
     ...     Student('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     Student('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     Student('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age)   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Objects with named attributes can be made by a regular class as shown
above, or they can be instances of *note dataclass: 3d4. or a *note
named tuple: 461.


File: python.info,  Node: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Next: Yükselen ve Alçalan,  Prev: Anahtar Fonksiyonları,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.3 Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation
----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note key function: c93. patterns shown above are very common, so
Python provides convenience functions to make accessor functions easier
and faster.  The *note operator: 9e. module has *note itemgetter(): 8c6,
*note attrgetter(): cc3, and a *note methodcaller(): cc4. function.

Bu fonksiyonların kullanımı sonucunda, yukarıdaki örnekler daha basit ve
hızlı hale gelir:

     >>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Operatör modülü fonksiyonları birden fazla seviyede sıralama yapılmasına
izin verir.  Örneğin, 'sınıf' ve ardından 'yaş'’a göre sıralamak için:

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age'))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

The *note functools: 5d. module provides another helpful tool for making
key-functions.  The *note partial(): d61. function can reduce the
arity(1) of a multi-argument function making it suitable for use as a
key-function.

     >>> from functools import partial
     >>> from unicodedata import normalize

     >>> names = 'Zoë Åbjørn Núñez Élana Zeke Abe Nubia Eloise'.split()

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFD'))
     ['Abe', 'Åbjørn', 'Eloise', 'Élana', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë']

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFC'))
     ['Abe', 'Eloise', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë', 'Åbjørn', 'Élana']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity


File: python.info,  Node: Yükselen ve Alçalan,  Next: Sıralama Kararlılığı ve Karmaşık Sıralamalar,  Prev: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.4 Yükselen ve Alçalan
--------------------------

Hem *note list.sort(): a46. hem de *note sorted(): a45. boolean değerli
bir 'reverse' parametresi kabul eder.  Bu, azalan sıralamaları
işaretlemek için kullanılır.  Örneğin, öğrenci verilerini ters olarak
'yaş' sırasına göre elde etmek için:

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]


File: python.info,  Node: Sıralama Kararlılığı ve Karmaşık Sıralamalar,  Next: Süsle-Sırala-Boz,  Prev: Yükselen ve Alçalan,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.5 Sıralama Kararlılığı ve Karmaşık Sıralamalar
---------------------------------------------------

Sıralamaların kararlı(1)olması kesindir.  Bunun anlamı ise, birden fazla
kayıt aynı anahtara sahip olduğunda, orijinal sıralamanın korunacağıdır.

     >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
     >>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0))
     [('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)]

'blue' için iki kaydın orijinal sıralarını nasıl koruduğuna dikkat edin,
böylece ‘('blue', 1)’ kaydının ‘('blue', 2)’ kaydından önce gelmesi
garanti edilir.

Bu harika özellik, birkaç sıralama adımı sonucunda karmaşık sıralamalar
oluşturmanıza olanak tanır.  Örneğin, öğrenci verilerini azalan 'sınıf'
ve ardından artan 'yaş' ile sıralamak için, önce 'yaş' sıralamasını
yapın ve ardından 'sınıf' kullanarak tekrar sıralayın:

     >>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))     # sort on secondary key
     >>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True)       # now sort on primary key, descending
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Bu, bir listeyi ve alan çiftlerini alıp bunları birden fazla geçişte
sıralayabilen bir sarmalayıcı fonksiyon oluşturacak şekilde
soyutlanabilir.

     >>> def multisort(xs, specs):
     ...     for key, reverse in reversed(specs):
     ...         xs.sort(key=attrgetter(key), reverse=reverse)
     ...     return xs

     >>> multisort(list(student_objects), (('grade', True), ('age', False)))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Python’da kullanılan Timsort(2) algoritması, bir veri kümesinde zaten
mevcut olan herhangi bir sıralamadan yararlanabildiği için çoklu
sıralamayı verimli bir şekilde yapar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort


File: python.info,  Node: Süsle-Sırala-Boz,  Next: Karşılaştırma Fonksiyonları,  Prev: Sıralama Kararlılığı ve Karmaşık Sıralamalar,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.6 Süsle-Sırala-Boz
-----------------------

Süsle-Sırala-Boz deyimi, içerdiği üç adımdan ilham alınarak
oluşturulmuştur:

   * İlk olarak, ilk liste sıralama düzenini kontrol eden yeni
     değerlerle süslenir (dekore edilir).

   * İkinci olarak, dekore edilmiş liste sıralanır.

   * Son olarak, süslemeler kaldırılır ve yeni sırada yalnızca ilk
     değerleri içeren bir liste oluşturulur.

Örneğin, DSU yaklaşımını kullanarak öğrenci verilerini 'sınıf' bazında
sıralamak için:

     >>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)]
     >>> decorated.sort()
     >>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated]               # undecorate
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

Bu deyim, veri çiftleri leksikografik (sözlükbilimsel) olarak
karşılaştırıldığı için işe yarar: İlk öğeler karşılaştırılır, aynılarsa
ikinci öğeler karşılaştırılır ve bu böyle devam eder.

'i' indeksini dekore edilmiş listeye dahil etmek her durumda gerekli
değildir, ancak dahil etmek iki fayda sağlar:

   * Sıralama sabittir – iki öğe aynı anahtara sahipse, sıralanmış
     listede sıraları korunacaktır.

   * Orijinal öğelerin karşılaştırılabilir olması gerekmez çünkü dekore
     edilmiş çiftlerin sıralaması en fazla ilk iki öğe tarafından
     belirlenecektir.  Örneğin orijinal liste doğrudan sıralanamayan
     karmaşık sayılar içerebilir.

Bu deyimin bir diğer adı da, deyimi Perl programcıları arasında popüler
hale getiren Randal L. Schwartz’a atfen Schwartzian transform(1)'dur.

Artık Python sıralama anahtar fonksiyonları sağladığından, bu tekniğe
pek sık ihtiyaç duyulmamaktadır.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform


File: python.info,  Node: Karşılaştırma Fonksiyonları,  Next: Tuhaflıklar ve Sonlar,  Prev: Süsle-Sırala-Boz,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.7 Karşılaştırma Fonksiyonları
----------------------------------

Sıralama için mutlak bir değer döndüren anahtar işlevlerinin aksine,
karşılaştırma işlevi iki girdi için göreceli bir sıralamayı hesaplar.

Örneğin, bir balance scale(1) iki örneği karşılaştırarak göreceli bir
sıralama verir: daha hafif, eşit veya daha ağır.  Benzer şekilde,
‘cmp(a, b)’ karşılaştırma fonksiyonu; girdiler eşitse sıfır, küçükse
negatif, büyükse pozitif bir değer döndürür.

Algoritmaları diğer dillerden çevirirken karşılaştırma fonksiyonlarıyla
karşılaşmak yaygındır.  Ayrıca, bazı kütüphaneler API’lerinin bir
parçası olarak karşılaştırma fonksiyonları sağlar.  Örneğin, *note
locale.strcoll(): 3a87. bir karşılaştırma fonksiyonudur.

Bu durumlara uyum sağlamak için Python, karşılaştırma fonksiyonunu bir
anahtar fonksiyon olarak kullanılabilir hale getirmek için *note
functools.cmp_to_key: 107f. aracını sağlar:

     sorted(words, key=cmp_to_key(strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Balance_à_tabac_1850.JPG


File: python.info,  Node: Tuhaflıklar ve Sonlar,  Next: Partial Sorts,  Prev: Karşılaştırma Fonksiyonları,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.8 Tuhaflıklar ve Sonlar
----------------------------

   * Yerel ayarlara duyarlı sıralama yapmak istiyorsanız, anahtar
     işlevleri için *note locale.strxfrm(): 3a89. ve karşılaştırma
     işlevleri için *note locale.strcoll(): 3a87. kullanabilirsiniz.  Bu
     gereklidir çünkü “alfabetik” sıralamalar, temel alfabe aynı olsa
     bile kültürler arasında farklılık gösterebilir.

   * 'reverse' parametresi sıralamalardaki kararlığı aynı şekilde korur
     (böylece eşit anahtarlara sahip kayıtlar orijinal sırasını korumuş
     olur).  İlginç bir şekilde bu etki, parametre olmadan yerleşik
     *note reversed(): 6a9. fonksiyonu iki kez kullanılarak da simüle
     edilebilir:

          >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
          >>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True)
          >>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0))))
          >>> assert standard_way == double_reversed
          >>> standard_way
          [('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)]

   * The sort routines use ‘<’ when making comparisons between two
     objects.  So, it is easy to add a standard sort order to a class by
     defining an *note __lt__(): 1148. method:

          >>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age
          >>> sorted(student_objects)
          [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     However, note that ‘<’ can fall back to using *note __gt__(): 11b6.
     if *note __lt__(): 1148. is not implemented (see *note
     object.__lt__(): 1148. for details on the mechanics).  To avoid
     surprises, PEP 8(1) recommends that all six comparison methods be
     implemented.  The *note total_ordering(): de2. decorator is
     provided to make that task easier.

   * Anahtar işlevlerinin doğrudan sıralanan nesnelere bağlı olması
     gerekmez.  Bir anahtar işlevi, harici kaynaklara da erişebilir.
     Örneğin, öğrenci notları bir sözlükte saklanıyorsa, öğrenci
     adlarından oluşan ayrı bir listenin sıralanmasında da
     kullanılabilirler:

          >>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane']
          >>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'}
          >>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__)
          ['jane', 'dave', 'john']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Partial Sorts,  Prev: Tuhaflıklar ve Sonlar,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.11.9 Partial Sorts
--------------------

Some applications require only some of the data to be ordered.  The
standard library provides several tools that do less work than a full
sort:

   * *note min(): d9f. and *note max(): da0. return the smallest and
     largest values, respectively.  These functions make a single pass
     over the input data and require almost no auxiliary memory.

   * *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2325. and *note heapq.nlargest(): 2324.
     return the 'n' smallest and largest values, respectively.  These
     functions make a single pass over the data keeping only 'n'
     elements in memory at a time.  For values of 'n' that are small
     relative to the number of inputs, these functions make far fewer
     comparisons than a full sort.

   * *note heapq.heappush(): 1347. and *note heapq.heappop(): 1348.
     create and maintain a partially sorted arrangement of data that
     keeps the smallest element at position ‘0’.  These functions are
     suitable for implementing priority queues which are commonly used
     for task scheduling.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode HOWTO,  Next: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package,  Prev: Sorting Techniques,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.12 Unicode HOWTO
==================


Release: 1.12

This HOWTO discusses Python’s support for the Unicode specification for
representing textual data, and explains various problems that people
commonly encounter when trying to work with Unicode.

* Menu:

* Introduction to Unicode::
* Python’s Unicode Support::
* Reading and Writing Unicode Data::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction to Unicode,  Next: Python’s Unicode Support,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.1 Introduction to Unicode
------------------------------

* Menu:

* Definitions::
* Encodings::
* References: References<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Definitions,  Next: Encodings,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.12.1.1 Definitions
....................

Today’s programs need to be able to handle a wide variety of characters.
Applications are often internationalized to display messages and output
in a variety of user-selectable languages; the same program might need
to output an error message in English, French, Japanese, Hebrew, or
Russian.  Web content can be written in any of these languages and can
also include a variety of emoji symbols.  Python’s string type uses the
Unicode Standard for representing characters, which lets Python programs
work with all these different possible characters.

Unicode (‘https://www.unicode.org/’) is a specification that aims to
list every character used by human languages and give each character its
own unique code.  The Unicode specifications are continually revised and
updated to add new languages and symbols.

A 'character' is the smallest possible component of a text.  ‘A’, ‘B’,
‘C’, etc., are all different characters.  So are ‘È’ and ‘Í’.
Characters vary depending on the language or context you’re talking
about.  For example, there’s a character for “Roman Numeral One”, ‘Ⅰ’,
that’s separate from the uppercase letter ‘I’.  They’ll usually look the
same, but these are two different characters that have different
meanings.

The Unicode standard describes how characters are represented by 'code
points'.  A code point value is an integer in the range 0 to 0x10FFFF
(about 1.1 million values, the actual number assigned(1) is less than
that).  In the standard and in this document, a code point is written
using the notation ‘U+265E’ to mean the character with value ‘0x265e’
(9,822 in decimal).

The Unicode standard contains a lot of tables listing characters and
their corresponding code points:

     0061    'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
     0062    'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
     0063    'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
     ...
     007B    '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
     ...
     2167    'Ⅷ'; ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
     2168    'Ⅸ'; ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
     ...
     265E    '♞'; BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
     265F    '♟'; BLACK CHESS PAWN
     ...
     1F600   '😀'; GRINNING FACE
     1F609   '😉'; WINKING FACE
     ...

Strictly, these definitions imply that it’s meaningless to say ‘this is
character ‘U+265E’’.  ‘U+265E’ is a code point, which represents some
particular character; in this case, it represents the character ‘BLACK
CHESS KNIGHT’, ‘♞’.  In informal contexts, this distinction between code
points and characters will sometimes be forgotten.

A character is represented on a screen or on paper by a set of graphical
elements that’s called a 'glyph'.  The glyph for an uppercase A, for
example, is two diagonal strokes and a horizontal stroke, though the
exact details will depend on the font being used.  Most Python code
doesn’t need to worry about glyphs; figuring out the correct glyph to
display is generally the job of a GUI toolkit or a terminal’s font
renderer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/#Summary


File: python.info,  Node: Encodings,  Next: References<3>,  Prev: Definitions,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.12.1.2 Encodings
..................

To summarize the previous section: a Unicode string is a sequence of
code points, which are numbers from 0 through ‘0x10FFFF’ (1,114,111
decimal).  This sequence of code points needs to be represented in
memory as a set of 'code units', and 'code units' are then mapped to
8-bit bytes.  The rules for translating a Unicode string into a sequence
of bytes are called a 'character encoding', or just an 'encoding'.

The first encoding you might think of is using 32-bit integers as the
code unit, and then using the CPU’s representation of 32-bit integers.
In this representation, the string “Python” might look like this:

        P           y           t           h           o           n
     0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
        0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

This representation is straightforward but using it presents a number of
problems.

  1. It’s not portable; different processors order the bytes
     differently.

  2. It’s very wasteful of space.  In most texts, the majority of the
     code points are less than 127, or less than 255, so a lot of space
     is occupied by ‘0x00’ bytes.  The above string takes 24 bytes
     compared to the 6 bytes needed for an ASCII representation.
     Increased RAM usage doesn’t matter too much (desktop computers have
     gigabytes of RAM, and strings aren’t usually that large), but
     expanding our usage of disk and network bandwidth by a factor of 4
     is intolerable.

  3. It’s not compatible with existing C functions such as ‘strlen()’,
     so a new family of wide string functions would need to be used.

Therefore this encoding isn’t used very much, and people instead choose
other encodings that are more efficient and convenient, such as UTF-8.

UTF-8 is one of the most commonly used encodings, and Python often
defaults to using it.  UTF stands for “Unicode Transformation Format”,
and the ‘8’ means that 8-bit values are used in the encoding.  (There
are also UTF-16 and UTF-32 encodings, but they are less frequently used
than UTF-8.)  UTF-8 uses the following rules:

  1. If the code point is < 128, it’s represented by the corresponding
     byte value.

  2. If the code point is >= 128, it’s turned into a sequence of two,
     three, or four bytes, where each byte of the sequence is between
     128 and 255.

UTF-8 has several convenient properties:

  1. It can handle any Unicode code point.

  2. A Unicode string is turned into a sequence of bytes that contains
     embedded zero bytes only where they represent the null character
     (U+0000).  This means that UTF-8 strings can be processed by C
     functions such as ‘strcpy()’ and sent through protocols that can’t
     handle zero bytes for anything other than end-of-string markers.

  3. A string of ASCII text is also valid UTF-8 text.

  4. UTF-8 is fairly compact; the majority of commonly used characters
     can be represented with one or two bytes.

  5. If bytes are corrupted or lost, it’s possible to determine the
     start of the next UTF-8-encoded code point and resynchronize.  It’s
     also unlikely that random 8-bit data will look like valid UTF-8.

  6. UTF-8 is a byte oriented encoding.  The encoding specifies that
     each character is represented by a specific sequence of one or more
     bytes.  This avoids the byte-ordering issues that can occur with
     integer and word oriented encodings, like UTF-16 and UTF-32, where
     the sequence of bytes varies depending on the hardware on which the
     string was encoded.


File: python.info,  Node: References<3>,  Prev: Encodings,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.12.1.3 References
...................

The Unicode Consortium site(1) has character charts, a glossary, and PDF
versions of the Unicode specification.  Be prepared for some difficult
reading.  A chronology(2) of the origin and development of Unicode is
also available on the site.

On the Computerphile Youtube channel, Tom Scott briefly discusses the
history of Unicode and UTF-8(3) (9 minutes 36 seconds).

To help understand the standard, Jukka Korpela has written an
introductory guide(4) to reading the Unicode character tables.

Another good introductory article(5) was written by Joel Spolsky.  If
this introduction didn’t make things clear to you, you should try
reading this alternate article before continuing.

Wikipedia entries are often helpful; see the entries for “character
encoding(6)” and UTF-8(7), for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/history/

   (3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4

   (4) https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html

   (5) 
https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8


File: python.info,  Node: Python’s Unicode Support,  Next: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Prev: Introduction to Unicode,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.2 Python’s Unicode Support
-------------------------------

Now that you’ve learned the rudiments of Unicode, we can look at
Python’s Unicode features.

* Menu:

* The String Type::
* Converting to Bytes::
* Unicode Literals in Python Source Code::
* Unicode Properties::
* Comparing Strings::
* Unicode Regular Expressions::
* References: References<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: The String Type,  Next: Converting to Bytes,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.12.2.1 The String Type
........................

Since Python 3.0, the language’s *note str: 15d. type contains Unicode
characters, meaning any string created using ‘"unicode rocks!"’,
‘'unicode rocks!'’, or the triple-quoted string syntax is stored as
Unicode.

The default encoding for Python source code is UTF-8, so you can simply
include a Unicode character in a string literal:

     try:
         with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f:
             ...
     except OSError:
         # 'File not found' error message.
         print("Fichier non trouvé")

Side note: Python 3 also supports using Unicode characters in
identifiers:

     répertoire = "/tmp/records.log"
     with open(répertoire, "w") as f:
         f.write("test\n")

If you can’t enter a particular character in your editor or want to keep
the source code ASCII-only for some reason, you can also use escape
sequences in string literals.  (Depending on your system, you may see
the actual capital-delta glyph instead of a u escape.)

     >>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}"  # Using the character name
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\u0394"                          # Using a 16-bit hex value
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\U00000394"                      # Using a 32-bit hex value
     '\u0394'

In addition, one can create a string using the *note decode(): 729.
method of *note bytes: 2cb.  This method takes an 'encoding' argument,
such as ‘UTF-8’, and optionally an 'errors' argument.

The 'errors' argument specifies the response when the input string can’t
be converted according to the encoding’s rules.  Legal values for this
argument are ‘'strict'’ (raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: 873.
exception), ‘'replace'’ (use ‘U+FFFD’, ‘REPLACEMENT CHARACTER’),
‘'ignore'’ (just leave the character out of the Unicode result), or
‘'backslashreplace'’ (inserts a ‘\xNN’ escape sequence).  The following
examples show the differences:

     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0:
       invalid start byte
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace")
     '\ufffdabc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace")
     '\\x80abc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore")
     'abc'

Encodings are specified as strings containing the encoding’s name.
Python comes with roughly 100 different encodings; see the Python
Library Reference at *note Standard Encodings: c46. for a list.  Some
encodings have multiple names; for example, ‘'latin-1'’, ‘'iso_8859_1'’
and ‘'8859’’ are all synonyms for the same encoding.

One-character Unicode strings can also be created with the *note chr():
1ce0. built-in function, which takes integers and returns a Unicode
string of length 1 that contains the corresponding code point.  The
reverse operation is the built-in *note ord(): 1cdf. function that takes
a one-character Unicode string and returns the code point value:

     >>> chr(57344)
     '\ue000'
     >>> ord('\ue000')
     57344


File: python.info,  Node: Converting to Bytes,  Next: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Prev: The String Type,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.12.2.2 Converting to Bytes
............................

The opposite method of *note bytes.decode(): 729. is *note str.encode():
728, which returns a *note bytes: 2cb. representation of the Unicode
string, encoded in the requested 'encoding'.

The 'errors' parameter is the same as the parameter of the *note
decode(): 729. method but supports a few more possible handlers.  As
well as ‘'strict'’, ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ (which in this case
inserts a question mark instead of the unencodable character), there is
also ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ (inserts an XML character reference),
‘backslashreplace’ (inserts a ‘\uNNNN’ escape sequence) and
‘namereplace’ (inserts a ‘\N{...}’ escape sequence).

The following example shows the different results:

     >>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972)
     >>> u.encode('utf-8')
     b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in
       position 0: ordinal not in range(128)
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore')
     b'abcd'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace')
     b'?abcd?'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'&#40960;abcd&#1972;'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')
     b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace')
     b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4'

The low-level routines for registering and accessing the available
encodings are found in the *note codecs: 1b. module.  Implementing new
encodings also requires understanding the *note codecs: 1b. module.
However, the encoding and decoding functions returned by this module are
usually more low-level than is comfortable, and writing new encodings is
a specialized task, so the module won’t be covered in this HOWTO.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Next: Unicode Properties,  Prev: Converting to Bytes,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.12.2.3 Unicode Literals in Python Source Code
...............................................

In Python source code, specific Unicode code points can be written using
the ‘\u’ escape sequence, which is followed by four hex digits giving
the code point.  The ‘\U’ escape sequence is similar, but expects eight
hex digits, not four:

     >>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000"
     ... #     ^^^^ two-digit hex escape
     ... #         ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape
     ... #                     ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape
     >>> [ord(c) for c in s]
     [97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]

Using escape sequences for code points greater than 127 is fine in small
doses, but becomes an annoyance if you’re using many accented
characters, as you would in a program with messages in French or some
other accent-using language.  You can also assemble strings using the
*note chr(): 1ce0. built-in function, but this is even more tedious.

Ideally, you’d want to be able to write literals in your language’s
natural encoding.  You could then edit Python source code with your
favorite editor which would display the accented characters naturally,
and have the right characters used at runtime.

Python supports writing source code in UTF-8 by default, but you can use
almost any encoding if you declare the encoding being used.  This is
done by including a special comment as either the first or second line
of the source file:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: latin-1 -*-

     u = 'abcdé'
     print(ord(u[-1]))

The syntax is inspired by Emacs’s notation for specifying variables
local to a file.  Emacs supports many different variables, but Python
only supports ‘coding’.  The ‘-*-’ symbols indicate to Emacs that the
comment is special; they have no significance to Python but are a
convention.  Python looks for ‘coding: name’ or ‘coding=name’ in the
comment.

If you don’t include such a comment, the default encoding used will be
UTF-8 as already mentioned.  See also PEP 263(1) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Properties,  Next: Comparing Strings,  Prev: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.12.2.4 Unicode Properties
...........................

The Unicode specification includes a database of information about code
points.  For each defined code point, the information includes the
character’s name, its category, the numeric value if applicable (for
characters representing numeric concepts such as the Roman numerals,
fractions such as one-third and four-fifths, etc.).  There are also
display-related properties, such as how to use the code point in
bidirectional text.

The following program displays some information about several
characters, and prints the numeric value of one particular character:

     import unicodedata

     u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231)

     for i, c in enumerate(u):
         print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ")
         print(unicodedata.name(c))

     # Get numeric value of second character
     print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1]))

When run, this prints:

     0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
     1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
     2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
     3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
     4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
     1000.0

The category codes are abbreviations describing the nature of the
character.  These are grouped into categories such as “Letter”,
“Number”, “Punctuation”, or “Symbol”, which in turn are broken up into
subcategories.  To take the codes from the above output, ‘'Ll'’ means
‘Letter, lowercase’, ‘'No'’ means “Number, other”, ‘'Mn'’ is “Mark,
nonspacing”, and ‘'So'’ is “Symbol, other”.  See the General Category
Values section of the Unicode Character Database documentation(1) for a
list of category codes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values


File: python.info,  Node: Comparing Strings,  Next: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Prev: Unicode Properties,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.12.2.5 Comparing Strings
..........................

Unicode adds some complication to comparing strings, because the same
set of characters can be represented by different sequences of code
points.  For example, a letter like ‘ê’ can be represented as a single
code point U+00EA, or as U+0065 U+0302, which is the code point for ‘e’
followed by a code point for ‘COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT’.  These will
produce the same output when printed, but one is a string of length 1
and the other is of length 2.

One tool for a case-insensitive comparison is the *note casefold(): c64.
string method that converts a string to a case-insensitive form
following an algorithm described by the Unicode Standard.  This
algorithm has special handling for characters such as the German letter
‘ß’ (code point U+00DF), which becomes the pair of lowercase letters
‘ss’.

     >>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße'
     >>> street.casefold()
     'gürzenichstrasse'

A second tool is the *note unicodedata: 105. module’s *note normalize():
4ec. function that converts strings to one of several normal forms,
where letters followed by a combining character are replaced with single
characters.  *note normalize(): 4ec. can be used to perform string
comparisons that won’t falsely report inequality if two strings use
combining characters differently:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_strs(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2)

     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
     print('length of first string=', len(single_char))
     print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars))
     print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars))

When run, this outputs:

     $ python compare-strs.py
     length of first string= 1
     length of second string= 2
     True

The first argument to the *note normalize(): 4ec. function is a string
giving the desired normalization form, which can be one of ‘NFC’,
‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’, and ‘NFKD’.

The Unicode Standard also specifies how to do caseless comparisons:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_caseless(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold())

     # Example usage
     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'

     print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars))

This will print ‘True’.  (Why is ‘NFD()’ invoked twice?  Because there
are a few characters that make *note casefold(): c64. return a
non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again.  See
section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Next: References<4>,  Prev: Comparing Strings,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.12.2.6 Unicode Regular Expressions
....................................

The regular expressions supported by the *note re: b8. module can be
provided either as bytes or strings.  Some of the special character
sequences such as ‘\d’ and ‘\w’ have different meanings depending on
whether the pattern is supplied as bytes or a string.  For example, ‘\d’
will match the characters ‘[0-9]’ in bytes but in strings will match any
character that’s in the ‘'Nd'’ category.

The string in this example has the number 57 written in both Thai and
Arabic numerals:

     import re
     p = re.compile(r'\d+')

     s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours"
     m = p.search(s)
     print(repr(m.group()))

When executed, ‘\d+’ will match the Thai numerals and print them out.
If you supply the *note re.ASCII: 43f. flag to *note compile(): a4a,
‘\d+’ will match the substring “57” instead.

Similarly, ‘\w’ matches a wide variety of Unicode characters but only
‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ in bytes or if *note re.ASCII: 43f. is supplied, and ‘\s’
will match either Unicode whitespace characters or ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.


File: python.info,  Node: References<4>,  Prev: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.12.2.7 References
...................

Some good alternative discussions of Python’s Unicode support are:

   * Processing Text Files in Python 3(1), by Nick Coghlan.

   * Pragmatic Unicode(2), a PyCon 2012 presentation by Ned Batchelder.

The *note str: 15d. type is described in the Python library reference at
*note Metin Sırası Türü — str: 1a44.

The documentation for the *note unicodedata: 105. module.

The documentation for the *note codecs: 1b. module.

Marc-André Lemburg gave a presentation titled "Python and Unicode" (PDF
slides)(3) at EuroPython 2002.  The slides are an excellent overview of
the design of Python 2’s Unicode features (where the Unicode string type
is called ‘unicode’ and literals start with ‘u’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html

   (2) https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html

   (3) https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Next: Acknowledgements<10>,  Prev: Python’s Unicode Support,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.3 Reading and Writing Unicode Data
---------------------------------------

Once you’ve written some code that works with Unicode data, the next
problem is input/output.  How do you get Unicode strings into your
program, and how do you convert Unicode into a form suitable for storage
or transmission?

It’s possible that you may not need to do anything depending on your
input sources and output destinations; you should check whether the
libraries used in your application support Unicode natively.  XML
parsers often return Unicode data, for example.  Many relational
databases also support Unicode-valued columns and can return Unicode
values from an SQL query.

Unicode data is usually converted to a particular encoding before it
gets written to disk or sent over a socket.  It’s possible to do all the
work yourself: open a file, read an 8-bit bytes object from it, and
convert the bytes with ‘bytes.decode(encoding)’.  However, the manual
approach is not recommended.

One problem is the multi-byte nature of encodings; one Unicode character
can be represented by several bytes.  If you want to read the file in
arbitrary-sized chunks (say, 1024 or 4096 bytes), you need to write
error-handling code to catch the case where only part of the bytes
encoding a single Unicode character are read at the end of a chunk.  One
solution would be to read the entire file into memory and then perform
the decoding, but that prevents you from working with files that are
extremely large; if you need to read a 2 GiB file, you need 2 GiB of
RAM.  (More, really, since for at least a moment you’d need to have both
the encoded string and its Unicode version in memory.)

The solution would be to use the low-level decoding interface to catch
the case of partial coding sequences.  The work of implementing this has
already been done for you: the built-in *note open(): 2a6. function can
return a file-like object that assumes the file’s contents are in a
specified encoding and accepts Unicode parameters for methods such as
*note read(): 1ace. and *note write(): 1abd.  This works through *note
open(): 2a6.'s 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters which are interpreted
just like those in *note str.encode(): 728. and *note bytes.decode():
729.

Reading Unicode from a file is therefore simple:

     with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         for line in f:
             print(repr(line))

It’s also possible to open files in update mode, allowing both reading
and writing:

     with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f:
         f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n')
         f.seek(0)
         print(repr(f.readline()[:1]))

The Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’ is used as a byte-order mark (BOM), and
is often written as the first character of a file in order to assist
with autodetection of the file’s byte ordering.  Some encodings, such as
UTF-16, expect a BOM to be present at the start of a file; when such an
encoding is used, the BOM will be automatically written as the first
character and will be silently dropped when the file is read.  There are
variants of these encodings, such as ‘utf-16-le’ and ‘utf-16-be’ for
little-endian and big-endian encodings, that specify one particular byte
ordering and don’t skip the BOM.

In some areas, it is also convention to use a “BOM” at the start of
UTF-8 encoded files; the name is misleading since UTF-8 is not
byte-order dependent.  The mark simply announces that the file is
encoded in UTF-8.  For reading such files, use the ‘utf-8-sig’ codec to
automatically skip the mark if present.

* Menu:

* Unicode filenames::
* Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs::
* References: References<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode filenames,  Next: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.12.3.1 Unicode filenames
..........................

Most of the operating systems in common use today support filenames that
contain arbitrary Unicode characters.  Usually this is implemented by
converting the Unicode string into some encoding that varies depending
on the system.  Today Python is converging on using UTF-8: Python on
MacOS has used UTF-8 for several versions, and Python 3.6 switched to
using UTF-8 on Windows as well.  On Unix systems, there will only be a
*note filesystem encoding: 2c7.  if you’ve set the ‘LANG’ or ‘LC_CTYPE’
environment variables; if you haven’t, the default encoding is again
UTF-8.

The *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. function returns the
encoding to use on your current system, in case you want to do the
encoding manually, but there’s not much reason to bother.  When opening
a file for reading or writing, you can usually just provide the Unicode
string as the filename, and it will be automatically converted to the
right encoding for you:

     filename = 'filename\u4500abc'
     with open(filename, 'w') as f:
         f.write('blah\n')

Functions in the *note os: a0. module such as *note os.stat(): 1c5. will
also accept Unicode filenames.

The *note os.listdir(): f9c. function returns filenames, which raises an
issue: should it return the Unicode version of filenames, or should it
return bytes containing the encoded versions?  *note os.listdir(): f9c.
can do both, depending on whether you provided the directory path as
bytes or a Unicode string.  If you pass a Unicode string as the path,
filenames will be decoded using the filesystem’s encoding and a list of
Unicode strings will be returned, while passing a byte path will return
the filenames as bytes.  For example, assuming the default *note
filesystem encoding: 2c7. is UTF-8, running the following program:

     fn = 'filename\u4500abc'
     f = open(fn, 'w')
     f.close()

     import os
     print(os.listdir(b'.'))
     print(os.listdir('.'))

will produce the following output:

     $ python listdir-test.py
     [b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...]
     ['filename\u4500abc', ...]

The first list contains UTF-8-encoded filenames, and the second list
contains the Unicode versions.

Note that on most occasions, you should can just stick with using
Unicode with these APIs.  The bytes APIs should only be used on systems
where undecodable file names can be present; that’s pretty much only
Unix systems now.


File: python.info,  Node: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Next: References<5>,  Prev: Unicode filenames,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.12.3.2 Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs
................................................

This section provides some suggestions on writing software that deals
with Unicode.

The most important tip is:

     Software should only work with Unicode strings internally, decoding
     the input data as soon as possible and encoding the output only at
     the end.

If you attempt to write processing functions that accept both Unicode
and byte strings, you will find your program vulnerable to bugs wherever
you combine the two different kinds of strings.  There is no automatic
encoding or decoding: if you do e.g.  ‘str + bytes’, a *note TypeError:
2c4. will be raised.

When using data coming from a web browser or some other untrusted
source, a common technique is to check for illegal characters in a
string before using the string in a generated command line or storing it
in a database.  If you’re doing this, be careful to check the decoded
string, not the encoded bytes data; some encodings may have interesting
properties, such as not being bijective or not being fully
ASCII-compatible.  This is especially true if the input data also
specifies the encoding, since the attacker can then choose a clever way
to hide malicious text in the encoded bytestream.

* Menu:

* Converting Between File Encodings::
* Files in an Unknown Encoding::


File: python.info,  Node: Converting Between File Encodings,  Next: Files in an Unknown Encoding,  Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

9.12.3.3 Converting Between File Encodings
..........................................

The *note StreamRecoder: 182a. class can transparently convert between
encodings, taking a stream that returns data in encoding #1 and behaving
like a stream returning data in encoding #2.

For example, if you have an input file 'f' that’s in Latin-1, you can
wrap it with a *note StreamRecoder: 182a. to return bytes encoded in
UTF-8:

     new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f,
         # en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and
         # by write() to decode its input.
         codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'),

         # reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream.
         codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )


File: python.info,  Node: Files in an Unknown Encoding,  Prev: Converting Between File Encodings,  Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

9.12.3.4 Files in an Unknown Encoding
.....................................

What can you do if you need to make a change to a file, but don’t know
the file’s encoding?  If you know the encoding is ASCII-compatible and
only want to examine or modify the ASCII parts, you can open the file
with the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler:

     with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         data = f.read()

     # make changes to the string 'data'

     with open(fname + '.new', 'w',
               encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         f.write(data)

The ‘surrogateescape’ error handler will decode any non-ASCII bytes as
code points in a special range running from U+DC80 to U+DCFF. These code
points will then turn back into the same bytes when the
‘surrogateescape’ error handler is used to encode the data and write it
back out.


File: python.info,  Node: References<5>,  Prev: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.12.3.5 References
...................

One section of Mastering Python 3 Input/Output(1), a PyCon 2010 talk by
David Beazley, discusses text processing and binary data handling.

The PDF slides for Marc-André Lemburg's presentation "Writing
Unicode-aware Applications in Python"(2) discuss questions of character
encodings as well as how to internationalize and localize an
application.  These slides cover Python 2.x only.

The Guts of Unicode in Python(3) is a PyCon 2013 talk by Benjamin
Peterson that discusses the internal Unicode representation in Python
3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010-mastering-python-3-i-o

   (2) 
https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf

   (3) https://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<10>,  Prev: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.12.4 Acknowledgements
-----------------------

The initial draft of this document was written by Andrew Kuchling.  It
has since been revised further by Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl,
Andrew Kuchling, and Ezio Melotti.

Thanks to the following people who have noted errors or offered
suggestions on this article: Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick Coghlan,
Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin
von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka, Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre,
Graham Wideman.


File: python.info,  Node: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package,  Next: An introduction to the ipaddress module,  Prev: Unicode HOWTO,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.13 HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package
============================================================


Author: Michael Foord(1)

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<13>.
* Fetching URLs::
* Handling Exceptions::
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* Footnotes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://agileabstractions.com/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<13>,  Next: Fetching URLs,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.1 Introduction
-------------------

Related Articles
................

You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources
with Python:

   * Basic Authentication(1)

          A tutorial on 'Basic Authentication', with examples in Python.

'urllib.request' is a Python module for fetching URLs (Uniform Resource
Locators).  It offers a very simple interface, in the form of the
'urlopen' function.  This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of
different protocols.  It also offers a slightly more complex interface
for handling common situations - like basic authentication, cookies,
proxies and so on.  These are provided by objects called handlers and
openers.

urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many “URL schemes” (identified
by the string before the ‘":"’ in URL - for example ‘"ftp"’ is the URL
scheme of ‘"ftp://python.org/"’) using their associated network
protocols (e.g.  FTP, HTTP). This tutorial focuses on the most common
case, HTTP.

For straightforward situations 'urlopen' is very easy to use.  But as
soon as you encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP
URLs, you will need some understanding of the HyperText Transfer
Protocol.  The most comprehensive and authoritative reference to HTTP is
RFC 2616(2).  This is a technical document and not intended to be easy
to read.  This HOWTO aims to illustrate using 'urllib', with enough
detail about HTTP to help you through.  It is not intended to replace
the *note urllib.request: 10b. docs, but is supplementary to them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Fetching URLs,  Next: Handling Exceptions,  Prev: Introduction<13>,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.2 Fetching URLs
--------------------

The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows:

     import urllib.request
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
        html = response.read()

If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary
location, you can do so via the *note shutil.copyfileobj(): 8c1. and
*note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 1f4. functions:

     import shutil
     import tempfile
     import urllib.request

     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
         with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:
             shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)

     with open(tmp_file.name) as html:
         pass

Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an ‘http:’
URL we could have used a URL starting with ‘ftp:’, ‘file:’, etc.).
However, it’s the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more
complicated cases, concentrating on HTTP.

HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and
servers send responses.  urllib.request mirrors this with a ‘Request’
object which represents the HTTP request you are making.  In its
simplest form you create a Request object that specifies the URL you
want to fetch.  Calling ‘urlopen’ with this Request object returns a
response object for the URL requested.  This response is a file-like
object, which means you can for example call ‘.read()’ on the response:

     import urllib.request

     req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to
handle all URL schemes.  For example, you can make an FTP request like
so:

     req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')

In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects
allow you to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server.
Second, you can pass extra information (“metadata”) 'about' the data or
about the request itself, to the server - this information is sent as
HTTP “headers”.  Let’s look at each of these in turn.

* Menu:

* Data::
* Headers::


File: python.info,  Node: Data,  Next: Headers,  Up: Fetching URLs

9.13.2.1 Data
.............

Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a
CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application).  With
HTTP, this is often done using what’s known as a 'POST' request.  This
is often what your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you
filled in on the web.  Not all POSTs have to come from forms: you can
use a POST to transmit arbitrary data to your own application.  In the
common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be encoded in a standard
way, and then passed to the Request object as the ‘data’ argument.  The
encoding is done using a function from the *note urllib.parse: 10a.
library.

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',
               'location' : 'Northampton',
               'language' : 'Python' }

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g.  for file upload
from HTML forms - see HTML Specification, Form Submission(1) for more
details).

If you do not pass the ‘data’ argument, urllib uses a 'GET' request.
One way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests
often have “side-effects”: they change the state of the system in some
way (for example by placing an order with the website for a
hundredweight of tinned spam to be delivered to your door).  Though the
HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are intended to 'always' cause
side-effects, and GET requests 'never' to cause side-effects, nothing
prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a POST requests
from having no side-effects.  Data can also be passed in an HTTP GET
request by encoding it in the URL itself.

This is done as follows:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = {}
     >>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'
     >>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'
     >>> data['language'] = 'Python'
     >>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)
     >>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.
     name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton
     >>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'
     >>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values
     >>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)

Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ‘?’ to the URL, followed
by the encoded values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13


File: python.info,  Node: Headers,  Prev: Data,  Up: Fetching URLs

9.13.2.2 Headers
................

We’ll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add
headers to your HTTP request.

Some websites (1) dislike being browsed by programs, or send different
versions to different browsers (2).  By default urllib identifies itself
as ‘Python-urllib/x.y’ (where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are the major and minor
version numbers of the Python release, e.g.  ‘Python-urllib/2.5’), which
may confuse the site, or just plain not work.  The way a browser
identifies itself is through the ‘User-Agent’ header (3).  When you
create a Request object you can pass a dictionary of headers in.  The
following example makes the same request as above, but identifies itself
as a version of Internet Explorer (4).

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'
     values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',
               'location': 'Northampton',
               'language': 'Python' }
     headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii')
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

The response also has two useful methods.  See the section on *note info
and geturl: 4eda. which comes after we have a look at what happens when
things go wrong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Google for example.

   (2) Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design -
building sites using web standards is much more sensible.  Unfortunately
a lot of sites still send different versions to different browsers.

   (3) The user agent for MSIE 6 is '‘Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0;
Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)’'

   (4) For details of more HTTP request headers, see Quick Reference to
HTTP Headers (https://jkorpela.fi/http.html).


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Exceptions,  Next: info and geturl,  Prev: Fetching URLs,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.3 Handling Exceptions
--------------------------

'urlopen' raises *note URLError: 36de. when it cannot handle a response
(though as usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as *note
ValueError: 189, *note TypeError: 2c4. etc.  may also be raised).

*note HTTPError: e84. is the subclass of *note URLError: 36de. raised in
the specific case of HTTP URLs.

The exception classes are exported from the *note urllib.error: 109.
module.

* Menu:

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::


File: python.info,  Node: URLError,  Next: HTTPError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.13.3.1 URLError
.................

Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no
route to the specified server), or the specified server doesn’t exist.
In this case, the exception raised will have a ‘reason’ attribute, which
is a tuple containing an error code and a text error message.

e.g.

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')
     >>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.URLError as e:
     ...     print(e.reason)
     ...
     (4, 'getaddrinfo failed')


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPError,  Next: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: URLError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.13.3.2 HTTPError
..................

Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric “status code”.
Sometimes the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil
the request.  The default handlers will handle some of these responses
for you (for example, if the response is a “redirection” that requests
the client fetch the document from a different URL, urllib will handle
that for you).  For those it can’t handle, urlopen will raise an *note
HTTPError: e84.  Typical errors include ‘404’ (page not found), ‘403’
(request forbidden), and ‘401’ (authentication required).

See section 10 of RFC 2616(1) for a reference on all the HTTP error
codes.

The *note HTTPError: e84. instance raised will have an integer ‘code’
attribute, which corresponds to the error sent by the server.

* Menu:

* Error Codes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Error Codes,  Up: HTTPError

9.13.3.3 Error Codes
....................

Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range),
and codes in the 100–299 range indicate success, you will usually only
see error codes in the 400–599 range.

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 377c. is a useful
dictionary of response codes in that shows all the response codes used
by RFC 2616(1).  The dictionary is reproduced here for convenience

     # Table mapping response codes to messages; entries have the
     # form {code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}.
     responses = {
         100: ('Continue', 'Request received, please continue'),
         101: ('Switching Protocols',
               'Switching to new protocol; obey Upgrade header'),

         200: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
         201: ('Created', 'Document created, URL follows'),
         202: ('Accepted',
               'Request accepted, processing continues off-line'),
         203: ('Non-Authoritative Information', 'Request fulfilled from cache'),
         204: ('No Content', 'Request fulfilled, nothing follows'),
         205: ('Reset Content', 'Clear input form for further input.'),
         206: ('Partial Content', 'Partial content follows.'),

         300: ('Multiple Choices',
               'Object has several resources -- see URI list'),
         301: ('Moved Permanently', 'Object moved permanently -- see URI list'),
         302: ('Found', 'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),
         303: ('See Other', 'Object moved -- see Method and URL list'),
         304: ('Not Modified',
               'Document has not changed since given time'),
         305: ('Use Proxy',
               'You must use proxy specified in Location to access this '
               'resource.'),
         307: ('Temporary Redirect',
               'Object moved temporarily -- see URI list'),

         400: ('Bad Request',
               'Bad request syntax or unsupported method'),
         401: ('Unauthorized',
               'No permission -- see authorization schemes'),
         402: ('Payment Required',
               'No payment -- see charging schemes'),
         403: ('Forbidden',
               'Request forbidden -- authorization will not help'),
         404: ('Not Found', 'Nothing matches the given URI'),
         405: ('Method Not Allowed',
               'Specified method is invalid for this server.'),
         406: ('Not Acceptable', 'URI not available in preferred format.'),
         407: ('Proxy Authentication Required', 'You must authenticate with '
               'this proxy before proceeding.'),
         408: ('Request Timeout', 'Request timed out; try again later.'),
         409: ('Conflict', 'Request conflict.'),
         410: ('Gone',
               'URI no longer exists and has been permanently removed.'),
         411: ('Length Required', 'Client must specify Content-Length.'),
         412: ('Precondition Failed', 'Precondition in headers is false.'),
         413: ('Request Entity Too Large', 'Entity is too large.'),
         414: ('Request-URI Too Long', 'URI is too long.'),
         415: ('Unsupported Media Type', 'Entity body in unsupported format.'),
         416: ('Requested Range Not Satisfiable',
               'Cannot satisfy request range.'),
         417: ('Expectation Failed',
               'Expect condition could not be satisfied.'),

         500: ('Internal Server Error', 'Server got itself in trouble'),
         501: ('Not Implemented',
               'Server does not support this operation'),
         502: ('Bad Gateway', 'Invalid responses from another server/proxy.'),
         503: ('Service Unavailable',
               'The server cannot process the request due to a high load'),
         504: ('Gateway Timeout',
               'The gateway server did not receive a timely response'),
         505: ('HTTP Version Not Supported', 'Cannot fulfill request.'),
         }

When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error
code 'and' an error page.  You can use the *note HTTPError: e84.
instance as a response on the page returned.  This means that as well as
the code attribute, it also has read, geturl, and info, methods as
returned by the ‘urllib.response’ module:

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')
     >>> try:
     ...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
     ...     print(e.code)
     ...     print(e.read())
     ...
     404
     b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
       "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
       ...
       <title>Page Not Found</title>\n
       ...

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: HTTPError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.13.3.4 Wrapping it Up
.......................

So if you want to be prepared for *note HTTPError: e84. 'or' *note
URLError: 36de. there are two basic approaches.  I prefer the second
approach.

* Menu:

* Number 1::
* Number 2::


File: python.info,  Node: Number 1,  Next: Number 2,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.13.3.5 Number 1
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except HTTPError as e:
         print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
         print('Error code: ', e.code)
     except URLError as e:
         print('We failed to reach a server.')
         print('Reason: ', e.reason)
     else:
         # everything is fine

     Not: The ‘except HTTPError’ 'must' come first, otherwise ‘except
     URLError’ will 'also' catch an *note HTTPError: e84.


File: python.info,  Node: Number 2,  Prev: Number 1,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.13.3.6 Number 2
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except URLError as e:
         if hasattr(e, 'reason'):
             print('We failed to reach a server.')
             print('Reason: ', e.reason)
         elif hasattr(e, 'code'):
             print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
             print('Error code: ', e.code)
     else:
         # everything is fine


File: python.info,  Node: info and geturl,  Next: Openers and Handlers,  Prev: Handling Exceptions,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.4 info and geturl
----------------------

The response returned by urlopen (or the *note HTTPError: e84. instance)
has two useful methods ‘info()’ and ‘geturl()’ and is defined in the
module *note urllib.response: 10c.

   * 'geturl' - this returns the real URL of the page fetched.  This is
     useful because ‘urlopen’ (or the opener object used) may have
     followed a redirect.  The URL of the page fetched may not be the
     same as the URL requested.

   * 'info' - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the
     page fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server.  It is
     currently an *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3793. instance.

Typical headers include ‘Content-length’, ‘Content-type’, and so on.
See the Quick Reference to HTTP Headers(1) for a useful listing of HTTP
headers with brief explanations of their meaning and use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://jkorpela.fi/http.html


File: python.info,  Node: Openers and Handlers,  Next: Basic Authentication,  Prev: info and geturl,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.5 Openers and Handlers
---------------------------

When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps
confusingly named *note urllib.request.OpenerDirector: 36df.).  Normally
we have been using the default opener - via ‘urlopen’ - but you can
create custom openers.  Openers use handlers.  All the “heavy lifting”
is done by the handlers.  Each handler knows how to open URLs for a
particular URL scheme (http, ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of
URL opening, for example HTTP redirections or HTTP cookies.

You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific
handlers installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies,
or to get an opener that does not handle redirections.

To create an opener, instantiate an ‘OpenerDirector’, and then call
‘.add_handler(some_handler_instance)’ repeatedly.

Alternatively, you can use ‘build_opener’, which is a convenience
function for creating opener objects with a single function call.
‘build_opener’ adds several handlers by default, but provides a quick
way to add more and/or override the default handlers.

Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies,
authentication, and other common but slightly specialised situations.

‘install_opener’ can be used to make an ‘opener’ object the (global)
default opener.  This means that calls to ‘urlopen’ will use the opener
you have installed.

Opener objects have an ‘open’ method, which can be called directly to
fetch urls in the same way as the ‘urlopen’ function: there’s no need to
call ‘install_opener’, except as a convenience.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Authentication,  Next: Proxies,  Prev: Openers and Handlers,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.6 Basic Authentication
---------------------------

To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the
‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’.  For a more detailed discussion of this subject
– including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the
Basic Authentication Tutorial(1).

When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as
the 401 error code) requesting authentication.  This specifies the
authentication scheme and a ‘realm’.  The header looks like:
‘WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME realm="REALM"’.

e.g.

     WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users"

The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and
password for the realm included as a header in the request.  This is
‘basic authentication’.  In order to simplify this process we can create
an instance of ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ and an opener to use this handler.

The ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ uses an object called a password manager to
handle the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames.  If
you know what the realm is (from the authentication header sent by the
server), then you can use a ‘HTTPPasswordMgr’.  Frequently one doesn’t
care what the realm is.  In that case, it is convenient to use
‘HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm’.  This allows you to specify a default
username and password for a URL. This will be supplied in the absence of
you providing an alternative combination for a specific realm.  We
indicate this by providing ‘None’ as the realm argument to the
‘add_password’ method.

The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication.  URLs
“deeper” than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match.

     # create a password manager
     password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()

     # Add the username and password.
     # If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.
     top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/"
     password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)

     handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)

     # create "opener" (OpenerDirector instance)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)

     # use the opener to fetch a URL
     opener.open(a_url)

     # Install the opener.
     # Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     Not: In the above example we only supplied our
     ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ to ‘build_opener’.  By default openers have
     the handlers for normal situations – ‘ProxyHandler’ (if a proxy
     setting such as an ‘http_proxy’ environment variable is set),
     ‘UnknownHandler’, ‘HTTPHandler’, ‘HTTPDefaultErrorHandler’,
     ‘HTTPRedirectHandler’, ‘FTPHandler’, ‘FileHandler’, ‘DataHandler’,
     ‘HTTPErrorProcessor’.

‘top_level_url’ is in fact 'either' a full URL (including the ‘http:’
scheme component and the hostname and optionally the port number) e.g.
‘"http://example.com/"’ 'or' an “authority” (i.e.  the hostname,
optionally including the port number) e.g.  ‘"example.com"’ or
‘"example.com:8080"’ (the latter example includes a port number).  The
authority, if present, must NOT contain the “userinfo” component - for
example ‘"joe:password@example.com"’ is not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: Proxies,  Next: Sockets and Layers,  Prev: Basic Authentication,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.7 Proxies
--------------

'urllib' will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those.  This is
through the ‘ProxyHandler’, which is part of the normal handler chain
when a proxy setting is detected.  Normally that’s a good thing, but
there are occasions when it may not be helpful (1).  One way to do this
is to setup our own ‘ProxyHandler’, with no proxies defined.  This is
done using similar steps to setting up a Basic Authentication(2)
handler:

     >>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})
     >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)
     >>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     Not: Currently ‘urllib.request’ 'does not' support fetching of
     ‘https’ locations through a proxy.  However, this can be enabled by
     extending urllib.request as shown in the recipe (3).

     Not: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is
     set; see the documentation on *note getproxies(): 36db.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work.
If you attempt to fetch 'localhost' URLs through this proxy it blocks
them.  IE is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on.  In order
to test scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from
using the proxy.

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (3) urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): ASPN Cookbook
Recipe
(https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-method/).


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets and Layers,  Next: Footnotes,  Prev: Proxies,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.8 Sockets and Layers
-------------------------

The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered.
urllib uses the *note http.client: 6d. library, which in turn uses the
socket library.

As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a
response before timing out.  This can be useful in applications which
have to fetch web pages.  By default the socket module has 'no timeout'
and can hang.  Currently, the socket timeout is not exposed at the
http.client or urllib.request levels.  However, you can set the default
timeout globally for all sockets using

     import socket
     import urllib.request

     # timeout in seconds
     timeout = 10
     socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)

     # this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout
     # we have set in the socket module
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
     response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Footnotes,  Prev: Sockets and Layers,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.13.9 Footnotes
----------------

This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: An introduction to the ipaddress module,  Next: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap,  Prev: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.14 An introduction to the ipaddress module
============================================


author: Peter Moody


author: Nick Coghlan

Overview
........

This document aims to provide a gentle introduction to the *note
ipaddress: 7e. module.  It is aimed primarily at users that aren’t
already familiar with IP networking terminology, but may also be useful
to network engineers wanting an overview of how *note ipaddress: 7e.
represents IP network addressing concepts.

* Menu:

* Creating Address/Network/Interface objects::
* Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects::
* Networks as lists of Addresses::
* Comparisons: Comparisons<3>.
* Using IP Addresses with other modules::
* Getting more detail when instance creation fails::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects,  Next: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.14.1 Creating Address/Network/Interface objects
-------------------------------------------------

Since *note ipaddress: 7e. is a module for inspecting and manipulating
IP addresses, the first thing you’ll want to do is create some objects.
You can use *note ipaddress: 7e. to create objects from strings and
integers.

* Menu:

* A Note on IP Versions::
* IP Host Addresses::
* Defining Networks::
* Host Interfaces::


File: python.info,  Node: A Note on IP Versions,  Next: IP Host Addresses,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.1 A Note on IP Versions
..............................

For readers that aren’t particularly familiar with IP addressing, it’s
important to know that the Internet Protocol (IP) is currently in the
process of moving from version 4 of the protocol to version 6.  This
transition is occurring largely because version 4 of the protocol
doesn’t provide enough addresses to handle the needs of the whole world,
especially given the increasing number of devices with direct
connections to the internet.

Explaining the details of the differences between the two versions of
the protocol is beyond the scope of this introduction, but readers need
to at least be aware that these two versions exist, and it will
sometimes be necessary to force the use of one version or the other.


File: python.info,  Node: IP Host Addresses,  Next: Defining Networks,  Prev: A Note on IP Versions,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.2 IP Host Addresses
..........................

Addresses, often referred to as “host addresses” are the most basic unit
when working with IP addressing.  The simplest way to create addresses
is to use the *note ipaddress.ip_address(): 3983. factory function,
which automatically determines whether to create an IPv4 or IPv6 address
based on the passed in value:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1')
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

Addresses can also be created directly from integers.  Values that will
fit within 32 bits are assumed to be IPv4 addresses:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561)
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

To force the use of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, the relevant classes can be
invoked directly.  This is particularly useful to force creation of IPv6
addresses for small integers:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1)
     IPv6Address('::1')


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Networks,  Next: Host Interfaces,  Prev: IP Host Addresses,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.3 Defining Networks
..........................

Host addresses are usually grouped together into IP networks, so *note
ipaddress: 7e. provides a way to create, inspect and manipulate network
definitions.  IP network objects are constructed from strings that
define the range of host addresses that are part of that network.  The
simplest form for that information is a “network address/network prefix”
pair, where the prefix defines the number of leading bits that are
compared to determine whether or not an address is part of the network
and the network address defines the expected value of those bits.

As for addresses, a factory function is provided that determines the
correct IP version automatically:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Network objects cannot have any host bits set.  The practical effect of
this is that ‘192.0.2.1/24’ does not describe a network.  Such
definitions are referred to as interface objects since the
ip-on-a-network notation is commonly used to describe network interfaces
of a computer on a given network and are described further in the next
section.

By default, attempting to create a network object with host bits set
will result in *note ValueError: 189. being raised.  To request that the
additional bits instead be coerced to zero, the flag ‘strict=False’ can
be passed to the constructor:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

While the string form offers significantly more flexibility, networks
can also be defined with integers, just like host addresses.  In this
case, the network is considered to contain only the single address
identified by the integer, so the network prefix includes the entire
network address:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560)
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128')

As with addresses, creation of a particular kind of network can be
forced by calling the class constructor directly instead of using the
factory function.


File: python.info,  Node: Host Interfaces,  Prev: Defining Networks,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.14.1.4 Host Interfaces
........................

As mentioned just above, if you need to describe an address on a
particular network, neither the address nor the network classes are
sufficient.  Notation like ‘192.0.2.1/24’ is commonly used by network
engineers and the people who write tools for firewalls and routers as
shorthand for “the host ‘192.0.2.1’ on the network ‘192.0.2.0/24’”,
Accordingly, *note ipaddress: 7e. provides a set of hybrid classes that
associate an address with a particular network.  The interface for
creation is identical to that for defining network objects, except that
the address portion isn’t constrained to being a network address.

     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96')

Integer inputs are accepted (as with networks), and use of a particular
IP version can be forced by calling the relevant constructor directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Next: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Prev: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.14.2 Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects
---------------------------------------------------

You’ve gone to the trouble of creating an
IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface) object, so you probably want to get
information about it.  *note ipaddress: 7e. tries to make doing this
easy and intuitive.

Extracting the IP version:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> addr6.version
     6
     >>> addr4.version
     4

Obtaining the network from an interface:

     >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> host4.network
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     >>> host6.network
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Finding out how many individual addresses are in a network:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.num_addresses
     256
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.num_addresses
     4294967296

Iterating through the “usable” addresses on a network:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> for x in net4.hosts():
     ...     print(x)
     192.0.2.1
     192.0.2.2
     192.0.2.3
     192.0.2.4
     ...
     192.0.2.252
     192.0.2.253
     192.0.2.254

Obtaining the netmask (i.e.  set bits corresponding to the network
prefix) or the hostmask (any bits that are not part of the netmask):

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.netmask
     IPv4Address('255.255.255.0')
     >>> net4.hostmask
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.255')
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.netmask
     IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::')
     >>> net6.hostmask
     IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff')

Exploding or compressing the address:

     >>> addr6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001'
     >>> addr6.compressed
     '2001:db8::1'
     >>> net6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96'
     >>> net6.compressed
     '2001:db8::/96'

While IPv4 doesn’t support explosion or compression, the associated
objects still provide the relevant properties so that version neutral
code can easily ensure the most concise or most verbose form is used for
IPv6 addresses while still correctly handling IPv4 addresses.


File: python.info,  Node: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Next: Comparisons<3>,  Prev: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.14.3 Networks as lists of Addresses
-------------------------------------

It’s sometimes useful to treat networks as lists.  This means it is
possible to index them like this:

     >>> net4[1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> net4[-1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.255')
     >>> net6[1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> net6[-1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff')

It also means that network objects lend themselves to using the list
membership test syntax like this:

     if address in network:
         # do something

Containment testing is done efficiently based on the network prefix:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     True
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons<3>,  Next: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Prev: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.14.4 Comparisons
------------------

*note ipaddress: 7e. provides some simple, hopefully intuitive ways to
compare objects, where it makes sense:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2')
     True

A *note TypeError: 2c4. exception is raised if you try to compare
objects of different versions or different types.


File: python.info,  Node: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Next: Getting more detail when instance creation fails,  Prev: Comparisons<3>,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.14.5 Using IP Addresses with other modules
--------------------------------------------

Other modules that use IP addresses (such as *note socket: cb.) usually
won’t accept objects from this module directly.  Instead, they must be
coerced to an integer or string that the other module will accept:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> str(addr4)
     '192.0.2.1'
     >>> int(addr4)
     3221225985


File: python.info,  Node: Getting more detail when instance creation fails,  Prev: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.14.6 Getting more detail when instance creation fails
-------------------------------------------------------

When creating address/network/interface objects using the
version-agnostic factory functions, any errors will be reported as *note
ValueError: 189. with a generic error message that simply says the
passed in value was not recognized as an object of that type.  The lack
of a specific error is because it’s necessary to know whether the value
is 'supposed' to be IPv4 or IPv6 in order to provide more detail on why
it has been rejected.

To support use cases where it is useful to have access to this
additional detail, the individual class constructors actually raise the
*note ValueError: 189. subclasses *note ipaddress.AddressValueError:
3989. and *note ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: 39ab. to indicate exactly
which part of the definition failed to parse correctly.

The error messages are significantly more detailed when using the class
constructors directly.  For example:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256'

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask

However, both of the module specific exceptions have *note ValueError:
189. as their parent class, so if you’re not concerned with the
particular type of error, you can still write code like the following:

     try:
         network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address)
     except ValueError:
         print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)


File: python.info,  Node: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap,  Next: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Prev: An introduction to the ipaddress module,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.15 Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap
====================================================


author: David Malcolm


author: Łukasz Langa

DTrace and SystemTap are monitoring tools, each providing a way to
inspect what the processes on a computer system are doing.  They both
use domain-specific languages allowing a user to write scripts which:

   - filter which processes are to be observed

   - gather data from the processes of interest

   - generate reports on the data

As of Python 3.6, CPython can be built with embedded “markers”, also
known as “probes”, that can be observed by a DTrace or SystemTap script,
making it easier to monitor what the CPython processes on a system are
doing.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' DTrace markers are implementation details
of the CPython interpreter.  No guarantees are made about probe
compatibility between versions of CPython.  DTrace scripts can stop
working or work incorrectly without warning when changing CPython
versions.

* Menu:

* Enabling the static markers::
* Static DTrace probes::
* Static SystemTap markers::
* Available static markers::
* SystemTap Tapsets::
* Examples: Examples<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Enabling the static markers,  Next: Static DTrace probes,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.15.1 Enabling the static markers
----------------------------------

macOS comes with built-in support for DTrace.  On Linux, in order to
build CPython with the embedded markers for SystemTap, the SystemTap
development tools must be installed.

On a Linux machine, this can be done via:

     $ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel

or:

     $ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev

CPython must then be *note configured with the -with-dtrace option:
1bd2.:

     checking for --with-dtrace... yes

On macOS, you can list available DTrace probes by running a Python
process in the background and listing all probes made available by the
Python provider:

     $ python3.6 -q &
     $ sudo dtrace -l -P python$!  # or: dtrace -l -m python3.6

        ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME
     29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry
     29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry
     29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return
     29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return
     29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done
     29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start
     29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line
     29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line

On Linux, you can verify if the SystemTap static markers are present in
the built binary by seeing if it contains a “.note.stapsdt” section.

     $ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt
     [30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78

If you’ve built Python as a shared library (with the *note
-enable-shared: 6a6. configure option), you need to look instead within
the shared library.  For example:

     $ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt
     [29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68

Sufficiently modern readelf can print the metadata:

     $ readelf -n ./python

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)
             OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)
             Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__start
             Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6
             Arguments: -4@%ebx
         stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__done
             Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8
             Arguments: -8@%rax
         stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__entry
             Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
         stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__return
             Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax

The above metadata contains information for SystemTap describing how it
can patch strategically placed machine code instructions to enable the
tracing hooks used by a SystemTap script.


File: python.info,  Node: Static DTrace probes,  Next: Static SystemTap markers,  Prev: Enabling the static markers,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.15.2 Static DTrace probes
---------------------------

The following example DTrace script can be used to show the call/return
hierarchy of a Python script, only tracing within the invocation of a
function called “start”.  In other words, import-time function
invocations are not going to be listed:

     self int indent;

     python$target:::function-entry
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 1;
     }

     python$target:::function-entry
     /self->trace/
     {
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
             self->indent++;
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /self->trace/
     {
             self->indent--;
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 0;
     }

It can be invoked like this:

     $ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py"

The output looks like this:

     156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
     156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
     156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
     156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
     156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
     156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
     156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
     156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28


File: python.info,  Node: Static SystemTap markers,  Next: Available static markers,  Prev: Static DTrace probes,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.15.3 Static SystemTap markers
-------------------------------

The low-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use the static
markers directly.  This requires you to explicitly state the binary file
containing them.

For example, this SystemTap script can be used to show the call/return
hierarchy of a Python script:

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
          filename = user_string($arg1);
          funcname = user_string($arg2);
          lineno = $arg3;

          printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n",
                 thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe process("python").mark("function__return") {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;

         printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n",
                thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

It can be invoked like this:

     $ stap \
       show-call-hierarchy.stp \
       -c "./python test.py"

The output looks like this:

     11408 python(8274):        => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
     11414 python(8274):         => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
     11418 python(8274):          => encode in Lib/os.py:490
     11424 python(8274):          <= encode in Lib/os.py:493
     11428 python(8274):         <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
     11433 python(8274):        <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366

where the columns are:

   - time in microseconds since start of script

   - name of executable

   - PID of process

and the remainder indicates the call/return hierarchy as the script
executes.

For a *note -enable-shared: 6a6. build of CPython, the markers are
contained within the libpython shared library, and the probe’s dotted
path needs to reflect this.  For example, this line from the above
example:

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {

should instead read:

     probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") {

(assuming a *note debug build: 6b9. of CPython 3.6)


File: python.info,  Node: Available static markers,  Next: SystemTap Tapsets,  Prev: Static SystemTap markers,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.15.4 Available static markers
-------------------------------

 -- Object: function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     This marker indicates that execution of a Python function has
     begun.  It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.

     The filename, function name, and line number are provided back to
     the tracing script as positional arguments, which must be accessed
     using ‘$arg1’, ‘$arg2’, ‘$arg3’:

             * ‘$arg1’ : ‘(const char *)’ filename, accessible using
               ‘user_string($arg1)’

             * ‘$arg2’ : ‘(const char *)’ function name, accessible
               using ‘user_string($arg2)’

             * ‘$arg3’ : ‘int’ line number

 -- Object: function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     This marker is the converse of ‘function__entry()’, and indicates
     that execution of a Python function has ended (either via ‘return’,
     or via an exception).  It is only triggered for pure-Python
     (bytecode) functions.

     The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’

 -- Object: line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     This marker indicates a Python line is about to be executed.  It is
     the equivalent of line-by-line tracing with a Python profiler.  It
     is not triggered within C functions.

     The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’.

 -- Object: gc__start(int generation)

     Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection
     cycle.  ‘arg0’ is the generation to scan, like *note gc.collect():
     89c.

 -- Object: gc__done(long collected)

     Fires when the Python interpreter finishes a garbage collection
     cycle.  ‘arg0’ is the number of collected objects.

 -- Object: import__find__load__start(str modulename)

     Fires before *note importlib: 75. attempts to find and load the
     module.  ‘arg0’ is the module name.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Object: import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found)

     Fires after *note importlib: 75.’s find_and_load function is
     called.  ‘arg0’ is the module name, ‘arg1’ indicates if module was
     successfully loaded.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Object: audit(str event, void *tuple)

     Fires when *note sys.audit(): 17a0. or *note PySys_Audit(): 17b0.
     is called.  ‘arg0’ is the event name as C string, ‘arg1’ is a *note
     PyObject: 6eb. pointer to a tuple object.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: SystemTap Tapsets,  Next: Examples<39>,  Prev: Available static markers,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.15.5 SystemTap Tapsets
------------------------

The higher-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use a
“tapset”: SystemTap’s equivalent of a library, which hides some of the
lower-level details of the static markers.

Here is a tapset file, based on a non-shared build of CPython:

     /*
        Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and
        function__return markers:
      \*/
     probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }
     probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }

If this file is installed in SystemTap’s tapset directory (e.g.
‘/usr/share/systemtap/tapset’), then these additional probepoints become
available:

 -- Object: python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     This probe point indicates that execution of a Python function has
     begun.  It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.

 -- Object: python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     This probe point is the converse of ‘python.function.return’, and
     indicates that execution of a Python function has ended (either via
     ‘return’, or via an exception).  It is only triggered for
     pure-Python (bytecode) functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<39>,  Prev: SystemTap Tapsets,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.15.6 Examples
---------------

This SystemTap script uses the tapset above to more cleanly implement
the example given above of tracing the Python function-call hierarchy,
without needing to directly name the static markers:

     probe python.function.entry
     {
       printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe python.function.return
     {
       printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

The following script uses the tapset above to provide a top-like view of
all running CPython code, showing the top 20 most frequently entered
bytecode frames, each second, across the whole system:

     global fn_calls;

     probe python.function.entry
     {
         fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
     }

     probe timer.ms(1000) {
         printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/
         printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n",
                "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS")
         foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
             printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n",
                 pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
                 fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
         }
         delete fn_calls;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Next: Annotations Best Practices,  Prev: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.16 Python support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler
=================================================


author: Pablo Galindo

The Linux perf profiler(1) is a very powerful tool that allows you to
profile and obtain information about the performance of your
application.  ‘perf’ also has a very vibrant ecosystem of tools that aid
with the analysis of the data that it produces.

The main problem with using the ‘perf’ profiler with Python applications
is that ‘perf’ only gets information about native symbols, that is, the
names of functions and procedures written in C. This means that the
names and file names of Python functions in your code will not appear in
the output of ‘perf’.

Since Python 3.12, the interpreter can run in a special mode that allows
Python functions to appear in the output of the ‘perf’ profiler.  When
this mode is enabled, the interpreter will interpose a small piece of
code compiled on the fly before the execution of every Python function
and it will teach ‘perf’ the relationship between this piece of code and
the associated Python function using *note perf map files: 4a75.

     Not: Support for the ‘perf’ profiler is currently only available
     for Linux on select architectures.  Check the output of the
     ‘configure’ build step or check the output of ‘python -m sysconfig
     | grep HAVE_PERF_TRAMPOLINE’ to see if your system is supported.

For example, consider the following script:

     def foo(n):
         result = 0
         for _ in range(n):
             result += 1
         return result

     def bar(n):
         foo(n)

     def baz(n):
         bar(n)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         baz(1000000)

We can run ‘perf’ to sample CPU stack traces at 9999 hertz:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py

Then we can use ‘perf report’ to analyze the data:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  ..........................................
     #
         91.08%     0.00%             0  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --90.71%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--56.88%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--56.13%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--55.02%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --54.65%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.67%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--11.52%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--2.97%--_PyObject_Malloc
     ...

As you can see, the Python functions are not shown in the output, only
‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault’ (the function that evaluates the Python
bytecode) shows up.  Unfortunately that’s not very useful because all
Python functions use the same C function to evaluate bytecode so we
cannot know which Python function corresponds to which
bytecode-evaluating function.

Instead, if we run the same experiment with ‘perf’ support enabled we
get:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  .....................................................................
     #
         90.58%     0.36%             1  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --89.86%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--55.43%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--54.71%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--53.62%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --53.26%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     py::<module>:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::baz:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::bar:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::foo:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.81%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--13.77%--_PyLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--3.26%--_PyObject_Malloc

* Menu:

* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org


File: python.info,  Node: How to enable perf profiling support,  Next: How to obtain the best results,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.16.1 How to enable ‘perf’ profiling support
---------------------------------------------

‘perf’ profiling support can be enabled either from the start using the
environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 18d. or the *note -X perf:
18e. option, or dynamically using *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline():
18f. and *note sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 190.

The ‘sys’ functions take precedence over the ‘-X’ option, the ‘-X’
option takes precedence over the environment variable.

Example, using the environment variable:

     $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 python script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the ‘-X’ option:

     $ python -X perf script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the *note sys: d8. APIs in file ‘example.py’:

     import sys

     sys.activate_stack_trampoline("perf")
     do_profiled_stuff()
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline()

     non_profiled_stuff()

…then:

     $ python ./example.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data


File: python.info,  Node: How to obtain the best results,  Prev: How to enable perf profiling support,  Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler

9.16.2 How to obtain the best results
-------------------------------------

For best results, Python should be compiled with
‘CFLAGS="-fno-omit-frame-pointer -mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer"’ as this
allows profilers to unwind using only the frame pointer and not on DWARF
debug information.  This is because as the code that is interposed to
allow ‘perf’ support is dynamically generated it doesn’t have any DWARF
debugging information available.

You can check if your system has been compiled with this flag by
running:

     $ python -m sysconfig | grep 'no-omit-frame-pointer'

If you don’t see any output it means that your interpreter has not been
compiled with frame pointers and therefore it may not be able to show
Python functions in the output of ‘perf’.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotations Best Practices,  Next: Isolating Extension Modules,  Prev: Python support for the Linux perf profiler,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.17 Annotations Best Practices
===============================


author: Larry Hastings

Abstract
........

This document is designed to encapsulate the best practices for working
with annotations dicts.  If you write Python code that examines
‘__annotations__’ on Python objects, we encourage you to follow the
guidelines described below.

The document is organized into four sections: best practices for
accessing the annotations of an object in Python versions 3.10 and
newer, best practices for accessing the annotations of an object in
Python versions 3.9 and older, other best practices for
‘__annotations__’ that apply to any Python version, and quirks of
‘__annotations__’.

Note that this document is specifically about working with
‘__annotations__’, not uses 'for' annotations.  If you’re looking for
information on how to use “type hints” in your code, please see the
*note typing: 104. module.

* Menu:

* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer.
* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older.
* Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations::
* Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version::
* __annotations__ Quirks::


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer,  Next: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.17.1 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python 3.10 adds a new function to the standard library: *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 64f.  In Python versions 3.10 and newer,
calling this function is the best practice for accessing the annotations
dict of any object that supports annotations.  This function can also
“un-stringize” stringized annotations for you.

If for some reason *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. isn’t viable
for your use case, you may access the ‘__annotations__’ data member
manually.  Best practice for this changed in Python 3.10 as well: as of
Python 3.10, ‘o.__annotations__’ is guaranteed to 'always' work on
Python functions, classes, and modules.  If you’re certain the object
you’re examining is one of these three 'specific' objects, you may
simply use ‘o.__annotations__’ to get at the object’s annotations dict.

However, other types of callables–for example, callables created by
*note functools.partial(): d61.–may not have an ‘__annotations__’
attribute defined.  When accessing the ‘__annotations__’ of a possibly
unknown object, best practice in Python versions 3.10 and newer is to
call *note getattr(): a48. with three arguments, for example ‘getattr(o,
'__annotations__', None)’.

Before Python 3.10, accessing ‘__annotations__’ on a class that defines
no annotations but that has a parent class with annotations would return
the parent’s ‘__annotations__’.  In Python 3.10 and newer, the child
class’s annotations will be an empty dict instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Next: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.17.2 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python 3.9 and older, accessing the annotations dict of an object is
much more complicated than in newer versions.  The problem is a design
flaw in these older versions of Python, specifically to do with class
annotations.

Best practice for accessing the annotations dict of other
objects–functions, other callables, and modules–is the same as best
practice for 3.10, assuming you aren’t calling *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 64f.: you should use three-argument *note
getattr(): a48. to access the object’s ‘__annotations__’ attribute.

Unfortunately, this isn’t best practice for classes.  The problem is
that, since ‘__annotations__’ is optional on classes, and because
classes can inherit attributes from their base classes, accessing the
‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class may inadvertently return the
annotations dict of a 'base class.'  As an example:

     class Base:
         a: int = 3
         b: str = 'abc'

     class Derived(Base):
         pass

     print(Derived.__annotations__)

This will print the annotations dict from ‘Base’, not ‘Derived’.

Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object you’re
examining is a class (‘isinstance(o, type)’).  In that case, best
practice relies on an implementation detail of Python 3.9 and before: if
a class has annotations defined, they are stored in the class’s *note
__dict__: adb. dictionary.  Since the class may or may not have
annotations defined, best practice is to call the *note get(): 2035.
method on the class dict.

To put it all together, here is some sample code that safely accesses
the ‘__annotations__’ attribute on an arbitrary object in Python 3.9 and
before:

     if isinstance(o, type):
         ann = o.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)
     else:
         ann = getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)

After running this code, ‘ann’ should be either a dictionary or ‘None’.
You’re encouraged to double-check the type of ‘ann’ using *note
isinstance(): 151. before further examination.

Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have a *note
__dict__: adb. attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish to use
*note getattr(): a48. to access ‘__dict__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Next: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.17.3 Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations
-----------------------------------------------------

In situations where some annotations may be “stringized”, and you wish
to evaluate those strings to produce the Python values they represent,
it really is best to call *note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. to do
this work for you.

If you’re using Python 3.9 or older, or if for some reason you can’t use
*note inspect.get_annotations(): 64f, you’ll need to duplicate its
logic.  You’re encouraged to examine the implementation of *note
inspect.get_annotations(): 64f. in the current Python version and follow
a similar approach.

In a nutshell, if you wish to evaluate a stringized annotation on an
arbitrary object ‘o’:

   * If ‘o’ is a module, use ‘o.__dict__’ as the ‘globals’ when calling
     *note eval(): 6ca.

   * If ‘o’ is a class, use ‘sys.modules[o.__module__].__dict__’ as the
     ‘globals’, and ‘dict(vars(o))’ as the ‘locals’, when calling *note
     eval(): 6ca.

   * If ‘o’ is a wrapped callable using *note
     functools.update_wrapper(): eca, *note functools.wraps(): dfd, or
     *note functools.partial(): d61, iteratively unwrap it by accessing
     either ‘o.__wrapped__’ or ‘o.func’ as appropriate, until you have
     found the root unwrapped function.

   * If ‘o’ is a callable (but not a class), use *note o.__globals__:
     117d. as the globals when calling *note eval(): 6ca.

However, not all string values used as annotations can be successfully
turned into Python values by *note eval(): 6ca.  String values could
theoretically contain any valid string, and in practice there are valid
use cases for type hints that require annotating with string values that
specifically 'can’t' be evaluated.  For example:

   * PEP 604(1) union types using ‘|’, before support for this was added
     to Python 3.10.

   * Definitions that aren’t needed at runtime, only imported when *note
     typing.TYPE_CHECKING: b78. is true.

If *note eval(): 6ca. attempts to evaluate such values, it will fail and
raise an exception.  So, when designing a library API that works with
annotations, it’s recommended to only attempt to evaluate string values
when explicitly requested to by the caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Next: __annotations__ Quirks,  Prev: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.17.4 Best Practices For ‘__annotations__’ In Any Python Version
-----------------------------------------------------------------

   * You should avoid assigning to the ‘__annotations__’ member of
     objects directly.  Let Python manage setting ‘__annotations__’.

   * If you do assign directly to the ‘__annotations__’ member of an
     object, you should always set it to a ‘dict’ object.

   * If you directly access the ‘__annotations__’ member of an object,
     you should ensure that it’s a dictionary before attempting to
     examine its contents.

   * You should avoid modifying ‘__annotations__’ dicts.

   * You should avoid deleting the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of an
     object.


File: python.info,  Node: __annotations__ Quirks,  Prev: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.17.5 ‘__annotations__’ Quirks
-------------------------------

In all versions of Python 3, function objects lazy-create an annotations
dict if no annotations are defined on that object.  You can delete the
‘__annotations__’ attribute using ‘del fn.__annotations__’, but if you
then access ‘fn.__annotations__’ the object will create a new empty dict
that it will store and return as its annotations.  Deleting the
annotations on a function before it has lazily created its annotations
dict will throw an ‘AttributeError’; using ‘del fn.__annotations__’
twice in a row is guaranteed to always throw an ‘AttributeError’.

Everything in the above paragraph also applies to class and module
objects in Python 3.10 and newer.

In all versions of Python 3, you can set ‘__annotations__’ on a function
object to ‘None’.  However, subsequently accessing the annotations on
that object using ‘fn.__annotations__’ will lazy-create an empty
dictionary as per the first paragraph of this section.  This is 'not'
true of modules and classes, in any Python version; those objects permit
setting ‘__annotations__’ to any Python value, and will retain whatever
value is set.

If Python stringizes your annotations for you (using ‘from __future__
import annotations’), and you specify a string as an annotation, the
string will itself be quoted.  In effect the annotation is quoted
'twice.'  For example:

     from __future__ import annotations
     def foo(a: "str"): pass

     print(foo.__annotations__)

This prints ‘{'a': "'str'"}’.  This shouldn’t really be considered a
“quirk”; it’s mentioned here simply because it might be surprising.


File: python.info,  Node: Isolating Extension Modules,  Next: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Prev: Annotations Best Practices,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.18 Isolating Extension Modules
================================

Abstract
........

Traditionally, state belonging to Python extension modules was kept in C
‘static’ variables, which have process-wide scope.  This document
describes problems of such per-process state and shows a safer way:
per-module state.

The document also describes how to switch to per-module state where
possible.  This transition involves allocating space for that state,
potentially switching from static types to heap types, and—perhaps most
importantly—accessing per-module state from code.

* Menu:

* Who should read this::
* Background: Background<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::


File: python.info,  Node: Who should read this,  Next: Background<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.1 Who should read this
---------------------------

This guide is written for maintainers of *note C-API: 1a20. extensions
who would like to make that extension safer to use in applications where
Python itself is used as a library.


File: python.info,  Node: Background<2>,  Next: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Prev: Who should read this,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.2 Background
-----------------

An 'interpreter' is the context in which Python code runs.  It contains
configuration (e.g.  the import path) and runtime state (e.g.  the set
of imported modules).

Python supports running multiple interpreters in one process.  There are
two cases to think about—users may run interpreters:

   - in sequence, with several *note Py_InitializeEx(): 49e1./*note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): b9a. cycles, and

   - in parallel, managing “sub-interpreters” using *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 15d7./*note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1687.

Both cases (and combinations of them) would be most useful when
embedding Python within a library.  Libraries generally shouldn’t make
assumptions about the application that uses them, which include assuming
a process-wide “main Python interpreter”.

Historically, Python extension modules don’t handle this use case well.
Many extension modules (and even some stdlib modules) use 'per-process'
global state, because C ‘static’ variables are extremely easy to use.
Thus, data that should be specific to an interpreter ends up being
shared between interpreters.  Unless the extension developer is careful,
it is very easy to introduce edge cases that lead to crashes when a
module is loaded in more than one interpreter in the same process.

Unfortunately, 'per-interpreter' state is not easy to achieve.
Extension authors tend to not keep multiple interpreters in mind when
developing, and it is currently cumbersome to test the behavior.

* Menu:

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::


File: python.info,  Node: Enter Per-Module State,  Next: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background<2>

9.18.2.1 Enter Per-Module State
...............................

Instead of focusing on per-interpreter state, Python’s C API is evolving
to better support the more granular 'per-module' state.  This means that
C-level data should be attached to a 'module object'.  Each interpreter
creates its own module object, keeping the data separate.  For testing
the isolation, multiple module objects corresponding to a single
extension can even be loaded in a single interpreter.

Per-module state provides an easy way to think about lifetime and
resource ownership: the extension module will initialize when a module
object is created, and clean up when it’s freed.  In this regard, a
module is just like any other *note PyObject: 6eb.*; there are no “on
interpreter shutdown” hooks to think—or forget—about.

Note that there are use cases for different kinds of “globals”:
per-process, per-interpreter, per-thread or per-task state.  With
per-module state as the default, these are still possible, but you
should treat them as exceptional cases: if you need them, you should
give them additional care and testing.  (Note that this guide does not
cover them.)


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Module Objects,  Next: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Enter Per-Module State,  Up: Background<2>

9.18.2.2 Isolated Module Objects
................................

The key point to keep in mind when developing an extension module is
that several module objects can be created from a single shared library.
For example:

     >>> import sys
     >>> import binascii
     >>> old_binascii = binascii
     >>> del sys.modules['binascii']
     >>> import binascii  # create a new module object
     >>> old_binascii == binascii
     False

As a rule of thumb, the two modules should be completely independent.
All objects and state specific to the module should be encapsulated
within the module object, not shared with other module objects, and
cleaned up when the module object is deallocated.  Since this just is a
rule of thumb, exceptions are possible (see *note Managing Global State:
4f0b.), but they will need more thought and attention to edge cases.

While some modules could do with less stringent restrictions, isolated
modules make it easier to set clear expectations and guidelines that
work across a variety of use cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background<2>

9.18.2.3 Surprising Edge Cases
..............................

Note that isolated modules do create some surprising edge cases.  Most
notably, each module object will typically not share its classes and
exceptions with other similar modules.  Continuing from the *note
example above: 4f0a, note that ‘old_binascii.Error’ and ‘binascii.Error’
are separate objects.  In the following code, the exception is 'not'
caught:

     >>> old_binascii.Error == binascii.Error
     False
     >>> try:
     ...     old_binascii.unhexlify(b'qwertyuiop')
     ... except binascii.Error:
     ...     print('boo')
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

This is expected.  Notice that pure-Python modules behave the same way:
it is a part of how Python works.

The goal is to make extension modules safe at the C level, not to make
hacks behave intuitively.  Mutating ‘sys.modules’ “manually” counts as a
hack.


File: python.info,  Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Next: Heap Types<2>,  Prev: Background<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.3 Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters
-----------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Global State,  Next: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.1 Managing Global State
..............................

Sometimes, the state associated with a Python module is not specific to
that module, but to the entire process (or something else “more global”
than a module).  For example:

   - The ‘readline’ module manages 'the' terminal.

   - A module running on a circuit board wants to control 'the' on-board
     LED.

In these cases, the Python module should provide 'access' to the global
state, rather than 'own' it.  If possible, write the module so that
multiple copies of it can access the state independently (along with
other libraries, whether for Python or other languages).  If that is not
possible, consider explicit locking.

If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to
avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a
module from being loaded more than once per process—see *note Opt-Out;
Limiting to One Module Object per Process: 4f0e.


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Per-Module State,  Next: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Prev: Managing Global State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.2 Managing Per-Module State
..................................

To use per-module state, use *note multi-phase extension module
initialization: 4837.  This signals that your module supports multiple
interpreters correctly.

Set ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ to a positive number to request that many bytes
of storage local to the module.  Usually, this will be set to the size
of some module-specific ‘struct’, which can store all of the module’s
C-level state.  In particular, it is where you should put pointers to
classes (including exceptions, but excluding static types) and settings
(e.g.  ‘csv’’s *note field_size_limit: 1629.) which the C code needs to
function.

     Not: Another option is to store state in the module’s ‘__dict__’,
     but you must avoid crashing when users modify ‘__dict__’ from
     Python code.  This usually means error- and type-checking at the C
     level, which is easy to get wrong and hard to test sufficiently.

     However, if module state is not needed in C code, storing it in
     ‘__dict__’ only is a good idea.

If the module state includes ‘PyObject’ pointers, the module object must
hold references to those objects and implement the module-level hooks
‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’ and ‘m_free’.  These work like ‘tp_traverse’,
‘tp_clear’ and ‘tp_free’ of a class.  Adding them will require some work
and make the code longer; this is the price for modules which can be
unloaded cleanly.

An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as
xxlimited(1); example module initialization shown at the bottom of the
file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Modules/xxlimited.c


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Next: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.3 Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process
...........................................................

A non-negative ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ signals that a module supports
multiple interpreters correctly.  If this is not yet the case for your
module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per
process.  For example:

     static int loaded = 0;

     static int
     exec_module(PyObject* module)
     {
         if (loaded) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                             "cannot load module more than once per process");
             return -1;
         }
         loaded = 1;
         // ... rest of initialization
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.18.3.4 Module State Access from Functions
...........................................

Accessing the state from module-level functions is straightforward.
Functions get the module object as their first argument; for extracting
the state, you can use ‘PyModule_GetState’:

     static PyObject *
     func(PyObject *module, PyObject *args)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         // ... rest of logic
     }

     Not: ‘PyModule_GetState’ may return ‘NULL’ without setting an
     exception if there is no module state, i.e.  ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’
     was zero.  In your own module, you’re in control of ‘m_size’, so
     this is easy to prevent.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types<2>,  Next: Open Issues,  Prev: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.4 Heap Types
-----------------

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static'; that is, ‘static
PyTypeObject’ structures defined directly in code and initialized using
‘PyType_Ready()’.

Such types are necessarily shared across the process.  Sharing them
between module objects requires paying attention to any state they own
or access.  To limit the possible issues, static types are immutable at
the Python level: for example, you can’t set ‘str.myattribute = 123’.

'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' Sharing truly immutable objects between
interpreters is fine, as long as they don’t provide access to mutable
objects.  However, in CPython, every Python object has a mutable
implementation detail: the reference count.  Changes to the refcount are
guarded by the GIL. Thus, code that shares any Python objects across
interpreters implicitly depends on CPython’s current, process-wide GIL.

Because they are immutable and process-global, static types cannot
access “their” module state.  If any method of such a type requires
access to module state, the type must be converted to a 'heap-allocated
type', or 'heap type' for short.  These correspond more closely to
classes created by Python’s ‘class’ statement.

For new modules, using heap types by default is a good rule of thumb.

* Menu:

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::


File: python.info,  Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Next: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.1 Changing Static Types to Heap Types
............................................

Static types can be converted to heap types, but note that the heap type
API was not designed for “lossless” conversion from static types—that
is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type.  So,
when rewriting the class definition in a new API, you are likely to
unintentionally change a few details (e.g.  pickleability or inherited
slots).  Always test the details that are important to you.

Watch out for the following two points in particular (but note that this
is not a comprehensive list):

   * Unlike static types, heap type objects are mutable by default.  Use
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 2e8. flag to prevent
     mutability.

   * Heap types inherit *note tp_new: 318. by default, so it may become
     possible to instantiate them from Python code.  You can prevent
     this with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 31b. flag.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Heap Types,  Next: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Prev: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.2 Defining Heap Types
............................

Heap types can be created by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 14fe.
structure, a description or “blueprint” of a class, and calling *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0. to construct a new class object.

     Not: Other functions, like *note PyType_FromSpec(): 316, can also
     create heap types, but *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0.
     associates the module with the class, allowing access to the module
     state from methods.

The class should generally be stored in 'both' the module state (for
safe access from C) and the module’s ‘__dict__’ (for access from Python
code).


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Next: Module State Access from Classes,  Prev: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.3 Garbage-Collection Protocol
....................................

Instances of heap types hold a reference to their type.  This ensures
that the type isn’t destroyed before all its instances are, but may
result in reference cycles that need to be broken by the garbage
collector.

To avoid memory leaks, instances of heap types must implement the
garbage collection protocol.  That is, heap types should:

   - Have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. flag.

   - Define a traverse function using ‘Py_tp_traverse’, which visits the
     type (e.g.  using ‘Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))’).

Please refer to the documentation of *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 5ad. and
*note tp_traverse: 5ae. for additional considerations.

The API for defining heap types grew organically, leaving it somewhat
awkward to use in its current state.  The following sections will guide
you through common issues.

* Menu:

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::


File: python.info,  Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Next: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.4 ‘tp_traverse’ in Python 3.8 and lower
..............................................

The requirement to visit the type from ‘tp_traverse’ was added in Python
3.9.  If you support Python 3.8 and lower, the traverse function must
'not' visit the type, so it must be more complicated:

     static int my_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
         return 0;
     }

Unfortunately, *note Py_Version: 582. was only added in Python 3.11.  As
a replacement, use:

   * *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 583, if not using the stable ABI, or

   * *note sys.version_info: 4b5. (via *note PySys_GetObject(): 5c4. and
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 308.).


File: python.info,  Node: Delegating tp_traverse,  Next: Defining tp_dealloc,  Prev: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.5 Delegating ‘tp_traverse’
.................................

If your traverse function delegates to the *note tp_traverse: 5ae. of
its base class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited
only once.  Note that only heap type are expected to visit the type in
‘tp_traverse’.

For example, if your traverse function includes:

     base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

…and ‘base’ may be a static type, then it should also include:

     if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
         // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
     } else {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
     }

It is not necessary to handle the type’s reference count in *note
tp_new: 318. and *note tp_clear: 481b.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining tp_dealloc,  Next: Not overriding tp_free,  Prev: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.6 Defining ‘tp_dealloc’
..............................

If your type has a custom *note tp_dealloc: 4808. function, it needs to:

   - call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 1394. before any fields are
     invalidated, and

   - decrement the reference count of the type.

To keep the type valid while ‘tp_free’ is called, the type’s refcount
needs to be decremented 'after' the instance is deallocated.  For
example:

     static void my_dealloc(PyObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         ...
         PyTypeObject *type = Py_TYPE(self);
         type->tp_free(self);
         Py_DECREF(type);
     }

The default ‘tp_dealloc’ function does this, so if your type does 'not'
override ‘tp_dealloc’ you don’t need to add it.


File: python.info,  Node: Not overriding tp_free,  Next: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Defining tp_dealloc,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.7 Not overriding ‘tp_free’
.................................

The *note tp_free: 4809. slot of a heap type must be set to *note
PyObject_GC_Del(): 1392.  This is the default; do not override it.


File: python.info,  Node: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Not overriding tp_free,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.18.4.8 Avoiding ‘PyObject_New’
................................

GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions.

If you use use *note PyObject_New(): 7e3. or *note PyObject_NewVar():
7e4.:

   - Get and call type’s *note tp_alloc: 480a. slot, if possible.  That
     is, replace ‘TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)’ with:

          TYPE *o = typeobj->tp_alloc(typeobj, 0);

     Replace ‘o = PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)’ with the same,
     but use size instead of the 0.

   - If the above is not possible (e.g.  inside a custom ‘tp_alloc’),
     call *note PyObject_GC_New(): 90e. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar():
     90f.:

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj);

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size);


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Classes,  Next: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Prev: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.9 Module State Access from Classes
.........................................

If you have a type object defined with *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec():
2e0, you can call *note PyType_GetModule(): 7ca. to get the associated
module, and then *note PyModule_GetState(): 7de. to get the module’s
state.

To save a some tedious error-handling boilerplate code, you can combine
these two steps with *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 7cb, resulting in:

     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(type);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Next: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Prev: Module State Access from Classes,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.10 Module State Access from Regular Methods
..................................................

Accessing the module-level state from methods of a class is somewhat
more complicated, but is possible thanks to API introduced in Python
3.9.  To get the state, you need to first get the 'defining class', and
then get the module state from it.

The largest roadblock is getting 'the class a method was defined in', or
that method’s “defining class” for short.  The defining class can have a
reference to the module it is part of.

Do not confuse the defining class with ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.  If the method
is called on a 'subclass' of your type, ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ will refer to
that subclass, which may be defined in different module than yours.

     Not: The following Python code can illustrate the concept.
     ‘Base.get_defining_class’ returns ‘Base’ even if ‘type(self) ==
     Sub’:

          class Base:
              def get_type_of_self(self):
                  return type(self)

              def get_defining_class(self):
                  return __class__

          class Sub(Base):
              pass

For a method to get its “defining class”, it must use the *note
METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 14b9. *note calling
convention: 1364. and the corresponding *note PyCMethod: 594. signature:

     PyObject *PyCMethod(
         PyObject *self,               // object the method was called on
         PyTypeObject *defining_class, // defining class
         PyObject *const *args,        // C array of arguments
         Py_ssize_t nargs,             // length of "args"
         PyObject *kwnames)            // NULL, or dict of keyword arguments

Once you have the defining class, call *note PyType_GetModuleState():
7cb. to get the state of its associated module.

For example:

     static PyObject *
     example_method(PyObject *self,
             PyTypeObject *defining_class,
             PyObject *const *args,
             Py_ssize_t nargs,
             PyObject *kwnames)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(defining_class);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         ... // rest of logic
     }

     PyDoc_STRVAR(example_method_doc, "...");

     static PyMethodDef my_methods[] = {
         {"example_method",
           (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))example_method,
           METH_METHOD|METH_FASTCALL|METH_KEYWORDS,
           example_method_doc}
         {NULL},
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Next: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.11 Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters
....................................................................

     Not: This is new in Python 3.11.

Slot methods—the fast C equivalents for special methods, such as *note
nb_add: 4ae4. for *note __add__: 1d7b. or *note tp_new: 318. for
initialization—have a very simple API that doesn’t allow passing in the
defining class, unlike with *note PyCMethod: 594.  The same goes for
getters and setters defined with *note PyGetSetDef: a2f.

To access the module state in these cases, use the *note
PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 593. function, and pass in the module
definition.  Once you have the module, call *note PyModule_GetState():
7de. to get the state:

     PyObject *module = PyType_GetModuleByDef(Py_TYPE(self), &module_def);
     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }

‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ works by searching the *note method resolution
order: 1f71. (i.e.  all superclasses) for the first superclass that has
a corresponding module.

     Not: In very exotic cases (inheritance chains spanning multiple
     modules created from the same definition),
     ‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ might not return the module of the true
     defining class.  However, it will always return a module with the
     same definition, ensuring a compatible C memory layout.


File: python.info,  Node: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.18.4.12 Lifetime of the Module State
......................................

When a module object is garbage-collected, its module state is freed.
For each pointer to (a part of) the module state, you must hold a
reference to the module object.

Usually this is not an issue, because types created with *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 2e0, and their instances, hold a reference
to the module.  However, you must be careful in reference counting when
you reference module state from other places, such as callbacks for
external libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Open Issues,  Prev: Heap Types<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.18.5 Open Issues
------------------

Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open.

Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the capi-sig
mailing list(1).

* Menu:

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/capi-sig.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Per-Class Scope,  Next: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Up: Open Issues

9.18.5.1 Per-Class Scope
........................

It is currently (as of Python 3.11) not possible to attach state to
individual 'types' without relying on CPython implementation details
(which may change in the future—perhaps, ironically, to allow a proper
solution for per-class scope).


File: python.info,  Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Prev: Per-Class Scope,  Up: Open Issues

9.18.5.2 Lossless Conversion to Heap Types
..........................................

The heap type API was not designed for “lossless” conversion from static
types; that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static
type.


File: python.info,  Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Prev: Isolating Extension Modules,  Up: Python NASIL’ları

9.19 The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order
===========================================

     Not: This is a historical document, provided as an appendix to the
     official documentation.  The Method Resolution Order discussed here
     was 'introduced' in Python 2.3, but it is still used in later
     versions – including Python 3.

By Michele Simionato(1).


Abstract: 'This document is intended for Python programmers who want to
understand the C3 Method Resolution Order used in Python 2.3.  Although
it is not intended for newbies, it is quite pedagogical with many worked
out examples.  I am not aware of other publicly available documents with
the same scope, therefore it should be useful.'

Disclaimer:

     'I donate this document to the Python Software Foundation, under
     the Python 2.3 license.  As usual in these circumstances, I warn
     the reader that what follows' should 'be correct, but I don’t give
     any warranty.  Use it at your own risk and peril!'

Acknowledgments:

     'All the people of the Python mailing list who sent me their
     support.  Paul Foley who pointed out various imprecisions and made
     me to add the part on local precedence ordering.  David Goodger for
     help with the formatting in reStructuredText.  David Mertz for help
     with the editing.  Finally, Guido van Rossum who enthusiastically
     added this document to the official Python 2.3 home-page.'

* Menu:

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Examples: Examples<40>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/


File: python.info,  Node: The beginning,  Next: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.1 The beginning
--------------------

     'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas' – Virgilius

Everything started with a post by Samuele Pedroni to the Python
development mailing list (1).  In his post, Samuele showed that the
Python 2.2 method resolution order is not monotonic and he proposed to
replace it with the C3 method resolution order.  Guido agreed with his
arguments and therefore now Python 2.3 uses C3.  The C3 method itself
has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working
on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers (2).  The
present paper gives a (hopefully) readable discussion of the C3
algorithm for Pythonistas who want to understand the reasons for the
change.

First of all, let me point out that what I am going to say only applies
to the 'new style classes' introduced in Python 2.2: 'classic classes'
maintain their old method resolution order, depth first and then left to
right.  Therefore, there is no breaking of old code for classic classes;
and even if in principle there could be breaking of code for Python 2.2
new style classes, in practice the cases in which the C3 resolution
order differs from the Python 2.2 method resolution order are so rare
that no real breaking of code is expected.  Therefore:

     'Don’t be scared!'

Moreover, unless you make strong use of multiple inheritance and you
have non-trivial hierarchies, you don’t need to understand the C3
algorithm, and you can easily skip this paper.  On the other hand, if
you really want to know how multiple inheritance works, then this paper
is for you.  The good news is that things are not as complicated as you
might expect.

Let me begin with some basic definitions.

  1. Given a class C in a complicated multiple inheritance hierarchy, it
     is a non-trivial task to specify the order in which methods are
     overridden, i.e.  to specify the order of the ancestors of C.

  2. The list of the ancestors of a class C, including the class itself,
     ordered from the nearest ancestor to the furthest, is called the
     class precedence list or the 'linearization' of C.

  3. The 'Method Resolution Order' (MRO) is the set of rules that
     construct the linearization.  In the Python literature, the idiom
     “the MRO of C” is also used as a synonymous for the linearization
     of the class C.

  4. For instance, in the case of single inheritance hierarchy, if C is
     a subclass of C1, and C1 is a subclass of C2, then the
     linearization of C is simply the list [C, C1 , C2].  However, with
     multiple inheritance hierarchies, the construction of the
     linearization is more cumbersome, since it is more difficult to
     construct a linearization that respects 'local precedence ordering'
     and 'monotonicity'.

  5. I will discuss the local precedence ordering later, but I can give
     the definition of monotonicity here.  A MRO is monotonic when the
     following is true: 'if C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of C,
     then C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of any subclass of C'.
     Otherwise, the innocuous operation of deriving a new class could
     change the resolution order of methods, potentially introducing
     very subtle bugs.  Examples where this happens will be shown later.

  6. Not all classes admit a linearization.  There are cases, in
     complicated hierarchies, where it is not possible to derive a class
     such that its linearization respects all the desired properties.

Here I give an example of this situation.  Consider the hierarchy

     >>> O = object
     >>> class X(O): pass
     >>> class Y(O): pass
     >>> class A(X,Y): pass
     >>> class B(Y,X): pass

which can be represented with the following inheritance graph, where I
have denoted with O the ‘object’ class, which is the beginning of any
hierarchy for new style classes:

           -----------
          |           |
          |    O      |
          |  /   \    |
           - X    Y  /
             |  / | /
             | /  |/
             A    B
             \   /
               ?

In this case, it is not possible to derive a new class C from A and B,
since X precedes Y in A, but Y precedes X in B, therefore the method
resolution order would be ambiguous in C.

Python 2.3 raises an exception in this situation (TypeError: MRO
conflict among bases Y, X) forbidding the naive programmer from creating
ambiguous hierarchies.  Python 2.2 instead does not raise an exception,
but chooses an 'ad hoc' ordering (CABXYO in this case).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The thread on python-dev started by Samuele Pedroni:
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’

   (2) The paper 'A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan':
‘https://doi.org/10.1145/236337.236343’


File: python.info,  Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: Examples<40>,  Prev: The beginning,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.2 The C3 Method Resolution Order
-------------------------------------

Let me introduce a few simple notations which will be useful for the
following discussion.  I will use the shortcut notation:

     C1 C2 ... CN

to indicate the list of classes [C1, C2, … , CN].

The 'head' of the list is its first element:

     head = C1

whereas the 'tail' is the rest of the list:

     tail = C2 ... CN.

I shall also use the notation:

     C + (C1 C2 ... CN) = C C1 C2 ... CN

to denote the sum of the lists [C] + [C1, C2, … ,CN].

Now I can explain how the MRO works in Python 2.3.

Consider a class C in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, with C
inheriting from the base classes B1, B2, … , BN. We want to compute the
linearization L[C] of the class C. The rule is the following:

     'the linearization of C is the sum of C plus the merge of the
     linearizations of the parents and the list of the parents.'

In symbolic notation:

     L[C(B1 ... BN)] = C + merge(L[B1] ... L[BN], B1 ... BN)

In particular, if C is the ‘object’ class, which has no parents, the
linearization is trivial:

     L[object] = object.

However, in general one has to compute the merge according to the
following prescription:

     'take the head of the first list, i.e L[B1][0]; if this head is not
     in the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the
     linearization of C and remove it from the lists in the merge,
     otherwise look at the head of the next list and take it, if it is a
     good head.  Then repeat the operation until all the class are
     removed or it is impossible to find good heads.  In this case, it
     is impossible to construct the merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to
     create the class C and will raise an exception.'

This prescription ensures that the merge operation 'preserves' the
ordering, if the ordering can be preserved.  On the other hand, if the
order cannot be preserved (as in the example of serious order
disagreement discussed above) then the merge cannot be computed.

The computation of the merge is trivial if C has only one parent (single
inheritance); in this case:

     L[C(B)] = C + merge(L[B],B) = C + L[B]

However, in the case of multiple inheritance things are more cumbersome
and I don’t expect you can understand the rule without a couple of
examples ;-)


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<40>,  Next: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Prev: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.3 Examples
---------------

First example.  Consider the following hierarchy:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(D,E): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

In this case the inheritance graph can be drawn as:

                                    6
                                   ---
          Level 3                 | O |                  (more general)
                                /  ---  \
                               /    |    \                      |
                              /     |     \                     |
                             /      |      \                    |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
          Level 2        3 | D | 4| E |  | F | 5                |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
                             \  \ _ /       |                   |
                              \    / \ _    |                   |
                               \  /      \  |                   |
                                ---      ---                    |
          Level 1            1 | B |    | C | 2                 |
                                ---      ---                    |
                                  \      /                      |
                                   \    /                      \ /
                                     ---
          Level 0                 0 | A |                (more specialized)
                                     ---

The linearizations of O,D,E and F are trivial:

     L[O] = O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[F] = F O

The linearization of B can be computed as:

     L[B] = B + merge(DO, EO, DE)

We see that D is a good head, therefore we take it and we are reduced to
compute ‘merge(O,EO,E)’.  Now O is not a good head, since it is in the
tail of the sequence EO. In this case the rule says that we have to skip
to the next sequence.  Then we see that E is a good head; we take it and
we are reduced to compute ‘merge(O,O)’ which gives O. Therefore:

     L[B] =  B D E O

Using the same procedure one finds:

     L[C] = C + merge(DO,FO,DF)
          = C + D + merge(O,FO,F)
          = C + D + F + merge(O,O)
          = C D F O

Now we can compute:

     L[A] = A + merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC)
          = A + B + merge(DEO,CDFO,C)
          = A + B + C + merge(DEO,DFO)
          = A + B + C + D + merge(EO,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + merge(O,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + F + merge(O,O)
          = A B C D E F O

In this example, the linearization is ordered in a pretty nice way
according to the inheritance level, in the sense that lower levels (i.e.
more specialized classes) have higher precedence (see the inheritance
graph).  However, this is not the general case.

I leave as an exercise for the reader to compute the linearization for
my second example:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(E,D): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

The only difference with the previous example is the change B(D,E) –>
B(E,D); however even such a little modification completely changes the
ordering of the hierarchy:

                                     6
                                    ---
          Level 3                  | O |
                                 /  ---  \
                                /    |    \
                               /     |     \
                              /      |      \
                            ---     ---    ---
          Level 2        2 | E | 4 | D |  | F | 5
                            ---     ---    ---
                             \      / \     /
                              \    /   \   /
                               \  /     \ /
                                ---     ---
          Level 1            1 | B |   | C | 3
                                ---     ---
                                 \       /
                                  \     /
                                    ---
          Level 0                0 | A |
                                    ---

Notice that the class E, which is in the second level of the hierarchy,
precedes the class C, which is in the first level of the hierarchy, i.e.
E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level.

A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in
this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization.  It is enough
to invoke the *note mro(): 1d19. method of class A:

     >>> A.mro()
     [<class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'E'>,
     <class 'C'>, <class 'D'>, <class 'F'>,
     <class 'object'>]

Finally, let me consider the example discussed in the first section,
involving a serious order disagreement.  In this case, it is
straightforward to compute the linearizations of O, X, Y, A and B:

          L[O] = 0
          L[X] = X O
          L[Y] = Y O
          L[A] = A X Y O
          L[B] = B Y X O

However, it is impossible to compute the linearization for a class C
that inherits from A and B:

     L[C] = C + merge(AXYO, BYXO, AB)
          = C + A + merge(XYO, BYXO, B)
          = C + A + B + merge(XYO, YXO)

At this point we cannot merge the lists XYO and YXO, since X is in the
tail of YXO whereas Y is in the tail of XYO: therefore there are no good
heads and the C3 algorithm stops.  Python 2.3 raises an error and
refuses to create the class C.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Next: The end,  Prev: Examples<40>,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.4 Bad Method Resolution Orders
-----------------------------------

A MRO is 'bad' when it breaks such fundamental properties as local
precedence ordering and monotonicity.  In this section, I will show that
both the MRO for classic classes and the MRO for new style classes in
Python 2.2 are bad.

It is easier to start with the local precedence ordering.  Consider the
following example:

     >>> F=type('Food',(),{'remember2buy':'spam'})
     >>> E=type('Eggs',(F,),{'remember2buy':'eggs'})
     >>> G=type('GoodFood',(F,E),{}) # under Python 2.3 this is an error!

with inheritance diagram

                       O
                       |
          (buy spam)   F
                       | \
                       | E   (buy eggs)
                       | /
                       G

                (buy eggs or spam ?)

We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F 'before' E: therefore
we would expect the attribute 'G.remember2buy' to be inherited by
'F.remember2buy' and not by 'E.remember2buy': nevertheless Python 2.2
gives

     >>> G.remember2buy
     'eggs'

This is a breaking of local precedence ordering since the order in the
local precedence list, i.e.  the list of the parents of G, is not
preserved in the Python 2.2 linearization of G:

     L[G,P22]= G E F object   # F *follows* E

One could argue that the reason why F follows E in the Python 2.2
linearization is that F is less specialized than E, since F is the
superclass of E; nevertheless the breaking of local precedence ordering
is quite non-intuitive and error prone.  This is particularly true since
it is a different from old style classes:

     >>> class F: remember2buy='spam'
     >>> class E(F): remember2buy='eggs'
     >>> class G(F,E): pass
     >>> G.remember2buy
     'spam'

In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is
preserved.

As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be
avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa.
Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation
of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating
ambiguous hierarchies.  The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm
fails when the merge:

     merge(FO,EFO,FE)

cannot be computed, because F is in the tail of EFO and E is in the tail
of FE.

The real solution is to design a non-ambiguous hierarchy, i.e.  to
derive G from E and F (the more specific first) and not from F and E; in
this case the MRO is GEF without any doubt.

                     O
                     |
                     F (spam)
                   / |
          (eggs)   E |
                   \ |
                     G
                       (eggs, no doubt)

Python 2.3 forces the programmer to write good hierarchies (or, at
least, less error-prone ones).

On a related note, let me point out that the Python 2.3 algorithm is
smart enough to recognize obvious mistakes, as the duplication of
classes in the list of parents:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class C(A,A): pass # error
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     TypeError: duplicate base class A

Python 2.2 (both for classic classes and new style classes) in this
situation, would not raise any exception.

Finally, I would like to point out two lessons we have learned from this
example:

  1. despite the name, the MRO determines the resolution order of
     attributes, not only of methods;

  2. the default food for Pythonistas is spam !  (but you already knew
     that ;-)

Having discussed the issue of local precedence ordering, let me now
consider the issue of monotonicity.  My goal is to show that neither the
MRO for classic classes nor that for Python 2.2 new style classes is
monotonic.

To prove that the MRO for classic classes is non-monotonic is rather
trivial, it is enough to look at the diamond diagram:

             C
            / \
           /   \
          A     B
           \   /
            \ /
             D

One easily discerns the inconsistency:

     L[B,P21] = B C        # B precedes C : B's methods win
     L[D,P21] = D A C B C  # B follows C  : C's methods win!

On the other hand, there are no problems with the Python 2.2 and 2.3
MROs, they give both:

     L[D] = D A B C

Guido points out in his essay (1) that the classic MRO is not so bad in
practice, since one can typically avoids diamonds for classic classes.
But all new style classes inherit from ‘object’, therefore diamonds are
unavoidable and inconsistencies shows up in every multiple inheritance
graph.

The MRO of Python 2.2 makes breaking monotonicity difficult, but not
impossible.  The following example, originally provided by Samuele
Pedroni, shows that the MRO of Python 2.2 is non-monotonic:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class B(object): pass
     >>> class C(object): pass
     >>> class D(object): pass
     >>> class E(object): pass
     >>> class K1(A,B,C): pass
     >>> class K2(D,B,E): pass
     >>> class K3(D,A):   pass
     >>> class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

Here are the linearizations according to the C3 MRO (the reader should
verify these linearizations as an exercise and draw the inheritance
diagram ;-)

     L[A] = A O
     L[B] = B O
     L[C] = C O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[K1]= K1 A B C O
     L[K2]= K2 D B E O
     L[K3]= K3 D A O
     L[Z] = Z K1 K2 K3 D A B C E O

Python 2.2 gives exactly the same linearizations for A, B, C, D, E, K1,
K2 and K3, but a different linearization for Z:

     L[Z,P22] = Z K1 K3 A K2 D B C E O

It is clear that this linearization is 'wrong', since A comes before D
whereas in the linearization of K3 A comes 'after' D. In other words, in
K3 methods derived by D override methods derived by A, but in Z, which
still is a subclass of K3, methods derived by A override methods derived
by D! This is a violation of monotonicity.  Moreover, the Python 2.2
linearization of Z is also inconsistent with local precedence ordering,
since the local precedence list of the class Z is [K1, K2, K3] (K2
precedes K3), whereas in the linearization of Z K2 'follows' K3.  These
problems explain why the 2.2 rule has been dismissed in favor of the C3
rule.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Guido van Rossum’s essay, 'Unifying types and classes in Python
2.2':
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20140210194412/http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.2/descrintro’


File: python.info,  Node: The end,  Next: Resources,  Prev: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.5 The end
--------------

This section is for the impatient reader, who skipped all the previous
sections and jumped immediately to the end.  This section is for the
lazy programmer too, who didn’t want to exercise her/his brain.
Finally, it is for the programmer with some hubris, otherwise s/he would
not be reading a paper on the C3 method resolution order in multiple
inheritance hierarchies ;-) These three virtues taken all together (and
'not' separately) deserve a prize: the prize is a short Python 2.2
script that allows you to compute the 2.3 MRO without risk to your
brain.  Simply change the last line to play with the various examples I
have discussed in this paper.:

     #<mro.py>

     """C3 algorithm by Samuele Pedroni (with readability enhanced by me)."""

     class __metaclass__(type):
         "All classes are metamagically modified to be nicely printed"
         __repr__ = lambda cls: cls.__name__

     class ex_2:
         "Serious order disagreement" #From Guido
         class O: pass
         class X(O): pass
         class Y(O): pass
         class A(X,Y): pass
         class B(Y,X): pass
         try:
             class Z(A,B): pass #creates Z(A,B) in Python 2.2
         except TypeError:
             pass # Z(A,B) cannot be created in Python 2.3

     class ex_5:
         "My first example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(D,E): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_6:
         "My second example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(E,D): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_9:
         "Difference between Python 2.2 MRO and C3" #From Samuele
         class O: pass
         class A(O): pass
         class B(O): pass
         class C(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class K1(A,B,C): pass
         class K2(D,B,E): pass
         class K3(D,A): pass
         class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

     def merge(seqs):
         print '\n\nCPL[%s]=%s' % (seqs[0][0],seqs),
         res = []; i=0
         while 1:
           nonemptyseqs=[seq for seq in seqs if seq]
           if not nonemptyseqs: return res
           i+=1; print '\n',i,'round: candidates...',
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # find merge candidates among seq heads
               cand = seq[0]; print ' ',cand,
               nothead=[s for s in nonemptyseqs if cand in s[1:]]
               if nothead: cand=None #reject candidate
               else: break
           if not cand: raise "Inconsistent hierarchy"
           res.append(cand)
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # remove cand
               if seq[0] == cand: del seq[0]

     def mro(C):
         "Compute the class precedence list (mro) according to C3"
         return merge([[C]]+map(mro,C.__bases__)+[list(C.__bases__)])

     def print_mro(C):
         print '\nMRO[%s]=%s' % (C,mro(C))
         print '\nP22 MRO[%s]=%s' % (C,C.mro())

     print_mro(ex_9.Z)

     #</mro.py>

That’s all folks,

     enjoy !


File: python.info,  Node: Resources,  Prev: The end,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.19.6 Resources
----------------

General:

   * *note Annotations Best Practices: 613.

   * *note Argparse Tutorial: 2a30.

   * *note Descriptor Guide: 1379.

   * *note Enum HOWTO: 4dd7.

   * *note Functional Programming HOWTO: 4e07.

   * *note An introduction to the ipaddress module: 3981.

   * *note Logging HOWTO: 4e25.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 109c.

   * *note Regular Expression HOWTO: 20e0.

   * *note Sorting Techniques: 1f6f.

   * *note Unicode HOWTO: 114d.

   * *note HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package:
     3753.

Advanced development:

   * *note Curses Programming with Python: 2b7e.

   * *note Isolating Extension Modules: 4be8.

   * *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1335.

   * *note Socket Programming HOWTO: 3193.

   * *note Porting Extension Modules to Python 3: 118b.

Debugging and profiling:

   * *note Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB:
     4dc9.

   * *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: aea.

   * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 157.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular,  Next: Deprecations,  Prev: Python NASIL’ları,  Up: Top

10 Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular
*******************************

* Menu:

* General Python FAQ::
* Programming FAQ::
* Design and History FAQ::
* Library and Extension FAQ::
* Genişletme/Ekleme SSS::
* Python on Windows FAQ::
* Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS::
* “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS::


File: python.info,  Node: General Python FAQ,  Next: Programming FAQ,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.1 General Python FAQ
=======================

* Menu:

* General Information::
* Python in the real world::


File: python.info,  Node: General Information,  Next: Python in the real world,  Up: General Python FAQ

10.1.1 General Information
--------------------------

* Menu:

* What is Python?::
* What is the Python Software Foundation?::
* Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?::
* Why was Python created in the first place?::
* What is Python good for?::
* How does the Python version numbering scheme work?::
* How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?::
* How do I get documentation on Python?::
* I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?.
* Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?::
* How do I get a beta test version of Python?::
* How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?::
* Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?::
* Are there any books on Python?::
* Where in the world is www.python.org located?: Where in the world is www python org located?.
* Why is it called Python?::
* Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?::


File: python.info,  Node: What is Python?,  Next: What is the Python Software Foundation?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.1 What is Python?
........................

Python is an interpreted, interactive, object-oriented programming
language.  It incorporates modules, exceptions, dynamic typing, very
high level dynamic data types, and classes.  It supports multiple
programming paradigms beyond object-oriented programming, such as
procedural and functional programming.  Python combines remarkable power
with very clear syntax.  It has interfaces to many system calls and
libraries, as well as to various window systems, and is extensible in C
or C++.  It is also usable as an extension language for applications
that need a programmable interface.  Finally, Python is portable: it
runs on many Unix variants including Linux and macOS, and on Windows.

To find out more, start with *note Python Öğreticisi: 1a1e.  The
Beginner's Guide to Python(1) links to other introductory tutorials and
resources for learning Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: What is the Python Software Foundation?,  Next: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?,  Prev: What is Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.2 What is the Python Software Foundation?
................................................

The Python Software Foundation is an independent non-profit organization
that holds the copyright on Python versions 2.1 and newer.  The PSF’s
mission is to advance open source technology related to the Python
programming language and to publicize the use of Python.  The PSF’s home
page is at ‘https://www.python.org/psf/’.

Donations to the PSF are tax-exempt in the US. If you use Python and
find it helpful, please contribute via the PSF donation page(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/psf/donations/


File: python.info,  Node: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?,  Next: Why was Python created in the first place?,  Prev: What is the Python Software Foundation?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.3 Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?
...............................................................

You can do anything you want with the source, as long as you leave the
copyrights in and display those copyrights in any documentation about
Python that you produce.  If you honor the copyright rules, it’s OK to
use Python for commercial use, to sell copies of Python in source or
binary form (modified or unmodified), or to sell products that
incorporate Python in some form.  We would still like to know about all
commercial use of Python, of course.

See the license page(1) to find further explanations and the full text
of the PSF License.

The Python logo is trademarked, and in certain cases permission is
required to use it.  Consult the Trademark Usage Policy(2) for more
information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3/license.html

   (2) https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/


File: python.info,  Node: Why was Python created in the first place?,  Next: What is Python good for?,  Prev: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.4 Why was Python created in the first place?
...................................................

Here’s a 'very' brief summary of what started it all, written by Guido
van Rossum:

     I had extensive experience with implementing an interpreted
     language in the ABC group at CWI, and from working with this group
     I had learned a lot about language design.  This is the origin of
     many Python features, including the use of indentation for
     statement grouping and the inclusion of very-high-level data types
     (although the details are all different in Python).

     I had a number of gripes about the ABC language, but also liked
     many of its features.  It was impossible to extend the ABC language
     (or its implementation) to remedy my complaints – in fact its lack
     of extensibility was one of its biggest problems.  I had some
     experience with using Modula-2+ and talked with the designers of
     Modula-3 and read the Modula-3 report.  Modula-3 is the origin of
     the syntax and semantics used for exceptions, and some other Python
     features.

     I was working in the Amoeba distributed operating system group at
     CWI. We needed a better way to do system administration than by
     writing either C programs or Bourne shell scripts, since Amoeba had
     its own system call interface which wasn’t easily accessible from
     the Bourne shell.  My experience with error handling in Amoeba made
     me acutely aware of the importance of exceptions as a programming
     language feature.

     It occurred to me that a scripting language with a syntax like ABC
     but with access to the Amoeba system calls would fill the need.  I
     realized that it would be foolish to write an Amoeba-specific
     language, so I decided that I needed a language that was generally
     extensible.

     During the 1989 Christmas holidays, I had a lot of time on my hand,
     so I decided to give it a try.  During the next year, while still
     mostly working on it in my own time, Python was used in the Amoeba
     project with increasing success, and the feedback from colleagues
     made me add many early improvements.

     In February 1991, after just over a year of development, I decided
     to post to USENET. The rest is in the ‘Misc/HISTORY’ file.


File: python.info,  Node: What is Python good for?,  Next: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?,  Prev: Why was Python created in the first place?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.5 What is Python good for?
.................................

Python is a high-level general-purpose programming language that can be
applied to many different classes of problems.

The language comes with a large standard library that covers areas such
as string processing (regular expressions, Unicode, calculating
differences between files), internet protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
XML-RPC, POP, IMAP), software engineering (unit testing, logging,
profiling, parsing Python code), and operating system interfaces (system
calls, filesystems, TCP/IP sockets).  Look at the table of contents for
*note Python Standart Kütüphanesi: 143. to get an idea of what’s
available.  A wide variety of third-party extensions are also available.
Consult the Python Package Index(1) to find packages of interest to you.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?,  Next: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?,  Prev: What is Python good for?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.6 How does the Python version numbering scheme work?
...........................................................

Python versions are numbered “A.B.C” or “A.B”:

   * 'A' is the major version number – it is only incremented for really
     major changes in the language.

   * 'B' is the minor version number – it is incremented for less
     earth-shattering changes.

   * 'C' is the micro version number – it is incremented for each bugfix
     release.

Not all releases are bugfix releases.  In the run-up to a new feature
release, a series of development releases are made, denoted as alpha,
beta, or release candidate.  Alphas are early releases in which
interfaces aren’t yet finalized; it’s not unexpected to see an interface
change between two alpha releases.  Betas are more stable, preserving
existing interfaces but possibly adding new modules, and release
candidates are frozen, making no changes except as needed to fix
critical bugs.

Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix:

   * The suffix for an alpha version is “aN” for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a beta version is “bN” for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a release candidate version is “rcN” for some small
     number 'N'.

In other words, all versions labeled '2.0aN' precede the versions
labeled '2.0bN', which precede versions labeled '2.0rcN', and 'those'
precede 2.0.

You may also find version numbers with a “+” suffix, e.g.  “2.2+”.
These are unreleased versions, built directly from the CPython
development repository.  In practice, after a final minor release is
made, the version is incremented to the next minor version, which
becomes the “a0” version, e.g.  “2.4a0”.

See the Developer's Guide(1) for more information about the development
cycle, and PEP 387(2) to learn more about Python’s backward
compatibility policy.  See also the documentation for *note sys.version:
ba3, *note sys.hexversion: 413b, and *note sys.version_info: 4b5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/developer-workflow/development-cycle/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?,  Next: How do I get documentation on Python?,  Prev: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.7 How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?
.....................................................

The latest Python source distribution is always available from
python.org, at ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.  The latest
development sources can be obtained at
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/’.

The source distribution is a gzipped tar file containing the complete C
source, Sphinx-formatted documentation, Python library modules, example
programs, and several useful pieces of freely distributable software.
The source will compile and run out of the box on most UNIX platforms.

Consult the Getting Started section of the Python Developer's Guide(1)
for more information on getting the source code and compiling it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/setup/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get documentation on Python?,  Next: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?,  Prev: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.8 How do I get documentation on Python?
..............................................

The standard documentation for the current stable version of Python is
available at ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’.  PDF, plain text, and
downloadable HTML versions are also available at
‘https://docs.python.org/3/download.html’.

The documentation is written in reStructuredText and processed by the
Sphinx documentation tool(1).  The reStructuredText source for the
documentation is part of the Python source distribution.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/


File: python.info,  Node: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?,  Next: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?,  Prev: How do I get documentation on Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.9 I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?
..................................................................

There are numerous tutorials and books available.  The standard
documentation includes *note Python Öğreticisi: 1a1e.

Consult the Beginner's Guide(1) to find information for beginning Python
programmers, including lists of tutorials.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?,  Next: How do I get a beta test version of Python?,  Prev: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.10 Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?
.................................................................

There is a newsgroup, ‘comp.lang.python’, and a mailing list,
python-list(1).  The newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed into each
other – if you can read news it’s unnecessary to subscribe to the
mailing list.  ‘comp.lang.python’ is high-traffic, receiving hundreds of
postings every day, and Usenet readers are often more able to cope with
this volume.

Announcements of new software releases and events can be found in
comp.lang.python.announce, a low-traffic moderated list that receives
about five postings per day.  It’s available as the python-announce
mailing list(2).

More info about other mailing lists and newsgroups can be found at
‘https://www.python.org/community/lists/’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-announce-list.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get a beta test version of Python?,  Next: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?,  Prev: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.11 How do I get a beta test version of Python?
.....................................................

Alpha and beta releases are available from
‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.  All releases are announced on the
comp.lang.python and comp.lang.python.announce newsgroups and on the
Python home page at ‘https://www.python.org/’; an RSS feed of news is
available.

You can also access the development version of Python through Git.  See
The Python Developer's Guide(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?,  Next: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?,  Prev: How do I get a beta test version of Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.12 How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?
.............................................................

To report a bug or submit a patch, use the issue tracker at
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’.

For more information on how Python is developed, consult the Python
Developer's Guide(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?,  Next: Are there any books on Python?,  Prev: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.13 Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?
.............................................................................

It’s probably best to cite your favorite book about Python.

The very first article(1) about Python was written in 1991 and is now
quite outdated.

     Guido van Rossum and Jelke de Boer, “Interactively Testing Remote
     Servers Using the Python Programming Language”, CWI Quarterly,
     Volume 4, Issue 4 (December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283–303.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/18204


File: python.info,  Node: Are there any books on Python?,  Next: Where in the world is www python org located?,  Prev: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.14 Are there any books on Python?
........................................

Yes, there are many, and more are being published.  See the python.org
wiki at ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks’ for a list.

You can also search online bookstores for “Python” and filter out the
Monty Python references; or perhaps search for “Python” and “language”.


File: python.info,  Node: Where in the world is www python org located?,  Next: Why is it called Python?,  Prev: Are there any books on Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.15 Where in the world is www.python.org located?
.......................................................

The Python project’s infrastructure is located all over the world and is
managed by the Python Infrastructure Team.  Details here(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://infra.psf.io


File: python.info,  Node: Why is it called Python?,  Next: Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?,  Prev: Where in the world is www python org located?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.16 Why is it called Python?
..................................

When he began implementing Python, Guido van Rossum was also reading the
published scripts from "Monty Python's Flying Circus"(1), a BBC comedy
series from the 1970s.  Van Rossum thought he needed a name that was
short, unique, and slightly mysterious, so he decided to call the
language Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python


File: python.info,  Node: Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?,  Prev: Why is it called Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.17 Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?
...........................................................

No, but it helps.  :)


File: python.info,  Node: Python in the real world,  Prev: General Information,  Up: General Python FAQ

10.1.2 Python in the real world
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* How stable is Python?::
* How many people are using Python?::
* Have any significant projects been done in Python?::
* What new developments are expected for Python in the future?::
* Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?::
* Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?::


File: python.info,  Node: How stable is Python?,  Next: How many people are using Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.1 How stable is Python?
..............................

Very stable.  New, stable releases have been coming out roughly every 6
to 18 months since 1991, and this seems likely to continue.  As of
version 3.9, Python will have a new feature release every 12 months (
PEP 602(1)).

The developers issue bugfix releases of older versions, so the stability
of existing releases gradually improves.  Bugfix releases, indicated by
a third component of the version number (e.g.  3.5.3, 3.6.2), are
managed for stability; only fixes for known problems are included in a
bugfix release, and it’s guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same
throughout a series of bugfix releases.

The latest stable releases can always be found on the Python download
page(2).  Python 3.x is the recommended version and supported by most
widely used libraries.  Python 2.x is not maintained anymore(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/


File: python.info,  Node: How many people are using Python?,  Next: Have any significant projects been done in Python?,  Prev: How stable is Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.2 How many people are using Python?
..........................................

There are probably millions of users, though it’s difficult to obtain an
exact count.

Python is available for free download, so there are no sales figures,
and it’s available from many different sites and packaged with many
Linux distributions, so download statistics don’t tell the whole story
either.

The comp.lang.python newsgroup is very active, but not all Python users
post to the group or even read it.


File: python.info,  Node: Have any significant projects been done in Python?,  Next: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?,  Prev: How many people are using Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.3 Have any significant projects been done in Python?
...........................................................

See ‘https://www.python.org/about/success’ for a list of projects that
use Python.  Consulting the proceedings for past Python conferences(1)
will reveal contributions from many different companies and
organizations.

High-profile Python projects include the Mailman mailing list manager(2)
and the Zope application server(3).  Several Linux distributions, most
notably Red Hat(4), have written part or all of their installer and
system administration software in Python.  Companies that use Python
internally include Google, Yahoo, and Lucasfilm Ltd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/community/workshops/

   (2) https://www.list.org

   (3) https://www.zope.dev

   (4) https://www.redhat.com


File: python.info,  Node: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?,  Next: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?,  Prev: Have any significant projects been done in Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.4 What new developments are expected for Python in the future?
.....................................................................

See ‘https://peps.python.org/’ for the Python Enhancement Proposals
(PEPs).  PEPs are design documents describing a suggested new feature
for Python, providing a concise technical specification and a rationale.
Look for a PEP titled “Python X.Y Release Schedule”, where X.Y is a
version that hasn’t been publicly released yet.

New development is discussed on the python-dev mailing list(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-dev.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?,  Next: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?,  Prev: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.5 Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?
....................................................................

In general, no.  There are already millions of lines of Python code
around the world, so any change in the language that invalidates more
than a very small fraction of existing programs has to be frowned upon.
Even if you can provide a conversion program, there’s still the problem
of updating all documentation; many books have been written about
Python, and we don’t want to invalidate them all at a single stroke.

Providing a gradual upgrade path is necessary if a feature has to be
changed.  PEP 5(1) describes the procedure followed for introducing
backward-incompatible changes while minimizing disruption for users.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/


File: python.info,  Node: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?,  Prev: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.6 Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?
.............................................................

Yes.

It is still common to start students with a procedural and statically
typed language such as Pascal, C, or a subset of C++ or Java.  Students
may be better served by learning Python as their first language.  Python
has a very simple and consistent syntax and a large standard library
and, most importantly, using Python in a beginning programming course
lets students concentrate on important programming skills such as
problem decomposition and data type design.  With Python, students can
be quickly introduced to basic concepts such as loops and procedures.
They can probably even work with user-defined objects in their very
first course.

For a student who has never programmed before, using a statically typed
language seems unnatural.  It presents additional complexity that the
student must master and slows the pace of the course.  The students are
trying to learn to think like a computer, decompose problems, design
consistent interfaces, and encapsulate data.  While learning to use a
statically typed language is important in the long term, it is not
necessarily the best topic to address in the students’ first programming
course.

Many other aspects of Python make it a good first language.  Like Java,
Python has a large standard library so that students can be assigned
programming projects very early in the course that 'do' something.
Assignments aren’t restricted to the standard four-function calculator
and check balancing programs.  By using the standard library, students
can gain the satisfaction of working on realistic applications as they
learn the fundamentals of programming.  Using the standard library also
teaches students about code reuse.  Third-party modules such as PyGame
are also helpful in extending the students’ reach.

Python’s interactive interpreter enables students to test language
features while they’re programming.  They can keep a window with the
interpreter running while they enter their program’s source in another
window.  If they can’t remember the methods for a list, they can do
something like this:

     >>> L = []
     >>> dir(L)
     ['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__',
     '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
     '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__',
     '__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__',
     '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
     '__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__',
     '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear',
     'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove',
     'reverse', 'sort']
     >>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d]
     ['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']

     >>> help(L.append)
     Help on built-in function append:

     append(...)
         L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end

     >>> L.append(1)
     >>> L
     [1]

With the interpreter, documentation is never far from the student as
they are programming.

There are also good IDEs for Python.  IDLE is a cross-platform IDE for
Python that is written in Python using Tkinter.  Emacs users will be
happy to know that there is a very good Python mode for Emacs.  All of
these programming environments provide syntax highlighting,
auto-indenting, and access to the interactive interpreter while coding.
Consult the Python wiki(1) for a full list of Python editing
environments.

If you want to discuss Python’s use in education, you may be interested
in joining the edu-sig mailing list(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig


File: python.info,  Node: Programming FAQ,  Next: Design and History FAQ,  Prev: General Python FAQ,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.2 Programming FAQ
====================

* Menu:

* General Questions::
* Core Language::
* Numbers and strings::
* Performance: Performance<4>.
* Sequences (Tuples/Lists): Sequences Tuples/Lists.
* Objects::
* Modules: Modules<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: General Questions,  Next: Core Language,  Up: Programming FAQ

10.2.1 General Questions
------------------------

* Menu:

* Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?.
* Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?::
* How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?::
* Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?::


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?,  Next: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?,  Up: General Questions

10.2.1.1 Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?
.......................................................................................

Yes.

Several debuggers for Python are described below, and the built-in
function *note breakpoint(): 930. allows you to drop into any of them.

The pdb module is a simple but adequate console-mode debugger for
Python.  It is part of the standard Python library, and is *note
documented in the Library Reference Manual: a4.  You can also write your
own debugger by using the code for pdb as an example.

The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the
standard Python distribution (normally available as
Tools/scripts/idle3(1)), includes a graphical debugger.

PythonWin is a Python IDE that includes a GUI debugger based on pdb.
The PythonWin debugger colors breakpoints and has quite a few cool
features such as debugging non-PythonWin programs.  PythonWin is
available as part of pywin32(2) project and as a part of the
ActivePython(3) distribution.

Eric(4) is an IDE built on PyQt and the Scintilla editing component.

trepan3k(5) is a gdb-like debugger.

Visual Studio Code(6) is an IDE with debugging tools that integrates
with version-control software.

There are a number of commercial Python IDEs that include graphical
debuggers.  They include:

   * Wing IDE(7)

   * Komodo IDE(8)

   * PyCharm(9)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/scripts/idle3

   (2) https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32

   (3) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (4) https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/

   (5) https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/

   (6) https://code.visualstudio.com/

   (7) https://wingware.com/

   (8) https://www.activestate.com/products/komodo-ide/

   (9) https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/


File: python.info,  Node: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?,  Next: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?,  Prev: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?,  Up: General Questions

10.2.1.2 Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?
......................................................................

Yes.

Pylint(1) and Pyflakes(2) do basic checking that will help you catch
bugs sooner.

Static type checkers such as Mypy(3), Pyre(4), and Pytype(5) can check
type hints in Python source code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pylint.pycqa.org/en/latest/index.html

   (2) https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://pyre-check.org/

   (5) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?,  Next: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?,  Prev: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?,  Up: General Questions

10.2.1.3 How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?
....................................................................

You don’t need the ability to compile Python to C code if all you want
is a stand-alone program that users can download and run without having
to install the Python distribution first.  There are a number of tools
that determine the set of modules required by a program and bind these
modules together with a Python binary to produce a single executable.

One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source
tree as Tools/freeze(1).  It converts Python byte code to C arrays; with
a C compiler you can embed all your modules into a new program, which is
then linked with the standard Python modules.

It works by scanning your source recursively for import statements (in
both forms) and looking for the modules in the standard Python path as
well as in the source directory (for built-in modules).  It then turns
the bytecode for modules written in Python into C code (array
initializers that can be turned into code objects using the marshal
module) and creates a custom-made config file that only contains those
built-in modules which are actually used in the program.  It then
compiles the generated C code and links it with the rest of the Python
interpreter to form a self-contained binary which acts exactly like your
script.

The following packages can help with the creation of console and GUI
executables:

   * Nuitka(2) (Cross-platform)

   * PyInstaller(3) (Cross-platform)

   * PyOxidizer(4) (Cross-platform)

   * cx_Freeze(5) (Cross-platform)

   * py2app(6) (macOS only)

   * py2exe(7) (Windows only)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze

   (2) https://nuitka.net/

   (3) https://pyinstaller.org/

   (4) https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (5) https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/

   (6) https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app

   (7) https://www.py2exe.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?,  Prev: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?,  Up: General Questions

10.2.1.4 Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?
.........................................................................

Yes.  The coding style required for standard library modules is
documented as PEP 8(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Core Language,  Next: Numbers and strings,  Prev: General Questions,  Up: Programming FAQ

10.2.2 Core Language
--------------------

* Menu:

* Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?::
* What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?::
* Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?::
* How do I share global variables across modules?::
* What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?::
* Why are default values shared between objects?::
* How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?::
* What is the difference between arguments and parameters?::
* Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?::
* How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?.
* How do you make a higher order function in Python?::
* How do I copy an object in Python?::
* How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?::
* How can my code discover the name of an object?::
* What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?::
* Is there an equivalent of C’s “?;” ternary operator?: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?.
* Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?::
* What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?.


File: python.info,  Node: Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?,  Next: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.1 Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?
.............................................................................

It can be a surprise to get the *note UnboundLocalError: 13c3. in
previously working code when it is modified by adding an assignment
statement somewhere in the body of a function.

This code:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def bar():
     ...     print(x)
     ...
     >>> bar()
     10

works, but this code:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1

results in an ‘UnboundLocalError’:

     >>> foo()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment

This is because when you make an assignment to a variable in a scope,
that variable becomes local to that scope and shadows any similarly
named variable in the outer scope.  Since the last statement in foo
assigns a new value to ‘x’, the compiler recognizes it as a local
variable.  Consequently when the earlier ‘print(x)’ attempts to print
the uninitialized local variable and an error results.

In the example above you can access the outer scope variable by
declaring it global:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foobar():
     ...     global x
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1
     ...
     >>> foobar()
     10

This explicit declaration is required in order to remind you that
(unlike the superficially analogous situation with class and instance
variables) you are actually modifying the value of the variable in the
outer scope:

     >>> print(x)
     11

You can do a similar thing in a nested scope using the *note nonlocal:
1150. keyword:

     >>> def foo():
     ...    x = 10
     ...    def bar():
     ...        nonlocal x
     ...        print(x)
     ...        x += 1
     ...    bar()
     ...    print(x)
     ...
     >>> foo()
     10
     11


File: python.info,  Node: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?,  Next: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?,  Prev: Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.2 What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?
.....................................................................

In Python, variables that are only referenced inside a function are
implicitly global.  If a variable is assigned a value anywhere within
the function’s body, it’s assumed to be a local unless explicitly
declared as global.

Though a bit surprising at first, a moment’s consideration explains
this.  On one hand, requiring *note global: 1a67. for assigned variables
provides a bar against unintended side-effects.  On the other hand, if
‘global’ was required for all global references, you’d be using ‘global’
all the time.  You’d have to declare as global every reference to a
built-in function or to a component of an imported module.  This clutter
would defeat the usefulness of the ‘global’ declaration for identifying
side-effects.


File: python.info,  Node: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?,  Next: How do I share global variables across modules?,  Prev: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.3 Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?
...........................................................................................

Assume you use a for loop to define a few different lambdas (or even
plain functions), e.g.:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda: x**2)

This gives you a list that contains 5 lambdas that calculate ‘x**2’.
You might expect that, when called, they would return, respectively,
‘0’, ‘1’, ‘4’, ‘9’, and ‘16’.  However, when you actually try you will
see that they all return ‘16’:

     >>> squares[2]()
     16
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

This happens because ‘x’ is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in
the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called — not when
it is defined.  At the end of the loop, the value of ‘x’ is ‘4’, so all
the functions now return ‘4**2’, i.e.  ‘16’.  You can also verify this
by changing the value of ‘x’ and see how the results of the lambdas
change:

     >>> x = 8
     >>> squares[2]()
     64

In order to avoid this, you need to save the values in variables local
to the lambdas, so that they don’t rely on the value of the global ‘x’:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2)

Here, ‘n=x’ creates a new variable ‘n’ local to the lambda and computed
when the lambda is defined so that it has the same value that ‘x’ had at
that point in the loop.  This means that the value of ‘n’ will be ‘0’ in
the first lambda, ‘1’ in the second, ‘2’ in the third, and so on.
Therefore each lambda will now return the correct result:

     >>> squares[2]()
     4
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

Note that this behaviour is not peculiar to lambdas, but applies to
regular functions too.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I share global variables across modules?,  Next: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?,  Prev: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.4 How do I share global variables across modules?
........................................................

The canonical way to share information across modules within a single
program is to create a special module (often called config or cfg).
Just import the config module in all modules of your application; the
module then becomes available as a global name.  Because there is only
one instance of each module, any changes made to the module object get
reflected everywhere.  For example:

config.py:

     x = 0   # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting

mod.py:

     import config
     config.x = 1

main.py:

     import config
     import mod
     print(config.x)

Note that using a module is also the basis for implementing the
singleton design pattern, for the same reason.


File: python.info,  Node: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?,  Next: Why are default values shared between objects?,  Prev: How do I share global variables across modules?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.5 What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?
....................................................................

In general, don’t use ‘from modulename import *’.  Doing so clutters the
importer’s namespace, and makes it much harder for linters to detect
undefined names.

Import modules at the top of a file.  Doing so makes it clear what other
modules your code requires and avoids questions of whether the module
name is in scope.  Using one import per line makes it easy to add and
delete module imports, but using multiple imports per line uses less
screen space.

It’s good practice if you import modules in the following order:

  1. standard library modules – e.g.  *note sys: d8, *note os: a0, *note
     argparse: 6, *note re: b8.

  2. third-party library modules (anything installed in Python’s
     site-packages directory) – e.g.  ‘dateutil’, ‘requests’,
     ‘PIL.Image’

  3. locally developed modules

It is sometimes necessary to move imports to a function or class to
avoid problems with circular imports.  Gordon McMillan says:

     Circular imports are fine where both modules use the “import
     <module>” form of import.  They fail when the 2nd module wants to
     grab a name out of the first (“from module import name”) and the
     import is at the top level.  That’s because names in the 1st are
     not yet available, because the first module is busy importing the
     2nd.

In this case, if the second module is only used in one function, then
the import can easily be moved into that function.  By the time the
import is called, the first module will have finished initializing, and
the second module can do its import.

It may also be necessary to move imports out of the top level of code if
some of the modules are platform-specific.  In that case, it may not
even be possible to import all of the modules at the top of the file.
In this case, importing the correct modules in the corresponding
platform-specific code is a good option.

Only move imports into a local scope, such as inside a function
definition, if it’s necessary to solve a problem such as avoiding a
circular import or are trying to reduce the initialization time of a
module.  This technique is especially helpful if many of the imports are
unnecessary depending on how the program executes.  You may also want to
move imports into a function if the modules are only ever used in that
function.  Note that loading a module the first time may be expensive
because of the one time initialization of the module, but loading a
module multiple times is virtually free, costing only a couple of
dictionary lookups.  Even if the module name has gone out of scope, the
module is probably available in *note sys.modules: 179b.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are default values shared between objects?,  Next: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?,  Prev: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.6 Why are default values shared between objects?
.......................................................

This type of bug commonly bites neophyte programmers.  Consider this
function:

     def foo(mydict={}):  # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls
         ... compute something ...
         mydict[key] = value
         return mydict

The first time you call this function, ‘mydict’ contains a single item.
The second time, ‘mydict’ contains two items because when ‘foo()’ begins
executing, ‘mydict’ starts out with an item already in it.

It is often expected that a function call creates new objects for
default values.  This is not what happens.  Default values are created
exactly once, when the function is defined.  If that object is changed,
like the dictionary in this example, subsequent calls to the function
will refer to this changed object.

By definition, immutable objects such as numbers, strings, tuples, and
‘None’, are safe from change.  Changes to mutable objects such as
dictionaries, lists, and class instances can lead to confusion.

Because of this feature, it is good programming practice to not use
mutable objects as default values.  Instead, use ‘None’ as the default
value and inside the function, check if the parameter is ‘None’ and
create a new list/dictionary/whatever if it is.  For example, don’t
write:

     def foo(mydict={}):
         ...

but:

     def foo(mydict=None):
         if mydict is None:
             mydict = {}  # create a new dict for local namespace

This feature can be useful.  When you have a function that’s
time-consuming to compute, a common technique is to cache the parameters
and the resulting value of each call to the function, and return the
cached value if the same value is requested again.  This is called
“memoizing”, and can be implemented like this:

     # Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword
     def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}):
         if (arg1, arg2) in _cache:
             return _cache[(arg1, arg2)]

         # Calculate the value
         result = ... expensive computation ...
         _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result           # Store result in the cache
         return result

You could use a global variable containing a dictionary instead of the
default value; it’s a matter of taste.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?,  Next: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?,  Prev: Why are default values shared between objects?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.7 How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?
....................................................................................

Collect the arguments using the ‘*’ and ‘**’ specifiers in the
function’s parameter list; this gives you the positional arguments as a
tuple and the keyword arguments as a dictionary.  You can then pass
these arguments when calling another function by using ‘*’ and ‘**’:

     def f(x, *args, **kwargs):
         ...
         kwargs['width'] = '14.3c'
         ...
         g(x, *args, **kwargs)


File: python.info,  Node: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?,  Next: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?,  Prev: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.8 What is the difference between arguments and parameters?
.................................................................

*note Parameters: 1cec. are defined by the names that appear in a
function definition, whereas *note arguments: 15a. are the values
actually passed to a function when calling it.  Parameters define what
*note kind of arguments: 1cec. a function can accept.  For example,
given the function definition:

     def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs):
         pass

'foo', 'bar' and 'kwargs' are parameters of ‘func’.  However, when
calling ‘func’, for example:

     func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar)

the values ‘42’, ‘314’, and ‘somevar’ are arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?,  Next: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?,  Prev: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.9 Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?
........................................................

If you wrote code like:

     >>> x = []
     >>> y = x
     >>> y.append(10)
     >>> y
     [10]
     >>> x
     [10]

you might be wondering why appending an element to ‘y’ changed ‘x’ too.

There are two factors that produce this result:

  1. Variables are simply names that refer to objects.  Doing ‘y = x’
     doesn’t create a copy of the list – it creates a new variable ‘y’
     that refers to the same object ‘x’ refers to.  This means that
     there is only one object (the list), and both ‘x’ and ‘y’ refer to
     it.

  2. Lists are *note mutable: 1a48, which means that you can change
     their content.

After the call to ‘append()’, the content of the mutable object has
changed from ‘[]’ to ‘[10]’.  Since both the variables refer to the same
object, using either name accesses the modified value ‘[10]’.

If we instead assign an immutable object to ‘x’:

     >>> x = 5  # ints are immutable
     >>> y = x
     >>> x = x + 1  # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here
     >>> x
     6
     >>> y
     5

we can see that in this case ‘x’ and ‘y’ are not equal anymore.  This is
because integers are *note immutable: 1a43, and when we do ‘x = x + 1’
we are not mutating the int ‘5’ by incrementing its value; instead, we
are creating a new object (the int ‘6’) and assigning it to ‘x’ (that
is, changing which object ‘x’ refers to).  After this assignment we have
two objects (the ints ‘6’ and ‘5’) and two variables that refer to them
(‘x’ now refers to ‘6’ but ‘y’ still refers to ‘5’).

Some operations (for example ‘y.append(10)’ and ‘y.sort()’) mutate the
object, whereas superficially similar operations (for example ‘y = y +
[10]’ and *note sorted(y): a45.) create a new object.  In general in
Python (and in all cases in the standard library) a method that mutates
an object will return ‘None’ to help avoid getting the two types of
operations confused.  So if you mistakenly write ‘y.sort()’ thinking it
will give you a sorted copy of ‘y’, you’ll instead end up with ‘None’,
which will likely cause your program to generate an easily diagnosed
error.

However, there is one class of operations where the same operation
sometimes has different behaviors with different types: the augmented
assignment operators.  For example, ‘+=’ mutates lists but not tuples or
ints (‘a_list += [1, 2, 3]’ is equivalent to ‘a_list.extend([1, 2, 3])’
and mutates ‘a_list’, whereas ‘some_tuple += (1, 2, 3)’ and ‘some_int +=
1’ create new objects).

In other words:

   * If we have a mutable object (*note list: 422, *note dict: 240,
     *note set: 3e4, etc.), we can use some specific operations to
     mutate it and all the variables that refer to it will see the
     change.

   * If we have an immutable object (*note str: 15d, *note int: 184,
     *note tuple: 4ff, etc.), all the variables that refer to it will
     always see the same value, but operations that transform that value
     into a new value always return a new object.

If you want to know if two variables refer to the same object or not,
you can use the *note is: 270. operator, or the built-in function *note
id(): 12ab.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?,  Next: How do you make a higher order function in Python?,  Prev: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.10 How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?
...............................................................................

Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python.  Since
assignment just creates references to objects, there’s no alias between
an argument name in the caller and callee, and so no call-by-reference
per se.  You can achieve the desired effect in a number of ways.

  1. By returning a tuple of the results:

          >>> def func1(a, b):
          ...     a = 'new-value'        # a and b are local names
          ...     b = b + 1              # assigned to new objects
          ...     return a, b            # return new values
          ...
          >>> x, y = 'old-value', 99
          >>> func1(x, y)
          ('new-value', 100)

     This is almost always the clearest solution.

  2. By using global variables.  This isn’t thread-safe, and is not
     recommended.

  3. By passing a mutable (changeable in-place) object:

          >>> def func2(a):
          ...     a[0] = 'new-value'     # 'a' references a mutable list
          ...     a[1] = a[1] + 1        # changes a shared object
          ...
          >>> args = ['old-value', 99]
          >>> func2(args)
          >>> args
          ['new-value', 100]

  4. By passing in a dictionary that gets mutated:

          >>> def func3(args):
          ...     args['a'] = 'new-value'     # args is a mutable dictionary
          ...     args['b'] = args['b'] + 1   # change it in-place
          ...
          >>> args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99}
          >>> func3(args)
          >>> args
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

  5. Or bundle up values in a class instance:

          >>> class Namespace:
          ...     def __init__(self, /, **args):
          ...         for key, value in args.items():
          ...             setattr(self, key, value)
          ...
          >>> def func4(args):
          ...     args.a = 'new-value'        # args is a mutable Namespace
          ...     args.b = args.b + 1         # change object in-place
          ...
          >>> args = Namespace(a='old-value', b=99)
          >>> func4(args)
          >>> vars(args)
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

     There’s almost never a good reason to get this complicated.

Your best choice is to return a tuple containing the multiple results.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you make a higher order function in Python?,  Next: How do I copy an object in Python?,  Prev: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.11 How do you make a higher order function in Python?
............................................................

You have two choices: you can use nested scopes or you can use callable
objects.  For example, suppose you wanted to define ‘linear(a,b)’ which
returns a function ‘f(x)’ that computes the value ‘a*x+b’.  Using nested
scopes:

     def linear(a, b):
         def result(x):
             return a * x + b
         return result

Or using a callable object:

     class linear:

         def __init__(self, a, b):
             self.a, self.b = a, b

         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * x + self.b

In both cases,

     taxes = linear(0.3, 2)

gives a callable object where ‘taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2’.

The callable object approach has the disadvantage that it is a bit
slower and results in slightly longer code.  However, note that a
collection of callables can share their signature via inheritance:

     class exponential(linear):
         # __init__ inherited
         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * (x ** self.b)

Object can encapsulate state for several methods:

     class counter:

         value = 0

         def set(self, x):
             self.value = x

         def up(self):
             self.value = self.value + 1

         def down(self):
             self.value = self.value - 1

     count = counter()
     inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set

Here ‘inc()’, ‘dec()’ and ‘reset()’ act like functions which share the
same counting variable.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I copy an object in Python?,  Next: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?,  Prev: How do you make a higher order function in Python?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.12 How do I copy an object in Python?
............................................

In general, try *note copy.copy(): 2bf. or *note copy.deepcopy(): 9e4.
for the general case.  Not all objects can be copied, but most can.

Some objects can be copied more easily.  Dictionaries have a *note
copy(): a47. method:

     newdict = olddict.copy()

Sequences can be copied by slicing:

     new_l = l[:]


File: python.info,  Node: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?,  Next: How can my code discover the name of an object?,  Prev: How do I copy an object in Python?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.13 How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?
................................................................

For an instance ‘x’ of a user-defined class, *note dir(x): 445. returns
an alphabetized list of the names containing the instance attributes and
methods and attributes defined by its class.


File: python.info,  Node: How can my code discover the name of an object?,  Next: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?,  Prev: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.14 How can my code discover the name of an object?
.........................................................

Generally speaking, it can’t, because objects don’t really have names.
Essentially, assignment always binds a name to a value; the same is true
of ‘def’ and ‘class’ statements, but in that case the value is a
callable.  Consider the following code:

     >>> class A:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> B = A
     >>> a = B()
     >>> b = a
     >>> print(b)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
     >>> print(a)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>

Arguably the class has a name: even though it is bound to two names and
invoked through the name ‘B’ the created instance is still reported as
an instance of class ‘A’.  However, it is impossible to say whether the
instance’s name is ‘a’ or ‘b’, since both names are bound to the same
value.

Generally speaking it should not be necessary for your code to “know the
names” of particular values.  Unless you are deliberately writing
introspective programs, this is usually an indication that a change of
approach might be beneficial.

In comp.lang.python, Fredrik Lundh once gave an excellent analogy in
answer to this question:

     The same way as you get the name of that cat you found on your
     porch: the cat (object) itself cannot tell you its name, and it
     doesn’t really care – so the only way to find out what it’s called
     is to ask all your neighbours (namespaces) if it’s their cat
     (object)…

     ….and don’t be surprised if you’ll find that it’s known by many
     names, or no name at all!


File: python.info,  Node: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?,  Next: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?,  Prev: How can my code discover the name of an object?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.15 What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?
.........................................................

Comma is not an operator in Python.  Consider this session:

     >>> "a" in "b", "a"
     (False, 'a')

Since the comma is not an operator, but a separator between expressions
the above is evaluated as if you had entered:

     ("a" in "b"), "a"

not:

     "a" in ("b", "a")

The same is true of the various assignment operators (‘=’, ‘+=’ etc).
They are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment
statements.


File: python.info,  Node: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?,  Next: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?,  Prev: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.16 Is there an equivalent of C’s “?:” ternary operator?
..............................................................

Yes, there is.  The syntax is as follows:

     [on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]

     x, y = 50, 25
     small = x if x < y else y

Before this syntax was introduced in Python 2.5, a common idiom was to
use logical operators:

     [expression] and [on_true] or [on_false]

However, this idiom is unsafe, as it can give wrong results when
'on_true' has a false boolean value.  Therefore, it is always better to
use the ‘... if ... else ...’ form.


File: python.info,  Node: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?,  Next: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?,  Prev: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.17 Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?
..................................................................

Yes.  Usually this is done by nesting *note lambda: 1145. within
‘lambda’.  See the following three examples, slightly adapted from Ulf
Bartelt:

     from functools import reduce

     # Primes < 1000
     print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0,
     map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000)))))

     # First 10 Fibonacci numbers
     print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1:
     f(x,f), range(10))))

     # Mandelbrot set
     print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+'\n'+y,map(lambda y,
     Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM,
     Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,
     i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y
     >=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(
     64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy
     ))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24))
     #    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen
     #        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen
     #        |          |      |__________ maximum of "iterations"
     #        |          |_________________ range on y axis
     #        |____________________________ range on x axis

Don’t try this at home, kids!


File: python.info,  Node: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?,  Prev: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?,  Up: Core Language

10.2.2.18 What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?
..........................................................................

A slash in the argument list of a function denotes that the parameters
prior to it are positional-only.  Positional-only parameters are the
ones without an externally usable name.  Upon calling a function that
accepts positional-only parameters, arguments are mapped to parameters
based solely on their position.  For example, *note divmod(): 7ff. is a
function that accepts positional-only parameters.  Its documentation
looks like this:

     >>> help(divmod)
     Help on built-in function divmod in module builtins:

     divmod(x, y, /)
         Return the tuple (x//y, x%y).  Invariant: div*y + mod == x.

The slash at the end of the parameter list means that both parameters
are positional-only.  Thus, calling *note divmod(): 7ff. with keyword
arguments would lead to an error:

     >>> divmod(x=3, y=4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: divmod() takes no keyword arguments


File: python.info,  Node: Numbers and strings,  Next: Performance<4>,  Prev: Core Language,  Up: Programming FAQ

10.2.3 Numbers and strings
--------------------------

* Menu:

* How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?::
* Why does -22 // 10 return -3?::
* How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?::
* How do I convert a string to a number?::
* How do I convert a number to a string?::
* How do I modify a string in place?::
* How do I use strings to call functions/methods?::
* Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?.
* Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?.
* What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?::
* Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::


File: python.info,  Node: How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?,  Next: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.1 How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?
.........................................................

To specify an octal digit, precede the octal value with a zero, and then
a lower or uppercase “o”.  For example, to set the variable “a” to the
octal value “10” (8 in decimal), type:

     >>> a = 0o10
     >>> a
     8

Hexadecimal is just as easy.  Simply precede the hexadecimal number with
a zero, and then a lower or uppercase “x”.  Hexadecimal digits can be
specified in lower or uppercase.  For example, in the Python
interpreter:

     >>> a = 0xa5
     >>> a
     165
     >>> b = 0XB2
     >>> b
     178


File: python.info,  Node: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?,  Next: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Prev: How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.2 Why does -22 // 10 return -3?
......................................

It’s primarily driven by the desire that ‘i % j’ have the same sign as
‘j’.  If you want that, and also want:

     i == (i // j) * j + (i % j)

then integer division has to return the floor.  C also requires that
identity to hold, and then compilers that truncate ‘i // j’ need to make
‘i % j’ have the same sign as ‘i’.

There are few real use cases for ‘i % j’ when ‘j’ is negative.  When ‘j’
is positive, there are many, and in virtually all of them it’s more
useful for ‘i % j’ to be ‘>= 0’.  If the clock says 10 now, what did it
say 200 hours ago?  ‘-190 % 12 == 2’ is useful; ‘-190 % 12 == -10’ is a
bug waiting to bite.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Next: How do I convert a string to a number?,  Prev: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.3 How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?
...................................................................

Trying to lookup an ‘int’ literal attribute in the normal manner gives a
*note SyntaxError: 14c. because the period is seen as a decimal point:

     >>> 1.__class__
       File "<stdin>", line 1
       1.__class__
        ^
     SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal

The solution is to separate the literal from the period with either a
space or parentheses.

     >>> 1 .__class__
     <class 'int'>
     >>> (1).__class__
     <class 'int'>


File: python.info,  Node: How do I convert a string to a number?,  Next: How do I convert a number to a string?,  Prev: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.4 How do I convert a string to a number?
...............................................

For integers, use the built-in *note int(): 184. type constructor, e.g.
‘int('144') == 144’.  Similarly, *note float(): 272. converts to a
floating-point number, e.g.  ‘float('144') == 144.0’.

By default, these interpret the number as decimal, so that ‘int('0144')
== 144’ holds true, and ‘int('0x144')’ raises *note ValueError: 189.
‘int(string, base)’ takes the base to convert from as a second optional
argument, so ‘int( '0x144', 16) == 324’.  If the base is specified as 0,
the number is interpreted using Python’s rules: a leading ‘0o’ indicates
octal, and ‘0x’ indicates a hex number.

Do not use the built-in function *note eval(): 6ca. if all you need is
to convert strings to numbers.  *note eval(): 6ca. will be significantly
slower and it presents a security risk: someone could pass you a Python
expression that might have unwanted side effects.  For example, someone
could pass ‘__import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME")’ which would erase
your home directory.

*note eval(): 6ca. also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python
expressions, so that e.g.  ‘eval('09')’ gives a syntax error because
Python does not allow leading ‘0’ in a decimal number (except ‘0’).


File: python.info,  Node: How do I convert a number to a string?,  Next: How do I modify a string in place?,  Prev: How do I convert a string to a number?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.5 How do I convert a number to a string?
...............................................

To convert, e.g., the number ‘144’ to the string ‘'144'’, use the
built-in type constructor *note str(): 15d.  If you want a hexadecimal
or octal representation, use the built-in functions *note hex(): 1178.
or *note oct(): 1177.  For fancy formatting, see the *note f-strings:
807. and *note Format String Syntax: 1237. sections, e.g.
‘"{:04d}".format(144)’ yields ‘'0144'’ and ‘"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)’
yields ‘'0.333'’.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I modify a string in place?,  Next: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?,  Prev: How do I convert a number to a string?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.6 How do I modify a string in place?
...........................................

You can’t, because strings are immutable.  In most situations, you
should simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to
assemble it from.  However, if you need an object with the ability to
modify in-place unicode data, try using an *note io.StringIO: dc4.
object or the *note array: 7. module:

     >>> import io
     >>> s = "Hello, world"
     >>> sio = io.StringIO(s)
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, world'
     >>> sio.seek(7)
     7
     >>> sio.write("there!")
     6
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, there!'

     >>> import array
     >>> a = array.array('u', s)
     >>> print(a)
     array('u', 'Hello, world')
     >>> a[0] = 'y'
     >>> print(a)
     array('u', 'yello, world')
     >>> a.tounicode()
     'yello, world'


File: python.info,  Node: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?,  Next: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Prev: How do I modify a string in place?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.7 How do I use strings to call functions/methods?
........................................................

There are various techniques.

   * The best is to use a dictionary that maps strings to functions.
     The primary advantage of this technique is that the strings do not
     need to match the names of the functions.  This is also the primary
     technique used to emulate a case construct:

          def a():
              pass

          def b():
              pass

          dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b}  # Note lack of parens for funcs

          dispatch[get_input()]()  # Note trailing parens to call function

   * Use the built-in function *note getattr(): a48.:

          import foo
          getattr(foo, 'bar')()

     Note that *note getattr(): a48. works on any object, including
     classes, class instances, modules, and so on.

     This is used in several places in the standard library, like this:

          class Foo:
              def do_foo(self):
                  ...

              def do_bar(self):
                  ...

          f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname)
          f()

   * Use *note locals(): 179. to resolve the function name:

          def myFunc():
              print("hello")

          fname = "myFunc"

          f = locals()[fname]
          f()


File: python.info,  Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Next: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Prev: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.8 Is there an equivalent to Perl’s ‘chomp()’ for removing trailing newlines from strings?
................................................................................................

You can use ‘S.rstrip("\r\n")’ to remove all occurrences of any line
terminator from the end of the string ‘S’ without removing other
trailing whitespace.  If the string ‘S’ represents more than one line,
with several empty lines at the end, the line terminators for all the
blank lines will be removed:

     >>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n"
     ...          "\r\n"
     ...          "\r\n")
     >>> lines.rstrip("\n\r")
     'line 1 '

Since this is typically only desired when reading text one line at a
time, using ‘S.rstrip()’ this way works well.


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Next: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Prev: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.9 Is there a ‘scanf()’ or ‘sscanf()’ equivalent?
.......................................................

Not as such.

For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the
line into whitespace-delimited words using the *note split(): d3e.
method of string objects and then convert decimal strings to numeric
values using *note int(): 184. or *note float(): 272.  ‘split()’
supports an optional “sep” parameter which is useful if the line uses
something other than whitespace as a separator.

For more complicated input parsing, regular expressions are more
powerful than C’s ‘sscanf’ and better suited for the task.


File: python.info,  Node: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Next: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.10 What does ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or ‘UnicodeEncodeError’ error mean?
............................................................................

See the *note Unicode HOWTO: 114d.


File: python.info,  Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?,  Prev: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?,  Up: Numbers and strings

10.2.3.11 Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?
...................................................................

A raw string ending with an odd number of backslashes will escape the
string’s quote:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
         ^
     SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1)

There are several workarounds for this.  One is to use regular strings
and double the backslashes:

     >>> 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Another is to concatenate a regular string containing an escaped
backslash to the raw string:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\work' '\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

It is also possible to use *note os.path.join(): 1547. to append a
backslash on Windows:

     >>> os.path.join(r'C:\this\will\work', '')
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Note that while a backslash will “escape” a quote for the purposes of
determining where the raw string ends, no escaping occurs when
interpreting the value of the raw string.  That is, the backslash
remains present in the value of the raw string:

     >>> r'backslash\'preserved'
     "backslash\\'preserved"

Also see the specification in the *note language reference: 1c91.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<4>,  Next: Sequences Tuples/Lists,  Prev: Numbers and strings,  Up: Programming FAQ

10.2.4 Performance
------------------

* Menu:

* My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?.
* What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?::


File: python.info,  Node: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?,  Next: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?,  Up: Performance<4>

10.2.4.1 My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?
......................................................

That’s a tough one, in general.  First, here are a list of things to
remember before diving further:

   * Performance characteristics vary across Python implementations.
     This FAQ focuses on *note CPython: 510.

   * Behaviour can vary across operating systems, especially when
     talking about I/O or multi-threading.

   * You should always find the hot spots in your program 'before'
     attempting to optimize any code (see the *note profile: ae.
     module).

   * Writing benchmark scripts will allow you to iterate quickly when
     searching for improvements (see the *note timeit: ee. module).

   * It is highly recommended to have good code coverage (through unit
     testing or any other technique) before potentially introducing
     regressions hidden in sophisticated optimizations.

That being said, there are many tricks to speed up Python code.  Here
are some general principles which go a long way towards reaching
acceptable performance levels:

   * Making your algorithms faster (or changing to faster ones) can
     yield much larger benefits than trying to sprinkle
     micro-optimization tricks all over your code.

   * Use the right data structures.  Study documentation for the *note
     Gömülü Türler: 1f7f. and the *note collections: 1d. module.

   * When the standard library provides a primitive for doing something,
     it is likely (although not guaranteed) to be faster than any
     alternative you may come up with.  This is doubly true for
     primitives written in C, such as builtins and some extension types.
     For example, be sure to use either the *note list.sort(): a46.
     built-in method or the related *note sorted(): a45. function to do
     sorting (and see the *note Sorting Techniques: 1f6f. for examples
     of moderately advanced usage).

   * Abstractions tend to create indirections and force the interpreter
     to work more.  If the levels of indirection outweigh the amount of
     useful work done, your program will be slower.  You should avoid
     excessive abstraction, especially under the form of tiny functions
     or methods (which are also often detrimental to readability).

If you have reached the limit of what pure Python can allow, there are
tools to take you further away.  For example, Cython(1) can compile a
slightly modified version of Python code into a C extension, and can be
used on many different platforms.  Cython can take advantage of
compilation (and optional type annotations) to make your code
significantly faster than when interpreted.  If you are confident in
your C programming skills, you can also *note write a C extension
module: 1a1f. yourself.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The wiki page devoted to performance tips(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips


File: python.info,  Node: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?,  Prev: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?,  Up: Performance<4>

10.2.4.2 What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?
.............................................................................

*note str: 15d. and *note bytes: 2cb. objects are immutable, therefore
concatenating many strings together is inefficient as each concatenation
creates a new object.  In the general case, the total runtime cost is
quadratic in the total string length.

To accumulate many *note str: 15d. objects, the recommended idiom is to
place them into a list and call *note str.join(): 1f9c. at the end:

     chunks = []
     for s in my_strings:
         chunks.append(s)
     result = ''.join(chunks)

(another reasonably efficient idiom is to use *note io.StringIO: dc4.)

To accumulate many *note bytes: 2cb. objects, the recommended idiom is
to extend a *note bytearray: 2ca. object using in-place concatenation
(the ‘+=’ operator):

     result = bytearray()
     for b in my_bytes_objects:
         result += b


File: python.info,  Node: Sequences Tuples/Lists,  Next: Objects,  Prev: Performance<4>,  Up: Programming FAQ

10.2.5 Sequences (Tuples/Lists)
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* How do I convert between tuples and lists?::
* What’s a negative index?::
* How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?::
* How do you remove duplicates from a list?::
* How do you remove multiple items from a list::
* How do you make an array in Python?::
* How do I create a multidimensional list?::
* How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?::
* Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?::
* I want to do a complicated sort; can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?.
* How can I sort one list by values from another list?::


File: python.info,  Node: How do I convert between tuples and lists?,  Next: What’s a negative index?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.1 How do I convert between tuples and lists?
...................................................

The type constructor ‘tuple(seq)’ converts any sequence (actually, any
iterable) into a tuple with the same items in the same order.

For example, ‘tuple([1, 2, 3])’ yields ‘(1, 2, 3)’ and ‘tuple('abc')’
yields ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’.  If the argument is a tuple, it does not make
a copy but returns the same object, so it is cheap to call *note
tuple(): 4ff. when you aren’t sure that an object is already a tuple.

The type constructor ‘list(seq)’ converts any sequence or iterable into
a list with the same items in the same order.  For example, ‘list((1, 2,
3))’ yields ‘[1, 2, 3]’ and ‘list('abc')’ yields ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’.  If
the argument is a list, it makes a copy just like ‘seq[:]’ would.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s a negative index?,  Next: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?,  Prev: How do I convert between tuples and lists?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.2 What’s a negative index?
.................................

Python sequences are indexed with positive numbers and negative numbers.
For positive numbers 0 is the first index 1 is the second index and so
forth.  For negative indices -1 is the last index and -2 is the
penultimate (next to last) index and so forth.  Think of ‘seq[-n]’ as
the same as ‘seq[len(seq)-n]’.

Using negative indices can be very convenient.  For example ‘S[:-1]’ is
all of the string except for its last character, which is useful for
removing the trailing newline from a string.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?,  Next: How do you remove duplicates from a list?,  Prev: What’s a negative index?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.3 How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?
...........................................................

Use the *note reversed(): 6a9. built-in function:

     for x in reversed(sequence):
         ...  # do something with x ...

This won’t touch your original sequence, but build a new copy with
reversed order to iterate over.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you remove duplicates from a list?,  Next: How do you remove multiple items from a list,  Prev: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.4 How do you remove duplicates from a list?
..................................................

See the Python Cookbook for a long discussion of many ways to do this:

     ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/’

If you don’t mind reordering the list, sort it and then scan from the
end of the list, deleting duplicates as you go:

     if mylist:
         mylist.sort()
         last = mylist[-1]
         for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1):
             if last == mylist[i]:
                 del mylist[i]
             else:
                 last = mylist[i]

If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (i.e.  they are all
*note hashable: 421.) this is often faster

     mylist = list(set(mylist))

This converts the list into a set, thereby removing duplicates, and then
back into a list.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you remove multiple items from a list,  Next: How do you make an array in Python?,  Prev: How do you remove duplicates from a list?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.5 How do you remove multiple items from a list
.....................................................

As with removing duplicates, explicitly iterating in reverse with a
delete condition is one possibility.  However, it is easier and faster
to use slice replacement with an implicit or explicit forward iteration.
Here are three variations.:

     mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist)
     mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition)
     mylist[:] = [x for x in mylist if keep_condition]

The list comprehension may be fastest.


File: python.info,  Node: How do you make an array in Python?,  Next: How do I create a multidimensional list?,  Prev: How do you remove multiple items from a list,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.6 How do you make an array in Python?
............................................

Use a list:

     ["this", 1, "is", "an", "array"]

Lists are equivalent to C or Pascal arrays in their time complexity; the
primary difference is that a Python list can contain objects of many
different types.

The ‘array’ module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed
types with compact representations, but they are slower to index than
lists.  Also note that NumPy(1) and other third party packages define
array-like structures with various characteristics as well.

To get Lisp-style linked lists, you can emulate 'cons cells' using
tuples:

     lisp_list = ("like",  ("this",  ("example", None) ) )

If mutability is desired, you could use lists instead of tuples.  Here
the analogue of a Lisp 'car' is ‘lisp_list[0]’ and the analogue of 'cdr'
is ‘lisp_list[1]’.  Only do this if you’re sure you really need to,
because it’s usually a lot slower than using Python lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I create a multidimensional list?,  Next: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Prev: How do you make an array in Python?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.7 How do I create a multidimensional list?
.................................................

You probably tried to make a multidimensional array like this:

     >>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3

This looks correct if you print it:

     >>> A
     [[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]

But when you assign a value, it shows up in multiple places:

     >>> A[0][0] = 5
     >>> A
     [[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]

The reason is that replicating a list with ‘*’ doesn’t create copies, it
only creates references to the existing objects.  The ‘*3’ creates a
list containing 3 references to the same list of length two.  Changes to
one row will show in all rows, which is almost certainly not what you
want.

The suggested approach is to create a list of the desired length first
and then fill in each element with a newly created list:

     A = [None] * 3
     for i in range(3):
         A[i] = [None] * 2

This generates a list containing 3 different lists of length two.  You
can also use a list comprehension:

     w, h = 2, 3
     A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)]

Or, you can use an extension that provides a matrix datatype; NumPy(1)
is the best known.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Next: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?,  Prev: How do I create a multidimensional list?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.8 How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?
......................................................................

To call a method or function and accumulate the return values is a list,
a *note list comprehension: 4e5. is an elegant solution:

     result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]

     result = [function(obj) for obj in mylist]

To just run the method or function without saving the return values, a
plain *note for: 26d. loop will suffice:

     for obj in mylist:
         obj.method()

     for obj in mylist:
         function(obj)


File: python.info,  Node: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?,  Next: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?,  Prev: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.9 Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?
....................................................................................

This is because of a combination of the fact that augmented assignment
operators are 'assignment' operators, and the difference between mutable
and immutable objects in Python.

This discussion applies in general when augmented assignment operators
are applied to elements of a tuple that point to mutable objects, but
we’ll use a ‘list’ and ‘+=’ as our exemplar.

If you wrote:

     >>> a_tuple = (1, 2)
     >>> a_tuple[0] += 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

The reason for the exception should be immediately clear: ‘1’ is added
to the object ‘a_tuple[0]’ points to (‘1’), producing the result object,
‘2’, but when we attempt to assign the result of the computation, ‘2’,
to element ‘0’ of the tuple, we get an error because we can’t change
what an element of a tuple points to.

Under the covers, what this augmented assignment statement is doing is
approximately this:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

It is the assignment part of the operation that produces the error,
since a tuple is immutable.

When you write something like:

     >>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar')
     >>> a_tuple[0] += ['item']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

The exception is a bit more surprising, and even more surprising is the
fact that even though there was an error, the append worked:

     >>> a_tuple[0]
     ['foo', 'item']

To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object
implements an *note __iadd__(): 1d7d. magic method, it gets called when
the ‘+=’ augmented assignment is executed, and its return value is what
gets used in the assignment statement; and (b) for lists, ‘__iadd__()’
is equivalent to calling ‘extend()’ on the list and returning the list.
That’s why we say that for lists, ‘+=’ is a “shorthand” for
‘list.extend()’:

     >>> a_list = []
     >>> a_list += [1]
     >>> a_list
     [1]

This is equivalent to:

     >>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1])
     >>> a_list = result

The object pointed to by a_list has been mutated, and the pointer to the
mutated object is assigned back to ‘a_list’.  The end result of the
assignment is a no-op, since it is a pointer to the same object that
‘a_list’ was previously pointing to, but the assignment still happens.

Thus, in our tuple example what is happening is equivalent to:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item'])
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

The ‘__iadd__()’ succeeds, and thus the list is extended, but even
though ‘result’ points to the same object that ‘a_tuple[0]’ already
points to, that final assignment still results in an error, because
tuples are immutable.


File: python.info,  Node: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?,  Next: How can I sort one list by values from another list?,  Prev: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.10 I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?
........................................................................................

The technique, attributed to Randal Schwartz of the Perl community,
sorts the elements of a list by a metric which maps each element to its
“sort value”.  In Python, use the ‘key’ argument for the *note
list.sort(): a46. method:

     Isorted = L[:]
     Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))


File: python.info,  Node: How can I sort one list by values from another list?,  Prev: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?,  Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists

10.2.5.11 How can I sort one list by values from another list?
..............................................................

Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then
pick out the element you want.

     >>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
     >>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
     >>> pairs = zip(list1, list2)
     >>> pairs = sorted(pairs)
     >>> pairs
     [("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')]
     >>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs]
     >>> result
     ['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']


File: python.info,  Node: Objects,  Next: Modules<3>,  Prev: Sequences Tuples/Lists,  Up: Programming FAQ

10.2.6 Objects
--------------

* Menu:

* What is a class?::
* What is a method?::
* What is self?::
* How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?::
* What is delegation?::
* How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?::
* How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?::
* How do I create static class data and static class methods?::
* How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?.
* I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.
* My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
* How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?::
* Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?.
* When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?::
* How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?::
* How do I cache method calls?::


File: python.info,  Node: What is a class?,  Next: What is a method?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.1 What is a class?
.........................

A class is the particular object type created by executing a class
statement.  Class objects are used as templates to create instance
objects, which embody both the data (attributes) and code (methods)
specific to a datatype.

A class can be based on one or more other classes, called its base
class(es).  It then inherits the attributes and methods of its base
classes.  This allows an object model to be successively refined by
inheritance.  You might have a generic ‘Mailbox’ class that provides
basic accessor methods for a mailbox, and subclasses such as
‘MboxMailbox’, ‘MaildirMailbox’, ‘OutlookMailbox’ that handle various
specific mailbox formats.


File: python.info,  Node: What is a method?,  Next: What is self?,  Prev: What is a class?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.2 What is a method?
..........................

A method is a function on some object ‘x’ that you normally call as
‘x.name(arguments...)’.  Methods are defined as functions inside the
class definition:

     class C:
         def meth(self, arg):
             return arg * 2 + self.attribute


File: python.info,  Node: What is self?,  Next: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?,  Prev: What is a method?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.3 What is self?
......................

Self is merely a conventional name for the first argument of a method.
A method defined as ‘meth(self, a, b, c)’ should be called as ‘x.meth(a,
b, c)’ for some instance ‘x’ of the class in which the definition
occurs; the called method will think it is called as ‘meth(x, a, b, c)’.

See also *note Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions
and calls?: 4f83.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?,  Next: What is delegation?,  Prev: What is self?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.4 How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?
............................................................................................

Use the built-in function *note isinstance(obj, cls): 151.  You can
check if an object is an instance of any of a number of classes by
providing a tuple instead of a single class, e.g.  ‘isinstance(obj,
(class1, class2, ...))’, and can also check whether an object is one of
Python’s built-in types, e.g.  ‘isinstance(obj, str)’ or
‘isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex))’.

Note that *note isinstance(): 151. also checks for virtual inheritance
from an *note abstract base class: 105b.  So, the test will return
‘True’ for a registered class even if hasn’t directly or indirectly
inherited from it.  To test for “true inheritance”, scan the *note MRO:
3350. of the class:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class P:
          pass

     class C(P):
         pass

     Mapping.register(P)

     >>> c = C()
     >>> isinstance(c, C)        # direct
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, P)        # indirect
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, Mapping)  # virtual
     True

     # Actual inheritance chain
     >>> type(c).__mro__
     (<class 'C'>, <class 'P'>, <class 'object'>)

     # Test for "true inheritance"
     >>> Mapping in type(c).__mro__
     False

Note that most programs do not use *note isinstance(): 151. on
user-defined classes very often.  If you are developing the classes
yourself, a more proper object-oriented style is to define methods on
the classes that encapsulate a particular behaviour, instead of checking
the object’s class and doing a different thing based on what class it
is.  For example, if you have a function that does something:

     def search(obj):
         if isinstance(obj, Mailbox):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox
         elif isinstance(obj, Document):
             ...  # code to search a document
         elif ...

A better approach is to define a ‘search()’ method on all the classes
and just call it:

     class Mailbox:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox

     class Document:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a document

     obj.search()


File: python.info,  Node: What is delegation?,  Next: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Prev: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.5 What is delegation?
............................

Delegation is an object oriented technique (also called a design
pattern).  Let’s say you have an object ‘x’ and want to change the
behaviour of just one of its methods.  You can create a new class that
provides a new implementation of the method you’re interested in
changing and delegates all other methods to the corresponding method of
‘x’.

Python programmers can easily implement delegation.  For example, the
following class implements a class that behaves like a file but converts
all written data to uppercase:

     class UpperOut:

         def __init__(self, outfile):
             self._outfile = outfile

         def write(self, s):
             self._outfile.write(s.upper())

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             return getattr(self._outfile, name)

Here the ‘UpperOut’ class redefines the ‘write()’ method to convert the
argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying
‘self._outfile.write()’ method.  All other methods are delegated to the
underlying ‘self._outfile’ object.  The delegation is accomplished via
the *note __getattr__(): 201. method; consult *note the language
reference: 1d51. for more information about controlling attribute
access.

Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier.  When
attributes must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a
*note __setattr__(): 1d1b. method too, and it must do so carefully.  The
basic implementation of ‘__setattr__()’ is roughly equivalent to the
following:

     class X:
         ...
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             self.__dict__[name] = value
         ...

Many *note __setattr__(): 1d1b. implementations call
‘object.__setattr__()’ to set an attribute on self without causing
infinite recursion:

     class X:
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             # Custom logic here...
             object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

Alternatively, it is possible to set attributes by inserting entries
into *note self.__dict__: 2ec. directly.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Next: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?,  Prev: What is delegation?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.6 How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?
.............................................................................................

Use the built-in *note super(): 20d. function:

     class Derived(Base):
         def meth(self):
             super().meth()  # calls Base.meth

In the example, *note super(): 20d. will automatically determine the
instance from which it was called (the ‘self’ value), look up the *note
method resolution order: 1f71. (MRO) with ‘type(self).__mro__’, and
return the next in line after ‘Derived’ in the MRO: ‘Base’.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?,  Next: How do I create static class data and static class methods?,  Prev: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.7 How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?
...............................................................................

You could assign the base class to an alias and derive from the alias.
Then all you have to change is the value assigned to the alias.
Incidentally, this trick is also handy if you want to decide dynamically
(e.g.  depending on availability of resources) which base class to use.
Example:

     class Base:
         ...

     BaseAlias = Base

     class Derived(BaseAlias):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: How do I create static class data and static class methods?,  Next: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?,  Prev: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.8 How do I create static class data and static class methods?
....................................................................

Both static data and static methods (in the sense of C++ or Java) are
supported in Python.

For static data, simply define a class attribute.  To assign a new value
to the attribute, you have to explicitly use the class name in the
assignment:

     class C:
         count = 0   # number of times C.__init__ called

         def __init__(self):
             C.count = C.count + 1

         def getcount(self):
             return C.count  # or return self.count

‘c.count’ also refers to ‘C.count’ for any ‘c’ such that ‘isinstance(c,
C)’ holds, unless overridden by ‘c’ itself or by some class on the
base-class search path from ‘c.__class__’ back to ‘C’.

Caution: within a method of C, an assignment like ‘self.count = 42’
creates a new and unrelated instance named “count” in ‘self’’s own dict.
Rebinding of a class-static data name must always specify the class
whether inside a method or not:

     C.count = 314

Static methods are possible:

     class C:
         @staticmethod
         def static(arg1, arg2, arg3):
             # No 'self' parameter!
             ...

However, a far more straightforward way to get the effect of a static
method is via a simple module-level function:

     def getcount():
         return C.count

If your code is structured so as to define one class (or tightly related
class hierarchy) per module, this supplies the desired encapsulation.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?,  Next: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam,  Prev: How do I create static class data and static class methods?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.9 How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?
................................................................

This answer actually applies to all methods, but the question usually
comes up first in the context of constructors.

In C++ you’d write

     class C {
         C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
         C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; }
     }

In Python you have to write a single constructor that catches all cases
using default arguments.  For example:

     class C:
         def __init__(self, i=None):
             if i is None:
                 print("No arguments")
             else:
                 print("Argument is", i)

This is not entirely equivalent, but close enough in practice.

You could also try a variable-length argument list, e.g.

     def __init__(self, *args):
         ...

The same approach works for all method definitions.


File: python.info,  Node: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam,  Next: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object,  Prev: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.10 I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.
............................................................................

Variable names with double leading underscores are “mangled” to provide
a simple but effective way to define class private variables.  Any
identifier of the form ‘__spam’ (at least two leading underscores, at
most one trailing underscore) is textually replaced with
‘_classname__spam’, where ‘classname’ is the current class name with any
leading underscores stripped.

The identifier can be used unchanged within the class, but to access it
outside the class, the mangled name must be used:

     class A:
         def __one(self):
             return 1
         def two(self):
             return 2 * self.__one()

     class B(A):
         def three(self):
             return 3 * self._A__one()

     four = 4 * A()._A__one()

In particular, this does not guarantee privacy since an outside user can
still deliberately access the private attribute; many Python programmers
never bother to use private variable names at all.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

The *note private name mangling specifications: 1b03. for details and
special cases.


File: python.info,  Node: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object,  Next: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?,  Prev: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.11 My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.
.................................................................................

There are several possible reasons for this.

The *note del: 15c5. statement does not necessarily call *note
__del__(): 1d4e. – it simply decrements the object’s reference count,
and if this reaches zero ‘__del__()’ is called.

If your data structures contain circular links (e.g.  a tree where each
child has a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the
reference counts will never go back to zero.  Once in a while Python
runs an algorithm to detect such cycles, but the garbage collector might
run some time after the last reference to your data structure vanishes,
so your ‘__del__()’ method may be called at an inconvenient and random
time.  This is inconvenient if you’re trying to reproduce a problem.
Worse, the order in which object’s ‘__del__()’ methods are executed is
arbitrary.  You can run *note gc.collect(): 89c. to force a collection,
but there 'are' pathological cases where objects will never be
collected.

Despite the cycle collector, it’s still a good idea to define an
explicit ‘close()’ method on objects to be called whenever you’re done
with them.  The ‘close()’ method can then remove attributes that refer
to subobjects.  Don’t call ‘__del__()’ directly – ‘__del__()’ should
call ‘close()’ and ‘close()’ should make sure that it can be called more
than once for the same object.

Another way to avoid cyclical references is to use the *note weakref:
114. module, which allows you to point to objects without incrementing
their reference count.  Tree data structures, for instance, should use
weak references for their parent and sibling references (if they need
them!).

Finally, if your ‘__del__()’ method raises an exception, a warning
message is printed to *note sys.stderr: 792.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?,  Next: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?,  Prev: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.12 How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?
................................................................

Python does not keep track of all instances of a class (or of a built-in
type).  You can program the class’s constructor to keep track of all
instances by keeping a list of weak references to each instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?,  Next: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?,  Prev: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.13 Why does the result of ‘id()’ appear to be not unique?
................................................................

The *note id(): 12ab. builtin returns an integer that is guaranteed to
be unique during the lifetime of the object.  Since in CPython, this is
the object’s memory address, it happens frequently that after an object
is deleted from memory, the next freshly created object is allocated at
the same position in memory.  This is illustrated by this example:

     >>> id(1000)
     13901272
     >>> id(2000)
     13901272

The two ids belong to different integer objects that are created before,
and deleted immediately after execution of the ‘id()’ call.  To be sure
that objects whose id you want to examine are still alive, create
another reference to the object:

     >>> a = 1000; b = 2000
     >>> id(a)
     13901272
     >>> id(b)
     13891296


File: python.info,  Node: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?,  Next: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?,  Prev: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.14 When can I rely on identity tests with the 'is' operator?
...................................................................

The ‘is’ operator tests for object identity.  The test ‘a is b’ is
equivalent to ‘id(a) == id(b)’.

The most important property of an identity test is that an object is
always identical to itself, ‘a is a’ always returns ‘True’.  Identity
tests are usually faster than equality tests.  And unlike equality
tests, identity tests are guaranteed to return a boolean ‘True’ or
‘False’.

However, identity tests can 'only' be substituted for equality tests
when object identity is assured.  Generally, there are three
circumstances where identity is guaranteed:

  1. Assignments create new names but do not change object identity.
     After the assignment ‘new = old’, it is guaranteed that ‘new is
     old’.

  2. Putting an object in a container that stores object references does
     not change object identity.  After the list assignment ‘s[0] = x’,
     it is guaranteed that ‘s[0] is x’.

  3. If an object is a singleton, it means that only one instance of
     that object can exist.  After the assignments ‘a = None’ and ‘b =
     None’, it is guaranteed that ‘a is b’ because ‘None’ is a
     singleton.

In most other circumstances, identity tests are inadvisable and equality
tests are preferred.  In particular, identity tests should not be used
to check constants such as *note int: 184. and *note str: 15d. which
aren’t guaranteed to be singletons:

     >>> a = 1000
     >>> b = 500
     >>> c = b + 500
     >>> a is c
     False

     >>> a = 'Python'
     >>> b = 'Py'
     >>> c = b + 'thon'
     >>> a is c
     False

Likewise, new instances of mutable containers are never identical:

     >>> a = []
     >>> b = []
     >>> a is b
     False

In the standard library code, you will see several common patterns for
correctly using identity tests:

  1. As recommended by PEP 8(1), an identity test is the preferred way
     to check for ‘None’.  This reads like plain English in code and
     avoids confusion with other objects that may have boolean values
     that evaluate to false.

  2. Detecting optional arguments can be tricky when ‘None’ is a valid
     input value.  In those situations, you can create a singleton
     sentinel object guaranteed to be distinct from other objects.  For
     example, here is how to implement a method that behaves like *note
     dict.pop(): 2037.:

          _sentinel = object()

          def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
              if key in self:
                  value = self[key]
                  del self[key]
                  return value
              if default is _sentinel:
                  raise KeyError(key)
              return default

  3. Container implementations sometimes need to augment equality tests
     with identity tests.  This prevents the code from being confused by
     objects such as ‘float('NaN')’ that are not equal to themselves.

For example, here is the implementation of
‘collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__()’:

     def __contains__(self, value):
         for v in self:
             if v is value or v == value:
                 return True
         return False

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?,  Next: How do I cache method calls?,  Prev: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.15 How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?
..................................................................................

When subclassing an immutable type, override the *note __new__(): 319.
method instead of the *note __init__(): 4c6. method.  The latter only
runs 'after' an instance is created, which is too late to alter data in
an immutable instance.

All of these immutable classes have a different signature than their
parent class:

     from datetime import date

     class FirstOfMonthDate(date):
         "Always choose the first day of the month"
         def __new__(cls, year, month, day):
             return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1)

     class NamedInt(int):
         "Allow text names for some numbers"
         xlat = {'zero': 0, 'one': 1, 'ten': 10}
         def __new__(cls, value):
             value = cls.xlat.get(value, value)
             return super().__new__(cls, value)

     class TitleStr(str):
         "Convert str to name suitable for a URL path"
         def __new__(cls, s):
             s = s.lower().replace(' ', '-')
             s = ''.join([c for c in s if c.isalnum() or c == '-'])
             return super().__new__(cls, s)

The classes can be used like this:

     >>> FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 14)
     FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 1)
     >>> NamedInt('ten')
     10
     >>> NamedInt(20)
     20
     >>> TitleStr('Blog: Why Python Rocks')
     'blog-why-python-rocks'


File: python.info,  Node: How do I cache method calls?,  Prev: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?,  Up: Objects

10.2.6.16 How do I cache method calls?
......................................

The two principal tools for caching methods are *note
functools.cached_property(): 2cf. and *note functools.lru_cache(): 84e.
The former stores results at the instance level and the latter at the
class level.

The 'cached_property' approach only works with methods that do not take
any arguments.  It does not create a reference to the instance.  The
cached method result will be kept only as long as the instance is alive.

The advantage is that when an instance is no longer used, the cached
method result will be released right away.  The disadvantage is that if
instances accumulate, so too will the accumulated method results.  They
can grow without bound.

The 'lru_cache' approach works with methods that have *note hashable:
421. arguments.  It creates a reference to the instance unless special
efforts are made to pass in weak references.

The advantage of the least recently used algorithm is that the cache is
bounded by the specified 'maxsize'.  The disadvantage is that instances
are kept alive until they age out of the cache or until the cache is
cleared.

This example shows the various techniques:

     class Weather:
         "Lookup weather information on a government website"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self._station_id = station_id
             # The _station_id is private and immutable

         def current_temperature(self):
             "Latest hourly observation"
             # Do not cache this because old results
             # can be out of date.

         @cached_property
         def location(self):
             "Return the longitude/latitude coordinates of the station"
             # Result only depends on the station_id

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='mm'):
             "Rainfall on a given date"
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.

The above example assumes that the 'station_id' never changes.  If the
relevant instance attributes are mutable, the 'cached_property' approach
can’t be made to work because it cannot detect changes to the
attributes.

To make the 'lru_cache' approach work when the 'station_id' is mutable,
the class needs to define the *note __eq__(): 968. and *note __hash__():
969. methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates:

     class Weather:
         "Example with a mutable station identifier"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def change_station(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.station_id == other.station_id

         def __hash__(self):
             return hash(self.station_id)

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='cm'):
             'Rainfall on a given date'
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<3>,  Prev: Objects,  Up: Programming FAQ

10.2.7 Modules
--------------

* Menu:

* How do I create a .pyc file?: How do I create a pyc file?.
* How do I find the current module name?::
* How can I have modules that mutually import each other?::
* __import__(‘x.y.z’) returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?.
* When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen?: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I create a pyc file?,  Next: How do I find the current module name?,  Up: Modules<3>

10.2.7.1 How do I create a .pyc file?
.....................................

When a module is imported for the first time (or when the source file
has changed since the current compiled file was created) a ‘.pyc’ file
containing the compiled code should be created in a ‘__pycache__’
subdirectory of the directory containing the ‘.py’ file.  The ‘.pyc’
file will have a filename that starts with the same name as the ‘.py’
file, and ends with ‘.pyc’, with a middle component that depends on the
particular ‘python’ binary that created it.  (See PEP 3147(1) for
details.)

One reason that a ‘.pyc’ file may not be created is a permissions
problem with the directory containing the source file, meaning that the
‘__pycache__’ subdirectory cannot be created.  This can happen, for
example, if you develop as one user but run as another, such as if you
are testing with a web server.

Unless the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1255. environment variable is
set, creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you’re importing a module
and Python has the ability (permissions, free space, etc…) to create a
‘__pycache__’ subdirectory and write the compiled module to that
subdirectory.

Running Python on a top level script is not considered an import and no
‘.pyc’ will be created.  For example, if you have a top-level module
‘foo.py’ that imports another module ‘xyz.py’, when you run ‘foo’ (by
typing ‘python foo.py’ as a shell command), a ‘.pyc’ will be created for
‘xyz’ because ‘xyz’ is imported, but no ‘.pyc’ file will be created for
‘foo’ since ‘foo.py’ isn’t being imported.

If you need to create a ‘.pyc’ file for ‘foo’ – that is, to create a
‘.pyc’ file for a module that is not imported – you can, using the *note
py_compile: b2. and *note compileall: 20. modules.

The *note py_compile: b2. module can manually compile any module.  One
way is to use the ‘compile()’ function in that module interactively:

     >>> import py_compile
     >>> py_compile.compile('foo.py')

This will write the ‘.pyc’ to a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory in the same
location as ‘foo.py’ (or you can override that with the optional
parameter ‘cfile’).

You can also automatically compile all files in a directory or
directories using the *note compileall: 20. module.  You can do it from
the shell prompt by running ‘compileall.py’ and providing the path of a
directory containing Python files to compile:

     python -m compileall .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I find the current module name?,  Next: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?,  Prev: How do I create a pyc file?,  Up: Modules<3>

10.2.7.2 How do I find the current module name?
...............................................

A module can find out its own module name by looking at the predefined
global variable ‘__name__’.  If this has the value ‘'__main__'’, the
program is running as a script.  Many modules that are usually used by
importing them also provide a command-line interface or a self-test, and
only execute this code after checking ‘__name__’:

     def main():
         print('Running test...')
         ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?,  Next: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?,  Prev: How do I find the current module name?,  Up: Modules<3>

10.2.7.3 How can I have modules that mutually import each other?
................................................................

Suppose you have the following modules:

‘foo.py’:

     from bar import bar_var
     foo_var = 1

‘bar.py’:

     from foo import foo_var
     bar_var = 2

The problem is that the interpreter will perform the following steps:

   * main imports ‘foo’

   * Empty globals for ‘foo’ are created

   * ‘foo’ is compiled and starts executing

   * ‘foo’ imports ‘bar’

   * Empty globals for ‘bar’ are created

   * ‘bar’ is compiled and starts executing

   * ‘bar’ imports ‘foo’ (which is a no-op since there already is a
     module named ‘foo’)

   * The import mechanism tries to read ‘foo_var’ from ‘foo’ globals, to
     set ‘bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var’

The last step fails, because Python isn’t done with interpreting ‘foo’
yet and the global symbol dictionary for ‘foo’ is still empty.

The same thing happens when you use ‘import foo’, and then try to access
‘foo.foo_var’ in global code.

There are (at least) three possible workarounds for this problem.

Guido van Rossum recommends avoiding all uses of ‘from <module> import
...’, and placing all code inside functions.  Initializations of global
variables and class variables should use constants or built-in functions
only.  This means everything from an imported module is referenced as
‘<module>.<name>’.

Jim Roskind suggests performing steps in the following order in each
module:

   * exports (globals, functions, and classes that don’t need imported
     base classes)

   * ‘import’ statements

   * active code (including globals that are initialized from imported
     values).

Van Rossum doesn’t like this approach much because the imports appear in
a strange place, but it does work.

Matthias Urlichs recommends restructuring your code so that the
recursive import is not necessary in the first place.

These solutions are not mutually exclusive.


File: python.info,  Node: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?,  Next: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?,  Prev: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?,  Up: Modules<3>

10.2.7.4 __import__(‘x.y.z’) returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?
..................................................................

Consider using the convenience function *note import_module(): 2a2. from
*note importlib: 75. instead:

     z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')


File: python.info,  Node: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?,  Prev: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?,  Up: Modules<3>

10.2.7.5 When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen?
.........................................................................................................

For reasons of efficiency as well as consistency, Python only reads the
module file on the first time a module is imported.  If it didn’t, in a
program consisting of many modules where each one imports the same basic
module, the basic module would be parsed and re-parsed many times.  To
force re-reading of a changed module, do this:

     import importlib
     import modname
     importlib.reload(modname)

Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof.  In particular, modules
containing statements like

     from modname import some_objects

will continue to work with the old version of the imported objects.  If
the module contains class definitions, existing class instances will
'not' be updated to use the new class definition.  This can result in
the following paradoxical behaviour:

     >>> import importlib
     >>> import cls
     >>> c = cls.C()                # Create an instance of C
     >>> importlib.reload(cls)
     <module 'cls' from 'cls.py'>
     >>> isinstance(c, cls.C)       # isinstance is false?!?
     False

The nature of the problem is made clear if you print out the “identity”
of the class objects:

     >>> hex(id(c.__class__))
     '0x7352a0'
     >>> hex(id(cls.C))
     '0x4198d0'


File: python.info,  Node: Design and History FAQ,  Next: Library and Extension FAQ,  Prev: Programming FAQ,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.3 Design and History FAQ
===========================

* Menu:

* Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?::
* Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?::
* Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?::
* Why are Python strings immutable?::
* Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?::
* Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?::
* Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?.
* Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?.
* How fast are exceptions?::
* Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?::
* Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?::
* Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?::
* Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?.
* How does Python manage memory?::
* Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?::
* Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?::
* Why are there separate tuple and list data types?::
* How are lists implemented in CPython?::
* How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?::
* Why must dictionary keys be immutable?::
* Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?.
* How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?::
* Why is there no goto?::
* Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?.
* Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?::
* Why don’t generators support the with statement?::
* Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?::
* Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?::


File: python.info,  Node: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?,  Next: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.1 Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
------------------------------------------------------------------

Guido van Rossum believes that using indentation for grouping is
extremely elegant and contributes a lot to the clarity of the average
Python program.  Most people learn to love this feature after a while.

Since there are no begin/end brackets there cannot be a disagreement
between grouping perceived by the parser and the human reader.
Occasionally C programmers will encounter a fragment of code like this:

     if (x <= y)
             x++;
             y--;
     z++;

Only the ‘x++’ statement is executed if the condition is true, but the
indentation leads many to believe otherwise.  Even experienced C
programmers will sometimes stare at it a long time wondering as to why
‘y’ is being decremented even for ‘x > y’.

Because there are no begin/end brackets, Python is much less prone to
coding-style conflicts.  In C there are many different ways to place the
braces.  After becoming used to reading and writing code using a
particular style, it is normal to feel somewhat uneasy when reading (or
being required to write) in a different one.

Many coding styles place begin/end brackets on a line by themselves.
This makes programs considerably longer and wastes valuable screen
space, making it harder to get a good overview of a program.  Ideally, a
function should fit on one screen (say, 20–30 lines).  20 lines of
Python can do a lot more work than 20 lines of C. This is not solely due
to the lack of begin/end brackets – the lack of declarations and the
high-level data types are also responsible – but the indentation-based
syntax certainly helps.


File: python.info,  Node: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?,  Next: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?,  Prev: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.2 Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

See the next question.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?,  Next: Why are Python strings immutable?,  Prev: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.3 Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?
---------------------------------------------------------

Users are often surprised by results like this:

     >>> 1.2 - 1.0
     0.19999999999999996

and think it is a bug in Python.  It’s not.  This has little to do with
Python, and much more to do with how the underlying platform handles
floating-point numbers.

The *note float: 272. type in CPython uses a C ‘double’ for storage.  A
*note float: 272. object’s value is stored in binary floating-point with
a fixed precision (typically 53 bits) and Python uses C operations,
which in turn rely on the hardware implementation in the processor, to
perform floating-point operations.  This means that as far as
floating-point operations are concerned, Python behaves like many
popular languages including C and Java.

Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be
expressed exactly in binary floating point.  For example, after:

     >>> x = 1.2

the value stored for ‘x’ is a (very good) approximation to the decimal
value ‘1.2’, but is not exactly equal to it.  On a typical machine, the
actual stored value is:

     1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (binary)

which is exactly:

     1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (decimal)

The typical precision of 53 bits provides Python floats with 15–16
decimal digits of accuracy.

For a fuller explanation, please see the *note floating-point
arithmetic: 1b5b. chapter in the Python tutorial.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are Python strings immutable?,  Next: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?,  Prev: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.4 Why are Python strings immutable?
----------------------------------------

There are several advantages.

One is performance: knowing that a string is immutable means we can
allocate space for it at creation time, and the storage requirements are
fixed and unchanging.  This is also one of the reasons for the
distinction between tuples and lists.

Another advantage is that strings in Python are considered as
“elemental” as numbers.  No amount of activity will change the value 8
to anything else, and in Python, no amount of activity will change the
string “eight” to anything else.


File: python.info,  Node: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?,  Next: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?,  Prev: Why are Python strings immutable?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.5 Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

The idea was borrowed from Modula-3.  It turns out to be very useful,
for a variety of reasons.

First, it’s more obvious that you are using a method or instance
attribute instead of a local variable.  Reading ‘self.x’ or
‘self.meth()’ makes it absolutely clear that an instance variable or
method is used even if you don’t know the class definition by heart.  In
C++, you can sort of tell by the lack of a local variable declaration
(assuming globals are rare or easily recognizable) – but in Python,
there are no local variable declarations, so you’d have to look up the
class definition to be sure.  Some C++ and Java coding standards call
for instance attributes to have an ‘m_’ prefix, so this explicitness is
still useful in those languages, too.

Second, it means that no special syntax is necessary if you want to
explicitly reference or call the method from a particular class.  In
C++, if you want to use a method from a base class which is overridden
in a derived class, you have to use the ‘::’ operator – in Python you
can write ‘baseclass.methodname(self, <argument list>)’.  This is
particularly useful for *note __init__(): 4c6. methods, and in general
in cases where a derived class method wants to extend the base class
method of the same name and thus has to call the base class method
somehow.

Finally, for instance variables it solves a syntactic problem with
assignment: since local variables in Python are (by definition!)  those
variables to which a value is assigned in a function body (and that
aren’t explicitly declared global), there has to be some way to tell the
interpreter that an assignment was meant to assign to an instance
variable instead of to a local variable, and it should preferably be
syntactic (for efficiency reasons).  C++ does this through declarations,
but Python doesn’t have declarations and it would be a pity having to
introduce them just for this purpose.  Using the explicit ‘self.var’
solves this nicely.  Similarly, for using instance variables, having to
write ‘self.var’ means that references to unqualified names inside a
method don’t have to search the instance’s directories.  To put it
another way, local variables and instance variables live in two
different namespaces, and you need to tell Python which namespace to
use.


File: python.info,  Node: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?,  Next: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?,  Prev: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.6 Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?
------------------------------------------------------

Starting in Python 3.8, you can!

Assignment expressions using the walrus operator ‘:=’ assign a variable
in an expression:

     while chunk := fp.read(200):
        print(chunk)

See PEP 572(1) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?,  Next: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?,  Prev: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.7 Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

As Guido said:

     (a) For some operations, prefix notation just reads better than
     postfix – prefix (and infix!)  operations have a long tradition in
     mathematics which likes notations where the visuals help the
     mathematician thinking about a problem.  Compare the easy with
     which we rewrite a formula like x*(a+b) into x*a + x*b to the
     clumsiness of doing the same thing using a raw OO notation.

     (b) When I read code that says len(x) I 'know' that it is asking
     for the length of something.  This tells me two things: the result
     is an integer, and the argument is some kind of container.  To the
     contrary, when I read x.len(), I have to already know that x is
     some kind of container implementing an interface or inheriting from
     a class that has a standard len().  Witness the confusion we
     occasionally have when a class that is not implementing a mapping
     has a get() or keys() method, or something that isn’t a file has a
     write() method.

-- ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html’


File: python.info,  Node: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?,  Next: How fast are exceptions?,  Prev: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.8 Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Strings became much more like other standard types starting in Python
1.6, when methods were added which give the same functionality that has
always been available using the functions of the string module.  Most of
these new methods have been widely accepted, but the one which appears
to make some programmers feel uncomfortable is:

     ", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16'])

which gives the result:

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16"

There are two common arguments against this usage.

The first runs along the lines of: “It looks really ugly using a method
of a string literal (string constant)”, to which the answer is that it
might, but a string literal is just a fixed value.  If the methods are
to be allowed on names bound to strings there is no logical reason to
make them unavailable on literals.

The second objection is typically cast as: “I am really telling a
sequence to join its members together with a string constant”.  Sadly,
you aren’t.  For some reason there seems to be much less difficulty with
having *note split(): d3e. as a string method, since in that case it is
easy to see that

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ")

is an instruction to a string literal to return the substrings delimited
by the given separator (or, by default, arbitrary runs of white space).

*note join(): 1f9c. is a string method because in using it you are
telling the separator string to iterate over a sequence of strings and
insert itself between adjacent elements.  This method can be used with
any argument which obeys the rules for sequence objects, including any
new classes you might define yourself.  Similar methods exist for bytes
and bytearray objects.


File: python.info,  Node: How fast are exceptions?,  Next: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?,  Prev: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.9 How fast are exceptions?
-------------------------------

A *note try: 503./*note except: 3c0. block is extremely efficient if no
exceptions are raised.  Actually catching an exception is expensive.  In
versions of Python prior to 2.0 it was common to use this idiom:

     try:
         value = mydict[key]
     except KeyError:
         mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
         value = mydict[key]

This only made sense when you expected the dict to have the key almost
all the time.  If that wasn’t the case, you coded it like this:

     if key in mydict:
         value = mydict[key]
     else:
         value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)

For this specific case, you could also use ‘value = dict.setdefault(key,
getvalue(key))’, but only if the ‘getvalue()’ call is cheap enough
because it is evaluated in all cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?,  Next: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?,  Prev: How fast are exceptions?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.10 Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?
-------------------------------------------------------------

In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code when
an expression has a particular value or set of values.  Since Python
3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants within a
namespace, with a ‘match ... case’ statement.  An older alternative is a
sequence of ‘if... elif... elif... else’.

For cases where you need to choose from a very large number of
possibilities, you can create a dictionary mapping case values to
functions to call.  For example:

     functions = {'a': function_1,
                  'b': function_2,
                  'c': self.method_1}

     func = functions[value]
     func()

For calling methods on objects, you can simplify yet further by using
the *note getattr(): a48. built-in to retrieve methods with a particular
name:

     class MyVisitor:
         def visit_a(self):
             ...

         def dispatch(self, value):
             method_name = 'visit_' + str(value)
             method = getattr(self, method_name)
             method()

It’s suggested that you use a prefix for the method names, such as
‘visit_’ in this example.  Without such a prefix, if values are coming
from an untrusted source, an attacker would be able to call any method
on your object.

Imitating switch with fallthrough, as with C’s switch-case-default, is
possible, much harder, and less needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?,  Next: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?,  Prev: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.11 Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Answer 1: Unfortunately, the interpreter pushes at least one C stack
frame for each Python stack frame.  Also, extensions can call back into
Python at almost random moments.  Therefore, a complete threads
implementation requires thread support for C.

Answer 2: Fortunately, there is Stackless Python(1), which has a
completely redesigned interpreter loop that avoids the C stack.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki


File: python.info,  Node: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?,  Next: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?,  Prev: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.12 Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?
--------------------------------------------------------

Python lambda expressions cannot contain statements because Python’s
syntactic framework can’t handle statements nested inside expressions.
However, in Python, this is not a serious problem.  Unlike lambda forms
in other languages, where they add functionality, Python lambdas are
only a shorthand notation if you’re too lazy to define a function.

Functions are already first class objects in Python, and can be declared
in a local scope.  Therefore the only advantage of using a lambda
instead of a locally defined function is that you don’t need to invent a
name for the function – but that’s just a local variable to which the
function object (which is exactly the same type of object that a lambda
expression yields) is assigned!


File: python.info,  Node: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?,  Next: How does Python manage memory?,  Prev: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.13 Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Cython(1) compiles a modified version of Python with optional
annotations into C extensions.  Nuitka(2) is an up-and-coming compiler
of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full Python language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://nuitka.net/


File: python.info,  Node: How does Python manage memory?,  Next: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?,  Prev: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.14 How does Python manage memory?
--------------------------------------

The details of Python memory management depend on the implementation.
The standard implementation of Python, *note CPython: 510, uses
reference counting to detect inaccessible objects, and another mechanism
to collect reference cycles, periodically executing a cycle detection
algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the objects
involved.  The *note gc: 5e. module provides functions to perform a
garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tune the
collector’s parameters.

Other implementations (such as Jython(1) or PyPy(2)), however, can rely
on a different mechanism such as a full-blown garbage collector.  This
difference can cause some subtle porting problems if your Python code
depends on the behavior of the reference counting implementation.

In some Python implementations, the following code (which is fine in
CPython) will probably run out of file descriptors:

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         f = open(file)
         c = f.read(1)

Indeed, using CPython’s reference counting and destructor scheme, each
new assignment to ‘f’ closes the previous file.  With a traditional GC,
however, those file objects will only get collected (and closed) at
varying and possibly long intervals.

If you want to write code that will work with any Python implementation,
you should explicitly close the file or use the *note with: 3dd.
statement; this will work regardless of memory management scheme:

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         with open(file) as f:
             c = f.read(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org

   (2) https://pypy.org


File: python.info,  Node: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?,  Next: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?,  Prev: How does Python manage memory?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.15 Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

For one thing, this is not a C standard feature and hence it’s not
portable.  (Yes, we know about the Boehm GC library.  It has bits of
assembler code for 'most' common platforms, not for all of them, and
although it is mostly transparent, it isn’t completely transparent;
patches are required to get Python to work with it.)

Traditional GC also becomes a problem when Python is embedded into other
applications.  While in a standalone Python it’s fine to replace the
standard ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ with versions provided by the GC
library, an application embedding Python may want to have its 'own'
substitute for ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, and may not want Python’s.
Right now, CPython works with anything that implements ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’ properly.


File: python.info,  Node: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?,  Next: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?,  Prev: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.16 Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?
------------------------------------------------------

Objects referenced from the global namespaces of Python modules are not
always deallocated when Python exits.  This may happen if there are
circular references.  There are also certain bits of memory that are
allocated by the C library that are impossible to free (e.g.  a tool
like Purify will complain about these).  Python is, however, aggressive
about cleaning up memory on exit and does try to destroy every single
object.

If you want to force Python to delete certain things on deallocation use
the *note atexit: c. module to run a function that will force those
deletions.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?,  Next: How are lists implemented in CPython?,  Prev: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.17 Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
---------------------------------------------------------

Lists and tuples, while similar in many respects, are generally used in
fundamentally different ways.  Tuples can be thought of as being similar
to Pascal ‘records’ or C ‘structs’; they’re small collections of related
data which may be of different types which are operated on as a group.
For example, a Cartesian coordinate is appropriately represented as a
tuple of two or three numbers.

Lists, on the other hand, are more like arrays in other languages.  They
tend to hold a varying number of objects all of which have the same type
and which are operated on one-by-one.  For example, *note
os.listdir('.'): f9c. returns a list of strings representing the files
in the current directory.  Functions which operate on this output would
generally not break if you added another file or two to the directory.

Tuples are immutable, meaning that once a tuple has been created, you
can’t replace any of its elements with a new value.  Lists are mutable,
meaning that you can always change a list’s elements.  Only immutable
elements can be used as dictionary keys, and hence only tuples and not
lists can be used as keys.


File: python.info,  Node: How are lists implemented in CPython?,  Next: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?,  Prev: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.18 How are lists implemented in CPython?
---------------------------------------------

CPython’s lists are really variable-length arrays, not Lisp-style linked
lists.  The implementation uses a contiguous array of references to
other objects, and keeps a pointer to this array and the array’s length
in a list head structure.

This makes indexing a list ‘a[i]’ an operation whose cost is independent
of the size of the list or the value of the index.

When items are appended or inserted, the array of references is resized.
Some cleverness is applied to improve the performance of appending items
repeatedly; when the array must be grown, some extra space is allocated
so the next few times don’t require an actual resize.


File: python.info,  Node: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?,  Next: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?,  Prev: How are lists implemented in CPython?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.19 How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?
----------------------------------------------------

CPython’s dictionaries are implemented as resizable hash tables.
Compared to B-trees, this gives better performance for lookup (the most
common operation by far) under most circumstances, and the
implementation is simpler.

Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the
dictionary using the *note hash(): 3f7. built-in function.  The hash
code varies widely depending on the key and a per-process seed; for
example, ‘'Python'’ could hash to ‘-539294296’ while ‘'python'’, a
string that differs by a single bit, could hash to ‘1142331976’.  The
hash code is then used to calculate a location in an internal array
where the value will be stored.  Assuming that you’re storing keys that
all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take
constant time – 'O'(1), in Big-O notation – to retrieve a key.


File: python.info,  Node: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?,  Next: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?,  Prev: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.20 Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
----------------------------------------------

The hash table implementation of dictionaries uses a hash value
calculated from the key value to find the key.  If the key were a
mutable object, its value could change, and thus its hash could also
change.  But since whoever changes the key object can’t tell that it was
being used as a dictionary key, it can’t move the entry around in the
dictionary.  Then, when you try to look up the same object in the
dictionary it won’t be found because its hash value is different.  If
you tried to look up the old value it wouldn’t be found either, because
the value of the object found in that hash bin would be different.

If you want a dictionary indexed with a list, simply convert the list to
a tuple first; the function ‘tuple(L)’ creates a tuple with the same
entries as the list ‘L’.  Tuples are immutable and can therefore be used
as dictionary keys.

Some unacceptable solutions that have been proposed:

   - Hash lists by their address (object ID). This doesn’t work because
     if you construct a new list with the same value it won’t be found;
     e.g.:

          mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'}
          print(mydict[[1, 2]])

     would raise a *note KeyError: 903. exception because the id of the
     ‘[1, 2]’ used in the second line differs from that in the first
     line.  In other words, dictionary keys should be compared using
     ‘==’, not using *note is: 270.

   - Make a copy when using a list as a key.  This doesn’t work because
     the list, being a mutable object, could contain a reference to
     itself, and then the copying code would run into an infinite loop.

   - Allow lists as keys but tell the user not to modify them.  This
     would allow a class of hard-to-track bugs in programs when you
     forgot or modified a list by accident.  It also invalidates an
     important invariant of dictionaries: every value in ‘d.keys()’ is
     usable as a key of the dictionary.

   - Mark lists as read-only once they are used as a dictionary key.
     The problem is that it’s not just the top-level object that could
     change its value; you could use a tuple containing a list as a key.
     Entering anything as a key into a dictionary would require marking
     all objects reachable from there as read-only – and again,
     self-referential objects could cause an infinite loop.

There is a trick to get around this if you need to, but use it at your
own risk: You can wrap a mutable structure inside a class instance which
has both a *note __eq__(): 968. and a *note __hash__(): 969. method.
You must then make sure that the hash value for all such wrapper objects
that reside in a dictionary (or other hash based structure), remain
fixed while the object is in the dictionary (or other structure).

     class ListWrapper:
         def __init__(self, the_list):
             self.the_list = the_list

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.the_list == other.the_list

         def __hash__(self):
             l = self.the_list
             result = 98767 - len(l)*555
             for i, el in enumerate(l):
                 try:
                     result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i
                 except Exception:
                     result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333
             return result

Note that the hash computation is complicated by the possibility that
some members of the list may be unhashable and also by the possibility
of arithmetic overflow.

Furthermore it must always be the case that if ‘o1 == o2’ (ie
‘o1.__eq__(o2) is True’) then ‘hash(o1) == hash(o2)’ (ie, ‘o1.__hash__()
== o2.__hash__()’), regardless of whether the object is in a dictionary
or not.  If you fail to meet these restrictions dictionaries and other
hash based structures will misbehave.

In the case of ‘ListWrapper’, whenever the wrapper object is in a
dictionary the wrapped list must not change to avoid anomalies.  Don’t
do this unless you are prepared to think hard about the requirements and
the consequences of not meeting them correctly.  Consider yourself
warned.


File: python.info,  Node: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?,  Next: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?,  Prev: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.21 Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?
-------------------------------------------------------

In situations where performance matters, making a copy of the list just
to sort it would be wasteful.  Therefore, *note list.sort(): a46. sorts
the list in place.  In order to remind you of that fact, it does not
return the sorted list.  This way, you won’t be fooled into accidentally
overwriting a list when you need a sorted copy but also need to keep the
unsorted version around.

If you want to return a new list, use the built-in *note sorted(): a45.
function instead.  This function creates a new list from a provided
iterable, sorts it and returns it.  For example, here’s how to iterate
over the keys of a dictionary in sorted order:

     for key in sorted(mydict):
         ...  # do whatever with mydict[key]...


File: python.info,  Node: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?,  Next: Why is there no goto?,  Prev: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.22 How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
-------------------------------------------------------------------

An interface specification for a module as provided by languages such as
C++ and Java describes the prototypes for the methods and functions of
the module.  Many feel that compile-time enforcement of interface
specifications helps in the construction of large programs.

Python 2.6 adds an *note abc: 4. module that lets you define Abstract
Base Classes (ABCs).  You can then use *note isinstance(): 151. and
*note issubclass(): 5f8. to check whether an instance or a class
implements a particular ABC. The *note collections.abc: 1e. module
defines a set of useful ABCs such as *note Iterable: 2041, *note
Container: 2043, and *note MutableMapping: f51.

For Python, many of the advantages of interface specifications can be
obtained by an appropriate test discipline for components.

A good test suite for a module can both provide a regression test and
serve as a module interface specification and a set of examples.  Many
Python modules can be run as a script to provide a simple “self test.”
Even modules which use complex external interfaces can often be tested
in isolation using trivial “stub” emulations of the external interface.
The *note doctest: 39. and *note unittest: 106. modules or third-party
test frameworks can be used to construct exhaustive test suites that
exercise every line of code in a module.

An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex
applications in Python as well as having interface specifications would.
In fact, it can be better because an interface specification cannot test
certain properties of a program.  For example, the ‘list.append()’
method is expected to add new elements to the end of some internal list;
an interface specification cannot test that your ‘list.append()’
implementation will actually do this correctly, but it’s trivial to
check this property in a test suite.

Writing test suites is very helpful, and you might want to design your
code to make it easily tested.  One increasingly popular technique,
test-driven development, calls for writing parts of the test suite
first, before you write any of the actual code.  Of course Python allows
you to be sloppy and not write test cases at all.


File: python.info,  Node: Why is there no goto?,  Next: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?,  Prev: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.23 Why is there no goto?
-----------------------------

In the 1970s people realized that unrestricted goto could lead to messy
“spaghetti” code that was hard to understand and revise.  In a
high-level language, it is also unneeded as long as there are ways to
branch (in Python, with *note if: 26e. statements and *note or: 271,
*note and: 26b, and *note if: 26e./*note else: 26c. expressions) and
loop (with *note while: 1a4c. and *note for: 26d. statements, possibly
containing *note continue: 827. and *note break: 915.).

One can also use exceptions to provide a “structured goto” that works
even across function calls.  Many feel that exceptions can conveniently
emulate all reasonable uses of the ‘go’ or ‘goto’ constructs of C,
Fortran, and other languages.  For example:

     class label(Exception): pass  # declare a label

     try:
         ...
         if condition: raise label()  # goto label
         ...
     except label:  # where to goto
         pass
     ...

This doesn’t allow you to jump into the middle of a loop, but that’s
usually considered an abuse of ‘goto’ anyway.  Use sparingly.


File: python.info,  Node: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?,  Next: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?,  Prev: Why is there no goto?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.24 Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
---------------------------------------------------------------

More precisely, they can’t end with an odd number of backslashes: the
unpaired backslash at the end escapes the closing quote character,
leaving an unterminated string.

Raw strings were designed to ease creating input for processors (chiefly
regular expression engines) that want to do their own backslash escape
processing.  Such processors consider an unmatched trailing backslash to
be an error anyway, so raw strings disallow that.  In return, they allow
you to pass on the string quote character by escaping it with a
backslash.  These rules work well when r-strings are used for their
intended purpose.

If you’re trying to build Windows pathnames, note that all Windows
system calls accept forward slashes too:

     f = open("/mydir/file.txt")  # works fine!

If you’re trying to build a pathname for a DOS command, try e.g.  one of

     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\"
     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1]
     dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"


File: python.info,  Node: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?,  Next: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Prev: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.25 Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python has a *note with: 3dd. statement that wraps the execution of a
block, calling code on the entrance and exit from the block.  Some
languages have a construct that looks like this:

     with obj:
         a = 1               # equivalent to obj.a = 1
         total = total + 1   # obj.total = obj.total + 1

In Python, such a construct would be ambiguous.

Other languages, such as Object Pascal, Delphi, and C++, use static
types, so it’s possible to know, in an unambiguous way, what member is
being assigned to.  This is the main point of static typing – the
compiler 'always' knows the scope of every variable at compile time.

Python uses dynamic types.  It is impossible to know in advance which
attribute will be referenced at runtime.  Member attributes may be added
or removed from objects on the fly.  This makes it impossible to know,
from a simple reading, what attribute is being referenced: a local one,
a global one, or a member attribute?

For instance, take the following incomplete snippet:

     def foo(a):
         with a:
             print(x)

The snippet assumes that ‘a’ must have a member attribute called ‘x’.
However, there is nothing in Python that tells the interpreter this.
What should happen if ‘a’ is, let us say, an integer?  If there is a
global variable named ‘x’, will it be used inside the *note with: 3dd.
block?  As you see, the dynamic nature of Python makes such choices much
harder.

The primary benefit of *note with: 3dd. and similar language features
(reduction of code volume) can, however, easily be achieved in Python by
assignment.  Instead of:

     function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21
     function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42
     function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63

write this:

     ref = function(args).mydict[index][index]
     ref.a = 21
     ref.b = 42
     ref.c = 63

This also has the side-effect of increasing execution speed because name
bindings are resolved at run-time in Python, and the second version only
needs to perform the resolution once.

Similar proposals that would introduce syntax to further reduce code
volume, such as using a ‘leading dot’, have been rejected in favour of
explicitness (see
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2016-May/040070.html’).


File: python.info,  Node: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Next: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?,  Prev: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.26 Why don’t generators support the with statement?
--------------------------------------------------------

For technical reasons, a generator used directly as a context manager
would not work correctly.  When, as is most common, a generator is used
as an iterator run to completion, no closing is needed.  When it is,
wrap it as *note contextlib.closing(generator): 271f. in the *note with:
3dd. statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?,  Next: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?,  Prev: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.27 Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
----------------------------------------------------------------------

The colon is required primarily to enhance readability (one of the
results of the experimental ABC language).  Consider this:

     if a == b
         print(a)

versus

     if a == b:
         print(a)

Notice how the second one is slightly easier to read.  Notice further
how a colon sets off the example in this FAQ answer; it’s a standard
usage in English.

Another minor reason is that the colon makes it easier for editors with
syntax highlighting; they can look for colons to decide when indentation
needs to be increased instead of having to do a more elaborate parsing
of the program text.


File: python.info,  Node: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?,  Prev: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.28 Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Python lets you add a trailing comma at the end of lists, tuples, and
dictionaries:

     [1, 2, 3,]
     ('a', 'b', 'c',)
     d = {
         "A": [1, 5],
         "B": [6, 7],  # last trailing comma is optional but good style
     }

There are several reasons to allow this.

When you have a literal value for a list, tuple, or dictionary spread
across multiple lines, it’s easier to add more elements because you
don’t have to remember to add a comma to the previous line.  The lines
can also be reordered without creating a syntax error.

Accidentally omitting the comma can lead to errors that are hard to
diagnose.  For example:

     x = [
       "fee",
       "fie"
       "foo",
       "fum"
     ]

This list looks like it has four elements, but it actually contains
three: “fee”, “fiefoo” and “fum”.  Always adding the comma avoids this
source of error.

Allowing the trailing comma may also make programmatic code generation
easier.


File: python.info,  Node: Library and Extension FAQ,  Next: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS,  Prev: Design and History FAQ,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.4 Library and Extension FAQ
==============================

* Menu:

* General Library Questions::
* Common tasks::
* Threads::
* Input and Output::
* Network/Internet Programming::
* Databases::
* Mathematics and Numerics::


File: python.info,  Node: General Library Questions,  Next: Common tasks,  Up: Library and Extension FAQ

10.4.1 General Library Questions
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* How do I find a module or application to perform task X?::
* Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?.
* How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?::
* Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?::
* Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python?: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?.
* Why don’t my signal handlers work?::


File: python.info,  Node: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?,  Next: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?,  Up: General Library Questions

10.4.1.1 How do I find a module or application to perform task X?
.................................................................

Check *note the Library Reference: 143. to see if there’s a relevant
standard library module.  (Eventually you’ll learn what’s in the
standard library and will be able to skip this step.)

For third-party packages, search the Python Package Index(1) or try
Google(2) or another web search engine.  Searching for “Python” plus a
keyword or two for your topic of interest will usually find something
helpful.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.google.com


File: python.info,  Node: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?,  Next: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?,  Prev: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?,  Up: General Library Questions

10.4.1.2 Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?
......................................................................

If you can’t find a source file for a module it may be a built-in or
dynamically loaded module implemented in C, C++ or other compiled
language.  In this case you may not have the source file or it may be
something like ‘mathmodule.c’, somewhere in a C source directory (not on
the Python Path).

There are (at least) three kinds of modules in Python:

  1. modules written in Python (.py);

  2. modules written in C and dynamically loaded (.dll, .pyd, .so, .sl,
     etc);

  3. modules written in C and linked with the interpreter; to get a list
     of these, type:

          import sys
          print(sys.builtin_module_names)


File: python.info,  Node: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?,  Next: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?,  Prev: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?,  Up: General Library Questions

10.4.1.3 How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?
..........................................................

You need to do two things: the script file’s mode must be executable and
the first line must begin with ‘#!’ followed by the path of the Python
interpreter.

The first is done by executing ‘chmod +x scriptfile’ or perhaps ‘chmod
755 scriptfile’.

The second can be done in a number of ways.  The most straightforward
way is to write

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

as the very first line of your file, using the pathname for where the
Python interpreter is installed on your platform.

If you would like the script to be independent of where the Python
interpreter lives, you can use the ‘env’ program.  Almost all Unix
variants support the following, assuming the Python interpreter is in a
directory on the user’s ‘PATH’:

     #!/usr/bin/env python

'Don’t' do this for CGI scripts.  The ‘PATH’ variable for CGI scripts is
often very minimal, so you need to use the actual absolute pathname of
the interpreter.

Occasionally, a user’s environment is so full that the ‘/usr/bin/env’
program fails; or there’s no env program at all.  In that case, you can
try the following hack (due to Alex Rezinsky):

     #! /bin/sh
     """:"
     exec python $0 ${1+"$@"}
     """

The minor disadvantage is that this defines the script’s __doc__ string.
However, you can fix that by adding

     __doc__ = """...Whatever..."""


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?,  Next: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?,  Prev: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?,  Up: General Library Questions

10.4.1.4 Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?
......................................................

For Unix variants: The standard Python source distribution comes with a
curses module in the Modules(1) subdirectory, though it’s not compiled
by default.  (Note that this is not available in the Windows
distribution – there is no curses module for Windows.)

The *note curses: 2b. module supports basic curses features as well as
many additional functions from ncurses and SYSV curses such as colour,
alternative character set support, pads, and mouse support.  This means
the module isn’t compatible with operating systems that only have BSD
curses, but there don’t seem to be any currently maintained OSes that
fall into this category.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Modules


File: python.info,  Node: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?,  Next: Why don’t my signal handlers work?,  Prev: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?,  Up: General Library Questions

10.4.1.5 Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python?
..........................................................

The *note atexit: c. module provides a register function that is similar
to C’s ‘onexit()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Why don’t my signal handlers work?,  Prev: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?,  Up: General Library Questions

10.4.1.6 Why don’t my signal handlers work?
...........................................

The most common problem is that the signal handler is declared with the
wrong argument list.  It is called as

     handler(signum, frame)

so it should be declared with two parameters:

     def handler(signum, frame):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Common tasks,  Next: Threads,  Prev: General Library Questions,  Up: Library and Extension FAQ

10.4.2 Common tasks
-------------------

* Menu:

* How do I test a Python program or component?::
* How do I create documentation from doc strings?::
* How do I get a single keypress at a time?::


File: python.info,  Node: How do I test a Python program or component?,  Next: How do I create documentation from doc strings?,  Up: Common tasks

10.4.2.1 How do I test a Python program or component?
.....................................................

Python comes with two testing frameworks.  The *note doctest: 39. module
finds examples in the docstrings for a module and runs them, comparing
the output with the expected output given in the docstring.

The *note unittest: 106. module is a fancier testing framework modelled
on Java and Smalltalk testing frameworks.

To make testing easier, you should use good modular design in your
program.  Your program should have almost all functionality encapsulated
in either functions or class methods – and this sometimes has the
surprising and delightful effect of making the program run faster
(because local variable accesses are faster than global accesses).
Furthermore the program should avoid depending on mutating global
variables, since this makes testing much more difficult to do.

The “global main logic” of your program may be as simple as

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main_logic()

at the bottom of the main module of your program.

Once your program is organized as a tractable collection of function and
class behaviours, you should write test functions that exercise the
behaviours.  A test suite that automates a sequence of tests can be
associated with each module.  This sounds like a lot of work, but since
Python is so terse and flexible it’s surprisingly easy.  You can make
coding much more pleasant and fun by writing your test functions in
parallel with the “production code”, since this makes it easy to find
bugs and even design flaws earlier.

“Support modules” that are not intended to be the main module of a
program may include a self-test of the module.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         self_test()

Even programs that interact with complex external interfaces may be
tested when the external interfaces are unavailable by using “fake”
interfaces implemented in Python.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I create documentation from doc strings?,  Next: How do I get a single keypress at a time?,  Prev: How do I test a Python program or component?,  Up: Common tasks

10.4.2.2 How do I create documentation from doc strings?
........................................................

The *note pydoc: b4. module can create HTML from the doc strings in your
Python source code.  An alternative for creating API documentation
purely from docstrings is epydoc(1).  Sphinx(2) can also include
docstring content.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://epydoc.sourceforge.net/

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get a single keypress at a time?,  Prev: How do I create documentation from doc strings?,  Up: Common tasks

10.4.2.3 How do I get a single keypress at a time?
..................................................

For Unix variants there are several solutions.  It’s straightforward to
do this using curses, but curses is a fairly large module to learn.


File: python.info,  Node: Threads,  Next: Input and Output,  Prev: Common tasks,  Up: Library and Extension FAQ

10.4.3 Threads
--------------

* Menu:

* How do I program using threads?::
* None of my threads seem to run; why?: None of my threads seem to run why?.
* How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?::
* What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?::
* Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?::


File: python.info,  Node: How do I program using threads?,  Next: None of my threads seem to run why?,  Up: Threads

10.4.3.1 How do I program using threads?
........................................

Be sure to use the *note threading: ec. module and not the *note
_thread: 2. module.  The *note threading: ec. module builds convenient
abstractions on top of the low-level primitives provided by the *note
_thread: 2. module.


File: python.info,  Node: None of my threads seem to run why?,  Next: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?,  Prev: How do I program using threads?,  Up: Threads

10.4.3.2 None of my threads seem to run: why?
.............................................

As soon as the main thread exits, all threads are killed.  Your main
thread is running too quickly, giving the threads no time to do any
work.

A simple fix is to add a sleep to the end of the program that’s long
enough for all the threads to finish:

     import threading, time

     def thread_task(name, n):
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)  # <---------------------------!

But now (on many platforms) the threads don’t run in parallel, but
appear to run sequentially, one at a time!  The reason is that the OS
thread scheduler doesn’t start a new thread until the previous thread is
blocked.

A simple fix is to add a tiny sleep to the start of the run function:

     def thread_task(name, n):
         time.sleep(0.001)  # <--------------------!
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)

Instead of trying to guess a good delay value for *note time.sleep():
4b2, it’s better to use some kind of semaphore mechanism.  One idea is
to use the *note queue: b5. module to create a queue object, let each
thread append a token to the queue when it finishes, and let the main
thread read as many tokens from the queue as there are threads.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?,  Next: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?,  Prev: None of my threads seem to run why?,  Up: Threads

10.4.3.3 How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?
..................................................................

The easiest way is to use the *note concurrent.futures: 21. module,
especially the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 56e. class.

Or, if you want fine control over the dispatching algorithm, you can
write your own logic manually.  Use the *note queue: b5. module to
create a queue containing a list of jobs.  The *note Queue: 1235. class
maintains a list of objects and has a ‘.put(obj)’ method that adds items
to the queue and a ‘.get()’ method to return them.  The class will take
care of the locking necessary to ensure that each job is handed out
exactly once.

Here’s a trivial example:

     import threading, queue, time

     # The worker thread gets jobs off the queue.  When the queue is empty, it
     # assumes there will be no more work and exits.
     # (Realistically workers will run until terminated.)
     def worker():
         print('Running worker')
         time.sleep(0.1)
         while True:
             try:
                 arg = q.get(block=False)
             except queue.Empty:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('queue empty')
                 break
             else:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('running with argument', arg)
                 time.sleep(0.5)

     # Create queue
     q = queue.Queue()

     # Start a pool of 5 workers
     for i in range(5):
         t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1))
         t.start()

     # Begin adding work to the queue
     for i in range(50):
         q.put(i)

     # Give threads time to run
     print('Main thread sleeping')
     time.sleep(5)

When run, this will produce the following output:

     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Main thread sleeping
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 0
     Worker <Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)> running with argument 1
     Worker <Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)> running with argument 2
     Worker <Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)> running with argument 3
     Worker <Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)> running with argument 4
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5
     ...

Consult the module’s documentation for more details; the *note Queue:
1235. class provides a featureful interface.


File: python.info,  Node: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?,  Next: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?,  Prev: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?,  Up: Threads

10.4.3.4 What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?
.............................................................

A *note global interpreter lock: 147. (GIL) is used internally to ensure
that only one thread runs in the Python VM at a time.  In general,
Python offers to switch among threads only between bytecode
instructions; how frequently it switches can be set via *note
sys.setswitchinterval(): 7a5.  Each bytecode instruction and therefore
all the C implementation code reached from each instruction is therefore
atomic from the point of view of a Python program.

In theory, this means an exact accounting requires an exact
understanding of the PVM bytecode implementation.  In practice, it means
that operations on shared variables of built-in data types (ints, lists,
dicts, etc) that “look atomic” really are.

For example, the following operations are all atomic (L, L1, L2 are
lists, D, D1, D2 are dicts, x, y are objects, i, j are ints):

     L.append(x)
     L1.extend(L2)
     x = L[i]
     x = L.pop()
     L1[i:j] = L2
     L.sort()
     x = y
     x.field = y
     D[x] = y
     D1.update(D2)
     D.keys()

These aren’t:

     i = i+1
     L.append(L[-1])
     L[i] = L[j]
     D[x] = D[x] + 1

Operations that replace other objects may invoke those other objects’
*note __del__(): 1d4e. method when their reference count reaches zero,
and that can affect things.  This is especially true for the mass
updates to dictionaries and lists.  When in doubt, use a mutex!


File: python.info,  Node: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?,  Prev: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?,  Up: Threads

10.4.3.5 Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?
.........................................................

The *note global interpreter lock: 147. (GIL) is often seen as a
hindrance to Python’s deployment on high-end multiprocessor server
machines, because a multi-threaded Python program effectively only uses
one CPU, due to the insistence that (almost) all Python code can only
run while the GIL is held.

Back in the days of Python 1.5, Greg Stein actually implemented a
comprehensive patch set (the “free threading” patches) that removed the
GIL and replaced it with fine-grained locking.  Adam Olsen recently did
a similar experiment in his python-safethread(1) project.
Unfortunately, both experiments exhibited a sharp drop in single-thread
performance (at least 30% slower), due to the amount of fine-grained
locking necessary to compensate for the removal of the GIL.

This doesn’t mean that you can’t make good use of Python on multi-CPU
machines!  You just have to be creative with dividing the work up
between multiple 'processes' rather than multiple 'threads'.  The *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 741. class in the new *note concurrent.futures: 21.
module provides an easy way of doing so; the *note multiprocessing: 93.
module provides a lower-level API in case you want more control over
dispatching of tasks.

Judicious use of C extensions will also help; if you use a C extension
to perform a time-consuming task, the extension can release the GIL
while the thread of execution is in the C code and allow other threads
to get some work done.  Some standard library modules such as *note
zlib: 133. and *note hashlib: 66. already do this.

It has been suggested that the GIL should be a per-interpreter-state
lock rather than truly global; interpreters then wouldn’t be able to
share objects.  Unfortunately, this isn’t likely to happen either.  It
would be a tremendous amount of work, because many object
implementations currently have global state.  For example, small
integers and short strings are cached; these caches would have to be
moved to the interpreter state.  Other object types have their own free
list; these free lists would have to be moved to the interpreter state.
And so on.

And I doubt that it can even be done in finite time, because the same
problem exists for 3rd party extensions.  It is likely that 3rd party
extensions are being written at a faster rate than you can convert them
to store all their global state in the interpreter state.

And finally, once you have multiple interpreters not sharing any state,
what have you gained over running each interpreter in a separate
process?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread


File: python.info,  Node: Input and Output,  Next: Network/Internet Programming,  Prev: Threads,  Up: Library and Extension FAQ

10.4.4 Input and Output
-----------------------

* Menu:

* How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…): How do I delete a file? And other file questions….
* How do I copy a file?::
* How do I read (or write) binary data?: How do I read or write binary data?.
* I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?.
* How do I access the serial (RS232) port?: How do I access the serial RS232 port?.
* Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I delete a file? And other file questions…,  Next: How do I copy a file?,  Up: Input and Output

10.4.4.1 How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…)
............................................................

Use ‘os.remove(filename)’ or ‘os.unlink(filename)’; for documentation,
see the *note os: a0. module.  The two functions are identical; *note
unlink(): f98. is simply the name of the Unix system call for this
function.

To remove a directory, use *note os.rmdir(): f96.; use *note os.mkdir():
1c7. to create one.  ‘os.makedirs(path)’ will create any intermediate
directories in ‘path’ that don’t exist.  ‘os.removedirs(path)’ will
remove intermediate directories as long as they’re empty; if you want to
delete an entire directory tree and its contents, use *note
shutil.rmtree(): 1df.

To rename a file, use ‘os.rename(old_path, new_path)’.

To truncate a file, open it using ‘f = open(filename, "rb+")’, and use
‘f.truncate(offset)’; offset defaults to the current seek position.
There’s also ‘os.ftruncate(fd, offset)’ for files opened with *note
os.open(): c1f, where 'fd' is the file descriptor (a small integer).

The *note shutil: c4. module also contains a number of functions to work
on files including *note copyfile(): 8bd, *note copytree(): 88b, and
*note rmtree(): 1df.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I copy a file?,  Next: How do I read or write binary data?,  Prev: How do I delete a file? And other file questions…,  Up: Input and Output

10.4.4.2 How do I copy a file?
..............................

The *note shutil: c4. module contains a *note copyfile(): 8bd. function.
Note that on Windows NTFS volumes, it does not copy alternate data
streams(1) nor resource forks(2) on macOS HFS+ volumes, though both are
now rarely used.  It also doesn’t copy file permissions and metadata,
though using *note shutil.copy2(): 8bf. instead will preserve most
(though not all) of it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS#Alternate_data_stream_(ADS)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork


File: python.info,  Node: How do I read or write binary data?,  Next: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?,  Prev: How do I copy a file?,  Up: Input and Output

10.4.4.3 How do I read (or write) binary data?
..............................................

To read or write complex binary data formats, it’s best to use the *note
struct: d4. module.  It allows you to take a string containing binary
data (usually numbers) and convert it to Python objects; and vice versa.

For example, the following code reads two 2-byte integers and one 4-byte
integer in big-endian format from a file:

     import struct

     with open(filename, "rb") as f:
         s = f.read(8)
         x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s)

The ‘>’ in the format string forces big-endian data; the letter ‘h’
reads one “short integer” (2 bytes), and ‘l’ reads one “long integer” (4
bytes) from the string.

For data that is more regular (e.g.  a homogeneous list of ints or
floats), you can also use the *note array: 7. module.

     Not: To read and write binary data, it is mandatory to open the
     file in binary mode (here, passing ‘"rb"’ to *note open(): 2a6.).
     If you use ‘"r"’ instead (the default), the file will be open in
     text mode and ‘f.read()’ will return *note str: 15d. objects rather
     than *note bytes: 2cb. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?,  Next: How do I access the serial RS232 port?,  Prev: How do I read or write binary data?,  Up: Input and Output

10.4.4.4 I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?
..............................................................................

*note os.read(): c22. is a low-level function which takes a file
descriptor, a small integer representing the opened file.  *note
os.popen(): 8ec. creates a high-level file object, the same type
returned by the built-in *note open(): 2a6. function.  Thus, to read 'n'
bytes from a pipe 'p' created with *note os.popen(): 8ec, you need to
use ‘p.read(n)’.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I access the serial RS232 port?,  Next: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?,  Prev: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?,  Up: Input and Output

10.4.4.5 How do I access the serial (RS232) port?
.................................................

For Win32, OSX, Linux, BSD, Jython, IronPython:

     pyserial(1)

For Unix, see a Usenet post by Mitch Chapman:

     ‘https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyserial/


File: python.info,  Node: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?,  Prev: How do I access the serial RS232 port?,  Up: Input and Output

10.4.4.6 Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?
........................................................................

Python *note file objects: 1068. are a high-level layer of abstraction
on low-level C file descriptors.

For most file objects you create in Python via the built-in *note
open(): 2a6. function, ‘f.close()’ marks the Python file object as being
closed from Python’s point of view, and also arranges to close the
underlying C file descriptor.  This also happens automatically in ‘f’’s
destructor, when ‘f’ becomes garbage.

But stdin, stdout and stderr are treated specially by Python, because of
the special status also given to them by C. Running ‘sys.stdout.close()’
marks the Python-level file object as being closed, but does 'not' close
the associated C file descriptor.

To close the underlying C file descriptor for one of these three, you
should first be sure that’s what you really want to do (e.g., you may
confuse extension modules trying to do I/O). If it is, use *note
os.close(): 9ea.:

     os.close(stdin.fileno())
     os.close(stdout.fileno())
     os.close(stderr.fileno())

Or you can use the numeric constants 0, 1 and 2, respectively.


File: python.info,  Node: Network/Internet Programming,  Next: Databases,  Prev: Input and Output,  Up: Library and Extension FAQ

10.4.5 Network/Internet Programming
-----------------------------------

* Menu:

* What WWW tools are there for Python?::
* How can I mimic CGI form submission (METHOD=POST)?: How can I mimic CGI form submission METHOD=POST ?.
* What module should I use to help with generating HTML?::
* How do I send mail from a Python script?::
* How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?.


File: python.info,  Node: What WWW tools are there for Python?,  Next: How can I mimic CGI form submission METHOD=POST ?,  Up: Network/Internet Programming

10.4.5.1 What WWW tools are there for Python?
.............................................

See the chapters titled *note Internet Protocols and Support: 3686. and
*note Internet Data Handling: 3298. in the Library Reference Manual.
Python has many modules that will help you build server-side and
client-side web systems.

A summary of available frameworks is maintained by Paul Boddie at
‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming’.

Cameron Laird maintains a useful set of pages about Python web
technologies at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210224183619/http://phaseit.net/claird/comp.lang.python/web_python’.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I mimic CGI form submission METHOD=POST ?,  Next: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?,  Prev: What WWW tools are there for Python?,  Up: Network/Internet Programming

10.4.5.2 How can I mimic CGI form submission (METHOD=POST)?
...........................................................

I would like to retrieve web pages that are the result of POSTing a
form.  Is there existing code that would let me do this easily?

Yes.  Here’s a simple example that uses *note urllib.request: 10b.:

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

     import urllib.request

     # build the query string
     qs = "First=Josephine&MI=Q&Last=Public"

     # connect and send the server a path
     req = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.some-server.out-there'
                                  '/cgi-bin/some-cgi-script', data=qs)
     with req:
         msg, hdrs = req.read(), req.info()

Note that in general for percent-encoded POST operations, query strings
must be quoted using *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): d29.  For example,
to send ‘name=Guy Steele, Jr.’:

     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> urllib.parse.urlencode({'name': 'Guy Steele, Jr.'})
     'name=Guy+Steele%2C+Jr.'

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package: 3753. for
extensive examples.


File: python.info,  Node: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?,  Next: How do I send mail from a Python script?,  Prev: How can I mimic CGI form submission METHOD=POST ?,  Up: Network/Internet Programming

10.4.5.3 What module should I use to help with generating HTML?
...............................................................

You can find a collection of useful links on the Web Programming wiki
page(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: How do I send mail from a Python script?,  Next: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?,  Prev: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?,  Up: Network/Internet Programming

10.4.5.4 How do I send mail from a Python script?
.................................................

Use the standard library module *note smtplib: c9.

Here’s a very simple interactive mail sender that uses it.  This method
will work on any host that supports an SMTP listener.

     import sys, smtplib

     fromaddr = input("From: ")
     toaddrs  = input("To: ").split(',')
     print("Enter message, end with ^D:")
     msg = ''
     while True:
         line = sys.stdin.readline()
         if not line:
             break
         msg += line

     # The actual mail send
     server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
     server.quit()

A Unix-only alternative uses sendmail.  The location of the sendmail
program varies between systems; sometimes it is ‘/usr/lib/sendmail’,
sometimes ‘/usr/sbin/sendmail’.  The sendmail manual page will help you
out.  Here’s some sample code:

     import os

     SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail"  # sendmail location
     p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w")
     p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n")
     p.write("Subject: test\n")
     p.write("\n")  # blank line separating headers from body
     p.write("Some text\n")
     p.write("some more text\n")
     sts = p.close()
     if sts != 0:
         print("Sendmail exit status", sts)


File: python.info,  Node: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?,  Prev: How do I send mail from a Python script?,  Up: Network/Internet Programming

10.4.5.5 How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?
.....................................................................

The *note select: c0. module is commonly used to help with asynchronous
I/O on sockets.

To prevent the TCP connect from blocking, you can set the socket to
non-blocking mode.  Then when you do the *note connect(): c30, you will
either connect immediately (unlikely) or get an exception that contains
the error number as ‘.errno’.  ‘errno.EINPROGRESS’ indicates that the
connection is in progress, but hasn’t finished yet.  Different OSes will
return different values, so you’re going to have to check what’s
returned on your system.

You can use the *note connect_ex(): 13c6. method to avoid creating an
exception.  It will just return the errno value.  To poll, you can call
*note connect_ex(): 13c6. again later – ‘0’ or ‘errno.EISCONN’ indicate
that you’re connected – or you can pass this socket to *note
select.select(): c2d. to check if it’s writable.

     Not: The *note asyncio: a. module provides a general purpose
     single-threaded and concurrent asynchronous library, which can be
     used for writing non-blocking network code.  The third-party
     Twisted(1) library is a popular and feature-rich alternative.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://twisted.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Databases,  Next: Mathematics and Numerics,  Prev: Network/Internet Programming,  Up: Library and Extension FAQ

10.4.6 Databases
----------------

* Menu:

* Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?::
* How do you implement persistent objects in Python?::


File: python.info,  Node: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?,  Next: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?,  Up: Databases

10.4.6.1 Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?
.................................................................

Yes.

Interfaces to disk-based hashes such as *note DBM: 34. and *note GDBM:
33. are also included with standard Python.  There is also the *note
sqlite3: ce. module, which provides a lightweight disk-based relational
database.

Support for most relational databases is available.  See the
DatabaseProgramming wiki page(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?,  Prev: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?,  Up: Databases

10.4.6.2 How do you implement persistent objects in Python?
...........................................................

The *note pickle: a5. library module solves this in a very general way
(though you still can’t store things like open files, sockets or
windows), and the *note shelve: c2. library module uses pickle and
(g)dbm to create persistent mappings containing arbitrary Python
objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Mathematics and Numerics,  Prev: Databases,  Up: Library and Extension FAQ

10.4.7 Mathematics and Numerics
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* How do I generate random numbers in Python?::


File: python.info,  Node: How do I generate random numbers in Python?,  Up: Mathematics and Numerics

10.4.7.1 How do I generate random numbers in Python?
....................................................

The standard module *note random: b7. implements a random number
generator.  Usage is simple:

     import random
     random.random()

This returns a random floating-point number in the range [0, 1).

There are also many other specialized generators in this module, such
as:

   * ‘randrange(a, b)’ chooses an integer in the range [a, b).

   * ‘uniform(a, b)’ chooses a floating-point number in the range [a,
     b).

   * ‘normalvariate(mean, sdev)’ samples the normal (Gaussian)
     distribution.

Some higher-level functions operate on sequences directly, such as:

   * ‘choice(S)’ chooses a random element from a given sequence.

   * ‘shuffle(L)’ shuffles a list in-place, i.e.  permutes it randomly.

There’s also a ‘Random’ class you can instantiate to create independent
multiple random number generators.


File: python.info,  Node: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS,  Next: Python on Windows FAQ,  Prev: Library and Extension FAQ,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.5 Genişletme/Ekleme SSS
==========================

* Menu:

* C’de kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?::
* C++’da kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?::
* C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?::
* C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl çalıştırabilirim?::
* C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl değerlendirebilirim?::
* Bir Python nesnesinden C değerlerini nasıl çıkarabilirim?::
* İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue() işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?: İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?.
* C’de bir nesnenin metodunu nasıl çağırabilirim?::
* PyErr_Print() işlevinden (veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden) gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?: PyErr_Print işlevinden veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?.
* Python’da yazılmış bir modüle C’den nasıl erişebilirim?::
* Python’dan C++ nesnelerine nasıl arayüz oluşturabilirim?::
* Kurulum dosyasını kullanarak bir modül ekledim ve derleme başarısız oldu; neden?::
* Bir uzantıda nasıl hata ayıklayabilirim?::
* Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum, ancak bazı dosyalar eksik. Neden?: Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum ancak bazı dosyalar eksik Neden?.
* “Eksik girdi” ile “geçersiz girdi’yi nasıl ayırt edebilirim?::
* Tanımlanmamış g++ sembolleri __builtin_new veya __pure_virtual’ı nasıl bulabilirim?::
* Bazı yöntemleri C’de, bazı yöntemleri Python’da (örneğin miras yoluyla) uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?: Bazı yöntemleri C’de bazı yöntemleri Python’da örneğin miras yoluyla uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?.


File: python.info,  Node: C’de kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?,  Next: C++’da kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.1 C’de kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?
------------------------------------------------------

Evet, C’de fonksiyonlar, değişkenler, istisnalar ve hatta yeni tipler
içeren yerleşik modüller oluşturabilirsiniz.  Bu konu *note Python
Yorumlayıcısını Genişletme ve Gömme: 1a1f. dosyasında açıklanmıştır.

Çoğu orta veya ileri seviye Python kitabı da bu konuyu ele alacaktır.


File: python.info,  Node: C++’da kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?,  Next: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?,  Prev: C’de kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.2 C++’da kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?
--------------------------------------------------------

Evet, C++’da bulunan C uyumluluk özelliklerini kullanarak.  ‘extern "C"
{ ... }’ komutunu Python include dosyalarının etrafına yerleştirin ve
Python yorumlayıcısı tarafından çağrılacak her fonksiyonun önüne ‘extern
"C"’ koyun.  Yapıcıları olan global veya statik C++ nesneleri muhtemelen
iyi bir fikir değildir.


File: python.info,  Node: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?,  Next: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl çalıştırabilirim?,  Prev: C++’da kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.3 C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?
------------------------------------------------

Ne yapmaya çalıştığınıza bağlı olarak, kendi C uzantılarınızı yazmanın
bir dizi alternatifi vardır.

Cython(1) and its relative Pyrex(2) are compilers that accept a slightly
modified form of Python and generate the corresponding C code.  Cython
and Pyrex make it possible to write an extension without having to learn
Python’s C API.

If you need to interface to some C or C++ library for which no Python
extension currently exists, you can try wrapping the library’s data
types and functions with a tool such as SWIG(3). SIP(4), CXX(5)
Boost(6), or Weave(7) are also alternatives for wrapping C++ libraries.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://www.csse.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/python/Pyrex/

   (3) https://www.swig.org

   (4) https://github.com/Python-SIP/sip

   (5) https://cxx.sourceforge.net/

   (6) https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html

   (7) https://github.com/scipy/weave


File: python.info,  Node: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl çalıştırabilirim?,  Next: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl değerlendirebilirim?,  Prev: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.4 C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl çalıştırabilirim?
----------------------------------------------------------------

Bunu yapan en üst düzey fonksiyon *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4845.
olup, ‘__main__’ modülü bağlamında çalıştırılmak üzere tek bir string
argüman alır ve başarı için ‘0’, bir istisna oluştuğunda (*note
SyntaxError: 14c. dahil) ‘-1’ döndürür.  Daha fazla kontrol
istiyorsanız, *note PyRun_String(): 1810. kullanın; *note
PyRun_SimpleString(): 4845. için ‘Python/pythonrun.c’ içindeki kaynağa
bakın.


File: python.info,  Node: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl değerlendirebilirim?,  Next: Bir Python nesnesinden C değerlerini nasıl çıkarabilirim?,  Prev: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl çalıştırabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.5 C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl değerlendirebilirim?
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Önceki sorudaki *note PyRun_String(): 1810. fonksiyonunu *note
Py_eval_input: 4a07. başlangıç sembolü ile çağırın; bu fonksiyon bir
ifadeyi ayrıştırır, değerlendirir ve değerini döndürür.


File: python.info,  Node: Bir Python nesnesinden C değerlerini nasıl çıkarabilirim?,  Next: İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?,  Prev: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl değerlendirebilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.6 Bir Python nesnesinden C değerlerini nasıl çıkarabilirim?
----------------------------------------------------------------

That depends on the object’s type.  If it’s a tuple, *note
PyTuple_Size(): 4993. returns its length and *note PyTuple_GetItem():
47ed. returns the item at a specified index.  Lists have similar
functions, *note PyList_Size(): 12a2. and *note PyList_GetItem(): 47ee.

For bytes, *note PyBytes_Size(): 4895. returns its length and *note
PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 488f. provides a pointer to its value and its
length.  Note that Python bytes objects may contain null bytes so C’s
‘strlen()’ should not be used.

Bir nesnenin türünü test etmek için, önce ‘NULL’ olmadığından emin olun
ve ardından *note PyBytes_Check(): 123b, *note PyTuple_Check(): 4b66,
*note PyList_Check(): 4b76. vb.  kullanın.

Ayrıca Python nesneleri için ‘abstract’ arayüzü tarafından sağlanan üst
düzey bir API de vardır – daha fazla ayrıntı için ‘Include/abstract.h’
dosyasını okuyun.  *note PySequence_Length(): 4971, *note
PySequence_GetItem(): 1895, vb.  gibi çağrıları kullanarak her türlü
Python dizisi ile arayüz oluşturmanın yanı sıra sayılar (*note
PyNumber_Index(): 6db. ve diğerleri) ve PyMapping API’lerindeki
eşlemeler gibi diğer birçok yararlı protokolü de sağlar.


File: python.info,  Node: İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?,  Next: C’de bir nesnenin metodunu nasıl çağırabilirim?,  Prev: Bir Python nesnesinden C değerlerini nasıl çıkarabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.7 İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue() işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Bunu yapamazsınız.  Bunun yerine *note PyTuple_Pack(): 4992. kullanın.


File: python.info,  Node: C’de bir nesnenin metodunu nasıl çağırabilirim?,  Next: PyErr_Print işlevinden veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?,  Prev: İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.8 C’de bir nesnenin metodunu nasıl çağırabilirim?
------------------------------------------------------

*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 30b. fonksiyonu, bir nesnenin rastgele bir
metodunu çağırmak için kullanılabilir.  Parametreler nesne, çağrılacak
yöntemin adı, *note Py_BuildValue(): 6f5. ile kullanılan gibi bir string
ve değişken değerleridir:

     PyObject *
     PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name,
                         const char *arg_format, ...);

Bu, ister yerleşik ister kullanıcı tanımlı olsun, yöntemleri olan
herhangi bir nesne için geçerlidir.  Sonunda dönüş değerini :*note
Py_DECREF(): 306.‘lemekten siz sorumlusunuz.

Örneğin, bir dosya nesnesinin “seek” yöntemini 10, 0 argümanlarıyla
çağırmak için (dosya nesnesi işaretçisinin “f” olduğunu varsayarak):

     res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0);
     if (res == NULL) {
             ... an exception occurred ...
     }
     else {
             Py_DECREF(res);
     }

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 47e1. 'her zaman' argüman listesi için bir
tuple istediğinden, argümansız bir fonksiyon çağırmak için format olarak
“()” ve tek argümanlı bir fonksiyon çağırmak için argümanı parantez
içine alın, örneğin “(i)”.


File: python.info,  Node: PyErr_Print işlevinden veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?,  Next: Python’da yazılmış bir modüle C’den nasıl erişebilirim?,  Prev: C’de bir nesnenin metodunu nasıl çağırabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.9 PyErr_Print() işlevinden (veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden) gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python kodunda, ‘write()’ metodunu destekleyen bir nesne tanımlayın.  Bu
nesneyi *note sys.stdout: 943. ve *note sys.stderr: 792. öğelerine
atayın.  Print_error’ı çağırın ya da sadece standart geri izleme
mekanizmasının çalışmasına izin verin.  Ardından, çıktı ‘write()’
yönteminizin gönderdiği yere gidecektir.

Bunu yapmanın en kolay yolu *note io.StringIO: dc4. sınıfını
kullanmaktır:

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue())
     foo
     hello world!

Aynı şeyi yapan özel bir nesne şöyle görünecektir:

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase):
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.data = []
     ...     def write(self, stuff):
     ...         self.data.append(stuff)
     ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data))
     foo
     hello world!


File: python.info,  Node: Python’da yazılmış bir modüle C’den nasıl erişebilirim?,  Next: Python’dan C++ nesnelerine nasıl arayüz oluşturabilirim?,  Prev: PyErr_Print işlevinden veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.10 Python’da yazılmış bir modüle C’den nasıl erişebilirim?
---------------------------------------------------------------

Modül nesnesine aşağıdaki gibi bir işaretçi alabilirsiniz:

     module = PyImport_ImportModule("<modulename>");

Modül henüz içe aktarılmamışsa (yani *note sys.modules: 179b. içinde
henüz mevcut değilse), bu modülü başlatır; aksi takdirde sadece
‘sys.modules["<modulename>"]’ değerini döndürür.  Modülü herhangi bir
isim alanına girmediğine dikkat edin – sadece başlatıldığından ve *note
sys.modules: 179b. içinde saklandığından emin olur.

Daha sonra modülün özniteliklerine (yani modülde tanımlanan herhangi bir
isme) aşağıdaki şekilde erişebilirsiniz:

     attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "<attrname>");

Modüldeki değişkenlere atamak için *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1448.
çağrısı da çalışır.


File: python.info,  Node: Python’dan C++ nesnelerine nasıl arayüz oluşturabilirim?,  Next: Kurulum dosyasını kullanarak bir modül ekledim ve derleme başarısız oldu; neden?,  Prev: Python’da yazılmış bir modüle C’den nasıl erişebilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.11 Python’dan C++ nesnelerine nasıl arayüz oluşturabilirim?
----------------------------------------------------------------

Gereksinimlerinize bağlı olarak, birçok yaklaşım vardır.  Bunu manuel
olarak yapmak için *note the “Extending and Embedding” belgesini
okuyarak başlayın: 1a1f.  Python çalışma zamanı sistemi için, C ve C++
arasında çok fazla fark olmadığının farkına varın – bu nedenle bir C
yapı (işaretçi) türü etrafında yeni bir Python türü oluşturma stratejisi
C++ nesneleri için de işe yarayacaktır.

C++ kütüphaneleri için bakınız *note C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler
var mı?: 4fde.


File: python.info,  Node: Kurulum dosyasını kullanarak bir modül ekledim ve derleme başarısız oldu; neden?,  Next: Bir uzantıda nasıl hata ayıklayabilirim?,  Prev: Python’dan C++ nesnelerine nasıl arayüz oluşturabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.12 Kurulum dosyasını kullanarak bir modül ekledim ve derleme başarısız oldu; neden?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Kurulum bir satır sonu ile bitmelidir, eğer satır sonu yoksa derleme
işlemi başarısız olur.  (Bunu düzeltmek için biraz biçimsiz shell script
düzenlemesi gerekir ve bu hata o kadar küçük ki çabaya değmez gibi
görünüyor)


File: python.info,  Node: Bir uzantıda nasıl hata ayıklayabilirim?,  Next: Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum ancak bazı dosyalar eksik Neden?,  Prev: Kurulum dosyasını kullanarak bir modül ekledim ve derleme başarısız oldu; neden?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.13 Bir uzantıda nasıl hata ayıklayabilirim?
------------------------------------------------

Dinamik olarak yüklenen uzantılarla GDB kullanırken, uzantınız yüklenene
kadar uzantınızda bir kesme noktası ayarlayamazsınız.

‘.gdbinit’ dosyanıza (veya etkileşimli olarak) şu komutu ekleyin:

     br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule

Sonra, GDB’yi çalıştırdığınızda:

     $ gdb /local/bin/python
     gdb) run myscript.py
     gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded
     gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded
     gdb) br myfunction.c:50
     gdb) continue


File: python.info,  Node: Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum ancak bazı dosyalar eksik Neden?,  Next: “Eksik girdi” ile “geçersiz girdi’yi nasıl ayırt edebilirim?,  Prev: Bir uzantıda nasıl hata ayıklayabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.14 Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum, ancak bazı dosyalar eksik. Neden?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Most packaged versions of Python omit some files required for compiling
Python extensions.

For Red Hat, install the python3-devel RPM to get the necessary files.

For Debian, run ‘apt-get install python3-dev’.


File: python.info,  Node: “Eksik girdi” ile “geçersiz girdi’yi nasıl ayırt edebilirim?,  Next: Tanımlanmamış g++ sembolleri __builtin_new veya __pure_virtual’ı nasıl bulabilirim?,  Prev: Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum ancak bazı dosyalar eksik Neden?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.15 “Eksik girdi” ile “geçersiz girdi’yi nasıl ayırt edebilirim?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Bazen Python etkileşimli yorumlayıcısının davranışını taklit etmek
istersiniz; girdi eksik olduğunda size bir devam istemi verir (örneğin,
bir “if” deyiminin başlangıcını yazdınız veya parantezlerinizi veya üçlü
dize tırnaklarınızı kapatmadınız), ancak girdi geçersiz olduğunda size
hemen bir sözdizimi hata mesajı verir.

Python’da, ayrıştırıcının davranışına yeterince yaklaşan *note codeop:
1c. modülünü kullanabilirsiniz.  Örneğin IDLE bunu kullanır.

Bunu C’de yapmanın en kolay yolu *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4a0e.
çağırmak (belki ayrı bir iş parçacığında) ve Python yorumlayıcısının
girdiyi sizin için işlemesine izin vermektir.  Ayrıca *note
PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 31f. ‘ı özel girdi fonksiyonunuza işaret
edecek şekilde ayarlayabilirsiniz.  Daha fazla ipucu için
‘Modules/readline.c’ ve ‘Parser/myreadline.c’ dosyalarına bakın.


File: python.info,  Node: Tanımlanmamış g++ sembolleri __builtin_new veya __pure_virtual’ı nasıl bulabilirim?,  Next: Bazı yöntemleri C’de bazı yöntemleri Python’da örneğin miras yoluyla uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?,  Prev: “Eksik girdi” ile “geçersiz girdi’yi nasıl ayırt edebilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.16 Tanımlanmamış g++ sembolleri __builtin_new veya __pure_virtual’ı nasıl bulabilirim?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

G++ uzantı modüllerini dinamik olarak yüklemek için Python’u yeniden
derlemeli, g++ kullanarak yeniden bağlamalı (Python Modules Makefile’da
LINKCC’yi değiştirin) ve uzantı modülünüzü g++ kullanarak bağlamalısınız
(örneğin, ‘g++ -shared -o mymodule.so mymodule.o’).


File: python.info,  Node: Bazı yöntemleri C’de bazı yöntemleri Python’da örneğin miras yoluyla uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?,  Prev: Tanımlanmamış g++ sembolleri __builtin_new veya __pure_virtual’ı nasıl bulabilirim?,  Up: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS

10.5.17 Bazı yöntemleri C’de, bazı yöntemleri Python’da (örneğin miras yoluyla) uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Evet, *note int: 184, *note list: 422, *note dict: 240, vb.  gibi
yerleşik sınıflardan miras alabilirsiniz.

Boost Python Kütüphanesi (BPL,
‘http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html’) bunu C++’dan yapmanın
bir yolunu sağlar (yani BPL’yi kullanarak C++’da yazılmış bir uzantı
sınıfından miras alabilirsiniz).


File: python.info,  Node: Python on Windows FAQ,  Next: Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS,  Prev: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.6 Python on Windows FAQ
==========================

* Menu:

* How do I run a Python program under Windows?::
* How do I make Python scripts executable?::
* Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?::
* How do I make an executable from a Python script?::
* Is a *.pyd file the same as a DLL?: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?.
* How can I embed Python into a Windows application?::
* How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?::
* How do I check for a keypress without blocking?::
* How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I run a Python program under Windows?,  Next: How do I make Python scripts executable?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.1 How do I run a Python program under Windows?
---------------------------------------------------

This is not necessarily a straightforward question.  If you are already
familiar with running programs from the Windows command line then
everything will seem obvious; otherwise, you might need a little more
guidance.

Unless you use some sort of integrated development environment, you will
end up 'typing' Windows commands into what is referred to as a “Command
prompt window”.  Usually you can create such a window from your search
bar by searching for ‘cmd’.  You should be able to recognize when you
have started such a window because you will see a Windows “command
prompt”, which usually looks like this:

     C:\>

The letter may be different, and there might be other things after it,
so you might just as easily see something like:

     D:\YourName\Projects\Python>

depending on how your computer has been set up and what else you have
recently done with it.  Once you have started such a window, you are
well on the way to running Python programs.

You need to realize that your Python scripts have to be processed by
another program called the Python 'interpreter'.  The interpreter reads
your script, compiles it into bytecodes, and then executes the bytecodes
to run your program.  So, how do you arrange for the interpreter to
handle your Python?

First, you need to make sure that your command window recognises the
word “py” as an instruction to start the interpreter.  If you have
opened a command window, you should try entering the command ‘py’ and
hitting return:

     C:\Users\YourName> py

You should then see something like:

     Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

You have started the interpreter in “interactive mode”.  That means you
can enter Python statements or expressions interactively and have them
executed or evaluated while you wait.  This is one of Python’s strongest
features.  Check it by entering a few expressions of your choice and
seeing the results:

     >>> print("Hello")
     Hello
     >>> "Hello" * 3
     'HelloHelloHello'

Many people use the interactive mode as a convenient yet highly
programmable calculator.  When you want to end your interactive Python
session, call the *note exit(): 1f7a. function or hold the ‘Ctrl’ key
down while you enter a ‘Z’, then hit the “‘Enter’” key to get back to
your Windows command prompt.

You may also find that you have a Start-menu entry such as Start ‣
Programs ‣ Python 3.x ‣ Python (command line) that results in you seeing
the ‘>>>’ prompt in a new window.  If so, the window will disappear
after you call the *note exit(): 1f7a. function or enter the ‘Ctrl’-‘Z’
character; Windows is running a single “python” command in the window,
and closes it when you terminate the interpreter.

Now that we know the ‘py’ command is recognized, you can give your
Python script to it.  You’ll have to give either an absolute or a
relative path to the Python script.  Let’s say your Python script is
located in your desktop and is named ‘hello.py’, and your command prompt
is nicely opened in your home directory so you’re seeing something
similar to:

     C:\Users\YourName>

So now you’ll ask the ‘py’ command to give your script to Python by
typing ‘py’ followed by your script path:

     C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py
     hello


File: python.info,  Node: How do I make Python scripts executable?,  Next: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?,  Prev: How do I run a Python program under Windows?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.2 How do I make Python scripts executable?
-----------------------------------------------

On Windows, the standard Python installer already associates the .py
extension with a file type (Python.File) and gives that file type an
open command that runs the interpreter (‘D:\Program
Files\Python\python.exe "%1" %*’).  This is enough to make scripts
executable from the command prompt as ‘foo.py’.  If you’d rather be able
to execute the script by simple typing ‘foo’ with no extension you need
to add .py to the PATHEXT environment variable.


File: python.info,  Node: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?,  Next: How do I make an executable from a Python script?,  Prev: How do I make Python scripts executable?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.3 Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
-------------------------------------------------------

Usually Python starts very quickly on Windows, but occasionally there
are bug reports that Python suddenly begins to take a long time to start
up.  This is made even more puzzling because Python will work fine on
other Windows systems which appear to be configured identically.

The problem may be caused by a misconfiguration of virus checking
software on the problem machine.  Some virus scanners have been known to
introduce startup overhead of two orders of magnitude when the scanner
is configured to monitor all reads from the filesystem.  Try checking
the configuration of virus scanning software on your systems to ensure
that they are indeed configured identically.  McAfee, when configured to
scan all file system read activity, is a particular offender.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I make an executable from a Python script?,  Next: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?,  Prev: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.4 How do I make an executable from a Python script?
--------------------------------------------------------

See *note How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?:
4f4c. for a list of tools that can be used to make executables.


File: python.info,  Node: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?,  Next: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?,  Prev: How do I make an executable from a Python script?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.5 Is a ‘*.pyd’ file the same as a DLL?
-------------------------------------------

Yes, .pyd files are dll’s, but there are a few differences.  If you have
a DLL named ‘foo.pyd’, then it must have a function ‘PyInit_foo()’.  You
can then write Python “import foo”, and Python will search for foo.pyd
(as well as foo.py, foo.pyc) and if it finds it, will attempt to call
‘PyInit_foo()’ to initialize it.  You do not link your .exe with
foo.lib, as that would cause Windows to require the DLL to be present.

Note that the search path for foo.pyd is PYTHONPATH, not the same as the
path that Windows uses to search for foo.dll.  Also, foo.pyd need not be
present to run your program, whereas if you linked your program with a
dll, the dll is required.  Of course, foo.pyd is required if you want to
say ‘import foo’.  In a DLL, linkage is declared in the source code with
‘__declspec(dllexport)’.  In a .pyd, linkage is defined in a list of
available functions.


File: python.info,  Node: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?,  Next: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?,  Prev: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.6 How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
---------------------------------------------------------

Embedding the Python interpreter in a Windows app can be summarized as
follows:

  1. Do 'not' build Python into your .exe file directly.  On Windows,
     Python must be a DLL to handle importing modules that are
     themselves DLL’s.  (This is the first key undocumented fact.)
     Instead, link to ‘python`NN'.dll’; it is typically installed in
     ‘C:\Windows\System’.  'NN' is the Python version, a number such as
     “33” for Python 3.3.

     You can link to Python in two different ways.  Load-time linking
     means linking against ‘python`NN'.lib’, while run-time linking
     means linking against ‘python`NN'.dll’.  (General note:
     ‘python`NN'.lib’ is the so-called “import lib” corresponding to
     ‘python`NN'.dll’.  It merely defines symbols for the linker.)

     Run-time linking greatly simplifies link options; everything
     happens at run time.  Your code must load ‘python`NN'.dll’ using
     the Windows ‘LoadLibraryEx()’ routine.  The code must also use
     access routines and data in ‘python`NN'.dll’ (that is, Python’s C
     API’s) using pointers obtained by the Windows ‘GetProcAddress()’
     routine.  Macros can make using these pointers transparent to any C
     code that calls routines in Python’s C API.

  2. If you use SWIG, it is easy to create a Python “extension module”
     that will make the app’s data and methods available to Python.
     SWIG will handle just about all the grungy details for you.  The
     result is C code that you link 'into' your .exe file (!)  You do
     'not' have to create a DLL file, and this also simplifies linking.

  3. SWIG will create an init function (a C function) whose name depends
     on the name of the extension module.  For example, if the name of
     the module is leo, the init function will be called initleo().  If
     you use SWIG shadow classes, as you should, the init function will
     be called initleoc().  This initializes a mostly hidden helper
     class used by the shadow class.

     The reason you can link the C code in step 2 into your .exe file is
     that calling the initialization function is equivalent to importing
     the module into Python!  (This is the second key undocumented
     fact.)

  4. In short, you can use the following code to initialize the Python
     interpreter with your extension module.

          #include <Python.h>
          ...
          Py_Initialize();  // Initialize Python.
          initmyAppc();  // Initialize (import) the helper class.
          PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp");  // Import the shadow class.

  5. There are two problems with Python’s C API which will become
     apparent if you use a compiler other than MSVC, the compiler used
     to build pythonNN.dll.

     Problem 1: The so-called “Very High Level” functions that take
     ‘FILE *’ arguments will not work in a multi-compiler environment
     because each compiler’s notion of a ‘struct FILE’ will be
     different.  From an implementation standpoint these are very low
     level functions.

     Problem 2: SWIG generates the following code when generating
     wrappers to void functions:

          Py_INCREF(Py_None);
          _resultobj = Py_None;
          return _resultobj;

     Alas, Py_None is a macro that expands to a reference to a complex
     data structure called _Py_NoneStruct inside pythonNN.dll.  Again,
     this code will fail in a mult-compiler environment.  Replace such
     code by:

          return Py_BuildValue("");

     It may be possible to use SWIG’s ‘%typemap’ command to make the
     change automatically, though I have not been able to get this to
     work (I’m a complete SWIG newbie).

  6. Using a Python shell script to put up a Python interpreter window
     from inside your Windows app is not a good idea; the resulting
     window will be independent of your app’s windowing system.  Rather,
     you (or the wxPythonWindow class) should create a “native”
     interpreter window.  It is easy to connect that window to the
     Python interpreter.  You can redirect Python’s i/o to _any_ object
     that supports read and write, so all you need is a Python object
     (defined in your extension module) that contains read() and write()
     methods.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?,  Next: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?,  Prev: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.7 How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

The FAQ does not recommend using tabs, and the Python style guide, PEP
8(1), recommends 4 spaces for distributed Python code; this is also the
Emacs python-mode default.

Under any editor, mixing tabs and spaces is a bad idea.  MSVC is no
different in this respect, and is easily configured to use spaces: Take
Tools ‣ Options ‣ Tabs, and for file type “Default” set “Tab size” and
“Indent size” to 4, and select the “Insert spaces” radio button.

Python raises *note IndentationError: 5de. or *note TabError: 2d1. if
mixed tabs and spaces are causing problems in leading whitespace.  You
may also run the *note tabnanny: dc. module to check a directory tree in
batch mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?,  Next: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?,  Prev: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.8 How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
------------------------------------------------------

Use the *note msvcrt: 92. module.  This is a standard Windows-specific
extension module.  It defines a function ‘kbhit()’ which checks whether
a keyboard hit is present, and ‘getch()’ which gets one character
without echoing it.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?,  Prev: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?,  Up: Python on Windows FAQ

10.6.9 How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

This can occur on Python 3.5 and later when using Windows 8.1 or earlier
without all updates having been installed.  First ensure your operating
system is supported and is up to date, and if that does not resolve the
issue, visit the Microsoft support page(1) for guidance on manually
installing the C Runtime update.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/3118401/


File: python.info,  Node: Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS,  Next: “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS,  Prev: Python on Windows FAQ,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.7 Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS
=================================

* Menu:

* Genel GKA Soruları::
* Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?::
* Tkinter soruları::


File: python.info,  Node: Genel GKA Soruları,  Next: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?,  Up: Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS

10.7.1 Genel GKA Soruları
-------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?,  Next: Tkinter soruları,  Prev: Genel GKA Soruları,  Up: Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS

10.7.2 Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?
----------------------------------------------

Python’un standart yapıları, *note tkinter: 3b83. adlı Tcl/Tk pencere
öğesi kümesine yönelik nesne yönelimli bir arayüz içerir.  Bu muhtemelen
kurulumu ve kullanımı en kolay olanıdır (çünkü çoğu Python’ın ikili
dağıtımlar(1) kısmında bulunur) ve kullanılandır.  Kaynak işaretçiler de
dahil olmak üzere Tk hakkında daha fazla bilgi için Tcl/Tk ana
sayfasına(2) bakın.  Tcl/Tk, macOS, Windows ve Unix platformlarına
tamamen taşınabilir.

Hangi platformları hedeflediğinize bağlı olarak, birkaç alternatif de
mevcuttur.  Bir cross-platform listesi(3) ve spesifik platform(4) GKA
çerçeveleri Python Wiki’de bulunabilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk

   (3) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Cross-Platform_Frameworks

   (4) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Platform-specific_Frameworks


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter soruları,  Prev: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?,  Up: Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS

10.7.3 Tkinter soruları
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Tkinter uygulamalarını nasıl dondurabilirim?::
* G/Ç’yi beklerken Tk olaylarını işleyebilir miyim?::
* Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum; neden?: Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum neden?.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter uygulamalarını nasıl dondurabilirim?,  Next: G/Ç’yi beklerken Tk olaylarını işleyebilir miyim?,  Up: Tkinter soruları

10.7.3.1 Tkinter uygulamalarını nasıl dondurabilirim?
.....................................................

Dondurma işlemi, tek başına bağımsız uygulamalar oluşturmak için bir
araçtır.  Tkinter uygulamalarını dondururken, uygulama hala Tcl ve Tk
kütüphanelerine ihtiyaç duyacağından, uygulamalar gerçekten bağımsız
olmayacaktır.

One solution is to ship the application with the Tcl and Tk libraries,
and point to them at run-time using the ‘TCL_LIBRARY’ and ‘TK_LIBRARY’
environment variables.

Gerçekten bağımsız uygulamalar elde etmek için kütüphaneyi oluşturan Tcl
betiklerinin de uygulamaya entegre edilmesi gerekir.  Bunu destekleyen
araçlardan biri, Tix dağıtımının (‘http://tix.sourceforge.net/’) ‘in bir
parçası olan SAM’dir (bağımsız modüller).

Build Tix with SAM enabled, perform the appropriate call to
‘Tclsam_init()’, etc.  inside Python’s ‘Modules/tkappinit.c’, and link
with libtclsam and libtksam (you might include the Tix libraries as
well).


File: python.info,  Node: G/Ç’yi beklerken Tk olaylarını işleyebilir miyim?,  Next: Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum neden?,  Prev: Tkinter uygulamalarını nasıl dondurabilirim?,  Up: Tkinter soruları

10.7.3.2 G/Ç’yi beklerken Tk olaylarını işleyebilir miyim?
..........................................................

On platforms other than Windows, yes, and you don’t even need threads!
But you’ll have to restructure your I/O code a bit.  Tk has the
equivalent of Xt’s ‘XtAddInput()’ call, which allows you to register a
callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is
possible on a file descriptor.  See *note File Handlers: 3ba0.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum neden?,  Prev: G/Ç’yi beklerken Tk olaylarını işleyebilir miyim?,  Up: Tkinter soruları

10.7.3.3 Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum: neden?
..........................................................................

An often-heard complaint is that event handlers *note bound: 3b9b. to
events with the ‘bind()’ method don’t get handled even when the
appropriate key is pressed.

En yaygın neden, bağlamanın uygulandığı pencere öğesinin “klavye
odağına” sahip olmamasıdır.  Focus komutu için Tk dokümantasyonuna
bakın.  Genellikle Wigdet’lara tıklanılarak klavye odağı verilir (ancak
etiketler için değil; odak alma seçeneğine bakın).


File: python.info,  Node: “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS,  Prev: Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS,  Up: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular

10.8 “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS
=============================================

* Menu:

* Python nedir?::
* Python makinemde neden yüklü?::
* Python’u silebilir miyim?::


File: python.info,  Node: Python nedir?,  Next: Python makinemde neden yüklü?,  Up: “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS

10.8.1 Python nedir?
--------------------

Python bir programlama dilidir.  Birçok farklı uygulama için kullanılır.
Python’un öğrenilmesi kolay olduğu için bazı lise ve
üniversitelerdeprogramlamaya giriş dili olarak kullanılır, ancak aynı
zamanda Google, NASA ve Lucasfilm Ltd.  gibi yerlerde profesyonel
yazılım geliştiriciler tarafından da kullanılır.

Python hakkında daha fazla bilgi edinmek istiyorsanız, Beginner's Guide
to Python(1) ile başlayın.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: Python makinemde neden yüklü?,  Next: Python’u silebilir miyim?,  Prev: Python nedir?,  Up: “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS

10.8.2 Python makinemde neden yüklü?
------------------------------------

Python’un sisteminizde yüklü olduğunu görüyor ancak yüklediğinizi
hatırlamıyorsanız, Python’un sisteminize girmesinin birkaç olası yolu
vardır.

   * Belki de bilgisayardaki başka bir kullanıcı programlama öğrenmek
     istedi ve bunu yükledi; makineyi kimin kullandığını ve bunu kimin
     yüklemiş olabileceğini bulmanız gerekecek.

   * Makineye yüklenen üçüncü parti bir uygulama Python ile yazılmış ve
     bir Python yüklemesi içeriyor olabilir.  GUI programlarından ağ
     sunucularına ve yönetim komut dosyalarına kadar bu tür birçok
     uygulama vardır.

   * Bazı Windows makinelerde Python da yüklüdür.  Bu yazıyı yazarken
     Hewlett-Packard ve Compaq’ın Python içeren bilgisayarlarından
     haberdarız.  Görünüşe göre HP/Compaq’ın bazı yönetim araçları
     Python ile yazılmış.

   * MacOS ve bazı Linux dağıtımları gibi Unix uyumlu birçok işletim
     sisteminde Python varsayılan olarak yüklüdür; temel kuruluma
     dahildir.


File: python.info,  Node: Python’u silebilir miyim?,  Prev: Python makinemde neden yüklü?,  Up: “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS

10.8.3 Python’u silebilir miyim?
--------------------------------

Bu Python’un nereden geldiğine bağlıdır.

Birisi kasıtlı olarak yüklediyse, hiçbir şeye zarar vermeden
kaldırabilirsiniz.  Windows’ta, Denetim Masası’ndaki Program Ekle/Kaldır
simgesini kullanın.

Python üçüncü parti bir uygulama tarafından yüklenmişse, onu da
kaldırabilirsiniz, ancak bu uygulama artık çalışmayacaktır.  Python’u
doğrudan kaldırmak yerine o uygulamanın kaldırıcısını kullanmalısınız.

Python işletim sisteminizle birlikte geliyorsa, kaldırılması önerilmez.
Kaldırırsanız, Python’da yazılmış olan araçlar artık çalışmayacaktır ve
bunlardan bazıları sizin için önemli olabilir.  Bu durumda işleri tekrar
düzeltmek için tüm sistemi yeniden yüklemek gerekecektir.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations,  Next: Sözlük,  Prev: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular,  Up: Top

11 Deprecations
***************

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.16: Pending Removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>.
* C API Deprecations::


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Up: Deprecations

11.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.13
===================================

Modules (see PEP 594(1)):

   * *note aifc: 5.

   * *note audioop: d.

   * *note cgi: 15.

   * *note cgitb: 16.

   * *note chunk: 17.

   * *note crypt: 28.

   * *note imghdr: 73.

   * *note mailcap: 8b.

   * *note msilib: 91.

   * *note nis: 9b.

   * *note nntplib: 9c.

   * *note ossaudiodev: a2.

   * *note pipes: a7.

   * *note sndhdr: ca.

   * *note spwd: cd.

   * *note sunau: d6.

   * *note telnetlib: de.

   * *note uu: 10f.

   * *note xdrlib: 11f.

Other modules:

   * ‘lib2to3’, and the ‘2to3’ program (gh-84540(2))

APIs:

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3))

   * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4))

   * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5))

   * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6))

   * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7))

   * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8))

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9))

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10))

   * *note classmethod: 252. descriptor chaining (gh-89519(11))

   * *note importlib.resources: 79. deprecated methods:

        * ‘contents()’

        * ‘is_resource()’

        * ‘open_binary()’

        * ‘open_text()’

        * ‘path()’

        * ‘read_binary()’

        * ‘read_text()’

     Use *note importlib.resources.files(): 1b1. instead.  Refer to
     importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy(12) (gh-106531(13))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (12) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html#migrating-from-legacy

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>,  Up: Deprecations

11.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
===================================

   * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 17f. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 21e. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: a.:

        * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 21f,
          *note FastChildWatcher: 220, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 221.
          and *note SafeChildWatcher: 222. are deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
          gh-94597(3).)

        * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 223, *note
          asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 224, *note
          asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 225. and
          *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher():
          226. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.
          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 227. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 22a.
     Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 176.  For use in typing, prefer
     a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer:
     176.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).)

   * *note email: 3a.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 231.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(7).)

   * *note importlib: 75.: ‘__package__’ and ‘__cached__’ will cease to
     be set or taken into consideration by the import system
     (gh-97879(8)).

   * *note importlib.abc: 76. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7a. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 232.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 233.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(9).)

   * *note itertools: 7f. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(10).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 93.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(11)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 234. or *note set_start_method(): 235. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     Contexts and start methods: 236.

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note is_relative_to(): 254. and *note
     relative_to(): 1d2.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: a8.: *note find_loader(): 237. and *note
     get_loader(): 238. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 17f.; use
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 239. instead.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(12).)

   * *note pty: b0.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 255.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 255.

   * *note sqlite3: ce.:

        * *note version: 256. and *note version_info: 257.

        * *note execute(): 23d. and *note executemany(): 258. if *note
          named placeholders: 23e. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 240.

   * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 246, deprecated since Python
     3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 17f. to be emitted when
     it is used.

   * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Up: Deprecations

11.3 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
===================================

   * *note http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 25a. will be removed along
     with its related ‘--cgi’ flag to ‘python -m http.server’.  It was
     obsolete and rarely used.  No direct replacement exists.
     'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a
     request handler.

   * *note importlib: 75.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note locale: 85.: *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 25b. was
     deprecated in Python 3.11 and originally planned for removal in
     Python 3.13 (gh-90817(1)), but removal has been postponed to Python
     3.15.  Use *note locale.setlocale(): 25c, *note
     locale.getencoding(): 25d. and *note locale.getlocale(): 25e.
     instead.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(2).)

   * *note pathlib: a3.: *note pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved(): 25f. is
     deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.15.  From Python
     3.13 onwards, use ‘os.path.isreserved’ to detect reserved paths on
     Windows.

   * *note platform: a9.: *note java_ver(): 260. is deprecated and will
     be removed in 3.15.  It was largely untested, had a confusing API,
     and was only useful for Jython support.  (Contributed by Nikita
     Sobolev in gh-116349(3).)

   * *note sysconfig: da.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 261. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: ec.: Passing any arguments to *note
     threading.RLock(): 262. is now deprecated.  C version allows any
     numbers of args and kwargs, but they are just ignored.  Python
     version does not allow any arguments.  All arguments will be
     removed from *note threading.RLock(): 262. in Python 3.15.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-102029(4).)

   * *note typing.NamedTuple: 202.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating
          ‘NamedTuple’ classes (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)’) is
          deprecated, and will be disallowed in 3.15.  Use the
          class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead.

   * *note types: 103.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 263.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 250.
          was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 17f. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).)

   * *note typing: 104.:

        * When using the functional syntax to create a ‘NamedTuple’
          class, failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘NT
          = NamedTuple("NT")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’ to the
          'fields' parameter (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)’) is also
          deprecated.  Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To
          create a ‘NamedTuple’ class with 0 fields, use ‘class
          NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’.

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 159.: When using the functional syntax to
     create a ‘TypedDict’ class, failing to pass a value to the 'fields'
     parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’) is deprecated.  Passing ‘None’
     to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) is also
     deprecated.  Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a
     ‘TypedDict’ class with 0 fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or
     ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’.

   * *note wave: 113.: Deprecate the ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and
     ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the *note wave.Wave_read: 264. and *note
     wave.Wave_write: 265. classes.  They will be removed in Python
     3.15.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105096(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Up: Deprecations

11.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.16
===================================

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 267. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 268. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 7.: *note array.array: 195. ‘'u'’ type (‘wchar_t’):
     use the ‘'w'’ type instead (‘Py_UCS4’).

   * *note builtins: 12.: ‘~bool’, bitwise inversion on bool.

   * *note symtable: d7.: Deprecate *note symtable.Class.get_methods():
     269. due to the lack of interest.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-119698(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>,  Next: C API Deprecations,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Up: Deprecations

11.5 Pending Removal in Future Versions
=======================================

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually
     exclusive groups are deprecated.

   * *note array: 7.’s ‘'u'’ format code (gh-57281(1))

   * *note builtins: 12.:

        * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’.

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          26b, *note else: 26c, *note for: 26d, *note if: 26e, *note in:
          26f, *note is: 270. and *note or: 271.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(2))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 184.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 272.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of *note float: 272.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 273.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of *note complex: 273.

        * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 273. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(3).)

   * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     228. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 229.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(4).)

   * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 250.: use the *note
     codeobject.co_lines(): 274. method instead.

   * *note datetime: 30.:

        * *note utcnow(): 22c.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 22d.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 61.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 75.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 275. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 78.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note mailbox: 8a.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a0.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 276. in
     multi-threaded process.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: b8.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note shutil: c4.: *note rmtree(): 1df.’s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: cf. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 277. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 277.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 278.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: ec. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          279.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 27a.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 27b.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 27c. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 27d.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 27e. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 27f.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          280.

   * *note typing.Text: 281. (gh-92332(6)).

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 282.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     283. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 284. and *note
     FancyURLopener: 285. style of invoking requests is deprecated.  Use
     newer *note urlopen(): 286. functions and methods.

   * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 247. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 287. is deprecated: use
     *note exec_module(): 288. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57281

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332


File: python.info,  Node: C API Deprecations,  Prev: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>,  Up: Deprecations

11.6 C API Deprecations
=======================

* Menu:

* Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.6.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14
-------------------------------------

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 326. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 2e8. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 35a. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 35a. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 35b.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 35c. instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 34f. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 327.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          328. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 329.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 32a.
          instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 32b.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 32c.
          instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 32d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 32e. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 32f.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 330.
          instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 331.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 332. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 333.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          334. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 335.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 336. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 337.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 338. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 339.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 33a. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 33b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 33c. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 33d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 33e. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 33f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 340. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 341.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 342. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          343. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 344.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 345.
          instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 346.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 347. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 348.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 349. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 34a. instead.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 34a. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 34b. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 34c. instead.
          (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 34d.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 34e. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 34f. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.6.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15
-------------------------------------

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’.

   * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 35e.: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 35f. instead.

   * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 360. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT():
     361.: Use ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ instead.

   * *note Py_UNICODE: 362. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use
     ‘wchar_t’ instead.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 363.: Clear *note
          sys.warnoptions: 364. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 365.: Get *note sys.exec_prefix:
          366. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPath(): 367.: Get *note sys.path: 368. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 369.: Get *note sys.prefix: 36a.
          instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 36b.: Get *note sys.executable:
          36c. instead.

        * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 36d.: Get *note sys.executable:
          36c. instead.

        * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 36e.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 35c.
          or the *note PYTHONHOME: 36f. environment variable instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: C API Deprecations

11.6.3 Pending Removal in Future Versions
-----------------------------------------

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 371.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 2fe.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     2fc. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 372.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 2fc. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 2ff.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     2fd. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 373.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 374. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 375.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     376. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 377.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     378. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 379. instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 37a.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 37a.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 37b.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 37b.
     instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 37c.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 303.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 37d.
     instead.

   * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 37e.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 37f. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 380.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 381. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 382.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 383. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 384.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 385. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 386.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 387. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 388.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Sözlük,  Next: About this documentation,  Prev: Deprecations,  Up: Top

12 Sözlük
*********

‘>>>’

     Etkileşimli kabuğun varsayılan Python istemi.  Genellikle
     yorumlayıcıda etkileşimli olarak yürütülebilen kod örnekleri için
     görülür.

‘...’

     Şunlara başvurabilir:

        * Girintili bir kod bloğu için kod girerken, eşleşen bir çift
          sol ve sağ sınırlayıcı (parantez, köşeli parantez, kaşlı ayraç
          veya üçlü tırnak) içindeyken veya bir dekoratör belirttikten
          sonra etkileşimli kabuğun varsayılan Python istemi.

        * ‘Elipsis’ yerleşik sabiti.

2to3

     Kaynağı ayrıştırarak ve ayrıştırma ağacında gezinerek tespit
     edilebilecek uyumsuzlukların çoğunu işleyerek Python 2.x kodunu
     Python 3.x koduna dönüştürmeye çalışan bir araç.

     2to3, standart kütüphanede ‘lib2to3'; bağımsız bir giriş noktası şu
     şekilde sağlanır:file:`Tools/scripts/2to3’.  Bakınız *note 2to3 —
     Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation: 53b.

soyut temel sınıf

     Soyut temel sınıflar *note duck-typing: 5015. ‘i, *note hasattr():
     200. gibi diğer teknikler beceriksiz veya tamamen yanlış olduğunda
     arayüzleri tanımlamanın bir yolunu sağlayarak tamamlar (örneğin
     *note sihirli yöntemlerle: 1d53.).  ABC’ler, bir sınıftan miras
     almayan ancak yine de *note isinstance(): 151. ve *note
     issubclass(): 5f8. tarafından tanınan sınıflar olan sanal alt
     sınıfları tanıtır; *note abc: 4. modül belgelerine bakın.  Python
     comes with many built-in ABCs for data structures (in the *note
     collections.abc: 1e. module), numbers (in the *note numbers: 9d.
     module), streams (in the *note io: 7d. module), import finders and
     loaders (in the *note importlib.abc: 76. module).  *note abc: 4.
     modülü ile kendi ABC’lerinizi oluşturabilirsiniz.

dipnot

     Bir değişkenle, bir sınıf niteliğiyle veya bir fonksiyon
     parametresiyle veya bir dönüş değeriyle ilişkilendirilen, gelenek
     olarak *note type hint: 1d70. biçiminde kullanılan bir etiket.

     Yerel değişkenlerin açıklamalarına çalışma zamanında erişilemez,
     ancak global değişkenlerin, sınıf niteliklerinin ve işlevlerin
     açıklamaları, sırasıyla modüllerin, sınıfların ve işlevlerin
     ‘__annotations__’ özel özelliğinde saklanır.

     Bu işlevi açıklayan *note variable annotation: be1, *note function
     annotation: 1a80, PEP 484(1) ve PEP 526(2)’e bakın.  Ek
     açıklamalarla çalışmaya ilişkin en iyi uygulamalar için ayrıca bkz.
     *note Annotations Best Practices: 613.

argüman

     Fonksiyon çağrılırken bir *note function: 1e48. ‘a (veya *note
     method: 5016.) geçirilen bir değer.  İki tür argüman vardır:

        * 'keyword argument': bir işlev çağrısında bir tanımlayıcının
          (ör.  ‘ad=’) önüne geçen veya bir sözlükte ‘**’ ile başlayan
          bir değer olarak geçirilen bir argüman.  Örneğin, ‘3’ ve ‘5’,
          aşağıdaki *note complex(): 273.: çağrılarında anahtar
          kelimenin argümanleridir:

               complex(real=3, imag=5)
               complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5})

        * 'positional argument': anahtar kelime argümanı olmayan bir
          argüman.  Konumsal argümanler, bir argüman listesinin başında
          görünebilir ve/veya ‘*’ ile başlayan bir *note iterable: 10ce.
          öğesinin öğeleri olarak iletilebilir.  Örneğin, ‘3’ ve ‘5’,
          aşağıdaki çağrılarda konumsal argümanlerdir:

               complex(3, 5)
               complex(*(3, 5))

     Argümanler, bir fonksiyon gövdesindeki adlandırılmış yerel
     değişkenlere atanır.  Bu atamayı yöneten kurallar için *note Calls:
     c09. bölümüne bakın.  Sözdizimsel olarak, bir argümanı temsil etmek
     için herhangi bir ifade kullanılabilir; değerlendirilen değer yerel
     değişkene atanır.

     Ayrıca *note parameter: 1cec. sözlüğü girişine, *note the
     difference between arguments and parameters: 4f57. hakkındaki SSS
     sorusuna ve PEP 362(3) ‘ye bakın.

asenkron bağlam yöneticisi

     An object which controls the environment seen in an *note async
     with: 3e0. statement by defining *note __aenter__(): 1dbf. and
     *note __aexit__(): 1dc0. methods.  Introduced by PEP 492(4).

asenkron jeneratör

     *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4133. döndüren bir işlev.
     Bir *note async for: 916. döngüsünde kullanılabilen bir dizi değer
     üretmek için *note yield: 82b. ifadeleri içermesi dışında *note
     async def: 3db. ile tanımlanmış bir eşyordam işlevine benziyor.

     Genellikle bir asenkron üreteç işlevine atıfta bulunur, ancak bazı
     bağlamlarda bir 'asynchronous generator iterator' ‘e karşılık
     gelebilir.  Amaçlanan anlamın net olmadığı durumlarda, tam
     terimlerin kullanılması belirsizliği önler.

     Bir asenkron üretici fonksiyonu, *note await: 55b. ifadelerinin
     yanı sıra *note async for: 916. ve *note async with: 3e0. ifadeleri
     içerebilir.

asenkron jeneratör yineleyici

     Bir *note asynchronous generator: 1e2d. işlevi tarafından
     oluşturulan bir nesne.

     This is an *note asynchronous iterator: c05. which when called
     using the *note __anext__(): 1402. method returns an awaitable
     object which will execute the body of the asynchronous generator
     function until the next *note yield: 82b. expression.

     Each *note yield: 82b. temporarily suspends processing, remembering
     the execution state (including local variables and pending
     try-statements).  When the 'asynchronous generator iterator'
     effectively resumes with another awaitable returned by *note
     __anext__(): 1402, it picks up where it left off.  See PEP 492(5)
     and PEP 525(6).

eşzamansız yinelenebilir

     An object, that can be used in an *note async for: 916. statement.
     Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: c05. from its *note
     __aiter__(): a74. method.  Introduced by PEP 492(7).

asenkron yineleyici

     An object that implements the *note __aiter__(): a74. and *note
     __anext__(): 1402. methods.  *note __anext__(): 1402. must return
     an *note awaitable: af6. object.  *note async for: 916. resolves
     the awaitables returned by an asynchronous iterator’s *note
     __anext__(): 1402. method until it raises a *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 1867. exception.  Introduced by PEP 492(8).

nitelik

     Noktalı ifadeler kullanılarak adıyla başvurulan bir nesneyle
     ilişkili değer.  Örneğin, 'o' nesnesinin 'a' özniteliği varsa, bu
     nesneye 'o.a' olarak başvurulur.

     Bir nesneye, eğer nesne izin veriyorsa, örneğin *note setattr():
     1f47. kullanarak, adı *note Identifiers and keywords: 1c81.
     tarafından tanımlandığı gibi tanımlayıcı olmayan bir öznitelik
     vermek mümkündür.  Böyle bir özniteliğe noktalı bir ifade
     kullanılarak erişilemez ve bunun yerine *note getattr(): a48. ile
     alınması gerekir.

beklenebilir

     An object that can be used in an *note await: 55b. expression.  Can
     be a *note coroutine: 1b4. or an object with an *note __await__():
     1db6. method.  See also PEP 492(9).

BDFL

     Benevolent Dictator For Life, namı diğer Guido van Rossum(10),
     Python’un yaratıcısı.

ikili dosya

     A *note file object: 1068. able to read and write *note bytes-like
     objects: bb5.  Examples of binary files are files opened in binary
     mode (‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’ or ‘'rb+'’), *note sys.stdin.buffer: 2c9,
     *note sys.stdout.buffer: 943, and instances of *note io.BytesIO:
     d38. and *note gzip.GzipFile: 296.

     Ayrıca *note str: 15d. nesnelerini okuyabilen ve yazabilen bir
     dosya nesnesi için *note text file: 1acf. ‘a bakın.

ödünç alınan referans

     In Python’s C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an
     object, where the code using the object does not own the reference.
     It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed.  For
     example, a garbage collection can remove the last *note strong
     reference: 5c1. to the object and so destroy it.

     *note borrowed reference: 4869. üzerinde *note Py_INCREF(): 305.
     çağırmak, nesnenin ödünç alınanın son kullanımından önce yok
     edilemediği durumlar dışında, onu yerinde bir *note strong
     reference: 5c1. ‘a dönüştürmek için tavsiye edilir.  referans.
     *note Py_NewRef(): 6e5. işlevi, yeni bir *note strong reference:
     5c1. oluşturmak için kullanılabilir.

bayt benzeri nesne

     *note Buffer Protocol: 14e. ‘i destekleyen ve bir C-*note
     contiguous: 2019. arabelleğini dışa aktarabilen bir nesne.  Bu, tüm
     *note bytes: 2cb, *note bytearray: 2ca. ve *note array.array: 195.
     nesnelerinin yanı sıra birçok yaygın *note memoryview: 185.
     nesnesini içerir.  Bayt benzeri nesneler, ikili verilerle çalışan
     çeşitli işlemler için kullanılabilir; bunlara sıkıştırma, ikili
     dosyaya kaydetme ve bir soket üzerinden gönderme dahildir.

     Bazı işlemler, değişken olması için ikili verilere ihtiyaç duyar.
     Belgeler genellikle bunlara “okuma-yazma bayt benzeri nesneler”
     olarak atıfta bulunur.  Örnek değiştirilebilir arabellek nesneleri
     *note bytearray: 2ca. ve bir *note bytearray: 2ca. *note
     memoryview: 185. içerir.  Diğer işlemler, ikili verilerin değişmez
     nesnelerde (“salt okunur bayt benzeri nesneler”) depolanmasını
     gerektirir; bunların örnekleri arasında *note bytes: 2cb. ve bir
     *note bytes: 2cb. nesnesinin *note memoryview: 185. bulunur.

bayt kodu

     Python kaynak kodu, bir Python programının CPython
     yorumlayıcısındaki dahili temsili olan bayt kodunda derlenir.  Bayt
     kodu ayrıca ‘.pyc’ dosyalarında önbelleğe alınır, böylece aynı
     dosyanın ikinci kez çalıştırılması daha hızlı olur (kaynaktan bayt
     koduna yeniden derleme önlenebilir).  Bu “ara dilin”, her bir bayt
     koduna karşılık gelen makine kodunu yürüten bir *note sanal makine:
     3246. üzerinde çalıştığı söylenir.  Bayt kodlarının farklı Python
     sanal makineleri arasında çalışması veya Python sürümleri arasında
     kararlı olması beklenmediğini unutmayın.

     Bayt kodu talimatlarının bir listesi *note Python Bytecode
     Instructions: 3b8. dokümanında bulunabilir.

çağırılabilir

     Bir çağrılabilir, muhtemelen bir dizi argümanla (bkz.  *note
     argument: 15a.) ve aşağıdaki sözdizimiyle çağrılabilen bir
     nesnedir:

          callable(argument1, argument2, argumentN)

     Bir *note fonksiyon: 1e48. ve uzantısı olarak bir *note metot:
     5016. bir çağrılabilirdir.  *note __call__(): 2e7. yöntemini
     uygulayan bir sınıf örneği de bir çağrılabilirdir.

geri çağırmak

     Gelecekte bir noktada yürütülecek bir argüman olarak iletilen bir
     alt program işlevi.

sınıf

     Kullanıcı tanımlı nesneler oluşturmak için bir şablon.  Sınıf
     tanımları normalde sınıfın örnekleri üzerinde çalışan yöntem
     tanımlarını içerir.

sınıf değişkeni

     Bir sınıfta tanımlanmış ve yalnızca sınıf düzeyinde (yani sınıfın
     bir örneğinde değil) değiştirilmesi amaçlanan bir değişken.

karmaşık sayı

     Tüm sayıların bir reel kısım ve bir sanal kısım toplamı olarak
     ifade edildiği bilinen gerçek sayı sisteminin bir uzantısı.  Hayali
     sayılar, hayali birimin gerçek katlarıdır (‘-1’ ‘in karekökü),
     genellikle matematikte ‘i’ veya mühendislikte ‘j’ ile yazılır.
     Python, bu son gösterimle yazılan karmaşık sayılar için yerleşik
     desteğe sahiptir; hayali kısım bir ‘j’ son ekiyle yazılır, örneğin
     ‘3+1j’.  *note math: 8d. modülünün karmaşık eş değerlerine erişmek
     için *note cmath: 18. kullanın.  Karmaşık sayıların kullanımı
     oldukça gelişmiş bir matematiksel özelliktir.  Onlara olan
     ihtiyacın farkında değilseniz, onları güvenle görmezden
     gelebileceğiniz neredeyse kesindir.

bağlam yöneticisi

     An object which controls the environment seen in a *note with: 3dd.
     statement by defining *note __enter__(): 3d0. and *note __exit__():
     11aa. methods.  See PEP 343(11).

bağlam değişkeni

     Bağlamına bağlı olarak farklı değerler alabilen bir değişken.  Bu,
     her yürütme iş parçacığının bir değişken için farklı bir değere
     sahip olabileceği Thread-Local Storage’a benzer.  Bununla birlikte,
     bağlam değişkenleriyle, bir yürütme iş parçacığında birkaç bağlam
     olabilir ve bağlam değişkenlerinin ana kullanımı, eşzamanlı zaman
     uyumsuz görevlerde değişkenleri izlemektir.  Bakınız *note
     contextvars: 24.

bitişik

     Bir arabellek, 'C-bitişik' veya 'Fortran bitişik' ise tam olarak
     bitişik olarak kabul edilir.  Sıfır boyutlu arabellekler C ve
     Fortran bitişiktir.  Tek boyutlu dizilerde, öğeler sıfırdan
     başlayarak artan dizinler sırasına göre bellekte yan yana
     yerleştirilmelidir.  Çok boyutlu C-bitişik dizilerde, öğeleri
     bellek adresi sırasına göre ziyaret ederken son dizin en hızlı
     şekilde değişir.  Ancak, Fortran bitişik dizilerinde, ilk dizin en
     hızlı şekilde değişir.

eşyordam

     Eşyordamlar, altyordamların daha genelleştirilmiş bir biçimidir.
     Alt programlara bir noktada girilir ve başka bir noktada çıkılır.
     Eşyordamlar birçok farklı noktada girilebilir, çıkılabilir ve devam
     ettirilebilir.  *note async def: 3db. ifadesi ile uygulanabilirler.
     Ayrıca bakınız PEP 492(12).

eşyordam işlevi

     Bir *note coroutine: 1b4. nesnesi döndüren bir işlev.  Bir eşyordam
     işlevi *note async def: 3db. ifadesiyle tanımlanabilir ve *note
     await: 55b, *note async for: 916. ve *note async with: 3e0. anahtar
     kelimelerini içerebilir.  Bunlar PEP 492(13) tarafından tanıtıldı.

CPython

     Python programlama dilinin python.org(14) üzerinde dağıtıldığı
     şekliyle kurallı uygulaması.  “CPython” terimi, gerektiğinde bu
     uygulamayı Jython veya IronPython gibi diğerlerinden ayırmak için
     kullanılır.

dekoratör

     Genellikle ‘@wrapper’ sözdizimi kullanılarak bir işlev dönüşümü
     olarak uygulanan, başka bir işlevi döndüren bir işlev.
     Dekoratörler için yaygın örnekler şunlardır: *note classmethod():
     252. ve *note staticmethod(): 612.

     Dekoratör sözdizimi yalnızca sözdizimsel şekerdir, aşağıdaki iki
     işlev tanımı anlamsal olarak eş değerdir:

          def f(arg):
              ...
          f = staticmethod(f)

          @staticmethod
          def f(arg):
              ...

     Aynı kavram sınıflar için de mevcuttur, ancak orada daha az
     kullanılır.  Dekoratörler hakkında daha fazla bilgi için *note
     function definitions: 1a7f. ve *note class definitions: 1181.
     belgelerine bakın.

tanımlayıcı

     Any object which defines the methods *note __get__(): 1374, *note
     __set__(): 1d57, or *note __delete__(): 1d58.  When a class
     attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is
     triggered upon attribute lookup.  Normally, using 'a.b' to get, set
     or delete an attribute looks up the object named 'b' in the class
     dictionary for 'a', but if 'b' is a descriptor, the respective
     descriptor method gets called.  Understanding descriptors is a key
     to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for
     many features including functions, methods, properties, class
     methods, static methods, and reference to super classes.

     Tanımlayıcıların yöntemleri hakkında daha fazla bilgi için, bkz.
     *note Implementing Descriptors: acb. veya *note Descriptor How To
     Guide: 1379.

sözlük

     An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values.
     The keys can be any object with *note __hash__(): 969. and *note
     __eq__(): 968. methods.  Called a hash in Perl.

sözlük anlama

     Öğelerin tümünü veya bir kısmını yinelenebilir bir şekilde
     işlemenin ve sonuçları içeren bir sözlük döndürmenin kompakt bir
     yolu.  ‘results = {n: n ** 2 for range(10)}’, ‘n ** 2’ değerine
     eşlenmiş ‘n’ anahtarını içeren bir sözlük oluşturur.  Bkz.  *note
     Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: 3da.

sözlük görünümü

     *note dict.keys(): 605, *note dict.values(): 606. ve *note
     dict.items(): 607. ‘den döndürülen nesnelere sözlük görünümleri
     denir.  Sözlüğün girişleri üzerinde dinamik bir görünüm sağlarlar;
     bu, sözlük değiştiğinde görünümün bu değişiklikleri yansıttığı
     anlamına gelir.  Sözlük görünümünü tam liste olmaya zorlamak için
     ‘list(dictview)’ kullanın.  Bakınız *note Dictionary view objects:
     2036.

belge dizisi

     A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class,
     function or module.  While ignored when the suite is executed, it
     is recognized by the compiler and put into the *note __doc__: 781.
     attribute of the enclosing class, function or module.  Since it is
     available via introspection, it is the canonical place for
     documentation of the object.

ördek yazma

     Doğru arayüze sahip olup olmadığını belirlemek için bir nesnenin
     türüne bakmayan bir programlama stili; bunun yerine, yöntem veya
     nitelik basitçe çağrılır veya kullanılır (“Ördek gibi görünüyorsa
     ve ördek gibi vaklıyorsa, ördek olmalıdır.”) İyi tasarlanmış kod,
     belirli türlerden ziyade arayüzleri vurgulayarak, polimorfik
     ikameye izin vererek esnekliğini artırır.  Ördek yazma, *note
     type(): bd1. veya *note isinstance(): 151. kullanan testleri önler.
     (Ancak, ördek yazmanın *note abstract base class: 105b. ile
     tamamlanabileceğini unutmayın.)  Bunun yerine, genellikle *note
     hasattr(): 200. testleri veya *note EAFP: 2954. programlamasını
     kullanır.

EAFP

     Af dilemek izin almaktan daha kolaydır.  Bu yaygın Python kodlama
     stili, geçerli anahtarların veya niteliklerin varlığını varsayar ve
     varsayımın yanlış çıkması durumunda istisnaları yakalar.  Bu temiz
     ve hızlı stil, birçok *note try: 503. ve *note except: 3c0.
     ifadesinin varlığı ile karakterize edilir.  Teknik, C gibi diğer
     birçok dilde ortak olan *note LBYL: 501c. stiliyle çelişir.

ifade (değer döndürür)

     Bir değere göre değerlendirilebilecek bir sözdizimi parçası.  Başka
     bir deyişle, bir ifade, tümü bir değer döndüren sabit değerler,
     adlar, öznitelik erişimi, işleçler veya işlev çağrıları gibi ifade
     öğelerinin bir toplamıdır.  Diğer birçok dilin aksine, tüm dil
     yapıları ifade değildir.  Ayrıca *note while: 1a4c. gibi
     kullanılamayan *note ifadeler: 2560. de vardır.  Atamalar da değer
     döndürmeyen ifadelerdir (statement).

uzatma modülü

     Çekirdekle ve kullanıcı koduyla etkileşim kurmak için Python’un C
     API’sini kullanan, C veya C++ ile yazılmış bir modül.

f-string

     Ön eki ‘'f'’ veya ‘'F'’ olan dize değişmezleri genellikle
     “f-strings” olarak adlandırılır; bu, *note formatted string
     literals: 807. ‘ın kısaltmasıdır.  Ayrıca bkz.  PEP 498(15).

dosya nesnesi

     An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as
     ‘read()’ or ‘write()’) to an underlying resource.  Depending on the
     way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real
     on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device
     (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets,
     pipes, etc.).  File objects are also called 'file-like objects' or
     'streams'.

     Aslında üç dosya nesnesi kategorisi vardır: ham *note binary files:
     1ad0, arabelleğe alınmış *note binary files: 1ad0. ve *note text
     files: 1acf.  Arayüzleri *note io: 7d. modülünde tanımlanmıştır.
     Bir dosya nesnesi yaratmanın kurallı yolu *note open(): 2a6.
     işlevini kullanmaktır.

dosya benzeri nesne

     *note dosya nesnesi: 1068. ile eşanlamlıdır.

dosya sistemi kodlaması ve hata işleyicisi

     Python tarafından işletim sistemindeki baytların kodunu çözmek ve
     Unicode’u işletim sistemine kodlamak için kullanılan kodlama ve
     hata işleyici.

     Dosya sistemi kodlaması, 128’in altındaki tüm baytların kodunu
     başarıyla çözmeyi garanti etmelidir.  Dosya sistemi kodlaması bu
     garantiyi sağlayamazsa, API işlevleri *note UnicodeError: 114c.
     değerini yükseltebilir.

     *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): ad5. ve *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): b69. işlevleri, dosya sistemi
     kodlamasını ve hata işleyicisini almak için kullanılabilir.

     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. Python
     başlangıcında *note PyConfig_Read(): 5c3. işleviyle yapılandırılır:
     bkz.  *note filesystem_encoding: 34a. ve *note filesystem_errors:
     34b. üyeleri *note PyConfig: 34f.

     Ayrıca bkz.  *note locale encoding: 1479.

bulucu

     İçe aktarılmakta olan bir modül için *note loader: 14c0. ‘ı bulmaya
     çalışan bir nesne.

     There are two types of finder: *note meta path finders: f1a. for
     use with *note sys.meta_path: bb3, and *note path entry finders:
     f1b. for use with *note sys.path_hooks: ecc.

     See *note Finders and loaders: 1de2. and *note importlib: 75. for
     much more detail.

kat bölümü

     En yakın tam sayıya yuvarlayan matematiksel bölme.  Kat bölme
     operatörü ‘//’ şeklindedir.  Örneğin, ‘11 // 4’ ifadesi, gerçek
     yüzer bölme tarafından döndürülen ‘2.75’ değerinin aksine ‘2’
     olarak değerlendirilir.  ‘(-11) // 4’ ‘ün ‘-3’ olduğuna dikkat
     edin, çünkü bu ‘-2.75’ yuvarlatılmış 'aşağı'.  Bakınız PEP 238(16).

fonksiyon

     Bir arayana bir değer döndüren bir dizi ifade.  Ayrıca, gövdenin
     yürütülmesinde kullanılabilen sıfır veya daha fazla *note argüman:
     15a. iletilebilir.  Ayrıca *note parameter: 1cec, *note method:
     5016. ve *note Function definitions: 1a7f. bölümüne bakın.

fonksiyon açıklaması

     Bir işlev parametresinin veya dönüş değerinin *note ek açıklaması:
     16e.

     İşlev ek açıklamaları genellikle *note type hints: 1d70. için
     kullanılır: örneğin, bu fonksiyonun iki *note int: 184. argüman
     alması ve ayrıca bir *note int: 184. dönüş değerine sahip olması
     beklenir

          def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int:
             return a + b

     İşlev açıklama sözdizimi *note Function definitions: 1a7f.
     bölümünde açıklanmaktadır.

     Bu işlevi açıklayan *note variable annotation: be1. ve PEP 484(17)
     ‘e bakın.  Ek açıklamalarla çalışmaya ilişkin en iyi uygulamalar
     için ayrıca *note Annotations Best Practices: 613. konusuna bakın.

__future__

     Bir *note future ifadesi: 3d7, ‘from __future__ import <feature>’,
     derleyiciyi, Python’un gelecekteki bir sürümünde standart hale
     gelecek olan sözdizimini veya semantiği kullanarak mevcut modülü
     derlemeye yönlendirir.  *note __future__: 0. modülü, 'feature'’ın
     olası değerlerini belgeler.  Bu modülü içe aktararak ve
     değişkenlerini değerlendirerek, dile ilk kez yeni bir özelliğin ne
     zaman eklendiğini ve ne zaman varsayılan olacağını (ya da
     yaptığını) görebilirsiniz:

          >>> import __future__
          >>> __future__.division
          _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)

çöp toplama

     Artık kullanılmadığında belleği boşaltma işlemi.  Python, referans
     sayımı ve referans döngülerini algılayıp kırabilen bir döngüsel çöp
     toplayıcı aracılığıyla çöp toplama gerçekleştirir.  Çöp toplayıcı
     *note gc: 5e. modülü kullanılarak kontrol edilebilir.

jeneratör

     Bir *note generator iterator: a55. döndüren bir işlev.  Bir for
     döngüsünde kullanılabilen bir dizi değer üretmek için *note yield:
     82b. ifadeleri içermesi veya *note next(): 611. işleviyle birer
     birer alınabilmesi dışında normal bir işleve benziyor.

     Genellikle bir üretici işlevine atıfta bulunur, ancak bazı
     bağlamlarda bir 'jeneratör yineleyicisine' atıfta bulunabilir.
     Amaçlanan anlamın net olmadığı durumlarda, tam terimlerin
     kullanılması belirsizliği önler.

jeneratör yineleyici

     Bir *note generator: f0b. işlevi tarafından oluşturulan bir nesne.

     Each *note yield: 82b. temporarily suspends processing, remembering
     the execution state (including local variables and pending
     try-statements).  When the 'generator iterator' resumes, it picks
     up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on
     every invocation).

jeneratör ifadesi

     Yineleyici döndüren bir ifade.  Bir döngü değişkenini, aralığı ve
     isteğe bağlı bir ‘if’ yan tümcesini tanımlayan bir ‘for’ yan
     tümcesinin takip ettiği normal bir ifadeye benziyor.
     Birleştirilmiş ifade, bir çevreleyen için değerler üretir:

          >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))         # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81
          285

genel işlev

     Farklı türler için aynı işlemi uygulayan birden çok işlevden oluşan
     bir işlev.  Bir çağrı sırasında hangi uygulamanın kullanılması
     gerektiği, gönderme algoritması tarafından belirlenir.

     Ayrıca *note single dispatch: 84f. sözlük girdisine, *note
     functools.singledispatch(): 44c. dekoratörüne ve PEP 443(18) ‘e
     bakın.

genel tip

     Parametrelendirilebilen bir *note type: 175e.; tipik olarak bir
     *note konteyner sınıfı: 1d79, örneğin *note list: 422. veya *note
     dict: 240.  *note type hint: 1d70. ve *note annotation: 16e. için
     kullanılır.

     Daha fazla ayrıntı için *note generic allias types: 4c9, PEP
     483(19), PEP 484(20), PEP 585(21) ve *note typing: 104. modülüne
     bakın.

GIL

     Bakınız *note global interpreter lock: 147.

genel tercüman kilidi

     *note CPython: 510. yorumlayıcısı tarafından aynı anda yalnızca bir
     iş parçacığının Python *note bytecode: 3b7. ‘u yürütmesini sağlamak
     için kullanılan mekanizma.  Bu, nesne modelini (*note dict: 240.
     gibi kritik yerleşik türler dahil) eşzamanlı erişime karşı örtük
     olarak güvenli hale getirerek CPython uygulamasını basitleştirir.
     Tüm yorumlayıcıyı kilitlemek, çok işlemcili makinelerin sağladığı
     paralelliğin çoğu pahasına, yorumlayıcının çok iş parçacıklı
     olmasını kolaylaştırır.

     Bununla birlikte, standart veya üçüncü taraf bazı genişletme
     modülleri, sıkıştırma veya karma gibi hesaplama açısından yoğun
     görevler yaparken GIL’yi serbest bırakacak şekilde tasarlanmıştır.
     Ayrıca, GIL, G/Ç yaparken her zaman serbest bırakılır.

     “Serbest iş parçacıklı” bir yorumlayıcı (paylaşılan verileri çok
     daha ince bir ayrıntı düzeyinde kilitleyen) oluşturma çabaları,
     ortak tek işlemcili durumda performans düştüğü için başarılı
     olmamıştır.  Bu performans sorununun üstesinden gelinmesinin
     uygulamayı çok daha karmaşık hale getireceğine ve dolayısıyla
     bakımını daha maliyetli hale getireceğine inanılmaktadır.

karma tabanlı pyc

     Geçerliliğini belirlemek için ilgili kaynak dosyanın son
     değiştirilme zamanı yerine karma değerini kullanan bir bayt kodu
     önbellek dosyası.  Bakınız *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 3f8.

yıkanabilir

     An object is 'hashable' if it has a hash value which never changes
     during its lifetime (it needs a *note __hash__(): 969. method), and
     can be compared to other objects (it needs an *note __eq__(): 968.
     method).  Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same
     hash value.

     Hashability, bir nesneyi bir sözlük anahtarı ve bir set üyesi
     olarak kullanılabilir hale getirir, çünkü bu veri yapıları hash
     değerini dahili olarak kullanır.

     Python’un değişmez yerleşik nesnelerinin çoğu, yıkanabilir;
     değiştirilebilir kaplar (listeler veya sözlükler gibi) değildir;
     değişmez kaplar (tüpler ve donmuş kümeler gibi) yalnızca öğelerinin
     yıkanabilir olması durumunda yıkanabilirdir.  Kullanıcı tanımlı
     sınıfların örnekleri olan nesneler varsayılan olarak hash
     edilebilirdir.  Hepsi eşit olmayanı karşılaştırır (kendileriyle
     hariç) ve hash değerleri *note id(): 12ab. ‘lerinden türetilir.

BOŞTA

     Python için Entegre Geliştirme Ortamı.  *note IDLE — Python editor
     and shell: ebd, Python’un standart dağıtımıyla birlikte gelen temel
     bir düzenleyici ve yorumlayıcı ortamıdır.

immortal

     'Immortal objects' are a CPython implementation detail introduced
     in PEP 683(22).

     If an object is immortal, its *note reference count: 4802. is never
     modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the
     interpreter is running.  For example, *note True: a86. and *note
     None: 488. are immortal in CPython.

değişmez

     Sabit değeri olan bir nesne.  Değişmez nesneler arasında sayılar,
     dizeler ve demetler bulunur.  Böyle bir nesne değiştirilemez.
     Farklı bir değerin saklanması gerekiyorsa yeni bir nesne
     oluşturulmalıdır.  Örneğin bir sözlükte anahtar olarak, sabit bir
     karma değerinin gerekli olduğu yerlerde önemli bir rol oynarlar.

içe aktarım yolu

     İçe aktarılacak modüller için *note path based finder: 1de8.
     tarafından aranan konumların (veya *note path entries: 1df3.)
     listesi.  İçe aktarma sırasında, bu konum listesi genellikle *note
     sys.path: 368. adresinden gelir, ancak alt paketler için üst
     paketin ‘__path__’ özelliğinden de gelebilir.

içe aktarma

     Bir modüldeki Python kodunun başka bir modüldeki Python koduna
     sunulması süreci.

içe aktarıcı

     Bir modülü hem bulan hem de yükleyen bir nesne; hem bir *note
     finder: 1d0b. hem de *note loader: 14c0. nesnesi.

etkileşimli

     Python’un etkileşimli bir yorumlayıcısı vardır; bu, yorumlayıcı
     isteminde ifadeler ve ifadeler girebileceğiniz, bunları hemen
     çalıştırabileceğiniz ve sonuçlarını görebileceğiniz anlamına gelir.
     Herhangi bir argüman olmadan ‘python’ ‘u başlatmanız yeterlidir
     (muhtemelen bilgisayarınızın ana menüsünden seçerek).  Yeni
     fikirleri test etmenin veya modülleri ve paketleri incelemenin çok
     güçlü bir yoludur (‘help(x)’ ‘i unutmayın).

yorumlanmış

     Python, derlenmiş bir dilin aksine yorumlanmış bir dildir, ancak
     bayt kodu derleyicisinin varlığı nedeniyle ayrım bulanık olabilir.
     Bu, kaynak dosyaların daha sonra çalıştırılacak bir yürütülebilir
     dosya oluşturmadan doğrudan çalıştırılabileceği anlamına gelir.
     Yorumlanan diller genellikle derlenmiş dillerden daha kısa bir
     geliştirme/hata ayıklama döngüsüne sahiptir, ancak programları
     genellikle daha yavaş çalışır.  Ayrıca bkz.  *note interactive:
     5021.

tercüman kapatma

     Kapatılması istendiğinde, Python yorumlayıcısı, modüller ve çeşitli
     kritik iç yapılar gibi tahsis edilen tüm kaynakları kademeli olarak
     serbest bıraktığı özel bir aşamaya girer.  Ayrıca *note garbage
     collector: 1744. için birkaç çağrı yapar.  Bu, kullanıcı tanımlı
     yıkıcılarda veya zayıf referans geri aramalarında kodun
     yürütülmesini tetikleyebilir.  Kapatma aşamasında yürütülen kod,
     dayandığı kaynaklar artık çalışmayabileceğinden çeşitli
     istisnalarla karşılaşabilir (yaygın örnekler kütüphane modülleri
     veya uyarı makineleridir).

     Yorumlayıcının kapatılmasının ana nedeni, ‘__main__’ modülünün veya
     çalıştırılan betiğin yürütmeyi bitirmiş olmasıdır.

yinelenebilir

     An object capable of returning its members one at a time.  Examples
     of iterables include all sequence types (such as *note list: 422,
     *note str: 15d, and *note tuple: 4ff.) and some non-sequence types
     like *note dict: 240, *note file objects: 1068, and objects of any
     classes you define with an *note __iter__(): 1d49. method or with a
     *note __getitem__(): 500. method that implements *note sequence:
     23f. semantics.

     Iterables can be used in a *note for: 26d. loop and in many other
     places where a sequence is needed (*note zip(): 608, *note map():
     6a7, …).  When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the
     built-in function *note iter(): 610, it returns an iterator for the
     object.  This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values.
     When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call *note
     iter(): 610. or deal with iterator objects yourself.  The *note
     for: 26d. statement does that automatically for you, creating a
     temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of
     the loop.  See also *note iterator: 176e, *note sequence: 23f, and
     *note generator: f0b.

yineleyici

     An object representing a stream of data.  Repeated calls to the
     iterator’s *note __next__(): 1176. method (or passing it to the
     built-in function *note next(): 611.) return successive items in
     the stream.  When no more data are available a *note StopIteration:
     a73. exception is raised instead.  At this point, the iterator
     object is exhausted and any further calls to its ‘__next__()’
     method just raise *note StopIteration: a73. again.  Iterators are
     required to have an *note __iter__(): 1b0e. method that returns the
     iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may
     be used in most places where other iterables are accepted.  One
     notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes.
     A container object (such as a *note list: 422.) produces a fresh
     new iterator each time you pass it to the *note iter(): 610.
     function or use it in a *note for: 26d. loop.  Attempting this with
     an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object
     used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty
     container.

     Daha fazla bilgi *note Yineleyici Türleri: 1f64. içinde
     bulunabilir.

     'CPython uygulama ayrıntısı:' CPython does not consistently apply
     the requirement that an iterator define *note __iter__(): 1b0e.

anahtar işlev

     Anahtar işlevi veya harmanlama işlevi, sıralama veya sıralama için
     kullanılan bir değeri döndüren bir çağrılabilir.  Örneğin, *note
     locale.strxfrm(): 3a89, yerel ayara özgü sıralama kurallarının
     farkında olan bir sıralama anahtarı üretmek için kullanılır.

     Python’daki bir dizi araç, öğelerin nasıl sıralandığını veya
     gruplandırıldığını kontrol etmek için temel işlevleri kabul eder.
     Bunlar *note min(): d9f, *note max(): da0, *note sorted(): a45,
     *note list.sort(): a46, *note heapq.merge(): c92, *note
     heapq.nsmallest(): 2325, *note heapq.nlargest(): 2324. ve *note
     itertools.groupby(): 250d.

     Bir tuş fonksiyonu oluşturmanın birkaç yolu vardır.  Örneğin.
     *note str.lower(): 160f. yöntemi, büyük/küçük harfe duyarlı olmayan
     sıralamalar için bir anahtar fonksiyonu işlevi görebilir.
     Alternatif olarak, ‘lambda r: (r[0], r[2])’ gibi bir *note lambda:
     1145. ifadesinden bir anahtar işlevi oluşturulabilir.  Ayrıca,
     *note attrgetter(): cc3, *note itemgetter(): 8c6. ve *note
     methodcaller(): cc4. fonksiyonları üç anahtar fonksiyon
     kurucularıdır.  Anahtar işlevlerin nasıl oluşturulacağı ve
     kullanılacağına ilişkin örnekler için *note Sorting HOW TO: 1f6f.
     bölümüne bakın.

anahtar kelime argümanı

     Bakınız *note argument: 15a.

lambda

     İşlev çağrıldığında değerlendirilen tek bir *note expression: 1d74.
     ‘dan oluşan anonim bir satır içi işlev.  Bir lambda işlevi
     oluşturmak için sözdizimi ‘lambda [parametreler]: ifade’
     şeklindedir

LBYL

     Zıplamadan önce Bak.  Bu kodlama stili, arama veya arama yapmadan
     önce ön koşulları açıkça test eder.  Bu stil, *note EAFP: 2954.
     yaklaşımıyla çelişir ve birçok *note if: 26e. ifadesinin varlığı
     ile karakterize edilir.

     Çok iş parçacıklı bir ortamda, LBYL yaklaşımı “bakan” ve “sıçrayan”
     arasında bir yarış koşulu getirme riskini taşıyabilir.  Örneğin,
     ‘if key in mapping: return mapping[key]’ kodu, testten sonra, ancak
     aramadan önce başka bir iş parçacığı 'eşlemeden' 'key' kaldırırsa
     başarısız olabilir.  Bu sorun, kilitlerle veya EAFP yaklaşımı
     kullanılarak çözülebilir.

lexical analyzer

     Formal name for the 'tokenizer'; see *note token: 1c6a.

liste

     A built-in Python *note sequence: 23f.  Despite its name it is more
     akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since
     access to elements is 'O'(1).

liste anlama

     Bir dizideki öğelerin tümünü veya bir kısmını işlemenin ve
     sonuçları içeren bir liste döndürmenin kompakt bir yolu.  ‘sonuç =
     ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for range(256) if x % 2 == 0]’, dizinde çift
     onaltılık sayılar (0x..)  içeren bir diziler listesi oluşturur.  0
     ile 255 arasındadır.  *note if: 26e. yan tümcesi isteğe bağlıdır.
     Atlanırsa, “aralık(256)” içindeki tüm öğeler işlenir.

yükleyici

     An object that loads a module.  It must define the ‘exec_module()’
     and ‘create_module()’ methods to implement the *note Loader: d5b.
     interface.  A loader is typically returned by a *note finder: 1d0b.
     See also:

        * *note Finders and loaders: 1de2.

        * *note importlib.abc.Loader: d5b.

        * PEP 302(23)

yerel kodlama

     Unix’te, LC_CTYPE yerel ayarının kodlamasıdır.  *note
     locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale): 25c. ile
     ayarlanabilir.

     Windows’ta bu, ANSI kod sayfasıdır (ör.  ‘"cp1252"’).

     Android ve VxWorks’te Python, yerel kodlama olarak ‘"utf-8"’
     kullanır.

     *note locale.getencoding(): 25d. can be used to get the locale
     encoding.

     Ayrıca *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 2c7. ‘ne bakın.

sihirli yöntem

     *note special method: 16d3. için gayri resmi bir eşanlamlı.

haritalama

     Keyfi anahtar aramalarını destekleyen ve *note Mapping: 71c. veya
     *note MutableMapping: f51. *note Collections Abstract Base Classes:
     6bd. içinde belirtilen yöntemleri uygulayan bir kapsayıcı nesnesi.
     Örnekler arasında *note dict: 240, *note collections.defaultdict:
     1062, *note collections.OrderedDict: 3e6. ve *note
     collections.Counter: f3c. sayılabilir.

meta yol bulucu

     Bir *note finder: 1d0b, *note sys.meta_path: bb3. aramasıyla
     döndürülür.  Meta yol bulucular, *note yol girişi bulucuları: f1b.
     ile ilişkilidir, ancak onlardan farklıdır.

     Meta yol bulucuların uyguladığı yöntemler için *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 6b2. bölümüne bakın.

metasınıf

     Bir sınıfın sınıfı.  Sınıf tanımları, bir sınıf adı, bir sınıf
     sözlüğü ve temel sınıfların bir listesini oluşturur.  Metasınıf, bu
     üç argümanı almaktan ve sınıfı oluşturmaktan sorumludur.  Çoğu
     nesne yönelimli programlama dili, varsayılan bir uygulama sağlar.
     Python’u özel yapan şey, özel metasınıflar oluşturmanın mümkün
     olmasıdır.  Çoğu kullanıcı bu araca hiçbir zaman ihtiyaç duymaz,
     ancak ihtiyaç duyulduğunda, metasınıflar güçlü ve zarif çözümler
     sağlayabilir.  Nitelik erişimini günlüğe kaydetmek, iş parçacığı
     güvenliği eklemek, nesne oluşturmayı izlemek, tekilleri uygulamak
     ve diğer birçok görev için kullanılmışlardır.

     Daha fazla bilgi *note Metaclasses: 1d62. içinde bulunabilir.

metot

     Bir sınıf gövdesi içinde tanımlanan bir işlev.  Bu sınıfın bir
     örneğinin özniteliği olarak çağrılırsa, yöntem örnek nesnesini ilk
     *note argument: 15a. (genellikle ‘self’ olarak adlandırılır) olarak
     alır.  Bkz.  *note function: 1e48. ve *note nested scope: 1f59.

metot kalite sıralaması

     Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are
     searched for a member during lookup.  See *note The Python 2.3
     Method Resolution Order: 1335. for details of the algorithm used by
     the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release.

modül

     Python kodunun kuruluş birimi olarak hizmet eden bir nesne.
     Modüller, rastgele Python nesneleri içeren bir ad alanına sahiptir.
     Modüller, *note importing: 1dd8. işlemiyle Python’a yüklenir.

     Ayrıca bakınız *note package: 1d07.

modül özelliği

     Bir modülü yüklemek için kullanılan içe aktarmayla ilgili bilgileri
     içeren bir ad alanı.  Bir *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec:
     1d05. örneği.

     See also *note Module specs: 1d06.

MRO

     Bakınız *note metot çözüm sırası: 1f71.

değiştirilebilir

     Değiştirilebilir (mutable) nesneler değerlerini değiştirebilir
     ancak *note idlerini: 12ab. koruyabilirler.  Ayrıca bkz.  *note
     immutable: 1a43.

adlandırılmış demet

     “named tuple” terimi, demetten miras alan ve dizinlenebilir
     öğelerine de adlandırılmış nitelikler kullanılarak erişilebilen
     herhangi bir tür veya sınıf için geçerlidir.  Tür veya sınıfın
     başka özellikleri de olabilir.

     Çeşitli yerleşik türler, *note time.localtime(): 1386. ve *note
     os.stat(): 1c5. tarafından döndürülen değerler de dahil olmak
     üzere, tanımlama grupları olarak adlandırılır.  Başka bir örnek
     *note sys.float_info: 1821.:

          >>> sys.float_info[1]                   # indexed access
          1024
          >>> sys.float_info.max_exp              # named field access
          1024
          >>> isinstance(sys.float_info, tuple)   # kind of tuple
          True

     Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples).
     Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class
     definition that inherits from *note tuple: 4ff. and that defines
     named fields.  Such a class can be written by hand, or it can be
     created by inheriting *note typing.NamedTuple: 202, or with the
     factory function *note collections.namedtuple(): 74b.  The latter
     techniques also add some extra methods that may not be found in
     hand-written or built-in named tuples.

ad alanı

     Değişkenin saklandığı yer.  Ad alanları sözlükler olarak uygulanır.
     Nesnelerde (yöntemlerde) yerel, genel ve yerleşik ad alanlarının
     yanı sıra iç içe ad alanları vardır.  Ad alanları, adlandırma
     çakışmalarını önleyerek modülerliği destekler.  Örneğin, *note
     builtins.open: 2a6. ve *note os.open(): c1f. işlevleri ad
     alanlarıyla ayırt edilir.  Ad alanları, hangi modülün bir işlevi
     uyguladığını açıkça belirterek okunabilirliğe ve sürdürülebilirliğe
     de yardımcı olur.  Örneğin, *note random.seed(): 111c. veya *note
     itertools.islice(): 9bf. yazmak, bu işlevlerin sırasıyla *note
     random: b7. ve *note itertools: 7f. modülleri tarafından
     uygulandığını açıkça gösterir.

ad alanı paketi

     A *note package: 1d07. which serves only as a container for
     subpackages.  Namespace packages may have no physical
     representation, and specifically are not like a *note regular
     package: 1ddc. because they have no ‘__init__.py’ file.

     Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages
     to have a common parent package.  Otherwise, it is recommended to
     use a *note regular package: 1ddc.

     For more information, see PEP 420(24) and *note Namespace packages:
     1dde.

     Ayrıca bkz.  *note module: 1539.

iç içe kapsam

     Kapsamlı bir tanımdaki bir değişkene atıfta bulunma yeteneği.
     Örneğin, başka bir fonksiyonun içinde tanımlanan bir fonksiyon, dış
     fonksiyondaki değişkenlere atıfta bulunabilir.  İç içe kapsamların
     varsayılan olarak yalnızca başvuru için çalıştığını ve atama için
     çalışmadığını unutmayın.  Yerel değişkenler en içteki kapsamda hem
     okur hem de yazar.  Benzer şekilde, global değişkenler global ad
     alanını okur ve yazar.  *note nonlocal: 1150, dış kapsamlara
     yazmaya izin verir.

yeni stil sınıf

     Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects.
     In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use
     Python’s newer, versatile features like *note __slots__: 1377,
     descriptors, properties, *note __getattribute__(): a49, class
     methods, and static methods.

obje

     Durum (öznitelikler veya değer) ve tanımlanmış davranış (yöntemler)
     içeren herhangi bir veri.  Ayrıca herhangi bir *note yeni tarz
     sınıfın: 2662. nihai temel sınıfı.

paket

     Alt modüller veya yinelemeli olarak alt paketler içerebilen bir
     Python *note module: 1539.  Teknik olarak bir paket, ‘__path__’
     özniteliğine sahip bir Python modülüdür.

     Ayrıca bkz.  *note regular package: 1ddc. ve *note namespace
     package: 1ab1.

parametre

     Bir *note function: 1e48. (veya yöntem) tanımında, işlevin kabul
     edebileceği bir *note argument: 15a. (veya bazı durumlarda,
     argümanlar) belirten adlandırılmış bir varlık.  Beş çeşit parametre
     vardır:

        * 'positional-or-keyword': *note pozisyonel: 15a. veya bir *note
          keyword argümanı: 15a. olarak iletilebilen bir argüman
          belirtir.  Bu, varsayılan parametre türüdür, örneğin
          aşağıdakilerde 'foo' ve 'bar':

               def func(foo, bar=None): ...

        * 'positional-only': yalnızca konuma göre sağlanabilen bir
          argüman belirtir.  Yalnızca konumsal parametreler, onlardan
          sonra fonksiyon tanımının parametre listesine bir ‘/’
          karakteri eklenerek tanımlanabilir, örneğin aşağıdakilerde
          'posonly1' ve 'posonly2':

               def func(posonly1, posonly2, /, positional_or_keyword): ...

        * 'keyword-only': sadece anahtar kelime ile sağlanabilen bir
          argüman belirtir.  Yalnızca anahtar kelime (keyword-only)
          parametreleri, onlardan önceki fonksiyon tanımının parametre
          listesine tek bir değişken konumlu parametre veya çıplak ‘*’
          dahil edilerek tanımlanabilir, örneğin aşağıdakilerde
          'kw_only1' ve 'kw_only2':

               def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ...

        * 'var-positional': keyfi bir pozisyonel argüman dizisinin
          sağlanabileceğini belirtir (diğer parametreler tarafından
          zaten kabul edilmiş herhangi bir konumsal argümana ek olarak).
          Böyle bir parametre, parametre adının başına ‘*’ eklenerek
          tanımlanabilir, örneğin aşağıdakilerde 'args':

               def func(*args, **kwargs): ...

        * 'var-keyword': keyfi olarak birçok anahtar kelime argümanının
          sağlanabileceğini belirtir (diğer parametreler tarafından
          zaten kabul edilen herhangi bir anahtar kelime argümanına ek
          olarak).  Böyle bir parametre, parametre adının başına ‘**’,
          örneğin yukarıdaki örnekte 'kwargs' eklenerek tanımlanabilir.

     Parametreler, hem isteğe bağlı hem de gerekli argümanleri ve ayrıca
     bazı isteğe bağlı bağımsız değişkenler için varsayılan değerleri
     belirtebilir.

     Ayrıca bkz.  *note argüman: 15a, *note argümanlar ve parametreler
     arasındaki fark: 4f57, *note inspect.Parameter: ca4, *note Function
     definitions: 1a7f. ve PEP 362(25).

yol girişi

     *note path based finder: 1de8. içe aktarma modüllerini bulmak için
     başvurduğu *note import path: 1de5. üzerindeki tek bir konum.

yol girişi bulucu

     Bir *note finder: 1d0b. *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. (yani bir *note
     yol giriş kancası: 1df5.) üzerinde bir çağrılabilir tarafından
     döndürülür ve *note path entry: 1df3. verilen modüllerin nasıl
     bulunacağını bilir.

     Yol girişi bulucularının uyguladığı yöntemler için *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 6b3. bölümüne bakın.

yol giriş kancası

     A callable on the *note sys.path_hooks: ecc. list which returns a
     *note path entry finder: f1b. if it knows how to find modules on a
     specific *note path entry: 1df3.

yol tabanlı bulucu

     Modüller için bir *note import path: 1de5. arayan varsayılan *note
     meta yol buluculardan: f1a. biri.

yol benzeri nesne

     Bir dosya sistemi yolunu temsil eden bir nesne.  Yol benzeri bir
     nesne, bir yolu temsil eden bir *note str: 15d. veya *note bytes:
     2cb. nesnesi veya *note os.PathLike: acd. protokolünü uygulayan bir
     nesnedir.  *note os.PathLike: acd. protokolünü destekleyen bir
     nesne, *note os.fspath(): acf. işlevi çağrılarak bir *note str:
     15d. veya *note bytes: 2cb. dosya sistemi yoluna dönüştürülebilir;
     *note os.fsdecode(): ad0. ve *note os.fsencode(): ad1, bunun yerine
     sırasıyla *note str: 15d. veya *note bytes: 2cb. sonucunu garanti
     etmek için kullanılabilir.  PEP 519(26) tarafından tanıtıldı.

PEP

     Python Geliştirme Önerisi.  PEP, Python topluluğuna bilgi sağlayan
     veya Python veya süreçleri ya da ortamı için yeni bir özelliği
     açıklayan bir tasarım belgesidir.  PEP’ler, önerilen özellikler
     için özlü bir teknik şartname ve bir gerekçe sağlamalıdır.

     PEP’lerin, önemli yeni özellikler önermek, bir sorun hakkında
     topluluk girdisi toplamak ve Python’a giren tasarım kararlarını
     belgelemek için birincil mekanizmalar olması amaçlanmıştır.  PEP
     yazarı, topluluk içinde fikir birliği oluşturmaktan ve muhalif
     görüşleri belgelemekten sorumludur.

     Bakınız PEP 1(27).

kısım

     PEP 420(28) içinde tanımlandığı gibi, bir ad alanı paketine katkıda
     bulunan tek bir dizindeki (muhtemelen bir zip dosyasında depolanan)
     bir dizi dosya.

konumsal argüman

     Bakınız *note argument: 15a.

geçici API

     Geçici bir API, standart kitaplığın geriye dönük uyumluluk
     garantilerinden kasıtlı olarak hariç tutulan bir API’dir.  Bu tür
     arayüzlerde büyük değişiklikler beklenmese de, geçici olarak
     işaretlendikleri sürece, çekirdek geliştiriciler tarafından gerekli
     görüldüğü takdirde geriye dönük uyumsuz değişiklikler (arayüzün
     kaldırılmasına kadar ve buna kadar) meydana gelebilir.  Bu tür
     değişiklikler karşılıksız yapılmayacaktır - bunlar yalnızca API’nin
     eklenmesinden önce gözden kaçan ciddi temel kusurlar ortaya çıkarsa
     gerçekleşecektir.

     Geçici API’ler için bile, geriye dönük uyumsuz değişiklikler “son
     çare çözümü” olarak görülür - tanımlanan herhangi bir soruna geriye
     dönük uyumlu bir çözüm bulmak için her türlü girişimde
     bulunulacaktır.

     Bu süreç, standart kitaplığın, uzun süreler boyunca sorunlu tasarım
     hatalarına kilitlenmeden zaman içinde gelişmeye devam etmesini
     sağlar.  Daha fazla ayrıntı için bkz.  PEP 411(29).

geçici paket

     Bakınız *note provisional API: 971.

Python 3000

     Python 3.x sürüm satırının takma adı (uzun zaman önce sürüm 3’ün
     piyasaya sürülmesi uzak bir gelecekte olduğu zaman ortaya çıktı.)
     Bu aynı zamanda “Py3k” olarak da kısaltılır.

Pythonic

     Diğer dillerde ortak kavramları kullanarak kod uygulamak yerine
     Python dilinin en yaygın deyimlerini yakından takip eden bir fikir
     veya kod parçası.  Örneğin, Python’da yaygın bir deyim, bir *note
     for: 26d. ifadesi kullanarak yinelenebilir bir öğenin tüm öğeleri
     üzerinde döngü oluşturmaktır.  Diğer birçok dilde bu tür bir yapı
     yoktur, bu nedenle Python’a aşina olmayan kişiler bazen bunun
     yerine sayısal bir sayaç kullanır:

          for i in range(len(food)):
              print(food[i])

     Temizleyicinin aksine, Pythonic yöntemi:

          for piece in food:
              print(piece)

nitelikli isim

     PEP 3155(30) içinde tanımlandığı gibi, bir modülün genel
     kapsamından o modülde tanımlanan bir sınıfa, işleve veya yönteme
     giden “yolu” gösteren noktalı ad.  Üst düzey işlevler ve sınıflar
     için nitelikli ad, nesnenin adıyla aynıdır:

          >>> class C:
          ...     class D:
          ...         def meth(self):
          ...             pass
          ...
          >>> C.__qualname__
          'C'
          >>> C.D.__qualname__
          'C.D'
          >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
          'C.D.meth'

     Modüllere atıfta bulunmak için kullanıldığında, 'tam nitelenmiş
     ad', herhangi bir üst paket de dahil olmak üzere, modüle giden tüm
     noktalı yol anlamına gelir, örn.  ‘email.mime.text’:

          >>> import email.mime.text
          >>> email.mime.text.__name__
          'email.mime.text'

referans sayısı

     The number of references to an object.  When the reference count of
     an object drops to zero, it is deallocated.  Some objects are
     “immortal” and have reference counts that are never modified, and
     therefore the objects are never deallocated.  Reference counting is
     generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key element of
     the *note CPython: 510. implementation.  Programmers can call the
     *note sys.getrefcount(): 4131. function to return the reference
     count for a particular object.

sürekli paketleme

     ‘__init__.py’ dosyası içeren bir dizin gibi geleneksel bir *note
     package: 1d07.

     Ayrıca bkz.  *note ad alanı paketi: 1ab1.

__slots__

     Örnek öznitelikleri için önceden yer bildirerek ve örnek
     sözlüklerini ortadan kaldırarak bellekten tasarruf sağlayan bir
     sınıf içindeki bildirim.  Popüler olmasına rağmen, tekniğin doğru
     olması biraz zor ve en iyi, bellek açısından kritik bir uygulamada
     çok sayıda örneğin bulunduğu nadir durumlar için ayrılmıştır.

dizi

     An *note iterable: 10ce. which supports efficient element access
     using integer indices via the *note __getitem__(): 500. special
     method and defines a *note __len__(): 1d50. method that returns the
     length of the sequence.  Some built-in sequence types are *note
     list: 422, *note str: 15d, *note tuple: 4ff, and *note bytes: 2cb.
     Note that *note dict: 240. also supports *note __getitem__(): 500.
     and ‘__len__()’, but is considered a mapping rather than a sequence
     because the lookups use arbitrary *note hashable: 421. keys rather
     than integers.

     The *note collections.abc.Sequence: 1069. abstract base class
     defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just *note
     __getitem__(): 500. and *note __len__(): 1d50, adding ‘count()’,
     ‘index()’, *note __contains__(): 1d4b, and *note __reversed__():
     1d4a.  Types that implement this expanded interface can be
     registered explicitly using *note register(): f33.  For more
     documentation on sequence methods generally, see *note Common
     Sequence Operations: 1f9a.

anlamak

     Öğelerin tümünü veya bir kısmını yinelenebilir bir şekilde
     işlemenin ve sonuçlarla birlikte bir küme döndürmenin kompakt bir
     yolu.  ‘results = {c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'}’,
     ‘{'r', 'd'}’ dizelerini oluşturur.  Bakınız *note Displays for
     lists, sets and dictionaries: 3da.

tek sevk

     Uygulamanın tek bir argüman türüne göre seçildiği bir *note generic
     function: 850. gönderimi biçimi.

parçalamak

     Genellikle bir *note sequence: 23f. ‘nin bir bölümünü içeren bir
     nesne.  Bir dilim, örneğin ‘variable_name[1:3:5]’ ‘de olduğu gibi,
     birkaç tane verildiğinde, sayılar arasında iki nokta üst üste
     koyarak, ‘[]’ alt simge gösterimi kullanılarak oluşturulur.  Köşeli
     ayraç (alt simge) gösterimi, dahili olarak *note slice: 186.
     nesnelerini kullanır.

soft deprecated

     A soft deprecated API should not be used in new code, but it is
     safe for already existing code to use it.  The API remains
     documented and tested, but will not be enhanced further.

     Soft deprecation, unlike normal deprecation, does not plan on
     removing the API and will not emit warnings.

     See PEP 387: Soft Deprecation(31).

özel metod

     Toplama gibi bir tür üzerinde belirli bir işlemi yürütmek için
     Python tarafından örtük olarak çağrılan bir yöntem.  Bu tür
     yöntemlerin çift alt çizgi ile başlayan ve biten adları vardır.
     Özel yöntemler *note Special method names: aec. içinde
     belgelenmiştir.

ifade (değer döndürmez)

     Bir ifade, bir paketin parçasıdır (kod “bloğu”).  Bir ifade, bir
     *note expression: 1d74. veya *note if: 26e, *note while: 1a4c. veya
     *note for: 26d. gibi bir anahtar kelimeye sahip birkaç yapıdan
     biridir.

static type checker

     An external tool that reads Python code and analyzes it, looking
     for issues such as incorrect types.  See also *note type hints:
     1d70. and the *note typing: 104. module.

güçlü referans

     In Python’s C API, a strong reference is a reference to an object
     which is owned by the code holding the reference.  The strong
     reference is taken by calling *note Py_INCREF(): 305. when the
     reference is created and released with *note Py_DECREF(): 306. when
     the reference is deleted.

     *note Py_NewRef(): 6e5. fonksiyonu, bir nesneye güçlü bir başvuru
     oluşturmak için kullanılabilir.  Genellikle *note Py_DECREF(): 306.
     fonksiyonu, bir referansın sızmasını önlemek için güçlü referans
     kapsamından çıkmadan önce güçlü referansta çağrılmalıdır.

     Ayrıca bkz.  *note ödünç alınan referans: 4869.

yazı çözümleme

     Python’da bir dize, bir Unicode kod noktaları dizisidir
     (‘U+0000’–‘U+10FFFF’ aralığında).  Bir dizeyi depolamak veya
     aktarmak için, bir bayt dizisi olarak seri hale getirilmesi
     gerekir.

     Bir dizeyi bir bayt dizisi halinde seri hale getirmek “kodlama
     (encoding)” olarak bilinir ve dizeyi bayt dizisinden yeniden
     oluşturmak “kod çözme (decoding)” olarak bilinir.

     Toplu olarak “metin kodlamaları” olarak adlandırılan çeşitli farklı
     metin serileştirme *note kodekleri: c46. vardır.

yazı dosyası

     A *note file object: 1068. *note str: 15d. nesnelerini okuyabilir
     ve yazabilir.  Çoğu zaman, bir metin dosyası aslında bir bayt
     yönelimli veri akışına erişir ve otomatik olarak *note text
     encoding: 1f69. işler.  Metin dosyalarına örnek olarak metin
     modunda açılan dosyalar (‘'r'’ veya ‘'w'’), *note sys.stdin: 2c9,
     *note sys.stdout: 943. ve *note io.StringIO: dc4. örnekleri
     verilebilir.

     Ayrıca *note ikili dosyaları: 1ad0. okuyabilen ve yazabilen bir
     dosya nesnesi için *note bayt benzeri nesnelere: bb5. bakın.

token

     A small unit of source code, generated by the *note lexical
     analyzer: 1c68. (also called the 'tokenizer').  Names, numbers,
     strings, operators, newlines and similar are represented by tokens.

     The *note tokenize: fb. module exposes Python’s lexical analyzer.
     The *note token: fa. module contains information on the various
     types of tokens.

üç tırnaklı dize

     Üç tırnak işareti (”) veya kesme işareti (’) ile sınırlanan bir
     dize.  Tek tırnaklı dizelerde bulunmayan herhangi bir işlevsellik
     sağlamasalar da, birkaç nedenden dolayı faydalıdırlar.  bir dizeye
     çıkışsız tek ve çift tırnak eklemeniz gerekir ve bunlar, devam
     karakterini kullanmadan birden çok satıra yayılabilir, bu da onları
     özellikle belge dizileri yazarken kullanışlı hale getirir.

tip

     The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is;
     every object has a type.  An object’s type is accessible as its
     *note __class__: 1338. attribute or can be retrieved with
     ‘type(obj)’.

tip takma adı

     Bir tanımlayıcıya tür atanarak oluşturulan, bir tür için eş
     anlamlı.

     Tür takma adları, *note tür ipuçlarını: 1d70. basitleştirmek için
     kullanışlıdır.  Örneğin:

          def remove_gray_shades(
                  colors: list[tuple[int, int, int]]) -> list[tuple[int, int, int]]:
              pass

     bu şekilde daha okunaklı hale getirilebilir:

          Color = tuple[int, int, int]

          def remove_gray_shades(colors: list[Color]) -> list[Color]:
              pass

     Bu işlevi açıklayan *note typing: 104. ve PEP 484(32) bölümlerine
     bakın.

tür ipucu

     Bir değişken, bir sınıf niteliği veya bir işlev parametresi veya
     dönüş değeri için beklenen türü belirten bir *note ek açıklama:
     16e.

     Type hints are optional and are not enforced by Python but they are
     useful to *note static type checkers: 2213.  They can also aid IDEs
     with code completion and refactoring.

     Genel değişkenlerin, sınıf özniteliklerinin ve işlevlerin tür
     ipuçlarına, yerel değişkenlere değil, *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): 4c8. kullanılarak erişilebilir.

     Bu işlevi açıklayan *note typing: 104. ve PEP 484(33) bölümlerine
     bakın.

evrensel yeni satırlar

     Aşağıdakilerin tümünün bir satırın bitişi olarak kabul edildiği
     metin akışlarını yorumlamanın bir yolu: Unix satır sonu kuralı
     ‘\n'’, Windows kuralı ‘'\r\n'’, ve eski Macintosh kuralı ‘'\r'’.
     Ek bir kullanım için PEP 278(34) ve PEP 3116(35) ve ayrıca *note
     bytes.splitlines(): 2007. bakın.

değişken açıklama

     Bir değişkenin veya bir sınıf özniteliğinin *note ek açıklaması:
     16e.

     Bir değişkene veya sınıf niteliğine açıklama eklerken atama isteğe
     bağlıdır:

          class C:
              field: 'annotation'

     Değişken açıklamaları genellikle *note tür ipuçları: 1d70. için
     kullanılır: örneğin, bu değişkenin *note int: 184. değerlerini
     alması beklenir:

          count: int = 0

     Değişken açıklama sözdizimi *note Annotated assignment statements:
     1e9d. bölümünde açıklanmıştır.

     Bu işlevi açıklayan; *note function annotation: 1a80, PEP 484(36)
     ve PEP 526(37) bölümlerine bakın.  Ek açıklamalarla çalışmaya
     ilişkin en iyi uygulamalar için ayrıca bkz.  *note Annotations Best
     Practices: 613.

sanal ortam

     Python kullanıcılarının ve uygulamalarının, aynı sistem üzerinde
     çalışan diğer Python uygulamalarının davranışına müdahale etmeden
     Python dağıtım paketlerini kurmasına ve yükseltmesine olanak
     tanıyan, işbirliği içinde yalıtılmış bir çalışma zamanı ortamı.

     Ayrıca bakınız *note venv: 111.

sanal makine

     Tamamen yazılımla tanımlanmış bir bilgisayar.  Python’un sanal
     makinesi, bayt kodu derleyicisi tarafından yayınlanan *note
     bytecode: 3b7. ‘u çalıştırır.

Python’un Zen’i

     Dili anlamaya ve kullanmaya yardımcı olan Python tasarım ilkeleri
     ve felsefelerinin listesi.  Liste, etkileşimli komut isteminde
     “‘import this’” yazarak bulunabilir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (10) https://gvanrossum.github.io/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (14) https://www.python.org

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: About this documentation,  Next: Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak,  Prev: Sözlük,  Up: Top

13 About this documentation
***************************

Python’s documentation is generated from reStructuredText(1) sources
using Sphinx(2), a documentation generator originally created for Python
and now maintained as an independent project.

Dokümantasyonun ve araç zincirinin geliştirilmesi, tıpkı Python’un
kendisi gibi tamamen gönüllü bir çabadır.  Katkıda bulunmak
istiyorsanız, nasıl yapacağınıza ilişkin bilgi için lütfen *note
Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak: 4853. sayfasına göz atın.  Yeni gönüllülere her
zaman açığız!

Destekleri için teşekkürler:

   * Fred L. Drake, Jr., the creator of the original Python
     documentation toolset and author of much of the content;

   * Docutils(3) projesi, reStructuredText ve Docutils paketini
     oluşturdukları için;

   * Fredrik Lundh, Sphinx’in pek çok iyi fikir edindiği Alternatif
     Python Referansı projesi için.

* Menu:

* Contributors to the Python documentation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (3) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Contributors to the Python documentation,  Up: About this documentation

13.1 Contributors to the Python documentation
=============================================

Birçok kişi Python diline, Python standart kütüphanesine ve Python
dokümantasyonuna katkıda bulunmuştur.  Katkıda bulunanların kısmi bir
listesi için Python kaynak dağıtımında Misc/ACKS(1) dosyasına bakın.

Python topluluğunun girdileri ve katkıları sayesinde böyle harika bir
dokümantasyona sahibiz – Teşekkürler!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.12/Misc/ACKS


File: python.info,  Node: Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak,  Next: Telif Hakkı,  Prev: About this documentation,  Up: Top

14 Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak
************************

Python, istikrar konusunda kendini kanıtlamış olgun bir programlama
dilidir.  Bu itibarı korumak için, geliştiriciler Python’da bulduğunuz
eksiklikleri bilmek isterler.

Bazen hataları kendiniz düzeltmek ve değişikliklerinizi Python’a yama
yaparak katkı sağlamak süreci daha az insan dahil olduğu için
hızlandrabilir.  Nasıl katkı sağlayacağınızı *note öğrenin: 5031.

* Menu:

* Dokümantasyon hataları::
* Python hata takipçisini kullanmak::
* Python’a kendiniz katkıda bulunmaya başlayın::


File: python.info,  Node: Dokümantasyon hataları,  Next: Python hata takipçisini kullanmak,  Up: Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak

14.1 Dokümantasyon hataları
===========================

Bu dokümantasyonda bir hata bulursanız veya bir geliştirme önermek
istiyorsanız, lütfen *note bir hata raporu gönderin: 5033.  Nasıl
düzeltebileceğiniz hakkında bir öneriniz varsa, bunu da ekleyin.

Ayrıca Dokümantasyon Discourse forumumuzda(1) bir tartışma öğesi
açabilirsiniz.

If you find a bug in the theme (HTML / CSS / JavaScript) of the
documentation, please submit a bug report on the python-doc-theme bug
tracker(2).

Zamanınız kısıtlıysa, dokümantasyon hata raporlarını <docs@python.org>
adresine de gönderebilirsiniz (davranış hataları
<python-list@python.org> adresine gönderebilirsiniz).  ‘docs@’,
gönüllüler tarafından yürütülen bir posta listesidir; talebiniz fark
edilecektir, ancak işlenmesi biraz zaman alabilir.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

*note Dokümantasyon hataları: 5032.

     Python sorun takipçisine gönderilen dokümantasyon hatalarının
     listesi.

Hata Takibi(3)

     Takipçide bir iyileştirmenin bildirilmesiyle ilgili sürece genel
     bakış.

Dokümantasyona Yardım Etmek(4)

     Python dokümantasyonuna katkıda bulunmak isteyen bireyler için
     kapsamlı kılavuz.

Dokümantasyon Çevirileri(5)

     Dokümantasyon çevirilerinin GitHub sayfaları ve bunların iletişim
     bilgilerini içeren bir liste.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26

   (2) https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme

   (3) https://devguide.python.org/tracker/

   (4) 
https://devguide.python.org/docquality/#helping-with-documentation

   (5) https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translating/


File: python.info,  Node: Python hata takipçisini kullanmak,  Next: Python’a kendiniz katkıda bulunmaya başlayın,  Prev: Dokümantasyon hataları,  Up: Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak

14.2 Python hata takipçisini kullanmak
======================================

Python’un kendisi için olan hata raporları GitHub issues
(‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’) aracılığıyla
gönderilmelidir.  Hata takipçisi, ilgili bilgilerin girilmesini ve
geliştiricilere gönderilmesini sağlayan bir web formu sunar.

Rapor göndermenin ilk adımı, sorunun zaten bildirilmiş olup olmadığını
belirlemektir.  Bunu yapmanın avantajı, geliştiricilere zaman
kazandırarak, düzeltmek için neler yapıldığını öğrenmenizdir; sorun bir
sonraki sürüm için zaten düzeltilmiş olabilir veya ek bilgilere ihtiyaç
duyulabilir (eğer mümkünse bilgileri sağlayabilirsiniz!).  Bunu yapmak
için, sayfanın üst kısmındaki arama kutusunu kullanarak hata
veritabanında arama yapın.

Bildirdiğiniz sorun listede değilse, GitHub’da oturum açın.  Bir GitHub
hesabınız, “Kayıt Ol” bağlantısına tıklayın.  Hata raporunu anonim
olarak göndermek mümkün değildir.

Oturum açtıktan sonra bir hata raporu gönderebilirsiniz.  Yeni bir rapor
oluşturmak için sayfanın üst kısmındaki “New issue” butonuna tıklayın.

Form iki kısımdan oluşur.  “Başlık” ve “Yorum”.

“Başlık” için hatanın 'çok' kısa açıklamasını girin; başlığın on
kelimeden az olması iyidir.

“Yorum” alanında, ne olmasını beklediğiniz ve ne olduğu da dahil olmak
üzere sorunu ayrıntılı olarak açıklayın.  Herhangi bir uzantı modülünün
dahil olup olmadığını, hangi donanım ve yazılım platformunu
kullandığınızı (uygun sürüm bilgileri dahil) eklediğinizden emin olun.

Her hata raporu, sorunu düzeltmek için ne yapılması gerektiğini
belirleyecek bir geliştiriciye atanır.  Hata üzerinde her işlem
başlatıldığında bir güncelleme alırsınız.

Ayrıca bakınız
..............

‘Hataları Etkili Bir Şekilde Bildirmek <‘https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html’>’_

     Yararlı bir hata raporunun nasıl oluşturulacağı hakkında bazı
     ayrıntılara giren makale.  Bu makale, ne tür bilgilerin yararlı
     olduğunu ve neden yararlı olduğunu açıklar.

‘Hata Raporu Yazma Yönergeleri <‘https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/page.cgi?id=bug-writing.html’>’_

     İyi bir hata raporu yazma hakkında bilgi.  Bunların bir kısmı
     Mozilla projesine özgüdür, ancak genel iyi uygulamaları açıklar.


File: python.info,  Node: Python’a kendiniz katkıda bulunmaya başlayın,  Prev: Python hata takipçisini kullanmak,  Up: Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak

14.3 Python’a kendiniz katkıda bulunmaya başlayın
=================================================

Bulduğunuz hataları bildirmenin ötesinde, bunları düzeltmek için yamalar
gönderebilirsiniz.  Python’a yama yapma hakkında daha fazla bilgiyi
Python Geliştirici Kılavuzu'nda(1) bulabilirsiniz.  Sorularınız varsa,
core-mentorship posta listesi(2) Python’daki sorunları çözmeyle ilgili
tüm soruların yanıtlarını almak için arkadaş canlısı bir yerdir.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Telif Hakkı,  Next: Tarihçe ve Lisans,  Prev: Hatalarla Başa Çıkmak,  Up: Top

15 Telif Hakkı
**************

Python ve bu dokümantasyon:

Telif Hakkı © 2001-2023 Python Software Foundation.  Tüm hakları
saklıdır.

Telif Hakkı © 2000 BeOpen.com.  Tüm hakları saklıdır.

Telif Hakkı © 1995-2000 Ulusal Araştırma Girişimleri Kurumu.  Tüm
hakları saklıdır.

Telif Hakkı © 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum.  Tüm hakları
saklıdır.

__________________________________________________________________

Bütün lisans ve izin bilgileri için *note Tarihçe ve Lisans: 5038. ‘a
göz atın.


File: python.info,  Node: Tarihçe ve Lisans,  Next: Python Modül Dizini,  Prev: Telif Hakkı,  Up: Top

16 Tarihçe ve Lisans
********************

* Menu:

* Yazılımın tarihçesi::
* Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar::
* Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar::


File: python.info,  Node: Yazılımın tarihçesi,  Next: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar,  Up: Tarihçe ve Lisans

16.1 Yazılımın tarihçesi
========================

Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting
Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see ‘https://www.cwi.nl’) in the Netherlands
as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s
principal author, although it includes many contributions from others.

In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for
National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see
‘https://www.cnri.reston.va.us’) in Reston, Virginia where he released
several versions of the software.

In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to
BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team.  In October of the same
year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope
Corporation.  In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see
‘https://www.python.org/psf/’) was formed, a non-profit organization
created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property.  Zope
Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF.

All Python releases are Open Source (see ‘https://opensource.org’ for
the Open Source Definition).  Historically, most, but not all, Python
releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the
various releases.

Yayın                Şundan türedi:     Yıl              Sahibi           GPL-compatible?  (1)
                                                                          
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
0.9.0’dan 1.2’ye     n/a                1991-1995        CWI              evet
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.3 ‘dan 1.5.2’ye    1.2                1995-1999        CNRI             evet
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6                  1.5.2              2000             CNRI             hayır
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0                  1.6                2000             BeOpen.com       hayır
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6.1                1.6                2001             CNRI             yes (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1                  2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              hayır
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0.1                2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              evet
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.1                2.1+2.0.1          2001             PSF              evet
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.2                2.1.1              2002             PSF              evet
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.3                2.1.2              2002             PSF              evet
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.2 ve üzeri         2.1.1              2001-Günümüz     PSF              evet
                                                                          

     Not: 
       1. GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python
          under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you
          distribute a modified version without making your changes open
          source.  The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to
          combine Python with other software that is released under the
          GPL; the others don’t.

       2. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible,
          because its license has a choice of law clause.  According to
          CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that
          1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL.

Bu yayınları mümkün kılmak için Guido’nun yönetimi altında çalışan
birçok gönüllüye teşekkürler.


File: python.info,  Node: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar,  Next: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar,  Prev: Yazılımın tarihçesi,  Up: Tarihçe ve Lisans

16.2 Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar
===============================================================================

Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software
Foundation License Version 2.

Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the
documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the
*note Zero-Clause BSD license: 503d.

Python’a dahil edilen bazı yazılımlar farklı lisanslar altındadır.
Lisanslar, bu lisansa giren kodla listelenir.  Bu lisansların eksik
listesi için bkz.  *note Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar:
503e.

* Menu:

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* PYTHON 2.0 İÇİN BEOPEN.COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ: PYTHON 2 0 İÇİN BEOPEN COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ.
* PYTHON 1.6.1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI: PYTHON 1 6 1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI.
* 0.9.0 ARASI 1.2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ: 0 9 0 ARASI 1 2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION::


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2,  Next: PYTHON 2 0 İÇİN BEOPEN COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ,  Up: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar

16.2.1 PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2
---------------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
        the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this
        software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
        copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001-2023 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
        Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the
        derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
        agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python.

     4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON
        FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
        of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.

     8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees
        to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHON 2 0 İÇİN BEOPEN COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ,  Next: PYTHON 1 6 1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI,  Prev: PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2,  Up: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar

16.2.2 PYTHON 2.0 İÇİN BEOPEN.COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ
---------------------------------------------------

BEOPEN PYTHON AÇIK KAYNAK LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ SÜRÜM 1

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at
        160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
        ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
        form and its associated documentation ("the Software").

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
        BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
        to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
        works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
        Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.

     3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
        MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
        ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
        by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
        Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
        agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.  As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at
        ‘http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html’ may be used according to the permissions
        granted on that web page.

     7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
        bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHON 1 6 1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI,  Next: 0 9 0 ARASI 1 2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ,  Prev: PYTHON 2 0 İÇİN BEOPEN COM LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ,  Up: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar

16.2.3 PYTHON 1.6.1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI
----------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
        Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
        ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and
        otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
        associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
        provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright,
        i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
        Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement,
        Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1
        is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License
        Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
        internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
        1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
        internet using the following URL: ‘http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013’".

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
        work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
        include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.

     4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.  CNRI
        MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
        BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
        OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
        PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
        law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
        law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
        Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions.
        Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
        1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
        under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
        Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
        with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
        this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
        partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
        does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
        sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
        party.

     8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing
        or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
        conditions of this License Agreement.


File: python.info,  Node: 0 9 0 ARASI 1 2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ,  Next: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION,  Prev: PYTHON 1 6 1 İÇİN CNRI LİSANS ANLAŞMASI,  Up: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar

16.2.4 0.9.0 ARASI 1.2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ
--------------------------------------------------------

     Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
     Netherlands.  All rights reserved.

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
     the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
     notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
     the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
     publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
     EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
     OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
     DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION,  Prev: 0 9 0 ARASI 1 2 PYTHON İÇİN CWI LİSANS SÖZLEŞMESİ,  Up: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar

16.2.5 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION
-------------------------------------------------------------------

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
     purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
     REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
     INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM
     LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR
     OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar,  Prev: Python’a erişmek veya başka bir şekilde kullanmak için şartlar ve koşullar,  Up: Tarihçe ve Lisans

16.3 Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar
===============================================

Bu bölüm, Python dağıtımına dahil edilmiş üçüncü taraf yazılımlar için
tamamlanmamış ancak büyüyen bir lisans ve onay listesidir.

* Menu:

* Mersenne Twister’ı::
* Soketler::
* Asenkron soket hizmetleri::
* Çerez yönetimi::
* Çalıştırma izleme::
* UUencode ve UUdecode fonksiyonları::
* XML Uzaktan Yordam Çağrıları::
* test_epoll::
* kqueue seçin::
* SipHash24::
* strtod ve dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<3>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N test paketi::
* Audioop::
* asyncio: asyncio<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: Mersenne Twister’ı,  Next: Soketler,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.1 Mersenne Twister’ı
-------------------------

*note random: b7. modülünün altyapsını oluşturan ‘_random’ C uzantısı,
‘http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html’
adresinden indirilen kodu temel alır.  Orijinal koddan kelimesi
kelimesine yorumlar aşağıdadır:

     A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
     Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.

     Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
     or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).

     Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

      1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

      2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
         documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

      3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
         products derived from this software without specific prior written
         permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
     CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
     EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
     PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
     PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


     Any feedback is very welcome.
     http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
     email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)


File: python.info,  Node: Soketler,  Next: Asenkron soket hizmetleri,  Prev: Mersenne Twister’ı,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.2 Soketler
---------------

*note socket: cb. modülü, ‘https://www.wide.ad.jp/’ adresindeki WIDE
Projesi’nden ayrı kaynak dosyalarında kodlanan ‘getaddrinfo()’ ve
‘getnameinfo()’ fonksiyonlarını kullanır.

     Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
        may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
        without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: Asenkron soket hizmetleri,  Next: Çerez yönetimi,  Prev: Soketler,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.3 Asenkron soket hizmetleri
--------------------------------

The ‘test.support.asynchat’ and ‘test.support.asyncore’ modules contain
the following notice:

     Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing

                             All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
     Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior
     permission.

     SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
     INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
     NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
     CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
     OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
     CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Çerez yönetimi,  Next: Çalıştırma izleme,  Prev: Asenkron soket hizmetleri,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.4 Çerez yönetimi
---------------------

*note http.cookies: 6f. modülü aşağıdaki uyarıyı içerir:

     Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>

                    All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
     and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Timothy O'Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR
     ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Çalıştırma izleme,  Next: UUencode ve UUdecode fonksiyonları,  Prev: Çerez yönetimi,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.5 Çalıştırma izleme
------------------------

*note trace: fd. modülü aşağıdaki uyarıyı içerir:

     portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
     err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
     Python 2.2 license.
     Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx
     http://zooko.com/
     mailto:zooko@zooko.com

     Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Andrew Dalke

     Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.


     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
     and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
     Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.


File: python.info,  Node: UUencode ve UUdecode fonksiyonları,  Next: XML Uzaktan Yordam Çağrıları,  Prev: Çalıştırma izleme,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.6 UUencode ve UUdecode fonksiyonları
-----------------------------------------

*note uu: 10f. modülü aşağıdaki uyarıyı içerir:

     Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
     Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
                            All Rights Reserved
     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
     provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
     both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
     not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
     of the software without specific, written prior permission.
     LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
     THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
     FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
     ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
     OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

     Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
     - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
       between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
       version is still 5 times faster, though.
     - Arguments more compliant with Python standard


File: python.info,  Node: XML Uzaktan Yordam Çağrıları,  Next: test_epoll,  Prev: UUencode ve UUdecode fonksiyonları,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.7 XML Uzaktan Yordam Çağrıları
-----------------------------------

*note xmlrpc.client: 12e. modülü aşağıdaki uyarıyı içerir:

         The XML-RPC client interface is

     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh

     By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
     associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
     and will comply with the following terms and conditions:

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
     hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
     all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
     TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
     ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
     BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
     DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: test_epoll,  Next: kqueue seçin,  Prev: XML Uzaktan Yordam Çağrıları,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.8 test_epoll
-----------------

‘test.test_epoll’ modülü aşağıdaki uyarıyı içerir:

     Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: kqueue seçin,  Next: SipHash24,  Prev: test_epoll,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.9 kqueue seçin
-------------------

*note select: c0. modülü, kqueue arayüzü için aşağıdaki uyarıyı içerir:

     Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: SipHash24,  Next: strtod ve dtoa,  Prev: kqueue seçin,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.10 SipHash24
-----------------

‘Python/pyhash.c’ dosyası, Dan Bernstein’ın SipHash24 algoritmasının
Marek Majkowski uygulamasını içerir.  Burada aşağıdaki not yer alır:

     <MIT License>
     Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org>

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
     all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
     </MIT License>

     Original location:
        https://github.com/majek/csiphash/

     Solution inspired by code from:
        Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
        djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
        Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)


File: python.info,  Node: strtod ve dtoa,  Next: OpenSSL<2>,  Prev: SipHash24,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.11 strtod ve dtoa
----------------------

C double’larının dizelere ve dizelerden dönüştürülmesi için dtoa ve
strtod C fonksiyonlarını sağlayan ‘Python/dtoa.c’ dosyası, şu anda
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c’
‘den erişilebilen David M. Gay tarafından aynı adlı dosyadan
türetilmiştir.  16 Mart 2009’da alınan orijinal dosya aşağıdaki telif
hakkı ve lisans bildirimini içerir:

     /****************************************************************
      *
      * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
      *
      * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
      *
      * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
      * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
      * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
      * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
      * documentation for such software.
      *
      * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
      * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
      * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
      * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
      *
      ***************************************************************/


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL<2>,  Next: expat,  Prev: strtod ve dtoa,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.12 OpenSSL
---------------

The modules *note hashlib: 66, *note posix: ac, *note ssl: cf, *note
crypt: 28. use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made
available by the operating system.  Additionally, the Windows and macOS
installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we
include a copy of the OpenSSL license here.  For the OpenSSL 3.0
release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2
applies:

                                   Apache License
                             Version 2.0, January 2004
                          https://www.apache.org/licenses/

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     END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS


File: python.info,  Node: expat,  Next: libffi,  Prev: OpenSSL<2>,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.13 expat
-------------

The *note pyexpat: 126. extension is built using an included copy of the
expat sources unless the build is configured ‘--with-system-expat’:

     Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd
                                    and Clark Cooper

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
     CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
     SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: libffi,  Next: zlib<3>,  Prev: expat,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.14 libffi
--------------

*note ctypes: 2a. modülünün altyapsını oluşturan ‘_ctypes’ C uzantısı,
‘--with-system-libffi’ olarak yapılandırılmadığı sürece libffi
kaynaklarının dahil edildiği bir kopya kullanılarak oluşturulur:

     Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
     HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
     DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<3>,  Next: cfuhash,  Prev: libffi,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.15 zlib
------------

*note zlib: 133. uzantısı, sistemde bulunan zlib sürümü derleme için
kullanılamayacak kadar eskiyse, zlib kaynaklarının dahil edildiği bir
kopya kullanılarak oluşturulur:

     Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler

     This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
     warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
     arising from the use of this software.

     Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
     including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
     freely, subject to the following restrictions:

     1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
        claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
        in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
        appreciated but is not required.

     2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
        misrepresented as being the original software.

     3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.

     Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
     jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu


File: python.info,  Node: cfuhash,  Next: libmpdec,  Prev: zlib<3>,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.16 cfuhash
---------------

*note tracemalloc: ff. tarafından kullanılan hash tablosunun uygulanması
cfuhash projesine dayanmaktadır:

     Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
     All rights reserved.

     This code is released under the BSD license:

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

       * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

       * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
         copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
         disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
         with the distribution.

       * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
         contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
         from this software without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
     FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
     (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
     STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
     ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
     OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: libmpdec,  Next: W3C C14N test paketi,  Prev: cfuhash,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.17 libmpdec
----------------

The ‘_decimal’ C extension underlying the *note decimal: 35. module is
built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is
configured ‘--with-system-libmpdec’:

     Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: W3C C14N test paketi,  Next: Audioop,  Prev: libmpdec,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.18 W3C C14N test paketi
----------------------------

*note test: e1. paketindeki C14N 2.0 test paketi
(‘Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/’),
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/’ adresindeki W3C web
sitesinden alınmıştır ve 3 maddeli BSD lisansı altında dağıtılmaktadır:

     Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang),
     All Rights Reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice,
       this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright
       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
       documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be
       used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without
       specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
     OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
     SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: Audioop,  Next: asyncio<11>,  Prev: W3C C14N test paketi,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.19 Audioop
---------------

The audioop module uses the code base in g771.c file of the SoX project.
‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/sox/files/sox/12.17.7/sox-12.17.7.tar.gz’

     This source code is a product of Sun Microsystems, Inc.  and is
     provided for unrestricted use.  Users may copy or modify this
     source code without charge.

     SUN SOURCE CODE IS PROVIDED AS IS WITH NO WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND
     INCLUDING THE WARRANTIES OF DESIGN, MERCHANTIBILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR ARISING FROM A COURSE OF DEALING, USAGE OR
     TRADE PRACTICE.

     Sun source code is provided with no support and without any
     obligation on the part of Sun Microsystems, Inc.  to assist in its
     use, correction, modification or enhancement.

     SUN MICROSYSTEMS, INC. SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY WITH RESPECT TO THE
     INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHTS, TRADE SECRETS OR ANY PATENTS BY THIS
     SOFTWARE OR ANY PART THEREOF.

     In no event will Sun Microsystems, Inc.  be liable for any lost
     revenue or profits or other special, indirect and consequential
     damages, even if Sun has been advised of the possibility of such
     damages.

     Sun Microsystems, Inc.  2550 Garcia Avenue Mountain View,
     California 94043


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<11>,  Prev: Audioop,  Up: Tüzel Yazılımlar için Lisanslar ve Onaylar

16.3.20 asyncio
---------------

Parts of the *note asyncio: a. module are incorporated from uvloop
0.16(1), which is distributed under the MIT license:

     Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc.  http://magic.io

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Python Modül Dizini,  Next: Dizin,  Prev: Tarihçe ve Lisans,  Up: Top

Python Modül Dizini
*******************

* Menu:

* __future__: 0. Future statement definitions
* __main__: 1. The environment where top-level code is run. Covers
                        command-line interfaces, import-time
                        behavior, and ''__name__ ==
                        '__main__'''.
* _thread: 2. Low-level threading API.
* _tkinter: 3. A binary module that contains the low-level interface
                        to Tcl/Tk.
* abc: 4. Abstract base classes according to :pep:'3119'.
* aifc: 5. Read and write audio files in AIFF or AIFC format.
* argparse: 6. Command-line option and argument parsing library.
* array: 7. Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric
                        values.
* ast: 8. Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
* asynchat: 9. Removed in 3.12.
* asyncio: a. Asynchronous I/O.
* asyncore: b. Removed in 3.12.
* atexit: c. Register and execute cleanup functions.
* audioop: d. Manipulate raw audio data.
* base64: e. RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data
                        Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85
* bdb: f. Debugger framework.
* binascii: 10. Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-
                        encoded binary representations.
* bisect: 11. Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
* builtins: 12. The module that provides the built-in namespace.
* bz2: 13. Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
* calendar: 14. Functions for working with calendars, including
                        some emulation of the Unix cal program.
* cgi: 15. Helpers for running Python scripts via the Common
                        Gateway Interface.
* cgitb: 16. Configurable traceback handler for CGI scripts.
* chunk: 17. Module to read IFF chunks.
* cmath: 18. Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
* cmd: 19. Build line-oriented command interpreters.
* code: 1a. Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
* codecs: 1b. Encode and decode data and streams.
* codeop: 1c. Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
* collections: 1d. Container datatypes
* collections.abc: 1e. Abstract base classes for containers
* colorsys: 1f. Conversion functions between RGB and other color
                        systems.
* compileall: 20. Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a
                        directory tree.
* concurrent.futures: 21. Execute computations concurrently using threads or
                        processes.
* configparser: 22. Configuration file parser.
* contextlib: 23. Utilities for with-statement contexts.
* contextvars: 24. Context Variables
* copy: 25. Shallow and deep copy operations.
* copyreg: 26. Register pickle support functions.
* cProfile: 27.
* crypt: 28. The crypt() function used to check Unix passwords.
* csv: 29. Write and read tabular data to and from delimited
                        files.
* ctypes: 2a. A foreign function library for Python.
* curses: 2b. An interface to the curses library, providing
                        portable terminal handling.
* curses.ascii: 2c. Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII
                        characters.
* curses.panel: 2d. A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses
                        windows.
* curses.textpad: 2e. Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.
* dataclasses: 2f. Generate special methods on user-defined classes.
* datetime: 30. Basic date and time types.
* dbm: 31. Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
* dbm.dumb: 32. Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.
* dbm.gnu: 33. GNU database manager
* dbm.ndbm: 34. The New Database Manager
* decimal: 35. Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic
                        Specification.
* difflib: 36. Helpers for computing differences between objects.
* dis: 37. Disassembler for Python bytecode.
* distutils: 38. Removed in 3.12.
* doctest: 39. Test pieces of code within docstrings.
* email: 3a. Package supporting the parsing,
                        manipulating, and generating email messages.
* email.charset: 3b. Character Sets
* email.contentmanager: 3c. Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
* email.encoders: 3d. Encoders for email message payloads.
* email.errors: 3e. The exception classes used by the email package.
* email.generator: 3f. Generate flat text email messages from a message
                        structure.
* email.header: 40. Representing non-ASCII headers
* email.headerregistry: 41. Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
* email.iterators: 42. Iterate over a message object tree.
* email.message: 43. The base class representing email messages.
* email.mime: 44. Build MIME messages.
* email.mime.application: 45.
* email.mime.audio: 46.
* email.mime.base: 47.
* email.mime.image: 48.
* email.mime.message: 49.
* email.mime.multipart: 4a.
* email.mime.nonmultipart: 4b.
* email.mime.text: 4c.
* email.parser: 4d. Parse flat text email messages to produce a message
                        object structure.
* email.policy: 4e. Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
* email.utils: 4f. Miscellaneous email package utilities.
* encodings.idna: 50. Internationalized Domain Names implementation
* encodings.mbcs: 51. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: 52. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
* ensurepip: 53. Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing
                        Python installation or virtual environment.
* enum: 54. Implementation of an enumeration class.
* errno: 55. Standard errno system symbols.
* faulthandler: 56. Dump the Python traceback.
* fcntl: 57. The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
* filecmp: 58. Compare files efficiently.
* fileinput: 59. Loop over standard input or a list of files.
* fnmatch: 5a. Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
* fractions: 5b. Rational numbers.
* ftplib: 5c. FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* functools: 5d. Higher-order functions and operations on callable
                        objects.
* gc: 5e. Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
* getopt: 5f. Portable parser for command line options; support both
                        short and long option names.
* getpass: 60. Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the
                        userid.
* gettext: 61. Multilingual internationalization services.
* glob: 62. Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
* graphlib: 63. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
* grp: 64. The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
* gzip: 65. Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression
                        using file objects.
* hashlib: 66. Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
* heapq: 67. Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
* hmac: 68. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC)
                        implementation
* html: 69. Helpers for manipulating HTML.
* html.entities: 6a. Definitions of HTML general entities.
* html.parser: 6b. A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
* http: 6c. HTTP status codes and messages
* http.client: 6d. HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
* http.cookiejar: 6e. Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
* http.cookies: 6f. Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
* http.server: 70. HTTP server and request handlers.
* idlelib: 71. Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor.
* imaplib: 72. IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
* imghdr: 73. Determine the type of image contained in a file or
                        byte stream.
* imp: 74. Removed in 3.12.
* importlib: 75. The implementation of the import machinery.
* importlib.abc: 76. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: 77. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.metadata: 78. Accessing package metadata
* importlib.resources: 79. Package resource reading, opening, and
                        access
* importlib.resources.abc: 7a. Abstract base classes for resources
* importlib.util: 7b. Utility code for importers
* inspect: 7c. Extract information and source code from live objects.
* io: 7d. Core tools for working with streams.
* ipaddress: 7e. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
* itertools: 7f. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
* json: 80. Encode and decode the JSON format.
* json.tool: 81. A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON.
* keyword: 82. Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
* lib2to3: 83. The 2to3 library
* linecache: 84. Provides random access to individual lines from text
                        files.
* locale: 85. Internationalization services.
* logging: 86. Flexible event logging system for applications.
* logging.config: 87. Configuration of the logging module.
* logging.handlers: 88. Handlers for the logging module.
* lzma: 89. A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
* mailbox: 8a. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
* mailcap: 8b. Mailcap file handling.
* marshal: 8c. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back
                        (with different constraints).
* math: 8d. Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
* mimetypes: 8e. Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
* mmap: 8f. Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
* modulefinder: 90. Find modules used by a script.
* msilib: 91. Creation of Microsoft Installer files, and CAB
                        files.
* msvcrt: 92. Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++
                        runtime.
* multiprocessing: 93. Process-based parallelism.
* multiprocessing.connection: 94. API for dealing with sockets.
* multiprocessing.dummy: 95. Dumb wrapper around threading.
* multiprocessing.managers: 96. Share data between process with shared objects.
* multiprocessing.pool: 97. Create pools of processes.
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: 98. Provides shared memory for direct access
                                 across processes.
* multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 99. Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.
* netrc: 9a. Loading of .netrc files.
* nis: 9b. Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages) library.
* nntplib: 9c. NNTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* numbers: 9d. Numeric abstract base classes (Complex,
                        Real, Integral, etc.).
* operator: 9e. Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
* optparse: 9f. Command-line option parsing library.
* os: a0. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
* os.path: a1. Operations on pathnames.
* ossaudiodev: a2. Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
* pathlib: a3. Object-oriented filesystem paths
* pdb: a4. The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.
* pickle: a5. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
* pickletools: a6. Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols
                        and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some
                        useful functions.
* pipes: a7. A Python interface to Unix shell pipelines.
* pkgutil: a8. Utilities for the import system.
* platform: a9. Retrieves as much platform identifying data as
                        possible.
* plistlib: aa. Generate and parse Apple plist files.
* poplib: ab. POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
* posix: ac. The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via
                        module os).
* pprint: ad. Data pretty printer.
* profile: ae. Python source profiler.
* pstats: af. Statistics object for use with the profiler.
* pty: b0. Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix.
* pwd: b1. The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
* py_compile: b2. Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
* pyclbr: b3. Supports information extraction for a Python module
                        browser.
* pydoc: b4. Documentation generator and online help system.
* queue: b5. A synchronized queue class.
* quopri: b6. Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-
                        printable encoding.
* random: b7. Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common
                        distributions.
* re: b8. Regular expression operations.
* readline: b9. GNU readline support for Python.
* reprlib: ba. Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
* resource: bb. An interface to provide resource usage information on
                        the current process.
* rlcompleter: bc. Python identifier completion, suitable for the
                        GNU readline library.
* runpy: bd. Locate and run Python modules without importing them
                        first.
* sched: be. General purpose event scheduler.
* secrets: bf. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
* select: c0. Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
* selectors: c1. High-level I/O multiplexing.
* shelve: c2. Python object persistence.
* shlex: c3. Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
* shutil: c4. High-level file operations, including copying.
* signal: c5. Set handlers for asynchronous events.
* site: c6. Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
* sitecustomize: c7.
* smtpd: c8. Removed in 3.12.
* smtplib: c9. SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* sndhdr: ca. Determine type of a sound file.
* socket: cb. Low-level networking interface.
* socketserver: cc. A framework for network servers.
* spwd: cd. The shadow password database (getspnam() and friends).
* sqlite3: ce. A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
* ssl: cf. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
* stat: d0. Utilities for interpreting the results of
                        os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat().
* statistics: d1. Mathematical statistics functions
* string: d2. Common string operations.
* stringprep: d3. String preparation, as per RFC 3453
* struct: d4. Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
* subprocess: d5. Subprocess management.
* sunau: d6. Provide an interface to the Sun AU sound format.
* symtable: d7. Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
* sys: d8. Access system-specific parameters and functions.
* sys.monitoring: d9. Access and control event monitoring
* sysconfig: da. Python's configuration information
* syslog: db. An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
* tabnanny: dc. Tool for detecting white space related problems in
                        Python source files in a directory tree.
* tarfile: dd. Read and write tar-format archive files.
* telnetlib: de. Telnet client class.
* tempfile: df. Generate temporary files and directories.
* termios: e0. POSIX style tty control.
* test: e1. Regression tests package containing the testing suite
                        for Python.
* test.regrtest: e2. Drives the regression test suite.
* test.support: e3. Support for Python's regression test suite.
* test.support.bytecode_helper: e4. Support tools for testing correct bytecode
                                generation.
* test.support.import_helper: e5. Support for import tests.
* test.support.os_helper: e6. Support for os tests.
* test.support.script_helper: e7. Support for Python's script execution tests.
* test.support.socket_helper: e8. Support for socket tests.
* test.support.threading_helper: e9. Support for threading tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper: ea. Support for warnings tests.
* textwrap: eb. Text wrapping and filling
* threading: ec. Thread-based parallelism.
* time: ed. Time access and conversions.
* timeit: ee. Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
* tkinter: ef. Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
* tkinter.colorchooser: f0. Color choosing dialog
* tkinter.commondialog: f1. Tkinter base class for dialogs
* tkinter.dnd: f2. Tkinter drag-and-drop interface
* tkinter.filedialog: f3. Dialog classes for file selection
* tkinter.font: f4. Tkinter font-wrapping class
* tkinter.messagebox: f5. Various types of alert dialogs
* tkinter.scrolledtext: f6. Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
* tkinter.simpledialog: f7. Simple dialog windows
* tkinter.tix: f8. Tk Extension Widgets for Tkinter
* tkinter.ttk: f9. Tk themed widget set
* token: fa. Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse
                        tree.
* tokenize: fb. Lexical scanner for Python source code.
* tomllib: fc. Parse TOML files.
* trace: fd. Trace or track Python statement execution.
* traceback: fe. Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
* tracemalloc: ff. Trace memory allocations.
* tty: 100. Utility functions that perform common terminal control
                        operations.
* turtle: 101. An educational framework for simple graphics
                        applications
* turtledemo: 102. A viewer for example turtle scripts
* types: 103. Names for built-in types.
* typing: 104. Support for type hints (see :pep:'484').
* unicodedata: 105. Access the Unicode Database.
* unittest: 106. Unit testing framework for Python.
* unittest.mock: 107. Mock object library.
* urllib: 108.
* urllib.error: 109. Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
* urllib.parse: 10a. Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
* urllib.request: 10b. Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response: 10c. Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.robotparser: 10d. Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
                        fetchability of other URLs.
* usercustomize: 10e.
* uu: 10f. Encode and decode files in uuencode format.
* uuid: 110. UUID objects (universally unique identifiers)
                        according to RFC 4122
* venv: 111. Creation of virtual environments.
* warnings: 112. Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
* wave: 113. Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
* weakref: 114. Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.
* webbrowser: 115. Easy-to-use controller for web browsers.
* winreg: 116. Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows
                        registry.
* winsound: 117. Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
* wsgiref: 118. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
* wsgiref.handlers: 119. WSGI server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.headers: 11a. WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server: 11b. A simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.types: 11c. WSGI types for static type checking
* wsgiref.util: 11d. WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.validate: 11e. WSGI conformance checker.
* xdrlib: 11f. Encoders and decoders for the External Data
                        Representation (XDR).
* xml: 120. Package containing XML processing modules
* xml.dom: 121. Document Object Model API for Python.
* xml.dom.minidom: 122. Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom: 123. Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX
                        events.
* xml.etree.ElementInclude: 124.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. Implementation of the ElementTree API.
* xml.parsers.expat: 126. An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
* xml.parsers.expat.errors: 127.
* xml.parsers.expat.model: 128.
* xml.sax: 129. Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience
                        functions.
* xml.sax.handler: 12a. Base classes for SAX event handlers.
* xml.sax.saxutils: 12b. Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
* xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c. Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must
                        implement.
* xmlrpc: 12d. Server and client modules implementing XML-RPC.
* xmlrpc.client: 12e. XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server: 12f. Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
* zipapp: 130. Manage executable Python zip archives
* zipfile: 131. Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
* zipimport: 132. Support for importing Python modules from ZIP
                        archives.
* zlib: 133. Low-level interface to compression and decompression
                        routines compatible with gzip.
* zoneinfo: 134. IANA time zone support


File: python.info,  Node: Dizin,  Prev: Python Modül Dizini,  Up: Top

Dizin
*****

[index]
* Menu:

* _ (underscore);gettext:                GNU gettext API.    (line   32)
* _ (underscore);in numeric literal:     Numeric literals.   (line   13)
* _ (underscore);in numeric literal <1>: Integer literals.   (line   39)
* _ (underscore);in string formatting:   Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line  124)
* __, identifiers:                       Soft Keywords.      (line   21)
* __abs__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __abs__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   73)
* __add__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __add__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   78)
* __aenter__() (object yöntemi):         Asynchronous Context Managers.
                                                             (line   14)
* __aexit__() (object yöntemi):          Asynchronous Context Managers.
                                                             (line   19)
* __aiter__() (object yöntemi):          Asynchronous Iterators.
                                                             (line   14)
* __all__:                               Bir Paketten * İçe Aktarma.
                                                             (line    6)
* __all__ (optional module attribute):   The import statement.
                                                             (line   84)
* __all__ (package variable):            Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* __and__() (enum.Flag yöntemi):         Data Types<2>.      (line  460)
* __and__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __and__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* __anext__() (agen yöntemi):            Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   10)
* __anext__() (object yöntemi):          Asynchronous Iterators.
                                                             (line   18)
* __annotations__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __annotations__ (function attribute):  Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __annotations__ (function özniteliği): Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   45)
* __annotations__ (module attribute):    Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __annotations__ (module özniteliği):   Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* __annotations__ (type özniteliği):     Special attributes. (line   37)
* __args__ (genericalias özniteliği):    GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri.
                                                             (line   15)
* __await__() (object yöntemi):          Awaitable Objects.  (line   14)
* __bases__ (class attribute):           Special attributes. (line    6)
* __bases__ (type özniteliği):           Special attributes. (line   27)
* __bool__() (object method):            Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __bool__() (object yöntemi):           Basic customization.
                                                             (line  320)
* __bound__ (typing.TypeVar özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  174)
* __breakpointhook__ (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  409)
* __buffer__() (object yöntemi):         Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   15)
* __bytes__() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  129)
* __bytes__() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  139)
* __bytes__() (object yöntemi):          Basic customization.
                                                             (line  146)
* __cached__ (module attribute):         Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __cached__ (module özniteliği):        Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  133)
* __call__() (argparse.Action yöntemi):  Action classes.     (line   28)
* __call__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry yöntemi): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  390)
* __call__() (enum.EnumType yöntemi):    Data Types<2>.      (line   17)
* __call__() (object method):            Calls.              (line  158)
* __call__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating callable objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __call__() (operator modülü içinde):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  221)
* __call__() (weakref.finalize yöntemi): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  295)
* __callback__ (weakref.ref özniteliği): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  126)
* __cause__ (BaseException özniteliği):  İstisna bağlamı.    (line    9)
* __cause__ (exception attribute):       The raise statement.
                                                             (line   30)
* __cause__ (exception attribute) <1>:   İstisna bağlamı.    (line    6)
* __cause__ (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* __ceil__() (fractions.Fraction yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  184)
* __ceil__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __class__ (instance attribute):        Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (method cell):               Creating the class object.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (module attribute):          Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (object özniteliği):         Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class. (line  557)
* __class_getitem__() (object sınıf yöntemi): Emulating generic types.
                                                             (line   32)
* __classcell__ (class namespace entry): Creating the class object.
                                                             (line    6)
* __closure__ (function attribute):      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __closure__ (function özniteliği):     Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* __code__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __code__ (function object attribute):  Kod Nesneleri.      (line    6)
* __code__ (function özniteliği):        Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   36)
* __complex__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  116)
* __concat__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  176)
* __constraints__ (typing.TypeVar özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  183)
* __contains__() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  179)
* __contains__() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  302)
* __contains__() (enum.EnumType yöntemi): Data Types<2>.     (line   62)
* __contains__() (enum.Flag yöntemi):    Data Types<2>.      (line  398)
* __contains__() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects. (line  203)
* __contains__() (object yöntemi):       Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  150)
* __contains__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  181)
* __context__ (BaseException özniteliği): İstisna bağlamı.   (line    9)
* __context__ (exception attribute):     The raise statement.
                                                             (line   30)
* __context__ (exception attribute) <1>: İstisna bağlamı.    (line    6)
* __context__ (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* __contravariant__ (typing.TypeVar özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  162)
* __copy__() (copy protocol):            copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   73)
* __covariant__ (typing.TypeVar özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  158)
* __debug__:                             The assert statement.
                                                             (line   21)
* __debug__ (yerleşik değişken):         Built-in Constants. (line   66)
* __deepcopy__() (copy protocol):        copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   73)
* __defaults__ (function attribute):     Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __defaults__ (function özniteliği):    Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   30)
* __del__() (io.IOBase yöntemi):         I/O Base Classes.   (line  164)
* __del__() (object yöntemi):            Basic customization.
                                                             (line   53)
* __delattr__() (object yöntemi):        Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   69)
* __delete__() (object yöntemi):         Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   42)
* __delitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  226)
* __delitem__() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  336)
* __delitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.  (line   76)
* __delitem__() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):    MH objects.         (line   76)
* __delitem__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __delitem__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  191)
* __dict__ (class attribute):            Special attributes. (line    6)
* __dict__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (function özniteliği):        Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   40)
* __dict__ (instance attribute):         Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (module attribute):           Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   47)
* __dict__ (module özniteliği):          Module dictionaries.
                                                             (line    8)
* __dict__ (object özniteliği):          Special attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* __dict__ (type özniteliği):            Special attributes. (line   22)
* __dir__ (module attribute):            Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dir__() (enum.Enum yöntemi):         Data Types<2>.      (line  175)
* __dir__() (enum.EnumType yöntemi):     Data Types<2>.      (line   75)
* __dir__() (object yöntemi):            Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   78)
* __dir__() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.    (line  297)
* __displayhook__ (sys modülü içinde):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  409)
* __divmod__() (object yöntemi):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __doc__ (class attribute):             Special attributes. (line    6)
* __doc__ (definition özniteliği):       Özel Özellikler.    (line   25)
* __doc__ (function attribute):          Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __doc__ (function özniteliği):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   12)
* __doc__ (method attribute):            Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __doc__ (method özniteliği):           Instance methods.   (line   18)
* __doc__ (module attribute):            Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __doc__ (module attribute) <1>:        Module Objects.     (line   25)
* __doc__ (module özniteliği):           Other writable attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* __doc__ (type özniteliği):             Special attributes. (line   33)
* __enter__() (contextmanager yöntemi):  Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri.
                                                             (line   12)
* __enter__() (object yöntemi):          With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   22)
* __enter__() (winreg.PyHKEY yöntemi):   Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* __eq__() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  150)
* __eq__() (email.header.Header yöntemi): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  170)
* __eq__() (instance method):            Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   50)
* __eq__() (memoryview yöntemi):         Memory Views.       (line  112)
* __eq__() (object yöntemi):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __eq__() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __excepthook__ (sys modülü içinde):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  409)
* __excepthook__ (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  111)
* __exit__() (contextmanager yöntemi):   Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri.
                                                             (line   32)
* __exit__() (object yöntemi):           With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   28)
* __exit__() (winreg.PyHKEY yöntemi):    Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* __file__ (module attribute):           Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __file__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   25)
* __file__ (module attribute) <2>:       Module Objects.     (line   90)
* __file__ (module özniteliği):          Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  131)
* __float__() (object yöntemi):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  116)
* __floor__() (fractions.Fraction yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  174)
* __floor__() (object yöntemi):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __floordiv__() (object yöntemi):       Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __floordiv__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   88)
* __format__:                            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  775)
* __format__() (datetime.date yöntemi):  date Objects.       (line  290)
* __format__() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  738)
* __format__() (datetime.time yöntemi):  time Objects.       (line  224)
* __format__() (enum.Enum yöntemi):      Data Types<2>.      (line  317)
* __format__() (fractions.Fraction yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  201)
* __format__() (ipaddress.IPv4Address yöntemi): Address objects.
                                                             (line  177)
* __format__() (ipaddress.IPv6Address yöntemi): Address objects.
                                                             (line  309)
* __format__() (object yöntemi):         Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* __fspath__() (os.PathLike yöntemi):    Process Parameters. (line  127)
* __func__ (method attribute):           Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __func__ (method özniteliği):          Instance methods.   (line   15)
* __future__:                            Sözlük.             (line  531)
* __future__;future statement:           Future statements.  (line    6)
* __ge__() (instance method):            Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   50)
* __ge__() (object yöntemi):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __ge__() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __get__() (object yöntemi):            Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   15)
* __getattr__ (module attribute):        Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getattr__() (object yöntemi):        Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   10)
* __getattribute__() (object yöntemi):   Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   33)
* __getitem__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry yöntemi): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  385)
* __getitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  189)
* __getitem__() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  311)
* __getitem__() (enum.EnumType yöntemi): Data Types<2>.      (line   83)
* __getitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.  (line  148)
* __getitem__() (mapping object method): Special method names.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getitem__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   78)
* __getitem__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  196)
* __getitem__() (re.Match yöntemi):      Match Objects.      (line   90)
* __getnewargs__() (object yöntemi):     Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   47)
* __getnewargs_ex__() (object yöntemi):  Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   29)
* __getstate__() (copy protocol):        Handling Stateful Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getstate__() (object yöntemi):       Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   61)
* __globals__ (function attribute):      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __globals__ (function özniteliği):     Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line   10)
* __gt__() (instance method):            Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   50)
* __gt__() (object yöntemi):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __gt__() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __hash__() (object yöntemi):           Basic customization.
                                                             (line  239)
* __iadd__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __iadd__() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line   36)
* __iand__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __iand__() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line   41)
* __iconcat__() (operator modülü içinde): In-place Operators.
                                                             (line   46)
* __ifloordiv__() (object yöntemi):      Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ifloordiv__() (operator modülü içinde): In-place Operators.
                                                             (line   52)
* __ilshift__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ilshift__() (operator modülü içinde): In-place Operators.
                                                             (line   57)
* __imatmul__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __imatmul__() (operator modülü içinde): In-place Operators.
                                                             (line   72)
* __imod__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __imod__() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line   62)
* __import__() (importlib modülü içinde): Functions<10>.     (line    6)
* __imul__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __imul__() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line   67)
* __index__() (object yöntemi):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  124)
* __index__() (operator modülü içinde):  operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   93)
* __infer_variance__ (typing.TypeVar özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  167)
* __init__() (asyncio.Future yöntemi):   Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   17)
* __init__() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):     Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   23)
* __init__() (difflib.HtmlDiff yöntemi): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   92)
* __init__() (enum.Enum yöntemi):        Data Types<2>.      (line  226)
* __init__() (logging.Handler yöntemi):  Handler Objects.    (line   13)
* __init__() (logging.logging.Formatter yöntemi): Formatters.
                                                             (line   13)
* __init__() (object yöntemi):           Basic customization.
                                                             (line   37)
* __init_subclass__() (enum.Enum yöntemi): Data Types<2>.    (line  239)
* __init_subclass__() (object sınıf yöntemi): Customizing class creation.
                                                             (line   13)
* __instancecheck__() (type yöntemi):    Customizing instance and subclass checks.
                                                             (line   15)
* __int__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  116)
* __interactivehook__ (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1153)
* __inv__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  102)
* __invert__() (object yöntemi):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __invert__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  102)
* __ior__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ior__() (operator modülü içinde):    In-place Operators. (line   79)
* __ipow__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ipow__() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line   84)
* __irshift__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __irshift__() (operator modülü içinde): In-place Operators.
                                                             (line   89)
* __isub__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __isub__() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line   94)
* __iter__() (container yöntemi):        Yineleyici Türleri. (line   15)
* __iter__() (enum.EnumType yöntemi):    Data Types<2>.      (line   91)
* __iter__() (iterator yöntemi):         Yineleyici Türleri. (line   30)
* __iter__() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):  Mailbox objects.    (line  116)
* __iter__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  122)
* __iter__() (unittest.TestSuite yöntemi): Grouping tests.   (line   60)
* __itruediv__() (object yöntemi):       Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __itruediv__() (operator modülü içinde): In-place Operators.
                                                             (line   99)
* __ixor__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   77)
* __ixor__() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line  104)
* __kwdefaults__ (function attribute):   Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __kwdefaults__ (function özniteliği):  Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   52)
* __le__() (instance method):            Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   50)
* __le__() (object yöntemi):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __le__() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __len__() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  175)
* __len__() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  298)
* __len__() (enum.EnumType yöntemi):     Data Types<2>.      (line   98)
* __len__() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):   Mailbox objects.    (line  208)
* __len__() (mapping object method):     Basic customization.
                                                             (line  322)
* __len__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   39)
* __length_hint__() (object yöntemi):    Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   54)
* __loader__ (module attribute):         Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __loader__ (module attribute) <1>:     Module Objects.     (line   25)
* __loader__ (module özniteliği):        Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* __lshift__() (object yöntemi):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __lshift__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  110)
* __lt__() (instance method):            Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   50)
* __lt__() (object yöntemi):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __lt__() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __matmul__() (object yöntemi):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __matmul__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  125)
* __members__ (enum.EnumType özniteliği): Data Types<2>.     (line  105)
* __missing__():                         Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line   90)
* __missing__() (collections.defaultdict yöntemi): defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* __missing__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  117)
* __mod__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __mod__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  115)
* __module__ (class attribute):          Special attributes. (line    6)
* __module__ (definition özniteliği):    Özel Özellikler.    (line   21)
* __module__ (function attribute):       Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __module__ (function özniteliği):      Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   26)
* __module__ (method attribute):         Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __module__ (method özniteliği):        Instance methods.   (line   28)
* __module__ (type özniteliği):          Special attributes. (line   18)
* __module__ (typing.NewType özniteliği): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  100)
* __module__ (typing.TypeAliasType özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  455)
* __mro__ (type özniteliği):             Special attributes. (line   59)
* __mro_entries__() (object yöntemi):    Resolving MRO entries.
                                                             (line    6)
* __mul__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __mul__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  120)
* __name__ (class attribute):            Special attributes. (line    6)
* __name__ (definition özniteliği):      Özel Özellikler.    (line   10)
* __name__ (function attribute):         Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __name__ (function özniteliği):        Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* __name__ (method attribute):           Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __name__ (method özniteliği):          Instance methods.   (line   24)
* __name__ (module attribute):           Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __name__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   25)
* __name__ (module attribute) <2>:       Module Objects.     (line   62)
* __name__ (module özniteliği):          Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* __name__ (type özniteliği):            Special attributes. (line   10)
* __name__ (typing.NewType özniteliği):  Other special directives.
                                                             (line  104)
* __name__ (typing.ParamSpec özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  384)
* __name__ (typing.TypeAliasType özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  447)
* __name__ (typing.TypeVar özniteliği):  Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  154)
* __name__ (typing.TypeVarTuple özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  302)
* __ne__() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  155)
* __ne__() (email.header.Header yöntemi): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  175)
* __ne__() (instance method):            Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   50)
* __ne__() (object yöntemi):             Basic customization.
                                                             (line  180)
* __ne__() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __neg__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __neg__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* __new__() (enum.Enum yöntemi):         Data Types<2>.      (line  267)
* __new__() (object yöntemi):            Basic customization.
                                                             (line    6)
* __next__() (csv.csvreader yöntemi):    Reader Objects.     (line    9)
* __next__() (generator yöntemi):        Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   12)
* __next__() (iterator yöntemi):         Yineleyici Türleri. (line   38)
* __not__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   49)
* __notes__ (BaseException özniteliği):  Temel sınıflar.     (line   58)
* __notes__ (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* __objclass__ (object özniteliği):      Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   50)
* __optional_keys__ (typing.TypedDict özniteliği): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  397)
* __or__() (enum.Flag yöntemi):          Data Types<2>.      (line  453)
* __or__() (object yöntemi):             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __or__() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  137)
* __origin__ (genericalias özniteliği):  GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri.
                                                             (line    8)
* __package__ (module attribute):        Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __package__ (module attribute) <1>:    Module Objects.     (line   25)
* __package__ (module özniteliği):       Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* __parameters__ (genericalias özniteliği): GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri.
                                                             (line   24)
* __path__ (module attribute):           Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __path__ (module özniteliği):          Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  120)
* __pos__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  108)
* __pos__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  142)
* __post_init__() (dataclasses modülü içinde): Post-init processing.
                                                             (line    6)
* __pow__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __pow__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  147)
* __prepare__ (metaclass method):        Preparing the class namespace.
                                                             (line    6)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:                   PyConfig.           (line  178)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>:               PyConfig.           (line  677)
* __qualname__ (definition özniteliği):  Özel Özellikler.    (line   14)
* __qualname__ (function özniteliği):    Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   20)
* __qualname__ (type özniteliği):        Special attributes. (line   14)
* __radd__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rand__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rdivmod__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __reduce__() (object yöntemi):         Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  124)
* __reduce_ex__() (object yöntemi):      Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  179)
* __release_buffer__() (object yöntemi): Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   25)
* __repr__() (enum.Enum yöntemi):        Data Types<2>.      (line  284)
* __repr__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy yöntemi): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  145)
* __repr__() (netrc.netrc yöntemi):      netrc Objects.      (line   16)
* __repr__() (object yöntemi):           Basic customization.
                                                             (line  114)
* __required_keys__ (typing.TypedDict özniteliği): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  393)
* __reversed__() (enum.EnumType yöntemi): Data Types<2>.     (line  110)
* __reversed__() (object yöntemi):       Emulating container types.
                                                             (line  129)
* __rfloordiv__() (object yöntemi):      Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rlshift__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rmatmul__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rmod__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rmul__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __ror__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __round__() (fractions.Fraction yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  190)
* __round__() (object yöntemi):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __rpow__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rrshift__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rshift__() (object yöntemi):         Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __rshift__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  152)
* __rsub__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rtruediv__() (object yöntemi):       Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __rxor__() (object yöntemi):           Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   41)
* __self__ (method attribute):           Instance methods.   (line    9)
* __self__ (method özniteliği):          Instance methods.   (line   11)
* __set__() (object yöntemi):            Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   33)
* __set_name__() (object yöntemi):       Customizing class creation.
                                                             (line   46)
* __setattr__() (object yöntemi):        Customizing attribute access.
                                                             (line   54)
* __setitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  204)
* __setitem__() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  322)
* __setitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.  (line   90)
* __setitem__() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi): Maildir objects.  (line   92)
* __setitem__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   99)
* __setitem__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  205)
* __setstate__() (copy protocol):        Handling Stateful Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __setstate__() (object yöntemi):       Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   88)
* __slots__:                             Sözlük.             (line 1261)
* __spec__ (module attribute):           Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* __spec__ (module özniteliği):          Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* __stderr__ (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1834)
* __stdin__ (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1834)
* __stdout__ (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1834)
* __str__() (datetime.date yöntemi):     date Objects.       (line  263)
* __str__() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.   (line  708)
* __str__() (datetime.time yöntemi):     time Objects.       (line  214)
* __str__() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  145)
* __str__() (email.header.Header yöntemi): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  158)
* __str__() (email.headerregistry.Address yöntemi): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  447)
* __str__() (email.headerregistry.Group yöntemi): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  482)
* __str__() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   95)
* __str__() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  102)
* __str__() (enum.Enum yöntemi):         Data Types<2>.      (line  301)
* __str__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy yöntemi): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* __str__() (object yöntemi):            Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* __sub__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __sub__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  157)
* __subclasscheck__() (type yöntemi):    Customizing instance and subclass checks.
                                                             (line   21)
* __subclasses__() (type yöntemi):       Special methods.    (line   15)
* __subclasshook__() (abc.ABCMeta yöntemi): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   92)
* __supertype__ (typing.NewType özniteliği): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  108)
* __suppress_context__ (BaseException özniteliği): İstisna bağlamı.
                                                             (line    9)
* __suppress_context__ (exception attribute): İstisna bağlamı.
                                                             (line    6)
* __suppress_context__ (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* __total__ (typing.TypedDict özniteliği): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  368)
* __traceback__ (BaseException özniteliği): Temel sınıflar.  (line   44)
* __traceback__ (exception attribute):   The raise statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* __truediv__() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  543)
* __truediv__() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  136)
* __truediv__() (object yöntemi):        Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __truediv__() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  162)
* __trunc__() (object yöntemi):          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  138)
* __type_params__ (class attribute):     Special attributes. (line    6)
* __type_params__ (definition özniteliği): Özel Özellikler.  (line   30)
* __type_params__ (function attribute):  Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* __type_params__ (function özniteliği): Special writable attributes.
                                                             (line   56)
* __type_params__ (type özniteliği):     Special attributes. (line   52)
* __type_params__ (typing.TypeAliasType özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  463)
* __unpacked__ (genericalias özniteliği): GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri.
                                                             (line   41)
* __unraisablehook__ (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  409)
* __value__ (typing.TypeAliasType özniteliği): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  475)
* __version__ (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line   20)
* __xor__() (enum.Flag yöntemi):         Data Types<2>.      (line  469)
* __xor__() (object yöntemi):            Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   11)
* __xor__() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  168)
* _, identifiers:                        Soft Keywords.      (line   22)
* _anonymous_ (ctypes.Structure özniteliği): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   87)
* _asdict() (collections.somenamedtuple yöntemi): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  110)
* _b_base_ (ctypes._CData özniteliği):   Data types.         (line   71)
* _b_needsfree_ (ctypes._CData özniteliği): Data types.      (line   78)
* _callmethod() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy yöntemi): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* _CData (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Data types.         (line    6)
* _CFuncPtr (ctypes içindeki sınıf):     Foreign functions.  (line   22)
* _clear_type_cache() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  183)
* _current_exceptions() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  212)
* _current_frames() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  192)
* _debugmallocstats() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  268)
* _emscripten_info (sys modülü içinde):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  332)
* _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1748)
* _enter_task() (asyncio modülü içinde): Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   22)
* _exit() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  122)
* _Feature (__future__ içindeki sınıf):  Module Contents<5>. (line   44)
* _field_defaults (collections.somenamedtuple özniteliği): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  153)
* _fields (ast.AST özniteliği):          Node classes.       (line   22)
* _fields (collections.somenamedtuple özniteliği): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  140)
* _fields_ (ctypes.Structure özniteliği): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   43)
* _flush() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  117)
* _frozen (C struct):                    Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  253)
* _generate_next_value_() (enum.Enum yöntemi): Data Types<2>.
                                                             (line  196)
* _get_child_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  306)
* _get_preferred_schemes() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   41)
* _getframe() (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  866)
* _getframemodulename() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  881)
* _getvalue() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy yöntemi): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* _handle (ctypes.PyDLL özniteliği):     Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  157)
* _ignore_ (enum.Enum özniteliği):       Data Types<2>.      (line  166)
* _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  168)
* _inittab (C struct):                   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  290)
* _inittab.initfunc (C member):          Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  302)
* _inittab.name (C member):              Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  298)
* _leave_task() (asyncio modülü içinde): Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   30)
* _length_ (ctypes.Array özniteliği):    Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   18)
* _log (logging.LoggerAdapter özniteliği): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   29)
* _make() (collections.somenamedtuple sınıf yöntemi): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  101)
* _makeResult() (unittest.TextTestRunner yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  491)
* _missing_() (enum.Enum yöntemi):       Data Types<2>.      (line  244)
* _name (ctypes.PyDLL özniteliği):       Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  161)
* _name_ (enum.Enum özniteliği):         Data Types<2>.      (line  153)
* _numeric_repr_() (enum.Flag yöntemi):  Data Types<2>.      (line  489)
* _objects (ctypes._CData özniteliği):   Data types.         (line   83)
* _order_ (enum.Enum özniteliği):        Data Types<2>.      (line  161)
* _pack_ (ctypes.Structure özniteliği):  Structured data types.
                                                             (line   79)
* _parse() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   21)
* _Pointer (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   31)
* _Py_c_diff (C function):               Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   33)
* _Py_c_neg (C function):                Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   39)
* _Py_c_pow (C function):                Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   59)
* _Py_c_prod (C function):               Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   44)
* _Py_c_quot (C function):               Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   50)
* _Py_c_sum (C function):                Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   27)
* _Py_InitializeMain (C function):       Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   44)
* _Py_NoneStruct (C var):                Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line   66)
* _PyBytes_Resize (C function):          Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  180)
* _PyCFunctionFast (C type):             Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   29)
* _PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type): Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   38)
* _PyCode_GetExtra (C function):         Extra information.  (line   45)
* _PyCode_SetExtra (C function):         Extra information.  (line   58)
* _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   29)
* _PyFrameEvalFunction (C type):         Low-level API.      (line  149)
* _PyInterpreterFrame (C struct):        Internal Frames.    (line    8)
* _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (C function): Low-level API.
                                                             (line  163)
* _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc (C function): Low-level API.
                                                             (line  173)
* _PyObject_GetDictPtr (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  170)
* _PyObject_New (C function):            Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line    6)
* _PyObject_NewVar (C function):         Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line    9)
* _PyTuple_Resize (C function):          Tuple Objects.      (line   97)
* _register_task() (asyncio modülü içinde): Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   10)
* _replace() (collections.somenamedtuple yöntemi): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  128)
* _setroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* _SimpleCData (ctypes içindeki sınıf):  Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* _structure() (email.iterators modülü içinde): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   44)
* _type_ (ctypes._Pointer özniteliği):   Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   46)
* _type_ (ctypes.Array özniteliği):      Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   24)
* _unregister_task() (asyncio modülü içinde): Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   16)
* _value_ (enum.Enum özniteliği):        Data Types<2>.      (line  157)
* _write() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  109)
* _xoptions (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2017)
* - (minus);binary operator:             Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   83)
* - (minus);binary operator <1>:         Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* - (minus);in doctests:                 Option Flags.       (line  164)
* - (minus);in glob-style wildcards:     fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* - (minus);in glob-tarzı joker karakterleri: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   10)
* - (minus);in printf-style formatting:  printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* - (minus);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* - (minus);in regular expressions:      Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  178)
* - (minus);in string formatting:        Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   74)
* - (minus);unary operator:              Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* - (minus);unary operator <1>:          Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* -=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations:               Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations <1>:           Function definitions.
                                                             (line  109)
* , (comma):                             Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   20)
* , (comma);argument list:               Slicings.           (line   39)
* , (comma);expression list:             List displays.      (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <1>:         Set displays.       (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <2>:         Expression lists.   (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <3>:         The assert statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <4>:         Class definitions.  (line    6)
* , (comma);identifier list:             The global statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);identifier list <1>:         The nonlocal statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);import statement:            The import statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);in dictionary displays:      Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);in string formatting:        Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line  124)
* , (comma);in target list:              Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* , (comma);parameter list:              Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);slicing:                     Slicings.           (line    6)
* , (comma);with statement:              The with statement. (line    6)
* ; (colon);annotated variable:          Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement:          The if statement.   (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <1>:      The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <2>:      The for statement.  (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <3>:      The try statement.  (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <4>:      The with statement. (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <5>:      The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <6>:      Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <7>:      Class definitions.  (line    6)
* ; (colon);function annotations:        Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);function annotations <1>:    Function definitions.
                                                             (line  109)
* ; (colon);in dictionary expressions:   Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);in formatted string literal: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* ; (colon);in SQL statements:           Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* ; (colon);in string formatting:        Format String Syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* ; (colon);lambda expression:           Lambdas.            (line    6)
* ; (colon);path separator (POSIX):      Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  118)
* ; (colon);slicing:                     Slicings.           (line    6)
* ; (semicolon):                         Compound statements.
                                                             (line   18)
* ; (semicolon) <1>:                     Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  118)
* ;= (colon equals):                     Boolean operations. (line   38)
* ! (exclamation);in a command interpreter: Cmd Objects.     (line   27)
* ! (exclamation);in curses module:      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  229)
* ! (exclamation);in formatted string literal: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* ! (exclamation);in glob-style wildcards: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* ! (exclamation);in glob-tarzı joker karakterleri: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   10)
* ! (exclamation);in string formatting:  Format String Syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* ! (exclamation);in struct format strings: Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* ! (pdb command):                       Debugger Commands.  (line  376)
* ! patterns:                            Patterns.           (line    6)
* ? (question mark);in a command interpreter: Cmd Objects.   (line   27)
* ? (question mark);in argparse module:  nargs.              (line   24)
* ? (question mark);in AST grammar:      Node classes.       (line   22)
* ? (question mark);in glob-style wildcards: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* ? (question mark);in glob-tarzı joker karakterleri: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   10)
* ? (question mark);in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   81)
* ? (question mark);in SQL statements:   Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* ? (question mark);in struct format strings: Format Characters.
                                                             (line   86)
* ? (question mark);in struct format strings <1>: Format Characters.
                                                             (line  168)
* ? (question mark);replacement character: Error Handlers.   (line   15)
* ??;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   86)
* ?+;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   96)
* . (dot);attribute reference:           Attribute references.
                                                             (line    6)
* . (dot);in glob-tarzı joker karakterleri: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   10)
* . (dot);in numeric literal:            Integer literals.   (line   40)
* . (dot);in pathnames:                  Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   84)
* . (dot);in pathnames <1>:              Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  112)
* . (dot);in printf-style formatting:    printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* . (dot);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   23)
* . (dot);in regular expressions:        Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   46)
* . (dot);in string formatting:          Format String Syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* ..;in pathnames:                       Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   90)
* ...:                                   Sözlük.             (line   10)
* ...;ellipsis literal:                  Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* ...;ellipsis literal <1>:              Built-in Constants. (line   59)
* ...;ellipsis literal <2>:              Null Nesne.         (line   11)
* ...;in doctests:                       Option Flags.       (line   47)
* ...;interpreter prompt:                How are Docstring Examples Recognized?.
                                                             (line   26)
* ...;interpreter prompt <1>:            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1445)
* ...;placeholder:                       textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  276)
* ...;placeholder <1>:                   PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* ...;placeholder <2>:                   reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   61)
* .ini;file:                             configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* .pdbrc;file:                           Debugger Commands.  (line   56)
* ' (single quote);string literal:       Literals.           (line    8)
* ''';string literal:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* " (double quote);string literal:       Literals.           (line    8)
* """;string literal:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* (?;;in regular expressions:            Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  281)
* (?;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  242)
* (?!;in regular expressions:            Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  398)
* (?(;in regular expressions:            Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  441)
* (?#;in regular expressions:            Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  387)
* (?<!;in regular expressions:           Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  432)
* (?<=;in regular expressions:           Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  404)
* (?=;in regular expressions:            Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  391)
* (?P<;in regular expressions:           Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  344)
* (?P=;in regular expressions:           Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  382)
* () (parentheses);call:                 Slicings.           (line   39)
* () (parentheses);class definition:     Class definitions.  (line    6)
* () (parentheses);function definition:  Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);generator expression: Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);in assignment target list: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* () (parentheses);in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* () (parentheses);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   23)
* () (parentheses);in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  233)
* () (parentheses);tuple display:        Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line    6)
* [] (square brackets);in assignment target list: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* [] (square brackets);in glob-style wildcards: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* [] (square brackets);in glob-tarzı joker karakterleri: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   10)
* [] (square brackets);in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  171)
* [] (square brackets);in string formatting: Format String Syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* [] (square brackets);list expression:  List displays.      (line    6)
* [] (square brackets);subscription:     Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* {} (curly brackets);dictionary expression: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* {} (curly brackets);in formatted string literal: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* {} (curly brackets);in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  115)
* {} (curly brackets);in string formatting: Format String Syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* {} (curly brackets);set expression:    Set displays.       (line    6)
* @ (at);class definition:               Class definitions.  (line   44)
* @ (at);function definition:            Function definitions.
                                                             (line   35)
* @ (at);in struct format strings:       Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* * (asterisk);function definition:      Function definitions.
                                                             (line   93)
* * (asterisk);import statement:         The import statement.
                                                             (line   80)
* * (asterisk);in argparse module:       nargs.              (line   57)
* * (asterisk);in assignment target list: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* * (asterisk);in AST grammar:           Node classes.       (line   22)
* * (asterisk);in expression lists:      Expression lists.   (line   18)
* * (asterisk);in function calls:        Keyfi Argüman Listeleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* * (asterisk);in function calls <1>:    Calls.              (line   73)
* * (asterisk);in glob-style wildcards:  fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* * (asterisk);in glob-tarzı joker karakterleri: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   10)
* * (asterisk);in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* * (asterisk);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   23)
* * (asterisk);in regular expressions:   Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   69)
* *?;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   86)
* **;function definition:                Function definitions.
                                                             (line   93)
* **;in dictionary displays:             Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   23)
* **;in function calls:                  Argüman Listelerini Açma.
                                                             (line   19)
* **;in function calls <1>:              Calls.              (line  100)
* **;in glob-tarzı joker karakterleri:   glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   56)
* **=;augmented assignment:              Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* *+;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   96)
* *=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* / (slash);function definition:         Function definitions.
                                                             (line   93)
* / (slash);in pathnames:                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   96)
* / (slash);in pathnames <1>:            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  105)
* //=;augmented assignment:              Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* /=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* \ (backslash);escape sequence:         String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \ (backslash);escape sequence <1>:     Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \ (backslash);in pathnames (Windows):  Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   96)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions:  Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  156)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <1>: Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  190)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <2>: Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  460)
* \\;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \\;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \a;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \A;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  472)
* \a;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \b;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \b;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  476)
* \B;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  494)
* \b;in regular expressions <1>:         Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \d;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  510)
* \D;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  525)
* \f;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \f;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \g;in regular expressions:             Functions.          (line  208)
* \n;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \N;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \N;escape sequence <1>:                Error Handlers.     (line   54)
* \n;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \N;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \r;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \r;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \s;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  532)
* \S;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  548)
* \t;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \t;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \u;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \U;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \u;escape sequence <1>:                Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \U;escape sequence <1>:                Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \u;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \U;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \v;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \v;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \w;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  555)
* \W;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  572)
* \x;escape sequence:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* \x;escape sequence <1>:                Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \x;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  587)
* \Z;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  583)
* &=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* # (hash);comment:                      Comments.           (line    6)
* # (hash);comment <1>:                  site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   46)
* # (hash);in doctests:                  Option Flags.       (line  165)
* # (hash);in printf-style formatting:   printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* # (hash);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* # (hash);in regular expressions:       Flags.              (line  130)
* # (hash);in string formatting:         Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   96)
* # (hash);source encoding declaration:  Encoding declarations.
                                                             (line    6)
* # (hash);yorum:                        Python’a Resmi Olmayan Bir Giriş.
                                                             (line   14)
* % (percent);datetime format:           timezone Objects.   (line   71)
* % (percent);datetime format <1>:       Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  301)
* % (percent);datetime format <2>:       Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  463)
* % (percent);environment variables expansion (Windows): os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* % (percent);environment variables expansion (Windows) <1>: Functions<11>.
                                                             (line  228)
* % (percent);interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   10)
* % (percent);printf-style formatting:   printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* % (percent);printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* %=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* %APPDATA%:                             Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line   13)
* ^ (caret);in curses module:            curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  229)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions:      Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   53)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions <1>:  Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  194)
* ^ (caret);in string formatting:        Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   44)
* ^ (caret);marker:                      What About Exceptions?.
                                                             (line   93)
* ^ (caret);marker <1>:                  Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* ^=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* + (plus);binary operator:              Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   74)
* + (plus);binary operator <1>:          Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* + (plus);in argparse module:           nargs.              (line   69)
* + (plus);in doctests:                  Option Flags.       (line  165)
* + (plus);in printf-style formatting:   printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* + (plus);in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* + (plus);in regular expressions:       Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   75)
* + (plus);in string formatting:         Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   74)
* + (plus);unary operator:               Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* + (plus);unary operator <1>:           Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* +?;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   86)
* ++;in regular expressions:             Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   96)
* +=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* < (less);in string formatting:         Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   44)
* < (less);in struct format strings:     Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* <<=;augmented assignment:              Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* <BLANKLINE>:                           Option Flags.       (line   28)
* = (equals);assignment statement:       Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* = (equals);class definition:           Metaclasses.        (line    6)
* = (equals);for help in debugging using string literals: String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* = (equals);function definition:        Function definitions.
                                                             (line   68)
* = (equals);in function calls:          Slicings.           (line   38)
* = (equals);in string formatting:       Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   44)
* = (equals);in struct format strings:   Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* > (greater);in string formatting:      Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   44)
* > (greater);in struct format strings:  Byte Order Size and Alignment.
                                                             (line   13)
* >>=;augmented assignment:              Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* >>>:                                   Sözlük.             (line    6)
* >>>;interpreter prompt:                How are Docstring Examples Recognized?.
                                                             (line   26)
* >>>;interpreter prompt <1>:            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1445)
* | (vertical bar);in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line  220)
* |=;augmented assignment:               Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* ~ (tilde);home directory expansion:    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  128)
* $ (dollar);environment variables expansion: os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* $ (dollar);in regular expressions:     Regular Expression Syntax.
                                                             (line   58)
* $ (dollar);in template strings:        Template strings.   (line   13)
* $ (dollar);interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   41)
* 0b;integer literal:                    Numeric literals.   (line   14)
* 0o;integer literal:                    Numeric literals.   (line   14)
* 0x;integer literal:                    Numeric literals.   (line   14)
* 2-digit years:                         time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   33)
* 2to3:                                  Sözlük.             (line   22)
* A (re modülü içinde):                  Flags.              (line   16)
* A_ALTCHARSET (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line   67)
* A_ATTRIBUTES (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  128)
* A_BLINK (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line   70)
* A_BOLD (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line   73)
* A_CHARTEXT (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  131)
* A_COLOR (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  134)
* A_DIM (curses modülü içinde):          Constants<4>.       (line   76)
* A_HORIZONTAL (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  101)
* A_INVIS (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line   79)
* A_ITALIC (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line   82)
* A_LEFT (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  104)
* A_LOW (curses modülü içinde):          Constants<4>.       (line  107)
* A_NORMAL (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line   85)
* A_PROTECT (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line   88)
* A_REVERSE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line   91)
* A_RIGHT (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  110)
* A_STANDOUT (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line   95)
* A_TOP (curses modülü içinde):          Constants<4>.       (line  113)
* A_UNDERLINE (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line   98)
* A_VERTICAL (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  116)
* A-LAW:                                 aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  163)
* a-LAW:                                 audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   20)
* A-LAW <1>:                             sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line    8)
* a2b_base64() (binascii modülü içinde): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   40)
* a2b_hex() (binascii modülü içinde):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  144)
* a2b_qp() (binascii modülü içinde):     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   70)
* a2b_uu() (binascii modülü içinde):     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   25)
* a85decode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  191)
* a85encode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  167)
* ABC (abc içindeki sınıf):              abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ABCMeta (abc içindeki sınıf):          abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   52)
* ABDAY_1 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_2 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_3 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_4 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_5 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_6 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  226)
* ABDAY_7 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  226)
* abiflags (sys modülü içinde):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* ABMON_1 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_10 (locale modülü içinde):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_11 (locale modülü içinde):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_12 (locale modülü içinde):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_2 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_3 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_4 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_5 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_6 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_7 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_8 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* ABMON_9 (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* abort (C function):                    Process Control.    (line    7)
* ABORT (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  147)
* abort() (asyncio.Barrier yöntemi):     Barrier.            (line   87)
* abort() (asyncio.DatagramTransport yöntemi): Datagram Transports.
                                                             (line   15)
* abort() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* abort() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):          FTP objects.        (line  152)
* abort() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line   16)
* abort() (threading.Barrier yöntemi):   Barrier Objects.    (line   82)
* ABORTRETRYIGNORE (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  162)
* ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   52)
* above() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi):  Panel Objects.      (line   13)
* abs() (decimal.Context yöntemi):       Context objects.    (line  249)
* abs() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   73)
* absolute() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):     Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   38)
* AbsoluteLinkError:                     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  253)
* AbsolutePathError:                     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  239)
* abspath() (os.path modülü içinde):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   49)
* AbstractAsyncContextManager (contextlib içindeki sınıf): Utilities.
                                                             (line   19)
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  353)
* AbstractChildWatcher (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   43)
* abstractclassmethod() (abc modülü içinde): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  238)
* AbstractContextManager (contextlib içindeki sınıf): Utilities.
                                                             (line    8)
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  392)
* AbstractEventLoop (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Event Loop Implementations.
                                                             (line   43)
* AbstractEventLoopPolicy (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* abstractmethod() (abc modülü içinde):  abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  161)
* abstractproperty() (abc modülü içinde): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  282)
* AbstractSet (typing içindeki sınıf):   Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* abstractstaticmethod() (abc modülü içinde): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  260)
* accept() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener yöntemi): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   84)
* accept() (socket.socket yöntemi):      Socket Objects.     (line   13)
* access() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line   51)
* accumulate() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line   10)
* ACK (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   37)
* aclose() (agen yöntemi):               Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   61)
* aclose() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.   (line  650)
* aclosing() (contextlib modülü içinde): Utilities.          (line  187)
* acos() (cmath modülü içinde):          Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* acos() (math modülü içinde):           Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (cmath modülü içinde):         Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (math modülü içinde):          Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line    9)
* acquire() (_thread.lock yöntemi):      _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  143)
* acquire() (asyncio.Condition yöntemi): Condition.          (line   47)
* acquire() (asyncio.Lock yöntemi):      Lock.               (line   35)
* acquire() (asyncio.Semaphore yöntemi): Semaphore.          (line   42)
* acquire() (logging.Handler yöntemi):   Handler Objects.    (line   26)
* acquire() (multiprocessing.Lock yöntemi): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   64)
* acquire() (multiprocessing.RLock yöntemi): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  118)
* acquire() (threading.Condition yöntemi): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* acquire() (threading.Lock yöntemi):    Lock Objects.       (line   43)
* acquire() (threading.RLock yöntemi):   RLock Objects.      (line   43)
* acquire() (threading.Semaphore yöntemi): Semaphore Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* ACS_BBSS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  472)
* ACS_BLOCK (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  475)
* ACS_BOARD (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  478)
* ACS_BSBS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  481)
* ACS_BSSB (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  484)
* ACS_BSSS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  487)
* ACS_BTEE (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  490)
* ACS_BULLET (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  493)
* ACS_CKBOARD (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  496)
* ACS_DARROW (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  499)
* ACS_DEGREE (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  502)
* ACS_DIAMOND (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  505)
* ACS_GEQUAL (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  508)
* ACS_HLINE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  511)
* ACS_LANTERN (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  514)
* ACS_LARROW (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  517)
* ACS_LEQUAL (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  520)
* ACS_LLCORNER (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  523)
* ACS_LRCORNER (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  526)
* ACS_LTEE (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  529)
* ACS_NEQUAL (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  532)
* ACS_PI (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  535)
* ACS_PLMINUS (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  538)
* ACS_PLUS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  541)
* ACS_RARROW (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  544)
* ACS_RTEE (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  547)
* ACS_S1 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  550)
* ACS_S3 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  553)
* ACS_S7 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  556)
* ACS_S9 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  559)
* ACS_SBBS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  562)
* ACS_SBSB (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  565)
* ACS_SBSS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  568)
* ACS_SSBB (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  571)
* ACS_SSBS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  574)
* ACS_SSSB (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  577)
* ACS_SSSS (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  580)
* ACS_STERLING (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  583)
* ACS_TTEE (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  586)
* ACS_UARROW (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  589)
* ACS_ULCORNER (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  592)
* ACS_URCORNER (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  595)
* ACS_VLINE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  598)
* Action (argparse içindeki sınıf):      Action classes.     (line   11)
* action (optparse.Option özniteliği):   Option attributes.  (line   19)
* ACTIONS (optparse.Option özniteliği):  Adding new actions. (line   31)
* activate_stack_trampoline() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1714)
* active_children() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* active_count() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line   54)
* actual() (tkinter.font.Font yöntemi):  tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   47)
* ad alanı:                              Sözlük.             (line  987)
* ad alanı paketi:                       Sözlük.             (line 1001)
* Add (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* add_alias() (email.charset modülü içinde): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  193)
* add_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  640)
* add_argument_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Argument groups.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_argument() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): The add_argument method.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  652)
* add_cgi_vars() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  135)
* add_charset() (email.charset modülü içinde): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  164)
* add_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher yöntemi): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   45)
* add_codec() (email.charset modülü içinde): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  202)
* add_cookie_header() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* add_data() (msilib modülü içinde):     msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   76)
* add_dll_directory() (os modülü içinde): Process Management.
                                                             (line   24)
* add_done_callback() (asyncio.Future yöntemi): Future Object.
                                                             (line   81)
* add_done_callback() (asyncio.Task yöntemi): Task Object.   (line  101)
* add_done_callback() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* add_fallback() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   28)
* add_file() (msilib.Directory yöntemi): Directory Objects.  (line   30)
* add_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* add_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage yöntemi): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* add_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage yöntemi): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* add_folder() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi): Maildir objects.   (line   72)
* add_folder() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):     MH objects.         (line   42)
* add_get_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager yöntemi): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_handler() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector yöntemi): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* add_header() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  260)
* add_header() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  369)
* add_header() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* add_header() (wsgiref.headers.Headers yöntemi): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   61)
* add_history() (readline modülü içinde): History list.      (line   38)
* add_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage yöntemi): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* add_mutually_exclusive_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Mutual exclusion.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_note() (BaseException yöntemi):    Temel sınıflar.     (line   50)
* add_option() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Defining options.
                                                             (line   14)
* add_parent() (urllib.request.BaseHandler yöntemi): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr yöntemi): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth yöntemi): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_reader() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):   Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_related() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  627)
* add_section() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* add_section() (configparser.RawConfigParser yöntemi): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* add_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage yöntemi): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* add_set_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager yöntemi): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   80)
* add_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Unix signals. (line    6)
* add_stream() (msilib modülü içinde):   msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line  106)
* add_subparsers() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Sub-commands.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_tables() (msilib modülü içinde):   msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   97)
* add_type() (mimetypes modülü içinde):  mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  107)
* add_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes yöntemi): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* add_unredirected_header() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* add_writer() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):   Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line   20)
* add() (audioop modülü içinde):         audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   34)
* add() (decimal.Context yöntemi):       Context objects.    (line  253)
* add() (frozenset yöntemi):             Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  203)
* add() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter yöntemi): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line   81)
* add() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):       Mailbox objects.    (line   59)
* add() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):       Maildir objects.    (line   92)
* add() (msilib.RadioButtonGroup yöntemi): GUI classes.      (line   32)
* add() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   78)
* add() (pstats.Stats yöntemi):          The Stats Class.    (line   49)
* add() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi):       TarFile Objects.    (line  263)
* add() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi):  ttk Notebook.       (line    8)
* addAsyncCleanup() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  884)
* addaudithook() (sys modülü içinde):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   26)
* addch() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line    9)
* addClassCleanup() (unittest.TestCase sınıf yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  811)
* addCleanup() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.      (line  771)
* addcomponent() (turtle.Shape yöntemi): Public classes.     (line   66)
* addDuration() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  438)
* addError() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  368)
* addExpectedFailure() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  404)
* addFailure() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  379)
* addfile() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi):   TarFile Objects.    (line  281)
* addFilter() (logging.Handler yöntemi): Handler Objects.    (line   53)
* addFilter() (logging.Logger yöntemi):  Logger Objects.     (line  325)
* addHandler() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.     (line  342)
* addinfourl (urllib.response içindeki sınıf): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   12)
* addition:                              Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   74)
* addLevelName() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* addModuleCleanup() (unittest modülü içinde): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   22)
* addnstr() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line   23)
* AddPackagePath() (modulefinder modülü içinde): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   16)
* addr_spec (email.headerregistry.Address özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  441)
* Address (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  403)
* address (email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  222)
* address (multiprocessing.connection.Listener özniteliği): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   99)
* address (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager özniteliği): Managers.
                                                             (line  137)
* address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  342)
* address_family (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* address_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  334)
* addresses (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  195)
* addresses (email.headerregistry.Group özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  477)
* AddressHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  180)
* addressof() (ctypes modülü içinde):    Utility functions.  (line    6)
* AddressValueError:                     Custom Exceptions.  (line    9)
* addshape() (turtle modülü içinde):     Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   71)
* addsitedir() (site modülü içinde):     Module contents<5>. (line   51)
* addSkip() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  396)
* addstr() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line   31)
* addSubTest() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  422)
* addSuccess() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  390)
* addTest() (unittest.TestSuite yöntemi): Grouping tests.    (line   25)
* addTests() (unittest.TestSuite yöntemi): Grouping tests.   (line   30)
* addTypeEqualityFunc() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  588)
* addUnexpectedSuccess() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  414)
* adjust_int_max_str_digits() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  733)
* adjusted() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):  Decimal objects.    (line  114)
* adlandırılmış demet:                   Sözlük.             (line  959)
* adler32() (zlib modülü içinde):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   28)
* ADPCM, Intel/DVI:                      audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   20)
* adpcm2lin() (audioop modülü içinde):   audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   41)
* AF_ALG (socket modülü içinde):         Constants<6>.       (line  255)
* AF_CAN (socket modülü içinde):         Constants<6>.       (line  121)
* AF_DIVERT (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  194)
* AF_HYPERV (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  337)
* AF_INET (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line   11)
* AF_INET6 (socket modülü içinde):       Constants<6>.       (line   11)
* AF_LINK (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line  279)
* AF_PACKET (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  204)
* AF_QIPCRTR (socket modülü içinde):     Constants<6>.       (line  307)
* AF_RDS (socket modülü içinde):         Constants<6>.       (line  226)
* AF_UNIX (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line   11)
* AF_UNSPEC (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line   21)
* AF_VSOCK (socket modülü içinde):       Constants<6>.       (line  266)
* aifc() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):            aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  137)
* AIFF:                                  aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line    8)
* AIFF <1>:                              chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    8)
* AIFF-C:                                aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line    8)
* AIFF-C <1>:                            chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    8)
* aiff() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):            aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  131)
* alarm() (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  269)
* alaw2lin() (audioop modülü içinde):    audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   48)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  504)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  504)
* AlertDescription (ssl içindeki sınıf): Constants<7>.       (line  518)
* algorithm (sys.hash_info özniteliği):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1038)
* algorithms_available (hashlib modülü içinde): Attributes.  (line   17)
* algorithms_guaranteed (hashlib modülü içinde): Attributes. (line    8)
* alias (ast içindeki sınıf):            Imports.            (line   40)
* alias (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  348)
* alignment() (ctypes modülü içinde):    Utility functions.  (line   14)
* alive (weakref.finalize özniteliği):   weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  312)
* ALL_COMPLETED (asyncio modülü içinde): Waiting Primitives. (line   45)
* ALL_COMPLETED (concurrent.futures modülü içinde): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* all_errors (ftplib modülü içinde):     Module variables.   (line   27)
* all_features (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   95)
* all_frames (tracemalloc.Filter özniteliği): Filter.        (line   58)
* all_properties (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  127)
* all_suffixes() (importlib.machinery modülü içinde): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   57)
* all_tasks() (asyncio modülü içinde):   Introspection.      (line   16)
* allocate_lock() (_thread modülü içinde): _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   83)
* allocfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line    6)
* ALLOW_MISSING (os.path modülü içinde): os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  369)
* allow_reuse_address (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   96)
* allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy yöntemi): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* ALT_DIGITS (locale modülü içinde):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  331)
* alt() (curses.ascii modülü içinde):    curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  221)
* altsep (os modülü içinde):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  105)
* altzone (time modülü içinde):          Saat dilimi Sabitleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* ALWAYS_EQ (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  175)
* ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option özniteliği): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   43)
* AmbiguousOptionError:                  Exceptions<18>.     (line   25)
* AMPER (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  102)
* AMPEREQUAL (token modülü içinde):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  190)
* anahtar işlev:                         Sözlük.             (line  784)
* anahtar kelime argümanı:               Sözlük.             (line  809)
* Anchor (importlib.resources içindeki sınıf): importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   45)
* anchor (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):  Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   58)
* And (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line   87)
* and_() (operator modülü içinde):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* anlamak:                               Sözlük.             (line 1290)
* AnnAssign (ast içindeki sınıf):        Statements.         (line   43)
* Annotated (typing modülü içinde):      Special forms.      (line  228)
* annotated;assignment:                  Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* annotation (inspect.Parameter özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  208)
* annotation;type annotation; type hint: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union.
                                                             (line    6)
* anonymous;function:                    Lambdas.            (line    6)
* answer_challenge() (multiprocessing.connection modülü içinde): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   25)
* anticipate_failure() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  451)
* Any (typing modülü içinde):            Special types.      (line    9)
* ANY (unittest.mock modülü içinde):     ANY.                (line    6)
* ANY_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   29)
* AnyStr (typing modülü içinde):         Special types.      (line   21)
* api_version (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1975)
* apilevel (sqlite3 modülü içinde):      Module constants.   (line   65)
* apop() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   42)
* APPDATA:                               PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* append_history_file() (readline modülü içinde): History file.
                                                             (line   20)
* append() (array.array yöntemi):        array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  114)
* append() (collections.deque yöntemi):  deque objects.      (line   35)
* append() (email.header.Header yöntemi): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   96)
* append() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   33)
* append() (msilib.CAB yöntemi):         CAB Objects.        (line   15)
* append() (pipes.Template yöntemi):     Template Objects.   (line   22)
* append() (sequence method):            Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* append() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* appendChild() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi):  Node Objects.       (line  115)
* appendleft() (collections.deque yöntemi): deque objects.   (line   39)
* application_uri() (wsgiref.util modülü içinde): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   34)
* apply (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line   10)
* apply_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line   71)
* apply_defaults() (inspect.BoundArguments yöntemi): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  350)
* apply() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line   63)
* APRIL (calendar modülü içinde):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* architecture() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.   (line    6)
* archive (zipimport.zipimporter özniteliği): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* AREGTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):      tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  278)
* aRepr (reprlib modülü içinde):         reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   44)
* arg (ast içindeki sınıf):              Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   73)
* args (BaseException özniteliği):       Temel sınıflar.     (line   17)
* args (functools.partial özniteliği):   partial Objects.    (line   15)
* args (inspect.BoundArguments özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  335)
* args (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  253)
* args (subprocess.CompletedProcess özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  105)
* args (subprocess.Popen özniteliği):    Popen Objects.      (line  101)
* args (typing.ParamSpec özniteliği):    Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  369)
* args_from_interpreter_flags() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  318)
* argtypes (ctypes._CFuncPtr özniteliği): Foreign functions. (line   46)
* argüman:                               Sözlük.             (line   62)
* argument;call semantics:               Slicings.           (line   39)
* argument;difference from parameter:    How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?.
                                                             (line   17)
* argument;function definition:          Function definitions.
                                                             (line   68)
* ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (argparse içindeki sınıf): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* ArgumentError:                         Exceptions<7>.      (line    6)
* ArgumentError <1>:                     Foreign functions.  (line   94)
* ArgumentParser (argparse içindeki sınıf): ArgumentParser objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* arguments (ast içindeki sınıf):        Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   54)
* arguments (inspect.BoundArguments özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  316)
* ArgumentTypeError:                     Exceptions<7>.      (line   14)
* argv (in module sys):                  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  271)
* argv (sys modülü içinde):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   70)
* arithmetic:                            Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* arithmetic;conversion:                 Arithmetic conversions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ArithmeticError:                       Temel sınıflar.     (line   72)
* array (array içindeki sınıf):          array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line   81)
* Array (ctypes içindeki sınıf):         Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line    6)
* Array() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Shared ctypes Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* Array() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  213)
* Array() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes modülü içinde): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   51)
* arrays:                                array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line    6)
* arraysize (sqlite3.Cursor özniteliği): Cursor objects.     (line  171)
* article() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):      Methods.            (line  241)
* AS pattern, OR pattern, capture pattern, wildcard pattern: Patterns.
                                                             (line    6)
* as_bytes() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  107)
* as_bytes() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  107)
* as_completed() (asyncio modülü içinde): Waiting Primitives.
                                                             (line   60)
* as_completed() (concurrent.futures modülü içinde): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   44)
* as_file() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   73)
* as_integer_ratio() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* as_integer_ratio() (float yöntemi):    Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line    9)
* as_integer_ratio() (fractions.Fraction yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  118)
* as_integer_ratio() (int yöntemi):      Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line  163)
* as_posix() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  163)
* as_string() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   61)
* as_string() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   60)
* as_tuple() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):  Decimal objects.    (line  136)
* as_uri() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi):   Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  174)
* as;except clause:                      except clause.      (line   30)
* as;import statement:                   The import statement.
                                                             (line   39)
* as;match statement:                    The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* as;with statement:                     The with statement. (line    6)
* ASCII:                                 Notation.           (line   32)
* ASCII <1>:                             Literals.           (line    8)
* ASCII (re modülü içinde):              Flags.              (line   16)
* ascii_letters (string modülü içinde):  String constants.   (line    8)
* ascii_lowercase (string modülü içinde): String constants.  (line   14)
* ascii_uppercase (string modülü içinde): String constants.  (line   19)
* ascii() (curses.ascii modülü içinde):  curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  212)
* asctime() (time modülü içinde):        Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line    6)
* asdict() (dataclasses modülü içinde):  Module contents<4>. (line  334)
* asend() (agen yöntemi):                Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   28)
* asenkron bağlam yöneticisi:            Sözlük.             (line   95)
* asenkron jeneratör:                    Sözlük.             (line  101)
* asenkron jeneratör yineleyici:         Sözlük.             (line  117)
* asenkron yineleyici:                   Sözlük.             (line  140)
* asin() (cmath modülü içinde):          Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* asin() (math modülü içinde):           Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (cmath modülü içinde):         Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (math modülü içinde):          Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   13)
* askcolor() (tkinter.colorchooser modülü içinde): tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line   17)
* askdirectory() (tkinter.filedialog modülü içinde): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   54)
* askfloat() (tkinter.simpledialog modülü içinde): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* askinteger() (tkinter.simpledialog modülü içinde): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* askokcancel() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  119)
* askopenfile() (tkinter.filedialog modülü içinde): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   31)
* askopenfilename() (tkinter.filedialog modülü içinde): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   42)
* askopenfilenames() (tkinter.filedialog modülü içinde): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   42)
* askopenfiles() (tkinter.filedialog modülü içinde): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   31)
* askquestion() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  113)
* askretrycancel() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  126)
* asksaveasfile() (tkinter.filedialog modülü içinde): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   37)
* asksaveasfilename() (tkinter.filedialog modülü içinde): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   49)
* askstring() (tkinter.simpledialog modülü içinde): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* askyesno() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  133)
* askyesnocancel() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  139)
* Assert (ast içindeki sınıf):           Statements.         (line  135)
* assert_any_await() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  841)
* assert_any_call() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  148)
* assert_awaited_once_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  824)
* assert_awaited_once() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  791)
* assert_awaited_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  807)
* assert_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  771)
* assert_called_once_with() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  134)
* assert_called_once() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  107)
* assert_called_with() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  124)
* assert_called() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line   96)
* assert_has_awaits() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  858)
* assert_has_calls() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  164)
* assert_never() (typing modülü içinde): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   44)
* assert_not_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  885)
* assert_not_called() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  185)
* assert_python_failure() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   57)
* assert_python_ok() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   40)
* assert_type() (typing modülü içinde):  Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   15)
* assertAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  511)
* assertCountEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  567)
* assertDictEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases. (line  676)
* assertEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.     (line  177)
* assertFalse() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.     (line  202)
* assertGreater() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.   (line  536)
* assertGreaterEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  536)
* assertIn() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.        (line  229)
* assertInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase yöntemi): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   22)
* AssertionError:                        Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line    8)
* assertIs() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.        (line  214)
* assertIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  236)
* assertIsNone() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.    (line  222)
* assertIsNot() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.     (line  214)
* assertIsNotNone() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases. (line  222)
* assertLess() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.      (line  536)
* assertLessEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases. (line  536)
* assertListEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases. (line  653)
* assertLogs() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.      (line  411)
* assertMultiLineEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  628)
* assertNoLogs() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.    (line  455)
* assertNotAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  511)
* assertNotEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.  (line  197)
* assertNotIn() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.     (line  229)
* assertNotInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase yöntemi): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   28)
* assertNotIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  236)
* assertNotRegex() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.  (line  549)
* assertRaises() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.    (line  276)
* assertRaisesRegex() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  317)
* assertRegex() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.     (line  549)
* asserts (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line   15)
* assertSequenceEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  638)
* assertSetEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.  (line  664)
* assertTrue() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.      (line  202)
* assertTupleEqual() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  653)
* assertWarns() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.     (line  345)
* assertWarnsRegex() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  386)
* Assign (ast içindeki sınıf):           Statements.         (line    6)
* assignment expression:                 Boolean operations. (line   38)
* assignment;statement:                  Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* assignment;statement <1>:              Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* AST (ast içindeki sınıf):              Node classes.       (line    6)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -a:         Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   29)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -h:         Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   15)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -help:      Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   15)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -i:         Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -include-attributes: Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   29)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -indent:    Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -m:         Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   19)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -mode:      Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   19)
* ast komut satırı seçeneği; -no-type-comments: Command-Line Usage<4>.
                                                             (line   25)
* astimezone() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  457)
* astuple() (dataclasses modülü içinde): Module contents<4>. (line  366)
* ASYNC (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  250)
* async for;in comprehensions:           Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* AsyncContextDecorator (contextlib içindeki sınıf): Utilities.
                                                             (line  462)
* AsyncContextManager (typing içindeki sınıf): Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   16)
* asynccontextmanager() (contextlib modülü içinde): Utilities.
                                                             (line   94)
* AsyncExitStack (contextlib içindeki sınıf): Utilities.     (line  621)
* AsyncFor (ast içindeki sınıf):         Async and await.    (line   44)
* AsyncFunctionDef (ast içindeki sınıf): Async and await.    (line    6)
* AsyncGenerator (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  163)
* AsyncGenerator (typing içindeki sınıf): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   21)
* AsyncGeneratorType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   49)
* asynchronous generator;asynchronous iterator: Asynchronous generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* asynchronous generator;function:       Asynchronous generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (yerleşik değişken): Constants<5>.
                                                             (line   23)
* asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (yerleşik değişken): Constants<5>. (line    6)
* asyncio.subprocess.Process (yerleşik sınıf): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   11)
* asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (yerleşik değişken): Constants<5>.
                                                             (line   17)
* AsyncIterable (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  149)
* AsyncIterable (typing içindeki sınıf): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   36)
* AsyncIterator (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  156)
* AsyncIterator (typing içindeki sınıf): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   46)
* AsyncMock (unittest.mock içindeki sınıf): The Mock Class.  (line  699)
* AsyncResult (multiprocessing.pool içindeki sınıf): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  191)
* asyncSetUp() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  860)
* asyncTearDown() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  869)
* AsyncWith (ast içindeki sınıf):        Async and await.    (line   44)
* AT (token modülü içinde):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  222)
* at_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader.     (line   76)
* atan() (cmath modülü içinde):          Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* atan() (math modülü içinde):           Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   16)
* atan2() (math modülü içinde):          Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   21)
* atanh() (cmath modülü içinde):         Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* atanh() (math modülü içinde):          Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   17)
* ATEQUAL (token modülü içinde):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  226)
* atexit (weakref.finalize özniteliği):  weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  317)
* athrow() (agen yöntemi):               Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   43)
* atof() (locale modülü içinde):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  508)
* atoi() (locale modülü içinde):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  514)
* atom:                                  Atoms.              (line    6)
* attach_loop() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher yöntemi): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   63)
* attach_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  255)
* attach() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  168)
* AttlistDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  246)
* attrgetter() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  234)
* attrib (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element özniteliği): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* attribute:                             The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line   13)
* Attribute (ast içindeki sınıf):        Expressions<2>.     (line  171)
* attribute;assignment:                  Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* attribute;assignment <1>:              Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   76)
* attribute;deletion:                    The del statement.  (line   20)
* attribute;reference:                   Attribute references.
                                                             (line    6)
* AttributeError:                        Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   13)
* attributes (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):  Node Objects.       (line   26)
* AttributesImpl (xml.sax.xmlreader içindeki sınıf): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   69)
* AttributesNSImpl (xml.sax.xmlreader içindeki sınıf): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   80)
* attroff() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line   53)
* attron() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line   58)
* attrset() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line   63)
* Audio Interchange File Format:         aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line    8)
* Audio Interchange File Format <1>:     chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    8)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G721 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   94)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G722 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   94)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_3 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   94)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_5 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   94)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_8 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   84)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   94)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   94)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_16 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   84)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_24 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   84)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_32 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   84)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_8 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   84)
* AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_8 (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   84)
* AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC (sunau modülü içinde): sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   78)
* AUDIODEV:                              ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   58)
* audit events:                          Debugging and Profiling.
                                                             (line   13)
* audit() (sys modülü içinde):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   91)
* auditing:                              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   93)
* AugAssign (ast içindeki sınıf):        Statements.         (line  101)
* augmented;assignment:                  Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* AUGUST (calendar modülü içinde):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* auth() (ftplib.FTP_TLS yöntemi):       FTP_TLS objects.    (line   88)
* auth() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):         SMTP Objects.       (line  140)
* authenticate() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi): IMAP4 Objects.     (line   37)
* AuthenticationError:                   Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  240)
* authenticators() (netrc.netrc yöntemi): netrc Objects.     (line    8)
* authkey (multiprocessing.Process özniteliği): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  141)
* auto (enum içindeki sınıf):            Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line    6)
* autocommit (sqlite3.Connection özniteliği): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  703)
* autorange() (timeit.Timer yöntemi):    Python Interface.   (line   92)
* available_timezones() (zoneinfo modülü içinde): Functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* avg() (audioop modülü içinde):         audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   54)
* avgpp() (audioop modülü içinde):       audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   58)
* avoids_symlink_attacks (shutil.rmtree özniteliği): Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  312)
* Await (ast içindeki sınıf):            Async and await.    (line   14)
* AWAIT (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  248)
* await_args (unittest.mock.AsyncMock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  914)
* await_args_list (unittest.mock.AsyncMock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  932)
* await_count (unittest.mock.AsyncMock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  898)
* await;in comprehensions:               Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   45)
* Awaitable (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  109)
* Awaitable (typing içindeki sınıf):     Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   56)
* b';bytes literal:                      String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   46)
* b";bytes literal:                      String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   46)
* b16decode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  155)
* b16encode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  150)
* b2a_base64() (binascii modülü içinde): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   61)
* b2a_hex() (binascii modülü içinde):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  114)
* b2a_qp() (binascii modülü içinde):     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   77)
* b2a_uu() (binascii modülü içinde):     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   31)
* b32decode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  111)
* b32encode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  106)
* b32hexdecode() (base64 modülü içinde): base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  138)
* b32hexencode() (base64 modülü içinde): base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  131)
* b64decode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   58)
* b64encode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   43)
* b85decode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  223)
* b85encode() (base64 modülü içinde):    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  212)
* Babyl (mailbox içindeki sınıf):        Babyl objects.      (line    6)
* BabylMessage (mailbox içindeki sınıf): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* back() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* backslash character:                   Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* backslashreplace_errors() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.
                                                             (line  161)
* backslashreplace;error handler's name: Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* backup() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects. (line  501)
* backward() (turtle modülü içinde):     Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* BadGzipFile:                           gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line   63)
* BadOptionError:                        Exceptions<18>.     (line   21)
* BadStatusLine:                         http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  178)
* BadZipFile:                            zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   24)
* BadZipfile:                            zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   30)
* bağlam değişkeni:                      Sözlük.             (line  281)
* bağlam yöneticisi:                     Sözlük.             (line  275)
* Balloon (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):  Basic Widgets.      (line    6)
* Barrier (asyncio içindeki sınıf):      Barrier.            (line    6)
* Barrier (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   13)
* Barrier (threading içindeki sınıf):    Barrier Objects.    (line   36)
* Barrier() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  160)
* base_exec_prefix (sys modülü içinde):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  122)
* base_prefix (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  136)
* base64;encoding:                       base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    8)
* BaseCGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers içindeki sınıf): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   53)
* BaseCookie (http.cookies içindeki sınıf): http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   39)
* BaseException:                         Temel sınıflar.     (line    9)
* BaseExceptionGroup:                    İstisna grupları.   (line   14)
* BaseHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  293)
* BaseHandler (wsgiref.handlers içindeki sınıf): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   89)
* BaseHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* BaseHTTPRequestHandler (http.server içindeki sınıf): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   52)
* BaseManager (multiprocessing.managers içindeki sınıf): Managers.
                                                             (line   23)
* basename() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   57)
* BaseProtocol (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Base Protocols.     (line    6)
* BaseProxy (multiprocessing.managers içindeki sınıf): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* BaseRequestHandler (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* BaseRotatingHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   12)
* BaseSelector (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.       (line   53)
* BaseServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* basestring (2to3 fixer):               Fixers.             (line   60)
* BaseTransport (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* basicConfig() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  204)
* BasicContext (decimal modülü içinde):  Context objects.    (line   65)
* BasicInterpolation (configparser içindeki sınıf): Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   10)
* batched() (itertools modülü içinde):   Itertool Functions. (line   70)
* baudrate() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line   18)
* bayt benzeri nesne:                    Sözlük.             (line  199)
* bayt kodu:                             Sözlük.             (line  218)
* bbox() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.       (line    8)
* BDADDR_ANY (socket modülü içinde):     Constants<6>.       (line  290)
* BDADDR_LOCAL (socket modülü içinde):   Constants<6>.       (line  290)
* Bdb (bdb içindeki sınıf):              bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  129)
* BdbQuit:                               bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   15)
* BDFL:                                  Sözlük.             (line  168)
* beep() (curses modülü içinde):         Functions<4>.       (line   26)
* Beep() (winsound modülü içinde):       winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   12)
* BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  301)
* BEFORE_WITH (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  450)
* begin_fill() (turtle modülü içinde):   Filling.            (line   16)
* begin_poly() (turtle modülü içinde):   Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* beklenebilir:                          Sözlük.             (line  162)
* BEL (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   40)
* belge dizisi:                          Sözlük.             (line  388)
* BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   59)
* below() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi):  Panel Objects.      (line   17)
* benchmarking:                          Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  207)
* benchmarking <1>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  231)
* benchmarking <2>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  588)
* Benchmarking:                          timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets.
                                                             (line    8)
* betavariate() (random modülü içinde):  Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   33)
* bgcolor() (turtle modülü içinde):      Window control.     (line    6)
* bgpic() (turtle modülü içinde):        Window control.     (line   21)
* bias() (audioop modülü içinde):        audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   64)
* bidirectional() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   54)
* bigaddrspacetest() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  561)
* BigEndianStructure (ctypes içindeki sınıf): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   22)
* BigEndianUnion (ctypes içindeki sınıf): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   10)
* bigmemtest() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  545)
* Binary (msilib içindeki sınıf):        msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   91)
* Binary (xmlrpc.client içindeki sınıf): Binary Objects.     (line    6)
* binary literal:                        Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* binary semaphores:                     _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* BINARY_OP (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  182)
* BINARY_SLICE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  218)
* BINARY_SUBSCR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  193)
* binary;arithmetic;operation:           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary;bitwise;operation:              Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary;literals:                       Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* binaryfunc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  114)
* BinaryIO (typing içindeki sınıf):      ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind (widgets):                        Bindings and Events.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind_partial() (inspect.Signature yöntemi): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  128)
* bind_port() (test.support.socket_helper modülü içinde): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   37)
* bind_textdomain_codeset() (locale modülü içinde): Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   16)
* bind_unix_socket() (test.support.socket_helper modülü içinde): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   54)
* bind() (inspect.Signature yöntemi):    Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  121)
* bind() (socket.socket yöntemi):        Socket Objects.     (line   30)
* binding;name:                          Binding of names.   (line    6)
* binding;name <1>:                      Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* bindtextdomain() (gettext modülü içinde): GNU gettext API. (line   14)
* bindtextdomain() (locale modülü içinde): Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* binomialvariate() (random modülü içinde): Discrete distributions.
                                                             (line    8)
* BinOp (ast içindeki sınıf):            Expressions<2>.     (line   42)
* bisect_left() (bisect modülü içinde):  bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   24)
* bisect_right() (bisect modülü içinde): bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   49)
* bisect() (bisect modülü içinde):       bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   49)
* bit_count() (int yöntemi):             Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line   36)
* bit_length() (int yöntemi):            Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line    9)
* BitAnd (ast içindeki sınıf):           Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* bitişik:                               Sözlük.             (line  291)
* bitmap() (msilib.Dialog yöntemi):      GUI classes.        (line   58)
* BitOr (ast içindeki sınıf):            Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* bits_per_digit (sys.int_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1127)
* bitwise;and:                           Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   12)
* bitwise;operations:                    Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* bitwise;or:                            Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* bitwise;xor:                           Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* BitXor (ast içindeki sınıf):           Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* bk() (turtle modülü içinde):           Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* bkgd() (curses.window yöntemi):        Window Objects.     (line   68)
* bkgdset() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line   80)
* blake2b, blake2s:                      BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>.
                                                             (line   24)
* blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>.
                                                             (line   18)
* blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>. (line   12)
* blake2b.SALT_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>.   (line    6)
* blake2b() (hashlib modülü içinde):     Creating hash objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>.
                                                             (line   26)
* blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>.
                                                             (line   20)
* blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>. (line   14)
* blake2s.SALT_SIZE (hashlib modülü içinde): Constants<3>.   (line    8)
* blake2s() (hashlib modülü içinde):     Creating hash objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* blank line:                            Blank lines.        (line    6)
* BLKTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  295)
* Blob (sqlite3 içindeki sınıf):         Blob objects.       (line    6)
* blobopen() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* block:                                 Structure of a program.
                                                             (line    6)
* block_on_close (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn özniteliği): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   45)
* block_size (hmac.HMAC özniteliği):     hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   93)
* blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy yöntemi): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* BlockingIOError:                       İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* BlockingIOError <1>:                   High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   67)
* blocksize (http.client.HTTPConnection özniteliği): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* BNF:                                   Notation.           (line    6)
* BNF <1>:                               Expressions.        (line    6)
* body_encode() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  135)
* body_encoding (email.charset.Charset özniteliği): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   67)
* body_line_iterator() (email.iterators modülü içinde): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   14)
* body() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  272)
* body() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog yöntemi): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   25)
* BOLD (tkinter.font modülü içinde):     tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* BOM (codecs modülü içinde):            codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_BE (codecs modülü içinde):         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_LE (codecs modülü içinde):         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_UTF16 (codecs modülü içinde):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_UTF16_BE (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_UTF16_LE (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_UTF32 (codecs modülü içinde):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_UTF32_BE (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_UTF32_LE (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* BOM_UTF8 (codecs modülü içinde):       codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* bool (yerleşik sınıf):                 Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  135)
* BOOLEAN_STATES (configparser.ConfigParser özniteliği): Customizing Parser Behaviour.
                                                             (line  246)
* Boolean;operation:                     Boolean operations. (line    6)
* Boolean;operations:                    Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;operations <1>:                Boolean İşlemleri — and or not.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;type:                          Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  146)
* Boolean;values:                        Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* BooleanOptionalAction (argparse içindeki sınıf): action.   (line  107)
* BoolOp (ast içindeki sınıf):           Expressions<2>.     (line   70)
* bootstrap() (ensurepip modülü içinde): Module API.         (line   13)
* border() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line   91)
* BOŞTA:                                 Sözlük.             (line  658)
* bottom_panel() (curses.panel modülü içinde): Functions<5>. (line    8)
* bottom() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi): Panel Objects.      (line   21)
* BoundArguments (inspect içindeki sınıf): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  310)
* BoundaryError:                         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   38)
* BoundedSemaphore (asyncio içindeki sınıf): BoundedSemaphore.
                                                             (line    6)
* BoundedSemaphore (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   19)
* BoundedSemaphore (threading içindeki sınıf): Semaphore Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* BoundedSemaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  167)
* box() (curses.window yöntemi):         Window Objects.     (line  130)
* bpbynumber (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  110)
* bpformat() (bdb.Breakpoint yöntemi):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   56)
* bplist (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  115)
* bpprint() (bdb.Breakpoint yöntemi):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   75)
* BRANCH (monitoring event):             Events.             (line    8)
* Break (ast içindeki sınıf):            Control flow.       (line  102)
* break (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line   94)
* break_anywhere() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  263)
* break_here() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):        bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  254)
* break_long_words (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  248)
* break_on_hyphens (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  258)
* Breakpoint (bdb içindeki sınıf):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   22)
* breakpointhook() (sys modülü içinde):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  231)
* breakpoints:                           Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   29)
* broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  311)
* broken (asyncio.Barrier özniteliği):   Barrier.            (line  103)
* broken (threading.Barrier özniteliği): Barrier Objects.    (line  101)
* BrokenBarrierError:                    Barrier Objects.    (line  106)
* BrokenBarrierError <1>:                Barrier.            (line  108)
* BrokenExecutor:                        Exception classes.  (line   18)
* BrokenPipeError:                       İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   39)
* BrokenProcessPool:                     Exception classes.  (line   41)
* BrokenThreadPool:                      Exception classes.  (line   33)
* BROWSER:                               webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   20)
* BROWSER <1>:                           webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  118)
* BS (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   43)
* BsdDbShelf (shelve içindeki sınıf):    Restrictions.       (line   60)
* buf (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory özniteliği): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   93)
* buffer (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line   64)
* Buffer (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  173)
* buffer (io.TextIOBase özniteliği):     Text I/O<2>.        (line   30)
* buffer (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  293)
* buffer interface;(see buffer protocol): Iterator Protocol. (line   78)
* buffer object;(see buffer protocol):   Iterator Protocol.  (line   77)
* buffer protocol:                       Iterator Protocol.  (line   78)
* buffer protocol;binary sequence types: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line  189)
* buffer protocol;str (built-in class):  Metin Sırası Türü — str.
                                                             (line   60)
* buffer size, I/O:                      Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1439)
* buffer_info() (array.array yöntemi):   array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  118)
* buffer_size (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  120)
* buffer_text (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  127)
* buffer_updated() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol yöntemi): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   33)
* buffer_used (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  138)
* BufferedIOBase (io içindeki sınıf):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  224)
* BufferedProtocol (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Base Protocols. (line   15)
* BufferedRandom (io içindeki sınıf):    Buffered Streams.   (line  138)
* BufferedReader (io içindeki sınıf):    Buffered Streams.   (line   56)
* BufferedRWPair (io içindeki sınıf):    Buffered Streams.   (line  153)
* BufferedWriter (io içindeki sınıf):    Buffered Streams.   (line   97)
* BufferError:                           Temel sınıflar.     (line   78)
* BufferFlags (inspect içindeki sınıf):  Buffer flags.       (line    6)
* BufferingFormatter (logging içindeki sınıf): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  132)
* BufferingHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* BufferTooShort:                        Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  232)
* bufsize() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  214)
* BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  630)
* BUILD_LIST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  612)
* BUILD_MAP (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  620)
* build_opener() (urllib.request modülü içinde): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  135)
* BUILD_SET (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  616)
* BUILD_SLICE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1044)
* BUILD_STRING (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  639)
* BUILD_TUPLE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  599)
* built-in function; __import__():       Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2124)
* built-in function; abs():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   44)
* built-in function; aiter():            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   51)
* built-in function; all():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   61)
* built-in function; anext():            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   72)
* built-in function; any():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   91)
* built-in function; ascii():            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  103)
* built-in function; bin():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  112)
* built-in function; breakpoint():       Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  148)
* built-in function; callable():         Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  231)
* built-in function; chr():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  243)
* built-in function; classmethod():      Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  254)
* built-in function; compile():          Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  290)
* built-in function; delattr():          Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  445)
* built-in function; dir():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  468)
* built-in function; divmod():           Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  528)
* built-in function; enumerate():        Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  540)
* built-in function; eval():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  563)
* built-in function; exec():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  631)
* built-in function; filter():           Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  692)
* built-in function; format():           Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  775)
* built-in function; getattr():          Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  811)
* built-in function; globals():          Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  829)
* built-in function; hasattr():          Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  835)
* built-in function; hash():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  842)
* built-in function; help():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  854)
* built-in function; hex():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  879)
* built-in function; id():               Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  911)
* built-in function; input():            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  923)
* built-in function; isinstance():       Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1025)
* built-in function; issubclass():       Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1042)
* built-in function; iter():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1056)
* built-in function; len():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1086)
* built-in function; locals():           Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1104)
* built-in function; map():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1117)
* built-in function; max():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1128)
* built-in function; min():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1163)
* built-in function; multiprocessing.Manager(): Managers.    (line   12)
* built-in function; next():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1193)
* built-in function; oct():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1213)
* built-in function; open():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1238)
* built-in function; ord():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1486)
* built-in function; pow():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1493)
* built-in function; print():            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1533)
* built-in function; property.deleter(): Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1611)
* built-in function; property.getter():  Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1607)
* built-in function; property.setter():  Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1609)
* built-in function; repr():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1653)
* built-in function; reversed():         Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1676)
* built-in function; round():            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1683)
* built-in function; setattr():          Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1722)
* built-in function; sorted():           Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1770)
* built-in function; staticmethod():     Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1807)
* built-in function; sum():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1861)
* built-in function; vars():             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2005)
* built-in function; zip():              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2026)
* built-in function;__import__:          Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   28)
* built-in function;abs:                 Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  113)
* built-in function;abs <1>:             Number Protocol.    (line  100)
* built-in function;ascii:               Object Protocol.    (line  228)
* built-in function;bytes:               Basic customization.
                                                             (line  148)
* built-in function;bytes <1>:           Object Protocol.    (line  251)
* built-in function;call:                Calls.              (line  143)
* built-in function;chr:                 Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* built-in function;classmethod:         Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  197)
* built-in function;compile:             The global statement.
                                                             (line   18)
* built-in function;compile <1>:         Kod Nesneleri.      (line    6)
* built-in function;compile <2>:         Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   58)
* built-in function;compile <3>:         Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  114)
* built-in function;complex:             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  120)
* built-in function;complex <1>:         Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;divmod:              Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   26)
* built-in function;divmod <1>:          Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   56)
* built-in function;divmod <2>:          Number Protocol.    (line   71)
* built-in function;eval:                The global statement.
                                                             (line   18)
* built-in function;eval <1>:            Expression input.   (line    6)
* built-in function;eval <2>:            Kod Nesneleri.      (line   17)
* built-in function;eval <3>:            Functions<3>.       (line   87)
* built-in function;eval <4>:            PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* built-in function;exec:                The global statement.
                                                             (line   18)
* built-in function;exec <1>:            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  631)
* built-in function;exec <2>:            Kod Nesneleri.      (line   17)
* built-in function;float:               Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  120)
* built-in function;float <1>:           Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;float <2>:           Number Protocol.    (line  266)
* built-in function;hash:                Basic customization.
                                                             (line  241)
* built-in function;hash <1>:            Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;hash <2>:            Object Protocol.    (line  301)
* built-in function;hash <3>:            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  358)
* built-in function;help:                İşletim Sistemi Arayüzü.
                                                             (line   21)
* built-in function;id:                  Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* built-in function;int:                 Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  120)
* built-in function;int <1>:             Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* built-in function;int <2>:             Number Protocol.    (line  258)
* built-in function;len:                 Sequences.          (line    6)
* built-in function;len <1>:             Set types.          (line    6)
* built-in function;len <2>:             Mappings.           (line    6)
* built-in function;len <3>:             Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   41)
* built-in function;len <4>:             Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* built-in function;len <5>:             Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;len <6>:             Object Protocol.    (line  350)
* built-in function;len <7>:             Sequence Protocol.  (line   16)
* built-in function;len <8>:             Mapping Protocol.   (line   19)
* built-in function;len <9>:             List Objects.       (line   38)
* built-in function;len <10>:            Dictionary Objects. (line  143)
* built-in function;len <11>:            Set Objects.        (line   99)
* built-in function;max:                 Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* built-in function;min:                 Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* built-in function;open:                Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;open <1>:            I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* built-in function;ord:                 Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* built-in function;pow:                 Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   26)
* built-in function;pow <1>:             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   26)
* built-in function;pow <2>:             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   56)
* built-in function;pow <3>:             Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line   67)
* built-in function;pow <4>:             Number Protocol.    (line   80)
* built-in function;pow <5>:             Number Protocol.    (line  206)
* built-in function;print:               Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* built-in function;range:               The for statement.  (line   37)
* built-in function;repr:                Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* built-in function;repr <1>:            Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   90)
* built-in function;repr <2>:            Object Protocol.    (line  215)
* built-in function;repr <3>:            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  296)
* built-in function;round:               Emulating numeric types.
                                                             (line  143)
* built-in function;slice:               Slice objects.      (line    6)
* built-in function;slice <1>:           Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1046)
* built-in function;staticmethod:        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  204)
* built-in function;tuple:               Sequence Protocol.  (line  120)
* built-in function;tuple <1>:           List Objects.       (line  126)
* built-in function;type:                Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* built-in function;type <1>:            Metaclasses.        (line    6)
* built-in function;type <2>:            Type Objects.       (line    6)
* built-in function;type <3>:            Object Protocol.    (line  332)
* built-in method;call:                  Calls.              (line  143)
* built-in;method:                       Built-in methods.   (line    6)
* built-in;types:                        Gömülü Türler.      (line    9)
* builtin_module_names (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  157)
* BuiltinFunctionType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   81)
* BuiltinImporter (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   67)
* BuiltinMethodType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   81)
* bulucu:                                Sözlük.             (line  483)
* busy_retry() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  197)
* BUTTON_ALT (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  629)
* BUTTON_CTRL (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  626)
* BUTTON_SHIFT (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  623)
* ButtonBox (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Basic Widgets.     (line   13)
* buttonbox() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog yöntemi): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   30)
* BUTTONn_CLICKED (curses modülü içinde): Constants<4>.      (line  614)
* BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED (curses modülü içinde): Constants<4>.
                                                             (line  617)
* BUTTONn_PRESSED (curses modülü içinde): Constants<4>.      (line  608)
* BUTTONn_RELEASED (curses modülü içinde): Constants<4>.     (line  611)
* BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED (curses modülü içinde): Constants<4>.
                                                             (line  620)
* bye() (turtle modülü içinde):          Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line    6)
* byref() (ctypes modülü içinde):        Utility functions.  (line   19)
* byte:                                  Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   39)
* bytearray:                             Mutable sequences.  (line   25)
* bytearray (yerleşik sınıf):            Bytearray Objects.  (line    9)
* bytearray;formatting:                  printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;interpolation:               printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;methods:                     Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytecode:                              Code objects.       (line    6)
* Bytecode (dis içindeki sınıf):         Bytecode analysis.  (line   12)
* BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery modülü içinde): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   40)
* Bytecode.codeobj (dis modülü içinde):  Bytecode analysis.  (line   46)
* Bytecode.first_line (dis modülü içinde): Bytecode analysis.
                                                             (line   50)
* BytecodeTestCase (test.support.bytecode_helper içindeki sınıf): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   13)
* byteorder (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  150)
* bytes:                                 Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   39)
* bytes (uuid.UUID özniteliği):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   86)
* bytes (yerleşik sınıf):                Bytes Objects.      (line   12)
* bytes literal:                         Literals.           (line    8)
* bytes_le (uuid.UUID özniteliği):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   91)
* bytes_warning (sys.flags özniteliği):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  547)
* bytes;formatting:                      printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;interpolation:                   printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;methods:                         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;str (built-in class):            Metin Sırası Türü — str.
                                                             (line   60)
* BytesFeedParser (email.parser içindeki sınıf): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   28)
* BytesGenerator (email.generator içindeki sınıf): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line   43)
* BytesHeaderParser (email.parser içindeki sınıf): Parser API.
                                                             (line   68)
* BytesIO (io içindeki sınıf):           Buffered Streams.   (line    9)
* BytesParser (email.parser içindeki sınıf): Parser API.     (line   18)
* ByteString (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* ByteString (typing içindeki sınıf):    Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* byteswap() (array.array yöntemi):      array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  138)
* byteswap() (audioop modülü içinde):    audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   69)
* BytesWarning:                          Uyarılar.           (line   82)
* BZ2Compressor (bz2 içindeki sınıf):    Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* BZ2Decompressor (bz2 içindeki sınıf):  Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   33)
* BZ2File (bz2 içindeki sınıf):          De compression of files.
                                                             (line   40)
* C:                                     String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* c_bool (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  207)
* c_byte (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* c_char (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* c_char_p (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* C_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   25)
* c_contiguous (memoryview özniteliği):  Memory Views.       (line  473)
* c_double (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   65)
* c_float (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* c_int (ctypes içindeki sınıf):         Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* c_int16 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* c_int32 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* c_int64 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* c_int8 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* c_long (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* c_longdouble (ctypes içindeki sınıf):  Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* c_longlong (ctypes içindeki sınıf):    Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* C_RAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   16)
* C_RETURN (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   21)
* c_short (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  119)
* c_size_t (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  124)
* c_ssize_t (ctypes içindeki sınıf):     Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  128)
* c_time_t (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  134)
* c_ubyte (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  140)
* c_uint (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  146)
* c_uint16 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  158)
* c_uint32 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  163)
* c_uint64 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  168)
* c_uint8 (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  153)
* c_ulong (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  173)
* c_ulonglong (ctypes içindeki sınıf):   Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  178)
* c_ushort (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  184)
* c_void_p (ctypes içindeki sınıf):      Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  189)
* c_wchar (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  194)
* c_wchar_p (ctypes içindeki sınıf):     Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  201)
* C-contiguous:                          shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   26)
* C-contiguous <1>:                      Sözlük.             (line  295)
* C;language:                            The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;language <1>:                        numbers Real float. (line    6)
* C;language <2>:                        Built-in functions. (line    6)
* C;language <3>:                        Comparisons.        (line    6)
* C;language <4>:                        Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;structures:                          struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
                                                             (line    8)
* C14NWriterTarget (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* CAB (msilib içindeki sınıf):           CAB Objects.        (line    6)
* CACHE (opcode):                        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  126)
* cache_from_source() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   21)
* cache() (functools modülü içinde):     functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* cached (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  422)
* cached_property() (functools modülü içinde): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* CacheFTPHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  451)
* çağırılabilir:                         Sözlük.             (line  233)
* calcobjsize() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  434)
* calcsize() (struct modülü içinde):     Functions and Exceptions.
                                                             (line   55)
* calcvobjsize() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  440)
* Calendar (calendar içindeki sınıf):    calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -c:    Command-Line Usage. (line  111)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -css:  Command-Line Usage. (line  111)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -e:    Command-Line Usage. (line   66)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -encoding: Command-Line Usage.
                                                             (line   66)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -h:    Command-Line Usage. (line   57)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -help: Command-Line Usage. (line   57)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -L:    Command-Line Usage. (line   61)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -l:    Command-Line Usage. (line   94)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -lines: Command-Line Usage.
                                                             (line   94)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -locale: Command-Line Usage.
                                                             (line   61)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -m:    Command-Line Usage. (line  105)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -months: Command-Line Usage.
                                                             (line  105)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -s:    Command-Line Usage. (line  100)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -spacing: Command-Line Usage.
                                                             (line  100)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -t:    Command-Line Usage. (line   71)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -type: Command-Line Usage. (line   71)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -w:    Command-Line Usage. (line   88)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; -width: Command-Line Usage.
                                                             (line   88)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; month: Command-Line Usage. (line   80)
* calendar komut satırı seçeneği; year:  Command-Line Usage. (line   75)
* calendar() (calendar modülü içinde):   calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  412)
* call:                                  Slicings.           (line   39)
* Call (ast içindeki sınıf):             Expressions<2>.     (line  122)
* CALL (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   12)
* CALL (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  958)
* call_args (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class. (line  435)
* call_args_list (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  479)
* call_at() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):      Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   37)
* call_count (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  328)
* call_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Error Handling API.
                                                             (line   45)
* CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  992)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_1 (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1167)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_2 (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1228)
* call_later() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):   Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   10)
* call_list() (unittest.mock.call yöntemi): call.            (line   20)
* call_soon_threadsafe() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Scheduling callbacks.
                                                             (line   24)
* call_soon() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):    Scheduling callbacks.
                                                             (line    6)
* call_tracing() (sys modülü içinde):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  166)
* call;instance:                         Emulating callable objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* call() (operator modülü içinde):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  221)
* call() (subprocess modülü içinde):     Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   10)
* call() (unittest.mock modülü içinde):  call.               (line    6)
* Callable (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* Callable (typing modülü içinde):       Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   22)
* CallableProxyType (weakref modülü içinde): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  340)
* callback (optparse.Option özniteliği): Option attributes.  (line   68)
* callback_args (optparse.Option özniteliği): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   74)
* callback_kwargs (optparse.Option özniteliği): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   74)
* callback() (contextlib.ExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.      (line  582)
* callbacks (gc modülü içinde):          gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  258)
* called (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class.    (line  316)
* CalledProcessError:                    Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  205)
* calloc (C function):                   Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* CAN (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   97)
* CAN_BCM (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line  137)
* can_change_color() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.   (line   30)
* can_fetch() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   33)
* CAN_ISOTP (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  176)
* CAN_J1939 (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  185)
* CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.    (line  152)
* CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>. (line  165)
* can_symlink() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   75)
* can_write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   47)
* can_write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   14)
* can_xattr() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   79)
* CANCEL (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  155)
* cancel_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   82)
* cancel_dump_traceback_later() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line   29)
* cancel_join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  193)
* cancel() (asyncio.Future yöntemi):     Future Object.      (line  113)
* cancel() (asyncio.Handle yöntemi):     Callback Handles.   (line   18)
* cancel() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):       Task Object.        (line  199)
* cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* cancel() (sched.scheduler yöntemi):    Scheduler Objects.  (line   41)
* cancel() (threading.Timer yöntemi):    Timer Objects.      (line   35)
* cancel() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler yöntemi): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   48)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Future yöntemi):  Future Object.      (line   71)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Handle yöntemi):  Callback Handles.   (line   23)
* cancelled() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):    Task Object.        (line  260)
* cancelled() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* CancelledError:                        Exception classes.  (line    6)
* CancelledError <1>:                    Exceptions<10>.     (line   18)
* cancelling() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):   Task Object.        (line  309)
* CannotSendHeader:                      http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  170)
* CannotSendRequest:                     http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  166)
* canonic() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):           bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  149)
* canonical() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  257)
* canonical() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  141)
* canonicalize() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line    6)
* capa() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   24)
* capitalize() (bytearray yöntemi):      Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  470)
* capitalize() (bytes yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  470)
* capitalize() (str yöntemi):            String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line   21)
* captured_stderr() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  328)
* captured_stdin() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  328)
* captured_stdout() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  328)
* captureWarnings() (logging modülü içinde): Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line    9)
* capwords() (string modülü içinde):     Helper functions.   (line    6)
* case block:                            Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* casefold() (str yöntemi):              String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line   31)
* cast() (ctypes modülü içinde):         Utility functions.  (line   33)
* cast() (memoryview yöntemi):           Memory Views.       (line  273)
* cast() (typing modülü içinde):         Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line    6)
* cat() (nis modülü içinde):             nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line   38)
* catch_threading_exception() (test.support.threading_helper modülü içinde): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   47)
* catch_unraisable_exception() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  591)
* catch_warnings (warnings içindeki sınıf): Available Context Managers.
                                                             (line    6)
* category() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   49)
* cbreak() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line   35)
* cbrt() (math modülü içinde):           Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line    6)
* CC:                                    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* ccc() (ftplib.FTP_TLS yöntemi):        FTP_TLS objects.    (line   98)
* cdf() (statistics.NormalDist yöntemi): NormalDist objects. (line   80)
* CDLL (ctypes içindeki sınıf):          Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line    9)
* ceil() (in module math):               Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line  111)
* ceil() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line    6)
* CellType (types modülü içinde):        Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   70)
* center() (bytearray yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  289)
* center() (bytes yöntemi):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  289)
* center() (str yöntemi):                String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line   49)
* CERT_NONE (ssl modülü içinde):         Constants<7>.       (line   11)
* CERT_OPTIONAL (ssl modülü içinde):     Constants<7>.       (line   24)
* CERT_REQUIRED (ssl modülü içinde):     Constants<7>.       (line   40)
* cert_store_stats() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts. (line   88)
* cert_time_to_seconds() (ssl modülü içinde): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line    6)
* CertificateError:                      Exceptions<13>.     (line   94)
* certificates:                          SSL Contexts.       (line  660)
* CFLAGS:                                New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CFLAGS <1>:                            Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* CFLAGS <2>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* CFLAGS <3>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* CFLAGS <4>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* CFLAGS <5>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* CFLAGS <6>:                            Linker flags.       (line   18)
* CFLAGS_NODIST:                         Compiler flags.     (line   24)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                     Compiler flags.     (line   61)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:                     Linker flags.       (line   26)
* cfmakecbreak() (tty modülü içinde):    tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   28)
* cfmakeraw() (tty modülü içinde):       tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* CFUNCTYPE() (ctypes modülü içinde):    Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   15)
* cget() (tkinter.font.Font yöntemi):    tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   51)
* cgi_directories (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  469)
* CGI;debugging:                         Debugging CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* CGI;exceptions:                        cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    8)
* CGI;protocol:                          cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    8)
* CGI;security:                          Caring about security.
                                                             (line    6)
* CGI;tracebacks:                        cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    8)
* CGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers içindeki sınıf): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   11)
* CGIHTTPRequestHandler (http.server içindeki sınıf): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  443)
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server içindeki sınıf): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   51)
* chain() (itertools modülü içinde):     Itertool Functions. (line   97)
* chaining;comparisons:                  Comparisons.        (line   19)
* chaining;comparisons <1>:              Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* ChainMap (collections içindeki sınıf): ChainMap objects.   (line   16)
* ChainMap (typing içindeki sınıf):      Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   28)
* change_cwd() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   83)
* CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.   (line  465)
* channels() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  133)
* CHAR_MAX (locale modülü içinde):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  576)
* character:                             Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* character <1>:                         Subscriptions.      (line   58)
* character <2>:                         unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* CharacterDataHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  278)
* characters_written (BlockingIOError özniteliği): İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   20)
* characters() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* Charset (email.charset içindeki sınıf): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   24)
* charset() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   68)
* chdir() (contextlib modülü içinde):    Utilities.          (line  364)
* chdir() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  115)
* check (lzma.LZMADecompressor özniteliği): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  158)
* check__all__() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  671)
* check_call() (subprocess modülü içinde): Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   42)
* check_disallow_instantiation() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  725)
* CHECK_EG_MATCH (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  413)
* CHECK_EXC_MATCH (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  405)
* check_free_after_iterating() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  659)
* check_hostname (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.  (line  492)
* check_impl_detail() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  292)
* check_no_resource_warning() (test.support.warnings_helper modülü içinde): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* check_output() (doctest.OutputChecker yöntemi): OutputChecker objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* check_output() (subprocess modülü içinde): Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   78)
* check_returncode() (subprocess.CompletedProcess yöntemi): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  134)
* check_syntax_error() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  565)
* check_syntax_warning() (test.support.warnings_helper modülü içinde): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   32)
* check_unused_args() (string.Formatter yöntemi): Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   91)
* check_warnings() (test.support.warnings_helper modülü içinde): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   48)
* check() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line   58)
* check() (tabnanny modülü içinde):      tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   17)
* checkbox() (msilib.Dialog yöntemi):    GUI classes.        (line   76)
* checkcache() (linecache modülü içinde): linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   43)
* CHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode özniteliği): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  109)
* checkfuncname() (bdb modülü içinde):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  451)
* CheckList (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Hierarchical ListBox.
                                                             (line   13)
* checksizeof() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  446)
* checksum;Cyclic Redundancy Check:      zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  123)
* chflags() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  134)
* chgat() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  136)
* childNodes (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):  Node Objects.       (line   49)
* ChildProcessError:                     İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   26)
* children (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):    Class Objects.      (line   35)
* children (pyclbr.Function özniteliği): Function Objects.   (line   34)
* children (tkinter.Tk özniteliği):      Tkinter Modules.    (line   88)
* chksum (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):   TarInfo Objects.    (line  137)
* chmod() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  175)
* chmod() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   18)
* choice() (random modülü içinde):       Functions for sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* choice() (secrets modülü içinde):      Random numbers.     (line   15)
* choices (optparse.Option özniteliği):  Option attributes.  (line   63)
* choices() (random modülü içinde):      Functions for sequences.
                                                             (line   11)
* Chooser (tkinter.colorchooser içindeki sınıf): tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line   15)
* chown() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  240)
* chown() (shutil modülü içinde):        Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  384)
* chroot() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  267)
* CHRTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  291)
* Chunk (chunk içindeki sınıf):          chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   52)
* cipher;DES:                            crypt — Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line    8)
* cipher() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi):      SSL Sockets.        (line  213)
* circle() (turtle modülü içinde):       Turtle motion.      (line  211)
* CIRCUMFLEX (token modülü içinde):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  154)
* CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (token modülü içinde): token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  198)
* Clamped (decimal içindeki sınıf):      Signals.            (line   20)
* Class (pyclbr içindeki sınıf):         Class Objects.      (line    6)
* Class (symtable içindeki sınıf):       Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  102)
* class instance;attribute:              Class instances.    (line    6)
* class instance;attribute;assignment:   Class instances.    (line   21)
* class instance;call:                   Calls.              (line  152)
* class object;call:                     Custom classes.     (line   19)
* class object;call <1>:                 Custom classes.     (line   31)
* class object;call <2>:                 Calls.              (line  148)
* class;attribute:                       Custom classes.     (line   19)
* class;attribute;assignment:            Custom classes.     (line   28)
* class;body:                            Executing the class body.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;constructor:                     Basic customization.
                                                             (line   39)
* class;definition:                      The return statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* class;definition <1>:                  Class definitions.  (line    6)
* class;instance:                        Class instances.    (line    6)
* class;name:                            Class definitions.  (line    6)
* ClassDef (ast içindeki sınıf):         Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  182)
* ClassMethodDescriptorType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  116)
* ClassVar (typing modülü içinde):       Special forms.      (line  158)
* clause:                                Compound statements.
                                                             (line   18)
* CLD_CONTINUED (os modülü içinde):      Process Management. (line 1033)
* CLD_DUMPED (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line 1033)
* CLD_EXITED (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line 1033)
* CLD_KILLED (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line 1033)
* CLD_STOPPED (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line 1033)
* CLD_TRAPPED (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line 1033)
* clean() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):     Maildir objects.    (line   83)
* cleandoc() (inspect modülü içinde):    Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   71)
* CleanImport (test.support.import_helper içindeki sınıf): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   87)
* cleanup functions:                     Process Control.    (line   33)
* CLEANUP_THROW (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  291)
* cleanup() (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory yöntemi): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  202)
* clear (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  116)
* Clear Breakpoint:                      Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* clear_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):  bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  365)
* clear_all_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  360)
* clear_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):  bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  354)
* clear_break() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  349)
* clear_cache() (filecmp modülü içinde): filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   56)
* clear_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo sınıf yöntemi): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   58)
* clear_content() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  672)
* clear_flags() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.  (line  171)
* clear_frames() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  169)
* clear_history() (readline modülü içinde): History list.    (line    8)
* clear_overloads() (typing modülü içinde): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  303)
* clear_session_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* clear_traces() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>.  (line    6)
* clear_traps() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.  (line  175)
* clear() (asyncio.Event yöntemi):       Event.              (line   58)
* clear() (collections.deque yöntemi):   deque objects.      (line   43)
* clear() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  152)
* clear() (dict yöntemi):                Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  136)
* clear() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  668)
* clear() (frame yöntemi):               Frame object methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* clear() (frozenset yöntemi):           Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  221)
* clear() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* clear() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):     Mailbox objects.    (line  212)
* clear() (sequence method):             Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* clear() (threading.Event yöntemi):     Event Objects.      (line   36)
* clear() (turtle modülü içinde):        More drawing control.
                                                             (line   23)
* clear() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* clearcache() (linecache modülü içinde): linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   38)
* ClearData() (msilib.Record yöntemi):   Record Objects.     (line   37)
* clearok() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  157)
* clearscreen() (turtle modülü içinde):  Window control.     (line   46)
* clearstamp() (turtle modülü içinde):   Turtle motion.      (line  282)
* clearstamps() (turtle modülü içinde):  Turtle motion.      (line  301)
* client_address (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   72)
* client_address (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler özniteliği): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* Client() (multiprocessing.connection modülü içinde): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   34)
* CLOCK_BOOTTIME (time modülü içinde):   Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line    9)
* clock_getres() (time modülü içinde):   Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line   42)
* clock_gettime_ns() (time modülü içinde): Fonksiyonlar<2>.  (line   65)
* clock_gettime() (time modülü içinde):  Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line   52)
* CLOCK_HIGHRES (time modülü içinde):    Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   23)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC (time modülü içinde):  Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   34)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (time modülü içinde): Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   43)
* CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (time modülü içinde): Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   52)
* CLOCK_PROF (time modülü içinde):       Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   60)
* CLOCK_REALTIME (time modülü içinde):   Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line  111)
* clock_seq (uuid.UUID özniteliği):      uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  125)
* clock_seq_hi_variant (uuid.UUID özniteliği): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  113)
* clock_seq_low (uuid.UUID özniteliği):  uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  116)
* clock_settime_ns() (time modülü içinde): Fonksiyonlar<2>.  (line   86)
* clock_settime() (time modülü içinde):  Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line   74)
* CLOCK_TAI (time modülü içinde):        Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   68)
* CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (time modülü içinde): Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   80)
* CLOCK_UPTIME (time modülü içinde):     Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   88)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW (time modülü içinde): Saat Kimliği Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   98)
* CLONE_FILES (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_FS (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWCGROUP (os modülü içinde):    Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWIPC (os modülü içinde):       Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWNET (os modülü içinde):       Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWNS (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWPID (os modülü içinde):       Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWTIME (os modülü içinde):      Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWUSER (os modülü içinde):      Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_NEWUTS (os modülü içinde):       Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_SIGHAND (os modülü içinde):      Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_SYSVSEM (os modülü içinde):      Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_THREAD (os modülü içinde):       Process Parameters. (line  623)
* CLONE_VM (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  623)
* clone() (email.generator.BytesGenerator yöntemi): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  112)
* clone() (email.generator.Generator yöntemi): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  208)
* clone() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  223)
* clone() (pipes.Template yöntemi):      Template Objects.   (line   12)
* clone() (turtle modülü içinde):        Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   32)
* cloneNode() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi):    Node Objects.       (line  147)
* close (in module os):                  Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  196)
* close_connection (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   81)
* close() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):           aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  119)
* close() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher yöntemi): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   81)
* close() (asyncio.BaseTransport yöntemi): Base Transport.   (line    6)
* close() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):        Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   43)
* close() (asyncio.Runner yöntemi):      Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   49)
* close() (asyncio.Server yöntemi):      Server Objects.     (line   32)
* close() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.      (line   37)
* close() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport yöntemi): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   59)
* close() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):         chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   81)
* close() (contextlib.ExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.         (line  614)
* close() (coroutine yöntemi):           Coroutine Objects.  (line   50)
* close() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm yöntemi):    dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   84)
* close() (dbm.gnu.gdbm yöntemi):        dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  113)
* close() (dbm.ndbm.ndbm yöntemi):       dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   66)
* close() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser yöntemi): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   65)
* close() (fileinput modülü içinde):     fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  132)
* close() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):          FTP objects.        (line  369)
* close() (generator yöntemi):           Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   65)
* close() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   15)
* close() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  152)
* close() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line   62)
* close() (io.IOBase yöntemi):           I/O Base Classes.   (line   48)
* close() (logging.FileHandler yöntemi): FileHandler.        (line   27)
* close() (logging.Handler yöntemi):     Handler Objects.    (line   74)
* close() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler yöntemi): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   56)
* close() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler yöntemi): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* close() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler yöntemi): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler yöntemi): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* close() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):     Mailbox objects.    (line  269)
* close() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):     Maildir objects.    (line  114)
* close() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):          MH objects.         (line  104)
* close() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):           mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  176)
* Close() (msilib.Database yöntemi):     Database Objects.   (line   22)
* Close() (msilib.View yöntemi):         View Objects.       (line   35)
* close() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* close() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener yöntemi): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   91)
* close() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  168)
* close() (multiprocessing.Process yöntemi): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  196)
* close() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues. (line  174)
* close() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory yöntemi): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   71)
* close() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  220)
* close() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* close() (os.scandir yöntemi):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  868)
* close() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* close() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* close() (select.devpoll yöntemi):      /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* close() (select.epoll yöntemi):        Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* close() (select.kqueue yöntemi):       Kqueue Objects.     (line    6)
* close() (selectors.BaseSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.      (line  137)
* close() (shelve.Shelf yöntemi):        shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   77)
* close() (socket modülü içinde):        Other functions<2>. (line    9)
* close() (socket.socket yöntemi):       Socket Objects.     (line   41)
* close() (sqlite3.Blob yöntemi):        Blob objects.       (line   37)
* close() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi):  Connection objects. (line   84)
* close() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi):      Cursor objects.     (line  154)
* close() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):       AU_read Objects.    (line    9)
* close() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi):      AU_write Objects.   (line   59)
* close() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi):     TarFile Objects.    (line  311)
* close() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi):    Telnet Objects.     (line   88)
* close() (urllib.request.BaseHandler yöntemi): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* close() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi):      Wave_read Objects.  (line   13)
* close() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi):     Wave_write Objects. (line   29)
* Close() (winreg.PyHKEY yöntemi):       Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser yöntemi): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* close() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser yöntemi): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* close() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):     ZipFile Objects.    (line  107)
* CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   85)
* closed (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* closed (io.IOBase özniteliği):         I/O Base Classes.   (line   58)
* closed (mmap.mmap özniteliği):         mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  182)
* closed (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device özniteliği): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  230)
* closed (select.devpoll özniteliği):    /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* closed (select.epoll özniteliği):      Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* closed (select.kqueue özniteliği):     Kqueue Objects.     (line   10)
* CloseKey() (winreg modülü içinde):     Functions<11>.      (line    8)
* closelog() (syslog modülü içinde):     syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   78)
* closerange() (os modülü içinde):       File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   32)
* closing() (contextlib modülü içinde):  Utilities.          (line  152)
* clrtobot() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  162)
* clrtoeol() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  168)
* Cmd (cmd içindeki sınıf):              cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters.
                                                             (line   15)
* cmd (subprocess.CalledProcessError özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  216)
* cmd (subprocess.TimeoutExpired özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  173)
* cmdloop() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):           Cmd Objects.        (line    8)
* cmdqueue (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):         Cmd Objects.        (line  143)
* cmp_op (dis modülü içinde):            Opcode collections. (line   21)
* cmp_to_key() (functools modülü içinde): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* cmp() (filecmp modülü içinde):         filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   16)
* cmpfiles() (filecmp modülü içinde):    filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   36)
* CMSG_LEN() (socket modülü içinde):     Other functions<2>. (line  336)
* CMSG_SPACE() (socket modülü içinde):   Other functions<2>. (line  353)
* co_argcount (code object attribute):   Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_argcount (codeobject özniteliği):   Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (inspect modülü içinde): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   52)
* co_cellvars (code object attribute):   Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_cellvars (codeobject özniteliği):   Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* co_code (code object attribute):       Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_code (codeobject özniteliği):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   48)
* co_consts (code object attribute):     Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_consts (codeobject özniteliği):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* CO_COROUTINE (inspect modülü içinde):  Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   35)
* co_filename (code object attribute):   Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_filename (codeobject özniteliği):   Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   60)
* co_firstlineno (code object attribute): Code objects.      (line   16)
* co_firstlineno (codeobject özniteliği): Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   64)
* co_flags (code object attribute):      Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_flags (codeobject özniteliği):      Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   79)
* co_freevars (code object attribute):   Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_freevars (codeobject özniteliği):   Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C var):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  375)
* CO_GENERATOR (inspect modülü içinde):  Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   30)
* CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (inspect modülü içinde): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   43)
* co_kwonlyargcount (code object attribute): Code objects.   (line   16)
* co_kwonlyargcount (codeobject özniteliği): Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* co_lines() (codeobject yöntemi):       Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* co_lnotab (code object attribute):     Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_lnotab (codeobject özniteliği):     Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* co_name (code object attribute):       Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_name (codeobject özniteliği):       Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_names (code object attribute):      Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_names (codeobject özniteliği):      Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   56)
* CO_NESTED (inspect modülü içinde):     Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   26)
* CO_NEWLOCALS (inspect modülü içinde):  Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   13)
* co_nlocals (code object attribute):    Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_nlocals (codeobject özniteliği):    Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* CO_OPTIMIZED (inspect modülü içinde):  Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_positions() (codeobject yöntemi):   Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_posonlyargcount (code object attribute): Code objects.  (line   16)
* co_posonlyargcount (codeobject özniteliği): Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* co_qualname (code object attribute):   Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_qualname (codeobject özniteliği):   Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_stacksize (code object attribute):  Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_stacksize (codeobject özniteliği):  Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* CO_VARARGS (inspect modülü içinde):    Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_VARKEYWORDS (inspect modülü içinde): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   22)
* co_varnames (code object attribute):   Code objects.       (line   16)
* co_varnames (codeobject özniteliği):   Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* code (SystemExit özniteliği):          Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  385)
* code (urllib.error.HTTPError özniteliği): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   42)
* code (urllib.response.addinfourl özniteliği): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   40)
* code (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError özniteliği): Exceptions<16>.
                                                             (line   14)
* code (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError özniteliği): ExpatError Exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* code object:                           Code objects.       (line    6)
* code object <1>:                       Yöntemler.          (line   43)
* code object <2>:                       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   30)
* code object <3>:                       Cell Objects.       (line   57)
* code_context (inspect.FrameInfo özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   32)
* code_context (inspect.Traceback özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   72)
* code_info() (dis modülü içinde):       Analysis functions. (line   11)
* code;block:                            Execution model.    (line    6)
* Codec (codecs içindeki sınıf):         Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* CodecInfo (codecs içindeki sınıf):     codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   58)
* Codecs:                                codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;decode:                         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;encode:                         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* coded_value (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* codepoint2name (html.entities modülü içinde): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   35)
* codes (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   16)
* CODESET (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  184)
* CodeType (types içindeki sınıf):       Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   56)
* coding;style:                          Intermezzo Kodlama Stili.
                                                             (line    6)
* col_offset (ast.AST özniteliği):       Node classes.       (line   39)
* collapse_addresses() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* collapse_rfc2231_value() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  199)
* collect() (gc modülü içinde):          gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   34)
* collectedDurations (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  277)
* Collection (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   37)
* Collection (typing içindeki sınıf):    Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   23)
* colno (json.JSONDecodeError özniteliği): Exceptions<14>.   (line   27)
* colno (re.error özniteliği):           Exceptions<2>.      (line   32)
* colno (traceback.FrameSummary özniteliği): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* colon (mailbox.Maildir özniteliği):    Maildir objects.    (line   45)
* COLON (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   70)
* COLONEQUAL (token modülü içinde):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  238)
* COLOR_BLACK (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  641)
* COLOR_BLUE (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  644)
* color_content() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.      (line   45)
* COLOR_CYAN (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  647)
* COLOR_GREEN (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  650)
* COLOR_MAGENTA (curses modülü içinde):  Constants<4>.       (line  653)
* color_pair() (curses modülü içinde):   Functions<4>.       (line   53)
* COLOR_PAIRS (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line   41)
* COLOR_RED (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  656)
* COLOR_WHITE (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  659)
* COLOR_YELLOW (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  662)
* color() (turtle modülü içinde):        Color control.      (line  104)
* colormode() (turtle modülü içinde):    Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   34)
* COLORS (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line   36)
* COLS (curses modülü içinde):           Constants<4>.       (line   46)
* column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.     (line   35)
* columnize() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):         Cmd Objects.        (line   88)
* COLUMNS:                               Functions<4>.       (line  594)
* COLUMNS <1>:                           Functions<4>.       (line  597)
* columns (os.terminal_size özniteliği): Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   30)
* comb() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   13)
* combinations_with_replacement() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  162)
* combinations() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  120)
* combine() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  180)
* combining() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   59)
* ComboBox (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Basic Widgets.      (line   18)
* Combobox (tkinter.ttk içindeki sınıf): ttk Combobox.       (line    6)
* comma:                                 Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   20)
* COMMA (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   74)
* command (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   94)
* command line:                          Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line   25)
* CommandCompiler (codeop içindeki sınıf): codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   65)
* commands (pdb command):                Debugger Commands.  (line  150)
* comment:                               Comments.           (line    6)
* comment (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* comment (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.  (line   13)
* COMMENT (token modülü içinde):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  264)
* comment (zipfile.ZipFile özniteliği):  ZipFile Objects.    (line  354)
* comment (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği):  ZipInfo Objects.    (line   89)
* comment_url (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Comment() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line   72)
* comment() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* comment() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler yöntemi): LexicalHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* commenters (shlex.shlex özniteliği):   shlex Objects.      (line   85)
* CommentHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  336)
* commit() (msilib.CAB yöntemi):         CAB Objects.        (line   24)
* Commit() (msilib.Database yöntemi):    Database Objects.   (line   11)
* commit() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects. (line   68)
* common (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği):    The dircmp class.   (line   59)
* Common Gateway Interface:              cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <1>: Build and C API Changes<8>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <2>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  309)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <2>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-0340: Security<23>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-1753: Library<100>.
                                                             (line  193)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-0224: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   30)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-4616: Library<100>.
                                                             (line 1122)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283: Security<49>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283 <1>: Security<54>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <1>: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <2>: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <3>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <4>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <5>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <6>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <7>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <8>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772: Security<49>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772 <1>: Security<54>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110: Library<79>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110 <1>: Library<86>.
                                                             (line  267)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183: Library<78>.
                                                             (line  178)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183 <1>: Library<86>.
                                                             (line  205)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-3189: Windows<24>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <1>: Security<47>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <2>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <2>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <2>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-1000158: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233: Security<43>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <2>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   48)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <1>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <2>: Security<44>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <1>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <2>: Security<44>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-14647: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-25032: Windows<24>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970: Security<40>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970 <1>: Security<41>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-12900: Windows<24>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-15903: Security<36>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-18348: Security<33>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-20907: Library<43>.
                                                             (line  186)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-5010: Security<40>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9740: Security<38>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9948: Security<37>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735: Other CPython Implementation Changes.
                                                             (line   56)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <1>: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <2>: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <3>: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <4>: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <5>: Integer string conversion length limitation.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15523: Security<30>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15801: Security<30>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-8492: Security<32>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2021-3426: Security<25>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-26488: Windows<24>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-37434: Windows<21>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-42919: Security<21>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303: Security<17>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303 <1>: Security<17>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-0286: Security<17>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-24329: Security<16>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043: Security<14>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-40217: Security<12>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425: Security<10>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <1>: Documentation<7>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <2>: XML vulnerabilities.
                                                             (line  102)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-6507: Library<12>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718: tarfile.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <1>: tarfile.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <2>: Security<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030: os.   (line   33)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <1>: tempfile.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <2>: Security<9>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138: tarfile.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138 <1>: Security<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330: tarfile.
                                                             (line   19)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330 <1>: Security<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4435: tarfile.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517: os path<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517 <1>: Security<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 257:  Recipes and best practices.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295:  ssl.                (line   21)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295 <1>: Library<27>.     (line  516)
* common_dirs (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class. (line   71)
* common_files (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   75)
* common_funny (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   79)
* common_types (mimetypes modülü içinde): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  144)
* commonpath() (os.path modülü içinde):  os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   68)
* commonprefix() (os.path modülü içinde): os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   81)
* communicate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process yöntemi): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   50)
* communicate() (subprocess.Popen yöntemi): Popen Objects.   (line   36)
* Compare (ast içindeki sınıf):          Expressions<2>.     (line   92)
* compare_digest() (hmac modülü içinde): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line  111)
* compare_digest() (secrets modülü içinde): Other functions. (line    6)
* compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  237)
* compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  352)
* COMPARE_OP (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  730)
* compare_signal() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  265)
* compare_signal() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  158)
* compare_to() (tracemalloc.Snapshot yöntemi): Snapshot.     (line   13)
* compare_total_mag() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  273)
* compare_total_mag() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  190)
* compare_total() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  269)
* compare_total() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  165)
* compare() (decimal.Context yöntemi):   Context objects.    (line  261)
* compare() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):   Decimal objects.    (line  147)
* compare() (difflib.Differ yöntemi):    Differ Objects.     (line   38)
* comparison:                            Comparisons.        (line    6)
* COMPARISON_FLAGS (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.    (line  102)
* comparisons:                           Basic customization.
                                                             (line  187)
* Compat32 (email.policy içindeki sınıf): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  562)
* compat32 (email.policy modülü içinde): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  617)
* Compile (codeop içindeki sınıf):       codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   56)
* compile_command() (code modülü içinde): code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   47)
* compile_command() (codeop modülü içinde): codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   29)
* compile_dir() (compileall modülü içinde): Public functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* compile_file() (compileall modülü içinde): Public functions.
                                                             (line   94)
* compile_path() (compileall modülü içinde): Public functions.
                                                             (line  158)
* compile() (py_compile modülü içinde):  py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   24)
* compile() (re modülü içinde):          Functions.          (line    6)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -b:  Command-line use.   (line   59)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -d:  Command-line use.   (line   32)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -e:  Command-line use.   (line  100)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -f:  Command-line use.   (line   22)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -hardlink-dupes: Command-line use.
                                                             (line  104)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -i:  Command-line use.   (line   53)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -invalidation-mode: Command-line use.
                                                             (line   80)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -j:  Command-line use.   (line   74)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -l:  Command-line use.   (line   17)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -o:  Command-line use.   (line   94)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -p:  Command-line use.   (line   42)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -q:  Command-line use.   (line   26)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -r:  Command-line use.   (line   67)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -s:  Command-line use.   (line   40)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; -x:  Command-line use.   (line   47)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; directory: Command-line use.
                                                             (line    9)
* compileall komut satırı seçeneği; file: Command-line use.  (line    9)
* compiler_flag (__future__._Feature özniteliği): Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   81)
* complete_statement() (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module functions.
                                                             (line   99)
* complete() (rlcompleter.Completer yöntemi): rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line   43)
* completedefault() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):   Cmd Objects.        (line   82)
* CompletedProcess (subprocess içindeki sınıf): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  100)
* Completer (rlcompleter içindeki sınıf): rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line   39)
* Complex (numbers içindeki sınıf):      The numeric tower.  (line    6)
* complex (yerleşik sınıf):              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  371)
* complex literal:                       Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* complex number;literals:               Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* complex;number:                        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* compound;statement:                    Compound statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* comprehension (ast içindeki sınıf):    Comprehensions.     (line   52)
* comprehensions:                        Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress_size (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* compress_type (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* compress() (bz2 modülü içinde):        One-shot de compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress() (bz2.BZ2Compressor yöntemi): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   15)
* compress() (gzip modülü içinde):       gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  187)
* compress() (itertools modülü içinde):  Itertool Functions. (line  204)
* compress() (lzma modülü içinde):       Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  182)
* compress() (lzma.LZMACompressor yöntemi): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   80)
* compress() (zlib modülü içinde):       zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   43)
* compress() (zlib.Compress yöntemi):    zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  203)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  233)
* compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  319)
* compression() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.        (line  231)
* CompressionError:                      tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  209)
* compressobj() (zlib modülü içinde):    zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   80)
* COMSPEC:                               Process Management. (line  762)
* COMSPEC <1>:                           Popen Constructor.  (line  112)
* concat() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  176)
* Concatenate (typing modülü içinde):    Special forms.      (line   67)
* concatenation;operation:               Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* cond (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   96)
* Condition (asyncio içindeki sınıf):    Condition.          (line    6)
* Condition (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   32)
* condition (pdb command):               Debugger Commands.  (line  143)
* Condition (threading içindeki sınıf):  Condition Objects.  (line   72)
* condition() (msilib.Control yöntemi):  GUI classes.        (line   22)
* Condition() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  172)
* Conditional;expression:                Boolean operations. (line    6)
* conditional;expression:                Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* config() (tkinter.font.Font yöntemi):  tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   55)
* ConfigParser (configparser içindeki sınıf): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* configuration information:             sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information.
                                                             (line   10)
* configuration;file:                    configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* configure_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  262)
* configure() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling.      (line   24)
* CONFORM (enum.FlagBoundary özniteliği): Data Types<2>.     (line  648)
* confstr_names (os modülü içinde):      Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   28)
* confstr() (os modülü içinde):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line    6)
* conjugate() (complex number method):   Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   98)
* conjugate() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  202)
* conjugate() (numbers.Complex yöntemi): The numeric tower.  (line   23)
* connect_accepted_socket() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Creating network servers.
                                                             (line  133)
* connect_ex() (socket.socket yöntemi):  Socket Objects.     (line   86)
* connect_read_pipe() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with pipes.
                                                             (line    6)
* connect_write_pipe() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with pipes.
                                                             (line   22)
* connect() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):        FTP objects.        (line   89)
* connect() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  143)
* connect() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line   76)
* connect() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):      SMTP Objects.       (line   33)
* connect() (socket.socket yöntemi):     Socket Objects.     (line   62)
* connect() (sqlite3 modülü içinde):     Module functions.   (line    6)
* Connection (multiprocessing.connection içindeki sınıf): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* Connection (sqlite3 içindeki sınıf):   Connection objects. (line    6)
* connection (sqlite3.Cursor özniteliği): Cursor objects.    (line  177)
* connection_lost() (asyncio.BaseProtocol yöntemi): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   23)
* connection_made() (asyncio.BaseProtocol yöntemi): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   15)
* ConnectionAbortedError:                İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   46)
* ConnectionError:                       İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   31)
* ConnectionRefusedError:                İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   52)
* ConnectionResetError:                  İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   58)
* ConnectRegistry() (winreg modülü içinde): Functions<11>.   (line   17)
* const (optparse.Option özniteliği):    Option attributes.  (line   58)
* constant:                              Literals.           (line    6)
* Constant (ast içindeki sınıf):         Literals<3>.        (line    6)
* constructor() (copyreg modülü içinde): copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* consumed (asyncio.LimitOverrunError özniteliği): Exceptions<10>.
                                                             (line   66)
* container:                             Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   67)
* container <1>:                         Custom classes.     (line   19)
* Container (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Container (typing içindeki sınıf):     Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   33)
* container;iteration over:              Yineleyici Türleri. (line    6)
* CONTAINS_OP (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  745)
* contains() (operator modülü içinde):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  181)
* content (urllib.error.ContentTooShortError özniteliği): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   71)
* content_disposition (email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  285)
* content_manager (email.policy.EmailPolicy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  418)
* content_type (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  272)
* ContentDispositionHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  280)
* ContentHandler (xml.sax.handler içindeki sınıf): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   18)
* ContentManager (email.contentmanager içindeki sınıf): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   12)
* contents (ctypes._Pointer özniteliği): Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   50)
* contents() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  491)
* contents() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line  126)
* contents() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   68)
* ContentTooShortError:                  urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   65)
* ContentTransferEncoding (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  290)
* ContentTypeHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  267)
* Context (contextvars içindeki sınıf):  Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   20)
* Context (decimal içindeki sınıf):      Context objects.    (line  115)
* context (ssl.SSLSocket özniteliği):    SSL Sockets.        (line  324)
* context management protocol:           Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* context manager:                       With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   14)
* context manager <1>:                   Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* context_diff() (difflib modülü içinde): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  155)
* ContextDecorator (contextlib içindeki sınıf): Utilities.   (line  382)
* ContextManager (typing içindeki sınıf): Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line    6)
* contextmanager() (contextlib modülü içinde): Utilities.    (line   31)
* ContextVar (contextvars içindeki sınıf): Context Variables.
                                                             (line    6)
* CONTIG (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.     (line   33)
* CONTIG_RO (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.  (line   35)
* contiguous:                            shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   26)
* contiguous (memoryview özniteliği):    Memory Views.       (line  487)
* Continue (ast içindeki sınıf):         Control flow.       (line  102)
* continue (pdb command):                Debugger Commands.  (line  216)
* CONTINUOUS (enum.EnumCheck özniteliği): Data Types<2>.     (line  587)
* Control (msilib içindeki sınıf):       GUI classes.        (line    9)
* Control (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):  Basic Widgets.      (line   24)
* control() (msilib.Dialog yöntemi):     GUI classes.        (line   45)
* control() (select.kqueue yöntemi):     Kqueue Objects.     (line   22)
* controlnames (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  240)
* controls() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* CONTTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):      tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  307)
* ConversionError:                       Exceptions<19>.     (line   13)
* convert_arg_line_to_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Customizing file parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* convert_field() (string.Formatter yöntemi): Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line  108)
* Cookie (http.cookiejar içindeki sınıf): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  112)
* CookieError:                           http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   34)
* CookieJar (http.cookiejar içindeki sınıf): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   45)
* cookiejar (urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor özniteliği): HTTPCookieProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* CookiePolicy (http.cookiejar içindeki sınıf): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   76)
* Coordinated Universal Time:            time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   39)
* çöp toplama:                           Sözlük.             (line  546)
* Copy:                                  Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* COPY (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  108)
* copy_abs() (decimal.Context yöntemi):  Context objects.    (line  278)
* copy_abs() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):  Decimal objects.    (line  207)
* copy_context() (contextvars modülü içinde): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line    6)
* copy_decimal() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects. (line  185)
* copy_file_range() (os modülü içinde):  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   44)
* COPY_FREE_VARS (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  937)
* copy_location() (ast modülü içinde):   ast Helpers.        (line  155)
* copy_negate() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.  (line  282)
* copy_negate() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.  (line  213)
* copy_sign() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  286)
* copy_sign() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  219)
* copy;protocol:                         Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  111)
* copy() (collections.deque yöntemi):    deque objects.      (line   47)
* copy() (contextvars.Context yöntemi):  Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   75)
* copy() (copy modülü içinde):           copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* copy() (decimal.Context yöntemi):      Context objects.    (line  181)
* copy() (dict yöntemi):                 Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  140)
* copy() (frozenset yöntemi):            Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  129)
* copy() (hashlib.hash yöntemi):         Hash Objects.       (line   51)
* copy() (hmac.HMAC yöntemi):            hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   81)
* copy() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi):  Morsel Objects.     (line   96)
* copy() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line   68)
* copy() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes modülü içinde): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   83)
* copy() (pipes.Template yöntemi):       Template Objects.   (line   48)
* copy() (sequence method):              Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* copy() (shutil modülü içinde):         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  121)
* copy() (tkinter.font.Font yöntemi):    tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   59)
* copy() (types.MappingProxyType yöntemi): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  256)
* copy() (zlib.Compress yöntemi):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  224)
* copy() (zlib.Decompress yöntemi):      zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  293)
* copy2() (shutil modülü içinde):        Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  153)
* copyfile() (shutil modülü içinde):     Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   17)
* copyfileobj() (shutil modülü içinde):  Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* copying files:                         shutil — High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    8)
* copymode() (shutil modülü içinde):     Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   59)
* copyright (in module sys):             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  243)
* copyright (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  178)
* copyright (yerleşik değişken):         Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   24)
* copysign() (math modülü içinde):       Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   30)
* copystat() (shutil modülü içinde):     Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   77)
* copytree() (shutil modülü içinde):     Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  192)
* coroutine:                             Special method lookup.
                                                             (line   74)
* coroutine <1>:                         Yield expressions.  (line   54)
* Coroutine (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  127)
* Coroutine (typing içindeki sınıf):     Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine;function:                    Coroutine functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine() (types modülü içinde):     Coroutine Utility Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* CoroutineType (types modülü içinde):   Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   42)
* correlation() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.
                                                             (line  501)
* cos() (cmath modülü içinde):           Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* cos() (math modülü içinde):            Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   31)
* cosh() (cmath modülü içinde):          Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* cosh() (math modülü içinde):           Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   21)
* count (tracemalloc.Statistic özniteliği): Statistic.       (line   15)
* count (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff özniteliği): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   15)
* count_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff özniteliği): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   20)
* count() (array.array yöntemi):         array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  146)
* count() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* count() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* count() (collections.deque yöntemi):   deque objects.      (line   53)
* count() (itertools modülü içinde):     Itertool Functions. (line  217)
* count() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList yöntemi): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  309)
* count() (sequence method):             Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* count() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line   56)
* Counter (collections içindeki sınıf):  Counter objects.    (line   24)
* Counter (typing içindeki sınıf):       Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   39)
* countOf() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  187)
* countTestCases() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.  (line  737)
* countTestCases() (unittest.TestSuite yöntemi): Grouping tests.
                                                             (line   55)
* covariance() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details. (line  479)
* CoverageResults (trace içindeki sınıf): Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   47)
* CPPFLAGS:                              New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CPPFLAGS <1>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* CPPFLAGS <2>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* CPPFLAGS <3>:                          Linker flags.       (line   50)
* cProfile komut satırı seçeneği; -m:    Instant User’s Manual.
                                                             (line   99)
* cProfile komut satırı seçeneği; -o:    Instant User’s Manual.
                                                             (line   89)
* cProfile komut satırı seçeneği; -s:    Instant User’s Manual.
                                                             (line   93)
* CPU time:                              Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  231)
* CPU time <1>:                          Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  588)
* cpu_count() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* cpu_count() (os modülü içinde):        Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   37)
* CPython:                               Sözlük.             (line  318)
* cpython_only() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  523)
* CR (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   64)
* crawl_delay() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   50)
* CRC (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği):      ZipInfo Objects.    (line  136)
* crc_hqx() (binascii modülü içinde):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   91)
* crc32() (binascii modülü içinde):      binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   98)
* crc32() (zlib modülü içinde):          zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  121)
* create_aggregate() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  153)
* create_archive() (zipapp modülü içinde): Python API.       (line    8)
* create_autospec() (unittest.mock modülü içinde): create_autospec.
                                                             (line    6)
* CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  124)
* create_collation() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  293)
* create_configuration() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi): API<2>.  (line  140)
* create_connection() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Opening network connections.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_connection() (socket modülü içinde): Creating sockets.
                                                             (line   83)
* create_datagram_endpoint() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Opening network connections.
                                                             (line  155)
* create_decimal_from_float() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  213)
* create_decimal() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  189)
* create_default_context() (ssl modülü içinde): Context creation.
                                                             (line    9)
* CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  114)
* create_eager_task_factory() (asyncio modülü içinde): Eager Task Factory.
                                                             (line   32)
* create_empty_file() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   92)
* create_function() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  111)
* create_future() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Creating Futures and Tasks.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_module() (importlib.abc.Loader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  103)
* create_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  314)
* create_module() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   38)
* CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   43)
* CREATE_NO_WINDOW (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   99)
* create_server() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Creating network servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_server() (socket modülü içinde): Creating sockets.  (line  114)
* create_stats() (profile.Profile yöntemi): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   86)
* create_string_buffer() (ctypes modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* create_subprocess_exec() (asyncio modülü içinde): Creating Subprocesses.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_subprocess_shell() (asyncio modülü içinde): Creating Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   23)
* create_system (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* create_task() (asyncio modülü içinde): Creating Tasks.     (line   10)
* create_task() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):  Creating Futures and Tasks.
                                                             (line   17)
* create_task() (asyncio.TaskGroup yöntemi): Task Groups.    (line   17)
* create_unicode_buffer() (ctypes modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   58)
* create_unix_connection() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Opening network connections.
                                                             (line  236)
* create_unix_server() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Creating network servers.
                                                             (line  110)
* create_version (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* create_window_function() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  204)
* create() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   72)
* create() (venv modülü içinde):         API<2>.             (line  219)
* create() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi):    API<2>.             (line   54)
* createAttribute() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* createAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* createComment() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* createDocument() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation yöntemi): DOMImplementation Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* createDocumentType() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation yöntemi): DOMImplementation Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* createElement() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* createElementNS() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* createfilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk yöntemi): File Handlers.
                                                             (line   27)
* CreateKey() (winreg modülü içinde):    Functions<11>.      (line   35)
* CreateKeyEx() (winreg modülü içinde):  Functions<11>.      (line   63)
* createLock() (logging.Handler yöntemi): Handler Objects.   (line   20)
* createLock() (logging.NullHandler yöntemi): NullHandler.   (line   24)
* createProcessingInstruction() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* CreateRecord() (msilib modülü içinde): msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   57)
* createSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler yöntemi): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   72)
* createSocket() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler yöntemi): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* createTextNode() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* credits (yerleşik değişken):           Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   24)
* CRITICAL (logging modülü içinde):      Logging Levels.     (line   45)
* critical() (logging modülü içinde):    Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   86)
* critical() (logging.Logger yöntemi):   Logger Objects.     (line  307)
* CRNCYSTR (locale modülü içinde):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  292)
* cross() (audioop modülü içinde):       audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   77)
* CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION (msvcrt modülü içinde): Other Functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* crypt() (crypt modülü içinde):         Module Functions<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* crypt(3):                              crypt — Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line    8)
* crypt(3) <1>:                          crypt — Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line   22)
* crypt(3) <2>:                          Module Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* cryptography:                          Cryptographic Services.
                                                             (line    6)
* cssclass_month (calendar.HTMLCalendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  293)
* cssclass_month_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  286)
* cssclass_noday (calendar.HTMLCalendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  272)
* cssclass_year (calendar.HTMLCalendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  300)
* cssclass_year_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  307)
* cssclasses (calendar.HTMLCalendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  259)
* cssclasses_weekday_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  279)
* csv:                                   csv — CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line    8)
* cte (email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  294)
* cte_type (email.policy.Policy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* ctermid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line    9)
* ctime() (datetime.date yöntemi):       date Objects.       (line  267)
* ctime() (datetime.datetime yöntemi):   datetime Objects.   (line  713)
* ctime() (time modülü içinde):          Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line   95)
* CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  199)
* CTRL_C_EVENT (signal modülü içinde):   Module contents<2>. (line  190)
* ctrl() (curses.ascii modülü içinde):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  216)
* curdir (os modülü içinde):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   84)
* currency() (locale modülü içinde):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  473)
* current_process() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   29)
* current_task() (asyncio modülü içinde): Introspection.     (line    6)
* current_thread() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line   62)
* current() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox yöntemi): ttk Combobox.    (line    8)
* CurrentByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  195)
* CurrentColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  199)
* currentframe() (inspect modülü içinde): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  161)
* CurrentLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* curs_set() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line   61)
* Cursor (sqlite3 içindeki sınıf):       Cursor objects.     (line   19)
* cursor() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects. (line   23)
* cursyncup() (curses.window yöntemi):   Window Objects.     (line  172)
* Cut:                                   Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* cwd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):            FTP objects.        (line  336)
* cwd() (pathlib.Path sınıf yöntemi):    Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   30)
* cycle() (itertools modülü içinde):     Itertool Functions. (line  239)
* CycleError:                            Exceptions<3>.      (line    8)
* Cyclic Redundancy Check:               zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  123)
* D_FMT (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  195)
* D_T_FMT (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  189)
* daemon (multiprocessing.Process özniteliği): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  101)
* daemon (threading.Thread özniteliği):  Thread Objects.     (line  202)
* daemon_threads (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn özniteliği): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   55)
* dangling;else:                         Compound statements.
                                                             (line   55)
* data:                                  Objects values and types.
                                                             (line    6)
* data (collections.UserDict özniteliği): UserDict objects.  (line   24)
* data (collections.UserList özniteliği): UserList objects.  (line   29)
* data (collections.UserString özniteliği): UserString objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* data (select.kevent özniteliği):       Kevent Objects.     (line  175)
* data (selectors.SelectorKey özniteliği): Classes<3>.       (line   48)
* data (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects. (line   39)
* data (xml.dom.Comment özniteliği):     Comment Objects.    (line    9)
* data (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction özniteliği): ProcessingInstruction Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* data (xml.dom.Text özniteliği):        Text and CDATASection Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* data (xmlrpc.client.Binary özniteliği): Binary Objects.    (line   12)
* data_filter() (tarfile modülü içinde): Default named filters.
                                                             (line   36)
* data_open() (urllib.request.DataHandler yöntemi): DataHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* data_received() (asyncio.Protocol yöntemi): Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   13)
* data;tabular:                          csv — CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line    8)
* data;type:                             The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* data() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* DatabaseError:                         Exceptions<5>.      (line   44)
* databases:                             dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line    8)
* dataclass_transform() (typing modülü içinde): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  114)
* dataclass() (dataclasses modülü içinde): Module contents<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* DataError:                             Exceptions<5>.      (line   51)
* datagram_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol yöntemi): Datagram Protocols.
                                                             (line    9)
* DatagramHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* DatagramProtocol (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Base Protocols. (line   20)
* DatagramRequestHandler (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* DatagramTransport (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   43)
* DataHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  441)
* date (datetime içindeki sınıf):        date Objects.       (line   13)
* date_time (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.   (line   55)
* date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  321)
* date() (datetime.datetime yöntemi):    datetime Objects.   (line  423)
* date() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  298)
* DateHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* datetime (datetime içindeki sınıf):    datetime Objects.   (line   17)
* datetime (email.headerregistry.DateHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  145)
* DateTime (xmlrpc.client içindeki sınıf): DateTime Objects. (line    6)
* Day (calendar içindeki sınıf):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  460)
* day (datetime.date özniteliği):        date Objects.       (line  124)
* day (datetime.datetime özniteliği):    datetime Objects.   (line  297)
* DAY_1 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_2 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_3 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_4 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_5 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_6 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  212)
* DAY_7 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  212)
* day_abbr (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  438)
* day_name (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  429)
* daylight (time modülü içinde):         Saat dilimi Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   13)
* Daylight Saving Time:                  time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   45)
* days (datetime.timedelta özniteliği):  timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line   93)
* DbfilenameShelf (shelve içindeki sınıf): Restrictions.     (line   73)
* DC1 (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   76)
* DC2 (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   79)
* DC3 (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   82)
* DC4 (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   85)
* dcgettext() (locale modülü içinde):    Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   10)
* deactivate_stack_trampoline() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1730)
* deallocation, object:                  Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* debug (imaplib.IMAP4 özniteliği):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  399)
* DEBUG (logging modülü içinde):         Logging Levels.     (line   24)
* debug (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  404)
* DEBUG (re modülü içinde):              Flags.              (line   32)
* debug (shlex.shlex özniteliği):        shlex Objects.      (line  162)
* debug (sys.flags özniteliği):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  517)
* debug (zipfile.ZipFile özniteliği):    ZipFile Objects.    (line  348)
* DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery modülü içinde): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   20)
* DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (gc modülü içinde):  gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  302)
* DEBUG_LEAK (gc modülü içinde):         gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  322)
* DEBUG_SAVEALL (gc modülü içinde):      gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  316)
* debug_src() (doctest modülü içinde):   Debugging.          (line  147)
* DEBUG_STATS (gc modülü içinde):        gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  297)
* DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (gc modülü içinde): gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  306)
* debug() (doctest modülü içinde):       Debugging.          (line  124)
* debug() (logging modülü içinde):       Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   46)
* debug() (logging.Logger yöntemi):      Logger Objects.     (line  186)
* debug() (pipes.Template yöntemi):      Template Objects.   (line   16)
* debug() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi):   Test cases.         (line  120)
* debug() (unittest.TestSuite yöntemi):  Grouping tests.     (line   48)
* debugger:                              threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  178)
* debugger <1>:                          Debug menu Shell window only.
                                                             (line   15)
* debugger <2>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  927)
* debugger <3>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1564)
* debugger;configuration;file:           Debugger Commands.  (line   56)
* debugging:                             pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line    8)
* debugging;assertions:                  The assert statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* debuglevel (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* DebugRunner (doctest içindeki sınıf):  Debugging.          (line  168)
* DECEMBER (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* Decimal (decimal içindeki sınıf):      Decimal objects.    (line    6)
* decimal literal:                       Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* decimal() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   31)
* DecimalException (decimal içindeki sınıf): Signals.        (line   28)
* decode (codecs.CodecInfo özniteliği):  codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   69)
* decode_header() (email.header modülü içinde): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  183)
* decode_header() (nntplib modülü içinde): Utility functions<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* decode_params() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  216)
* decode_rfc2231() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  187)
* decode_source() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   72)
* decode() (base64 modülü içinde):       base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  233)
* decode() (bytearray yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* decode() (bytes yöntemi):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* decode() (codecs modülü içinde):       codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   34)
* decode() (codecs.Codec yöntemi):       Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   29)
* decode() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder yöntemi): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* decode() (json.JSONDecoder yöntemi):   Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line   87)
* decode() (quopri modülü içinde):       quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   19)
* decode() (uu modülü içinde):           uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line   41)
* decode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary yöntemi): Binary Objects.   (line   20)
* decode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime yöntemi): DateTime Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* decodebytes() (base64 modülü içinde):  base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  240)
* DecodedGenerator (email.generator içindeki sınıf): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  232)
* decodestring() (quopri modülü içinde): quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   41)
* decomposition() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   75)
* decompress() (bz2 modülü içinde):      One-shot de compression.
                                                             (line   16)
* decompress() (bz2.BZ2Decompressor yöntemi): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   45)
* decompress() (gzip modülü içinde):     gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  208)
* decompress() (lzma modülü içinde):     Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  191)
* decompress() (lzma.LZMADecompressor yöntemi): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  131)
* decompress() (zlib modülü içinde):     zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  135)
* decompress() (zlib.Decompress yöntemi): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  262)
* decompressobj() (zlib modülü içinde):  zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  180)
* DEDENT (token modülü içinde):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   52)
* DEDENT token:                          Indentation.        (line   33)
* DEDENT token <1>:                      Compound statements.
                                                             (line   55)
* dedent() (textwrap modülü içinde):     textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   76)
* deepcopy() (copy modülü içinde):       copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   22)
* def_prog_mode() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.      (line   70)
* def_shell_mode() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.     (line   77)
* default (email.policy modülü içinde):  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  503)
* default (inspect.Parameter özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  202)
* default (optparse.Option özniteliği):  Option attributes.  (line   44)
* DEFAULT (unittest.mock modülü içinde): DEFAULT.            (line    6)
* DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (io modülü içinde): High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_bufsize (xml.dom.pulldom modülü içinde): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line  103)
* default_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Error Handling API.
                                                             (line   34)
* default_factory (collections.defaultdict özniteliği): defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* DEFAULT_FORMAT (tarfile modülü içinde): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  339)
* DEFAULT_IGNORES (filecmp modülü içinde): The dircmp class. (line  111)
* default_loader() (xml.etree.ElementInclude modülü içinde): Functions<8>.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_max_str_digits (sys.int_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1136)
* default_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler yöntemi): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (pickle modülü içinde): Module Interface. (line   21)
* default_timer() (timeit modülü içinde): Python Interface.  (line   32)
* default;parameter;value:               Function definitions.
                                                             (line   68)
* default() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):           Cmd Objects.        (line   76)
* default() (json.JSONEncoder yöntemi):  Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  199)
* DefaultContext (decimal modülü içinde): Context objects.   (line   90)
* DefaultCookiePolicy (http.cookiejar içindeki sınıf): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   81)
* defaultdict (collections içindeki sınıf): defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DefaultDict (typing içindeki sınıf):   Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line    6)
* DefaultEventLoopPolicy (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* DefaultHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  351)
* DefaultHandlerExpand() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  358)
* defaults() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* DefaultSelector (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.    (line  161)
* defaultTestLoader (unittest modülü içinde): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  457)
* defaultTestResult() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  742)
* defects (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* defects (email.message.EmailMessage özniteliği): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  712)
* defects (email.message.Message özniteliği): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  725)
* defpath (os modülü içinde):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  124)
* DefragResult (urllib.parse içindeki sınıf): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   40)
* DefragResultBytes (urllib.parse içindeki sınıf): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   65)
* değişken açıklama:                     Sözlük.             (line 1459)
* değişmez:                              Sözlük.             (line  674)
* değiştirilebilir:                      Sözlük.             (line  953)
* degrees() (math modülü içinde):        Açısal dönüşüm.     (line    6)
* degrees() (turtle modülü içinde):      Settings for measurement.
                                                             (line    6)
* dekoratör:                             Sözlük.             (line  324)
* Del (ast içindeki sınıf):              Variables.          (line   11)
* DEL (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  124)
* del_param() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  383)
* del_param() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  544)
* delay_output() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.       (line   85)
* delay() (turtle modülü içinde):        Animation control.  (line    6)
* delayload (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar özniteliği): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  159)
* delch() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  177)
* dele() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   68)
* Delete (ast içindeki sınıf):           Statements.         (line  148)
* DELETE_ATTR (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  552)
* DELETE_DEREF (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  927)
* DELETE_FAST (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  877)
* DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  566)
* DELETE_NAME (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  506)
* DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  210)
* delete() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):         FTP objects.        (line  329)
* delete() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   76)
* delete() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.     (line   73)
* deleteacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line   80)
* deletefilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk yöntemi): File Handlers.
                                                             (line   37)
* DeleteKey() (winreg modülü içinde):    Functions<11>.      (line  102)
* DeleteKeyEx() (winreg modülü içinde):  Functions<11>.      (line  124)
* deleteln() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  181)
* deleteMe() (bdb.Breakpoint yöntemi):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   42)
* DeleteValue() (winreg modülü içinde):  Functions<11>.      (line  160)
* deletion;target:                       The del statement.  (line    6)
* deletion;target;list:                  The del statement.  (line    6)
* delimiter (csv.Dialect özniteliği):    Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   19)
* delimiters:                            Delimiters.         (line    6)
* delitem() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  191)
* deliver_challenge() (multiprocessing.connection modülü içinde): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   15)
* delocalize() (locale modülü içinde):   locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  494)
* demo_app() (wsgiref.simple_server modülü içinde): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   36)
* denominator (fractions.Fraction özniteliği): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  114)
* denominator (numbers.Rational özniteliği): The numeric tower.
                                                             (line   55)
* DeprecationWarning:                    Uyarılar.           (line   17)
* deque (collections içindeki sınıf):    deque objects.      (line    6)
* Deque (typing içindeki sınıf):         Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   49)
* dequeue() (logging.handlers.QueueListener yöntemi): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   50)
* DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (ssl modülü içinde): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   52)
* derive() (BaseExceptionGroup yöntemi): İstisna grupları.   (line   72)
* derwin() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  186)
* descrgetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   70)
* description (inspect.Parameter.kind özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  268)
* description (sqlite3.Cursor özniteliği): Cursor objects.   (line  190)
* description() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):  Methods.            (line  149)
* descriptions() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi): Methods.            (line  135)
* descrsetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   75)
* deserialize() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  669)
* dest (optparse.Option özniteliği):     Option attributes.  (line   35)
* destructor:                            Basic customization.
                                                             (line   55)
* destructor <1>:                        Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   71)
* destructor (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line   25)
* detach() (io.BufferedIOBase yöntemi):  I/O Base Classes.   (line  259)
* detach() (io.TextIOBase yöntemi):      Text I/O<2>.        (line   37)
* detach() (socket.socket yöntemi):      Socket Objects.     (line  100)
* detach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.     (line   79)
* detach() (weakref.finalize yöntemi):   weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  301)
* Detach() (winreg.PyHKEY yöntemi):      Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* DETACHED_PROCESS (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  106)
* detect_api_mismatch() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  633)
* detect_encoding() (tokenize modülü içinde): Tokenizing Input.
                                                             (line   76)
* deterministic profiling:               Introduction to the profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* dev_mode (sys.flags özniteliği):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  556)
* device_encoding() (os modülü içinde):  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   81)
* devmajor (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği): TarInfo Objects.    (line  141)
* devminor (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği): TarInfo Objects.    (line  145)
* devnull (os modülü içinde):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  139)
* DEVNULL (subprocess modülü içinde):    Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  141)
* devpoll() (select modülü içinde):      select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   37)
* DevpollSelector (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.    (line  184)
* dgettext() (gettext modülü içinde):    GNU gettext API.    (line   39)
* dgettext() (locale modülü içinde):     Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line    8)
* Dialect (csv içindeki sınıf):          Module Contents<3>. (line  184)
* dialect (csv.csvreader özniteliği):    Reader Objects.     (line   19)
* dialect (csv.csvwriter özniteliği):    Writer Objects.     (line   33)
* Dialog (msilib içindeki sınıf):        GUI classes.        (line   38)
* Dialog (tkinter.commondialog içindeki sınıf): tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line   14)
* Dialog (tkinter.simpledialog içindeki sınıf): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   21)
* dict (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line   70)
* Dict (ast içindeki sınıf):             Literals<3>.        (line  105)
* Dict (typing içindeki sınıf):          Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line    6)
* dict (yerleşik sınıf):                 Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line   19)
* DICT_MERGE (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  679)
* DICT_UPDATE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  668)
* dict() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  222)
* DictComp (ast içindeki sınıf):         Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* dictConfig() (logging.config modülü içinde): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* dictionary;comprehensions:             Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* dictionary;display:                    Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* DictReader (csv içindeki sınıf):       Module Contents<3>. (line  102)
* DictWriter (csv içindeki sınıf):       Module Contents<3>. (line  148)
* diff_bytes() (difflib modülü içinde):  difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  335)
* diff_files (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.  (line   90)
* Differ (difflib içindeki sınıf):       difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   50)
* difference_update() (frozenset yöntemi): Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  190)
* difference() (frozenset yöntemi):      Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  115)
* dig (sys.float_info özniteliği):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  618)
* digest_size (hmac.HMAC özniteliği):    hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   89)
* digest() (hashlib.hash yöntemi):       Hash Objects.       (line   38)
* digest() (hashlib.shake yöntemi):      SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line   15)
* digest() (hmac modülü içinde):         hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   30)
* digest() (hmac.HMAC yöntemi):          hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   55)
* digit() (unicodedata modülü içinde):   unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   37)
* digits (string modülü içinde):         String constants.   (line   24)
* dipnot:                                Sözlük.             (line   46)
* dir() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):            FTP objects.        (line  311)
* dircmp (filecmp içindeki sınıf):       The dircmp class.   (line    6)
* Directory (msilib içindeki sınıf):     Directory Objects.  (line    6)
* Directory (tkinter.filedialog içindeki sınıf): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   71)
* directory;changing:                    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  117)
* directory;creating:                    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  536)
* directory;deleting:                    Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  265)
* directory;deleting <1>:                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  726)
* directory;traversal:                   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1634)
* directory;traversal <1>:               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1735)
* directory;walking:                     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1634)
* directory;walking <1>:                 Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1735)
* DirEntry (os içindeki sınıf):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  906)
* DirList (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):  File Selectors.     (line    6)
* dirname() (os.path modülü içinde):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   99)
* dirs_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   86)
* dirs_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   90)
* DirSelectBox (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): File Selectors. (line   26)
* DirSelectDialog (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): File Selectors.
                                                             (line   20)
* DirsOnSysPath (test.support.import_helper içindeki sınıf): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* DirTree (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):  File Selectors.     (line   13)
* DIRTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  299)
* dis komut satırı seçeneği; -h:         Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* dis komut satırı seçeneği; -help:      Command-line interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* dis() (dis modülü içinde):             Analysis functions. (line   40)
* dis() (dis.Bytecode yöntemi):          Bytecode analysis.  (line   54)
* dis() (pickletools modülü içinde):     Programmatic Interface<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* disable (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  123)
* DISABLE (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Disabling events.  (line    6)
* disable_faulthandler() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  352)
* disable_gc() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  364)
* disable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   10)
* disable() (bdb.Breakpoint yöntemi):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   52)
* disable() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   26)
* disable() (gc modülü içinde):          gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   26)
* disable() (logging modülü içinde):     Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  105)
* disable() (profile.Profile yöntemi):   profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   82)
* disabled (logging.Logger özniteliği):  Logger Objects.     (line   97)
* DisableReflectionKey() (winreg modülü içinde): Functions<11>.
                                                             (line  481)
* disassemble() (dis modülü içinde):     Analysis functions. (line   95)
* discard (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* discard() (frozenset yöntemi):         Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  212)
* discard() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):   Mailbox objects.    (line   76)
* discard() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):        MH objects.         (line   76)
* disco() (dis modülü içinde):           Analysis functions. (line   95)
* discover() (unittest.TestLoader yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  117)
* disk_usage() (shutil modülü içinde):   Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  365)
* dispatch_call() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  211)
* dispatch_exception() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  231)
* dispatch_line() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  201)
* dispatch_return() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  221)
* dispatch_table (pickle.Pickler özniteliği): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  176)
* DISPLAY:                               Tkinter Modules.    (line   27)
* display (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  280)
* display_name (email.headerregistry.Address özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  426)
* display_name (email.headerregistry.Group özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  471)
* displayhook() (sys modülü içinde):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  288)
* dist() (math modülü içinde):           Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   35)
* distance() (turtle modülü içinde):     Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   68)
* distb() (dis modülü içinde):           Analysis functions. (line   80)
* Distribution (importlib.metadata içindeki sınıf): Distributions.
                                                             (line   14)
* distribution() (importlib.metadata modülü içinde): Distributions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Div (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* divide_int() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.   (line  294)
* divide() (decimal.Context yöntemi):    Context objects.    (line  290)
* division:                              Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* DivisionByZero (decimal içindeki sınıf): Signals.          (line   33)
* divmod() (decimal.Context yöntemi):    Context objects.    (line  298)
* dizi:                                  Sözlük.             (line 1269)
* DLE (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   73)
* DllCanUnloadNow() (ctypes modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   76)
* DllGetClassObject() (ctypes modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   84)
* dllhandle (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  282)
* dnd_start() (tkinter.dnd modülü içinde): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   65)
* DndHandler (tkinter.dnd içindeki sınıf): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   43)
* dngettext() (gettext modülü içinde):   GNU gettext API.    (line   58)
* dnpgettext() (gettext modülü içinde):  GNU gettext API.    (line   69)
* do_clear() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  294)
* do_command() (curses.textpad.Textbox yöntemi): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* do_GET() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  386)
* do_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.       (line  126)
* do_HEAD() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  379)
* do_help() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):           Cmd Objects.        (line   49)
* do_POST() (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  476)
* doc (json.JSONDecodeError özniteliği): Exceptions<14>.     (line   15)
* doc_header (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):       Cmd Objects.        (line  155)
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server içindeki sınıf): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   22)
* DocFileSuite() (doctest modülü içinde): Unittest API.      (line   24)
* doClassCleanups() (unittest.TestCase sınıf yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  836)
* doCleanups() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.      (line  794)
* docmd() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):        SMTP Objects.       (line   17)
* docstring:                             Class definitions.  (line    6)
* docstring (doctest.DocTest özniteliği): DocTest Objects.   (line   49)
* docstrings:                            Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması.
                                                             (line   21)
* docstrings <1>:                        Dokümantasyon Stringler’i.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTest (doctest içindeki sınıf):      DocTest Objects.    (line    6)
* doctest komut satırı seçeneği; -f:     Command-line Usage. (line   35)
* doctest komut satırı seçeneği; -fail-fast: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   35)
* doctest komut satırı seçeneği; -o:     Command-line Usage. (line   28)
* doctest komut satırı seçeneği; -option: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   28)
* doctest komut satırı seçeneği; -v:     Command-line Usage. (line   11)
* doctest komut satırı seçeneği; -verbose: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   11)
* DocTestFailure:                        Debugging.          (line  186)
* DocTestFinder (doctest içindeki sınıf): DocTestFinder objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestParser (doctest içindeki sınıf): DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestRunner (doctest içindeki sınıf): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestSuite() (doctest modülü içinde): Unittest API.      (line   99)
* doctype() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* documentation string:                  Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   99)
* documentation strings:                 Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması.
                                                             (line   21)
* documentation strings <1>:             Dokümantasyon Stringler’i.
                                                             (line    6)
* documentation;generation:              pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentation;online:                  pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentElement (xml.dom.Document özniteliği): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server içindeki sınıf): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   27)
* DocXMLRPCServer (xmlrpc.server içindeki sınıf): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   11)
* domain (email.headerregistry.Address özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  437)
* domain (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* domain (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.   (line   13)
* domain (tracemalloc.DomainFilter özniteliği): DomainFilter.
                                                             (line   20)
* domain (tracemalloc.Filter özniteliği): Filter.            (line   31)
* domain (tracemalloc.Trace özniteliği): Trace.              (line   15)
* domain_initial_dot (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   90)
* domain_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy yöntemi): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* domain_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   86)
* DomainFilter (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf): DomainFilter.   (line    6)
* DomainLiberal (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* DomainRFC2965Match (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* DomainStrict (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  161)
* DomainStrictNoDots (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* DomainStrictNonDomain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* DOMEventStream (xml.dom.pulldom içindeki sınıf): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DOMException:                          Exceptions<17>.     (line   18)
* doModuleCleanups() (unittest modülü içinde): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   44)
* DomstringSizeErr:                      Exceptions<17>.     (line   23)
* done() (asyncio.Future yöntemi):       Future Object.      (line   63)
* done() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):         Task Object.        (line   66)
* done() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* done() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter yöntemi): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  135)
* done() (turtle modülü içinde):         Using screen events.
                                                             (line  106)
* done() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi):      Unpacker Objects.   (line   26)
* DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.
                                                             (line   28)
* DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.
                                                             (line   16)
* dont_write_bytecode (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  324)
* dont_write_bytecode (sys.flags özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  532)
* doRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler yöntemi): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* doRollover() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler yöntemi): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  106)
* dosya adları;yol adı açılımı:          glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line    8)
* dosya benzeri nesne:                   Sözlük.             (line  457)
* dosya nesnesi:                         Sözlük.             (line  441)
* dosya sistemi kodlaması ve hata işleyicisi: Sözlük.        (line  461)
* DOT (token modülü içinde):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  118)
* dot() (turtle modülü içinde):          Turtle motion.      (line  252)
* DOTALL (re modülü içinde):             Flags.              (line  108)
* doublequote (csv.Dialect özniteliği):  Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   24)
* DOUBLESLASH (token modülü içinde):     token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  214)
* DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (token modülü içinde): token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  218)
* DOUBLESTAR (token modülü içinde):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  166)
* DOUBLESTAREQUAL (token modülü içinde): token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  210)
* doupdate() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line   89)
* down (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line   84)
* down() (turtle modülü içinde):         Drawing state.      (line    6)
* dpgettext() (gettext modülü içinde):   GNU gettext API.    (line   65)
* drain() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.      (line   66)
* drive (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):   Methods and properties.
                                                             (line    8)
* drop_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  201)
* dropwhile() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions. (line  258)
* dst() (datetime.datetime yöntemi):     datetime Objects.   (line  516)
* dst() (datetime.time yöntemi):         time Objects.       (line  242)
* dst() (datetime.timezone yöntemi):     timezone Objects.   (line   57)
* dst() (datetime.tzinfo yöntemi):       tzinfo Objects.     (line   65)
* DTDHandler (xml.sax.handler içindeki sınıf): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   24)
* dump_stats() (profile.Profile yöntemi): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   96)
* dump_stats() (pstats.Stats yöntemi):   The Stats Class.    (line   59)
* dump_traceback_later() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump_traceback() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Dumping the traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump() (ast modülü içinde):            ast Helpers.        (line  263)
* dump() (json modülü içinde):           Basic Usage.        (line    6)
* dump() (marshal modülü içinde):        marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   47)
* dump() (pickle modülü içinde):         Module Interface.   (line   35)
* dump() (pickle.Pickler yöntemi):       Module Interface.   (line  155)
* dump() (plistlib modülü içinde):       plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   81)
* dump() (tracemalloc.Snapshot yöntemi): Snapshot.           (line   29)
* dump() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line   86)
* dumps() (json modülü içinde):          Basic Usage.        (line   91)
* dumps() (marshal modülü içinde):       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   82)
* dumps() (pickle modülü içinde):        Module Interface.   (line   47)
* dumps() (plistlib modülü içinde):      plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  111)
* dumps() (xmlrpc.client modülü içinde): Convenience Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* dup() (os modülü içinde):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   93)
* dup() (socket.socket yöntemi):         Socket Objects.     (line  108)
* dup2() (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  107)
* DuplicateOptionError:                  Exceptions<6>.      (line   24)
* DuplicateSectionError:                 Exceptions<6>.      (line   14)
* dwFlags (subprocess.STARTUPINFO özniteliği): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   19)
* DynamicClassAttribute() (types modülü içinde): Additional Utility Classes and Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* e (cmath modülü içinde):               Constants.          (line   10)
* e (math modülü içinde):                Sabitler<2>.        (line   10)
* e;in numeric literal:                  Integer literals.   (line   40)
* E2BIG (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   54)
* EACCES (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   80)
* EADDRINUSE (errno modülü içinde):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  432)
* EADDRNOTAVAIL (errno modülü içinde):   errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  436)
* EADV (errno modülü içinde):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  306)
* EAFNOSUPPORT (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  428)
* EAFP:                                  Sözlük.             (line  411)
* EAGAIN (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   71)
* eager_task_factory() (asyncio modülü içinde): Eager Task Factory.
                                                             (line    6)
* EALREADY (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  501)
* east_asian_width() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   64)
* EAUTH (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  581)
* EBADARCH (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  587)
* EBADE (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  242)
* EBADEXEC (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  593)
* EBADF (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   62)
* EBADFD (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  342)
* EBADMACHO (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  599)
* EBADMSG (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  330)
* EBADR (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  246)
* EBADRPC (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  665)
* EBADRQC (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  258)
* EBADSLT (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  262)
* EBFONT (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  270)
* EBUSY (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   93)
* ECANCELED (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  692)
* ECHILD (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   66)
* echo() (curses modülü içinde):         Functions<4>.       (line  105)
* echochar() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  196)
* ECHRNG (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  210)
* ECOMM (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  314)
* ECONNABORTED (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  452)
* ECONNREFUSED (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  488)
* ECONNRESET (errno modülü içinde):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  457)
* EDEADLK (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  173)
* EDEADLOCK (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  266)
* EDESTADDRREQ (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  390)
* EDEVERR (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  605)
* edit() (curses.textpad.Textbox yöntemi): Textbox objects.  (line   19)
* EDOM (errno modülü içinde):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  165)
* EDOTDOT (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  326)
* EDQUOT (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  535)
* EEXIST (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   97)
* EFAULT (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   85)
* EFBIG (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  140)
* EFD_CLOEXEC (os modülü içinde):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1909)
* EFD_NONBLOCK (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1918)
* EFD_SEMAPHORE (os modülü içinde):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1927)
* effective() (bdb modülü içinde):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  462)
* EFTYPE (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  611)
* ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi): SMTP Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* ehlo() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):         SMTP Objects.       (line   58)
* EHOSTDOWN (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  493)
* EHOSTUNREACH (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  497)
* EIDRM (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  206)
* EILSEQ (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  370)
* EINPROGRESS (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  506)
* EINTR (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   41)
* EINVAL (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  120)
* EIO (errno modülü içinde):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   46)
* EISCONN (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  466)
* EISDIR (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  115)
* EISNAM (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  527)
* EJECT (enum.FlagBoundary özniteliği):  Data Types<2>.      (line  662)
* EKEYEXPIRED (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  557)
* EKEYREJECTED (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  565)
* EKEYREVOKED (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  561)
* EL2HLT (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  238)
* EL2NSYNC (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  214)
* EL3HLT (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  218)
* EL3RST (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  222)
* Element (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): Element Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* element_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling. (line  131)
* element_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling.  (line  188)
* element_options() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling.
                                                             (line  192)
* ElementDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  240)
* elements() (collections.Counter yöntemi): Counter objects. (line   67)
* ElementTree (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* ELIBACC (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  350)
* ELIBBAD (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  354)
* ELIBEXEC (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  366)
* ELIBMAX (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  362)
* ELIBSCN (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  358)
* Ellinghouse, Lance:                    uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line   24)
* ELLIPSIS (doctest modülü içinde):      Option Flags.       (line   47)
* ELLIPSIS (token modülü içinde):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  234)
* Ellipsis (yerleşik değişken):          Built-in Constants. (line   59)
* EllipsisType (types modülü içinde):    Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  144)
* ELNRNG (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  226)
* ELOCKUNMAPPED (errno modülü içinde):   errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  573)
* ELOOP (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  193)
* else;conditional expression:           Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* EM (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  100)
* EmailMessage (email.message içindeki sınıf): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   52)
* EmailPolicy (email.policy içindeki sınıf): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  359)
* EMEDIUMTYPE (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  549)
* EMFILE (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  128)
* emit() (logging.FileHandler yöntemi):  FileHandler.        (line   31)
* emit() (logging.Handler yöntemi):      Handler Objects.    (line  109)
* emit() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler yöntemi): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler yöntemi): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* emit() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler yöntemi): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   36)
* emit() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler yöntemi): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   38)
* emit() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler yöntemi): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* emit() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler yöntemi): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   47)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler yöntemi): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   35)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler yöntemi): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler yöntemi): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   61)
* emit() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler yöntemi): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  110)
* emit() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler yöntemi): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* emit() (logging.NullHandler yöntemi):  NullHandler.        (line   16)
* emit() (logging.StreamHandler yöntemi): StreamHandler.     (line   17)
* EMLINK (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  156)
* Empty:                                 queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   82)
* empty (inspect.Parameter özniteliği):  Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  185)
* empty (inspect.Signature özniteliği):  Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   99)
* EMPTY_NAMESPACE (xml.dom modülü içinde): Module Contents<4>.
                                                             (line   35)
* empty;list:                            List displays.      (line    6)
* empty;tuple:                           Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   29)
* empty;tuple <1>:                       Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   16)
* empty() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):       Queue.              (line   27)
* empty() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues. (line  116)
* empty() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  230)
* empty() (queue.Queue yöntemi):         Queue Objects.      (line   15)
* empty() (queue.SimpleQueue yöntemi):   SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* empty() (sched.scheduler yöntemi):     Scheduler Objects.  (line   47)
* emptyline() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):         Cmd Objects.        (line   70)
* emscripten_version (sys._emscripten_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  338)
* EMSGSIZE (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  394)
* EMULTIHOP (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  322)
* enable (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  130)
* enable_callback_tracebacks() (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module functions.
                                                             (line  120)
* enable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   31)
* enable_load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  405)
* enable_traversal() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.
                                                             (line   75)
* ENABLE_USER_SITE (site modülü içinde): Module contents<5>. (line   10)
* enable() (bdb.Breakpoint yöntemi):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   48)
* enable() (cgitb modülü içinde):        cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line   33)
* enable() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line    6)
* enable() (gc modülü içinde):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* enable() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line   84)
* enable() (profile.Profile yöntemi):    profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   78)
* EnableControlFlowGuard:                Build<30>.          (line   47)
* enabled (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  106)
* EnableReflectionKey() (winreg modülü içinde): Functions<11>.
                                                             (line  499)
* ENAMETOOLONG (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  177)
* ENAVAIL (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  523)
* enclose() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  201)
* encode (codecs.CodecInfo özniteliği):  codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   69)
* encode_7or8bit() (email.encoders modülü içinde): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   57)
* encode_base64() (email.encoders modülü içinde): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   49)
* encode_noop() (email.encoders modülü içinde): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   63)
* encode_quopri() (email.encoders modülü içinde): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   42)
* encode_rfc2231() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  191)
* encode() (base64 modülü içinde):       base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  248)
* encode() (codecs modülü içinde):       codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   23)
* encode() (codecs.Codec yöntemi):       Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   11)
* encode() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder yöntemi): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* encode() (email.header.Header yöntemi): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  125)
* encode() (json.JSONEncoder yöntemi):   Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  218)
* encode() (quopri modülü içinde):       quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   29)
* encode() (str yöntemi):                String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line   65)
* encode() (uu modülü içinde):           uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line   29)
* encode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary yöntemi): Binary Objects.   (line   25)
* encode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime yöntemi): DateTime Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* encodebytes() (base64 modülü içinde):  base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  258)
* EncodedFile() (codecs modülü içinde):  codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  203)
* encodePriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler yöntemi): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   95)
* encodestring() (quopri modülü içinde): quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   46)
* encoding (curses.window özniteliği):   Window Objects.     (line  211)
* encoding (io.TextIOBase özniteliği):   Text I/O<2>.        (line   15)
* ENCODING (tarfile modülü içinde):      tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  273)
* ENCODING (token modülü içinde):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  288)
* encoding (UnicodeError özniteliği):    Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  425)
* encoding declarations (source file):   Encoding declarations.
                                                             (line    6)
* encodings_map (mimetypes modülü içinde): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  136)
* encodings_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes özniteliği): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* EncodingWarning:                       Uyarılar.           (line   73)
* end (UnicodeError özniteliği):         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  441)
* END_ASYNC_FOR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  278)
* end_col_offset (ast.AST özniteliği):   Node classes.       (line   39)
* end_colno (traceback.FrameSummary özniteliği): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* end_fill() (turtle modülü içinde):     Filling.            (line   20)
* END_FOR (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   93)
* end_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  276)
* end_lineno (ast.AST özniteliği):       Node classes.       (line   39)
* end_lineno (SyntaxError özniteliği):   Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  315)
* end_lineno (traceback.FrameSummary özniteliği): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* end_lineno (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* end_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* end_offset (SyntaxError özniteliği):   Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  320)
* end_offset (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* end_poly() (turtle modülü içinde):     Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   11)
* END_SEND (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  101)
* end() (re.Match yöntemi):              Match Objects.      (line  147)
* end() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* endCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler yöntemi): LexicalHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* EndCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  347)
* EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  235)
* endDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* endDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler yöntemi): LexicalHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* endElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* EndElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* endElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line  121)
* endheaders() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  184)
* ENDMARKER (token modülü içinde):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   40)
* EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  326)
* endpos (re.Match özniteliği):          Match Objects.      (line  186)
* endPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* endswith() (bytearray yöntemi):        Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* endswith() (bytes yöntemi):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* endswith() (str yöntemi):              String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line   89)
* endwin() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  110)
* ENEEDAUTH (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  617)
* ENETDOWN (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  440)
* ENETRESET (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  448)
* ENETUNREACH (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  444)
* ENFILE (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  124)
* ENOANO (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  254)
* ENOATTR (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  623)
* ENOBUFS (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  462)
* ENOCSI (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  234)
* ENODATA (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  278)
* ENODEV (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  106)
* ENOENT (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   31)
* ENOEXEC (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   58)
* ENOKEY (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  553)
* ENOLCK (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  181)
* ENOLINK (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  302)
* ENOMEDIUM (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  545)
* ENOMEM (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   76)
* ENOMSG (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  202)
* ENONET (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  290)
* ENOPKG (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  294)
* ENOPOLICY (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  629)
* ENOPROTOOPT (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  402)
* ENOSPC (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  144)
* ENOSR (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  286)
* ENOSTR (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  274)
* ENOSYS (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  185)
* ENOTACTIVE (errno modülü içinde):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  577)
* ENOTBLK (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   89)
* ENOTCAPABLE (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  683)
* ENOTCONN (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  470)
* ENOTDIR (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  110)
* ENOTEMPTY (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  189)
* ENOTNAM (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  519)
* ENOTRECOVERABLE (errno modülü içinde): errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  704)
* ENOTSOCK (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  386)
* ENOTSUP (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  418)
* ENOTTY (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  132)
* ENOTUNIQ (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  338)
* ENQ (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   34)
* enqueue_sentinel() (logging.handlers.QueueListener yöntemi): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   91)
* enqueue() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler yöntemi): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   78)
* ensure_directories() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi): API<2>.    (line   82)
* ensure_future() (asyncio modülü içinde): Future Functions. (line   19)
* ensurepip komut satırı seçeneği; -altinstall: Command line interface.
                                                             (line   42)
* ensurepip komut satırı seçeneği; -default-pip: Command line interface.
                                                             (line   47)
* ensurepip komut satırı seçeneği; -root: Command line interface.
                                                             (line   25)
* ensurepip komut satırı seçeneği; -user: Command line interface.
                                                             (line   31)
* enter_async_context() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.
                                                             (line  631)
* enter_context() (contextlib.ExitStack yöntemi): Utilities. (line  546)
* enter() (sched.scheduler yöntemi):     Scheduler Objects.  (line   30)
* enterabs() (sched.scheduler yöntemi):  Scheduler Objects.  (line    9)
* enterAsyncContext() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  889)
* enterClassContext() (unittest.TestCase sınıf yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  827)
* enterContext() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.    (line  785)
* enterModuleContext() (unittest modülü içinde): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   35)
* entities (xml.dom.DocumentType özniteliği): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* EntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  299)
* entitydefs (html.entities modülü içinde): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   25)
* EntityResolver (xml.sax.handler içindeki sınıf): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   31)
* entry_points() (importlib.metadata modülü içinde): Entry points.
                                                             (line    6)
* EntryPoint (importlib.metadata içindeki sınıf): Entry points.
                                                             (line   26)
* EntryPoints (importlib.metadata içindeki sınıf): Entry points.
                                                             (line   18)
* Enum (enum içindeki sınıf):            Data Types<2>.      (line  120)
* enum_certificates() (ssl modülü içinde): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   87)
* enum_crls() (ssl modülü içinde):       Certificate handling.
                                                             (line  110)
* EnumCheck (enum içindeki sınıf):       Data Types<2>.      (line  566)
* enumerate() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  142)
* EnumKey() (winreg modülü içinde):      Functions<11>.      (line  172)
* EnumType (enum içindeki sınıf):        Data Types<2>.      (line    6)
* EnumValue() (winreg modülü içinde):    Functions<11>.      (line  191)
* EnvBuilder (venv içindeki sınıf):      API<2>.             (line   11)
* environ (os modülü içinde):            Process Parameters. (line   16)
* environ (posix modülü içinde):         Notable Module Contents.
                                                             (line    9)
* environb (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line   58)
* environment:                           Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   12)
* environment variables;deleting:        Process Parameters. (line  582)
* environment variables;setting:         Process Parameters. (line  354)
* EnvironmentError:                      Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  476)
* Environments;virtual:                  venv — Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   10)
* EnvironmentVarGuard (test.support.os_helper içindeki sınıf): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   49)
* ENXIO (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   50)
* eof (bz2.BZ2Decompressor özniteliği):  Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   72)
* eof (lzma.LZMADecompressor özniteliği): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  164)
* eof (shlex.shlex özniteliği):          shlex Objects.      (line  178)
* eof (ssl.MemoryBIO özniteliği):        Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  139)
* eof (zlib.Decompress özniteliği):      zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  252)
* eof_received() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol yöntemi): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   40)
* eof_received() (asyncio.Protocol yöntemi): Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   30)
* EOFError:                              Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   27)
* EOFError (built-in exception):         File Objects.       (line   43)
* EOPNOTSUPP (errno modülü içinde):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  414)
* EOT (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   31)
* EOVERFLOW (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  334)
* EOWNERDEAD (errno modülü içinde):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  698)
* EPERM (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   26)
* EPFNOSUPPORT (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  424)
* epilogue (email.message.EmailMessage özniteliği): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  704)
* epilogue (email.message.Message özniteliği): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  715)
* EPIPE (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  160)
* epoch:                                 time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   20)
* epoll() (select modülü içinde):        select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   56)
* EpollSelector (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.      (line  175)
* EPROCLIM (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  635)
* EPROCUNAVAIL (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  641)
* EPROGMISMATCH (errno modülü içinde):   errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  647)
* EPROGUNAVAIL (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  653)
* EPROTO (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  318)
* EPROTONOSUPPORT (errno modülü içinde): errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  406)
* EPROTOTYPE (errno modülü içinde):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  398)
* epsilon (sys.float_info özniteliği):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  611)
* EPWROFF (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  659)
* Eq (ast içindeki sınıf):               Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* eq() (operator modülü içinde):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* EQEQUAL (token modülü içinde):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  134)
* EQFULL (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  539)
* EQUAL (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  114)
* ERA (locale modülü içinde):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  299)
* ERA_D_FMT (locale modülü içinde):      locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  321)
* ERA_D_T_FMT (locale modülü içinde):    locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  316)
* ERA_T_FMT (locale modülü içinde):      locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  326)
* ERANGE (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  169)
* erase() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  221)
* erasechar() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  114)
* EREMCHG (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  346)
* EREMOTE (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  298)
* EREMOTEIO (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  531)
* ERESTART (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  374)
* erf() (math modülü içinde):            Özel fonksiyonlar.  (line    6)
* erfc() (math modülü içinde):           Özel fonksiyonlar.  (line   20)
* ERFKILL (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  569)
* EROFS (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  152)
* ERPCMISMATCH (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  671)
* ERR (curses modülü içinde):            Constants<4>.       (line    8)
* errcheck (ctypes._CFuncPtr özniteliği): Foreign functions. (line   70)
* errcode (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError özniteliği): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* errmsg (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError özniteliği): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* errno (OSError özniteliği):            Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  168)
* error:                                 Exceptions<2>.      (line    6)
* error <1>:                             Functions and Exceptions.
                                                             (line    8)
* Error:                                 copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   26)
* Error <1>:                             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  450)
* error <2>:                             dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”.
                                                             (line   16)
* error <3>:                             dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   17)
* error <4>:                             dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   23)
* error <5>:                             dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   23)
* Error <2>:                             Exceptions<5>.      (line   15)
* error <6>:                             zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   24)
* Error <3>:                             Module Contents<3>. (line  328)
* Error <4>:                             Exceptions<6>.      (line    6)
* error <7>:                             os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   51)
* error <8>:                             getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   85)
* error <9>:                             Functions<4>.       (line    8)
* error <10>:                            _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   21)
* error <11>:                            Exceptions<12>.     (line    6)
* error <12>:                            select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   30)
* Error <5>:                             Exceptions<15>.     (line    8)
* Error <6>:                             binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  157)
* error <13>:                            xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   31)
* Error <7>:                             webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   58)
* Error <8>:                             wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   51)
* Error <9>:                             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   22)
* error <14>:                            resource — Resource usage information.
                                                             (line   19)
* error <15>:                            audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   29)
* error <16>:                            nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line   63)
* Error <10>:                            sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   71)
* Error <11>:                            uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line   55)
* Error <12>:                            Exceptions<19>.     (line    8)
* ERROR (logging modülü içinde):         Logging Levels.     (line   40)
* ERROR (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  192)
* error handling:                        Exceptions.         (line    6)
* error_body (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  265)
* error_content_type (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  158)
* error_headers (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  258)
* error_leader() (shlex.shlex yöntemi):  shlex Objects.      (line   69)
* error_message_format (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  150)
* error_output() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  228)
* error_perm:                            Module variables.   (line   16)
* error_proto:                           Module variables.   (line   21)
* error_proto <1>:                       poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   90)
* error_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol yöntemi): Datagram Protocols.
                                                             (line   15)
* error_reply:                           Module variables.   (line    6)
* error_status (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  252)
* error_temp:                            Module variables.   (line   11)
* error() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Exiting methods.
                                                             (line   19)
* error() (logging modülü içinde):       Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   80)
* error() (logging.Logger yöntemi):      Logger Objects.     (line  302)
* error() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector yöntemi): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* error() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler yöntemi): ErrorHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* ErrorByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* errorcode (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   13)
* ErrorCode (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* ErrorColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  180)
* ErrorHandler (xml.sax.handler içindeki sınıf): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   38)
* errorlevel (tarfile.TarFile özniteliği): TarFile Objects.  (line  214)
* ErrorLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  184)
* errors:                                Exceptions.         (line    6)
* errors (io.TextIOBase özniteliği):     Text I/O<2>.        (line   20)
* errors (unittest.TestLoader özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   17)
* errors (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  246)
* Errors;logging:                        logging — Logging facility for Python.
                                                             (line    8)
* ErrorStream (wsgiref.types içindeki sınıf): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   28)
* ErrorString() (xml.parsers.expat modülü içinde): xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   42)
* ERRORTOKEN (token modülü içinde):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  268)
* ESC (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  106)
* escape (shlex.shlex özniteliği):       shlex Objects.      (line  110)
* escape sequence:                       String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* escape() (glob modülü içinde):         glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line  111)
* escape() (html modülü içinde):         html — HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line   12)
* escape() (re modülü içinde):           Functions.          (line  254)
* escape() (xml.sax.saxutils modülü içinde): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   14)
* escapechar (csv.Dialect özniteliği):   Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   35)
* escapedquotes (shlex.shlex özniteliği): shlex Objects.     (line  122)
* ESHLIBVERS (errno modülü içinde):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  677)
* ESHUTDOWN (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  474)
* ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (errno modülü içinde): errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  410)
* ESPIPE (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  148)
* ESRCH (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   36)
* ESRMNT (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  310)
* ESTALE (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  511)
* ESTRPIPE (errno modülü içinde):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  378)
* eşyordam:                              Sözlük.             (line  302)
* eşyordam işlevi:                       Sözlük.             (line  310)
* eşzamansız yinelenebilir:              Sözlük.             (line  134)
* ETB (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   94)
* ETH_P_ALL (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  214)
* ETHERTYPE_ARP (socket modülü içinde):  Constants<6>.       (line  357)
* ETHERTYPE_IP (socket modülü içinde):   Constants<6>.       (line  357)
* ETHERTYPE_IPV6 (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.       (line  357)
* ETHERTYPE_VLAN (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.       (line  357)
* ETIME (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  282)
* ETIMEDOUT (errno modülü içinde):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  483)
* Etiny() (decimal.Context yöntemi):     Context objects.    (line  232)
* etkileşimli:                           Sözlük.             (line  700)
* ETOOMANYREFS (errno modülü içinde):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  479)
* Etop() (decimal.Context yöntemi):      Context objects.    (line  238)
* ETX (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   28)
* ETXTBSY (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  136)
* EUCLEAN (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  515)
* EUNATCH (errno modülü içinde):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  230)
* EUSERS (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  382)
* evaluation;order:                      Evaluation order.   (line    6)
* Event (asyncio içindeki sınıf):        Event.              (line    6)
* Event (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   42)
* Event (threading içindeki sınıf):      Event Objects.      (line   14)
* event scheduling:                      sched — Event scheduler.
                                                             (line    8)
* EVENT_READ (selectors modülü içinde):  Classes<3>.         (line   23)
* EVENT_WRITE (selectors modülü içinde): Classes<3>.         (line   26)
* event() (msilib.Control yöntemi):      GUI classes.        (line   14)
* Event() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  183)
* eventfd_read() (os modülü içinde):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1889)
* eventfd_write() (os modülü içinde):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1899)
* eventfd() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1836)
* events (selectors.SelectorKey özniteliği): Classes<3>.     (line   44)
* events (widgets):                      Bindings and Events.
                                                             (line    6)
* evrensel yeni satırlar:                Sözlük.             (line 1451)
* EWOULDBLOCK (errno modülü içinde):     errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  197)
* EX_CANTCREAT (os modülü içinde):       Process Management. (line  206)
* EX_CONFIG (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  242)
* EX_DATAERR (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line  155)
* EX_IOERR (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  213)
* EX_NOHOST (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  174)
* EX_NOINPUT (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line  161)
* EX_NOPERM (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  235)
* EX_NOTFOUND (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line  249)
* EX_NOUSER (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  168)
* EX_OK (os modülü içinde):              Process Management. (line  140)
* EX_OSERR (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  192)
* EX_OSFILE (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  199)
* EX_PROTOCOL (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line  228)
* EX_SOFTWARE (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line  186)
* EX_TEMPFAIL (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line  220)
* EX_UNAVAILABLE (os modülü içinde):     Process Management. (line  180)
* EX_USAGE (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  148)
* EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES (token modülü içinde): token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  300)
* Example (doctest içindeki sınıf):      Example Objects.    (line    6)
* example (doctest.DocTestFailure özniteliği): Debugging.    (line  200)
* example (doctest.UnexpectedException özniteliği): Debugging.
                                                             (line  221)
* examples (doctest.DocTest özniteliği): DocTest Objects.    (line   17)
* exc_info (doctest.UnexpectedException özniteliği): Debugging.
                                                             (line  225)
* exc_info (in module sys):              Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* exc_info (in module sys) <1>:          Exceptions<20>.     (line   45)
* exc_info() (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  437)
* exc_msg (doctest.Example özniteliği):  Example Objects.    (line   31)
* exc_type (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* excel (csv içindeki sınıf):            Module Contents<3>. (line  203)
* excel_tab (csv içindeki sınıf):        Module Contents<3>. (line  209)
* except (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line   82)
* ExceptHandler (ast içindeki sınıf):    Control flow.       (line  210)
* excepthook() (in module sys):          cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line   36)
* excepthook() (sys modülü içinde):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  381)
* excepthook() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line   72)
* exception:                             Exceptions.         (line    6)
* exception <1>:                         The raise statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* Exception:                             Temel sınıflar.     (line   66)
* EXCEPTION (_tkinter modülü içinde):    File Handlers.      (line   41)
* exception handler:                     Exceptions.         (line    6)
* EXCEPTION_HANDLED (monitoring event):  Events.             (line   26)
* exception;AssertionError:              The assert statement.
                                                             (line   21)
* exception;AttributeError:              Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* exception;chaining:                    The raise statement.
                                                             (line   30)
* exception;chaining <1>:                İstisna bağlamı.    (line    6)
* exception;GeneratorExit:               Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   65)
* exception;GeneratorExit <1>:           Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   61)
* exception;handler:                     Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* exception;ImportError:                 The import statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception;NameError:                   Identifiers Names.  (line   10)
* exception;StopAsyncIteration:          Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   10)
* exception;StopIteration:               Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   12)
* exception;StopIteration <1>:           The yield statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception;TypeError:                   Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   23)
* exception;ValueError:                  Shifting operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* exception;ZeroDivisionError:           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* exception() (asyncio.Future yöntemi):  Future Object.      (line  123)
* exception() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):    Task Object.        (line   87)
* exception() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* exception() (logging modülü içinde):   Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   92)
* exception() (logging.Logger yöntemi):  Logger Objects.     (line  318)
* exception() (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  425)
* ExceptionGroup:                        İstisna grupları.   (line   12)
* exceptions (BaseExceptionGroup özniteliği): İstisna grupları.
                                                             (line   38)
* exceptions (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* exceptions;in CGI scripts:             cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    8)
* EXCLAMATION (token modülü içinde):     token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  242)
* exclusive;or:                          Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* EXDEV (errno modülü içinde):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  102)
* exec (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line   86)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  260)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.Loader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  114)
* exec_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  407)
* exec_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  321)
* exec_module() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* exec_prefix (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  457)
* execfile (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line   90)
* execl() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line   53)
* execle() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line   53)
* execlp() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line   53)
* execlpe() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line   53)
* executable (in module sys):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  142)
* executable (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  474)
* Executable Zip Files:                  zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives.
                                                             (line   10)
* Execute() (msilib.View yöntemi):       View Objects.       (line    6)
* execute() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* execute() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi):    Cursor objects.     (line   24)
* executemany() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* executemany() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi): Cursor objects.    (line   59)
* executescript() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* executescript() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi): Cursor objects.  (line  101)
* execution model:                       Execution model.    (line    6)
* execution;frame:                       Structure of a program.
                                                             (line   18)
* execution;frame <1>:                   Class definitions.  (line    6)
* execution;stack:                       Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* ExecutionLoader (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  273)
* Executor (concurrent.futures içindeki sınıf): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* execv() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line   53)
* execve() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line   53)
* execvp() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line   53)
* execvpe() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line   53)
* ExFileSelectBox (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): File Selectors.
                                                             (line   34)
* EXFULL (errno modülü içinde):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  250)
* exists() (os.path modülü içinde):      os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  107)
* exists() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):       Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   36)
* exists() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.     (line   89)
* exists() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):       Path Objects.       (line   65)
* exit (C function):                     Process Control.    (line   23)
* exit (yerleşik değişken):              Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   11)
* exit() (_thread modülü içinde):        _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   78)
* exit() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Exiting methods. (line    6)
* exit() (sys modülü içinde):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  481)
* exitcode (multiprocessing.Process özniteliği): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  126)
* exitfunc (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line   96)
* exitonclick() (turtle modülü içinde):  Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   10)
* ExitStack (contextlib içindeki sınıf): Utilities.          (line  503)
* exp() (cmath modülü içinde):           Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* exp() (decimal.Context yöntemi):       Context objects.    (line  303)
* exp() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):       Decimal objects.    (line  232)
* exp() (math modülü içinde):            Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   12)
* exp2() (math modülü içinde):           Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   18)
* expand_tabs (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  167)
* expand() (re.Match yöntemi):           Match Objects.      (line   23)
* ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (winreg modülü içinde): Functions<11>.
                                                             (line  228)
* expandNode() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream yöntemi): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* expandtabs() (bytearray yöntemi):      Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  481)
* expandtabs() (bytes yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  481)
* expandtabs() (str yöntemi):            String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line   96)
* expanduser() (os.path modülü içinde):  os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  128)
* expanduser() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):   Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   18)
* expandvars() (os.path modülü içinde):  os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* Expat:                                 xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   12)
* ExpatError:                            xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   25)
* expect() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi):   Telnet Objects.     (line  120)
* expected (asyncio.IncompleteReadError özniteliği): Exceptions<10>.
                                                             (line   51)
* expectedFailure() (unittest modülü içinde): Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   98)
* expectedFailures (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  266)
* expired() (asyncio.Timeout yöntemi):   Timeouts.           (line   72)
* expires (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   53)
* expires (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.  (line   13)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  241)
* exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  321)
* expm1() (math modülü içinde):          Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   24)
* expovariate() (random modülü içinde):  Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   38)
* Expr (ast içindeki sınıf):             Expressions<2>.     (line    6)
* expression:                            Expressions.        (line    6)
* Expression (ast içindeki sınıf):       Root nodes.         (line   27)
* expression;list:                       Expression lists.   (line    6)
* expression;list <1>:                   Expression statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* expression;list <2>:                   Expression statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* expression;statement:                  Expression statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* expunge() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   93)
* extend_path() (pkgutil modülü içinde): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   19)
* extend() (array.array yöntemi):        array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  150)
* extend() (collections.deque yöntemi):  deque objects.      (line   59)
* extend() (sequence method):            Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* extend() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* EXTENDED_ARG (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1062)
* ExtendedContext (decimal modülü içinde): Context objects.  (line   76)
* ExtendedInterpolation (configparser içindeki sınıf): Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   41)
* extendleft() (collections.deque yöntemi): deque objects.   (line   64)
* EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery modülü içinde): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   50)
* extension;module:                      The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* ExtensionFileLoader (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  288)
* extensions_map (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  366)
* External Data Representation:          Data stream format. (line    6)
* External Data Representation <1>:      xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line    8)
* external_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* ExternalClashError:                    Exceptions<15>.     (line   24)
* ExternalEntityParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* ExternalEntityRefHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  374)
* extra (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği):    ZipInfo Objects.    (line   94)
* extract_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* extract_stack() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   94)
* extract_tb() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* extract_version (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  108)
* extract() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi):   TarFile Objects.    (line  169)
* extract() (traceback.StackSummary sınıf yöntemi): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* extract() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):   ZipFile Objects.    (line  179)
* extractall() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi): TarFile Objects.   (line  132)
* extractall() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi): ZipFile Objects.   (line  206)
* ExtractError:                          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  219)
* extractfile() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi): TarFile Objects.  (line  202)
* extraction_filter (tarfile.TarFile özniteliği): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  234)
* extsep (os modülü içinde):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  112)
* f_back (frame attribute):              Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_back (frame özniteliği):             Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_builtins (frame attribute):          Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_builtins (frame özniteliği):         Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   24)
* f_code (frame attribute):              Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_code (frame özniteliği):             Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* F_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   27)
* f_contiguous (memoryview özniteliği):  Memory Views.       (line  480)
* f_globals (frame attribute):           Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_globals (frame özniteliği):          Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   20)
* f_lasti (frame attribute):             Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_lasti (frame özniteliği):            Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   28)
* f_lineno (frame attribute):            Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   32)
* f_lineno (frame özniteliği):           Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* f_locals (frame attribute):            Frame objects.      (line   10)
* f_locals (frame özniteliği):           Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* F_LOCK (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  266)
* F_OK (os modülü içinde):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* F_TEST (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  266)
* F_TLOCK (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  266)
* f_trace (frame attribute):             Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* f_trace (frame özniteliği):            Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_trace_lines (frame attribute):       Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* f_trace_lines (frame özniteliği):      Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute):     Special read-only attributes<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* f_trace_opcodes (frame özniteliği):    Special writable attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* F_ULOCK (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  266)
* f-string:                              Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi.
                                                             (line   94)
* f-string <1>:                          String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* f-string <2>:                          Sözlük.             (line  435)
* f';formatted string literal:           String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   64)
* f";formatted string literal:           String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   64)
* fabs() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   36)
* factorial() (math modülü içinde):      Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   40)
* factory() (importlib.util.LazyLoader sınıf yöntemi): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  222)
* FAIL_FAST (doctest modülü içinde):     Option Flags.       (line  138)
* fail() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi):    Test cases.         (line  688)
* failfast (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  304)
* failureException:                      Unittest API.       (line  140)
* failureException (unittest.TestCase özniteliği): Test cases.
                                                             (line  693)
* failures (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  252)
* FakePath (test.support.os_helper içindeki sınıf): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   60)
* False:                                 numbers Integral.   (line   27)
* false:                                 Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line    6)
* False <1>:                             Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line   23)
* False <2>:                             Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* False (Built-in object):               Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line   15)
* False (yerleşik değişken):             Built-in Constants. (line    8)
* families() (tkinter.font modülü içinde): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   88)
* family (socket.socket özniteliği):     Socket Objects.     (line  615)
* FancyURLopener (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  146)
* fast (pickle.Pickler özniteliği):      Module Interface.   (line  215)
* FastChildWatcher (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line  142)
* fatalError() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler yöntemi): ErrorHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* Fault (xmlrpc.client içindeki sınıf):  Fault Objects.      (line    6)
* faultCode (xmlrpc.client.Fault özniteliği): Fault Objects. (line   11)
* faultString (xmlrpc.client.Fault özniteliği): Fault Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* fchdir() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  275)
* fchmod() (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  121)
* fchown() (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  135)
* FCICreate() (msilib modülü içinde):    msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   28)
* fcntl() (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line   49)
* fd (selectors.SelectorKey özniteliği): Classes<3>.         (line   40)
* fd_count() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* fd() (turtle modülü içinde):           Turtle motion.      (line    6)
* fdatasync() (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  150)
* fdopen() (os modülü içinde):           File Object Creation.
                                                             (line    9)
* Feature (msilib içindeki sınıf):       Features<3>.        (line    6)
* feature_external_ges (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   81)
* feature_external_pes (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   88)
* feature_namespace_prefixes (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   60)
* feature_namespaces (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   53)
* feature_string_interning (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   67)
* feature_validation (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   74)
* FEBRUARY (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* feed_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader.   (line   16)
* feed() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser yöntemi): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   56)
* feed() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser yöntemi): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* feed() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser yöntemi): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* FeedParser (email.parser içindeki sınıf): FeedParser API.  (line   71)
* fetch() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line   99)
* Fetch() (msilib.View yöntemi):         View Objects.       (line   18)
* fetchall() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi):   Cursor objects.     (line  147)
* fetchmany() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi):  Cursor objects.     (line  130)
* fetchone() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi):   Cursor objects.     (line  123)
* FF (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   61)
* fflags (select.kevent özniteliği):     Kevent Objects.     (line   90)
* Field (dataclasses içindeki sınıf):    Module contents<4>. (line  307)
* field_size_limit() (csv modülü içinde): Module Contents<3>.
                                                             (line   95)
* field() (dataclasses modülü içinde):   Module contents<4>. (line  209)
* fieldnames (csv.DictReader özniteliği): Reader Objects.    (line   31)
* fields (uuid.UUID özniteliği):         uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   96)
* fields() (dataclasses modülü içinde):  Module contents<4>. (line  326)
* FIFOTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):      tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  303)
* file (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   82)
* file (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):        Class Objects.      (line   12)
* file (pyclbr.Function özniteliği):     Function Objects.   (line   11)
* file object;io module:                 Overview<2>.        (line    6)
* file object;open() built-in function:  Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1238)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  394)
* file_digest() (hashlib modülü içinde): File hashing.       (line    9)
* file_open() (urllib.request.FileHandler yöntemi): FileHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* file_size (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.   (line  144)
* file;byte-code:                        py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line    8)
* file;copying:                          shutil — High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    8)
* file;large files:                      Large File Support. (line    6)
* file;mime.types:                       mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  124)
* file;modes:                            Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1264)
* fileConfig() (logging.config modülü içinde): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* FileCookieJar (http.cookiejar içindeki sınıf): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   56)
* FileDialog (tkinter.filedialog içindeki sınıf): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   78)
* FileEntry (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): File Selectors.    (line   50)
* FileExistsError:                       İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   64)
* FileFinder (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  153)
* FileHandler (logging içindeki sınıf):  FileHandler.        (line   10)
* FileHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  437)
* FileInput (fileinput içindeki sınıf):  fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  139)
* FileIO (io içindeki sınıf):            Raw File I/O.       (line    6)
* filelineno() (fileinput modülü içinde): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  104)
* FileLoader (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  292)
* filemode() (stat modülü içinde):       stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  121)
* filename (doctest.DocTest özniteliği): DocTest Objects.    (line   36)
* filename (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar özniteliği): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  154)
* filename (inspect.FrameInfo özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   17)
* filename (inspect.Traceback özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   57)
* filename (netrc.NetrcParseError özniteliği): netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   54)
* filename (OSError özniteliği):         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  190)
* filename (SyntaxError özniteliği):     Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  297)
* filename (traceback.FrameSummary özniteliği): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* filename (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* filename (tracemalloc.Frame özniteliği): Frame.            (line   13)
* filename (zipfile.ZipFile özniteliği): ZipFile Objects.    (line  344)
* filename (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.    (line   51)
* filename_only (tabnanny modülü içinde): tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   31)
* filename_pattern (tracemalloc.Filter özniteliği): Filter.  (line   54)
* filename() (fileinput modülü içinde):  fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   86)
* filename2 (OSError özniteliği):        Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  190)
* filenames;wildcard expansion:          fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    8)
* fileno() (bz2.BZ2File yöntemi):        De compression of files.
                                                             (line   87)
* fileno() (fileinput modülü içinde):    fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   91)
* fileno() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* fileno() (io.IOBase yöntemi):          I/O Base Classes.   (line   62)
* fileno() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* fileno() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* fileno() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* fileno() (select.devpoll yöntemi):     /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* fileno() (select.epoll yöntemi):       Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* fileno() (select.kqueue yöntemi):      Kqueue Objects.     (line   14)
* fileno() (selectors.DevpollSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.  (line  188)
* fileno() (selectors.EpollSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.    (line  179)
* fileno() (selectors.KqueueSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.   (line  199)
* fileno() (socket.socket yöntemi):      Socket Objects.     (line  118)
* fileno() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* fileno() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi):   Telnet Objects.     (line   96)
* FileNotFoundError:                     İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   69)
* fileobj (selectors.SelectorKey özniteliği): Classes<3>.    (line   36)
* files_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   94)
* files_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   98)
* files() (importlib.abc.TraversableResources yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  583)
* files() (importlib.metadata modülü içinde): Distribution files.
                                                             (line    6)
* files() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line   51)
* files() (importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  169)
* FileSelectBox (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): File Selectors.
                                                             (line   42)
* FileType (argparse içindeki sınıf):    FileType objects.   (line    6)
* FileWrapper (wsgiref.types içindeki sınıf): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   32)
* FileWrapper (wsgiref.util içindeki sınıf): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line  117)
* fill() (textwrap modülü içinde):       textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   33)
* fill() (textwrap.TextWrapper yöntemi): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  295)
* fillcolor() (turtle modülü içinde):    Color control.      (line   58)
* filling() (turtle modülü içinde):      Filling.            (line    6)
* fillvalue (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):   Repr Objects.       (line   10)
* filter (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  101)
* Filter (logging içindeki sınıf):       Filter Objects.     (line   13)
* filter (select.kevent özniteliği):     Kevent Objects.     (line   15)
* Filter (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf):   Filter.             (line    6)
* filter_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  102)
* FILTER_DIR (unittest.mock modülü içinde): FILTER_DIR.      (line    6)
* filter_traces() (tracemalloc.Snapshot yöntemi): Snapshot.  (line   35)
* filter() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  121)
* filter() (fnmatch modülü içinde):      fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   75)
* filter() (logging.Filter yöntemi):     Filter Objects.     (line   20)
* filter() (logging.Handler yöntemi):    Handler Objects.    (line   61)
* filter() (logging.Logger yöntemi):     Logger Objects.     (line  333)
* FilterError:                           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  230)
* filterfalse() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  279)
* filterwarnings() (warnings modülü içinde): Available Functions.
                                                             (line  106)
* Final (typing modülü içinde):          Special forms.      (line  186)
* final() (typing modülü içinde):        Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  311)
* finalization, of objects:              Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* finalize (weakref içindeki sınıf):     weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  268)
* finalizer:                             Basic customization.
                                                             (line   55)
* find_class() (pickle protocol):        Restricting Globals.
                                                             (line    6)
* find_class() (pickle.Unpickler yöntemi): Module Interface. (line  287)
* find_library() (ctypes.util modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   92)
* find_loader() (pkgutil modülü içinde): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   55)
* find_longest_match() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* find_msvcrt() (ctypes.util modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line  101)
* find_spec() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   35)
* find_spec() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   71)
* find_spec() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  183)
* find_spec() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder sınıf yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  116)
* find_spec() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  101)
* find_spec() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* find_unused_port() (test.support.socket_helper modülü içinde): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   15)
* find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr yöntemi): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth yöntemi): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* find() (bytearray yöntemi):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  131)
* find() (bytes yöntemi):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  131)
* find() (doctest.DocTestFinder yöntemi): DocTestFinder objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* find() (gettext modülü içinde):        Class-based API.    (line   14)
* find() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):            mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  188)
* find() (str yöntemi):                  String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  117)
* find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* findall() (re modülü içinde):          Functions.          (line  127)
* findall() (re.Pattern yöntemi):        Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* findCaller() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.     (line  350)
* finder:                                Finders and loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* finder;find_spec:                      The meta path.      (line    6)
* findfactor() (audioop modülü içinde):  audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   82)
* findfile() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  271)
* findfit() (audioop modülü içinde):     audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   91)
* finditer() (re modülü içinde):         Functions.          (line  153)
* finditer() (re.Pattern yöntemi):       Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* findlabels() (dis modülü içinde):      Analysis functions. (line  165)
* findlinestarts() (dis modülü içinde):  Analysis functions. (line  151)
* findmatch() (mailcap modülü içinde):   mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line   28)
* findmax() (audioop modülü içinde):     audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  102)
* findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  119)
* findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* finish_request() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  129)
* finish() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler yöntemi): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* finish() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler yöntemi): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   52)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (asyncio modülü içinde): Waiting Primitives.
                                                             (line   35)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (concurrent.futures modülü içinde): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (asyncio modülü içinde): Waiting Primitives.
                                                             (line   39)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (concurrent.futures modülü içinde): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* firstChild (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):  Node Objects.       (line   54)
* FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect:   email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   92)
* firstkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm yöntemi):     dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   80)
* firstweekday (calendar.Calendar özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* firstweekday() (calendar modülü içinde): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  360)
* fix_missing_locations() (ast modülü içinde): ast Helpers.  (line  139)
* fix_sentence_endings (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  222)
* Flag (enum içindeki sınıf):            Data Types<2>.      (line  391)
* flag_bits (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.   (line  116)
* FlagBoundary (enum içindeki sınıf):    Data Types<2>.      (line  625)
* flags (re.Pattern özniteliği):         Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* flags (select.kevent özniteliği):      Kevent Objects.     (line   52)
* flags (sys modülü içinde):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  512)
* flash() (curses modülü içinde):        Functions<4>.       (line  132)
* flatten() (email.generator.BytesGenerator yöntemi): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line   80)
* flatten() (email.generator.Generator yöntemi): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  175)
* flattening;objects:                    pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* float (yerleşik sınıf):                Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  709)
* float_info (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  596)
* float_repr_style (sys modülü içinde):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  704)
* floating-point literal:                Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* floating-point;literals:               Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* floating-point;number:                 numbers Real float. (line    6)
* FloatingPointError:                    Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   34)
* FloatOperation (decimal içindeki sınıf): Signals.          (line  100)
* flock() (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  130)
* floor() (in module math):              Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line  111)
* floor() (math modülü içinde):          Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   49)
* FloorDiv (ast içindeki sınıf):         Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* floordiv() (operator modülü içinde):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   88)
* flush_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  285)
* flush_std_streams() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  403)
* flush() (bz2.BZ2Compressor yöntemi):   Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   25)
* flush() (io.BufferedWriter yöntemi):   Buffered Streams.   (line  125)
* flush() (io.IOBase yöntemi):           I/O Base Classes.   (line   68)
* flush() (logging.Handler yöntemi):     Handler Objects.    (line   69)
* flush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler yöntemi): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   30)
* flush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler yöntemi): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   61)
* flush() (logging.StreamHandler yöntemi): StreamHandler.    (line   25)
* flush() (lzma.LZMACompressor yöntemi): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   90)
* flush() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):     Mailbox objects.    (line  249)
* flush() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):     Maildir objects.    (line  103)
* flush() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):          MH objects.         (line   99)
* flush() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):           mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  198)
* flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser yöntemi): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* flush() (zlib.Compress yöntemi):       zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  211)
* flush() (zlib.Decompress yöntemi):     zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  283)
* flushinp() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  139)
* FlushKey() (winreg modülü içinde):     Functions<11>.      (line  239)
* fma() (decimal.Context yöntemi):       Context objects.    (line  307)
* fma() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):       Decimal objects.    (line  270)
* fmean() (statistics modülü içinde):    Function details.   (line   49)
* fmod() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   56)
* FMT_BINARY (plistlib modülü içinde):   plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  141)
* FMT_XML (plistlib modülü içinde):      plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  135)
* fnmatch() (fnmatch modülü içinde):     fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   50)
* fnmatchcase() (fnmatch modülü içinde): fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   69)
* focus() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.      (line   93)
* fold (datetime.datetime özniteliği):   datetime Objects.   (line  323)
* fold (datetime.time özniteliği):       time Objects.       (line   71)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.Compat32 yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  607)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.EmailPolicy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  486)
* fold_binary() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  350)
* fold() (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader yöntemi): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* fold() (email.policy.Compat32 yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  599)
* fold() (email.policy.EmailPolicy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  466)
* fold() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi):  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  335)
* fonksiyon:                             Sözlük.             (line  504)
* fonksiyon açıklaması:                  Sözlük.             (line  510)
* Font (tkinter.font içindeki sınıf):    tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   20)
* For (ast içindeki sınıf):              Control flow.       (line   45)
* FOR_ITER (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  831)
* for;in comprehensions:                 Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* forget() (test.support.import_helper modülü içinde): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* forget() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.     (line   18)
* fork() (os modülü içinde):             Process Management. (line  255)
* fork() (pty modülü içinde):            pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line   22)
* ForkingMixIn (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ForkingTCPServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ForkingUDPServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ForkingUnixDatagramServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ForkingUnixStreamServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* forkpty() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  299)
* Form (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):     Form Geometry Manager.
                                                             (line    9)
* FORMAT (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.     (line   19)
* format (memoryview özniteliği):        Memory Views.       (line  421)
* format (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList özniteliği): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  318)
* format (struct.Struct özniteliği):     Classes<2>.         (line   54)
* format_datetime() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  173)
* format_exc() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  156)
* format_exception_only() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* format_exception_only() (traceback.TracebackException yöntemi): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* format_exception() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  140)
* format_field() (string.Formatter yöntemi): Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line  102)
* format_frame_summary() (traceback.StackSummary yöntemi): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* format_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Printing help.
                                                             (line   30)
* format_list() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* format_map() (str yöntemi):            String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  163)
* format_stack_entry() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  410)
* format_stack() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  165)
* format_string() (locale modülü içinde): locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  456)
* format_tb() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  161)
* format_usage() (argparse.Action yöntemi): Action classes.  (line   57)
* format_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Printing help.
                                                             (line   25)
* FORMAT_VALUE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1070)
* format() (built-in function);__str__() (object method): Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* format() (logging.BufferingFormatter yöntemi): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* format() (logging.Formatter yöntemi):  Formatter Objects.  (line   52)
* format() (logging.Handler yöntemi):    Handler Objects.    (line  104)
* format() (pprint.PrettyPrinter yöntemi): PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* format() (str yöntemi):                String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  132)
* format() (string.Formatter yöntemi):   Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   17)
* format() (traceback.StackSummary yöntemi): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* format() (traceback.TracebackException yöntemi): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  135)
* format() (tracemalloc.Traceback yöntemi): Traceback.       (line   37)
* formataddr() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   71)
* formatargvalues() (inspect modülü içinde): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* formatdate() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  152)
* formatday() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  156)
* FormatError:                           Exceptions<15>.     (line   31)
* FormatError() (ctypes modülü içinde):  Utility functions.  (line  113)
* formatException() (logging.Formatter yöntemi): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* formatFooter() (logging.BufferingFormatter yöntemi): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  148)
* formatHeader() (logging.BufferingFormatter yöntemi): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  141)
* formatmonth() (calendar.HTMLCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  229)
* formatmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  185)
* formatmonthname() (calendar.HTMLCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  250)
* formatmonthname() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  194)
* formatStack() (logging.Formatter yöntemi): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* formatted string literal:              Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi.
                                                             (line   94)
* formatted string literal <1>:          String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* FormattedValue (ast içindeki sınıf):   Literals<3>.        (line   18)
* Formatter (logging içindeki sınıf):    Formatter Objects.  (line    6)
* Formatter (string içindeki sınıf):     Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   13)
* formatTime() (logging.Formatter yöntemi): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* formatting, string (%):                printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting;bytearray (%):              printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatting;bytes (%):                  printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* formatwarning() (warnings modülü içinde): Available Functions.
                                                             (line   97)
* formatweek() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  163)
* formatweekday() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  171)
* formatweekheader() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  178)
* formatyear() (calendar.HTMLCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  235)
* formatyear() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  208)
* formatyearpage() (calendar.HTMLCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  240)
* Fortran contiguous:                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   25)
* Fortran contiguous <1>:                Sözlük.             (line  295)
* forward() (turtle modülü içinde):      Turtle motion.      (line    6)
* ForwardRef (typing içindeki sınıf):    Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  118)
* fp (urllib.error.HTTPError özniteliği): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   61)
* fpathconf() (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  159)
* Fraction (fractions içindeki sınıf):   fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line   16)
* frame (inspect.FrameInfo özniteliği):  The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   13)
* frame (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText özniteliği): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   26)
* Frame (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf):    Frame.              (line    6)
* FrameInfo (inspect içindeki sınıf):    The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   11)
* FrameSummary (traceback içindeki sınıf): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* FrameType (types modülü içinde):       Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  195)
* free (C function):                     Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* free_tool_id() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   13)
* free;variable:                         Binding of names.   (line   48)
* freedesktop_os_release() (platform modülü içinde): Linux Platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* freefunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   28)
* freeze utility:                        Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  255)
* freeze_support() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   44)
* freeze() (gc modülü içinde):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  205)
* frexp() (math modülü içinde):          Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   73)
* FRIDAY (calendar modülü içinde):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  447)
* from_address() (ctypes._CData yöntemi): Data types.        (line   42)
* from_buffer_copy() (ctypes._CData yöntemi): Data types.    (line   31)
* from_buffer() (ctypes._CData yöntemi): Data types.         (line   19)
* from_bytes() (int sınıf yöntemi):      Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line  112)
* from_callable() (inspect.Signature sınıf yöntemi): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  153)
* from_decimal() (fractions.Fraction sınıf yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  143)
* from_exception() (traceback.TracebackException sınıf yöntemi): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* from_file() (zipfile.ZipInfo sınıf yöntemi): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* from_file() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo sınıf yöntemi): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   28)
* from_float() (decimal.Decimal sınıf yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  243)
* from_float() (fractions.Fraction sınıf yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  132)
* from_iterable() (itertools.chain sınıf yöntemi): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  109)
* from_list() (traceback.StackSummary sınıf yöntemi): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* from_param() (ctypes._CData yöntemi):  Data types.         (line   51)
* from_samples() (statistics.NormalDist sınıf yöntemi): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* from_traceback() (dis.Bytecode sınıf yöntemi): Bytecode analysis.
                                                             (line   40)
* from;import statement:                 Binding of names.   (line    9)
* from;import statement <1>:             The import statement.
                                                             (line   52)
* from;yield from expression:            Yield expressions.  (line   66)
* frombuf() (tarfile.TarInfo sınıf yöntemi): TarInfo Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* frombytes() (array.array yöntemi):     array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  158)
* fromfd() (select.epoll yöntemi):       Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* fromfd() (select.kqueue yöntemi):      Kqueue Objects.     (line   18)
* fromfd() (socket modülü içinde):       Creating sockets.   (line  159)
* fromfile() (array.array yöntemi):      array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  168)
* fromhex() (bytearray sınıf yöntemi):   Bytearray Objects.  (line   36)
* fromhex() (bytes sınıf yöntemi):       Bytes Objects.      (line   62)
* fromhex() (float sınıf yöntemi):       Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line   40)
* fromisocalendar() (datetime.date sınıf yöntemi): date Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* fromisocalendar() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  246)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.date sınıf yöntemi): date Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  197)
* fromisoformat() (datetime.time sınıf yöntemi): time Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* fromkeys() (collections.Counter yöntemi): Counter objects. (line  117)
* fromkeys() (dict sınıf yöntemi):       Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  144)
* fromlist() (array.array yöntemi):      array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  176)
* fromordinal() (datetime.date sınıf yöntemi): date Objects. (line   54)
* fromordinal() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  171)
* fromshare() (socket modülü içinde):    Creating sockets.   (line  176)
* fromstring() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line   99)
* fromstringlist() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  107)
* fromtarfile() (tarfile.TarInfo sınıf yöntemi): TarInfo Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* fromtimestamp() (datetime.date sınıf yöntemi): date Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* fromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* fromunicode() (array.array yöntemi):   array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  182)
* fromutc() (datetime.timezone yöntemi): timezone Objects.   (line   61)
* fromutc() (datetime.tzinfo yöntemi):   tzinfo Objects.     (line  163)
* FrozenImporter (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   80)
* FrozenInstanceError:                   Module contents<4>. (line  499)
* FrozenSet (typing içindeki sınıf):     Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   42)
* frozenset (yerleşik sınıf):            Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   33)
* FS (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  109)
* fs_is_case_insensitive() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  101)
* FS_NONASCII (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* fsdecode() (os modülü içinde):         Process Parameters. (line   95)
* fsencode() (os modülü içinde):         Process Parameters. (line   82)
* fspath() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  108)
* fstat() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  181)
* fstatvfs() (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  193)
* fstring:                               Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi.
                                                             (line   94)
* fstring <1>:                           String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* FSTRING_END (token modülü içinde):     token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  262)
* FSTRING_MIDDLE (token modülü içinde):  token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  260)
* FSTRING_START (token modülü içinde):   token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  258)
* fsum() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   81)
* fsync() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  201)
* FTP:                                   urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   37)
* FTP (ftplib içindeki sınıf):           FTP objects.        (line    6)
* ftp_open() (urllib.request.FTPHandler yöntemi): FTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP_TLS (ftplib içindeki sınıf):       FTP_TLS objects.    (line    6)
* FTP;ftplib (standard module):          ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTP;protocol:                          urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP;protocol <1>:                      ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTPHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  447)
* ftruncate() (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  214)
* Full:                                  queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   88)
* FULL (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.       (line   45)
* FULL_RO (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.    (line   47)
* full_url (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* full() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):        Queue.              (line   31)
* full() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.  (line  125)
* full() (queue.Queue yöntemi):          Queue Objects.      (line   22)
* fullmatch() (re modülü içinde):        Functions.          (line   67)
* fullmatch() (re.Pattern yöntemi):      Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* fully_trusted_filter() (tarfile modülü içinde): Default named filters.
                                                             (line    9)
* func (functools.partial özniteliği):   partial Objects.    (line    9)
* funcattrs (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  105)
* funcname (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):  bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  101)
* function (inspect.FrameInfo özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   27)
* function (inspect.Traceback özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   67)
* Function (pyclbr içindeki sınıf):      Function Objects.   (line    6)
* Function (symtable içindeki sınıf):    Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   75)
* function;annotations:                  Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;annotations <1>:              Function definitions.
                                                             (line  109)
* function;argument:                     Callable types.     (line    6)
* function;call:                         Callable types.     (line    6)
* function;call <1>:                     Calls.              (line  132)
* function;call <2>:                     Calls.              (line  143)
* function;definition:                   The return statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;definition <1>:               Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;generator:                    The yield statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;name:                         Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;name <1>:                     Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FunctionDef (ast içindeki sınıf):      Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FunctionTestCase (unittest içindeki sınıf): Test cases.    (line  948)
* FunctionType (ast içindeki sınıf):     Root nodes.         (line   58)
* FunctionType (types modülü içinde):    Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   25)
* funny_files (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class. (line   95)
* future (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  111)
* Future (asyncio içindeki sınıf):       Future Object.      (line    6)
* Future (concurrent.futures içindeki sınıf): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* future;statement:                      Future statements.  (line    6)
* FutureWarning:                         Uyarılar.           (line   55)
* fwalk() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1732)
* G.722:                                 aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  163)
* gaierror:                              Exceptions<12>.     (line   27)
* gamma() (math modülü içinde):          Özel fonksiyonlar.  (line   29)
* gammavariate() (random modülü içinde): Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   48)
* garbage (gc modülü içinde):            gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  239)
* garbage collection:                    Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   37)
* gather() (asyncio modülü içinde):      Running Tasks Concurrently.
                                                             (line    6)
* gather() (curses.textpad.Textbox yöntemi): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* gauss() (random modülü içinde):        Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   61)
* gc_collect() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  356)
* gcd() (math modülü içinde):            Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line   96)
* gcvisitobjects_t (C type):             Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   26)
* ge() (operator modülü içinde):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* geçici API:                            Sözlük.             (line 1167)
* geçici paket:                          Sözlük.             (line 1188)
* gen_uuid() (msilib modülü içinde):     msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line  111)
* genel işlev:                           Sözlük.             (line  585)
* genel tercüman kilidi:                 Sözlük.             (line  609)
* genel tip:                             Sözlük.             (line  594)
* generate_tokens() (tokenize modülü içinde): Tokenizing Input.
                                                             (line   38)
* Generator (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   56)
* Generator (email.generator içindeki sınıf): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  140)
* Generator (typing içindeki sınıf):     Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   37)
* generator;expression:                  Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;function:                    Generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;function <1>:                Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* generator;function <2>:                The yield statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;iterator:                    Generator functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;iterator <1>:                The yield statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* GeneratorExit:                         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   38)
* GeneratorExp (ast içindeki sınıf):     Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* GeneratorType (types modülü içinde):   Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   37)
* Generic (typing içindeki sınıf):       Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   15)
* generic_visit() (ast.NodeVisitor yöntemi): ast Helpers.    (line  195)
* Generic;Alias:                         Genel Takma Ad Türü.
                                                             (line    6)
* generic;special;attribute:             The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line   13)
* GenericAlias (types içindeki sınıf):   Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  150)
* genops() (pickletools modülü içinde):  Programmatic Interface<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* geometric_mean() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.
                                                             (line   77)
* geri çağırmak:                         Sözlük.             (line  245)
* GET_AITER (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  262)
* get_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  394)
* get_all_start_methods() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   71)
* get_all() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  254)
* get_all() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  363)
* get_all() (wsgiref.headers.Headers yöntemi): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   51)
* GET_ANEXT (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  271)
* get_annotations() (inspect modülü içinde): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line  156)
* get_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer yöntemi): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_archive_formats() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_args() (typing modülü içinde):     Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   81)
* get_asyncgen_hooks() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  988)
* get_attribute() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  586)
* GET_AWAITABLE (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  243)
* get_begidx() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.         (line   40)
* get_blocking() (os modülü içinde):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  227)
* get_body_encoding() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   96)
* get_body() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  518)
* get_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  403)
* get_boundary() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  580)
* get_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  370)
* get_break() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  379)
* get_breaks() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):        bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  384)
* get_buffer() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol yöntemi): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   21)
* get_buffer() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi):  Packer Objects.     (line    8)
* get_buffer() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.  (line   22)
* get_bytes() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.    (line  167)
* get_bytes() (mailbox.mbox yöntemi):    mbox objects.       (line   32)
* get_bytes() (mailbox.MMDF yöntemi):    MMDF objects.       (line   29)
* get_ca_certs() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.     (line  178)
* get_cache_token() (abc modülü içinde): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  326)
* get_channel_binding() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  242)
* get_charset() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  267)
* get_charsets() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  431)
* get_charsets() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  614)
* get_child_watcher() (asyncio modülü içinde): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   25)
* get_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy yöntemi): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* get_children() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   71)
* get_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.      (line  192)
* get_clock_info() (time modülü içinde): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  108)
* get_close_matches() (difflib modülü içinde): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  204)
* get_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  207)
* get_code() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  402)
* get_code() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  333)
* get_code() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  269)
* get_code() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* get_completer_delims() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.
                                                             (line   50)
* get_completer() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.      (line   29)
* get_completion_type() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.
                                                             (line   34)
* get_config_h_filename() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   70)
* get_config_var() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_config_vars() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   16)
* get_content_charset() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  424)
* get_content_charset() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  603)
* get_content_disposition() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  455)
* get_content_disposition() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  628)
* get_content_maintype() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  324)
* get_content_maintype() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  433)
* get_content_subtype() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  330)
* get_content_subtype() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  439)
* get_content_type() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  308)
* get_content_type() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  417)
* get_content() (email.contentmanager modülü içinde): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager yöntemi): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_content() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  582)
* get_context() (asyncio.Handle yöntemi): Callback Handles.  (line   11)
* get_context() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):  Task Object.        (line  170)
* get_context() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   80)
* get_coro() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):     Task Object.        (line  157)
* get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1002)
* get_count() (gc modülü içinde):        gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  113)
* get_current_history_length() (readline modülü içinde): History list.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_data() (importlib.abc.FileLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  324)
* get_data() (importlib.abc.ResourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  187)
* get_data() (pkgutil modülü içinde):    pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  185)
* get_data() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* get_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_debug() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):    Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_debug() (gc modülü içinde):        gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_default_domain() (nis modülü içinde): nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_default_scheme() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  335)
* get_default_type() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  444)
* get_default_verify_paths() (ssl modülü içinde): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_default() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Parser defaults.
                                                             (line   33)
* get_dialect() (csv modülü içinde):     Module Contents<3>. (line   85)
* get_disassembly_as_string() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase yöntemi): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   18)
* get_docstring() (ast modülü içinde):   ast Helpers.        (line  116)
* get_doctest() (doctest.DocTestParser yöntemi): DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* get_endidx() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.         (line   40)
* get_environ() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler yöntemi): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   91)
* get_errno() (ctypes modülü içinde):    Utility functions.  (line  129)
* get_escdelay() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.       (line  448)
* get_event_loop_policy() (asyncio modülü içinde): Getting and Setting the Policy.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_event_loop() (asyncio modülü içinde): Event Loop.      (line   39)
* get_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy yöntemi): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_events() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_examples() (doctest.DocTestParser yöntemi): DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Error Handling API.
                                                             (line   27)
* get_exec_path() (os modülü içinde):    Process Parameters. (line  167)
* get_extra_info() (asyncio.BaseTransport yöntemi): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   21)
* get_extra_info() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   61)
* get_field() (string.Formatter yöntemi): Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   55)
* get_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  389)
* get_file() (mailbox.Babyl yöntemi):    Babyl objects.      (line   49)
* get_file() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):  Mailbox objects.    (line  183)
* get_file() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):  Maildir objects.    (line  120)
* get_file() (mailbox.mbox yöntemi):     mbox objects.       (line   39)
* get_file() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):       MH objects.         (line   93)
* get_file() (mailbox.MMDF yöntemi):     MMDF objects.       (line   36)
* get_filename() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  393)
* get_filename() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  570)
* get_filename() (importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  279)
* get_filename() (importlib.abc.FileLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  320)
* get_filename() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  341)
* get_filename() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage yöntemi): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage yöntemi): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_folder() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi): Maildir objects.   (line   66)
* get_folder() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):     MH objects.         (line   36)
* get_frees() (symtable.Function yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   97)
* get_freeze_count() (gc modülü içinde): gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  230)
* get_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage yöntemi): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage yöntemi): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* get_full_url() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* get_globals() (symtable.Function yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   89)
* get_grouped_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  168)
* get_handle_inheritable() (os modülü içinde): Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   35)
* get_header() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  121)
* get_history_item() (readline modülü içinde): History list. (line   20)
* get_history_length() (readline modülü içinde): History file.
                                                             (line   30)
* get_id() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_ident() (_thread modülü içinde):   _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   88)
* get_ident() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  119)
* get_identifiers() (string.Template yöntemi): Template strings.
                                                             (line   75)
* get_identifiers() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_importer() (pkgutil modülü içinde): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   73)
* get_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_inheritable() (os modülü içinde):  Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_inheritable() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects. (line  127)
* get_instructions() (dis modülü içinde): Analysis functions.
                                                             (line  129)
* get_int_max_str_digits() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  807)
* get_interpreter() (zipapp modülü içinde): Python API.      (line   83)
* GET_ITER (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  160)
* get_key() (selectors.BaseSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.    (line  145)
* get_labels() (mailbox.Babyl yöntemi):  Babyl objects.      (line   35)
* get_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage yöntemi): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_last_error() (ctypes modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line  137)
* GET_LEN (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  461)
* get_line_buffer() (readline modülü içinde): Line buffer.   (line    8)
* get_lineno() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   38)
* get_loader() (pkgutil modülü içinde):  pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   87)
* get_local_events() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Per code object events.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_locals() (symtable.Function yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   85)
* get_logger() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Logging.     (line   11)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Future yöntemi):   Future Object.      (line  136)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Runner yöntemi):   Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_loop() (asyncio.Server yöntemi):   Server Objects.     (line   44)
* get_makefile_filename() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   74)
* get_map() (selectors.BaseSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.    (line  153)
* get_matching_blocks() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* get_message() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.  (line  160)
* get_method() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_methods() (symtable.Class yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  107)
* get_mixed_type_key() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_name() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):     Task Object.        (line  177)
* get_name() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi):  Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  148)
* get_name() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_namespace() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  219)
* get_namespaces() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  215)
* get_native_id() (_thread modülü içinde): _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   96)
* get_native_id() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  129)
* get_nonlocals() (symtable.Function yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   93)
* get_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_nowait() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):  Queue.              (line   44)
* get_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  166)
* get_nowait() (queue.Queue yöntemi):    Queue Objects.      (line   61)
* get_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue yöntemi): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* get_object_traceback() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_objects() (gc modülü içinde):      gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* get_option_group() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Grouping Options.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_option() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   37)
* get_origin() (typing modülü içinde):   Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_original_bases() (types modülü içinde): Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   71)
* get_original_stdout() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  313)
* get_osfhandle() (msvcrt modülü içinde): File Operations.   (line   55)
* get_output_charset() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  111)
* get_overloads() (typing modülü içinde): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  286)
* get_pagesize() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  280)
* get_param() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  479)
* get_parameters() (symtable.Function yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   80)
* get_params() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  458)
* get_path_names() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_path() (sysconfig modülü içinde):  Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_paths() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   93)
* get_payload() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  181)
* get_pid() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport yöntemi): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_pipe_transport() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport yöntemi): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   10)
* get_platform() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_poly() (turtle modülü içinde):     Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   17)
* get_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_preferred_scheme() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport yöntemi): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   88)
* get_proxy_response_headers() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* get_python_version() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_ready() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter yöntemi): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  150)
* get_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* get_referents() (gc modülü içinde):    gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  145)
* get_referrers() (gc modülü içinde):    gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  123)
* get_request() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  135)
* get_returncode() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport yöntemi): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_running_loop() (asyncio modülü içinde): Event Loop.    (line   29)
* get_scheme_names() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_scheme() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  191)
* get_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  110)
* get_sequences() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):  MH objects.         (line   53)
* get_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage yöntemi): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_server_certificate() (ssl modülü içinde): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_server() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_shapepoly() (turtle modülü içinde): Appearance.        (line  189)
* get_socket() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.   (line   92)
* get_source_segment() (ast modülü içinde): ast Helpers.     (line  127)
* get_source() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  221)
* get_source() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  420)
* get_source() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  337)
* get_source() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  274)
* get_source() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* get_stack() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):    Task Object.        (line  121)
* get_stack() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  401)
* get_start_method() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_starttag_text() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_stats_profile() (pstats.Stats yöntemi): The Stats Class.
                                                             (line  225)
* get_stats() (gc modülü içinde):        gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   73)
* get_stderr() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  129)
* get_stderr() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler yöntemi): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line  101)
* get_stdin() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  123)
* get_string() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.   (line  175)
* get_string() (mailbox.mbox yöntemi):   mbox objects.       (line   50)
* get_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_symbols() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   66)
* get_tabsize() (curses modülü içinde):  Functions<4>.       (line  463)
* get_task_factory() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Creating Futures and Tasks.
                                                             (line   49)
* get_terminal_size() (os modülü içinde): Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_terminal_size() (shutil modülü içinde): Querying the size of the output terminal.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_threshold() (gc modülü içinde):    gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  118)
* get_token() (shlex.shlex yöntemi):     shlex Objects.      (line    8)
* get_tool() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_traceback_limit() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_traced_memory() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_tracemalloc_memory() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_type_hints() (typing modülü içinde): Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_type() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   10)
* get_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  152)
* get_unixfrom() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  163)
* get_unpack_formats() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  190)
* get_usage() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Other methods.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_value() (string.Formatter yöntemi): Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   65)
* get_version() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   34)
* get_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage yöntemi): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_wch() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  241)
* get_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   23)
* get_write_buffer_size() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   19)
* GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  164)
* get() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):         Queue.              (line   39)
* get() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  211)
* get() (contextvars.Context yöntemi):   Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   90)
* get() (contextvars.ContextVar yöntemi): Context Variables. (line   30)
* get() (dict yöntemi):                  Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  156)
* get() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  245)
* get() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  355)
* get() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):       Mailbox objects.    (line  148)
* get() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  196)
* get() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.   (line  151)
* get() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  237)
* get() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* get() (queue.Queue yöntemi):           Queue Objects.      (line   44)
* get() (queue.SimpleQueue yöntemi):     SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* get() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox yöntemi):  ttk Combobox.       (line   15)
* get() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox yöntemi):   ttk Spinbox.        (line    8)
* get() (types.MappingProxyType yöntemi): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  260)
* get() (webbrowser modülü içinde):      webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  100)
* get() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* getacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  106)
* getaddresses() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   85)
* getaddrinfo() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):  DNS.                (line    6)
* getaddrinfo() (socket modülü içinde):  Other functions<2>. (line   17)
* getallocatedblocks() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  716)
* getandroidapilevel() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  737)
* getannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  111)
* getargvalues() (inspect modülü içinde): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* getasyncgenlocals() (inspect modülü içinde): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   99)
* getasyncgenstate() (inspect modülü içinde): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   47)
* getatime() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  164)
* getattr_static() (inspect modülü içinde): Fetching attributes statically.
                                                             (line   16)
* getattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   44)
* getAttribute() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* getAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* getAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* getAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* getattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   55)
* GetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* getbegyx() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  225)
* getbkgd() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  229)
* getblocking() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects.     (line  164)
* getboolean() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  245)
* getbuffer() (io.BytesIO yöntemi):      Buffered Streams.   (line   21)
* getbufferproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line  102)
* getByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* getcallargs() (inspect modülü içinde): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   92)
* getcanvas() (turtle modülü içinde):    Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   55)
* getcapabilities() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi): Methods.         (line   34)
* getcaps() (mailcap modülü içinde):     mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line   78)
* getch() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  234)
* getch() (msvcrt modülü içinde):        Console I/O.        (line   10)
* getCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* getche() (msvcrt modülü içinde):       Console I/O.        (line   25)
* getChild() (logging.Logger yöntemi):   Logger Objects.     (line  162)
* getChildren() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.    (line  174)
* getclasstree() (inspect modülü içinde): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* getclosurevars() (inspect modülü içinde): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line  123)
* getcode() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* getcode() (urllib.response.addinfourl yöntemi): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   45)
* GetColumnInfo() (msilib.View yöntemi): View Objects.       (line   12)
* getColumnNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator yöntemi): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* getcomments() (inspect modülü içinde): Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   18)
* getcompname() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):     aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   76)
* getcompname() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi): AU_read Objects.    (line   35)
* getcompname() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects. (line   41)
* getcomptype() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):     aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   70)
* getcomptype() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi): AU_read Objects.    (line   30)
* getcomptype() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects. (line   36)
* getconfig() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  619)
* getContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* getcontext() (decimal modülü içinde):  Context objects.    (line   14)
* getcoroutinelocals() (inspect modülü içinde): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   91)
* getcoroutinestate() (inspect modülü içinde): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   28)
* getctime() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  180)
* getcwd() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  287)
* getcwdb() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  291)
* getcwdu (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  115)
* getdecoder() (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  107)
* getdefaultencoding() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  745)
* getdefaultlocale() (locale modülü içinde): locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  337)
* getdefaulttimeout() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  375)
* getdlopenflags() (sys modülü içinde):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  750)
* getdoc() (inspect modülü içinde):      Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line    6)
* getDOMImplementation() (xml.dom modülü içinde): Module Contents<4>.
                                                             (line   17)
* getDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* getEffectiveLevel() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.
                                                             (line  152)
* getegid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  177)
* getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Document yöntemi): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* getencoder() (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   99)
* getencoding() (locale modülü içinde):  locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  398)
* getEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* getEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* getenv() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  135)
* getenvb() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  151)
* getErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* geteuid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  185)
* getEvent() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream yöntemi): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* getEventCategory() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler yöntemi): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* getEventType() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler yöntemi): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* getException() (xml.sax.SAXException yöntemi): SAXException Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* getFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* GetFieldCount() (msilib.Record yöntemi): Record Objects.   (line    6)
* getfile() (inspect modülü içinde):     Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   27)
* getFilesToDelete() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler yöntemi): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  115)
* getfilesystemencodeerrors() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  790)
* getfilesystemencoding() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  759)
* getfirst() (cgi.FieldStorage yöntemi): Higher Level Interface.
                                                             (line   56)
* getfirstweekday() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* getfloat() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  238)
* getfmts() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* getfqdn() (socket modülü içinde):      Other functions<2>. (line   99)
* getframeinfo() (inspect modülü içinde): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  123)
* getframerate() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):    aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   62)
* getframerate() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi): AU_read Objects.   (line   22)
* getframerate() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* getfullargspec() (inspect modülü içinde): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* getgeneratorlocals() (inspect modülü içinde): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   72)
* getgeneratorstate() (inspect modülü içinde): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   12)
* getgid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  191)
* getgrall() (grp modülü içinde):        grp — The group database.
                                                             (line   58)
* getgrgid() (grp modülü içinde):        grp — The group database.
                                                             (line   44)
* getgrnam() (grp modülü içinde):        grp — The group database.
                                                             (line   53)
* getgrouplist() (os modülü içinde):     Process Parameters. (line  200)
* getgroups() (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  211)
* getHandlerByName() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  183)
* getHandlerNames() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  190)
* getheader() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* getheaders() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* gethostbyaddr() (in module socket):    Process Parameters. (line  552)
* gethostbyaddr() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  156)
* gethostbyname_ex() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  126)
* gethostbyname() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* gethostname() (in module socket):      Process Parameters. (line  552)
* gethostname() (socket modülü içinde):  Other functions<2>. (line  143)
* getincrementaldecoder() (codecs modülü içinde): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  123)
* getincrementalencoder() (codecs modülü içinde): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  115)
* getinfo() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):   ZipFile Objects.    (line  112)
* getinnerframes() (inspect modülü içinde): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  146)
* GetInputContext() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* getint() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  231)
* GetInteger() (msilib.Record yöntemi):  Record Objects.     (line   11)
* getitem() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  196)
* getiterfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   89)
* getitimer() (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  434)
* getkey() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  249)
* GetLastError() (ctypes modülü içinde): Utility functions.  (line  121)
* getLength() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes yöntemi): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   11)
* getLevelName() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  150)
* getLevelNamesMapping() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  141)
* getlimit() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  563)
* getline() (linecache modülü içinde):   linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   23)
* getLineNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator yöntemi): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* getlist() (cgi.FieldStorage yöntemi):  Higher Level Interface.
                                                             (line   67)
* getloadavg() (os modülü içinde):       Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   49)
* getlocale() (locale modülü içinde):    locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  363)
* getLogger() (logging modülü içinde):   Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* getLoggerClass() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* getlogin() (os modülü içinde):         Process Parameters. (line  234)
* getLogRecordFactory() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* getMandatoryRelease() (__future__._Feature yöntemi): Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   67)
* getmark() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):         aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   95)
* getmark() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):     AU_read Objects.    (line   77)
* getmark() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi):    Wave_read Objects.  (line   68)
* getmarkers() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):      aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   88)
* getmarkers() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):  AU_read Objects.    (line   73)
* getmarkers() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects.  (line   64)
* getmaxyx() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  256)
* getmember() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi): TarFile Objects.    (line   97)
* getmembers_static() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  323)
* getmembers() (inspect modülü içinde):  Types and members.  (line  310)
* getmembers() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi): TarFile Objects.   (line  105)
* getMessage() (logging.LogRecord yöntemi): LogRecord Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* getMessage() (xml.sax.SAXException yöntemi): SAXException Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* getMessageID() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler yöntemi): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   60)
* getmodule() (inspect modülü içinde):   Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   33)
* getmodulename() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  339)
* getmouse() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  145)
* getmro() (inspect modülü içinde):      Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* getmtime() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  171)
* getname() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):       chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   72)
* getName() (threading.Thread yöntemi):  Thread Objects.     (line  159)
* getNameByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS yöntemi): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   16)
* getnameinfo() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):  DNS.                (line   11)
* getnameinfo() (socket modülü içinde):  Other functions<2>. (line  172)
* getnames() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi):  TarFile Objects.    (line  111)
* getNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes yöntemi): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   15)
* getnchannels() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):    aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   54)
* getnchannels() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi): AU_read Objects.   (line   14)
* getnchannels() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* getnframes() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):      aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   66)
* getnframes() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):  AU_read Objects.    (line   26)
* getnframes() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects.  (line   32)
* getnode() (uuid modülü içinde):        uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  161)
* getobjects() (sys modülü içinde):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  896)
* getopt() (getopt modülü içinde):       getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   25)
* GetoptError:                           getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   74)
* getOptionalRelease() (__future__._Feature yöntemi): Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   62)
* getouterframes() (inspect modülü içinde): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  131)
* getoutput() (subprocess modülü içinde): Legacy Shell Invocation Functions.
                                                             (line   45)
* getpagesize() (resource modülü içinde): Resource Usage.    (line  101)
* getparams() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):       aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   82)
* getparams() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):   AU_read Objects.    (line   41)
* getparams() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi):  Wave_read Objects.  (line   46)
* getparyx() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  260)
* getpass() (getpass modülü içinde):     getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   18)
* GetPassWarning:                        getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   35)
* getpeercert() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.        (line  144)
* getpeername() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects.     (line  135)
* getpen() (turtle modülü içinde):       Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   40)
* getpgid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  245)
* getpgrp() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  253)
* getpid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  259)
* getpos() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   28)
* getppid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  266)
* getpreferredencoding() (locale modülü içinde): locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  374)
* getpriority() (os modülü içinde):      Process Parameters. (line  277)
* getprofile() (sys modülü içinde):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  921)
* getprofile() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  200)
* GetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation yöntemi): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* getProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* GetPropertyCount() (msilib.SummaryInformation yöntemi): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* getprotobyname() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  192)
* getproxies() (urllib.request modülü içinde): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  181)
* getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator yöntemi): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* getpwall() (pwd modülü içinde):        pwd — The password database.
                                                             (line   67)
* getpwnam() (pwd modülü içinde):        pwd — The password database.
                                                             (line   63)
* getpwuid() (pwd modülü içinde):        pwd — The password database.
                                                             (line   59)
* getQNameByName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS yöntemi): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   20)
* getQNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS yöntemi): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  116)
* getquotaroot() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  121)
* getrandbits() (random modülü içinde):  Functions for integers.
                                                             (line   37)
* getrandbits() (random.Random yöntemi): Alternative Generator.
                                                             (line   41)
* getrandom() (os modülü içinde):        Random numbers<2>.  (line    6)
* getreader() (codecs modülü içinde):    codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  131)
* getrecursionlimit() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  830)
* getrefcount() (sys modülü içinde):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  815)
* GetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* getresgid() (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  324)
* getresponse() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* getresuid() (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  315)
* getrlimit() (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line   24)
* getroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* getrusage() (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Usage.     (line    8)
* getsample() (audioop modülü içinde):   audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  111)
* getsampwidth() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):    aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   58)
* getsampwidth() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi): AU_read Objects.   (line   18)
* getsampwidth() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* getscreen() (turtle modülü içinde):    Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   51)
* getservbyname() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* getservbyport() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  214)
* GetSetDescriptorType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  200)
* getshapes() (turtle modülü içinde):    Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* getsid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  510)
* getsignal() (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  284)
* getsitepackages() (site modülü içinde): Module contents<5>.
                                                             (line   57)
* getsize() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):       chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   77)
* getsize() (os.path modülü içinde):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  191)
* getsizeof() (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  837)
* getsockname() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects.     (line  143)
* getsockopt() (socket.socket yöntemi):  Socket Objects.     (line  149)
* getsource() (inspect modülü içinde):   Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   59)
* getsourcefile() (inspect modülü içinde): Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   38)
* getsourcelines() (inspect modülü içinde): Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   45)
* getspall() (spwd modülü içinde):       spwd — The shadow password database.
                                                             (line   76)
* getspnam() (spwd modülü içinde):       spwd — The shadow password database.
                                                             (line   69)
* getstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder yöntemi): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* getstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder yöntemi): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* getstate() (random modülü içinde):     Bookkeeping functions.
                                                             (line   32)
* getstate() (random.Random yöntemi):    Alternative Generator.
                                                             (line   23)
* getstatusoutput() (subprocess modülü içinde): Legacy Shell Invocation Functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* getstr() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  266)
* GetString() (msilib.Record yöntemi):   Record Objects.     (line   16)
* getSubject() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler yöntemi): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   39)
* GetSummaryInformation() (msilib.Database yöntemi): Database Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* getswitchinterval() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  859)
* getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator yöntemi): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* getsyx() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  163)
* gettarinfo() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi): TarFile Objects.   (line  289)
* gettempdir() (tempfile modülü içinde): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  318)
* gettempdirb() (tempfile modülü içinde): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  350)
* gettempprefix() (tempfile modülü içinde): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  356)
* gettempprefixb() (tempfile modülü içinde): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  361)
* getter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   33)
* getTestCaseNames() (unittest.TestLoader yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  111)
* gettext() (gettext modülü içinde):     GNU gettext API.    (line   32)
* gettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations yöntemi): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   38)
* gettext() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   35)
* gettext() (locale modülü içinde):      Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* gettimeout() (socket.socket yöntemi):  Socket Objects.     (line  173)
* gettrace() (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  925)
* gettrace() (threading modülü içinde):  threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  176)
* getturtle() (turtle modülü içinde):    Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   40)
* getType() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes yöntemi): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   19)
* getuid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  333)
* getunicodeinternedsize() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  731)
* geturl() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* geturl() (urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult yöntemi): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   12)
* geturl() (urllib.response.addinfourl yöntemi): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   30)
* getuser() (getpass modülü içinde):     getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   40)
* getuserbase() (site modülü içinde):    Module contents<5>. (line   63)
* getusersitepackages() (site modülü içinde): Module contents<5>.
                                                             (line   71)
* getvalue() (io.BytesIO yöntemi):       Buffered Streams.   (line   38)
* getvalue() (io.StringIO yöntemi):      Text I/O<2>.        (line  263)
* getValue() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes yöntemi): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getValueByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS yöntemi): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   12)
* getwch() (msvcrt modülü içinde):       Console I/O.        (line   20)
* getwche() (msvcrt modülü içinde):      Console I/O.        (line   30)
* getweakrefcount() (weakref modülü içinde): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  156)
* getweakrefs() (weakref modülü içinde): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  161)
* getwelcome() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):     FTP objects.        (line  121)
* getwelcome() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):   Methods.            (line   28)
* getwelcome() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):    POP3 Objects.       (line   20)
* getwin() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  169)
* getwindowsversion() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  935)
* getwriter() (codecs modülü içinde):    codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  139)
* getxattr() (os modülü içinde):         Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   10)
* getyx() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  277)
* gid (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):      TarInfo Objects.    (line  113)
* GIL:                                   Sözlük.             (line  605)
* glob() (glob modülü içinde):           glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   32)
* glob() (msilib.Directory yöntemi):     Directory Objects.  (line   39)
* glob() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):         Reading directories.
                                                             (line   30)
* Global (ast içindeki sınıf):           Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  156)
* global interpreter lock:               Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* global_enum() (enum modülü içinde):    Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   90)
* global;name;binding:                   The global statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* global;namespace:                      Special read-only attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* globs (doctest.DocTest özniteliği):    DocTest Objects.    (line   22)
* gmtime() (time modülü içinde):         Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  142)
* gname (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):    TarInfo Objects.    (line  129)
* GNOME:                                 The Catalog constructor.
                                                             (line    6)
* GNU_FORMAT (tarfile modülü içinde):    tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  331)
* gnu_getopt() (getopt modülü içinde):   getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   62)
* GNUTranslations (gettext içindeki sınıf): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   33)
* GNUTYPE_LONGLINK (tarfile modülü içinde): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  315)
* GNUTYPE_LONGNAME (tarfile modülü içinde): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  311)
* GNUTYPE_SPARSE (tarfile modülü içinde): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  319)
* go() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  114)
* got (doctest.DocTestFailure özniteliği): Debugging.        (line  204)
* goto() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* grammar:                               Notation.           (line    6)
* Graphical User Interface:              Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* GREATER (token modülü içinde):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  110)
* GREATEREQUAL (token modülü içinde):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  146)
* Greenwich Mean Time:                   time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   39)
* GRND_NONBLOCK (os modülü içinde):      Random numbers<2>.  (line   76)
* GRND_RANDOM (os modülü içinde):        Random numbers<2>.  (line   89)
* Group (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  457)
* group() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):        Methods.            (line  158)
* group() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   12)
* group() (re.Match yöntemi):            Match Objects.      (line   36)
* groupby() (itertools modülü içinde):   Itertool Functions. (line  294)
* groupdict() (re.Match yöntemi):        Match Objects.      (line  136)
* groupindex (re.Pattern özniteliği):    Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* grouping:                              Indentation.        (line    6)
* groups (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  188)
* groups (re.Pattern özniteliği):        Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* groups() (re.Match yöntemi):           Match Objects.      (line  113)
* GS (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  112)
* Gt (ast içindeki sınıf):               Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* gt() (operator modülü içinde):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* GtE (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* guard:                                 Guards.             (line    6)
* güçlü referans:                        Sözlük.             (line 1344)
* guess_all_extensions() (mimetypes modülü içinde): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   51)
* guess_all_extensions() (mimetypes.MimeTypes yöntemi): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* guess_extension() (mimetypes modülü içinde): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   63)
* guess_extension() (mimetypes.MimeTypes yöntemi): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* guess_scheme() (wsgiref.util modülü içinde): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   14)
* guess_type() (mimetypes modülü içinde): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   24)
* guess_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes yöntemi): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* GUI:                                   Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* gzip komut satırı seçeneği; -best:     Command line options.
                                                             (line   14)
* gzip komut satırı seçeneği; -d:        Command line options.
                                                             (line   18)
* gzip komut satırı seçeneği; -decompress: Command line options.
                                                             (line   18)
* gzip komut satırı seçeneği; -fast:     Command line options.
                                                             (line   10)
* gzip komut satırı seçeneği; -h:        Command line options.
                                                             (line   22)
* gzip komut satırı seçeneği; -help:     Command line options.
                                                             (line   22)
* gzip komut satırı seçeneği; file:      Command line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* GzipFile (gzip içindeki sınıf):        gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line   71)
* halfdelay() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  211)
* Handle (asyncio içindeki sınıf):       Callback Handles.   (line    6)
* handle an exception:                   Exceptions.         (line    6)
* handle_charref() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   93)
* handle_comment() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  102)
* handle_data() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   80)
* handle_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  115)
* handle_defect() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  234)
* handle_endtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* handle_entityref() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   86)
* handle_error() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  141)
* handle_expect_100() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  206)
* handle_one_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  200)
* handle_pi() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  123)
* handle_request() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* handle_request() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* handle_startendtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   71)
* handle_starttag() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   45)
* handle_timeout() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  151)
* handle() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  193)
* handle() (logging.Handler yöntemi):    Handler Objects.    (line   83)
* handle() (logging.handlers.QueueListener yöntemi): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   67)
* handle() (logging.Logger yöntemi):     Logger Objects.     (line  365)
* handle() (logging.NullHandler yöntemi): NullHandler.       (line   20)
* handle() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler yöntemi): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* handle() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler yöntemi): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line  106)
* handleError() (logging.Handler yöntemi): Handler Objects.  (line   90)
* handleError() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler yöntemi): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   33)
* Handler (logging içindeki sınıf):      Handler Objects.    (line   11)
* handler() (cgitb modülü içinde):       cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line   69)
* handlers (logging.Logger özniteliği):  Logger Objects.     (line   87)
* Handlers (signal içindeki sınıf):      Module contents<2>. (line   24)
* hardlink_to() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):  Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   69)
* haritalama:                            Sözlük.             (line  886)
* harmonic_mean() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.
                                                             (line   97)
* HAS_ALPN (ssl modülü içinde):          Constants<7>.       (line  382)
* has_children() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   51)
* has_colors() (curses modülü içinde):   Functions<4>.       (line  176)
* has_dualstack_ipv6() (socket modülü içinde): Creating sockets.
                                                             (line  152)
* HAS_ECDH (ssl modülü içinde):          Constants<7>.       (line  398)
* has_extended_color_support() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.
                                                             (line  181)
* has_extn() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):     SMTP Objects.       (line   85)
* has_header() (csv.Sniffer yöntemi):    Module Contents<3>. (line  238)
* has_header() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* has_ic() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  192)
* has_il() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  199)
* has_ipv6 (socket modülü içinde):       Constants<6>.       (line  285)
* has_key (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  119)
* has_key() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  206)
* has_location (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  436)
* HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  390)
* has_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* HAS_NPN (ssl modülü içinde):           Constants<7>.       (line  413)
* has_option() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* has_option() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   42)
* has_section() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  120)
* HAS_SNI (ssl modülü içinde):           Constants<7>.       (line  406)
* HAS_SSLv2 (ssl modülü içinde):         Constants<7>.       (line  423)
* HAS_SSLv3 (ssl modülü içinde):         Constants<7>.       (line  430)
* has_ticket (ssl.SSLSession özniteliği): SSL session.       (line   20)
* HAS_TLSv1 (ssl modülü içinde):         Constants<7>.       (line  437)
* HAS_TLSv1_1 (ssl modülü içinde):       Constants<7>.       (line  444)
* HAS_TLSv1_2 (ssl modülü içinde):       Constants<7>.       (line  451)
* HAS_TLSv1_3 (ssl modülü içinde):       Constants<7>.       (line  458)
* hasarg (dis modülü içinde):            Opcode collections. (line   25)
* hasAttribute() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* hasAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* hasAttributes() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi): Node Objects.      (line   94)
* hasChildNodes() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi): Node Objects.      (line   98)
* hascompare (dis modülü içinde):        Opcode collections. (line   59)
* hasconst (dis modülü içinde):          Opcode collections. (line   31)
* hasexc (dis modülü içinde):            Opcode collections. (line   63)
* hasFeature() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation yöntemi): DOMImplementation Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* hasfree (dis modülü içinde):           Opcode collections. (line   35)
* hash character:                        Comments.           (line    6)
* hash_bits (sys.hash_info özniteliği):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1043)
* hash_info (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1012)
* hash_randomization (sys.flags özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  553)
* hash.block_size (hashlib modülü içinde): Hash Objects.     (line   13)
* hash.digest_size (hashlib modülü içinde): Hash Objects.    (line    9)
* hashable:                              Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   37)
* Hashable (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* Hashable (typing içindeki sınıf):      Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   50)
* hasHandlers() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.    (line  380)
* hashfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   80)
* hasjabs (dis modülü içinde):           Opcode collections. (line   51)
* hasjrel (dis modülü içinde):           Opcode collections. (line   47)
* haslocal (dis modülü içinde):          Opcode collections. (line   55)
* hasname (dis modülü içinde):           Opcode collections. (line   43)
* HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1149)
* HAVE_CONTEXTVAR (decimal modülü içinde): Constants<2>.     (line   32)
* HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  163)
* HAVE_THREADS (decimal modülü içinde):  Constants<2>.       (line   25)
* HCI_DATA_DIR (socket modülü içinde):   Constants<6>.       (line  298)
* HCI_FILTER (socket modülü içinde):     Constants<6>.       (line  298)
* HCI_TIME_STAMP (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.       (line  298)
* head() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  266)
* Header (email.header içindeki sınıf):  email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   60)
* header_encode_lines() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  125)
* header_encode() (email.charset.Charset yöntemi): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line  118)
* header_encoding (email.charset.Charset özniteliği): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   59)
* header_factory (email.policy.EmailPolicy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  407)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  593)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  457)
* header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  318)
* header_items() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* header_max_count() (email.policy.EmailPolicy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  434)
* header_max_count() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  259)
* header_offset (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  132)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  581)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  440)
* header_source_parse() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  281)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  589)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  448)
* header_store_parse() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* HeaderDefect:                          email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   60)
* HeaderError:                           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  225)
* HeaderParseError:                      email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   26)
* HeaderParser (email.parser içindeki sınıf): Parser API.    (line  107)
* HeaderRegistry (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  299)
* headers (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* headers (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  110)
* headers (urllib.error.HTTPError özniteliği): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   54)
* headers (urllib.response.addinfourl özniteliği): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   19)
* Headers (wsgiref.headers içindeki sınıf): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line    9)
* headers (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError özniteliği): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* HeaderWriteError:                      email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   50)
* heading() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.    (line   99)
* heading() (turtle modülü içinde):      Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   58)
* heapify() (heapq modülü içinde):       heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   59)
* heapmin() (msvcrt modülü içinde):      Other Functions.    (line    6)
* heappop() (heapq modülü içinde):       heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   45)
* heappush() (heapq modülü içinde):      heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   40)
* heappushpop() (heapq modülü içinde):   heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   52)
* heapreplace() (heapq modülü içinde):   heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   63)
* helo() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):         SMTP Objects.       (line   47)
* help (optparse.Option özniteliği):     Option attributes.  (line   80)
* help (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line   70)
* help;online:                           pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* help() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  214)
* herror:                                Exceptions<12>.     (line   13)
* hex (uuid.UUID özniteliği):            uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  128)
* hex() (bytearray yöntemi):             Bytearray Objects.  (line   52)
* hex() (bytes yöntemi):                 Bytes Objects.      (line   78)
* hex() (float yöntemi):                 Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line   34)
* hex() (memoryview yöntemi):            Memory Views.       (line  188)
* hexadecimal literal:                   Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* hexadecimal;literals:                  Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* hexdigest() (hashlib.hash yöntemi):    Hash Objects.       (line   44)
* hexdigest() (hashlib.shake yöntemi):   SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line   21)
* hexdigest() (hmac.HMAC yöntemi):       hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   68)
* hexdigits (string modülü içinde):      String constants.   (line   28)
* hexlify() (binascii modülü içinde):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  114)
* hexversion (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1056)
* hidden() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi): Panel Objects.      (line   25)
* hide_cookie2 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy özniteliği): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* hide() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi):   Panel Objects.      (line   30)
* hide() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.       (line   23)
* hideturtle() (turtle modülü içinde):   Visibility.         (line    6)
* HierarchyRequestErr:                   Exceptions<17>.     (line   29)
* HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   66)
* HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (pickle modülü içinde): Module Interface. (line   14)
* hits (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  124)
* HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (winreg modülü içinde): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (winreg modülü içinde): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   38)
* HKEY_CURRENT_USER (winreg modülü içinde): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   12)
* HKEY_DYN_DATA (winreg modülü içinde):  HKEY_* Constants.   (line   43)
* HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (winreg modülü içinde): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   19)
* HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (winreg modülü içinde): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   31)
* HKEY_USERS (winreg modülü içinde):     HKEY_* Constants.   (line   25)
* hline() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  282)
* HList (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):    Hierarchical ListBox.
                                                             (line    6)
* hls_to_rgb() (colorsys modülü içinde): colorsys — Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   40)
* HOME:                                  os path<4>.         (line   16)
* HOME <1>:                              Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line  123)
* HOME <2>:                              Windows<41>.        (line   15)
* HOME <3>:                              Windows<41>.        (line   18)
* HOME <4>:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  133)
* HOME <5>:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  150)
* HOME <6>:                              Tkinter Modules.    (line   66)
* home() (pathlib.Path sınıf yöntemi):   Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* home() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line  195)
* HOMEDRIVE:                             os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  140)
* HOMEPATH:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  140)
* hook_compressed() (fileinput modülü içinde): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  196)
* hook_encoded() (fileinput modülü içinde): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  216)
* hooks;import:                          Import hooks.       (line    6)
* hooks;meta:                            Import hooks.       (line    6)
* hooks;path:                            Import hooks.       (line    6)
* host (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects. (line   25)
* hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  313)
* hostname_checks_common_name (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  613)
* hosts (netrc.netrc özniteliği):        netrc Objects.      (line   23)
* hosts() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.  (line  136)
* hosts() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.  (line  331)
* hour (datetime.datetime özniteliği):   datetime Objects.   (line  302)
* hour (datetime.time özniteliği):       time Objects.       (line   50)
* HRESULT (ctypes içindeki sınıf):       Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* hStdError (subprocess.STARTUPINFO özniteliği): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   42)
* hStdInput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO özniteliği): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   27)
* hStdOutput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO özniteliği): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   35)
* hsv_to_rgb() (colorsys modülü içinde): colorsys — Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   48)
* HT (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   49)
* ht() (turtle modülü içinde):           Visibility.         (line    6)
* HTML:                                  html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTML <1>:                              urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* html() (cgitb modülü içinde):          cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line   60)
* html5 (html.entities modülü içinde):   html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   14)
* HTMLCalendar (calendar içindeki sınıf): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  223)
* HtmlDiff (difflib içindeki sınıf):     difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   82)
* HTMLParser (html.parser içindeki sınıf): html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line   14)
* htonl() (socket modülü içinde):        Other functions<2>. (line  242)
* htons() (socket modülü içinde):        Other functions<2>. (line  249)
* HTTP (email.policy modülü içinde):     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  524)
* http_error_301() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler yöntemi): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* http_error_302() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler yöntemi): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* http_error_303() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler yöntemi): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* http_error_307() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler yöntemi): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* http_error_308() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler yöntemi): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler yöntemi): HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler yöntemi): HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler yöntemi): ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler yöntemi): ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler yöntemi): AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler yöntemi): AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_default() (urllib.request.BaseHandler yöntemi): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* http_open() (urllib.request.HTTPHandler yöntemi): HTTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP_PORT (http.client modülü içinde): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  201)
* http_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor yöntemi): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_version (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  306)
* HTTP;http (standard module):           http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;http.client (standard module):    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol:                         urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP;protocol <1>:                     urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* HTTP;protocol <2>:                     http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol <3>:                     http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol <4>:                     http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol <5>:                     cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    8)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; -b: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; -bind: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; -cgi: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; -d: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; -directory: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; -p: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; -protocol: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* http.server komut satırı seçeneği; port: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* http.server;security:                  Security considerations<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  376)
* HTTPConnection (http.client içindeki sınıf): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   32)
* HTTPCookieProcessor (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  307)
* httpd:                                 http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  298)
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  400)
* HTTPError:                             urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   30)
* HTTPErrorProcessor (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  460)
* HTTPException:                         http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  132)
* HTTPHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* HTTPHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  424)
* HTTPMessage (http.client içindeki sınıf): HTTPMessage Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPMethod (http içindeki sınıf):      HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   38)
* httponly (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects. (line   13)
* HTTPPasswordMgr (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  333)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  337)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  343)
* HTTPRedirectHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  303)
* HTTPResponse (http.client içindeki sınıf): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  100)
* https_open() (urllib.request.HTTPSHandler yöntemi): HTTPSHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPS_PORT (http.client modülü içinde): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  205)
* https_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor yöntemi): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* HTTPSConnection (http.client içindeki sınıf): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   63)
* HTTPServer (http.server içindeki sınıf): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   31)
* HTTPSHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  428)
* HTTPStatus (http içindeki sınıf):      http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line   27)
* HV_GUID_BROADCAST (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.    (line  337)
* HV_GUID_CHILDREN (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.     (line  337)
* HV_GUID_LOOPBACK (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.     (line  337)
* HV_GUID_PARENT (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.       (line  337)
* HV_GUID_WILDCARD (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.     (line  337)
* HV_GUID_ZERO (socket modülü içinde):   Constants<6>.       (line  337)
* HV_PROTOCOL_RAW (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.      (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.
                                                             (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.
                                                             (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.
                                                             (line  337)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.
                                                             (line  337)
* hypot() (math modülü içinde):          Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   47)
* I (re modülü içinde):                  Flags.              (line   38)
* I/O control;buffering:                 Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1439)
* I/O control;buffering <1>:             Socket Objects.     (line  212)
* iadd() (operator modülü içinde):       In-place Operators. (line   36)
* iand() (operator modülü içinde):       In-place Operators. (line   41)
* iç içe kapsam:                         Sözlük.             (line 1017)
* içe aktarıcı:                          Sözlük.             (line  695)
* içe aktarım yolu:                      Sözlük.             (line  682)
* içe aktarma:                           Sözlük.             (line  690)
* iconcat() (operator modülü içinde):    In-place Operators. (line   46)
* id (ssl.SSLSession özniteliği):        SSL session.        (line   12)
* id() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi):      Test cases.         (line  752)
* idcok() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  289)
* ident (select.kevent özniteliği):      Kevent Objects.     (line    8)
* ident (threading.Thread özniteliği):   Thread Objects.     (line  167)
* identchars (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):       Cmd Objects.        (line  135)
* identifier:                            Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line    6)
* identifier <1>:                        Identifiers Names.  (line    6)
* identify_column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  143)
* identify_element() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  172)
* identify_region() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  150)
* identify_row() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  139)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.   (line   32)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.   (line  133)
* identify() (tkinter.ttk.Widget yöntemi): ttk Widget.       (line   11)
* identity of an object:                 Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* identity;test:                         Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* idioms (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  123)
* IDLE:                                  IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -:         Command line usage. (line   49)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -c:        Command line usage. (line   13)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -d:        Command line usage. (line   19)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -e:        Command line usage. (line   23)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -h:        Command line usage. (line   27)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -i:        Command line usage. (line   31)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -r:        Command line usage. (line   35)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -s:        Command line usage. (line   39)
* idle komut satırı seçeneği; -t:        Command line usage. (line   45)
* IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   73)
* IDLESTARTUP:                           IDLE<36>.           (line  176)
* IDLESTARTUP <1>:                       IDLE<40>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <2>:                       IDLE<46>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <3>:                       Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* IDLESTARTUP <4>:                       Command line usage. (line   41)
* idlok() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  297)
* If (ast içindeki sınıf):               Control flow.       (line    9)
* if_indextoname() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  444)
* if_nameindex() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>. (line  401)
* if_nametoindex() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  426)
* if;conditional expression:             Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* if;in comprehensions:                  Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* ifade (değer döndürmez):               Sözlük.             (line 1331)
* ifade (değer döndürür):                Sözlük.             (line  420)
* IfExp (ast içindeki sınıf):            Expressions<2>.     (line  158)
* ifloordiv() (operator modülü içinde):  In-place Operators. (line   52)
* iglob() (glob modülü içinde):          glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line   86)
* ignorableWhitespace() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line  150)
* ignore (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  120)
* ignore (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  134)
* IGNORE (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  151)
* ignore_environment (sys.flags özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  541)
* ignore_errors() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.    (line  147)
* IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.
                                                             (line   56)
* ignore_patterns() (shutil modülü içinde): Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  185)
* ignore_warnings() (test.support.warnings_helper modülü içinde): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* ignore;error handler's name:           Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* IGNORECASE (re modülü içinde):         Flags.              (line   38)
* ihave() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):        Methods.            (line  291)
* IISCGIHandler (wsgiref.handlers içindeki sınıf): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   24)
* ikili dosya:                           Sözlük.             (line  173)
* ikili mod:                             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1439)
* IllegalMonthError:                     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  518)
* IllegalWeekdayError:                   calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  527)
* ilshift() (operator modülü içinde):    In-place Operators. (line   57)
* imag (numbers.Complex özniteliği):     The numeric tower.  (line   19)
* imag (sys.hash_info özniteliği):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1034)
* imaginary literal:                     Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* imap_unordered() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  141)
* imap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools. (line  126)
* IMAP4 (imaplib içindeki sınıf):        imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   26)
* IMAP4_SSL (imaplib içindeki sınıf):    imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   75)
* IMAP4_SSL;protocol:                    imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4_stream (imaplib içindeki sınıf): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  105)
* IMAP4_stream;protocol:                 imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4;protocol:                        imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4.abort:                           imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   59)
* IMAP4.error:                           imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   54)
* IMAP4.readonly:                        imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   66)
* imatmul() (operator modülü içinde):    In-place Operators. (line   72)
* immedok() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  303)
* immortal:                              Sözlük.             (line  664)
* immutable object:                      Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* immutable;data;type:                   Literals<2>.        (line   17)
* immutable;object:                      Literals<2>.        (line   17)
* immutable;object <1>:                  Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   37)
* immutable;sequence;types:              Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* imod() (operator modülü içinde):       In-place Operators. (line   62)
* impl_detail() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  527)
* implementation (sys modülü içinde):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1079)
* import (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  139)
* Import (ast içindeki sınıf):           Imports.            (line    6)
* import hooks:                          Import hooks.       (line    6)
* import machinery:                      The import system.  (line    6)
* import_fresh_module() (test.support.import_helper modülü içinde): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   16)
* IMPORT_FROM (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  760)
* import_module() (importlib modülü içinde): Functions<10>.  (line   15)
* import_module() (test.support.import_helper modülü içinde): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   52)
* IMPORT_NAME (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  751)
* ImportError:                           Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   46)
* ImportFrom (ast içindeki sınıf):       Imports.            (line   21)
* imports (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  143)
* imports2 (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line  147)
* ImportWarning:                         Uyarılar.           (line   61)
* ImproperConnectionState:               http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  162)
* imul() (operator modülü içinde):       In-place Operators. (line   67)
* In (ast içindeki sınıf):               Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* in_dll() (ctypes._CData yöntemi):      Data types.         (line   63)
* in_table_a1() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   40)
* in_table_b1() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   45)
* in_table_c11_c12() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   69)
* in_table_c11() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   60)
* in_table_c12() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   64)
* in_table_c21_c22() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   84)
* in_table_c21() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   74)
* in_table_c22() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   79)
* in_table_c3() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   89)
* in_table_c4() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   93)
* in_table_c5() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   98)
* in_table_c6() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  102)
* in_table_c7() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  107)
* in_table_c8() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  112)
* in_table_c9() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  117)
* in_table_d1() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  121)
* in_table_d2() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  126)
* in_transaction (sqlite3.Connection özniteliği): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  737)
* inch() (curses.window yöntemi):        Window Objects.     (line  311)
* include() (xml.etree.ElementInclude modülü içinde): Functions<8>.
                                                             (line   17)
* inclusive (tracemalloc.DomainFilter özniteliği): DomainFilter.
                                                             (line   12)
* inclusive (tracemalloc.Filter özniteliği): Filter.         (line   39)
* inclusive;or:                          Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* Incomplete:                            binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  161)
* IncompleteRead:                        http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  158)
* IncompleteReadError:                   Exceptions<10>.     (line   43)
* incr_item():                           Exceptions<20>.     (line   78)
* incr_item() <1>:                       Exceptions<20>.     (line  123)
* increment_lineno() (ast modülü içinde): ast Helpers.       (line  149)
* IncrementalDecoder (codecs içindeki sınıf): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* incrementaldecoder (codecs.CodecInfo özniteliği): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   78)
* IncrementalEncoder (codecs içindeki sınıf): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* incrementalencoder (codecs.CodecInfo özniteliği): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   78)
* IncrementalNewlineDecoder (io içindeki sınıf): Text I/O<2>.
                                                             (line  285)
* IncrementalParser (xml.sax.xmlreader içindeki sınıf): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   20)
* indent (doctest.Example özniteliği):   Example Objects.    (line   47)
* indent (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):      Repr Objects.       (line   54)
* INDENT (token modülü içinde):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   50)
* INDENT token:                          Indentation.        (line   33)
* indent() (textwrap modülü içinde):     textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  102)
* indent() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  117)
* indentation:                           Indentation.        (line    6)
* IndentationError:                      Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  334)
* index (inspect.FrameInfo özniteliği):  The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   37)
* index (inspect.Traceback özniteliği):  The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   77)
* index operation:                       Sequences.          (line    6)
* index() (array.array yöntemi):         array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  190)
* index() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  152)
* index() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  152)
* index() (collections.deque yöntemi):   deque objects.      (line   70)
* index() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList yöntemi): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  313)
* index() (operator modülü içinde):      operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   93)
* index() (sequence method):             Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* index() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  178)
* index() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.      (line   37)
* index() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.      (line  178)
* IndexError:                            Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   74)
* indexOf() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  201)
* IndexSizeErr:                          Exceptions<17>.     (line   34)
* indices() (slice yöntemi):             Slice objects.      (line   16)
* INDIRECT (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.   (line   31)
* inet_aton() (socket modülü içinde):    Other functions<2>. (line  259)
* inet_ntoa() (socket modülü içinde):    Other functions<2>. (line  279)
* inet_ntop() (socket modülü içinde):    Other functions<2>. (line  314)
* inet_pton() (socket modülü içinde):    Other functions<2>. (line  296)
* Inexact (decimal içindeki sınıf):      Signals.            (line   42)
* inf (cmath modülü içinde):             Constants.          (line   20)
* inf (math modülü içinde):              Sabitler<2>.        (line   24)
* inf (sys.hash_info özniteliği):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1026)
* infile (shlex.shlex özniteliği):       shlex Objects.      (line  140)
* Infinity:                              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  713)
* infj (cmath modülü içinde):            Constants.          (line   26)
* INFO (logging modülü içinde):          Logging Levels.     (line   29)
* INFO (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  194)
* info() (dis.Bytecode yöntemi):         Bytecode analysis.  (line   60)
* info() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   63)
* info() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* info() (logging modülü içinde):        Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   64)
* info() (logging.Logger yöntemi):       Logger Objects.     (line  288)
* info() (urllib.response.addinfourl yöntemi): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   35)
* infolist() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):  ZipFile Objects.    (line  119)
* inheritance:                           Class definitions.  (line    6)
* ini file:                              configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* init_color() (curses modülü içinde):   Functions<4>.       (line  220)
* init_database() (msilib modülü içinde): msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   62)
* init_pair() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  232)
* init() (mimetypes modülü içinde):      mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   78)
* inited (mimetypes modülü içinde):      mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  117)
* initgroups() (os modülü içinde):       Process Parameters. (line  342)
* initial_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  210)
* initproc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   36)
* initscr() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  245)
* inode() (os.DirEntry yöntemi):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  957)
* input:                                 Expression input.   (line    6)
* input (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  153)
* input_charset (email.charset.Charset özniteliği): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   53)
* input_codec (email.charset.Charset özniteliği): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   82)
* input() (fileinput modülü içinde):     fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   56)
* InputOnly (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Miscellaneous Widgets.
                                                             (line    6)
* InputSource (xml.sax.xmlreader içindeki sınıf): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   51)
* InputStream (wsgiref.types içindeki sınıf): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   24)
* inquiry (C type):                      Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  199)
* insch() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  317)
* insdelln() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  324)
* insert_text() (readline modülü içinde): Line buffer.       (line   13)
* insert() (array.array yöntemi):        array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  201)
* insert() (collections.deque yöntemi):  deque objects.      (line   78)
* insert() (sequence method):            Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* insert() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.     (line   42)
* insert() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.     (line  183)
* insert() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  130)
* insertBefore() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi): Node Objects.       (line  121)
* insertln() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  332)
* insnstr() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  337)
* insort_left() (bisect modülü içinde):  bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   63)
* insort_right() (bisect modülü içinde): bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   80)
* insort() (bisect modülü içinde):       bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   80)
* inspect (sys.flags özniteliği):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  520)
* inspect komut satırı seçeneği; -details: Command Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* InspectLoader (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  202)
* insstr() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  348)
* install_opener() (urllib.request modülü içinde): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  126)
* install_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi): API<2>.       (line  175)
* install() (gettext modülü içinde):     Class-based API.    (line   69)
* install() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   72)
* installHandler() (unittest modülü içinde): Signal Handling.
                                                             (line   29)
* instance;call:                         Calls.              (line  158)
* instate() (tkinter.ttk.Widget yöntemi): ttk Widget.        (line   18)
* instr() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  358)
* instream (shlex.shlex özniteliği):     shlex Objects.      (line  146)
* Instruction (dis içindeki sınıf):      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   10)
* INSTRUCTION (monitoring event):        Events.             (line   30)
* Instruction.arg (dis modülü içinde):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   24)
* Instruction.argrepr (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   32)
* Instruction.argval (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   28)
* Instruction.is_jump_target (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   45)
* Instruction.offset (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   37)
* Instruction.opcode (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   14)
* Instruction.opname (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   20)
* Instruction.positions (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   49)
* Instruction.starts_line (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   41)
* int (uuid.UUID özniteliği):            uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  132)
* int (yerleşik sınıf):                  Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  949)
* int_info (sys modülü içinde):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1122)
* int_max_str_digits (sys.flags özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  566)
* Int2AP() (imaplib modülü içinde):      imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  119)
* integer:                               Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* integer literal:                       Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* integer;literals:                      Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* integer;representation:                numbers Integral.   (line    9)
* Integral (numbers içindeki sınıf):     The numeric tower.  (line   59)
* Integrated Development Environment:    IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* IntegrityError:                        Exceptions<5>.      (line   65)
* Intel/DVI ADPCM:                       audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   20)
* IntEnum (enum içindeki sınıf):         Data Types<2>.      (line  338)
* interact (pdb command):                Debugger Commands.  (line  340)
* interact() (code modülü içinde):       code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   32)
* interact() (code.InteractiveConsole yöntemi): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* interact() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.     (line  112)
* Interactive (ast içindeki sınıf):      Root nodes.         (line   38)
* interactive (sys.flags özniteliği):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* interactive mode:                      Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line   19)
* InteractiveConsole (code içindeki sınıf): code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   25)
* InteractiveInterpreter (code içindeki sınıf): code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* InterfaceError:                        Exceptions<5>.      (line   37)
* intern (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  157)
* intern() (sys modülü içinde):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1167)
* internal type:                         Internal types.     (line    6)
* internal_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  124)
* Internaldate2tuple() (imaplib modülü içinde): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  113)
* InternalError:                         Exceptions<5>.      (line   71)
* internalSubset (xml.dom.DocumentType özniteliği): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* Internet:                              Internet Protocols and Support.
                                                             (line    6)
* INTERNET_TIMEOUT (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   65)
* interpolated string literal:           Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi.
                                                             (line   94)
* interpolated string literal <1>:       String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* interpolation, string (%):             printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation;bytearray (%):           printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpolation;bytes (%):               printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* InterpolationDepthError:               Exceptions<6>.      (line   42)
* InterpolationError:                    Exceptions<6>.      (line   37)
* InterpolationMissingOptionError:       Exceptions<6>.      (line   49)
* InterpolationSyntaxError:              Exceptions<6>.      (line   54)
* interpreter:                           Top-level components.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter lock:                      Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter prompts:                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1445)
* interpreter_requires_environment() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line    9)
* interrupt_main() (_thread modülü içinde): _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   56)
* interrupt() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  331)
* InterruptedError:                      İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   74)
* intersection_update() (frozenset yöntemi): Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  183)
* intersection() (frozenset yöntemi):    Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  108)
* IntFlag (enum içindeki sınıf):         Data Types<2>.      (line  504)
* intro (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):            Cmd Objects.        (line  150)
* InuseAttributeErr:                     Exceptions<17>.     (line   39)
* inv_cdf() (statistics.NormalDist yöntemi): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* inv() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  102)
* InvalidAccessErr:                      Exceptions<17>.     (line   44)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib modülü içinde): Functions<10>.
                                                             (line   40)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   49)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   84)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  190)
* invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder sınıf yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  139)
* invalidate_caches() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* InvalidBase64CharactersDefect:         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  129)
* InvalidBase64LengthDefect:             email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  135)
* InvalidBase64PaddingDefect:            email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  123)
* InvalidCharacterErr:                   Exceptions<17>.     (line   49)
* InvalidDateDefect:                     email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  141)
* InvalidFileException:                  plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  149)
* InvalidModificationErr:                Exceptions<17>.     (line   57)
* InvalidOperation (decimal içindeki sınıf): Signals.        (line   50)
* InvalidStateErr:                       Exceptions<17>.     (line   61)
* InvalidStateError:                     Exception classes.  (line   26)
* InvalidStateError <1>:                 Exceptions<10>.     (line   29)
* InvalidTZPathWarning:                  Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   12)
* InvalidURL:                            http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  141)
* inversion:                             Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* Invert (ast içindeki sınıf):           Expressions<2>.     (line   28)
* invert() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  102)
* invocation:                            Callable types.     (line    6)
* IO (typing içindeki sınıf):            ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  418)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  418)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK (stat modülü içinde): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  418)
* IOBase (io içindeki sınıf):            I/O Base Classes.   (line    6)
* IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.
                                                             (line  266)
* ioctl() (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line   75)
* ioctl() (socket.socket yöntemi):       Socket Objects.     (line  179)
* IOError:                               Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  478)
* ior() (operator modülü içinde):        In-place Operators. (line   79)
* ip (ipaddress.IPv4Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* ip (ipaddress.IPv6Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* ip_address() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* ip_interface() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line   37)
* ip_network() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* ipow() (operator modülü içinde):       In-place Operators. (line   84)
* ipv4_mapped (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  281)
* IPv4Address (ipaddress içindeki sınıf): Address objects.   (line   13)
* IPv4Interface (ipaddress içindeki sınıf): Interface objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* IPv4Network (ipaddress içindeki sınıf): Network objects.   (line   13)
* IPV6_ENABLED (test.support.socket_helper modülü içinde): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* IPv6Address (ipaddress içindeki sınıf): Address objects.   (line  202)
* IPv6Interface (ipaddress içindeki sınıf): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* IPv6Network (ipaddress içindeki sınıf): Network objects.   (line  253)
* irrefutable case block:                Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* irshift() (operator modülü içinde):    In-place Operators. (line   89)
* Is (ast içindeki sınıf):               Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* is_() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* is_absolute() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  186)
* is_active() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher yöntemi): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   72)
* is_active() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter yöntemi): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  110)
* is_alive() (multiprocessing.Process yöntemi): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   93)
* is_alive() (threading.Thread yöntemi): Thread Objects.     (line  193)
* is_android (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   40)
* is_annotated() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  182)
* is_assigned() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  193)
* is_async (pyclbr.Function özniteliği): Function Objects.   (line   41)
* is_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  445)
* is_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth yöntemi): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* is_block_device() (pathlib.Path yöntemi): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  119)
* is_blocked() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy yöntemi): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* is_canonical() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects. (line  311)
* is_canonical() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects. (line  278)
* is_char_device() (pathlib.Path yöntemi): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  128)
* IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (difflib modülü içinde): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  360)
* is_check_supported() (lzma modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* is_closed() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):    Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   39)
* is_closing() (asyncio.BaseTransport yöntemi): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   17)
* is_closing() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter. (line  107)
* is_dataclass() (dataclasses modülü içinde): Module contents<4>.
                                                             (line  456)
* is_declared_global() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  173)
* is_dir() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  531)
* is_dir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  103)
* is_dir() (os.DirEntry yöntemi):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  968)
* is_dir() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):       Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   63)
* is_dir() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):       Path Objects.       (line   57)
* is_dir() (zipfile.ZipInfo yöntemi):    ZipInfo Objects.    (line   43)
* is_enabled() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   31)
* is_expired() (http.cookiejar.Cookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* is_fifo() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):      Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  111)
* is_file() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  535)
* is_file() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  107)
* is_file() (os.DirEntry yöntemi):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  997)
* is_file() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):      Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   54)
* is_file() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):      Path Objects.       (line   61)
* is_finalized() (gc modülü içinde):     gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  185)
* is_finalizing() (sys modülü içinde):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1182)
* is_finite() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  315)
* is_finite() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  285)
* is_free() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi):   Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  188)
* is_global (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  135)
* is_global (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  261)
* is_global() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  165)
* is_hop_by_hop() (wsgiref.util modülü içinde): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line  112)
* is_imported() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  156)
* is_infinite() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.  (line  319)
* is_infinite() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.  (line  290)
* is_integer() (float yöntemi):          Gerçel Sayılarda Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line   16)
* is_integer() (fractions.Fraction yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  126)
* is_integer() (int yöntemi):            Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line  172)
* is_junction() (os.DirEntry yöntemi):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1032)
* is_junction() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):  Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   80)
* is_jython (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   36)
* IS_LINE_JUNK() (difflib modülü içinde): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  353)
* is_linetouched() (curses.window yöntemi): Window Objects.  (line  368)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  172)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  271)
* is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  307)
* is_local() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi):  Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  178)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  167)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  269)
* is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  305)
* is_mount() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):     Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   87)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  257)
* is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  297)
* is_multipart() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  134)
* is_multipart() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  146)
* is_namespace() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  197)
* is_nan() (decimal.Context yöntemi):    Context objects.    (line  323)
* is_nan() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):    Decimal objects.    (line  295)
* is_nested() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   47)
* is_nonlocal() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  169)
* is_normal() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  328)
* is_normal() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  300)
* is_normalized() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  117)
* is_not_allowed() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy yöntemi): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_not() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* IS_OP (opcode):                        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  739)
* is_optimized() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   43)
* is_package() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  234)
* is_package() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  425)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  328)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  220)
* is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  264)
* is_package() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* is_parameter() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  161)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  259)
* is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  299)
* is_python_build() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   52)
* is_qnan() (decimal.Context yöntemi):   Context objects.    (line  333)
* is_qnan() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):   Decimal objects.    (line  306)
* is_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport yöntemi): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* is_referenced() (symtable.Symbol yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  152)
* is_relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  205)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  163)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  267)
* is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  303)
* is_reserved() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  229)
* is_resource_enabled() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  245)
* is_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  485)
* is_resource() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line  115)
* is_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   62)
* is_running() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):   Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   35)
* is_safe (uuid.UUID özniteliği):        uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  152)
* is_serving() (asyncio.Server yöntemi): Server Objects.     (line   92)
* is_set() (asyncio.Event yöntemi):      Event.              (line   65)
* is_set() (threading.Event yöntemi):    Event Objects.      (line   24)
* is_signed() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  338)
* is_signed() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  311)
* is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  273)
* is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  357)
* is_skipped_line() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  245)
* is_snan() (decimal.Context yöntemi):   Context objects.    (line  342)
* is_snan() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):   Decimal objects.    (line  317)
* is_socket() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):    Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  102)
* is_stack_trampoline_active() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1740)
* is_subnormal() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects. (line  347)
* is_subnormal() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects. (line  322)
* is_symlink() (os.DirEntry yöntemi):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1013)
* is_symlink() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):   Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   72)
* is_tarfile() (tarfile modülü içinde):  tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  190)
* is_term_resized() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.    (line  253)
* is_tracing() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>.    (line   61)
* is_tracked() (gc modülü içinde):       gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  160)
* is_typeddict() (typing modülü içinde): Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   99)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  158)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  265)
* is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  301)
* is_valid() (string.Template yöntemi):  Template strings.   (line   67)
* is_wintouched() (curses.window yöntemi): Window Objects.   (line  375)
* is_zero() (decimal.Context yöntemi):   Context objects.    (line  351)
* is_zero() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):   Decimal objects.    (line  327)
* is_zipfile() (zipfile modülü içinde):  zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   72)
* isabs() (os.path modülü içinde):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  198)
* isabstract() (inspect modülü içinde):  Types and members.  (line  502)
* IsADirectoryError:                     İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   85)
* isalnum() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  508)
* isalnum() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  508)
* isalnum() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  134)
* isalnum() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  183)
* isalpha() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  526)
* isalpha() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  526)
* isalpha() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  139)
* isalpha() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  190)
* isascii() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  541)
* isascii() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  541)
* isascii() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  144)
* isascii() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  200)
* isasyncgen() (inspect modülü içinde):  Types and members.  (line  462)
* isasyncgenfunction() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  445)
* isatty() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):        chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   91)
* isatty() (io.IOBase yöntemi):          I/O Base Classes.   (line   73)
* isatty() (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  246)
* isawaitable() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.  (line  424)
* isblank() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  148)
* isblk() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line  210)
* isbuiltin() (inspect modülü içinde):   Types and members.  (line  482)
* ischr() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line  206)
* isclass() (inspect modülü içinde):     Types and members.  (line  359)
* isclose() (cmath modülü içinde):       Classification functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* isclose() (math modülü içinde):        Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  110)
* iscntrl() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  152)
* iscode() (inspect modülü içinde):      Types and members.  (line  478)
* iscoroutine() (asyncio modülü içinde): Introspection.      (line   26)
* iscoroutine() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.  (line  417)
* iscoroutinefunction() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  385)
* isctrl() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  193)
* isDaemon() (threading.Thread yöntemi): Thread Objects.     (line  215)
* isdatadescriptor() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  524)
* isdecimal() (str yöntemi):             String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  208)
* isdev() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line  218)
* isdevdrive() (os.path modülü içinde):  os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  256)
* isdigit() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  549)
* isdigit() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  549)
* isdigit() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  157)
* isdigit() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  217)
* isdir() (os.path modülü içinde):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  214)
* isdir() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line  194)
* isdisjoint() (frozenset yöntemi):      Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   69)
* isdown() (turtle modülü içinde):       Drawing state.      (line   86)
* iselement() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  129)
* isenabled() (gc modülü içinde):        gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   30)
* isEnabledFor() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.   (line  144)
* isendwin() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  258)
* ISEOF() (token modülü içinde):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   34)
* isfifo() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):    TarInfo Objects.    (line  214)
* isfile() (os.path modülü içinde):      os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  206)
* isfile() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):    TarInfo Objects.    (line  185)
* isfinite() (cmath modülü içinde):      Classification functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* isfinite() (math modülü içinde):       Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  145)
* isfirstline() (fileinput modülü içinde): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  111)
* isframe() (inspect modülü içinde):     Types and members.  (line  474)
* isfunction() (inspect modülü içinde):  Types and members.  (line  368)
* isfuture() (asyncio modülü içinde):    Future Functions.   (line    6)
* isgenerator() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.  (line  381)
* isgeneratorfunction() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  373)
* isgetsetdescriptor() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  537)
* isgraph() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  162)
* isidentifier() (str yöntemi):          String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  227)
* isinf() (cmath modülü içinde):         Classification functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* isinf() (math modülü içinde):          Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  152)
* isinstance (2to3 fixer):               Fixers.             (line  161)
* isjunction() (os.path modülü içinde):  os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  222)
* iskeyword() (keyword modülü içinde):   keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   13)
* isleap() (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  364)
* islice() (itertools modülü içinde):    Itertool Functions. (line  356)
* islink() (os.path modülü içinde):      os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  230)
* islnk() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line  202)
* islower() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  563)
* islower() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  563)
* islower() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  166)
* islower() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  245)
* ismemberdescriptor() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  546)
* ismeta() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  197)
* ismethod() (inspect modülü içinde):    Types and members.  (line  364)
* ismethoddescriptor() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  506)
* ismethodwrapper() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  487)
* ismodule() (inspect modülü içinde):    Types and members.  (line  355)
* ismount() (os.path modülü içinde):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  238)
* isnan() (cmath modülü içinde):         Classification functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* isnan() (math modülü içinde):          Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  157)
* ISNONTERMINAL() (token modülü içinde): token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   30)
* IsNot (ast içindeki sınıf):            Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* isnumeric() (str yöntemi):             String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  251)
* isocalendar() (datetime.date yöntemi): date Objects.       (line  227)
* isocalendar() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  626)
* isoformat() (datetime.date yöntemi):   date Objects.       (line  254)
* isoformat() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects. (line  631)
* isoformat() (datetime.time yöntemi):   time Objects.       (line  160)
* isolated (sys.flags özniteliği):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  526)
* IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (unittest içindeki sınıf): Test cases.
                                                             (line  853)
* isolation_level (sqlite3.Connection özniteliği): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  747)
* isoweekday() (datetime.date yöntemi):  date Objects.       (line  220)
* isoweekday() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  620)
* isprint() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  170)
* isprintable() (str yöntemi):           String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  261)
* ispunct() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  174)
* isqrt() (math modülü içinde):          Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  162)
* isreadable() (pprint modülü içinde):   Functions<3>.       (line   85)
* isreadable() (pprint.PrettyPrinter yöntemi): PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* isrecursive() (pprint modülü içinde):  Functions<3>.       (line   94)
* isrecursive() (pprint.PrettyPrinter yöntemi): PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* isreg() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line  190)
* isReservedKey() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* isroutine() (inspect modülü içinde):   Types and members.  (line  497)
* isSameNode() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi):   Node Objects.       (line  102)
* issoftkeyword() (keyword modülü içinde): keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   24)
* isspace() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  580)
* isspace() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  580)
* isspace() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  179)
* isspace() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  278)
* isstdin() (fileinput modülü içinde):   fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  116)
* issubset() (frozenset yöntemi):        Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   75)
* issuperset() (frozenset yöntemi):      Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   88)
* issym() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line  198)
* ISTERMINAL() (token modülü içinde):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   26)
* istitle() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  588)
* istitle() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  588)
* istitle() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  288)
* istraceback() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.  (line  470)
* isub() (operator modülü içinde):       In-place Operators. (line   94)
* isupper() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  602)
* isupper() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  602)
* isupper() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  184)
* isupper() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  296)
* isvisible() (turtle modülü içinde):    Visibility.         (line   22)
* isxdigit() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  188)
* ITALIC (tkinter.font modülü içinde):   tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* item selection:                        Sequences.          (line    6)
* item() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.       (line  202)
* item() (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap yöntemi): NamedNodeMap Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* item() (xml.dom.NodeList yöntemi):     NodeList Objects.   (line   15)
* itemgetter() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  271)
* items() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  258)
* items() (contextvars.Context yöntemi): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  113)
* items() (dict yöntemi):                Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  162)
* items() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  240)
* items() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  350)
* items() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):     Mailbox objects.    (line  142)
* items() (types.MappingProxyType yöntemi): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  267)
* items() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* itemsize (array.array özniteliği):     array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  109)
* itemsize (memoryview özniteliği):      Memory Views.       (line  433)
* ItemsView (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* ItemsView (typing içindeki sınıf):     Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   41)
* iter_attachments() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  560)
* iter_child_nodes() (ast modülü içinde): ast Helpers.       (line  166)
* iter_fields() (ast modülü içinde):     ast Helpers.        (line  161)
* iter_importers() (pkgutil modülü içinde): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  107)
* iter_modules() (pkgutil modülü içinde): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  125)
* iter_parts() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  576)
* iter_unpack() (struct modülü içinde):  Functions and Exceptions.
                                                             (line   42)
* iter_unpack() (struct.Struct yöntemi): Classes<2>.         (line   46)
* iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* Iterable (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   26)
* Iterable (typing içindeki sınıf):      Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterable;unpacking:                    Expression lists.   (line   18)
* Iterator (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   43)
* Iterator (typing içindeki sınıf):      Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* iterator protocol:                     Yineleyici Türleri. (line    6)
* iterdecode() (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  234)
* iterdir() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  527)
* iterdir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   99)
* iterdir() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):      Reading directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterdir() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):      Path Objects.       (line   53)
* iterdump() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  480)
* iterencode() (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  222)
* iterencode() (json.JSONEncoder yöntemi): Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  226)
* iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* iteritems() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.    (line  133)
* iterkeys() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):  Mailbox objects.    (line  107)
* itermonthdates() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* itermonthdays() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   75)
* itermonthdays2() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* itermonthdays3() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   91)
* itermonthdays4() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  101)
* iternextfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   93)
* iterparse() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  135)
* itertext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* itertools (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  174)
* itertools_imports (2to3 fixer):        Fixers.             (line  168)
* itervalues() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi): Mailbox objects.   (line  116)
* iterweekdays() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* ITIMER_PROF (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  223)
* ITIMER_REAL (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  213)
* ITIMER_VIRTUAL (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>. (line  218)
* ItimerError:                           Module contents<2>. (line  256)
* itruediv() (operator modülü içinde):   In-place Operators. (line   99)
* ixor() (operator modülü içinde):       In-place Operators. (line  104)
* j;in numeric literal:                  Floating-point literals.
                                                             (line   28)
* Jansen, Jack:                          uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line   24)
* JANUARY (calendar modülü içinde):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* java_ver() (platform modülü içinde):   Java Platform.      (line    6)
* Java;language:                         numbers Real float. (line    6)
* jeneratör:                             Sözlük.             (line  554)
* jeneratör <1>:                         Sözlük.             (line  554)
* jeneratör ifadesi:                     Sözlük.             (line  576)
* jeneratör ifadesi <1>:                 Sözlük.             (line  576)
* jeneratör yineleyici:                  Sözlük.             (line  564)
* join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  181)
* join_thread() (test.support.threading_helper modülü içinde): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* join() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):        Queue.              (line   49)
* join() (bytearray yöntemi):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  164)
* join() (bytes yöntemi):                Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  164)
* join() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  266)
* join() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools. (line  180)
* join() (multiprocessing.Process yöntemi): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   66)
* join() (os.path modülü içinde):        os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  273)
* join() (queue.Queue yöntemi):          Queue Objects.      (line   83)
* join() (shlex modülü içinde):          shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   29)
* join() (str yöntemi):                  String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  310)
* join() (threading.Thread yöntemi):     Thread Objects.     (line  127)
* JoinableQueue (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  245)
* JoinedStr (ast içindeki sınıf):        Literals<3>.        (line   42)
* joinpath() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  539)
* joinpath() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  111)
* joinpath() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  243)
* joinpath() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):     Path Objects.       (line  104)
* js_output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* js_output() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi): Morsel Objects. (line   73)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -compact: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -h:   Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -help: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -indent: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -json-lines: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -no-ensure-ascii: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -no-indent: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -sort-keys: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; -tab: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; infile: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* json.tool komut satırı seçeneği; outfile: Command line options<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* JSONDecodeError:                       Exceptions<14>.     (line    6)
* JSONDecoder (json içindeki sınıf):     Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line    6)
* JSONEncoder (json içindeki sınıf):     Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  104)
* JULY (calendar modülü içinde):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* JUMP (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   34)
* JUMP (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1302)
* jump (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  220)
* JUMP_BACKWARD (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  770)
* JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  776)
* JUMP_FORWARD (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  766)
* JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1304)
* JUNE (calendar modülü içinde):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* karma tabanlı pyc:                     Sözlük.             (line  632)
* karmaşık sayı:                         Sözlük.             (line  261)
* kat bölümü:                            Sözlük.             (line  495)
* kbhit() (msvcrt modülü içinde):        Console I/O.        (line    6)
* KDEDIR:                                webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  192)
* KEEP (enum.FlagBoundary özniteliği):   Data Types<2>.      (line  676)
* kevent() (select modülü içinde):       select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  109)
* key:                                   Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* key (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği):  Morsel Objects.     (line   54)
* key (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo özniteliği):    The ZoneInfo class. (line   75)
* KEY_A1 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  236)
* KEY_A3 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  239)
* KEY_ALL_ACCESS (winreg modülü içinde): Access Rights.      (line    8)
* KEY_B2 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  242)
* KEY_BACKSPACE (curses modülü içinde):  Constants<4>.       (line  166)
* KEY_BEG (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  254)
* KEY_BREAK (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  148)
* KEY_BTAB (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  251)
* KEY_C1 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  245)
* KEY_C3 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  248)
* KEY_CANCEL (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  257)
* KEY_CATAB (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  218)
* KEY_CLEAR (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  191)
* KEY_CLOSE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  260)
* KEY_COMMAND (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  263)
* KEY_COPY (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  266)
* KEY_CREATE (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  269)
* KEY_CREATE_LINK (winreg modülü içinde): Access Rights.     (line   51)
* KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (winreg modülü içinde): Access Rights.  (line   38)
* KEY_CTAB (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  215)
* KEY_DC (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  182)
* KEY_DL (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  176)
* KEY_DOWN (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  151)
* KEY_EIC (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  188)
* KEY_END (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  272)
* KEY_ENTER (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  221)
* KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (winreg modülü içinde): Access Rights.
                                                             (line   42)
* KEY_EOL (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  197)
* KEY_EOS (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  194)
* KEY_EXECUTE (winreg modülü içinde):    Access Rights.      (line   26)
* KEY_EXIT (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  275)
* KEY_F0 (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  169)
* KEY_FIND (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  278)
* KEY_Fn (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  173)
* KEY_HELP (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  281)
* KEY_HOME (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  163)
* KEY_IC (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  185)
* KEY_IL (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  179)
* KEY_LEFT (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  157)
* KEY_LL (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  233)
* KEY_MARK (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  284)
* KEY_MAX (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  425)
* KEY_MESSAGE (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  287)
* KEY_MIN (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  145)
* KEY_MOUSE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  419)
* KEY_MOVE (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  290)
* KEY_NEXT (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  293)
* KEY_NOTIFY (winreg modülü içinde):     Access Rights.      (line   46)
* KEY_NPAGE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  206)
* KEY_OPEN (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  296)
* KEY_OPTIONS (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  299)
* KEY_PPAGE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  209)
* KEY_PREVIOUS (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  302)
* KEY_PRINT (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  230)
* KEY_QUERY_VALUE (winreg modülü içinde): Access Rights.     (line   30)
* KEY_READ (winreg modülü içinde):       Access Rights.      (line   20)
* KEY_REDO (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  305)
* KEY_REFERENCE (curses modülü içinde):  Constants<4>.       (line  308)
* KEY_REFRESH (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  311)
* KEY_REPLACE (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  314)
* KEY_RESET (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  227)
* KEY_RESIZE (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  422)
* KEY_RESTART (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  317)
* KEY_RESUME (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  320)
* KEY_RIGHT (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  160)
* KEY_SAVE (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  323)
* KEY_SBEG (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  326)
* KEY_SCANCEL (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  329)
* KEY_SCOMMAND (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  332)
* KEY_SCOPY (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  335)
* KEY_SCREATE (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  338)
* KEY_SDC (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  341)
* KEY_SDL (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  344)
* KEY_SELECT (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  347)
* KEY_SEND (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  350)
* KEY_SEOL (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  353)
* KEY_SET_VALUE (winreg modülü içinde):  Access Rights.      (line   34)
* KEY_SEXIT (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  356)
* KEY_SF (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  200)
* KEY_SFIND (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  359)
* KEY_SHELP (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  362)
* KEY_SHOME (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  365)
* KEY_SIC (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line  368)
* KEY_SLEFT (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  371)
* KEY_SMESSAGE (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  374)
* KEY_SMOVE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  377)
* KEY_SNEXT (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  380)
* KEY_SOPTIONS (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  383)
* KEY_SPREVIOUS (curses modülü içinde):  Constants<4>.       (line  386)
* KEY_SPRINT (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  389)
* KEY_SR (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  203)
* KEY_SREDO (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  392)
* KEY_SREPLACE (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  395)
* KEY_SRESET (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  224)
* KEY_SRIGHT (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  398)
* KEY_SRSUME (curses modülü içinde):     Constants<4>.       (line  401)
* KEY_SSAVE (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  404)
* KEY_SSUSPEND (curses modülü içinde):   Constants<4>.       (line  407)
* KEY_STAB (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  212)
* KEY_SUNDO (curses modülü içinde):      Constants<4>.       (line  410)
* KEY_SUSPEND (curses modülü içinde):    Constants<4>.       (line  413)
* KEY_UNDO (curses modülü içinde):       Constants<4>.       (line  416)
* KEY_UP (curses modülü içinde):         Constants<4>.       (line  154)
* KEY_WOW64_32KEY (winreg modülü içinde): 64-bit Specific.   (line   14)
* KEY_WOW64_64KEY (winreg modülü içinde): 64-bit Specific.   (line    8)
* KEY_WRITE (winreg modülü içinde):      Access Rights.      (line   15)
* key/value pair:                        Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* KeyboardInterrupt:                     Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   86)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception): Signal Handling<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <1>: Signal Handling<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <2>: Signal Handling<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* KeyError:                              Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   81)
* keylog_filename (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts. (line  527)
* keyname() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  263)
* keypad() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  380)
* keyrefs() (weakref.WeakKeyDictionary yöntemi): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  210)
* keys() (contextvars.Context yöntemi):  Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  105)
* keys() (dict yöntemi):                 Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  167)
* keys() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  232)
* keys() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  342)
* keys() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):      Mailbox objects.    (line  111)
* keys() (sqlite3.Row yöntemi):          Row objects.        (line   19)
* keys() (types.MappingProxyType yöntemi): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  272)
* keys() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* KeysView (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* KeysView (typing içindeki sınıf):      Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   50)
* keyword:                               Keywords.           (line    6)
* keyword <1>:                           Soft Keywords.      (line    6)
* keyword (ast içindeki sınıf):          Expressions<2>.     (line  152)
* keyword;as:                            The import statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;as <1>:                        The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;as <2>:                        The with statement. (line    6)
* keyword;as <3>:                        The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;async:                         Coroutine function definition.
                                                             (line    9)
* keyword;await:                         Calls.              (line  160)
* keyword;await <1>:                     Coroutine function definition.
                                                             (line    9)
* keyword;case:                          The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;elif:                          The if statement.   (line    6)
* keyword;else:                          The break statement.
                                                             (line   12)
* keyword;else <1>:                      The if statement.   (line    6)
* keyword;else <2>:                      The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;else <3>:                      The for statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;else <4>:                      The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;else <5>:                      except* clause.     (line   57)
* keyword;except:                        The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;except_star:                   except clause.      (line   82)
* keyword;finally:                       The return statement.
                                                             (line   17)
* keyword;finally <1>:                   The break statement.
                                                             (line   18)
* keyword;finally <2>:                   The continue statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;finally <3>:                   The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;finally <4>:                   else clause.        (line   11)
* keyword;from:                          Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* keyword;from <1>:                      The import statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;if:                            The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;in:                            The for statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;yield:                         Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* keywords (functools.partial özniteliği): partial Objects.  (line   20)
* kill_python() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   77)
* kill() (asyncio.subprocess.Process yöntemi): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  106)
* kill() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport yöntemi): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   35)
* kill() (multiprocessing.Process yöntemi): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  189)
* kill() (os modülü içinde):             Process Management. (line  325)
* kill() (subprocess.Popen yöntemi):     Popen Objects.      (line   92)
* killchar() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  273)
* killpg() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  347)
* kind (inspect.Parameter özniteliği):   Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  214)
* kısım:                                 Sözlük.             (line 1157)
* knownfiles (mimetypes modülü içinde):  mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  122)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -?:             Generic options.    (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -b:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -B:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   16)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -build:         Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   12)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -c:             Interface options.  (line   36)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -check-hash-based-pycs: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   21)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -d:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   35)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -disable-ipv6:  General Options.    (line   16)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -disable-test-modules: Install Options.
                                                             (line   24)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -E:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   43)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-big-digits: General Options.
                                                             (line   21)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-bolt:   Performance options.
                                                             (line   59)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-framework: macOS Options.   (line   15)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-framework <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   17)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: General Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-optimizations: Performance options.
                                                             (line   10)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-profiling: Performance options.
                                                             (line  106)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-pystats: General Options.   (line  131)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-shared: Linker options.     (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-universalsdk: macOS Options.
                                                             (line    8)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-universalsdk <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   10)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -enable-wasm-pthreads: WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line   26)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -exec-prefix:   Install Options.    (line   16)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -h:             Generic options.    (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -help:          Generic options.    (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -help-all:      Generic options.    (line   27)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -help-env:      Generic options.    (line   13)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -help-xoptions: Generic options.    (line   20)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -host:          Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -i:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   50)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -I:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   71)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -J:             Options you shouldn’t use.
                                                             (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -m:             Interface options.  (line   50)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -O:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   83)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -OO:            Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   93)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -P:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  102)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -prefix:        Install Options.    (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -q:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  121)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -R:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  128)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -s:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  153)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -S:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  165)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -u:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  173)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -V:             Generic options.    (line   33)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -v:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  183)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -version:       Generic options.    (line   33)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -W:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  196)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-address-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   54)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-assertions: Debug options.    (line   29)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-build-python: Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   20)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-builtin-hashlib-hashes: Security Options.
                                                             (line   21)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-computed-gotos: Performance options.
                                                             (line   84)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-dbmliborder: General Options. (line   68)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-dtrace:   Debug options.      (line   46)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-emscripten-target: WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-ensurepip: Install Options.   (line   32)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-framework-name: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   51)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-hash-algorithm: Security Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-libc:     Libraries options.  (line   44)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-libm:     Libraries options.  (line   39)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-libs:     Libraries options.  (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-lto:      Performance options.
                                                             (line   43)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-memory-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   61)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-openssl:  Libraries options.  (line   49)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-openssl-rpath: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   55)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-pkg-config: General Options.  (line  118)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-platlibdir: General Options.  (line   96)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-pydebug:  Debug options.      (line    6)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-readline: Libraries options.  (line   22)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-ssl-default-suites: Security Options.
                                                             (line   40)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-strict-overflow: Performance options.
                                                             (line  110)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-suffix:   General Options.    (line   32)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-system-expat: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   10)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-system-libmpdec: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   15)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-trace-refs: Debug options.    (line   11)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-tzpath:   General Options.    (line   44)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   68)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-universal-archs: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   23)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-valgrind: Debug options.      (line   42)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -with-wheel-pkg-dir: General Options.
                                                             (line  106)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -without-c-locale-coercion: General Options.
                                                             (line   81)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -without-decimal-contextvar: General Options.
                                                             (line   57)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -without-doc-strings: Performance options.
                                                             (line   96)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -without-freelists: General Options.
                                                             (line   90)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -without-pymalloc: Performance options.
                                                             (line   89)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -without-readline: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   31)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -without-static-libpython: Linker options.
                                                             (line   11)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -x:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  257)
* komut satırı seçeneği; -X:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  262)
* komut satırı seçeneği; CONFIG_SITE:    Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   26)
* konumsal argüman:                      Sözlük.             (line 1163)
* kqueue() (select modülü içinde):       select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   98)
* KqueueSelector (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.     (line  195)
* KW_NAMES (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1013)
* KW_ONLY (dataclasses modülü içinde):   Module contents<4>. (line  472)
* kwargs (inspect.BoundArguments özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  340)
* kwargs (typing.ParamSpec özniteliği):  Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  371)
* kwlist (keyword modülü içinde):        keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   17)
* L (re modülü içinde):                  Flags.              (line   58)
* LabelEntry (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Basic Widgets.    (line   31)
* LabelFrame (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Basic Widgets.    (line   37)
* lambda:                                Sözlük.             (line  813)
* Lambda (ast içindeki sınıf):           Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   32)
* lambda;expression:                     Lambdas.            (line    6)
* lambda;expression <1>:                 Function definitions.
                                                             (line  128)
* lambda;form:                           Lambdas.            (line    6)
* LambdaType (types modülü içinde):      Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   25)
* LANG:                                  GNU gettext API.    (line   21)
* LANG <1>:                              Class-based API.    (line   26)
* LANG <2>:                              locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   49)
* LANG <3>:                              locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  345)
* LANG <4>:                              locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  349)
* LANGUAGE:                              GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LANGUAGE <1>:                          Class-based API.    (line   25)
* large files:                           Large File Support. (line    6)
* LARGEST (test.support modülü içinde):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  185)
* LargeZipFile:                          zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   37)
* last_accepted (multiprocessing.connection.Listener özniteliği): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line  103)
* last_exc (sys modülü içinde):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1189)
* last_traceback (in module sys):        Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* last_traceback (sys modülü içinde):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1202)
* last_type (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1202)
* last_value (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1202)
* last() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  237)
* lastChild (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):   Node Objects.       (line   59)
* lastcmd (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):          Cmd Objects.        (line  139)
* lastgroup (re.Match özniteliği):       Match Objects.      (line  201)
* lastindex (re.Match özniteliği):       Match Objects.      (line  193)
* lastResort (logging modülü içinde):    Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* lastrowid (sqlite3.Cursor özniteliği): Cursor objects.     (line  200)
* layout() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi):  Ttk Styling.        (line   96)
* lazycache() (linecache modülü içinde): linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   50)
* LazyLoader (importlib.util içindeki sınıf): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  192)
* LBRACE (token modülü içinde):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  126)
* LBYL:                                  Sözlük.             (line  820)
* LC_ALL:                                GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LC_ALL <1>:                            Class-based API.    (line   25)
* LC_ALL (locale modülü içinde):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  567)
* LC_COLLATE (locale modülü içinde):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  533)
* LC_CTYPE (locale modülü içinde):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  519)
* LC_MESSAGES:                           GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LC_MESSAGES <1>:                       Class-based API.    (line   26)
* LC_MESSAGES (locale modülü içinde):    locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  549)
* LC_MONETARY (locale modülü içinde):    locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  544)
* LC_NUMERIC (locale modülü içinde):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  559)
* LC_TIME (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  539)
* lchflags() (os modülü içinde):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  299)
* lchmod() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  313)
* lchmod() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):       Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   36)
* lchown() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  332)
* lcm() (math modülü içinde):            Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  175)
* LDCXXSHARED:                           Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line  154)
* ldexp() (math modülü içinde):          Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  186)
* LDFLAGS:                               New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* LDFLAGS <1>:                           Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <2>:                           Linker flags.       (line   15)
* LDFLAGS <3>:                           Linker flags.       (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <4>:                           Linker flags.       (line   28)
* LDFLAGS <5>:                           Linker flags.       (line   31)
* LDFLAGS <6>:                           Linker flags.       (line   35)
* LDFLAGS <7>:                           Linker flags.       (line   50)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST:                        Linker flags.       (line   26)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                    Linker flags.       (line   40)
* le() (operator modülü içinde):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* leading whitespace:                    Indentation.        (line    6)
* leapdays() (calendar modülü içinde):   calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  369)
* leaveok() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  387)
* left (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği):      The dircmp class.   (line   41)
* left_list (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.   (line   49)
* left_only (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.   (line   63)
* left() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line   57)
* LEFTSHIFT (token modülü içinde):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  158)
* LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (token modülü içinde):  token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  202)
* LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* lenfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   98)
* length (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap özniteliği): NamedNodeMap Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* length (xml.dom.NodeList özniteliği):  NodeList Objects.   (line   21)
* length_hint() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  210)
* LESS (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  106)
* LESSEQUAL (token modülü içinde):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  142)
* level (logging.Logger özniteliği):     Logger Objects.     (line   33)
* lexical analysis:                      Lexical analysis.   (line    6)
* lexical analyzer:                      Sözlük.             (line  834)
* lexical definitions:                   Notation.           (line   32)
* LexicalHandler (xml.sax.handler içindeki sınıf): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   45)
* lexists() (os.path modülü içinde):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  120)
* LF (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   52)
* lgamma() (math modülü içinde):         Özel fonksiyonlar.  (line   35)
* libc_ver() (platform modülü içinde):   Unix Platforms.     (line    6)
* LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX (msvcrt modülü içinde): Other Functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* library (dbm.ndbm modülü içinde):      dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   29)
* library (ssl.SSLError özniteliği):     Exceptions<13>.     (line   19)
* LibraryLoader (ctypes içindeki sınıf): Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  170)
* license (yerleşik değişken):           Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   30)
* LifoQueue (asyncio içindeki sınıf):    LIFO Queue.         (line    6)
* LifoQueue (queue içindeki sınıf):      queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   42)
* light-weight processes:                _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* limit_denominator() (fractions.Fraction yöntemi): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  152)
* LimitOverrunError:                     Exceptions<10>.     (line   60)
* lin2adpcm() (audioop modülü içinde):   audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  115)
* lin2alaw() (audioop modülü içinde):    audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  129)
* lin2lin() (audioop modülü içinde):     audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  136)
* lin2ulaw() (audioop modülü içinde):    audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  151)
* line (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   86)
* LINE (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   38)
* line (traceback.FrameSummary özniteliği): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* line continuation:                     Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* line joining:                          Logical lines.      (line    6)
* line joining <1>:                      Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* line structure:                        Line structure.     (line    6)
* line_buffering (io.TextIOWrapper özniteliği): Text I/O<2>. (line  169)
* line_num (csv.csvreader özniteliği):   Reader Objects.     (line   23)
* line-buffered I/O:                     Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1439)
* line() (msilib.Dialog yöntemi):        GUI classes.        (line   62)
* linear_regression() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.
                                                             (line  549)
* lineno (ast.AST özniteliği):           Node classes.       (line   39)
* lineno (doctest.DocTest özniteliği):   DocTest Objects.    (line   42)
* lineno (doctest.Example özniteliği):   Example Objects.    (line   41)
* lineno (inspect.FrameInfo özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   22)
* lineno (inspect.Traceback özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   62)
* lineno (json.JSONDecodeError özniteliği): Exceptions<14>.  (line   23)
* lineno (netrc.NetrcParseError özniteliği): netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   58)
* lineno (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):      Class Objects.      (line   24)
* lineno (pyclbr.Function özniteliği):   Function Objects.   (line   23)
* lineno (re.error özniteliği):          Exceptions<2>.      (line   28)
* lineno (shlex.shlex özniteliği):       shlex Objects.      (line  169)
* lineno (SyntaxError özniteliği):       Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  301)
* lineno (traceback.FrameSummary özniteliği): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* lineno (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* lineno (tracemalloc.Filter özniteliği): Filter.            (line   49)
* lineno (tracemalloc.Frame özniteliği): Frame.              (line   17)
* lineno (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError özniteliği): ExpatError Exceptions.
                                                             (line   27)
* lineno() (fileinput modülü içinde):    fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   97)
* LINES:                                 Functions<4>.       (line  125)
* LINES <1>:                             Functions<4>.       (line  594)
* LINES <2>:                             Functions<4>.       (line  596)
* LINES (curses modülü içinde):          Constants<4>.       (line   53)
* lines (os.terminal_size özniteliği):   Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   34)
* linesep (email.policy.Policy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  153)
* linesep (os modülü içinde):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  130)
* lineterminator (csv.Dialect özniteliği): Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   45)
* LineTooLong:                           http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  183)
* link() (os modülü içinde):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  346)
* LinkFallbackError:                     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  262)
* linkname (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği): TarInfo Objects.    (line   95)
* LinkOutsideDestinationError:           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  257)
* List (ast içindeki sınıf):             Literals<3>.        (line   67)
* list (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  230)
* List (typing içindeki sınıf):          Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   18)
* list (yerleşik sınıf):                 Listeler<2>.        (line   10)
* LIST_APPEND (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  321)
* list_dialects() (csv modülü içinde):   Module Contents<3>. (line   91)
* LIST_EXTEND (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  646)
* list_folders() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi): Maildir objects. (line   62)
* list_folders() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):   MH objects.         (line   32)
* list;comprehensions:                   List displays.      (line    6)
* list;display:                          List displays.      (line    6)
* list() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  126)
* list() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  231)
* list() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  104)
* list() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   57)
* list() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi):      TarFile Objects.    (line  116)
* ListComp (ast içindeki sınıf):         Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* listdir() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  368)
* listdrives() (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  405)
* liste:                                 Sözlük.             (line  838)
* liste anlama:                          Sözlük.             (line  844)
* listen() (logging.config modülü içinde): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  118)
* listen() (socket.socket yöntemi):      Socket Objects.     (line  197)
* listen() (turtle modülü içinde):       Using screen events.
                                                             (line    6)
* listener (logging.handlers.QueueHandler özniteliği): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   84)
* Listener (multiprocessing.connection içindeki sınıf): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   50)
* listMethods() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system yöntemi): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* listmounts() (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  424)
* ListNoteBook (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Manager Widgets.
                                                             (line   13)
* listvolumes() (os modülü içinde):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  448)
* listxattr() (os modülü içinde):        Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   26)
* literal:                               Literals.           (line    6)
* literal <1>:                           Literals<2>.        (line    6)
* Literal (typing modülü içinde):        Special forms.      (line  125)
* literal_eval() (ast modülü içinde):    ast Helpers.        (line   78)
* LiteralString (typing modülü içinde):  Special types.      (line   57)
* LittleEndianStructure (ctypes içindeki sınıf): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   26)
* LittleEndianUnion (ctypes içindeki sınıf): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   16)
* ljust() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  301)
* ljust() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  301)
* ljust() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  318)
* LK_LOCK (msvcrt modülü içinde):        File Operations.    (line   19)
* LK_NBLCK (msvcrt modülü içinde):       File Operations.    (line   27)
* LK_NBRLCK (msvcrt modülü içinde):      File Operations.    (line   27)
* LK_RLCK (msvcrt modülü içinde):        File Operations.    (line   19)
* LK_UNLCK (msvcrt modülü içinde):       File Operations.    (line   33)
* ll (pdb command):                      Debugger Commands.  (line  246)
* LMTP (smtplib içindeki sınıf):         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  106)
* ln() (decimal.Context yöntemi):        Context objects.    (line  355)
* ln() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):        Decimal objects.    (line  332)
* LNKTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  283)
* Load (ast içindeki sınıf):             Variables.          (line   11)
* LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR (opcode):         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  438)
* LOAD_ATTR (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  686)
* LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  445)
* load_cert_chain() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.  (line  101)
* LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  888)
* LOAD_CONST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  570)
* load_default_certs() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  132)
* LOAD_DEREF (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  900)
* load_dh_params() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.   (line  352)
* load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  453)
* LOAD_FAST (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  848)
* LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  865)
* LOAD_FAST_CHECK (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  857)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (opcode):      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  908)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (opcode):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  589)
* LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  841)
* LOAD_LOCALS (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  580)
* LOAD_METHOD (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1309)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.FileLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  313)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  266)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.Loader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  127)
* load_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  413)
* load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  235)
* load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  279)
* load_module() (zipimport.zipimporter yöntemi): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* LOAD_NAME (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  574)
* load_package_tests() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  618)
* LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  704)
* load_verify_locations() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  149)
* load() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* load() (http.cookies.BaseCookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects.  (line   40)
* load() (json modülü içinde):           Basic Usage.        (line  107)
* load() (marshal modülü içinde):        marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   63)
* load() (pickle modülü içinde):         Module Interface.   (line   58)
* load() (pickle.Unpickler yöntemi):     Module Interface.   (line  268)
* load() (plistlib modülü içinde):       plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   46)
* load() (tomllib modülü içinde):        tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   32)
* load() (tracemalloc.Snapshot sınıf yöntemi): Snapshot.     (line   50)
* loader:                                Finders and loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* Loader (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   91)
* loader (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  387)
* loader_state (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  416)
* LoadError:                             http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   34)
* LoadFileDialog (tkinter.filedialog içindeki sınıf): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  135)
* LoadKey() (winreg modülü içinde):      Functions<11>.      (line  258)
* LoadLibrary() (ctypes.LibraryLoader yöntemi): Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  181)
* loads() (json modülü içinde):          Basic Usage.        (line  188)
* loads() (marshal modülü içinde):       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   95)
* loads() (pickle modülü içinde):        Module Interface.   (line   76)
* loads() (plistlib modülü içinde):      plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   74)
* loads() (tomllib modülü içinde):       tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   48)
* loads() (xmlrpc.client modülü içinde): Convenience Functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* loadTestsFromModule() (unittest.TestLoader yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   41)
* loadTestsFromName() (unittest.TestLoader yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   70)
* loadTestsFromNames() (unittest.TestLoader yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  104)
* loadTestsFromTestCase() (unittest.TestLoader yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   29)
* local (threading içindeki sınıf):      Thread-Local Data.  (line   15)
* LOCAL_CREDS (socket modülü içinde):    Constants<6>.       (line  314)
* LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.
                                                             (line  314)
* localcontext() (decimal modülü içinde): Context objects.   (line   25)
* LOCALE (re modülü içinde):             Flags.              (line   58)
* localeconv() (locale modülü içinde):   locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   53)
* LocaleHTMLCalendar (calendar içindeki sınıf): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  336)
* LocaleTextCalendar (calendar içindeki sınıf): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  330)
* localize() (locale modülü içinde):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  501)
* localName (xml.dom.Attr özniteliği):   Attr Objects.       (line   13)
* localName (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):   Node Objects.       (line   64)
* localtime() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   13)
* localtime() (time modülü içinde):      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  153)
* Locator (xml.sax.xmlreader içindeki sınıf): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   43)
* Lock (asyncio içindeki sınıf):         Lock.               (line    6)
* Lock (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   46)
* lock (sys.thread_info özniteliği):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1892)
* Lock (threading içindeki sınıf):       Lock Objects.       (line   33)
* LOCK_EX (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  158)
* LOCK_NB (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  162)
* LOCK_SH (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  154)
* LOCK_UN (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  150)
* lock, interpreter:                     Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* lock() (mailbox.Babyl yöntemi):        Babyl objects.      (line   59)
* lock() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):      Mailbox objects.    (line  256)
* lock() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):      Maildir objects.    (line  108)
* lock() (mailbox.mbox yöntemi):         mbox objects.       (line   57)
* lock() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):           MH objects.         (line   84)
* lock() (mailbox.MMDF yöntemi):         MMDF objects.       (line   47)
* Lock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  188)
* locked() (_thread.lock yöntemi):       _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  173)
* locked() (asyncio.Condition yöntemi):  Condition.          (line   63)
* locked() (asyncio.Lock yöntemi):       Lock.               (line   58)
* locked() (asyncio.Semaphore yöntemi):  Semaphore.          (line   50)
* locked() (threading.Lock yöntemi):     Lock Objects.       (line   87)
* lockf() (fcntl modülü içinde):         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  143)
* lockf() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  251)
* locking() (msvcrt modülü içinde):      File Operations.    (line    6)
* LockType (_thread modülü içinde):      _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   28)
* log_date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  330)
* log_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  299)
* log_exception() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  212)
* log_message() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  305)
* log_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  292)
* log_to_stderr() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Logging.  (line   24)
* log() (cmath modülü içinde):           Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* log() (logging modülü içinde):         Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   99)
* log() (logging.Logger yöntemi):        Logger Objects.     (line  313)
* log() (math modülü içinde):            Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   40)
* log10() (cmath modülü içinde):         Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* log10() (decimal.Context yöntemi):     Context objects.    (line  359)
* log10() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):     Decimal objects.    (line  338)
* log10() (math modülü içinde):          Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   67)
* log1p() (math modülü içinde):          Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   48)
* log2() (math modülü içinde):           Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   53)
* logb() (decimal.Context yöntemi):      Context objects.    (line  363)
* logb() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):      Decimal objects.    (line  344)
* Logger (logging içindeki sınıf):       Logger Objects.     (line   24)
* LoggerAdapter (logging içindeki sınıf): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* logical line:                          Logical lines.      (line    6)
* logical_and() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.  (line  367)
* logical_and() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.  (line  352)
* logical_invert() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  372)
* logical_invert() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  358)
* logical_or() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.   (line  376)
* logical_or() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.   (line  363)
* logical_xor() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.  (line  381)
* logical_xor() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.  (line  369)
* login_cram_md5() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi): IMAP4 Objects.   (line  137)
* login_tty() (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  277)
* login() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):          FTP objects.        (line  128)
* login() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line  132)
* login() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):        Methods.            (line   48)
* login() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):        SMTP Objects.       (line  101)
* LOGNAME:                               Process Parameters. (line  239)
* LOGNAME <1>:                           getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   44)
* lognormvariate() (random modülü içinde): Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   78)
* logout() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  143)
* LogRecord (logging içindeki sınıf):    LogRecord Objects.  (line   11)
* long (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line  181)
* LONG_MAX (C macro):                    Integer Objects.    (line  114)
* LONG_TIMEOUT (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   93)
* longMessage (unittest.TestCase özniteliği): Test cases.    (line  702)
* longname() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  280)
* lookup_error() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.     (line  130)
* lookup() (codecs modülü içinde):       codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   47)
* lookup() (symtable.SymbolTable yöntemi): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   61)
* lookup() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi):  Ttk Styling.        (line   81)
* lookup() (unicodedata modülü içinde):  unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   16)
* LookupError:                           Temel sınıflar.     (line   83)
* loop control;target:                   The break statement.
                                                             (line   12)
* loop;over mutable sequence:            Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   77)
* loop;statement:                        The break statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop;statement <1>:                    The continue statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop;statement <2>:                    The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop;statement <3>:                    The for statement.  (line    6)
* LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   48)
* lower() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  620)
* lower() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  620)
* lower() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  325)
* LPAR (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   54)
* lpAttributeList (subprocess.STARTUPINFO özniteliği): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   60)
* lru_cache() (functools modülü içinde): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  143)
* lseek() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  288)
* LShift (ast içindeki sınıf):           Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* lshift() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  110)
* LSQB (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   62)
* lstat() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  469)
* lstat() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   30)
* lstrip() (bytearray yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  313)
* lstrip() (bytes yöntemi):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  313)
* lstrip() (str yöntemi):                String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  333)
* lsub() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  150)
* Lt (ast içindeki sınıf):               Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* lt() (operator modülü içinde):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* lt() (turtle modülü içinde):           Turtle motion.      (line   57)
* LtE (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* LWPCookieJar (http.cookiejar içindeki sınıf): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   28)
* LZMACompressor (lzma içindeki sınıf):  Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line    6)
* LZMADecompressor (lzma içindeki sınıf): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   99)
* LZMAError:                             lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm.
                                                             (line   24)
* LZMAFile (lzma içindeki sınıf):        Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line   45)
* M (re modülü içinde):                  Flags.              (line   82)
* mac_ver() (platform modülü içinde):    macOS Platform.     (line    6)
* machine() (platform modülü içinde):    Cross Platform.     (line   35)
* macros (netrc.netrc özniteliği):       netrc Objects.      (line   29)
* MADV_AUTOSYNC (mmap modülü içinde):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_CORE (mmap modülü içinde):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DODUMP (mmap modülü içinde):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DOFORK (mmap modülü içinde):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTDUMP (mmap modülü içinde):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTFORK (mmap modülü içinde):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTNEED (mmap modülü içinde):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE (mmap modülü içinde):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSABLE (mmap modülü içinde): MADV_* Constants. (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSE (mmap modülü içinde):  MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HUGEPAGE (mmap modülü içinde):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HWPOISON (mmap modülü içinde):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_MERGEABLE (mmap modülü içinde):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOCORE (mmap modülü içinde):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOHUGEPAGE (mmap modülü içinde):  MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NORMAL (mmap modülü içinde):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOSYNC (mmap modülü içinde):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_PROTECT (mmap modülü içinde):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_RANDOM (mmap modülü içinde):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_REMOVE (mmap modülü içinde):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SEQUENTIAL (mmap modülü içinde):  MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE (mmap modülü içinde): MADV_* Constants.  (line    6)
* MADV_UNMERGEABLE (mmap modülü içinde): MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_WILLNEED (mmap modülü içinde):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* madvise() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):         mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  216)
* MAGIC_NUMBER (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   13)
* magic;metot:                           Sözlük.             (line  886)
* MagicMock (unittest.mock içindeki sınıf): Magic Mock.      (line    9)
* Mailbox (mailbox içindeki sınıf):      Mailbox objects.    (line    6)
* Maildir (mailbox içindeki sınıf):      Maildir objects.    (line    6)
* MaildirMessage (mailbox içindeki sınıf): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* main_thread() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  150)
* main():                                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    9)
* main() <1>:                            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   42)
* main() <2>:                            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  271)
* main() (site modülü içinde):           Module contents<5>. (line   41)
* main() (unittest modülü içinde):       Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  514)
* mainloop() (turtle modülü içinde):     Using screen events.
                                                             (line  106)
* maintype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  276)
* major (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  247)
* major() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  615)
* make_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  607)
* make_archive() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_bad_fd() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  106)
* MAKE_CELL (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  881)
* make_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* make_dataclass() (dataclasses modülü içinde): Module contents<4>.
                                                             (line  386)
* make_file() (difflib.HtmlDiff yöntemi): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  112)
* MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1021)
* make_header() (email.header modülü içinde): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  200)
* make_legacy_pyc() (test.support.import_helper modülü içinde): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   80)
* make_mixed() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  617)
* make_msgid() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   27)
* make_parser() (xml.sax modülü içinde): xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   28)
* make_pkg() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* make_related() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  598)
* make_script() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* make_server() (wsgiref.simple_server modülü içinde): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_table() (difflib.HtmlDiff yöntemi): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  144)
* make_zip_pkg() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line  103)
* make_zip_script() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   89)
* makedev() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  625)
* makedirs() (os modülü içinde):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  534)
* makeelement() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  164)
* makefile() (socket method):            I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* makefile() (socket.socket yöntemi):    Socket Objects.     (line  209)
* makeLogRecord() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  196)
* makePickle() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler yöntemi): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* makeRecord() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.     (line  374)
* makeSocket() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler yöntemi): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   37)
* makeSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler yöntemi): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   39)
* maketrans() (bytearray sabit yöntemi): Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  174)
* maketrans() (bytes sabit yöntemi):     Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  174)
* maketrans() (str sabit yöntemi):       String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  356)
* MalformedHeaderDefect:                 email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  108)
* malloc (C function):                   Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* manager (logging.LoggerAdapter özniteliği): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* mangle_from_ (email.policy.Compat32 özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  574)
* mangle_from_ (email.policy.Policy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  187)
* MANPAGER:                              pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* MANPAGER <1>:                          pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   48)
* mant_dig (sys.float_info özniteliği):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  623)
* map (2to3 fixer):                      Fixers.             (line  185)
* MAP_ADD (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  330)
* MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER (mmap modülü içinde): MAP_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MAP_ANON (mmap modülü içinde):         MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_ANONYMOUS (mmap modülü içinde):    MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  107)
* MAP_CONCEAL (mmap modülü içinde):      MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_DENYWRITE (mmap modülü içinde):    MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_EXECUTABLE (mmap modülü içinde):   MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_POPULATE (mmap modülü içinde):     MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_PRIVATE (mmap modülü içinde):      MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_SHARED (mmap modülü içinde):       MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_STACK (mmap modülü içinde):        MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map_table_b2() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   50)
* map_table_b3() (stringprep modülü içinde): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   55)
* map_to_type() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry yöntemi): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  377)
* map() (concurrent.futures.Executor yöntemi): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* map() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.  (line   90)
* map() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi):     Ttk Styling.        (line   48)
* mapLogRecord() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler yöntemi): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* Mapping (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   97)
* Mapping (typing içindeki sınıf):       Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   58)
* mapping() (msilib.Control yöntemi):    GUI classes.        (line   18)
* MappingProxyType (types içindeki sınıf): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  224)
* MappingView (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* MappingView (typing içindeki sınıf):   Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   66)
* mapPriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler yöntemi): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line  201)
* maps (collections.ChainMap özniteliği): ChainMap objects.  (line   39)
* maps() (nis modülü içinde):            nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line   50)
* MARCH (calendar modülü içinde):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* markcoroutinefunction() (inspect modülü içinde): Types and members.
                                                             (line  401)
* marshalling;objects:                   pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* masking;operations:                    Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* master (tkinter.Tk özniteliği):        Tkinter Modules.    (line   77)
* Match (ast içindeki sınıf):            Pattern matching.   (line    6)
* Match (re içindeki sınıf):             Match Objects.      (line   15)
* Match (typing içindeki sınıf):         Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   10)
* match_case (ast içindeki sınıf):       Pattern matching.   (line   15)
* MATCH_CLASS (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1095)
* MATCH_KEYS (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  487)
* MATCH_MAPPING (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  468)
* MATCH_SEQUENCE (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  477)
* match_value() (test.support.Matcher yöntemi): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  781)
* match;case:                            The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* match() (nis modülü içinde):           nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line   25)
* match() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi):    Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  257)
* match() (re modülü içinde):            Functions.          (line   48)
* match() (re.Pattern yöntemi):          Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* MatchAs (ast içindeki sınıf):          Pattern matching.   (line  306)
* MatchClass (ast içindeki sınıf):       Pattern matching.   (line  239)
* Matcher (test.support içindeki sınıf): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  775)
* matches() (test.support.Matcher yöntemi): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  777)
* MatchMapping (ast içindeki sınıf):     Pattern matching.   (line  192)
* MatchOr (ast içindeki sınıf):          Pattern matching.   (line  347)
* MatchSequence (ast içindeki sınıf):    Pattern matching.   (line  120)
* MatchSingleton (ast içindeki sınıf):   Pattern matching.   (line   95)
* MatchStar (ast içindeki sınıf):        Pattern matching.   (line  151)
* MatchValue (ast içindeki sınıf):       Pattern matching.   (line   67)
* matmul() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  125)
* MatMult (ast içindeki sınıf):          Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* matrix multiplication:                 Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   26)
* max (datetime.date özniteliği):        date Objects.       (line  105)
* max (datetime.datetime özniteliği):    datetime Objects.   (line  277)
* max (datetime.time özniteliği):        time Objects.       (line   37)
* max (datetime.timedelta özniteliği):   timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line   77)
* max (sys.float_info özniteliği):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  628)
* max_10_exp (sys.float_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  637)
* max_count (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* MAX_EMAX (decimal modülü içinde):      Constants<2>.       (line   16)
* max_exp (sys.float_info özniteliği):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  632)
* MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (configparser modülü içinde): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  328)
* max_line_length (email.policy.Policy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  146)
* max_lines (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  268)
* max_mag() (decimal.Context yöntemi):   Context objects.    (line  390)
* max_mag() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):   Decimal objects.    (line  382)
* max_memuse (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  145)
* MAX_PREC (decimal modülü içinde):      Constants<2>.       (line   13)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  255)
* max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  295)
* MAX_Py_ssize_t (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  141)
* max() (audioop modülü içinde):         audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  158)
* max() (decimal.Context yöntemi):       Context objects.    (line  386)
* max() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):       Decimal objects.    (line  375)
* maxarray (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):    Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxdeque (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):    Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxdict (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):     Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxDiff (unittest.TestCase özniteliği): Test cases.        (line  719)
* maxfrozenset (reprlib.Repr özniteliği): Repr Objects.      (line   22)
* MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion özniteliği): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  559)
* maximum_version (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts. (line  538)
* maxlen (collections.deque özniteliği): deque objects.      (line  120)
* maxlevel (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):    Repr Objects.       (line   17)
* maxlist (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):     Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxlong (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):     Repr Objects.       (line   34)
* maxother (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):    Repr Objects.       (line   47)
* maxpp() (audioop modülü içinde):       audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  163)
* maxset (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):      Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxsize (asyncio.Queue özniteliği):    Queue.              (line   23)
* maxsize (sys modülü içinde):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1210)
* maxstring (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):   Repr Objects.       (line   39)
* maxtuple (reprlib.Repr özniteliği):    Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxunicode (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1216)
* MAXYEAR (datetime modülü içinde):      Sabitler.           (line   13)
* MAY (calendar modülü içinde):          calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* MB_ICONASTERISK (winsound modülü içinde): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  134)
* MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (winsound modülü içinde): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  138)
* MB_ICONHAND (winsound modülü içinde):  winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  142)
* MB_ICONQUESTION (winsound modülü içinde): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  146)
* MB_OK (winsound modülü içinde):        winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  150)
* mbox (mailbox içindeki sınıf):         mbox objects.       (line    6)
* mboxMessage (mailbox içindeki sınıf):  mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* md5() (hashlib modülü içinde):         Constructors.       (line   20)
* mean (statistics.NormalDist özniteliği): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* mean() (statistics modülü içinde):     Function details.   (line   10)
* measure() (tkinter.font.Font yöntemi): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   63)
* median (statistics.NormalDist özniteliği): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* median_grouped() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.
                                                             (line  200)
* median_high() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.
                                                             (line  182)
* median_low() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details. (line  164)
* median() (statistics modülü içinde):   Function details.   (line  137)
* member() (enum modülü içinde):         Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   78)
* MemberDescriptorType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  208)
* membership;test:                       Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* memfd_create() (os modülü içinde):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1792)
* memmove() (ctypes modülü içinde):      Utility functions.  (line  147)
* MemoryBIO (ssl içindeki sınıf):        Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  130)
* MemoryError:                           Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  104)
* MemoryHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* memoryview (yerleşik sınıf):           Memory Views.       (line   10)
* memset() (ctypes modülü içinde):       Utility functions.  (line  153)
* merge() (heapq modülü içinde):         heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   82)
* message (BaseExceptionGroup özniteliği): İstisna grupları. (line   34)
* Message (email.message içindeki sınıf): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   49)
* Message (mailbox içindeki sınıf):      Message objects.    (line    6)
* Message (tkinter.messagebox içindeki sınıf): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   21)
* message digest, MD5:                   hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line    8)
* message_factory (email.policy.Policy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  196)
* message_from_binary_file() (email modülü içinde): Parser API.
                                                             (line  130)
* message_from_bytes() (email modülü içinde): Parser API.    (line  117)
* message_from_file() (email modülü içinde): Parser API.     (line  153)
* message_from_string() (email modülü içinde): Parser API.   (line  143)
* MessageBeep() (winsound modülü içinde): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   31)
* MessageClass (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  174)
* MessageDefect:                         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   55)
* MessageError:                          email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   13)
* MessageParseError:                     email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   19)
* messages (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   22)
* meta hooks:                            Import hooks.       (line    6)
* meta yol bulucu:                       Sözlük.             (line  895)
* meta_path (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1226)
* meta() (curses modülü içinde):         Functions<4>.       (line  287)
* metaclass:                             Metaclasses.        (line    6)
* metaclass (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  191)
* metaclass hint:                        Determining the appropriate metaclass.
                                                             (line    6)
* metadata() (importlib.metadata modülü içinde): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line    6)
* MetaPathFinder (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   27)
* metasınıf:                             Sözlük.             (line  904)
* metavar (optparse.Option özniteliği):  Option attributes.  (line   88)
* MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (argparse içindeki sınıf): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* Meter (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):    Basic Widgets.      (line   44)
* METH_CLASS (C macro):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  195)
* METH_COEXIST (C macro):                Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  212)
* METH_FASTCALL (C macro):               Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  124)
* METH_KEYWORDS (C macro):               Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  108)
* METH_METHOD (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  151)
* METH_NOARGS (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  169)
* METH_O (C macro):                      Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  182)
* METH_STATIC (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  202)
* METH_VARARGS (C macro):                Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   98)
* method (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* METHOD_BLOWFISH (crypt modülü içinde): Hashing Methods.    (line   22)
* method_calls (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  502)
* METHOD_CRYPT (crypt modülü içinde):    Hashing Methods.    (line   34)
* METHOD_MD5 (crypt modülü içinde):      Hashing Methods.    (line   29)
* METHOD_SHA256 (crypt modülü içinde):   Hashing Methods.    (line   17)
* METHOD_SHA512 (crypt modülü içinde):   Hashing Methods.    (line   11)
* method;call:                           Calls.              (line  143)
* methodattrs (2to3 fixer):              Fixers.             (line  196)
* methodcaller() (operator modülü içinde): operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  321)
* MethodDescriptorType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  109)
* methodHelp() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system yöntemi): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* methods (crypt modülü içinde):         Module Attributes.  (line    8)
* methods (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):     Class Objects.      (line   50)
* methodSignature() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system yöntemi): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* MethodType (in module types):          Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   14)
* MethodType (in module types) <1>:      Method Objects.     (line   12)
* MethodType (types modülü içinde):      Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   77)
* MethodWrapperType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   96)
* metot:                                 Sözlük.             (line  919)
* metot kalite sıralaması:               Sözlük.             (line  926)
* metrics() (tkinter.font.Font yöntemi): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   69)
* MFD_ALLOW_SEALING (os modülü içinde):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_CLOEXEC (os modülü içinde):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_16GB (os modülü içinde):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_16MB (os modülü içinde):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_1GB (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_1MB (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_256MB (os modülü içinde):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_2GB (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_2MB (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_32MB (os modülü içinde):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_512KB (os modülü içinde):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_512MB (os modülü içinde):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_64KB (os modülü içinde):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_8MB (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_MASK (os modülü içinde):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGE_SHIFT (os modülü içinde):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MFD_HUGETLB (os modülü içinde):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1810)
* MH (mailbox içindeki sınıf):           MH objects.         (line    6)
* MHMessage (mailbox içindeki sınıf):    MHMessage objects.  (line    6)
* microsecond (datetime.datetime özniteliği): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  314)
* microsecond (datetime.time özniteliği): time Objects.      (line   62)
* microseconds (datetime.timedelta özniteliği): timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line  112)
* MIME;base64 encoding:                  base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;content type:                     mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;headers:                          mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   26)
* MIME;headers <1>:                      cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;quoted-printable encoding:        quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIMEApplication (email.mime.application içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   95)
* MIMEAudio (email.mime.audio içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  125)
* MIMEBase (email.mime.base içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   30)
* MIMEImage (email.mime.image içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  157)
* MIMEMessage (email.mime.message içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  190)
* MIMEMultipart (email.mime.multipart içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   66)
* MIMENonMultipart (email.mime.nonmultipart içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   55)
* MIMEPart (email.message içindeki sınıf): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  718)
* MIMEText (email.mime.text içindeki sınıf): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  208)
* MimeTypes (mimetypes içindeki sınıf):  MimeTypes Objects.  (line   10)
* MIMEVersionHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  234)
* min (datetime.date özniteliği):        date Objects.       (line  101)
* min (datetime.datetime özniteliği):    datetime Objects.   (line  272)
* min (datetime.time özniteliği):        time Objects.       (line   33)
* min (datetime.timedelta özniteliği):   timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line   73)
* min (sys.float_info özniteliği):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  642)
* min_10_exp (sys.float_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  655)
* MIN_EMIN (decimal modülü içinde):      Constants<2>.       (line   19)
* MIN_ETINY (decimal modülü içinde):     Constants<2>.       (line   22)
* min_exp (sys.float_info özniteliği):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  650)
* min_mag() (decimal.Context yöntemi):   Context objects.    (line  398)
* min_mag() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):   Decimal objects.    (line  394)
* min() (decimal.Context yöntemi):       Context objects.    (line  394)
* min() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):       Decimal objects.    (line  387)
* MINEQUAL (token modülü içinde):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  174)
* MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion özniteliği): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  557)
* minimum_version (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts. (line  556)
* minmax() (audioop modülü içinde):      audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  167)
* minor (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  251)
* minor() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  620)
* minus:                                 Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* MINUS (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   86)
* minus() (decimal.Context yöntemi):     Context objects.    (line  402)
* minute (datetime.datetime özniteliği): datetime Objects.   (line  306)
* minute (datetime.time özniteliği):     time Objects.       (line   54)
* MINYEAR (datetime modülü içinde):      Sabitler.           (line    8)
* mirrored() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   69)
* misc_header (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):      Cmd Objects.        (line  160)
* MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect:         email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   96)
* MISSING (contextvars.Token özniteliği): Context Variables. (line   94)
* MISSING (dataclasses modülü içinde):   Module contents<4>. (line  468)
* MISSING (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Callback function arguments.
                                                             (line    6)
* MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  155)
* missing_compiler_executable() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  664)
* MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect:      email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  100)
* MissingSectionHeaderError:             Exceptions<6>.      (line   60)
* MIXERDEV:                              ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   78)
* mkd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):            FTP objects.        (line  340)
* mkdir() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  501)
* mkdir() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   21)
* mkdir() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):     ZipFile Objects.    (line  330)
* mkdtemp() (tempfile modülü içinde):    tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  287)
* mkfifo() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  574)
* mknod() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  595)
* mksalt() (crypt modülü içinde):        Module Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* mkstemp() (tempfile modülü içinde):    tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  229)
* mktemp() (tempfile modülü içinde):     Deprecated functions and variables.
                                                             (line   15)
* mktime_tz() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  146)
* mktime() (time modülü içinde):         Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  167)
* mlsd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):           FTP objects.        (line  286)
* mmap (mmap içindeki sınıf):            mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line   55)
* MMDF (mailbox içindeki sınıf):         MMDF objects.       (line    6)
* MMDFMessage (mailbox içindeki sınıf):  MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Mock (unittest.mock içindeki sınıf):   The Mock Class.     (line   24)
* mock_add_spec() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  246)
* mock_calls (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  520)
* mock_open() (unittest.mock modülü içinde): mock_open.      (line    6)
* Mod (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* mod() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  115)
* mode (io.FileIO özniteliği):           Raw File I/O.       (line   56)
* mode (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device özniteliği): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  238)
* mode (statistics.NormalDist özniteliği): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* mode (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):     TarInfo Objects.    (line   78)
* mode() (statistics modülü içinde):     Function details.   (line  249)
* mode() (turtle modülü içinde):         Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* modf() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  191)
* modified() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   45)
* Modify() (msilib.View yöntemi):        View Objects.       (line   23)
* modify() (select.devpoll yöntemi):     /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* modify() (select.epoll yöntemi):       Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* modify() (select.poll yöntemi):        Polling Objects.    (line   60)
* modify() (selectors.BaseSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.     (line   94)
* modül:                                 Sözlük.             (line  933)
* modül özelliği:                        Sözlük.             (line  941)
* modül;arama;dizin:                     Modül Arama Yolu.   (line    6)
* modül;sys:                             Standart modüller.  (line    6)
* modül;yerleşikler:                     dir Fonksiyonu.     (line   48)
* Module (ast içindeki sınıf):           Root nodes.         (line    6)
* module (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):      Class Objects.      (line   16)
* module (pyclbr.Function özniteliği):   Function Objects.   (line   15)
* Module browser:                        File menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   22)
* module spec:                           Finders and loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* module_from_spec() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  121)
* module; __future__:                    __future__ — Future statement definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; __main__:                      __main__ — Top-level code environment.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _thread:                       _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _tkinter:                      Tkinter Modules.    (line  150)
* module; abc:                           abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; aifc:                          aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; argparse:                      argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; array:                         array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ast:                           ast — Abstract Syntax Trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asynchat:                      asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncio:                       asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncore:                      asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; atexit:                        atexit — Exit handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; audioop:                       audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; base64:                        base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bdb:                           bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; binascii:                      binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bisect:                        bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; builtins:                      builtins — Built-in objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bz2:                           bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; calendar:                      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgi:                           cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgitb:                         cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; chunk:                         chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmath:                         cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmd:                           cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; code:                          code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codecs:                        codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codeop:                        codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections:                   collections — Container datatypes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections.abc:               collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; colorsys:                      colorsys — Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; compileall:                    compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; concurrent.futures:            concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; configparser:                  configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextlib:                    contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextvars:                   contextvars — Context Variables.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copy:                          copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copyreg:                       copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cProfile:                      profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; crypt:                         crypt — Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; csv:                           csv — CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ctypes:                        ctypes — A foreign function library for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses:                        curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.ascii:                  curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.panel:                  curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.textpad:                curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dataclasses:                   dataclasses — Data Classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; datetime:                      datetime — Basic date and time types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm:                           dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.dumb:                      dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.gnu:                       dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.ndbm:                      dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; decimal:                       decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; difflib:                       difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dis:                           dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; distutils:                     distutils — Building and installing Python modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; doctest:                       doctest — Test interactive Python examples.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.charset:                 email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.contentmanager:          email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.encoders:                email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.errors:                  email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.generator:               email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.header:                  email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.headerregistry:          email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.iterators:               email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.message:                 email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime:                    email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime.application:        email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   95)
* module; email.mime.audio:              email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  125)
* module; email.mime.base:               email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   30)
* module; email.mime.image:              email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  157)
* module; email.mime.message:            email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  190)
* module; email.mime.multipart:          email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   66)
* module; email.mime.nonmultipart:       email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   55)
* module; email.mime.text:               email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  208)
* module; email.parser:                  email parser Parsing email messages.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.policy:                  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.utils:                   email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.idna:                encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.mbcs:                encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.utf_8_sig:           encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ensurepip:                     ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; enum:                          enum — Support for enumerations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; errno:                         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; faulthandler:                  faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fcntl:                         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; filecmp:                       filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fileinput:                     fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fnmatch:                       fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fractions:                     fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ftplib:                        ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; functools:                     functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gc:                            gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getopt:                        getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getpass:                       getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gettext:                       gettext — Multilingual internationalization services.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; glob:                          glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; graphlib:                      graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; grp:                           grp — The group database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gzip:                          gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hashlib:                       hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; heapq:                         heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hmac:                          hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html:                          html — HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.entities:                 html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.parser:                   html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http:                          http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.client:                   http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookiejar:                http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookies:                  http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.server:                   http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; idlelib:                       idlelib — implementation of IDLE application.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imaplib:                       imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imghdr:                        imghdr — Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imp:                           imp — Access the import internals.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib:                     importlib — The implementation of import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.abc:                 importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.machinery:           importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.metadata:            importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources:           importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources.abc:       importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.util:                importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; inspect:                       inspect — Inspect live objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; io:                            io — Core tools for working with streams.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ipaddress:                     ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; itertools:                     itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json:                          json — JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json.tool:                     Command Line Interface<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; keyword:                       keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; lib2to3:                       lib2to3 — 2to3’s library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; linecache:                     linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; locale:                        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging:                       logging — Logging facility for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.config:                logging config — Logging configuration.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.handlers:              logging handlers — Logging handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; lzma:                          lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailbox:                       mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailcap:                       mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; marshal:                       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; math:                          math — Mathematical functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mimetypes:                     mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mmap:                          mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; modulefinder:                  modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msilib:                        msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msvcrt:                        msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing:               multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.connection:    Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.dummy:         The multiprocessing dummy module.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.managers:      Managers.           (line   19)
* module; multiprocessing.pool:          Process Pools.      (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.sharedctypes:  The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; netrc:                         netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nis:                           nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nntplib:                       nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; numbers:                       numbers — Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; operator:                      operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; optparse:                      optparse — Parser for command line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os:                            os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os.path:                       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ossaudiodev:                   ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pathlib:                       pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pdb:                           pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickle:                        pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickletools:                   pickletools — Tools for pickle developers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pipes:                         pipes — Interface to shell pipelines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pkgutil:                       pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; platform:                      platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; plistlib:                      plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; poplib:                        poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; posix:                         posix — The most common POSIX system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pprint:                        pprint — Data pretty printer.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profile:                       profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pstats:                        The Stats Class.    (line    9)
* module; pty:                           pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pwd:                           pwd — The password database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; py_compile:                    py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pyclbr:                        pyclbr — Python module browser support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pydoc:                         pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; queue:                         queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; quopri:                        quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; random:                        random — Generate pseudo-random numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; re:                            re — Regular expression operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; readline:                      readline — GNU readline interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; reprlib:                       reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; resource:                      resource — Resource usage information.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; rlcompleter:                   rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; runpy:                         runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sched:                         sched — Event scheduler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; secrets:                       secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; select:                        select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; selectors:                     selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shelve:                        shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shlex:                         shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shutil:                        shutil — High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; signal:                        signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; site:                          site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sitecustomize:                 sitecustomize.      (line    6)
* module; smtpd:                         smtpd — SMTP Server.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; smtplib:                       smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sndhdr:                        sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socket:                        socket — Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socketserver:                  socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; spwd:                          spwd — The shadow password database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sqlite3:                       sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ssl:                           ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stat:                          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; statistics:                    statistics — Mathematical statistics functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; string:                        string — Common string operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stringprep:                    stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; struct:                        struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; subprocess:                    subprocess — Subprocess management.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sunau:                         sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; symtable:                      symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys:                           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys.monitoring:                sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sysconfig:                     sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; syslog:                        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tabnanny:                      tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tarfile:                       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; telnetlib:                     telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tempfile:                      tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; termios:                       termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test:                          test — Regression tests package for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.regrtest:                 Running tests using the command-line interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support:                  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.bytecode_helper:  test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.import_helper:    test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.os_helper:        test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.script_helper:    test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.socket_helper:    test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.warnings_helper:  test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; textwrap:                      textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; threading:                     threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; time:                          time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; timeit:                        timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter:                       tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.colorchooser:          tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.commondialog:          tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.dnd:                   tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.filedialog:            tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.font:                  tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.messagebox:            tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.scrolledtext:          tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.simpledialog:          tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.tix:                   tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.ttk:                   tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; token:                         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tokenize:                      tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tomllib:                       tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; trace:                         trace — Trace or track Python statement execution.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; traceback:                     traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tracemalloc:                   tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tty:                           tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtle:                        turtle — Turtle graphics.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtledemo:                    turtledemo — Demo scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; types:                         types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; typing:                        typing — Support for type hints.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unicodedata:                   unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest:                      unittest — Unit testing framework.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest.mock:                 unittest mock — mock object library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib:                        urllib — URL handling modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.error:                  urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.parse:                  urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.request:                urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.response:               urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.robotparser:            urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; usercustomize:                 usercustomize.      (line    6)
* module; uu:                            uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; uuid:                          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line    8)
* module; venv:                          venv — Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; warnings:                      warnings — Warning control.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wave:                          wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; weakref:                       weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; webbrowser:                    webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winreg:                        winreg — Windows registry access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winsound:                      winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref:                       wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.handlers:              wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.headers:               wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.simple_server:         wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.types:                 wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.util:                  wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.validate:              wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xdrlib:                        xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml:                           XML Processing Modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom:                       xml dom — The Document Object Model API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.minidom:               xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.pulldom:               xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementInclude:      Functions<8>.       (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementTree:         xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat:             xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.errors:      Expat error constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.model:       Content Model Descriptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax:                       xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.handler:               xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.saxutils:              xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.xmlreader:             xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc:                        xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.client:                 xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.server:                 xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipapp:                        zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipfile:                       zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipimport:                     zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zlib:                          zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zoneinfo:                      zoneinfo — IANA time zone support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;__main__:                       Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   54)
* module;__main__ <1>:                   Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;__main__ <2>:                   Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line   19)
* module;__main__ <3>:                   runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   30)
* module;__main__ <4>:                   runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  101)
* module;__main__ <5>:                   Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;__main__ <6>:                   Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;__main__ <7>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* module;__main__ <8>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* module;_locale:                        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   16)
* module;_thread:                        High-level API.     (line   49)
* module;array:                          Mutable sequences.  (line   10)
* module;array <1>:                      Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;base64:                         binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;bdb:                            pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* module;builtins:                       Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;builtins <1>:                   Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2127)
* module;builtins <2>:                   Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;builtins <3>:                   Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;builtins <4>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* module;builtins <5>:                   Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* module;cmd:                            pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* module;collections:                    Mutable sequences.  (line   11)
* module;copy:                           copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;crypt:                          pwd — The password database.
                                                             (line   45)
* module;dbm.gnu:                        Dictionaries.       (line   25)
* module;dbm.gnu <1>:                    Restrictions.       (line    6)
* module;dbm.ndbm:                       Dictionaries.       (line   25)
* module;dbm.ndbm <1>:                   Restrictions.       (line    6)
* module;errno:                          Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  150)
* module;glob:                           fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   34)
* module;importing:                      The import statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;io:                             I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;json:                           Yapılandırılmış verileri json ile kaydetme.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;math:                           Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line  111)
* module;math <1>:                       Constants.          (line   47)
* module;namespace:                      Modules<2>.         (line   21)
* module;os:                             posix — The most common POSIX system calls.
                                                             (line   14)
* module;pickle:                         copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   68)
* module;pickle <1>:                     copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;pickle <2>:                     shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;pickle <3>:                     marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* module;pty:                            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  467)
* module;pwd:                            os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  133)
* module;pyexpat:                        xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   20)
* module;re:                             String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;re <1>:                         fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;search;path:                    linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   30)
* module;search;path <1>:                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1286)
* module;search;path <2>:                site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   14)
* module;search;path <3>:                Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;search;path <4>:                Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;search;path <5>:                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  158)
* module;search;path <6>:                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  178)
* module;shelve:                         marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* module;signal:                         _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  190)
* module;signal <1>:                     Signal Handling<2>. (line    7)
* module;signal <2>:                     Signal Handling<2>. (line   34)
* module;signal <3>:                     Signal Handling<2>. (line   43)
* module;socket:                         Internet Protocols and Support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;stat:                           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1104)
* module;struct:                         Socket Objects.     (line  567)
* module;sys:                            except clause.      (line   59)
* module;sys <1>:                        Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;sys <2>:                        Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1439)
* module;sys <3>:                        Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* module;sys <4>:                        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module;sys <5>:                        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* module;sys <6>:                        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* module;types:                          Type Objects.       (line    6)
* module;urllib.request:                 http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;uu:                             binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line    6)
* ModuleFinder (modulefinder içindeki sınıf): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   26)
* ModuleInfo (pkgutil içindeki sınıf):   pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   13)
* ModuleNotFoundError:                   Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   66)
* modules (in module sys):               Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* modules (in module sys) <1>:           Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* modules (modulefinder.ModuleFinder özniteliği): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   49)
* modules (sys modülü içinde):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1259)
* modules_cleanup() (test.support.import_helper modülü içinde): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   71)
* modules_setup() (test.support.import_helper modülü içinde): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   67)
* ModuleSpec (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  365)
* ModuleType (in module types):          Module Objects.     (line    7)
* ModuleType (types içindeki sınıf):     Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  123)
* modulo:                                Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   46)
* modulus (sys.hash_info özniteliği):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1022)
* MON_1 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_10 (locale modülü içinde):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_11 (locale modülü içinde):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_12 (locale modülü içinde):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_2 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_3 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_4 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_5 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_6 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_7 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_8 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MON_9 (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  236)
* MONDAY (calendar modülü içinde):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  447)
* monotonic_ns() (time modülü içinde):   Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  198)
* monotonic() (time modülü içinde):      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  180)
* Month (calendar içindeki sınıf):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  508)
* month (calendar.IllegalMonthError özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* month (datetime.date özniteliği):      date Objects.       (line  120)
* month (datetime.datetime özniteliği):  datetime Objects.   (line  293)
* month_abbr (calendar modülü içinde):   calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  479)
* month_name (calendar modülü içinde):   calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  468)
* month() (calendar modülü içinde):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  402)
* monthcalendar() (calendar modülü içinde): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  391)
* monthdatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  111)
* monthdays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  117)
* monthdayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  123)
* monthrange() (calendar modülü içinde): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  386)
* Morsel (http.cookies içindeki sınıf):  Morsel Objects.     (line    6)
* most_common() (collections.Counter yöntemi): Counter objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* mouseinterval() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.      (line  292)
* mousemask() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  299)
* move_to_end() (collections.OrderedDict yöntemi): OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* move() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi):   Panel Objects.      (line   35)
* move() (curses.window yöntemi):        Window Objects.     (line  396)
* move() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):            mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  229)
* move() (shutil modülü içinde):         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  321)
* move() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.       (line  211)
* MozillaCookieJar (http.cookiejar içindeki sınıf): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line    9)
* MRO:                                   Sözlük.             (line  949)
* mro() (type yöntemi):                  Special methods.    (line    9)
* msg (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* msg (json.JSONDecodeError özniteliği): Exceptions<14>.     (line   11)
* msg (netrc.NetrcParseError özniteliği): netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   50)
* msg (re.error özniteliği):             Exceptions<2>.      (line   15)
* msg (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* msg() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi):      Telnet Objects.     (line   77)
* msi:                                   msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line    8)
* mt_interact() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.  (line  116)
* mtime (gzip.GzipFile özniteliği):      gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  142)
* mtime (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):    TarInfo Objects.    (line   69)
* mtime() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   39)
* mul() (audioop modülü içinde):         audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  172)
* mul() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  120)
* Mult (ast içindeki sınıf):             Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* MultiCall (xmlrpc.client içindeki sınıf): MultiCall Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* MULTILINE (re modülü içinde):          Flags.              (line   82)
* MultiLoopChildWatcher (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line  106)
* multimode() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.  (line  283)
* MultipartConversionError:              email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   42)
* MultipartInvariantViolationDefect:     email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line  116)
* multiplication:                        Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* multiply() (decimal.Context yöntemi):  Context objects.    (line  407)
* mutable object:                        Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* mutable sequence;loop over:            Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   77)
* mutable;sequence;types:                Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* MutableMapping (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   97)
* MutableMapping (typing içindeki sınıf): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   74)
* MutableSequence (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* MutableSequence (typing içindeki sınıf): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   82)
* MutableSet (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   92)
* MutableSet (typing içindeki sınıf):    Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   90)
* mvderwin() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  400)
* mvwin() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  407)
* myrights() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  157)
* N_TOKENS (token modülü içinde):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  270)
* n_waiting (asyncio.Barrier özniteliği): Barrier.           (line   98)
* n_waiting (threading.Barrier özniteliği): Barrier Objects. (line   97)
* NAK (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   88)
* name:                                  Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line    6)
* name <1>:                              Binding of names.   (line    6)
* name <2>:                              Identifiers Names.  (line    6)
* Name (ast içindeki sınıf):             Variables.          (line    6)
* name (codecs.CodecInfo özniteliği):    codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   65)
* name (contextvars.ContextVar özniteliği): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   24)
* name (doctest.DocTest özniteliği):     DocTest Objects.    (line   30)
* name (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* name (enum.Enum özniteliği):           Data Types<2>.      (line  124)
* name (gzip.GzipFile özniteliği):       gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  155)
* name (hashlib.hash özniteliği):        Hash Objects.       (line   19)
* name (hmac.HMAC özniteliği):           hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   99)
* name (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   28)
* name (ImportError özniteliği):         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   55)
* name (importlib.abc.FileLoader özniteliği): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  305)
* name (importlib.abc.Traversable özniteliği): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  522)
* name (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  306)
* name (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  381)
* name (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  212)
* name (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  256)
* name (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable özniteliği): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   94)
* name (inspect.Parameter özniteliği):   Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  190)
* name (io.FileIO özniteliği):           Raw File I/O.       (line   60)
* name (logging.Logger özniteliği):      Logger Objects.     (line   26)
* name (multiprocessing.Process özniteliği): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   82)
* name (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory özniteliği): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   97)
* name (os modülü içinde):               os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   55)
* name (os.DirEntry özniteliği):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  932)
* name (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device özniteliği): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  234)
* name (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):    Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  115)
* name (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):        Class Objects.      (line   20)
* name (pyclbr.Function özniteliği):     Function Objects.   (line   19)
* name (sys.thread_info özniteliği):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1879)
* name (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):     TarInfo Objects.    (line   61)
* name (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory özniteliği): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  194)
* name (threading.Thread özniteliği):    Thread Objects.     (line  153)
* NAME (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   42)
* name (traceback.FrameSummary özniteliği): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* name (webbrowser modülü içinde):       Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* name (xml.dom.Attr özniteliği):        Attr Objects.       (line    8)
* name (xml.dom.DocumentType özniteliği): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* name (zipfile.Path özniteliği):        Path Objects.       (line   31)
* name;binding:                          The import statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <1>:                      The import statement.
                                                             (line   52)
* name;binding <2>:                      Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <3>:                      Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <4>:                      Class definitions.  (line    6)
* name;mangling:                         Özel Değişkenler.   (line   13)
* name;mangling <1>:                     Identifiers Names.  (line   14)
* name() (unicodedata modülü içinde):    unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   25)
* name2codepoint (html.entities modülü içinde): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   30)
* named expression:                      Boolean operations. (line   37)
* Named Shared Memory:                   multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* NAMED_FLAGS (enum.EnumCheck özniteliği): Data Types<2>.    (line  602)
* NamedExpr (ast içindeki sınıf):        Expressions<2>.     (line  185)
* NamedTemporaryFile() (tempfile modülü içinde): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line   74)
* NamedTuple (typing içindeki sınıf):    Other special directives.
                                                             (line   10)
* namedtuple() (collections modülü içinde): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line   11)
* NameError:                             Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  115)
* NameError (built-in exception):        Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   16)
* namelist() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):  ZipFile Objects.    (line  126)
* nameprep() (encodings.idna modülü içinde): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   50)
* namer (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler özniteliği): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   17)
* namereplace_errors() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.
                                                             (line  181)
* namereplace;error handler's name:      Error Handlers.     (line   54)
* names() (tkinter.font modülü içinde):  tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   92)
* namespace:                             Naming and binding. (line    6)
* Namespace (argparse içindeki sınıf):   The Namespace object.
                                                             (line    6)
* Namespace (multiprocessing.managers içindeki sınıf): Managers.
                                                             (line  243)
* NAMESPACE_DNS (uuid modülü içinde):    uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  206)
* NAMESPACE_OID (uuid modülü içinde):    uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  215)
* NAMESPACE_URL (uuid modülü içinde):    uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  211)
* NAMESPACE_X500 (uuid modülü içinde):   uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  219)
* namespace() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  162)
* Namespace() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  193)
* NamespaceErr:                          Exceptions<17>.     (line   66)
* NamespaceLoader (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  347)
* namespaceURI (xml.dom.Node özniteliği): Node Objects.      (line   74)
* nametofont() (tkinter.font modülü içinde): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   96)
* NaN:                                   Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  713)
* nan (cmath modülü içinde):             Constants.          (line   33)
* nan (math modülü içinde):              Sabitler<2>.        (line   31)
* nan (sys.hash_info özniteliği):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1030)
* nanj (cmath modülü içinde):            Constants.          (line   40)
* NannyNag:                              tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   37)
* napms() (curses modülü içinde):        Functions<4>.       (line  308)
* nargs (optparse.Option özniteliği):    Option attributes.  (line   50)
* native_id (threading.Thread özniteliği): Thread Objects.   (line  175)
* nbytes (memoryview özniteliği):        Memory Views.       (line  380)
* ncurses_version (curses modülü içinde): Constants<4>.      (line   24)
* ND (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği):   Buffer flags.       (line   21)
* ndiff() (difflib modülü içinde):       difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  232)
* ndim (memoryview özniteliği):          Memory Views.       (line  446)
* ne (2to3 fixer):                       Fixers.             (line  201)
* ne() (operator modülü içinde):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* needs_input (bz2.BZ2Decompressor özniteliği): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   85)
* needs_input (lzma.LZMADecompressor özniteliği): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  174)
* neg() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* negation:                              Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  315)
* NetmaskValueError:                     Custom Exceptions.  (line   13)
* netrc (netrc içindeki sınıf):          netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   13)
* NetrcParseError:                       netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   44)
* netscape (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy özniteliği): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* network (ipaddress.IPv4Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* network (ipaddress.IPv6Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* Network News Transfer Protocol:        nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* network_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* network_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  309)
* Never (typing modülü içinde):          Special types.      (line   89)
* NEVER_EQ (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  180)
* new_child() (collections.ChainMap yöntemi): ChainMap objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* new_class() (types modülü içinde):     Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line    6)
* new_event_loop() (asyncio modülü içinde): Event Loop.      (line   67)
* new_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy yöntemi): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* new_panel() (curses.panel modülü içinde): Functions<5>.    (line   12)
* new() (hashlib modülü içinde):         Constructors.       (line    6)
* new() (hmac modülü içinde):            hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   12)
* newfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   32)
* newgroups() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):    Methods.            (line   80)
* NEWLINE (token modülü içinde):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   48)
* NEWLINE token:                         Logical lines.      (line    6)
* NEWLINE token <1>:                     Compound statements.
                                                             (line   55)
* newlines (io.TextIOBase özniteliği):   Text I/O<2>.        (line   24)
* newnews() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):      Methods.            (line   95)
* newpad() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  312)
* NewType (typing içindeki sınıf):       Other special directives.
                                                             (line   87)
* newwin() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  332)
* next (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line  205)
* next (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  192)
* next_minus() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.   (line  411)
* next_minus() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.   (line  399)
* next_plus() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  415)
* next_plus() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  405)
* next_toward() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.  (line  419)
* next_toward() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.  (line  411)
* next() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  233)
* next() (tarfile.TarFile yöntemi):      TarFile Objects.    (line  126)
* next() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.       (line  222)
* nextafter() (math modülü içinde):      Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  196)
* nextfile() (fileinput modülü içinde):  fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  121)
* nextkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm yöntemi):      dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   88)
* nextSibling (xml.dom.Node özniteliği): Node Objects.       (line   42)
* ngettext() (gettext modülü içinde):    GNU gettext API.    (line   44)
* ngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations yöntemi): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   47)
* ngettext() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   41)
* nice() (os modülü içinde):             Process Management. (line  356)
* nitelik:                               Sözlük.             (line  149)
* nitelikli isim:                        Sözlük.             (line 1217)
* NL (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   55)
* NL (token modülü içinde):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  266)
* nl_langinfo() (locale modülü içinde):  locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  172)
* nl() (curses modülü içinde):           Functions<4>.       (line  342)
* nlargest() (heapq modülü içinde):      heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  109)
* nlst() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):           FTP objects.        (line  301)
* NNTP (nntplib içindeki sınıf):         nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   63)
* nntp_implementation (nntplib.NNTP özniteliği): Attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* NNTP_SSL (nntplib içindeki sınıf):     nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  106)
* nntp_version (nntplib.NNTP özniteliği): Attributes<2>.     (line    6)
* NNTP;protocol:                         nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* NNTPDataError:                         nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  170)
* NNTPError:                             nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  139)
* NNTPPermanentError:                    nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  160)
* NNTPProtocolError:                     nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  165)
* NNTPReplyError:                        nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  150)
* NNTPTemporaryError:                    nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  155)
* NO (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  159)
* no_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo sınıf yöntemi): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   41)
* NO_EVENTS (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   94)
* no_proxy:                              urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  324)
* no_site (sys.flags özniteliği):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  538)
* no_tracing() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  533)
* no_type_check_decorator() (typing modülü içinde): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  360)
* no_type_check() (typing modülü içinde): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  348)
* no_user_site (sys.flags özniteliği):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  535)
* NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect:           email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   75)
* nocbreak() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  348)
* NoDataAllowedErr:                      Exceptions<17>.     (line   83)
* node (uuid.UUID özniteliği):           uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  119)
* node() (platform modülü içinde):       Cross Platform.     (line   40)
* nodelay() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  411)
* nodeName (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):    Node Objects.       (line   79)
* NodeTransformer (ast içindeki sınıf):  ast Helpers.        (line  218)
* nodeType (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):    Node Objects.       (line    8)
* nodeValue (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):   Node Objects.       (line   88)
* NodeVisitor (ast içindeki sınıf):      ast Helpers.        (line  178)
* noecho() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  353)
* NOEXPR (locale modülü içinde):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  281)
* NOFLAG (re modülü içinde):             Flags.              (line   96)
* NoModificationAllowedErr:              Exceptions<17>.     (line   88)
* nonblock() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* NonCallableMagicMock (unittest.mock içindeki sınıf): Magic Mock.
                                                             (line   22)
* NonCallableMock (unittest.mock içindeki sınıf): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  578)
* None (Built-in object):                Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line   15)
* None (yerleşik değişken):              Built-in Constants. (line   18)
* NoneType (types modülü içinde):        Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   19)
* nonl() (curses modülü içinde):         Functions<4>.       (line  357)
* Nonlocal (ast içindeki sınıf):         Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  156)
* nonmember() (enum modülü içinde):      Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   84)
* nonzero (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  211)
* noop() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  166)
* noop() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   79)
* NoOptionError:                         Exceptions<6>.      (line   32)
* NOP (opcode):                          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   82)
* noqiflush() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  367)
* noraw() (curses modülü içinde):        Functions<4>.       (line  375)
* NoReturn (typing modülü içinde):       Special types.      (line   89)
* NORMAL (tkinter.font modülü içinde):   tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   80)
* NormalDist (statistics içindeki sınıf): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.
                                                             (line   37)
* normalize() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  423)
* normalize() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.    (line  419)
* normalize() (locale modülü içinde):    locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  420)
* normalize() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   81)
* normalize() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi):    Node Objects.       (line  141)
* normalvariate() (random modülü içinde): Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   85)
* normcase() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  295)
* normpath() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  304)
* NoSectionError:                        Exceptions<6>.      (line   10)
* NoSuchMailboxError:                    Exceptions<15>.     (line   12)
* Not (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line   28)
* not_() (operator modülü içinde):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   49)
* NotADirectoryError:                    İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   91)
* notation:                              Notation.           (line    6)
* notationDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler yöntemi): DTDHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* NotationDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  313)
* notations (xml.dom.DocumentType özniteliği): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* NotConnected:                          http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  137)
* NoteBook (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Manager Widgets.    (line   22)
* Notebook (tkinter.ttk içindeki sınıf): ttk Notebook.       (line    6)
* NotEmptyError:                         Exceptions<15>.     (line   19)
* NotEq (ast içindeki sınıf):            Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* NOTEQUAL (token modülü içinde):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  138)
* NotFoundErr:                           Exceptions<17>.     (line   72)
* notify_all() (asyncio.Condition yöntemi): Condition.       (line   67)
* notify_all() (threading.Condition yöntemi): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line  172)
* notify() (asyncio.Condition yöntemi):  Condition.          (line   54)
* notify() (threading.Condition yöntemi): Condition Objects. (line  152)
* notimeout() (curses.window yöntemi):   Window Objects.     (line  415)
* NotImplemented (yerleşik değişken):    Built-in Constants. (line   25)
* NotImplementedError:                   Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  127)
* NotImplementedType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  103)
* NotIn (ast içindeki sınıf):            Expressions<2>.     (line  109)
* NotRequired (typing modülü içinde):    Special forms.      (line  219)
* NOTSET (logging modülü içinde):        Logging Levels.     (line   16)
* NotStandaloneHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  364)
* NotSupportedErr:                       Exceptions<17>.     (line   78)
* NotSupportedError:                     Exceptions<5>.      (line   85)
* noutrefresh() (curses.window yöntemi): Window Objects.     (line  423)
* NOVEMBER (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* now() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects. (line   61)
* npgettext() (gettext modülü içinde):   GNU gettext API.    (line   67)
* npgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations yöntemi): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   79)
* npgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   55)
* NSIG (signal modülü içinde):           Module contents<2>. (line  208)
* nsmallest() (heapq modülü içinde):     heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  117)
* NT_OFFSET (token modülü içinde):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  272)
* NTEventLogHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   11)
* ntohl() (socket modülü içinde):        Other functions<2>. (line  225)
* ntohs() (socket modülü içinde):        Other functions<2>. (line  232)
* ntransfercmd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):   FTP objects.        (line  278)
* NUL (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   19)
* null;operation:                        The pass statement. (line    6)
* null;operation <1>:                    The pass statement. (line    6)
* nullcontext() (contextlib modülü içinde): Utilities.       (line  220)
* NullHandler (logging içindeki sınıf):  NullHandler.        (line   12)
* NullTranslations (gettext içindeki sınıf): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   13)
* num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  327)
* num_tickets (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.     (line  563)
* number:                                Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* Number (numbers içindeki sınıf):       numbers — Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* NUMBER (token modülü içinde):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   44)
* number_class() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects. (line  427)
* number_class() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects. (line  442)
* numerator (fractions.Fraction özniteliği): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  110)
* numerator (numbers.Rational özniteliği): The numeric tower.
                                                             (line   51)
* numeric literal:                       Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* numeric;conversions:                   Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line  111)
* numeric;literals:                      Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* numeric() (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   43)
* numinput() (turtle modülü içinde):     Input methods.      (line   22)
* numliterals (2to3 fixer):              Fixers.             (line  216)
* O_APPEND (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  405)
* O_ASYNC (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_BINARY (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  427)
* O_CLOEXEC (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  415)
* O_CREAT (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  405)
* O_DIRECT (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_DIRECTORY (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_DSYNC (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  415)
* O_EVTONLY (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  437)
* O_EXCL (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  405)
* O_EXLOCK (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_FSYNC (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  437)
* O_NDELAY (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  415)
* O_NOATIME (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_NOCTTY (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  415)
* O_NOFOLLOW (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_NOFOLLOW_ANY (os modülü içinde):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  437)
* O_NOINHERIT (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  427)
* O_NONBLOCK (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  415)
* O_PATH (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_RANDOM (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  427)
* O_RDONLY (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  405)
* O_RDWR (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  405)
* O_RSYNC (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  415)
* O_SEQUENTIAL (os modülü içinde):       File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  427)
* O_SHLOCK (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_SHORT_LIVED (os modülü içinde):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  427)
* O_SYMLINK (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  437)
* O_SYNC (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  415)
* O_TEMPORARY (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  427)
* O_TEXT (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  427)
* O_TMPFILE (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  448)
* O_TRUNC (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  405)
* O_WRONLY (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  405)
* obj (memoryview özniteliği):           Memory Views.       (line  369)
* obje:                                  Sözlük.             (line 1036)
* object:                                Objects values and types.
                                                             (line    6)
* object (UnicodeError özniteliği):      Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  433)
* object (yerleşik sınıf):               Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1202)
* object;asynchronous-generator:         Asynchronous generator functions<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* object;Boolean:                        numbers Integral.   (line   27)
* object;Boolean <1>:                    Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;built-in function:              Built-in functions. (line    6)
* object;built-in function <1>:          Calls.              (line  143)
* object;built-in method:                Built-in methods.   (line    6)
* object;built-in method <1>:            Calls.              (line  143)
* object;bytearray:                      Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytearray <1>:                  Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytearray <2>:                  Bytearray Objects.  (line    6)
* object;bytearray <3>:                  Byte Array Objects. (line    6)
* object;bytes:                          Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;bytes <1>:                      Bytes Objects.      (line    6)
* object;bytes <2>:                      Bytes Objects<2>.   (line    9)
* object;callable:                       Callable types.     (line    6)
* object;callable <1>:                   Slicings.           (line   39)
* object;Capsule:                        Capsules<2>.        (line    6)
* object;class:                          Custom classes.     (line   19)
* object;class <1>:                      Calls.              (line  148)
* object;class <2>:                      Class definitions.  (line    6)
* object;class instance:                 Custom classes.     (line   19)
* object;class instance <1>:             Class instances.    (line    6)
* object;class instance <2>:             Calls.              (line  152)
* object;code:                           Code objects.       (line    6)
* object;code <1>:                       Yöntemler.          (line   44)
* object;code <2>:                       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   30)
* object;code <3>:                       Cell Objects.       (line   58)
* object;complex:                        numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;complex number:                 Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;complex number <1>:             Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;deallocation:                   Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary:                     Dictionaries.       (line    6)
* object;dictionary <1>:                 Custom classes.     (line   19)
* object;dictionary <2>:                 Basic customization.
                                                             (line  241)
* object;dictionary <3>:                 Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <4>:                 Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object;dictionary <5>:                 Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  115)
* object;dictionary <6>:                 Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <7>:                 Dictionary Objects. (line    6)
* object;Ellipsis:                       Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* object;file:                           Dosyaları Okuma ve Yazma.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;file <1>:                       File Objects.       (line    6)
* object;finalization:                   Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;floating-point:                 numbers Real float. (line    6)
* object;floating-point <1>:             Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;floating-point <2>:             Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;frame:                          Frame objects.      (line    6)
* object;frozenset:                      Set types.          (line   29)
* object;frozenset <1>:                  Set Objects.        (line    6)
* object;function:                       User-defined functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;function <1>:                   Built-in functions. (line    6)
* object;function <2>:                   Calls.              (line  132)
* object;function <3>:                   Calls.              (line  143)
* object;function <4>:                   Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;function <5>:                   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;generator:                      Special read-only attributes<2>.
                                                             (line   83)
* object;generator <1>:                  Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;generator <2>:                  Yield expressions.  (line  110)
* object;GenericAlias:                   Genel Takma Ad Türü.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;immutable:                      Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;immutable sequence:             Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;instance:                       Custom classes.     (line   19)
* object;instance <1>:                   Class instances.    (line    6)
* object;instance <2>:                   Calls.              (line  152)
* object;instancemethod:                 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;integer:                        numbers Integral.   (line    6)
* object;integer <1>:                    Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;integer <2>:                    Integer Objects.    (line    6)
* object;io.StringIO:                    Metin Sırası Türü — str.
                                                             (line   35)
* object;list:                           Mutable sequences.  (line   18)
* object;list <1>:                       List displays.      (line    6)
* object;list <2>:                       Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* object;list <3>:                       Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object;list <4>:                       Slicings.           (line    6)
* object;list <5>:                       Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  106)
* object;list <6>:                       Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;list <7>:                       Listeler<2>.        (line    6)
* object;list <8>:                       List Objects.       (line    6)
* object;long integer:                   Integer Objects.    (line    6)
* object;mapping:                        Mappings.           (line    6)
* object;mapping <1>:                    Class instances.    (line   26)
* object;mapping <2>:                    Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object;mapping <3>:                    Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  115)
* object;mapping <4>:                    Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;mapping <5>:                    Container Objects.  (line    6)
* object;memoryview:                     Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;memoryview <1>:                 Ellipsis Object.    (line   18)
* object;method:                         Örnek Nesneleri.    (line   26)
* object;method <1>:                     Instance methods.   (line    6)
* object;method <2>:                     Built-in methods.   (line    6)
* object;method <3>:                     Calls.              (line  143)
* object;method <4>:                     Yöntemler.          (line    6)
* object;method <5>:                     Method Objects.     (line    6)
* object;module:                         Modules<2>.         (line    6)
* object;module <1>:                     Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* object;module <2>:                     Module Objects.     (line    6)
* object;mutable:                        Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* object;mutable <1>:                    Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;mutable <2>:                    Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  101)
* object;mutable sequence:               Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* object;None:                           None.               (line    6)
* object;None <1>:                       Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* object;None <2>:                       The None Object.    (line    6)
* object;NotImplemented:                 NotImplemented.     (line    6)
* object;numeric:                        numbers Number.     (line    6)
* object;numeric <1>:                    Class instances.    (line   26)
* object;numeric <2>:                    Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   43)
* object;numeric <3>:                    Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;numeric <4>:                    Numeric Objects.    (line    6)
* object;range:                          Aralıklar.          (line    6)
* object;sequence:                       Sequences.          (line    6)
* object;sequence <1>:                   Class instances.    (line   26)
* object;sequence <2>:                   Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object;sequence <3>:                   Slicings.           (line    6)
* object;sequence <4>:                   Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* object;sequence <5>:                   Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  106)
* object;sequence <6>:                   The for statement.  (line    6)
* object;sequence <7>:                   Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;sequence <8>:                   Sequence Objects.   (line    6)
* object;set:                            Set types.          (line   23)
* object;set <1>:                        Set displays.       (line    6)
* object;set <2>:                        Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;set <3>:                        Set Objects.        (line    6)
* object;set type:                       Set types.          (line    6)
* object;slice:                          Emulating container types.
                                                             (line   66)
* object;socket:                         socket — Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line   23)
* object;string:                         Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object;string <1>:                     Slicings.           (line    6)
* object;string <2>:                     Aralıklar.          (line  123)
* object;traceback:                      Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* object;traceback <1>:                  The raise statement.
                                                             (line   21)
* object;traceback <2>:                  except clause.      (line   59)
* object;traceback <3>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  448)
* object;traceback <4>:                  traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;tuple:                          Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   29)
* object;tuple <1>:                      Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* object;tuple <2>:                      Slicings.           (line    6)
* object;tuple <3>:                      Expression lists.   (line   13)
* object;tuple <4>:                      Değiştirilemez Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;tuple <5>:                      Demetler.           (line    6)
* object;tuple <6>:                      Tuple Objects.      (line    6)
* object;type:                           Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1964)
* object;type <1>:                       Objects Types and Reference Counts.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;type <2>:                       Type Objects<2>.    (line    6)
* object;Union:                          Sendika Türü.       (line    6)
* object;user-defined function:          User-defined functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;user-defined function <1>:      Calls.              (line  132)
* object;user-defined function <2>:      Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;user-defined method:            Instance methods.   (line    6)
* object.__match_args__ (yerleşik değişken): Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching.
                                                             (line   12)
* object.__slots__ (yerleşik değişken):  __slots__<2>.       (line   14)
* objects;comparing:                     Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   43)
* objobjargproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line  140)
* objobjproc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  136)
* obufcount() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  218)
* obuffree() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  223)
* octal literal:                         Numeric literals.   (line    6)
* octal;literals:                        Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   19)
* octdigits (string modülü içinde):      String constants.   (line   32)
* OCTOBER (calendar modülü içinde):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* ödünç alınan referans:                 Sözlük.             (line  184)
* offset (SyntaxError özniteliği):       Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  306)
* offset (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):   TarInfo Objects.    (line  149)
* offset (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* offset (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError özniteliği): ExpatError Exceptions.
                                                             (line   32)
* offset_data (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği): TarInfo Objects. (line  153)
* OK (curses modülü içinde):             Constants<4>.       (line   13)
* OK (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  153)
* ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  140)
* ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  150)
* ok_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  119)
* OKCANCEL (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  171)
* old_value (contextvars.Token özniteliği): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   87)
* OleDLL (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line   35)
* on_motion() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler yöntemi): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   56)
* on_release() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler yöntemi): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   61)
* onclick() (turtle modülü içinde):      Using screen events.
                                                             (line   56)
* ondrag() (turtle modülü içinde):       Using events.       (line   57)
* onecmd() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):            Cmd Objects.        (line   59)
* onkey() (turtle modülü içinde):        Using screen events.
                                                             (line   12)
* onkeypress() (turtle modülü içinde):   Using screen events.
                                                             (line   35)
* onkeyrelease() (turtle modülü içinde): Using screen events.
                                                             (line   12)
* onrelease() (turtle modülü içinde):    Using events.       (line   30)
* onscreenclick() (turtle modülü içinde): Using screen events.
                                                             (line   56)
* ontimer() (turtle modülü içinde):      Using screen events.
                                                             (line   86)
* OP (token modülü içinde):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  246)
* OP_ALL (ssl modülü içinde):            Constants<7>.       (line  211)
* OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  300)
* OP_ENABLE_KTLS (ssl modülü içinde):    Constants<7>.       (line  358)
* OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  324)
* OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  350)
* OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  375)
* OP_NO_COMPRESSION (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.       (line  333)
* OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.     (line  290)
* OP_NO_SSLv2 (ssl modülü içinde):       Constants<7>.       (line  219)
* OP_NO_SSLv3 (ssl modülü içinde):       Constants<7>.       (line  229)
* OP_NO_TICKET (ssl modülü içinde):      Constants<7>.       (line  344)
* OP_NO_TLSv1 (ssl modülü içinde):       Constants<7>.       (line  239)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (ssl modülü içinde):     Constants<7>.       (line  251)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (ssl modülü içinde):     Constants<7>.       (line  263)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (ssl modülü içinde):     Constants<7>.       (line  275)
* OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (ssl modülü içinde):  Constants<7>.       (line  308)
* OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.      (line  316)
* Open (tkinter.filedialog içindeki sınıf): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   60)
* open_binary() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line   28)
* open_code() (io modülü içinde):        High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* open_connection() (asyncio modülü içinde): Streams.        (line   42)
* open_flags (dbm.gnu modülü içinde):    dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   71)
* open_new_tab() (webbrowser modülü içinde): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   92)
* open_new_tab() (webbrowser.controller yöntemi): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* open_new() (webbrowser modülü içinde): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   84)
* open_new() (webbrowser.controller yöntemi): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* open_osfhandle() (msvcrt modülü içinde): File Operations.  (line   44)
* open_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  470)
* open_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   47)
* open_text() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line   43)
* open_unix_connection() (asyncio modülü içinde): Streams.   (line  113)
* open_unknown() (urllib.request.URLopener yöntemi): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  108)
* open_urlresource() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  575)
* open() (aifc modülü içinde):           aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   33)
* open() (bz2 modülü içinde):            De compression of files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (codecs modülü içinde):         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  173)
* open() (dbm modülü içinde):            dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”.
                                                             (line   42)
* open() (dbm.dumb modülü içinde):       dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   29)
* open() (dbm.gnu modülü içinde):        dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   23)
* open() (dbm.ndbm modülü içinde):       dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   33)
* open() (gzip modülü içinde):           gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line   28)
* open() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  170)
* open() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  547)
* open() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  141)
* open() (io modülü içinde):             High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   12)
* open() (lzma modülü içinde):           Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  360)
* open() (ossaudiodev modülü içinde):    ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   46)
* open() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):         Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (pipes.Template yöntemi):       Template Objects.   (line   42)
* open() (shelve modülü içinde):         shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   17)
* open() (sunau modülü içinde):          sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   51)
* open() (tarfile modülü içinde):        tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line   41)
* open() (tarfile.TarFile sınıf yöntemi): TarFile Objects.   (line   92)
* open() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi):     Telnet Objects.     (line   64)
* open() (tokenize modülü içinde):       Tokenizing Input.   (line   99)
* open() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector yöntemi): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* open() (urllib.request.URLopener yöntemi): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   97)
* open() (wave modülü içinde):           wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   20)
* open() (webbrowser modülü içinde):     webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   64)
* open() (webbrowser.controller yöntemi): Browser Controller Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* open() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):         Path Objects.       (line   35)
* open() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):      ZipFile Objects.    (line  130)
* OpenDatabase() (msilib modülü içinde): msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   47)
* OpenerDirector (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  287)
* OpenKey() (winreg modülü içinde):      Functions<11>.      (line  286)
* OpenKeyEx() (winreg modülü içinde):    Functions<11>.      (line  286)
* openlog() (syslog modülü içinde):      syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   51)
* openmixer() (ossaudiodev modülü içinde): ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   74)
* openpty() (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  465)
* openpty() (pty modülü içinde):         pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line   35)
* OPENSSL_VERSION (ssl modülü içinde):   Constants<7>.       (line  473)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.    (line  483)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.  (line  493)
* OpenSSL;(use in module hashlib):       Hash algorithms.    (line   18)
* OpenSSL;(use in module ssl):           ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* OpenView() (msilib.Database yöntemi):  Database Objects.   (line    6)
* OperationalError:                      Exceptions<5>.      (line   57)
* operations on;dictionary;type:         Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on;integer;types:           Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on;list;type:               Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* operations on;mapping;types:           Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* operations on;numeric;types:           Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   98)
* operations on;sequence;types:          Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* operations on;sequence;types <1>:      Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* operator (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line  220)
* operator;- (minus):                    Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* operator;- (minus) <1>:                Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   83)
* operator;- (minus) <2>:                Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;!=:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;!= <1>:                       Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;@ (at):                       Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   26)
* operator;* (asterisk):                 Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* operator;* (asterisk) <1>:             Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;**:                           The power operator. (line    6)
* operator;** <1>:                       Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;/ (slash):                    Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* operator;/ (slash) <1>:                Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;//:                           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   34)
* operator;// <1>:                       Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;& (ampersand):                Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   12)
* operator;& (ampersand) <1>:            Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;% (percent):                  Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   46)
* operator;% (percent) <1>:              Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;^ (caret):                    Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* operator;^ (caret) <1>:                Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;+ (plus):                     Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* operator;+ (plus) <1>:                 Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   74)
* operator;+ (plus) <2>:                 Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line   27)
* operator;< (less):                     Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;< (less) <1>:                 Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;<<:                           Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;<< <1>:                       Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;<=:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;<= <1>:                       Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;==:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;== <1>:                       Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;> (greater):                  Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;> (greater) <1>:              Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;>=:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;>= <1>:                       Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;>>:                           Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;>> <1>:                       Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;| (vertical bar):             Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* operator;| (vertical bar) <1>:         Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;~ (tilde):                    Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* operator;~ (tilde) <1>:                Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;and:                          Boolean operations. (line   21)
* operator;and <1>:                      Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line   23)
* operator;and <2>:                      Boolean İşlemleri — and or not.
                                                             (line   22)
* operator;comparison:                   Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;in:                           Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* operator;in <1>:                       Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   64)
* operator;in <2>:                       Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* operator;is:                           Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* operator;is <1>:                       Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;is not:                       Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* operator;is not <1>:                   Karşılaştırmalar.   (line    6)
* operator;not:                          Boolean operations. (line   18)
* operator;not <1>:                      Boolean İşlemleri — and or not.
                                                             (line   22)
* operator;not in:                       Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* operator;not in <1>:                   Karşılaştırmalar.   (line   64)
* operator;not in <2>:                   Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* operator;or:                           Boolean operations. (line   25)
* operator;or <1>:                       Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line   23)
* operator;or <2>:                       Boolean İşlemleri — and or not.
                                                             (line   22)
* operator;overloading:                  Special method names.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;precedence:                   Operator precedence.
                                                             (line    6)
* operators:                             Operators.          (line    6)
* opmap (dis modülü içinde):             Opcode collections. (line   17)
* opname (dis modülü içinde):            Opcode collections. (line   13)
* OPT:                                   Debug options.      (line   34)
* optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  323)
* optimize (sys.flags özniteliği):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  529)
* optimize() (pickletools modülü içinde): Programmatic Interface<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery modülü içinde): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   30)
* Option (optparse içindeki sınıf):      Option attributes.  (line    6)
* Optional (typing modülü içinde):       Special forms.      (line   45)
* OptionConflictError:                   Exceptions<18>.     (line   11)
* OptionError:                           Exceptions<18>.     (line    6)
* OptionGroup (optparse içindeki sınıf): Grouping Options.   (line   12)
* OptionMenu (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Basic Widgets.    (line   49)
* OptionParser (optparse içindeki sınıf): Creating the parser.
                                                             (line    9)
* options (doctest.Example özniteliği):  Example Objects.    (line   53)
* Options (ssl içindeki sınıf):          Constants<7>.       (line  340)
* options (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği):   SSL Contexts.       (line  571)
* options() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* OptionValueError:                      Exceptions<18>.     (line   16)
* optionxform() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  307)
* Or (ast içindeki sınıf):               Expressions<2>.     (line   87)
* or_() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  137)
* ördek yazma:                           Sözlük.             (line  397)
* ordered_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  145)
* OrderedDict (collections içindeki sınıf): OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* OrderedDict (typing içindeki sınıf):   Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   17)
* orig_argv (sys modülü içinde):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1271)
* origin (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  393)
* origin_req_host (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* origin_server (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  294)
* ortam değişkeni; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:  PyConfig.           (line  178)
* ortam değişkeni; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>: PyConfig.        (line  677)
* ortam değişkeni; %APPDATA%:            Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; APPDATA:              PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; AUDIODEV:             ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   58)
* ortam değişkeni; BASECFLAGS:           Compiler flags.     (line   66)
* ortam değişkeni; BASECPPFLAGS:         Preprocessor flags. (line   22)
* ortam değişkeni; BLDSHARED:            Linker flags.       (line   67)
* ortam değişkeni; BROWSER:              webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   20)
* ortam değişkeni; BROWSER <1>:          webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  118)
* ortam değişkeni; CC:                   New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* ortam değişkeni; CC <1>:               Compiler flags.     (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; CCSHARED:             Compiler flags.     (line   81)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS:               New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS <1>:           Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS <2>:           Compiler flags.     (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS <3>:           Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS <4>:           Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS <5>:           Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS <6>:           Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS <7>:           Linker flags.       (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS_ALIASING:      Compiler flags.     (line   74)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS_NODIST:        Compiler flags.     (line   22)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:    Compiler flags.     (line   24)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:    Compiler flags.     (line   61)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGS_NODIST <3>:    Linker flags.       (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; CFLAGSFORSHARED:      Compiler flags.     (line   87)
* ortam değişkeni; COLUMNS:              Functions<4>.       (line  594)
* ortam değişkeni; COLUMNS <1>:          Functions<4>.       (line  597)
* ortam değişkeni; COMPILEALL_OPTS:      Compiler flags.     (line   41)
* ortam değişkeni; COMSPEC:              Process Management. (line  762)
* ortam değişkeni; COMSPEC <1>:          Popen Constructor.  (line  112)
* ortam değişkeni; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS:     Compiler flags.     (line   52)
* ortam değişkeni; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags.  (line   59)
* ortam değişkeni; CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS:   Preprocessor flags. (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS:    Linker flags.       (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags.   (line   38)
* ortam değişkeni; CPPFLAGS:             New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* ortam değişkeni; CPPFLAGS <1>:         Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* ortam değişkeni; CPPFLAGS <2>:         Preprocessor flags. (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; CPPFLAGS <3>:         Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; CPPFLAGS <4>:         Linker flags.       (line   50)
* ortam değişkeni; CXX:                  Compiler flags.     (line   12)
* ortam değişkeni; DISPLAY:              Tkinter Modules.    (line   27)
* ortam değişkeni; EnableControlFlowGuard: Build<30>.        (line   47)
* ortam değişkeni; EXTRA_CFLAGS:         Compiler flags.     (line   48)
* ortam değişkeni; HOME:                 os path<4>.         (line   16)
* ortam değişkeni; HOME <1>:             Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line  123)
* ortam değişkeni; HOME <2>:             Windows<41>.        (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; HOME <3>:             Windows<41>.        (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; HOME <4>:             os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  133)
* ortam değişkeni; HOME <5>:             os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  150)
* ortam değişkeni; HOME <6>:             Tkinter Modules.    (line   66)
* ortam değişkeni; HOMEDRIVE:            os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  140)
* ortam değişkeni; HOMEPATH:             os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  140)
* ortam değişkeni; IDLESTARTUP:          IDLE<36>.           (line  176)
* ortam değişkeni; IDLESTARTUP <1>:      IDLE<40>.           (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; IDLESTARTUP <2>:      IDLE<46>.           (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; IDLESTARTUP <3>:      Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* ortam değişkeni; IDLESTARTUP <4>:      Command line usage. (line   41)
* ortam değişkeni; KDEDIR:               webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  192)
* ortam değişkeni; LANG:                 GNU gettext API.    (line   21)
* ortam değişkeni; LANG <1>:             Class-based API.    (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; LANG <2>:             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   49)
* ortam değişkeni; LANG <3>:             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  345)
* ortam değişkeni; LANG <4>:             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  349)
* ortam değişkeni; LANGUAGE:             GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* ortam değişkeni; LANGUAGE <1>:         Class-based API.    (line   25)
* ortam değişkeni; LC_ALL:               GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* ortam değişkeni; LC_ALL <1>:           Class-based API.    (line   25)
* ortam değişkeni; LC_MESSAGES:          GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* ortam değişkeni; LC_MESSAGES <1>:      Class-based API.    (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; LDCXXSHARED:          Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line  154)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS:              New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <1>:          Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <2>:          Linker flags.       (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <3>:          Linker flags.       (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <4>:          Linker flags.       (line   28)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <5>:          Linker flags.       (line   31)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <6>:          Linker flags.       (line   35)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <7>:          Linker flags.       (line   45)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS <8>:          Linker flags.       (line   50)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS_NODIST:       Linker flags.       (line   24)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:   Linker flags.       (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; LDFLAGS_NODIST <2>:   Linker flags.       (line   40)
* ortam değişkeni; LDSHARED:             Linker flags.       (line   61)
* ortam değişkeni; LIBS:                 Linker flags.       (line   54)
* ortam değişkeni; LINES:                Functions<4>.       (line  125)
* ortam değişkeni; LINES <1>:            Functions<4>.       (line  594)
* ortam değişkeni; LINES <2>:            Functions<4>.       (line  596)
* ortam değişkeni; LINKCC:               Linker flags.       (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; LOGNAME:              Process Parameters. (line  239)
* ortam değişkeni; LOGNAME <1>:          getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   44)
* ortam değişkeni; MANPAGER:             pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* ortam değişkeni; MANPAGER <1>:         pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   48)
* ortam değişkeni; MIXERDEV:             ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   78)
* ortam değişkeni; no_proxy:             urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  324)
* ortam değişkeni; OPT:                  Debug options.      (line   34)
* ortam değişkeni; OPT <1>:              Compiler flags.     (line   70)
* ortam değişkeni; PAGER:                pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH:                 Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line  148)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <1>:             Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <2>:             Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <3>:             Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <4>:             Windows<22>.        (line   56)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <5>:             Windows<26>.        (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <6>:             Security<38>.       (line   16)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <7>:             Security<38>.       (line   20)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <8>:             Modül Arama Yolu.   (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <9>:             Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları.
                                                             (line   11)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <10>:            Environment variables.
                                                             (line   27)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <11>:            Miscellaneous.      (line   16)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <12>:            Installation steps. (line   34)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <13>:            Installation steps. (line   58)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <14>:            Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   77)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <15>:            Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   81)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <16>:            Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   23)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <17>:            Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   35)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <18>:            Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <19>:            Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   21)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <20>:            Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   22)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <21>:            Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <22>:            From the command-line.
                                                             (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <23>:            Shebang Lines.      (line   53)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <24>:            Shebang Lines.      (line   55)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <25>:            Shebang Lines.      (line   60)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <26>:            Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  410)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <27>:            Process Management. (line   45)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <28>:            Process Management. (line   86)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <29>:            Process Management. (line   89)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <30>:            Process Management. (line   92)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <31>:            Process Management. (line  530)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <32>:            Process Management. (line  617)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <33>:            Process Management. (line  621)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <34>:            Process Management. (line  623)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <35>:            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  121)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <36>:            Popen Constructor.  (line   34)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <37>:            webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  229)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <38>:            How venvs work.     (line   16)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <39>:            How venvs work.     (line   61)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <40>:            How venvs work.     (line   66)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <41>:            site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   60)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <42>:            Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <43>:            Common problems and solutions.
                                                             (line   23)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <44>:            Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <45>:            Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <46>:            How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?.
                                                             (line   24)
* ortam değişkeni; PATH <47>:            How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?.
                                                             (line   28)
* ortam değişkeni; PATHEXT:              Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* ortam değişkeni; PATHEXT <1>:          Library<42>.        (line  138)
* ortam değişkeni; PATHEXT <2>:          Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   77)
* ortam değişkeni; PATHEXT <3>:          Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   81)
* ortam değişkeni; PATHEXT <4>:          Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  421)
* ortam değişkeni; PIP_USER:             Windows<43>.        (line  102)
* ortam değişkeni; POSIXLY_CORRECT:      getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   71)
* ortam değişkeni; PROFILE_TASK:         Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* ortam değişkeni; PROFILE_TASK <1>:     Performance options.
                                                             (line   34)
* ortam değişkeni; PURIFY:               Compiler flags.     (line  130)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line  121)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_CFLAGS:            Compiler flags.     (line   94)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_CFLAGS_NODIST:     Compiler flags.     (line   99)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_CORE_CFLAGS:       Compiler flags.     (line  115)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_CORE_LDFLAGS:      Linker flags.       (line   83)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_CPPFLAGS:          Preprocessor flags. (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_LDFLAGS:           Linker flags.       (line   73)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST:    Linker flags.       (line   77)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_PYTHON:            Customizing default Python versions.
                                                             (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS:  Compiler flags.     (line  106)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL: Windows<7>.     (line   31)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>: Windows<24>.
                                                             (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>: Install on demand.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL: Install on demand.
                                                             (line   12)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG:     Diagnostics.        (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN:    Dry Run.            (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>: Install on demand. (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH: Shebang Lines. (line   58)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHON_DOM:           Module Contents<4>. (line   23)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:   Environment variables.
                                                             (line  274)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>: Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   10)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>: Debug Mode.       (line   11)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   65)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONBREAKPOINT:     PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   81)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  163)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  246)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  260)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  264)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCASEOK:         Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler.
                                                             (line   32)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCASEOK <1>:     PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCASEOK <2>:     Library<46>.        (line  144)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCASEOK <3>:     Environment variables.
                                                             (line  128)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCASEOK <4>:     Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2192)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:  PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  354)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>: General Options. (line   88)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line   57)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <4>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEBUG:          Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   37)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEBUG <1>:      Environment variables.
                                                             (line   94)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEBUG <2>:      Python Debug Build. (line   20)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEBUG <3>:      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEBUG <4>:      PyConfig.           (line  638)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEVMODE:        Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  305)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:    Environment variables.
                                                             (line  410)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:    Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDEVMODE <4>:    PyConfig.           (line  283)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>: New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   19)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  133)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  329)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   52)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>: PyConfig.    (line  908)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <7>: How do I create a pyc file?.
                                                             (line   21)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFS:       Hata ayıklama derlemesi yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:   Build<47>.          (line   54)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:   Debug-mode variables.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:   Debug options.      (line   22)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:   PyConfig.           (line  294)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFS <5>:   PyObject Slots.     (line   66)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:   Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  154)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE=FILENAME: Debug-mode variables.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONEXECUTABLE:     Environment variables.
                                                             (line  214)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONEXECUTABLE <1>: PyConfig.           (line  674)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:   faulthandler<4>.    (line   11)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  267)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  242)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   59)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <5>: PyConfig.         (line  328)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED:       Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:   Porting Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:   Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   30)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:   Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  130)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:   Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  146)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:   Environment variables.
                                                             (line  148)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:   Environment variables.
                                                             (line  153)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:   Basic customization.
                                                             (line  316)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:   Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   77)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:   Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   80)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHASHSEED <10>:  PyConfig.           (line  398)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME:           Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <1>:       Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line  107)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <2>:       Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   46)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <3>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   11)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <4>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   19)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <5>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   21)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <6>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <7>:       Finding modules.    (line   29)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <8>:       Finding modules.    (line   47)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <9>:       Finding modules.    (line   81)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <10>:      test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <11>:      The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <12>:      Virtual environments<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <13>:      Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <14>:      Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <15>:      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   92)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <16>:      Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  348)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <17>:      Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  364)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <18>:      PyConfig.           (line  410)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONHOME <19>:      Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   37)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINSPECT:        Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINSPECT <1>:    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   68)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINSPECT <2>:    Environment variables.
                                                             (line  103)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINSPECT <3>:    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  109)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINSPECT <4>:    PyConfig.           (line  435)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  106)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  289)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  166)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>: Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>: Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line   16)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1144)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <6>: PyConfig.      (line  466)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING:     Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <1>: Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  174)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  391)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <4>: Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   29)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1806)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <6>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   19)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <7>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   23)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONIOENCODING <8>: PyConfig.           (line  797)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  327)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1754)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  151)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>: PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  112)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  188)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  341)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1810)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  169)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <5>: PyConfig.   (line  505)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC:         PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <1>:     Changes in the C API<3>.
                                                             (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <2>:     Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   90)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <3>:     Environment variables.
                                                             (line  281)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <4>:     Environment variables.
                                                             (line  318)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <5>:     Performance options.
                                                             (line   94)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <6>:     Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   46)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <7>:     Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   50)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <8>:     Overview<4>.        (line   75)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <9>:     Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <10>:    Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOC <11>:    The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   27)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:    Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   96)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  312)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>: PyConfig.          (line  521)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <3>: Overview<4>.       (line   78)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:  PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   63)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  334)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  440)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>: Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <4>: PyConfig.        (line  236)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNOUSERSITE:     PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  158)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  192)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>: Module contents<5>. (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  203)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <5>: PyConfig.           (line  861)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONOPTIMIZE:       Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   88)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:   Environment variables.
                                                             (line   75)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:   Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  214)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <3>:   PyConfig.           (line  588)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH:           Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <1>:       Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <2>:       Modül Arama Yolu.   (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <3>:       Standart modüller.  (line   32)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <4>:       Standart modüller.  (line   33)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <5>:       Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   45)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <6>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   24)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <7>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   32)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <8>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   39)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <9>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line   42)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <10>:      Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <11>:      Finding modules.    (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <12>:      Finding modules.    (line   38)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <13>:      Finding modules.    (line   81)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <14>:      Configuration.      (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <15>:      Path entry finders. (line   23)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <16>:      test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <17>:      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1287)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <18>:      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1292)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <19>:      The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <20>:      The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <21>:      Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <22>:      Building C and C++ Extensions.
                                                             (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <23>:      Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <24>:      Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <25>:      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   91)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPATH <26>:      PyConfig.           (line  554)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:    Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   85)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  354)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  451)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>: PyConfig.          (line  835)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <4>: How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:     Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  275)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   54)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <3>: PyConfig.           (line  533)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: Other Language Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   47)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>: Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   66)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  298)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  266)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <4>: PyConfig.    (line  420)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:  Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line  402)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  318)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  139)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  375)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <5>: PyConfig.        (line  696)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD: Tests<24>.  (line   13)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH:       Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:   Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:   Security<22>.       (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:   Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  116)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:   Environment variables.
                                                             (line   46)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1304)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:   Security Considerations<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSAFEPATH <7>:   PyConfig.           (line  159)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP:        sys<11>.            (line   17)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:    sys<11>.            (line   21)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:    IDLE<36>.           (line  176)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:    IDLE<40>.           (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:    IDLE<46>.           (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:    Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası.
                                                             (line    8)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   64)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:    Environment variables.
                                                             (line   61)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:    Example.            (line   10)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:    Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:   Command line usage. (line   42)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <11>:   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1157)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONSTARTUP <12>:   Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  284)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  253)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   25)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   32)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>: Functions<9>.      (line   90)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <5>: PyConfig.          (line  823)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTZPATH:         Environment configuration.
                                                             (line   11)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONTZPATH <1>:     Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUNBUFFERED:     Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line  107)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  178)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  117)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1817)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  242)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <5>: PyConfig.           (line  200)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUSERBASE:       PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:   Environment variables.
                                                             (line  202)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:   Module contents<5>. (line   39)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUSERBASE <3>:   Module contents<5>. (line   67)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUSERSITE:       test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8:           PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <1>:       Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  312)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <2>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line  401)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <3>:       Environment variables.
                                                             (line  419)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <4>:       UTF-8 mode.         (line   18)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <5>:       Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   52)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <6>:       Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   54)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <7>:       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1808)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <8>:       PyPreConfig.        (line  141)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONUTF8 <9>:       Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONVERBOSE:        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  194)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:    Environment variables.
                                                             (line  122)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  259)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONVERBOSE <3>:    PyConfig.           (line  878)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option.
                                                             (line   19)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>: Library<37>.
                                                             (line   45)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  324)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  430)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <4>: Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS:       warnings<2>.        (line   21)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:   Other Language Changes<9>.
                                                             (line  160)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:   Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:   Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:   Documentation<23>.  (line   67)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:   Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  248)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:   Environment variables.
                                                             (line  220)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:   Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   30)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:   The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   46)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:   The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   56)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:  Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line    7)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:  Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line   21)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:  Default Warning Filter.
                                                             (line    7)
* ortam değişkeni; PYTHONWARNINGS <13>:  PyConfig.           (line  897)
* ortam değişkeni; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:    py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* ortam değişkeni; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>: Library<55>.       (line  452)
* ortam değişkeni; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>: Build<55>.         (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   66)
* ortam değişkeni; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   82)
* ortam değişkeni; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   86)
* ortam değişkeni; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>: Command-line use.  (line   90)
* ortam değişkeni; SSLKEYLOGFILE:        Context creation.   (line   34)
* ortam değişkeni; SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:    Context creation.   (line   68)
* ortam değişkeni; SystemRoot:           Popen Constructor.  (line  308)
* ortam değişkeni; TEMP:                 Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line    7)
* ortam değişkeni; TEMP <1>:             tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  329)
* ortam değişkeni; TERM:                 Functions<4>.       (line  485)
* ortam değişkeni; TERM <1>:             Functions<4>.       (line  512)
* ortam değişkeni; TMP:                  tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  331)
* ortam değişkeni; TMPDIR:               Tests<23>.          (line   68)
* ortam değişkeni; TMPDIR <1>:           tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  327)
* ortam değişkeni; TZ:                   Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  614)
* ortam değişkeni; TZ <1>:               Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  615)
* ortam değişkeni; TZ <2>:               Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  625)
* ortam değişkeni; TZ <3>:               Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  630)
* ortam değişkeni; TZ <4>:               Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  632)
* ortam değişkeni; TZ <5>:               Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  694)
* ortam değişkeni; USER:                 getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   44)
* ortam değişkeni; USERNAME:             os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  142)
* ortam değişkeni; USERNAME <1>:         Process Parameters. (line  239)
* ortam değişkeni; USERNAME <2>:         getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   45)
* ortam değişkeni; USERPROFILE:          os path<4>.         (line   14)
* ortam değişkeni; USERPROFILE <1>:      Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line  121)
* ortam değişkeni; USERPROFILE <2>:      Windows<41>.        (line   15)
* ortam değişkeni; USERPROFILE <3>:      os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  139)
* os_environ (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  169)
* OSError:                               Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  145)
* OSSAudioError:                         ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   33)
* output:                                Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* output (subprocess.CalledProcessError özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  220)
* output (subprocess.TimeoutExpired özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  181)
* output (unittest.TestCase özniteliği): Test cases.         (line  440)
* output_charset (email.charset.Charset özniteliği): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   74)
* output_codec (email.charset.Charset özniteliği): email charset Representing character sets.
                                                             (line   88)
* output_difference() (doctest.OutputChecker yöntemi): OutputChecker objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* output() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi): Morsel Objects.    (line   66)
* OutputChecker (doctest içindeki sınıf): OutputChecker objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* OutputString() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* OutsideDestinationError:               tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  243)
* over() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  167)
* Overflow (decimal içindeki sınıf):     Signals.            (line   67)
* OverflowError:                         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  210)
* OverflowError (built-in exception):    Integer Objects.    (line  114)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <1>: Integer Objects.   (line  162)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <2>: Integer Objects.   (line  203)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <3>: Integer Objects.   (line  215)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <4>: Integer Objects.   (line  227)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <5>: Integer Objects.   (line  240)
* overlap() (statistics.NormalDist yöntemi): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  340)
* overlay() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  430)
* overload() (typing modülü içinde):     Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  247)
* override() (typing modülü içinde):     Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  368)
* overwrite() (curses.window yöntemi):   Window Objects.     (line  443)
* owner() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line    6)
* özel metod:                            Sözlük.             (line 1323)
* p (pdb command):                       Debugger Commands.  (line  258)
* P_ALL (os modülü içinde):              Process Management. (line  946)
* P_DETACH (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  679)
* P_NOWAIT (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  659)
* P_NOWAITO (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  659)
* P_OVERLAY (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  679)
* P_PGID (os modülü içinde):             Process Management. (line  946)
* P_PID (os modülü içinde):              Process Management. (line  946)
* P_PIDFD (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  946)
* P_WAIT (os modülü içinde):             Process Management. (line  669)
* pack_array() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi):  Packer Objects.     (line   86)
* pack_bytes() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi):  Packer Objects.     (line   54)
* pack_double() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi): Packer Objects.     (line   26)
* pack_farray() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi): Packer Objects.     (line   78)
* pack_float() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi):  Packer Objects.     (line   22)
* pack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi): Packer Objects.    (line   38)
* pack_fstring() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi): Packer Objects.    (line   32)
* pack_into() (struct modülü içinde):    Functions and Exceptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* pack_into() (struct.Struct yöntemi):   Classes<2>.         (line   29)
* pack_list() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi):   Packer Objects.     (line   61)
* pack_opaque() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi): Packer Objects.     (line   49)
* pack_string() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi): Packer Objects.     (line   43)
* pack() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):           MH objects.         (line   64)
* pack() (struct modülü içinde):         Functions and Exceptions.
                                                             (line   13)
* pack() (struct.Struct yöntemi):        Classes<2>.         (line   24)
* package:                               Packages.           (line    6)
* package <1>:                           site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   65)
* Package (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line   11)
* package variable;__all__:              Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* package;namespace:                     Namespace packages. (line    6)
* package;portion:                       Namespace packages. (line    6)
* package;regular:                       Regular packages.   (line    6)
* PackageMetadata (importlib.metadata içindeki sınıf): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   14)
* PackageNotFoundError:                  Overview<3>.        (line   35)
* PackagePath (importlib.metadata içindeki sınıf): Distribution files.
                                                             (line   18)
* packages_distributions() (importlib.metadata modülü içinde): Mapping import to distribution packages.
                                                             (line    6)
* packed (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* packed (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  249)
* Packer (xdrlib içindeki sınıf):        xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   21)
* packing (widgets):                     The Packer.         (line    6)
* packing;binary;data:                   struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
                                                             (line    8)
* PAGER:                                 pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* pair_content() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.       (line  380)
* pair_number() (curses modülü içinde):  Functions<4>.       (line  386)
* pairwise() (itertools modülü içinde):  Itertool Functions. (line  397)
* paket:                                 Sözlük.             (line 1042)
* PanedWindow (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Manager Widgets. (line    6)
* Parameter (inspect içindeki sınıf):    Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  175)
* parameter;call semantics:              Calls.              (line   25)
* parameter;difference from argument:    How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?.
                                                             (line   16)
* parameter;function definition:         Class Patterns.     (line  140)
* ParameterizedMIMEHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  255)
* parameters (inspect.Signature özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  104)
* parametre:                             Sözlük.             (line 1051)
* params (email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  263)
* ParamSpec (ast içindeki sınıf):        Type parameters.    (line   33)
* ParamSpec (typing içindeki sınıf):     Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  312)
* ParamSpecArgs (typing modülü içinde):  Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  413)
* ParamSpecKwargs (typing modülü içinde): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  413)
* paramstyle (sqlite3 modülü içinde):    Module constants.   (line   70)
* parçalamak:                            Sözlük.             (line 1303)
* pardir (os modülü içinde):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   90)
* paren (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  252)
* parent (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  429)
* parent (logging.Logger özniteliği):    Logger Objects.     (line   42)
* parent (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):  Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   87)
* parent (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):      Class Objects.      (line   28)
* parent (pyclbr.Function özniteliği):   Function Objects.   (line   27)
* parent (urllib.request.BaseHandler özniteliği): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* parent_process() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   36)
* parent() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.     (line  227)
* parenthesized form:                    Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line    6)
* parentNode (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):  Node Objects.       (line   17)
* parents (collections.ChainMap özniteliği): ChainMap objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* parents (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   71)
* paretovariate() (random modülü içinde): Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line  101)
* parse_and_bind() (readline modülü içinde): Init file.      (line    8)
* parse_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): The parse_args method.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_args() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Parsing arguments.
                                                             (line    9)
* PARSE_COLNAMES (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.  (line   35)
* parse_config_h() (sysconfig modülü içinde): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   59)
* PARSE_DECLTYPES (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants. (line   13)
* parse_header() (cgi modülü içinde):    Functions<12>.      (line   53)
* parse_headers() (http.client modülü içinde): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  111)
* parse_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Intermixed parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Partial parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Intermixed parsing.
                                                             (line    9)
* parse_multipart() (cgi modülü içinde): Functions<12>.      (line   24)
* parse_qs() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.      (line  152)
* parse_qsl() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.     (line  198)
* parse() (ast modülü içinde):           ast Helpers.        (line    9)
* parse() (cgi modülü içinde):           Functions<12>.      (line    9)
* parse() (doctest.DocTestParser yöntemi): DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line   29)
* parse() (email.parser.BytesParser yöntemi): Parser API.    (line   35)
* parse() (email.parser.Parser yöntemi): Parser API.         (line   87)
* parse() (string.Formatter yöntemi):    Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   40)
* parse() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   29)
* parse() (xml.dom.minidom modülü içinde): xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line   36)
* parse() (xml.dom.pulldom modülü içinde): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   85)
* parse() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  173)
* parse() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* Parse() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* parse() (xml.sax modülü içinde):       xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   39)
* parse() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* parseaddr() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   57)
* parsebytes() (email.parser.BytesParser yöntemi): Parser API.
                                                             (line   55)
* parsedate_to_datetime() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  130)
* parsedate_tz() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  119)
* parsedate() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  107)
* ParseError (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): Exceptions<16>.
                                                             (line    6)
* ParseFile() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* ParseFlags() (imaplib modülü içinde):  imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  124)
* parser:                                Lexical analysis.   (line    6)
* Parser (email.parser içindeki sınıf):  Parser API.         (line   76)
* ParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat modülü içinde): xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   46)
* ParseResult (urllib.parse içindeki sınıf): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   48)
* ParseResultBytes (urllib.parse içindeki sınıf): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   73)
* parsestr() (email.parser.Parser yöntemi): Parser API.      (line   97)
* parseString() (xml.dom.minidom modülü içinde): xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line   49)
* parseString() (xml.dom.pulldom modülü içinde): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   98)
* parseString() (xml.sax modülü içinde): xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   50)
* ParsingError:                          Exceptions<6>.      (line   65)
* partial (asyncio.IncompleteReadError özniteliği): Exceptions<10>.
                                                             (line   55)
* partial() (functools modülü içinde):   functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  320)
* partial() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  189)
* partialmethod (functools içindeki sınıf): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  351)
* parties (asyncio.Barrier özniteliği):  Barrier.            (line   94)
* parties (threading.Barrier özniteliği): Barrier Objects.   (line   93)
* partition() (bytearray yöntemi):       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  185)
* partition() (bytes yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  185)
* partition() (str yöntemi):             String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  373)
* parts (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):   Accessing individual parts.
                                                             (line    9)
* Pass (ast içindeki sınıf):             Statements.         (line  164)
* pass_() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):         POP3 Objects.       (line   36)
* Paste:                                 Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* patch.dict() (unittest.mock modülü içinde): patch dict.    (line    6)
* patch.multiple() (unittest.mock modülü içinde): patch multiple.
                                                             (line    6)
* patch.object() (unittest.mock modülü içinde): patch object.
                                                             (line    6)
* patch.stopall() (unittest.mock modülü içinde): patch methods start and stop.
                                                             (line   70)
* patch() (test.support modülü içinde):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  646)
* patch() (unittest.mock modülü içinde): patch.              (line    9)
* PATH:                                  Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line  148)
* PATH <1>:                              Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PATH <2>:                              Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <3>:                              Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PATH <4>:                              Windows<22>.        (line   56)
* PATH <5>:                              Windows<26>.        (line   14)
* PATH <6>:                              Security<38>.       (line   16)
* PATH <7>:                              Security<38>.       (line   20)
* PATH <8>:                              Modül Arama Yolu.   (line   15)
* PATH <9>:                              Yürütülebilir Python Komut Dosyaları.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <10>:                             Environment variables.
                                                             (line   27)
* PATH <11>:                             Miscellaneous.      (line   16)
* PATH <12>:                             Installation steps. (line   34)
* PATH <13>:                             Installation steps. (line   58)
* PATH <14>:                             Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   77)
* PATH <15>:                             Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   81)
* PATH <16>:                             Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   23)
* PATH <17>:                             Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   35)
* PATH <18>:                             Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   14)
* PATH <19>:                             Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   21)
* PATH <20>:                             Finding the Python executable.
                                                             (line   22)
* PATH <21>:                             Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   13)
* PATH <22>:                             From the command-line.
                                                             (line    9)
* PATH <23>:                             Shebang Lines.      (line   53)
* PATH <24>:                             Shebang Lines.      (line   55)
* PATH <25>:                             Shebang Lines.      (line   60)
* PATH <26>:                             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  410)
* PATH <27>:                             Process Management. (line   45)
* PATH <28>:                             Process Management. (line   86)
* PATH <29>:                             Process Management. (line   89)
* PATH <30>:                             Process Management. (line   92)
* PATH <31>:                             Process Management. (line  530)
* PATH <32>:                             Process Management. (line  617)
* PATH <33>:                             Process Management. (line  621)
* PATH <34>:                             Process Management. (line  623)
* PATH <35>:                             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  121)
* PATH <36>:                             Popen Constructor.  (line   34)
* PATH <37>:                             webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  229)
* PATH <38>:                             How venvs work.     (line   16)
* PATH <39>:                             How venvs work.     (line   61)
* PATH <40>:                             How venvs work.     (line   66)
* PATH <41>:                             site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   60)
* PATH <42>:                             Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* PATH <43>:                             Common problems and solutions.
                                                             (line   23)
* PATH <44>:                             Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* PATH <45>:                             Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PATH <46>:                             How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?.
                                                             (line   24)
* PATH <47>:                             How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?.
                                                             (line   28)
* path (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* path (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.     (line   13)
* path (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   98)
* path (ImportError özniteliği):         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   59)
* path (importlib.abc.FileLoader özniteliği): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  309)
* path (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  310)
* path (importlib.machinery.FileFinder özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  179)
* path (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  216)
* path (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  260)
* path (in module sys):                  Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* path (in module sys) <1>:              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* path (in module sys) <2>:              Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  158)
* path (in module sys) <3>:              Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  178)
* path (os.DirEntry özniteliği):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  942)
* Path (pathlib içindeki sınıf):         Concrete paths.     (line   11)
* path (sys modülü içinde):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1284)
* Path (zipfile içindeki sınıf):         Path Objects.       (line    6)
* path based finder:                     The Path Based Finder.
                                                             (line    6)
* Path browser:                          File menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   22)
* path hooks:                            Import hooks.       (line    6)
* path_hook() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder sınıf yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  194)
* path_hooks (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1317)
* path_importer_cache (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1326)
* path_mtime() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  375)
* path_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy yöntemi): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* path_stats() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  353)
* path_stats() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  225)
* path;configuration;file:               site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   65)
* path;operations:                       pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line   10)
* path;operations <1>:                   os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line    9)
* Path.stem (zipfile modülü içinde):     Path Objects.       (line   76)
* Path.suffix (zipfile modülü içinde):   Path Objects.       (line   70)
* Path.suffixes (zipfile modülü içinde): Path Objects.       (line   82)
* path() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line   96)
* pathconf_names (os modülü içinde):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  654)
* pathconf() (os modülü içinde):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  630)
* PathEntryFinder (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   59)
* PATHEXT:                               Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PATHEXT <1>:                           Library<42>.        (line  138)
* PATHEXT <2>:                           Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   77)
* PATHEXT <3>:                           Installing Without UI.
                                                             (line   81)
* PATHEXT <4>:                           Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  421)
* PathFinder (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  107)
* PathLike (os içindeki sınıf):          Process Parameters. (line  120)
* pathname2url() (urllib.request modülü içinde): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  157)
* pathsep (os modülü içinde):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  118)
* Pattern (re içindeki sınıf):           Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* pattern (re.error özniteliği):         Exceptions<2>.      (line   19)
* pattern (re.Pattern özniteliği):       Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  124)
* Pattern (typing içindeki sınıf):       Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   10)
* pattern matching:                      The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* pause_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport yöntemi): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line   12)
* pause_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol yöntemi): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   40)
* pause() (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  312)
* PAX_FORMAT (tarfile modülü içinde):    tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  335)
* pax_headers (tarfile.TarFile özniteliği): TarFile Objects. (line  316)
* pax_headers (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği): TarInfo Objects. (line  161)
* pbkdf2_hmac() (hashlib modülü içinde): Key derivation.     (line   11)
* pd() (turtle modülü içinde):           Drawing state.      (line    6)
* Pdb (class in pdb):                    pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* Pdb (pdb içindeki sınıf):              pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  182)
* pdb komut satırı seçeneği; -c:         pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   83)
* pdb komut satırı seçeneği; -command:   pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   83)
* pdb komut satırı seçeneği; -m:         pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   90)
* pdf() (statistics.NormalDist yöntemi): NormalDist objects. (line   68)
* peek() (bz2.BZ2File yöntemi):          De compression of files.
                                                             (line   73)
* peek() (gzip.GzipFile yöntemi):        gzip — Support for gzip files.
                                                             (line  127)
* peek() (io.BufferedReader yöntemi):    Buffered Streams.   (line   75)
* peek() (lzma.LZMAFile yöntemi):        Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line   86)
* peek() (weakref.finalize yöntemi):     weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  307)
* PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (ssl modülü içinde): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   57)
* pen() (turtle modülü içinde):          Drawing state.      (line   33)
* pencolor() (turtle modülü içinde):     Color control.      (line    6)
* pending (ssl.MemoryBIO özniteliği):    Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  135)
* pending() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi):     SSL Sockets.        (line  319)
* PendingDeprecationWarning:             Uyarılar.           (line   29)
* pendown() (turtle modülü içinde):      Drawing state.      (line    6)
* pensize() (turtle modülü içinde):      Drawing state.      (line   18)
* penup() (turtle modülü içinde):        Drawing state.      (line   12)
* PEP:                                   Sözlük.             (line 1142)
* PERCENT (token modülü içinde):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  122)
* PERCENTEQUAL (token modülü içinde):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  186)
* perf_counter_ns() (time modülü içinde): Fonksiyonlar<2>.   (line  222)
* perf_counter() (time modülü içinde):   Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  205)
* Performance:                           timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets.
                                                             (line    8)
* perm() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  221)
* PermissionError:                       İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   99)
* permutations() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  418)
* Persist() (msilib.SummaryInformation yöntemi): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line   29)
* persistence:                           pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* persistent_id (pickle protocol):       Persistence of External Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent_id() (pickle.Pickler yöntemi): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  160)
* persistent_load (pickle protocol):     Persistence of External Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent_load() (pickle.Unpickler yöntemi): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  275)
* persistent;objects:                    pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* PF_CAN (socket modülü içinde):         Constants<6>.       (line  121)
* PF_DIVERT (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  194)
* PF_PACKET (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  204)
* PF_RDS (socket modülü içinde):         Constants<6>.       (line  226)
* pformat() (pprint modülü içinde):      Functions<3>.       (line   76)
* pformat() (pprint.PrettyPrinter yöntemi): PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* pgettext() (gettext modülü içinde):    GNU gettext API.    (line   63)
* pgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations yöntemi): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   68)
* pgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations yöntemi): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   47)
* PGO (test.support modülü içinde):      test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  107)
* phase() (cmath modülü içinde):         Conversions to and from polar coordinates.
                                                             (line   20)
* Philbrick, Geoff:                      Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* physical line:                         Logical lines.      (line    6)
* physical line <1>:                     Explicit line joining.
                                                             (line    6)
* physical line <2>:                     String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* pi (cmath modülü içinde):              Constants.          (line    6)
* pi (math modülü içinde):               Sabitler<2>.        (line    6)
* pi() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* pickle() (copyreg modülü içinde):      copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* PickleBuffer (pickle içindeki sınıf):  Module Interface.   (line  302)
* PickleError:                           Module Interface.   (line   95)
* Pickler (pickle içindeki sınıf):       Module Interface.   (line  121)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -a: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -annotate: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -indentlevel: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   14)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -l: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   14)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -m: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   18)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -memo: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   18)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -o: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -output: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -p: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* pickletools komut satırı seçeneği; -preamble: Command line options<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* pickling;objects:                      pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* PicklingError:                         Module Interface.   (line  100)
* pid (asyncio.subprocess.Process özniteliği): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  138)
* pid (multiprocessing.Process özniteliği): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  121)
* pid (subprocess.Popen özniteliği):     Popen Objects.      (line  142)
* PIDFD_NONBLOCK (os modülü içinde):     Process Management. (line  375)
* pidfd_open() (os modülü içinde):       Process Management. (line  363)
* pidfd_send_signal() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  330)
* PidfdChildWatcher (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line  156)
* PIP_USER:                              Windows<43>.        (line  102)
* PIPE (subprocess modülü içinde):       Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  149)
* PIPE_BUF (select modülü içinde):       select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  163)
* pipe_connection_lost() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol yöntemi): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   19)
* pipe_data_received() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol yöntemi): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   10)
* PIPE_MAX_SIZE (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  111)
* Pipe() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Pipes and Queues.  (line   79)
* pipe() (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  477)
* pipe2() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  488)
* placeholder (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  276)
* platform (in module sys):              Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  226)
* platform (sys modülü içinde):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1336)
* platform() (platform modülü içinde):   Cross Platform.     (line   45)
* platlibdir (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1404)
* PlaySound() (winsound modülü içinde):  winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   20)
* plist;file:                            plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    8)
* plock() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  387)
* plus:                                  Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* PLUS (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   82)
* plus() (decimal.Context yöntemi):      Context objects.    (line  431)
* PLUSEQUAL (token modülü içinde):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  170)
* pm() (pdb modülü içinde):              pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  172)
* POINTER() (ctypes modülü içinde):      Utility functions.  (line  159)
* pointer() (ctypes modülü içinde):      Utility functions.  (line  165)
* polar() (cmath modülü içinde):         Conversions to and from polar coordinates.
                                                             (line   38)
* Policy (email.policy içindeki sınıf):  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* poll() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* poll() (select modülü içinde):         select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   90)
* poll() (select.devpoll yöntemi):       /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* poll() (select.epoll yöntemi):         Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* poll() (select.poll yöntemi):          Polling Objects.    (line   77)
* poll() (subprocess.Popen yöntemi):     Popen Objects.      (line    8)
* PollSelector (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.       (line  171)
* Pool (multiprocessing.pool içindeki sınıf): Process Pools. (line    9)
* pop_all() (contextlib.ExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.       (line  594)
* POP_BLOCK (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1297)
* POP_EXCEPT (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  378)
* POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  795)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  819)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (opcode):         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  807)
* POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  783)
* pop_source() (shlex.shlex yöntemi):    shlex Objects.      (line   63)
* POP_TOP (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   87)
* pop() (array.array yöntemi):           array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  207)
* pop() (collections.deque yöntemi):     deque objects.      (line   87)
* pop() (dict yöntemi):                  Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  172)
* pop() (frozenset yöntemi):             Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  216)
* pop() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):       Mailbox objects.    (line  216)
* pop() (sequence method):               Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* POP3 (poplib içindeki sınıf):          poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   35)
* POP3_SSL (poplib içindeki sınıf):      poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   55)
* POP3;protocol:                         poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* Popen (subprocess içindeki sınıf):     Popen Constructor.  (line   11)
* popen() (in module os):                I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* popen() (in module os) <1>:            select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  144)
* popen() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  394)
* popitem() (collections.OrderedDict yöntemi): OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* popitem() (dict yöntemi):              Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  178)
* popitem() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):   Mailbox objects.    (line  225)
* popleft() (collections.deque yöntemi): deque objects.      (line   92)
* PopupMenu (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Basic Widgets.     (line   53)
* port (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* port_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* pos (json.JSONDecodeError özniteliği): Exceptions<14>.     (line   19)
* pos (re.error özniteliği):             Exceptions<2>.      (line   23)
* pos (re.Match özniteliği):             Match Objects.      (line  179)
* pos() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  142)
* pos() (turtle modülü içinde):          Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line    6)
* position (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError özniteliği): Exceptions<16>.
                                                             (line   20)
* position() (turtle modülü içinde):     Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line    6)
* Positions (dis içindeki sınıf):        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   58)
* positions (inspect.FrameInfo özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   42)
* positions (inspect.Traceback özniteliği): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   82)
* Positions.col_offset (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   67)
* Positions.end_col_offset (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   69)
* Positions.end_lineno (dis modülü içinde): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   65)
* Positions.lineno (dis modülü içinde):  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   63)
* POSIX Shared Memory:                   multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (os modülü içinde): File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  522)
* POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (os modülü içinde): File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  522)
* POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (os modülü içinde):  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  522)
* POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (os modülü içinde):  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  522)
* POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (os modülü içinde): File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  522)
* POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (os modülü içinde): File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  522)
* posix_fadvise() (os modülü içinde):    File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  508)
* posix_fallocate() (os modülü içinde):  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  499)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE (os modülü içinde):  Process Management. (line  460)
* POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2 (os modülü içinde):   Process Management. (line  466)
* POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN (os modülü içinde):   Process Management. (line  454)
* posix_spawn() (os modülü içinde):      Process Management. (line  432)
* posix_spawnp() (os modülü içinde):     Process Management. (line  522)
* POSIX;I/O control:                     termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* POSIXLY_CORRECT:                       getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   71)
* PosixPath (pathlib içindeki sınıf):    Concrete paths.     (line   22)
* post_handshake_auth (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  589)
* post_mortem() (pdb modülü içinde):     pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  165)
* post_setup() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi): API<2>.            (line  169)
* post() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  278)
* post() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  179)
* postcmd() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):           Cmd Objects.        (line  104)
* postloop() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):          Cmd Objects.        (line  122)
* Pow (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* pow() (math modülü içinde):            Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   72)
* pow() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  147)
* power;operation:                       The power operator. (line    6)
* power() (decimal.Context yöntemi):     Context objects.    (line  437)
* pp (pdb command):                      Debugger Commands.  (line  265)
* pp() (pprint modülü içinde):           Functions<3>.       (line    6)
* pprint() (pprint modülü içinde):       Functions<3>.       (line   67)
* pprint() (pprint.PrettyPrinter yöntemi): PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* prcal() (calendar modülü içinde):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  407)
* pread() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  536)
* preadv() (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  549)
* preamble (email.message.EmailMessage özniteliği): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  680)
* preamble (email.message.Message özniteliği): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  691)
* precmd() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):            Cmd Objects.        (line   94)
* prefix (sys modülü içinde):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1429)
* prefix (xml.dom.Attr özniteliği):      Attr Objects.       (line   18)
* prefix (xml.dom.Node özniteliği):      Node Objects.       (line   69)
* prefix (zipimport.zipimporter özniteliği): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* PREFIXES (site modülü içinde):         Module contents<5>. (line    6)
* prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  132)
* prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  329)
* preloop() (cmd.Cmd yöntemi):           Cmd Objects.        (line  116)
* prepare_class() (types modülü içinde): Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   22)
* prepare_input_source() (xml.sax.saxutils modülü içinde): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   81)
* prepare() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter yöntemi): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  100)
* prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler yöntemi): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueListener yöntemi): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   58)
* PrepareProtocol (sqlite3 içindeki sınıf): PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* prepend() (pipes.Template yöntemi):    Template Objects.   (line   37)
* PrettyPrinter (pprint içindeki sınıf): PrettyPrinter Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* prev() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.       (line  232)
* previousSibling (xml.dom.Node özniteliği): Node Objects.   (line   32)
* primary:                               Primaries.          (line    6)
* print (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  258)
* print_callees() (pstats.Stats yöntemi): The Stats Class.   (line  217)
* print_callers() (pstats.Stats yöntemi): The Stats Class.   (line  196)
* print_directory() (cgi modülü içinde): Functions<12>.      (line   84)
* print_environ_usage() (cgi modülü içinde): Functions<12>.  (line   88)
* print_environ() (cgi modülü içinde):   Functions<12>.      (line   76)
* print_exc() (timeit.Timer yöntemi):    Python Interface.   (line  135)
* print_exc() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* print_exception() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* print_form() (cgi modülü içinde):      Functions<12>.      (line   80)
* print_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Printing help.
                                                             (line   16)
* print_last() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* print_list() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* print_stack() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):  Task Object.        (line  143)
* print_stack() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* print_stats() (profile.Profile yöntemi): profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   91)
* print_stats() (pstats.Stats yöntemi):  The Stats Class.    (line  164)
* print_tb() (traceback modülü içinde):  Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* print_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Printing help.
                                                             (line   10)
* print_usage() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Other methods.
                                                             (line   15)
* print_version() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   26)
* print_warning() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  411)
* print() (built-in function);__str__() (object method): Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* print() (traceback.TracebackException yöntemi): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* printable (string modülü içinde):      String constants.   (line   41)
* printdir() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):  ZipFile Objects.    (line  228)
* printf-style formatting:               printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* printf-style formatting <1>:           printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* PRIO_DARWIN_BG (os modülü içinde):     Process Parameters. (line  303)
* PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI (os modülü içinde):  Process Parameters. (line  303)
* PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS (os modülü içinde): Process Parameters.
                                                             (line  303)
* PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD (os modülü içinde): Process Parameters. (line  303)
* PRIO_PGRP (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  292)
* PRIO_PROCESS (os modülü içinde):       Process Parameters. (line  292)
* PRIO_USER (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  292)
* PriorityQueue (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Priority Queue.    (line    6)
* PriorityQueue (queue içindeki sınıf):  queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   50)
* private;names:                         Identifiers Names.  (line   14)
* prlimit() (resource modülü içinde):    Resource Limits.    (line   56)
* prmonth() (calendar modülü içinde):    calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  398)
* prmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  203)
* ProactorEventLoop (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Event Loop Implementations.
                                                             (line   32)
* procedure;call:                        Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* Process (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* process_exited() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol yöntemi): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   26)
* process_request() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  160)
* process_time_ns() (time modülü içinde): Fonksiyonlar<2>.   (line  242)
* process_time() (time modülü içinde):   Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  229)
* process_tokens() (tabnanny modülü içinde): tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   42)
* process;group:                         Process Parameters. (line  193)
* process;group <1>:                     Process Parameters. (line  255)
* process;id:                            Process Parameters. (line  261)
* process;id of parent:                  Process Parameters. (line  268)
* process;killing:                       Process Management. (line  327)
* process;killing <1>:                   Process Management. (line  349)
* process;scheduling priority:           Process Parameters. (line  279)
* process;scheduling priority <1>:       Process Parameters. (line  467)
* process;signalling:                    Process Management. (line  327)
* process;signalling <1>:                Process Management. (line  349)
* process() (logging.LoggerAdapter yöntemi): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* ProcessError:                          Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  228)
* processes, light-weight:               _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* ProcessingInstruction() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  180)
* processingInstruction() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line  164)
* ProcessingInstructionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  274)
* ProcessLookupError:                    İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line  109)
* processor time:                        Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  231)
* processor time <1>:                    Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  588)
* processor() (platform modülü içinde):  Cross Platform.     (line   66)
* ProcessPoolExecutor (concurrent.futures içindeki sınıf): ProcessPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   21)
* prod() (math modülü içinde):           Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  238)
* product() (itertools modülü içinde):   Itertool Functions. (line  470)
* Profile (profile içindeki sınıf):      profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   35)
* profile function:                      threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  184)
* profile function <1>:                  threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  202)
* profile function <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  923)
* profile function <3>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1476)
* PROFILE_TASK:                          Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiler:                              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  923)
* profiler <1>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1476)
* profiling, deterministic:              Introduction to the profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* program:                               Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* ProgrammingError:                      Exceptions<5>.      (line   78)
* Progressbar (tkinter.ttk içindeki sınıf): ttk Progressbar. (line    6)
* prompt (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):           Cmd Objects.        (line  131)
* prompt_user_passwd() (urllib.request.FancyURLopener yöntemi): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  183)
* prompts, interpreter:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1445)
* propagate (logging.Logger özniteliği): Logger Objects.     (line   50)
* property (yerleşik sınıf):             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1557)
* property list:                         plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    8)
* property_declaration_handler (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  106)
* property_dom_node (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  113)
* property_lexical_handler (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line   99)
* property_xml_string (xml.sax.handler modülü içinde): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers.
                                                             (line  120)
* property() (enum modülü içinde):       Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   38)
* PropertyMock (unittest.mock içindeki sınıf): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  647)
* prot_c() (ftplib.FTP_TLS yöntemi):     FTP_TLS objects.    (line  110)
* prot_p() (ftplib.FTP_TLS yöntemi):     FTP_TLS objects.    (line  106)
* proto (socket.socket özniteliği):      Socket Objects.     (line  623)
* Protocol (asyncio içindeki sınıf):     Base Protocols.     (line   10)
* protocol (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği):  SSL Contexts.       (line  608)
* Protocol (typing içindeki sınıf):      Other special directives.
                                                             (line  117)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (ssl modülü içinde):   Constants<7>.       (line  161)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (ssl modülü içinde):    Constants<7>.       (line  168)
* PROTOCOL_TLS (ssl modülü içinde):      Constants<7>.       (line  131)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.     (line  144)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.     (line  153)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (ssl modülü içinde):    Constants<7>.       (line  184)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (ssl modülü içinde):  Constants<7>.       (line  191)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (ssl modülü içinde):  Constants<7>.       (line  201)
* protocol_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  163)
* PROTOCOL_VERSION (imaplib.IMAP4 özniteliği): IMAP4 Objects.
                                                             (line  394)
* protocol;context management:           Bağlam Yöneticisi Türleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* protocol;iterator:                     Yineleyici Türleri. (line    6)
* protocol;Telnet:                       telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line    8)
* ProtocolError (xmlrpc.client içindeki sınıf): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* proxy() (weakref modülü içinde):       weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  136)
* proxyauth() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  194)
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  385)
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  417)
* ProxyHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  311)
* ProxyType (weakref modülü içinde):     weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  336)
* ProxyTypes (weakref modülü içinde):    weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  344)
* pryear() (calendar.TextCalendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  218)
* ps1 (sys modülü içinde):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1442)
* ps2 (sys modülü içinde):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1442)
* pstdev() (statistics modülü içinde):   Function details.   (line  297)
* pthread_getcpuclockid() (time modülü içinde): Fonksiyonlar<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* pthread_kill() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>. (line  343)
* pthread_sigmask() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  373)
* pthreads:                              _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   16)
* pthreads (sys._emscripten_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  348)
* pu() (turtle modülü içinde):           Drawing state.      (line   12)
* publicId (xml.dom.DocumentType özniteliği): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PullDom (xml.dom.pulldom içindeki sınıf): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   77)
* punctuation (string modülü içinde):    String constants.   (line   36)
* punctuation_chars (shlex.shlex özniteliği): shlex Objects. (line  183)
* PurePath (pathlib içindeki sınıf):     Pure paths.         (line   10)
* PurePosixPath (pathlib içindeki sınıf): Pure paths.        (line   72)
* PureWindowsPath (pathlib içindeki sınıf): Pure paths.      (line   82)
* purge() (re modülü içinde):            Functions.          (line  287)
* Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.     (line  534)
* Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.     (line  525)
* push_async_callback() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.
                                                             (line  645)
* push_async_exit() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.
                                                             (line  640)
* PUSH_EXC_INFO (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  397)
* PUSH_NULL (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1006)
* push_source() (shlex.shlex yöntemi):   shlex Objects.      (line   56)
* push_token() (shlex.shlex yöntemi):    shlex Objects.      (line   16)
* push() (code.InteractiveConsole yöntemi): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* push() (contextlib.ExitStack yöntemi): Utilities.          (line  561)
* pushbutton() (msilib.Dialog yöntemi):  GUI classes.        (line   66)
* put_nowait() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):  Queue.              (line   66)
* put_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  147)
* put_nowait() (queue.Queue yöntemi):    Queue Objects.      (line   40)
* put_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue yöntemi): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* put() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):         Queue.              (line   61)
* put() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.   (line  131)
* put() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  241)
* put() (queue.Queue yöntemi):           Queue Objects.      (line   29)
* put() (queue.SimpleQueue yöntemi):     SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* putch() (msvcrt modülü içinde):        Console I/O.        (line   35)
* putenv() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  352)
* putheader() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  177)
* putp() (curses modülü içinde):         Functions<4>.       (line  392)
* putrequest() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  166)
* putwch() (msvcrt modülü içinde):       Console I/O.        (line   39)
* putwin() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  456)
* pvariance() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.  (line  306)
* pwd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):            FTP objects.        (line  344)
* pwrite() (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  608)
* pwritev() (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  619)
* Py_ABS (C macro):                      Useful macros.      (line   34)
* Py_AddPendingCall (C function):        Asynchronous Notifications.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_ALWAYS_INLINE (C macro):            Useful macros.      (line   40)
* Py_AtExit (C function):                Process Control.    (line   32)
* Py_AUDIT_READ (C macro):               Member flags.       (line   12)
* Py_AuditHookFunction (C type):         System Functions.   (line  190)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):      Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:  High-level API.     (line  163)
* Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro):            High-level API.     (line  177)
* Py_buffer (C type):                    Buffer structure.   (line   25)
* Py_buffer.buf (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   27)
* Py_buffer.format (C member):           Buffer structure.   (line   89)
* Py_buffer.internal (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line  152)
* Py_buffer.itemsize (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line   69)
* Py_buffer.len (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   52)
* Py_buffer.ndim (C member):             Buffer structure.   (line   98)
* Py_buffer.obj (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   39)
* Py_buffer.readonly (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line   64)
* Py_buffer.shape (C member):            Buffer structure.   (line  107)
* Py_buffer.strides (C member):          Buffer structure.   (line  120)
* Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member):       Buffer structure.   (line  133)
* Py_BuildValue (C function):            Building values.    (line    6)
* Py_BytesMain (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   41)
* Py_BytesWarningFlag (C var):           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_CHARMASK (C macro):                 Useful macros.      (line   65)
* Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED (C macro):        Other objects.      (line   40)
* Py_CLEAR (C function):                 Reference Counting. (line  136)
* Py_CompileString (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  243)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <1>:     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  333)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <2>:     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  338)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <3>:     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  345)
* Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  277)
* Py_CompileStringFlags (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  250)
* Py_CompileStringObject (C function):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  256)
* Py_complex (C type):                   Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_complex.imag (C member):            Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_complex.real (C member):            Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_DEBUG (C macro):                    Debugging Builds.   (line   17)
* Py_DEBUG (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  116)
* Py_DebugFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   29)
* Py_DecodeLocale (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_DECREF (C function):                Reference Counts<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_DECREF (C function) <1>:            Reference Counting. (line   98)
* Py_DecRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line  159)
* Py_DEPRECATED (C macro):               Useful macros.      (line   70)
* Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_Ellipsis (C var):                   Ellipsis Object.    (line   11)
* Py_EncodeLocale (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  168)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):        Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:    High-level API.     (line  170)
* Py_EndInterpreter (C function):        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  206)
* Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function):    Recursion Control.  (line   13)
* Py_EQ (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1035)
* Py_eval_input (C var):                 The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  331)
* Py_Exit (C function):                  Process Control.    (line   22)
* Py_ExitStatusException (C function):   PyStatus.           (line   65)
* Py_False (C var):                      Boolean Objects.    (line   21)
* Py_FatalError (C function):            Process Control.    (line    6)
* Py_FatalError():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  271)
* Py_FdIsInteractive (C function):       Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_file_input (C var):                 The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  336)
* Py_Finalize (C function):              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   90)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function):            Process Control.    (line   23)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <1>:        Process Control.    (line   33)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <2>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <3>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   45)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <4>:        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  169)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <5>:        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  207)
* Py_FrozenFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_GE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1044)
* Py_GenericAlias (C function):          Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_GenericAliasType (C var):           Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_GetArgcArgv (C function):           Py_GetArgcArgv.     (line    6)
* Py_GetBuildInfo (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  258)
* Py_GetCompiler (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  247)
* Py_GetCopyright (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  237)
* Py_GETENV (C macro):                   Useful macros.      (line   81)
* Py_GetExecPrefix (C function):         Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetExecPrefix (C function) <1>:     Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_GetPath (C function):               Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetPath (C function) <1>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  157)
* Py_GetPath():                          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetPath() <1>:                      Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  178)
* Py_GetPlatform (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  225)
* Py_GetPrefix (C function):             Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetPrefix (C function) <1>:         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   78)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function):    Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function) <1>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  141)
* Py_GetProgramName (C function):        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   65)
* Py_GetPythonHome (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  361)
* Py_GetVersion (C function):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  211)
* Py_GT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1041)
* Py_hash_t (C type):                    PyHash API.         (line    8)
* Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   70)
* Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   85)
* Py_INCREF (C function):                Reference Counts<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_INCREF (C function) <1>:            Reference Counting. (line   38)
* Py_IncRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line  153)
* Py_Initialize (C function):            Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Py_Initialize (C function) <1>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_Initialize (C function) <2>:        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  169)
* Py_Initialize():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    9)
* Py_Initialize() <1>:                   Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_InitializeEx (C function):          Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_InitializeFromConfig (C function):  Initialization with PyConfig.
                                                             (line    8)
* Py_InspectFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   98)
* Py_InteractiveFlag (C var):            Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  114)
* Py_Is (C function):                    Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   59)
* Py_IS_TYPE (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   99)
* Py_IsFalse (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   80)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function):         Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function) <1>:     Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_IsNone (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   66)
* Py_IsolatedFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  124)
* Py_IsTrue (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   73)
* Py_LE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1032)
* Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function):    Recursion Control.  (line   33)
* Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C var): Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  140)
* Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C var):     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  160)
* Py_LIMITED_API (C macro):              Limited C API.      (line   11)
* Py_LT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1029)
* Py_Main (C function):                  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   24)
* PY_MAJOR_VERSION (C macro):            API and ABI Versioning.
                                                             (line   13)
* Py_MAX (C macro):                      Useful macros.      (line   86)
* Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro):              Useful macros.      (line   92)
* PY_MICRO_VERSION (C macro):            API and ABI Versioning.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_MIN (C macro):                      Useful macros.      (line   98)
* PY_MINOR_VERSION (C macro):            API and ABI Versioning.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_mod_create (C macro):               Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   62)
* Py_mod_exec (C macro):                 Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   96)
* Py_mod_multiple_interpreters (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  108)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  112)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  116)
* Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  122)
* Py_NE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1038)
* Py_NewInterpreter (C function):        Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  196)
* Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig (C function): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_NewRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line   66)
* Py_NO_INLINE (C macro):                Useful macros.      (line  104)
* Py_None (C var):                       The None Object.    (line   11)
* Py_NoSiteFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  178)
* Py_NotImplemented (C var):             Object Protocol.    (line    6)
* Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  194)
* py_object (ctypes içindeki sınıf):     Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  220)
* Py_OpenCodeHookFunction (C type):      File Objects.       (line   64)
* Py_OptimizeFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  208)
* Py_PreInitialize (C function):         Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   38)
* Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro):                Object Protocol.    (line   17)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro) <1>:            File Objects.       (line   93)
* PY_PYTHON:                             Customizing default Python versions.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_QuietFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  219)
* Py_READONLY (C macro):                 Member flags.       (line    8)
* Py_REFCNT (C function):                Reference Counting. (line    9)
* Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET (C macro):          Member flags.       (line   17)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL (C macro):            API and ABI Versioning.
                                                             (line   25)
* PY_RELEASE_SERIAL (C macro):           API and ABI Versioning.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_ReprEnter (C function):             Recursion Control.  (line   47)
* Py_ReprLeave (C function):             Recursion Control.  (line   64)
* PY_RESUME (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   43)
* PY_RETURN (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   48)
* Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro):             Boolean Objects.    (line   35)
* Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro):              The None Object.    (line   18)
* Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro):    Object Protocol.    (line   11)
* Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C macro):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1050)
* Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro):              Boolean Objects.    (line   39)
* Py_RunMain (C function):               Py_RunMain.         (line    6)
* Py_SET_REFCNT (C function):            Reference Counting. (line   28)
* Py_SET_SIZE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  122)
* Py_SET_TYPE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  106)
* Py_SetPath (C function):               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  177)
* Py_SetPath():                          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  158)
* Py_SetProgramName (C function):        Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_SetProgramName (C function) <1>:    Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   41)
* Py_SetProgramName():                   Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_SetProgramName() <1>:               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   66)
* Py_SetProgramName() <2>:               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  142)
* Py_SetPythonHome (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  342)
* Py_SETREF (C macro):                   Reference Counting. (line  165)
* Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding (C function): Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_single_input (C var):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  343)
* Py_SIZE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  112)
* Py_ssize_t (C type):                   Types.              (line   14)
* PY_SSIZE_T_MAX (C macro):              Integer Objects.    (line  203)
* PY_START (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   53)
* Py_STRINGIFY (C macro):                Useful macros.      (line  116)
* Py_T_BOOL (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   59)
* Py_T_BYTE (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   20)
* Py_T_CHAR (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   68)
* Py_T_DOUBLE (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   56)
* Py_T_FLOAT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   53)
* Py_T_INT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   26)
* Py_T_LONG (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   29)
* Py_T_LONGLONG (C macro):               Member types.       (line   32)
* Py_T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):              Member types.       (line   71)
* Py_T_PYSSIZET (C macro):               Member types.       (line   50)
* Py_T_SHORT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   23)
* Py_T_STRING (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   62)
* Py_T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):         Member types.       (line   65)
* Py_T_UBYTE (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   35)
* Py_T_UINT (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   38)
* Py_T_ULONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   44)
* Py_T_ULONGLONG (C macro):              Member types.       (line   47)
* Py_T_USHORT (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   41)
* PY_THROW (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   58)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  704)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  558)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  698)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  608)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  702)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  760)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  717)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  586)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  728)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  540)
* Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  746)
* Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  672)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  694)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  692)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  644)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  660)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  787)
* Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  619)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READY (C macro):            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  568)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  577)
* Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  811)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  696)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  706)
* Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  700)
* Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  835)
* Py_tracefunc (C type):                 Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_True (C var):                       Boolean Objects.    (line   28)
* Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro):           Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_tss_t (C type):                     Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_TYPE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   87)
* Py_UCS1 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line    9)
* Py_UCS2 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line    9)
* Py_UCS4 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line    9)
* Py_uhash_t (C type):                   PyHash API.         (line   14)
* Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro):          High-level API.     (line  182)
* Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  234)
* Py_UNICODE (C type):                   Unicode Type.       (line   19)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  108)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  112)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C function):  Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  104)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   52)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   35)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   25)
* Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   20)
* Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  116)
* Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   85)
* Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   91)
* Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   64)
* Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   78)
* Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   71)
* Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro):              Useful macros.      (line  123)
* Py_UNUSED (C macro):                   Useful macros.      (line  148)
* PY_UNWIND (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   62)
* Py_VaBuildValue (C function):          Building values.    (line  202)
* PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET (C macro): The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line   69)
* Py_VerboseFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  247)
* Py_Version (C var):                    API and ABI Versioning.
                                                             (line   69)
* PY_VERSION_HEX (C macro):              API and ABI Versioning.
                                                             (line   34)
* Py_VISIT (C function):                 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  182)
* Py_XDECREF (C function):               Exceptions<20>.     (line  123)
* Py_XDECREF (C function) <1>:           Reference Counting. (line  130)
* Py_XINCREF (C function):               Reference Counting. (line   59)
* Py_XNewRef (C function):               Reference Counting. (line   90)
* Py_XSETREF (C macro):                  Reference Counting. (line  191)
* PY_YIELD (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   66)
* PyAIter_Check (C function):            Iterator Protocol.  (line   14)
* PyAnySet_Check (C function):           Set Objects.        (line   55)
* PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function):      Set Objects.        (line   68)
* PyArg_Parse (C function):              API Functions.      (line   46)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function):         Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function) <1>:     API Functions.      (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function) <1>: API Functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function):        API Functions.      (line   56)
* PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function): API Functions.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyArg_VaParse (C function):            API Functions.      (line   13)
* PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): API Functions. (line   31)
* PyASCIIObject (C type):                Unicode Type.       (line   28)
* PyAsyncMethods (C type):               Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_send (C member):     Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyBaseObject_Type (C var):             Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyBool_Check (C function):             Boolean Objects.    (line   16)
* PyBool_FromLong (C function):          Boolean Objects.    (line   43)
* PyBool_Type (C var):                   Boolean Objects.    (line   11)
* PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):        contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro):                compound requests.  (line   36)
* PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro):             compound requests.  (line   39)
* PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro):                readonly format.    (line   16)
* PyBUF_FULL (C macro):                  compound requests.  (line   18)
* PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   21)
* PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro):              shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_MAX_NDIM (C macro):              Buffer structure.   (line  162)
* PyBUF_ND (C macro):                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBUF_READ (C macro):                  MemoryView objects. (line   18)
* PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   24)
* PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   27)
* PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro):                shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   30)
* PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   33)
* PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro):               shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro):              readonly format.    (line    6)
* PyBUF_WRITE (C macro):                 MemoryView objects. (line   22)
* PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function): Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function):        Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyBuffer_FromContiguous (C function):  Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyBuffer_GetPointer (C function):      Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function):    Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyBuffer_Release (C function):         Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function):  Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function):    Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyBufferProcs (C type):                Buffer Protocol.    (line   20)
* PyBufferProcs (C type) <1>:            Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function):    Macros.             (line    8)
* PyByteArray_AsString (C function):     Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyByteArray_Check (C function):        Type check macros.  (line    6)
* PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function):   Type check macros.  (line   11)
* PyByteArray_Concat (C function):       Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyByteArray_FromObject (C function):   Direct API functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function): Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function):     Macros.             (line   13)
* PyByteArray_Resize (C function):       Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyByteArray_Size (C function):         Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyByteArray_Type (C var):              Byte Array Objects. (line   11)
* PyByteArrayObject (C type):            Byte Array Objects. (line    6)
* PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function):        Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  138)
* PyBytes_AsString (C function):         Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  127)
* PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function):  Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  143)
* PyBytes_Check (C function):            Bytes Objects<2>.   (line   19)
* PyBytes_CheckExact (C function):       Bytes Objects<2>.   (line   24)
* PyBytes_Concat (C function):           Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  164)
* PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function):     Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  173)
* PyBytes_FromFormat (C function):       Bytes Objects<2>.   (line   43)
* PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function):      Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  108)
* PyBytes_FromObject (C function):       Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  114)
* PyBytes_FromString (C function):       Bytes Objects<2>.   (line   30)
* PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function): Bytes Objects<2>.  (line   36)
* PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function):         Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  123)
* PyBytes_Size (C function):             Bytes Objects<2>.   (line  119)
* PyBytes_Type (C var):                  Bytes Objects<2>.   (line   14)
* PyBytesObject (C type):                Bytes Objects<2>.   (line    9)
* pycache_prefix (sys modülü içinde):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  360)
* PyCallable_Check (C function):         Call Support API.   (line    6)
* PyCallIter_Check (C function):         Iterator Objects.   (line   34)
* PyCallIter_New (C function):           Iterator Objects.   (line   39)
* PyCallIter_Type (C var):               Iterator Objects.   (line   29)
* PyCapsule (C type):                    Capsules<2>.        (line   11)
* PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   29)
* PyCapsule_Destructor (C type):         Capsules<2>.        (line   20)
* PyCapsule_GetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   76)
* PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line   65)
* PyCapsule_GetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line   86)
* PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   54)
* PyCapsule_Import (C function):         Capsules<2>.        (line   96)
* PyCapsule_IsValid (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  108)
* PyCapsule_New (C function):            Capsules<2>.        (line   34)
* PyCapsule_SetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  124)
* PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line  132)
* PyCapsule_SetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  140)
* PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  150)
* PyCell_Check (C function):             Cell Objects.       (line   24)
* PyCell_Get (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   33)
* PyCell_GET (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   38)
* PyCell_New (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   29)
* PyCell_Set (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   43)
* PyCell_SET (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   52)
* PyCell_Type (C var):                   Cell Objects.       (line   20)
* PyCellObject (C type):                 Cell Objects.       (line   16)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (ast modülü içinde): Compiler Flags.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (ast modülü içinde):     Compiler Flags.     (line   16)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (ast modülü içinde): Compiler Flags.    (line   21)
* PyCFunction (C type):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCFunction_New (C function):          Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  257)
* PyCFunction_NewEx (C function):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  252)
* PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type):      Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   20)
* PycInvalidationMode (py_compile içindeki sınıf): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyCMethod (C type):                    Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyCMethod_New (C function):            Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  225)
* PyCode_Addr2Line (C function):         Code Objects.       (line   90)
* PyCode_Addr2Location (C function):     Code Objects.       (line   99)
* PyCode_AddWatcher (C function):        Code Objects.       (line  156)
* PyCode_Check (C function):             Code Objects.       (line   20)
* PyCode_ClearWatcher (C function):      Code Objects.       (line  165)
* PyCode_GetCellvars (C function):       Code Objects.       (line  135)
* PyCode_GetCode (C function):           Code Objects.       (line  111)
* PyCode_GetFirstFree (C function):      Code Objects.       (line   30)
* PyCode_GetFreevars (C function):       Code Objects.       (line  146)
* PyCode_GetNumFree (C function):        Code Objects.       (line   25)
* PyCode_GetVarnames (C function):       Code Objects.       (line  125)
* PyCode_New (C function):               Code Objects.       (line   57)
* PyCode_NewEmpty (C function):          Code Objects.       (line   84)
* PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Code Objects.      (line   75)
* PyCode_Type (C var):                   Code Objects.       (line   15)
* PyCode_WatchCallback (C type):         Code Objects.       (line  181)
* PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyCodec_Decode (C function):           Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyCodec_Decoder (C function):          Codec lookup API.   (line   16)
* PyCodec_Encode (C function):           Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyCodec_Encoder (C function):          Codec lookup API.   (line   11)
* PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function):     Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line   27)
* PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line   21)
* PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function):    Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyCodec_LookupError (C function):      Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyCodec_Register (C function):         Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_RegisterError (C function):    Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function):    Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyCodec_StreamReader (C function):     Codec lookup API.   (line   33)
* PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function):     Codec lookup API.   (line   39)
* PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function):     Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyCodec_Unregister (C function):       Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyCodeEvent (C type):                  Code Objects.       (line  174)
* PyCodeObject (C type):                 Code Objects.       (line   10)
* PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type):       Unicode Type.       (line   28)
* PyCompileError:                        py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyCompilerFlags (C struct):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  349)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_feature_version (C member): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  365)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags (C member):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  361)
* PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function):     Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyComplex_Check (C function):          Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyComplex_CheckExact (C function):     Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function):   Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function):    Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function):   Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function):   Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyComplex_Type (C var):                Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyComplexObject (C type):              Complex Numbers as Python Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyConfig (C type):                     PyConfig.           (line    6)
* PyConfig_Clear (C function):           PyConfig.           (line   96)
* PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyConfig.        (line   20)
* PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyConfig.          (line   15)
* PyConfig_Read (C function):            PyConfig.           (line   66)
* PyConfig_SetArgv (C function):         PyConfig.           (line   41)
* PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (C function):    PyConfig.           (line   49)
* PyConfig_SetBytesString (C function):  PyConfig.           (line   32)
* PyConfig_SetString (C function):       PyConfig.           (line   25)
* PyConfig_SetWideStringList (C function): PyConfig.         (line   58)
* PyConfig.argv (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  127)
* PyConfig.base_exec_prefix (C member):  PyConfig.           (line  166)
* PyConfig.base_executable (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  174)
* PyConfig.base_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  186)
* PyConfig.buffered_stdio (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  194)
* PyConfig.bytes_warning (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  207)
* PyConfig.check_hash_pycs_mode (C member): PyConfig.        (line  244)
* PyConfig.code_debug_ranges (C member): PyConfig.           (line  230)
* PyConfig.configure_c_stdio (C member): PyConfig.           (line  264)
* PyConfig.dev_mode (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  279)
* PyConfig.dump_refs (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  288)
* PyConfig.exec_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  302)
* PyConfig.executable (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  312)
* PyConfig.faulthandler (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  321)
* PyConfig.filesystem_encoding (C member): PyConfig.         (line  333)
* PyConfig.filesystem_errors (C member): PyConfig.           (line  366)
* PyConfig.hash_seed (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  388)
* PyConfig.home (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  403)
* PyConfig.import_time (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  416)
* PyConfig.inspect (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  425)
* PyConfig.install_signal_handlers (C member): PyConfig.     (line  440)
* PyConfig.int_max_str_digits (C member): PyConfig.          (line  454)
* PyConfig.interactive (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  446)
* PyConfig.isolated (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  474)
* PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio (C member): PyConfig.        (line  499)
* PyConfig.malloc_stats (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  516)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths (C member): PyConfig.         (line  560)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths_set (C member): PyConfig.     (line  562)
* PyConfig.optimization_level (C member): PyConfig.          (line  576)
* PyConfig.orig_argv (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  592)
* PyConfig.parse_argv (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  610)
* PyConfig.parser_debug (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  631)
* PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings (C member): PyConfig.         (line  645)
* PyConfig.perf_profiling (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  827)
* PyConfig.platlibdir (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  529)
* PyConfig.prefix (C member):            PyConfig.           (line  657)
* PyConfig.program_name (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  666)
* PyConfig.pycache_prefix (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  690)
* PyConfig.pythonpath_env (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  549)
* PyConfig.quiet (C member):             PyConfig.           (line  703)
* PyConfig.run_command (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  712)
* PyConfig.run_filename (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  720)
* PyConfig.run_module (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  734)
* PyConfig.safe_path (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  144)
* PyConfig.show_ref_count (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  742)
* PyConfig.site_import (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  754)
* PyConfig.skip_source_first_line (C member): PyConfig.      (line  773)
* PyConfig.stdio_encoding (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  785)
* PyConfig.stdio_errors (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  787)
* PyConfig.tracemalloc (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  816)
* PyConfig.use_environment (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  842)
* PyConfig.use_hash_seed (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  390)
* PyConfig.user_site_directory (C member): PyConfig.         (line  853)
* PyConfig.verbose (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  866)
* PyConfig.warn_default_encoding (C member): PyConfig.       (line  220)
* PyConfig.warnoptions (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  883)
* PyConfig.write_bytecode (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  903)
* PyConfig.xoptions (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  916)
* PyContext (C type):                    Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyContext_CheckExact (C function):     Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyContext_Copy (C function):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function):    Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyContext_Enter (C function):          Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyContext_Exit (C function):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyContext_New (C function):            Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyContext_Type (C var):                Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyContextToken (C type):               Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function): Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyContextToken_Type (C var):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyContextVar (C type):                 Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function):  Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyContextVar_Get (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* PyContextVar_New (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyContextVar_Reset (C function):       Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  130)
* PyContextVar_Set (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyContextVar_Type (C var):             Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyCoro_CheckExact (C function):        Coroutine Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyCoro_New (C function):               Coroutine Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyCoro_Type (C var):                   Coroutine Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyCoroObject (C type):                 Coroutine Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyDate_Check (C function):             DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyDate_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyDate_FromDate (C function):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function):     DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  306)
* PyDateTime_Check (C function):         DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function):    DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyDateTime_Date (C type):              DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  229)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  212)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  224)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  216)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  220)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  235)
* PyDateTime_DateTime (C type):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyDateTime_DateTimeType (C var):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyDateTime_DateType (C var):           DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyDateTime_Delta (C type):             DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  279)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  291)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  285)
* PyDateTime_DeltaType (C var):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  137)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  300)
* PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  204)
* PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function):     DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  200)
* PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function):      DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  196)
* PyDateTime_Time (C type):              DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  262)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  246)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  258)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  250)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  254)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  268)
* PyDateTime_TimeType (C var):           DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C var):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyDateTime_TZInfoType (C var):         DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyDelta_Check (C function):            DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* PyDelta_CheckExact (C function):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyDelta_FromDSU (C function):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  167)
* PyDescr_IsData (C function):           Descriptor Objects. (line   37)
* PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function):   Descriptor Objects. (line   32)
* PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function):        Descriptor Objects. (line   13)
* PyDescr_NewMember (C function):        Descriptor Objects. (line   18)
* PyDescr_NewMethod (C function):        Descriptor Objects. (line   23)
* PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function):       Descriptor Objects. (line   28)
* PyDict_AddWatcher (C function):        Dictionary Objects. (line  229)
* PyDict_Check (C function):             Dictionary Objects. (line   16)
* PyDict_CheckExact (C function):        Dictionary Objects. (line   21)
* PyDict_Clear (C function):             Dictionary Objects. (line   37)
* PyDict_ClearWatcher (C function):      Dictionary Objects. (line  238)
* PyDict_Contains (C function):          Dictionary Objects. (line   41)
* PyDict_Copy (C function):              Dictionary Objects. (line   47)
* PyDict_DelItem (C function):           Dictionary Objects. (line   66)
* PyDict_DelItemString (C function):     Dictionary Objects. (line   73)
* PyDict_GetItem (C function):           Dictionary Objects. (line   78)
* PyDict_GetItemString (C function):     Dictionary Objects. (line  102)
* PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function):  Dictionary Objects. (line   94)
* PyDict_Items (C function):             Dictionary Objects. (line  127)
* PyDict_Keys (C function):              Dictionary Objects. (line  132)
* PyDict_Merge (C function):             Dictionary Objects. (line  196)
* PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function):     Dictionary Objects. (line  214)
* PyDict_New (C function):               Dictionary Objects. (line   26)
* PyDict_Next (C function):              Dictionary Objects. (line  148)
* PyDict_SetDefault (C function):        Dictionary Objects. (line  115)
* PyDict_SetItem (C function):           Dictionary Objects. (line   52)
* PyDict_SetItemString (C function):     Dictionary Objects. (line   60)
* PyDict_Size (C function):              Dictionary Objects. (line  142)
* PyDict_Type (C var):                   Dictionary Objects. (line   11)
* PyDict_Unwatch (C function):           Dictionary Objects. (line  255)
* PyDict_Update (C function):            Dictionary Objects. (line  206)
* PyDict_Values (C function):            Dictionary Objects. (line  137)
* PyDict_Watch (C function):             Dictionary Objects. (line  246)
* PyDict_WatchCallback (C type):         Dictionary Objects. (line  274)
* PyDict_WatchEvent (C type):            Dictionary Objects. (line  265)
* PyDictObject (C type):                 Dictionary Objects. (line    6)
* PyDictProxy_New (C function):          Dictionary Objects. (line   30)
* PyDLL (ctypes içindeki sınıf):         Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyDoc_STR (C macro):                   Useful macros.      (line  174)
* PyDoc_STRVAR (C macro):                Useful macros.      (line  156)
* PyEllipsis_Type (C var):               Ellipsis Object.    (line    6)
* PyErr_BadArgument (C function):        Raising exceptions. (line   45)
* PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function):    Raising exceptions. (line  217)
* PyErr_CheckSignals (C function):       Signal Handling<2>. (line    6)
* PyErr_Clear (C function):              Exceptions<20>.     (line   25)
* PyErr_Clear (C function) <1>:          Exceptions<20>.     (line  123)
* PyErr_Clear (C function) <2>:          Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_DisplayException (C function):   Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function):   Exceptions<20>.     (line  123)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function) <1>: Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function):              Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function) <1>:          Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyErr_Format (C function):             Raising exceptions. (line   23)
* PyErr_FormatV (C function):            Raising exceptions. (line   32)
* PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyErr_GetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyErr_GetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyErr_NewException (C function):       Exception Classes.  (line    6)
* PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function): Exception Classes. (line   23)
* PyErr_NoMemory (C function):           Raising exceptions. (line   51)
* PyErr_NormalizeException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function):           Exceptions<20>.     (line   12)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function) <1>:       Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_Print (C function):              Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyErr_PrintEx (C function):            Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function):    Issuing warnings.   (line   69)
* PyErr_Restore (C function):            Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyErr_Restore (C function) <1>:        Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  116)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  137)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  198)
* PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function):       Raising exceptions. (line   57)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function):  Raising exceptions. (line  100)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyErr_SetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  166)
* PyErr_SetImportError (C function):     Raising exceptions. (line  171)
* PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  182)
* PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function):       Signal Handling<2>. (line   33)
* PyErr_SetInterruptEx (C function):     Signal Handling<2>. (line   42)
* PyErr_SetNone (C function):            Raising exceptions. (line   41)
* PyErr_SetObject (C function):          Raising exceptions. (line   18)
* PyErr_SetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyErr_SetString (C function):          Exceptions<20>.     (line   25)
* PyErr_SetString (C function) <1>:      Raising exceptions. (line   10)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function):     Raising exceptions. (line  211)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function):   Raising exceptions. (line  202)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  192)
* PyErr_WarnEx (C function):             Issuing warnings.   (line   19)
* PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function):       Issuing warnings.   (line   53)
* PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function): Issuing warnings.   (line   41)
* PyErr_WarnFormat (C function):         Issuing warnings.   (line   61)
* PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function):    Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyEval_AcquireLock (C function):       Low-level API.      (line  238)
* PyEval_AcquireThread (C function):     Low-level API.      (line  206)
* PyEval_AcquireThread():                High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_EvalCode (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  286)
* PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  293)
* PyEval_EvalFrame (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  306)
* PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  311)
* PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function):       Reflection.         (line    6)
* PyEval_GetFrame (C function):          Reflection.         (line   24)
* PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function):       Reflection.         (line   36)
* PyEval_GetFuncName (C function):       Reflection.         (line   31)
* PyEval_GetGlobals (C function):        Reflection.         (line   18)
* PyEval_GetLocals (C function):         Reflection.         (line   12)
* PyEval_InitThreads (C function):       High-level API.     (line   30)
* PyEval_InitThreads():                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  326)
* PyEval_ReleaseLock (C function):       Low-level API.      (line  259)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function):     Low-level API.      (line  227)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread():                High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function):     Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function) <1>: High-level API.     (line   67)
* PyEval_RestoreThread():                High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function):        Releasing the GIL from extension code.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function) <1>:    High-level API.     (line   60)
* PyEval_SaveThread():                   High-level API.     (line   31)
* PyEval_SetProfile (C function):        Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  131)
* PyEval_SetTrace (C function):          Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  146)
* PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyEval_ThreadsInitialized (C function): High-level API.    (line   49)
* PyExc_ArithmeticError (C var):         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_AssertionError (C var):          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_AttributeError (C var):          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BaseException (C var):           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BlockingIOError (C var):         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BrokenPipeError (C var):         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BufferError (C var):             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_BytesWarning (C var):            Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ChildProcessError (C var):       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError (C var):  Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionError (C var):         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError (C var):  Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ConnectionResetError (C var):    Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_DeprecationWarning (C var):      Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_EnvironmentError (C var):        Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  190)
* PyExc_EOFError (C var):                Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_Exception (C var):               Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FileExistsError (C var):         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FileNotFoundError (C var):       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FloatingPointError (C var):      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_FutureWarning (C var):           Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_GeneratorExit (C var):           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ImportError (C var):             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ImportWarning (C var):           Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IndentationError (C var):        Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IndexError (C var):              Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_InterruptedError (C var):        Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_IOError (C var):                 Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  190)
* PyExc_IsADirectoryError (C var):       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt (C var):       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_KeyError (C var):                Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_LookupError (C var):             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_MemoryError (C var):             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError (C var):     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NameError (C var):               Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NotADirectoryError (C var):      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_NotImplementedError (C var):     Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_OSError (C var):                 Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_OverflowError (C var):           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning (C var): Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_PermissionError (C var):         Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ProcessLookupError (C var):      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RecursionError (C var):          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ReferenceError (C var):          Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ResourceWarning (C var):         Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RuntimeError (C var):            Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_RuntimeWarning (C var):          Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_StopAsyncIteration (C var):      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_StopIteration (C var):           Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SyntaxError (C var):             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SyntaxWarning (C var):           Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SystemError (C var):             Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_SystemExit (C var):              Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TabError (C var):                Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TimeoutError (C var):            Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_TypeError (C var):               Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnboundLocalError (C var):       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError (C var):      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError (C var):      Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeError (C var):            Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError (C var):   Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UnicodeWarning (C var):          Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_UserWarning (C var):             Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_ValueError (C var):              Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_Warning (C var):                 Standard Warning Categories.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyExc_WindowsError (C var):            Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  190)
* PyExc_ZeroDivisionError (C var):       Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyException_GetArgs (C function):      Exception Objects.  (line   49)
* PyException_GetCause (C function):     Exception Objects.  (line   33)
* PyException_GetContext (C function):   Exception Objects.  (line   18)
* PyException_GetTraceback (C function): Exception Objects.  (line    6)
* PyException_SetArgs (C function):      Exception Objects.  (line   54)
* PyException_SetCause (C function):     Exception Objects.  (line   40)
* PyException_SetContext (C function):   Exception Objects.  (line   27)
* PyException_SetTraceback (C function): Exception Objects.  (line   14)
* PyFile_FromFd (C function):            File Objects.       (line   15)
* PyFile_GetLine (C function):           File Objects.       (line   41)
* PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (C function):   File Objects.       (line   56)
* PyFile_WriteObject (C function):       File Objects.       (line   91)
* PyFile_WriteString (C function):       File Objects.       (line  101)
* PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function):        Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyFloat_AsDouble (C function):         Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyFloat_Check (C function):            Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyFloat_CheckExact (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyFloat_FromDouble (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyFloat_FromString (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyFloat_GetInfo (C function):          Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyFloat_GetMax (C function):           Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyFloat_GetMin (C function):           Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyFloat_Pack2 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   22)
* PyFloat_Pack4 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   26)
* PyFloat_Pack8 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   30)
* PyFloat_Type (C var):                  Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyFloat_Unpack2 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   20)
* PyFloat_Unpack4 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   24)
* PyFloat_Unpack8 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   28)
* PyFloatObject (C type):                Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyFrame_Check (C function):            Frame Objects.      (line   29)
* PyFrame_GetBack (C function):          Frame Objects.      (line   36)
* PyFrame_GetBuiltins (C function):      Frame Objects.      (line   46)
* PyFrame_GetCode (C function):          Frame Objects.      (line   55)
* PyFrame_GetGenerator (C function):     Frame Objects.      (line   66)
* PyFrame_GetGlobals (C function):       Frame Objects.      (line   77)
* PyFrame_GetLasti (C function):         Frame Objects.      (line   86)
* PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function):    Frame Objects.      (line  129)
* PyFrame_GetLocals (C function):        Frame Objects.      (line  119)
* PyFrame_GetVar (C function):           Frame Objects.      (line   94)
* PyFrame_GetVarString (C function):     Frame Objects.      (line  111)
* PyFrame_Type (C var):                  Frame Objects.      (line   21)
* PyFrameObject (C type):                Frame Objects.      (line    6)
* PyFrozenSet_Check (C function):        Set Objects.        (line   50)
* PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function):   Set Objects.        (line   74)
* PyFrozenSet_New (C function):          Set Objects.        (line   87)
* PyFrozenSet_Type (C var):              Set Objects.        (line   36)
* PyFunction_AddWatcher (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  113)
* PyFunction_Check (C function):         Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyFunction_ClearWatcher (C function):  Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyFunction_GetClosure (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyFunction_GetCode (C function):       Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function):   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyFunction_GetModule (C function):     Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyFunction_New (C function):           Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyFunction_SetClosure (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function):   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyFunction_SetVectorcall (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyFunction_Type (C var):               Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyFunction_WatchCallback (C type):     Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  148)
* PyFunction_WatchEvent (C type):        Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunctionObject (C type):             Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYFUNCTYPE() (ctypes modülü içinde):   Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyGC_Collect (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyGC_Disable (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyGC_Enable (C function):              Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyGC_IsEnabled (C function):           Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyGen_Check (C function):              Generator Objects.  (line   19)
* PyGen_CheckExact (C function):         Generator Objects.  (line   24)
* PyGen_New (C function):                Generator Objects.  (line   29)
* PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function):    Generator Objects.  (line   35)
* PyGen_Type (C var):                    Generator Objects.  (line   15)
* PyGenObject (C type):                  Generator Objects.  (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef (C type):                  Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyGetSetDef.closure (C member):        Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyGetSetDef.doc (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyGetSetDef.get (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyGetSetDef.name (C member):           Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef.set (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyGILState_Check (C function):         High-level API.     (line  147)
* PyGILState_Ensure (C function):        High-level API.     (line   97)
* PyGILState_GetThisThreadState (C function): High-level API.
                                                             (line  138)
* PyGILState_Release (C function):       High-level API.     (line  128)
* PyHash_FuncDef (C type):               PyHash API.         (line   20)
* PyHash_FuncDef.hash_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   28)
* PyHash_FuncDef.name (C member):        PyHash API.         (line   24)
* PyHash_FuncDef.seed_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line   32)
* PyHash_GetFuncDef (C function):        PyHash API.         (line   38)
* PyImport_AddModule (C function):       Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyImport_AppendInittab (C function):   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  280)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function):  Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  151)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  160)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* PyImport_ExtendInittab (C function):   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  307)
* PyImport_FrozenModules (C var):        Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  271)
* PyImport_GetImporter (C function):     Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  221)
* PyImport_GetMagicNumber (C function):  Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  190)
* PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function):     Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  198)
* PyImport_GetModule (C function):       Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  212)
* PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function):   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  206)
* PyImport_Import (C function):          Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  248)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  234)
* PyImport_ImportModule (C function):    Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function):  Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyImport_ReloadModule (C function):    Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyIndex_Check (C function):            Number Protocol.    (line  306)
* PyInit_modulename (C function):        Building C and C++ Extensions.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function):   Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function): Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function): Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyInstanceMethod_New (C function):     Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyInstanceMethod_Type (C var):         Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyInterpreterConfig (C type):          Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_daemon_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_exec (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_fork (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyInterpreterConfig.check_multi_interp_extensions (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyInterpreterConfig.gil (C member):    Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc (C member): Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyInterpreterState (C type):           High-level API.     (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function): Low-level API.      (line   20)
* PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function): Low-level API.     (line   28)
* PyInterpreterState_Get (C function):   Low-level API.      (line  114)
* PyInterpreterState_GetDict (C function): Low-level API.    (line  136)
* PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function): Low-level API.      (line  126)
* PyInterpreterState_Head (C function):  Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Main (C function):  Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyInterpreterState_New (C function):   Low-level API.      (line   12)
* PyInterpreterState_Next (C function):  Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function): Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyIter_Check (C function):             Iterator Protocol.  (line    8)
* PyIter_Next (C function):              Iterator Protocol.  (line   21)
* PyIter_Send (C function):              Iterator Protocol.  (line   62)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL:              Windows<7>.         (line   31)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>:          Windows<24>.        (line   15)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>:          Install on demand.  (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL:             Install on demand.  (line   12)
* PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG:                      Diagnostics.        (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN:                     Dry Run.            (line    6)
* PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>:                 Install on demand.  (line   14)
* PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH:             Shebang Lines.      (line   58)
* PyList_Append (C function):            List Objects.       (line   91)
* PyList_AsTuple (C function):           List Objects.       (line  124)
* PyList_Check (C function):             List Objects.       (line   16)
* PyList_CheckExact (C function):        List Objects.       (line   21)
* PyList_GET_ITEM (C function):          List Objects.       (line   56)
* PyList_GET_SIZE (C function):          List Objects.       (line   43)
* PyList_GetItem (C function):           Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyList_GetItem (C function) <1>:       List Objects.       (line   47)
* PyList_GetSlice (C function):          List Objects.       (line   97)
* PyList_Insert (C function):            List Objects.       (line   84)
* PyList_New (C function):               List Objects.       (line   26)
* PyList_Reverse (C function):           List Objects.       (line  119)
* PyList_SET_ITEM (C function):          List Objects.       (line   72)
* PyList_SetItem (C function):           Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyList_SetItem (C function) <1>:       List Objects.       (line   61)
* PyList_SetSlice (C function):          List Objects.       (line  105)
* PyList_Size (C function):              List Objects.       (line   37)
* PyList_Sort (C function):              List Objects.       (line  114)
* PyList_Type (C var):                   List Objects.       (line   11)
* PyListObject (C type):                 List Objects.       (line    6)
* PyLong_AS_LONG (C function):           Integer Objects.    (line  132)
* PyLong_AsDouble (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line  289)
* PyLong_AsLong (C function):            Integer Objects.    (line  113)
* PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function): Integer Objects.    (line  141)
* PyLong_AsLongLong (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line  161)
* PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  180)
* PyLong_AsSize_t (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line  226)
* PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function):         Integer Objects.    (line  202)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function):    Integer Objects.    (line  214)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function): Integer Objects.   (line  238)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  271)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function): Integer Objects.   (line  254)
* PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function):         Integer Objects.    (line  300)
* PyLong_Check (C function):             Integer Objects.    (line   23)
* PyLong_CheckExact (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   28)
* PyLong_FromDouble (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   70)
* PyLong_FromLong (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line   33)
* PyLong_FromLongLong (C function):      Integer Objects.    (line   59)
* PyLong_FromSize_t (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   54)
* PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function):       Integer Objects.    (line   49)
* PyLong_FromString (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   75)
* PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function): Integer Objects.    (line  100)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function):  Integer Objects.    (line   43)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line   64)
* PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function):       Integer Objects.    (line  107)
* PyLong_GetInfo (C function):           Integer Objects.    (line  310)
* PyLong_Type (C var):                   Integer Objects.    (line   18)
* PyLongObject (C type):                 Integer Objects.    (line   13)
* PyMapping_Check (C function):          Mapping Protocol.   (line    9)
* PyMapping_DelItem (C function):        Mapping Protocol.   (line   37)
* PyMapping_DelItemString (C function):  Mapping Protocol.   (line   41)
* PyMapping_GetItemString (C function):  Mapping Protocol.   (line   24)
* PyMapping_HasKey (C function):         Mapping Protocol.   (line   47)
* PyMapping_HasKeyString (C function):   Mapping Protocol.   (line   56)
* PyMapping_Items (C function):          Mapping Protocol.   (line   82)
* PyMapping_Keys (C function):           Mapping Protocol.   (line   66)
* PyMapping_Length (C function):         Mapping Protocol.   (line   17)
* PyMapping_SetItemString (C function):  Mapping Protocol.   (line   31)
* PyMapping_Size (C function):           Mapping Protocol.   (line   17)
* PyMapping_Values (C function):         Mapping Protocol.   (line   74)
* PyMappingMethods (C type):             Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_length (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyMem_Calloc (C function):             Memory Interface.   (line   27)
* PyMem_Del (C function):                Memory Interface.   (line   83)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   64)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyMem_Free (C function):               Memory Interface.   (line   55)
* PyMem_GetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyMem_Malloc (C function):             Memory Interface.   (line   18)
* PyMem_New (C macro):                   Memory Interface.   (line   67)
* PyMem_RawCalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyMem_RawFree (C function):            Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyMem_RawMalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyMem_RawRealloc (C function):         Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMem_Realloc (C function):            Memory Interface.   (line   39)
* PyMem_Resize (C macro):                Memory Interface.   (line   73)
* PyMem_SetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (C function):    Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyMemAllocatorDomain (C type):         Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMemAllocatorEx (C type):             Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMember_GetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyMember_SetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyMemberDef (C type):                  Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMemberDef.doc (C member):            Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyMemberDef.flags (C member):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyMemberDef.name (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyMemberDef.offset (C member):         Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyMemberDef.type (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyMemoryView_Check (C function):       MemoryView objects. (line   54)
* PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   35)
* PyMemoryView_FromMemory (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   26)
* PyMemoryView_FromObject (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   10)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (C function):    MemoryView objects. (line   68)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   60)
* PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (C function): MemoryView objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyMethod_Check (C function):           Method Objects.     (line   16)
* PyMethod_Function (C function):        Method Objects.     (line   29)
* PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function):    Method Objects.     (line   33)
* PyMethod_GET_SELF (C function):        Method Objects.     (line   42)
* PyMethod_New (C function):             Method Objects.     (line   22)
* PyMethod_Self (C function):            Method Objects.     (line   38)
* PyMethod_Type (C var):                 Method Objects.     (line   10)
* PyMethodDef (C type):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyMethodDef.ml_doc (C member):         Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyMethodDef.ml_flags (C member):       Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyMethodDef.ml_meth (C member):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyMethodDef.ml_name (C member):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyMODINIT_FUNC (C macro):              Useful macros.      (line   11)
* PyModule_AddFunctions (C function):    Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyModule_AddIntConstant (C function):  Support functions.  (line  117)
* PyModule_AddIntMacro (C macro):        Support functions.  (line  140)
* PyModule_AddObject (C function):       Support functions.  (line   63)
* PyModule_AddObjectRef (C function):    Support functions.  (line   11)
* PyModule_AddStringConstant (C function): Support functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyModule_AddStringMacro (C macro):     Support functions.  (line  148)
* PyModule_AddType (C function):         Support functions.  (line  152)
* PyModule_Check (C function):           Module Objects.     (line   13)
* PyModule_CheckExact (C function):      Module Objects.     (line   18)
* PyModule_Create (C function):          Single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyModule_Create2 (C function):         Single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyModule_ExecDef (C function):         Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function):  Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function): Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyModule_GetDef (C function):          Module Objects.     (line   81)
* PyModule_GetDict (C function):         Module Objects.     (line   45)
* PyModule_GetFilename (C function):     Module Objects.     (line  100)
* PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function): Module Objects.   (line   87)
* PyModule_GetName (C function):         Module Objects.     (line   70)
* PyModule_GetNameObject (C function):   Module Objects.     (line   59)
* PyModule_GetState (C function):        Module Objects.     (line   75)
* PyModule_New (C function):             Module Objects.     (line   40)
* PyModule_NewObject (C function):       Module Objects.     (line   23)
* PyModule_SetDocString (C function):    Low-level module creation functions.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyModule_Type (C var):                 Module Objects.     (line    6)
* PyModuleDef (C type):                  Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyModuleDef_Init (C function):         Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyModuleDef_Slot (C type):             Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member):      Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member):     Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyModuleDef.m_base (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member):        Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member):          Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyModuleDef.m_free (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member):      Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyModuleDef.m_name (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyModuleDef.m_size (C member):         Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member):        Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots.m_reload (C member): Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member):     Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyNumber_Absolute (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   98)
* PyNumber_Add (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line   13)
* PyNumber_And (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line  124)
* PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line  291)
* PyNumber_Check (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line    6)
* PyNumber_Divmod (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line   68)
* PyNumber_Float (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line  264)
* PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function):     Number Protocol.    (line   43)
* PyNumber_Index (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line  272)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  145)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  232)
* PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function): Number Protocol. (line  176)
* PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function):   Number Protocol.    (line  216)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function): Number Protocol.
                                                             (line  166)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function): Number Protocol.    (line  159)
* PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line  248)
* PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function):    Number Protocol.    (line  203)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function): Number Protocol.   (line  196)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function):   Number Protocol.    (line  224)
* PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function): Number Protocol.    (line  152)
* PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function): Number Protocol.  (line  184)
* PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  240)
* PyNumber_Invert (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  105)
* PyNumber_Long (C function):            Number Protocol.    (line  256)
* PyNumber_Lshift (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  110)
* PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function):  Number Protocol.    (line   34)
* PyNumber_Multiply (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   27)
* PyNumber_Negative (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   88)
* PyNumber_Or (C function):              Number Protocol.    (line  138)
* PyNumber_Positive (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   93)
* PyNumber_Power (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line   77)
* PyNumber_Remainder (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line   61)
* PyNumber_Rshift (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  117)
* PyNumber_Subtract (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   20)
* PyNumber_ToBase (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  281)
* PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line   50)
* PyNumber_Xor (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line  131)
* PyNumberMethods (C type):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_add (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_and (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  107)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_bool (C member):    Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_float (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_index (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  140)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  155)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  134)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  166)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  146)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  131)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  137)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  122)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  158)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  143)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_int (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  113)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_invert (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  163)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_negative (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_or (C member):      Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_positive (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_power (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   84)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   78)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  152)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_xor (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyObject (C type):                     Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyObject_AsCharBuffer (C function):    Old Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyObject_ASCII (C function):           Object Protocol.    (line  226)
* PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function): File Objects.      (line   33)
* PyObject_AsReadBuffer (C function):    Old Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyObject_AsWriteBuffer (C function):   Old Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyObject_Bytes (C function):           Object Protocol.    (line  249)
* PyObject_Call (C function):            Object Calling API. (line   57)
* PyObject_CallFunction (C function):    Object Calling API. (line  108)
* PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyObject_CallMethod (C function):      Object Calling API. (line  127)
* PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  174)
* PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  186)
* PyObject_CallNoArgs (C function):      Object Calling API. (line   73)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function):      Calling Python Functions from C.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function) <1>:  Object Calling API. (line   96)
* PyObject_Calloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   29)
* PyObject_CallOneArg (C function):      Object Calling API. (line   85)
* PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function):     Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyObject_CheckReadBuffer (C function): Old Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (C function):   Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyObject_CopyData (C function):        Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyObject_Del (C function):             Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyObject_DelAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  124)
* PyObject_DelAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  130)
* PyObject_DelItem (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  382)
* PyObject_DelItemString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  387)
* PyObject_Dir (C function):             Object Protocol.    (line  392)
* PyObject_Format (C function):          Object Protocol.    (line  203)
* PyObject_Free (C function):            Object allocators.  (line   57)
* PyObject_GC_Del (C function):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (C function):  Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyObject_GC_IsTracked (C function):    Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  113)
* PyObject_GC_New (C macro):             Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyObject_GC_NewVar (C macro):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyObject_GC_Resize (C macro):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyObject_GC_Track (C function):        Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function):      Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  140)
* PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line   70)
* PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line  145)
* PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line  112)
* PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line  162)
* PyObject_GetAIter (C function):        Object Protocol.    (line  416)
* PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyObject_GetAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line   56)
* PyObject_GetAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line   63)
* PyObject_GetBuffer (C function):       Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyObject_GetItem (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  368)
* PyObject_GetItemData (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  458)
* PyObject_GetIter (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  402)
* PyObject_GetTypeData (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  427)
* PyObject_HasAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line   32)
* PyObject_HasAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line   43)
* PyObject_Hash (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  300)
* PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function): Object Protocol. (line  310)
* PyObject_HEAD (C macro):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):          Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyObject_Init (C function):            Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyObject_InitVar (C function):         Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyObject_IS_GC (C function):           Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyObject_IsInstance (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  279)
* PyObject_IsSubclass (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  259)
* PyObject_IsTrue (C function):          Object Protocol.    (line  318)
* PyObject_Length (C function):          Object Protocol.    (line  348)
* PyObject_LengthHint (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  357)
* PyObject_Malloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   20)
* PyObject_New (C macro):                Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyObject_NewVar (C macro):             Allocating Objects on the Heap.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyObject_Not (C function):             Object Protocol.    (line  324)
* PyObject_Print (C function):           Object Protocol.    (line   24)
* PyObject_Realloc (C function):         Object allocators.  (line   41)
* PyObject_Repr (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  213)
* PyObject_RichCompare (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  180)
* PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function): Object Protocol.    (line  192)
* PyObject_SelfIter (C function):        Object Protocol.    (line  410)
* PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyObject_SetAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line   82)
* PyObject_SetAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line   94)
* PyObject_SetItem (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  375)
* PyObject_Size (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  348)
* PyObject_Str (C function):             Object Protocol.    (line  237)
* PyObject_Type (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  330)
* PyObject_TypeCheck (C function):       Object Protocol.    (line  343)
* PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro):           Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyObject_Vectorcall (C function):      Object Calling API. (line  198)
* PyObject_VectorcallDict (C function):  Object Calling API. (line  212)
* PyObject_VectorcallMethod (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  228)
* PyObject._ob_next (C member):          PyObject Slots.     (line   50)
* PyObject._ob_prev (C member):          PyObject Slots.     (line   50)
* PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member):         PyObject Slots.     (line   13)
* PyObject.ob_type (C member):           PyObject Slots.     (line   26)
* PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type):       Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyOS_AfterFork (C function):           Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function):     Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function):    Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyOS_BeforeFork (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyOS_CheckStack (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyOS_double_to_string (C function):    String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  118)
* PyOS_FSPath (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyOS_getsig (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyOS_InputHook (C var):                The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  158)
* PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C var):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  170)
* PyOS_setsig (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  108)
* PyOS_sighandler_t (C type):            Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  100)
* PyOS_snprintf (C function):            String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyOS_stricmp (C function):             String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  152)
* PyOS_string_to_double (C function):    String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyOS_strnicmp (C function):            String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  157)
* PyOS_strtol (C function):              String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyOS_strtoul (C function):             String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyOS_vsnprintf (C function):           String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyPreConfig (C type):                  PyPreConfig.        (line    6)
* PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.  (line   18)
* PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.    (line   12)
* PyPreConfig.allocator (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line   26)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line   71)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale_warn (C member): PyPreConfig.  (line   82)
* PyPreConfig.configure_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.      (line   60)
* PyPreConfig.dev_mode (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line   88)
* PyPreConfig.isolated (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line   95)
* PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding (C member): PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyPreConfig.parse_argv (C member):     PyPreConfig.        (line  120)
* PyPreConfig.use_environment (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line  129)
* PyPreConfig.utf8_mode (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line  136)
* PyProperty_Type (C var):               Descriptor Objects. (line    9)
* PyRun_AnyFile (C function):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyRun_File (C function):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  213)
* PyRun_FileEx (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  219)
* PyRun_FileExFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  233)
* PyRun_FileFlags (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  226)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  143)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  129)
* PyRun_SimpleFile (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyRun_SimpleString (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   78)
* PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   84)
* PyRun_String (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  194)
* PyRun_StringFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  200)
* PySendResult (C type):                 Iterator Protocol.  (line   55)
* PySeqIter_Check (C function):          Iterator Objects.   (line   18)
* PySeqIter_New (C function):            Iterator Objects.   (line   23)
* PySeqIter_Type (C var):                Iterator Objects.   (line   12)
* PySequence_Check (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line    6)
* PySequence_Concat (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   21)
* PySequence_Contains (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   99)
* PySequence_Count (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line   92)
* PySequence_DelItem (C function):       Sequence Protocol.  (line   75)
* PySequence_DelSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   86)
* PySequence_Fast (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  128)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line  152)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line  143)
* PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function):    Sequence Protocol.  (line  159)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function):       Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  117)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function) <1>:   Sequence Protocol.  (line   51)
* PySequence_GetSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   57)
* PySequence_Index (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line  105)
* PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line   35)
* PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line   43)
* PySequence_ITEM (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  169)
* PySequence_Length (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   14)
* PySequence_List (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  111)
* PySequence_Repeat (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   28)
* PySequence_SetItem (C function):       Sequence Protocol.  (line   64)
* PySequence_SetSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   80)
* PySequence_Size (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line   14)
* PySequence_Tuple (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line  118)
* PySequenceMethods (C type):            Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   50)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   19)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   60)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   68)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   79)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member):  Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   34)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   26)
* PySet_Add (C function):                Set Objects.        (line  119)
* PySet_Check (C function):              Set Objects.        (line   45)
* PySet_CheckExact (C function):         Set Objects.        (line   61)
* PySet_Clear (C function):              Set Objects.        (line  152)
* PySet_Contains (C function):           Set Objects.        (line  110)
* PySet_Discard (C function):            Set Objects.        (line  134)
* PySet_GET_SIZE (C function):           Set Objects.        (line  106)
* PySet_New (C function):                Set Objects.        (line   79)
* PySet_Pop (C function):                Set Objects.        (line  144)
* PySet_Size (C function):               Set Objects.        (line   98)
* PySet_Type (C var):                    Set Objects.        (line   31)
* PySetObject (C type):                  Set Objects.        (line   19)
* PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function):     Signal Handling<2>. (line   67)
* PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function):    Slice Objects.      (line  100)
* PySlice_Check (C function):            Slice Objects.      (line   11)
* PySlice_GetIndices (C function):       Slice Objects.      (line   28)
* PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function):     Slice Objects.      (line   45)
* PySlice_New (C function):              Slice Objects.      (line   16)
* PySlice_Type (C var):                  Slice Objects.      (line    6)
* PySlice_Unpack (C function):           Slice Objects.      (line   87)
* PyState_AddModule (C function):        Module lookup.      (line   25)
* PyState_FindModule (C function):       Module lookup.      (line   15)
* PyState_RemoveModule (C function):     Module lookup.      (line   48)
* PyStatus (C type):                     PyStatus.           (line    6)
* PyStatus_Error (C function):           PyStatus.           (line   34)
* PyStatus_Exception (C function):       PyStatus.           (line   51)
* PyStatus_Exit (C function):            PyStatus.           (line   45)
* PyStatus_IsError (C function):         PyStatus.           (line   57)
* PyStatus_IsExit (C function):          PyStatus.           (line   61)
* PyStatus_NoMemory (C function):        PyStatus.           (line   41)
* PyStatus_Ok (C function):              PyStatus.           (line   30)
* PyStatus.err_msg (C member):           PyStatus.           (line   20)
* PyStatus.exitcode (C member):          PyStatus.           (line   16)
* PyStatus.func (C member):              PyStatus.           (line   24)
* PyStructSequence_Desc (C type):        Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.doc (C member):  Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.fields (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.n_in_sequence (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyStructSequence_Field (C type):       Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyStructSequence_Field.doc (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyStructSequence_Field.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyStructSequence_InitType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyStructSequence_New (C function):     Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyStructSequence_NewType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C var): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* PySys_AddAuditHook (C function):       System Functions.   (line  156)
* PySys_AddWarnOption (C function):      System Functions.   (line   28)
* PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode (C function): System Functions. (line   40)
* PySys_AddXOption (C function):         System Functions.   (line  105)
* PySys_Audit (C function):              System Functions.   (line  129)
* PySys_FormatStderr (C function):       System Functions.   (line   98)
* PySys_FormatStdout (C function):       System Functions.   (line   90)
* PySys_GetObject (C function):          System Functions.   (line   11)
* PySys_GetXOptions (C function):        System Functions.   (line  120)
* PySys_ResetWarnOptions (C function):   System Functions.   (line   23)
* PySys_SetArgv (C function):            Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PySys_SetArgv (C function) <1>:        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  321)
* PySys_SetArgvEx (C function):          Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PySys_SetArgvEx (C function) <1>:      Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  269)
* PySys_SetObject (C function):          System Functions.   (line   17)
* PySys_SetPath (C function):            System Functions.   (line   56)
* PySys_WriteStderr (C function):        System Functions.   (line   85)
* PySys_WriteStdout (C function):        System Functions.   (line   68)
* Python 3000:                           Sözlük.             (line 1192)
* Python Editor:                         IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0007#documentation-strings: Documentation<24>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0249#threadsafety: Module constants.
                                                             (line  108)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0453#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0477#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0564#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0626#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers: Code Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0632#migration-advice: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 0683: Reference Counting. (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 1:    New Development Process.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 1 <1>: New Development Process.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 1 <2>: Sözlük.            (line 1157)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 100:  Unicode<2>.         (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11:   Build Changes<2>.   (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <1>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <2>: Unsupported Operating Systems.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <3>: Library Changes.  (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <4>: Build<22>.        (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <5>: Build<22>.        (line  107)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <6>: Build<58>.        (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <7>: Build Requirements.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <8>: Using Python on Windows.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11 <9>: Other Platforms.  (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 11#tier-3: Build Changes<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 201:  New Development Process.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 205:  PEP 205 Weak References.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 205 <1>: weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  353)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 207:  PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 207 <1>: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 208:  PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 217:  PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 218:  PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 218 <1>: Other Language Changes<14>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 218 <2>: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 227:  PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 227 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 227 <2>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 229:  PEP 229 New Build System.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 230:  PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 232:  PEP 232 Function Attributes.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 234:  PEP 234 Iterators.  (line  124)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 235:  Introduction<8>.    (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 236:  PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 236 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 236 <2>: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 236 <3>: Future statements.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 236 <4>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 237:  Integers.           (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 237 <1>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 237 <2>: Other Language Changes<14>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 237 <3>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 237 <4>: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 237 <5>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line  189)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 238:  Integers.           (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 238 <1>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 238 <2>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 238 <3>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 238 <4>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 238 <5>: The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  378)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 238 <6>: Sözlük.          (line  503)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 241:  PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 241 <1>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 241 <2>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 243:  PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 246:  Documentation<23>.  (line   48)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 246 <1>: PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 247:  hmac<3>.            (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249:  sqlite3.            (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <1>: The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <2>: The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <3>: Library<26>.     (line  121)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <4>: Library<29>.     (line  296)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <5>: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <6>: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <7>: Module functions.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <8>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  705)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <9>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  708)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <10>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  720)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <11>: Exceptions<5>.  (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <12>: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <13>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 249 <14>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 252:  Related Links.      (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 252 <1>: Related Links.   (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 252 <2>: Implementing Descriptors.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 253:  Old and New Classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 253 <1>: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 253 <2>: Related Links.   (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 253 <3>: Related Links.   (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 253 <4>: Related Links.   (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 255:  PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 255 <1>: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 255 <2>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 255 <3>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 255 <4>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 255 <5>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 261:  Unicode Changes.    (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 261 <1>: Unicode Changes. (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 263:  Other Language Changes<13>.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 263 <1>: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 263 <2>: Core and Builtins<32>.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 263 <3>: Introduction<8>. (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 263 <4>: Tokenizing Input.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 263 <5>: Tokenizing Input.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 263 <6>: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 264:  Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 273:  PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 273 <1>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 273 <2>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 273 <3>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 274:  New Syntax.         (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 277:  PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 278:  PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 278 <1>: Sözlük.          (line 1458)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 279:  PEP 279 enumerate.  (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 282:  PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 282 <1>: PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 282 <2>: Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 282 <3>: Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 285:  PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 285 <1>: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 288:  PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 289:  PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 289 <1>: Other Language Changes<14>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 289 <2>: Python documentation.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 292:  PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 292 <1>: Template strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 293:  PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3000: Python 3 0.         (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 301:  PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302:  Using importlib as the Implementation of Import.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <1>: Visible Changes. (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <2>: Porting Python code.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <3>: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <4>: New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  290)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <5>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <6>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <7>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <8>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <9>: The import system.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <10>: References.     (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <11>: linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <12>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1324)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <13>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1334)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <14>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <15>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <16>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <17>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <18>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  122)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <19>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  143)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <20>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <21>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <22>: Introduction<8>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <23>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <24>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  180)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <25>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  205)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <26>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  277)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 302 <27>: Sözlük.         (line  866)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 305:  PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 305 <1>: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 307:  PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 307 <1>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 307 <2>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 307 <3>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 308:  PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 308 <1>: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 308 <2>: Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 309:  PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3100: Python 3 0.         (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3101: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3101 <1>: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3101 <2>: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
                                                             (line  161)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3101 <3>: Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3101 <4>: Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3102: New Syntax.         (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3104: New Syntax.         (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3104 <1>: The nonlocal statement.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3105: Print Is A Function.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3105 <1>: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3105 <2>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3106: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3107: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3107 <1>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3107 <2>: New Syntax.     (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3107 <3>: Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3107 <4>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3108: Library Changes.    (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3108 <1>: Library Changes.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3108 <2>: Library Changes.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3109: Changed Syntax.     (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3109 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3110: Changed Syntax.     (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3110 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3110 <2>: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3111: Builtins.           (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3112: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3112 <1>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3113: Removed Syntax.     (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3114: Operators And Special Methods.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3115: types<6>.           (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3115 <1>: Changed Syntax. (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3115 <2>: Preparing the class namespace.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3115 <3>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3115 <4>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3115 <5>: Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  194)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3116: Optimizations<9>.   (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3116 <1>: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3116 <2>: Sözlük.         (line 1458)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118: Bant dışı veri tamponlarıyla Pickle protokolü 5.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <1>: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <2>: API changes.    (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <3>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <4>: Build and C API Changes<6>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <5>: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <6>: Library<66>.    (line   99)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <7>: Library<71>.    (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <8>: Library<100>.   (line  958)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3118 <9>: Memory Views.   (line  114)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3119: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3119 <1>: Customizing instance and subclass checks.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3119 <2>: Examples and Recipes.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3119 <3>: abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3119 <4>: Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  269)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3119 <5>: Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  289)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3120: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3120 <1>: Lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3120 <2>: Introduction<8>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3121: Build and C API Changes<6>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3121 <1>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  230)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3121 <2>: Initializing C modules.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3123: Build and C API Changes<6>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3127: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3129: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3129 <1>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  169)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3129 <2>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3131: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3131 <1>: Library<55>.    (line  599)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3131 <2>: Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3131 <3>: Identifiers and keywords.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3132: New Syntax.         (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3132 <1>: Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  158)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3134: Changed Syntax.     (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3134 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3134 <2>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3134 <3>: Library<29>.    (line   48)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3134 <4>: Temel sınıflar. (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3135: Builtins.           (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3135 <1>: Creating the class object.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3137: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3138: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 314:  PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3141: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3141 <1>: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3141 <2>: abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3144: ipaddress<6>.       (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <1>: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <2>: “Derlenmiş” Python dosyaları.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <3>: Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line  151)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <4>: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <5>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <6>: Introduction<8>.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <7>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <8>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <9>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <10>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <11>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <12>: Command-line use.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <13>: Public functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <14>: Public functions.
                                                             (line  120)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <15>: Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  200)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3147 <16>: How do I create a pyc file?.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3148: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3148 <1>: Module Functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3149: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3149 <1>: Core and Builtins<96>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3149 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3151: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3151 <1>: İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3151 <2>: Exceptions<12>. (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3151 <3>: select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3151 <4>: resource — Resource usage information.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3151 <5>: Standard Exceptions.
                                                             (line  181)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3154: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3154 <1>: pickle<4>.      (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3154 <2>: Library<55>.    (line 1279)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3154 <3>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3155: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3155 <1>: Sözlük.         (line 1220)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3156: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3156 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3156 <2>: asyncio<10>.    (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3156 <3>: asyncio<10>.    (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3156 <4>: selectors<2>.   (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 318:  PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 318 <1>: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 318 <2>: Other Language Changes<14>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 318 <3>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  166)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 318 <4>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 322:  PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 322 <1>: Other Language Changes<14>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 324:  PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 324 <1>: subprocess — Subprocess management.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 325:  PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 327:  The Context type.   (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328:  Porting Python code.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <1>: Removed Syntax.  (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <2>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <3>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <4>: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <5>: Other Language Changes<14>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <6>: References.      (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <7>: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2153)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <8>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 328 <9>: Introduction<8>. (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 331:  PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 333:  The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 333 <1>: The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333: New Modules<2>.     (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <1>: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <2>: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <3>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <4>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <5>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <6>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <7>: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <8>: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <9>: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <10>: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <11>: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <12>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  237)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <13>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  255)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <14>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  262)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <15>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  271)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <16>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  314)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <17>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333 <18>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams <1>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333#optional-platform-specific-file-handling: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 3333#the-start-response-callable: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 338:  PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 338 <1>: Interface options.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 338 <2>: References.      (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 338 <3>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  178)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 339:  Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 341:  PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 342:  PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 342 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  140)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 342 <2>: Porting to Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 342 <3>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 342 <4>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 342 <5>: Passing values into a generator.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 342 <6>: Python documentation.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343:  The contextlib module.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343 <2>: The contextlib module<2>.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343 <3>: With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343 <4>: The with statement.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343 <5>: Using a context manager as a function decorator.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343 <6>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 343 <7>: Sözlük.          (line  281)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 347:  Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 352:  Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 352 <1>: Deprecations and Removals.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 352 <2>: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 353:  Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 353 <1>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 353 <2>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 353 <3>: Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 353 <4>: C API<35>.       (line   78)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 353 <5>: Types.           (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 356:  What’s New in Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 357:  PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 361:  What’s New in Python 2 6.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 362:  PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 362 <1>: Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  381)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 362 <2>: Sözlük.          (line   95)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 362 <3>: Sözlük.          (line 1104)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 366:  Visible Changes.    (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 366 <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 366 <2>: References.      (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 366 <3>: References.      (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 366 <4>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 366 <5>: Introduction<8>. (line   67)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 370:  PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 370 <1>: Library<27>.     (line  605)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 370 <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  163)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 370 <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  200)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 370 <4>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  212)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 370 <5>: Command Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 371:  PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 372:  PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 372 <1>: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 373:  The Future for Python 2 x.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 373 <1>: How stable is Python?.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 378:  PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 378 <1>: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 378 <2>: Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line  144)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 380:  PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 380 <1>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 380#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values: The STOP_ITERATION event.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 383:  Documentation<24>.  (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 383 <1>: Error Handlers.  (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 383 <2>: Socket families. (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 383 <3>: Locale Encoding. (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 383 <4>: Locale Encoding. (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 383 <5>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 384:  Removed<6>.         (line   53)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 384 <1>: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 384 <2>: C API<29>.       (line  100)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 385:  Code Repository.    (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 387:  Uyarılar.           (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 387 <1>: Uyarılar.        (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 387 <2>: C API Stability. (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 387 <3>: Stable ABI.      (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 387 <4>: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 389:  PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 389 <1>: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 391:  PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 391 <1>: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 392:  What’s New In Python 3 2.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393:  Removed<6>.         (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <1>: Python 3 9’a Taşıma<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <2>: Kaldırılanlar<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <3>: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <4>: Functionality.   (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <5>: Performance and resource usage.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <6>: Optimizations<7>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <7>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <8>: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <9>: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <10>: Porting C code. (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <11>: C API<27>.      (line  143)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <12>: Encodings and Unicode.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <13>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1221)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 393 <14>: Unicode Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 397:  PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 397 <1>: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 397 <2>: Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 398:  What’s New In Python 3 3.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 4:    Library Changes.    (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 405:  PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 405 <1>: venv — Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 409:  PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 411:  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  999)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 411 <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1009)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 411 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1691)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 411 <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1711)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 411 <4>: Sözlük.          (line 1188)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 412:  PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 412 <1>: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 414:  PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 414 <1>: String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 418:  time<7>.            (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420:  PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <1>: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <2>: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <3>: Core and Builtins<86>.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <4>: The import system.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <5>: Namespace packages.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <6>: __path__ attributes on modules.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <7>: __path__ attributes on modules.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <8>: References.      (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <9>: References.      (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <10>: References.     (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <11>: Introduction<8>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <12>: Sözlük.         (line 1014)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 420 <13>: Sözlük.         (line 1161)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 421:  SimpleNamespace.    (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 421 <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1115)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 421 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1120)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 424:  Other Language Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 424 <1>: operator<3>.     (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 428:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 428 <1>: pathlib<9>.      (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 428 <2>: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 429:  What’s New In Python 3 4.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 432:  Other CPython implementation changes.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 432 <1>: Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line  312)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 432 <2>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 432 <3>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 434:  PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 434 <1>: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 435:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 435 <1>: enum<8>.         (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 435 <2>: enum<8>.         (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 436:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  120)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 436 <1>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 436 <2>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 441:  zipapp<2>.          (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 441 <1>: zipapp<2>.       (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442:  Kaldırılanlar.      (line   68)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <2>: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <3>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <4>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <5>: C API<42>.       (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <6>: gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  254)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <7>: Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 442 <8>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1628)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 443:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 443 <1>: functools<5>.    (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 443 <2>: Sözlük.          (line  593)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 445:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 445 <1>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 445 <2>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 445 <3>: Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 446:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 446 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 446 <2>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 446 <3>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448:  PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <1>: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <2>: Documentation<71>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <3>: Documentation<75>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <4>: Core and Builtins<89>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <5>: Core and Builtins<92>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <6>: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <7>: Calls.           (line  122)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 448 <8>: Expression lists.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 450:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 450 <1>: statistics<5>.   (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 450 <2>: statistics<5>.   (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451:  zipimport.          (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <1>: zipimport<2>.    (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <2>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <3>: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <4>: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <5>: Library<27>.     (line  457)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <6>: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <7>: References.      (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1253)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <9>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <10>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <11>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <12>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  168)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <13>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  186)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <14>: Introduction<8>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 451 <15>: Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <2>: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <3>: Documentation Changes.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <4>: ensurepip<2>.    (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <5>: venv<6>.         (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <6>: Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <7>: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <8>: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <9>: Documentation Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 453 <10>: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 454:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 454 <1>: tracemalloc<4>.  (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 454 <2>: tracemalloc<4>.  (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 456:  Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 456 <1>: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 456 <2>: PyHash API.      (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 461:  PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 461 <1>: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 461 <2>: printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line  198)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 465:  PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 465 <1>: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 465 <2>: Build and C API Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 465 <3>: Tools/Demos<52>. (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 466:  PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 466 <1>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 466 <2>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 466 <3>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 468:  PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 468 <1>: Library<73>.     (line   87)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 468 <2>: OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 471:  PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 471 <1>: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 471 <2>: Library<99>.     (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475:  PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <1>: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <2>: Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <3>: Library<64>.     (line  228)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <4>: Library<97>.     (line  143)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <5>: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1471)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <6>: İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <7>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  394)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <8>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  703)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <9>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  877)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <10>: Process Management.
                                                             (line  915)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <11>: Fonksiyonlar<2>.
                                                             (line  294)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <12>: Socket Objects. (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <13>: Socket Objects. (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <14>: Socket Objects. (line  245)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <15>: Socket Objects. (line  259)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <16>: Socket Objects. (line  335)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <17>: Socket Objects. (line  409)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <18>: Socket Objects. (line  428)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <19>: Socket Objects. (line  447)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <20>: Socket Objects. (line  491)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <21>: select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <22>: /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <23>: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <24>: Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <25>: Kqueue Objects. (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <26>: Classes<3>.     (line  133)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <27>: Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  586)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 475 <28>: Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  605)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 476:  PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 477:  PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 478:  What’s New In Python 3 5.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479:  Changes in Python Behavior.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <1>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <2>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <3>: Library<55>.     (line 1267)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <4>: Library<59>.     (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <5>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <6>: Library<67>.     (line   95)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <7>: Library<80>.     (line   80)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <8>: Library<86>.     (line  326)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <9>: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  270)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <10>: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  272)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 479 <11>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 483:  PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 483 <1>: Sözlük.          (line  603)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484:  PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <1>: New Features Related to Type Hints.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <2>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <3>: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <4>: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <5>: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <6>: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <7>: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <8>: ast<2>.          (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <9>: ast<2>.          (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <10>: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <11>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <12>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <13>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <14>: Fonksiyon Ek Açıklamaları.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <15>: Emulating generic types.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <16>: Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <17>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  151)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <18>: GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <19>: NewType.        (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <20>: Nominal vs structural subtyping.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <21>: Nominal vs structural subtyping.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <22>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <23>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  280)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <24>: Root nodes.     (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <25>: ast Helpers.    (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <26>: ast Helpers.    (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <27>: Compiler Flags. (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <28>: Sözlük.         (line   60)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <29>: Sözlük.         (line  528)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <30>: Sözlük.         (line  604)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <31>: Sözlük.         (line 1433)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <32>: Sözlük.         (line 1450)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484 <33>: Sözlük.         (line 1481)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 484#annotating-instance-and-class-methods: PEP 673 Self type.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 485:  PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 485 <1>: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 485 <2>: Library<95>.     (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 485 <3>: Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  143)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 485 <4>: Classification functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 486:  PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 486 <1>: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 486 <2>: Windows<75>.     (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 487:  PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 487 <1>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 487 <2>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 487 <3>: Changes in the Python API<4>.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 487 <4>: Documentation<61>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 487 <5>: Documentation<68>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 487 <6>: Core and Builtins<78>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488:  PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <1>: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <2>: Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <3>: Core and Builtins<96>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <4>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <5>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <6>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <7>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <8>: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <9>: Introduction<8>. (line   79)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <10>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <11>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 488 <12>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489:  PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <1>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <2>: Build and C API Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <3>: Library<23>.     (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <4>: Library<39>.     (line   64)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <5>: Library<39>.     (line   79)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <6>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <7>: Library<40>.     (line   68)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <8>: Library<40>.     (line  177)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <9>: Core and Builtins<40>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <10>: Library<41>.    (line  103)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <11>: C API<33>.      (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <12>: C API<33>.      (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <13>: C API<33>.      (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <14>: C API<33>.      (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <15>: C API<33>.      (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <16>: C API<33>.      (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <17>: C API<33>.      (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <18>: C API<33>.      (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <19>: C API<33>.      (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <20>: C API<33>.      (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <21>: C API<33>.      (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <22>: Library<42>.    (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <23>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <24>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <25>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <26>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <27>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <28>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <29>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <30>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <31>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <32>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <33>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <34>: Library<43>.    (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <35>: Library<43>.    (line   78)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <36>: Library<43>.    (line  423)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <37>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <38>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <39>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <40>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <41>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <42>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <43>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <44>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <45>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <46>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <47>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <48>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <49>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <50>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <51>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <52>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <53>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <54>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <55>: Core and Builtins<46>.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <56>: Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <57>: Introduction<8>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <58>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <59>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  298)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <60>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  317)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <61>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  323)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <62>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <63>: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <64>: Building C and C++ Extensions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <65>: Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 489 <66>: Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492:  PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <1>: New Keywords.    (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <2>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <3>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <4>: New Keywords<2>. (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <5>: Changes in the C API<4>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <6>: Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <7>: Library<81>.     (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <8>: Library<87>.     (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <9>: Core and Builtins<93>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <10>: Awaitable Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <11>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <12>: The async with statement.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <13>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  166)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <14>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <15>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <16>: Sözlük.         (line  101)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <17>: Sözlük.         (line  133)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <18>: Sözlük.         (line  140)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <19>: Sözlük.         (line  149)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <20>: Sözlük.         (line  168)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <21>: Sözlük.         (line  310)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 492 <22>: Sözlük.         (line  317)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 493:  PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 494:  What’s New In Python 3 6.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 495:  PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 495 <1>: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 495 <2>: Library<79>.     (line   96)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 495 <3>: Using ZoneInfo.  (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 498:  PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 498 <1>: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 498 <2>: Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line  283)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 498 <3>: f-strings.       (line  154)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 498 <4>: Sözlük.          (line  441)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 5:    PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 5 <1>: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 506:  secrets.            (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 506 <1>: Library<82>.     (line   60)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 506 <2>: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 511:  Changes in the Python API<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 514:  Windows py exe launcher improvements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 514 <1>: Windows<24>.     (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 514 <2>: Windows<67>.     (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 514 <3>: From the command-line.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 515:  fractions<2>.       (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 515 <1>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 515 <2>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 515 <3>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 515 <4>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 515 <5>: Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 515 <6>: fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519:  PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519 <1>: Library<79>.     (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519 <2>: Core and Builtins<80>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519 <3>: Library<81>.     (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519 <4>: Library<81>.     (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519 <5>: Library<81>.     (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519 <6>: C API<63>.       (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 519 <7>: Sözlük.          (line 1142)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 520:  PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523:  New Features<2>.    (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <2>: Python 3 9’a Taşıma<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <3>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <4>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <5>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <6>: Tools/Demos<34>. (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <7>: Tools/Demos<38>. (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <8>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <9>: Internal Frames. (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <10>: Low-level API.  (line  169)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 523 <11>: Low-level API.  (line  178)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 524:  Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 524 <1>: os<7>.           (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 524 <2>: os<7>.           (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 524 <3>: Library<78>.     (line  150)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 524 <4>: Library<78>.     (line  154)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 524 <5>: Random numbers<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525:  PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525 <1>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525 <2>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  166)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525 <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  997)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525 <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1687)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525 <6>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 525 <7>: Sözlük.          (line  134)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526:  Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <1>: ast<2>.          (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <2>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <3>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <4>: typing<7>.       (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <5>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <6>: Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <7>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  155)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <8>: Special forms.   (line  162)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <9>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <10>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  240)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <11>: dataclasses — Data Classes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <12>: Class variables.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <13>: ast Helpers.    (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <14>: Compiler Flags. (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <15>: Sözlük.         (line   60)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 526 <16>: Sözlük.         (line 1482)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 528:  PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 528 <1>: UTF-8 mode.      (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 528 <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  172)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 528 <3>: PyConfig.        (line  513)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529:  Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <1>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <2>: Documentation<24>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <3>: Library<50>.     (line  619)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <4>: Windows<62>.     (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <5>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  339)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <6>: UTF-8 mode.      (line   37)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <7>: Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  296)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  784)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <9>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1763)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <10>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 529 <11>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  154)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 530:  PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 530 <1>: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 530 <2>: Core and Builtins<77>.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 530 <3>: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538:  PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <1>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <2>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <3>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <4>: Documentation<51>.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <5>: Documentation<52>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <6>: Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <7>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  408)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <8>: General Options. (line   88)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <9>: locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  523)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 538 <10>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 539:  PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 539 <1>: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 539 <2>: C API<52>.       (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 539 <3>: Thread Specific Storage TSS API.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 540:  PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 540 <1>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 540 <2>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 540 <3>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 540 <4>: locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  523)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 540 <5>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 544:  typing<6>.          (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 544 <1>: Nominal vs structural subtyping.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 544 <2>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 545:  PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 545 <1>: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552:  Other CPython Implementation Changes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552 <1>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552 <2>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552 <3>: Library<55>.     (line  794)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552 <4>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552 <5>: Introduction<8>. (line   87)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552 <6>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 552 <7>: PyConfig.        (line  262)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 553:  PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 553 <1>: Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 554:  PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 554 <1>: A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 557:  dataclasses<3>.     (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 557 <1>: dataclasses — Data Classes.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560:  PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560 <1>: types<3>.        (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560 <2>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560 <3>: Resolving MRO entries.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560 <4>: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560 <5>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560 <6>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 560 <7>: Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 562:  PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 562 <1>: Library<62>.     (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 562 <2>: Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 562 <3>: Customizing module attribute access.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563:  PEP 563 may not be the future.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <1>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <2>: Library<36>.     (line  300)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <3>: Core and Builtins<41>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <4>: Future statements.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <5>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <6>: Constant.        (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <7>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line  124)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 563 <8>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 564:  PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 564 <1>: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 564 <2>: time<4>.         (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 564 <3>: Library<64>.     (line  299)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 565:  PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 565 <1>: Uyarılar.        (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 566:  Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567:  contextvars.        (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <1>: asyncio<6>.      (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <2>: Documentation<51>.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <3>: Documentation<53>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <4>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <5>: contextvars — Context Variables.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <6>: Scheduling callbacks.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <7>: Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <8>: Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 567 <9>: Future Object.   (line  104)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 570:  Yalnızca konumsal parametreler.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 570 <1>: Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line  163)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 570 <2>: Core and Builtins<51>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 570 <3>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572:  Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <1>: Atama ifadeleri. (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <2>: CPython bayt kodu değişiklikleri<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <3>: Core and Builtins<23>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <4>: Documentation<42>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <5>: Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line  184)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <6>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <7>: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <8>: Assignment expressions.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <9>: Capture Patterns.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 572 <10>: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 573:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 573 <1>: Yeni Özellikler<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 573 <2>: Core and Builtins<43>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 573 <3>: C API<36>.       (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 574:  Bant dışı veri tamponlarıyla Pickle protokolü 5.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 574 <1>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 574 <2>: Example<4>.      (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 578:  PEP 578 Python Çalışma Zamanı Denetim Kancaları.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 578 <1>: Audit events table.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 578 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 578 <3>: System Functions.
                                                             (line  178)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <1>: Sözlük Birleştirme ve Güncelleme Operatörleri.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <2>: Library<45>.     (line  192)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <3>: Library<45>.     (line  195)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <4>: Library<45>.     (line  209)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <5>: Library<46>.     (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <6>: Library<46>.     (line   62)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <7>: Library<46>.     (line  120)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <8>: Library<46>.     (line  142)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <9>: ChainMap objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <10>: defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <11>: OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <12>: weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  201)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <13>: weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  221)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <14>: Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  233)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <15>: Process Parameters.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 584 <16>: Process Parameters.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <1>: Standart Koleksiyonlardaki Tür Dayatma Jenerikleri.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <2>: Library<24>.     (line  158)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <3>: Library<33>.     (line  123)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <4>: Documentation<30>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <5>: GenericAlias objesinin Özel Öznitelikleri.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <6>: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <7>: Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  176)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <8>: Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  127)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <9>: Deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <10>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <11>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <12>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <13>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <14>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <15>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <16>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <17>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <18>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <19>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <20>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <21>: Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <22>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <23>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <24>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <25>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <26>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <27>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <28>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <29>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <30>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <31>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <32>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <33>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <34>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <35>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <36>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <37>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <38>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <39>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <40>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <41>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <42>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <43>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <44>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <45>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <46>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 585 <47>: Sözlük.         (line  604)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 586:  typing<3>.          (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 586 <1>: typing<5>.       (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 586 <2>: typing<6>.       (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 586 <3>: Special forms.   (line  147)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 587:  Deprecated<4>.      (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 587 <1>: PEP 587 Python Başlatma Yapılandırması.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 587 <2>: PEP 587 Python Başlatma Yapılandırması.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 587 <3>: C API<27>.       (line  125)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 587 <4>: Core and Builtins<49>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 587 <5>: C API<43>.       (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 587 <6>: Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 589:  typing<6>.          (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 589 <1>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  435)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590:  Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <1>: Optimizations<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <2>: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <3>: Optimizasyonlar. (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <4>: PEP 590 Vectorcall CPython için hızlı arama protokolü.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <5>: Core and Builtins<25>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <6>: Library<29>.     (line   69)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <7>: Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <8>: Core and Builtins<33>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <9>: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  348)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <10>: Core and Builtins<36>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <11>: Core and Builtins<36>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <12>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <13>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <14>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <15>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <16>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <17>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <18>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <19>: C API<43>.      (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 590 <20>: The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 591:  typing<6>.          (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 591 <1>: Special forms.   (line  204)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 591 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  335)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 593:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 593 <1>: typing<4>.       (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 593 <2>: Library<47>.     (line   91)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 593 <3>: Special forms.   (line  360)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 593 <4>: Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594:  Pending Removal in Python 3 13.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <1>: asynchat and asyncore.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <2>: smtpd.           (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <4>: Modules.         (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <5>: Library<26>.     (line  102)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <6>: Library<27>.     (line  684)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <7>: Library<28>.     (line   94)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <8>: Library<29>.     (line  124)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <9>: Library<29>.     (line  150)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <10>: Tests<25>.      (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <11>: nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <12>: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <13>: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <14>: smtpd — SMTP Server.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594 <15>: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#aifc: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#audioop: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#cgi: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#cgitb: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#chunk: chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#crypt: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#imghdr: imghdr — Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#mailcap: mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#msilib: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#nis: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#ossaudiodev: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#pipes: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#sndhdr: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#spwd: spwd — The shadow password database.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#sunau: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#telnetlib: telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#uu-and-the-uu-encoding: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 594#xdrlib: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 596:  Python 3 9’daki Yenilikler.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 597:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 597 <1>: Library<37>.     (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 597 <2>: Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 602:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 602 <1>: How stable is Python?.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 604:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 604 <1>: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 604 <2>: Library<40>.     (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 604 <3>: Documentation<39>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 604 <4>: Sendika Türü.    (line  105)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 604 <5>: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <1>: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <2>: Library<35>.     (line  691)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <3>: Library<36>.     (line   95)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <4>: Core and Builtins<39>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <5>: Library<40>.     (line   25)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <6>: Library<40>.     (line  119)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <7>: Annotating callable objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <8>: User-defined generic types.
                                                             (line  179)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <9>: Special forms.   (line  118)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <10>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  406)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 612 <11>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 613:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 613 <1>: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 613 <2>: Library<42>.     (line   98)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 613 <3>: Special types.   (line  218)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 614:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 614 <1>: Başka Dil Değişiklikleri.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 614 <2>: Core and Builtins<45>.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 614 <3>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 614 <4>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 615:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 615 <1>: zoneinfo.        (line   37)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 615 <2>: Library<44>.     (line   54)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 615 <3>: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 616:  Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 616 <1>: Önekleri ve Sonekleri Kaldırmak için Yeni Dize Yöntemleri.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 616 <2>: Core and Builtins<44>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617:  PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <1>: Modules.         (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <2>: Parenthesized context managers.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <3>: Özet – Sürümün öne çıkanları.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <4>: Yeni Ayrıştırıcı.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <5>: Deprecated<7>.   (line  100)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <6>: Library<35>.     (line  178)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <7>: Library<45>.     (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <8>: Full Grammar specification.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 617 <9>: lib2to3 — 2to3’s library.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 618:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 618 <1>: Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 618 <2>: Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  209)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623:  Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623 <1>: Optimizations.   (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623 <2>: Removed<2>.      (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623 <4>: C API<20>.       (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623 <5>: Core and Builtins<37>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623 <6>: Documentation<34>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 623 <7>: Unicode Objects. (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 624:  Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 624 <1>: Removed<4>.      (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 624 <2>: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 624 <3>: C API<27>.       (line  143)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 624#alternative-apis: Removed<4>.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 626:  Deprecated.         (line  215)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 626 <1>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 626 <2>: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 626 <3>: Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  422)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 626 <4>: Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 626 <5>: Analysis functions.
                                                             (line  161)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 626 <6>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 628:  cmath.              (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 628 <1>: math<6>.         (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 628 <2>: Library<79>.     (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 632:  Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 632 <1>: distutils.       (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 632 <2>: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 632 <3>: distutils<2>.    (line   14)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 632 <4>: Library<26>.     (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 632 <5>: distutils — Building and installing Python modules.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <1>: Other Key Features.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <2>: Core and Builtins<27>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <3>: Core and Builtins<35>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <4>: Core and Builtins<37>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <5>: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <6>: The match statement.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <7>: Class Patterns.  (line  136)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <8>: lib2to3 — 2to3’s library.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <9>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  807)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 634 <10>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  831)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 635:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 635 <1>: Other Key Features.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 636:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 636 <1>: Other Key Features.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 636 <2>: pass İfadeleri<2>.
                                                             (line  184)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 636 <3>: The match statement.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 636 <4>: Class Patterns.  (line  138)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644:  hashlib.            (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644 <1>: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644 <2>: hashlib<3>.      (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644 <3>: ssl<2>.          (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644 <4>: Build Changes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644 <5>: Library<27>.     (line  525)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644 <6>: Build<31>.       (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 644 <7>: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 646:  PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 646 <1>: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 646 <2>: Subscriptions.   (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 646 <3>: Expression lists.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 646 <4>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  126)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 646 <5>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  300)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 647:  Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 647 <1>: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 647 <2>: Library<36>.     (line  182)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 647 <3>: Special forms.   (line  434)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 649:  Annotation scopes.  (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 649 <1>: Module Contents<5>.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 652:  PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 652 <1>: C API<28>.       (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 654:  PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 654 <1>: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 654 <2>: New opcodes.     (line   18)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 654 <3>: Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  174)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 654 <4>: Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 654 <5>: Core and Builtins<33>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 655:  PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 655 <1>: Library<28>.     (line  266)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 655 <2>: Special forms.   (line  215)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 655 <3>: Special forms.   (line  224)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 655 <4>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  441)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 657:  PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 657 <1>: inspect<2>.      (line   17)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 657 <2>: Library<28>.     (line  223)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 657 <3>: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  337)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 659:  PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 659 <1>: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 669:  PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 669 <1>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  203)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 670:  Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 670 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 673:  PEP 673 Self type.  (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 673 <1>: Library<30>.     (line  134)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 673 <2>: Special types.   (line  184)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 675:  PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 675 <1>: Library<29>.     (line   59)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 675 <2>: Special types.   (line   85)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 676:  Documentation<25>.  (line    8)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 678:  Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 678 <1>: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 678 <2>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 678 <3>: Core and Builtins<20>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 678 <4>: Core and Builtins<27>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 680:  Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 680 <1>: New Modules<2>.  (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 680 <2>: Library<29>.     (line  205)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 681:  PEP 681 Data class transforms.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 681 <1>: Library<28>.     (line  110)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 681 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  243)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 682:  Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 682 <1>: Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 683:  New Features<2>.    (line  147)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 683 <1>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 683 <2>: Reference Counting.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 683 <3>: Sözlük.          (line  669)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 684:  PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 684 <1>: New Features<2>. (line  182)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 686:  Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   71)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 686 <1>: Text Encoding.   (line   32)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687:  Library<20>.        (line  290)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <1>: Library<20>.     (line  297)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <2>: Library<20>.     (line  330)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <3>: Library<20>.     (line  333)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <4>: Library<20>.     (line  343)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <5>: Library<20>.     (line  400)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <6>: Core and Builtins<20>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <7>: Library<22>.     (line  111)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 687 <8>: Library<22>.     (line  118)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 688:  PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 688 <1>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  211)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 688 <2>: Emulating buffer types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 688 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  176)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 689:  C API<15>.          (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 692:  PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 692 <1>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 692 <2>: Library<20>.     (line  117)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 692 <3>: Documentation<16>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 692 <4>: Special forms.   (line  480)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 693:  What’s New In Python 3 12.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695:  PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <1>: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <2>: CPython bytecode changes.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <3>: Library<8>.      (line   99)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <4>: Library<9>.      (line   97)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <5>: Library<13>.     (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <6>: Library<18>.     (line   12)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <7>: Library<19>.     (line   43)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <8>: Library<19>.     (line   49)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <9>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <10>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  108)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <11>: Library<20>.    (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <12>: Annotation scopes.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <13>: The type statement.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <14>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <15>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  194)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <16>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  309)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <17>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  397)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 695 <18>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 697:  New Features<2>.    (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 697 <1>: New Features<2>. (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 697 <2>: C API<13>.       (line   38)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 698:  PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 698 <1>: Library<22>.     (line  100)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 698 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  403)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 699:  Deprecated<2>.      (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 699 <1>: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 699 <2>: Build<18>.       (line   15)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 699 <3>: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 7:    Build and C API Changes.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 7 <1>: Build Requirements.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 7 <2>: Coding standards.  (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 7 <3>: Useful macros.     (line  162)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 7 <4>: Useful macros.     (line  180)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 701:  PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 701 <1>: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 701 <2>: tokenize.        (line    6)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 701 <3>: Optimizations.   (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 701 <4>: Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 701 <5>: Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 701 <6>: Changes in the Python API.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 706:  Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 706 <1>: tarfile<2>.      (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 706 <2>: tarfile<3>.      (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 706 <3>: tarfile<4>.      (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 706 <4>: tarfile<6>.      (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 706 <5>: Extraction filters.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 709:  PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 709 <1>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 709 <2>: CPython bytecode changes.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 709 <3>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line  213)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8:    Library Changes.    (line   26)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <1>: Library<64>.       (line  124)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <2>: IDLE<62>.          (line   81)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <3>: Intermezzo Kodlama Stili.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <4>: Editors and IDEs.  (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <5>: Value comparisons. (line   61)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <6>: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1796)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <7>: Tuhaflıklar ve Sonlar.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <8>: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <9>: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Geliştirme Önerileri; PEP 8 <10>: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?.
                                                             (line    6)
* python_branch() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.  (line   85)
* python_build() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.   (line   75)
* python_compiler() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.
                                                             (line   80)
* PYTHON_DOM:                            Module Contents<4>. (line   23)
* python_implementation() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.
                                                             (line   89)
* python_is_optimized() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  251)
* python_revision() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.
                                                             (line   94)
* python_version_tuple() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.
                                                             (line  106)
* python_version() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform. (line   99)
* python-m-py_compile komut satırı seçeneği; -: Command-Line Interface<6>.
                                                             (line   13)
* python-m-py_compile komut satırı seçeneği; -q: Command-Line Interface<6>.
                                                             (line   19)
* python-m-py_compile komut satırı seçeneği; -quiet: Command-Line Interface<6>.
                                                             (line   19)
* python-m-py_compile komut satırı seçeneği; <file>: Command-Line Interface<6>.
                                                             (line   13)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] komut satırı seçeneği; -h: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] komut satırı seçeneği; -help: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] komut satırı seçeneği; -v: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   18)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] komut satırı seçeneği; -version: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python'un Zen'i:                       Sözlük.             (line 1499)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:                    Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   10)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>:                Debug Mode.         (line   11)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>:                Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   65)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT:                      PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>:                  Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  163)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  246)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  260)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  264)
* PYTHONCASEOK:                          Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONCASEOK <1>:                      PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONCASEOK <2>:                      Library<46>.        (line  144)
* PYTHONCASEOK <3>:                      Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2192)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:                   PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>:               General Options.    (line   88)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>:               Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   57)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>:               Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONDEBUG:                           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONDEBUG <1>:                       Python Debug Build. (line   20)
* PYTHONDEBUG <2>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONDEBUG <3>:                       PyConfig.           (line  638)
* PYTHONDEVMODE:                         Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  305)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:                     Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  283)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:               Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>:           New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>:           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  329)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>:           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>:           PyConfig.           (line  908)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>:           How do I create a pyc file?.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS:                        Hata ayıklama derlemesi yayın derlemesiyle aynı ABI’yi kullanır.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:                    Build<47>.          (line   54)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:                    Debug options.      (line   22)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:                    PyConfig.           (line  294)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:                    PyObject Slots.     (line   66)
* PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:                    Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  154)
* PYTHONEXECUTABLE:                      PyConfig.           (line  674)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:                    faulthandler<4>.    (line   11)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>:                Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  267)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>:                Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   59)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>:                faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>:                PyConfig.           (line  328)
* PYTHONHASHSEED:                        Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:                    Porting Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:                    Core and Builtins<61>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  130)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  146)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:                    Environment variables.
                                                             (line  153)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:                    Basic customization.
                                                             (line  316)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   77)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   80)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:                    PyConfig.           (line  398)
* PYTHONHOME:                            Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONHOME <1>:                        Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONHOME <2>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONHOME <3>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONHOME <4>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONHOME <5>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONHOME <6>:                        Finding modules.    (line   29)
* PYTHONHOME <7>:                        Finding modules.    (line   47)
* PYTHONHOME <8>:                        Finding modules.    (line   81)
* PYTHONHOME <9>:                        test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONHOME <10>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHOME <11>:                       Virtual environments<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONHOME <12>:                       Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONHOME <13>:                       Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* PYTHONHOME <14>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   92)
* PYTHONHOME <15>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  348)
* PYTHONHOME <16>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  364)
* PYTHONHOME <17>:                       PyConfig.           (line  410)
* PYTHONHOME <18>:                       Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Pythonic:                              Sözlük.             (line 1198)
* PYTHONINSPECT:                         Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONINSPECT <1>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   68)
* PYTHONINSPECT <2>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  109)
* PYTHONINSPECT <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  435)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS:                 Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line  106)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  289)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>:             Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>:             Configuring the limit.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>:             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1144)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>:             PyConfig.           (line  466)
* PYTHONIOENCODING:                      Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <1>:                  Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <2>:                  Environment variables.
                                                             (line  391)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <3>:                  Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   29)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <4>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1806)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <5>:                  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <6>:                  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <7>:                  PyConfig.           (line  797)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING:         PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1754)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>:     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  151)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>:     PyPreConfig.        (line  112)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:              PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>:          Environment variables.
                                                             (line  188)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>:          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1810)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>:          Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  169)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  505)
* PYTHONMALLOC:                          PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONMALLOC <1>:                      Changes in the C API<3>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONMALLOC <2>:                      Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   90)
* PYTHONMALLOC <3>:                      Environment variables.
                                                             (line  318)
* PYTHONMALLOC <4>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line   94)
* PYTHONMALLOC <5>:                      Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONMALLOC <6>:                      Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONMALLOC <7>:                      Overview<4>.        (line   75)
* PYTHONMALLOC <8>:                      Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONMALLOC <9>:                      Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* PYTHONMALLOC <10>:                     The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:                     Core and Builtins<81>.
                                                             (line   96)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>:                 PyConfig.           (line  521)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>:                 Overview<4>.        (line   78)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:                   PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   63)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  334)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>:               Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>:               PyConfig.           (line  236)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE:                      PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>:                  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  158)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>:                  Module contents<5>. (line   15)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  203)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  861)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   88)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  214)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:                    PyConfig.           (line  588)
* PYTHONPATH:                            Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONPATH <1>:                        Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <2>:                        Modül Arama Yolu.   (line   15)
* PYTHONPATH <3>:                        Standart modüller.  (line   32)
* PYTHONPATH <4>:                        Standart modüller.  (line   33)
* PYTHONPATH <5>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   45)
* PYTHONPATH <6>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONPATH <7>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   39)
* PYTHONPATH <8>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   42)
* PYTHONPATH <9>:                        Excursus Setting environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONPATH <10>:                       Finding modules.    (line   15)
* PYTHONPATH <11>:                       Finding modules.    (line   38)
* PYTHONPATH <12>:                       Finding modules.    (line   81)
* PYTHONPATH <13>:                       Configuration.      (line    6)
* PYTHONPATH <14>:                       Path entry finders. (line    6)
* PYTHONPATH <15>:                       Path entry finders. (line   23)
* PYTHONPATH <16>:                       test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONPATH <17>:                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1287)
* PYTHONPATH <18>:                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1292)
* PYTHONPATH <19>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONPATH <20>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONPATH <21>:                       Installing your CGI script on a Unix system.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONPATH <22>:                       Building C and C++ Extensions.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <23>:                       Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* PYTHONPATH <24>:                       Embedding Python<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* PYTHONPATH <25>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   91)
* PYTHONPATH <26>:                       PyConfig.           (line  554)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:                     Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   85)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>:                 Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  354)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>:                 PyConfig.           (line  835)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>:                 How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:                      Core and Builtins<42>.
                                                             (line  275)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>:                  The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>:                  PyConfig.           (line  533)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME:               Other Language Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>:           Core and Builtins<63>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  298)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  420)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:                   Derlenmiş bayt kodu dosyaları için paralel dosya sistemi önbelleği.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>:               Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line  402)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  318)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>:               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  375)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>:               PyConfig.           (line  696)
* PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD:          Tests<24>.          (line   13)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH:                        Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:                    Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:                    Security<22>.       (line    6)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  116)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1304)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:                    Security Considerations<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:                    PyConfig.           (line  159)
* PYTHONSTARTUP:                         sys<11>.            (line   17)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:                     sys<11>.            (line   21)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:                     IDLE<36>.           (line  176)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:                     IDLE<40>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:                     IDLE<46>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:                     Etkileşimli Başlangıç Dosyası.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   64)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:                     Example.            (line   10)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:                     Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:                     Command line usage. (line   42)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1157)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <11>:                    Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  284)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>:                 tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>:                 tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>:                 Functions<9>.       (line   90)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>:                 PyConfig.           (line  823)
* PYTHONTZPATH:                          Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED:                      Core and Builtins<47>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>:                  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  178)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1817)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  242)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  200)
* PYTHONUSERBASE:                        PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:                    Module contents<5>. (line   39)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:                    Module contents<5>. (line   67)
* PYTHONUSERSITE:                        test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONUTF8:                            PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONUTF8 <1>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  312)
* PYTHONUTF8 <2>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line  401)
* PYTHONUTF8 <3>:                        UTF-8 mode.         (line   18)
* PYTHONUTF8 <4>:                        Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   52)
* PYTHONUTF8 <5>:                        Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   54)
* PYTHONUTF8 <6>:                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1808)
* PYTHONUTF8 <7>:                        PyPreConfig.        (line  141)
* PYTHONUTF8 <8>:                        Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONVERBOSE:                         Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  194)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  259)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:                     PyConfig.           (line  878)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:             Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>:         Library<37>.        (line   45)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>:         Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  324)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>:         Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONWARNINGS:                        warnings<2>.        (line   21)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:                    Other Language Changes<9>.
                                                             (line  160)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:                    Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:                    Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:                    Documentation<23>.  (line   67)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  248)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:                    Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:                    The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:                    The Warnings Filter.
                                                             (line   56)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:                    Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:                   Describing Warning Filters.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:                   Default Warning Filter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:                   PyConfig.           (line  897)
* PyThread_create_key (C function):      Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyThread_delete_key (C function):      Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyThread_delete_key_value (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyThread_get_key_value (C function):   Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function):       Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyThread_set_key_value (C function):   Thread Local Storage TLS API.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_alloc (C function):       Dynamic Allocation. (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_create (C function):      Methods<2>.         (line   16)
* PyThread_tss_delete (C function):      Methods<2>.         (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_free (C function):        Dynamic Allocation. (line   17)
* PyThread_tss_get (C function):         Methods<2>.         (line   39)
* PyThread_tss_is_created (C function):  Methods<2>.         (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_set (C function):         Methods<2>.         (line   33)
* PyThreadState (C type):                Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyThreadState (C type) <1>:            High-level API.     (line   21)
* PyThreadState_Clear (C function):      Low-level API.      (line   42)
* PyThreadState_Delete (C function):     Low-level API.      (line   50)
* PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (C function): Low-level API.   (line   56)
* PyThreadState_EnterTracing (C function): Low-level API.    (line   95)
* PyThreadState_Get (C function):        High-level API.     (line   81)
* PyThreadState_GetDict (C function):    Low-level API.      (line  182)
* PyThreadState_GetFrame (C function):   Low-level API.      (line   63)
* PyThreadState_GetID (C function):      Low-level API.      (line   77)
* PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (C function): Low-level API.  (line   86)
* PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (C function): Low-level API.    (line  104)
* PyThreadState_New (C function):        Low-level API.      (line   35)
* PyThreadState_Next (C function):       Advanced Debugger Support.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function): Low-level API.     (line  191)
* PyThreadState_Swap (C function):       High-level API.     (line   87)
* PyThreadState.interp (C member):       High-level API.     (line   26)
* PyTime_Check (C function):             DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyTime_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyTime_FromTime (C function):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function):   DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  159)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function):    DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  175)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  183)
* PyTrace_C_CALL (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   94)
* PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C var):           Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyTrace_C_RETURN (C var):              Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyTrace_CALL (C var):                  Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C var):             Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyTrace_LINE (C var):                  Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyTrace_OPCODE (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyTrace_RETURN (C var):                Profiling and Tracing.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyTraceMalloc_Track (C function):      tracemalloc C API.  (line    8)
* PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (C function):    tracemalloc C API.  (line   20)
* PyTuple_Check (C function):            Tuple Objects.      (line   16)
* PyTuple_CheckExact (C function):       Tuple Objects.      (line   21)
* PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   61)
* PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   44)
* PyTuple_GetItem (C function):          Tuple Objects.      (line   48)
* PyTuple_GetSlice (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   66)
* PyTuple_New (C function):              Tuple Objects.      (line   26)
* PyTuple_Pack (C function):             Tuple Objects.      (line   31)
* PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   86)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function):          Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function) <1>:      Tuple Objects.      (line   75)
* PyTuple_Size (C function):             Tuple Objects.      (line   39)
* PyTuple_Type (C var):                  Tuple Objects.      (line   11)
* PyTupleObject (C type):                Tuple Objects.      (line    6)
* PyType_AddWatcher (C function):        Type Objects<2>.    (line   66)
* PyType_Check (C function):             Type Objects<2>.    (line   15)
* PyType_CheckExact (C function):        Type Objects<2>.    (line   21)
* PyType_ClearCache (C function):        Type Objects<2>.    (line   27)
* PyType_ClearWatcher (C function):      Type Objects<2>.    (line   75)
* PyType_FromMetaclass (C function):     Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyType_FromSpec (C function):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyType_GenericAlloc (C function):      Type Objects<2>.    (line  133)
* PyType_GenericNew (C function):        Type Objects<2>.    (line  140)
* PyType_GetDict (C function):           Type Objects<2>.    (line   43)
* PyType_GetFlags (C function):          Type Objects<2>.    (line   31)
* PyType_GetModule (C function):         Type Objects<2>.    (line  195)
* PyType_GetModuleByDef (C function):    Type Objects<2>.    (line  229)
* PyType_GetModuleState (C function):    Type Objects<2>.    (line  215)
* PyType_GetName (C function):           Type Objects<2>.    (line  163)
* PyType_GetQualName (C function):       Type Objects<2>.    (line  170)
* PyType_GetSlot (C function):           Type Objects<2>.    (line  179)
* PyType_GetTypeDataSize (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  440)
* PyType_HasFeature (C function):        Type Objects<2>.    (line  114)
* PyType_IS_GC (C function):             Type Objects<2>.    (line  119)
* PyType_IsSubtype (C function):         Type Objects<2>.    (line  124)
* PyType_Modified (C function):          Type Objects<2>.    (line   60)
* PyType_Ready (C function):             Type Objects<2>.    (line  147)
* PyType_Slot (C type):                  Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  177)
* PyType_Slot.pfunc (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  238)
* PyType_Slot.slot (C member):           Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  182)
* PyType_Spec (C type):                  Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyType_Spec.basicsize (C member):      Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyType_Spec.flags (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  163)
* PyType_Spec.itemsize (C member):       Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  137)
* PyType_Spec.name (C member):           Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyType_Spec.slots (C member):          Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line  170)
* PyType_Type (C var):                   Type Objects<2>.    (line   10)
* PyType_Watch (C function):             Type Objects<2>.    (line   87)
* PyType_WatchCallback (C type):         Type Objects<2>.    (line  103)
* PyTypeObject (C type):                 Type Objects<2>.    (line    6)
* PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1383)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_async (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  278)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  487)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  344)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_number (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  320)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  332)
* PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1205)
* PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1498)
* PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1532)
* PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  393)
* PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line  929)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  133)
* PyTypeObject.tp_del (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1571)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1273)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1286)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1237)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1302)
* PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  844)
* PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1583)
* PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line  499)
* PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1445)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  239)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  431)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1189)
* PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  356)
* PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1347)
* PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1469)
* PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line   48)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1118)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1134)
* PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1173)
* PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1157)
* PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1518)
* PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line   12)
* PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1406)
* PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  294)
* PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1005)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  258)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  458)
* PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  405)
* PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1540)
* PyTypeObject.tp_traverse (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  854)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1630)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  199)
* PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1575)
* PyTypeObject.tp_watched (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1646)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1556)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1082)
* PyTZInfo_Check (C function):           DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyTZInfo_CheckExact (C function):      DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   75)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   90)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   75)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   90)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   75)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   90)
* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (C function):  ASCII Codecs.       (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (C function): Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (C function): Generic Codecs.    (line   18)
* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (C function): Latin-1 Codecs.     (line   17)
* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (C function):   MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (C function):         Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  343)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  354)
* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (C function):  UTF-16 Codecs.      (line   48)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (C function):  UTF-32 Codecs.      (line   47)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (C function):         UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   59)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (C function):  UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   32)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (C function):   UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   25)
* PyUnicode_AsWideChar (C function):     wchar_t Support.    (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (C function): wchar_t Support.  (line   34)
* PyUnicode_Check (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line   47)
* PyUnicode_CheckExact (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   52)
* PyUnicode_Compare (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  140)
* PyUnicode_Concat (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_Contains (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  174)
* PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  280)
* PyUnicode_Count (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  118)
* PyUnicode_DATA (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  109)
* PyUnicode_Decode (C function):         Generic Codecs.     (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (C function):    ASCII Codecs.       (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (C function):  Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (C function):   Latin-1 Codecs.     (line   10)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   37)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (C function): Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (C function):     MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (C function):    UTF-16 Codecs.      (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (C function): UTF-16 Codecs. (line   36)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (C function):    UTF-32 Codecs.      (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function): UTF-32 Codecs. (line   35)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function):     UTF-7 Codecs.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function): UTF-7 Codecs.   (line   15)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function):     UTF-8 Codecs.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function): UTF-8 Codecs.   (line   15)
* PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   46)
* PyUnicode_Fill (C function):           Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  291)
* PyUnicode_Find (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyUnicode_FindChar (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyUnicode_Format (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  168)
* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  246)
* PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function):    Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  230)
* PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnicode_FromObject (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  236)
* PyUnicode_FromString (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function):   wchar_t Support.    (line    8)
* PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function):    File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyUnicode_FSDecoder (C function):      File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   66)
* PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  263)
* PyUnicode_GetLength (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  271)
* PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  208)
* PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function):  Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  182)
* PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (C function):   Unicode Type.       (line  158)
* PyUnicode_Join (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyUnicode_KIND (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  100)
* PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function): Unicode Type.       (line  148)
* PyUnicode_New (C function):            Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_Partition (C function):      Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyUnicode_READ (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  130)
* PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function):      Unicode Type.       (line  139)
* PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function):       Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  321)
* PyUnicode_READY (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line   57)
* PyUnicode_Replace (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function):    Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  150)
* PyUnicode_RPartition (C function):     Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicode_RSplit (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyUnicode_Split (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function):     Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyUnicode_Substring (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  333)
* PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function):      Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicode_Translate (C function):      Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyUnicode_Type (C var):                Unicode Type.       (line   39)
* PyUnicode_WRITE (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line  117)
* PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  305)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyUnicodeObject (C type):              Unicode Type.       (line   28)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyUnstable:                            Unstable C API.     (line    6)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   35)
* PyUnstable_Code_New (C function):      Code Objects.       (line   34)
* PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Code Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   51)
* PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar (C function): Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (C function): Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (C function): Internal Frames.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (C function): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  338)
* PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (C function): Integer Objects.   (line  320)
* PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (C function): Type Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  246)
* PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyVarObject (C type):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):       Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  136)
* PyVarObject.ob_size (C member):        PyVarObject Slots.  (line    6)
* PyVectorcall_Call (C function):        Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyVectorcall_Function (C function):    Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyVectorcall_NARGS (C function):       Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyWeakref_Check (C function):          Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function):     Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function):       Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (C function):     Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyWeakref_GetObject (C function):      Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function):       Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyWeakref_NewRef (C function):         Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyWideStringList (C type):             PyWideStringList.   (line    6)
* PyWideStringList_Append (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   15)
* PyWideStringList_Insert (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   22)
* PyWideStringList.items (C member):     PyWideStringList.   (line   41)
* PyWideStringList.length (C member):    PyWideStringList.   (line   37)
* PyWrapper_New (C function):            Descriptor Objects. (line   43)
* PyZipFile (zipfile içindeki sınıf):    PyZipFile Objects.  (line   10)
* qiflush() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  398)
* QName (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): QName Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* qsize() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):       Queue.              (line   73)
* qsize() (multiprocessing.Queue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues. (line  106)
* qsize() (queue.Queue yöntemi):         Queue Objects.      (line    9)
* qsize() (queue.SimpleQueue yöntemi):   SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* quantiles() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.  (line  427)
* quantiles() (statistics.NormalDist yöntemi): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* quantize() (decimal.Context yöntemi):  Context objects.    (line  478)
* quantize() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):  Decimal objects.    (line  476)
* QueryInfoKey() (winreg modülü içinde): Functions<11>.      (line  318)
* QueryReflectionKey() (winreg modülü içinde): Functions<11>.
                                                             (line  515)
* QueryValue() (winreg modülü içinde):   Functions<11>.      (line  347)
* QueryValueEx() (winreg modülü içinde): Functions<11>.      (line  367)
* QUESTION (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  196)
* Queue (asyncio içindeki sınıf):        Queue.              (line    6)
* Queue (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Pipes and Queues.  (line   92)
* Queue (queue içindeki sınıf):          queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   34)
* queue (sched.scheduler özniteliği):    Scheduler Objects.  (line   73)
* Queue() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  198)
* QueueEmpty:                            Exceptions<9>.      (line    6)
* QueueFull:                             Exceptions<9>.      (line   11)
* QueueHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   21)
* QueueListener (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   25)
* quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  204)
* quiet (sys.flags özniteliği):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  550)
* quit (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  400)
* quit (yerleşik değişken):              Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   11)
* quit() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):           FTP objects.        (line  360)
* quit() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line   22)
* quit() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   83)
* quit() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):         SMTP Objects.       (line  340)
* quit() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  123)
* quitting (bdb.Bdb attribute):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  333)
* QUOTE_ALL (csv modülü içinde):         Module Contents<3>. (line  268)
* quote_from_bytes() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Quoting.
                                                             (line   53)
* QUOTE_MINIMAL (csv modülü içinde):     Module Contents<3>. (line  272)
* QUOTE_NONE (csv modülü içinde):        Module Contents<3>. (line  286)
* QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (csv modülü içinde):  Module Contents<3>. (line  278)
* QUOTE_NOTNULL (csv modülü içinde):     Module Contents<3>. (line  297)
* quote_plus() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Quoting.    (line   42)
* QUOTE_STRINGS (csv modülü içinde):     Module Contents<3>. (line  309)
* quote() (email.utils modülü içinde):   email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   45)
* quote() (shlex modülü içinde):         shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   43)
* quote() (urllib.parse modülü içinde):  URL Quoting.        (line   13)
* quoteattr() (xml.sax.saxutils modülü içinde): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   38)
* quotechar (csv.Dialect özniteliği):    Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   54)
* quoted-printable;encoding:             quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    8)
* quotes (shlex.shlex özniteliği):       shlex Objects.      (line  115)
* quoting (csv.Dialect özniteliği):      Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   62)
* R_OK (os modülü içinde):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* r';raw string literal:                 String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   51)
* r";raw string literal:                 String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   51)
* radians() (math modülü içinde):        Açısal dönüşüm.     (line   10)
* radians() (turtle modülü içinde):      Settings for measurement.
                                                             (line   28)
* RadioButtonGroup (msilib içindeki sınıf): GUI classes.     (line   27)
* radiogroup() (msilib.Dialog yöntemi):  GUI classes.        (line   71)
* radix (sys.float_info özniteliği):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  659)
* radix() (decimal.Context yöntemi):     Context objects.    (line  483)
* radix() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):     Decimal objects.    (line  504)
* RADIXCHAR (locale modülü içinde):      locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* raise (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  262)
* Raise (ast içindeki sınıf):            Statements.         (line  120)
* RAISE (monitoring event):              Events.             (line   71)
* raise an exception:                    Exceptions.         (line    6)
* raise_on_defect (email.policy.Policy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  181)
* raise_signal() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>. (line  324)
* RAISE_VARARGS (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  945)
* raiseExceptions (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line   19)
* raising;exception:                     The raise statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* RAND_add() (ssl modülü içinde):        Random generation.  (line   30)
* RAND_bytes() (ssl modülü içinde):      Random generation.  (line    6)
* RAND_status() (ssl modülü içinde):     Random generation.  (line   23)
* randbelow() (secrets modülü içinde):   Random numbers.     (line   19)
* randbits() (secrets modülü içinde):    Random numbers.     (line   23)
* randbytes() (random modülü içinde):    Functions for bytes.
                                                             (line    6)
* randint() (random modülü içinde):      Functions for integers.
                                                             (line   32)
* Random (random içindeki sınıf):        Alternative Generator.
                                                             (line    6)
* random() (random modülü içinde):       Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   11)
* random() (random.Random yöntemi):      Alternative Generator.
                                                             (line   33)
* randrange() (random modülü içinde):    Functions for integers.
                                                             (line    6)
* range (yerleşik sınıf):                Aralıklar.          (line   10)
* RARROW (token modülü içinde):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  230)
* ratecv() (audioop modülü içinde):      audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  178)
* ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  180)
* Rational (numbers içindeki sınıf):     The numeric tower.  (line   41)
* raw (io.BufferedIOBase özniteliği):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  252)
* raw string:                            String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* raw_data_manager (email.contentmanager modülü içinde): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   11)
* raw_decode() (json.JSONDecoder yöntemi): Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line   95)
* raw_input (2to3 fixer):                Fixers.             (line  269)
* raw_input() (code.InteractiveConsole yöntemi): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* raw() (curses modülü içinde):          Functions<4>.       (line  405)
* raw() (pickle.PickleBuffer yöntemi):   Module Interface.   (line  318)
* RawArray() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes modülü içinde): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   16)
* RawConfigParser (configparser içindeki sınıf): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (argparse içindeki sınıf): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* RawIOBase (io içindeki sınıf):         I/O Base Classes.   (line  170)
* RawPen (turtle içindeki sınıf):        Public classes.     (line    6)
* RawTextHelpFormatter (argparse içindeki sınıf): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* RawTurtle (turtle içindeki sınıf):     Public classes.     (line    6)
* RawValue() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes modülü içinde): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   33)
* RBRACE (token modülü içinde):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  130)
* re (re.Match özniteliği):              Match Objects.      (line  206)
* READ (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.       (line   49)
* read_all() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.     (line   17)
* read_binary() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line   63)
* read_byte() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):       mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  246)
* read_bytes() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  556)
* read_bytes() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  150)
* read_bytes() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):   Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   33)
* read_bytes() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):   Path Objects.       (line  100)
* read_dict() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  195)
* read_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.   (line   34)
* read_environ() (wsgiref.handlers modülü içinde): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  312)
* read_events() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser yöntemi): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* read_file() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  173)
* read_history_file() (readline modülü içinde): History file.
                                                             (line    8)
* read_init_file() (readline modülü içinde): Init file.      (line   13)
* read_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.    (line   42)
* read_mime_types() (mimetypes modülü içinde): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   99)
* READ_RESTRICTED (C macro):             Member flags.       (line   32)
* read_sb_data() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects. (line   58)
* read_some() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.    (line   21)
* read_string() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  185)
* read_text() (importlib.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  560)
* read_text() (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line   78)
* read_text() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  154)
* read_text() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):    Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   18)
* read_text() (zipfile.Path yöntemi):    Path Objects.       (line   88)
* read_token() (shlex.shlex yöntemi):    shlex Objects.      (line   20)
* read_until() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.   (line    8)
* read_very_eager() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* read_very_lazy() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* read_windows_registry() (mimetypes.MimeTypes yöntemi): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* read() (asyncio.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader.       (line   20)
* read() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):          chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line  108)
* read() (codecs.StreamReader yöntemi):  StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* read() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* read() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* read() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  199)
* read() (io.BufferedIOBase yöntemi):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  273)
* read() (io.BufferedReader yöntemi):    Buffered Streams.   (line   82)
* read() (io.RawIOBase yöntemi):         I/O Base Classes.   (line  184)
* read() (io.TextIOBase yöntemi):        Text I/O<2>.        (line   52)
* read() (mimetypes.MimeTypes yöntemi):  MimeTypes Objects.  (line   70)
* read() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):            mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  236)
* read() (os modülü içinde):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  685)
* read() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* read() (sqlite3.Blob yöntemi):         Blob objects.       (line   45)
* read() (ssl.MemoryBIO yöntemi):        Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* read() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi):        SSL Sockets.        (line   76)
* read() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   25)
* read() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):      ZipFile Objects.    (line  237)
* read1() (bz2.BZ2File yöntemi):         De compression of files.
                                                             (line  111)
* read1() (io.BufferedIOBase yöntemi):   I/O Base Classes.   (line  290)
* read1() (io.BufferedReader yöntemi):   Buffered Streams.   (line   88)
* read1() (io.BytesIO yöntemi):          Buffered Streams.   (line   43)
* READABLE (_tkinter modülü içinde):     File Handlers.      (line   41)
* readable() (bz2.BZ2File yöntemi):      De compression of files.
                                                             (line   93)
* readable() (io.IOBase yöntemi):        I/O Base Classes.   (line   78)
* readall() (io.RawIOBase yöntemi):      I/O Base Classes.   (line  199)
* reader() (csv modülü içinde):          Module Contents<3>. (line    8)
* ReadError:                             tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  204)
* readexactly() (asyncio.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader.
                                                             (line   46)
* readfp() (mimetypes.MimeTypes yöntemi): MimeTypes Objects. (line   78)
* readframes() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):      aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  100)
* readframes() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):  AU_read Objects.    (line   47)
* readframes() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi): Wave_read Objects.  (line   52)
* readinto() (bz2.BZ2File yöntemi):      De compression of files.
                                                             (line  121)
* readinto() (http.client.HTTPResponse yöntemi): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* readinto() (io.BufferedIOBase yöntemi): I/O Base Classes.  (line  301)
* readinto() (io.RawIOBase yöntemi):     I/O Base Classes.   (line  204)
* readinto1() (io.BufferedIOBase yöntemi): I/O Base Classes. (line  314)
* readinto1() (io.BytesIO yöntemi):      Buffered Streams.   (line   49)
* readline() (asyncio.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader.   (line   35)
* readline() (codecs.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* readline() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  204)
* readline() (io.IOBase yöntemi):        I/O Base Classes.   (line   83)
* readline() (io.TextIOBase yöntemi):    Text I/O<2>.        (line   58)
* readline() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):        mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  251)
* readlines() (codecs.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* readlines() (io.IOBase yöntemi):       I/O Base Classes.   (line   92)
* readlink() (os modülü içinde):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  663)
* readlink() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):     Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   77)
* readmodule_ex() (pyclbr modülü içinde): pyclbr — Python module browser support.
                                                             (line   31)
* readmodule() (pyclbr modülü içinde):   pyclbr — Python module browser support.
                                                             (line   19)
* READONLY (C macro):                    Member flags.       (line   37)
* readonly (memoryview özniteliği):      Memory Views.       (line  417)
* ReadTransport (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   20)
* readuntil() (asyncio.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader.  (line   55)
* readv() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  821)
* ready() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  209)
* Real (numbers içindeki sınıf):         The numeric tower.  (line   28)
* real (numbers.Complex özniteliği):     The numeric tower.  (line   15)
* Real Media File Format:                chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    8)
* real_max_memuse (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  150)
* real_quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line  209)
* realloc (C function):                  Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* realpath() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  322)
* REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   87)
* reap_children() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  579)
* reap_threads() (test.support.threading_helper modülü içinde): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   17)
* reason (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* reason (ssl.SSLError özniteliği):      Exceptions<13>.     (line   27)
* reason (UnicodeError özniteliği):      Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  429)
* reason (urllib.error.HTTPError özniteliği): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   49)
* reason (urllib.error.URLError özniteliği): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   22)
* reattach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.   (line  237)
* rebinding;name:                        Assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* reccontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* recent() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  209)
* reconfigure() (io.TextIOWrapper yöntemi): Text I/O<2>.     (line  180)
* record_original_stdout() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  308)
* RECORDS (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.    (line   41)
* records (unittest.TestCase özniteliği): Test cases.        (line  435)
* RECORDS_RO (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags. (line   43)
* rect() (cmath modülü içinde):          Conversions to and from polar coordinates.
                                                             (line   44)
* rectangle() (curses.textpad modülü içinde): curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line   15)
* RecursionError:                        Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  220)
* recursive_repr() (reprlib modülü içinde): reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   61)
* recv_bytes_into() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* recv_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* recv_fds() (socket modülü içinde):     Other functions<2>. (line  476)
* recv_into() (socket.socket yöntemi):   Socket Objects.     (line  386)
* recv() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* recv() (socket.socket yöntemi):        Socket Objects.     (line  233)
* recvfrom_into() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects.   (line  376)
* recvfrom() (socket.socket yöntemi):    Socket Objects.     (line  247)
* recvmsg_into() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects.    (line  337)
* recvmsg() (socket.socket yöntemi):     Socket Objects.     (line  265)
* redirect_request() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler yöntemi): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* redirect_stderr() (contextlib modülü içinde): Utilities.   (line  355)
* redirect_stdout() (contextlib modülü içinde): Utilities.   (line  315)
* redisplay() (readline modülü içinde):  Line buffer.        (line   19)
* redrawln() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  462)
* redrawwin() (curses.window yöntemi):   Window Objects.     (line  468)
* reduce (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  273)
* reduce() (functools modülü içinde):    functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  396)
* reducer_override() (pickle.Pickler yöntemi): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  200)
* ref (weakref içindeki sınıf):          weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line   90)
* refcount_test() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  538)
* referans sayısı:                       Sözlük.             (line 1244)
* reference counting:                    Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   37)
* ReferenceError:                        Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  230)
* ReferenceType (weakref modülü içinde): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  332)
* refold_source (email.policy.EmailPolicy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  387)
* refresh() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  473)
* REG_BINARY (winreg modülü içinde):     Value Types.        (line    8)
* REG_DWORD (winreg modülü içinde):      Value Types.        (line   12)
* REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (winreg modülü içinde): Value Types.  (line   21)
* REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (winreg modülü içinde): Value Types.
                                                             (line   16)
* REG_EXPAND_SZ (winreg modülü içinde):  Value Types.        (line   25)
* REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (winreg modülü içinde): Value Types.
                                                             (line   60)
* REG_LINK (winreg modülü içinde):       Value Types.        (line   30)
* REG_MULTI_SZ (winreg modülü içinde):   Value Types.        (line   34)
* REG_NONE (winreg modülü içinde):       Value Types.        (line   39)
* REG_QWORD (winreg modülü içinde):      Value Types.        (line   43)
* REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (winreg modülü içinde): Value Types.
                                                             (line   49)
* REG_RESOURCE_LIST (winreg modülü içinde): Value Types.     (line   56)
* REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (winreg modülü içinde): Value Types.
                                                             (line   64)
* REG_SZ (winreg modülü içinde):         Value Types.        (line   68)
* RegexFlag (re içindeki sınıf):         Flags.              (line    9)
* register_adapter() (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module functions.
                                                             (line  133)
* register_archive_format() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* register_at_fork() (os modülü içinde): Process Management. (line  542)
* register_callback() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Registering callback functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* register_converter() (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module functions.
                                                             (line  140)
* register_defect() (email.policy.Policy yöntemi): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  245)
* register_dialect() (csv modülü içinde): Module Contents<3>.
                                                             (line   70)
* register_error() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.   (line  101)
* register_function() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* register_function() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer yöntemi): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   26)
* register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer yöntemi): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer yöntemi): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer yöntemi): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* register_namespace() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  195)
* register_optionflag() (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.
                                                             (line  154)
* register_shape() (turtle modülü içinde): Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   71)
* register_unpack_format() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  162)
* register() (abc.ABCMeta yöntemi):      abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   69)
* register() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Registering custom types or actions.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (atexit modülü içinde):     atexit — Exit handlers.
                                                             (line   25)
* register() (codecs modülü içinde):     codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  150)
* register() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line   92)
* register() (select.devpoll yöntemi):   /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* register() (select.epoll yöntemi):     Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* register() (select.poll yöntemi):      Polling Objects.    (line   15)
* register() (selectors.BaseSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.   (line   65)
* register() (webbrowser modülü içinde): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line  106)
* registerDOMImplementation() (xml.dom modülü içinde): Module Contents<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* registerResult() (unittest modülü içinde): Signal Handling.
                                                             (line   35)
* REGTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  278)
* relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  305)
* relative;import:                       The import statement.
                                                             (line   99)
* relative;URL:                          urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* release() (_thread.lock yöntemi):      _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  168)
* release() (asyncio.Condition yöntemi): Condition.          (line   78)
* release() (asyncio.Lock yöntemi):      Lock.               (line   49)
* release() (asyncio.Semaphore yöntemi): Semaphore.          (line   54)
* release() (logging.Handler yöntemi):   Handler Objects.    (line   31)
* release() (memoryview yöntemi):        Memory Views.       (line  239)
* release() (multiprocessing.Lock yöntemi): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   92)
* release() (multiprocessing.RLock yöntemi): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  148)
* release() (pickle.PickleBuffer yöntemi): Module Interface. (line  326)
* release() (platform modülü içinde):    Cross Platform.     (line  114)
* release() (threading.Condition yöntemi): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* release() (threading.Lock yöntemi):    Lock Objects.       (line   73)
* release() (threading.RLock yöntemi):   RLock Objects.      (line   93)
* release() (threading.Semaphore yöntemi): Semaphore Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* releasebufferproc (C type):            Slot Type typedefs. (line  106)
* reload (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  277)
* reload() (importlib modülü içinde):    Functions<10>.      (line   55)
* relpath() (os.path modülü içinde):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  376)
* remainder_near() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  494)
* remainder_near() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  510)
* remainder() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.    (line  487)
* remainder() (math modülü içinde):      Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  249)
* RemoteDisconnected:                    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  188)
* remove_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher yöntemi): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   56)
* remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Future yöntemi): Future Object.
                                                             (line  106)
* remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Task yöntemi): Task Object.
                                                             (line  111)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage yöntemi): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* remove_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage yöntemi): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* remove_folder() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* remove_folder() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):  MH objects.         (line   47)
* remove_header() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* remove_history_item() (readline modülü içinde): History list.
                                                             (line   26)
* remove_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage yöntemi): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* remove_option() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  294)
* remove_option() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   47)
* remove_pyc() (msilib.Directory yöntemi): Directory Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* remove_reader() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line   15)
* remove_section() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  301)
* remove_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage yöntemi): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* remove_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Unix signals.
                                                             (line   26)
* remove_writer() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line   32)
* remove() (array.array yöntemi):        array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  213)
* remove() (collections.deque yöntemi):  deque objects.      (line   97)
* remove() (frozenset yöntemi):          Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  207)
* remove() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):    Mailbox objects.    (line   76)
* remove() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):         MH objects.         (line   76)
* remove() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  700)
* remove() (sequence method):            Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* remove() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  170)
* removeAttribute() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* removeAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* removeChild() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi):  Node Objects.       (line  128)
* removedirs() (os modülü içinde):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  724)
* removeFilter() (logging.Handler yöntemi): Handler Objects. (line   57)
* removeFilter() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.   (line  329)
* removeHandler() (logging.Logger yöntemi): Logger Objects.  (line  346)
* removeHandler() (unittest modülü içinde): Signal Handling. (line   52)
* removeprefix() (bytearray yöntemi):    Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeprefix() (bytes yöntemi):        Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeprefix() (str yöntemi):          String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  380)
* removeResult() (unittest modülü içinde): Signal Handling.  (line   46)
* removesuffix() (bytearray yöntemi):    Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   72)
* removesuffix() (bytes yöntemi):        Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line   72)
* removesuffix() (str yöntemi):          String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  392)
* removexattr() (os modülü içinde):      Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   41)
* rename() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):         FTP objects.        (line  325)
* rename() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  214)
* rename() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  741)
* rename() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):       Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line    6)
* renames (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  281)
* renames() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  778)
* reopenIfNeeded() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler yöntemi): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* reorganize() (dbm.gnu.gdbm yöntemi):   dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   99)
* repeat() (itertools modülü içinde):    Itertool Functions. (line  509)
* repeat() (timeit modülü içinde):       Python Interface.   (line   18)
* repeat() (timeit.Timer yöntemi):       Python Interface.   (line  110)
* repetition;operation:                  Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* replace_errors() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.   (line  154)
* replace_header() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  301)
* replace_header() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  410)
* replace_history_item() (readline modülü içinde): History list.
                                                             (line   32)
* replace_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  182)
* replace;error handler's name:          Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* replace() (bytearray yöntemi):         Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  198)
* replace() (bytes yöntemi):             Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  198)
* replace() (codeobject yöntemi):        Methods on code objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* replace() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi): Panel Objects.     (line   39)
* replace() (dataclasses modülü içinde): Module contents<4>. (line  428)
* replace() (datetime.date yöntemi):     date Objects.       (line  180)
* replace() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.   (line  445)
* replace() (datetime.time yöntemi):     time Objects.       (line  149)
* replace() (inspect.Parameter yöntemi): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  287)
* replace() (inspect.Signature yöntemi): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  136)
* replace() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  796)
* replace() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):      Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   34)
* replace() (str yöntemi):               String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  405)
* replace() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):   TarInfo Objects.    (line  166)
* replaceChild() (xml.dom.Node yöntemi): Node Objects.       (line  135)
* ReplacePackage() (modulefinder modülü içinde): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   21)
* REPORT_CDIFF (doctest modülü içinde):  Option Flags.       (line  113)
* report_failure() (doctest.DocTestRunner yöntemi): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* report_full_closure() (filecmp.dircmp yöntemi): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   28)
* REPORT_NDIFF (doctest modülü içinde):  Option Flags.       (line  118)
* REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.
                                                             (line  127)
* report_partial_closure() (filecmp.dircmp yöntemi): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   23)
* report_start() (doctest.DocTestRunner yöntemi): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* report_success() (doctest.DocTestRunner yöntemi): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* REPORT_UDIFF (doctest modülü içinde):  Option Flags.       (line  108)
* report_unexpected_exception() (doctest.DocTestRunner yöntemi): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* report() (filecmp.dircmp yöntemi):     The dircmp class.   (line   18)
* report() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder yöntemi): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   38)
* REPORTING_FLAGS (doctest modülü içinde): Option Flags.     (line  146)
* repr (2to3 fixer):                     Fixers.             (line  285)
* Repr (reprlib içindeki sınıf):         reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   17)
* repr() (built-in function);__repr__() (object method): Basic customization.
                                                             (line  114)
* repr() (reprlib modülü içinde):        reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   51)
* repr() (reprlib.Repr yöntemi):         Repr Objects.       (line  107)
* repr1() (reprlib.Repr yöntemi):        Repr Objects.       (line  112)
* ReprEnum (enum içindeki sınıf):        Data Types<2>.      (line  550)
* reprfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   40)
* request (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler özniteliği): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* Request (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  202)
* request_queue_size (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* request_rate() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   60)
* request_uri() (wsgiref.util modülü içinde): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   27)
* request_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  105)
* request() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RequestHandlerClass (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* requestline (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   87)
* Required (typing modülü içinde):       Special forms.      (line  209)
* requires_bz2() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  502)
* requires_docstrings() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  514)
* requires_freebsd_version() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  475)
* requires_gzip() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  498)
* requires_IEEE_754() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  490)
* requires_limited_api() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  518)
* requires_linux_version() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  480)
* requires_lzma() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  506)
* requires_mac_version() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  485)
* requires_resource() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  510)
* requires_zlib() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  494)
* requires() (importlib.metadata modülü içinde): Distribution requirements.
                                                             (line    6)
* requires() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  259)
* RERAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   76)
* RERAISE (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  386)
* reschedule() (asyncio.Timeout yöntemi): Timeouts.          (line   68)
* reserved (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği): ZipInfo Objects.    (line  112)
* reserved word:                         Keywords.           (line    6)
* RESERVED_FUTURE (uuid modülü içinde):  uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  239)
* RESERVED_MICROSOFT (uuid modülü içinde): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  235)
* RESERVED_NCS (uuid modülü içinde):     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  227)
* reset_mock() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock yöntemi): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  892)
* reset_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock yöntemi): The Mock Class. (line  199)
* reset_peak() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>.    (line   38)
* reset_prog_mode() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.    (line  411)
* reset_shell_mode() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.   (line  416)
* reset_tzpath() (zoneinfo modülü içinde): Functions<2>.     (line   27)
* reset() (asyncio.Barrier yöntemi):     Barrier.            (line   78)
* reset() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):             bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  159)
* reset() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder yöntemi): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* reset() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder yöntemi): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* reset() (codecs.StreamReader yöntemi): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* reset() (codecs.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* reset() (contextvars.ContextVar yöntemi): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   58)
* reset() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   23)
* reset() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  172)
* reset() (pipes.Template yöntemi):      Template Objects.   (line    8)
* reset() (threading.Barrier yöntemi):   Barrier Objects.    (line   71)
* reset() (turtle modülü içinde):        More drawing control.
                                                             (line    6)
* reset() (xdrlib.Packer yöntemi):       Packer Objects.     (line   12)
* reset() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi):     Unpacker Objects.   (line    8)
* reset() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream yöntemi): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* reset() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser yöntemi): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* resetbuffer() (code.InteractiveConsole yöntemi): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* resetlocale() (locale modülü içinde):  locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  431)
* resetscreen() (turtle modülü içinde):  Window control.     (line   59)
* resetty() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  421)
* resetwarnings() (warnings modülü içinde): Available Functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* resize_term() (curses modülü içinde):  Functions<4>.       (line  426)
* resize() (ctypes modülü içinde):       Utility functions.  (line  173)
* resize() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  492)
* resize() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):          mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  257)
* resizemode() (turtle modülü içinde):   Appearance.         (line   24)
* resizeterm() (curses modülü içinde):   Functions<4>.       (line  436)
* resolution (datetime.date özniteliği): date Objects.       (line  109)
* resolution (datetime.datetime özniteliği): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  282)
* resolution (datetime.time özniteliği): time Objects.       (line   42)
* resolution (datetime.timedelta özniteliği): timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line   82)
* resolve_bases() (types modülü içinde): Dynamic Type Creation.
                                                             (line   57)
* resolve_name() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   80)
* resolve_name() (pkgutil modülü içinde): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  211)
* resolve() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):      Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   49)
* resolveEntity() (xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver yöntemi): EntityResolver Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Resource (importlib.resources modülü içinde): Functional API.
                                                             (line   20)
* resource_path() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  478)
* resource_path() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader yöntemi): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   55)
* ResourceDenied:                        test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   22)
* ResourceLoader (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  175)
* ResourceReader (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  433)
* ResourceReader (importlib.resources.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   12)
* ResourceWarning:                       Uyarılar.           (line   87)
* response (nntplib.NNTPError özniteliği): nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  145)
* response() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  218)
* ResponseNotReady:                      http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  174)
* responses (http.client modülü içinde): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  209)
* responses (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  180)
* restart (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  391)
* restart_events() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Disabling events.
                                                             (line   21)
* restore() (difflib modülü içinde):     difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  270)
* restore() (test.support.SaveSignals yöntemi): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  770)
* RESTRICTED (C macro):                  Member flags.       (line   32)
* restricted;execution:                  Builtins and restricted execution.
                                                             (line    6)
* restype (ctypes._CFuncPtr özniteliği): Foreign functions.  (line   32)
* result() (asyncio.Future yöntemi):     Future Object.      (line   32)
* result() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):       Task Object.        (line   73)
* result() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* results() (trace.Trace yöntemi):       Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   40)
* RESUME (opcode):                       Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1111)
* resume_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport yöntemi): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line   21)
* resume_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol yöntemi): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   44)
* retr() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   63)
* retrbinary() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):     FTP objects.        (line  175)
* retrieve() (urllib.request.URLopener yöntemi): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  112)
* retrlines() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):      FTP objects.        (line  200)
* RETRY (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  149)
* RETRYCANCEL (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  176)
* Return (ast içindeki sınıf):           Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  122)
* return (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  212)
* return_annotation (inspect.Signature özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  115)
* RETURN_CONST (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  354)
* RETURN_GENERATOR (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1129)
* return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy yöntemi): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* RETURN_VALUE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  350)
* return_value (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  341)
* returncode (asyncio.subprocess.Process özniteliği): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  146)
* returncode (subprocess.CalledProcessError özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  211)
* returncode (subprocess.CompletedProcess özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  110)
* returncode (subprocess.Popen özniteliği): Popen Objects.   (line  149)
* retval (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  410)
* reveal_type() (typing modülü içinde):  Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   82)
* reverse_order() (pstats.Stats yöntemi): The Stats Class.   (line  157)
* reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  251)
* reverse() (array.array yöntemi):       array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  217)
* reverse() (audioop modülü içinde):     audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  191)
* reverse() (collections.deque yöntemi): deque objects.      (line  102)
* reverse() (sequence method):           Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* Reversible (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   49)
* Reversible (typing içindeki sınıf):    Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   57)
* revert() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* rewind() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):          aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  106)
* rewind() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):      AU_read Objects.    (line   53)
* rewind() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi):     Wave_read Objects.  (line   57)
* RFC_4122 (uuid modülü içinde):         uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  231)
* RFC; RFC 1014:                         xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 1014 <1>:                     xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 1123:                         Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  725)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <1>:                     Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  738)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <2>:                     Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  755)
* RFC; RFC 1321:                         hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 1422:                         Certificates.       (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 1422 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 1521:                         Security Considerations<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <1>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <2>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 1522:                         binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <1>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <2>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   39)
* RFC; RFC 1524:                         mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 1524 <1>:                     mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 1730:                         imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 1738:                         URL Quoting.        (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 1750:                         Random generation.  (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 1766:                         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  357)
* RFC; RFC 1766 <1>:                     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  370)
* RFC; RFC 1808:                         urllib.             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <1>:                     urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <2>:                     URL Parsing.        (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <3>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 1832:                         xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   39)
* RFC; RFC 1832 <1>:                     xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 1869:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 1869 <1>:                     smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  192)
* RFC; RFC 1870:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 1939:                         poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 1939 <1>:                     poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2033:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  568)
* RFC; RFC 2045:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  316)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  318)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  321)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <4>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  239)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <5>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  297)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  423)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <7>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  427)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <8>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  430)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <9>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  527)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <11>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   30)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <12>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <13>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  256)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <14>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  264)
* RFC; RFC 2045 Section 6.8:             Binary Objects.     (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2046:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <1>:                     Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   93)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <2>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2047:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <1>:                     email<7>.           (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <2>:                     email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <3>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  363)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  369)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <5>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <6>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <7>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <8>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <9>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   55)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <11>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  141)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <12>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   78)
* RFC; RFC 2060:                         imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2060 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  318)
* RFC; RFC 2068:                         http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2104:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2104 <1>:                     hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2109:                         http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <1>:                     http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <2>:                     http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <3>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <4>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <5>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line   92)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <6>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line  104)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <7>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <8>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <9>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <10>:                    http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  141)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <11>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <12>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <13>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <14>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2183:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  460)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <2>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  633)
* RFC; RFC 2231:                         Library<9>.         (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <1>:                     email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  280)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  283)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <4>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  365)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <5>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  386)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  390)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <7>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  492)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <8>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  500)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <9>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  534)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <11>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  189)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <12>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <13>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  202)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <14>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  209)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <15>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  218)
* RFC; RFC 2295:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  184)
* RFC; RFC 2324:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 2342:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 2342 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  164)
* RFC; RFC 2368:                         URL Quoting.        (line  177)
* RFC; RFC 2373:                         Address objects.    (line   95)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  161)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <2>:                     Address objects.    (line  170)
* RFC; RFC 2396:                         urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <1>:                     urllib.             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <2>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  257)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <3>:                     URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <4>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 2397:                         DataHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 2449:                         POP3 Objects.       (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 2487:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2518:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 2595:                         poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2595 <1>:                     POP3 Objects.       (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2616:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <1>:                     wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <2>:                     wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <3>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <4>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <5>:                     Legacy interface.   (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <6>:                     urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   44)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <7>:                     Introduction<13>.   (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <8>:                     HTTPError.          (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <9>:                     Error Codes.        (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 14.23:           HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2:           HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2 <1>:       HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2640:                         Python API’sindeki Değişiklikler.
                                                             (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <1>:                     Tests<41>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <2>:                     ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <3>:                     FTP objects.        (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <4>:                     FTP_TLS objects.    (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 2732:                         urllib parse<6>.    (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <1>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  643)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <2>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  168)
* RFC; RFC 2774:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 2818:                         ssl<11>.            (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2821:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2822:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <1>:                     Bataryalar Dahildir.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <2>:                     Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  727)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <3>:                     Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  740)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <4>:                     Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  446)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <5>:                     Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  757)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  276)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <7>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <8>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <9>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <11>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <12>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  134)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <13>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <14>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <15>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <16>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  236)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <17>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  155)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <18>:                    Message objects.    (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <19>:                    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <20>:                    http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 2964:                         http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 2965:                         urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  246)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <1>:                     urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  254)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <2>:                     Request Objects.    (line   50)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <3>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <4>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <5>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <6>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  143)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <7>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <8>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  152)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <9>:                     FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <10>:                    CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <11>:                    CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <12>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <13>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <14>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <15>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <16>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <17>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <18>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <19>:                    Examples<28>.       (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2980:                         nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2980 <1>:                     Methods.            (line  317)
* RFC; RFC 3056:                         Address objects.    (line  298)
* RFC; RFC 3164:                         Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3171:                         Address objects.    (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 3207:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  573)
* RFC; RFC 3229:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 3280:                         SSL Sockets.        (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 3330:                         Address objects.    (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 3339:                         Displaying the date/time in messages.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 3454:                         Security<20>.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <1>:                     stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <2>:                     stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 3490:                         Text Encodings.     (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <1>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <2>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <3>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   62)
* RFC; RFC 3490 Section 3.1:             encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 3491:                         Security<20>.       (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 3492:                         Text Encodings.     (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 3492 <1>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3493:                         Example<7>.         (line  227)
* RFC; RFC 3501:                         IMAP4 Objects.      (line  329)
* RFC; RFC 3542:                         Library<55>.        (line  351)
* RFC; RFC 3542 <1>:                     Other functions<2>. (line  341)
* RFC; RFC 3548:                         New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <1>:                     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   50)
* RFC; RFC 3548 <2>:                     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 3596 Section 2.5:             Library<2>.         (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3659:                         FTP objects.        (line  289)
* RFC; RFC 3879:                         Address objects.    (line  276)
* RFC; RFC 3927:                         Address objects.    (line  174)
* RFC; RFC 3977:                         nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <1>:                     Attributes<2>.      (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <2>:                     Methods.            (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <3>:                     Methods.            (line  138)
* RFC; RFC 3977 <4>:                     Methods.            (line  318)
* RFC; RFC 3986:                         urllib parse.       (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <1>:                     urllib parse<3>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <2>:                     urllib parse<4>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <3>:                     urllib parse<5>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <4>:                     urllib.             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <5>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  622)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <6>:                     Porting to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <7>:                     urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <8>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <9>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  375)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <10>:                    URL parsing security.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <11>:                    URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <12>:                    URL Quoting.        (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <13>:                    http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 4007:                         Address objects.    (line  219)
* RFC; RFC 4007 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  290)
* RFC; RFC 4086:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   45)
* RFC; RFC 4122:                         New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  418)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <1>:                     New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  423)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <2>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <3>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <4>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <5>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  138)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <6>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  167)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <7>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  233)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <8>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  246)
* RFC; RFC 4180:                         csv — CSV File Reading and Writing.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 4193:                         Address objects.    (line  278)
* RFC; RFC 4217:                         FTP_TLS objects.    (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4291:                         Library<2>.         (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <1>:                     Library<35>.        (line  653)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <2>:                     Address objects.    (line  213)
* RFC; RFC 4380:                         Address objects.    (line  305)
* RFC; RFC 4627:                         json — JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4627 <1>:                     Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4642:                         nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  118)
* RFC; RFC 4648:                         Documentation<31>.  (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <1>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <2>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <3>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <4>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  120)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <5>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  134)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <6>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line  141)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <7>:                     Security Considerations<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <8>:                     Security Considerations<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 4918:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  139)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <2>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <3>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <4>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 4954:                         SMTP Objects.       (line  134)
* RFC; RFC 4954 <1>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 5161:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5161 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 5246:                         Constants<7>.       (line  509)
* RFC; RFC 5246 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   53)
* RFC; RFC 5280:                         Other Changes.      (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <1>:                     Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line   95)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <2>:                     Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <3>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5321:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5321 <1>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  453)
* RFC; RFC 5322:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <3>:                     Parser API.         (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <4>:                     email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  102)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <5>:                     email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  195)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <6>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <7>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  342)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <8>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  363)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <9>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  369)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <10>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  381)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <11>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  414)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <12>:                    email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <13>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <14>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <15>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <16>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <17>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <18>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  159)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <19>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  416)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <20>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  450)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <21>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  484)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <22>:                    email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <23>:                    SMTP Objects.       (line  313)
* RFC; RFC 5424:                         SysLogHandler.      (line   71)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <1>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <2>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <3>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <4>:                     Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 Section 6:               Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 5735:                         Address objects.    (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 5789:                         HTTP methods.       (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 5842:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5842 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  190)
* RFC; RFC 5891:                         encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5894:                         Security<20>.       (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5895:                         encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5929:                         SSL Sockets.        (line  251)
* RFC; RFC 6066:                         Constants<7>.       (line  409)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <1>:                     SSL Contexts.       (line  290)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <2>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 6152:                         smtpd<2>.           (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531:                         email<4>.           (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <1>:                     smtpd<2>.           (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <2>:                     smtplib<2>.         (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  385)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <5>:                     smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   69)
* RFC; RFC 6532:                         email<4>.           (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <1>:                     email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <3>:                     Parser API.         (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  383)
* RFC; RFC 6585:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <2>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <3>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  196)
* RFC; RFC 6855:                         imaplib<2>.         (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <1>:                     imaplib<2>.         (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <2>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <3>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 6856:                         poplib<2>.          (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 6856 <1>:                     POP3 Objects.       (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 7159:                         json — JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <1>:                     Standard Compliance and Interoperability.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <2>:                     Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 7230:                         urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  217)
* RFC; RFC 7230 <1>:                     HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  192)
* RFC; RFC 7231:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <2>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <3>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <4>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <5>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <6>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <7>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <8>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   55)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <9>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   58)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <10>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   61)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <11>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <12>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <13>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <14>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <15>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <16>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <17>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <18>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <19>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <20>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <21>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <22>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <23>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <24>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  118)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <25>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  121)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <26>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  124)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <27>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  130)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <28>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <29>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  166)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <30>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <31>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <32>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  175)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <33>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <34>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <35>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <36>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <37>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <38>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <39>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <40>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <41>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <42>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <43>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <44>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <45>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <46>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 7231 <47>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 7232:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 7232 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 7233:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 7233 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 7235:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 7235 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  100)
* RFC; RFC 7238:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 7301:                         Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <1>:                     Constants<7>.       (line  386)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <2>:                     SSL Contexts.       (line  258)
* RFC; RFC 7525:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 7538:                         Library<34>.        (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 7540:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  136)
* RFC; RFC 7693:                         BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7725:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 7914:                         Key derivation.     (line   53)
* RFC; RFC 821:                          smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 821 <1>:                      smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 822:                          New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 822 <1>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  720)
* RFC; RFC 822 <2>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  724)
* RFC; RFC 822 <3>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  733)
* RFC; RFC 822 <4>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  737)
* RFC; RFC 822 <5>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  750)
* RFC; RFC 822 <6>:                      Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  754)
* RFC; RFC 822 <7>:                      email Examples.     (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 822 <8>:                      email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 822 <9>:                      HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  179)
* RFC; RFC 822 <10>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 822 <11>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  228)
* RFC; RFC 822 <12>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  229)
* RFC; RFC 822 <13>:                     SMTP Example.       (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 822 <14>:                     The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 8297:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 8305:                         Opening network connections.
                                                             (line   77)
* RFC; RFC 8305 <1>:                     Opening network connections.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 8470:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  148)
* RFC; RFC 850:                          Library<4>.         (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 854:                          telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 854 <1>:                      telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line   68)
* RFC; RFC 9110:                         Library<4>.         (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 9239:                         Library<27>.        (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 959:                          ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 977:                          nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   16)
* rfc2109 (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   72)
* rfc2109_as_netscape (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* rfc2965 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy özniteliği): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* rfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  119)
* rfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler özniteliği): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* rfind() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  212)
* rfind() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  212)
* rfind() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):           mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  273)
* rfind() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  412)
* rgb_to_hls() (colorsys modülü içinde): colorsys — Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   36)
* rgb_to_hsv() (colorsys modülü içinde): colorsys — Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   44)
* rgb_to_yiq() (colorsys modülü içinde): colorsys — Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   28)
* rglob() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Reading directories.
                                                             (line   74)
* richcmpfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   84)
* right (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği):     The dircmp class.   (line   45)
* right_list (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.  (line   54)
* right_only (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.  (line   67)
* right() (turtle modülü içinde):        Turtle motion.      (line   40)
* RIGHTSHIFT (token modülü içinde):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  162)
* RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (token modülü içinde): token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  206)
* rindex() (bytearray yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  226)
* rindex() (bytes yöntemi):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  226)
* rindex() (str yöntemi):                String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  419)
* rjust() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  343)
* rjust() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  343)
* rjust() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  424)
* RLIM_INFINITY (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.   (line   20)
* RLIMIT_AS (resource modülü içinde):    Resource Limits.    (line  148)
* RLIMIT_CORE (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line   91)
* RLIMIT_CPU (resource modülü içinde):   Resource Limits.    (line   98)
* RLIMIT_DATA (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line  110)
* RLIMIT_FSIZE (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.    (line  106)
* RLIMIT_KQUEUES (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.  (line  224)
* RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.  (line  138)
* RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits. (line  153)
* RLIMIT_NICE (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line  161)
* RLIMIT_NOFILE (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.   (line  129)
* RLIMIT_NPROC (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.    (line  125)
* RLIMIT_NPTS (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line  216)
* RLIMIT_OFILE (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.    (line  134)
* RLIMIT_RSS (resource modülü içinde):   Resource Limits.    (line  120)
* RLIMIT_RTPRIO (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.   (line  170)
* RLIMIT_RTTIME (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.   (line  178)
* RLIMIT_SBSIZE (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.   (line  195)
* RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.
                                                             (line  187)
* RLIMIT_STACK (resource modülü içinde): Resource Limits.    (line  114)
* RLIMIT_SWAP (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line  205)
* RLIMIT_VMEM (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line  142)
* RLock (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  102)
* RLock (threading içindeki sınıf):      RLock Objects.      (line   31)
* RLock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  203)
* rmd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):            FTP objects.        (line  348)
* rmdir() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  817)
* rmdir() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   61)
* rmdir() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  111)
* RMFF:                                  chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    8)
* rms() (audioop modülü içinde):         audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  196)
* rmtree() (shutil modülü içinde):       Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  262)
* rmtree() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  118)
* RobotFileParser (urllib.robotparser içindeki sınıf): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   16)
* robots.txt:                            urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* rollback() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* rollover() (tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile yöntemi): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  162)
* ROMAN (tkinter.font modülü içinde):    tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* root (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):    Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   24)
* rotate() (collections.deque yöntemi):  deque objects.      (line  109)
* rotate() (decimal.Context yöntemi):    Context objects.    (line  500)
* rotate() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):    Decimal objects.    (line  529)
* rotate() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler yöntemi): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   75)
* RotatingFileHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* rotation_filename() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler yöntemi): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   58)
* rotator (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler özniteliği): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* ROUND_05UP (decimal modülü içinde):    Rounding modes.     (line   34)
* ROUND_CEILING (decimal modülü içinde): Rounding modes.     (line    6)
* ROUND_DOWN (decimal modülü içinde):    Rounding modes.     (line   10)
* ROUND_FLOOR (decimal modülü içinde):   Rounding modes.     (line   14)
* ROUND_HALF_DOWN (decimal modülü içinde): Rounding modes.   (line   18)
* ROUND_HALF_EVEN (decimal modülü içinde): Rounding modes.   (line   22)
* ROUND_HALF_UP (decimal modülü içinde): Rounding modes.     (line   26)
* ROUND_UP (decimal modülü içinde):      Rounding modes.     (line   30)
* Rounded (decimal içindeki sınıf):      Signals.            (line   77)
* rounds (sys.float_info özniteliği):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  663)
* Row (sqlite3 içindeki sınıf):          Row objects.        (line    6)
* row_factory (sqlite3.Connection özniteliği): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  766)
* row_factory (sqlite3.Cursor özniteliği): Cursor objects.   (line  227)
* rowcount (sqlite3.Cursor özniteliği):  Cursor objects.     (line  216)
* RPAR (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   58)
* rpartition() (bytearray yöntemi):      Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  238)
* rpartition() (bytes yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  238)
* rpartition() (str yöntemi):            String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  431)
* rpc_paths (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler özniteliği): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* rpop() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   47)
* RS (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  115)
* rset() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   75)
* RShift (ast içindeki sınıf):           Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* rshift() (operator modülü içinde):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  152)
* rsplit() (bytearray yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  355)
* rsplit() (bytes yöntemi):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  355)
* rsplit() (str yöntemi):                String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  438)
* RSQB (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   66)
* rstrip() (bytearray yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  366)
* rstrip() (bytes yöntemi):              Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  366)
* rstrip() (str yöntemi):                String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  447)
* rt() (turtle modülü içinde):           Turtle motion.      (line   40)
* RTLD_DEEPBIND (os modülü içinde):      Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_GLOBAL (os modülü içinde):        Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_LAZY (os modülü içinde):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_LOCAL (os modülü içinde):         Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_NODELETE (os modülü içinde):      Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_NOLOAD (os modülü içinde):        Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* RTLD_NOW (os modülü içinde):           Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  144)
* ruler (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):            Cmd Objects.        (line  172)
* run (pdb command):                     Debugger Commands.  (line  391)
* Run script:                            Format menu Editor window only.
                                                             (line   53)
* run_coroutine_threadsafe() (asyncio modülü içinde): Scheduling From Other Threads.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_docstring_examples() (doctest modülü içinde): Basic API.
                                                             (line  127)
* run_forever() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):  Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   16)
* run_in_executor() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Executing code in thread or process pools.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_in_subinterp() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  654)
* run_module() (runpy modülü içinde):    runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   27)
* run_path() (runpy modülü içinde):      runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   99)
* run_python_until_end() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   30)
* run_script() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder yöntemi): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   44)
* run_until_complete() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_with_locale() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  462)
* run_with_tz() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  470)
* run() (asyncio modülü içinde):         Running an asyncio Program.
                                                             (line    6)
* run() (asyncio.Runner yöntemi):        Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   36)
* run() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):               bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  428)
* run() (contextvars.Context yöntemi):   Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   36)
* run() (doctest.DocTestRunner yöntemi): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* run() (multiprocessing.Process yöntemi): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* run() (pdb modülü içinde):             pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  129)
* run() (pdb.Pdb yöntemi):               pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  216)
* run() (profile modülü içinde):         profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line    9)
* run() (profile.Profile yöntemi):       profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  100)
* run() (sched.scheduler yöntemi):       Scheduler Objects.  (line   51)
* run() (subprocess modülü içinde):      Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   11)
* run() (threading.Thread yöntemi):      Thread Objects.     (line  104)
* run() (trace.Trace yöntemi):           Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* run() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  898)
* run() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi):     Test cases.         (line   83)
* run() (unittest.TestSuite yöntemi):    Grouping tests.     (line   41)
* run() (unittest.TextTestRunner yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  506)
* run() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   99)
* runcall() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):           bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  445)
* runcall() (pdb modülü içinde):         pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  148)
* runcall() (pdb.Pdb yöntemi):           pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  216)
* runcall() (profile.Profile yöntemi):   profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  109)
* runcode() (code.InteractiveInterpreter yöntemi): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* runctx() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):            bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  440)
* runctx() (profile modülü içinde):      profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line   23)
* runctx() (profile.Profile yöntemi):    profile and cProfile Module Reference.
                                                             (line  104)
* runctx() (trace.Trace yöntemi):        Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   28)
* runeval() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):           bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  434)
* runeval() (pdb modülü içinde):         pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  141)
* runeval() (pdb.Pdb yöntemi):           pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  216)
* runfunc() (trace.Trace yöntemi):       Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   35)
* Runner (asyncio içindeki sınıf):       Runner context manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* running() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* runsource() (code.InteractiveInterpreter yöntemi): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* runtime (sys._emscripten_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  343)
* runtime_checkable() (typing modülü içinde): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  161)
* RuntimeError:                          Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  238)
* RuntimeWarning:                        Uyarılar.           (line   50)
* RUSAGE_BOTH (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Usage.     (line  122)
* RUSAGE_CHILDREN (resource modülü içinde): Resource Usage.  (line  116)
* RUSAGE_SELF (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Usage.     (line  110)
* RUSAGE_THREAD (resource modülü içinde): Resource Usage.    (line  128)
* RWF_APPEND (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  671)
* RWF_DSYNC (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  651)
* RWF_HIPRI (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  595)
* RWF_NOWAIT (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  580)
* RWF_SYNC (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  661)
* S (re modülü içinde):                  Flags.              (line  108)
* S_ENFMT (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  317)
* S_IEXEC (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  331)
* S_IFBLK (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  206)
* S_IFCHR (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  214)
* S_IFDIR (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  210)
* S_IFDOOR (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  222)
* S_IFIFO (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  218)
* S_IFLNK (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  198)
* S_IFMT() (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   78)
* S_IFPORT (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  228)
* S_IFREG (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  202)
* S_IFSOCK (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  194)
* S_IFWHT (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  234)
* S_IMODE() (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   71)
* S_IREAD (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  323)
* S_IRGRP (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  289)
* S_IROTH (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  305)
* S_IRUSR (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  273)
* S_IRWXG (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  285)
* S_IRWXO (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  301)
* S_IRWXU (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  269)
* S_ISBLK() (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   30)
* S_ISCHR() (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   25)
* S_ISDIR() (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   21)
* S_ISDOOR() (stat modülü içinde):       stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   50)
* S_ISFIFO() (stat modülü içinde):       stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   38)
* S_ISGID (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  251)
* S_ISLNK() (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   42)
* S_ISPORT() (stat modülü içinde):       stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   56)
* S_ISREG() (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   34)
* S_ISSOCK() (stat modülü içinde):       stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   46)
* S_ISUID (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  247)
* S_ISVTX (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  262)
* S_ISWHT() (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   62)
* S_IWGRP (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  293)
* S_IWOTH (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  309)
* S_IWRITE (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  327)
* S_IWUSR (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  277)
* S_IXGRP (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  297)
* S_IXOTH (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  313)
* S_IXUSR (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  281)
* safe (uuid.SafeUUID özniteliği):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   33)
* safe_path (sys.flags özniteliği):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  563)
* safe_substitute() (string.Template yöntemi): Template strings.
                                                             (line   50)
* SafeChildWatcher (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line  126)
* saferepr() (pprint modülü içinde):     Functions<3>.       (line  101)
* SafeUUID (uuid içindeki sınıf):        uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   29)
* same_files (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği): The dircmp class.  (line   85)
* same_quantum() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects. (line  504)
* same_quantum() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects. (line  541)
* samefile() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  389)
* samefile() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):     Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  137)
* SameFileError:                         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   52)
* sameopenfile() (os.path modülü içinde): os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  403)
* samesite (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects. (line   13)
* samestat() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  412)
* sample() (random modülü içinde):       Functions for sequences.
                                                             (line   70)
* samples() (statistics.NormalDist yöntemi): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* sanal makine:                          Sözlük.             (line 1493)
* sanal ortam:                           Sözlük.             (line 1484)
* SATURDAY (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  447)
* save() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* save() (test.support.SaveSignals yöntemi): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  765)
* SaveAs (tkinter.filedialog içindeki sınıf): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   60)
* SAVEDCWD (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   15)
* SaveFileDialog (tkinter.filedialog içindeki sınıf): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  145)
* SaveKey() (winreg modülü içinde):      Functions<11>.      (line  394)
* SaveSignals (test.support içindeki sınıf): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  760)
* savetty() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  443)
* SAX2DOM (xml.dom.pulldom içindeki sınıf): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   81)
* SAXException:                          xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   86)
* SAXNotRecognizedException:             xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  111)
* SAXNotSupportedException:              xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  118)
* SAXParseException:                     xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  103)
* scaleb() (decimal.Context yöntemi):    Context objects.    (line  508)
* scaleb() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):    Decimal objects.    (line  551)
* scandir() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  834)
* scanf (C function):                    Simulating scanf.   (line    6)
* SCHED_BATCH (os modülü içinde):        Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   19)
* SCHED_FIFO (os modülü içinde):         Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   32)
* sched_get_priority_max() (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   63)
* sched_get_priority_min() (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   58)
* sched_getaffinity() (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  110)
* sched_getparam() (os modülü içinde):   Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   87)
* sched_getscheduler() (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   75)
* SCHED_IDLE (os modülü içinde):         Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   24)
* SCHED_OTHER (os modülü içinde):        Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   15)
* sched_param (os içindeki sınıf):       Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   46)
* sched_priority (os.sched_param özniteliği): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   54)
* SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   40)
* SCHED_RR (os modülü içinde):           Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   36)
* sched_rr_get_interval() (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   93)
* sched_setaffinity() (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  103)
* sched_setparam() (os modülü içinde):   Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   81)
* sched_setscheduler() (os modülü içinde): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   68)
* SCHED_SPORADIC (os modülü içinde):     Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   28)
* sched_yield() (os modülü içinde):      Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   98)
* scheduler (sched içindeki sınıf):      sched — Event scheduler.
                                                             (line   13)
* schema (msilib modülü içinde):         Precomputed tables. (line   10)
* SCM_CREDS2 (socket modülü içinde):     Constants<6>.       (line  314)
* scope:                                 Naming and binding. (line    6)
* scope <1>:                             Resolution of names.
                                                             (line    6)
* scope_id (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  288)
* Screen (turtle içindeki sınıf):        Public classes.     (line   30)
* screensize() (turtle modülü içinde):   Window control.     (line   63)
* script_from_examples() (doctest modülü içinde): Debugging. (line   72)
* scroll() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  500)
* ScrolledCanvas (turtle içindeki sınıf): Public classes.    (line   34)
* ScrolledText (tkinter.scrolledtext içindeki sınıf): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   24)
* scrollok() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  504)
* scrypt() (hashlib modülü içinde):      Key derivation.     (line   49)
* seal() (unittest.mock modülü içinde):  Sealing mocks.      (line    6)
* search() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  223)
* search() (re modülü içinde):           Functions.          (line   36)
* search() (re.Pattern yöntemi):         Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* second (datetime.datetime özniteliği): datetime Objects.   (line  310)
* second (datetime.time özniteliği):     time Objects.       (line   58)
* seconds (datetime.timedelta özniteliği): timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line   97)
* SECTCRE (configparser.ConfigParser özniteliği): Customizing Parser Behaviour.
                                                             (line  301)
* sections() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* secure (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* secure (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.   (line   13)
* secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA2, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, SHA3, Shake, Blake2: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line    8)
* Secure Sockets Layer:                  ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* security considerations:               smtpd — SMTP Server.
                                                             (line   18)
* security_level (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.  (line  625)
* see() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi):  ttk Treeview.       (line  241)
* seed_bits (sys.hash_info özniteliği):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1047)
* seed() (random modülü içinde):         Bookkeeping functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* seed() (random.Random yöntemi):        Alternative Generator.
                                                             (line   18)
* SEEK_CUR (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  311)
* SEEK_DATA (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  335)
* SEEK_END (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  311)
* SEEK_HOLE (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  335)
* SEEK_SET (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  311)
* seek() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):          chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   95)
* seek() (io.IOBase yöntemi):            I/O Base Classes.   (line  106)
* seek() (io.TextIOBase yöntemi):        Text I/O<2>.        (line   66)
* seek() (io.TextIOWrapper yöntemi):     Text I/O<2>.        (line  203)
* seek() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):            mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  283)
* seek() (sqlite3.Blob yöntemi):         Blob objects.       (line   63)
* seekable() (bz2.BZ2File yöntemi):      De compression of files.
                                                             (line   99)
* seekable() (io.IOBase yöntemi):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  129)
* Select (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):   Basic Widgets.      (line   59)
* select() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  240)
* select() (select modülü içinde):       select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  116)
* select() (selectors.BaseSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>.     (line  108)
* select() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.     (line   53)
* selected_alpn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  257)
* selected_npn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  267)
* selection_add() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  264)
* selection_remove() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  271)
* selection_set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  257)
* selection_toggle() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  278)
* selection() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.  (line  249)
* selector (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* SelectorEventLoop (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Event Loop Implementations.
                                                             (line   12)
* SelectorKey (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.        (line   29)
* SelectSelector (selectors içindeki sınıf): Classes<3>.     (line  167)
* Self (typing modülü içinde):           Special types.      (line  128)
* Semaphore (asyncio içindeki sınıf):    Semaphore.          (line    6)
* Semaphore (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  167)
* Semaphore (threading içindeki sınıf):  Semaphore Objects.  (line   19)
* Semaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  208)
* semaphores, binary:                    _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* SEMI (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   78)
* SEND (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1138)
* send_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* send_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  217)
* send_fds() (socket modülü içinde):     Other functions<2>. (line  462)
* send_header() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  253)
* send_message() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi): SMTP Objects.       (line  303)
* send_response_only() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  266)
* send_response() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  237)
* send_signal() (asyncio.subprocess.Process yöntemi): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   86)
* send_signal() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport yöntemi): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   44)
* send_signal() (subprocess.Popen yöntemi): Popen Objects.   (line   75)
* send() (coroutine yöntemi):            Coroutine Objects.  (line   23)
* send() (generator yöntemi):            Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   27)
* send() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  211)
* send() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  247)
* send() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler yöntemi): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* send() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler yöntemi): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   63)
* send() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection yöntemi): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* send() (socket.socket yöntemi):        Socket Objects.     (line  395)
* sendall() (socket.socket yöntemi):     Socket Objects.     (line  411)
* sendcmd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):        FTP objects.        (line  157)
* sendfile() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):     Transferring files. (line    6)
* sendfile() (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  706)
* sendfile() (socket.socket yöntemi):    Socket Objects.     (line  504)
* sendfile() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  281)
* SendfileNotAvailableError:             Exceptions<10>.     (line   36)
* sendfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line  118)
* sendmail() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):     SMTP Objects.       (line  225)
* sendmsg_afalg() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects.   (line  493)
* sendmsg() (socket.socket yöntemi):     Socket Objects.     (line  449)
* sendto() (asyncio.DatagramTransport yöntemi): Datagram Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* sendto() (socket.socket yöntemi):      Socket Objects.     (line  430)
* sentinel (multiprocessing.Process özniteliği): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  156)
* sentinel (unittest.mock modülü içinde): sentinel.          (line    6)
* sep (os modülü içinde):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   96)
* SEPTEMBER (calendar modülü içinde):    calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* Sequence (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* sequence (msilib modülü içinde):       Precomputed tables. (line   16)
* Sequence (typing içindeki sınıf):      Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   98)
* sequence;item:                         Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* sequence;iteration:                    Yineleyici Türleri. (line    6)
* SequenceMatcher (difflib içindeki sınıf): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* serialize() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  648)
* serializing;objects:                   pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* serve_forever() (asyncio.Server yöntemi): Server Objects.  (line   66)
* serve_forever() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Server (asyncio içindeki sınıf):       Server Objects.     (line   12)
* server (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   77)
* server (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler özniteliği): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* server_activate() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  168)
* server_address (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   80)
* server_bind() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* server_close() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* server_hostname (ssl.SSLSocket özniteliği): SSL Sockets.   (line  337)
* server_side (ssl.SSLSocket özniteliği): SSL Sockets.       (line  330)
* server_software (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  179)
* server_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  136)
* server_version (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  361)
* ServerProxy (xmlrpc.client içindeki sınıf): xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
                                                             (line   30)
* service_actions() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* session (ssl.SSLSocket özniteliği):    SSL Sockets.        (line  350)
* session_reused (ssl.SSLSocket özniteliği): SSL Sockets.    (line  360)
* session_stats() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.    (line  480)
* Set (ast içindeki sınıf):              Literals<3>.        (line   92)
* Set (collections.abc içindeki sınıf):  Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   92)
* Set (typing içindeki sınıf):           Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   30)
* set (yerleşik sınıf):                  Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   33)
* Set Breakpoint:                        Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* SET_ADD (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  312)
* set_all():                             Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   98)
* set_allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy yöntemi): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* set_alpn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  252)
* set_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer yöntemi): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   64)
* set_asyncgen_hooks() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1669)
* set_authorizer() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  337)
* set_auto_history() (readline modülü içinde): History list. (line   43)
* set_blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy yöntemi): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* set_blocking() (os modülü içinde):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  767)
* set_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  411)
* set_boundary() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  588)
* set_break() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  341)
* set_charset() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  237)
* set_child_watcher() (asyncio modülü içinde): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   31)
* set_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy yöntemi): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   25)
* set_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.      (line  238)
* set_completer_delims() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.
                                                             (line   50)
* set_completer() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.      (line   14)
* set_completion_display_matches_hook() (readline modülü içinde): Completion.
                                                             (line   59)
* set_content() (email.contentmanager modülü içinde): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   35)
* set_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager yöntemi): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   40)
* set_content() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  590)
* set_continue() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  326)
* set_cookie_if_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* set_cookie() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1694)
* set_current() (msilib.Feature yöntemi): Features<3>.       (line   14)
* set_data() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  389)
* set_data() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader yöntemi): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  230)
* set_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* set_debug() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):    Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* set_debug() (gc modülü içinde):        gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   51)
* set_debuglevel() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi): FTP objects.        (line   74)
* set_debuglevel() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* set_debuglevel() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi): Methods.          (line  307)
* set_debuglevel() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi): POP3 Objects.      (line   11)
* set_debuglevel() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi): SMTP Objects.     (line    8)
* set_debuglevel() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* set_default_executor() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Executing code in thread or process pools.
                                                             (line   75)
* set_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  342)
* set_default_type() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  451)
* set_default_verify_paths() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  229)
* set_defaults() (argparse.ArgumentParser yöntemi): Parser defaults.
                                                             (line    6)
* set_defaults() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Other methods.
                                                             (line   27)
* set_ecdh_curve() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.   (line  365)
* set_errno() (ctypes modülü içinde):    Utility functions.  (line  181)
* set_escdelay() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.       (line  454)
* set_event_loop_policy() (asyncio modülü içinde): Getting and Setting the Policy.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_event_loop() (asyncio modülü içinde): Event Loop.      (line   63)
* set_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy yöntemi): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* set_events() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Error Handling API.
                                                             (line    8)
* set_exception() (asyncio.Future yöntemi): Future Object.   (line   56)
* set_exception() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* set_executable() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line  110)
* set_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  127)
* set_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage yöntemi): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage yöntemi): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* set_forkserver_preload() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line  125)
* set_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage yöntemi): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage yöntemi): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* set_handle_inheritable() (os modülü içinde): Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   41)
* set_history_length() (readline modülü içinde): History file.
                                                             (line   30)
* set_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line  108)
* set_inheritable() (os modülü içinde):  Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   31)
* set_inheritable() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects. (line  521)
* set_int_max_str_digits() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1466)
* set_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage yöntemi): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* set_last_error() (ctypes modülü içinde): Utility functions.
                                                             (line  190)
* set_literal (2to3 fixer):              Fixers.             (line  289)
* set_local_events() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_memlimit() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  303)
* set_name() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):     Task Object.        (line  187)
* set_next() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  308)
* set_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  107)
* set_npn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  267)
* set_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy yöntemi): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* set_option_negotiation_callback() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi): Telnet Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* set_param() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  351)
* set_param() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  519)
* set_pasv() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):       FTP objects.        (line  213)
* set_payload() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  227)
* set_policy() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar yöntemi): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* set_position() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* set_pre_input_hook() (readline modülü içinde): Startup hooks.
                                                             (line   14)
* set_progress_handler() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  366)
* set_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport yöntemi): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   81)
* set_proxy() (urllib.request.Request yöntemi): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* set_quit() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  331)
* set_recsrc() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* set_result() (asyncio.Future yöntemi): Future Object.      (line   49)
* set_result() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* set_return() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):        bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  312)
* set_running_or_notify_cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future yöntemi): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* set_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog yöntemi): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  131)
* set_seq1() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* set_seq2() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* set_seqs() (difflib.SequenceMatcher yöntemi): SequenceMatcher Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_sequences() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):  MH objects.         (line   58)
* set_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage yöntemi): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer yöntemi): DocXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer yöntemi): DocXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler yöntemi): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer yöntemi): DocXMLRPCServer Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_servername_callback (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.
                                                             (line  336)
* set_start_method() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line  142)
* set_startup_hook() (readline modülü içinde): Startup hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* set_step() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  304)
* set_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage yöntemi): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* set_tabsize() (curses modülü içinde):  Functions<4>.       (line  469)
* set_task_factory() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Creating Futures and Tasks.
                                                             (line   37)
* set_threshold() (gc modülü içinde):    gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   92)
* set_trace_callback() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  380)
* set_trace() (bdb modülü içinde):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  478)
* set_trace() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  321)
* set_trace() (pdb modülü içinde):       pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  155)
* set_trace() (pdb.Pdb yöntemi):         pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line  216)
* set_tunnel() (http.client.HTTPConnection yöntemi): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* set_type() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  552)
* set_unittest_reportflags() (doctest modülü içinde): Unittest API.
                                                             (line  173)
* set_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  146)
* set_unixfrom() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  158)
* set_until() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  316)
* SET_UPDATE (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  657)
* set_url() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   21)
* set_usage() (optparse.OptionParser yöntemi): Other methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* set_userptr() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi): Panel Objects. (line   43)
* set_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage yöntemi): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* set_wakeup_fd() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  441)
* set_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   33)
* set;comprehensions:                    Set displays.       (line    6)
* set;display:                           Set displays.       (line    6)
* set() (asyncio.Event yöntemi):         Event.              (line   51)
* set() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  273)
* set() (configparser.RawConfigParser yöntemi): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* set() (contextvars.ContextVar yöntemi): Context Variables. (line   46)
* set() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi):   Morsel Objects.     (line   58)
* set() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard yöntemi): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   66)
* set() (threading.Event yöntemi):       Event Objects.      (line   30)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox yöntemi):  ttk Combobox.       (line   19)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox yöntemi):   ttk Spinbox.        (line   12)
* set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi):  ttk Treeview.       (line  285)
* set() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element yöntemi): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* setacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  254)
* setannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  259)
* setattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   49)
* setAttribute() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* setAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* setAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   79)
* setAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element yöntemi): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* setattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   62)
* SetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* setblocking() (socket.socket yöntemi): Socket Objects.     (line  528)
* setByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* setcbreak() (tty modülü içinde):       tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   54)
* setCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* SetComp (ast içindeki sınıf):          Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* setcomptype() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):     aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  161)
* setcomptype() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi): AU_write Objects.  (line   28)
* setcomptype() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* setconfig() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  632)
* setContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* setcontext() (decimal modülü içinde):  Context objects.    (line   18)
* setDaemon() (threading.Thread yöntemi): Thread Objects.    (line  215)
* setdefault() (dict yöntemi):           Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  199)
* setdefault() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* setdefaulttimeout() (socket modülü içinde): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  382)
* setdlopenflags() (sys modülü içinde):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1453)
* setDocumentLocator() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* setDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* setegid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  377)
* setEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* setEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* setErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* seteuid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  383)
* setFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* setfirstweekday() (calendar modülü içinde): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  349)
* setfirstweekday() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   54)
* setfmt() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* setFormatter() (logging.Handler yöntemi): Handler Objects. (line   48)
* setframerate() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):    aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  151)
* setframerate() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi): AU_write Objects. (line   19)
* setframerate() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* setgid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  389)
* setgroups() (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  395)
* seth() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line  166)
* setheading() (turtle modülü içinde):   Turtle motion.      (line  166)
* sethostname() (socket modülü içinde):  Other functions<2>. (line  389)
* setinputsizes() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi): Cursor objects.  (line  163)
* SetInteger() (msilib.Record yöntemi):  Record Objects.     (line   32)
* setitem() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  205)
* setitimer() (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  412)
* setLevel() (logging.Handler yöntemi):  Handler Objects.    (line   35)
* setLevel() (logging.Logger yöntemi):   Logger Objects.     (line  105)
* setlimit() (sqlite3.Connection yöntemi): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  586)
* setlocale() (locale modülü içinde):    locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   27)
* setLocale() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* setLoggerClass() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  323)
* setlogmask() (syslog modülü içinde):   syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   98)
* setLogRecordFactory() (logging modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  334)
* setmark() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):         aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  179)
* setMaxConns() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler yöntemi): CacheFTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* setmode() (msvcrt modülü içinde):      File Operations.    (line   38)
* setName() (threading.Thread yöntemi):  Thread Objects.     (line  159)
* setnchannels() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):    aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  143)
* setnchannels() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi): AU_write Objects. (line    9)
* setnchannels() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* setnframes() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):      aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  155)
* setnframes() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi): AU_write Objects.   (line   23)
* setnframes() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* setns() (os modülü içinde):            Process Parameters. (line  410)
* setoutputsize() (sqlite3.Cursor yöntemi): Cursor objects.  (line  167)
* SetParamEntityParsing() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* setparameters() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  189)
* setparams() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):       aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  171)
* setparams() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi):  AU_write Objects.   (line   33)
* setparams() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects. (line   64)
* setpassword() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi): ZipFile Objects.  (line  232)
* setpgid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  457)
* setpgrp() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  449)
* setpos() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):          aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  111)
* setpos() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):      AU_read Objects.    (line   60)
* setpos() (turtle modülü içinde):       Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* setpos() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi):     Wave_read Objects.  (line   75)
* setposition() (turtle modülü içinde):  Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* setpriority() (os modülü içinde):      Process Parameters. (line  465)
* setprofile_all_threads() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  189)
* setprofile() (sys modülü içinde):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1474)
* setprofile() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  182)
* SetProperty() (msilib.SummaryInformation yöntemi): Summary Information Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* setProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader yöntemi): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* setPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* setquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  264)
* setraw() (tty modülü içinde):          tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* setrecursionlimit() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1531)
* setregid() (os modülü içinde):         Process Parameters. (line  482)
* SetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* setresgid() (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  488)
* setresuid() (os modülü içinde):        Process Parameters. (line  496)
* setreuid() (os modülü içinde):         Process Parameters. (line  504)
* setrlimit() (resource modülü içinde):  Resource Limits.    (line   31)
* setsampwidth() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):    aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  147)
* setsampwidth() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi): AU_write Objects. (line   13)
* setsampwidth() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* setscrreg() (curses.window yöntemi):   Window Objects.     (line  514)
* setsid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  517)
* setsockopt() (socket.socket yöntemi):  Socket Objects.     (line  561)
* setstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder yöntemi): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* setstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder yöntemi): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* setstate() (random modülü içinde):     Bookkeeping functions.
                                                             (line   38)
* setstate() (random.Random yöntemi):    Alternative Generator.
                                                             (line   28)
* setStream() (logging.StreamHandler yöntemi): StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   32)
* SetStream() (msilib.Record yöntemi):   Record Objects.     (line   26)
* SetString() (msilib.Record yöntemi):   Record Objects.     (line   21)
* setswitchinterval (in module sys):     Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock.
                                                             (line   15)
* setswitchinterval() (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1549)
* setswitchinterval() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  286)
* setSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource yöntemi): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* setsyx() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  477)
* setTarget() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler yöntemi): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   68)
* setter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   42)
* settiltangle() (turtle modülü içinde): Appearance.         (line  118)
* settimeout() (socket.socket yöntemi):  Socket Objects.     (line  545)
* setTimeout() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler yöntemi): CacheFTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* settrace_all_threads() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  165)
* settrace() (sys modülü içinde):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1562)
* settrace() (threading modülü içinde):  threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  158)
* setuid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Parameters. (line  524)
* setundobuffer() (turtle modülü içinde): Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   61)
* SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  369)
* SETUP_CLEANUP (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1279)
* setup_environ() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler yöntemi): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  199)
* SETUP_FINALLY (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1272)
* setup_python() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi): API<2>.          (line  145)
* setup_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi): API<2>.         (line  153)
* setup_testing_defaults() (wsgiref.util modülü içinde): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   70)
* SETUP_WITH (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1287)
* setup() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler yöntemi): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* setup() (turtle modülü içinde):        Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   20)
* setUp() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi):   Test cases.         (line   33)
* setUpClass() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.      (line   55)
* setupterm() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  482)
* SetValue() (winreg modülü içinde):     Functions<11>.      (line  418)
* SetValueEx() (winreg modülü içinde):   Functions<11>.      (line  449)
* setworldcoordinates() (turtle modülü içinde): Window control.
                                                             (line   89)
* setx() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line  138)
* setxattr() (os modülü içinde):         Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   57)
* sety() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line  152)
* SF_APPEND (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  374)
* SF_ARCHIVED (stat modülü içinde):      stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  366)
* SF_IMMUTABLE (stat modülü içinde):     stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  370)
* SF_MNOWAIT (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  746)
* SF_NOCACHE (os modülü içinde):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  757)
* SF_NODISKIO (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  746)
* SF_NOUNLINK (stat modülü içinde):      stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  378)
* SF_SNAPSHOT (stat modülü içinde):      stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  382)
* SF_SYNC (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  746)
* sha1() (hashlib modülü içinde):        Constructors.       (line   22)
* sha224() (hashlib modülü içinde):      Constructors.       (line   24)
* sha256() (hashlib modülü içinde):      Constructors.       (line   26)
* sha3_224() (hashlib modülü içinde):    Constructors.       (line   32)
* sha3_256() (hashlib modülü içinde):    Constructors.       (line   34)
* sha3_384() (hashlib modülü içinde):    Constructors.       (line   36)
* sha3_512() (hashlib modülü içinde):    Constructors.       (line   38)
* sha384() (hashlib modülü içinde):      Constructors.       (line   28)
* sha512() (hashlib modülü içinde):      Constructors.       (line   30)
* shake_128() (hashlib modülü içinde):   SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line    6)
* shake_256() (hashlib modülü içinde):   SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line    8)
* shape (memoryview özniteliği):         Memory Views.       (line  451)
* Shape (turtle içindeki sınıf):         Public classes.     (line   43)
* shape() (turtle modülü içinde):        Appearance.         (line    6)
* shapesize() (turtle modülü içinde):    Appearance.         (line   53)
* shapetransform() (turtle modülü içinde): Appearance.       (line  157)
* share() (socket.socket yöntemi):       Socket Objects.     (line  595)
* ShareableList (multiprocessing.shared_memory içindeki sınıf): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  249)
* ShareableList() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager yöntemi): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  209)
* Shared Memory:                         multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* shared_ciphers() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.     (line  220)
* shared_memory (sys._emscripten_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  352)
* SharedMemory (multiprocessing.shared_memory içindeki sınıf): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   33)
* SharedMemory() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager yöntemi): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  204)
* SharedMemoryManager (multiprocessing.managers içindeki sınıf): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  177)
* shearfactor() (turtle modülü içinde):  Appearance.         (line   84)
* Shelf (shelve içindeki sınıf):         Restrictions.       (line   27)
* shield() (asyncio modülü içinde):      Shielding From Cancellation.
                                                             (line    6)
* shift_path_info() (wsgiref.util modülü içinde): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   40)
* shift() (decimal.Context yöntemi):     Context objects.    (line  513)
* shift() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):     Decimal objects.    (line  557)
* shifting;operation:                    Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* shifting;operations:                   Tam sayı Türlerinde Bit Düzeyinde İşlemler.
                                                             (line    6)
* shlex (shlex içindeki sınıf):          shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   91)
* shm (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList özniteliği): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  323)
* SHORT_TIMEOUT (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   80)
* shortDescription() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.
                                                             (line  758)
* shorten() (textwrap modülü içinde):    textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   49)
* shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler yöntemi): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   36)
* shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler yöntemi): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   72)
* shouldStop (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  284)
* show_code() (dis modülü içinde):       Analysis functions. (line   26)
* show_flag_values() (enum modülü içinde): Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line  100)
* show() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi):   Panel Objects.      (line   49)
* show() (tkinter.commondialog.Dialog yöntemi): tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line   16)
* show() (tkinter.messagebox.Message yöntemi): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   82)
* showerror() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  105)
* showinfo() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   91)
* showsyntaxerror() (code.InteractiveInterpreter yöntemi): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* showtraceback() (code.InteractiveInterpreter yöntemi): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* showturtle() (turtle modülü içinde):   Visibility.         (line   15)
* showwarning() (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   99)
* showwarning() (warnings modülü içinde): Available Functions.
                                                             (line   85)
* shuffle() (random modülü içinde):      Functions for sequences.
                                                             (line   54)
* SHUT_RD (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line  368)
* SHUT_RDWR (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line  368)
* SHUT_WR (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line  368)
* shutdown_asyncgens() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   56)
* shutdown_default_executor() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   77)
* shutdown() (concurrent.futures.Executor yöntemi): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* shutdown() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  269)
* shutdown() (logging modülü içinde):    Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  312)
* shutdown() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line   84)
* shutdown() (socket.socket yöntemi):    Socket Objects.     (line  586)
* shutdown() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   55)
* SI (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   70)
* side_effect (unittest.mock.Mock özniteliği): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  367)
* SIG_BLOCK (signal modülü içinde):      Module contents<2>. (line  231)
* SIG_DFL (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line   45)
* SIG_IGN (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line   53)
* SIG_SETMASK (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  246)
* SIG_UNBLOCK (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  238)
* SIGABRT (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line   58)
* SIGALRM (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line   62)
* SIGBREAK (signal modülü içinde):       Module contents<2>. (line   68)
* SIGBUS (signal modülü içinde):         Module contents<2>. (line   74)
* SIGCHLD (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line   80)
* SIGCLD (signal modülü içinde):         Module contents<2>. (line   86)
* SIGCONT (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line   92)
* SIGFPE (signal modülü içinde):         Module contents<2>. (line   98)
* SIGHUP (signal modülü içinde):         Module contents<2>. (line  108)
* SIGILL (signal modülü içinde):         Module contents<2>. (line  115)
* SIGINT (C macro):                      Signal Handling<2>. (line    7)
* SIGINT (C macro) <1>:                  Signal Handling<2>. (line   34)
* SIGINT (signal modülü içinde):         Module contents<2>. (line  119)
* siginterrupt() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>. (line  484)
* SIGKILL (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  125)
* Sigmasks (signal içindeki sınıf):      Module contents<2>. (line   31)
* signal() (signal modülü içinde):       Module contents<2>. (line  499)
* Signals (signal içindeki sınıf):       Module contents<2>. (line   17)
* Signature (inspect içindeki sınıf):    Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   74)
* signature (inspect.BoundArguments özniteliği): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  346)
* signature() (inspect modülü içinde):   Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   12)
* sigpending() (signal modülü içinde):   Module contents<2>. (line  527)
* SIGPIPE (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  133)
* SIGSEGV (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  141)
* SIGSTKFLT (signal modülü içinde):      Module contents<2>. (line  145)
* SIGTERM (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  157)
* sigtimedwait() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>. (line  588)
* SIGUSR1 (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  161)
* SIGUSR2 (signal modülü içinde):        Module contents<2>. (line  167)
* sigwait() (signal modülü içinde):      Module contents<2>. (line  542)
* sigwaitinfo() (signal modülü içinde):  Module contents<2>. (line  559)
* SIGWINCH (signal modülü içinde):       Module contents<2>. (line  173)
* sihirli yöntem:                        Sözlük.             (line  883)
* SIMPLE (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.     (line   15)
* Simple Mail Transfer Protocol:         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* simple;statement:                      Simple statements.  (line    6)
* SimpleCookie (http.cookies içindeki sınıf): http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   49)
* simplefilter() (warnings modülü içinde): Available Functions.
                                                             (line  119)
* SimpleHandler (wsgiref.handlers içindeki sınıf): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   70)
* SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (http.server içindeki sınıf): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  342)
* SimpleNamespace (types içindeki sınıf): Additional Utility Classes and Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* SimpleQueue (multiprocessing içindeki sınıf): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  215)
* SimpleQueue (queue içindeki sınıf):    queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   75)
* SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (xmlrpc.server içindeki sınıf): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   64)
* SimpleXMLRPCServer (xmlrpc.server içindeki sınıf): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   25)
* sin() (cmath modülü içinde):           Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* sin() (math modülü içinde):            Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   65)
* SingleAddressHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  217)
* singledispatch() (functools modülü içinde): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  424)
* singledispatchmethod (functools içindeki sınıf): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  598)
* singleton;tuple:                       Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   29)
* sinh() (cmath modülü içinde):          Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* sinh() (math modülü içinde):           Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   25)
* sınıf:                                 Sözlük.             (line  250)
* sınıf değişkeni:                       Sözlük.             (line  256)
* SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.   (line  239)
* SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.
                                                             (line  239)
* SIO_RCVALL (socket modülü içinde):     Constants<6>.       (line  239)
* site komut satırı seçeneği; -user-base: Command Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   18)
* site komut satırı seçeneği; -user-site: Command Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   22)
* site_maps() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser yöntemi): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   71)
* site-packages;directory:               site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   25)
* sitecustomize:                         Özelliştirme Modülleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* sitecustomize <1>:                     Özelliştirme Modülleri.
                                                             (line   19)
* sixtofour (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  295)
* size (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory özniteliği): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  102)
* size (struct.Struct özniteliği):       Classes<2>.         (line   61)
* size (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):     TarInfo Objects.    (line   65)
* size (tracemalloc.Statistic özniteliği): Statistic.        (line   19)
* size (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff özniteliği): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   26)
* size (tracemalloc.Trace özniteliği):   Trace.              (line   23)
* size_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff özniteliği): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   32)
* SIZE_MAX (C macro):                    Integer Objects.    (line  227)
* size() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):           FTP objects.        (line  352)
* size() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):            mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  291)
* Sized (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line   15)
* Sized (typing içindeki sınıf):         Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   65)
* sizeof_digit (sys.int_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1132)
* sizeof() (ctypes modülü içinde):       Utility functions.  (line  201)
* SKIP (doctest modülü içinde):          Option Flags.       (line   90)
* skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  717)
* skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (test.support.socket_helper modülü içinde): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   59)
* skip_unless_symlink() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  126)
* skip_unless_xattr() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  131)
* skip() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):          chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line  116)
* skip() (unittest modülü içinde):       Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   85)
* skipIf() (unittest modülü içinde):     Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   90)
* skipinitialspace (csv.Dialect özniteliği): Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   68)
* skipped (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  259)
* skippedEntity() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line  176)
* SkipTest:                              Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line  105)
* skipTest() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.        (line   97)
* skipUnless() (unittest modülü içinde): Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   94)
* SLASH (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   94)
* SLASHEQUAL (token modülü içinde):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  182)
* slave() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):        Methods.            (line  303)
* sleep() (asyncio modülü içinde):       Sleeping.           (line    6)
* sleep() (time modülü içinde):          Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  249)
* sleeping_retry() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  219)
* slice:                                 Slicings.           (line    6)
* Slice (ast içindeki sınıf):            Subscripting.       (line   27)
* slice (yerleşik sınıf):                Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1742)
* slice;assignment:                      Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* slice;operation:                       Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* slicing:                               Sequences.          (line   14)
* slicing <1>:                           Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* slicing <2>:                           Slicings.           (line    6)
* slicing;assignment:                    Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  125)
* slow_callback_duration (asyncio.loop özniteliği): Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   21)
* SMALLEST (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  190)
* SMTP (email.policy modülü içinde):     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  509)
* SMTP (smtplib içindeki sınıf):         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   22)
* SMTP_SSL (smtplib içindeki sınıf):     smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   76)
* SMTP;protocol:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* SMTPAuthenticationError:               smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  179)
* SMTPConnectError:                      smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  164)
* SMTPDataError:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  160)
* SMTPException:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  125)
* SMTPHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* SMTPHeloError:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  169)
* SMTPNotSupportedError:                 smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  173)
* SMTPRecipientsRefused:                 smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  153)
* SMTPResponseException:                 smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  139)
* SMTPSenderRefused:                     smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  147)
* SMTPServerDisconnected:                smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  133)
* SMTPUTF8 (email.policy modülü içinde): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  515)
* Snapshot (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf): Snapshot.           (line    6)
* SND_ALIAS (winsound modülü içinde):    winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   47)
* SND_APPLICATION (winsound modülü içinde): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  128)
* SND_ASYNC (winsound modülü içinde):    winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  109)
* SND_FILENAME (winsound modülü içinde): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   42)
* SND_LOOP (winsound modülü içinde):     winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   88)
* SND_MEMORY (winsound modülü içinde):   winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line   94)
* SND_NODEFAULT (winsound modülü içinde): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  113)
* SND_NOSTOP (winsound modülü içinde):   winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  118)
* SND_NOWAIT (winsound modülü içinde):   winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  122)
* SND_PURGE (winsound modülü içinde):    winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows.
                                                             (line  103)
* sni_callback (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.    (line  285)
* sniff() (csv.Sniffer yöntemi):         Module Contents<3>. (line  231)
* Sniffer (csv içindeki sınıf):          Module Contents<3>. (line  224)
* SO (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   67)
* SO_INCOMING_CPU (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.      (line  328)
* sock_accept() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):  Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line  106)
* SOCK_CLOEXEC (socket modülü içinde):   Constants<6>.       (line   38)
* sock_connect() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   87)
* SOCK_DGRAM (socket modülü içinde):     Constants<6>.       (line   27)
* SOCK_MAX_SIZE (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  123)
* SOCK_NONBLOCK (socket modülü içinde):  Constants<6>.       (line   38)
* SOCK_RAW (socket modülü içinde):       Constants<6>.       (line   27)
* SOCK_RDM (socket modülü içinde):       Constants<6>.       (line   27)
* sock_recv_into() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   26)
* sock_recv() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):    Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   12)
* sock_recvfrom_into() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   48)
* sock_recvfrom() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   37)
* sock_sendall() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   59)
* sock_sendfile() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line  128)
* sock_sendto() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):  Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   76)
* SOCK_SEQPACKET (socket modülü içinde): Constants<6>.       (line   27)
* SOCK_STREAM (socket modülü içinde):    Constants<6>.       (line   27)
* socket (socket içindeki sınıf):        Creating sockets.   (line    8)
* socket (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   89)
* socket_type (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  112)
* socket() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  275)
* socket() (in module socket):           select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  144)
* SocketHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* socketpair() (socket modülü içinde):   Creating sockets.   (line   64)
* sockets (asyncio.Server özniteliği):   Server Objects.     (line  103)
* SocketType (socket modülü içinde):     Creating sockets.   (line  186)
* soft deprecated:                       Sözlük.             (line 1312)
* soft keyword:                          Soft Keywords.      (line    6)
* SOFT_KEYWORD (token modülü içinde):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  256)
* softkwlist (keyword modülü içinde):    keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   30)
* SOH (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   22)
* SOL_ALG (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line  255)
* SOL_RDS (socket modülü içinde):        Constants<6>.       (line  226)
* SOMAXCONN (socket modülü içinde):      Constants<6>.       (line   54)
* sort_stats() (pstats.Stats yöntemi):   The Stats Class.    (line   67)
* sort() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):        IMAP4 Objects.      (line  279)
* sort() (list yöntemi):                 Listeler<2>.        (line   39)
* sortdict() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  267)
* sortTestMethodsUsing (unittest.TestLoader özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  195)
* source (doctest.Example özniteliği):   Example Objects.    (line   17)
* source (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  274)
* source (shlex.shlex özniteliği):       shlex Objects.      (line  151)
* source character set:                  Encoding declarations.
                                                             (line    6)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:                     py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>:                 Library<55>.        (line  452)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>:                 Build<55>.          (line   15)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>:                 py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   66)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>:                 py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   82)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>:                 py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   86)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>:                 Command-line use.   (line   90)
* source_from_cache() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   58)
* source_hash() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  160)
* SOURCE_SUFFIXES (importlib.machinery modülü içinde): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* source_to_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader sabit yöntemi): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  243)
* SourceFileLoader (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  204)
* sourcehook() (shlex.shlex yöntemi):    shlex Objects.      (line   26)
* SourcelessFileLoader (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  244)
* SourceLoader (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  328)
* soyut temel sınıf:                     Sözlük.             (line   31)
* sözlük:                                Sözlük.             (line  364)
* sözlük anlama:                         Sözlük.             (line  370)
* sözlük görünümü:                       Sözlük.             (line  378)
* SP (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  121)
* space:                                 Indentation.        (line    6)
* space;in printf-style formatting:      printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   66)
* space;in printf-style formatting <1>:  printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* space;in string formatting:            Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   74)
* span() (re.Match yöntemi):             Match Objects.      (line  172)
* sparse (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):   TarInfo Objects.    (line  157)
* spawn_python() (test.support.script_helper modülü içinde): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   69)
* spawn() (pty modülü içinde):           pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities.
                                                             (line   42)
* spawnl() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  578)
* spawnle() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  578)
* spawnlp() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  578)
* spawnlpe() (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line  578)
* spawnv() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  578)
* spawnve() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  578)
* spawnvp() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  578)
* spawnvpe() (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line  578)
* spec_from_file_location() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  148)
* spec_from_loader() (importlib.util modülü içinde): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  137)
* special;attribute:                     The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line   13)
* special;metot:                         Sözlük.             (line 1327)
* SpecialFileError:                      tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  248)
* specified_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser özniteliği): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  155)
* speed() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* speed() (turtle modülü içinde):        Turtle motion.      (line  328)
* Spinbox (tkinter.ttk içindeki sınıf):  ttk Spinbox.        (line    6)
* SPLICE_F_MORE (os modülü içinde):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  815)
* SPLICE_F_MOVE (os modülü içinde):      File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  815)
* SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK (os modülü içinde):  File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  815)
* splice() (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  787)
* split() (BaseExceptionGroup yöntemi):  İstisna grupları.   (line   66)
* split() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  396)
* split() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  396)
* split() (os.path modülü içinde):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  424)
* split() (re modülü içinde):            Functions.          (line   80)
* split() (re.Pattern yöntemi):          Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* split() (shlex modülü içinde):         shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   17)
* split() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  470)
* splitdrive() (os.path modülü içinde):  os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  439)
* splitext() (os.path modülü içinde):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  494)
* splitlines() (bytearray yöntemi):      Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  639)
* splitlines() (bytes yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  639)
* splitlines() (str yöntemi):            String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  513)
* SplitResult (urllib.parse içindeki sınıf): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   55)
* SplitResultBytes (urllib.parse içindeki sınıf): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   82)
* splitroot() (os.path modülü içinde):   os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  463)
* SpooledTemporaryFile (tempfile içindeki sınıf): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  152)
* sprintf-style formatting:              printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* sprintf-style formatting <1>:          printf-style Bytes Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* SQLITE_DENY (sqlite3 modülü içinde):   Module constants.   (line   49)
* sqlite_errorcode (sqlite3.Error özniteliği): Exceptions<5>.
                                                             (line   24)
* sqlite_errorname (sqlite3.Error özniteliği): Exceptions<5>.
                                                             (line   30)
* SQLITE_IGNORE (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.   (line   49)
* SQLITE_OK (sqlite3 modülü içinde):     Module constants.   (line   49)
* sqlite_version (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.  (line   78)
* sqlite_version_info (sqlite3 modülü içinde): Module constants.
                                                             (line   83)
* sqrt() (cmath modülü içinde):          Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* sqrt() (decimal.Context yöntemi):      Context objects.    (line  517)
* sqrt() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi):      Decimal objects.    (line  568)
* sqrt() (math modülü içinde):           Güç ve logaritmik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   90)
* ssizeargfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line  128)
* ssizeobjargproc (C type):              Slot Type typedefs. (line  132)
* SSL:                                   ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* ssl_version (ftplib.FTP_TLS özniteliği): FTP_TLS objects.  (line   83)
* SSLCertVerificationError:              Exceptions<13>.     (line   79)
* SSLContext (ssl içindeki sınıf):       SSL Contexts.       (line   14)
* SSLEOFError:                           Exceptions<13>.     (line   71)
* SSLError:                              Exceptions<13>.     (line    6)
* SSLErrorNumber (ssl içindeki sınıf):   Constants<7>.       (line  543)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE:                         Context creation.   (line   34)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:                     Context creation.   (line   68)
* SSLObject (ssl içindeki sınıf):        Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* sslobject_class (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts. (line  471)
* SSLSession (ssl içindeki sınıf):       SSL session.        (line    8)
* SSLSocket (ssl içindeki sınıf):        SSL Sockets.        (line    6)
* sslsocket_class (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts. (line  445)
* SSLSyscallError:                       Exceptions<13>.     (line   62)
* SSLv3 (ssl.TLSVersion özniteliği):     Constants<7>.       (line  565)
* SSLWantReadError:                      Exceptions<13>.     (line   44)
* SSLWantWriteError:                     Exceptions<13>.     (line   53)
* SSLZeroReturnError:                    Exceptions<13>.     (line   35)
* st_atime (os.stat_result özniteliği):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1178)
* ST_ATIME (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  163)
* st_atime_ns (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1195)
* st_birthtime (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1221)
* st_birthtime_ns (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1229)
* st_blksize (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1266)
* st_blocks (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1261)
* st_creator (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1302)
* st_ctime (os.stat_result özniteliği):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1186)
* ST_CTIME (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  171)
* st_ctime_ns (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1209)
* st_dev (os.stat_result özniteliği):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1154)
* ST_DEV (stat modülü içinde):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  142)
* st_file_attributes (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1312)
* st_flags (os.stat_result özniteliği):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1276)
* st_fstype (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1291)
* st_gen (os.stat_result özniteliği):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1284)
* st_gid (os.stat_result özniteliği):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1166)
* ST_GID (stat modülü içinde):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  154)
* st_ino (os.stat_result özniteliği):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1145)
* ST_INO (stat modülü içinde):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  138)
* st_mode (os.stat_result özniteliği):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1141)
* ST_MODE (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  134)
* st_mtime (os.stat_result özniteliği):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1182)
* ST_MTIME (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  167)
* st_mtime_ns (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1202)
* st_nlink (os.stat_result özniteliği):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1158)
* ST_NLINK (stat modülü içinde):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  146)
* st_rdev (os.stat_result özniteliği):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1272)
* st_reparse_tag (os.stat_result özniteliği): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1322)
* st_rsize (os.stat_result özniteliği):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1298)
* st_size (os.stat_result özniteliği):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1170)
* ST_SIZE (stat modülü içinde):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  158)
* st_type (os.stat_result özniteliği):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1306)
* st_uid (os.stat_result özniteliği):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1162)
* ST_UID (stat modülü içinde):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  150)
* st() (turtle modülü içinde):           Visibility.         (line   15)
* stack (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* stack viewer:                          Debug menu Shell window only.
                                                             (line   15)
* stack_effect() (dis modülü içinde):    Analysis functions. (line  170)
* stack_size() (_thread modülü içinde):  _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  109)
* stack_size() (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  206)
* stack;trace:                           Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* stack() (inspect modülü içinde):       The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  170)
* stackable;streams:                     codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* StackSummary (traceback içindeki sınıf): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* stamp() (turtle modülü içinde):        Turtle motion.      (line  272)
* Standard C:                            String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   74)
* standard input:                        Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line   25)
* standard_b64decode() (base64 modülü içinde): base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   87)
* standard_b64encode() (base64 modülü içinde): base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   82)
* standard;output:                       Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* standarderror (2to3 fixer):            Fixers.             (line  294)
* standend() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  519)
* standout() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  524)
* STAR (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   90)
* STAREQUAL (token modülü içinde):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  178)
* starmap_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  159)
* starmap() (itertools modülü içinde):   Itertool Functions. (line  531)
* starmap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  148)
* Starred (ast içindeki sınıf):          Variables.          (line   43)
* start (range özniteliği):              Aralıklar.          (line   59)
* start (slice object attribute):        Slice objects.      (line   10)
* start (slice object attribute) <1>:    Slicings.           (line   26)
* start (slice özniteliği):              Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1750)
* start (UnicodeError özniteliği):       Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  437)
* start_color() (curses modülü içinde):  Functions<4>.       (line  490)
* start_component() (msilib.Directory yöntemi): Directory Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* start_new_thread() (_thread modülü içinde): _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   32)
* start_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* start_server() (asyncio modülü içinde): Streams.           (line   74)
* start_serving() (asyncio.Server yöntemi): Server Objects.  (line   50)
* start_threads() (test.support.threading_helper modülü içinde): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   22)
* start_tls() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):    TLS Upgrade.        (line    6)
* start_tls() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.  (line   81)
* start_unix_server() (asyncio modülü içinde): Streams.      (line  142)
* start() (logging.handlers.QueueListener yöntemi): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   75)
* start() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line   57)
* start() (multiprocessing.Process yöntemi): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   58)
* start() (re.Match yöntemi):            Match Objects.      (line  147)
* start() (threading.Thread yöntemi):    Thread Objects.     (line   93)
* start() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar yöntemi): ttk Progressbar.
                                                             (line    8)
* start() (tracemalloc modülü içinde):   Functions<9>.       (line   68)
* start() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder yöntemi): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors Exception and Defect classes.
                                                             (line   80)
* startCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler yöntemi): LexicalHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* StartCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  341)
* StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  224)
* startDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* startDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler yöntemi): LexicalHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* startElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* StartElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  262)
* startElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   33)
* STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   27)
* startfile() (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line  691)
* StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  320)
* startPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler yöntemi): ContentHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* StartResponse (wsgiref.types içindeki sınıf): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   11)
* startswith() (bytearray yöntemi):      Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  251)
* startswith() (bytes yöntemi):          Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  251)
* startswith() (str yöntemi):            String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  588)
* startTest() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  347)
* startTestRun() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  356)
* starttls() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  298)
* starttls() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):     Methods.            (line   62)
* starttls() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):     SMTP Objects.       (line  184)
* STARTUPINFO (subprocess içindeki sınıf): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line    9)
* stat_result (os içindeki sınıf):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1133)
* stat() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  219)
* stat() (os modülü içinde):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1078)
* stat() (os.DirEntry yöntemi):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1043)
* stat() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):         Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   13)
* stat() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   52)
* state() (tkinter.ttk.Widget yöntemi):  ttk Widget.         (line   25)
* statement grouping:                    Indentation.        (line    6)
* statement;assert:                      The assert statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;assert <1>:                  Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   10)
* statement;assignment, annotated:       Annotated assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;assignment, augmented:       Augmented assignment statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;async def:                   Coroutines<2>.      (line    8)
* statement;async for:                   Coroutine function definition.
                                                             (line   28)
* statement;async with:                  The async for statement.
                                                             (line   43)
* statement;break:                       The break statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;break <1>:                   The while statement.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;break <2>:                   The for statement.  (line   21)
* statement;break <3>:                   except* clause.     (line   57)
* statement;break <4>:                   finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement;class:                       Class definitions.  (line    6)
* statement;continue:                    The continue statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;continue <1>:                The while statement.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;continue <2>:                The for statement.  (line   21)
* statement;continue <3>:                except* clause.     (line   56)
* statement;continue <4>:                finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement;def:                         Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;del:                         Basic customization.
                                                             (line   55)
* statement;del <1>:                     The del statement.  (line    6)
* statement;del <2>:                     Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;del <3>:                     Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;except:                      Gömülü İstisnalar.  (line    6)
* statement;for:                         for İfadeleri.      (line    6)
* statement;for <1>:                     The break statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;for <2>:                     The continue statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;for <3>:                     The for statement.  (line    6)
* statement;global:                      The del statement.  (line   15)
* statement;global <1>:                  The global statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;if:                          The if statement.   (line    6)
* statement;if <1>:                      Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;import:                      Modules<2>.         (line    6)
* statement;import <1>:                  The import statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;import <2>:                  Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 2127)
* statement;import <3>:                  site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   46)
* statement;match:                       The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;nonlocal:                    The nonlocal statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;pass:                        The pass statement. (line    6)
* statement;raise:                       The raise statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;raise <1>:                   Gömülü İstisnalar.  (line   14)
* statement;return:                      The return statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;return <1>:                  except* clause.     (line   57)
* statement;return <2>:                  finally clause.     (line   29)
* statement;try:                         Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* statement;try <1>:                     The try statement.  (line    6)
* statement;try <2>:                     Gömülü İstisnalar.  (line    6)
* statement;type:                        The type statement. (line    6)
* statement;while:                       The break statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while <1>:                   The continue statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while <2>:                   The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while <3>:                   Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;with:                        With Statement Context Managers.
                                                             (line   14)
* statement;with <1>:                    The with statement. (line    6)
* statement;yield:                       The yield statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* static type checker:                   Sözlük.             (line 1338)
* static_order() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter yöntemi): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  162)
* Statistic (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf): Statistic.         (line    6)
* StatisticDiff (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf): StatisticDiff. (line    6)
* statistics() (tracemalloc.Snapshot yöntemi): Snapshot.     (line   56)
* StatisticsError:                       Exceptions<4>.      (line    8)
* Stats (pstats içindeki sınıf):         The Stats Class.    (line    9)
* status (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* status (urllib.response.addinfourl özniteliği): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   24)
* status() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  311)
* statvfs() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1374)
* STD_ERROR_HANDLE (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   18)
* STD_INPUT_HANDLE (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line    8)
* STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (subprocess modülü içinde): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   13)
* StdButtonBox (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Basic Widgets.  (line   65)
* stderr (asyncio.subprocess.Process özniteliği): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  126)
* stderr (in module sys):                I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stderr (in module sys) <1>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stderr (in module sys) <2>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* stderr (subprocess.CalledProcessError özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  229)
* stderr (subprocess.CompletedProcess özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  128)
* stderr (subprocess.Popen özniteliği):  Popen Objects.      (line  127)
* stderr (subprocess.TimeoutExpired özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  193)
* stderr (sys modülü içinde):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1765)
* stdev (statistics.NormalDist özniteliği): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* stdev() (statistics modülü içinde):    Function details.   (line  361)
* stdin (asyncio.subprocess.Process özniteliği): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  116)
* stdin (in module sys):                 I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdin (in module sys) <1>:             Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdin (in module sys) <2>:             Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* stdin (subprocess.Popen özniteliği):   Popen Objects.      (line  108)
* stdin (sys modülü içinde):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1765)
* stdin;stdout;sdterr:                   Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    9)
* stdio:                                 I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdlib_module_names (sys modülü içinde): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1855)
* stdout (asyncio.subprocess.Process özniteliği): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  121)
* stdout (in module sys):                I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdout (in module sys) <1>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdout (in module sys) <2>:            Sub-interpreter support.
                                                             (line  197)
* STDOUT (subprocess modülü içinde):     Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  156)
* stdout (subprocess.CalledProcessError özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  225)
* stdout (subprocess.CompletedProcess özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  118)
* stdout (subprocess.Popen özniteliği):  Popen Objects.      (line  117)
* stdout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  189)
* stdout (sys modülü içinde):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1765)
* stem (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):    Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  152)
* step (pdb command):                    Debugger Commands.  (line  186)
* step (range özniteliği):               Aralıklar.          (line   68)
* step (slice object attribute):         Slice objects.      (line   10)
* step (slice object attribute) <1>:     Slicings.           (line   26)
* step (slice özniteliği):               Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1754)
* step() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar yöntemi): ttk Progressbar. (line   15)
* stereocontrols() (ossaudiodev.oss_mixer_device yöntemi): Mixer Device Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* stls() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line  114)
* stop (range özniteliği):               Aralıklar.          (line   64)
* stop (slice object attribute):         Slice objects.      (line   10)
* stop (slice object attribute) <1>:     Slicings.           (line   26)
* stop (slice özniteliği):               Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1752)
* stop_here() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  249)
* STOP_ITERATION (monitoring event):     Events.             (line   81)
* stop() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):         Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   31)
* stop() (logging.handlers.QueueListener yöntemi): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   82)
* stop() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar yöntemi): ttk Progressbar. (line   21)
* stop() (tracemalloc modülü içinde):    Functions<9>.       (line   98)
* stop() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi):  Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  327)
* StopAsyncIteration:                    Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  277)
* StopIteration:                         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  244)
* stopListening() (logging.config modülü içinde): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  174)
* stopTest() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  351)
* stopTestRun() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  362)
* storbinary() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):     FTP objects.        (line  218)
* Store (ast içindeki sınıf):            Variables.          (line   11)
* STORE_ACTIONS (optparse.Option özniteliği): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   35)
* STORE_ATTR (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  541)
* STORE_DEREF (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  919)
* STORE_FAST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  873)
* STORE_GLOBAL (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  562)
* STORE_NAME (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  499)
* STORE_SLICE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  229)
* STORE_SUBSCR (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  201)
* store() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line  315)
* storlines() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):      FTP objects.        (line  247)
* str (built-in class);(see also string): Aralıklar.         (line  124)
* str (yerleşik sınıf):                  Metin Sırası Türü — str.
                                                             (line   44)
* str_digits_check_threshold (sys.int_info özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1141)
* str() (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  488)
* strcoll() (locale modülü içinde):      locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  441)
* StreamError:                           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  214)
* StreamHandler (logging içindeki sınıf): StreamHandler.     (line   11)
* StreamReader (asyncio içindeki sınıf): StreamReader.       (line    6)
* StreamReader (codecs içindeki sınıf):  StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* streamreader (codecs.CodecInfo özniteliği): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   87)
* StreamReaderWriter (codecs içindeki sınıf): StreamReaderWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* StreamRecoder (codecs içindeki sınıf): StreamRecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* StreamRequestHandler (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* streams:                               codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* StreamWriter (asyncio içindeki sınıf): StreamWriter.       (line    6)
* StreamWriter (codecs içindeki sınıf):  StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* streamwriter (codecs.CodecInfo özniteliği): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   87)
* StrEnum (enum içindeki sınıf):         Data Types<2>.      (line  368)
* strerror (C function):                 Raising exceptions. (line   59)
* strerror (OSError özniteliği):         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  184)
* strerror() (os modülü içinde):         Process Parameters. (line  530)
* strftime() (datetime.date yöntemi):    date Objects.       (line  283)
* strftime() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.  (line  732)
* strftime() (datetime.time yöntemi):    time Objects.       (line  218)
* strftime() (time modülü içinde):       Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  301)
* strict (csv.Dialect özniteliği):       Dialects and Formatting Parameters.
                                                             (line   73)
* strict (email.policy modülü içinde):   email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  530)
* STRICT (enum.FlagBoundary özniteliği): Data Types<2>.      (line  630)
* strict_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* strict_errors() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.    (line  141)
* strict_ns_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* strict_ns_set_path (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  127)
* strict_ns_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  112)
* strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy özniteliği): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* strict;error handler's name:           Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* STRIDED (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.    (line   37)
* STRIDED_RO (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags. (line   39)
* STRIDES (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.    (line   23)
* strides (memoryview özniteliği):       Memory Views.       (line  459)
* string (re.Match özniteliği):          Match Objects.      (line  211)
* STRING (token modülü içinde):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   46)
* string literal:                        Literals.           (line    8)
* string_at() (ctypes modülü içinde):    Utility functions.  (line  206)
* string;__format__() (object method):   Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* string;__str__() (object method):      Basic customization.
                                                             (line  131)
* string;conversion:                     Basic customization.
                                                             (line  153)
* string;conversion <1>:                 Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* string;format() (built-in function):   Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line  775)
* string;formatted literal:              Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi.
                                                             (line   94)
* string;formatted literal <1>:          String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* string;formatting, printf:             printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;immutable sequences:            Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   13)
* string;interpolated literal:           Güzel Çıktı Biçimlendirmesi.
                                                             (line   94)
* string;interpolated literal <1>:       String literal concatenation.
                                                             (line   24)
* string;interpolation, printf:          printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;item:                           Subscriptions.      (line   58)
* string;methods:                        Metin Sırası Türü — str.
                                                             (line   86)
* string;object representation:          Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   91)
* string;PyObject_Str (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  237)
* string;str (built-in class):           Metin Sırası Türü — str.
                                                             (line   44)
* string;str() (built-in function):      Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1851)
* string;text sequence type:             Aralıklar.          (line  124)
* StringIO (io içindeki sınıf):          Text I/O<2>.        (line  238)
* strings, documentation:                Fonksiyonların Tanımlanması.
                                                             (line   21)
* strings, documentation <1>:            Dokümantasyon Stringler’i.
                                                             (line    6)
* strip_dirs() (pstats.Stats yöntemi):   The Stats Class.    (line   34)
* strip() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* strip() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* strip() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  596)
* stripspaces (curses.textpad.Textbox özniteliği): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* strptime() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  255)
* strptime() (time modülü içinde):       Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  463)
* strsignal() (signal modülü içinde):    Module contents<2>. (line  295)
* Struct (struct içindeki sınıf):        Classes<2>.         (line    8)
* struct_time (time içindeki sınıf):     Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  498)
* structmember.h:                        Member types.       (line   85)
* Structure (ctypes içindeki sınıf):     Structured data types.
                                                             (line   33)
* strxfrm() (locale modülü içinde):      locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  448)
* STX (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   25)
* Style (tkinter.ttk içindeki sınıf):    Ttk Styling.        (line   20)
* Sub (ast içindeki sınıf):              Expressions<2>.     (line   54)
* SUB (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  103)
* sub() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  157)
* sub() (re modülü içinde):              Functions.          (line  167)
* sub() (re.Pattern yöntemi):            Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* subclassing;immutable types:           Basic customization.
                                                             (line    8)
* subdirs (filecmp.dircmp özniteliği):   The dircmp class.   (line  100)
* SubElement() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  205)
* subgroup() (BaseExceptionGroup yöntemi): İstisna grupları. (line   43)
* submit() (concurrent.futures.Executor yöntemi): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* submodule_search_locations (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec özniteliği): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  403)
* subn() (re modülü içinde):             Functions.          (line  240)
* subn() (re.Pattern yöntemi):           Regular Expression Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  215)
* subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  348)
* subnets() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  173)
* subnets() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  344)
* Subnormal (decimal içindeki sınıf):    Signals.            (line   86)
* suboffsets (memoryview özniteliği):    Memory Views.       (line  468)
* subpad() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  528)
* subprocess_exec() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Running Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   16)
* subprocess_shell() (asyncio.loop yöntemi): Running Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  115)
* SubprocessError:                       Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  162)
* SubprocessProtocol (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Base Protocols.
                                                             (line   24)
* SubprocessTransport (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   50)
* subscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  339)
* Subscript (ast içindeki sınıf):        Subscripting.       (line    6)
* subscript;assignment:                  Değiştirilebilir Dizi Tipleri.
                                                             (line   17)
* subscript;operation:                   Yaygın Dizi İşlemleri.
                                                             (line   20)
* subscription:                          Sequences.          (line    6)
* subscription <1>:                      Mutable sequences.  (line    6)
* subscription <2>:                      Mappings.           (line    6)
* subscription <3>:                      Subscriptions.      (line    6)
* subscription;assignment:               Assignment statements.
                                                             (line  101)
* subsequent_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  216)
* substitute() (string.Template yöntemi): Template strings.  (line   40)
* subTest() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.         (line  105)
* subtract() (collections.Counter yöntemi): Counter objects. (line   89)
* subtract() (decimal.Context yöntemi):  Context objects.    (line  521)
* subtraction:                           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   83)
* subtype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  278)
* subwin() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  535)
* successful() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  213)
* suffix (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği):  Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  130)
* suffix_map (mimetypes modülü içinde):  mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  128)
* suffix_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes özniteliği): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* suffixes (pathlib.PurePath özniteliği): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  141)
* suite:                                 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   18)
* suiteClass (unittest.TestLoader özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  201)
* sum_list():                            Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  143)
* sum_sequence():                        Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  170)
* sum_sequence() <1>:                    Exceptions<20>.     (line   65)
* summarize_address_range() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* summarize() (doctest.DocTestRunner yöntemi): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line  116)
* sumprod() (math modülü içinde):        Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  270)
* SUNDAY (calendar modülü içinde):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  447)
* super (pyclbr.Class özniteliği):       Class Objects.      (line   42)
* super (yerleşik sınıf):                Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1880)
* supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  226)
* supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  350)
* supernet() (ipaddress.IPv4Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  199)
* supernet() (ipaddress.IPv6Network yöntemi): Network objects.
                                                             (line  346)
* supports_bytes_environ (os modülü içinde): Process Parameters.
                                                             (line  536)
* supports_dir_fd (os modülü içinde):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1417)
* supports_effective_ids (os modülü içinde): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1442)
* supports_fd (os modülü içinde):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1461)
* supports_follow_symlinks (os modülü içinde): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1480)
* supports_unicode_filenames (os.path modülü içinde): os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  524)
* SupportsAbs (typing içindeki sınıf):   Protocols<3>.       (line    9)
* SupportsBytes (typing içindeki sınıf): Protocols<3>.       (line   14)
* SupportsComplex (typing içindeki sınıf): Protocols<3>.     (line   18)
* SupportsFloat (typing içindeki sınıf): Protocols<3>.       (line   22)
* SupportsIndex (typing içindeki sınıf): Protocols<3>.       (line   26)
* SupportsInt (typing içindeki sınıf):   Protocols<3>.       (line   32)
* SupportsRound (typing içindeki sınıf): Protocols<3>.       (line   36)
* suppress() (contextlib modülü içinde): Utilities.          (line  268)
* SuppressCrashReport (test.support içindeki sınıf): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  745)
* sürekli paketleme:                     Sözlük.             (line 1254)
* surrogateescape;error handler's name:  Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* surrogatepass;error handler's name:    Error Handlers.     (line   73)
* SW_HIDE (subprocess modülü içinde):    Windows Constants.  (line   23)
* SWAP (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  118)
* swap_attr() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  369)
* swap_item() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  386)
* swapcase() (bytearray yöntemi):        Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  663)
* swapcase() (bytes yöntemi):            Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  663)
* swapcase() (str yöntemi):              String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  619)
* Symbol (symtable içindeki sınıf):      Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  143)
* SymbolTable (symtable içindeki sınıf): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* symlink_to() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):   Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   45)
* symlink() (os modülü içinde):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1503)
* symmetric_difference_update() (frozenset yöntemi): Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  196)
* symmetric_difference() (frozenset yöntemi): Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  122)
* symtable() (symtable modülü içinde):   Generating Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* SYMTYPE (tarfile modülü içinde):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  287)
* SYN (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   91)
* sync() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm yöntemi):     dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   79)
* sync() (dbm.gnu.gdbm yöntemi):         dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  108)
* sync() (os modülü içinde):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1548)
* sync() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line  165)
* sync() (shelve.Shelf yöntemi):         shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   69)
* syncdown() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  545)
* synchronized() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes modülü içinde): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   88)
* SyncManager (multiprocessing.managers içindeki sınıf): Managers.
                                                             (line  150)
* syncok() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  551)
* syncup() (curses.window yöntemi):      Window Objects.     (line  556)
* syntax:                                Notation.           (line    6)
* SyntaxErr:                             Exceptions<17>.     (line   93)
* SyntaxError:                           Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  285)
* SyntaxWarning:                         Uyarılar.           (line   46)
* sys_exc (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  298)
* sys_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  143)
* sys.exc_info:                          Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* sys.exception:                         Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* sys.last_traceback:                    Traceback objects.  (line    6)
* sys.meta_path:                         The meta path.      (line    6)
* sys.modules:                           The module cache.   (line    6)
* sys.path:                              Path entry finders. (line    6)
* sys.path_hooks:                        Path entry finders. (line    6)
* sys.path_importer_cache:               Path entry finders. (line    6)
* sys.stderr:                            I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdin:                             I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdout:                            I/O objects also known as file objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* sysconf_names (os modülü içinde):      Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   67)
* sysconf() (os modülü içinde):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   57)
* syslog() (syslog modülü içinde):       syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   20)
* SysLogHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* system_alias() (platform modülü içinde): Cross Platform.   (line  125)
* system_must_validate_cert() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  457)
* system() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  746)
* system() (platform modülü içinde):     Cross Platform.     (line  119)
* SystemError:                           Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  345)
* SystemError (built-in exception):      Module Objects.     (line   62)
* SystemError (built-in exception) <1>:  Module Objects.     (line   90)
* SystemExit:                            Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  362)
* SystemExit (built-in exception):       Exceptions.         (line   26)
* systemId (xml.dom.DocumentType özniteliği): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* SystemRandom (random içindeki sınıf):  Alternative Generator.
                                                             (line   46)
* SystemRandom (secrets içindeki sınıf): Random numbers.     (line    9)
* SystemRoot:                            Popen Constructor.  (line  308)
* T_BOOL (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_BYTE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_CHAR (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_DOUBLE (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FLOAT (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_FMT (locale modülü içinde):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  201)
* T_FMT_AMPM (locale modülü içinde):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  207)
* T_INT (C macro):                       Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONG (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_LONGLONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   85)
* T_NONE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   96)
* T_OBJECT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   90)
* T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   85)
* T_PYSSIZET (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   85)
* T_SHORT (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):            Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UBYTE (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_UINT (C macro):                      Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONG (C macro):                     Member types.       (line   85)
* T_ULONGULONG (C macro):                Member types.       (line   85)
* T_USHORT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   85)
* tab:                                   Indentation.        (line    6)
* TAB (curses.ascii modülü içinde):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   46)
* tab() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi):  ttk Notebook.       (line   62)
* TabError:                              Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  339)
* tabs() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook yöntemi): ttk Notebook.       (line   71)
* tabsize (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  173)
* tag (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element özniteliği): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* tag_bind() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.   (line  293)
* tag_configure() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  299)
* tag_has() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.    (line  309)
* tagName (xml.dom.Element özniteliği):  Element Objects<2>. (line    9)
* tail (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element özniteliği): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* take_snapshot() (tracemalloc modülü içinde): Functions<9>. (line  110)
* takewhile() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions. (line  547)
* tan() (cmath modülü içinde):           Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   31)
* tan() (math modülü içinde):            Trigonometrik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   69)
* tanh() (cmath modülü içinde):          Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   31)
* tanh() (math modülü içinde):           Hiberbolik fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line   29)
* tanımlayıcı:                           Sözlük.             (line  347)
* tar_filter() (tarfile modülü içinde):  Default named filters.
                                                             (line   15)
* TarError:                              tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  200)
* TarFile (tarfile içindeki sınıf):      TarFile Objects.    (line   22)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -c:     Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -create: Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -e:     Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -extract: Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -filter: Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -l:     Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -list:  Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -t:     Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -test:  Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -v:     Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* tarfile komut satırı seçeneği; -verbose: Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* target:                                Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   27)
* target (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction özniteliği): ProcessingInstruction Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* target;list:                           Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   27)
* target;list <1>:                       The for statement.  (line    6)
* target;list;assignment:                Assignment statements.
                                                             (line   35)
* TarInfo (tarfile içindeki sınıf):      TarInfo Objects.    (line   33)
* tarinfo (tarfile.FilterError özniteliği): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  234)
* Task (asyncio içindeki sınıf):         Task Object.        (line    6)
* task_done() (asyncio.Queue yöntemi):   Queue.              (line   77)
* task_done() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue yöntemi): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  251)
* task_done() (queue.Queue yöntemi):     Queue Objects.      (line   68)
* TaskGroup (asyncio içindeki sınıf):    Task Groups.        (line    9)
* tau (cmath modülü içinde):             Constants.          (line   14)
* tau (math modülü içinde):              Sabitler<2>.        (line   14)
* tb_frame (traceback attribute):        Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* tb_frame (traceback özniteliği):       Traceback objects.  (line   33)
* tb_lasti (traceback attribute):        Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* tb_lasti (traceback özniteliği):       Traceback objects.  (line   44)
* tb_lineno (traceback attribute):       Traceback objects.  (line   31)
* tb_lineno (traceback özniteliği):      Traceback objects.  (line   41)
* tb_locals (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  311)
* tb_next (traceback attribute):         Traceback objects.  (line   52)
* tb_next (traceback özniteliği):        Traceback objects.  (line   52)
* tbreak (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  111)
* tcdrain() (termios modülü içinde):     termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   65)
* tcflow() (termios modülü içinde):      termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   76)
* tcflush() (termios modülü içinde):     termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   70)
* tcgetattr() (termios modülü içinde):   termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   28)
* tcgetpgrp() (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  838)
* tcgetwinsize() (termios modülü içinde): termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   83)
* Tcl() (tkinter modülü içinde):         Tkinter Modules.    (line   94)
* TCPServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   21)
* TCSADRAIN (termios modülü içinde):     termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   50)
* TCSAFLUSH (termios modülü içinde):     termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   54)
* TCSANOW (termios modülü içinde):       termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   46)
* tcsendbreak() (termios modülü içinde): termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   59)
* tcsetattr() (termios modülü içinde):   termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   39)
* tcsetpgrp() (os modülü içinde):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  845)
* tcsetwinsize() (termios modülü içinde): termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   91)
* tearDown() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.        (line   41)
* tearDownClass() (unittest.TestCase yöntemi): Test cases.   (line   69)
* tee() (itertools modülü içinde):       Itertool Functions. (line  566)
* tek sevk:                              Sözlük.             (line 1298)
* teleport() (turtle modülü içinde):     Turtle motion.      (line  104)
* tell() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):            aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  115)
* tell() (chunk.Chunk yöntemi):          chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line  104)
* tell() (io.IOBase yöntemi):            I/O Base Classes.   (line  135)
* tell() (io.TextIOBase yöntemi):        Text I/O<2>.        (line   88)
* tell() (io.TextIOWrapper yöntemi):     Text I/O<2>.        (line  232)
* tell() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):            mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  296)
* tell() (sqlite3.Blob yöntemi):         Blob objects.       (line   59)
* tell() (sunau.AU_read yöntemi):        AU_read Objects.    (line   65)
* tell() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi):       AU_write Objects.   (line   39)
* tell() (wave.Wave_read yöntemi):       Wave_read Objects.  (line   79)
* tell() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi):      Wave_write Objects. (line   70)
* Telnet (telnetlib içindeki sınıf):     telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line   35)
* TEMP:                                  Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths.
                                                             (line    7)
* TEMP <1>:                              tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  329)
* temp_cwd() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  135)
* temp_dir() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  150)
* temp_umask() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  160)
* tempdir (tempfile modülü içinde):      tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  376)
* Template (pipes içindeki sınıf):       pipes — Interface to shell pipelines.
                                                             (line   25)
* Template (string içindeki sınıf):      Template strings.   (line   35)
* template (string.Template özniteliği): Template strings.   (line   85)
* temporary (bdb.Breakpoint özniteliği): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   91)
* temporary;file:                        tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    8)
* temporary;file name:                   tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    8)
* TemporaryDirectory (tempfile içindeki sınıf): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  184)
* TemporaryFile() (tempfile modülü içinde): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line   28)
* tercüman kapatma:                      Sözlük.             (line  721)
* teredo (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* TERM:                                  Functions<4>.       (line  485)
* TERM <1>:                              Functions<4>.       (line  512)
* termattrs() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  504)
* terminal_size (os içindeki sınıf):     Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   25)
* terminate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process yöntemi): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   96)
* terminate() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport yöntemi): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   49)
* terminate() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  174)
* terminate() (multiprocessing.Process yöntemi): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  172)
* terminate() (subprocess.Popen yöntemi): Popen Objects.     (line   86)
* termination model:                     Exceptions.         (line   20)
* terminator (logging.StreamHandler özniteliği): StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   48)
* termname() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  510)
* ternary;operator:                      Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ternaryfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line  124)
* test (doctest.DocTestFailure özniteliği): Debugging.       (line  195)
* test (doctest.UnexpectedException özniteliği): Debugging.  (line  216)
* TEST_DATA_DIR (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  137)
* TEST_HOME_DIR (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  133)
* TEST_HTTP_URL (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  171)
* TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  128)
* test() (cgi modülü içinde):            Functions<12>.      (line   70)
* TestCase (unittest içindeki sınıf):    Test cases.         (line    6)
* TestFailed:                            test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   16)
* testfile() (doctest modülü içinde):    Basic API.          (line   12)
* TESTFN (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   19)
* TESTFN_NONASCII (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   39)
* TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   33)
* TESTFN_UNICODE (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   45)
* TestLoader (unittest içindeki sınıf):  Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* testMethodPrefix (unittest.TestLoader özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  187)
* testmod() (doctest modülü içinde):     Basic API.          (line   90)
* testNamePatterns (unittest.TestLoader özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  209)
* TestResult (unittest içindeki sınıf):  Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  226)
* tests (imghdr modülü içinde):          imghdr — Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line   79)
* tests (sndhdr modülü içinde):          sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line   86)
* testsource() (doctest modülü içinde):  Debugging.          (line  106)
* testsRun (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  289)
* TestSuite (unittest içindeki sınıf):   Grouping tests.     (line    6)
* testzip() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):   ZipFile Objects.    (line  254)
* text (msilib modülü içinde):           Precomputed tables. (line   23)
* text (SyntaxError özniteliği):         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  311)
* text (traceback.TracebackException özniteliği): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   98)
* Text (typing içindeki sınıf):          Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   29)
* text (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element özniteliği): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* text mode:                             Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1439)
* text_encoding() (io modülü içinde):    High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   38)
* text_factory (sqlite3.Connection özniteliği): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  778)
* text() (cgitb modülü içinde):          cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line   51)
* text() (msilib.Dialog yöntemi):        GUI classes.        (line   54)
* Textbox (curses.textpad içindeki sınıf): Textbox objects.  (line    8)
* TextCalendar (calendar içindeki sınıf): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  150)
* textdomain() (gettext modülü içinde):  GNU gettext API.    (line   26)
* textdomain() (locale modülü içinde):   Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   12)
* textinput() (turtle modülü içinde):    Input methods.      (line    6)
* TextIO (typing içindeki sınıf):        ABCs for working with IO.
                                                             (line    6)
* TextIOBase (io içindeki sınıf):        Text I/O<2>.        (line    6)
* TextIOWrapper (io içindeki sınıf):     Text I/O<2>.        (line   99)
* TextTestResult (unittest içindeki sınıf): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  446)
* TextTestRunner (unittest içindeki sınıf): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  463)
* TextWrapper (textwrap içindeki sınıf): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  140)
* theme_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling.   (line  196)
* theme_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling.    (line  244)
* theme_settings() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling. (line  206)
* theme_use() (tkinter.ttk.Style yöntemi): Ttk Styling.      (line  248)
* THOUSEP (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  270)
* Thread (threading içindeki sınıf):     Thread Objects.     (line   57)
* thread_info (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1874)
* thread_time_ns() (time modülü içinde): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  604)
* thread_time() (time modülü içinde):    Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  586)
* thread() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):      IMAP4 Objects.      (line  343)
* ThreadedChildWatcher (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Process Watchers.
                                                             (line   90)
* threading_cleanup() (test.support.threading_helper modülü içinde): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   31)
* threading_setup() (test.support.threading_helper modülü içinde): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   37)
* ThreadingHTTPServer (http.server içindeki sınıf): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   38)
* ThreadingMixIn (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ThreadingTCPServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadingUDPServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadingUnixDatagramServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadingUnixStreamServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   67)
* ThreadPool (multiprocessing.pool içindeki sınıf): The multiprocessing dummy module.
                                                             (line   16)
* ThreadPoolExecutor (concurrent.futures içindeki sınıf): ThreadPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   39)
* threads;POSIX:                         _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   16)
* threadsafety (sqlite3 modülü içinde):  Module constants.   (line   88)
* throw (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  303)
* throw() (coroutine yöntemi):           Coroutine Objects.  (line   33)
* throw() (generator yöntemi):           Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   38)
* THURSDAY (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  447)
* ticket_lifetime_hint (ssl.SSLSession özniteliği): SSL session.
                                                             (line   18)
* tigetflag() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  515)
* tigetnum() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  522)
* tigetstr() (curses modülü içinde):     Functions<4>.       (line  529)
* TILDE (token modülü içinde):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  150)
* tilt() (turtle modülü içinde):         Appearance.         (line  102)
* tiltangle() (turtle modülü içinde):    Appearance.         (line  137)
* time (datetime içindeki sınıf):        time Objects.       (line   10)
* time (ssl.SSLSession özniteliği):      SSL session.        (line   14)
* time (uuid.UUID özniteliği):           uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  122)
* time_hi_version (uuid.UUID özniteliği): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  110)
* time_low (uuid.UUID özniteliği):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  104)
* time_mid (uuid.UUID özniteliği):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  107)
* time_ns() (time modülü içinde):        Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  579)
* time() (asyncio.loop yöntemi):         Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   56)
* time() (datetime.datetime yöntemi):    datetime Objects.   (line  427)
* time() (time modülü içinde):           Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  555)
* Time2Internaldate() (imaplib modülü içinde): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  128)
* timedelta (datetime içindeki sınıf):   timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line    9)
* TimedRotatingFileHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* timegm() (calendar modülü içinde):     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  418)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -h:      Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   44)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -help:   Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   44)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -n:      Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   13)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -number: Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   13)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -p:      Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   25)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -process: Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   25)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -r:      Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   17)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -repeat: Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   17)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -s:      Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   21)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -setup:  Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   21)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -u:      Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -unit:   Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -v:      Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   40)
* timeit komut satırı seçeneği; -verbose: Command-Line Interface<4>.
                                                             (line   40)
* timeit() (timeit modülü içinde):       Python Interface.   (line    8)
* timeit() (timeit.Timer yöntemi):       Python Interface.   (line   71)
* timeout:                               Exceptions<12>.     (line   40)
* Timeout (asyncio içindeki sınıf):      Timeouts.           (line   50)
* timeout (socketserver.BaseServer özniteliği): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* timeout (ssl.SSLSession özniteliği):   SSL session.        (line   16)
* timeout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired özniteliği): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  177)
* timeout_at() (asyncio modülü içinde):  Timeouts.           (line   98)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (_thread modülü içinde):   _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  133)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (threading modülü içinde): threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  232)
* timeout() (asyncio modülü içinde):     Timeouts.           (line    6)
* timeout() (curses.window yöntemi):     Window Objects.     (line  561)
* TimeoutError:                          İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions.
                                                             (line  114)
* TimeoutError <1>:                      Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  244)
* TimeoutError <2>:                      Exception classes.  (line   10)
* TimeoutError <3>:                      Exceptions<10>.     (line   10)
* TimeoutExpired:                        Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  168)
* Timer (threading içindeki sınıf):      Timer Objects.      (line   25)
* Timer (timeit içindeki sınıf):         Python Interface.   (line   41)
* TimerHandle (asyncio içindeki sınıf):  Callback Handles.   (line   29)
* times() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  782)
* TIMESTAMP (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode özniteliği): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  102)
* timestamp() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects. (line  578)
* timetuple() (datetime.date yöntemi):   date Objects.       (line  193)
* timetuple() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects. (line  532)
* timetz() (datetime.datetime yöntemi):  datetime Objects.   (line  436)
* timezone (datetime içindeki sınıf):    timezone Objects.   (line   14)
* timezone (time modülü içinde):         Saat dilimi Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   18)
* tip:                                   Sözlük.             (line 1405)
* tip takma adı:                         Sözlük.             (line 1412)
* title() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  688)
* title() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  688)
* title() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  625)
* title() (turtle modülü içinde):        Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   49)
* Tix:                                   tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk.
                                                             (line    8)
* tix_addbitmapdir() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands.
                                                             (line   47)
* tix_cget() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands. (line   32)
* tix_configure() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands.
                                                             (line   20)
* tix_filedialog() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands.
                                                             (line   57)
* tix_getbitmap() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands.
                                                             (line   37)
* tix_getimage() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands.
                                                             (line   68)
* tix_option_get() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands.
                                                             (line   82)
* tix_resetoptions() (tkinter.tix.tixCommand yöntemi): Tix Commands.
                                                             (line   86)
* tixCommand (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf): Tix Commands.     (line    6)
* Tk:                                    Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* Tk (tkinter içindeki sınıf):           Tkinter Modules.    (line   14)
* Tk (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):       Using Tix.          (line    6)
* tk (tkinter.Tk özniteliği):            Tkinter Modules.    (line   70)
* Tk Option Data Types:                  Tk Option Data Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Tkinter:                               Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* TList (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):    Tabular ListBox.    (line    6)
* TLS:                                   ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* TLSv1 (ssl.TLSVersion özniteliği):     Constants<7>.       (line  567)
* TLSv1_1 (ssl.TLSVersion özniteliği):   Constants<7>.       (line  569)
* TLSv1_2 (ssl.TLSVersion özniteliği):   Constants<7>.       (line  571)
* TLSv1_3 (ssl.TLSVersion özniteliği):   Constants<7>.       (line  573)
* TLSVersion (ssl içindeki sınıf):       Constants<7>.       (line  549)
* tm_gmtoff (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.  (line  540)
* tm_hour (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  517)
* tm_isdst (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.   (line  534)
* tm_mday (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  514)
* tm_min (time.struct_time özniteliği):  Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  520)
* tm_mon (time.struct_time özniteliği):  Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  511)
* tm_sec (time.struct_time özniteliği):  Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  523)
* tm_wday (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  528)
* tm_yday (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  531)
* tm_year (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  508)
* tm_zone (time.struct_time özniteliği): Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  537)
* TMP:                                   tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  331)
* TMPDIR:                                Tests<23>.          (line   68)
* TMPDIR <1>:                            tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  327)
* to_bytes() (int yöntemi):              Integer Tam sayı Türlerinde Ek Metotlar.
                                                             (line   56)
* to_eng_string() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  525)
* to_eng_string() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  572)
* to_integral_exact() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  535)
* to_integral_exact() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  591)
* to_integral_value() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  599)
* to_integral() (decimal.Decimal yöntemi): Decimal objects.  (line  585)
* to_sci_string() (decimal.Context yöntemi): Context objects.
                                                             (line  539)
* to_thread() (asyncio modülü içinde):   Running in Threads. (line    6)
* ToASCII() (encodings.idna modülü içinde): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   55)
* tobuf() (tarfile.TarInfo yöntemi):     TarInfo Objects.    (line   49)
* tobytes() (array.array yöntemi):       array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  221)
* tobytes() (memoryview yöntemi):        Memory Views.       (line  163)
* today() (datetime.date sınıf yöntemi): date Objects.       (line   29)
* today() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* tofile() (array.array yöntemi):        array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  230)
* tok_name (token modülü içinde):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   20)
* token:                                 Lexical analysis.   (line    6)
* token <1>:                             Sözlük.             (line 1386)
* Token (contextvars içindeki sınıf):    Context Variables.  (line   75)
* token (shlex.shlex özniteliği):        shlex Objects.      (line  173)
* token_bytes() (secrets modülü içinde): Generating tokens.  (line   10)
* token_hex() (secrets modülü içinde):   Generating tokens.  (line   19)
* token_urlsafe() (secrets modülü içinde): Generating tokens.
                                                             (line   28)
* TokenError:                            Tokenizing Input.   (line  106)
* tokenize komut satırı seçeneği; -e:    Command-Line Usage<5>.
                                                             (line   19)
* tokenize komut satırı seçeneği; -exact: Command-Line Usage<5>.
                                                             (line   19)
* tokenize komut satırı seçeneği; -h:    Command-Line Usage<5>.
                                                             (line   15)
* tokenize komut satırı seçeneği; -help: Command-Line Usage<5>.
                                                             (line   15)
* tokenize() (tokenize modülü içinde):   Tokenizing Input.   (line    8)
* tolist() (array.array yöntemi):        array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  235)
* tolist() (memoryview yöntemi):         Memory Views.       (line  204)
* TOMLDecodeError:                       tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   60)
* tomono() (audioop modülü içinde):      audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  203)
* toordinal() (datetime.date yöntemi):   date Objects.       (line  208)
* toordinal() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects. (line  573)
* top_panel() (curses.panel modülü içinde): Functions<5>.    (line   19)
* top() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi):    Panel Objects.      (line   53)
* top() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):           POP3 Objects.       (line   87)
* TopologicalSorter (graphlib içindeki sınıf): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line   10)
* toprettyxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node yöntemi): DOM Objects. (line   72)
* toreadonly() (memoryview yöntemi):     Memory Views.       (line  220)
* tostereo() (audioop modülü içinde):    audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  209)
* tostring() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  218)
* tostringlist() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  240)
* total_changes (sqlite3.Connection özniteliği): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  788)
* total_nframe (tracemalloc.Traceback özniteliği): Traceback.
                                                             (line   28)
* total_ordering() (functools modülü içinde): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  271)
* total_seconds() (datetime.timedelta yöntemi): timedelta Nesneleri.
                                                             (line  229)
* total() (collections.Counter yöntemi): Counter objects.    (line  104)
* touch() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):        Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* touchline() (curses.window yöntemi):   Window Objects.     (line  571)
* touchwin() (curses.window yöntemi):    Window Objects.     (line  578)
* tounicode() (array.array yöntemi):     array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  239)
* ToUnicode() (encodings.idna modülü içinde): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   60)
* towards() (turtle modülü içinde):      Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   15)
* toxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node yöntemi): DOM Objects.       (line   52)
* tparm() (curses modülü içinde):        Functions<4>.       (line  536)
* Trace (trace içindeki sınıf):          Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* Trace (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf):    Trace.              (line    6)
* trace function:                        threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  160)
* trace function <1>:                    threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line  178)
* trace function <2>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  927)
* trace function <3>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1564)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -c:       Main options.       (line   12)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -C:       Modifiers.          (line   11)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -count:   Main options.       (line   12)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -coverdir: Modifiers.         (line   11)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -f:       Modifiers.          (line    6)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -file:    Modifiers.          (line    6)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -g:       Modifiers.          (line   33)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -help:    Command-Line Usage<3>.
                                                             (line   15)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -ignore-dir: Filters.         (line   14)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -ignore-module: Filters.      (line    8)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -l:       Main options.       (line   23)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -listfuncs: Main options.     (line   23)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -m:       Modifiers.          (line   17)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -missing: Modifiers.          (line   17)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -no-report: Modifiers.        (line   27)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -r:       Main options.       (line   27)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -R:       Modifiers.          (line   27)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -report:  Main options.       (line   27)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -s:       Modifiers.          (line   22)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -summary: Modifiers.          (line   22)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -t:       Main options.       (line   19)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -T:       Main options.       (line   33)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -timing:  Modifiers.          (line   33)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -trace:   Main options.       (line   19)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -trackcalls: Main options.    (line   33)
* trace komut satırı seçeneği; -version: Command-Line Usage<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* trace_dispatch() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  165)
* trace() (inspect modülü içinde):       The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  183)
* Traceback (inspect içindeki sınıf):    The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   55)
* Traceback (tracemalloc içindeki sınıf): Traceback.         (line    6)
* traceback (tracemalloc.Statistic özniteliği): Statistic.   (line   23)
* traceback (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff özniteliği): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   38)
* traceback (tracemalloc.Trace özniteliği): Trace.           (line   27)
* traceback_limit (tracemalloc.Snapshot özniteliği): Snapshot.
                                                             (line   83)
* traceback_limit (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  222)
* TracebackException (traceback içindeki sınıf): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* tracebacklimit (sys modülü içinde):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1910)
* tracebacks;in CGI scripts:             cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    8)
* TracebackType (types içindeki sınıf):  Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  186)
* tracer() (turtle modülü içinde):       Animation control.  (line   23)
* traces (tracemalloc.Snapshot özniteliği): Snapshot.        (line   89)
* trailing;comma:                        Expression lists.   (line   29)
* transfercmd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):    FTP objects.        (line  257)
* transient_internet() (test.support.socket_helper modülü içinde): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   64)
* translate() (bytearray yöntemi):       Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  263)
* translate() (bytes yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  263)
* translate() (fnmatch modülü içinde):   fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   82)
* translate() (str yöntemi):             String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  659)
* translation() (gettext modülü içinde): Class-based API.    (line   44)
* Transport (asyncio içindeki sınıf):    Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   29)
* transport (asyncio.StreamWriter özniteliği): StreamWriter. (line   57)
* Transport Layer Security:              ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* Traversable (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  509)
* Traversable (importlib.resources.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   86)
* TraversableResources (importlib.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  564)
* TraversableResources (importlib.resources.abc içindeki sınıf): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  158)
* traverseproc (C type):                 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  167)
* Tree (tkinter.tix içindeki sınıf):     Hierarchical ListBox.
                                                             (line   20)
* TreeBuilder (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Treeview (tkinter.ttk içindeki sınıf): ttk Treeview.       (line    6)
* triangular() (random modülü içinde):   Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   25)
* triple-quoted string:                  String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* True:                                  numbers Integral.   (line   27)
* true:                                  Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line   10)
* True <1>:                              Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line   23)
* True <2>:                              Boolean Type - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* True (yerleşik değişken):              Built-in Constants. (line   13)
* truediv() (operator modülü içinde):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  162)
* trunc() (in module math):              Sayısal Türler — int float complex.
                                                             (line  111)
* trunc() (math modülü içinde):          Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  287)
* truncate() (io.IOBase yöntemi):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  139)
* truncate() (os modülü içinde):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1556)
* truth;value:                           Doğruluk Değeri Testi.
                                                             (line    6)
* truth() (operator modülü içinde):      operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* Try (ast içindeki sınıf):              Control flow.       (line  135)
* TryStar (ast içindeki sınıf):          Control flow.       (line  179)
* ttk:                                   tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
                                                             (line    8)
* tty;I/O control:                       termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* ttyname() (os modülü içinde):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  853)
* TUESDAY (calendar modülü içinde):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  447)
* Tuple (ast içindeki sınıf):            Literals<3>.        (line   67)
* Tuple (typing modülü içinde):          Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   50)
* tuple (yerleşik sınıf):                Demetler.           (line   13)
* tuple_params (2to3 fixer):             Fixers.             (line  307)
* tür ipucu:                             Sözlük.             (line 1434)
* Turtle (turtle içindeki sınıf):        Public classes.     (line   16)
* turtles() (turtle modülü içinde):      Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   97)
* TurtleScreen (turtle içindeki sınıf):  Public classes.     (line   22)
* turtlesize() (turtle modülü içinde):   Appearance.         (line   53)
* type:                                  The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* type (optparse.Option özniteliği):     Option attributes.  (line   27)
* type (socket.socket özniteliği):       Socket Objects.     (line  619)
* type (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):     TarInfo Objects.    (line   86)
* Type (typing içindeki sınıf):          Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   61)
* type (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects. (line   21)
* type (yerleşik sınıf):                 Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1960)
* type of an object:                     Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* type parameters:                       Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line    8)
* type_check_only() (typing modülü içinde): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  407)
* TYPE_CHECKER (optparse.Option özniteliği): Adding new types.
                                                             (line   16)
* TYPE_CHECKING (typing modülü içinde):  Constant.           (line    6)
* type_comment (ast.arg özniteliği):     Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   79)
* type_comment (ast.Assign özniteliği):  Statements.         (line   15)
* type_comment (ast.For özniteliği):     Control flow.       (line   55)
* type_comment (ast.FunctionDef özniteliği): Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   25)
* type_comment (ast.With özniteliği):    Control flow.       (line  248)
* TYPE_COMMENT (token modülü içinde):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  254)
* TYPE_IGNORE (token modülü içinde):     token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  252)
* type;hierarchy:                        The standard type hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* typeahead() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  544)
* TypeAlias (ast içindeki sınıf):        Statements.         (line  174)
* TypeAlias (typing modülü içinde):      Special types.      (line  188)
* TypeAliasType (typing içindeki sınıf): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  434)
* typecode (array.array özniteliği):     array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  105)
* typecodes (array modülü içinde):       array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line   75)
* TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option özniteliği): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   39)
* typed_subpart_iterator() (email.iterators modülü içinde): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   26)
* TypedDict (typing içindeki sınıf):     Other special directives.
                                                             (line  218)
* TypeError:                             Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  390)
* TypeGuard (typing modülü içinde):      Special forms.      (line  366)
* types (2to3 fixer):                    Fixers.             (line  312)
* TYPES (optparse.Option özniteliği):    Adding new types.   (line   11)
* types_map (mimetypes modülü içinde):   mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  140)
* types_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes özniteliği): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* types_map_inv (mimetypes.MimeTypes özniteliği): MimeTypes Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* types, internal:                       Internal types.     (line    6)
* TypeVar (ast içindeki sınıf):          Type parameters.    (line    9)
* TypeVar (typing içindeki sınıf):       Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   54)
* TypeVarTuple (ast içindeki sınıf):     Type parameters.    (line   57)
* TypeVarTuple (typing içindeki sınıf):  Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  197)
* TZ:                                    Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  614)
* TZ <1>:                                Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  615)
* TZ <2>:                                Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  625)
* TZ <3>:                                Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  630)
* TZ <4>:                                Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  632)
* TZ <5>:                                Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  694)
* tzinfo (datetime içindeki sınıf):      tzinfo Objects.     (line    6)
* tzinfo (datetime.datetime özniteliği): datetime Objects.   (line  318)
* tzinfo (datetime.time özniteliği):     time Objects.       (line   66)
* tzname (time modülü içinde):           Saat dilimi Sabitleri.
                                                             (line   24)
* tzname() (datetime.datetime yöntemi):  datetime Objects.   (line  526)
* tzname() (datetime.time yöntemi):      time Objects.       (line  252)
* tzname() (datetime.timezone yöntemi):  timezone Objects.   (line   42)
* tzname() (datetime.tzinfo yöntemi):    tzinfo Objects.     (line  123)
* TZPATH (zoneinfo modülü içinde):       Globals.            (line    6)
* tzset() (time modülü içinde):          Fonksiyonlar<2>.    (line  611)
* U (re modülü içinde):                  Flags.              (line  117)
* u-LAW:                                 aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  163)
* u-LAW <1>:                             audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   20)
* u-LAW <2>:                             sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line    8)
* u';string literal:                     Literals.           (line    8)
* u";string literal:                     Literals.           (line    8)
* UAdd (ast içindeki sınıf):             Expressions<2>.     (line   28)
* üç tırnaklı dize:                      Sözlük.             (line 1396)
* ucd_3_2_0 (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  131)
* udata (select.kevent özniteliği):      Kevent Objects.     (line  179)
* UDPServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   31)
* UF_APPEND (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  346)
* UF_COMPRESSED (stat modülü içinde):    stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  358)
* UF_HIDDEN (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  362)
* UF_IMMUTABLE (stat modülü içinde):     stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  342)
* UF_NODUMP (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  338)
* UF_NOUNLINK (stat modülü içinde):      stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  354)
* UF_OPAQUE (stat modülü içinde):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  350)
* UID (plistlib içindeki sınıf):         plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  122)
* uid (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):      TarInfo Objects.    (line  105)
* uid() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):         IMAP4 Objects.      (line  366)
* uidl() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   99)
* ulaw2lin() (audioop modülü içinde):    audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line  216)
* ULONG_MAX (C macro):                   Integer Objects.    (line  215)
* ulp() (math modülü içinde):            Sayı teorisi ve temsil fonksiyonları.
                                                             (line  295)
* umask() (os modülü içinde):            Process Parameters. (line  543)
* unalias (pdb command):                 Debugger Commands.  (line  372)
* uname (tarfile.TarInfo özniteliği):    TarInfo Objects.    (line  121)
* uname() (os modülü içinde):            Process Parameters. (line  550)
* uname() (platform modülü içinde):      Cross Platform.     (line  136)
* UNARY_INVERT (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  156)
* UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  148)
* UNARY_NOT (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  152)
* unary;arithmetic;operation:            Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* unary;bitwise;operation:               Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* unaryfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line  110)
* UnaryOp (ast içindeki sınıf):          Expressions<2>.     (line   23)
* unbinding;name:                        The del statement.  (line   15)
* UnboundLocalError:                     Resolution of names.
                                                             (line   16)
* UnboundLocalError <1>:                 Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  409)
* unbuffered I/O:                        Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1439)
* UNC paths;and os.makedirs():           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  536)
* uncancel() (asyncio.Task yöntemi):     Task Object.        (line  269)
* UNCHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode özniteliği): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  115)
* unconsumed_tail (zlib.Decompress özniteliği): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  243)
* unctrl() (curses modülü içinde):       Functions<4>.       (line  556)
* unctrl() (curses.ascii modülü içinde): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  229)
* Underflow (decimal içindeki sınıf):    Signals.            (line   93)
* undisplay (pdb command):               Debugger Commands.  (line  333)
* undo() (turtle modülü içinde):         Turtle motion.      (line  317)
* undobufferentries() (turtle modülü içinde): Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   74)
* undoc_header (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):     Cmd Objects.        (line  166)
* unescape() (html modülü içinde):       html — HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line   23)
* unescape() (xml.sax.saxutils modülü içinde): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   28)
* UnexpectedException:                   Debugging.          (line  208)
* unexpectedSuccesses (unittest.TestResult özniteliği): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  272)
* unfreeze() (gc modülü içinde):         gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  223)
* unget_wch() (curses modülü içinde):    Functions<4>.       (line  576)
* ungetch() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  563)
* ungetch() (msvcrt modülü içinde):      Console I/O.        (line   44)
* ungetmouse() (curses modülü içinde):   Functions<4>.       (line  584)
* ungetwch() (msvcrt modülü içinde):     Console I/O.        (line   50)
* unhexlify() (binascii modülü içinde):  binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  144)
* Unicode:                               Immutable sequences.
                                                             (line   15)
* Unicode <1>:                           unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* Unicode <2>:                           codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* unicode (2to3 fixer):                  Fixers.             (line  317)
* UNICODE (re modülü içinde):            Flags.              (line  117)
* Unicode Consortium:                    String and Bytes literals.
                                                             (line   36)
* Unicode;database:                      unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnicodeDecodeError:                    Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  451)
* UnicodeEncodeError:                    Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  446)
* UnicodeError:                          Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  415)
* UnicodeTranslateError:                 Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  456)
* UnicodeWarning:                        Uyarılar.           (line   69)
* unidata_version (unicodedata modülü içinde): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  127)
* unified_diff() (difflib modülü içinde): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  292)
* uniform() (random modülü içinde):      Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   16)
* UnimplementedFileMode:                 http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  154)
* Union (ctypes içindeki sınıf):         Structured data types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Union (typing modülü içinde):          Special forms.      (line    9)
* union;type:                            Sendika Türü.       (line    6)
* union() (frozenset yöntemi):           Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  101)
* UnionType (types içindeki sınıf):      Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  180)
* UNIQUE (enum.EnumCheck özniteliği):    Data Types<2>.      (line  572)
* unique() (enum modülü içinde):         Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   51)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -b:    Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -buffer: Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -c:    Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   15)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -catch: Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   15)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -durations: Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -f:    Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   24)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -failfast: Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   24)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -k:    Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   28)
* unittest komut satırı seçeneği; -locals: Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   45)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -p: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   35)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -pattern: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   35)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -s: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   31)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -start-directory: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   31)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -t: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   39)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -top-level-directory: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   39)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -v: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   27)
* unittest-discover komut satırı seçeneği; -verbose: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   27)
* universal newlines;bytearray.splitlines method: Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  639)
* universal newlines;bytes.splitlines method: Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  639)
* universal newlines;csv.reader function: Module Contents<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* universal newlines;importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source method: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  218)
* universal newlines;io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder class: Text I/O<2>.
                                                             (line  285)
* universal newlines;io.TextIOWrapper class: Text I/O<2>.    (line  126)
* universal newlines;open() built-in function: Gömülü Fonksiyonlar.
                                                             (line 1376)
* universal newlines;str.splitlines method: String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  513)
* universal newlines;subprocess module:  Frequently Used Arguments.
                                                             (line   33)
* universal newlines;What's new:         PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   42)
* universal newlines;What's new <1>:     New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  138)
* universal newlines;What's new <2>:     PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   36)
* universal newlines;What's new <3>:     PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   36)
* UNIX:                                  Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line   25)
* unix_dialect (csv içindeki sınıf):     Module Contents<3>. (line  215)
* unix_shell (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   44)
* UNIX;file control:                     fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* UNIX;I/O control:                      fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnixDatagramServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   38)
* UnixStreamServer (socketserver içindeki sınıf): socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   38)
* unknown (uuid.SafeUUID özniteliği):    uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   42)
* unknown_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser yöntemi): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  137)
* unknown_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler yöntemi): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* unknown_open() (urllib.request.UnknownHandler yöntemi): UnknownHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnknownHandler (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  456)
* UnknownProtocol:                       http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  146)
* UnknownTransferEncoding:               http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  150)
* unlink() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory yöntemi): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   79)
* unlink() (os modülü içinde):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1574)
* unlink() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):       Renaming and deleting.
                                                             (line   48)
* unlink() (test.support.os_helper modülü içinde): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  164)
* unlink() (xml.dom.minidom.Node yöntemi): DOM Objects.      (line   10)
* unload() (test.support.import_helper modülü içinde): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   76)
* unlock() (mailbox.Babyl yöntemi):      Babyl objects.      (line   59)
* unlock() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):    Mailbox objects.    (line  265)
* unlock() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):    Maildir objects.    (line  108)
* unlock() (mailbox.mbox yöntemi):       mbox objects.       (line   57)
* unlock() (mailbox.MH yöntemi):         MH objects.         (line   84)
* unlock() (mailbox.MMDF yöntemi):       MMDF objects.       (line   47)
* Unpack (typing modülü içinde):         Special forms.      (line  439)
* unpack_archive() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  125)
* unpack_array() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* unpack_bytes() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* unpack_double() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* UNPACK_EX (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  520)
* unpack_farray() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* unpack_float() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* unpack_fopaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* unpack_from() (struct modülü içinde):  Functions and Exceptions.
                                                             (line   34)
* unpack_from() (struct.Struct yöntemi): Classes<2>.         (line   40)
* unpack_fstring() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* unpack_list() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects. (line   77)
* unpack_opaque() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  511)
* unpack_string() (xdrlib.Unpacker yöntemi): Unpacker Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* unpack() (struct modülü içinde):       Functions and Exceptions.
                                                             (line   26)
* unpack() (struct.Struct yöntemi):      Classes<2>.         (line   34)
* Unpacker (xdrlib içindeki sınıf):      xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   27)
* unpacking;dictionary:                  Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   23)
* unpacking;in function calls:           Calls.              (line   73)
* unparse() (ast modülü içinde):         ast Helpers.        (line   62)
* unparsedEntityDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler yöntemi): DTDHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  290)
* Unpickler (pickle içindeki sınıf):     Module Interface.   (line  227)
* UnpicklingError:                       Module Interface.   (line  108)
* unquote_plus() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Quoting.  (line   81)
* unquote_to_bytes() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Quoting.
                                                             (line   91)
* unquote() (email.utils modülü içinde): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   50)
* unquote() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Quoting.       (line   61)
* unraisablehook() (sys modülü içinde):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1918)
* unreachable object:                    Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   37)
* unrecognized escape sequence:          Escape sequences.   (line  106)
* unregister_archive_format() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  120)
* unregister_dialect() (csv modülü içinde): Module Contents<3>.
                                                             (line   79)
* unregister_unpack_format() (shutil modülü içinde): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  186)
* unregister() (atexit modülü içinde):   atexit — Exit handlers.
                                                             (line   57)
* unregister() (codecs modülü içinde):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  161)
* unregister() (faulthandler modülü içinde): Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line   23)
* unregister() (select.devpoll yöntemi): /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* unregister() (select.epoll yöntemi):   Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* unregister() (select.poll yöntemi):    Polling Objects.    (line   67)
* unregister() (selectors.BaseSelector yöntemi): Classes<3>. (line   80)
* unsafe (uuid.SafeUUID özniteliği):     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   38)
* unselect() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  377)
* unset() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard yöntemi): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   71)
* unsetenv() (os modülü içinde):         Process Parameters. (line  580)
* unshare() (os modülü içinde):          Process Parameters. (line  599)
* UnstructuredHeader (email.headerregistry içindeki sınıf): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* unsubscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi): IMAP4 Objects.      (line  373)
* UnsupportedOperation:                  High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   72)
* until (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line  201)
* untokenize() (tokenize modülü içinde): Tokenizing Input.   (line   57)
* untouchwin() (curses.window yöntemi):  Window Objects.     (line  583)
* unused_data (bz2.BZ2Decompressor özniteliği): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   78)
* unused_data (lzma.LZMADecompressor özniteliği): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  168)
* unused_data (zlib.Decompress özniteliği): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  235)
* unverifiable (urllib.request.Request özniteliği): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* unwrap() (inspect modülü içinde):      Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line  139)
* unwrap() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi):      SSL Sockets.        (line  278)
* unwrap() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.        (line  403)
* up (pdb command):                      Debugger Commands.  (line   89)
* up() (turtle modülü içinde):           Drawing state.      (line   12)
* update_abstractmethods() (abc modülü içinde): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  337)
* update_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth yöntemi): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* update_lines_cols() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>.  (line  569)
* update_panels() (curses.panel modülü içinde): Functions<5>.
                                                             (line   23)
* update_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage yöntemi): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* update_wrapper() (functools modülü içinde): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  648)
* update() (collections.Counter yöntemi): Counter objects.   (line  122)
* update() (dict yöntemi):               Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  205)
* update() (frozenset yöntemi):          Set Türleri — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  177)
* update() (hashlib.hash yöntemi):       Hash Objects.       (line   31)
* update() (hmac.HMAC yöntemi):          hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   46)
* update() (http.cookies.Morsel yöntemi): Morsel Objects.    (line   88)
* update() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):    Mailbox objects.    (line  235)
* update() (mailbox.Maildir yöntemi):    Maildir objects.    (line   92)
* update() (trace.CoverageResults yöntemi): Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   52)
* update() (turtle modülü içinde):       Animation control.  (line   46)
* upgrade_dependencies() (venv.EnvBuilder yöntemi): API<2>.  (line  158)
* upper() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  731)
* upper() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  731)
* upper() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  677)
* urandom() (os modülü içinde):          Random numbers<2>.  (line   29)
* URL:                                   urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <1>:                               urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <2>:                               http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <3>:                               cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    8)
* url (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* url (urllib.error.HTTPError özniteliği): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   38)
* url (urllib.response.addinfourl özniteliği): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   14)
* url (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError özniteliği): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* URL;parsing:                           urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* url2pathname() (urllib.request modülü içinde): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  169)
* urlcleanup() (urllib.request modülü içinde): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   62)
* urldefrag() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.     (line  377)
* urlencode() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Quoting.     (line  104)
* URLError:                              urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   17)
* urljoin() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.       (line  340)
* urllib (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  321)
* urlopen() (urllib.request modülü içinde): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line   34)
* URLopener (urllib.request içindeki sınıf): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   67)
* urlparse() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.      (line    9)
* urlretrieve() (urllib.request modülü içinde): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   10)
* urlsafe_b64decode() (base64 modülü içinde): base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   99)
* urlsafe_b64encode() (base64 modülü içinde): base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   92)
* urlsplit() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.      (line  250)
* urlunparse() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.    (line  242)
* urlunsplit() (urllib.parse modülü içinde): URL Parsing.    (line  331)
* urn (uuid.UUID özniteliği):            uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  136)
* US (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  118)
* use_default_colors() (curses modülü içinde): Functions<4>. (line  599)
* use_env() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  589)
* use_rawinput (cmd.Cmd özniteliği):     Cmd Objects.        (line  177)
* USE_STACKCHECK (C macro):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   91)
* use_tool_id() (sys.monitoring modülü içinde): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* UseForeignDTD() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* USER:                                  getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   44)
* USER_BASE (site modülü içinde):        Module contents<5>. (line   30)
* user_call() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  270)
* user_exception() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  289)
* user_line() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  278)
* user_return() (bdb.Bdb yöntemi):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  284)
* USER_SITE (site modülü içinde):        Module contents<5>. (line   19)
* user-defined;function:                 User-defined functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* user-defined;function;call:            Calls.              (line  132)
* user-defined;method:                   Instance methods.   (line    6)
* user;effective id:                     Process Parameters. (line  187)
* user;id:                               Process Parameters. (line  335)
* user;id, setting:                      Process Parameters. (line  526)
* user() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line   31)
* usercustomize:                         Özelliştirme Modülleri.
                                                             (line    6)
* usercustomize <1>:                     Özelliştirme Modülleri.
                                                             (line   21)
* UserDict (collections içindeki sınıf): UserDict objects.   (line   12)
* UserList (collections içindeki sınıf): UserList objects.   (line   16)
* USERNAME:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  142)
* USERNAME <1>:                          Process Parameters. (line  239)
* USERNAME <2>:                          getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   45)
* username (email.headerregistry.Address özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  432)
* USERPROFILE:                           os path<4>.         (line   14)
* USERPROFILE <1>:                       Python API’sindeki değişiklikler.
                                                             (line  121)
* USERPROFILE <2>:                       Windows<41>.        (line   15)
* USERPROFILE <3>:                       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  139)
* userptr() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi): Panel Objects.     (line   57)
* UserString (collections içindeki sınıf): UserString objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* UserWarning:                           Uyarılar.           (line   13)
* USTAR_FORMAT (tarfile modülü içinde):  tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  327)
* USub (ast içindeki sınıf):             Expressions<2>.     (line   28)
* UTC:                                   time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   39)
* UTC (datetime modülü içinde):          Sabitler.           (line   18)
* utc (datetime.timezone özniteliği):    timezone Objects.   (line   68)
* utcfromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  131)
* utcnow() (datetime.datetime sınıf yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* utcoffset() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects. (line  506)
* utcoffset() (datetime.time yöntemi):   time Objects.       (line  232)
* utcoffset() (datetime.timezone yöntemi): timezone Objects. (line   30)
* utcoffset() (datetime.tzinfo yöntemi): tzinfo Objects.     (line   38)
* utctimetuple() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.
                                                             (line  551)
* utf8 (email.policy.EmailPolicy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  379)
* utf8_enabled (imaplib.IMAP4 özniteliği): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  405)
* utf8_mode (sys.flags özniteliği):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  560)
* utf8() (poplib.POP3 yöntemi):          POP3 Objects.       (line  106)
* utime() (os modülü içinde):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1588)
* UUID (uuid içindeki sınıf):            uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line   47)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -h:        Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -help:     Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   15)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -n:        Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -N:        Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -name:     Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -namespace: Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -u:        Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* uuid komut satırı seçeneği; -uuid:     Command-Line Usage<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* uuid1() (uuid modülü içinde):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  179)
* uuid3() (uuid modülü içinde):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  187)
* uuid4() (uuid modülü içinde):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  193)
* uuid5() (uuid modülü içinde):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  197)
* UuidCreate() (msilib modülü içinde):   msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   41)
* uzatma modülü:                         Sözlük.             (line  430)
* v4_int_to_packed() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* v6_int_to_packed() (ipaddress modülü içinde): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* valid_signals() (signal modülü içinde): Module contents<2>.
                                                             (line  304)
* validator() (wsgiref.validate modülü içinde): wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   22)
* value:                                 Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* value (ctypes._SimpleCData özniteliği): Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* value (enum.Enum özniteliği):          Data Types<2>.      (line  131)
* value (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* value (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.    (line   46)
* value (StopIteration özniteliği):      Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  250)
* value (xml.dom.Attr özniteliği):       Attr Objects.       (line   23)
* value of an object:                    Objects values and types.
                                                             (line   11)
* value_decode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* value_encode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie yöntemi): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* Value() (multiprocessing modülü içinde): Shared ctypes Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* Value() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager yöntemi): Managers.
                                                             (line  217)
* Value() (multiprocessing.sharedctypes modülü içinde): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   67)
* ValueError:                            Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  461)
* valuerefs() (weakref.WeakValueDictionary yöntemi): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  227)
* Values (optparse içindeki sınıf):      Defining options.   (line   84)
* values() (contextvars.Context yöntemi): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  109)
* values() (dict yöntemi):               Mapping Types — dict.
                                                             (line  218)
* values() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  236)
* values() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  346)
* values() (mailbox.Mailbox yöntemi):    Mailbox objects.    (line  128)
* values() (types.MappingProxyType yöntemi): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line  276)
* ValuesView (collections.abc içindeki sınıf): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions.
                                                             (line  102)
* ValuesView (typing içindeki sınıf):    Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  106)
* var (contextvars.Token özniteliği):    Context Variables.  (line   82)
* variance (statistics.NormalDist özniteliği): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* variance() (statistics modülü içinde): Function details.   (line  370)
* variant (uuid.UUID özniteliği):        uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  140)
* vbar (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText özniteliği): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   30)
* VBAR (token modülü içinde):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   98)
* VBAREQUAL (token modülü içinde):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  194)
* VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN (msvcrt modülü içinde): Other Functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* Vec2D (turtle içindeki sınıf):         Public classes.     (line   86)
* vectorcallfunc (C type):               The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line   41)
* VERBOSE (re modülü içinde):            Flags.              (line  127)
* verbose (sys.flags özniteliği):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  544)
* verbose (tabnanny modülü içinde):      tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   26)
* verbose (test.support modülü içinde):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   30)
* VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line   98)
* verify_client_post_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi): SSL Sockets.
                                                             (line  287)
* verify_code (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError özniteliği): Exceptions<13>.
                                                             (line   86)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.  (line   84)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.   (line   73)
* VERIFY_DEFAULT (ssl modülü içinde):    Constants<7>.       (line   65)
* verify_flags (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.    (line  632)
* verify_generated_headers (email.policy.Policy özniteliği): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  204)
* verify_message (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError özniteliği): Exceptions<13>.
                                                             (line   90)
* verify_mode (ssl.SSLContext özniteliği): SSL Contexts.     (line  647)
* verify_request() (socketserver.BaseServer yöntemi): Server Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  179)
* VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  114)
* VERIFY_X509_STRICT (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.      (line   91)
* VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (ssl modülü içinde): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line  105)
* verify() (enum modülü içinde):         Utilities and Decorators.
                                                             (line   70)
* verify() (smtplib.SMTP yöntemi):       SMTP Objects.       (line   91)
* VerifyFlags (ssl içindeki sınıf):      Constants<7>.       (line  125)
* VerifyMode (ssl içindeki sınıf):       Constants<7>.       (line   59)
* version (curses modülü içinde):        Constants<4>.       (line   18)
* version (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader özniteliği): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  242)
* version (http.client.HTTPResponse özniteliği): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* version (http.cookiejar.Cookie özniteliği): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* version (http.cookies.Morsel özniteliği): Morsel Objects.  (line   13)
* version (in module sys):               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  217)
* version (in module sys) <1>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  254)
* version (in module sys) <2>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  265)
* version (ipaddress.IPv4Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* version (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* version (ipaddress.IPv6Address özniteliği): Address objects.
                                                             (line  253)
* version (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  293)
* version (marshal modülü içinde):       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line  110)
* version (sqlite3 modülü içinde):       Module constants.   (line  127)
* version (sys modülü içinde):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1966)
* version (sys.thread_info özniteliği):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1903)
* version (urllib.request.URLopener özniteliği): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line  138)
* version (uuid.UUID özniteliği):        uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122.
                                                             (line  147)
* version_info (sqlite3 modülü içinde):  Module constants.   (line  137)
* version_info (sys modülü içinde):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1981)
* version_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler yöntemi): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  315)
* version() (ensurepip modülü içinde):   Module API.         (line    8)
* version() (importlib.metadata modülü içinde): Distribution versions.
                                                             (line    6)
* version() (platform modülü içinde):    Cross Platform.     (line  131)
* version() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi):     SSL Sockets.        (line  309)
* vformat() (string.Formatter yöntemi):  Custom String Formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* visit_Constant() (ast.NodeVisitor yöntemi): ast Helpers.   (line  204)
* visit() (ast.NodeVisitor yöntemi):     ast Helpers.        (line  188)
* visitproc (C type):                    Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  155)
* vline() (curses.window yöntemi):       Window Objects.     (line  588)
* voidcmd() (ftplib.FTP yöntemi):        FTP objects.        (line  165)
* volume (zipfile.ZipInfo özniteliği):   ZipInfo Objects.    (line  120)
* vonmisesvariate() (random modülü içinde): Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line   93)
* VT (curses.ascii modülü içinde):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   58)
* W_OK (os modülü içinde):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* wait_closed() (asyncio.Server yöntemi): Server Objects.    (line   98)
* wait_closed() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line  114)
* wait_for() (asyncio modülü içinde):    Timeouts.           (line  118)
* wait_for() (asyncio.Condition yöntemi): Condition.         (line   97)
* wait_for() (threading.Condition yöntemi): Condition Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* wait_process() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  419)
* wait_threads_exit() (test.support.threading_helper modülü içinde): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   41)
* wait() (asyncio modülü içinde):        Waiting Primitives. (line    6)
* wait() (asyncio.Barrier yöntemi):      Barrier.            (line   52)
* wait() (asyncio.Condition yöntemi):    Condition.          (line   85)
* wait() (asyncio.Event yöntemi):        Event.              (line   44)
* wait() (asyncio.subprocess.Process yöntemi): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   38)
* wait() (concurrent.futures modülü içinde): Module Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* wait() (multiprocessing.connection modülü içinde): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line  113)
* wait() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult yöntemi): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  204)
* wait() (os modülü içinde):             Process Management. (line  810)
* wait() (subprocess.Popen yöntemi):     Popen Objects.      (line   13)
* wait() (threading.Barrier yöntemi):    Barrier Objects.    (line   43)
* wait() (threading.Condition yöntemi):  Condition Objects.  (line   97)
* wait() (threading.Event yöntemi):      Event Objects.      (line   42)
* wait3() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  918)
* wait4() (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  932)
* waitid() (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  834)
* waitpid() (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line  872)
* waitstatus_to_exitcode() (os modülü içinde): Process Management.
                                                             (line 1050)
* walk_packages() (pkgutil modülü içinde): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  146)
* walk_stack() (traceback modülü içinde): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  177)
* walk_tb() (traceback modülü içinde):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  186)
* walk() (ast modülü içinde):            ast Helpers.        (line  171)
* walk() (email.message.EmailMessage yöntemi): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  467)
* walk() (email.message.Message yöntemi): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  637)
* walk() (os modülü içinde):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1632)
* walk() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):         Reading directories.
                                                             (line  102)
* walrus operator:                       Boolean operations. (line   38)
* want (doctest.Example özniteliği):     Example Objects.    (line   23)
* warn_default_encoding (sys.flags özniteliği): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  570)
* warn_explicit() (warnings modülü içinde): Available Functions.
                                                             (line   62)
* warn() (warnings modülü içinde):       Available Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Warning:                               Uyarılar.           (line    9)
* Warning <1>:                           Exceptions<5>.      (line    8)
* WARNING (logging modülü içinde):       Logging Levels.     (line   33)
* WARNING (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  198)
* warning() (logging modülü içinde):     Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   70)
* warning() (logging.Logger yöntemi):    Logger Objects.     (line  293)
* warning() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler yöntemi): ErrorHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   29)
* warnings:                              warnings — Warning control.
                                                             (line    8)
* WarningsRecorder (test.support.warnings_helper içindeki sınıf): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line  118)
* warnoptions (sys modülü içinde):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1994)
* wasSuccessful() (unittest.TestResult yöntemi): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  318)
* WatchedFileHandler (logging.handlers içindeki sınıf): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* Wave_read (wave içindeki sınıf):       Wave_read Objects.  (line    6)
* Wave_write (wave içindeki sınıf):      Wave_write Objects. (line    6)
* WCONTINUED (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line  972)
* WCOREDUMP() (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line 1089)
* WeakKeyDictionary (weakref içindeki sınıf): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  166)
* WeakMethod (weakref içindeki sınıf):   weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  236)
* WeakSet (weakref içindeki sınıf):      weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  231)
* WeakValueDictionary (weakref içindeki sınıf): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  214)
* webbrowser komut satırı seçeneği; -n:  webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   38)
* webbrowser komut satırı seçeneği; -new-tab: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   42)
* webbrowser komut satırı seçeneği; -new-window: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   38)
* webbrowser komut satırı seçeneği; -t:  webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   42)
* WEDNESDAY (calendar modülü içinde):    calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  447)
* weekday (calendar.IllegalWeekdayError özniteliği): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  532)
* weekday() (calendar modülü içinde):    calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  376)
* weekday() (datetime.date yöntemi):     date Objects.       (line  214)
* weekday() (datetime.datetime yöntemi): datetime Objects.   (line  614)
* weekheader() (calendar modülü içinde): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  381)
* weibullvariate() (random modülü içinde): Real-valued distributions.
                                                             (line  105)
* WEXITED (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line  981)
* WEXITSTATUS() (os modülü içinde):      Process Management. (line 1135)
* wfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler özniteliği): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  124)
* wfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler özniteliği): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* what() (imghdr modülü içinde):         imghdr — Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line   19)
* what() (sndhdr modülü içinde):         sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line   29)
* whathdr() (sndhdr modülü içinde):      sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line   37)
* whatis (pdb command):                  Debugger Commands.  (line  270)
* when() (asyncio.Timeout yöntemi):      Timeouts.           (line   63)
* when() (asyncio.TimerHandle yöntemi):  Callback Handles.   (line   36)
* where (pdb command):                   Debugger Commands.  (line   78)
* which() (shutil modülü içinde):        Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  400)
* whichdb() (dbm modülü içinde):         dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”.
                                                             (line   23)
* While (ast içindeki sınıf):            Control flow.       (line   79)
* whitespace (shlex.shlex özniteliği):   shlex Objects.      (line  104)
* whitespace (string modülü içinde):     String constants.   (line   52)
* whitespace_split (shlex.shlex özniteliği): shlex Objects.  (line  128)
* Widget (tkinter.ttk içindeki sınıf):   ttk Widget.         (line    9)
* width (sys.hash_info özniteliği):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1018)
* width (textwrap.TextWrapper özniteliği): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  160)
* width() (turtle modülü içinde):        Drawing state.      (line   18)
* WIFCONTINUED() (os modülü içinde):     Process Management. (line 1099)
* WIFEXITED() (os modülü içinde):        Process Management. (line 1127)
* WIFSIGNALED() (os modülü içinde):      Process Management. (line 1120)
* WIFSTOPPED() (os modülü içinde):       Process Management. (line 1109)
* win32_edition() (platform modülü içinde): Windows Platform.
                                                             (line   22)
* win32_is_iot() (platform modülü içinde): Windows Platform. (line   31)
* win32_ver() (platform modülü içinde):  Windows Platform.   (line    6)
* WinDLL (ctypes içindeki sınıf):        Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line   54)
* window manager (widgets):              The Window Manager. (line    6)
* window_height() (turtle modülü içinde): Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line  104)
* window_width() (turtle modülü içinde): Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line  111)
* window() (curses.panel.Panel yöntemi): Panel Objects.      (line   62)
* Windows:                               Complete Python programs.
                                                             (line   25)
* Windows ini file:                      configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* WindowsError:                          Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  480)
* WindowsPath (pathlib içindeki sınıf):  Concrete paths.     (line   32)
* WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* WindowsRegistryFinder (importlib.machinery içindeki sınıf): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   92)
* WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* winerror (OSError özniteliği):         Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  172)
* WinError() (ctypes modülü içinde):     Utility functions.  (line  215)
* WINFUNCTYPE() (ctypes modülü içinde):  Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   25)
* WinSock:                               select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  152)
* winver (sys modülü içinde):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2000)
* With (ast içindeki sınıf):             Control flow.       (line  242)
* WITH_EXCEPT_START (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  425)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  325)
* with_name() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  349)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  323)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Interface özniteliği): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network özniteliği): Network objects.
                                                             (line  317)
* with_pymalloc() (test.support modülü içinde): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  255)
* with_segments() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  405)
* with_stem() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  365)
* with_suffix() (pathlib.PurePath yöntemi): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  388)
* with_traceback() (BaseException yöntemi): Temel sınıflar.  (line   25)
* withitem (ast içindeki sınıf):         Control flow.       (line  253)
* WNOHANG (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line 1015)
* WNOWAIT (os modülü içinde):            Process Management. (line 1023)
* wordchars (shlex.shlex özniteliği):    shlex Objects.      (line   91)
* World Wide Web:                        Internet Protocols and Support.
                                                             (line    6)
* World Wide Web <1>:                    urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* World Wide Web <2>:                    urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* wrap_bio() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi):   SSL Contexts.       (line  454)
* wrap_future() (asyncio modülü içinde): Future Functions.   (line   51)
* wrap_socket() (ssl.SSLContext yöntemi): SSL Contexts.      (line  387)
* wrap() (textwrap modülü içinde):       textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line   16)
* wrap() (textwrap.TextWrapper yöntemi): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling.
                                                             (line  286)
* wrapper() (curses modülü içinde):      Functions<4>.       (line  608)
* WrapperDescriptorType (types modülü içinde): Standard Interpreter Types.
                                                             (line   88)
* wraps() (functools modülü içinde):     functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  696)
* WRITABLE (_tkinter modülü içinde):     File Handlers.      (line   41)
* WRITABLE (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.   (line   17)
* writable() (bz2.BZ2File yöntemi):      De compression of files.
                                                             (line  105)
* writable() (io.IOBase yöntemi):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  152)
* WRITE (inspect.BufferFlags özniteliği): Buffer flags.      (line   51)
* write_byte() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):      mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  316)
* write_bytes() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):  Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   65)
* write_docstringdict() (turtle modülü içinde): Translation of docstrings into different languages.
                                                             (line   10)
* write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.  (line   52)
* write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   75)
* write_eof() (ssl.MemoryBIO yöntemi):   Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  157)
* write_history_file() (readline modülü içinde): History file.
                                                             (line   14)
* WRITE_RESTRICTED (C macro):            Member flags.       (line   32)
* write_results() (trace.CoverageResults yöntemi): Programmatic Interface.
                                                             (line   57)
* write_text() (pathlib.Path yöntemi):   Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   46)
* write_through (io.TextIOWrapper özniteliği): Text I/O<2>.  (line  173)
* write() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter.      (line   15)
* write() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   61)
* write() (code.InteractiveInterpreter yöntemi): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* write() (codecs.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* write() (configparser.ConfigParser yöntemi): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  280)
* write() (email.generator.BytesGenerator yöntemi): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  118)
* write() (email.generator.Generator yöntemi): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  214)
* write() (io.BufferedIOBase yöntemi):   I/O Base Classes.   (line  327)
* write() (io.BufferedWriter yöntemi):   Buffered Streams.   (line  131)
* write() (io.RawIOBase yöntemi):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  212)
* write() (io.TextIOBase yöntemi):       Text I/O<2>.        (line   94)
* write() (mmap.mmap yöntemi):           mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  300)
* write() (os modülü içinde):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  861)
* write() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* write() (sqlite3.Blob yöntemi):        Blob objects.       (line   53)
* write() (ssl.MemoryBIO yöntemi):       Memory BIO Support<2>.
                                                             (line  149)
* write() (ssl.SSLSocket yöntemi):       SSL Sockets.        (line   96)
* write() (telnetlib.Telnet yöntemi):    Telnet Objects.     (line  100)
* write() (turtle modülü içinde):        More drawing control.
                                                             (line   29)
* write() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree yöntemi): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* write() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):     ZipFile Objects.    (line  264)
* writeall() (ossaudiodev.oss_audio_device yöntemi): Audio Device Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* writeframes() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):     aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  190)
* writeframes() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi): AU_write Objects.  (line   52)
* writeframes() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* writeframesraw() (aifc.aifc yöntemi):  aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line  198)
* writeframesraw() (sunau.AU_write yöntemi): AU_write Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* writeframesraw() (wave.Wave_write yöntemi): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* writeheader() (csv.DictWriter yöntemi): Writer Objects.    (line   39)
* writelines() (asyncio.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter. (line   26)
* writelines() (asyncio.WriteTransport yöntemi): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   68)
* writelines() (codecs.StreamWriter yöntemi): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* writelines() (io.IOBase yöntemi):      I/O Base Classes.   (line  158)
* writepy() (zipfile.PyZipFile yöntemi): PyZipFile Objects.  (line   20)
* writer() (csv modülü içinde):          Module Contents<3>. (line   39)
* writerow() (csv.csvwriter yöntemi):    Writer Objects.     (line   16)
* writerows() (csv.csvwriter yöntemi):   Writer Objects.     (line   25)
* writestr() (zipfile.ZipFile yöntemi):  ZipFile Objects.    (line  300)
* WriteTransport (asyncio içindeki sınıf): Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   11)
* writev() (os modülü içinde):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  880)
* writexml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node yöntemi): DOM Objects.    (line   27)
* writing;values:                        Expression statements.
                                                             (line   17)
* WrongDocumentErr:                      Exceptions<17>.     (line   97)
* ws_comma (2to3 fixer):                 Fixers.             (line  326)
* wsgi_file_wrapper (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  274)
* wsgi_multiprocess (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  156)
* wsgi_multithread (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  149)
* wsgi_run_once (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler özniteliği): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  163)
* WSGIApplication (wsgiref.types modülü içinde): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   20)
* WSGIEnvironment (wsgiref.types modülü içinde): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   16)
* WSGIRequestHandler (wsgiref.simple_server içindeki sınıf): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   78)
* WSGIServer (wsgiref.simple_server içindeki sınıf): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   48)
* wShowWindow (subprocess.STARTUPINFO özniteliği): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   49)
* WSTOPPED (os modülü içinde):           Process Management. (line  993)
* WSTOPSIG() (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line 1144)
* wstring_at() (ctypes modülü içinde):   Utility functions.  (line  228)
* WTERMSIG() (os modülü içinde):         Process Management. (line 1153)
* WUNTRACED (os modülü içinde):          Process Management. (line 1004)
* WWW:                                   Internet Protocols and Support.
                                                             (line    6)
* WWW <1>:                               urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW <2>:                               urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW;server:                            http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW;server <1>:                        cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    8)
* X (re modülü içinde):                  Flags.              (line  127)
* X_OK (os modülü içinde):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  106)
* X509 certificate:                      SSL Contexts.       (line  659)
* xatom() (imaplib.IMAP4 yöntemi):       IMAP4 Objects.      (line  387)
* XATTR_CREATE (os modülü içinde):       Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   88)
* XATTR_REPLACE (os modülü içinde):      Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   94)
* XATTR_SIZE_MAX (os modülü içinde):     Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   83)
* xcor() (turtle modülü içinde):         Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   34)
* XDR:                                   xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line    8)
* xhdr() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):         Methods.            (line  320)
* XHTML:                                 html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* XHTML_NAMESPACE (xml.dom modülü içinde): Module Contents<4>.
                                                             (line   53)
* XML_ERROR_ABORTED (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  180)
* XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  215)
* XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   29)
* XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   31)
* XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   37)
* XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   42)
* XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  135)
* XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   47)
* XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  126)
* XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  116)
* XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  128)
* XML_ERROR_FINISHED (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  184)
* XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  152)
* XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   51)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  207)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   53)
* XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   59)
* XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   64)
* XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  211)
* XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   69)
* XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   74)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  118)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  175)
* XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   78)
* XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   82)
* XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  165)
* XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   86)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  202)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  192)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  197)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  190)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  169)
* XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   91)
* XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   95)
* XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  160)
* XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  142)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  112)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line   99)
* XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  147)
* XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  104)
* XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  124)
* XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  108)
* XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (xml.parsers.expat.errors modülü içinde): Expat error constants.
                                                             (line  156)
* XML_NAMESPACE (xml.dom modülü içinde): Module Contents<4>. (line   42)
* XML() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>. (line  266)
* xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (codecs modülü içinde): Error Handlers.
                                                             (line  172)
* xmlcharrefreplace;error handler's name: Error Handlers.    (line   54)
* XmlDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser yöntemi): XMLParser Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* XMLFilterBase (xml.sax.saxutils içindeki sınıf): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   72)
* XMLGenerator (xml.sax.saxutils içindeki sınıf): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   56)
* XMLID() (xml.etree.ElementTree modülü içinde): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  274)
* XMLNS_NAMESPACE (xml.dom modülü içinde): Module Contents<4>.
                                                             (line   47)
* XMLParser (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLParserType (xml.parsers.expat modülü içinde): xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat.
                                                             (line   35)
* XMLPullParser (xml.etree.ElementTree içindeki sınıf): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLReader (xml.sax.xmlreader içindeki sınıf): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   16)
* xor() (operator modülü içinde):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  168)
* xover() (nntplib.NNTP yöntemi):        Methods.            (line  336)
* xrange (2to3 fixer):                   Fixers.             (line  331)
* xreadlines (2to3 fixer):               Fixers.             (line  336)
* xview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.      (line  317)
* yazı çözümleme:                        Sözlük.             (line 1359)
* yazı dosyası:                          Sözlük.             (line 1373)
* ycor() (turtle modülü içinde):         Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   46)
* year (datetime.date özniteliği):       date Objects.       (line  116)
* year (datetime.datetime özniteliği):   datetime Objects.   (line  289)
* Year 2038:                             time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   28)
* yeardatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* yeardays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  136)
* yeardayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar yöntemi): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  143)
* yeni stil sınıf:                       Sözlük.             (line 1028)
* yerel kodlama:                         Sözlük.             (line  867)
* YES (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  157)
* YESEXPR (locale modülü içinde):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  275)
* YESNO (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  181)
* YESNOCANCEL (tkinter.messagebox modülü içinde): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  186)
* Yield (ast içindeki sınıf):            Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  133)
* YIELD_VALUE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  360)
* yield;examples:                        Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   75)
* yield;expression:                      Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* yield;yield from (in What's New):      PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   87)
* YieldFrom (ast içindeki sınıf):        Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  133)
* yıkanabilir:                           Sözlük.             (line  639)
* yinelenebilir:                         Sözlük.             (line  736)
* yineleyici:                            Sözlük.             (line  758)
* yiq_to_rgb() (colorsys modülü içinde): colorsys — Conversions between color systems.
                                                             (line   32)
* yol benzeri nesne:                     Sözlük.             (line 1130)
* yol giriş kancası:                     Sözlük.             (line 1119)
* yol girişi:                            Sözlük.             (line 1104)
* yol girişi bulucu:                     Sözlük.             (line 1109)
* yol tabanlı bulucu:                    Sözlük.             (line 1125)
* yorumlanmış:                           Sözlük.             (line  710)
* yükleyici:                             Sözlük.             (line  853)
* yview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview yöntemi): ttk Treeview.      (line  321)
* z;in string formatting:                Format Specification Mini-Language.
                                                             (line   90)
* zamanın başlangıcından beri geçen saniye: time — Time access and conversions.
                                                             (line   24)
* ZeroDivisionError:                     Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  467)
* zfill() (bytearray yöntemi):           Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  750)
* zfill() (bytes yöntemi):               Bytes and Bytearray Operations.
                                                             (line  750)
* zfill() (str yöntemi):                 String Dize Metotları.
                                                             (line  688)
* zip (2to3 fixer):                      Fixers.             (line  340)
* ZIP_BZIP2 (zipfile modülü içinde):     zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   89)
* ZIP_DEFLATED (zipfile modülü içinde):  zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   84)
* zip_longest() (itertools modülü içinde): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  616)
* ZIP_LZMA (zipfile modülü içinde):      zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   96)
* ZIP_STORED (zipfile modülü içinde):    zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   80)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -c:      Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   45)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -compress: Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   45)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -h:      Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   61)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -help:   Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   61)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -info:   Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   55)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -m:      Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   35)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -main:   Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   35)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -o:      Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   18)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -output: Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   18)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -p:      Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   29)
* zipapp komut satırı seçeneği; -python: Command-Line Interface<5>.
                                                             (line   29)
* ZipFile (zipfile içindeki sınıf):      ZipFile Objects.    (line    6)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -c:     Command-line options.
                                                             (line   11)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -create: Command-line options.
                                                             (line   11)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -e:     Command-line options.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -extract: Command-line options.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -l:     Command-line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -list:  Command-line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -metadata-encoding: Command-line options.
                                                             (line   26)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -t:     Command-line options.
                                                             (line   21)
* zipfile komut satırı seçeneği; -test:  Command-line options.
                                                             (line   21)
* zipimporter (zipimport içindeki sınıf): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* ZipImportError:                        zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   56)
* ZipInfo (zipfile içindeki sınıf):      zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   59)
* ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (zlib modülü içinde): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  313)
* ZLIB_VERSION (zlib modülü içinde):     zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  306)
* ZoneInfo (zoneinfo içindeki sınıf):    The ZoneInfo class. (line    6)
* ZoneInfoNotFoundError:                 Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line    6)
* zscore() (statistics.NormalDist yöntemi): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line  114)

                   



Tag Table:
Node: Top353
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Node: What’s New in Python221575
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Node: Summary – Release highlights224357
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Node: New Features229477
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Node: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax230210
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Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings233056
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Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL237709
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Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython239210
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Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python240059
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Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining240993
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Node: Improved Error Messages242943
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Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing246261
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-484-type-hints1209539
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Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization1222490
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Node: Summary – Release highlights<6>1473771
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Node: PEP 405 Virtual Environments1475235
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-4051475412
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-405-virtual-environments1475412
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Ref: PEP 405 Virtual Environments-Footnote-11476417
Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages1476459
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-420-implicit-namespace-packages1476675
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Ref: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages-Footnote-11477203
Ref: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages-Footnote-21477245
Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation1477287
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation1477513
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3118-update1477513
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Ref: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation-Footnote-11478645
Node: Features1478687
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 features1478824
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Ref: Features-Footnote-11479628
Node: API changes1479693
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 api-changes1479830
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Ref: API changes-Footnote-11480862
Ref: API changes-Footnote-21480927
Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation1480969
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3931481195
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-393-flexible-string-representation1481195
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Node: Functionality1482298
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Node: Performance and resource usage1483981
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 performance-and-resource-usage1484108
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Ref: Performance and resource usage-Footnote-11485356
Node: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows1485398
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3971485604
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-397-python-launcher-for-windows1485604
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Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy1487269
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-31511487484
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3151-reworking-the-os-and-io-exception-hierarchy1487484
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Ref: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy-Footnote-11490070
Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator1490112
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3801490329
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-380-syntax-for-delegating-to-a-subgenerator1490329
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Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context1492831
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-409-suppressing-exception-context1493029
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Ref: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context-Footnote-11495134
Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals1495176
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-414-explicit-unicode-literals1495376
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Ref: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals-Footnote-11496106
Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions1496148
Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3155-qualified-name-for-classes-and-functions1496341
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-412-key-sharing-dictionary1498206
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Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-362-function-signature-object1498961
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Ref: PEP 362 Function Signature Object-Footnote-11499872
Node: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation1499914
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Node: SimpleNamespace1501366
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Node: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import1502128
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Node: Other Language Changes<9>1627030
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Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement1976275
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Ref: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports-Footnote-12134309
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Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts2134581
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Ref: The Context type-Footnote-12257630
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-generators2304899
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Ref: PEP 255 Simple Generators-Footnote-12311098
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-263-source-code-encodings2311360
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Ref: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings-Footnote-12312587
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives2312830
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt2315210
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-278-universal-newline-support2316926
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Ref: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support-Footnote-12318452
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-enumerate2318652
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Ref: PEP 282 The logging Package-Footnote-12324524
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-bool2324776
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Node: Introduction<2>2465510
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Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>2466717
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Node: PEP 236 __future__ Directives2471373
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Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons2472825
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Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework2476491
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Node: PEP 229 New Build System2480025
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Node: PEP 205 Weak References2482155
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Node: PEP 232 Function Attributes2485480
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Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms2487243
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Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook2488341
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Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model2489521
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Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages2491374
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Node: Acknowledgements<7>2506058
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Node: What’s New in Python 2 02506466
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Node: What About Python 1 6?2508270
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Node: List Comprehensions2521399
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Ref: Environment variables-Footnote-15805943
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Ref: Building Python-Footnote-25810738
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Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-15816442
Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-25816485
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Ref: using/configure cmdoption-disable-ipv65818984
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Ref: General Options-Footnote-15822706
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Ref: Performance options-Footnote-15829019
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Ref: Compiler flags-Footnote-15848959
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Ref: Linker flags-Footnote-15851576
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Ref: Using Python on Windows-Footnote-15854046
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Ref: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths-Footnote-15875375
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Ref: PyWin32-Footnote-15915978
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Ref: Compiling Python on Windows-Footnote-15917588
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Ref: Other Platforms-Footnote-35918458
Ref: Other Platforms-Footnote-45918513
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Ref: Other Platforms-Footnote-65918598
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Ref: Installing Additional Python Packages-Footnote-15925199
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Ref: Distributing Python Applications-Footnote-15927603
Ref: Distributing Python Applications-Footnote-25927644
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-dict_comprehension6224839
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Ref: Dictionary displays-Footnote-16226688
Ref: Dictionary displays-Footnote-26226730
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Ref: reference/expressions generator-expressions6226889
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Ref: reference/expressions genexpr6226889
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-generator_expression6227022
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Node: Yield expressions6229001
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Ref: reference/expressions yieldexpr6229090
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_atom6229145
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_from6229209
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_expression6229274
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Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-16234297
Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-26234339
Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-36234381
Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-46234423
Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-56234465
Node: Generator-iterator methods6234507
Ref: reference/expressions generator-iterator-methods6234604
Ref: 1e2f6234604
Ref: reference/expressions generator-methods6234604
Ref: 1db96234604
Ref: reference/expressions generator __next__6234946
Ref: 1b0f6234946
Ref: reference/expressions generator send6235706
Ref: 1dbb6235706
Ref: reference/expressions generator throw6236290
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Ref: reference/expressions generator close6237590
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Node: Examples6238179
Ref: reference/expressions examples6238320
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Node: Asynchronous generator functions<2>6239379
Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-functions6239533
Ref: 1e2e6239533
Ref: reference/expressions id46239533
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Ref: Asynchronous generator functions<2>-Footnote-16243204
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Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-iterator-methods6243421
Ref: 1e336243421
Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-methods6243421
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Ref: reference/expressions agen __anext__6243663
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Ref: reference/expressions agen asend6244587
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Ref: reference/expressions agen athrow6245448
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Ref: reference/expressions agen aclose6246334
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Ref: reference/expressions id56247444
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Ref: reference/expressions primaries6247444
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-primary6247566
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Node: Attribute references6247777
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Ref: reference/expressions id66247865
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-attributeref6247994
Ref: 1e386247994
Node: Subscriptions6248811
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Ref: reference/expressions subscriptions6248916
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-subscription6249187
Ref: 1e396249187
Ref: Subscriptions-Footnote-16251856
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Ref: reference/expressions slicings6251988
Ref: 1e406251988
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-slicing6252237
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-slice_list6252312
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-slice_item6252395
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-proper_slice6252469
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-lower_bound6252579
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-upper_bound6252625
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-stride6252671
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Ref: c096253990
Ref: reference/expressions id96253990
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-call6254138
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-argument_list6254261
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-positional_arguments6254601
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-positional_item6254670
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_and_keywords6254765
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-keywords_arguments6254950
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Ref: Calls-Footnote-16261922
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Ref: 55b6262073
Ref: reference/expressions await-expression6262073
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-await_expr6262262
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Ref: reference/expressions the-power-operator6262474
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-power6262671
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Node: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations6263869
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Ref: 1e556264020
Ref: reference/expressions unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations6264020
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-u_expr6264182
Ref: 1e546264182
Node: Binary arithmetic operations6264994
Ref: reference/expressions binary6265146
Ref: 1e576265146
Ref: reference/expressions binary-arithmetic-operations6265146
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-m_expr6265490
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-a_expr6265789
Ref: 1e5a6265789
Ref: Binary arithmetic operations-Footnote-16269548
Ref: Binary arithmetic operations-Footnote-26270161
Node: Shifting operations6270444
Ref: reference/expressions shifting6270582
Ref: 1e5c6270582
Ref: reference/expressions shifting-operations6270582
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-shift_expr6270712
Ref: 1e5e6270712
Node: Binary bitwise operations6271372
Ref: reference/expressions binary-bitwise-operations6271493
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Ref: reference/expressions bitwise6271493
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-and_expr6271628
Ref: 1e616271628
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-xor_expr6271722
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-or_expr6271812
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Node: Comparisons6272535
Ref: reference/expressions comparisons6272655
Ref: 1e636272655
Ref: reference/expressions id126272655
Ref: 1e646272655
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comparison6272950
Ref: 1e656272950
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comp_operator6273045
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Node: Value comparisons6274135
Ref: reference/expressions expressions-value-comparisons6274235
Ref: 16a36274235
Ref: reference/expressions value-comparisons6274235
Ref: 1e676274235
Ref: reference/expressions in6282094
Ref: 26f6282094
Ref: reference/expressions not-in6282094
Ref: 4426282094
Ref: Value comparisons-Footnote-16282132
Ref: Value comparisons-Footnote-26282174
Node: Membership test operations6283283
Ref: reference/expressions membership-test-details6283412
Ref: 1d826283412
Ref: reference/expressions membership-test-operations6283412
Ref: 1e686283412
Ref: reference/expressions is6285306
Ref: 2706285306
Node: Identity comparisons6285306
Ref: reference/expressions identity-comparisons6285409
Ref: 1e696285409
Ref: reference/expressions is-not6285409
Ref: 1e6a6285409
Ref: reference/expressions booleans6285755
Ref: 1e6b6285755
Ref: reference/expressions and6285755
Ref: 26b6285755
Ref: reference/expressions or6285755
Ref: 2716285755
Ref: Identity comparisons-Footnote-16285793
Node: Boolean operations6286095
Ref: reference/expressions boolean-operations6286212
Ref: 1e6c6286212
Ref: reference/expressions not6286212
Ref: 1e6d6286212
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-or_test6286265
Ref: 1e1a6286265
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-and_test6286355
Ref: 1e6e6286355
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-not_test6286447
Ref: 1e6f6286447
Node: Assignment expressions6287915
Ref: reference/expressions assignment-expressions6288044
Ref: 1e706288044
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-assignment_expression6288105
Ref: 1dce6288105
Ref: Assignment expressions-Footnote-16289182
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Ref: reference/expressions conditional-expressions6289342
Ref: 1e716289342
Ref: reference/expressions if-expr6289342
Ref: 1e726289342
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-conditional_expression6289405
Ref: 1caf6289405
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-expression6289517
Ref: 1e266289517
Ref: reference/expressions lambdas6289999
Ref: 1e746289999
Ref: Conditional expressions-Footnote-16290037
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Ref: reference/expressions id156290191
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Ref: reference/expressions lambda6290191
Ref: 11456290191
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-lambda_expr6290222
Ref: 1e736290222
Node: Expression lists6290782
Ref: reference/expressions expression-lists6290887
Ref: 1e776290887
Ref: reference/expressions exprlists6290887
Ref: c0a6290887
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_expression6290936
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-flexible_expression6290997
Ref: 1e786290997
Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-flexible_expression_list6291100
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_expression_list6291213
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-expression_list6291324
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_list6291419
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Ref: Expression lists-Footnote-16292547
Ref: Expression lists-Footnote-26292589
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Ref: reference/expressions evalorder6292748
Ref: 1e7b6292748
Ref: reference/expressions evaluation-order6292748
Ref: 1e7c6292748
Node: Operator precedence6293263
Ref: reference/expressions operator-precedence6293355
Ref: 1e7d6293355
Ref: reference/expressions operator-summary6293355
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Ref: Operator precedence-Footnote-16297873
Ref: Operator precedence-Footnote-26298022
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts doc6298239
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts simple6298239
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts simple-statements6298239
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-simple_stmt6298463
Ref: 1e826298463
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-expression_stmt6300159
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts assignment-statements6300733
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-assignment_stmt6300904
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-target_list6301027
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-target6301105
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts attr-target-note6304649
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Ref: Assignment statements-Footnote-16308728
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts augmented-assignment-statements6308899
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-augmented_assignment_stmt6309096
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-augtarget6309236
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-augop6309374
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts annotated-assignment-statements6311244
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-annotated_assignment_stmt6311479
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Ref: Annotated assignment statements-Footnote-16313664
Ref: Annotated assignment statements-Footnote-26313706
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts assert6313879
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-assert-statement6313879
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-assert_stmt6314029
Ref: 1e846314029
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-pass-statement6315271
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_stmt6318330
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-break_stmt6323820
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts import6325082
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-module6325944
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-relative_module6326024
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts future-statements6331438
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-future_stmt6331964
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-feature6332344
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Ref: Future statements-Footnote-16335090
Ref: Future statements-Footnote-26335132
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts global6335308
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-global_stmt6335373
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-nonlocal-statement6336598
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-nonlocal_stmt6336667
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Ref: The nonlocal statement-Footnote-16337895
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-type-statement6338040
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-type_stmt6338101
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Ref: The type statement-Footnote-16339446
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts compound-statements6339620
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-suite6341925
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-stmt_list6342110
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts else6343009
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-if_stmt6343129
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Node: The for statement6344666
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Node: The try statement6346790
Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-try-statement6346916
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try_stmt6347074
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try1_stmt6347166
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try2_stmt6347430
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try3_stmt6347696
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Node: except clause6348101
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Ref: except clause-Footnote-16351441
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Node: finally clause6354629
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Ref: The with statement-Footnote-16360457
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts match6360630
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-match-statement6360630
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Ref: The match statement-Footnote-16361910
Ref: The match statement-Footnote-26361952
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts overview6362073
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Node: Guards6364543
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts irrefutable-case-blocks6365927
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-patterns6367051
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-pattern6367133
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-closed_pattern6367207
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Node: OR Patterns6368227
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts or-patterns6368303
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Node: AS Patterns6368994
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts id46369095
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-as_pattern6369244
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Node: Literal Patterns6369626
Ref: reference/compound_stmts id56369732
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts literal-patterns6369732
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-literal_pattern6369863
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Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-signed_number6370183
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Ref: library/exceptions StopIteration value6860918
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Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError6862493
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Ref: library/exceptions IndentationError6864411
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Ref: library/exceptions SystemError6864770
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Ref: library/exceptions SystemExit6865682
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Ref: library/exceptions SystemExit code6867097
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Ref: library/exceptions TypeError6867239
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Ref: library/exceptions UnboundLocalError6868171
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Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeError6868428
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Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeDecodeError6869525
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Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeTranslateError6869704
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Ref: library/exceptions ValueError6869882
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Ref: library/exceptions ZeroDivisionError6870134
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Ref: library/exceptions EnvironmentError6870504
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Ref: library/exceptions IOError6870539
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Ref: library/exceptions WindowsError6870565
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Ref: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions-Footnote-16870783
Ref: Somut istisnalar Concrete exceptions-Footnote-26870825
Node: İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions6870867
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Ref: library/exceptions BlockingIOError characters_written6871673
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Ref: library/exceptions ChildProcessError6871955
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Ref: library/exceptions ConnectionError6872142
Ref: c986872142
Ref: library/exceptions BrokenPipeError6872402
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Ref: library/exceptions ConnectionAbortedError6872761
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Ref: library/exceptions ConnectionResetError6873229
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Ref: library/exceptions FileExistsError6873452
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Ref: library/exceptions InterruptedError6873814
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Ref: library/exceptions IsADirectoryError6874323
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Ref: library/exceptions NotADirectoryError6874527
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Ref: library/exceptions PermissionError6874901
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Ref: library/exceptions ProcessLookupError6875351
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Ref: library/exceptions TimeoutError6875504
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Ref: İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions-Footnote-16875924
Ref: İşletim sistemi istisnaları ES exceptions-Footnote-26875966
Node: Uyarılar6876008
Ref: library/exceptions warning-categories-as-exceptions6876147
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Ref: library/exceptions warnings6876147
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Ref: library/exceptions Warning6876322
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Ref: library/exceptions UserWarning6876395
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Ref: library/exceptions DeprecationWarning6876504
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Ref: library/exceptions PendingDeprecationWarning6876991
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Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxWarning6877716
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Ref: library/exceptions RuntimeWarning6877816
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Ref: library/exceptions FutureWarning6877948
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Ref: library/exceptions ImportWarning6878169
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Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeWarning6878449
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Ref: library/exceptions EncodingWarning6878538
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Ref: library/exceptions BytesWarning6878743
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Ref: library/exceptions ResourceWarning6878870
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Ref: Uyarılar-Footnote-16879185
Ref: Uyarılar-Footnote-26879227
Ref: Uyarılar-Footnote-36879269
Node: İstisna grupları6879311
Ref: library/exceptions exception-groups6879435
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Ref: library/exceptions lib-exception-groups6879435
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Ref: library/exceptions ExceptionGroup6879836
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Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup6879881
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Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup message6880984
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Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup exceptions6881091
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Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup subgroup6881257
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Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup split6882469
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Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup derive6882707
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Node: İstisna hiyerarşisi6885847
Ref: library/exceptions exception-hierarchy6885953
Ref: 20ad6885953
Ref: library/text stringservices6888791
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Node: Text Processing Services6888792
Ref: library/text doc6888941
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Ref: library/text text-processing-services6888941
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Ref: library/text textservices6888941
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Node: string — Common string operations6889732
Ref: library/string doc6889873
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Ref: library/string module-string6889873
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Ref: library/string string-common-string-operations6889873
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Ref: string — Common string operations-Footnote-16890345
Node: String constants6890411
Ref: library/string string-constants6890532
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Ref: library/string string ascii_letters6890626
Ref: 116c6890626
Ref: library/string string ascii_lowercase6890827
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Ref: library/string string ascii_uppercase6890989
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Ref: library/string string digits6891151
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Ref: library/string string hexdigits6891215
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Ref: library/string string octdigits6891294
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Ref: library/string string punctuation6891359
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Ref: library/string string printable6891536
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Ref: library/string string whitespace6891998
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Ref: String constants-Footnote-16892242
Node: Custom String Formatting6892288
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Ref: library/string string Formatter6892885
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Ref: library/string string Formatter format6892990
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Ref: library/string string Formatter vformat6893357
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Ref: library/string string Formatter parse6894070
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Ref: library/string string Formatter get_field6894828
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Ref: library/string string Formatter get_value6895379
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Ref: library/string string Formatter check_unused_args6896618
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Ref: library/string string Formatter format_field6897224
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Ref: library/string string Formatter convert_field6897452
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Ref: Custom String Formatting-Footnote-16897829
Ref: Custom String Formatting-Footnote-26897871
Node: Format String Syntax6897913
Ref: library/string format-string-syntax6898063
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Ref: library/string formatstrings6898063
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Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-replacement_field6898864
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Node: Format Specification Mini-Language6903533
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Ref: library/string formatspec6903648
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Ref: Format Specification Mini-Language-Footnote-16919687
Ref: Format Specification Mini-Language-Footnote-26919729
Ref: Format Specification Mini-Language-Footnote-36919771
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Ref: library/string format-examples6919928
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Ref: library/string string Template6926270
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Ref: library/string string Template substitute6926394
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Ref: library/string string Template safe_substitute6926881
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Ref: library/string string Template is_valid6927838
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Ref: library/string string Template get_identifiers6928064
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Ref: library/string string Template template6928363
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Ref: Template strings-Footnote-16932290
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Node: Helper functions6932384
Ref: library/string helper-functions6932497
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Ref: library/string string capwords6932548
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Node: re — Regular expression operations6933033
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Ref: library/re module-re6933223
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Ref: library/re re-regular-expression-operations6933223
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Ref: re — Regular expression operations-Footnote-26935866
Node: Regular Expression Syntax6935906
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Ref: library/re regular-expression-syntax6936028
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Ref: Regular Expression Syntax-Footnote-16963504
Ref: Regular Expression Syntax-Footnote-26963546
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Ref: library/re contents-of-module-re6963775
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Ref: library/re module-contents6963775
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Node: Flags6964126
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Ref: library/re re A6964538
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Ref: library/re re LOCALE6966370
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Ref: library/re re NOFLAG6967973
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Ref: library/re re UNICODE6968643
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Ref: library/re re X6968941
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Ref: library/re regular-expression-objects6984131
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Ref: library/re re Pattern6984202
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Ref: library/re re Pattern search6984483
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Ref: library/re re Pattern match6985942
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Ref: library/re re Pattern fullmatch6986795
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Ref: library/re re Pattern split6987589
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Ref: library/re re Pattern findall6987725
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Ref: library/re re Pattern finditer6987989
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Ref: library/re re Pattern sub6988256
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Ref: library/re re Pattern subn6988391
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Ref: library/re re Pattern flags6988528
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Ref: library/re re Pattern groups6988804
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Ref: library/re re Pattern groupindex6988891
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Ref: library/re re Pattern pattern6989108
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Node: Match Objects6989374
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Ref: library/re match-objects6989531
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Ref: library/re re Match6989883
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Ref: library/re re Match expand6990150
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Ref: library/re re Match group6990752
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Ref: library/re re Match __getitem__6993024
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Ref: library/re re Match groups6993728
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Ref: library/re re Match groupdict6994576
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Ref: library/re re Match start6995045
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Ref: library/re re Match end6995081
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Ref: library/re re Match span6996131
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Ref: library/re re Match pos6996386
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Ref: library/re re Match endpos6996649
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Ref: library/re re Match lastindex6996906
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Ref: library/re re Match lastgroup6997308
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Ref: library/re re Match re6997484
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Ref: library/re re Match string6997654
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Node: Regular Expression Examples6997899
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Ref: library/re regular-expression-examples6998021
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Node: Checking for a Pair6998365
Ref: library/re checking-for-a-pair6998473
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Ref: library/re finding-all-adverbs7007781
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Node: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions7008239
Ref: library/re finding-all-adverbs-and-their-positions7008398
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Ref: library/re raw-string-notation7009261
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Node: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas7014005
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Ref: library/difflib module-difflib7014198
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Ref: library/difflib difflib Differ7016712
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Ref: library/difflib difflib HtmlDiff7017892
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Ref: library/difflib difflib context_diff7021232
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Ref: library/difflib difflib get_close_matches7023271
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Ref: library/difflib difflib IS_CHARACTER_JUNK7029851
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Ref: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas-Footnote-17030541
Ref: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas-Footnote-27030608
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Node: SequenceMatcher Objects7030731
Ref: library/difflib sequence-matcher7030864
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher set_seqs7032533
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher set_seq17032953
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher set_seq27033098
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher find_longest_match7033243
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher get_matching_blocks7035406
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher get_opcodes7036325
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher get_grouped_opcodes7038314
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher ratio7038748
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Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher real_quick_ratio7039894
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Ref: library/difflib id17040584
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Ref: SequenceMatcher Examples-Footnote-17042339
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Node: ndiff example7049718
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Node: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling7053502
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Node: unicodedata — Unicode Database7065946
Ref: library/unicodedata doc7066137
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Ref: library/unicodedata module-unicodedata7066137
Ref: 1057066137
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata-unicode-database7066137
Ref: 214e7066137
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata lookup7066659
Ref: f227066659
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata name7066979
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Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata decimal7067204
Ref: 21507067204
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata digit7067446
Ref: 21517067446
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata numeric7067683
Ref: 110b7067683
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata category7067922
Ref: 21527067922
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata bidirectional7068046
Ref: 21537068046
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata combining7068237
Ref: 21547068237
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata east_asian_width7068423
Ref: 21557068423
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata mirrored7068555
Ref: 21567068555
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata decomposition7068812
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Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata normalize7069026
Ref: 4ec7069026
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata is_normalized7070887
Ref: 8ac7070887
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata unidata_version7071195
Ref: 21587071195
Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata ucd_3_2_07071299
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Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-17072080
Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-27072130
Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-37072176
Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-47072248
Node: stringprep — Internet String Preparation7072323
Ref: library/stringprep doc7072511
Ref: 21597072511
Ref: library/stringprep module-stringprep7072511
Ref: d37072511
Ref: library/stringprep stringprep-internet-string-preparation7072511
Ref: 215a7072511
Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_a17074428
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_b17074564
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep map_table_b27074689
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep map_table_b37074845
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c117075013
Ref: 215f7075013
Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c127075132
Ref: 21607075132
Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c11_c127075260
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c217075406
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c227075532
Ref: 21637075532
Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c21_c227075662
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c37075810
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c47075915
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c57076039
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c67076148
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c77076275
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c87076416
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c97076558
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_d17076670
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Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_d27076827
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Ref: stringprep — Internet String Preparation-Footnote-17077008
Ref: stringprep — Internet String Preparation-Footnote-27077078
Ref: stringprep — Internet String Preparation-Footnote-37077137
Node: readline — GNU readline interface7077196
Ref: library/readline doc7077404
Ref: 216e7077404
Ref: library/readline module-readline7077404
Ref: b97077404
Ref: library/readline readline-gnu-readline-interface7077404
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Ref: readline — GNU readline interface-Footnote-17079500
Node: Init file7079585
Ref: library/readline init-file7079686
Ref: 21707079686
Ref: library/readline readline parse_and_bind7079796
Ref: 21717079796
Ref: library/readline readline read_init_file7079976
Ref: 21727079976
Node: Line buffer7080197
Ref: library/readline line-buffer7080319
Ref: 21737080319
Ref: library/readline readline get_line_buffer7080413
Ref: 21747080413
Ref: library/readline readline insert_text7080563
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Ref: library/readline readline redisplay7080772
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Node: History file7080976
Ref: library/readline history-file7081101
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Ref: library/readline readline read_history_file7081196
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Ref: library/readline readline write_history_file7081433
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Ref: library/readline readline append_history_file7081689
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Ref: library/readline readline get_history_length7082097
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Ref: library/readline readline set_history_length7082141
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Node: History list7082503
Ref: library/readline history-list7082630
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Ref: library/readline readline clear_history7082732
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Ref: library/readline readline get_current_history_length7082979
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Ref: library/readline readline get_history_item7083243
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Ref: library/readline readline replace_history_item7083671
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Ref: library/readline readline add_history7083901
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Ref: library/readline readline set_auto_history7084084
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Ref: library/readline startup-hooks7084671
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Ref: library/readline readline set_startup_hook7084716
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Ref: library/readline readline set_pre_input_hook7085119
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Node: Completion7085690
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Ref: library/readline readline-completion7085810
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Ref: library/readline readline set_completer7086296
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Ref: library/readline readline get_completer7087086
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Ref: library/readline readline get_completion_type7087218
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Ref: library/readline readline get_begidx7087417
Ref: 17117087417
Ref: library/readline readline get_endidx7087453
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Ref: library/readline readline set_completer_delims7087897
Ref: 14c37087897
Ref: library/readline readline get_completer_delims7087949
Ref: 21877087949
Ref: library/readline readline set_completion_display_matches_hook7088269
Ref: 21887088269
Node: Example7088857
Ref: library/readline example7088955
Ref: 21897088955
Ref: library/readline readline-example7088955
Ref: 218a7088955
Node: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline7091595
Ref: library/rlcompleter doc7091752
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Ref: library/rlcompleter module-rlcompleter7091752
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Ref: library/rlcompleter rlcompleter-completion-function-for-gnu-readline7091752
Ref: 218d7091752
Ref: library/rlcompleter completer-objects7093240
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Ref: library/rlcompleter rlcompleter Completer7093240
Ref: 17707093240
Ref: library/rlcompleter rlcompleter Completer complete7093329
Ref: 218e7093329
Ref: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline-Footnote-17094370
Node: Binary Data Services7094441
Ref: library/binary doc7094579
Ref: 21907094579
Ref: library/binary binary-data-services7094579
Ref: 21917094579
Ref: library/binary binaryservices7094579
Ref: 20b07094579
Node: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data7095345
Ref: library/struct doc7095501
Ref: 21927095501
Ref: library/struct module-struct7095501
Ref: d47095501
Ref: library/struct struct-interpret-bytes-as-packed-binary-data7095501
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Ref: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data-Footnote-17097386
Node: Functions and Exceptions7097452
Ref: library/struct functions-and-exceptions7097584
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Ref: library/struct struct error7097710
Ref: 11cf7097710
Ref: library/struct struct pack7097838
Ref: 111f7097838
Ref: library/struct struct pack_into7098079
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Ref: library/struct struct unpack7098377
Ref: 15e87098377
Ref: library/struct struct unpack_from7098743
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Ref: library/struct struct iter_unpack7099138
Ref: e617099138
Ref: library/struct struct calcsize7099659
Ref: 17f67099659
Node: Format Strings7099857
Ref: library/struct format-strings7100010
Ref: 21997100010
Ref: library/struct struct-format-strings7100010
Ref: 21947100010
Node: Byte Order Size and Alignment7100648
Ref: library/struct byte-order-size-and-alignment7100754
Ref: 219b7100754
Ref: library/struct struct-alignment7100754
Ref: 21957100754
Ref: Byte Order Size and Alignment-Footnote-17104469
Node: Format Characters7104523
Ref: library/struct format-characters7104649
Ref: 219a7104649
Ref: library/struct id17104649
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Ref: Format Characters-Footnote-17116181
Ref: Format Characters-Footnote-27116242
Node: Examples<2>7116318
Ref: library/struct examples7116406
Ref: 219e7116406
Ref: library/struct struct-examples7116406
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Node: Applications7118928
Ref: library/struct applications7119067
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Ref: library/struct id27119067
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Ref: library/struct standard-formats7120892
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Ref: library/struct struct-standard-formats7120892
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Node: Classes<2>7122335
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Ref: library/struct struct-objects7122451
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Ref: library/struct struct Struct7122547
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Ref: library/struct struct Struct pack7123246
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Ref: library/struct struct Struct pack_into7123430
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Ref: library/struct struct Struct unpack7123590
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Ref: library/struct struct Struct unpack_from7123792
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Ref: library/struct struct Struct iter_unpack7124052
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Ref: library/struct struct Struct format7124307
Ref: a7f7124307
Ref: library/struct struct Struct size7124529
Ref: 21a87124529
Node: codecs — Codec registry and base classes7124734
Ref: library/codecs doc7124890
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Ref: library/codecs codecs-codec-registry-and-base-classes7124890
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Ref: library/codecs module-codecs7124890
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Ref: library/codecs codecs encode7125782
Ref: d987125782
Ref: library/codecs codecs decode7126276
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Ref: library/codecs codecs lookup7126835
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo7127332
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo name7127632
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo encode7127698
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo decode7127728
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo incrementalencoder7128109
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo incrementaldecoder7128151
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo streamwriter7128493
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Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo streamreader7128529
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Ref: library/codecs codecs getencoder7128985
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Ref: library/codecs codecs getdecoder7129196
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Ref: library/codecs codecs getincrementalencoder7129407
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Ref: library/codecs codecs register7130590
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Ref: library/codecs codecs EncodedFile7132940
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Ref: library/codecs codecs iterencode7133796
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Ref: library/codecs codecs iterdecode7134325
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Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM7135046
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Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_BE7135069
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Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_LE7135095
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Ref: codecs — Codec registry and base classes-Footnote-17136452
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Ref: library/codecs codec-base-classes7136645
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Ref: library/codecs id17136645
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Ref: library/codecs surrogateescape7137238
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Ref: library/codecs id27137484
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Ref: library/codecs codecs lookup_error7143953
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Ref: library/codecs codecs strict_errors7144247
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Ref: library/codecs codecs backslashreplace_errors7144863
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Ref: library/codecs codecs xmlcharrefreplace_errors7145328
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Ref: library/codecs codecs namereplace_errors7145691
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Ref: Error Handlers-Footnote-17146253
Node: Stateless Encoding and Decoding7146295
Ref: library/codecs codec-objects7146446
Ref: 21b57146446
Ref: library/codecs stateless-encoding-and-decoding7146446
Ref: 21dc7146446
Ref: library/codecs codecs Codec7146664
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Ref: library/codecs codecs Codec encode7146693
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Ref: library/codecs codecs Codec decode7147515
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Node: Incremental Encoding and Decoding7148547
Ref: library/codecs incremental-encoding-and-decoding7148712
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Node: IncrementalEncoder Objects7149552
Ref: library/codecs incremental-encoder-objects7149683
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Ref: library/codecs incrementalencoder-objects7149683
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Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder7149982
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Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder encode7150771
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Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder reset7151070
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Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder setstate7151756
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Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder decode7153144
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Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder reset7153779
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Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder setstate7154808
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Node: Stream Encoding and Decoding7154976
Ref: library/codecs stream-encoding-and-decoding7155101
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Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamWriter7155904
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Node: Encodings and Unicode7164474
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Node: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications7203024
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Ref: library/codecs module-encodings idna7203251
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Ref: library/codecs encodings idna nameprep7205866
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Ref: library/codecs encodings idna ToASCII7206053
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Ref: library/codecs encodings idna ToUnicode7206212
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Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-17206358
Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-27206417
Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-37206476
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Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-57206594
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Node: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage7206822
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta total_seconds7227761
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Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-timedelta7228370
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Node: date Objects7229311
Ref: library/datetime date-objects7229451
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date7229773
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromtimestamp7230341
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromordinal7231285
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromisoformat7231624
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromisocalendar7232539
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date min7232838
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date year7233198
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date month7233298
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date replace7235526
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date timetuple7235885
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date toordinal7236376
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Ref: library/datetime datetime date weekday7236604
Ref: 223e7236604
Ref: library/datetime datetime date isoweekday7236831
Ref: 223f7236831
Ref: library/datetime datetime date isocalendar7237092
Ref: 7487237092
Ref: library/datetime datetime date isoformat7238173
Ref: 22407238173
Ref: library/datetime datetime date __str__7238401
Ref: 22417238401
Ref: library/datetime datetime date ctime7238509
Ref: 22427238509
Ref: library/datetime datetime date strftime7238985
Ref: b127238985
Ref: library/datetime datetime date __format__7239288
Ref: 22447239288
Ref: date Objects-Footnote-17239741
Ref: date Objects-Footnote-27240050
Node: Examples of Usage date7240266
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-date7240337
Ref: 22457240337
Node: datetime Objects7242238
Ref: library/datetime datetime-datetime7242371
Ref: 22467242371
Ref: library/datetime datetime-objects7242371
Ref: 22477242371
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime7242820
Ref: 22b7242820
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime today7243692
Ref: 22487243692
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime now7244059
Ref: 22e7244059
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcnow7244888
Ref: 22c7244888
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromtimestamp7245744
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Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcfromtimestamp7247469
Ref: 22d7247469
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromordinal7249270
Ref: 22497249270
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime combine7249677
Ref: b137249677
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisoformat7250491
Ref: 4287250491
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisocalendar7252597
Ref: 84c7252597
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strptime7252979
Ref: 14687252979
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime min7253624
Ref: 15fe7253624
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime max7253759
Ref: 224a7253759
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime resolution7253914
Ref: 224b7253914
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime year7254114
Ref: 22227254114
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime month7254218
Ref: 22237254218
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime day7254286
Ref: 22247254286
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime hour7254400
Ref: 22257254400
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime minute7254459
Ref: 22267254459
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime second7254520
Ref: 22277254520
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime microsecond7254581
Ref: 22287254581
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzinfo7254652
Ref: 22297254652
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fold7254816
Ref: ad37254816
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime date7259769
Ref: 224c7259769
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime time7259869
Ref: 224d7259869
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetz7260182
Ref: 224e7260182
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime replace7260477
Ref: 13587260477
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime astimezone7261031
Ref: 82e7261031
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcoffset7263392
Ref: 224f7263392
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime dst7263792
Ref: 22507263792
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzname7264180
Ref: 22527264180
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetuple7264415
Ref: 22537264415
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utctimetuple7265260
Ref: 22557265260
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime toordinal7266430
Ref: 22567266430
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timestamp7266574
Ref: f447266574
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime weekday7268113
Ref: 22577268113
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoweekday7268319
Ref: 22587268319
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isocalendar7268554
Ref: 74a7268554
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoformat7268748
Ref: 9a17268748
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __str__7271742
Ref: 22597271742
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime ctime7271887
Ref: 225a7271887
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strftime7272522
Ref: b117272522
Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __format__7272764
Ref: 225b7272764
Node: Examples of Usage datetime7273204
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-datetime7273283
Ref: 225c7273283
Node: time Objects7277611
Ref: library/datetime datetime-time7277746
Ref: 225d7277746
Ref: library/datetime time-objects7277746
Ref: 225e7277746
Ref: library/datetime datetime time7277954
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time min7278616
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time max7278718
Ref: 22607278718
Ref: library/datetime datetime time resolution7278831
Ref: 22617278831
Ref: library/datetime datetime time hour7279104
Ref: 221d7279104
Ref: library/datetime datetime time minute7279159
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time second7279216
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time microsecond7279273
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzinfo7279340
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time fold7279494
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Ref: library/datetime datetime time fromisoformat7281101
Ref: 4277281101
Ref: library/datetime datetime time replace7282696
Ref: 22647282696
Ref: library/datetime datetime time isoformat7283185
Ref: 22637283185
Ref: library/datetime datetime time __str__7285206
Ref: 22667285206
Ref: library/datetime datetime time strftime7285314
Ref: 15a27285314
Ref: library/datetime datetime time __format__7285540
Ref: 22677285540
Ref: library/datetime datetime time utcoffset7285897
Ref: 22657285897
Ref: library/datetime datetime time dst7286293
Ref: 22687286293
Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzname7286678
Ref: 22697286678
Ref: time Objects-Footnote-17287009
Node: Examples of Usage time7287074
Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-time7287145
Ref: 226a7287145
Node: tzinfo Objects7288027
Ref: library/datetime datetime-tzinfo7288162
Ref: 226b7288162
Ref: library/datetime tzinfo-objects7288162
Ref: 226c7288162
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo7288219
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Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo utcoffset7289856
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Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo dst7291092
Ref: 226e7291092
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo tzname7293695
Ref: 226f7293695
Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo fromutc7295846
Ref: 22517295846
Ref: tzinfo Objects-Footnote-17308403
Node: timezone Objects7308443
Ref: library/datetime datetime-timezone7308596
Ref: 22707308596
Ref: library/datetime timezone-objects7308596
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Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone7309018
Ref: f627309018
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utcoffset7309656
Ref: 22727309656
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone tzname7310052
Ref: 22737310052
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone dst7310736
Ref: 22747310736
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone fromutc7310802
Ref: 22757310802
Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utc7311003
Ref: 4257311003
Node: strftime and strptime Behavior7311090
Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-behavior7311220
Ref: 22767311220
Ref: library/datetime strftime-strptime-behavior7311220
Ref: 15eb7311220
Ref: library/datetime format-codes7313310
Ref: 22127313310
Node: strftime and strptime Format Codes7313419
Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-format-codes7313545
Ref: 22777313545
Ref: strftime and strptime Format Codes-Footnote-17324456
Node: Technical Detail7324504
Ref: library/datetime technical-detail7324630
Ref: 22787324630
Node: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support7331396
Ref: library/zoneinfo doc7331581
Ref: 22797331581
Ref: library/zoneinfo module-zoneinfo7331581
Ref: 1347331581
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-iana-time-zone-support7331581
Ref: 227a7331581
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-17332904
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-27332969
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-37333011
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-47333052
Node: Using ZoneInfo7333093
Ref: library/zoneinfo using-zoneinfo7333200
Ref: 227b7333200
Ref: Using ZoneInfo-Footnote-17335148
Node: Data sources7335190
Ref: library/zoneinfo data-sources7335324
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Ref: Data sources-Footnote-17336008
Node: Configuring the data sources7336049
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-configuration7336126
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-compile-time-config7337004
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Ref: library/zoneinfo environment-configuration7337893
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-environment-var7337893
Ref: 22807337893
Ref: library/zoneinfo envvar-PYTHONTZPATH7338212
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Node: Runtime configuration7338870
Ref: library/zoneinfo runtime-configuration7338990
Ref: 22877338990
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-runtime-config7338990
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Node: The ZoneInfo class7339358
Ref: library/zoneinfo the-zoneinfo-class7339490
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo7339553
Ref: 7327339553
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo from_file7340437
Ref: 228a7340437
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo no_cache7340968
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo key7342489
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Ref: library/zoneinfo string-representations7343453
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Ref: library/zoneinfo pickle-serialization7344368
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Ref: library/zoneinfo functions7346901
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo available_timezones7346940
Ref: 178b7346940
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo reset_tzpath7347913
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Node: Globals7348608
Ref: library/zoneinfo globals7348740
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Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo TZPATH7348775
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Node: Exceptions and warnings7349552
Ref: library/zoneinfo exceptions-and-warnings7349663
Ref: 22937349663
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfoNotFoundError7349730
Ref: 227d7349730
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo InvalidTZPathWarning7349963
Ref: 22867349963
Node: calendar — General calendar-related functions7350142
Ref: library/calendar doc7350324
Ref: 22947350324
Ref: library/calendar calendar-general-calendar-related-functions7350324
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Ref: library/calendar module-calendar7350324
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar7351526
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar firstweekday7352083
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar getfirstweekday7352328
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar setfirstweekday7352515
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar iterweekdays7352737
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdates7352988
Ref: a927352988
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays7353362
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays27353749
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays37354101
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays47354485
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdatescalendar7354889
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdays2calendar7355111
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdayscalendar7355341
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardatescalendar7355530
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardays2calendar7355926
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardayscalendar7356244
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar7356531
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatday7356719
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweek7357029
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekday7357376
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekheader7357682
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonth7357958
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonthname7358409
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar prmonth7358815
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatyear7358963
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar pryear7359502
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar7359659
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonth7359834
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyear7360086
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyearpage7360269
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonthname7360784
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses7361160
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_noday7361577
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses_weekday_head7361741
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month_head7361959
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month7362165
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year7362377
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Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year_head7362595
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Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleTextCalendar7363507
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Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleHTMLCalendar7363752
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Ref: library/calendar calendar setfirstweekday7364339
Ref: 22967364339
Ref: library/calendar calendar firstweekday7364812
Ref: 22c07364812
Ref: library/calendar calendar isleap7364921
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Ref: library/calendar calendar leapdays7365048
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Ref: library/calendar calendar weekday7365272
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Ref: library/calendar calendar weekheader7365470
Ref: 22c47365470
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthrange7365629
Ref: 22c57365629
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthcalendar7365797
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Ref: library/calendar calendar prmonth7366077
Ref: 22c77366077
Ref: library/calendar calendar month7366208
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Ref: library/calendar calendar prcal7366407
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Ref: library/calendar calendar calendar7366550
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Ref: library/calendar calendar timegm7366771
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Ref: library/calendar calendar day_name7367247
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Ref: library/calendar calendar day_abbr7367548
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Ref: library/calendar calendar MONDAY7367829
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Ref: library/calendar calendar TUESDAY7367857
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Ref: library/calendar calendar WEDNESDAY7367886
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Ref: library/calendar calendar THURSDAY7367917
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Ref: library/calendar calendar FRIDAY7367947
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Ref: library/calendar calendar SATURDAY7367975
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Ref: library/calendar calendar SUNDAY7368005
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Day7368167
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Ref: library/calendar calendar JANUARY7369332
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Ref: library/calendar calendar FEBRUARY7369361
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Ref: library/calendar calendar MARCH7369391
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Ref: library/calendar calendar APRIL7369418
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Ref: library/calendar calendar MAY7369445
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Ref: library/calendar calendar JUNE7369470
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Ref: library/calendar calendar JULY7369496
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Ref: library/calendar calendar AUGUST7369522
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Ref: library/calendar calendar SEPTEMBER7369550
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Ref: library/calendar calendar OCTOBER7369581
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Ref: library/calendar calendar NOVEMBER7369610
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Ref: library/calendar calendar DECEMBER7369640
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Month7369810
Ref: 1a37369810
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError7370133
Ref: 14267370133
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError month7370311
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Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError7370378
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Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError weekday7370561
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Ref: calendar — General calendar-related functions-Footnote-17370941
Node: Command-Line Usage7371009
Ref: library/calendar calendar-cli7371111
Ref: 22dc7371111
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-year7374297
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-month7374431
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-width7374683
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-lines7374881
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-spacing7375072
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-months7375215
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Node: collections — Container datatypes7375534
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Ref: library/collections collections-container-datatypes7375737
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Ref: library/collections module-collections7375737
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Ref: collections — Container datatypes-Footnote-17377728
Node: ChainMap objects7377809
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Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap parents7380478
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Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-17382463
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-27382505
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-37382600
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-47382647
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-57382726
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-67382823
Node: ChainMap Examples and Recipes7382876
Ref: library/collections chainmap-examples-and-recipes7382958
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Node: Counter objects7386072
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Ref: library/collections collections Counter most_common7389344
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Ref: library/collections collections Counter subtract7389807
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Ref: library/collections collections Counter total7390365
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Ref: Counter objects-Footnote-17395978
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Node: deque objects7396197
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Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict7405810
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Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict default_factory7407811
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Ref: defaultdict objects-Footnote-17408240
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Ref: library/collections defaultdict-examples7408358
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Node: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields7411032
Ref: library/collections namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields7411216
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Ref: OrderedDict objects-Footnote-17425030
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Node: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers7432894
Ref: library/collections abc doc7433080
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Ref: library/collections abc collections-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-containers7433080
Ref: 23187433080
Ref: library/collections abc module-collections abc7433080
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Ref: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers-Footnote-17437099
Ref: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers-Footnote-27437176
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Ref: heapq — Heap queue algorithm-Footnote-17467880
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Node: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision7742065
Ref: library/decimal mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision7742196
Ref: 24b67742196
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Ref: library/decimal special-values7744016
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Ref: library/decimal decimal-threads7747314
Ref: 24b87747314
Ref: library/decimal working-with-threads7747314
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Node: Recipes7748687
Ref: library/decimal decimal-recipes7748841
Ref: 24ba7748841
Ref: library/decimal recipes7748841
Ref: 24bb7748841
Node: Decimal FAQ7753686
Ref: library/decimal decimal-faq7753811
Ref: 24bc7753811
Ref: library/decimal id17753811
Ref: 24bd7753811
Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-17762778
Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-27762845
Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-37762876
Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-47762934
Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-57763037
Node: fractions — Rational numbers7763151
Ref: library/fractions doc7763370
Ref: 24be7763370
Ref: library/fractions fractions-rational-numbers7763370
Ref: 24bf7763370
Ref: library/fractions module-fractions7763370
Ref: 5b7763370
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction7763750
Ref: 1ae7763750
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction numerator7767965
Ref: 24c17767965
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction denominator7768052
Ref: 24c27768052
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction as_integer_ratio7768143
Ref: 24c37768143
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction is_integer7768388
Ref: 24c47768388
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction from_float7768516
Ref: 10aa7768516
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction from_decimal7768970
Ref: 10ab7768970
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction limit_denominator7769344
Ref: 24c07769344
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __floor__7770220
Ref: 15a07770220
Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __ceil__7770523
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Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __round__7770716
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Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __format__7771191
Ref: 24c57771191
Ref: fractions — Rational numbers-Footnote-17772565
Ref: fractions — Rational numbers-Footnote-27772634
Node: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers7772676
Ref: library/random doc7772882
Ref: 24c67772882
Ref: library/random module-random7772882
Ref: b77772882
Ref: library/random random-generate-pseudo-random-numbers7772882
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Ref: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers-Footnote-17775755
Ref: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers-Footnote-27775821
Node: Bookkeeping functions7775911
Ref: library/random bookkeeping-functions7776038
Ref: 24c97776038
Ref: library/random random seed7776099
Ref: 111c7776099
Ref: library/random random getstate7777189
Ref: 24ca7777189
Ref: library/random random setstate7777386
Ref: 24cb7777386
Node: Functions for bytes7777663
Ref: library/random functions-for-bytes7777821
Ref: 24cc7777821
Ref: library/random random randbytes7777878
Ref: 179a7777878
Node: Functions for integers7778097
Ref: library/random functions-for-integers7778257
Ref: 24ce7778257
Ref: library/random random randrange7778320
Ref: 6af7778320
Ref: library/random random randint7779385
Ref: 10d67779385
Ref: library/random random getrandbits7779525
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Node: Functions for sequences7779970
Ref: library/random functions-for-sequences7780133
Ref: 24cf7780133
Ref: library/random random choice7780198
Ref: 10d77780198
Ref: library/random random choices7780353
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Ref: library/random random shuffle7782409
Ref: 5737782409
Ref: library/random random sample7783073
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Node: Discrete distributions7784617
Ref: library/random discrete-distributions7784783
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Ref: library/random random binomialvariate7784905
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Ref: Discrete distributions-Footnote-17785466
Node: Real-valued distributions7785530
Ref: library/random id17785694
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Ref: library/random real-valued-distributions7785694
Ref: 24d27785694
Ref: library/random random random7786033
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Ref: library/random random uniform7786154
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Ref: library/random random triangular7786494
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Ref: library/random random betavariate7786850
Ref: 24d57786850
Ref: library/random random expovariate7787037
Ref: 1dc7787037
Ref: library/random random gammavariate7787495
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Ref: library/random random gauss7788007
Ref: 16687788007
Ref: library/random random lognormvariate7788759
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Ref: library/random random normalvariate7789057
Ref: 16697789057
Ref: library/random random vonmisesvariate7789287
Ref: 24d87789287
Ref: library/random random paretovariate7789628
Ref: 24d97789628
Ref: library/random random weibullvariate7789731
Ref: 24da7789731
Node: Alternative Generator7789881
Ref: library/random alternative-generator7790047
Ref: 24db7790047
Ref: library/random random Random7790108
Ref: 16cf7790108
Ref: library/random random Random seed7790617
Ref: 17b37790617
Ref: library/random random Random getstate7790792
Ref: 24dc7790792
Ref: library/random random Random setstate7790958
Ref: 24dd7790958
Ref: library/random random Random random7791129
Ref: 24de7791129
Ref: library/random random Random getrandbits7791379
Ref: 24df7791379
Ref: library/random random SystemRandom7791551
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Node: Notes on Reproducibility7792053
Ref: library/random notes-on-reproducibility7792205
Ref: 24e07792205
Node: Examples<4>7792914
Ref: library/random examples7793055
Ref: 24e17793055
Ref: library/random random-examples7793055
Ref: 10817793055
Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-17798319
Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-27798384
Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-37798465
Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-47798511
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Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-67798618
Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-77798686
Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-87798722
Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-97798792
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Ref: library/random recipes7798936
Ref: 24e27798936
Ref: Recipes<2>-Footnote-17802131
Node: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions7802199
Ref: library/statistics doc7802366
Ref: 24e37802366
Ref: library/statistics module-statistics7802366
Ref: d17802366
Ref: library/statistics statistics-mathematical-statistics-functions7802366
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Ref: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-17804918
Ref: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-27804988
Ref: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-37805014
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Ref: library/statistics averages-and-measures-of-central-location7805194
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Ref: library/statistics measures-of-spread7806944
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Ref: library/statistics statistics-for-relations-between-two-inputs7807750
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Ref: library/statistics function-details7808493
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Ref: library/statistics statistics mean7808695
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Ref: library/statistics statistics mode7817627
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Ref: library/statistics statistics multimode7819149
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Ref: library/statistics statistics pstdev7819569
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Ref: library/statistics statistics pvariance7819868
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Ref: library/statistics statistics stdev7822141
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Ref: library/statistics statistics variance7822431
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Ref: library/statistics statistics quantiles7824715
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Ref: library/statistics statistics covariance7827448
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Ref: library/statistics statistics correlation7828068
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Ref: library/statistics statistics linear_regression7830163
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Ref: Function details-Footnote-17832749
Ref: Function details-Footnote-27832795
Ref: Function details-Footnote-37832850
Ref: Function details-Footnote-47832901
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Ref: Function details-Footnote-67833052
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Ref: library/statistics exceptions7833394
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Ref: library/statistics statistics StatisticsError7833465
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist mode7834646
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist stdev7834749
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist variance7834877
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist from_samples7835046
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist samples7835656
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist pdf7836063
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist inv_cdf7836911
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist overlap7837352
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist quantiles7837610
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Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist zscore7838067
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Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-17839494
Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-27839558
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Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-67839783
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Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-117840056
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Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-147840320
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Ref: library/statistics examples-and-recipes7840665
Ref: 24ff7840665
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Ref: library/statistics classic-probability-problems7841038
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Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-17841865
Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-27841936
Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-37841983
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Ref: library/statistics monte-carlo-inputs-for-simulations7842204
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Ref: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations-Footnote-17842894
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Ref: library/statistics approximating-binomial-distributions7843124
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Ref: Approximating binomial distributions-Footnote-17844556
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Ref: Naive bayesian classifier-Footnote-17846679
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Ref: library/statistics kernel-density-estimation7847008
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Ref: Kernel density estimation-Footnote-17849118
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Ref: library/functional doc7849513
Ref: 25057849513
Ref: library/functional functional-programming-modules7849513
Ref: 25067849513
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Ref: library/itertools doc7850207
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Ref: library/itertools itertools-functions-creating-iterators-for-efficient-looping7850207
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Ref: library/itertools itertools accumulate7861822
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Ref: library/itertools itertools batched7864218
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Ref: library/functools doc7901236
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Ref: library/functools module-functools7901236
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Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-17931543
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Ref: 257c7955517
Ref: library/filesys file-and-directory-access7955517
Ref: 257d7955517
Ref: library/filesys filesys7955517
Ref: 257e7955517
Node: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths7956421
Ref: library/pathlib doc7956577
Ref: 257f7956577
Ref: library/pathlib module-pathlib7956577
Ref: a37956577
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-object-oriented-filesystem-paths7956577
Ref: 25807956577
Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-17958691
Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-27958758
Node: Basic use7958800
Ref: library/pathlib basic-use7958909
Ref: 25847958909
Node: Pure paths7959855
Ref: library/pathlib id17959987
Ref: 25857959987
Ref: library/pathlib pure-paths7959987
Ref: 25817959987
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath7960202
Ref: 1ce7960202
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePosixPath7962574
Ref: 25867962574
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PureWindowsPath7962882
Ref: 15297962882
Ref: Pure paths-Footnote-17963647
Node: General properties7963706
Ref: library/pathlib general-properties7963792
Ref: 25877963792
Node: Operators<2>7964655
Ref: library/pathlib operators7964776
Ref: 25887964776
Node: Accessing individual parts7966318
Ref: library/pathlib accessing-individual-parts7966443
Ref: 25897966443
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parts7966606
Ref: 258a7966606
Node: Methods and properties7967012
Ref: library/pathlib methods-and-properties7967116
Ref: 258b7967116
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath drive7967239
Ref: 258c7967239
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath root7967665
Ref: 258d7967665
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath anchor7968714
Ref: 258e7968714
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parents7969084
Ref: 65e7969084
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parent7969577
Ref: 15467969577
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath name7970399
Ref: 25907970399
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffix7970795
Ref: 25917970795
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffixes7971096
Ref: 25927971096
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath stem7971414
Ref: 25937971414
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_posix7971716
Ref: 25947971716
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_uri7971983
Ref: 25957971983
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_absolute7972339
Ref: 15457972339
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_relative_to7972933
Ref: 2547972933
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_reserved7973650
Ref: 25f7973650
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath joinpath7974124
Ref: 25967974124
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath match7974713
Ref: 1d77974713
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath relative_to7976300
Ref: 1d27976300
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_name7978504
Ref: 14ca7978504
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_stem7979220
Ref: 25977979220
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_suffix7980240
Ref: 187d7980240
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_segments7980912
Ref: 1cf7980912
Ref: Methods and properties-Footnote-17981850
Node: Concrete paths7981942
Ref: library/pathlib concrete-paths7982105
Ref: 25827982105
Ref: library/pathlib id27982105
Ref: 25987982105
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path7982377
Ref: 14f7982377
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PosixPath7982763
Ref: 25997982763
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib WindowsPath7983088
Ref: 25837983088
Node: Expanding and resolving paths7984403
Ref: library/pathlib expanding-and-resolving-paths7984521
Ref: 259a7984521
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path home7984600
Ref: cd37984600
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path expanduser7984972
Ref: cd27984972
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path cwd7985379
Ref: 15447985379
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path absolute7985603
Ref: 15437985603
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path resolve7985899
Ref: 258f7985899
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path readlink7986852
Ref: 7777986852
Node: Querying file type and status7987149
Ref: library/pathlib querying-file-type-and-status7987301
Ref: 259b7987301
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path stat7987748
Ref: 6617987748
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lstat7988342
Ref: 259c7988342
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path exists7988529
Ref: 8767988529
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_file7989081
Ref: 8787989081
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_dir7989431
Ref: 8777989431
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_symlink7989774
Ref: 87a7989774
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_junction7990025
Ref: 1d47990025
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_mount7990240
Ref: 8797990240
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_socket7990949
Ref: 87e7990949
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_fifo7991299
Ref: 87d7991299
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_block_device7991628
Ref: 87b7991628
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_char_device7991986
Ref: 87c7991986
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path samefile7992351
Ref: cd07992351
Node: Reading and writing files7992906
Ref: library/pathlib reading-and-writing-files7993048
Ref: 259d7993048
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path open7993121
Ref: 259e7993121
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_text7993476
Ref: cd57993476
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_bytes7993913
Ref: cd77993913
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_text7994226
Ref: cd47994226
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_bytes7994798
Ref: cd67994798
Node: Reading directories7995183
Ref: library/pathlib reading-directories7995326
Ref: 259f7995326
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path iterdir7995387
Ref: 15cf7995387
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path glob7996244
Ref: 1d57996244
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rglob7998164
Ref: 1d67998164
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path walk7999364
Ref: 1d07999364
Node: Creating files and directories8004347
Ref: library/pathlib creating-files-and-directories8004486
Ref: 25a18004486
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path touch8004569
Ref: 25a28004569
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path mkdir8005166
Ref: cd18005166
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path symlink_to8006231
Ref: 6608006231
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path hardlink_to8007124
Ref: 65f8007124
Node: Renaming and deleting8007366
Ref: library/pathlib renaming-and-deleting8007511
Ref: 25a38007511
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rename8007576
Ref: 25a48007576
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path replace8008601
Ref: 25a58008601
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path unlink8009145
Ref: 182b8009145
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rmdir8009646
Ref: 25a08009646
Node: Permissions and ownership8009734
Ref: library/pathlib permissions-and-ownership8009840
Ref: 25a68009840
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path owner8009913
Ref: 25a78009913
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path group8010111
Ref: 25a88010111
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path chmod8010311
Ref: 6628010311
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lchmod8010912
Ref: 25a98010912
Node: Correspondence to tools in the os module8011097
Ref: library/pathlib correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module8011241
Ref: 25aa8011241
Ref: Correspondence to tools in the os module-Footnote-18016559
Ref: Correspondence to tools in the os module-Footnote-28016873
Ref: Correspondence to tools in the os module-Footnote-38017054
Ref: Correspondence to tools in the os module-Footnote-48017284
Node: os path — Common pathname manipulations8017516
Ref: library/os path doc8017741
Ref: 25af8017741
Ref: library/os path module-os path8017741
Ref: a18017741
Ref: library/os path os-path-common-pathname-manipulations8017741
Ref: 25b08017741
Ref: library/os path os path abspath8019766
Ref: 11c68019766
Ref: library/os path os path basename8020096
Ref: 25ac8020096
Ref: library/os path os path commonpath8020610
Ref: ccd8020610
Ref: library/os path os path commonprefix8021082
Ref: cce8021082
Ref: library/os path os path dirname8021732
Ref: 25ab8021732
Ref: library/os path os path exists8022007
Ref: 86f8022007
Ref: library/os path os path lexists8022602
Ref: 8708022602
Ref: library/os path os path expanduser8022897
Ref: 8748022897
Ref: library/os path os path expandvars8023981
Ref: 12608023981
Ref: library/os path os path getatime8024476
Ref: 25b28024476
Ref: library/os path os path getmtime8024775
Ref: 25b38024775
Ref: library/os path os path getctime8025153
Ref: 25b48025153
Ref: library/os path os path getsize8025646
Ref: 25b58025646
Ref: library/os path os path isabs8025879
Ref: 25ae8025879
Ref: library/os path os path isfile8026191
Ref: 8728026191
Ref: library/os path os path isdir8026499
Ref: 8718026499
Ref: library/os path os path isjunction8026803
Ref: 1cb8026803
Ref: library/os path os path islink8027069
Ref: 86d8027069
Ref: library/os path os path ismount8027376
Ref: e128027376
Ref: library/os path os path isdevdrive8028281
Ref: 15308028281
Ref: library/os path os path join8028989
Ref: 15478028989
Ref: library/os path os path normcase8030123
Ref: 25b68030123
Ref: library/os path os path normpath8030465
Ref: 11c58030465
Ref: library/os path os path realpath8031373
Ref: 3988031373
Ref: library/os path os path ALLOW_MISSING8033480
Ref: 3998033480
Ref: library/os path os path relpath8033629
Ref: 1d38033629
Ref: library/os path os path samefile8034158
Ref: e118034158
Ref: library/os path os path sameopenfile8034683
Ref: 25b88034683
Ref: library/os path os path samestat8034952
Ref: e108034952
Ref: library/os path os path split8035464
Ref: 25b18035464
Ref: library/os path os path splitdrive8036256
Ref: a6d8036256
Ref: library/os path os path splitroot8037092
Ref: 1cc8037092
Ref: library/os path os path splitext8038358
Ref: 25ad8038358
Ref: library/os path os path supports_unicode_filenames8039323
Ref: 13158039323
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-18039533
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-28039604
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-38039673
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-48039739
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-58039794
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-68039886
Node: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams8039978
Ref: library/fileinput doc8040193
Ref: 25b98040193
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput-iterate-over-lines-from-multiple-input-streams8040193
Ref: 25ba8040193
Ref: library/fileinput module-fileinput8040193
Ref: 598040193
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput input8042516
Ref: 6398042516
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filename8043773
Ref: 25bb8043773
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput fileno8043928
Ref: 12b68043928
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput lineno8044126
Ref: 25bc8044126
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filelineno8044398
Ref: 25bd8044398
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isfirstline8044663
Ref: 25be8044663
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isstdin8044814
Ref: 25bf8044814
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput nextfile8044956
Ref: 25c08044956
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput close8045495
Ref: 25c18045495
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput FileInput8045665
Ref: 5608045665
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_compressed8048402
Ref: 63a8048402
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_encoded8049206
Ref: b238049206
Ref: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams-Footnote-18049823
Node: stat — Interpreting stat results8049892
Ref: library/stat doc8050108
Ref: 25c28050108
Ref: library/stat module-stat8050108
Ref: d08050108
Ref: library/stat stat-interpreting-stat-results8050108
Ref: 25c38050108
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDIR8050790
Ref: 25c48050790
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISCHR8050879
Ref: 25c58050879
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISBLK8050993
Ref: 25c68050993
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISREG8051098
Ref: 25c78051098
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISFIFO8051190
Ref: 25c88051190
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISLNK8051288
Ref: 25c98051288
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISSOCK8051381
Ref: 25ca8051381
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDOOR8051468
Ref: 17f88051468
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISPORT8051581
Ref: 17f98051581
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISWHT8051701
Ref: 17fa8051701
Ref: library/stat stat S_IMODE8051907
Ref: 25cb8051907
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFMT8052173
Ref: 25cc8052173
Ref: library/stat stat filemode8053703
Ref: ff18053703
Ref: library/stat stat ST_MODE8054119
Ref: e5c8054119
Ref: library/stat stat ST_INO8054174
Ref: 25cd8054174
Ref: library/stat stat ST_DEV8054219
Ref: 25ce8054219
Ref: library/stat stat ST_NLINK8054275
Ref: 25cf8054275
Ref: library/stat stat ST_UID8054338
Ref: 25d08054338
Ref: library/stat stat ST_GID8054391
Ref: 25d18054391
Ref: library/stat stat ST_SIZE8054445
Ref: 25d28054445
Ref: library/stat stat ST_ATIME8054559
Ref: 25d38054559
Ref: library/stat stat ST_MTIME8054613
Ref: 25d48054613
Ref: library/stat stat ST_CTIME8054673
Ref: 25d58054673
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFSOCK8055717
Ref: 25d68055717
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFLNK8055758
Ref: 25d78055758
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFREG8055805
Ref: 25d88055805
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFBLK8055851
Ref: 25d98055851
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFDIR8055897
Ref: 25da8055897
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFCHR8055940
Ref: 25db8055940
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFIFO8055990
Ref: 25dc8055990
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFDOOR8056028
Ref: e5d8056028
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFPORT8056095
Ref: e5e8056095
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFWHT8056168
Ref: e5f8056168
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISUID8056489
Ref: 25dd8056489
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISGID8056534
Ref: 25de8056534
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISVTX8057113
Ref: 25e18057113
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXU8057364
Ref: 25e28057364
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRUSR8057429
Ref: 25e38057429
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWUSR8057488
Ref: 25e48057488
Ref: library/stat stat S_IXUSR8057548
Ref: 25e58057548
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXG8057610
Ref: 25e68057610
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRGRP8057670
Ref: 25e78057670
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWGRP8057729
Ref: 25e88057729
Ref: library/stat stat S_IXGRP8057789
Ref: 25df8057789
Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXO8057851
Ref: 25e98057851
Ref: library/stat stat S_IROTH8057931
Ref: 25ea8057931
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWOTH8057992
Ref: 25eb8057992
Ref: library/stat stat S_IXOTH8058054
Ref: 25ec8058054
Ref: library/stat stat S_ENFMT8058118
Ref: 25e08058118
Ref: library/stat stat S_IREAD8058353
Ref: 25ed8058353
Ref: library/stat stat S_IWRITE8058426
Ref: 25ee8058426
Ref: library/stat stat S_IEXEC8058500
Ref: 25ef8058500
Ref: library/stat stat UF_NODUMP8058659
Ref: 25f08058659
Ref: library/stat stat UF_IMMUTABLE8058715
Ref: 25f18058715
Ref: library/stat stat UF_APPEND8058781
Ref: 25f28058781
Ref: library/stat stat UF_OPAQUE8058849
Ref: 25f38058849
Ref: library/stat stat UF_NOUNLINK8058942
Ref: 25f48058942
Ref: library/stat stat UF_COMPRESSED8059018
Ref: 25f58059018
Ref: library/stat stat UF_HIDDEN8059101
Ref: 25f68059101
Ref: library/stat stat SF_ARCHIVED8059192
Ref: 25f78059192
Ref: library/stat stat SF_IMMUTABLE8059254
Ref: 25f88059254
Ref: library/stat stat SF_APPEND8059320
Ref: 25f98059320
Ref: library/stat stat SF_NOUNLINK8059388
Ref: 25fa8059388
Ref: library/stat stat SF_SNAPSHOT8059464
Ref: 25fb8059464
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE8059865
Ref: 25fc8059865
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED8059905
Ref: 25fd8059905
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE8059948
Ref: 25fe8059948
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY8059987
Ref: 25ff8059987
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED8060029
Ref: 26008060029
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN8060071
Ref: 26018060071
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM8060110
Ref: 26028060110
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL8060159
Ref: 26038060159
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED8060198
Ref: 26048060198
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA8060250
Ref: 26058060250
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE8060296
Ref: 26068060296
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY8060336
Ref: 26078060336
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT8060377
Ref: 26088060377
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE8060423
Ref: 26098060423
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM8060467
Ref: 260a8060467
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY8060506
Ref: 260b8060506
Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL8060548
Ref: 260c8060548
Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK8060822
Ref: 260d8060822
Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT8060862
Ref: 260e8060862
Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK8060906
Ref: 260f8060906
Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-18061015
Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-28061079
Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-38061126
Node: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons8061206
Ref: library/filecmp doc8061415
Ref: 26108061415
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp-file-and-directory-comparisons8061415
Ref: 26118061415
Ref: library/filecmp module-filecmp8061415
Ref: 588061415
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmp8061884
Ref: 16d48061884
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmpfiles8062676
Ref: 14638062676
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp clear_cache8063620
Ref: dde8063620
Ref: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons-Footnote-18063936
Node: The dircmp class8064003
Ref: library/filecmp dircmp-objects8064098
Ref: 26128064098
Ref: library/filecmp the-dircmp-class8064098
Ref: 26138064098
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp8064159
Ref: de08064159
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report8064698
Ref: 26148064698
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_partial_closure8064817
Ref: 26158064817
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_full_closure8064960
Ref: 26168064960
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left8065481
Ref: 26178065481
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right8065540
Ref: 26188065540
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_list8065600
Ref: 26198065600
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_list8065721
Ref: 261a8065721
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common8065843
Ref: 261b8065843
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_only8065931
Ref: 261c8065931
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_only8066014
Ref: 261d8066014
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_dirs8066098
Ref: 261e8066098
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_files8066181
Ref: 261f8066181
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_funny8066256
Ref: 26208066256
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp same_files8066462
Ref: 26218066462
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp diff_files8066611
Ref: 26228066611
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp funny_files8066779
Ref: 26238066779
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp subdirs8066900
Ref: 17478066900
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp DEFAULT_IGNORES8067365
Ref: ddf8067365
Node: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories8068048
Ref: library/tempfile doc8068271
Ref: 26248068271
Ref: library/tempfile module-tempfile8068271
Ref: df8068271
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-generate-temporary-files-and-directories8068271
Ref: 26258068271
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryFile8069437
Ref: 26268069437
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile NamedTemporaryFile8071619
Ref: 1f48071619
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile8075424
Ref: 4a88075424
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile rollover8075950
Ref: 262a8075950
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory8076926
Ref: 10db8076926
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory name8077457
Ref: 262b8077457
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory cleanup8077815
Ref: 262c8077815
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkstemp8079087
Ref: 26278079087
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkdtemp8081977
Ref: 1c98081977
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdir8083223
Ref: 17048083223
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdirb8084410
Ref: 17058084410
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefix8084550
Ref: 262e8084550
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefixb8084708
Ref: 262f8084708
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile tempdir8085286
Ref: 17038085286
Ref: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories-Footnote-18086402
Node: Examples<5>8086470
Ref: library/tempfile examples8086614
Ref: 26308086614
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-examples8086614
Ref: 26288086614
Node: Deprecated functions and variables8088009
Ref: library/tempfile deprecated-functions-and-variables8088153
Ref: 26318088153
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-mktemp-deprecated8088153
Ref: 26328088153
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mktemp8088783
Ref: 16b68088783
Node: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı8089931
Ref: library/glob doc8090154
Ref: 26338090154
Ref: library/glob glob-unix-style-pathname-pattern-expansion8090154
Ref: 26348090154
Ref: library/glob module-glob8090154
Ref: 628090154
Ref: library/glob glob glob8091430
Ref: 6418091430
Ref: library/glob glob iglob8094019
Ref: 6428094019
Ref: library/glob glob escape8095034
Ref: de68095034
Ref: glob — Unix tarzı yol adı kalıp açılımı-Footnote-18096579
Node: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching8096643
Ref: library/fnmatch doc8096854
Ref: 26358096854
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch-unix-filename-pattern-matching8096854
Ref: 26368096854
Ref: library/fnmatch module-fnmatch8096854
Ref: 5a8096854
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatch8098707
Ref: 16c78098707
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatchcase8099383
Ref: 16c88099383
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch filter8099640
Ref: 16c98099640
Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch translate8099931
Ref: 18868099931
Ref: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching-Footnote-18100580
Node: linecache — Random access to text lines8100647
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Ref: 26378100847
Ref: library/linecache linecache-random-access-to-text-lines8100847
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Ref: 848100847
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Ref: library/linecache linecache clearcache8102444
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Ref: library/linecache linecache checkcache8102612
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Ref: linecache — Random access to text lines-Footnote-28103506
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Ref: library/shutil module-shutil8103697
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Ref: shutil — High-level file operations-Footnote-18104799
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Ref: library/shutil directory-and-files-operations8104998
Ref: 263e8104998
Ref: library/shutil file-operations8104998
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copymode8107475
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Ref: library/shutil shutil ignore_patterns8113542
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copytree8113841
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Ref: 26428119698
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Ref: library/shutil shutil disk_usage8122099
Ref: fd08122099
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations8126172
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Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-18127300
Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-28127365
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Ref: library/shutil copytree-example8127572
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-copytree-example8127572
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Ref: library/shutil rmtree-example8128340
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-rmtree-example8128340
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Ref: 26488129065
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Ref: library/shutil shutil get_archive_formats8131821
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Ref: library/shutil shutil register_archive_format8132662
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Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_archive_format8133966
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Ref: library/shutil shutil register_unpack_format8135893
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Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_unpack_format8136811
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Ref: library/shutil shutil get_unpack_formats8136934
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Ref: Archiving operations-Footnote-18137886
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Ref: library/shutil archiving-example8138042
Ref: 26508138042
Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example8138042
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Ref: library/shutil archiving-example-with-base-dir8139249
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example-with-basedir8139249
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Node: Querying the size of the output terminal8140353
Ref: library/shutil querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal8140496
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Ref: library/shutil shutil get_terminal_size8140599
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Ref: Querying the size of the output terminal-Footnote-18142277
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Ref: library/persistence doc8142515
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Ref: library/persistence data-persistence8142515
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Ref: library/persistence persistence8142515
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Node: pickle — Python object serialization8143346
Ref: library/pickle doc8143491
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Ref: library/pickle module-pickle8143491
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-python-object-serialization8143491
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Ref: pickle — Python object serialization-Footnote-18145325
Ref: pickle — Python object serialization-Footnote-28145391
Node: Relationship to other Python modules8145455
Ref: library/pickle relationship-to-other-python-modules8145593
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Ref: library/pickle comparison-with-marshal8145874
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Ref: library/pickle id28148227
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Ref: Comparison with json-Footnote-18149407
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Ref: library/pickle data-stream-format8149595
Ref: 26608149595
Ref: library/pickle pickle-protocols8149595
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Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-18152563
Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-28152605
Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-38152647
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Ref: library/pickle module-interface8152850
Ref: 26638152850
Ref: library/pickle pickle HIGHEST_PROTOCOL8153303
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Ref: library/pickle pickle DEFAULT_PROTOCOL8153578
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Ref: library/pickle pickle dump8154096
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Ref: library/pickle pickle dumps8154598
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Ref: library/pickle pickle load8155038
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Ref: library/pickle pickle loads8155790
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleError8156521
Ref: 26658156521
Ref: library/pickle pickle PicklingError8156662
Ref: 26668156662
Ref: library/pickle pickle UnpicklingError8156948
Ref: 26688156948
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler8157464
Ref: 8808157464
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler dump8159057
Ref: 18858159057
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler persistent_id8159201
Ref: 14288159201
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler dispatch_table8159879
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler reducer_override8161048
Ref: 8818161048
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler fast8161677
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler8162165
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler load8164296
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler persistent_load8164593
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler find_class8165042
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer8165724
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer raw8166347
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer release8166692
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Node: What can be pickled and unpickled?8166810
Ref: library/pickle pickle-picklable8166977
Ref: 26678166977
Ref: library/pickle what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled8166977
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Ref: What can be pickled and unpickled?-Footnote-18169725
Ref: What can be pickled and unpickled?-Footnote-28169858
Node: Pickling Class Instances8169994
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Ref: library/pickle pickling-class-instances8170199
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Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs_ex__8171134
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Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs__8171973
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Ref: library/pickle object __getstate__8172547
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Ref: library/pickle object __setstate__8173895
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Ref: library/pickle object __reduce__8175759
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Ref: library/pickle object __reduce_ex__8178629
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Ref: Pickling Class Instances-Footnote-18179292
Node: Persistence of External Objects8179387
Ref: library/pickle persistence-of-external-objects8179503
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-persistent8179503
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Ref: Persistence of External Objects-Footnote-18184171
Node: Dispatch Tables8184435
Ref: library/pickle dispatch-tables8184585
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-dispatch8184585
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Node: Handling Stateful Objects8185873
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-state8185983
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Node: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects8188265
Ref: library/pickle custom-reduction-for-types-functions-and-other-objects8188455
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Ref: library/pickle reducer-override8188455
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Node: Out-of-band Buffers8190554
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Ref: library/pickle pickle-oob8190739
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Node: Provider API8191589
Ref: library/pickle provider-api8191678
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Node: Consumer API8192285
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Node: Example<4>8193696
Ref: library/pickle example8193783
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Ref: Example<4>-Footnote-18196182
Node: Restricting Globals8196224
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Ref: library/pickle restricting-globals8196369
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Node: Performance<2>8199145
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Node: Examples<6>8199558
Ref: library/pickle examples8199667
Ref: 26858199667
Ref: library/pickle pickle-example8199667
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Node: copyreg — Register pickle support functions8200897
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Ref: library/copyreg module-copyreg8201087
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Ref: library/copyreg copyreg constructor8201679
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Ref: library/copyreg copyreg pickle8201881
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Ref: copyreg — Register pickle support functions-Footnote-18202618
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Ref: library/copyreg example8202777
Ref: 268a8202777
Node: shelve — Python object persistence8203321
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Ref: library/shelve shelve-security8206154
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Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf sync8206652
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Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf close8206975
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Ref: shelve — Python object persistence-Footnote-28207440
Node: Restrictions8207545
Ref: library/shelve restrictions8207649
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Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf8208838
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Ref: library/shelve shelve BsdDbShelf8210250
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Ref: library/shelve shelve DbfilenameShelf8210976
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Ref: Restrictions-Footnote-18211595
Node: Example<6>8211648
Ref: library/shelve example8211752
Ref: 26938211752
Ref: library/shelve shelve-example8211752
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Node: marshal — Internal Python object serialization8213446
Ref: library/marshal doc8213643
Ref: 26948213643
Ref: library/marshal marshal-internal-python-object-serialization8213643
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Ref: library/marshal module-marshal8213643
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Ref: library/marshal marshal version8218663
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Ref: marshal — Internal Python object serialization-Footnote-18219019
Node: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”8219399
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Ref: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”-Footnote-28224730
Node: dbm gnu — GNU database manager8224783
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Ref: library/dbm module-dbm gnu8224936
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Ref: 26a48229282
Ref: library/dbm module-dbm ndbm8229282
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Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm error8230115
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Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm library8230323
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Ref: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager-Footnote-18231686
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Ref: library/dbm module-dbm dumb8231915
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Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb dumbdbm sync8234737
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Ref: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation-Footnote-18235019
Node: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases8235087
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Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-38236972
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Ref: Module functions-Footnote-28251021
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Ref: library/sqlite3 cursor-objects8290101
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-cursor-objects8290101
Ref: 26f78290101
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor8290712
Ref: 26b38290712
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor execute8290827
Ref: 23d8290827
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor executemany8292340
Ref: 2588292340
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor executescript8293867
Ref: 26ec8293867
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchone8294715
Ref: 26b48294715
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchmany8294997
Ref: 26f88294997
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchall8295838
Ref: 26b78295838
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor close8296121
Ref: 26fa8296121
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor setinputsizes8296427
Ref: 26fb8296427
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor setoutputsize8296538
Ref: 26fc8296538
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor arraysize8296661
Ref: 26f98296661
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor connection8296893
Ref: 26fd8296893
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor description8297398
Ref: 13f48297398
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor lastrowid8297777
Ref: b548297777
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor rowcount8298476
Ref: 15f88298476
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor row_factory8299037
Ref: 26f38299037
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-columns-by-name8299825
Ref: 26fe8299825
Ref: Cursor objects-Footnote-18299861
Ref: Cursor objects-Footnote-28299918
Node: Row objects8299969
Ref: library/sqlite3 row-objects8300070
Ref: 26ff8300070
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-row-objects8300070
Ref: 27008300070
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Row8300113
Ref: d058300113
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Row keys8300568
Ref: 27018300568
Node: Blob objects8300852
Ref: library/sqlite3 blob-objects8300962
Ref: 27028300962
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-blob-objects8300962
Ref: 27038300962
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob8301007
Ref: 4978301007
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob close8302181
Ref: 27048302181
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob read8302433
Ref: 27058302433
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob write8302791
Ref: 27068302791
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob tell8303022
Ref: 27078303022
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob seek8303109
Ref: 27088303109
Node: PrepareProtocol objects8303535
Ref: library/sqlite3 prepareprotocol-objects8303647
Ref: 27098303647
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PrepareProtocol8303714
Ref: 16048303714
Ref: PrepareProtocol objects-Footnote-18303987
Node: Exceptions<5>8304029
Ref: library/sqlite3 exceptions8304152
Ref: 270b8304152
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-exceptions8304152
Ref: 270c8304152
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Warning8304264
Ref: 164b8304264
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error8304567
Ref: 16a98304567
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorcode8304925
Ref: 48c8304925
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorname8305057
Ref: 48d8305057
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 InterfaceError8305220
Ref: 4928305220
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DatabaseError8305501
Ref: 26f08305501
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DataError8305818
Ref: 16c48305818
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 OperationalError8306069
Ref: 16c58306069
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 IntegrityError8306425
Ref: 270d8306425
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 InternalError8306639
Ref: 270e8306639
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 ProgrammingError8306917
Ref: 2418306917
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 NotSupportedError8307227
Ref: 26ee8307227
Ref: Exceptions<5>-Footnote-18307663
Ref: Exceptions<5>-Footnote-28307705
Ref: Exceptions<5>-Footnote-38307745
Node: SQLite and Python types8307785
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite-and-python-types8307927
Ref: 270f8307927
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-types8307927
Ref: 26bf8307927
Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated8309839
Ref: library/sqlite3 default-adapters-and-converters-deprecated8309990
Ref: 27108309990
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-default-converters8309990
Ref: 23b8309990
Ref: Default adapters and converters deprecated-Footnote-18311227
Node: Command-line interface8311274
Ref: library/sqlite3 command-line-interface8311393
Ref: 27118311393
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-cli8311393
Ref: 1508311393
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-h8311743
Ref: 27128311743
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-help8311743
Ref: 27138311743
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-v8311789
Ref: 27148311789
Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-version8311789
Ref: 27158311789
Node: How-to guides8311887
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-guides8312028
Ref: 27168312028
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howtos8312028
Ref: 26af8312028
Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries8312494
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-placeholders-to-bind-values-in-sql-queries8312655
Ref: 27178312655
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-placeholders8312655
Ref: 23e8312655
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-18314907
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-28314959
Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values8315001
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-adapt-custom-python-types-to-sqlite-values8315222
Ref: 27188315222
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapters8315222
Ref: 26b88315222
Node: How to write adaptable objects8316011
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-write-adaptable-objects8316169
Ref: 27198316169
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-conform8316169
Ref: 270a8316169
Node: How to register adapter callables8317080
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-register-adapter-callables8317238
Ref: 271a8317238
Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types8317882
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-convert-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types8318079
Ref: 271b8318079
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-converters8318079
Ref: 26b98318079
Node: Adapter and converter recipes8320649
Ref: library/sqlite3 adapter-and-converter-recipes8320835
Ref: 271c8320835
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapter-converter-recipes8320835
Ref: 23c8320835
Node: How to use connection shortcut methods8322271
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-connection-shortcut-methods8322447
Ref: 271d8322447
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-shortcuts8322447
Ref: 26e78322447
Node: How to use the connection context manager8323731
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-the-connection-context-manager8323906
Ref: 271e8323906
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-context-manager8323906
Ref: 16058323906
Node: How to work with SQLite URIs8325656
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-work-with-sqlite-uris8325828
Ref: 27208325828
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-uri-tricks8325828
Ref: 26c68325828
Ref: How to work with SQLite URIs-Footnote-18327131
Node: How to create and use row factories8327171
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-create-and-use-row-factories8327340
Ref: 27218327340
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-row-factory8327340
Ref: 26ba8327340
Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings8330199
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-handle-non-utf-8-text-encodings8330331
Ref: 27228330331
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-encoding8330331
Ref: 26f18330331
Ref: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings-Footnote-18331685
Node: Explanation8331734
Ref: library/sqlite3 explanation8331857
Ref: 27238331857
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-explanation8331857
Ref: 26b08331857
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control8331902
Ref: 27248331902
Node: Transaction control8331936
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-controlling-transactions8332003
Ref: 26b58332003
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control8332003
Ref: 27258332003
Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute8332496
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-autocommit8332662
Ref: 1e58332662
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-autocommit-attribute8332662
Ref: 27268332662
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-18334422
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-28334464
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-38334556
Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute8334598
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-isolation-level8334764
Ref: 26c48334764
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-isolation-level-attribute8334764
Ref: 27278334764
Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-18336852
Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-28336952
Node: Data Compression and Archiving8337044
Ref: library/archiving doc8337186
Ref: 26618337186
Ref: library/archiving archiving8337186
Ref: 27288337186
Ref: library/archiving data-compression-and-archiving8337186
Ref: 27298337186
Node: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip8337779
Ref: library/zlib doc8337927
Ref: 272a8337927
Ref: library/zlib module-zlib8337927
Ref: 1338337927
Ref: library/zlib zlib-compression-compatible-with-gzip8337927
Ref: 272b8337927
Ref: library/zlib zlib error8338896
Ref: 272c8338896
Ref: library/zlib zlib adler328338989
Ref: 164f8338989
Ref: library/zlib zlib compress8339776
Ref: 4528339776
Ref: library/zlib compress-wbits8340417
Ref: 272d8340417
Ref: library/zlib zlib compressobj8341654
Ref: 272e8341654
Ref: library/zlib zlib crc328343656
Ref: 14bc8343656
Ref: library/zlib zlib decompress8344360
Ref: b928344360
Ref: library/zlib decompress-wbits8344792
Ref: 272f8344792
Ref: library/zlib zlib decompressobj8346531
Ref: 27308346531
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress compress8347532
Ref: 27318347532
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress flush8347892
Ref: 27328347892
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress copy8348649
Ref: 27338348649
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unused_data8349023
Ref: 27348349023
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unconsumed_tail8349372
Ref: 27358349372
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress eof8349829
Ref: 10148349829
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress decompress8350117
Ref: 27368350117
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress flush8351150
Ref: 27378351150
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress copy8351557
Ref: 27388351557
Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_VERSION8352041
Ref: 27398352041
Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION8352298
Ref: 10158352298
Ref: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-18352791
Node: gzip — Support for gzip files8352836
Ref: library/gzip doc8353030
Ref: 273a8353030
Ref: library/gzip gzip-support-for-gzip-files8353030
Ref: 273b8353030
Ref: library/gzip module-gzip8353030
Ref: 658353030
Ref: library/gzip gzip open8354027
Ref: 273c8354027
Ref: library/gzip gzip BadGzipFile8355570
Ref: 8568355570
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile8355825
Ref: 2968355825
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile peek8358794
Ref: 10b18358794
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile mtime8359422
Ref: 273d8359422
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile name8360056
Ref: 2978360056
Ref: library/gzip gzip compress8361335
Ref: 4518361335
Ref: library/gzip gzip decompress8362293
Ref: 10b28362293
Ref: gzip — Support for gzip files-Footnote-18362955
Node: Examples of usage8363019
Ref: library/gzip examples-of-usage8363135
Ref: 27418363135
Ref: library/gzip gzip-usage-examples8363135
Ref: 27428363135
Node: Command Line Interface8364068
Ref: library/gzip command-line-interface8364184
Ref: 27438364184
Ref: library/gzip gzip-cli8364184
Ref: 27448364184
Node: Command line options8364608
Ref: library/gzip command-line-options8364687
Ref: 27458364687
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-arg-file8364748
Ref: 27468364748
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-fast8364832
Ref: 27478364832
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-best8364919
Ref: 27488364919
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-d8365006
Ref: 27498365006
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-decompress8365006
Ref: 274a8365006
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-h8365069
Ref: 274b8365069
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-help8365069
Ref: 274c8365069
Node: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression8365122
Ref: library/bz2 doc8365320
Ref: 274d8365320
Ref: library/bz2 bz2-support-for-bzip2-compression8365320
Ref: 274e8365320
Ref: library/bz2 module-bz28365320
Ref: 138365320
Ref: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression-Footnote-18366279
Node: De compression of files8366342
Ref: library/bz2 de-compression-of-files8366474
Ref: 274f8366474
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 open8366543
Ref: f388366543
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File8367991
Ref: 6aa8367991
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File peek8369448
Ref: 27518369448
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File fileno8370037
Ref: 27528370037
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readable8370163
Ref: 27538370163
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File seekable8370287
Ref: 27548370287
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File writable8370405
Ref: 27558370405
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File read18370529
Ref: 27568370529
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readinto8370852
Ref: 27578370852
Node: Incremental de compression8372083
Ref: library/bz2 incremental-de-compression8372247
Ref: 27588372247
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor8372322
Ref: 157a8372322
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor compress8372666
Ref: 27598372666
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor flush8373016
Ref: 275a8373016
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor8373247
Ref: 15788373247
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor decompress8373801
Ref: c598373801
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor eof8375171
Ref: 275d8375171
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor unused_data8375300
Ref: 275c8375300
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor needs_input8375525
Ref: 275b8375525
Node: One-shot de compression8375752
Ref: library/bz2 one-shot-de-compression8375913
Ref: 275e8375913
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 compress8375982
Ref: 22018375982
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 decompress8376280
Ref: f398376280
Node: Examples of usage<2>8376641
Ref: library/bz2 bz2-usage-examples8376767
Ref: 275f8376767
Ref: library/bz2 examples-of-usage8376767
Ref: 27608376767
Node: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm8379701
Ref: library/lzma doc8379902
Ref: 27618379902
Ref: library/lzma lzma-compression-using-the-lzma-algorithm8379902
Ref: 27628379902
Ref: library/lzma module-lzma8379902
Ref: 898379902
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAError8380734
Ref: 27638380734
Ref: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm-Footnote-18381155
Node: Reading and writing compressed files8381219
Ref: library/lzma reading-and-writing-compressed-files8381390
Ref: 27648381390
Ref: library/lzma lzma open8381483
Ref: 27658381483
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile8383258
Ref: eb38383258
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile peek8385159
Ref: 27668385159
Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory8386053
Ref: library/lzma compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory8386249
Ref: 27678386249
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor8386358
Ref: 15798386358
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor compress8389429
Ref: 276a8389429
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor flush8389904
Ref: 276b8389904
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor8390186
Ref: 15778390186
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor decompress8391717
Ref: cbe8391717
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor check8393090
Ref: 276f8393090
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor eof8393326
Ref: 27708393326
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor unused_data8393422
Ref: 276e8393422
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor needs_input8393596
Ref: 276d8393596
Ref: library/lzma lzma compress8393823
Ref: 27688393823
Ref: library/lzma lzma decompress8394168
Ref: 276c8394168
Node: Miscellaneous<2>8394674
Ref: library/lzma miscellaneous8394865
Ref: 27718394865
Ref: library/lzma lzma is_check_supported8394912
Ref: 27728394912
Node: Specifying custom filter chains8395273
Ref: library/lzma filter-chain-specs8395431
Ref: 27698395431
Ref: library/lzma specifying-custom-filter-chains8395431
Ref: 27738395431
Node: Examples<7>8398116
Ref: library/lzma examples8398249
Ref: 27748398249
Node: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives8399617
Ref: library/zipfile doc8399825
Ref: 27758399825
Ref: library/zipfile module-zipfile8399825
Ref: 1318399825
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-work-with-zip-archives8399825
Ref: 27768399825
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipFile8400686
Ref: 16008400686
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipfile8400793
Ref: 27778400793
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile LargeZipFile8400968
Ref: 27788400968
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo8401608
Ref: b8e8401608
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile is_zipfile8402310
Ref: 11d68402310
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_STORED8402606
Ref: 277d8402606
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_DEFLATED8402701
Ref: 277e8402701
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_BZIP28402849
Ref: 277f8402849
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_LZMA8403016
Ref: 27808403016
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-18404040
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-28404105
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-38404173
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-48404241
Node: ZipFile Objects8404282
Ref: library/zipfile id18404389
Ref: 27818404389
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-objects8404389
Ref: 27798404389
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile8404440
Ref: 4dc8404440
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile close8409489
Ref: 27828409489
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile getinfo8409662
Ref: 277a8409662
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile infolist8409923
Ref: 277b8409923
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile namelist8410183
Ref: 27838410183
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile open8410266
Ref: b908410266
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile extract8412707
Ref: 27878412707
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile extractall8414105
Ref: 27888414105
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile printdir8415162
Ref: 27898415162
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile setpassword8415266
Ref: 278a8415266
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile read8415405
Ref: 27868415405
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile testzip8416338
Ref: 278b8416338
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile write8416714
Ref: bd78416714
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile writestr8418521
Ref: 11d78418521
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile mkdir8420120
Ref: 4dd8420120
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile filename8420645
Ref: 278c8420645
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile debug8420709
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile comment8420932
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Node: Path Objects8421258
Ref: library/zipfile id28421391
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Ref: library/zipfile path-objects8421391
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path8421436
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path name8422619
Ref: 27918422619
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path open8422680
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path iterdir8423587
Ref: 27928423587
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path is_dir8423673
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path is_file8423774
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path exists8423871
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path suffix8424001
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path stem8424144
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path suffixes8424286
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path read_text8424430
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path read_bytes8425012
Ref: 27968425012
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path joinpath8425084
Ref: 27978425084
Ref: Path Objects-Footnote-18425740
Node: PyZipFile Objects8425779
Ref: library/zipfile id38425912
Ref: 27988425912
Ref: library/zipfile pyzipfile-objects8425912
Ref: 27998425912
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile PyZipFile8426114
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile PyZipFile writepy8426460
Ref: e9f8426460
Node: ZipInfo Objects8429330
Ref: library/zipfile id48429473
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Ref: library/zipfile zipinfo-objects8429473
Ref: 277c8429473
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo from_file8429841
Ref: b8d8429841
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo is_dir8430937
Ref: b8f8430937
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo filename8431141
Ref: 279b8431141
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo date_time8431216
Ref: 279c8431216
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo compress_type8432000
Ref: 279d8432000
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo comment8432091
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo extra8432210
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo create_system8432417
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo create_version8432498
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo extract_version8432587
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo reserved8432677
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo flag_bits8432733
Ref: 27a48432733
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo volume8432791
Ref: 27a58432791
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo internal_attr8432861
Ref: 27a68432861
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo external_attr8432929
Ref: 27a78432929
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo header_offset8433002
Ref: 27a88433002
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo CRC8433081
Ref: 27a98433081
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo compress_size8433151
Ref: 27aa8433151
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo file_size8433227
Ref: 27858433227
Ref: ZipInfo Objects-Footnote-18433337
Node: Command-Line Interface8433405
Ref: library/zipfile command-line-interface8433553
Ref: 27ab8433553
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-commandline8433553
Ref: 27ac8433553
Node: Command-line options8434326
Ref: library/zipfile command-line-options8434405
Ref: 27b08434405
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-l8434466
Ref: 27af8434466
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-list8434491
Ref: 27b18434491
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-c8434552
Ref: 27ad8434552
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-create8434601
Ref: 27b28434601
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-e8434697
Ref: 27ae8434697
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-extract8434735
Ref: 27b38434735
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-t8434826
Ref: 27b48434826
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-test8434851
Ref: 27b58434851
Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-metadata-encoding8434929
Ref: 27b68434929
Node: Decompression pitfalls8435102
Ref: library/zipfile decompression-pitfalls8435226
Ref: 27b78435226
Node: From file itself8435509
Ref: library/zipfile from-file-itself8435616
Ref: 27b88435616
Node: File System limitations8435795
Ref: library/zipfile file-system-limitations8435932
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Node: Resources limitations8436234
Ref: library/zipfile resources-limitations8436367
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-resources-limitations8436367
Ref: 27bb8436367
Ref: Resources limitations-Footnote-18436654
Node: Interruption8436701
Ref: library/zipfile interruption8436842
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Node: Default behaviors of extraction8437048
Ref: library/zipfile default-behaviors-of-extraction8437159
Ref: 27bd8437159
Node: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files8437424
Ref: library/tarfile doc8437578
Ref: 27be8437578
Ref: library/tarfile module-tarfile8437578
Ref: dd8437578
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-read-and-write-tar-archive-files8437578
Ref: 27bf8437578
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile open8439179
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile is_tarfile8445799
Ref: 166b8445799
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarError8446156
Ref: 27c48446156
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile ReadError8446247
Ref: 16c28446247
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile CompressionError8446420
Ref: 27c18446420
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile StreamError8446572
Ref: 27c58446572
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile ExtractError8446714
Ref: 27c68446714
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile HeaderError8446897
Ref: 27c78446897
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile FilterError8447024
Ref: 27c98447024
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile FilterError tarinfo8447124
Ref: 27cb8447124
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile AbsolutePathError8447266
Ref: 27cd8447266
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile OutsideDestinationError8447376
Ref: 27ce8447376
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile SpecialFileError8447509
Ref: 27cf8447509
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile AbsoluteLinkError8447632
Ref: 27d08447632
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile LinkOutsideDestinationError8447749
Ref: 27d18447749
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile LinkFallbackError8447902
Ref: 39f8447902
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile ENCODING8448322
Ref: 27d28448322
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile REGTYPE8448494
Ref: 27d38448494
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile AREGTYPE8448522
Ref: 27d48448522
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile LNKTYPE8448591
Ref: 27d68448591
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile SYMTYPE8448668
Ref: 27d78448668
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile CHRTYPE8448737
Ref: 27d88448737
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile BLKTYPE8448817
Ref: 27d98448817
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile DIRTYPE8448893
Ref: 27da8448893
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile FIFOTYPE8448958
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile CONTTYPE8449034
Ref: 27dc8449034
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNUTYPE_LONGNAME8449106
Ref: 27dd8449106
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNUTYPE_LONGLINK8449187
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNUTYPE_SPARSE8449268
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile USTAR_FORMAT8449527
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNU_FORMAT8449596
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile PAX_FORMAT8449650
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile DEFAULT_FORMAT8449715
Ref: 27e48449715
Ref: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files-Footnote-18450610
Ref: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files-Footnote-28450677
Node: TarFile Objects8450749
Ref: library/tarfile id18450869
Ref: 27e58450869
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-objects8450869
Ref: 27c08450869
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile8451742
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile open8454876
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile getmember8455043
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile getmembers8455368
Ref: d0e8455368
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile getnames8455558
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile list8455721
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile next8456177
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extractall8456401
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extract8458227
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extractfile8459590
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile errorlevel8460103
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extraction_filter8461037
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile add8462349
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile addfile8463268
Ref: 27ec8463268
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile gettarinfo8463639
Ref: 27ed8463639
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile close8464789
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile pax_headers8464934
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Node: TarInfo Objects8465060
Ref: library/tarfile id28465207
Ref: 27f38465207
Ref: library/tarfile tarinfo-objects8465207
Ref: 27cc8465207
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo8466416
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo frombuf8466502
Ref: 27c88466502
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo fromtarfile8466718
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo tobuf8466902
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo name8467349
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo size8467432
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo mtime8467502
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo mode8467869
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo type8468148
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo linkname8468595
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo uid8469010
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo gid8469296
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo uname8469583
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo gname8469827
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo chksum8470072
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo devmajor8470146
Ref: 28008470146
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo devminor8470226
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo offset8470306
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo offset_data8470391
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo sparse8470484
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo pax_headers8470551
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo replace8470697
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isfile8471388
Ref: 28068471388
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isreg8471510
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isdir8471578
Ref: 28088471578
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo issym8471662
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo islnk8471750
Ref: 280a8471750
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo ischr8471834
Ref: 280b8471834
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isblk8471925
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Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isfifo8472012
Ref: 280d8472012
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isdev8472092
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Node: Extraction filters8472215
Ref: library/tarfile extraction-filters8472372
Ref: 280f8472372
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-extraction-filter8472372
Ref: 18b8472372
Ref: Extraction filters-Footnote-18475481
Node: Default named filters8475523
Ref: library/tarfile default-named-filters8475621
Ref: 28118475621
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile fully_trusted_filter8475785
Ref: 27eb8475785
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile tar_filter8475932
Ref: 28108475932
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile data_filter8476738
Ref: 39c8476738
Node: Filter errors8478445
Ref: library/tarfile filter-errors8478582
Ref: 28128478582
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-extraction-refuse8478582
Ref: 27ca8478582
Node: Hints for further verification8478942
Ref: library/tarfile hints-for-further-verification8479090
Ref: 28138479090
Node: Supporting older Python versions8480819
Ref: library/tarfile supporting-older-python-versions8480988
Ref: 28148480988
Node: Stateful extraction filter example8482538
Ref: library/tarfile stateful-extraction-filter-example8482668
Ref: 28158482668
Node: Command-Line Interface<2>8483463
Ref: library/tarfile command-line-interface8483616
Ref: 28168483616
Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-commandline8483616
Ref: e718483616
Node: Command-line options<2>8484571
Ref: library/tarfile command-line-options8484656
Ref: 281a8484656
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-l8484719
Ref: 28198484719
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-list8484744
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-c8484805
Ref: 28178484805
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-create8484854
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-e8484950
Ref: 28188484950
Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-extract8484990
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-t8485126
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-test8485151
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-v8485229
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-verbose8485229
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Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-filter8485278
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Node: Examples<8>8485513
Ref: library/tarfile examples8485669
Ref: 28238485669
Ref: library/tarfile tar-examples8485669
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Node: Supported tar formats8487557
Ref: library/tarfile supported-tar-formats8487702
Ref: 28248487702
Ref: library/tarfile tar-formats8487702
Ref: 27e08487702
Node: Unicode issues8489924
Ref: library/tarfile tar-unicode8490049
Ref: 27e68490049
Ref: library/tarfile unicode-issues8490049
Ref: 28258490049
Node: File Formats8492024
Ref: library/fileformats doc8492172
Ref: 28278492172
Ref: library/fileformats file-formats8492172
Ref: 28288492172
Ref: library/fileformats fileformats8492172
Ref: 28298492172
Node: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing8492623
Ref: library/csv doc8492759
Ref: 282a8492759
Ref: library/csv csv-csv-file-reading-and-writing8492759
Ref: 282b8492759
Ref: library/csv module-csv8492759
Ref: 298492759
Ref: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing-Footnote-18494685
Ref: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing-Footnote-28494748
Ref: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing-Footnote-38494807
Node: Module Contents<3>8494849
Ref: library/csv csv-contents8494983
Ref: 282c8494983
Ref: library/csv module-contents8494983
Ref: 282d8494983
Ref: library/csv csv reader8495094
Ref: 132a8495094
Ref: library/csv csv writer8496695
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Ref: library/csv csv register_dialect8498468
Ref: 28308498468
Ref: library/csv csv unregister_dialect8498937
Ref: 162b8498937
Ref: library/csv csv get_dialect8499143
Ref: 162a8499143
Ref: library/csv csv list_dialects8499373
Ref: 162c8499373
Ref: library/csv csv field_size_limit8499459
Ref: 16298499459
Ref: library/csv csv DictReader8499693
Ref: 8448499693
Ref: library/csv csv DictWriter8501559
Ref: 10a38501559
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect8503346
Ref: 16a88503346
Ref: library/csv csv excel8504175
Ref: 28328504175
Ref: library/csv csv excel_tab8504362
Ref: 28338504362
Ref: library/csv csv unix_dialect8504571
Ref: 10a28504571
Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer8504879
Ref: 28348504879
Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer sniff8505052
Ref: 28358505052
Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer has_header8505376
Ref: 16ca8505376
Ref: library/csv csv-constants8506523
Ref: 28368506523
Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_ALL8506583
Ref: 28378506583
Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_MINIMAL8506674
Ref: 28388506674
Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NONNUMERIC8506897
Ref: 14568506897
Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NONE8507111
Ref: 28398507111
Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NOTNULL8507561
Ref: 1a68507561
Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_STRINGS8508002
Ref: 1a78508002
Ref: library/csv csv Error8508725
Ref: 28318508725
Ref: Module Contents<3>-Footnote-18508853
Ref: Module Contents<3>-Footnote-28509194
Node: Dialects and Formatting Parameters8509535
Ref: library/csv csv-fmt-params8509692
Ref: 282f8509692
Ref: library/csv dialects-and-formatting-parameters8509692
Ref: 283a8509692
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect delimiter8510483
Ref: 283b8510483
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect doublequote8510606
Ref: 283c8510606
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect escapechar8511081
Ref: 283d8511081
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect lineterminator8511537
Ref: 283e8511537
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect quotechar8511895
Ref: 283f8511895
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect quoting8512200
Ref: 28408512200
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect skipinitialspace8512437
Ref: 28418512437
Ref: library/csv csv Dialect strict8512606
Ref: 28428512606
Node: Reader Objects8512749
Ref: library/csv id38512902
Ref: 28438512902
Ref: library/csv reader-objects8512902
Ref: 282e8512902
Ref: library/csv csv csvreader __next__8513096
Ref: 28448513096
Ref: library/csv csv csvreader dialect8513495
Ref: 28458513495
Ref: library/csv csv csvreader line_num8513599
Ref: 28468513599
Ref: library/csv csv DictReader fieldnames8513854
Ref: 28478513854
Node: Writer Objects8514062
Ref: library/csv writer-objects8514192
Ref: 28488514192
Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter writerow8514808
Ref: c788514808
Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter writerows8515144
Ref: 28498515144
Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter dialect8515409
Ref: 284a8515409
Ref: library/csv csv DictWriter writeheader8515567
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Node: Examples<9>8516060
Ref: library/csv csv-examples8516167
Ref: 284b8516167
Ref: library/csv examples8516167
Ref: 284c8516167
Node: configparser — Configuration file parser8518170
Ref: library/configparser doc8518343
Ref: 284d8518343
Ref: library/configparser configparser-configuration-file-parser8518343
Ref: 284e8518343
Ref: library/configparser module-configparser8518343
Ref: 228518343
Ref: configparser — Configuration file parser-Footnote-18519847
Node: Quick Start8519919
Ref: library/configparser quick-start8520037
Ref: 284f8520037
Ref: Quick Start-Footnote-18523781
Ref: Quick Start-Footnote-28523983
Node: Supported Datatypes8524185
Ref: library/configparser supported-datatypes8524327
Ref: 28538524327
Ref: Supported Datatypes-Footnote-18525649
Ref: Supported Datatypes-Footnote-28525851
Node: Fallback Values8526053
Ref: library/configparser fallback-values8526212
Ref: 28578526212
Node: Supported INI File Structure8527728
Ref: library/configparser supported-ini-file-structure8527891
Ref: 28508527891
Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-18530350
Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-28530552
Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-38530754
Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-48530956
Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-58531158
Node: Interpolation of values8531360
Ref: library/configparser interpolation-of-values8531531
Ref: 28598531531
Ref: library/configparser configparser BasicInterpolation8531767
Ref: 53e8531767
Ref: library/configparser configparser ExtendedInterpolation8533060
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Ref: Interpolation of values-Footnote-18534555
Node: Mapping Protocol Access8534757
Ref: library/configparser mapping-protocol-access8534928
Ref: 28518534928
Ref: Mapping Protocol Access-Footnote-18537819
Node: Customizing Parser Behaviour8538021
Ref: library/configparser customizing-parser-behaviour8538188
Ref: 28528538188
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser BOOLEAN_STATES8548964
Ref: 285d8548964
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser SECTCRE8551154
Ref: 28588551154
Node: Legacy API Examples8552398
Ref: library/configparser legacy-api-examples8552562
Ref: 285e8552562
Node: ConfigParser Objects8556380
Ref: library/configparser configparser-objects8556539
Ref: 285f8556539
Ref: library/configparser id128556539
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser8556600
Ref: 28e8556600
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser defaults8561570
Ref: 28628561570
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser sections8561672
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser add_section8561817
Ref: 11168561817
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser has_section8562313
Ref: 28648562313
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser options8562491
Ref: 28658562491
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser has_option8562603
Ref: 28668562603
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read8562905
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_file8564660
Ref: 28f8564660
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_string8565139
Ref: 285c8565139
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_dict8565490
Ref: 285a8565490
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser get8566189
Ref: 11148566189
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getint8567151
Ref: 28558567151
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getfloat8567442
Ref: 28568567442
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getboolean8567748
Ref: 28548567748
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser items8568481
Ref: 28678568481
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser set8569128
Ref: 11158569128
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser write8569415
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_option8570113
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_section8570429
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser optionxform8570643
Ref: 28618570643
Ref: library/configparser configparser MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH8571618
Ref: 286b8571618
Node: RawConfigParser Objects8571853
Ref: library/configparser id148572006
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Ref: library/configparser rawconfigparser-objects8572006
Ref: 286d8572006
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser8572075
Ref: e048572075
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser add_section8573064
Ref: 286e8573064
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser set8573541
Ref: 286f8573541
Node: Exceptions<6>8574370
Ref: library/configparser exceptions8574494
Ref: 28708574494
Ref: library/configparser configparser Error8574537
Ref: 28718574537
Ref: library/configparser configparser NoSectionError8574641
Ref: 28688574641
Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateSectionError8574749
Ref: 11178574749
Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateOptionError8575164
Ref: 11188575164
Ref: library/configparser configparser NoOptionError8575526
Ref: 28728575526
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationError8575662
Ref: 28738575662
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationDepthError8575809
Ref: 28748575809
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationMissingOptionError8576071
Ref: 28758576071
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationSyntaxError8576262
Ref: 28768576262
Ref: library/configparser configparser MissingSectionHeaderError8576492
Ref: 28778576492
Ref: library/configparser configparser ParsingError8576639
Ref: 28d8576639
Node: tomllib — Parse TOML files8576947
Ref: library/tomllib doc8577115
Ref: 28788577115
Ref: library/tomllib module-tomllib8577115
Ref: fc8577115
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib-parse-toml-files8577115
Ref: 28798577115
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib load8577981
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Ref: library/tomllib tomllib loads8578705
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Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError8579123
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Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-18579299
Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-28579363
Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-38579391
Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-48579433
Node: Examples<10>8579475
Ref: library/tomllib examples8579577
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Node: Conversion Table8579917
Ref: library/tomllib conversion-table8580019
Ref: 287f8580019
Ref: library/tomllib toml-to-py-table8580072
Ref: 287b8580072
Node: netrc — netrc file processing8581430
Ref: library/netrc doc8581605
Ref: 28808581605
Ref: library/netrc module-netrc8581605
Ref: 9a8581605
Ref: library/netrc netrc-netrc-file-processing8581605
Ref: 28818581605
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc8581924
Ref: 16ea8581924
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError8583647
Ref: 28828583647
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError msg8583875
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Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError filename8583948
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Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError lineno8584021
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Ref: netrc — netrc file processing-Footnote-18584173
Node: netrc Objects8584238
Ref: library/netrc id18584319
Ref: 28868584319
Ref: library/netrc netrc-objects8584319
Ref: 28878584319
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc authenticators8584424
Ref: 28888584424
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc __repr__8584772
Ref: 28898584772
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc hosts8584998
Ref: 288a8584998
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc macros8585199
Ref: 288b8585199
Node: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files8585285
Ref: library/plistlib doc8585423
Ref: 288c8585423
Ref: library/plistlib module-plistlib8585423
Ref: aa8585423
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib-generate-and-parse-apple-plist-files8585423
Ref: 288d8585423
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib load8586878
Ref: 7aa8586878
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib loads8587816
Ref: 7ab8587816
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dump8588023
Ref: 7ac8588023
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dumps8589122
Ref: 7ad8589122
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib UID8589457
Ref: 8838589457
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_XML8589867
Ref: e1a8589867
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_BINARY8589963
Ref: e1b8589963
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib InvalidFileException8590110
Ref: 175a8590110
Ref: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-18590301
Ref: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-28590369
Node: Examples<11>8590468
Ref: library/plistlib examples8590566
Ref: 288e8590566
Node: Cryptographic Services8591421
Ref: library/crypto doc8591572
Ref: 288f8591572
Ref: library/crypto crypto8591572
Ref: 28908591572
Ref: library/crypto cryptographic-services8591572
Ref: 28918591572
Node: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests8592057
Ref: library/hashlib doc8592219
Ref: 28928592219
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-secure-hashes-and-message-digests8592219
Ref: 28938592219
Ref: library/hashlib module-hashlib8592219
Ref: 668592219
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-18593263
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-28593330
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-38593387
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-48593437
Node: Hash algorithms8593496
Ref: library/hashlib hash-algorithms8593607
Ref: 28948593607
Ref: library/hashlib id18593607
Ref: 28958593607
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-usedforsecurity8595736
Ref: 28a08595736
Ref: Hash algorithms-Footnote-18596433
Ref: Hash algorithms-Footnote-28596541
Node: Usage8596588
Ref: library/hashlib usage8596720
Ref: 28a18596720
Node: Constructors8597372
Ref: library/hashlib constructors8597499
Ref: 28a28597499
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib new8597544
Ref: 17738597544
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib md58598105
Ref: 289e8598105
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha18598165
Ref: 289a8598165
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha2248598226
Ref: 289b8598226
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha2568598289
Ref: 28968598289
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3848598352
Ref: 289c8598352
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha5128598415
Ref: 289d8598415
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_2248598478
Ref: b258598478
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_2568598543
Ref: b268598543
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_3848598608
Ref: b278598608
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_5128598673
Ref: b288598673
Node: Attributes8598836
Ref: library/hashlib attributes8598970
Ref: 28a38598970
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_guaranteed8599071
Ref: 121a8599071
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_available8599408
Ref: 121b8599408
Node: Hash Objects8599841
Ref: library/hashlib hash-objects8599992
Ref: 28a48599992
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest_size8600145
Ref: 28a58600145
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash block_size8600222
Ref: 28a68600222
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash name8600358
Ref: de88600358
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash update8600786
Ref: 28978600786
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest8601064
Ref: 28988601064
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash hexdigest8601306
Ref: 28998601306
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash copy8601579
Ref: 28a78601579
Node: SHAKE variable length digests8601768
Ref: library/hashlib shake-variable-length-digests8601921
Ref: 28a88601921
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_1288602000
Ref: b298602000
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_2568602066
Ref: b2a8602066
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake digest8602393
Ref: 18768602393
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake hexdigest8602626
Ref: 18778602626
Node: File hashing8603062
Ref: library/hashlib file-hashing8603217
Ref: 28a98603217
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib file_digest8603362
Ref: 4578603362
Node: Key derivation8604765
Ref: library/hashlib key-derivation8604897
Ref: 28aa8604897
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib pbkdf2_hmac8605208
Ref: 2998605208
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib scrypt8606963
Ref: aba8606963
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-18607700
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-28607762
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-38607849
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-48607960
Node: BLAKE28608019
Ref: library/hashlib blake28608130
Ref: 28ab8608130
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-18608853
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-28608884
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-38608943
Node: Creating hash objects8609021
Ref: library/hashlib creating-hash-objects8609106
Ref: 28ac8609106
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b8609235
Ref: 4558609235
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s8609470
Ref: 4568609470
Ref: Creating hash objects-Footnote-18612512
Node: Constants<3>8612563
Ref: library/hashlib constants8612669
Ref: 28ad8612669
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b SALT_SIZE8612710
Ref: 28ae8612710
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s SALT_SIZE8612741
Ref: 28af8612741
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b PERSON_SIZE8612828
Ref: 28b08612828
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s PERSON_SIZE8612861
Ref: 28b18612861
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_KEY_SIZE8612968
Ref: 28b28612968
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_KEY_SIZE8613002
Ref: 28b38613002
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_DIGEST_SIZE8613055
Ref: 28b48613055
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_DIGEST_SIZE8613092
Ref: 28b58613092
Node: Examples<12>8613185
Ref: library/hashlib examples8613277
Ref: 28b68613277
Node: Simple hashing8613453
Ref: library/hashlib simple-hashing8613553
Ref: 28b78613553
Node: Using different digest sizes8615007
Ref: library/hashlib using-different-digest-sizes8615129
Ref: 28b88615129
Node: Keyed hashing8616272
Ref: library/hashlib keyed-hashing8616398
Ref: 28b98616398
Ref: Keyed hashing-Footnote-18618409
Node: Randomized hashing8618452
Ref: library/hashlib randomized-hashing8618565
Ref: 28ba8618565
Ref: Randomized hashing-Footnote-18621168
Ref: Randomized hashing-Footnote-28621220
Node: Personalization8621255
Ref: library/hashlib personalization8621364
Ref: 28bb8621364
Ref: Personalization-Footnote-18623359
Node: Tree mode8623429
Ref: library/hashlib tree-mode8623511
Ref: 28bc8623511
Node: Credits8624762
Ref: library/hashlib credits8624833
Ref: 28bd8624833
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-seealso8626264
Ref: 289f8626264
Ref: Credits-Footnote-18627265
Ref: Credits-Footnote-28627296
Ref: Credits-Footnote-38627357
Ref: Credits-Footnote-48627435
Ref: Credits-Footnote-58627472
Ref: Credits-Footnote-68627515
Node: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication8627558
Ref: library/hmac doc8627792
Ref: 28be8627792
Ref: library/hmac hmac-keyed-hashing-for-message-authentication8627792
Ref: 28bf8627792
Ref: library/hmac module-hmac8627792
Ref: 688627792
Ref: library/hmac hmac new8628084
Ref: 90a8628084
Ref: library/hmac hmac digest8628919
Ref: 9af8628919
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC update8629561
Ref: dea8629561
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest8629915
Ref: 28c08629915
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC hexdigest8630525
Ref: 28c18630525
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC copy8631114
Ref: 28c28631114
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest_size8631354
Ref: ded8631354
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC block_size8631444
Ref: deb8631444
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC name8631569
Ref: dec8631569
Ref: library/hmac hmac compare_digest8631897
Ref: f6c8631897
Ref: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-18632853
Ref: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-28632917
Node: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets8632976
Ref: library/secrets doc8633156
Ref: 28c38633156
Ref: library/secrets module-secrets8633156
Ref: bf8633156
Ref: library/secrets secrets-generate-secure-random-numbers-for-managing-secrets8633156
Ref: 28c48633156
Ref: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-18634037
Ref: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-28634104
Node: Random numbers8634146
Ref: library/secrets random-numbers8634286
Ref: 28c58634286
Ref: library/secrets secrets SystemRandom8634459
Ref: 28c68634459
Ref: library/secrets secrets choice8634680
Ref: 28c78634680
Ref: library/secrets secrets randbelow8634781
Ref: 28c88634781
Ref: library/secrets secrets randbits8634906
Ref: 28c98634906
Node: Generating tokens8634995
Ref: library/secrets generating-tokens8635159
Ref: 28ca8635159
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_bytes8635378
Ref: 24cd8635378
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_hex8635670
Ref: 15ca8635670
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_urlsafe8636005
Ref: 28cb8636005
Node: How many bytes should tokens use?8636434
Ref: library/secrets how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use8636521
Ref: 28cc8636521
Ref: How many bytes should tokens use?-Footnote-18637547
Node: Other functions8637604
Ref: library/secrets other-functions8637780
Ref: 28cd8637780
Ref: library/secrets secrets compare_digest8637831
Ref: 28ce8637831
Ref: Other functions-Footnote-18638181
Node: Recipes and best practices8638238
Ref: library/secrets recipes-and-best-practices8638388
Ref: 28cf8638388
Ref: Recipes and best practices-Footnote-18640126
Ref: Recipes and best practices-Footnote-28640182
Node: Generic Operating System Services8640212
Ref: library/allos doc8640371
Ref: 28d08640371
Ref: library/allos allos8640371
Ref: 28d18640371
Ref: library/allos generic-operating-system-services8640371
Ref: 28d28640371
Node: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces8641920
Ref: library/os doc8642089
Ref: 28d38642089
Ref: library/os module-os8642089
Ref: a08642089
Ref: library/os os-miscellaneous-operating-system-interfaces8642089
Ref: 28d48642089
Ref: library/os os error8644358
Ref: 28d78644358
Ref: library/os os name8644448
Ref: 28d88644448
Ref: library/os os-filenames8644908
Ref: 28268644908
Ref: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces-Footnote-18645335
Node: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables8645397
Ref: library/os file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables8645567
Ref: 28d98645567
Ref: library/os filesystem-encoding8645567
Ref: 28da8645567
Node: Python UTF-8 Mode8646907
Ref: library/os python-utf-8-mode8647104
Ref: 28db8647104
Ref: library/os utf8-mode8647104
Ref: 4698647104
Ref: Python UTF-8 Mode-Footnote-18649972
Ref: Python UTF-8 Mode-Footnote-28650014
Node: Process Parameters8650056
Ref: library/os os-procinfo8650214
Ref: 28dc8650214
Ref: library/os process-parameters8650214
Ref: 28dd8650214
Ref: library/os os ctermid8650368
Ref: 28de8650368
Ref: library/os os environ8650550
Ref: 105f8650550
Ref: library/os os environb8652538
Ref: 10bc8652538
Ref: library/os os fsencode8653312
Ref: ad18653312
Ref: library/os os fsdecode8653704
Ref: ad08653704
Ref: library/os os fspath8654100
Ref: acf8654100
Ref: library/os os PathLike8654512
Ref: acd8654512
Ref: library/os os PathLike __fspath__8654695
Ref: ace8654695
Ref: library/os os getenv8654967
Ref: 28e08654967
Ref: library/os os getenvb8655645
Ref: 10bb8655645
Ref: library/os os get_exec_path8656227
Ref: 28e18656227
Ref: library/os os getegid8656608
Ref: 28e28656608
Ref: library/os os geteuid8656864
Ref: 160b8656864
Ref: library/os os getgid8657013
Ref: 28e38657013
Ref: library/os os getgrouplist8657257
Ref: fb68657257
Ref: library/os os getgroups8657667
Ref: 28e48657667
Ref: library/os os getlogin8658914
Ref: 28e68658914
Ref: library/os os getpgid8659421
Ref: 28e88659421
Ref: library/os os getpgrp8659671
Ref: 28e98659671
Ref: library/os os getpid8659814
Ref: 28d68659814
Ref: library/os os getppid8660001
Ref: 28ea8660001
Ref: library/os os getpriority8660400
Ref: fa18660400
Ref: library/os os PRIO_PROCESS8661059
Ref: 28eb8661059
Ref: library/os os PRIO_PGRP8661087
Ref: 28ec8661087
Ref: library/os os PRIO_USER8661112
Ref: 28ed8661112
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD8661328
Ref: 28ee8661328
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS8661362
Ref: 28ef8661362
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_BG8661397
Ref: 28f08661397
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI8661427
Ref: 28f18661427
Ref: library/os os getresuid8661626
Ref: 11c18661626
Ref: library/os os getresgid8661864
Ref: 11c08661864
Ref: library/os os getuid8662103
Ref: 28d58662103
Ref: library/os os initgroups8662343
Ref: 11c48662343
Ref: library/os os putenv8662661
Ref: 7748662661
Ref: library/os os setegid8663798
Ref: 28f38663798
Ref: library/os os seteuid8663952
Ref: 28f48663952
Ref: library/os os setgid8664105
Ref: 28f58664105
Ref: library/os os setgroups8664246
Ref: 28e58664246
Ref: library/os os setns8664918
Ref: 15e28664918
Ref: library/os os setpgrp8666454
Ref: 28f78666454
Ref: library/os os setpgid8666715
Ref: 28f88666715
Ref: library/os os setpriority8667007
Ref: fa28667007
Ref: library/os os setregid8667811
Ref: 28f98667811
Ref: library/os os setresgid8667982
Ref: 11c28667982
Ref: library/os os setresuid8668196
Ref: 11c38668196
Ref: library/os os setreuid8668409
Ref: 28fa8668409
Ref: library/os os getsid8668579
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Ref: library/os os setsid8668765
Ref: 180a8668765
Ref: library/os os setuid8668945
Ref: 28fc8668945
Ref: library/os os strerror8669086
Ref: 28fd8669086
Ref: library/os os supports_bytes_environ8669331
Ref: 10ba8669331
Ref: library/os os umask8669500
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Ref: library/os os uname8669723
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Ref: library/os os unsetenv8670760
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Ref: library/os os unshare8671533
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Ref: library/os os-unshare-clone-flags8672261
Ref: 28f68672261
Ref: library/os os CLONE_FILES8672431
Ref: 29008672431
Ref: library/os os CLONE_FS8672458
Ref: 29018672458
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWCGROUP8672482
Ref: 29028672482
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWIPC8672513
Ref: 29038672513
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNET8672541
Ref: 29048672541
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNS8672569
Ref: 29058672569
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWPID8672596
Ref: 29068672596
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWTIME8672624
Ref: 29078672624
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUSER8672653
Ref: 29088672653
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUTS8672682
Ref: 29098672682
Ref: library/os os CLONE_SIGHAND8672710
Ref: 290a8672710
Ref: library/os os CLONE_SYSVSEM8672739
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Ref: library/os os CLONE_THREAD8672768
Ref: 290c8672768
Ref: library/os os CLONE_VM8672796
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Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-18672857
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-28672899
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-38672941
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-48672986
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-58673036
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-68673083
Node: File Object Creation8673130
Ref: library/os file-object-creation8673297
Ref: 290e8673297
Ref: library/os os-newstreams8673297
Ref: 290f8673297
Ref: library/os os fdopen8673473
Ref: 1d208673473
Node: File Descriptor Operations8673799
Ref: library/os file-descriptor-operations8673969
Ref: 29108673969
Ref: library/os os-fd-ops8673969
Ref: 29118673969
Ref: library/os os close8674811
Ref: 9ea8674811
Ref: library/os os closerange8675255
Ref: 29128675255
Ref: library/os os copy_file_range8675603
Ref: 29138675603
Ref: library/os os device_encoding8677279
Ref: 16ba8677279
Ref: library/os os dup8677694
Ref: 18128677694
Ref: library/os os dup28678112
Ref: 9d78678112
Ref: library/os os fchmod8678621
Ref: c168678621
Ref: library/os os fchown8679151
Ref: c178679151
Ref: library/os os fdatasync8679735
Ref: c188679735
Ref: library/os os fpathconf8679964
Ref: 29158679964
Ref: library/os os fstat8680996
Ref: c198680996
Ref: library/os os fstatvfs8681270
Ref: c1a8681270
Ref: library/os os fsync8681546
Ref: c1b8681546
Ref: library/os os ftruncate8682031
Ref: c1c8682031
Ref: library/os os get_blocking8682479
Ref: cc98682479
Ref: library/os os isatty8683080
Ref: 16b98683080
Ref: library/os os lockf8683233
Ref: fb58683233
Ref: library/os os F_LOCK8683754
Ref: 29178683754
Ref: library/os os F_TLOCK8683776
Ref: 29188683776
Ref: library/os os F_ULOCK8683799
Ref: 29198683799
Ref: library/os os F_TEST8683822
Ref: 291a8683822
Ref: library/os os login_tty8683980
Ref: 15768683980
Ref: library/os os lseek8684354
Ref: fb98684354
Ref: library/os os SEEK_SET8685209
Ref: 11368685209
Ref: library/os os SEEK_CUR8685233
Ref: 11378685233
Ref: library/os os SEEK_END8685257
Ref: 11388685257
Ref: library/os os SEEK_HOLE8685837
Ref: 291b8685837
Ref: library/os os SEEK_DATA8685862
Ref: 291c8685862
Ref: library/os os open8686587
Ref: c1f8686587
Ref: library/os os O_RDONLY8688682
Ref: 291d8688682
Ref: library/os os O_WRONLY8688706
Ref: 291e8688706
Ref: library/os os O_RDWR8688730
Ref: 29208688730
Ref: library/os os O_APPEND8688752
Ref: 29218688752
Ref: library/os os O_CREAT8688776
Ref: 29228688776
Ref: library/os os O_EXCL8688799
Ref: 262d8688799
Ref: library/os os O_TRUNC8688821
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Ref: library/os os O_DSYNC8688906
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Ref: library/os os O_RSYNC8688929
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Ref: library/os os O_SYNC8688952
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Ref: library/os os O_NDELAY8688974
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Ref: library/os os O_NONBLOCK8688998
Ref: ccb8688998
Ref: library/os os O_NOCTTY8689024
Ref: 29288689024
Ref: library/os os O_CLOEXEC8689048
Ref: f268689048
Ref: library/os os O_BINARY8689198
Ref: 291f8689198
Ref: library/os os O_NOINHERIT8689222
Ref: 29298689222
Ref: library/os os O_SHORT_LIVED8689249
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Ref: library/os os O_TEMPORARY8689278
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Ref: library/os os O_RANDOM8689305
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Ref: library/os os O_SEQUENTIAL8689329
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Ref: library/os os O_TEXT8689357
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Ref: library/os os O_EVTONLY8689437
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Ref: library/os os O_FSYNC8689462
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Ref: library/os os O_SYMLINK8689485
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Ref: library/os os O_NOFOLLOW_ANY8689510
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Ref: library/os os O_ASYNC8689751
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Ref: library/os os O_DIRECT8689774
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Ref: library/os os O_DIRECTORY8689798
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Ref: library/os os O_NOFOLLOW8689825
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Ref: library/os os O_NOATIME8689851
Ref: 29338689851
Ref: library/os os O_PATH8689876
Ref: e138689876
Ref: library/os os O_TMPFILE8689898
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Ref: library/os os O_SHLOCK8689923
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Ref: library/os os O_EXLOCK8689947
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Ref: library/os os openpty8690244
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Ref: library/os os pipe8690707
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Ref: library/os os pipe28691050
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Ref: library/os os posix_fallocate8691455
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Ref: library/os os posix_fadvise8691733
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Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_NORMAL8692339
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Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL8692372
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Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_RANDOM8692409
Ref: 29378692409
Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE8692442
Ref: 29388692442
Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED8692476
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Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED8692511
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Ref: library/os os pread8692750
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Ref: library/os os preadv8693141
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Ref: library/os os RWF_NOWAIT8694185
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Ref: library/os os RWF_HIPRI8694691
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Ref: library/os os pwrite8695086
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Ref: library/os os pwritev8695374
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Ref: library/os os RWF_DSYNC8696417
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Ref: library/os os RWF_SYNC8696698
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Ref: library/os os RWF_APPEND8696977
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Ref: library/os os read8697536
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Ref: library/os os sendfile8698482
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Ref: library/os os SF_NODISKIO8700006
Ref: 29408700006
Ref: library/os os SF_MNOWAIT8700033
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Ref: library/os os SF_SYNC8700059
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Ref: library/os os SF_NOCACHE8700275
Ref: 29438700275
Ref: library/os os set_blocking8700577
Ref: cca8700577
Ref: library/os os splice8701204
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Ref: library/os os SPLICE_F_MOVE8702623
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Ref: library/os os SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK8702652
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Ref: library/os os SPLICE_F_MORE8702685
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Ref: library/os os readv8702744
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Ref: library/os os tcgetpgrp8703364
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Ref: library/os os tcsetpgrp8703591
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Ref: library/os os ttyname8703832
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Ref: library/os os write8704085
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Ref: library/os os writev8704938
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Ref: Module-Level Functions-Footnote-19164983
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Ref: 2bb19289321
Ref: library/curses curses noecho9289441
Ref: 2bc09289441
Ref: library/curses curses nonl9289539
Ref: 2bc19289539
Ref: library/curses curses noqiflush9290031
Ref: 2bc29290031
Ref: library/curses curses noraw9290420
Ref: 2bc39290420
Ref: library/curses curses pair_content9290534
Ref: 62e9290534
Ref: library/curses curses pair_number9290759
Ref: 2b8b9290759
Ref: library/curses curses putp9290950
Ref: 2bc49290950
Ref: library/curses curses qiflush9291195
Ref: 2bc59291195
Ref: library/curses curses raw9291460
Ref: 2b879291460
Ref: library/curses curses reset_prog_mode9291701
Ref: 2b8e9291701
Ref: library/curses curses reset_shell_mode9291848
Ref: 2b909291848
Ref: library/curses curses resetty9291995
Ref: 2bc69291995
Ref: library/curses curses resize_term9292136
Ref: 14309292136
Ref: library/curses curses resizeterm9292674
Ref: 142f9292674
Ref: library/curses curses savetty9292946
Ref: 2bc79292946
Ref: library/curses curses get_escdelay9293080
Ref: 7439293080
Ref: library/curses curses set_escdelay9293205
Ref: 7449293205
Ref: library/curses curses get_tabsize9293502
Ref: 7459293502
Ref: library/curses curses set_tabsize9293625
Ref: 7469293625
Ref: library/curses curses setsyx9293837
Ref: 2bc89293837
Ref: library/curses curses setupterm9294006
Ref: 2bc99294006
Ref: library/curses curses start_color9294422
Ref: 2bca9294422
Ref: library/curses curses termattrs9295114
Ref: 2bcd9295114
Ref: library/curses curses termname9295343
Ref: 2bce9295343
Ref: library/curses curses tigetflag9295491
Ref: 2bcf9295491
Ref: library/curses curses tigetnum9295806
Ref: 2bd09295806
Ref: library/curses curses tigetstr9296121
Ref: 2bd19296121
Ref: library/curses curses tparm9296430
Ref: 2bd29296430
Ref: library/curses curses typeahead9296766
Ref: 2bd39296766
Ref: library/curses curses unctrl9297358
Ref: 2bd49297358
Ref: library/curses curses ungetch9297638
Ref: 2bd59297638
Ref: library/curses curses update_lines_cols9297813
Ref: c7a9297813
Ref: library/curses curses unget_wch9298008
Ref: f429298008
Ref: library/curses curses ungetmouse9298216
Ref: 2bd69298216
Ref: library/curses curses use_env9298381
Ref: 2bd79298381
Ref: library/curses curses use_default_colors9298890
Ref: 2bb29298890
Ref: library/curses curses wrapper9299322
Ref: 8e59299322
Node: Window Objects9300147
Ref: library/curses curses-window-objects9300296
Ref: 2bb39300296
Ref: library/curses window-objects9300296
Ref: 2bd89300296
Ref: library/curses curses window addch9300478
Ref: 2bd99300478
Ref: library/curses curses window addnstr9301084
Ref: 2bda9301084
Ref: library/curses curses window addstr9301347
Ref: 2b949301347
Ref: library/curses curses window attroff9302350
Ref: 2bdb9302350
Ref: library/curses curses window attron9302497
Ref: 2bdc9302497
Ref: library/curses curses window attrset9302640
Ref: 2bdd9302640
Ref: library/curses curses window bkgd9302790
Ref: 2bde9302790
Ref: library/curses curses window bkgdset9303237
Ref: 2bdf9303237
Ref: library/curses curses window border9303805
Ref: 2be09303805
Ref: library/curses curses window box9305814
Ref: 2be79305814
Ref: library/curses curses window chgat9306044
Ref: 2be89306044
Ref: library/curses curses window clear9306676
Ref: 2bea9306676
Ref: library/curses curses window clearok9306833
Ref: 2bec9306833
Ref: library/curses curses window clrtobot9306980
Ref: 2bed9306980
Ref: library/curses curses window clrtoeol9307179
Ref: 2bee9307179
Ref: library/curses curses window cursyncup9307261
Ref: 2bef9307261
Ref: library/curses curses window delch9307431
Ref: 2bf09307431
Ref: library/curses curses window deleteln9307512
Ref: 2bf19307512
Ref: library/curses curses window derwin9307638
Ref: 2bf29307638
Ref: library/curses curses window echochar9308052
Ref: 2bf49308052
Ref: library/curses curses window enclose9308208
Ref: 17029308208
Ref: library/curses curses window encoding9308634
Ref: f409308634
Ref: library/curses curses window erase9309018
Ref: 2beb9309018
Ref: library/curses curses window getbegyx9309073
Ref: 2bf59309073
Ref: library/curses curses window getbkgd9309178
Ref: 2bf69309178
Ref: library/curses curses window getch9309295
Ref: 2b9e9309295
Ref: library/curses curses window get_wch9309617
Ref: f419309617
Ref: library/curses curses window getkey9309887
Ref: 2bf79309887
Ref: library/curses curses window getmaxyx9310197
Ref: 2bf89310197
Ref: library/curses curses window getparyx9310304
Ref: 2bf99310304
Ref: library/curses curses window getstr9310510
Ref: 2bfa9310510
Ref: library/curses curses window getyx9310734
Ref: 2bfb9310734
Ref: library/curses curses window hline9310877
Ref: 2bfc9310877
Ref: library/curses curses window idcok9311067
Ref: 2bfd9311067
Ref: library/curses curses window idlok9311415
Ref: 2bfe9311415
Ref: library/curses curses window immedok9311610
Ref: 2bff9311610
Ref: library/curses curses window inch9311961
Ref: 2c009311961
Ref: library/curses curses window insch9312151
Ref: 2c019312151
Ref: library/curses curses window insdelln9312369
Ref: 2c029312369
Ref: library/curses curses window insertln9312750
Ref: 2c039312750
Ref: library/curses curses window insnstr9312882
Ref: 2c049312882
Ref: library/curses curses window insstr9313399
Ref: 2c059313399
Ref: library/curses curses window instr9313822
Ref: 2c069313822
Ref: library/curses curses window is_linetouched9314222
Ref: 2c079314222
Ref: library/curses curses window is_wintouched9314507
Ref: 2c089314507
Ref: library/curses curses window keypad9314689
Ref: 2c099314689
Ref: library/curses curses window leaveok9314959
Ref: 2ba99314959
Ref: library/curses curses window move9315312
Ref: 2c0a9315312
Ref: library/curses curses window mvderwin9315397
Ref: 2c0b9315397
Ref: library/curses curses window mvwin9315676
Ref: 2c0c9315676
Ref: library/curses curses window nodelay9315794
Ref: 2c0d9315794
Ref: library/curses curses window notimeout9315905
Ref: 2c0e9315905
Ref: library/curses curses window noutrefresh9316171
Ref: 2b939316171
Ref: library/curses curses window overlay9316447
Ref: 2c0f9316447
Ref: library/curses curses window overwrite9317098
Ref: 2c109317098
Ref: library/curses curses window putwin9317752
Ref: 2bab9317752
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawln9317960
Ref: 2c119317960
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawwin9318168
Ref: 2c129318168
Ref: library/curses curses window refresh9318316
Ref: 2b959318316
Ref: library/curses curses window resize9319339
Ref: 2c139319339
Ref: library/curses curses window scroll9319693
Ref: 2c149319693
Ref: library/curses curses window scrollok9319803
Ref: 2c159319803
Ref: library/curses curses window setscrreg9320341
Ref: 2c169320341
Ref: library/curses curses window standend9320512
Ref: 2c179320512
Ref: library/curses curses window standout9320665
Ref: 2c189320665
Ref: library/curses curses window subpad9320737
Ref: 2c199320737
Ref: library/curses curses window subwin9320980
Ref: 2bf39320980
Ref: library/curses curses window syncdown9321342
Ref: 2c1a9321342
Ref: library/curses curses window syncok9321590
Ref: 2c1b9321590
Ref: library/curses curses window syncup9321755
Ref: 2c1c9321755
Ref: library/curses curses window timeout9321883
Ref: 2c1d9321883
Ref: library/curses curses window touchline9322388
Ref: 2be99322388
Ref: library/curses curses window touchwin9322698
Ref: 2c1e9322698
Ref: library/curses curses window untouchwin9322825
Ref: 2c1f9322825
Ref: library/curses curses window vline9322960
Ref: 15a89322960
Ref: Window Objects-Footnote-19323223
Node: Constants<4>9323266
Ref: library/curses constants9323394
Ref: 2c209323394
Ref: library/curses curses ERR9323501
Ref: 2c219323501
Ref: library/curses curses OK9323648
Ref: 2c229323648
Ref: library/curses curses version9323793
Ref: 2c239323793
Ref: library/curses curses __version__9323821
Ref: 2c249323821
Ref: library/curses curses ncurses_version9323922
Ref: 8469323922
Ref: library/curses curses COLORS9324343
Ref: 2bcb9324343
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_PAIRS9324501
Ref: 2bcc9324501
Ref: library/curses curses COLS9324669
Ref: 15079324669
Ref: library/curses curses LINES9324931
Ref: 15069324931
Ref: library/curses curses A_ALTCHARSET9325488
Ref: 2c259325488
Ref: library/curses curses A_BLINK9325592
Ref: 2c269325592
Ref: library/curses curses A_BOLD9325691
Ref: 2c279325691
Ref: library/curses curses A_DIM9325789
Ref: 2c289325789
Ref: library/curses curses A_INVIS9325889
Ref: 2c299325889
Ref: library/curses curses A_ITALIC9325987
Ref: 2c2a9325987
Ref: library/curses curses A_NORMAL9326059
Ref: 2b829326059
Ref: library/curses curses A_PROTECT9326136
Ref: 2c2b9326136
Ref: library/curses curses A_REVERSE9326211
Ref: 2b8a9326211
Ref: library/curses curses A_STANDOUT9326370
Ref: 2b899326370
Ref: library/curses curses A_UNDERLINE9326444
Ref: 2c2c9326444
Ref: library/curses curses A_HORIZONTAL9326519
Ref: 2c2d9326519
Ref: library/curses curses A_LEFT9326614
Ref: 2c2e9326614
Ref: library/curses curses A_LOW9326717
Ref: 2c2f9326717
Ref: library/curses curses A_RIGHT9326822
Ref: 2c309326822
Ref: library/curses curses A_TOP9326925
Ref: 2c319326925
Ref: library/curses curses A_VERTICAL9327015
Ref: 2c329327015
Ref: library/curses curses A_ATTRIBUTES9327405
Ref: 2c339327405
Ref: library/curses curses A_CHARTEXT9327498
Ref: 2c349327498
Ref: library/curses curses A_COLOR9327607
Ref: 2c359327607
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MIN9328055
Ref: 2c369328055
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BREAK9328150
Ref: 2c379328150
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DOWN9328251
Ref: 2c389328251
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UP9328352
Ref: 2c399328352
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LEFT9328455
Ref: 2c3a9328455
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RIGHT9328542
Ref: 2c3b9328542
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HOME9328632
Ref: 2c3c9328632
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BACKSPACE9328737
Ref: 2c3d9328737
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_F09328836
Ref: 2c3e9328836
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_Fn9329012
Ref: 2c3f9329012
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DL9329130
Ref: 2c409329130
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IL9329234
Ref: 2c419329234
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DC9329338
Ref: 2c429329338
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IC9329447
Ref: 2c439329447
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EIC9329573
Ref: 2c449329573
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLEAR9329672
Ref: 2c459329672
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOS9329762
Ref: 2c469329762
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOL9329877
Ref: 2c479329877
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SF9329989
Ref: 2c489329989
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SR9330103
Ref: 2c499330103
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NPAGE9330214
Ref: 2c4a9330214
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PPAGE9330286
Ref: 2c4b9330286
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_STAB9330378
Ref: 2c4c9330378
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CTAB9330478
Ref: 2c4d9330478
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CATAB9330564
Ref: 2c4e9330564
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_ENTER9330641
Ref: 2c4f9330641
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRESET9330730
Ref: 2c509330730
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESET9330826
Ref: 2c519330826
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PRINT9330921
Ref: 2c529330921
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LL9331003
Ref: 2c539331003
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A19331128
Ref: 2c549331128
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A39331241
Ref: 2c559331241
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_B29331355
Ref: 2c569331355
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C19331464
Ref: 2c579331464
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C39331577
Ref: 2c589331577
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BTAB9331693
Ref: 2c599331693
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BEG9331793
Ref: 2c5a9331793
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CANCEL9331886
Ref: 2c5b9331886
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLOSE9331955
Ref: 2c5c9331955
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COMMAND9332023
Ref: 2c5d9332023
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COPY9332115
Ref: 2c5e9332115
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CREATE9332196
Ref: 2c5f9332196
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_END9332280
Ref: 2c609332280
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EXIT9332377
Ref: 2c619332377
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_FIND9332474
Ref: 2c629332474
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HELP9332571
Ref: 2c639332571
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MARK9332668
Ref: 2c649332668
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MESSAGE9332749
Ref: 2c659332749
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOVE9332835
Ref: 2c669332835
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NEXT9332932
Ref: 2c679332932
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPEN9333029
Ref: 2c689333029
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPTIONS9333110
Ref: 2c699333110
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PREVIOUS9333180
Ref: 2c6a9333180
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REDO9333274
Ref: 2c6b9333274
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFERENCE9333355
Ref: 2c6c9333355
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFRESH9333433
Ref: 2c6d9333433
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REPLACE9333503
Ref: 2c6e9333503
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESTART9333573
Ref: 2c6f9333573
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESUME9333643
Ref: 2c709333643
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SAVE9333728
Ref: 2c719333728
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SBEG9333825
Ref: 2c729333825
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCANCEL9333925
Ref: 2c739333925
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOMMAND9334002
Ref: 2c749334002
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOPY9334080
Ref: 2c759334080
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCREATE9334155
Ref: 2c769334155
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDC9334247
Ref: 2c779334247
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDL9334359
Ref: 2c789334359
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SELECT9334456
Ref: 2c799334456
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEND9334541
Ref: 2c7a9334541
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEOL9334645
Ref: 2c7b9334645
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEXIT9334740
Ref: 2c7c9334740
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SFIND9334815
Ref: 2c7d9334815
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHELP9334890
Ref: 2c7e9334890
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHOME9334965
Ref: 2c7f9334965
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SIC9335055
Ref: 2c809335055
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SLEFT9335146
Ref: 2c819335146
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMESSAGE9335227
Ref: 2c829335227
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMOVE9335305
Ref: 2c839335305
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SNEXT9335380
Ref: 2c849335380
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SOPTIONS9335455
Ref: 2c859335455
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPREVIOUS9335533
Ref: 2c869335533
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPRINT9335608
Ref: 2c879335608
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREDO9335684
Ref: 2c889335684
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREPLACE9335759
Ref: 2c899335759
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRIGHT9335837
Ref: 2c8a9335837
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRSUME9335919
Ref: 2c8b9335919
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSAVE9335996
Ref: 2c8c9335996
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSUSPEND9336071
Ref: 2c8d9336071
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUNDO9336149
Ref: 2c8e9336149
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUSPEND9336224
Ref: 2c8f9336224
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UNDO9336310
Ref: 2c909336310
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOUSE9336391
Ref: 2b9f9336391
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESIZE9336478
Ref: 2c919336478
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MAX9336577
Ref: 2c929336577
Ref: library/curses curses-acs-codes9337778
Ref: 2c939337778
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BBSS9338340
Ref: 2c949338340
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BLOCK9338438
Ref: 2c959338438
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BOARD9338517
Ref: 2c969338517
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSBS9338594
Ref: 2c979338594
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSB9338689
Ref: 2c989338689
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSS9338786
Ref: 2c999338786
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BTEE9338873
Ref: 2c9a9338873
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BULLET9338944
Ref: 2c9b9338944
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_CKBOARD9339011
Ref: 2c9c9339011
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DARROW9339095
Ref: 2c9d9339095
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DEGREE9339175
Ref: 2c9e9339175
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DIAMOND9339249
Ref: 2c9f9339249
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_GEQUAL9339317
Ref: 2ca09339317
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_HLINE9339402
Ref: 2be29339402
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LANTERN9339478
Ref: 2ca19339478
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LARROW9339553
Ref: 2ca29339553
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LEQUAL9339624
Ref: 2ca39339624
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LLCORNER9339706
Ref: 2be59339706
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LRCORNER9339789
Ref: 2be69339789
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LTEE9339873
Ref: 2ca49339873
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_NEQUAL9339942
Ref: 2ca59339942
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PI9340031
Ref: 2ca69340031
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLMINUS9340116
Ref: 2ca79340116
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLUS9340195
Ref: 2ca89340195
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RARROW9340269
Ref: 2ca99340269
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RTEE9340341
Ref: 2caa9340341
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S19340425
Ref: 2cab9340425
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S39340526
Ref: 2cac9340526
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S79340627
Ref: 2cad9340627
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S99340728
Ref: 2cae9340728
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBBS9340815
Ref: 2caf9340815
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSB9340913
Ref: 2cb09340913
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSS9341006
Ref: 2cb19341006
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBB9341095
Ref: 2cb29341095
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBS9341192
Ref: 2cb39341192
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSB9341282
Ref: 2cb49341282
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSS9341370
Ref: 2cb59341370
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_STERLING9341471
Ref: 2cb69341471
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_TTEE9341546
Ref: 2cb79341546
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_UARROW9341614
Ref: 2cb89341614
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_ULCORNER9341683
Ref: 2be39341683
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_URCORNER9341761
Ref: 2be49341761
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_VLINE9341840
Ref: 2be19341840
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_PRESSED9342237
Ref: 2ba09342237
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_RELEASED9342382
Ref: 2ba19342382
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_CLICKED9342526
Ref: 2ba29342526
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED9342647
Ref: 2ba39342647
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED9342759
Ref: 2ba49342759
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_SHIFT9342891
Ref: 2ba59342891
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_CTRL9343051
Ref: 2ba69343051
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_ALT9343213
Ref: 2ba79343213
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLACK9343662
Ref: 2cb99343662
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLUE9343730
Ref: 2cba9343730
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_CYAN9343797
Ref: 2cbb9343797
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_GREEN9343886
Ref: 2cbc9343886
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_MAGENTA9343954
Ref: 2cbd9343954
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_RED9344039
Ref: 2cbe9344039
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_WHITE9344105
Ref: 2cbf9344105
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_YELLOW9344173
Ref: 2cc09344173
Node: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs9344231
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-text-input-widget-for-curses-programs9344478
Ref: 2cc19344478
Ref: library/curses module-curses textpad9344478
Ref: 2e9344478
Ref: library/curses curses textpad rectangle9345068
Ref: 2cc39345068
Node: Textbox objects9345790
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-objects9345898
Ref: 2cc49345898
Ref: library/curses textbox-objects9345898
Ref: 2cc59345898
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox9346014
Ref: 2cc29346014
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox edit9346497
Ref: 2cc79346497
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox do_command9347070
Ref: 2cc89347070
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox gather9350802
Ref: 2cc99350802
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox stripspaces9350997
Ref: 2cc69350997
Node: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters9351411
Ref: library/curses ascii doc9351653
Ref: 2cca9351653
Ref: library/curses ascii curses-ascii-utilities-for-ascii-characters9351653
Ref: 2ccb9351653
Ref: library/curses ascii module-curses ascii9351653
Ref: 2c9351653
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NUL9352251
Ref: 2ccc9352251
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SOH9352291
Ref: 2ccd9352291
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii STX9352375
Ref: 2cce9352375
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETX9352437
Ref: 2ccf9352437
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EOT9352497
Ref: 2cd09352497
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ENQ9352565
Ref: 2cd19352565
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ACK9352662
Ref: 2cd29352662
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BEL9352726
Ref: 2cd39352726
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BS9352779
Ref: 2cd49352779
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii TAB9352836
Ref: 2cd59352836
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii HT9352888
Ref: 2cd69352888
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii LF9352984
Ref: 2cd79352984
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NL9353041
Ref: 2cd89353041
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii VT9353130
Ref: 2cd99353130
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FF9353190
Ref: 2cda9353190
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CR9353247
Ref: 2cdb9353247
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SO9353310
Ref: 2cdc9353310
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SI9353398
Ref: 2cdd9353398
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DLE9353484
Ref: 2cde9353484
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC19353549
Ref: 2cdf9353549
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC29353619
Ref: 2ce09353619
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC39353709
Ref: 2ce19353709
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC49353780
Ref: 2ce29353780
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NAK9353845
Ref: 2ce39353845
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SYN9353918
Ref: 2ce49353918
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETB9353983
Ref: 2ce59353983
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CAN9354054
Ref: 2ce69354054
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EM9354109
Ref: 2ce79354109
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SUB9354170
Ref: 2ce89354170
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ESC9354229
Ref: 2ce99354229
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FS9354284
Ref: 2cea9354284
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii GS9354346
Ref: 2ceb9354346
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii RS9354409
Ref: 2cec9354409
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii US9354496
Ref: 2ced9354496
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SP9354558
Ref: 2cee9354558
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DEL9354611
Ref: 2cef9354611
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalnum9354907
Ref: 2cf09354907
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalpha9355053
Ref: 2cf19355053
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isascii9355197
Ref: 2cf29355197
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isblank9355305
Ref: 2cf39355305
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii iscntrl9355417
Ref: 2cf49355417
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isdigit9355542
Ref: 2cf59355542
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isgraph9355705
Ref: 2cf69355705
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii islower9355805
Ref: 2cf79355805
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isprint9355892
Ref: 2cf89355892
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ispunct9355995
Ref: 2cf99355995
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isspace9356137
Ref: 2cfa9356137
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isupper9356304
Ref: 2cfb9356304
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isxdigit9356387
Ref: 2cfc9356387
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isctrl9356529
Ref: 2cfd9356529
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ismeta9356637
Ref: 2cfe9356637
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ascii9357236
Ref: 2cff9357236
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ctrl9357342
Ref: 2d009357342
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii alt9357509
Ref: 2d019357509
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii unctrl9357780
Ref: 2d029357780
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii controlnames9358334
Ref: 2d039358334
Ref: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters-Footnote-19358618
Node: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses9358690
Ref: library/curses panel doc9358939
Ref: 2d049358939
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-a-panel-stack-extension-for-curses9358939
Ref: 2d059358939
Ref: library/curses panel module-curses panel9358939
Ref: 2d9358939
Node: Functions<5>9359417
Ref: library/curses panel cursespanel-functions9359539
Ref: 2d069359539
Ref: library/curses panel functions9359539
Ref: 2d079359539
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel bottom_panel9359649
Ref: 2d089359649
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel new_panel9359743
Ref: 2d099359743
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel top_panel9360044
Ref: 2d0a9360044
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel update_panels9360132
Ref: 2d0b9360132
Node: Panel Objects9360342
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-objects9360464
Ref: 2d0c9360464
Ref: library/curses panel panel-objects9360464
Ref: 2d0d9360464
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel above9360820
Ref: 2d0e9360820
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel below9360899
Ref: 2d0f9360899
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel bottom9360978
Ref: 2d109360978
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hidden9361058
Ref: 2d119361058
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hide9361180
Ref: 2d129361180
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel move9361316
Ref: 2d139361316
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel replace9361410
Ref: 2d149361410
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel set_userptr9361516
Ref: 2d159361516
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel show9361712
Ref: 2d169361712
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel top9361797
Ref: 2d179361797
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel userptr9361867
Ref: 2d189361867
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel window9361984
Ref: 2d199361984
Node: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data9362074
Ref: library/platform doc9362315
Ref: 2d1a9362315
Ref: library/platform module-platform9362315
Ref: a99362315
Ref: library/platform platform-access-to-underlying-platform-s-identifying-data9362315
Ref: 2d1b9362315
Ref: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data-Footnote-19362828
Node: Cross Platform9362896
Ref: library/platform cross-platform9363032
Ref: 2d1c9363032
Ref: library/platform platform architecture9363083
Ref: 186a9363083
Ref: library/platform platform machine9364410
Ref: 2d1d9364410
Ref: library/platform platform node9364566
Ref: 2d1e9364566
Ref: library/platform platform platform9364740
Ref: 15729364740
Ref: library/platform platform processor9365686
Ref: 2d209365686
Ref: library/platform platform python_build9366006
Ref: 2d219366006
Ref: library/platform platform python_compiler9366152
Ref: 2d229366152
Ref: library/platform platform python_branch9366274
Ref: 2d239366274
Ref: library/platform platform python_implementation9366387
Ref: 2d249366387
Ref: library/platform platform python_revision9366590
Ref: 2d259366590
Ref: library/platform platform python_version9366712
Ref: 2d269366712
Ref: library/platform platform python_version_tuple9366960
Ref: 2d279366960
Ref: library/platform platform release9367239
Ref: 2d289367239
Ref: library/platform platform system9367415
Ref: 2d299367415
Ref: library/platform platform system_alias9367626
Ref: 2d1f9367626
Ref: library/platform platform version9367908
Ref: 2d2a9367908
Ref: library/platform platform uname9368084
Ref: 186d9368084
Node: Java Platform9368846
Ref: library/platform java-platform9369007
Ref: 2d2b9369007
Ref: library/platform platform java_ver9369056
Ref: 2609369056
Node: Windows Platform9369526
Ref: library/platform windows-platform9369687
Ref: 2d2c9369687
Ref: library/platform platform win32_ver9369742
Ref: 178d9369742
Ref: library/platform platform win32_edition9370569
Ref: 2d2d9370569
Ref: library/platform platform win32_is_iot9370898
Ref: 2d2e9370898
Node: macOS Platform9371091
Ref: library/platform macos-platform9371253
Ref: 2d2f9371253
Ref: library/platform platform mac_ver9371304
Ref: 186f9371304
Node: Unix Platforms9371684
Ref: library/platform unix-platforms9371845
Ref: 2d309371845
Ref: library/platform platform libc_ver9371896
Ref: 186c9371896
Node: Linux Platforms9372512
Ref: library/platform linux-platforms9372650
Ref: 2d319372650
Ref: library/platform platform freedesktop_os_release9372703
Ref: 6649372703
Ref: Linux Platforms-Footnote-19374168
Node: errno — Standard errno system symbols9374241
Ref: library/errno doc9374479
Ref: 2d329374479
Ref: library/errno errno-standard-errno-system-symbols9374479
Ref: 2d339374479
Ref: library/errno module-errno9374479
Ref: 559374479
Ref: library/errno errno errorcode9374884
Ref: 2d349374884
Ref: library/errno errno EPERM9375407
Ref: 15ee9375407
Ref: library/errno errno ENOENT9375535
Ref: 209c9375535
Ref: library/errno errno ESRCH9375668
Ref: 20a09375668
Ref: library/errno errno EINTR9375791
Ref: c139375791
Ref: library/errno errno EIO9375920
Ref: 2d359375920
Ref: library/errno errno ENXIO9375959
Ref: 2d369375959
Ref: library/errno errno E2BIG9376016
Ref: 2d379376016
Ref: library/errno errno ENOEXEC9376065
Ref: 2d389376065
Ref: library/errno errno EBADF9376116
Ref: 7b69376116
Ref: library/errno errno ECHILD9376163
Ref: 20959376163
Ref: library/errno errno EAGAIN9376289
Ref: 20909376289
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEM9376404
Ref: 2d399376404
Ref: library/errno errno EACCES9376450
Ref: 209f9376450
Ref: library/errno errno EFAULT9376573
Ref: 2d3a9376573
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTBLK9376617
Ref: 2d3b9376617
Ref: library/errno errno EBUSY9376672
Ref: 2d3c9376672
Ref: library/errno errno EEXIST9376727
Ref: 209b9376727
Ref: library/errno errno EXDEV9376844
Ref: 29149376844
Ref: library/errno errno ENODEV9376893
Ref: 2d3d9376893
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTDIR9376940
Ref: 209e9376940
Ref: library/errno errno EISDIR9377065
Ref: 209d9377065
Ref: library/errno errno EINVAL9377187
Ref: 18289377187
Ref: library/errno errno ENFILE9377236
Ref: 2d3e9377236
Ref: library/errno errno EMFILE9377288
Ref: 2d3f9377288
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTTY9377340
Ref: 2d409377340
Ref: library/errno errno ETXTBSY9377389
Ref: 2d419377389
Ref: library/errno errno EFBIG9377437
Ref: 2d429377437
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSPC9377483
Ref: 2d439377483
Ref: library/errno errno ESPIPE9377539
Ref: 2d449377539
Ref: library/errno errno EROFS9377584
Ref: 2d459377584
Ref: library/errno errno EMLINK9377637
Ref: 2d469377637
Ref: library/errno errno EPIPE9377684
Ref: 20969377684
Ref: library/errno errno EDOM9377800
Ref: 2d479377800
Ref: library/errno errno ERANGE9377866
Ref: 2d489377866
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLK9377928
Ref: 2d499377928
Ref: library/errno errno ENAMETOOLONG9377991
Ref: 2d4a9377991
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLCK9378048
Ref: 2d4b9378048
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSYS9378106
Ref: 15ef9378106
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTEMPTY9378163
Ref: 2d4c9378163
Ref: library/errno errno ELOOP9378218
Ref: 2d4d9378218
Ref: library/errno errno EWOULDBLOCK9378285
Ref: 20929378285
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMSG9378417
Ref: 2d4e9378417
Ref: library/errno errno EIDRM9378476
Ref: 2d4f9378476
Ref: library/errno errno ECHRNG9378526
Ref: 2d509378526
Ref: library/errno errno EL2NSYNC9378586
Ref: 2d519378586
Ref: library/errno errno EL3HLT9378645
Ref: 2d529378645
Ref: library/errno errno EL3RST9378692
Ref: 2d539378692
Ref: library/errno errno ELNRNG9378738
Ref: 2d549378738
Ref: library/errno errno EUNATCH9378795
Ref: 2d559378795
Ref: library/errno errno ENOCSI9378857
Ref: 2d569378857
Ref: library/errno errno EL2HLT9378916
Ref: 2d579378916
Ref: library/errno errno EBADE9378963
Ref: 2d589378963
Ref: library/errno errno EBADR9379011
Ref: 2d599379011
Ref: library/errno errno EXFULL9379069
Ref: 2d5a9379069
Ref: library/errno errno ENOANO9379115
Ref: 2d5b9379115
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRQC9379156
Ref: 2d5c9379156
Ref: library/errno errno EBADSLT9379210
Ref: 2d5d9379210
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLOCK9379256
Ref: 2d5e9379256
Ref: library/errno errno EBFONT9379319
Ref: 2d5f9379319
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSTR9379372
Ref: 2d609379372
Ref: library/errno errno ENODATA9379424
Ref: 2d619379424
Ref: library/errno errno ETIME9379475
Ref: 2d629379475
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSR9379520
Ref: 2d639379520
Ref: library/errno errno ENONET9379576
Ref: 2d649379576
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPKG9379638
Ref: 2d659379638
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTE9379692
Ref: 2d669379692
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLINK9379742
Ref: 2d679379742
Ref: library/errno errno EADV9379797
Ref: 2d689379797
Ref: library/errno errno ESRMNT9379843
Ref: 2d699379843
Ref: library/errno errno ECOMM9379889
Ref: 2d6a9379889
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTO9379948
Ref: 2d6b9379948
Ref: library/errno errno EMULTIHOP9379995
Ref: 2d6c9379995
Ref: library/errno errno EDOTDOT9380049
Ref: 2d6d9380049
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMSG9380101
Ref: 2d6e9380101
Ref: library/errno errno EOVERFLOW9380153
Ref: 2d6f9380153
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTUNIQ9380226
Ref: 2d709380226
Ref: library/errno errno EBADFD9380287
Ref: 2d719380287
Ref: library/errno errno EREMCHG9380348
Ref: 2d729380348
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBACC9380404
Ref: 2d739380404
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBBAD9380476
Ref: 2d749380476
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBSCN9380546
Ref: 2d759380546
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBMAX9380611
Ref: 2d769380611
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBEXEC9380692
Ref: 2d779380692
Ref: library/errno errno EILSEQ9380764
Ref: 2d789380764
Ref: library/errno errno ERESTART9380818
Ref: 2d799380818
Ref: library/errno errno ESTRPIPE9380896
Ref: 2d7a9380896
Ref: library/errno errno EUSERS9380949
Ref: 2d7b9380949
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSOCK9380996
Ref: 2d7c9380996
Ref: library/errno errno EDESTADDRREQ9381061
Ref: 2d7d9381061
Ref: library/errno errno EMSGSIZE9381128
Ref: 2d7e9381128
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTOTYPE9381179
Ref: 2d7f9381179
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPROTOOPT9381246
Ref: 2d809381246
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTONOSUPPORT9381306
Ref: 2d819381306
Ref: library/errno errno ESOCKTNOSUPPORT9381370
Ref: 2d829381370
Ref: library/errno errno EOPNOTSUPP9381437
Ref: 2d839381437
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSUP9381519
Ref: 2d849381519
Ref: library/errno errno EPFNOSUPPORT9381604
Ref: 2d859381604
Ref: library/errno errno EAFNOSUPPORT9381672
Ref: 2d869381672
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRINUSE9381751
Ref: 2d879381751
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRNOTAVAIL9381810
Ref: 2d889381810
Ref: library/errno errno ENETDOWN9381881
Ref: 2d899381881
Ref: library/errno errno ENETUNREACH9381931
Ref: 18409381931
Ref: library/errno errno ENETRESET9381991
Ref: 2d8a9381991
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNABORTED9382070
Ref: 20989382070
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNRESET9382221
Ref: 209a9382221
Ref: library/errno errno ENOBUFS9382360
Ref: 160a9382360
Ref: library/errno errno EISCONN9382419
Ref: 2d8b9382419
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCONN9382492
Ref: 2d8c9382492
Ref: library/errno errno ESHUTDOWN9382562
Ref: 20979382562
Ref: library/errno errno ETOOMANYREFS9382716
Ref: 2d8d9382716
Ref: library/errno errno ETIMEDOUT9382789
Ref: 20a19382789
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNREFUSED9382915
Ref: 20999382915
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTDOWN9383052
Ref: 2d8e9383052
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTUNREACH9383100
Ref: 2d8f9383100
Ref: library/errno errno EALREADY9383155
Ref: 20919383155
Ref: library/errno errno EINPROGRESS9383292
Ref: 20939383292
Ref: library/errno errno ESTALE9383428
Ref: 2d909383428
Ref: library/errno errno EUCLEAN9383482
Ref: 2d919383482
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTNAM9383540
Ref: 2d929383540
Ref: library/errno errno ENAVAIL9383601
Ref: 2d939383601
Ref: library/errno errno EISNAM9383664
Ref: 2d949383664
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTEIO9383717
Ref: 2d959383717
Ref: library/errno errno EDQUOT9383769
Ref: 2d969383769
Ref: library/errno errno EQFULL9383816
Ref: 2d979383816
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEDIUM9383908
Ref: 2d989383908
Ref: library/errno errno EMEDIUMTYPE9383959
Ref: 2d999383959
Ref: library/errno errno ENOKEY9384014
Ref: 2d9a9384014
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYEXPIRED9384073
Ref: 2d9b9384073
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREVOKED9384126
Ref: 2d9c9384126
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREJECTED9384184
Ref: 2d9d9384184
Ref: library/errno errno ERFKILL9384250
Ref: 2d9e9384250
Ref: library/errno errno ELOCKUNMAPPED9384321
Ref: 2d9f9384321
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTACTIVE9384385
Ref: 2da09384385
Ref: library/errno errno EAUTH9384444
Ref: 2da19384444
Ref: library/errno errno EBADARCH9384524
Ref: 2da29384524
Ref: library/errno errno EBADEXEC9384613
Ref: 2da39384613
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMACHO9384710
Ref: 2da49384710
Ref: library/errno errno EDEVERR9384795
Ref: 2da59384795
Ref: library/errno errno EFTYPE9384869
Ref: 2da69384869
Ref: library/errno errno ENEEDAUTH9384963
Ref: 2da79384963
Ref: library/errno errno ENOATTR9385045
Ref: 2da89385045
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPOLICY9385126
Ref: 2da99385126
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCLIM9385206
Ref: 2daa9385206
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCUNAVAIL9385287
Ref: 2dab9385287
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGMISMATCH9385379
Ref: 2dac9385379
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGUNAVAIL9385468
Ref: 2dad9385468
Ref: library/errno errno EPWROFF9385555
Ref: 2dae9385555
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRPC9385636
Ref: 2daf9385636
Ref: library/errno errno ERPCMISMATCH9385715
Ref: 2db09385715
Ref: library/errno errno ESHLIBVERS9385799
Ref: 2db19385799
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCAPABLE9385895
Ref: 15e09385895
Ref: library/errno errno ECANCELED9386109
Ref: 2db29386109
Ref: library/errno errno EOWNERDEAD9386191
Ref: 2db39386191
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTRECOVERABLE9386266
Ref: 2db49386266
Node: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python9386357
Ref: library/ctypes doc9386523
Ref: 2db59386523
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-a-foreign-function-library-for-python9386523
Ref: 2db69386523
Ref: library/ctypes module-ctypes9386523
Ref: 2a9386523
Ref: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python-Footnote-19387042
Node: ctypes tutorial9387105
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-tutorial9387230
Ref: 2db79387230
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-tutorial9387230
Ref: 2db89387230
Node: Loading dynamic link libraries9388627
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries9388754
Ref: 2dbb9388754
Ref: library/ctypes loading-dynamic-link-libraries9388754
Ref: 2dbc9388754
Node: Accessing functions from loaded dlls9390816
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls9390969
Ref: 2dbe9390969
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls9390969
Ref: 2dbf9390969
Node: Calling functions9393193
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions9393338
Ref: 2dc09393338
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions9393338
Ref: 2dc19393338
Node: Fundamental data types9395773
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types9395909
Ref: 2dc29395909
Ref: library/ctypes fundamental-data-types9395909
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Node: Calling functions continued9404037
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-continued9404182
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Node: Calling variadic functions9405255
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-variadic-functions9405427
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Node: Calling functions with your own custom data types9406124
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types9406327
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Node: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes9407246
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Ref: library/ctypes specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes9407435
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Node: Structures and unions9413852
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Ref: library/ctypes structures-and-unions9414034
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structureunion-alignment-byte-order9416128
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Ref: library/ctypes structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order9416621
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Ref: library/ctypes pointers9419673
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-type-conversions9422446
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Ref: library/ctypes type-conversions9422446
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Ref: library/ctypes incomplete-types9425182
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Node: Accessing values exported from dlls9430810
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls9430942
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Ref: library/ctypes surprises9433742
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Node: Finding shared libraries9437850
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Ref: library/ctypes finding-shared-libraries9437960
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Node: Loading shared libraries9440522
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Ref: library/ctypes loading-shared-libraries9440658
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL9440861
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes OleDLL9442017
Ref: 15909442017
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinDLL9442893
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL9443501
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _handle9447350
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _name9447435
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader9447787
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader LoadLibrary9448249
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Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-19449885
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-29449951
Node: Foreign functions9449997
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-foreign-functions9450128
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Ref: library/ctypes foreign-functions9450128
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr9450826
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr restype9451132
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr argtypes9451812
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr errcheck9453078
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes ArgumentError9454066
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Ref: library/ctypes function-prototypes9454832
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CFUNCTYPE9455415
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WINFUNCTYPE9455925
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PYFUNCTYPE9456305
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes addressof9461944
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes byref9462346
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_string_buffer9463152
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_unicode_buffer9463957
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllCanUnloadNow9464776
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllGetClassObject9465047
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_library9465328
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_msvcrt9465719
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes FormatError9466202
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes GetLastError9466467
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memmove9467315
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memset9467558
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes POINTER9467810
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes pointer9468036
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes resize9468344
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes sizeof9469346
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes string_at9469516
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinError9469827
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData9470919
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_base_9473903
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_needsfree_9474211
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _objects9474388
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Node: Fundamental data types<2>9474703
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData value9475376
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BufferTooShort9571996
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue qsize9577499
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue put_nowait9579162
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue get_nowait9580041
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue join_thread9580588
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue cancel_join_thread9581141
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue task_done9583308
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue join9583998
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Ref: Pipes and Queues-Footnote-19584504
Node: Miscellaneous<3>9584568
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing cpu_count9584950
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing current_process9585398
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing parent_process9585594
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing freeze_support9585862
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_all_start_methods9586897
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_context9587251
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_start_method9587730
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_executable9588502
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_forkserver_preload9589053
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_start_method9589763
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Ref: Miscellaneous<3>-Footnote-19590865
Node: Connection Objects9590930
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection9591376
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection send9591430
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv9591759
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection fileno9592054
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection close9592156
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection poll9592310
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection send_bytes9592798
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes9593259
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes_into9593906
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-recv-pickle-security9595733
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Node: Synchronization primitives9596417
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BoundedSemaphore9597084
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Condition9597585
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Event9597927
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock9598010
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock acquire9598857
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock release9600385
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock9600756
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock acquire9601491
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock release9603142
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Semaphore9604121
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Ref: Synchronization primitives-Footnote-19604986
Node: Shared ctypes Objects9605050
Ref: library/multiprocessing shared-ctypes-objects9605172
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Value9605349
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Array9606777
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Node: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module9608219
Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing sharedctypes9608316
Ref: 999608316
Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-sharedctypes-module9608316
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawArray9608946
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawValue9609774
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Value9611323
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes copy9612073
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes synchronized9612234
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager address9621288
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager9621832
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Condition9622627
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Event9623006
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Lock9623134
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Namespace9623261
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Queue9623388
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager RLock9623522
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Semaphore9623650
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Array9623793
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Value9623894
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager dict9624041
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager list9624228
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers Namespace9624642
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Node: Customized managers9625486
Ref: library/multiprocessing customized-managers9625581
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Node: Using a remote manager9626353
Ref: library/multiprocessing using-a-remote-manager9626448
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Node: Proxy Objects9628589
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-proxy-objects9628690
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Ref: library/multiprocessing proxy-objects9628690
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy9631973
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _callmethod9632098
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _getvalue9633681
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy __repr__9633843
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy __str__9633931
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Ref: library/multiprocessing cleanup9634095
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Node: Process Pools9634384
Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing pool9634498
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Ref: library/multiprocessing process-pools9634498
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool9634659
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool apply9637332
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool apply_async9637705
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool map9638559
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool map_async9639345
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool imap9640201
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool imap_unordered9640913
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool starmap9641241
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool starmap_async9641597
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool close9641952
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool join9642377
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult get9642998
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult wait9643365
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult ready9643491
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult successful9643570
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Node: Listeners and Clients9644869
Ref: library/multiprocessing listeners-and-clients9644989
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Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing connection9644989
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-listeners-clients9644989
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection deliver_challenge9645525
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection answer_challenge9645930
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener9647006
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener accept9648779
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener close9649063
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener address9649365
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener last_accepted9649464
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection wait9649897
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Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-dummy-module9658136
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Ref: All start methods-Footnote-29667093
Ref: All start methods-Footnote-39667157
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Ref: library/multiprocessing examples9669547
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Node: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes9678458
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing-shared-memory-shared-memory-for-direct-access-across-processes9678682
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory9680240
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory buf9683322
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory name9683414
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory size9683528
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager9686621
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager SharedMemory9688027
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager ShareableList9688181
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList9690040
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList count9692539
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList index9692629
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList format9692781
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Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList shm9692938
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Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-19695533
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-29695623
Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-39695650
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent-futures-launching-parallel-tasks9696300
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Ref: library/concurrent futures module-concurrent futures9696300
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Ref: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks-Footnote-19697385
Ref: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks-Footnote-29697471
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor shutdown9699812
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Ref: library/concurrent futures id19705491
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future result9713317
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future exception9713976
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_running_or_notify_cancel9715458
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Ref: library/concurrent futures module-functions9717479
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Node: Exception classes9720974
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures TimeoutError9721248
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures BrokenExecutor9721511
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures InvalidStateError9721771
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures thread BrokenThreadPool9721957
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Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures process BrokenProcessPool9722219
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Node: subprocess — Subprocess management9722589
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Ref: subprocess — Subprocess management-Footnote-29724046
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired9731353
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired cmd9731514
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired timeout9731603
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired output9731666
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stdout9732052
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stderr9732150
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError9732624
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError returncode9732888
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError cmd9733059
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError output9733148
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stdout9733322
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stderr9733420
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Node: Frequently Used Arguments9733735
Ref: library/subprocess frequently-used-arguments9733850
Ref: 2f359733850
Ref: library/subprocess id19733850
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Node: Popen Constructor9738026
Ref: library/subprocess popen-constructor9738163
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen9738458
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Ref: Popen Constructor-Footnote-19756178
Node: Exceptions<8>9756238
Ref: library/subprocess exceptions9756341
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Node: Security Considerations9757599
Ref: library/subprocess security-considerations9757753
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-security9757753
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Ref: Security Considerations-Footnote-19758869
Ref: Security Considerations-Footnote-29758939
Node: Popen Objects9758995
Ref: library/subprocess popen-objects9759143
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen poll9759260
Ref: 2f649759260
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen wait9759422
Ref: b679759422
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen communicate9760433
Ref: 2f379760433
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen send_signal9762189
Ref: 12659762189
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen terminate9762575
Ref: 12639762575
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen kill9762796
Ref: 12649762796
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen args9763104
Ref: 2f659763104
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdin9763292
Ref: 2f4b9763292
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdout9763736
Ref: 2f4c9763736
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stderr9764252
Ref: 2f4d9764252
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen pid9765029
Ref: 2f669765029
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen returncode9765214
Ref: 17da9765214
Node: Windows Popen Helpers9765717
Ref: library/subprocess windows-popen-helpers9765862
Ref: 2f679765862
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO9766016
Ref: 2f539766016
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO dwFlags9766443
Ref: 2f689766443
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdInput9766760
Ref: 2f699766760
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdOutput9767085
Ref: 2f6b9767085
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdError9767399
Ref: 2f6c9767399
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO wShowWindow9767710
Ref: 2f6d9767710
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO lpAttributeList9768205
Ref: a879768205
Ref: Windows Popen Helpers-Footnote-19769463
Ref: Windows Popen Helpers-Footnote-29769535
Ref: Windows Popen Helpers-Footnote-39769607
Node: Windows Constants9769696
Ref: library/subprocess windows-constants9769771
Ref: 2f709769771
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_INPUT_HANDLE9769893
Ref: 2f719769893
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE9770032
Ref: 2f729770032
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_ERROR_HANDLE9770182
Ref: 2f739770182
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess SW_HIDE9770330
Ref: 2f6f9770330
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESTDHANDLES9770421
Ref: 2f6a9770421
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW9770654
Ref: 2f6e9770654
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE9770809
Ref: 2f549770809
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP9770958
Ref: 2f559770958
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS9771283
Ref: 2f569771283
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS9771491
Ref: 2f579771491
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS9771698
Ref: 2f589771698
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS9771888
Ref: 2f599771888
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS9772088
Ref: 2f5a9772088
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS9772293
Ref: 2f5b9772293
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NO_WINDOW9772831
Ref: 2f5c9772831
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DETACHED_PROCESS9773017
Ref: 2f5d9773017
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE9773275
Ref: 2f5e9773275
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB9773679
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Node: Older high-level API9773880
Ref: library/subprocess call-function-trio9774064
Ref: 2f749774064
Ref: library/subprocess older-high-level-api9774064
Ref: 2f759774064
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess call9774312
Ref: 9fe9774312
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_call9775700
Ref: 2f449775700
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_output9777368
Ref: e649777368
Node: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module9779948
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module9780144
Ref: 2f769780144
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-replacements9780144
Ref: 10309780144
Node: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution9781311
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-bin-sh-shell-command-substitution9781477
Ref: 2f779781477
Node: Replacing shell pipeline9781682
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-shell-pipeline9781876
Ref: 2f789781876
Node: Replacing os system9782527
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-system9782706
Ref: 2f799782706
Node: Replacing the os spawn family9783654
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-the-os-spawn-family9783847
Ref: 2f7a9783847
Node: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen39784478
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen39784694
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Node: Replacing functions from the popen2 module9785989
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module9786167
Ref: 2f7c9786167
Node: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions9787480
Ref: library/subprocess legacy-shell-invocation-functions9787664
Ref: 2f7d9787664
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getstatusoutput9788028
Ref: e659788028
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getoutput9789357
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Node: Notes<2>9789922
Ref: library/subprocess notes9790045
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Node: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows9790231
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Ref: library/subprocess converting-argument-sequence9790376
Ref: 2f509790376
Ref: library/subprocess disable-vfork9791551
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Node: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn9791551
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Ref: library/subprocess disabling-use-of-vfork-or-posix-spawn9791696
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Node: sched — Event scheduler9793111
Ref: library/sched doc9793283
Ref: 2f839793283
Ref: library/sched module-sched9793283
Ref: be9793283
Ref: library/sched sched-event-scheduler9793283
Ref: 2f849793283
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler9793553
Ref: fc99793553
Ref: sched — Event scheduler-Footnote-19795634
Node: Scheduler Objects9795699
Ref: library/sched id19795778
Ref: 2f859795778
Ref: library/sched scheduler-objects9795778
Ref: 2f869795778
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enterabs9795909
Ref: fcb9795909
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enter9796803
Ref: fca9796803
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler cancel9797222
Ref: 175b9797222
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler empty9797411
Ref: 2f879797411
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler run9797498
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Ref: library/sched sched scheduler queue9798545
Ref: 2f889798545
Node: queue — A synchronized queue class9798807
Ref: library/queue doc9798976
Ref: 2f899798976
Ref: library/queue module-queue9798976
Ref: b59798976
Ref: library/queue queue-a-synchronized-queue-class9798976
Ref: 2f8a9798976
Ref: library/queue queue Queue9800300
Ref: 12359800300
Ref: library/queue queue LifoQueue9800668
Ref: 204a9800668
Ref: library/queue queue PriorityQueue9801040
Ref: 204b9801040
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue9802041
Ref: 9df9802041
Ref: library/queue queue Empty9802221
Ref: 2e9f9802221
Ref: library/queue queue Full9802409
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Ref: queue — A synchronized queue class-Footnote-19802683
Node: Queue Objects9802748
Ref: library/queue queue-objects9802862
Ref: 2f8d9802862
Ref: library/queue queueobjects9802862
Ref: 2f8e9802862
Ref: library/queue queue Queue qsize9803042
Ref: 2f8f9803042
Ref: library/queue queue Queue empty9803273
Ref: 2f909803273
Ref: library/queue queue Queue full9803604
Ref: 2f919803604
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put9803931
Ref: 2f8c9803931
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put_nowait9804525
Ref: 2b149804525
Ref: library/queue queue Queue get9804614
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Ref: library/queue queue Queue get_nowait9805520
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Ref: library/queue queue Queue task_done9805715
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Ref: library/queue queue Queue join9806363
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Node: SimpleQueue Objects9807381
Ref: library/queue simplequeue-objects9807495
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Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue qsize9807631
Ref: 2f939807631
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue empty9807799
Ref: 2f949807799
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put9808018
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Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put_nowait9808785
Ref: 2f969808785
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get9808949
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Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get_nowait9809533
Ref: 2f989809533
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Ref: library/contextvars doc9810177
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars-context-variables9810177
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Ref: library/contextvars module-contextvars9810177
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Ref: contextvars — Context Variables-Footnote-19811036
Node: Context Variables9811078
Ref: library/contextvars context-variables9811199
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar9811254
Ref: 13ee9811254
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar name9811965
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar get9812097
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar set9812586
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar reset9812984
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token9813507
Ref: 2fa09813507
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token var9813785
Ref: 2fa29813785
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token old_value9813926
Ref: 2fa39813926
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token MISSING9814221
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Node: Manual Context Management9814317
Ref: library/contextvars manual-context-management9814462
Ref: 2fa59814462
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars copy_context9814533
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context9815010
Ref: 142e9815010
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context run9815606
Ref: 14659815606
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context copy9817035
Ref: 2fa69817035
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context get9817480
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context keys9817924
Ref: 2fa89817924
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context values9818017
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Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context items9818122
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Ref: library/contextvars asyncio-support9818382
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Node: _thread — Low-level threading API9820077
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Ref: 2fac9820211
Ref: library/_thread module-_thread9820211
Ref: 29820211
Ref: library/_thread thread-low-level-threading-api9820211
Ref: 2fad9820211
Ref: library/_thread thread error9820931
Ref: 2fae9820931
Ref: library/_thread thread LockType9821105
Ref: 2faf9821105
Ref: library/_thread thread start_new_thread9821175
Ref: 14d09821175
Ref: library/_thread thread interrupt_main9822207
Ref: 6829822207
Ref: library/_thread thread exit9823128
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Ref: library/_thread thread allocate_lock9823276
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Ref: library/_thread thread get_ident9823423
Ref: 2fb29823423
Ref: library/_thread thread get_native_id9823788
Ref: 2fb39823788
Ref: library/_thread thread stack_size9824262
Ref: 2fb49824262
Ref: library/_thread thread TIMEOUT_MAX9825535
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Ref: library/_thread thread lock acquire9825822
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Ref: library/_thread thread lock release9826909
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Ref: library/_thread thread lock locked9827053
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Node: Networking and Interprocess Communication9828292
Ref: library/ipc doc9828459
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Ref: library/ipc ipc9828459
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Ref: library/ipc networking-and-interprocess-communication9828459
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Node: asyncio — Eşzamansız I/O9829256
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Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-asynchronous-i-o9829412
Ref: 2fbd9829412
Ref: library/asyncio module-asyncio9829412
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Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-cli9831459
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Node: Runners9832360
Ref: library/asyncio-runner doc9832461
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Ref: library/asyncio-runner runners9832461
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Ref: Runners-Footnote-19832879
Node: Running an asyncio Program9832955
Ref: library/asyncio-runner running-an-asyncio-program9833056
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Node: Runner context manager9834783
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Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner9834988
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Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner run9836142
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Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner close9836656
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Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner get_loop9836881
Ref: 2fcf9836881
Node: Handling Keyboard Interruption9837324
Ref: library/asyncio-runner handling-keyboard-interruption9837429
Ref: 2fd09837429
Node: Coroutines and Tasks9838941
Ref: library/asyncio-task doc9839058
Ref: 2fd19839058
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines-and-tasks9839058
Ref: 2fd29839058
Node: Coroutines<3>9839538
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutine9839627
Ref: 2fbe9839627
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines9839627
Ref: 2fd39839627
Ref: Coroutines<3>-Footnote-19842932
Node: Awaitables9843011
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-awaitables9843123
Ref: 2fd49843123
Ref: library/asyncio-task awaitables9843123
Ref: 2fd59843123
Node: Creating Tasks9845720
Ref: library/asyncio-task creating-tasks9845836
Ref: 2fd69845836
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_task9845993
Ref: 40b9845993
Ref: Creating Tasks-Footnote-19848035
Node: Task Cancellation9848108
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-cancellation9848225
Ref: 2fd79848225
Node: Task Groups9849295
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-groups9849406
Ref: 2fd89849406
Ref: library/asyncio-task taskgroups9849406
Ref: 2fd99849406
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup9849573
Ref: 4099849573
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup create_task9849842
Ref: 140c9849842
Node: Terminating a Task Group9852527
Ref: library/asyncio-task terminating-a-task-group9852599
Ref: 2fda9852599
Node: Sleeping9853928
Ref: library/asyncio-task sleeping9854048
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio sleep9854087
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-sleep9854573
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Node: Running Tasks Concurrently9855143
Ref: library/asyncio-task running-tasks-concurrently9855270
Ref: 2fdd9855270
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio gather9855345
Ref: 40c9855345
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-gather9857068
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Node: Eager Task Factory9859208
Ref: library/asyncio-task eager-task-factory9859354
Ref: 2fdf9859354
Ref: library/asyncio-task id19859354
Ref: 2fe09859354
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio eager_task_factory9859413
Ref: 1989859413
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_eager_task_factory9860557
Ref: 1999860557
Node: Shielding From Cancellation9861226
Ref: library/asyncio-task shielding-from-cancellation9861354
Ref: 2fe19861354
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio shield9861431
Ref: 8d59861431
Node: Timeouts9863128
Ref: library/asyncio-task timeouts9863256
Ref: 2fe29863256
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout9863295
Ref: 40d9863295
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout9865036
Ref: 14c99865036
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout when9865521
Ref: 2fe49865521
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout reschedule9865695
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout expired9865802
Ref: 2fe59865802
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout_at9866644
Ref: 16489866644
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait_for9867258
Ref: 40e9867258
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-waitfor9868054
Ref: 2fe69868054
Node: Waiting Primitives9868906
Ref: library/asyncio-task waiting-primitives9869025
Ref: 2fe79869025
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait9869084
Ref: 1a09869084
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_COMPLETED9870286
Ref: 2fe89870286
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_EXCEPTION9870595
Ref: 2fe99870595
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio ALL_COMPLETED9871116
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio as_completed9871687
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Node: Running in Threads9872556
Ref: library/asyncio-task running-in-threads9872696
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio to_thread9872755
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Node: Scheduling From Other Threads9874963
Ref: library/asyncio-task scheduling-from-other-threads9875098
Ref: 2fec9875098
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio run_coroutine_threadsafe9875179
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Ref: library/asyncio-task introspection9876734
Ref: 2fee9876734
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio current_task9876783
Ref: 19e9876783
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio all_tasks9877061
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Node: Task Object9877444
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-object9877534
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task9877579
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task done9880393
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task result9880611
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task exception9881102
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task add_done_callback9881591
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task remove_done_callback9881908
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_stack9882208
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task print_stack9883206
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_coro9883700
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_name9884286
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task set_name9884562
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancel9884900
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelled9887252
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task uncancel9887564
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Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelling9889409
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Node: Streams9890222
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Ref: library/asyncio-stream streams9890358
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Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter get_extra_info9901189
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Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter drain9901365
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Node: Register an open socket to wait for data using streams9907286
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Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event wait9913007
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Ref: library/socket socket socket getpeername10192343
Ref: 30d410192343
Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockname10192684
Ref: 30d510192684
Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockopt10192935
Ref: b5810192935
Ref: library/socket socket socket getblocking10193690
Ref: 9e810193690
Ref: library/socket socket socket gettimeout10193916
Ref: 319110193916
Ref: library/socket socket socket ioctl10194165
Ref: b5610194165
Ref: library/socket socket socket listen10194809
Ref: cf210194809
Ref: library/socket socket socket makefile10195284
Ref: 104510195284
Ref: library/socket socket socket recv10196433
Ref: c3110196433
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom10197146
Ref: c3210197146
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg10198098
Ref: c3310198098
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg_into10202023
Ref: fde10202023
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom_into10203665
Ref: 11ca10203665
Ref: library/socket socket socket recv_into10204205
Ref: 11c910204205
Ref: library/socket socket socket send10204658
Ref: c3410204658
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendall10205478
Ref: c3510205478
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendto10206465
Ref: c3610206465
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg10207305
Ref: 19710207305
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg_afalg10209485
Ref: b5b10209485
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendfile10209827
Ref: cf110209827
Ref: library/socket socket socket set_inheritable10210736
Ref: d9610210736
Ref: library/socket socket socket setblocking10210920
Ref: 291610210920
Ref: library/socket socket socket settimeout10211498
Ref: 314f10211498
Ref: library/socket socket socket setsockopt10212240
Ref: b5910212240
Ref: library/socket socket socket shutdown10213381
Ref: 317f10213381
Ref: library/socket socket socket share10213740
Ref: a8110213740
Ref: library/socket socket socket family10214610
Ref: 319510214610
Ref: library/socket socket socket type10214668
Ref: a8510214668
Ref: library/socket socket socket proto10214722
Ref: 319610214722
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-110214817
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-210214859
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-310214901
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-410214951
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-510215025
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-610215069
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-710215111
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-810215155
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-910215197
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1010215239
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1110215284
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1210215329
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1310215372
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1410215415
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1510215458
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1610215501
Node: Notes on socket timeouts10215552
Ref: library/socket notes-on-socket-timeouts10215696
Ref: 319710215696
Ref: library/socket socket-timeouts10215696
Ref: 319410215696
Node: Timeouts and the connect method10217064
Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-connect-method10217195
Ref: 319810217195
Node: Timeouts and the accept method10217670
Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-accept-method10217801
Ref: 319910217801
Node: Example<7>10218542
Ref: library/socket example10218663
Ref: 319a10218663
Ref: library/socket socket-example10218663
Ref: 319b10218663
Ref: Example<7>-Footnote-110226413
Node: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects10226472
Ref: library/ssl doc10226688
Ref: 319c10226688
Ref: library/ssl module-ssl10226688
Ref: cf10226688
Ref: library/ssl ssl-tls-ssl-wrapper-for-socket-objects10226688
Ref: 319d10226688
Ref: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-110229719
Ref: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-210229782
Node: Functions Constants and Exceptions10229824
Ref: library/ssl functions-constants-and-exceptions10229957
Ref: 319e10229957
Node: Socket creation10230205
Ref: library/ssl socket-creation10230316
Ref: 319f10230316
Node: Context creation10231844
Ref: library/ssl context-creation10231978
Ref: 31a010231978
Ref: library/ssl ssl create_default_context10232120
Ref: e4a10232120
Ref: Context creation-Footnote-110235220
Node: Exceptions<13>10235265
Ref: library/ssl exceptions10235401
Ref: 31a510235401
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError10235442
Ref: 112210235442
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError library10236022
Ref: fed10236022
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError reason10236305
Ref: fee10236305
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLZeroReturnError10236569
Ref: 31a610236569
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantReadError10236868
Ref: cfd10236868
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantWriteError10237180
Ref: cfe10237180
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSyscallError10237489
Ref: 31a810237489
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLEOFError10237783
Ref: 156310237783
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError10238056
Ref: 9f210238056
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_code10238225
Ref: 31a910238225
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_message10238332
Ref: 31aa10238332
Ref: library/ssl ssl CertificateError10238433
Ref: 31ab10238433
Node: Random generation10238638
Ref: library/ssl random-generation10238778
Ref: 31ac10238778
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_bytes10238833
Ref: 2ae10238833
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_status10239514
Ref: 16f010239514
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_add10239833
Ref: 31ad10239833
Ref: Random generation-Footnote-110240278
Ref: Random generation-Footnote-210240372
Node: Certificate handling10240431
Ref: library/ssl certificate-handling10240569
Ref: 31ae10240569
Ref: library/ssl ssl cert_time_to_seconds10240630
Ref: cff10240630
Ref: library/ssl ssl get_server_certificate10241543
Ref: 67a10241543
Ref: library/ssl ssl DER_cert_to_PEM_cert10242727
Ref: 31b010242727
Ref: library/ssl ssl PEM_cert_to_DER_cert10242908
Ref: 31b110242908
Ref: library/ssl ssl get_default_verify_paths10243087
Ref: e4b10243087
Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_certificates10243963
Ref: e5710243963
Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_crls10244841
Ref: e5810244841
Ref: Certificate handling-Footnote-110245409
Node: Constants<7>10245468
Ref: library/ssl constants10245580
Ref: 31b210245580
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_NONE10245747
Ref: 31b310245747
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_OPTIONAL10246298
Ref: 31b410246298
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_REQUIRED10247050
Ref: 31a210247050
Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyMode10248022
Ref: 31b610248022
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_DEFAULT10248144
Ref: e5010248144
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF10248401
Ref: e5110248401
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN10248850
Ref: e5210248850
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_STRICT10249060
Ref: e5310249060
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS10249244
Ref: 170610249244
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST10249424
Ref: 31b710249424
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN10249717
Ref: 67b10249717
Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyFlags10250153
Ref: 31b810250153
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS10250279
Ref: 31a410250279
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT10250791
Ref: 6b610250791
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER10251106
Ref: 6b710251106
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv2310251323
Ref: 31b910251323
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv310251490
Ref: 31af10251490
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv110252082
Ref: 31ba10252082
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_110252288
Ref: e4810252288
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_210252573
Ref: e4910252573
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ALL10252858
Ref: 31bb10252858
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv210253119
Ref: 67710253119
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv310253436
Ref: 67810253436
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv110253753
Ref: 31bc10253753
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_110254208
Ref: 31bd10254208
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_210254611
Ref: 31be10254611
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_310255014
Ref: 16ce10255014
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION10255616
Ref: 31bf10255616
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE10255901
Ref: fef10255901
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_DH_USE10256136
Ref: 31c010256136
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE10256393
Ref: 31c110256393
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT10256654
Ref: 31c210256654
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_COMPRESSION10256935
Ref: fec10256935
Ref: library/ssl ssl Options10257130
Ref: 31c310257130
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TICKET10257220
Ref: 31c410257220
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF10257338
Ref: 67510257338
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_KTLS10257528
Ref: 15b610257528
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT10258240
Ref: 159b10258240
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ALPN10258402
Ref: cfa10258402
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME10258613
Ref: 31c510258613
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ECDH10258853
Ref: 31c610258853
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SNI10259114
Ref: 31c710259114
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NPN10259299
Ref: 31c810259299
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv210259654
Ref: 31c910259654
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv310259795
Ref: 31ca10259795
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv110259936
Ref: 31cb10259936
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_110260077
Ref: 9f910260077
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_210260220
Ref: 31cc10260220
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_310260363
Ref: 31cd10260363
Ref: library/ssl ssl CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES10260506
Ref: 31ce10260506
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION10260728
Ref: 10c410260728
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO10260944
Ref: 10c510260944
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER10261174
Ref: 10c610261174
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE10261447
Ref: 31cf10261447
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR10261499
Ref: 31d010261499
Ref: library/ssl ssl AlertDescription10261897
Ref: 31d110261897
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose SERVER_AUTH10262043
Ref: e5510262043
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose CLIENT_AUTH10262360
Ref: e5610262360
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLErrorNumber10262677
Ref: 31d210262677
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion10262808
Ref: 31d310262808
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MINIMUM_SUPPORTED10263029
Ref: 31d410263029
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED10263077
Ref: 31d510263077
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion SSLv310263303
Ref: 31d610263303
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv110263339
Ref: 31d710263339
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_110263375
Ref: 31d810263375
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_210263413
Ref: 31d910263413
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_310263451
Ref: 31da10263451
Ref: Constants<7>-Footnote-110263737
Ref: Constants<7>-Footnote-210263796
Ref: Constants<7>-Footnote-310263855
Ref: Constants<7>-Footnote-410263933
Ref: Constants<7>-Footnote-510263992
Node: SSL Sockets10264085
Ref: library/ssl ssl-sockets10264239
Ref: 31db10264239
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket10264282
Ref: 73d10264282
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket read10266752
Ref: d0210266752
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket write10267593
Ref: d0310267593
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket do_handshake10268843
Ref: d0110268843
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket getpeercert10269612
Ref: e5a10269612
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket cipher10273157
Ref: 30d610273157
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket shared_ciphers10273443
Ref: d0010273443
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket compression10273924
Ref: feb10273924
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_channel_binding10274273
Ref: fea10274273
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_alpn_protocol10274910
Ref: cf910274910
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_npn_protocol10275325
Ref: 6b810275325
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket unwrap10275764
Ref: 31dc10275764
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket verify_client_post_handshake10276189
Ref: 89410276189
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket version10277071
Ref: cfc10277071
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket pending10277486
Ref: 31de10277486
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket context10277626
Ref: 31dd10277626
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_side10277759
Ref: 31df10277759
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_hostname10277934
Ref: 9f510277934
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session10278446
Ref: 144110278446
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session_reused10278807
Ref: 31e010278807
Ref: SSL Sockets-Footnote-110278915
Ref: SSL Sockets-Footnote-210278974
Node: SSL Contexts10279033
Ref: library/ssl ssl-contexts10279165
Ref: 31e110279165
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext10279511
Ref: 27710279511
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext cert_store_stats10284512
Ref: e4d10284512
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_cert_chain10284920
Ref: fe710284920
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_default_certs10286550
Ref: e5410286550
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_verify_locations10287376
Ref: d8210287376
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ca_certs10288712
Ref: e4e10288712
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ciphers10289350
Ref: b6110289350
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_default_verify_paths10290655
Ref: e4c10290655
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ciphers10291126
Ref: 31e310291126
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_alpn_protocols10291727
Ref: cf810291727
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_npn_protocols10292367
Ref: 27810292367
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sni_callback10293120
Ref: 170010293120
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_servername_callback10295662
Ref: e5910295662
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_dh_params10296352
Ref: fe810296352
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ecdh_curve10296899
Ref: fe910296899
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_socket10297645
Ref: 2af10297645
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslsocket_class10300563
Ref: 31e410300563
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_bio10300864
Ref: 9f810300864
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslobject_class10301613
Ref: 31e510301613
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext session_stats10301911
Ref: 31e610301911
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext check_hostname10302378
Ref: 31b510302378
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext keylog_filename10303912
Ref: 31a310303912
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext maximum_version10304361
Ref: 6b510304361
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext minimum_version10305222
Ref: 6b410305222
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext num_tickets10305438
Ref: 31e710305438
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext options10305674
Ref: 67610305674
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext post_handshake_auth10306424
Ref: 89310306424
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext protocol10307244
Ref: 31e810307244
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext hostname_checks_common_name10307383
Ref: 9f310307383
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext security_level10307825
Ref: 31e910307825
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_flags10308003
Ref: e4f10308003
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_mode10308546
Ref: 31a110308546
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-110309059
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-210309213
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-310309300
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-410309387
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-510309541
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-610309628
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-710309715
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-810309792
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-910309846
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1010309905
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1110309984
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1210310044
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1310310121
Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1410310187
Node: Certificates10310261
Ref: library/ssl certificates10310394
Ref: 31ea10310394
Ref: library/ssl ssl-certificates10310394
Ref: 31e210310394
Ref: Certificates-Footnote-110312743
Node: Certificate chains10312802
Ref: library/ssl certificate-chains10312893
Ref: 31eb10312893
Node: CA certificates10314164
Ref: library/ssl ca-certificates10314292
Ref: 31ec10314292
Node: Combined key and certificate10314882
Ref: library/ssl combined-key-and-certificate10315016
Ref: 31ed10315016
Node: Self-signed certificates10315632
Ref: library/ssl self-signed-certificates10315742
Ref: 31ee10315742
Node: Examples<19>10317440
Ref: library/ssl examples10317590
Ref: 31ef10317590
Node: Testing for SSL support10317719
Ref: library/ssl testing-for-ssl-support10317821
Ref: 31f010317821
Node: Client-side operation10318135
Ref: library/ssl client-side-operation10318267
Ref: 31f110318267
Node: Server-side operation10323008
Ref: library/ssl server-side-operation10323108
Ref: 31f210323108
Node: Notes on non-blocking sockets10325117
Ref: library/ssl notes-on-non-blocking-sockets10325276
Ref: 31f310325276
Ref: library/ssl ssl-nonblocking10325276
Ref: 31a710325276
Node: Memory BIO Support<2>10328205
Ref: library/ssl memory-bio-support10328363
Ref: 31f410328363
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLObject10329481
Ref: 9f710329481
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO10333055
Ref: cf610333055
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO pending10333187
Ref: 31f510333187
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO eof10333289
Ref: 31f610333289
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO read10333422
Ref: 31f710333422
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write10333582
Ref: 31f810333582
Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write_eof10333866
Ref: 31f910333866
Node: SSL session10334160
Ref: library/ssl ssl-session10334315
Ref: 31fa10334315
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession10334383
Ref: b6010334383
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession id10334464
Ref: 31fb10334464
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession time10334491
Ref: 31fc10334491
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession timeout10334520
Ref: 31fd10334520
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession ticket_lifetime_hint10334552
Ref: 31fe10334552
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession has_ticket10334597
Ref: 31ff10334597
Node: Security considerations<2>10334632
Ref: library/ssl security-considerations10334773
Ref: 320010334773
Ref: library/ssl ssl-security10334773
Ref: 309210334773
Node: Best defaults10334911
Ref: library/ssl best-defaults10335011
Ref: 320110335011
Node: Manual settings10336172
Ref: library/ssl manual-settings10336297
Ref: 320210336297
Node: Verifying certificates10336430
Ref: library/ssl verifying-certificates10336530
Ref: 320310336530
Node: Protocol versions10337727
Ref: library/ssl protocol-versions10337852
Ref: 320410337852
Node: Cipher selection10338676
Ref: library/ssl cipher-selection10338770
Ref: 320510338770
Ref: Cipher selection-Footnote-110339426
Node: Multi-processing10339498
Ref: library/ssl multi-processing10339601
Ref: 320610339601
Node: TLS 1 310340124
Ref: library/ssl ssl-tlsv1-310340245
Ref: 9f610340245
Ref: library/ssl tls-1-310340245
Ref: 320710340245
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-110342374
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-210342440
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-310342499
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-410342558
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-510342617
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-610342676
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-710342735
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-810342811
Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-910342870
Node: select — Waiting for I/O completion10342928
Ref: library/select doc10343144
Ref: 320810343144
Ref: library/select module-select10343144
Ref: c010343144
Ref: library/select select-waiting-for-i-o-completion10343144
Ref: 320910343144
Ref: library/select select error10344390
Ref: f0010344390
Ref: library/select select devpoll10344583
Ref: e3610344583
Ref: library/select select epoll10345308
Ref: e3410345308
Ref: library/select select poll10346813
Ref: 298810346813
Ref: library/select select kqueue10347131
Ref: 14cd10347131
Ref: library/select select kevent10347473
Ref: 320e10347473
Ref: library/select select select10347749
Ref: c2d10347749
Ref: library/select select PIPE_BUF10350021
Ref: 10af10350021
Ref: select — Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-110350708
Ref: select — Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-210350750
Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects10350792
Ref: library/select dev-poll-polling-objects10350944
Ref: 321010350944
Ref: library/select devpoll-objects10350944
Ref: 320a10350944
Ref: library/select select devpoll close10351310
Ref: e3810351310
Ref: library/select select devpoll closed10351425
Ref: e3910351425
Ref: library/select select devpoll fileno10351537
Ref: e3710351537
Ref: library/select select devpoll register10351661
Ref: 321110351661
Ref: library/select select devpoll modify10352646
Ref: 321210352646
Ref: library/select select devpoll unregister10352856
Ref: 321310352856
Ref: library/select select devpoll poll10353215
Ref: c2910353215
Ref: /dev/poll Polling Objects-Footnote-110354364
Node: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects10354406
Ref: library/select edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects10354582
Ref: 321410354582
Ref: library/select epoll-objects10354582
Ref: 320b10354582
Ref: library/select select epoll close10357452
Ref: e3510357452
Ref: library/select select epoll closed10357543
Ref: 321510357543
Ref: library/select select epoll fileno10357623
Ref: 321610357623
Ref: library/select select epoll fromfd10357713
Ref: 321710357713
Ref: library/select select epoll register10357805
Ref: 321810357805
Ref: library/select select epoll modify10357907
Ref: 321910357907
Ref: library/select select epoll unregister10357994
Ref: 7b510357994
Ref: library/select select epoll poll10358193
Ref: c2a10358193
Ref: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects-Footnote-110358601
Node: Polling Objects10358643
Ref: library/select poll-objects10358808
Ref: 320c10358808
Ref: library/select polling-objects10358808
Ref: 321a10358808
Ref: library/select select poll register10359383
Ref: 321b10359383
Ref: library/select select poll modify10361362
Ref: 321c10361362
Ref: library/select select poll unregister10361665
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Ref: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing-Footnote-110372912
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey10375398
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Ref: Classes<3>-Footnote-110381874
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Ref: library/selectors examples10382025
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Ref: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events-Footnote-110383748
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Node: Execution of Python signal handlers10384950
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Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-110408353
Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-210408404
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Node: Examples<21>10409387
Ref: library/signal examples10409534
Ref: 326010409534
Ref: library/signal signal-example10409534
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Ref: Note on SIGPIPE-Footnote-110412111
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Ref: 207d10412301
Ref: library/signal note-on-signal-handlers-and-exceptions10412301
Ref: 326310412301
Node: mmap — Memory-mapped file support10414908
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write10428070
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write_byte10428787
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Ref: library/mmap madvise-constants10429267
Ref: 326c10429267
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NORMAL10429320
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_PROTECT10429961
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSABLE10429991
Ref: 328e10429991
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSE10430027
Ref: 328f10430027
Node: MAP_* Constants10430269
Ref: library/mmap id110430381
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Ref: library/mmap map-constants10430381
Ref: 326810430381
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_SHARED10430432
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_PRIVATE10430460
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_DENYWRITE10430489
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_EXECUTABLE10430520
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_POPULATE10430609
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER10430666
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_CONCEAL10430701
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Node: Internet Data Handling10431280
Ref: library/netdata doc10431461
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Ref: library/netdata internet-data-handling10431461
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Ref: library/netdata netdata10431461
Ref: 329810431461
Node: email — An email and MIME handling package10432041
Ref: library/email doc10432186
Ref: 329910432186
Ref: library/email email-an-email-and-mime-handling-package10432186
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Ref: 3a10432186
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-110438950
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-210439024
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-310439083
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-410439142
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-510439201
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-610439260
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-710439319
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-810439378
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-910439437
Node: email message Representing an email message10439496
Ref: library/email message doc10439664
Ref: 329b10439664
Ref: library/email message email-message-representing-an-email-message10439664
Ref: 329c10439664
Ref: library/email message module-email message10439664
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage10442137
Ref: b1c10442137
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_string10442622
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __str__10444481
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_bytes10444956
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __bytes__10446122
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_multipart10446300
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_unixfrom10446987
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_unixfrom10447211
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __len__10448345
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage keys10450824
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage values10450920
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage items10451012
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get10451145
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_all10451495
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_header10451734
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage replace_header10453700
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_type10454008
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_maintype10454894
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_subtype10455102
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_default_type10455297
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_default_type10455619
Ref: 32b910455619
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_param10456063
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage del_param10457690
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_filename10458128
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_boundary10458669
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_boundary10459035
Ref: 32c010459035
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_charset10459705
Ref: 32c210459705
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_charsets10460009
Ref: 32c310460009
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_attachment10460704
Ref: 32c410460704
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_disposition10461077
Ref: 32c610461077
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage walk10461556
Ref: 32c710461556
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_body10463571
Ref: 32c810463571
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_attachments10465692
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_parts10466668
Ref: 32ca10466668
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content10466883
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_content10467295
Ref: 16d010467295
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_related10467707
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_alternative10468197
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_mixed10468718
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_related10469259
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_alternative10470018
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_attachment10470710
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear10471697
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear_content10471780
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage preamble10472043
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage epilogue10473310
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Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage defects10473659
Ref: 32d910473659
Ref: library/email message email message MIMEPart10473904
Ref: dda10473904
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-110474274
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-210474347
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-310474544
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-410474603
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Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1110475017
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1210475077
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1310475137
Node: email parser Parsing email messages10475197
Ref: library/email parser doc10475415
Ref: 32da10475415
Ref: library/email parser email-parser-parsing-email-messages10475415
Ref: 32db10475415
Ref: library/email parser module-email parser10475415
Ref: 4d10475415
Ref: email parser Parsing email messages-Footnote-110477808
Node: FeedParser API10477880
Ref: library/email parser feedparser-api10477985
Ref: 32dd10477985
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser10479284
Ref: 107010479284
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser feed10480498
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Ref: library/email parser email parser FeedParser10481177
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Node: Parser API10481644
Ref: library/email parser parser-api10481774
Ref: 32e010481774
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser10482504
Ref: 107110482504
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parse10483185
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Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parsebytes10484227
Ref: 32e210484227
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesHeaderParser10484737
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Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser10484962
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Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parse10485320
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Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parsestr10485760
Ref: 32e410485760
Ref: library/email parser email parser HeaderParser10486191
Ref: f5f10486191
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_bytes10486593
Ref: 106e10486593
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_binary_file10487066
Ref: 106f10487066
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_string10487547
Ref: 32e510487547
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_file10487946
Ref: 32e610487946
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-110488685
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-210488744
Node: Additional notes10488803
Ref: library/email parser additional-notes10488910
Ref: 32e710488910
Node: email generator Generating MIME documents10490464
Ref: library/email generator doc10490666
Ref: 32e910490666
Ref: library/email generator email-generator-generating-mime-documents10490666
Ref: 32ea10490666
Ref: library/email generator module-email generator10490666
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Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator10492793
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Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator flatten10494714
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Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator clone10496539
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Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator write10496740
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Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator10497798
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Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator flatten10499657
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Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator clone10501424
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Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator write10501612
Ref: 32f110501612
Ref: library/email generator email generator DecodedGenerator10502526
Ref: b1810502526
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-110503949
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-210504025
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-310504532
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-410504584
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-510504643
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-610504695
Node: email policy Policy Objects10504754
Ref: library/email policy doc10504962
Ref: 32f310504962
Ref: library/email policy email-policy-policy-objects10504962
Ref: 32f410504962
Ref: library/email policy module-email policy10504962
Ref: 4e10504962
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy10510930
Ref: f5610510930
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy max_line_length10511756
Ref: 32a010511756
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy linesep10512065
Ref: 32f510512065
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy cte_type10512337
Ref: 32ee10512337
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy raise_on_defect10513451
Ref: 32f710513451
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy mangle_from_10513698
Ref: c8410513698
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy message_factory10514030
Ref: b1910514030
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy verify_generated_headers10514310
Ref: 38e10514310
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy clone10515161
Ref: f5810515161
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy handle_defect10515637
Ref: 32fa10515637
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy register_defect10516131
Ref: 32f810516131
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_max_count10516839
Ref: 32fc10516839
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_source_parse10517903
Ref: 32fd10517903
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_store_parse10518918
Ref: 32fe10518918
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_fetch_parse10519681
Ref: 32ff10519681
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold10520506
Ref: 330010520506
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold_binary10521224
Ref: 32f610521224
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy10521560
Ref: f5a10521560
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy utf810522396
Ref: c8610522396
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy refold_source10522795
Ref: 32eb10522795
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_factory10523593
Ref: 330110523593
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy content_manager10524207
Ref: ddb10524207
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_max_count10524921
Ref: 330310524921
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_source_parse10525129
Ref: 142c10525129
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_store_parse10525516
Ref: 330510525516
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_fetch_parse10525999
Ref: 330610525999
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold10526427
Ref: 14a410526427
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold_binary10527592
Ref: 330710527592
Ref: library/email policy email policy default10528413
Ref: 329e10528413
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTP10528625
Ref: 330810528625
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTPUTF810528829
Ref: 330910528829
Ref: library/email policy email policy HTTP10529245
Ref: 330a10529245
Ref: library/email policy email policy strict10529439
Ref: 330b10529439
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat3210530818
Ref: f5710530818
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 mangle_from_10531353
Ref: 330c10531353
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_source_parse10531544
Ref: 142d10531544
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_store_parse10531931
Ref: 330d10531931
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_fetch_parse10532039
Ref: 330e10532039
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold10532283
Ref: 330f10532283
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold_binary10532628
Ref: 331010532628
Ref: library/email policy email policy compat3210533160
Ref: b1a10533160
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-110533365
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-210533437
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-310533496
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-410533555
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-510533614
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-610533673
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-710533732
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-810533791
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-910533860
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1010533919
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1110533979
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1210534039
Node: email errors Exception and Defect classes10534099
Ref: library/email errors doc10534308
Ref: 331110534308
Ref: library/email errors email-errors-exception-and-defect-classes10534308
Ref: 331210534308
Ref: library/email errors module-email errors10534308
Ref: 3e10534308
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageError10534612
Ref: 331310534612
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageParseError10534855
Ref: 331410534855
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderParseError10535134
Ref: 32c110535134
Ref: library/email errors email errors BoundaryError10535779
Ref: 331510535779
Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartConversionError10535861
Ref: 331610535861
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderWriteError10536224
Ref: 32f910536224
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageDefect10536358
Ref: 32fb10536358
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderDefect10536531
Ref: 331910536531
Ref: library/email errors email errors NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect10537146
Ref: 331a10537146
Ref: library/email errors email errors StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect10537290
Ref: 331b10537290
Ref: library/email errors email errors CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect10537437
Ref: 331c10537437
Ref: library/email errors email errors FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect10537615
Ref: 331d10537615
Ref: library/email errors email errors MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect10537750
Ref: 331e10537750
Ref: library/email errors email errors MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect10537885
Ref: 331f10537885
Ref: library/email errors email errors MalformedHeaderDefect10538171
Ref: 332010538171
Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartInvariantViolationDefect10538420
Ref: 32e810538420
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64PaddingDefect10538740
Ref: 332110538740
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64CharactersDefect10538986
Ref: 332210538986
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64LengthDefect10539244
Ref: 332310539244
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidDateDefect10539486
Ref: 332410539486
Ref: email errors Exception and Defect classes-Footnote-110539668
Ref: email errors Exception and Defect classes-Footnote-210539740
Node: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects10539799
Ref: library/email headerregistry doc10540023
Ref: 332510540023
Ref: library/email headerregistry email-headerregistry-custom-header-objects10540023
Ref: 332610540023
Ref: library/email headerregistry module-email headerregistry10540023
Ref: 4110540023
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader10541791
Ref: 32ad10541791
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader name10542108
Ref: 332910542108
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader defects10542362
Ref: 332a10542362
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader max_count10542724
Ref: 330410542724
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader fold10543244
Ref: 332b10543244
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry UnstructuredHeader10545437
Ref: 332810545437
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader10546520
Ref: 332c10546520
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader datetime10546887
Ref: 332d10546887
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader10548458
Ref: 332e10548458
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader groups10548746
Ref: 332f10548746
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader addresses10549064
Ref: 333210549064
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader10550229
Ref: 333410550229
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader address10550374
Ref: 333510550374
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader10550909
Ref: 333610550909
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader version10551305
Ref: 333710551305
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader major10551435
Ref: 333810551435
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader minor10551515
Ref: 333910551515
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader10551595
Ref: 333a10551595
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader params10551982
Ref: 32bb10551982
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader10552082
Ref: 333b10552082
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader content_type10552237
Ref: 333c10552237
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader maintype10552346
Ref: 333d10552346
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader subtype10552379
Ref: 333e10552379
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader10552411
Ref: 333f10552411
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader content_disposition10552580
Ref: 334010552580
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding10552720
Ref: 334110552720
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding cte10552839
Ref: 334210552839
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry10553011
Ref: 332710553011
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry map_to_type10554747
Ref: 334310554747
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __getitem__10555084
Ref: 334410555084
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __call__10555209
Ref: 334510555209
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address10555853
Ref: 333310555853
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address display_name10556696
Ref: 334610556696
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address username10556925
Ref: 334710556925
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address domain10557048
Ref: 334810557048
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address addr_spec10557131
Ref: 334910557131
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address __str__10557352
Ref: 334a10557352
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group10557793
Ref: 333010557793
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group display_name10558346
Ref: 333110558346
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group addresses10558604
Ref: 334b10558604
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group __str__10558755
Ref: 334c10558755
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-110559197
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-210559278
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-310559346
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-410559405
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-510559464
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-610559523
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-710559582
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-810559641
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-910559700
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1010559759
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1110559819
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1210559879
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1310559939
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1410559999
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1510560059
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1610560119
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1710560179
Node: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content10560239
Ref: library/email contentmanager doc10560436
Ref: 334d10560436
Ref: library/email contentmanager email-contentmanager-managing-mime-content10560436
Ref: 334e10560436
Ref: library/email contentmanager module-email contentmanager10560436
Ref: 3c10560436
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager10560695
Ref: 334f10560695
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager get_content10560988
Ref: 32cc10560988
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager set_content10561824
Ref: 32cd10561824
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_get_handler10563458
Ref: 335110563458
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_set_handler10563652
Ref: 335310563652
Ref: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content-Footnote-110564019
Ref: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content-Footnote-210564100
Node: Content Manager Instances10564168
Ref: library/email contentmanager content-manager-instances10564272
Ref: 335510564272
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager raw_data_manager10564612
Ref: 330210564612
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager get_content10565344
Ref: 335210565344
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager set_content10565945
Ref: 335410565945
Ref: Content Manager Instances-Footnote-110570734
Node: email Examples10570793
Ref: library/email examples doc10571022
Ref: 335610571022
Ref: library/email examples email-examples10571022
Ref: ddc10571022
Ref: library/email examples id110571022
Ref: 335710571022
Ref: email Examples-Footnote-110585628
Ref: email Examples-Footnote-210585686
Node: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API10585768
Ref: library/email compat32-message doc10586010
Ref: 335810586010
Ref: library/email compat32-message compat32-message10586010
Ref: 329d10586010
Ref: library/email compat32-message email-message-message-representing-an-email-message-using-the-compat32-api10586010
Ref: 335910586010
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message10588567
Ref: b1b10588567
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_string10589108
Ref: dd610589108
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __str__10591279
Ref: 335a10591279
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_bytes10591446
Ref: dd710591446
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __bytes__10593006
Ref: dd810593006
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message is_multipart10593215
Ref: 32c510593215
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_unixfrom10593893
Ref: 335b10593893
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_unixfrom10594035
Ref: 335c10594035
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message attach10594194
Ref: 32d210594194
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_payload10594814
Ref: 107210594814
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_payload10597492
Ref: 335d10597492
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_charset10597962
Ref: 335e10597962
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charset10599723
Ref: 335f10599723
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __len__10601177
Ref: 336110601177
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __contains__10601277
Ref: 159d10601277
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __getitem__10601649
Ref: 336210601649
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __setitem__10602186
Ref: 336410602186
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __delitem__10602745
Ref: 336510602745
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message keys10602973
Ref: 336010602973
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message values10603069
Ref: 336610603069
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message items10603161
Ref: 336710603161
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get10603294
Ref: 336810603294
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_all10603609
Ref: 336310603609
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message add_header10603848
Ref: 336910603848
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message replace_header10605816
Ref: 336a10605816
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_type10606107
Ref: 336b10606107
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_maintype10606967
Ref: 336d10606967
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_subtype10607175
Ref: 336e10607175
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_default_type10607370
Ref: 336c10607370
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_default_type10607692
Ref: 336f10607692
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_params10607981
Ref: 337010607981
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_param10609039
Ref: 337110609039
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_param10611043
Ref: dd910611043
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message del_param10612316
Ref: 337310612316
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_type10612759
Ref: 337410612759
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_filename10613634
Ref: 337510613634
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_boundary10614175
Ref: 337610614175
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_boundary10614541
Ref: 337710614541
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_charset10615358
Ref: 337810615358
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charsets10615848
Ref: 337910615848
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_disposition10616552
Ref: c8510616552
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message walk10616919
Ref: 337a10616919
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message preamble10619041
Ref: 337b10619041
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message epilogue10620308
Ref: 337c10620308
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message defects10620710
Ref: 337d10620710
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-110620991
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-210621050
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-310621109
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-410621168
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-510621227
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-610621286
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-710621345
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-810621404
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-910621463
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1010621522
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1110621582
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1210621642
Node: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch10621702
Ref: library/email mime doc10621968
Ref: 337e10621968
Ref: library/email mime email-mime-creating-email-and-mime-objects-from-scratch10621968
Ref: 337f10621968
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime10621968
Ref: 4410621968
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime base10623204
Ref: 4710623204
Ref: library/email mime email mime base MIMEBase10623204
Ref: 338010623204
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime nonmultipart10624360
Ref: 4b10624360
Ref: library/email mime email mime nonmultipart MIMENonMultipart10624360
Ref: 331710624360
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime multipart10624861
Ref: 4a10624861
Ref: library/email mime email mime multipart MIMEMultipart10624861
Ref: 338110624861
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime application10626187
Ref: 4510626187
Ref: library/email mime email mime application MIMEApplication10626187
Ref: 338210626187
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime audio10627550
Ref: 4610627550
Ref: library/email mime email mime audio MIMEAudio10627550
Ref: 338310627550
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime image10629125
Ref: 4810629125
Ref: library/email mime email mime image MIMEImage10629125
Ref: 331810629125
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime message10630780
Ref: 4910630780
Ref: library/email mime email mime message MIMEMessage10630780
Ref: 338410630780
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime text10631477
Ref: 4c10631477
Ref: library/email mime email mime text MIMEText10631477
Ref: c8710631477
Ref: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch-Footnote-110633132
Node: email header Internationalized headers10633200
Ref: library/email header doc10633433
Ref: 338510633433
Ref: library/email header email-header-internationalized-headers10633433
Ref: 338610633433
Ref: library/email header module-email header10633433
Ref: 4010633433
Ref: library/email header email header Header10636130
Ref: 16d110636130
Ref: library/email header email header Header append10638006
Ref: 338710638006
Ref: library/email header email header Header encode10639343
Ref: 338810639343
Ref: library/email header email header Header __str__10640988
Ref: 338910640988
Ref: library/email header email header Header __eq__10641493
Ref: 338a10641493
Ref: library/email header email header Header __ne__10641631
Ref: 338b10641631
Ref: library/email header email header decode_header10641857
Ref: f5b10641857
Ref: library/email header email header make_header10642512
Ref: f5c10642512
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-110643208
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-210643280
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-310643339
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-410643397
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-510643456
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-610643515
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-710643574
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-810643633
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-910643692
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1010643751
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1110643811
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1210643871
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1310643931
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1410643991
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1510644051
Node: email charset Representing character sets10644111
Ref: library/email charset doc10644312
Ref: 338c10644312
Ref: library/email charset email-charset-representing-character-sets10644312
Ref: 338d10644312
Ref: library/email charset module-email charset10644312
Ref: 3b10644312
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset10645123
Ref: c8810645123
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_charset10646652
Ref: 338e10646652
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encoding10646911
Ref: 338f10646911
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encoding10647300
Ref: 339010647300
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_charset10647580
Ref: 339110647580
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_codec10647922
Ref: 339210647922
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_codec10648139
Ref: 339310648139
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_body_encoding10648454
Ref: 339410648454
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_output_charset10649173
Ref: 339510649173
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode10649379
Ref: 339610649379
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode_lines10649589
Ref: 339710649589
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encode10650024
Ref: 339810650024
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __str__10650358
Ref: 339910650358
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __eq__10650519
Ref: 339a10650519
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __ne__10650657
Ref: 339b10650657
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_charset10650953
Ref: 339c10650953
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_alias10652277
Ref: 339e10652277
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_codec10652602
Ref: 339d10652602
Ref: email charset Representing character sets-Footnote-110652995
Node: email encoders Encoders10653068
Ref: library/email encoders doc10653266
Ref: 339f10653266
Ref: library/email encoders email-encoders-encoders10653266
Ref: 33a010653266
Ref: library/email encoders module-email encoders10653266
Ref: 3d10653266
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_quopri10654958
Ref: 33a110654958
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_base6410655285
Ref: 33a210655285
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_7or8bit10655680
Ref: 33a310655680
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_noop10655939
Ref: 33a410655939
Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-110656118
Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-210656192
Node: email utils Miscellaneous utilities10656309
Ref: library/email utils doc10656491
Ref: 33a510656491
Ref: library/email utils email-utils-miscellaneous-utilities10656491
Ref: 33a610656491
Ref: library/email utils module-email utils10656491
Ref: 4f10656491
Ref: library/email utils email utils localtime10656787
Ref: 23110656787
Ref: library/email utils email utils make_msgid10657373
Ref: 33a710657373
Ref: library/email utils email utils quote10658273
Ref: 33a810658273
Ref: library/email utils email utils unquote10658451
Ref: 32be10658451
Ref: library/email utils email utils parseaddr10658720
Ref: 39210658720
Ref: library/email utils email utils formataddr10659292
Ref: 104110659292
Ref: library/email utils email utils getaddresses10659975
Ref: 39110659975
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate10660826
Ref: 33a910660826
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_tz10661455
Ref: 16a610661455
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_to_datetime10662034
Ref: f6110662034
Ref: library/email utils email utils mktime_tz10662913
Ref: 33aa10662913
Ref: library/email utils email utils formatdate10663149
Ref: 12f210663149
Ref: library/email utils email utils format_datetime10664095
Ref: f6010664095
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_rfc223110664784
Ref: 33ab10664784
Ref: library/email utils email utils encode_rfc223110664883
Ref: 33ac10664883
Ref: library/email utils email utils collapse_rfc2231_value10665280
Ref: 337210665280
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_params10666133
Ref: 33ad10666133
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-110666388
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-210666459
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-310666518
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-410666577
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-510666636
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-610666695
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-710666968
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-810667027
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-910667086
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1010667145
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1110667205
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1210667265
Node: email iterators Iterators10667325
Ref: library/email iterators doc10667475
Ref: 33ae10667475
Ref: library/email iterators email-iterators-iterators10667475
Ref: 33af10667475
Ref: library/email iterators module-email iterators10667475
Ref: 4210667475
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators body_line_iterator10667875
Ref: 33b010667875
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators typed_subpart_iterator10668452
Ref: 33b110668452
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators _structure10669169
Ref: 33b210669169
Ref: email iterators Iterators-Footnote-110670679
Node: json — JSON encoder and decoder10670755
Ref: library/json doc10670960
Ref: 33b310670960
Ref: library/json json-json-encoder-and-decoder10670960
Ref: 33b410670960
Ref: library/json module-json10670960
Ref: 8010670960
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-110674976
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-210675049
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-310675074
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-410675133
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-510675192
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-610675279
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-710675328
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-810675590
Node: Basic Usage10675616
Ref: library/json basic-usage10675727
Ref: 33b610675727
Ref: library/json json dump10675770
Ref: bcd10675770
Ref: library/json json dumps10679994
Ref: bce10679994
Ref: library/json json load10680817
Ref: b3710680817
Ref: library/json json loads10684482
Ref: 7b010684482
Ref: Basic Usage-Footnote-110685200
Node: Encoders and Decoders10685232
Ref: library/json encoders-and-decoders10685366
Ref: 33ba10685366
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder10685429
Ref: bd010685429
Ref: library/json json-to-py-table10685687
Ref: 33b910685687
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder decode10688678
Ref: 33bb10688678
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder raw_decode10688932
Ref: 33bc10688932
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder10689298
Ref: bcf10689298
Ref: library/json py-to-json-table10689603
Ref: 33b710689603
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder default10693947
Ref: 33b810693947
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder encode10694638
Ref: 33bd10694638
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder iterencode10694885
Ref: 33be10694885
Ref: Encoders and Decoders-Footnote-110695184
Node: Exceptions<14>10695216
Ref: library/json exceptions10695379
Ref: 33bf10695379
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError10695420
Ref: cb010695420
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError msg10695563
Ref: 33c010695563
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError doc10695633
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Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError pos10695704
Ref: 33c210695704
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError lineno10695790
Ref: 33c310695790
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError colno10695865
Ref: 33c410695865
Node: Standard Compliance and Interoperability10695969
Ref: library/json standard-compliance-and-interoperability10696136
Ref: 33c510696136
Ref: Standard Compliance and Interoperability-Footnote-110697286
Ref: Standard Compliance and Interoperability-Footnote-210697345
Node: Character Encodings10697432
Ref: library/json character-encodings10697567
Ref: 33c610697567
Node: Infinite and NaN Number Values10698898
Ref: library/json infinite-and-nan-number-values10699073
Ref: 33c710699073
Node: Repeated Names Within an Object10699861
Ref: library/json repeated-names-within-an-object10700054
Ref: 33c810700054
Node: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values10700577
Ref: library/json top-level-non-object-non-array-values10700766
Ref: 33c910700766
Ref: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values-Footnote-110701420
Ref: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values-Footnote-210701479
Node: Implementation Limitations10701538
Ref: library/json implementation-limitations10701687
Ref: 33ca10701687
Node: Command Line Interface<2>10702637
Ref: library/json command-line-interface10702781
Ref: 33cb10702781
Ref: library/json json-commandline10702781
Ref: 33b510702781
Ref: library/json module-json tool10702781
Ref: 8110702781
Ref: Command Line Interface<2>-Footnote-110703710
Node: Command line options<2>10703779
Ref: library/json command-line-options10703864
Ref: 33cd10703864
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-infile10703927
Ref: 33ce10703927
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-outfile10704403
Ref: 33cf10704403
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-sort-keys10704538
Ref: 33cc10704538
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-ensure-ascii10704652
Ref: 33d010704652
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-json-lines10704815
Ref: 33d110704815
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-indent10704923
Ref: 33d210704923
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-tab10704923
Ref: 33d310704923
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-indent10704923
Ref: 33d410704923
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-compact10704923
Ref: 33d510704923
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-h10705061
Ref: 33d610705061
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-help10705061
Ref: 33d710705061
Node: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats10705114
Ref: library/mailbox doc10705316
Ref: 33d810705316
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-manipulate-mailboxes-in-various-formats10705316
Ref: 33d910705316
Ref: library/mailbox module-mailbox10705316
Ref: 8a10705316
Ref: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats-Footnote-110706213
Node: Mailbox objects10706280
Ref: library/mailbox id110706407
Ref: 33da10706407
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-objects10706407
Ref: 33db10706407
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox10706466
Ref: 10f410706466
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox add10709260
Ref: 10f310709260
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox remove10710059
Ref: 33dc10710059
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __delitem__10710091
Ref: 33e010710091
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox discard10710128
Ref: 33dd10710128
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __setitem__10710675
Ref: 33e110710675
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iterkeys10711563
Ref: 33e210711563
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox keys10711652
Ref: 33e310711652
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox itervalues10711817
Ref: 33e410711817
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __iter__10711850
Ref: 33e510711850
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox values10712339
Ref: 33e610712339
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iteritems10712508
Ref: 33e710712508
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox items10712932
Ref: 33e810712932
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get10713128
Ref: 33e910713128
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __getitem__10713171
Ref: 33ea10713171
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_message10713748
Ref: 33eb10713748
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_bytes10714039
Ref: 10f610714039
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_string10714276
Ref: 10f710714276
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_file10714617
Ref: 10f510714617
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __contains__10715653
Ref: 33ec10715653
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __len__10715789
Ref: 33ed10715789
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox clear10715874
Ref: 33ee10715874
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox pop10715952
Ref: 33ef10715952
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox popitem10716392
Ref: 33f010716392
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox update10716910
Ref: 33f110716910
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox flush10717613
Ref: 33f210717613
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox lock10717900
Ref: 33de10717900
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox unlock10718321
Ref: 33df10718321
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox close10718403
Ref: 33f410718403
Node: Maildir objects10718691
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildir10718779
Ref: 33f510718779
Ref: library/mailbox maildir-objects10718779
Ref: 33f610718779
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir10718838
Ref: 11be10718838
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir colon10720973
Ref: 33f810720973
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir list_folders10721696
Ref: 33f910721696
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_folder10721786
Ref: 33fa10721786
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add_folder10722022
Ref: 33fc10722022
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir remove_folder10722175
Ref: 33fd10722175
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir clean10722419
Ref: 33ff10722419
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add10722756
Ref: 340010722756
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir __setitem__10722789
Ref: 340110722789
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir update10722835
Ref: 340210722835
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir flush10723249
Ref: 340310723249
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir lock10723386
Ref: 340410723386
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir unlock10723413
Ref: 340510723413
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir close10723548
Ref: 340610723548
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_file10723741
Ref: 340710723741
Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-110724294
Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-210724343
Node: mbox objects10724387
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mbox10724494
Ref: 340810724494
Ref: library/mailbox mbox-objects10724494
Ref: 340910724494
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox10724547
Ref: 14ae10724547
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_bytes10725970
Ref: 340a10725970
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_file10726269
Ref: 340b10726269
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_string10726754
Ref: 340c10726754
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox lock10727054
Ref: 340d10727054
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox unlock10727081
Ref: 340e10727081
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-110727675
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-210727735
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-310727787
Node: MH objects10727865
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mh10727970
Ref: 340f10727970
Ref: library/mailbox mh-objects10727970
Ref: 341010727970
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH10728019
Ref: 341110728019
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH list_folders10729457
Ref: 341310729457
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_folder10729547
Ref: 341410729547
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH add_folder10729779
Ref: 341510729779
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH remove_folder10729928
Ref: 341610729928
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_sequences10730172
Ref: 341710730172
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH set_sequences10730351
Ref: 341810730351
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH pack10730591
Ref: 341910730591
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH remove10731007
Ref: 341a10731007
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH __delitem__10731039
Ref: 341b10731039
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH discard10731076
Ref: 341c10731076
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH lock10731287
Ref: 341d10731287
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH unlock10731314
Ref: 341e10731314
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_file10731691
Ref: 341f10731691
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH flush10731885
Ref: 342010731885
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH close10732017
Ref: 342110732017
Ref: MH objects-Footnote-110732494
Ref: MH objects-Footnote-210732530
Node: Babyl objects10732575
Ref: library/mailbox babyl-objects10732680
Ref: 342210732680
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-babyl10732680
Ref: 342310732680
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl10732735
Ref: 342410732735
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl get_labels10734303
Ref: 342610734303
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl get_file10734831
Ref: 342710734831
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl lock10735353
Ref: 342810735353
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl unlock10735380
Ref: 342910735380
Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-110735791
Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-210735835
Node: MMDF objects10735913
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mmdf10735999
Ref: 342a10735999
Ref: library/mailbox mmdf-objects10735999
Ref: 342b10735999
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF10736052
Ref: 14af10736052
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF get_bytes10737314
Ref: 342d10737314
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF get_file10737613
Ref: 342e10737613
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF lock10738098
Ref: 342f10738098
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF unlock10738125
Ref: 343010738125
Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-110738579
Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-210738639
Node: Message objects10738682
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-message-objects10738832
Ref: 343110738832
Ref: library/mailbox message-objects10738832
Ref: 343210738832
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Message10738891
Ref: 10f810738891
Ref: Message objects-Footnote-110740940
Node: MaildirMessage objects10740999
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildirmessage10741101
Ref: 343310741101
Ref: library/mailbox maildirmessage-objects10741101
Ref: 343410741101
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage10741174
Ref: 33f710741174
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_subdir10743028
Ref: 343510743028
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_subdir10743546
Ref: 343610743546
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_flags10743719
Ref: 343710743719
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_flags10744193
Ref: 343810744193
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage add_flag10744299
Ref: 343910744299
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage remove_flag10744651
Ref: 343a10744651
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_date10745008
Ref: 343b10745008
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_date10745166
Ref: 343c10745166
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_info10745333
Ref: 343d10745333
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_info10745558
Ref: 343e10745558
Node: mboxMessage objects10748357
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mboxmessage10748485
Ref: 343f10748485
Ref: library/mailbox mboxmessage-objects10748485
Ref: 344010748485
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage10748552
Ref: 32a610748552
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage get_from10750352
Ref: 344110750352
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage set_from10750585
Ref: 344210750585
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage get_flags10751125
Ref: 344310751125
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage set_flags10751475
Ref: 344410751475
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage add_flag10751768
Ref: 344510751768
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage remove_flag10751990
Ref: 344610751990
Node: MHMessage objects10754970
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mhmessage10755096
Ref: 344710755096
Ref: library/mailbox mhmessage-objects10755096
Ref: 344810755096
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage10755161
Ref: 341210755161
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage get_sequences10756125
Ref: 344910756125
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage set_sequences10756250
Ref: 344a10756250
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage add_sequence10756360
Ref: 344b10756360
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage remove_sequence10756492
Ref: 344c10756492
Node: BabylMessage objects10758359
Ref: library/mailbox babylmessage-objects10758485
Ref: 344d10758485
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-babylmessage10758485
Ref: 344e10758485
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage10758556
Ref: 342510758556
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage get_labels10759915
Ref: 344f10759915
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage set_labels10760000
Ref: 345010760000
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage add_label10760102
Ref: 345110760102
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage remove_label10760201
Ref: 345210760201
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage get_visible10760308
Ref: 345310760308
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage set_visible10760478
Ref: 345410760478
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage update_visible10760831
Ref: 345510760831
Node: MMDFMessage objects10763273
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mmdfmessage10763373
Ref: 345610763373
Ref: library/mailbox mmdfmessage-objects10763373
Ref: 345710763373
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage10763442
Ref: 342c10763442
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage get_from10765126
Ref: 345810765126
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage set_from10765359
Ref: 345910765359
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage get_flags10765899
Ref: 345a10765899
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage set_flags10766249
Ref: 345b10766249
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage add_flag10766542
Ref: 345c10766542
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage remove_flag10766764
Ref: 345d10766764
Node: Exceptions<15>10769745
Ref: library/mailbox exceptions10769892
Ref: 345e10769892
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Error10770009
Ref: 345f10770009
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NoSuchMailboxError10770105
Ref: 33fb10770105
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NotEmptyError10770414
Ref: 33fe10770414
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox ExternalClashError10770578
Ref: 33f310770578
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox FormatError10770893
Ref: 346010770893
Node: Examples<22>10771092
Ref: library/mailbox examples10771215
Ref: 346110771215
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-examples10771215
Ref: 346210771215
Node: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types10773493
Ref: library/mimetypes doc10773715
Ref: 346310773715
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-map-filenames-to-mime-types10773715
Ref: 346410773715
Ref: library/mimetypes module-mimetypes10773715
Ref: 8e10773715
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_type10774602
Ref: 13f510774602
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_all_extensions10775932
Ref: 16bd10775932
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_extension10776496
Ref: 346610776496
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes init10777199
Ref: 346510777199
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes read_mime_types10778178
Ref: 176f10778178
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes add_type10778554
Ref: 346810778554
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes inited10779010
Ref: 346910779010
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes knownfiles10779182
Ref: 346710779182
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes suffix_map10779394
Ref: 346a10779394
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes encodings_map10779746
Ref: 346b10779746
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes types_map10779847
Ref: 346c10779847
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes common_types10779940
Ref: 346d10779940
Ref: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types-Footnote-110780484
Ref: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types-Footnote-210780553
Node: MimeTypes Objects10780624
Ref: library/mimetypes id110780719
Ref: 346e10780719
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-objects10780719
Ref: 346f10780719
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes10780968
Ref: 138810780968
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes suffix_map10781658
Ref: 347210781658
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes encodings_map10782143
Ref: 347310782143
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map10782359
Ref: 347410782359
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map_inv10782698
Ref: 347510782698
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_extension10783051
Ref: 347610783051
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_type10783231
Ref: 187510783231
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_all_extensions10783400
Ref: 347710783400
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read10783590
Ref: 347010783590
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes readfp10783905
Ref: 347110783905
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read_windows_registry10784238
Ref: 347810784238
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes add_type10784584
Ref: 347910784584
Node: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings10785077
Ref: library/base64 doc10785293
Ref: 347a10785293
Ref: library/base64 base64-base16-base32-base64-base85-data-encodings10785293
Ref: 347b10785293
Ref: library/base64 module-base6410785293
Ref: e10785293
Ref: library/base64 base64 b64encode10787172
Ref: 347c10787172
Ref: library/base64 base64 b64decode10787855
Ref: 17d910787855
Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64encode10788844
Ref: 347d10788844
Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64decode10789016
Ref: 347e10789016
Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64encode10789204
Ref: 347f10789204
Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64decode10789543
Ref: 348010789543
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32encode10789859
Ref: 348110789859
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32decode10790004
Ref: ecd10790004
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexencode10790993
Ref: 61d10790993
Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexdecode10791170
Ref: 61e10791170
Ref: library/base64 base64 b16encode10791617
Ref: 348210791617
Ref: library/base64 base64 b16decode10791762
Ref: 348310791762
Ref: library/base64 base64 a85encode10792244
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Ref: library/base64 base64 a85decode10793245
Ref: dbc10793245
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b85decode10794464
Ref: dbe10794464
Ref: library/base64 base64 decode10794729
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Ref: library/base64 base64 decodebytes10795037
Ref: 7af10795037
Ref: library/base64 base64 encode10795266
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Ref: library/base64 base64 encodebytes10795786
Ref: 7ae10795786
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-110796523
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-210796589
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-310796648
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-410796707
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-510796766
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-610796825
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-710796884
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-810796943
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-910797002
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-1010797061
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-1110797121
Node: Security Considerations<2>10797181
Ref: library/base64 base64-security10797297
Ref: 348610797297
Ref: library/base64 security-considerations10797297
Ref: 348710797297
Ref: Security Considerations<2>-Footnote-110797974
Ref: Security Considerations<2>-Footnote-210798033
Node: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII10798092
Ref: library/binascii doc10798322
Ref: 348810798322
Ref: library/binascii binascii-convert-between-binary-and-ascii10798322
Ref: 348910798322
Ref: library/binascii module-binascii10798322
Ref: 1010798322
Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_uu10799345
Ref: 348a10799345
Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_uu10799594
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_base6410799976
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_base6410800644
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_qp10801293
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Ref: library/binascii binascii crc_hqx10802060
Ref: 55d10802060
Ref: library/binascii binascii crc3210802364
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Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_hex10803042
Ref: 220210803042
Ref: library/binascii binascii hexlify10803105
Ref: 348d10803105
Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_hex10804305
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Ref: library/binascii binascii unhexlify10804344
Ref: 188710804344
Ref: library/binascii binascii Error10804871
Ref: ece10804871
Ref: library/binascii binascii Incomplete10804977
Ref: 348e10804977
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-110805526
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-210805585
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-310805644
Node: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data10805703
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Ref: library/quopri module-quopri10805871
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Ref: library/quopri quopri-encode-and-decode-mime-quoted-printable-data10805871
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Ref: library/quopri quopri decode10806606
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Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-110808461
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-210808527
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-310808586
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-410808645
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-510808704
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Ref: library/markup markup10808933
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Ref: library/markup structured-markup-processing-tools10808933
Ref: 349510808933
Node: html — HyperText Markup Language support10810476
Ref: library/html doc10810642
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Ref: library/html html-hypertext-markup-language-support10810642
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Ref: library/html module-html10810642
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Ref: library/html html escape10810908
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Ref: library/html html unescape10811380
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Ref: html — HyperText Markup Language support-Footnote-110812082
Node: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser10812155
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Ref: library/html parser html-parser-simple-html-and-xhtml-parser10812384
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Ref: library/html parser module-html parser10812384
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Ref: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser-Footnote-110813890
Node: Example HTML Parser Application10813961
Ref: library/html parser example-html-parser-application10814100
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Node: HTMLParser Methods10815306
Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-methods10815466
Ref: 349b10815466
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser feed10815593
Ref: 349c10815593
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser close10815862
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser reset10816225
Ref: 349d10816225
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser getpos10816370
Ref: 349e10816370
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser get_starttag_text10816451
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_starttag10817024
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_endtag10817830
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser unknown_decl10820917
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Ref: library/html parser examples10821401
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Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-examples10821401
Ref: 34ab10821401
Node: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities10824810
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Ref: library/html entities html-entities-definitions-of-html-general-entities10825019
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Ref: library/html entities module-html entities10825019
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Ref: library/html entities html entities entitydefs10825889
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Ref: library/html entities html entities name2codepoint10826030
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Ref: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities-Footnote-110826303
Ref: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities-Footnote-210826376
Node: XML Processing Modules10826482
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Ref: library/xml module-xml10826696
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Ref: library/xml xml10826696
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Ref: XML Processing Modules-Footnote-110828155
Node: XML vulnerabilities10828216
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Ref: library/xml xml-vulnerabilities10828325
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Ref: XML vulnerabilities-Footnote-110834479
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Ref: XML vulnerabilities-Footnote-310834595
Ref: XML vulnerabilities-Footnote-410834648
Ref: XML vulnerabilities-Footnote-510834711
Ref: XML vulnerabilities-Footnote-610834758
Ref: XML vulnerabilities-Footnote-710834814
Node: The defusedxml Package10834859
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Ref: library/xml the-defusedxml-package10834968
Ref: 34b710834968
Ref: The defusedxml Package-Footnote-110835424
Node: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API10835469
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree doc10835670
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree module-xml etree ElementTree10835670
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml-etree-elementtree-the-elementtree-xml-api10835670
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Ref: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API-Footnote-110836599
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree tutorial10836800
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Node: XML tree and elements10837226
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml-tree-and-elements10837315
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Node: Parsing XML10837893
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree parsing-xml10838024
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Node: Pull API for non-blocking parsing10840500
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing10840638
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Node: Finding interesting elements10842752
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Node: Modifying an XML File10844142
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Node: Building XML documents10847223
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Ref: 34c810847359
Node: Parsing XML with Namespaces10847728
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Ref: 34ca10847834
Ref: Parsing XML with Namespaces-Footnote-110850149
Ref: Parsing XML with Namespaces-Footnote-210850201
Node: XPath support10850253
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Ref: XPath support-Footnote-110850754
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Node: Supported XPath syntax10851900
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-functions10857262
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree functions10857262
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree canonicalize10857303
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Comment10859686
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree dump10860370
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree fromstring10860847
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree fromstringlist10861205
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree indent10861614
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree iselement10862141
Ref: 34d610862141
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree iterparse10862354
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree parse10864357
Ref: 34d710864357
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ProcessingInstruction10864700
Ref: 34d810864700
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree register_namespace10865427
Ref: 107710865427
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree SubElement10865857
Ref: 34c910865857
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree tostring10866426
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree tostringlist10867536
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XML10868818
Ref: 34d410868818
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLID10869211
Ref: 34d910869211
Ref: Functions<7>-Footnote-110869685
Ref: Functions<7>-Footnote-210869726
Ref: Functions<7>-Footnote-310870035
Node: XInclude support10870344
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xinclude-support10870488
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Ref: XInclude support-Footnote-110870853
Node: Example<9>10870893
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree id310870956
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree id410872893
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementinclude-functions10873220
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree id510873220
Ref: 34df10873220
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree module-xml etree ElementInclude10873261
Ref: 12410873261
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementInclude default_loader10873261
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementInclude include10873855
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Node: Element Objects10874742
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree element-objects10874855
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-element-objects10874855
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element10874908
Ref: 24710874908
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element tag10875394
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element text10875542
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element tail10875570
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element attrib10876689
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element clear10877236
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element get10877431
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element items10877621
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element keys10877792
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element set10877936
Ref: 34c610877936
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element append10878111
Ref: 34c710878111
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element extend10878349
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element find10878582
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element findall10879006
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element findtext10879427
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element insert10880033
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element iter10880246
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element iterfind10880741
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element itertext10881077
Ref: 107a10881077
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element makeelement10881304
Ref: 34ea10881304
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element remove10881529
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Ref: Element Objects-Footnote-110884287
Node: ElementTree Objects10884330
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-elementtree-objects10884444
Ref: 34eb10884444
Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-objects10884444
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree10884505
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree _setroot10884861
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree find10885112
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree findall10885253
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree findtext10885400
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree getroot10885563
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree iterfind10885917
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree parse10886099
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Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree write10886447
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Ref: ElementTree Objects-Footnote-110889257
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Ref: 34f610889684
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Node: TreeBuilder Objects10890250
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node normalize10921924
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType publicId10924554
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType systemId10924723
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType internalSubset10924902
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType name10925158
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType entities10925290
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType notations10925676
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Ref: library/xml dom document-objects10926185
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-document-objects10926185
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document documentElement10926432
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createElementNS10926820
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createTextNode10927173
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createComment10927394
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createProcessingInstruction10927617
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createAttribute10927891
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createAttributeNS10928200
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document getElementsByTagName10928590
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document getElementsByTagNameNS10928768
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-element-objects10929160
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element hasAttribute10929699
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element hasAttributeNS10929815
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element getAttributeNodeNS10930579
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element setAttributeNS10932115
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Node: NamedNodeMap Objects10933114
Ref: library/xml dom dom-attributelist-objects10933234
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Node: Comment Objects10933915
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Node: Text and CDATASection Objects10934445
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom ProcessingInstruction target10935939
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom ProcessingInstruction data10936110
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DOMException10937037
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DomstringSizeErr10937201
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom HierarchyRequestErr10937458
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom IndexSizeErr10937599
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InuseAttributeErr10937743
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidAccessErr10937909
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidCharacterErr10938044
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidModificationErr10938406
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidStateErr10938522
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NamespaceErr10938667
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NotFoundErr10938878
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NotSupportedErr10939111
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NoDataAllowedErr10939255
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NoModificationAllowedErr10939385
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom SyntaxErr10939553
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom WrongDocumentErr10939650
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Ref: Exceptions<17>-Footnote-110942693
Node: Conformance10942738
Ref: library/xml dom conformance10942854
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-conformance10942854
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Node: Type Mapping10943111
Ref: library/xml dom dom-type-mapping10943196
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Ref: library/xml dom type-mapping10943196
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Node: Accessor Methods10944021
Ref: library/xml dom accessor-methods10944106
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-accessor-methods10944106
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Node: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation10945982
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom module-xml dom minidom10946216
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml-dom-minidom-minimal-dom-implementation10946216
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Ref: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation-Footnote-210950785
Node: DOM Objects10950832
Ref: library/xml dom minidom dom-objects10950946
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node toxml10953209
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Ref: DOM Objects-Footnote-110954779
Node: DOM Example10955182
Ref: library/xml dom minidom dom-example10955333
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom id210955333
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Node: minidom and the DOM standard10957365
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom minidom-and-the-dom-standard10957496
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Node: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees10960137
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom module-xml dom pulldom10960366
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml-dom-pulldom-support-for-building-partial-dom-trees10960366
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom PullDom10963119
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom SAX2DOM10963244
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Ref: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees-Footnote-110964426
Node: DOMEventStream Objects10964502
Ref: library/xml dom pulldom domeventstream-objects10964619
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom id110964619
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream10964684
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream getEvent10964860
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream expandNode10965354
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream reset10966070
Ref: 35a210966070
Node: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers10966099
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Ref: library/xml sax xml-sax-support-for-sax2-parsers10966331
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax make_parser10967425
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax parse10967926
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax parseString10968520
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException10970448
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXParseException10971322
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXNotRecognizedException10971735
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXNotSupportedException10972039
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Ref: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers-Footnote-110973070
Ref: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers-Footnote-210973147
Node: SAXException Objects10973182
Ref: library/xml sax sax-exception-objects10973275
Ref: 35ad10973275
Ref: library/xml sax saxexception-objects10973275
Ref: 35ae10973275
Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getMessage10973415
Ref: 35af10973415
Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getException10973527
Ref: 35b010973527
Node: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers10973633
Ref: library/xml sax handler doc10973841
Ref: 35b110973841
Ref: library/xml sax handler module-xml sax handler10973841
Ref: 12a10973841
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml-sax-handler-base-classes-for-sax-handlers10973841
Ref: 35b210973841
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler10974544
Ref: 359910974544
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler10974788
Ref: 35b310974788
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver10974977
Ref: 35b410974977
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler10975263
Ref: 35a710975263
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler10975541
Ref: 69f10975541
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespaces10975836
Ref: 35b510975836
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespace_prefixes10976162
Ref: 35b610976162
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_string_interning10976593
Ref: 35b710976593
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_validation10977010
Ref: 35b810977010
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_ges10977351
Ref: 35a610977351
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_pes10977666
Ref: 35b910977666
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_features10978049
Ref: 35ba10978049
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_lexical_handler10978119
Ref: 35bb10978119
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_declaration_handler10978441
Ref: 35bc10978441
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_dom_node10978801
Ref: 35bd10978801
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_xml_string10979193
Ref: 35be10979193
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_properties10979463
Ref: 35bf10979463
Ref: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers-Footnote-110979722
Node: ContentHandler Objects10979798
Ref: library/xml sax handler content-handler-objects10979933
Ref: 35c010979933
Ref: library/xml sax handler contenthandler-objects10979933
Ref: 35c110979933
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler setDocumentLocator10980187
Ref: 35c210980187
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startDocument10981264
Ref: 35c310981264
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endDocument10981544
Ref: 35c410981544
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startPrefixMapping10981914
Ref: 35c510981914
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endPrefixMapping10983118
Ref: 35c610983118
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElement10983463
Ref: 13d010983463
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endElement10984106
Ref: 13d110984106
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElementNS10984336
Ref: 35c810984336
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endElementNS10985326
Ref: 35ca10985326
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler characters10985601
Ref: 13d210985601
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler ignorableWhitespace10986629
Ref: 35cb10986629
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler processingInstruction10987298
Ref: 35cc10987298
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler skippedEntity10987760
Ref: 35cd10987760
Node: DTDHandler Objects10988262
Ref: library/xml sax handler dtd-handler-objects10988428
Ref: 35ce10988428
Ref: library/xml sax handler dtdhandler-objects10988428
Ref: 35cf10988428
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler notationDecl10988553
Ref: 35d010988553
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler unparsedEntityDecl10988662
Ref: 35d110988662
Node: EntityResolver Objects10988802
Ref: library/xml sax handler entity-resolver-objects10988966
Ref: 35d210988966
Ref: library/xml sax handler entityresolver-objects10988966
Ref: 35d310988966
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver resolveEntity10989033
Ref: 35d410989033
Node: ErrorHandler Objects10989303
Ref: library/xml sax handler errorhandler-objects10989471
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Ref: library/xml sax handler sax-error-handler10989471
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler error10990126
Ref: 35d710990126
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler fatalError10990497
Ref: 35d810990497
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler warning10990685
Ref: 35d910990685
Node: LexicalHandler Objects10991032
Ref: library/xml sax handler lexical-handler-objects10991169
Ref: 35da10991169
Ref: library/xml sax handler lexicalhandler-objects10991169
Ref: 35db10991169
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler comment10991774
Ref: 35dc10991774
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startDTD10991930
Ref: 35dd10991930
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endDTD10992090
Ref: 35de10992090
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startCDATA10992172
Ref: 35df10992172
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endCDATA10992368
Ref: 35e010992368
Node: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities10992459
Ref: library/xml sax utils doc10992678
Ref: 35e110992678
Ref: library/xml sax utils module-xml sax saxutils10992678
Ref: 12b10992678
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml-sax-saxutils-sax-utilities10992678
Ref: 35e210992678
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils escape10993065
Ref: 35e310993065
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils unescape10993714
Ref: 35e410993714
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils quoteattr10994180
Ref: 35e510994180
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLGenerator10995088
Ref: 35e610995088
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLFilterBase10995959
Ref: 35e710995959
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils prepare_input_source10996385
Ref: 35e810996385
Ref: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities-Footnote-110996880
Node: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers10996957
Ref: library/xml sax reader doc10997177
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Ref: library/xml sax reader module-xml sax xmlreader10997177
Ref: 12c10997177
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml-sax-xmlreader-interface-for-xml-parsers10997177
Ref: 35eb10997177
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader10997677
Ref: 359c10997677
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser10997777
Ref: 35ec10997777
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator10998908
Ref: 35a910998908
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource10999245
Ref: d2f10999245
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesImpl11000017
Ref: 35ed11000017
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNSImpl11000620
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Ref: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers-Footnote-111001381
Node: XMLReader Objects11001459
Ref: library/xml sax reader id111001594
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Ref: 35f011001594
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader parse11001721
Ref: 35e911001721
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getContentHandler11002320
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setContentHandler11002419
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getDTDHandler11002604
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setDTDHandler11002695
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getEntityResolver11002864
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setEntityResolver11002963
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getErrorHandler11003257
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setErrorHandler11003352
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setLocale11003558
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getFeature11003926
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setFeature11004210
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setProperty11004794
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser feed11005407
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser reset11005726
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Node: Locator Objects11005990
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getLineNumber11006367
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setEncoding11007319
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setByteStream11007803
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getByteStream11008238
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setCharacterStream11008448
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getCharacterStream11008764
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Node: The Attributes Interface11008867
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Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributes-interface11009038
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getLength11009368
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getNames11009446
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getType11009526
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getValue11009653
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Node: The AttributesNS Interface11009739
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Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributesns-interface11009882
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getValueByQName11010215
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getNameByQName11010311
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNameByName11010436
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNames11010559
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Node: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat11010652
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml-parsers-expat-fast-xml-parsing-using-expat11010829
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError11011882
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat error11012094
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat XMLParserType11012176
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ErrorString11012375
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ParserCreate11012497
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Ref: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat-Footnote-111014947
Ref: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat-Footnote-211015256
Node: XMLParser Objects<2>11015289
Ref: library/pyexpat id211015426
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Ref: library/pyexpat xmlparser-objects11015426
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser Parse11015536
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ParseFile11015916
Ref: 362811015916
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetBase11016138
Ref: 362911016138
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetBase11016556
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetInputContext11016756
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityParserCreate11017041
Ref: 13df11017041
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetParamEntityParsing11017560
Ref: 363111017560
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UseForeignDTD11017927
Ref: 363211017927
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetReparseDeferralEnabled11018916
Ref: 148f11018916
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetReparseDeferralEnabled11020434
Ref: 148e11020434
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_size11020677
Ref: 363511020677
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_text11020942
Ref: 134d11020942
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_used11021491
Ref: 363711021491
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ordered_attributes11021767
Ref: 362f11021767
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser specified_attributes11022262
Ref: 363011022262
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorByteIndex11023072
Ref: 363811023072
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorCode11023161
Ref: 363911023161
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorColumnNumber11023395
Ref: 363a11023395
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorLineNumber11023490
Ref: 363b11023490
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentByteIndex11023986
Ref: 363c11023986
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentColumnNumber11024078
Ref: 363d11024078
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentLineNumber11024176
Ref: 363e11024176
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser XmlDeclHandler11024592
Ref: 363f11024592
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartDoctypeDeclHandler11025207
Ref: 363311025207
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndDoctypeDeclHandler11025762
Ref: 363411025762
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ElementDeclHandler11025930
Ref: 364011025930
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser AttlistDeclHandler11026146
Ref: 364111026146
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartElementHandler11027051
Ref: 364211027051
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndElementHandler11027450
Ref: 364311027450
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ProcessingInstructionHandler11027543
Ref: 364411027543
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CharacterDataHandler11027659
Ref: 363611027659
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UnparsedEntityDeclHandler11028326
Ref: 362c11028326
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EntityDeclHandler11028721
Ref: 364711028721
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotationDeclHandler11029468
Ref: 362b11029468
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartNamespaceDeclHandler11029761
Ref: 364811029761
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndNamespaceDeclHandler11030041
Ref: 364911030041
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CommentHandler11030566
Ref: 364a11030566
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartCdataSectionHandler11030754
Ref: 364511030754
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndCdataSectionHandler11030993
Ref: 364611030993
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandler11031088
Ref: 364b11031088
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandlerExpand11031375
Ref: 364c11031375
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotStandaloneHandler11031617
Ref: 364d11031617
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityRefHandler11032141
Ref: 362a11032141
Node: ExpatError Exceptions11033199
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-exceptions11033356
Ref: 364e11033356
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-objects11033356
Ref: 362011033356
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError code11033498
Ref: 364f11033498
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError lineno11034150
Ref: 365211034150
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError offset11034280
Ref: 365311034280
Node: Example<10>11034424
Ref: library/pyexpat example11034587
Ref: 365411034587
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-example11034587
Ref: 365511034587
Node: Content Model Descriptions11035685
Ref: library/pyexpat content-model-descriptions11035848
Ref: 365611035848
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-content-models11035848
Ref: 365711035848
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat model11035848
Ref: 12811035848
Node: Expat error constants11037711
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-error-constants11037854
Ref: 365811037854
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-errors11037854
Ref: 365911037854
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat errors11037854
Ref: 12711037854
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors codes11038444
Ref: 365111038444
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors messages11038585
Ref: 365011038585
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY11038742
Ref: 365a11038742
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF11038803
Ref: 365b11038803
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF11039006
Ref: 365c11039006
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF11039203
Ref: 365d11039203
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE11039379
Ref: 365e11039379
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING11039506
Ref: 365f11039506
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN11039573
Ref: 366011039573
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT11039789
Ref: 366111039789
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI11039940
Ref: 366211039940
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS11040095
Ref: 366311040095
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY11040272
Ref: 366411040272
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF11040386
Ref: 366511040386
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR11040522
Ref: 366611040522
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF11040637
Ref: 366711040637
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SYNTAX11040841
Ref: 366811040841
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH11040949
Ref: 366911040949
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN11041071
Ref: 366a11041071
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY11041257
Ref: 366b11041257
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING11041385
Ref: 366c11041385
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION11041505
Ref: 366d11041505
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING11041621
Ref: 366e11041621
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE11041694
Ref: 366f11041694
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE11041959
Ref: 367011041959
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE11042024
Ref: 367111042024
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD11042094
Ref: 367211042094
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING11042402
Ref: 367311042402
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX11042677
Ref: 367411042677
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX11042821
Ref: 367511042821
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE11042984
Ref: 367611042984
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_XML_DECL11043100
Ref: 367711043100
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL11043214
Ref: 367811043214
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PUBLICID11043352
Ref: 367911043352
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED11043476
Ref: 367a11043476
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED11043702
Ref: 367b11043702
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ABORTED11043856
Ref: 367c11043856
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FINISHED11043970
Ref: 367d11043970
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE11044218
Ref: 367e11044218
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML11044277
Ref: 367f11044277
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS11044465
Ref: 368011044465
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI11044629
Ref: 368111044629
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT11044841
Ref: 368211044841
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER11044964
Ref: 368311044964
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH11045080
Ref: 368411045080
Node: Internet Protocols and Support11045259
Ref: library/internet doc11045426
Ref: 368511045426
Ref: library/internet internet11045426
Ref: 368611045426
Ref: library/internet internet-protocols-and-support11045426
Ref: 368711045426
Node: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller11047369
Ref: library/webbrowser doc11047548
Ref: 368811047548
Ref: library/webbrowser module-webbrowser11047548
Ref: 11511047548
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser-convenient-web-browser-controller11047548
Ref: 368911047548
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-n11049222
Ref: 368b11049222
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-window11049222
Ref: 368c11049222
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-t11049310
Ref: 368d11049310
Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-tab11049310
Ref: 368e11049310
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser Error11049775
Ref: 368f11049775
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open11049908
Ref: 368a11049908
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new11050808
Ref: 369011050808
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new_tab11051066
Ref: 369111051066
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser get11051336
Ref: 369211051336
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser register11051563
Ref: 369311051563
Ref: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-111057604
Ref: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-211057674
Node: Browser Controller Objects11057807
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controller-objects11057918
Ref: 369411057918
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controllers11057918
Ref: 369511057918
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser name11058098
Ref: 369611058098
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open11058178
Ref: 369711058178
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new11058444
Ref: 369811058444
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new_tab11058665
Ref: 369911058665
Node: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation11058867
Ref: library/wsgiref doc11059086
Ref: 369a11059086
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref11059086
Ref: 11811059086
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-wsgi-utilities-and-reference-implementation11059086
Ref: 369b11059086
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-111061106
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-211061170
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-311061212
Node: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities11061249
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref util11061439
Ref: 11d11061439
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-util-wsgi-environment-utilities11061439
Ref: 369c11061439
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util guess_scheme11061983
Ref: 369e11061983
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util request_uri11062634
Ref: 369f11062634
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util application_uri11062959
Ref: 36a011062959
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util shift_path_info11063224
Ref: 36a111063224
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util setup_testing_defaults11064891
Ref: 36a211064891
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util is_hop_by_hop11066634
Ref: 36a411066634
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util FileWrapper11066806
Ref: 55f11066806
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-111068058
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-211068100
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-311068142
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-411068184
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-511068226
Node: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools11068285
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref headers11068535
Ref: 11a11068535
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-headers-wsgi-response-header-tools11068535
Ref: 36a611068535
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers11068797
Ref: d2c11068797
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers get_all11071080
Ref: 36a711071080
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers add_header11071519
Ref: 36a811071519
Ref: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools-Footnote-111072662
Node: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server11072704
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref simple_server11072956
Ref: 11b11072956
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-simple-server-a-simple-wsgi-http-server11072956
Ref: 36a911072956
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server make_server11073550
Ref: 36aa11073550
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server demo_app11074389
Ref: 36a311074389
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer11074924
Ref: 36ac11074924
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer set_app11075681
Ref: 36ae11075681
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer get_app11075828
Ref: 36af11075828
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler11076173
Ref: 36b011076173
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_environ11076793
Ref: 36b111076793
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_stderr11077297
Ref: 36b211077297
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler handle11077482
Ref: 36b311077482
Ref: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-111077755
Ref: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-211077797
Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker11077839
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref validate11078093
Ref: 11e11078093
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-validate-wsgi-conformance-checker11078093
Ref: 36b411078093
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref validate validator11079000
Ref: 36b511079000
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-111081212
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-211081254
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-311081313
Node: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes11081355
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref handlers11081611
Ref: 11911081611
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-handlers-server-gateway-base-classes11081611
Ref: 36b611081611
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers CGIHandler11082002
Ref: 36b711082002
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers IISCGIHandler11082655
Ref: 36b911082655
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseCGIHandler11084036
Ref: 36b811084036
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers SimpleHandler11084907
Ref: 36ba11084907
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler11085860
Ref: 182911085860
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler run11086223
Ref: 36c011086223
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _write11086564
Ref: 36be11086564
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _flush11086912
Ref: 36bf11086912
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stdin11087123
Ref: 36bb11087123
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stderr11087328
Ref: 36bc11087328
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler add_cgi_vars11087535
Ref: 36bd11087535
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multithread11088089
Ref: 36c311088089
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multiprocess11088383
Ref: 36c411088383
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_run_once11088679
Ref: 36c511088679
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler os_environ11088925
Ref: 36c611088925
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler server_software11089434
Ref: 36c711089434
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_scheme11090037
Ref: 36c911090037
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler setup_environ11090400
Ref: 36ca11090400
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler log_exception11091062
Ref: 36cc11091062
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler traceback_limit11091564
Ref: 36cd11091564
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_output11091789
Ref: 36ce11091789
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_status11092973
Ref: 36cf11092973
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_headers11093181
Ref: 36d011093181
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_body11093476
Ref: 36d111093476
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_file_wrapper11093825
Ref: 36cb11093825
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler sendfile11094101
Ref: 36d211094101
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler origin_server11094679
Ref: 36c811094679
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler http_version11095209
Ref: 36d311095209
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers read_environ11095434
Ref: 105e11095434
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-111096349
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-211096391
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-311096433
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-411096475
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-511096517
Node: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking11096559
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref types11096782
Ref: 11c11096782
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-types-wsgi-types-for-static-type-checking11096782
Ref: 36d411096782
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types StartResponse11097029
Ref: 36ab11097029
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIEnvironment11097171
Ref: 369d11097171
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIApplication11097275
Ref: 36d511097275
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types InputStream11097377
Ref: 36c111097377
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types ErrorStream11097490
Ref: 36c211097490
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types FileWrapper11097603
Ref: 36a511097603
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-111097847
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-211097889
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-311097959
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-411098001
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-511098067
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-611098133
Node: Examples<24>11098217
Ref: library/wsgiref examples11098383
Ref: 36d611098383
Node: urllib — URL handling modules11101210
Ref: library/urllib doc11101435
Ref: 36d711101435
Ref: library/urllib module-urllib11101435
Ref: 10811101435
Ref: library/urllib urllib-url-handling-modules11101435
Ref: 36d811101435
Ref: urllib — URL handling modules-Footnote-111102071
Node: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs11102135
Ref: library/urllib request doc11102356
Ref: 36d911102356
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib request11102356
Ref: 10b11102356
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-extensible-library-for-opening-urls11102356
Ref: 36da11102356
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlopen11103551
Ref: 28611103551
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request install_opener11107820
Ref: 36e111107820
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request build_opener11108272
Ref: 36e211108272
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request pathname2url11109390
Ref: 141e11109390
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request url2pathname11109892
Ref: 141f11109892
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request getproxies11110401
Ref: 36db11110401
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request11111542
Ref: e7e11111542
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector11116059
Ref: 36df11116059
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler11116282
Ref: 36e311116282
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDefaultErrorHandler11116446
Ref: 36e511116446
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler11116642
Ref: 36e611116642
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor11116731
Ref: 36eb11116731
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyHandler11116837
Ref: 180511116837
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr11117929
Ref: 36ec11117929
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm11118050
Ref: 36ed11118050
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth11118295
Ref: d2811118295
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler11118687
Ref: 16e411118687
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler11120035
Ref: 36f011120035
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler11120503
Ref: 36f111120503
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler11120847
Ref: 17b411120847
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler11121261
Ref: 36f211121261
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler11122131
Ref: 36f311122131
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler11122476
Ref: 36e411122476
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler11122565
Ref: 10ca11122565
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler11122903
Ref: 36e811122903
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler11122970
Ref: e7d11122970
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler11123063
Ref: 36e711123063
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler11123126
Ref: 154111123126
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler11123259
Ref: 36e011123259
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor11123353
Ref: 36e911123353
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-111124238
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-211124312
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-311124363
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-411124422
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-511124481
Node: Request Objects11124540
Ref: library/urllib request id111124677
Ref: 36f411124677
Ref: library/urllib request request-objects11124677
Ref: 36f511124677
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request full_url11124948
Ref: e8011124948
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request type11125250
Ref: 36f611125250
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request host11125304
Ref: 36f711125304
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request origin_req_host11125434
Ref: 36f811125434
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request selector11125532
Ref: 36f911125532
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request data11125699
Ref: e8111125699
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request unverifiable11125969
Ref: 36fa11125969
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request method11126102
Ref: e7f11126102
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_method11126819
Ref: 101011126819
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_header11127247
Ref: 36ea11127247
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_unredirected_header11127929
Ref: 36fb11127929
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request has_header11128057
Ref: 36fc11128057
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request remove_header11128200
Ref: e8311128200
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_full_url11128377
Ref: 36fd11128377
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request set_proxy11128540
Ref: 36fe11128540
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_header11128795
Ref: 36ff11128795
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request header_items11128963
Ref: 370011128963
Ref: Request Objects-Footnote-111129328
Node: OpenerDirector Objects11129387
Ref: library/urllib request opener-director-objects11129552
Ref: 370111129552
Ref: library/urllib request openerdirector-objects11129552
Ref: 370211129552
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector add_handler11129684
Ref: 370311129684
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector open11131244
Ref: e8211131244
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector error11131929
Ref: 370811131929
Node: BaseHandler Objects11133725
Ref: library/urllib request base-handler-objects11133902
Ref: 370b11133902
Ref: library/urllib request basehandler-objects11133902
Ref: 370c11133902
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler add_parent11134142
Ref: 370d11134142
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler close11134223
Ref: 370e11134223
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler parent11134600
Ref: 370f11134600
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler default_open11134757
Ref: 370911134757
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-open11135453
Ref: 370411135453
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler unknown_open11135826
Ref: 370a11135826
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler http_error_default11136240
Ref: 371011136240
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-nnn11137050
Ref: 370511137050
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-request11137556
Ref: 370611137556
Ref: library/urllib request protocol-response11137972
Ref: 370711137972
Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects11138564
Ref: library/urllib request http-redirect-handler11138746
Ref: 371111138746
Ref: library/urllib request httpredirecthandler-objects11138746
Ref: 371211138746
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler redirect_request11139248
Ref: 371311139248
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30111140333
Ref: 371411140333
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30211140606
Ref: 371511140606
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30311140787
Ref: 371611140787
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30711140972
Ref: 371711140972
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30811141248
Ref: 371811141248
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-111141589
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-211141648
Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects11141707
Ref: library/urllib request http-cookie-processor11141890
Ref: 371911141890
Ref: library/urllib request httpcookieprocessor-objects11141890
Ref: 371a11141890
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor cookiejar11142029
Ref: 371b11142029
Node: ProxyHandler Objects11142160
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-handler11142339
Ref: 371d11142339
Ref: library/urllib request proxyhandler-objects11142339
Ref: 371e11142339
Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects11142819
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr11143007
Ref: 36ee11143007
Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgr-objects11143007
Ref: 371f11143007
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr add_password11143193
Ref: 372011143193
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr find_user_password11143542
Ref: 166611143542
Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects11143918
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth11144118
Ref: 36ef11144118
Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects11144118
Ref: 372111144118
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth add_password11144372
Ref: 372211144372
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth find_user_password11144788
Ref: 372311144788
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth update_authenticated11144949
Ref: 372411144949
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth is_authenticated11145147
Ref: 166711145147
Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects11145325
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-basic-auth-handler11145530
Ref: 372511145530
Ref: library/urllib request abstractbasicauthhandler-objects11145530
Ref: 372611145530
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed11145615
Ref: 372711145615
Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects11146437
Ref: library/urllib request http-basic-auth-handler11146635
Ref: 372811146635
Ref: library/urllib request httpbasicauthhandler-objects11146635
Ref: 372911146635
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler http_error_40111146714
Ref: 372a11146714
Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects11146873
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-basic-auth-handler11147072
Ref: 372b11147072
Ref: library/urllib request proxybasicauthhandler-objects11147072
Ref: 372c11147072
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler http_error_40711147153
Ref: 372d11147153
Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects11147313
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-digest-auth-handler11147513
Ref: 372e11147513
Ref: library/urllib request abstractdigestauthhandler-objects11147513
Ref: 372f11147513
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed11147602
Ref: 373011147602
Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects11147981
Ref: library/urllib request http-digest-auth-handler11148182
Ref: 373111148182
Ref: library/urllib request httpdigestauthhandler-objects11148182
Ref: 373211148182
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler http_error_40111148263
Ref: 373311148263
Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects11148423
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-digest-auth-handler11148610
Ref: 373411148610
Ref: library/urllib request proxydigestauthhandler-objects11148610
Ref: 373511148610
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler http_error_40711148693
Ref: 373611148693
Node: HTTPHandler Objects11148854
Ref: library/urllib request http-handler-objects11149032
Ref: 373711149032
Ref: library/urllib request httphandler-objects11149032
Ref: 373811149032
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler http_open11149093
Ref: 373911149093
Node: HTTPSHandler Objects11149237
Ref: library/urllib request https-handler-objects11149404
Ref: 373a11149404
Ref: library/urllib request httpshandler-objects11149404
Ref: 373b11149404
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler https_open11149467
Ref: 373c11149467
Node: FileHandler Objects11149614
Ref: library/urllib request file-handler-objects11149781
Ref: 373d11149781
Ref: library/urllib request filehandler-objects11149781
Ref: 373e11149781
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler file_open11149842
Ref: 373f11149842
Node: DataHandler Objects11150149
Ref: library/urllib request data-handler-objects11150314
Ref: 374011150314
Ref: library/urllib request datahandler-objects11150314
Ref: 374111150314
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler data_open11150375
Ref: 374211150375
Ref: DataHandler Objects-Footnote-111150935
Node: FTPHandler Objects11150994
Ref: library/urllib request ftp-handler-objects11151163
Ref: 374311151163
Ref: library/urllib request ftphandler-objects11151163
Ref: 374411151163
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler ftp_open11151222
Ref: 374511151222
Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects11151372
Ref: library/urllib request cacheftp-handler-objects11151544
Ref: 374611151544
Ref: library/urllib request cacheftphandler-objects11151544
Ref: 374711151544
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setTimeout11151726
Ref: 374811151726
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setMaxConns11151821
Ref: 374911151821
Node: UnknownHandler Objects11151923
Ref: library/urllib request unknown-handler-objects11152103
Ref: 374a11152103
Ref: library/urllib request unknownhandler-objects11152103
Ref: 374b11152103
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler unknown_open11152170
Ref: 374c11152170
Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects11152263
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-processor-objects11152432
Ref: 374d11152432
Ref: library/urllib request httperrorprocessor-objects11152432
Ref: 374e11152432
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor http_response11152507
Ref: 374f11152507
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor https_response11152979
Ref: 375011152979
Node: Examples<25>11153144
Ref: library/urllib request examples11153307
Ref: 375111153307
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-examples11153307
Ref: 375211153307
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-examples11159193
Ref: 375411159193
Node: Legacy interface11160685
Ref: library/urllib request legacy-interface11160849
Ref: 375511160849
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlretrieve11161080
Ref: 375611161080
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlcleanup11163748
Ref: 180c11163748
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener11163907
Ref: 28411163907
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open11165422
Ref: 375911165422
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open_unknown11165927
Ref: 375a11165927
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener retrieve11166041
Ref: 182711166041
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener version11167592
Ref: 375811167592
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener11167916
Ref: 28511167916
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener prompt_user_passwd11169669
Ref: 375b11169669
Ref: Legacy interface-Footnote-111170211
Node: urllib request Restrictions11170270
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-restrictions11170413
Ref: 375c11170413
Node: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib11172984
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib response11173217
Ref: 10c11173217
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-response-response-classes-used-by-urllib11173217
Ref: 375d11173217
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl11173681
Ref: 36dc11173681
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl url11173724
Ref: 375e11173724
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl headers11173859
Ref: 375f11173859
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl status11174001
Ref: 376011174001
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl geturl11174108
Ref: 376111174108
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl info11174241
Ref: 376211174241
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl code11174376
Ref: 376311174376
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl getcode11174511
Ref: 376411174511
Node: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components11174648
Ref: library/urllib parse doc11174886
Ref: 376511174886
Ref: library/urllib parse module-urllib parse11174886
Ref: 10a11174886
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib-parse-parse-urls-into-components11174886
Ref: 376611174886
Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-111176503
Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-211176575
Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-311176634
Node: URL Parsing11176693
Ref: library/urllib parse url-parsing11176813
Ref: 376711176813
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlparse11176986
Ref: 28311176986
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse parse_qs11184919
Ref: 69a11184919
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse parse_qsl11187111
Ref: 69b11187111
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlunparse11189153
Ref: 145311189153
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlsplit11189554
Ref: bc711189554
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlunsplit11194176
Ref: 145211194176
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urljoin11194619
Ref: d2a11194619
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urldefrag11196357
Ref: 10ef11196357
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unwrap11197705
Ref: 376a11197705
Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-111198052
Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-211198111
Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-311198170
Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-411198229
Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-511198291
Node: URL parsing security11198350
Ref: library/urllib parse id111198506
Ref: 376b11198506
Ref: library/urllib parse url-parsing-security11198506
Ref: 376911198506
Ref: URL parsing security-Footnote-111199964
Ref: URL parsing security-Footnote-211200026
Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes11200085
Ref: library/urllib parse id211200254
Ref: 376c11200254
Ref: library/urllib parse parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes11200254
Ref: 10f111200254
Node: Structured Parse Results11202384
Ref: library/urllib parse structured-parse-results11202544
Ref: 376d11202544
Ref: library/urllib parse urlparse-result-object11202544
Ref: 376811202544
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urllib parse SplitResult geturl11202961
Ref: 376e11202961
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse DefragResult11204087
Ref: 376f11204087
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse ParseResult11204352
Ref: 377111204352
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse SplitResult11204627
Ref: 377311204627
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse DefragResultBytes11205036
Ref: 377011205036
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse ParseResultBytes11205303
Ref: 377211205303
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse SplitResultBytes11205608
Ref: 377411205608
Node: URL Quoting11205905
Ref: library/urllib parse url-quoting11206029
Ref: 377511206029
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse quote11206432
Ref: a1911206432
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse quote_plus11207810
Ref: 10f011207810
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse quote_from_bytes11208302
Ref: 15e711208302
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unquote11208594
Ref: 15a511208594
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unquote_plus11209378
Ref: 377611209378
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unquote_to_bytes11209717
Ref: 15a611209717
Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlencode11210149
Ref: d2911210149
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-111214034
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-211214093
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-311214152
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-411214189
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-511214248
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-611214307
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-711214366
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-811214425
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-911214484
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Ref: 377711214774
Ref: library/urllib error module-urllib error11214774
Ref: 10911214774
Ref: library/urllib error urllib-error-exception-classes-raised-by-urllib-request11214774
Ref: 377811214774
Ref: library/urllib error urllib error URLError11215273
Ref: 36de11215273
Ref: library/urllib error urllib error URLError reason11215453
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError11215741
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError url11216127
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError code11216227
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError reason11216490
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError headers11216635
Ref: e8511216635
Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError fp11216838
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error ContentTooShortError11216939
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error ContentTooShortError content11217212
Ref: 377f11217212
Ref: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request-Footnote-111217339
Ref: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request-Footnote-211217411
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib-robotparser-parser-for-robots-txt11217679
Ref: 378111217679
Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser11218220
Ref: b8111218220
Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser set_url11218397
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser read11218493
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser parse11218591
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser can_fetch11218663
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser mtime11218879
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser modified11219109
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser crawl_delay11219240
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser request_rate11219646
Ref: 378811219646
Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser site_maps11220101
Ref: 188111220101
Ref: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt-Footnote-111221025
Node: http — HTTP modules11221104
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Ref: library/http http-http-modules11221290
Ref: 378a11221290
Ref: library/http module-http11221290
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Ref: library/http http HTTPStatus11222068
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Ref: http — HTTP modules-Footnote-111222835
Node: HTTP status codes11222908
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Ref: 378b11223012
Ref: library/http id111223012
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-211236899
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-311236958
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-411237017
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-511237076
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-611237135
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-811237253
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2111238031
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2211238091
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2311238151
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2411238211
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2511238271
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2611238331
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2711238391
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2811238451
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2911238511
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3111238631
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3211238691
Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3311238751
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3511238871
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5711240191
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5911240311
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-6111240431
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Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-6311240551
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Ref: library/http http-status-category11240736
Ref: 378d11240736
Ref: library/http http HTTPMethod11242299
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Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-111243131
Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-211243190
Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-311243249
Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-411243308
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Ref: library/http http-methods11243525
Ref: 378f11243525
Ref: library/http id211243525
Ref: 379011243525
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-111245854
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-211245927
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-311245986
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-411246045
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-511246104
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-611246163
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-711246222
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-811246281
Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-911246340
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Node: http client — HTTP protocol client11246459
Ref: library/http client doc11246631
Ref: 379111246631
Ref: library/http client http-client-http-protocol-client11246631
Ref: 379211246631
Ref: library/http client module-http client11246631
Ref: 6d11246631
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection11247575
Ref: 9b111247575
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPSConnection11249171
Ref: 9b211249171
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse11250884
Ref: f7111250884
Ref: library/http client http client parse_headers11251274
Ref: 188911251274
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPException11252225
Ref: 379611252225
Ref: library/http client http client NotConnected11252378
Ref: 379711252378
Ref: library/http client http client InvalidURL11252468
Ref: 379811252468
Ref: library/http client http client UnknownProtocol11252623
Ref: 379911252623
Ref: library/http client http client UnknownTransferEncoding11252716
Ref: 379a11252716
Ref: library/http client http client UnimplementedFileMode11252817
Ref: 379b11252817
Ref: library/http client http client IncompleteRead11252916
Ref: 379c11252916
Ref: library/http client http client ImproperConnectionState11253008
Ref: 379d11253008
Ref: library/http client http client CannotSendRequest11253109
Ref: 379e11253109
Ref: library/http client http client CannotSendHeader11253214
Ref: 379f11253214
Ref: library/http client http client ResponseNotReady11253318
Ref: 37a011253318
Ref: library/http client http client BadStatusLine11253422
Ref: 37a111253422
Ref: library/http client http client LineTooLong11253599
Ref: 37a211253599
Ref: library/http client http client RemoteDisconnected11253779
Ref: c9711253779
Ref: library/http client http client HTTP_PORT11254262
Ref: 37a311254262
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPS_PORT11254361
Ref: 37a411254361
Ref: library/http client http client responses11254463
Ref: 37a511254463
Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-111254926
Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-211254997
Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-311255048
Node: HTTPConnection Objects11255107
Ref: library/http client httpconnection-objects11255231
Ref: 37a611255231
Ref: library/http client id111255231
Ref: 37a711255231
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection request11255364
Ref: b2c11255364
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection getresponse11258936
Ref: c9611258936
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection set_debuglevel11259433
Ref: 37a811259433
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection set_tunnel11259838
Ref: 10cf11259838
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection get_proxy_response_headers11261522
Ref: 150411261522
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection connect11261805
Ref: 37a911261805
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection close11262163
Ref: 37aa11262163
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection blocksize11262244
Ref: 37ab11262244
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection putrequest11262539
Ref: 37ac11262539
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection putheader11263090
Ref: 37ad11263090
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection endheaders11263427
Ref: b2d11263427
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection send11264803
Ref: 37ae11264803
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-111265174
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-211265247
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-311265320
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-411265393
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-511265461
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-611265519
Node: HTTPResponse Objects11265578
Ref: library/http client httpresponse-objects11265723
Ref: 37af11265723
Ref: library/http client id211265723
Ref: 37b011265723
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse read11266141
Ref: 140d11266141
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse readinto11266256
Ref: f7211266256
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheader11266447
Ref: 37b111266447
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheaders11266836
Ref: 37b211266836
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse fileno11266925
Ref: 37b311266925
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse msg11267019
Ref: 379411267019
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse version11267241
Ref: 37b411267241
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse url11267365
Ref: 37b511267365
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse headers11267498
Ref: 37b611267498
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse status11267640
Ref: 37b711267640
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse reason11267717
Ref: 36dd11267717
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse debuglevel11267796
Ref: 37b811267796
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse closed11267994
Ref: 37b911267994
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse geturl11268078
Ref: 37ba11268078
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse info11268209
Ref: 37bb11268209
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getcode11268342
Ref: 37bc11268342
Node: Examples<26>11268477
Ref: library/http client examples11268619
Ref: 37bd11268619
Node: HTTPMessage Objects11271506
Ref: library/http client httpmessage-objects11271619
Ref: 37be11271619
Ref: library/http client id311271619
Ref: 37bf11271619
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPMessage11271680
Ref: 379311271680
Node: ftplib — FTP protocol client11271905
Ref: library/ftplib doc11272087
Ref: 37c011272087
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-ftp-protocol-client11272087
Ref: 37c111272087
Ref: library/ftplib module-ftplib11272087
Ref: 5c11272087
Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-111274011
Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-211274077
Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-311274135
Node: Reference<5>11274194
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-reference11274273
Ref: 37c211274273
Ref: library/ftplib reference11274273
Ref: 37c311274273
Node: FTP objects11274381
Ref: library/ftplib ftp-objects11274465
Ref: 37c411274465
Ref: library/ftplib id111274465
Ref: 37c511274465
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP11274510
Ref: 74f11274510
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_debuglevel11277413
Ref: 37c711277413
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP connect11277972
Ref: 37c611277972
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP getwelcome11279371
Ref: 37c811279371
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP login11279629
Ref: 37c911279629
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP abort11280672
Ref: 37ca11280672
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP sendcmd11280823
Ref: 37cb11280823
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP voidcmd11281071
Ref: 37cc11281071
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrbinary11281479
Ref: 37ce11281479
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrlines11282542
Ref: 37d011282542
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_pasv11283281
Ref: 37d111283281
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storbinary11283445
Ref: 11b411283445
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storlines11284626
Ref: 37d211284626
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP transfercmd11285126
Ref: 37cf11285126
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP ntransfercmd11286372
Ref: 37d311286372
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mlsd11286750
Ref: f6511286750
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP nlst11287507
Ref: f6611287507
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP dir11287949
Ref: f6711287949
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rename11288646
Ref: 37d411288646
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP delete11288753
Ref: 37d511288753
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP cwd11289039
Ref: 37d711289039
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mkd11289126
Ref: 37d811289126
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP pwd11289210
Ref: 37d911289210
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rmd11289308
Ref: 37da11289308
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP size11289405
Ref: 37db11289405
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP quit11289758
Ref: 37dc11289758
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP close11290200
Ref: 37dd11290200
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-111290703
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-211290761
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-311290820
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-411290878
Node: FTP_TLS objects11290937
Ref: library/ftplib ftp-tls-objects11291046
Ref: 37de11291046
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS11291099
Ref: 75011291099
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ssl_version11294789
Ref: 37e011294789
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS auth11294917
Ref: 37e111294917
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ccc11295313
Ref: f6411295313
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_p11295574
Ref: 37df11295574
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_c11295646
Ref: 37e211295646
Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-111295758
Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-211295817
Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-311295875
Node: Module variables11295934
Ref: library/ftplib module-variables11296023
Ref: 37e311296023
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_reply11296078
Ref: 37cd11296078
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_temp11296197
Ref: 37e411296197
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_perm11296362
Ref: 37d611296362
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_proto11296527
Ref: 37e511296527
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib all_errors11296760
Ref: 37e611296760
Node: poplib — POP3 protocol client11297358
Ref: library/poplib doc11297537
Ref: 37e711297537
Ref: library/poplib module-poplib11297537
Ref: ab11297537
Ref: library/poplib poplib-pop3-protocol-client11297537
Ref: 37e811297537
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP311298888
Ref: 77c11298888
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3_SSL11299813
Ref: 77d11299813
Ref: library/poplib poplib error_proto11301380
Ref: 104311301380
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-111302050
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-211302116
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-311302175
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-411302234
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-511302293
Node: POP3 Objects11302355
Ref: library/poplib id111302456
Ref: 37e911302456
Ref: library/poplib pop3-objects11302456
Ref: 37ea11302456
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 set_debuglevel11302687
Ref: 37eb11302687
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 getwelcome11303154
Ref: 37ec11303154
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 capa11303247
Ref: e1d11303247
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 user11303440
Ref: 37ed11303440
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 pass_11303560
Ref: 37ee11303560
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 apop11303757
Ref: 37ef11303757
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rpop11303877
Ref: 37f011303877
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stat11303998
Ref: 37f111303998
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 list11304132
Ref: 37f211304132
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 retr11304326
Ref: 37f311304326
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 dele11304491
Ref: 37f411304491
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rset11304771
Ref: 37f511304771
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 noop11304848
Ref: 37f611304848
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 quit11304926
Ref: 104211304926
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 top11305018
Ref: 37f711305018
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 uidl11305557
Ref: 37f811305557
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 utf811305843
Ref: cda11305843
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stls11306055
Ref: e1e11306055
Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-111306858
Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-211306917
Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-311306976
Node: POP3 Example11307035
Ref: library/poplib id211307136
Ref: 37f911307136
Ref: library/poplib pop3-example11307136
Ref: 37fa11307136
Node: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client11307648
Ref: library/imaplib doc11307829
Ref: 37fb11307829
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib-imap4-protocol-client11307829
Ref: 37fc11307829
Ref: library/imaplib module-imaplib11307829
Ref: 7211307829
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP411308732
Ref: 75811308732
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 error11309954
Ref: 37fd11309954
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 abort11310099
Ref: 37fe11310099
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readonly11310363
Ref: 37ff11310363
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_SSL11310722
Ref: 75911310722
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_stream11312154
Ref: 75b11312154
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Internaldate2tuple11312428
Ref: 380011312428
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Int2AP11312677
Ref: 380111312677
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib ParseFlags11312824
Ref: 380211312824
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Time2Internaldate11312944
Ref: 380311312944
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-111314301
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-211314368
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-311314427
Node: IMAP4 Objects11314486
Ref: library/imaplib id111314591
Ref: 380411314591
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-objects11314591
Ref: 380511314591
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 append11316093
Ref: 380611316093
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 authenticate11316199
Ref: 380711316199
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 check11317041
Ref: 380811317041
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 close11317107
Ref: 75d11317107
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 copy11317294
Ref: 380911317294
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 create11317408
Ref: 380a11317408
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 delete11317488
Ref: 380b11317488
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 deleteacl11317568
Ref: 380c11317568
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 enable11317680
Ref: c9b11317680
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 expunge11318001
Ref: 380d11318001
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 fetch11318251
Ref: 380e11318251
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getacl11318533
Ref: 380f11318533
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getannotation11318689
Ref: 381011318689
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquota11318892
Ref: 381111318892
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquotaroot11319068
Ref: 381211319068
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 list11319258
Ref: 381311319258
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login11319529
Ref: 381411319529
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login_cram_md511319664
Ref: 381511319664
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 logout11319926
Ref: 381611319926
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 lsub11320129
Ref: 381711320129
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 myrights11320421
Ref: 381811320421
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 namespace11320542
Ref: 381911320542
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 noop11320633
Ref: 381a11320633
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 open11320695
Ref: 75a11320695
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 partial11321647
Ref: 381f11321647
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 proxyauth11321826
Ref: 382011321826
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 read11321980
Ref: 381b11321980
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readline11322098
Ref: 381c11322098
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 recent11322212
Ref: 382111322212
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 rename11322369
Ref: 382211322369
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 response11322479
Ref: 382311322479
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 search11322639
Ref: 382411322639
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 select11323316
Ref: 382511323316
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 send11323613
Ref: 381d11323613
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setacl11323829
Ref: 382611323829
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setannotation11323994
Ref: 382711323994
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setquota11324185
Ref: 382811324185
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 shutdown11324361
Ref: 381e11324361
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 socket11324550
Ref: 382911324550
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 sort11324638
Ref: 382a11324638
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 starttls11325594
Ref: 10cc11325594
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 status11326129
Ref: 382b11326129
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 store11326227
Ref: 382c11326227
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 subscribe11327435
Ref: 382d11327435
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 thread11327508
Ref: 382e11327508
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 uid11328639
Ref: 382f11328639
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unsubscribe11328959
Ref: 383011328959
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unselect11329038
Ref: 75c11329038
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 xatom11329439
Ref: 383111329439
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 PROTOCOL_VERSION11329645
Ref: 383211329645
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 debug11329783
Ref: 383311329783
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 utf8_enabled11329989
Ref: c9c11329989
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-111330272
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-211330331
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-311330390
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-411330449
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-511330508
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-611330567
Node: IMAP4 Example11330626
Ref: library/imaplib id211330731
Ref: 383411330731
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-example11330731
Ref: 383511330731
Node: smtplib — SMTP protocol client11331237
Ref: library/smtplib doc11331430
Ref: 383611331430
Ref: library/smtplib module-smtplib11331430
Ref: c911331430
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib-smtp-protocol-client11331430
Ref: 383711331430
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP11332158
Ref: 78611332158
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP_SSL11334776
Ref: 78711334776
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib LMTP11336277
Ref: 78811336277
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPException11337206
Ref: e4111337206
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPServerDisconnected11337468
Ref: 383a11337468
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException11337698
Ref: 383b11337698
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPSenderRefused11338065
Ref: 383c11338065
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPRecipientsRefused11338308
Ref: 383d11338308
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPDataError11338583
Ref: 383e11338583
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPConnectError11338681
Ref: 383811338681
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPHeloError11338804
Ref: 383f11338804
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPNotSupportedError11338893
Ref: 17fb11338893
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPAuthenticationError11339039
Ref: 384011339039
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-111339779
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-211339846
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-311339904
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-411339963
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-511340022
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-611340080
Node: SMTP Objects11340139
Ref: library/smtplib id111340241
Ref: 384111340241
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-objects11340241
Ref: 384211340241
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP set_debuglevel11340345
Ref: cea11340345
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP docmd11340702
Ref: 384311340702
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP connect11341354
Ref: 17fc11341354
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP helo11342042
Ref: 384411342042
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo11342504
Ref: 384511342504
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo_or_helo_if_needed11343411
Ref: 384711343411
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP has_extn11343755
Ref: 384611343755
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP verify11343952
Ref: 384811343952
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP login11344362
Ref: 384911344362
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP auth11345953
Ref: ce911345953
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP starttls11348200
Ref: fdc11348200
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP sendmail11349720
Ref: ceb11349720
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP send_message11353210
Ref: cec11353210
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP quit11355291
Ref: 383911355291
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-111355756
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-211355814
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-311355873
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-411355932
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-511355990
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-611356048
Node: SMTP Example11356107
Ref: library/smtplib id211356209
Ref: 384a11356209
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-example11356209
Ref: 384b11356209
Ref: SMTP Example-Footnote-111357636
Node: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 412211357694
Ref: library/uuid doc11357902
Ref: 384c11357902
Ref: library/uuid module-uuid11357902
Ref: 11011357902
Ref: library/uuid uuid-uuid-objects-according-to-rfc-412211357902
Ref: 384d11357902
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID11359024
Ref: 384e11359024
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID safe11359082
Ref: 384f11359082
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unsafe11359202
Ref: 385011359202
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unknown11359302
Ref: 385111359302
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID11359446
Ref: 8c511359446
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes11361411
Ref: 385311361411
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes_le11361543
Ref: 385411361543
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID fields11361698
Ref: 385511361698
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_low11362075
Ref: 385611362075
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_mid11362275
Ref: 385711362275
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_hi_version11362481
Ref: 385811362481
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_hi_variant11362685
Ref: 385911362685
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_low11362876
Ref: 385a11362876
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID node11363065
Ref: 385b11363065
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time11363264
Ref: 385c11363264
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq11363460
Ref: 385d11363460
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID hex11363570
Ref: 385e11363570
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID int11363661
Ref: 385211363661
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID urn11363726
Ref: 385f11363726
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID variant11363807
Ref: 386011363807
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID version11364074
Ref: 386511364074
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID is_safe11364215
Ref: a1d11364215
Ref: library/uuid uuid getnode11364475
Ref: a1e11364475
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid111365448
Ref: a1f11365448
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid311365799
Ref: 13f011365799
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid411366035
Ref: 13f111366035
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid511366093
Ref: 13f211366093
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_DNS11366462
Ref: 386611366462
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_URL11366591
Ref: 386711366591
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_OID11366691
Ref: 386811366691
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_X50011366796
Ref: 386911366796
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_NCS11367063
Ref: 386111367063
Ref: library/uuid uuid RFC_412211367132
Ref: 386211367132
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_MICROSOFT11367213
Ref: 386311367213
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_FUTURE11367294
Ref: 386411367294
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-111367759
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-211367823
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-311367882
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-411367941
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-511368000
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-611368059
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-711368118
Node: Command-Line Usage<2>11368177
Ref: library/uuid command-line-usage11368298
Ref: 386a11368298
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli11368298
Ref: 15311368298
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-h11368580
Ref: 386b11368580
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-help11368580
Ref: 386c11368580
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-u11368642
Ref: 386d11368642
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-uuid11368664
Ref: 386e11368664
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-n11368799
Ref: 386f11368799
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-namespace11368826
Ref: 387011368826
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-N11369140
Ref: 387111369140
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-name11369162
Ref: 387211369162
Node: Example<11>11369320
Ref: library/uuid example11369470
Ref: 387311369470
Ref: library/uuid uuid-example11369470
Ref: 387411369470
Node: Command-Line Example11370729
Ref: library/uuid command-line-example11370849
Ref: 387511370849
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli-example11370849
Ref: 387611370849
Node: socketserver — A framework for network servers11371242
Ref: library/socketserver doc11371446
Ref: 387711371446
Ref: library/socketserver module-socketserver11371446
Ref: cc11371446
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-a-framework-for-network-servers11371446
Ref: 387811371446
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver TCPServer11372044
Ref: 11cb11372044
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UDPServer11372519
Ref: 387b11372519
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixStreamServer11372826
Ref: 387c11372826
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixDatagramServer11372943
Ref: 387d11372943
Ref: socketserver — A framework for network servers-Footnote-111375300
Node: Server Creation Notes11375372
Ref: library/socketserver server-creation-notes11375504
Ref: 388111375504
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingMixIn11376277
Ref: 9ed11376277
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn11376318
Ref: 9ee11376318
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn block_on_close11376981
Ref: a7611376981
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn daemon_threads11377375
Ref: 388311377375
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingTCPServer11377914
Ref: 388411377914
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUDPServer11377959
Ref: 388511377959
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingTCPServer11378004
Ref: 388611378004
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUDPServer11378051
Ref: 388211378051
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixStreamServer11378098
Ref: 388711378098
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixDatagramServer11378150
Ref: 388811378150
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixStreamServer11378204
Ref: 388911378204
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixDatagramServer11378258
Ref: 388a11378258
Node: Server Objects<2>11380620
Ref: library/socketserver server-objects11380784
Ref: 388c11380784
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer11380835
Ref: fe111380835
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer fileno11381248
Ref: 388f11381248
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_request11381523
Ref: 11ce11381523
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer serve_forever11382127
Ref: fe311382127
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer service_actions11382784
Ref: fe211382784
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer shutdown11383088
Ref: 187011383088
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_close11383370
Ref: 388011383370
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer address_family11383458
Ref: 389311383458
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer RequestHandlerClass11383875
Ref: 388e11383875
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_address11384036
Ref: 388d11384036
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket11384462
Ref: 389411384462
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer allow_reuse_address11384651
Ref: 389511384651
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer request_queue_size11384868
Ref: 389611384868
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket_type11385362
Ref: 389711385362
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer timeout11385558
Ref: 11cc11385558
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer finish_request11386067
Ref: 389811386067
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer get_request11386286
Ref: 389011386286
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_error11386518
Ref: bc911386518
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_timeout11386976
Ref: 11cd11386976
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer process_request11387417
Ref: 389211387417
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_activate11387790
Ref: 387a11387790
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_bind11388039
Ref: 387911388039
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer verify_request11388195
Ref: 389111388195
Node: Request Handler Objects11388786
Ref: library/socketserver request-handler-objects11388941
Ref: 389911388941
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler11389010
Ref: 387e11389010
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler setup11389368
Ref: 389a11389368
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler handle11389565
Ref: 387f11389565
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler finish11390282
Ref: 389e11390282
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler request11390563
Ref: 389b11390563
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler client_address11390702
Ref: 389c11390702
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler server11390827
Ref: 389d11390827
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver StreamRequestHandler11390930
Ref: b5d11390930
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler11390979
Ref: 388b11390979
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler rfile11391231
Ref: 389f11391231
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler wfile11391399
Ref: 38a011391399
Node: Examples<27>11391683
Ref: library/socketserver examples11391812
Ref: 38a111391812
Node: socketserver TCPServer Example11392017
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-tcpserver-example11392135
Ref: 38a211392135
Node: socketserver UDPServer Example11395973
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-udpserver-example11396119
Ref: 38a311396119
Node: Asynchronous Mixins11397708
Ref: library/socketserver asynchronous-mixins11397815
Ref: 38a411397815
Node: http server — HTTP servers11400161
Ref: library/http server doc11400360
Ref: 38a511400360
Ref: library/http server http-server-http-servers11400360
Ref: 38a611400360
Ref: library/http server module-http server11400360
Ref: 7011400360
Ref: library/http server http server HTTPServer11401406
Ref: 36ad11401406
Ref: library/http server http server ThreadingHTTPServer11401765
Ref: 9b511401765
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler11402319
Ref: f6e11402319
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler client_address11403307
Ref: 38a811403307
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server11403452
Ref: 38a911403452
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler close_connection11403524
Ref: 38aa11403524
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler requestline11403762
Ref: 38ac11403762
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler command11404080
Ref: 38ad11404080
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler path11404187
Ref: 38ae11404187
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler request_version11404464
Ref: 38af11404464
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler headers11404603
Ref: 379511404603
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler rfile11405033
Ref: 38b111405033
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler wfile11405188
Ref: 38b211405188
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server_version11405643
Ref: 38b311405643
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler sys_version11405933
Ref: 38b411405933
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_message_format11406191
Ref: 38b611406191
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_content_type11406555
Ref: 38b711406555
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler protocol_version11406738
Ref: 38b811406738
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler MessageClass11407337
Ref: 38b011407337
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler responses11407578
Ref: 377c11407578
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle11408146
Ref: 38bb11408146
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_one_request11408448
Ref: 38ab11408448
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_expect_10011408648
Ref: 38bc11408648
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_error11409161
Ref: df011409161
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response11410295
Ref: 38bd11410295
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_header11411117
Ref: 38b911411117
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response_only11411703
Ref: 38ba11411703
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler end_headers11412127
Ref: f6f11412127
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler flush_headers11412432
Ref: f7011412432
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_request11412608
Ref: 38bf11412608
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_error11412907
Ref: 38c011412907
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_message11413154
Ref: 38c111413154
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler version_string11413645
Ref: 38b511413645
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler date_time_string11413861
Ref: 38be11413861
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_date_time_string11414251
Ref: 38c211414251
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler address_string11414364
Ref: 38c311414364
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler11414613
Ref: 9b411414613
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler server_version11415411
Ref: 38c611415411
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler extensions_map11415575
Ref: 38c711415575
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_HEAD11416084
Ref: 38c511416084
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_GET11416374
Ref: 38c411416374
Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler11418954
Ref: 25a11418954
Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler cgi_directories11420146
Ref: 38c811420146
Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler do_POST11420389
Ref: 38c911420389
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-111420941
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-211421012
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-311421071
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-411421130
Node: Command-line interface<2>11421201
Ref: library/http server command-line-interface11421326
Ref: 38ca11421326
Ref: library/http server http-server-cli11421326
Ref: df111421326
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-arg-port11421669
Ref: 38cb11421669
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-b11421862
Ref: 38cc11421862
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-bind11421862
Ref: 38cd11421862
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-d11422306
Ref: 38ce11422306
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-directory11422306
Ref: 38cf11422306
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-p11422609
Ref: 38d011422609
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-protocol11422609
Ref: 38d111422609
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-cgi11422930
Ref: 38d211422930
Node: Security considerations<3>11423332
Ref: library/http server http-server-security11423457
Ref: 38a711423457
Ref: library/http server security-considerations11423457
Ref: 38d311423457
Node: http cookies — HTTP state management11424103
Ref: library/http cookies doc11424305
Ref: 38d411424305
Ref: library/http cookies http-cookies-http-state-management11424305
Ref: 38d511424305
Ref: library/http cookies module-http cookies11424305
Ref: 6f11424305
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies CookieError11425709
Ref: 38d611425709
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie11425878
Ref: 38d711425878
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies SimpleCookie11426271
Ref: 188311426271
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-111427149
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-211427221
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-311427280
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-411427339
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-511427398
Node: Cookie Objects11427457
Ref: library/http cookies cookie-objects11427569
Ref: 38db11427569
Ref: library/http cookies id111427569
Ref: 38dc11427569
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_decode11427620
Ref: 38d911427620
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_encode11427894
Ref: 38da11427894
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie output11428348
Ref: 38dd11428348
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie js_output11428718
Ref: 38df11428718
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie load11428999
Ref: 38d811428999
Node: Morsel Objects11429283
Ref: library/http cookies id211429415
Ref: 38e011429415
Ref: library/http cookies morsel-objects11429415
Ref: 38e111429415
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel11429466
Ref: a7d11429466
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel expires11429701
Ref: 38e211429701
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel path11429737
Ref: 38e311429737
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel comment11429770
Ref: 38e411429770
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel domain11429806
Ref: 38e511429806
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel secure11429878
Ref: 38e611429878
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel version11429913
Ref: 38e711429913
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel httponly11429949
Ref: 125711429949
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel samesite11429986
Ref: 38e811429986
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel value11430961
Ref: a7b11430961
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel coded_value11431024
Ref: a7c11431024
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel key11431133
Ref: a7a11431133
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel set11431193
Ref: a7e11431193
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel isReservedKey11431304
Ref: 38e911431304
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel output11431417
Ref: 38de11431417
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel js_output11431759
Ref: 38ea11431759
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel OutputString11432035
Ref: 38eb11432035
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel update11432249
Ref: d5d11432249
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel copy11432555
Ref: d5c11432555
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel setdefault11432716
Ref: 38ec11432716
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-111432933
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-211432992
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-311433051
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-411433110
Node: Example<12>11433169
Ref: library/http cookies cookie-example11433278
Ref: 38ed11433278
Ref: library/http cookies example11433278
Ref: 38ee11433278
Node: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients11434930
Ref: library/http cookiejar doc11435147
Ref: 38ef11435147
Ref: library/http cookiejar http-cookiejar-cookie-handling-for-http-clients11435147
Ref: 38f011435147
Ref: library/http cookiejar module-http cookiejar11435147
Ref: 6e11435147
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LoadError11436714
Ref: 38f111436714
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar11437123
Ref: 371c11437123
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar11437603
Ref: 38f211437603
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy11438449
Ref: 38f311438449
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy11438613
Ref: 184a11438613
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie11440441
Ref: 38f811440441
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-111442156
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-211442230
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-311442289
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-411442348
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-511442407
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-611442466
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-711442525
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-811442584
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-911442643
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1011442702
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1111442762
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1211442822
Node: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects11442882
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-jar-objects11443073
Ref: 38f911443073
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects11443073
Ref: 38fa11443073
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar add_cookie_header11443350
Ref: 38fb11443350
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar extract_cookies11444273
Ref: 38fc11444273
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_policy11445512
Ref: 38fe11445512
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar make_cookies11445618
Ref: 38ff11445618
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie_if_ok11445907
Ref: 390011445907
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie11446034
Ref: 390111446034
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear11446185
Ref: 390211446185
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear_session_cookies11446692
Ref: 390311446692
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar save11447337
Ref: 390411447337
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar load11448192
Ref: 38f411448192
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar revert11448765
Ref: 38f511448765
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar filename11449166
Ref: 390511449166
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar delayload11449306
Ref: 390611449306
Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers11449730
Ref: library/http cookiejar file-cookie-jar-classes11449950
Ref: 38f611449950
Ref: library/http cookiejar filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers11449950
Ref: 390711449950
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar MozillaCookieJar11450178
Ref: 390811450178
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LWPCookieJar11450991
Ref: 390911450991
Ref: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers-Footnote-111451482
Node: CookiePolicy Objects11451541
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-policy-objects11451753
Ref: 390a11451753
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiepolicy-objects11451753
Ref: 390b11451753
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy set_ok11451906
Ref: 38fd11451906
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy return_ok11452234
Ref: 390c11452234
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy domain_return_ok11452565
Ref: 390d11452565
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy path_return_ok11453945
Ref: 390e11453945
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy netscape11454399
Ref: 390f11454399
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy rfc296511454475
Ref: 391011454475
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy hide_cookie211454553
Ref: 391111454553
Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-111455107
Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-211455166
Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects11455225
Ref: library/http cookiejar default-cookie-policy-objects11455395
Ref: 391211455395
Ref: library/http cookiejar defaultcookiepolicy-objects11455395
Ref: 391311455395
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy blocked_domains11457714
Ref: 391411457714
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_blocked_domains11457827
Ref: 391511457827
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_blocked11457943
Ref: 391611457943
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy allowed_domains11458093
Ref: 391711458093
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_allowed_domains11458231
Ref: 391811458231
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_not_allowed11458367
Ref: 391911458367
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy rfc2109_as_netscape11458709
Ref: 38f711458709
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_domain11459299
Ref: 391a11459299
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_rfc2965_unverifiable11459606
Ref: 391b11459606
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_unverifiable11459987
Ref: 391c11459987
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_domain11460139
Ref: 391d11460139
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_initial_dollar11460323
Ref: 391e11460323
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_path11460481
Ref: 391f11460481
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNoDots11460808
Ref: 392011460808
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNonDomain11461056
Ref: 392111461056
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainRFC2965Match11461407
Ref: 392211461407
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainLiberal11461647
Ref: 392311461647
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrict11461798
Ref: 392411461798
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-111461954
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-211462013
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-311462072
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-411462131
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Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-711462308
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie version11463298
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie get_nonstandard_attr11465822
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie is_expired11466160
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Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-411466632
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Ref: library/http cookiejar examples11466817
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Ref: Examples<28>-Footnote-111468270
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Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-411478690
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system methodHelp11480762
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary decode11484258
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Ref: Address objects-Footnote-111529692
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network11535582
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network version11538013
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network max_prefixlen11538045
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_multicast11538183
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_private11538220
Ref: 39af11538220
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_unspecified11538255
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_reserved11538294
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network broadcast_address11538738
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network compressed11539171
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network exploded11539206
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network with_netmask11539510
Ref: 39bb11539510
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network with_hostmask11539644
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network num_addresses11539780
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network prefixlen11539875
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network11545418
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network version11547233
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_multicast11547303
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_link_local11547486
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network compressed11547710
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network exploded11547745
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network with_netmask11547778
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Ref: library/ipaddress id111549086
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Ref: library/ipaddress id211554049
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress v6_int_to_packed11555816
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Ref: wave — Read and write WAV files-Footnote-111561285
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read close11561664
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Ref: 3a0111561862
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getsampwidth11561992
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getframerate11562070
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getnframes11562145
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getcomptype11562222
Ref: 3a0511562222
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getcompname11562346
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getparams11562511
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read readframes11562730
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read rewind11562864
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getmarkers11563103
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getmark11563168
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read setpos11563371
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read tell11563463
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Node: Wave_write Objects11563540
Ref: library/wave id211563654
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Ref: library/wave wave-write-objects11563654
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write11563711
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write close11564750
Ref: 39fd11564750
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setnchannels11565098
Ref: 3a1111565098
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setsampwidth11565174
Ref: 3a1211565174
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setframerate11565257
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setnframes11565452
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setcomptype11565723
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setparams11565918
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write tell11566149
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write writeframesraw11566353
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Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write writeframes11566556
Ref: e9311566556
Node: colorsys — Conversions between color systems11567210
Ref: library/colorsys doc11567354
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys-conversions-between-color-systems11567354
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Ref: library/colorsys module-colorsys11567354
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_yiq11568356
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys yiq_to_rgb11568465
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_hls11568574
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys hls_to_rgb11568683
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_hsv11568792
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys hsv_to_rgb11568901
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Ref: colorsys — Conversions between color systems-Footnote-111569212
Node: Internationalization11569280
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Ref: library/i18n internationalization11569421
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Node: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services11569876
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Ref: library/gettext module-gettext11570036
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Ref: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services-Footnote-111571013
Node: GNU gettext API11571080
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Ref: library/gettext gettext bindtextdomain11571754
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Ref: library/gettext gettext textdomain11572325
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Ref: library/gettext gettext gettext11572570
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Ref: library/gettext gettext ngettext11572977
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Ref: library/gettext gettext dngettext11573687
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Ref: library/gettext gettext pgettext11573840
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Ref: library/gettext gettext dpgettext11573890
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Ref: library/gettext gettext npgettext11573949
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Ref: library/gettext gettext dnpgettext11574012
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Ref: GNU gettext API-Footnote-111574830
Ref: GNU gettext API-Footnote-211575310
Node: Class-based API11575375
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Ref: library/gettext gettext find11576088
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Ref: library/gettext gettext translation11577536
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Ref: library/gettext gettext install11578781
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Node: The NullTranslations class11579885
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations11580442
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations _parse11580846
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations add_fallback11581159
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations gettext11581424
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations ngettext11581624
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations npgettext11582140
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations info11582417
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations charset11582545
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations install11582636
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Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations npgettext11587432
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Ref: The GNUTranslations class-Footnote-111588083
Node: Solaris message catalog support11588141
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Node: Internationalizing your programs and modules11589312
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Ref: library/gettext internationalizing-your-programs-and-modules11589499
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Ref: Internationalizing your programs and modules-Footnote-111593079
Ref: Internationalizing your programs and modules-Footnote-211593112
Node: Localizing your module11593155
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Node: Acknowledgements<9>11598029
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Ref: library/locale module-locale11598748
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Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-111625320
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Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-411625543
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Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-611625644
Node: Background details hints tips and caveats11625686
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Ref: library/locale locale dcgettext11629399
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Ref: library/locale locale textdomain11629454
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Ref: library/locale locale bind_textdomain_codeset11629545
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Node: turtle — Turtle graphics11631139
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Ref: turtle — Turtle graphics-Footnote-111631947
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Ref: library/turtle turtle-how-to11636926
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Ref: library/turtle turtle begin_poly11682526
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Ref: library/turtle turtle end_poly11682668
Ref: 3af911682668
Ref: library/turtle turtle get_poly11682858
Ref: 3afa11682858
Ref: library/turtle turtle clone11683259
Ref: 3afb11683259
Ref: library/turtle turtle getturtle11683455
Ref: 3afc11683455
Ref: library/turtle turtle getpen11683488
Ref: 3afd11683488
Ref: library/turtle turtle getscreen11683755
Ref: 3afe11683755
Ref: library/turtle turtle setundobuffer11684060
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Ref: library/turtle turtle undobufferentries11684498
Ref: 3b0011684498
Node: Compound shapes11684657
Ref: library/turtle compound-shapes11684795
Ref: 3b3011684795
Ref: library/turtle compoundshapes11684795
Ref: 3b3111684795
Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions11685828
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Ref: 3b3411686036
Node: Window control11686516
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Ref: library/turtle turtle bgcolor11686702
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Ref: library/turtle turtle bgpic11687116
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Ref: library/turtle turtle clearscreen11687991
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Ref: library/turtle turtle resetscreen11688497
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Ref: library/turtle turtle screensize11688595
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Ref: library/turtle turtle setworldcoordinates11689495
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Node: Animation control11690478
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Ref: library/turtle turtle tracer11691138
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Node: Using screen events11692011
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Ref: library/turtle turtle listen11692234
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onkey11692468
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onkeyrelease11692505
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onkeypress11693128
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onclick11693732
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Ref: library/turtle turtle onscreenclick11693783
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Ref: library/turtle turtle ontimer11694971
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Ref: library/turtle turtle mainloop11695456
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Ref: library/turtle turtle done11695488
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Node: Input methods11695813
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Ref: library/turtle turtle textinput11696035
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Ref: library/turtle turtle numinput11696490
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Node: Settings and special methods11697414
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Ref: library/turtle turtle mode11697705
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Ref: library/turtle turtle colormode11698935
Ref: 3b1411698935
Ref: library/turtle turtle getcanvas11699576
Ref: 3b1511699576
Ref: library/turtle turtle getshapes11699826
Ref: 3b1611699826
Ref: library/turtle turtle register_shape11700019
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Ref: library/turtle turtle addshape11700073
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Ref: library/turtle turtle turtles11701032
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Ref: library/turtle turtle window_height11701197
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Ref: library/turtle turtle window_width11701333
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Node: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen11701466
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Ref: library/turtle screenspecific11701656
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Ref: library/turtle turtle bye11701797
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Ref: library/turtle turtle exitonclick11701863
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Ref: library/turtle turtle setup11702302
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Ref: library/turtle turtle title11703623
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Node: Public classes11703890
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Ref: library/turtle turtle RawPen11704149
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Turtle11704426
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Ref: library/turtle turtle TurtleScreen11704622
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Screen11704823
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Ref: library/turtle turtle ScrolledCanvas11704922
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Shape11705223
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Shape addcomponent11706037
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Ref: library/turtle turtle Vec2D11706641
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Node: Explanation<2>11707197
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Node: Help and configuration11708760
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Node: How to use help11709096
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Node: Translation of docstrings into different languages11711547
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Ref: library/turtle turtle write_docstringdict11712028
Ref: 3b4511712028
Node: How to configure Screen and Turtles11713058
Ref: library/turtle how-to-configure-screen-and-turtles11713211
Ref: 3b4611713211
Node: turtledemo — Demo scripts11716018
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Ref: library/turtle turtledemo-demo-scripts11716172
Ref: 3b4711716172
Node: Changes since Python 2 611722007
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Node: Changes since Python 3 011723201
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Ref: 3b4911723321
Node: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters11724629
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Ref: library/cmd cmd-support-for-line-oriented-command-interpreters11724815
Ref: 3b4b11724815
Ref: library/cmd module-cmd11724815
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd11725291
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Ref: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters-Footnote-111726488
Node: Cmd Objects11726551
Ref: library/cmd cmd-objects11726673
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Ref: library/cmd id111726673
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdloop11726772
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd do_help11728865
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd onecmd11729400
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd emptyline11729993
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd default11730193
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd completedefault11730392
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd columnize11730616
Ref: 168e11730616
Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd precmd11730854
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postcmd11731335
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd preloop11731970
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postloop11732166
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd prompt11732452
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd identchars11732524
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd lastcmd11732622
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdqueue11732698
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd intro11732952
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd doc_header11733109
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd misc_header11733232
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd undoc_header11733454
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd ruler11733673
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd use_rawinput11733850
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Node: Cmd Example11734329
Ref: library/cmd cmd-example11734451
Ref: 3b6311734451
Ref: library/cmd id211734451
Ref: 3b6411734451
Node: shlex — Simple lexical analysis11739801
Ref: library/shlex doc11739952
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Ref: library/shlex module-shlex11739952
Ref: c311739952
Ref: library/shlex shlex-simple-lexical-analysis11739952
Ref: 3b6611739952
Ref: library/shlex shlex split11740473
Ref: 2c811740473
Ref: library/shlex shlex join11741073
Ref: 88911741073
Ref: library/shlex shlex quote11741530
Ref: fce11741530
Ref: library/shlex shlex-quote-warning11741757
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex11743381
Ref: b5011743381
Ref: shlex — Simple lexical analysis-Footnote-111745645
Node: shlex Objects11745710
Ref: library/shlex id111745815
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Ref: library/shlex shlex-objects11745815
Ref: 3b6b11745815
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex get_token11745919
Ref: 3b6c11745919
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_token11746284
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex read_token11746368
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex sourcehook11746609
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_source11748151
Ref: 3b7211748151
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex pop_source11748456
Ref: 3b7311748456
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex error_leader11748657
Ref: 3b7411748657
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex commenters11749388
Ref: 3b6711749388
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex wordchars11749613
Ref: 3b6911749613
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace11750312
Ref: 3b7611750312
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escape11750513
Ref: 3b7711750513
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex quotes11750681
Ref: 3b7811750681
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escapedquotes11750969
Ref: 3b7911750969
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace_split11751201
Ref: 3b7511751201
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex infile11751746
Ref: 3b6811751746
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex instream11751980
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex source11752108
Ref: 3b7111752108
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex debug11752701
Ref: 3b7b11752701
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex lineno11752968
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex token11753067
Ref: 3b7d11753067
Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex eof11753187
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex punctuation_chars11753366
Ref: 180611753366
Node: Parsing Rules11753780
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Ref: library/shlex shlex-parsing-rules11753928
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Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells11755949
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Ref: library/shlex improved-shell-compatibility11756075
Ref: b5111756075
Node: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri11758909
Ref: library/tk doc11759065
Ref: 3b8111759065
Ref: library/tk graphical-user-interfaces-with-tk11759065
Ref: 3b8211759065
Ref: library/tk tkinter11759065
Ref: 3b8311759065
Ref: Tk ile Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzleri-Footnote-111761198
Node: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk11761250
Ref: library/tkinter doc11761417
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Ref: library/tkinter module-tkinter11761417
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-python-interface-to-tcl-tk11761417
Ref: 3b8511761417
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-111764318
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-211764395
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-311764423
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-411764463
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-511764520
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-611764547
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-711764584
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-811764682
Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-911764734
Node: Architecture11764793
Ref: library/tkinter architecture11764904
Ref: 3b8611764904
Ref: Architecture-Footnote-111767236
Node: Tkinter Modules11767276
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-modules11767418
Ref: 3b8811767418
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk11767745
Ref: 14d911767745
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk tk11769897
Ref: 3b8a11769897
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk master11770199
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk children11770772
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tcl11770985
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Ref: library/tkinter module-_tkinter11772582
Ref: 311772582
Node: Tkinter Life Preserver11773683
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-life-preserver11773828
Ref: 3b8d11773828
Node: A Hello World Program11774656
Ref: library/tkinter a-hello-world-program11774766
Ref: 3b8e11774766
Node: Important Tk Concepts11776231
Ref: library/tkinter important-tk-concepts11776388
Ref: 3b8f11776388
Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk11777736
Ref: library/tkinter understanding-how-tkinter-wraps-tcl-tk11777905
Ref: 3b9011777905
Node: How do I…? What option does…?11780060
Ref: library/tkinter how-do-i-what-option-does11780246
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Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual11781992
Ref: library/tkinter navigating-the-tcl-tk-reference-manual11782131
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Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-111784208
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-211784265
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-311784324
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-411784377
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-511784433
Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-611784492
Node: Threading model11784546
Ref: library/tkinter threading-model11784691
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Node: Handy Reference11787713
Ref: library/tkinter handy-reference11787849
Ref: 3b9311787849
Node: Setting Options11788103
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Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-setting-options11788189
Ref: 3b9511788189
Ref: Setting Options-Footnote-111791437
Node: The Packer11791484
Ref: library/tkinter the-packer11791593
Ref: 3b9611791593
Node: Packer Options11793243
Ref: library/tkinter packer-options11793362
Ref: 3b9711793362
Node: Coupling Widget Variables11794062
Ref: library/tkinter coupling-widget-variables11794189
Ref: 3b9811794189
Node: The Window Manager11796389
Ref: library/tkinter the-window-manager11796522
Ref: 3b9911796522
Node: Tk Option Data Types11797915
Ref: library/tkinter tk-option-data-types11798042
Ref: 3b9a11798042
Node: Bindings and Events11801104
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Ref: library/tkinter id211801232
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Ref: Bindings and Events-Footnote-111804064
Node: The index Parameter11804110
Ref: library/tkinter the-index-parameter11804224
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Node: Images11806158
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Ref: Images-Footnote-111807193
Node: File Handlers11807228
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Ref: 3b9f11807340
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-file-handlers11807340
Ref: 3ba011807340
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk createfilehandler11808282
Ref: 3ba111808282
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk deletefilehandler11808719
Ref: 3ba211808719
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter READABLE11808803
Ref: 3ba311808803
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter WRITABLE11808833
Ref: 3ba411808833
Ref: library/tkinter tkinter EXCEPTION11808863
Ref: 3ba511808863
Node: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog11808941
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser doc11809154
Ref: 3ba611809154
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser module-tkinter colorchooser11809154
Ref: f011809154
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter-colorchooser-color-choosing-dialog11809154
Ref: 3ba711809154
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser Chooser11809652
Ref: 3ba811809652
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser askcolor11809722
Ref: 3baa11809722
Ref: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog-Footnote-111810130
Node: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper11810211
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Ref: f411810401
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter-font-tkinter-font-wrapper11810401
Ref: 3bac11810401
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font NORMAL11810758
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font BOLD11810790
Ref: 3bae11810790
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ITALIC11810820
Ref: 3baf11810820
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ROMAN11810852
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font11810884
Ref: 173511810884
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font actual11812194
Ref: 3bb111812194
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font cget11812297
Ref: 3bb211812297
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font config11812377
Ref: 3bb311812377
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font copy11812458
Ref: 3bb411812458
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font measure11812538
Ref: 3bb511812538
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font metrics11812799
Ref: 3bb611812799
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font families11813378
Ref: 3bb711813378
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font names11813484
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Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font nametofont11813570
Ref: 173711813570
Ref: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper-Footnote-111813797
Node: Tkinter Dialogs11813869
Ref: library/dialog doc11814059
Ref: 3bb911814059
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-dialogs11814059
Ref: 3bba11814059
Node: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs11814430
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter simpledialog11814591
Ref: f711814591
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-simpledialog-standard-tkinter-input-dialogs11814591
Ref: 3bbb11814591
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askfloat11814994
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askinteger11815059
Ref: 173811815059
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askstring11815126
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog11815305
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog body11815411
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Ref: 3bc011815567
Ref: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs-Footnote-111815740
Node: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs11815821
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter filedialog11816039
Ref: f311816039
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-filedialog-file-selection-dialogs11816039
Ref: 3bc111816039
Ref: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs-Footnote-111816472
Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs11816551
Ref: library/dialog native-load-save-dialogs11816657
Ref: 3bc211816657
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfile11817666
Ref: 3bc311817666
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfiles11817732
Ref: 3bc411817732
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfile11817926
Ref: 3bc611817926
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilename11818094
Ref: 3bc811818094
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilenames11818154
Ref: 3bc911818154
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfilename11818364
Ref: 3bca11818364
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askdirectory11818508
Ref: 3bcb11818508
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Open11818733
Ref: 3bc511818733
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveAs11818797
Ref: 3bc711818797
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Directory11819122
Ref: 3bcc11819122
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog11819357
Ref: 3bcd11819357
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog cancel_command11819468
Ref: 3bce11819468
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_double_event11819573
Ref: 3bcf11819573
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_select_event11819681
Ref: 3bd011819681
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_double_event11819782
Ref: 3bd111819782
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_select_event11819886
Ref: 3bd211819886
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog filter_command11819990
Ref: 3bd311819990
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_filter11820080
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_selection11820168
Ref: 3bd511820168
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog go11820254
Ref: 3bd611820254
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog ok_event11820398
Ref: 3bd711820398
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog quit11820487
Ref: 3bd811820487
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_filter11820574
Ref: 3bd911820574
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_selection11820648
Ref: 3bda11820648
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog11820745
Ref: 3bdb11820745
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog ok_command11820913
Ref: 3bdc11820913
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog11821056
Ref: 3bdd11821056
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog ok_command11821226
Ref: 3bde11821226
Node: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates11821440
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter commondialog11821594
Ref: f111821594
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-commondialog-dialog-window-templates11821594
Ref: 3bdf11821594
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog11821987
Ref: 3ba911821987
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog show11822056
Ref: 3be011822056
Ref: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates-Footnote-111822290
Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts11822371
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox doc11822569
Ref: 3be111822569
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox module-tkinter messagebox11822569
Ref: f511822569
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter-messagebox-tkinter-message-prompts11822569
Ref: 3be211822569
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message11823270
Ref: 3be711823270
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message show11825415
Ref: 3bec11825415
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showinfo11825722
Ref: 3bed11825722
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showwarning11825934
Ref: 3bee11825934
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showerror11826119
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askquestion11826327
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askokcancel11826576
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askretrycancel11826840
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesno11827113
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesnocancel11827349
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-buttons11827641
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORT11827669
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRY11827717
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox IGNORE11827765
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OK11827815
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox CANCEL11827857
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YES11827907
Ref: 3be511827907
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox NO11827951
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-types11827992
Ref: 3beb11827992
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORTRETRYIGNORE11828021
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OKCANCEL11828319
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRYCANCEL11828470
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNO11828630
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNOCANCEL11828772
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-icons11828947
Ref: 3be911828947
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ERROR11828961
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox INFO11829009
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox QUESTION11829055
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Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox WARNING11829109
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Ref: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts-Footnote-111829197
Node: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget11829276
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext doc11829496
Ref: 3c0011829496
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext module-tkinter scrolledtext11829496
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Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter-scrolledtext-scrolled-text-widget11829496
Ref: 3c0111829496
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText11830409
Ref: 3c0211830409
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText frame11830479
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Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText vbar11830579
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Ref: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget-Footnote-111830678
Node: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support11830759
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd module-tkinter dnd11830966
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter-dnd-drag-and-drop-support11830966
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler11832468
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler cancel11832660
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler finish11832745
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_motion11832841
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Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_release11832969
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Ref: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support-Footnote-111833283
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk doc11833556
Ref: 3c0d11833556
Ref: library/tkinter ttk module-tkinter ttk11833556
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter-ttk-tk-themed-widgets11833556
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Ref: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets-Footnote-211834561
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget identify11845342
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget state11845933
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox current11849933
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar start11864579
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar step11864849
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar stop11864998
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk separator11865301
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk sizegrip11866054
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Node: Platform-specific notes11866404
Ref: library/tkinter ttk platform-specific-notes11866485
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Node: Bugs11866741
Ref: library/tkinter ttk bugs11866822
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Node: Treeview11867095
Ref: library/tkinter ttk treeview11867210
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk item-options11871156
Ref: 3c4e11871156
Node: Tag Options11872212
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tag-options11872316
Ref: 3c4f11872316
Node: Column Identifiers11872966
Ref: library/tkinter ttk column-identifiers11873075
Ref: 3c4a11873075
Node: Virtual Events<2>11873947
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id811874057
Ref: 3c5011874057
Node: ttk Treeview11874889
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-treeview11874972
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Ref: 8fc11875019
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview bbox11875056
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview get_children11875495
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set_children11875663
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview column11876057
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview delete11877304
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview exists11877765
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview focus11877877
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview heading11878072
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_row11879304
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_column11879401
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_region11879564
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_element11880202
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview item11881362
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview move11881742
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview next11882182
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview parent11882339
Ref: 3c6511882339
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview prev11882492
Ref: 3c6611882492
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview reattach11882654
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview see11882758
Ref: 3c6811882758
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection11883016
Ref: 8fd11883016
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_set11883270
Ref: 8fe11883270
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_add11883481
Ref: 3c6911883481
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_remove11883687
Ref: 3c6a11883687
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_toggle11883901
Ref: 3c6b11883901
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set11884132
Ref: 3c6c11884132
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_bind11884499
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_configure11884771
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_has11885202
Ref: 3c6f11885202
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview xview11885489
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview yview11885587
Ref: 3c4c11885587
Node: Ttk Styling11885683
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-styling11885781
Ref: 3c7011885781
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttkstyling11885781
Ref: 3c1511885781
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style11886388
Ref: 3c1611886388
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style configure11886481
Ref: 3c7111886481
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style map11887210
Ref: 174811887210
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style lookup11888477
Ref: 3c7211888477
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style layout11889000
Ref: 3c7311889000
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_create11890314
Ref: 14c711890314
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_names11892607
Ref: 3c7511892607
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_options11892714
Ref: 3c7611892714
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_create11892822
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_settings11893237
Ref: 3c7811893237
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_names11894716
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_use11894798
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Ref: Ttk Styling-Footnote-111895097
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Ref: 3c7411895214
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Ref: 3c7b11896286
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Ref: 3c7c11896487
Ref: library/tkinter tix module-tkinter tix11896487
Ref: f811896487
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter-tix-extension-widgets-for-tk11896487
Ref: 3c7d11896487
Ref: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk-Footnote-111898454
Ref: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk-Footnote-211898525
Ref: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk-Footnote-311898562
Ref: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk-Footnote-411898616
Ref: tkinter tix — Extension widgets for Tk-Footnote-511898694
Node: Using Tix11898752
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Ref: 3c8411898858
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix Tk11898897
Ref: 3c8511898897
Node: Tix Widgets11899869
Ref: library/tkinter tix tix-widgets11899996
Ref: 3c8611899996
Ref: Tix Widgets-Footnote-111900335
Node: Basic Widgets11900414
Ref: library/tkinter tix basic-widgets11900498
Ref: 3c8711900498
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Ref: 3c8811900545
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix ButtonBox11900827
Ref: 3c8911900827
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix ComboBox11900972
Ref: 3c7f11900972
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix Control11901210
Ref: 3c8011901210
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix LabelEntry11901527
Ref: 3c8a11901527
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix LabelFrame11901746
Ref: 3c8b11901746
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix Meter11902052
Ref: 3c8c11902052
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix OptionMenu11902209
Ref: 3c8d11902209
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix PopupMenu11902306
Ref: 3c8e11902306
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix Select11902558
Ref: 3c8f11902558
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix StdButtonBox11902759
Ref: 3c9011902759
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-111902935
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-211903016
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-311903099
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-411903181
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-511903262
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-611903346
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-711903430
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-811903509
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-911903593
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-1011903676
Ref: Basic Widgets-Footnote-1111903757
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Ref: 3c9111903957
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Ref: 3c9311904270
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Ref: 3c9511904794
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Ref: File Selectors-Footnote-211906216
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Ref: File Selectors-Footnote-411906386
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Ref: Miscellaneous Widgets-Footnote-111911479
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Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix tixCommand tix_configure11912704
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Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix tixCommand tix_addbitmapdir11914121
Ref: 3ca911914121
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix tixCommand tix_filedialog11914657
Ref: 3cab11914657
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix tixCommand tix_getimage11915239
Ref: 3caa11915239
Ref: library/tkinter tix tkinter tix tixCommand tix_option_get11916031
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Ref: Tix Commands-Footnote-111916977
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Ref: 3cb211921819
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Ref: 3cb711925221
Ref: library/idle run-module11925302
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Ref: library/idle run-custom11925794
Ref: 3cba11925794
Ref: library/idle check-module11926054
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Node: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system12108389
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Node: Python Development Mode12113642
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Node: Bad file descriptor error example12120390
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Node: doctest — Test interactive Python examples12122115
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Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings12126508
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Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File12128103
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Node: Command-line Usage12130361
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Node: How It Works12131621
Ref: library/doctest doctest-how-it-works12131759
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Node: Which Docstrings Are Examined?12132402
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Node: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?12134022
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Ref: library/doctest how-are-docstring-examples-recognized12134188
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Node: What’s the Execution Context?12137304
Ref: library/doctest doctest-execution-context12137462
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Node: What About Exceptions?12138180
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Ref: library/doctest option-flags-and-directives12142865
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Node: Option Flags12143102
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Ref: library/doctest doctest DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_112143776
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Node: Directives12150406
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Node: Basic API12154937
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Node: Advanced API12171390
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Node: DocTest Objects12173663
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Node: DocTestFinder objects12178206
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Node: DocTestParser objects12181659
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Node: Command-Line Interface<3>12209713
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Node: Command-line options<3>12211255
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Ref: unittest mock — mock object library-Footnote-112317294
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Ref: The Mock Class-Footnote-112359566
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Ref: library/2to3 lib2to3-2to3-s-library12503268
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Ref: lib2to3 — 2to3’s library-Footnote-112504219
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Ref: lib2to3 — 2to3’s library-Footnote-412504368
Ref: lib2to3 — 2to3’s library-Footnote-512504407
Node: test — Regression tests package for Python12504445
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Node: Writing Unit Tests for the test package12506109
Ref: library/test writing-tests12506284
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Node: Running tests using the command-line interface12510872
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Node: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite12512986
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Ref: library/test test support MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS12518099
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Ref: library/test test support HAVE_DOCSTRINGS12518388
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Ref: library/test test support TEST_HTTP_URL12518665
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Ref: library/test test support disable_faulthandler12524714
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Ref: library/test test support calcobjsize12527586
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Ref: library/test test support checksizeof12528055
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Ref: library/test test support anticipate_failure12528225
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Ref: library/test test support run_with_locale12528638
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Ref: library/test test support Matcher12540122
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Ref: library/test test support Matcher matches12540159
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Ref: library/test test support Matcher match_value12540274
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Ref: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite-Footnote-112540451
Node: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests12540531
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Ref: library/test test-support-socket-helper-utilities-for-socket-tests12540783
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Node: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests12544052
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Ref: library/test test-support-script-helper-utilities-for-the-python-execution-tests12544338
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Ref: library/test test support script_helper assert_python_ok12545966
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Ref: library/test test support script_helper make_pkg12548182
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Node: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation12548913
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Ref: library/test test-support-bytecode-helper-support-tools-for-testing-correct-bytecode-generation12549205
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Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase12549583
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Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase get_disassembly_as_string12549746
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Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase assertInBytecode12549857
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Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase assertNotInBytecode12550039
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Node: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests12550196
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Ref: library/test test-support-threading-helper-utilities-for-threading-tests12550466
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper join_thread12550732
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper threading_cleanup12551500
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper threading_setup12551737
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper wait_threads_exit12551864
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Ref: library/test test support threading_helper catch_threading_exception12552046
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Node: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests12553006
Ref: library/test module-test support os_helper12553247
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Ref: library/test test-support-os-helper-utilities-for-os-tests12553247
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper FS_NONASCII12553471
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper SAVEDCWD12553586
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN12553669
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_NONASCII12553871
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_UNENCODABLE12554258
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_UNDECODABLE12554510
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_UNICODE12554764
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper EnvironmentVarGuard12554867
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper FakePath12555343
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper EnvironmentVarGuard set12555609
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper EnvironmentVarGuard unset12555758
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper can_symlink12555871
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper can_xattr12556005
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper change_cwd12556128
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper create_empty_file12556496
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper fs_is_case_insensitive12556745
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper make_bad_fd12556902
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper rmdir12557070
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper temp_umask12559088
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Ref: library/test test support os_helper unlink12559209
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Node: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests12559452
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Ref: library/test test support import_helper DirsOnSysPath12563483
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Ref: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests-Footnote-112564044
Ref: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests-Footnote-212564086
Node: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests12564128
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Ref: library/test test support warnings_helper check_warnings12566188
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Node: Debugging and Profiling12569456
Ref: library/debug doc12569615
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Ref: library/debug debugging-and-profiling12569615
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Ref: library/audit_events audit-events12570075
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Node: Audit events table12570405
Ref: library/audit_events doc12570518
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Ref: library/audit_events audit-events-table12570518
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Ref: Audit events table-Footnote-112630034
Node: bdb — Debugger framework12630076
Ref: library/bdb doc12630240
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Ref: library/bdb module-bdb12630240
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Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint deleteMe12631700
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Node: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback12647052
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Node: Dumping the traceback12649638
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Node: Fault handler state12650274
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler disable12651375
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler is_enabled12651515
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Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout12651601
Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout12651793
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback_later12651890
Ref: c8d12651890
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler cancel_dump_traceback_later12652929
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Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal12653052
Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback-on-a-user-signal12653252
Ref: 3feb12653252
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler register12653349
Ref: c8b12653349
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler unregister12653983
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Node: Issue with file descriptors12654257
Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-fd12654430
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Ref: library/faulthandler issue-with-file-descriptors12654430
Ref: 3fed12654430
Node: Example<13>12654898
Ref: library/faulthandler example12655024
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Node: pdb — The Python Debugger12655568
Ref: library/pdb doc12655735
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Ref: library/pdb debugger12655735
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Ref: library/pdb module-pdb12655735
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Ref: library/pdb pdb-the-python-debugger12655735
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Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-c12658388
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Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-m12658588
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Ref: library/pdb pdb run12659547
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Ref: library/pdb pdb runeval12660238
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Ref: library/pdb pdb runcall12660550
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Ref: library/pdb pdb set_trace12660864
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Ref: library/pdb pdb post_mortem12661283
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Ref: library/pdb pdb pm12661573
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb12661915
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb run12663339
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb runeval12663401
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb runcall12663468
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Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb set_trace12663521
Ref: 3fff12663521
Ref: pdb — The Python Debugger-Footnote-112663690
Ref: pdb — The Python Debugger-Footnote-212663753
Node: Debugger Commands12663882
Ref: library/pdb debugger-commands12663963
Ref: 3ff512663963
Ref: library/pdb id212663963
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-help12667349
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-break12668217
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-tbreak12669099
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-step12672348
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-pp12675234
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Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-debug12679599
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Node: The Python Profilers12679885
Ref: library/profile doc12680066
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Ref: library/profile profile12680066
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Ref: library/profile the-python-profilers12680066
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Ref: The Python Profilers-Footnote-112680510
Ref: The Python Profilers-Footnote-212680577
Node: Introduction to the profilers12680643
Ref: library/profile introduction-to-the-profilers12680761
Ref: 402512680761
Ref: library/profile profiler-introduction12680761
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Node: Instant User’s Manual12682245
Ref: library/profile instant-user-s-manual12682409
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Ref: library/profile profile-instant12682409
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Ref: library/profile profile-cli12685289
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Ref: library/profile cmdoption-cProfile-s12685597
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Node: profile and cProfile Module Reference12688709
Ref: library/profile module-cProfile12688859
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Ref: library/profile profile-and-cprofile-module-reference12688859
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Ref: library/profile module-profile12688970
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Ref: library/profile profile run12689064
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Ref: library/profile profile runctx12689698
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile12690099
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile enable12691686
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile disable12691789
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile create_stats12691892
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile print_stats12692038
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile dump_stats12692198
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile run12692307
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile runctx12692387
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Ref: library/profile profile Profile runcall12692546
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Node: The Stats Class12692893
Ref: library/profile profile-stats12693052
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Ref: library/profile the-stats-class12693052
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Ref: library/profile module-pstats12693186
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats12693186
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats strip_dirs12694453
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats add12695277
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats dump_stats12695772
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats sort_stats12696155
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats reverse_order12701516
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_stats12701804
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_callers12703250
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Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_callees12704368
Ref: 404112704368
Ref: library/profile pstats Stats get_stats_profile12704751
Ref: 404212704751
Node: What Is Deterministic Profiling?12705300
Ref: library/profile deterministic-profiling12705433
Ref: 404312705433
Ref: library/profile what-is-deterministic-profiling12705433
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Node: Limitations12707231
Ref: library/profile limitations12707360
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Ref: library/profile profile-limitations12707360
Ref: 404612707360
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Ref: library/profile calibration12709360
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Ref: library/profile profile-calibration12709360
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Node: Using a custom timer12711052
Ref: library/profile profile-timers12711149
Ref: 404912711149
Ref: library/profile using-a-custom-timer12711149
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Node: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets12713598
Ref: library/timeit doc12713803
Ref: 404b12713803
Ref: library/timeit module-timeit12713803
Ref: ee12713803
Ref: library/timeit timeit-measure-execution-time-of-small-code-snippets12713803
Ref: 404c12713803
Ref: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets-Footnote-112714588
Node: Basic Examples<2>12714654
Ref: library/timeit basic-examples12714789
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Node: Python Interface12716074
Ref: library/timeit id112716243
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Ref: library/timeit python-interface12716243
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Ref: library/timeit timeit timeit12716364
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Ref: library/timeit timeit repeat12716830
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Ref: library/timeit timeit default_timer12717427
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer12717725
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer timeit12719180
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer autorange12720306
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer repeat12721038
Ref: 405312721038
Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer print_exc12722318
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Node: Command-Line Interface<4>12722900
Ref: library/timeit command-line-interface12723064
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Ref: library/timeit timeit-command-line-interface12723064
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-n12723333
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-h12724060
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Node: Examples<29>12725270
Ref: library/timeit examples12725409
Ref: 406512725409
Ref: library/timeit timeit-examples12725409
Ref: 405012725409
Node: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution12729043
Ref: library/trace doc12729268
Ref: 406612729268
Ref: library/trace module-trace12729268
Ref: fd12729268
Ref: library/trace trace-trace-or-track-python-statement-execution12729268
Ref: 406712729268
Ref: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution-Footnote-112730049
Ref: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution-Footnote-212730114
Node: Command-Line Usage<3>12730155
Ref: library/trace command-line-usage12730295
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-help12730648
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-T12731985
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Node: Modifiers12732087
Ref: library/trace modifiers12732191
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-g12733076
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-timing12733076
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Node: Filters12733197
Ref: library/trace filters12733280
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-ignore-module12733362
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Node: Programmatic Interface12733754
Ref: library/trace programmatic-interface12733894
Ref: 408712733894
Ref: library/trace trace-api12733894
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace12733959
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace run12734874
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace runctx12735118
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace runfunc12735434
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace results12735629
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Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults12735940
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Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults update12736108
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Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults write_results12736228
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Node: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations12737260
Ref: library/tracemalloc doc12737420
Ref: 409012737420
Ref: library/tracemalloc module-tracemalloc12737420
Ref: ff12737420
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc-trace-memory-allocations12737420
Ref: 409112737420
Ref: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations-Footnote-112738762
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Ref: library/tracemalloc examples12738934
Ref: 409212738934
Node: Display the top 1012739083
Ref: library/tracemalloc display-the-top-1012739178
Ref: 409312739178
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Ref: library/tracemalloc compute-differences12740801
Ref: 409512740801
Node: Get the traceback of a memory block12742991
Ref: library/tracemalloc get-the-traceback-of-a-memory-block12743122
Ref: 409812743122
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Ref: library/tracemalloc pretty-top12745857
Ref: 409912745857
Node: Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks12748319
Ref: library/tracemalloc record-the-current-and-peak-size-of-all-traced-memory-blocks12748426
Ref: 409a12748426
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Ref: library/tracemalloc api12750219
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Node: Functions<9>12750390
Ref: library/tracemalloc functions12750463
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc clear_traces12750502
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_object_traceback12750636
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_traceback_limit12751041
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_traced_memory12751363
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_tracemalloc_memory12752198
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc start12752625
Ref: 1b8512752625
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc stop12753988
Ref: 140b12753988
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc take_snapshot12754421
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Node: DomainFilter12755118
Ref: library/tracemalloc domainfilter12755206
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc DomainFilter12755251
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc DomainFilter inclusive12755421
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc DomainFilter domain12755724
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Ref: library/tracemalloc filter12755913
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter12755948
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter domain12756822
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter inclusive12757096
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter lineno12757531
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter filename_pattern12757686
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter all_frames12757803
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Node: Frame12758213
Ref: library/tracemalloc frame12758290
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame12758323
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame filename12758475
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame lineno12758541
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Node: Snapshot12758608
Ref: library/tracemalloc snapshot12758688
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot12758727
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot compare_to12758909
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot dump12759639
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot filter_traces12759777
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot load12760460
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot statistics12760588
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot traceback_limit12761791
Ref: 40b012761791
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot traces12762013
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Ref: library/tracemalloc statistic12762399
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic12762440
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic count12762668
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic size12762746
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic traceback12762836
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Ref: library/tracemalloc statisticdiff12763056
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff12763105
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff count12763409
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff count_diff12763586
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff size12763811
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff size_diff12764010
Ref: 40b712764010
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff traceback12764247
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Node: Trace12764384
Ref: library/tracemalloc trace12764469
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace12764502
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace domain12764743
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace size12765024
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace traceback12765111
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Node: Traceback12765246
Ref: library/tracemalloc traceback12765309
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback12765350
Ref: a0c12765350
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback total_nframe12766285
Ref: 40a312766285
Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback format12766601
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Node: Software Packaging and Distribution12767671
Ref: library/distribution doc12767836
Ref: 40cb12767836
Ref: library/distribution software-packaging-and-distribution12767836
Ref: 40cc12767836
Ref: Software Packaging and Distribution-Footnote-112768363
Node: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer12768388
Ref: library/ensurepip doc12768555
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Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip-bootstrapping-the-pip-installer12768555
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Ref: library/ensurepip module-ensurepip12768555
Ref: 5312768555
Ref: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer-Footnote-112770249
Ref: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer-Footnote-212770315
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Ref: library/ensurepip command-line-interface12770480
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Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-root12771229
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Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-altinstall12771911
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Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-default-pip12772038
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Ref: library/ensurepip module-api12772403
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Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip version12772510
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Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip bootstrap12772671
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Node: venv — Creation of virtual environments12774451
Ref: library/venv doc12774675
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Ref: library/venv module-venv12774675
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Ref: library/venv venv-creation-of-virtual-environments12774675
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Ref: library/venv venv-intro12774900
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Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-112777042
Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-212777104
Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-312777142
Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-412777184
Node: Creating virtual environments12777312
Ref: library/venv creating-virtual-environments12777442
Ref: 40da12777442
Ref: Creating virtual environments-Footnote-112782151
Node: How venvs work12782206
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Ref: library/venv venv-explanation12782351
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Ref: library/venv api12787001
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Ref: library/venv venv-api12787001
Ref: d8912787001
Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder12787258
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create12789114
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder ensure_directories12790411
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder upgrade_dependencies12793806
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Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder post_setup12794182
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Ref: library/venv venv create12796431
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Ref: API<2>-Footnote-112797008
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Ref: An example of extending EnvBuilder-Footnote-112807363
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Ref: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives-Footnote-112808359
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Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-python12810106
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Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-main12810382
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Ref: library/zipapp python-api12811509
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-python-api12811509
Ref: 40ea12811509
Ref: library/zipapp zipapp create_archive12811597
Ref: a2712811597
Ref: library/zipapp zipapp get_interpreter12815393
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Node: Examples<31>12815749
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-examples12815900
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Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter12817456
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Ref: library/zipapp creating-standalone-applications-with-zipapp12818909
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Ref: library/zipapp caveats12820708
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Ref: library/python python12823697
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Ref: library/python python-runtime-services12823697
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Node: sys — System-specific parameters and functions12824647
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Ref: library/sys module-sys12824809
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Ref: library/sys sys abiflags12825233
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Ref: library/sys sys addaudithook12825603
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Ref: library/sys sys argv12827822
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Ref: library/sys auditing12828751
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Ref: library/sys sys audit12828751
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Ref: library/sys sys base_exec_prefix12830152
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Ref: library/sys sys base_prefix12830799
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Ref: library/sys sys byteorder12831436
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Ref: library/sys sys builtin_module_names12831694
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Ref: library/sys sys call_tracing12832029
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Ref: library/sys sys copyright12832551
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Ref: library/sys sys _clear_type_cache12832661
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Ref: library/sys sys _current_frames12832986
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Ref: library/sys sys _current_exceptions12833854
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Ref: library/sys sys breakpointhook12834568
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Ref: library/sys sys _debugmallocstats12836467
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Ref: library/sys sys dllhandle12836944
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Ref: library/sys sys displayhook12837068
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Ref: library/sys sys dont_write_bytecode12838598
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info12838999
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info emscripten_version12839216
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info runtime12839379
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info pthreads12839537
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Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info shared_memory12839665
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Ref: library/sys sys pycache_prefix12839866
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Ref: library/sys sys excepthook12840841
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Ref: library/sys sys __breakpointhook__12842220
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Ref: library/sys sys __displayhook__12842255
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Ref: library/sys sys __excepthook__12842287
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Ref: library/sys sys __unraisablehook__12842318
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Ref: library/sys sys exception12842832
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Ref: library/sys sys exec_prefix12844310
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Ref: library/sys sys executable12845231
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Ref: library/sys sys exit12845534
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Ref: library/sys sys flags12847209
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Ref: library/sys sys flags debug12847386
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Ref: library/sys sys flags inspect12847588
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Ref: library/sys sys flags interactive12847792
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Ref: library/sys sys flags isolated12847989
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Ref: library/sys sys flags optimize12848188
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Ref: library/sys sys flags dont_write_bytecode12848417
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Ref: library/sys sys flags no_user_site12848610
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Ref: library/sys sys flags no_site12848805
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Ref: library/sys sys flags ignore_environment12849016
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Ref: library/sys sys flags verbose12849204
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Ref: library/sys sys flags bytes_warning12849410
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Ref: library/sys sys flags quiet12849601
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Ref: library/sys sys flags hash_randomization12849814
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Ref: library/sys sys flags dev_mode12850004
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Ref: library/sys sys flags utf8_mode12850306
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Ref: library/sys sys flags safe_path12850510
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Ref: library/sys sys flags int_max_str_digits12850718
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Ref: library/sys sys flags warn_default_encoding12851057
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info12852065
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info epsilon12853028
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info dig12853726
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info mant_dig12854239
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max12854733
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_exp12855118
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_10_exp12855598
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min12856120
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info min_10_exp12857401
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info radix12857819
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Ref: library/sys sys float_info rounds12858190
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Ref: library/sys sys float_repr_style12861083
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Ref: library/sys sys getallocatedblocks12861626
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Ref: library/sys sys getunicodeinternedsize12862264
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Ref: library/sys sys getandroidapilevel12862405
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Ref: library/sys sys getdefaultencoding12862581
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Ref: library/sys sys getdlopenflags12862750
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Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencoding12863061
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Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencodeerrors12864484
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Ref: library/sys sys get_int_max_str_digits12865225
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Ref: library/sys sys getrefcount12865452
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Ref: library/sys sys getrecursionlimit12866216
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Ref: library/sys sys getsizeof12866527
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Ref: library/sys sys getswitchinterval12867478
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Ref: library/sys sys _getframe12867660
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Ref: library/sys sys _getframemodulename12868315
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Ref: library/sys sys getprofile12870145
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Ref: library/sys sys getwindowsversion12870679
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Ref: library/sys sys get_asyncgen_hooks12873214
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Ref: library/sys sys get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth12873821
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info12874171
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info width12874391
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info modulus12874481
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info inf12874583
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info nan12874680
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info algorithm12874877
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info hash_bits12875010
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Ref: library/sys sys hash_info seed_bits12875112
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Ref: library/sys sys hexversion12875328
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Ref: library/sys sys implementation12876224
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info12878428
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info default_max_str_digits12878904
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Ref: library/sys sys int_info str_digits_check_threshold12879093
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Ref: library/sys sys __interactivehook__12879493
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Ref: library/sys sys intern12880043
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Ref: library/sys sys is_finalizing12880811
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Ref: library/sys sys last_exc12880993
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Ref: library/sys sys last_type12881568
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Ref: library/sys sys last_value12881594
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Ref: library/sys sys last_traceback12881621
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Ref: library/sys sys modules12883814
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Ref: library/sys sys orig_argv12884424
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Ref: library/sys sys path12884902
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Ref: library/sys sys path_hooks12886191
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Ref: library/sys sys platlibdir12889527
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Ref: library/sys sys prefix12890533
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Ref: library/sys sys ps112891163
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Ref: library/sys sys setdlopenflags12891661
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Ref: library/sys sys set_int_max_str_digits12892260
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Ref: library/sys sys setswitchinterval12895694
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Ref: library/sys sys settrace12896272
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Ref: library/sys sys set_asyncgen_hooks12901350
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Ref: library/sys sys set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth12902459
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Ref: library/sys sys activate_stack_trampoline12903280
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Ref: library/sys sys _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding12904103
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Ref: library/sys sys stdin12904684
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Ref: library/sys sys stdout12904706
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Ref: library/sys sys stderr12904729
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Ref: library/sys sys __stdin__12907893
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Ref: library/sys sys __stdout__12907919
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Ref: library/sys sys __stderr__12907946
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Ref: library/sys sys stdlib_module_names12908912
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info12909649
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info name12909768
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info lock12910125
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Ref: library/sys sys thread_info version12910427
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Ref: library/sys sys tracebacklimit12910627
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Ref: library/sys sys unraisablehook12910993
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Ref: library/sys sys version12912834
Ref: ba312912834
Ref: library/sys sys api_version12913238
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Ref: library/sys sys version_info12913428
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Ref: library/sys sys warnoptions12914055
Ref: 36412914055
Ref: library/sys sys winver12914276
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Ref: library/sys sys _xoptions12914921
Ref: 1b8812914921
Ref: library/sys c9912915724
Ref: 412312915724
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-112915936
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-212915978
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-312916020
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-412916062
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Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-712916251
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-812916293
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-912916335
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1012916377
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Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1812916759
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Ref: library/sys monitoring local-events12923639
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Ref: library/sys monitoring ancillary-events12924226
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Node: Other events12924669
Ref: library/sys monitoring other-events12924782
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Node: The STOP_ITERATION event12925105
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Ref: The STOP_ITERATION event-Footnote-112925836
Node: Turning events on and off12925917
Ref: library/sys monitoring turning-events-on-and-off12926078
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Node: Disabling events12927913
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Node: Registering callback functions12928853
Ref: library/sys monitoring callbacks12928999
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring register_callback12929122
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Ref: library/sys monitoring callback-function-arguments12929924
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Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring MISSING12930001
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Node: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information12931661
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Ref: library/sysconfig module-sysconfig12931881
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Ref: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information-Footnote-112932607
Node: Configuration variables12932676
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Node: Installation paths12934133
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Ref: library/sysconfig posix-home12940812
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-prefix-scheme12941836
Ref: 418112941836
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Ref: library/sysconfig nt12944251
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Node: Installation path functions12945092
Ref: library/sysconfig installation-path-functions12945273
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_scheme_names12945435
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_preferred_scheme12945935
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig _get_preferred_schemes12946530
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_path_names12947196
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_path12947334
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Node: Other functions<3>12949184
Ref: library/sysconfig other-functions12949379
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_python_version12949432
Ref: 10ea12949432
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_platform12949602
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig is_python_build12950671
Ref: 26112950671
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig parse_config_h12950961
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_config_h_filename12951354
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Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_makefile_filename12951446
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Node: Using sysconfig as a script12951536
Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-cli12951695
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Ref: library/sysconfig using-sysconfig-as-a-script12951695
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Node: builtins — Built-in objects12952773
Ref: library/builtins doc12952987
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Ref: library/builtins builtins-built-in-objects12952987
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Ref: library/builtins module-builtins12952987
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Node: __main__ — Top-level code environment12954588
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Ref: library/__main__ main-top-level-code-environment12954762
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Ref: library/__main__ module-__main__12954762
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Node: __name__ == '__main__'12955597
Ref: library/__main__ name-equals-main12955734
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Ref: library/__main__ name-main12955734
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Node: What is the “top-level code environment”?12956510
Ref: library/__main__ what-is-the-top-level-code-environment12956638
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Node: Idiomatic Usage12958674
Ref: library/__main__ idiomatic-usage12958835
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Node: Packaging Considerations12960815
Ref: library/__main__ packaging-considerations12960922
Ref: 419612960922
Ref: Packaging Considerations-Footnote-112962448
Ref: Packaging Considerations-Footnote-212962477
Node: __main__ py in Python Packages12962515
Ref: library/__main__ main-py-in-python-packages12962676
Ref: 419712962676
Node: Idiomatic Usage<2>12964084
Ref: library/__main__ id112964169
Ref: 419812964169
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Ref: library/__main__ import-main12965655
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Ref: library/warnings doc12969012
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Ref: library/warnings module-warnings12969012
Ref: 11212969012
Ref: library/warnings warnings-warning-control12969012
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Ref: warnings — Warning control-Footnote-112971341
Node: Warning Categories12971409
Ref: library/warnings id112971520
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Ref: library/warnings warning-categories12971520
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Node: The Warnings Filter12975528
Ref: library/warnings the-warnings-filter12975680
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Ref: library/warnings warning-filter12975680
Ref: 71b12975680
Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria12978865
Ref: library/warnings id212978993
Ref: 41a112978993
Ref: library/warnings repeated-warning-suppression-criteria12978993
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Node: Describing Warning Filters12979628
Ref: library/warnings describing-warning-filters12979787
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Ref: library/warnings id312979787
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Node: Default Warning Filter12981512
Ref: library/warnings default-warning-filter12981663
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Ref: library/warnings id412981663
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Node: Overriding the default filter12982775
Ref: library/warnings overriding-the-default-filter12982891
Ref: 41a612982891
Ref: library/warnings warning-disable12982891
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Node: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings12984326
Ref: library/warnings temporarily-suppressing-warnings12984476
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Ref: library/warnings warning-suppress12984476
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Node: Testing Warnings12985492
Ref: library/warnings testing-warnings12985669
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Ref: library/warnings warning-testing12985669
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Node: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies12987731
Ref: library/warnings updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies12987895
Ref: 41ac12987895
Ref: library/warnings warning-ignored12987895
Ref: 3e2912987895
Node: Available Functions12989285
Ref: library/warnings available-functions12989459
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Ref: library/warnings warning-functions12989459
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Ref: library/warnings warnings warn12989520
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Ref: library/warnings warnings warn_explicit12992103
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Ref: library/warnings warnings showwarning12993285
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Ref: library/warnings warnings formatwarning12993922
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Ref: library/warnings warnings filterwarnings12994353
Ref: 133412994353
Ref: library/warnings warnings simplefilter12995028
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Ref: library/warnings warnings resetwarnings12995463
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Node: Available Context Managers12995730
Ref: library/warnings available-context-managers12995849
Ref: 41af12995849
Ref: library/warnings warnings catch_warnings12995924
Ref: 31d12995924
Node: dataclasses — Data Classes12997635
Ref: library/dataclasses doc12997821
Ref: 41b012997821
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-data-classes12997821
Ref: 41b112997821
Ref: library/dataclasses module-dataclasses12997821
Ref: 2f12997821
Ref: dataclasses — Data Classes-Footnote-112999513
Ref: dataclasses — Data Classes-Footnote-212999584
Ref: dataclasses — Data Classes-Footnote-312999626
Node: Module contents<4>12999668
Ref: library/dataclasses module-contents12999780
Ref: 41b212999780
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses dataclass12999831
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses field13009642
Ref: 185913009642
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses Field13014271
Ref: 204913014271
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses fields13015031
Ref: 155e13015031
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses asdict13015409
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses astuple13016450
Ref: 154813016450
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses make_dataclass13017188
Ref: 156013017188
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses replace13018982
Ref: 16ef13018982
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses is_dataclass13020384
Ref: 169a13020384
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses MISSING13020862
Ref: 41b413020862
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses KW_ONLY13020967
Ref: 41b313020967
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses FrozenInstanceError13021912
Ref: 41b613021912
Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-113022225
Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-213022280
Node: Post-init processing13022335
Ref: library/dataclasses id113022471
Ref: 41b713022471
Ref: library/dataclasses post-init-processing13022471
Ref: 41b813022471
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses __post_init__13022532
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Node: Class variables13024288
Ref: library/dataclasses class-variables13024425
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Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-class-variables13024425
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Ref: Class variables-Footnote-113024983
Node: Init-only variables13025025
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-init-only-variables13025158
Ref: 41bb13025158
Ref: library/dataclasses init-only-variables13025158
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Node: Frozen instances13026387
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-frozen13026516
Ref: 41bd13026516
Ref: library/dataclasses frozen-instances13026516
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Node: Inheritance13027113
Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-inheritance13027273
Ref: 41bf13027273
Ref: library/dataclasses inheritance13027273
Ref: 41c013027273
Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__13028329
Ref: library/dataclasses re-ordering-of-keyword-only-parameters-in-init13028498
Ref: 41c113028498
Node: Default factory functions13029753
Ref: library/dataclasses default-factory-functions13029933
Ref: 41c213029933
Node: Mutable default values13030551
Ref: library/dataclasses mutable-default-values13030704
Ref: 41c313030704
Node: Descriptor-typed fields13032733
Ref: library/dataclasses descriptor-typed-fields13032852
Ref: 41c413032852
Node: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts13034830
Ref: library/contextlib doc13035017
Ref: 41c513035017
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib-utilities-for-with-statement-contexts13035017
Ref: 41c613035017
Ref: library/contextlib module-contextlib13035017
Ref: 2313035017
Ref: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts-Footnote-113035686
Node: Utilities13035756
Ref: library/contextlib utilities13035886
Ref: 41c713035886
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractContextManager13035958
Ref: b0e13035958
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractAsyncContextManager13036459
Ref: 99b13036459
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib contextmanager13036977
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib asynccontextmanager13040000
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib closing13042034
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib aclosing13043273
Ref: 62713043273
Ref: library/contextlib simplifying-support-for-single-optional-context-managers13044393
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib nullcontext13044393
Ref: 62813044393
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib suppress13046107
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stdout13047682
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stderr13049155
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib chdir13049418
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ContextDecorator13050148
Ref: 10a613050148
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncContextDecorator13052592
Ref: 62913052592
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack13053688
Ref: 99913053688
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack enter_context13055689
Ref: 3de13055689
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack push13056285
Ref: 41ca13056285
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack callback13057179
Ref: 8e813057179
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack pop_all13057637
Ref: 41cb13057637
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack close13058691
Ref: 41cc13058691
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack13058981
Ref: 99c13058981
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack enter_async_context13059352
Ref: 3e113059352
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_exit13059693
Ref: 41ce13059693
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_callback13059874
Ref: 8e913059874
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack aclose13060042
Ref: 41cd13060042
Node: Examples and Recipes<3>13060653
Ref: library/contextlib examples-and-recipes13060842
Ref: 41cf13060842
Node: Supporting a variable number of context managers13061290
Ref: library/contextlib supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers13061449
Ref: 41d013061449
Node: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods13062491
Ref: library/contextlib catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods13062701
Ref: 41d113062701
Node: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation13063849
Ref: library/contextlib cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation13064062
Ref: 41d213064062
Node: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables13065965
Ref: library/contextlib replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables13066183
Ref: 41d313066183
Node: Using a context manager as a function decorator13068695
Ref: library/contextlib using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator13068862
Ref: 41d413068862
Ref: Using a context manager as a function decorator-Footnote-113070713
Node: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers13070755
Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms13070926
Ref: dc513070926
Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers13070926
Ref: 41d513070926
Node: Reentrant context managers13072464
Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-cms13072611
Ref: 41c913072611
Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-context-managers13072611
Ref: 41d613072611
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Ref: library/contextlib reusable-cms13074295
Ref: 41d713074295
Ref: library/contextlib reusable-context-managers13074295
Ref: 41d813074295
Node: abc — Abstract Base Classes13076973
Ref: library/abc doc13077156
Ref: 41d913077156
Ref: library/abc abc-abstract-base-classes13077156
Ref: 41da13077156
Ref: library/abc module-abc13077156
Ref: 413077156
Ref: library/abc abc ABC13078146
Ref: daf13078146
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta13078968
Ref: db013078968
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta register13079746
Ref: f3313079746
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta __subclasshook__13080433
Ref: 231a13080433
Ref: library/abc abc abstractmethod13083350
Ref: f3013083350
Ref: library/abc abc abstractclassmethod13086492
Ref: f3113086492
Ref: library/abc abc abstractstaticmethod13087221
Ref: f3213087221
Ref: library/abc abc abstractproperty13087952
Ref: f2f13087952
Ref: library/abc abc get_cache_token13089366
Ref: dae13089366
Ref: library/abc abc update_abstractmethods13089744
Ref: 41db13089744
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-113090397
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-213090460
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-313090502
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-413090544
Node: atexit — Exit handlers13090651
Ref: library/atexit doc13090831
Ref: 41dc13090831
Ref: library/atexit atexit-exit-handlers13090831
Ref: 41dd13090831
Ref: library/atexit module-atexit13090831
Ref: c13090831
Ref: library/atexit atexit register13091852
Ref: 6c313091852
Ref: library/atexit atexit unregister13093461
Ref: 41de13093461
Node: atexit Example13094165
Ref: library/atexit atexit-example13094240
Ref: 41df13094240
Ref: library/atexit id113094240
Ref: 41e013094240
Node: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback13095603
Ref: library/traceback doc13095797
Ref: 41e113095797
Ref: library/traceback module-traceback13095797
Ref: fe13095797
Ref: library/traceback traceback-print-or-retrieve-a-stack-traceback13095797
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Ref: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback-Footnote-113097820
Node: Module-Level Functions<2>13097889
Ref: library/traceback module-level-functions13098035
Ref: 41e313098035
Ref: library/traceback traceback print_tb13098102
Ref: d1b13098102
Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exception13099051
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exc13100579
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_last13100761
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception13104467
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exc13105214
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_stack13105488
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Ref: library/traceback traceback clear_frames13105612
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Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_stack13105856
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Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_tb13106173
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Ref: library/traceback tracebackexception-objects13106589
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException13107072
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __cause__13108390
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __context__13108501
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exceptions13108626
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __suppress_context__13108908
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __notes__13109047
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException stack13109360
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException filename13109537
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException lineno13109641
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_lineno13109745
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException text13109936
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException offset13110031
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_offset13110154
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException msg13110354
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException from_exception13110441
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException print13110826
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format13111036
Ref: 420013111036
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format_exception_only13111489
Ref: 420113111489
Node: StackSummary Objects13112163
Ref: library/traceback stacksummary-objects13112333
Ref: 420213112333
Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary13112500
Ref: d1913112500
Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary extract13112539
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary from_list13113537
Ref: 420313113537
Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format13113843
Ref: 420413113843
Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format_frame_summary13114481
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Ref: library/traceback framesummary-objects13115075
Ref: 420513115075
Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary13115263
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary filename13116188
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary lineno13116394
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary name13116487
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary line13116626
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_lineno13116838
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary colno13117017
Ref: 420713117017
Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_colno13117181
Ref: 420813117181
Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions13117354
Ref: library/traceback examples-of-using-the-module-level-functions13117558
Ref: 420913117558
Ref: library/traceback traceback-example13117558
Ref: 420a13117558
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Ref: library/traceback examples-of-using-tracebackexception13122960
Ref: 420b13122960
Node: __future__ — Future statement definitions13125616
Ref: library/__future__ doc13125820
Ref: 420c13125820
Ref: library/__future__ future-future-statement-definitions13125820
Ref: 420d13125820
Ref: library/__future__ module-__future__13125820
Ref: 013125820
Ref: __future__ — Future statement definitions-Footnote-113127358
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Ref: library/__future__ module-contents13127526
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Ref: library/__future__ future-classes13130228
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature13130228
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature getOptionalRelease13130879
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature getMandatoryRelease13131015
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature compiler_flag13131605
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Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-113132208
Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-213132250
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Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-913132544
Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-1013133130
Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-1113133173
Node: gc — Garbage Collector interface13133216
Ref: library/gc doc13133403
Ref: 421213133403
Ref: library/gc gc-garbage-collector-interface13133403
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Ref: library/gc module-gc13133403
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Ref: library/gc gc enable13134330
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Ref: library/gc gc disable13134400
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Ref: library/gc gc isenabled13134472
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Ref: library/gc gc collect13134562
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Ref: library/gc gc set_debug13135319
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Ref: library/gc gc get_debug13135585
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Ref: library/gc gc get_objects13135663
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Ref: library/gc gc get_stats13136089
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Ref: library/gc gc set_threshold13136785
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Ref: library/gc gc get_count13138010
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Ref: library/gc gc get_threshold13138134
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Ref: library/gc gc get_referrers13138278
Ref: 63e13138278
Ref: library/gc gc get_referents13139314
Ref: 63f13139314
Ref: library/gc gc is_tracked13140046
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Ref: library/gc gc is_finalized13140872
Ref: 75213140872
Ref: library/gc gc freeze13141383
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Ref: library/gc gc unfreeze13142221
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Ref: library/gc gc get_freeze_count13142381
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Ref: library/gc gc garbage13142625
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Ref: library/gc gc callbacks13143504
Ref: f6a13143504
Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_STATS13144841
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_COLLECTABLE13144986
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE13145074
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_SAVEALL13145461
Ref: 421c13145461
Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_LEAK13145655
Ref: 421f13145655
Ref: gc — Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-113145901
Ref: gc — Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-213145990
Node: inspect — Inspect live objects13146032
Ref: library/inspect doc13146217
Ref: 422013146217
Ref: library/inspect inspect-inspect-live-objects13146217
Ref: 422113146217
Ref: library/inspect module-inspect13146306
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Ref: inspect — Inspect live objects-Footnote-113147499
Node: Types and members13147566
Ref: library/inspect inspect-types13147683
Ref: 17dc13147683
Ref: library/inspect types-and-members13147683
Ref: 422213147683
Ref: library/inspect inspect getmembers13164721
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmodulename13166069
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isclass13166840
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Ref: library/inspect inspect ismethod13166978
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isfunction13167093
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isgeneratorfunction13167270
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isgenerator13167566
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Ref: library/inspect inspect iscoroutinefunction13167663
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Ref: library/inspect inspect markcoroutinefunction13168338
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Ref: library/inspect inspect iscoroutine13168928
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isawaitable13169115
Ref: ca713169115
Ref: library/inspect inspect isasyncgenfunction13169590
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isgetsetdescriptor13172811
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Node: Retrieving source code13173522
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getdoc13173764
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Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object13177072
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature bind13182101
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature replace13182758
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter13184250
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments apply_defaults13191679
Ref: ca513191679
Ref: Introspecting callables with the Signature object-Footnote-113192675
Node: Classes and functions<2>13192717
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Ref: library/inspect inspect-classes-functions13192898
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Ref: library/inspect inspect unwrap13199347
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Node: The interpreter stack13202981
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Ref: library/inspect inspect stack13209543
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Node: Fetching attributes statically13210644
Ref: library/inspect fetching-attributes-statically13210848
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Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators13213236
Ref: library/inspect current-state-of-generators-coroutines-and-asynchronous-generators13213441
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Node: Code Objects Bit Flags13217196
Ref: library/inspect code-objects-bit-flags13217383
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Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-113219496
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Node: Buffer flags13219622
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags READ13220690
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Node: Command Line Interface<3>13220778
Ref: library/inspect command-line-interface13220893
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Ref: library/inspect inspect-module-cli13220893
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Node: site — Site-specific configuration hook13221377
Ref: library/site doc13221519
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Ref: site — Site-specific configuration hook-Footnote-113225988
Node: sitecustomize13226052
Ref: library/site module-sitecustomize13226165
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Node: usercustomize13226931
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Node: Readline configuration13227885
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Node: Module contents<5>13228707
Ref: library/site module-contents13228868
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Ref: library/site site PREFIXES13228921
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Ref: library/site site ENABLE_USER_SITE13229004
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Node: Command Line Interface<4>13231917
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Ref: Command Line Interface<4>-Footnote-113233418
Node: Custom Python Interpreters13233460
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Ref: library/custominterp custom-python-interpreters13233610
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Node: code — Interpreter base classes13234195
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Ref: library/code code interact13235579
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Ref: library/code code compile_command13236341
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Ref: code — Interpreter base classes-Footnote-113237626
Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects13237690
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Node: Interactive Console Objects13240745
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Node: codeop — Compile Python code13243193
Ref: library/codeop doc13243328
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Ref: library/codeop codeop-compile-python-code13243328
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Ref: library/codeop module-codeop13243328
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Ref: library/codeop codeop compile_command13244289
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Ref: library/codeop codeop Compile13245706
Ref: 42a113245706
Ref: library/codeop codeop CommandCompiler13246110
Ref: 42a213246110
Ref: codeop — Compile Python code-Footnote-113246535
Node: Importing Modules13246601
Ref: library/modules doc13246752
Ref: 42a313246752
Ref: library/modules importing-modules13246752
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Ref: library/modules modules13246752
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Node: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives13247730
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Ref: library/zipimport module-zipimport13247876
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport-import-modules-from-zip-archives13247876
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport ZipImportError13250053
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Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-113250347
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-213250416
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-313250484
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-413250526
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-513250568
Node: zipimporter Objects13250610
Ref: library/zipimport id113250733
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimporter-objects13250733
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter13250856
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter create_module13251503
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter exec_module13251751
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_code13252096
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter is_package13253128
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter invalidate_caches13253719
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter archive13253901
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter prefix13254037
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Node: Examples<32>13254447
Ref: library/zipimport examples13254570
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Ref: library/zipimport zipimport-examples13254570
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Node: pkgutil — Package extension utility13255250
Ref: library/pkgutil doc13255451
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Ref: library/pkgutil module-pkgutil13255451
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil-package-extension-utility13255451
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil ModuleInfo13255736
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil extend_path13255896
Ref: 145e13255896
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil find_loader13257629
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_importer13258366
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_loader13258884
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_importers13259733
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_modules13260460
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil walk_packages13261312
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_data13262891
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Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil resolve_name13264024
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Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-113265891
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-213265958
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-313266000
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Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-513266084
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Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-813266210
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-913266252
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-1013266294
Node: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script13266360
Ref: library/modulefinder doc13266562
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Ref: library/modulefinder module-modulefinder13266562
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-find-modules-used-by-a-script13266562
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder AddPackagePath13267081
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ReplacePackage13267230
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder13267392
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder report13268055
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Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder run_script13268272
Ref: 42bf13268272
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder modules13268412
Ref: 42c113268412
Ref: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script-Footnote-113268639
Node: Example usage of ModuleFinder13268711
Ref: library/modulefinder example-usage-of-modulefinder13268823
Ref: 42c313268823
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-example13268823
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Node: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules13270196
Ref: library/runpy doc13270403
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Ref: library/runpy module-runpy13270403
Ref: bd13270403
Ref: library/runpy runpy-locating-and-executing-python-modules13270403
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Ref: library/runpy runpy run_path13274911
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Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-113279429
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-213279494
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-313279536
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-413279578
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Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-613279662
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-713279704
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-813279746
Node: importlib — The implementation of import13279788
Ref: library/importlib doc13280016
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Ref: library/importlib importlib-the-implementation-of-import13280016
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Ref: library/importlib module-importlib13280016
Ref: 7513280016
Ref: importlib — The implementation of import-Footnote-113280718
Node: Introduction<8>13280797
Ref: library/importlib introduction13280913
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Ref: Introduction<8>-Footnote-113283216
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Node: Functions<10>13283776
Ref: library/importlib functions13283958
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Ref: library/importlib importlib __import__13283997
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Ref: library/importlib importlib invalidate_caches13285634
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Node: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import13289514
Ref: library/importlib importlib-abc-abstract-base-classes-related-to-import13289729
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder invalidate_caches13292992
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader13293294
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader create_module13293729
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader exec_module13294137
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader load_module13294620
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader13296652
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader get_data13297131
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader13297951
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_code13298139
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_source13298727
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader is_package13299370
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader source_to_code13299747
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader exec_module13300399
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader load_module13300535
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader13300763
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader get_filename13301014
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader13301607
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader name13302107
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader path13302193
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader load_module13302265
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_filename13302486
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_data13302582
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader13302705
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_stats13303806
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_mtime13304592
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader set_data13305159
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_code13305680
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader exec_module13305805
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader load_module13305950
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_source13306187
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader is_package13306316
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader13306721
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader open_resource13308574
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader resource_path13308857
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader is_resource13309110
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader contents13309342
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable13310279
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable name13310723
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable iterdir13310844
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_dir13310948
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_file13311052
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable joinpath13311152
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable __truediv__13311255
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable open13311367
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_bytes13311733
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_text13311816
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources13311910
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources files13312685
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Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-113312875
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-213312948
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-313312990
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-413313032
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-513313074
Node: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks13313116
Ref: library/importlib importlib-machinery-importers-and-path-hooks13313363
Ref: 42e913313363
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib machinery13313363
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SOURCE_SUFFIXES13313694
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES13314139
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BYTECODE_SUFFIXES13314416
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery EXTENSION_SUFFIXES13314708
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery all_suffixes13314882
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BuiltinImporter13315317
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FrozenImporter13315890
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery WindowsRegistryFinder13316318
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder13316822
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder find_spec13317141
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder invalidate_caches13318326
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder13318948
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_code13323031
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_source13323169
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader load_module13323310
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader13323639
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader is_package13324813
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_code13324998
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_source13325109
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_filename13325227
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery NamespaceLoader13325341
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec13326007
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec name13326812
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader13327025
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec origin13327231
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec submodule_search_locations13327736
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader_state13328389
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec cached13328636
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec parent13328937
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec has_location13329231
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Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-113329557
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-213329637
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-313329679
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-413329721
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-513329763
Node: importlib util – Utility code for importers13329805
Ref: library/importlib importlib-util-utility-code-for-importers13330007
Ref: 430313330007
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib util13330007
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util MAGIC_NUMBER13330333
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util cache_from_source13330575
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_from_cache13332493
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util decode_source13333123
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util resolve_name13333394
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util find_spec13334299
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util module_from_spec13335197
Ref: ca113335197
Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_loader13335831
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_file_location13336285
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_hash13336771
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions13337044
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader13338161
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader factory13339652
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Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-113340217
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-213340291
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-313340333
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-413340375
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-513340417
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-613340459
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-713340501
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Ref: library/importlib examples13340688
Ref: 430713340688
Ref: library/importlib importlib-examples13340688
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Ref: library/importlib checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported13341495
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Ref: library/importlib importing-a-source-file-directly13342568
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Ref: library/importlib implementing-lazy-imports13343883
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Ref: library/importlib setting-up-an-importer13344753
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Ref: library/importlib approximating-importlib-import-module13346444
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-package-resource-reading-opening-and-access13348188
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Anchor13350143
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources files13350345
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources as_file13351389
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Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-113352231
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-213352320
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-313352391
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-413352485
Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-513352557
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Package13353016
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Resource13353386
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources is_resource13357369
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources contents13357805
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader13358877
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader open_resource13360691
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader resource_path13360974
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader contents13361459
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable13362396
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable name13362686
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable iterdir13362807
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_dir13362899
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_file13362997
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable joinpath13363091
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable __truediv__13364211
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable open13364359
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_bytes13364725
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_text13364802
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources13364890
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources files13365418
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Ref: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources-Footnote-113365608
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib-metadata-accessing-package-metadata13365929
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Ref: library/importlib metadata using13365929
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Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-113368242
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-213368330
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-313368414
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-413368492
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-513368577
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-613368662
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-713368700
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-813368792
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-913368861
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Ref: library/importlib metadata overview13369060
Ref: 432813369060
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageNotFoundError13370579
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Ref: Overview<3>-Footnote-113370874
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Ref: library/importlib metadata functional-api13371103
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Ref: library/importlib metadata id213371495
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata entry_points13371540
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoints13372111
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoint13372395
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Ref: Entry points-Footnote-113375051
Ref: Entry points-Footnote-213375123
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Ref: library/importlib metadata metadata13375317
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageMetadata13375716
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Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-113376993
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-213377098
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution13383434
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Ref: Distributions-Footnote-113384827
Ref: Distributions-Footnote-213384911
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Ref: Node classes-Footnote-113409095
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Ref: library/ast ast ImportFrom13440599
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Ref: library/ast ast Match13452431
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Ref: library/ast ast match_case13452744
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchValue13454888
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchSingleton13455893
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchSequence13456784
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchMapping13459654
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchClass13461677
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchAs13464793
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchOr13466446
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Ref: Function and class definitions-Footnote-113478770
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Ref: library/ast ast literal_eval13484649
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Ref: library/ast ast get_docstring13486459
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Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor13488963
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Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit13489309
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Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor generic_visit13489589
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Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit_Constant13489912
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Ref: library/ast ast NodeTransformer13490531
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Ref: ast Helpers-Footnote-113493533
Ref: ast Helpers-Footnote-213493575
Ref: ast Helpers-Footnote-313493617
Node: Compiler Flags13493659
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Ref: library/ast compiler-flags13493789
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Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT13493960
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Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ONLY_AST13494146
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Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS13494279
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Ref: Compiler Flags-Footnote-113494510
Ref: Compiler Flags-Footnote-213494552
Node: Command-Line Usage<4>13494594
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Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-113496494
Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-213496542
Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-313496609
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Node: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables13496759
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Ref: library/symtable symtable-access-to-the-compiler-s-symbol-tables13496968
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Ref: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables-Footnote-113497550
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_name13499046
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable is_nested13499932
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable has_children13500038
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_identifiers13500214
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable lookup13500393
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_symbols13500518
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Function13500735
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_locals13500992
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Class13501437
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Class get_methods13501554
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol13502792
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_referenced13503023
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_imported13503125
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_parameter13503250
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Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_global13503345
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Node: token — Constants used with Python parse trees13505069
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Ref: library/token module-token13505288
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Ref: library/token token GREATER13507517
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Ref: library/token token EQUAL13507577
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Ref: library/token token DOT13507635
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Ref: library/token token LBRACE13507751
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Ref: library/token token EQEQUAL13507869
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Ref: library/token token NOTEQUAL13507930
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Ref: library/token token LESSEQUAL13507992
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Ref: library/token token GREATEREQUAL13508055
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Ref: library/token token TILDE13508121
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Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEX13508179
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Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFT13508242
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Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFT13508305
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAR13508369
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Ref: library/token token PLUSEQUAL13508433
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Ref: library/token token STAREQUAL13508558
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Ref: library/token token SLASHEQUAL13508621
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Ref: library/token token PERCENTEQUAL13508685
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Ref: library/token token AMPEREQUAL13508751
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Ref: library/token token VBAREQUAL13508815
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Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL13508878
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Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFTEQUAL13508947
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Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL13509016
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAREQUAL13509086
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASH13509156
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Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASHEQUAL13509221
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Ref: library/token token AT13509292
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Ref: library/token token ATEQUAL13509347
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Ref: library/token token RARROW13509408
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Ref: library/token token ELLIPSIS13509468
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Ref: library/token token COLONEQUAL13509531
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Ref: library/token token EXCLAMATION13509595
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Ref: library/token token OP13509659
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Ref: library/token token ASYNC13509706
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Ref: library/token token TYPE_IGNORE13509731
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Ref: library/token token SOFT_KEYWORD13509794
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Ref: library/token token FSTRING_START13509826
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Ref: library/token token ENCODING13510534
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Ref: library/token token EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES13510971
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Ref: token — Constants used with Python parse trees-Footnote-113511821
Node: keyword — Testing for Python keywords13511886
Ref: library/keyword doc13512092
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Ref: library/keyword keyword-testing-for-python-keywords13512092
Ref: 445813512092
Ref: library/keyword module-keyword13512092
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Ref: library/keyword keyword iskeyword13512411
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Ref: library/keyword keyword kwlist13512511
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Ref: library/keyword keyword issoftkeyword13512781
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Ref: library/keyword keyword softkwlist13512917
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Ref: keyword — Testing for Python keywords-Footnote-113513264
Node: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source13513331
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Ref: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source-Footnote-113514816
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize untokenize13517317
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize detect_encoding13518197
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize open13519192
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize TokenError13519362
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Ref: Tokenizing Input-Footnote-113519680
Ref: Tokenizing Input-Footnote-213519722
Node: Command-Line Usage<5>13519764
Ref: library/tokenize command-line-usage13519908
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Ref: library/tokenize tokenize-cli13519908
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Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-h13520173
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Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-exact13520235
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Node: Examples<34>13520427
Ref: library/tokenize examples13520546
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Node: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation13525039
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Ref: library/tabnanny module-tabnanny13525245
Ref: dc13525245
Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny-detection-of-ambiguous-indentation13525245
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny check13525775
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny verbose13526214
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny filename_only13526373
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny NannyNag13526593
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny process_tokens13526760
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Ref: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation-Footnote-113527071
Node: pyclbr — Python module browser support13527139
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Ref: library/pyclbr module-pyclbr13527347
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr readmodule_ex13528655
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Ref: pyclbr — Python module browser support-Footnote-113529715
Node: Function Objects13529781
Ref: library/pyclbr function-objects13529896
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-function-objects13529896
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function13529949
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function name13530295
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function lineno13530361
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function parent13530460
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function is_async13530792
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Node: Class Objects13530980
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-class-objects13531095
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class file13531332
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class children13531830
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class super13531993
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class methods13532357
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Node: py_compile — Compile Python source files13532588
Ref: library/py_compile doc13532793
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Ref: library/py_compile module-py_compile13532793
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Ref: library/py_compile py-compile-compile-python-source-files13532793
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PyCompileError13533416
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile compile13533547
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode13537315
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode TIMESTAMP13537743
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode CHECKED_HASH13538028
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode UNCHECKED_HASH13538277
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Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-113538828
Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-213538898
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Ref: library/winreg winreg EnableReflectionKey13644034
Ref: 120c13644034
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryReflectionKey13644542
Ref: 120d13644542
Ref: Functions<11>-Footnote-113645045
Ref: Functions<11>-Footnote-213645122
Node: Constants<8>13645199
Ref: library/winreg constants13645336
Ref: 454413645336
Ref: library/winreg id213645336
Ref: 454513645336
Node: HKEY_* Constants13645523
Ref: library/winreg hkey-constants13645610
Ref: 453713645610
Ref: library/winreg id313645610
Ref: 454613645610
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT13645663
Ref: 454713645663
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_USER13645916
Ref: 454813645916
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE13646221
Ref: 453e13646221
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_USERS13646447
Ref: 453d13646447
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA13646658
Ref: 454913646658
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG13646927
Ref: 454a13646927
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_DYN_DATA13647064
Ref: 454b13647064
Node: Access Rights13647158
Ref: library/winreg access-rights13647265
Ref: 453913647265
Ref: library/winreg id413647265
Ref: 454c13647265
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ALL_ACCESS13647376
Ref: 454d13647376
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WRITE13647667
Ref: 453813647667
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_READ13647822
Ref: 454013647822
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_EXECUTE13648003
Ref: 455313648003
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_QUERY_VALUE13648077
Ref: 454e13648077
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_SET_VALUE13648167
Ref: 454213648167
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY13648260
Ref: 454f13648260
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS13648352
Ref: 455013648352
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_NOTIFY13648454
Ref: 455113648454
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_LINK13648590
Ref: 455213648590
Ref: Access Rights-Footnote-113648723
Node: 64-bit Specific13648800
Ref: library/winreg bit-access-rights13648865
Ref: 455413648865
Ref: library/winreg bit-specific13648865
Ref: 455513648865
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_64KEY13648984
Ref: 453a13648984
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_32KEY13649174
Ref: 455613649174
Ref: 64-bit Specific-Footnote-113649400
Node: Value Types13649472
Ref: library/winreg id513649554
Ref: 455713649554
Ref: library/winreg value-types13649554
Ref: 454313649554
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_BINARY13649649
Ref: 455813649649
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD13649711
Ref: 455913649711
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN13649762
Ref: 455a13649762
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN13649896
Ref: 455b13649896
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_EXPAND_SZ13649981
Ref: 453b13649981
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_LINK13650112
Ref: 455c13650112
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_MULTI_SZ13650172
Ref: 181313650172
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_NONE13650340
Ref: 455d13650340
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD13650398
Ref: b8613650398
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN13650479
Ref: 455e13650479
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_LIST13650640
Ref: 455f13650640
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR13650715
Ref: 456013650715
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST13650790
Ref: 456113650790
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_SZ13650873
Ref: 454113650873
Ref: Value Types-Footnote-113650968
Node: Registry Handle Objects13651045
Ref: library/winreg handle-object13651160
Ref: 453113651160
Ref: library/winreg registry-handle-objects13651160
Ref: 456213651160
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Close13652321
Ref: 453613652321
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Detach13652455
Ref: 3fa013652455
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __enter__13653056
Ref: 456313653056
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __exit__13653090
Ref: 456413653090
Node: winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows13653487
Ref: library/winsound doc13653643
Ref: 456513653643
Ref: library/winsound module-winsound13653643
Ref: 11713653643
Ref: library/winsound winsound-sound-playing-interface-for-windows13653643
Ref: 456613653643
Ref: library/winsound winsound Beep13653993
Ref: b8813653993
Ref: library/winsound winsound PlaySound13654380
Ref: b8a13654380
Ref: library/winsound winsound MessageBeep13654951
Ref: b8913654951
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_FILENAME13655559
Ref: 456713655559
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ALIAS13655694
Ref: 456813655694
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_LOOP13657314
Ref: 456a13657314
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_MEMORY13657503
Ref: 456c13657503
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_PURGE13657866
Ref: 456d13657866
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ASYNC13658027
Ref: 456b13658027
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NODEFAULT13658125
Ref: 456913658125
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOSTOP13658250
Ref: 456e13658250
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOWAIT13658332
Ref: 456f13658332
Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_APPLICATION13658491
Ref: 457013658491
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONASTERISK13658728
Ref: 457113658728
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONEXCLAMATION13658808
Ref: 457213658808
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONHAND13658895
Ref: 457313658895
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONQUESTION13658968
Ref: 457413658968
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_OK13659049
Ref: 457513659049
Node: Unix Specific Services13659119
Ref: library/unix doc13659287
Ref: 457613659287
Ref: library/unix unix13659287
Ref: 457713659287
Ref: library/unix unix-specific-services13659287
Ref: 457813659287
Node: posix — The most common POSIX system calls13659908
Ref: library/posix doc13660049
Ref: 457913660049
Ref: library/posix module-posix13660049
Ref: ac13660049
Ref: library/posix posix-the-most-common-posix-system-calls13660049
Ref: 457a13660049
Node: Large File Support13661282
Ref: library/posix large-file-support13661413
Ref: 457b13661413
Ref: library/posix posix-large-files13661413
Ref: 457c13661413
Node: Notable Module Contents13662367
Ref: library/posix notable-module-contents13662498
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Ref: library/posix posix-contents13662498
Ref: 457e13662498
Ref: library/posix posix environ13662699
Ref: 457f13662699
Node: pwd — The password database13663893
Ref: library/pwd doc13664069
Ref: 458013664069
Ref: library/pwd module-pwd13664069
Ref: b113664069
Ref: library/pwd pwd-the-password-database13664069
Ref: 458113664069
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwuid13666403
Ref: 186b13666403
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwnam13666508
Ref: 2f5213666508
Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwall13666608
Ref: 458213666608
Node: grp — The group database13666936
Ref: library/grp doc13667103
Ref: 458313667103
Ref: library/grp grp-the-group-database13667103
Ref: 458413667103
Ref: library/grp module-grp13667103
Ref: 6413667103
Ref: library/grp grp getgrgid13668707
Ref: bae13668707
Ref: library/grp grp getgrnam13669012
Ref: 2f5113669012
Ref: library/grp grp getgrall13669187
Ref: 458513669187
Node: termios — POSIX style tty control13669497
Ref: library/termios doc13669669
Ref: 458613669669
Ref: library/termios module-termios13669669
Ref: e013669669
Ref: library/termios termios-posix-style-tty-control13669669
Ref: 458713669669
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetattr13670684
Ref: 14a513670684
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetattr13671261
Ref: 14ce13671261
Ref: library/termios termios TCSANOW13671539
Ref: 458813671539
Ref: library/termios termios TCSADRAIN13671615
Ref: 458913671615
Ref: library/termios termios TCSAFLUSH13671718
Ref: 458a13671718
Ref: library/termios termios tcsendbreak13671863
Ref: 458b13671863
Ref: library/termios termios tcdrain13672076
Ref: 458c13672076
Ref: library/termios termios tcflush13672198
Ref: 458d13672198
Ref: library/termios termios tcflow13672455
Ref: 458e13672455
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetwinsize13672734
Ref: 458f13672734
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetwinsize13672977
Ref: 459013672977
Ref: termios — POSIX style tty control-Footnote-113673600
Node: Example<14>13673647
Ref: library/termios example13673730
Ref: 459113673730
Ref: library/termios termios-example13673730
Ref: 459213673730
Node: tty — Terminal control functions13674488
Ref: library/tty doc13674667
Ref: 459313674667
Ref: library/tty module-tty13674667
Ref: 10013674667
Ref: library/tty tty-terminal-control-functions13674667
Ref: 459413674667
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakeraw13675123
Ref: 14cc13675123
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakecbreak13675346
Ref: 14a713675346
Ref: library/tty tty setraw13675917
Ref: 14cb13675917
Ref: library/tty tty setcbreak13676404
Ref: 14a613676404
Ref: tty — Terminal control functions-Footnote-113677431
Node: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities13677494
Ref: library/pty doc13677680
Ref: 459513677680
Ref: library/pty module-pty13677680
Ref: b013677680
Ref: library/pty pty-pseudo-terminal-utilities13677680
Ref: 459613677680
Ref: library/pty pty fork13678360
Ref: 157513678360
Ref: library/pty pty openpty13678956
Ref: 25513678956
Ref: library/pty pty spawn13679234
Ref: e2313679234
Ref: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities-Footnote-113681504
Node: Example<15>13681567
Ref: library/pty example13681648
Ref: 459713681648
Ref: Example<15>-Footnote-113682869
Node: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls13682915
Ref: library/fcntl doc13683106
Ref: 459813683106
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl-the-fcntl-and-ioctl-system-calls13683106
Ref: 459913683106
Ref: library/fcntl module-fcntl13683106
Ref: 5713683106
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl fcntl13685338
Ref: 319213685338
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl ioctl13686788
Ref: 130313686788
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl flock13689130
Ref: 3f9113689130
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl lockf13689650
Ref: 127313689650
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_UN13689989
Ref: 459a13689989
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_SH13690058
Ref: 459b13690058
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_EX13690124
Ref: 459c13690124
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_NB13690194
Ref: 459d13690194
Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-113692512
Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-213692557
Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-313692602
Node: resource — Resource usage information13692647
Ref: library/resource doc13692844
Ref: 459e13692844
Ref: library/resource module-resource13692844
Ref: bb13692844
Ref: library/resource resource-resource-usage-information13692844
Ref: 459f13692844
Ref: library/resource resource error13693387
Ref: 45a013693387
Ref: resource — Resource usage information-Footnote-113693667
Node: Resource Limits13693709
Ref: library/resource resource-limits13693823
Ref: 45a113693823
Ref: library/resource resource RLIM_INFINITY13694703
Ref: 45a213694703
Ref: library/resource resource getrlimit13694809
Ref: 45a313694809
Ref: library/resource resource setrlimit13695102
Ref: 3f3413695102
Ref: library/resource resource prlimit13696260
Ref: e2a13696260
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CORE13697854
Ref: 3f3513697854
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CPU13698117
Ref: 45a513698117
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_FSIZE13698479
Ref: 45a613698479
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_DATA13698577
Ref: 45a713698577
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_STACK13698670
Ref: 45a813698670
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RSS13698869
Ref: 45a913698869
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPROC13698989
Ref: 45aa13698989
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NOFILE13699094
Ref: 45a413699094
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_OFILE13699210
Ref: 45ab13699210
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MEMLOCK13699295
Ref: 45ac13699295
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_VMEM13699395
Ref: 45ad13699395
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_AS13699547
Ref: 45ae13699547
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE13699670
Ref: e2b13699670
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NICE13699859
Ref: e2c13699859
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTPRIO13700056
Ref: e2d13700056
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTTIME13700215
Ref: e2e13700215
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SIGPENDING13700472
Ref: e2f13700472
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SBSIZE13700646
Ref: e3013700646
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SWAP13700944
Ref: e3113700944
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPTS13701324
Ref: e3213701324
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_KQUEUES13701498
Ref: 171313701498
Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-113701719
Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-213701768
Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-313701817
Node: Resource Usage13701884
Ref: library/resource resource-usage13701998
Ref: 45af13701998
Ref: library/resource resource getrusage13702113
Ref: 12bb13702113
Ref: library/resource resource getpagesize13706608
Ref: 45b013706608
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_SELF13706912
Ref: 45b113706912
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_CHILDREN13707115
Ref: 45b213707115
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_BOTH13707317
Ref: 45b313707317
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_THREAD13707517
Ref: 45b413707517
Ref: Resource Usage-Footnote-113707752
Node: syslog — Unix syslog library routines13707801
Ref: library/syslog doc13707947
Ref: 45b513707947
Ref: library/syslog module-syslog13707947
Ref: db13707947
Ref: library/syslog syslog-unix-syslog-library-routines13707947
Ref: 45b613707947
Ref: library/syslog syslog syslog13708586
Ref: 2ce13708586
Ref: library/syslog syslog openlog13710050
Ref: 2cc13710050
Ref: library/syslog syslog closelog13711403
Ref: 2cd13711403
Ref: library/syslog syslog setlogmask13712269
Ref: 3f9513712269
Node: Examples<35>13713548
Ref: library/syslog examples13713636
Ref: 45b713713636
Node: Simple example13713702
Ref: library/syslog simple-example13713765
Ref: 45b813713765
Node: Modules command-line interface CLI13714275
Ref: library/cmdline doc13714433
Ref: 45b913714433
Ref: library/cmdline modules-command-line-interface-cli13714433
Ref: 45ba13714433
Node: Superseded Modules13715912
Ref: library/superseded doc13716063
Ref: 45bb13716063
Ref: library/superseded superseded13716063
Ref: 45bc13716063
Ref: library/superseded superseded-modules13716063
Ref: 45bd13716063
Node: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files13717202
Ref: library/aifc doc13717346
Ref: 45be13717346
Ref: library/aifc aifc-read-and-write-aiff-and-aifc-files13717346
Ref: 45bf13717346
Ref: library/aifc module-aifc13717346
Ref: 513717346
Ref: library/aifc aifc open13718752
Ref: a5813718752
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getnchannels13719815
Ref: 45c013719815
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getsampwidth13719921
Ref: 45c113719921
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getframerate13720011
Ref: 45c213720011
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getnframes13720115
Ref: 45c313720115
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getcomptype13720202
Ref: 45c413720202
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getcompname13720399
Ref: 45c513720399
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getparams13720630
Ref: db213720630
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getmarkers13720834
Ref: 45c613720834
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc getmark13721155
Ref: 45c713721155
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc readframes13721292
Ref: 45c813721292
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc rewind13721511
Ref: 45c913721511
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setpos13721644
Ref: 45ca13721644
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc tell13721719
Ref: 45cb13721719
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc close13721786
Ref: db313721786
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc aiff13722340
Ref: 45cc13722340
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc aifc13722546
Ref: 45cd13722546
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setnchannels13722754
Ref: 45ce13722754
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setsampwidth13722855
Ref: 45cf13722855
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setframerate13722946
Ref: 45d013722946
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setnframes13723045
Ref: 45d113723045
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setcomptype13723261
Ref: 45d213723261
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setparams13723750
Ref: 45d313723750
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc setmark13724090
Ref: 45d413724090
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc writeframes13724448
Ref: db513724448
Ref: library/aifc aifc aifc writeframesraw13724698
Ref: db413724698
Ref: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-113725174
Ref: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-213725238
Node: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data13725285
Ref: library/audioop doc13725478
Ref: 45d513725478
Ref: library/audioop audioop-manipulate-raw-audio-data13725478
Ref: 45d613725478
Ref: library/audioop module-audioop13725478
Ref: d13725478
Ref: library/audioop audioop error13726518
Ref: 45d713726518
Ref: library/audioop audioop add13726650
Ref: 45d813726650
Ref: library/audioop audioop adpcm2lin13726980
Ref: 45d913726980
Ref: library/audioop audioop alaw2lin13727298
Ref: 45db13727298
Ref: library/audioop audioop avg13727558
Ref: 45dc13727558
Ref: library/audioop audioop avgpp13727661
Ref: 45dd13727661
Ref: library/audioop audioop bias13727866
Ref: 45de13727866
Ref: library/audioop audioop byteswap13728052
Ref: db913728052
Ref: library/audioop audioop cross13728283
Ref: 45df13728283
Ref: library/audioop audioop findfactor13728415
Ref: 45e013728415
Ref: library/audioop audioop findfit13728825
Ref: 45e113728825
Ref: library/audioop audioop findmax13729434
Ref: 45e213729434
Ref: library/audioop audioop getsample13729790
Ref: 45e313729790
Ref: library/audioop audioop lin2adpcm13729907
Ref: 45da13729907
Ref: library/audioop audioop lin2alaw13730645
Ref: 45e413730645
Ref: library/audioop audioop lin2lin13730968
Ref: 45e513730968
Ref: library/audioop audioop lin2ulaw13731594
Ref: 45e613731594
Ref: library/audioop audioop max13731917
Ref: 45e713731917
Ref: library/audioop audioop maxpp13732045
Ref: 45e813732045
Ref: library/audioop audioop minmax13732155
Ref: 45e913732155
Ref: library/audioop audioop mul13732311
Ref: 45ea13732311
Ref: library/audioop audioop ratecv13732536
Ref: 45eb13732536
Ref: library/audioop audioop reverse13733113
Ref: 45ec13733113
Ref: library/audioop audioop rms13733241
Ref: 45ed13733241
Ref: library/audioop audioop tomono13733429
Ref: 45ee13733429
Ref: library/audioop audioop tostereo13733690
Ref: 45ef13733690
Ref: library/audioop audioop ulaw2lin13734004
Ref: 45f013734004
Ref: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data-Footnote-113736774
Node: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support13736824
Ref: library/cgi doc13737017
Ref: 45f113737017
Ref: library/cgi cgi-common-gateway-interface-support13737017
Ref: 45f213737017
Ref: library/cgi module-cgi13737017
Ref: 1513737017
Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-113738651
Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-213738714
Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-313738760
Node: Introduction<9>13738804
Ref: library/cgi introduction13738925
Ref: 45f413738925
Ref: library/cgi cgi-intro13738970
Ref: 45f513738970
Node: Using the cgi module13740639
Ref: library/cgi id113740791
Ref: 45f613740791
Ref: library/cgi using-the-cgi-module13740791
Ref: 45f713740791
Node: Higher Level Interface13746706
Ref: library/cgi higher-level-interface13746856
Ref: 45f913746856
Ref: library/cgi cgi FieldStorage getfirst13749170
Ref: 45fa13749170
Ref: library/cgi cgi FieldStorage getlist13749747
Ref: 45f813749747
Ref: Higher Level Interface-Footnote-113750323
Node: Functions<12>13750577
Ref: library/cgi functions13750728
Ref: 45fb13750728
Ref: library/cgi functions-in-cgi-module13750728
Ref: 45f313750728
Ref: library/cgi cgi parse13750910
Ref: 69c13750910
Ref: library/cgi cgi parse_multipart13751664
Ref: 69d13751664
Ref: library/cgi cgi parse_header13753049
Ref: 45fc13753049
Ref: library/cgi cgi test13753759
Ref: 45fd13753759
Ref: library/cgi cgi print_environ13753945
Ref: 45fe13753945
Ref: library/cgi cgi print_form13754024
Ref: 45ff13754024
Ref: library/cgi cgi print_directory13754089
Ref: 460013754089
Ref: library/cgi cgi print_environ_usage13754170
Ref: 460113754170
Ref: Functions<12>-Footnote-113754321
Node: Caring about security13754365
Ref: library/cgi caring-about-security13754537
Ref: 460213754537
Ref: library/cgi cgi-security13754537
Ref: 460313754537
Node: Installing your CGI script on a Unix system13755313
Ref: library/cgi installing-your-cgi-script-on-a-unix-system13755495
Ref: 460413755495
Node: Testing your CGI script13757525
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Ref: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-113767051
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Ref: chunk — Read IFF chunked data-Footnote-113772353
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Ref: chunk — Read IFF chunked data-Footnote-313772466
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Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-113774304
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Ref: Module Functions<2>-Footnote-113778743
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Node: imghdr — Determine the type of an image13780048
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Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-113782983
Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-213783049
Node: mailcap — Mailcap file handling13783098
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Ref: mailcap — Mailcap file handling-Footnote-113788056
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Ref: mailcap — Mailcap file handling-Footnote-313788173
Ref: mailcap — Mailcap file handling-Footnote-413788232
Node: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files13788291
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Node: nntplib — NNTP protocol client13813125
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Ref: optparse — Parser for command line options-Footnote-113840977
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Ref: library/optparse standard-option-types13892193
Ref: 46e313892193
Node: Parsing arguments13893673
Ref: library/optparse optparse-parsing-arguments13893825
Ref: 46d613893825
Ref: library/optparse parsing-arguments13893825
Ref: 46e413893825
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser parse_args13893993
Ref: 135b13893993
Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser13895382
Ref: library/optparse optparse-querying-manipulating-option-parser13895538
Ref: 46e513895538
Ref: library/optparse querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser13895538
Ref: 46e613895538
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser disable_interspersed_args13895849
Ref: 2a9713895849
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser enable_interspersed_args13896641
Ref: 46e713896641
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option13896849
Ref: 46e813896849
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser has_option13897024
Ref: 46e913897024
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser remove_option13897202
Ref: 46ea13897202
Node: Conflicts between options13897590
Ref: library/optparse conflicts-between-options13897739
Ref: 46eb13897739
Ref: library/optparse optparse-conflicts-between-options13897739
Ref: 46cf13897739
Node: Cleanup<2>13900212
Ref: library/optparse cleanup13900330
Ref: 46ed13900330
Ref: library/optparse optparse-cleanup13900330
Ref: 46ee13900330
Node: Other methods13900745
Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-methods13900829
Ref: 46ef13900829
Ref: library/optparse other-methods13900829
Ref: 46f013900829
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_usage13900933
Ref: 46f113900933
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_usage13901224
Ref: 46c613901224
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_usage13901562
Ref: 46f213901562
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_defaults13901702
Ref: 46db13901702
Node: Option Callbacks13902872
Ref: library/optparse option-callbacks13903020
Ref: 46f313903020
Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-callbacks13903020
Ref: 46bb13903020
Node: Defining a callback option13904239
Ref: library/optparse defining-a-callback-option13904351
Ref: 46f413904351
Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-callback-option13904351
Ref: 46f513904351
Node: How callbacks are called13906578
Ref: library/optparse how-callbacks-are-called13906727
Ref: 46f613906727
Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-callbacks-called13906727
Ref: 46f713906727
Node: Raising errors in a callback13909345
Ref: library/optparse optparse-raising-errors-in-callback13909503
Ref: 46f813909503
Ref: library/optparse raising-errors-in-a-callback13909503
Ref: 46f913909503
Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback13909983
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-1-trivial-callback13910154
Ref: 46fa13910154
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-113910154
Ref: 46fb13910154
Node: Callback example 2 check option order13910604
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-2-check-option-order13910796
Ref: 46fc13910796
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-213910796
Ref: 46fd13910796
Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized13911356
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized13911557
Ref: 46fe13911557
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-313911557
Ref: 46ff13911557
Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition13912332
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition13912530
Ref: 470013912530
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-413912530
Ref: 470113912530
Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments13913327
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-5-fixed-arguments13913513
Ref: 470213913513
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-513913513
Ref: 470313913513
Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments13914589
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-6-variable-arguments13914722
Ref: 470413914722
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-613914722
Ref: 470513914722
Node: Extending optparse13916829
Ref: library/optparse extending-optparse13916976
Ref: 470613916976
Ref: library/optparse optparse-extending-optparse13916976
Ref: 46b213916976
Node: Adding new types13917315
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-types13917413
Ref: 470713917413
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-types13917413
Ref: 470813917413
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPES13917711
Ref: 470913917711
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPE_CHECKER13917873
Ref: 470a13917873
Node: Adding new actions13920915
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-actions13921013
Ref: 470b13921013
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-actions13921013
Ref: 470c13921013
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ACTIONS13922118
Ref: 470d13922118
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option STORE_ACTIONS13922197
Ref: 470e13922197
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPED_ACTIONS13922293
Ref: 470f13922293
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS13922389
Ref: 471013922389
Node: Exceptions<18>13925697
Ref: library/optparse exceptions13925819
Ref: 471113925819
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionError13925864
Ref: 2a9913925864
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionConflictError13926007
Ref: 46ec13926007
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionValueError13926137
Ref: 2a9a13926137
Ref: library/optparse optparse BadOptionError13926262
Ref: 471213926262
Ref: library/optparse optparse AmbiguousOptionError13926369
Ref: 471313926369
Node: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices13926484
Ref: library/ossaudiodev doc13926693
Ref: 471413926693
Ref: library/ossaudiodev module-ossaudiodev13926693
Ref: a213926693
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev-access-to-oss-compatible-audio-devices13926693
Ref: 471513926693
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev OSSAudioError13927740
Ref: 471613927740
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev open13928261
Ref: 471713928261
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev openmixer13929658
Ref: 471813929658
Ref: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices-Footnote-113930095
Ref: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices-Footnote-213930149
Node: Audio Device Objects13930197
Ref: library/ossaudiodev audio-device-objects13930337
Ref: 471913930337
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudio-device-objects13930337
Ref: 471a13930337
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device close13930931
Ref: 471b13930931
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device fileno13931157
Ref: 471c13931157
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device read13931260
Ref: 471d13931260
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device write13931570
Ref: 471e13931570
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device writeall13932096
Ref: 471f13932096
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device nonblock13933268
Ref: 472013933268
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device getfmts13933437
Ref: 472113933437
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device setfmt13935609
Ref: 472213935609
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device channels13935982
Ref: 472313935982
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device speed13936312
Ref: 472413936312
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device sync13937059
Ref: 472513937059
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device reset13937344
Ref: 472613937344
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device post13937610
Ref: 472713937610
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device setparameters13938025
Ref: 472813938025
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device bufsize13939090
Ref: 472913939090
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device obufcount13939192
Ref: 472a13939192
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device obuffree13939328
Ref: 472b13939328
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device closed13939555
Ref: 472c13939555
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device name13939659
Ref: 472d13939659
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_audio_device mode13939753
Ref: 472e13939753
Node: Mixer Device Objects13939871
Ref: library/ossaudiodev id113940011
Ref: 472f13940011
Ref: library/ossaudiodev mixer-device-objects13940011
Ref: 473013940011
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device close13940124
Ref: 473113940124
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device fileno13940327
Ref: 473213940327
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device controls13940579
Ref: 473313940579
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device stereocontrols13941559
Ref: 473413941559
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device reccontrols13942006
Ref: 473513942006
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device get13942237
Ref: 473613942237
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device set13942734
Ref: 473713942734
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device get_recsrc13943299
Ref: 473813943299
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev oss_mixer_device set_recsrc13943462
Ref: 473913943462
Node: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines13943861
Ref: library/pipes doc13944065
Ref: 473a13944065
Ref: library/pipes module-pipes13944065
Ref: a713944065
Ref: library/pipes pipes-interface-to-shell-pipelines13944065
Ref: 473b13944065
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template13944852
Ref: 473c13944852
Ref: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines-Footnote-113945227
Ref: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines-Footnote-213945292
Node: Template Objects13945340
Ref: library/pipes id113945431
Ref: 473d13945431
Ref: library/pipes template-objects13945431
Ref: 473e13945431
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template reset13945523
Ref: 473f13945523
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template clone13945612
Ref: 474013945612
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template debug13945696
Ref: 474113945696
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template append13945943
Ref: 474213945943
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template prepend13946695
Ref: 474313946695
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template open13946847
Ref: 474413946847
Ref: library/pipes pipes Template copy13947051
Ref: 474513947051
Node: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file13947149
Ref: library/sndhdr doc13947336
Ref: 474613947336
Ref: library/sndhdr module-sndhdr13947336
Ref: ca13947336
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr-determine-type-of-sound-file13947336
Ref: 474713947336
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr what13948737
Ref: cee13948737
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr whathdr13949053
Ref: cef13949053
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr tests13950519
Ref: 474813950519
Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-113951086
Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-213951152
Node: spwd — The shadow password database13951201
Ref: library/spwd doc13951387
Ref: 474913951387
Ref: library/spwd module-spwd13951387
Ref: cd13951387
Ref: library/spwd spwd-the-shadow-password-database13951387
Ref: 474a13951387
Ref: library/spwd spwd getspnam13954075
Ref: bca13954075
Ref: library/spwd spwd getspall13954330
Ref: 474b13954330
Ref: spwd — The shadow password database-Footnote-113954701
Node: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files13954748
Ref: library/sunau doc13954922
Ref: 474c13954922
Ref: library/sunau module-sunau13954922
Ref: d613954922
Ref: library/sunau sunau-read-and-write-sun-au-files13954922
Ref: 474d13954922
Ref: library/sunau sunau open13956607
Ref: a6613956607
Ref: library/sunau sunau Error13957123
Ref: 474e13957123
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_MAGIC13957326
Ref: 474f13957326
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_MULAW_813957511
Ref: 475013957511
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_813957557
Ref: 475113957557
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_1613957604
Ref: 475213957604
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_2413957652
Ref: 475313957652
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_LINEAR_3213957700
Ref: 475413957700
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ALAW_813957748
Ref: 475513957748
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_FLOAT13957889
Ref: 475613957889
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_DOUBLE13957933
Ref: 475713957933
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G72113957978
Ref: 475813957978
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G72213958027
Ref: 475913958027
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_313958076
Ref: 475a13958076
Ref: library/sunau sunau AUDIO_FILE_ENCODING_ADPCM_G723_513958127
Ref: 475b13958127
Ref: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files-Footnote-113958387
Ref: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files-Footnote-213958452
Node: AU_read Objects13958500
Ref: library/sunau au-read-objects13958614
Ref: 475c13958614
Ref: library/sunau id113958614
Ref: 475d13958614
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read close13958754
Ref: 475e13958754
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getnchannels13958892
Ref: 475f13958892
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getsampwidth13958998
Ref: 476013958998
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getframerate13959074
Ref: 476113959074
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getnframes13959147
Ref: 476213959147
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getcomptype13959222
Ref: 476313959222
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getcompname13959375
Ref: 476413959375
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getparams13959610
Ref: 476513959610
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read readframes13959817
Ref: 476613959817
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read rewind13960058
Ref: 476713960058
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read setpos13960292
Ref: 476813960292
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read tell13960460
Ref: 476913960460
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getmarkers13960746
Ref: 476a13960746
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_read getmark13960809
Ref: 476b13960809
Node: AU_write Objects13960867
Ref: library/sunau au-write-objects13960981
Ref: 476c13960981
Ref: library/sunau id213960981
Ref: 476d13960981
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setnchannels13961124
Ref: 476e13961124
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setsampwidth13961199
Ref: e6713961199
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setframerate13961347
Ref: 476f13961347
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setnframes13961414
Ref: 477013961414
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setcomptype13961555
Ref: 477113961555
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write setparams13961718
Ref: 477213961718
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write tell13961936
Ref: 477313961936
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write writeframesraw13962125
Ref: e6813962125
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write writeframes13962317
Ref: e6913962317
Ref: library/sunau sunau AU_write close13962511
Ref: 477413962511
Node: telnetlib — Telnet client13962753
Ref: library/telnetlib doc13962929
Ref: 477513962929
Ref: library/telnetlib module-telnetlib13962929
Ref: de13962929
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib-telnet-client13962929
Ref: 477613962929
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet13964327
Ref: b6c13964327
Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-113965901
Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-213965970
Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-313966022
Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-413966080
Node: Telnet Objects13966138
Ref: library/telnetlib id113966239
Ref: 477813966239
Ref: library/telnetlib telnet-objects13966239
Ref: 477913966239
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_until13966348
Ref: 477a13966348
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_all13966706
Ref: 477b13966706
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_some13966811
Ref: 477c13966811
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_very_eager13966991
Ref: 477d13966991
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_eager13967305
Ref: 477e13967305
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_lazy13967582
Ref: 477f13967582
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_very_lazy13967876
Ref: 478013967876
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet read_sb_data13968152
Ref: 478113968152
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet open13968387
Ref: 3f9613968387
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet msg13968956
Ref: 478213968956
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet set_debuglevel13969184
Ref: 478313969184
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet close13969358
Ref: 477713969358
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet get_socket13969417
Ref: 478413969417
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet fileno13969501
Ref: 478513969501
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet write13969604
Ref: 3f9713969604
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet interact13970080
Ref: 478613970080
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet mt_interact13970178
Ref: 478713970178
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet expect13970270
Ref: 478813970270
Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib Telnet set_option_negotiation_callback13971279
Ref: 478913971279
Node: Telnet Example13971596
Ref: library/telnetlib id213971697
Ref: 478a13971697
Ref: library/telnetlib telnet-example13971697
Ref: 478b13971697
Node: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files13972253
Ref: library/uu doc13972429
Ref: 478c13972429
Ref: library/uu module-uu13972429
Ref: 10f13972429
Ref: library/uu uu-encode-and-decode-uuencode-files13972429
Ref: 478d13972429
Ref: library/uu uu encode13973556
Ref: a1b13973556
Ref: library/uu uu decode13974087
Ref: 153613974087
Ref: library/uu uu Error13974774
Ref: 478e13974774
Ref: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files-Footnote-113975208
Ref: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files-Footnote-213975270
Node: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data13975335
Ref: library/xdrlib doc13975475
Ref: 478f13975475
Ref: library/xdrlib module-xdrlib13975475
Ref: 11f13975475
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib-encode-and-decode-xdr-data13975475
Ref: 479013975475
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer13976221
Ref: 479113976221
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker13976408
Ref: 479213976408
Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-113977081
Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-213977147
Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-313977196
Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-413977255
Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-513977314
Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-613977373
Node: Packer Objects13977432
Ref: library/xdrlib packer-objects13977545
Ref: 479313977545
Ref: library/xdrlib xdr-packer-objects13977545
Ref: 479413977545
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer get_buffer13977655
Ref: 479513977655
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer reset13977742
Ref: 479613977742
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_float13978180
Ref: 479713978180
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_double13978285
Ref: 479813978285
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_fstring13978463
Ref: 479913978463
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_fopaque13978716
Ref: 479a13978716
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_string13978854
Ref: 479b13978854
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_opaque13979075
Ref: 479c13979075
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_bytes13979211
Ref: 479d13979211
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_list13979397
Ref: 479e13979397
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_farray13980089
Ref: 479f13980089
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Packer pack_array13980453
Ref: 47a013980453
Node: Unpacker Objects13980706
Ref: library/xdrlib unpacker-objects13980842
Ref: 47a113980842
Ref: library/xdrlib xdr-unpacker-objects13980842
Ref: 47a213980842
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker reset13980960
Ref: 47a313980960
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker get_position13981051
Ref: 47a413981051
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker set_position13981153
Ref: 47a513981153
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker get_buffer13981364
Ref: 47a613981364
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker done13981460
Ref: 47a713981460
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_float13981849
Ref: 47a913981849
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_double13981945
Ref: 47aa13981945
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_fstring13982164
Ref: 47ab13982164
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_fopaque13982377
Ref: 47ac13982377
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_string13982529
Ref: 47ad13982529
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_opaque13982768
Ref: 47ae13982768
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_bytes13982920
Ref: 47af13982920
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_list13983123
Ref: 47b013983123
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_farray13983530
Ref: 47b113983530
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Unpacker unpack_array13983803
Ref: 47b213983803
Node: Exceptions<19>13984080
Ref: library/xdrlib exceptions13984193
Ref: 47b313984193
Ref: library/xdrlib xdr-exceptions13984193
Ref: 47b413984193
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib Error13984293
Ref: 47a813984293
Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib ConversionError13984462
Ref: 47b513984462
Node: Removed Modules13984855
Ref: library/removed doc13984998
Ref: 47b613984998
Ref: library/removed removed13984998
Ref: 47b713984998
Ref: library/removed removed-modules13984998
Ref: 47b813984998
Node: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler13985432
Ref: library/asynchat doc13985590
Ref: 47b913985590
Ref: library/asynchat asynchat-asynchronous-socket-command-response-handler13985590
Ref: 47ba13985590
Ref: library/asynchat module-asynchat13985590
Ref: 913985590
Ref: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler-Footnote-113986153
Ref: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler-Footnote-213986195
Node: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler13986254
Ref: library/asyncore doc13986473
Ref: 47bb13986473
Ref: library/asyncore asyncore-asynchronous-socket-handler13986473
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Ref: c-api/exceptions printing-and-clearing14278086
Ref: 4a2514278086
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Clear14278143
Ref: ed914278143
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_PrintEx14278314
Ref: 48cf14278314
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Print14279255
Ref: 177114279255
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WriteUnraisable14279378
Ref: 181f14279378
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_DisplayException14280368
Ref: 30314280368
Node: Raising exceptions14280651
Ref: c-api/exceptions raising-exceptions14280779
Ref: 4a2614280779
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetString14281019
Ref: 31514281019
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetObject14281527
Ref: 31414281527
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Format14281800
Ref: d4614281800
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_FormatV14282320
Ref: d4514282320
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetNone14282710
Ref: 48d714282710
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_BadArgument14282877
Ref: 48cc14282877
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NoMemory14283176
Ref: 47d314283176
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrno14283524
Ref: 47d214283524
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject14284473
Ref: 48d314284473
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects14285023
Ref: 48d414285023
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename14285516
Ref: 14fa14285516
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr14285924
Ref: 48d514285924
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr14286857
Ref: 48d014286857
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename14287263
Ref: 14fc14287263
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject14287915
Ref: 48d114287915
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects14288529
Ref: 48d214288529
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename14289019
Ref: 14fb14289019
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetImportError14289481
Ref: bc614289481
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass14290033
Ref: b9c14290033
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject14290478
Ref: 4a2714290478
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx14290887
Ref: 48d914290887
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SyntaxLocation14291253
Ref: 48d814291253
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_BadInternalCall14291484
Ref: 48cd14291484
Node: Issuing warnings14291828
Ref: c-api/exceptions issuing-warnings14291963
Ref: 4a2814291963
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnEx14292859
Ref: 12d514292859
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnExplicitObject14294051
Ref: 4a2a14294051
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnExplicit14294594
Ref: 152114294594
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnFormat14295030
Ref: 48da14295030
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_ResourceWarning14295393
Ref: b9d14295393
Node: Querying the error indicator14295782
Ref: c-api/exceptions querying-the-error-indicator14295917
Ref: 4a2b14295917
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Occurred14295988
Ref: 171c14295988
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_ExceptionMatches14296894
Ref: 487114296894
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches14297221
Ref: 48ce14297221
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GetRaisedException14297661
Ref: 2fc14297661
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetRaisedException14298538
Ref: 2fd14298538
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Fetch14298911
Ref: 2fe14298911
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Restore14299985
Ref: 2ff14299985
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NormalizeException14301165
Ref: 37214301165
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GetHandledException14302242
Ref: 59f14302242
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetHandledException14303053
Ref: 5a014303053
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GetExcInfo14303733
Ref: 5a214303733
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcInfo14304709
Ref: 5a114304709
Node: Signal Handling<2>14305897
Ref: c-api/exceptions signal-handling14306033
Ref: 4a2c14306033
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_CheckSignals14306078
Ref: 18214306078
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetInterrupt14307335
Ref: 48d614307335
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetInterruptEx14307687
Ref: 6e914307687
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PySignal_SetWakeupFd14308773
Ref: 126214308773
Node: Exception Classes14309446
Ref: c-api/exceptions exception-classes14309571
Ref: 4a2d14309571
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NewException14309620
Ref: 111214309620
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc14310627
Ref: 111114310627
Node: Exception Objects14311103
Ref: c-api/exceptions exception-objects14311235
Ref: 4a2e14311235
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetTraceback14311284
Ref: 48e914311284
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetTraceback14311691
Ref: 182014311691
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetContext14311907
Ref: 48e814311907
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetContext14312378
Ref: 48eb14312378
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetCause14312709
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetCause14313110
Ref: 48ea14313110
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetArgs14313575
Ref: 30014313575
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetArgs14313815
Ref: 30114313815
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar14314015
Ref: 4a2f14314015
Node: Unicode Exception Objects14314951
Ref: c-api/exceptions unicode-exception-objects14315083
Ref: 4a3014315083
Ref: c-api/exceptions unicodeexceptions14315083
Ref: 4a3114315083
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create14315230
Ref: 499814315230
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding14315716
Ref: 499914315716
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding14315812
Ref: 49a114315812
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject14316071
Ref: 499b14316071
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject14316165
Ref: 49a314316165
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject14316259
Ref: 49aa14316259
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart14316512
Ref: 499d14316512
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart14316606
Ref: 49a514316606
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart14316700
Ref: 49ac14316700
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart14317022
Ref: 49a014317022
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart14317115
Ref: 49a814317115
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart14317208
Ref: 49af14317208
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd14317480
Ref: 499a14317480
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd14317570
Ref: 49a214317570
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd14317660
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd14317972
Ref: 499e14317972
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd14318061
Ref: 49a614318061
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd14318150
Ref: 49ad14318150
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason14318414
Ref: 499c14318414
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason14318508
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason14318602
Ref: 49ab14318602
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason14318855
Ref: 499f14318855
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason14318951
Ref: 49a714318951
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason14319047
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Node: Recursion Control14319324
Ref: c-api/exceptions recursion14319458
Ref: 4a3214319458
Ref: c-api/exceptions recursion-control14319458
Ref: 4a3314319458
Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_EnterRecursiveCall14319890
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_LeaveRecursiveCall14320821
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_ReprEnter14321544
Ref: 49e214321544
Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_ReprLeave14322353
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Node: Standard Exceptions14322590
Ref: c-api/exceptions standard-exceptions14322726
Ref: 4a3414322726
Ref: c-api/exceptions standardexceptions14322726
Ref: 4a3514322726
Ref: Standard Exceptions-Footnote-114335877
Ref: Standard Exceptions-Footnote-214335937
Ref: Standard Exceptions-Footnote-314335997
Ref: Standard Exceptions-Footnote-414336057
Ref: Standard Exceptions-Footnote-514336117
Ref: Standard Exceptions-Footnote-614336177
Ref: Standard Exceptions-Footnote-714336219
Node: Standard Warning Categories14336348
Ref: c-api/exceptions standard-warning-categories14336458
Ref: 4a3614336458
Ref: c-api/exceptions standardwarningcategories14336458
Ref: 4a2914336458
Ref: Standard Warning Categories-Footnote-114339560
Node: Utilities<2>14339628
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Ref: c-api/utilities id114339766
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Ref: c-api/utilities utilities14339766
Ref: 4a3914339766
Node: Operating System Utilities14340356
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Ref: c-api/sys operating-system-utilities14340456
Ref: 4a3b14340456
Ref: c-api/sys os14340456
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_FSPath14340523
Ref: b9e14340523
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FdIsInteractive14341175
Ref: 4a3d14341175
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_BeforeFork14341719
Ref: a3614341719
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Parent14342347
Ref: a3714342347
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Child14343066
Ref: 37614343066
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork14344082
Ref: 37514344082
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_CheckStack14344582
Ref: 163a14344582
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_sighandler_t14345099
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_getsig14345200
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Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_setsig14345489
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_DecodeLocale14345844
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_EncodeLocale14348194
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Node: System Functions14349988
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Ref: 4a4014350112
Ref: c-api/sys systemfunctions14350112
Ref: 4a4114350112
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetObject14350411
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_SetObject14350725
Ref: 498714350725
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_ResetWarnOptions14351030
Ref: 36314351030
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AddWarnOption14351253
Ref: a9d14351253
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode14351758
Ref: a9c14351758
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_SetPath14352502
Ref: 163814352502
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStdout14353098
Ref: 498914353098
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStderr14354015
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStdout14354231
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStderr14354550
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AddXOption14354796
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetXOptions14355401
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_Audit14355792
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Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AddAuditHook14356942
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AuditHookFunction14358562
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Ref: System Functions-Footnote-114359026
Node: Process Control14359068
Ref: c-api/sys process-control14359186
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Ref: c-api/sys processcontrol14359186
Ref: 4a4714359186
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FatalError14359231
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_Exit14360013
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Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AtExit14360417
Ref: 49d714360417
Node: Importing Modules<2>14361113
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Ref: 4a4814361239
Ref: c-api/import importing14361239
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Ref: c-api/import importing-modules14361239
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModule14361288
Ref: 35f14361288
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock14361614
Ref: 35e14361614
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleEx14362174
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject14362933
Ref: 48fe14362933
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevel14363787
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_Import14364276
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ReloadModule14364865
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModuleObject14365195
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModule14366135
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModule14366459
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx14368492
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject14368943
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames14369611
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicNumber14370391
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicTag14370791
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModuleDict14371142
Ref: 48fb14371142
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModule14371458
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetImporter14371901
Ref: 14dc14371901
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject14372641
Ref: 48fd14372641
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModule14373291
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Ref: c-api/import c _frozen14373544
Ref: 5a514373544
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_FrozenModules14374180
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Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AppendInittab14374608
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Ref: c-api/import c _inittab14375193
Ref: 4a4b14375193
Ref: c-api/import c _inittab name14375523
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Ref: c-api/import c _inittab initfunc14375616
Ref: 4a4d14375616
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExtendInittab14375762
Ref: 15c314375762
Ref: Importing Modules<2>-Footnote-114376572
Node: Data marshalling support14376614
Ref: c-api/marshal doc14376762
Ref: 4a4e14376762
Ref: c-api/marshal data-marshalling-support14376762
Ref: 4a4f14376762
Ref: c-api/marshal marshalling-utils14376762
Ref: 4a5014376762
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile14377509
Ref: 5cc14377509
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile14377945
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString14378272
Ref: 5cf14378272
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile14378620
Ref: 4a5114378620
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile14378958
Ref: 4a5214378958
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile14379299
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Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile14379669
Ref: 4a5414379669
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString14380472
Ref: 5ce14380472
Node: Parsing arguments and building values14380902
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Ref: 4a5514381062
Ref: c-api/arg arg-parsing14381062
Ref: 6f614381062
Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments-and-building-values14381062
Ref: 4a5614381062
Node: Parsing arguments<2>14381735
Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments14381853
Ref: 4a5714381853
Node: Strings and buffers14382572
Ref: c-api/arg strings-and-buffers14382664
Ref: 4a5814382664
Ref: c-api/arg c-arg-borrowed-buffer14383676
Ref: 4a5914383676
Node: Numbers14393345
Ref: c-api/arg numbers14393459
Ref: 4a5a14393459
Node: Other objects14396140
Ref: c-api/arg other-objects14396248
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Ref: c-api/arg o-ampersand14397066
Ref: 4a5d14397066
Ref: c-api/arg c Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED14397856
Ref: 4a5e14397856
Node: API Functions14401369
Ref: c-api/arg api-functions14401461
Ref: 4a5f14401461
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTuple14401506
Ref: 30814401506
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParse14401846
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Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords14402121
Ref: b9b14402121
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords14402767
Ref: 12fe14402767
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments14403111
Ref: 488614403111
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_Parse14403456
Ref: 181914403456
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_UnpackTuple14404091
Ref: 139514404091
Node: Building values14406077
Ref: c-api/arg building-values14406195
Ref: 4a6014406195
Ref: c-api/arg c Py_BuildValue14406244
Ref: 6f514406244
Ref: c-api/arg c Py_VaBuildValue14413830
Ref: 49e514413830
Node: String conversion and formatting14414147
Ref: c-api/conversion doc14414293
Ref: 4a6114414293
Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion14414293
Ref: 4a6214414293
Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion-and-formatting14414293
Ref: 4a6314414293
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_snprintf14414434
Ref: 139814414434
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_vsnprintf14414739
Ref: 139914414739
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtoul14416471
Ref: 494a14416471
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtol14417504
Ref: 494914417504
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_string_to_double14418024
Ref: 113e14418024
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_double_to_string14419786
Ref: 494714419786
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_stricmp14421417
Ref: 4a6414421417
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strnicmp14421624
Ref: 4a6514421624
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-114421896
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-214421944
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-314421993
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-414422040
Node: PyHash API14422086
Ref: c-api/hash doc14422205
Ref: 4a6614422205
Ref: c-api/hash pyhash-api14422205
Ref: 4a6714422205
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_hash_t14422296
Ref: 110c14422296
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_uhash_t14422393
Ref: 4a6814422393
Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef14422493
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef name14422600
Ref: 4a6b14422600
Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef hash_bits14422691
Ref: 4a6c14422691
Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef seed_bits14422783
Ref: 4a6d14422783
Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_GetFuncDef14422890
Ref: 4a6a14422890
Ref: PyHash API-Footnote-114423174
Node: Reflection14423216
Ref: c-api/reflection doc14423339
Ref: 4a6e14423339
Ref: c-api/reflection id114423339
Ref: 4a6f14423339
Ref: c-api/reflection reflection14423339
Ref: 4a7014423339
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetBuiltins14423374
Ref: 48de14423374
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetLocals14423700
Ref: 48e214423700
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetGlobals14424006
Ref: 48e114424006
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrame14424314
Ref: 15dd14424314
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncName14424645
Ref: 48e014424645
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncDesc14424871
Ref: 48df14424871
Node: Codec registry and support functions14425296
Ref: c-api/codec doc14425430
Ref: 4a7114425430
Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry14425430
Ref: bbd14425430
Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry-and-support-functions14425430
Ref: 4a7214425430
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Register14425519
Ref: 48ac14425519
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Unregister14425842
Ref: 6e014425842
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_KnownEncoding14426214
Ref: 48aa14426214
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encode14426469
Ref: 37b14426469
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decode14427018
Ref: 37a14427018
Node: Codec lookup API14427651
Ref: c-api/codec codec-lookup-api14427797
Ref: 4a7314427797
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encoder14428117
Ref: 48a614428117
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decoder14428348
Ref: 48a514428348
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder14428578
Ref: 48a914428578
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder14428867
Ref: 48a814428867
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamReader14429156
Ref: 48af14429156
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamWriter14429460
Ref: 48b014429460
Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers14429764
Ref: c-api/codec registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers14429910
Ref: 4a7414429910
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_RegisterError14430027
Ref: 48ad14430027
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_LookupError14431160
Ref: 48ab14431160
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StrictErrors14431542
Ref: 48b114431542
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IgnoreErrors14431740
Ref: 48a714431740
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_ReplaceErrors14431962
Ref: 48ae14431962
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors14432205
Ref: 48b214432205
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors14432464
Ref: 48a414432464
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors14432749
Ref: d4414432749
Node: Support for Perf Maps14433051
Ref: c-api/perfmaps doc14433166
Ref: 4a7514433166
Ref: c-api/perfmaps perfmaps14433166
Ref: 4a7614433166
Ref: c-api/perfmaps support-for-perf-maps14433166
Ref: 4a7714433166
Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init14433837
Ref: 155514433837
Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry14434690
Ref: 155414434690
Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini14435496
Ref: 155614435496
Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-114436071
Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-214436128
Node: Abstract Objects Layer14436252
Ref: c-api/abstract doc14436394
Ref: 4a7814436394
Ref: c-api/abstract abstract14436394
Ref: 482d14436394
Ref: c-api/abstract abstract-objects-layer14436394
Ref: 4a7914436394
Node: Object Protocol14437123
Ref: c-api/object doc14437219
Ref: 4a7a14437219
Ref: c-api/object object14437219
Ref: 4a7b14437219
Ref: c-api/object object-protocol14437219
Ref: 4a7c14437219
Ref: c-api/object c Py_NotImplemented14437264
Ref: 4a7d14437264
Ref: c-api/object c Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED14437455
Ref: 4a7e14437455
Ref: c-api/object c Py_PRINT_RAW14437692
Ref: 4a7f14437692
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Print14437987
Ref: 189314437987
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttr14438368
Ref: 495c14438368
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrString14438934
Ref: 153814438934
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttr14439569
Ref: 495a14439569
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttrString14439964
Ref: 47ec14439964
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericGetAttr14440339
Ref: 495614440339
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetAttr14441031
Ref: 496114441031
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetAttrString14441619
Ref: 144814441619
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericSetAttr14442553
Ref: 495714442553
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelAttr14443257
Ref: 4a8014443257
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelAttrString14443498
Ref: 144914443498
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericGetDict14444236
Ref: 176514444236
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericSetDict14445002
Ref: 495814445002
Ref: c-api/object c _PyObject_GetDictPtr14445349
Ref: 4a8114445349
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_RichCompare14445777
Ref: 482b14445777
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_RichCompareBool14446516
Ref: 17d514446516
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Format14447057
Ref: 44f614447057
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Repr14447502
Ref: ed714447502
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_ASCII14448075
Ref: 494b14448075
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Str14448628
Ref: ed814448628
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Bytes14449250
Ref: 495014449250
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsSubclass14449749
Ref: d3b14449749
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsInstance14450774
Ref: d3a14450774
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Hash14451799
Ref: 37d14451799
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HashNotImplemented14452214
Ref: 124d14452214
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsTrue14452642
Ref: 495d14452642
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Not14452930
Ref: 495f14452930
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Type14453211
Ref: 496314453211
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_TypeCheck14453929
Ref: 172214453929
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Size14454153
Ref: 496214454153
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Length14454219
Ref: 495e14454219
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_LengthHint14454589
Ref: eab14454589
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetItem14455049
Ref: 486c14455049
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetItem14455392
Ref: 486a14455392
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelItem14455780
Ref: 495314455780
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelItemString14456056
Ref: 495414456056
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Dir14456345
Ref: 495514456345
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetIter14456950
Ref: 495b14456950
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SelfIter14457390
Ref: 496014457390
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAIter14457748
Ref: 495914457748
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetTypeData14458324
Ref: 2d714458324
Ref: c-api/object c PyType_GetTypeDataSize14458804
Ref: 2d814458804
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetItemData14459497
Ref: 2da14459497
Ref: Object Protocol-Footnote-114459875
Ref: Object Protocol-Footnote-214459917
Node: Call Protocol14459959
Ref: c-api/call doc14460079
Ref: 4a8814460079
Ref: c-api/call call14460079
Ref: 31c14460079
Ref: c-api/call call-protocol14460079
Ref: 4a8914460079
Node: The tp_call Protocol14460304
Ref: c-api/call the-tp-call-protocol14460406
Ref: 4a8a14460406
Node: The Vectorcall Protocol14461142
Ref: c-api/call the-vectorcall-protocol14461271
Ref: 4a8c14461271
Ref: c-api/call vectorcall14461271
Ref: 2e114461271
Ref: c-api/call c vectorcallfunc14463050
Ref: 2e614463050
Ref: c-api/call c PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET14464143
Ref: 2ef14464143
Ref: The Vectorcall Protocol-Footnote-114465860
Node: Recursion Control<2>14465902
Ref: c-api/call recursion-control14466013
Ref: 4a8e14466013
Node: Vectorcall Support API14466425
Ref: c-api/call vectorcall-support-api14466536
Ref: 4a8f14466536
Ref: c-api/call c PyVectorcall_NARGS14466599
Ref: 2e414466599
Ref: c-api/call c PyVectorcall_Function14467058
Ref: 4a9014467058
Ref: c-api/call c PyVectorcall_Call14467606
Ref: 2e514467606
Node: Object Calling API14468227
Ref: c-api/call capi-call14468352
Ref: 4a8b14468352
Ref: c-api/call object-calling-api14468352
Ref: 4a9114468352
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_Call14472980
Ref: 7c114472980
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallNoArgs14473681
Ref: 7d014473681
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallOneArg14474181
Ref: 7d614474181
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallObject14474583
Ref: 47e114474583
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallFunction14475115
Ref: 90d14475115
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethod14475988
Ref: 30b14475988
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs14476925
Ref: 495114476925
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs14477514
Ref: 183614477514
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs14478117
Ref: 4a9214478117
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethodOneArg14478507
Ref: 4a9314478507
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_Vectorcall14478934
Ref: 2ed14478934
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_VectorcallDict14479533
Ref: 4a9414479533
Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_VectorcallMethod14480244
Ref: 2ee14480244
Node: Call Support API14481374
Ref: c-api/call call-support-api14481467
Ref: 4a9614481467
Ref: c-api/call c PyCallable_Check14481518
Ref: 489a14481518
Node: Number Protocol14481765
Ref: c-api/number doc14481887
Ref: 4a9714481887
Ref: c-api/number number14481887
Ref: 4a9814481887
Ref: c-api/number number-protocol14481887
Ref: 4a9914481887
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Check14481932
Ref: 8cb14481932
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Add14482232
Ref: 492a14482232
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Subtract14482560
Ref: 494414482560
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Multiply14482899
Ref: 493d14482899
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_MatrixMultiply14483237
Ref: d4a14483237
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_FloorDivide14483646
Ref: 492e14483646
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_TrueDivide14483981
Ref: 494514483981
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Remainder14484609
Ref: 494214484609
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Divmod14484947
Ref: 492d14484947
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Power14485299
Ref: 494114485299
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Negative14485830
Ref: 493e14485830
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Positive14486124
Ref: 494014486124
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Absolute14486402
Ref: 492914486402
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Invert14486700
Ref: 493b14486700
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Lshift14487000
Ref: 493c14487000
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Rshift14487349
Ref: 494314487349
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_And14487699
Ref: 492b14487699
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Xor14488042
Ref: 494614488042
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Or14488393
Ref: 493f14488393
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceAdd14488734
Ref: 492f14488734
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract14489125
Ref: 493814489125
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply14489528
Ref: 493314489528
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply14489930
Ref: d4b14489930
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide14490408
Ref: 493114490408
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide14490827
Ref: 493914490827
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder14491524
Ref: 493614491524
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlacePower14491925
Ref: 493514491925
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceLshift14492588
Ref: 493214492588
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceRshift14493006
Ref: 493714493006
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceAnd14493425
Ref: 493014493425
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceXor14493837
Ref: 493a14493837
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceOr14494257
Ref: 493414494257
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Long14494667
Ref: 8cc14494667
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Float14494990
Ref: 8cd14494990
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Index14495313
Ref: 6db14495313
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_ToBase14495778
Ref: 160c14495778
Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_AsSsize_t14496316
Ref: 492c14496316
Ref: c-api/number c PyIndex_Check14497128
Ref: 7e814497128
Node: Sequence Protocol14497437
Ref: c-api/sequence doc14497562
Ref: 4a9a14497562
Ref: c-api/sequence sequence14497562
Ref: 4a9b14497562
Ref: c-api/sequence sequence-protocol14497562
Ref: 4a9c14497562
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Check14497611
Ref: 496714497611
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Size14498071
Ref: 189414498071
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Length14498139
Ref: 497114498139
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Concat14498410
Ref: 496814498410
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Repeat14498754
Ref: 497314498754
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_InPlaceConcat14499114
Ref: 496e14499114
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_InPlaceRepeat14499528
Ref: 496f14499528
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_GetItem14499957
Ref: 189514499957
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_GetSlice14500271
Ref: 496d14500271
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_SetItem14500641
Ref: 189614500641
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_DelItem14501182
Ref: 189714501182
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_SetSlice14501441
Ref: 497414501441
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_DelSlice14501760
Ref: 496b14501760
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Count14502068
Ref: 496a14502068
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Contains14502445
Ref: 496914502445
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Index14502787
Ref: 497014502787
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_List14503095
Ref: 497214503095
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Tuple14503479
Ref: 497514503479
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast14503955
Ref: 496c14503955
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE14504712
Ref: 4a9e14504712
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM14505132
Ref: 4a9f14505132
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast_ITEMS14505462
Ref: 4aa014505462
Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_ITEM14505877
Ref: 4aa114505877
Node: Mapping Protocol14506257
Ref: c-api/mapping doc14506384
Ref: 4aa214506384
Ref: c-api/mapping mapping14506384
Ref: 4aa314506384
Ref: c-api/mapping mapping-protocol14506384
Ref: 4aa414506384
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Check14506541
Ref: 491614506541
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Size14506974
Ref: 189814506974
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Length14507041
Ref: 491a14507041
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_GetItemString14507306
Ref: 491714507306
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_SetItemString14507670
Ref: 491b14507670
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_DelItem14507983
Ref: 4aa514507983
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_DelItemString14508108
Ref: 4aa614508108
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKey14508356
Ref: 491814508356
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKeyString14508854
Ref: 491914508854
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Keys14509417
Ref: a3314509417
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Values14509760
Ref: a3414509760
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Items14510107
Ref: a3514510107
Node: Iterator Protocol14510513
Ref: c-api/iter doc14510638
Ref: 4aa714510638
Ref: c-api/iter iterator14510638
Ref: 4aa814510638
Ref: c-api/iter iterator-protocol14510638
Ref: 4aa914510638
Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Check14510753
Ref: 171f14510753
Ref: c-api/iter c PyAIter_Check14511027
Ref: 488414511027
Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Next14511318
Ref: 490214511318
Ref: c-api/iter c PySendResult14512392
Ref: 4aaa14512392
Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Send14512545
Ref: 6e114512545
Node: Buffer Protocol14513138
Ref: c-api/buffer doc14513266
Ref: 4aab14513266
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-protocol14513266
Ref: 4aac14513266
Ref: c-api/buffer bufferobjects14513266
Ref: 14e14513266
Node: Buffer structure14515787
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-structure14515884
Ref: 4aae14515884
Ref: c-api/buffer id114515884
Ref: 4aaf14515884
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer14516959
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Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer buf14517085
Ref: 4ab114517085
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer obj14517547
Ref: 4ab314517547
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer len14518184
Ref: 4ab414518184
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer readonly14518796
Ref: 4ab614518796
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer itemsize14518966
Ref: 4ab714518966
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer format14519895
Ref: 4ab814519895
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer ndim14520217
Ref: 4abb14520217
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer shape14520641
Ref: 4aba14520641
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer strides14521206
Ref: 4ab214521206
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer suboffsets14521744
Ref: 4abc14521744
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer internal14522648
Ref: 4abf14522648
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_MAX_NDIM14523035
Ref: 4abd14523035
Node: Buffer request types14523303
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-request-types14523423
Ref: 426914523423
Ref: c-api/buffer id214523423
Ref: 4ac014523423
Node: request-independent fields14524031
Ref: c-api/buffer request-independent-fields14524138
Ref: 4ac114524138
Node: readonly format14524406
Ref: c-api/buffer readonly-format14524546
Ref: 4ac214524546
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_WRITABLE14524597
Ref: 124114524597
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FORMAT14525071
Ref: 4ab914525071
Node: shape strides suboffsets14525709
Ref: c-api/buffer shape-strides-suboffsets14525842
Ref: 4ac314525842
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_INDIRECT14526381
Ref: 4ac414526381
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDES14526572
Ref: 4ac514526572
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_ND14526754
Ref: 4ac614526754
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_SIMPLE14526945
Ref: 4ab514526945
Node: contiguity requests14527045
Ref: c-api/buffer contiguity-requests14527180
Ref: 4ac714527180
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS14527791
Ref: 124214527791
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS14528044
Ref: 124314528044
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS14528299
Ref: 4ac814528299
Node: compound requests14528692
Ref: c-api/buffer compound-requests14528794
Ref: 4ac914528794
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FULL14529670
Ref: 4aca14529670
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FULL_RO14530000
Ref: 4acb14530000
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_RECORDS14530327
Ref: 4acc14530327
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_RECORDS_RO14530657
Ref: 4acd14530657
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDED14530981
Ref: 4ace14530981
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDED_RO14531312
Ref: 4acf14531312
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_CONTIG14531636
Ref: 4ad014531636
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_CONTIG_RO14531967
Ref: 4ad114531967
Node: Complex arrays14532158
Ref: c-api/buffer complex-arrays14532286
Ref: 4abe14532286
Node: NumPy-style shape and strides14532492
Ref: c-api/buffer numpy-style-shape-and-strides14532619
Ref: 4ad214532619
Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets14534499
Ref: c-api/buffer pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets14534626
Ref: 4ad314534626
Node: Buffer-related functions14535852
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-related-functions14535951
Ref: 4ad414535951
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_CheckBuffer14536020
Ref: 58514536020
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_GetBuffer14536375
Ref: 58614536375
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_Release14537393
Ref: 58f14537393
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat14537929
Ref: 58814537929
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_IsContiguous14538243
Ref: 58c14538243
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_GetPointer14538668
Ref: 58714538668
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FromContiguous14538990
Ref: 58a14538990
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_ToContiguous14539381
Ref: 58914539381
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_CopyData14539867
Ref: 58b14539867
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides14540175
Ref: 58d14540175
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FillInfo14540624
Ref: 58e14540624
Node: Old Buffer Protocol14541661
Ref: c-api/objbuffer doc14541763
Ref: 4ad514541763
Ref: c-api/objbuffer old-buffer-protocol14541763
Ref: 4ad614541763
Ref: c-api/objbuffer c PyObject_AsCharBuffer14542536
Ref: 494c14542536
Ref: c-api/objbuffer c PyObject_AsReadBuffer14543051
Ref: 494e14543051
Ref: c-api/objbuffer c PyObject_CheckReadBuffer14543558
Ref: 495214543558
Ref: c-api/objbuffer c PyObject_AsWriteBuffer14544049
Ref: 494f14544049
Node: Concrete Objects Layer14544527
Ref: c-api/concrete doc14544696
Ref: 4ad714544696
Ref: c-api/concrete concrete14544696
Ref: 4ad814544696
Ref: c-api/concrete concrete-objects-layer14544696
Ref: 4ad914544696
Node: Fundamental Objects14545680
Ref: c-api/concrete fundamental14545782
Ref: 4adb14545782
Ref: c-api/concrete fundamental-objects14545782
Ref: 4adc14545782
Node: Type Objects<2>14545979
Ref: c-api/type doc14546074
Ref: 4add14546074
Ref: c-api/type type-objects14546074
Ref: 4ade14546074
Ref: c-api/type typeobjects14546074
Ref: 4adf14546074
Ref: c-api/type c PyTypeObject14546117
Ref: 91114546117
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Type14546294
Ref: 2db14546294
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Check14546514
Ref: 17d014546514
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_CheckExact14546759
Ref: 17d114546759
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_ClearCache14546987
Ref: 499514546987
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetFlags14547156
Ref: 178314547156
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetDict14547708
Ref: 151914547708
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Modified14548441
Ref: 161414548441
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_AddWatcher14548744
Ref: 2f614548744
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_ClearWatcher14549099
Ref: 4ae014549099
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Watch14549569
Ref: 2f714549569
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_WatchCallback14550271
Ref: 4ae114550271
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_HasFeature14550628
Ref: 178214550628
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_IS_GC14550822
Ref: 4ae214550822
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_IsSubtype14551012
Ref: 499614551012
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GenericAlloc14551418
Ref: 8cf14551418
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GenericNew14551825
Ref: 480514551825
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Ready14552184
Ref: 5ac14552184
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetName14553080
Ref: 57e14553080
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetQualName14553402
Ref: 57f14553402
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetSlot14553756
Ref: 6e714553756
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModule14554463
Ref: 7ca14554463
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleState14555422
Ref: 7cb14555422
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleByDef14556022
Ref: 59314556022
Ref: c-api/type c PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag14556708
Ref: 4ae514556708
Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types14557234
Ref: c-api/type creating-heap-allocated-types14557315
Ref: 4ae614557315
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromMetaclass14557471
Ref: 2df14557471
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromModuleAndSpec14559901
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromSpecWithBases14560838
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeLatin114670091
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsLatin1String14670467
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Node: ASCII Codecs14670841
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap14672454
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsCharmapString14673359
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Translate14674151
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Node: MBCS codecs for Windows14675062
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage14677374
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Ref: c-api/unicode unicodemethodsandslots14678139
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Concat14678462
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Split14678703
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Tailmatch14681692
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_InternInPlace14686498
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Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_InternFromString14687878
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED14776543
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED14776791
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Ref: Multi-phase initialization-Footnote-114777500
Ref: Multi-phase initialization-Footnote-214777542
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_FromDefAndSpec14778118
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddFunctions14779949
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddType14786608
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Ref: c-api/module c PyState_FindModule14787604
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Ref: c-api/module c PyState_AddModule14788177
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Ref: c-api/module c PyState_RemoveModule14789214
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Ref: c-api/iterator c PySeqIter_Check14790371
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Ref: c-api/iterator c PyCallIter_Type14790869
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Ref: c-api/iterator c PyCallIter_Check14791134
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Ref: c-api/iterator c PyCallIter_New14791292
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Node: Descriptor Objects14791790
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Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyDescr_IsData14793255
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Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyWrapper_New14793505
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Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_GetIndices14794803
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Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_Unpack14797604
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Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_AdjustIndices14798275
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Ref: c-api/slice c PyEllipsis_Type14798945
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Ref: c-api/slice c Py_Ellipsis14799175
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Ref: c-api/memoryview memoryview-objects14799444
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Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_FromObject14799859
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Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyBUF_READ14800306
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Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER14802118
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Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_GET_BASE14802439
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Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT14806007
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Ref: c-api/weakref c PyObject_ClearWeakRefs14806222
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Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_Destructor14807339
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Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_CheckExact14807653
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Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_IsValid14811233
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Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_SetPointer14813067
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Ref: Internal Frames-Footnote-114819041
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Ref: c-api/coro c PyCoro_New14821441
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Ref: Context Variables Objects-Footnote-114826743
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_FromTimestamp14837660
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDate_FromTimestamp14837962
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Ref: c-api/typehints typehintobjects14838355
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Ref: c-api/typehints c Py_GenericAlias14838600
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Ref: c-api/typehints c Py_GenericAliasType14840013
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Ref: c-api/init initialization14840494
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Ref: c-api/init pre-init-safe14841139
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_HashRandomizationFlag14845734
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Ref: Global configuration variables-Footnote-114852600
Ref: Global configuration variables-Footnote-214852642
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_InitializeEx14854123
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_FinalizeEx14854890
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetExecPrefix14861968
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetBuildInfo14869805
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Ref: c-api/init c PySys_SetArgvEx14870261
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Ref: Process-wide parameters-Footnote-114874999
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Ref: c-api/init non-python-created-threads14878987
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Node: High-level API14882836
Ref: c-api/init high-level-api14882981
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState14883155
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState14883802
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState interp14884014
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_InitThreads14884119
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_ThreadsInitialized14884722
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SaveThread14885214
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_RestoreThread14885585
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Get14886352
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Swap14886680
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Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_Ensure14887108
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Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_Release14888882
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Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_GetThisThreadState14889411
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Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_Check14889868
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS14890602
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS14890957
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_BLOCK_THREADS14891289
Ref: 49d814891289
Ref: c-api/init c Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS14891518
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Node: Low-level API14891782
Ref: c-api/init low-level-api14891899
Ref: 4c7a14891899
Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_New14892118
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Clear14892513
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Delete14892850
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_New14893191
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Clear14893549
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Delete14893936
Ref: 17d214893936
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent14894241
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetFrame14894574
Ref: 5c014894574
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetID14895028
Ref: 7cf14895028
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetInterpreter14895323
Ref: 7cd14895323
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_EnterTracing14895636
Ref: 58014895636
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_LeaveTracing14895894
Ref: 58114895894
Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Get14896238
Ref: 7ce14896238
Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_GetID14896618
Ref: a3d14896618
Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_GetDict14896972
Ref: 490114896972
Ref: c-api/init c _PyFrameEvalFunction14897559
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Ref: c-api/init c _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc14898119
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Ref: c-api/init c _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc14898396
Ref: 17c114898396
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetDict14898668
Ref: 498b14898668
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc14899241
Ref: a3b14899241
Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_AcquireThread14900069
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_ReleaseThread14901217
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_AcquireLock14901833
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_ReleaseLock14902944
Ref: 48e414902944
Ref: Low-level API-Footnote-114903362
Ref: Low-level API-Footnote-214903404
Node: Sub-interpreter support14903446
Ref: c-api/init id114903633
Ref: 4c7b14903633
Ref: c-api/init sub-interpreter-support14903633
Ref: 32014903633
Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig14904564
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig use_main_obmalloc14904853
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_fork14905295
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_exec14905629
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_threads14906023
Ref: 4c8214906023
Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_daemon_threads14906214
Ref: 4c8314906214
Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig check_multi_interp_extensions14906498
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig gil14907021
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL14907169
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL14907331
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL14907446
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig14907699
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_NewInterpreter14912205
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_EndInterpreter14912684
Ref: 168714912684
Ref: Sub-interpreter support-Footnote-114913489
Node: A Per-Interpreter GIL14913531
Ref: c-api/init a-per-interpreter-gil14913637
Ref: 4c8714913637
Ref: A Per-Interpreter GIL-Footnote-114915676
Node: Bugs and caveats14915718
Ref: c-api/init bugs-and-caveats14915824
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Node: Asynchronous Notifications14917431
Ref: c-api/init asynchronous-notifications14917595
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_AddPendingCall14917840
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Node: Profiling and Tracing14920009
Ref: c-api/init profiling14920175
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Ref: c-api/init profiling-and-tracing14920175
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_tracefunc14920854
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_CALL14923206
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_EXCEPTION14923599
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_LINE14924212
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_RETURN14924517
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_C_CALL14924673
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION14924838
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_C_RETURN14925010
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Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_OPCODE14925168
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetProfile14925511
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads14926190
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetTrace14926701
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Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads14927381
Ref: 2f114927381
Node: Advanced Debugger Support14927879
Ref: c-api/init advanced-debugger-support14928047
Ref: 4c9414928047
Ref: c-api/init advanced-debugging14928047
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Head14928187
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Main14928354
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Next14928477
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Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead14928690
Ref: 139014928690
Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Next14928943
Ref: 139114928943
Node: Thread Local Storage Support14929201
Ref: c-api/init thread-local-storage14929339
Ref: 4c9614929339
Ref: c-api/init thread-local-storage-support14929339
Ref: 4c9714929339
Node: Thread Specific Storage TSS API14930447
Ref: c-api/init thread-specific-storage-api14930580
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Ref: c-api/init thread-specific-storage-tss-api14930580
Ref: 4c9814930580
Ref: c-api/init c Py_tss_t14930981
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Ref: c-api/init c Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT14931427
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Ref: Thread Specific Storage TSS API-Footnote-114931716
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_alloc14932143
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_free14932445
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Node: Methods<2>14932935
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_create14933603
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_delete14934090
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_set14934591
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_get14934918
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Node: Thread Local Storage TLS API14935218
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Ref: c-api/init thread-local-storage-tls-api14935351
Ref: 4c9c14935351
Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_create_key14935985
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_delete_key_value14936388
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Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_ReInitTLS14936492
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Node: Python Initialization Configuration14936582
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Ref: c-api/init_config python-initialization-configuration14936759
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Ref: Python Initialization Configuration-Footnote-114938272
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Ref: c-api/init_config example14938422
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList14939605
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList_Append14939802
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList_Insert14940029
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList length14940487
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList items14940561
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus14940778
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus exitcode14941003
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus err_msg14941092
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus func14941158
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Ok14941306
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Error14941387
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_NoMemory14941574
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Exit14941695
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Exception14941855
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_IsError14942085
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_IsExit14942180
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Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_ExitStatusException14942273
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig14943397
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig14943524
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig14943711
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig allocator14943926
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig coerce_c_locale14945553
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig coerce_c_locale_warn14945873
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig dev_mode14946060
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig isolated14946257
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig legacy_windows_fs_encoding14946420
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig parse_argv14946992
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig use_environment14947376
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig utf8_mode14947595
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Ref: c-api/init_config preinitialize-python-with-pypreconfig14948152
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Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_PreInitialize14948642
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Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs14948841
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Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_PreInitializeFromArgs14949200
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig14951332
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_InitPythonConfig14951564
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig14951724
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_SetString14951888
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_SetBytesString14952159
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_SetArgv14952488
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_SetBytesArgv14952803
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_SetWideStringList14953171
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_Read14953477
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig_Clear14954839
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig argv14955962
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig safe_path14956548
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig base_exec_prefix14957426
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig base_executable14957618
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig base_prefix14957965
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig buffered_stdio14958147
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig bytes_warning14958560
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig warn_default_encoding14959005
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig code_debug_ranges14959317
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig check_hash_pycs_mode14959790
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig configure_c_stdio14960462
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig dev_mode14961011
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig dump_refs14961311
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig exec_prefix14961723
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig executable14962016
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig faulthandler14962276
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig filesystem_encoding14962629
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig filesystem_errors14963857
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig hash_seed14964526
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig use_hash_seed14964570
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig home14964976
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig import_time14965326
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig inspect14965579
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig install_signal_handlers14966167
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig interactive14966328
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig int_max_str_digits14966532
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig isolated14967421
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig legacy_windows_stdio14968422
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig malloc_stats14969019
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig platlibdir14969403
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig pythonpath_env14970218
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig module_search_paths14970557
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig module_search_paths_set14970626
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig optimization_level14971151
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig orig_argv14971646
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig parser_debug14973220
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig pathconfig_warnings14973695
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig prefix14974118
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig program_name14974393
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig pycache_prefix14975221
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig quiet14975640
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig run_command14975906
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig run_filename14976083
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig run_module14976550
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig show_ref_count14976726
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig site_import14977068
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig skip_source_first_line14977721
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig stdio_encoding14978094
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig stdio_errors14978138
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig tracemalloc14979135
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig perf_profiling14979488
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig warnoptions14981266
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Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig xoptions14982569
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Ref: PyConfig-Footnote-114983195
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Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_InitializeFromConfig14983532
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Ref: Python Configuration-Footnote-114988891
Ref: Python Configuration-Footnote-214988933
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Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_RunMain14993039
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Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_GetArgcArgv14993853
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Ref: c-api/init_config c _Py_InitializeMain14995395
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Ref: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API-Footnote-114997421
Ref: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API-Footnote-214997463
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Ref: c-api/memory memory14997672
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Node: Overview<4>14998029
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Ref: c-api/memory overview14998120
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Node: Allocator Domains15002051
Ref: c-api/memory allocator-domains15002171
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Ref: c-api/memory id115002222
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Ref: c-api/memory raw-memory-interface15004144
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawMalloc15004587
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawCalloc15004968
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawRealloc15005464
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawFree15006212
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Malloc15007246
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Calloc15007668
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Realloc15008228
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Free15009000
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Resize15009776
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Del15010224
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Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_SetupDebugHooks15021368
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_rshift15180113
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_and15180200
Ref: 4d4915180200
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_xor15180274
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_or15180348
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_int15180421
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_reserved15180494
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_float15180555
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_subtract15180722
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_multiply15180819
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_remainder15180916
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_power15181014
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_lshift15181109
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_rshift15181204
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_and15181299
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_xor15181391
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_or15181483
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_floor_divide15181574
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_true_divide15181667
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_floor_divide15181759
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_index15181960
Ref: 12a515181960
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_matrix_multiply15182035
Ref: 4d5615182035
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_matrix_multiply15182131
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_length15182634
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_subscript15182914
Ref: 175815182914
Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_ass_subscript15183308
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Node: Sequence Object Structures15183800
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods15184027
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_length15184180
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_concat15184520
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_ass_item15185894
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_inplace_repeat15187269
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_getbuffer15188288
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_releasebuffer15190174
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods15191548
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_await15191967
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_anext15192730
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_send15193028
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c allocfunc15193533
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c destructor15194615
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c freefunc15194727
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c reprfunc15195205
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrfunc15195368
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrfunc15195587
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrofunc15195885
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrofunc15196156
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrgetfunc15196506
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrsetfunc15196729
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c hashfunc15196934
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c richcmpfunc15197098
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getiterfunc15197304
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c iternextfunc15197470
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c lenfunc15197646
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getbufferproc15197783
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c releasebufferproc15197961
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c binaryfunc15198277
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c ternaryfunc15198621
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeargfunc15198807
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeobjargproc15198972
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjproc15199144
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjargproc15199288
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Ref: c-api/typeobj examples15199556
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Ref: c-api/typeobj typedef-examples15199556
Ref: 4d2215199556
Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection15204931
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cycle-detection15205064
Ref: 4d6c15205064
Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection15205064
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_New15207421
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_NewVar15207594
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData15207779
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Resize15208798
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Track15209183
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_IS_GC15209624
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsTracked15209874
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsFinalized15210268
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Del15210665
Ref: 139215210665
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_UnTrack15210878
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c visitproc15211605
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c traverseproc15212226
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c Py_VISIT15213043
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c inquiry15213624
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Ref: 4d8315214406
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Collect15214590
Ref: 7ec15214590
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Enable15215160
Ref: 6f115215160
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Disable15215438
Ref: 6f215215438
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_IsEnabled15215719
Ref: 6f315215719
Node: Querying Garbage Collector State15216021
Ref: c-api/gcsupport querying-garbage-collector-state15216174
Ref: 4d8415216174
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects15216357
Ref: 4d8515216357
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c gcvisitobjects_t15217150
Ref: 4d8615217150
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion doc15217767
Ref: 4d8715217767
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion api-and-abi-versioning15217767
Ref: 4d8815217767
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion apiabiversion15217767
Ref: 413c15217767
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MAJOR_VERSION15218090
Ref: 4d8915218090
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MINOR_VERSION15218159
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MICRO_VERSION15218228
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL15218297
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_SERIAL15218481
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_VERSION_HEX15218577
Ref: 58315218577
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c Py_Version15220498
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Ref: API and ABI Versioning-Footnote-115220950
Node: Python Modüllerini Kurmak15221023
Ref: installing/index doc15221158
Ref: 4d8e15221158
Ref: installing/index installing-index15221158
Ref: d8c15221158
Ref: installing/index installing-python-modules15221158
Ref: 4d8f15221158
Ref: Python Modüllerini Kurmak-Footnote-115222464
Node: Anahtar terimler15222542
Ref: installing/index key-terms15222645
Ref: 4d9015222645
Ref: Anahtar terimler-Footnote-115224933
Ref: Anahtar terimler-Footnote-215224958
Ref: Anahtar terimler-Footnote-315224987
Ref: Anahtar terimler-Footnote-415225019
Node: Temel kullanım15225099
Ref: installing/index basic-usage15225234
Ref: 4d9115225234
Ref: Temel kullanım-Footnote-115226990
Ref: Temel kullanım-Footnote-215227027
Node: Nasıl yapabilirim …?15227076
Ref: installing/index how-do-i15227220
Ref: 4d9215227220
Node: … pip ‘i Python 3 4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?15227708
Ref: installing/index install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-415227907
Ref: 4d9315227907
Ref: … pip ‘i Python 3 4’ten önceki Python sürümlerinde kurmalı mı?-Footnote-115228425
Node: … sadece mevcut kullanıcı için paketler kurabilirim?15228512
Ref: installing/index install-packages-just-for-the-current-user15228762
Ref: 4d9415228762
Node: … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?15229062
Ref: installing/index install-scientific-python-packages15229319
Ref: 4d9515229319
Ref: … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?-Footnote-115229856
Ref: … bilimsel Python paketleri kurabilirim?-Footnote-215229902
Node: … paralel olarak yüklenmiş birden çok Python sürümüyle çalışabilirim?15229948
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Ref: 4d9615230139
Node: Genel yükleme sorunları15231151
Ref: installing/index common-installation-issues15231271
Ref: 4d9715231271
Node: Python’u Linux’te sisteme kurmak15231437
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Node: Pip yüklü değil15232135
Ref: installing/index pip-not-installed15232297
Ref: 4d9915232297
Ref: Pip yüklü değil-Footnote-115232559
Node: İkili uzantıları yükleme15232685
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Ref: 4d9a15232802
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Ref: howto/index doc15234020
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Ref: howto/index python-howtos15234020
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Node: Porting Extension Modules to Python 315235011
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Ref: howto/cporting porting-extension-modules-to-python-315235144
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Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-115235924
Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-215235975
Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-315236032
Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-415236060
Node: Curses Programming with Python15236107
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Ref: howto/curses curses-howto15236265
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Ref: howto/curses curses-programming-with-python15236265
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Node: What is curses?15236674
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Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-115239161
Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-215239201
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Ref: howto/curses the-python-curses-module15239321
Ref: 4da215239321
Node: Starting and ending a curses application15240148
Ref: howto/curses starting-and-ending-a-curses-application15240304
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Node: Windows and Pads15243572
Ref: howto/curses windows-and-pads15243728
Ref: 4da415243728
Node: Displaying Text15248286
Ref: howto/curses displaying-text15248412
Ref: 4da515248412
Node: Attributes and Color15252207
Ref: howto/curses attributes-and-color15252279
Ref: 4da615252279
Node: User Input15256838
Ref: howto/curses user-input15256968
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Ref: User Input-Footnote-115260788
Node: For More Information15260828
Ref: howto/curses for-more-information15260934
Ref: 4da815260934
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-115262434
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-215262471
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-315262535
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-415262579
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-515262641
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-615262693
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Ref: howto/descriptor doc15262942
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Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-guide15262942
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Ref: howto/descriptor descriptorhowto15262942
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Ref: 4db015272980
Node: Complete Practical Example15274370
Ref: howto/descriptor complete-practical-example15274491
Ref: 4db115274491
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Ref: howto/descriptor validator-class15274858
Ref: 4db215274858
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Ref: howto/descriptor custom-validators15276018
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Ref: Custom validators-Footnote-115278609
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Ref: howto/descriptor practical-application15278788
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Ref: Invocation from super-Footnote-215289070
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Ref: howto/descriptor summary-of-invocation-logic15289298
Ref: 4dbd15289298
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Ref: Automatic name notification-Footnote-115291324
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Ref: ORM example-Footnote-215293584
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Ref: howto/descriptor kinds-of-methods15300621
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Ref: Member objects and __slots__-Footnote-115314682
Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB15314738
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Ref: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB-Footnote-115316297
Ref: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB-Footnote-215316333
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers prerequisites15316545
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Ref: howto/gdb_helpers use-with-gdb-commands15335038
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Ref: howto/enum id115341229
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Ref: 4dda15348311
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Ref: 4ddb15349694
Node: Using automatic values15350248
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Ref: 4dde15352828
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Ref: howto/enum allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations15354097
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Ref: howto/enum restricted-enum-subclassing15356399
Ref: 4de415356399
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Ref: 15a315357630
Node: Pickling15358412
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Ref: howto/enum derived-enumerations15363093
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Ref: howto/enum intenum15363306
Ref: 4ddf15363306
Node: StrEnum15364431
Ref: howto/enum strenum15364527
Ref: 4de915364527
Node: IntFlag15364834
Ref: howto/enum intflag15364927
Ref: 4dea15364927
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Ref: howto/enum flag15367395
Ref: 4deb15367395
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Ref: howto/enum others15369770
Ref: 4dec15369770
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Ref: howto/enum when-to-use-new-vs-init15371914
Ref: 4ded15371914
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Ref: 4dee15373292
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Ref: 4df015374386
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Ref: 4df115376400
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Ref: howto/enum enum-member-type15376725
Ref: 4df215376725
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Ref: howto/enum creating-members-that-are-mixed-with-other-data-types15377389
Ref: 4df315377389
Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members15377924
Ref: howto/enum boolean-value-of-enum-classes-and-members15378110
Ref: 4df415378110
Node: Enum classes with methods15378675
Ref: howto/enum enum-classes-with-methods15378833
Ref: 4df515378833
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Ref: howto/enum combining-members-of-flag15379514
Ref: 4df615379514
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Ref: howto/enum flag-and-intflag-minutia15380183
Ref: 4df715380183
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Ref: 23a215382862
Ref: howto/enum how-are-enums-and-flags-different15382862
Ref: 4df815382862
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Ref: howto/enum enum-classes15383301
Ref: 4df915383301
Node: Flag Classes15383893
Ref: howto/enum flag-classes15384032
Ref: 4dfa15384032
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Ref: howto/enum enum-members-aka-instances15384537
Ref: 4dfb15384537
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Ref: howto/enum flag-members15385043
Ref: 4dfc15385043
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Ref: howto/enum enum-cookbook15385810
Ref: 23a115385810
Ref: howto/enum id215385810
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Ref: howto/enum omitting-values15386342
Ref: 4dfe15386342
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Ref: howto/enum using-auto15387219
Ref: 4dff15387219
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Ref: howto/enum using-object15387589
Ref: 4e0015387589
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Ref: howto/enum using-a-descriptive-string15388372
Ref: 4e0115388372
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Ref: howto/enum using-a-custom-new15388768
Ref: 4e0215388768
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Ref: howto/enum orderedenum15390751
Ref: 4de515390751
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Ref: howto/enum duplicatefreeenum15392033
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Ref: howto/enum planet15393213
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Ref: howto/enum enum-time-period15394349
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Ref: howto/enum timeperiod15394349
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Ref: howto/enum enumtype-examples15395058
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Ref: howto/enum subclassing-enumtype15395058
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Ref: howto/functional functional-howto15395448
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Ref: howto/functional formal-provability15401139
Ref: 4e0b15401139
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Ref: howto/functional modularity15403181
Ref: 4e0c15403181
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Ref: howto/functional ease-of-debugging-and-testing15403709
Ref: 4e0d15403709
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Ref: howto/functional composability15404548
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Ref: howto/functional functional-howto-iterators15405424
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Ref: howto/functional iterators15405424
Ref: 4e0f15405424
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Ref: howto/functional data-types-that-support-iterators15408868
Ref: 4e1015408868
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Ref: howto/functional generator-expressions-and-list-comprehensions15410979
Ref: 4e1115410979
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Ref: howto/functional generators15415695
Ref: 4e1215415695
Ref: Generators-Footnote-115419554
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Ref: howto/functional passing-values-into-a-generator15419713
Ref: 4e1315419713
Ref: Passing values into a generator-Footnote-115423682
Node: Built-in functions<2>15423724
Ref: howto/functional built-in-functions15423858
Ref: 4e1415423858
Ref: Built-in functions<2>-Footnote-115427904
Node: The itertools module15427958
Ref: howto/functional the-itertools-module15428102
Ref: 4e1515428102
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Ref: howto/functional creating-new-iterators15428962
Ref: 4e1615428962
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Ref: howto/functional calling-functions-on-elements15431790
Ref: 4e1715431790
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Ref: howto/functional selecting-elements15432745
Ref: 4e1815432745
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Ref: howto/functional combinatoric-functions15434368
Ref: 4e1915434368
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Ref: howto/functional grouping-elements15436806
Ref: 4e1a15436806
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Ref: howto/functional the-functools-module15438520
Ref: 4e1b15438520
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Ref: howto/functional the-operator-module15442207
Ref: 4e1c15442207
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Ref: howto/functional small-functions-and-the-lambda-expression15443200
Ref: 4e1d15443200
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Ref: howto/functional revision-history-and-acknowledgements15446233
Ref: 4e1e15446233
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Ref: howto/functional references15447134
Ref: 4e1f15447134
Node: General15447238
Ref: howto/functional general15447319
Ref: 4e2015447319
Node: Python-specific15448383
Ref: howto/functional python-specific15448493
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Ref: Python-specific-Footnote-115448967
Ref: Python-specific-Footnote-215449018
Ref: Python-specific-Footnote-315449071
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Ref: howto/functional python-documentation15449218
Ref: 4e2215449218
Ref: Python documentation-Footnote-115449617
Ref: Python documentation-Footnote-215449659
Node: Logging HOWTO15449701
Ref: howto/logging doc15449833
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Ref: howto/logging id115449833
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Ref: howto/logging logging-howto15449833
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Ref: 109a15449926
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Ref: howto/logging basic-logging-tutorial15450412
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Node: When to use logging15451162
Ref: howto/logging when-to-use-logging15451265
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Ref: howto/logging a-simple-example15455392
Ref: 4e2915455392
Ref: howto/logging howto-minimal-example15455392
Ref: 4e2a15455392
Node: Logging to a file15456633
Ref: howto/logging logging-to-a-file15456764
Ref: 4e2b15456764
Node: Logging variable data15459834
Ref: howto/logging logging-variable-data15459990
Ref: 4e2c15459990
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Ref: howto/logging changing-the-format-of-displayed-messages15460982
Ref: 4e2d15460982
Node: Displaying the date/time in messages15461976
Ref: howto/logging displaying-the-date-time-in-messages15462140
Ref: 4e2e15462140
Ref: Displaying the date/time in messages-Footnote-115463191
Node: Next Steps15463250
Ref: howto/logging next-steps15463364
Ref: 4e2f15463364
Node: Advanced Logging Tutorial15464309
Ref: howto/logging advanced-logging-tutorial15464441
Ref: 4e3015464441
Ref: howto/logging logging-advanced-tutorial15464441
Ref: 109b15464441
Node: Logging Flow15467830
Ref: howto/logging logging-flow15467920
Ref: 4e3115467920
Node: Loggers15468115
Ref: howto/logging loggers15468222
Ref: 4e3215468222
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Ref: howto/logging handler-basic15472604
Ref: 4e3315472604
Ref: howto/logging handlers15472604
Ref: 4e3415472604
Node: Formatters15474679
Ref: howto/logging formatters15474796
Ref: 4e3615474796
Ref: howto/logging logging logging Formatter __init__15475244
Ref: 4e3715475244
Node: Configuring Logging15476959
Ref: howto/logging configuring-logging15477112
Ref: 4e3815477112
Node: What happens if no configuration is provided15483663
Ref: howto/logging what-happens-if-no-configuration-is-provided15483839
Ref: 4e3915483839
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Ref: howto/logging configuring-logging-for-a-library15485252
Ref: 4e3a15485252
Ref: howto/logging library-config15485252
Ref: 2b2815485252
Node: Logging Levels<2>15488120
Ref: howto/logging logging-levels15488245
Ref: 4e3b15488245
Node: Custom Levels15491104
Ref: howto/logging custom-levels15491171
Ref: 2af115491171
Ref: howto/logging id215491171
Ref: 4e3c15491171
Node: Useful Handlers15491884
Ref: howto/logging id315492016
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Ref: howto/logging useful-handlers15492016
Ref: 4e3515492016
Node: Exceptions raised during logging15496042
Ref: howto/logging exceptions-raised-during-logging15496192
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Ref: howto/logging logging-exceptions15496192
Ref: 4e3f15496192
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Ref: howto/logging arbitrary-object-messages15497511
Ref: 2add15497511
Ref: howto/logging using-arbitrary-objects-as-messages15497511
Ref: 4e4015497511
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Ref: howto/logging optimization15498253
Ref: 4e4115498253
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Ref: howto/logging other-resources15501968
Ref: 4e4215501968
Ref: howto/logging tutorial-ref-links15501968
Ref: 4e2615501968
Node: Logging Cookbook15502325
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook doc15502453
Ref: 4e4315502453
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id115502453
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-cookbook15502453
Ref: 109c15502453
Node: Using logging in multiple modules15504541
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logging-in-multiple-modules15504665
Ref: 4e4615504665
Node: Logging from multiple threads15508237
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-from-multiple-threads15508402
Ref: 4e4715508402
Node: Multiple handlers and formatters15510147
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-handlers-and-formatters15510311
Ref: 4e4815510311
Node: Logging to multiple destinations15512472
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-multiple-destinations15512632
Ref: 4e4915512632
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-destinations15512632
Ref: 4e4a15512632
Node: Custom handling of levels15515801
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-handling-of-levels15515957
Ref: 4e4b15515957
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-level-handling15515957
Ref: 4e4c15515957
Node: Configuration server example15521779
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook configuration-server-example15521935
Ref: 4e4d15521935
Node: Dealing with handlers that block15523495
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook blocking-handlers15523679
Ref: 314315523679
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook dealing-with-handlers-that-block15523679
Ref: 4e4e15523679
Node: Sending and receiving logging events across a network15527875
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook network-logging15528083
Ref: 4e4f15528083
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook sending-and-receiving-logging-events-across-a-network15528083
Ref: 4e5015528083
Node: Running a logging socket listener in production15533618
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook running-a-logging-socket-listener-in-production15533755
Ref: 4e5115533755
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-115537866
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-215537898
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-315537970
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-415538000
Node: Adding contextual information to your logging output15538072
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output15538266
Ref: 4e5215538266
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook context-info15538266
Ref: 2ae415538266
Node: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information15539365
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information15539562
Ref: 4e5315539562
Node: Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information15542840
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information15542991
Ref: 4e5415542991
Node: Using Filters to impart contextual information15543455
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-contextual15543652
Ref: 2ad915543652
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-filters-to-impart-contextual-information15543652
Ref: 4e5515543652
Node: Use of contextvars15547467
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-contextvars15547652
Ref: 4e5615547652
Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers15557230
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook imparting-contextual-information-in-handlers15557411
Ref: 4e5715557411
Node: Logging to a single file from multiple processes15558356
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes15558538
Ref: 4e5815558538
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-processes15558538
Ref: 4e5915558538
Node: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor15569036
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-concurrent-futures-processpoolexecutor15569225
Ref: 4e5a15569225
Node: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI15570231
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook deploying-web-applications-using-gunicorn-and-uwsgi15570420
Ref: 4e5b15570420
Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-115571080
Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-215571110
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-file-rotation15571337
Ref: 4e5c15571337
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook format-styles15573387
Ref: 4e5d15573387
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-alternative-formatting-styles15573387
Ref: 4e5e15573387
Node: Customizing LogRecord15580540
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-logrecord15580728
Ref: 4e5f15580728
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-logrecord15580728
Ref: 4e6015580728
Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example15584642
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example15584853
Ref: 4e6115584853
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook zeromq-handlers15584853
Ref: 4e6215584853
Node: Subclass QueueHandler15585053
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuehandler15585202
Ref: 4e6315585202
Node: Subclass QueueListener15586511
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuelistener15586660
Ref: 4e6415586660
Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example15587405
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook pynng-handlers15587636
Ref: 4e6515587636
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-pynng-example15587636
Ref: 4e6615587636
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-115588262
Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-215588302
Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>15588335
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id315588489
Ref: 4e6715588489
Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>15590465
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id415590619
Ref: 4e6815590619
Node: An example dictionary-based configuration15594333
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook an-example-dictionary-based-configuration15594566
Ref: 4e6915594566
Ref: An example dictionary-based configuration-Footnote-115596500
Ref: An example dictionary-based configuration-Footnote-215596586
Node: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing15596672
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-rotator-namer15596886
Ref: 2b3515596886
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing15596886
Ref: 4e6a15596886
Node: A more elaborate multiprocessing example15598287
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example15598513
Ref: 4e6b15598513
Node: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler15608139
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler15608334
Ref: 4e6c15608334
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-115610499
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-215610558
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-315610627
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-415610686
Node: Implementing structured logging15610745
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook implementing-structured-logging15610936
Ref: 4e6d15610936
Node: Customizing handlers with dictConfig15613470
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-handlers15613670
Ref: 4e6e15613670
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig15613670
Ref: 4e6f15613670
Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application15618865
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook formatting-styles15619069
Ref: 2acd15619069
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application15619069
Ref: 4e7015619069
Node: Using LogRecord factories15621071
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logrecord-factories15621232
Ref: 4e7115621232
Node: Using custom message objects15622206
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-custom-message-objects15622367
Ref: 4e7215622367
Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig15625075
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook configuring-filters-with-dictconfig15625274
Ref: 4e7315625274
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-dictconfig15625274
Ref: 4e7415625274
Node: Customized exception formatting15628241
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-format-exception15628403
Ref: 4e7515628403
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customized-exception-formatting15628403
Ref: 4e7615628403
Node: Speaking logging messages15630468
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook speaking-logging-messages15630655
Ref: 4e7715630655
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook spoken-messages15630655
Ref: 4e7815630655
Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally15632821
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffered-logging15633025
Ref: 4e7915633025
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffering-logging-messages-and-outputting-them-conditionally15633025
Ref: 4e7a15633025
Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering15638601
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffered-smtp15638828
Ref: 4e7b15638828
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook sending-logging-messages-to-email-with-buffering15638828
Ref: 4e7c15638828
Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration15642394
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook formatting-times-using-utc-gmt-via-configuration15642606
Ref: 4e7d15642606
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook utc-formatting15642606
Ref: 4e7e15642606
Node: Using a context manager for selective logging15644507
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook context-manager15644705
Ref: 4e7f15644705
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-context-manager-for-selective-logging15644705
Ref: 4e8015644705
Node: A CLI application starter template15649285
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-cli-application-starter-template15649455
Ref: 4e8115649455
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook starter-template15649455
Ref: 4e8215649455
Node: A Qt GUI for logging15655436
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-qt-gui-for-logging15655599
Ref: 4e8315655599
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook qt-gui15655599
Ref: 4e8415655599
Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-115665902
Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-215665929
Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-315665971
Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support15666011
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-syslog-with-rfc5424-support15666183
Ref: 4e8515666183
Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-115669913
Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-215669972
Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream15670031
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook how-to-treat-a-logger-like-an-output-stream15670200
Ref: 4e8615670200
Node: Patterns to avoid15674876
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook patterns-to-avoid15675025
Ref: 4e8715675025
Node: Opening the same log file multiple times15675577
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook opening-the-same-log-file-multiple-times15675748
Ref: 4e8815675748
Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters15677671
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggers-as-attributes-in-a-class-or-passing-them-as-parameters15677914
Ref: 4e8915677914
Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library15678600
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook adding-handlers-other-than-nullhandler-to-a-logger-in-a-library15678828
Ref: 4e8a15678828
Node: Creating a lot of loggers15679268
Ref: howto/logging-cookbook creating-a-lot-of-loggers15679419
Ref: 4e8b15679419
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-ref-links15680071
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook other-resources15680071
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Node: Regular Expression HOWTO15680458
Ref: howto/regex doc15680597
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Ref: howto/regex introduction15681193
Ref: 4e8f15681193
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Ref: howto/regex simple-patterns15682931
Ref: 4e9015682931
Node: Matching Characters15683424
Ref: howto/regex matching-characters15683520
Ref: 4e9115683520
Node: Repeating Things15688169
Ref: howto/regex repeating-things15688265
Ref: 4e9215688265
Node: Using Regular Expressions15693341
Ref: howto/regex using-regular-expressions15693478
Ref: 4e9315693478
Node: Compiling Regular Expressions15693969
Ref: howto/regex compiling-regular-expressions15694089
Ref: 4e9415694089
Node: The Backslash Plague15695304
Ref: howto/regex id115695451
Ref: 4e9515695451
Ref: howto/regex the-backslash-plague15695451
Ref: 4e9615695451
Node: Performing Matches15698335
Ref: howto/regex performing-matches15698478
Ref: 4e9715698478
Node: Module-Level Functions<3>15704021
Ref: howto/regex module-level-functions15704161
Ref: 4e9815704161
Node: Compilation Flags15705361
Ref: howto/regex compilation-flags15705474
Ref: 4e9915705474
Node: More Pattern Power15712646
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Ref: howto/unicode the-string-type15794269
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Ref: howto/unicode converting-to-bytes15797532
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Ref: howto/unicode unicode-literals-in-python-source-code15799532
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Ref: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code-Footnote-115801637
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Ref: howto/unicode id315819120
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Ref: howto/unicode acknowledgements15820083
Ref: 4ed315820083
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Ref: Headers-Footnote-415830244
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Ref: howto/urllib2 number-115837981
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Ref: Proxies-Footnote-215847322
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Ref: howto/urllib2 footnotes15848897
Ref: 4ee615848897
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Ref: howto/ipaddress doc15849201
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Ref: 4ee915850113
Node: A Note on IP Versions15850538
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Ref: howto/ipaddress ip-host-addresses15851602
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Ref: howto/ipaddress comparisons15860124
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Ref: 4efa15878488
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Ref: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations-Footnote-115898637
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Ref: howto/annotations best-practices-for-annotations-in-any-python-version15898884
Ref: 4f0315898884
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Ref: howto/annotations annotations-quirks15899773
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Node: Isolating Extension Modules15901466
Ref: howto/isolating-extensions doc15901632
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions garbage-collection-protocol15917290
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions defining-tp-dealloc15920391
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions avoiding-pyobject-new15921630
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-classes15922590
Ref: 4f1a15922590
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-regular-methods15923360
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Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lossless-conversion-to-heap-types15929151
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Ref: howto/mro the-beginning15931310
Ref: 4f2315931310
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-115935897
Ref: The beginning-Footnote-215936034
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Ref: howto/mro the-c3-method-resolution-order15936294
Ref: 4f2415936294
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Ref: howto/mro examples15938788
Ref: 4f2515938788
Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders15944339
Ref: howto/mro bad-method-resolution-orders15944479
Ref: 4f2615944479
Ref: Bad Method Resolution Orders-Footnote-115950727
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Ref: howto/mro the-end15951050
Ref: 4f2715951050
Node: Resources15954229
Ref: howto/mro resources15954329
Ref: 4f2815954329
Node: Python Sıkça Sorulan Sorular15955407
Ref: faq/index doc15955527
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Ref: faq/index faq-index15955527
Ref: 1b5115955527
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Ref: faq/general doc15955955
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Node: What is Python?15957163
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Ref: What is Python?-Footnote-115958230
Node: What is the Python Software Foundation?15958282
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Ref: 4f2f15958464
Ref: What is the Python Software Foundation?-Footnote-115959068
Node: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?15959114
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Ref: 4f3015959323
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Ref: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?-Footnote-215960232
Node: Why was Python created in the first place?15960279
Ref: faq/general why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place15960473
Ref: 4f3115960473
Node: What is Python good for?15962805
Ref: faq/general what-is-python-good-for15962995
Ref: 4f3215962995
Ref: What is Python good for?-Footnote-115963848
Node: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?15963873
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Ref: faq/general how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work15964065
Ref: 4f3415964065
Ref: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?-Footnote-115966141
Ref: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?-Footnote-215966215
Node: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?15966257
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-obtain-a-copy-of-the-python-source15966462
Ref: 4f3515966462
Ref: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?-Footnote-115967244
Node: How do I get documentation on Python?15967287
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-documentation-on-python15967500
Ref: 4f3615967500
Ref: How do I get documentation on Python?-Footnote-115968063
Node: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?15968099
Ref: faq/general i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial15968323
Ref: 4f3715968323
Ref: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?-Footnote-115968734
Node: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?15968786
Ref: faq/general is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python15969016
Ref: 4f3815969016
Ref: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?-Footnote-115969895
Ref: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?-Footnote-215969956
Node: How do I get a beta test version of Python?15970037
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python15970260
Ref: 4f3915970260
Ref: How do I get a beta test version of Python?-Footnote-115970797
Node: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?15970834
Ref: faq/general how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python15971069
Ref: 4f3a15971069
Ref: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?-Footnote-115971430
Node: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?15971467
Ref: faq/general are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference15971689
Ref: 4f3b15971689
Ref: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?-Footnote-115972241
Node: Are there any books on Python?15972277
Ref: faq/general are-there-any-books-on-python15972493
Ref: 4f3c15972493
Node: Where in the world is www python org located?15972870
Ref: faq/general where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located15973043
Ref: 4f3d15973043
Ref: Where in the world is www python org located?-Footnote-115973329
Node: Why is it called Python?15973358
Ref: faq/general why-is-it-called-python15973556
Ref: 4f3e15973556
Ref: Why is it called Python?-Footnote-115973960
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Ref: 4f3f15974155
Node: Python in the real world15974305
Ref: faq/general python-in-the-real-world15974412
Ref: 4f4015974412
Node: How stable is Python?15974792
Ref: faq/general how-stable-is-python15974916
Ref: 4f4115974916
Ref: How stable is Python?-Footnote-115975842
Ref: How stable is Python?-Footnote-215975884
Ref: How stable is Python?-Footnote-315975926
Node: How many people are using Python?15975968
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Ref: 4f4215976151
Node: Have any significant projects been done in Python?15976657
Ref: faq/general have-any-significant-projects-been-done-in-python15976879
Ref: 4f4315976879
Ref: Have any significant projects been done in Python?-Footnote-115977593
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Ref: Have any significant projects been done in Python?-Footnote-315977674
Ref: Have any significant projects been done in Python?-Footnote-415977703
Node: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?15977734
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Ref: 4f4415977982
Ref: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?-Footnote-115978562
Node: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?15978632
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Ref: 4f4515978882
Ref: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?-Footnote-115979686
Node: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?15979728
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Ref: 4f4615979909
Ref: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?-Footnote-115983730
Ref: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?-Footnote-215983781
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Ref: faq/programming doc15983983
Ref: 4f4715983983
Ref: faq/programming programming-faq15983983
Ref: 4f4815983983
Node: General Questions15984218
Ref: faq/programming general-questions15984309
Ref: 4f4915984309
Node: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?15984729
Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc15984929
Ref: 4f4a15984929
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-115986373
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-215986445
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-315986489
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-415986542
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-515986588
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-615986637
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-715986676
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-815986706
Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-915986763
Node: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?15986806
Ref: faq/programming are-there-tools-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis15987074
Ref: 4f4b15987074
Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-115987448
Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-215987502
Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-315987544
Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-415987575
Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-515987607
Node: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?15987648
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Ref: 4f4c15987904
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script15987904
Ref: 4f4d15987904
Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-115989620
Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-215989685
Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-315989713
Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-415989746
Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-515989799
Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-615989851
Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-715989900
Node: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?15989932
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Ref: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?-Footnote-115990392
Node: Core Language15990434
Ref: faq/programming core-language15990553
Ref: 4f4f15990553
Node: Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?15991923
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Ref: faq/programming why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value15992110
Ref: 4f5015992110
Node: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?15994016
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Ref: 4f5115994294
Node: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?15995195
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Ref: 4f5215995452
Node: How do I share global variables across modules?15997361
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules15997621
Ref: 4f5315997621
Node: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?15998424
Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module15998648
Ref: 4f5415998648
Node: Why are default values shared between objects?16001445
Ref: faq/programming why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects16001697
Ref: 4f5516001697
Node: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?16004085
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another16004330
Ref: 4f5616004330
Node: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?16004917
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Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters16005171
Ref: 4f5816005171
Node: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?16005872
Ref: faq/programming why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x16006119
Ref: 4f5916006119
Node: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?16009528
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference16009769
Ref: 4f5a16009769
Node: How do you make a higher order function in Python?16012174
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python16012394
Ref: 4f5b16012394
Node: How do I copy an object in Python?16013968
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python16014174
Ref: 4f5c16014174
Node: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?16014581
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object16014784
Ref: 4f5d16014784
Node: How can my code discover the name of an object?16015110
Ref: faq/programming how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object16015330
Ref: 4f5e16015330
Node: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?16016975
Ref: faq/programming what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence16017199
Ref: 4f5f16017199
Node: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?16017757
Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator16017990
Ref: 4f6016017990
Node: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?16018585
Ref: faq/programming is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python16018830
Ref: 4f6116018830
Node: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?16020330
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Ref: faq/programming what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean16020508
Ref: 4f6216020508
Node: Numbers and strings16021608
Ref: faq/programming numbers-and-strings16021724
Ref: 4f6316021724
Node: How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?16022509
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers16022651
Ref: 4f6416022651
Node: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?16023300
Ref: faq/programming why-does-22-10-return-316023509
Ref: 4f6516023509
Node: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?16024270
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-int-literal-attribute-instead-of-syntaxerror16024469
Ref: 4f6616024469
Node: How do I convert a string to a number?16025055
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number16025263
Ref: 4f6716025263
Node: How do I convert a number to a string?16026596
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string16026780
Ref: 4f6816026780
Node: How do I modify a string in place?16027326
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place16027519
Ref: 4f6916027519
Node: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?16028375
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods16028615
Ref: 4f6a16028615
Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?16029943
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Ref: 4f6b16030187
Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?16030954
Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent16031213
Ref: 4f6c16031213
Node: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?16031878
Ref: faq/programming what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean16032109
Ref: 4f6d16032109
Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?16032308
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Ref: 4f6e16032492
Ref: faq/programming faq-programming-raw-string-backslash16032492
Ref: 1a4216032492
Node: Performance<4>16033774
Ref: faq/programming performance16033899
Ref: 4f6f16033899
Node: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?16034116
Ref: faq/programming my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up16034288
Ref: 4f7016034288
Ref: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?-Footnote-116037188
Ref: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?-Footnote-216037215
Node: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?16037280
Ref: faq/programming efficient-string-concatenation16037452
Ref: 4f7116037452
Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together16037452
Ref: 4f7216037452
Node: Sequences Tuples/Lists16038422
Ref: faq/programming sequences-tuples-lists16038535
Ref: 4f7316038535
Node: How do I convert between tuples and lists?16039291
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists16039427
Ref: 4f7416039427
Node: What’s a negative index?16040274
Ref: faq/programming what-s-a-negative-index16040469
Ref: 4f7516040469
Node: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?16041049
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order16041243
Ref: 4f7616041243
Node: How do you remove duplicates from a list?16041592
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list16041804
Ref: 4f7716041804
Node: How do you remove multiple items from a list16042631
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-multiple-items-from-a-list16042828
Ref: 4f7816042828
Node: How do you make an array in Python?16043376
Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python16043572
Ref: 4f7916043572
Ref: How do you make an array in Python?-Footnote-116044606
Node: How do I create a multidimensional list?16044633
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Ref: 1f9b16044846
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list16044846
Ref: 4f7a16044846
Ref: How do I create a multidimensional list?-Footnote-116046068
Node: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?16046095
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-apply-a-method-or-function-to-a-sequence-of-objects16046352
Ref: 4f7b16046352
Node: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?16046931
Ref: faq/programming faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error16047225
Ref: 1da316047225
Ref: faq/programming why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works16047225
Ref: 4f7c16047225
Node: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?16050465
Ref: faq/programming i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python16050750
Ref: 4f7d16050750
Node: How can I sort one list by values from another list?16051235
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list16051432
Ref: 4f7e16051432
Node: Objects16052027
Ref: faq/programming objects16052136
Ref: 4f7f16052136
Node: What is a class?16053313
Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-class16053399
Ref: 4f8016053399
Node: What is a method?16054125
Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-method16054233
Ref: 4f8116054233
Node: What is self?16054542
Ref: faq/programming what-is-self16054717
Ref: 4f8216054717
Node: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?16055159
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it16055336
Ref: 4f8416055336
Node: What is delegation?16057639
Ref: faq/programming what-is-delegation16057887
Ref: 4f8516057887
Node: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?16059994
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-extends-it16060229
Ref: 4f8616060229
Node: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?16060851
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class16061126
Ref: 4f8716061126
Node: How do I create static class data and static class methods?16061676
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods16061920
Ref: 4f8816061920
Node: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?16063489
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python16063728
Ref: 4f8916063728
Node: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam16064635
Ref: faq/programming i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam16064885
Ref: 4f8a16064885
Node: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object16066105
Ref: faq/programming my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object16066356
Ref: 4f8b16066356
Node: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?16068307
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class16068543
Ref: 4f8c16068543
Node: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?16068884
Ref: faq/programming why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique16069105
Ref: 4f8d16069105
Node: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?16069998
Ref: faq/programming when-can-i-rely-on-identity-tests-with-the-is-operator16070237
Ref: 4f8e16070237
Ref: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?-Footnote-116073581
Node: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?16073623
Ref: faq/programming how-can-a-subclass-control-what-data-is-stored-in-an-immutable-instance16073840
Ref: 4f8f16073840
Node: How do I cache method calls?16075316
Ref: faq/programming faq-cache-method-calls16075469
Ref: 251616075469
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-cache-method-calls16075469
Ref: 4f9016075469
Node: Modules<3>16078464
Ref: faq/programming modules16078542
Ref: 4f9116078542
Node: How do I create a pyc file?16079082
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file16079203
Ref: 4f9216079203
Ref: How do I create a pyc file?-Footnote-116081785
Node: How do I find the current module name?16081827
Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name16082012
Ref: 4f9316082012
Node: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?16082570
Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other16082792
Ref: 4f9416082792
Node: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns <module ‘x’>; how do I get z?16084841
Ref: faq/programming import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z16085121
Ref: 4f9516085121
Node: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?16085411
Ref: faq/programming when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen16085627
Ref: 4f9616085627
Node: Design and History FAQ16087074
Ref: faq/design doc16087221
Ref: 4f9716087221
Ref: faq/design design-and-history-faq16087221
Ref: 4f9816087221
Node: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?16089320
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements16089514
Ref: 4f9916089514
Node: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?16091234
Ref: faq/design why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations16091487
Ref: 4f9a16091487
Node: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?16091662
Ref: faq/design why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate16091889
Ref: 4f9b16091889
Node: Why are Python strings immutable?16093428
Ref: faq/design why-are-python-strings-immutable16093659
Ref: 4f9c16093659
Node: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?16094262
Ref: faq/design why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls16094492
Ref: 4f9d16094492
Ref: faq/design why-self16094492
Ref: 4f8316094492
Node: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?16096982
Ref: faq/design id116097283
Ref: 4f9e16097283
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression16097283
Ref: 1a9a16097283
Ref: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?-Footnote-116097655
Node: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?16097697
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list16097989
Ref: 4f9f16097989
Node: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?16099327
Ref: faq/design why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method16099594
Ref: 4fa016099594
Node: How fast are exceptions?16101405
Ref: faq/design how-fast-are-exceptions16101623
Ref: 4fa116101623
Node: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?16102461
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python16102723
Ref: 4fa216102723
Node: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?16104214
Ref: faq/design can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation16104502
Ref: 4fa316104502
Ref: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?-Footnote-116105149
Node: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?16105205
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements16105502
Ref: 4fa416105502
Node: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?16106367
Ref: faq/design can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language16106588
Ref: 4fa516106588
Ref: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?-Footnote-116106976
Ref: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?-Footnote-216107004
Node: How does Python manage memory?16107032
Ref: faq/design how-does-python-manage-memory16107274
Ref: 4fa616107274
Ref: How does Python manage memory?-Footnote-116108946
Ref: How does Python manage memory?-Footnote-216108977
Node: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?16109002
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme16109228
Ref: 4fa716109228
Node: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?16110179
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits16110424
Ref: 4fa816110424
Node: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?16111119
Ref: faq/design why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types16111330
Ref: 4fa916111330
Node: How are lists implemented in CPython?16112582
Ref: faq/design how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython16112789
Ref: 4faa16112789
Node: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?16113530
Ref: faq/design how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython16113726
Ref: 4fab16113726
Node: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?16114695
Ref: faq/design why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable16114901
Ref: 4fac16114901
Node: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?16119109
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list16119330
Ref: 4fad16119330
Node: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?16120174
Ref: faq/design how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python16120378
Ref: 4fae16120378
Node: Why is there no goto?16122705
Ref: faq/design why-is-there-no-goto16122917
Ref: 4faf16122917
Node: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?16124060
Ref: faq/design why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash16124288
Ref: 4fb016124288
Node: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?16125389
Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments16125646
Ref: 4fb116125646
Node: Why don’t generators support the with statement?16128111
Ref: faq/design why-don-t-generators-support-the-with-statement16128375
Ref: 4fb216128375
Node: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?16128793
Ref: faq/design why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements16129042
Ref: 4fb316129042
Node: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?16129787
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples16129977
Ref: 4fb416129977
Node: Library and Extension FAQ16131078
Ref: faq/library doc16131232
Ref: 4fb516131232
Ref: faq/library library-and-extension-faq16131232
Ref: 4fb616131232
Node: General Library Questions16131461
Ref: faq/library general-library-questions16131569
Ref: 4fb716131569
Node: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?16132081
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x16132264
Ref: 4fb816132264
Ref: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?-Footnote-116132851
Ref: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?-Footnote-216132876
Node: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?16132907
Ref: faq/library where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file16133148
Ref: 4fb916133148
Node: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?16133932
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix16134162
Ref: 4fba16134162
Node: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?16135639
Ref: faq/library is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python16135862
Ref: 4fbb16135862
Ref: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?-Footnote-116136657
Node: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?16136717
Ref: faq/library is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python16136927
Ref: 4fbc16136927
Node: Why don’t my signal handlers work?16137147
Ref: faq/library why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work16137303
Ref: 4fbd16137303
Node: Common tasks16137628
Ref: faq/library common-tasks16137752
Ref: 4fbe16137752
Node: How do I test a Python program or component?16137950
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component16138099
Ref: 4fbf16138099
Node: How do I create documentation from doc strings?16140050
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings16140249
Ref: 4fc016140249
Ref: How do I create documentation from doc strings?-Footnote-116140625
Ref: How do I create documentation from doc strings?-Footnote-216140665
Node: How do I get a single keypress at a time?16140700
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time16140846
Ref: 4fc116140846
Node: Threads16141092
Ref: faq/library threads16141207
Ref: 4fc216141207
Node: How do I program using threads?16141535
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-program-using-threads16141654
Ref: 4fc316141654
Node: None of my threads seem to run why?16141964
Ref: faq/library none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why16142149
Ref: 4fc416142149
Node: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?16143698
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads16143904
Ref: 4fc516143904
Node: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?16146504
Ref: faq/library what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe16146725
Ref: 4fc616146725
Node: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?16148232
Ref: faq/library can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock16148387
Ref: 4fc716148387
Ref: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?-Footnote-116151078
Node: Input and Output16151138
Ref: faq/library input-and-output16151269
Ref: 4fc816151269
Node: How do I delete a file? And other file questions…16151904
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions16152038
Ref: 4fc916152038
Node: How do I copy a file?16153288
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-copy-a-file16153466
Ref: 4fca16153466
Ref: How do I copy a file?-Footnote-116153941
Ref: How do I copy a file?-Footnote-216154012
Node: How do I read or write binary data?16154064
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data16154259
Ref: 4fcb16154259
Node: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?16155455
Ref: faq/library i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why16155667
Ref: 4fcc16155667
Node: How do I access the serial RS232 port?16156188
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port16156427
Ref: 4fcd16156427
Ref: How do I access the serial RS232 port?-Footnote-116156752
Node: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?16156795
Ref: faq/library why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it16156957
Ref: 4fce16156957
Node: Network/Internet Programming16158185
Ref: faq/library network-internet-programming16158318
Ref: 4fcf16158318
Node: What WWW tools are there for Python?16158775
Ref: faq/library what-www-tools-are-there-for-python16158934
Ref: 4fd016158934
Node: How can I mimic CGI form submission METHOD=POST ?16159561
Ref: faq/library how-can-i-mimic-cgi-form-submission-method-post16159783
Ref: 4fd116159783
Node: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?16160914
Ref: faq/library what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html16161140
Ref: 4fd216161140
Ref: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?-Footnote-116161385
Node: How do I send mail from a Python script?16161437
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script16161672
Ref: 4fd316161672
Node: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?16163013
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket16163185
Ref: 4fd416163185
Ref: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?-Footnote-116164523
Node: Databases16164552
Ref: faq/library databases16164693
Ref: 4fd516164693
Node: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?16164854
Ref: faq/library are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python16165015
Ref: 4fd616165015
Ref: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?-Footnote-116165521
Node: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?16165578
Ref: faq/library how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python16165739
Ref: 4fd716165739
Node: Mathematics and Numerics16166140
Ref: faq/library mathematics-and-numerics16166244
Ref: 4fd816166244
Node: How do I generate random numbers in Python?16166367
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python16166471
Ref: 4fd916166471
Node: Genişletme/Ekleme SSS16167424
Ref: faq/extending doc16167577
Ref: 4fda16167577
Ref: faq/extending extending-embedding-faq16167577
Ref: 4fdb16167577
Node: C’de kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?16169432
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c16169606
Ref: 4fdc16169606
Node: C++’da kendi fonksiyonlarımı oluşturabilir miyim?16170024
Ref: faq/extending id116170250
Ref: 4fdd16170250
Node: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?16170711
Ref: faq/extending c-wrapper-software16170951
Ref: 4fde16170951
Ref: faq/extending writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives16170951
Ref: 4fdf16170951
Ref: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?-Footnote-116171717
Ref: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?-Footnote-216171744
Ref: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?-Footnote-316171811
Ref: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?-Footnote-416171840
Ref: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?-Footnote-516171882
Ref: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?-Footnote-616171919
Ref: C yazmak zor; başka alternatifler var mı?-Footnote-716171976
Node: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl çalıştırabilirim?16172015
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c16172267
Ref: 4fe016172267
Node: C’den rastgele Python komutlarını nasıl değerlendirebilirim?16172850
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c16173120
Ref: 4fe116173120
Node: Bir Python nesnesinden C değerlerini nasıl çıkarabilirim?16173470
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object16173775
Ref: 4fe216173775
Node: İsteğe bağlı uzunlukta bir tuple oluşturmak için Py_BuildValue işlevini nasıl kullanabilirim?16175130
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length16175422
Ref: 4fe316175422
Node: C’de bir nesnenin metodunu nasıl çağırabilirim?16175712
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c16176062
Ref: 4fe416176062
Node: PyErr_Print işlevinden veya stdout/stderr’e yazdıran herhangi bir şeyden gelen çıktıyı nasıl yakalayabilirim?16177378
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr16177692
Ref: 4fe516177692
Node: Python’da yazılmış bir modüle C’den nasıl erişebilirim?16179034
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c16179356
Ref: 4fe616179356
Node: Python’dan C++ nesnelerine nasıl arayüz oluşturabilirim?16180269
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python16180558
Ref: 4fe716180558
Node: Kurulum dosyasını kullanarak bir modül ekledim ve derleme başarısız oldu; neden?16181217
Ref: faq/extending i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why16181484
Ref: 4fe816181484
Node: Bir uzantıda nasıl hata ayıklayabilirim?16181909
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-debug-an-extension16182204
Ref: 4fe916182204
Node: Linux sistemimde bir Python modülü derlemek istiyorum ancak bazı dosyalar eksik Neden?16182817
Ref: faq/extending i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why16183097
Ref: 4fea16183097
Node: “Eksik girdi” ile “geçersiz girdi’yi nasıl ayırt edebilirim?16183511
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input16183838
Ref: 4feb16183838
Node: Tanımlanmamış g++ sembolleri __builtin_new veya __pure_virtual’ı nasıl bulabilirim?16184929
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual16185297
Ref: 4fec16185297
Node: Bazı yöntemleri C’de bazı yöntemleri Python’da örneğin miras yoluyla uygulanan bir nesne sınıfı oluşturabilir miyim?16185785
Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance16186073
Ref: 4fed16186073
Node: Python on Windows FAQ16186684
Ref: faq/windows doc16186844
Ref: 4fee16186844
Ref: faq/windows python-on-windows-faq16186844
Ref: 4fef16186844
Ref: faq/windows windows-faq16186844
Ref: 4ff016186844
Node: How do I run a Python program under Windows?16187500
Ref: faq/windows faq-run-program-under-windows16187651
Ref: 4ff116187651
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows16187651
Ref: 4ff216187651
Node: How do I make Python scripts executable?16191219
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable16191427
Ref: 4ff316191427
Node: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?16191989
Ref: faq/windows why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start16192202
Ref: 4ff416192202
Node: How do I make an executable from a Python script?16193081
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script16193288
Ref: 4ff516193288
Node: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?16193539
Ref: faq/windows is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll16193748
Ref: 4ff616193748
Node: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?16194745
Ref: faq/windows how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application16194969
Ref: 4ff716194969
Node: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?16199428
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source16199665
Ref: 4ff816199665
Ref: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?-Footnote-116200541
Node: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?16200583
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking16200837
Ref: 4ff916200837
Node: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?16201186
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-solve-the-missing-api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0-dll-error16201367
Ref: 4ffa16201367
Ref: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?-Footnote-116201873
Node: Grafik Kullanıcı Arayüzü SSS16201931
Ref: faq/gui doc16202116
Ref: 4ffb16202116
Ref: faq/gui graphic-user-interface-faq16202116
Ref: 4ffc16202116
Node: Genel GKA Soruları16202291
Ref: faq/gui general-gui-questions16202429
Ref: 4ffd16202429
Node: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?16202483
Ref: faq/gui what-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python16202647
Ref: 4ffe16202647
Ref: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?-Footnote-116203447
Ref: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?-Footnote-216203489
Ref: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?-Footnote-316203516
Ref: Python için hangi GKA araç setleri var?-Footnote-416203595
Node: Tkinter soruları16203677
Ref: faq/gui tkinter-questions16203813
Ref: 4fff16203813
Node: Tkinter uygulamalarını nasıl dondurabilirim?16204140
Ref: faq/gui how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications16204305
Ref: 500016204305
Node: G/Ç’yi beklerken Tk olaylarını işleyebilir miyim?16205341
Ref: faq/gui can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o16205589
Ref: 500116205589
Node: Tkinter’da çalışmak için anahtar bağlamalarını alamıyorum neden?16206066
Ref: faq/gui i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why16206258
Ref: 500216206258
Node: “Python Bilgisayarımda Neden Yüklü?” SSS16206874
Ref: faq/installed doc16207029
Ref: 500316207029
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-computer-faq16207029
Ref: 500416207029
Node: Python nedir?16207225
Ref: faq/installed what-is-python16207362
Ref: 500516207362
Ref: Python nedir?-Footnote-116207880
Node: Python makinemde neden yüklü?16207932
Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine16208105
Ref: 500616208105
Node: Python’u silebilir miyim?16209217
Ref: faq/installed can-i-delete-python16209368
Ref: 500716209368
Node: Deprecations16210189
Ref: deprecations/index doc16210297
Ref: 500816210297
Ref: deprecations/index deprecations16210297
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Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>16210716
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1316210840
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>-Footnote-116212391
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>-Footnote-516212598
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>-Footnote-716212708
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>-Footnote-1116212929
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>-Footnote-1216212985
Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 13<2>-Footnote-1316213081
Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>16213138
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>-Footnote-1116218706
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Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>16218874
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>-Footnote-516223155
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Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 16<2>16223309
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Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 16<2>-Footnote-116224257
Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>16224313
Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-future-versions16224468
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Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>-Footnote-416231405
Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>-Footnote-516231461
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Node: C API Deprecations16231571
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Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>16231958
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Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>16235464
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Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>16236850
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Node: Sözlük16239221
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Ref: glossary term-awaitable16246524
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Ref: glossary term-BDFL16246725
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Ref: glossary term-binary-file16246834
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Ref: glossary term-borrowed-reference16247313
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Ref: glossary term-contiguous16252444
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Ref: glossary term-CPython16253658
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